LIBRARY OF THE University of ^JJifornia GIFT OF The^Bangrqft : ..Library. r Class .% ; 0^ (^^e/eUnte CYCLOPAEDIA OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. GRIFFIN'S PORTABLE CYCLOPEDIAS. Well printed and illustrated, most ably edited, and wonderfully cheap ."Examiner. ANALYTICAL CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. By Peofessor Eadie, D.D., LL.D. Second Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 8s. 6d., cloth. BIBLICAL CYCLOPAEDIA. By Professor Eadie, D.D., LL.D. Sixth Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d., cloth. CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. By Professor Eadie, D.D., LL.D. Eighteenth Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 5s., cloth. CYCLOPAEDIA OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. Edited by E. Rich, Esq., assisted by numerous Contributors. Second Edition, post 8vo, 10s. 6d. cloth. GENERAL GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD. By James Bryce, M.A., F.G.S. Map and numerous Plates. Post 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. CYCLOPAEDIA OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Edited by Isaiah M'Bcrney, B.A., and Samuel Neil. Second Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. 6<L cloth. BOOK OF NATURE; Or, Cyclopedia of thb Natural and Physical Sciences. By Professors Schoedler and Medlock. Third Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. DICTIONARY OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE AND HOUSEHOLD SURGERY. By Spencer Thomson, M.D., L.R.C.S., Edinburgh. Seventh Edition. Post 8vo, 7s. cloth. CYCLOPAEDIA OF CHEMISTRY. By Robert Ddndas Thomson, M.D., F.RS..F. C.S. Post 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. 1^V..aUF0 ' "it-,:: :. '/W' &/ ' 3%fea '< " J^/Ja//y<y ( // ///f//.i / / / '// / / ' /.,,; v//// , HANDBOOK BIOGRAPHY ORIGINAL MEMOIRS THE MOST DISTINGUISHED PEKSONS OF ALL TIMES WRITTEN FOR THIS WORK BY SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, D.C.L. WILLIAM BAIRD, M.D., F.L.S. SIR DAVID BREWSTER, F.R.S. JAMES BRYCE, A.M., F.G.S. JOHN HILL BURTON. PROFESSOR CREASY, M.A. PROFESSOR EADIE, D.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR FERGUSON, A.M. PROFESSOR GORDON, F.R.S.E. JAMES HEDDERWICK. JOHN A. HERAUD. ROBERT JAMIESON, D.D. CHARLES KNIGHT. JAMES MANSON. JAMES M'CONNECHY. PROFESSOR NICHOL, LL.D. ELIHU RICH. PROFESSOR SPALDING, A.M. PROFESSOR THOMSON, M.D., RALPH N. WORNUM. EDITED BY ELIHU RICH TOtlj Numerous lltoatraiioits SJXTH THOUSAND ,, , . LONDON CHARLES GRIFFIN AND COMPANY stationers' hall court 1863 ^ b PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Several works, more or less resembling the present one, being already in circulation, it is necessary to state why the Publishers have ventured to expect a share of the public favour for a new Biographical Dictionary. To many of these Dictionaries, considered as the production of individual writers, a degree of merit, far from slight, must, in fairness, be conceded ; but it would seem sufficiently evident, that no single scholar, however extensive his attainments, could ever be expected to catch, or even appreciate all the points of interest belonging to the numerous and varied classes of lives, which must be included in a General Biography. The necessity of seeking a combination of apt and effective talent, for the right production of any comprehensive Dictionary, has long been recognized in the case of our great ' Encyclopaedias ;' and such a combination was obtained for the service of Biography, by the editors of the voluminous 'Biographie Universelle.' But the principle has not hitherto been applied in the construction of any work of the latter kind, which would be por- table and adapted for general circulation. The volume now issued aspires to be a first attempt in the important direc- tion alluded to. The Publishers have desired to intrust the execution of the principal lives of each class of remarkable men, to practised writers, who have cultivated the corresponding departments of Learning ; and from whom they had therefore reason to expect biographical notices, really characteristic, and of assured value. In the departments appertaining to History, Politics, Law, Military science and art, and Ecclesiastical affairs, valuable assistance has been obtained from Sir Archibald Alison, John Hill Burton, Professor Creasy, Professor Eadie, Professor Ferguson, and the Editor. The latter has also endeavoured to delineate the peculiar character and services of the leading Mystics. Classical authors are treated by Professor Ferguson. Theological and Reli- gious literature was given in charge to Professor Eadie and Dr. Jamieson. Poets, Novelists, and other great Men of Letters, are described by Professor Spalding : a memoir of Shakspeare comes from the pen of Charles Knight ; and notices of the Bards of Scotland from James Hedderwick and Thomas Davidson. The principal names in the department of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences were intrusted to Sir David Brewster and Professor Nichol. In the Experimental Sciences, the department of Chemistry has been treated by Dr. R. D. Thomson ; that of Natural History by Dr. Baird ; and Applied Science by Professor Gordon. 235168 PREFACE. The distinguished names in Medical Science are treated by Mr. M'Connechy. The eminent Geographers have been attended to by Mr. Bryce, who has endeavoured, by considerable research, to give exact information on the discoveries made by great travellers. In Mental Philosophy, our volume is chiefly indebted to Professor Nichol, who has furnished a resume of the doctrines taught by many of the Founders of the great schools, under their respective names. To render this department more complete, the Editor has ventured to introduce the name of Sir William Hamilton, although, happily for science, that distinguished Metaphysician still labours amongst us. The list of articles written by Professor Eadie in Theology and Church History, includes the Fathers and Reformers, besides many of the mediaeval Divines and School- men. Dr. Jamieson's catalogue is graced by the names of our modern Divines, Missionaries, and Philanthropists. In the department of the Fine Arts, the great Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects, are characterized by Mr. Wornum, whose exact acquaintance with the literature of these subjects is well known. The same may be said regarding the Musicians, under charge of Mr. Manson ; and of the great Actors, whose lives have been written by the dramatic writer and critic, Mr. Heraud. In a work so varied in its contents, so closely printed, and produced by so many hands, the Editor is conscious that there must be error ; and that to many readers, the space will appear unequally divided. Perfection in all respects is not pretended to ; but it is certainly hoped, that the design of the work, and its general execution, entitle it to be regarded as a step of the right kind in furtherance of popular literature. It has been his aim to allot sufficient space for a satisfactory however brief memoir of all the leading or representative men in each department ; room being provided, by limiting those of lesser note to a chrono- logical notice, or brief description. It will be found, that many thousand names are contained in this volume more than in any other portable Biography ; and among novelties, may be mentioned the names of sovereigns, and ancient families of importance, arranged in complete lists. The advantage of such lists to the reader of history, will be obvious : many of them have been collated with great pains, in order to the removal of current discrepancies. The volume is further enlivened by numerous illustrations of the birth-places, monuments, or other memorials of departed greatness ; all copied from the most authentic sources. London, 10/A May, 1854. LIST OF WRITERS. Initials. A.A. Sir Archibald Alison, Bart, D.C.L., F.R.S.E. W.B. William Baird, M.D., F.L.S. British Museum. D.B. Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. L. & E., LL.D., &c. Principal of the United College of St Salvador and St Leonard, St Andrewa J.B. James Bryce, Jan., A.M., F.G.S. Head Master of the Geographical Department High School, Glasgow. J.H.B. John Hill Burton, Esq. Author of a History of Scotland. E.S.C. E. S. Creasy, M.A. Professor of History in the University of London. T.D. Thomas Davidson, Esq. J.E. John Eadie, D.D., LL.D. Professor of Biblical Literature, United Presbyterian Church. G.F. George Ferguson, A.M. Professor of Humanity, King's College, Aberdeen. L.D.B.G. Lewis D. B. Gordon, F.E.S.E. Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Glasgow. J.H. James Hedderwick, Esq. J.A.H. John A. Heraud, Esq. R. J. Robert Jamieson, D.D. Minister of St. Paul's, Glasgow. C.K. Charles Knight, Esq. J.M'C. James M'Connechy, Esq. J.M. James Manson, Esq. J.P.N. John P. Nichol, LL.D. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. E.R. Elihu Rich, Esq. W.S. William Spalding, A.M. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of 8t Andrews. R.D.T. Robert Dundas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S. Professor of Chemistry, St Thomas's Hospital College, London. R.N.W. Ralph N. Wornum, Esq. Department of Practical Art, Marlborough House, London. The Articles which have no initials attached to them are, with few exceptions, written by the Editor. CYCLOPAEDIA OF BIOGRAPHY. AA AA, Peter Van Dek, a distinguished jurist, pres. of the council of Luxembourg, 1580-1594. AA, Peter Van Der, a learned bookseller of Ley den, editor of numerous works, died 1730. AA, Chr. Ch. Hy. Van Der, a celebrated minister of Haerlem, 1718-1792. AA, Gerard Van Der, a distinguished pa- triot of the Netherlands, in the time of Philip II. AAGARD, Christian, a Dane, distinguished as a writer of Latin poetry, 1616-1664. AAGARD, Nich., a philosophical and critical writer, supposed brother of the above, 1612-1657. AAGESEN, Svend, better known as Sueno, a Danish historian whose works date about 1186. AALAM, a renowned Persian astrologer of the 9th centy., confidant of the sultan Adah-Eddaulah. AALSH, AALST, or AELST, EverhardVan, a Dutch painter, 1602-1658. His nephew William, of the same name, also a painter, 1620-1670. AAMA, Guillardin, ak. of Ethiopia, 8th cent. AARE, Dirk Van Der, bishop and lord of Utrecht, celebrated for the perilous war which he maintained against the count of Holland, d. 1212. AARON, the associate and supposed brother of Moses, died B.C. 1451. AARON, St., a British martyr, 303. AARON, St., an abbot of Brittany in the 6th century, supposed founder of its earliest monastery. AARON of Alexandria, a priest and physician of the 7th century, the earliest writer who is known to have mentioned the small-pox and measles. AARON of Barcelona, a Spanish Jew, au. of a work in Hebrew on the precepts of Moses, d. 1293. AARON, a Scotchman by birth, made abbot of St. Martin of Cologne, 1042, died 1052. Left a work on the advantage of chanting the psalms and other vocal music in churches. AARON, Abhas, or Aves, a learned rabbi, and editor of an edition of the foregoing, 1703. AARON of Ragusa, a rabbin of the 17th cent. AARON, or ARON, Pietro, generally called a Florentine, but supposed to be a Fleming by birth, was canon of Rimini in the 16th century, a com- poser and auth. of many laborious works on music. AARON, Ben Asser, a learned Masorite of the 11th century, commonly called Ben Asher, author of a work on the Biblical Accents, and probably chief of the college of Tiberias. AARON, Ben Chaim, born at Fez, in the 16th century, author of Commentaries on the Scriptures. AARON, Hacharon, a rabbi of the Caraites, born in Nicomedia 1346, author of several dogma- tical works and commentaries. AARON, Harischon, a rabbi of the Caraites, born in the 13th century, at Constantinople, author ABA of a celebrated Commentary on the Pentateuch,' a ' Treatise on Grammar,' &c. AARON, Isaac, a Greek Jew, interpreter to the emperor Manuel Commenus, died of torture upon an accusation of sorcery, 1203. AARON, Margalitha, a Polish rabbi, and professor of Jewish antiquities, born 1665. Re- markable for his conversion to Christianity, and his unhappy death, which occurred in prison about the year 1730 ; author of numerous ' Dissertations.' AARON, Nasi Babel, a great cabalist, supposed to have lived early in the Christian era, AARON, Schascon, a learned rabbin of Thes- salonica, died 1650. AARSCHOT, Due D', a celebrated soldier of the Roman church, died at Venice, 1595. AARSENS, Corneille Van, a renegade pa- triot and statesman of Holland, 1543-1623. AARSENS, Francis Van, son of the preceding, celebrated as a diplomatist, 1572-1641. AARSENS, Francis, grandson of the last named, author of a work of travels, 1655. AARTGENS, or AERTGEN, a Dutch painter, 1498-1564. AARTSBERGEN, Alex. Van, a Dutch noble- man of the 17th century, distinguished for his ta- lents and industry while at the university at Ley- den, and afterwards eminent as a statesman. AARTSEN. See .Ertsen. AASCOW, A. B., a Danish physician, died about 1780. ABA, Owon, or Albon, a tyrant of Hungary, slain by his soldiers, 1044. ABA, a reputed magician, put to death by order of the caliph Merwan, in the 7th century. ABACO, Anthony, a Roman architect of the 16th century, author of a work illustrated with engravings by his own hand. ABACO, Av. Fel. D'El, a celebrated composer and violinist of Verona, 1662-1726. ABACO, Baron, an amateur composer and violinist, lived at Verona in the 18th century. ABACUC, a Christian martyr, reign of Claudius. ABAD I., first Moorish king of Seville and Cordova, died 1055, after a reign of 26 years. ABAD II., son and sue. of Abad I., d. 1069. ABAD III. succeeded to the throne of Seville 1083, made prisoner by the sultan of Morocco, and died miserably in Africa. ABADI, Ebn al, au. of a work on the Koran. ABAFFI, Michel, a nobleman of Transylvania, elected king, died 1690. ABAFFI II., son of the preceding, whom he succeeded when only 14 years of age, was compelled to renounce his sovereignty, and d. in Vienna, 1713. B ABACA-KJTAN, emj.eror of t>e Moguls, dis- tii:oraish< ;'. a- ;v.i or.pcnen 4 : of the crusaders, d. 1282. ABAGaRUS. See Abgarus. ABAI, Hussein, author of a Harmony to the various Commentaries on the Koran. ABAILARD. See Abelard. ABAISI, Tommaso, a sculptor employed with his two sons in the cathedral of Ferrara, 1451. ABAKER-KHAN. See Abaga-Khan. ABAKUM, a Russian ecclesiastic, slain 1684. ABALANTIUS, Leo, a Greek, who aided in the murder of Nicephorus. ABALPHAT, a native of Ispahan, celebrated for having translated the work of Apollonius on Conic Sections into Arabic. ABANCOUR, C. X. J., Franqueville D', nephew of the celebrated Calonne, and one of the victims of the French revolution, 1792. ABANCOURT, C. Frerot D\ a French officer, born 1801, author of ' Memoirs on Turkey.' ABANCOURT, F. J. Willemain D', author of Fables,' &c., 1754-1803. ABANO. See Apono. ABANTIDAS, a tyrant of Sicyon, k. B.C. 251. ABARBANEL. See Abrabanel. ABARCA, or AB-ARCA, Sanctius, king of Arragon and Navarre, killed in an engagem., 926. ABARCA, D. Jeromiano, author of a history of Arragon, lived in the 16th century, ^ To another of the same family a history of Levant is attributed. ABARCA, Martin De, a nobleman of Arragon, eminent for his love of literature and knowledge of numismatics : about the end of the 16th century. ABARCA, Dona Maria De, a Spanish lady, distinguished as an amateur painter, time of Rubens. ABARCA, Pedro De, a Jesuit of Spain, emi- nent as an historian and theologian, 1619-1682. ABARIS, a reputed magician of Scvthia. ABAS, an ancient sophist, to whom certain liistorical commentaries are attributed. ABASCAL, D. Jose Fern., viceroy of Peru during the South American war of independence. He was a native of Madrid. 1743-1821. ABASCANTUS, a physician of Lyons, 2d cent. ABASSA, a Turkish officer, strangled 1634. ABASSA, ABBATSA, or A'BBAZAH, a sister of Haroun al Raschid, whose singular marriage and its results have furnished the romantic incidents of many an oriental story. ABASSARUS, the name of an officer who was charged bv Cyrus with the rebuilding of the Temple. ABASSON, an impostor who persuaded the French and the Grand Turk that he was the grand- son of Abbas, and was finally put to death. ABATE, Andrea, an artist of Naples, d. 1732. ABATI, Degli, a mediaaval Florentine family, one of whom is placed in the ninth circle of hell, by Dante, for his treacherous conduct to the Guelphs. ABATI, an Ital. ecclesiastic and poet, 16th cent. ABATI, Anthony, an Italian poet, d. 1667. ABATI, an Italian physician of the 16th century. ABATI, Nicolo, a painter in fresco, employed at Fontainebleau and many Italian palaces, born 1512, died 1571, called also Dell 'Abate. His relations Anthony and Peter of the same name were also distinguished as painters. ABATIA, F. Antoni, an alchymist, 17th cent. ABATINI, Guido Ubaldo, a fresco painter of Rome, 1600-1656. ABB ABATUCCI. See Abbatccct. ABAUNZA, Peter, a Spanish au., 1599-164J ABAUZIT, Firmin, an esteemed French author distinguished also by the friendship of Sir Isaa Newton, born at Uzes, 1679, died at Geneva, 1767 ABAZA, a Turkish pasha, remarkable for hi military talents and official career, died 1636. ABBA, author of a work explaining the difficul words of the Talmud, 1543. ABBA, Arica, a Jewish rabbi of the 3d cent. ABBA, Thulle, king of the Pelew Isles, 1783 ABBACO, Paul Del, a Florentine poet an< astronomer, cotemporary with Boccaccio. ABBADABU, Amon, sultan of Seville, 1042 noted for his magnificence and military talents. ABBADIE, James, a celebrated Protestan theologian, 1658-1727. ABBADIE, the author of a Dissertation on th Conversion of the Gauls, published in 1702. ABBADIE, Vincent, a French surgeon, trans lator of MacBride's Essays, 1766. ABBAS, an uncle and zealous partizan o Mahomet, died 653. ABBAS, Ebu Abbas Abdallah, surnamei Rabbhani, was a son of the foregoing, and chief o the Sahabuh or companions of the prophet, d. 687 ABBAS I., the seventh shah or king of Persia by whom the ancient seat of empire was transfer red to Ispahan. This prince is celebrated for hi victories over the Ottomans. Many acts of domes- tic cruelty tarnish the successes of a long reign o 41 years: died 1628, aged 70. ABBAS II., the son and successor of Sephy became shah of Persia, 1642, at the age of 13 died 1699 from the effects of his debaucheries The most remarkable event of his reign was th conquest of Candahar. ABBAS III. succeeded to the throne of Persi; when only eight months old, and died in 1736 after a merely nominal reign, under the usurpa tion of Nadir Shah. ABBAS, Ali, a Persian physician and astrono- mer of the 10th century. ABBAS, Ibu Abd-l-Mutalib, patens uncle of Mahomet. His great grandson foundec the dynasty of the Abassides. ABBAS, Haly, See Ali Ben-Abbas. ABBAS, Mirza, prince royal of Persia ; distin guished by his efforts to introduce the culture o Europe among his countrymen, 1785-1833. ABBASAH, 1558-1634, a pasha of the Turkisl empire. Distinguished as a military leader ji two successive revolts. ABBATUCCI, J a. P., a native of Corsica, dis tinguished in its wars with the Genoese anA th> French, afterwards opposed to Paoli, 1726-1812. ABBATUCCI, Charles, son of the foregoing became general of brigade in the French army, ant was killed at the early age of 26, 1796. ABBATISSA, a poet of Sicily, 1570. ABBE, H., a painter, lived at Antwerp, 1670. ABBE, Louise, called La Belle Conlonnim celebrated for her personal attractions and poetica talents, lived at Lvons in the 17th century. ABBEVILLE, Claude D\ a Capuchin fathei one of a mission to Marignon, the history of whici he wrote, 1614. ABBIATI, Filippo, an historical painter in oi and fresco, born at Milan 1640, -died 1715. 2 ABB ABBO, Floriacensis, a learned abbot and historian of the 10th century, who was employed in an important mission to the pope, killed in a tumult, 1004. ABBON, or ABBO, Cernuus, a Norman monk sj who was at the siege of Paris in 886, of which he left an account in Latin verse ; died about 923. ABBOT, Abiel, an American clergyman, au. of Sermons and Letters, 1770-1828. ABBOT, Charles. See Tenterden. ABBOT, Charles, created Baron Colchester 1817, on retiring from the speakership of the H. of Commons, was distinguished as a practical statesman, 1757-1829. ABBOT, Charles, author of a work on the flora of Bedfordshire, was vicar of Oakley and Goldington in that county ; died 1817. ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., was the son of a clothworker, and early remarkable for his po- lemical skill. He was an influential man at court until Laud came into favour : he lost ground from his attachment to Calvinism, 1562-1633. ABBOT, Robert, bp. of Salisbury, and eldest brother of the foregoing, is esteemed" for his pro- found and extensive learning, 1560-1617. ABBOT, Maurice, youngest brother of the foregoing, was an eminent merchant, and one of the first directors of the East India Company. Served in the office of sheriff and lord mayor, and was knighted by Charles I. ; died 1640. ABBOT, George, son of Sir Maurice, took up arms in favour of Parliament, was author of several religious works, 1600-1648. ABBOT, Samuel, an English painter, born 1762, became insane and died 1803. ABBT, Thomas, a German moralist, professor of philosophy and mathematics, 1738-1766. ABDALCADER, a Persian sheik of distin- guished piety and wisdom. ABDALLAH, the father of Mahomet, is re- nowned in the traditions of his country, both for his personal beauty and the purity of his manners. He was originally a camel driver. ABDALLAH, a pretender to the caliphate after the death of his nephew, the first of the Abassides ; slain by the troops of his rival, 755. ABDALLAH, a caliph of the Saracens, who con- quered Jerusalem in the eighth century. ABDALLAH, governor of Badajos, and chief of the Moors and Arabs in Portugal, 11th century. ABDALLAH, the Arabian ldng of Spain at the close of the 9th century, when the sovereignty was entire, but in a declining state ; died 901, after a troubled reign of four years. ABDALLAH, king of Grenada on the close of the 10th century. At this period the governors of the chief cities had assumed the regal title. ABDALLAH, Ben Yussim, founder of the powerful but short-lived dynasty of the Almor- avides, which flourished from 1094 till 1148, and included the Arabian empire of Spain with that of Africa. ABDALLAH, fourth and last sheik of the Wah- abees, defeated by Ibrahim Pasha, and beheaded at Constantinople, 1818. ABDALLATIF, a celebrated historian of Bag- dad, 1161-1231. ABDALMALEK, fifth caliph of the race of the ABE Ommiades, distinguished for his military conquers. Commenced a prosperous reign of 21 years in 684. ABDALONYMUS, a descendant of the kings of Sidon, restored by Alexander. ABDALRAHMAN an Arabian author, born at Cairo in the middle of the 18th century. ABDAL WAHAB, the founder of the Wah- abees, a political and religious sect, who began their opposition to the sultan about the middle of last century. ABDAS, a Persian bishop, the cause of the per- secution under Theodosius, in which he himself perished, 430. ABDEL-ASIS, chief of the Wahabees, murdered while at his devotions, 1803. ABDEL-MELEK, caliph of Damascus, 685. ABDEL-MUMEN, founder of the dynasty of the Almoades, (which succeeded that of the Almor- avides,) under the title of the Great Mehedi, or forerunner of the Messiah, died 1163. ABDIAS, the supposed author of an apocrypha] history of the apostles ; about the 5th or 6th cent. ABDOA, a Persian martyr, 250. ABDOLMAMEN, or ABDOLMUMEM. See Abdel-Mumen. ABDON, a judge of Israel, b.c. 1148. ABEILLE, Gaspard, a French wit and dra- matist, born at Riezin 1648, died at Paris 1718. ABEILLE, Scipio, brother of the above, au- thor of a work on surgery, died 1697. ABEILLE, Louis, pianist and composer, b. 1765. ABEILLE, L. P., polit. economist, 1719-1807. ABEL, according to Genesis, a son of Adam. ABEL, the second son of Vladimir II., became sole master of the Danish sovereignty after the murder of his brother Eric. Killed in battle, 1252. ABEL, Ch. F., a German violinist, 1725-1787. ABEL, Dr. Clarke, an English physician and naturalist, the historian of Lord Amherst's embassy to China, died 1826. ABEL, Hans, a painter of Frankfort, 15th cent. ABEL, E. A., a painter of miniatures, last cent. ABEL, Gaspar, a Germ, historian, 1676-1763. ABEL, J., a disting. Germ, painter, 1780-1818. ABEL, Nich. H., a distinguished geometrician of Norway, 1802-1829. _ ABEL, Thomas, a distinguished divine, teacher of grammar and music to queen Catherine ; exe- cuted by order of Henry VIII. 1540. ABELA, J. F., knight com. of Malta, author of Malta Illustrated,' 1647. ABELARD, Peter, (ABAILARD, Pierre,) one of the most illustrious of the mediaeval school- men, was born in 1079 of a noble family, at Palais, near Nantes in Brittany. The stirring incidents of his chequered life, and especially his renowned attachment to Heloise and its melancholy fruits, have thrown a peculiar and romantic charm round the name of Abelard. From his youth he devoted himself to study, and throughout his whole career he was at no pains to conceal his conscious pos- session of superior ability. His first teacher was Rosceline. Coming to Paris at the age of twenty, and having soon rivalled and eclipsed his tutor, Guillaume de Champeaux, he removed in two years from Paris to Melun, thence to Corbeil, and thence to Palais, his birthplace, teaching philosophy all the while with great success. The attractions of Paris soon drew him again to tlie ABE metropolis, whore he attacked the Realism of his old master with such dialectic dexterity and vigour, that Champeaux's school was speedily extinguished. By and bye his antagonist was made bishop of Chalon-sur-Marne, and Abelard commenced to studv theology under Anselm at Laon. Having by his transcendent talent made the seminary at Laon his envious enemy, he re- turned to Paris, and opened a School of Divinity with unrivalled popularity. In that school were trained many men, from various countries, who afterwards arrived at high ecclesiastical honours- one pope, nineteen cardinals, and above fifty bishops. In this zenith of his fame, when, accor- ding to his own confession, pride and luxury had seduced him, he fell in love with, and seduced his pupil, Heloise, a young and fatherless lady not over twenty years of age, and a niece of canon Fulbert, one of the Parisian ecclesiastics. Heloise was conveyed to Brittany, and bore a son in the house of Abelard's sister. The canon insisted upon a marriage, which accordingly took place, a union which Heloise openly denied, to her uncle's great vexation. Abelard next placed her in the convent of Argenteuil ; but her uncle took a ter- rible revenge for the abduction of his niece, by means of some hired ruffians who broke into Abe- lard's chamber, and inflicted on his person a dis- graceful mutilation. Heloise on this took the veil and became a nun, and Abelard retired as a monk into the Abbey of St. Denis. At length he re- sumed his prelections, but had the misfortune of being suspected of heresy, and was condemned in 1121, by a council which met at Soissonns. Dis- gusted with the persecuting and exasperated monks of St. Denis, for he had denied their St. Denis to be 'Dionysius the Areopagite,' he retired to Troyes, and selected a retreat which his subdued and chastened spirit named the Paraclete, or Comforter, and in this convent Heloise was at length established as superior. But the un- fortunate recluse next provoked the ire of his neighbour, Bernard of Clairvaux, and again for suspected heresy did the council of Sens put its brand upon him. He appealed to Rome, but did not follow out his appeal. Worn out with fatigue, persecution, and infirmity, he at length took refuge in the priory of St. Marcel, where he died 21st April, 1142, at the age of 63. His body, first interred at Cluni, was soon removed to the Paraclete ; and twenty years afterwards Heloise was buried beside him at her own request. Their ashes lay undisturbed for 300 years ; but in 1497 they were transferred to the church of the abbey ; then in 1800 removed to the garden of the Musee Francais, in Paris; and lastly, in 1817, they were deposited beneath a Gothic shrine in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. The brilliant talents and oratory of Abelard are beyond dispute. As a subtle and accomplished dialectician he had no rival. His ' Conceptualism' forms an epoch in tne Uftory of mind, and gave a salutary impulse to in which he lived. In his ' Theologia' we t a vigorous and original mind, often ham- pered by its position and ecclesiastical subordina- tion, but often asserting its native freedom and untrammelled right, as, for example, in his illus- tration of tlie mutual provinces of reason and faith. In his book on Ethics, which be quaintly ABE called 'Scito te Ipsum,' he opposes the Romis doctors on many points of morality ; and in hi other Treatise, 'Sic et Non' 'Yes and No,' h exposed their boasted uniformity of doctrine, am produced in a scries of 157 rubrics, the contradic tory opinions of the older teachers of the church His works were published at Paris in 1614 ; an< at the same place in 1836, Cousin publisher ' Ouvrages inedits d'Abailard.' [J.E. 1 [Tomb of Abelard ami Heloise.] ABELIN, J. Ph., better known as Jean Louii Gottfried, a German historian, 17th century. ABELL, Jno., a musician, celebrated at thi court of Charles II. ABELLI, Louis, bishop of Rhodes, 1604-1691 ABELLY, Ant., a Fr. ecclesiastic, emin. as ; preacher, confessor to Catherine de Medicis : 1 *>th at ABELLY, Louis, a Fr. ecclesiastic, author o numerous theological works, 1603-1691. ABENCHAMOT, an Arabian chief, whose ex ploits against the Portuguese were the admiratioi of the 16th centurv. ABENDANA, Jac, a Spanish Jew, author o a Hebrew Commentary, died 1685. ABEN-EZRA, a celebrated rabbin, astronomer and mathematician of Spain, whose commentarie on the Sacred Scriptures are in high repute, bot] among Jews and Christians, fl. in the 12th cent. ABERCROMBIE, John, author of severa works on horticulture, published originally uncle his own name and that of Mawe, 1726-1806. ABERCROMBIE, John, M.D., the eminen author of ' Enquiries concerning the Intellectua Powers,' published 1830, and the 'Philosophy of th Moral Feelings,' published 1833, was born at Aber deen, Nov. 11, 1781, and attained the highest ran] as a practical and consulting physician at Edin burgh ; died Nov. 14, 1844. ABERCROMBY, Alex., Lord, youngest brothe of Sir Ralph, a judge of Scotland, and occasiona essavist in connection with Mackenzie, 1745-1795 A'BERCROMBY, Dav., a Scotch physician am author, 17th century. ABERCROMBY, Sin John Robt., lieut.-gen. second son of Sir Ralph, took the Isle of Franc while governor of Madras in 1810; died 1817. ABERCROMBY, Patrick, a Scotch historian physician to James II., died 1726. ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph. This gallon and skilful soldier, and upright and humane man ABE was born at Menstrie, in the county of Clackman- nan in Scotland, in October, 1734. He entered the army at the age of eighteen, and saw some ser- vice during the last part of the seven years' war in Germany. He was not employed in the American war ; and it was not until the war against revolu- ..tionary France broke out, that the important part | of Abercromby 's career commenced. He acted as 1 lieutenant-general to the Duke of York in the campaigns in Holland, from 1793-5. Abercrom- by's promptitude and courage, and also his good sense and humanity, were greatly signalized during these unfortunate operations of our troops ; and both foreigners and fellow-countrymen noted the contrast which his skill presented to the incompetency of the other leaders of our army at that period. At the end of 1795 Sir Ralph was appointed com- mander-in-chief in the West Indies, and conquered several islands from the French. He was sent to Ireland as commander of the forces, during one part of the Irish rebellion, but his disgust at the system sanctioned there by the government, caused him to make indignant remonstrances, which were answered by his recall. He served again in Holland as second in command to the Duke of York, in the disastrous expedition to the Helder in 1799 ; and he again acquired the re- spect both of friends and foes, by his good conduct amid the imbecile blunders of those who were associated with him in command. But it is from the expedition to reconquer Egypt in 1801, when he was placed in unfettered authority at the head of a British army destined for a worthy object, that the lustre of his fame is dated. Sir Ralph reached the Egyptian coast in March, with a force of about 12,000 effective men. The French army that occupied Egypt, under General Menou, was much stronger ; but Menou, though aware of the approach of the English expedition, detached only 1>art of his force, under General Friant, to oppose the anding of Abercromby's army. Abercromby placed his men in boats on the 8th of March, and made good his landing, though he was met by Friant's troops with a heavy cannonade ; and the English, as they reached the beach, were fiercely and repeatedly charged both by the cavalry and the infantry of the French. Abercromby then moved upon Alex- andria, where the chief force of the French was posted. A slight action took place on the 13th, in which the English had the advantage ; but it was on the 21st that the decisive battle was fought which liberated Egypt. On that day General Menou attacked the British with the whole disposable force that he could concentrate upon their position. He had from 12 to 14,000 troops in the field, a large proportion of whom were cavalry; and his artillery was also numerous. Abercromby had about 10,000 foot, and only 300 horse. He was also far inferior in guns. The battle, (which the English call the battle of Alex- andria, and which is termed by French historians the battle of Canopus,) began about an hour be- fore daybrerk, and raged with unusual obstinacy till a little before 10 a.m. The French troops were all veterans of Napoleon's army of Italy ; they at- tacked with impetuosity ; and the English, who had the fullest confidence in their chief, re- sisted with their national stubbornness. Our right wing rested on the ruins of some old Roman ABE buildings ; and this point was the key of our posi- tion, and the especial object of the French assaults. Abercromby rode to this spot, and encouraged his men by voice, gesture, and example. On the other side, Lanusse, the best of the French generals, led on the assailing columns. Lanusse was shot dead, and his columns driven back, but they soon rallied and returned to the charge; and a splendid division of French cavalry, under General Roize, galloped forward upon the English infantiy that was posted near the Roman walls. Sir Ralph was attacked in person by some of these daring cava- liers, and the brave old general, though ne dis- armed his first antagonist, received a sabre wound in the chest from another French trooper, who was instantly shot down by a Highlander of the 42d. Soon after this Sir Ralph received a musket shot in the thigh ; but he refused to quit the field until the enemy were thoroughly repulsed, and he saw them flying from the field, which was strewed with 1,700 of their killed and wounded, and also with nearly 1,400 of the victorious English. When the excitement of the battle was over, Sir Ralph fainted and was carried off the field in a hammock, amid the blessings and tears of the soldiery, who loved him as a father. He was immediately car- ried on board Lord Keith's flag ship, where he died of the gunshot wound in his thigh, on the evening of 28th March, 1801, in the 63d year of his pure and honourable life. [E.S.C.j ABERCROMBY, Sir Rout., General, a younger brother of Sir Ralph. For thirty years governor of the castle of Edinburgh, died 1827. ABERLI, J. L., a Swiss painter, 1723-1786. ABERNETHY, Rev. J., an Irish dis.,1680-1740. ABERNETHY, John, (1763-1831,) a cele- brated surgeon. A native of the north of Ireland, he was educated in London, where his parents are said to have resided. He became a pupil of John Hunter, by whom he was thoroughly em- bued with a determination to devote his remark- able energies to the reform of the mode of practis- ing the profession to which he was devoted. By his master he was admirably instructed in the organization of the human body, and his career is a brilliant example of the successful application of his early knowledge to the legitimate treatment of disease. It was in combating the empirical ten- dencies of his predecessors that he perhaps became rather dogmatical in his manner, which, although it rendered him a favourite with his pupils from its eccentricity, produced enmity by its brusque- ness. To a celebrated friend of the writer of this, who was familiar with him, he said, upon talcing a patient to him, and commencing to explain the symptoms of the complaint, ' Hold your tongue, sir, what have you to do with it T He became, at an early age, surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospi- tal, and lecturer in its medical school. His most important works were on Physiology, on Surgery, and on the treatment of local diseases. His great merit was in pointing out the legitimate road on which to practise the profession, and in carrying out the principles of his great master, John Hunter, with amazing energy and determination. [R.D.T.] ABERNETHY ,' Thos., a Jesuit missionary in Scotland, 1636. ABERTINELLI, a Flor. painter, about 1512. ABESCH, Ajjxa B., a painter on glass, d. 1750. ABO ABGABUS, either the proper name or the title of several kings of Edessa, one of whom was cp- temporary with our Saviour, and is said to have written to him. ABGILLUS, a prince who accompanied Charle- magne to the holy land, and is known by his sur- name of Pi; ester John. ABIAH. the second son of Samuel. ABIATHAR. high priest in the time of David. ABICHT,J.G.,aGermanorientalUt.l672-1740. ABIGAIL, the wife of NabaJ and David. ABIHU, one of the sons of Aaron. ABIJAH, son of Jeroboam, king of Israel. ABIJAH, king of Judah after Jeroboam. ABU AH, the" wife of Ahaz, and mother of Hezekiah. king of Judah. ABILDGAARD, P. Cii., a Danish physician and naturalist, died 1808. ABILDGAARD, N. A., brother of the foregoing, an historical painter, 1744-1809. ABILDGAARD. Soren, a Danish nat., d. 1791. ABIMELECH, a k. of Israel, killed B.C. 1206. ABINGER, James Scarlett, Lord, an emi- nent English practising barrister and judge, was born in Jamaica about the year 1769. His family was eminent and influential in the West Indies, and his younger brother, Sir William Anglin Scar- lett, became chief justice of Jamaica. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, entered at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar on the 8th July, 1791, taking his degree of A.M. three rears later. His practical sagacity, aided by a full, handsome person, which gave him, even in youth, an appearance of sedate importance, procured for him a rapid and lucrative business. His temper, discretion, and industry, were alwavs to be relied on ; and few English barristers, wlule yet junior counsel, have been intrusted with the sole manage- ment of so many important cases. There was nothing striking or inspiring in his eloquence, nor was he remarkable for original or profound legal views ; but he had the most lucrative of all char- acters attached to his professional fame, that of getting many verdicts. A writer in the public gning himself ' Lorgnette,' who seems to nave intimately studied his career, summed up his characteristics' as a practical lawyer by saying : ' Watchfulness, prudence in the management of a at moral courage in the choice or rejection of the means to be used on behalf of a client, ex- perience of human nature, and great self-denial in the exhibition of that experience ; these were the chief agencies by which he acquired his ascendancy over juries; while it is not surprising that he should have also acquired great influence over the bench, when he added intimate knowledge of the intricacies of law to an unusual personal prefer- ence for judges, and the prestige which almost un- varying success gave him.' He received a silk gown in 1816. He had before that date made un- .1 attempts to get into parliament, where he first sat in 1818 for Peterborough, a nomination seat. He was one of the many eminent lawyers whose peculiar forensic powers have failed to please the House of Commons, and he was not much heard there except on professional matters. He had been an advocate of Romjlly'a law reforms, and was generally counted in the Whig ranks, but he took a distinct step in a gradual change, ABS by becoming attorney -general under Canning in 1827. When Sir Charles Wethcrall was dismissed in 1829, for opposition to Catholic emancipation, Scarlett took a farther step by becoming again attorney-general under the Wellington administra- tion, and he followed up his accession by severe pro- secutions of the opposition papers. In 1884 he was made chief baron of the Exchequer, and raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Abinger. He died on 7th April, 1814, of paralysis, which at- tacked him when on circuit at Bury St. Edmonds. His first wife, married in 1792, died in 1829, and he was married a second time, a few months before his death. [J.H.BJ ABIXGTON.Tiios., an English hist, 1560-1647. ABINGTON, Fr., B comic actress, 1731-1815. ABIOSI, an Italian phys. and astrol., 15th cent. ABIRAM, one of the seditious Jews, Numb. xvL ABISBAL, Enrique O'Donnell, Count of, a Spanish general who achieved many successes against the French, 1770-1834. ^ABISHAI, a nephew of David, king of Israel, and one of the commanders of his army. ABLAVIUS, a prefect, murdered by Constans. ABLESON, John, a naval commander, 17th ct. ABNER, first cousin and captain of the host to Said, murdered by Joab, B.C. 1068. ABNEY, Sir Th., distinguished for his friend- ship to Dr. Watts, and his public spirit while lord mavor of London in 1700 ; died 1722. ABOS, the name of two brothers who distin- guished themselves by the defence of Malta against the Turks, end of the 17th century. ABOS, author of the opera of ' Tito Manlio.' ABOU, a judge eel. under Haroun al Raschid. ABOU AM ROT. SeeARMBD-BBN Mohammed. ABOVILLE, F. M., Count D', a French general, 1730-1817. ABRABANELJsaac, a Portuguese Jew, author of numerous commentaries, 1437-1508. ABRADATAS, a king of Susa, of whom a beau- tiful fiction is related by Xenophon. ABRAHAM, the patriarch of the Jews, was probably the youngest son of Terah, a descendant of Shem. The chronology of his life is uncertain, but it dates bevond 2000 years B.C. ABRAHAM*, Nicil, a learned Jesuit, 1589-1656. ABRAHAM, a Sancta Clara, a Roman Cath. preacher, highly popular in Vienna, and re- markable for his eccentric writings, 1642-1709. ABRAHAM, St., an anchorite of the 4th cent ABRESCH, Fr. Louis, a celebrated critic and hellenist, 1699-1782. ABREU, Alexis, amed. wr. of Portugal, 1622. ABREU, Don J. Ant., a Sp. annalist, d. 1776. ABREU, J. M. De, a geometrician, 1754-1805. ABRIAL, A. J., a Fr. statesman, highly distin- guished by Napoleon, 1750-1828. ABRIL, a teacher of the classics, 1530-1590. ABRILOLA, an Arabian poet, 973-1057. ABROSI. an astrol. and phys. of Italy, 16th cent. ABRUZZI, a landscape painter, 18th centurv. ABRUZZO, Baltil, a Sicilian phil, 1601-1665. ABSALOM, the son of David, k. B.C. 1023. ABSALOM, archbishop of Lund, distinguished for his public spirit and exploits in arms no less than for his learning, 1128-1191. ABSCHATZ. Absmah Von, a German states- man and poet, 1646-1699. ABS ABSTEMIUS, Laurentius, fabulist, 15th cent. ABU, Moslem, governor of Khorassan, and one of the chief instruments in establishing the Abas- sides, put to death by Almanzor, 759* ABU-AMON. See Ahmed-ben Mohammed. ABU BE KIR, the first caliph, and successor of Mahomet, disting. by his warlike talents and personal moderation. The scattered chapters of the Koran are supposed to have been collected by him ; d. 634. ABUCARA, Theod., a controversial divine, bishop of Caria in the 8th century. Another of the same name who lived a century later, is noted for the insincerity of his public life. ABUDADAHER, the chief of an Arabian sect, disting. himself by the pillage of Mecca, d. 953. ABUL ABBAS, first caliph of the Abassides, reigned 749-753. ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, an Arabian historian, born 1226. ABULFAZEL, a vizier and historian of the Mogul empire, assassinated 1604. ABULFEDA, Ismael, a Syrian prince and geo- grapher, 1296-1368. ABULGAZI, BehAder, khan of the Tartars, 1645, and author of a Tartar history. ABULOLA, an Arabian poet, 973-1057. ABUNDANCE, Jean D',aFr. poet and satirist, 16th cent., most of whose works still exist in MS. ABU-NOWAS, an Arabian poet, a favourite of Haroun al Raschid. ABU-OBEYDAH, a Mohammedan general, dis- tinguished as the conqueror of Palestine and Syria, and by the friendship of Mahomet, died 639. ABU-TALIB, a native of India, author of a Journal of Observations upon the English, trans- lated by Major Stewart, died 1806. ABU-TEMAN, an Arabian poet, esteemed the second in degree of superiority by his countrymen ; originally worked as a tailor, 805-6845-6. ABUZAID, Mirza, a great-grandson of Ti- mur, proclaimed sultan at Asterabad during the civil wars fomented by Uleg Beg and his son. Taken prisoner in the endeavour to extend his empire, and put to death, 1469. ABYDENUS, an historian, quoted by Eusebius. ACACIUS, founder of the Acaciani, 4th cent. ACACIUS, bishop of Berea in Syria, died 436. ACACIUS, bishop of Caesarea, 339. ACACIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, 471. ACACIUS, tip. of Amida at the beginning of the 5 th cent., disting. for a great act of benevolence, hav- ing ransomed 7000 Persians, who had been made pnsoners of war, by the sale of his church plate. ACADEMUS, a private citizen of Athens, from whom the Academic grove, the favourite resort of certain Athenian philosophers, took its name. ACAMAPIXTILLI, first king of the Aztecs, and founder of the city of Mexico, died 1420. ACARQ, D', a Fr. gram, and critic, died 1795. ACCA, bishop of Hexham in the 8th century, celebrated as a divine, also for his versatile literary talents, and his skill in psalmody. ACCA, the nurse of Romulus and Remus. ACCAMA, Bernard and Mathias, two Dutch painters of the 18th century. ACCARIGI, Fr., professor of civil law, d. 1622. ACCARIGI, Jac, professor of rhetoric, d. 1654. ACCIAJUOLI, Donatus, a dusting, scholar of the 15th century. ACH ACCIAJUOLI, J., an au. and lecturer, 16th c ACCIAJUOLI, M., a Florentine poetess, d. 1610. ACCIAJUOLI, Ph., a dramatic poet, 1637-1700. ACCIAJUOLI, Nich., a disting. Neapolitan statesman, 1310-1366. ACCIAJUOLI, Reinier, nephew of the pre- ceding, conqueror of Athens, Corinth, and Bceotia. ACCIAJUOLI, Zenobio, a Greek scholar and poet, librarian to Leo X. 1461-1520. ACCIEN, governor of Antioch when that city was besieged by the crusaders, 1097. ACCIO-ZUCCO, author of a versified transla- tion of ;Esop, with poetical additions, 1479. ACCIUS, L., a Roman tragedian, died b.c. 180. ACCIUS, Nevius, a Roman augur, who op- posed the expedition of Tarquin the elder against the Sabines. ACCIUS, T., a Roman orator, 1st century B.C. ACCIUS, Tullius, the prince of the Volsci, with whom Coriolanus formed an alliance when he revolted from Rome. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, a eel. jurist and hist., secretary of the Florentine republic, 1415-1466. ACCOLTI, Fr., brother of the preceding, a jurist and poet, surnamed Aretinus, died 1483. ACCOLTI, Bernard, son of Benedetto, an improvisatore of disting. powers, d. about 1535. ACCOLTI, Peter, a second son of Benedetto, and card, of Ancona; noted as the composer of the papal bull against Luther in 1519 ; 1455-1532. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, card, of Ravenna, and nephew of the two preceding, was called the Cicero of the age. He was highly distinguished by Leo X. and his successors, 1497-1549. ACCOLTI, Leonardo, son of Fabricio, a na- tural son of the preceding, author of a life of the first Benedetto, &c. ACCOLTI, Ben., a conspirator against Pius IV., ACCORAMBONI, the name of several noted Italians, one of whom was a niece of Sixtus V., and the author of some poetry, murdered 1585. ACCORSO, Fr., a fams. Ital. jurist, 1182-1229. ACCORSO, Fr., son of the preceding, also cele- brated as a jurist, died 1328. ACCORSO, Mariangelo, a critical au., 16th c. ACCUM, Fr., an eminent chemist, 1769-1838. ACCURSIUS. See Accorso, Fr. ACERBI, Enrico, a eel. Ital. surgeon, d. 1827. ACERBI, Giuseppe, au. of Travels, publ. 1798. ACERBO, Fr., a poet of Naples, 17th century. ACERNUS, S. B., a Polish poet, called the Sarmatian Ovid, 1551-1608. ACESEUS, a Gr. artist eel. for his embroidery. ACESIUS, bishop of Constantinople in the reign of Constantine. ACEVEDO, F. A., Sp. revolutionist, killed 1820. ACEVEDO, Alonso, a Spanish advocate, dis- tinguished for his humane opposition to the use of torture, died about 1780. ACH, Van, an historical painter, 1566-1621. ACH&US, an ancient Greek poet. ACHiEUS, gov. of Asia Minor, 3d cent. B.C. ACHAIUS, king of the Scots from 788 to 819. ACHAN, a Jew, stoned to death, B.C. 1451. ACHARD, Anth., a learned divine, 1696-1772. ACHARD, abbot of St. Victor in Paris, d. 1172. ACHARD, Cl. F., aphys. and antiq., 1753-1809. ACHARD, F. C, a Prussian chemist, d. 1821. ACH ACHARDS, Eleazar, bp. of Avignon, d. 1741. ACHAHIUS, EJWQ, a botanist, 1757-1819. ACHAKY, or ASHAKI, founder of a Mahom- medan sect, called alter bis name in the 8th cent. ACHENWALL, Godfrey, a celebrated Prus- sian jurist, the founder of statistics, 1719-1772. ACHER, N., a French judge, author of an abridgment of ' Plutarch's Lives,' died 1807. ACHERLEY, Roger, a polit.writer, 1727-1740. ACHERY, J. L. D', a learned monk, 1609-1085. ACHILLAS, minister and general of Ptolemy. ACHILLES, one of the great chiefs of the Ho- meric poems, is represented as the grandson of ^Eacus, and son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones. His share in the siege of Troy, and particularly the death of Hector, is described, in the Iliad, ana his death in the 24th book of the Odyssey. ACHILLES, Alex., a Prussian nobleman, au. of works on physical science, d. in poverty 1675. ACHILLES, Tatius, a Christian bishop, and author of a Greek romance in the 3d century. ACHILLINI, the name of three Italians of the 16th century, disting. in professional literature. ACHISH, a king of Gath, with whom David took refuge, B.C. 1060. ACHMET I., suit, of the Ottomans, 1588-1617. ACHMET II. sucedd. as sultan 1691, d. 1695. ACHMET III. sucedd. 1703,depsd. 1730,d.l736. ACHMET, dey of Algiers, from 1805-1808. ACHMET, a gen. of Solyman, exec, for rebelln. ACHMET, an Arabian wr. on dreams, 4th cent. ACHMET-GIEDIC, grand vizier under Maho- met II., was one of the greatest warriors and states- men that ever conducted the affairs of a nation. He was the idol of the people and the army. After repeated displays of magnanimity, he was secretly strangled by order of Bajazet, 1482. ACHTER, Ulr., a Bavar. musician, 1777-1803. ACHTSCHELLING, Lucas, a painter, 16th c. ACIDALIUS, Valens, a classical wr., 16th ct. ACIEY, Michel V., a Fr. sculptor, 1736-1799. ACILIUS, Aviola, a Roman officer, burnt alive, e.c. 19. ACILIUS, Aviola, consul of Rome, 54. ACILIUS, Caius, a Roman soldier of distin- guished valour, in the time of Julius Caesar. ACILIUS, Glabrio, consul of Rome, 2dct. B.C. ACILIUS, Glabrio, consul of Rome, 91. ACINDYMUS, Septimus, Roman governor of Antioch, 4th century. ACINDYMUS, Gr., a controversial au., 14th ct. ACINELLI, a Genoese historian, 18th century. ACK, Johann, a painter on glass, 16th century. ACKER, Peter, a painter on glass, 15th cent. ACKERMANN, Conrad, a comedian of Ham- burgh, esteemed the Garrick of Germany, d. 1771. ACKERMANN, J. F., a physiologist, 1765-1813. ACKERMANN, J. Ch. Gottlieb, an eminent phys. and medical writer of Germany, 1756-1801. ACKERMANN, Rudolph, a German trades- man settled in London, noted for his improvements in lithography, &c, 1764-1834. ACKERSDYCK, Cor., a writer on Logic, 1666. AC KM AN, Wm., a Scotch artist, cotemporary with the poet Thomson, whose merits he was the first to appreciate. ACKWORTH, G. Dr., one of the reformation authors, a favourite of Archbishop Parker. ACOLUTH, Andr., an orientalist, 1654-1704. ADA ACONTIUS, Jas., an eminent philosopher and divine, converted to the protestant Faith, 16th cent. ACORIS, king of Egypt, 4th century, n.c. ACOSTA, Chr., a surg. and naturalist, 16th ct, ACOSTA, Gabriel, a divine of the 17th cent. ACOSTA, J., edt. of the Calcutta Times, d. 1820. ACOSTA, Josh., a Peruvian Jesuit, author of a history of the West Indies, died 1600. ACOSTA, Manuel, author of a history of the Jesuit missionaries to the East, 1541-1604. ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portuguese, distinguished for his inquiring spirit, who after many times changing his creed and enduring much persecution, committed suicide, 1640 or 1647. ACQUAVIVA, A. M., Duke of Atri, distin- guished as a patron of literature, and the first publisher of an encyclopedia, d. 1529. Many others of this family are remarkable as comman- ders, statesmen, and men of letters. ACREL, Olaf, a Swedish surgeon, 1717-1807. ACRON, Helenius, a Roman grammarian, ACRON a Sicilian physician, 5th century, b.c ACRON, or Acronius, John, a physician and mathematician of Friesland, 16th century. ACRONIUS, John, a Dutch writer in opposi- tion to the church of Rome, 17th century. ACROPOL1TA, G., a Byzantine histor., d. 1283. ACROPOLITA, Const., son of the preceding, a theologian and minister of state. ACROTATUS, son of Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, rendered himself odious by the murder of Sosis- tratus ; he died without having reigned. ACROTATUS, grandson of the foregoing, be- came king of Sparta, B.C. 268, killed in hattle. ACTON, John or Joseph, the son of an Irish physician, settled at Besancon, became prime minister at the court of Naples towards the close of the last century, and is noted as a bitter oppo- nent of the French, 1737-1808. ACTORIUS, Nason, hist., age of Augustus. ACTUARIUS, Jo., a Greek physician, 13th ct. ACUNA, Ant., bishop of Zamora, notorious for his part in the civil wars of the period, behd. 1521. ACUNA, Chr., a Jesuit missionary, author of a work descriptive of the river Amazon. ACUNA, Fernando De, a native of Madrid, a great favourite with the emperor Charles Y., and a writer of pastoral poetry, died 1680. ADA, queen of Caria, B.C. 344. ADEUS, or ADDED S, a Greek poet, 4th ct. B.C. ADAIR, James, an Indian trader, author of a work in which he deduces the descent of the North American Indians from the Hebrews, pub. 1775. ADAIR, James, serjeant at law, distinguished as a counsellor and recorder of London, died 1798. ADAIR, James Makittrick, a Scotch phy- sician, auth. of several professional works, d. 1H02. ADAIR, John, F.R.S., a Scotchman, distin- guished as an hydrographer, end of 17th century. ADALARD, abbot and founder of New Corbie, which was designed by him as a nursery of mis- sionaries to convert the northern nations. This distinguished monk was cousin-german of Charle- magne, and was bom about the year 753. ADALBERON, archbishop of Rhehns, distin- guished for his learning and statesmanship, con- secrated Hugh Capet, 987, and died 988. ADALBERON, Ascelin, bishop of Laon, also a politician, noted for Ids treachery, died lUoO. ADA ADALBERT, a French bishop of the 8th cent,, who claimed inspiration, was condemned by the council of Soissons, 744, and died in prison. ADALBERT, bishop of Prague, savagely mur- dered by the Bohemians, 997. ADALBERT, archbishop of Bremen, died 1072. ADALBERT, archbishop of Magdeburg, d. 1137. ADALBERT I., duke of Tuscany, 847-890. ADALBERT II., son of the preceding, 890-917. ADALBERT III., associated with his father Berenger as king of Italy, 950-961. ADALOAD, king of Lombardy, 604-625. ADAM, the first man, according to the received chronology, lived to be 930 years of age ; the date of his creation is fixed at 4004 years B.C. AD AM of Bremen, an eminent historian of the lurch, lived in the 12th century. ADAM de la Halle, a French poet, 13th cent. ADAM, Scotus, a doc. of the Sorbonne, 12th ct, ADAM, Adolph. Ch., a musician, born 1804. ADAM, Alex., Dr., a learned schoolmaster of Edinb., au. of ' Roman Antiquities,' &c, 1741-1809. ADAM, Al., a painter of battles, 1786-1812. ADAM, G., a German landscape painter, d. 1823. ADAM, Jacq., a learned Fr. writer, 1663-1735. ADAM, Jean, a Jesuit preacher, 17th century. ADAM, L. S., an em. Fr. sculptor, 1700-1759*. ADAM, Nich. S., brother of the preceding, rendered famous by his admired statue of Pro- metheus chained, 1705-1778. ADAM, Melchior, rector of a college at Heidel- berg, noted as a voluminous biographer, d. 1622. ADAM, Nich., a Fr. grammarian, 1716-1792. ADAM, Robert, a celebrated architect, much employed in London in conjunction with his brother James, most distinguished for the Adelphi Build- ings, 1728-1792. ADAM, Robert, author of the 'Religious World Displayed,' 1770-1826. ADAM, Th., a clergyman who continued rector of Wintringham for 58 years, though preferment was continually offered him, 1701-1784. ADAM, Rt. Hon. Wm., a distinguished lawyer and politician, finally chief commissioner of the Scottish Jury Court, 1751-1839. ADAMjEUS, Theod., an author of the 16th ct., especially of a work designed to promote a union of all Christian churches, died 1560. ADAMANTEO, a learned Talmudist, d. 1581. ADAMANTIUS, a physiognomist, 4th century. ADAMANUS, the biographer of St. Columba, 8th century. ADAM I, Ernest, a Polish writer, 1750. ADAMI, Leonard, an Ital. scholar, 1690-1719. ADAMS, Abig., eel. by her ' Letters,' 1744-1818. ADAMS, Geo., eel. as a mathematical inst. maker, and scientific writer, died 1786. ADAMS,Geo., son of the preceding, author of an 4 Essay on Vision,' &c. 1750-1795. ADAMS, John, the assumed name of Alex. Smith, one of the principal mutineers of the Bounty, and since known as the patriarch of Pit- cairn's Island,where the mutineers settled; d. 1829. ADAMS, John, an astrol., reign of Charles II. ADAMS, John, Rev., minister of the Scotch church in Hatton Garden, and author of many works of elementary instruction, died 1814. ADA MS, J., an Amer. poet and preacher, d. 1740. ADAMS, John, a celebrated American states- ADA man, the second President of the United States, was born at Braintree, Massachusets, on 19th Oct., 1735. His fame is not associated with brilliant oratorical displays, or with critical triumphs in party conflict. His qualities were those of the accomplished man of business, but they came forth at a time, and under conditions that made business capacities of the most momentous im- portance to his own countrymen and to mankind at large. The United States are the sole great exception to the saying of Burke, that ' constitu- tions are not made, they grow.' That a consti- tution was framed for the States, on principles which have attested their soundness for the place and occasion bv their durability, is mainly to be attributed to the sagacity of Adams, and espe- cially to his thoroughly English capacity to turn existing institutions and habits to the new condi- tions of the people, instead of inventing untried novelties. Hence his friend and rival Jefferson, called him 'The column of Congress, the pillar of support to the Declaration of Independence, and its ablest advocate and defender.' Having studied at Cambridge, Massachusets, he joined the Suffolk bar in 1759, and practised in Quin- cey. He married, in 1764, Abigail Smith, a woman of great ability and high patriotic aspira- tions, who brought to him the influential local connection of the Quincey family, to which she was related. Adams dated his expectation of the coming revolution, and his preparation to partici- pate in the reorganization of government in Bri- tish America, to what he observed in 1761, when the question of the legality of writs of assistance, under the English exchequer system against the Boston merchants, was tried. His first open advo- cacy of colonial independence was in the support of the application of the Boston citizens to have the courts of law reopened, when they had been closed on the ground that their proceedings were informal without the use of that cargo of stamps which had been forcibly detained by the citizens. He showed his thorough independence, and brought on him- self considerable odium by becoming counsel for the soldiers charged with murder for shooting citizens of Boston. In 1774, when Gage dissolved the as- sembly of Massachusets, he was one of the five who, before separation, were appointed to meet with other committees of Washington, and he was thus instru- mental in the construction of congress. On the 6th of May, 1776, he took the first step in the declaration of independence, by a prominent motion ' to adopt such a government as would, in the opin- ion of the representatives of the people, best con- duce to the happiness and safety of their constituents and of America.' He was one of the committee for preparing the celebrated Declaration. He had, in the meantime, organized the system which gave its war-service to the United States, and had been chiefly instrumental in putting the army into the hands of Washington. By his management of the committee of correspondence, he organized another great branch of service, that of the foreign depart- ment. He was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with France and Holland, and afterwards was sent to negotiate the treaty with Britain. In 1789, he became vice-president, and on the retire- ment of Washington, in 1797, he was chosen president of the United States, remaining in office ADA for one period of four years. He was all Ins life, more or less, concerned in public business, and lived to a good old age. The juncture of his death was remarkable : it occurred in 1826, on the 4th of July, the anniversary of the declaration of inde- pendence. Before breathing his last, he made the remark, ' Jefferson survives;' but it was not so Jefferson had died at an earlier hour on the same day. [J.H.B.] ADAMS, John Quincey, an American states- man, the son of John Adams, was born at Brain- tree, Mussachusets, on the 11th July, 1767. He received his name of Quincey from his maternal grandfather, an influential citizen of the colony, who died just as his celebrated grandchild was born. Adams was cradled in the revolution, and when but nine years old heard the first reading of the declaration of independence from the old state house in Boston. He accompanied his father in his missions to France and Holland, and there ac- quired the knowledge of foreign languages and countries, and the wide systematic views which made him invaluable to a country in which such qualifications were necessarily rare. He took a degree at Harvard with high distinction in 1787. In 1791, under the signature of ' Publicola,' he sug- gested some grave doubts about the soundness of the principles actuating the French revolutionists, very remarkable as the production of a republican pen. In 1803, he was sent from the state of Massachusets as representative to the senate in congress, and sat until 1808. He had been for a short time professor of rhetoric in Harvard, when, in 1809, he was appointed representative of the States at the court of Russia, and began his brilliant and multifarious diplomatic career. In London he completed the negotiations for the conclusion of the second British American war. He was called home in 1817, to serve in the cabinet of President Monroe. On the election of a president in 1825, the name of Adams was returned with those of Jackson, Crawford, and Clay; but as there was not for any one candidate the majority of electoral votes required by the constitution, the selection fell into the hands of the representatives who chose Adams. He retired in 1829, declining the party advocacy, which it was said might ensure his re- election, and he has been looked back on with regret as the last of those who occupied the chair without being borne into it by a victorious faction. In 1831 he began a career of valuable services as a member of the House of Representatives. He made many enemies by his sympathy with the cause of negro emancipation. He was an active pamphleteer, and contributed to periodical litera- ture. He died, full of years and honours, on the 23d of February, 1848, and it has been customary to speak of him as the last of the old and higher class of American statesmen. [J.H.B.] ADAMS, Jos., an em. medical au., 1758-1818. ADAMS, Sam., one of the most ardent defen- ders of American independence, member for Mas- sachusets in the first general congress, noted for his inflexible integrity, 1722-1803. ADAMS, Sir Th., lord mayor of London, 1645, distinguished as a royalist, 1586-1667. ADAMS, Wm., an'English divine, a friend of Dr. Johnson, and author of an answer to Hume on Miracles, 1707-1789. ADD ADAMSON, Pat., abp. of St. Andrews, equally noted for his talents and misfortunes, 1536-1599. ADAMSON, Hy., nephew of the preceding, anl author of a curious poem, died 1639. ADAMUS SCOTUS, a eel. author of the 12th century, best known for his curious 4 Dialogue be- tween the Reason and the Soul.' ADAMUS DORENSUS, awr. on music, 13th c. ADANSON, Michel, a celebrated botanist, was bom at Aix, in Provence, in 1727, died in 1806. He was educated at Plessis, studied in Paris under Reaumur and Bernard de Jussieu at the Garden of Plants, and afterwards made a voyage to Senegal. He remained in Africa five years, and during nis sojourn there collected an immense number of plants and animals. Upon his return to France, he found that Linnaeus had already promulgated his artificial System of Nature to the scientific world. To Adanson this arrangement, and the arbitrary nomenclature of Linnseus, were particularly distasteful. His grand aim was to produce a classification of the objects of nature, based upon the natural relations which these have one with another. The first work in which he proposed this method was his ' Voyage to Sene- gal,' in which he made an attempt to classify the mollusca according to the structure of the animal, and not the shell which they inhabit. The next was his ' Families of Plants,' in which he strove to carry out the same principles in botany as he had commenced in conchology. He has not been very successful in this attempt, as a compari- son between his system and that of Linnaeus will show; but still, along with his teacher, Bernard de Jussieu, he has the merit of indicating a method of arrangement of plants by their natural affinities, in opposition to the artificial system then in vogue. He possessed a great knowledge of botany, and was an accurate observer. He is the author of a very interesting account of the immense tree called by the natives of Africa the Baobab ; since named after him Adansonia. He wrote also an account of the trees which produce the gums of commerce. At the revolution, Adanson was reduced to great poverty, but afterwards received a small pension from government. His will directed that a garland of flowers, selected from the 58 families of plants which he had established, should be the only de- coration of his coffin. [W.B.] ADAOUST, a Provencal poet, died 1819. ADASHEV, Alexis,' eel. in Russian history as the minister of Ivan the terrible, and disting. by his virtues and talents, died in prison, 1561. ADASHEV, Dan., younger brother of the pre- ceding, disting. himself against the Tartars, and was executed, together with his little son, and all the near relations of Alexis, soon after the death of that minister. ADDA, one of the kings of Northumbria. ADDA, a disting. artist and soldier of Italy. ADDINGTON, Anth., a phvsician and politi- cian, father of Lord Sidmouth, 1713-1790. ADDINGTON, S., Dr., adis.minis. 1729-1796. ADDISON, G. Hy., author of ' Indian Reminis- cences,' born 1793. ADDISON, Launcelot, father of the cele- brated writer, and dean of Lichfield, was early distinguished by his attachment to the Stuarts. He is the author of several works ; 1632-17U3. 10 ADD ADDISON, Joseph, was the eldest son of a clergyman, able and learned, but not wealthy. He was "born in 1672, at the rectory of Milston in Wiltshire. He was educated chiefly at the Charter House and at Oxford, and distinguished himself as a writer of Latin verses, a good many of which were afterwards published. He first appeared in print by contributing English verses, some of which were original, and others translations from the classics, to Dryden's collections of miscellaneous poems. Another of his poetical efforts was a poem complimenting king William on the campaign in which he took Namur. It was written after he [Eirth-place of Addison.] had been introduced to the notice of leading states- men of the Whig party ; whose patronage of him, prompted bv their expectation of his usefulness m political life, appears to have been the cause of his abandoning the intention he once had of enter- ing the church. A pension, procured for him by the interest of Lord Somers, enabled him, in 1699, to visit the continent, where he resided for three years. The best of his poems, a ' Letter from Italy,' addressed to Lord Halifax, his earliest patron, was written in 1701, while he was still abroad; and his ' Travels in Italy,' the first large work which he attempted in prose, exhibited very promisingly both his classical and miscellaneous knowledge, and his skill and liveliness in composition. Not very long after his return to England, he wrote, on the sug- gestion of the prime minister Godolphin, 'The Cam- paign,' a poem celebrating Marlborough's victory at Blenheim. He immediately received an appoint- ment as one of the commissioners of excise, the place having become vacant by the death of the celebrated Locke ; he was speedily promoted to be an under-secretary of state ; and he was secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, when the ministry which he served was dismissed from office. The time of his steadiest and most successful activity in literature embraced the four years ex- tending from this loss of place to the end of Queen Anne's reign. The Tories being in power, he was excluded from public employment. But, a short while before this, he had begun to produce those periodical essays by which his fame has been longest and most securely preserved. In 1709, he began to furnish papers to the Tatler, which was con- ducted by his schoolfellow and friend, Richard Steele. Early iu 1711, these two writers com- ADD rhenced the Spectator, which was continued every week-day till the close of the following year. It was then dropped, after having made up the 555 numbers commonly printed in its first seven vo- lumes; Addison and Steele contributing almost equally, and together writing all the essays except sixty or seventy. In the course of 1713, the Guardian received a large number of essays from Addison: and then also appeared his celebrated tragedy of ' Cato.' The immense popularity which, partly through political considerations, this stately drama gained, both among readers and among play- goers, raised the reputation of the author to its highest point. During the latter half of the year 1714, he contributed a good many papers to the new series of the Spectator, making up its eighth vo- lume. The accession of George I., occurring a little before the publication of the Spectator was closed, restored the Whigs to power, and thus again diverted Addison from literature to politics. After having acted as secretary to the regency, he was appointed one of the lords of trade. Down to this point in his history, there seems to have been really no good ground for the allegations commonly made of his inefficiency as a man of business. He had, indeed, failed in parliament, having either not spoken at all, or broken down in the only attempt he made. His literary celebrity, however, and his modesty and urbanity of manners, though they might have pro- cured him a reception into the society of persona of rank, could not have obtained and preserved the confidence of successive statesmen if he had not been quite competent to the practical details of office. But it cannot well be doubted that he was unfit, though it had been only through his in- efficiency as a debater, for the last step which he ventured to take on the ladder of ambition. In 1717, a dissension having occurred in the minis- try, T ownsend and Walpole, the ablest members of the cabinet, passed over to the opposition : and in the administration which was formed by the other Whigs, Addison became a principal secretary of state, having Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's son-in-law, as his colleague. His acceptance of this office is commonly attributed to the influence of his wife, the Countess-Dowager of Warwick ; whom he had married a few months before, and who is said to have, by her haughtiness and vio- lence, made her husband unhappy, and to have driven him to dissipation as a means of escape from domestic discomfort. That Addison did be- come sottish in the last years of his life has not been clearly proved ; and one is glad to catch at any reasons for disbelieving it. At all events, his health was now giving way ; and the state of it was made the excuse for his resignation of office, which he tendered in April, 1718, after having held it for less than a year. His only subsequent efforts in literature that are worth noticing were, an angry controversy with his old friend Steele, who had joined the opposition section of the Whigs, and his uncompleted treatise on the ' Evidences of Christianity.' He died at Holland House, in Ken- sington, in June, 1719, a few weeks after having completed his forty-seventh year. Addison's poetry is of very small account. His minor compositions in verse hold but a low rank even in that did- actic and half-prosaic school to which they be- long. ' Cato' itself owed its fame, in a great mea- 11 ADD sure, to extrinsic circumstances : and it could not liave been successful at all had not dramatic art been then in a state of decay. It is a series of dialogues rather than a drama: its speeches, often eloquent, and almost alwavs morally noble, are seldom truly poetical, and never passionate or pathetic: and there is an equal feebleness in the incidents and in the characters. It must lie al- lowed, likewise, that no very great value belongs to any of his prose writings, except his contribu- tions to the Spectator and other periodical papers. These, however, make up a large mass of literary compositions, and possess distinguished merit and importance. In the history of English style, a marked epoch is constituted by the appearance of the writers who are oftenest described as the Wits of Queen Anne's time : and among these there were none who exerted, on the manner of later authors, so strong an influence as Addison. His grace and refinement, accompanied by an admirable command of familiar idioms, gave him a charm that was wanting in the bare and stern writings of Swift: and he was superior to Steele, not only in these points, but also in his comparative freedom from looseness and inaccuracy, and in his power of ris- ing to dignity without losing ease or freedom. In respect to matters higher than style, the merit of the Periodical Essays is chiefly shared between Steele the projector, and Addison, the only other steady and active contributor. In those sketches of charac- ter and manners, and those fragments of invented stories, which were the most popular things in the Toiler and its successors, Steele showed more de- cisive originality, and greater breadth and force of humour: but his coadjutor excelled him by far both in delicacy of sentiment, and in the skill, in- genuity, and consistency with which he worked up his materials into finished pictures. To Addi- son the Spectator owed, with hardly any exception, its papers of a more elevated and solid cast, those which made it an instrument of enlightenment to its contemporaries, and entitle it to the grateful attention of posterity. Such were its critical dis- sertations, always abounding in good taste and eloquent expression, the best of these being the criticisms which did so much for recalling notice to Milton : such were the papers on the ' Pleasures of the Imagination,' (efforts highly meritorious in the circumstances,) towards ascertaining the principles on which philosophical criticism must be founded : and such, also, were many meditative and religious papers, some of them purely didactic in form, and others allegorical, and all of them excellent alike for their high ethical tone, and for their natural and fine reflectiveness. If Addison's prose writ- ings were once overvalued, the neglect and depre- ciation with which it has lately been fashionable to treat them, involve an error which goes at least as far the opposite way. [W.S.] ADDISON, Thos., an Engl. Jesuit, 1634-1685. ADDY, Wm., a writer on stenography, 17th cent. ADEL, or ADIL, k. of Sweden, 5th or 6th cent. ADELAIDE, the amiable queen of William IV., whom she married 1818; she was daughter of the Duke Saxe-Meiningen; born 1792, died 1849. ADELAIDE, the good and beautiful empress of Germany, was the daughter of Kodolph II., king of Burgundy; she was taken from a prison to marry the emperor Otho I. 951 ; died 999. ADn ADELAIDE, mistress of Albert, duke of Ba- varia ; assassinated by his son, 1392. ADELAIDE of Savoy, the widow of Louis the Fat, and wife of Montmorency, assumed the veil in the abbev of Montmartrc, and died 1153. ADELAIDE, marchioness of Susa, and founder of the dominion enjoyed by the house of Savoy in Piedmont, was the contemporary and rival of the celebrated Matilda, duchess of Tuscany, 11th cent. ADELAIDE, Madame Marie, eldest daught. of Louis XV. and aunt of Louis XVI. k. of France, born 1730, fled before the revolutionary stonn, 1791, died at Trieste, 1800. ADELAIDE, Eugenie Louisa, sister of Louis Philippe, and his best counsellor, was born 1777 ; she was privately married to Gen. Athelin ; died 31st December, 1847. ADELAIS, second queen of Henry I. of Engl, eel. by the troubadours as ' the fair maid of Bra- bant, and ancestress of the Howards, died 1151. ADELARD, a learned monk of the 12th cent. ADELASIA, queen of Sardinia, 13th century. ADELBOLD, bishop of Utrecht, died 1027. ADELBURNER, M., an astronomer, died 1779. ADELER, Curtius, a naval com. in the service of the Venetians and Danes, 1622-1675. ADELFRID, a Saxon king, whose succession united the prov. of Bernicia and Deira, 559. ADELGISUS, king of the Lombards, 8th cent. ADELGISUS, prince of Beneventum, 9th cent. ADELGREIF, J. A., a German scholar of high attainments, who believed that he was the representative of God upon earth, that he was accompanied by seven angels, and that he had a mission to banish all evil from the world ; executed on a charge of sorcery, 1636. ADELHER, a schoolman and divine, 12th cent. ADELUNG, Jac, a musician, 1699-1762. ADELUNG, John, Ch., known throughout Europe as a philologist. His great works are a grammatical and critical Dictionary of the German tongue, and a work of vast research called ' Mith- ridates,' in which the remarkable affinities be- tween the words of all languages are discovered. His general knowledge of literature and the arts is also displayed in various historical treatises, more especially in a cyclopaedia of what he terms 'Human Folly.' He resided at Leipzig and Dresden, usually devoting fourteen hours a-day to hard study, and yet noted for his good cheer. His works in all make about seventy volumes. He was never married ; 1734-1806. [E.R.] ADELUNG, Fr., nephew of the preceding, also distinguished as an historian and linguist, b. 1768, ADELWALCH, a king of Sussex, slain 686. ADEMAR, or AYMAR, an historian, 11th cent ADEODATO, an Italian artist, 12th century. ADEODATUS, pope after Boniface IV, 614-617. Another of the same name elected 673. ADER, Wm., a phys. of Toulouse, au. of a work on the diseases cured by our Saviour, pub. 1621. ADET, P. A., a writer on chemistry, envoy from France to the United States, 1796. ADGILLUS, first Chr. king of Frisia, 8th cent. ADHAD-EDDAULAH, sultan of Persia, died 983, after a glorious reign of 34 years. ADHED, last caliph of the Fathnite dynasty, dethroned by Saladin, and died 1171. ADIIELM, bp. of Sherborne, the first ecclesi- 12 ADH astic distinguished in the Anglo-Saxon church; he is considered the father of Anglo-Saxon literature, and the first English poet, died 769. ADHEMAR, a troubadour of the 12th century. ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, created duke of Genoa by Charlemagne, on account of his success against the Saracens, was chief of the illustrious house of Orange. ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, of the same family, was a distinguished general of the crusades, and bp. of Pays ; died of a contagion at Antioch. ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, another of the family, also a great soldier, made bishop of Metz in 1327, died 1361. ADIMARI, a Florentine family of the middle ages, which has produced several disting. men of letters ; one member of this family is known as a parti z an of the Guelphs. ADJUTI, Jas., convert to protestantism, prof, of theology at Wittemberg, 1602-1663. ADLER, Gaspar. See Aquila. ADLER, G. Ch., a disting. teacher, 1674-1741. ADLER, G. Ch., son of the preceding, a classi- cal scholar and divine, 1734-1804. ADLER, J. G., a Danish orientalist, born 1756. ADLER, Ph., a German engraver, 16th cent. ADLERBETH, G., a Swedish poet, 1751-1818. ADLERFELDT, Gust., a Swedish noble who accompanied Charles XII. in his campaigns, of which he wrote a history ; killed at Pultowa, 1709. ADLZREITER, chancellor and historian of Bavaria, died 1662. ADMIRAL, H., a poor Frenchman, executed 1794, for an attempt on the life of Robespierre. ADMO, a German engraver, time of Augustus. ADO, a distinguished abp. of Vienna, died 875. ADOLFATI, an Italian composer. ADOLFI, Giacomo, an It. painter, 1682-1741. ADOLPH, a Germ, painter in England, 1750. ADOLPH, a German sculptor, 16th century. ADOLPHI, C. M., a medical writer, 1676-1753. ADOLPHUS, count of Nassau, elected emperor, 1292 ; fell in battle against his rival Albert duke of Austria, 1298. ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, andbp. of Muns- ter, distinguished for his turbulence, died 1394. ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, son of the pre- ceding, and founder of the order of Fools, d. 1448. ADOLPHUS, duke of Gueldres, noted for his repeated and cruel rebellions against his father Arnold, and his desperate courage, 1438-1477. ADOLPHUS, duke of Saxony, born 1685, noted for his active and glorious share in the wars of the empire during the first half of the 18th century, and especially for the check given to Frederick the Great after the surrender of Prague. Entered into military service 1701, succeeded unexpectedly to the duchv 1736, died 1746. ADOLPHUS I., count of Holstein, 1106-1131. ADOLPHUS II., his son, succd. 1131, k. 1164. ADOLPHUS III., son of the preceding, de- spoiled of his duchy in a war with Denmark, and soon after died at the beginning of the 13th cent. ADOLPHUS IV., son and successor of the pre- ceding, recovered his duchy, 1227, but retired from the world 1238, and spent the remaining fourteen years of his life in a monastery. ADOLPHUS VI1L, son of Gerard, count of Holstein, sustained a long war with Denmark on ADR accotint of Schleswig ; he is disting. as a wise ruler, also for his moderation in refusing the crown of Denmark afterwards offered to him ; died 1459. ADOLPHUS L, duke of Holstein and Schleswig, celebrated as a warlike prince, 1544-1586. ADOLPHUS, Frederick II., son of Frede- rick I., king of Sweden, ascended the throne, 1751, being then 41 years of age. In 1757 he was com- pelled to take a part against Prussia in the 7 years' war, though he was some years previously mar- ried to a sister of Frederick the Great. Intrigue and dissension marked the whole period of his reign, and though a party in the state made strenuous endeavours to extend the royal preroga- tive, the king exercised little real power. The state of the country at his death in 1771, is repre- sented by a native historian as a picture of the extremest anarchy that a state can reach under a representative government. [E.R.] ADOLPHUS, John, a eel. barrister and his- torian of London, 1766-1845. ADOMMAN, abbot of Iona, and author of the curious life of St. Columba, died 703. ADON, abp., and au. of Chronicles, 9th cent. ADONIJAH, a son of David, put to death by Solomon, B.C. 1010. ADRETS, Fr. De Beaumont, a leader of the Huguenots, noted for his daring and cruelty, died 1587. His son, of like character, took a share in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. ADREVALD, a theologian of the 9th century. ADRIA, a Sicil. author and phys., died 1560. ADRIAENS, L., a Fl. paint, on glass, 15th cent. ADRIAENSEN, Alex., a Flm. paint., 17th cent ADRIAENSEN, Cornelis, a learned ecclesi- astic, 16th century. ADRIAM, Marie, a young girl who fought in the defence of Lyons when besieged by the troop3 of the Convention, and was executed, 1793. ADRIAN, a Greek writer of the 5th century. ADRIAN, Eman., Flemish musician, 16th cent. ADRIAN, or HADRIAN, Publius jElius, the Roman emperor was born 76, and brought up under the eye of the empr. Trajan, his father's kinsman, who adopted him as his son, and to whom he succeeded, 117. He was a success- ful soldier, and a great lover of literature and the arts, but disgraced by the indulgence of sensuality. In the course of his reign he visited nearly every part of his dominions, and when in Britain, 120, built a wall eighty miles in length, from the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Frith, to prevent the incursions of the Caledonians. He was the restorer of Jerusalem, which he named iElia Capitolina, and where, on Mount Calvary, he erected a temple to Jupiter; died 138. [E.R.] ADRIAN I., pope of Rome, 772-775. ADRIAN II., succeeded as pope, 867, died 872. ADRIAN III., elected pope, and d. 885. ADRIAN IV., an Englishman, at first a servant in a monastery, elected pope 1154, died 1159. ADRIAN V., elected pope, and died 1276. ADRIAN VI., succeeded Leo X. 1522, d. 1523. ADRIAN DE CASTELLO, a native of Italy, distinguished for his learning and ability ; became bishop of Hereford in the reign of Henry VII., and afterwards residing in Italy was accused of conspiracy against Leo X. His subsequent fate is unknown. ADR ADRIANI, M. V., a Greek scholar, chancellor of Florence, died 1621. ADRIANI, J. B., his son, an hist., died 1574. ADRIAN!, M., son of the last named, d. 1604. ADRIANO, a Spanish painter, d. 1650. ADRICHONIUS, ClL, a Dutch hist. 1533-1585. ADRY, J. F., rhetorician and hist., 1749-1818. A DSO, Hekmericus, a monastic \vr., 10th cent. ADUARTE, Diego, a Spanish hist., d. 1637. DECIDES, or jECIDAS, a kin" of Epirus, said to be a descendant of Achilles, killed B.C. 313. DECIDES, k. of the Molossi, after Alex, the Gt. jEDESLA, a female Platonist, the mother of Ammonius. /EGIDIUS, k. of the Franks from the deposition to the recall of Childeric ; assassinated 464. .EGIDIUS, de Columna, a monastic philoso- pher and theologian, disting. in the 13th century. ^EGIDIUS, Peter, a Flemish lawyer, d. 1533. iEGIMUS, an ancient Greek physician. jEGINHARD, the secretary of Charlemagne, author of annals of his reign, and equally celebrated for his love adventure with the emperor's daughter. ./ELF, a Swedish theologian, 18th century. .ELFRIC, St., surnamed the Grammarian, was archbishop of Canterbury in the middle of the 10th century. He is distinguished as one of the bright- est luminaries of the age in which he lived, d. 1005. ./ELIAN, the celebrated author of a ' History of Animals,' a ' Treatise on Providence,' &c, distin- guished for the purity with which he wrote the Greek tongue, supposed to have lived in the 2d cent. .ELIAN, Claudius, a Roman military writer. ./ELIAN, a general in the time of Valens. JE LI ANUS, Meccius, a Greek physician. jELIUS MELISSUS, a Roman jurist, 2d cent. jELIUS SEXTUS, one of the most eel. Roman jurists, successively aadile, consul, and censor ; au. of the earliest known work on jurisprudence. jELST. See Aalsh. jEMILIANI, St. Jer., a noble Venetian, the founder of an hospital and religious order, 16th cent. jEMILII, The, one of the most ancient and noble of the patrician families of Rome. .EMILIUS, Anth., a Dutch hist., 1589-1660. jEMILIUS, G., a Latin poet, related to Luther. jEMILIUS, Paulus, consul of Rome, B.C. 216 and 219, slain at the battle of Cannae. _ jEMILIUS, Paulus, son of the preceding, dis- tinguished in the Macedonian war, 3d cent. B.C. .EMILIUS, Pau., an em. hist, of Verona, d.1529. ./ENEAS, one of the heroes of Troy. ./ENEAS, a Greek military author, 360 B.C. ./ENEAS, or jENGAS, a monastic writer, 9th c. .ENEAS GAZiEIUS, a Platonist, 5th cent. .ENESIDEMUS, a sceptical pb.il., 1st century. jEPINUS, the assumed name of Hoeck, one of the most zealous of Luther's followers, 1499-1533. jEPINUS, Franz, a German philosopher, 1724. jERIUS, founder of a sect of the 4th century. .ERSEUS. SeevERTSEN. .ERTGEN. See Aaktoexs. jERTSEN, or .ERSEXS, Peter, an em. hist, painter, called Pietro Longo, on account of his tall- ness. There are several Flemish painters of the same name, three known to be sons of the preceding. /KSOH1XES, an orator of Athens, 4th ct. b.c. . K SC I II X E S, a poor Athenian philosopher, the personal friend and pupil of Socrates. JESO jESCHRION, an ancient physic, of Pergamos. J2SCHYLUS, a celebrated Greek dramatic wri- ter, was born of a noble family at Eleusis in Attica, B.C. 525, and died at Gela in Sicily, b.c. 456. \ From an anecdote which is related of him by Paus- anias, it appears that his youthful fancy was early captivated by the exhibitions of the drama ; and I he accordingly devoted his life to the service of the J tragic muse. At the age of twenty-five, B.C. 499, ll he first presented himself at the festival of Bacchus It as a competitor for the public prize; and ftfteepli years afterwards, b.c. 484, gained his first victory. I The pre-eminence which he thus acquired was j successfully maintained till b.c. 468, when he was 1; defeated in a similar contest by his younger rival, 1 Sophocles ; an event which exercised a strong in- I fluence over the rest of his life. Mortified at the I indignity which, as he thought, had thus been put J upon him, he quitted Athens and went to the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse. Of the remaining por- tion of his life but little is known, except that he continued to prosecute his favourite pursuit ; and that his residence in Sicily was of some duration, may be inferred from the fact that it was sufficient to affect the purity of his language. His thirteenth and last victory was gained b.c. 458. On the manner of his death, which was singular, the an- cient writers are unanimous. While sitting mo- tionless in the fields, his bald head was mistaken for a stone by an eagle which happened to be fly- ing over him with a tortoise in her bill. The bird dropped the tortoise to break the shell, and the poet was killed by the blow. iEschylus is said to nave been the author of 70 tragedies, of wdiieh only seven are now extant. The improvements which he introduced in the economy of the drama, were so important as to gain for him the distinction of the Father of Greek Tragedy. To the single actor of Thespis he added a second, and thus presented the regular dialogue. He abridged the length of the choral odes and made them subservient to the main interest of the plot ; substituted a regular stage for the moveable wain of his predecessor; provided appropriate scenic decorations, and dresses for the actors ; and removed all deeds of murder and bloodshed from public view. His style is bold, lofty, and sublime, full of gorgeous imagery and magnificent expressions, suitable to the elevated characters of his dramas. His plays have little or no plot; and have therefore been blamed as defi- cient in dramatic interest. But jEschylus was illustrious not merely as a poet. Along with his brother Cynaegirus he distinguished himself so highly m the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, that his exploits were eommemorated by a descriptive painting in the theatre of Athens ; and it is pro- bable that he took part in the subsequent battles of Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataeae. His warlike spirit is vividly pourtrayed in his tragedies, the ' Persians ' and the l Seven against Thebes.' [G.F.J .ESOP, generally known for the Fables attri- buted to him, lived in the 6th century B.C. His history is not well authenticated, but it is under- stood that he was born in Phrygia, and acquired his Greek education as a slave in Athens. He is regarded as the inventor of the apologue, of which his own compositions are also the purest models. They have been trans, into all modern languages. .ESOP, Joseph, a Hebrew poet, 16th century. 11 MSO I JvSOPIUS, Cl., a Roman actor, 1st cent. B.C. I vETION, an ancient Greek sculptor. JTION, a Greek painter, time of Apelles. I JSTIUS, a celebrated heretic of the 4th century. I jETIUS, a Roman general, eel. for his repulse of Iftttila, assass. by the emperor Valentinian 454. I JETIUS, an ancient physician of Sicily. I iETIUS of Amida, a physician of the 5th cent., luthor of a vast collection of medical treatises; nderstood to be the first Christian physician hose writings have come down to us. AF ACKER, G., a German theologian, 17th ct. AFER, Domitius, a eel. Roman orator, one of the vilest partizans of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. AFFLECK, Sir Ed., a naval officer, died 1787. AFFLITTO, Eust. D', a Neapolitan au., 1782. AFFLITTO, J. M., a Neapolitan au., d. 1673. AFFLITTO, Matt., a Neapolitan writer, chief- ly on legislation, 1430-1510. AFFO, Iren.eus, an hist, of Italy, 18th cent. AFFRY, Count Louis D', a Swiss commander and statesman during the revolution ; died 1810. AFRANIA, a Roman lady, eel. as an advocate. AFRANIO, inventor of the bassoon, 16th cent. AFRANIUS, L., a Roman orator and dramatist, 1st century B.C. AFRANIUS, L. N., consul of Rome, B.C. 61. AFRANIUS, T., adist. Rom. gen., 1st cent. B.C. AFRASIAB, an ancient king of Persia. AFRE, St., a German martyr, 4th century. AFRICANER, Chr., one of the most dreaded chiefs of South Africa, remarkable for the fruits of his conversion to Christianity, died 1823. AFRICANUS, Julius, a Christian hist., 3d ct. AFRICANUS, Sextus, a Roman jurist, 3d century B.C. AFZELIUS, Adam, a Swed. bot,, 1750-1836. AGABUS, a Christian prophet, 1st century. AGAMEMNON, one of the heroes of Homer, represented as the king of Argos, the Grecian Peloponnesus, and disting. at the siege of Troy. AGANDURU, R. M., a Spanish missionary and historian, 17th century. AGAPETUS L, elected pope, 535, d. 536. AGAPETUS II., elected pope 946, died 955. AGAR, P. Anth., a Provencal poet, died 1551. AGAR, Jacques, a French painter, died 1716. AGARD, Arthur, an antiquary of disting. learning, one of the founders of the Royal Anti- quarian Society, 1540-1615. AGAS, Ralph, a disting. surveyor, 16th cent. AGASIAS, an ancient Greek sculptor. AGATHA, St., a martyr of Sicily, 3d century. AGATHANGELUS, an Armenian historian,. 4th century. AGATHARCHIDES, an historical and geogra- phical writer, guardian or tutor of Ptolemy Phila- delphus, 2d century B.C. AGATHARCUS, a Greek painter, 4th ct. B.C. AGATHAMERUS, a geographer, 3d century. AGATHIAS, a Greek historian, 6th century. AGATHINUS, a Greek physician, 1st century. AGATHO, elected pope 678 or 679, died 682. AGATHOCLEA, a mistress of Ptolemy Philo- pator, noted for her share in the usurpation of the supreme power by her brother Agathocles. Killed, together with her accomplices, in a massacre by the populace, about 204 B.C. AGATHOCLES, an ancient Greek historian. AGR AGATHOCLES, the tyrant of Syracuse, was the son of a potter, born about 359 B.C., and elevated by his talents and intrigues from the rank of a simple soldier until he became general, and made himself master of all Sicily. He is said to have died by poison, B.C. 287. AGAZAVI, an Italian musician, 17th century. AGELADAS, a Greek sculptor, 5th cent. B.C. AGELET, Joseph, an astronomer, born 1757, perished with La Perouse, 1785. AGELIUS, Anth., a prelate of Naples, d. 160. AGELNOTH, archbishop of Canterbury, 1020. AGER, Nich., a phys. and botanist, 17th cent. AGESANDER, a sculptor of Rhodes, 5th cent. AGESIAS, a Platonic philosopher of Alexandria. AGESILAUS I., kg. of Sparta 957 to 913 B.C. AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta from b.c. 399 to 361, is one of the most prominent characters in Grecian history. He is renowned for his con- quests in Asia Minor, B.C. 395, and for his vic- tories over the Boeotians and Athenians. In this war, however, he was at length defeated by Epa- minondas, B.C. 363, died 361. AGGAS, Ralph, a surveyor and engineer, 16th century. AGGAS, Robt., a landscape painter, died 1679. AGILA, king of Spain, from 549 to 554. AGILAN, king of the Sp. Visigoths, 549-554. AGILULFUS, king of the Lombards, 591-619. AGIS, a Greek poet, time of Alexander. AGIS I., king of Sparta, B.C. 1060 ; a second king of this name reigned in Sparta, B.C. 427-399 ; a third, B.C. 358-331 ; a fourth, B.C. 240. AGLAOPHON, a Greek painter, 5th cent. B.C. AGLIONBY, Edw., a poet, age of Elizabeth. AGLIONBY, J. Dr., distinguished as a scholar and critic, chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, d. 1610. AGLIONBY, William, a diplomatist and cul- tivator of the Belles Lettres, 18th century. AGNELLO, doge of Pisa, 1364 to 1369. AGNELLUS, And., a canon of Ravenna in the 9th century, author of Chronicles of that see. AGNES, St., a Christian martyr, 303. AGNES, queen of France, 1196-1201. AGNES, empress of Constantinople, 12th cent. AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady of distinguished learning, 1718-1799. AGNESI, Maria Teresa, sister of the preced- ing, distinguished as a musician, born 1750. AGNOLO, B., a Florentine sculpt., 1460-1543. AGNOLO, G., an architect of Naples, 16th ct. AGOBARD, a distinguished prelate, 9th cent. AGOP, J., au. of critical and gram, works, 1675. AGORACRITES, a celebrated Greek sculptor, a pupil of Phidias, 5th century B.C. AGOSTIN, M., a Sp. wr. on agriculture, 17th c. AGOSTINI, L., an eminent antiquary, 17th cent. AGOSTINO, Paul, a eel. musician, 1593-1629. AGOUB, Joseph, a lyric poet, reviewer, and Arabian scholar, 1795-1832. AGOULT, W. D', a Provencal poet, 12th cent. AGREDA, Maria D', a Spanish abbess, author of a life of the Virgin Mary, alleged to be written from Divine vision, 1602-16G5. AGRESTI, Livio, an Italian painter, 16th cent. AGRICOLA, C. L., a Ger. painter, 1667-1719. AGRICOLA, Cneius Julius, an eminent Roman general, the father-in-law of Tacitus. Born in the reign of Caligula, 40. He cUstin- 15 AGR guished himself by the subjugation of a great part of Britain, of which he was made governor by the emperor Vespasian. His successes and his high character excited the jealous fears of Domitian, by whom he was covertly withdrawn from public emplovment, and soon after died, 93. AGRICOLA, Fr., an eccles. au., 1575-1616. AGRICOLA, Geo., a metallurgist, 1494-1555. AGRICOLA, G. A., a horticulturist, 1672-1738. AGRICOLA, John, a controversial divine, the opponent of Luther and Melancthon, and leader of the Antinomians, 1492-1566. AGRICOLA, Nich., a Swedish reformer, d.1557. AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, one of the restorers of science and letters in Europe, 1442-1485. AGRICOLA, St., bishop of Chalons, 6th cent. AGRIPPA, an ancient sceptical philosopher. AGRIPPA, an astronomer of the 1st century. AGRIPPA, Camillus, an Italian arch., 16th c. AGRIPPA DE NETTESHEIM, Henry Cor- nelius, a talented mystic philosopher, secretary to the emperor Maximilian, 1486-1535. AGRIPPA I., Herod, grandson of Herod the Great, and under Claudius, king of all Palestine, died 44. See Acts xii. 23. AGRIPPA IL, Herod, son and successor of the preceding, died about the close of the 1st century. AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, general of the Roman armies, and friend of Augustus Caesar, born 64 or 63 B.C. His virtues and military talents contributed greatly to the felicitous course and the glory of the reign of Augustus, whose daughter lie married, and whom he would have succeeded in the empire, but d. before him, B.C. 12. AGRIPPA, Menenius, consul of Rome, b.c. 503. AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Vipsanius Agrippa, and wife of Caesar Germanicus, was born some time before B.C. 12 ; d. in banishment, a.d. 35. AGRIPPINA, daughter of the preceding, and mother of the infamous Nero, was born some thne before a.d. 17 ; assassinated a.d. 60. AGUADO, Fr., a Spanish Jesuit, 1572-1654. AGUESSEAU, Henry D', a French states- man, 1634-1715. AGUESSEAU, Henry Francis D', son of the preceding, a eel. magistrate and advocate, finally chancellor of France, 1668-1751. AGUILA, C. J. E. D', a French hist., d. 1815. AGUILLON, Francis, a mathema., died 1617. AGUIRRA, J. S. D', a eel. Sp. prelate, d. 1699. AGUJARI LUCRE ZIA, an It. singer, d. 1783. AGYL.EUS, H., a jurist, disting. in the war of the United Provinces against Spain, 1533-1595. AHAB, king of Israel, 915 to 893 B.C. AHAZ, king of Judah, died B.C. 722. AHAZIAH, king of Judah, b.c. 885. AHAZIAH, king of Israel, died B.C. 897. AHLE, J. R., a Ger. musician, 1625-1673. AHLE, J. G., son of the preceding, died 1707. AHLWARDT, C. G., aGer.philolog., 1760-1830. AHLWART, Peter, a learned German, cele- brated as the founder of the Ahelites, 1710-1791. AHMED, an Arabian poet, 10th century. A1LMED-BEN-FARES, surnamed El Razi, author of an Arabic Dictionary, 10th century. AHMED-BEN-MOHAMMED, or ABOU AM- ROU, a Moor of Spain, celebrated as an oriental poet and annalist, died 970. AHMED- BEN -THOULOUN, an Egyptian AIT chief, founder of the dynasty of the Thoulounidc 9 th century. AHMED Ghiedik. See Achmet Giedic. AHMED-KHAN, emp. of the Moguls after h brother, Abaker-Khan, 1282, killed 1284. AHMED RESMY HADJY, chancellor of tl Turkish empire, author of an account of his ow AHMED-SHAH EL ABDALY, an Affghs chief, founder of the kingdom of Candahar an Cabul, eel. for his victories over the Sikhs, d. 1775 AHRENDT, or ARENTS, M. F., a great travelk and investigat. of Scandinavian antiquities, d. 1824 AHRUN. See Aaron of Alexandria. AHUITZOL, king of the Aztecs before Monte zuma IL, when they were conq. by the Spaniards. AIBEK, First Mameluke sultan of Egypt, 1254 assassinated 1257. AIDAN, one of the earliest preachers of Chris- tianity in Britain, afterwards op. of Lindisfarne died 651. AIGNAN, Stephen, a political writer tragic poet of France, 1773-1824. AIGNEAUX, R. and A., le Chevalier. Sieurs D', two brothers, noted as classical scholars, 16th century. AIKIN, E., a writer on architecture, died 1820. AIKIN, John, M.D., celebrated as a miscel- laneous writer, chiefly on moral and biographical subjects, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in Lie- cestershire 1747, and in 1764 became a student the university of Edinburgh, but pursued his pro fessional and literary career in London. His medi- cal memoir appeared in 1780 ; and his principal work, the General Biographical Dictionary, the labour of which he shared with Dr. Enfield, at various intervals from 1799 to 1815. From 1796 to 1806 he was also editor of the ' Monthly Maga- zine,' and for nearly half a century continued to enrich our literature with numerous elegantly written and useful dissertations. Died at the age < of 75, 1822. [E.R.] AIRMAN, Wm., a Scotch painter, 1682-1731. AILLAND, P. T., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1759-1826. AILLY, P. D', a cardinal and theological dis- putant, president of the council of Constance by which John Huss was condemned, 1350-1419. AILMER. See Aylmer. AILRED, ETHELRED, or EALRED, a well- known ancient historian, 1109-1166. AIMAR, Rivault, jurist and adv., 16th cent. AIMAR VERNAI, Jacques, a French peasant celebrated as a diviner, 17th century. AIMOIN De Varennes, a French poet, 13th c. AIMON, or AIMOIN of Fleury, a French his- torian, died 1008. AIMON, or HAYMOND, an historian, and dis- ciple of Alcuyn, died 853. AIMON, bishop of Valence, 943-977. AIMON, an ascetic writer, died 1174. AINSWORTH, Henry, a nonconformist divine, celebrated as a Hebrew scholar end Biblical com- mentator, died 1622. AINSWORTH, Robert, author of the well- known Latin Dictionary, 1660-1743. AIRAULT. See Ayrault. AITKEN, Robert, a printer, noted as a jour- nalist, &c, during the American revolution, d. 1802. AITON, William, an Engl, botanist, d. 1793. 1G AIT I AITZEMA, F. Van, a diplomatist of Friedland, I commissioned from Holland and Bohemia to the | imperial court, 1636. I AITZEMA, Leon, nephew of the preceding, historian of the United Provinces, 1600-1669. I AIZO, a chief of the Goths, 9th century. AJAX, one of the Homeric heroes, called the I Locrian, or the Lesser, to distinguish him from his tj more illustrious namesake. AJAX, called the Great, is represented by I Homer as the son of Telamon ; he is said to have I died at Troy in consequence of a dispute concern- 1 ing the armour of Achilles. AKAKIA, Martin, a medical author, 1479- I 1588. His son, of the same name, and other mem- j bers of the family, also distinguished themselves I in the same profession. AKBAH, or AKBEY-BEN-NAFY, a Saracen governor of Africa, who overran the country as far as the Atlantic Ocean, and prepared the conquest of Spain, killed 682. AKBAR MOHAMMED, emperor of the Moguls, one of the greatest princes of modern Asia, died 1605, after a reign of 50 years. AKENSIDE, Mark, was born in 1721, at I Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where his father was a butcher. Designing in his youth to become a presbyterian preacher, he received from a fund of the English dissenters the means of studying in the university of Edinburgh, which afterwards he honourably paid back. He speedily turned to [Birth-place of Afcenside.] medicil studies, which he completed at Leyden, graduating there in 1744. In the same year appeared his well-known poem, ' The Pleasures of the Imagination.' This work not only has the unavoidable faults of all didactic poetry, but hovers in a middle sphere between fancy and philosophy, in a manner which makes it obscure and unsatisfactory, even to readers who are both poetical and metaphysical. But it contains some noble pictures, many trains of finely reflective sentiment, and not a'few nice felicities of diction. His subsequent effusions in verse comprehended only a few very poor odes, some classically-con- ceived inscriptions, and a ' Hymn to the Naiads.' After having unsuccessfully attempted medical practice in the country, he removed to London, being aided by a pension from a wealthy and generous friend. He now busied himself chiefly ALA in professional pursuits, attaining some scientific eminence, but no large share of employment. He was a man of high respectability and integrity, but dogmatic and irascible ; and his brother- physician, Smollett, ridiculed his pedantry in his description of the 'feast in the manner of the ancients.' He died in 1770. [W.S.] AKERBLAD, J. D., a Swed. orient., 1760-1819. AKERMANN, A., a Swed. engrav., 1718-1778. AKIBA-BEN-JOSEPH, one of the greatest of the Jewish rabbis, eel. for his confederacy with Bar-Cokeba, the false Messiah, died of torture in the reign of Hadrian. AKOUI, a famous Tartar general, 18th cent. ALABASTER, Wm, a learned divine, d. 1640. ALADIN, or ALA EDDYN, a prince of Arabia, who assumed the title of K. of the World, d. 1236. ALA EDDYN I., emp. of Hindostan, 1294-1316. ALAIN, R., a Fr. dramatic writer, born 1680. ALAIN, Chartier, a Fr. writer, 14th century. ALAIN DE LILLE, called the Great, also the elder, to distinguish him from the following, was bishop of Auxerre, 12th century. ALAIN DE LILLE, or DE LTSLE, a divine of such renown as to be called the Universal Doc- tor, lived in the 12th or 13th century. ALAMANNI, Louis, a statesman and poet of Florence, 1496-1556. ALAMIN, caliph of Bagdad, 809-813. ALAN, chancellor of Scotland, 1291. ALAN DE LYNN, a famous theolog., loth cent. ALAN, ALLEN, ALLYN, or ALLEYN, Wm., an English cardinal, who, in the interest of the Romish church, prompted the intended invasion of England by Philip II., 1532-1594. ALAN, of Tewkesbury, the friend and historian of Thomas a Beckett, died 1201. ALAND, Sir J. Fortescue, otherwise Lord Fortescue, an able judge and man of letters, born 1670, died between 1733 and 1748. ALANO, H. De, a jurist of Padua, 14th cent. ALANSON, Edw., a eel. surgeon, 1747-1823. ALARD, Fr., a prot. theologian, converted from the Roman church, died 1578. ALARD, Wm., son of the preceding, d. 1644. ALARD, Lambert, son of the last named, celebrated as a Greek and Latin scholar, d. 1672. ALARIC, a Saxon king, middle of the 6th cent. ALARIG I., king of the West Goths, and con- queror of the Roman empire at the commencement of the 5th century, is one of the most remarkable characters in the history of those times. Before the appearance of this distinguished military leader, some three centuries of despotism and corrupt admi- nistration had reduced the one time mistress of the world to a deplorable state of baseness and effemi- nacy ; while the warlike Goths, engaged in a bor- der warfare with the Roman troops, and sometimes ravaging the provinces of the empire in return for the insults heaped upon them, and the suspicion with which they were regarded, were daily growing more formidable. The defeat of the emperor Va- lens had long since discovered to the 'barbarians' their superiority over the masters of the fertile pro- vinces which spread so temptingly before them; yet their chiefs were kept in a willing obedience to Theodosius the Great, and their ambition was a long time satisfied by serving in the Roman armies. At length, a.d. 395, the death of Thco- 17 C ALA dosius, and the division of the empire between his sons Honorius and Arcadius, renewed the disgrace- ful intrigues which had been kept in suspense by his able administration. The public immorality and political baseness of the period were only equalled by the private vices of the degenerate Ro- mans; and the conviction became general that nothing could avert the disorganization by which society was threatened. At this juncture the Go- thic hordes were set in motion by a party inimical to the government of Arcadius in the east, and Alaric, whose wild ambition had been flattered by these overtures, commenced his famous march from the Danube. It is possible that his fortunes had been rising since the death of the Gothic king Athanaric, a.d. 381, but nothing certain is known of his early history save that he belonged to the princely family of the Balti, descended from the Asae or demigods of Scandinavia. The course of Alaric at the head of his victorious troops was through Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia, and Thessaly, into Achaia, and everywhere the officers of Arcadius betrayed their trust, or refused to fight ; while the most glorious monuments of Grecian art fell a sacrifice to these martial iconoclasts, whose name is still synonymous with that of destroyer. The em- peror of the west, taking alarm at his unexampled successes, sent an army to the aid of his brother, under the command of Stilicho, by whom Alaric was kept in check, and prepared tor terms of ac- commodation with a foe for whom he had no other feeling than that of contempt, 398. By the terms of the armistice for it was really only an armed truce which ensued the Gothic chief was acknow- ledged master of the Eastern Illyricum by the em- peror of the east, who also declined the further assistance of Stilicho; and by his own followers proclaimed king of the West Goths, and of all the tribes who acknowledged their kindred or allegiance. Situated between the two empires, and subject to the continued hostility of the Romans, Alaric em- ployed himself in perfecting the equipment and discipline of his troops, and after two years of pre- paration suddenly forced the passage of the Alps. His usual success attending hun in a succession of battles and sieges, he was on the point of captur- ing Honorius, when, at the critical moment, Stilicho arrived with a levy of troops collected from Ger- many and the other barbarian provinces of the em- pire. The result was the final retreat of Alaric to nis own government; but he had now measured his strength against the legions of Rome in the sunny plains of Italy, and had also come to a good understanding with Stilicho, a man of splendid abilities, and of a kindred origin with himself, though he was now the sword and buckler of the western empire. After the retirement of Alaric, Italy was invaded by a host of the Gothic tribes, commanded by Radagaisus, who were defeated by Stilicho, and distributed over the face of the coun- try. Alaric was rewarded for the strict neutrality which he observed on this occasion by a rich pre- sent from the Roman senate ; but he demanded a more fertile province for the settlement of his own people. While this demand was in agitation, Stilicho was basely murdered at the instigation of Honorius, whose tottering throne his arms and diplomacy had so long upheld, and who had grown jealous of his popularity perhaps, also, of his ALA affinity with the powerful king of the Goths, and t of the friendly understanding between the tw leaders. The threatening attitude now assumed by Alaric, as the avenger of his friend, attracted the discontented of all Italy to his standard, and invitations from the court of Hono- rius were not wanting to excite him to the enter- prise. He commenced his second march towards Rome in the year 405, and after a victorious pro- gress entered the eternal city, its first conqueror in six centuries. On this occasion his extreme moderation, and perfect command of his troops, have won for him the applause of the most cautious historians his exactions only amounting to a few thousand pounds' weight of gold and silver, and certain costly robes ot silk and pieces of scarlet cloth. Retiring from the city to negotiate, he S itched his camp in the plains of Tuscany, but wj rawn into Rome a second time by the perfidy i Honorius. He now deposed a sovereign with whom it was manifest no faith could be kept, and made Attalus, a much esteemed Roman prefect, emperor. The friends of Honorius, however, on the departure of Alaric, endeavoured to rally again ; the new emperor was deposed ; and the negotiations which Alaric set on foot at a distance from the seat of empire, proved fruitless. These events, in fine, brought the now angry conqueror of Rome for the third time into the midst of its doomed palaces and temples, and the city was given up to pillage. In all probability the nameless horrors of such a j scene, mfamous as the sack of Rome is represented, were not greater in degree than similar disasters which have occurred within the memory of man, and under the eye of more enlightened commanders. The fall of Rome was followed by the desolating march of Alaric and his troops towards the coast, where he was preparing to embark for Sicily ; but was surprised by a short illness, which terminated in his death, a.d. 410. His faithful followers pre- pared his grave in the bed of the river Busentinus, which they diverted from its channel for the pur- pose; and when the waters once more rolled in their accustomed course, the workmen were put to death, that no tongue might tell where the hero lay buried, with the choicest spoils of Rome to do him honour. [E. R.] ALARIC II., was the ninth king in descent from Alaric the Great, and succeeded his father Euric, who had really added the Gothic monarchy of Spain to that of Gaul, a.d. 484. Alaric had the misfortune to ascend the throne at the critical period when the Franks, under the celebrated Clovis, were extending their dominions at the expense of the neighbouring potentates, and was weak enough to surrender Syagrius, the prince of Soissons, who had been defeated, and had taken refuge at his court, to the Frank king. The affronts to which he submitted seem to have chafed the proud spirits of his high-minded and chivalrous subjects, and the general discontent which it occasioned was aggra- vated by religious differences arising from the con- stantly increasing opposition of his bishops to the tenets of Ariamsm, always held by the Gothic kings. Under these circumstances his kingdom was inv..ded by Clovis, with the avowed design of extirpating the Arian heresy, and a battle being fought at Vouelle, in which the two princes met in personal conflict, Alaric fell worthily by the 16 ALA hand of his rival, a.d. 507. The hody of laws which is known as the code of Alaric, was digested by order of this prince from those of Theodosius, and applied to the exigencies of his own people. After his fall, the arrival of his brother-in-law I Theodoric, king of the East Goths, redeemed the i honour of his kindred in the battle-field, and Clo- i vis was compelled to accept terms of peace. See Theodoric the Great. [E. R.] ALASCO, J., the reformer of Pol., 1499-1560. ALBA-LITTA, Count, a learned It., 1759-1832. ALBAN, St., first Christian martyr of Great Britain, killed at Rome, 303. ALBANEZE, an Italian singer, died 1800. ALBANI, J. J., cardinal, distinguished as a theologian, 1504-1591. ALBANI, Alex., a member of the same family, distinguished as a virtuoso, 1692-1779. ALBANI, J. F., card., nephew of the preceding, disting. as a man of letters ; reduced to poverty by the French, 1720-1803. ALBANI, or ALBANY, Louisa Maria Caro- line, countess of, the unfortunate wife of the last pretender, Charles Stuart, married 1772, d. 1824. ALBANO, Fr., an Italian painter, 1578-1660. ALBANO, G. B., younger brother of the preced- ing, also a painter, died 1668. ALBANY, a ducal name, assumed by many princes of the royal house of Scotland. The first line began with the son of Robert II., and was ex- tinguished in H. Stuart, 1460. The second line commenced with Alexander Stuart, second son of James II., and failed in his son John, who d. 1536. ALBATEGNI, an Arabian astron., 9th cent. ALBEMARLE, duke of. See Monk. ALBEMARLE, A. J., Keppel, count of, a Dutch gen., favourite of William III. 1669-1718. ALBERGATI, C, an Italian actor, died 1802. ALBERIC, a monastic historian, 13th century. ALBERIC I. and his son ALBERIC II. tem- poral lords of Rome in the 10th century, before the ivil power was consolidated with the papacy. ALBERONI, Giulio, card., a celebrated states- man of Spain. The son of a gardener, he rose to be prime minister: born 1666, died in exile 1752. ALBERT of Aix, an hist, of the crusades, 12th c. ALBERT of Stade, a chronicler, 13th century. ALBERT of Strasburg, a chronicler, 14th cent. ALBERT, Erasmus, a Germ, divine, 16th cent. ALBERT, or ALBRECHT I., the son and succes- sor of Rudolph of Hapsburg, both as duke of Aus- tria and emperor of Germany, assassinated 1308. ALBERT, archduke of Austria, and from his alliance with Isabella, daughter of Philip II., joint sovereign of the Netherlands, 1559-1621. ALBERT I., founder of the house of Branden- burg, from which the royal house of Prussia derives its origin, 1106-1170. ALBERT, marquis of Culmbach, surnamed the German Alcibiades, a principal actor in the wars of Charles V., 1522-1558. ALBERT I., duke of Brunswick, died 1279. ALBERT the Fat, son and successor in com- mon with his elder brother Heinrich, to Albert I., died 1318. He is the common ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick, and its junior branch the house of Hanover. ALBERT, Charles, duke of Luynes, constable of France, under Louis XIII., 1578-1621. ALB ALBERT, Louis Ch., duke of Luynes, a brave commander and man of letters, 1620-1690. ALBERT, Louis Joseph, duke of Luynes, commonly called Count Albert, distinguished him- self as a general, 1672-1758. ALBERT L, dk. of Mecklenburg, 1335 to 1379. ALBERT II., son of the preceding and of the daughter of Magnus, king of Sweden, elected king of Sweden 1363, dethroned by Margaret of Den- mark 1389, died 1412. ALBERT, Jane. See Albret, Jeanne D'. ALBERT, Hy. Chr., a Germ, linguist, d. 1800. ALBERT. See Albertus Magnus. ALBERTET, a Provencal poet, 13th century. ALBERTI, Aristotle, a celebrated mechanic and architect of the 15th centurv. ALBERTI, Ben., a patriot of Flor., 14th cent. ALBERTI, Cherubino, a celebrated Italian painter, 1552-1615. His brother Giovanni was also a painter of eminence. ALBERTI, Dominico, a Venetian composer, celebrated for his skill on the harpsichord, last cent. ALBERTI, G. W., a Germ, divine, 1725-1758. ALBERTI, Jas., an Italian jurist, 15th cent. ALBERTI, John, a Germ, orientalist, d. 1559. ALBERTI, Leander, a monastic hist., d. 1552. ALBERTI, Leoni Baptista, a universal artist and man of letters, surnamed the Florentine Vitru- vius, born 1404, died about 1480. ALBERTI, S., a German anatomist, d. 1600. ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, Francis, an Italian lexicographer, 1737-1800. ALBERTINELLI, M., an It. painter, 1475- 1520. ALBERTINI, Fr., an It. antiquary, 16th cent, ALBERTINI, Paul, a Venetian ecclesiastic and man of letters, often employed by the state, 1430-1475. ALBERTRANDY, J. Chr., a Polish antiquarian and historian, 1731-1808. ALBERTUS MAGNUS, or Albertus Gro- tus, was born at Lauingen, in Suabia, according to some in 1193, and according to others in 1205. It is said that in early youth he was singularly obtuse. But he soon displayed prodigious capacity, so that his immense and varied acquirements rapidly raised him to eminence. He studied at Paris, Padua, and Bologna; in 1222 he became a Do- minican friar, in 1224 was installed provincial of the order, and was raised to the bishopric of Ratisbon in 1260. Cologne was the chief scene of his popularity and usefulness, though other cities had been at an earlier period privileged with his learned visits. But he had little relish for church preferment, and resigned his episcopal honours, m 1263, into the hands of Pope Urban IV. Thomas Aquinas was a favourite pupil of his, and the Albertists were a noted sect after their mas- ter's death, in 1280. The fame of Albert rests not on his genius, but on his multifarious erudi- tion. He seems to have embraced the entire circle of knowledge. Not only did he lecture on Aristotle and his Arab commentators, Avicenna, and Averhoes, with mediaeval acuteness and pro- fusion, but his works comprise dissertations on Theology, Alchymy, Physical Science, Natural History, and Astronomy. His voracious mind had stored itself so vastly with the encyclopaedic knowledge of his age, that his books are rendered comparatively useless by an incredible farrago of 19 ALB references, quotations, and digressions. Still, his ardent pursuit of knowledge, and bis patient attempt to present it in a connected and syste- matic form, must ever cause him to be regarded with peculiar veneration. His works, collected and published at Cologne, in 1621, fill 41 folio volumes, three of which are taken up with an explication of the ' Sentences' of Peter Lombard. [J. E.] ALBI, Bernard D', friend of Petrarch, d. 1350. ALBICANTE, J. A., an Ital. poet, 16th century. ALBICUS, or ALBICIUS, a phys. and arbp. of Prague, noted for his lenient treatment of the Hussites, died 1427. ALBINI, Al., an Italian painter, died 1630. ALBINO VANUS, a Kom. poet, age of August. ALBINUS, a Rom. gen. proclaimed emp. same time as Septimus Severus, deftd. by him a.d. 197. ALBINUS, a Roman procurator under Nero. ALBINUS, consul of Rome B.C. 157. ALBINUS, Bernard, a Germ, phys., d. 1711. ALBINUS, Bernard Siegfred, eldest son of the preceding, a great anatomist, 1696-1770. ALBINUS, Chr. B., brother of the preceding, also distinguished as an anatomist, died 1778. ALBO, Jos., a Spanish rabbi, 15th century. ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, 6th century. ALBON, a civilian and man of letters, d. 1789. ALBON, Jacques D', marquis de Fronsac, better known as the marechal de St. Andre, an eminent French general, killed at the battle of Dreux, 1562. ALBONI, Paolo, a landscape painter, d. 1730. ALBRECHT, J. Seb., a naturalist, 1695-1774. ALBRECHT I., prince of Anhalt, died 1316. ALBRECHT II., his son and successor, d. 1362. ALBRECHT L, elector of Saxony, <L 1260. ALBRECHT II., second son of Al. L, d. 1297. ALBRECHT III., sue, as elector 1419, d. 1422. ALBRECHT of Bavaria. See Albert. ALBRECHT of Brunswick. See Albert. ALBRECHT of Mecklenburgh. See Albert. ALBRECHT, a German poet, 13th century. ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Geo., the most learned contrapuntist of modern times, was born at Kloster Neuburg, a small town in Lower Austria, in the year 1736. He acquired his first knowledge of the organ and composition of M. G. Monn. In 1772 he was appointed court organist at Vienna, and subsequently chapel-master at the cathedral of St. Stephen's in the same city. He had for his pupils some of the most eminent musi- cians of the last age, and amongst these the name of Beethoven figures as the chief. Haydn had the greatest friendship and esteem for Albrechtsberger, and it is said that he frequently consulted him professionally. His principal work is his ' Elemen- tary Treatise on Composition,' which was first Sublished at Leipzig in 1790. Albrechtsberger ied in 1803. [J.M.] ALBRET, Chas., lord of, constable of France, commander of the French army at the battle of Agincourt, where he was killed, 1415. ALBRET, Alain, lord of, grandson of the pre- ceding, a general under Louis XII., died 1522. ALBRET, Jean D', son of the preceding, mar- ried to Catherine, queen of Navarre, died 1516. ALBRET, Jeanne D', daughter of Margaret. queen of Navarre, and mother of Henry IV. of France, died 1572. ALC ALBUMAZAR, an Arabian philos., 9th cent ALBUQUERQUE, min. of Alph. XL, d. 1354. ALBUQUERQUE, Adolphus, founder of tin Portuguese dominion in the East Indies, d. 1515. ALBUQUERQUE, C. E., an historian, d. 1688. ALBUQUERQUE, M., a Portuguese general. died 1646. ALBUTIUS, C, a Rom. orator, time of Augustus. ALCAMENES, a Greek sculptor, 5th ct. b.c. ALCAMENES, king of Sparta, 8th cent. B.C. ALCiEUS, a Greek lyric poet, 6th cent. b.c. ALGEUS, a somewhat later poet of Messenia. ALCiEUS, a Greek comedian, 4th cent. b.c. ALCIATI, Andr., an Italian jurist, one of the first to revive the study of literature, died 1550. ALCIATI, Fr., cardinal, nephew of the preced- ing, also a distinguished jurist, died 1580. ALCIATI, Terence, a Jesuit, 17th century. ALCIBIADES, a Christian martyr, 2d cent. [Alcibiadcs From an Ancient Bust.] ALCIBIADES, the son of Cleinius, one of the most remarkable men of antiquity, was born at Athens about B.C. 449. He inherited from his parents the highest rank, with almost boundless wealth, and was endowed with a person unusually handsome, with manners the most fascinating, and with talents which would have raised him to the highest distinction independently of the ad- vantages which fortune had bestowed upon him. Left an orphan at an early age, he was placed un- der the wardship of his relative Pericles ; and be- came the favourite pupil and companion of So- crates. But his great qualities were marred by inordinate vanity and love of notoriety, which led him into wanton and offensive excesses ; evil tenden- cies which the lessons of the philosopher failed to counteract. The stirring events of the Pelopon- nesian war, B.C. 431-404, could not fail to call into active operation the energies of a mind so ambi- tious and so unscrupulous ; and accordingly, from his first appearance in public life, B.C. 421, when he prevented the truce between Sparta and Athens from being carried into effect, he made the interests of his country and his own reputation alike sub- servient to his schemes of ambition. In B.C. 419 he was chosen general, and during the next three 20 ALC years took a prominent part in the complicated struggle of intrigue and war which was carried on in the Peloponnesus. In B.C. 415 he was the leader in advocating the Sicilian expedition, and shared the command with Nicias and Lamachus. Soon after the fleet set sail, an agitation was re- vived against him on the ground that he was im- plicated in the mutilation of the busts of Hermes, and his enemies succeeded in procuring his recall. The proud spirit of Alcibiades could not brook this indignity ; and, therefore, instead of returning to Athens," he proceeded to Sparta, and becoming the avowed enemy of his country, disclosed the plans of the Athenians, and suggested the operations by which their measures in Sicily were defeated. Sen- tence of death was consequently passed upon him, his property was confiscated, and a curse pro- nounced upon him by the ministers of religion. Through his instrumentality an alliance was formed between the Spartans and Tissaphernes, satrap of Lydia, which led to the revolt of many of the Asiatic allies of Athens. But his influence at Sparta was not long maintained; in B.C. 412 he took refuge with Tissaphernes, and by his un- rivalled talents soon gained his favour; and in- duced him to withdraw from his Spartan^ allies. Being again the open enemy of Sparta, Alcibiades now wished to effect a reconciliation with his countrymen; and entering into a correspondence with the leading men in the Athenian fleet at Samos, was pardoned and recalled by the sol- diers, and appointed one of their generals. For the next four years he remained abroad, rendering im- portant services to his country ; and having, by the victories which he gained, re-established himself in public favour, he returned to Athens, B.C. 407, where he was received with great enthusiasm. His property was restored to him, the priests were ordered to revoke then: curse ; and as the crown- ing honoiu* he was appointed commander-in-chief of all the forces by land and sea. But the fickle- ness of the Athenian character again displayed it- self. In consequence of the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium B.C. 406, he was superseded in the command, and went into voluntary exile in the Thracian Chersonesus. After the establishment of the tyranny of the Thirty in B.C. 404, he was condemned to banishment. Upon this he took refuge with Pharnabazus, satrap of Bithynia, in- tending to proceed to the court of Artaxerxes, when one night his house was surrounded by armed men and set on fire. He rushed out sword in hand, but fell overwhelmed with missiles, B.C. 404, in the forty-fifth year of his age. [G.F.] ALCIDAMUS, a Greek rhetorician, 4th c. B.C. ALCIMUS, high priest of the Jews in the time of Judas Maccabaaus. ALCIMUS, a Latin historian, 4th century. ALCINOUS, a Platonic philosopher, 2d cent. ALCIPHRON, a Greek writer, 3d or 4th c. B.C. ALCMiEON, a natural philosopher and anato- mist, 6th century B.C. ALCMAN, a Gr. lyric poet, 7th century B.C. ALCOCK, J., founder of Jesus College, Cam- bridge, d. 1500. ALCOCK, John, a comp. of music, d. 1806. ALCOCK, Nathan, a pnysician, celebrated as a Veturer on anatomy, last century. ALCOCK, Thos., a medical writer, d 1833. ALE ALCUIN, or as he Latinized his name, Flac- cus Albinus Alcuinus, was in all likelihood bom at York about the year 735. Educated in the monastic school at York, under Egbert and Ael- bert, both of whom afterwards held the see of York, he was promoted subsequently to be master of the same school, and taught in it till 780. Arch- bishop Eanbald sent him, in 781, to Rome, to get for him the pallium, and Alcuin, on his return, visited Charlemagne, at Parma. The emperor at once became deeply attached to him, brought him to his court, and heaped upon him honours and emoluments. At the court of Charlemagne, Alcuin was a general preceptor and counsellor. Ultimately he retired to Tours, where he died 19th May, 804. Alcuin was not only a distinguished scholar, polemic, and poet himself, but aided and directed his imperial master in patriotically diffus- ing through the empire the means of literary and theological education. He assisted at the councils of Frankfort and Aix-la-Chapelle, at which the errors of Felix and Elispandus on the person of Christ were condemned. Altogether he was the most distinguished man of his age. [J. E.] ALCYONIUS, Peter, an Italian scbolar, celebrated for his work on the Evils and Consola- tions of Exile, died 1527. ALDEGILEF or ALDEGREVER, a German painter and engraver, 1502-1562. ALDEGUELA, a Spanish architect, last cent. ALDEN, J., a colonist of New Engl., d. 1687. ALDERETE, Bernard, a Sp. Jesuit, d. 1657. ALDERETE, D. G. De, a Sp. classic, d. 1580. ALDHELM, St., an English prelate, d. 709. ALDHUN, bp. of Durham 29 years, d. 1018. ALDINI, Tobias, aphys. and botanist, 17th ct. ALDINI, Giovanni, a natural philosopher, nephew of Galvani, 1762-1834. ALDOBRANDINI, Sylvester, an Ital. jurist, in favour with Paul III., d. 1558. ALDOBRANDINI, Cle., his son, became pope, and is known as Clement VIII. Others or this name are among the cardinals and princes of Rome. ALDRED, archbishop of York, by whom Wil- liam the Conqueror was crowned, d. 1069. ALDRIC, St., bishop of Le Mans, 9th century. ALDRICH, Hy., a theological scholar, famous also as an architect and com. of music, 1647-1710. ALDRICH, Robt., bishop of Carlisle, d. 1555. ALDROVANDUS, Ulysses, a celebrated na- turalist and collector of objects, 1522-1605. ALDRUDE, countess of Bertinoro, celebrated for her heroic defence of Ancona, 1172. ALDUIN, a king of the Lombards, 6th cent. ALDUS. See Manutius. ALEA, Leonard, a religious writer of France, who endeavoured to counteract the atheistical spirit of the Revolution. ALEANDRO, Gioralino, cardinal, commonly called Aleander, a distinguished cultivator of the belles lettres, noted for his fiery zeal against the Reformation, 1480-1542. ALEANDRO, Gioralino, great nephew of the preceding, celebrated as one of the most learned men of the time, d. 1629. ALEMAN, a cardinal of the 13th century. ALEMANNI, Nich., an antiquary, 1583-1626. ALEMBERT. See D'Alembert. ALEN, John Van, a Dutch paint., 1651-1G98. 21 ALE ALENCON. A long line of counts and dukes of this name were celebrated in the middle ages, from the 11th to the loth cent., the greater number cf whom were of the blood royal of France. ALENIO, Julius, a Jesuit missionary, d. 1649. ALER, Paul, a French Jesuit, author of the ' Gradus ad Parnassum,' 1727. ALES, Alex., a theologian, 13th century. ALES, Ai.kw, a Lutheran divine, d. 1566. ALESIO, M. P. D', an Italian painter and en- graver, a pupil of Michael Angelo, d. 1600. ALESSANDRI, Alessanjdro, a lawyer and scholar of Naples, author of some curious essays on dreams and apparitions, &c, 15th century. ALESSI, Galeas, arch, of the Escurial, d. 1572. ALEXANDER, a philosopher of the 1st cent., preceptor to the emperor Nero. ALEXANDER, St., a Christian martyr, 177. ALEXANDER of Paris, a Norman poet, 12th c. ALEXANDER, an English abbot, excommu- nicated and imprisoned by Pandulph, d. 1217. ALEXANDER, Aphrodisiensis, a famous Aristotelian philosopher, 3d century. ALEXANDER, J., a Scotch engraver, celebrated for his copies of Raphael, 18th century. ALEXANDER, Noel, a Dominican, writer of a church history in 26 volumes, 1639-1724. ALEXANDER, Polyhistor, so called from his vast erudition, 15th century B.C. ALEXANDER, Solomon, right rev., a learned Talmudist, converted to Christianity, and made bishop of Jerusalem, 1799-1845. ALEXANDER, Thos., earl of Selkirk, known as a political writer and colonist, died 1820. ALEXANDER, War., an artist, author of a work on the costume of China, 1786-1816. ALEXANDER, Sir W., Earl of Stirling, a statesman and poet of Scotland, d. 1640. ALEXANDER, William, a major-general in the American army; usually called Lord Stirling, from his claim to the earldom, died 1783. ALEXANDER, J., a writer on algebra, 1693. ALEXANDER, Trallianus, a Gr. phys., 6th c. ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO. See Al.KSSANDRI. ALEXANDER DE MEDICI. See Medici. ALEXANDER L, succeeded his father as king of Macedon, B.C. 501, died B.C. 451. ALEXANDER II., the elder brother of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, succeeded as k. of Macedon, B.C. 369. Assassinated B.C. 367. ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great, son of Philip, king of Macedonia, was born at Pella in the autumn of b.c. 356. In the short space to which we are necessarily restricted, it is impossible to do more than enumerate a few of the leading events in the life of this extraordinary man. In bis fourteenth year, B.C. 342, Alexander was placed under the immediate tuition of Aristotle, and continued to receive his instructions till he was unexpectedly called to the throne. Under the superintendence of such a master the power- ful mind of Alexander was rapidly developed, and enriched with stores of practical and use- ful knowledge. His physical education also was carefully attended to ; he was trained to expert - ness in all manly exercises ; and in horsemanship is said to have excelled all his contemporaries. When sixteen years old, B.C. 340, Philip, set- ALE ting out on an expedition against Byzantium,! delegated to him the government during his absence. Alexander's first essay in arms was made two years later, b.c. 338, at the battle of Cluvronea, by which his father established the Macedonian supremacy in Greece. The murder of Philip in B.C. 336, when about to march into) Asia at the head of the combined forces of Greece, raised Alexander to the throne at the age oil twenty; and involved him in difficulties from which the promptest energy could alone have saved him. Several of the Grecian states, still fretting under the effects of the battle of Chaeronea, con- ' certed measures for throwing off the galling yoke, but the vigorous promptitude of the youthful [Alexander From an antique Crm] sovereign frustrated their plans, and awed them into submission. The assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth, with the single exception of the Lacedaemonians, elected him as successor to his father in the command against Persia, thus virtually acknowledging him as their sovereign. Having now quelled opposition in the south, he turned his attention to the barbarians in the north, B.C. 335, and west, who had renounced their allegiance, and established his dominion from the northern limits of Scythia to the shores of the Hadriatic. Alexander now devoted him- self to preparations for his Persian expedition; and, crossing the Hellespont in the spring of B.C. 334, gained his first victory over the Per- sian army on the banks of the Granicus, a small stream which falls into the Sea of Marmora. After reducing the towns on the western coast of Asia Minor, he marched to Gordium in Gala- tia, where he untied with his sword the famous Gordian knot, and thereby established his claim as the conquerer of Asia. Having been joined here by reinforcements from Macedonia, he pro- ceeded through the centre of Asia Minor to Cilicia, where he nearly lost his life by bathing when over-heated in the waters of the Cydnus. His second engagement with the Persians took place on the plain of Issus, on the shores of tho Gulf of Scanderoon, b.c. 333, and ended in the total defeat of Darius, who fled to the eastern bank of the Euphrates, leaving his mother, wife, and children in the hands of the conqueror. The 22 ALE magnanimity of Alexander was honourably dis- played in the delicacy and respect which he snowed to his helpless prisoners. The battle of Issus de- cided the fate of the Persian empire ; but before advancing in pursuit of Darius, Alexander judged it prudent to make himself master of Phoenicia, and especially of the towns on the coast. Tyre, after a siege of seven months, was taken, b.c. 332, and the inhabitants massacred or sold as slaves. Proceeding next into Egypt, he received the ready submission of the inhabitants, and founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile. In the spring of the same year, b.c. 331, he set out in quest of Darius; and proceed- ing through Phoenicia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, at length, in October, met with the immense host, said to have amounted to more than a million of men, on the plains of Guagamela, a village of As- syria, about fifty miles from Arbela. Darius, who was irretrievably defeated, fled to Ecbatana (Hamadan) in Media. Alexander, as the con- queror oi Asia, now assumed the pomp and splen- dour of an Eastern despot ; and proceeding to Ba- bylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was received by the inhabitants as their undoubted sovereign. In the beginning of B.C. 330, he marched into Media in pursuit of Darius, who had there collected a new torce, and, following him through the deserts of Parthia, had nearly reached him, when the unfor- tunate king was murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria. The magnanimous conqueror caused the body of his fallen enemy to be buried in the tombs of the Persian kings at Persepolis, and spent the remainder of the year in consolidating the con- quests which he had already made. But uninter- rupted success produced its usual effects upon the mind even of Alexander. Hitherto sober and moderate, he now became the slave of his passions; gave himself up to arrogance and cruelty ; and in the arms of pleasure shed the blood of his bravest and most faithful generals. The next two years were spent in reducing under his sway the remain- ing countries of Central Asia ; and in the spring of b.c. 327, he crossed the Indus, and entered into the country of the Punjab, where he met with no resistance till he reached the Hydaspes (Jelum.) On the eastern bank of this river he was vigor- ously opposed, but in vain, by Porus the native king. Still pressing forward, he crossed the Ace- sines (Chinab) and the Hydraotes (Ravee,) and was preparing to cross the Hyphasis (Garra) when the Macedonians, at last worn out by fatigue, re- fused to proceed ; and Alexander, after using every effort to induce them, was obliged to lead them back. Returning to the Hydaspes, he there built a fleet and sailed down the river, receiving as he proceeded the submission of the inhabitants on either side. On reaching the confluence, he de- spatched a portion of his army into Carmania, and continued his voyage down the Indus, the mouth of which he reached about the middle of B.C. 326. He here committed his fleet to the care of Near- chus, and commenced his return by land to Persia, reaching Susa in the beginning of B.C. 325. In the spring of B.C. 324 he arrived at Babylon, which he intended to make the capital of his empire. But his boundless ambition was not yet satisfied. He commenced preparations for the invasion of Arabia; but, while cherishing this and other gigan- ALE tic schemes of conquest, was attacked by a fever in May or June b.c. 323, and died after an illness of eleven days. ' The history of Alexander forms an important epoch in the history of mankind. Unlike other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was marked by something more than devastation and ruin ; at every step of his course the Greek lan- guage and civilization took root, and flourished; and after his death Greek kingdoms were formed in all parts of Asia, which continued to exist for centuries. By his conquests the knowledge of mankind was increased ; the sciences of geography, natural histoiy, and others, received vast additions ; and it was through him that a road was opened to India, and that Europeans became acquainted with the products of the remote East.' [G.F.] ALEXANDER IV., a posthumous son of Alexr ander the Great and Roxana, put to death at an early age by Cassander. ALEXANDER V., the son of Cassander, assas- sinated by Demetrius, b.c. 295. ALEXANDER BALAS, k. of Syria, b.c. 149, dethroned b.c. 144. ALEXANDER, Zabinas, king of Syria, b.c. 125, dethroned b.c. 121. ALEXANDER, Jann.eus, king of the Jews, from 106 to 75 B.C. ALEXANDER, son of Aristobulus II. , king of Judaea, beheaded at Antioch, b.c. 49. ALEXANDER Severus, emperor of Rome, was born 205; succeeded 221 ; assassinated 235. ALEXANDER, emperor of the East, born 870 ; succeeded 911 ; died 912. ALEXANDER I., bishop of Rome, 108-117. The second of this name pope, 1061-1073; the third, 1159-1181; the fourth, 1254-1261; the fifth, 1409-1410; the sixth, 1492-1503; the seventh, 1655-1667 ; the eighth, 1689-1691. ALEXANDER, king of Scotland. The first, son of Malcolm, 1107-1124; the second, 1214-1249. ALEXANDER III., son of the preceding, born 1241; crowned, 1249; defeated the king of Nor- way, 1263; died, 1286. ALEXANDER, Jageelon, grand duke of Lithuania, and afterwards king of Poland, born 1461 ; king, 1501 ; died, 1506. t ALEXANDER NEVSKY, grand duke of Rus- sia in the 13th century ; celebrated in the annals of the country as a saint and hero; 1218-1263. ALEXANDER PAULOWITCH, emperor of Russia and king of Poland, born 1777 ; succeeded his father, Paul I., 1801. Joined the league of Austria and England against France, 1805. In alliance with Napoleon, under the articles of a se- cret treaty, 1808-1810. Joined a new coalition against Napoleon, 1812. Banished the Jesuits from the Russian empire, 1820. Died Dec, 1825. ALEXANDRINI, Julius, a physician, 16th ct. ALEXIAS, a Gr. physician, 4th century, b.c. ALEXIS, a Greek comedian, 3d century B.C. ALEXIS (Comnenus) I., emperor of the East at the period of the first crusade. His reign is signalized by the extension and consolidation of his dominions, through his victories over the Turks, Scythians, and Normans. 1048-1118. ALEXIS (Comnenus) II., succeeded as emp. 1180 ; dethroned and murdered, 1183. ALEXIS (Angelus) III., usurped the empire 1195; dethroned, 1203; died, 1210. ALE ALEXIS (Lk Jeune) IV., reined with his father after the deposition of the preceding, until he was himself deposed and put to death, 1204. ALEXIS (DuCAS) V., reigned a few months after the murder of the prece di ng, when he was dethroned by the crusaders, and put to death by order of Baudoin. ALEXIS the Fat.se, an impostor who endea- voured to pass for Alexis II. in 1191. ALEXIS, Drago Comnenus, a descendant of the Commenes, served in the French army, became governor of Perche, and died 1619. ALEXIS del Arco, a Sp. painter, 1625-1700. ALEXIS, Mich.elovitsch, czar of Russia; born, 1629 ; succeeded, 1645 ; died, 1677. ALEXIS, Petrovitsch, son of Peter the Great, disinherited by his father, and died in 1719. ALEXIS, William, a Norman monk and poet, supposed to have been martyred, 15th century. ALEXIUS, Comnenus. See Alexis. ALEYN, Charles, an English poet, d. 1640. ALF, Abdal, a Persian poet, 15th century. ALFARABIUS, an Arabian philos., 10th cent. ALFARAZDAC, an Arabian poet, 8th century. ALFARO, Juan De, a Spanish painter, 17th c. ALFENUS, Varus, a Roman jurist, 1st c. B.C. ALFIERI, a Roman architect, died 1767. ALFIERI, Count Vittorio, descended of a family both noble and rich, was bom in 1749, at Asti, in Piedmont. Left an orphan in childhood, he early displayed his self-willed obstinacy of cha- racter ; and his education left him nearly as igno- rant as it found him. At the age of sixteen he became the uncontrolled master of his fortune and his conduct ; and for several years his career was one of restless wandering and dissipation. A love of horsemanship and horses was one of his two strongest passions: the other involved him in a series of profligate amours, of which the most scandalous had its scene in London. A love-affair, not at all more creditable, in which he engaged on returning to Turin in 1772, had the effect of awak- ening for the first time his poetical susceptibility and his ambition of literary fame. His qualifica- tions for success were as unpromising as possible. He appears to have added, during his travels, little or nothing to the very small stock of knowledge with which he left school ; and he never showed any aptitude for observation either of men or of other objects external to him. In point of lan- guage, he was even whimsically deficient. He had learned no Latin : the Italian dialect of his native province is hopelessly corrupt : and, while he was totally unpractised in writing, he spoke but indif- ferently even French, the language of the Piedmon- tese nobility and court. The young poet, inspired by the thirst for glory yet more than by his newly- awakened love of letters, set himself determinedly to vanquish all difficulties, by now educating him- self, lie learned Latin enough to put some of the classical writers at his command ; and he studied assiduously both the Tuscan or literary dialect of Italy, and the principles of the drama, the kind of composition by which his fancy had been attracted. After bringing a play on the stage at Turin, in 1775, he took up his residence at Florence, for the study of the Italian tongue in a region where it is purelv spoken. In 1783, he published his first series of tragedies, the Filippo, Polinice, Antigone, ALF and Virginia. A second series of six tragedies, ap- pearing afterwards, contained, among others, the Timoleone and the Rosmunda, In the third and last series, which embraced nine, were the two Brutuses, the Maria Stuarda, the Conspiracy of the Pazzi, and the Saul, which contests with his Filippo the honour of being his best work. In the meantime, however, his studies suffered many in- terruptions; and he travelled much, chiefly that he might be near a lady to whom he had become attached in Florence. This was the Countess Stolberg, who derived the title of Countess of Al- bany from being the wife (ill-used and neglected) of the Chevalier Charles Edward Stuart. After the death of this unfortunate prince, in 1788, his widow and Alfieri lived together, and were under- stood to have been privately married. They were in Paris during the massacre of 1792, and, escap- ing with difficulty, resided thenceforth at Flo- rence. Alfieri's literary employments were now prosecuted with increasing ardour; in his forty- eighth vear he began to learn Greek, for the pur- pose of studying the Attic drama ; and he wrote a large number of pieces, embracing satires in verse, a strange kind of political comedies, and his Me- moirs of his own Life. He died in 1803, and was buried in the famous Florentine church of Santa Croce. His character was exceedingly peculiar, and notwithstanding some fine and elevated points, can- not but be pronounced unamiable. Its most promi- nent features were an indomitable energy of will, which was shown by the whole of his literary career, a ceaseless craving for celebrity, and a boundless self-esteem, which exhibited itself in a reserved haughtiness of manner, and made him really a bigoted aristocrat at heart, while professing and supposing himself a violent democrat. Not less singular are his Tragedies, the works on which his literary fame depends. In their structure, they carry to the furthest possible extreme the unity and simplicity of the French drama of the seven- teenth century. Their representation of character is monotonous and deficient in individuality, but sometimes very powerful, as in the portrait of Philip II. ; and, in respect of sentiment, their strength lies in the gloomy and deeply tragic. The diction has, perhaps, more of vigour than any other works in the same language, though this ex- cellence is gained at the cost of adopting a con- ciseness which is always rugged, and sometimes obscure; and the versification is as unmelodious as any combination of Italian words could be made. Altogether these are remarkable works, which can- not soon be forgotten, but whose literary merit will always be differently estimated by different critics. ' [W. S.] ALFONSO I., sumamed the 'Catholic,' b. 693, elected king of Oviedo and Asturias, 739, d. 757. ALFONSO II., called the ' Chaste,' succeeded as king of Asturias, 791, abdicated 835, died 842. ALFONSO III., sumamed the 'Great,' b. 848, k. of Asturias 866, added the kingdom of Leon to his dominions, and was dethroned by his son, 910. ALFONSO IV., sumamed the "'Monk,' king of Leon and Asturias 924, abdicated 930, died in a monastery, 933. ALFONSO V, b. 994, king of Leon 999, pre- pared the wr.y by his conquests and policy for the union of Cvstiie ;" killed at the siege of Viseu, 1028. 21 ALF j ALFONSO VI. of Leon and I. of Castile, suc- peeded his father 1005, and added the latter king- dom to his dominions 1072, died 1109. ALFONSO VII., the title assumed by Alfon- so I. of Arragon, from his marriage with the daughter of the preceding, and vainly contended for fduring a period of seven years. f ALFONSO VIII. (or the VII., omitting the East named,) of Leon and II. of Castile, h. 1106, succeeded 1126, made himself chief lord of all Christian Spain, and assumed the title of emperor Ill35, died 1157. r ALFONSO IX., called the 'Noble,' b. 1155, succeeded as king of Leon 1158, died 1280. ALFONSO X., called the ' Learned,' b. 1221, king of Leon and Castile 1252, dethroned by his son 1282, died 1284. ALFONSO XL, succeeded as king of Leon and Castile in the year of his birth 1312, defeated the Moors 1340, died while besieging Gibraltar, 1350. ALFONSO I., surnamed the ' Battler,' king of Arragon and Navarre 1104, contended for the sovereignty of Castile as Alfonso VII. until the death of his wife, and the succession of her son to that kingdom ; died 1134, after gaining thirty-five successive victories over the Moors, led by the Almoravides. Alph II. reigned in Arragon 1163- 1196. Alph III. 1285-1291. Alph IV. 1327-1336. ALFONSO V. of Arragon and I. of Naples, b. 1385, succeeded his father as king of Arragon, Naples, and Sicily, 1416 ; died 1458. Alph II., of Naples, reigned 1494-1495. ALPHONSO, or AFFONSO I., inherited the county of Portugal from his father, and was pro- claimed king after a bloody victory over the Moors 1139, died 1185. Alph II., reigned king of Por- tugal 1211-1223. Alph III., 1248-1279. Alph IV., 1325-1356. Alph V., 1438-1481. Alph VI., was deposed after a short reign of singular brutality, 1657, died 1683. ALFONSO, D'Este, the first of this name, duke of Ferrara, 1505-1534; the second, 1559-1597; the third, 1628-1629 ; the fourth, 1658-1662. ALFORD, Mich., a Latin hist., 1587-1652. ALFRAGAN, an Arabian astronomer, 9th cent. ALFRAGO, And., an Arabian scholar of Italy, author of a history of Arabian physicians and philo- sophers, &c, died 1520. ALFRED, an English bishop and historical writer of the 10th century. ALFRED, the ' Philosopher,' a writer greatly esteemed at Rome in the 13th century. ALFRED, a king of Northumberland, 7th cent. ALFRED, the bastard, brother and successor of the preceding, noted for his love of letters. ALFRED, a Saxon prince, brother of Edward the Confessor, who met with a cruel death in an attempt to gain the crown, early in the 11th cent. ALFRED, AELFRED, or ALURED, a cele- brated Saxon monarch, is commonly called The Great, and has better merited that title, by emi- nent sendees to the world, than perhaps any other of the celebrated monarchs who have borne it. He is one of the men whose life forms an era, and thus, like Lycurgus and Charlemagne, his name is associated not only with the legislative improve- ments actually accomplished by him, but with many others which had an earlier origin, and came to maturity near the time of his reign. From the ALF propensity to attribute to him every early and beneficent feature in the English constitution, it is sometimes difficult to discover his actual achieve- ments ; while annalists and historians, anxious to provide an ample account of one so famous, have endeavoured to give particulars of so many events in his life which could not be ascertained, that it is difficult to separate the truth from the falsehood, and tell what is really known of him. It seems well ascertained that he was born in the middle of the 9th century ; the year is stated as 849. He was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons. Giving promise of great capacity, his father gave him in his early youth opportuni- ties of instruction by travelling twice to Rome, and living for some time in France ; and there is no doubt that the knowledge thus acquired by him of a higher civilization, prepared him for the exercise of that beneficent influence over his people which enabled him to accomplish so many social improvements among them. While his elder brother, Ethelred, was king, they were both called on by the king of Mercia to assist him and his people against the Danish hordes overrunning the [Alfred's Jewel.] country, and oppressing the Saxon people. They conducted a long contest with varied success ; but though conduct and leadership seem to have been on the side of the Saxon princes, the Danes had numbers and ferocity. At a battle near Reading, Ethelred received a mortal wound, in the year 871, and when he died Alfred succeeded him. He derived but gloomy prospects from the state of the country, deeming the triumph of the Danes in- evitable, but with an energy and courage, which in spite of painful disorders never left him, he resolved to defend, step by step, the territories committed to his charge. A confused history follows, in the course of which it is said that nine great battles were fought in one year. The Danes, receiving ever fresh recruits from the continent, pressed him by degrees, until he ceased to command an army, or even a guard, and, wandering alone, found safety in a peasant's hut at Athelney, in Somer- setshire. The old chroniclers tell a story so cha- racteristic, that it has secured general belief, about 25 ALG his being set by the peasant's wife to watch the baking of some cakes, and when his mind far away devising projects for relieving his country from the invaders he allowed the cakes to bum, the honest woman scolding him sarcasticallv as one ready enough to attend to the function of eat- ing them, though he could not be at pains enough to watch them. After lie had been a few months in this retreat, he found means to gather some of his most trusty followers, and to make at last a small army, which harassed the conquerors, and gradually increased. There is a well-known legend of his preparing at last for a pitched battle with the leader of the Northmen, Guthrun or Gorm, and ascertaining beforehand the state and number of the forces, by penetrating the camp in the dis- guise of a harper. The battle which followed crowned a series of successes, and in the year 897 restored him to his throne. It was his policy not to attempt the extirpation of the marauders, but to christianize and civilize them, mixing them up with the other inhabitant* of the country. The Danish chiefs, from fellow-kings, sunk to tribut- aries, and, in the year 804, Alfred might be said to be king of England. He had not been long at rest, however, ere the Danes, reinforced from the continent, and headed by a powerful leader, Hast- ings, drove him into a new and arduous conflict, which terminated in his favour in the year 897. In the meantime he built vessels, and trained men so effectively in maritime warfare, that he has been deemed the founder of the British navy. He con- finned and consolidated the Saxon institutions, which divided the country into grades of munici- palities, making the several communities of citizens checks on each other's conduct, by being responsible for the offences committed within their respective communities. Thence he has been called the inven- tor of the arrangement of the country into shires, hundreds, and tithings, though he probably only regulated and confirmed what had been previ- ously in existence. He has been called the author of trial by jury, but in our present understanding of the system* it was not in practice until long after his day. He was a great scholar and author, and translated Boethius on the Consolations of Philosophy, with other works, into Saxon. He died either in 899 or 900. The memoir of him, which bears the name of his contemporary Asser, Was long deemed a genuine life, but its authenticity has of late been doubted. [J.H.B.J ALGARDI, Alex., an Italian sculp., 17th ct. ALGAROTTI, FbAHCIS, a Venetian, equally skilled in the sciences, letters, and arts, 1712-1764. ALHAZAN, an Arabian astronomer, died 1038. ALI, Ben-Abbas, commonly called Abbas Haly, a celebrated physician b. in Persia, d. 982. ALI, a near relation and confidential vizier of Mahomet, equally eloquent as an apostle, and valiant as a warrior of the new faith. Succeeded to the caliphate 655, murdered by a faction 661. ALI, an Almoravide sultan of Africa and Spain, succeeded 1107, died 1143. ALI, sultan of Africa, 1331-1351. ALI, king of Granada, 1466-1483. ALI, of Oude, the adopted son and successor of the late Nabob, Asuf-ui>-Dowlah, was born of a poor servant 1781. Having broken faith with the English he was deposed, and subsequently im ALI prisoned for the murder of the English resident Died in his confinement 1817. ALI, Beg, a native of Poland, first dragoman ot Mahomet IV., celeb, for his skill in lang., d. 1675. ALI, Bey or Beg, chief of the Mamelukes, dis- tinguished for his surprising valour and genius, born 1728, killed 1773. ALI, Ibn Buwayh, founder of a Persian dynasty in the 10th century. "ALI, Ibn Hammud, founder of a dynasty in Cordova and all Moham. Spain, 10th century. ALI, Pacha, of Jannina, was born about the year 1750, at the little fortified village of Tepelene, m Albania, in European Turkey. Ali's family belonged to one of the Albanian tribes that had long embraced Mahometanism ; and his ancestors for some generations had been chieftains of Tepelene. Ali's fr.ther had been stripped of the greater part of his possessions by a confederacy of the neighbouring chiefs; and when the old man "died of a broken heart, AH was but a boy of fourteen years. But Ali's mother, Khamko, survived, and was a woman of remarkable energy. She- successfully defended Tepelene, the last remnant of her son's heritage, against his father's foes : and to her example and influence, much both of the vigour and of the ferocity which characterized Ali in after years, may be attributed. As the lad grew up, the mother trained him to make glory and revenge the sole objects of his existence. He collected a small band of armed followers, and made repeated forays into the lands of his hostile neighbours. Sometimes he sought adventures and booty alone, common freebooter, or Klephtis, according to the this adventurous manner ; and many of the vicissi- modern Greek title. Ali'searly youth was passed in tudes that he encountered are far more romantic than any novelist ever invented. By the time that he was twenty-four, he had recovered the greater part of the hereditary territories of his family ; his wealth and his retainers were increasing rapidly, and his fame as a military chief was spread throughout Albania, and the neighbouring provinces. He now began to intrigue for promotion and influence at the sultan's court ; and lavished his treasures for that purpose in ' bribes among the leading members of the divan at Constantinople. Partly by these arts, and partly on the strength of the more creditable claims which he acquired by doing good service at the head of a body of Albanians in the war of 1787, against Austria and Russia, Ali obtained official rank and favour from the sultan. He was made pacha of Tricala, in Thessaly, and soon held other appointments ; but his great object was to obtain the pachalic of Jannina, m southern Albania, and by audacious craft and briber}', he succeeded in this in 1788. Jannina thenceforth was the capital of his dominions. Ali proved almost invariably an overmatch for the other pachas who entered into rivalry with him. He sometimes put them down by open force, but he more frequently ridded himself of such adversaries by secret assas- sination, or by sowing calumnies against them at the sultan's divan. The suppression of the little local chiefs, and the subjugation of the indepen- dent towns and tribes in Albania, was a task of more difficulty. In particular, the tribe of the Suliotes resisted him with the noblest courage; and called into activity against them that fiendish U ALI rindietiveness which was a leading feature in his character. Many years passed away before it was gratified ; and Ah sustained from the Suliotes more than one humiliating defeat. By degrees this heroic race was overpowered, and in 1802, the garrison of their last stronghold was massacred, after a war in which Ali sullied himself by the meanest perfidy, as well as by the most blood- thirsty barbarity. Ali extirpated the robber-chiefs who (as he himself had done in his youth) infested the mountain passes of Albania. He crushed the local independence of the chiefs, and made his authority practically as well as nominally supreme over their hereditary jurisdiction. His dominions were made as orderly, and as secure for the merchant and the traveller, as those of any European poten- tate. He enriched Jannina and his other cities with stately buildings, and secured them with fortifications. He encouraged and protected fo- reign merchants. He sternly enforced a complete equality of the members of all religious creeds. Swift to discover, and merciless to punish all crimes, save his own, he gave Albania a degree of tranquillity and prosperity, such as the country had never enjoyed since the days of its ancient Epirote princes. Ali Pacha watched with eager interest the wars that raged throughEuropean Chris- tendom, after the breaking out of the French revolu- tion. His great object was to make himself master of an ample and compact dominion, which was to in- clude Albania, the Ionian isles, Macedonia, Thessaly, and the whole of Greece. He obtained posses- sion of the city of Prevesa, and other towns on the mainland, but he could not gain the Ionian islands, though he entered into a long series of intrigues, alliances, and hostilities with the French and their enemies, in succession. But though unable to realize the magnificent scheme which he had formed, Ali was for many years a prince of high power and renown, whose favour was courted by the statesmen of European as well as of Asiatic courts. Had the late sultan Mahmud been as im- becile as were his immediate predecessors, Ali Pacha would, in all human probability, have closed his career in prosperity and peace. But sultan Mahmud was resolute to reform the anarchy of his kingdom ; and his proud spirit chafed at the idea of permitting his authority to be bearded by a vassal like Ali, whose insubordination was so imperious, and so notorious throughout the world. A pretext was soon found for assailing him, and the sultan proclaimed Ali a rebel, and all faithful Ma- hometans were ordered to destroy him. The war between the pachas who marched at the sultan's bid- ding, and the old pacha of Jannina, commenced in 1820. At first Ali had the advantage ; but sultan Mahmud inspired his lieutenants with some of his own spirit. Many of Ali's strongholds were wrested from him the greater part of his troops deserted him his sons made terms with the ene- my, or were slain; and before the end of 1820, Ali was closely besieged in Jannina. It was in vain that he bribed the sultan's ministers : Mahmud declared that any person who spoke in behalf of Ali should be put to death. Other sums of money were sent from Jannina to Greece, with the view of rr.ising an insurrection, and drawing away the besieging army to suppress it. The Greek war of independence was thus fomented, and some of the ALL Greek chiefs endeavoured to assist Ali in Albania, but the Turkish troops steadily pressed the siege of Jannina. At last Ali treated for a surrender : and, by a piece of retributive justice, he who had destroyed so many by first granting, and then violating treaties of capitulation, now became the victim of a similar fraud. Khurshid Pacha, who commanded the besiegers, by giving a solemn pledge that the sultan's pardon for Ali had been granted, induced Ali to surrender, and then had him put to death, though not till after the old man liad defended himself desperately, and shot three of the soldiers who were sent to slay him. The gray head was cut off, and sent to Constan- tinople, where sultan Mahmud received it with his own hands, and exhibited it in grim triumph to the members of his divan. Ali Pacha was killed on 22d February, 1822. [E.S.C.] l **tffe$p* [Tomb of AH Pacha ] ALIAMET, J., a French engraver, died 1788. ALIBAUD, Louis, a republican, b. 1810, at- tempted the life of Louis Philippe, and executed at Paris 1836. ALIMPIUS, a Russian painter, 12th century. ALISON, R., an Eng. composer, 16th century. ALISON, Rev. Archibald, a minister of the Scottish Episcopal Church, celebrated for his philo- sophical essay on Taste, 1757-1828. ALIX, of Champagne, queen of Louis VII. of France, married 1160, died 1206. ALIX, Peter, a French divine, 17th century. ALKMAAR, H., a German poet, 15th century. ALKMADE, C, an antiquary, 1654-1737. ALLAINVAL, L. C. D'., a dramatist, d. 1753. ALLAN, D., a Scotch painter, 1744-1796. ALLAN, Geo., son of the preceding, d. 1828. ALLAN, Geo., an English antiquary, d. 1800. ALLAN, Sir William, a disting. hist, painter, b. in Edinburgh, 1782 ; sue. Sir David Wilkie as President of the Royal Scot. Acad. 1841 ; d. 1850. ALLARD, Guv, author of works connected with the history of Dauphiny, died 1716. ALLARD, J. F., a French bibliopole, a great collector of literary curiosities, 1795-1831. ALLARD, Jean Francoise, a French officer, adviser of Runjeet-Singh, king of Lahore, b. 1785, quitted France 1815, died 1839. ALLARD, M. A. L., a deputy to the French assembly, born 1750, executed 1794. 27 ALL ALLARTE, MARIE Gay, a French novelist and translator, 1750-1821. ALLARUS, Leo, a Greek physician, d. 1669. ALLEGRAIN, Et., a French painter, d. 1738. ALLEGRAIN, C. G., a French sculpt., d. 1795. ALLEGRI. See Correggio. ALLEGRI, Alex., an Italian poet, 16th cent. ALLEGRI, Greg., an Italian composer, author of the ' Miserere,' 1590-1640. ALLEGRINI, Fr., an Italian painter, d. 1785. ALLEIN, Joseph, author of the ' Alarm to Unconverted Sinners,' 1623-1688. ALLAN, Ethan, a distinguished general of the American revolution, d. 1789. ALLEN, Ira, brother of the preceding, and secretary of Vermont, d. 1814. ALLEN, John, chancellor of Ireland, murdered by the Earl of Kildare, 1534. ALLEN, John, M.D., a distinguished historian and political writer, 1771-1843. ALLEN, Paul, an American poet, d. 1826. ALLEN, Th., a mathematician, 1542-1632. ALLEN, T., antiquarian, 1803-1833. ALLEN, W. H., an American naval officer, b. 1784; killed in action, 1813. ALLESTREE, R., a celebrated divine, 17th c. ALET, J. C, a French engraver, 17th century. ALLEY, W., an English reformer, died 1570. ALLEY, Rev. Jerome, LL.D., a theological and political writer, 1778-1826. ALLEYN, Edward, a celebrated actor of the 16th century, the companion of Shakspeare, and a benefactor to learning and his country, as the founder of Dulwich College, was born in London, 1st September, 1566. It is probable that he was introduced to the stage through his mother's second marriage with a haberdasher and player, named Brown, and it is certain that he had a joint share with him and one Richard Jones in certain 'playing apparels, play books, instruments, &c.' In 1592 Alleyn married Joan Woodward, step- daughter of the theatrical manager, Philip Hen- slowe, and in conjunction with his new relative undertook the management of the Rose Theatre, Bankside, for a short season. After their separa- tion Alleyn appears to have visited the provinces by himself, but in 1600 they united again to build [The Foituno Theatro.J a new theatre, called ' The Fortune,' situated in Cripplegate; and were also joint patentees in ' the mastership of his majesty's games of bears, ALL bulls, and dogs,' exhibited at Paris Garden, which they rebuilt in 1606. In the same year Alleyn purchased the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis Calton, and ten years afterwards, the death of Henslowc left him sole proprietor of their various speculations, to which he had already added a snare in the Blackfriars Theatre, supposed to have been Shakspeare's interest in it, purchased in 1612. A career like this betokens a prosperous and clever man, and accordingly he was known by his contemporaries as ' famous Ned Alleyn.' In Ben Jonson's estimate, he was equal to the great actors of Rome, and seems most to have excelled in ma- jestic parts. Greene's ' Orlando Furioso,' and Marlowe's ' Jew of Malta,' are mentioned as char- acters of his. The burning down of the Globe and Fortune Theatres turned the current of his fortunes; but before this reverse he had delighted in acts of benevolence, and sequestered all his lands to the college, designed for the support of one master, one warden, and four fellows, three of whom were to be ecclesiastics, and one a skilful organist, and also of six poor men, six women, and twelve boys to be educated in good literature. After some legal difficulties the patent passed the Great Seal on the 21st June, 1619, and on the 13th September fol- lowing, Alleyn having formally and publicly dis- possessed himself of all property in the foundation, entered it with his wife as inmates of the estab- lishment and equals of those for whose comfort and elevation it was intended. He still, however, continued master of the king's games; and his diary represents him as occasionally baiting before the king at Greenwich. It was during his resi- dence in the college, indeed, that the Fortune Theatre was burned down, which he forthwith re- built. Hiving lost his wife in 1624, Alleyn mar- ried again, and expired himself on the 25th November, 1626; by his will endowing twenty almshouses, ten in the parish of St. Botolph, and ten in St. Saviour's, Southwark, besides leaving considerable legacies to his widow and relatives. The motive to these various acts of munificence has been superstitiousiy ascribed to the circum- stances of Alleyn having been surprised by the apparition of the devil in one of his performances ; but no intelligent reader will pay the slightest re- gard to so absurd a story. There may have been some vanity the player's peculiar fault in the transaction; since Alleyn manifested a partiality for people bearing his own appellation, and directed that the master of the college should always be of the name of Allen or Alleyn. This situation is now of great value ; the revenues of the foundation be- ing large. The college is also rich in works of art, Alleyn himself having left a considerable number of pictures, and Sir Francis Bourgeois in 1810 having bequeathed to it his valuable collection. Papers in the handwriting of Alleyn and Henslowe are also among its treasures. Alleyn's diary, which has been published by the Shakspeare Society, is particularly instructive touching the con- dition of the dramatists of the time. For the most part, they were exceedingly poor, and the remu- neration paid for their works was very small. Those who, like Shakspeare and Alleyn, had the theatres in their possession, profited largely by the prevailing taste ; but the workers in the mines of the drama laboured hr.rd in obscurity for the pre- 28 ALL carious means of subsistence ; and some of the de- tails of their difficulties may be gathered from this most interesting document. From these difficul- "es Shakspeare was exempt ; a fact which sheds light on his character and condition to which sufficient attention has not been paid. The great ness of the poet was in fact doubtless due to hi favourable position as an actor and manager ; how this was attained is a point on which some ex- planation is yet desirable. [J.A.H.] ALLIEN, L. De H., a French antiq., d. 1827. ALLIONI, Ch., an Ital. botanist, 1725-1804. ALLISON. See Alison. ALLIX. See Alix. ALLOISI, Balth., an Italian nainter, d. 1638. ALLOW, Alex., an Italian painter, d. 1607. ALLORI, Christophano, son of the preced- ing, also an eminent artist, d. 1619. ALLSTON, Washington, a distinguished his- torical painter of America, d. 1843. ALLUT, Jean, the pseudonyme of Elie Ma- rion, a wr. of the 18th c. who claimed inspiration. ALLY. See An of Oude. ALMAGEO, Diego De, one of the Spanish conquerors of America, confederate with Pizarro. Made governor of Chili by Charles V. Defeated and put to death in a quarrel with the Pizarros, 1538. His son of the same name was executed by order of Herrada, after a bloody engagement, 1542. AL-MAHDI, caliph of the Saracens, 776-785. AL-MAMUN, or ABDALLAH, son of Haroun- al-Raschid, and his sue. in the caliph., 814-833. AL-MAMUN, sultan of Toledo, 1040-1077. AL-MAMUN, sultan of Africa, 1185-1232. ALMANASOR, a caliph of the Saracens, who became a baker, died 1205. ALMANSUR, or ALMANZOR, the Victorious, caliph from 754 to 775. ALMARUS, abbot of St. Austin convt., 11th c. ALMEIDA, Em., a Portuguese missry., 16th ct. ALMEIDA, Fr. De, Portuguese viceroy of India 1505, killed at the Cape, 1509. ALMEIDA, Lorenzo De, son of Francis, a ccl. naval commander, k. in action with the Turks. ALMELA, Diego De, a Sd. writer, 15th cent. ALMELOVEEN, Theodore Jansen Van, a Dutch physician and scholar, 1647-1742. ALMERAS, Louis, a Fr. general, 1768-1828. ALMINARA, Marquis, a Spanish diplomatist. ALMOADES. See Abdel-Mumen. ALMON, John, a political writer, 1738-1805. ALMORAVIDES. See Abdallah-Ben-Yus. ALOADDIN, a sheik of Syria, commonly called the Old Man of the Mountains. In the history of the crusades his followers are called Assassins, corrupted from Arsacides, of whom he was prince. ALOMPRA, a man of obscure birth, who founded the Burmese empire, 18th century. ALONZO DE VIADO, a Sp. reformer, b. 1775. ALP-ARSLAN, a Turkish suit., 1064-1072. ALPHERY, Mikepher, a Russian prince, who became an English rector, and refused the offer of the throne of Russia, 17th century. ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. ALPHONSUS, a Sp. historian, 14th centurv. ALPHONSUS, Tostatus, one of the most eminent theologians of Spain, 15th century. ALPINI, Pkospero, a physiological "botanist and physician, 1553-1617. 29 ALV ALQUIER, a m. of the Fr. assem., 1742-1820. ALSOUFI, an Arabian astronomer, 10th cent. ALSTEDIUS, J. H., a Ger. divine, 1588-1688. ALSTON, Ch., a Scotch botanist, 1683-1760. ALSTROEMER, Joseph, a Swedish economist of great practical ability, 1685-1761. ALTDORFER, or ALTORF, Albert, a pain- ter and architect of Bavaria, 1488-1578. ALTEN, General Charles, a German officer, disting. under Wellington, and created count Alton after the battle of Waterloo, 1764-1840. ALTER, Fr. Ch., a German critic, d. 1804. ALTFRIDE, bishop of Munster, 9th century. ALTHAMERAS, a Swiss reformer, died 1450. ALTILIO, Gabriel, a poet of Naples, d. 1501. ALTING, H., an em. Germ, divine, 1583-1641. ALTING, James, son of the preceding, pro- fessor of Hebrew at Groningen, 1618-1679. ALTING, Menso, a Calvinist minister, d. 1612. ALTING, Menso, a topographical wr., d. 1713. ALTISSIMO, an Italian improvisatore. ALTISSIMO, a Florentine painter, 16th cent. ALTMAN, J. G., a Swiss historian, professor of philosophy and Greek at Berne, 1697-1758. ALTOMARI, a naturalist of the 16th century. ALTON, Count, an Austrian general, died 1787. ALTON, Count, brother of the preceding, killed near Dunkirk, 1793. ALTORF. See Altdorfer. ALURED, an English annalist of the Britons, Saxons, and Normans, 12th century ALVA Y ASTORGA, Peter De, a Spanish monk and mystical writer, 17th century. ALVA, Ferdinand, duke of Alva, (or Alba, as it is sometimes called,) stands unenviably pro- minent in the history of the 16th century as the sternest instrument of the sternest crowned bigot of that age. Alva was born 'in 1508, of one of the most noble families in Castile ; he entered the army in early youth, and served with dis- tinction in the greater part of the wars of the emperor Charles V., both in Europe and Africa. He was looked on as the first in ability and in honour among the emperor's generals; and when Philip II. succeeded to the throne of Spain on Charles's abdication, Alva continued to be the great military duke of the council and the armies of Spain. He acted as Philip's plenipoten- tiary in concluding the treaty of Chateau Cam- bres in 1558, which was not a mere pacification between France and Spain, but a league of the Roman Catholic powers for the extermination of Protestantism. Alva was henceforth the frequent and confidential adviser of the most violent Ro- manists in France ; and there is little doubt but that it was in pursuance of his exhortations at the interview between him and Catherine of Medici in 1565, that the hideous massacre of St. Bartho- lomew was planned and perpetrated. The Nether- lands, (including both modem Holland and modem Belgium,) formed a valuable part, of the vast do- minions which Philip had inherited. The Re- formed doctrine had made great progress there, and Alva urged on his sovereign the duty of extir- pating heresy in every part of his kingdom, by the same system of merciless persecution which had been employed with seeming success in Spain itself. In 1567 Philip determined on this fatal policy, and ordered Alva to lead a veteran army ALV into the Netherlands, giving him powers which superseded all the ordinary governors and magis- trates of the provinces. At the head of 20,000 chosen troops, Alva now commenced his reign of terror at Brussels. He formed a council of 12 of his most unscrupulous and merciless officers, which he called the Council of Troubles, but which soon acquired, and deserved, the name of the Council of Blood. The council had unlimited power over the properties and the lives of the Netherlanders. Every one who was charged with heresy or dis- loyalty, was dragged before this tribunal, which dealt out confiscation, torture, and death, through- out the unhappy country. Tumults soon followed, winch gave a pretext for letting loose the ferocious soldiery on the wretched inhabitants; and the Spanish troops were permitted, and even encour- aged by their commanders, to practise an amount of licentious brutality and fiendish cruelty, such as cannot be read of without shuddering, and which excited general horror even in that age of reli- fious wars. Alva's avowed maxim was that the ing would rather see the whole country a desert, than permit a single heretic to live in it. By treacherously pretending great favour and respect towards the counts of Egmont and Horn, two of the principal chiefs of the Netherlanders, he suc- ceeded in getting these noblemen into his power, and then arrested them and put them to death after a mock trial. The other national leader of the provinces, Prince William of Orange, more wisely distrustful of Alva, kept away from his court ; and when the maddened population of the northern provinces took up arms against the in- tolerable tyranny of Spain, the Prince of Orange became their chief, and levied an army in Ger- many, with which he sought to rescue his country from Alva. This was the commencement of the glorious Dutch war of independence, which was maintained for 68 years, and ended in the separa- tion of the seven united provinces from the domin- ion of Spain. In the first five years of that war, which passed before Alva's recall from his command, he fully displayed the high nature of his military talents in battle and in siege, and still more in the cautious skill of his manoeuvres. But the spirit of resistance which he had aroused was unconquer- able. He was ill seconded by the Spanish court ; and his troops, ill paid and ill supplied, grew in- subordinate and mutinous. Alva was recalled in December, 1573, after a command of six years, during which he boasted that he had brought 18,000 persons to the scaffold, besides the almost countless numbers that had been massacred at Haarlaem, and other revolted cities which his troops took by storm, and those also who perished under the unrecorded acts of wanton cruelty which the soldiery were allowed to practise throughout the unhappy country. In 1582 Alva was once more employed by his sovereign, and led the expedition against Portugal. The aged general completely conquered that country in ten weeks, and placed its crown on Philip's head ; an acquisition which might seem to counterbalance the calamitous war in the Netherlands. This was the last act of Alva's long and active life, for he died in the same year, at the age of 74. [E.S.C.] ALVARADO, Don Pedbo, one of the compan- ions of Cortez, lulled 1541. AMA ALVARADO, Alph. De, one of the compan- ions of Pizarro, died 1553. ALVARES, Affonso, a popular dramath writer of Portugal, 17th ce ntu ry . ALVAREZ, Eman., a Portuguese grammarian rector at Evora, 1526-1582. ALVAREZ, Ferd., a Port, poet, 16th century ALVAREZ, Fr., a Port, divine, died 1640. ALVAREZ, Gomez, a Sp. poet, 1488-1538. ALVAREZ, Jose, a Sp. sculptor, died 1827. ALVAREZ, Juan, a Sp. lawyer, died 1546. ALVAROTTO, Jas., an Ital. lawyer, d. 1542. ALVENSLEBEN, P. C, count of, a diplo- matist and historian of Hanover, 1745-1802. ALVIANO, Bart., a Venetian general, distinj. in the wars of the republic, 1455-1515. ALVINTZY, Peter, a classical scholar and minister of Hungary, 17th century. ALVINZY, an Austrian officer, 1726-1810. ALXINGAR, J. B., a Germ, poet, died 1797. ALYATTE I., king of Lydia, 761-747 b.c. ALYATTE II., king of Lydia, 610-559 n.c. ALYPIUS, the architect employed by Julius to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, 363. ALYPIUS, an African bishop, died 430. ALZATE-Y-RAMIREZ, J. A., an astronomer and geographer, 18th century. AMAD-EDDOULAT, sultan of Persia, 933 to 949, founder of the Bouian dynasty. AMADEUS. The counts of Maurienne of this name are the ancestors of the house of Savoy. Amad. I. and II. are of uncertain date. Amad. III. fl. 1103-1148 ; Amad. IV, count of Savoy, 1233-1253; Amad. V. 1285-1323; Amad. VI. 1343-1383; Amad. VII. 1383-1391; Amad. VIII. 1391-1451 ; Amad. IX. 1465-1472. AMADIO, And., an illuminator, 15th century. AMADUZZI, J. C, a Rom. scholar, 18th cent. AMAIA, Fr., a Spanish lawyer, died 1640. AMAGE, a queen of ancient Sarmatia. AMAK, a Persian poet, 6th centurv. AMALARIUS, the founder of Christianity in Saxony ; archbp. of Treves 810 ; ambassador from Charlemagne to Constantinople 813, died 814. AMALARIUS, an eccles. writer, 9th century. AMALTHEUS, archbp. of Athens, died 1600. AMALTHEUS, the name of several Latin poets ; Jerome, 1460-1517; Mark Antony, his bro- ther, 1475-1558; Francis, a younger brother, married 1505; Jerome, son of Francis, 1506- 1574; John Baptist, another son, 1525-1573; Cornelius, younger br. of thepreced., 1530-1603. AMAND, Mark Antony Gerard, lord of St., a French poet, 1594-1661. AMAR, J. P., a eel. member of the French con- vention, b. 1750, tried for conspiring with Babeuf and acquitted, 1795, died 1816. AMAR, Du Rivier, a miscellaneous author and translator, born 1765. AMARA-SINHA, a Hindoo poet and gram- marian, author of a Sanscrit dictionary, 1st c. b.c. AMARETTI, Abbe C, a mineralogist, b. 1743. AMARITON, Jean, a philosopher, 16th cent. AMARAL, Ant., a learned Port., 1753-1820. AMASEO, Romulus, a Latin scholar and teacher of the Belles Leitres at Padua, 1489-1552. AMASIS, king of Egypt, 6th century B.C. AMATI, a violin maker, lived about 1600. AMATUS, a Jewish physician, lb'th century. 30 AMA AMATUS LUSITANUS, a Portuguese physi- ian of Jewish origin, 1511-1561. AMAURI DE CHARTRES, a mystic philo- opher, condemned by Innocent III., 1204, d. 1209. AMAURY I., king of Jerusalem, 1165-1173. AMAURY II., assumed the title 1197, d. 1203. AMAZIAH, king of Judah, B.C. 849-820. AMBERGER, Chris., a Dutch paint., d. 1550. AMBIORIX, k. of the Eburones, 1st cent. B.C. AMBOISE, Fr., a miscell. writer, died 1612. AMBOISE, G. D', a French cardinal and min- ster of state, legate of Alex. VI., 1460-1510. AMBOISE, Aimery, brother of the preceding, disting. naval commander, and grand master of he order of St. John of Jerusalem, 1434-1512. AMBOISE, Chaumont, lord of, a French ;eneral, nephew of the cardinal, died 1611. AMBOISE, M. D', a French poet, died 1547. AMBROGI, Ant., a Latin scholar, 1712-1788. AMBROGI, Tesco, an Orientalist, 1469-1540. AMBROSE, St., son of the praetorian praffect >f Gaul, was probably born at Treves about 340. :Iis father died when Ambrose was but a boy, but le was well educated, and being possessed of great hetorical powers, he soon rose to high eminence is a forensic pleader at Milan. At the death of jishop Auxentius, in 374, there was intense struggle and conflict between the Catholics and Brians about a successor, and Ambrose, as Con- tular, happened to deliver a peaceful oration to ;he people, when an admiring and forward child aiedfrom a corner of the crowd, Ambrosius Epis- zopus 'Ambrose Bishop.' The people hailed this as an omen from heaven, and in spite of every attempt on the part of Ambrose to elude the honour, he was baptized, and eight days after his baptism installed as bishop. The first literary work of bishop Ambrose was to patronise and advocate celibacy. But his principal efforts were directed against Arianism, which enjoyed imperial patronage, especially that of Justina, mother of Valentinian II. The city of Milan was embroiled in the conflict, but the bishop, backed by the population, was more than a match for the em- press-mother and her Gothic troops. He put his episcopal power and prerogative to the test when he kept the emperor Theodosius for eight months under excommunication on account of a massacre in Thcssalonica in which he had been concerned, and made him do public penance ere he was admitted into the great church at Milan. He also, in 384, successfully resisted the re-introduction of pagan worship. The affairs of his diocese occu- pied the remainder of his life, and he died in 397. Ihe theology of Ambrose was chiefly borrowed from the fathers of the Greek church, and his eloquence, though great, is often tainted with an affected imitation of Ciceronian periods. His life was so occupied with the political relations of his high position, that he could not bestow upon theology a calm, prolonged, and successful study. He introduced into his cathedral the antiphonal chants of the Eastern church, but the magni- ficent 'Te Deum Laudamus,' which bears his name, was a composition somewhat later than his busy period. His works were published by the Benedictines of France in two folios, in 1686-90, and Cardinal Angelo Mai has also discovered and edited two others of his literary productions. [J.E.] AME AMBROSINI, Ambrozio, a composer, d. 1700. AMBROSINI, Bart., a botanist, 17th century. AMBROSINI, G., a writer on demonology, 16th centurv. AMBROSIUS, a religious poet, died 1541. AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, a Br. k., d. 508. AMEIL, Aug., a Fr. officer, d. in prison, 1822. AMEILHON, H. P., a Fr. hist., 1730-1811. AMELIA, Anne, a princess of Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great, 1723-1787. AMELIA, duchess dowager of Saxe Weimar, a friend of Goethe, Schiller, and others, 1739-1807. AMELIA, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, b. 1776, married 1793, died 1810. AMELIA, daughter of Geo. III., 1783-1810. AMELIUS, a Neo-Platonist, 3d century. AMELOT, N., a French statesman, 1788. AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, Nich., a Fr. historian and translator, died 1706. AMENOPHIS, the name of several kings of Egypt, of uncertain date, but many ages B.C. AMELUNGHI, Jerome, an It. poet, 16th cent. AMENTA, a poet of Naples, 1659-1719. AMERBACH, John, a printer, died 1552. AMERBACH, Boniface, son of John, d. 1502. AMERIGO VESPUCCI, well known as the navigator after whom the New World has been named, was born at Florence in the year 1451. Little is known of his history till Ferdinand of Spain gave him employment as a pilot about the year 1495 ; at which time he was clerk or partner in the house of Berardi, also a Florentine, a merchant in Seville, and a contractor for the navy. On the 20th May, 1497, by his own account, and in 1499 by that of all others, he sailed from a port of Gallicia, (Oporto?) with four ships, in the capacity of pilot to Alonzo de Ojeda. In 27 days from the Canaries the coast of S. America was reached, which he traced westwards as far as Cape de la Vela, holding occasional intercourse with the natives. Turning northwards, he touched at Hispaniola or Haiti, and reached Spain on 15th October, 1499. Sub- sequently the king of Portugal engaged his ser- vices ; and, by his own account, he performed threo other voyages ; but these are considered apocryphal. Returning to Spain in 1505, he was favourably re- ceived; and on the death of Columbus, in the following year, he was appointed chief pilot. In 1507, he published, in Latin, an account of his voyages, which was eagerly read, and translated into several languages. The first suggestion of naming the continent after him was given in an Italian account of his voyages-, and the claim was not disputed. Although an able geographer and skilful pilot, Vespucci cannot be vindicated from the charge of having falsified facts, by repre- senting his first voyage of earlier date, and m omit- ting all mention of the traces which he found, on the coast of Paria, of Columbus's visit made in the previous year. He died in 1512. A certain Alber- icus, or Albert Vesputius, is related in the Novus Orbis' of Grynaeus to have performed a voyage to the S. Atlantic in 1501, during which he fell in with the coast of Brazil. [J.B.J AMES, Fisher, an eloquent statesman anil political writer of America, 1758-1804. AMES, Joseph, a naval commander, d. 1695. AMES, Joseph, author of an historical account of English printing, 1689-1759. ^1 AME AMES, WILLIAM, a controversial div., d. 1633. AMFREYILLE, the Mrquis. D', a French u.ival commander, time of Louis XIV. AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, an officer disting. in Flanders and America, 1717-1797. AM HURST, N., a miscell. writer, 1701-1742. AMICO, Ant., an antiquarian, died 1641. AMICO, Faustin, an Ital. poet, 16th century. AMICO, Vito, a theol. and antiq., 18th cent. AMICONI, Giacomo, a Ven. painter, d. 1753. AMILCAR, the father of Hannibal, k. 228 B.C. AMIOT, Father, a Fr. Jesuit and missionary to China, disting. by his long residence and re- searches in that country, 1718-1794. AMINTA, a burlesque poet, 16th century. AMLETH, a prince of Jutland, 2d cent. B.C. AMMAN, Jose, a Swiss painter, died 1591. AMMAN, John Conrad, a distinguished teacher of the deaf and dumb, 1669-1724. AMMAN, John, a lecturer on botany, d. 1740. AMMAN, Paul, a professor of physiology, natural history, and botanv, died 1691. AMMANATI, B., an Ital. sculptor, 16th cent, AMMIANAS, a Latin historian, 4th century. AMMIRATO, a Neapolitan poet, 1531-1601. AMMON, Andrew, a Latin poet, died 1517. AMMONIUS, a Syrian general, put to death by Ptolemy Philometor, b.c. 145. AMMONIUS, a surgeon of Alexandria. AMMONIUS, an Athenian philosopher, 1st c. AMMONIUS, a philosopher of the eclectic school, flourished in the 6th century. AMMONIUS, called Saccas, or Sack- Carrier, from his first occupation at the port of Alexandria, is the reputed iounder of the New Platonic school. He was born in the second cen- tury, and some affirm that he was born of Chris- tian parents, but that in riper years he apostatized. Porphyry affirms it, while Eusebius and Jerome as stoutly deny it. Possessed of a creative genius, and conversant with the prevalent philosophies, he strove hard to form a species of eclecticism, in which Christianity and all systems of philosophy should be harmonized. In his attempt to accom- plish this, he, as might be anticipated, robbed Christianity of its prime peculiarities, and did great violence to the current philosophies in accommo- dating them to the new religion. The works ascribed to him are numerous. Died 243, about eighty years of age. Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus are usually reckoned among his disciples. [J.E.I AMMONIUS, Levinus, a Flemish monk of distinguished learning, died 1556. AMO, a negro from the gold coast, distinguished for his profound learning, 18th century. AMON, J. A., a German composer,' died 1825. AMONTOUS, W., a Fr. mathemat., 1663-1705. - AMORE, S. D., a Sicilian poet, 17th century. AMORETTI, Ch., an It. mineralo., 1740-1816. AMORETTI, M. P., a learned Italian, d. 1787. AMORY, Tn., a dissenting divine, 1701-1774. AMORY, Th., a literary recluse, author of several eccentric works, died 1789. AMOS, a Jewish prophet, 8th century, B.C. AMPERE, Andre Marie, one of the greatest discoverers in electro-magnetism, 1775-1836. AMRU, Ben-El-As, a eel. warrior of the Islam faith, conqueror of Egypt, Nubia, and part of Lybia; ruler of Egypt 659, died 662. ANA AMRU, BKN-LETTH, suit, of Khorns., 878-902 AMULIUS, king of Alba, 8th centurv B.C. AMURATH L, third Ottoman sul., i'n.ir. of thd corps of Janissaries, b. 1319, sue. 1360, d. 1389. AMURATH II., b. 1404, sultan 1422-1451. AMURATH III., b. 1544, sultan 1575, diec after the conquest of Raab, 1594. AMURATH IV., bom 1609, sultan 1622, took Bagdad 1637, died 1640. AMYN AHMED, a learned Persian, 17th cent, AMYOT, Jas., a learned Fr. prelate, d. 1593. AMYRAUT, Moses, a Fr. theologian, d. 1664. AMYNTAS I., king of Macedon, B.C. 510. AMYNTAS II., king 394, died 370. AMYRUTZES, a philosopher of Trebisond, who became a Mahomedan, 15th century. ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philos., 600 b.c. ANACLETUS, bishop of Rome, 73-91. ANACLETUS, an anti-pope, elected 1130. ANACREON, the eel. lyric of ancient Greece, lived in the 6th cent. B.C., chiefly at the court of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos. He is said to have been choked by a grape stone, in the act of drinking wine, at the age of 85. ANAFESTUS, first doge of Venice, 697-717 ANANIAS, high priest of the Jews, 47. ANARIA, G. L., a wr. on demonology, 16th c. ANASTASIUS I., emperor of the East, bora 430, succeeded 491, died 518. ANASTASIUS II., succeeded 713, deposed by Leo III. 715, put to death 719. ANASTASIUS I., pope of Rome, 398-402. ANASTASIUS II., elected 496, died 498. ANASTASIUS III., elected 911, died 913. ANASTASIUS IV., elected 1153, died 1154. | ANASTASIUS, an anti-pope, elected 855-6. ANASTASIUS, patriarch of Antioch, died 599. ANASTASIUS, the Younger, patrh. 599-608. ANASTASIUS, a Roman abbot, 9tti century. ANATOLIUS, St., bishop of Laodicea, 2&S. ANATOLIUS, a jurist of the 6th centurv. ANATOLIUS, patriarch of C'nple, 449-458. ANAXAGORAS, the most illustrious philoso- pher of the Ionian school ; celebrated in history as the friend of Pericles, and because of his trial and condemnation at Athens for alleged impiety. Ho was born at Clazomene, in Ionia, in the seventieth Olympiad: when twenty-four years of age he re- moved to Athens, then the centre of civilization and of Grecian nationality. Saved from death by the intercession and influence of Pericles, he was ban- ished from the adopted home where he had resided for thirty years ; he passed the remainder of his life at Lampsacus, and died there at the age of seventy-two, surrounded by respect and honour. Anaxagoras belongs in philosophy to the Ionic school, that school whose researches were confined to the nature and laws of physical phenomena. Nevertheless, he differs in important respects from his predecessors; and certainly he was the last In- quirer in Athens who ought to have been subjected to the accusation of impiety. The earlier Ionians, in their imperfect efforts to comprehend the changes of the external universe, generally imagined it pos- sible to reduce all things to varieties of one single element; for instance, it was a favourite specula- tion that water is the principle or substance of whatever exists; a dogma founded, perhaps, on a rude observation of the changes of form or ANA TinrJe, through which water may pass. Anaxagoras lad the merit of discerning the necessary futility jf all such generalizations, declaring that the ele- ments, first principles, or atoms of things, must be very numerous, or even infinite ; elements so far resembling each other as to be capable of com- bining together, and forming, by their various unions, those varied properties or qualities which we recognize in things. But, beyond this step in itself highlv important Anaxagoras adventured on another, of still greater consequence. Accepting, like all the Ionians, the dogma that matter is eter- nal that nothing can really be either created or an- nihilated he saw, nevertheless, that the simple pro- perties of an eternal and inert matter could not explain the activity and harmony characterizing the material universe. Hence, said he, the neces- sity of another power the power of Intelligence. I All things were in chaos ; then came Intelligence, which introduced Order.' The functions of Intel- ligence, as he conceived them, were indeed limited merely supplementary, as Aristotle alleged, to those of the physical forces : but the formal recognition of the necessity of such an energy, was surely a movement in philosophy as momentous as new. It must be recorded, m fairness, and in palliation of the condemnation of Anaxagoras, that to the charge of impiety, that of a political crime was added the greatest, certainly, of which a Greek citizen could be suspected the crime of Medism, or of favouring the interests of Persia. [J.P.N.] ANAXAGORAS, a Gr. sculptor, 5th cent. b.c. ANAXANDRIDES, a Greek satirist, starved to death for libelling the government, 400 B.C. ANAXARCHUS, a Greek philosopher, the sup- posed master of Pyrrho, 4th century b.c. ANAXIMANDER, an Ionian philosopher, the disciple and successor of Thales, 610-547 B.C. ANAXIMENES, the disciple and successor of Anaximander, died 500 B.C. ANAXIMENES, a Greek historian, one of the preceptors of Alexander. ANAXIPPUS, a Gr. comedian, 4th cent. B.C. ANCHIETA, Jos., a Portuguese missionary, called the Apostle of the New World, died 1597. ANCHWITZ, N., a member of the Polish diet, the betrayer of his country in 1782, killed 1783. ANCILLON, C, a Fr. historian, 17th century. ANCILLON, David, a Fr. divine, 1617-1715. ANCILLON, J. P. F., an historical and philo- sophical writer of Prussia, 1766-1837. ANCILLON, L. F., a religious writer, d. 1814. ANCKARSTROEM, John James, the assassin of Gustavus III., born 1758, executed 1792. ANCONA, C. D', an Italian antiquary, 15th ct. ANCOURT, Florent C. D', a French drama- tist and actor, 1661-1726. ANCUS MARTIUS, k. of Rome, 634-614 b.c. ANCWITZ, Count. See Anchwitz. ANDERSEN, Geo., a Ger. traveller, 17th cent. ANDERSON, Ad., a Scotch historian, d. 1765. ANDERSON, Alex., a scholar, 17th century. ANDERSON, Sir E., lord chief justice at the trial of Mary Stuart, died 1605. ANDERSON, Geo., at first a labourer, but subsequently accountant-general, author of a work on the affairs of the East India Co., 1760-1796. ANDERSON, G., an Eastern travel., 17th cent. ANDERSON, J., a Scotch advoc, 17th cent. AND ANDERSON, James, a misccl. wr., 1739-1 08. ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow, 1726-1796. ANDERSON, John, a magistrate and author of Hamburgh, died 1743. ANDERSON, L., chancellor of Sweden under Gustavus Vasa, 1480-1552. ANDERSON, R., M.D., a critical and biogra- phical author, died 1830. ANDOCIDES, a Greek orator, 468 B.C. ANDOQUE, P., an historian, died 1664. ANDRE, B., a learned Jesuit, born 1745. ANDRE, C. C, a learned German, 18th cent. ANDRE, J., a German composer, 1741-1800. ANDRE, J., a Lutheran divine, 1528-1590. ANDRE, J. V., a German mystic, one of the first Rosicrucians, 1586-1654. ANDRE, John, a major in the British army during the American war of independence, hung as a spy, Oct. 2, 1780. ANDRE, St. See Albon, Jacques D'. ANDRE, Y'ves Mari, a French Jesuit profes- sor of mathematics, 1675-1764. ANDREA, a chronicler, 9th century. ANDREA, Caval Canti, a novelist and mis- cellaneous writer of Italy, died 1672. ANDREA, C, an Ital. tragedian, 17th century. ANDREA, S., an Italian poet, 17th century. ANDREADA, Ferdinand, a Portuguese ad- miral, the first adventurer to China, 1518. ANDREW, John Geo. Rein hard, a natural- ist of Hanover, 1724-1793. ANDREAS, James, a German reformer, sec- retary of the conference at Worms, died 1590. ANDREAS, John, a Corsican prelate, distin- guished as a promoter of printing, 1417-1475. ANDREAS, a learned prelate of Sweden, arch- bishop of Lund, died 1228. ANDREINI, Fr., a Sp. comic wr., died 1616. ANDREINI, Isabella, wife of the preceding, distinguished for her beauty and for her talents as an improvisatore, 1562-1604. ANDREINI, J. B., son of the preceding, u dramatist and poet, born 1578. ANDRELINI, Publio Festo, professor of poetry and philosophy, died 1518. ANDREOLI, G., an Italian sculptor, 16th cent. ANDREOSSI, Anth. Fr., Count, a French diplomatist and military officer, 1761-1828. ANDREOSSI, Fr., an engineer, 1633-1688. ANDREOZZI, Anna, an Ital. singer, d. 1801. ANDREOZZI, G., an Ital. composer, 18th cent. ANDRES, Juan, a Spanish author, 1740-1817. ANDRES DES VOSGES, J. F., a misceUaneous author and translator, bom 1744. ANDREW, St., the apostle, crucified 95. ANDREW of Cyrene, leader of a Jewish revolt in the reign of Trajan. ANDREW of Pisa, distinguished as an archi- tect and universal artist, 1270-1345. ANDREW of Ratisbon, an historian, 15th cent. ANDREW, John, bishop of Aleria, d. 1493. ANDREW, Tobias, a Greek scholar, d. 1676. ANDREW I., king of Hungary, 1047-1061 ; Andw. II., 1204-1235 ; Andw. ILL, 1290-1801. ANDREWES, Gerr., a preacher, 1750-1825. ANDREWES, H., a mathematician, computer of the ephemeris, 1744-1820. ANDREWES, J. P., a miscel. an., 1737-1779. I D AND ANDREWES, Pet. Miuss, a dramatist, d. 1814. ANDREWS, Launcelot, bishop of Winches- ter, dieting, as a scholar and divine, 1565-1626. ANDRIEU, B., a medallion engrav., 1761-1822. ANDREEUX Fr - W. J., Stanislaus, a Fr. dramatist, poet, and miseellan. \vr., 1759-1833. ANDRIOLL M. A., an Ital. writer, 17th cent. ANDRISCUS, a pretender to the crown of Ma- cedan, put to death 148 b.c. ANDROCLES, an Athenian demagogue. ANDROMACHUS, the physician of Nero. ANDRONICUS, Livius, the oldest Latin dra- matist, and Latin translator of Homer, 240 B.C. ANDRONICUS, a Gr. architect, 4th cent. B.C. ANDRONICUS of Rhodes, the restorer of the works of Aristotle, b.c. 63. ANDRONICUS of Thessalonica, one of the Greek refugees from Constantinople, to whom we owe the revival of learning, died 1478. ANDRONICUS I., emperor of Constantinople, born 1110 ; shared the crown with Alexis, 1163 ; caused him to be murd., 1183 ; dethr. and k., 1185. ANDRONICUS II., born 1258; emperor, 1282; dethroned, 1828; died, 1332. ANDRONICUS III., born 1295; rebelled, 1321-5 ; emperor, 1328 ; died, 1341. ANDRONICUS IV., joint sovereign with his father, 1355 ; disinherited, 1373. ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, James, an architect, distinguished in Paris, 16th century. ANDRY, Nich., a medical author, died 1742. ANEAN, Barth., a French poet, killed 1565. ANELIER, a troubadour of the 13th century. ANEURIN, a chief of the ancient Britons, distinguished also as a poet, 6th century. ANFOSSI, P., an Ital. musician, 1736-1795. ANGE, Fr., of Pennsylvania, d. 1767, aged 134. ANGELI, Bonaventura, an hist., d. 1576. ANGELI, Peter, a Latin poet, 1517-1596. ANGELICO, John, an Italian painter, d. 1448. ANGELIO, a Latin poet, 1517-1596. ANGELIS, Stephen De, a mathemat., 17th c. ANGELO, Fioriozzola, an Ital. poet, d. 1548. ANGELO, Policiano, a learned wr., 15th c. ANGELO, Michel. See Michelangelo. ANGELONI, Fr., an Italian historian, d. 1652. ANGELUCCI, Theodore, an Italian poet, translator, and physician, d. 1600. ANGELUS, Chr., a refugee from Greece, pro- fessor of the Greek tongue at Cambridge, d. 1638. ANGERSTEIN, J. J., a virtuoso, distinguished for his collection of paintings, 1735-1822. ANGILBERT, St., abbot of Requier, d. 814. ANGIOLELLO, J.M., a Venetian hist., 15th c. ANGOT, a celebrated French privateer, d. 1551. ANGOULEME, Charles De Valois, duke of, a natural son of Charles IX. and Marie Tou- chct; distinguished for his bravery in the civil wars of France, and in the campaigns of Flanders and Germanv, 1575-1650. ANGUIER, Fr. and Mich., sculptors of Nor- mandy ; the former of whom was most celebrated, ;.nd died 1669 ; the latter, 1686. ANGUILLARA, L., a botanist of the 16th c. ANGUILLARA, an Italian poet, b. 1517. ANGUISCIOLA, a female painter, 16th cent. ANHALT-DESSAU, Leopold, prince of, the creator of the Prussian army, 1676-1747. AN LAN US, an artist and poet, 15th century. ANS ANICH, Peter, an astronomer, 1723-17C6. AN 1(1 1 IX I, Lewis, a medaller, 16th century. ANJOU, the dukes or counts of, descendant* of the Carlovingian kings, ruled the province from! about 870 to 1204, when the line ended in John, king of England. The dukes of the house of Capet reigned 1246 to 1290. The house of Valois, 1290; to 1480. Since this period the dukedom has been reserved as an appanage for the younger princes oi the royal family of France. ANKASTROM. See Anckarstroem. ANNA COMNENA, daughter of Alexis L* emperor of the East, celebrated for her beauty and acquirements, born 1083 being defeated in a con- spiracy for placing the crown on the head of her husband, she devoted her life to letters, and wrote the history of her father's reign ; died 1148. ANNA de Candalles, queen of Ladislaus VI., of Hungary, married 1502. ANNA of Hungary, b. 1503 ; married Fred, of Austria, 1521; died 1547 ANNA IVANOWNA, empress of Russia, born 1693 ; succeeded, 1730 ; died, 1740 ANNA PETROWNA, in whose honour the order of St. Anne was instituted, born 1708 : married, 1725 ; died, 1728. ANNE, queen of England before George I., was the second daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde ; b. 1664 ; mar. to George, brother of the k. of Denmark, 1683 ; sue. her father, 1702 ; d. 1714 k ANNE of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, and mother of Louis XIV. of France, b. 1602 ; m. 1615 ; regent of the kingdom, 1643-1661 ; d. 1666. ANNE of Bretagne, queen-consort of France, b. 1477 ; married to Charles VIII. 1491, and to Louis XII. 1499 ; died 1514. ANNE of Cleves, b. 1515 ; married to Henrv VIII. and divorced, 1540 ; d. 1557. ANNE of France, daughter of Louis XL, b. 1462 ; married to the lord of Beaujeu, 1474 ; gdi vernante of Charles VIII., 1483-14*8 afterwards duchess of Bourbon till her death, 1522. ANNESE, Gennaro, a leader in the Massa- niello insurrection, 1647. ANNESLEY, Arthur, by turns a royalist ?>n& republican, created earl of Anglesey for his share in the Restoration, 1614-1686. ANNESLEY, S., a eel. Eng. divine, 1620-1696. ANNETT, Peter, a sceptical writer, d. 1778. ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher, 3d c. B.C. ANNIUS of Viterbo, a Dominican monk, author of a literary imposture, d. 1502. ANNO, archbishop of Cologne, 11th century. ANOT, P. N., a miscellaneous author, d. 1823. ANQUETIL, L. P., a French savant, author of a Universal History, 1728-1808. ANQUETIL Dt PERRON, A. H., broth, of the preceding, disting. as an Oriental scho., 1731-1805. ANSALDI, C. J., an antiquarian, 18th century. ANSALDI, an Italian painter, d. 1816. ANSART, A. J., a Fr. historian, 1723-1790. ANSCARIUS, bishop of Hamburgh, 801-864. ANSEAUME, N., a Fr. dramatist, d. 1784. ANSELM, born in Piedmont in 1033, died in April, 1109 ; the celebrated churchman and meta- physician one of the greatest of those famous men who have held the see of Canterbury. On the death of Lanfranc in 1089, Anselm, then on a visit to England, and whose wisdom, gentleness, oi ANS and solidity of character had gained for him Euro- |)ean repute, was nominated to the primacy by Wil- iam Rufus. It is not necessary to refer here to the political history of this celebrated prelate ; nor can we glance otherwise than cursorily at those products of his genius the Monologium and the I'roslogium, by which he is known in philosophy. These two remarkable writings are dedicated to an exposition of two demonstrations of the Existence of God. The Monologium contains the usual in- ductive argument inferring from the qualities of Nature, absolute qualities or divine attributes ; and resolving these into a divine and absolute Being. Anselm's original work is the Prosoloqium ; and certainly he has stated there, in every fulness, the peculiar argument afterwards expounded by Des Cartes. Briefly, the argument is this, expressed nearly in his own words : ' The madman who denies the reality of God, conceives, nevertheless, of a Being more elevated than all others that exist, or rather so perfect, that nothing no form of being can be called superior to him. But he affirms that there is no real existence corresponding to this men- tal conception or idea. In making such an affirma- tion, however, he contradicts himself. Denying the attribute of existence to this very Being, to whom, nevertheless, he attributes all perfection, he virtu- ally says, that the most perfect is inferior to many other things which are not perfect, but which en- joy the supreme attribute of existence.' We shall speak more fully of this peculiar form of argument, by which the being of God is attempted to be in- ferred from the idea of God, in our notice of Des Cartes. Anselm's metaphysical writings have re- cently been republished by Bouchittd, under the title, Rationalisme Cretien : and Remusat has just ! completed a valuable volume on the prelate's life and character. [J.P.N.] ANSELME of Paris, 1625-1094. ANSELME, Anth., a French preacher, also a distinguished savant : 1652-1737. ANSELME, Geo., the Elder, a mathematician, d. 1440. His grandson, of the same name, distin- guished as a physician, d. 1528. ANSON, George, Lord, was born at Colwich, near Rugeley in Staffordshire, on the 23d April, 1697. His father was William Anson, Esq. of Shugborough, a property in the same county, pur- chased in the reign of James I. by William Anson of Lincoln's Inn,an eminent barrister, the founder of the family, and great-grandfather of the subject of the present notice. Little is known of Anson's early history ; he entered the navy as a volunteer with- out patronage, and at the age of 19 or 20 was serving in the Baltic fleet under Sir John Norris. In 1717 he obtained a lieutenant's commission; 19th June, 1722, was made commander ; and as captain of the Scarborough was sent in March, 1723-24, to S. Carolina, to protect British trade. On the breaking out of the Spanish war in the end of the year 1739, he was appointed to the com- mand of a squadron, destined for the west coast of S. America, to attack the colonies of Spain, and cut off supplies by intercepting the treasure ships. This was the origin of the voyage round the world, for which Anson's name is best known. It proved one of the most disastrous on record ; not by any fault of the commander, but owing to the igno- rance and imbecility which prevailed at head-quar- ANS ters. Several of the ships were ill-conditioned; he was obliged to receive on board 260 infirm old men, out-pensioners of Chelsea College, most of whom were above 70, and none under 60 years of age ; and the sailing of the squadron was de- layed till the worst season. It did not leave St. Helen's till 18th Sept., 1740, and soon after passing Madeira, scurvy, fever, and dysentery broke out among the crews. Tremendous gales, encountered in rounding Cape Horn, dispersed the squadron ; two ships were driven back along the coast of Brazil, and never rejoined ; one was wrecked on the coast south of Chiloe ; the commodore's ship the Centu- rion, 60 guns, and the Tryal sloop, 8 guns, reached Juan Fernandez on the 9th June ; the Gloucester, 50 guns, not till 23d July, having been under sail for five months in a stormy ocean, ' a circumstance unparalleled in the history of navigation.' The health of the crew was completely restored in this delightful island ; but out of the original comple- ment for the three ships of 800 men, there now re- mained only 335. A cruise of eight months on the coasts of Peru and Mexico secured some rich prizes, but added very little in the way of geographical discovery, if we except some coast and port sur- veys. The two other ships being disabled were de- stroyed, and -with the Centurion only, containing all the useful stores and the surviving men, whose ranks had been again fearfully reduced by disease, An- son crossed the Pacific to China, having remained some time at Tinian, one of the Ladrones, ' an earthly paradise,' to recruit. Leaving the Canton river after a stay of five months, refitting and provisioning, he lay in wait, on the coast of Luzon, for the Acapulco galleon, which annually brought an immense treasure from Mexico in re- turn for goods from Manilla. This rich prize he captured after a smart engagement with a force more than three times his own, and thus possessed himself of nearly a million and a-half of dollars and 35,682 oz. of pure silver. Returning to Canton he sold the galleon, and soon after sailed for Eng- land. Touching at the Cape, passing in sight of St. Helena, and running in a fog through the middle of a French fleet cruising in the channel, he reached Portsmouth in safety, on 15th June, 1744, after an absence of three years and nine months. Not one of the 260 veterans returned. The trea- sure was welcome ; the only other advantage was the familiarizing British seamen with the dreaded 'southern ocean.' In 1748 an account of the voyage in a thick 4to vol. was published by sub- scription, ostensibly drawn up by Rev. Richard Walter, A.M., chaplain in the Centurion, but really, as Sir J. Barrow has shown in his life of Anson, by Col. Robins, an engineer officer who went with him. Several editions were called for. A second volume, to contain the nautical observations, was promised, but never appeared, owing to Robins being hurried off to India. Even from the account we have, however, we can see that m.ny errors in seamanship were committed ; but the chronometer was not then invented, and the lunar method, though known to astronomers, was not yet prac- tised at sea. Not long after his return we find Anson at the head of the Admiralty Board as first lord. In this capacity he rendered, great service to the nation; he improved the ships, promoted the most deserving officers in defiance of etiquette, AKS and did much in laying the foundation of that pre- eminence which the navy of Britain has long main- tained. In 1747, on occasion of a victory which he gained over the French, he was created baron Anson of Soberton in the county of Hants. In 1718 he married the lady Elizabeth, daughter of the lord chancellor, earl Hardwicke. His or- dinary residence was Moore Park, Hertfordshire. He died without issue, 6th June, 1762, having out- lived his wife two years. His elder and only brother, Thomas, died also without issue in 1771. The bulk of the property of both was inherited by George Adams, Esq. of Sambrooke, Staffordshire, son of their only sister, who assumed the name and arms of Anson ; but the title became extinct. A new creation took place, however, in 1806, and in 1831, the third viscount Anson was created earl of Lichfield. [J. B.] ANSON, P. H., a French author, 1744-1810. ANSPACH, Elizabeth, margravine of, for- merly ladv Craven, 1750-1828. ANSTEY, Chr.. an English poet, 1724-1805. ANSTIS, John, an Eng. antiquary, die : 1744. ANSTRUTHER, Sir A., a lawyer, died 181/. ANTAR, the hero of an Arabian romance, a chief and poet of the 6th century. ANTHEMIUS, consul of the East, 405. ANTHEMIUS, emperor of the East, 467-472. ANTHEMIUS, an architect of the 6th century. ANTHING, Frederic, an officer in the Russian service, companion of Suwarrow, died 1805. ANTHONY of Burgundy, distinguished in the military service of France, 1421-1504. ANTHONY, P. G., a theologian, 17th century. ANTHONY. See Antonius, Antony. ANTIGNAC, A., a French song-writer, b. 1770. ANTIGONUS CARYSTIUS, a Greek writer, 3d cent. B.C. ANTIGONUS, the Cyclops,' one of Alexan- der's companions in arms; afterwards king of Asia; killed 301 B.C. ANTIGONUS, Gonatas, grandson of the pre- ceding, king of Macedon, 277-241 b.c. ANTIGONUS, Doson, regent and king of Ma- cedon, 230 b.c, till his death, 221. ANTIGONUS, Sochosus, the reputed founder of the sect of Sadducees, 3d century b.c. ANTIGONUS, associated with Aristobulus I. as king of Judaea, 107-106 B.C. ANTIGONUS, son of Aristobulus II., king of Judaea, B.C. 40 ; killed, B.C. 37. ANTIMACO, Mark Antony, an Italian scholar and poet, 1472-1552. ANTIMACUS, a Greek poet, 5th century b.c. ANTINE, M. F., a chronologist, 1688-1748. ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth, eel. as the com- panion and favourite of Adrian, drowned 132. ANTIOCHUS, a Platonic phil., 1st cent. B.C. ANTIOCHUS, a monastic writer, 7th century. ANTIOCHUS I., k. of Syria, d. b.c. 261. Ant. II., k., b.c. 261 ; d. 246. Ant. III., called the Great, k., b.c. 223; assassinated 187. Ant. IV. succeeded his father, but was kept a prisoner by the Romans till 174 B.C. ; d. 164. Ant. VI., king, B.C. 164; dethroned 162. Ant. VII., king, b.c 140; dethroned 128. Ant. VIII. reigned B.C. 126-97. Ant. IX. shared the kingdom with the preceding, B.C. 112-95. Ant. X. and XI. reigned 93-92 B.C. Ant. XII. reigned for a short 36 ANT time before 83 B.C. Ant. XIII., king, b.c. C9 dethroned by Pompey, who reduced Syria to Roman province, b.c. 65. ANTIOCHUS I., king of Commagena, froi about 69-32 B.C. The second of the same liami king till 29 B.C. The third is supposed to hav reigned about the commencement of the Christia era. The fourth, from 38-72. ANTIPATER, a Macedonian general, regen for Alexander, and after his death master of th European provinces : died 318 b.c. ANTIPATER, k. of Macedon, 298-295 b.c. third of the same name reigned a few days, 278 b.c ANTIPATER, father of Herod the" Great, am minister of Hyrcanus, 63-43 B.C. ANTIPATER, son of Herod the Great, put t< death for conspiracy, 2. ANTIPATER, L. C, a Rom. historian, 2 b.c. ANTIPATER of Sidon, a philos., 2d c. b.c. ANTIPATER, a Stoic philosopher, 1st c. B.C. ANTIPHANES, a Gr. poet, time of Alexander. ANTIPHILUS, a Greek poet, time of Nero. ANTIPHILUS, a Greek painter, 4th century. ANTIPHON, a Greek orator, killed 411 b.c. ANTIQUARIUS, J., an Italian scho., <L 1512. ANTIQUUS, a painter of the 16th century. ANTISTHENES, a Gr. command., 4th c. b.c. ANTISTHENES, fnd. of the Cynics, 5th c. b.c. ANTOINE. See Antony. ANTOINETTE. See Marie Antoinette. ANTON, Ch. Gottlieb, a German writer of curious history, 1751-1818. ANTON, C. G., a philologist, died 1814. ANTONELLI, P. A., a Fr. officer, 1747-1817. ANTONELLI, a painter, 15th century. ANTONI, Seb. Degli, a tragedian, 17th cent, ANTONI, an Italian officer, 1714-1786. ANTONIANO, Sylvio, a poet, 1540-1603. ANTONIDES, J., a Dutch poet, 1647-1684. ANTONIDES, J., an Arabian scholar, 17th c. ANTONINA, wife of Belisarius, distinguished for her public spirit, 499-565. ANTONINE DE FORCIGLIONI, a prelate and saint of Rome, 1389-1459. ANTONINI, Annibal and Joseph, two bro- thers distinguished as historians, 17th and 18th c. ANTONINUS, Liberalis, a Gr. am, 2dc. n.c. ANTONINUS PIUS, a Roman emperor, b. 86 succeeded Adrian, 138 ; died 161. ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, successor of Antoninus Pius, 121-180. ANTONINUS. See Commodus, Caracalla, DlADUMENIANUS. ANTONINUS, St., abp. of Florence, d. 1445. ANTONINUS, bishop of Constantine, 5th ct. ANTONINUS, a geographer, age unknown. ANTONIO, or ANTONELLO, a painter, 15th c. ANTONIO, a Spanish historian, 1617-1684. ANTONIO, Pedro, a Spanish painter, d. 1675. ANTONIUS, Godfrey, a Germ, lawyer, 17th c. ANTONIUS, iELius N., a Span, hist., 16th c. ANTONIUS, L., a Portuguese phys., 16th c. ANTONIUS, Marcus, a Rom. orat., proconsul I B.C. 103 ; proscribed by Marius, put to dth. B.C. 67. ANTONIUS, Marcus, the eel. triumvir, grand- son of the preceding, born B.C. 86 ; disting. in the Jewish war; and aftenvards as the companion in arms and friend of Julius Caesar. After the assas- sination of the latter, and the overthrow of the re- ANT kmUican party by the defeat of Brutus and Cassius 'at Philippi, Mark Anthony formed the triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus, B.C. 42. Anthony [married the sister of Octavius, but neglected her for the blandishments of Cleopatra; and having quarrelled with his coadjutors, was defeated at the I battle of Actium, and put a period to his own [existence, B.C. 30. ANTONY of Tuscany, a lawyer, 15th cent. ANTONY, St., the Great, born in Egypt, 251 ; retired to the desert, where he formed the first community of monks, 305 ; died, 356. ANTONY, St., of Padua, 1195-1231. ANTONY of Bourbon, king of Navarre, by his marriage with Jeanne D'Albret, 1548, and father of Henry IV. of France, d. 1562. ANVARI, a Persian astrologer, died 1206. ANYSIUS, Giov., an Italian poet, d. 1540. ANYTA, a Greek poetess, some centuries B.C. ANYTUS, an Athenian orator, 4th cent. B.C. AOUST, the Marquis D', one of the violent members of the French convention, d. 1812. APACZAI, John, an Orientalist, died 1659. APAFFI. See Abaffi. APEL, or APELLES, John, a German re- former, 1486-1536. APELBOOM, a Dutch poet, died about 1780. APELLES, founder of a heresy, 2d century. APELLES, the most celebrated painter of antiquity, was bom about 365 b.c. at Cos, or at Colophon in Ionia. When already an accom- plished master, apparently, he entered as a pupil in the celebrated school of Pamphilus, at Sicyon, and paid the enormous fee of this school, a tr.lent, (about 220 sterling,) purely for the sake of the reputation enjoyed by its pupils. Apelles seems to have earned his unrivalled reputation partly by his unintermittent industry, which became pro- verbial, even among the Romans ' nulla dies sine linea ' is a saying, according to report, which originated with this great Greek painter. Painting itself is sometimes termed by the Romans the Apellean art. An examination of the particular sendees of Apelles does not seem to justify his extraordinary reputation, for he appears to have been little more than a portrait painter, though doubtless one of the very highest class. In every respect, save one, however, he was surpassed by some one of his rivals, but in the management of the whole, in that peculiar quality which the Greeks called Charts, grace or beauty, he was un- rivalled. A list of his known works will convey the most accurate notion of his style. Perhaps the most celebrated was the Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising out of the ocean, which became in after years such a favourite picture among the Romans, that Ovid (Art. Amat. iii. 401,) paid it the extra- ordinary compliment of saying, that but for this picture, Venus would have still remained buried beneath the waves of the sea. The picture was painted for the people of Cos, where it remained until removed three centuries afterwards by the emperor Augustus to Rome, who took it in lieu of 100 talents tribute; an enormous price, and yet less by some thousands than was recently paid for the Soult Murillo by the French government. The picture was, unfortunately, much damaged on the voyage, and was, within a century from the time of its dedication in the Temple of Julius APE Caesar, dictator, at Rome, replaced by a copy, by order of Nero. The history of this picture is worthy of note, as it is the prototype of so many similar stories of later ages. Other celebrated works were, King Antigonus on horseback ; a por- trait of Campaspe, a beautiful slave and favourite of Alexander the Great, who presented her to the painter in reward for the picture which he made of her ; several portraits of Philip of Macedon, and of Alexander himself, who is said to have given Apelles the exclusive right of painting him ; for one of these, representing the king as Jupiter hurling his thunderbolts, Alexander is said to have presented Apelles with 20 talents of gold, about 50,000 sterling, twice the largest sum ever recorded otherwise, as the price of a pic- ture. Further, are mentioned a figure of For- tune, seated; a naked hero; a back view of a Hercules ; a clothed figure of one of the Graces ; Clitus preparing for battle, mounted on his charger, and receiving his helmet from his arm- bearer ; Antigonus in armour walking by the side of his horse ; Archelaus with his wife and daugh- ter; and the two following works, the only two pictures by Apelles recorded, which appear to have contained a considerable number of figures Diana surrounded by her nymphs, in which he was allowed to have surpassed the lines of Homer, from which he took his subject ; and the pomp or procession of the high priest of Diana at Lphesus. The pictures of Apelles were probably mostly painted upon panels of larch, (he used to boast that he never painted upon a wall,) and executed in distemper : the impasto was doubtless very similar to that of the Italian quattrocento masters before the introduction of oil painting. The Greeks had abundant resources in colours, and there is every reason to suppose that they were in every respect as great in painting as in sculpture. Apelles himself, among other distinctions, is re- nowned for having introduced a very effective mode of glazing, or toning his pictures, which Sir Joshua Reynolds assumed to be the same process adopted by the Venetians of the sixteenth century. [See Protogenes.] Many anecdotes are re- corded showing the intimacy between Alexander the Great and Apelles, and others of still more value, showing his own liberality of disposition, and great skill and judgment in his art. One anecdote, related by Pliny, as illustrating a pecu- liar feature of Greek customs, may be recorded here: Apelles had put in at Alexandria, driven there by contrary winds ; Ptolemy I. was then, at the close of the 4th century, B.C. king of Egypt, with whom, while he was generrl, Apelles had been on bad terms. Some of the painter's rivals at the court of Ptolemy, taking advantage of this circumstance, endeavoured to do him an injury; they persuaded the royal fool to invite Apelles to sup with the king. Apelles attended accordingly, but Ptolemy indignant at the intrusion, demanded by whom he had been invited ; when the painter seizing an extinguished coal from the hearth, drew upon the wall the features of the man who had in- vited him with such mastery, that Ptolemy in the very first lines recognized the portrait of his buf- foon, and through this trifling incident became re- conciled to the painter and received him into his favour. Apelles survived Alexander many years; 37 APE he does not appear to have accompanied him as far r.s Babylon ; the date of his death is unknown. He left writings on the arts, which he dedicated to his pupil Perseus; they have not been preserved. lie was celebrated for the beauty of the horses in his pictures. There was another Apelles, of Ephe- sus, mentioned by Lucian, who lived at the court of Ptolemy Philopator, about B.C. 220. (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 36; Plutarch, Arat. 12, Alex- ander 4, Fort Alez. Mag 2, 3; Junius, Cataiogus Artifiatm. &c. &c Wornum, Epochs of Painting, vol.'i.) [R.N.W.] APELLICON, a philosopher, 1st century B.C. APER, Marcus, an orator, 1st century. APER, Arius, a Roman prafect, killed 284. APHTHONIUS, a rhetorician, 3d century. APIAN, Peter, a German astron., 1495-1589. APICIUS, a noted glutton, time of Augustus. APIN, J. L., a medical writer, 17th century. APION, or APPION, a celebrated grammarian, and historian of Egypt, 1st century. APOLLINARIS, Caius S., a grammarian who taught at Rome, 2d century. APOLLINARIS, bishop of Laodicea, 4th cent, APOLLINARIS, son of the preceding, and re- puted author of a heresy. APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, a learned writer, bishop of Hieropolis, 2d centurv. APOLLODORUS of Athens. See Zeuxis. APOLLODORUS of Damascus, one of the most celebrated architects of antiquity. He built the forum and column of Trajan at Rome, of which there are still magnificent remains, in the year 113 A.D. and was much employed by Trajan in Rome and elsewhere. His most remarkable work, however, was the great bridge over the Danube in Bulgaria, where the Alt runs into that river; it stood on 20 piers, 150 feet high above the founda- tions, 60 feet wide, and 170 feet apart. It was built for the emperor Trajan; the bridge was of wood, but the piers were of stone. The wood- work was afterwards destroyed by Hadrian, as it gave the barbarians too great facilities for crossing the Danube. Remains of the piers are still stand- ing. Apollodorus is said to have fallen a victim to the jealousy of Hadrian, who dabbled in archi- tecture as well as other arts. (Dion Cassius, lxviii. 13, Ixix. 4; Procopius de JEdif. Justiniani, iv. ; Hirt. Geschichfe der Bauicunst.) [R.N.W.] APOLLODORUS, a Greek painter, 5th c. B.C. APOLLODORUS, a Greek gram., 2d cent. B.C. APOLLODORUS, a naturalist, 1st centurv. APOLLODORUS, an architect, killed 130. APOLLODRUS, a philosopher, time of Cicero. APOLLONIA, a female martvr, 248. APOLLONIUS, a Christian martvr, 2d cent. APOLLONIUS, bishop of Ephesus, 2d cent. APOLLONIUS, Collatius, a monastic poet of Navarre, 15th century. APOLLONIUS, Dyscolus, a grammatical writer and historian, 2d century. APOLLONIUS, Myndus, an astronomer and astrologer, time of Alexander the Great. APOLLONIUS of Perga, author of a treatise on conic sections, 3d century B.C. APOLLONIUS, Rhodius, a poet, librarian of Alexandria, died B.C. 240. APOLLONIUS, Tyaxeus, a Pythagor. philos., and reputed worker of miracles, 1st century. 83 AQU APONO, or ABANO, Peter of, a celebrated! professor of medicine, noted for his studies in as- trology and magic, 1250-1316. APOSTOLI, G. F., a Latin poet, 16th centurv. APOSTOLIUS, Michel, a learned Greek re fugee from Constantinople, 15th century. APPERLEY, C. J., a writer on sporting sub- jects, known as ' Nimrod,' died 1843. APPIAN, a celebrated historian, lived in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonine. APPIANI, Andrea, a painter, 1750-1818. APPIANO, P. A., a disting. Jesuit, 17th cent. APREECE, or RHESE, John, an antiq., 16th c. APRILS, or HOPHRA, king of Egypt, 595 B.C. ; dethroned by Amasis, 570 B.C. APROSIO, A., a monastic writer, 1607-1681. APTHORP, East, a divine, 1732-1816. APULEIUS, a botanist, 4th century. APULEIUS, Lucius, the eel. author of a philo. romance, entitled the ' Metamorphoses, or Golden Ass,' a Roman Platonist of the 2d century. AQUARIUS, a scholastic philosopher, 16th c. AQUAVIVA, Andr. Matt., duke of, a cele- rated scholar and soldier, 1456-1528. AQUAVIVA, Claude, a Jesuit. 1542-1615. AQUAVIVA, Octavio, abp. of Naples, 1612. AQUILA, an architect and savant of the 2d cent., who was excom. for practising astrology. AQUILA, Caspar, (the Latinized form of his proper name Adler,) a friend and fellow-worker of Luther in the Reformation of Germ., 1488-1560. AQUILANO, an Italian poet, 1466-1500. AQUILANUS, a physician of Padua, d. 1543. AQUINAS, Thomas, usually called the Angelic Doctor, Avas a younger son of the count of Aquino, and was born at the castle of Rocca Sicca in 1227. This place was situated on the border line between the states of the church and the territory of Naples. From his earliest years he was smitten with the love of solitary study, and when a very young man he entered the Dominican order. Force was em- ployed to prevent his becoming a monk, but in vain. So much was the youthful scholar wrapt up in his own cogitations, that when he studied at Cologne, under Albertus Magnus, his fellow-pupils gave him the name of Bos Mutus, ' mute ox, 1 on ac- count of his taciturnity and apparent stupidity. In 1255 the university of Paris gave him the title of Doctor in Theology. He lectured with brilliant ' success in Paris, in several of the Italian uni- versities, and ultimately at Naples. Being sum- moned by the pope to attend a general council at ; Lyons in 1274, he commenced his journey, and had reached Terracina, where he died, at the age of fortv-eight. He was canonized by pope John XXII. "in 1323. The Parisian edition of his works is in twenty-three folio volumes. But the amaz- ing industry of Thomas during his brief life, is' wholly eclipsed by his prodigious mental wealth, as displayed in his ' Summa Theologian ' and ' Com- mentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard.' In concise and earnest simplicity of style, in subtle and daring speculation, in purity and loftiness of aim, in orthodoxy of religious sentiment, in acute- ness and vigour, in breadth and depth of view, in intellect and heart, in piety and temper, Thomas Aquinas is the acknowledged prince of the medi- aeval schoolmen and divines. [J.E.] AQUINO, Ph., a learned rabbin, died 1650. AQU AQUINO, L. Cl., an organist, died 1772. AQUINO, Ch., a Jesuit, 1654-1740. ARABCHAH, a Mahomed, historian, d. 1450. ARABELLA STUART, a first cousin of James I., and, from her near affinity to the crown, an ob- ject of suspicion both to that prince and his pre- decessor, Elizabeth. Died in the Tower, where her long and melancholy confinement deprived her of reason, 1615. ARAGON, Tullia of, a poetess, 16th cent. ARAJA, Fr., a musician, 18th century. ARAM, Eugene, a schoolmaster of disting. learning, executed for murder, 1759. ARANTIUS, a celebrated anatomist, 16th cent. ARATOR, a Latin poet, died 556. ARATUS, a poet and astronomer, 3d cent. B.C. ARATUS, general of the Achaean league, born at Sicyon, 275 B.C. ; died 216 B.C. ARBACES, governor of Media, 9th cent. B.C. ARBAND, F., a French poet, died 1640. ARBOGAST, L. F. A., aFr. savant, 1759-1803. ARBOGASTES, a general in the Rom. armies, of barbarian origin, d. 395. ARBRISSEL, Robert of, an abbot, d. 1117. ARBUCKLE, James, a Scotch poet, d. 1734. ARBULO, P. M., a Spanish sculptor, 16th c. ARBUTHNOT, Alex., a Scotch divine, distin- guished as a reformer, 1538-1583. ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, a Scotch printer, 16th century. ARBUTHNOT, John, an em. physician of the 17th century, but more distinguished as a man of letters and a wit ; the associate of Pope and Swift, and the companion of Bolingbroke, at the court of Queen Anne : 1675-1735. ARCADIUS, emperor of the East, 395-408. ARCERE, Ant., a French Orientalist, d. 1699. ARCERE, Louis St., a French hist., 18th c. ARCESILAUS, a Gr. philosopher, 4th c. b.c. ARCHELAUS, the teacher of Socrates in phy- sical philosophy, 5th century B.C. ARCHELAUS, a geographer, time of Alexander. ARCHELAUS, bishop of Mesopotamia, 278. ARCHELAUS, bishop of Csesarea, 440. ARCHELAUS, chief general of Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, 1st century B.C. ARCHELAUS I., son of the preceding, high priest of Comana, 63 B.C.; afterwards, by his mar- riage with Berenice, king of Egypt; dethroned and put to death B.C. 55. ARCHELAUS II., son and successor of the pre- ceding as the priest-king of the city of Comana ; deposed by Julius CaBsar 47 B.C. ARCHELAUS, son of the last named, king of Cappadocia, b.c. 34 to a.d. 16. ARCHELAUS, king of Macedon, B.C. 413-399. ARCHELAUS, king of Sparta, 9th cent. b.c. ARCHELAUS, the successor of his father Herod the Great as ruler of Judaea ; deposed and banished by Augustus on account of his cruelty, 7. ARCHIAS, a Corinthian archit., 3d cent. B.C. ARCHIAS, Aulus, L., a client of Cicero. ARCHIDAMUS I., king of Sparta, B.C. 630 ; the second of this name king, B.C. 469, died 427 ; the third, reigned B.C. 361-355 ; the fourth, B.C. 296-293 ; the fifth, B.C. 240. ARCHIDEMUS, a Stoic philosopher, b.c. 160. ARCHIGENES, a Greek physician, 81-117. ARCHILVETRUS, a Greek satirist, 7th c. B.C. AHC [Archimedes liossi, Gemme Anticke.] ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated of the ancient geometers, was born at Syracuse, about 291 b.c. He was related, on his father's side, to Hiero king of Syracuse, who deemed it an honour to have so distinguished a philosopher as his relative. Having acquired at an early age all the knowledge which could be obtained in his native city, he visited Egypt, which had long been regarded as the great seat of science, and he remained there for several years, enjoy- ing the society of its distinguished men, and stor- ing his mind with the knowledge which they imparted. With a partiality which cannot be too severely condemned, one of the biographers of our philosopher has asserted that he conveyed to the Egyptians more knowledge than he received ; but even if we had not been assured by Abulpharagus that he derived all his knowledge of mechanics from the Egyptians, we might have deduced the same truth from the well-known practice of the Greek philosophers, who, in the infancy of their science, went in quest of it to Egypt. Upon his return to Syracuse, laden with the intellectual spoils of the East, he devoted the whole of his time to the cultivation of the mathematical and physical sciences, and it was only when his country was in danger that he abandoned his studies, and directed all the energies of his mind against the enemies of Syracuse. In the war which was carried on by the Romans against Hiero, about the year 212 b.c. they had obtained some signal advantages in Sicily, and were thus emboldened to lay siege to Syracuse itself. Inspired with terror at the naval and military preparations of the Roman general, the inhabitants were disposed to offer an ignomi- nious capitulation. Archimedes, however, removed their fears, and inspired them with courage. He is said to have erected vast machines, under the protection of the walls of the city, which baffled the attempts of the Roman engineers, and carried terror into the camp of the enemy. The machines by which he resisted the assaults of the Romans have not been described, and we can easily con- ceive that he erected works of defence which dis- concerted and alarmed his enemies; but when we are told that he sunk the ships of the be- siegers when they approached the city, by means of long beams of wood, and that, with grappling ;he vessels hooks at the end of levers, he raised tl into the air, and dashed them against the rocks or the walls, we feel that we are in the region of fable and romance, and must regard all such asser- tions as among the impossibilities of practical science. The inventions by which he is said to 39 ARC . have destroyed the Roman fleet when at a distance are less incredible. We may well believe that he had so improved the ballista? of the ancients as to throw stones or missiles to a greater distance, and with a greater force, than had been done before ; and we may even admit that, bv a number of plane mirrors throwing the reflected image of the sun upon one point, he could bum a ship at a distance ; but we cannot believe that the Roman fleet was thus destroyed, unless we had it in evidence that the crew were asleep. We have in the present day better mirrors than Archimedes could com- mand, and better machinery for uniting their re- flections upon one point, but we venture to say that a British or a French admiral would laugh at any such attempt to annoy him. Buffon, it is true, has endeavoured to attach a degree of proba- bility to the story of burning a ship optically. He combined 168 plane mirrors so that he could direct the light of the sun which they reflected to one spot, and he found that he could burn wood with them at the distance of 200 or 300 feet. This curious subject has been more recently discussed by M. Peyrard. Assuming the accuracy of Buffon's experiments that five times the heat of the sim is sufficient to inflame planks smeared with tar, M. Peyrard supposes that eight times the sun's heat will set fire to all lands of wood ; and upon this supposition he found that, at the distance of about a mile and a-half, it would require 2267 mirrors to burn wood, and at the distance of three quarters of a mile 590. This calculation proceeds upon the supposition that their reflections are all coincident, and that the mirrors have their two surfaces perfectly plane and parallel. But it is well known that these conditions are impossible, and that the most perfect mirror that the most skilful optician could grind and polish, would, at the distance of three quarters of a mile, and much less, scatter the light which it reflects over a sur- face ten times greater than its own, and would have very little power in the combustion of wood. But there are other conditions necessary before these mirrors, even if mathematically perfect, could set fire to ships. The ships must be abso- lutely at rest before the combined reflectors could inflame the wood upon which they fell, and, as has been already stated, the crew must be asleep in the daytime when the sun is shining. We regard, therefore, the story of the burning of the Roman fleet to belong as much to romance as the fishing for ships with hooks at the end of levers, the sinking of them by long beams, and the whirling of them in the air by ropes and grappling hooks. It is no slight presumption in favour of these opinions that the gigantic mech- anism which the Syracusan philosopher is said to have wielded against the Roman power was of little avail in the defence of the capital. The siege was converted into a blockade. During the celebration of the festival of Diana, when the Syracusans had indulged in a fatal security, the Romans attacked and obtained possession of the city. Marcellus had issued an order that Archimedes and his house should be snared ; but, either from ignorance of the order on the part of a Roman soldier, or from the obstinacy of Archi- medes in refusing submission, he was run through the body while drawing a geometrical diagram on ARC the sand. Marcellus was deeply afflicted when he heard of the event. He took the relatives of the philosopher under his special protection, and in erecting a monument to his memory, he fulfilled the wish that Archimedes had expressed in his lifetime, that a sphere inscribed in a cylinder should be engraven on his tomb. The death of Archimedes took place B.C. 212, and 140 years afterwards, Cicero, while questor in Sicily, went with a party of Syracusan nobles in search of the tomb of the great philosopher, which his country- men had allowed to go into decay. ' Remem- bexing,' says Cicero, ' some verses, said to have been inscribed on his tomb, which mentioned that on the top of it there was placed a sphere in a cylinder, I looked around me upon every object at the Agrigentine Gate, the common re- ceptacle of the dead. At length I observed a small column rising above the thorns, upon which was placed the representation of a sphere in a cylinder. This, said 1 to the nobles, must be what I am seeking. Several persons were immediately got to clear away the weeds, and lay open the spot. As soon as a passage was made, we found on the op- posite base the inscription, with nearly the latter half of the verses obliterated.' The reputation of Archimedes did not require to be sustained by the fables with which the vanity of his countrymen has surrounded his name. His discoveries in geo- metry, mechanics, and hydrodynamics would have immortalized him, had posterity never heard of his magical artillery against the Roman fleet. He discovered that the surface as well as the solidity of any sphere is equal to two-thirds of its circum- scribing cylinder ; and that the ratio of the dia- meter of a circle to its circumference is nearly as 7 to 22. It is to him that we owe the demonstra- tion of the fundamental property of the lever, and the method of finding the centre of gravity of plane surfaces. He discovered the quaquaversus pres- sure of fluids, and pointed out the condition under which a solid body is in equilibrio w lien floating in a fluid. He invented the screw for raising water which bears his name; and we owe to him the process of detecting the adulteration of the precious metals, which he so successfully applied in proving the impurity of the gold in king Hiero's crown. A splendid edition ot the works of Archimedes was printed at the Clarendon Press at Oxford, in 1792, edited by our countryman, the Rev. Abraham Ro- bertson. [D.B.] ARCHINTO, the name of a noble family of Milan, many of whom were distinguished as men of letters, ecclesiastics, and statesmen, from the 12th to the 17th cent. Charles, founder of a scientific academy, 1669-1732. Philip, abp. of Milan, d. 1558. Giuseppe, abp. and card., d. 1712. Octavius, an antiq. and diplomatist, d. 1656. ARCHON, Louis, an antiquarian, 1645-1717. ARCHENHOLZ, J. W. Von, a German his- torian, 1695-1777. ARCHENHOLZ, J., a Swed. hist., 1695-1777. ARCHYTAS, a mathe. and philo. of the Pytha- gorean schh, dist. for his prac. abilities, 5th c. B.C. ARCO, Alph. De, a Sp. painter, died 1700. ARCO, Nich., Count, a Latin poet, died 1546. ARGON, J. Cl. Eleon. Lemiceaud D', a military engineer of France, 1733-1800. ARCO US, CJUAB of, a Fr. advocate, d. 1C81, 4U ARC ARCUDIUS, Peter, a Greek priest, diplomatic agent of Clement VIII., died 1635. \\RCUDI, Alex. Thos., of, a biographical writer of Venice, died 1720. ARCULPHUS, a French traveller, 7th century. ARCY, Patrick, a military writer, died 1779. ARDELL, J. M., an Irish engraver, died 1765. ARDENE, Esprit Jean De Rome D', a poet of Marseilles, 1684-1748. ARDENE, Jean Paul, brother of the preced- ing, distinguished as a botanist, 1689-1769. ARDERN, John, an English surgeon, 14th ct. ARDERNE, Jas., an English divine, died 1691. ARDINGHELLI, M., an algebraist, 18th cent. ARDUIN, elected king of Italy 1002, d. 1015. AREAGATHUS, a Greek physician, 3d c. B.C. AREGIO, P. De, an Italian painter, 16th cent. ARENA, Anth., a French poet, died 1544. ARENA, Jos., a Corsican in the French service, execut. 1802 on a charge of consp. agt. Bonaparte. ARENA, James of, a jurist, 13th" century. ARENDS, Th., a Dutch poet, died 1700. ARENDT, M. F., a Danish antiquary and tra- veller, remarkable for the singularity of his life and adventures, 1769-1824. ARENSBECK, P. D., a Swedish schl., d. 1673. ARESI, Paul, an Italian prelate and theologi- cal and philosophical writer, 1574-1644. ARESON, the last Roman Catholic bishop of Ireland, beheaded with his sons 1550. ARETiEUS, a Greek physician, 1st century. ARETIN, A. and J. G., two brothers and art- writers of Germany, 18th century. ARETIN, J. A* C. J., baron of, a diplomatist and man of letters, 1769-1822. ARETIN, J. C, brother of the preceding, a statesman and author, 1773-1824. ARETINO, Charles, a classical scholar, cele- brated at Florence, 15th centurv. ARETINO, Fr., a lawyer, 15th century. ARETINO, Guido, a musician, 11th century. ARETINO, an Italian painter, 14th century. ARETINO, Leonard, an historian, died 1443. ARETINO, Peter, an Ital. poet, eel. as a reck- less satirist of princes and churchmen, 1492-1557. ARETINUS, an Italian musician, 16th cent. AREUS, king of Sparta, 268 b.c. ARETIUS, Ben., a Swiss botanist and theolo- gical teacher, died 1574. ARGjEUS, king of Macedon, 618 B.C.; a second of the same name usurped the throne, 393 B.C. ARGAIS, Greg., a Spanish historian, 17th ct. ARGALL, R., an English poet, 16th century. ARGAND, a chemist of Geneva, died 1803. ARGELLATI, Ph., an Ital. printer, born 1685. ARGELLATI, Fr., son of Phelix, author of an imitation of Boccaccio, died 1754. ARGENS, J. B. Bover, marquis of, a philoso- phical and miscellaneous writer, 1704-1771. ARGENTERO, J., a phys. of Piedmont, 16th c. ARGENTI, A., a poet of Ferrara, died 1576. ARGENTRE, Bertrand, an historian and jurist, president of Rennes, died 1590. ARGHUN-KHAN, king of Persia, 1284-90. ARGOLI, And., an Italian physician and mathematician, 1570-1653. ARGOLI, John, son of Andrew, a poet and arclia'ologist, died 1660. AKGOUNE, Noel, a critical author, d. 1704. ART ARGUELLADA, Raymond, a Sp., disting. for his share in framing the constitution of 1812. ARGUELLES, Augustus, a Spanish patriot, brought into note by the revolution of 1812. ARGUIJO, Juan De, a Sp. poet, 17th cent. ARGUSTIN, Anth., a Sp. antiquary, 16th ct. ARGYROPYLUS, John, one of the Greek sa- vants, refugees of the 15th century. ARI, or ARA FRODE, a scholar and historian of Iceland, 11th century. ARIADNE, a Gr. princess, daughter of Leo. Li remarkable in the politics of the period, 457-515. ARIARATHES, ten kings of this name reigned in Cappadocia from the 4th to the 1st cent. B.C. ARIAS MONTANUS, an Orientalist, 16th ct. ARIBERT I., king of the Lombards, 653-661. ARIBERT II., succeeded 701, deposed 712. ARICI, &ESAR, an Italian poet, born 1785. ARION, a Greek poet, 7th century, b.c. ARIOSTI, Attilio, a composer 17th century. ARIOSTO, Lodovico, the son of a gentleman in the service of the dukes of Ferrara, was born in 1474, at Reggio, near Modena. His life, though not prosperous, was far from being eventful : dur- ing the whole of it he was employed, in various capacities, by the ducal house of Este, who, nig- gardly and careless in their treatment of this great poet, behaved even worse in the next generation to the unfortunate Tasso. From the schools of Ferrara he passed to Padua, where he was compelled to study law for five years, busying himself also with the classics, and being at length allowed by his father to abandon the legal profession. About 1503 he was received into the retinue of cardinal D'Este, a younger son of the reigning duke of Fer- rara. As he grew older, he was repeatedly employed on confidential public missions by Alfonso, the next duke, the cardinal's elder brother; and when, in 1517, he lost the cardinal's favour by declining to attend him into Hungary, duke Alfonso took him into his own service. He received some trifling ecclesias- tical appointments, capable of being held by a per- son not in orders ; and for three years, from 1522, he was busied in organizing and governing the mountainous district of Garfagnana, which" had just been re-acquired by the house of Este. He con- tinued to be a needy man, though there is no rea- son for supposing that he lived extravagantly or irregularly; and, even if there was insufficient ground for his complaints of the parsimony of his patrons, it seems to be quite certain that they were blind to his literary merit. His last few years were spent in Ferrara, where he died in 1533. Ariosto would hold a place in the history of Italian literature, although he had contributed to it nothing but his minor works. His Rime, or short pieces of familiar verse, such as sonnets and other lyrics, are excellent in their class ; his seven poetical Satires, gay, good-humoured, and wittily observant, stand in the first rank among Italian compositions of the kind; and there is much of felicitous wit, not without great indecency, in his five versified Comedies. But it is the ' Or- lando Furioso' that makes him immortal, as one of the greatest of modern European poets. This celebrated work stands in an odd relation to simi- lar poems that preceded it In the course of the fifteenth centurv, metrical romances of chivalrv appeared in Italy; and towards the close of that 41 ari century Pulci and Boiardo, borrowing: from the romances the fabulous history of Charlemagne and his paladins, and imitating much of that union of the serious and the comic which marked the effu- sions of the minstrels, worked up these materials into chivalrous poems. Boiardo's Orlando In- namorato ' takes its name from the love of its hero, the knightly Orlando or Roland, for the Eastern princess Angelica. Of this poem, Ariosto's, (first published incomplete in 1516, and then in its present shape in 1532,) is just a continuation. Orlando's madness, caused by jealousy, fur- nishes its title, and a considerable part of its incidents. But Charlemagne's war with the Sa- racens is fully related: isolated adventures of many of his champions are continually intro- duced ; and a prominence, which increases as the work proceeds, is bestowed on the knight Rug- giero and the beautiful amazon Bradamante. The poem closes with events which remove ob- stacles to the marriage of these personages, who are represented as the ancestors of the family of Este ; and their history is regarded as the leading story of the Orlando, by those critics who are un- willing to allow that it is nothing more than a collection of episodes. If unity of design was really attempted by the poet, he has certainly failed in the execution : no one series of adventures is so decisively prominent as to fix the attention of the reader ; and the several stories are interwoven, and alternately dropped and resumed, with a ca- price and complexity which make it no easy task to tollow the windings. The mixture of gaiety with seriousness is continual ; yet these dissimilar ele- ments are harmonized with much skill and deli- cacy : and the airy sportiveness of fancy which is prevalent throughout, and the extraordinary ani- mation with which the chivalrous perils and acts of heroism are depicted, concur in shedding over the poem a charm which is irresistible. In point of poetic adornment, the Orlando is at once rich and original : Ariosto is as much superior to Tasso in native genius, as he is inferior to him in skill of constructive art. [W.S.] ARIOSTO, Gabriel, brother of the celebrated poet, also a poetical writer. ARIOSTO, Horace, son of the preceding, a poet and comedian, died 1593. ARISI, Fr., an advocate and poet, 1657-1743. ARISTiENATUS, an elegant Greek wr., 4th c. ARISTARCHUS, a grammarian and critic of noted severity, 2d century B.C. ARISTARCHUS, a Greek philosopher of the 3d century B.C., whose works on astronomy show that he was acquainted with the rotation of the earth upon its own axis. ARISTEAS, a Jewish chronicler, 1st cent, b c. ARISTIDES, a Greek painter, 3d cent. B.C. ARISTIDES, ^lius, a Gr. orator, 2d ct. B.C. ARISTIDES, Quintillian, a didactic writer, author of a work on music, 2d century. ARISTIDES, a philosopher, 2d century. ARISTIDES of Thebes, a painter, contem- porary with Apelles, was, according to Pliny, the greatest master of expression among the Greeks. The same writer relates that when Alexander the Great stormed Thebes, he was so struckwith a picture by him of a dying mother with a child at her bosom, AM The works of Aristides were in great repute even during his lifetime. Mnason, tyrant of Elatea, paid him 3,600 for a single easel picture of a battle of the Persians, containing one hundred figures only. After the siege of Corinth, 146 B.C., Attalus III., king of Pergamus, offered 5,300 for a picture of Bacchus and Ariadne by Aristides, but the Roman general Mummius, thinking the picture had some hidden value in it, sent it to Rome, where it was dedicated in the temple of Ceres. A celebrated picture by this painter, preserved in the temple of Apollo at Rome, was destroyed by a picture re- storer, to whom the prsetor, M. Junius, had given it to be cleaned before the celebration of the Apol- linaria ; another of the incidents which show how similar are the stories of ancient and modern art. Aristides painted in encaustic, that is with wax colours, the picture being afterwards burnt in. (Pliny, Hist. Nat. vii. 39, xxxv. 4 8, 10 36, 11 39, 40.) [The Pnyx at Athens.] ARISTIDES, sumamed the Just, an Athenian general and statesman, whose intrepidity greatly contributed to the victory of Marathon. _ Being banished through the intrigues of Themistocles, B.C. 483, he was recalled by his countrymen to oppose Xerxes, and distinguished himself at the battle of Salamis. After serving in the highest offices of the state, he died a poor man, 467 B.C. ARISTIPPUS, king of Argus, killed 242 B.C. ARISTIPPUS, a pupil of Socrates, and founder of a school of philosophy at Cyrene, 4th cent. B.C. ARISTO, an Aristotelian, 3d century B.C. ARISTO, Titus, a Stoic, time of Trajan. ^ ARISTOBULUS I., a Jewish prince, succeeded his father Hyrcanus as high priest, and took the title of king 107 B.C.; died 108. ARISTOBULUS II., usurped the throne 70 B.C.; deposed by Pompey 63 b.c. ARISTOBULUS, brother of Mariamne, wife of Herod the Great, killed 35. ARISTOGITON, an Athenian, executed B.C. 516, for conspiring against the Pisistratides. ARISTOMENES, a Greek general, representa- tive of the royal house of Messene, 7th cent. b.c. ARISTOPHANES, a celeb, name in the Greek drama, author of numerous comedies, equally re- markable for the beauty of their composition, and their pungent satire, flourished in the 5th ct. b.c:. His life and works have given occasion to a vast amount of learned writing and critical inquiry, but the facts known concerning him are few in number. that he ordered it to be sent to his palace at Pella. I Out of 44 compositions of his, only 11 are extant. 12 AM [Aristotle from un Antique Bust.] ARISTOTLE. This distinguished philosopher, founder of the celebrated Peripatetic school, was born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, in the year 384 before Christ, His father, Nicomachus, was the physician of Amyntas, king of Macedon, and his mother, Phsestis, as well as his father, believed to have been descended from Esculapius. Having lost both his parents in early life, he was placed under the guardianship of Proxenus, an eminent citizen of Atarneus, a city in Mysia, and after completing his seventeenth year, he repaired to Athens, to study in the school of Plato. Here he remained for twenty years, imbibing the noble spirit of his master, devoting himselr to the acquisition of every species of knowledge, and honoured in the estimation of his teacher and of his companions, as * the intellect of the school.' Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., Aristotle took up his residence at Atarneus, on the invitation of his friend Her- meias, who though originally the domestic slave of an Athenian banker, who had permitted him to attend the school of Plato, was now independent sove- reign of Atarneus and Assos. At the small but interesting court of his friend, and surrounded by the scenes of his early studies, Aristotle spent three happy years, enjoying the society of intellec- tual friends, and devoting himself with unremitting assiduity to the study of nature. Here, too, he had formed ties warmer than those of friendship. Pythia, the niece of the king, had gained his affec- tion, and when the unfortunate sovereign had been betrayed by some worthless individuals who had enjoyed his hospitality, and had forfeited his life as a rebel against the king of Persia, Aristotle fled to Lesbos with the family of his friend, and was soon afterwards married to his niece, who did not long survive her uncle. During his residence at Mytelene, in Lesbos, which was continued for rom invitation to superintend the education of Alexander his son. The compliment thus paid to his talents and cha- racter was too high to be rejected; and though the duties which such an office demanded might have interfered with the progress of his studies, he cheerfully accepted of it, and took up his resi- dence at Pella, wnen Alexander had reached his fourteenth year. The king received him with the most marked attention, and science and learning have in no future age been more highly honoured than they were at the court of Macedon in the person of the distinguished Stagyrite, and through two years, Aristotle seems to have received frc Philip, king of Macedon, the flattering invitati API the liberality of the most powerful of sovereigns. The Macedonian prince was instructed during live or six years in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics which had even at that time made some consider- able progress. Aristotle made a new collection of the Iliad for the use of his pupil, and composed a treatise ' On a Kingdom,' which has not descended to our times. Upon the death of Philip, in 336 B.C., Alexander succeeded to the throne, when in the twentieth year of his age, and Aristotle continued to live with him as his friend and counsellor till he set out on his Asiatic campaign in 334 B.C. The delicate constitution and intellectual habits of the philosopher prevented him, at the age of fifty, from following his pupil in his martial career, and he accordingly returned to Athens, where, in the charming retreat of the Lyceum, he delivered his lectures "to crowded audiences, while walking in the shade, amid the trees and fountains with which it was adorned. While thus instructing his pupils, and enjoying the popularity and reputation to which he had attained, he became, like all illus- trious teachers of philosophy, the object of envy and persecution. His rivals in learning directed against him the usual calumnies which genius is ever destined to endure from the ignorance and malice of its enemies; and the heathen priests, dreading the progress of truth as the greatest enemy of their faith, charged the philosopher with impiety and sedition. The friendship of Alexander had hitherto shielded him from open persecution, but upon the death of that monarch, in B.C. 323, he was charged before the Areopagus as an enemy to the religion of his country, and avoided the fate of Socrates, which he knew awaited him, by mak- ing his escape to Chalcis, a city of Eubcea. In this city of refuge he spent the remainder of his life. Exhausted with mental labour, and broken in spirit by his misfortunes, his feeble constitution gave way, and he died in 322 B.C., in the sixty- third year of his age, about a year after his retreat to Chalcis. His remains were carried to Stagira by his fellow-citizens, and an altar and shrine erected over his grave. The festival of Aristotelia was instituted in gratitude for his services, and even in Plutarch's time the garden of the philoso- pher, with its walks and bowers, was exhibited to the public. In his personal appearance, Aristotle was defective. He is described as having little eyes and slender limbs, with a feeble voice and an imperfect utterance ; and he is said to have im- proved the symmetry of his person by great atten- tion to dress^ and the use of elegant ornaments. The writings of Aristotle were earned to Rome among the other spoils of Athens, when it was captured by Scylla, and they were edited by An- dronicus the Rhodian, about three hundred years after they were composed. In our narrow limits we can neither record the number nor estimate the value of his writings. He divided philosophy into three departments theoretic, embracing phy- sics, mathematics, theology, and metaphysics ; effi- cient, including logic, rhetoric, and poetry; and practical, including ethics and politics. See Dr. Gillies's Ethics and Politics of Aristotle, with an account of his Life, 2 vols. 4to, 1797. [D.B.] ARISTOXEN'US, one of the most celebrated disciples of Aristotle, 4th century B.C. 43 ARI ARIUS, the noted heretic, was bora about the middle of the third century. His entire life was embroiled with disputes, principally with bishop Alexander and with Athanasius on the divinity of Christ. Arms held that God created his Son, that the Son had not existed from all eternity, and was not in dignity and essence equal with the Father. This fatal heresy was solemnly condemned by the great council which met at Nice in 325. After numerous vicissitudes, strifes, and intrigues, Arms was in the act of celebrating a triumph in Constantinople, when he retired from the crowd to satisfy a call of nature, and then and there sud- denly died at a very advanced age. His enemies rudely reckoned his manner of death a judgment from heaven. Arms was a man of bustle and ambition, soured by disappointment, and irritated by defiant opposition, and his errors, if not prompted, were at least shaped to some extent by the excit- ing circumstances in which he was placed. [J.E.] ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, an extraordi- nary man, whose genius has created a permanent influence on the constitution of civilized society. Bora in Preston in 1782, of humble parents, the voungest of 13 children, he was brought up as a barber. About 1760 he quitted this precarious business, and dealt in hair, which he collected about the country, and discovered how to dye it and prepare it for wig-makers. From 1767, not till he was 35 years of age, Arkwright gave him- self up exclusively to the subject of inventions for spinning cotton. In 1768 he was in Preston con- structing his first machine. At this time his poverty was such, that ' being a burgess of Pres- ton he could not appear to vote till the party with whom he voted gave him a decent suit of clothes ! ' Apprehensive of meeting with the same hostile treatment from the operative weavers of the dis- trict as Hargreaves had met with, Arkwright re- moved to Nottingham, where he became a partner with Mr. Jedediah Strutt, the ingenious improver and patentee of the stocking frame, and who ren- dered essential assistance in perfecting the inven- tion for which Arkwright obtained his first patent in 1769. The improvement for which the patent was obtained, consisted mainly in the use of two pairs of rollers, the first pair, between which the carded cotton in the form of a 'spule,' or soft cord, passed, revolving slowly ; and the second pair revolving two, three, or ten times as fast, so as to draw out the spule to one-half, one-third, or one- tenth of its thickness when between the first rol- lers. This invention was followed up by various improvements and combinations of machinery, and. mills for spinning cotton by this method were erected in Nottingham first, and then at Cromford in Derbyshire. The system has since been univer- sally adopted, and in all its main features remains unaltered to the present time. Out of this inven- tion have grown up the largest manufacture, the largest trade, some of the largest cities, the largest revenue, and the largest national prosperity in the world. Arkwright did not escape the system of robbery and persecution, the fate of most patentees of successful inventions then as now. By aid of false witnesses a combination of the persons in the spinning trade succeeded in 1781 in depriving Arkwright of his patent right. The evidence upon which the patent was annulled, and upon ARM which it has been much the fashion to depreciate Arkwright's talents, was that of persons in a low station of life, who spoke of circumstances which had occurred 18 years before ! Arkwright's genius was not that of a mechanic alone. Although the details of manufacturing or commercial busi- ness were altogether new to him, and although it was five years before the works at Cromford returned any pront, yet by indomitable energy he turned the tide of prosperity and wealth to bis own ad- vantage, and for several years regulated the cotton market. He left great wealth to his heirs, who in their generation increased their patrimony to the most colossal fortune, perhaps, that has been realized in Britain. [L.D.B.G.] ARLAND, J. A., a painter, died 1743. ARLER, Peter Von, an architect, 14th cent. ARLOTTO, M., a facetious writer, 15th cent. ARMELLINI, M., a learned monk, died 1737. ARMFELDT, Charles, baron of, a Swedish general, time of Charles XII. ARMFELDT, Gustavus Maurice, count of, a Swedish statesman, died 1814. ARMINIUS, or HERMANN, a German chief, who maintained his ground for years against Varus and Germanicus, and was at last slain by the treachery of one of his countrymen, 21. ARMINIUS, (Van Harmine,) was bom at Oudewater, South Holland, in 1560. After study- ing at Leyden he went to Geneva, and enjoyed the prelections of Beza. His mind seems to have had an early love of innovation, an early itching to oppose established forms of thought and belief, and he became a romantic supporter of the philo- sophy of Peter Ramus. At the age of twenty-six he was ordained minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and preached with great acceptance. His views soon became unsettled, and he was en- tangled in controversy. In 1603 he succeeded Junius in the chair of theology at Leyden. Next session he attacked the doctrine of predestination, and based it upon foreknowledge of faith and merit. Gomar became his resolute antagonist. The warfare waxed hotter and hotter, and the States-general interfered, but to no purpose. Arminius died in 1609. The candour and honesty of Arminius are unimpeached, and his ability is un- doubted, but the system which now bears his name was elaborated after his death by Episcopius and Limborch, several of its distinctive tenets not being held by its name-father. [J.E.] ARMSTRONG, John, a eel. phys., au. of many valuable works on medical science, 1784-1829. ARMSTRONG, John, M.D., a Scotch physi- cian, better known as a poet, was bom at Casleton, on the banks of the Liddal, in Roxburghshire, 1709, and graduated at Edinburgh, 1732. He was already distinguished by his love of literature and the arts, but more especially for his classical attain- ments and taste in poetry. After one or two pro- fessional essays, he published, 1735, a poetical brochure, entitled, an 'Essay for Abridging the Study of Medicine,' a pleasant attack on the or- thodox faculty, in the dialogue of which he is said to have caught the very spirit of Lucian. This was followed in 1737 by a professional work on a subject requiring great delicacy in its treatment, and two years afterwards by ' The Economy of Love,' a poem which passed through several editions, ' more to the 41 ARM profit of the publisher than the reader.' His repu- tation, clouded by this unfortunate sally of humour, was fully established in 1744 by the ' Art of Pre- serving Health,' which is still regarded as one of the best didactic poems in the English language, and has placed its author in the same rank as Akenside. From this period to 1758, Dr. Arm- strong published several fugitive pieces, more or less correct in taste, and in the last-named year a volume of sketches, remarkable for their ill-humour, under the pseudonyme of Launcelot Temple, Esq. In 1760, his poetical epistle entitled 'The Day ' was published, as the preface declares, without the knowledge or consent of the author, and procured for him the enmity of Churchill, who retorted its reflections in severe, and it may be unjustifiable, terms. Armstrong was evidently dissatisfied with his place in public esteem, and in all probability had cherished a morbid sensibility on this subject, which was ill concealed by the affectation of a good-natured cynicism, described by the poet Thom- son, who was also his intimate friend, as both humane and agreeable, like that of Jacques in the play.' This quality, whether agreeable or the contrary, was abundantly manifest in a volume of medical essays, published 1771, in which, however, some advanced views in physiology are put forth. The professional career of Dr. Armstrong brought him little distinction. In 1741, we find him soli- citing the appointment of physician to the West Indian fleet. In 1746 he was appointed to the hospital for lame and sick soldiers behind Buck- ingham House, and in 1760 accompanied the Ger- man army as physician. His collected poetical works were published in 2 vols. 8vo, 1770, and along with them his tragedy of the ' Forced Mar- riage,' which had been rejected by Garrick. Dr. Armstrong died in consequence of a fall when stepping from his carriage, in 1779, and surprised his friends by leaving a saving of three thousand pounds out of his moderate income. [E.R.] ARMYNE, Lady Mary, a woman of distin- guished benevolence and attainments, died 1675. ARNAL, J. P., a Spanish architect, died 1805. ARNALD, a commentator, died 1756. ARNALL, M., a political writer, noted as a partizan of Walpole, died 1741. ARNAUD, F. S. B., a miscellaneous author of France, 1718-1757. ARNAUD DE MERUIL, a Fr. poet, d. 1220. ARNAUD, Fr., a French ecclesiastic, disting. as a journalist and savant, 1721-1784. ARNAULD DE VILLENEUVE, a famous alchymist and physician, 1238-1314. ARNAULD, Axth., a political writer, time of Catharine de Medici, 1550-1619. ARNAULD, Robt., son of Anthony, an an- nalist and translator, 1589-1674. ARNAULD, Henry, another son, born 1597, bishop of Angers 1649, died 1692. ARNAULD, Antil, another son, eel. as a philo- sopher, theologian, and controversialist, 1612-1694. ARNAULD of Brescia, an Italian reformer and martyr, of the 12th century. ARNAULT, A. T., a Fr. dramatist, died 1834. ARNDT, Joshua, brother of Christian, author of ' Ecclesiastical Antiquities,' 1626-1685. ARNDT, Charles, son of Joshua, a professor of Hebrew, 1673-1721. ARN ARNDT, Chr., a logician, 1623-1683. ARNDT, C. Gottlieb Von, Councillor and literary assistant of Catherine II. ARNDT, Joh. Gottfried, hist., 1713-1767. ARNDT, John, a divine, 1555-1621. ARNE, Thomas Augustine, Mus. Doc, the son of an upholsterer, was born in King-Street, Covent Garden, London, in the year 1710. Arne, who was by his father intended for the legal pro- fession, was educated at Eton, and served a regular term to an attorney ; but his love of music prevailed overall obstacles, and contrary to his father swishes, he forsook the subtleties of law for the then less lucra- tive study of music. His ungovernable taste led him to have recourse to strange and eccentric me- thods for its gratification, of which the following- incident furnishes an example: While engaged in the attorney's office his means were limited, and his musical appetite insatiable, but that he might have an opportunity of gratifying it, he often, as we find on the authority of Dr. Burney, used to avail himself of the privilege of a servant, by borrowing a livery and going into the gallery or the opera, which was then appropriated to domestics.' While an apprentice with the lawyer, the young enthusiast received some lessons on the violin from Michael Christian Festing, a German vio- linist then in much repute, and in a short time made so much progress upon that instrument that he quitted his legal master and adopted music as a profession. The first notice his father had of this circumstance, was when on one occasion happening accidentally to call at the house of a neighbouring gentleman, he found to his surprise and consterna- tion the young Thomas Augustine playing leading violin with a party of musicians. This incident de- cided the fate of Arne. The world gained a musi- cian of much taste and delicacy of feeling, and lost perhaps a discontented pettifogger. Soon after this, Arne discovering that his sister, who after- wards became Mrs. Cibber, had not only a fine taste in music, but a ' sweet-toned and touching ' voice, he gave her a course of instructions, and qualified her to appear in Lampe's opera of Ame- lia. Her voice and manner took so well with the public, that Arne, then only eighteen years of age, set to music for her Addison's Rosamond, in which she personated the heroine, his younger brother supporting the character of the Page. Arne's suc- cess in his first opera induced him to compose music for Fielding's Tom Thumb, which was brought out in 1731. In 1738 he produced the music to Comus, which established his reputation as a lyrical composer. In 1740 he married Miss Cecilia Young, a pupil of Geminiani, and went with her professionally to Ireland, where both were well received, he as composer and she as singer. In 1742 he returned to England, and produced two masques, Britannia and The Judgment of Paris ; also Eliza, an opera, and Thomas and Sally, a humorous after- piece. In 1745 Arne and his wife were engaged by the proprietor of Vauxhall, and here he com- posed his charming songs, which are now so rarely to be seen, and so greedily sought after by ama- teurs and collectors in all parts of Great Britain. It was not long after this that he composed his two oratorios, A bel and Judith, but they met with no suc- cess. His Artaxerxes, a free translation by himself | from the Artaserse of Metastasio, upon which his 45 ARN f:ime as an operatic composer now rests, was com- posed in 176** and it met with the most triumphant success. In 1769 the university of Oxford conferred upon Arne the degree of Doctor in Music. After this he composed his opera The Fairies, the music for Mason's Elfrida and Caractaciis, additions to Pur- cell's King Arthur, several of Shakspeare's songs, and the Stratford Jubilee, besides many glees, catches, and canons. For his excellence as a writer of srlees the Catch Club awarded him no fewer than seven gold medals. His song and chorus, Rule Bri- tannia, which will live for ever, ' may be said to have wafted his name over the greater half of the habit- able world.' Dr. Arne was seized with spasms of the lungs, and died on the oth of March, 1778. On his deathbed, having been educated a Roman Catholic, he sought consolation from the rites of that church, and his last moments were cheered by a hallelujah sung by himself. Mrs. Arne died about the year 1795. Dr. Arne left an only son, Michael, who evinced a precocious taste for music, but never attained the same eminence as his father. He in conjunction with Mr. Battishill produced the opera of Alcmena at Drury Lane in 1764, and afterwards Cymon at the King's Theatre, from which he de- rived both honour and fame. He died without issue, but in what year we have been unable to discover. [J.M.] ARNE, Cecilia, wife of the celebrated Dr. Arne, a distinguished cantatrice, d. 1795. ARNE, Michael, son of the preceding, also a composer of music, died about 1785. ARNIGIO, an Italian poet, 1523-1577. ARNHEIM, or ARNIM, a German baron, dis- tinguished in the thirty years' war. ARNIM, Ludwig A. Vox, a romancist and poet of Germany, 1781-1831. ARNISjEUS, a metaphysician, 16th century. ARNOBIUS, Afer, a Christian writer, 3d ct. ARNOBIUS, a biblical commentator, 5th cent. ARNOLD, Benedict, an American general who was at first distinguished in the cause of indepen- dence, but in 1780 entered into an engagement with the British for the treasonable surrender of West Point, where he commanded, 1740-1801. ARNOLD, Chr., an astronomer, 1646-1695. ARNOLD, God., a mystic divine, 1665-1714. ARNOLD, John, a mechanician, 1744-1799. ARNOLD, Nich., a polemical dis., died 1680. ARNOLD, Richard, a chronicler, 15th cent. ARNOLD, Samuel, Mus. Doc, was born in London, in the year 1740, and received his musical education at the Chapel Royal, St. James's, from Mr. Bernard Gates and Dr. Nares, who discovered in him the most promising ta- lents. In the year 1760 he became composer to the Covent Garden Theatre, and in 1766 he undertook the duties of the same office at the Hay- market. Dr. Arnold produced four oratorios, eight odes, three serenades, forty-seven operas, three burlettas, besides many overtures, concertos, songs, and smaller pieces, the number of which is not on record. The most popular of his works, several of which still keep their place in public estimation, were The Maid of the Mill, The Son-in-law* The Castle of Andalusia, Inkle and Yarico, The Battle of Hexham, The Surrender of Calais, The Chil- dren in the Wood, The Mountaineers. The Cure of iiaul, Abimelediy The Resurrection, and The ARN Prodigal Son. The university of Oxford con- ferred upon him their degree of Doctor in Music about the year 1773. In 1783, on the death of Dr. Nnres, he was appointed organist at the Chapel Royal and composer to the king; and at the commemoration of Handel, which took place in the year following, Dr. Arnold was nominated one of the directors. He succeeded Dr. Cooke as conduc- tor of the Academy of Ancient Music in 1783, and was appointed organist of Westminister Abbey in 1793. Dr. Arnold, who is described as having possessed those personal manners and social virtues which secure esteem, died on the 2d of October, 1802, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dr. Arnold married a lineal descendant of the Baron of Merchiston, and left one son and two daughters. [J.M.] ARNOLD, Thos., a physician, 1742- 1816. ARNOLD, Thomas, D.D., was born at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on 13th June, 1795. He belonged to a respectable family, his father be- ing collector of the customs in that place, and having been destined for the ministry in the Church of England, was in due time entered a student in the university of Oxford. On completing his col- lege studies in 1819, he obtained deacon's orders, and immediately after took up his residence at Laleham, near Staines, where for the nine follow- ing years he kept a private boarding establishment, intended chiefly as a school of preparation for the universities. In the superintendence of this semi- nary, the character of Arnold rapidly developed itself, and was marked by an indefatigable activity, a manly decision and detmiteness of purpose, above all, by a settled religious faith, little to be expected from the indolent and dreamy habits of his youth. He was an eminent Christian, as well as a ripe scholar ; and the principles on which he acted with the utmost earnestness himself he infused into the minds of his pupils, by leading them to unite a high standard of intellectual accomplishments with a Christian culture of the heart and affections. The success of this system extended his fame far beyond the obscure and limited locality of Lale- ham ; and in 1827 he became head master of Rugby school, having been nominated to that influential office by n unanimous vote of the trustees, who were told, on high authority, that ' he would change the face of education all through the public schools of England.' That expectation was not long in being realized; for having also obtained the appointment of chaplain to the school at Rugby, in which capacity he preached discourses, which have long been admired as models of ser- mons for educated youth, he succeeded, while fully sustaining the ancient celebrity of the institution as a classical seminary, in imparting to it a new and Christian tone. The great principle of his educa- tional system was to make his pupils good men as well as good scholars ; and accordingly, while la- bouring to store their minds with useful and elegant literature, he taught them to make religion the daily rule of their life not to confine it to Sabbath and the church, but to carry it into the school-room, the play-ground, the secular duties and familiar intercourse of every day. The bene- ficial effects of the method pursued at Rugby led to its general adoption in the other great English schools, and produced a marked improvement on M ARN fie religious tone of sentiment and feeling among the young gentlemen who thenceforth repaired to the universities. The principle of combining reli- gion with secular education, which Dr. Arnold had successfully adopted in his school, he endeavoured to carry out in all that he undertook. Thus he maintained the identity of church and state, realiz- ing a condition of society in which all the laws, institutions, and measures of a Christian country should be based on purely Christian principles. With the same view, he accepted a place in the directory of the London university, which he zea- lously encouraged, from a liberal desire to extend the benefits of a literary and scientific education to all classes, irrespective of sectarian tests ; but he wished to give it a religious character, and failing in his efforts to make examination in the Scriptures necessary for obtaining a degree, he resigned his con- nection with that institution. In like manner, hav- ing attempted in vain to infuse a Christian spirit into the Penny Magazine, he established, at his own risk, The Englishman's Register a periodical to which his name and character would probably have gained a wide circulation; but finding that the publication demanded more time than he could spare, he was obliged, after the issue of a few numbers, to relinquish the undertaking. Dr. Ar- nold is known as an author by several volumes of discourses, by his History of Rome, composed on the principles of Niebuhr, and by various pamph- lets on matters of contemporary interest in religion and politics. The government of Lord Melbourne rewarded his public services by appointing him to the chair of modern history in Oxford : but he had only given his inaugural lecture, when a spasmodic affection of the heart suddenly cut him off at Rugby, on 12th June, 1842, in the forty-seventh year of his age. [R. J.] ARNOLDE, R., a chronicler, 16th century. ARNOLFO, an Italian architect, died 1300. ARNOT, Hugo, a Scotch historian, 1749-1786. ARNOUL, king of Italy, 892 to 898. ARNOUL, a French prelate, 12th century. ARNOULT, S., a French actress, 1740-1802. ARNOULT, J. B., a French writer, 1689-1753. ARNULPH, or ERNULPHUS, bishop of Ro- chester, historian, died 1124. ARNTZENIUS, Otho, a Dutch savant, d. 1765. AROMATRI, J., an Ital. physician, 1586-1660. ARPINO, Jos., an Italian painter, 1560-1640. ARRIA, the wife of Caecina Psetus, distinguished by her tragical death, 42. ARRIAN, a Greek historian, 2d century. ARHIGHETTI, Ph., an Italian wr., 1582-1662. ARRIGHETTO, or ARRIGO, Henry, a Latin poet and ecclesiastic of Florence, 12th century. ARRIVABENE, L., bishop of Mantua, 16th ct. ARRIVABENE, J. F., an Italian poet, 16th ct. ARROWSMITH, Aaron, distinguished as a maker of maps and charts. 1750-1823. ARROWSMITH, J., a puritan divine, d. 1659. ARSACES I., elected king of the Parthians after conquering Seleucus, 288 B.C., killed in battle 250 b.c. The succeeding kings were called Ar- sacidae, to the number of twenty-eight, the dynasty becoming extinct 217, when Artaxerxes succeeded. A I!S ACES, king of Armenia, slain by Sapor 369. ARSENIUS, tutor of Arcadius, 4th century. ARSES tinir nf Pm-clo n.^ Q'!0 ARSES, king of Persia, b.c. 339. ASC ARSILLI, Fr., an Italian physician, 16th cent. ARSINOE, mother of Ptolemy L, king of Egypt after Alexander the Great. ARSINOE, daugh. of Ptolemy, b. B.C. 316, mar. to Lysimachus, k. of Thrace, 300 b.c, dethd. 280. ARSINOE, sister of Cleopatra, by whose wish she was put to death, B.C. 41. ARTABAN I., king of Parthia 216 to 196 B.C. ARTABAN II., succeeded 127, killed 124 b.c. ARTABAN III., king 14 B.C., several times dethroned by the Romans, died a.d. 44. ARTABAN IV., king 216, dethroned 226. ARTALIS, Joseph, a poet of Sicily, d. 1679. ARTARIS, an Italian statuary, 17th centuiy. ARTAXERXES I., k. of Persia, 465 to 424 b.c. ARTAXERXES II., king, 404 to 362 b.c. ARTAXERXES III., k. 359, d. by pois. 338 B.C. ARTAXERXES, or ARDSHIR,the first Sas- sanide king of Persia, reigned 217-240. ARTAXIAS, the name of three kings of Ar- menia; the first, about the middle of the 2d c. B.C.; the second from 30 to 20 ; the third a.d. 16 to 18. ARTEAGA, St., a Spanish author, died 1799. ARTEDI, P., a Swedish naturalist, died 1735. ARTEMIDORUS, a geographer, 1st cent. b.c. ARTEMIDORUS, a writer on dreams, 2d cent. ARTEMISIA I., queen of Caira, 480 b.c. ARTEMISIA II., queen consort of Caira, 376 to 352, queen 352 to 350, B.C. ARTEMON, a military engineer, 5th cent. B.C. ARTEVELLE, James, chief of the popular party in Flanders, killed at the instigation of the nobles of Ghent, 1345. Philip, his son, leader of a revolt 1382, killed the same year. ARTHUR, the famous British prince, is sup- posed to have flourished at the time of the Saxon invasion, and to have d. in the battle-field abt. 520. ARTHUR, duke of Bretagne, son of Jeffrey, elder brother of John king of England, born 1187; excluded from the throne 1199; taken prisoner 1202 ; assassinated, as supposed, 1203. ARTIGAS, Don John, disting. in the wars of the Banda Oriental, and Buenos Ayres, 1760-1826. ARTIZENIUS, H., an historian, 1702-1759. ARTIZENIUS, J. H., son of Henry, disting. as a writer on jurisprudence, 1734-1797. ARTIZENIUS, Otho, uncle of the preceding, professor of the Belles Lettres, died 1763, aged 63. ARTOIS, J. V., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. ARTUSI, G. V., a musical author, 16th cent, ARUNDEL, Mary, countess of, a lady of dis- tinguished learning in the 16th century. ARUNDEL, T., abp. of Canterbury, noted for his violent persecution of the Reformers, 1353-1413. ARUNDEL, Sir Thos., first lord of Wardour, received his title from James I., distinguished against the Turks, died 1639. ARUNDEL, Thos., Howard, earl of, son of the preceding, died at Padua, 1646. ARUNDEL, Blanche, wife of the last named, mem. for her defence of Wardour castle, 1583-1649. ARVIEUX, Laurent D', an agent of the Fr. court in Palestine, and the East, 1635-1702. ARZACHEL, an astronomer, 11th century. ASAPH, St., a British monk, 5th century. ASBURY, Fr., bishop of the Episcopalian Methodists, U. S., 1745-1816. ASCHAM, Roger, a man of great learning, the instructor of Elizabeth, died 1568. 47 ASC ASCHAM, Anth., envoy from Cromwell to Spain, where he was assassinated, 1650. ASCHER, a German rabbi, died 1321. ASCLEPIADES, a Greek physician, d. B.C. 63. ASCOLI, Lecco Di, a mathematician of Flo- rence, bnrned as a heretic 1358. ASCONIUS, a grammarian, 1st century. ASDRUBAL, a celeb, general commanding the army of Carthage, killed B.C. 220. Another Car- thaginian general of the same name, d. B.C. 489. ASDRUBAL, Barca, brother of Hannibal, vanquished and slain 208 B.C. ASELLI, Caspar, an anatomist, 17th cent. ASGILL, Sir Ch., a British officer, died 1823. ASGILL, John, a barrister, died 1783. ASH, John, LL.D., a lexicographer, d. 1779. ASHBURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, b. 1774, commenced his political life as Whig member for Taunton, 1812 ; president of the Board of Trade under the Peel ministry, 1834 ; envoy to the United States on the Oregon question, 1842 ; d. 1848. ASHIK, a Turkish poet, 16th century. ASHLEY, John, a musician, last century. ASHLEY, Robert, amiscellan. wr., 16th cent. ASHMOLE, Eltas, celebrated as an antiquary and alchymist, 1617-1692. ASHIdUN, John Hooker, a distinguished scholar of America, 1800-1833. ASHWELL, Geo., an English div., 1612-1693. ASHRAF-SHAH, king of Persia, 1722 to 1729. ASKEW, Anne, a prot. martyr, reign of Henry VIIL; b. 1521, burnt alive aft. suffer, the rack, 1546. ASKEW, Anth., a scholar of the 18th century. ASMONJEUS, a Levite from whom the illustri- ous Asmonsean princes derive their name. ASPASIA, a lady of ancient Greece, whose house at Athens became the resort of the greatest masters in philosophy and art, 5th century b.c. ASITNWALL, Wm., a phvsician, 1743-1823. ASSELIN, G. T., a French poet, 17th century. ASSELYN, J., a Dutch painter, 1610-1650. ASSEMANI, Step., a catholic writer, 17th ct. ASSER, a French historian, died 883. ASSER, a Talmudist, died 427. ASSERMO, Menevensis, the instructor and biographer of Alfred the Great, died 909. AST, G. A. F., a philologist, died 1841. ASTARIK, F., a composer, died 1803. ASTEL, Mary, a divine and philos., d. 1731. ASTLE, Thos., an archaeologist, died 1803. ASTLEY, Ph., the eel. equestrian, 1742-1814. ASTOLPHUS, k. of the Lombards, 749 to 756. ASTON, Sir Arthur, a royalist, killed at Drogheda when taken by Cromwell, 1649. ASTON, Sir Thos., a royalist of Cheshire, taken prisoner and killed 1645. ASTOR, John Jacob, a native of Germany, disting. as a merchant of New York, and particu- larly for his enterprise in the establishment of the American fur trade, 1763-1848. ASTORGA, Marquis of, a Spanish diploma- tist, viceroy of Naples 1672. ASTORGA, Marquis of, disting. by his oppo- sition to the French usurpation in 1807, declared a traitor by Napoleon 1808, died 1814. ASTORI, J. A., a Venetian scholar, 17th cent. ASTOR1NI, Euas, a phvsiologist, died 1702. ASTYAGEO, last king of the Medes, dethroned by Cyrus, 6th century b.c. ATT ASTRUC, J., a French phvsician, 1684-1766. ATAHUALPA, last Inca of Peru, killed 1553. ATAIDE, viceroy of India 1569, died 1580. ATANAGI, Denis, an Ital. author, 16th cent. ATAULF, king of the Visigoths after Alaric. ATHA, Hakim Ben., the original of Moore's 'Veiled Prophet of Khorassan,' who gave himself out for an incarnation of the Deity, and met with a tragical end, 8th century. ATHALARIC, king of the Ostrogoths, 526. ATHANAGILDUS, king of the Visigoths, 554. ATHANARIC, king of the Visigoths, 4th cent. ATHANASIUS, the great champion of ortho- doxy in the fourth century, was born perhaps about 296. His first appearance was in support of his patron, bishop Alexander, against the Arians, and he was not only present, though simply a deacon, at the council of Nice, but was an active and intrepid member of that assembly. His rising fame led to his elevation to the see of Alexandria when Alexander died. Bishop Athanasius was immediately involved in contests, which ended only with his life. Deposed most unjustly in 335, he was reinstated in 338. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. His enemies prepared the most unscrupulous charges against him, all of which he refuted with an overwhelming force of proof and eloquence. Again in 355 was he sen- tenced to be banished, when he retired to the Egyptian deserts, and again was he welcomed back to the Egyptian capital. Once more Julian the apostate exiled him, and once more he was restored. A fifth time was he banished by the emperor Valens, who, however, soon recalled him, and Athanasius, after holding the primacy for the long space of forty-six years, died at length in 373. He was a man of holy life, a bold and noble defender of the Godhead of the Saviour, an orator of ready and commanding eloquence, and a prelate of heroic and indefatigable activity. The prejudices even of Gibbon were softened toward him, and he has pronounced upon him a splendid eulogy History, chap. xxi. The monks of St. Maur published the works of this illustrious father in three folios, Paris 1698. [J.E.] ATHANASIUS, a prince bishop of Naples, ravaged Italv, and died 900. ATHELSTAN, king of England 925 to 954. ATHENiEUS, a military engineer, 3d ct. b.c. ATHENjEUS, a grammarian, 3d century. ATHENAGORAS, a philosopher of the 2d ct. ATHENAIS, the empress of Theodosius, distin- guished for her learning, died 460. ATHENADORUS, a Greek physician, 1st cent. ATHIAS, Jos., a learned Jew, 17th century. ATHLONE, Godfrey, count of, a Dutch general, time of William III. ATHOL, John Murray, duke of, died 1830. ATKINS, Robt., a divine, 17th century. ATKINSON, Hy., a mathematician, died 1831. ATKINSON, Thos., a miscel. writer, d. 1833. ATKYNS, Sir Robt., the patriotic defender of Lord Wm. Russell, born 1621 ; chief baron of the exchequer, 1688 to 1693 ; died 1709. ATKYNS, Sir Robt., son of the preceding, h:2- torian of Gloucestershire, died 1711. ATKYNS, Rich., a writer on printing, d. 1677. ATLEE, S. J., a French officer, died 1786. ATTA, a dramatic poet, 1st century b.c. 48 ATR ATRATUS, Hugo, cardinal, an English physi- cian and natural philosopher, died 1287. ATTARDI, B., a monastic writer, 18th century. ATTENDOLI, Darius, a writer on duelling. ATTENDOLO, J. B., a poet, died 1592. ATTERBURY, Lewis, D.D., father of the famous Atterbury, 1631-1693. ATTERBURY, Francis, bishop of Rochester, celebrated as an eloquent preacher, born 1662, arrested on a charge of conspiracy in favour of the Stuarts 1722, died in exile 1732. ATTERBURY, Lewis, LL.D., brother of the bishop, author of sermons, &c, 1656-1731. ATTICUS, Herodes, a eel. Greek rhetorician, b. at Marathon 110, preceptor of Marcus Aurelius and Verus, consul and governor of the free cities of Asia 143, and subsequently ; died 186. ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, the eel. friend of Cicero, disting. for the purity of his lang., d. B.C. 33. ATTILA. This distinguished leader was of Mongol-Tartar origin, and succeeded his uncle as king of the Huns, a.d. 434. At first the sovereign authority was divided between Attila and his brother Bleda, who together invaded Thrace, and compelled the emperor of the East to purchase their forbearance by a heavy fine and annual tri- bute of gold, a.d. 442. Some three years later Bleda was deposed and put to death, and Attila ac- knowledged as only and sovereign lord of the noma- dic hordes of Hungary and Scythia. This event is only obscurely related, but it was either precipitated, or shortly alterwards followed by the discovery of a sword, the possessor of which acquired a sacred character in the eyes of the Scythian barbarians, who worshipped the god of war under that em- blem; in short, it was believed that the divine right to universal empire was bestowed on Attila when this old weapon, which had long been buried in the earth, was placed in his hands ; and it was in this faith, added to the love of adventure and the hope of gain, that he succeeded in rallying to his stan- dard nearly all the barbarians of Scythia and Ger- many. The war, in fact, to which Attila, soon at the head of 700,000 combatants, challenged, the whole civilized world, was a struggle for the ascendancy between the free life of the desert and the luxurious settlements which had transferred the sovereign authority to some of the meanest and basest of mankind. The character of Theodosius the younger, emperor of the East at this time, contrasts unfa- vourably in nearly every point with that of Attila, who was remarkable for his simplicity and general moderation, though subject to gusts of passion, which, with his cruelty in war, well entitled him to be called the 'terror of the world' and the 'scourge of God.' The East, according to some accounts, as far as the plains of Armenia, resounded with the tramp of his armed hosts, and from the Euxine to the Adriatic some threescore and ten cities were given to fire and the sword ; while Theodo- sius, who ought to have protected them with the terror of his arms, was wringing the disgraceful tribute and the means of supporting the equally disgraceful splendour of his court, from his unhappy subjects. Not daring to meet the enemy in the tented field, the emperor, by his splendid promises, engaged one of the members of an embassy from Attila to poison him on his return home, but the miserable man, overawed by the commanding pre- ATT sence of his chief, confessed the plot ; and perhaps the most striking passage in his history is the bar- baric scorn with which Attila denounces this at- tempt of Theodosius as the treachery of a slave towards one whose fortune and virtues had made him master of the world ! The death of Theodo- sius, a.d. 450, and the preparations of Martian, who replied to the usual demand for tribute, ' that he had gold for his friends and iron for his ene- mies,' diverted the course of Attila from the East, and pointed to the Western empire. Other induce- ments to this famous expedition were not wanting. Honoria, the sister of the reigning emperor Valenti- nian III. had offered her hand to Attila as the means of escape from a cloister to which she had been con- signed for incontinence, and Genseric, the king of the Vandals, had solicited his aid against Theodo- ric king of the West Goths, whose destruction was also a darling object of Attila's ambition. He com- menced his march to Italy, a.d. 450, with an immense army of Huns, swelled by the numerous tributaries who owed him allegiance, and, crossing the Rhine, carried devastation through the greater part of Gaul and Burgundy, routing armies and destroying towns in his progress. Meantime the Roman army, under the command of ^tius, strengthened by an alliance with the West Goths, at whose head was Theodoric the Great, and with the gallant Franks, prepared to offer the last resist- ance of Italy to his advance. The armies met in the environs of Chalons-sur-Marne, when the ap- proach of Attila had already threatened Orleans with destruction, and a bloody conflict ensued, at which the slain has been variously estimated at from one hundred and sixty to three hundred thou- sand men. Although not routed, Attila was com- pelled to retreat beyond the Rhine, and was hardly dissuaded from an act of self-destruction which he had contemplated rather than be taken captive. The morrow of the battle discovered to him that he could continue his retreat without molestation, and he returned home only to recruit his forces, and spread equal devastation the year following in the plains of Lombardy. Ravenna and Rome itself now trembled at his near approach, and his retire- ment, with a vast ransom, from the cities of Italy, has been attributed to a miracle. Between this period and the death of Alaric, a.d. 453, a second mvasion of Gaul is mentioned, which proved as destructive to human life as the preceding. The East also was again menaced with a reign of ter- ror, and Italy feared that his threats to compel the surrender of Honoria would yet be executed. These, and the thousand wild apprehensions which prevailed from the east to the west of Europe, while he lived, were allayed by his sudden death, occasioned by the bursting of a blood-vessel, on the night of his marriage with the beautiful Ildico. His wide -spread sovereignty, and the dreaded power of the Huns, died with him ; the confederacy of so many barbarous tribes, and the savage enthusiasm with which they ranged them- selves under his banner, being alike due to his singular power of command and personal prowess. It may be observed here, that the Hungarians so called at the present day are not descended from the Huns of Attila, but are chiefly a Majiar race, with a mixture of Roman, Turk, Mongol, Slavonic, and German elements. [E.li.] 49 ATT ATTIRET, J. Fr., a French Jesuit missionary and painter, 1702-1768. ATWOOD, Geo., F.R.S., a writer on mechanics and mathematics, 1745-1807. ATTWOOD, Thomas, an eminent composer, was born in the year 1705, and commenced his musical career as one of the children of the Chapel Royal, St. James's, under Dr. Nares and Dr. Ayr- ton. Happening on one occasion to perform at Buckingham Palace, he attracted the notice of George IV., then Prince of Wales, who took him under his patronage, and sent him at his own ex- pense to Naples in 1783, where he studied for two years under Filippo Cinque and Gastaus Latilla. He afterwards visited Vienna, where he immediately became a pupil of Mozart, from whom he received instructions till the year 1786, when he returned to England, where he soon became one of the chamber musicians to his royal patron, and musical preceptor to the Duchess of York and the Princess of Wales, afterwards the unfortunate Queen Caroline. In 1795 Attwood succeeded Dr. Jones as organist of St. Paul's Cathedral, and in 1796 he was appointed composer to the king. About this period of his life he turned his atten- tion to the composition of music for the stage, and produced several operas, the literary portion of the most of which may be regarded as dead, though the music of many of them is as much admired as it was when first performed. Amongst the most popular of his operas may be named The Prisoner, The Mariners, The Adopted Child, The Castle of Sor- rento, and The Smugglers. The fantastic tricks, and petty vanities of leading performers, disgusted Attwood, and caused him to turn his attention to sacred music, in which he was very successful. For the coronation of George IV. he wrote his an- them The King shall Rejoice, and for that of King William III., Lord, Grant the King a Long Life, both of which hold the highest place amongst this class of musical compositions. In 1837 the Bishop of London appointed him without solicita- tion to the office of organist to the Chapel Royal. He died in 1837, and his remains were buried in St. Paul's Cathedral, beneath the great organ, with every honour that the church and his professional brethren could confer. Many of Attwood's works, and they are very numerous in all the classes, are destined to enjoy a lengthened popularity. His style was founded principally upon that of his great teacher, Mozart, who, according to Michael Kelly, once said, ' Attwood partakes more of my style than any pupil I ever had.' [J.M.] AUBERT, Abbe, a French fabulist, last cent. AUBIGNE, Theod. Agrippa D', one of the most remarkable men of the 16th cent., an hist., satirist, and poet, persecuted on account of his attachment to the reformed religion, 1550-1630. AUBIGNE, Constant, son of the preceding, and father of Mad. de Maintenon. AUBLER, J. B. C. F., a botanist, 1720-1778. AUBREY, John, an antiquary, died 1700. AUBRIET, Claude, a French painter, d. 1740. AUBRIOT, Hugh, mayor of Paris, time of Ch. V., incarcerated in the Bastile, which he had erected as a fortress against the English, on a charge of heresy., and rescued by the insurgent populace 1382, died 6ame year. AUBRY, Stepil, a French painter, died 1781. AUD AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, a French knight, whose murder was discovered by the hostility of his dog to Richard de Macaire, 1371. AUBRY, C. L., a mathematician, last century. AUBRY, J. B., a French prior, 1735-1809. AUBRY, J. F., a Fr. physician, last century. AUBRY, Mdlle., a ballet dancer, worshipped in Paris as the goddess of reason, 1793. AUBRY DE GANGES, Marie Olympie, female republican, executed by Robespierre. AUBRY, Dubonchet N., a French economist, deputy to the Estates General, 1789. AUBRY, F., amember of the Fr. Conven. and the Committee of Public Safety, died in England 1802. AUBUSSON, J. D', a troubadour, 13th cent. AUBUSSON, Peter D', a soldier of the church, distinguished against the Turks, 15th century. AUCHMUTZ, Sir Sam., an Eng. gen., d. 1822. AUCKLAND, Wm. Eden, Lord, a diplomatist and ambassador, 1744-1814. AUDE, Joseph, a dramatist, last century. AUDEBERT, G., a Latin poet, died 1678. AUDEBERT, J. B., an engraver, distinguished in subjects of natural history, 1739-1800. AUDEFROI, a poet of the 12th century. AUDENAERD, R. Van, an engraver, d. 1743. AUDIFREDI, an astronomer, last century. AUDIFFREDY, Therese, disting. in Cayenne for saving Pichegra and other victims of the coup d'etat, 18th Fructidor, from starvation. AUDIFRET, J. B., a diplomatist, died 1733. AUDINOT, N. M., a dramatist, died 1801. AUDLEY, Thos., chancellor of Henry VIII. AUDONIN, king of the Lombards, 6th cent. AUDONIN, J. Vict., entomologist, d. 1841. AUDRA, Joseph, a French philosopher of the revolutionary school, 1710-1770. AUDRAN, the name of a Lyonese family which has produced many distinguished artists : the most eminent are Charles, 1594-1674; Claude, 1597-1677; Claude, the Younger, 1641-1684; Gerard, 1640-1703; John, 1667- 1756 ; and Claude, a nephew of the first of this name, 1658-1734. AUDRAN, P. G., a Hebrew scholar, last cent. AUDRIEN, Yves M., a French ecclesiastic and revolutionist ; assassinated 1800. AUDUBON, John James, a celebrated Ame- rican ornithologist, was born in Louisiana in 1782. He died in 1851. From his earliest years he was devoted to the study of ornithology, roaming the wild woods of his native country, listening to the song of the singing birds, and picking up from his father all kinds of information about their habits, instincts, and migration. He commenced sketch- ing his favourites while a mere boy ; but a few years afterwards, when sent by his father to Pans, he enjoyed the opportunity of having lessons in paint- ing from the celebrated David. Intended for a commercial life, he entered into partnership with a young Frenchman, and returned to America to carry on their business there. While his partner was keeping the accounts, Audubon was shooting birds in the woods or painting them in the count- ing-house. At last wearied of the drudgeries of business, he shook the trammels off, and, in spite of the entreaties of his friends, betook himself to a wandering life in the forest. Sleeping by night at the foot of a tree, subsisting on the game which 50 AUE he shot, and which he cooked for himself; floating down the silent rivers for hundreds of miles in a frail canoe, and sketching from nature as he went along, he accumulated a large collec- tion of faithful and accurate drawings of the feathered tribes of America. These were made the size of life in every case, and he added the de- tails of feet, legs, talons, and beaks, all measured accurately by compass. Not being able to procure subscriptions in America to enable him to publish them, he visited England and Scotland. In Edin- burgh he was received enthusiastically ; his draw- ings were admired and highly praised, and there he commenced engraving the figures which have procured him such a high reputation. The publi- cation of this extensive and gigantic work extended over thirteen years ; during the intervals of which he continued his journeys to the vast prairies and forests of America, and neglected nothing which could add to its value. If Audubon be indebted to friendly assistance for his descriptions of his birds, his drawings are his own, and his highest claim to admiration is founded upon them, as they exhibited a perfection never before attempted. His work consists of 435 plates, containing 1,065 figures of the size of life, and has been pronounced by Cuvier ' as the most gigantic and most magni- ficent monument that had ever been erected to nature.' Besides his great work, ' The Birds of America,' Audubon is the author of another, en- titled, 'Ornithological Biography.' A second edition of 'The Birds of America' was published in royal 8vo ; and before his death he had com- menced the 'Quadrupeds of America.' This he has left to be finished by his sons, who continue to prosecute the science in which their father won such fame. [W.B.] AUERBACH, J. G., a German painter, 17th c. AUERSBERG, Herbard, baron of, disting. in the frontier war between the German empire and the Turks, 16th centuiy. AUGE, D. G., a French author, 16th century. AUGER, Athanasius, a political and learned writer of France, 1734-1792. AUGER, L. S., a Fr. journalist, 1772-1829. AUGEREAU. Pierre Francois Charles Augereau, was born 11th November, 1757, in one of the faubourgs of Paris. His father was a working mason, his mother sold fruit. Young Pierre had no education, except that of the Paris streets. He enlisted while a lad ; and after some years of ser- vice as a private in the French army, he entered the Neapolitan, rose to the rank of sergeant, and was a fencing-master at Naples when the wars of the French revolution broke out. Augereau then returned to France, and joined one of the insurrec- tionary levies of 1792. He gained his successive steps of promotion on the battle-field ; and in 1796, when Buonaparte took the command of the army of Italy, he found Augereau in high repute as a bold and skilful general of division. That reputation was augmented at Millesimo, at Ceva, at Lodi, at Castiglione, at Roveredo, and many more of the scenes of carnage that were so numerous at the close of the last, and at the commencement of the present century. In 1805, Augereau was a mar- shal of France, and Due de Castiglione. It is from these facts that Augereau's military talents must .. be judged, and not from the terms in which Na- and in B.C. 27, he received from the senate tho AUG poleon, and the writers of the Napoleonic school nave spoken of him. Augereau was not only a furious, but a sincere republican of the revolu- tionary era, and he gave frequent and deep offence to Buonaparte by the coarse frankness of his lan- guage after the establishment of the empire. At last he reproached Napoleon on the battle-field of Preuss Eylau, for the useless butchery to which the French troops were exposed. For this he was sent into retirement, and except a short period of employment in the Peninsula, he was not again intrusted by the emperor with a comnu.nd till after the disastrous reverses in Russia. Augereau acknowledged Lonis XVIII., after Napoleon's ab- dication in 1814, and acknowledged Napoleon again as emperor in 1815. But he was not em- ployed in the campaign of Waterloo. He was one of the court-martial that was first appointed to try Marshal Ney, and refused to sit in judgment on their comrade. Augereau died in 1816. [E.S.C.] AUGIER, G., a troubadour, 12th century. AUGURELLO, G. A., a scholar, poet, and al- chymist, 1440-1524. AUGUSTIN, Anth., a Sp. prelate, d. 1586. AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, St., called the apostle of England, died 610. AUGUSTINE, bishop of Hippo, and most fa- mous of the Latin church fathers, was born at Tagasta in Numidia, 13th November, 354. In early life he was loose, roving, and sensual, but at Milan the influence of his mother Monica, and the preaching of St.. Ambrose, produced, about 386, a saving and permanent change on his heart and life. He had already left the Manichean philosophy, and now he renounced the study of rhetoric, which he had taught with success at Carthage, Rome, and Milan. He was ordained a presbyter 391, and four years afterwards became coadjutor to Valerius in the diocese of Hippo, now Bona in Algiers, and he finally succeeded his colleague in 396. His life was spent in active literary opposition against Manich- aeans, Donatists, and Pelagians. When Hippo was menaced by the Vandal hosts, Augustine died, in the third month of the siege, at the good old age of seventy-six. The influence of Augustine's theo- logy has been felt in all succeeding ages of the church. He compacted the truths of religion into a system, with a logic whose severity is relieved by the glow of his eloquence and the fervour of his piety. His autobiography is contained in his famous 'Confessions; ' and his 'Civitas Dei' is universally admired. But he wrote too much, and on too many subjects, to be at all times either lucid or self-con- sistent. His works are very numerous, and have been often edited and published. The Benedictine edition, Paris, 1679-1701, is in eleven handsome folios. [J.E.] AUGUSTULUS, the name given in derision to Romulus, last Roman emp. of the West, dethroned and pensioned by Odoacer, 475. AUGUSTUS, the first Roman emperor, was born at Velitrae, a town of Latium, in the consul- ship of Cicero, B.C. 63. He was the son of Caius Octavius by Atia, the niece of the famous C Julius Caesar; and was consequently the grand- nephew of the dictator. His real name was Caius Octavius ; but, in consequence of his adoption by the will of the dictator, he assumed that of Ctes; 51 AUG title of Augustus, the name by which he is now best known. Having lost his lather at the age of four years, he went to reside with his grandmother, Julia, who watched over his feeble boyhood with the most assiduous care. From his early years he showed a great capacity, and gave evidence of that prudence and foresight which characterized his subsequent career. On the death of his grand- mother, in his twelfth year, he pronounced her funeral oration ; and returned to the house of his mother, who, along with her husband, L. Marcius Philippus, henceforth superintended his education. At the age of sixteen he assumed the toga virilis, the symbol of legal maturity; and in the same year was made a member of the College of Pon- tiffs. The dictator, who had always showed great attention to his youthful relative, now took a more active part in training him for public life, and mani- fested his affection by the honours which he bestowed on himself, and on the family to which he belonged. Augustus seems to have been present in his camp at the battle of Munda, B.C. 45 ; and it was here that the dictator made him his heir, and adopted him into the family of the Cajsars. Soon after their return to Rome Augustus was sent to Apol- lonia in Epirus, for the purpose of advancing his military education, previous to accompanying the dictator in the expedition which he meditated against the Parthians ; and it was while here that he was called upon to commence a contest the most arduous perhaps that was ever undertaken by a youth of eighteen. On the Ides (15th) of March, B.C. 44., the dictator was assassinated in the senate house; and Augustus, on receiving the news, set out for Italv with a few attendants. As the adopted son or the dictator, he now as- sumed the name of Caesar ; and, encouraged by the support of the veteran soldiers, proclaimed his re- solution to avenge the death of his father; in other words, to assert his claim to the sovereignty. Appearing before the praetor, he formally accepted the dangerous inheritance of the dictator's name and property; and in the complicated struggle which ensued, played his part with an art which baffled the prudence of the oldest statesmen of Borne. The contending parties first met under the walls of Mutina, when Antony was defeated, and forced to take refuge on the other side of the Alps. In B.C. 43 Augustus was raised to the consulship, notwithstanding the strenuous opposi- tion of the aristocracy ; and, finding that his posi- tion now rendered a reconciliation with Antony desirable, proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul ; and here the celebrated interview took place between Antony, Lepidus, and himself, which resulted in the formation of the second triivmvirate a union which was cemented by the blood of many of the noblest citizens of Rome. About the close of B.C. 42 the decisive battle of Philippi was fought, which completely broke up the party of the senate. During the next nine years Augustus relieved himself of all his formidable opponents, with the exception of Antony, with whom he had long fore- seen that the final contest lay. The last struggle took place at Actium, on the 2d of September, B.C. 31, when Antony was totally defeated, and Augustus placed in the undoubted supremacy of the Roman empire. After settling affairs in the East he returned to Rome, B.C. 29, and his arrival AUR was celebrated by three triumphs on three succes- sive days. In B.C. 27 he affected to propose to the senate to restore the old republican form of government ; but at the request of his friends he consented to retain the administration of affairs for ten years ; and soon after was invested with the highest military and civil authority, both in the city and throughout the provinces. The same pretended resignation and resumption of power was repeated at intervals till the end of his life. The great events of the period of Augustus belong to the history of Rome, and cannot even be re- ferred to here. After a reign of almost uninter- rupted prosperity, he died at Nola, on the 19th of August, 14, and was succeeded by his stepson, Tiberius Claudius Nero. Augustus was a man of middle stature, but well made ; and the expres- sion of his handsome face was that of unvarying tranquillity. Though naturally of a feeble consti- tution, he attained to a great age by a strict ob- servance of temperance in eating and drinking. His early education had embued him with a taste for literature, which he continued to cultivate throughout his long life ; and his liberal patron- age of learned men, especially in the persons of Virgil and Horace, has procured the name of the Augustan age for the brilliant period in which he lived. [G.F.] [Tomb of Augustus.] AUGUSTUS I., elector of Saxony, 1553-1586. AUGUSTUS II., born 1670; elector, 1694; king of Poland, 1697 ; deposed by Charles XII., 1704 ; reinstated, 1709 ; died 1733. AUGUSTUS III., his son and succes., d. 1763. AUGUSTUS Fred., d. of Sussex, 1773-1843. AULISIO, Dominic, a jurist, 1639-1717. AULNAGE, F. H. S., a Sp. wr., 1739-1830. AULUS GELLIUS, a eel. Latin scholar, author of the ' Attic Nights :' lived 2d century. AUMALE, Claude, count of, created duke of Guise by Francis I., died 1550. AUNGERVILLE, R., tutor of Edward III., afterwards lord chancellor, &c, died 1345. AUNOY, Countess of, a French wr., d. 1705. AURELIAN, Lucius Domitius, b. 212, empj of Rome 270, conq. of Palmyra 274, assassin. 275. AURELIO, Louis, an historian, died 1(J37. 02 AUR AURENG-ZEBE, one of the greatest of the Mogul emperors, reigned 1659-170 7. AURIA, Vinci., an historian of Sicily, d. 1710. AURIA, Jo., an astronomer, died 1595. AURIGNI, Giles D\ a Fr. poet, died 1553. AUSEGIUS, a French abbot, 9th century. AUSONIUS, St., a martyr of the 3d century. AUSONIUS, a Roman poet, 4th century. AUSTEN, Jane, a novelist, 1775-1817. AUSTREA, Don Juan, a Sp. admiral, b. 1545. AUVERGNE, Ant. D', a composer, d. 1797. AUVIGNY, J. D\ a French writer, born 1712, killed at the battle of Dettingen, 1743. AVALOS, Ferd., marquis of Pescara, a distin- guished Spanish general, 1489-1525. AVALOS, Alph., nephew and successor of the preceding, 1502-1546. AVAUX, Claude De Mesne, count of, a French diplomatist and scholar, died 1650. AVELLANEDA, Alph. Ferd., the assumed name of a Spanish writer, who displayed his enmity to Cervantes by publishing a continuation of Don Quixote, and attacking the author, 1614. AVELLONE, F., an Ital. dramatist, last cent. AVERANI, Ben., a miscel. writer, died 1707. AVERANI, Jos., a scientific writer, died 1738. AVENTINE, J., an annalist, 1466-1534. AVENZOAR, an Arabian phys., 12th century. AVERDY, Clem. Ch., De L\ comptroller- general of France, guillotined, 1794. AVEROLDI, an antiquary, died 1717. AVERROES, an Arabian philosopher, 12th ct. AVERSA, Th., a dramatic author, 17th cent. AVESBURG, Robert of, a chronicler, 14th century. AVlANO, Jerome, an Ital. poet, 16th cent. AVICENNA, an Arabian philosopher, d. 1037. AVIDIUS, a Roman emperor, 175. AVIENUS, R. F., a Latin poet, 4th century. AVILA, John D', a Spanish priest, called the Apostle of Andalusia, died 1569. AVILA-Y-ZUNIGA, Louis D', a soldier and diplomatist, time of Charles V. AVILA, G. G. D', an antiquary, died 1658. AVILER, A. C. D', a French architect, d. 1700. AVIRON, James Le Bathalier, author of legal commentaries, 16th century. AVISON, Ch., a musical composer, died 1770. AVITUS, Flav., a Roman emperor, elect. 455. AVITUS, St., a Latin poet, 5tn century. AVOGADRO, the Count, a patriotic noble- man of Brescia, defeated 1502. BAB AVOGADRO, Lucia, a poetess, died 1568. AVRIGNY, C. J. L., a French poet, d. 1823. AXELSON, Eric, a Swed. statesman, d. 1840. AYALA, a Dutch physician, 16th century. AYALA, Peter Lopez D,' a statesman, general, and historian of Spain, died 1407. AYALA, B. D', a Spanish painter, died 1673. AYALA, J. L. D', a Spanish astrono., last cent. AYAMONTE, Marquis of, a patriot of Anda- lusia, executed 1640. AYESHA, wife of Mahomet, died 677. AYLMER, J., a controversial divine, bishop ol London, time of Elizabeth. AYLOFFE, Sir Joseph, an antiquary and miscellaneous writer, 1708-1781. AYMON, count of Savoy, 1329 to 1343. AYMON, a priest of Piedmont, 17th century. AYOLA, J. De, governor of Buenos Ayres 1536, killed by the Indians 1538. AYRAULT, P., a French lawyer, 16th century. AYRTON, Edm., a composer, died 1808. AYSCOUGH, S., an antiquary and miscellane- ous writer, 1745-1804. AYSCOUGH, G. E., a writer last century. AYSCUE, Sir G., an English admiral, coadju- tor with Admiral Blake. AYTON, Sir R., a Scotch poet, died 1638. AZAIS, P. H., a miscellaneous writer, last cent, AZALIAS, a female troubadour, 12th century. AZARA, Don J. N. De, a Spanish diplomatist, author, and antiquary, died 1804. AZARA, Don Felix De, a commissioner sent out by the Spanish government in 1781, to arrange with Portuguese deputies regarding the boun- daries of their respective territories in S. America. He constructed good maps of the La Plata and its affluents, and wrote an account of Paraguay, whose chief value consists in its contributions to natural history. [J.B.] AZARIAH, high pr. of the Jews, 9th ct. b.c. AZARIAH, or UZZIAH, king of the Jews, 8th century, B.C. AZARIO, P., an historian, 13th century. AZANAR, count of Gascony, founder of the kingdom of Navarre, died 836. AZOR, J., a moralist, 16th century. AZUNI, Dominic Albert, a writer on mari- time law, died 1827. AZZO, P., an Italian jurist, 13th century. AZZOLINI, Lorenzo, a satirist, died 1632. AZZOLINI, Decio, an Italian cardinal, confi- dant of queen Christina, died 1689. B BAAHDIN, Mah., a Persian jurist, 16th cent. BAALE, St. V., a dram. p. of Holl., 1782-1822. BAAN, J. De, a portrait painter, d. 1702. His son James, also distinguished as a painter, d. 1700. BAARDT, P., a Flemish poet, 18th century. BAARSDORP, C, a physician, died 1565. BAASHA, the usurper of the kgd. of Jeroboam, whose whole race he exterminated, 10th cent. B.C. BAAZIUS, J., aprel. and his. of Swe., 1581-1649. BABA, a Turkish adventurer, 13th century. BABA-ALI, first independent dey of Algiers, elected 1710, died 1718. BABA-ALI, a learned Mahomedan, d. 1569. BABACOUSCHI, A. R, Mustapha, a Ma- homedan author, 14th century. BABBINI, M., an Italian singer, died 1816. BABEK, Khoremi, a Persian socialist, de- feated and slain, after 20 years' conflict, 837. BABEUF, Francis Noel, born at Saint Quen- tin, 1764, and unknown during the first years of the revolution, except for his work on the Regis- tration of Lands, has acquired a memorable place in the history of the Directory, first, by editing the 'Tribune of the People,' and afterwards by conspiring against the government. The prin- ciples he advocated were those of absolute equality, 53 BAB as the apostle of which, at the critical period when the power of Napoleon Buonaparte was just ris- ing, he displayed a singular inflexibility of purpose and good faith. Before the appearance of the ' Tribune,' he had published a work entitled the ' Life and Crimes of Carrier,' which is considered the most impartial account of that inhuman monster. In his Journal, Babeuf took the sur- name of ' Cains Gracchus,' and it is to his denun- ciations of all terrorism, that we owe the well- known apellation of the system which he de- nounced. He was arrested in the month of May, 1796, and did not hesitate to make a daring avowal of his ambitious hopes as the chief of a great party. He endeavoured to escape the ig- nominy of the guillotine by stabbing himself several times with a poignard, secretly conveyed to him by his son, but was dragged bleeding to the scaffold twenty-four hours afterwards, with the instrument of death still rankling in the wound. His object, beyond all doubt, was to overthrow the present constitution of society, and this, perhaps, with the fallacy of his principles, is the worst that can be alleged against him. [E.R.] BABIN, F., a French casuist, died 1734. BABINGTON, Anth., a catholic accused of conspiring to place the unfortunate Mary Stuart on the throne of England ; executed 1586. BABINGTON, G., a learned bishop, 17th cent. BABINGTON, Dr. W., an English physician and mineralogist, 1757-1833. BABO, J. M., a German dramatist, 1756-1822. BABOUR, Mahomed, grandson, of Tamerlane, proclaimed sovereign of Tartary 1483 ; conqueror of Delhi 1525 ; and founder of the dynasty which reigned in Hindostan till the 19th cent., d. 1530. BABRIAS, a Greek poet, long known as Ga- brias, through an error of the copyist. BABUER, Theod., a painter, 17th century. BABYLAS, St., a martyr of the 3d century. BACAI, Ib. ben Omar, a wr. of biog., 15th c. BACCAINI, B., a learned writer, died 1721. BACCALAR Y SANNA, Vincent, a comman- der and author of memoirs, died 1726. BACCHANELLI, J., an Italian physic, 16th c. BACCHID^, a dynasty of Corinth. BACCHIDES, governor of Mesopotamia, and commissioner of Demetrius, king of Syria, in the time of Judas Maccabseus. BACCHIUS, a Greek writer on music. BACCHUS. See Boccuus. BACCHYLIDES, a Greek lyric, 450 B.C. BACCIO, And., an Ital. phy. and au., 16th ct. BACCIO, F. B., an Italian painter, died 1517. BACCIOCCHI, Maria Anne Eliza Buon- aparte, princess of, was the sister of Napoleon, born 1777; married to M. Bacciocchi 1797; crowned with her husband, princess of Lucca and Piombino 1805 ; fell with Buonaparte 1814, d. 1820. BACELLAR, A. B., a Port, historian, d. 1663. BACH, J. A., a jurist, 1721-1759. BACH, Johann Sebastian, one of the most eminent masters of musical science, was born at Eisenach in Upper Saxony, on the 21st of March, 1685. The ancestor of "the remarkable family, from which sprung the subject of the following memoir, was Veit Bach, a native of Presburg in Hungary, which city he was forced to leave dur- ing the religious struggles of the 16th century. BAC He ultimately settled at Vechmar in Saxe Gotha, where he resumed his trade of miller and baker, and amused his leisure hours by practising on the guitar. He imparted a taste for music to his sons, and they again to their families, most of whom adopted music as a profession, until they filled all the offices of musicians, organists, and chanters, in their native province. The greatest, however, of the name, and one of the greatest of his age, was John Sebastian, upon whom all writers on music, as well in England as in Germany, have bestowed the most unbounded laudations. Among many others who have left their written opinions of the excellence of this master, it is only necessary to mention the names of Forkel, his biographer, Marpurg, Handel, Matheson, Reichardt, Beetho- ven, Von Reaumar, Mendelssohn, and Friedeman. In 1695 the father of John Sebastian Bach died, and he was left to the care of an elder brother, who does not seem to have possessed that kindly and affectionate nature which, like music, was hereditary in the family. This brother, instead of assisting him in his early studies, did all he could to hinder him from progressing as rapidly as he otherwise would have done. He even de- stroyed a collection of studies which the young Se- bastian, being denied candles, had copied by moon- light. After the death of this brother, Sebastian at a very early period of his life commenced his professional career as a treble singer in the choir of St. Michael's school at Luneburg. In 1703, for reasons not now known, he quitted Luneburg and went to Weimar, where he was appointed court musician, and in 1708 court organist, and director of the concerts to the duke. It was not long after this that he received an invitation to visit Dresden, where Marchand, a celebrated French organist, then held office. A musical con- test between this professor and Bach was arranged to take place, but the Frenchman left Dresden through fear of the German artist, whose fame had preceded him. On his return to Weimar, Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen gave him the situation of chapel master, and in 1723 he accepted the office of director of music at Leipzig, which ap- pointment he held till his death. On one occa- sion he was invited by Frederick the Great to visit Potsdam, where he was most honourably enter- tained, and was received with the most marked condescension by that monarch, for whom he com- posed his world-renowned fugue, under the title of 'The Musical Offering.' This was Bach's last journey. Constant study, frequently for days and nights together, first weakened, then deprived him of his sight. He died of apoplexy on the 30th of July, 1750. Bach composed a great number of works in almost every class of music, and all excel- lent ; but it would occupy too much space to enu- merate them here. He was great as a contrapun- tist beyond all who went before him, and was no more than equalled by the greatest of his contem- poraries. His ' Passionsmusik ' and ' Chorales,' or psalm tunes, have always been held in the highest estimation of all his vocal compositions. The first time that any portion of Bach's vocal music was publicly performed in Great Britain was at the London Institution, at the course of lectures de- livered by Dr. Gauntlett in the spring of 1837. In the ' German Musical Gazette ' for 1823, there M BAG was published a curious genealogical tree of the Bach family, which shows that from Veit there were, down to John Sebastian, who appears in the fifth generation, fifty-eight male descendants, all of whom, according to Forkel, made music their pro- fession. Among the most famous of the relations of Sebastian Bach may be mentioned, John Philipp Emanuel his son, born in 1714, known as Bach of Berlin, who was chapel master to the Princess Amelia of Prussia, He died at Hamburg in 1788. This composer left upwards of fifty different com- positions, several of which were published after his death. John Christian, another son of Sebas- tian, the date of whose birth has not been pub- lished, was known first as Bach of Milan, and afterwards as Bach of London. This composer came to London about the year 1769, and brought out his opera of ' Orione, ' which was much ad- mired for the richness of its harmony. He died in London in the year 1782. John Christopher Friedrich, the ninth of the eleven sons of Sebas- tian, was born at Weimar in 1732. He held the situation of master of the concerts at the court of Buckeburg. He is said to have been the ablest of performers upon the organ and clavichord of all his brothers. William Friedeman, the eldest son of Sebastian, was born in 1710, approached in his compositions most nearly to the singular originality of his father. He died at Berlin in 1784. George Christopher was a famous composer and singer at Schweinfurt about the end of the 17th century. John Bernhard, nephew of Sebastian, was or- ganist at OrdnutT, where he died in 1742. John Ambrosius, the father of Sebastian, was musician to the town and court of Eisenach, and John Christopher, twin brother of the preceding, held a similar situation to the court and town of Arm- stadt. John CHRiSTOPH,organist to the court and town of Eisenach at the close of the 17th century, was considered one of the greatest masters of har- mony and performers on the organ of his time. One of his works, which is still extant, a piece of church music, has twenty obligato parts, 'and vet,' says the biographer of the family of the Bachs, ' it is perfectly pure in respect of harmony.' Johann Ernst, chapel master to the duke of Wei- mar, was born in 1712, and died in 1781. Johann Ludwig, chapel master to the duke of Saxe-Mein- engen, and composer of church music, was born in 1677, and diedinl730. Johann MicHAEL,brother to Johann Christoph, who composed some good church music, was born at Armstadt in 1660. [J.M.] BACHAUMONT, Fr. le Coigneux De, a Fr. polit., afterwards known as an au., 1624-1702. BACHAUMONT, L. P. De, a Fr. his., d. 1771. BACHE, B. F., an American journalist, d. 1799. BACHE, Rich., son-in-law of Franklin, d. 1811. BACHELEY, J., a French engraver, d. 1781. BACHELIER, J. J., a French painter, d. 1805. BACHELIEN, Nich., a Fr. sculptor, d. 1554. BACHELLERIE, Hugh, a troubadour, 12th c. BACHIENE, G. A., an astronomer, died 1783. BACHER, G. F., a medical author, 1765-1772. BACHE R, Alex., son of the preceding, con- tinued the observations of his father, died 1807. BACHER, Theobald, a French diplomatist and political agent, 1748-1813. BACHMEISTER, H. L. C, a distinguished wr. of works on Russia, historical and other, d. 1806. BAC BACHOVIUS, Reinier, and his son of the same name, both known as jurists, the latter at Heidelberg, 16th century. BACHOT, Gaspard, a medical writer, 17th c. BACICI, J. B. G., an Italian painter, d. 1709. BACK, Abr., a Swedish naturalist, d. 1775. BACKER, Jac, a Dutch painter, died 1664. BACKER, A., nephew of the preceding, d. 1686. BACKHOUSE,W., a practical alchymist andau., instructor of the eel. Elias Ashmole, 1593-1662. BACKHUYSEN, Rudolph, or Ludolph, an eminent Dutch marine painter, 1631-1709. BACKUS, Azel, a theologian, died 1824. BACKUS, Isaac, a Baptist historian, d. 1806. BACLER D'ALBE, Aubert L., a military engineer and geographer, 1761-1824. BACMEISTER, a German family of this name has produced many distinguished men, lay and clerical. Henry, a jurist, 1584-1629. Henry, the younger, counsellor of Wurtemburg, 1670. John, professor of medicine at Tubingen, 1710. Lucas, a celebrated Lutheran divine, 1530-1608. His son of the same name, also a theological writer, 1570-1638. The son of the latter, also of the same name, professor of theology, d. 1679. Mat- thew, son of the elder Lucas, a medical author, 1580-1626. Sebastian, an historian, 1646-1704. BACON, Anthony, elder brother of Sir Fran- cis, known as a man of letters and political in- triguer in the reign of Elizabeth, born 1558. BACON, Francis, Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, Lord Chancellor of England under James I., Author of the ' Instauratio Magna.' The attempt to describe or surround a mind like that of our immortal Englishman, is akin to the effort to survey some grand Power in Nature, whose mani- festations are almost infinite in form, and the sphere of whose efficacy is wide as the Universe. The industry of all vast minds is unwearied : nor is it ever safe to say of such, that any one department of labour, or species of activity, belongs to them peculiarly. From early manhood Bacon was im- mersed in public affairs, intrusted with very oner- ous functions ; in the first rank as Jurisconsult, he moved in the work of reforming and arranging the laws of England ; as Statesman he laboured effec- tively in promotion of the treaty of Union that foundation-stone of our modem British greatness; in the capacity of Historian he produced the first work in English literature meriting the name of History, viz., his work on the reign of Henry VII.; as Orator and Writer he had no equal in his age -joining to energy and weight of expression, a splendour of diction which sometimes may dazzle too much ; and besides he renovated Philo- sophy. There are two features only, in a charac- ter so various and illustrious, to which we can re- fer in our brief sketch, viz.: Bacon's achieve- ments and value in philosophy, and his deserts as a Man. I. The enterprise undertaken by this won- derful Intellect, indicates by its very elevation and comprehensiveness, the capacity of the genius that conceived it. Bacon resolved to rescue science from the deplorable uncertainties and obstructions which then surrounded it to reconstruct the edi- fice of human knowledge from its very foundations. Of his projected ' Instauratio Magna,' the works he has left are only fragments ; nor could they be otherwise, for the execution of the gigantic plan is bo BAC erne of the leading tasks delegated to humanity, which cannot be completed so long as the condi- tion of humanity remains a progressive one. The ' Instauratio Magna,' has six main parts : First, Bacon felt it needful to challenge anew for inquiry the respect and dignity that belong to it, to detect the vices of the philosophy prevailing at his time, and to point out the deficiencies requiring to be filled up. Such is the aim of the treatise 'De Augmentis.' Secondly, the Remedy had to be discovered; the only certain cure for the evils signalized. This cure is the use of the true Me- thod, in the adoption of observation and experi- ment instead of hypothesis, as instruments for the discovery of fact, and in the substitution in such inquiries, of induction for deduction or syllogistic reasoning. The principles and processes of the new method are elaborately exposed in the ' No- vum Organum.' The third an&Jburth parts of the 1 Instauratio ' were planned as an exemplification or instruction in the use of the new Organon ; the former, viz., the 'Historia Naturalis et Experi- mentalis, ' being dedicated to the collecting, by aid of observation and experiment, of the greatest possible mass of facts ; and the latter, the Scala intellectus, to exemplification of discovery by induc- tion, of general laws from these facts, and of the application of these general laws by the inverse Erocess of deduction, to particular cases compre- ended within them. To finish this memorable undertaking, it yet remained that the results of the method, or the truths of philosophy be collected and arranged; but rightly seeing that the dis- covery of these was not a task he had to accom- plish, but a legacy he had to bequeath, Bacon was satisfied with drawing up other two books, the first, or the fifth of his plan, named by him ' Anticipations^' and the second or sixth, 4 Philosophia Secunda Sive Activa,' having refer- ence to applications to action, or practice. Such the grandeur of the intellectual Globe which the mind of this Englishman endeavoured to span ! It is in the second division of his great work that Bacon's more positive achievements are un- folded. And it must not be conceived that he is here satisfied with a set of* general precepts, or with general statements concerning the value and superiority of his Organon. The new Method of Inquiry, on the other hand\ is examined under every light, and its right practice exposed in detail. In the first place, Bacon passes under review all the procedures of observation and every kind of experiment, showing with what special precaution facts must be sought for, and how we may esti- mate the value of the various sorts of facts bearing on any inquiry. With corresponding pains, and still greater success, he unfolds in the second book of the Organon in what way Induction en- ables one to detect from the collected facts, the true cause, or the true law of a phenomenon. Having collected by observation all the facts which precede or follow the phenomenon, it is necessary to exclude those in whose absence the phenomenon can be produced to notice and separ- ate those others in whose presence it always is f>roduced ; and lastly, to select from among the atter class, such facts as vary iu intensity when the phenomenon varies, i.e., which increase or diminish in proportion to an increase or decrease of inten- BAC sity in the phenomenon. In this way, according to Lord Bacon, the true cause is found; and an ap- plication to this cause of a similar process, will evolve its cause, until in the end we reach supreme causes and universal laws. In appreciation of these important and memorable labours, we have room for only three brief remarks. First, it can- not well be denied that in certain respects Lord Bacon too much decried, or perhaps too little un- derstood the syllogism; and that its peculiar meaning and value, as the only legitimate instru- ment in Deduction, ought to have preserved it and Aristotle, its immortal author, from the unjust dis- paragement which one regrets to find upheld by the authority of so great a name. Nevertheless, this injustice to the Greeks, arising partly from defect of critical acquaintance with them, but more from his well-grounded revolt against the deplor- able methods sustained in physical inquiry under shelter of their authority, m nowise impairs the edifice Bacon himself reared, or attaches to it any incompleteness. Secondly, it is not pretended, with some exclusive and enthusiastic partizans, that previous to the writings of our countryman, no philosopher had sought truths by Induction, or based his inquiries on observation and experiment. It is certainly far from being true that Galileo, for instance, in conducting his immortal researches, pursued an erroneous course, or that although he had studied the 'Novum Organum,' his career of discovery would have been materially different ; what is true is this no one before Bacon had seen the full importance of the experimental and inductive method, had discovered the extent of the sphere of which it is the only legitimate occupant, had explored its principles, and from principles deduced rules for it as an Art. And it is equally true, that every inquiry of value, undertaken since the publication of his inductive code, has been conducted, with or without the consciousness of the Inquirer, according to laws laid down in that code. Lastly, since the publication of the induc- tive code, its laws have been enlarged and greatly particularized, so that be it said, with perfect re- spect to the Organon it is not to our countryman's writings alone that we would point now for full in- struction in his own philosophy. The exigencies of the modern sciences, as well of observation as of experiment, have obliged us to refine his pro- cesses and multiply his precautions. The doctrine of probabilities enables us to discern the relative values of different classes of facts, with a precision Bacon never dreamt of; and in the writings of mo- dern authors let us say of Mr. Mill the methods of induction are unfolded with a superior compre- hensiveness and effect. But although the advance of the physical sciences, caused by the impulse Lord Bacon communicated, has exacted for them pro- cesses more complete and perfect than his; when, as to the moral sciences as to inquiry, political, ethical, and religious shall the time arrive in which inquirers sh..ll practically recognize the validity even of the most general precepts in the Organon ? The ultimate application of these pre- cepts is sure ; but humanity has not yet acquired the strength to accomplish it. II. The length to which our analysis of Bacon's philosophy has ex- tended, prevents our dwelling much on the charac- ter of the Man. Nevertheless, one earnest, though 50 EAC brief word, in deprecation of the harshest treatment which, with one exception, has ever been applied to I mind so great. It is a canon we think which may he observed absolutely with far greater safety than it ever can be broken that highest intellect and vir- tue are most closely allied ; nay, notwithstanding appearances, their severance is impossible : certainly no mind like Bacon's, living through its duration amid a;reat ideas, ought to be suspected of volun- tary descent to utter meanness, unless on evi- dence which, concerning transactions of the kind charged against him, has not come down assuredly from that age. Dissimulation, indeed, connip- tion, treachery to friendship it matters not what the mind may be that is guilty of them ; the acts are mean, and the mind foul. But the error in the popular judgment lies here dissimulation and corruption are inferred on the strength of obscure circumstances, and without the necessary inquiry whether taking the character of the mind into consideration the said acts could possibly signify to it, either dissimulation or corruption V At an Old Bailey indeed, or in Banco Regis, judg- ment must be summary ; but the Muse of History holds in her hands scales of another order her question is, do I rightly understand this Man f It is passing strange to find Lord Bacon in the guise of an ordinary criminal, and treated with no more than the ordinary courtesy, before Lord Campbell's judgment seat ! The errors of Bacon, in so far as they are distinctly established, were mainly those of compliance; and it will probably be found that they must be classed among those involuntary acts, which connect the best and wisest, through sheer force of circumstances, with the times in which they live ; involuntary, inasmuch as they are done because they are usually done, and without rigid examina- tion. Sad it were if through cause of conventional compliances, everv eminent personage of our own day might justly be branded as unveracious, and a hypocrite ! Such as he was since Bacon's time, Englandhasseen no greater and seldom a betterMan. [Statu cl Bacon.] ' And be it said he had this excellence, That undesirous of a false renown, lie ever wished to pass for what he was; One that swerved much and oft, hut being still BAC Deliberately bent upon the right, Had kept it in the main : one that much loved "Whate'er in man is worthy high respect, And in his soul devoutly did aspire To be it all, yet felt from time to time The littleness that clings to what is human, And suffered from the shame of having felt it.' Lord Bacon was born in London on 22d Jan., 1560, d. 1626. There have been various editions of his work the last by Basil Montague ; but an unexcep- tionable edition is still a desideratum. [J.P.N .] BACON, John, an eminent sculptor, the best of whose works are the statues ot Dr. Johnson and John Howard in St. Paul's, and the funeral monument of Lord Chatham, 1740-1799. BACON, Nath., one of the earliest and most valiant patriots of America, educated as a lawyer in England, died 1676. BACON, Sir Nath., half-brother of Sir Fran- cis, known as a painter, died 1615. BACON, Sir Nicholas, lord chancellor in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and father of the cele- brated philosopher, 1510-1579. BACON, Anne, wife of the preceding, known for her trans, from the Ital. and Latin, 1528-1600. BACON, Ph., D.D., a comic writer, d. 1783. BACON, Ph., a naval com., time of Charles II. BACON, Robert, an English monk, influential as a preacher at the court of Henry III., 1233-1248. BACON, Roger, a Franciscan monk of the thirteenth century, born near Ilcester in Somer- set. This remarkable person, most worthy of the name he bears, failed to be the restorer of philosophy, neither from defect of energy or will, but because the times were not yet ripe. Living at an epoch of intellectual torpor and profound igno- rance, and surrounded by men neither instructed nor caring to become so, Bacon, as with the Chan- cellor afterwards and the great Des Cartes, first grappled with the question, Why is this ignorance? Why is our human Reason a willing captive ? The exposition of his reply occupies a large portion of the ' Opus Majus ;' and the reply itself is not dif- ferent m kind fr-m that which in all ages must, by every original thinker, be found to the same question. Irrational deference to Authority ; slavish respect for Custom ; subjection to popular preju- dices, and that vulgar selfishness which induces men to reject as dangerous, or despise as puerile, all knowledge they do not themselves possess, these are the causes of darkness in all ages : nor can they be overcome unless the independence and dignity of Reason be acknowledged, the influence of authority, custom, and prejudice discredited, and Truth sought through careful and systematic investigation of Nature. And in his quiet cloister near Oxford, the monk wrought out principles and modes of legitimate investigation, and success- fully followed them. If not entitled to take rank as the founder of experimental philosophy, Roger Bacon was unquestionably the earliest philosophi- cal Experimentalist in England. He recognized as fully as Francis, the importance of experiment as distinguished from deduction: and he had this immense advantage over the Chancellor he joined example to precept, and put in use, before his co- temporaries, his own counsels. It is interesting to reflect on the amount of actual discovery which rewarded so much laborious research. Bacon made signal advances in optics ; he was an excel- 57 BAG lent chemist, and in all probability discovered gunpowder ; nevertheless, it is on his clear discern- ment of true Method that his fame must rest. During his unswerving pursuit of knowledge he encountered the usual oppositions, and a share also of encouragement. Pope Clement IV. aided and cheered him ; but after the death of this protector the smothered jealousy and dislike of the Francis- cans broke forth, the mean and the weak are of course ever the readiest and fiercest persecutors. It is at once unjust and unwise to consider errors and crimes of this sort as exclusive attributes of the Romish church ; their root, on the contrary, lies deep in the heart of man. The domain of phy- sical inquiry is now wholly safe from the disorders of intolerance; but there are large departments of knowledge within which Reason is still not free, where authority abides on its throne, and popular prejudice stores up its thunderbolts. [J.P.N.] [Roger Bacons Study at Oxford.] BACON, or BACONTHORP, John, a learned monk of the 14th century, died 1346. BACOUE, Leonard, a Latin poet, d. 1694. BACQUERRE, B., a medical writer, 17th ct. BACQUET, a French lawyer, died 1597. BACZKO, a Polish chronicler, 13th century. BADAJOZ, Juan De, a Spanish architect, middle of the 16th century. BADCOCK, S., a polemical wr., 1747-1788. BADEN, one of the sovereign families of Ger- many, distinguished by many eminent statesmen and military leaders since the 11th century. Charles Frederick, born 1728, was defeated {several times by Moreau, and concluded a treaty of peace with the French republic 1796 ; adhered to the Confederation of the Rhine 1805, and received the title of Grand Duke ; died 1811. BADEN, James, a critical writer and lexico- grapher of Denmark, 1735-1805. BADEN, Richard De, the original founder of Clare Hall, Cambridge, 1326. BADENS, Fr., a Dutch painter, died 1603. BADESSA, Paul, an Italian poet, 16th cent. BADI-EL-ZEMAM, the last descendant of Ta- merlane who reigned in Khorassan ; died 1517. BADIA, Domingo, a political agent and traveller of Spain, 1766-1824. BADIALI, Alex., an Italian etcher, 17th ct. BADILE, Ant., an Italian painter, 1480-1660. BADILY, a naval officer, time of Cromwell BAH BADUEL, Cl., a protestant theologian, d. 1561. BAELI, F., a Sicilian historian, 17th century. BAENGIUS, P., a Swedish historian, 17th ct. BAERSIUS, H., a mathematician, 16th cent. BAERSTRAT, a Dutch painter, died 1687. BAFFIN, William, a skilful English naviga- tor of the 17th century, deserving honourable mention as the first who applied observations oi the heavenly bodies for the determination of the longitude at sea. Rules for the practice of the method which he employed are given in his account of the fourth voyage of James Hall, whom he ac- companied to the coast of Greenland in 1612, pro- bably in the capacity of pilot. Nothing is known of his history prior to this date. In 1613 he com- manded a whaling ship in the sea of Spitzbergen. In 1615-1616 he went as mate with Robert Bylot, on two voyages, whose object was the discovery of a N.W. passage. In the second of these, the ex- tensive bay named after him (which should now be termed a sea, since it is known to open north- wards), was discovered, and in great part traced. He wrote an account of these voyages also. Many of his statements are important, and highly suggestive. He calculated the horizontal or maximum refraction at 26' ; the present estimate is 32' or 33'. In 1618 we find him mate of a merchant vessel in the Arabian sea. In 1621 he was killed at the siege of Kismis, a fort near Ormuz, while engaged in an English expedition co-operating with the Persians, in endeavouring to drive the Portuguese out of the Persian Gulf. [J-B.] BAFFO, G., a Venetian poet, died 1768. BAFFO, a Venetian lady who was taken cap- tive, and becoming his favourite sultana, enjoyed great authority under Amurath III. BAF-KARKAH, an Arabian mathematician. BAGDEDIN, Mahomed, a mathemat., 10th c. BAGE, Robert, a novelist, 1728-1801. BAGFORD, J., an antiquarian, died 1716. BAGGER, J., a learned Danish prel., 1646-1693. BAGGESEN, Jens, a Danish poet, 1764-1806. BAGLIONE, Caesar, a fresco painter, 17th ct. BAGLIONE, G., a fresco painter, died 1644. BAGLIONI, J. P., usurper of Perugia, put to death by Leo X., 1520. BAGLIVI, G., a medical writer, 1667-1706. BAGNATI, an ascetic writer, 1651-1727. BAGNIOLI, J. C, an Italian poet, died 1600. BAGOAS, the murderer of Artaxerxes Ochus, king of Persia, put to death B.C. 356. BAGOPHANES, gov. of Babylon, time of Alex. BAGOT, Lewis, bishop of Bristol, &c, author of Sermons on the Prophecies, 1740-1802. BAGRATION, K. A., a Russian commander, killed at Moscow, 1812. BAGSHAW, Chr., an English catholic, and ecclesiastical historian, died at Paris 1626. BAGSHAW, Ed., a political writer and par- tizan of the Royalists, died 1662. BAGSHAW, Ed., son of the preceding, assis- tant of Dr. Busbv, died 1671. BAGSHAW, H., another son of Edward, author of Sermons, &c, died 1709. BAGSHAW, Wm., a religious writer, d. 1703. BAHA-ED-DOULAH, son of Adad-el-Doulab, shah of Persia 989, died 1012. BAHALI, an Arabian grammarian, died 842. BAHIER, J., a French poet, died 1707. 58 BAH BAHRAM, or BEHRAM, I., king of Persia, 272-276. Bahram II., 276-293. Bahham III., reigaed four months, 293. Bahram IV., 383-393. Bahram V., 421-440. BAHRDT, C. F., a German divine, died 1792. BAIAN, And., a native of Goa, converted to Christianity, and ordained as minister 1630. BAIER, J. G., a botanist, 1677-1735. BAIER, J. W., a German divine, died 1694. BAIF, Lazarus, a French ambassador and author, time of Francis I., died 1547. BAIF, J. A., son of Lazarus, distinguished as a poet, founder of an academy, 1570. BAIL, Louis, a French divine, 17th century. BAILEY, Nathan, a lexicographer, d. 1742. BAILEY, Peter, a miscellaneous wr., d. 1823. BAILEY, Walker, a medical author, d. 1592. BAILIE, Lieut.-Col., distinguished for his gallantry in the last war, 1778-1836. BAILLET, Adrien, a Fr. critic, 1649-1706. BAILLIE, Joanna, was born in 1762, at Bothwell, in Lanarkshire, of which place her father was the parish minister. Her mother was sister of John and William Hunter, the famous anatomists. Her life was spent in domestic pri- vacy, and marked by no events more important than the appearance of her successive works. Her brother, who became Sir Matthew Baillie, having settled as a physician in London, Miss Baillie removed thither at an early age. She resided in the metropolis, or its neighbourhood, almost constantly, and died at Hampstead in Feb- ruary, 1851. Her first volume of dramas was published in 1798. Their design, as to which it is not too much to say that the works were good in spite of it, not by means of it, was indicated in the title : ' A Series of Plays, in which it is at- tempted to delineate the Stronger Passions of the Mind, each Passion being the subject of a Tragedy and a Comedy.' A second volume of the ' Plays of the Passions ' appeared in 1802, and a third in 1812. The tragedies are fine poems, noble in sentiment, and classical and vigorous in language. But they were not fit for the stage ; and ' De Montfort ' itself was with difficulty supported for a while by the acting of John Kemble and Mrs. Siddons. The tragedy of ' The Family Legend,' not contained in the series, was acted in Edin- burgh in 1809, after a visit the poetess had paid to Sir Walter Scott. In 1836 she published another series of ' Plays of the Passions,' of which ' Henriquez,' and ' The Separation,' the former a very striking piece, were attempted on the stage. Some of Miss Baillie's small poems were exceed- ingly good. [W.S.] BAILLIE, Colonel John, distinguished as a negotiator in the East Indian service, d. 1833. BAILLIE, Matt., D.D., an anatom., d. 1823. BAILLIE, Robert, a minister and delegate of file Scotch Church, died 1662. BAILLIE, Roche, better known as La Riviere, a celebrated empiric and astrologer, died 1605. BAILLOD, Dav., a Swiss writer, 16th century. BAILLON, Eman., a naturalist, died 1802. BAILLOU, Wm. De, a physician, distinguished as ' The French Sydenham,' died 1616. BAILLY, David, a painter, 17th century. BAILY, Jean Sylvain, celebrated because of his attachment to science ; still more through his BAK eloquence as the Historian of Astronomy; most of all on account of his connection with the unfold- ing of the first or great French revolution, and his melancholy fate. Baily was born in Paris in the year 1736 ; in 1790 he presided as mayor of Paris at the Champ de Mars, over that vast" assemblage when the united French people hailed the sup- posed commencement of the Reign of Liberty and Universal Brotherhood ; in 1793 one of countless illustrious victims he perished on the scaffold. In his attachment to the cause of rational liberty Baily was constant through all calamity : it was not desire of fame, nor the thirst to overthrow, that led him towards the front ranks of the Revo- lution; so, through abiding faith in humanity, he died without the shame of relinquishing his early principles and hopes, merely because the effort to realize them had brought evil to himself. Baily's Histroy of Astronomy is still very fasci- nating: as a strictly philosophical work it does not answer the highest ends, he was led astray by the then novel and false doctrine of the value of some ancient and forgotten knowledge. As a technical History it is supplanted by the laborious, but yet very insufficient history oi De- lambre. [J.P.N.] BAILY, Fr., the celebrated astron., 1774-1844. BAINBRIDGE, Chr., an English diplomatist and churchman, made a cardinal 1511. BAINBRIDGE, Dr. John, an eminent phy- sician and professor of astronomy, 1582-1643. BAINBRIDGE, Wm., an Amer. capt., d. 1833. BAINE, Mich., a theologian, 16th century. BAINES, Edward, the distinguished member of parliament, b. 1774 ; representative of Leeds, 1833 to 1840 ; died 1848. BAINES, R., a Hebrew scholar, 16th century. BAION, a French naturalist, last century. BAIRD, General Sir David, distinguished by his services in the East Indies, in the expedition by which the Cape of Good Hope was taken, and subsequently at Corunna, where the command of Sir John Moore devolved upon him : entered the army as an ensign, 1772, died 1829. BAJARDI, an Italian jurist, 16th century. BAJARDO, an Italian painter, died 1670. BAJAZET, or BAYAZID, proclaimed sultan on the field of battle 1390; after overrunning Greece, he defeated Sigismund of Hungary and the crusaders 1395 ; conquered and made prisoner by Tamerlane 1402, died 1403. BAJAZET II., succeeded 1481 ; after sustain- ing a long conflict with the Christian powers, and conquering Moldavia, Bosnia, and Croatia, he was poisoned by his second son Selim, who usurped the throne over Achmet, 1512. BAJAZET, the original of one of Racine's heroes, was a son of Achmet I., strangled by his brother Amurath IV., 1655. BAJOLE, J., a French historian, died 1650. BAKE, Laur., a Dutch poet, died 1714. BAKER, David, a monastic writer, died 1641. BAKER, Geoff., a monastic historian, 1347. BAKER, Sir G., a physician and antiquarian, bom 1722, a baronet 1776, died 1809. BAKER, H., a naturalist, born 1704, married a daughter of De Foe, 1729, died 1774. BAKER, David Erskine, son of Henry, a writer of theatrical biography in 1764. o'J r,AK BAKER, Tno., an antiquarian, 1656-1740. BAKER, Sir Richard, author of English Chronicles, 1568-1645. BAKEWELL, Robt., a grazier, died 1795. BAKHTISHWA, the name of several physi- cians at the court of Bagdad. BAKI, an Ottoman lvric, died 1G00. BARKER, P. H., a Dutch poet, died 1801. BALAAM, a prophet or diviner, 14th cent. B.C. BALADAN, a king of ancient Babylon. BALAKLEI, a Tartar prince, 13th century. BALAMIO, Ferd., a physician, 16th century. BALASSI, Mario, a painter, 1604-1667. BALBI, Adr., a geographer, 1784-1848. BALBINUS, D. C, a Roman consul, elected emperor, and slain 238. BALBINUS, A. B., an historian, 1611-1689. BALBIS, J. B., a botanist, died 1831. BALBO, Lodovico, a composer, 16th century. BALBOA, Vasco Nunez De, a Portuguese discoverer, put to death 1517. BALBUENA, Bernardo De, a poet, d. 1627. BALBUS, Lucius Cornelius, a Spaniard, made consul of Rome, b.c. 40. BALBUS, a philologist, 15th century. BALCANQUAL, Walter, chaplain to James L, afterwards dean of Rochester, and bishop of Durham, died 1642. BALCHEN, J., an admiral, lost 1744. BALDERIC, an annalist, 12th century. BALDI, Bern., an Italian poet, died 1617. BALDI, Camillo, an Aristotelian, died 1634. BALDI, Jas., a German poet, died 1668. BALDI, Laz., an Italian painter, died 1703. BALDI DE UBALDIS, a jurist, died 1400. BALDINGER, E. G., a medical writer, d. 1804. BALDINI, Baccio, a physician, died 1585. BALDINI, J. F., an Italian savant, died 1765. BALDINUCCI, Ph., an artist and historian of Florence, 1634-1696. BALDOCK, Ralph DE,bp. of London, d. 1307. BALDOCK, Robert De, chancellor of Eng- land in the reign of Edward II. BALDWIN, an archbishop of Canterbury, who went to Palestine with Richard I. BALDWIN, the name of several counts of Flanders. The first of this name, elevated from the office of grand forester, 837 ; d. 877. The second succeeded 888, d. 918. The third began his rejgn 958. The fourth succeeded 989, d. 1034. The fifth succeeded 1034, and was regent of France during the minority of Philip I., d. 1067. The sixth succeeded 1067, d. 1070. The seventh reigned for a short time in 1071. The eighth from 1111 to 1119. The ninth succeeded 1191, and d. 1195. BALDWIN I., first Latin emperor of Constan- tinople, was a son of the last named ; joined the crusaders 1200 ; elected emperor 1204 ; taken prisoner by the king of the Bulgarians, and pro- bably died before 1206. BALDWIN II., last Latin emperor of Constan- tinople, succeeded 1228 ; dethroned by Michel Palasologus 1261, died 1273. BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, succeeded his brother Godfrey Bouillon 1100 ; conquered the most important cities on the sea coast of Palestine from 1101 to 1109, died 1118. BALDWIN II. succeeded Baldwin I., 1118; taken prisoner 1124; ransomed 1126; died 1131. BAL BALDWIN III., king 1114; married into the family of Commenus 1158 ; died 1162. BALDWIN IV., king 1173 ; died 1185. BALDWIN V. succeeded Baldwin IV. 1185; and a few months afterwards died of poison. In 1187, Jerusalem was captured by Saladin. BALDWIN D' ANESNES, son of Margaret, countess of Flanders and Hainalt, known to litera- ture as the historian of his house, 13th century. BALDWIN, Abr., an American senator, born 1754, elected 1799, died 1807. BALDWIN, Ben., an archaeologist, 16th cent. BALDWIN, Fr., a jurist, 16th centurv. BALDWIN, J., a French savant, died 1650. BALDWIN, Theod., a monk, died 1191. BALDWIN, Sir T., a miscellaneous wr., 17th c. BALDWIN, Thos., a baptist, died 1828. BALDWIN, William, a moralist, died 1564. BALE, John, a zealous reformer and contro- versialist, 1495-1563. BALE, Robert, an annalist, died 1503. BALECHOU, N., an engraver, died 1765. BALEG, an Egyptian chief, 8th century. BALEN, Heindrich Van, an historical and landscape painter, 1560-1632. BALES, Peter, a writing master, died 1600. BALESDENS, J., an advocate, died 1675. BALESTRA, Anth., a painter, died 1720. BALFOUR, Alex., a novelist, died 1829. BALFOUR, Sir And., a botanist, died 1694. BALGUY, John, a theologian, died 1748. BALGUY, Tho., son of John, 1716-1795. BALIN, J., a priest and poet, 16th century. BALIOL, Sir Alex., appointed chamberlain of Scotland by Edward I., 1291. BALIOL, Henry De, a Scotch nobleman who, in 1241, accompanied Henry III. of England to Gascony, died 1246. BALIOL, Sir John De, founder of a college at Oxford, and guard, of Alex. III. of Scot., d. 1269. BALIOL, John De, son of the preceding, raised to the throne of Scotland under the protection of Edward L, 1291 ; in counter-treaty with France 1294; prisoner of Edward 1296-1299; d. 1314. BALIOL, Edw., son of the preceding, invaded Scotland and was crowned at Scone 1332 ; after many reverses of fortune he finally resigned his crown to Edward III. 1355 ; died 1363. BALL, John, a preacher of reform, disting. in the Kent insurrection, executed 1381. BALL, John, a puritan theologian, 1585-1640. BALLABENE, Gr., a composer, died 1803. BALLANDEN, J., a miscellaneous wr., d. 1550. BALLANTYNE, James, the eel. printer of the works of Scott, ed. of the Kelso Mail, &c, d. 1833. BALLANTYNE, John, brother of James, and confidant of Sir W. Scott, died 1821. BALLARD, Geo., a Saxon scholar, died 1755. BALLARD, S. G., a naval officer, died 1829. BALLARD, Volante Vashon, a fellow-voy- ager with Vancouver, born 1774 ; captain in the R.N. 1807 ; rear-admiral 1825 ; died 1832. BALLENDEN, J., a Scotch historian, d. 1550. BALLERINI, Peter and Jerome, two bro- thers of Verona, distinguished as men of learning, and joint editors of theological and classical works ; the first, 1698-1764 ; the^last, 1702-1780. BALLESTEROS, Fr., a Spanish offic, d. 133. BALLET, Fr., a religious writer, 1702-1702. 60 BAL BALLEXSERD, J., author of a prize essay on the medical and domestic treatment of children, 1726-1774. BALLIANI, J. B., a writer on physics, d. 1666. BALLIN, Claude, artist in gold and metals to Louis XIV., 1615-1678. BALINE, C. D., a medical author, died 1805. BALMEZ, J. L., one of the most distinguished of the modern writers of Spain, 1810-1848. BALSAMO, L. and 0., Sicilian poets, 17th ct. BALSAMON, patriarch of Antioch, died 1214. BALSHAM, Hugh De, bishop of Ely, d. 1286. BALTHASAR, Aug. De, an historian, d. 1779. BALTHASAR, Chr., a protestant wr., 17th ct. BALTHASAR, J. A., Felix De, a Swiss his- torian of William Tell, died 1810. BALTHAZAR, last k. of Babylon, 6th c. B.C. _ BALTHAZARINI, an Italian composer, dis- tinguished in the ballet, 16th century. BALTICUS, M., a Latin poet, 16th century. BALTUS, J. F., a Jesuit theolog., 1667-1743. BALUE, John La, minister of Louis XL, born 1421 ; confined in an iron cage for treason, from 1469 to 1480 ; died 1490. BALUZE, Step., a Fr. biographer, died 1718. BALZAC, John Louis Guez De, an elegant French author, 1594-1654. BALZAC. This name, borne in the first half of the 17th century, by one of the classics of French prose, has again been made celebrated in our own day, by one of the most vigorous, original, and prolific of French novel writers. Honore De Balzac was born at Tours, about 1799. He came to Paris when a very young man, and was thenceforth engaged constantly in the toils and ex- citements of authorship. For several years he was very obscure ; and the only separate works which he then published, bore the assumed name of Horace de St. Aubin. In 1829 there appeared, with his real name, his romance of ' La Peau de Chagrin,' wiiich at once gained him a celebrity that never afterwards flagged. This striking story exhibits, not only Balzac's extraordinary power of impres- sive representation, but some of the most marked characteristics of the school to which he belongs, and in which, if he is not equal to Victor Hugo, he is much superior to Dumas, and still more to Sue and De Kock. They luxuriate in characters and incidents which are horrible, rather than genu- inely tragic ; and, when they condescend to pro- fess a moral aim, they mar it by the gratuitous grossness which they throw into the details of the execution. The story of 'The Shagreen Skin' tells how a young ruined gamester, about to throw himself into the Seine, is rescued by a sorcerer, who gives him a talisman, consisting of a piece of shagreen. The possession of it ensures him the f ratification of every wish he chooses to form; ut -with everygratified wish the skin shrinks in size, and when it is quite wasted away the posses- sor dies. In another story, ' El Verdugo,' a young Spaniard beheads his parents, and his brothers, and his sisters, by common consent; life being offered by a French general to any one of the family who will be the executioner of the rest. There is less of exaggeration, with very much of intense interest, and of sternly accurate dissection of social vices and evils, in several of the best of Balzac's other novels. They are far too numerous BAN to be named. It may be enough to refer to ' La Femme de Trente Ans,' and 'Le Pere Goriot' Balzac attempted the drama likewise, but with little success ; and he was an active contributor to the 'Revue Parisienne,' and other periodicals. After the revolution of 1848 he contemplated writing romances of military life, and travelled to collect materials. He died at Paris in Aug. 1850. [W.S.] BAMBRIDGE. See Bainbridge, Chr. BAMPFYLDE, Fr., a learned nonconformist and member of parliament, d. in Newgate, 1684. BAMPFYLDE, Sir C, a royalist, died 1691. BAMPFYLDE, Sir C. W., a descendant of the two preceding, assassinated 1823. BANCHI, S., a Florentine priest who saved Henry IV. from assassination, died 1622. BANCROFT, J., bishop of Oxford, died 1610. BANCROFT, R., archbp. of Canterb., d. 1610. BANDARRA, G., a Portuguese poet, 16th ct, BANDELLO, M., a writer of fiction, d. 1561. BANDINELLI, B., an artist, died 1559. BANDINI, A. M., an antiquarian, died 1800. BANDURI, A., an historian, died 1743. BANIER, Ant., a fabulist, 1673-1741. BANIM, John, an Irish novelist, 1800-1842. BANISTER, J., an anatomist, died 1624. BANISTER, J., a botanical author, 1680. BANISTER, J., a violinist, died 1679. BANKERT, J. Van, a Dutch admiral, 17th ct. BANKES, Sir J., a justice distinguished for his loyalty to Charles L, died 1644. BANKS, J., au. of a work on Cromwell, d. 1751. BANKS, J., a dramatic author, 17th century. BANKS, Thomas, a sculptor, 1735-1805. BANKS, Sir Joseph, Bart., a celebrated bo- tanist and traveller, was bom in London in 1743. He died in 1820. Inheriting at an early age an ample fortune, he resolved in order to gratify his love for botany, to visit foreign countries at that time little known to naturalists. For this purpose he made a voyage to Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador ; he accompanied Captain Cook in hi3 celebrated voyage of discovery to the South Seas; he visited the coasts of Scotland, and spent some time in Iceland. Banks never published any ac- count of the vast collections of objects of natural history he had made ; still they were not lost to science. Fabricius described his insects; Brous- sonet his fishes ; Gaertner profited by his fruits and seeds; Robert Brown's Prodromus of the plants of New Holland was composed in the midst of his herbarium ; and many other botanists owe him similar favours. Our parks and gardens are indebted to Banks for many fine new trees and shrubs from New Holland ; our colonies for a vari- ety of the sugar cane from Tahiti, richer in sugar, and which admits of more frequent cropping ; ana our commerce for the flax of New Zealand, which promises to be of such importance to our navy. In 1777 he was elected president of the Royal Society; soon afterwards created a bart., a K.B., and a member of the privy council. He was a great favourite with George III., who was fond of botany and agriculture. His wealth and position in society enabled him to become the patron of science in his native country, and during the long war which embroiled all Europe, he was ever ready- to assist, both by his purse and advice, scientific men of all nations. Many a man of science hag CI BAN been indebted to bis generous liberality, and ten different collections of objects of natural history made for tbe Garden of Plants, which bad fallen into tbe bands of our cruisers, and brought to England, were saved by his interference, and in several instances, at his own expense, safely trans- mitted to Paris. His published memoirs are few in number, and not of any great importance, yet bis name remains intimately connected with the history of science. He presided for 41 years over the Royal Society ; and at bis death he bequeathed his herbarium and splendid library of books of na- tural history to the British Museum, where they remain monuments of his patriotism, talent, and assiduity. [W.B.] BANNAKER, Bexj., a negro slave, (listing, as a mathematician and astronomer, died 1807. BANNIER, Jonx, field-marshal of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus, 1601-1641. BANNISTER, John, the celebrated comedian and vocalist, born 1760 ; engaged at Drury Lane, 1779 ; retired 1815 ; died 1836. BANQUO, a Scotch Thane, 11th century. BANTI, Signora, a singer, died 1806. BAODAN, an Irish king, 6th century. BAPTIST, a Dutch painter, died 1691. BAPTISTA, Fr., a curious writer, 17th cent. BAPTISTE, J., a Flemish painter, 1635-1699. BAPTISTE, J. G., a painter of Antwerp, em- ployed by Sir Peter Lely, died 1691. BAPTISTIN, J. B. ., a composer, died 1716. BAR, N. De, a French painter, 17th century. BARAGUAY-D' HILLIERS, L., a French gen- eral, distinguished in the Italian and peninsular campaigns, 1734-1812. BARAHONA, Louis, a Spanish poet, 16th ct. BARANZANO, R., a mathematical philosopher, correspondent of Bacon, 1590-1622. BARATIER, J. P., dist. for his early knowledge of many languages, also as a critic, 1721-1740. BARBA, A. A.., a mineralogist, 17th century. BARBADILLO, A. J. De, a dramatist, 17th c. BARBANEGRE, J., a French general, d. 1830. BARBARELLI. See Giorgione. BARBARIGO, Augustin, doge of Venice, 1486 to 1501. Nicholas, ambassador from Ve- nice to Constantinople, died 1579. Gregory, a cardinal and bishop of Padua, 1625-1697. John Francis, twice ambassador to Louis XIV. ; afterwards cardinal and bp. of Padua, 1658-1730. BARBARINO, Francis, a poet, 1264-1348. BARBARO, Francis, a noble Venetian, dis- tinguished as a commander and scholar, 1398-1454. Ermolao, a classical scholar, d. 1470. Ermolao the younger, an ambassador and classical scholar, 1454-1493. Daniel, a classical scholar and rhe- torician, ambassador to England, and patriarch of Aquilea, 1513-1570. BARBAROSSA, Aroush, a daring corsair, son of a Greek renegade, who dethroned the Arab sheik, and made himself dey of Algiers, 1516 ; defeated and slain by the troops of Charles V., 1518. BARBAROSSA, Khair Eddyn, brother and successor of Aroush, the greatest sea captain of his age ; died 1546. BARBAROSSA. See Frederick. BARBAROUX, C. J. Ma., member of the Fr. convention, and one of the Girondin leaders, born 1767, executed 1794. BAR BARBATELLI, an Italian painter, died 1612. BARBAULD, Anne L;etitia, chiefly cele- brated for her ' Prose Hymns,' and 'Early Lessons' for children, was the daughter of the Rev. John Aikin, a dissenting minister resident in Leicester- shire, where she was born on the 20th of June, 1743. Whde a child she was remarkable for quickness of intellect, no less than for the natural goodness of her disposition ; and in later years for tbe ele- gance of her taste, the extent of her acquirements, and her skill in classical literature. For these advantages Miss Aikin was greatly indebted to the affectionate zeal with which her father culti- vated her talents, and in some measure to the liter- ary circle into which he was able to introduce her on removing to Warrington, where he took charge of the celebrated school in 1758. After fifteen years of quiet seclusion, passed in these academic shades, Miss Aikin was induced to publish a volume of miscellaneous poems, which appeared therefore in 1773, and met with the most natter- ing success. In the spring of the following year she became the wife of the Rev. Rochemond Bar- bauld, with whom she opened a school in the vil- lage of Palsgrave, Suffolk ; and took an active and inluential part in its management as teacher of composition, and the graceful exercises of reading and speaking. Here they continued to reside for the next eleven years, and it is to this period that we are indebted for tbe works first alluded to, and for some devotional compositions. Mr. and Mrs. Barbauld then visited tbe continent for a short time, and on their return home, the former became pastor of a small congregation at Hampstead, where the subject of our notice resumed her pen ; first in the interest of the dissenters on the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, and next in a poetical address to Mr. Wilberforce, suggested by the rejection of the slave bill. These spirited ap- peals were followed by some religious essays, the most remarkable of which is a singular discourse for the Fast-day of 1793, entitled ' The Sins of the Government the Sins of the Nation.' In 1802 Mr. Barbauld became minister of a congregation at Newington Green, where he died in 1808, and in this neighbourhood his widow resided till her death in 1825, enjoying the company of her brother, and literary friend, Dr. Aikin. The simplicity of Mrs. Barbauld's life and manners, the refinement of her imagination, and the purity of her soul, are well represented in the works which have rendered her name a household word in England, and to which the cause of education is so much indebted. The versatibty of her talents is shown in the critical and biographical notices with which she amused herself in the early period of her residence at Stoke Newington, which include a selection of papers from the ' Spectator,' and similar classics, published in 1804, and an edition of the ' British Novelists ' in 1810. Her last publication was a re- markable poem, named from the year preceding its appearance, 'Eighteen Hundred and Eleven.' Her collected works were published soon after her death, with a memoir by her niece, Miss Lucy Aikin ; and the day is probably far off when her ' Early Lessons ' will be superseded by any tbing superior of the same class. [E.R.J RABBAULT, J., an architect, last century. BARBAZAN, Step., a French savant, d. 1770. C2 BAB BARBAZAN, A. W. De, a French general dis- tinguished in the wars with Burgundy and Eng- land ; defended Melun 1420 ; died 1432. BARBEAU DE LA BRUYERE, a French geo- grapher and historian, 1710-1781. BARBERET, a French agriculturist, last cent. BARBEYRAC, C, a French physician, d. 1699. BARBEYRAC, J., nephew of the preceding, a distinguished jurist, 1674-1747. BARBLANO, Alberic, count of, an Italian pa- triot, made grand constable of Naples, 1884-1409. BARRIER, A. A., author of a dictionary of anonymous and pseudonomous works, died 1825. BARBIERI. See Guercino. BARBOSA, Aug., bishop of Ugento, d. 1648. BARBOSA, Arias, a scholar, died 1540. BARBOSA, Edward, a navigator, known as the fellow-voyager of Magellan, killed 1521. BARBOSA, Jo., an historian, 1674-1750. BARBOSA, P., a lawyer, died 1596. BARBOUR, John, a Scotch poet and chroni- cler, chaplain of David Bruce, 1320-1378. BARBOUR, J., an Amer. statesman, d. 1824. BARBOUR, Ph. P., an Amer. lawyer, d. 1841. BARBOUR, T., an American politician, d. 1825. BARBUOT, J., a physician, 17th century. BARCALI, a Mahommedan author, 16th cent. BARCHAM, Dr. John, an antiquary, histo- rian, and writer on heraldry, 1541-1605. BARCHOCHEBAS, a seditious Jew who gave himself out for the Messiah, and was slain after a long resistance, and with an immense number of his followers, 135. BARCKHAUSEN, a chemist, died 1723. BARCLAY, Alex., a miscellaneous wr., 16th c. BARCLAY, J., a Scotch clergyman, minister of Cruden, and au. of a curious poem, 1675-1710. BARCLAY, J., a Scotch sectarian, died 1798. BARCLAY, N., an eminent Scotch civilian, rose to be counsellor of Lorraine, 1543-1605. BARCLAY, John, son of the preceding, dis- tinguished as a satirist, 1582-1621. BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated Apologist, was born in 1648, at Gordonstown, county of Moray, and descended from an ancient and hon- ourable ancestry, who for centuries had flourished in the North of Scotland. The unsettled state of things at home induced his father, Colonel Barclay, to send him at an early age abroad, and accor- dingly he received the greater part of his education at Paris, under the superintendence of his uncle, who filled the office of rector in the Scots College. His parents being led from circumstances to appre- hend that familiarity with continental manners might produce in then 1 son a disposition favourable towards the Roman Catholic religion, recalled him to his native country, where he appeared an accomplished youth, and combining the advantages of a liberal education with great natural abilities, he rapidly rose to distinction. His family having embraced the principles of the Quakers, he was persuaded ere long to follow their example, and in conforming to the peculiarities of a sect which was held in great disrepute, particularly in Scotland, he felt himself laid under a necessity of vindicating that course by the publication of several treatises in their defence, characterized by great variety of learning, as well as power of argument. His first work, which was published EAR in 1670, was entitled ' Truth Cleared of Calum- nies,' and appeared in the form of a controversial pamphlet, in answer to an attack on Quakerism by the Rev. Wm. Mitchel, a minister of the Church of Scotland. His next publication, which was issued in 1673, was a Catechism and Con- fession of Faith, containing an exposition of the principles of his religious communion ; and to this he soon after added his 'Theses Theologicas,' or Theological Propositions. Becoming enthusi- astically attached to the cause of Quakerism, which he identified with that of truth and the best interests of humanity, he resolved on devoting his future life to its extension in the world ; and with this view, he in 1676 accompanied William Penn in a tour of propagandism through England, Hol- land, and Germany. It was while sojourning at Amsterdam, in the course of those peregrina- tions, that he published the great work which had long occupied him, and on which his fame chiefly rests ' An Apology for the True Christian Divin- ity, as the same is preached and held forth by the people in scorn called Quakers.' This treatise was originally published in Latin, but was speedily translated into most of the languages of Europe, and while it greatly extended the reputation of its au- thor, the principles it advocated became the subject of keen and prolonged agitation. Barclay, on his return to his native country, suffered much from the severe edicts issued against the nonconformists of the period, being imprisoned five months in Aberdeen, besides other petty kinds of persecution in the form of obloquy and fines. His high character, however, for sincerity, as well as for talent and learning, carried him triumphantly over all oppo- sition, and latterly he enjoyed much distinction, being honoured with an introduction to the English court, and the partial regards both of Charles II. and his successor, James II. Through the royal favour he received a commission as governor of East Jersey for life, whence he several times re- turned to visit his native land, and it was in 1680, the last visit he paid, he was seized with fever, and died amongst his relatives, at Ury, in Aberdeen- shire, in the forty-second year of his age. [R. J.1 BARCLAY DE TOLLY, M., field-marshal of Russia, born 1755 ; director of the war against Napoleon 1810 ; com. of the Russian troops at the battle of Leipzig 1812, and in France 1815 ; d. 1818. BARCOCHAB. See Barchochebas. BARCOS, M. De, a Jansenist, died 1678. BARD, Peter, a Flemish monk, died 1535. BARD, J., a medical author, died 1799. BARD, S. M. D., a (listing, physician, d. 1821. BARDAS, brother-in-law of" the emp. Theo- philus, and guardian of his son Michael ; usurper of the supreme power 24 years ; put to death 866. BARDAS PHOCAS, and BARDAS SCLERUS, rival generals of the Greek empire, who disputed for many years the supreme power, 970-990. BARDE, J. De La, an ambassador and his- torian of France, 1600-1692. BARDESANES, a Theosophist of Syria, foun- der of a sect in the 2d century. BARDI, the name of several distinguished Flo- rentines in the 17th century. BARDILLI, C. G., a metaphysician, last cent. BARDIN, P., a French author, died 1637. BARDZUIKI, J. A., a poet, 17th century. G.J BAR BAREBONE, Praise God, a fanatic from whom the Barebone's Parliament derived its name, 1653. BARENT, Dietrich, a Dutch pain., 1534-1582. BARENTIN, C. L. F. De, a French politician, noted for his opposition to Necker, 1738-1819. BARENTZ, William, a skilful Dutch pilot, sent out by the United Provinces on three voyages, between the years 1594 and 1597, in search of a N.E. passage to China. He failed in the object, but made some important additions to geography. Bear, or Cherry island, and Spitzbergen were dis- covered by him ; the latter, in 80, was found to have good herbage and herds of deer, while Nova Zembla, in 76o, was a barren waste. Suddenly enclosed by ice on the coast of Nova Zembla, on 26th August, 1596, Barentz was obliged to remain on this inhospitable shore till the following sum- mer, and was thus the first navigator who wintered in the Arctic regions. He left the island on the '.4th June, with a crew of fifteen persons, in two mall boats, his ship being disabled. He died from fatigue on the 20th; but the adventurous survivors held on their perilous voyage the most extraordinary on record and traversing a stormy ocean filled with floating ice, exposed to the ex- treme of cold, famine, and sickness, and to fre- quent attacks from bears borne along upon the ice islands, or pursuing them through the water, they reached in six weeks the port of Kola, in North Lapland, a distance of 1600 miles. Here they found three ships from their own country. [J.B.J BARERE. See Barrere. BARETTI, Jo., an Italian author, 1716-1789. BARGRAVE, Isaac, chaplain to James I., afterwards dean of Canterbury, died 1642. BARHAM, Rev. Rich. Harris, the disting. humourist known as Thomas Ingoldsby, 1789-1845. BARISON, a nobleman of Pisa, created k. of Sardinia by Frederick Barbarossa, d. in prison 1154. BARKER, E. H., distinguished as a critic and classical reviewer, 1788-1839. BARKER, G., F.R.S., distinguished as one of the original promoters of railways, died 1845. BARKER, G. P., an American politic, d. 1848. BARKER, J., a medical writer, 17th century. BARKER, M. H, a fugitive writer, known in magazine literature as the Old Sailor, died 1846. BARKER, Robert, a portrait painter, inventor of the panorama, died 1806. BARKER, Sam., a philologist, died 1760. BARKER, Thomas, a poet, 1721-1808. BARKHAM. See Barcham. BARKOK, a sultan of Egypt, 14th century. BARKSDALE, Cl., a miscellan. wr., 17th ct. BARLAAM, a theologian, 14th century. BARLtEUS, a Latin poet, died 1648. BARLAUD, A., a Dutch critic, died 1542. BARLETTA, Gabriel, a preacher, 11th cent. BARLOW, Francis, an artist, died 1702. BARLOW, Joel, a political writer, deputy from the U. S. to the French convention, and am- bassador to Napoleon when he died, 1811. BARLOW, Thomas, bishop of Lincoln, a casu- ist, and controversial writer, 1607-1691. BARLOWE, W., bp. of Bath and Wells, d. 1658. BARLOWE, W., son of the bishop, a writer on natural philosophy, died 1625. BARMEK, the founder of the illustrious family culled the Barmecides, whose various talents con- BAR tributed to the glory of Haroun-al-Rnschid and his predecessors, and who were massacred, 802. BARNABAS, St., the fellow-labourer of Paul, supposed to have been stoned to death about 60. BARNARD, J., D.D., a biographer, died 16^3. BARNARD, Sir John, lord mayor, and M.P. for London, the latter for 40 years, 1685-1764. BARNARD, Theodore, a Dutch painter. BARNAUD, Nich., an alchymist, 16th cent. BARNAVE, A. P. J. Marie, by profession an advocate, was born 1761, and distinguished in the parliament of Grenoble during the first omi- nous struggle against the despotic administration of Lomenie-Brienne. Deputed to the states- general by the province of Dauphine" in 1789, his eloquence, and his almost wild enthusiasm in the popular cause, marked him out as the rival of Mirabeau, and when the latter favoured the court, as his most dreaded adversary. One of a memo- rable trio, his characteristic talent is well ex- pressed in the epigram pointed at them : ' What- soever these three nave in hand, Dupont thinks it, Barnave speaks it, Lameth does it.' His love of justice, in the abstract, was carried to a reckless extreme in his decrees, as a member of the diplo- matic committee for the reorganization of the colonies, and their fatal effects led him to abandon the system, though Sieyes and Robespierre de- nounced his inconsistency as a treason. A member of the famous Jacobin Club, he fought a duel with the royalist Cazales, who had denounced the pa- triots as 'sheer brigands,' but neither of them received any serious injury. Like many others, his enthusiasm for the revolution was saddened and cooled down as he reflected upon the disasters which had accompanied it, and his return to mo- derate counsels was hastened by the situation into which he was momentarily thrown by the flight of the royal family, and their arrest at Varennes. Appointed with Pethion and Latour-Maubourg to secure the king's return, Barnave rode in the | carriage with the Queen and Madame Elizabeth, ' and touched by their distress, his conversion to the principles of a constitutional monarchy was completed. He was now denounced by the Jour- nalists as a deserter of the popular cause, and at the close of the session returned to private life, in his native town of Grenoble, where he married the daughter of an advocate. In August, 1792, he was arrested on a charge of conspiring with the royal family, with whom it was alleged he had held treasonable correspondence ever since the arrest at Varennes, and after a confinement of five months, conducted to Paris, and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal of Tinville. The effect of his eloquence on this occasion was such as to move even his sanguinary judges, and his friend Camille Desmoulins wept on hearing his last words. Arrived at the scaffold, he raised his eyes to heaven : Behold, at length,' he exclaimed, ' the reward of all I have done for liberty ! ' He was executed in 1793, at the early age of thirty- two ; and has left behind him a character remark- able indeed for indiscretion, but equally so for its honesty of purpose; and a name, as an orator, scarcely surpassed by any in the revolutionary annals. [E.B.J BARNES, Joshua, a friend of the famous Dr. Richard Bentley, was a native of London, where 64 BAR he was born in the year 1654. His rudimentary education he received at Christ Church Hospital, whence he was removed to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. There he devoted himself to the study of classical literature with so great assiduity and success, that he rose to eminence as a Grecian; Ms knowledge of the language of ancient Greece, however, being more minute and accurate than comprehensive, more limited to the niceties of the grammarian, than based on the enlarged and liberal views of the philologist. His reputation f)rocured him the appointment of Regius Pro- essor of Greek at Cambridge in the year 1695 ; in 1700 he changed his state by forming a matri- monial alliance with a Mrs. Mason of Hemingford, a wealthy widow, and by means of the fortune ac- quired by his marriage with this lady, he was en- abled to bear the expenses of his edition of Homer. That work was published in 1710. The sale, however, was not such as to remunerate him, for in 1711 he applied, though unsuccessfully, to Lord Barley for preferment in the church, in a series of letters setting forth his claims, which are pre- served in the Harleian collection. He died in 1712, and was buried in Hemingford churchyard, where his widow erected a monument to his memory. His works, which are now forgotten by all but a few scholars, were very voluminous. The fol- lowing may be considered a correct list of them in the order of publication: Sacred Poems, 1669; The Life of Oliver Cromwell, The Tyrant, an Eng- lish poem, 1670; Xerxes, and other dramatic pieces in English and Latin ; a Latin Poem on the Fire in London and the Plague ; a Latin Elegy on the Beheading; of John the Baptist; Estherse His- toria Poetica Paraphrasi, 1679; Select Discourses, 1680 ; The History of Edward the Third, 1686 ; an edition of Euripides, 1694; a Discourse on Matthew ix. 9; an edition of Anacreon, 1705; an edition of Homer, 1711, 2 vols. [R. J.] BARNES, R., D.D., a protestant martyr, 1540. BARNES, Thomas, a political writer, late principal editor of the Times, 1786-1841. BARNEVELDT, John D' Olden, a Dutch statesman, executed on a charge of treason, 1619. BARNEY, J., an Amer. sea capt., 1759-1818. BARO, Pierre, a protestant divine, 16th ct. BAROCCIO, Fred., an Ital. paint., 1528-1612. BARON, Bonadventure, the pseudonyme of an Irish classic, named Fitzgerald, died 1696. BARONIUS, C.,wr. of church annals, 1588-1607. BAROZZI, Jas., an Ital. architect, 1507-1577. BAROZZI, F., a Venetian nobleman, the most learned mathema. of his time, died in the inquisi- tion, being confined on a charge of magic, 16th ct. BARRAL, Peter, a Fr. antiquarian, d. 1772. BARRAL, Louis Mathias De, a Fr. emigrant, archbishop of Tours under the empire, died 1816. BARRAS, Louis, Count, a naval commander, died a short time previous to the revolution, BARRAS, Paul Francis, Count De, was born of a noble French family of Provence, of whom it was proverbial to say, ' Noble as the Barrases, old as the rocks.' He was successively member of the convention and directory, and played an impor- tant part in the progress of the French revolution. As early as the year 1775, when twenty years of age, he sailed for the Isle of France with the rank of second lieutenant, and was shipwrecked on the BAR Maldive Islands. After this he is found at Po?.- dieherry, then invested by an English army, and peace being concluded, returns to France, ready to share in the political troubles of 1789. He is re- presented at this time as a man of reckless and dissipated habits; subject to fits of courageous impulse ; tall and handsome of person, and of yel- lowish complexion : in regard to mental character, remarkable for the practical quickness of his ap- prehension, and singular presence of mind under emergencies. Fired with the prevailing enthusi- asm in favour of reform, or seeing the means of repairing his shattered fortunes, and satisfying his restless spirit in the career it opened to him, he presently declared against the court, and was ad- mitted a member of the famous Jacobin Club. From 1790 to 1792 we find him in the office of administrator for the department of the Var, and some other public employments, including that of commissary for the army of Italy. As a member of the convention in 1792, he voted for the king's death, and declared against the Girondins. In 1793 he was sent to the south of France, and com- manded the left wing of the army besieging Tou- lon, where he became acquainted with Napoleon, then captain of artillery in the same operations. When the savage excesses committed by the com- missioners and soldiers of the convention on this and similar occasions became the subject of re- monstrance in Paris, Barras and Freron were exempted from the general imputation, and it was only the popularity and audacious bearing of the former that deterred Robespierre from laying hands upon him. As the reign of terror drew near its close, and Henriot menaced the convention with his troops, Barras was intrusted with its defence, and it was he who seized Robespierre and conveyed him to the scaffold. The vigorous measures which he now adopted against the party of the Mountain, gained him the appointment of general-in-chief, decreed unanimously by the convention ; and the merit belongs to him of engaging Buonaparte in the public service on the famous 13th Vendemiaire, (4th October, 1795,) when the revolt of Lepelletier was suppressed, and soon afterwards the govern- ment of the directory established, of which Barras was one. Residing in the Luxembourg palace, he affected almost royal pomp, and for a while exer- cised a marked ascendancy over his coadjutors; but their subsequent dissensions, and the intrigues of a formidable party, at the head of whom was the notorious Sieyes, gradually sunk them in pub- lic esteem, and prepared for the return of Buona- parte from Egypt, and his sudden elevation to tho consulship. Barras is accused of conspiring with the English government for the restoration of tho Bourbons, and this for the vilest of considerations, yet he hailed with apparent joy the advent of the illustrious soldier to whom he had first opened the path of preferment. Without recounting the petty intrigues of his later years, it is sufficient to say, that his public career the mingled good and evil of his political life closes with this epoch. For whatever reason, he obstinately refused the employments that were offered him through the agency of Talleyrand, and at last died in retire- ment on the 29th January, 1829. [E.R.] BARRE, William Vincent, a Fr. refugee, au. of a hist, of the first consulate, com. suicide 1829. G5 I CAR BARRERE, P., a French naturalist, d. 1755. BARRERE DE VIEUZAC, Bertrand, 'The Anaercon of the Guillotine,' as Burke styled him, is one of the most sinister and conspicuous char- acters of the French revolution, more especially as a member of the Committee of Public Safety faring the r< ign of terror. He was born at Tar- bes in Gasccny, 1755, and being educated for the bar, met -with considerable success as a youthful advocate at Toulouse, besides being admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences for his liter- ary attainments. In 1785 he married a lady of fortune, and it may here be remarked, that his private virtues have been extolled in singular con- trast with his perfidious conduct in public life; to which anomaly, perhaps, his moral weakness, and the brilliant talents which made him ashamed of it, and caused him to assume the airs of a bravo without the heart of one, among his more ierocious, or to say the least, less polished colleagues, may be in some measure the key. In 1789 he was sent to Paris, as the representative of his own province in the ' Third Estate ' of the 'Etats Generaux,' and took his place with the more moderate reformers. At this period he published a journal entitled ' Le Point du Jour,' and acquired a high degree of popu- larity by his eloquence both as editor and represen- tative. At first loyal to the king, he was gradu- ally carried away by the rising tide of republican- ism, and we find him, on the 17th June, in the ranks of those who provoked the revolution by which the commons ot the third estate constituted themselves a national assembly. When this body at length separated, Barrere was appointed a judge in the High Court of Appeal, and in 1792 deputed to the National Convention for the de- partment of the Hautes Pyrenees ; acting as pre- sident, in fact, when the king was interrogated, whose situation in bygone times had excited his most compassionate feelings. From this lime he became the mouthpiece of the Jacobins, and voted for the death of the king with the ob- servation, so often since repeated, ' L'arbre de la liberte ne croit qu' arrose par le sang des tyrans,' (the tree of liberty only grows when watered by the blood of tyrants.) On the 1st of April, 1793, he was elected on the Committee of Public Safety, and constantly acted as the reporter of its projects to the convention, in which employment his in- genious plausibility, and facile wit, were of essen- tial service to those who had else stood grim and stark in the midst of their atrocious conceptions. It was Barrere who created the revolutionary army by the memorable decree, ' All France, and whatsoever it contains, of men or resources, is put under requisition ;' and who gave for the motto on their banners, ' Le peuple Francais debout contre les tyrans,' (The French people risen against ty- rants !) It was he who denounced Dan ton on the one hand on a charge of too much moderation, and Hebert on the other for his anarchic doc- trines; who stereotyped the scenes of greatest horror in a joke or an epigram, as when he said, ' II n'y a que les morts qui ne reviennent pas,' (It is only the dead who do not come back again.) His fear of breaking with Robespierre made him the instrument of cruelties which he jested upon, and which he endeavoured to hide under the con- ceits in which he clothed them, while his heart C6 BAR revolted; and if the absence of all principle is rendered more conspicuous in one circumstance than another of bis public career, it is in the haste with which he moved the execution of the fallen dictator without trial on the 9th Thermidor; scarcely four-and-twenty hours after he had fawned upon him. The disgusting facility of his conversion did not prevent the reaction affecting himself, more especially as he proposed the con- tinuation of Fouquier Tinville in his office ot public acccuser. The result was, his trial and condemnation at the bar of the convention, the fall of which, and the political complications of the period, favoured his escape and concealment until the amnesty which followed the 18th Brumaire enabled him to return to Paris. He now presented himself to the senate as a candidate for admission into the legislative body, but Napoleon mistrusted him, and he disappeared till 1815, when he turned up as a member ot the chamber of representatives during the hundred days. At the second restora- tion of the Bourbons, he was compelled to retire by the royal ordinance which expelled the regi- cides, and resided at Belgium till the revolution of 1830, when he once more returned to his country, and died 1841. He is the author of numerous poli- tical and historical works, besides, the ' Point du Jour,' and an anti-British journal, entitled the ' Argus,' published under the imperial government. His own memoirs have been published by MM. Hipp, Camot, and David, in 4 vols. 8vo. [E.R.] BARRET, Geo., a landscape paint., 1730-1784. BARRETT, W., a topographical wr., d 1789. BARRINGTON, John Shute, Viscount, a wr. on protestant theology,, 1678-1734. Several of his sons also distinguished Daines, as a lawyer, 1727-1800 ; Samuel, as a naval officer, d. 1800 ; Shute, his sixth son, as bp. of Durham, 1734-1826. BARROS, John De, a Portuguese his., d. 1570. BARROW, Dr. Isaac, celebrated both as a mathematician and a divine, was born in London, in 1630. He was sent at an early age to the Charterhouse School, where, however, his quarrel- some temper, pugnacious habits, and proverbial idleness, occasioned great annoyance to his teachers, as well as deep dissatisfaction and pain to his family. On his removal from that institution to Felsted in Essex, he began to show a better dis- position ; for applying himself to his studies with spirit and indefatigable industry, his progress was so rapid, and his attainments in various departments of learning so high, that his master appointed him tutor to Viscount Fairfax, of Emely in Ireland, who was at this school. His father, who had early destined him to a learned profession, entered him, in 1645, a student of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. But his fortune having been greatly in- jured through his attachment to the royal cause, young Barrow would have been destitute of the means to continue the expensive style of living at that university, had it not been for the liberality of the famous Dr. Hammond, who gave him the benefit of his valuable friendship, and through whose influence he, in 1649, obtained a fellowship in the college. Having finished his literary and philosophical course, he directed his studies with a view to the practice of medicine, and made great proficiency in the subsidiary sci- ences of anatomy, botany, and chemistry. But, BAR by the counsel of his uncle, bishop of St. Asaph, and his own growing convictions of the duty imposed on him by his oath as a fellow, he with- drew from the further prosecution of those sciences, and devoted himself to the study of divinity, re- taining, however, his strong predilection, and ear- nest pursuit of mathematics. Disappointed in his hopes of obtaining the Greek professorship, he resolved to dispel his chagrin by visiting the con- tinent, but was so poor at the time, that to meet the expense of his travels he had to dispose of his books. In 1660, he was chosen to the Greek chair at Cambridge ; and in July, 1662, he received another appointment more congenial to his tastes, that of geometry professor in Gresham college, London. In 1663, he received the high honour of being the first Fellow elected by the council of the Royal Society after they were incorporated by charter; and almost immediately after he was appointed first professor of a mathematical lectureship founded by Dr. Lucas, at Cambridge. This office he held for six years, and then resigned it to Sir Isaac Newton, having resolved to dedicate the rest of his life to divinity. Several small preferments he obtained in the church, till having by his pre-eminence as a preacher been marked out as capable of filling the most dignified stations, he was, in 1670, created Doctor in Divinity, prepar- atory to his being appointed Master of Trinity College, and chaplain to the king. Charles had conceived a strong partiality for him, and on be- stowing these honourable preferments upon him, said ' that he had given them to the best man in England.' A further honour awaited him, in being elected, in 1675, to the Vice-Chancellorship of the university. But he was not destined to en- joy these honours long, for on 4th May, 1677, he was seized with fever, which in a few days ter- minated his brief, though brilliant career. His works in mathematics are still held in great esteem. His sermons, with the exception of two, were posthumous, though he had prepared them for the press. They are remarkable for abundance of matter, treasures of erudition, for splendour of description, and a spirit of glowing piety. Charles II. used to call him ' an unfair preacher, because be exhausted every subject, and left nothing for others to sav after him.' [R. J.] BARROW, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., secretary to the admiralty from 1804 to 1845; a distin- guished biographical writer and promoter of dis- covery, 1764-1848. BARRUEL, Augustin, a French abbd, chiefly kn. for his memorials of Jacobinism, 1741-1820. BARRUEL DE BEAUVERT, Count Anth. Jos., a partizan of the Bourbons, well known as a jourii'ilist and biographical writer, 1756-1817. BARRY, Girald, or Giraldus Cambrensis, an English prelate and historian of the 12th cent. BARRY, J. T., an ar. and wr. on art, 1741-1806. BARRY, Spranger, a eel. actor, 1719-1777. BARRY, Marie Jeanne De Vaubernier, Countess Du, celebrated for her beauty and infamous licentiousness at the court of Louis XV., commenced her career in a millinery establishment, through which she entered upon the life of a courtezan, and was taken under the protection of the Count du Barn'. Presented at court 1759, v hen the place of Madame Pompadour was va- 07 BAS cant, she became the king's mistress, and acquired the most unbounded influence over him. The dismissal and exile of the prime minister Choiseul was decided upon under her influence, guided by the ' corrupt D'Aiguillon,' and the ' time-serving Mau- peou,' who were the most implacable^ enemies of the parliament, which had now maintained a quar- rel for nearly a quarter of a century with tin; court. France, at this period, as the most vigor- ous and deep-sighted writer of the present age has described it, 'with a harlot's foot on her neck,' was preparing for the fearful struggle of the revolution, in which Du Barry, with so many others who were either the glory or the shame of their country, were doomed to perish. At the death of the king, in 1774, she was ordered by Louis XVI. into the convent of Pont-aux-Damcs, near Meaux, but after some time permitted to reside in the chateau built for her by the old king. Here she lived some years in a creditable retire- ment, but coming to England to procure money for the use of the royal family by the sale of her diamonds, she fell under the displeasure of the revolutionary tribunal, and was condemned to the guillotine at the age of forty-nine. It is the com- mon remark of historians, that France was in- debted for much of its demoralization to this prostitute ; rather, it might be said, she had the address to avail herself of the incredible corruption that prevailed at the very heart of society. She suffered at the close of the year 1793, uttering the most pitiable cries for mercy on her way to the scaffold. [E.R.] BARSEBAI, sultan of Egypt, 1422-1438. BART AS, Wm. De Saluste Du, a French soldier and diplom., dist. also as a poet, 1544-1590. BARTH, John, a French privateer, 1651-1702. BARTHELEMI, Nich., a religious wr., 15th c. BARTHELEMON, Francis Hippolite, a comp. and violinist, b. at Bordeaux 1741, d. 1808. BARTHELEMY, John James, a Fr. savant, member of the Acad., and au. of the ' Voyage of the Younger Anarchasis in Greece,' &c, 1716-1795. BARTHEZ, P. J., a Fr. medic, wr., 1734-1806. BARTHOLDY, J. S., a Prus. diplom., d. 1826. BARTOLI, or BARTOLUS, a celebrated jurist, whose works occupy 10 folio vols., 1312-1356. BARTOLI, Cosmo, an Italian hist., 16th cent. BARTOLI, D., hist, of the Jesuits, 1608-1685. BARTOLO, an Italian jurist, 14th centurv. BARTOLOZZI, Fr., an engraver, 1728-1815. BARTON, Bernard, dist. as the 'Quaker Poet,' by profession a banker's clerk, 1784-1849. BARTON, Elizabeth, a poor girl of Kent, the subject of religious ecstacies, which led to her execution, on a charge of high treason, 1534. BARTRAM, J., an Amer. botanist, 1701-1777. BARTRAM, Wm., son of the preceding, a dis- tinguished ornithologist, died 1823. BARWAK, J., a royalist divine, 1612-1664. BARWAK, P., an em. physiologist, died 1705. BASEDAW, J. B., a German wr. on education and moral philos., fndr. of a normal school called the ' Philanthropinum,' at Dessau, 1723-1790. BASEVI, an architect, b. 1795, killed 1845. BASIL, St., the Great, a celebrated patriarch and ascetic of the Greek church, 326-379. BASILIUS, a celebrated heresiarch, burnt alive at Constantinople, 12th century. BAS BASILIUS, Valentine, a .jurist, 15th cent. BASILIUS L, emperor of the East, 866-886 : the second of this name, who reunited Bulgaria to the empire, reigned 976-1025. BASILIUS, confid. of Constantine VII., d. 961. BASILIDES, inventor of the Abraxas, 2d ct. BASILISCUS, emperor of the East, 475-477. BASILOWITZ, J., first czar of Russia, d. 1584. BASKERVILLE, John, celebrated for im- provements in letter-casting and print., 1706-1775. BASKERVILLE, Sir Simon, a phys., d. 1641. BASNAGE, Benj., a protestant divine, 1580- 1652. Anthony, his son, minister at Bayeux, 1610-1691. Samuee, son of Anthony, author of politico-ecclesiastical annals, died 1721. Henry, second son of Benjamin, a writer on jurisprudence, 1615-1695. Jacques, son of Hemy, the historian of the Jews, &c, 1653-1723. Henry, brother to the last named, a journalist and hist., 1656-1710. BASNET, Edw., an Irish priest and soldier, died in the reign of Edward VI. BASS, George, a surgeon in the English navy, who went out to New S. Wales, seven years after the formation of that colony, along with Governor Hunter, on board a ship in which the celebrated Flinders was midshipman. Soon after reaching Port Jackson, he and Flinders fitted out, at their own expense, a small boat, eight feet long, which they called ' Tom Thumb ;' and in this, with one boy for their companion, they made two surveying voyages in 1795 and 1796, along the coast south- wards. Their report on the country led to the founding of new settlements. Sent out by the government in 1797, in a whale boat, with a crew of six men, and provisions for six weeks, Bass con- trived to make these last eleven weeks, and per- formed a voyage of 600 miles. He traced a portion of the southern shores of the continent, and found that Van Diemen's Land, instead of being con- tinuous with it, as Cook and others had asserted, was separated by a wide strait. The question was not, however, regarded as quite settled; and in 1798, on Flinders' return from Norfolk island, Bass and he were sent out in a vessel of 25 tons, with instructions to sail round Van Diemen's Land, and examine the capabilities of the coasts. Their successful voyage and favourable report soon led to farther colonization. The strait received the name of its discoverer. No danger could check the ardour and daring of Bass. In 1796, he attempted to penetrate through the_ extraordinary rocky barrier which divides the maritime belt on the east from the interior plains, and during fifteen days encountered the greatest perils, ascending preci- pices by means of iron hooks fastened to his arms, and descending by ropes into the most frightful abysses. Like many previous attempts, this proved unsuccessful, and it was not till 1813 that a prac- ticable pass was found, due west of Sydney. [J.B.] BASSANI, G., a composer, 17th century. BASSANO, an Italian painter, 1510-1592. BASSANO, H. B. Maret, duke of, a political writer and statesman of France, ordered to quit England along with the ambassador Chauvelin, 1 7i2 ; afterwards secretary of state and confidant of Buonaparte, as well as editor of his official organ, the Monlttur ; fell with the empire, but returned from exile 1820, and was recalled to official employment by Louis Philippe ; 1758-1839. EAT BASSET, Peter, historian of Henry V. BASSI, Laura, M. C, an Italian lady, made doctor of philo., and prof, at Bologna, 17ll-177^. BASSOMPIERRE, F., a Fr. marsh., 1575-1646. BASSUET, Peter, a Fr. surgeon, 1706-1757. BASTA, George, a military writer, 16th ct. BASTIDE, J. F DeLa, a mis. au., 1724-1798. BASTWICK, John, a controv. wr., 1598-1660. BATE, George, a diet, physician and medical writer, historian of the civil wars, 1593-1669. BATE, H., a poet and journalist, last century. BATE, John, a writer on logic, 15th centurv. BATECUMBE, W., a geometrician, 15th cent. BATEMAN, W., fndr. of Trinity Hall, d. 1354. BATES, Joah, an em. musician, 1740-1799. BATES, W., a religious biographer, 1625-1699. BATHE, Wm., au. of a curious philological work, master of the Irish school at Salamanca, i564-1614. BATHURST, Aleen, Earl, a distinguished op- pon. of Walpole in the House of Lords, 1684-1775. BATHURST, Henry, Earl, son of the preced- ing, some time lord chancellor, 1714-1794. BATHURST, Rt. Rev. Henry, bishop of Norwich, 1744-1837. BATHURST, Dr. H., son of the preced., d. 1844. BATHURST, Ralph, a Latin poet, 1620-1704. BATHYANI, C. J., a noble Hungarian, field- marshal of Austria, born 1697, in service, 1716- 1747, died 1772. See also Batthyanyi. BATHYLLUS; a eel. mimic, time of Augustus. BATOMI, P. G., an Ital. painter, 1708-1787. BATOU, Khan, sue. of Zenghis-khan, d. 1276. BATSCH, A. J. G. C., a naturalist, 1761-1801. BATTELY, John, an antiquarian, died 1708. BATTEUX, Cii., a French classic, 1713-1780. BATTHYANYI, Louis, a Hungarian noble- man, distinguished for his connection with the Austrian conflicts of 1848, and his unhappy fate. He was born about the year 1809, of one of the most illustrious families of the proud aristocracy of Hungary. He was for many years the leader of the opposition to Austrian domination, in the upper house of Hungary, and by his talents and judgment increased the influence naturally awarded to his rank in that assembly. When the sweep of revolutionary events in 1848 rendered it necessary to form a Hungarian cabinet, Batthyanyi was in- trusted with the function. It is said that at court he was encouraged to treat Jellachich, the Ban of Croatia, as a traitor, at the very time when that leader was encouraged to invade Hungary and subdue it for Austria. In September, as prime minister of Hungary, he went to Vienna to en- deavour to make moderate stipulations for preserv- ing the nationality of Hungary on the one hand, and on the other restraining it from violent out - break ; but he found influences at work which ren- dered this hopeless, and resigning, retired to his estates. An accident disabled him from joining in the warlike resistance to Jellachich had he desired it, but he took part in the Hungarian parliament. He went with a deputation to Prince Windischgraetz to accommodate terms, but was not received. He was arrested, and after some delay, by order of Marshal Haineau, tried by court-martial and con- demned to death. The conviction was for vague offences, among others for resigning office ; and it was said that the Austrian government took ven- geance on a Hungarian nobleman for the disturb- 63 BAT ftnces of Vienna, and the murder of Latour. He was condemned to be hanged, but an attempt to commit suicide prevented the execution of the sentence, and he was shot on Oct. 6, 1848. BATTIE, Wm., a wr. on insanity, 1708-1776. BATTISHILL, Jon., a composer, 1708-1801. BATUTA, Ibn, an Arab Moor of Tangiers, a celebrated traveller of the middle ages. He left his native town in 1324. and travelled for 28 years over the various countries of the East, chiefly for the purpose of seeing holy places, and returned through Central Africa to Fez, where he took up his abode in 1353. A pretty fall account of his interesting journey is given by Mr. W. D. Cooley in his Hist, of Inl. and Mar. Disc. vol. i., from the only materials known to exist, ' an extract from an epitome.' [J.B.] BATZ, Baron De, a member of the constituent assembly, noted as a financialist, died 1822. BAUDEAU, N., a Fr. economist, 1730-1792. BAUDELOQUE, J. Z., a French accoucheur, and writer on midwifery, 1746-1810. BAUDIN, P. C. L., a French civilian, deputy to the assembly and the convention, 1751-1799. BAUDIUS, Doninio, a rhetorician, 15G1-1613. BAUDOT DE JUILLI, Nicholas, au. of a hist, of the conquest of England, &c, 1678-1759. BAUDOUIN, Bex., a Fr. archaeologist, 17th c. BAUDOUIN. See Baldwin. BAUDRAIS, a theatrical writer, magistrate of Paris during the reign of terror, 1749-1832. BAUDRAUD, M. A., a geographer, 1633-1700. BAUER, Fred., a German artist, died 1826. BAUHINUS, John, a botanist, 1541-1613. His brother Gaspard, also awr. on botany, 1560-1624. BAULDRI, Paul, a chronologist, 1639-1706. BAUME, Anth., a chemical author, died 1805. BAUME, J. F. De La, a Fr. divine, died 1757. BAUME, Nich. Aug. De La, marquis of Mon- trevel, and marshal of France, 1636-1716. BAUMER, J. W., a naturalist, 1719-1788. BAUMGARTEN, Alex. Gottlieb, a German metaphysician and prof, of philosophy, 1714-1762. BAUR, Fr. Wm. Von, a Russian general, au. of memorials for a history of Wallachia, d. 1783. BAUR, J. W an archi. and painter, 1610-1640. BAWDWEEN, Wm., an antiquary, died 1816. BAXTER, And., a Scotch philos., 1686-1750. BAXTER, RiCHARD,adivine of great note among the English nonconformists, was born 12th Novem- ber, 1615, at Rowton, Shropshire. His father's con- versation and example were the means of bringing him under early impressions of religion, and al- though he for a time contracted evil habits, such as lying, stealing fruit, &c, his juvenile piety was never wholly extinguished. Unfortunately, his education was committed to teachers whose in- competency, or unfaithfulness were such, that he cannot be said to have enjoyed the advantages of regular instruction ; and yet, by dint first of his father's counsels, and afterwards of his own genius and industry, he made attainments in knowledge superior to those of most of his contemporaries. His parents, who wished to procure him a place at court, engaged him to the master of the revels ; but the bustle and pageantry of the daily scenes in which that situation brought him to mingle were totally uncongenial to a mind like his, fond of contemplation and retirement. With redoubled BAY zest he returned after a month's experiment to his studies, and resolving to devote his attention to divinity, prepared himself for the work in connec- tion with the Church of England. Having at the age of twenty-three received ordination, he offi- ciated, first, as assistant at Bridgenorth, where his reputation as a preacher procured him an ear- nest invitation to become pastor of the church and parish of Kidderminster. In that town his min- istry commenced in 1640, and was distinguished by a zeal and success rarely equalled. The un- settled state of the times drove him from that post of usefulness, and obliged him to seek an asylum in various parts of England. Though he espoused the cause of the parliament during the prevalence of the civil war, and became chaplain of a regiment, he was of decidedly moderate opinions, disapproved of revolutionary principles, especially of the violent measures adopted towards the late king, and did not disguise his disagreement, in many respects, with the conduct of both parties, in conducting the affairs both of the church and the state. His integrity and honest independence procured him feneral respect, notwithstanding which, however, e was subjected to much harassing annoyance. Mr. Baxter, at the earnest solicitation of the people, returned to Kidderminster, and discharged the ministerial functions in that place with all his wonted assiduity for a period of fourteen years. Having begun to entertain conscientious scruples about the et caztera oath, he relinquished the Church of England, and repaired to London, where, arriv- ing immediately before the deposition of Richard Cromwell, he preached to the parliament the day preceding their vote for the restoration of the king. Having obtained a license, he preached frequently in the metropolis, till, in 1676, a meeting-house was built for him ; but after preaching there once, he was dispossessed, seized by a warrant from the Lord Chief Justice Jefferies, tried and condemned for some passages in his Paraphrase on the New Testament. Through powerful influence exerted in his behalf with king James II., he was pardoned, and on regaining his liberty he resumed his minis- terial functions, preaching to large and attached congregations in various parts of London. Mr. Baxter was a most voluminous author, one hun- dred and forty-five distinct works having proceeded from his indefatigable pen. The chief of these are his own ' Life and Times,' his ' Dying Thoughts,' his ' Saints' Everlasting Rest,' and his ' Call to the Unconverted,' of which 20,000 copies were sold in this country in a single year, besides trans- lations of it into all the languages of Europe. His whole soul was absorbed by zeal for the glory of God, and the salvation of men, and in the dis- charge of his duty, he was fearless as much in reproving Cromwell and remonstrating with the profligate Charles, as in addressing a congregation of plain and ordinary people. [ R. J.l BAYARD, P. du Terrail, Chevalier "De, a French knight, celeb, for his valour and loyalty, killed in the Italian wars of Francis I., 1476-1524. BAYER, John, a German astrono., 17th cent. BAYER, T. S., a philologist, 1694-1738. BAYEUX, N., a Fr. historian, killed 1792. BAYLE, G. L., a French med. au., 1774-1816 BAYLE, Moses, a member of the Fr. conven- tion and Com. of Safety, proscribed 1795, d. 1815. BAY BAYLE, Peter, born at Carlat, in the county of Foix, in 1647 : the son of a Calvinist minister; one of the most learned and laborious men of any age; witness that grand monument he has left, the ' Dictionnaire Historique et Critique.' His own account of the cause of his extraordinary productive power is this, meriting well a prominent place among the memoranda of the ambitious student, 'Amusements, pleasure- parties, games, collations, trips to the country, visiting, and other recreations, necessary accord- ing to what they say to many literary men, have no place in my manner of life ; I lose no time in them, neither do I spend any on domestic cares, or in interfering with anything, soliciting any- thing, or meddling at all with business. In this way, a writer may accomplish much.' The events of Bayle's life are eminently characteristic of his habit of mind: at die time a Calvinist; at the next a catholic ; then Calvinist again ; finally of no tangible creed or even profession or care about faith ot any sort : if his singular logical acuteness enabled him to cut in pieces the arguments then passing current for reasons, the defective force of his moral and intellectual instincts seemed to render him quite as happy and comfortable without a be- lief as with one. His writings, accordingly, are essentially critical and sceptical: he delights in showing how those important questions which philo- sophy would fain resolve are engirt by innumer- able difficulties. Take as a specimen his treatment of the position ' There is a Cod.' The usual proofs apparently the soundest on which one rests this position, that one, for instance, which would infer the existence of a perfect Being, from the ex- istence in the human mind of a corresponding idea are open to manifold objections. Touching the Divine essence, our ignorance seems insur- mountable. Though all men might be said to agree as to the being of a God, where is their agreement regarding his nature; who can reconcile his immutability with his liberty, his immateriality and his immensity? His unity is not demon- strated. His prescience cannot easily be accom- modated to the free-will of man ; nor his good- ness with the physical and moral evil prevailing in the world, or with the eternal punishment of the wicked. His decrees are impenetrable ; his judg- ments incomprehensible. We can reach no higher than negative conceptions regarding his divine perfections. . . . Thus Bayle doubts rather than reasons ; nay, he concludes, in the true spirit of the Pyrrhonist, "that Reason is not a safe guide. Never was style better adapted to such a thesis ; clear, polished, keen, and passionless. No good library should want the Dictionary ; and there are few Inquirers who may not derive benefit from its singular pages. Besides this Opus Majus, he wrote several miscellaneous treatises, collected in his ' (Euvres Diverses,' four vols. 8vo. He died ' pen in hand ' at the age of fifty-nine, in Decem- ber, 1706. [J.P.N.] BAYLEY, Anseem, a Hebrew schol., d. 1791. BAYLEY, the Bight Hon. Sir John, jus- tice of the King's Bench, mem. of the privy coun- cil, and author of a professional work, died 1841. BAYLEY, Lewis, bishop of Bangor, died 1632. BAYLEY, N., writer of a dictionary, 1753. BAYLEY, Rich., a eel. anatomist, 1745-1801. BEA BAYLEY, Thomas Haynes, a lyrical poet, dra- matic writer, and novelist, 1797-1839. BAYLEY, Wm., an astronomer, died 1810. BAYON, J. De, a French annalist, 14th cent. BAZARAD, a Wallachian prince, 14th century. BAZARD, Amand, a French carbonaro, after- wards a follower of St. Simon, 1792-1832. BAZIRE, Cl., am. of the Fr. conven., 1764-91. BEACON, Thos. an English reformer, d. 1570. BEARDE DE L'ABBAYE, an econom., d. 1771. % BEATON, Card., abp. of St. Andrews, dis- tinguished for his persecuting spirit, assass. 1546. BEATON, Jas., neph. of the card., bp. of Glas- gow, and au. of a history of Scotland, 1530-1603. BEATRICE, a martyr and saint, 3d century. BEATTIE, James, the well-known Scotch poet and moralist, was the son of a small farmer and shopkeeper, and was born at Laurencekirk in Kincardineshire, 5th December, 1735. After pur- suing his studies with the most brilliant success at Marisehal College, Aberdeen, he was appointed usher to the Grammar School of that city 1758, where he enjoyed the society of many distinguished men, especially of Reid, the metaphysician, from whom he acquired the principles afterwards illus- trated in his ' Essay on Truth.' In 1761, being then in his twenty-sixth year, Beattie made his debut in the literary world as translator of the Eclogues of Virgil, and author of several small poems which had appeared anonymously at vari- ous times in the Scots Magazine.' In 1765 he pub- lished The Judgment of Paris,' and in 1766 a selection of his poems, with the addition of some which had not hitherto appeared. Between this period and 1770 he was preparing his famous essay, which he designed to counteract the baneful effects of materialism, by demonstrating the im- mutability of moral sentiment, which involves, in fact, the principle of a priori instruction and re- velation. His personal history during this period acquires some interest from his marriage with Miss Dun, which took place in June 1767, and the friend- ship of the poet Gray, soon to be terminated by the death of the latter. The ' Essay on Truth ' at once established the fame of its author, who received tie flattering recognition of a degree as doctor of philo- sophy from the university of Oxford, and the offer of the professorship of moral philosophy in the univer- sity of Edinburgh, which, for personal reasons, he declined to accept, as he did a handsome living in the Church of England proffered by Dr. Porteus. It was in the flush of his success that Beattie re- sumed his poetical studies, and gratified the English public with his ' Minstrel,' a poem, written in the style and stanza of Spenser, and embodying, in the character of Edwin, a transcript of his own ideas and pursuits in his younger days. The first book of this celebrated poem appeared in 1771, the second in 1774, and a new edition of the whole in 1777, and it brought the author so prominently before the public that his merits were acknow- ledged in 1773 by an annual pension of 200 from the crown, graced, a little subsequently, by a pri- vate interview with the king and queen. In 1776 his essays ' On Poetry and Music, ' On Laughter and Ludicrous Composition,' and ' On the Utility of Classical Learning,' appeared, forming one volume with a new edition of his ' Essay on Truth.' In 1790 and 1793 respectively, the two volumes of BEA his ' Elements of Moral Science ' were first pub- lished, and as a farther proof of his industry, there is scarcely an interval between the publication of the 'Minstrel' and his retirement in 1796, in which literature was not more or less enriched by his pen. It is sad to record that the insanity of his wife some years past, and the death of his sons, the younger of whom was suddenly snatched from him at the period just mentioned, affected at last his well-regulated mind. Though he re- covered this shock, it was only to pass the remain- der of his days in his now solitary home, where he died of paralysis. 18th August, 1803. Beattie has been described by one who knew him as a man of middle size, robust in appearance, some- what corpulent, and slouching in his gait. ' His features were very regular ; his complexion some- what dark. His eyes were black and brilliant, full of tender and melancholy expression, and in the course of conversation with his friends, be- came extremely animated.' His eldest son, James Hay Beattie, 1768-1790, gave proof of his philo- sophical and poetical talents in some fragments which were edited by his father, 1794. [E.R.] BEATTY, Sir Wm, M.D., F.R.S., author of an ' Authentic Narrative ' of the last moments of Nelson, with whom he was professionally present at the battle of Trafalgar, knighted 1831, d. 1842. BEAUCHAMP, Alph. De, a French historian, of the war in La Vendee, Suarrow, &c, 1767-1832. BEAUCHAMP, Jos., an astronomer, political agent of Buonaparte in the East, 1752-1802. BEAUCHAMP, Richard, an Engl, architect, employed at Windsor and elsewhere, died 1481. BEAUCHAMPS, P. F. G. De, a dramatic poet and historical writer on the drama, 1689-1761. BEAUCHATEAU, Fr. Mat. Chastelet De, a linguist and poet, remarkable for the precocious development oi his talents, 1645-1660. BEAUCHATEAU, Hippolyte, brother of the preceding, disting. as a religious writer and orator. BEAUFORT, Francis de Vendome, duke of, killed at the siege of Candia, 1669. BEAUFORT, Henry, an English prelate, half- brother of Henry IV., made a card. 1426, crowned Henry VI. at Notre Dame, 1430, one of the judges of La Pucelle, 1431, died 1447. BEAUFORT, Louis De, an historian, d. 1795. BEAUFORT, Marg., countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., k. of England, 1441-1509. BEAUHARNAIS, Fanny, countess of, strictly, Mary Anne Fanny Mouchard, a writer of some theatrical pieces, and poems, &c., 1738-1813. BEAUHARNAIS, Francis, marquis of, a Fr. rovalist, nephew of the preceding, 1756-1819. "BEAUHARNAIS, Alexander, Viscount, br. of Francis, a disting. general condemned by the rev. tribunal, and executed 1794. See Josephine. BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene De, son of the preceding and of Josephine, born 1781; in the service of Buonaparte 1804-1814; viceroy of Northern Italy 1805 ; married to the daughter of the king of Bavaria 1806, and made duke of Leuchtenburg by his father-in-law at the restora- tion, died 1824. For Hortense Eugenie, sister of Eugene, and q. of Holland, see Hortensk. BEAUJEU, Chr. De, a Fr. officer and man of letters, disting. in the Spanish war, 16th cent. BEAUJOUR, L. F. De, a diplom., 1763-1836. BEO BEAULIEU, Sebastian De Pontault De, a celebrated military engineer, time of Louis XIV. BEAUMARCHAIS, Peter Augustin Caron De, a dramatic author and musician, 1732-1799. BEAUMELLE, Laur., a Fr. critic, 1727-1773. BEAUMESNIL, the pseudonyme of H. A. Vil- lfjd, a Fr. actress and mus. composer, 1748-1803. BEAUMONT, A. De, a Fr. statesman, d. 1375. BEAUMONT, C. De, abp. of Paris, 1703-1781. BEAUMONT, C. E. De, a F. archi., 1757-1811. BEAUMONT, E. De, a F. advocate, 1732-1785. BEAUMONT, Francis, the celebrated dra- matic poet and fellow-labourer with Fletcher, was born in Leicestershire about 1584, and died about 1616. The plays of these attached friends, who were singularly alike in genius and taste, are re- markable for their humour and delineation of char- acter, and for some time contested the palm with Shakspeare, but they are disfigured by the gross indecency which disgraced the court of James I. BEAUMONT, Sir J., a judge, 1582-1628. BEAUMONT, Joseph, author of a religious allegory, professor of divinity, died 1689. BEAUMONT, J. T. B., an accountant and man of letters, disting. for his public spirit as the originator of savings banks, &c, 1774-1841. BEAUMONT, Marie Leprince De, a Fr. authoress of works adapted for vouth, 1711-1780. BEAUMONT DE PEREFIX, Hardouin, a French ecclesiastic and historian, died 1670. BEAUNE, F. De, a mathematician, died 1652. BEAURAIN, J. De, a geogra. wr., 1697-1771. BEAURIEN, G. G. De, a popular Fr. author of a work on natural history, &c, 1728-1795. BEAUSARD, P., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1577. BEAUSOBRE, Isaac De, a celebrated protes- tant theologian, author of a defence of the re- formed doctrines, &c, 1659-1738. BEAUSOBRE, C. L. De, son of the preceding, also a divine and protestant writer, 1690-1753. BEAUSOBRE, L., another son, distinguished as a natural philosopher and economist, 1730-1783. BEAUVAIS, C. N., a Fr. historian, 1745-1794. BEAUVAIS, W., a wr. on numis., 1698-1773. BEAUVILLIERS, Francis De, duke de St. Aignan, disting. as a courtier and poet, 1607-1687. BEAUVILLIERS, Paul De, son of the preced., and coadjutor of the archb. of Cambray, d. 1714. BEAUXALMIS, Th., a Fr. theolog., 1524-1589. BEAVER, John, a chronicler of the 14th cent. BECCADELLI, Antig., an histo., 1374-1471. BECCADELLI, Louis, anltal. biogra., d. 1572. BECCARI, Augustin, an Ital. poet, d. 1520. BECCARI, J. B., a physiolo. wr., 1682-1766. BECCARIA, Caesar Bonesana, Marquis, author of a celebrated treatise on crimes and punishments, which is regarded as one of the best works ever written on legislation, 1735-1794. BECCARIA, G. B., an experi. phil., 1716-1781. BECERRA, Gaspard, a Sp. artist, d. 1570. BECKETT, Thomas a, the illustrious, high- spirited, and ill-fated churchman canonized 1173 by Alexander III., was the son of a London citizen, one time a crusader, and was born in Lon- don on the festival of St. Thomas, 1117. He re- ceived a collegiate education at Oxford, completed by the study of the civil and canon law at Bologna, under the patronage of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, and was early carried to preferment 71 BEC by his undoubted abilities, aided by a handsome person and refined manners ; but still more by the jealousy which divided the civil and ecclesiastical j towers" at that time. On his return from Italy Beckett was appointed archdeacon of Canterbury by bis patron, and soon after the accession of Henry II. in 1154, was raised to the dignity of high chancellor ; doubtless by the influence of the prelacy favouring his own ambition. At this time, it should be remarked, the power of the popes had risen to an arrogant height, and the dispute about investitures, the subjection of the clergy to lay jurisdiction in criminal matters, and various alleged abuses on either side, were subjects of continual and bitter strife between the church and the crowned heads of Europe. It is not likely that Beckett was ever undecided in his own views on any of these subjects, or on the part he was destined to play in the politics of the period ; but it is easy to imagine that each party would see the means of advancing its own pretensions in the splendid abilities, the acknowledged purity of life, and the courtly manners of the young churchman. On the death of Theobald, in 1162, the king and the chief prelates were equally urgent for his elevation to the see of Canterbury ; but once consecrated, it devolved upon him whether he would serve the church or the state, and he declared for the former without hesitation. The king and his late minister were equally matched for their inflexibility, quickness of resolu- tion, undaunted courage, and statesmanlike abili- ties ; and both were influenced, further than their own consciousness extended, by the spirit of the age. Three years of strife led to the council of Clarendon, convoked by Henry in 1164, when Beckett yielded to the entreaties or menaces of the barons, and signed the famous 'Constitu- tions,' by which the differences between the church and state were regulated. These articles not only rendered the state supreme in all that concerned the general government of the nation, but virtu- ally separated the Church of England from Rome. The pope, therefore, refused to ratify them, and Beckett, seeing his opportunity, and really repent- ing of the compliance that had been wrung from him, refused to perform his office in the church, and endeavoured to leave the kingdom, in which, at last, he succeeded, only to draw down the vengeance of Henry upon his connections. The progress of the quarrel belongs rather to the history of the times than a single life. Beckett remained in exile six years, and matters being in some measure accommodated, returned to England in 1170, shortly after the coronation of the king's son, which had been designed by Henry as a means of securing the succession. Beckett's refusal to remove the censures with which the agents in this transaction had been visited, his haughty contempt of the crown, and the sentences of ex- communication which he continued to fulminate from the altar of Canterbury cathedral, provoked anew the indignation of the king. It is idle to judge the actions of men in those iron times by the formulas of the present day. The question stripped of all dis- guise was simply this whether Thomas a Beckett or Henry Planta genet was henceforth to be king in England. The Norman lords resolved the matter in their own rude way, when at length four of BEC them leaving the king's presence in anger, aftcT hearing of some fresh indignity, determined on bringing the controversy to a bloody close. The last scene of this tragedy is well known in all its details. It is sufficient to say, that Beckett was murdered during the celebration of the Vesper service in Canterbury Cathedral, on the 29th of December, 1170. [E.R*.] BECKETT, W., a eel. surgeon, b. at Abingdon, in Berkshire, 1684, d. 1738. Mr. Beckett wrote an ' Inquiry ' into touching for the king's evil, and an Essay on curing diseases by charms and amulets. BECKFORD, William, was born in 1760. Ten years afterwards, by the death of his father, whose mayoralty of London was noted in the his- tory of the times, he succeeded to a princely for- tune. He was precocious, both in his love of litera- ture and art, in his vigour of thought and expres- sion, and in his retired eccentricity of disposition. After having lived much in France, and visited Italy and other continental countries, he married, in 1783, a daughter of the earl of Aboyne, who died young, leaving two daughters, one of whom became duchess of Hamilton. In 1784 he pub- lished in French his Eastern romance of ' Vathek,' which has been admired so warmly by the literary men of our time. Though he sat in more parlia- ments than one, politics occupied very little of his attention: he soon retired to the continent; and his fondness for architectural construction and embel- lishment showed itself first in a house he built at Cintra, in Portugal. In the commencement of the present century he began to build on bis Wiltshire . j^-.- [FonthiUAobey.] estate his magnificent mansion of Fon thill Abbey, which became all the more famous for the diffi- culty of satisfying curiosity in regard to it. The cost exceeded a quarter of a million. The pile had not long been completed and fitted up, when, in 1822, it was abandoned and the estate sold. Mr. Beckford spent his latest years chiefly at Bath, indulging his refined taste and his turn for secluded study. In 1834 he published ' Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal,' containing recollections of his early travels, and abounding alike in eloquence and satire ; and afterwards there appeared a simi- lar volume, commemorating two Portuguese mon- asteries. He died in 1844, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. [W.S.] BECKINuHAM, Ciias., a dram, wr., d. 17i>U. Tl BEC BECKMANN, J. A., an economist, 1739-1811. BECLARD, P. A., a Fr. anatomist, 1785-1825. BEDDOES, Thomas, a distinguished physi- cian and chemist, cotemporary with Priestley, and in intimate friendship with Dr. Darwin. He is the author of numerous works, and is character- ized by Sir Humphrey Davy, as ' a truly remark- able man, but more admirably fitted to promote inquiry than to conduct it : ' 1760-1808. BEDE, usually named the Venerable Bede, was bom about 672, at Yarrow, near the mouth of the Tyne, in Northumberland. At the age of seven he was sent to the neighbouring monastery of St. Peter to be educated, and in a short time he transferred himself to that of St. Paul, which was also in the vicinity. In his nineteenth year he was ordained deacon, and eleven years afterwards he entered into priest's orders. His subsequent life, which was spent principally in the two religious houses referred to, was one of monastic punctuality r.nd discipline, and of constant literary labour. Pope Sergius even could not induce the English recluse to visit Rome. His commentaries on the larger portion of the Old and New Testament are to a great extent compilations from his Greek and Latin predecessors. His well-known ' Ecclesiastical His- tory of the English Nation,' is replete with proofs of its author's industry, honesty, and credulity, and still maintains its place as a high authority. Bede died about the year 735, occupying his last hours with earnest devotional exercises, and i.ffectionate counsels to his younger brethren. His learning, which was great, was equalled by his sanctity. His numerous works have been often printed: the best and last edition in 12 volumes, octavo ; London, 1843-44. King Alfred translated into Saxon Bede's 'Historia Ecclcsiastica ;' a rare honour for a book of church history. [JE.] BEDFORD, Arthur, a theolo. wr., 1668-1745. BEDFORD, Hilkiah, an English theologian, the reputed author of a work in the Jacobin inter- est, written by George Harbin, died 1724. BEDFORD, John Plantagenet, duke of, third son of Henry IV., and regent of France after the death of Henry V., 1422 ; died 1435, after a glorious administration of thirteen years. BEDFORD, John Russell, sixth duke of, a Whig nobleman and patron of letters, 1766-1839. BEDLOE, Wm., Capt., a notorious informer, known in the case of Sir E. Godfrey, &c, d. 1680. BEECHEY, Sir W., R.A., a distinguished artist, best known for his portraits, 1759-1839. BEETHOVEN, Ludwig Van, was born at Bonn, on the 17th of December, 1770. His father, Johann Van Beethoven, who was a tenor singer in the electoral chapel of Cologne, died in 1792. His grandfather, who died in 1773, was music director and bass singer at Bonn, and performed operas of his own composition during the life of the elector Clemens Augustus. The musical edu- cation of Beethoven began under his father when he was only five years old. His next tutor was M. Pfeiffer, for whom the great composer always retained a warm regard, and to whom he felt himself more indebted than all his other teachers. Beethoven acquired his knowledge of the organ from M. Von Der Eden, after whose death the young musician studied under M. Niefe, BEE who made him acquainted with the works of Sebastian Bach. In 1787 Beethoven met Mozart, who, when he heard the youth extemporize upon a theme given him, predicted his future success. In the year 1792 he was sent, by the elector of Cologne, to Vienna, that he might receive instruc- [Uii ili-place of Beethoven.] tions in the theory of music from Joseph Haydn. He soon made the acquaintance of many of the nobility, of the artists, and literati in Vienna. Beethoven was the pupil of Haydn until the latter went to London, when he then took lessons in composition and harmony from Albrechtsberger. At this period of his life, Beethoven was more ad- mired as a performer than as a composer ; and it was thought, by the best German critics, that his power principally consisted in extemporary perform- ance, and in the art of varying any given theme without premeditation. About this time he finally took up his residence at Vienna, and composed his first quartettes. In 1800, Beethoven was engaged in the composition of his oratorio ' Christ on the Mount of Olives,' which was first performed on the 5th of April, 1803. In 1804 he finished his ' Sinfonia Eroica,' and in 1805 he wrote his opera of ' Leonora,' known in England as 'Fidelio,' about which time he was first attacked with that deafness which, with other matters, made him distrust- ful and taciturn, and became the master-malady of his life. It began gradually, but was soon bey on d the power of remedy, until at last he could only communicate with the outer world by writing. A decided enemy to flattery, and disdaining to court the favour of any one, Beethoven lived in Vienna depending solely upon the means which his compositions might produce, and was fre- quently reduced to straits little compatible with the greatness of his genius. The taste of the court had changed, and Italian music had almost banished the grander music of the German mas- ters. In these circumstances he, in 1809, resolved to accept the office of chapel-master at the court of Jerome Buonaparte, then king of Westphalia, with a salary of 600 ducats; and it was only after the archduke Rudolph of Austria and the piincess Lobkowitz and Kinsky settled upon him 73 BEG an annuity of 4,000 florins, that he changed his mind. About this time also he resolved to accept an invitation from the Philharmonic Society to come to England, but his almost total deafness prevented him. In 1810 Beeth- oven brought out his first mass. In the same year he made the acquaintance of Bettino Bren- tano of Frankfort, whose correspondence with Goethe has made the reading world acquainted with the private manners of the great composer, though her narrations are sometimes less full of character than of caricature. Through Bettino, Beethoven was introduced to Goethe in the year 1812, a friendship which reflected quite as much honour upon the rich and courtly poet and minis- ter, as it did upon the poor, but independent and high-souled musician. On the 8th, and again on the 12th of December, in the year 1813, the first performances of ' The Battle of Vittoria,' and his symphony in A major, took place in the hall of the university, for the benefit of the Austrian and Bavarian soldiers disabled in the battle of Hanau. In 1815 Beethoven was exclusively employed in writing harmonies to Scotch songs for George Thompson of Edinburgh. From this period till the end of his life, Beethoven was harassed from various causes, chiefly of a domestic nature, and which ought never to have fallen upon him. These, together with his loss of hearing, begat a habit of gloomy thought, and a violent desire for solitude, till, by slow degrees, his frame, which was naturally robust and healthy, yielded to mal- adies which were induced by the constant and long-continued mental irritation to which he had been subjected. Forgotten by the Viennese, hardly appreciated by the rest of the world, Beethoven was seized with his last sickness ; and the unnatural thoughtlessness and greed of his relatives con- tinued till the period of his death, which took place on the 26th day of March, 1827. Beeth- oven died unmarried. His portraits, of which there are several, are all like him. He did not receive much education in his early youth, but when he became a man he read a great deal, and was well acquainted with the literature of Germany, and particularly admired the writings of Goethe and Schiller. With Shakspeare's works he was well acquainted, and admired them with the relish of a true artist. He was usually reserved, but when he entered into conversation he became ani- mated, and original in the turn of his thoughts and expression Beethoven left upwards of 120 works in all styles. His melodies are beautiful and new; and his instrumental music bears the unmistakeable evidences of the grandeur and sub- limity of his unrivalled genius. In 1845 a grand statue of Beethoven was erected in his native town amid great rejoicings, and in presence of the queen of England. [J-M-] BEGA, Cor., a Dutch painter, 1620-16G4. BEGEYN, Abra., a Dutch painter, 17th cent. BEHADER-KHAN, a sul. of Persia, 1317-1835. BEHADER-SHAH, emp. of Hind., 1707-1712. BEHMEN. See Boxhm. BEHAIM, or BEHEM, M., a navigator, 15th c. BEHN, Aphra, a fugitive authoress, d. 1689. BE H RING, Vitus, by birth a Dane, after hav- ing performed several voyages to the E. and W. Indies, entered the service of Russia while still BEL young. Having risen by the usual stops in the service, he became captain-commander in 1722, and was sent by the empress Catharine in charge of an expedition (planned by Peter the Great be- fore his death), whose object was to determine whether Asia and America were united. Crossing Siberia, he sailed from the river of Kamtschatka in July, 1728 ; and reached lat. 67 18' N., having passed through the strait since called after him, without knowing it. Discovering that the land trended greatly westward, he concluded that the continents were not united, and returned ; without, however, seeing America. In another voyage, in 1741, he touched upon the American coast, in lat. 58 28' N. ; and gave name to Mount St. Elias. In returning, his ship was cast upon an island, since named after him, an outlier of the Aleutian group, and here himself and many of his crew perished. On his discoveries is founded the claim of Russia to that part of America lying west of the meridian of Mount St. Elias, 141 W. [J.B.] BEICH, J. F., a German painter, 1665-1748. BEINASCHI, J. B., an Ital. painter, 1634-1688. BEK, or BEAK, Anthony De, bp. of Durham, one of the eel. sold, priests of the mid. ages, d. 1310. BEK, David, a Dutch painter, 1621-1656. BEKKER, Euz, a wr. of fiction, 1738-1804. BEKKHER, Balthasar, a celebrated protes- tant preacher, author of the ' World Bewitched,' &c, for which he was suspended, 1634-1698. BEL, Ch. And., professor of poetry, 1717-1782. BEL, John James, an au. and compil., d. 1738, BEL, Mathias, hist, of Hungary, 1684-1749. BELA, the name of four kings of Hungary. The first reigned 1059-1062 ; the second 1131-1141 ; the third 1173-1193 ; the fourth 1235-1270. BELESIS, a governor of ancient Babylon. BELGRANO, Manuel, a commander in the South American war of independence, died 1820. BELIDOR, Bernard Forest De, a French engineer, author of a diet, of his art, 1695-1761. BELING, Richard, an Irish rebel, 1613-1677. BELISARIUS. 'One of those heroic names which are familiar to every age, and to every nation.' Thus does Gibbon justly characterize the emperor Justinian's victorious general. Belisarius first distinguished himself in the wars between the Byzantine empire and the kings of Persia. In 533, he was placed Dy Justinian at the head of the army by which that emperor sought to recover the old Roman province of North Africa from the Vandals, who had been in possession of it for seventy years. Belisarius was completely successful in his enter- prise, and led the last Vandal king, Gelimer, as a captive to Constantinople. He was then sent on a similar expedition to conquer Italy from the Goths, who held dominion there. He thoroughly effected this purpose, capturing Rome, Ravenna, and other cities, inflicting severe defeats on the Goths in the field, and signalizing his own courage and prowess as a soldier, as well as his skill as a commander. The Goths offered to make him their king, but his loyalty was proof against all tempta- tion, and when recalled by Justinian, he promptly returned in submission to the will of a capricious and thankless master. After his departure from Italy, the Goths recovered the greater part of that country, and Belisarius, who in the interval had been defending the south-eastern frontiers of the 71 BEL empire against the Persians, was sent a second time to Italy in 540. Being ill supplied with money and troops, he could effect but little against the numerous and well-appointed armies of the Goths, and Justinian angnly deprived him of the command with every mark of disgrace. The old general was once more summoned into activity and glory before his death, and saved Constanti- nople in 559 from a host of Bulgarians, who had suddenly advanced against it. When this signal ser- vice was effected, Belisarius was again dismissed with ignominy by his ungrateful sovereign, and ended his days in poverty and neglect ; though the story of his having Degged his bread in blindness and utter destitution is a mere fiction of later ages. Beli- sarius died in 561, a few months before the death of the emperor whom he had served so well, and by whom he had been so ill requited. [E.S.C.] BELL, Andrew, Dr., the eel. projector and founder of the national school system, 1753-1832. BELL, Beaupre, an Eng. antiquarian, 18th c. BELL, Benj., a writer on surgery, 1749-1806. BELL, Sir Charles, an eminent physiologist, born at Edinburgh, 1774, died at Edinburgh, 1842. The subject of our memoir was the son of a clergy- man of the Scottish Episcopal communion, in Edinburgh, who had other two sons, likewise distin- guished John, as a surgeon, and Geo. Joseph, as a lawyer, being professor of law in the univer- sity of Edinburgh. Sir Charles Bell early settled in London as a lecturer and surgeon, and in the first capacity proved highly successful, but his scien- tific tendencies could ill brook the commercial asperities often attendant on surgical prac- tice, and he appears never to have attained the position in his profession, lucratively speaking, which his great talents and acquirements deserved. He was lecturer at the Windmill-Street School, afterwards at University College, and the Middle- sex Hospital, and latterly in the university of Edinburgh. The main labour of his life consisted in perfecting his great discovery respecting the nervous system, that mysterious portion of the animal frame. This discovery, second perhaps only to that of the circulation of the blood by Har- vey, required an extensive series of experiments upon firing animals, which long deterred him from carrying them into execution. But ultimately, by discovering humane methods of procedure, his exertions were crowned with success, and demon- strated that the nerves given off by the spinal cord, the great nerve deposited in the backbone, are destined for one of two purposes ; those which leave the spinal cord in front bestow the power of muscular motion, while the posterior roots supply sensibility. When the anterior roots of the nerves of the leg are cut, in experiment, the animal loses all power over the leg, although the limb still con- tinues sensible. But if, on the other hand, the pos- terior roots are cut, the power of motion continues, although the sensibility is destroyed. His subsequent researches showed that eveiy muscle in the body has two nerves appropriated to it, one for sensation, and the other tor motion ; the first to carry the influence of the will resident in the brain towards the muscle, and the second to connect the muscle with the brain. It may be truly said that such men as Watt and Bell require no sepulchral monu- ments, since locomotives, railways, and steam- BEL boats contribute an ever augmenting immortal tribute to the one, and every student in medical science is a hereditary guardian of the genius of the other. [R.D.T.] BELL, Henry, an ingenious engineer, the first in Britain who successfully applied the steam en- gine to propelling vessels, though Millar's experi- ments were long prior, and Fulton had launched his first steam-boat on the Hudson four or five years previously to Bell's successful application of steam to the purposes of navigation. In 1811 Bell launched his boat, called the Comet, in refer- ence to the appearance of a large comet that year. He constructed the steam engine himself, and in January, 1812, the first trial of the Comet took place on the Clyde. After various experiments the Comet was at length propelled on the Clyde by an engine of three horse power, which was subse- quently increased to six. This engine is still in the museum of Glasgow College. Thus to Henry Bell is due the honour of having first done in his own country, what others who had attempted it the great Watt himself had failed in doing, not- withstanding superior advantages of capital. Bell's perseverance and skill were not rewarded with the outward test of success. Had it not been for the liberality of the magistrates of Glasgow, who set- tled upon him a small annuity, he must have spent the latter years of his life in poverty. He was born in Linlithgowshire 1767, and died at Helens- burgh on the Clyde in 1830. A monumental stone to his memory is erected on a rock in the Clyde near Bowling. [L.D.B.G.] BELL, James, a geographical writer and ga- zetteer, originally a weaver, 1769-1833. BELL, John, an em. Scotch surg., 1762-1820. BELL, John, au. of various travels, 1691-1780. BELL, John, an enterprising publisher, founder of the 'Weekly Messenger,' 1746-1831. BELLAMY, James, a Dutch poet, 1757-1786. BELLANGE, Th., a Fr. paint., 16th and 17th c. BELLARMIN, Cardinal Robert, was born at Monte Pulciano in Tuscany, in 1542. Enter- ing the order of the Jesuits in 1560, he was or- dained priest in 1569. He filled the chair of theo- logy at Louvain for seven years from that period. Going to Rome in 1576, he distinguished himself by shrewd, bold, and popular polemical prelec- tions, and was, as the great champion of the church, elevated to the rank of cardinal in 1599. His latter days were spent in Rome, where he died in 1621. His ' Opus Controversiarum ' fills three folio volumes. He has also left a Commentary on the Psalms, several smaller pieces, some of them devotional, and a treatise ' De Potestate Summi Pontificis.' Bellarmin was a man of no mean powers and mental resources ; and unequalled as a skilled controversialist among the numerous de- fenders of the Church of Rome. [J.E.] BELLAY, Joachim Du, a Fr. poet, 1524-1560. BELLAY, John Du, a Fr. cardinal, 1492-1560. BELLEFOREST, F. DE,aFr. hist., 1530-1583. BELLEISLE, Ch. Louis, Count De, a French marshal, time of Louis XV., 1684-1761. BELLENDEN, William, a Latin au., 17th c. BELLIARD, Aug. Daniel, Count, one of the best of Napoleon's generals, distinguished also as an ambassador, and most lately in the establish- ment of the Belgian kingdom, 1773-1832, 75 BEL BELLIEVRE, Pomponius De, a Pr. diplo- matist, distinguished in the reigns of Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., 1529-1607. BELLINI, Gentile, an Italian painter, of the same school as his brother Giovanni, 1421-1501. BELLINI, Giovanni, a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Venice about 1426. He belongs to the school of painters known as the quattrocento, in Italy, literally the fifteenth cen- tury masters, but distinguished as much by their style as their period. This style, lately here designated, very inappropriately, the preraphaelite, is well illustrated in Bellini's portrait of the Doge Loredano, in the National Gallery hard and dry, but exact in detail, and high and positive in col- ouring. Giovanni Bellini was one of the first of the Venetian artists to adopt the new method of oil painting in lieu of the old. process with tempera vehicles, that is, with saps and gums. His best works are in oil ; they consist chiefly of madonnas and portraits. He died at the advanced age of ninety, November 29, 1516. Titian and Giorgione were two of Bellini's many eminent scholars. (Vasari, Lives of the Painters, &c. ; Ridolfi, uJaraviffde deW Arte, &c. ; Cadorin, Tiziano Vecellio.) [R.N.W.] BELLINI, L., a celeb, anatomist, 1643-1702. BELLINI, Vincenzio, was born at Catania in Sicily, in the year 1806. Bellini received his musical education from Zingarelli, in the Conser- vatory of Naples, and produced, at the theatre San Carlo of the same city, his opera ' Bianco e Fordinando,' before he was twenty years old. In 1827 he composed ' II Pirata ' for the Scala at Milan, and soon after ' La Straniera ' for the same establishment. These operas were succeeded by ' La Sonnambula ' (which has perhaps been per- formed a greater number of times in Great Britain than any other foreign opera,) at Naples, ' I Capu- letti ed i Montecchi,' at Venice, 'Norma' at Milan, 1 1 Puritani,' for the Theatre Italien at Paris, &c. The life of Bellini was unmarked by incidents. He was pure in morals, and his manners, like his com- positions, were gentle, mellifluous, and elegant. Subject to pulmonic disease, he was unequal to violent effort of any kind, so he never attempted the lofty or sublime in music. He died of consumption in 1835. A writer (L. W. Tinelli) in the ' Musical World ' says of Bellini ' The enthusiasm excited by this astonishing production (Norma) is beyond all description. In a few months the "Norma" became the favourite performance of all the Italian and foreign stages, and crossed the immense dis- tance of the ocean to delight the ears of the trans- atlantic inhabitants. Soon after this new triumph he was called to Paris, where he wrote, in his greatest style, " I Puritani." It was the last song of the swan ! One morning in the month of Octo- ber, 1835, the inhabitants of Paris hastened to the streets of that immense capital to contemplate the numerous and select crowd which was following a funeral procession. Some of the most celebrated men were amongst the crowd. Sadness and sor- row were in the countenance of every one. A plaintive and moving music added to the melan- choly scene. Death had reaped one of the finest flowers of nature. The funeral concourse stopped at the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where the coffin was deposited, and, one hour after, a modest 7 BEL cross was raised on the ground, with the following inscription : " Pray for the peace of Vincent Bellini." Bellini was only twcnty-nme years of age when he died. His disposition was good, though exceed- ingly passionate. His appearance was noble and expressive. His genius was vast as creation, and his soul innocent and gentle as the first sigh of love.' This is the eulogium of a friend and admirer ; let it live in the memory of all musicians. [J.M.] BELLMAN, Ch. M., a Swed. poet, 1741-1795. BELLONI, Jerome, a commercial wr., d. 1760. BELLORI, J. P., an Ital. antiquary and con- noisseur, au. of 'Lives of Modem Painters,' d. 1696. BELLOSTE, A, a Fr. army surgeon, 1654-1730. BELLOTI, Peter, an Ital. paint,, 1625-1700. BELON, Peter, author of travels, 16th cent. BELOSIELSKY, Prince, a Russian nobleman, author of poems in the French tongue, died 1809. BELSHAM, Thos., a eel. unitarian, 1749-1829. BELSHAM, Wm., brother of Thomas, a mis- cellaneous and historical writer, 1752-1827. BELSHAZZAR, a k. of ChaldEea, abt. 560 B.C. BELSUNCE, Henry Francis Xavier De, a Fr. prelate and hist, of disting. benev., 1671-1755. BELUS, the supposed first king of Babylon. BELYN, a Brit, commander under Caractacus. BELZONI, Giovanni, celebrated for his dis- coveries in Egypt, was a native of Padua. His early studies, which had a view to the monastic life^ were prosecuted at Rome, from which his. family had originally come. The French invasion of 1798 caused a change in his plans ; and in 1800 he left Italy, and visited several parts of Europe. He came to England in 1803, where he soon after married. He was tall and robust in person, of uncommon strength, and commanding mien; qualities which, united to great intelligence and sagacity, perseverance and a love of enterprise, gave him immense influence among the wild people with whom he so long associated. His remit- tances from home were scanty ; and he seems to have turned to profitable account a knowledge of hydraulics which he had acquired at Rome. Often, however, he was obliged to obtain a livelihood by exhibiting feats of strength. Leaving England in 1812, he visited Spain, Portugal, and Malta, and in 1815 went to Egypt, where he was for a short time employed by Mehemet Ali in erecting hy- draulic machinery at Cairo. Driven thence by the prejudice of the natives against his improved plans, he visited many parts of Egypt and Nubia, and the shores of the Red Sea, discovering buried cities, rock temples, &c, and displaying the great- est skill in the removal and shipment of such gigantic works as the bust of Memnon, and other remains now in the British Museum. The pecu- niary means, besides a personal remuneration, were supplied chiefly by Mr. Salt, the English consul, but partly also by Burckhardt the tra- veller. In September, 1819, Belzoni left Egypt, and on his way to England visited his native town, where he was received with honour. His 'Nar- rative of Operations,' &c, was published at Lon- don in 1820, in a 4to vol. with atlas. In 1823, accompanied by his wife, he left England for Mo- rocco, with the view of penetrating to Timbuctoo. He had neither commission nor assistance from government, or any society, and except 200 sup- plied by the Messrs. Briggs of Alexandria, depended BEM solely on his own resources. Failing to obtain Bermission from the emperor, he sailed to the light of Benin, and was forwarded on his journey try the king of that country. Not long after, how- ever, he was seized with dysentery, and died at Gato, in Dec., 1823. Directions concerning his property, and his last regards to his wife, had been the daybefore sent by letter to his friend Mr. Hodg- son, then on the coast with the brig Swinger. [J.B.] BEMBO, Ben., a Venet. ambassador, d. 1519. BEMBO, J., a Venetian doge, died 1618. BEMBO, Peter, a Venetian poet and histo- rian, secretary to Leo X., and cardinal bishop of Bergamo under Paul III., 1470-1547. BENBOW, John, a gallant English admiral, distinguished in action with the pirates of Barbary, and afterwards with the French under the com- mand of Du Casse, died of his wounds, 1702. BENCIO, Francis, an Italian poet, died 1594. BENEDETTO, C, an Ital. painter, 1616-1670. BENEDICT, St., reputed founder of the mo- nastic life in the West, which he commenced in the rums of a tern, near Naples, b. at Spoleto 480, d. 543. [Benedictine Monk.] BENEDICT, St., an English prelate, 600-690. BENEDICT I., pope, 574-578. Benedict II., 684-65. Benedict III., 855-858. Benedict IV., 900-904. Benedict V., 964-965. Benedict VI, 972-974. Benedict VII., 975-983. Benedict VIII., succeeded 1012. Benedict IX., 1033-1048. Benedict X., 1058-1059. Benedict XL, 1303- 1304. Benedict XII., 1334-1342. Benedict XIIL, 1724-1750. Benedict XIV., distinguished as one of the greatest popes who has governed the church, 1740-1758. An anti-pope, under the title of Benedict XIIL, was elected 1394. BENEDICT, an English abbot, died 1703. BENEVUTI, Ch., a Jesuit, 1716-1789. BENEZET, Anth., an American au., d. 1784. BENGENHIELM, J., Baron De, a Swed. states- man, poet, and professor of history, 1629-1704. BENGER, Elizabeth Ogilvy, a writer of biographical and historical works, died 1827. HKNHADAD, two kgs. of Syria, abt. 9th c. B.C. BENI, Paul, an Ital. philologist, died 1627. BENINI, Vincent, an Ital. phys., 1713-1764 BEN BENJAMIN of Tudbla, an Eastern traveller in Asia, au. of a work in Heb. on the subject, d. 1173. BENNET, Hy., earl of Arlington, one of the council of Ch. II., known as the Cabal, 1618-1685. BENNET, Thos., a Hebrew scholar, 1673-1720. BENNINGSEN, Levin Augustus, Baron, a Russian commander, disting. in the war against Poland, at the battle of Eyl'au, &c, died 1826. . BENNITSKI, A. P., a Russian poet, 1780-1808. BENSERADE, Isaac De, a Fr. poet, d. 1691. BENSON, Geo., a dissent, minister, 1669-1762. BENT, John Van Der, a painter, 1650-1690. BENTHAM, E., au. of Sermons, &c, 1707-1776. BENTHAM, Jas., br. of the preceding, au. of the 1 History and Antiq. of the Church of Ely,' d. 1794. BENTHAM, Jeremy, bom in London in 1748, where he lived during most part of his long life of eighty-four years ; one of the most remark- able thinkers and writers England has recently produced equally estimable as a citizen and a man. Bentham's labours must be divided into two grand parts, the first by far the least impor- tant, although the one through which he is popu- larly known. As a writer on the Science of Morals, properly so called, he has contributed little that will be permanent in philosophy. Great as a jurist and reformer, especially in our Criminal Laws, he naturally sought to weigh the value of actions by their external effects; and unhappily he transported this conception correct in its relation to Public Law into the domain of Sci- entific Morals, talcing as the root of his system, that good and bad, just and unjust, must be synonymous with the utility or inutility of an action. Reserving discussion of this peculiar theory for the article Epicurus, we hasten here to the agree- able task of pointing out Bentham's rare, original, and incontestible merits. He may be said to have been the first thinker among us who gained clear ideas of the cumbrousness and iniquity of our artificial English Laws ; and although questions may well be started as to the practicability of his sweeping codification, it cannot be doubted that from his mind^ most of the statesmen who have since effectively laboured to simplify these laws, drew their best inspirations. On many special doc- trines or theories of Law, his speculations threw abundant and important light for instance, the Doctrine of Punishments and the Theory of Evidence. Discerning the value of Education as a preventive means, he threw himself into that subject with great eagerness producing his curious Chrestvmathy. On kindred moral sub- jects, he also wrote much, often perhaps not very considerately, always with fearlessness and power. His labours, in fact, attach to every great question of reform which later times have cast up ; and there were few men of eminence in his time who did not court a friendship, ever open to the deserving. Mr. Bentham's most distinguished associates were probably Sir Samuel Romilly and James Mill. His works were first published in a collected form in the French language, under the care of M. Dumont : an English edition has since appeared, edited according to the philoso- pher's own request, by Dr. Bowring. [J.P.N.] BENTHAM, Thos., bp. of Lichfield, d. 1578. BENTINCK, William, the intimate friend of William III., created eurl of Portland, died 1709. 77 BEN BENTINCK, W. H. Cavendish, third duke of Portland, born 1738; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1782 ; chancellor of Oxford, 1792 ; home secretary, 1794-1801 ; first lord of the treasury, 1807; d. 1808. BENTINCK, Lord George, a British parlia- mentary leader, was bom on 27th February, 18U2. He was the third son of the fourth duke of Portland, and thus descended from the distinguished Dutch- man who enjoyed the friendship of William III. He was by his mother, a daughter of Major Scott of Balcomie, connected with Canning, who mar- ried her sinter, and be made such early acquain- tance with political business as he possessed, in the capacity of private secretary to his uncle-in-law. He entered the army and rose to the rank of ma- jor, but that profession in time of peace had not sufficient attraction for his stirring temperament, and he took with laborious ardour to field sports and the turf. Though a younger son, the fortunes of the family enabled him to indulge in horse rac- ing without mercenary views, and yet it is gene- rally said that he realized a large sum of money on the turf. His success and general high character in the sporting world arose from a high-handed integrity, which gave him the position of a bold, earnest, honest enthusiast, in occupations pursued by so many through momentaiy excitement, dissi- pation, or a base design to profit by the follies of others. In 1826 he entered parliament as member for Lynn Regis, and continued to represent that constituency till his death. He was a very steady attendant, almost always in his seat awake or asleep. But his attendance was not of a character to give him the knowledge of a statesman, since the benches of the House of Commons were his place of rest between unremitting labours in the hunting field and other congenial arenas. Before 1846 he was generally set down as a moderate Whig, but it is evident that his political partizan- ship rested more on personal alliances than constitu- tional views. When Sir Robert Peel dealt bis final blow at the corn laws and commercial restric- tions, the country gentlemen, who thought it was not the necessary progress of sound political economy, but the want of leadership and combina- tion which threatened what they counted their ruin, looked to Lord George as a leader, on ac- count of the energy and skill he had shown in his favourite pursuits. He accepted of the proposal, and became the leader of the opposition, transfer- ring to the interior of St. Stephen's the methods which gave him success in his more congenial occupations out of doors. He made it his twofold occupation to hunt the enemy, and to manipulate statistics into startling momentary results, as in the calculations of the betting book. He knew to the last little or nothing about politics, but his chival- rous bearing and utter unconsciousness of defeat, gave him popularity even with his opponents. The energetic zeal with which he followed his new pur- suits broke his constitution, and, seized with an attack of the heart, he dropped suddenly dead on the 28th September, 1848, and was found lying on the road where he had been walking. [J.H.B.] BENTIVOGLIO, one of the sovereign families of Italy, among the distinguished members of which are, John, lord of Bologna, killed 1402, whose lineal descendants held the signory till 1506. Hercules, a poet and statesman, i506-1573. BER GuiDO, cardinal legate and historian, 1579-1611 Hippolyte, a dramatist, died 1685. Cornelio a cardinal, a poet, and a patron of the fine arts 1688-1732. Matilda, a poetess, died 1711. BENTLEY, Rich., a eel. classic, 1661-1742 His son of the same name, a dramatist, d. 1782. BENYOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, Count a Siberian exile who effected his escape, and win killed in action against the French when attempt- ing to assume the sovereignty of Madagascar, 176 BENZELIUS, the name of several abps. o: Upsala, distang. for their great learning. Eric. 1642-1709. His son of the same name, 1675-1745. Jacob, br. of the last, d. 1747. Henry, 1689-1758. BENZEL-STERNAU, aGer. states., 1738-1784. BENZEL-STERNAU, C. Ch., Count De, a Ger- man statesman, and man of letters, 1767-1832. BERCHTOLD, Leopold, Count, a disting. philanthropist of Austria, 1758-1809. BERENGER, or BERENGARIUS, was born at Tours, about the beginning of the eleventh cen- tury. His earliest education was received under Fulbert at Chartres, a teacher of affectionate wis- dom and piety. Berenger showed from the first a liberal spirit of inquiry. For some time he taught in his native city, and gained there the office of Scholasticus, that is, superintendent of the school attached to the cathedral or monastery of St. Mar- tin. Afterwards he was archdeacon at Anger. The name of Berenger is associated principally with the famous mediaeval controversy on the doctrine oi transubstantiation. He had revived the doctrine of Scotus, that the bread and wine still remain symbols after the consecration, and are not changed in substance ; but his doctrine was con- demned by several councils, such as that of Rome in 1050. The strife raged for thirty years, and Berenger sometimes wavered, and even formally recanted in 1079, under the terrorism of his ecclesi- astical superiors. But he soon retracted, and by Lanfranc and others, under Gregory VII., the con- troversy was prolonged till his death in 1088. The theological influence of Berenger was lost by his vacillation, but he was one of the revivers of metaphysical study and dialectics, and as has been remarked, ' he continued Scotus Erigena, and prepared the way for Abelard.' His book ' De Sacra Coena,' was published at Berlin in 1834 ; the manuscript of it having been found by Lessing in 1770 in the ducal library of Brunswick. [.I.E.] BERENGER, Jas., a celeb, anatomist, d. 1550. BERENGER, L. P., a Fr. poet and rhetorician, author of ' Les Soirees Provencales,' &c, 1749-1822.; BERENGER, P., a disciple of Abelard, 12th c. BERENGER I., king of Italy 888, elected emperor 916, deposed 922, assassinated 924. BERENGER II., king 950, deposed 962, d. %6. BERENICE, the name of several princesses of Syria and Egypt, of whom the most celebrated are the wife of Antiochus, strangled B.C. 248. The. daughter of Ptolemy Auletus, and usurper of his throne, who was deposed and killed by the Romans. The daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who con- secrated her hair to Venus. And the daughter of Agrippa, king of Judasa, the mistress of Titus. BERENICIUS, a Dutch adventurer, 17th cent. BERESFORD, Rev. James, a miscellaneous: writer and satirist, 1764-1840. BERETTLNI, P., an Ital. architect, 1596-1C69.! 76 BER BERG, J. P., a German theologian, 1737-1800. BERGEN, C. A. De, a Ger. mat.. 1704-1760. BERGEN, Derk Van Dee, a painter, d. 1689. BERGHEM, Nich., a Du. painter, 1624-1683. BERGIER, N. S., a wr. against deism, d. 1790. BERGIUS, P. J., a Swedish botanist, d. 1791. BERGMANN, Torbern Olof, a eel. Swedish chemist, to whom many and valuable discoveries are attributed, besides the reconstitution of the science of mineralogy, 1735-1784. BERIGARD, C., an Ital. philosoph., 1578-1663. BERINGER, J. B., a Germ, mineralogist, 18th c. BERINGTON, Joseph, a Roman Catholic his- torian and biographical writer, died 1827. BERKELEY, George, earl of, author of ' His- torical Applications,' and member of the privy council to Charles II., died 1698. BERKELEY, George, bishop of Cloyne, born in Ireland in 1684 ; died at Oxford in 1753. The interest connected with this rather remarkable man is measured by that of his system of philo- sophy, which we shall shortly characterize. It is necessary to a right understanding of Berkeley's speculations that one recall the false conceptions certainly prevailing at his time regarding the mode or manner in which we know ; we allude to the Theory of the Idea. It was thought that the idea through which we know, and the thing that we know through it, are perfectly distinct. The idea of an object was fancied a sort of image of the object capable of being perceived by the mind : just as the mind, in seeing, discerns not the object but the image on the retina. Adopting this to the fullest extent in respect of all that knowledge which we call the knowledge of external things, Berkeley yet held that knowledge of the mind itself and of its operations, comes at once and without the interposition of any medium through a simple act of internal perception : from which foundation, his strict logic led to the following singular super- structure. What are termed external objects, be- ing seen not in themselves but through or by ideas, what right have we to imagine the existence of these objects at all ? Supposing them real, they are confessedly not discernible by the human mind; why then assume their existence? True know- ledge, on the other hand, comes to us directly respecting the mind: is not mind and its pheno- mena therefore spiritual entities the sole reality in the universe ? Like Malebranche after him, the good Bishop of Cloyne reached this singular conclusion the more readily, because of the fer- vency of his religious principles. 'If the prin- ciples I entertain,' he alleged, 'come to be admitted among men, the consequences that I think will follow immediately are these atheism and scepticism must utterly fall.' He assuredly had weighed with little care the consequences inseparable from the concession to logic of a supremacy over our primary intuitions. Scarcely was the ink dry with which he wrote, ere the remorseless dialectic of Hume attacked with equal vigour the existence of the spiritual world reduc- ing all possible knowledge to the bare fact / exist! It certainly appears singular that even religious fervour could take so extravagant a turn in so acute a man : nevertheless, the moving prin- ciple of Berkeley's speculations was a spirit of revolt against the materialistic philosophy that BER issued from Locke's 'Essay on the Human Understanding,' Alciphron or the Minute Philo- sopher being mainly a protest against the para- dox of Mandeville, that virtue is only an artificial product of policy and vanity. Berkeley's know- ledge was extensive ; he was fond of physical science, and he struck out a sound theory of vision. His heart was a noble one, and his life pure. He was valued and admired among the best writers of the day, numbering among his friends Swift and Stella, the Dulte of Grafton, Lord Peterborough, and Pope. There is now a good edition of his works in 3 vols. 8vo. [J.P.N.] BERKELEY, Vice-Ad. Sir W., k. in ac. 1666. BERKENHOUT, J., a miscell. wr., 1731-1791. BERKEY, John Lefrancq Van, a Dutch physician, naturalist, and poet, 1729-1812. BERKLEY, Sir W., gov. of Virginia, d. 1677. BERLICHINGEN, Gostz De, surnamed iron- hand, a German knight, distinguished in the wars of Bavaria, 1480-1562. BERNADOTTE, king of Sweden and Norway, under the title of Charles John XIV., was the son of a lawyer, born 1764 ; sergeant in the marines, 1789; colonel, 1792; general of brigade, 1793; marshal of France and prince of Ponte Corvo, 1806 ; chosen crown prince of Sweden, 1810 ; king, 1818, to his death in 1844. BERNARD, St., of Menthon, founder of the hospices in the passage of the Alps, 923-1008. BERNARD, St., founder and abbot of Clair- vaux, one of the most influential and talented ecclesiastics of the middle ages, 1091-1153. BERNARD of Pavia, a jurist of the 13th ct. BERNARD of Thurixg'ia, an enthus., 10th c. BERNARD, Cath., a French poetess, last cent. BERNARD, C, a benevolent priest, 1588-1641. BERNARD, Edw., a pupil of Wallis, author of a treatise on ancient measures, &c, 1638-1697. BERNARD, James, a prot. hist., 1658-1718. BERNARD, John, an actor, died 1828. BERNARD, J. F., an antiquarian, last cent. BERNARD, J. S., a medical au., 1718-1793. BERNARD, P. J., a French poet, 1710-1775. BERNARD, Sim., a milit. engineer, 1779-1839. BERNARD, duke of Weimar, command, of the Swed. army after the death of Gustavus, 1604-1639. BERNARDEZ, D., a soldier and poet, d. 1596. BERNARDI, A. F., a Germ, gram., 1768-1820. BERNARDI, J.E., awr. on civil law,1751-1824. BERNARDI, J., an engrv. and archit., d. 1555. BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE, Jas. Hy., the eel. author of ' Paul and Virginia,' 1737-1813. \ BERNARDIN, St., vicar-general of the Fran- ciscans, reformer and founder of more than 300 monasteries, 1380-1444. BERNI, Fr., a burlesque poet, died 1536 ; an- other Italian of the same name, disting. as a poet and dramatic author, 1610-1673. BERNIER, Fr., a eel. traveller, died 1688. BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, disting. as a painter, statuary, and architect, 1598-1680. BERNIS, Fr. Joachin De Pierres De, a cardinal and ambassador of France, distinguished also as a poet, 1715-1794. BERNOUILLI. The family name of a cluster of famous mathematicians living at the period of the revival of science, when Newton evolved the law of the celestial motions, and he and Leib- 79 BER nitz invented nnd promulgated the higher calculus. All distinguished by eagerness in the pursuit of Analysis, and the two elder especially, by much vivacity of temper they mingled earnestly in the keen commerce and conflict of scientific writers, which so enlivens the history of those times, and renders the details of personal history part and }Kireel of the history of the progress of know- edge. Our limits confine us within a simple enumeration of these distinguished men, and a bare statement of their main achievements. 1. JAMES Bernouilli, probably the most ori ginal analyst of the group; born at Basle in 1654, died in 1705. He had great powers of in- vention, and much taste for simplicity in method and composition. He greatly extended the theory of the quadrature of the parabola, and the geometry of curve lines, spirals, &c. His chief contributions, however, relate to the summation and doctrine of infinite series; and we owe him the first syste- matic work on the now very important theory of chances. His writings are collected in 3 vols. 4to. 2. John Bernouilli, brother of James ; born in 1667, died in 1748 ; also a very great analyst. Besides his essays on the management of ships and the elliptical figure of the planets, John Bernouilli wrote on almost every branch of the existing mathe- matics ; and he touched nothing he did not expand and improve. The great age he attained was worthily bestowed on him ; he died full of honours. His col- lected writings fill four 4to volumes. 3. John Ber- nouilli, sou of the preceding; professor of mathe- matics in St. Petersburg, where he died in 1726 ; born in 1695. 4. Nicolas Bernouilli, nephew of 1 and 2, born in 1687; died in 1759; professor of mathematics in Padua. 5. Daniel Bernouilli, son of Nicolas, a very eminent philosopher, rivalling the glory of the elder brothers of the family. He was born in 1700, and died in 1782. His two great works are the 'Exercitationes Mathematical ' and his ' Hydrodynamica :' but besides writing occasional treatises and memoirs, he contested, and gained or divided with the greatest mathematicians in Europe, no fewer than ten prizes offered by the Academy of Sciences. No name of the time stands higher than that of Daniel Bernouilli. 6. John Bernouilli, bro- ther of Daniel, professor of mathematics at Basle, born 1720, died 1770. 7. James Bernouilli, nephew of the two preceding, born in Basle 1759, died in 1789, too early for science. At this close of the family of the Bernouillis, its former glories seemed about to blaze out again. In the space of about five years, the younger James presented no less than eight memoirs to the Imperial Aca- demy of Sciences, which have been pnnted in the ' Nova Acta;' and he was a correspondent of other academies besides. Everything he wrote dis- played singular acuteness. It is not often that the historian of Science has to record concerning such a family. [J.P.N.] BERNSTORFF, John Hartwig Ernest, Count, a Danish statesman, disting. also as a pa- tron of science and art, 1712-1772. His nephew, And. Peter, eel. as a minister of state for the enfranchisem. of the Dan. peasants, &c, 1735-1797. BEROALDUS, Ph., a rhetorician, 1453-1505. His nephew of the same name, a poet, died 1518. BERODACH, son of Baladan, king of Babylon. BER BEROSSUS, a Chddean priest and hist., frag- ments of whose works exist in the writings of Eusebius : time of Alexander the Great. BERRETINI, Nicil, an It. paint., 1617-1682. BERRI, John, of France, Duke De, 1810-1116. BERRI, Cn. Feud. De Bourbon, Duke De, second son of Ch. X., and father of the duke de Bordeaux, claimant of the Fr. crown, 1778-1820. BERRIMAN, Wm., au. of Sermons, 1688-1758. BERRUYER, Jos. Is., a religious wr., d. 1758. BERRUYER, J. F., a Fr. general, 1737-1804. BERRY, Rear-Admiral Sir Emv., K.C.R.. distinguished at the Nile and Trafalgar, d. 1831. BERRY, Sir John, a naval command., d. 1691. BERRY AT, F., first edit, of a collect, of observa- tions from the memoirs of learned societies, d. 1 75 1. BERSMANN, Geo., a Ger. classic, 1538-1611. BERTHIER. Alexander Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, was born in Paris in 1753, of higher parentage than that of most of the military chiefs of the French revolution and empire. He saw some service in Rochambeau's auxiliary corps in the American war, and con- tinued in the French army after the fall of the monarchy. It is chiefly as Napoleon's favourite chief of the staff that he acquired distinction. His talents for independent command were slender, but he possessed the power of rapidly comprehending Napoleon's wishes and tactics, and he showed an alacrity and a skill in carrying the imperial orders into effect, that made him most valuable, and procured him high promotion and favour. On the downfall of Napoleon, in 1814, Berthier, like other marshals, professed allegiance to the Bour- bons, and he is said to have shown more readiness and zeal in so doing, than became one who had been, like Berthier, the favoured friend, as well as the highly rewarded servant of the ex-emperor. On Napoleon's return in 1815, Berthier quitted France with the Bourbon princes ; but he suffered deeply in spirits and in conscience, and at last, after watching a body of Russian troops who were marching through Bamberg against France, Ber- thier committed suicide. [E.S.C.] BERTHIER, J. B., an architect, &c, 1721-1804. BERTHOLLET, P., a Fr. historian, d. 1755. BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, born at Tal- loire, near Annecy, in Savoy, 9th December, 1848, died at Paris, 6th November, 1822, aged seventy- four, affords one of the most illustrious examples of a genius for the practical application of science" among the savants of the last century. Educated for the profession of medicine, in an obscure corner of the country, he came to Paris destitute of friends and acquaintances; but having learned that M. Tronchin, a distinguished practitioner in the me- tropolis, was a native of Geneva, he made bold to call upon his countryman, and, fortunately for science, was kindly received and patronised by him ; and through his means Berthollet was made physician to the duke of Orleans. _ It was through this nobleman that he was placed in the position of superintendent of the government dyeworks, where he acquired the information contained in his valu- able work on this art, and which led him to apply to practice in bleaching, the important fact, dis- covered by Scheele, of the decolorizing properties of chlorine gas. It would be difficult to estimate, in its true light, either morally or pecuniarily, the BEE enormous benefits conferred on humanity by this application alone. James Watt introduced this application soon after from Paris to Glasgow. To the chemist Berthollet, too, is due the salvation of his country ; for, when hemmed in by Austrian and Prussian troops, and the English navy, her com- merce cut off, and the very instruments of self-de- fence denied her, Berthollet instituted native iron and saltpetre works, and supplied the cannon, swords, and gunpowder to withstand the ruthless invaders. Eminent for his love of art as well as of science, he was chosen by the Directory, in 1786, to pro- ceed in company with his friend Monge to select such works as were best fitted to adorn the Louvre ; and in 1798 he accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt on a similar errand. By the illustrious general he was courted as a friend, not only from his simple and unobtrusive manners, so becoming his pro- fession, but also from his force and depth of cha- racter, which rendered him a valuable companion. How seldom does the man of science acquire credit for the benefits conferred on his fellows ? In no instance is this affirmation more remarkably exem- plified than in the discovery by Berthollet of the chlorate of potash, a salt which not only, as an in- dispensable ingredient in the lucifer match, admi- nisters to the convenience of every one, but enables many a poor shivering outcast to supply his daily wants. Berthollet, too, was the discoverer of detonating silver, the first of those compounds so valuable in their application to fire-arms which are thus rendered independent of the seasons. He discovered, likewise, chlorocyanic, and first showed that the familiar volatile gas ammonia is a com- pound of 1 vol. of nitrogen and 3 vols, of hydro- gen. Although the more modern views of chemical combinations have set aside his views on these sub- jects, it is impossible to read them without being struck with the ingenuity of his arguments, and the force of his reasoning powers. In one point he successfully combated the opinions of the cele- brated Lavoisier, who believed that oxygen was the acidifying principle. Berthollet, on the other hand, showed that sulphuretted hydrogen and prussic acid are distinctly acid, and yet contain no oxygen. Subsequent observations have only strengthened the views of Berthollet. Berthollet was endowed with the greatest liberality and benevolence of disposition, and was destitute of that narrow and contracted selfishness so often complained of in these days of competition, which is too apt to mar the lustre of the scientific character. In his latter years he removed to the village of Arcueil, three miles from Paris, near his friend La Place, for whom he entertained a warm affection. Here he fitted up a laboratory, and formed the So- ciety of Arcueil, composed of a number of young chemists and friends, whom he encouraged Dy his example and kindness. Their names will show how happily was his friendship bestowed La Place, Biot, Gay Lussac, Thenard, Collet-Descotils, Decan- dolle, Humboldt, and his son A. B. Berthollet. The Bociety published three volumes of valuable me- moirs. To a chemist, we know of no more sacred Slace than the hamlet of Arcueil. But the last ays of the good old man were dimmed by the sui- cide, by means of the fumes of charcoal, of his only son, in whom his affections were concentrated. From this sad calamity he never recovered ; and, to BER complete his misfortunes, his friend, the emperor having been replaced by the Bourbons, science was again, as in so many other instances, sacrificed at the shrine of politics, and the eminent chemist was reduced from a state of affluence to comparative poverty. Death, in 1822, stepped in to his release, and posterity alone can yield some requital by rever- ing the memory of the good Berthollet. [R.D.T.] BERTHOLON, a French chemist, last centurv. BERTI, Alex. P., an Ital. author, 1686-1752'., BERTI, J. L., an It. monk and hist., 1696-1766. BERTIE, Willoughby, earl of Abingdon, a wr. of several polit. and satirical pamph., d. 1791. BERTIER, J. S., a Fr. physician, 1710-1783. BERTIN, Anth., a French poet, 1752-1790. BERTIN, H. Le J. B., a French comptroller- general, disting. for promoting manuf., 1719-1792. BERTIN, J., a Fr. phy. and anatom., 1712-1781. BERTIN, J. V., a French painter, 1775-1841. BERTIN, St., fndr. of the monas. so called, 7th c. BERTIN, Theod., a Fr. stenogph., 1760-1819. BERTINAZZI, C. A., a comedian, 1713-1783. BERTIUS, P., a Flem. geographer, 1565-1629. BERTOLI, G. D., an antiquarian, 1676-1758. BERTON, J. B., Baron, a French general, con- demned and exec, on an accus. of conspiracy, 1822. BERTRAM, C. B., a Heb. scholar, 1531-1594. BERTRAND, E., a Swiss natural., 1712-1790. BERTRAND, Henry, Count, one of Napoleon's most distinguished generals, and his companion in exile, 1770-1844. BERTRAND, J. B., a Fr. phvsic, 1670-1752. BERTRAND DE MOLLEV1LLE, Anth. F., one of the royalist noblesse, min. of marine in 1791, afterwards an histor. of the revolution, 1744-1817. BERULLE, Card. Pierre De, fndr of the Car- melites and congregation of the oratory, 1575-1629. BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, mar- shal of France, and natural son of James II., a gallant soldier, killed at Philipsburg, 1734. BERYLLUS, a speculative theologian, 3d cent. BERZELIUS, John Jacob, b. 1779, d. 1848, the son of a parish schoolmaster at Vafersunde, in the south of Sweden, as is said. The subject of our memoir possessed the opportunity of acquiring the elements of a good education in a country where read- ing and writing are understood to be within the grasp of the poorest peasant. He was educated for the medical profession at the university of Upsala, and obtained his first acquaintance with chemistry from Professor Afzelius, a nephew of Bergman, Ekeberg, and Ghan, to whom chemists are indebted for the establishment of the blowpipe as an indispensable instrument in chemical research. From the period of his first publication, his Animal Chemistry, in 1806, till his death, Berzelius's career was one of the most active and industrious of any chemist who ever existed. His mechanical powers of manipulation were of the highest order, and he set himself at an early period to make the most scru- pulously accurate analyses. It was from this power of minute investigation that, in company with Hisinger, he was enabled to detect, at the outset of his career, the new earth oxide of cerium, and afterwards selenium and thorium. It was by his accurate investigations that he was enabled to follow up the foundation-stones of the atomic theory laid by Dalton, Thomson, and Wollaston, and assist in raising a valuable superstructure, and 81 BER to demonstrate, in 1815, that the mineral world, | as had been enunciated by Smithson, is a naturally existing exemplification of the beautiful doctrine of definite proportions. It would be difficult to over-estimate trie value of the contributions made to the science by this indefatigable chemist, whose body and mind seem to have been in incessant action for the best part of half a century, whether we view them in his valuable investigations of the constituents of nature, in the various editions of his System of Chemistry, which contained a com- plete digest of the knowledge possessed by chemists at the time they ajppeared, of chemical substances, or in the annual reports which he published, in continuation of those of Thomson, of the progress of his favourite science. The part which ne took, too, in modifying the system of symbols, introduced into the science by Thomson, so as to suit all na- tions, is highly deserving of commendation, since without symbols it is difficult to understand how chemical constitution could he rendered intelligible in its present complicated condition. The ingenious generalizations which he sometimes made, although generally ultimately found to be untenable, were productive of vast benefit in encouraging and sti- mulating inquiry. Among these views may be noticed his ideas of the compound nature of chlo- rine ; his theory of electro-chemistry, of isomer- ism, of catalytism, &c. It is much to be regretted that the free inquiry and liberty of deduction which he claimed for himself he did not always allow to others, and that the closing years of his busy life should have been occupied in a coarse warfare with his contemporaries and the younger spirits of the age, and in an attempt, which ever must prove fruitless, to bind to the chariot-wheels of a past time the new discoveries which uniformly refuse to be attached to old-fashioned inventions. Much of this asperity of literary manner may undoubtedly be attributed to isolation during his earlier years, from the softening influences of life, and to dete- riorating habits, which it is understood were too unsparingly encouraged. Berzelius contributed, in a remarkable degree, in disseminating the study of the science over the continent of Europe, by the able pupils who were educated under his eye, and who did not fail to communicate in their turn to their successors the accurate lessons which they themselves had so bountifully received. To have communicated the elements of the science to such men as Gmelin, Arfwedson, Rose, Mitscherlich, and Wohler, is no small piece of good fortune. No de- partment of the science has escaped the masterly touch of Berzelius ; even organic chemistry, which he was desirous of confining under obsolete rules, was indebted to him for many early elucidations, which paved the way for those who were to follow. In no portion of the science were his labours of more value than in that of analyses, the processes de- pending on an intimate acquaintance with the properties of the various kinds of matter, by which the chemist is enabled to tell, to the most minute fraction, how much of any element is present in a compound. Berzelius was for many years profes- sor of chemistry in Stockholm. During the latter years of his life he retired to the country, and married, and was elevated to the rank of baron. But to the last he took a deep interest in his science, and even when paralysis had denied to him BEZ the power of locomotion, he continued to dictate t his amanuensis his annual report, striving, as i were, to bid against nature, and to lengthen ou the space of terrestrial mental existence. [R.D.T. BESBORODKO, a Rus. min. of state, d. 179 BESCHI, C. J., a eel. Indian missionary, d. 1741 BESOLDE, Chr., an Austrian hist., 1577-1636 BESOZZI, Ambb., an Ital. archi., 1618-1706. BESSARION, John, a cardinal and theol., on of the restorers of learning in the 15th c, 1395-1472 BESSEL, Dr. F. W., a Prus. astro., 1784-1841 BESSIERES, John Baptist, duke of Istris one of Napoleon's generals, marshal of France born 1784, killed at Rippach 1813. BETHLEM-GABOR, a native of Transylvania who usurped the throne of Hungary 1618, d. 162; BETHLEN, Wolfgang, Count De, a states man and historian of Transylvania, massacred b the Tartars, 1679. BETHUNE, the ancestral name of Sully. BETTERTON, T., a eel. tragedian, 1G35-170C BETTINELLI, X., a eel. It. author, 1718-1806 BETUSSE, Joseph, an Ital. poet, 16th cent. BEUERNONVILLE, Peter Riel, count ol a statesman, diplomatist, and marshal of France minister of war under the convention, 1752-1821 BEVERIDGE, William, bishop of St. Asaph eminent as an Oriental scholar and theologiac author of 'Private Thoughts on Religion,' 1638-17 BEVERLY, John of, the tutor of Bede, d. 721 BEVERNYNCK, J. Van, a Dutch statesmar disting. also as a contributor to botany, 1614-1691. BEVERWICK, J. De, amed. auth., 1594-1645 BEVIN, Elway, a Welsh music, time of Jas. ] BEVIS, an English astronomer, 1695-1771. BEWICK, John, an artist and naturalist, cele brated in the history of wood engraving, d. 1795. BEWICK, Thos., brother of the prec, d. 182* BEWLY, Wm., an experi. philosopher, d. 178c BEYER, Aug., a Germ, theologian, 1707-1741 BEYER, Dr. G. A, prof, of Gr. litera., 18th < BEZA, or THEODORE DE BEZE, was bor of noble parents at Vezelai in 1519. His studie were begun at Orleans under Wolmar, a Germai to whom may be traced his pupil's attainments i Greek. Here he studied law, and having at th age of twenty obtained a diploma, he spent til next nine years in Paris ; living in the midst c such enjoyments as an ample fortune can a all times secure in the gay capital of Frana Here he published his ' Juvenilia,' a collection c poems, many of which are just in character an gallantry, what might have been anticipated in th circumstances. His own conscience, his secrc marriage, and a severe illness, combined in solem nizing his mind, so that at length he fled t Geneva, and publicly avowed his attachment i the protestant reformation. In a very short tim he became professor of Greek at Lausanne, an after ten years' labour there he returned to Geneva From the period of his return to Geneva in 155 to his death there, October 13, 1605, Beza wa identified with the Swiss reformation. He was th first rector of the new academy established then and he succeeded Calvin in the chair of theolog in 1564. After the great Reformer's death, Bez occupied the first place of influence and responsi bility, not only in the church of Geneva, but i the neighbouring cantons and in France. In 157 fc2 BHA he was moderator of the great protestant assembly at Rochelle, by which the French confession Avas emitted. Beza reAasited France about 1560, and was introduced to, and favourably noticed by Catharine de Medici and the Cardinal Lorrain, iand he occasionally preached in the suburbs of Paris. He was also on the battle-field with the great Conde - in 1563. The Greek scholarship of Beza was consummate, and one of his early works at Lausanne was his famous translation of the New Testament into Latin, printed by Robert Stephens at Paris in 1557. In 1565 he published his first edition of the Greek New Testament, making use of a MS., containing the four Gospels and Acts, which usually goes by his name, and which in 1581 he gave to the universitv of Cam- bridge. This edition, which is almost the same as that of R. Stephens, was four times reprinted by him, and the last edition of 1598 was taken as the basis of the authorized English version of the New Testament. Beza wrote many other treatises, especially on the power of the magistrate in mat- ters of religion. But it is as an editor, translator, and commentator in connection with the New Tes- tament, that all subsequent scholars hold Beza in high esteem, not only for his own lofty acquire- ments, but also for the impulse which he gave by his example and his publications to biblical studies. [J.E.] BHARHIHARI, an Indian poet, 1st cent. b.c. BHAVABHOUTl, one of the greatest dramatic poets of India, flourished in the last century. BHERING. SeeBEHRiNG. BIANCHI, Ant., a Venetian poet, last cent. BIANCHI, Fr., a composer, end of last cent. BIANCHI, John, a eel. anatomist, 1693-1775. BIANCHI, V., an Ital. diplomatist, d. 1738. BIANCHINI, Fr., an Ital. savant, 1662-1729. BIAS, one of the seven sages of Greece. BIBARS I., Mameluke sultan, 1260. IL, 1309. BIBIENA, Bernardo De, a cardinal of Rome under Leo X., and au. of a comedy, 1470-1520. BIBIENA, F. G., a paint, and arch., 1657-1743. BICHAT, Marie Francis Xavier, one of the most celebrated physiologists of France, au. of several important medical works, 1771-1802. BICKERSTAFF, Isaac, a dramatic au., last ct. BICKERSTETH, Edward, a highly popular writer of religious works, was born i9th March, 1786, at Kirby Lonsdale, in Westmoreland. After receiving the rudiments of learning at the gram- mar school of his native town, he obtained, at the age of fourteen, a situation in the General Post Office, London, and although that employment put an end for a time to his classical studies, it trained him to those business habits which quali- fied him pre-eminently for the peculiar work which Providence had in reserve for him. Dis- gusted with the monotonous routine of his duties in the post office, he turned his attention to the study of law, and obtained admission into the chambers of an eminent London attorney, to whom, after two years' and a-half service, he became prin- cipal clerk. At a later period he settled in Nor- wich ,-is partner to Mr. Bignold, a young and flourishing attorney, and connected himself still more closely with that gentleman by marrying Miss Bignold, his sister, on 5th May, 1812. For many years previously, Mr. Bickersteth had been 83 BIE under deep impressions of personal religion. Amid all the engrossing avocations of his legal business he attended to the one thing needful, never allow- ing a day to pass without devoting a portion of it to the regular study of the Scriptures, with private devotion, and adopting various other methods for promoting his personal improvement and his walk with God. The principles he regarded as so vital to the welfare of his own soul he longed to impart to others, and mourning over the multitudes in the town of his adoption who were growing up in ignorance and irreligion, he commenced a Sunday- school by collecting a few poor children for in- struction in scriptural knowledge. This school, which gradually increased till it became a large and important institution, encouraged him to try other means of Christian usefulness, and accor- dingly he originated a benevolent visiting society, a church missionary society, a society for the con- version of the Jews, all of which, in spite of strong opposition from several quarters at first, continued to grow in numbers and influence. Having published his ' Help to the Study of the Scriptures/ which proved an eminently useful and acceptable work, he was earnestly pressed by several Christian friends to enter the ministry. The advice accorded with his own ardent aspira- tions, and at length a door having been opened by Providence, he was ordained deacon in the Church of England, and preached his first sermon in Nor- wich, 10th December, 1815. In the beginning of 1816, Mr. Bickersteth undertook a special mission for the purpose of inspecting the settlements of the London Missionary Society in Africa, and after having accomplished the important objects of his embassy, returned to the shores of Britain in the following August. For many years he acted as one of the secretaries of the Missionary Society, and in that capacity led a life of incessant activity, journeying in all parts of the country, and address- ing public meetings in behalf of the institution. Resigning this laborious office, he became, in 1829, sole pastor of Wheler Chapel, London ; and on 23d October, 1830, he undertook the charge of the rural parish of Watton, Herts. After a life of such indefatigable labour as he had led, this situ- ation was a comparative sinecure. But by multi- plying the services, both on Sabbath and week-days, 'he worked,' to use his own phrase, 'as busily as a bee.' In all questions affecting the interests of religion he took a prominent part, for he was looked up to as the head of the evangelical party in the Church of England, and in private he was unwearied in advancing the cause of Christian truth with his pen. The ' Christian Hearer,' the 'Christian Student,' a treatise on 'Baptism,' the ' Testimony of the Reformers,' and many other works, well known in the religious world, attest his piety and zeal. Mr. Bickersteth, in February, 1850, was seized with a paralytic stroke, which soon after carried him off, in the sixty-third year of his age. [R. J.] BIDDLE, John, a eel. unitarian, 1615-1662. * BIDERMANN, J. G., a Ger. savant, 1703-1772. BIDLOO, Goderey, a Dutch anat., 1649-1713. BIEL, Gab., a phil. of the Nominalists, 15th c. BIEL, J. Ch., a learned German divine, d. 1745. BIELFELD, J. F., Baron De, a political writer, counsellor of Frederick IL, 1717-1770. BIE BIEVRE, the Marquis De, a writer of some fugitive pieces, eel. as an inveterate wit, 1747-1789. BIEZ, Oudart Du, marshal of France, d. 1551. BIGLAND, John, a miscel. wr. 1750-1832. BIGNON, Jero., a learned Fr. wr., 1589-1656. BIGNON, J. P., grandson of Jerome, a disting. eccles. and member of the Fr. Academy, 1662-1743. BIGNON, L. P. E., a diplomatist, and au. of a 'History of French Diplomacy,' written by the desire of Napoleon, by whom he was frequently em- ployed, and held in the highest esteem, 1771-1841. BIGOT, Americ, a French classic, 1626-1689. BIKAM, W., an English engraver, last cent. BILDERDYK, Wm., a Dutch poet, 1756-1831. BILFINGER, G. B., a Ger. savant, 1693-1750. BILLAUD-VARENNES, John Nicholas, was the son of an advocate, and like Fouchc4, was educated by the Jesuits, but compelled to leave the congregation of the oratory on account of his licentiousness. He remained in obscurity until the outbreak of the revolution, when the revolt and fearful sacrifice of life at Nanci in the month of August, 1790, gave him an opportunity of at- tacking the government, especially in a work of 3 vols. 8vo, entitled ' Despotisme des Ministres de France.' Between this period and the autumn of 1792 he published several political brochures, re- markable, it is understood, for their brutal vehe mence rather than for any originality or show of argument ; and it was only on the 10th of August in that year, when the death-struggle of the Swiss guard, followed by the sack of the Tuileries, and the imprisonment of the royal family took place, that he emerged from the obscurity of the Fau- bourgs as one of the hundred and forty-four who turned out the old municipals, and declared them- selves the magistrates of the people. In the hor- rible massacres of September he was seen standing in his official scarf, short brown coat, and black wig, with one foot on a corpse and the other in a pool of blood, urging the murderers at the Abbaye to continue the work of slaughter, of which, from mere physical exhaustion they were growing weary. He was remarkable on all occasions for his repugnance to any regular form in the admin- istration of the people's wild vengeance, and had a principal share in the erection of the Re- volutionary Tribunal, to which Marie Antoin- ette and many other victims were sent at his particular instance. On the 9th Thermidor he consulted his own safety by joining in the clamo- rous accusation of Robespierre, and a few davs after his fall, was himself excluded from the committee which his cruel heart, and some- times declamatory eloquence had so often served. The reaction having set in, he was condemned to transportation, and afterwards to death, by the convention, but the sailing of the ship saved his life, and he remained twenty years in Cayenne be- fore he effected his escape. In 1816 he made his way to St. Domingo, where the mulatto Petion was in power as president of the newly-established republic, by whom he was allowed a small pension. On this pittance the ' resolute unrepentant man ' contrived to subsist till the world was finally rid of him in 1819. [E.R.] BILLARD, Ch. M., a Fr. surgeon, 1800-1832. B1LLAUT, An., a Fr. poet, time of Richelieu. BILLBERG, J., a Swed. mathemat., d. 1717. BIR BILLING, Sigts., a Fr. patriot and soldier of the revol., coadjutor of Lafayette in 1830, d. 1832. BILLINGSLEY, Sir Hy., a mathemat., d. 1616. BILSON, Thos., bp. of Winchester, 1536-1616. BINGHAM, Jos., an eccles. wr., 1668-1723. BINGHAM, Sir Geo. Ridout, an officer in the Peninsular war ; afterwards accompanied Buon- aparte to St. Helena, 1777-1833. BINGLEY, Wm., a wr. on nat. hist., d. 1823. BIOERN, the name of four kings of Sweden. BION, a Greek poet, 3d century B.C. BION, a Greek philosopher, 3d century B.C. BION, Nich., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1753. BIONDI, Sir Fr., an historian, 17th century. BIRAGUE, Clem., a Germ, engraver, 16th ct. BIRAGUE, Rene De, an It. cardinal, resident in France, promoted the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew, and was made chancellor, 1509-1583. BIRCH, Sam., a disting. citizen of London, ma- yor in 1814, promoter of the Lit. Fund, 1757-1841. BIRCH, Thos., a Quaker historian, 1705-1766. BIRD, Edw., R.A., a painter, 1705-1766. BIRD, John, a math. inst. maker, d. 1766. BIRD, or BIRDE, or BYRDE, William, the admired musician, and great pupil of the cele- brated Tallis, was born about the year 1540, anc is supposed to have been the son of Thomas Bird, one of the gentlemen of the chapel of Edward VI., where Bird received his first instructions in musi< as one of the singing-boys. In 1563, he was made organist of Lincoln cathedral, which office he retained till 1569, when he was appointee gentleman of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and h 1575 became organist to her majesty. Up to th< period of his death, which happened in 1623, hi composed a great amount of vocal music, chiefh sacred, and from the circumstance that the word" he chose were, for the most part, portions of tb Romish ritual, it is supposed that he was secretl; a professor of that faith, though from the appoint ments he held, he must have conformed to tb reformed religion. It is impossible now to nam the number of his works, if we include his instru mental compositions, of which no fewer thai seventy-three are to be found in Queen Elizabeth' celebrated Virginal book. Bird is, however, no\ chiefly known by his great canon 'Non Nobi Domine.' And though some persons have sough to deprive him of the fame of its authorship, an have attributed it to Palestrina, nevertheless those best able to judge have never hesitated t regard it as the work of William Bird, and to a' time it will be looked upon as a national wor and an enduring monument of his greatness as musician. Bird was highly esteemed, both in hi private and public capacity. [J.M. BIREN, John Ernest De, dk. of Courland, an regent of Russia after the dth. of Anne, 1687-177$ BIRGER DE BIELBO, Count Palatine, an regent of Sweden at the death of Eric, 1210-126( BIRKBECK, George, M.D., the founder < mechanics' institutions, b. at Settle, 1776, d. 184] BIRKBECK, M., au. of travels, &c, d. 1825. BIRKENHEAD, Sir J., a pol. wr., 1615-167! BIRON, Armano De Gontaut, Baron Di marshal of France, slain at the siege of Eperna; 1524-1592. Ch. de Gontaut, son of the pn ceding, b. 1561 ; admiral of France, 1592 ; marsha 1594; duke, 1598; beheaded, 1602. Ch. Akmam 84 BIS grand-nephew of the last, marshal, 1663-175G. Louis Anthony, his son, marshal of France, 1701-1788. Armand Louis, duke of Lauzun, nephew of Louis Anthony, and after his death duke de Biron, celebrated as a companion in arms of Lafayette in America, and afterwards as a soldier of the revolution, beheaded 1793. BISACCIONI, Count, adis. It. gen., 1582-1663. BISCOE, Richd., an English divine, d. 1748. BISHOP, Samuel, an English poet, 1731-1795. BISSET, Ch., awr. on fortification, 1716-1791. BISSET, James, a fugitive writer, died 1832. BISI, Bonaventure, an Ital. painter, d. 1662. BIVAR, Don Rodrigo Dias De. See Cm. BIZOT, Pierre, a wr. on numismatics, 1636-96. BLACAS, Due De, a French diplomatist, fa- vourite of Louis XVIIL, 1770-1839. BLACK, Joseph, born near Bourdeaux, 1728, died 1790. His father, a native of Belfast, resided for some years at Bourdeaux, as a wine merchant. He was of Scottish origin, and had married Miss Gordon, of Hillhead, in Aberdeenshire. The young chemist was first at school in Belfast, and after- wards at the universities of Glasgow and Edin- burgh. In 1756, he was appointed lecturer on chemistry and professor of anatomy, afterwards of medicine, in Glasgow. Here he remained till 1766, when he was chosen to the chemical chair in Edinburgh. During this period he made the important discovery of the cause of the difier- ence between limestone and quicklime, and showed that quicklime is limestone deprived of a portion of its weight in the form of car- bonic acid. It was by this experiment, while yet a student, that he drew attention to the impor- tance of the use of weights, a precaution which had hitherto been neglected by chemists, and from which omission many erroneous theories had been propagated. His second important discovery was that when water changes into steam, 140 of heat enter into it which are not perceptible by the thermometer, and which he termed latent. It is obvious that on this fact depends some of the im- portant circumstances with regard to the economy of the steam engine. These two capital discover- ies of Black have been of greater service to science than perhaps any equal number of data ever pointed out by philosophers. Dr. Black was a man of elegance, modesty, and indolence. His active life in science terminated in his thirty-eighth year, for after his removal to Edinburgh he en- gaged in no inquiries, and contented himself with teaching the science. He was beloved as a friend, medical adviser, and teacher, and his name must long occupy a niche in the scientific temple of fame. [R.D.T.] BLACKBURNE, Fr., a theologian, 1705-1787. BLACKLOCK, Tiios., D.D., was the son of an English artizan settled at Annan, in the county of Dumfries, where he was born, 1721. At the age of six months he lost his sight from an attack of the small-pox, yet arrived at distinction as a classical scholar and poet; not, indeed, to very- high rank in the latter respect, but to a degree of apiition exceedingly creditable to his taste and intelligence under the circumstances. For the early cultivation of his mind he was indebted to the kind friends who read, for his behoof, the works of Spenser, Milton, Prior, and Addison, and BLA subsequently to the friendship of Dr. Stephenson, who procured his admission to the university of Edinburgh. His first attempts in poesy were made in his twelfth year, and a few years later gave proof of his passionate love for music. In 1759 he was licensed to preach in the Scotch kirk, and in 1762 was presented with the living of Kirk- cudbright, by the earl of Selkirk ; but after two years of strife, abandoned this field of labour, in consequence of objections both to his preaching and his blindness, urged by the parishioners. A small annuity was settled upon him at this time, with which he retired to Edinburgh, where he passed the remainder of his life in literary pursuits, partly employed as a teacher. The best of his poetical pieces is ' The Graham,' an heroic ballad. He married in 1762 ; and in 1767 the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him by the Marischal College, Aberdeen. The last edition of his works was published in 1796, with a life of the author, by Mr. Spense. Dr. Blacklock died at the age of seventy, July 7, 1791. [E.R.] BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, a very indiffer- ent poet of the time of Dryden, in better repute as an honest man and a physician, died 1721. BLACKSTONE, Sir William, a judge and celebrated commentator on the law of England, was born in London on 10th July, 1723. He was the posthumous child of a silk mercer, and lost his mother in infancy. When about seven years old he was sent to the Charter House, where he was ultimately placed on the foundation. He studied at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in 1743 was made a fellow of All Saints. In 1746 he was called to the bar from the Middle Temple. He had written some popular fugitive pieces, chiefly poetical, one of them called ' The Lawyer's Fare- well to his Muse.' His qualifications were not of the kind which bring business through the usual channels, and he retired on his fellowship. Finding, however, that his studies took naturally the direc- tion of the law and constitution of England, he opened a course of lectures on the subject in 1753. Mr.Viner, struck by the importance of a foundation for teaching this important department of know- ledge, founded the Vinerian professorship, which Blackstone was the first to occupy in 1758. The popularity of his lectures, and of some minor tracts on jurisprudential subjects, opened the way to prac- tice, and he returned to the law courts, entering parliament in 1761. In 1762 he received a patent as king's counsel, and the honorary office of solici- tor-general to the queen. About the same time he married Sarah Clithroe, by whom he was the father of nine children. The first volume of the celebrated ' Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- land' was published in 1765. The other three volumes followed in rapid succession. No English law book has been at once so popular and so gravely censured. Both the praise and blame were elicited by the same features. In England, so much weight is attributed to the sentences and individual words in which the law is expressed, that its interpreters generally seek safety from re- sponsibility in employing the exact terms in which it has been originally given forth, in statute, deci- sion, or the opinion of some early sage of the law. This practice gives their works a hard, disjointed, piebald appearance, forbidding as a whole, how- 85 BLA ever valuable the separate parts may be. Black- stone tried to convert the mass into a readable well-arranged book, and succeeded. He has made many people readers of the law, and more or less instructed in it, who otherwise would not have ap- J>roached the forbidding science. But on the other land, the deeper practical members of the profes- sion have pronounced his work unsatisfactory and superficial. To make his book consistent and readable, he endeavoured to give a reason for every- thing, while other writers told it baldly as it stood. The tendency of his commentaries was thus to make wh at ever existed in the law appear to be exactly what it should be. Now that many of the things which he commended as the perfection of wisdom, have been abolished as tyrannical and absurd, his rea- soning in their support sometimes appears suffi- ciently ludicrous. The disposition to justify things as they were, made his writings acceptable to government, and they were the more so that in ac- counts of the origin of national institutions, he ever kept out of sight the more violent revolution- ary movements by which the constitution was created. Only in his celebrated passage against the game laws does he take a side contrary to what may be called conservative predilections. The 4 Commentaries' are still in active use, and ever call for the services of fresh editors. Black- stone disliked political contention, and declined the opening to high promotion offered to him in the office of solicitor-general. He was, in 1770, appointed one of the justices of the King's Bench, and in a few months transferred to the Common Pleas. He died on 14th February, 1780. [J.H.B.] BLACKWALL, Ant., anEng. critic, 1674-1730. BLACKWELL, Alex., a Scotch physician and economist ; settled in Stockholm, and beheaded for conspiracy, 1747. His wife, Elizabeth, disting. as the authoress of a ' Herbal,' with 500 plates, drawn, engraved, and coloured by herself. BLACKWOOD, A., a Scotch au., 1539-1613. BLACKWOOD, Sib H.,anav. com., 1770-1832. BLADEN, Mabtln, a miscel. writer, d. 1746. BLAEUW, Wm, a Dutch geogr., 1571-1638. B'.AINVILLE, M. De, an anatom., 1778-1850. BLAIR, Hugh, D.D., a celebrated Scotch divine, and miscellaneous writer, 1718-1800. BLAIR, J., a chronological author, died 1782. BLAIR. Robt., au. of ' The Grave,' 1700-1746. BLAKE, Wm., an artist and poet of singular genius and originality, remarkable also for his extraordinary visions, 1759-1827. BLAKE. In all the long list of England's naval heroes, there is not a name more glorious than that of Admiral Blake. Perhaps he deserves to be ranked even highest of all, if we look not merely to the number and brilliancy of his victories, but to the originality of his genius, and to the high character of the commanders and the crews whom he encountered and vanquished. Blake tamed the pride of the Dutch navy when it was in the per- fection of equipment, discipline, spirit, and skill. He triumphed over Van Tromp and De Ruyter ; admirals who, until they coped with Blake, were reputed invincible. Nelson himself never signalized his genius and his bravery against such competi- tors as these. Robert Blake was the son of a merchant at Bridgewater in Somersetshire, and was born there in August, 1599. He was well BLA educated, first at his native grammar school, and then at Oxford, where he was distinguished for his strictness in religion, and for his liberal poli- tics. At the age of twenty-seven, in consequence of his father's embarrassments and death, Blake was called on, as the eldest son, to take the man- agement of the wreck of the family business, and to maintain his mother and several younger bro- thers and sisters. He did this duty in private life for many years ; but on the outbreak of the civil war between Charles I. and the parliament, Blake came forward on the popular side, and raised a troop of dragoons, wnich he personally com- manded. Blake's military career has been eclipsed by the superior lustre of his naval achievements ; but he was one of the ablest commanders and bravest soldiers that fought for the Houses ; and some of his exploits in the west of England showed genius of the highest order. It would be difficult to find parallels, either in ancient or modern history, lor Blake's defence of Lyme against Prince Maurice ; or for his daring occupa- tion of Taunton and successful defence of that place against Goring. When the war was over, Blake was made a commissioner of the navy, and placed in command of the ships that were sent against Rupert's piratical squadron. Blake was at this time fifty years old. He may have had some acquaintance with a seafaring life when he was a Bndgewater merchant, but besides his na- tural courage, decision, and promptitude, he must have possessed remarkable quickness of apprehen- sion and fertility of genius to enable him to adapt himself to his new command in naval war, and to inspire those whom he led,with his own daring, alac- rity, and indomitable resolution. He was equally active and sagacious as a reformer of the numerous abuses which he found prevalent in the admiralty, and in every department of the service ; and Blake did for our navy in the middle of the 17th century what Earl St. Vincent did afterwards for it at the close of the 18th. Blake's successes against Ru- pert and other enemies of the commonwealth, caused him to be raised to the chief command of the English fleet when war broke out between the English and Dutch republics in 1652. A series of naval battles ensued, which are unequalled in history for the skill and for the obstinate valour displayed on both sides. Once, and once only, the Dutch had the advantage, on the 29th of November, 1652, when Blake was obliged with less than 40 ships to fight Van Tromp with 80 in the Downs. But our English admiral more than redeemed his fame in the February following, when he completely defeated Van Tromp in their great three days' sea fight along the channel. At last, when after two years of desperate warfare, Blake had nearly destroyed the Dutch navy, Hol- land was compelled in 1654 to sue for peace. Cromwell had turned out the parliament and made himself protector of England during this period, but Blake declared that a sailor's duty was to serve his country against the foreigner, and he continued to guide our fleets wherever the honour of England required. Cromwell sent him to the Mediter- ranean, where he made our flag universally re- spected. He compelled the Maltese knights and the Tuscan government to pay for the seizure of some English merchant vessels, and made the BLA mope pay also for having allowed them to be Bold in his ports. He awed the dey of Algiers into [the Enrrcnder of all his English captives; and rwhen the dey of Tunis refused to do the same, iBlake burnt the pirate fleet under the guns of the town, destroyed the forts, and compelled the haughty barbarians to obey his orders. He did good service in blockading the port of Cadiz, when the Spanish war began ; and his last and most daring enterprise was the destruction of the Spanish Treasure fleet and the fortifications at Santa Cruz in TenerifFe in 1657. Even the royalist English called this achievement ' miracu- lous.' Blake has been censured for rashness in attempting it, but his last and best biographer, Mr. Hepworth Dixon, has proved that the enter- prise was as ably planned as it was heroically ex- ecuted. This was Blake's final service to his country. He sickened as his victorious fleet re- turned to England, and he died during the very entrance of his ship into Plymouth Sound. It would be difficult to find a character more purely bright than Blake's. He was sincerely religious, and he was as honest and as generous as he was brave. His morals were stainless. His friend- ships and his domestic affections were warm ; but they never betrayed him into weakness ; and he sternly cashiered his own favourite brother who showed want of courage in command of a ship at Santa Cruz. Cromwell caused the great admiral to be buried with the highest pomp at Westmin- ster ; but on the restoration or the Stuarts, they heaped eternal infamy on themselves by outraging the mortal remains of the hero before whom they and their despotic friends on the thrones of Europe for so many years had trembled. The great ad- miral was at the age of sixty when he died in his country's service. [E.S.C.] BLANCAS, Jer., a Spanish historian, d. 1590. BLANCHARD, Fr., a celeb. Fr. aeronaut, d. 1809 ; his wife, also an aeronaut, killed 1819. BLANCHARD, James, a Fr. paint., 1600-1638. BLANCHARD, J. B., prof, of rhet., 1731-1797. BLANCHARD, Laman, a disting. contributor to periodical literature, committed suicide, 1845. BLANCHARD, Wm., a eel. corned., 1769-1835. BLANCHE, queen of Navarre, died 1441. BLANCHE of Artois, q. of Navarre, d. 1300. BLANCHE of Bourbon, q. of Castile, poisoned by her husband, Peter the Cruel, 1361. BLANCHE of Castile, daug. of Alph. IX., b. 1187, q. of Louis VIII. of France 1201, d. 1252. BLANCHELANDE, P. F., governor of St. Domingo, executed as a counter-revolutionist 1793. BLANE, Sir G., phys. to Geo. III., 1749-1834. BLANKEN, John, a Dutch engineer, last ct. BLANTYRE, Lord, a Peninsu. officer, k. 1830. BLAU, F. A., a Ger. theol. and critic, 1754-98. BLAYNEY, Dr. Benj., a biblical wr., d. 1801. BLEISWICK, Peter Van, a Dutch statesman, author of a Latin treatise on dykes, 1724-1790. BLESSINGTON, Marg. Power, countess of, eel. for her contrib. to polite literature, 1789-1849. BLETTEBIE, J.B.R. De La, an his., 1696-1772. BLIGH, Geo. M.. a naval commander, d. 1835. BL1 ZZABD, Sir W., a disting. surg., 1742-1835. BLOCH, Marcus E., a naturalist, 1723-1799. BLOCK, Joanna K., disting. for her imitations of Landscapes, portraits. &c, in paper, 1650-1715. BLU BLOMEFIELD, Fr., a topograph, wr., d. 1755. BLOMFIELD, E. V., a clas. schol., 1788-1816. BLOND, Chr. C., a min. painter, 1670-1741. BLONDEL, a minstrel celebrated in the history of Richard I. as the discoverer of his dungeon. BLONDEL, David, a protes. wr., 1591-1655. BLONDEL, Fr., a wr. on architec, 1617-1680. BLONDEL, John F., an architect, 1705-1774. BLONDIN, J. N., a Fr. grammar., 1753-1832. BLONDIN, P., a French botanist, 1682-1713. BLOTELING, A. C.,aDutch engrav.,1634-1690. BLOOD, Thomas, originally a col. in the army, notorious for his attempt on the regalia, died 1080. [Bloomtteld's Cottage ] BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an amiable man and a pleasing descriptive poet, is chiefly remark- able as an instance of the triumph of literary in- clinations over external difficulties. He was born in 1766, at a village near Bury St. Edmund's, where his father, a tailor, left him an orphan in infancy, and the widow taught a little school. He was a journeyman shoemaker in London, when he wrote his pastoral poem, k The Farmer's Boy.' This, the work of his that is most likely to live, was published in 1800, and attained an extraor- dinary popularity, well deserved in itself, and natural in the barrenness which then reigned in poetry. Among his subsequent volumes were ' Good Tidings, or News from the Farm,' and a collection of ' Rural Tales ' and other pieces. His feeble health impeded efforts made to provide for him by persons of rank who took an interest in the self-taught poet ; and after much distress and sickness, which in the end affected the mind as well as the body, he died at Sheftbrd in Bedford- shire in 1823. [W.S.I BLOUNT, Charles, earl of Devonshire, and Lord Mountjoy, quelled Tyrone's rebel., 1563-1606. BLOUNT, C, a deistical wr., com. suicide 1693. BLOUNT, Sir H., an Eastern trav., 1602-1682. BLOUNT, Thos., a fugitive hist., 1619-1679. BLOUNT, Sir Th. Pope, Bart., author of a catalogue of celebrated authors, &c, 1649-1697. BLOW, John, a composer of music, d. 1708. BLUCHER. Gebhart Lebrecht Von Blucher wrs born at Rostock in Mecklenburg- Sch werin in 1742. His family was ancient but poor. Young Blucher enlisted in a regiment of Swedish hussars at the age of fifteen, but soon afterwards he entered the army of Prussia, the country which 87 BLU he was destined to serve so ably. He was present in some of the battles of the seven years' war ; and acquired a high reputation as a daring and. resolute soldier, though his coarse and violent temper brought him "into frequent difficulties, and im- peded the rate of his promotion. He retired from the service in 1770, in anger at a supposed slight, but returned to it again in 1786, and when the wars of the French revolution commenced, Blucher was colonel of a regiment of Black Hussars. He commanded the left wing of the duke of Bruns- wick's army in 1783, with great credit for skill as well as courage ; and. in 1806, in the second war between France and Prussia, he was commander of the Prussian cavalry. After the disasters of Jena and Auerstndt, Blucher signalized himself by the ability of his retreat, and "by his desperate resist- ance before he capitulated to his pursuers. From 1806 to 1813 Blucher lived in retirement, watch- ing eagerly for Prussia's opportunity for rising against her French oppressors. This came after Napoleon's Eussian campaign of 1812. Blucher was now seventy years old, but his spirit was as fiery as ever, and there was no general in the war of German liberation whom his countrymen fol- lowed with more enthusiasm, or who did more for the rescue of the fatherland. He commanded an army formed partly of Prussians and partly of Russians, which was called the army of Silesia. On August 26, 1812, he routed and nearly de- stroyed the French army under Marshal Mac- donald, at the Katzbach, a victory that redeemed the reverses of Lutzen and Bautzen. Blucher was by Napoleon's own confession, the keenest, the most indomitable, and the most formidable of the foes, who now drove the French back across the Rhine. No reverses disheartened him, no difficulties appalled him; and it was only when held back by the more cautious policy of other chiefs of the allies, that the veteran was ever heard to express displeasure or anxiety about the progress of the war. In 1814, when the allies entered France, Blucher was again the first and the fiercest among Napoleon's assail- ants. He had the advantage over him at Brienne ; he was surprised and severely punished by the emperor at Montereau ; but he was soon pressing forwards again upon Paris, fought desperately at Craon, was victorious at Laon, and finally joined in the attack upon Paris on the 30th March, 1814, which caused the surrender of the French capital, and the end of the war. When Napoleon returned from Elba in 1815, Blucher commanded the Prussian army in Belgium, which in conjunc- tion with the British army under Wellington, fought the campaign of Waterloo. Blucher's army was the first that the French emperor attacked ; on the 16th of June the obstinate oattle of Ligny took place, in which, as Blucher himself re- marked, the Prussians lost the day, but not their honour. Though forced to retreat in consequence of this defeat, Blucher had his army rallied and ready for action again before twenty-four hours were over; and on the 18th he marched accord- ing to promise to aid Wellington at Waterloo. Blucher came on the field in force towards the evening of that ever-memorable day. He led his columns on Napoleon's right flank and rear, with the intention ot not only succouring the English, BLU but of utterly crushing the French. His success is well known. Often repulsed, and at last fiercely charged in front by the duke's army, the French were unable to hold back Blucher on their right, and were swept from the field in irretrievable ruin. After that decisive battle Blucher advanced into France in conjunction with the duke, and a second time was present at the surrender of Paris. Blu- cher's fierce animosity against the French made him wish to storm their capital, and he expressed a purpose of shooting Napoleon himself on the verv spot, in the ditch at Vincennes, where the Duke D'Enghien had been murdered. He yielded, however, though sullenly and reluctantly, to the sage advice of his English colleague. Blucher died in extreme old age at Kricblowitz, in Silesia, September 12, 1819. He was almost idolized by the Prussian nation, who justly looked on him as the saviour of the country. Blucher knew little of strategy, but he had the good sense to be aware of his own deficiency, and to follow in military plans and manoeuvres the able advices of General Gneisenau, to whom he always frankly expressed his obligation. Old 'Marshal Forwards' (as the soldiers loved to call Blucher) exercised an animat- ing influence over his men, which was invaluable, amid the general prostration of spirit which the successes of the French before 1812 had created ; and except our own Wellington, no man did more than Blucher towards the liberation of Europe from Buonaparte's military oppression. [E.S.C.] BLUM, J. Chr., a German lyric, 1739-1790. BLUM, Robert, one of those active spirits raised to eminence by the revolutionary events of 1848. He had spent his early life in so much ob- scurity that little is known of him. He is s&id to have been born at Cologne in 1807, to have been a working jeweller travelling about after the man- ner of the young German handicraftsmen, and to have settled in Cologne in 1830, as box opener of the theatre. Afterwards he excited attention among the friends of advancement in Germany by his contributions to the press, and especially by his exposures of the ultramontane religious party in the affair of the holy coat of Treves. When the parliament of Frankfurt was embodied in 1848, he represented Cologne, and became distinguished as the leader of the extreme revolution party. He had a rapid denunciatory eloquence, whence he was called the German O'Connell. He mixed him- self up with the revolutionary movements at Vienna, and on their suppression was condemned by a court-martial to be shot on the 9th of Novem- ber, 1848. The act was significant, as the begin- ning of the stern measures pursued by Austria against the liberal party in Germany. BLUMAUER, L., a Ger. sat. poet, 1755-1798. BLUMBERG, C. G., an Orien. schol.,1664-1735. BLUMENBACH, Jean Frederic, a cele- brated comparative anatomist, physiologist, and naturalist, was born at Gotha in 1752. He died at Gottingen in 1840. Whilst still a child the young Blumenbach exhibited a strong inclination for those pursuits which in after years rendered him so distinguished. He studied first at the uni- versity of Jena, then at Gottingen. At this latter place he succeeded in persuading the university to Eurchase a large collection of objects of natural istory, philology, and ethnology, belonging to one BLU of the professors. He was appointed curator of this museum, which he soon rendered famous by the extensive additions he made to it. Shortly afterwards he was elected professor of medicine in the university ; an appointment which he held for sixty years. During all this time he devoted himself with uninterrupted assiduity to the study of com- parative anatomy, physiology, and natural history, especially his grand study, the natural history of man. He was the first to establish the division of the human race into five varieties, the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. But the grand idea predominant in Blumenbach's mind, was the subject of the unity of the human species. To establish this he proved from anatomy and physiology that a wide interval, without connec- tion, without transition, separates man from every other species of animal. He shows that not only no species of animal approaches him, no genus does, no family even. The human species is one, and one alone. His numerous works upon this subject, upon natural history, physiology, and comparative anatomy, have obtained for Blumen- bach a world-wide reputation. He held highly re- sponsible offices connected with his university and the town in which he lived. He maintained a cor- respondence with the most eminent philosophers of all countries ; received all scientific persons who visited Gottingen, and was justly esteemed the patriarch of the university. The town of Gottin- gen owed most of its prosperity to him. Seventy- eight learned societies reckoned him amongst their members. Medals were struck in his honour. Each anniversary of his professorship was cele- brated by fetes, and prizes were established in his name. Beloved by his pupils and townsmen, re- vered by his country, he closed a calm and peace- ful life at the advanced age of eighty-eight. [ W.B.] BLUTEAU, D. R., a lexicographer, d. 1734. BOABDIL, last Moorish k. of Granada, 1491. BOADICEA, the celebr. British heroine, queen of the Iceni, vanquished and died by poison, 61. BOBROF, Simon S., a Russian poet, d. 1810. BOCTHOR, Ellious, an Arab, schol., d. 1821. BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, is illustrious as one of the three founders of the literature which arose, in the Italian language, in the course of the four- teenth century. Dante's extraordinary poem led the way; Boccaccio and Petrarch were the re- storers of Greek learning to Italy, and thus the prompters of a new literary spirit ; and, while the latter of the two elaborated the beautiful language of Tuscany in its metrical shape, the former was the earliest writer of symmetrical and polished Italian prose. Boccaccio was the natural son of a Floren- tine merchant and a Frenchwoman. He was born either at Florence or at Paris in 1313, was edu- cated at Florence till his tenth year, and was then for six years the apprentice of a merchant at Paris. But his inclination, always averse to commerce, and not less so to law, soon led him, in spite of his father's wish, to devote himself wholly to liter- ary pursuits. His authorship began at Naples, when he was not far from his thirtieth year. His first noted production was the ' Filocopo,' an in- different prose romance, in which he celebrated, un- der fictitious names, his attachment to a natural daughter >f king Robert. Much more meritorious wus the " Teseide,' a poem in the Italian ' Ottava BOO rima,' of which measure Boccaccio is commonly believed to have been the inventor. In costume this work is a chivalrous romance, Theseus and the sons of CEdipus being invested with feudal man- ners and characters, and made the heroes of adven- tures wearing a romantic, not a classical air_; but in regularity of design and purity of language, it was a mighty step beyond the rude effusions of the medi- aeval minstrelsy. It has interest for us, as having probably prompted the ' Knight's Tale ' of Chaucer ; while the story was also used by our poet Lidgate, and in a fine drama with which Shakspeare has been supposed to have had some concern. At Naples, likewise, about 1350, and on the suggestion (it is said) of Queen Joanna, was composed ' The De- cameron,' the work on which Boccaccio's celebrity is most securely founded. There was to be found already, among the literary stores of the earlier middle ages, a vast stock of invented stories, which had arisen in northern France sooner than in any other European country, but had lately begun to be related in the Italian tongue. From those older sources, especially the French familiar tales called 'Fabliaux,' Boccaccio borrowed freely. The same section of the popular literature sug- gested to him the idea of connecting a number of separate stories by one leading thread. He repre- sents a party of gay ladies and gentlemen as re- tiring from Florence to a villa in the neighbouring hamlet of Fiesole, during the plague of 1348, and as amusing their leisure by the recital of the stories which make up the greater part of the book. It derives its name from the ten days during which the diversion lasted ; and, ten tales being told each day, the number in all is a hundred. In point of style, the ' Decameron ' is admittedly one of the masterpieces of the language in which it is writ- ten ; it is admirable also for its grace and liveliness in narration. These qualities are, in many of the tales, debased by a lamentable grossness ; but some others, such as the ' Griselda,' are not only morally fine and elevated, but seriously and pathe- tically interesting. The story of ' Giletta of Nar- bonne ' was, indirectly, the original of ' All's Well that Ends Well ;' and other pieces of the collection were imitated by Chaucer and by Dryden. Not long after the composition of the ' Decameron,' Boccaccio came into possession of a considerable patrimony ; and thenceforth his favourite occupa- tions were the study of the Greek tongue and its literature, (then hardly known at all in Western Europe,) and the collection of manuscripts of the classical authors. Residing chiefly at Florence, he was employed on several public missions, which gave him opportunities for prosecuting those re- searches ; and one of these made him acquainted with Petrarch, who was ever afterwards one of his dearest friends. About his forty-eighth year the exhortations of a Carthusian monk, strengthened by an alleged supernatural vision, inspired him with thoughts so serious, that he meditated retir- ing into a convent. The remonstrances of Pet- rarch diverted him from this step; but the im- pression which had been made produced a benefi- cial amendment in his views and conduct, and awoke much sorrow both for the excesses of his earlier life and for the licentiousness of the 'Decameron.' To those later years belong chiefly his works in Latin prose, which, though they were valuable as 69 BOC aids in the infancy of classical studies, arc BOW curious only as monuments of the past. Seme of his smaller Italian compositions likewise are un- important His last undertaking was the deliver- ing of public comments on the great poem of Dante, in a leetureship to whieh he was appointed by the Florentine magistracy. The zeal with which he prepared himself for tins task was said to have hastened the decay of his health. He died in Tuscany in 1375. ' [W.S.] BOCCAGE, M. A. Le P., a poetess, 1710-1802. BOCCALINI, T., an Ital. satirist, 1556-1613. BOCCHERINI, Lutgi, a musician, 1740-1805. BOCCHI, Achilles, a patron of litera., 16th c. BOCCHORIS, an ancient king of Egypt. BOCCHUS, k. of Numidia, vanquished 103 b.c. BOCCOLD, John, commonly called John of Leyden, the chief of a revolt in the 16th cent. BOCCUCI, Joseph, a Sp. comedian, last cent. BOCH, John, a Latin poet, 1555-1609. BOCHART, Samuel, a protestant divine, eel. as a biblical wr. and Oriental scholar, 1599-1667. BOCK, a German botanist, 1498-1554. BODARD DE TEZAZ, a French poet, last c. BODE, Chr. Aug., a Ger. linguist, 1723-1796. BODE, J. Ehlert, a Germ, astron., 1747-1826. BODE, J. J. C, a bookseller and trans., d. 1793. BODENSTEIN, the tutor of Luther, 1480-1541. BODIN, John, a wr. on jurisprud., 1530-1596. BODLEY, Sir T., a diplom. and man of letters, founder of the Bodk-ian library, 1544-1612. BODMER, J. Jac, a German poet, 1695-1783. BODSON, Joseph, a French revolutionist who had the care of the royal family at the Temple. BOECE, an Italian philosopher, 470-525. BOECE, Hector, a Scotch histor., 1465-1536. BOECLER, J. H., a Swed. historian, 1611-1692. BOEHM, And., a disciple of Wolff, 1720-1790. BOEHM, W. A., a German divine, 1673-1732. BOEHM, or BCEHMEN, Jacob, surnamed 'Teutonicus,' was born at Old Seidenburgh, a short distance from Gorlitz in Upper Lusatia, 1575. His parents being poor, he was employed in tend- ing cattle from a very early age, and afterwards ap- prenticed to a shoemaker, a business which he con- tinued to follow after his marriage in 1594. He had the good fortune, for one in his station at that period, to learn reading and writing at the village school, and this was all the education he received, the terms from the dead languages introduced into his writings, and what knowledge he had of alchy- my or the other sciences, being acquired in his own rude way subsequently; chiefly, perhaps, from con- versation with men of learning, or a little reading in the works of Paracelsus and Fludd. Whilst he was a herd boy, as the legend runs, he once re- tired to a little stony crag, known as the Land's Crown, and there discovered an opening through which he penetrated into a rocky enclosure, where he saw a great wooden vessel full of money, but was too much alarmed to take any of it, and when he returned with his companions they sought often and with much diligence, but never found the en- trance again. This circumstance made a deep impression on Boehmen, the rather as a stranger arrived there some years later, who was skilled in the finding out such magic treasures, and taking it away, did indeed enrich himself, but perished by an infamous death, the treasure, it is said, having BOE laid there under a curse to him who should ever become possessed of it. Another legend, whieh relates that a stranger, of a severe but friendly countenance, came to his master's shop while he was yet an apprentiee, and warned him of the great work to whieh God should appoint him, ex- hibits the singular faith of Bahmen in the Divine guidance; and the religious habits in which he was thus encouraged soon rendered him as con- spicuous among his profane fellow-townsmen, as his humility and love of peace among the arrogant clergy, by whom he was afterwards persecuted. His study of the Sacred Scriptures had been con- stant ana profound, but more especially, if we may judge from the spirit of his theological system, of the Apocalypse and the writings of Paul. His letters manifest the deep earnestness of his convictions, and the sincerity with which he represented him- self as the subject of Divine inspiration. 'Art,' he says, ' hath not written here, neither was there any time to consider how to set it punctually down according to the right understanding of the words, but all was ordered according to the direction of the Spirit, which often went in haste ; so that in many words letters may be wanting, and in some places a capital letter for a word; for the penman's hand, by reason he was not accustomed to it, did often shake; and though I could have written in a more accurate, fair, and plain manner, yet the reason was this, that the burning fire did often force forward with speed, and the hand and pen must hasten directly after it, for it cometh and goeth as a sudden shower.' ' I, indeed,' he con- tinues, 'can write nothing of myself, but as a child which neither knoweth nor understandeth anything, which neither hath ever been taught, but only that which the Lord vouchsafeth to know in me.' The genuineness of his humility, often ex- pressed in this or similar language by Jacob Boeh- men, and the simplicity of his faith^cannot be doubted bv those who have examined his works, any more than the fine religious thoughts, and the depth of mystic wisdom contained in them. The first of these was called the ' Aurora,' or ' Morning Red- ness,' and was written after he had been for seven days together, as he expresses it, ' environed with the Divine light ;' so that he discerned all things in their inward essences, as explained subsequently in his ' Signatura Rerum,' or corresponding forms of things. Experiences of this kind, indeed, were repeated over a period of twelve years, before he was driven to embody his apprehensions in ex- ternal writing, and w r hen he did so, his MS. was handed about among those who chose to borrow it, until the clergy and the towm council interfered, and finally, not only proscribed his writings and pro- phecies, but poor Bcehmen himself, who was con- strained to depart for Dresden; a catastrophe which will be better understood when it is known that many passages in his writings are as red thunderbolts launched against oppression and sham religion. The space to which we are limited renders it impossible to give even an outline of his system, but we may observe generally, that it con- tains the first principles of Oriental metaphysics, as delivered by the ancient sages, and contained in the fragments of their philosophy, and that its brilliant lights and definite outlines only fade away into vacuity, where they ought to be brought 90 BOE down into the physical nature of things. This defect prevented him from acquiring the world- wide fame of Newton, who applied the principles demonstrably contained in the writings of Jacob Boehmen to the planetary system ; and the same deficiency has ever prevented the poor unin- structed seer of Gorlitz from ranking with the philosophers, or indeed with the no-philosophers of whom anything intelligible can be reported, down to the present time. The key to all his works, perhaps, is contained in the right under- standing of the seven universal properties, three of which are hidden under fire and three manifested ; the fire, or Spirit, being as the magnetic blaze which brings the first three into the last ; next to which may be the study of fire in ten forms, be- ginning with the eternal liberty, or silent tranquil- lity of God without nature; and after this the three principles darkness, light, and generation. The greatest master of Boehmen's philosophy was a German named Frere, some of whose manu- scripts are in the British Museum, and through whom and his acquaintance with the family of Dr. Francis Lee, William Law derived his knowledge, as well as the diagrams by which the principles are in some measure illustrated. As an apostle of reli- gion he has had followers in all parts of Europe, but as he never sought to establish a sect in his lifetime so all efforts of this kind have failed since, and we must look for the real proceeds of his in- fluence in such movements as those of Primitive Wesleyanisin and the Moravian Brethren ; add to which the most intelligent of the later mystics, followers of Law and Boehmen, accepted the revelations of Swedenborg. Boehmen died happily on Sunday, November 18, 1624. Early in the morning he called his son and asked him if he heard that excellent music, and on his replying in the negative, directed him to open the door that he might hear it the better. Asking after- wards what the clock had struck, he was told 'two,' upon which he remarked that his time was yet ' three hours hence.' When it was near six he took leave of his wife and son, blessed them, and said, 'Now I go hence into paradise!' He then bade his son turn him, and with a deep peaceful sigh, his spirit departed. [E.R.] 'BOEHME, J. E., a Ger. historian, 1717-1780. BOEHMER, G. R., a eel. botanist, 1723-1803. BOERHAAVE, Herman, physician, the pupil of Pitcairn. He was the son of the parish clergyman, andb. 1668, at Vorhout,near Leyden, d. 1738. Boer- haave presents a striking example of the successful results of the proper exercise of talent, integrity, and industry. Without friends, and left an orphan when a boy, he became one of the most popular physi- cians and teachers in Europe, and by the soundness of his views, and good sense, contributed to elevate the profession to which he belonged from the degraded and empirical condition in which it was previously involved. Living at a time when all natural studies together did not embrace so much as one science in the present day, it is not to be expected that any of his labours should now sur- vive. But learned in the knowledge of the medicine, chemistry, and botany of his time, he must be viewed as one of the dispcllers of mysti- cism, and founders of a great fabric which the revolutions of centuries cannot even perfect, while BOH to his successors must be left the duty of recog- nizing the efforts of such true creators of science. His works were the ' Institutions of Medicine,' ' Diagnostic and Curative Aphorisms,' a ' System of Chemistry,' and a small work on Materia Medica. His memory is still ardently cherished in the uni- versity of Leyden, and in the Botanic Garden, where some relics of the great physician are still extant ; while a portrait of him adorns one of the halls. Boerhaave was a successful practitioner, as he is said to have left upwards of 200,000. [R-D.T.l BOESCHENSTEIN, J., a Heb. gram., 15th ct. BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquattjs Severinus, was born at Rome of a rich and noble family about 470. The first eighteen years of the orphan were spent in diligent study at Athens, and he returned to Rome a young man of unequalled intellectual accomplishment. Soon after he en- tered the senate as a member of the patrician order, and under Theodoric, king of the Goths, obtained high preferment. Boethius had been consul in 487 under Odoacer, king of the Heruli, and in the eighteenth year of Theodoric he was elevated a second time to the same dignity. His domestic life was one of undisturbed felicity, and his prosperity had also been crowned by seeing his two sons advanced to consular rank. But a sudden and fatal reverse overtook him, and after more than twenty years of faithful service, he was, during the period, of his third consulship, accused of treasonable correspondence, condemned and banished to Pavia, where after more than a year's imprisonment, he was by royal mandate beheaded in prison, October 23, 526. It is said to have been a vindication of the doctrine of the Trinity, that stirred the Arian prejudices of Theodoric and his courtiers against the orthodox philosopher and patriotic statesman. His most famous work, ' De Consolatione Philosophise,' was composed during his last year's confinement at Pavia. It has both prosaic and poetical chapters, and dialogues in its five books ; and philosophy personified adduces comfort to the prisoner, not from Scripture, but from Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. His other works are numerous, and on a vast variety of subjects. He translated Plato and Euclid, his special favour- ites, commented on Aristotle, Cicero, and Por- phyry, published versions of Ptolemy and Archi- medes, and wrote on music, rhetoric, mathe- matics, metaphysics, and theology. It is hard to say whether Boethius was a Christian at all in the proper sense of the term. His pure theism, his ideas of prayer, and his trust in a Divine Pro- vidence, appear to have been borrowed from those opinions with which Christianity was leavening indirectly so many classes of society, who did not formally enter the communion of the church. His works were published with notes at Basle, folio, 1570. [J.E.] BOETTCHER, J. Fr., a Ger. alchym., d. 1719. BOGDANOVITSCH, H. Theod., a miscella- neous wr. and poet of Russia, ed. of the Peter sbur<ih Courier, employ, officially by Catherine, 1743-1803. BOGORIS, a king of Bulgaria, converted 841. BOGUD, a king of Mauritania, 1st c. B.C. BOGUE, David, a eel. dissenter, 1749-1825. BOGUPHALUS, a Polish chronicler, d. 1253. BOGUSLAWSKI, a Polish dramat., 1752-1829. BOHEMOND, prince of Antioch, died 1111. 91 BOII BOIIN, JOHN, a German physician, 1640-1719. BOHUN, Ed.yt., a political \vr., 17th century. BOICHOT, Jean, a Fr. sculptor, 1738-1814. BOIELDIEU, Adrian, a composer, 1775-1834. BOIGNE, B. L., Count De, an adventurer in the military service of the Mahrattas, died 1830. BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicolas, born in 1636, was the son of an officer of the parliament of Paris, and belonged by descent and connections to a family of lawyers. While his two elder bro- thers were precocious in youth, Nicolas was slow ns well as sickly ; and he, the future satirist, was described by his father as a good-natured boy, who would never speak ill of any one. He was a dili- gent student, but showed little either of invention or of ambition ; although, mistaking his vocation as others then mistook it, he wrote a boyish tragedy. At the age of twenty-one he was ad- mitted as an advocate; but his neglect and dis- like of professional pursuits scandalized his rela- tions. He was allowed for a time to contemplate the clerical profession, and held for some years a sinecure benefice; which, however, on determin- ing not to take orders, he resigned, refunding also all the profits. He now betook himself wholly to letters ; and, beginning in 1666 his series of Satires in verse, which at length amounted to twelve, he was at once hailed as a valuable contributor to a literature, in which Corneille, though in the full career of his genius, was as yet appreciated but by few, while Moliere was only beginning to write. French versification, and French style, alike took a new and finer shape in his hands. The didactic kind of poetry to which he had devoted himself, was cultivated with a success still more brilliant in his series of Epistles. Even now, if his French admirers hesitate in asserting that the Satires come up to the nice perfection of their Horatian models, they extol the Epistles as decidedly superior to those of Horace. Boileau seemed to have deter- mined on furnishing materials for completing the parallel. Besides a few odes and other small pieces, which are confessedly poor, he again mea- sured lances with the Roman poet, by publishing in 1673 his 'Art Poetique,' a poem in four cantos. In the course of that year appeared the first four cantos (increased afterwards by two indifferent ones) of 'Le Lutrin,' a mock-heroic poem. It celebrates a contest as to the placing of a pulpit, which broke out among the canons of the Chapel of Saint Louis, attached to the Palais de Justice. He was now high in favour at court, and re- ceived, with Racine, a joint appointment as his- toriographer of Louis XIV. He had, long since, been universally acknowledged by the public voice as one of the most distinguished among those men of genius whose writings adorned the Au- gustan age of France. He lived in cordial inti- macy with most of those literarv men who be- longed to the first rank, such as Racine, Moliere, and La Fontaine ; and he was really both a pru- dent and modest man, and a kindly one, and even exhibited frequently an honourable liberality and generosity. But he had been, and was, merciless to the smaller citizens of the republic of letters ; and many enemies were necessarily made by a man who often, by one epigrammatic couplet, was able to destroy the reputation and the livelihood of a poor dramatist or romance -writer. Accord- BOL ingly Boileau was not received into the Academy till 1684 ; and then only in obedience to a significant hint from the throne. The later years of his life were embittered by much sickness and infirmity ; and he died of dropsy in 1711, bequeathing almost all his property to the poor. The principal works of Boileau have already been named. They place him as one of the members of a literary triumvirate, to which belong, with him, Horace and Pope. While none of the three is a poet of the highest class, the' distinctive elements of poetry are very much more scanty in the French critic and versifier than in either of the others. Pope owed much to him, receiving many hints, and not infrequently trans- lating from him literally ; and in the art of terse and striking expression, our countryman, success- ful as he is, can scarcely be pronounced equal to his model. Pope's juvenile 'Essay on Criticism' is by no means so masterly as the 'Art Poetique;' but ' The Rape of the Lock,' if it wants that air of comic verisimilitude, which is so striking in the ' Lutrin,' rises far above it through its super- natural and other imaginative ornaments, to which nothing similar is presented by the French poet, or could have been invented by his timid and sluggish fancy. [W.S.] BOILEAU, Giles, a classical wr., 1631-1669. BOILEAU, Jas., an eccles. writer, 1635-1716. BOILEAU, John J., aFr. moralist, 1649-1735. BOINVILLE, A. De, a Frenchman of noble family, who joined the republican party, and was aid-de-camp to Lafayette, 1770-1812. BOISFREMONT, C. De, a Fr. painter, d. 1838. BOISROBERT, Fr. Le Metel De, a wit and poet, one of the fndrs. of the Fr. Acad., 1592-1662. BOISSARD, J. J., poet and antiq., 1528-1602. BOISSAT, P. De, a miscel. writer, 1603-1662. BOISSY, L. De, a dramatic writer, 1694-1658. BOISSY D'ANGLAS, Fr. Anth., eel. as a member of the French convention, and after the fall of Robespierre of the Comite de Salut Public, and the council of 500 ; and when the government of Buonaparte was established, of the French senate. He has the reputation of being a sincere lover of liberty, though somewhat of a changeling, and has left behind him a great number of works, chiefly political, which have been published to- gether, under the title of ' D'Etudes d un Vieillard,' (experiences of an old man,) 1756-1826. [E.R.] BOL, Ferdinand, a Dutch painter, 1611-1681. BOLD, Sam., a controversial divine, died 1737. BOLDONIC, C, an Italian author, last cent. BOLESLAUS I., king of Poland, 999-1025. BOLESLAUS II., succeed. 1058, d. about 1083. BOLESLAUS III., b. 1085, sue. 1102, d. 1139. BOLESLAUS IV., sue. his br. 1146, d. 1159. BOLESLAUS V., b. 1219, sue. 1227, d. 1279. BOLEYN, Anne, q. of Henry VIII., 1507-1536. BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Lord, an orator, statesman, and philosophical essayist, was born at his father's seat at Battersea, on 1st October, 1678. His family was divided between the two great contending parties of the seventeenth century, and it so happened that the high Tory statesman and sceptical philosopher was educated by a presbyterian grandmother, under the influ- ence of Daniel Burgess, the dissenting divine. Little is known of his early education. In 1700 he married Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winch- 92 BOL comb, but there was little happiness in the match, or cordiality between them, for young St. John's habits called for more than the average amount of marital liberality. He made himself renowned for the extent of his dissipation in a very dissipated age. Entering parliament in 1701, he began his political career. His model was Alcibiades, and he was ambitious of showing that the pursuit of pleasure and of political ambition might be united m the character of one possessed of his brilliant attainments. In an age when statesmen were liable to little responsibility, he in a great measure succeeded. With his friend Harley he joined the ranks of the Whigs, and changing with him be- came his colleague in the celebrated Tory ministry, which in 1710 owed its existence to the triumph of Abigail Hill over the duchess of Marlborough. His bold unscrupulous temper made him the rul- ing spirit in a government now condemned by all parties for its recklessness. Ere its extinction, however, by the death of Queen Anne, a rivalry between St. John and Harley had ripened to a deadly animosity and struggle for ascendancy. In 1712 St. John was raised "to the peerage as Vis- count Bolingbroke. It is remarkable that none of the speeches delivered by him in either House have been preserved. Their absence makes a gap in our senatorial oratory. They are reputed to have been very brilliant, and his published works have a full sententiousness much better adapted to ora- tory than to literature. There has always been a great question whether Bolingbroke was one of those who were plotting for the restoration of the exiled house on the death of Queen Anne, and the light which has been thrown on the mystery in later times, leaves little doubt of his guilt. He immediately felt, along with his colleagues, that he must count on the hostility of the new government. For some time he seemed to court and brave in- vestigation, but on the 25th of March, 1715, fol- lowing up well -laid arrangements he escaped secretly to France. He v, as attainted on impeach- ment, and justified the condemnation by entering the service of the Pretender. He was soon dis- gusted with this trifling narrow political arena, and showed extreme anxiety to be reinstated at home. He received permission to return, and by special statute his property was restored, but Walpole would not give so dangerous an enemy the means of attacking him in debate, and his attainder was not reversed so as to restore him to his seat in the Lords. He occupied himself in writing bitter pamphlets and other works against the govern- ment. He had taken for a second wife the Mar- quise de Vilctte, whose social and religious views seem to have been adapted to his taste. He died on 15th December, 1751. His works on mental philosophy, and the foundations of belief, received with a cry of execration, but now little read, were published after his death. [J.H.B.] BOLIVAR. Simon Bolivar was born in 1783 at Caraceas in Venezuela in South Amercia. He was educated in Europe, and returned to America in 1809 ; holding the rank of lieutenant- colonel in the Spanish service. When the revolu- tionary movements commenced, by which the Spanish provinces in America sought to establish their independence, Bolivar took an active part in them, and in 1813 he was at the head of the army BON which liberated the greater part of Venezuela from the government of Spain He was driven out of Venezuela in the following year by the Spanish troops, but (after one unsuccessful attempt) he forced his way back in 1817, at the head of a force which he had collected at St. Domingo, and re- commenced the war of liberation. In 1821 Vene- zuela and New Granada were freed from Spain, and these two provinces were united into a repub- lic, called Columbia, of which Bolivar was presi- dent. Bolivar next took an active part in aiding in the liberation of Peru, and was made dictator of that country in 1822, an office which he resigned when Peru was completely liberated by the victory of Ayachrcho on 9th December, 1824. The inhabi- tants of Upper Peru formed their country into a separate republic, which they named Bolivia in honour of Bolivar. Bolivar's desire seems to have been to unite all the liberated provinces of South America in one federal republic, but his hitter years were passed amid incessant tumults of fac- tion, and frequent outbreaks of civil war, and he died at last broken in health and spirits on the 17th December, 1830. He had previously resigned his presidency of Columbia, and taken leave or the inhabitants of that state in an address, in which he solemnly asserted the purity of his motives throughout his career, and complained bitterly of calumny and ingratitude. Amid the conflicting and obscure accounts of the South American wars of independence, it is difficult to judge correctly on many points as to which the character of Bolivar has been called in question. But his bravery, his energy, and the services which he rendered against the Spaniards are undeniable. Nor should we lightly credit charges of selfish ambition, of cruelty, and perfidy against a man, who unquestionably de- voted his own ample fortune, as well as his time and life, to his country; who more than once voluntarily laid down absolute power; who ab- horred slavery, and set the example of emancipat- ing the numerous slaves on his own estate ; and who entertained the most liberal and enlightened views as a lawgiver, and as an earnest promoter of national education. [E.S.C.] BOLLAND, Sir W., a eel. lawyer, 1773-1840. BOLLANDUS, J., a Flem. savant, 1596-1665. BOLOGNE, J. De, a French sculptor, 17th c. BOLSEC, Jek., a controversial wr., d. 1582. BOLSWERT, S., a Dutch engraver, d. 1586. BOLTIN, Ivan, a Russian hist, critic, 1735-92. BOLTON, Edm., an antiquary, 17th century. BOLTON, Robt., a religious wr., 1571-1631. BOLTON, Robt., dean of Carlisle, d. 1763. BOMBELLI, Raphael, an algebraist, 16th c. BOMBELLI, Seb., a painter, 1635-1685. BOMBERG, Dan., an early printer, d. 1549. BOMILC A R, a general and magis. of Carthage. BOMILCAR, fav. of Jugurtha, killed 107 B.C. BON, L. A., a soldier of the revol., 1770-1799. BONA, Cardinal, an Ital. savant, 1609-1674, BONA, J. De, an Italian physician, 1712-1786. BONAC, Marq. De, a F. statesman, 1672-1738. BONALD, L. G. Amb., Viscount De, a dis- ting. Fr. wr. on religion and politics, 1753-1840. BONAMY, Aug., J. B., a gallant Fr. general, especially distinguished in the campaign of Russia. BONAMY, P. N., a periodical wr.,1694-1770. BONANNI, Ph., a Roman historian, d. 1725. EON BONARELLI, G. U., an Ital. poet, 1553-1G08. BONASONI, G., an Italian painter, 1498-1564. BONASIA, B., an Italian carver, died 1527. BONAVENTURE, J. F., a Rom. eccle., d. 1274. BONAVENTURE of Padua, a cardinal, noted as a friend of Petrarch, assassinated 1386. BONCERF, P. F., a wr. on civil law, 1745-1794. BONCHAMP, A. De, a Vendean chief, k. 1793. BONCIARIO, M. A., an Ital. au., 1555-1616. BOND, J., a physician and classic, 1530-1612. BOND, Oliver, an Irish rebel,1720-1798. BONDT, N., a Dutch historian, 1732-1792. BONE, Hexry, an enameller, 1755-1834. BONEFACIO, Ven., an Ital. painter, d. 1630. BONER, Ulrich, a German fabulist, 13th ct. BONIFACE, one of the greatest captains of the 5th cent., count of the Roman empire, slain 432. BONIFACE, St., a eel. missionary, killed 754. BONIFACE, the first, pope of Rome, 418-422 ; the second, 530-532 ; the third, 606 ; the fourth, <i07-614 ; the fifth, 617-625 ; the sixth, 896 ; the seventh, 974-984; the ninth, 1389-1404. BONJOUR, Wm, a Chinese missionary, d. 1714. BONNATERE, P. J., a Fr. natural., 1747-1804. BONNEFONS, John, a Latin poet, 1554-1614. BONNER, Edm., the notorious bishop, d. 1569. BONNET, Ch., an em. physiologist, 1720-93. BONNEVAL, Cl. Alex., count of, a deserter from Prince Eugene, master of the Turkish ord- nance under the title of Achmet Pacha, died 1747. BONNE VILLE, N., a journalist and poet of the French revolution, the friend of Lafayette and Kosciusko, au. of 'Esprit des Religions,' 1760-1828. BONNIER, A. E., arepub. diplom., 1750-1799. BONNIER D'ARCO, A. S., a Fr. diplo., d. 1797. BONNINGTON, R. P., an Eng. artist, 1801-28. BONNYCASTLE, J., an Eng. math., d. 1821. BONOMI, J. F., legate of Gr. XIII., 1536-1589. BONOMI, Joseph, an Ital. architect, d. 1808. BONNOR, Honore, a Fr. historian, 14th cent. BOOKER, Rev. Luke, LL.D., a Church of Eng. clergyman, and miscellaneous wr., 1762-1835. BOONE, Dan., an American advent., d. 1822. BOONEN, A., a Dutch painter, 1669-1729. BOOS, Martin, a Bavarian divine, 1762-1825. BOOTH, Barton, an actor and an., 1681-1733. BOOTH, Sir F., disting. for his gift of 20,000 to the arctic expedition of Sir John Ross, d. 1850. BOOTH, George, a royalist, created baron Delamere at the restoration, died 1684. BOOTH, Henry, son of the preceding, created earl of Warrington by William III., died 1694. BOR, P. C, a Dutch historian, 1559-1635. BORDA, John Ch., a Fr. mathema., 1733-99. BORDE, J. B. De La, a miscell. wr., ex. 1794. BORDELON, Laur., a misc. wr., 1653-1730. BORDEU, Theop. De, a medical au., d. 1776. BORELLI, J. A., an Ital. philoso., 1608-1679. BORGHESE, the name of a family disting. in Ital. history, one of whom married Maria Pauline Buonaparte, sister of Napoleon, and was made governor of the Transalpine provinces. The Prin- cess Borghese, after sep. from hor husband, d. 1825. BORGHESI, Diomed, an Ital. wr., 1540-98. BORGHINI, V., an Ital. antiquar., 1515-1580. BORGIA, Cjesar, son of Alexander VI., and equally disting. for his wicked ambition, k. 1507. BORGIA, Lucrece, daughter of Alexander VI. BORGIA, Stepil, an It.' cardinal, 1731-1804. BOS BORLASE, W., a county historian, 1690-1772. BORN, Bertr. De, a troubadour, 12th cent. BORN, Baron De, a mineralogist, 1742-1791. BORRI, J. F., a religious adventurer, d. 1682. BORROMEO, Ch., an Ital. cardinal, disting. by his virtues and literary talents, 1538-1584. BORROMEO, F., a bshp. of Milan, 1564-1631. BORRONIMI, Fr., an architect, 1599-1677. BORY, Gabriel De, an astron., 1728-1801. BOS, Lambert, a Greek scholar, 1670-1717. BOSE, Gaspard, a German botanist, last cent. BOSC, L. Aug. Wm., a naturalist, last cent. BOSC, Peter Du, a celeb, preacher, d. 1692. BOSCAWEN, Edw., a naval com., 1711-1761. BOSCAWFN, W., a classic, schol., 1752-1811. BOSCH, Bernard, a Dutch poet, 1746-1830. BOSCH, Jerome, a Latin poet, 1740-1811. BOSCH, L. A. G., a French naturalist, last c. BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, a learned and profound Jesuit ; born at Ragusa in 1711 ; died at Milan in 1787. The writings of Boscovich are numerous and important. His dissertations on ' Vires Vivas,' on ' Light,' and on the ' Solar Spots,' gave their author highest rank amongst the physical philosophers and astronomers of the time. He grasped the great conceptions of New- ton, and did much to hasten the general accep- tance of the theory of gravitation ; but his chief claim on the attention of posterity, rests on the speculations in his 'Theoria Philosophicae Na- turalis' speculations which touch on one side, the afterwards celebrated hypothesis of monads, and seem to point towards a physical scheme of Idealism. According to Boscovich the ultimate elements of matter are atoms, or points indivisible and without extension. Each atom, or point, being surrounded by numerous concentric rings of influence alternately of attraction and repulsion, one atom may exist towards any other in various relations, determined by their distance from each other. For instance, the two atoms may be with- in the sphere of each other's attraction then is the body solid: or the two atoms may be within the sphere of mutual repulsion, then is the body gaseous and elastic; or two atoms may be so- placed that they neither repel nor attract, being on the line of indifference, then is the body liquid. Gravitation, or universal attraction, is, ac- cording to this view, the relation which atoms bear to each other after they have passed beyond the smaller or molecular distances; while the phenomena of physics and chemistry depend upon and arise out of their various and varying relations while they are within these infinitesimal or molecular distances. This singular and probably far from inaccurate conception, destroys the common notion that matter is brute and inert; and represents the phenomena of Nature as the immediate issue of Active Forces ; a view which the progress of mo- dern science unquestionably favours. [J.P.N.] BOSQUILLON,E.F.M.,aGr.schol.,1744-1816. BOSSCHE, P. V. D., a Dut. savant, 1686-1736. BOSSI, C. A., an Italian poet, 1758-1823. BOSSU, Rene Le, a philos. critic, 17th cent. BOSSUET, James Benigne, a celebrated French divine, was born in 1627, at Dijon, the capital of Burgundy, now in the department of Cote D'Or. Having commenced his education at the college of Jesuits in his native place, he re- 94 p. BOS moved in 1G42 to Paris, where being destined for the clerical profession, he prosecuted the requisite studies at the college of Navarre. He was distin- guished by his attainments in classical and patris- tic lore two branches of knowledge which are deemed of indispensable importance in the Roman Catholic church ; but to these he added also an extensive and familiar acquaintance with the Sacred Writings, the perusal of which, in a stray copy which chanced to fall into his possession, made a deep and indelible impression on his juve- nile mind. At the age of sixteen he began by occasional exhibitions, to evince his extraordinary powers of pulpit eloquence ; and having, on his be- coming duly qualibed for the discharge of the sacred functions, been appointed to the church of Metz, first as canon, and successively as arch- deacon and deacon, he there established his reputa- tion as one of the most eminent preachers in France. An invitation to Paris was ere long the result of his high provincial fame ; and having by his preaching before the court won the favour of Louis XIV., he was intrusted with the superin- tendence of the dauphin's education. It was for the benefit of his royal pupil that he composed his abridged view of ' Universal History,' one of the most admired and valuable of his works. On the completion of the prince's studies, he was re- warded for his zeal and fidelity in the discharge of that responsible duty, by promotion to the see of Meaux, and soon after was appointed a counsellor of state, and almoner to the duchess of Burgundy. That elevated position he adorned by the splen- dour of his talents and the extent of his learning ; nor was he less distinguished by his zeal for the diffusion of religion throughout his diocese, and his energetic defences of the catholic church. In fact, his life was divided between the performance of his proper duties as a bishop, and the composition of his controversial works. The strength and sin- cerity of his religious convictions have never been assailed, any more than his eminent talents and learning have been called in question. .But the violence of his temper, and the cavalier treatment he gave to the amiable Fenelon, have exposed him to severe and merited censure. The latter years of his life were passed in retirement. He was a voluminous author. Amongst the numerous works he left behind him, his 'Funeral Orations' are held in high admiration, although it is to be re- gretted that he often prostituted his great powers of oratory in eulogizing unworthy characters. His efforts in the protestant controversy were met by the energetic opposition of Claude and other divines among the French protestants, as well as of Archbishop Wake in the Church of England. This great genius died at Paris on 12th April, 1704, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. [R. J.] BOSSUT, C. A., a learned geom., 1730-1814. BOSTON, John, a monastic writer, loth cent. BOSTON, Thos., a eel. Scotch div., 1676-1732. BOSWELL, James, well known as the friend and biographer of Dr. Johnson, 1740-1795. BOSWELL, Sir Alex., son of the preceding, and a literary amateur, killed in a duel, 1822. BOSWELL, James, a second son, editor of an edition of Malone's Shakspeare, 1779-1822. BOTELLO, Don N. A. De, a Portuguese vice- roy of India, killed in action 1629. BOU BOTH, J. and A., Flemish paint, of the 17th ct. BOTHWELL, Jas. Hepburn, earl of, the third husband of Mary Stuart, d. in exile 1577. BOTT, John De, a Fr. architect, 1670-1745. BOTTARI, an Italian philosopher, 1689-1775. BOTZARIS, Marco, a hero of mod. Gr., k. 1823., BOUCHARDON, E., a Fr. archit., 1698-1762. BOUCHAND, M. A., a Fr. jurist, 1719-1804. BOUCHER, Fr., a French painter, 1704-1770. BOUCHER, Jonathan, an English divine, author of the ' Cumberland Man.' died 1804. BOUCHER, Luke, the murd. of Ferand, 1795. BOUCHER, P., a Jansenist writer, 1691-1768. BOUCHOTTE, J. B. Noel, a soldier and states- man in 1793, min. of war to the repub., 1754-1840. BOUCICAULT, J. Le Maingre, lord of, a French crusader and marshal, 1368-1425. BOUDET, J. P., a Fr. chemist, 1748-1828. BOUFFLERS, Louis Fr., Due De, disting. as the defen. of Lille ag. Prince Eugene, 1644-1711. BOUFFLERS, S., a French emigrant, d. 1815. BOUGAINVILLE, Louis Antoin De, was born at Paris, 11th November, 1729, and though educated for the profession of law, joined the army at an early age. Soon after his enlistment, he published a treatise on the Integral Calculus ; and during a residence in London as secretary of legation, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In the war which terminated in 1760 with the loss of Canada to the French, Bougain- ville gained great distinction. In 1763-64 he per- formed two voyages to the Falkland isles, where he founded a colony, himself being the first pro- jector, and a large proprietor jointly with the merchants of St. Malo. In 1766 this colony was given up to Spain on payment of 500,000 crowns ; and Bougainville was sent out, 15th November, to make the formal transfer, and with instruc- tions thereafter to complete the circumnavigation of the globe. He had but two ships, the Boudeuse, 26 guns, 214 men, and the Etoile, store ship. He safely accomplished the object, visiting many islands in the intertropical Pacific, some of which were till then unknown, but without making any remarkable discovery, and reaching St. Malo on 16th March, 1769. He was accompanied by Prince Sieghen of Nassau, and the naturalise Commercon. Bougainville published a pleasing account of his voyage, which was translated by Forster in 1772. He afterwards commanded one of the ships of war, sent to aid the Americans in their great struggle with Britain. He died at the age of eighty-two, 31st August, 1811. [J.B.] BOUGAINVILLE, Jean Pierre De, elder brother of the above, was a literary man of some note, and held several important offices in Paris. One of his poems is said to contain the germ of Pope's ' Universal Prayer.' He died in 1763, at the early age of forty-one. [J.B.] BOUGEANT, G. H., a Fr. author, 1690-1743. BOUHIER, John, a learned wr., 1673-1746. BOUILLARD, J., a Fr. engraver, 1744-1806. BOUILLE, Francis Claude Amour, Mar- quis De, born 1739, one of the bravest and ablest generals in the interest of the crown at the period of the French revolution ; joined the allies when Louis foolishly allowed himself to be captured at Varennes, and died in London, after writing his curious and valuable memoirs, 1800. 95 BOU BOUILLY, J. N., a diplo. and hist , lfr68-1840. BOULAGE, T. P., a Fr. jurisconsult. 1768-1820. BOULAINVILLIERS, Henky De, comte de St. Saire, a political writer and hist., 1658-1722. BOULANGER, N. A., a Fr. engin., 1722-1759. BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, A. C. J., Comte De, distinguished as a moderate republican, and also as a political writer and orator, was horn 1761, appointed to the civil tribunal at iSanci, 1793, and to the council of 500 in the year 1795. He took an active part in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, and was remarkable for his fidelity to Napoleon, whom he regarded as the representative of national independence, and of the principles of the revolution. He was proscribed by the Bourbons at the second restoration, and passed some years in exile, when he wrote his ' Tableau Politique des regnes de Charles II. et de Jacques II.,' containing his review of the causes which led to the establish- ment of the English republic in 1649. Buonaparte made honourable mention of him at St. Helena, as a fearless and honest man. The last years of his life were passed tranquilly in the midst of his family. [E.R.] BOULLIAU, Ishmael, a French astron. and general scholar, au. of several works, 1605-1694. BOULTER, Hugh, abp. of Armagh, d. 1742. BOULTON, Matthew, an engineer of disting. fame in connec. with his partner Watt, 1728-1809. [Soho Works, near Birmingham.] BOULTON, Rich., an English physician, last c. BOURBON, the reigning family of France, Spain, and Sicily, the princes of which trace their descent from ' Robert the Strong,' killed 866. BOURBON, Charles De Montpensier, Due De, known as constable of France, 1480-1527. BOURBON, Louis, cardinal and abp. of Toledo, distinguished in the revolution of 1812, 1777-1823. BOURBON, Louis, Hy. Jos., Due De, and Srince de Cond, father of the ill-fated due 'Enghein, found hung in his bed-chamber, 1830. BOURBOTTE, N., one of those remarkable characters raised to an unenviable notoriety by the French revolution, whose intrepid bearing might be mistaken for heroism, if its fire were not darkened by savage cruelty and ambition without principle. Little is known of his early life, but he was about twenty-seven years of age when deputed to the na- tional convention, 1792. as a member of the Jacobin party. He now signalized himself by voting '.'or BOU the d^ath of the king 'sans appel et sans snrsis (without appeal and without delay), and afterwan of the unhappy Marie Antoinette. Commissione to La Vendee by the national convention, he gav evident proofs of his military courage and adminis- trative talents, but committed excesses which le to his recall and accusation by the Committee < Public Safety. He had the good fortune to be ac quitted, and was subsequently appointed to tl army of the Rhine, where he again manifested h soldiev-like qualities, tarnished by the same fault; In 1794 he commanded openly in the insurrectio which overthrew the power of Robespierre, and WJ on the high road to the dictatorship when he an his colleagues were crushed by Legendre at tl: head of the sectional forces. Condemned by tl: revolutionary tribunal, he stabbed himself with dagger, but survived to see his fellow-prisonei beheaded, and to undergo the same fate. He n tained his courageous self-possession to the la; moment, and manifested in his dying words tr. unconquerable spirit which animated him. [E.R. BOURCET, P. J. De, a Fr. milit. au., d. 178< BOURCHIER, J., gov. of Calais un. Henry IF BOURCHIER, T., abp. of Canterbury, d. 1481 BOURDALOUE, L., a Fr. preacher, 1032-17^ BOURDELOT, John, a classical com., d. 163* BOURDELOT, P. M., anat. andphys., 1610-8; BOURDELOT, P. B.,au. of Annotations, d.l70< BOURDON, Leonard John Joseph, a mem ber of the French convention in 1792, is chief! memorable for the interest he took in nations education, and for his part in the denunciation an arrest of Robespierre, on which occasion he share the command of the national guard with Barra; He was also charged with the translation of th remains of Marat to the Pantheon, and directe the ceremonies of their entombment. When hi party was defeated by Legendre, Bourdon was de nounced as an assassin, and met the charge b heading a conspiracy which broke out 1st Apri 1795, and led to his imprisonment at Ham. Re stored to liberty by the amnesty of October in th same year, he afterwards appeared in the counc of 500, only to hear the same accusation repeatec this time by Boissy D'Anglas. The charge wa not pressed against him in legal form, and Bour don was subsequently appointed agent for th directory at Hamburgh. Though a violent Jacobin it is by no means clear that he was the sanguinar monster sometimes represented. He died a natura death as master of a primary school in Paris, som years after the re-establishment of authority b; Buonaparte. [E.R. BOURDON, Francis Louis, one of the mos sanguinary members of the convention in 1792 obtained his seat by favour of Leonard Bourdon who had been elected for two departments, am allowed his namesake, though not related to him to usurp one of them. He was notorious for th atrocity of his imprecations in the convention always securing his own safety by attaching him self to the strongest side. He was among th fifty-three deputies condemned to transportatioi on the 19th Fructidor, (5th Sept., 1797), and die; soon after his arrival at Cayenne. [E.R. BOURDON, Sebastian, a Fr. painter, d. 1671 BOURDONNAISE, B. F. M. De La, a Frenel naval officer, gov. of the Isle of France, 1699-1755 9(j fUu^p^ ^^y^- ^L d?e/ c^/(y^/^z/zr^^ fe/uawi 'Lafacc', c y ///-<' BOU BOURGEOIS, D., a Fr. mechanic, 1698-1781. BOURGEOIS, Sir F., a painter, 1756-1811. BOURGET, John, a Fr. antiquary, 1724-1775. BOURGOING, John Fr., Baron De, a French nstorian, ambassador of the republic, 1748-1811. BOURIGNON, F. M., a Fr. antiq., 1755-1796. BOURIGNON, Antonia, born at Lille, 1616, is remarkable for her claims to illumination, and iier singular history, the former supported by a body of followers who were once numerous in France and Scotland. She was unhappy in her parentage and education, her mother having con- served an aversion for her, and treated her with severity, from her earliest years, chiefly, it is sup- posed, on account of her uncomely appearance, but at last, perhaps, in revenge of the perverse tem- per which she had herself excited. As the poor girl advanced in years with no one to love or care for her, she gave her mind to the study of mystic theology, and acquired a morbid conviction or the duty of self-mortification, which she carried to the utmost extreme that her frame was capable of sustaining ; at the same time refusing to confess herself to the priests, and declaring that she was guided by the immediate Spirit of God, vouchsafed in answer to her prayers and sufferings. In 1653, when the death of her parents had placed her in possession of a handsome property, she undertook the care of a female orphan asylum, which led, through a series of the strangest circumstances on record, to her arrest on a charge of witchcraft, of nhich, however, she was acquitted. Wisely avoid- ing anv further entanglement in affairs of this na- ture, she now busied herself in the diffusion of her principles through the press, and it may here be remarked, that she wrote with great facility in the French, Dutch, and German languages. The opposition of the authorities exposed her to con- tinual vexation and insult, so that her fife now, as in childhood, was one of perpetual trial ; and still more aggravated by the fatal gift of a preterna- tural genius which no one knew how to compas- sionate or control. In her case, as in many others of a similar nature, we have to lament a nobly endowed mind sacrificed in a just revolt against a priest-made religion, for want of the guidance which only the Word of God, accepted in sincerity of heart, and consulted with the utmost simplicity of purpose, can afford. Her principal works are a treatise on 'The Blindness of Man, and Light Born in Darkness,' ' The New Heaven,' ' The Re- newal of the Evangelic Spirit,' a 'Treatise on Solid Virtue,' and the 'Truth Discovered.' The 6iibstance of all her writings has been formed into a system by the celebrated Poiret, in his work en- titled 'Economie de la Nature,' contained in 21 vols. 8vo. She died at Franeker, East Fries- land, after passing the last years of her life in min- to the poor. [E.R.] BOB KMON T, Louis Auguste Victor, Count, R I ranch marshal and royalist, minister of war under Charles X., and previously the chief instru- ment in Ney's condemnation, 1773-1846. BOURNE, Vincent, a Latin poet, died 1747. BOURRIEXNE, L. A. Fauvelet De, a French diplomatist, the schoolfellow, and afterwards the secretary of Napoleon, an. of 'Memoirs,' 1769-1824. B< (URSA ULT, Edw., a Fr. dramat,, 1638-1701. BOUTEBWECK, F., a Ger. philo., 1766-1828. BRA BOWDICH, Dr. N., F.R.S., an American philosopher, translator of La Place, &c., d. 1838. BOWDICH, Th. Edw., an English naturalist and traveller in the service of the African Com- pany, 1790-1824. BOWER, Arch., a Scotch hist., 1676-1766. BOWLES, Wm, an Irish naturalist, 1720-1780. BOWLES, Rev. William Lisle, a poet and misc. wr., rect. of Bremhill, in Wiltshire, 1762-1850. BOWYER, Wm., an English printer, 1699-1777. BOXHORN, M. Z., a Latin writer, 1612-1653. BOYCE, Wm., an English composer, 1710-1779. BOYD, H., an English translator, last century. BOYD, Zachary, a Scotch relig. wr., d. 1653. BOYDELL, J., an English artist, 1719-1804. BOYE, J., a Danish philosopher, 1756-1830. BOYER, Abel, a Fr. grammarian, 1664-1729. BOYER, Abel, a pharmacopolist, died 1768. BOYER, Alexis, Baron, a Fr. surg., 1760-1833. BOYER, Claude, a Fr. dramatist, 1618-1698. BOYER, J. B. N., a Fr. wr. on disease, d. 1768. BOYLE, Roc, the first em. name of this family, whose ancient seat was in Hertfordshire, d. 1576. BOYLE, Richard, son of the preceding, known as the great earl of Cork, distinguished as a statesman in the reign of James I., 1566-1643. BOYLE, Roger, son of the preceding, and earl of Orrery, a royalist of the restoration, 1621-1679. BOYLE, Lord Charles, son of Roger, and nephew of the preceding, a fugitive writer and scholar, 1676-1731. BOYLE, Robert, brother of Roger, and son of Richard, earl of Cork, a very distinguished In- quirer of the 17th century ; born at Lismore in Ire- land in 1626, the year of Lord Bacon's death ; died in London in 1691. Boyle was an able and sedulous Investigator of Nature by Experiment ; and he contributed much to many branches of Physics, Optics, Pneumatics, Natural History, Chemistry, and Medicine; Pneumatics probably gaining most from his researches. He was one of the foremost of those illustrious men who founded the Royal Society in 1645, for the purpose of improving experimental knowledge, on the plan laid down by Bacon. Boyle's mind was essentially reverential, and he wrote largely on reli- gious topics. He founded a Lectureship at Oxford, which has produced a number of valuable works on the being and attributes of God. [J.P.N.] BOYLE, John, earl of Cork and Orrery, son of Lord Charles, and, like him, a scholar and author, (Life and Writings of Swift, &c.,) 1707-1762. BOYLE, Richard, earl of Burlington and Cork, an amat archit., and patron of learning, 1695-1753. BOYLSTON, Z., an Amer. phys., 1680-1766. BOYS, Wm., an antiq. and naturalist, d. 1803. BOYSE, Sam., a fugitive wr. and poet, d. 1749. BOYSEAU, a Spanish general, 1659-1740. BRACCIOLINI, Fr., an Ital. poet, 1566-1645. BRACHMANN, Louisa C, a poet, and fugitive wr. of Ger., who unhappily drowned herself, 1822. BRACTON, Hy. De, a writer on law, 13th ct. BRADFORD, J., a martyr of the refor., 1555. BRADLEY, Jam., an Eng. astronomer, d. 1762. BRADLEY, Rich., a wr. on botany, d. 1732. BRADSHAW, J., a republican lawyer, presid. of the court for the trial of Charles I., d. 1659. BRADSTREET, Anne, a poetess of the 17th c. BRADWARDIN, T., abp. of Canterb., d. 134a 97 H BRA BRAHE, P., Comte De, a (listing. Swede, tutor of Christina, and fndr. of many universities, d. 1680. BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer, was born on the 14th December, 1546, at Knudstorp in Scania, and was the eldest son and the second child of a family of five sons and five daughters. Having been adopted by his uncle, George "Brahe, and placed under his care, he commenced the study of Latin in his seventh year; and in opposition to the wishes of his father, who had destined him for the military profession, he prosecuted his scholastic studies for five years under private teachers. About three years after his father's death in 1559, he went to the university of Copenhagen, with the view of preparing himself for the profession of the law by tne study of rhetoric and philosophy. He had spent little more than a year at college when a great eclipse of the sun, on the 21st August, 1560, excited general interest, and made Tycho an astronomer. Surprised at the close agreement be- tween the calculated and observed phenomena, he resolved to study a science which, in addition to its power of predicting future events, was, in general opinion, connected with the destinies of man. While he was indulging this new passion by the study of Stadius's ' Tabula; Bergenses,' he was sent from Copenhagen, in February, 1562, under the charge of a tutor, to study jurisprudence at Leipzig. There he devoted all his leisure hours to the study of astronomy, making calculations, con- structing instruments, and carrying on astronomical observations. In May, 1565, he left Leipzig to take possession of the estate of his uncle, to which he had succeeded ; but in consequence of the op- position made by his parents to his astronomical studies, he quitted Denmark in order to pay a visit to some of the more interesting cities in Germany. From Wittemberg, which he reached in 1566, he went to Rostock, where in a duel with a country- man of his own, he lost his nose ; which he very ingeniously replaced by one of gold and silver. Here he remained till 1569, when he visited Augs- burg, where he made the acquaintance of John and Paul Hainzel, two distinguished citizens and ardent lovers of astronomy. Paul Hainzel con- structed for him, at his own expense, a magnifi- cent quadrant, which exhibited single minutes on its graduated limb, and with which Tycho made many valuable observations during his stay at Augsburg. On his return to Denmark in 1571, Tycho found that his reputation had preceded him. The king invited him to court, and his maternal uncle, Steno Bille, gave him, at the convent of Herritzvold, where he resided, apartments for an observatory and a laboratory. Tycho, most un- fortunately, conceived a passion for alchymy, and indulged in the hope of converting the baser metals into gold. He was roused, however, from this dream by the appearance of the neio star in Cassi- opeia, which continued visible from November, 1572, till its disappearance in March, 1574. After marrying a peasant girl in 1573, and delivering, at the king's request, a course of lectures on astro- nomy, he visited Hesseland, Frankfort, Basle, and Venice, and returned in 1575 to Ratisbon to wit- ness the coronation of the emperor Rudolph. Tycho's reputation in foreign countries had now begun to excite notice in his own. Frederick II. sent messengers to invite him to his capital, and BRA Tycho willingly obeyed the royal summons. Tri king received him with the most flattering after tion, gave him a grant for life of the island ( Huen, and offered to erect at his own expense a the buildings and instruments that were necessar for carrying on his astronomical and chemic; studies. The celebrated observatory of Uraniburj or the city of the heavens, was founded in Augus 1576, and supplied with instruments ; and withi its walls Tycho carried on tbose observations wit which his name is inseparably connected. Upo the death of Frederick II., and the accession < Christian III., the prospects of Tycho were great! changed. Although a temporary glory was throw around himself and his children by a visit from Jamc VI. of Scotland, and other princes, yet his studh were unwillingly tolerated by the Danish court. Tl nobles grudged him his pension and the magnif cent establishment at Uraniburg. The physiciai envied his popularity as a medical practitione and with such influential enemies, Walchendor] the president, had no difficulty in indulging h own personal dislike to Tycho by measures of ir justice and persecution. Resolved to abandon f( ever his ungrateful country, Tycho, with all h; apparatus of instruments and books, his wife, fii sons and four daughters, along with his pupil assistants, and servants, male and female, en barked at Copenhagen to seek the hospitality of better country. After landing at Rostock in 159' he went by invitation to the castle of Wandesber; near Hamburg, the seat of Count Rantzau, whe: his family remained till he was munificent established at Prague, the capital of the emper< Rudolph. This distinguished sovereign gave hi the castle of Benach as a residence, with a pei sion of 3,000 crowns. There he was visited 1600 by Kepler, for whom he obtained the aj- pointment of imperial mathematician to the eir peror, on the condition of assisting Tycho in observations. Tycho did not long enjoy the libej ality of Rudolph. The persecutions and sufferin j to which he had been exposed, had preyed up! his mind, and disturbed its tranquillity. An ex j from his beloved country, and a stranger in foreign land, his studies lost their power over 1 mind, and under the influence probably of a pai ful disease with which he was affected, a tempore delirium overshadowed some of his latest nou From this painful condition, however, he recover* and resigned himself with true piety into the har of his Maker on the 24th October, 1601, in j fifty-fifth year of his age. The instruments Tycho were purchased from his heirs by the e:' peror Rudolpn for 22,000 crowns They were si up in the house of Curtius, and were regai-f with such veneration, that not even Kepler v allowed to examine or make use of them. Tl remained in the same place till the death of emperor in 1619, when they were carried oft', or i stroyed, during the troubles which agitated Bohen The island of Huen was, in Tycho's lifetime si to a Danish nobleman. The buildings were all f molished, excepting the farm-house, which belon to Tycho. His dwelling-house and his observat are marked by two pits and a mound of earth wl enclosed the garden. A very full account of life and labours of Tycho will be found in David Brewster's ' Martyrs of Science.' [D. 88 BEA BRAINERD, Da v., a eel. missionary, 1717-47. BRAMAH, J., a disting. mechanic, 1749-1814. BRAMANTE, Donato, or Bramante Laz- ?:ari, one of the great Italian architects of the Renaissance, was born near Castel Durante, in the iuchy of Urbino, in 1444. He followed in the great path of Brunelleschi, who died almost within a year from the time that Bramante was born. He was originally a painter, and studied the works of Fra 13artolomeo, of Urbino, but first distinguished him- self as an architect at the court of Ludovico il Moro, it Milan. Bramante remained chiefly in Milan until 1499 ; he was employed on the cathedral, and on the repairs of the Basilica of Sant' Ambrogio ; and was much engaged in neighbouring cities. In 1500 he settled in Eome ; here he took advantage of the opportunities afforded by the ancient ruins of perfecting his knowledge of classical art, and qualified himself for the high position as an archi- tect which he eventually attained. His works, however, are more properly termed Italian than classic, as he accommodated the classic features to the wants of modern society. The Cancellaria Apostolica at Eome, built as the private residence or the cardinal Eiario, in 1495, is a fine example, and at the same time is one of the best specimens of the architecture of the Eenaissance. The Vatican, however, was the arena of the greatest glories of Bramante ; here he earned out vast works for Julius II. ; he first joined the Belvedere villa to the old palace of the Vatican, and enlarged and embellished this by the addition of the Court of San Damaso, and the famous Loggie containing the celebrated arabesques of Raphael, with many other improvements. In 1506 he commenced his great work, the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Julius II. laid the first stone on the 18th of April of that year : but Bramante did not live to execute much more than the four great piers which support the dome, which, however, became the key to the whole. Bramante died in 1514; and the great work was carried on by Eaphael, aided by Giuliano da San Gallo, and Fra Giocondo, till 1518, and after Raphael's death, in 1520, Baldassare Peruzzi was appointed architect, and continued the work until 1536. Peruzzi was succeeded by Antonio da San Gallo, the nephew of Giuliano, who con- siderably altered the plan. After the death of Antonio, in 1546, Michelangelo Buonarroti pro- secuted the work and completed the dome. After the death of Michelangelo, in 1564, the work was carried on by Vignola, and Pirro Ligorio, under the condition that they were to adhere to the plan ot Michelangelo. Ligorio was removed by Pius V. fur wishing to infringe this condition. At the death of Vignola, in 1573, Giacomo della Porta assumed the direction, who with Domenico Fon- tana at length completed the cupola, and fixed the cross, during the short pontificate of Gregory XIV., in 1590. After the death of Della Porta in 1604, the work was carried on by Carlo Ma- derno, and Giovanni Fontana; and the greatest and most magnificent of Christian churches was eventually consecrated by pope Urban VIII., in Beschreibung der Stadt Rom.) [R.N.W.] BE AM HALL, John, an em. English prelate, BEI born at Pontefract in 1593. He was prosecuted by Cromwell, but escaped to the continent, where he resided till the restoration, d. at Annagh, 1662. BEANCAS LAUEAGUAIS, a Fr. nobleman, disting. for his scientific discoveries, 1735-1824. BRAND John, a political writer, died 1809. BRAND, John, an antiquarian, 1743-1806. BRANDENBURG, an electorate of the German empire, from 1417 to the time of Frederick Wil- liam, who succeeded as elector 1640, and created the kingdom of Prussia. BRANDEE, G., an antiq. and nat., 1720-87. BRANDT, a Dutch alchymist, died 1692. BRANDT, Ernevold, Count De, a Danish statesman, executed for conspiracy, 1772. BRANDT, Geo., an exp. philosopher, d. 1768. BRANDT, Sbb., a satirical poet, 1454-1524. BRANTOME, Peter De Bourdeilles, lord of, au. of memoirs illus. life in the 16th c, 1527-1614. BRASAVOLA, A. St, an Ital. phy., 1500-1555. BRATHWAYTE, Rich., a poet, 1588-1673. BRAVO, John, a Spanish physician, 16th ct. BRAY, Sir Reg., a fav. statesman of Henry VII., and architect of the famous chapel, d. 1503. BRAY, Dr. Th., a eel. missionary, 1656-1730. BRAY, Wm., F.S.A., a literary antiq., d. 1832. BREDA, John Van, a painter, died 1750. BREDERODE, a Dutch patriot, 1466-1490. BREE, Robt., an English physician, 1759-1839. BREENBERG, Barth., a painter, 1620-1660. BREGUET,A. L.,a Swiss watch-ma., 1747-1823. BREISLAK, S., an Ital. geologist, 1768-1826. BREMER, Sir James John Gordon, disting. for his share in the late war with China, 1786-1850. BREMOND, Fr. De, a Fr. naturalist, 1713-42. BRENNER, E., a Swedish antiquary, 1647-1707. BRENNER, Hy., a Swedish Orientalist, d. 1732. BRENNUS, the name given by Greek and Ro- man authors to two Gaulish chieftains : the first, leader of the memorable assault upon Rome, 388 or 389 B.C. ; the second, chief of the hordes which invaded Thessaly and Greece, 278 B.C. t BRENTON, Capt., E. P., a naval officer, dis- ting. by his prof, inventions and liter, works, d. 1839. BREQUIGNY, L. G., a Fr. histor., 1716-1795. BREREWOOD, Ed., a mathemat., 1565-1613. BRET, Anth., a Fr. poet and critic, 1717-1792. BRETISLAS, duke of Bohemia, died 1055 ; a second of the same name sue. 1093, assass. 1100. BRETON, Nich., a poet, time of Elizabeth. BRETON, Raymond, a missionary, d. 1679. BREUGHEL, Peter, an em. painter, 1510- 1570. John, his son, also a painter, 1568-1642. Peter, another son, 1567-1625. Abraham, a third son, of the same profession, died 1672. BREVAL, J. Durant De, an histor., d. 1739. BREVES, F. S. De, aFr. diplomatist, 1560-1628. BREWER, Ant., a dramatist, time of James L BREYNIUS, Jas., a German botanist, d. 1697. BRIDAINE, Jas., a trav. preacher, 1701-1767. BRIDFERTH, a Brit, monk and math., 10th c BRIDGEWATER, Fr. Egerton, duke of, ceL for his enterprise in canal navigation, 1736-1803. BRIDPORT, A. Hood, a Brit, adm., d. 1814. BRIET, P., a geographical writer, 1601-1668. BRIGGS, H., professor of geometry, 1536-1630. BRIGGS, W., a distinguish, oculist, 1650-1704. BRIGHT, Timothy, an English physician and theologian, author of numerous works, died 1616. 90 BRI BRILL, M., i landscape painter, 1550-1584. BRILL, Paul, a landscape painter, 1556-1626. BRINDLEY, Jamks, the man who first devoted himself to civil engineering as a profession. In Great Britain engineering works were not in- trusted to civilians till about the middle of the 18th century, when capitalists began to embark their wealth in speculations that promised a pecu- niary return only, without regard to their own neighbourhood being the scene of the projected im- provement, or facilities being afforded by it to their peculiar business. The change was the forerunner of increased national means, and by the enlarged field of employment it opened up, gave rise to this new order of professional men, pioneers of civiliza- tion. Brindley was born in 1716, at Thorsett, near Chapel-le-frith in Derbyshire. He followed the usual labours of agriculture until his seven- teenth year, without the advantages of even the most ordinary education. But he was a genius 'Of mother wit, and wise without the schools.' He was apprenticed to a millwright, who left him often to work out what the master himself should have designed and directed. Thus his inventive faculties were brought into exercise, and he fre- quently astonished his employer by the ingenious improvements which he effected, and by the results of his zeal for his master's honour. When his ap- prenticeship ended he engaged in business on his own accQunt. In 1752 he erected machinery for draining coal pits at Clifton, in Lancashire. The water wheel was 30 feet under ground, and the water was supplied from the Irwell, by a tunnel 600 yards long. This was a work of boldness and ingenuity a century ago, though we may smile at it now ! In 1756 he erected a steam engine at New- castle-under-Lyne, which was calculated to effect a great saving in fuel over the ordinary Newcomen engine. About 1757 Brindley was consulted by [Aqueduct over the Irwell.] the duke of Bridgewater as to the practicability of constructing a canal from Worsley to Manchester. Brindley's success in this undertaking was the means of awakening public attention to the ad- vantages of canals. Had a man of inferior genius, or less dauntless courage, undertaken the works, it might probably have turned out a failure, and the development of our inland navigation might have been deferred some years longer. When the canal BRI was completed as far as Barton, where the Irwe' is navigable for large vessels, Brindley propose to carry it over that river by an aqueduct 39 fe< above the surface of the river ! This project w ridiculed by the practical men of the day. On much respected individual of the time would nc discount the duke of Bridgewater's bill for 50( and when the dimensions of the canal aquoduc were communicated to him, he exclaimed: ? have often heard of castles in the air, but nevt was before shown where any of them was to t erected.' The duke raised the money, howevei and in less than one year Brindley complete the aqueduct! Within forty-two years aftc the duke of Bridgewater's canal was opened, ap Jdication had been made to parliament for 165 act or making canals in Great Britain at an expens of 13,000,000. Brindley engineered the grea undertakings which opened an internal water com munication between the Thames, the Humber, th Severn, and the Mersey, and united the great port of London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, by canal which passed through the richest and most indus trial districts of England. Brindley died 1772, a the age of fifty-six, the victim of intense applica tion to an arduous and exciting profession. He wa interred at New Chapel, in Staffordshire. Brindle is reported to have answered a Committee of th House of Commons, when asked for what objec rivers were created: 'To feed navigable canals Railway engineers of the present day conceive the are turning rivers to their primitive destination} for canals are being converted into railways Brindley could neither read nor write until late i life, and then but poorly. He had great powersof men tal calculation, was of unwearying application an industry, and eminently successful. [L.D.B.G. BRINKLEY, Dr. J., an astronom., 1760-1835 BRINVILLIERS, the notor. poisoner, ex. 1676 BRISBANE, Admiral Sir Ch., an officer ( distinguished gallantry in the late war, the com panion in arms of Rodney, Hood, and Nelson, ap pointed governor of St. Vincent, 1808 ; died 1829 BRISSEAU, Pet., a Fr. physician, 1631-171; BRISSON, M. J., a Fr. naturalist, 1723-1806.1 BRISSOT, Peter, a medical au., 1478-1522.1 BRISSOT, Jean Pierre, distinguished in til history of the revolution as leader of the Giii ondins, was an orator and political writer of the fir? ability. The commencement of his public caret as a journalist was characterized by a smgulrj stroke of vanity, whereby the plebeian appellatk of the humble pastry-cook who begot nun, w; metamorphosed into the name of his birth-plac and shone with aristocratic refulgence as 'De Wa ville.' In the obscurity of his early fife he seem to have acquired all the experience of men ai'j things necessary to a political intriguer. Restlesj scheming, and ambitious, he was indefatigable I his zeal for reform, especially for the ameliorathl of the criminal code and the abolition of slaver > It is difficult to say whether his character wj spoiled, or rather made, by the philosophy | Rousseau. Madame Roland, when it became h> fate to meet him, was certainly disappointed I his appearance, for she saw no passion in 1 countenance corresponding to that of his sty and was rather struck by the busy mobility of novice than the dignity of an apostle in his co 100 BUI ?rsation and manners. When the revolution first iwned he was the advocate of a constitutional lonarchy ; growled at by Marat for ' giving his iw to Lafayette,' and again as bitterly denounced, specially by Robespierre, for his imprudence in lazing forth the word ' Republic ' when bis con- ctions were changed. While the states-general ere discussing the constitution, Brissot associ- ;ed himself with Condorcet and Claviere as joint roprietors of the Moniteur, and in 1791 was re- irned to the first parliament. His love of occu- ation, his activity as a senator, as a member of le Jacobin Club, and in the coterie at Madame oland's perhaps also bis extreme shiftiness in rgument soon marked him out as the head of ie middle class republicans, first distinguished by is own name, and called 'Brissotins' by the tirited Camille Desmoulins. His hour of triumph as under the ministry of Roland and Claviere, ith whom he, of course, fell at the period of Ma- it's insurrection, 2d June, 1793, when his name ppeared first of the twenty-two Girondins ordered ader arrest. He endeavoured to escape disguised 5 a merchant travelling to Neufchatel, but was iscovered en route by the Revolutionary Commit- ;e of Moulins, and finally placed with his col- sagues, ' all chief republicans,' ' the eloquent, the oung, the beautiful, the brave,' at the bar of ouquier Tinville. Brissot defended himself with le courage of a patriot and the serenity of a philo- )pher, and though it was not him, but his friend asource who addressed the tribunal in an epigram, I exactly expresses the feeling of the whole party, We die on the day when the people have lost heir reason, ye will die when they recover it!' 'he philosophical repast in prison, and the chorus f the Marseillese at the scaffold on the following lorning, 31st October, have been often described, nd it was at the former that Brissot emphati- ally said, in answer to the question whether he elieved in the immortality of the soul and the irovidence of God ' I do believe in them ; and it } because I believe in them that I am about to lie.' His history is that of his party, a well-in- entioned and talented body of men, but too scru- ulous of forms, too philosophical and studious of heory as legislators, and in a word, hardly auda- ious enough for the exigencies of the period. He eft behind him many works of importance, but specially on criminal jurisprudence. The chief of hese are 'Th^orie des lois Criminelles,' 2 vols. $vo, 1780, and ' Bibliotheque Philosophique du l^gislateur, du Politique, du Jurisconsulte ; sur es lois Criminelles,' 10 vols. 8vo, 1786. As to >ersonal appearance, he was a man of small sta- ;ure, with tnin pale features, lighted up by intel- igence, and ennobled in circumstances of danger >y intrepid determination. His dress and habits lad been formed to the Quaker model during his Residence in America, where he had taken refuge Tom the terrors of a 'lettre de cachet,' before ;he outbreak of the revolution. [E.R.] BRISTOW, R., a Roman Catholic polem., 16th c. BRITANNICUS, son of Claudius, and so named rom his father's succes. in Brit., pois. by Nero, 55. BRITTON, T., an amateur music, 1654-1714. BROCKLESBY, R., a wr. on music, 1722-97. BROGLIE, Victor Francis, DucDe, marshal >f France, and gen. of the emigrants, 1718-1804. 101 BRO BROIGNART, A. Louis, * Ft. ther.m\'d 'Sf&d.^ BROKE, ReAr- Admiral* Sir Philip' Bowes 1 Verb, the gallant com. of the Shannon, 1776-1841. BROME, Alex., a satirical poet, 1620-1666. BROME, Rich., a dramatist, died 1632. BROMFIELD, W., an Eng. med. au., 1712-1792. BROMLEY, John, an Eng. clergyman, 17th c, BRONDSTED, P. O., a Dan. antiq., 1780-1842. BROOCMAN, C. U., a Sw. wr. on educ, d. 1812. BROOKE, Frances M., a novelist, died 1789. BROOKE, H., a novelist and mvstic, whose principal work is ' The Fool of Quality,"' 1706-1783. BROOKE, Sir R., a wr. on civil law, d. 1558. BROOKES, J., an em. anatomist, 1763-1833. BROOKS, J., aphy. and man of let., 1752-1825. BROOME, Dr. W., a classical scholar, d. 1745. BROSCHI, Car., a disting. singer, 1705-1782. BROSSE, Guy De La, a Fr. botanist, 17th ct. BROSSES, Ch. De, a Fr. savant, 1709-1777. BROSSETTE, Claude, a Fr. hist., 1671-1746. BROTHERS, R., a pretended prophet, whose public hist, and publicat. date from 1793 to 1802. BROUGHTON, H., a Heb. schol., 1549-1612. BROUGHTON, T., a fugitive writer, d. 1774. BROUKHUSIUS, J., a Dutch schol., d. 1707. BROUNCKER, Wm., Lord, a philos., d. 1584. BROUSSAIS, F. J. V., a medic, au., 1772-1838. BROUSSONET, P. A. M., a Fr. nat., 1761-1807. BROUWER, Adr., a Dutch painter, 1608-40. BROWALLIUS, J., a writer on bot, 1707-1765. BROWN, C. B., an American novelist, d. 1810. BROWN, J., D.D., an essayist, 1715-1766. BROWN, J., a Scotch artist, 1752-1787. BROWN, J., a biblical expositor, 1772-1787. BROWN, J., M.D., awr. on pathology, 1735-88. BROWN, John, an engraver, died 1801. BROWN, L., a landscape gardener, 1715-1782. BROWN, R.,fn. of the independents, 1560-1630. BROWN, Sir Samuel, Capt., R.N., inventor of iron suspension bridges, 1777-1852. BROWN, Thomas, a recent Scottish meta- physician; successor of Dugald Stewart in the university of Edinburgh. Born near Edinburgh in 1778, he died at an early age in 1820. His tastes were literary ; and he relished philosophical discussion. When only eighteen years of age he published a refutation of Darwin's Zoonomia; the first edition of his Essay on Cause and Effect appeared in 1804, on occasion of a singular but unprofitable and ill-managed controversy that had arisen within the Scottish Church : he afterwards issued a fragment entitled Outlines of the Physi- ology of the Human Mind: but his principal work consists of Lectures, of which multitudes of editions have been sold in Great Britain and America. Brown likewise paid offerings to the Muses : his poems were collected into four volumes, but they are already forgotten. The metaphysical system if so it may be called to which the writings of this philosopher gave currency, is certainly no continuation of what is termed the Scottish School, but rather an effort at revolt, alike against its leaders and doctrines. In the first place, he makes an elaborate attempt to create an impression that the supposed merits of Dr. Reid in refutation of the Ideal Theory, are reducible to his successful demolition of a fallacy held by no important metaphysical writer, (except- ing perhaps Berkeley and Malebranche) a pure ere- BRO .it-; .n.of.IS.-uVs'OYrft foncy. .On this historical point we shall remark at length urukvthe article keid; suffice it to state here, that Brown has completely failed, and show's besides an ignorance of the true merits of the question, quite remarkable in a man of undeniably quick apprehension. The subject of Sensation disposed of, lie next attacks the account given by his predecessor of our mental faculties a word to the use of which he strongly objects ; producing instead of the careful description of phenomena occupying the volumes of Reid and Stewart an artificial classification of specious sim- plicity, but throwing no real light either on the nature of the more important psychological facts, or their relations. Mental phenomena, he conceives, should be divided into external and internal States of the thinking principle, the former being our sensations, the latter the con- tents of the Intelligence. Internal states, he con- siders, are either the reproduction of ideas of absent objects, by means of what he calls simple sugges- tion, or the perception of their relations, through relative suggestion. Adding our Emotions, classed into immediate, retrospective, and prospective, Brown conceives he has described and explained all mental phenomena. It were easy to show that in most of his attempts to simplify, Brown has mistaken and contorted the great facts of psycho- logy; his fatal error, however, is this an error which may be inferred from the mere phraseology of his system, he confounds the will with merely passive desire, from which it had been a prime aim of his predecessors clearly to distinguish it. The will, he says, is simply desire, coupled with the belief that the object of the desire will follow as an effect. That great faculty, the coequal of Sensibility and Intelligence, the source and condi- tion of human liberty and dignity, is thus purely and simply suppressed ; nor was it possible for Brown to evade consequences which ever belong to that suppression; his philosophy is on the edge of those two abysses, scepticism and fatalism. It is in nowise a favourable symptom either of the taste or acuteness of the time, that these Lectures have obtained a currency so wide. If their meta- physics are bad, their style, considered as a philo- sophical one, is certainly the reverse of com- mendable. Diffuse and inaccurate, it is wearisome and misleading. Ambitiously rhetorical, its metaphors and digressions, often pleasing by themselves, distract the attention of the student from the thought. Brown himself seemed to imagine that a philosophy might be improvised: and it is to be feared that his example and writ- ings have done much, to maintain the youth of our time in the delusion, that acquaintance with the Science of Mind may be promoted, and truth dis- cerned, through glib use of the mere forms of philosophical thought. There is no use in such Sopular philosophy. If an aspect of dialectic is emanded of public instructors now, the time will come, when, to obtain acceptance, they must exercise reflection also. [J.P.N .] BROWNE, Anth., an English lawyer, d. 1567. BROWNE, Geo., Count, an officer in the Rus- sian service, 30 yrs. gover. of Livonia, 1698-1792. BROWNE, Isaac Hawkins, a poet, 1706-1776. BROWNE, Pat., M.D a naturalist, 1720-1790. BROWNE, SmoN, acontrov. divine, 1680-1732. BRU BROWNE, Ulysses Maxim., an Irish ex field-marshal in the service of Austria, 1705-17. BROWNE, Sir W., a wr. on optics, 1692-17' BROWNE, Wm., a pastoral poet, 17th centu BROWNE, W. G., a disting. traveller, k. 18 BROWNRIGG, W., an exp. philos., 1714-18' BRU, Moses V., a Spanish painter, 1682-17' BRUCE, Robert, king of Scots, was born the year 1274. It is unusual to call monan by their family name, but Bruce has generally b( made an exception, as he rather gained his kingd by his services than acquired it by hereditary si cession. After the death of Margaret of Norway, 1 daughter of Alexander III., there were seve competitors for the Scottish throne, chiefly amc those adventurous Norman knights who were c laterally connected with the Scottish royal fami Among these was a Robert of Bruce supposed be a corruption of Bruix, his ancestral domain Normandy whose claim was that he was the s of Isabel, second daughter of David earl of Hui ingdon, the brother of King William the Li On hereditary principle, as we now understand there was, however, a preferable claimant in Jc Balliol, who was grandson of the eldest daugh of the earl of Huntingdon, and there were ma other claimants. The advantage which the Ei lish king took of this confusion, and his atten to subjugate Scotland, are well-known chapters British history. Had he been less tyrannical 1 Scots might have submitted to his sway, but brought in high Norman notions of prerogat and feudal exactions, to which the Scots were x accustomed. Exasperated and prepared to themselves, they offered a good opportunity to a daring and ambitious man who could put fort! title to head them as their king. Robert, 1 grandson of that Bruce who had been one of 1 original claimants, after attending the court of E ward, and for some time hesitating, was at leng partly by accident, driven to take up his posil as the kingly leader of the Scots. He had be concocting with Cumyn, who had similar clain a plan for one or other of them starting for 1 crown, and receiving the assistance of the oth who should be largely rewarded with the privj estates of both. Cumyn revealed the project, a Brace, secretly warned, escaped from the Engli court to Scotland. Unconscious that his treacht was known, Cumyn met the fugitive in the Chur of the Franciscans in Dumfries. Hot words passi and Brace in his fury stabbing him, he was c spatched by an attendant. The deed of sacrilegic violence, while it occasioned Brace's excommuuk tion by the pope, drove him in desperation to ra the banner of Scottish nationality. Finding an enei not only in the English invader, but in the Cel Eotentate the lord of Lorn, his cause seemed lo opeless. But oppression increased the number his followers, and at last he gained such substant success, that Edward resolved to go again to Sa land to crash him. He died on the way, and wh his strong hand was removed the Scots rallied larger numbers round the liberator, and put h at the head of a considerable army. Edward I attempting to restore the English power by lea ing into Scotland a vast army of the flower of t English chivalry, only brought them to destructi at the field of* Baunockburn. This conclusi 102 BRU I battle was fought on the 14th of June, 1314. Its history shows that Bruce was a consummate gen- eral according to the tactic of the day. His prin- ciple of warfare was what has always proved the best for a poor nation ; not to ape cavalry, but to trust in highly trained foot soldiers well placed. His frame was injured by the hardships of his early struggles, and he died on 7th June, 1329. [J.H.B.] BRUCE, James, F.R.S., the celebrated explorer of Africa, was born on the 14th of December, 1730, at Kinnaird, an estate and mansion near Larbert, in Stirlingshire, which had been in the possession of the family for about 400 years. In 1590, Sir Alexander Bruce, of Airth, made over the lands of Kinnaird to his second son, Robert, a minister of Edinburgh. This Robert Bruce, who was distinguished in the times of the Reformation, had two grandchildren, Robert and Alexander : the former died of his wounds after the battle of Wor- cester, without issue ; the latter, ill requited for his services in the royal cause, died in 1711, leav- ing two daughters, of whom the eldest, married to David Hay, of Woodcock-dale, Mid-Lothian, was heiress of Kinnaird, and left the property to her eldest son, David, he assuming the name and arms of Bruce. David Hay Bruce was the traveller's father. The Hays of "Woodcock-dale were a branch of one of the oldest families in the three king- doms. There is no foundation for the statement that the family of Bruce is descended from King Robert: that line was itself a branch, and be- came extinct on the death of David II., 1371. All the families who have any records, are de- scended from the youngest of three sons of the fourth Lord Annandale, lineally sprung from Robert de Bruis, who came over from Normandy with William the Conqueror. The name was variously spelt, Brus, Bruis, Bruise, Bruix, and afterwards Brace. The subject of this notice was educated in London, Harrow-on-the-hill, and the university of Edinburgh. Obliged to abandon his studies for the profession of advocate on account of his health, he went to London in 1753, in order to make arrange- ments for settling in India in the way of trade. He here changed his plans, and marrying a Miss Allan, daughter of a rich wine merchant, deceased, he became partner in that business. His amiable wife died within a year, leaving him in the deepest grief. Rallying, however, he set himself vigorously to several studies, which proved of the greatest use afterwards, and had meanwhile the effect of chang- ing the current of his thoughts. In 1757, he went on a lengthened tour to the continent, combining pleasure with business connected with the firm. His father's death the year following, hastened his return. Though he now succeeded to the property, and though his income from it began to improve considerably from the year 1760 owing to the establishment of the Carron iron works no change took place in his designs. He was, in fact, in daily expectation of an appointment from govern- ment. He had made some suggestions about a n the Spanish coast, which brought him under the notice of Mr. Pitt and Lord Halifax; and from the latter, in 17G2, he received the ap- pointment of consul at Algiers, with the under- standing that it was to be temporary, and was to facilitate plans of discovery, which had bi en dis- cussed between Lord Halifax and himself. Promises LRU of assistance in carrying out these were made only to be broken; and on his being superseded, in 176o, he left Algiers, and having visited many parts of North Africa, and Western Asia, he reached Alex- andria on the 20th June, 1768, and entered, at his own cost, upon that long and perilous journey to discover the sources of the Nile, for which he is famous. The head waters reached by him are now known not to have been those of the prin- cipal stream, but of an important branch of the great river, whose sources, though never yet reached^ are ascertained to lie close upon the equator, 800 miles south of the point reached by Bruce. His singular adventures going and return- ing, and during his residence in Abyssinia of two years, are detailed at length in his Travels. He reached Cairo, on his return, on 10th Jan., 1773 ; but remaining in France and Italy for the restor- ation of his health, he did not arrive in London till June 1774, having been absent twelve years. Returning to Scotland, he was actively engaged for some time in improving his property. He married, May 20, 1776, Mary, daughter of Thos. Dundas of Fingask and lady Janet, daughter of Charles, sixth earl Lauderdale, by whom he had two sons and one daughter. Mrs. Bruce died in 1784. It was not till 1790 that his Travels appeared in 5 vols. 4to. They excited universal interest, and were translated into French and German. Many of his most startling statements, which caused his veracity to be seriously called in question, have been since amply confirmed among others, that of the horrid practice of devouring flesh cut quivering from the body of a living cow ! On the evening of April 26 ; 1794, when handing a lady down stairs to her carnage, he fell headlong, and was taken up insensible, but without apparent hurt. He ex- pired next morning in the sixty-fourth year of his age. He was succeeded by his second son, the eldest having died an infant. His daughter mar- ried John Jardine, Esq., advocate, of Edinburgh. His remains were interred in the family vault at Larbert. Mr. Bruce was tall of stature, being six feet four inches in height, his person was large and well-proportioned, and he had a commanding air. He was extremely expert in the use of fire- arms, and of the javelin and lance no small recommendation among the rude tribes with whom he sojourned. [J-B.] BRUCE, John, a moral philosoph., 1744-1826. BRUCE, Michael, one of the minor Scotch poets, was born at Kinnesswood in the county of Kinross, 27th March, 1746, and died of consump- tion in the twenty-first year of his age, 6th July, 1767. His parents were in poor circumstances, his father being a weaver ; but the merit belongs to them of improving the genius which they early discovered in poor Michael by a liberal education, with the view of qualifying him for the ministry. They even sent him to the university of Edinburgh for three or four years from 1762, where he made great progress in his classical and philosophical studies ; but the graces of poetry ana the Belles Lettres were his chosen pursuit, m which the pen- sive melancholy to which men of genius are so frequently subject, and the gifts of his imagination, could be more freely indulged. There is little to record of his innocent uneventful life. In 1765-6 he was teacher of a school at Gairney Bridge, near 103 BRU Kinross, and felt the heart-sickness of a disap- pointed attachment for the daughter of the people with whom he lodged, and who was a pupil of his. Several of his poems have perpetuated the memory of this circumstance, and the best of them is his ' Alexis, a Pastoral,' in which the refinement of the scholar is elegantly blended with the poeti- cal sense of the muse, and the plaintive eloquence of the lover. In 1766 he removed to a school near Alloa, where he composed his ' Lochleven,' a de- scriptive poem in blank verse, in which he has gratefully remembered the virtues of his tried friends Arnot and Henderson. All this time his health was gradually sinking, and the fatigues of the village school, no longer relieved and hallowed to his heart by the evening instruction of his 1 Eumelia,' were more than he could endure. In the winter of this year he abandoned whatever ex- pectation he may have formed in the great busi- ness of life, and returned to his parents, that the loving hearts which had watched him with so much solicitude in the morning of his days might hush him to rest in their early evening. His last words are a celebration of the return of Spring : 1 but not to me returns The vernal joy my better years have known ; Dim in my breast life's dying taper burns, And all the joys of life with health are flown.' The pathos and melody of many passages in this elegy with the 'Alexis' already alluded to, and his tarewell to Lochleven, in imitation of ' Lochaber nae Mair,' fairly represent the natural talent of Bruce for poetry. In personal character he was remarkable for ingenuousness and modesty, and, as a matter of course in a poet, for a feeling heart and a lively imagination. Living a few short years, consumed by hard study and anxiety, his poems are few in number. They were published in a volume, with some others added to make a miscellany, but without any means of distinguish- ing the authors, soon after his death, by his friend and fellow-poet the Rev. John Logan, and at a later period, properly discriminated, in the collection of Dr. Anderson. [E.R.I BRUCE, P. H., a Ger. officer and trav., d. 1757. BRUCKER, John J., a Ger. critic, 1696-1770. BRUCKNER, John, a Luther, min., 1726-1804. BRUEYS, D. A., a Fr. dramatist, 1640-1723. BRUEYS, F. P. De, a Fr. admiral, 1760-1798. BRUGIERE, C. J., a Fr. dramatist, 1670-1754. BRUGMANS, S. J., a eel. physician, 1763-1819. BRUGNATELLI, L., an It. chemist, 1726-1818. BRUGUIER, John, a Fr. protes. divine, d. 1684. BRUGUIERE, A. A., a French author, d. 1823. BRUHL, Hy., Count, Polish minister of state, 1700-1763. Frederick Louis, his son, a dramatic writer, 1739-1793. Hans Moritz, his nephew, an astronomer and political economist, d. 1809. BRUNCK, R. F. P., a disting. critic, 1729-1803. BRUNE, W. M. A., marshal of Fr., 1763-1815. BRUNEAU, Mathurin, a pretender to the crown of Fr. under the title of Louis XVIL, 1818. BRUNEL, Marc Isambard, a civil engineer of great fame, a consummate mechanical genius, a man of rare singleness of mind and kindly disposition. He was born at Hacqueville in Nor- mandy, in 1769 the year that produced so many notabilities. He began an education for the church BRU at the seminary of St. Nicain, at Rouen. His genius had a different bent, however, and he so distinguished himself in mathematics and physical science, that the superior of the establishment re- commended his adopting another profession. He entered the royal navy of France constructed a quadrant for himself made several voyages, and returned home in 1792, during the reign of terror. Being a royalist, he emigrated to the United States, where necessity became the mother of his wonderfully fertile invention. He surveyed for canals, planned sawing mills, erected boring mills for the ordnance, was architect of the first theatre in New York (since burned down); and while in America conceived the blockmaking machi- nery, the success of which should alone give him a conspicuous place in the annals of industrial mechanism. With the block machinery on paper he came to Britain in the year 1800. Lord Spen- cer, then first lord of the admiralty, became his friend and patron. From this time Brunei con- tinued to reside in England, and refused to enter- tain propositions made to him to settle abroad, under the auspices of other governments. After much delay, he was employed to make a set of block machinery for Portsmouth Dockyard. With happy discrimination Brunei selected the late Henry Maudslay as the maker of the machines, and thus was laid the foundation of one of the most extensive and perfect engineering establishments in the king- dom. The machines were made exactly after Brunei's models. They have been for forty-seven years at work, and no change or improvement in any of them has since been made or suggested. This is a type of all Brunei's work. His plans and drawings were kept to himself till so elaborated that they really contained the essence of all that could be done in simplifying the means to accomplish the end in view. His circular saw for cutting veneers, the machine for winding cotton balls, as inven- tions in pure mechanism and the Chatham Dock- yard and the Thames Tunnel, amongst works of civil engineering, may be cited in illustration. The first steam-boat that ran en the Thames, and the first double acting steam engine used for propelling steam vessels, were erected under his instructions in 1816. The history of the Thames Tunnel is too recent and familiar to require that we should repeat it here. Despite its failure, commercially speaking, Brunei continued to look upon it as hi3 j greatest achievement, and devoted the latter years I of his valuable life in completing it. It is undoubt- edly a great and marvellous triumph of skill, and ; only those who know the extraordinary variety of i engineering resources which it called into play, can : sufficiently appreciate the talents of the engineer j who planned them and superintended their execu- tion. Brunei died in 1849, in his eighty-first year. His son carries his father's fame in full vitality to another generation. Brunei was knighted in 1842. He was V.P.R.S., and corresponding member of j the Institute of France. [L.D.B.G.] BRUNELLESCHI, Filippo, one of the earliest and most celebrated Italian architects of the Revival, was born at Florence, in 1377. He was brought i up a goldsmith, but devoted himself equally to sculpture and architecture. He paid, also, early ! attention to perspective, and instructed Masaccio in this science. Brunelleschi joined the compcti- ' 101 BRU tion, in 1401, for the bronze gates of the Baptis- tery of St. John, at Florence ; bnt both he and his celebrated contemporary, Donatello, admitted that they were surpassed by Ghiberti, who gained the commission, though then a mere youth ; the cen- tre gates were not fixed up until half a century after the competition, 1452. Brunelleschi visited Rome, where the Pantheon seems to have made a great impression on him, and to have determined him to undertake his great work, the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, or cathedral of Florence, which had been left unfinished by Arnolfo di Lapo. He returned to Rome in 1417, and made a model of the dome, but without convincing his contem- poraries of the practicability of his scheme, until after the great congress of architects at Florence, in 1420, who then looked upon him as mad. At length, however, in 1423, he was appointed sole architect of the cathedral, Lorenzo Ghiberti being at first joined with him; and though he did not live long enough to see his great work quite completed, it was sufficiently advanced to secure its completion by his successors. This dome is the largest in the world constructed of masonry, it being some feet wider than that of St. Peter's ai Rome. The angular interior diameter is 78 Tuscan ells, nearly 150 English feet. Brunelleschi executed many other great works in Florence, and elsewhere; in Florence, are worthy of mention, the magnificent Pitti Palace, the residence of the Kand dukes of Tuscany, and the church of San >renzo. He died in 1446, and was buried with great pomp in the cathedral. (Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, &c. ; Moreni, Vite del Brunellesco, &c. 1812 ; Fantozzi, Guida di Firenze.) [R.N.W.] BRUNET, Fe. F., a Fr. philos. and theological writer, author of ' Parallele des Religions,' d. 1806. BRUNNER, J. C, a Swiss physiol., 1653-1727. BRUNO, a Roman saint, founder of the order of the Carthusians, lived 1030-1101. [Carthusian Monk ] BRUNO, Giordano, a remarkable Italian In- quirer of the 16th century, whose very daring and original speculations derive fresh interest from hh fate he was burnt as an Atheist by the Inquisition at Rome, on 17th February, 1600. BRU Wearied of shackles inseparable from his first position as a Dominican priest, Bruno fled to Geneva in 1580, where he lived two years. The rigour, the despotism, and intolerance of Calvin, did not, however, suit him ; and finding no ade- quate compensation in the intellectual power, logi- cal acuteness, or vehement courage of that great Reformer, he departed for Lyons, Toulon, and Paris. For some years, indeed, Bruno was a wanderer over Europe ; he lived in London at the close of 1583 ; but led by an unhappy fatality, or through effect of that home-sickness which is part of the moral being of every Italian, he weaned of free and safe lands, and returned to teach in Padua, The Inquisition arrested him, and retained him in prison for two years vainly attempting to re- duce him to recantation. On 9th of February he was degraded, excommunicated, and delivered to the secular magistrate, after the usual dis- gusting formula ' That he be dealt with as mercifully as possible, and punished without effusion of blood.'' Bruno exclaimed, ' Your sentence strikes more teiTor into your own hearts than into mine/ and he died as a brave man ought. It is far from wonderful that Bruno called down ecclesiastical fury on his head. His writings consist for the most part of keen and scarcely- concealed satire on the Romish Church and priest- hood: nor was his philosophy less unacceptable, for, revolting against the despotism of that Aris- totle of the middle ages, he took refuge with Plato and the School of Alexandria. His errors lay not in the direction of Atheism, but in that of Panthe- ism : so far from bringing down the absolute and ever-living Cause towards things or forms finite, he rather inclined to diminish the importance of the created or external universe ; nor is it precisely easy to see, in what way he provided for, or saved human liberty and responsibility in his really de- vout and imposing scheme. We shall characterize his peculiar phase of the doctrine of the ' absolute ' under the article Spinoza. Bruno wrote very largely. His Italian writings were collected and published at Leipzig in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1830. A very interesting account has recently been given of his life and general philosophy by the French writer Bartholmness. [J.P.N. ] BRUNSWICK, Otho, duke of, chief of the ducal house of Brunswick and Lunebura:, 1204-1252. BRUNSWICK, Ernest Aug., duke of, de- scendant of the preceding, created elector of Han- over, father of George I.j 1629-1698. BRUNSWICK, Ferd., diike of, one of the most disting. generals in the seven yrs.' war, 1721-1792. BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURGH, Ch. W. Fred., duke of, neph. of the preced., noted as com. of the forces intended to liberate Louis XVI., killed 1806. BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL, Maxim. Jul. Leop., duke of, br. of the prec, 1751-1785. BRUNSWICK-OELS, Fred. Aug., duke of, eel. as the au. of an essay on great men, 1740-1805. BRUNSWICK-OELS, Fred. Wm., duke of, brother of Queen Caroline, distinguished in the peninsular war, and killed at the head of his troops two days before the battle of Waterloo, 1771-1815. BRUNTON, Mary, a novelist, 1778-1818. BRUSCH, Gasp., a Bohem. savant, 1518-1559. BRUSONIUS, L. D., a classic, compiler, 16th c. BRUTI, J. M., an historical writer, 1515-1594. 103 BRU [Lucius Junius Brutus.] BRUTUS, the surname of a Roman family, several members of winch appear in history. 1. Lucius Junius Brutus, was the son of Marcus Junius, and of Tarquinia, sister of Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud,) the last king of Rome. When still young he lost his father and elder brother by the cruelty of Tarquin ; and he himself escaped a similar fate by feigning idiocy; which perhaps gave origin to the surname Brutus or Dullard. The violence offered by Sextus, the son of Tarquin, to Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, called forth the true character of Brutus. Being a witness along with her husband and father to her injured virtue, he drew from her bosom the knife with which she vindicated her innocence, and bound himself by the most solemn oath to visit the crime of Sextus upon Tarquin and all his accursed race, and to suffer no man thereafter to be king in Rome. The populace were easily ex- cited, and these being readily joined by the army, Tarquin and his family were banished from Rome, B.C. 510. In the following year Brutus and Colla- tinus, the husband of Lucretia, were elected as the first consuls, and headed the army against the at- tempts which were made to restore the banished family. When leading the cavalry against Porsenna, who had espoused the cause of the Tarquins, Brutus engaged in single combat with Aruns, the son of the exiled king, and both fell, pierced by each other's spears. 2. Decimus Junius Brutus, served under Caesar in Gaul ; and, on the breaking out of the civil war, B.C. 49, actively exerted himself in promoting his interests. He afterwards obtained the command of Further Gaul, and performed services so important, that Caesar promised him the government of Cisalpine Gaul, with the prastor- ship for B.C. 44, and the consulship for B.C. 42. Being thus in possession of the entire confidence of Cesar, his co-operation was of great value to the other conspirators; and he was accordingly sent by them to conduct their victim to the senate house on the day of the assassination. The mo- tives which induced Brutus to join the conspi- racy against his friend and benefactor, are not known. After the death of Caesar, B.C. 44, he went to his province of Cisalpine Gaul, from which he was expelled in the following year by Antony, to whom the same province had been assigned by the people. He now resolved to cross over into j BRU Macedonia to Marcus Brutus, but his soldiers de- serted him on the march; and he was betrayed by Camillus, a Gaulish chief, and put to death "by or- der of Antony. 3. Marcus Junius Brutus, son of M. Junius Brutus, by Servilia, sister of Cato of Utica, was born b.c. 85. When the civil war broke out between Caesar and Pompey. b.c. 49, Brutus, contrary to expectation, joined the party of the latter, and fought under his banners at the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. Having thus incurred the displeasure of the predominant party, he solicited and obtained the pardon of the con- queror, who restored him to his confidence, and generously allowed him to spend his time in his favourite literary pursuits. In B.C. 46 he was made governor of Cisalpine Gaul ; and in b.c. 44 obtained the office of city praetor ; thus not only acquiescing in the usurpation of Caesar, but ac- cepting favours and offices from the dictator. The change of mind which at this time took place was effected through the influence of Caius Cassius, by whom he was persuaded to join the assassins on the Ides of March. Failing to enlist the people on the side of the conspirators, he retired to Athens, where receiving a large sum of money, he collected the scattered troops of Pompey, and" pro- ceeded to take possession of Macedonia, the pro- vince which Caasar had assigned to him. After making himself master of Greece and Macedonia, he went to Asia and joined Cassius, whose efforts in raising an army had been equally successful. Brutus and Cassius now returned to Macedonia, and met Augustus and Antony on the plains of Philippi, b.c. 42. In the first engagement the army of Augustus gave way before that of Brutus, while Cassius was defeated by Antony. But in a second battle, fought about twenty days later, Brutus was defeated, and fell upon his own sword. [G.F.] BRUYERE, Jean De La, a native of Nor- mandy, was born in 1644. After having been royal treasurer at Caen, he was appointed, on the recommendation of Bossuet, to give instruction in history to the duke of Burgundy, the grandson of Louis XIV. He remained attached to the court, and died in 1696. In regard to the details of his life very little has been recorded ; but a prudent and unobtrusive reserve seems to have accompanied those habits of keen observation, on which mainly his literary fame was built. His ' Characters,' pub- lished in 1687, but much augmented in following editions, placed him immediately in the highest rank as a master of French style ; and they still entitle him to be named with Rochefoucault and Montaigne, among those writers whom the French regard as most thoroughly acquainted with human nature. The work is unlike the 'Characters' of Theophras- tus, (a translation of which was prefixed to it,) in substituting minutely drawn portraits, full of indivi- duality, for outlines of characteristics common to large classes of men; and from those sketches of a similar kind which had been so frequently pro- duced in England during the first half of the 17th century, it differs not only in the variety and par- ticularity of its scenes and figures, but also in the prominence it gives to general maxims, and to re- flections prompted by them. It abounds, to an extraordinary degree, both in striking thoughts expressed with epigrammatic force and concise- 106 BRY ness, and in fragmentary sketches of men and manners, which suggest to every one parallels en- countered in actual experience. The attempts which were eagerly made (and which are embodied in a key usually attached to the book) to identify the personages described, proved at once the Pari- sian love of scandal, and the general conviction that the writer had drawn faithfully from the life. La Bruyere's view of human nature is severe, but less bitterly so than that of Rochefoucault ; and he excels in a delicate and philosophical irony, which he applies with especial dexterity in half-hinting his real opinions on questions about which he dissented from his contemporaries and countrymen. [W.S.] BRYAN, M., a wr. on art biography, 1757-1821. BRYAN, Sir F., a statesman and poet, 16th ct. BRYANT, Jac, au. of an ' Analysis of Ancient Mvthology,' and other works of research, 1715-1804. BRYDGES, Sir S. Egerton, Bart., an au. of extraord. fertility and range of subjects, 1762-1837. BRYDONE, Dr. P., au. of travels, 1741-1819. BUACHE, Ph., a Fr. geographer, 1700-1775. BUAT-NANCAY, Louis Gabriel, Comte Du. a French diplomatist and historian, 1732-1787. BUCELIN, G., a German historian, 1599-1691. BUCER, Martin, was born in 1491 at Schele- stadt in Alsace. His early life was spent among the Dominicans, who sent him to Heidelberg to pursue his education, and there he had a dispute with Luther on free-will. In 1521 he became a convert to the Reformation. At Strasburg he was both a pastor and teacher of theology for many years. At the diet of Augsburg he incurred such suspicion and danger by opposing the ' Interim,' that he welcomed an invitation from Cranmer to come and reside in England. He taught theology at Cambridge with no little acceptance, and died there in February, 1550. Under the intolerant and fanatical reign of Mary, his ashes were dug up and burnt. His works are numerous, and some ol his commentaries are still held in repute. Car- dinal Contarini said of him, ' That ne was able to contend alone with all the doctors of the Romish church.' [J.E.J BUCHAN, Rt. Hon. Stuart Erskine, earl of, founder of the Antiq. Soc. of Scotland, d. 1829. BUCHAN, Wm., a Scotch physician, au. of the well-known ' Domestic Medicine,' 1729-1805. BUCHAN, Elizabeth, a visionary, 1758-1791. BUCHANAN, Dr. Claudius, was a native of Cambuslang, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, where he was born, 12th March, 1766. His father, who was parish teacher of that place, and a very pious man, brought him, both by his precepts and example, under the early influence of religion ; and the character and pursuits of his future life took their direction, in all probability, from the impres- sions received under the parental roof. The family having removed to Inverary, young Buchanan re- ceived his education at the grammar school of that town, of which his father had become master; and having made great proficiency in his knowledge of Latin and Greek, he obtained, while yet under four- teen, the appointment of tutor to the sons of Mr. Campbell of Dunstaffnage. During the two years that he continued in that office, he exhibited a prudence and practical knowledge above his years; and what is more, he advanced in piety and strict habits of devotion, in which he engaged daily in a BUC lonely spot on the sea shore. Repairing in 1787 to London, he there acquired the friendship of the good John Newton, under whose ministry he sat ; and having, after a ripened intimacy, communi- cated to that venerable counsellor his earnest wish to be employed in preaching the gospel abroad, he was introduced to the notice of an eminent Chris- tian philanthropist, Mr. John Thornton, who de- lighted to spend his fortune in advancing the cause of Christ. That gentleman, having satisfied him- self as to the character and principles of the young Scotchman, resolved to undertake the expense of giving him a university education, and accordingly Buchanan was in 1791 admitted into Queen's Col- lege, Cambridge. After a very distinguished career at the university, Buchanan was in 1795 ordained by Bishop Porteus, and in the March following sailed for India as a chaplain in the East India Com- pany's service. In that character he was destined to render important services to the cause of Christ ; and indeed the name of Claudius Buchanan stands foremost in the history of the propagation of the gospel in India. Amid much opposition he con- tinued his evangelical labours; -and having been appointed by the marquis of Wellesley, Vice-Pro- vost of the College of Fort-William in Bengal, he issued in 1804 the first translation ever made of the gospels in Persian and Hindostanee. In 1806 he published proposals for a subscription to aid in translating the Scriptures in fifteen Oriental languages ; and through his zealous exertions the British and Foreign Bible Society, the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Glasgow, were induced to aid in that important undertaking. To qualify himself by more familiar acquaintance with its dia- lects, he devoted a year to travel through the In- dian continent. On Lord Minto's appointment to the gov.-generalship in 1807, Mr. Buchanan, who considered the course of administration pursued unfavourable to the interests of religion, published his celebrated ' Memoir of the Expediency of an Ecclesiastical Establishment in British India.' Compelled through declining health to abandon the field of his arduous labours, he left India and ar- rived in England in the month of August, 1808, and after having visited his friends in Scotland, he re- turned to England, where he preached, and after- wards published 'The Star in the East,' and ' Christian Researches in Asia,' an interesting and eloquent appeal on behalf of missions. He finally settled as incumbent of the parish of Ouseburn, Yorkshire, where he died of a paralytic shock on 9th February, 1815. [R.J.] BUCHANAN, George, the celebrated Latin poet and historian of Scotland, was born of an old but respectable family in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, February, 1506, and having lost his father when young, was educated by his maternal uncle, James Heriot. He had been at the univer- sity of Paris about two years when the latter also died, and Buchanan was reduced to such indigence that he enlisted as a common soldier in the duke of Albany's army, but at the conclusion of the war he was enabled to resume his studies, and took a master's degree in 1528. Between this period and 1539-41 he was employed under various circum- stances as a classical teacher, and was residing with the earl of Cassihs in Ayrshire, when his unlucky wit, and the Lutheran principles he had 107 BUC imbibed, led to his imprisonment for some satirical verses written against the Franciscans. He was fortunate enough to escape from St. Andrew's castle, and finding his way beyond seas, lived some twenty years in exile, undergoing much persecu- tion, even to confinement in the prisons ot the In- quisition, yet always recovering himself and living by his professional avocations. About the year 1562 he is known to have been residing in Scot- land again, and had the good fortune a few years later to be intrusted with the education of the young prince, (James VI.,) whom he made ' a pedant ' because, as he said, ' he could make no- thing better of him.' Whether at home or abroad, his literary industry never flagged, and few men have received more uniform praise from the learned, who seem to have vied with each other in celebrating the graces of his style, especially in his beautiful paraphrase of the Psalms, composed in the imprisonment of a monastery, and his Scotch history ; at the same time that he is generally blamed as an historian, for writing of things as he was casually informed, and especially for his severe expressions against the unhappy Mary Stuart. The examples of royalty with which he had made acquaintance were hardly calculated to impress him with much reverence for the institution, and his work ' De Jure Regni apud Scotos,' was really a vindication of the democratic control of prin- ces. Sir John Scot, in his short description of Buchanan, quaintly observes : 'He was in so great disgust with the court before he died, that they caused summon him before them sitting in council, for some passages of his history too plain of the king's mother and grandmother; and he had undoubtedly run a great hazard of his life if the Lord had not freed him of the miseries of this world betwixt the citation and the day of com- pearance.' His life was thus curiously saved on the 28th September, 1581, and as he left no pro- perty, he was buried at the expense of the city of Edinburgh. [E.R.] BUCHEZ, Arnold, a Dutch hist., 1565-1641. BUCHOZ, P. J., a naturalist, 1737-1807. BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, minister of Charles I., assassinated 1628. His [Ilousfe at Portsmouth in Which Buckingham wits aasasslnated.J BUL profligate son, of the same name, the unprincipled minister and favourite of Charles II., 1627-1688. BUCKINGHAM AND CHANDOS, Anxk Eliza, duchess of, a lady of distinguished accom- plishments and benevolence, 1779-1836. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, John Sheffield, duke of, author of ' Memoirs of the Revolution of 1688,' in which he took a part, 1649-1720. BUCKINK, Arnold, an engraver, 15th cent. BUCKLER, B., an antiq. and div., 1716-1780. BUCKMINSTER, J. S., a lrnd. div., 1784-1812. BUDDiEUS, John Francis, author of a Ger- man ' Historical Dictionary,' 1667-1729. BUFFON, George Louis Le Cleuc, Comte De, an eminent naturalist, was born at Montbard, in Burgundy, in 1707. He died in 1788. Buft'on was educated at the college of Dijon. When nineteen years old he travelled through Italy, and it is most probably owing to his having inspected in person the effects of the convulsions of nature, and the proofs of ancient revolutions of the globe in that country, that we are indebted for the works which have immortalized his name. In 1739 he was ap- pointed superintendent of the Garden of Plants ; and from that time he devoted his whole life to the study of natural history. He was assiduous in his attention to the duties of his office; and under his excellent management the garden, and museum of natural history attached to it, became the first in Europe. For ten years he devoted him- self to his grand work, his Natural History, the first volume of which appeared in 1749, the remain- ing following at short intervals. The object of this work is to give a general theory of the globe which we inhabit, the disposition, the nature, and origin of the substances which it offers to our view, the grand phenomena which operate at its surface or in its bosom ; the history of man, and the laws which preside at his formation, in his development, dur- ing his life, and at his death ; the nomenclature and the description of quadrupeds and birds, the examination of their faculties, and the delineation of their manners. This work is written with great elegance of style ; and his eloquent descriptions, the brilliancy of imagination which pervades them, and the correct taste he exhibited in arranging his subjects, soon made it the most popular book of the kind ever written. An extraordinary impulse was given by Buffon to the study of natural his- tory in his own country ; and he has the great merit besides of having spread a love for the study of nature far and wide. The solid anatomical por- tion contributed to the history of the quadrupeds by Daubenton, added much to its value amongst scientific men; and many of the best works in natural history, that have been written in France since his death, have been published under the name of Suites a Buffon. [W.B.] BUGEAUD, Marshal, duke of Isly, disting. in the wars of Napoleon, and in Africa, 1784-1849. BULL, John, a disting. composer, 17th cent. BULL, George, a theological au., 1634-1709. BULLANT, Jean, a French architect, 16th c. BULLER, Rt. Honb. Ch., a polit., 1806-1848. BULLIALDUS, Ismael, anastron., 1605-1694. BULLIARD, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1742-1793. BULLINGER, Henry, was born at Bremgar- ten in 1504, studied logic and scholastic philo- sophy at Cologne, was gradually weaned from 108 BUL popery, then became the confidant of Zuinglius at Zurich, and at length was appointed to succeed him by the suffrages of the senate and the ecclesi- astical synod. For more than forty years he pre- sided over the church in Zurich with singular pru- dence and success. He was a bulwark and an apostle of the Reformation, and he displayed great hospitality to the refugees from England under the persecution of Queen Mary. His works fire not very numerous, nor are they of present value. Died September 17, 1575. [J.E.] BULMER, Wm., an Engl, printer, 1746-1830. BULOW, F. W., Count Von Dennewitz, a Prus- sian general in the late war, 1755-1816. BULOW, Henry, Baron Von, a Pruss. diplom., at length minister of foreign affairs, 1790-1846. BUNYAN, John, the celebrated author of the 4 Pilgrim's Progress,' was bom in 1628 at Elstow, in Bedfordshire. His father, though a travelling tinker, had taught him to read and write; but seduced by evil example, he plunged into every species of vice, and acquired the character of a notorious and hardened profligate. He became a 6oldier in the service of the parliament, and was at the siege of Liecester, where having been drawn on one occasion to act as sentinel, he narrowly escaped the fate of his comrade, who was shot by a musket ball from the royalist camp. Many other remarkable deliverances are recorded in his early history, clearly showing that Providence, who threw over him the shield of Divine protection, had some important work in reserve for him. Overhearing the conversation of four pious women, who were talking to each other of the necessity and blessedness of a religious life, and the hopeless misery of the wicked, his conscience was struck ; he began to think seri- ously, and his dissolute companions perceiving a sudden alteration in his conduct, which all their raillery could not affect, gradually abandoned his society. As for Bunyan, he put himself in private communication with Gifford, a dissenting minister in Bedford*, whose chapel he attended, and being persuaded that baptism by immersion was the only Scriptural mode of receiving the ordinance, he was in that manner received, in 1653, into the com- munion of the church. Conceiving himself called to proclaim the gospel, he perambulated the country as an itinerant preacher. After the res- toration, this course of life brought him within the grasp of the law, which prohibited conventicles, and as he could not desist from a duty to which he imagined himself specially called, he was con- demned to perpetual banishment. This severe sentence was not carried into execution ; but he was confined in Bedford jail for the long period of twelve years and a-half. In that place he supported himself and family by tagging laces, and although cut off by his protracted confinement from all oppor- tunity cf public preaching, he was, in the overrul- ing providence of God, more extensively useful than while in the enjoyment of unfettered liberty ; for having during his leisure hours exerted the extra- ordinary talents with which he was endowed, he produced the ' Pilgrim's Progress,' a work which has been more extensively circulated, and done more food in the world than any other book, except the >ible alone. Bunyan being at last released through the kind intercession of Dr. Barlow, bishop BUR of London, he was chosen pastor of the baptist church in Bedford. Wherever he went, he was at- tended by crowded audiences, amongst whom were sometimes found persons of high eminence both in the church and state. He died in London, 1688, in the sixtieth year of his age, and was buried in Bunhill cemetery. His other works, 'The Holy War,' and ' Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sin- ners,' are pieces of great merit, though their fame is eclipsed by his unrivalled allegory. [R.J.] ^^Ijll [Bedford Jail.] BUONAFEDE, Appian, a phil. wr., d. 1792. BUONAPARTE, Chas., father of Napoleon, born towards 1746, distinguished himself in the Corsican war of independence under Paoli, d. 1785. BUONAPARTE, J., an Ital. histor., 16th cent. BUONAPARTE, Joseph, elder brother of Napoleon, born 1768 ; commissary of the army of Italy, 1796 ; deputy to the council of 500, and am- bassador to Rome, 1797 ; king of the two Sicilies, 1806-1808; king of Spain, 1808-1813 ; lieutenant- general of the empire to the abdic. of Napoleon, 1814 ; and again in the hundred days, 1815 ; d. 1844. BUONAPARTE, Laetitia Ramolino, mother of Napoleon, has no place in polit. hist., d. 1840. BUONAPARTE, Louis, third br. of Napoleon, and father of the present emperor of the French, born 1778 ; king of Holland 1806-1810 ; died in a philosophical retirement as count of St. Leu, 1846. BUONAPARTE, Lucien, the next br. after Napoleon, born 1775 ; agent of the war department 1793-1795 ; member of the council of 500 1797 ; president and confederate of Napoleon 1799; prince of Canino 1807 ; died 1840. BUONAPARTE, N., an Italian poet, 15th cent BUONAPARTE, Napoleon. See Napoleon. BUONAPARTE, Nap. Fr. Ch. Joseph, only son of the emperor and Maria Louisa of Austria, saluted king of Rome at his birth, 1811-1832. BUONARROTI. See Michelangelo. BUONO, Bartollomeo, an Italian architect and sculptor, 15th century. An architect of this name flourished also in the 12th century. BUPALUS, a Greek sculptor, 6th century B.C. BURBAGE, Rich., an actor, age of Elizabeth. BURCARD, bishop of Worms, died 1026. BURCH, Edw., an English artist, 1730-1814. BURCHARD, J., a Roman prelate, died 1505. BURCKHARDT, John Ludwig, was born at Lausanne, in Switzerland, in the year 1784, or 109 BUR 17S5. He studied at Basle, Leipzig, nnd Gottin- gen, graduating at the latter, introduced by Blumenbach, in 1806, to Sir Joseph Banks and the African Association, he was engaged to travel under their auspices in central Africa : and having carefully prepared himself by various studies, he received his instructions in January, 1809. These bore that he was to remain two years in Syria, perfecting himself in the Arabic, thence to proceed to Mourzouk, in Fezzan, from which he was to cross the desert to Soudan, and the sources of the Niger. While in Syria, he visited most places of interest. In 1812 he reached Cairo, and being repeatedly disappointed in finding a caravan to convey him to Mourzouk, he performed various journeys in Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, on the shores of the Red Sea, and through Arabia, collecting a great amount of most important information. When, at length, in the autumn of 1817, the long expected caravan was ready to depart, Burckhardt was seized with dysentery, and expired at Cairo, October 15, 1817, in the thirty-third year of his age. His last days were cheered by the kind attentions of Mr. Salt, the English consul; and his death caused lively regret in Europe. His Travels occupy 4 vols. 4to, published at different times between 1819 and 1830. [J.B.] BURCKHARDT, J. C, an astron., 1773-1825. BURDER, Geo., an evangelical minis., d. 1832. BURDETT, Sir Francis, an eminent popu- lar and parliamentary leader, was born on 25th January, 1770. The younger son of a younger son, it was only after a series of unexpected and calamitous deaths that he succeeded to the title and estates of his ancient and affluent family. Before that event he had in 1793 married a daugh- ter of Thomas Coutts, the banker. He began his eventful parliamentary career by advocating an exposure of abuses in the Coldbath Fields, and other prisons. It was from the popularity thus achieved that in 1802 he was started for Middle- sex. After a hot contest of fifteen days he was returned, but the House found the election void, and imprisoned the sheriffs. The contest was still carried on by him in vain at enormous expense. In 1807, when disabled by a wound in a duel, he was started on the memorable contest for West- minster. His friends were successful, and he sat nearly thirty years for that constituency. The main incident in his subsequent career is that in a quarrel with the House of Commons, he attempted to resist the Speaker's warrant for his arrest, and created a disturbance, in which lives were lost. On this occasion the Serjeant at arms found him affected by teaching his child magna charta. It was always suspected that his politics were founded more on love of popularity than conviction, and he proved this by capriciously changing them in 1835, and vehemently adopting the other side. When pro- fessing democracy he was a thorough aristocrat in personal feeling. His appearance was handsome and commanding, and with his dress and deport- ment made him the picture of a high bred English gentleman of the old school. He died on 23d January, 1844. [J.H.B.] BURDON, Wm., a philosophical wr., d. 1818. BURGESS, D., a popular preacher, 1645-1713. BURGESS, Rt. Rev. Thos., bp of Salisbury, dist. for his profit, and literary labours, 1756-1837. BUR BURGH, James, a Scotch moralist, 1714-75. BURGH, John De, earl of Comyn, a soldier of the mid. ages, descended from Charlemagne, d. 1324. BURGKMAIR, Hans, a German painter and wood engraver, was born at Augsburg in 1472. Though a painter of great excellence in his time and style, he is better known for his series of woodcuts, chiefly illustrating the achievements and life of the emperor Maximilian ; as ' Der Weiss Kunig,' (the wise king), an account of the acts of the emperor Maximilian I., with 237 large cuts, published with the life by Treitzsauerwein, at Vienna, in 1775 ; and the triumphal procession of the same emperor in 135 large cuts folio, executed in 1519 ; ' Le Triomphe de l'Empereur Maximilien I.,' accompanied with the ancient description dic- tated by the emperor himself to his secretary Marc Treitzsaurwein, Vienna, 1796. There is a third curious book of the ' Saints ' of the imperial family, also by Burgkmair. The above works, especially the ' Weiss Kunig,' are very valuable for the great variety and accuracy in detail of the illustrations of the manners and customs of the commencement of the sixteenth century. The blocks of these cuts, and many others by Burgk- mair, are still preserved in the imperial library of Vienna. They are only partly executed by Burgk- mair, he was aided by Albrecht Durer, and several other of the principal artists of his time : it is sup- posed that he actually cut very few of the blocks. The date of his death is uncertain, it is fixed by some authorities as late as 1559. [R.N.W.] BURGOYNE, John, a general in the first Amer. war, now remembered as a dramatic au., d. 1792. BURIDAN, John, a philosopher, 14th century. BURIGNY, J. L. De, a Fr. author, 1691-1785. BURKE, Edmund, a celebrated orator, states- man, and philosopher, was born at Dublin on 1st January, 1730. It has been much questioned whether he was from the beginning what is termed a political adventurer without means of liveli- hood to keep him independent, or entered on life w ; th a considerable fortune. His family was said to be high and ancient, but his enemies, who were many and bitter, treated this as a common na- tional boast of all Irishmen, and spoke of Burke as a sort of barbarian, who had come from a wild tribe to fight his way on in civilized life by the fierce unscrupulous habits in which he had been brought up. His early education, however, was derived in the calm seclusion of a Quaker semi- nary at Ballitore in Kildare, where he probably ac- quired much of the solemn reflective character which tempered his natural ardour. He studied, but not with any known distinction, at Trinity College, Dublin, where he took his master's degree in 1751. He was destined for the bar, and en- tered the Middle Temple, but legal studies seem to have had no charm for him. His abilities must have been seen in 1752, for it is known that there was then a proposal to choose him professor of logic in the university of Glasgow, though he does not appear to have been, as David Hume was, an avowed candidate. His first literary work, called ' A Vindication of Natural Society' a close imita- tion of Bolingbroke, was published in 1756. Im- mediately afterwards appeared his well-known essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. Its originality of thought, and luxuriant flow of words and 110 BUR ideas, at once arrested attention; and whatever may be thought of the leading principles, so well ridiculed by Payne Knight, and others, the liter- ary merits of the work entitled it to its high repu- tation. In 1757 he published his account of the settlements in America, and shortly afterwards co-operated with Dodsley in the 'Annual Register.' In 17 Go his ability as a political partizan obtained for him a pension of 300 a-year on the Irish establishment, and the event was rendered remark- able by the indignation with which Burke repelled the claims which the gentleman known 'as single speech Hamilton,' made on his political allegiance, on the plea of having obtained for him this pen- sion. He entered political life, for which he had been industriously training himself, by becoming private secretary to the marquis of Rockingham, when first lord of the treasury in 1765, and at the same time entering parliament as representa- tive of Wendover. At the conclusion of this min- istry, he commenced that long opposition to its successors which became memorable from the tone of philosophical and constitutional wisdom with which he pleaded what, after all, was in reality the restoration of his own party connections to power. On the re-establishment of the Rockingham ad- ministration in 1783, he was made paymaster- general. His subsequent career is entwined with the history of the period. Its main features are his share m the prosecution of Warren Hastings, and that stern denunciation of the revolutionary progress of France, which caused his dramatic quarrel with Fox and his other old political friends. He made a large contribution to the parliamentary oratory of his day, and his speeches were remark- able for their richness of language and abundance of imagery. He died on July 8, 1797. [J.H.B.] a "d; 3o of [Tomb of Burke.] BURLEIGH, William Cecil, Lord, an eminent English statesman, was born in 1520. His father was master of the robes, and thus naturally opened a court career to the capa- cities of the son. He married in 1541 a sister of Sir John Cheke, who soon dying, after she had given birth to the son who became earl of Exeter, united in 1546 to Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, the director of the royal BUR studies. He was appointed master of requests by the Protector Somerset. He was ut first involved with the fall of his master, but not expressing any romantic fidelity to him, speedily rose again, and was made secretary of state. His sagacity and caution prevented him from committing himself to the claims of Lady Jane Grey. Though thus commended to Queen Mary, it was neither consis- tent with his principles nor his caution to aid her efforts for the re-establishment of the power of Rome, and he kept himself apart, offering a modi- fied opposition to the court. He was in the mean- time in close communication with the Princess Elizabeth, helped her to evade the dangers sur- rounding her, and prepared her to occupy the throne. On the day of her accession he took that place as her principal adviser, which he retained while he lived. In 1571 he was raised by the queen, always sparing of her honours, to the rank of baron. The history of his administration is the history of England. He was essentially a states- man of wise management rather than of constitu- tional views. Taking the immediate results of his policy, no statesman was ever more successful, but looking at ultimate effects, it may be said that he did more than any other man to bring England near to a despotism, and thus to lay the foundation of the civil wars of the ensuing century. It was his principle to make himself acquainted with the individual histories of men, and to dive as nearly as possible to the bottom of their character and intentions. Thus among his characteristic studies was genealogy, and he kept up such a potent sys- tem of secret inquiry as Britain never knew before, and has not known since. One of the most un- popular and unjustifiable of his acts was the death of Mary Queen of Scots. He was affected to the extent of a lively apprehension by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and thought it inconsistent with the safety of England and the protestant cause, that the captive queen should continue to live. He was in general, however, moderate and averse to severity. He lived a moral, domestic life, char- acterized by the grave deportment of the age. He was neither malignant nor greedy, and left behind him a high name for integrity. He died on the 4th of August, 1598. [J.H.B.] BURMAN, Peter, a Dutch savant, 1668-1741. BURMAN, John, an em. botanist, 1707-1779. BURN, Richard, LL.D., a literary compiler and historian, author of ' Burn's Justice,' d. 1789. BURNABY, And., au. of ' Travels,' &c, d. 1812. BURNES, Lieut.-Col. Sir Alex., polit. resi- dent at Cabool, afterwards interpreter to the army of Scinde, assass. at the age of thirty-seven, 1841. BURNET, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, an ecclesiastical historian, 1643-1715. BURNET, Thos., an ecclesiastical wr., d. 1715. BURNETT, G. T., F.L.S., a botan., 1800-1835. BURNETT, Jam., Lord Monboddo, the well- known speculative wr. on language, &c, 1714-1779. BURNEY, Charles, Mus. Doc, was born at Shrewsbury in 1726, and partly educated at the free school there, and partly at the public school in Chester. His first music master was Mr. Baker, organist at Chester ; he received further in- structions from James Burney, his elder half-bro- ther, organist at Shrewsbury, and he was three years under the tuition of Dr. Arne, In 1749 he 111 BUR was appointed organist of a church in London, which year he was introduced to Mrs. Gibber, through whom, besides making the personal ac- quaintance of the literary and scientific men, the artists, actors, and wits of the time, he was in- duced to compose for Drury Lane Theatre three musical dramas, 'Alfred,' 'Robin Hood,' and 4 Queen Mab.' After this period, being in ill health, he went to Lynn Regis in Norfolk, where for nine years he occupied himself in collecting materials for his great ' History of Music,' at the same time filling the situation of organist, with a salary of 100 per annum. In 1760, recovered in health, he returned to London, where he soon pro- cured full employment and gained a high reputa- tion in his profession, and where his eldest daugh- ter, then only eight years old, attracted much at- tention as a performer on the harpsichord. In 1766 he brought out at Drury Lane a translation of Rousseau's 'Devin du Village.' In 1769 the college of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor in Music. In the following year he set out on his travels with the object of visiting the great continental libraries, that he might add to the stores of matter he had collected for his 'History of Music' In 1771 he published his 'Musical Tour,' a work of which his friend Dr. Johnson said when he wrote his account of the Hebrides, 'I had that clever dog Dr. Bumey's tour in my eye.' In 1776 the first volume of the ' History of Music ' was published, the second ap- rred in 1782, and the third and fourth in 1789. this year Edmund Burke procured him the situation of organist at Chelsea College. In 1796 he published his life of Metastasio. He also con- tributed the principal articles on music to Rees's Encyclopedia. His other literary works were ' An Essay towards a History of Comets,' 'A Plan of a Public Musical School, ' An Account (written for the Philosophical Transactions) of little Crotch, the Infant Musician,' ' A Memoir of the Musical Festival in Honour of Handel, which was held in Westminster Abbey in 1785.' In the year 1806 Mr. Wyndham procured for him a pension from government of 300, from which period he gave up his intellectual labours. He died on the 15th of April, 1815. Dr. Burney was twice married, and left by his first wife two sons and four daughters, and by his second one daughter. His eldest daugh- ter, already mentioned, was celebrated as a musician. His second daughter, Madame D'Arblay, is known from her novels, ' Cecilia,' ' Evilina,' ' Camilla,' and the ' Wanderer,' which works commenced a new era in light literature. His eldest son, James, sailed round the world with Captain Cook, and afterwards commanded the Bristol, fifty guns, in the East Indies. His second son was the learned Charles Burney, LL.D. Dr. Bur- ney was on terms of intimacy and friendship with all the eminent men of his day. In all the rela- tions of life, his character is described as exem- plary, while his manners were peculiarly easy, spirited, and gentlemanly. [J.M.] BURNEY, Charles, son of the eel. composer, distinguished as a Greek scholar, 1757-1817. BURNEY, Rear-Admiral Jas., elder brother of the preced., a fellow-voy. of Cook, 1759-1821. BURNEY, William, LL.D., author of ' Lives of the Naval Heroes of Great Britain,' &c, 1762-1832. BUR BURNS, John, M.D., an. of a work on the Evi- dences and Principles of Christianity, 1780-1850. BURNS, Robert, the great peasant-poet of Scotland, lived and died within the latter half of the eighteenth century. His father, William Burness, according to the original spelling of the name, was a native of Kincardineshire, whence he migrated. first to Edinburgh, and afterwards to Ayrshire, obtaining employment as he best could as a working gardener. He ultimately took a lease of seven acres of land, about a couple of miles from the town of Ayr, in the district of Kyle, where he built, by the roadside, with his own hands, a clay cottage, which is still standing, an object of in- terest to strangers. To this humble dwelling, con- sisting merely of a but and a ben, he brought in due time, a young bride, named Agnes Brown, daughter of a small farmer in the neighbouring district of Carrick, and the first fruit of this union was Robert, born on the 25th of January, 1759. The position of William Burness at that time, and indeed throughout his whole life, was that of a high-minded and noble-hearted man struggling with adversity. Nevertheless, he contrived to give his children a respectable education, Robert, and his next brother, Gilbert, having been placed under an excellent teacher, named Murdoch. In 1766, when the poet was seven years old, his father removed with his family to Mount Oliphant, a farm a couple of miles distant, but for some time after- wards the boys continued to attend Murdoch's school. If the library at Mount Oliphant was small, it yet comprised several good boolvs, includ- ing the ' Spectator,' Allan Ramsay's ' Poems,* some plays of Shakspeare, and above all, a Col-; lection or English Songs, which Burns acknow- ledges to have studied with critical care. In his j fifteenth year Robert was the principal labourer on the farm, which was far from prosperous ; and to the drudgery and affliction which he endured at this period, his brother Gilbert ascribed that de- pression of spirits, accompanied at times with an irregular motion of the neart, to which he wasi afterwards liable. From the miseries of Mount , Oliphant, the Burns family fled in 1777 to the i farm of Lochlea, in the parish of Tarbolton. In j the midst, however, of every hardship, the young j men continued to advance not only in learning,! but in accomplishments. Robert, with the assist- ance of his old teacher, Murdoch, had so far mas- tered the French language as to be able to read it j with ease. At Kirkoswald he likewise ac-j quired a smattering of mensuration and land sur-j veying; while at Tarbolton he cultivated his: powers of oratory in a debating club. Before this, time he had fallen in love with 'a bonnie, sweet,] sonsie lass,' with whom he had worked at harvest,] and his feelings had vented themselves in verse ofi no very noticeable merit. Not long, however,! after the indifferent song of ' Handsome Nell,' he] froduced the inimitable lyric of ' My Nannie, O.' n the hope, according to his brother Gilbert, of being able to marry, he became a flax-dresser afc Irvine ; but at this occupation he continued only six months, during which time he was initiated into the mysteries of freemasonry, and acquired some additional knowledge of the world, together,; it must be confessed, with some little laxity of morals. His return to Lochlea was a return to a 112 BUR quiet and correct mode of life. About this time a visitor described the Burns family at meal-time as having 'books in one hand and spoons in the other. Inspired by a volume in his posses- sion of letters from the pens of the best English authors, the poet aimed at epistolary excellence, and kept copies of such of his own communications to his friends as pleased him. In 1784, William Burness, ' the priest-like father ' of- the ' Cottar's Saturday Night,' died, leaving his family involved in a ruinous litigation. With what little they could rescue from the wreck at Lochlea, Robert and Gilbert Burns entered upon the farm of Moss- fiel, in the parish of Mauchline. The former, in is new and responsible position, determined to read agricultural books, calculate crops, and attend markets. In place, however, of becoming a good practical farmer, he became only a great poet! It was at Mossgiel that he produced his most masterlv pieces, including ' The Cottar's Saturday Night,' ' Address to the Deil,' ' The Jolly Beg- fars,' 'Halloween,' 'To a Mouse,' 'The Holy 'air,' ' Man was made to Mourn,' and others on which his fame chiefly rests. His powerful satires on the ' Unco Guid,' including the merciless and somewhat profane verses entitled 'Holy Willie's Prayer,' together with some transgressions against the laws of morality, stirred up many enemies, particularly among the ' Old Light ' clergy. On the other hand, his genial, not to say convivial disposition, manly independence of character, and brilliant poetical parts, gained him a host of friends, and his first volume, printed at Kilmar- nock in 1786, was largely subscribed for, and yielded _ him a _ clear profit of 20. With this money it was his intention to proceed to a situa- tion in Jamaica, as book-keeper on the estate of a Dr. Douglas, in order to escape from the conse- quences of an intrigue with Jean Armour, the daughter of a master-mason in Mauchline, who ultimately, however, became his wife. With his attachment to 'bonnie Jean,' was mixed up a romantic affection for a Highland girl, named Mary Campbell, the subject of some of his most beautiful and high-toned effusions. The extraor- dinary favour, however, with which his poems were received by the critical world, induced him to proceed in 1788 to Edinburgh, with the view of getting out a second edition. His reception in the Scottish capital was of the most dazzling kind. In the society of the earl of Glencairn, Lord Monboddo, Mr. Henry Erskine, Dr. Robert- son, Dr. Blair, Dr. Adam Ferguson, Dr. Black- lock, Mr. Henry Mackenzie, Mr. Eraser Tytler, and other celebrities, he was exhibited as a 'lion,' and the force, originality, and brilliancy cf his conversation seem to have produced even a greater impression than his poetiy. Admired and marvelled at by eminent men, Burns exerted a still more wonderful fascination over beautiful women. Among the latter was Mrs. Jas. M'Lehose, a I and deserted wife, about his own age, withwhom he entered into a singularly romantic and imprudent correspondence, under the Arcadian names of Sylvander and Clarinda. His second edition was at length published by Mr. Creech, and realized for the poet a profit of 500, the list of subscribers having extended to thirty-eight pages. This was the culminating point in the BUR career of Burns. Out of the funds of which he was now in possession, he lent his brother Gilbert, who was still struggling with the unfortunate farm of Mossgiel, the sum of 180. With the rest he took various tours through Scotland, a pro- fessed 'rustic bard' and man of genius, writing diaries and letters, scratching impromptu verses on the windows of inns and taverns, and indit- ing passionate love-strains to ladies and damsels of every degree, with whom he had the slightest possible acquaintance. After three months' rap- turous raving to Clarinda, together with sundry other episodical attachments) he formally installed Jean Armour as his wife ; and having leased from Mr. Millar of Dalswinton the farm of Ellisland, on the banks of the Nith, between five and six miles from Dumfries, he once more turned his at- tention to agricultural pursuits; but in reality chiefly occupied himself with railing at fortune, and writing the most exquisite songs in the world. In August, 1789, he entered the excise with a view to eke out his insufficient income. His duties, however, which compelled him to ride some two hundred miles in the course of every week, interfered with the business of his farm, and in 1791 he abandoned the latter, and established Ids head-quarters wholly in Dumfries as an excise- man. The emoluments of his office did not exceed 70 a-year. Although poor, however, and often pinched for money, he was never in absolute want ; and it is remarkable, that although contributing assiduously, first to Johnson's 'Scots Musical Museum,' and afterwards to Mr. Geo. Thomson's ' Melodies of Scotland,' he always seemed to resent any offer of remuneration as an affront. The writ- ten, collected, or altered songs contributed by Burns to these two miscellanies amounted to 284 in number. At Dumfries Burns lived about five years, leading a somewhat irregular life, occasion- ally getting into trouble on account of his caprici- ous temper, or his democratic sentiments, resenting fancied slights by pungent epigrams, but still re- taining many warm friends, and penning lyrics which were destined to five for ever. Broken at length in health, owing, it is said, to his having slept all night on one occasion in the open air, this extraordinary man expired at his house in Dum- fries, on the 21st of July, 1796, in the thirty- eighth year of his age. Immediately after his death all Scotland was touched with remorse at having suffered her greatest son to perish in poverty and neglect. Subscriptions to a large amount were raised for behoof of his widow and family; costly monuments were erected in vari- ous quarters to his memory ; and ever since, his fame has continued to increase. Although fond of representing himself as 'unlettered,' and as bred 'at the plough-tail,' it may be doubted whether there was anything either in the posi- tion, or in the training of Burns, unfavourable to the full development of his genius. His brightest effusions were born of his toils, aspira- tions, and sufferings. In several other respects, the humbleness of his station in life was an ad- vantage. It heightened the surprise occasioned by his writings, and procured for him an amount of substantial patronage which has been too much overlooked. That his career was prematurely cut short must always be a matter of regret to those 113 BUR who remember that ' Tain o' Shanter,' Brace's Address,' and the celebrated parting song of ' Ae Fond Kiss,' were among his later productions; but in his poetry and in his life, which are inseparably associated, he has left a sufficiently splendid im- pression. The moral failings which he himself acknowledged and deplored, are more easily for- given than defended. Even, however, if there is something to condemn in his character, there is much more to admire and honour. His poverty never betrayed him into any mean or sordid action, or lowered the manly integrity and sturdy inde- pendence of his character. In literature his place is among the great ones of the earth. Much of his Erose composition is laboured and inflated ; and is letters to Clarinda, in particular, present a strange and incongruous mixture of friendship and folly, religion and wild passion. But his poetry is replete with fire, humour, and pathos, combined with perfect simplicity and naturalness. One main secret of his success was his almost always writing directly from nature. His Jeans, Marys, and Peggies, were creatures of veritable flesh and blood. tie even seemed to be continually working himself into fits of love, for the mere purpose of finding subjects for his muse; while his intense admiration of natural scenery, in place of venting itself in cold description, was generally associated with some engrossing human emotion. Hence it is that he rarely fails to find his way to the hearts of his readers, and that he has succeeded in be- queathing to his country and the world, the most admirable body of lyrical composition, whether as regards force of expression or tenderness of senti- ment, to be found in the literature of any age or nation. [J.H.] the Banks of Doon.] BURROW, Reubeh, a mathematician, d. 1791. BURROWS, Stephen, an Englishman; ac- companied Chancelor in his voyage to the N.E. in 1553; and sailed again in 1550 in a small vessel to explore the N. coasts of Europe and Asia, He was the first, at a later date, to observe the gradual change in the declination of the mag- BYL secular variation was completely established inf 1625 by Gellibrand, professor of geometry in] Gresham College, London. [J.B.1 BURTON, J., a classic, schol. andtheol., d. 1771. BURTON, Robert, the celebrated author oi the 'Anatomy of Melancholy,' 1576-1640. BURY, Arthur, an English divine, 17th cent BURY, Eliz., a distinguished au., 1664-1720. BUSBY, Dr. Rich., a classical teacher, fifty- five years master of Westminster school, 1606-1695, BUSCHE, H. Vox Der, a Ger. schol., d. 1534. BUSCHING, A. F., a misccl. wr., 1724-1793. BUSHE, Rt. Hon. Sir C. Kendal, an all lawyer and orator, privy councillor in 1822, d. 184:.). BUTE, John Stuart, earl of, minister of state soon after the ace. of Geo. III., 1760-1762, d. 1792. BUTINI, J. A., a physician of Geneva, last ct. BUTLER, Alban., a catholic biog., d. 1773. BUTLER, C a catholic histor., &c, 1750-1832. BUTLER, Joseph, a learned English bishop, author of the eel. 'Analogy of Religion,' 1692-1752! BUTLER, Samuel, author of the exquisite poetical satire, ' Hudibras,' known and quotee wherever the English language is spoken, was born in Worcestershire, 1612, and lived a life ol drudgery and poverty till 1680. His poem was published after the restoration, the first two parts in 1663 and 1664, tho third in 1678, and its popularity from the first was unprecedented. Twc collections of the author's posthumous poems have appeared in 1719 and 1759, respectively, but his reputation rests exclusively on the 'Hudibras, which, for its pungent wit, ludicrous casuistry, and droll humour in the description of life ant character, is unparalleled in the language. BUTLER, Dr. S., a learned prelate, 1774-1840.| BUTTON, Sir Thomas, was employed in 161i| by the merchants of London to prosecute the dis-| coveries of Henry Hudson on the N.E. coast o: i North America. He was .the first who reachecfl j the east coast through Hudson's Strait. With hisJ | two ships, Resolution and Discovery, he passecl j the winter at the mouth of Nelson's River, wesifl side of Hudson's Bay, lat. 57 10', and showee.i J extraordinary sagacity and tact in keeping up th<3 j health and spirits of his crews. In the following summer he made some important discoveries north-j I wards, and returned home in the autumn of 1613B ; but was not again employed. He was first pa| ! tronised by Prince Henry, son of James I., anefl ! received the honour of knighthood as a reward fo.q his services. [J-B. BUXTON, Jedediah, a celebrated calculator! about 1705-1775. BUXTON, Sir Thos. Fowell, Bart., a distin-i guished philanthropist and rei'ormer in the samiij field of labour as Mrs. Frv, (his sister-in-law, ! and Wilberforce, 1786-1845. BUXTORF, John, a eel. Hebraist, 1564-16291 His son, of the same name, also distinguished as ;(| Hebrew and classical scholar, 1599-1630. BUZOT, Francis Leonard Nicholas, :l member of the French convention, and one of thrtl Girondist party proscribed by Robespierre ; b. 1760t| found dead after his escape to Bourdeaux, 1793. ;| BYLOT, Robert, a skilful and enterprisin<| seaman, who made many voyages in various capa- j netic needle ; from his observations, and those of cities with Hudson, Button, Baffin, &c, early n Gunter and Mair. in 1612. the existence of this the 17th century. 114 [J.B. BYN BYNG, the name of two English admirals: eorge, com. in the Spanish war, 1663-1733. John, his son, exec, for alleged cowardice, 1757. BYRAM-KHAN, a Mogul chief, assassin. 1561. BYROM, Dr. J., eel. as a poetical humourist ind fugitive prose writer, 1691-1763. BYRON, John, second son of William, Lord Byron, was horn November 8, 1723. He went )ut with Anson, as midshipman on board the vVager, and was wrecked on the west coast of South America, about lat. 47. An Indian Ca- ique conveyed him and his companions, after hirteen months' dreadful sufferings, to the island )f Chiloe. Thence they made their way north- wards, being treated by the Spaniards with the itmost kindness, though the nations were at war, hiefly in consequence of the fame which had pread abroad regarding Anson's loftily chivalrous 3ehaviour towards some Spanish ladies whom he lad made prisoners. ' Byron's Narrative ' of the sufferings and adventures of himself and his com- Danions, published in 1745, after he returned home, s one of the most interesting accounts of nautical idventures ever given to the world. Being con- stantly employed afterwards, as well in war as n peace, he performed many brilliant services, f which the most worthy of mention is the de- traction of a French squadron in Chaleur Bay. h command of two ships he made a voyage to the South Sea in 1764. In 1769 he was made gover- lor of Newfoundland. In 1778 he commanded a leet in the West Indies, and soon after rose to the ank of Vice-admiral of the White. He is better :nown, however, by the humbler title of com- nodore. He had a family of two sons and even daughters, by Sarah, daughter of John irevanion, Esq. of Cartrays, Cornwall, whom he narried in 1748. Byron died in London, April .0, 1786, enjoying to the last a well-earned eputation. Captain Byron, one of his sons, was ather of the poet, who thus oddly alludes to his tncestor's misfortunes in describing those of one >f his heroes : his sufferings were comparative ro those related in my grand-dad's narrative.' [J.B.I BYRON, George Gordon, Lord, was the de- scendant, and became the head of an ancient and loble family. Commodore Byron, the celebrated voyager, was his grandfather ; and his father, Cap- am Byron, a profligate and extravagant man, narried Miss Gordon, an Aberdeenshire lady of >ld descent. The poet was born in London, on he 22d of January, 1788. Two years afterwards, lis father having fled from his creditors to the :ontinent, where he soon died, Mrs. Byron Gordon sought at Aberdeen a residence suited to her ; canty resources, which seem to have been in no vay aided by the then Lord Byron, her husband's incle, a retired and despondent man. In the :ourse of the eight years spent in Scotland, she, a riolent and misjudging woman, acted as if it had >een her aim to weaken all the good tendencies in ier son's fine nature, and to aggravate all the bad mes. Capricious alternations of severity and in- iulgence cherished his hereditary hastiness of emper, and pampered his proud wilfulness into selfish defiance; a constant change of teachers, ind of methods of teaching, cherished habits of de- iultoriness and inattention in the boy's studies. BYR Byron was already a spoiled child, when, about the commencement of his eleventh year, his grand- uncle's death made him the possessor of the family title and property. His mother, left by the guard- ians to take her own way, now spoiled him more than ever ; while at the same time she subjected him to fruitless and tormenting operations, de- signed to remove the lameness which, caused at his birth, she had taunted him with from child- hood in her fits of anger. Improvement, both in temper and in industry, began on his being placed in an excellent private school at Dulwich ; but the promising prospect was destroyed by his mother's constant interferences; and he remained at this place for no more than two years, and these bro- ken by frequent and long visits to home. He was next removed to Harrow, where, though somewhat rebellious, and a very careless student of the Classics, he was liked as a generous and spirited youth, and went through a good deal of miscel- laneous reading. During his school days at Har- row, and before he had entered his eighteenth year, he formed an attachment which, though doubtless poetized and magnified in his own imagi- nation afterwards, was probably more genuine and ardent than any he felt in mature life. The lady was Miss Chaworth, two years older than himself, the heiress of estates in the neighbourhood of his [Newstead Abbey.] patrimonial mansion of Newstead Abbey in Not- tinghamshire, and the near relative of a gentleman who had been killed in a duel by the preceding- Lord Byron. He has immortalized her marriage and melancholy fate in ' The Dream ' and other poems. Entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, in the autumn of 1805, he resided for two years. His career at the university was eccentric, profuse, and on the whole idle ; but he read zealously when the humour seized him, acquiring a very consider- able amount of stray knowledge ; and a few persons of talent, with whom he had become intimate, were quite aware that he was a young man of no ordi- nary promise. While he was still at the univer- sity, he circulated privately copies of a thin volume of verses, which was prudently reserved for friend- ly readers and soon suppressed. But before the end of 1807., and when in his twentieth year, he was rash enough to face the public with the ' Hours of Idleness,' a collection of poems, from the very best of which no one would have ventured to presage 115 BYR the strength he was soon to exhibit. This strength was brought to a point by the anger which the young poet felt at the famous criticism on his book in the ' Edinburgh Review.' Studying the satiri- cal poets as models, and collecting every available piece of gossip that could point an ill-natured jest. he at length, m 1809, poured forth his wrath, all the warmer for the nursing he had given it, in his poetical satire 'English Bards and Scotch Re- viewers.' Scurrilousfy personal, and indiscriminat- ingly contemptuous of all the literary celebrities of the day, this poem showed powers which evidently wanted only maturity and fit guidance to achieve very great things. In the same year he embarked with Mr. Hobhouse on a two years' journey on the continent, in the course of which he visited the Peninsula, extended his travels to Greece and Turkey, and, with his poetical enthusiasm now fairly awakened, composed in great part the first and second cantos of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrimage.' The publication of these, in the spring of 1812, when he had just completed his twenty- fourth year, made him at once the most popular poet of the time. The few who had already learned to appreciate Wordsworth and Coleridge, found, in the new poet, a freedom both from the affectations of the one and from the obscurities and eccentricity of the other ; while there were united with these a poetic elevation and richness not exceeded by either. The popularity, again, which Scott had won, by the ' Lay,' ' Marmion,' and the ' Lady of the Lake,' was already beginning to suffer from the satiety produced by bad imitations ; and the Scot- tish minstrel's favour with the public waned rapidly, when Byron, deserting the meditative poetry of the 'Pilgrimage,' adopted, like Scott, the seductive form of the metrical romance, and gave it the charm of novelty by choosing Turkish and Grecian stories. In 1813 appeared his wildly striking fragment ' The Giaour,' and the more re- gular ' Bride of Abydos.' ' The Corsair ' and its sequel ' Lara,' followed in 1814, and were accom- panied by the ' Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte.' In the beginning of 1816, the first and most charac- teristic series of Lord Byron's works was closed by the appearance of 'The Siege of Corinth' and ' Parisina.' While he was thus building up his poetical fame, his domestic history underwent several changes, to which he was no way slow in inviting attention. 'Childe Harold,' the sated voluptuary, seeking to refresh his sick heart amidst the magnificence of nature, but contem- plating all things through the medium of a cyni- cal and despondent philosophy, had been avowedly presented as an idealized portrait of the young poet himself, bitterly convinced, by a premature experience, of the hollowness of worldly pleasures, yet unable to discover any higher truths, in the contemplation and realization of which happiness might be attained. Till the publication of the earlier cantos of ' Childe Harold,' Byron's proud and sensitive spirit had been tempted to_ misan- thropical discontent by the equivocal position he held in society, partly through accidental circum- stances, partly through the reputation of his youth- ful irregularities. But the stamp thus imprinted on his earlier poetry was too much in accordance with his natural temperament to be easily effaced. The exaggerated and theatrical exhibition of his BYR own character, in the persons of his heroes, 4 repeated even in those of his tales, which w< written while he was the idol of fashionable socie". and enjoyed the prospect of domestic happines and when misfortune and opprobrium darken round him, the petulant rashness of ill-train youth passed into a permanent mood of morbid a haughty defiance, to which his later poems ga utterance with increasing eagerness and constant With as little power as any great poet ever pc sessed, of observing or delineating the character a passions of other men, Byron was not true to r ture, unless when he drew his materials from withi but his poetry, thus unreal and fantastic in all representations of human life, has the singular cha; which belongs to the self-drawn image of a nati nobly endowed with the poetic elements of grei ness, and vacillating in its moral aspect between t extremes of goodness and of evil. In the autuii of 1814, after having passed some years in tl round of extravagant and unsatisfying dissipati! into which he had been initiated even in boyhoti Lord Byron married the daughter of Sir Ralj Milbanke. The marriage proved unhappy : both parties, through causes which have ne 1 been clearly explained ; pecuniary embarrassmei aggravated dissension; and in the beginning 1816, soon after the birth of a daughter, La Byron quitted her husband's house never to return.j Very soon afterwards Lord Byron left England,] which he never again set foot. His first placei residence was in the neighbourhood of Genei where the sublime scenery of Switzerland, and 1j society of the poet Shelley, co-operated in awak(j ing his mind to an elevation and purity of poe inspiration such as he never reached before or aft! Here were written ' The Prisoner of Chillon,' a the third canto of ' Childe Harold.' The influence! Swiss landscapes lingered fondly in his imaginatij during the next stage of his travels. It gave bi:! to ' Manfred,' which, with all its faults, ethical a! dramatic, is perhaps richer in poetical imag<J and sentiment than any of his other works. the end of 1816 he took up his abode at Veni! where he remained for three years, visiting Ror and there gathering materials for the fourth cai; of ' Childe Harold.' His residence at Venice \{ disgraced by low and gross debauchery; ana there was greater refinement, there was no real i provement of morality, in a more lasting attat ment which he next formed for the Countess Guf cioli, and which is not recommended to our Eit lish feelings or notions, even by the countena I vouchsafed to it by the lady's father and brotb In the beginning of 1820 Byron followed countess and her family to Ravenna ; where, w : them, he became engaged in political plots, wh soon caused his Italian friends to be banished frj the papal states. Pisa then became the abod(! the party. Here Byron received Mr. and Shelley, and afterwards Mr. Leigh Hunt, and w these coadjutors attempted unsuccessfully periodical called 'The Liberal.' His poetical ffl however, flowed freely during his residence Italy. Besides ' Manfred ' and the last cantc ' Childe Harold,' and several works which are uj versally admitted to be poor, he then produ. 'Mazeppa,' 'The Lament of Tasso,' and his H matic Poems, of which, while 'Cain' abounded! 116 CAA the old leaven, the tragedies indicated, morally, though not poetically, an inclination to rise into a higher and purer region. Other inclinations, how- ever, were betrayed by a new class of poems, in winch the strength and versatility of the poet's genius were strikingly displayed. They were modelled on the burlesque poetry of the Italians, which had hardly been emulated in the English language except by Frere. Byron's first attempt in this path was * Beppo ;' "and the ethical looseness of this lively piece became exaggerated into open depravity, while it was accompanied at first by much noble poetry, and always by much stinging wit, in the notorious cantos of ' Don Juan.' That Byron was secretly weary of aimless profligacy, and eager for opportunities' of honourable action, may be inferred from his willingness to take part in the abortive Italian conspiracies. A more promising field was now opened to him, soon after the unfortunate death of his friend Shelley. The London Committee of Philhellenes requested him to take part in the CAB emancipation of Greece ; and he enthusiastically accepted the invitation. He sailed from Genoa in July, 1823, and began his philanthropic exertions in the island of Cephalonia. In January, 1824, he landed at Missolonghi, already labouring under illness, which he had aggravated by bathing in the sea in the course of his last voyage. Disappoint- ments in the great object of his expedition gathered round him, and were bravely borne ; but his health was further injured by anxiety, and by repeated exposure to bad weather in an unhealthy climate. He died at Missolonghi, of rheumatic fever, or its accompanying inflammation of the heart, on the 19th of April, 1824, soon after having celebrated, in affecting verses, the completion of his thirty- sixth year. [W.S.] BYTHNER, Victorinus, an Oriental., d. 16G4. BYWALD, Leop., an Aust. med. wr., 1731-96. BYZANCE, L. De, an Orientalist, 1641-1722. BZOVIUS, or BZOVSKI, Abraham, a Polish scholar and ecclesiastical historian, 1567-1637. C CAAB, or KAAB, Ben Zohair, an Arabian] the second admits that and afterwards as his friend and eulogist, d. 622. CABADES, a king of Persia, 491-532. CABADES, a Sp. theologian, close of last cent. CABALLERO, Don Jose Antonio, Marquis De, a Spanish liberal and adherent of Joseph Buonaparte, bom about 1750 ; condemned to per- petual exile by Ferdinand VII. in 1818 ; and re- called by the constitutionalists of 1820. CABALLERO, R. D., a Sp. hist., 1740-1820. CABANIS, Pierre Jean Georges, a very celebrated physician and philosopher, belonging to a recent school ; much concerned with the events which marked the close of the last and the beginning of the present century in France. He was born in Conac in 1757, and died in Paris in 1808. Cabanis was closely associated with the greatest men of the revolution; it was he who gave Condorcet that fatal dose of stramonium, through whose energy he escaped death by the guillotine; Cabanis attended and ministered to Mirabeau during his last illness, and he was the favourite physician of Napoleon. Considerable interest still attaches to the physiological and psychological speculations of Cabanis : whoever desires fullest acquaintance with the best com- pacted physiological theory of mind, must indeed betake to this author. A thorough disciple of Condillac; starting with it as an axiom that all our ideas are but compositions and transformations of our sensations, (see Condillac and Locke,) he sprang at once to the physiological expression of that theory, viz : that thought or soul is the secretion of vital organs a result or phenomenon of vital structure. ' If,' says he, ' Condillac had known the animal economy better, he would have seen that soul is a faculty, not an existence.'' Among the physiological schools prevailing during the times in which he lived, the position of Cabanis is apparently as follows. There are three of these schools ; the first discerns in the animal economy nothing save peculiar physical phenomena, evolved by the same laws which rule inorganic sequences ; independently of physical let of special actions, or consists of vital properties; the third, to which Cabanis belonged, and which he represents, con- cedes that with material elements, some peculiar vital principle has been conjoined. Although this principle did not in the mind of Cabanis have any relation with intelligence or reason, nevertheless the concession far from insignificant in France at the time seems gradually to have opened his mind to those more advanced views expressed in his famous letter to M. Fanriel, in which he de- clares at least for the possibility of the existence of the moral system governed by this principle, after the dissolution of the organism. The student will find enough to repay perusal in the works of Cabanis. His style is literary, distinct, and strong ; and he has thrown much light on the really phy- siological and physical phenomena of our human nature. A good edition of his collected works has recently appeared in Paris. [J.P.N.] CABARRUS, Francis, Count De, Sp. minis- ter of finance under Joseph Buonaparte, 1752-1810. CABESTAN, or CABESTAING, William De, a Provencal poet, said to have been k., and his heart served up to his mistress, by her husband, 13th c CABEZA DE VACCA, a Sp. naviga., 16th c. CABOT, Sebastian, was born at Bristol, about the year 1477, but the precise date is uncertain. His father, John Cabot, or Gabotta, was a Ven- etian, who, in the pursuits of trade which occupied him, had occasion to reside at intervals in England. He seems to have been a man of superior intelli- gence and information, interested in the progress of discovery by sea, and possessed of considerable wealth. He returned to his native country when Sebastian was four years old, but came again to England while his son was still young, and hence the belief long prevailed that Sebastian was a native of Venice. Having already, at the age of eighteen or nineteen, acquired the knowledge necessary for a coimander, imbued with his father's tastes, and fired by that spirit of enter- prise which the discoveries of Columbus were 117 CAB everywhere exciting, Sebastian projected an ex- pedition across the N. Atlantic, ostensibly, it is said, with the important practical object of dis- covering a N.W. passage to Cathay, the 'Land of Spice.' Henry VII. gave his countenance to the scheme; ana under government auspices an expedition was fitted out, and intrusted by patent, dated 5th March, 1496, to John Cabot, and his three sons, Louis, Sebastian, and Saucius. They were authorized to occupy and possess all lands in the name of the king, who reserved a fifth of the profits ; but the right of traffic was to bedong to the patentees exclusively. In May, 1497, the expedition sailed from Bristol under command of Sebastian, his father and brothers most probably accompanying him. On the 24th June he reached the coast of Labrador, about lat. 56, and was thus the first to discover the conti- nental land of the Western world Columbus, in his third voyage, not having entered the Orinoco till August, 1498. Nothing else is known of this voyage; but it appears that he returned almost immediately to England, and made two other voyages in 1498 and 1499, the latter being to the Gulf of Mexico, but no records of them have been preserved. About this time, John Cabot seems to have died, Louis and Saucius to have settled in Italy; of Sebastian all trace is lost till 1512, when he arrived in Spain, having been sent for by King Ferdinand, who had formed a higher estimate of his genius and merits than had been entertained in his own country. He enjoyed honour and a handsome emolument till the death of Ferdinand in 1516. The enemies of Columbus then became his, and he was obliged by the annoyances which he suffered to return to England. In 1517 Henry VIII. sent him, with Sir Thomas Perte, on a voy- age to the N.W., during which he reached lat. 67;,, and entered Hudson's Bay but no details are known respecting his discoveries. After this voyage he visited Spain, and was reinstated in honour and income by the emperor Charles V. Having visited the banks of the great river, first named by him the La Plata, in command of an expedition intended for the Moluccas, and per- formed several other voyages, he came again to England in 1548 ; and soon after was granted a pension of 250 merks, (166 13s. 4d.) by Edward VI., and appointed grand pilot of England. By his advice, the expedition of Willoughby and Chancelor was sent out in 1553 ; which, though failing in its primary object, the discovery of a N.E. passage to Cathay, had a far more impor- tant result in the establishment of trade with Russia. Cabot was afterwards made governor of a company of merchant traders to that country. So sanguine were the promoters of this expedition, that they had the ships sheathed with lead to frotect them from the worms in the water of the ndian Ocean a contrivance long practised by the Spaniards, but now for the first time used in England, and therefore most likely suggested by Cabot. He appears also to have been the first who gave steady attention to the variation of the compass. The pension which Cabot enjoyed was continued till 1557, four years after the king's death ; it was renewed to him by Mary, jointly with one William Worthington, of whom very little is known. All his maps and documents CAD were given to this person, who either destroye them, or handed them over to Mary's htubaaj Philip of Spain ; no trace of them has ever bee found. Cabot was now in his eightieth year ; h seems to have died soon after, though nothing i certainly known either of the time or place of hi death. Of high genius and acquirements, steadil pursuing through a long life one great objecl infusing into the marine of England a spirit c enterprise which has animated it ever since, an opening up new sources of trade which gave a impulse to her commerce, Cabot must be re garded by us as one of the most illustrious c navigators. The confusion and misrepresentation which long prevailed regarding him were full cleared up by the author of a 'Memoir of the Lif of Sebastian Cabot, Illustrated by Document from the Rolls,' London, 1831, who has placed th events of his life in their true light. [J.B. CABRAL, F., a Portuguese missionary, authc of ' Letters from Japan and China,' 1528-1609. CABRAL, Pedro Alvakez De, was sent ou by the king of Portugal soon after the return c Vasco de Gama, in command of a fleet of thirtee: ships, with 1,200 fighting men, and a number c Franciscan monks as missionaries, with the objec of making settlements in the East Indies. H was the first who had the boldness to adopt th route now generally followed in order to reach th Cape without incurring the delays and dangers ( the coast voyage. His plan was to sail S.W. ti he should gain the latitude of the Cape, and thn cross the Atlantic twice. Following this rout from the Cape Verde islands, he came in sight < the coast of Brazil, about lat. 10 S., on 3d Ma? 1500. Coasting S. as far as lat. 17, he too possession in name of his sovereign, and the cm then erected at Porto Seguro is still preserved. I ship was sent home with the news ; and althoug Yanez Pinzon had visited this coast on the par of Spain three months earlier, the claim them derived was waived, and the sovereignty of Braz secured to Portugal. In crossing to the. Cap Cabral lost f <mr ships in a dreadful storm whic lasted twenty days. With the rest he reache India, made some settlements, and returned i July, 1501, with rich cargoes. Yet he was coot received by his master, ou account of the grei loss of life which had been sustained, though with out any fault on the part of Cabral, who wa undoubtedly a navigator of high ability. [J.BJ CACCIA, Fekd., an Ital. savant, 1689-1778. CACCIA,GuGLiELMO,anItal.paint.,1568-162j CACCINI, Guilio, a comp. of music, d. 161? CACCINI, Fkanoesca, daughter of the prececj ing, a poetess and musician of the 17th century. I CADALOUS, P., bishop of Parma, electtj anti-pope, under the title of Honorius II., 1061. CADA MOSTO, Aloisio De, a Veneris; gentleman sent out by Don Henry of Portugal, I 1444, with Vicento de Lagos, and again in 144 j to examine the coast region of W. Africa. Ej afterwards published a very interesting account I Madeira, the Canaries, and the districts which 1: visited on the mainland as far as the Gulf I Guinea, by which he gained some celebrity. [J.B< CADAMOSTO, M. A., an Ital. astron., 16th CADE, John, the notorious rebel of the reif, of Henry VL, assumed the name of Mortimer, ail 118 CAD appeared at the head of 20,000 men, levied in Kent, in the beginning of June, 1450 ; entered London on the loth July, and after several reverses, be- came a fugitive, and was slain at Holkfield, in Sussex, bv a gentleman named Alexander Iden. CADER-BILLAH, caliph of Bagdad, 991-1032. CADET, J. M., a Corsican geologist, last cent. CADET DE VAUX, Anthony Alexis, a French savant, known as a writer on agricultural economy, &c, 1743-1828. CADET DE GASSICOURT, Charles Louis, brother of the preceding, disting. as a chemist, &c, 1731-1799. His son of the same name, author of a 'Diction, of Chemistry," Travels,' &c, 1769-1821. CADMUS, the reputed founder of Thebes, and inventor of the earliest Greek alphabet, supposed to have flourished in the 16th century B.C. CADMUS, a Greek historian, 6th century B.C. CADOCUS, a Brit, or Welch ecclesiast., d. 550. CADOG, a Welch bard of the 6th century. CADOGAN, William, first earl of, distin- guished as the companion in arms of the duke of Marlborough, 1680-1726. CADOGAN, Wm., M.D., a medical au., d. 1797. CADOUDAL, George, one of the chiefs in the insurrections of La Vendee, executed for a con- spiracy to assassinate the first consul, 1769-1804. CADWALADYR, Casail, a Wei. poet, 16th c. CADWALLADER, Thos., a med. au., d. 1786. CZECILIUS, Statius, a comic poet, 2d c. b.c. CELIUS AURELIANUS, a Gr. phys., 2d ct. CiESALPINUS, Andre, a celebrated botanist, was born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. He died at Rome in 1603. Destined for the medical pro- fession, he was educated under Luke Ghines, at the time director of the public gardens at Pisa. It was this undoubtedly which gave him such a love for that branch of study by which his name is most favourably known to posterity. After teaching medicine and botany at Pisa, he was invited to Rome, was made physician to pope Clement VIII. , and elected professor of medicine at the college of Sapienza. His medical and philosophical works, of which he wrote a considerable number, are seldom now looked into ; and were it not for his book ' On Plants,' the name of Csesalpinus would probably ere this have been forgotten. Previous to his time natu- ralists had studied plants more as classics and physicians than as botanists. Cgesalpinus was the iirst who studied them according to nature ; and the publication of his system, though very imper- fect, forms a decided era in the study ot botany. His method was founded upon the parts of fructifi- cation and the germination of the plant ; and his observations upon these two subjects have laid the foundation for the natural arrangement of plants formed on the differences of the cotyledon, and the more artificial divisions of Linnaeus drawn from their sexual distinctions. Ray, Tournefort, and Linnaeus, unite in giving him great credit for his botanical knowledge, and are not above acknowledging the assistance they derived from him in their systems of botany. In his work ' De Plantis,' Cassalpinus, amongst other things, shows that he had a toler- ably good idea of the circulation of the blood. In- deed a knowledge far beyond the age in which he lived, is the grand characteristic of Caesal- pinus. [W.B.] CESAR, Aquil. J., a Gr. savant, 1720-1792. CJES [Julius Caesar From an Ancient Statue.'} CiESAR, Caius Julius, the dictator, was born on the 12th of July, B.C. 100. Connected by birth with Marius, and afterwards by marriage with Cin- na, he was naturally placed in opposition to the dictator Sulla ; and the injuries and. insults which he received from the dominant party led, perhaps, to that settled purpose of breaking the power of the aristocratical party, which he cherished from his first appearance in public life. At an early age he distinguished himself both in the camp and in the forum ; and had he devoted his great mind to the study of eloquence, he would, doubtless, have been a formidable rival of his great contemporary, Cicero. At the age of twenty-three, (b.c. 77,) he made his first appearance in the forum as a public accuser ; and though forced for some time by his youth to act a subordinate part, he steadily kept in view the grand object which he had proposed to himself, and used every means to increase his popularity. He served as quaestor in Spain, B.C. 68, was elected aedile for b.c. 65, and in the fol- lowing year was made pontifex maximus at the age of thirty-six. When praator-elect in B.C. 63, during the famous Catilinarian conspiracy, his avowed hostility to the aristocracy excited a sus- picion that he was himself privy to it, but no proof was adduced even by his enemies. In the fol- lowing year he obtained the province of Further Spain, and there first displayed that genius for war which has entitled him to be ranked among the greatest generals of the world. Returning to Rome in B.C. 60, he found Pompey ready to desert the aristocracy; and having succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between him and Crassus, he formed 119 CS with them the coalition which is known in history as the First Triumvirate. By the influence of his new friends he was elected to the consulship for B.C. 59, and, while in office, obtained the provinces of Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, and Iilysicum, with six legions, for five years. Having thus ob- tained the command of an army, and the manage- ment of an important war. he proceeded to prepare himself for the struggle which he foresaw was im- pending at Rome. His field of operation afforded him peculiar advantages ; the Gauls were the here- ditary enemies of the Romans, and the glory of subduing them could not fail to increase his popu- larity; while the opportunity of passing the winter in the north of Italy enabled him to watch the proceedings of parties in the capitol. During the next nine years he was occupied in the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul ; having also twice (b.c. 55 and 54) landed in Britain, and received the sub- mission of the inhabitants of the southern portion of the island. The interval of Cassar's absence from Rome had produced a great change in the state of parties. Pompey, jealous of the fame of a man to whose elevation he had mainly contri- buted, had effected a reconciliation with the aris- tocratical party; and, aided by their support, resolved to crush the conqueror of Gaul. Accord- ingly in b.c. 49, a decree of the senate was passed, 4 that Ca?sar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so, he should be re- garded as an enemy of the state,' the predominant party relying on the influence of Pompey, to whom the management of the contest had been intrusted. But the feelings of the army were entirely with Caesar; and he, finding that his men were ready to follow him, crossed the Rubicon, which sepa- rated his province from Italy, and thus commenced the civil war, the issue of which invested him with dictatorial power. In three months he made him- self master of the whole of Italy. Proceeding next to Spain, the stronghold of Pompey, he reduced it to subjection ; and, after passing a short time in Italy, followed his opponent into Greece, and brought the contest to a final issue on the plains of Pharsalia, 4th Aug., B.C. 48. The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of the Roman empire : Pompey fled to Egypt, but was murdered as he landed on the coast; and Caesar, who followed him, speedily quashed all opposition in the eastern portion of the empire. After a short residence in Rome in B.C. 47, he proceeded to Africa to prosecute the war against Scipio and Cato, who had there collected a large army, and finally brought it to a close on the 6th of April, b.c. 46, by the battle of Thapsus, in which the Pompeian party were com- pletely defeated. In his absence Ca?sar had been elected dictator for ten years ; and his return to Rome was signalized by four magnificent triumphs. Devoting himself now to the duties of a legislator, he corrected various abuses which had crept into the state ; reformed the calendar, thereby confer- ring a real benefit on the civilized world ; and ex- ercised his unlimited power with a degree of mo- deration which affected even his enemies with surprise. But his career was destined to be short: a conspiracy against his life was formed at the beginning of B.C. 44 ; and on the Ides, or 15th of March, he perished by the hands of assassins in the senate house, in the fiftieth year of his age. CAI As a warrior, a statesman, and a man of letters, Caesar was one of the most remarkabl. any age. Qti.F.I CjESAR, Sir Julius, a dist. lawyer, 1557-1636. CiESARIUS, a dist. abbot of the 6th cent. CiESARIUS, John, a German physician and professional teacher of philosophv, bom at Juliers 1460, died at Cologne 1551. The best known oi his writings are his notes on Celsus, and his edition of Pliny's Natural History, but he is the author ol treatises on dialectics and rhetoric, now almost for- gotten. He suffered much persecution for Luther- anism, but returned again to the catholic church. CAFFA, Melchior, anltal. sculp., 1631-1687.; CAFFARELLI DU FALGA, L. M. J. M., a re-! Eublican general, born 1756, killed at St. Jean 'Acre, 1799. His brother Cut. Ambrose, a philos. wr., 1758-1826 CAFFIAUX, J., awr. on music, &c., 1712-1777. CAFFIERI, P., an ornamen. artist, 1634-1716. CAGLIARI, Paolo, commonly called Paolcw Veronese, was born at Verona in 1528. He] was the pupil of his uncle Antonio Badile, and having earned considerable reputation in Verona and its vicinity, settled finally in Venice, where he| was the rival of Titian and Tintoretto, and whei he died in 1588. Paul Veronese may be account! among the first of the machinist painters, many his works being little more than ornamen schemes, such as the celebrated 'Marriage Cana' in the Louvre, containing 120 figures, o: portions of figures, of the natural size. The mag- nificent architectural backgrounds to some oi these works are said to have been executed by hu brother Benedetto Cagliari. The St. Nicholas in the National Gallery, though small, is a flnei example of his style : the chief attraction of hia pictures is their gay and rich colouring ; they arei iurther distinguished for their great freedom olj execution, but are often careless in drawing, andj for the most part purely capricious in costume. I (Ridolfi, Maravigtie deW Arte, &c; Zanetti, Delia Pittura Veneziana, &c.) [R.N.W.]) CAGLIOSTRO, Alexander, Count, the as- sumed name of Joseph Balsamo, the most noto-| rious charlatan of modern times, 1743-1795. CAGNOLA, a eel. Ital. architect, 1762-1833. CAGNOLI, Anth., an Ital. astron., 1743-1811 CAGNOLO, Jer., an Ital. lawyer, 1492-155M CAHER-BILLAH, Abasside caliph, 932-<>50. CAILLAU, J. M., a medical and poetical wr., au. of a great number of prof, memoirs, 1765- L89 CAILLE, Nicholas Louis De La, a French mathematician and astronomer, 1713-1762. CAILLIE, a young and enterprising Frenchman who penetrated from Senegambia to Tinihuctoo.. in 1827-28, among the first to visit that part oi central Africa. He returned across the great] desert to Marocco, but his discoveries were not; important. He had not, indeed, properly qualified; himself by previous training. His travels havo been published. fJ.B.J CAILLEAN, A. C, a French au., 1731-1708. CAILLOT, a eel. French actor, 1732-lsKI. CAILLY, J. De, a French poet, 1604-1673. CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and Eve. CAINAN, the son of Enos, Gen. v. 9 ; the same name is given as a son of Arphaxad, Luke iii. 36. CAIAPIIAS, high priest of the Jews, 29-37. 120 CAI CAIUS, or GAIUS, a Roman lawyer, 3d cent. CAIUS, Mutics, a Roman architect, 100 B.C. CAIUS, proconsul of Asia, time of Augustus. CAIUS, an ecclesiastic of the 3d century. CAIUS, a Roman saint, pope, 283-295. CAJETAN, (Thos. De Vio, cardinal,) so called rom his birth-place, Gaeta, in Latin Cajeta, was iorn in 1469. At the age of twenty-nine he pub- ished a noted book in defence of the papal prero- gative as to the calling of general councils, and ras in consequence raised successively to the ishoprick of Gaeta and the archbishoprick of Pisa, n 1515 he was created cardinal. As the papal ?gate, he met Luther at Augsburg, and was sig- lally outwitted by the reformer. Cajetan relied on ihilosophy and Peter Lombard, but Luther ap- lealed to the Bible and St. Paul. The cardinal's ast years were spent in writing learned commen- aries on the scholastic philosophy, and on many ooks of Scripture. He died in 1534. [J.E.j CALAMAN, the name of twoks. of Bulgaria; the 'rst, reign. 1242-5 ; the second, sue. and k. 1258. CALAMUS, an Athenian sculptor, 5th cent. B.C. CALAJIY, Edmund, a presbyterian divine, lember of the Westminster Assembly, &c, 1600- 656. His son of the same name, minister of a rivate church in Cripplegate, 1635-1685. Ben- amin, son of the last named, a celebrated reacher, prebend of St. Paul's, died 1686. Ed- [und, nephew of Benjamin, a celebrated noncon- rnnist and polemic, 1671-1732. CALANDRINI, J. L., a Swiss phil., 1703-1758. CALANUS, an Indian phil., time of Alexander. CALANUS, a bishop of Hungary, 12th century. CALAS, John, a victim of religious fanaticism, xecuted for the alleged murder of his son, 1762. CALAVIO, Marcode, aHeb. schol., 1550-1620. CALCAGNINI, Coelio, an Italian officer, dist. sa political agent and man of letters, 1479-1541. CALCRAFT, John, M. P. from 1796 to 1831, hen he gave the casting vote in favour of the Re- >rm Bill, and shortly afterwards commitd. suicide. CALDARIC, L. M. A., anltal. anat, 1725-1813. CALDAS, F. J., a Sp. naturalist, and patriot of few Granada, put to death by Murillo, 1816. CALDERON DE LA BARCA, Pedro, the hakspeare of Spanish literature, was born at ladrid, of a noble family, in 1600. After having ompleted his studies, lie was for some time at- iched to the court; after which he served for sveral campaigns in the Low Countries and in taly. He had already become famous as a dra- latic poet, when in 1636 he was called to Madrid V Philip IV., a patron of letters, and himself a lay-writer. From this time he was fixed at the ourt, and produced dramas with incessant rapid- y. After he had reached his fiftieth year he jok holy orders, and now busied himself oftenest I HHnposing dramatic pieces on sacred subjects. [is life was spent in an affluence and popularity ery unlike the fate of Cervantes, and did not close ill he was very old. He died in 1681 at earliest, nd perhaps some years later. Calderon was either the founder of the Spanish drama, nor in ny respect an improver of its forms or ideas. It ad been completely developed before the death of .ope de Vega, which happened while Calderon was till young. But he brought to it both a wealth I fancy, an intensity of feeling, and a fertility and CAL dexterity of invention, which were not paralleled by any other Spanish dramatist, and hardly by those of any other countiy. Full scope was given for his powers by the structure of the Spanish drama, in which the irregularities of the old Eng- lish school were not equalled merely, but far out- done. As a painter of character he has little either of strength, of precision, or of accurate observation; he is neither a master of human nature nor a poet of the highest order, while Shakspeare was both ; and, indeed, the lyrical cast of all his works gives them the air of dramatic poems rather than of poetic dramas. But, within his own circle of thought and sentiment, he treads with a vigorous and elastic step ; and there are very few poets that have stronger attractions for minds keenly alive to the poetical and the romantic. Calderon's dramas are said to have amounted to not fewer than five hundred ; a surprising number, (though not more than a fourth of Lope's,) and a number which pre- cluded the possibility of deliberate care in con- struction. The principal of those which have been preserved are distributable into three groups. The first contains his comedies of familiar life, the ' Comedies of Cloak and Sword,' as they were called in Spain. These are equally remarkable for their grace andfluencyof dialogue,andfortheir poetic beauty ; for the liveliness and interest which annnate the stories of the best of them, their general in- genuity in situation and incident, and the equivo- cal morality and singular violations of good taste which prevail in them all. From among them may be named, 'The Fairy Lady,' 'Welcome Evil, if it Come Alone,' and 'Give Time to Time!' The second division consists of the Heroic Comedies, among which are to be found some of the veiy finest and most dignified of his works. His master- piece is usually held to be one of these, ' The Con- stant Prince, which represents with profound pathos the self-sacrifice of Don Fernando of Por- tugal, in an unsuccessful expedition into Barbary. The ' Heraclius ' became famous in France, Corneille having been asserted to have imitated it. The singular play, called 'Life is a Dream,' unites poetical imagination with melancholy reflective- ness in a way which imparts to it a charm alto- gether peculiar. The third class of Calderon's dramas embraces his Religious Pieces, or ' Sacra- mental Acts,' (Autos Sacramentales,) composi.- tions which bear a strong resemblance to our own miracle-plays of the middle ages, and are, like them, deformed by fantastic extravagances of reli- gious opinion and feeling. Some of them, how- ever, are beautifully poetical. One of the most characteristic, held also by some critics to be the best, is ' The Devotion of the Cross,' a strange farrago of the wildest supernatural inventions, and the most impractically-motived exhibitions of hu- man conduct, but breathing a poetic spirit which is wonderfully impressive. One of its main inci- dents is the legend of one dead man shriving an- other, which had been used in a narrative poem of Lidgate, our old monk of Bury. [W.S.I CALDERWOOD, David, one of the founders of Presbyterianism, banished for his opposition to Episcopacy, died 1651. CALDWALL, Rich., an Eng. phy., 1513-1585. CALEB, a patriarch of the Jews, 15th cnt. B.C. CALENIUS, Walter, a Welch hist., 12th ct. 121 CAL CALETTI, GiusErpE, an Ital. paint., d. 1660. CALIDASA, an Ind. dram., supposed 1st c. B.C. CALIGNON, S. De, a political writer and his- torian, chancellor of Navarre, 1550-1606. CALIGULA, a tyrant of Rome, whose proper name was Caius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and began his reign at the age of 25, A.D. 37. After reigning happily a few months, he suffered frcm a fever, which' is supposed to have affected his mind. Four years ot the most revolting excesses followed this misfortune, when a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated. CALIPPUS, a Ger. mathematician, 4th ct. B.C. CALIXTUS, the first pope of Rome, 219-222 ; the second, 1119-1124; the third, 1455-1458. CALIXTUS, G., chf. of a prot. sect, 1586-1656. CALL, J. Van, a Dutch engraver, 1655-1703. CALLCOTT, John Wall, the son of Thomas Callcott, bricklayer and builder, was born at Ken- sington, Gravel-pits, in the county of Middlesex, on the 20th of November, 1766. At a veiy early age he gave indications of that love of literature, and for the acquisition of knowledge, which distin- guished him in his after life. At seven years of age he was sent as a day-boarder to a neighbour- ing school, where he remained five years, made considerable progress in the Latin language, and commenced the study of Greek. He acquired the first rudiments of music from Henry Whitney, organist of Kensington church, to whom he was in- troduced in the year 1778. In 1779 he began to prac- tise upon the spinnet, with the view of becoming an organist. In 1780 he learned to play upon the cla- rionet, and made his first essay in musical composi- tion. In the meantime he continued to improve him- self in classical learning, and acquired a knowledge of French, Italian, and German, and made an attempt to master the Hebrew and Syriac languages, while mathematics and algebra also occupied his atten- tion. About the year 1782 he became intimate with Drs. Arnold and Cooke, whom he always re- garded as his first patrons. In 1783 he obtained the situation of assistant organist at the church of St. George the Martyr, which he held till 1785. At this time his musical compositions were both numerous and varied ; but the connections he had formed induced him to make glee-writing his par- ticular study. His first glee, ' O Sovereign of the Willing Soul,' was written in the year 1784. In 1785 he obtained three medals from the Catch Club, for a catch, a canon, and a glee. In the same year he took his degree of Bachelor in Music, and in 1786 he had two medals awarded him by the Catch Club. In 1787, Dr. Arnold and Call- cott established the Glee Club, which has ever since continued to form one of the most attractive musical societies in London. In this year he was admitted among the honorary members of the Catch Club, and received two medals. In 1789, and every year till 1793 inclusive, he obtained all the four medals by the club, and took his place as the most popular glee-writer of the day. In 1789, as colleague with Mr. Evans, he entered upon the office of organist at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, which situation he held until the church was de- stroyed by fire six years afterwards. In 1790 Haydn arrived in England, and Callcott became one of Ids earliest pupils ; and in the same year he CAL took his degree of Doctor in Music at Oxford. I 1791 Callcott was married, and on that occasiclj he wrote the words and music of his glee ' Triunl phant Love ;' and the following year was appointcl organist in the chapel of Female Orphans, wine place he held till 1802, when he resigned in favoi of Mr. Horsley. In 1797 he commenced to collet materials for a musical dictionary, which was nev< published, but which led to the publication of h musical grammar, which appeared in 1805. Shortl after this he was appointed to succeed Dr. Crotd as lecturer at the Royal Institution, but his li1 of arduous and unremitted study weakened h mind, which at length sank under the burdens h had laid too heavily upon it. He died on the 15t of May, 1821. Dr. Callcott was one of th brightest ornaments of the British school music, and he had the strongest claim to esteer and reverence as a man. His works are we known to all glee clubs, but are much too nume rous to be mentioned by name here. A fine selec tion of his glees, edited by his son-in-law, Willi Horsley, Mus. Bac, Oxon, volumes in the year 1824. CALLCOTT, Sir A. W., composer, disting. as a landscape paint CALLCOTT, Lady Maria ceding, author of several works of travel, a historj of Spain, &c, 1779-1842. CALLET, J. F., a Fr. mathemat,, 1744-1798. U CALLETT, A. F., a Fr. painter, 1741-1823. CALLIMACHUS, archi. of Corinth, 6th c. b.cJ CALLIM ACHUS, a Gr. poet, and hist., 3d c. B.cf CALLINICHUS, a Gr. rhetorician, 3d cnt. b.c.| CALLINUS, a Gr. orator and poet, 8th c. b.c. I CALLIPUS, a phil. of Athens, assass. 351 B.C.] CALLISTHENES, a Gr. phil., the disciple anJ grand-nephew of Aristotle, and one of the sovanta who accompanied Alexander into Asia, 365-328 B.C.; CALLISTRATUS, an Athen. orator, 4th c. B.cJ CALLY, Piene, a French catholic divine, dist.l for his controver. and philosoph. writings, d. 1709.] CALMET, Augustine, was born in 1672, near Commercy. After studying at Breuil and Port-a-j Musson, he entered the order of Benedictines, as-! suming the vows finally in 1689. Afterwards he' was removed to Minister as sub-prior. For a short time he held the priory of St. Lay, and he was abbe" of St. Leopold of Nancy when he was removed to Senones, where he died in 1757. Calmet was a biblical scholar of no mean preten- sions and acquirements, as is shown by his Com- mentaire Littered, by his Dictionnuire de la Bible, and by many dissertations on biblical subjects. His dictionary is well known in various English translations and abridgments, the most famous of the former being that of C. Taylor, in 5 volumes quarto. [<LE.] CALMO, Andrea, a Venet. poet, 1510-1571. CALO, John, a chief of Bulgaria, 13th cent. CALOGERA, Father, a philolog., 1699-1768. CALONNE, Charles Alexandre De, con- troller-general (or finance minister) of the French government from the fall of Necker, 1783 to 1787. His name is chiefly memorable as the last of the plodding, intriguing, accommodating, and unprin- cipled statesmen by whom the French monarchy was hurried to the declivity of the revolution ; and especially for his daring experiment of assembling 122 CAL : the notables ' on the 22d of February, 1787. In- stead of extricating him from his difficulties, this measure really proved the signal of the revolution, is it did of Calonne's disgrace and exile. He was porn at Douai, 1784, and educated for the law, jsvhich he dishonoured by his treacherous conduct to his client La Chalatois. He is the author of numerous political works and financial memoirs, the best of which may be his ' Tableau de l'Europe m November, 1795.' Buonaparte permitted him to return to France in 1802, where he died on the 30th of Oct., about a month after his arrival. [E.R.] CALPHURNIUS, J., a Greek scholar, 15th c. CALPRENEDE, Walter De Costes, lord of La, a French novelist and dramatic poet, d. 1663. CALPUENIUS, Titus J., a Latin poet, 3d c. CALVERT, Denis, a Dutch paint., 1565-1619. CALVERT, Frederic, seventh Lord Baltimore, author of a ' Tour to the East,' &c, d. 1771. CALVERT, George, secretary of state to James I., first Lord Baltimore and founder of Maryland, died 1632. CALVET, Esprit Cl. F., a natur., 1728-1810. CALVI, Lazzaro, an Italian painter, d. 1606. CALVIN, John, (Cauvin Jean), was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. Law and theology were combined in- his earliest studies. He received, when he was but twelve years old, a benefice in the cathedral of his native town, and, at the age of seventeen, there was added to this previous gift the pastoral cure of Monteville. At his father's request he pursued legal studies at Orleans and Bourges. His mind, however, had been gradually opening to the errors of popery; and, in the place last named, he openly avowed himself a disciple of the reformation. In 1532 he proceeded to Paris', but, having provoked the Sor- bonne by his zeal for the new doctrines, he was obliged, with his friend Cop, to quit the city in baste. Under the anticipated patronage of the queen of Navarre, he returned to the French capital in 1534, but the fate of his previous visit again pursued him, and he retired to Basel, then travelled into Italy, visited the duchess of Ferrara, soon came back, and arrived, 1536, as if by accident, at Geneva the city with which his name is now immortally iden- tified. His early labours and stern discipline did not at first suit the Genevese, and he was banished along with Farel. The reformer halted at Berne for a time, and then removed to Strasburg, in one if the churches of which town he laboured as pas- tor with all his characteristic activity and deci- sion, and not without marked success. In 1541 tie returned to Geneva or rather was recalled and from that period till his death, his labours were unremitting in the pulpit and from the press. A.s a citizen, as a pastor, as an ecclesiastical ruler ind reformer, and as a correspondent and counsellor rf foreign churches, he was instant ' in season and )ut of season.' The literary work which he exe- cuted is almost incredible, especially when we consider the weak and emaciated constitution in which his indomitable spirit was lodged. Fre- nxent headaches and frequent fastings to relieve lose spasms, nocturnal study with a dim lamp suspended from the canopy of his humble bed watchful anxiety, and domestic bereavement contributed to shorten his life, and on the 27th of U~y, 1561, he died at the age of fifty-five. He 123 CAM had previously summoned the syndics of Geneva to his deathbed, and solemnly adjured them to persevere in their adherence to the pure gospel of Christ. The works of Calvin comprise commen- taries on nearly the whole of the Bible in all of which, with varying success, the mind of the sacred writers is simply and forcibly expounded, without the parade of erudition, but with a clear perception and logical analysis of the process of inspired thought and argument. His ' Institutes,' published at the early age of twenty-four, are a remarkable monument of precocious ability, and not only speedily gained for its author a European renown, but contributed in no ordinary degree to strengthen, fortify, and extend, the protestant reformation. The Latinity of the long dedica- tion to the king of France is remarkable for its elegance and purity. His numerous tracts against popery have wit as well as wisdom in them especially the one called the 'Inventory of Sa- cred Relics.' His voluminous correspondence has been partly published, but a very large collec- tion of letters remain in MSS. in the library of Geneva. The industry of M. Bonnet has, dur- ing the last two years, discovered many others, and collected them with a view to speedy publica- tion. Of the system of theology named Calvin- ism, espoused so extensively in France, Britain, and America, this is not the place to speak. The merits of Calvin have been acknowledged by men of very opposite sentiments as even by Simon and Bayle. No one now will justify Calvin's share in the burning of Servetus. The other reformers, even the gentle Melancthon, vindicated the sad tragedy. It will not suffice to say that Calvin was drawn into the measure, or that the fate of Servetus was in accordance with the law of the state, and therefore beyond the control of the reformer. Calvin distinctly understood his own part in the business, and felt that compassion was to yield to conscience. The only apology for him is, that Calvin was not, in the matter of religious liberty, before his age. He was no exception to the general rule. Cranmer sent Joan of Kent to the stake, and himself in a few years fol- lowed. Five Genevan disciples of Calvin were burnt in France about the same time that Servetus was committed to the flames in Geneva. John Knox and Peter Dens use the very same argument and imagery for the capital punishment of heretics. Nay, Servetus himself admitted the legal theory under which he suffered; for in his work called. Restitutio, published a few months before his own death, he says expressly that the crime of blasphemy is worthy of death 'simpliciter' 'without dis- pute.' Similar doctrines are propounded in old books of Scottish theology, by Samuel Rutherford, and in 'The Hind Let Loose.' It took a long time to teach protestants that man is responsible to God alone for his belief, and that liberty of con- science is a universal birthright. [J.E.] CALVISIUS, Sellius, a composer and writer on music and various subjects of learning, 1556-1617. CAM, or CANO, Diego, a Portuguese who discovered the river Zaire or Congo, and traced part of the S. Guinea coast in 1484-85. [J.B.] CAMARAY Y MURGA, a Sp. prelate, d. 1641. CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis De, duke of Parma, prince of the empire, &c, born at CAM Montpellicr 1753, died at Paris 1824. Though a cliild of the revolution, and from the first favour- able to its progress, the ambition of Cambaceres waa rather constructive than otherwise, and added to his education for the law, well qualified him for his great share in the preparation of the civil code, and the judiciary organization of France. He pos- sessed the rare talent of preserving his credit for patriotism, without committing himself to the strife of parties, and in 1709 was associated with Napoleon Buonaparte in the consulate. It does not appear that the first consul had much regard for him, and his conduct must be regarded as equivocal, at the least, when it is considered that he rose to fresh honours under the second restora- tion. The real product of his political activity is fairly represented by his Projet du Code Civil, et Discours Preliminaire,' published 1794, and the practical application of it in following years. The most distinguished of his relations were his bro- ther, Stephen Hubert De Cambaceres, arch- bishop of Rouen, and peer of France, a most esteemed prelate, 1756-1818; Baron Cajniba- ceres, his nephew, and one of Napoleon's generals, 1778-1826 ; and his uncle, the Abbe De Camba- ceres, distinguished as a religious writer and preacher, 1721-1802. [E.R.] CAMBON, Joseph, one of the more violent Jacobins of the French revolution, was born at Montpellier, 1754, and returned to the legislative assembly, 1791. He is chiefly memorable as the reporter of the finance commission, by which some kind of order was eliminated from the confusion left by Calonne and his predecessors, and the basis laid for the subsequent financial prosperity of his country. Whatever share he may have taken in the agitation of the period, the merit belongs to him of pursuing this one aim with steady perse- verance. He was disliked by Robespierre, and contributed to his fall on the 9th Thermidor, (27th July, 1794,) but was shortly afterwards compelled to save himself by flight. In 1815 he reappeared on the public stage as a member of the representa- tive assembly, and in 1816 was driven into exile as a regicide. He died at Brussels in 1820. [E.R.] CAMBRIDGE, Adolphus Frederick, duke of, youngest son of George III., born 1774, served as volunteer with the duke of York 1793-1795, viceroy of Hanover 1815-1837, d. 8th July, 1850. CAMBRIDGE, R. Owen, a miscel. wr., d. 1802. CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, Baron De, the brave commander of the old guard at the battle of Waterloo, 1770-1842. CAMBYSES, the first of this name, father of Cyrus, lived about 595 B.C. ; the second, son and sue. of Cyrus, began to r. 529 or 530 B.C., d. 522. CAMDEN, Charles Pratt, Earl, a distin- guished lawyer and statesman, lord chancellor in 1766, president of the council 1782, 1713-1794. CAMDP]N, John Jeffreys Pratt, Marquis, K.G., distinguished as a disinterested servant of the state for sixty years, 1759-1840. CAMDEN, William, the celeb, antiquarian, au. of 'The Britannia,' 'Annals,' &c., 1551-1623. CAMELLI, G. J., a mis. and botanist, 17th ct. CAMERARIUS, Joachim, a learned German, 1500-74. His son of the same name, one of the first physic., botan., and chem. of his age, 1534-1598. CAMERON, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Allan, distin- CAM guished for enrolling the ' Cameron Highlander at his own expense, in 1793, died 1828. CAMERON, John, a Scotch theologian, profl fessor of divinity at Glasgow, and afterwards a ] Montauban, in trance, died 1625; CAMILLA, a princess of the Volsci, k. in batfka CAMILLA, J. A. V., an Ital. actress, 173.">-* CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, a Ronai general of distinguished patriotism, made dictatfl b.c. 396, died B.C. 365. CAMILO, F., a Spanish painter, 1610-1671. I CAMOENS, Luis De, is the only Portuguesfl poet who enjoys a European celebrity. He mm of noble family, and his ancestors on the side were Spanish. He was probably born at LisJ bon ; and the date of his birth was 1527, or a M years earlier. After having been educated jti Coimbra, he passed some time in courtly soeieH at Lisbon ; but an attachment to a lady of distant tion brought on him a sentence of banishment tl Santarem, where he composed several of bis poemslt and is said to have planned or begun that whiclif is the greatest of them. He then volunteered into the fleet, distinguished himself against thJ African Moors, and lost his right eye in an attacll on Ceuta, On his return he found hiiiiM neglected and poor ; and in 1553 he embarked fol India, declaring a resolution of never again seeina his native country. Escaping from a storm, hi which the other vessels of the fleet foundered, M reached the Portuguese settlement at Goa ; an sixteen years passed over him in the East, amidsi perilous adventures, and continual disappointment! and misfortunes. He failed to obtain employment in the public service, and entered as a volunteer in two expeditions, the one to Cochin, (in whiclj almost all the Europeans were destroyed by thl climate,") the other against the pirates of the Reel Sea. A versified satire on the abuses of thj government, provoked the viceroy to banish th<j poet to Macao, where he lived for five years! glad to support himself by the fees of a smal [Grotto of Ctimoens at Macao.] office. In this period his great poem is believed to have been completed. He saved the manuscrSj with difficulty on being shipwrecked on the coast; of Cambodia, when at length allowed to return tc Goa. Here he was twice imprisoned, first on a; groundless charge of malversation in office, an again for debts which he was unable to pay. lb 124 CAM iow took up arms again, in the service of the ;overnor of a remote settlement ; and there, weary nd dispirited, he was tempted to sail for Europe a a homeward-bound vessel which happened to iass. He returned to Lisbon in 1569, as poor and ^prosperous as he had been when he departed. Ie published his noble poem, but gained by it either fame nor profit. The public were blind to is value; and the government and court were therwise occupied. It was probably about this ime that Camoens would have died of hunger, [ad not a black servant begged for him at night a the streets. In 1578 King Sebastian, embark- ag on his fatal expedition against Morocco, Wished in the bloody battle of Alcazar; and, rhile his mind had been diverted alike from ad- ainistration and from literature by his chivalrous reams, his successor, an aged churchman, was ngrossed by ecclesiastical business and dismayed y public calamities. The great poet of the na- ion was left to his fate. He died in a public ospital in the year 1579. Camoens left untried ardly any department of poetry, from the tragedy o the sonnet ; and high praise is given to many f his smaller compositions. But his immortality ras caused by the magnificent heroic poem which re commonly call 'The Lusiad.' The name he imself gave to it was 'Os Lusiados,' that is, The Lusitanians,' or ' Portuguese.' He designed a its ten books to celebrate the glory and great- iess of a nation, as to which he triumphantly de- lared that it was soon to surpass the fame and ma- ssty of all others in the world. The main story 5 the voyage in which Vasco de Gama rounded he Cape of Storms, and discovered the passage to ndia ; but the whole history of Portugal is en- rafted on this stock. Nearly a third of the poem 5 occupied by a narrative of the rise of the king- lom, which Vasco delivers to the king of Melinda, uuch in the manner of iEneas's tale to Dido ; and ccasion is taken for introducing minor incidents md characters in shorter episodes. A plan em- racing a field so wide, could not well be executed rithout making too heavy demands on the atten- ion of the reader ; and undoubtedly there are few rho do not feel the poem, as a whole, to be want- ng in interest. Another weakness lies in the rant of local truth which pervades it, and which ixhibits itself both in the scenery and in the char- icters. The work abounds in supernatural machi- iery, which is nothing else than a repetition of the leathen mythology, while it often passes into un- allegory. Nor is any attempt made at lescribing exactly either the landscapes or the nanners of the East : all is general and unchar- Lcteri.stic. But the glow of patriotic and warlike inimation, the frequent pathos, (as in the story of Inez de Castro,) and the constant affluence of magery beautifully poetical, combine in present- ng us with a series of pictures, such as is very arely to be met with in poetry, and fully sufficient o vindicate the place oi Camoens as one of the greatest among modern poets. The diction and versification, also, are pronounced by competent xitics to possess the very highest merit. [W.S.I CAMPAN, Madame De, a lady of the royal lousehold, celebrated for her memoirs of Marie httoinette, 1752-1822. CAMPANELLA, Thomas, a distinguished CAM Spaniard of the 16th century, no less remarkable from the originality of his writings, than through the extraordinary reverses of his life. The contempo- rary of Bacon and Des Cartes, he ranks with Gior- dano Bruno and a few others, as evidence that the time had come for a successful revolt against the philosophy of the Peripatetics and the Church. Like Bruno, his tendencies were towards Platonism ; many of his views, also, were tinted with mysticism. He had, however, a clear conception of the nature of metaphysics ; and he has contributed one of our many ' Utopias ' to political theory, in his ' Civitas Solis.' Campanella found in the Spanish govern- ment a mortal foe. Seven times did he undergo the horrors of the question ; he passed seven years in a dungeon supporting his courage and nourish- ing his soul, with thought. At length he escaped to France, and found a protector in Richelieu, with whom the hatred borne him by Spain was sufficient recommendation. Campanula's works cannot be overlooked by the thorough student of metaphysics : the more important of them have been recently collected and published in Ger- many. [J.P.N.] CAMPANILE, an Italian satirist, 1630-1674. CAMPANIUS, Th., a learned Swede, author of a description of New Sweden, America, 1701. CAMPBELL, Archibald, marquis of Argyle, a distinguished partizan of the covenanters, be- headed 1661. His son of the same name, earl of Argyle, disting. as a royalist, and beheaded 1685. CAMPBELL, Arch., bp. of Aberdeen, d. 1744. CAMPBELL, George, D.D., a professor of divinity in the presbyterian church, 1709-1796. CAMPBELL, J., d. of Argyle and Greenwich, a partizan of the house of Hanover, 1671-1743. CAMPBELL, John, a Scotch archit., d. 1734. CAMPBELL, John, a miscellan. au., d. 1775. CAMPBELL, Major-Gen. Sir Neil, British resident at Elba in charge of Napoleon, died 1827. CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born at Glasgow in July, 1777. His father, descended of a good family in Argyleshire, was a Virginia merchant ; but before the birth of the poet, the youngest of his eleven children, he was in decayed circum- stances, and subsisted on small annuities from mer- cantile societies, and by receiving young men into his house as boarders. Thomas, after distinguish- ing himself at school, passed through the univer- sity of Glasgow with high reputation, which, how- ever, was gained less by steady industry or exact learning, than by the precocious brilliancy of his essays in prose and his versified translations from the classics. Till the end of his life, Greek was his favourite study ; and he was vainer of his pro- ficency in it than of his poetiy or the fame it brought him. His studies at college were assisted by a bursary or exhibition, and by the hard-won gains of private teaching; and he became suc- cessively, for short periods, tutor in two fami- lies in the west of Scotland. The poverty of his family precluded his pursuit of the more ambitious professions ; and a few months spent as a copying clerk in Edinburgh, disgusted his sensitive and in- dolent mind with the drudgery and captiousness of the attorney's chambers. This migration intro- duced him to the notice of literary men ; and to the encouragement and criticism of Dr. Robert Ander- son, more than to anything else, was owing his 125 CAM pretention of poetical composition. One of Lis first printed efforts was 'The Wounded Hussar,' winch, appeared when he was about twenty years of age. About the same time, living in humble lodgings in Edinburgh, and supporting himself by private teaching of the classics, and by obscure drudgeiy for booksellers, he was composing poetical fragments, which were gradually incorporated into ' The Pleasures of Hope.' This poem, published in 1799, in its author's twenty-second year, be- came immediately and deservedly famous; and though, in spite of advice, he sold the copyright absolutely for sixty pounds, the publishers, on its success, were for some time very liberal to him ; and the reversion of the copyright became profitable in his declining years. Being now determined on making literature his profession, he spent upwards of a year in Germany. A great poem, 'The Queen of the North,' ardently projected, was soon dropped ; but he transmitted from abroad, to the Morning Chronicle, several of his finest lyrics, among which were, 'Ye Mariners of England,' and ' The Exile of Erin.' He had intended set- tling in Edinburgh, where he had long been inti- mate with Jeffrey, Brown, Scott, and Stewart, and most of all with Alison ; and with this design he set down his parents in that city. To them, indeed, to his mother after her husband's death, and to his sisters always afterwards, he was steadily and honourably affectionate and generous. In 1803, however, he found it advisable to re- move to London ; and in the same year, uncertain though his prospects were, he married his cousin Miss Sinclair. Next year he obtained an engage- ment with the Star newspaper, from which he received about four guineas a-week, chiefly earned by translating foreign gazettes. About the same time appeared 'The Battle of the Baltic' For seventeen years from this date he inhabited a house at Sydenham, near London. In 1805 his circumstances were improved by a pension of two hundred a-year bestowed by Fox's administration ; partly, perhaps, for zealous advocacy of Whig prin- ciples, but prompted also by his poetical celebrity, and by the necessities of one who was always thriftless, and disqualified, both by temperament and by feebleness of health, for steady labour as a bookseller's hack. In 1807 was published one of the fruits of his taskwork, ' The Annals of Great Britain,' for which he received three hundred pounds from an Edinburgh bookseller. In 1809 appeared ' Gertrude of Wyoming,' to which, the year after, ' O'Connor's Child ' was annexed. The place which Campbell justly holds as one of the classics of English poetry was now securely gained, when he had only reached his thirty-third year ; and, though his life was but half spent, it may safely be said that nothing which he afterwards wrote was worthy to be ranked with his earlier achievements. His time, in fact, was thenceforth frittered away in desultory and occasional studies, and in toils which had no higher purpose than the subsistence of his family ; and the exquisite deli- cacy and correctness of taste, which give such a charm to his finest poems, did no more than im- pede him in his prose writing. The romantic glow of imagery and sentiment, which had in- spired, in youth, his ethical meditations, and which had risen into a more manly enthusiasm in his CAM martial lyrics, died away amidst the hurry jvn< coarseness of real life; and the poet certainh wanted the leisure, and probably wanted the : tive vigour of thought, which might have furnishe< him with other and severer themes, and prompte< a new tone of poetic inspiration. In 1812 he de- livered, with great popularity, six lectures on poeti at the Royai Institution : two years afterwards, long visit to Paris, while the masterpieces of Gre- cian sculpture and Italian painting were still un removed from the Louvre, gratified his classica taste, and suggested much of attractive reflection Soon afterwards a legacy from a Highland coush placed at his command the income of a sum, whicl m the end exceeded four thousand pounds. Ii 1819 appeared his well-selected ' Specimens of th< British Poets,' accompanied with criticisms, which written with very fine judgment and fair know- ledge, are the only prose compositions of Camp- bell that are likely to be remembered. In 182" he became editor of ' The New Monthly Magazine to which he contributed a good many critica essays and poems ; and the editorship, though ver carefully attended to, was retained for years. During these years several events occurred The ill success of 'Theodric' disappointed hin grievously. His surviving son, (the other havin died in infancy,) was now, at the age of fourteei pronounced to labour under mental aberration which proved to be hopeless ; and in 1828 his do- mestic calamities were completed by the loss of h wife. In 1825 he was chiefly occupied in organiz ing the London university, visiting Berlin to ol tain information for the purpose. In November 1826, he was elected rector of the university i Glasgow ; and, exerting himself actively in pro moting and suggesting reforms, he was re-electec twice afterwards. About and after the close i this period, also, very much of his time was take up with the affairs of the Polish refugees. Ii 1831, having resigned his first editorship, he for short time edited the Metropolitan. Seven eight months from September, 1834, were spen by him in Algiers, which he seems to have ha no purpose in visiting except that of making book. He executed this design in his 'Letter from the South.' Among several pieces of drud gery which he now performed was his ' Life of Mrs Siddons.' ' The Pilgrim of Glencoe,' the last of I considerable poems, published in 1842, was r successful even in his own estimation. His healt long uncertain, was now irretrievably shattere and fond of society, and often tempted to convi-v excesses, he had taken but too little pains to pre- serve health, especially since domestic distresses hac fallen so heavily on him. His affairs too, * much embarrassed ; and in July 1843, giving the last of several houses he had successively < cupied in London, he retired with his niece to Be logne. There, after a winter of suffering, he in June 1844. [\\ CAMPE, J. H., a German author, 1746-181 CAMPEGGIO, Lorenzo, cardinal nuncio to the court of Henry VIII., 1474-1539. CAMPER, Pierre, a celebrated anatomist i naturalist, was born at Leyden in 1722. He die in 1789. He was educated as a medical man, der Albinus, Gaubius, and Musschenbroek. Af he had taken his degree, and paid the last dut 126 CAM I Lis parents, he visited England and Paris, (here he made the acquaintance of such men as I'unter, Sir Hans Sloane, Buffon, &c. He succes- ively filled the chairs of philosophy, medicine, jid surgery, at Franeker, Amsterdam, and Gron- igen. At the latter place he spent ten years de- bted to study and the duties of his professorship, [id used to say these years were the happiest of is life. He was twice elected deputy to the as- ;mbly of the states, and was at length nominated )uncillor of state. Camper possessed a singular tcility for acquiring languages. He spoke fluently i Latin, English, German, and French, and read reek and Italian with ease. The dissertations ad memoirs upon medical subjects which he pub- shed, extended his fame to all parts of Europe ; at it is upon his profound knowledge of compara- ve anatomy applied to the study of natural his- >ry, that his chief reputation depends, and it is y it that his name will descend to posterity with le greatest eclat. One of the great objects of amper's life, was to show from anatomical de- dls applied to natural history, that there is a re- ular gradation in animal beings from man down- ards, and a scale of proportions by which it light be demonstrated how all living beings are mnected one with another in the general system I creation. He was one of the first to lead the ay in the study of Palaeontology, and in a me- ioir upon fossil bones, after examining and com- aring a series of those with the skeletons of ani- tals existing at the present time, he arrived at le conclusion (since his time so ably carried out y^Cuvier) that certain species of animals have at dif- srent times been destroyed by various revolutions of le globe. One of his most striking discoveries was lat of the bones of birds containing air. It was nown that the bones of birds were light, and pos- jssed no marrow ; but it was reserved for Camper ) show from anatomical demonstration that there as a direct communication between the cavities of ie bones and the lungs. Hunter made the same dis- wery soon afterwards. Camper's memoirs upon ie organs of hearing in fishes on the anatomy f the orang-outang on the origin and colour of the egro and on the facial line as applied to charac- ;nze the different races of man, show great talent lid observation ; while the zeal with which he ndertook the cure and prevention, by inoculation, f the terrible epizootic which raged amongst the orned cattle in Holland in 17G8, proved him to B a patriotic citizen, as well as an enlightened natomist and phvsician. [W.B.] CAMPHUYSEN, Dyrk, a Dutch paint., 17th c. CAMPI, Ben., an Italian painter, 1522-1592. CAMPI, P. E., an Ital. dramatist, 1740-1796. CAMPIAN, Edmund, a Jesuit hist, and dram., secuted for conspiracy against Elizabeth, 1581. CAMPIGLIA, A., an Italian historian, 17th c. CAMPIGLIA, J. D., an Ital. paint., 1692-1770. CAMPISTRON, J. G., De, a French dramatist, protege of the celebrated Racine, 1656-1723. CAMPO-LONGO, A., a Neap, paint., d. 1580. CAMPO-LONGO, E., an Ital. phy., 1550-1604. CAMPO-LONGO, E., a satir. poet, 1732-1801. CAMPOMANES, Pedro Rodriguez, Count ( e, a Spanish statesman, distinguished as a poli- cal economist, 1723-1789. CAMPSON, G., sultan of Egypt, 1504-1516. CAN CAMUS, A. G., deputy to the states- gen oral, 1789 ; member of the convention, 1792 ; president of the council of 500, 1796 ; distinguished as a man of letters, 1740-1804. CAMUS, E. L., a Fr. mathemati., 1690-1768. CAMUS, John Pet., a Fr. prelate, 1582-1652. CAMUSAT, Nich., a Fr. historian, 1575-1655. CANALETTI, A., a Venet. paint., 1697-1768. CANAAN, according to Gen., the son of Ham. CANDACE, a queen of Ethiopia, Acts viii. 27. CANANI, J. B., an Ital. anatomist, 1515-1579. CANAO, a count of Bretagne, 547-560. CANCLAUX, J. B. Camille, Count De, an officer in the revolutionary army, afterwards a member of the senate, 1740-1817. CANDAULES, a king of Lydia, 735-718 B.C. CANDIANO, a dis. Ven. family, 9th and 10th c CANDIDUS, a Ger. historian of the 5th cent. CANDIDUS, P., a protest, histor., 1540-1608. CANDOLLE, Augustin Pyramus De, a dis- tinguished botanist, was born at Geneva in 1778. He died in 1841. From the age of sixteen he de- voted himself to the pursuit of botany. He be- took himself to Paris, where he attended the lec- tures of Cuvier, Lamarck, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, &c., and prosecuted his botanical studies under Jussieu and Desfontaines. He adopted the na- tural system, and became one of its most distin- guished supporters. In 1807 he was elected pro- fessor of botany at Montpellier. This chair he re- signed upon the restoration of the Bourbons, at which time his native city was restored to its in- dependence. Hither he retired, and was appointed in 1816 to the chair of natural history, which was expressly instituted for him. His botanical works are numerous and excellent. The 'Prodromus Systematis Regni Vegetabilis,' is the most im- Eortant, though he did not live to complete it. [is incessant studies, it is to be feared, at last told heavily upon his constitution. For some years his health was declining, and though in 1840 he undertook a journey as a relaxation from his labours, he did not derive any decided benefit from it. M. De Candolle was distinguished, in addition to his great and deserved reputation as a botanist, for his activity in promoting measures of public utility, such as the improvement of agriculture, the cultivation of the arts, the advancement of {)ublic instruction, and the amelioration of the egislative code of his native city. [W.B.] _ CANGE, Charles Du Fresne Du, a French histor., in high repute for his learning, 1610-1688. CANINI, J. A., an Ital. paint., 1617-1665. ^ CANNEMAN, Elias, a Dutch statesman, prin- cipal agent in restoring the house of Orange, 1813. CANNING, George, a distinguished British statesman, was born in London, on 11th April, 1770. He began life in circumstances little likely to have fostered a statesman. His father, a man of good family, suffering from the light in which his connections viewed an imprudent marriage, died while George was an infant. The widow was subsequently twice married, tried the stage, and, though there was no blot on her reputation, by a wandering and rather discreditable life, justified the distaste towards her of the Canning family. It is, however, among the amiable features of this statesman's character, that, when he was attract- ing the attention of the world, and must have felt 127 CAN his mother an impediment to his prospects, he treated her with uniform kindness and public respect. He was educated by his maternal uncle, a merchant in the city, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford. He early showed the versatility of his powers, by not only taking a high academi- cal position, but" gaining a host of admirers among his own contemporaries by his conversational powers and efforts in light literature. His early association with Sheridan marked him out as a probable acquisition to the Whigs, and a dramatic anecdote is told of Godwin having been sent to offer him the championship of the friends of the people an offer on which ne is said to have deli- berated ere he rejected it. In 1793, however, he entered parliament as a supporter of Pitt.^ His opinions were naturally liberal, but his fastidious taste, and somewhat scornful temper, revolted against popularity, and thus it was, that, while he joined the Tory party, he earned into it a decided practical leaning to Whig principles. While the aris- tocracy have charged him with betraying them, he wrote in the ' Antijacobin,' and other quarters, some of the bitterest satires against democracy that have appeared since the days of Theophrastus. He took office, as under-secretary of state, in 1796. In 1800, he married one of the daughters of General Scott of Balcomie, in Fifeshire, whose large for- tune rendered him no longer liable to the imputa- tion of being an adventurer. On the return of the Tory party to power in 1807, he was made foreign secretary. In 1809, in consequence of a quarrel with Castlereagh, which produced a duel, he re- signed his office. He soon afterwards commenced his pleadings for catholic emancipation, which tended so greatly to the consummation which he did not live to see. He was on the eve of his de- parture to be governor-general of India when the death of Castlereagh, in 1822, made him yield to the urgent demands that he should strengthen the ministry by taking office as foreign secretary. In 1825, he performed one of his favourite achieve- ments in the acknowledgment of the independence of the Spanish settlements in South America. In February, 1827, he succeeded Lord Liverpool as prime minister. The chancellor, Eldon, and some other members in the government, of high Tory principles, resigned office on the occasion, in a pe- culiarly emphatic manner: and Canning sought and to a considerable extent obtained the sup- port of the Whigs. But in his short career he was so severely harassed by the opposition of his for- mer colleagues, that he died on 8th August, 1827, exhausted both in body and mind. [J.H.B.] CANO, Alonso, a celebrated Spanish painter and sculptor, and also architect, was bora at Granada in 1601. He studied at Seville, sculpture with J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo. He was ap- pointed painter to Philip IV., and practised some time at Madrid, but settled finally at Granada, where he established a considerable school; he died there in 1667. The extent and versatility of his powers have procured Cano the title of the ' Michelangelo of Spain ;' his pictures are rich in effect, and display great vigour of exe- cution; they are numerous at Seville, Madrid, Toledo, and Granada, where are still preserved some celebrated altar-pieces. (Can Bermudcz, CAN Dtccionario Ilistorico de los mas Ilustres prof ores de las Bel/as Artes en Espagna^) | ft.N.1 CANO, James, a Portug. navigator, 15th ce CANO, J. S., a Spanish navigator, died 1526 CANOVA, Antonio, one of the most ce brated sculptors of modem times, was born in 1 village of Possagno, near Trevigi, in 1757. was sent at an early age by the Venetian govei ment to complete his stuches in Rome ; for whi purpose he was granted a pension of 300 duci per annum for three years. This judicious lib ality of the Venetian government was the indin cause of Canova's settling in Rome, and simila: in a great measure contributed to the revival of t arts in the nineteenth century. His first work note was the group of Theseus and the Minotau this was succeeded by the great monuments popes Clement XIIL, and XIV., and Pius t VI. , which raised the reputation of Canova abc that of all his contemporaries ; the monument Clement XIIL is that in St. Peter's of which t celebrated reposing lions form a part. Canovi works are extremely numerous, and are genera beautiful, combining nature with classic beau and proportion; his extraordinary ability, a perhaps industry also, are well displayed iiy^; noble collection of casts after his works, preserv together in the academy at Venice, among whi Hercules in the tunic of Deianira hurling Licb into the sea from the rock, is a most imposi group. Some of his best works are preserved the Vatican, as the Boxers and many others ; 1 celebrated Venus is in the Pitti Palace at Fl rence ; the three Graces are in this country. . Apsley House is a colossal statue of Napolec Canova died at Venice, October, 1822, and magnificent design which he had made for a pub monument to Titian, was with slight alteratio adapted, and in 1827 executed by some of his pup in commemoration of his own memory ; it is the church of the Frari. Canova was in eve sense a most successful artist; his reputation European; he amassed great wealth, and w created marquis of Ischia by the pope ; there is portrait of him by Sir Thomas Lawrence. (Mi sirini, Vita di Antonio Canova, 1827 ; Canovi Works by Moses, &c, &c.) [R.N/W CANOVAI, Stanislaus, a math., 1740-181 CANSTEIN, Ch. HlLDEBRAND, Baron, a Gc man nobleman, discoverer of an art analogous stereotyping, died 1719. CANTACUZENUS, John, one of the mc famous emperors of the East, succeeded 1341, a dicated 13o4 ; afterwards distinguished as an I torian and theologian, died 1410. His desccndai have given many princes to Moldavia and Wi lachia, and the last of the name distinguished hi self in the cause of Greek independence, 1821. CANTARINI, Simon, an Ital. painter, d.16] CANTEMIR, Constants ]:, vaivodeof 31 old via, 1630-1693. Demetrius, his son, hospn of Moldavia, distinguished as an historian, 107 1723. Constantine Demetrius, son of the I named, a diplomatist and man of letters, 1709-174 CANTERBURY, Cn. Manners Sutton, V count, speaker of the H. of Commons, 1780-184 CAXTIPRATAXrs, Thos., a philos., L3tl CANTON ; John M. A., an astron., 1718-7* CANTON, J. G., a Germ, painter, 1710-175C: 128 CAN CANUEL, Simon, a French general, distin. as i rovalist in the war of La Vendee, b. 1767. CANUTE I., king of Denmark 863-873. Can- ute II., surnamed the Great, succeeded 1014, sole uaster of England, 1016, conqueror of Norway, L028, died 1035. Canute III., called Hardi- amute, or Canute II. of England, died 1042. Can- ute IV., king of Denmark, 1080-1086. Canute V., 1182-1202. Canute VI., 1182-1202. CANUTE, a king of Sweden, 1168-1192. 'CAPEL. Arthur, Lord, a royalist, noted for he defence of Colchester, bhdd. by the parlmt. 1648. CAPEL, Arthur, earl of Essex, son of the pre- :eding, charged with participating in the Rye-house slot, found with his throat cut in the Tower, 1683. CAPELL, Edward, an English critic, editor of m edition of Shakspeare, 1713-1781. CAPELLEN, G. A. P., Baron, a Dutch states- nan, minister of the interior under L. Buonaparte. CAPELLEN, T.F.,aDutchv,-adm., 1750-1824. CAPELLO, Bianca, celebrated as the mis- Tess and wife of one of the Medici, supposed to lave been murdered, 1587. CAPISTRAN, John, De, many years a papal luncio, preacher of the crusades against the Hussites and Mahomet II., 1385-1456. CAPISUCCHI, Blasius, marq. of Monterio, a loldier of the ch., dis. against the Huguenots, 1569. CAPISUCCHI, P., bp. of Neocastro, d. 1539. CAPITOLINUS, Titus, a Rom. citizen, br. of Dincinnatus, six times consul from 471 to 439 B.C. CAPO DTSTRIA, John, count of, a Greek liplomatist in the service of Russia; aided the use of Greek independence, and became presi- lent of the Greek government in 1828 ; ass. 1831. CAPONI, A., beheaded for conspiring with Hachiaud and Bacconi against the Medici, 1513. CAPPE, Newcome, a religious wr., d. 1791. CAPPELLE, J. P. Van, a Dutch savant, mi. of a history of the Low Countries, 1783-1829. CAPRARA, Card., archbishop of Milan, con- :luded the concordat of 1801 with Napoleon, whom le crwd. k. of Italy at Milan in 1805, 1733-1810. CAPUION, Issante De, a troubadour, 13th c. CAPUSSO, an Ital. divine and poet, 1671-1746. CARA-YOUSSOUF, first prince of the dynasty )f the Turcomans, chief of a faction called ' black sheep,' died 1420. CARACALLA, Marcus Aurelius Anton., mrp. of Rome, b. 183, sued. Severus, 211, kid. 217. CARACCI. The name of a celebrated family of painters of Bologna. Agostino Caracci, was born at Bologna, where his father carried on the business of a tailor, in 1559. He was placed first with a jeweller, and studied painting after- wards under Prospero Fontana, Domenico Tib- aldi, and Cornelius Cort ; with the last he prac- tised also engraving. Agostino was the most active teacher in the academy opened by the Car- acci in Bologna in 1589 until 1600, when he went to Rome ; he was then employed by his brother Annibale to aid him in the Farnese Gallery there, for which he executed the ' Cephalus and Aurora,' and the 'Triumph of Galatea;' the cartoons of these two frescoes are in the National Gallery. But the brothers disagreeing, Agostino retired to Parma, where he died shortly afterwards, March H L602. He was more distinguished as an en- graver than painter. Annibale Caracci, CAR the younger, brother of Agostino, was born at Bologna in 1560 ; his father intended him to be a tailor, but his cousin, Ludovico Caracci, induced him to follow painting, for which Annibale showed decided ability, and in which his cousin gave him all necessary instruction. After carrying on con- jointly with his brother and cousin the celebrated academy of Bologna for ten years, Annibale was invited by the cardinal Farnese to Rome in 1600, and he there executed the celebrated frescoes, known as the ' Farnese Gallery,' for that cardinal, receiving a salary of 25 a-year besides mainten- ance. This great work was finished in 1604, when Annibale received a further donation of 100 guineas. It was preferred by Poussin to all the works in Rome after the frescoes of Raphael ; it has been engraved by Carlo Cesio. Annibale ap- pears to have been an invalid after the execution of this work, for he did little more in Rome, and died there 15th July, 1609 ; he was buried in the Pantheon by the side of Raphael. Ludovico Caracci, the founder of the eclectic school of Bologna, was bom there in 1555 ; he appears to have been very dull in his youth, and at the school of Prospero Fontana was known as the ox, (il bue.) He studied afterwards many masters in various places, as Correggio, Julio Romano, Titian, and others, and in endeavouring to combine their several beauties led to the establishment of the prin- ciple of eclecticism, and was actually the founder of the academic system. He was the real head of the academy of the Caracci established in 1589, and after the departure of his two cousins for Rome, carried on by him alone until his death in Decem- ber, 1619. Domenichino, Guido, Albani, and Lan- franco, were among the numerous distinguished scholars of this celebrated school. Ludovico's principal works were the frescoes of the convent of San Michele in Bosco, near Bologna, long since perished, but existing in the prints after them by Giovannini. There are several excellent oil pic- tures by Ludovico in the gallery of Bologna. (Bellori, Vite de' Pittori Moderni, &c; Baglione, Vile rfe' Pittori; Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of the National Gallery.) [R.N.W.] CARACCIO, Ant., a tragic wr. of Ital., 17th c CARACCIOLI, Dominique, Marq. De, an Ital. minister of state, and viceroy of Sicily, 1715-1789. CARACCIOLI, Francisco, a Neapolitan ad- miral, born 1748, and hanged at the mast-head of his own vessel, on restoration of k. Ferdinand, 1799. CARACCIOLI, J., a Neapolitan gentleman, fav- ourite of the q. of Nap., disgraced and slain, 1432. CARACCIOLI, J., prince of Melfi and marshal of France, d. 1550. His son Anthony, bishop of Troyes, conv. from the Rom. Cath.faith,andd. 1569. CARACCIOLI, J. B., apain. of Nap., 1580-1645. CARACCIOLI, Louis Anthony, a fertile writer, most celebrated for his pretended letters of Ganganelli, &c, 1721-1803. CARACCIOLI, Marin, an expert political agent, and governor of Milan, 1468-1538. CARACCIOLI, an Italian bishop, d. 1495. CARACTACUS, or CARADOG, king of the Silures, a British tribe inhabiting South Wales, defeated by the Romans, 75. CARADOG, a Welch chronicler, d. 1156. CARAFFA, A. C, a French painter, d. 1812. 129 K CAR CABAFFA, Anthony, a statesman of Naples, 15th cent. A cardinal, and great scholar of the same name, cousin of pope Paul IV., died 1501. CARAFFA, J. A., put to d. by Pius IV., 1560. CABAFFA, V.. a gen. of the Jesuits, 1583-1640. CARDAM, a kins; of Bulgaria, 776-806. CABAMUEL DE LOBKOWITZ, John, bishop of MessL (listing, as a divine and poet, IGOC-ICS-?. CARASCOSA, Baron, a disting. partisan of the French in the Neapolitan revolution, b. 1760. CARAUSIUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, proclaimed emp. in Britain 287 ; assassinated 201. CARAVAGGIO, Michelangelo Merigi, commonly called Michelangelo da Cara- vaggio, where he was born in 1560, was origi- nally a mason's labourer, but while still young gained so considerable a position as a portrait painter at Milan, that he was induced to try his fortune in Venice, where he became a student of the works of Giorgione ; and he eventually estab- lished himself in Rome. His poverty was a seri- ous obstacle to his success in the great capital of the arts, for some time, when he was obliged to work for the Cavaliere d' Arpino; but his cele- brated picture of the ' Card Players,' and shortly afterwards a few religious pieces, of which his masterpiece is the ' Deposition of Christ,' now in the Vatican picture gallery, established his reputa- tion as one of the principal painters of his time. Caravaggio's good fortune was of short duration : being of a violent temper, he killed a companion in consequence of a dispute at a game of tennis. He fled to Naples, thence he went to Malta, and spent some time at Palermo ; but finally having obtained the pope's pardon for the act of homicide, he set out in 1600 in a felucca for Rome ; he was arrested on his way by mistake, by a Spanish coast guard, and when he gained his liberty he discovered that the crew of the felucca had gone off" with all his property ; he wandered despond- ingly along the coast to Porto Ercole, where, what with disappointment and the extreme heat of the weather, ne was seized with a fever, and died in a few days, at the early age of forty. Caravaggio was a great colourist, but his pictures are black and heavy, and so ordinary in their general treatment of form and accuracy, that his style was designated the naturalist, in contradis- tinction to the prevailing ideal taste of the time. He had many imitators, who are called naturalisti and tenebrosi ; the celebrated Spagnuoletto is the most distinguished of his followers. This taste was much spread in Spain, and had its votaries in France and the low countries. Valentine and Honthorst (Gherardo, della notte) were decided imitators of Caravaggio. (Bellori, Vite de 1 Pi/tori, &c., Rome 1672.) [R.N.W.] CARDAN, Jerome, one of our true ' curiosities of literature,' born in Pavia in 1501, said to have caused his own death in 1576, that he might not, by living longer, falsify his prediction of that event f There are not many characters more diffi- cult to delineate by a few sketches than Cardan's. Of great industry, undoubted originality and power, and extensive acquirements, his fame yet rests for the most part on his pure charlatanerie. As a moral entity, if indeed the term can with de- cency be applied to him, he was also a mass of contradictions , he loved knowledge, sought appar- CAR ently for truth, and experienced high aspirations nevertheless he never shrunk from deceit and false hood ; his practical life full of disorder; his scien tific faith worth nothing he stole from Tartaglic and published as his own the famous rule fo the solution of cubic equations. He wrote oi everything often advancing knowledge ; but h pretended to deal with all difficulties under th sun. He said that, like Socrates, he had a demon like Swedenborg afterwards, he claimed superna tural insight during the extasis ; it is not impro bable that he was affected by that singular modifi cation of vitality now known as mesmerism. I were useless to recount seriously the opinions of man so strange and disorderly ; nor can we un dertake to reckon up even the topics on which h wrote. His productions fill 10 volumes folio ; th oddest of them being the treatise ' De Vita Pro pria,' something of the cast of Rousseau's ' Confes sions,' as full of vanity, of insincerity, of pa.-sior of eloquence. Cardan's fame, while he lived, re suited from his skill as a physician, and his astro logy. He was doubtless helped in his profession b superior acquaintance with chemistry ; to whicl one may safely give the credit of his celebrate cure of the archbishop of St. Andrews. As migh have been expected, his private life and affah were ever in confusion: one son fell under th axe of the public executioner, because he had poi soned his wife ; another was shut up in prison fc safety's sake, at the instance of his own fathe These notices may help the imaginative to cor ceive something of Cardan. [J.P.N. CARDI, Louis, an Italian painter, d. 1613. CARDONNE, Denis Dominique De, an Eas schol. and historian, professor at Paris, 1720-178 CAREL, James, a French poet, 17th century CAREW, George, made earl of Totness 1 Charles I. for his military services, historian the Irish wars, died 1620. CAREW, Sir George, a courtier and fhgitrj historian, knighted by Queen Elizabeth, d. 16li His brother, Richard, a topographical wr., d. 1621 CAREW, Henry, earl of Monmouth, eminec as a scholar and translator, d. 1661. CAREW, Thomas, a dramatic poet, d. 1630. j CAREY, Henry, a distinguished ballad-writj and composer, died by his own hand, 174< George Saville, his son, also a song-writer ai; playwright, died 1807. CAREY, Joseph, a French printer, regard^ by his country, as the inv. of stereotyping, d. 1801 CAREY, William, was born on 17th Auguw 1761, in the village of Paulerspury, Northampton shire. Although his father was clerk of the parisjj he early displayed a tendency to dissent, and hal ing announced his adherence to the principle of the baptist persuasion, was in 1783 baptized jl the river Nen, and soon after chosen pastor of j| small baptist church in the neighbourhood \ Northampton. While assiduous in the discharjl of his official duties, he prosecuted his studies win intense ardour in private, and was greatly disti guislied for the extent and variety of his kno'i ledge, his accomplishments embracing all t'l modern European languages, and several brand' of science, particularly botany and natural histo- . In 1787 Carey was removed to the pastorate of more numerous church in Leicester, where 130 CAR >ck comprising many educated members, he and better scope for the exercise of his natural id acquired talents. But his mind was absorbed ith visions of missionary enterprise among the sathen; and while on a visit to Mr. Fuller Kettering, along with Dr. Ryland and Mr. xtcliffe of Olney, he laid the foundation of a iptist missionary society, of which he himself came the first agent and the brightest ornament, ecompanied by his wife and sister-in-law, he ibarked on 13th June, 1793, for India, and after periencing some very trying vicissitudes, he chose udnabatty for his station ; but the Indian govern- ent having refused their permission to any per- anent establishment of a missionary kind, he was liged to quit that place. Through the influence the governor, who was exceedingly favourable the missionary cause, Mr. Carey now established 5 head-quarters at the Danish settlement of Ser- lpore, where, assisted by Messrs. Marshman and ard, his efforts for the Christian good of a popu- is and extensive province were followed by a gree of success far exceeding his most sanguine pectations. Carey was appointed by the mar- is of Wellesley to the professorship of Bengalee the College of Fort -William, and as he volun- rily added to the duties of this chair instruction the Sanscrit and Mahratta languages, he became niliar with the leading dialects of India. Many erary works connected with this department of iental philology proceeded from his pen. But i greatest achievements were in the province of )hcal translation, having been the main instru- ct in issuing new versions in upwards of forty the Indian languages, and bringing the Scrip- res within the reach of three hundred millions of man beings. Un der these indefatigable exertions b health of Dr. Carey at length sank, and he died 1834, in the seventy-third year of his age. [R. J.] CARLETON, Sir Dudley, Lord Dorchester, a itesman of arbitrary principle, au. of ' Letters ' ring his embassy to Holland, 1616-1620, d. 1632. CARLETON, Geo., bp. of Chichester, and au. numerous works celebrated in their dav, d. 1628. CARLETON, Sir Guy, created Lord Dorehes- ' for his services in the American war, d. 1847. CARLETTI, F., an Italian navigator, 16th c. CARLETTI, N., a Neapol. archbp., 1723-1800. CARLISLE, Sir Anthony, a distinguished lglish surgeon, 1768-1840. CARLISLE, Nich., an antiqu. wr., 1771-1847. CARLISLE, Thomas Howard, earl of, uncle d guardian of Lord Byron, himself a poet and amatic author, and in politics a Whig, b. 1748. CARLOS, Don, crown prince of Navarre, noted r his frequent rebellions, 1420-1461. CARLOS, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain, and e hero of one of Schiller's tragedies, 1545-1567. CARLOS, the Duke of San, one time English lbassador from Spain, a great promoter of na- nal improvements, died 1828. CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, an Oriental schol. d port, fellow-traveller with Lord Elgin, d. 1804. CARMELI, Michelangelo, an Orient, schol., . of the Gr. classics, and au. of commen., 1706-66. CARMONTELLE, amiscel. Fr. wr., 1717-1806. CARNARVON, Hy. Jno. George Herbert, rl of, and formerly Lord Porchester, distinguished a writer of his travels, 1800-1840. CAR CARNE, J., mi. of 'Trav. in the East,' 1789-1 84 0. CARNEADES, a Gr. philosoph. and ambassad., eel. for his eloquence as a dialectician, d. 125 B.C. CARNOT, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, characterized by Bourdon de l'Oise as ' the man who had organized victory in the French armies,' is one of the fairest and most steadfast characters in the history of the French revolution. He was distinguished in early life for his application to the exact sciences, and the mathematical and philosophical works which he has left behind him are no mean monument of his genius and industry in the pursuit of his favourite studies. But it is as a military engineer and minister of war under the revolutionary government and the empire that the reader of history is most interested in him. He was born in 1753, and was only eighteen years of age when his skill in fortification and tactics procured him an appointment as second lieute- nant in a corps of engineers. In 1783 he received the laurel crown from the academy of the ancient capital of Burgundy for his eulogium of Vauban, and in 1791 was sent to the legislative assembly by the Pas-de-Calais. In the convention he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and in the Commit- tee of Public Safety was implicitly and exclusively trusted with the direction of the military opera- tions, a trust which he fully justified by his ad- mirable conduct of affairs on the defection of Du- mouriez. His influence and daring in the com- mittee, where he always opposed himself to the dictatorial ambition of Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, was due to his ' cold mathematical head,' which enabled him to organize so many armies and send them all to combat with the prestige of victory. After the revolution of the 18th Bru- maire, he was some time minister of war, but voted against the consulate for life and the empire, and when all hope of the republic was lost, retired from public life and devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits. The disasters of 1812, and the dangers which threatened France, recalled his public spirit, and he frankly offered his sword to the emperor, who appointed him to the command of Antwerp, and on his return from Elba restored him to his old functions as minister of war. He opposed the second abdication, but it was in vain, and Napoleon manifested his esteem and regret in the memorable words, ' M. Carnot, I have known you too late ! ' He was proscribed at the restora- tion, and died at Magdeburg in 1823. Some of his brothers have also acquired a name in French history, of these we may mention Joseph Fran- cois Claude, a magistrate and writer on criminal law, born 1752 ; and Claude Marie, a military officer and minister of state, born 1755, whose identity, perhaps, is sometimes confounded with that of his brother Lazare. [E.R.] CARO, Annibale, a scholar and poet of Italy, engaged in public affairs as secretary to the car- dinal Alexander Farnese, 1507-1566. CAROLI, F. P., an Italian painter, 1638-1716. CAROLINE, queen of George II., 1682-1737. CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, sister of the dnke of Brunswick, and wife of George IV., born 1768 ; married 1795 ; quitted England 1814 ; returned 1820, died 1821. CAROLINE, daughter of the emp. of Germnnv, known in recent history as q. of Naples. 1752-1814. 131 CAR CAROUGE, B. A., a Fr. a5tronom., 1741-1798. CARPACEIO, V., an Italian painter, 16th ct. CARPENTER, Dr. Lant, an industrious theo- logical writer, and unitarian minister, 1780-1840. CARPENTER, Richakd, a theologian, 17th c. CARPI, Ugo Da, an engraver, 16th century. CARPINI, J., a Venetian painter, 1611-1674. CARPOCRATES, founder of a heresy, 2d cent. CARR, Sir John, au. of several 'Tours,' d. 1822. CARR, W. H., a clergyman, and patron of the fine arts, distinguished for a bequest of pictures to the National Gallery, died 1830. CARRA, Jean Louis, a political and historical writer, condemned with the ill-fated Girondists by the revolutionary tribunal, 1793, was one of the earliest in the field at the outbreak of the French revolution, as editor of the ' Annales Patriotiques.' He was born in 1743, and though his parents were in narrow circumstances, received a liberal educa- tion. He was a man of adventurous spirit, and astonished Mirabeau by offering to raise all Ger- many against the emperor with only ' fifty thou- sand men and twelve printing presses.' He is worthy of remembrance'as the chief instrument in exciting a vindictive feeling against the royal family, and this, perhaps, may be considered his real part in the revolutionary drama. His condemnation with the illustrious party of the Gironde, was an honour to which he was scarcely entitled, and is a sign, at least, of his improved taste as he approached the end of his career. Having when a young man spent some time in the Danubian provinces, he published a work on the history of Moldavia and Wallachia, with an essay upon their actual state in 1776. [E.R.] CARRANZA, B., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1503-1573. CARRARA, Francis, lord of Padua, memor- able for his wars with the Venetians, died 1393. His son of the same name, after a long struggle with them, strangled in a Venetian prison, 1406. CARRA-SAINT-CYR, J. F., Comte De, a Fr. officer distinguished in the late wars, died 1834. CARRE, the name of several Dutch painters, flourished at Amsterdam 17th and 18th centuries. CARRE, a Fr. East Indian voyager, 1666-1671. CARRE, Louis, a Fr. geometrician, 1663-1711. CARRE, Remi, a writer on singing, 1706-1773. CARRE, W. L. J., a wr. on civil law, 1777-1832. CARREL, Nicolas Armand, one of the most sincere patriots and noble-minded men of modern times, chief editor of the National, and author of several historical works, was born at Rouen, 1801, and killed in a duel by M. Girardin, 24th July, 1836. He received a military education at St. Cyr, and fought in the auxiliary legions of Spain in the late struggle against absolutism. He took the direction of the National after the revolution of 1830, and distinguished himself by his fine spirit and patriotic sincerity. He was extremely sensitive in points of honour, and had fought several duels before his last fatal rencontre with his more wily opponent. He bears the reputation of a good man, and was much beloved by his friends in private life. His principal work is a ' History of the Counter-Revolution in England.' [E.R. j CARRERAS, Jose Miguel, a patriotic Span- iard of South America, engaged with his two brothers, Juan and Luis, in the revolution of Chili, and executed in 1822, as the latter had been 1818. CARRIER, Jean Baftiste, born 1756, was CAR an obscure attorney, brought into note by the pit gress of the French revolution, and sent to the ns tional convention, 1792. His memory is held i execration for deeds of horror without a paralle except in the similar scenes of iniquity enacted b his rival in cruelty, Collot D'Herbois. He wa sent to Nantes in October, 1793, to assist in r pressing the civil war commenced in La Vend( by the priests and royalists. He selected his com mittee, to give an air of legal sanction to h: atrocities, from the very refuse of the canailli and at length dispensed with all form whatove: and executed his prisoners era masse, no less tha 15,000 being disposed of by fusillades or drowr ings in one month, with whose corpses the watei of the Loire were literally infected and the ban! strewn. The refinement of cruelty with which a this was accomplished, and the obscenities wit which he seasoned his repast of blood, almost sui pass belief. He was at length recalled by tl Committee of Public Safety, and on the fall Robespierre, condemned by the revolutionary tr bunal and executed. A memoir upon the life ar crimes of Carrier was published by Babceuf in 179 Care should be taken not to confound this moi ster with a professor of civil law, and author various treatises on jurisprudence, born 1770, wl must have felt it a misfortune to bear precise the same names. [E.R CARRIERES, L. De, a biblical com., 1662-171 CARRINGTON, N. T., an Eng. poet, 1777-183 CARRION, E. R. De, a learned Spaniard, 17th CARS, Laurence, a Fr. engraver, 1703-177 CARST ARES, William, a Scotch divine, adherent of William, prince of Orange, afterwar his chaplain, 1649-1715. CARTE, S., a wr. on chronology, died 1740. F. son Thomas, dist. as an antiquarian and historia noted in the polit. troubles of the period, 1686-175 CARTER, Elizaeeth, daughter of a clergyma disting. for her extraordinary learning, 1717-18C CARTER, John, an antiquar. wr., distinguish also for his skill in drawing and engraving, d. 181i; CARTERET, John, earl of Granville, an a herent of the house of Hanover, born 1690 ; sea tary of state 1721 ; lord-lieutenant of Ireland 1721 1726, and again 1727-1730 ; in opposition to i R. Walpole 1730-1741 ; in office again as secrets I of state 1742-1744 ; and as president of tjl council from 1750 till his death, 1763. CARTERET, Ph., a naval officer, 18th cent.' CARTIER, Jacques, a native of St. Ma who, in 1534, under commission from the king/? France, took possession of Canada in the name;' his sovereign. The next year, he returned, a ascended the St. Lawrence, or Hochelaga, as 1 Indians called it, as far as a beautiful island cc taining a picturesque and fertile hill, which named Montreal, royal or king's mount, close i which was an Indian village, called by him a ci also named Hochelaga. Cartier wintered in i river, and returned home on the breaking up ' the ice. He did not effect a settlement; a. not having taken home any specimen of gold i silver, he did not receive much favour from I master ; so that in the expedition of M. Roberv sent out as viceroy in 1540, Cartier had no hfoj appointment than that of pilot. [J.l CARTOUCHE, L. D., a Fr. brigand, exec. 17 132 CAR CARTWRIGHT, Dr. E., a clergyman of the jhurch of England, distinguished for his dis- :overies in mechanics, died 1824. CARTWRIGHT, John, one time major of the Jotting, militia, a not. advoc. of reform, 1740-1824. CARTWRIGHT, T., a biblical com., 1535-1603. CARTWRIGHT, W., a royalist divine, disting. ilso as a playwright and poet, 1G10-1643. CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, emp., 276-282. CARUSO, J. B., a Sicilian historian, 1673-1724. CARUSO, Luigi, a composer of music, last ct. CARY, F., a Fr. antiquarian writer, 1699-1754. CARY, Rev. H. F., the well-known biogr. wr., ranslator of Dante, and ed. of the poets, 1772-1844. CARY, Robert, LL.D., a learned div., d. 1688. CARYL, John, a poet and tragical writer, ecretary to Mary, queen of James II. CARYL, Jos., au. of a ' Com. on Job,' d. 1673. CASA, John Della, an Italian orator and poet, listing, as a statesman and ecclesiastic, 1503-1556. CASALI, J. B., a Roman antiquarian, 17th ct. CASALI, Joseph, an archaeologist, 1744-1797. CASALINI, Lucia, a female artist, 1677-1762. CASANOVA, Mark Ant., a Lat. poet, d. 1527. CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, J. J., an unprin- ipled adventurer and intriguer, called the Gil Bias f the 18th century, remarkable for his proficiency a science and literature, 1725-1803. His brother Francis, a painter of landscapes and battle-pieces, .727-1805. A third brother, Jean Baptiste, irofessor of painting at Dresden, and fellow- ibourer with Winckelmann, 1730-1798. CASAS, Bartholomew De Las, a Spanish irelate, distinguished as a missionary and his- orian of South America, 1474-1566. CASAUBON, Isaac, one of the most learned chol. and penetrating critics of his age, 1559-1614. CASAUBON, Meric, D.D., son of the preced- ing, and like his father, a controv. wr., 1599-1671. CASE, John, a scholastic philosopher, d. 1599. CASENEUVE, P. De, a Fr. antiq., d. 1650. CAS ELLA, P. Le, an hist, and Lat. poet, 16th c. CASIMIRI.,thePacific,k.of Poland, 1034-1058. CASIMIR II., the Just, dethroned and d. 1194. CASIMIR III., the Great, born 1309 ; elected :ing on the death of his father, 1333 , died 1370. CASIMIR IV., formerly d. of Lith., 1447-1492. CASIMIR V, born 1609 ; became a Jesuit and ardinal, and was secularized when elected king, i648 ; abdicated 1667, and died abb6 of St. Ger- nain-des-Pres, 1672. CASIMIR, St., son of Casimir IV., and duke )f Lithuania, since his death canonized and invoked is the patron of Poland, 1458-1483. CASLON, W., an Eng. type-founder, 1692-1766. CASSAGNES, J., a Fr. poet and preacher, Tanslator of Sallust and other classics, 1636-1679. CASSANDER, one of the generals of Alexander he Great, and after his death a sharer in the livided monarchy, as k. of Macedon, &c, d. 298 B.C. CASSANDER, F., a French savant, 1620-1695. CASSANDER, G., a Germ, savant, 1515-1566. CASSARD, J., a eel. Fr. navigator, 1672-1740. CASSASS, L. F., a Fr. painter and architect, au. )f an Must, book of Travels in the East, 1756-1827. CASSERIO, Guino, an Ital. anat., 1556-1616. CASSIBELAN, or CASSIVELAUNUS, a ;hief of the Britons at the time of Ca?sar's invasion. CASSINL The family name of several dis- CAS tinguished observers and astronomers. 1. John Dominic, born in Piedmont in 1625 : the first professor in the Royal Observatory in Paris, which was founded in 1670. Cassini was one of the earliest to conjecture that the comets, like the planets, move in regular curves; he published valuable observations on Jupiter's satellites ; but his fame chiefly rests on his discovery of four of the satellites of Saturn. He laboured also at measurement of the meridian through France. He died in 1712. 2. John James, son and suc- sessor of the foregoing, also enriched science with valuable observations and discoveries in physics as well as astronomy. Through an unfortunate mis- apprehension he maintained in opposition to New- ton that the figure of the earth is an oblong spheroid ; and as the contest grew keen, the French sovereign sent out two commissions, one to the equator, the other to the polar circle, to decide it. These are the famous commissions, the first under Bouguer and La Condamme, the second under Maupertuis, &c. Newton's view was of course confirmed. Cassini died in 1756. 3. Cassini De Thury, Caesar Francis, second son and successor of James. Also a good and laborious observer, he was chiefly occupied with the measurement of the meridian in Europe. He observed also a transit of Venus, and wrote much on parallax and refrac- tion. He died in 1784, and was succeeded in the observatory by his son, Count John Dominh', with whom terminated a family illustrious in the scientific annals of France. CASSINI, A. H. G., a botanist, 1781-1832. CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Latin historian, minister and consul of Rome, 6th cent. CASSIUS, J. L., a Latin historian, 2d c b.c. CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, fellow-patriot and conspirator with Brutus, and called by him ' the last of the Romans,' supposed to have died by his own hand at Philippi, B.C. 42. CASTAGNO, A. Del, an Ital. paint., 1409-1480. CASTALIO, or CASTELLIO, Sebastian, author of a very valuable Latin and French version of the Old and New Testaments, once the friend of Calvin, by whom he was cruelly treated in after years when living in poverty, 1515-1563. CASTEL-CICALA, Fabi Rufo, prince of, a minister and ambassador of Naples, died 1822. CASTELL, Edmund, celebrated as author of a dictionary compiled in seven languages, 1606-1685. CASTELLAN, A. L., a pain, and eng., 1772-1838. CASTELLI, Bern., a Genoese pain., 1557-1629. CASTELLO,G. L., an antiq. of Sicily, 1727-1794. CASTELLOSA, Donna, a female poet, 13th c. CASTELNAU, M. De, a Fr. states., 1518-1592. CASTELNAU, R. De, a troubadour, 13th cent. CASTELVETRO, L., an Ital. critic, 1505-1571. CASTI, J. Battista, an Ital. poet, 1721-1803. CASTIGLIONE, Balth., an Italian statesman and ecclesiastic, distinguished also as a poet and man of letters, 1468-1529. CASTIGLIONE, G B., a landscape painter of Genoa, a pupil of Vandyck, 1616-1670. CASTILLEJO, Chr. De, a Sp. poet, d. 1596. CASTILLO, Aug. Del, a Sp. paint., 1565-1626. CASTILLO, Bern. Dias Del, companion in arms of Cortez, andhist. of his campaign, 1519-1560. CASTILLON, J. F. Salv. De, a phil , 1709-91. CASTLEREAGH, Robert Stewart, mar- 133 CAS quis of Londonderry, a British statesman, was born on 18th June, 1769. In the Irish parliament, where he first sat, he was reputed to belong to the opposition, but obtaining a scat in the English Commons, he chose the ministerial benches. On his accession to the title of Castle- reagh, in 1797, he returned to the Irish parliament. As secretary of state, he made great and success- ful efforts for the achievement of the Irish Union, and he was one of the statesmen most prominently marked out on that occasion for the wrath of the Irish people. He sat for Down in the united par- liament, and in 1805 became the war and colonial secretary, resuming these offices on the restoration of his party in 1807. In 1809, a dispute, in the unfortunate Walcheren expedition, drove him to a duel with Canning, and the resignation of his offices. In 1812, lie again became foreign se- cretary; and in 1814 and 1815 he represented Britain at the settlement of Europe by the con- gress of Vienna. He was popularly charged with connivance at the aims of the European despots ; and yet, arbitrary as were his principles, it is now understood that his liberality and firm- ness did much to check the tyranny and rapacity of the continental monarchs. In April, 1821, he succeeded his father as marquis of Londonderry in Ireland, but this did not prevent him from retain- ing his seat in the House of Commons. He was a man of fine person, and commanding manner, and could look a proud defiance when assailed, which often elicited the admiration of his many adver- saries. He was a ready but bad speaker, and his contorted and jumbled similes have often been quoted with much ridicule. In the session of 1822, he seemed to be suffering severely from over- exertion and excitement, and on the 12th of August he deliberately terminated his days by a slight incision in the carotid arterv. lays by [J.H.B. CASTOLDI, Giov. Giac, a composer, 16th c. CASTOR, the first chronological wr., 200 b.c. CASTOR, St., founder of an abbev, 4th cent. CASTRACANI, C, an Ital. general, afterwards duke of Lucca, known also as a poet, 1281-1328. CASl'RO, Alvar De, a Sp. general, d. 1239. CASTRO, Don Ferd. De, favourite of Peter the Cruel, died a refugee in England, 1375. CASTRO, Gabriel Pereira De, an Epic poet, complimented as the second Camoens, 1571-1632. CASTRO, Inez De, a beautiful lady of Castile, secretly married to Pedro, son of Alphonso IV., and assassinated by order of the latter, 1357. CASTRO, John De, a Portuguese commander, afterwards governor of the Portuguese possessions in the East Indies, 1500-1548. CASTRUCCI, P., a eel. violinist, last centurv. CASTRUCCIO, a chf. of the Ghibellines, d. 1328. CATALANI, Angelica, the eel. cantatrice and opera performer, born at Sinigaglia 1782, d. 1849. CATEL, C. S., a compos, of music, 1770-1830. CATESBY, Mark, a naturalist, 1680-1749. CATHALINEAU, James, general-in-chief of the royalist armies in La Vendee, surnamed by his soldiers the 'saint of Anjou,' where he was born 1759; mortally wounded in the attack on Nantes, 29th June, 1793. CATHARINE, St., of Bologna, an extatique, of the order of St. Francis, canon. 1724, 1413-63. CATHARINE, St., a virg. and martyr, 4th ct. CAT CATHARINE, St., of Genoa, canonized 1 737, 1 of a dialogue between the soul and body, 1418- 1 G l( CATHARINE, St., of Sienna, celebrated fc the political influence of her revelations in th pontificate of Gregory XL, and for her extati writings, 1347-1380. CATHARINE, queen of Bosnia, died 1478. CATHARINE of Arragon, daughter of Ferdi nand and Isabella, b. 1483 ; married to Princ Arthur 1501, and to her brother-in-law, afterward Henry VIII., 1514 ; died 1536. CATHARINE of Braganza, or Portuga' born 1638 ; married to Charles IL, king of Englanc 1661 ; died 1705. CATHARINE of France, daughter of Charle VI., b. 1401 ; married to Henry V., k. of Englanc 1420, and after his death to Owen Tudor; d.^* CATHARINE PARR, queen of Henry VIII 1543, afterw. wife of Sir Thos. Seymour, d. 154? CATHARINE DE MEDICI, the only child I Lorenzino de Medici, duke of Urbino, and Madde laine de la Tour, a French princess, sister-in-la\ of the duke of Albany, was born 1519, and mar ried to the duke of Orleans, afterwards Henry II 1533. During her husband's lifetime, who wa mortally wounded at a tournay, 1559, the politi cal histoiy of Catharine possesses little interest fo us. He was succeeded by their eldest son, Franci IL, who also died the following year, 1560, whe; Catharine was named regent of France during th minority of her second son, Charles IX. The grea events which now succeeded each other, and whie belong to the early history of the reformation, wer the battle of Dreux, fought between Guise and Cond 1562 ; the truce concluded between the rival inter ests represented by these leaders, 1563 ; the leagu of Bayonne formed against the protestants, and th recommencement of the religious war, 1566; tbl battle of St. Denis, and the death of Montmorene) 1567; the battle of Jarnac, and assassinatio of Conde\ 1569 ; the appearance of the courageou Jeanne D'Albret with her son Henry of Navarrt afterwards Henry IV., in the camp of the protes tants, and the battle of Mont-Contour, 1569 ; th; peace of St. Germain, to which Catharine sub mitted under the dictation of Coligni and the pre testants, 1570 ; and the treacherous massacre t St. Bartholomew, 1572. In 1574 Charles 13 died of the fruits of his debaucheries, and Catha rine's third son, who had been elected kino; of Pc land the previous year, succeeded under the titl of Henry III., the virtual government of the king dom still remaining with the queen-mother, wh alone preserved it from total anarchy. In 157 Henry of Navarre was the recognized leader of th protestants. In 1576 the famous catholic leagu was formed, and the duke of Guise appoints chief of the crusade. In the next year or two, th war had been renewed from one end of France t the other, and the kingdom was threatened wit) entire destruction by the rival factions. In 158 Henry of Navarre gained the battle of Coutras In 1588 the people of Paris were in insurrection the states-general were assembled at Blois, amj the duke of Guise was assassinated in the palace: In the following year Catharine died. A bar' outline of the political complications which pro: duced these events would fill many paj they all turn upon the struggle between the cathoi 134 CAT ic and protestant leaders which rent the kingdom o pieces, and the reckless determination with rhich the daughter of the Medici endeavoured to naintain the royal authority. To estimate her onduct with perfect fairness the character of the tge must be considered, and especially the preten- sions of a severe Calvinism, its vast network of af- iliated societies overspreading France, and the social evolution which it threatened. We have no wish o apologize for the crimes of a Medici, but to un- lerstand how they were possible. If a woman with- )ut human sympathy occupied the throne of Prance, can we contrast her cold heart and plot- ling intellect with an example of Christian meek- ness and womanly tenderness in the curule chair jf Geneva ! As we venture to read history, the massacre of St. Bartholomew stamps the period, rather than this single actor in it, with deserved infamy, and when we have said this, enough re- mains in the Machiavel-like subtilty of her policy, and the dark ambition which did not scruple at the debauchery of her own sons, to justify the hatred of her memory. It should not be forgotten that the lurid colours in which this extraordinary wo- man has been painted are brightened by command- ing talents, and by that taste for art, hereditary In the family of the Medici, which has graced her adopted country with the palace of the Tuileries, and which commenced a new era in arts and literature. [E.R.] CATHARINE I., empress of Russia, as the wife and successor of Peter the Great, 1689-1727. CATHARINE II., one of the greatest sovereigns of the Russian empire, b. 1729 ; wife of Peter III. 1745 ; crwnd. empress after his death 1762 ; d. 1796. CATHARINE of Russia, daughter of the em- peror Paul, queen of Wurtemberg, 1788-1819. CATHARINUS, Amb., a catholic wr., d. 1553. CATILINE, Lucius Sergius Catilina, the Roman conspirator, subject of Cicero's famous declamation, which precipitated the action before Rome, in which he was defeated and slain, B.C. 62. CATINAT, the name by which Abdias Maurel, one of the most intrepid ot the Camisard chiefs, is known, (the revolted protestants of Languedoc,) iistinguished as a cavalry officer, burnt alive 1705. CATINAT, Nich., a Fr. marshal, 1637-1712. CATO, the Wise, or the Sagacious, was a name Brst given to Marcus Porcius Cato the Censor. I. This extraordinary man was born at Tusculum, a CAT began to distinguish himself in the forum, and be- came a candidate for office. Passing through the subordinate offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor, and exhibiting in these the principles which he had adopted in youth, he was elected consul in B.C. 195, along with his friend and patron Flaccus. In Hither Spam, which was assigned to him as his province, he displayed military genius of a very high order, which speedily reduced the whole coun- try to subjection. In B.C. 191, he distinguished himself greatly in the battle of Thermopylae, and there seems to have finished his career as a soldier. Cato henceforth appears as an active and leading citizen, taking a conspicuous part in every public measure. The great epoch in his life was his elec- tion, in B.C. 184, to the censorship, the duties of which he performed with the fearless strictness of an ancient Roman. His unshaken firmness in checking the luxurious habits of the nobles, and in assailing their crimes and vices, exposed him to great obloquy ; but he pursued the course which he had prescribed to himself regardless of the con- sequences. With all his rusticity, Cato was a friend to literature, and was one of the patrons and ad- mirers of the poet Ennius. He applied himself in old age to the study of Greek literature, and is represented by Cicero as an ardent admirer of the historians, philosophers, and orators of Greece. Cato died in b.c. 149, at the age of eighty-five, leaving behind him 150 orations, which were ad- mired for many ages ; a work on rural affairs, en- titled 'De Re Rustica;' and an historical work entitled ' Origines.' II. Marcus Porcius Cato, surnamed Uticensis (of Utica), the great grandson of Cato the Censor, was born B.C. 95. Even when a boy, he is said to have given indications of sturdy independence ; and as he advanced towards man- hood, he displayed that decision, severity, and harshness of character which marked him out from his contemporaries during the remainder of his life. Taking his great ancestor as his model, he adopted his principles and imitated his conduct ; strengthening his vigorous constitution by exposure to cold and fatigue, and bearing physical infirmi- ties with a degree of patience worthy of the Stoic philosophy to which he had attached himself. He commenced his military career in B.C. 72, as a volunteer, in the servile war of Spartacus; and afterwards earned a high reputation as a military tribune in Macedonia. After some time spent in municipal town of Latium, B.C. 234. At the usual | the study of his favourite philosophy, and in dili- military age he commenced his career as a soldier . gent preparation for the duties of official life, he in B. c. 217, the year in which Hannibal was lay- ' ing waste the north of Italy; and served again ander Fabius at the capture of Tarentum (b.c. 209), and under Claudius Nero in the memorable battle on the banks of the Metaurus (b.c. 207). His fame, however, does not rest on his military ichievements alone. In the intervals of war he employed himself in cultivating his hereditary Farm, adopting the simple habits and manners of the peasantry; and soon became conspicuous among them for superior intelligence, prudence, and sagacity. Having in this way attracted the notice of L. Valerius Flaccus, a young nobleman )f considerable influence, by whom his military talents, eloquence, and integrity were duly appre- nated, he was induced to remove to Rome ; and there, aided by the support of his patron, soon 135 was elected quaestor for B.C. 65 ; and acting on the principles which he had prescribed to himself, corrected various abuses which had been sanctioned by his predecessors. As the supporter of Cicero, in b.c. 63 in all his measures for suppressing the Catilinarian conspiracy, he decided by his speech, on the 5th of December, the motion that the con- spirators should be put to death. Along with the senatorial party he strenuously opposed the coali- tion of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in B.C. 60 ; but the supporters of the triumvirate dexterously removed him from the scene of action by confer- ring upon him an appointment which called him first to Cyprus, and afterwards to Byzantium. When praetor in B.C. 54, he was exposed to the outrages of the mob, in consequence of his en- deavours to put a stop to the bribery and corrup- CAT tion -winch prevailed. On the commencement of the civil war in B.C. 49, Cato joined the party of Pompey ; and, after the battle of Pharsalia, pro- ceeded to Africa, where the hopes of the republican party were finally extinguished by the battle of Thapsus (6th April, b.c. 46). The town of Utica alone remained in the interest of the followers of Pompey ; and Cato, failing to inspire his country- men who were collected there with courage to en- dure a siege, resolved not to outlive the downfal of the republic. After providing for the safety of his friends, and instructing them as to the means of effecting a reconciliation with the conqueror, he spent the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's Phacdo, and then inflicted on himself the wound of which he died in the forty-ninth year of his age. Caesar's estimate of Cato's character is shown by the exclamation which he uttered when he heard of his death : ' Cato, I grudge thee thy death, since thou hast grudged me the glory of sparing thy life !' [G.F.] CATTENBURG, A. Van, a theolog., 1664-1737. CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, an amatory and epigrammatic poet, the rare elegance of whose compositions is most unfortunately dis- figured by their licentiousness, died B.C. 40. CATZ, James Van, a statesman and poet, sur- named the La Fontaine of Holland, 1577-1660. CAUDERAS, B., a Portuguese painter, d. 1606. CAULAINCOURT, A. G., one of the 'suspects' of the revolution, liberated from prison on being drawn for the republican army, attained eminence under Buonaparte as a general and min. of state, and died duke of Vicenza at the age of fifty-four, 1827. CAUMARTIN, L. Da, aFr. statesm., 1552-1623. CAUS, Solomon De, a Fr. architect, d. 1630. CAUSSIN, Nicil, a Fr. rhetorician, d. 1651. CAVALCANTI, G., a phil. and poet, d. 1300. CAVALIER, John, chief of the protestants in revolt agt. Louis XIV., after, a royalist, 1679-1740. CAVALIERI, Bonaventura, a very eminent Italian mathematician ; the pupil of Galileo and friend of Torricelli. Cavalieri's chief work is on the ' Geometry of Indivisibles,' in which he de- tails an artifice by aid of which curve surfaces, &c, may be quadrated. In one respect this method must be reckoned the logical predecessor and herald of the infinitesimal calculus. Cavalieri wrote also on trigonometry, astronomy, and astro- logy. He died in 1647. CAVALLI, F., a Fr. opera composer, d. 1673. CAVALLINI, P., a sculp, and pain., 1259-1344. CAVALLO, Tiberius, an Italian philosopher, inventor of several physical instruments, 1749-1809. CAVANILLES, A. J., a Sp. botan., 1745-1804. CAVE, Edw., the celeb, bookseller of St. John's gate, fndr. of the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' d. 1754. CAVE, Dr.W., alearn. andrelig. wr., 1637-1713. CAVENDISH, the Hon. Henry, born at Nice 1731, died at London 1810. The father of Mr. Cavendish was Lord Charles Somerset, a cadet of the house of Devonshire. But unlike the class to which his family belonged, the chemist had no sympathies with his fellow-men, either above or below him. He made important discoveries ; but when we are acquainted with his history and his self- seclusion, the wonder is that his researches were not more abundant. Compare the millionaire chiimst with the poverty-struck, but indefatigable CAV and noble-spirited Priestley, or with the calm anc amiable Black, and we have an intellectual machin< contrasted with talent accompanied by humane and generous hearts. ' We start, for soul is wanting there.' Mr. Cavendish was a profounc mathematician, electrician, and chemist. Dr. Black who had discovered carbonic acid, laid the founda- tion of pneumatic chemistry. Cavendish is usualh said to have discovered hydrogen (although it wa" prepared by Mayow, Boyle, and Hales long ante- riorly), and placed the second stone on the great su- perstructure which was afterwards to be raised bj Priestley and others. That common air consisted of oxygen and nitrogen was known ; but Caven- dish demonstrated (1783) that it consisted by t volume of 20-833 oxygen and 79*166 nitrogen i result which has been thoroughly confirmed bj subsequent experiments. He likewise demon- strated the exact constitution of water, althougl it is confidently affirmed that James Watt at the same time knew its composition, and that hii views were known to Cavendish. Cavendish like- wise showed that nitric acid is composed of nitrogei and oxygen Priestley having previously founc that electric sparks, when passed through air turned litmus red, Cavendish added potash to tin solution, evaporated, and obtained nitre. Whilt there is scarcely any doubt that there has been ; tendency to overrate Cavendish at the expense o others, he must be always ranked as one of th< first of English chemists, who has, by the accuracj of his experiments, assisted in laying the sun foundation of the science. [R.D.T." CAVENDISH, Thomas, was the son of i gentleman of fortune in Suffolk. Coming int( possession of his father's property in 1585, he ap- plied his ample means to the fitting out of a stoul barque of 120 tons, and accompanied Sir Richarc Grenville to the West Indies and Virginia. The object is not ascertained; but of a second voyage, on which he sailed in July, 1586, the purpose certainly was I recruit his finances, wasted, in personal extrava-j gance, by plundering on the western sea-board o: S. America. England and Spain were long at open war, and among men of fortune this practice wad not uncommon in the days of Elizabeth, a com-] mission from the queen being previously obtained. He had only 123 men, and three vessels, respec- tively 120, 60, and 40 tons burden, for the fitting out of which he had to sell or mortgage what remained of his estates; with these he circunw navigated the globe in twenty-five months, mak-j ing important surveys in Magellan Straits, plun- dering and burning many towns of the SpanisM colonies, and capturing on the coast of California tha great annual galleon, 700 tons burden, laden with] valuable merchandise, and 122,000 Spanish dollars. He also reduced to its proper length the distance between Java and the Cape, which the Portuguese] had made much too great ; and reaching home id safety, rich enough to purchase a fair earldom,' he was knighted hy Queen Elizabeth. His ill-' gotten wealth being dissipated in three years, he, embarked in a joint-stock expedition of a like) kind, but on a larger scale ; this proved unsuccess-j ful from disagreement among elements discordant from the first; and while on his return, in 1593. he died at sea of vexation and fatigue, at the age, of twenty-nine. He was the first to point out the 136 CAV nportance of St. Helena to the English govern- lent. [J.B.] CAVENDISH, Sir W., a gentleman in the srvice of Cardinal Wolsey, and afterwards of [enry VIII., by whom he was knighted, 1505- 557. His son of the same name, created duke of rewcastle, distinguished in the civil wars as a jyalist, 1592-1676. A descendant of the same ame, third earl of Devonshire, and friend of Wil- am III., 1640-1707. John, Lord Cavendish, br. f the last named, and chan. of the excheq., d. 1796. CAVOLINI, Ph., a naturalist, 1756-1810. CAWDREY, Dan., a controversial wr., d. 1664. CAWTON, Thos., and his son of the same name, oth dist. as Oriental scholars, d. 1659 and 1677. CAXES, Patrick, an architect of the 16th ct. [Caxton'a Printing Office, Almonry, London.] CAXTON, William, dist. as the introducer of rinting into Eng., originally a mercer, 1410-1491. CAYLUS, Martha Marg., marquise of, auth. f 'Souvenirs,' edited by Voltaire, 1673-1729. ler son, Anne Claude Philip, Count Caylus, istinguished as a writer on art, 1720-1765. CAZALES, J. A. M. De, a Fr. royal., 1757-1805. CAZALET, J. A., a pharmacopolist, 1758-1825. CAZES, P. J., a French painter, 1676-1754. CAZOTTE, John, a French poet, distinguished ar the humour and spirit of his compositions, xecuted as a royalist, 1792. CAZWYNY, an Arabian naturalist, 1210-1283. CEBA, Aufaldo, a dramatic poet, died 1623. CEBES, a pupil of Socrates, 5th century B.C. CECCATI, D. F., a sculptor of Lombardy, listing, as an artist in wood and ivory, 1642-1719. CECCHERELLI, Al., an Italian hist, 16th ct. CECCHI, J. M., an Italian poet, 16th century. CECCO DE ASCOLI, an Ital. philos. and poet, nrnt alive for his practice of the occ. sciences, 1327. CECIL, Robt., earl of Salisbury, son of Lord krleigh, and minister of James I., 1563-1612. CECIL, Wm., Lord Burleigh. See Burleigh CECILIA, St., a virg. and martyr, 4th cent. CECROPS, the founder of Athens, 16th c. B.C. CEDREMIS, G., a monk and historian, 11th c. CELESTI, And., a Venetian painter, 1637-1706. CELEST1NE, the first of this name, pope of CER Rome 422-432; the second, 1143-1144; the third, 1191-1198 ; the fourth, eighteen days onlv, 1241 ; the fifth, founder of the Celestines, 1294-1296. CELESTIUS, a heretic of the 4th century. CELLARIUS, Cil, a Germ, savant, 1638-1707. CELLINI. Benvenuto, a celebrated sculptor and goldsmith, was born at Florence in 1500, and was brought up as a musician (a flute-player) by his father. He entered the service of Clement VII. at Rome, at an early age, as goldsmith and musician; his active services for this pope and other art-patrons in Rome, especially Porzia Ghigi, were altogether suspended by the sack of the city in 1527, by the soldiers of the constable Bourbon, whom Cellini boasts of having killed in the act of scaling the walls. Cellini returned to Rome a few years afterwards, and continued his works for the pope. Cellini executed several de- signs also in France for Francis I., for the palace at Fontainebleau, but a portion only were carried out. He returned to Italy in 1545 and executed his celebrated bronze of Perseus with the head of Medusa, now in the Loggia de' Lanzi'. Cellini married at the age of sixty, and died in 1572, leaving two daughters and a son. Though an able sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini is more distinguished as a goldsmith, or for his ornamental works ; he has been long the coryphaeus of silversmiths, and until quite recently, was unrivalled as a metal-chaser, but he is now surpassed by several of the modern artists of France, especially M. Antoine Vechte. Cellini's style is that peculiarly known as the Renaissance, in which scrolled shields or cartouches, and strapwork perform a prominent part; his works are also conspicuous for a minute imitation of natural objects, as in the celebrated silver hand bell made for Clement the VII., formerly in the possession of Horace Wal- pole. Cellini is the great model to this day of the principal ornamental artists of France. (Sec Cellini's Autobiography.) [R.N.W.] CELS, J. M.,"a French botanist, 1743-1806. CELSIUS, Olaus, a Swed. naturalist, disting. as the teacher and protector of Linnaeus, 1670-1756. CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a physician who flourished in the reign of Tiberius, in the first century of the Christian era. He is distinguished for having bequeathed to his successors in the healing art his work ' De Medicina,' written in elegant Latin, and familiar to every student in medicine. His views are characterized by great judgment and sense, especially when we recollect the barbarism of science in the times in which he lived. He has explained many of the opinions of Hippocrates, which would be difficult of apprecia - tion without his commentary. [R.D.T.] CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher, 2a cent. CELTES, Conrad, a Latin poet, 1459-1508. CENCI, Beatrice, the heroine of Shelley's drama, executed at Rome as a parricide, 1605. CENSORINUS, Appius Claudius, a Roman consul, elected emp., and murd. shortly after, 270. CENSORINUS, a grammarian of the 3d cent. CENTLIVRE, Mrs., an English dramatic writer, 1667-1723. CEOLWULF, ak. of Northumberland, 8th ct. CERATINUS, J., a Greek scholar, died 1530. CERCEAU, J. A. Du, a Fr. hist, of Rienzi, &c, au. of Lat. poems, a mem. of the Jesuits, 1676-1730. 137 CER CERDA, J. L. De La, a Spanish critic, classi- cal commen., and grammarian, Toledo, 1560-1643. CERDA Y RICO, P., a Sp. savant, 1730-1792. CERDIC, a Saxon king of Wessex, 519-534. CER DON, a Syrian gnostic, 2d century. CERE, John NlCH., a Fr. botanist, 1737-1810. CERINTHUS, a Jew, and a noted heretic of the first century, who had been taught literature and philosophy at Alexandria. In the age of the apostle John he propagated many absurdities about the person of Christ and a sensual millennium, based on Jewish dreams and Gnostic speculations. His fantastic reveries need not to be repeated. Ac- cording to some, the fourth gospel was written specially against his tenets, but there is no solid ground for such an opinion, though it has been plausibly defended. [J.E.] negotiations, and kd. at the battle of Varna, 1444 CERISANTES, Mark Duncan De, a Scotch physician in the polit. sendee of Richelieu, k. 1618. CERMENATI, John De, a Latin hist., 14th c. CERQUEIRA, a Portug. mission., 1552-1614. CERRATO, Paul, an Italian poet, 16th cent. CERULARIUS, patriarch of Constantin., and au. of the Gr. schism, cmd. Isaac Commenus 1058. CERUTI, Fred., a classical schol., 1541-1579. CERUTTI, J. A. J., a Jesuit and miscel. writer, author of an ' Apology ' for his order, 1735-1792. CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel De, was born in 1547, at Alcala, in New Castile, of an ancient but poor family. His taste for literature seems to have been early developed, and to have been chiefly directed towards poetry. In his twenty-second year, he quitted Spain for Italy, holding a place in the household of a cardinal; and, volunteering in the papal army, he fought bravely in 1571 against the Turks, in the battle of Lepanto, receiving there a wound which lamed his left hand for life. He continued to be a soldier, serving under several leaders, till, in 1576, sailing for the Low Countries, he was taken prisoner by an Algerine corsair. His sufferings and adventures during his three years of slavery in Algiers, are said to be described in his novel, ' The Captive,' inserted as an episode in 'Don Quixote.' On being ransomed in 1580, he resumed military ser- vice. In 1584 appeared his first printed work, ' Galatea,' a pastoral romance, mixing prose and verse after the model of Montemayor's ' Diana.' In it he represented, under feigned names, himself j national convention succumbed to the dictates (| and a lady whom he immediately married. He j the Committee of Public Safety, and one day re afterwards wrote a considerable number of plays, I marked to his compatriots, ' There ought to I which have never become famous. About this | a Cote Droit, (opposition side.) If none else wi People say to me, you wi pour turn ; first, you an veyor of stores for the Indian fleet ; and he is tra- . ditionally asserted to have collected tithes in La I The event proved that these apprehensions wei Mancha. In 1605 he published the first part of j well founded. Chabot had married into th 1 Don Quixote.' The appearance of this celebrated family of an Austrian banker, and from his con work of genius speedily made him famous, with- j nection with the financial speculations of his bro out, however, rescuing him from poverty, although ' thers-in-law, was accused of falsifying a decree t it brought him some patronage from the court, j the convention. Whether this was true or falsi which drew him to Madrid for the rest of his life, it served equally well as a pretext for his execu No other work came from his pen for several years. ! tion. He was conducted to the scaffold after at CIIA celebrity of his great romance, provoked attacks oi him, of which the most bitter were introduced int a spurious continuation of ' Don Quixote.' Thi work was at length completed by the appearaa of the second part in 1615. It is needless to com mend ' Don Quixote ; ' and this is no place for en deavouring to analyze its character and desigr The author did not long survive its complettl He died in his sixty-ninth year, on the 23d day t April, 1616; and Shakspeare died on the ver same day. ' Persiles and Sigismunda,' a romanc which Cervantes left unpublished, is universall allowed to be unworthy of the liking with wine he himself regarded it. [W.$. CERVETTO, a music, of Garrick's time, d. 1785 CESARINI, Jul., a cardinal employed in polil CESARINI, Virg., a Latin poet, 1595-1624. CESAROTTI, Melchior, professor of Gr. an Heb., also dist. as a poet and essayist, 1730-180* CESPEDES, A. G. De, a Sp. geog., 1560-160* CESPEDES, P De, a Sp. painter, 1538-1606 CESTI, M. A., a composer of music, died 168* CESTIUS, Gallius, Rom. gov. of Syria, 1st ( CEVELLOS, the Chevalier De, a Spanis statesman, author of the manifesto on Napoleon' invasion, 1763-1838. CEZELLI, Constance, a heroine of the 16th I CHABERT, J. B., marquis of, a Fr. commandj celeb, as a navigator and astronomer, 1724-1805. CHABERT, P., a wr. on voter, surg., 1727-1814 CHABOT, Francis, one of those unquiet maj lignant spirits raised from the deep by the Frenc revolution, was a Capuchin monk, who abandone his order when the door had been opened by a de cree of the constituent assembly, and was depute to the legislative assembly, 1791, and to the conj vention, 1792. His declamatory powers and vehej ment passions were directed by the most unsparinj hatred of royalty, and according to his own declara tion, he even offered himself for assassination thd his corpse might be carried through the streeti and the inhabitants of the Faubourgs excited ti insurrection. He voted for the king's death with out appeal to the people and without delay, anj proved himself so shameless in the advocacy <] violence and murder, that he has been called the tyr of sansculottism. Chabot foresaw his fate when thi time of his life his history becomes particularly I form it, I will alone. I obscure. He was for some time, at Seville, a pur- all get guillotined in y But in 1613 he published the ' Exemplary Novels, a collection of twelve stories, some of which are the only minor works of his that are at all worthy of the author of ' Don Quixote.' Next year there was printed his ' Journey to Parnassus,' critical and satirical essay in verse. This piece, and the i tempting to poison himself with corrosive sul limate, 3d April, 1794. | E.R CHABOT, G. A., a wr. on civil law, 1758-18U CHABRIAS, an Athenian, general, 6th c n.c CHABRY, Mark, a Fr. painter, 1660-1727. | CHACON, Alph., a Sp. antiquary, 1510-159C; 138 CHA CHACON, P., a Spanish critic, 1525-1581. CHAH-AALEM, einp. of Hindos. 1759, d. 1806. CHAH-DJIHAU, emp. of Hindost., 1622-1656. CHAH-ROUKH-MYRZA, son of Tamerlane, Ov. of Khorassan, conq. of Persia. &c, died 1447. CHAHYN-GUERAI, last khan of Tarty., 1783. CHAIS, Charles, a protes. theolog., 1701-85. CHAISE, F. De La, conf. of Louis XIV., d. 1709. CHALCIDIUS, a Platonic philosopher, 3d ct. CHALCONDYLES, Demetrius, a refugee rom Constantinople, au. of a Gr. grammar, d. 1513. CHALCONDYLES, N., a Greek hist., 15th ct. CHALES, C. F. De, a Fr. mathem., died 1678. CHALLE, C. M., a French painter, died 1778. CHALMEL, J. L., a French hist., 1760-1828. CHALMERS, Alex., an industrious editor and ontributor to the press, in most repute for his General Biographical Dictionary,' 1759-1834. CHALMERS, Geo., a statistical wr., 1744-1825. CHALMERS, Thomas, D.D., L.L.D., the cele- rated pulpit orator and divine, was born on 17th larch, 1780, at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, of re- sectable and pious, though humble, parents. After sceiving the elements of knowledge at the parish ihool, he was entered a student in St. Andrews lollege at the early age of twelve ; and soon gave idications of that strong predilection for the phy- ical sciences which he retained through life. He rosecuted the course of study prescribed to stu- ents in divinity, and obtained license to preach in nmection with the Established Church of Scot- uid while only nineteen, two years under the legal ge, on the express ground that he was ' a lad of regnant parts.' His views towards the church, owever, were at this period of his life entertained, ot from any ulterior intention of giving himself ) the sacred duties of the ministiy, but from the elief that the character of a licentiate would ad- ance him in his path to the summit of his ambition -a university appointment. Accordingly, after avingbeen employed about a year as assistant in i of Cavers, he relinquished that situation Bm ;nore congenial office of assistant teacher of lathematics m the university of St. Andrews. lis eminent success in that department procured im a presentation to the parish of Kilmany, the [Kilmany Church.] atronac;e of which was vested in the college, and ccordincrly he was ordained to the pastoral charge f that place on 12th May, 1803. How subordi- CHA nate to scientific pursuits he then considered the functions of the sacred office to be, appears from the fact that he spent two successive winters in St. Andrews in giving public lectures during the week on mathematics and chemistry, while he returned to his parish only on Saturdays, leaving it again early on Monday morning. A great and happy change, superinduced by long personal illness and several domestic bereavements, took place in his views of religion. From being a very secondary concern with him, he was brought to regard it as a subject of paramount importance. He now be- came as assiduous and earnest in his attention to his sacred functions, as he had been formerly negli- gent of them ; and applying his great powers to the illustration and enforcement of Christian truth with all the enthusiasm of a new convert, his fame as a zealous and eloquent preacher spread far and wide. His services were now eagerly sought for other and more important places, and accordingly, after having resided twelve years in Kilmany, he was translated in the summer of 1815 to the Tron Church and Parish, Glasgow. His reputation as a preacher continued rapidly to advance. His church was besieged every Sabbath by crowds of admiring listeners ; and a volume of sermons, en- titled ' Astronomical Discourses,' enjoyed a circu- lation as wide as the Tales of My Landlord,' pub- lished during the same season. On several public occasions he was engaged to officiate both in Edin- burgh and London at this period of his ministry, and the sensation universally produced by his { reaching surpassed all that was ever known or leard of m the annals of pulpit eloquence. Chal- mers had long devoted his attention to the subject of pauperism, on which he entertained some pecu- liar views as to the superior efficacy of voluntary and Christian efforts in meeting its evils. To en- able him to carry his views into operation, the magistrates of Glasgow erected the new parish of St. John's, to which he was presented as first min- ister, and in which he was allowed the fullest liberty to work his parochial machinery. A number of enlightened Christian laymen aided his efforts; and the scheme in the hands of such an agency met the highest success. But although he wrought it with characteristic ardour, and developed its prin- ciples at full length in his ' Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns,' it never obtained in any other parish, and has long been abandoned as im- practicable, even in St. John's. Aften a most active and successful incumbency for eight years in Glas- gow, Dr. Chalmers relinquished the exercise of the ministry for the more retired, but not less use- ful office of training the rising hopes of the church. In 1823 he became professor of moral philosophy in the university of St. Andrews ; and in 1827 he was translated by the unanimous presentation of the Town Council of Edinburgh, to the chair of divinity in the university of that city. The splen- dour of his fame attracted an unusual number of professional as well as amateur students to his prelections in both of these offices ; and the ability as well as learning he brought to bear on the topics of his chair, amply justified his elevation to the highest and most responsible position in the church. Dr. Chalmers now commenced a career of authorship, by which he still further extended his reputation as a divine. The most flattering 139 CHA honours were heaped upon him from varions quar- ters ; for not only was he elected moderator of the General Assembly the highest position in the Church of Scotland but he was chosen president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, created Doctor of Laws by the umversity of Oxford, selected by the trustees of the earl of Bridgewater one of the eminent writers to publish a treatise in proof of the wisdom and goodness of God in Creation, and appointed corresponding member of the Royal In- stitute of France a compliment which no clergy- man in Britain had ever previously enjoyed. Dr. Chalmers, who had zealously espoused the popular side in church politics, allowed nimself to De pre- vailed upon, contrary to his own better judgment, to propose the enactment of the veto law in 1833, in the fond hope that it would produce the effect of popularizing the Established Church; and there can be no doubt that it was successful to an emi- nent extent in realizing his fondest wishes. Never was the church stronger than during its preva- lence ; and it was on this auspicious period he commenced and earned on his gigantic labours in the cause of church extension. Adhering to the veto act, after the civil courts had decided on its illegality, he mingled in all the stormy controver- sies which followed ; and at length finding it hope- less to maintain the position he had assumed, he seceded in May, 1843, with a large body of adher- ents who joined him in forming the Free Church. He was the first moderator; and indeed there can be little doubt that his name, which was a tower of strength, and his eloquence, which pos- sessed resistless power over the popular mind, con- tributed more perhaps than any other cause, to give the new secession a local habitation in the land. Dr. Chalmers's health, impaired by his ex- traordinary labours, especially m organizing the new church, sank rapidly, and his death, in 1847, was sudden, and lamented by Christians of all de- nominations. His collected works, including ser- mons, theological lectures, &c, amount to 25 volumes. [R.J.] CHALONER, B., a catholic prelate, 1691-1781. CHALONER, Sir Tiios., a scholar and states- man of the age of Elizabeth, 1515-1565. His son of the same name, distinguished as a chemist, 1559-1603. Edward, son of the last, chaplain to James I., died 1625. James, a second son, an ad- herent of the parliament, committed suicide at the restoration, 1660. Thomas, brother of the preced- ing, absconded at the restoration, and died 1661. CHALOTAIS, G. R. La, the celeb, procureur- general to the parliament of Brussels, whose ex- pose" of the Jesuits provoked their expulsion and his own imprisonment, which produced a great effect in France, 1701-1785. CHAMBERLAINE, Robert, a poet, d. 1637. CHAMBERLAYNE, Edw., LL.D., au. of the Present State of England,' 1616-1703. John, las son, a celeb, philologist and translator, died 1724. CHAMBERS, Epil, the cydopaedist, d. 1740. CHAMBERS, Sir Wm., an archit., 1725-1796. CHAMBRAY, Roland Freard, lord of, a Fr. statesman and architect, time of Louis XIII. CHAMILLARD, M. De, aFr. states.,165 1-1721. CHAMILLARD, Step., a Fr. antiq., 1656-1730. CHAMISSO, Adelbert Yon, a fertile and interesting wr., especially as a natur., 1781-1838. cnA CHAMPAGNE, Philip De, a distinguishei Flemish painter, instructed by Fouquiens an employed with Lebrun in the Luxembourg palae< and other public buildings of Paris. His work- consist of sacred subjects and portraits ; born | Brussels, 1602, died 1674. His nephew, Jean Bai tiste, also a painter, b. at Brussels, 1643, d. 168? CHAMPEAUX, W. De, a celeb, philosoph. an theolog. of the 12th c, understood to be the fin: public professor of scholastic divinity, and the fin of scientific realism. Abelard was one of his schol! and it is by his attacks upon Chainpeaux that tl: latter is best known, his works being lost, d. 112:<j CHAMPIER, S., a Fr. physician, soldier, an historical writer, 1472-1539. CHAMPIONNET, J. S., a Fr. gen., 1762-180( CHAMPLAIN, Samuel De, a French nav; officer, an able, enterprising, and very devout mar who established the first settlement in Canad; by founding Quebec, in 1608. He fully ex plored the banks of the St. Lawrence, and dit covered the lake which still bears his name. A ( extraordinary zeal for the conversion of the natfri tribes was excited by him throughout the whole < France, and many persons of wealth and statio; devoted themselves voluntarily to the cause ; br the sole direction of the plans for this purpos was soon engrossed by the Jesuits, who proved froil that time forward a heavy incubus upon tbj advancement of the colony. [J.B.. CHAMPMESLE, Mary Desmares De, | French actress, pupil of Racine, 1644-1698. CHAMPOLLION, J. F., the celebrated Frencj archaeol. and interpret, of hieroglyphics, 1790-18311 CHANCELOR, Richard, an Englishman pilot-major of Sir Hugh Willoughby's fleet, ser] out by Cabot in 1553, and commander of one <| the ships. Landing at Archangel, he proceedef to Moscow, and by his address and judgment it his interviews with the Czar, laid the foundatio of the trade to Russia. Returning from a secon voyage in 1556, he was drowned, with most of hi crew, in Pitsligo Bay, on the E. coast of Scotlanc The Russian ambassador, however, who accom panied him escaped, was conducted to Londor and received with great distinction. [J.B. CHANDLER, E., a wr. on prophecy, 1671-175( CHANDLER, M., an Eng. poetess, 1687-174T CHANDLER, R., an antiq. writer, 1738-1810., CHANDLER, Sam., a religious au., 1693-1766 CHANDOS, John, an English general, lieut of the French provinces for Edward III., k. 1369 CHANGEUX, P. N., a Fr. mathe., 1740-180C CHANNING, William Ellery, an eminen' member of the society of ' Liberal Christians,' wa born on 7th April, 1780, at Newport, Rhode Is land, in the United States of America. Thoug descended on both sides of the house from purita; families, who had emigrated from England, h early displayed a spirit of free inquiry into th doctrines of Christianity and with the ardour c a young man, conscious of intellectual acumen an, energy, he keenly discussed, till he learnt to doubt the leading doctrines of the orthodox faith. Abov j all, he imbibed a rooted dislike of Calvinism ; am gradually extending his scepticism from one por ' tion of the received creed to another, he embracei that system of religion which is distinguished by I rejection of all the peculiarities of Christian doc- 140 . . ' ' *: CHA rine. He was a firm believer in the truth and Divine origin of Christianity, and had carefully itudied it in the inspired records ; but he regarded t as nothing more than a more complete and au- horitative republication of the law of Nature. >uch were the religious principles which Channing idopted ; and having become a preacher, his pul- rit discourses were characterized by such exhibi- ions of mental power and impressive eloquence, leightened by rich and beautiful imagery, that he vas hailed as a new star in the ecclesiastical firma- nent of America. Invitations were addressed to lim by two vacant congregations in Boston ; and ifter due deliberation, he accepted that of ' The Religious Society ' in Federal-Street, where he was )rdained on 1st June, 1803. The reputation which Mr. Channing had acquired by his early appear- mces in the pulpit, he fully sustained by the high quality of his regular ministrations. Week after >veek a laige congregation of intelligent hearers ittended his place of worship ; where he discoursed >n such subjects as charity, war, and peace the Bible Society missions, benevolent institutions, ;he anti-slavery cause and all public measures :hat tended to promote the advancement of liberty the progress of social improvements the dis- semination, and the final triumph of Christianity ; and to the illustration of these themes he brought ill the charms of beautiful diction and a poetical imagination, which led multitudes to hang with rapture on his lips. Mr. Channing was universally acknowledged as the first pulpit orator in America :>f his time, and accustomed as he was to en- ter so largely into the discussion of public matters, tie acquired a paramount influence in society. In summer 1814, he married his cousin Ruth Gibbs, in whose alliance he enjoyed the purest domestic happiness, and whose active partnership in all his plans and views of public usefulness, contributed in no small degree to the success of his public life. His health having shown symptoms of decline, he was advised in 1821 to try the effects of a voyage ; and accordingly he spent a year in travelling through Europe. On his return to Boston with recovered health, he resumed his labours as a preacher, and the course of his life was spent in undeviating devotion to the duties of the pulpit, except only the keen and active part he took in the unitarian controversy, which in 1815 was waged with great fierceness in America. In the course of that contest Dr. Channing for he had received from Harvard university the title of Doc- tor in Divinity gradually advanced from the Arian creed he had. hitherto maintained, into the adoption of pure Socinianism. Reports were eagerly circulated, that on his deathbed he re- nounced these principles and returned to the or- thodox faith. But the rumours seem to have been without foundation. He died suddenly, while journeying, at an inn in Bonnington, Ver- mont, on 2d October, 1842, and was buried in Mount Auburn, where a monument was erected to his memory by his sorrowing people. [R. J.] CHANTAL, Jeanne Francoise, Madame De, a distinguished pupil of St. Francis de Sales, and grandmother of Madame de Sevigne^ was born at Dijon, 1572, and married to the Baron de Chantal in 1592, who died eight years afterwards, leaving her with a young family, to whose instruc- CITA tion, and the performance of charitable offices to the poor, she devoted her life. She is celebrated for having founded, under the advice of De Sales, the order of the Visitation at Annecy in 1610, and such was her zeal and virtues, that she acquired the reputation of a saint among the common peo- ple, and was canonized 1767. She died 1641. In 1660 a volume of ' Letters ' by her was pub- lished, of which a new edition appeared with a life prefixed in 1823. Her other biographers are the Jesuit Fichet, Maupas de la Tour, Father Beaufils, and the Abbes Marsollier and Cordier. (Bioqraphie Universelle.') [E.R.] CHANTEREAU, Louis, a Fr. antiq., d. 1658. CHANTREAU, P. N., a Fr. gram., 1741-1808. CHANTREY, Sir Francis, was born at Norton in Derbyshire, April 7, 1781. He was bound to a carver at Sheffield, but established himself as a modeller in clay, first in Dublin, then in Edinburgh; and finally in London, where he was aided by Nollekens. Chantrey distinguished himself by his sepulchral monuments, and as a sculptor of busts, and experienced a uniformly successful career ; he was elected a Royal Academician in 181c, and was knighted by the queen in 1837. He died on the 25th of November, 1841. By the disposition of his property, Sir Francis Chantrey has secured a more prominent place in the history of art in Britain, than his mere reputation as a sculptor would have secured him. He left the reversion of the greater portion of his property to the Royal Academy, for the promotion of British fine art in painting and sculpture, including an annuity of 300 for the president, and 50 for the secretary, payable on the 1st of January of every year. The amount available will be about 2,500 per annum, which after the deduction of the salaries of the president and secretary, will leave upwards of 2,000 to be spent annually, on the average, in the purchase of paintings and sculpture executed within the shores of Great Britain, towards the formation of a British gallery of art. The funds cannot accumulate for more than five years, and no commissions can be given to any artists, all purchases must be bona fide purchases of finished works. (Jones, Recol- lections of Chantrey, 1849 ; Holland, Memorials of Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A., 1851.) [R.N.W.] CHAO-YONG, a Chinese philosopher, d. 1077. CHAPEAUVILLE, J., a theol. wr., 1551-1617. CHAPELAIN, John, a Fr. poet, 1595-1674. CHAPELAIN, C. J B. Le, a Jesuit, 1710-1779. CHAPELLE, C. E. Luil., a poet, 1626-86. CHAPMAN, Geo., an Engl, dram., 1557-1634. CHAPMAN, JoiiN, an Engl, divine, 1704-1784. CHAPONE, Hester Mulso, afterwards Mrs., the celebrated authoress of 'Letters on the Im- provement of the Mind,' was born in Northamp- tonshire 1727, and introduced to her future hus- band by Richardson the novelist. After being married ten months only, she was left a widow in 1760, and survived her loss till 1801. A collected edition of her works was published in 2 vols., with a sketch of her life prefixed, in 1807. CHAPPE DAUTEROCHE, a celeb. French astronomer, 1722-1769. His nephew, Claude, noted as the discov. of the telegraph, 1763-1805. CHAPPEL, Wm., an Irish prelate, to whom the authorship of ' The Whole Duty of Man ' has been imputed, (first published 1657,) died 1649. 141 cn.\ CHAPPLO'W, L., an Oriental schlr., 1G83-17G8. CHAPPUIS, Claude, a Fr. poet, d. 1572. CHAPTAL, J. A. C, a Fr. chemist, contractor for the supply of gunpowder to the revolutionary government, afterwards one of Napoleon's minis- ters, and count of Chanteloupe, author of works on practical chemistry, 1756-1832. CHAPUZEAU, S., a topographical wr., d. 1701. CHARDIN, Sir J., an Eastern trav., 1G43-1713. CHARETTE DE LA CONTRIE, Fr. Athan- asius De, royalist chief in La Vendee, taken and shot 1796. CHARILLUS, a king of Sparta, 8th cent. B.C. CHARLEMAGNE. This illustrious prince, the restorer of order and obedience in a state of society when only the most commanding talents and heroic steadfastness of purpose could have availed him in a struggle against anarchy and ignorance in their worst forms, was the grandson of Charles-Martel, king of the Franks, and lived 742-814, master of an empire which embraced all France, a part of Spain, more than half of Italy, and nearly all Germany. To feel his greatness adequately it must be remembered that all the ancient landmarks of social order had been over- thrown with the colossal Roman power, and that the whole civilized world was covered with its ruins and infested with its crimes. The ancient seat of empire was divided among a score of petty tyrants; the Saracens had overrun Spain and threatened the farther west; the northern king- doms were only known as the cradle of adventur- ous armies, whose leaders in after years organized the feudal governments of Europe ; Russia did not even exist ; and England was just emerging from the confusion of the Heptarchy. Some two cen- turies before, 507-511, Clovis had founded the Frankish monarchy and established himself at Paris, but his power was that of an absolute mili- tary chief, and he was succeeded by a line of phantom-kings, whose action is scarcely distin- guishable from that of the barbarous fermentation proceeding around them. At length Pepin-Heris- tal and his son Charles-Martel, slowly paved the way for a new authority, the former by familiariz- ing men's minds witb justice and goodness in the sovereign, and the latter by his heroic resistance CHA of the Saracens, and the promise of an f)ower in the government. The successes of Ch emagne were the natural issue of these rim stances under the command of his ambition i vast genius, favoured by the compliance of popes; who were willing to encourage a Christ protectorate in the west as a counterpoise to eastern empire of Irene, and the dreaded powe Haroun-al-Raschid. A catalogue of the prii pal events and dates is all that we can give in space to which we are limited. In 7G8 Charles s ceeded to the government conjointly with his I ther Carloman; and on the death of the latte: 771, became sole master of France by wisely fusing to divide the authority with his nephe In 770 he subdued the revolt of Aquitaine. 772 he marched against the still idolatrous Sax( and commenced a conflict which he maintained upwards of thirty years. In 773 he crossed Alps, and was shortly crowned king of Lombai and acknowledged suzerain of Italy by the pc with the right of confirming the papal eleetk In 778 he carried his arms into Spain, and p sued his victorious career as far as the Ebro, Avas surprised on his return in the pass of Ron( valles, where many of his knights perished, j among the rest Orlando or Roland, his neph the hero of Ariosto. In 780 Louis-le-Debonna his youngest son, was crowned by the pope k of Aquitaine, and Pepin, his second son, kinj Lombardy, both at Rome. Between 780 and ' he visited a terrible retribution upon the Saxc and compelled their chief to accept Christian b tism. Towards 790 we find him establish seminaries of learning, and doing all in his po to elevate the character of the clergy, the mos whom had hitherto known little but the Lo prayer; besides engaging in projects for the celeration of commerce, the general improvem of the people, and the promotion of science, fore the end of the century he had invaded P nonia, and extended his dominions in this direel to the mountains of Bohemia and the Raab. 800 he was crowned at Rome emperor of the w( and in 803 was negotiating a union with Irem order to consolidate the eastern and western < pires, when the empress was dethroned and ex by Nicephorus. From this period to his death, wl took place at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the seven ty-f year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his rei he was engaged in fortifying the coasts of Fra against the Northmen, and various matters re ing to the security and the prosperity of the ( pire, including the settlement of the successi In person and manners Charlemagne was perfection of simplicity, modesty, frugality, i m a word, of true greatness ; and though he was much given to the society of women, he had reputation of a good father, a tender husband, j a generous friend. He was indefatigable in all duties of government, and whether in the camj the court, had fixed hours for study, in which he t care to engage his courtiers by forming them i an academy. ' For shame !' he exclaimed, to who came before him attired more elegantly tl the occasion demanded, 'dress yourself "liki man ; and if you would be distinguished, let it by your merits, not by your garments.' nearest friend and companion was the illustri 142 CIIA /Ucuvn, and his fame was so widely spread that he only man, perhaps, of kindred genius in that ge, the great caliph, Haroun-al-Raschid, courted " good-will, and complimented him by an em- assage bearing presents. Befoi-e his death he nfirmed the succession in the person of his son ,ouis, by an august ceremony. Placing the im- erial crown upon the altar, he ordered Louis to ke it with his own hands, that he might under- tand he wore it in his own right, under no autho- rity but that of God. Perhaps we cannot conclude better by way of further illustrating the character bf Charlemagne than -with his words of advice to this prince : ' Love your people as your children,' said he, ' choose your magistrates and governors from those whose belief in God will preserve them from corruption, and see that your own life be blameless.' [E.R.] CHARLEMONT, James Catjlfield, earl of, an Irish politician, time of Burke, 1728-1799. CHARLES L, king of England, born 1600 ; succeeded his father James I. 1625 ; dissolved his third parliament 1629 ; troubles in Scotland 1637 ; long parliament convened 1640 ; battle of Edge- Hill 1642; defeat of Marston Moor 1644; defeat of Xaseby 1645 ; executed 30th January, 1649. [Bible used by Charles I. on the scaffold.] CHARLES II., born 1630 ; arrived in Scotland 1650 ; crowned at Scone and Carlisle, and after- wards defeated at Worcester 1651 ; restored to the throne 1660 ; war with Holland, Denm., and Fran., 1663; execu. of Russell and Sidney 1684; d. 1685. CHARLES, 'the Pretender,' grandson of James II., b. 1720; defeated at Culloden 1746; d. 1788. CHARLES I., of Germany and France. See Charlemagne. CHARLES II., surnamed 'the Bold,' b. 823; kg. of France 840 ; emp. of Germany 875 ; d. 877. CHARLES III., king of Suabia 876; king of Italy 879; emperor 880; king of Saxony 882; king of France 884; deposed, and supposed to have been assassinated 887-888. CHA RLES IV., born count of La Marche, 1294; king of France and Navarre 1322 ; died 1328. CHARLES V., b. 1337; k. of Fr. 1364; d. 1380. CHARLES VI., born 1368; king of France 1380 ; war with England 1404 ; defeated at Agin- coiirt 1415; treaty with Henry V, and his mar- ria<^ with the French princess 1420 ; died 1422. CHARLES VII., born 1403; dauphin 1417; CIIA sustained a disastrous struggle with the English from the death of his father to the appearance of Jeanne d'Arc 1429 ; ent. Paris as k. 1437 ; d. 1461. CHARLES VIIL, b. 1470, k. of Fr. 1482, d. 1498. CHARLES IX., son of Henry II. and Catharine de Medici, born 1550 ; king of France 1560 ; civil wars between the catholics and protestants, leading to the massacre of St. Bartholomew 1572 ; d. 1574. CHARLES X., grandson of Louis XV., born 1757 ; left France soon after the taking; of the Bas- tile 1789 ; succeeded Louis XVIII. 1824 ; dethd. by the revolution of July 1830 ; died 1836. CHARLES I., II., and III., of Germanv, same as France. Charles IV., b. 1316, emp. 1347-1378. CHARLES V., born 1500 ; succeeded his grand- father, Ferdinand, as king of Spain 1516, and was elected emperor of Germany 1519 ; presided at the diet of Worms 1520 ; sustained a long war with Francis L, whom he took prisoner at the battle of Pavia, 1521-1525 ; abdic. in favour of his son, after years of conflict with the protestant princes of Germ., 1556 ; died in the retirement of a convent 1558. CHARLES VI., father of Maria Theresa, born 1685 ; kg. of Spain 1703 ; emperor 1711 ; d. 1740. CHARLES VII., succeeded his father as elector of Bavaria 1726 ; crowned k. of Bohemia and emp. 1742 ; defeated by Maria Theresa, and died 1745. CHARLES I., king of Navarre, same as Charles IV. of France, successor of his brother Philip V. CHARLES II., born 1332, king of Navarre 1350 ; d., after losing a part of his kingdom, 1387. CHARLES III., son and successor of the pre- ceding, dist. by the surname of ' Noble,' 1387-1425. CHARLES I. of Spain, same as Charles V. of Germ., the great contemp. of Fran. I. andHen.VHI. CHARLES II., son of Philip IV., born 1661; king of Spain and Naples 1665 ; died 1700. CHARLES III., son of Philip V., born 1716 ; proclaimed king of Tuscany 1731, and afterwards king of Naples under the title of Charles VI.; succeeded as king of Spain 1759 ; died 1788. CHARLES IV., sue. 1788 ; abdic. 1808 ; d. 1819. CHARLES I., k. of Naples and Sicily, 1264-1285. CHARLES II., king of Naples only, 1288-1309. CHARLES III., succeeded Queen Joan, whom he put to death 1380 ; poisoned after his election to the crown of Hungary, 1386. CHARLES I., or VII., king of Sweden, 1161- 1168. The six preceding of this name are not known to history, but are given in the partly fabulous and partly invented list of Joannes Mag- nus, and the style has been too long sanctioned by the usage of historians to be altered. CHARLES VIIL, elected king 1448, d. 1470. CHARLES IX., fourth son of Gustavus Vasa, born 1550 ; king 1604 ; died 1611. CHARLES GUSTAVUS X., sue. 1654, d. 1660. CHARLES XL, son of the preceding, bom 1655, king 1679-97 ; distinguished as a successful opponent of Christiern V. of Denmark, and for his able administration. CHARLES the XII. of Sweden came to the throne in a.d. 1697, at the age of fifteen. The rulers of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, despised him as a weak boy, and formed a league for humbling the power of Sweden, and appropriating many of her best provinces. In this crisis the young Swedish king showed a degree of energy and courage that astonished both friends and foes. 143 CIIA lie put himself at the head of his army, invaded Denmark, and besieged Copenhagen. This bold stroke forced the Danish sovereign to beg for peace, and abandon the anti-Swedish confederacy. Charles then turned against his other enemies. On the 30th Nov., 1701, with 8,000 Swedes, he attacked and entirely routed the Russian army of 40,000 men at Narva. He then marched across Livonia and Courland into Poland, gained repeated victories over the enemies of his enemy Augustus, (who was elector of Saxony as well as king of Poland,) took Cracow, Warsaw, Dantzig, and other important cities ; and in 1704 compelled the Poles to depose Augustus, and choose Stanislaus Lescinski as their king. Charles then advanced into Saxony, which he occupied with his victorious troops, and forced the elector to beg a peace, the terms of which Charles dictated, (1707.) Charles lingered for some time in Saxony at the head of his army, which amounted to 50,000 veterans. The eves of all Europe were now fixed on him. His numerous victories, his daring and resolute spirit, the bearing and discipline of his troops, filled sovereigns, generals, and statesmen with admi- ration and anxiety. Louis XIV. earnestly implored his assistance against the arms of Marlborough and Eugene; and Marlborough himself undertook a special embassy to the Swedish camp in order to baffle the attempts of the French to win over the hero of the North to their alliance. Charles him- self cherished the most ambitious projects. He was bent., in the first instance, on deposing his enemy, Peter, from the throne of Russia, as he had deposed his other enemy, Augustus, from the Polish throne. One year, he thought, would suffice for the conquest of Russia. He next designed to attack the pope ; and he had despatched officers privately into Asia and Egypt, to survey the towns and military resources of those countries, with the intention of entering on a career of Oriental conquest, so soon as he had subdued his European foes. He marched out of Saxony in the autumn of 1707, and entered the Russian ter- ritory in 1708. He crossed the Berisina in June, defeated a Russian army that was entrenched near that river, and advanced as far as Smolensko, where he gained another victory, (28th Sept., 1708.) Instead of marching forward against Mos- cow, Charles now turned to the Ukraine, trusting to the promises of the old Cossack chief Mazeppa, who boasted that he would bring the whole Cos- sack nation over to the cause of Charles, but who was only able to persuade 7,000 men to join the invaders. Charles wintered in the Ukraine ; but he moved forward upon Moscow in the spring of 1709, and besieged the city of Pultowa, where the Russians had collected large military stores. < His army had been fearfully reduced by famine, fatigue, and the fatal frosts of Russia, as well as by the numerous skirmishes and actions in which it had been engaged. He had not more than 25,000 men under him at Pultowa, and at least half of them were Cossack and Wallachian recruits. The Russian czar, Peter the Great, advanced to relieve Pultowa with a well-equipped army, 60,000 strong. The decisive battle of Pultowa, fought July 8, 1709, between the rival sovereigns, ended in the total defeat of the Swedes. Charles made his escape from the held with difficulty, and sought CITA refuge in Turkey, where he was hospitably receive and sheltered. He remained there five years during which time his enemies were conquering th best Swedish possessions in Germany and on the eas of the Baltic. At length Charles suddenly lei Turkey, and joined the scanty Swedish bands tha were struggling against the forces of Russir Prussia, Saxony, and Denmark. After seven chequered, though generally unsuccessful cam paigns, Charles met his death before the fortres of Frederiekshall, in Norway, in the winter c 1718. He was leaning, at night, on a breast wori watching the operations of the siege by moonlighl under the fire of one of the enemy's batteries, whe a shot struck him on the head, and he died in stantly, in the thirty-seventh year of his life, an the twenty-first of his reign. [E.S.C. CHARLES XIII., son of Adolph-Fredericlj bom 1758 ; regent 1792 ; king 1809 ; died 1818. CHARLES I., duke of Savov, 1482-1481 Chari, II., 1489-1497. Charl. III., 1504-155?! CHARLES EMANUEL L, duke of Savoj! made count of Provence by the league, 1580-163( CHARLES EMANUEL II., duke 1G38-1675. CHARLES EMANUEL III., second king < Sardinia of the house of Savoy, born 1701, sue ceeded 1730, died 1773. CHARLES EMANUEL IV., sue. 1796, abdi in favour of his brother Victor, 1802, d. 1819. CHARLES FELIX, k. of Sardinia, 1821-183: CHARLES ALBERT, prince of Carignan. born 1798; succeeded Charles Felix as king t Sardinia 1831 ; made an attempt to libera* Northern Italy from the Austrians 1848 ; and die] broken-hearted after his abdic, 18th July, 1849.; CHARLES LOUIS, count palat. of tlie Rhinj mem. of the league formed agt. France, 1617-168 CHARLES THEODORE, elect, pal., 1724-177 CHARLES of France, received the duchy Lorraine from the emperor Otho II., but w. vanquished by Hugh Capet, and died 993. CHARLES I., duke of Lorraine, 1371-148J Charles II., called the Great, 1543-160J Charles III., was despoiled of his estates If Louis XIII. 1631, and recovered a part by tM treaties of 1641 and 1659, died 1675. CharliJ IV., a general in the service of Austria, married I the sister of the emperor Leopold, died 169 Charles Louis, of Lorraine, arch-duke of Austrij born 1771 ; companion in arms of Prince Cobou-J from 1793 ; commander of the imperial armies <j the Rhine 1796 ; defeated by Buonaparte ail Massena in Italy ; died 1847. CHARLETON, Lewis, bp. of Hereford, d. 163l CHARLETON, Walter, an English physicM distinguished as a writer of natural history, the! logy, and natural philosophy, died 1707. CHARLEVILLE, Charles Wm., earl <j com. of cavalry during the Irish rebel., 1763-1831 CHARLEVOIX, Pkter Francis Xavier D j a French Jesuit and historian, 1682-1761. CHARLOTTE, Augusta, commonly called t'| Princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV. ail Queen Caroline, born 1796; married to Priii Leopold, the present king of the Belgians, 181*1 died in childbed, 5th November, 1817. CHARNOCK, John, a naval writ., 1756-181 CHAKNOCK, Stephen, an English istic divine, distinguished for his learning, d. 16fil 144 cnA CHAROBERT, or CHARLES-ROBERT, a ng of Hungary, 14th century. CHARONDAS, a legislator of Gr., 5th c. B.C. CHARPENTIER, Fr., a man of let., 1620-1702. CHARPENTIER, F. P., an engrav., 1734-1817. CHARPENTIER, J., a Fr. philos., 1524-1574. CHARPENTIER, J. F. J.,amineral., 1738-1805. CHARPENTIER, M.A.,a composer, 1634-1702. CHARPENTIER, R., a sculptor, 1680-1723. CHARRERIE, Madame De St. Hyacinthe, novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1806. CHARRIER, M. A., a royalist leader of the surgents of Lozere, executed 1793. CHARRON, Peter, a French moralist and eologian, author of a book famous in its day, en- vied a ' Treatise on Wisdom,' &c, 1541-1603. CHARTIER, Alain, a French poet and prose riter, ' the father of Fr. eloquence,' 1386-1458. CHARTIER, R., a Fr. Orientalist, 1572-1654. CHASLES, F. J., a French author, last cent. CHASLES, Greg. De, a Fr. author, d. 1720. CHASSENEUX, Barth. De, a writer on civil w, eminent for his conduct as president of the irliament of Provence, when it was in his power delay the decree against the Vaudois, 1480-1541. CHASSIGNET, J. B., a French poet, 1578-1621. CHASTELARD, P. De Bocosle De, a French ntleman surprised in the bed-room of Mary uart, and beheaded on a charge of treason. CHASTELER, J. G., marquis of, an Austrian neral, finally governor of Venice, 1763-1820. CHASTELET, G. E. De Bretetjil, marchion- s of, translator of Leibnitz and Newton into ench, 1706-1749. CHASTELET, Paul Der Hay, lord of, a Fr. St., and min. of state under Richelieu, 1593-1636. CHASTELLUX, Francis John, marquis of, marshal of France, and member of the French cademv, dist. in Germ, and America, 1734-1788. CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Auguste, icomte De, was born in Brittany, of an ancient mily, in 1769. At the age of seventeen he was moved from home to enter the army; but, his giment revolting, he retired from the service; id after several of his relations had been executed the reign of terror, he emigrated, returning only r a short time to serve in the invasion attempted ' the emigrants under Conde\ For several years : resided chiefly in England, paying, however, a sit to the United States, in the course of which i dreamt of discovering the North-west Passage, id gathered among the red men materials for lie Natchez' and 'Atala.' In this period he iblished his 'Essay on Revolutions,' in which ere were expressed a good many opinions speedily andoned by their writer, as conceding too much the spirit of the age. In 1799, when Buona- trte had overthrown the directory, Chateaubriand turned to France. In 1802 he became one of e most celebrated authors in Europe, by the pub- ation of his ' Genius of Christianity,' (' Genie du iristianisme,') a work which is in every way in cnA taste as to be repelled by its excessive pomp of ornament. It records, with seeming method, but real desultoriness, and with dazzling force of re- presentation, the reflections, and pictures, and emotions, arising in the mind of a man who, though he did not think either profoundly or ex- actly, possessed a singular fulness of imagination, and was animated by a fervent spirit of religious reverence. Religion, however, interests Chateau- briand most keenly when it is regarded in its rela- tions to literature and art. He exhibits here the same incapacity to apprehend practical realities, which afterwards distinguished nis political writ- ings, and his course of political action : and the ro- mantic turn of his elaborate treatise on sacred things is illustrated by the fact, that there was in- troduced into it as an episode the Indian tale of 'Atala,' subsequently separated from it and re- ceiving the tale of ' Rend as a supplement. The 'Genie du Christianisme,' like all the author's other works, is eloquent ; but its eloquence is arti- ficial, theatrical, and monstrously strained. It is often pathetic ; but its pathos continually tends to degenerate into mawkish sentimentality. Such as it is, however, the ambitious effort displayed an animation and warmth which, breaking in on the recent deadness of French literature, excited uni- versal attention and admiration. The views which the work expressed were likewise in accordance with the ecclesiastical policy of the new ruler of France ; and the imposing character of Napoleon made a vivid impression on Chateau- briand's excitable fancy. He immediately entered the service of the first consul in the diplomatic de- partment. In 1803 he visited Rome as secretary to Cardinal Fesch. He had very soon an opportunity of exercising that courageous integrity by which he was always so honourably distinguished. He had just been appointed minister to the Valais, when, in the spring of 1804, Napoleon sullied his name by the execution of the Duke D'Enghien. Chateaubriand instantly resigned his place, forfeit- ing, of course, all claims to favour under the em- pire. In 1806 he set out on those travels to the East, which are recorded in his 'Itinerary from Paris to Jerusalem.' Now likewise he added an- other imaginative illustration to his 'Gdnie,' by publishing ' The Martyrs,' a Christian romance of the Roman empire. Afterwards, returning to France, he took no part in public affairs till the fall of Napoleon. In 1814, while the disposal of the sovereignty of France remained doubtful, he wrote his famous pamphlet, ' Of Buonaparte and the Bourbons.' It is generally allowed that this well-timed appeal did much in diminishing the unpopularity which Louis XVIII. had incurred, by using the arms of foreigners in the recovery of his crown. During the Hundred Days Chateau- briand attended the king at Ghent, and acted as his foreign minister. After the battle of Waterloo, he received a seat in the Chamber of Peers, and a nominal appointment as a minister of state. ructively characteristic both of his merits and I But he held no actual office under the ultra royalist s defects. It has no value either theological or ministry, which was the first after the restoration. iilosophical, even for those who regard Christi ijty, as the writer did, from the Roman Catholic lint of view. But it is a work possessing great tractions for those readers who can sympathize ith its tone of feeling, and who are not so severe in He came into place with the more liberal adminis- tration of Villele. In 1821 he was ambassador in London. In 1822 he was one of the two plenipoten- tiaries of France at the Congress of Verona ; and in his History of it he claims the credit of having 115 CHA been the real instigator of the French invasion of Spain. Next year he had, as minister of foreign affairs, the satisfaction of directing the ill-advised expedition undertaken in consequence of that reso- lution of the Congress. He remained in private life during the arbitrary reign of Charles X., ex- cepting that, in 1828, he was appointed ambassa- dor to Rome, but resigned immediately when Po- lignac was placed at the head of the administra- tion. On the revolution of 1830, Chateaubriand delivered in the Chamber of Peers an oration, in which he advocated strongly, but by no means on high monarchical grounds, the claim of the Duke of Bourdeaux to the throne. This was his last ap- Pearanee in public life. On the election of Louis hilippe, he refused to take the oaths, resigned even his pension as a peer, and occupied himself thenceforth in literary labom-s. These were now necessary for his support, his whole property hav- ing been spent. Most of his writings during this period of declining age, such as his ' Sketches of English Literature,' are of small value. His chief employment was the composition or completion of his voluminous ' Memoirs from Beyond the Tomb,' (' Memoires d' Outre Tombe ;') and the right of publishing these after his death was sold by him for a large life annuity. They exhibit an amount of vanity and egotism almost unparalleled; but they are full of interesting details, and have very much of his peculiar kind of eloquence.- Chateau- briand died at Paris in the summer of 1848, when he had almost completed his eightieth year. PW.S.] [Tomb of Chateaubriand, at St. Malo.J CHATEAUBRIANT, J. B. V. De, a dramatic poet, member of the French Academy, 1686-1775. CHATEAUNEUF-RANDON, Count De, a Fr. deputy, afterw. gen. under the directory, d. 1816. CHATEAU-REGNAUD, Fran. Louis Rous- selet, count of, a French admiral, 1637-1716. CHATEL, Fr. Du, a Flemish painter, 16th ct. CHATEL, Peter Du, a Fr. prelate, eel. as a Greek scholar and controversial writer, d. 1552. CHATEL, Tanneguy Du, a Fr. gen., d. 1449. CHATELAIN, J. Le, a monk, burnt alive, 1525. CHATELLARD, J. J., a mathem., 1693-1757. CHATHAM, William Pitt, earl of, was the second son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc, in Corn- wall, where he was born on 15th November, 1708. His family was extensively connected with the higher English country gentry, and his grandfather, CHA William Pitt, governor of Madras, was the owne of the celebrated Pitt diamond. Young Pit studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and on leaving the university he obtained a cornetcy in the Blues Walpole afterwards, following his relent tern of party warfare, deprived him of his com- mission. Perhaps this act entirely altered destinies, since he possessed qualities that, had hi remained long enough in the army to have felt ai interest in his profession, might have developed great powers of military command. He enteret parliament for the family borough of Old Sarum. in 1736. He immediately joined the opposition, which placed the name of the Prince of Wales I its head. The most eminent of his early speeches were delivered in that last effective attack on Wal- pole, which, in 1742, drove him from power. They are said to have been brilliant and astound- ing efforts of oratory, but the usual versions ol them are so steeped in the antithetic mannerism of Johnson, who professed to report them for th ' Gentleman's Magazine,' that it is impossible tc know how far they are genuine ; while other re- ports, professing to be verbatim, do not justify the high reputation of these earlier efforts. His oppo- sition to the government did not cease with the fal] of Walpole. His bold declamation, so much in con- trast with the personal and narrow party discussions which then occupied parliament, drew a substanJ tial token of admiration from a kindred spirit, Sa-| rah, duchess of Marlborough, who bequeatheci him 10,000. On the other hand, the king hat a thorough dislike to him, as a person whose oppo sition was not of that usual kind which mereh tries to remove a ministry and occupy their place but which aimed at a political power independen of, if not above, the throne. The Pelhams, how ever, saw the great importance of adding hi strength to their ministry, and in 1746 the kin; unwillingly submitted to his appointment first tl a subordinate place, and immediately after to th lucrative office of paymaster-general. The sam haughty self-reliance which he had shown i opposition distinguished him in office, and it serve to restrain him from drawing on those man sources of irregular emolument which were the- attached to official power. His marriage, in 175' with the sister of George Grenville, opened to hiijj a new political connection. In 1755, he was fl missed, along with his brother-in-law, but in ti : ensuing year it was found necessary to bring ther, both back to a cabinet of which Pitt was virtual! the head. In 1757, an attempt was again macH to dispense with the services of the ' great con' moner,' but after the country was two months ar';| a-half without a government, he returned wil greater power than ever. It was then that, backc by national enthusiasm, he conducted the brilliai operations which paralyzed France and drove h fleets from almost every sea. On the accession ; George IILhe was superseded by the royal favourit Lord Bute. Various overtures were made to him i\ join or form a ministry, and in 1766 he undcrtwr-f the latter function, choosing, to the surprise fl the world, a sinecure place for himself, and a se in the upper house. Repeated attacks of gov| from an early period of life downwards, had b^> jured both his constitution and temper. I resigned office in 1768. Opposed to the taxati< 146 CHA ,f America, he was, on the other hand, indignant it the proposed abandonment of the colonies, ana t was while exhorting the House of Lords against he measure that he was seized with a fit from rhich he never recovered, dying in a month after- rards, on the 11th cf May, 1778. [J.H.B.] CHA conduct. He extorted a release from his master before he had served him for three years ; and im- mediately sought and found literary employment in London, busying himself chiefly with political and satirical writings. A very few months of toil, ill remunerated, and disappointments in his ex- pectation of patronage from the great, drove his undisciplined mind to despair. He became indi- gent to the verge of starvation, and poisoned him- self in August 1770, when he wanted some weeks of completing his eighteenth year. [W.S.] [Holwood House, the residence of the Earl of Chatham.] CHATHAM, John, earl of, eldest son of the *L statesm., and brother of Wm. Pitt, 1756-1835. CHATILLON, G. De, a Fr. captain, d. 1210. CHATILLON,G. De, constab. of Fr., 1249-1329. CHATILLON, L. De, a Fr. enam., 1639-1734. CHATILLON, N. De, a Fr. arch., 1549-1616. CHATRE, Claude, Baron De La, a Fr. mar- hal, gov. of Berry, under Charles IX., 1526-1614. CHATRE-NANCAY, the Count De La, a nilitary officer of France, au. of Memoirs, d. 1645. CHATTERTON, Thomas, born at Bristol in 752, was the son of a poor schoolmaster, who ied a little before his birth. After having spent years in a charity school, he was articled to n attorney in his fifteenth year. He was not uite sixteen when he published in a Bristol news- aper the first of his extraordinary forgeries, being n account of an ancient procession, which, on eing questioned, he alleged to have been found in charter-room of the church of St. Mary Red- - i. He next exhibited specimens of old poetry, /hich he asserted were written in the fifteenth cen- by a priest named Thomas Rowley. At the time, pieces, both in prose and verse, which were edly his own, appeared in London magazines; these, by their singular force and originality, nowed him to be quite capable of having concocted ie supposed antiques. Indeed, wonderful as was, l the circumstances, the antiquarian and other oowledge which he wasted on his impostures, leir spuriousness was at once evident to the few ho were competently familiar with the Old Eng- sh language and history. The poet Gray, and his iend Mason, unhesitatingly denounced the impo- ii, when some of the poems were sent to them Horace Walpole. The best imitation of the ique, is perhaps the minstrel's song inserted in e tragedy of Ella ; but eveiy where there is evi- nce of genius which, if it had been guided by d intention, and fostered by mature study, lid certainly have given birth to poetical mas- ieces. But perversity of principle was mam- boy' ilike in the unhappy boy's writings, and in his [Charter Boom, St. Mary Bedcliffe, Bristol.] CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry, lived in the fourteenth century, one of those periods which are most important and interesting, both for the history of the nation and for that of our native literature. The sovereigns of England in his time were Edward III. and Richard II.; Wickliffe, his contemporary, to whose opinions, in re- gard to ecclesiastical polity, Chaucer was inclined through his connections at court, was beginning to undermine the rule of the Church of Rome ; the language of the people was now, for the first time, so far developed as to be a fit organ for literary composition, both in prose and verse ; and, while the romances and other poems of France were still the favourite models of poetry, higher aims and greater correctness of execution were taught by the Italian masterpieces of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. Nothing is known as to Chaucer's parentage, and hardly anything as to the events of nis youth. He was born about 1328, probably in London, and is said to have been educated at both universities, and to have also studied law. Very early he obtained public employment, attaching himself to Edward s son, John of Gaunt, ' time- honoured Lancaster.' The second wife of this f)rince, who had already been his mistress, is be- ieved to have been the sister of Chaucer's wife. In 1359 the poet served, and was taken prisoner, in the king's invasion of France ; and besides dis- charging other foreign missions, he was sent to Genoa in 1373, a journey which is supposed to have given him an interview with Petrarch. Among other offices which he held in the course of this reign, was the comptrollership of customs in the port of London ; and a pension, with a grant of a daily pitcher of wine, has been erroneously referred to as constituting an appointment as poet- laureate. He likewise received a house in the royal demesne of Woodstock ; and there most of 147 CHA his later works are traditionally said to liave been composed. In the disturbances which arose after 1377, when the feeble Richard II. succeeded to the throne, Chaucer was implicated; and he is said, on doubtful authority, to have been at one time a fugitive to the continent, and at another a prisoner in the Tower. In 1386, however, he was knight of the shire for Kent. He died in London in 1400, soon after the accession of Henry IV., the son of his early patron. One of his sons became speaker of the House of Commons, and the other married a daughter of the ducal house of De La Pole. Chaucer deserves commemoration as one of the very earliest of those who wrote prose in a language which can properly be called English. But his compositions of this sort have little value for any but the philologer. His minor poems, also, although they would secure his name from neglect, would cause him to be remem- bered only as one of those who improved most actively a kind of poetry, borrowed m the main from the allegoric and chivalrous fancies of the French, and cultivated for several generations be- fore his time. Some of his works are free transla- tions, or loose abridgments. Such are the ' Ro- mance of the Rose,' from the French ; the ' Troilus and Cressida,' from the Italian of Boccaccio ; ' and 1 The Legend of Good Women,' derived from the epistles of Ovid. Among his original poems, 1 The House of Fame,' and The Flower and the Leaf,' are very fine in themselves, and have re- ceived injury, not improvement, in the modernized paraphrases of Pope and Dryden. Chaucer's claim to immortality, as one of the greatest of English poets, and as a poet essentially and strik- ingly original in spite of many borrowings in de- tail, rests on his ' Canterbury Tales.' These are currently said to have been all written after the poet's sixtieth year. But there is reason for sus- pecting that many of the pieces may have been composed before ; and that we are not entitled to assign peremptorily to his old age anything be- [Tomb of Chaucer ] yond the collection of the stories into a series, and the writing of that introduction to them which is certainly the best part of the work. This intro- duction is described as the Prologue. It relates how a band of pilgrims, bound for the shrine of Saint Thomas a Beckett at Canterbury, meet at the inn of the Tabard in Southwark; and how 118 CHA they agree to relieve the weariness of the way h] the telling of stories. The portraits of the pil- grims are among the most admirable things in tb< whole range of poetry : they are equally good foi their delineation of character, for their variety anc depth of serious sentiment and arch humour, anc for a pointed strength and aptness of languaa which, antiquated though the diction is, may & understood by every well-educated reader witl very little study. Similar excellencies belong t< the Tales which follow, and which, breaking of abruptly, leave us to suppose that the design wai not more than half completed. The humorous talei are coarse and sometimes immoral, yet felicitously humorous : some of the serious ones are in even way beautiful. The ' Knight's Tale,' telling ii chivalrous guise the adventures of the Greel knights Palamon and Arcite, has aptly been callec the Iliad of Old English literature. ' [W.S.' CHAUDET, A. D., a Fr. sculptor, 1763-1810." CHAUDON, L. M., a Fr. ecclesiastic, author o: historical and chronological works, 1737-1817. CHAUFFEPIE, J. G. De, a Calvinist mini* ter, and historical and critical writer, 1702-1786. CHAUFOURRIER, J., a Fr. paint., 1672-1757 CHAULIEU, W. A. De, a Fr. poet, 1639-1720 CHAULNES, Honore D' Albert, Duke De marshal of France, and favourite of Louis XIII. died 1649. His son, Louis, an ambassador, 1625! 1698. A later inheritor of the title, distinguishe as a mathematician and naturalist, 1714-1769 ; ami .his son and successor as a chemist, 1741-1793. I CHAUMETTE, Pierre Gaspard, one of th vilest scoundrels by whom the French peopl were maddened in the period between 1789 an] 1794, was the son of a shoemaker, and before hi! advent as a street orator and journalist, had roj through a career which seems to have perfectej him for every species of villany, as a cabin-boy, j schoolmaster, a lawyer's clerk, and a novice in ] convent. He was bom in 1765, and began h| public career in one of the low clubs. In 1789 l| edited a journal entitled 'Les Revolutions d<J Paris.' In 1792 he was elected ' procureur-syi| die,' or attorney, for the commune of Paris, c which occasion he formally renounced his chrl tian name, and declared that he took that of Ai axagoras, ' a saint who had heen hung for his r. publicanism.' He was the virtual chief of tl ' He'bertists,' the inventor of the Feast of Reaso and the high priest who officiated at the worsh of the demoiselle Candeille in the cathedral Notre Dame. His brutal character may be judg from the fact that he presented the prince dauplb with the model of a guillotine for a plaything, ai that the revolting questions put by Hebert to i queen originated in nis obscene imagination. F. features were abject, yet marked by insolence ; ai his style of address, to judge from the specime which have been preserved, was characterized the vulgarest claptrap, and insolent use of ape trophe. There is reason to believe that he plotted i the destruction of the entire body of the conve tion along with that of the Girondins. It becai his boast that ' he knew the suspect in the stre< by the very face of them.' The prisons of Pa were filled with his victims, and the violence a immorality of his party were so extreme, that t. Committee of Public Safety could not be insej? CHA ( tlble to the danger which threatened the republic i I From this quarter. Robespierre watched his op- portunity, and these wretched panderers to the Inirst vices of the people were sent to the guillo- i' 'ine on the 24th of March, 1794. [E.R.] i CHAUMONT, P. P., a Fr. ecclesias., d. 1697. < CHAUNCEY, Ch., D.D., a relig. au., 1705-87. j CHAUNCEY, Sir Hen., the well-known hist. jlf Hertfordshire, knighted by Char. II., 1632-1700. ' CHAUSSE, M. A. De La, a Fr. archae., d. 1724. I ! CHAUSSEE, P. A. Nivelle De La, a French (Iramatist and member of the academy, 1692-1754. I CHAUVELIN, G. L. De, a French statesman i hi the confidence of Cardinal Fleury, 1685-1762. IF. Claude, his son, lieutenant-general in the jirmy, and ambassador to Italy, died 1774. Ber- nard Francis, son of the last named, a diplo- loatist of the revolution, 1766-1832. | CHEDORLAOMER, a king of the Elamites, [upposed to be the ancient Persians, or a neigh- pouring people, about 2000 B.C. CHEHAB-EDDYN, an Arab, histor., 1300-67. ! CHEKE, Sir John, a Greek scholar and states- nan, exiled as an adherent of Lady Jane Grey, llfterwards confessed Catholicism, 1514-1557. if CHEMCOTTE, Alex., a Swed. Orien., d. 1835. CHEMIR, M. J., a Fr. dramatist, died 1811. j CHENIER, M. A., a French poet, 1763-1794. I CHENIER, M. J., a Fr. dram, poet, 1764-1811. CHEOPS, the remit, build, of the great pyramid. CHE RUBIN, a Fr. astron. and math., 17th ct. CHERUBINI, Luigi Carlo Zenobio Sal- 1 1'ATOR, founder of the French Conservatory and : pstructor of thousands of eminent musicians, was torn at Florence on the 8th of September, 1760. i He commenced his musical studies at nine years of Ige, first under Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, father and son, and afterwards under Bizarri Cas- rucci, and last under Sarti at Bologna, _ from khom he derived the greatest benefit. At thirteen tears of age he wrote a mass which gave ample promise of his future eminence as a composer. I^rom this time till 1778 he wrote a great number pf works in various styles, and all successful, puring the time he was a pupil at Bologna, some ')f Sarti's most celebrated operas were produced, ind two of these, 'Achille in Sciro,' and 'Giulio pabino,' were afterwards acknowledged to have |)een almost entirely from the pen of Cherubini. In 1784 Cherubini came to the Italian Opera at London, where he remained two years, and pro- lluced his operas ' La Finta Principessa,' and a re- written version of his 'Giulio Sabino,' both of Which were successful. In 1786 he went to Paris, Which became thereafter his adopted country. In 1788 he visited his native country and produced his [Iphigenia in Aulida.' He never went to Italy Soon after this he brought out his 'De- Jnophoon' in Paris, which from various causes proved a failure. In 1791 Cherubini brought out lis opera of 'Lodoiska' at the Theatre Feydeau, which, though it established his reputation as afirst- ate composer, was, however, swamped by Kreut- ser's more popular opera of the same name. In L794 he brought out ' Eliza,' in 1797 ' Medea,' in L798 ' T Hotellerie Portuguese,' in 1800 Les Deux Journees,' in 1803 'Anacreon,' and in 1804 his jallet 'Achille a. Scyros.' His fame, which had low spread far and wide, led to an invitation to 149 CHE Germany, whither he went in 1805, and produced his opera ' Faniska' at the Imperial Theatre of Vienna. During his sojourn all his most favourite works were brought out, and became quite the fashion with the German people, and tne great musician of Germany, Beethoven, when he heard the ' Faniska,' said Cherubini was the first dramatic composer of his time, and Haydn embraced him, and called him his son. In 1809, having returned to Paris, he produced his opera of ' Pygmalion,' in 1810 ' Le Crescendo,' in 1813 ' Les Abencerrages,' the promising career of which was shortened by the news of Buonaparte's retreat from Moscow. In 1815 Cherubini was invited by the Philharmonic Society to come to London, which invitation he accepted, and composed an overture, a symphony, and a grand concerted vocal piece, all of which were performed under his own direction in the con- certs of that society. On his return to Paris, the dynastic and musical changes had so materially affected the position and prospects of Cherubini, who was of far too independent a temperament to become a courtier, that he retired from some of his situations in disgust. He was, however, soon re- called, and was appointed composer to the king's chapel and professor of composition at the L'Ecole Royale, (of which institution, in 1822, he was ap- pointed director,) and was elected a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. These appointments were considered all the more honourable to Cheru- bini, as he had never condescended to become a flatterer of royalty, and as because of the indepen- dence of his character he had received insults and indignities from Napoleon. In 1833 he comj his grand opera ' Ah Baba,' which was well received in France, but did not long keep the stage. In 1835, in consequence of the ecclesiastical authori- ties having forbidden the employment of female voices in the service of the church, it was impos- sible that Cherubini's grand requiem could be per- formed at the funeral of Boildieu. He then, at the advanced age of seventy-six, undertook to com- {)ose a requiem for male voices only, which was his ast composition, and was chosen as the one which should be performed at his funeral obsequies. Shortly before his death, he resigned the office of Principal of the Conservatory of Music, of which establishment he had been the head for twenty years, and with which he was connected for forty- eight years ; and a month before his demise, which took place on the 15th of March, 1842, he was in- vested with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. Cherubini's fame as a composer of instrumental and operatic music is world-wide, but his reputa- . tion with future ages will rest chiefly on his sacred compositions. Cherubini was a good man, as he was a great artist. Thoroughly Independent, he spoke fearlessly as he felt, and he was loved and venerated by his pupils and all who belonged to the large circle of his friends. [J.M.I CHESELDEN, R., an English surgeon, d. 1831. CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- hope, earl of, son of the third earl, was born in 1694. After studying in his youth with a zeal of which afterwards he thought proper to be ashamed, he learned on the continent his polished smoothness of manners, his love of gaming, and his loose code of morality. He entered public life in 1715, soon after the accession of George I. In CHE the course of this reign he distinguished himself in the House of Commons as an exceedingly skilful and effective debater ; and he supported his repu- tation when his father's death transferred him to the House of Lords, shortly before the prince of Wales, to whose party and household he had be- longed, succeeded to the throne as George II. From this time till 1748, when deafness and other infirmities compelled him to retire from public life, Lord Chesterfield took an active part in the petty intrigues and party squabbles which make up the parliamentary and court history of the reign. His diplomatic skill was made useful in two foreign embassies; and his lord-lieutenancy in Ireland, beginning in 1745 and lasting only a few months, has always been mentioned with distin- guished praise. After a sickly and melancholy period of old age, he died in 1773. The only writ- ings of this accomplished person that are at all remembered, are his ' Letters ' to his natural son, remarkable for their ease of style and their know- ledge of society, but notoriously reprehensible for the principles of conduct which they inculcate. [W. S.l CHETARDIE, Marquis De La, a French diplomatist, ambassador to Russia, 1705-1758. CHETHAM, Humphrey, the eel. fhdr. of the college and public library of Manchester, d. 1653. CHEVALIER, A. R., a Fr. Hebraist, 1507-72. CHEVALIER, F., a Fr. historian, 1705-1808. CHEVALIER, J., a Latin poet, 1587-1644. CHEVILLIER, And., a French antiq., d. 1700. CHEVREUSE, Madame De Rohan-Mont- bazon, Duchess De, a court beauty, and political intriguante of the time of Richelieu, 1600-1679. CHEYNE, George, a Scotch physician, and author of works on disease, diet, &c, 1661-1743. CHEZY, A., a French engineer, 1718-1798. CHIABRERA, Gabriel, a lyric poet and dra- matist, surnamed the Italian Pindar, 1552-1637. CHIARAMONTI, S., an Ital. hist., 1565-1652. CHIARI, Fab., an Italian painter, 1621-1695. CHIARI, J., a Roman painter, 1654-1727. CHIARI, Pietro, a comic poet, 1720-1788. CHICHELEY, Hex., an Eng. schol. and states- man, at length archbp. of Canterbury, 1362-1443. CHICOYNEAU, F., a French physician and wr. on the plague of Marseilles, 1672-1752. CHIERICATO, J. M., an It. theol., 1633-1717. CHIESA, Silv., an Italian painter, 1623-1657. CHILD, Sir Jos., a merchant of London, known as a wr. on political economy and trade, 1630-1699. CHILD, Wm., an English composer, 1607-1697. CHILDEBERT, the first of this name k. of Fr., 511-558 ; the second 575-596 ; the third 695-711. CHILDEBRAND, a brother of Charles Martel, and his comp. in arms against the Saracens, 8th c CHILDERIC, thejirst of this name, k. of France, 457-481 ; the second 656-673 ; the third 742-755. CHILDREY, Josh., a nat. phil., 1623-1670. CHILLINGWORTH, Wm., an Eng. theologian, (listing, for his controversial ability, 1602-1644. CHILMEAD, E., a wr. on music, 1616-1653. CHILO, one of the seven Gr. sages, 6th c. b.c. CHILPERIC I., prince of Soissons and Paris, the youngest of the sons of Clothaire L, 561-584. CHILPERIC II., conq. by Ch. Martel, 715-720. CHISHULL, Edm., an Eng. antiq., 1580-1633. CHI-TSONG, emperor of China, 1507-1566. CHI-TSOU, otherwise Koublai-Khan, grand- CHR son of Gengis-Khan, a celebrated Mogul empero who reunited China to his dominions, 1214-94. CHITTY, Jos., an English lawyer, 1776-1841. CHOISEUL, Stephen Francis, Duke De minister of state to Louis XV., by whom he wa dismis. under the influence of Du Barry, 1719-1785 CHOISI, Fr., Abbe De, a Fr. hist, 1644-1724 CHOPART, F., a Fr. wr. on surg., 1750-1795 CHOPIN, Fred., a Polish composer, d. 1849. CHOPIN, R., a Flemish priest, 1537-1606. CHORIS, Louis, a Russian painter, 1795-182? ^ CHOSROES, or KHOSROU I., king of Persia died in prison after ravaging Asia Minor, 531-563 CHOSROES II., grandson of the prec, 590-628 CHOUL, Wm. Du, a French antiquarian, 16th c CHRETIEN, Florent, a Fr. poet, 1541-159( CHRETIEN, G. L., aFr. wr. onmus., 1783-1811 CHRIST, J. F., an art-writer, 1700-1756. CHRISTIAN, C, a gem engraver, 1695-1725. CHRISTIAN, E., an English lawyer, d. 1823. CHRISTIERN I., born 1425 ; succeeded as kin of Denmark 1448 ; king of Norway 1450 ; king c Sweden 1456 ; died 1481. CHRISTIERN II., surnamed the Cruel, bor 1480 ; succeeded as king of Denmark and Norwa 1513 ; king of Sweden 1520 ; defeated by Gustavr Vasa, and d. after many years' imprisonm., 1559 ; CHRISTIERN III., king of Denmark only, bor 1503 ; succeeded his father, Frederic I., but had t fight his way to the crown, 1533 ; died 1558. CHRISTIERN IV., king of Denmark, b. 1577 succeeded 1588 ; chief of the protestant leagi 1625 ; peace with Tilly 1645 ; died 1648. CHRISTIERN V., king of Denmark and No: way, born 1646, succeeded 1670, died 1699. CHRISTIERN VI., k. of Denmark, 1699-174 CHRISTIERN VII., king of Denmark, boi 1749 ; succeeded and married to Caroline Matild sister of George III., 1766, died 1808. CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, born 162(1 sue. her father Gustavus Adolphus 1632 ; abdi in favour of Charles Gustavus 1654, died 1689. CHRISTINA of France, daugh. of Henry F and Marie de Medici, born 1606 ; married to the dul of Savoy 1619 ; regent at his death 1637 ; d. 166 CHRISTOPHE, emperor of the East, 920-931 CHRISTOPHE, theirs* of this name, king Denmark, 1252-1259 ; the second at the beginnirj of the 14th century ; the third, king of Denma^ and Sweden, celebrated as a legislator, 1440-144 CHRISTOPHE, Henry, a negro leader in tl insurrection of St. Domingo, afterwards kii under the title of Henry L, 1767-1820. CHRISTOPHER, d. of Wurtemburg, 1515-156 1 CHRISTOPHERSON, John, bp. of Chicheste celeb, for his learning and literary talents, d. 155 CHROCUS, a king of the Vandals, died 260. CHEYSIPPUS. a Stoic philosopher, 2d c. b.c CHRYSOSTOM, John, was born at Antio* about the year 351, and was the son of Secundu a military officer on the staff of the Roman gove nor of Syria. While the son was yet an infant, father died, but the widowed mother devoted he self with intense energy to her son's education Having studied under Libanius and others, with view to his being placed at the bar, where he practis for a short time with considerable promise, lie, his twentieth year, embraced a monastic life. Soi short time afterwards he was ordained deacon, a) 150 CHR -ilegan to publish. He was not ordained presbyter, llnd did not preach till about his fortieth year. iIany of his most famous homilies, such as those jjln the ' Statutes,' were preached at Antioch, and wis growing fame soon led to his translation to the liSee of Constantinople in 398. His vigorous prose- i ytution of radical reform among the clergy, his iiapdelity in rebuking offenders of the highest class, jlpven the empress, and his own sternness of resolu- . Hion, made him an object of jealousy and dread, ["wkn irregular council condemned him in 403 upon the ij{nost flimsy grounds, and upon his refusal to sub- 5 nit, he was arrested and sent to Nice in Bithynia, j put he had scarce arrived at his place of exile when n ue was recalled, for fear of an insurrection, and his 'i return had all the appearance of a popular triumph. the empress was again provoked, and the pa- eiarch was again banished, first to Cucusus in the ountains of Tauris, where he busied himself in acting the pagan natives, and then to Pityus, the bleak borders of the Black Sea. In travel- to the latter place, he reached Somana, and lied about the age of sixty. Thirty years after his th his body was brought back to Constantinople, ind his bones at length found repose beneath the low of St. Peter's at Rome, where the Sistine ir daily chaunts its requiem over his ashes. It is not to be denied that the 'golden mouth' was isionally impetuous and self-willed, but he his misfortunes with manly piety and forti- . The faults of his style lie upon the surface of its florid exuberance and continuous accumu- " Bation of metaphors. His rhetoric sometimes over- his logic. Yet the effects of his eloquence prodigious, his thrilling appeals went at once ie heart. His conceptions are all painted - start up as images, and his orations resemble wded panorama. The humble conventicles of Syria heard the same gospel which at length rolled iwing periods beneath the great dome of St. da. Splendour of intellect, mellowness of , heart, and gorgeousness of fancy, characterize all irlhis sermons, expositions, orations, and letters. He left behind nearly a thousand homilies, ser- S or expositions, still of great value to the :>reter, besides some polemical writings, tracts on monasticism, and a treatise ' on the priesthood.' The best edition of his works is that of Montfaucon i\ m 1718-38, and in 13 folios. i [J.E.] CHTCHERBATOV, a Russian histor., d. 1790. CHUBB, Thos., a deistical writer, 1679-1748. CHUN-YEOU-YU, an early emp. of China. CHUN-TCHI, emperor of China, 1644-1661. CHURCHILL, Ciias., an English poet, eminent for the keenness of his satire, and equally noted for j< the laxity of his morals and love of pleasure, was ordained a priest in the Church of England, but first disgraced, and then contemptuously abandoned his clerical character. He was horn 1731, and as early as 1761 had placed himself in this equivocal position. His poems were all written in the short interval 1760 and 1764, when he died. Though his productions are highly praised for the humorous and effective character of their composition, it is as im- possible to regard them with unqualified approba- tion, as to admire the character of the author. CHURCHILL, Sin Winston, father of the duke of Marlborough, known to history as a roy- alist knighted after the restoration, and. to litera- CIB ture by his ' Divi Britannici,' or memoirs of English sovereigns, 1620-1688. CHURCHYARD, Th., an English poet, 17th c. CHYR-CHAH, a king of Hindostan, d. 1545. CIASSI, J. M., an Ital. naturalist, 1654-1679. CIBBER, Colley. The life of this comedian has been written by himself, and forms one of the live- liest of autobiographies ; a work sufficient to dis- prove of itself tne charge of being a dunce brought against him by Pope. Mr. Colley Cibber was born, according to his own account, on 6th November, 1671, in Southampton-Street, London. His father, Caius Gabriel Cibber, was a statuary, and native of Holstein, who came into England some time previous to the restoration. 'The basso relievo,' says his son, ' on the pedestal of the great column in the city, and the two figures of the lunatics, the raving and the melancholy, over the gates of Bethlehem Hospital are no ill monuments of his fame as an artist.' When ten years of age (1682) Cibber was sent to the free school of Grantham, Lincolnshire, where the boy appears to have shown the same giddy negligence that marked the man ; and to have unconsciously made enemies by an inveterate habit of jesting, besides the envy exer- cised by his literary progress. We may form some idea of his provoking humour from what occurred in 1730, when he had recently received the laurel, and there was so much discontent expressed that it should be conferred upon a comedian. The ' public papers were enlivened with ingenious epigrams, and satirical flirts,' on the occasion. The witty author entered the lists against himself, and published a doggrel copy of verses in the Whitehall Evening Post, in which he lampooned himself. His vanity, as well as his vivacity, had much to do with this strange conduct. But the former is the actor's foible, and must be put up with. Previous to choosing the stage for a profession, Cibber had the offer of several chances for the church, the court, and the army ; but notwithstanding the prejudices of his father, he preferred the boards. The famous year, 1688, witnessed this important revolution in the state of our author's private affairs. At the time that Cibber joined Sir William Davenant's company (1690), the principal performers were Betterton, Montfort, Kynaston, Sandford, Nokes, Underhil, Leigh, Mrs. Betterton, Mrs. Barry, Mrs. Leigh, Mrs. Butler, Mrs. Montfort, and. Mrs. Bracegirdle, ' all ' as Cibber calls them, ' original masters in their different styles ; not mere auricular imitators of one another!' At this period, it was not customary to pay young actors dur- ing their probation, and it was three quar- ters of a year before young Cibber became entitled to ten shillings a- week. By the time that he received double that salary, he ventured on matrimony. Necessity soon made him a poet. Fortune had begun to smile on his new career. By the recommendation of Mr. Congreve, he had the honour of acting before Queen Mary in one of Kynaston's parts. His next step was the produc- tion of a prologue, which was accepted and spoken. Alderman Fondlewife, in the play of 'The Old Bachelor,' next afforded him an opportunity of astonishing his fellow - performers, though' he received small encouragement from them. The expediency of writing a part for himself led to his composing the comedy of ' Love's Last Shift,' which 151 CIB was produced on the boards in January, 1695, and in which he acted the character of Sir Novelty. Still Cibber won his way but slowly with the actors ; and even up to the end of his career had not secured their full faith in him. His talents were at least of the versatile order, for he not only performed the fops and coxcombs of comedy, but lago, Wolsey, Syphax, and Richard III. in tragedy. But the performance of vicious characters he seems to have considered injurious to his reputation. Owing to the censure of dramatic poets, by Jeremy Collier, in his 'Short View of the Stage,' the master of the revels became cautious in granting licenses to new plays. Nevertheless, Cibber con- trived to get on pretty well; his muse and his spouse, to use his own words, 'being equally prolific, that the one was seldom the mother of a child, but in the same year the other made him the father of a play.' ' I think,' he adds, ' we had a dozen of eacn sort between us, of both which kinds some died in their infancv, and near an equal number of each were alive when we quitted the theatre.' 'The Careless Husband' has always been reckoned Cibber's best play. 'The Nonjuror,' however, was the most popular, owing to its political character. It was levelled against the Jacobites, and was the reason, in fact, of Cibber's being made poet-laureate in 1730, when he quitted the stage. He died in 1757. His ' Apology,' from which we have derived the materials for his life, is an exceedingly amusing work. His works fill 5 vols. 12mo, published in 1760. [J.A.H.] CIBBER, Theophilus, son of the celebrated comedian, and like him an actor and play-writer, was a man of profligate character, and very inferior talents, 1703-1758. His second wife, Susannah Maria Cibber, was a sister of Dr. Arne, and often performed with Gaxrick as a tragedian; 1734-1766. CICERO, Marcus Tuixius, was born at Arpinum, an ancient city of Latium, in B.C. 106 ; the same year which gave birth to Pompey. The treat aptitude for learning which he displayed in oyhood induced his father to remove to Rome, where the future orator and statesman was edu- cated under the best masters of the time. In b.c. 89 he served his first and only campaign under Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey, who was then engaged in the Social war. Having thus complied with the custom of his age, Cicero CIC devoted the next six years to the studies whic were necessary to raise him to distinction as lawyer and an orator ; practising declamation i Latin and Greek, and storing his mind with thos f>recepts of philosophy, which, throughout his even! ul life, cheered him amidst professional toils, an consoled him under disappointment and persecu tion. At the age of twenty-five he came forwar as a pleader, and, even at the risk of incurring th displeasure of Sulla, defended clients who wer obnoxious to the dictator. But his health, whic was naturally feeble, gave way under incessan application to study ; and, for the purpose ( invigorating his constitution, as well as correctin certain defects in his style of oratory, he visite Athens (b.c. 79,) made a tour of Asia Minoi and for some time resumed his studies at Rhode) under Molo, from whom he had received instruc tions at Rome. After an absence of two years, h returned to Rome with renewed health and en larged knowledge, and speedily placed himself a the head of the Roman bar. Being qualified b law at the age of thirty to become candidate fc the lowest of the great offices of state, he wa elected quaestor in B.C. 76, and obtained each c the higher offices as soon as he was permitted b law to hold it, reaching the consulship in B.C. 61 During his consulship he was called upon t grapple with the famous Catilinarian conspiracy and the courage, prudence, and decision which h manifested in directing the difficult and com plicated investigations that led to the detectio and punishment of the conspirators called fort the encomiums of all classes of the citizens. Th public enthusiasm heaped upon him unwonte honours : in the senate and in the forum he ws saluted as parens patriae (the father of hi country) ; thanksgivings in his name were vote to the gods; and all Italy united in testifyin their admiration and gratitude. But his unes ampled good fortune had excited the jealousy < : many of the leading nobility, and his irrepressibli vanity exposed him to the ridicule and assaults J his enemies. He was accordingly destined sooj to experience a reverse of fortune as remarkable and more sudden than his rise. It had be iudged necessary to put to death five of the rina leaders in the conspiracy; and though this w done in virtue of the dictatorial authority wit! which the consuls were invested by the senat] and with the consent and approval of that bodf Cicero was indicted for having put a Roman eitj zen to death untried, and forced to go into bail ishment in April, b.c. 58. But private mali.' soon expended itself, and public feeling, revertiij to his signal services in rescuing his country froi impending ruin, recalled him after an interval | seventeen months. His reception at Rome cheerr his dejected spirits ; but the circumstances whiJ led to his banishment prevented him from ev after recovering his former position. In B.C. i\ he was admitted a member of the college | Augurs, and towards the end of B.C. 52 lie w appointed proconsul of Cilicia. He administer'! the affairs of his province with the strictest ir, partiality, corrected the abuses which had be, introduced or sanctioned by his predecessors, ai, realized in practice the precepts which in his wri ings he hud inculcated. He returned to Italy 152 CIO C. 49, at the commencement of the civil war stween Caesar and Pompey, and finally resolving mse the cause of the latter, followed him to ece. After the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48, at hich he was not present, he again returned to aly, and was received into favour by Caesar, bparating himself now entirely from all parties [the state, he arranged and published during the bxt three years nearly all his most important jorks on rhetoric and philosophy. But the tu- jults excited by Antony after the murder of pesar, b.c. 44, again drew him from his seclusion; ad Augustus, knowing the value of such an ally, ad carefully concealing from him his real inten- pns, gladly availed himself of his services as jader of the senate. Cicero's zeal, which was ot always tempered with discretion, now ex- ibited itself in the famous philippics against .ntony, which again made him the idol of the .oman people. But the formation of the second iumvirate sealed the fate of the great Roman ator. His name appeared in the list of the oscribed, having been placed there by Antony one of the conditions of the league ; and after unsuccessful attempt to escape, he stretched rward his head to his executioners, and called n them to strike (b.c. 43). His head and hands fere conveyed to Rome, and, by the orders of An- pny, nailed to the Rostra. We have not space to tehneate the character of Cicero, or to enumerate fis works. These have been repeatedly published, |oth in mass and in detached portions. [G.F.] CICOGNA, Pascal, doge of Venice, 1195. CICOGNARA, Leopold, a painter, 1767-1834. CID, The. Don Rodrigo Layney (often called, y his countrymen, by the abbreviated appellation toy Diaz,) was born at the paternal castle of Jivar, in Castile, about the year 1026. He was f the purest Gothic blood ; but his family pos- essions were small ; and he was indebted to his wn valour and martial genius for the renown and tnportance which he acquired. His military ca- eer against the Moors of Spain was commenced inder the banners of Don Ferdinand, king of 3astile ; and he soon became celebrated through- nt Europe as the model of Christian chivalry. ?ive Moorish kings, whom he defeated and took aptive, and to whom he generously granted life tnd liberty, bestowed on him the title of Es >ayd, (i.e., my lord); whence arose the name of he Cid, by which he is best known in poetry and in ustory. Don Sancho, who succeeded Ferdinand m the throne of Castile, made the Cid generalis- imo of his armies ; whence came the title Cam- >eador, by which also the hero is often named by lis countrymen. Under the next sovereign, Mfonso VI., the Cid was frequently the mark of inmerited royal jealousy ; and he was more than mce banished from Castile. On these occasions ie took refuge with some of the Moorish princes >f the peninsula, where he served gallantly m their vars with one another. But his loyalty to Castile nras unblemished ; and when recalled by the capri- :ious Alfonso, the veteran Campeador combated for lim as zealously as he had fought in his youth for nore generous and grateful sovereigns. Among nany other achievements, he is said to have wrested he city and kingdom of Valencia from the Maho- metans, and to have annexed it to the Castilian CLA dominions. The reputed year of his death is 1099. His tomb is still shown at Bivar ; and his country- men, after so many centuries and so many changes, still speak of him with enthusiastic pride. His victories and his romantic personal adventures furnish the themes of many of the finest old Spanish ballads ; and they are also narrated in the ' Poem or Chronicle of the Cid,' the earliest great {)oem of modern Europe, which is supposed to lave been framed about fifty years after the hero's death, from an original chronicle written in Arabic by two Moorish pages of the Cid. [E.S.C.] CIMA, J. B., an Italian painter, 15th cent. CIMABUE, Giovanni, commonly called the father of modem painting, was born at Florence in the year 1240. The prominence given to the name of Cimabue in the history of painting in Italy, is due solely to the place he has in the ' Lives of the Painters, &c.,' by Vasari, whose work is the great text book on this subject, as far as relates to the revival of painting in Italy. Cimabue possessed more than ordinary merit in his time, but was little if at all superior to his reputed master Giunta of Pisa, whom he is supposed to have assisted in the church of San Francesco at Assisi in 1253. Cima- bue had several other able contemporaries, as Margaritone of Arezzo, Duccio di Buoninsegna of Siena, and Gaddo Gaddi of Florenee; all, including Cimabue himself, strictly belonging to the Byzan- tine school of painters. Many Greek artists were established in Italy in the thirteenth century, especially at Venice, Pisa, and Siena ; the event which brought the eastern and western civilization into more immediate contact at this time, was the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204. The pictures of this time were executed in tempera, and have generally gold grounds : there is still a large picture of the Madonna, by Cimabue, preserved in the church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence; and there is another of the Madonna and Child in the academy of Florence. Cimabue was still living in the year 1302. He was the master of Giotto, whose ability he discovered and cultivated. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] CIMAROSA, an opera comp. of Nap., 1754-1801. CIMON, an Athenian gen., the son of Miltiades, dist. himself against the Persians, 470 B.C., d. 449. CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, the illus- trious Roman patriot, consul about 460 b.c, and twice afterwards dictator. The dates and events are somewhat uncertain, but it is sufficiently known that he delivered the republic from her domestic and foreign enemies with the skill of a statesman and soldier, and retired to his farm refusing all recompense. CINELLI, Giov., an Italian phys., 1625-1706. CINGAROLI, M., an Ital. painter, 1667-1729. CINNA, Cneius Cornelius, consul of Rome 4. CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, the eel. colleague and partizan of Marius, consul B.C. 87, killed 84. CINNAMUS, John, a Gr. historian, 12th cent. CINO DA PISTOIA, an Ital. poet, 1270-1337. CINQ-ARBRES, J., an Orientalist, died 1587. CINTRA, P. De, a Portuguese navig., 15th ct. CIPRIANI, J. B., an Italian painter, 1732-85. CIRILLO, Dom., an Ital botanist, 1734-1799. CITTADINI, J. F., a flower paint., 1616-1681. CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude, a French mathematician of great genius, of the times ot 153 CLA Euler and D'Alembert. He was born at Paris in 1713, and died in 1765. Clairaut wrote on the figure of the earth, and on curves of double curva- ture, besides many separate memoirs and ele- mentary works on algebra and geometry. In his time he belonged to the ' great world ' of Paris : the thorough student will read his writings still ; he had much taste in composition as well as great analvtic power. CLAIRAUT, J. B., a Fr. mathem., 1680-1766. CLAIRFAIT, Count De, an Aust. gen., d. 1798. CLAPPERTON, Hugh, was bom in 1788, at Annan, in the county of Dumfries, where his father practised as a surgeon. After having entered the merchant service, and made several voyages to America, he was impressed on board a man-of-war. By the influence of an uncle, a cap- tain in the marines, young Clapperton soon attained to the rank of a midshipman ; and some time after, while on service in Canada, to that of lieutenant. He gained, in various actions, the reputation of a skilful and brave officer. Being at home on half-pay for five or six years, he became acquainted, at Edinburgh, with Dr. Oud- ney, then engaged in plans of African discovery; and was soon after associated, under the directions of Earl Bathurst, with this gentleman and Major Denham in an expedition to the sources of the Niger. They crossed the desert from Tripoli to Lake Tchad, which they were the first Europeans to visit, reaching it on 5th February, 1823. Here our travellers separated for a time ; and Clapper- ton explored the country to the S. W. as far as Sokatou, in lat. 13 N., long. 5 45' E., a dis- tance of 700 miles from Lake Tchad. Dr. Oudney, who accompanied him, died by the way about a month after they started. Meeting in health at Kouka, the capital of Bournou, where they left Mr. Tyrwhit as consul, Denham and Clapperton recrossed the desert to Tripoli, at which they safely arrived on 25th January, 1825. Clapperton was soon after raised to the rank of commander, and equipped for a second expedition, intended to reach the sources of the Niger by ascending the stream from its mouth. This was found imprac- ticable from the unhealthy nature of the delta of this great river. Proceeding by land Clapperton raached Sokatou from the S. W., thus connecting his observations with those of his former journey. Here, however, he was destined to end his active and useful life ; weakened by fatigue, with feelings irritated by the obstacles thrown in his way, he was seized with dysentery, and after a lingering illness, he expired on the 13th April, 1827. Richard Lander, his faithful and attached servant, was the only European who remained of the party, Captain Pearce R.N., Dr. Morrison, and others, having died soon after they left the coast. Full accounts were published of the several journeys, which added immensely to our knowledge of central Africa. [J.B.] CLARE, St., a follower of St. Francis Assise, and founder of an order of nuns, 1193-1253. CLARENCE, George, duke of, brother of Edward IV., drowned in a butt of Malmsey, 1478. CLA came a lawyer on the death of his elder brothei through which, in 1632, he succeeded to hi father's property. Although he practised his pro fession for a time, it does not seem to have eve engaged so much of his attention as literature di at first and politics afterwards. In 1640 he wa elected a member of Charles I.'s Short Parliamenl in whose moderate attempts at reform he bore a active part ; and when the king contemplated dig solving it, Hyde took advantage of an intimacy h had contracted with Archbishop Laud, to offe earnest remonstrances against that arbitrary an imprudent step. He sat again in the Long Par liament, which the king was forced to summon be fore the end of the same year. He concurred i some of the earliest of the strong measures noi adopted by the house, such as the proceedine against the judges in Hampden's case, and th impeachment of Strafford ; but in no long time i became startled by the lengths to which the popti lar leaders were disposed to carry their oppositio to the crown. The king seized the first opportu nity of securing to himself so useful a servan Hyde, Lord Falkland, and Colepepper, wei secretly appointed to manage the interests of tfc crown in parliament ; and although the cautiot and reasonable counsels of the first two of the* advisers were disregarded by their master, Hyc continued to frame the royal messages and oth< documents till the breach with tlie parliamer took place. In 1643, having now attached hiiii self to the king's person, he was knighted an made chancellor of the exchequer ; after which I was actively engaged in the king's affairs till 164' when, on the irretrievable ruin of the royal caus he accompanied the prince of Wales in his fliglj from England. He now resided for two years I Jersey, occupying himself in study and in the con< position of his History; after which he joined tli prince at the Hague, and continued in his serviii when his father's death had made him nominal king. He spent more than a year in Spain, vain soliciting aid, but extending his own knowledge well as writing moral and devotional treatise! For several years afterwards he was Charles's chi! adviser, and, in 1658, received the place of lo:> chancellor, then only nominal, but soon real. I returned with Charles II. to England in Maj 1660, and immediately began to act both J speaker of the House of Lords, and as chief jud;j in the Court of Chancery ; being soon also raist] to the peerage. At this time his prospects we] seriously endangered, by the discovery of the secrj marriage of his daughter to the duke of Yor 1 through which he became the grandfather of til queens of England. The storm passed away wit out doing immediate harm. Lord Clarendon w virtually the head of the administration till ne the close of 1667; and, as the responsible adviser* Charles II. for more than six years, he cannot b have done many things which would then ha been condemned by patriotic men, and many othe which would now appear still more censurab The sale of Dunkirk, and the promotion of t king's marriage, though they were the main caus CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, earl of, was of the unpopularity which gradually gatherj around the chancellor, were certainly not the woii of the steps which were taken, either by his advi or with his sanction and assistance. He had tak ! bora in 1608, at Hinton, in Wiltshire, the estate of Henry Hyde, his father. He studied at Oxford with the design of entering the church, but be- 154 CLA prominent part in the bloody vengeance which, n the beginning of the reign, was inflicted on the I egicides and other parliamentary leaders ; he was j 'et more active in conducting that persecution of he dissenters, of which the Act of Uniformity was he consummation ; and, in conducting the secret legotiations for a loan from France, he made the dng of England to be independent of parliament ,nd the pensioner of a foreign and hostile power. r et even these acts were only such as the circum- tances might have prompted to one who was at ince a zealous royalist, a somewhat bigoted Jlhnrchman, and a statesman fond of power, and J'ictuated by considerations of expediency rather J han by elevated principles. If such motives are tot veiy dignified, they are at least very much a ibove the level of those that prevailed among the I orrupt and profligate politicians who swarmed J ibout the restored king. Nor was Clarendon's h all caused by any of those acts of his that were 'eally reprehensible. He became unpopular with i he nation because of the disgraces incurred in a n rar undertaken in spite of nis dissuasions ; he <4 nade himself obnoxious to the courtiers by re- t erved haughtiness of manner, and by a strictness of i oivate conduct which silently rebuked their de- :i lauchery ; and he lost the favour of the king be- i use he connived only at royal vices instead of a andering to them, and countenanced reluctantly J tcts of misgovernment to which he was expected to 31 ;ive hearty support. After Clarendon's unpopu- if arity had become general, Charles and his parlia- 1 Dent vied with each other in their eagerness to ruin !: dm. Repeated messages from the king failed in (ill (revailing on him to make a voluntary surrender : f the great seal ; and after he had been displaced, si nd impeached at the bar of the House of Lords, t was only a distinct warning that his master nuld not and would not save so much as his life, induced him to leave the country. He fled he continent in November, 1667, and would returned to face his trial had not illness pre- bed him. He moved from one town of France other, resuming his studies and writing some is works; and at length he died at Rouen ''ecember, 1674. The principal writings i he left were his 'History of the Rebel - [ tion,' and his Account of his own Life. The ter of these, with all its errors and short- 4 scmings, is unquestionably a valuable storehouse i of historical materials ; while its comprehensive- ?_ pess of views, its skill in the portraiture of char- r peter, and the interest which is excited by its kninutely-drawn narratives of events, combine in iecuring for it a distinguished place among the monuments of English literature. [W.S.J CLARIDGE, R., a Quaker writer, 1649-1723. CLARK, John, a medical author, 1744-1805. CLARK, William Tierney, a civil engineer of distinguished merit. He was early apprenticed j to a millwright in Bristol, and worked succes- sively at Colebrookdale and in London under the it Rennie, with whom he remained till 1811. was the engineer of the West Middlesex ter Works, and to the advancement of this im- portant undertaking his energies were devoted for many years. Suspension bridges early excited his j attention, and he has left Hammersmith, Marlow, Norfolk, and Pesth suspension bridges, as monu- CLA ments of his taste in design, and skill in engineer- ing. The suspension bridge of Pesth, while it stands a monument to his genius, is the admira- tion of all who have seen it. It was the last and crowning act of a life devoted to a profession of which he was an ornament. He died 22d Sep- tember, 1852, aged sixty-nine. [L.D.B.G.] CLARKE, Dr. Adam, was a native of Moy- beg, in Ireland, where he was born, 1760. Like many other men of eminence, he was indebted to the influence of maternal counsels and example in the formation of his youthful character, as well as in the choice of his future course ; for while his father was an episcopalian, his mother, who was a Scotchwoman and a presbyterian, had, on her settlement in England, warmly espoused the cause of Wesleyan methodism, and used every endeavour to bias the ductile mind of her son in favour of that sect. Though rather dull when first placed at school, his faculties rapidly developed and gave strong pledges of his future eminence. Having in his seventeenth year become impressed with deep views of religion, he resolved to conse- crate his future life to the service of God in the ministry of the gospel, and through the recom- mendation of Wesley, was sent to complete his education at the Kingswood school. There his taste for Hebrew and Biblical studies was awak- ened ; and so strong a hold had a love of sacred literature taken of his mind, that even amid all his wanderings and harassing difficulties as a Methodist preacher, he continued with unflagging resolution to carry on his course of intellectual im- provement. He not only occupied his leisure mo- ments while stopping at inns, but even in riding on horseback he generally had a book in one hand ; and by this rigid economy of time, he was storing his mind with useful knowledge, as well as collecting materials for his future works. The cir- cuit assigned him to perambulate as an itinerant E readier was Wiltshire. And although, of course, e had various stations in the country, he pitched his residence at Trowbridge, where he formed a matrimonial alliance with Miss Cooke, daughter of Mr. Cooke, clothier, and a lady of great piety, prudence, and amiable dispositions. Mr. Clarke's fame as an Orientalist and biblical scholar hav- ing spread extensively, he received the honor- ary title of LL.D. from the university of St. An- drews, and was enrolled a member of several learned societies both in Britain and America. His ardent attachment to general, and especially to Oriental literature, led him to take an active part in the management and secretaryship of several of those societies. And the duty of maintaining the various correspondence, together with the pres- sure of his congregational labours, which always held the first place in his regard, so greatly affected his health, that his medical advisers persuaded him in 1815 to resign his pastoral charge. Retir- ing to a rural retreat in Lancashire, which the liberality of a few friends had presented to him, he lived in the enjoyment of literary leisure. His Commentary on the Bible was prosecuted with ardour ; but finding himself deprived of many ad- vantages which to a literary man are indispensable, he disposed of his farm, and after a residence in Lancashire of eight years, returned to establish himself at Eastcott, a small village in the vicinity 155 CLA of London. In Haydon Hall, an elegant mansion he purchased there, he completed his Commentary, an elaborate work in 8 vols. 4to, which had occu- pied his attention more or less for forty-eight years, and the publication of which was issued at intervals from 1810 to 1826. Dr. Clarke, though uncon- nected with any particular charge, had never wholly discontinued the practice of preaching. An en- gagement of this kind was to have been fulfilled at Bayswater on the morning of the day on which he died. But having been seized with a sudden at- tack of Asiatic cholera, which was then commit- ting dreadful ravages in London, he was cut off on the 26th August, 1832, maintaining to the last, amid the paroxysms and frightful bodily contor- tions which that formidable pestilence produced, a mind calm, collected, and firmly reposing on the bosom of his Saviour. Besides his commentary, Dr. Clarke was the author of several other works, the chief of which are, ' The Succession of Sacred Literature,' 'Memoirs of the Wesley Family,' 'Fleury's Manners of the Ancient Israelites,' ' Shuckford's Sacred and Profane History of the World,' ' Sturm's Reflections, translated from the German,' and ' Harmer's Observations.' In addi- tion to these he was employed several years by the government in collecting materials for a new edition of ' Rymer's Foedera,' which since his death has been carried on by a commission under govern- ment. [R.J.] CLARKE, Alured, au. of sermons, &c, 18th c. CLARKE, Edward Daniel, LL.D., celebrated for his travels through many countries of Europe and Asia, was bom at Wellingdon, in Sussex, 5th June, 1769. His father was a clergyman of rather limited income, and died before his son's education at Cambridge was completed. After graduating, he obtained, between 1790 and 1798, several situations as resident family tutor ; and as travelling tutor and companion to gentlemen of fortune, with whom he visited most parts of England and Scotland. In the latter year he was elected fellow of his college, (Jesus) and came to reside in Cambridge. In the year following he went abroad as travelling companion to Mr. Cripps, and made an extended journey, occupying three years and a-half, a most interesting account of which, originally given in 6 vols. 4to, was his principal work. In 1808, he was appointed first professor of mineralogy at Cambridge, whose museum and library he had greatly enriched by his collections. The British Museum owes to him the celebrated Sarcophagus, incorrectly called that of Alexander, as well as other objects. He took or- ders in 1805, and enjoyed two livings. His death oc- curred at London on 9th March, 1822. He was, be- sides, the auth. of many papers in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, on physics, and chemistry ; and of some dissertations on antiquarian subjects. [J.B.] CLARKE, H., LL.D., a mathemat., 1745-1818. CLARKE, Hy. Jas. Wm, Due De Feltre, de- scended from a partizan of the Stuarts settled in France, min. of state under Buonaparte, 1765-1818. CLARKE, Jas. Stanier, LL.D., brother of Edward Daniel Clarke, a naval historian and founder of the 'Naval Chronicle,' died 1834. CLARKE, John, a Scotch engrav., 1650-1721. CLARKE, John, brother of Dr. Sam. Clarke, a classical scholar, author of sermons, &c, d. 1759. CLA CLARKE, Dr. Samuel, the celebrated meta physical divine, was born at Norwich on 11th ( October, 1675. His father, who had held the highes offices in that city, and was in comfortable circum stances, determined to afford him the advantage of the most liberal education, and accordingly sei him in due time to Caius College, Cambridge where amid the various objects of academic m terest, young Clarke evinced a decided preferenc for theology. Engaging with untiring ardour i the pursuit of knowledge, he acquired an extensiv acquaintance with the different branches of physi cal sciences, especially optics, and made his firs essay before the world as an author by the trans lation of Rohault's physics a work which Ion continued to be regarded in this countrv as th best elementary work for students. While thru however, improving his mind in general knowledgi his chief attention was directed to theology, an desirous of drawing his information from til fountain head, he gave himself to the earnest stud of the Scriptures in the Hebrew and Greek origj nals. By such devotion to study, Clarke earl shone by his theological attainments, and almos immediately after obtaining orders in 1669, he bt gan his career as a theological author by publish ing ' Three Practical Essays on Baptism, Confii mation, and Repentance,' and shortly afterward) his ' Paraphrase on the Four Gospels.' In 1704 h was appointed to a lectureship on the ' Evidences and it was in the course of the duty which th: situation imposed on him, that he prepared thos profound and elaborate works which nave raised hb to the first rank of philosophical divines, viz., I Lecture on the Being and Attributes of God,' an a second on the 'Evidence of Natural and Re vealed Religion.' These lectures were afterwarc expanded into the form of treatises ; and althoug a diversity of opinion prevails as to the soundnes and value of the a priori argument, no different has ever existed as to the force with which D Clarke has discussed the subject, and the piel which pervades the composition. The publicatic obtained for him a European renown as a Chri% tian philosopher, and a more substantial rewaij followed in the preferments which were liberal^ offered to him in his own church. In 1706 1. was appointed rector of St. Bennett's, Paui Wharf, London, and though he was the reverse a popular preacher, he showed exemplary diligent in the performance of his parochical duties. Am his multifarious engagements his active mil' found time to gratify his taste by the culture physical science; and he published a translate of Sir Isaac Newton's Latin treatise on Optics, f which that philosopher gave him a present 500, with the still more valuable addition of I private friendship. Dr. Clarke published a m theological treatise entitled 'The Scripture Do trine of the Trinity,' in which he is supposed lean towards Ariamsm. He died very suddenly 7th May, 1729, of an inflammatory attack. [R. J CLARKE, Lieut. William, in conjuncti with Captain Lewis, led the first great natior expedition sent out by the United States. It w planned by President Jefferson, and had for object to ascend the Missouri, cross the Roc Mountains, and reach the Pacific. All this w successfully accomplished between May 1804, a | 156 CLA I'ay 180G. The account is full of interesting Iventure and romantic incident ; and the journey ntributed greatly to the improvement of geo- aphy. Such a route had been some time before ojected by an enthusiastic individual named wiathan Carver. [J.B.] CLARKSON, D., a nonconfor. div., 1622-1686. CLARKSON, Thomas, was born on 28th arch, 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire. is father, who was a clergyman of the Church of ngland, taught the free grammar school of the ace, and prepared his son for entering St. John's ollege, Cambridge, which he did in 1783. In lat college his accurate scholarship was rewarded phigh honours, and the next year when the subject r prize essay among the senior Bachelors of Arts as announced to be, ' Anne liceat invitos in ser- itutem dare is it right to make slaves against leir will ? ' Clarkson entered the lists with in- eased ardour. In the course of his researches ito the history and practices of the slave trade, he led to read ' Benezet's Historical Account of ea ;' and the perusal, which had been under- iken for a special and merely literary purpose, reduced a harrowing impression on his feelings hich time could not efface. Ease and tranquillity ere entirely banished from his mind ; and the first learn of inward satisfaction that shone into his ;nsitive and Christian bosom after his introduction ) Benezet, arose from his resolution to set about )me practicable scheme for mitigating or prevent- lg the hoiTors of the slave trade. The formation of ich a plan was almost as difficult as its execution. ut he resolved on surmounting all difficulties, 'he first step he took was to translate his Latin rize dissertation into English, and by diffusing iformation on the subject of slavery in as attrac- ve a form as possible, arouse the interest and Sympathies of the British public. His proceedings ere viewed with earnest attention by several minent philanthropists, amongst whom were Rev. ames Ramsay, Lord Barham, and Granville harpe, Esq. By the counsel and aid of these entfemen he procured intelligence from every essel lying in a British harbour that had been ngaged in the African trade. In addition to ral information, Mr. Clarkson endeavoured at Teat labour and expense to obtain specimens of be industry and manufactures of native Africans or public exhibition. And last of all, he procured In accurate engraving of a slave ship, with its iells and gratings and barricades, for the confine- ment of the poor unfortunate creatures that were idnapped. The impression produced by this draw- ng lent, more than anything else, a powerful im- pulse to the cause in which he was engaged. Be- ides all these preliminaries. Mr. Clarkson pub- ished a pamphlet on the subject of the slave trade very year although it was not till 1788 that his ;reat work on the impolicy of that traffic was pen to the world. Immediately after this pub- ication he went to France for the public advocacy f the cause in that country. His benevolent ex- rtions met with the warmest encouragement, not >nly from the French monarch and the celebrated decker, who was then at the head of the govern- nent, but many of the most influential members >f tbe national assemblies, as well as catholic relates. CLA host of enemies, both in Britain and on the con- tinent, sprang up against him, consisting of parties interested in the maintenance of the slave system, and who foreseeing the hope of their gains to be gone if he should be successful in his aims, used every means, both fair and foul, to thwart his pur- poses, and disgust him with his task. But the fierce opposition of these enemies only made the friends of the cause rally more closely around him ; and two auspicious circumstances turned the scale opportunely in his favour. The one of these was a voluntary and public offer of Samuel Whitbread, Esq., ' to make good all injuries which any individual might suffer in their business from aiding and abet- ting the movement ;' and the other was the interview to which Clarkson was admitted with the emperor Alexander, at the congress of Aix La Chapelle in 1818, and that emperor's promise to employ his influence with his royal brothers of Austria and Prussia to procure the abolition of the slave trade. The hopes, however, excited in that quarter were slow in being realized. But Mr. Clarkson enjoyed the high satisfaction of witnessing the final triumph of his labours in the enactment of the British legislature in 1807, by which the slave trade was thenceforth declared illegal. Mr. Clark- son belonged to the Society of Friends, and pub- lished in 1807 ' A Portrait of Quakerism,' and a Life of William Penn ' in 1813 ; d. 1846. [R. J.] CLAUBERG, J., a Calvinist philos., 1622-1665. CLAUDE, queen of Francis I., 1499-1524. CLAUDE, duchess of Lorraine, 1547-1575. CLAUDE. Claude, Gelee, commonly called Claude Lorrain, from the country of his birth, was born at Chateau de Chamagne, near Charmes, in the year 1600. He was originally placed with a baker and pastry-cook, and when still young went in company with some cooks of Lorraine to Rome. Claude found a situation as ordinary servant with Agostino Tassi, the landscape painter; he both prepared his master's meals and ground his colours for him. It was to this coincidence that Claude seems to have owed the develop- ment of his faculty of painting; he must have been with Tassi towards the close of the pontifi- cate of Paul V.; he became a distinguished lands- cape painter as early as the time of pope Urban VIII. (1623-44). Claude appeared as an engra- ver as early as 1630, and his best pictures seem to have been painted from that time to about 1645 or 50. He was extremely slow and careful in his execution ; his friend Sandrart, who first taught him to sketch from nature, mentions that he would work a week or more at some portion of a picture without showing any progress; he had great difficulty in drawing the human figure or animals : these were generally added by F. Lauri, J. Courtois, or A. Both, and others. He died at Rome in 1682. The National Gallery possesses some good specimens of Claude, and there is a fine collection of his drawings in the British Museum. (Sandrart, V Accidentia Todesca, &c. ; Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of the National Gallery.) [R.N.W.] CLAUDE, J., a French protestant in the highest repute as controversialist, 1619-1687. Isaac, his son, also a protestant min., 1653-1695. Jean-Jacques, son of Isaac, a man of letters, He needed all this encouragement, for a afterw. pastor of the Fr. ch. in London, 1684-1712. 157 CLA CLAUDIUS, Appius, decemvir of Rome, noted in the story of Virginius, 451-449 B.C. CLAUDIUS, Appius C.ecus, a Roman censor, the founder of the celeb. Appennine Way, 311 B.C. CLAUDIUS I., by name Tiberius Drusius Claudius, fourth emp. of Rome, b. B.C. 9 ; elected aft. the murd. of his uncle Caligula, 41 ; poison. 54. CLAUDIUS IL, by name Marcus Aurelius Flavius Claudius, proclaimed emp. 268, d. 270. CLAUDIUS, Felix, Roman governor of Ju- daja in the time of the apostle Paul, recalled 60. CLAUDIUS, Lysias, a tribune of the Roman troops at Jerusalem, whose name occurs in the history of Paul. CLAUDIUS, Matt., a Germ, poet, 1743-1815. CLAUSBERG, C, a German math., 1689-1751. CLAUSEL, Bertrand, a count and marshal of France, dirt, in the wars of Napoleon, and since the revol. of 1830 gov.-gen. of Algeria, 1772-1842. CLAVEREAU, N. M., a Fr. archit., 1755-1816. CLAVIER, Steph., a Fr. hellenist, 1762-1817. CLA VIE RE, Stephen, born at Geneva 1735, was by profession a banker, and one of the first to unite with Brissot under the republican banner in 1789. He shared in the successes and the fall of the Girondins, especially as minister of finance in 1792, and being arrested with the rest of his party, and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, put an end to his life in prison, 8th December, 1793. CLAVIGO, Ruy Gonzales De, a distin- guished Spaniard sent by Henry III. of Castile, in 1403, as ambassador to the court of the great Tamerlane, at Samarcand. The account which he published on his return contains many impor- tant observations on the countries through which he passed. [J.B.] CLAVIGERO, Francesco Saverro, a dis- tinguished writer on the ancient history of Mexico, its antiquities, and conquest by Spain, was bom at Vera Cruz in 1720. He spent thirty-six years among the Indians as Jesuit missionary, but little is known of his private life. He died in Italy about the end of the century. His work was pub- lished in Italian in 1780-81, 4 vols. 4to, with maps and plates, and is regarded as a high authority. It was translated into English, London, 1787, 2 vols. 4to. [J.B.] CLAYTON, Robt., bishop of Clogher, au. of an ' Introduc. to the Hist, of the Jews,' &c, 1695-1758. CLEANTHES, the pupil and successor of Zeno as chief of the Stoic philosophers, 3d cent. B.C. CLEEF, John Van, a Fl. painter, 1646-1716. CLEAVER, Wm., bishop of St. Asaph, disting. as a Greek scholar and religious writer, died 1815. CLEGHORN, Geo., a Scotch phys., 1716-1787. CLEIVELAND, J., a royal, and poet, 1613-59. CLELAND, Jas., LL.D., a statis.wr., 1770-1840. CLEMENCE of Hungary, queen of France, married to Louis X. 1315, died 1328. CLEMENT, the first of this name, bishop of Rome, generally allowed to be the same that St. Paul mentions as his fellow -labourer, died about 91. Clement IL, pope, 1046-1047. Clement III., promoter of the third crusade, 1187-1191. Clement IV., concluded the pragmatic sanction with St. Louis, 1265-1268. Clement V., the first who wore the triple mitre, and removed to Avignon, under the influence of Philip the Fair, 1305-1314. Clement VI., noted for his political CLE activity, 1342-1352. Clement VII., under whor. Rome was besieged by the Constable of France and by whom Henry VIII. was excommunicated 1523-1534. Clement VIII., whose pontificat was distinguished by the elevation of Baroiiitu Bellarmine, Du Perron, and other eminent men t the rank of cardinals, 1592-1605. Clement IX 1667-1669. Clement X., 1670-1676. Clem* XL, by whom the condemnation of Jansenius wa confirmed, and the bull ' Unigenitas ' promulgatec 1700-1721. Clement XII., 1730-1740. Cle ment XIIL, noted for his political reverses, tb loss of Avignon, &c, 1758-1768. Clemen XIV., distinguished by his enlightened policy and for his Brief suppressing the Jesuits, wb afterwards poisoned him, 1769-1774. CLEMENT, Fr., a learned Fr. monk, d. 1793 CLEMENT, J. M. Ber., a Fr. critic, 1742-1815 CLEMENT, N., a French librarian, 1647-1715 CLEMENT, Titus Flavius, was born towar the middle of the second century. In early lifeb was a pagan, and strongly addicted to philosopbij cal pursuits. After travelling extensively, he btj came a pupil of Pantaenus, master of a Christiaj academy at Alexandria. Here he became a Chris' tian and a proselyte, and ultimately rose to be th head of this school of divinity, in which capacit he taught with great renown during the reign <! Alexander Severus. About the year 202 he retire! at length to avoid persecution, and after variot wanderings died about a.d. 220. Clement was aj Eclectic in philosophy, but with a very decided bit] to Platonism. The besetting sin of his theolog is a discursive habit of speculation, withoi regard to fixed principles, and the fault of hj exegesis is his excessive love of allegory, which Ij indulges without scruple, and on every occasio.'j His books are valuable for their delineations ari samples of contemporary literature and mail ners. His ' Paedagogus, t in three books, contaii; good instructions to a young convert, and his ' Ei, hortalio ad Graecos 1 has many striking and curioij thoughts in it But his best known work is h ' Stromata' (patch-work) or Miscellany, which is ; disorderly storehouse filled with useful and inte; esting information and anecdotes. One of his traci ' On the Danger of Riches' has been translated in English, London, 1711. The best edition of b works is that of Potter, Oxford, 1715, 2 vol folio. Some of his treatises have been lost, such . his ' Hypotyposes 1 or commentaries. [-LE CLEMENTI, Muz., an Ital. pianist, 1752-183* CLEMENTI, Prosp., an It. sculptor, d. 15& CLEOBULUS, one of the seven Greek sage| and king of Rhodes, 6th century b.c. CLEOMBROTUS, the first of the name, kii of Sparta, 480-479 B.C.; the second, 380-37;] the third, dethroned by Leonidas, 259-239. CLEOMENES, the first of the name, king Sparta, 519-489 B.C.; the second, 371-309 ; til third put an end to his existence in prison, 238-211 CLEOPATRA, the second wife of Philip Macedon, after his death cruelly murdered, tj gether with her son, by Olympias, the first wife j Philip, and mother of Alexander the Great. CLEOPATRA, the daugh. of Olympias and M of Alex, the Great, q. of Epirus by her marr. wi Alexander, her maternal uncle, 337 ; assass. 308 B.v] CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egjfjj 158 CLE as joint successor with her brother to her father ;olemy Auletes, 52 B.C. ; and being deprived of share in the government, was re-established Ca;sar as sole sovereign, 47. Some fourteen ars later several eastern provinces were added to r dominions by Anthony, and on the defeat of the ;ter at the battle of Actium she put herself to ath, probably by the bite of an asp, b.c; 30. CLEPHIS, a king of the Lombards, 573-575. CLERFAYT, Count De, a field marshal of astria, dist. as com. in the Fr. war, 1733-1798. CLERK, C, a fellow-voy. with Cook, 1741-79. CLERK, J., a Scotch wr. on tactics, 1730-1812. CLERKE, Captain Edward, commanded e ship Discovery in Cook's third voyage; on tiose death he succeeded to the command of the tion. In attempting to carry out the inten- of his late superior, he penetrated through ig's Straits to lat. 70 33', when, being d by a barrier of ice, he prepared to return ; but died of decline on reaching the harbour etro-paulski, in Kamtschatka. He had served t under Byron. [J.B.] CLERMONT, J. De, a Fr. commander, k. 1356. CLERMONT-GALLERANDE, C. G., a mili- ry officer and partizan of Louis XVIIL, author 'Memoirs,' 1744-1823. CLERMONT-TONNERRE, Cardinal Anne st. Jules De, a deputy to the states-general in r 89, and strenuous opponent of the French min- try in 1829 ; author of a ' Journal' concerning the ptivity of Louis XVI. in the temple, 1749-1830. CLERSELLIER, C, a Cartesian phil., 1614-84. CLEVELAND, J., aroval. and pol. wr., d. 1659. CLIFFORD, G., a Dutch botanist, last century. CLIFFORD, George, earl of Cumberland, one 'Q. Elizabeth's most famous sea capt., 1558-1605. CLINE, Henry, F.R.S., a surgeon, died 1827. CLINTON, George, an Amer. statesman and jneral during the war of independence, 1739-1812. CLINTON, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of le Eng. forces in America, recalled 1782, d. 1795. CLl>SON, Olivier De, const, of Fr., 14th ct. CLIVE, Catherine, an Irish actress, d. 1785. CLIVE. Robert Clive, born 29th Sept., 1725, as the son of a gentleman of good family, but nail estate, near Market Drayton, in Shropshire. obert was noted, in his boyhood, as a daring and nmanageable spirit ; and at the age of eighteen was s pnt out to Madras as a writer in the Company's jrvice an appointment which was then regarded i a very different light to what it is now and CLI which Give's friends looked on as providing for them a good riddance of a wild and unpromising youth. Our scanty possessions in India were then menaced by the French, and their native allies ; and, fortunately for Clive, he was soon called on, like other merchant-clerks in India, to turn soldier in self-defence. His mercantile employment had been, in the last degree, distasteful to him ; and he had twice in one day, at Madras, attempted suicide, by snapping a loaded pistol at his own head. The pistol missed fire each time. Clive asked a friend, who came into the room soon after- wards, to fire the pistol out of the window ; the pistol then went off. Satisfied thus that the weapon had been duly primed and loaded, Clive sprang up, exclaiming with an oath, ' I must be reserved for something great,' and gave up the idea of suicide. In 1747, three years after his arrival in India, he formally abandoned the mer- cantile profession, and took a captain's commis- sion. He then rapidly distinguished himself, not only as a most daring, but as a most skilful leader; and showed pre-eminently the true characteristic of genius the power of inspiring all whom he commanded with his own energy and resolution. In 1751 the French were besieging the important city of Trichinopoly ; and Clive proposed to make a diversion in its favour, by an expedition from Madras against Arcot. At the head of 300 sepoys and 200 Europeans, Clive surprised and captured Arcot; and then defended that place successfully against the hostile army, 10,000 strong, that speedily besieged him. Being joined at last by a body of friendly Mahrattas, Clive advanced against his enemies, completely defeated them, relieved Trichinopoly, and captured several places of importance, which had been in the hands of the French or their allies. In 1753 the state of Clive's health compelled him to return to Eng- land, where he was received with great honour. Both the king's ministers and the Company were now eager to employ him ; and in 1755 he was sent out to India as lieut.-colonel in the army, and governor of St. David's. He destroyed some nests of pirates on the Coromandel coast, and reached Madras on the 20th June, 1756. On that very day the English in Bengal experienced the heavy disaster of the capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, the savage who caused his prisoners to perish in the hideous agonies of the Black Hole. Clive sailed from Madras to the Hooghly to save the English power in Bengal from being utterly destroyed by Surajah and his French auxiliaries. He drove the enemy out of Calcutta, and a tem- porary treaty was made ; but hostilities soon re- commenced, and on the 23d June, 1757, Clive, with 3,000 men, only one-third of whom were Europeans, encountered and utterly routed the nabob's army of 50,000, in the ever-memorable battle of Plassey. This decisive victory secured for the English not only the mastery of Bengal, but the permanent ascendancy over the East. Clive gained other important military advan- tages over our European rivals, as well as over native enemies, and returned to England in 1760, loaded with wealth and glory. He was enthusiastically received, and created (by an Irish Eeerage) Lord Clive, baron of Plassey. In 1764 e was again sent out to India, where our affairs 159 CLO had fallen into confusion during his absence. Olive on this occasion had no opportunity of earning more military fame; but he honourably distinguished himself by his exertions in the more difficult and invidious duty of reforming the gross abuses that abounded in our Indian administration. This made him many enemies; and on his final return to England, in 1767, he became the object of incessant obloquy and attack in the public press, in the discussions at the India House, and ultimately in the House of Commons. Clive was, in fact, far from a faultless man. Throughout his career in the East, he had, in his negotiations and diplomatic dealings, acted on the maxim, that it was quite allowable to fight the cunning and faithless natives with their own weapons. He said, in his defence, that it was a matter of true policy and justice to deceive such villains. Acts of chicanery, and even of forgery, could thus be truly charged against Clive, which, in the judg- ment of many of the best of his countrymen, no amount of success could justify. But Clive's fear- less defence of himself in parliament was very effective. The magnitude of his services was un- deniable; and the House of Commons, after a long debate on 23d May, 1773, refused to vote that Lord Clive had abused his power, and came to the resolution, that ' Lord Clive has rendered great and meritorious services to his country.' But though thus honourably acquitted in parlia- ment, Clive's haughty spirit suffered deeply from the attacks aimed at him; his health also was impaired, and he aggravated fearfully both his mental and physical prostration by the immoder- ate use of opium. Robert Lord Clive, baron of Plassev, died by his own hand on the 22d Novem- ber, 1774. [E.S.C.] CLODIUS, a Roman tribune, killed 51 B.C. CLODOMIR, king of Orleans, 523, killed 524. CLOOTS, Jean Baptiste Du Val De Grace, better known as Anach arsis Cloots, the classical prenom being adopted by him from Greek history as a substitute for his baptismal names, whicli he rejected as having a supersti- tious origin, was a Prussian baron, notorious for his violence in conjunction with the Chaumettes and Heberts of the French revolution, and for his intense hatred of any natural or revealed religion. He was a political fanatic of the blackest dye, and openly proclaimed himself ' the personal enemy of Jesus Christ.' This sentence, from his book en- titled ' De la Republiqne Universelle,' expresses at once the character of the man and the tendency of his doctrines : ' The people is the sovereign and God of the world; France is the centre of the People-God ; only fools believe in any other God or Supreme Being.' His particular monomania was a universal republic, of which he professed himself the ambassador, with the title of ' Orator of the Human Race,' and in this character he paraded his followers of all nations, or vagabonds attired to represent them, before the bar of the national assembly. He had visited the greater part of Europe, and expended a considerable fortune to propagate his opinions, for which he at last round a platform in the national convention, where he was sent by the department of the Oise, 1792. He is the author of several works pub- lished between 1780 and 1793, the last entitled COB * Base Constitntionelle de la Rdpublique du Gem Humain.' He was included in the accusation < St. Just, and executed with Chaumette an others, 1794. [E.R. CLOSS, J. B., a Ger. phys. and poet, 1735-87 CLOSTERMAN, John, a Ger. paint., d. 1713 CLOTAIRE, the first of this name, king ( France, 497-558 ; the second, 584-628 ; the thin king of Burgundy, died 670 ; the fourth, nomini king under Charles Martel, 717-720. CLOTILDA, the queen of Clovis, 493-543. CLOUD, St., a son of Clodomir, devoted to monastic life after the murder of his brother, 533 CLOVIS, the first of this name, king of Franc celebrated for his conversion to Christianity an his extensive conquests, born 467 ; succeeded 481 married Clotilda, the princess of Burgundy, 49 acknowledged king of his consolidated dominior by the emperor of the East, and fixed his resident at Paris, 510 ; died 511. CLOVIS II., king of Neustria and Burgund 1 638-656 ; the third of the name, 691-695. CLOWES, John, a clergyman of the Churc of England, more than sixty years rector of S John's, Manchester, distinguished as a religiot writer, and translator of Swedenborg, 1743-1831 CLUGNY, F. De, an ascetic writer, 1637-169. CLUTTERBUCK, R., an Engl, hist., 1772-183 COBB, James, an Engl, dramatist, 1756-181; COBB, Samuel, an English poet, died 1713. COBBET, William, a self-taught man, wl obtained great celebrity and influence during tl early part of the nineteenth century, by his geniu energy, and waywardness, is generally said to ha- been born in the year 1762. His father wasi fanner, who kept a small public house in Surrej William was brought up to that stolid ignoran which has long been the general inheritance oft'. English peasant ; but his was not a temper to e dure such bondage, and from an early age greedily acquired knowledge, stamping all he o tained with that mark of individuality which tj self-learner sets on his acquisitions. Fate ma him for some time engrossing-clerk to an att( j ney, a pursuit which his soul abhorred. It appe:j to have been his loathing towards the drudgerf i the desk that drove him to enlist in an infant! regiment destined for American service. He ij came a testimony to the small amount which tl routine duties of a soldier can take from the avr able services of an active mind, for in his leisij hours he gave himself an education such as f hard-working scholastically-taught men posse and performed his duty so punctually and effi tively that he was immediately raised over I heads of many seniors to the rank of sergeant-ni jor. In his service in America he met the yort girl who afterwards became his wife, and his M duct towards her throughout, as well as his domj tic virtues generally, should be balanced agd his public failings. In the year 1791 he desired I discharge from the army and obtained it on I ground of good conduct. He brought a charge! peculation against four officers under whom he 'I served, and when a large body of witnesses wi in attendance, and other preparations were m J for the trial, he abandoned it by suddenly (lis I pearing, leaving it still a question whether! acted under caprice or settled design. From 160 COB Iboriod to the day of his death, he led a restless I ife as a political writer. To enumerate his works Ipy their mere names, would fill more space than lean be afforded here for his biography. The work lor which he was chiefly noted in his day was the I Weekly Register,' which kept him for thirty- three ttears in the eye of the public. But his most meri- torious service to literature was in his English and [French Grammar; while his best gift to the humbler plasses, whose cause he always professed, was his Cottage Economy.' He was a signal exception to I :he uneventful nature of literary lives, for his pen lvas ever exciting new sources of conflict, and the [prosecutions he underwent from men of all parties, nake in themselves an incidental history. It may >e said that he never supported an opinion which le did not live to attack, or praised a man whom he did not live to censure ; and in his old age he peemed to be returning to those high Tory opini- ons of his younger years, which he employed his middle age in lashing with savage scorn. He had po a wonderful degree the capacity not only of ad- vocating a particular side in a question, but of making whatever he took up seem vitally impor- tant, while everything of a different character was hildish or foolish. The reader of the greater bortion of his works would pronounce his a mind lapable of appreciating merely the material ele- ments of existence, and entirely destitute of ideal- pm, poetic dreaming, or enthusiasm. But this ppearance is mainly owing to his perverse cen- ures of all his fellow-workers in the intellectual field. He was in reality a wayward victim to the pfluence of fancy, though it took its character rom his energetic nature, and there are few such nstances of a perverse idolatry recorded in later imes, as he committed when he brought the bones f Thomas Paine to Britain to be consecrated by lis homage, like the relics of a saint. He had lade several attempts to enter parliament, but id not succeed until after the passing of the Re- nin Act, when in 1832 he was returned for Old- , In the House of Commons, where only wonderful eloquence covers such defects as caprice nd factiousness, he found his level as a senator, nd few members had less influence. To the last, owever, his capacity was the object of* high ad- miration. Yet he left nothing behind him indica- te of a permanent influence on the opinions or onduct of mankind. He died on the 18th of une, 1835. [J-H.B. COBDEN, Edward, an Engl, divine, d. 1764. COBENTZEL, Charles, Count De, an Aus- rian diplomatist and governor of the low countries, Kinder of the Academy of Sciences at Brussels, 712-1770. Louis, the son and successor to the itle of the preceding, a distinguished diplomatist, 753-1808. John-Philip, cousin of Louis, a iploma. and vice-chancellor of Austria, 1741-1810. COBURG, Frederick Josiah, duke of Saxe, ii Austrian general in the coalition against Vance, dftd. by Moreau and Jourdan, 1737-1815. 1 COCCEIUS, Auctus, a Rom. arch., 1st c. B.C. COCCEIUS, or COOK, John, an eminent He- rewprof., teacher of theolo. at Leyden, 1603-1669. CO-CHEOU-KING, a Chinese astron., 13th ct. COCHLjEUS, John, a famous opponent of the formation, especially of Luther, 1479-1552. COCHRAN, Wm., a Scotch artist, 1738-1785. COK COCHRANE, Sir Alex. Forester Inglis, an English admiral, dist. in the wars with America and France, especially for an unequal combat with five French vessels in Chesapeake Bay, 1758-1832. COCHRANE, Archibald, earl of Dundonald, dis. for his useful discov. in chemistry, 1749-1831. COCHRANE, Captain John Dundas, R.N., an eccentric traveller who performed a pedestrian journey through France and the peninsula; and afterwards through Russia and Siberia, as far as Petro-paulski, in Kamtschatka; whence, having married a young lady of the countiy, he returned to England. His travels were published in 1824. Having engaged in mining enterprises, he went to Colombia, where he d. when contemplating a journey on foot through the whole of S. America. [J.B.] COCKBURN, Catharine, formerly Miss Trotter, a dram., philos., and relig. wr., 1679-1749. COCKER, Edward, an arithmet., 1631-1715. COCLES, Bartholomew Della Rocca, an Italian physician and physiognomist, 1467-1504. CODRIKA, Panagioti, a Greek diplomatist and man of letters, born 1660, died in Paris, 1830. CODRINGTON, Chr., distinguished for his noble bequest in aid of All-Souls College, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1668-1710. CODRUS, the lastk. of Athens, 1160-1132, b.c. COEN, J. P., founder of Batavia, died 1629. COEUR, James, a wealthy French merchant, who distinguished himself in the political history of Charles VII., 1400-1461. COFFEY, Ch., an Irish dramatist, died 1745. COFFINHALD, J. B., vice-president of the revolutionary tribunal, shared in the fall of Robes- pierre, executed 1794. COGAN, Thomas, an English physician and philosophical writer, 1736-1818, A physician and medical writer of the same name died 1607. COGGESHALLE, Ralph, an English annalist, 13th century. COHORN, Menno, Baron De, a military officer and engineer, called the Dutch Vauban, 1641-1704. COIJNET, Isaac, a Fr. musician, 1736-1821. COKAYNE, Sir Aston, a dram, poet, 17th ct. COKE, Sir Edward, a great practical and institutional lawyer, was born at Mileham in the county of Norfolk, on 1st February, 1552. He was called to the bar on the 20th April, 1578. Next year he began his career of fame and prac- tice by being appointed recorder of Lyons Inn. He was apponted recorder of Norwich in 1586, and of London in 1592. He had not, however, held the office for a year, when he resigned it on be- ing appointed solicitor-general. In 1594 he be- came attorney-general. He had in such difficult times much very serious and laborious business to transact as a crown lawyer. He has been sub- ject not unjustly to reproach for his overbearing and insulting demeanour to the unfortunate vic- tims of the crown prosecutions, and especially to- wards Sir Walter Raleigh. He was a man of haughty manners, severe spirit, and irritable temper, and he had little toleration for anything standing in the path of what he deemed his duty. But his severity was not dictated by subserviency to the court, and no influence in the corrupt reign of James could prompt him to go out of the line of his duty. He was made chief justice of the 161 M COL Common Pleas in 1606, and of the King's Bench in 1613. Here he exerted himself sternly in the investigation of the horrible system of iniquity which Somerset the court favourite concentrated round him, and showed a determination which not only overawed the parasites, but intimidated James himself. In 1616 a systematic attack, in which Bacon had the baseness to aid, was made on the resolute chief justice, and he was dismissed. He was partially restored to favour, but was again subject to attacks, which very naturally disposed him to put his great acquirements at the disposal of the constitutional opposition, which arising in the reign of James, completed its work in that of COL COLEBROOKE, H. T., an English Orientalist 1765-1837. COLEONT, B., an Italian condotticre, d. 1475. COLERIDGE, Hartley, son of Samuel Taj, lor Coleridge, remarkable for his original talent* as a poet and essayist, and for his unhappy habits, 1797-1849. COLERIDGE, Henry Nelson, cousin of the preceding, a distinguished lawyer and classical scholar, died 1843. COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, the youngest son of the vicar of St. Mary Ottery in Dm shire, was born at that place in October 1" _ Left an orphan in his ninth year, he was educ Charles. He owed much of his success in early i for seven years at Christ's Hospital, where C" life to two marriages the one bringing fortune, | Lamb was his fellow -pupil ; and in 1791 he be the other connection. After spending his old age I came a student of Jesus College, Cambridge. I 1772. ,'harles in wealthy retirement, he died on 3d September, 1633. His celebrated ' Institute,' which grew out of a commentary on ' Littleton's Treatise on Ten- ures,' has made him the great oracle of English law. His expressions, however antiquated they may appear, are deemed sacred, and are always embodied where their substance has not been superseded by changes of the law, in the works of subsequent commentators. [J.H.B.] COLARDEAN, C. P., a Fr. poet, 1732-1776. COLBATCH, John, an English pharmacopo- list, 17th century. COLBERT, Jean Baptiste. a financial states- man, was born at Rheims in 1619. His immedi- ate origin was somewhat obscure. It is disputed whether his father was a wine merchant or a councillor of state, but he met the prejudices of the noblesse against his rise to power by profes- sing to belong to an ancient Scottish family. The recommendation to employ him was a legacy of Cardinal Mazarin to Louis XIV., and in 1661 he was made comptroller-general of finances. Using had already devoured numberless books of kinds, had especially attached himself in boyh< to metaphysics and theology, and had been inoc lated with a love for poetry by the sonnet Bowles. At the university his reading was i but it was desultory and irregular, and hi all directed to the sciences which led to i cal distinction. In 1793, vexed by debts, he to London, and enlisted in a dragoon regiii from which he was released after four mon and returned to Cambridge for another term or 1 Now, however, his theological creed had unitarian ; and he at once gave up all views to? academical preferment. In 1794 was publ the drama called 'The Fall of Robespierre,' o which the first act was Coleridge's, and the otho two were Southey's ; and the two poets, then en- tertaining, in common, many of those extreim opinions which they afterwards abandoned a thoroughly, occupied themselves at Bristol a planning a new social community, which the* were to found in the United States. At thi the great power either for good or evil belonging j town and elsewhere Coleridge delivered courses q to this high office, he redeemed much money to ! public lectures (some of which he published) the state by mercilessly scrutinizing the proceed- j dealing both with politics and with religion ; and h, ings and liabilities of the farmers-general, and : also preached in unitarian pulpits. In 17L>5 h came to an adjustment with the national creditors. | married Miss Flicker, whose sister soon afterward He extended the colonial power of France, canned I became Mrs. Southev. In this year also he becam on great public works, created a navy, and fostered into existence several manufactures. In this last operation, as his administration was very prosper- ous, he seemed to justify the system of govern- ment protection and interference with trade, but it was the spending of the resources which his vigorous financial system put at his disposal that created the appearance of prosperity, and subse- quent reaction showed that successful trade could not be artificially created. He founded the Aca- demies of Inscriptions, of Sciences, and of Archi- He died in 1683, neglected by the court tecture. and suspected bv the people, who charged him with acquiring his great fortune by unworthy means. [J.H.B. j I ary men. The tragedy of ' Remorse COLCHESTER, Lord. See Abbot, Charles. J written in 1797; though being despised by Sh acquainted with Wordsworth. In 1796 he puh lished, without success of any kind, ten numbers ofj political miscellany called ' The Watchman ;' ai in the same year appeared his first volume 'Juvenile Poems,' to which, in a second editioi year afterwards, other pieces were added, genius, however, was not exhibited in its st till the summer of 1798, when Wordsworth's ous volume of 'Lyrical Ballads' appeared, contained Coleridge's 'Ancient Mariner,' 'L 'The Nightingale,' and 'The Foster-mot- Tale.' The first part of ' Christabel ' was writ in 1797, the second in 1800 ; but both parts w for a good many years known only to a few COLCHEN, Victor, Count De, a French diplomatist and senator, 1752-1830. COLDEN, Cadwallader, a Scotch physician, medical author, and naturalist, 1688-1776. COLE, Sir Chr., a naval com., 1771-1836. COLE, Sir G. L, a penins. officer, 1772-1842. COLE, Henry, a dist. Rom. Cath. div., d. 1519. COLE, William, an English herbalist, d. 1662. it did not find its way either to the stage or to I press. It is thus a fact, one of the many sing ones in the history of this remarkable man, almost all the poems on which his celebrity were composed in one short period, not i much in either direction beyond his tv year. We of this generation, whose ceived it3 poetic lessons from a school 162 COL COL leridge is one of the masters, have difficulty in { identical with the' Natur-philosophie' of Schelling; Krehending aright either the real importance of I although in many points of detail there is much Midge's poetry, or the reasons which naturally | of originality and acuteness both of thinking and x>sed it for a time to extremes of dislike or ad- of illustration. The dreamy indistinctness -which, ration. It bears hardly any traces of those j now and ever after, hung about the philosophy of Jtrines, in obedience to which Wordsworth j Coleridge, was owing, doubtless, in part, to "the rked so doggedly : unless such doctrines die- j difficulty of the problems with which, in emula- ed to him the outline of ' The Ancient Mariner.' tion of his German models, he continually ventured leed he never, either then or afterwards, was ided in poetical composition by any deliberately- tceived theory. In poetry, as in philosophy, his uking was fine and subtle,*but neither systematic, tent, nor clear. But in imagery, as in Right, his poetic originality is marvellous ; his tures float in an atmosphere romantically and ally beautiful ; and his tone of sentiment varies m an imaginative rapture to solemn or intense derness. 4 Christabel,' a poet's hazy dream of eliness. suggested much both in matter and in sification to Scott, who ad'miringly owned his igations : it and others of his poems prompted re than any other works to the later poets of the le ; they were the prototypes of that visionary uty which was elaborated bv Keats and Shelley; ne owed more to them than Byron, who pro- to despise them. Even before all these fine had been written, the poet's worldly help- became but too evident. Scheme after failed in securing to him the means of and among these was a proposal by friend Mr. Poole to procure an an- for his support. In 1798 the munificence Wedgwood enabled him to reside for more a a year in Germany ; an event which opened him a new world of thought, and modified jntially the whole subsequent history of his in- ect On his return to England he resumed an agement he had already formed for contribut- political articles and poems to the Morning tf newspaper, which was followed, some years T, by similar employment in the Courier. But withstanding the acknowledged ability of his lys, he was neither practical nor industrious ten to be a useful newspaper writer. He resided jfly, for a considerable time, in the Lake dis- t, near Southey and Wordsworth; and for n months in 1804 and 1805 he made his last anpt as a man of business, by acting as secre- t to Sir Alexander Ball, the governor of Malta. fis noble translation or paraphrase of Schiller's aflenstein' appeared in 1800. In 1809 and he wrote and published at Grasmere, in 27 ribers. the periodical called ' The Friend,' which, agh undigested and ill calculated for popular- (uke all his prose works), contains much both laep speculation and of fine criticism. In 1813 morse ! was acted with much success at Drury ie; and 'Christaber was published in 1816. lhat year and the next appeared the two ' Lay roons' ;' and 1817 produced both the dramatic m 'Zapolya,' the poems entitled 'Sibylline tcs,' and "the series of essays called the ' Bio- [ioA Literaria.' In the last of these works he e his earliest exposition of those philosophical lions which he had formed since his return Q the continent, deriving his groundwork nly from the German thinkers who had writ- smce Kant. His metaphysical system, here tented in its speculative aspect, is in substance 163 to grapple. Much of it, however, arose from the native character of his own mind, and from that tendency towards excursive musing which had be- come habitual with him. The borrowings from Schelling and others which he made so freely in the ' Biographia,' were repeated, Wilhelm Schlegel being now the lender, in a course of Lectures on Literature which he delivered in London in 1818. He had lectured previously ; but this is the only course which has been preserved, and even it only in the shape of fragmentary notes. Some time before this he had found a quiet and friendly home, in which were spent the last eighteen years of his life. It was in the house of Mr. Gillman, surgeon at Highgate, where he died in July, 1834. There both mind and body were restored, as far as it was possible, from the excitement and ill health which had been caused by the use of opium, re- sorted to at first as a palliative of illness, but after- wards taken habitually. There, also, in the close vicinity of London, Coleridge, one of the most strik- ing and eloquent of talkers, drew round him atten- tive listeners to his meditative harangues, and had his words recorded by hands as reverent as those that had chronicled the sayings of Johnson. Some of the fruits were published as his ' Table-Talk.' The principal aim of his thoughts in those later years was the construction of a Philosophy of Re- ligion, bearing a spiritual and mvstical cast, and quite alien from the opinions of his youth ; and to this point tend, more or less directly." almost all his works of that period. In 1825 appeared the ' Aids to Reflection f in 1830 the work ' On the Consti- tution of the Chnrch and State;' extracts from his note-books, with the lectures of 1818, and a good many poems, made up four volumes of his ' Literary Remains,' published in 1836-39 ; and in 1840 was printed his short treatise on the inspira- tion of the Scriptures, entitled ' Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit.' [W.S.J [Coleridge"! CotUtsre.] COLIGSL, GAsrARD De, marshal of France. COL commander at the battle of Marignnno, died 1522. Odet, his son, cardinal archbishop of Toulouse, converted to protestantism, poisoned by his valet, 1515-1571. Gaspard, another son, celebrated as leader of the protestants and opponent of Guise, and one of the first victims of St. Bartholomew, 1517-1572. Francois Dandelot, a younger brother, also a protestant leader and general, 1511- 1569. Gaspard, son of Francois, marshal of France, 1584-1646. Gaspard, son of the preced- ing, lieutenant-general in the royal army, whose son was the last of the Colignis, 1605-1639. COLIGNI, John De, descended from another branch, a lieut.-gen., author of 'Memoirs,' d. 1686. COLIGNI, Henrietta, a Fr. poetess, d. 1673. COLLATINUS, Lucius Tarquinius, nephew of Tarquin, and husb. of Lucretia, consul 509 B.C. COLLE, C, a French dramatic wr., 1709-1783. COLLIER, Arthur, an original and curious writer, born in 1680, died in 1732. In 1713 he published his singular work ' Clavis Universalis ' a book in remarkable analogy with the writings of Berkeley. It is worthy of attention. COLLIER, Jeremiah, one of the English non- jurors of the revolution of 1688, celebrated for his attack on the immorality of the stage, 1650-1726. COLLIN, Henry De, a Ger. dram., 1772-1811. COLLIN, H. J., a German med. wr., d. 1784. COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, J. F., a French comic poet and mem. of the Institute, 1755-1806. COLLINGWOOD, Cuthbert, Admiral Lord, distinguished at the blockade of Toulon, the battle of Cape St. Vincent, the blockade of Brest, and especially at Trafalgar, where he succeeded to the command on the fall of Nelson, 1748-1810. COLLINGWOOD, Ed., a naval officer, d. 1835. COLLINO, Ignatus, an It. sculp., 1724-1793. COLLINS, Arth., a genealog. wr., 1682-1760. COLLINS, J., an English geometr., 1624-1683. COLLINS, John Anthony, born 1676, died in 1729 ; a daring freethinker, and a friend of Locke. He attached himself to the most objec- tionable part of Locke's system, denying human liberty, and of course impugning immortality. His writings do not contain much that can in- terest the student now. He was one of the adver- saries of Dr. Clarke. COLLINS, Samuel, an English phys., 17th ct. COLLINS, Wm., a disting. artist, 1787-1847. COLLINS, William, the most interesting of all the minor poets of England, was born at Chi- chester, in 1720, and died there in the care of his sister, 1756. He was the son of a respectable tradesman of that city, and was educated at Win- chester and Oxford. Before leaving the university he published the ' Oriental Eclogues,' along with an epistle to Sir Thomas Hanmer on his edition of Shakspeare. In 1744 he came to London as a literary adventurer, and about two years after- wards published his ' Odes,' and made the acquain- tance of Dr. Johnson, who held him in high esteem. His life in the metropolis seems to have been irregular, and until the death of an uncle who left nim a legacy of 2,000, was one of con- tinual hardship. His conduct to his publishers on the receipt of this little fortune was most honourable, his first use of it being to repay the losses they had sustained by rating his genius more highly than the unappreciating public. Un- COL happily the seeds of disease and occasional insan had been too deeply sown in his former abj condition to be eradicated, even by the alterat of climate and the scenes of other lands, and m a short sojourn in France, he passed through doors of a lunatic asylum to his early home. 1 tribute paid to his memory by Dr. Johnson is long to cite here, but some passages of it must i be omitted : ' The appearance of Collins,' he sa 'was decent and manly, his knowledge con derable, his views extensive, his conversation e gant, and his disposition cheerful. He was a ir of extensive literature, and of vigorous faculti He was acquainted not only with the lean tongues, but with the Italian, French, and Sp? ish languages His morals were pure, a his opinions pious : in a long continuance poverty and long habits of dissipation, it cam be expected that any character should be exac uniform. There is a degree of want by which 1 freedom of agency is almost destroyed ; and k association with fortuitous companions will last relax the strictness of truth, and abase 1 fervour of sincerity. That this man, wise a virtuous as he was, passed always unentang through the snares of life, it would be prejud and temerity to affirm ; but it may be said that least he preserved the source of action unpollufc that his principles were never shaken, that distinctions of right and wrong were never c( founded, and that his faults had nothing of mal nity or design.' With regard to his poetical genii there can be no hesitation in pronouncing the 0< of William Collins to be unsurpassed by anythi of the same species of composition in the Engl language, and that to the ' Passions ' is a perf masterpiece of poetical description. The Orien Eclogues are exquisite portraitures of natural fe ing, and, to do them full justice, perfect cabu pictures of Eastern scenery. [E.I COLLINSON, Peter, an English natural and antiquarian, 1694-1768. COLLOT D'HERBOIS, Jean Marie, kna for some twenty years previous to the Frer revolution as a dramatic author and actor, a afterwards as a sanguinary Jacobin, was born Paris 1750, and commenced his political career, a club orator, and author of the famous 'J manack of Father Gerard,' which raised him ij such notoriety that he was sent to the natiol convention by the department of the Seine 171 His first act was to propose a decree declaring ] abolition of royalty, and ever after his vtl was one of the most influential in the Jaccl Club, the Committee of Public Safety, and j convention, and was always raised in favouil the most violent measures. He was a marl drunken debauched habits, but had the advantl of a fine figure and commanding voice, audacity and hardness of heart pointed him oui a proper agent for the punishment of I nese, after the insurrection of that city anal conquest by the army of the republic. His I league in effecting these reprisals was the no ous Fouche\ Finding the guillotine somed formal and tardy in its vengeance, they collefl their prisoners together and disposed of ther fusillade. Collot himself admitted, and defeip the act, that on one occasion sixty prisoners m 1C4 COL lied at a blow by cannonading. It would be dif- iult to find a redeeming trait in his character, lich may be summed up as that of a cruel unprin- ded adventurer, in whose estimation the scenes in lich he acted involved no higher responsibility an those of his own dramas. The tragical ality to him and his party were their fears of Dbespierre, to whose fall Collot contributed as pre- lent of the convention on the night preceding the h Thermidor. He was among the sansculottes oundrels transported to Cayenne in 1795, where s died in horrible and most appropriate torments rough drinking a bottle of brandy when suffer- g from the yellow fever. [E.R.] COLLYER, Joseph, an Engl, transl., d. 1776. COLLYER, Joseph, an Engl, engrv.,1748-1827. COLMAN, George, was born about 1733, at lorence, where his father was then the British min- ter. While a student at Oxford he began in 1754 to lblish, with Bonnel Thornton, the series of peri- neal essays called ' The Connoisseur.' He was terwards called to the bar, but never prosecuted profession, and was speedily immersed in other jrsuits. In 1767 he became a joint lessee of Co- snt Garden Theatre, and was for some time the Jting manager ; and in 1777 he succeeded Foote . the Haymarket Theatre, which he managed till dsy, followed by mental imbecility, unfitted him r all exertion. He died in 1794. Besides a wd translation of Terence in blank verse, and translation and commentary on Horace's 'Art I Poetry,' he wrote several comedies and farces, id altered a good many older plays for the age. He is remembered as the author of two ;ock comedies, 'The Jealous Wife,' and 'The landestine Marriage,' the latter of which was in brt written by Garrick. [W.S.] I COLMAN, George, the Younger, the son of be preceding, was born in 1762. After a some- rhat shifting course of education, he commenced he study of the law, which, however, he, like his kther, soon abandoned. He was the manager of pe Haymarket Theatre during the years of his kther s illness, on whose death he received a re- ewal of the patent. He was the author of a good hany comedies and farces; and possession of the page is still kept by some of his pieces, such as John Bull,' 'The Iron Chest,' 'The Moun- ters,' ' The Heir at Law,' ' The Poor Gentle- pan ' Colman, not very witty in his plays, was pnarkably so in his conversation; and there is treat liveliness, with still greater coarseness, in his jollections of comic rhymes, such as ' Broad Grins,' ind ' Poetical Vagaries.' For the last few years rt his life he was deputy licenser of plays, and lied himself by a more than puritanical leverity in the censorship of the language of the Iramas he had to read. He died in 1836. [W.S.] COLOCOTRONIS, Theodore, a patriot, and ammander in the revolution which established he independence of Greece, 1770-1843. COLOMAN, a k. of Hungary, reig. 1095-1114. COLOMBIERE, Cl. De La, a French Jesuit, listing, for his eloquence as a preacher, died 1682. COLOMBO, M. R., an Ital. physiol., d. 1577. COLOMIES, Paul, a French theol., 1638-92. COLONNA, Fabio, an It. botanist, 1567-1650. COLONNA, Giles, a schol. phil.. 1247-1316. COLONNA, Giov., legate to Palestine, d. 1245. COL COLONNA, Leo, an Ital. painter, 1561-1605. COLONNA, Michelangelo, apaint., 1600-87. COLONNA, Pbospero, one of the greatest generals of Italy, died 1523. Fabricio, his cousin, and like him in the military service both of the French and Spaniards, died 1520. Marc' Antonio, nephew of the two preceding, the de- fender of Ravenna in 1512, and of Verona in 1515, against the Venetians and the French ; in the ser- vice of Francis I., 1517; killed at the siege of Milan, 1522. Another Marc' Antonio Co- lonna, distinguished against the Turks at the battle of Lepanto, and honoured by a triumphal entry into Rome, 1571, died 1584. COLONNA, Vittoria, an Italian poetess, dist. for her beauty, talents, and virtue, 1490-1547. COLQUHOUN, Patrick, a statistical and economical writer, celebrated for his works on the police of the metropolis, the population and re- sources of the British empire, &c, 1745-1820. COLSTON, Edw., a rich English merchant, dis. for his munificence and philanthropy, 1636-1721. COLTON, Caleb C, an eccentric wr., d. 1832. COLUMBA, St., an Irish or Scotch miss., d. 615. COLUMBUS, Don Bartholomew, brother and fellow-voyager of the great discoverer, whose tutor he had been, remembered as a constructor of charts and founder of St. Domingo, died 1514. COLUMBUS, Christopher, was born in Genoa, about the year 1435 or 1436. His father followed the trade of a woolcomber, andhis ancestors had long occupied a like humble position. The name was Colombo in the Italian; the Latin form was given to it by himself at an early period, in his letters ; and conceiving that Colonus was the Ro- man original, he changed the name to Colon when he went into Spain, better to adapt the word to the Castilian tongue. With the exception of one year spent at Pavia, his education was con- ducted in his native city, and was confined to such studies as fitted him for the nautical profession, to which he showed an early bent. He went to sea at the age of fourteen, and though few of the events which marked his life for twenty years are known, it is certain that he was often engaged in perilous enterprises, both as commander and serv- ing in a subordinate capacity. We find him at Lisbon in 1470, probably attracted by the fame of the dis- coveries on the African coast, and a desire to ob- tain employment iinder the Portuguese princes. He was now about thirty-five years of age, tall, and well- formed, of dignified carriage, and engaging manners. Already his hair had become quite white, doubtless in consequence of the hardships and anxieties of his early days. About this time he married Felep^ Monis de Palestrello, daughter of an Italian gentle- man deceased, who had been a navigator under Prince Henry, and had colonized, and been governor of, the isle of Porto Santo. He now occupied him- self in constructing maps and charts, contributing of his means to the support of his aged father at Genoa; he made several voyages to the coast of Africa, and resided for some time at Porto Santo, where his wife had a small property ; and here his son Diego was born. He visited also the Canaries and Azores; and, eager to pass the bounds of existing knowledge, made a voyage in 1477 to the northwards of Iceland. Before this date, however, as early as 1474, he had conceived the design of 165 COL reaching India by a westward course. Judging from the latest and best accounts, he gave by far too great an extension to the east of Asia, and on high authority took the size of a degree consider- ably below the truth, thus greatly under-estimat- ing the earth's size. It followed that the Atlantic might easily be traversed. The scheme was a magnificent one ; but it is difficult for us now, in the advanced state of our knowledge, to look at it in all its grandeur and boldness. He supported his views by the authority of Aristotle and other an- cient writers, who had. suggested that India might be reached by going west from the Pillars of Her- cules ; and by traditions and rumours concerning land to the west, and objects seen floating in the Atlantic, or cast ashore by westerly winds. Copious memoranda of all the grounds of his persuasion were found among his papers. To reach India by sea was still the great Problem of geography. Columbus offered to John II. of Portugal to solve it by sailing westwards; and would most probably have prevailed upon the king to send out an expe- dition, had it not been for the secret counter- plotting of some of the council, whose duplicity, winked at by the monarch, so disgusted Columbus, that he took his departure for Spain. This was in 1484 or 1485 ; his only companion was his son Diego, then about eleven years old, his wife having died sometime previously. Though entering Spain in great poverty, he soon made friends, and got an introduction to the king and queen. They hesi- tated to undertake so great an enterprise, and several councils reported unfavourably, still Co- lumbus persevered in new applications, and for seven years was kept in a painful state of suspense. At length, after a last trial, in February, 1492, he left the residence of the court, and set out on his way to France. Two of his friends got an imme- diate interview with the queen overcame her scruples and Columbus was brought back. Isa- bella had offered to pledge her jewels, but the king was afterwards prevailed upon to furnish the greater part of the funds, Columbus himself undertaking an eighth, and getting the same part of the profits. He was to have one-tenth of all metals, gems, and merchandise, the office of ad- miral, with descent of title, and to be viceroy and governor-general of the new lands. The articles of agreement were signed on the 17th April, 1492. On Friday, 3d August, 1492, the expedition sailed from Palos, near Moguer on the Tinto ; it consisted of three small vessels, two without decks, and 120 men, who had been procured with the utmost diffi- culty, owing to the general dread of the voyage. The celebrated brothers Pinzon commanded the two smaller vessels, of about fifty tons each, named the Pinta and Nina, the admiral the Santa Maria. The only difficulty encountered was the_ mutinous tendency of the crews, excited by their terrors. Columbus repressed these with extraordinary tact ; he was, besides, a skilful sailor, and had helps which a few years before did not exist. The com- pass had been receiving more attention, and the astrolabe, an instrument like our sextant, had been lately introduced. Sitting on the high poop of his vessel, at ten o'clock on the night of the 11th October, 1492, gazing earnestly ahead, Co- lumbus plainly saw moving lights upon some land. Four hours of most exciting suspense followed. COL At 2 a.m., Rodrigo Triana, a sailor in the Pintt which was a little in advance, saw the land itsell Dawn revealed a lovely island Guanahani or Sa Salvador, one of the Bahamas. He afterwards dis covered Cuba and Haiti; and deeming all thes portions of Asia a delusion under which he la boured till his latest hour he called the inhabi tants Indians; a name which became general befoi the truth was known. The discovery produced a extraordinary sensation in Europe ; and Columbu was received by the sovereigns, and in every pai of Spain, with the highest honour. On Septembe 25th, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz with a fleet < seventeen ships and 1,500 men, and discovered th Windward Isles, Jamaica, Porto Ptico, &c., an founded a colony in Hispaniola. Disappointed i their hopes of making rapid fortunes, many of th adventurers who went out with him became dis contented, and returning home spread calumnie against the admiral. Leaving his brother Bai tholomew governor, he returned home, was receive with favour, and refuted all the charges preferred b his enemies. His third voyage, entered upon 30t May, 1498, was rewarded by the discovery of Tr nidad, the Orinoco, and the coast of Paria. H found the new colony in a disorganized state, an remained sometime to restore order. Complaint however, still reached Spain, and a commission* named Bobadilla was sent out to institute ii quiries. He exceeded his powers, and sent Colun bus home in irons, with his two brother Bartholomew and Diego. There was a generi burst of indignation in Spain ; the king disclaims complicity, and the queen bestowed her usuj favour. Bobadilla was recalled, but the admiri was not reinstated. This favour he long soug. in vain, and till the day of his death he got i redress, though there was not the semblance Eroof against him. Columbus had served t ing's purpose, who now repented that he had b stowed such powers and privileges. The admii] was, however, sent upon a fourth voyage, 9th Ma 1502, to search for a passage from the Caribbei Sea into what was supposed to be the great Indi. Sea, from which Vasco de Gama had recently i turned laden with the richest treasure. The voya was disastrous ; and the constitution of Columbi on which the infirmities of age had already made i roads, never recovered from the shock which it si tained. In coasting central America, he got a hi) which if followed up might have led to the discovt of Mexico and the Pacific, and shed new lustre his declining years. He returned in the end of t year 1504, and renewed his appeals to the just and generosity of the king. While urging thi in person, or by means of his son, brother, a other friends, he was seized with a violent al of gout, and expired on the 20th May, 1506, full possession of his faculties, and in a \ pious frame of mind. In his latter days connection with, and neglect of, Beatrice I riquez of Seville, mother of his natural son F nando, ' weighed heavily on his conscience," on his deathbed he made provision for her. F nando was now eighteen years of age ; he became biographer of his father, by whom he had alw. been treated with the same affectionate regard his other son. The latter, Don Diego, renewed application for redress ; and at length coinmen ICG COL J law process against the king before the 'high Imncil of the Indies.' This court decided against Ins majesty ; and about the same time a mutual Ittachment having sprung up between the young Admiral and the Donna Maria de Toledo, niece of ne celebrated duke of Alva, who was cousin-ger- lian to Ferdinand, and high in his favour, such mfluence was brought to bear, that the king was Ibliged to yield, though not so far as to restore lilly the dignities and privileges at first conferred. \s vice-queen in Hispaniola, this lady behaved rith great dignity, propriety, and spirit, and did xcelieiit service to her husband, who, like his ither, was never free from the persecution of ene- lies. Her eldest son, Don Luis, resigned all claim o the former titles for a handsome pension, with he titles of duke of Veragua and marquis of Ja- laica. His eldest daughter married Don Diego, er cousin; and they jointly enjoyed the honours nd estates, but died without issue ; and the gitimate male line became extinct. At length, in 508, the property and titles passed into a branch f the house of Braganza, in the person of Don f uno de Portugallo, who was grandson of Isabella, hird daughter of Don Diego Columbus, by his ice-qu^eu, Donna Maria de Toledo. [J.B.] [House in which Columbus died at Seville.] COLUMELLA, Lucius, an agricult. wr., 1st a COLUTHUS, a Greek poet of the 5th century, author of ' The Rape of Helen.' COMBAULT, C. De, a French hist., 1588-1670. COMBE, Andrew, M.D., one of the most popular writers on medicine of the present day, distinguished as an advocate of phrenology, but fcecially for his important practical works on 'The Moral and Physical Management of Infancy,' 'The Principles of Physiology Applied to the Pre- servation of Health and to Education,' and ' The Physiology of Digestion.' Born at Edinburgh, where he also received his medical education, 1797; pub. the above works betw. 1834 and 1839 ; d. 1847. COMBE, Ch., a classical scholar, 1743-1817. j COMBE, Taylor, son of the preceding, a clas- tncal scholar and antiquarian author, 1774-1826. COMBER, Thomas, the name of three religious and learned writers; the first, dean of Carlisle, 1663 ; the second, dean of Durham, died 1699 ; the third, a rector in Huntingdonshire, died 1778. 16 CON COMBES, F., a Span, missionary, 1613-1663. COMENIUS, J. A., a Moravian brother and gram., au. of the 'Janua Linguarum,' 1592-1671. COMINES, Philip De, lord of Argenton, a Flemish statesman in the service of France, eel. for the memoirs of his own times, 1445-1509. COMMANDINO, F., an It. mathem., 1509-75. COMMELIN, Isaac, a Dutch historian, 1598- 1676. Gaspard, his son, also an historian, 1636- 1693. John, another son, celebrated as a botan- ist, 1629-1692. Gaspard, nephew of the preced- ing, a botanist, 1667-1751. COMMERSON, P., a Fr. naturalist, 1727-73. COMMODUS, one of the most debauched and cruel of the Rom. emp., poisoned by Marcia, 180-192. COMMENUS. For the Eastern sovereigns of this name see Alexis, Andronicus, Anna, David, Isaac, John, and Manuel. The last descendant of this house was Demetrius Steph- anopoli Constantine Commenus, born at Corsica, 1749 ; captain of dragoons in the French army, 1778 ; author of a history of the Commeni, 1781 ; afterwards pensioned by Napoleon and Louis XVIIL, and died 1821. COMPAGON, a French traveller, founder of the French African Company, early last century. COMPTE, Louis Le, a Fr. mathem., d. 1729. COMTE, F. C. L., a polit. and moral wr., b. 1782. COMPTON, William, Lord Compton, created earl of Northampton, 1618, died 1630. Spencer Compton, son and successor of the preceding, one of the bravest adherents of Charles I., killed at Hopton Heath, 1642. Henry, a younger son of Spencer, the second earl, celebrated as bishop of London, for his adherence to protestant- ism, and the cause of William and Mary, d. 1713. CONAU, the name of several counts or dukes of Brittany; theirs*, 952-992; the second, 1040- 1066 ; the third, 1112-1148 ; the fourth, 1155-71. CONCINA, D., a Venet. theologian, 1686-1756. CONCINI, Concino, an Italian courtier, who accompanied Mary de Medici to France, and exer- cised great power during her regency ; assassi- nated, and his wife burned as a sorceress by con- sent of her son Louis XIIL, 1617. CONDAMINE, Ch. Marie De La, a disting. Fr. traveller and natural philosopher, 1701-1774. CONDE, a branch of the house of Bourbon, the most noted members of which are Louis, the first prince, son of Charles Due de Vendome, and chief of the Huguenots, slain at Jarnac, 1532- 1569. Henry, son of the preceding, poisoned, 1552-1588. Louis, son of Henry, usually called the Great Conde, and Due d'Engnien, 1621-1686. Louis Joseph, fourth in descent from the Great Conde, distinguished in the seven years' war, chief of the army of the emigrants at the revolution, 1736-1818. Louis Ant. Henry, grandson of the preceding, known as the Due d'Enghien, born 1772, shot at Vincennes by order of Napoleon, on the night of the 20th March, 1804. CONDE, L. M., a Fr. naval com., 1752-1820. CONDER, John, D.D., a religious wr., d. 1781. CONDILLAC, Etienne Bonnet De, born at Grenoble, 1715, died in 1780 ; certainly the meta- physician who, until the recent revival of philo- sophy, has exercised greatest sway in modern times over the tone of speculation in France. It is ex- plained under the article Locke, under what cir- CON cumstances, and in what direction, the English philosopher gave an impulse to the inquiry con- cerning the origin of our ideas. Erroneously we think, it had become, nevertheless, the ambition of metaphysical inquiry to establish, as its starting point, some theory which might account for the generation of human thought ; and the doc- trine propounded by Locke had obtained extensive acceptance. Condillac at the outset acknowledged the Englishman as his master ; maintaining in nis earliest publication, that all knowledge is made up of our sensations, and of the action of the mind in reflecting upon these. Sensation and Reflection ; no idea exists or can exist in the human intellect which may not be tracked to one or other as its source. As we have shown elsewhere (article Locke) tins doctrine ignored the existence of all ideas involving the characters of universality, necessity, and infinity, reducing them to mere negations, or averments that certain things have no known limit ; nevertheless, it continued to re- cognize as much activity on the part of the Mind, as enabled Locke to preserve the conception of human liberty ; but this too fell before the subse- quent 'simplification' by Condillac. French philosophy technically so called reached its cul- mination in the 'Traite" des Sensations;' the agency of Reflection being there dispensed with, and all knowledge traced to Sensation alone. As a specimen of Condillac's reasoning, take his posi- tions fundamental ones regarding Attention. If, he asserts, a multitude of sensations of equal vivacity are experienced at the same time by any mind, nothing occurs save the perception of the feeling occasioned a perception which passes off with the circumstances ; but if, amidst the crowd of feelings, some one exists of great comparative vivacity and so predominates, the mind is in- stantly rivetted by this sensation in proportion to its vivacity; which rivetting we call Attention. Condillac overlooks, of course, the attribute which chiefly characterizes every act of attention, viz.: its dependence on the will ; to be impressed keenly depends indeed not on us, to be atten- tive to any impression, does depend on us. In a way quite as faulty, Condillac, with great logical parade, seeks to account for acts of memory, of judgment, of reasoning, and for all our sentiments and emotions. Mind with him is a mere bundle of sensations now being experienced, or which have been experienced ; there is nothing in it save the consciousness of all the external world is doing to it, or the recollection of all it has done to it. It is easy to see that in such a system, no pre- tence of a recognition of human Liberty could find a place; nevertheless, Condillac was not a materialist. He held firmly by the averment, that the seat of sensation is the soul, not the organ leaving it to Cabanis to take the next downward step, even then not the last, for we have seen how the physiologist saved himself by the fancy of a super-material vital principle. The vices inhering in Locke's method, but veiled so far by effect of the good sense and practical sagacity of the English- man, stand out as they really are, and are virtually destroyed through exaggeration, in the writings of Condillac. It never seems to have occurred as desirable to this logician, that he should ascer- tain whether the ideas he is accounting for, be CON really the ideas which constitute human thongbt: certainly it would be reckoned strange now in a physical inquirer, were he to ignore facts, or rather without compunction and without shame to twist facts, so that his theory be saved ! Unhappily it is easy to theorize in metaphysics ; it is easy to produce schemes which will account, if not for actual fact, at least for something a little like actual fact : the difficulty lies in the just de- scription and analysis of psychological phenomena. Condillac's precision and clearness suited the French taste. Not given to introspection, and apparently not capable of it, that accomplished and interesting people have never, notwithstand- ing their acuteness, succeeded in grappling with mental or moral problems ; their metaphysic is like their poetry purely logical and purely objective. A student with much leisure may still peruse Condillac with some interest; his writings especially those on language contain acute re- mark ; but on the whole they are very wearisome. In private life Condillac is said to have been estimable. He mingled with the Encyclopcedists those heralds of the revolution ; but his habitual reserve kept him apart from politics, and from writing either on morals or religion. He was brother of Abbe* Mably. [J.P.N.] CONDORCET, Marie Jean Antonie, mar- quis de Caritat ; an eloquent man, a good mathe- matician, an earnest political writer, and a victim of the reign of terror. Born in Picardy in 1743, he poisoned himself through dislike to the guillo- tine in 1794. The circumstances connected with his death are even affecting. Proscribed after the fall of the Girondins as an accomplice of Brissot, he found an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet; and there, with no aid from books, he wrote out his ' Sketch of an Historical Picture of the Pro- gress of the Human Mind.' Every evening he gave his protectress the sheets he had written during the day; and it is said he did not even revise them. A new decree of the convention having threatened with death any one who should harbour a proscribed person, Condorcet resolved to leave Madame Vernet's ; and in spite of her en- treaties he did so. Half naked he wandered for several days through fields; but, hunger pre- vailing, he entered an auberge at Clamont and was arrested. A dose of stramonium (the gift of| Cabanis) concealed in his ring, set him free : it; is probable that he thought the right of the con-; demned Roman Noble, to choose the manner of death, not extravagant or unreasonable. Likej most literary men 01 that time in France, Condor- cet was a materialist ; nevertheless, his higher as-j pirations could not be silenced ; one sees their rig- our in the very wildness of his dreams concerning the perfectability of our Race. The 'Esquiaail will amply repay perusal. It is an exaggeration, and often false; but it abounds with penetrating' appreciations of history; and the serenity which, reigns through it a serenity undisturbed by word of reproach or repining deeply interests one in] the doomed man. Condorcet's best mathemati-j cal work is on the ' Calculus of Probabilities :' hisj life of 'Turgot' perhaps that of 'Voltaire' U likely to last. A worthy and affectionate eloge or Condorcet we owe to M. Arago. [J.P.N CONEGLIANO, C. De, an It. painter, 15th c 1C3 CON CONESTAGGIO, J. F. De, an It. hist., d. 1635. CONEY, John, an Engl, engraver, 1786-1833. CONFORTI, F., a jurist and theol., 1743-1780. CONFUCIUS, the philosophical Socrates, or lather demi-god of China. He lived about 550 |!,'ears before Christ. His moral system seems in the main a prudential one ; but its entire struc- ture is scientific, and it pronounces much more de- terminately than any mere chronological record pould do, concerning the antiquity of civilization [n China. There are great ceremonial festivals In honour of Confucius, held through all China in. spring and autumn. They approach as nearly to hero-worship as may be possible with this bingular people. A good analysis of the contribu- tions of Confucius to philosophy is a desideratum ; It could not fail to enable us to understand better, it once the history and the character of the remote East. I CONGALL, the first of this name k. of Scotland, tt70-500 ; the second, 558-568; the third, d. 814. CONGLETON, St. B. Parnell, Lord, a late member of parliament, celebrated for his know- ledge of finance, 1776-1842. I CONGREVE, William, the second son of a Staffordshire gentleman, was born near Leeds in 1669. His father, who was in the army, being long ptationed in Ireland, he was educated at Kilkenny, and at Trinity College, Dublin. He was entered pt the Middle Temple, but speedily deserted law for literature, and for the pleasures of a gay life in London. His first comedy, 'The Old Bachelor,' which had remarkable success, was acted in 1693 ; and ' The Double Dealer ' appeared the year after, and was followed by ' Love for Love.' His tragedy bf ' The Mourning Bride,' played in 1697, gained For him a brilliant reputation as a serious drama- feist ; and his writings for the stage were closed in H700 by his comedy 'The Way of the World.' He was perhaps lazy, perhaps disgusted by the 111 success of this last play, perhaps alarmed by phe severe denunciations of the immorality of the stage which were thundered forth by Jeremy Col- tier, and for which Congreve's comedies, though pot the coarsest of their day, yet furnished perhaps stronger grounds than any others, through the koolly systematic immorality which is the staple rof them all. In skill of construction, wit of dia- llogue, and liveliness in the portraiture of manners, jthese pieces are very admirable. His tragedy has as little real value as his other verses, though these were pretty numerous. He was placed in easy circumstances by places under government, |be8towed by Lord Halifax; and was much esteemed, both as an agreeable companion, and as a friendly though prudent man. He died in Lon- don in 1729. [W.S.] CONGREVE, Sir William, an eminent milit. engineer, inv. of the Congreve rockets, 1772-1828. CONNOR, Bernard 0', an Irish physician, flourished at the court of Sobieski, king of Poland, author of ' Medicina Mystica,' &c, 1666-1698. CONNOR, Rory 0', the last Irish king of the Milesian dynasty, subdued by Henry II., d. 1156. CONON, an Athenian general, killed 390 B.C. CONON, a Gr. his. and mytholog. wr., 1st c. B.C. CONON, a pope of Rome, 686-688. CONRAD. The emperors of Germany of this name are Conrad L, duke of Franconia, elected CON king of Germany 912, d. 918. Conrad II., duke of Franconia, elected king of Germany 1024, crowned emperor of the West at Rome 1027, d. 1093. Conrad III., duke of Franconia, bom 1093, elected emperor of Germany 1137, d. 1152. Conrad IV., duke of Suabia, born 1228, elected emperor 1250, d. 1254. Conrad, or Conradin, the son of the last named, was left king of Sicily when only two years of age, and lost the crown and his life at the age of sixteen, 1268. CONRAD, a king of Burgundy, 937-994. CONRAD, duke of Bohemia, the first succeeded 1092, d. 1093 ; the second sue. 1190, d. 1191. CONRAD D'HOCHSTADT, one of the warrior priests of the middle ages, abp. of Cologne, d. 1261. CONRAD DE LICHTENAU, a German eccle- sias., suppos. au. of the 'Urspery Chronicle,' d. 1241. CONRAD DE WURTZBOURGH, a German poet and historian, 13th century. CONRAD, F. W., a Dutch mathemat., last ct. CONRING, Hermann, a Ger. savant, 1606-81. CONSALVI, Hercules, a cardinal and states- man of Rome, minister of war under Pius VI., 1789, and many years afterwards the political minister of the Roman court, 1757-1824. CONSTABLE, Archibald, a Scotch book- seller, well known for his enterprise and literary taste, com. the ' Edinburgh Review,' 1775-1827. CONSTABLE, Henry, an Eng. poet, 16th c. CONSTABLE, John, R.A., was born at East Bergholt in Suffolk in 1776, and became a student of the Royal Academy in 1800, having selected the department of landscape. He was elected an academician in 1829. He died in London in 1837. Constable's landscapes are simple in character and composition, and peculiar in execution, having a spottiness which appears to have arisen from a habit of early sketching, when the dew was on the grass, an effect he constantly represents ; his pic- tures improve by time. He always strongly affected originality of style ; at the very commence- ment of his career, being asked by Sir George Beaumont what style he proposed to adopt, he replied, 'None but God Almighty's style, Sir George.' The neighbourhood of Hampstead was the chief arena of his labours. (Leslie, Memoirs of John Constable, &c.) [R.N.W.] CONSTABLE, Thomas Hugh Cliffort, an Engl, botanist and topographical wr., 1762-1823. CONSTANCE, queen of France, 998, d. 1032. CONSTANCE, q. of the Two Sicilies, 1194-98. CONSTANCE, queen of Sicily, 1261-1297. CONSTANS, the first of this name, emp. of Rome, third son of Constantine the Great, sue, together with his two brothers Constantine and Constantius, 337, killed 350 ; the second of the name, emperor of the East, 641-668. CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, Benjamin. There are few names in the political and literary history of France, since the first revolution, which {>resent us with a more curious subject of specul- ation than that of Benjamin Constant; but the leading facts of his career, and a very summary judgment upon them, is all that we can give in the space allotted to us. He was the descendant of a French family, denaturalized by the edict of Nantes, and was born at Lausanne, 1767. He came to Paris in the heat of the revolutionary period, and his philosophical spirit led him into 169 CON alliance with the most talented men of that epoch. In 1796 he brought himself into notice by a work en- titled ' De la Force du Gouvernement Actuel de la France etde la Neccssite de s'y Rallier,' being an ap- peal in support of the directory. The year following lie claimed the rights of a French citizen, and pro- cured a decree which restored the descendants of the religious exiles of France to their proper coun- try; increasing his literary fame about the same period by his treatises on political reaction, and on the effects of terror. Though an influential member of the political circle, M. Constant was not called upon to exercise any public function until the as- cendancy of Napoleon was established, when he became a member of the tribunate, and aspiring to lead the opposition, was ordered to quit France in 1802. Madame de Stael, with whom he was poli- tically connected, being ordered into exile at the same* time, they left the capital together, and travelled over many parts of Europe, at length fixing their abode in Germany, where they culti- vated an acquaintance with its rising literature, and enjoyed the intimacy of Schlegel. It was here that Constant wrote his famous work on the reli- gious spirit, and the different modes of worship ; his tragedy of ' Walstein,' &c; and besides courting the muses, contrived to form an alliance with the daughter of the Prussian minister, Prince Har- denberg. On the fall of Buonaparte in 1814 Constant returned to Paris, and not only ad- vocated the alliance of the Bourbons, as he hoped, with the institutions achieved by the people, but denounced in bitter language the conqueror, who was even then returning to reclaim his authority. By whatever arguments he was won over to the cause of Napoleon and there is reason to believe they leave no stain on his patriot- ism this singular politician figured as a counsellor of state during the hundred days, and though he quitted France at the crisis of the second restoration, he appeared again as a deputy under Louis XVIII. Benjamin Constant, Manuel, and Lafayette in the chamber of representatives (1819), boded no good to the royalists, and the murder of the Due de Berry, followed by the discussion of the electoral laws, was the signal for a new conflict, and for that bril- liant opposition which ended in the revolution of 1830. During this interval M. Constant, besides taking a leading part in the discussions of the chambers, contributed many political and other works to the literature of his country ; and was also actively engaged as one of the editors of ' The Minerva-' The presumed cause of his death, which happened within six months after the abdi- cation of Charles X., was the fatigue and exposure which he underwent during the tumults of July ; and it is singular to add, that he closed his career by accepting favours from Louis Philippw. The }>roblem for the biographer is to reconcile his oyalty to constitutional principles, and his cosmo- politan views with his versatile conduct as a poli- tician. We are inclined to believe that he was trustful beyond what would be esteemed political propriety, and hoped, it may be, too much. Hence lie was disposed to accept the /hit accompli, and make the best of it, and only when his too gener- ous expectations were disappointed, commenced those chivalrous attacks which appear so extraor- dinary in contrast with his liaisons in the camp of CON the enemy. His philosophical refinement, hi dramatic tastes, and his high sense of honou when placed on one side, in the scale of royalty as it was natural they should be, weighed to< much against his political sagacity on the other His romance of 'Adolphe,' also, shows that h thought it dangerous to resist the established opin ions of the people ; but what rule had he for ascer taining what should really be considered as estab lished in scenes so changeful? [E.R.' CONSTANTIA, Flavia Julia Valeria, siste: of Constantine the G., and wife of Licinius, d. 329 CONSTANTINA, el. sister of the preced., d. 354 CONSTANTINE L, called the Great, born 274 proclaimed Augustus by the army 306, embrace* Christianity 311, transferred the seat of govern' ment from Rome to Bvzantium 329, d. 337. CONSTANTINE II., reigned over the Roma empire, in conjunction with his brothers Const ani and Constantius, from 337 to his d. in action, 340 CONSTANTINE III., elected emp. 407, k. 411 CONSTANTINE IV., emp. of the East, 668-685 CONSTANTINE V., sue. as emp. 741, d. 775. CONSTANTINE VI., sue. Leo II. 780, and wa dethroned by his mother Irene, who had been re- gent of the empire during his minority, 792. CONSTANTINE VII., b. 905, s. 911, pois. 959 CONSTANTINE VIIL, is a title given to th. son of Basil, the Macedonian, elected Augustus 868, and died before his father, 878. Some his- torians give the title to one of the sons of Romantu Lecapenus, d. 944 or 945. CONSTANTINE IX. was associated in the em- pire with his brother Basil II., by John Zimisces 969, and succeeded the latter 976, d. 1028. CONSTANTINE X., emp. of the East, 1042-54 CONSTANTINE XL, succeeded 1056, d. 1067 CONSTANTINE XII., last emp. of the East sue. 1448, and died gloriously in the defence o Constantinople, then taken by the Turks, 1453. CONSTANTINE I., k. of Scotland, 458, d. 479 CONSTANTINE II., sue. 858, k. in battle 874 CONSTANTINE III., sue. 903, abdicated 943 CONSTANTINE IV. usurped the throne, anx was killed by the brother of Kenneth 1002. CONSTANTINE, ' the African,' a Benedicts monk, known as a medical author, 11th c. CONSTANTINE DE MAGNY, C. F., a critic of Savoy, au. of a commen. on Milton, 1692-1764 CONSTANTINE, Paulowitch, grand duke o Russia and viceroy of Poland, elder br. of the emp Nicholas, to whom he ceded the crown, 1779-1831 CONSTANTINI, an Italian actor, d. 1729. CONST ANTINUS, a poet and historian, d. 1614, CONSTANTIUS, the jirst of this name, emp. c Rome and father of Constantine the Great, adopt and named Csesar by Maximinian 292, Augusta 305, d. 306; the second, Flavius Julius Con stantius, second son of Constantine the Great born 317, made Ca;sar 323, emperor 337, d. 361. CONTADES, L. H. Erasmus, Marquis De, marshal of Fr., dis. in the wars of Italy, 1701-179; CONTANCIN, Cyriac, a Fr. mis., 1670-173? CONTARINI, an illustrious family of Venia which gave seven doges to Venice from 1043 to 167( and boasts of many ambassadors, cardinals, an men of letters. The most celebrated is Gaspar Contarini, papal legate to the diet of Ratis bon, and a philosophical writer, 1483-1542. ^-- C ' ////swvr t '/ " ' / Y ' /' I / " ,-////, ^ V/vv ' ,>//// v/7 CON CONTARINI, J., a Venet. painter, 1549-1605. CONTE, N. J., a French artist, mechanician, and chemist, attached to the Egypt, exp., 1755-1805. CONTT, Louisa Marg., princess of, celeb, for |her beauty and brilliant talents, born 1577, died jin exile 1631. The house of Conti was a younger branch of the princely house of Conde, and sprang [from Armand De Bourbon, 1629-1666. The line ended with Louis Francis Joseph, lieu- tenant-general in the royal army, d. 1814. CONYBEARE, John, bp. of Bristol, au. of a Defence of Revld. Relig. against Tindal, 1692-1755. CONYBEARE, John Josias, prof, of Anglo- Saxon and poetry, and author of many contributions tomineralogical and antiquarian science, 1779-1824. COOK, Captain James, was born at Marton, near Stockton-upon-Tees, 27th October, 1728. His father, who was an agricultural labourer and farm bailiff, apprenticed him at the age of thirteen to a haberdasher in Staiths, near Whitby. Dislik- ing this business, and having a strong inclination for a sea life, he obtained a discharge, and entered into new indentures with a coal company at Whitby. In their employment he gained great practical knowledge of sailing, and soon rose to the situation of mate. Impressment for the navy was actively carried on in 1755 ; being then in the Thames, Cook at first hid himself to avoid the press- gang ; but afterwards judged it best to offer him- self as a volunteer. In 1759, by the interest of Mr. Osbaldiston, M.P. for Scarborough, and Capt. Sir Hugh Palisser he obtained the mastership of a sloop ; and soon afterwards joined the fleet in the St. Lawrence, operating against the French. His judgment, bravery, and great skill in conducting hydrographic surveys, gained for him the highest credit, and secured his promotion. Returning home in 1762, he married Miss Elizabeth Batts, by whom he had a family of six children. In 1764 he was appointed marine surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador ; and was chosen three years after to command an expedition to the S. Pacific, sent out on the recommendation of the Royal Society, to observe an approaching transit of Venus over the sun's disc, in order that, by a comparison with obser- vations at home, data might be obtained for a more accurate determination of the sun's distance. He was accompanied by Mr. Green as astronomer, Dr. Solander as naturalist, and a gentleman of fortune, Mr. (afterwards Sir Joseph) Banks. All the pheno- mena were successfully observed at Otaheite, on June 3, 1769. Cook then sailed S. in quest of the supposed southern continent; encountering New Zealand, he circumnavigated it ; sailed up the E. coast of New Holland, and determined that it was not joined to New Guinea; thence he crossed to Batavia. Before reaching the Cape, Mr. Green, Dr. Solander, and twenty-eight other persons died. On June 12, 1771, the Endeavour came to anchor in the Downs; Cook's promotion to the rank of com- mander followed soon after. It was proved by this voyage that New Holland and New Zealand were not parts of the terra australis incognita; and that if such a continent did exist, it must be beyond the lat. of 40 S. The object of his second voyage was to circumnavigate the globe in high S. latitudes, in order to settle this question. Leav- ing on July 13, 1772, he was absent about three years, dining which time he lost only one man by 1 COO sickness. He sailed S.E. from the Cape, and re- turned by Cape Horn; and was the first who traversed the S. Pacific ; the highest lat. reached was 70 10' S. The results of this voyage were most important, and excited a great interest among scientific men. He was now raised to the rank of post-captain, and appointed one of the captains of Greenwich Hospital, a situation of considerable emolument. In February, 1776, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and soon after received the Copley medal for a paper on the methods used to preserve the health of his crews which was thus adjudged to be the best experimental paper of the year. The second voyage having proved that if a terra australis existed, it was too far S. to be of any use a question set at rest in 1842 by Captain James Ross's discovery of Victoria Land attention was once more turned to the problem of a N.W. passage between the Atlantic and Pacific; and the act of parliament of 1745, which had offered a reward of 20,000 for the discovery, hav- ing been recently altered so as to include the king's ships, government proposed an expedition. Cook was entitled to repose ; but having volun- teered to take the command, his offer was accepted; and in the ship Resolution, accompanied by the Discovery, under Captain E. Clerke, Cook sailed from Plymouth in July, 1776. Passing from the Cape to New Zealand, and thence through the Pacific, he made many important discoveries, of which the chief was the Sandwich group, named after his friend the first lord of the admiralty. Early in the summer of 1778, he reached Behring's Strait ; but was able to penetrate no farther than lat. 70 44'. Having carefully surveyed the Aleutian group and adjoining coasts, he returned to winter in the Sandwich isles. On the 13th February, 1779, at Owhyhee, one of the boats was stolen by natives during the night. Next day active measures were taken to enforce restitution, and to prevent similar occurrences. For this purpose Cook at- tempted to carry the aged king on board, but on reaching the boats he refused to embark, and his wives set up a lamentation ; at the same time a shot from one of the boats, fired to prevent a canoe leaving the bay, accidentally killed a chief. The crowd was roused to fury, and rushed upon Cook and his men ; four of them were killed, the rest in the confusion could not render assistance to their commander, and he was overpowered, after a desperate and prolonged resistance. His mangled remains were treated with the greatest indignity, and his bones only were recovered by his attached and sorrowing crews. In the extent and value of his discoveries, Cook surpasses every other navi- gator; his surveys and determinations of lati- tudes and longitudes are extremely correct; he may be said, indeed, to have been the first scien- tific navigator. His success in preserving the health of his crews removed all dread of long voyages ; and this was certainly not the least of his services. A pension was bestowed upon his widow. [J.B.] COOKE, Sir A., tutor of Edw. VI., 1508-1576. COOKE, Benjm., a comp. of music, d. 1814. COOKE, George, anEng. engraver, 1781-1834. COOKE, George Frederick, the great tragic actor of the eighteenth century, and rival of John Kemble, whose supremacy he might have 1 coo successfully disputed, but for Lis own fatal habits of intemperance, was born in Westminster, 17th April, 1756. His father was an Irish officer and captain in the 4th Dragoons, but died while Cooke was yet an infant. His mother, on her widow- hood, went to reside at Berwick-upon-Tweed, where her son received his school education. In the Town Hall of this place he saw the first play in his experience acted it was 'The Provoked Husband' the time either 1766 or 1767; and the circumstance made so strong an impression on his mind, that he began to study a part for him- self, that of Horatio in ' The Fair Penitent.' In 1769 he joined a strolling company of players in a barn in the same town, and attempted Young Meadows, in Love in a Village.' From this time his passion for the stage increased, and at the age of fifteen he got to London, notwithstanding he was previously apprenticed to a printer; and afterwards, probably as midshipman on board of a king's ship, visited Holland. He was at all times a sedulous reader of plays, and a diligent playgoer. In 1774, and subsequent years, he witnessed in London the best actors of the time Foote, Gar- rick, Macklin and first appeared (1761) as a professed actor himself at Brentford in the char- acter of Dumont. Next year he visited Berwick and Edinburgh, and in 1778 made his debut in London ; but being neglected, retired with chagrin, to return in 1800 with decided triumph. During the interval he acquired those habits in the pro- vinces which were the bane of his future life. Cooke was eight-and-thirty before he made good his position on a metropolitan stage, and this was at Dublin, which place he left, and enlisted as a soldier, from which Messrs. Banks and Ward, the managers of the Manchester theatre, procured his discharge; and after relieving the distress which his follies had brought upon him, sent him to Manchester. In 1796 he married a Miss Daniels of the Chester theatre, which marriage was after- wards declared null and void by Sir W. Scott in Doctors Commons. Cooke's successful appear- ance in London was in the character of ' Richard III.' He was at that time in his forty-fifth year. He next performed 'Shylock,' 'Sir Archy Mac- Sarcasm,' and ' Sir Pertinax MacSycophant,' in all of which he was unapproachably great. Cooke was exceedingly fine in sarcasm, and both in town and country became immensely popular, notwithstand- ing his irregularities and continual disappointment of his audience. In 1803 he became acquainted with Mr. Cooke, an American actor, who ulti- mately conceived the design of delivering Cooke from his vices, by changing the scene of his asso- ciations, and after much difficulty and some stra- tagem, got him safely across the Atlantic. The voyage, and necessary total abstinence from spiri- tuous liquors, completely renovated the actor's health ; and for some time he ran a triumphant career in the United States. Gradually, however, he relapsed into his former habits of fatal indul- gence, and died at New York in 1812. Next day his remains were deposited in the burying ground of St. Paul's Church, where many years afterwards his grave was visited by Edmund Kean, whose character and genius closely assimilated, both in faults and merits, those of his predecessor, and who erected a tablet to his memory. [J.A.H.] COO COOKE, Henry, an Engl, painter, 1642-1700. COOKE, Thomas, an Engl, poet, 1707-1750. COOKE, Thomas, a dist. singer, 1781-1848. COOKE, W., awr. on bankrupt law, 1757-1832. COOKE, W., a misc. wr. and poet, 1766-1824. COOMBE, Wm., a humorous miscellan. writer, au. of ' The Tour of Doctor Syntax,' &c, 1741-1823. COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first earl of Shaftesbury, disting. as a statesman and political intriguer in the time of Cromwell and Charles II., born 1621, raised to the peerage 1672, d. 1683. He was a talented but dissolute man, and we are in- debted to his administration for the famous habeas corpus act. His grandson and namesake, third earl of Shaftesbury, Was the distinguished essayist and moralist. See Shaftesbury. COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, Bart., 1768- 1841, was the son of the Rev. Dr. Cooper, rector of Yelverton and Morley, Norfolk, under whom, and the village schoolmaster of Brooke, he received the elements of his education. In 1784, he became a pupil of his uncle, William Cooper, surgeon to Guy's Hospital, and, as soon as he was qualified, a lecturer at St. Thomas's on anatomy and surgery, and speedily acquired great reputation as an operating surgeon. In order to succeed his uncle at Guy's, he found it necessary to change his poli- tics, which were previously liberal ; and, very for- tunately, a certain ' disagreeable sensation' about his throat, which he regarded as a prelude to Iris fate, added physical to his moral reasons for adopting this step. His important literary labours were his great work on Hernia (1807), his books on disloca- tions and fractures, and on the Anatomy and Dis- eases of the Breast. Sir Astley was principally distinguished as a bold operator, a decided prac- titioner, and as a most industrious and popular teacher. Perhaps no man has ever taught any branch of medicine who possessed more of this element of great success. His manners were of the most en- gaging kind, while his attention, urbanity, and regard for his pupils, were of the most exemplary character. He thus acquired a hold of the rising profession, which insured him the largest consult- ing practice probably ever enjoyed by any practi- tioner that ever existed, his annual income having been at one time 21,000. [R.D.T.] [House of James Fenimore Cooper.] COOPER, James Fenimore, a celebrated American novelist, was the son of Jn.lge Cooper, 172 coo and born at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1789. After successfully completing his studies at Yale college, he entered the American navy as a mid- shipman in 1805, and continued for six years. In 1810 he married, and quitted the navy, and com- menced his brilliant career as a writer of fiction, and rapidly produced ' The Spy,' ' The Pioneers,' ' The Pilot,' and other novels, which excited great interest. In 1826 he visited Europe, and every- where met with a most cordial reception. His works are throughout distinguished by purity, and brilliancy of no common merit. Died at Coopers- town, in the state of New York, in 1851. COOPER, J. G., a miscel. Engl, wr., 1723-1767. COOPER, Samuel, an Engl, artist, 1609-1672. COOPER, William, an Engl, poet, 1731-1800. COOTE, Sir Charles, arylst. officer, d. 1661. COOTE, Sir Eyre, adescendt. of the preceding, dist. in the service of the East India Co., 1726-1783. COOTWYCK, J., a Dutch traveller, d. 1629. COPERNICUS, Nicolas, or ZEPERNICH, an illustrious astronomer, who restored the true sys- tem of the world as first proposed by Pythagoras, was born at Thorn, in Prussia, on the 19th Feb., 1473. His father was a surgeon, and his maternal uncle bishop of Ermeland. After taking his degree of doctor of medicine, with the view of practising the healing art, he devoted his time to the study of perspective and the art of painting; but in con- sequence of attending the mathematical lectures of Brudzevius, he entered with great zeal upon the study of astronomy. With this view he became the pupil and assistant of Dominic Maria, pro- fessor of mathematics at Bologna, and he subse- quently went to Rome, where he taught mathe- matics and made astronomical observations. Upon his return to his native country, he was appointed to a canonry in the chapter of Frauenberg, and chosen archdeacon of the parish of St. John's. His chief residence, however, was at Frauenberg, where he carried on his astronomical studies. In order to prove the annual motion of the earth, and the immobility of the sun in the centre of the solar svstem, truths of which he had conceived in 1507, he constructed a large quadrant, by means of which he made numerous observations, after- wards published along with those of Tycho in 1666. These observations were the basis of his new tables of the planets, and enabled him to complete, in 1530, his great work ' On the Revolution of the Celestial Bodies.' Although the doctrine of the motion of the earth, and the immobility of the sun, published 100 years afterwards in Galileo's System of the World,' was denounced as a heresy by the Church of Rome, yet these great truths, when propounded by the canon of Frauenberg, were not only applauded by his friends, but adopted by the bishops around him. The cardinal Nico- las Schonberg, bishop of Capua, and Tydeman Gyse, bishop of Culm, urged Copernicus to publish his work, but, dreading the prejudices of the public, he resisted every application. He appears, how- ever, to have taken measures for gradually bring- ing his system before the world. George Rheticus, professor of mathematics at Wittemberg, had re- signed his chair in order to study the new system under Copernicus himself, and they appear to have adopted a method of communicating it to the pub- lic without any shock to their religious feelings. 173 COP In 1540 Rheticus published, without his name, an account of his friend's discoveries, but in conse- quence of its favourable reception by the public, he published a second edition with his name in 1541. Other writers followed in the train of Rhe- ticus, and thus encouraged by the reception which his discoveries had met with, Copernicus placed the MS. of his work in the hands of Rheticus, who superintended the printing of it at Nuremberg, where it was published in 1543, at the expense of Cardinal Schonberg, bishop of Capua. Coperni- cus, however, was not permitted to read his own work. He received and handled a copy of it on the 22d May, 1543, a few hours before his death,which took place at Frauenberg, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, in consequence of the rupture of a Wood vessel, and a paralytic affection of his side. His house at Frauenberg has been lately discovered and also his tomb, with spheres cut out in relief, in the cathedral church of the same town. ' It is impossible,' says Sir David Brew- ster (' Life of Copernicus' in Edinburgh Ency- clopaedia, vol. vii. p. 203, 4,) 'to survey the preceding sketch of the life and discoveries of Copernicus without being struck by the indiffer- ence with which the Church of Rome witnessed the propagation of a system so adverse to the prin- ciples of its faith. More than a century after- wards, when civilization and liberal sentiment had made considerable progress, Galileo was persecuted for holding the same opinions which Copernicus had propagated with impunity. We cannot allow ourselves to imagine that the church was less vigilant in 153j0 than in 1634, or that the doctrine of the earth's immobility was less heretical at one period than at the other. We are therefore led to consider the persecution of Galileo rather as the consequence of his personal imprudence than of his astronomical opinions, and to imagine that the cardinals had seized the opportunity which the publication of his dialogues presented of gratifying a private resentment, which might possibly have been well-founded. Upon what other supposition can we account for the extreme severity of the church against the Pisan philosopher, and for its total indifference to the same crime in the canon of Ermeland? The publication of Copernicus's system gave no shock to the public mind; the religious feelings of no individual, and the watch- ful jealousy of no tribunal were alarmed. The most distinguished members, on the contrary, of the catnolic church encouraged and pro- moted the propagation of the new system of the world. The cardinal Nicholas Schonberg pressed Copernicus to publish his discoveries. The bishop of Culm employed his influence in the same cause. The work was dedicated to the pope himself. The king of Holland even pro- posed him as a candidate for the vacant bishoprick of Ermeland ; and thirty-eight years after his death, Cromerus, bishop of Ermeland, erected a monument to his memory. The charge of heresy was never preferred against Copernicus, either during his life or after his death ; and we have never been able to discover that the slightest dis- approbation had been either cherished or expressed by the church against his system of the universe. Had Galileo been canon of Ermeland, and Coper- nicus professor of mathematics, at this day reli- COP gion would never have been degraded by the persecution of the philosopher, nor science afflicted at the ignominious compromise by which it was averted.' 'It is a singular fact,' says the same writer, ' in the history of Coperni- cus, that while he himself was zealously engaged in establishing a system in direct opposition to the faith of the catholic church, he should have viewed with indifference, and even with hostility, the great reformation which Luther was accomplish- ing in Germany. An edict was even issued by Maurice, bishop of Ermeland, in 1526, and signed by Copernicus and the other canons, the first article of which was directed against the exertions of Luther ; and it is certainly a remarkable cir- cumstance that the diocese of Ermeland, illumi- nated by the wisdom of Copernicus, should have preserved the catholic religion while all the sur- rounding provinces had embraced the doctrines of the reformation.' [D.B.] COPLESTON, Rtght Rev. E., bishop of Llandaff, disting. for his polemical wr., 1776-1849. COPLEY, John Singleton, father of Lord Lyndhurst, dist. as an historical painter, 1738-1815. COPONIUS, a gov. of Judaea, time of Augustus. COQUEBERT-MONTBRET, C. S., Baron De, aFr. natural., phy., and wr. on statistics, 1755-1831. COQUILLE, William, aFr. jurist, 1523-1603. CORAY, Diamant, a Gr. patriot and scholar, dist. in the revival of Gr. independence, 1748-1835. CORBET, Richard, an Engl, prelate, better known as a wr. of humorous poetry, 1582-1635. CORBIAN, P. De, a Provencal poet, 13th c. CORDARA, Julius Caesar, a learned Ital. Je- suit, known as a literary satirist and his., 1704-1790. CORDAY, Charlotte, properly Marianne Charlotte Corday D'Armans. Charlotte Corday is one of those rare characters in history which it is impossible to contemplate without a feeling of enthusiastic admiration, and with re- spect to whom we are willing that the judgment should remain in suspense rather than conclude against the instincts of the heart. She was born at St. Saturnin, near S6ez, in Normandy, 1768, and, as her name testifies, was the daughter of a family belonging to the higher classes of society. She was educated in the retirement of a convent, but having a fine understanding and indomitable spirit, she seems to have followed the bent of her own genius, and formed her mind to the classic models of antiquity. In the bosom of her family she pursued these studies with unabated enthu- siasm, and as the progress of the revolution, and the dispersion of the Girondins, made her ac- quainted with a Louvet and a Barbaroux, it is not surprising that her attention was excited by the spectacle of the squalid, blood-thirsty Marat pre- siding at the sacrifice of all that was noblest and worthiest of her heart's love in her poor country. It has been said that she struck the blow which has rendered her name immortal in revenge of her lover, M. Belsunce, one of the officers in the garri- son of Caen, but this supposition is far from well- founded, and we prefer tor many reasons her own declaration : ' I killed one man to save a hundred thousand; a villain (un sc6lerat) to save innocents; a ferocious wild beast to give repose to my country ! ' How she effected her purpose, and how she paid the sad penalty afterwards, we are under the ne- COR cessity of relating in few words. Her resolve was formed, as she declared at the bar of Fouquier Tinville, after the proscriptions of the 31st of May, 1793, which is sufficient of itself to prove that she was not moved to it by the murder of M. Belsunce, who was killed in 1790, though it cannot be doubted that-the appalling manner of his death must have affected her with a lasting horror of the excesses of sanscullottism. She left home secretly, and arrived at Paris on the 9th of July, with an introduction to Duperret, with whom she transacted some business connected with certain family papers in the course of the next day or two. On Saturday the 13th she purchased a large knife, and at seven o'clock in the evening procured ad- mittance to Marat with this weapon concealed under her garments. She had obtained this interview by writing to him that she was from the seat of rebel- lion, and would ' put it in his power to do France a great service.' Marat was in his bath, with a stool by his side to write upon, and entering into conversation with Charlotte, he penned with fero- cious joy the fresh list of victims with which she pretended to supply him. At the instant when he turned aside, muttering of the chastisement they should receive, Charlotte with desperate de- termination, plunged her knife into his heart. Her aim was so sure that the monster could only ex- claim as he choked with blood, 'A moi, ma chere amie je me meurs,' (Help dear, I am killed !) and instantly expired. It would not be easy to exaggerate the sublime attitude of this beautiful young girl, with her long dark hair and flushed cheek for one moment, and how submissively the next she surrendered herself to the gensdarmes. Her self-possession, sincerity, and maidenly mo- desty at the trial, were marvellous in the midst of the tumult that agitated Paris. The evidence was prepared, and Tinville commenced the pro- ceedings by addressing some questions of form to Charlotte : ' All these details of form are need- less,' she said. 'It was I who killed Marat.' 'What instigated you?' 'His crimes.' 'What do you mean by his crimes ?' ' The ill that he has done to France since the revolution, and which he would yet do.' ' By whom was this assassina- tion suggested to you ?' ' I alone concluded upon it.' 'What are the refugee deputies doing at Caen ?' 'They are waiting till the end of anarchy shall enable them to return to their posts.' ' Was it to a sworn or an unsworn priest that you were accustomed to confess at Caen ?' 'I neither con- fessed to the one nor the other.' ' What end did you propose to gain by killing Marat ?' 'To put an end to the troubles ot the French people.' ' How long since did you form this project ?' ' Since the proscription of the deputies of the people on the 31st of May.' ' It is from the journals, then, that you have judged Marat to be an anarchist ?' ' Yes ; I knew that he had brutalized the French.' And then, raising her voice to prevail over the confu- sion which arose in the hall : ' J'ai tue un homme pour en sauver cent mille ; un scelerat pour sau- ver des innocents ; une bete feroce, pour donner le repos a mon pays. I was a republican before the revolution, I never wanted energy.' 'What do you mean by energy?' ' I mean by energy the feeling of those who are willing to forget their own interests for the sake of their country.' Such an- 174 COR Ivers astonished her judges, and under the circum- ances they are the signs of no ordinary under- anding. It is not surprising that many took off leir hats as she went to the place of execution, othed as a murderess in a red smock, and that ne young man should propose the erection of a lonument to her memory, with the inscription, Greater than Brutus!' She was guillotined, th Julv, 1793. [E.R.] CORDERIUS, the Latinized name of Mathurin ORDier, author of ' Colloquies,' 1479-1564. CORDERO, J. M., a Spanish gram., 1520-1584. CORDLNER, Charles, a Scot, clergyman, anti- uarian, and wr. on the picturesque, &c, 1746-1794. CORDOVA, Alph. De, a Span, astron., 15th c. CORDOVA, Jose M., a comp. in arms of Boli- ar, from whom he revolted, and was slain 1829. CORDOVA, P. De, a Spanish painter, 16th c. CORDUS, EuRic,aGer. phys. and poet, d. 1538. COREAT, F., a Spanish voyager, 1648-1708. CORELLI, Arcangelo, called the founder of tie Roman school of music, was born at Fusignano l the Bolognese territory in 1653. He is said to ave received his instruction in composition from linconelli, and on the violin from Bassoni of Bo- jgna. In 1672 he was in Paris for a short time, ut made no impression. In 1680 he visited Ger- nany, and was in the service of the duke of Ba- aria. He returned to Rome in 1682, and between bis year and 1694, when he was principal violinist t Rome, he published his celebrated sonatas for iolin and violoncello. From that period up till Imost the present time, these sonatas have been mongst the first studies which the great masters f the violin have put into the hands of their pupils. lis greatest works, the Twelve Concertos, were ong known before they were printed. Corelli died it Rome on the 18th January, 1713, and was juried in the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda 'the ancient Pantheon), where a monument, sur- nounted with a marble bust, was erected to his nemory. Corelli was amiable and gentle in his manners, and his feelings were as remarkably sen- sitive. He received the surname of 11 Divino from Ibis Italian compatriots, and was usually called ! r Javioasimo proj'essore di violin.'' [J.M.] I CORINNvE, a lyric Gr. poetess, 5th cent. b.c. ' CORIO, Bernard, a Spanish hist., 1459-1519. I CORIOLANUS, Caius Marcius, a Roman Igeneral, so named from Corioli, the capital of the Yolscians, captured by him, 5th century B.C. CORMONTAIGNE, a Fr. milit. engin., d. 1752. CORNARIUS, J., a phys. of Saxony, 1500-58. CORNARO, the name of a patrician family of Venice, of whom three were doges of the republic, 'theirs*, 1365-1368; the second, 1625-1629; the \tkird, 1709-1722. Catharine, descended from the first, was queen of Cyprus, d. 1510. Ludo- Vico, another member of the family, is celebrated for his great age, and works on regimen, 1467- id Lucretia Helena, as a poetess and learned writer, 1646-1684. CORXEILLE, a pope of Rome, 251-252. CORXEILLE, Michel, a French painter and engraver, 1601-1664. His son, of the same name and profession, 1642-1708. A second son, Jean Baptiste, also a painter, and writer on the art of painting, 1646-1695. COR2si;iLLE, Pierre, named 'The Great' by 1 COR his admiring contemporaries, was the first, in the order of time, among those brilliant writers who did honour to France during the reign of Louis XIV. He had not been preceded by any dramatic writer whose genius was powerful enough to pre- serve his name in general remembrance; and, himself preceding Moliere by a good many years, and Racine by a whole generation, he learned but in part, and obeyed with reluctance, those formal rules which French critics were beginning to teach, and to which the French drama was gradu- ally submitting itself. His countrymen are often much at a loss to reconcile their dislike to his irre- gularities in form, with the pride they feel in his well-won fame, and the impression which they cannot help receiving from his magnificent pictures of heroically idealized nature. Corneille, born at Rouen in 1606, was the son of a lawyer, and him- self attempted the same profession. But as early as his twenty-third year, he entered on an un- interrupted course of devotion to dramatic compo- sition. His first attempts were six rhymed come- dies, and the strong but declamatory tragedy of 'Medee.' These pieces were received with ap- plause in a time when there was nothing better, but are now admitted to have been so feeble as to give but poor presage of the strength which worked within him. lie was saved from prosecuting this career by being imprudent enough to offend Cardi- nal Richelieu, who had chosen him as one of the men of genius who were to found his French Academy. Retiring to Rouen, he turned his thoughts to tragedy, and studied the Spanish lan- guage to have at his command the dramatic stores which it already possessed : an old courtier, who happened to have sought repose in Normandy, is said to have been his adviser on both points. The fruits appeared in 1636, when he presented his romantic tragedy ' The Cid.' Its success was pro- digious, and was at length allowed to be deserved, even by the academicians who wished to flatter the resentments of Richelieu. It is the most fam- ous, and perhaps the greatest, of all Corneille's works. It is alike admirable for its skill of con- struction, its chivalrous dignity of sentiment, and the dramatic power with which it depicts the con- flict of opposing passions. The poet, however, was sneered at for having freely borrowed incidents and ideas from a Spanish play; and he threw himself boldly on his own resources in his next two works, which stand, with the 'Cid,' among his masterpieces. In 'Horace' he dramatized, with a defective plan, but with great force of pas- sion, and several very striking bursts of sentiment, the Roman combat of the Horatii and Curatii; and on 'Cinna,' celebrating Augustus and the Ro- mans of his age, he bestowed an artful dexterity of management which has recommended it, in spite of its artificiality of feeling, to the especial favour of the French critics. These two fine works, appearing in 1639, were immediately followed by a worthy successor, the ' Polyeiicte,' a tragedy of Christian martyrdom. Soon afterwards came ' La Mort de Pompee,' which is fine in some parts; and ' Le Menteur, the only one of its author's comedies that is held worthy of him, and pronounced to have been the earliest comedy of intrigue and character which did credit to French literature. It was imitated from the Spanish, and has itself 5 COR been imitated in English by Steele and translated by Foote. 4 Rodogune ' was thought by the poet to be his best work ; and its fifth act is declared by Voltaire to be the finest effort of the French drama. More philosophical critics detect, in this imposing tragedy, traces of that over-charged and unnatural turn of thought and sentiment which began to show itself more and more in Comeille's plays, and which, with not unfrequent feebleness, indi- cated that the rich mine was nearly wrought out. The acknowledged failure of ' Pertharite ' in 1653, warned him to pause ; and for six years he pro- duced nothing but a versified translation of Tho- mas a. Kempis. Nor did he add to his fame by the few works which he produced after returning to the stage in 1659. These, though not without flashes of the ancient energy, are acknowledged to be on the whole weak ; and they abound in those argumentative and declamatory orations, the occa- sional intrusion of which into his best plays is con- fessed by his most favourable critics. Among the critics of Corneille, he himself must be numbered with honour. The remarks which he published with several of his earlier pieces, contain some ad- mirable criticism. In private life he was an un- assuming and plain man, who was always most at his ease in the bosom of his own family. He died in 1684. His younger brother, Thomas, though now forgotten, was in his day a very popular dra- matist, and famous for his readiness of versifica- tion. The two brothers, whose wives were sisters, lived in the same house ; and it is said that, when Pierre wanted a rhyme, he used to lift a trap-door and call on Thomas for assistance. J_W.S.] CORNELIA, a Roman lady, daughter of Scipio Africanus, and mother of the Gracchi, 2d ct. B.C. CORNELIS, C, a Dutch painter, 1562-1638. CORNELISON, Cornelis, a Dutchman, ad- miral of the fleet sent by the united provinces in 1534, under conduct of William Barentz. CORNELIUS-NEPOS, a Latin hist., 1st c. b.c. CORNETTE, Claude Melchior, a French phvsician and chemist, 1744-1794. CORNIANI, J. B., an Italian dram., 1742-1813. CORNUTI, J. P., a French botanist, 1600-1651. CORNWALLIS, Sir Charles, an English ambassador time of James I., d. 1630. His son, William, author of essays published 1632. CORNWALLIS, Charles, Marquis Cornwallis, was born 31st Dec, 1738. He entered the army early, and obtained deserved promotion and credit in the last campaign of the seven years' war. He served actively and honourably as major-general under Howe and Clinton in the first year of the American war, and in 1780 he held an indepen- dent command. He gained several victories, but was at last shut up and besieged in York Town, where he was obliged to surrender himself and his army, after an obstinate and gallant defence, on October 19, 1781. In 1786 Lord Cornwallis went to India as commander-in-chief and governor- general. He signalized his rule there by the mili- tary advantages that he gained over Tippoo Saib, and by his honesty and vigour as an administra- tive reformer. After his return from India he was, in 1798, made lord-lieutenant in Ireland, where he put down the rebellion that he found raging there. His humanity and his skill in civil government did more even than his military 1; COR talents towards restoring order in that unhappy country. In f805 he was a second time made governor of India ; but his health was now shat- tered. He was suffering severely when he landed at Calcutta; but he exerted himself usefully in the introduction of several salutary measures in the civil department of the Indian service; and then endeavoured to put himself at the head of the army, which was actively engaged in the upper provinces. But the old warrior's strength failed him, and he died at Ghazepore, on his way to head-quarters, on 5th October, 1805. [E.S.C.J CORONA, Leo, a Venetian painter, 1561-1605. CORONELLI, M. V., a Venet. geog., 1650-1718. CORRADO, C, a painter of Naples, 1693-1768. CORRADO, Quinto M., a Latin au.,1508-1575. CORRARO, G., a Venet. moralist, 1411-1464. CORREA, P. P., a Portuguese captain, 13th c. CORREA, Til, a rhetoric, and poet, 1537-1595. CORREA-DE-SAA, Salvador, a Portuguese admiral, and governor of Brazil, 1594-1680. CORREA-DA-SERRA, J. F., a distinguished Portuguese botanist, and minister plenipotentiary to the United States, 1750-1823. CORREGGIO. Antonio Allegri, com- monly called Correggio from his birth-place, was born about 1493-4, and appears to have first studied painting under Tonino Bartolotto of Cor- reggio ; in 1519 he was established as a painter at Parma. The celebrated cupola of Parma was commenced in 1520, and in 1522 Correggio under- took the great works of the dome of the cathedral; in the former representing the ascension of Christ, and in the latter, the assumption of the Virgin, both of which series are now admirably engraved by the Cav. Toschi. The frescoes of the cathedral, left unfinished by Correggio, were completed by his pupil Giorgio Gandini. Correggio died of a fever at his native place in 1534, in his forty-first year only. Correggio's great reputation rests chiefly upon the above mentioned frescoes, but he had executed many excellent oil pictures before he proceeded to Parma in 1519. All his pictures are conspicuous for a remarkable play of foreshorten- ings, a powerful and delicate chiaroscuro, or light and shade, and a graceful grouping of forms. The ' Notte,' or night, of Correggio, m the Gallery of Dresden, is a picture of the nativity of Christ, in which the light proceeds from the body of the infant Saviour. (Pungileoni, Memorie htoriche di Antonio Allegri detto il Correggio, Parma, 1827-21. Sketches of the Lives of Correqgio and Parmigiano, London, 1823.) [R.N.W.] CORSINI, Edw., an Ital. savant, 1702-1765. CORTE, J. De La, a Spanish historical pain- ter, 1597-1660. His son, Gabriel, eminent as a flower painter, 1648-1694. CORTE, Barth., an Ital. med. au., 1666-1738. CORTE, Gottlieb, a learned Ger., 1698-1731. CORTEREAL, G., a Portug. navig., abt. 1500. CORTEREAL, J., a Portuguese poet, d. 1593. CORTEREAL, John Vaz Costa, a gentleman of the household of Alphonso V. of Portugal ; he is said to have discovered Newfoundland about the year 1463. His son, Gaspar, sailed from Lisbon m the year 1500, and discovered Labrador and Greenland. In May, 1501, he again left Lisbon, with two ships, in hopes of finding a N.W. passage to India ; a storm separated the ships on the coast COR of Greenland ; CortereaTs vessel was never heard of, though the other returned in safety. His brother, Michael, went in search of him the next year, with three ships ; these separated in order to examine the coast more closely, agreeing upon a certain rendezvous. Two of them kept the appointment 5 Cortereal and his vessel were never heard of again. Vasco, the last of the family, master of the household, was anxious to go in search of his lost brothers, but the king would not yield to the most earnest entreaties, [J.B.] CORTEZ. Hernando Cortez was born of an ancient Spanish family in Estremadura, in 1485. At the age of nineteen he left Spain, like many of the adventurous youths of that period, to seek fame and fortune in the new world, that had been discovered beyond the Atlantic, He distinguished himself under Velasquez, in the conquest of Cuba ; and after passing several years in that island, where he was sometimes the favourite of the viceroy, and sometimes the special object of his jealousy and persecution, Cortez obtained leave from Velas- quez to conduct a small expedition to the newly- discovered coast of Yucatan and Mexico. With less than 600 soldiers, with 16 horses, 10 cannons, and four falconets, Cortez sailed, in 1519, to con- quer the most powerful empire in America. Cortez landed on the Mexican coast on Good Friday, the 21st of April, in that year, on the spot where the city of Vera Cruz now stands. He persuaded his followers to destroy their ships, and to march in- land, with no prospect but to succeed or perish. The Indian republic of Tlascala lay between him and the Mexican capital. Cortez defeated the Tlasca- lans, when they attacked him, and then suc- ceeded in winning their friendship. They acted thenceforth as his zealous and faithful allies. Alarmed by the reports of the prowess of the Span- iards, and of the superhuman terrors of the arms which they wielded, Montezuma, the Mexican em- peror, sought to conciliate the Spaniards, and re- ceived Cortez and his troops in the capital. Though they obtained lavish presents, and courteous treat- ment, the treasures which they saw around them in- flamed more and more the cupidity of the invaders. The sight of the idolatrous rites, and especially of the human sacrifices which the Mexicans practised, inflamed their religious bigotry ; the ambition of Cortez thirsted after absolute conquest, and, by a bold stroke of treachery, he seized, the person of the Mexican emperor. Cortez, soon after this, received a material increase of strength, from a force which the viceroy of Cuba had sent to depose him and take him prisoner, but which he partly defeated, and partly persuaded to come over to him. But he now found himself plunged into a most desperate war with the native Mexicans, who rose upon the Spaniards, and assaulted them in their fortified quarters in the capital. The Mexicans' strove with equal courage, and infinitely prepon- derating numbers, against the superior weapons and discipline of the Europeans, who throughout the struggle were gallantly supported by their Tlascalan confederates. Cortez was now at last obliged to evacuate the city ; and on the night of the 1st July, 1520 (the Noche Triste of the Span- ish historians), Cortez and his shattered force, with difficulty, and severe loss, made good their retreat from Mexico. Encouraged with this suc- 17 COS cess, the Mexicans followed the Spaniards, and fought a pitched battle with them in the open field. In this battle (the battle of Otumba), Cortez gained a complete victory, which was mainly due to his own prowess ; as in the very crisis of the battle, which was turning against the Spaniards, Cortez personally charged the Mexican general, and slew him with his own hand. After resting and reorganizing his army among the Tlasca- lans, and receiving some reinforcements, Cortez again advanced upon the Mexican capital. Gua- temozin was now emperor of Mexico, and had learnt the inability of his troops to face the Euro- peans in the open field. He remained within the city, _ which Cortez besieged. The geographical position of the city, and the great numbers of native allies who now served under him, enabled Cortez to establish a strict blockade. Many assaults were made, and met with various fortune. Fire and the sword swept away thousands of the Mexi- cans, but famine was their most fatal foe, and Mexico, on the 13th August, 1521, surrendered, and the whole of its vast empire became subject to the crown of Spain. Cortez disgraced his triumph by putting the brave Guatemozin to a cruel death, an act of which he is said to have afterwards deeply repented. The domestic enemies of the con- queror of Mexico had been busy in their intrigues against him in the Spanish court, and in 1528 Cortez returned to Spam to face his accusers. He was coldly received, though with apparent honour; and he could not prevail on Charles V. to continue him in the governorship of Mexico. He returned to America in 1530, a powerful and wealthy noble, but without public authority. He now signalized himself in the arts of peace, in the skilful culture of his ample estate, in the introduction of the sugar cane, and the importation of merino sheep into the province. He made also several brilliant and important voyages of discovery along the Cali- fornian and other coasts of the Pacific. In 1540 he finally returned to Spain, where he was treated by his sovereign with ungracious neglect. Cortez died near Seville, in 1547, in the sixty-third year of his age. [E.S.C.] CORTICELLI, P. S., a Sp. gram., 1690-1758. CORVISART, J. K, a Fr. physic, 1755-1821. CORYATE, Th., an Eng. navigat,, 1577-1617. COSIN, John, an Eng. theologian, 1595-1672. COSMAS, an Egyptian monk, who, in the be- ginning of the 6th century, wrote a work on the ' Topography of the Christian World.' Its chief object was to refute the unscriptural and impious doctrine of the earth's sphericity. He argued that it was a plain surrounded by an immense wall, at whose north side there was a great mountain, which concealed the sun every night. His work, however, contains many interesting particulars, especially concerning the East, in vdiich some think he had extensively voyaged ; and hence he is styled Indicopleustes. [J.B.] COSMO. See Medici. COSSALI, P., an Ital. algebraist, 1748-1^15. COSSE-BRISSAC, one of the oldest and most illustrious houses of France, the most remarkable members of which are Count Charles, one of the greatest captains of the mid. ages, 1505-1563. Artus De Cosse, marshal under Charles IX., d. 1582. Timoleon, killed at the siege of Mucidan, N COS 15G9. Charles, his brother, grand falconer, and statesman under Henry IV., d. 1621. J. P. Tl- moleon, marshal, 1698-1784. L. J. Timo- leon, Due De Cosse, killed at Robbach, 1757. L. Hercules Timoleon De Cosse-Brissac, gov. of Paris, b. 1734, com.-gen. of the constitu- tional guard of the king 1791, killed at the mas- sacre of Versailles, 1792 COSTA, F. De Mendoen, a Port, lit., d. 1824. COSTARD, George, an Engl, astr., 1710-1782. COSTER, J. L., a Dutch printer, 1370-1439. COSTER, Samuel, a Dutch dramatist, 17th c. COSWAY, Richard, an Engl, art., 1731-1821. COTES, Francis, an Engl, artist, d. 1770. COTES, Roc, 1682-1716. Cotes was the friend of Newton, who cherished high admiration for him; and he wrote that excellent preface still attached to the ' Principia.'_ He discovered the remarkable property of the circle which passes un- der the name of the Cotesian Theorem; and of which much use has been subsequently made ; and he contributed to several other departments of pure and mixed mathematics. Had Cotes lived he would have been one of the most distinguished scientific men that ever adorned England. COTIN, Chs., a Fr. poet and eccles., 1604-1682. COTTA, J., a Latin poet, died 1511. COTTA, J. F., a German theologian, 1701-1779. COTTA, J. G., Baron De Cottendorf, distin. for his enterprise in newsp. property, 1764-1832. COTTA, L. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1645-1719. COTTA, Lucius Aurelius, Rom. con., 75 b.c. COTTA, Marcus Aurelius, Rom. con., 74 b.c. COTTIUS, a prince of Cisalpine Gaul in the age of Augustus, from whom the Cottien Alps are named. COTTON, Chs., a burlesque Engl, poet, 17th c. COTTON, Nath., aphys. and poet, 1707-1788. COTTON, P., confessor of Henry IV. and Louis XIIL, procured the recall of the Jesuits, 1564-1629. COTTON, Sir R. B., an em. antiq., col. of the library of that name in the Brit. Mus., 1570-1631. COTYS, the name of several ancient kings of Thrace, Cappadocia, and the Cimmerian Bosphorus. COUDRETTE, a Fr. hist, of the Jesuits, d. 1774. COUPLET, Cl. An., a Fr. mechan., 1642-1722. COUPLET, Philip, a Fr. mission., 1628-1692. COURAYER, P. F. Le, a Fr. ecclesiastic, per- secuted for his opinions, d. in London, 1681-1776. COURIER, P. L., a French classical scholar and political writer, born 1772, assassinated 1825. COURNAND, Ant. De, aFr. poet, 1747-1814. COURT-DE-GEBELIN, Anth., a French min- ister, author of ' Le Monde Primitif,' 1725-1784. COURTILZ-DE-SANDRAS, Gatien De, a Fr. bio., au. of many scandalous disclosures, 1644-1712. COURTIVRON, Mqs. De, a math., 1715-1785. COURTNEY, John, a polit., time of Fox, au. of 4 Reflections on French Revolution,' &c, d. 1816. COURTNEY, William, abp. of Canterbury and lord chancellor of England, notorious for his per- secution of the Lollards, 1341-1396. COURTOIS, James, a Fr. painter and engraver, celebrated for his battle-pieces, 1621-1676. His brother William, an hist, painter, 1628-1679. COUSIN, Gilbert, a learned Fr. ecclesiastic, persecuted as a heretic, and d. in prison, 1506-1567. COUSIN, J., a Fr. painter and sculp., 1520-1590. COUSIN, Louis, a Fr. historian, 1627-1707. COUSTON, N., a Fr. sculp., 1658-1733. His COV brother William, also a sculp., 1678-1746. The son of William, same name and prof., 1716-1777. COUTHON, Georges, is one of those proble- matical characters in the French revolution upon whom it is difficult to pass judgment, though nothing is easier than to call them hard names, and to nold them up, in general terms, to the exe- cration of mankind. He was born in 1756, and was president of the tribunal at Clermont when the revolution broke out; and though his lower extremities were paralyzed, so that he was com- pelled to speak sitting, he had been remarkable for his eloquence as an advocate. His first act as a member of the legislative assembly was to pro- cure the abolition of the forms which distinguished the king as sovereign, declaring at the ena of his address that ' He would have no other majesty than the Divine majesty and the majesty of the people.' As a member of the convention he voted for the death of the king without appeal and without delay. He acted with the party of the Mountain, and was mainly instrumental in the overthrow of the Giron- dins, and on the 2d of June proposed the arrest of the twenty-two deputies, and of the ministers Cla- viere and Lebrun. His conduct on all these occa- sions procured his election to the Comite de Salut Public, where he acted with St. Just and Robes- pierre, It was upon his proposition that the con- vention declared the English government to be guilty of ' lese-humanite.' and that Pitt was the ' enemy of the human race.' 1 He was at the taking of Lyons, and devoted many of its fine buildings to destruction, for which purpose he was earned from place to place in a chair, bearing a wooden mallet, with which he struck the unfortunate edi- fice, repeating the formula, ' La loi te frappe,' (the law strikes thee,) after which the work of destruc- tion might be commenced. The charge of cruelty made against him is founded principally on the decree, of which he was the author, for facilitating arrests, and giving new vigour and facility to the revolutionary tribunal, known as the decree of the 22d Prairial; but it is some answer to this, if Robespierre's opinion of his friend is worth any- thing, that when Couthon was proposed to him for a new commission among the disaffected, he answered contemptuously, ' Bah ! he cried like a woman over the punishment of the rebellious Lyonnese ! ' It is certain that the words of Cou- thon may often be cited against him, as the test, for example, which he gave when the Jacobins were to be purged of all but the ultra democrats, What hast thou done to be hanged if counter-re- volution should arrive ?' but the question is, what these words really implied under the circumstances, and with what degree of earnestness were they uttered ? Couthon was faithful to Robespierre to the last ; and on the 9th Thermidor endeavoured to kill himself with a poignard, but wanted nerve, and was earned bleeding to the guillotine. His features were mild and pleasing, and his expression remarkable for good-nature. [E.R.] COUTO, Diego De, a Portug. hist., 1542-1616. COUTTS, Thos., a dist. Lon. banker, d. 1821. COVELL, J., D.D., au. of a work on the Greek Ch.; chapl. to the Eng. embassy in Turkev, d. 1722. /v,riWr ._ t,__i _v_ WJ lg31# gl. phys., 1766-1 COVENTRY, H., a man of letters, d. 1752. COVENTRY, A., an Engl. COVENTRY, H., a man of COVENTRY, J., an Engl, mechan;, 1735-1812 178 cov COVERDALE, Miles, well kn. as one of the first Eng. reformers, and transl. of the Bible, 1499-1580. COVERTE., R,, an End. navigator, 17th cent. COVILHAM, Pedro De, a Port, travel., thirty- three years resident in Abyssinia, 16th century. COWARD, Wm., an English physician and psy- chologist, commencement of the last century. COWLEY, Abraham, regarded by Dr. Johnson as the chief of metaph. poets, and equally eel. as a naturalist, b. in London 1618, buried in Westmin. Abbey by the side of Chaucer and Spenser, 1667. COWLEY, Hannah, a dram, wr., 1743-1809. COWLEY, Henry Wellesly, Lord, b. 1773, in India with his brother Lord Wellesly 1797, amb. to Vienna 1823-1831, to Paris 1841, died 1847. COWPER, Wm., a Scotch prelate, 1566-1619. COWPER, Wm., an Engl, anatom., 1666-1709. COWPER, Wm., Earl, a disting. lawyer and statesman, reign of Queen Anne, d. 1723. COWPER, William, was the grand-nephew of the Lord Chancellor Cowper, and grandson of a judge in the Court of Common Pleas. His father was rector of Great Berkhamstead in Hertford- shire ; and there the poet was born in 1731. After having spent two years of misery in a country school, he was placed at Westminster School, where he remained, comfortable and lively, till he was eighteen years old. He was then articled to a solicitor in London, was called to the bar in 1754, and resided in the Middle Temple for eleven years, neglecting law, contributing a few papers to ' The Connoisseur,' and gradually exhausting his little patrimony. In 1763 one of his powerful kinsmen appointed him to two clerk- ships in the House of Lords. Doubts of his com- petency, and the fear of appearance in public as- semblies, developed the tendency to insanity which lurked within him. He made several attempts to destroy himself; and was consigned for eighteen months to a lunatic asylum at St. Albans. On his release in 1765, subsisting on the remnant of his property, with assistance from relatives, he took up his residence at Huntingdon, and became a boarder in the house of Mr. Unwin, a clergyman. That gentleman dying two years afterwards, the widow and Cowper removed to Olney in Bucking- hamshire. John Newton was curate of the place ; and his religious views accorded with those which had been adopted by the poet. In 1776 appeared the ' Olney Hymns,' of which some of the best were furnished by Cowper ; but it was only about the time of their publication that the unhappy poet was freed from a second confinement, which had lasted for nearly four years. Mrs. Unwin, anxious to engage his mind safely, urged him to prosecute verse-making. 'The Progress of Error' as written ; ' Truth,' Table-Talky and ' Expos- ation,' followed it ; and these with other poems ide up a volume, which was published in 1782, ceiving the approbation of Johnson and other itics, but meeting little attention from the pub- jlic. The poet's fame, however, was decisively established by his next volume, which, appearing in 1785, contained ' The Task ' and other poems. The publication of ' The Task,' indeed, was an era in the history of English poetry. It was the point jf transition from the eighteenth century to the lineteenth. Natural language was substituted or artificial: themes of universal interest were CRA handled, instead of such as told only on a few cul- tivated minds ; even the seriousness and solemnity of the leading tone had a striking attraction, while it was relieved both by strains of pathos and touches of satiric humour. More novel and original than anything else were those minute and faithful delineations of external scenery, to which no parallel had been seen since the 'Seasons.' Perhaps, also, the didactic form of Cowper's poems, giving them an equivocal character which hovers continually between poetry and argumen- tation, was an additional recommendation to readers who had long been unaccustomed to the finer and higher kinds of poetical invention. Cowper now spent six years on his translation of Homer, which appeared in 1791. The neglect which it has experienced is certainly undeserved, at least by his ' Odyssey.' His mental alienation, which had repeatedly threatened him with a return, overcame him completely in 1794; and the last six years of his life produced hardly any literary fruits except the pathetic ' Castaway.' The death of his dear friend Mrs. Unwin, in 1796, threw him into a gloom which was hardly ever again dispel- led, and he died in 1800. [W.S.] COX, Richard, an Irish historian, 1650-1733. COX, Richard, bishop of Ely in the reign of Elizabeth, a controversial wr., 1499-1531. COXE, Wm., an English historian, 1747-1828. COXETER, Th., a miscell. writer, 1689-1747. COYPEL, Noel, a Fr. hist, painter, 1638-1707. Anthony, son and pupil of Noel, 1661-1722. Ch. Antony, son of the latter, 1694-1752. Noel Nicholas, a younger son of Noel, and br. of An- thony, 1692-1734. COYSEVOX, Anth., a Fr. sculp., 1640-1720. COYTHIER, James, physician to Louis XL COZENS, Alex., a Russian painter, d. 1786. COZZA, F., a Spanish painter, 1605-1682. COZZANDO, Leo, an Ital. histor., 1620-1702. [ birth-place of Crabbe.J CRABBE, George, a poet whose truth to na- ture and strength of homely pathos atone for de- ficiency in ideal elevation, was born in 1754, at Aldborough in Suffolk, where his father was col- lector of salt duties. He went through an appren- ticeship to a surgeon, and for a short while at- tempted practice ; but, always attached to letters rather than business, he had little success, and came to London in 1780 to seek his fortune. When the 179 CRA failure of Lis first poem, 'The Candidate,' had reduced him to great distress, and when no atten- tion had been paid to his appeals to distinguished persons locally connected with his birth-place, he boldly laid his case before Edmund Burke. This great man read his manuscripts, received him into his house at Beaconsfield, and introduced him to his friends ; and the poem of ' The Library,' pub- lished on his recommendation, was received with great applause. His reputation was increased by 'The Village,' which appeared in 1783; and the publication of ' The Newspaper ' in 1785, closed the first series of his works. In the meantime, orders having been obtained for him, he became chaplain to the duke of Rutland, married happily, and received in succession several moderate pre- ferments. In 1807 he published ' The Parish Re- gister,' to which were added ' Sir Eustace Grey,' and other small poems ; and ' The Borough,' the most various and energetic of his works, made its appearance in 1810. In 1813, soon after the death of his wife, he was presented to the living of Trowbridge in Wiltshire, where he spent the re- mainder of his quiet and honourable life. His ' Tales of the Hall ' were published in 1819. His death took place in 1832. [W.S.] CRABBE, Geo., A.M., au. of a ' Diet, of Syno- nyms,' and other works, d. Dec. 4, 1851, aged 72. CRABETH, F., a Flemish painter, 16th cent. CRADDOCK, S., a nonconformist divine, au- thor of works on practical religion, b. 1620. His brother Zachary, author of sermons, 1633-1695. CRADDOCKE, Luke, an Eng. painter, d. 1717. CRAIG, John, a Scotch mathem., 17th cent. CRAIG, N., a savant of Denmark, 1549-1602. CRAIG, Sir Th., a Scotch lawyer, 1548-1608. CRAIG, Wm., a Scotch barrister and fugitive writer, succ. Lord Hailes as judge, 1745-1813. CRAMER, C. G., a Ger. novelist, 1758-1817. CRAMER, Fr., a Ger. musician, 1772-1848. CRAMER, G., a Swiss geometrician, 1704-1752. CRAMER, J. A., a Ger. mis. writer, 1723-88. CRAMER, J. A., a Ger. mineralogist, 1710-77. CRAMER, J. A., dean of Carlisle, celebrated as an antiquarian writer on classical subjects; born in Switzerland 1793, died 1848. CRAMOISY, S., a French printer, 17th cent. CRANACH, Lucas, a Ger. painter, 1472-1553. CRANMER, Thomas, was born at Aslacton in the county of Nottingham on the 2d July, 1489. He entered Jesus College in 1503, became a fellow in 1510-11, and a doctor of divinity in 1523. His opinions on the first marriage of Henry VIII. with his brother's widow introduced him to the king. The favourite's multifarious efforts were in vain to procure a divorce from the papal authorities, but as a reward for his services, though he had been twice married, he was raised by royal favour to the see of Canterbury. On 23d May, 1533, the arch- bishop declared the king's marriage to be null and void, and five days afterwards he married Henry to Anne Boleyn. Cranmer now became occupied with more meritorious work, the translation of the Bible, and the great work of the English reforma- tion. At Henry's death, he was one of the council of regency to Edward VI., and a liturgy, homilies, and articles were composed under royal patronage. When the young monarch died, and Mary at length ascended the throne, Cranmer, who had been drawn CRI into the plot on behalf of the Lady Jane, was sum- moned before the council, then committed to the Tower, and finally sent to the prison of Bocardo at Oxford. He was at length, by Pope Paul IV., declared guilty of heresy, &c. On the 20th of March, the night before his martyrdom, he was entrapped into a written recantation. On the next day, in St. Mary's church, he solemnly de- clared ' that his hand had offended in writing con- trary to his heart.' 'My hand,' said he, 'shall first be punished. For if I may come to the fire, it shall first be burned.' When he was brought to the stake, erected opposite Baliol College, he ful- filled this resolution with a marvellous and unex- pected intrepidity, still crying 'this unworthy hand ! ' But there was a sad infirmity in Cranmer s nature, and his great faults were an apparent vacil- lation and a want of decision and firmness. Yet he was honoured to do a great work in his time. ' He was at once,' says Macaulay, 'a divine and a courtier,' and the attempted combination of the two characters created those inconsistencies which soiled the purity of his life, and detracted from the merit of his actions. [J.E.l CRASHAW, Richard, an Engl, poet, d. 1650. CRASSO, Laurence, a Neap, hist., d. 1683. CRASSUS, Lucius L., a Ro. orator, 150-87 b.c. CRASSUS, M. L., a Rom. triumvir, k. 53 b.c. CRATES, a philos. of Thebes, 4th cent. B.C. CRATINUS, a Greek poet, 528-431 b.c. CRATO DE CRAFTHEIM, a physician and literary savant of Germany, 1519-1585. CRAUFURD, Quentin, a Sco. wr., 1743-1819. CRAWFORD, Adair, an English physician and naturalist, 1749-1795. CRAWFORD, David, a Scotch hist., d. 1726. CRAYER, G. De, a Flem. painter, 1582-1669. CRE BILLON, Prosper Jolyot De, a French tragic poet, held in the highest respect by his coun- trymen, 1674-1762. His son, Claude Prosper, a novelist, of no great repute, 1707-1777. CREIGHTON, R., D.D., an English composer, au. of ' I will arise and go to my Father,' d. 173G. CRELLIUS, J., a Ger. musician, 1590-1633. CREMILLES, L. H. Boyer De, a French officer, in the army of Flanders, 1700-1768. CRESCENZI, J. B., an It. artist, 1595-1660. CRESCENZI, Pietro, a wr. on agric, regarded as the restorer of the science in Europe, b. 1230. CRESCIMBENI, J. M., an Ital. poet, 1663-1728. CRESTIN, J., a religious prot. writer, d. 1572. CRESSEY, H. P., a Rom. Cath. wr., d. 1674. CRESLIN, the pseudonym of William Du Bois, a French poet and chronicler, d. 1525. CRETI, Donato, a pain, of Bologna, 1671-1749. CREUTZ, Gustav. Ph. Count De, a Swed. diplom. andman of letters, chanc. of Upsalal726-85. CREUZE-LA-TOUCHE, J. Ant., a Fr. econ- omist, dep. to the assem. and conv., &c, 1749-1800. CREVTER, J. B. L., a French hist., 1693-1765. CRICHTON, James, a gentleman of Scotland, surnamed the ' Admirable' on account of his sur- passing abilities and acquirements, 15G0-1583. CRIGHTON, R., bp. of Bath and Wells, d. 1672. CRILLON, the name of sev. illust. Frenchmen of Ital. descent. 1. Louis De Balbe De Berton De Crillon, one of the most lion, and valiant captains of the 16th cent,, 1541-1616. 2. Louis De Berton De Balbe De Quieus Due Db 180 CRI Crillox-Mahon, dist. in the wars of Louis XV., 1718-1796. 3. Louis Athanasius, brother of the last, an em. div. and phil., d. 1789. 4. Fel. Dor. De Berton De Balbe Due De Crillon, an officer in the Spanish service, deputy to the states-general, and peer of France, 1748-1820. CRISP, Tobias, a famous Antinomian, d. 1642. CRISPUS, Flavius Julius, a son of Constan- tine the Great, put to death by his orders, 336. CRITO, a disciple and fr. of Socrates, d. 380 b!c. CRITO, a Greek sculptor, 1st or 2d cent, b c. CROESE, Gerard, a Dutch savant, 1642-1710. CROESUS, the last king of Lydia, renowned for his immense wealth, reigned 557-545 B.C. CROFT, H., bp. of Hereford, author of sermons und religious tracts, &c, 1603-1691. CROFT, Sir H., a biographer, &c, d. 1816. CROFT, Sir R., the sue. of the preceding in the baronetcy, surgeon accoucheur to the Princess Charlotte, whose death occas. his suicide, 1817. CROFT, W., a comp. of sacred music, 1677-1727. CROI, John De, a French protes. wr., d. 1659. CROIX-DU-MAINE, F. G. De La, a French savant and bibliopole, 16th century. CROIX, Fr. Petis De La, an Orient, scholar, 1653-1713. His son, Alex. Louis Marie, d. 1751. CROIX, St. L. De La, a mystic of old Castile, author of Tie Night of the Soul,' 1542-1591. CROKE, Sir A, a miscell. writer, 1800-1842. CROKE, Dr. R., a Gr. schol. and phil., d. 1558. CROMER, M., a Polish historian, 1512-1589. [Mask of Cromwell, taken afrer death.] CROMWELL, Oliver, the Protector, was born in the town of Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599. His father was Robert Cromwell, a cadet, of a family possessed of a baronetcy, and his mother being a daughter of Sir Richard Stewart, efforts have often been made to show that he was connected with the royal family. He spent a dis- solute and extravagant youth, interrupted by seri- ous misgivings, which brought him at last to stern pelf-condemnation. When twenty-one years old he married Elizabeth, the daughter of Sir Thomas Bourchier, and thus, both by descent and alliance, he was a member of the higher country gentleman class, or of the nobility as it would be termed in other European countries. In that age, however, refinement was only kept up by attendance in court, and Cromwell, who lived away from town and followed country pursuits, became a man of CRO clownish deportment. Though he had been elected to the brief parliament of 1628, it was not till 1640 that he was known in the House of Com- mons, and Sir Philip Warwick, who observed his rise, has left a curious notice of his personal ap- pearance. His apparel, he said, was very ordi- nary, ' for it was a plain cloth suit, which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor. His linen was plain, and not very clean, and I remem- ber a speck or two of blood upon his little band, which was not much larger than his collar. His hat was without a hat-band. His stature was of good size ; his sword stuck close to his side ; his countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp and untunable, and his eloquence full of fervour.' He had been for some years establishing an influ- ence with the puritan party, who frequented his house and bowed to his strong judgment. He showed his great business capacities in the struggle of the long parliament, but it was not until the parliament raised a military force, to which he brought a troop of horse, that his powers of or- ganization and command were fully developed. He speedily rose to authority as lieutenant-general of the horse, and when he was specially exempted from the self-denying ordinance, so that he could both deliberate in parliament and hold command, he became the most powerful man in the country. He showed his eminent sagacity in reconstructing the army, and infusing into it high spirit along with stern discipline. At the battle of Naseby in 1645 it was seen in the signal destruction brought on the well-officered royal army, how effectively he could strike with the weapon he had con- structed.' His military policy throughout was to despise secondary means and ends, but to invest himself with overwhelming power and crush his enemy. He saw the large share which artillery must bear in warfare, and anticipated modern generals in fostering that destructive arm. His re- J>eated victories over the royalists, his estab- ishment of the predominance of the army over parliament, and of the independents over the presbyterians, his relentless exertions to bring Charles I. to the block, and his dismissal of the parliament, are all great events in the history of the day, which cannot be narrated with sufficient distinctness without much detail. In 1649 he conducted an exterminating war in Ireland, insti- gated by the ferocious principle that whatever hu- man being opposed him should be put to death. In Scotland, where he saw there were more suit- able materials for the sort of government he de- sired, he was rather a pacificator than an oppres- sor. It was on the 16th of December, 1653, that he took the title of Lord Protector, and became virtually king of Britain, and a king who sub- mitted to very little constitutional restraint. How far he was sincere in the religious convictions by which he professed to be led, has been matter of endless debate, and as a secret buried with him who alone possessed it, it may occupy controversy to the end of time. That he was under powerful religious impulses cannot be doubted the ques- tion arises as to the extent to which he really be- lieved that by their power alone, and by no promptings of worldliness, he was driven on in his ambitious career. He was an enlightened internal reformer, and established many ministerial improve- 181 CEO ments which subsequent governments were com- pelled unwillingly to follow. His latter days were spent in anxiety and depression, if not remorse, and he died on 3d September, 1659. [J.H.B.j CROMWELL, Thos., a statesman and adhrnt. of Wolsev, andafterw. of Henry VIII. , beheaded 1540. CRONSTED, A. F., a Swed. miner., 1722-1765. CROSS, M., an English painter, time of Ch. I. CROWE, Wm., an English poet, 1756-1829. CROWNE, John, a dramatic writer and poet, of the reign of Charles II., by birth an American. CKOXALL, S., a Whig wr. and divine, d. 1752. CRUDELI, Th., a poet of Tuscany, 1703-1745. CRUDEN, Alex., au. of the well-kn. Concor- dance,' by profession a classical teacher and book- seller, a native of Aberdeen, 1701-1770. CRUIKSHANK, W., an Eng. anat., 1746-1800. CRUSIUS, Chk., a German phil., 1712-1775. CRUSIUS, M., a German schol., 1526-1607. CRUSIUS, T. L., a Saxon engrav., 1730-1769. CRYM-GUERAI, khan of Tartary, 1758-1770. CUBA, J., a German botanist, 15th century. CUBERO, P., a Spanish miss., 17th century. CUDWORTH, Ralph, principal of Christ Col- lege, Cambridge ; a philosopner of considerable emi- nence, and prodigious learning. Born in Somer- set in 1617, died in 1688. Cudworth's life was an unceasing protest against Hobbes ; and the theme he proposed to himself was, very suitably, a defence of Human Liberty. He recognized three kinds of Fatalism equally destructive of responsibility, and of the foundations of Morals : first, Fatalism purely materialistic, suppressing, with the notion of human Liberty, the idea of God, and the reality of spiritual existences explaining all phenomena, mental and physical, by concourses of atoms: second, that theological Fatalism, common enough in all ages, which resolves good and evil, justice and injustice, into the simple and arbitrary will of God : third, the fatalism of the Stoics, which con- founds Providence with the laws of Necessity, re- garding everything as inflexibly pre-ordained. Cud- worth's protest against the first description of Fa- talism, or his refutation of materialistic Atheism, occupies his ponderous ' Intellectual System of the Universe ;' and his effort to rescue the foundations of Right and Wrong from arbitrariness, constitutes the 'Immutable Morality.' He did not live to complete his task by a similar attack on the Stoi- cal, or ultra-Calvinistic form of hostility to human spontaneity. The 'Intellectual System' especially, is a very storehouse of information concerning cos- mogonic speculation; nor will the reader fail to detect throughout, marks of independent, and even original thought. It contains, for instance, the germ of the modifications afterwards proposed by Leibnitz, on the argument of Des Cartes, for the being of a God. (See article Des Cartes.) The fault of all the writings of Cudworth, is their too much learning ; his positions are overlaid. His works were at first published in folio : an edition of the ' Intellectual System ' in 4 vols. 8vo, has been recently edited by Birch. Cudworth merits a high place in that class of English divines in which we find the names of Gale, Thomas Burnet, and Henry More. [J.P.N.] CUFAELER, Abr., a Ger. phil., 17th century. CUFF, Hen., an Eng. schol., execut. for alleged complicity in the treason of the earl of Essex, 1601. CUM CULLEN, William, M.D., 1712-1700, wag one of the most remarkable physicians which our country has produced, and took a principal .share in elevating the mere art of the practitioner into a science. He was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, where his father was chief magistrate. Serving an apprenticeship with a surgeon in Glasgow, after the manner of Roderick Random, young Cullen made several voyages to the West Indies as surgeon in a London trader ; but tiring of the monotony of such employment, he settled as a country practitioner at Shotts, in his native county. There he made the acquaintance, and entered into partnership with Dr. William Hunter, who afterwards became so distinguished in Lon- don, and here he likewise drew towards him the attention of the duke of Hamilton, to whom he was indebted for being placed in a position which enabled him to exhibit his natural powers. By the terms of agreement between Cullen and Hun- ter, it was stipulated that each alternately should be allowed to study during the winter session at some college; Cullen chose Edinburgh, and Hun- ter London ; an arrangement which soon termi- nated their association, as the latter, having obtained employment from Dr. Douglas, never returned. Cullen, who had graduated, was appointed lecturer on chemistry in the university of Glasgow, in 1746, and was afterwards placed in the chair of medicine. But, if we are not mistaken, he also occasionally lectured on chemistry, as we have seen a letter from him to the faculty of the college offering to lecture on chemistry if 30 were given to pay the expenses of the course, and ill-advised f>arsimony was not the characteristic of that earned body, and Dr. Cullen, on his removal thither, first occupied the chair of chemistry, and subsequently that of medicine. His views of medicine, his enthusiastic love of his profession, his kindness of heart, and his remarkable talents, soon gave an impetus to the scientific study of medicine, which is still felt at the present day. His students not merely respected him as a man of science, but they loved him as one who saw into their hearts, and who, sympathizing with their defects, smoothed their path of study. The im- portant works of Cullen were his ' Nosology,' and his work on medicine, both of which are cha- racterized by admirable arrangement, careful selec- tion, and well-considered deduction truly won- derful when we consider the limited field of the medical sciences when Cullen wrote. [R.D.T.] CULLUM, Sir J., an Engl, antiq., 1733-1785. CULPEPER, Sir T., a miscel. writer, 17th ct. CULPEPPER, Nicil, an apothecary and astrol- oger, au. of the well-known 'Herbal,' 1616-1654. CUMANUS, governor of Judaea, mid. of 1st ct. CUMBERLAND, the name of an Engl, duke- dom, reserved for the younger members of the royal family. The most noted of this title is William Augustus, son of George II., eel. as commander at the victory of Culloden, 1721-1765. CUMBERLAND, Richard, an Engl, prelate of great learning, au. of ' De Legibus Natura?,' written in opposition to Hobbes, to prove that there is a natural code of morals, 1632-1718. CUMBERLAND, Richard, was the great- grandson of Bishop Cumberland, the author of the treatise ' De Legibus Natura?.' His mother was a lfc2 CUN daughter of the celebrated Richard Bentley, and the heroine of Byrom's pretty pastoral, ' My time, ye Muses.' His father, a respectable English clergyman, was, for some years before his death, an Irish bishop. Richard Cumberland was born in his grandfather's house at Cambridge in 1732. He was educated at that university, took his de- gree as tenth wrangler, and held for some years one of the two lay fellowships of Trinity College. His family withdrew him from his clerical studies to become private secretary to Lord Halifax, then at the head of the board of trade ; and after hav- ing spent a long time in official duties, he was appointed secretary to the board, and held that place till the abolition of the board in 1782, when he retired on a pension. In 1780 he was sent on a confidential mission to the court of Madrid, where he spent about a year ; but the negotiations having failed, and Cumberland's expenditure hav- ing much exceeded the scanty advance made to him by the ministry on his departure, he was left, apparently with much injustice, to bear a loss of four or five thousand pounds, which exhausted al- most wholly his slender patrimony. During his official life he had written many occasional and other pieces, and had given to the stage more than one successful comedy. Soon after his return from Spain he settled at Tunbridge Wells, where he resided for many years afterwards, occupied wholly with literary pursuits, and writing with indefatigable industry. He died in 1811. He was an honourable and amiable man : but his liter- ary vanity was excessive; and his irritable sus- ceptibility to criticism, which made Garrick call him 'the man without a skin,' exposed him to being unmercifully caricatured by Sheridan in the character of Sir Fretful Plagiary. There is hardly any kind of composition, whether in prose or in verse, that Cumberland did not attempt. But most of his efforts were of little value ; and in the best of them he was hardly more than fluent and agreeable. His epic poem of ' Calvary ' was an utter failure. His series of periodical essays, called * The Observer,' has much merit in an easy kind of criticism: the best papers are those on the Greek dramatists, the erudition of which he avowed having gleaned from Bentley's papers, but which he embellished by spirited metrical translations of his own. His dramatic pieces, em- bracing everything from tragedy to opera and farce, amounted to more than fifty, of which the larger number were printed. Among them were several comedies that are still remembered : ' The Brothers,' 'The West Indian,' 'The Jew,' and ' The Wheel of Fortune.' [W.S.] CUNIBERT, a Lombard king, 687-700. CUNINGHAM, E. F., a Sc. painter, 1742-93. CUNINGHAM, W., a phys. and astron., 16th c. CUNNINGHAM, Alex., a Sc. hist., 1654-1737. CUNNINGHAM, Allan, a popular novelist and biograph. wr., au. of a well-known memoir of Burns, several lyrical poems and ballads, the novel of ' Paul Jones,' ' The Lives of British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects,' &c, born in Dumfries- shire 1786, died in London two days after complet- ing the biography of his friend Sir D. Wilkie, 1842. CUNNINGHAM, J., an Irish playwght., d. 1773. CUNO, J. C, a Ger. poet andbot, 1708-1780. CUPANI, F., a Sicilian botanist, 1657-1711. CUV CURIO, Caius, a Rom. tribune, killed 47 B.C. CURIUS-DENTATUS, Marius, an illustrious Roman general, three times consul, 3d cent. b.c. CURRAN, John Philpot, an Irish barrister and patriot, celebrated for his eloquence, wit, and sarcasm, was born of humble parents in the neigh- bourhood of Cork, 1750. He studied at one of the Inns in London and was called to the bar in 1775, and in about ten years afterwards took his seat in the Irish House of Commons as member for Doneraile. In 1794 he acquired immense popula- rity by his defence of Rowan, and for many years at this epoch displayed his brilliant oratory in par- liament. From 1806 to 1814 he held the office of master of the rolls, on resigning which he removed to London, where he died 1817. CURRIE, Jas., an em. Scotch phys. and med. wr., editor and biog. of Burns in 1800, 1756-1805. CURTI, Jerome, an Ital. painter, 1603-1693. CURTIS, W., an English botanist, 1746-1799. CURTIS, Sir Wm., Bart., a well-kn. alderman and representative of the city of London, d. 1829. CURTIUS, Marcus, a Rom. patriot, 4th c. b.c. CURTIUS, M. C, a German hist, 1724-1802. CURTZ, A., a German astronomer, 1600-71. CUSA, Nicholas De, properly Nicholas Crebs, a dist astron. and theologian, cardinal legate to Constantinople, author of a refutation of the Koran, first restorer of the Pythagorean doc. of the earth's motion round the sun, &c, 1401-64. CUSH, the eldest son of Ham, Gen. x. 8, under- stood to be the father of the Ethiopians. CUSPINIEN, J., a Ger. historian, 1473-1529. CUSSON, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1727-1783. CUSTINE, Adam Philippe, Count De, a gen. in the army of the Fr republic, exec. 1793. CUSTIS, C. F., a Flem. historian, 1704-1752. CUTHBERT, St., first bishop of Northumber- land, fndr- of the monastery of Lmdisfarne, d. 686. CUTLER, Sir J., a royalist of London, d. 1699. CUTTS, John, a brave English officer, created Baron Cutts of Gowran by Wm. III., known as a poetical writer and friend of Steele, died 1707. CUVIER, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, one of the greatest natu- ralists the world has produced, was born at Mont- beliard in 1769. He died in 1832. After finishing his education at Stuttgard, the young Cuvier ac- cepted the situation of tutor in a protestant family in Normandy. Living for some years in that part of France, part of the time on the sea coast, he was enabled to follow up the love for natural his^ tory which he had exhibited from his earliest years. The Abbe" Tessier, whom the troubles of the times had driven into exile from the capital, intro- duced him by letter to MM. Jussieu and Geoffroy. Several memoirs written about that time and transmitted to the latter, established his reputa- tion, and procured his admission to two or three of the learned societies in Paris. In 1799 he was appointed successor to Daubenton as professor of natural history at the college of France, and in 1802 he succeeded Mertrud in the chair of com- parative anatomy at the Garden of Plants. From that time he devoted himself steadily to the studies which have immortalized his name. His ' Lecons d'Anatomie Comparee,' and the ' Regne Animal,' in which the whole animal kingdom is arranged according to the organization of the beings of 183 CUV which it consists, have raised him to the pinnacle of scientific tame, and established him as perhaps the first naturalist in the world after Lmnams. His numerous memoirs and works upon these sub- [SUtue of Cuvier.] jects show a master mind in the study of zoology ; and extending the principles laid down in nis comparative anatomy to the study of paleontology, he has been enabled to render immense service to geology. Starting from the law that there is a correlation of forms in organized beings that all the parts of each individual have mutual relations with each other, tending to produce one end, that of the existence of the being that each living being has in its nature its own proper functions, and ought therefore to have forms appropriated for that func- tion ; and that consequently the analogous parts of all animals have received modifications of form which enable them to be recognized, he was able to ascer- tain from the inspection of a single fossil bone, not only the family to which it ought to belong, but the genus to which it must be referred. Even the very species of animal was thus to be made out, and the restoration of its external form as it might have lived and died, became in his hands an object of certainty and precision. His 'Regne Animal ' has been frequently translated, and forms the basis of all arrangements followed at the pre- sent time. Cuvier filled many offices of great im- portance in the state, particularly connected with educational institutions. Napoleon treated him with much consideration, Louis XVIII. and Charles X. advanced him to honour, and Louis Philippe raised him to the rank of a peer of the realm. [W.B.] CUYP, Albert, a Dutch painter, 17th cent. CUYP, J. G., a Dutch painter, 1578-1649. CYAXARES, k. of Med. and Persia, 634-594b.c. CYBO, Aaron, viceroy of Naples, 1377-1457. CYPRIAN, Thascius Cecilius, Saint, one of the principal fathers of the Latin church, born at Carthage commencement of the 3d century, electd bp. of Carthage 248, suffrd. martyrdom 258. CYRENIUS, Rom. gov. of Syria soon after the birth of our Lord, and prev. censor or procurator. CYRIAC, St., patriarch of Constnple., 595-606. CYRIL. There are three saints of this name CYR the first, a father of the Greek church, patriarch of Jerusalem, 315-386 ; the second, patr. of Alexandria, and au. of works agst. the Nestonans and other ene- 1 mies of the faith, 5th ct. ; the third, called the apostle J of the Slavi, the converter of the Chasars, 9th ct. I CYRIL-LUCAR, patr. of Constnple., 1572-1638. 1 CYRUS L, or the Elder, the founder of tho[ Persian empire, was the grandson of Astyages, the last king of Media. Even in the time of Hero- dotus the story of Cyrus was so much mixed up with fable that it was impossible to separate truth from fiction. Astyages had a daughter named Mandane ; and, in consequence of a dream which portended that her offspring should be the master of Asia, he married her to Cambyses, a Persian of good family, but of a quiet and unam- bitious temper. On the birth of Cyrus, Astyages ordered the infant to be exposed, ind intrusted the execution of his cruel order to Harpagus, one of his most faithful attendants. But the herds- man in whose hands the infant was placed for destruction was induced by the entreaties of his wife to rear it as his own son, under the name of Agradates. As is usual in such fabulous narra- tives, the royal youth gave evidence of his descent by superior talents and noble bearing ; and being brought before his grandfather at the age of ten to answer for his severe treatment of the son of a noble Median at play, was discovered by the king to be the son of his daughter. The circumstances of his preservation were then stated, and the boy was sent to his real parents. Astyages forgave the herdsman, but wreaked his vengeance on Harpagus, by murdering his son, and causing his mangled limbs to be served up to his father at a banquet Harpagus submitted^ quietly to his fate ; but thenceforward meditating revenge, he sue- I ceeded not long after in organizing a conspiracy against Astyages, and easily prevailed upon Cyrus I to become the leader. Cyrus induced the Per sians to join in the revolt ; and, after defeating Astyages, took possession of his throne B.C. 559. Croesus, the rich king of Lydia, and brother-in- law of Astyages, was the first to endeavour to check the usurper, but Cyrus anticipated his design, and took possession of his capital in b.c. 546. The extensive dominions of Croesus, along with the whole of Upper Asia, soon came under 184 CYR his sway. The most noted event connected with the acquisition of this vast country was the taking of Babylon, the capital of Assyria, of which Labynetus, the Belshazzar of Daniel, was king. Cyrus entered the city by diverting the course of the Euphrates, and introducing his army along the dry bed of the river B.C. 538. Cyrus next di- rected his efforts against the Massageta?, a nation of Northern Asia, and offered to marry Tomyris, their queen, who was then a widow. His suit was rejected; and in a battle which ensued he was defeated and slain in B.C. 529, after a reign of twenty-nine vears. Such is the narrative of Herodotus. The Cyropsedia of Xenophon is an historical romance. The life of Cyrus is of great importance, as being the epoch which forms the chronological link between sacred and profane history. [G.F.] CYEUS II., or the Younger, was the second son of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, and was appointed by his father satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia, in Asia Minor, in B.C. 407. On the death of his father, B.C. 404, and the accession of his elder brother Artaxerxes, Cyrus disputed the right of succession, founding his claim on the fact that he was the first-born after his father ascended the throne. For this act of treason he was condemned to death ; but his life was pre- served through the intercession of his mother, Parysatis, whose favourite son he was, and who had secretly encouraged him in his attempt on the sovereignty. On returning to his province he continued to cherish his ambitious views, and immediately began to make preparations for the execution of his design. By various means he DAI succeeded in quieting the suspicions of his brother, while he endeavoured to bribe the Persians who passed between himself and the court, and raised a body of 13,000 Greeks, on whose assistance he chiefly rested his hopes of success. In the spring of B.C. 401, Cyrus set out from Sardis, and, marching through Asia Minor and Syria, reached the plain of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. Here he found Artaxerxes ready to oppose him with an immense army. In the battle which took place, the Greek troops routed the Asiatics who were opposed to them ; and Cyrus, rushing into the centre to attack his brother, was slain. The king caused his head and hands to be cut off, and wished it to be believed that he had fallen by his hand. The retreat of the Greeks, as described by Xenophon, who was himself present, forms one of the most interesting chapters in the historv of ancient warfare. [G.F.*] CYRUS, Flavius, praffect of Constantinople under Theodosius II., afterwards a bishop, 5th c. CZACKI, Thaddeus, a Russian statesman, distins;. as a benefactor of Poland, 1765-1813. CZARNIECKI, Stephen, a Polish general, defended Cracow agst. Gustav. Adolph., 1599-1664. CZERNI-GEORGE, the surname of George Petrovitz, a native of Servia, who maintained a long struggle for his country's independence, and was acknowledged by the Porte as prince of Servia in 1806. Being deprived in the year following of a part of his possessions, he took up arms again, and retired to Russia in 1813. In 1817, having returned to Turkev, he was captured and executed. CZERWIACOWSKI, a Polish anatomist, died 1816. D DABELOW, Chr. Christian, Baron De, a German jurisconsult, author of a ' Commentary on the Code Napoleon,' &c, 1768-1830. DABENTONE, Jeanne, a reputed prophetess, burned at Paris in the reign of Charles v., 1372. DACIA, P. De, a Danish astronomer, 14th ct. DACIANO, J., an Italian physician, 1520-1576. DACIER, Andrew, a classical com. and trans., 1651-1722. His wife, Anne Lefevre Dacier, eel. for her translations from the Greek, 1651-1720. DACIER, J. B., a French translator, 1742-1833. DAEDALUS, a Ger. inven. and arch., 10th c. B.C. DAEHNERT, J. C, a Swed. savant, 1719-1785. DAENDELS, H. G., a Dutch gen. in the French republican army, promoter of the revol. in Batavia, and gov.-general of the Dutch Indies, 1762-1818. DAGOBERT. The Frank kings of this name are Dagobert I., successor of his father Clo- thaire, 628, d. 638. Dagobert II., successor of Childeric, reigned 674-678. Dagobert III., successor of his father Childeeeet, 711-715. DAGOBERT, L. A., a Fr. tactician, 1740-1794. DAGUERRE, L. J. M., an eminent French painter, celebrated for his discovery of the photo- graphic process called 'daguerreotype,' and also for the improvements he introduced in panoramic painting, 1789-1851. DA(il ES-DE-CLAIRFONTAINE, Sim. And. Chs., a Fr. agri. author and compiler, 1726-1797. D'AGUESSEAU, H. F. See Aguesseau. DAHLBERG, Eric, Count, a Swedish marshal, antiquarian author, and designer, 1625-1703. DAIGNAN, Wm., a Fr. med. wr., 1732-1812. DAILLE, Jean, minister of the French Re- formed church at Charenton, a.d. 1639, and ono of the most eloquent preachers of his age. His Eublished works amply justify the high celebrity e enjoyed. He combined the acute argumen- tative powers of a logician with the exercise of a lively imagination, that enabled him to draw illustrations of his subject from every field of nature; and to these intellectual qualities he added a fervour and pathos that stirred the depths of the human soul. His discourses are characterized by a heart-stirring eloquence, and it has been remarked of him, that he had all the eloquence of Saurin, without any approach to his turgid and bombastic style. The work by which the name of Daille has long been honourably known in this country is his treatise ' De usu Patrum,' a work designed to check or moderate the excessive reverence which is felt in many quarters for the writers of ecclesiastical antiquity. It rendered an important service to the protestant cause in his own country and times, and may still be consulted with advantage in exposing the semi- Popery of our own day. It was published in French in 1632, in Latin in 1656, and a translation of it into English in 1651, under the title of 'A Treatise concerning the Right Use of the Fathers in the Decision of 185 DAL Controversies that are at this Day in Religion.' Daille was also the author of several expository works on books of Scripture the most esteemed, if not the most valuable, of which have appeared in an English dress. His ' Discourses on the Epistle to the Colossians' were translated in 1672, with a preface by Dr. Owen, and of those on the Phil- lppians a'n elegant English version was given to the world in 1841, by the Rev. James Sherman, minister of Surrev chapel, London. [R-J-] DALAYR AC, N., a Fr. opera comp., 1753-1803. DALBERG, Chahi.es Theodore Anthony Marie, Baron De, prince primate of the Catholic Church of Germany, president of the confederation of the Rhino, and grand duke of Constance under Napoleon, 1745-1817. His brother, Wolfgang Heribert, a dramatic poet, 1750-1806. A third brother, J. F. Hughes, a man of letters, d. 1812. The nephew of these, Emeric J., Due De Dal- berg, a min. of state under Napoleon, 1773-1833. DALBERG, J. K. DE,bp. of Worms, 1445-1503. DALBERG, Nils, a Swed. physician, 1735-1820 DALBERGO, F., an Italian hist., 1706-1768. D'ALBRET. See Albret. DALE, Dav., a Scotch mechanic and philanthro- pist, eel. in the his. of the cotton manuf., 1739-1806. DALE, R., an American naval com., 1756-1826. DALECHAMPS, J., a Fr. botanist, 1513-1586. D'ALEMBERT, Jean Le Rond, one of the most celebrated mathematicians and astronomers of the last century, was born at Paris on the 17th November, 1717. Having been exposed by his mother near the church of St. Jean Le Rond, from which he derived his name, he was taken care of by a glazier's wife, and afterwards provided for bv his father, when he had learned the fate of his child. He was educated at the Jansenist col- lege of the Four Nations, and so premature was his intellect, that at the age of ten he had acquired all the knowledge that his masters could convey to him. He was regarded by the Jansenists as a second Pascal, and in order to make the compari- son perfect, he was initiated into the mathemati- cal sciences. With a passionate devotion to science, he left the college and took up his residence in the house of his nurse, where he remained for forty years, concealing from her his fame, and generously adding to the little comforts of her lot. Having, like all other men of original genius, found himself anticipated in his earliest discoveries, he despaired of doing anything that had not been previously done, and abandoning his mathematical studies in despair, he resolved upon following one of the learned professions. Ihe income of 1,200 livres a-year which his father, M. Destouches, had left him, being insufficient to maintain him in the position which he now occupied, he pursued in succession the studies of law and medicine, and so ardently did he devote himself to the latter, that he banished his mathematical library to the house of a friend. It was in vain, however, that he tried to overcome the earliest and strongest of his passions. His mathematical works gradually found their way back to his house, the profes- sion of medicine was abandoned, and his affections irrevocably fixed on the study of geometry. At the early age of twenty-four D'Alembert was ad- mitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1741 he published his Treatise on Dynamics,' DAL founded on a new principle of mechanics, which he applied to the resolution of several beautiful problems. In his 'Reflections on the General Course of Winds,' which was crowned by the Academy of Berlin in 1746, he gave the first de- tails of the calculus of partial differences, of which he was the discoverer. In 1752 he published his 1 New Theory of the Action of Fluids,' and also his 'Elements of the Theory and Practice of Music.' About this time he undertook, in con- junction with Diderot, the * Encyclopaedic,' to which he communicated many articles of great interest, and also the preliminary 'Discourse' which was prefixed to that immortal work. These writings were followed by several literary works which we have not room to enumerate, and by his ' Researches on Different Important Points oi the System of the World,' which appeared in 1754 and 1756, and in which he greatly improved the solu- tion of the problem of three bodies, which had occupied the attention both of Euler and Clairaut. In 1756 D'Alembert, who had previously received a pension from the king, was made a supernu- merary pensioner by the Academy of Science ; and in 1759 he published his ' Elements of Philosophy,' a work of distinguished merit. After the peace of 1763 D'Alembert was invited by Frederick the Great to fill the office of president of the Academy of Berlin, and the empress of Russia had also so- licited him to superintend the education of her family. Having refused, however, both these ap- pointments, he was in 1772 nominated perpetual secretary to the French Academy, a position in which he wrote no fewer than seventy eloges of its deceased members. Besides the works which we have mentioned, D'Alembert published a treatise ' On the Destruction of the Jesuits,' and a collec- tion of his memoirs under the title of ' Opuscules Mathematiques.' In the latter part of his life he was attacked with a disease in the bladder, and he died of the stone on the 29th October, 1783, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. For a full account of his life, and of the romantic incidents of his at- tachment to Mademoiselle L'Espinasse, we must refer our readers to the 'Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,' vol. i., p. 400, art. Alembert. [D.B.] DALIBARD, Th. F., a French botanist, d. 1774. DALIN, Olaus Von, a Swedish poet and his- torian of considerable eminence, successively chan- cellor and councillor of state, 1708-1763. DALLAS, A. J., an English lawyer naturalized in America, and finally secretary to the treasury, and secretary at war, 1759-1817. DALLAS, C. R., an Engl, miscell. wr., best kn. for his ' Recollections of Lord Byron,' 1754-1824. DALLAS, Sir G., an Indian employee, author of the first work printed at Calcutta, and subse- quently lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, in good repute as a political writer, 1758-1833. DALLAS, Sir Ro., an eminent lawyer, d. 1823. DALLAWAY, J., an English hist., 1763-1834. DALRYMPLE, Alex., hydrographer to the admiralty, author of a ' Collection or Voyages in the South Pacific Ocean,' &c, 1737-1808. DALRYMPLE, Sir D., a Scotch his., 1726-92. DALRYMPLE, Sir H. W., a peninsular officer, commander of the army in Portugal, 1750-1830. DALRYMPLE, James, first Viscount Stair, a Scotch judge, relig. wr., andsec. of state, 1619-1695. 186 DAL DALRYMPLE, Sir J., a Sc. hist,, 1726-1810. DALTON, Jo., an Engl. div. and poet, 1709-63. DALTON, John, D.C.L., born 1767, at Eagles- field, Cumberland ; died 1844, at Manchester. Dr. Dalton laboured under great disadvantages in reference to his early education, as he had only the benefit of the instructions of the village school till his eleventh year, and with the modi- cum of knowledge there acquired he himself taught the school in his twelfth and thirteenth years. He was afterwards engaged in husbandry, and in his fifteenth year became assistant in a school at Kendal, to the rectorship of which he succeeded about his nineteenth year. After remaining there for eight years, he went, in 1793, to Manchester, where he ever afterwards resided, and taught mathematics. The unobtrusive manner of life of a scientific member of the Society of Friends can present few incidents of interest, and except the views with which he enriched science, we shall find the life of Dr. Dalton barren but these are of first-rate value. His first investigations were in 1801, when he sought to determine the amount of increase in the bulk of gases by the application of heat a subject of great importance, and which led him to the conclusion that their expansion is the same for equal degrees of heat. His theory of mixed gases was his next publication, and soon afterwards followed his meteorological views, all of which have thrown much light on the subjects of which he treated. But his most valuable con- tribution to chemistry was the discovery of the atomic theory, communicated to Dr. Thomas Thomson in 1804. It is true that indications of this theory are contained in Higgins's and Richter's works, published several years anteriorly, but it is certain that Dalton was ignorant of these che- mists' views, and that no one had been able to appreciate the importance of the subject from their publications until after Dalton wrote ; and the writer has in his possession a statement from a distinguished foreign chemist, who within the last thirty years had read Richter's work most care- fully, but had failed to discover in it the atomic theory. See Atomic Theory in Thomson's Cyclo- paedia of Chemistry.' [R.D.T.] DALTON, Michael, an Engl, lawyer, d. 1620. DALYELL, Sir John Graham, Bart., a Scottish antiquarian, died 1851. DAM, Anth. Van, a Dutch painter, 1682-1750. DAMASCENUS, Jo., a learned monk, known as an ascetic wr. and theolo., the first who applied the logic of Aristotle to theological teaching, 676-754. DAMASCENUS, Jo., an Arabian phys., 15th c DAMASCENUS, N., a phil. and hist.. 1st c. B.C. DAMASCIUS, an eclectic philos. of the 6th cent. DAMASUS. The first of this name pope of Rome, distinguished against the Arians, 366-388. The second, pope a few days only, 1048. DAMER, Anne S., a female sculp., 1748-1808. DAMIEN, P., cardinal bp. of Ostia, disting. as a biographer, theologian, and politician, 988-1072. DAMIENS, R. F., the assassin of Louis XV., kn. for his crimes as Robert Le Diable, b. 1715, ex. 1757. DAMIENS DE GAMICOURT, A. P., a French au., (' L'Observateur Francais,') &c, 1723-1790. DAM INK, P., a Venetian painter, 1592-1631. DAMOCBITUS, a Greek statuary, 400 B.C. DAMOCRITUS, an ancient Greek historian. dam: DAMON, a Greek musician, 5th century B.C. DAMPIER, William, the son of a farmer near Yeovil, was born in 1652. He went early to sea, and performed many voyages. He then became under-manager of a Jamaica planta- tion ; made an engagement in the coasting trade, and on its expiry joined a party of the freeboot- ing logwood -cutters at Campeachy ; and next, the_ privateers upon the coast, in an eleven months' cruise. Returning to the wood-cutting, he was very successful; and the year following visited England. Here he married and remained six months, when he returned to Jamaica, and took out goods for which he knew there was a market. At this time he purchased a property in Dorset- shire ; but wishing to realize a little more money before settling upon it, and meeting a number of the leading buccaneers, who were Englishmen, near Port Royal, he joined their company. Hav- ing sacked Portobello, and crossed the isthmus, they waged a merciless war for four years in the Pacific; when disagreeing, a portion of them crossed to the Atlantic again, and finally sailed from Virginia on a buccaneering voyage round the globe, going west, and returning through the In- dian seas. At the Nicobar isles Dampier left the ship and came on alone, reaching home in 1691. Soon after, he published his ' New Voyage round the World,' which excited great interest, being well written, and full of new and interesting mat- ter relating to botany and zoology, as well as to geography and ethnology. Thus brought into notice, he was employed (14th January, 1699) by government on a voyage of discovery to New Hol- land and New Guinea, in which he made many important additions to geographical knowledge. At Ascension, on the homeward voyage, the ship ' foundered through perfect age,' as he expressed it ; but though the crew and part of his collec- tions were saved, and he was no way to blame, he was not again employed by government ; in 1703 a company of merchants, however, gave him com- mand of one of two ships sent out to the South Seas on a privateering cruise. This proved singu- larly unfortunate he took no rich prizes his commission was stolen by a petty officer, and he was imprisoned in India by the Dutch. We find him again in England in 1708, and employed in the privateer voyage of Woodes Rogers, fitted out by merchants of Bristol; but on this, his third circumnavigation, in the humble capacity of pilot. The expedition was very successful, and re- turned to the Thames 14th December, 1711 from which time nothing whatever is known of Dampier. His merits as a navigator, an accurate surveyor, and a naturalist, are of the very highest order ; and his moral character seems to have been but little contaminated by the lawless company with which he so long associated. [J.B.] DAMPIERRE, A. H. M. Picot De, a French general, distinguished at Valmy and Jemappes, succeeded to Dumouriez, 1756-1793. DAMPIERRE, H. Du Val, Count De, a cap- tain of the 16th century, distinguished against the Turks, died before Presburg, 1620. DAMPIERRE, J., a Latin poet, died 1550. DAMPIERRE, William De, count of Flanders and father-in-law of Edward I., k. of Eng., d. 1305. DAMPMARTIN, Anne Henri, Viscount, cap- 187 DAM tain of dragoons at the outbreak of the French revo- lution, but chiefly memorable for his literary works, was born at Uzes 1750, and died 1823. His early education was intended to qualify him for the church ; but he disappointed the expectation of his friends, and, choosing the profession of arms, de- voted his leisure to literary studies. He was a friend of constitutional reform, and the subjects of his pen demonstrate the interest that he felt in education and national progress. The principal event in his military career was the assistance he rendered at Avignon, Nov. 1791, in suppressing the brigands and murderers commanded by Jour- dan Coupe-tete. In 1792 he abandoned his regi- ment and retired to Holland. His work, entitled ' Evenements qui se sont passes sous mes yeux pendant la Revolution Francaise,' is valuable for its authenticity, minuteness of detail, and simple sin- cerity. It appeared at Berlin 1799, and now forms the first part of a work in 2 vols., entitled ' Me- moires sur les divers evenements de la revolution et de l'emigration,' published at Paris 1825. [E.R.] DAMPMARTIN, P., a biog. wr., 16th century. DAN, the fifth son of Jacob. (Gen. xxx.,4, 5, 6.) DANCER, Daniel, a notor. miser, 1716-1794. DANCHET, A., a Fr. dram, author, 1671-1748. DANCKERT, Cornelius, a Dutch art., 16th c. DANDELOT. See Coligni. DANDINI, Cjesar, a Florentine painter, 1595- 1658. Vincent, his brother and scholar, 1607- 1675. Pietro, the son of Caesar, 1647-1712. DANDINI, H. F., an Italian priest, 1695-1747. DANDINI, J., a Jesuit missionary, 1554-1624. DANDOLO, a patrician family of Venice, the most celebrated members of which are Henry, elected doge 1192, leader of the first crusade against Constantinople 1204, d. 1205. John, dis- tinguished by a long war against the patriarch of Aquilea, doge 1280-1289. Francis, surnamed the Dog for basely humbling the republic to Clement V., doge 1328-1339. Andre, who sus- tained a long war with Hungary, and wrote ' Chronicles of Venice,' doge 1342-1354. Faustin, son of Andre, an ambas. and man of letters, d. 1449. DANDOLO, A., a Ven. jurisconsult, 1431-1472. DANDOLO, Mark, a Ven. politic, 1458-1535. DANDOLO, Vincent, a eel. Ven. chemist, pro- veditor of Dalmatia, distin. for his share in the overthrow of the Ven. repub. by the Fr., 1758-1819. DANDRE-BARDON, M. F., a French painter, founder of the Academy of Marseilles, 1700-1783. DANET, P., a French lexicographer, 1640-1709. D'ANGHIARA, Pietro Martire, often cited as Peter Martyr, a learned ecclesiastic and his- torian of Italy, 1455-1526. DANIEL, the Jewish prophet, liv. about 600 e.c. DANIEL, Gabriel, a Fr. historian, 1649-1728. DANIEL, P., a Fr. critic and classic, 1530-1603. DANIEL, Samuel, poet-laureate of Elizabeth, author of a history of England to the reign of Ed- ward III., 1562-1617. DANIEL, St., an ascetic who gained his repu- tation by firing on the top of a column, 410-490. DANIELI, F., an It. savant and his., 1740-1812. DANIELL, John Frederick, born 1790, died 1845. Mr. Daniell was originally intended for business, and for some time devoted himself to the refining of sugar ; but afterwards he became engrossed with meteorological, and subsequently DAN with electrical science, to both of which he mado some important contributions. His work on meteorology was a standard work during his time ; being characterized rather, however, as embodying a clear statement of the views of the author, than as affording a practical work for reference. His constant battery was a valuable invention, which contributed much to the convenience of electrical | experimenters, and to the development of the science, especially in the department of electro- type, which may be said to have originated from this invention. Mr. Daniell was a man of amiable disposition, and was universally respected for his social as well as scientific qualifications. [R.D.T.] DANIELL, the name of several artists, distin- guished in African and oriental scenery. Sam i/el, author of drawings Must, the island of Ceylon, d. 1811. Thomas and his nephew William, mem- bers of the Royal Academy, eel. for their large work in 6 folio vols., entitled ' Oriental Scenery,' &c, the former 1750-1840, the latter 1769-1837. DANNECKER, John Henry, surnamed The Mystic Sculptor of Germany,' distin. for his fe- male figures, 1758-1834. DANNEVILLE, J. E., a French hist., 17th ct. DANTE, or DURANTE, Alighieri, born at Florence in 1265, holds, in Italian literature, a place corresponding to that which belongs to Chaucer in our own. But his fame is wider, his fenius more vigorous and tragic ; and his name as been honoured by his countrymen in all sub- sequent generations, while the father of English Owas for ages neglected and forgotten, lived in a time when the language of Italv was beginning to be used in prose literature, and had been considerably developed in metrical composition ; when the classical models as yet exercised but little influence, the purer Roman poetry being studied very seldom, and Greek literature quite unknown; and when the trou- badours of Provence were still the only poets that had become famous in Christian Europe. His life was spent in the midst of those storms which raged throughout the middle ages, and of which the Italian republics were noted scenes. He was born of a distinguished family, belonging to the party of the Guelf's, which stood opposed to the Ghibellines or Imperialists, and was oftenest ranged on the side of the Popes. A youthful at- tachment to Beatrice Portinari, who died when the poet was in his twenty-fifth year, was ever afterwards hallowed in his imagination, and was not destroyed either by an unhappy marriage, or by the activity with which the Florentine citizen threw himself into the turmoil of political dissen- sion. He served the republic as a soldier, and at the age of thirty-five was one of the priors or chief magistrates of Florence. A quarrel between two factions into which the Guelfs were split, caused him, in 1302, to be banished; and, during the re- maining twenty years of his life, he wandered through Italy, seeking refuge in those Ghibelline states whose principles he had long combated. His party in vain attempted, more than once, to recon- quer Florence ; petitions for a reversal of the sen- tence of banishment were equally unsuccessful; the poet's stern and haughty disposition made him unhappy, and probably unacceptable, at the courts of the Italian princes ; and, dejected and hopeless, 188 DAN Ihe died at Ravenna in 1321. He wrote both in [prose and in verse, and used both the Latin and the living tongues. In the former, he left a Ghibelline treatise ' De Monarchia,' and an essay 'De Vulgari Eloquentia,' in which he describes the rise of the Italian language and some of the works that had been written in it. His own great poem, also, was begun to be written in Latin hexa- meters. Among his Italian writings are noble Sonnets and Canzoni, and a work called 'Vita Nuova,' in which he connects, by a prose narra- tive, verses in honour of the dead Beatrice. He is immortal in virtue of the celebrated poem, which, althongh narrative in form, was called, in confor- mity to a common mediaeval usage, the ' Divina Commedia.' The action is described as taking place in the year 1300 ; so that the whole may be understood to have been produced during his weary years of exile. It has three parts, and a hundred cantos, and describes a Vision of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Dante is conducted through the worlds of the dead by the poet Virgil. The first of the parts, containing the ' Inferno,' is by far the most interesting and vigorous. It is here that we encounter those terrible pictures, which make Dante one of the most sublime among poets ; pic- tures conceived with an irregular force of imagina- tion, which is at once singularly original, and strongly characteristic of the spirit of thinking and action in the times in which he lived ; pictures, also, which are conveyed with a pregnant brevity and impressiveness of diction, easily perceptible even to foreigners, and producing an extraordinary effect on the poet's countrymen. The imagery of Dante has peculiarities which defy analysis. It unites, beyond any other, seeming clearness and sensuousness, with great power of calling up sha- dowy suggestions. The tone of sentiment is oftenest gloomy, despondent, or savagely sarcastic : and the celebrated personages of Italian history are pourtrayed at once with striking verisimilitude, and with malicious ingenuity of invention. Yet there are many brief intervals, and some long stretches, of deep and tender pathos. The har- rowing scene in which the condemned spirit of Count Ugolino describes the sufferings of the Tower of Famine, is not more characteristic than the melancholy sweetness that breathes through the story of Francesca of Rimini. From the strange horrors of the ' Inferno,' the poet and his guide pass to the milder objects of the ' Purgatorio,' which are described with much poetic richness, and with a few personal and historical episodes, reminding us of the awfulness with which the first part had made us familiar. At the close of the second part the spirit of Beatrice, descending from a cloud of flowers which angels strew around her, appears to conduct her lover to the bowers de scribed in the ' Paradise' In this, the third part, Dante and his sainted conductress pass from planet to planet, beholding the seats of the blessed, and discussing deep questions of theology. [W.S.] DANTE DI MAJANO, an Ital. poet, 13th cen. D'ANTINE, Francis, a Fr. scholar, editor of the ' French Historians,' the Art of Verifying Dates,' &c, 1688-1746. DANTON, Georges Jacques. This man, who united in his own person the contradictory characters of a demagogue and a statesman, and DAN who controlled the movement of the French revo- lution in its most stormy periods till the time of Robespierre's ascendancy, was born at Arcis-sur- Aube, October 28, 1759. His parents were far- mers, of an ancient and respectable family, such as usually prepare their children for the liberal m-ofessions by a good education ; and though he lost his father when young, he found a careful guardian in his step-father, M. Ricordin, who was the owner of a cotton mill on the banks of the Aube. He was at Paris practising, or looking for practice, as an advocate, when the revolution broke out ; and, commencing his political career out of doors, he soon acquired that prodigious ascen- dancy over the population of the Faubourgs for which his commanding figure, his voice of thunder, his passionate temperament, his frankness, his good nature, and his genius, so admirably quali- fied him. In 1789, after the States-general had been convoked, when blood had already been shed in the streets of Paris, and the city was divided into electoral districts, the young advocate, already noted for his audacious oratory, obtained the presidency of the Cordeliers, which soon afterwards gave its name to the club founded by Danton to unite those who held the same opinions, rather than persons living in the same locality. These clubbists were the avowed enemies of royalty, of aristocratic institutions, and of the clergy, and for five years afterwards acted as the advanced guard in the revolutionary combats, ever giving birth to fresh swarms of Marats and Heberts, until Danton himself grew heart-sick of turbulence, and was willing, as he said, to be guillotined rather than to guillotine any longer. Danton and his party were the first to perceive the utter im- possibility of forming an alliance between mon- archy and the new institutions, and at the same time to accept the terrible consequences of their foresight, and march in the straight course of the revolution. His voice sent the people to combat at the Bastile, and directed the attack on Ver- sailles, preceded by the insurrection of women when the king and the royal family were forced to Paris ; and he was among the last to yield the ' altar of the country ' to the Constituent Assembly when the famous petition was signed in the Champ de Mars, praying for the deposition of the king after his arrest at Varennes. This was the middle of 1791, soon after which the constitution was solemnly accepted (30th September), and the Legislative Assembly, or first Parliament, convened, under the Roland administration. Towards the en d of the year the country was threatened with the invasion of the emigrant nobles; and the king's veto, which brought the Assembly to a stand-still, com- menced the last struggle between the people and the crown. At this crisis, it is said, Danton accepted presents from the court, but the writers of the Bioqraphie des Contemporains deny the fact, while admitting his want of integrity in after years when he could supply his necessities from funds placed at his disposal without bartering away his country. In June, 1792, the Roland ministry was dismissed by the king, and the Marseilles' band invited to Paris by the patriots. Danton, who had gone to his native fields to snatch a short period of repose, now suddenly returned, reviewed the organization of the people, 189 DAN lodged the Marseillaise, and prepared the struggle of the 10th of August the day which saw the throne overturned, the patriots recalled to the administration, and Danton associated with them as minister of justice. The duke of Brunswick was known to he marching upon Paris, and the civil war had commenced in La Vendue. The Ministry and the Legislative Assembly were terror- stricken, and proposed to retire beyond the Loire, but Danton arrested them with that thrilling appeal, heard above the sound of the generate, and [Club of the Cordeliers, j the report of the alarm-gun, which has often since been quoted : ' Legislators! ' he exclaimed, ' It is not the alarm-cannon that you hear, but the pas- de-charge upon our enemies. To conquer them, to hurl them back, what do we require? De l'audace, encore de l'audace, et toujours de l'audace ! (To dare, and again to dare, and without end to dare!)' From this time his supremacy in the commune of Paris was complete, but he purchased it at the price of the September massacres, in which he refused to interfere, and for which, in the heat and terror of those perilous days, he iniquitously thanked the assassins, ' not as minis- ter of justice,' for so he expressed himself, ' but as minister of the revolution ! ' The atrocious casuistry of such a speech is too horrible to con- template. It must be remembered, however, that Marat, and a crowd of bloodhounds who followed him, were proposing the most frightful resolutions to be accomplished under a dictatorial power, and that the preternatural excitement and suspicion of the people had risen almost to insanity, and that Danton himself on many occasions afterwards both regretted his fearful stoicism, and justified it by his position. Space will not permit us to follow his career from this period to the events which hastened the fall of the Girondins, and were so soon followed by his own rupture with Robespierre; but we may notice brieny that he was anxious to save the followers of Brissot, who repulsed his overtures with scorn, and finally, in the person of Gaudet, declared that they preferred war to any peace that he could make with them. While the struggle with the deputies of the Gi- ronde was pending, Danton was sent on two missions to Belgium, and it is understood to be proved that he supported his extravagances, though he did not grow rich, at the public ex- DAN pense; in addition to which he had refused to account for the money disbursed by him as minis- ter, except in the gross. He returned from his first mission in time to vote for the king's death, laughing to scorn the delicacy of the Convention, which hesitated about deciding the question by a simple majority, though it had decided the fate of an entire nation without scruple. On returning from his second mission at the beginning of March, 1793, he found that his wife had expired two days before, and was even buried, and giving way to a passion as rare as it is affecting, he had the corpse disinterred in the night, and snatched a last em- brace from the cold body, which, it is said, he held for a long time locked in his arms. The time was now drawing near when the death of Marat, and the condemnation of many of his scoundrel imitators on the one hand, and the fall of the Girondins on the other, seemed to prepare the field for the last combatants ; and Danton and Robespierre were every day thrown into stronger relief against each other, until the former stood forth as the acknowledged head of a party of clemency, and the latter continued the remorseless career in which they had embarked together. Danton prepared his measures by procuring a decree which erected the Committee of Public Safety into a provisional government, and at the same time refused to take any part in it, alleging for reasons, his need of repose and his recent marriage, but really, it is presumable, that he might separate himself from the odium and re- sponsibility of the rigour still necessary in the opinion of Robespierre. It was so the latter understood it. Tne hatred which divided these men was displayed on the part of Robespierre with a cool, logical propriety, which only provoked the more Danton's impassioned and defiant utterance of what he felt towards him. He was, like Mars, entangled in the meshes of an almost invisible web while in the embrace of the queen of love, and, giant as he was, fell an easy prey into the hands of his rival. He was informed of a secret nocturnal meeting convened by Robespierre to deliberate upon his death, but ne refused to fly. 'They will deliberate,' he said, 'a long time before striking a man like me; and it is I who will surprise them.' 1 The manner of his arrest, the crowd of charges heaped upon him, and the scene at the revolutionary tribunal, all betray the dread of his accusers lest his voice should once more reach the ear of the multitude. His address at the bar was a lengthened defiance of his enemies, and when recognized in prison he en- deavoured to conceal his bitterness by a burst of laughter. Danton was undeniably a man of pleasure, for his whole life was a changing scene of passion ; but we have the most affecting proofs that the spring of the domestic virtues welled up fresh in his heart, even to the last hour of his stormy career. To follow him from the thunders of the trihune, and the flash of the cruel weapons which he wielded in the political strife, to his wife and children, is like looking upon the face of a smiling landscape after the storm-cloud has passed over it. He was a true Frenchman, capable of pouring out his whole soul, and with the same deadly effect, as a lightning flash; capable, too, of melting into tenderness the next 190 DAN instant, and of spreading the kindly virtues jiround him as soft, as lucent, and as penetrating lis the light of morning. He has been called the l-olossus of the revolution, ' head of gold, bosom of jiesh, loins of brass, feet of clay,' and with much j:ruth. Nature seemed to pervade him in all her forms, from the woman's heart sleeping in his bosom, to the electric fire of genius which played !ike a glory around his head, and, downwards, to j:he coiTuption which made a ruin of all the vir- tues belonging to him. The closing scene of his life presents us with an epitome of the whole man. Be was the last of his party to ascend the scaffold, and stood there for a moment glancing with a defiant and pitying air around him, more like a monument of himself in the tribune, than a victim of the executioner. The next moment the vision of his family and his pleasant fields at Arcis-sur- Aube completely subdued him ' Oh my wife, my best beloved ! ' he murmured, ' Oh my children, I shall never see you more ! ' Then suddenly recollecting himself, he proudly exclaimed, ' Come, Danton, no weakness ! ' and turning to the heads- man uttered his last words, ' Thou wilt show my head to the people, it is worth showing.' The next moment his head fell, and the executioner, catching it from the basket, carried it round the scaffold : it was the 5th of April, 1794. Danton, therefore, was in his thirty-fifth year when he passed ' like a gigantic mass of valour, ostentation, fury, affection, and wild revolutionary force and manhood, to his unknown home.' In him the revolution lost the only man, perhaps, who had really mastered its principle, and taken the stain of its horrors, without sacrificing his humanity ; who had bowed to its Moloch throne with the enraged multitude of which he was chief, and having once swept by, to adopt a striking figure of the old Hebrew prophet, 'with confused noise and gar- ments roiled in blood,' preferred to return as the victim, rather than the slave and worshipper of that altar. [E.R.] D'ANTONELLE, Pierre Antoine, Marquis, one of the most sincere actors in the French revo- lution, was born at Aries of an ancient and rich family 1747, and having joined the army when young quitted its ranks in 1782, and devoted himself to the study of moral and political philosophy. The year 1789 found him a worshipper of the rising sun of French liberty, and the year following he was named mayor of Aries. Being selected to aid in the pacification of Avignon and Marseilles, he ac- quired fresh popularity by the satisfactory manner in which he fulfilled his commission, and was de- puted to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the Bouches-du-Rhone. On the establishment of the republic he was sent with two colleagues to announce the change to the army of Lafayette, who gave orders for their arrest, and it was not until the general abandoned his command that they re- gained their liberty. He was a member of the revolutionary tribunal when the queen was con- demned, and also when the twenty-two Girondins were brought up for judgment; but he pronounced against his colleagues on the latter occasion, and was confined in the Luxembourg till the fall of Robespierre. He appears to have acted on all occa- sions as a man of independent principle, and even refused the editorship of the Moniteur under the DAB Directory that he might speak his own language in the Journal des Hommes Litres. The Directory endeavoured to establish a charge against him on the occasion of Babeuf 's conspiracy, but they failed to obtain a conviction. He was ordered to leave France by the first consul, and having returned when the empire was established was compelled to abandon Paris for refusing to address Napoleon as his sovereign. He ended his days at Aries in 1819, and left behind him numerous political works, which testify to his steady love of liberty through the whole period of the revolution. [E.R.] DANTZ, J. A., a Ger. Lutheran divine, d. 1727. D'ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignox, a celebrated French geographer, and member of se- veral learned societies, author of more than 200 charts and plans and 78 treatises upon ancient and modern geography, 1697-1782. DANZ, F., a German anatomist, 1761-1793. DANZ, Francis, a German composer, d. 1826. DAPPER, Oliver, a Dutch phys., au. of nu- merous works descrip. of foreign countries, d. 1690. DARAN, James, a French surgeon, 1701-1784. D'ARBLAY, Frances Burney, Madame, a distinguished novelist, daughter of Dr. Burney the composer, and wife of a French officer. Besides her novels, which created quite a sensation in her time, she has written her father's memoirs ; died 1840. DARCET, J., a eel. French chemist, 1725-1801. DARCY, Patrick, Count, a native of Ireland, distinguished in the French army as an engineer and mathematician, 1725-1779. D'ARGENSOLA, Bartholomew, a Spanish historian and poet, chaplain to Maria Theresa, 1566-1631. His brother Lupercio Leonardo, a tragic poet, 1565-1613. D'ARGENSON, Marquis, a French statesman, the first to introduce lettres-de- cachet, 1652-1721. D'ARGENVILLE, A. J. D., a Fr. savant,, d. 1766. D'ARGILLATA, Peter, an Ital. phys., d. 1423. D'ARGONNE, Noel, a French hist, of litera- ture, a monk of the Carthusian order, 1634-1704. D'ARGOTA, J. C, a Portug. antiq., 1676-1749. DARIUS, the name of three sovereigns of Persia. The first, commonly called Darius Hystaspes, succeeded 522 B.C., was the conqueror of Babylon and restorer of the Jews, defeated at Marathon 490, and died 485. The second, called Darius Ochus, or Nothus, reigned 423-404 B.C. The third, sometimes called Codomannus, in whose defeat by Alexander the Great the Persian empire was consummated, sue. 336, and was k. 330 B.C. DARLUC, M.. a French naturalist, 1707-1783. DARMSTADT, Wm., prince of, lieutenant of the imperial armies under Prince Eugene, 1660-1705. DARNLEY, Henry Stuart, earl of, the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, perished by the connivance of Bothwell, and perhaps of the queen, when his house was blown up with gunpowder, 1567. DARQUIER, A., a Fr. astronomer, 1718-1802. DARRIGOL, the Abbe J. P., a French phil- ologist, author of a prize essay on the Basque language, 1790-1829. DARU, Pierre Antoine, Noel Bruno, Count, a Fr. statesman, hist., and literary savant. Napoleon describes him as uniting the laborious zeal of the ox with the courage of the lion, 1767-1829. DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician, known to fame as a poet and botanist, was born at 191 DAS Elton, near Newark, in 1781, and after taking his degree at Edinburgh, pursued his professional career at Lichfield, from whence, in 1781, he re- moved to Derby, having contracted a second mar- riage, and died in the latter place 1802. Dr. Dar- win was an original thinker, a great adept in ana- logies, and a respectable versifier. The best known of his works is his ' Botanic Garden,' the first part of which is entitled ' The Economy of Vegetation,' and the second The Loves of the Plants.' His other works are ' Zoonomia, or the laws of Organic Life,' and ' Physiologia, or the Philosophy of Agri- culture and Gardening,' besides which he published a tract on female education, and several papers in the 'Philosophical Transactions.' The personal character of Darwin was amiable, and his con- versation generally pleasing. His appearance was athletic, he was much pitted with the small-pox, and had an impediment in his speech. His son, Charles Darwin, after taking a prize medal at Edinburgh, and writing a pathological treatise, died at the early age of twenty, 1778. [E.R.] DASCHKOWA, Katharina Romanowna, Princess, a Russian heroine, who marched with a body of troops to the assistance of Catharine II. when the latter deposed her husband, and as a student of the sciences and Belles Lettres was one of the most extraordinary women of the age, 1744-1810. DASSIER, John, a French medallist, 1677- 1763. His son, Jacob Anthony, distinguished in the same line of art, 1715-1759. DASYPODIUS, P., a Swiss lexico., 16th cent. DASYPODIUS, W., a Latin poet, 16th cent. DATAMES, a Persian gen., k. in revolt, 361 b.c. DATHE, J. A., a Germ. Orientalist, 1731-1791. DATI, Augustine, an Ital. savant, author of histor., philosoph., and miscell. works, 1420-1478. DATI, C. R., an Ital. professor of the Belles Let- tres, au. of ' Lives of Ancient Painters,' 1619-1675. DATI, George, a translator of ' Tacitus,' 1563. DATI, Gregory, an Italian hist., 1363-1436. D'ATTAIGNANT, G. C., a Fr. poet, 1697-1779. DAUBASSE, Amand, aGasc. poet, 1660-1720. DAUBENTON, Louis-Jean-Marie, a cele- brated anatomist and naturalist, was born at Montbard, in Burgundy, 1716. He died in 1799. After taking his degree in medicine, he retired to his native town to practise his profession. At that time Buffon, who had been a schoolfellow of Daubenton's, had conceived the plan of his cele- brated work, the ' Histoire Naturelle.' He felt, however, that it was necessary to associate with himself some one who was capable of taking the labour of many of the details off his hand, and such a man he found in Daubenton. In 1742 he induced him to come to Paris, and obtained for him the appointment of curator and demonstra- tor of the cabinet of natural history at the Garden of Plants. Daubenton commenced his labours with zeal and enthusiasm, and soon succeeded in making the collection at the museum the first in Europe. While engaged in this task, he was at the same time collecting materials for assisting Buffon in that part of his ' Histoire Naturelle,' the history of quadrupeds. To Daubenton is due the merit of supplying all the anatomical details and descriptions, both external and internal, which rendered that part of Buffon's work so much esteemed amongst the naturalists of other coun- DAV tries. Daubenton wrote many papers and mcmoii on zoological subjects. He'has described sever, animals new to science ; and was the first to app] the study of comparative anatomy to the determ nation of extinct animals from an examination i their fossil remains. In vegetable physiology 1 has made some valuable additions to our knov ledge ; and in his enlightened endeavours to in prove the breed of sheep, and to bring nearer | perfection the texture of their wool, he has mcrit< the gratitude of his country. He was interred : the Garden of Plants. [YV.B DAUBENTON, W., a Fr. Jesuit, 1648-1723. DAUBENY, Ch., an Engl, theolog., 1744-182 DAUBER VAL, the pseudonym of J. Bkhciie a French ballet-master and composer, 1741-1806 D'AUBIGNE. See Aubigne. D'AUBIGNY, Jean Louis Marie Villai: attorney to the par. of Paris at the revo., 1750-180 D'AUBUSSON. See Aubusson. DAUBUZ, Ch., a learned Fr. prot., 1670-174C DAUDIN, F. M a Fr. naturalist, 1774-1804 DAULLE, J., a French engraver, 1703-1763. DAUMESNIL, P., Baron, a gen. of the empii especially eel. for his def. of Vincennes, 1777-183 DAUN, L. J. M., Count, an Austrian field-ma shal under Maria Theresa, distinguished against tl Turks, and in the seven years' war, 1705-1766. DAUNOU, P. C. F., a statesman, historian, ai literary savant of the period of the revol., 1761-184 DAURAT, John, a French poet, 1507-1588. DAVAUX, J. B., an opera composer, last cer DAVENANT, J., mem. of the Synod of Do and bp. of Salisbury, em. as a theolo., 1576-1641 DAVENANT, Sir Wm., a celebrated dramat writer, successor to Ben Jonson in the laureateshi and author of several masques and other plays, mor pieces for recitation, &c, 1606-1668. Charles, i eldest son, author of ' Circe,' a tragedy, and a woj in 5 vols., entitled ' Essays on Trade,' 1656-171 William, fourth son of the poet, translator of 1 Mothe Le Vayer, accidentally drowned, 1681. DAVENPORT, Chr., an Eng. theol., 1598-168 DAVENPORTE, Richard Alfred, a mi cellaneous English writer and editor, 1780-1852. DAVESNE, Francois, a mystic writer, di ciple of Simon Morin, author of ' Harmonie de Amour et de la Justice de Dieu,' ' Tragedie Saint< &c, died about 1652-1653. DAVID-AB-GWILYON, a Welch poet, 14th DAVID, an Armenian philosopher, 5th centur DAVID, a king of Armenia, 980-1046. DAVID, the king of the Jews, 1085-1001 b.( DAVID, the^rs^ of the name, king of Scotlai 1124-1153 ; the second, son of Robert Bruc: lived 1324-1371. DAVID, C. and J., two brothers, distinguish at Paris as portrait engravers, &c, 17th century DAVID COHEN, a Portuguese rabbin, d. 167 DAVID-COMMENUS, the last emp. of Treb zond, surrendered to Mahomet II. 1453, k. 1462 DAVID-DE-ST.-GEORGE, John Josep Alexis, a French translator of Smollet, and phil< logical savant, 1759-1809. DAVID, F. A., a French engraver, 1741-1824 DAVID-GEORGE, J., arelig. fanat., 1501-155 DAVID, J. P., a French surgeon, 1737-1784. DAVID, Jacques Louis, the most distil guished painter of France of modern times, wi 192 DAV born at Paris, in 1748, and died an exile at Brus- sels, December 29, 1825. David was the pupil of Vien the regenerator of painting in France, who revived the studv at once, both of nature and the antique, in the place of the affected mannerism of Vanloo and Boucher, the painters of Louis XV. He accompanied Vien, in 1775, as pensioner to Rome, when the latter was made director of the French Academy there. David was a diligent stu- dent of the antique, perhaps few artists so assi- duously so. He returned to Paris in 1780, and in 1783 he was elected a member of the French Aca- demy of Painting ; his presentation picture was Andromache deploring the death of Hector. David now revisited Rome, and painted his celebrated picture there, 'The Oath of the Horatii.' He then returned to France, and executed some great works for Louis XVI. ; but this did not prevent his voting for the death of the king, as a member of the National Convention, in 1792. His strong republican spirit was further shown in the re- presentation of two exciting political subjects at this time, 'The Death of Lepelletier, the De- puty,' and 'The Death of Marat; 'but personal dangers, and other party difficulties, finally in- duced David to give up politics entirely for the arts, to which, during his short political influence, he had been of considerable service. He became in a few years the favourite painter of the emperor Napoleon, and his principal works have direct reference to Napoleon's eventful career ; the pic- ture of his coronation was especially agreeable to Napoleon. At the restoration of the Bourbons, however, in 1815, David was banished, and retired to Brussels, where he survived his exile ten years. David was an excellent draftsman, after the ideal taste of the Greeks, but his imitation amounted to the servile ; and the majority of his naked figures are of such rigid uniformity of character that they appear to be painted rather from ancient marbles than from nature. He completed the revolution in taste commenced by Vien, and antique-manner- ism was carried to excess by Guerin, and some other of his principal scholars. (Gabet, Dictionnaire des A rtistes, tyc, au dixieme siecle. 1.) [R.N.W.] DAVID, Luke, a Prussian histor., 1503-1583. DAVID, L. A., an Italian painter, 17th century. DAVID, T. B. E., a Fr. archaeologist, au. of ' In- troduc.to the Study of Mythology,' &c, 1755-1839. DAVIDSON, John, son of a tradesman in Dublin, distinguished as a traveller in North and South America, the countries of the East, and the principal states of Europe, born 1814, murdered in an attempt to reach Timbuctoo, 1836. ' DAVIDSON, Lucretia Maria, a Canadian girl of humble circumstances, distinguished by the grace and sensibility of her poetical compositions, died in her seventeenth year, 1825. ^ DAVIE, W. R., an Amer. officer and diplomat., dlsting. in the cause of independence, died 1820. DAVTES, Ed., a Welch archaeologist, 1756-1831. DAVIES, Jno., a Welch div. and scho., au. of a Welch Gram., a Welch and Latin Die, &c, 17th c. DAVIES, John, a classical editor, 1679-1732. DAVIES, Sir J., an Engl, judge, kn. as a poet and polit. wr., au. of an account of Ireland, denved from his official visit to that country, 1570-1626. DAVIES, Miles, a Welch divine and adherent of George I., known by a work of research, 1715. DAV DAVIES, Robert, a Welch bard and literary savant, author of a Welch Grammar, &c.,1770-1836. DAVIES, Sam., an Amer. dissenter, 1724-1761. DAVIES, Thos., an English performer, dra- matic biographer, and bookseller, 1712-1785. DAVIES, Rev. Walter, a Welch antiquarian and literary savant, distin. by his numerous con- tributions to the literature of his country, but more particularly for his public spirit and his work on the agriculture and domestic economy of North and South Wales, died 1849. DAVILA, Arrigo Cat., an Ital. hist., dis. by his work on the Relig. Wars of France, 1576-1631. DAVILA, D. P. F., a Span, natural., 1713-1785. DAVIS, Edward, an Engl, painter, 17th cent. DAVIS, H. E., one of Gibbon's critics, 1756-1784. DAVIS, John, an Engl, poet, d. about 1618. DAVIS, John, a distinguished navigator, was a native of Sandridge, near Dartmouth, Devon. Between the years 1585-1605, he performed three voyages in search of a north-west passage, in the service of some London merchants, discovering the strait which bears his name, Hudson's Strait, &c, and penetrating northwards as far as 72, 12'; and five voyages to the East Indies in the sendee of the Dutch. He published an account of one of each series. He was killed in the straits of Ma- lacca by some Japanese pirates in 1605. [J-B.~] DAVIS, R. H., a merchant and banker of Bristol, many years M.P. for that city, 1767-1842. DAVIS, Rowland, an Irish contr. div., 17th c. DAVISON, Wm., a Scotch diplomatist, secry. of state to Queen Elizabeth, and the instrument of the court in the condemnation of Mary Stuart, for which he afterwards suffered fine and imprison- ment ; date of his death unknown. DAVOUST, Louis Nich., duke of Auerstadt, prince of Eikmuhl, and marshal of France, dis. as one of Napoleon's most faithful generals, 1770-1823. DAVOUST, Louis Alex. Ed. Fr., Baron, bro. of the preceding, and a Fr. officer, 1773-1823. DAVY, Sir Humphry, Bart., born 1778, at Penzance; died 1829, at Geneva. This distin- guished chemical philosopher was brought up at Penzance, principally under the care of his mother, a woman of talent and strong moral sense. He was apprenticed to a surgeon, and at the age of twenty ne became assistant at the Clifton institu- tion, which had been established by Dr. Beddoes to determine the influence of different gases in the treatment of diseases. It was here that he dis- covered the remarkable action of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, on the system, and thus paved the way to the application of those means now in use for alleviating pain in severe operations. In 1801 he was appointed assistant lecturer at the Royal Institution, where he speedily acquired great popularity and fame. In 1806 he made the im- portant discovery that the combinations and decompositions by electricity are referable to the law of electrical attractions and repulsions, and thus demonstrated the intimate connection be- tween electricity and chemistry. His most bril- liant discovery was, however, that of, in 1807, the composition of the alkalies, which he proved to be combinations of oxvgen with metals. In 1810 he found chlorine to be a simple body, in accordance with the view of Scheele announced in the previous century. His other discoveries were 193 DAV that of the Safety Lamp, exhibiting a fine ex- ample of inductive reasoning ; and his mode of preventing the corrosion of copper sheathing by the protecting influence of zinc. Sir Humphry Daw was distinguished by a poetical imagination, which would undoubtedly have made him a poet if his time had not been absorbed by science; and, as evidence of his descriptive powers, he has left behind him two works, ' Salmonia,' and ' The Last Days of a Philosopher,' which are not sur- passed in their peculiar department by any com- positions in the English language. [R.D.T.] DAVY, John, an English composer, d. 1824. DAVY, Wm., an Engl, div., author and printer of a religious work in 20 vols., limited to 14 copies, which he also bound with his own hands, d. 1826. DAWE, Geo., an English painter and academi- cian, the biographer of George Morland, d. 1829. DAWES, Manasseh, a pamphleteer, d. 1829. DAWES, Rich., a critic and philos., 1708-1766. DAWES, Sir Wm., abp. of York, in his time a popular preacher, au. of poems and ser., 1671-1724. DAWSON, John, a mathematician, 1734-1820. DAY, John, an English printer, died 1584. His son, of the same name, a preacher and religious writer, 1566-1627. His son Richard, a printer, translator, &c, middle of 16th century. DAY, Thos., a poet and miscell. wr., an. of the well-kn. story of ' Sandford and Merton,' 1748-1789. DAZILLE, J. B., a Fr. med. wr., 1732-1812. DEAGEANT, G., a Fr. pol. intriguer, d. 1626. DE-ANDRADA, Alfonso, a Jesuit of Toledo, au. of ' Lives of Illustrious Jesuits,' &c, 1590-1672. DE-ANDRADA, Antonio, a Portug. mission- ary, first discov. of Cathav and Thibet, 1580-1634. DE-ANDRADA, Diego Payva, a Portuguese theologian and controversialist, distinguished at the Council of Trent, 1528-1575. Francisco, brother of the preceding, historiographer royal under Philip III. Tomas, another brother, belonging to the Franciscan order of friars, died in an African prison, where he wrote The Sufferings of Jesus,' 1582. Diego, son of Francisco, a poet, d. 1660. DE-ANDRADA, J. F., a Latin wr., 1597-1657. DEBAST, M. J., a Fr. antiquarian, 1753-1825. DE-BERNARD, C, a Fr. novelist, 1803-1850. DEBONNAIRE, L., a Jansenist wr., d. 1752. DEBORAH, a Hebr. prophetess, about 1285 B.C. DEBRAUX, P. E., a Fr. song-wr., 1798-1831. DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval com- mander, born 1779, killed in a duel 1820. DECEBALUS, king of the Dacians, famous for his long resistance to the Romans, defeated, and died by his own hand 105. DECEMBRIO, P. C, an Ital. savant, 1399-1447. DECIO, Philip, an Italian jurist, 1453-1535. DECIUS, emperor of Rome, 249-251. DECIUS, Conrad, an Austrian transl., 1592. DECIUS, J. L., a German hist., 15th century. DECIUS-MUS, a Roman consul, distinguished by his patriotic conduct and death in a war against the Latins about 340 B.C. DECKER, J., a Dutch poet, 1610-1666. DECKER, P., a German architect, 1677-1713. DECKER, Til, an Engl, dramatic wr., d. 1638. DECLAUSTRE, A., a Fr. liter, savant, last ct. DE-COETLOGON, C. E., an Engl. Calvinist, born of Fr. parents, au. of religious works, d. 1820. DE-COURCY, R., an Irish divine, d. 1808. DEF DEE, John, LL.D., an English divine an, astrologer of great learning, celebrated in the his tory of necromancy, chancellor of St. Paul's, am warden of Manchester college in the reign of Eliza beth. He is the author of several publishe* works, and some unpublished, which are preservei in the Cottonian library, and elsewhere ; born ia London 1527, d. 1608. His eldest son, Aiiiimh became physician to Charles I., and is the autho of ' a faithful relation ' of what passed betweei his father and some spirits, 1579-1651. DEERING, C, a physic, and naturalist, autho of the 'History of Nottinghamshire,' 1690-1749. DEERING, J. P., R.A., the architect of Excte Hall and other metropolitan buildings, 1780-1850 DEFAUCONPRET, A. J. B. De, a Frencl translator, 1767-1843. DE FOE, Daniel, the son of a butcher in Lon don, was born there in 1661. Four years in ; dissenting academy seem to have furnished th< only regular education he received. Engaging ir trade, first as a wool merchant and afterwards a: a brick and tile-maker, he became bankrupt afte; some years, but afterwards paid his creditors h full. His attention had been diverted from busi ness both by literature and by politics. He enliste( under the duke of Monmouth, and narrowh escaped after the rebellion was crushed ; and hi published, a little earlier, a pamphlet on the wa between the Turks and the Austrians. His literar career, however, did not fairly begin till he wa" thirty-nine years old, when he abandoned trade and became an author by profession. The firs period of his authorship was devoted entirely t< politics, in which he was one of the ablest and mos: popular among the advocates of Whiggism. H< gained the notice of King William by his ' True- born Englishman,' published in 1700 ; but the in- fluence of Toryism in the ministries of Queen Ann* exposed the coarse and energetic adversary of th< Stuarts and the Church of England to an almosl uninterrupted series of discouragements and per- secutions. In the midst of these, however, he wrote with unbroken courage and unwearied industry. Be- sides publishing innumerable pamphlets, he carried on a periodical paper called the Review, without assistance, during the greater part of the queen's reign. In 1703 an attack on the high church garty, in his pamphlet ironically called ' the hortest Way with the Dissenters,' was punished by the pillory, a heavy fine, and imprisonment foi more than a year. In 1706, the ministry of Go- dolphin employed him as an agent for the union oi Scotland with England ; and In this character he resided a considerable time in Edinburgh, and found materials for a ' History of the Union.' Under the last administration of the reign he was again committed to prison for vehemently arguing in favour of the Hanoverian succession. Alter tlie accession of George I. he seems to have received no countenance from those whose interests he had so keenly espoused ; and, abandoning politics alto- gether, he devoted himself to fictitious composition. This stage of his career, which gave birth to the only works by which he is now remembered, did not begin till he was between fifty and sixty years of age, had fallen into bad health, and had even had a stroke of apoplexy. These; were the circumstances in which, in 1719, he published the first part of 194 DEG Robinson Crusoe,' one of the best and most popu- ar of all romances. Of a similar kind, though ncomparably inferior, were several subsequent tales, uch as 'Colonel Jack' and 'Captain Singleton.' [n his ' History of the Plague' and 'Memoirs of a Davalier,' he engrafted historical facts on invented ncidents and characters, with a curious force and earnestness of impression. De Foe died in London n 1731. [W.S.] DEGERANDO. See Gerando, Jos. M. De. DEHEEM, J. D., a Dutch flower p., 1604-1664. DEJNEF, S. Ivan., a Russ. navig., 17th cent. DEJOCES, fndr. of the Mede emp., 7th c. b.c. DEJOTARUS, a king of Galatia, 1st cent. B.C. DEKEN, Agatha, a Dutch poetess, 1741-1804. DELABORDE, J. B., a Fr. composer, last ct. DELACAPEDE, Ber. Ger. St. La., a French naturalist, during the revolution secry. and presid. of theassem., and sen. under Buonaparte, 1756-1825. DELACOUR, Jas., an Irish poet, 1709-1781. DELACROIX, J. V., a Fr. advocate, 1743-1832. DELALAJJDE, P. A., aFr. natural., 1787-1823. DELAMARCHE, C. F., a Fr. geog., 1740-1817. DELAMBRE, M., born 1749, died in 1822, an eminent French cultivator of Astronomy, an ex- cellent observer, and a very voluminous writer. Delambre drew up and published several valuable Astronomical Tables ; but his chief labours related to the measure of the Arc of the meridian through Spain, and the History of Astronomy. The latter has the accuracy which Bailey's wants ; never- theless one sometimes misses the spirit of the philosophic historian. He also wrote a valuable treatise on Astronomy. DELANDINE, A. F., a Fr. mis. wr., 1756-1820. DELANO, Amaso., an Amer. navig., 1763-1817. DELANY, Patrick, an Irish div., 1686-1786. DELARBRE, Ant., a Fr. botanist, 1724-1807. DE-LA-RUE, G., a Fr. liter, savant, 1748-1835. DELATOUR, L. F., a Fr. author, 1727-1807. DELATOUR, Maurice Quentin, a Fr. pain- ter, distinguished for his portraits, 1705-1788. DELAUDUN, P., a Fr. poet, 1575-1629. DELAULUE, S., a French engraver, 1520-1595. I) E LAVAL, E. H., anEng.nat.phil., 1729-1814. DELAVIGNE, C, a French poet, 1794-1843. DELEUZE, J. P. F., a Fr. naturalist and librar., an. of a ' Hist, of Animal Magnetism,' 1743-1835. DELEYRE, A., a French liter, savant, d. 1797. DELFINO, the name of a patrician family of Venice, the most distin. members of which are John, a doge, died 1361. Joseph, captain-gen. of the naval fleet, 1654. Jerome, provedi tor-gen., 1694-99. Peter, general of the Camaldules, 1441-1525. John, a cardinal, 1617-1699. DELFIXO, F., an Ital. astronomer, 1477-1547. DELILLE, Jacques, a French didactic poet, in great repute at the end of the last century and un- der the empire, mem. of the academy, 1738-1813. DELISLE, Wm., a native of Paris, 1675-1726, wrought a complete reform in geography by con- structing maps from astronomical observations, to which, though greatly multiplied for many years before, map-makers had paid no attention. He seems to have imbibed the views of Cassini, the celebrated astronomer, on this subject; and his father, and younger brother, Joseph Nicholas, were distinguished in the same walk; the latter especially, who was Astronomer Royal at St. Peters- DEM burgh, and the author of a history of astronomy, and of many valuable memoirs read to the Academy. [J.B.I DELLSLE-DE-SALES, the name by which John Baptist Isoard Delisle is known, a Fr. savant, author of ' Philosophic de la Nature,' 1743-1816. DELIUS, C. T a Ger. mineralogist, 1730-1779. DELLA-MARIA, D., an Ital. com., 1778-1806. DELLON, C, a Fr. phys. and trav., 17th cent. DELMONT, Deo., a Flem. paint., 1581-1634. DELMOTTE, H. F., a French author, d. 1836. DELOEUVRE, S. X., aFr. corned., 1765-1807. DELOLME, John Louis, an advocate, born at Geneva about 1745, and known as a political writer, published his first work in 1772, being a parallel between the English government and that of Sweden, which had been overthrown by Gus- tavus. Shortly afterwards he published his cele- brated work on 'The Constitution of England,' which was written in the French tongue, but im- proved and translated into English m 1775. In 1783 he published a ' History of the Flagellants,' or Memorials of Human Superstition.' In 1787, an essay on the 'Union between England and Scotland,' and in the two years following, ' Obser- vations on Taxes and the Regency Question.' He died in Switzerland 1807. DELONGCHAMPS, a Fr. dramatist, d. 1832. DELORME, Ph., a French architect, d. 1577. DELORME, J., phys. to Marie de Medici, Henry IV., and Louis XIII., 1547-1637. His son Charl.. physician to Gaston and Louis XIIL, 1584-1678. DELORME, Marion, a Fr. courtezan, 1611-50. DELPHUS, iEciDius, a Latin poet, 16th cent. DELPON, J. A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1778-1833. DELRIEN, E. J. B., a Fr. dram., 1761-1836. DELRIO, M. A., a Flemish savant, 1551-1608. DELUC, John Andrew, a Genevese physi- cian, natural philosopher, and geologist, 1727-1817. DELUC, W. A., brother of the preceding, a nat. and fellow-labourer with him in geology, 1729-1812. DELWARDE, M., a Fr. historian, 1630-1724. DEMANDE, C. F., a Fr. median., 1728-1803. DEMAINBRAY, S. B., an English experimen- tal philosopher, 1710-1782. DEMARATUS, king of Sparta, 529-492 b.c. DEMETRIANUS, a Rom. architect, 2d cent. DEMETRIUS, a Greek sculptor, 4th cent. B.C. DEMETRIUS, a Greek architect, 4th cent. b.c. DEMETRIUS, the first of this name, king of Macedon, having fought his way to the throne, 295-287 B.C., dethroned and exiled byPyrrhus, and died a simple citizen 283. The second of the name, king of Macedon, 242-232 b.c. DEMETRIUS I., kingof Syria, known as Deme- trius Sotor, killed by Alex. Balas, 162-149 b.c. DEMETRIUS II., surnamed Nicator, or the Conqueror, deth. by Zabinas, and k. 144-125 B.C. DEMETRIUS III., sue. with his br. 95, d. 87 b.c. DEMETRIUS I., gr. duke of Rus., 1277-1294. DEMETRIUS II., gr. duke of Rus., 1359-1362. DEMETRIUS III., gr. duke of Rus., d. 1389. DEMETRIUS the False, one of numerous pre- tenders under this name to the throne of Russia, of which he possessed himself 1604, and was assas- sinated 1606. Another of these adventurers was massacred after possessing himself of Moscow by the aid of the Poles 1610 : the last of them perished on the scaffold 1653. 195 DEM DEMETRIUS CYN0D1US, aGr. wr., 14th ct. DEMETRIUS PEPANUS, a Gr. theo., 17th ct. DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS, a Greek philo- sopher and orator, known in history as governor of the Athenian republic, 3d cent. B.C. DEMIDOFF, the name of a Russian family, the founder of which, Demidas, dist. himself under Peter the Great as a cannon-founder, &c, and his grandson Procopius in mining operations. The nephew of the last named, Nicolas Demidoff, distinguished for his philanthropy and public spirit and the high perfection to which he carried the working of mines, 1773-1828. DEMOCEDES, a Gr. physician time of Darius. DEMOCRITUS, the sag! of Abdera: he lived about four hundred years before Christ, at the period of Socrates; 460 or 470 B.C. is reckoned the date of his birth, and he is said to have sur- vived a full century. Nothing of the writings of Democritus remain save a few fragments ; but with two exceptions, there is no great man of antiquity whose renown fills a larger space, or who seems, alike by his genius and his acquirements, to have better deserved a hold on the world's memories. Urged by thirst for knowledge, he travelled during his youth and manhood through India, Ethiopia, Chaldaea, and Persia; he spent several years in Egypt, and seems to have visited the schools of Pythagoras and Zeno. It is said, also, that he heard Socrates, and com- muned with Anaxagoras concerning the phe- nomena of Astronomy, and the phvsical structure of Nature. Cicero tells us that in style Demo- critus might be the rival of Plato he wrote so clearly, and so adorned what he wrote. The titles of his works relate to Logic, Ethics, Phy- sics, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Poetry, Music, Grammar, and even Strategy. The Ab- derites are recorded to have paid loftiest honours to their sage. They confided to him the care of the state ; and there must have been ground for another pleasing tradition. It is said that Democritus had spent all his substance in travel- ling. But a law of Abdera refused the rights of burial to any one who wasted his patrimony. To escape the penalty, the philosopher read in public his chief treatise, entitled ynyotc Ztxxotr/xos', and charmed by his eloquence the people voted him the sum of five hundred talents, or 125,000 sterling. It is not often that a philosophical treatise reaps such a reward ! The fame of De- mocritus in modern times, rests on his extraordi- nary prevision of the Atomic, or modern physical theory of the Universe. Rising above the con- fined idea of the Ionian school, that all things are modifications of one element or principle, he broached the conception that bodies are made up of ultimate atoms, and that in the character of these atoms must be sought the explana- tion of the qualities of what we call body. He went off at once from all barren logomachies about the plenum: and, indeed, more than any other thinker of antiquity, achieved the privilege of laying down the ground of just speculation in physics. His doctrines prevailed widely, and were afterwards enshrined in noble verse by Lucretius. Democritus was certainly a materialist : the mind, he thought, like fire, consisted of the finer atoms. He had no notion of life apart from body: and the DEM gods he deemed delusion. He had grand views of the universe : in the milky way, first of all, he saw j the light of innumerable worlds ; but he had a cor- I rcspondingly mean opinion of the nature and des- j tiny of Man. Nay, he treated Man, his evanescent works, and feeble struggles, so lightly, that we find his effigies always with a jeer on the lip, and himself with the appellation of the laughing philo- sopher. Democritus is not the only thinker who, in the intensity of his contemplation of material na- ture, has overlooked a Force infinitely more endur- ing and grand. The loss of his writings is that, per- haps, among all calamities to ancient monuments,! which we ought the most to deplore. [J.P.N.]! DEMOIVRE, an English mathematician, bornl in France 1667, died 1754. He contributed greatly j to our knowledge of Series; he was the author of I important theorems in trigonometry ; but his prin- cipal labours concerned the doctrine of Chances. He had considerable analytic genius. DEMONAX, a philos."of Cyprus, 2d cent. B.C. DEMONAX, a Gr. phil., cotemp. with Adrian. [Demosthenes From an Ancient Lust ] DEMOSTHENES, the greatest of the Greek orators, was the son of an Athenian citizen of the same name who carried on the trades of a cutler and cabinetmaker, and was born about the year B.C. 382. Having lost his father at the age of seven, the care of his youth, as well as the man- agement of his property, amounting to 15 talents, devolved upon three guardians appointed by his father. At the end of his minority of ten years he commenced a prosecution against his guardians to recover his property, which they had squan- dered, and after a litigation of two years obtained a verdict against one of them, who was condemned to pay a fine of 10 talents. The prosecution was conducted by himself; and the speeches which he delivered in support of his cause excited the ad- miration and applause of the judges. Encouraged by this successful beginning, he ventured to speak before the people, but his feeble and stammering voice, his interrupted respiration, his ungraceful gestures, and his ill-arranged periods, brought upon him general ridicule. His failure, however, only roused the energies of his unconquerable will ; he resolved to correct the deficiencies of his youth, and overcame them with a zeal and perseverance which have passed into a proverb. After a course of the most rigorous discipline, he reappeared in ISC DEM public (b.C. 355), and pronounced two orations igainst Leptines and Androtion, the former of which is considered as one of his happiest efforts. His fame as an orator ' whose resistless eloquence wielded at will that fierce democratic,' now secured cor him the general esteem, and entitled him, as me of the leading statesmen of Athens, to take an active part in all public affairs. In B.C. 354 tie opposed, though without success, the projected expedition to Eubcea, and dissuaded his countrymen from undertaking a war against Persia. From this time the history of his life is closely mixed up with that of his country; every measure calcu- lated to promote the public good received his powerful support, and every encroachment on public freedom found in him an uncompromising jpponent. Philip, king of Macedonia, had begun m B.C. 358 his encroachments on the Athenian possessions in the northern part of the iEgsean without meeting with any active opposition on the part of the parent country; and it was to rouse his countrymen against the crafty invader that Demosthenes pronounced his Philippics, a series of the most splendid and spirited orations. rhe first was delivered in B.C. 352. Another series equally celebrated (the Olynthiacs), were lesigned to prevail upon the Athenians to aid the nhabitants of Olynthus, a maritime town near the sthmus of Palline, which had been besieged by Philip, and which, notwithstanding the exertions )f the orator, was taken in the spring of B.C. 347. [n the following year Demosthenes, along with line others, went on an embassy to Philip, and succeeded in concluding a peace which continued :ill B.C. 339. But he did not the less attentively watch the proceedings of Philip ; and when hos- ;ilities again broke out, he took part in the dis- istrous battle of Chaeronea, the result of which eft Philip master of the destinies of Greece, rhough he fled along with many others, his grate- "ul countrymen decreed to him a golden crown. 3n the accession of Alexander, b.c. 336, Demos- ;henes still cherished the same feelings towards :he Macedonians; but the sudden appearance of ;he youthful conqueror overawed opposition. [See Alexander.) But even his great services jould not protect him against an outburst of popu- lar feeling. Harpalus, one of Alexander's generals whom he had left at Babylon, absconded with the treasure intrusted to his care, and arriving in (Vthens, purchased the protection of the city by iistributing his gold among the popular leaders. Demosthenes was one of the suspected recipients ; wid being declared guilty, and fined in 50 talents, lie retired to iEgina and Troezene, where he remained till the death of Alexander, B.C. 323. Ueturning to Athens for a short time, he was [breed again to withdraw in B.C. 322 ; and retiring to Calauria, a small island opposite to Troezene, took refuge in the temple of Neptune, where he suddenly died. The orations of Demosthenes, on which his character as a statesman chiefly rests, bave been often published both in mass and in ietached portions. ' His manner,' as Hume well observes, 'is rapid harmony exactly adjusted to the sense : it is vehement reasoning without any appearance of art : it is disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a continued stream of argu- ment : and, of all human productions, the orations 197 DES of Demosthenes present to us the models which approach the nearest to perfection.' [~G F 1 DEMOURS, P., a Fr. phys. and oculist, 1702- 1795. His son Anth., also an oculist, 1762-1836. DEMOUSHER, C. A., a French poet and my- cologist, 1760-1801. His son P. Anth., an archi- tect, 1735-1803. DEMPSTER, Geo., a Scotch gentleman, dis. as anM.P.andasawr. on agriculture, &c, 1736-1818. DEMPSTER, Thos., a Scotch hist, and antiq. writer, professor of theology at Pisa, 1579-1625. DENHAM, Major Dixon, born in 1786, in London, accompanied Clapperton and Oudney to Central Africa, 1822-25 ; and afterwards receiv- ing an appointment at Sierra Leone, was carried off by fever at Accra on that coast in 1828. DENHAM, Sir J., an English writer of verse, author of The Sophy,' &c, 1615-1668. DENINA, G. C., an Italian hist., 1731-1813. DENIS, Jacques, a Fr. comedian, 17th cent. DENIS, J. B., a curious Fr. wr., 17th century. DENIS, Louis, a Fr. geographer, last century. DENIS, Michael, aFr.miscel.wr., 1729-1800. DENIS, Nicolas, a topographical wr., 17th ct. DENIS, St., pope of Rome, 259-269. DENMAN, Thos., M.D., a distinguished medical writer, father of the late chief justice of the Court of King's Bench, 1783-1815. DENNER, B., a Dutch painter, 1685-1747. DENNIS, John, an English dram., 1657-1733. DENON, Dominique- Vivant, Baron, author of ' Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt during the Campaign of* General Buonaparte,' and director- general of the museums, and superintendent of the mint under the empire, distinguished as a pro- moter of art in France, 1747-1825. DENYS, P., a eel. French carver, 17th century. DENYS, James, a Flem. painter, 17th century. _ D'EON, or EON DE BEAUMONT, the cheva- lier, a Fr. adventurer and diplomatist between Louis XV. and the court of London, whose name has been rendered notorious by the curious doubts which prevailed concerning his sex, author of ' Loisirs du Chevalier D'Eon,' a work in 13 vols. 8vo, contain- ing num. historical and polit. treatises, 1728-1810. DEPARCIEUX, Anth., a Fr. writer on trigo- nometry and logarithms, 1703-1768. His nephew of the same name, an economist, &c, 1753-99. DERBY, Jas. Stanley, earl of, a royalist, dis- tinguished in the civil wars, beheaded after the battle of Worcester, 1651. His wife Charlotte, eel. for her brave defence of Latham House, d. 1664. DERHAM, Wm., an able div. and phil., canon of Windsor, and rec. of Upminster, Essex, 1657-1735. DERHODE, N., a painter on glass, 16th cent. DERJAVINE, G. Rom., a Rus. poet and states- man, dis. as one of the first men of his age, 1743-1816. DEROSSI, J. G., an Italian poet, 1754-1827. DERRICK, S., an Irish playwright, 1724-1769. DERWENTWATER, J., earl of, an adherent of the Pretender, beh. after the bat. of Preston, 1716. DESAGULIERS, J. T., an exp. phil., 1683-1743 DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, L. Ch. An., one of the most celebrated generals of the French repub- lic. He was appointed general of division or the army of the Rhine in 1796, and accompanied Napoleon in his expedition to Egypt, where he behaved with so much moderation that the Mus- sulmans named him the 'Just sultan.' On his DES return to France he joined the army of Italy, and was killed at Marengo, 1768-1800. [Tomb of Desaix] DESAUGIERS, M. A., a composer of music, 1742-1793. His son of the same name, a cele- brated ballet composer, &c, 1772-1827. DESCARTES, Rene, born in La Haye, Tou- raine, in 1596 ; died in Stockholm in 1650 : in ele- vation and amplitude, his influence approaches that of Plato and Aristotle; he is the unquestioned compeer of Bacon and Newton. Des Cartes fell on one of those recurring periods when Philosophy is in decrepitude, representing neither knowledge, nor liberty, nor wisdom; and he regenerated it. We can speak but briefly either of what he did or what he was. 1. In an epoch of dogma and ignorance and intolerance, an original Thinker ap- pears, as if inevitably, to strike always into the same course. Turning from the disorder of the received Physical Sciences, Lord Bacon prepared for his ; Instauratio,' by research concerning true method in Physical Inquiry: Des Cartes, re- pelled by corresponding disgust, from the moral and psychological logomachies of his time, de- manded what is fitting method in Speculative Philosophy ; and what the basis and criterion of certainty t The reply was not a new one, but only a reproduction of the method of Socrates, of Plato, of Aristotle, and its adjustment to the con- dition and culture of his time. The primal and sufficient ground of certainty in Speculative Philo- sophy, is the content of our human Consciousness. Cogito ergo sum is not a syllogism, but a state- ment of the manner in which the fact of existence becomes revealed. The phenomena of mind are not proveable; they are first facts. The right sifting and analysis of these primary mental phe- nomena, is the sole work of Reflection the single legitimate aim of Philosophy. Inquiry evolves their true signification, determines their reach, disengages them from foreign elements, and ascer- tains their metaphysical import and value; but with this, inquiry ends ; it cannot logically affect one of them with doubt. Two great achieve- ments were solicited in modern times, from this re- assertion of the power and functions of rational psychology. First, to put down all theoretic scepticisms after the fashion of Bayle's. Doubt may, DES and ought to affect particular opinions or conclu- sions, but to erect Doubt into a principle, is, ac- cording to Des Cartes, a sheer paralogism. Doubt] in this sense is virtually an act of Belief; it i confidence in one state of mind, or one intellectual process ; but why among all states of mind select this one for confidence ? Pyrrhonism in every form j whether as scepticism or dogmatism is irrecon- | cileable with true method. Secondly, Cartesianisfl refused to estimate the value or reality of our primary intuitions by their accordance or non-accordance \ with any system. Every logical process rests on some of our intuitions ; so that here too is a paralogism. One such paralogism was developed in the Physiological and French Sensational i schools : a form of error recently revived by M. ' Comte. Another is the attempt of powerful Churches to repudiate Philosophy in name of Revelation. The Gallican Church in its Angus- tan era, did not commit this error ; neither has it ever been the position of our English Hier- archy: no church so conducting itself can long endure. A Religion without a Philosophy, must ever evolve in the long run, dogma without creed, and a clergy without a people. 2. Some- thing more definite regarding the method of Des Cartes may be gathered from his treatment of the argument regarding the Being of a God : his proof is not an a priori one ; it rests on facts, as directly as the argument from external design the fact, viz.: that our human consciousness reveals Ideas having the attributes of Universality and Neces- sity. Ideas of this kind, said Des Cartes, cannot be the product or reflection of man's finite and imperfect nature : therefore, a Being exists whose essential character enables him to communicate to us the Ideas of Infinity, Eternity, Self-existence, &c. The special proof given by Anselm, also occurred to Des Cartes, and was expanded by him. The logic of these arguments to which, indeed, all a priori proofs may be reduced is open to only two exceptions. First, it may be denied that Ideas exist having the characters of Universality and Necessity; Secondly, it may be questioned whether it is legitimate to pass from a phenomenon in Psychology to a reality in Ontology ; it doe3 not follow, says the philosopher of Konigsberg, from the existence of an Idea, that there is any externality corresponding to it. As to the former objection see articles Condillac, Gassendi, Locke, Plato, &c: the latter is noticed at length in articles Kant and Rkid. 3. The student must look for no completed Psychology, or even an approach to it, in the writings of Des Cartes. Owing to the absence of every attempt at system, the cursory reader is apt to miss those traces of earnest searching insight which are strewn broad-cast over his pages ; and the rapid critic easily makes out a case against one of the hardest and most original thinkers in Europe : the extravagant misapprehension contained in the first three chapters of Locke's Essay, may be taken as a type of such criticisms. One fatal error of the great Frenchman requires to be explained because of its influence on subsequent speculation. He overlooked the essential activity of the think- ing principle, regarding it rather as the subject of certain peculiar changes; and this led him to a prolbunder misapprehension of the Idea of Sub- 198 DES stance. Leibnitz corrected him by restoring to t, the attribute of cause or force ; but lot before the error had led to the engulphing atalism of Spinoza. 4. The intellectual vigour )f Des Cartes left its marks on many various departments of knowledge. He was fond of Physiology. Kis hypothesis of Vortices prepared For the mechanical theory of planetary Motions. He founded Dioptrics first impressing on it a geometrical character. But that by which he will ongest live in Mathematics, is his most fertile idea of representing the properties of curves by equations. Measured by its influence this dis- covery takes rank with the infinitesmal calculus; nor has its empire been disputed until in the most recent times by the remarkable scheme of Quater- nions. 5. The life of Des Cartes was given mostly to solitude and thought: nevertheless, on occasions, and with characteristic ardour, he took part in active pursuits. A soldier, he spent several years in camps ; he travelled much, and carried on an extensive correspondence. Whenever Philosophy fidls off, and the throne of Truth is usurped by Scepticism or Dogmatism, regeneration will in- variably come in one way through restoration of the method and fundamental principle of Des Cartes. [J.P.N.] [Birth-place of Pescartes ] DESCEMET, J., a French botanist, 1732-1810. DESCROIZILLE, F. A. H., a Fr. che., d. 1825. DESERIZ, J. S., a savant of Hung., 1702-1765. DESEZE, Romain, one of the three counsel selected by Louis XVI. to defend him before the convention, after the restoration became president of the Court of Repeal, 1750-1828. DESFONTAINES, the Abbe P. F. Guyot, a miscellaneous French writer, at first a Jesuit, noted for his immorality, 1685-1745. DESFONTAINES, R. L., a Fr. hot., 1751-1833. DHSFORGES, P. J. B. C, a French comedian and dramatic author, 1746-1806. DESHAYES, L., Baron De Courmenin, a Fr. diplo., beh. for conspiring against Richelieu, 1632. DESHAYS, J. B., a French painter, 1729-1765. DESHOULIERES, Antoinette Du Ligier De La Garde, Dame, a French poetess and dra- matic writer, 1634-1694. Her daughter, An- toinette Theresa, also a poetess, 1662-1718. DESJARDINS, Martin Van Den Bogaert, a Fr. sculp, and caster of stat. in bronze, 1640-1694. DES DESMAISE AUX, P., aFr. mis. wr., 1666-1746. DESMARETS, C, chief of the French police under the empire, auth. of ' Memoirs,' 1763-1823. DESMARETS, H., a Fr. composer, 1662-1741. DESMARETS, J., advocate-general of the par- liament of Paris, put to death by Charles VI., 1382. DESMARETS, N., a Fr. min. of finance, nephew of Colbert, eel. for his upright adminis., lived 1721. DESMARETS, N., a Fr. physician, director of the manuf. of France, mem. of the Acad., 1725-1815. DESMOULINS, Benedict Cashlee, born at Guise in Picardy, 1762, and educated for the law at the college of Louis-le-Grand, was known as a wild young student of jurisprudence and Belles Lettres at the commencement of the French revolu- tion, and is supposed to have been early ac- quainted with Robespierre, if, indeed, he was not his college friend. He made the first of those stirring harangues by which the people were excited to the revolutionary combat, from a table on which he mounted in the garden of the Palais Royal, when the Swiss and German troops had been ordered under arms, previous to the dismissal of Necker. It was a moment of intense excitement, for the police were eyeing the young orator, who with a loaded pis- tol in eachhand, swore he would not be taken alive. This was on Sunday the 12th of July, 1789, and two days afterwards Camille fought with the future re- publicans at the storming of the Bastile. Before the end of the month the ' Rights of Man ' had been promulgated by the Constituent Assembly, and was succeeded by that flood of journalism and club-eloquence on which so many obscure men were suddenly borne to the height of popularity. Camille made his first profession of the republican faith in a work which he entitled ' La France Libre,' in which he declared that a democracy was the only form of government suited to a people who were ' worthy of the name of men.' This was followed by his ' Discours de la Lanterne aux Par- isiens,' subsequently called 'Les Revolutions de France et de Brabant,' a weekly paper, edited, as he styled himself,' by the ' Attorney-General of the Lamp-Iron.' This atrocious style was chosen by Camille rather as his password to the Faubourgs than the echo of his own sentiments, and he aban- doned it as a jeu d'esprit, too cruel to be taken in earnest. Towards the end of the year he united with Danton in the establishment of the Corde- liers' Club, the fiery element into which these two cast themselves to work out their own destiny, and to accomplish their part in the revolution. About this time he married the beautiful and accomplished Mademoiselle Duplessis, the devoted wife who afterwards hovered about his prison, and rested not till she arrived at the same cruel term of her existence as him she loved. It is re- lated that the cure refused to marry him because he had written that there was as much evidence for the religion of Mahomet as for that of Chris- tianity, and the dispute between them was referred to Mirabeau, who decided that a man's religion could only be judged by his exterior profession. Camille declared himself a good catholic, promised to amend his ways, and was thereupon married, the priest laughing at the idea of a Mirabeau act- ing as a father of the church. It is painful to read the words of the bridegroom when on his de- fence five years later: 'A marked fatality has 199 DES DEV ordained,' he said, ' that of sixty persona who I handed down to posterity. The commotion of the signed my marriage contract, there should remain to me only two living friends, Robespierre and Dan- ton ! All the others have fled or are guillotined ! ' After the 10th of August, 1792, when Danton acquired the supremacy as minister of justice, Camille Desmoulins acted as his secretary, and though it is a disputed point whether he took any active part in the execrable massacres of Septem- ber, it cannot be supposed that the 'attorney- general of the Lamp-iron ' was the man to shrink from his share of the responsibility. The incident which marked the return of the friends to moderate counsels soon after the fall of the Girondins is related by Lamartine. It was one of the last evenings in the month of January, when Danton, Souberbielle, one of the jury of the revolutionary tribunal, and Camille Desmoulins came away together from the Palais de Justice, and spoke sorrowfully of the bloodshed of that day, when fifteen victims had fallen on the scaffold, and twenty-seven more had been condemned to suffer. The friends separated at Danton's door, and next day Camille Desmoulins had written the first number of the 'Vieux Cordelier,' in which the system of proscription was denounced, and a ' Com- mittee of Clemency ' demanded as a preliminary to clearing the prisons of the 'Suspect.' In the daring burst of eloquence and passion which marked the pages of this journal, the system of Robespierre was attacked under cover of an assault on the cruel atheists Hebert and Chaumette. The quarrel broke out in the Convention as a personal squabble, on the 8th of January, 1794 ; and Danton supported his friend, thinking it high time, as he expressed himself, that they should make work for the guillotine of public opinion by enlightening the people. Two days afterwards the quarrel was resumed, and Robespierre spoke of Camille as a wayward child whose person it was not necessary to injure, but demanded that his writings might be burned. ' To burn them,' ex- claimed Camille starting up, 'is not to answer them ! ' and then, reckless of consequences, he complained that he had first submitted his copy to Robespierre, but that he had since refused to read his journal because he would not compromise himself by espousing either side of the quarrel. Danton acted as peace-maker on this occasion: but the harvest of death was ripening for this new party of mercy as for the Girondins; and Danton himself, together with his friends Camille Desmoulins, Philippeaux, and Lacroix, were arrested on the night of the 30th March, as Herault de Seychelles had been only a little earlier. His wife, Lucile, addressed an affecting appeal to Robespierre, which, it is believed, never reached him, and Camille found the means of opening a secret correspondence with her. These letters have been preserved, and they are filled with ex- pressions oi the most passionate attachment and despair. At the bar of Tinville the prisoners were asked their age, name, and residence, 'My age,' said Camille, ' is that of the sansculotte Jesu I am thirty-three ; an age fatal to revolutionists ! ' He had prepared a written defence, but was not allowed to read it, and in a fit of indignation tore the paper to fragments, which, however, were afterwards collected by a friend, and their contents 200 people was feared by Robespierre, and the wife of Camille was arrested the following night, that her beauty and the eloquence of her grief might not be the means of snatching away a victory which he had only obtained by surprise and subtlety. She was guillotined a few days after her husband. On his way to the scaffold,' Camille Desmoulins forgot all his philosophy, and became almost frantic, struggling with his bonds and appealing to the people whom he had called to arms on the 14th of July t had given the national cockade. At the guillotine -to whom, as he reminded them, he he recovered his sangfroid, and, looking on the axe, said to the populace, ' Behold, then, the recompense reserved for the first apostle of liberty!' The date of his execution is the 5th of April, 1794, that of his wife's the 10th. He was a man of rare genius, light, sparkling, and sarcastic, but of a most undecided temperament, and headlong in his im- pulses. His dazzling eloquence rained words like fire ; his epigrams flew like polished arrows, and, careless of results, he launched them against men of all parties, from Lafayette 'the liberator of two. worlds,' and 'constellation of the white horse,' to St. Just who 'carried his head with the air of a saint-sacrament.' His ridicule of the Girondists in a ' History of the BrissotinsJ pub- lished 1793, contributed to bring contempt upon that body by its very title ; yet it must be remembered, to the honour of Camille and the Dantonists, that their attempt to save their enemies from the guillo- tine was the first step to their own ruin. [E.R.] DESORGUES, Th., a French poet, 1764-1803. DESOTEUX, F., a Fr. physician, 1724-1803. DESPARD, Edward Marcus, an Irish officer, distin. in the West Indies during the Amer. war, and exec, for conspiring against the life of the king 1803. DESPARD, John, a brave Eng. gen., 1744-1829. DESPAZE, J., a Fr. satirical poet, 1769-1814. DESPREAUX, J. S., a Fr. dram., 1747-1820. DESSAIX, J. M., a general of the French revolution, member of the council of 500 till the 18th Brumaire, 1764-1825. DESSALINES, J. J., a slave of St. Domingo, first emp.ofHayti under the title of James I., 1760-1806. DESSOLLE, J. J. P. Augustin, a French gen- eral and statesman, distinguished in the campaign of Italy, Spain, and Russia, 1767-1828. DESTOUCHES, A. C, a Fr. comp., 1672-1749. DESTOUCHES, P. K, aFr. dram., 1680-1754. DESTREM, H., a member of the French con- vention, one of the most vigorous opponents of the coup d'etat, 18th Brumaire, transported after the plot of the infernal machine, 1758-1805. DEUTSCH, N. E., a Fr. painter, 1484-1530. DEVAUX, J., a French surgeon, 1649-1729. DEVAUX, Gabriel, aFr. botanist, 1742-1802. DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Essex, the re- puted favourite of Queen Elizabeth, distinguished as a military officer, gov. of Ireland during Tyrone's rebellion, born 1567, executed 1601. His son of the same name, commander for the parliament at the commencement of the civil war, 1592-1645. DEVILLIERS, C, a Fr. naturalist, 1724-1809. DEVONSHIRE, Georgiana Cavendish, duchess of, celebrated for her taste in art and the Belles Lettres, and for her personal charms, authoress of poems, 'Passage of St. Gothard,' &c, 1757- DEV 806. Elizabeth Hervey, the second duchess, lso distinguished for her beauty, her classical taste, iid her love of art, 1759-1824. DEVUEZ, Arnold, a Fr. painter, 1642-1724. D'EWES, Sir S., an English hist., 1602-1650. DEWEZ, L. D. J., a Fr. historian, 1760-1834. DE-WINT, Peter, an English artist, d. 1849. DE-WITT, Jno., a celebrated Dutch statesman, torn 1625, grand pensionary of Holland from 1652, acrificed with his brother Cornelius to the ambi- tion of the House of Orange, 1672. DHAFER, Hismail, caliph of Egypt, 1149-55. DHAHER, Ali, caliph of Egypt, 1021-1036. DHAHER, Moham., the thirty-fifth caliph of he Abasside dynasty, reigned nine months in 1225. DHAHEZ, a sheik of Palestine, 1693-1775. DIADUMENIANUS, Marcus Opelius Ma- :rinus Antoninus, emperor of Rome 217, killed y the soldiers of HeliogaDalus 218. ' DIANA of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., eel. or her influence and her brilliant court,1499-1566. DIANA of France, a natural daughter of lenry II., and wife of Horace Farnese and F. lontmorency, 1538-1619. DIAS, B., a Portuguese poet, 16th century. DIAS-DE-LUGO, J. B., a Span, jurist, d. 1556. DIAS-GOMEZ, F., a Portug. poet, 1745-1795. DIAS, P., a Portuguese Jesuit mis., 1621-1700. DIAZ, Bartholomew, a knight of the royal ousehold, was sent by the king of Portugal in Lugust I486, in quest of the dominions of the naginary Christian prince, Prester John, supposed b lie in India or Eastern Africa, while Covilhma ad Payva went by land through Egypt. Diaz ad two caravels of fifty tons each, and a small tore-ship. Having touched at the African coast in at. 26 S., 400 miles farther than any previous tavigator had reached, he steered boldly south and ast sight of land. Storms which arose soon after ore him far E. of the Cape of Good Hope, which ie was thus the first to double without knowing t. He had advanced to the mouth of the Great "ish River, making frequent inquiry after Prester lohn, when the crews insisted on his return. He low visited the Cape, determined its position with iccuracy, and called it the Stormy Cape, a name vhich for better augury the king, John II., changed o the present designation. Diaz reached Lisbon n 1487. He perished at sea in 1500, in one of Uabral's ships commanded by him. Michael Diaz of Arragon, was one of the companions of Columbus. He became governor of Porto Rico, ind died in 1512. [J.B.] DIAZ, E., a Portug. Jesuit mis., 17th century. DIAZ, F., a Spanish missionary, died 1646. DIAZ, G., a Portuguese painter, 16th century. ^ DIAZ, J., aprotestant convert of Spain, murd. by lis brother, who afterwards hanged himself, 1546. DIAZ, M., a Spanish navigator, died 1512. DIAZ. P., a Spanish Jesuit and mis., 1546-1602. DIBDIN, Charles, was born at Southampton nthe year 1745, and was educated at Winchester. Jis father, who was a silversmith, first meant that us son should enter the church, but his early and levoted attachment to music soon frustrated the pa- ternal intentions. He received some lessons in music rom Mr. Kent (whose anthems are well known), ind commenced his career as poet and musician at dxteen years of age, and produced at Covent Gar- DID den Theatre an opera named 'The Shepherd's Artifice.' About this time he made his debut as an actor, and was well received. In 1768 he was the original Mungo in his own ' Padlock.' In 1772 he produced the music to ' The Deserter ;' in 1774 the words and music of ' The Waterman ; ' and in 1775 ' The Quaker.' In 1778 he became composer to the Covent Garden Theatre, with a salary oi 10 per annum. About the year 1782 he built "the Cir- cus Theatre, afterwards known as the Surrey, and continued to manage it with indifferent success for nearly four years. In 1778 he published his musi- cal tour, and in 1789 he gave the first of his entertainments, under the title of ' The Whim of the Moment,' which soon became very popular. These entertainments, of which he was performer, poet, and musician, furnished his sole means of livelihood until the year 1805, when he retired from public life with a government pension of 200. In 1813 Dibdin was attacked with par- alysis, and he died in July, 1814. Besides the operas named, Dibdin wrote two novels, and a few smaller literary works, and wrote and com- posed the enormous number of nine hundred songs ! To him is due whatever merit there is of having originated that kind of musical entertainment which has been followed by so many vocalists, from Incledon to Wilson, Templeton, and John Parry. [J.M.] DIBDIN, Thos., eldest son of the preceding, a dist. dramatic author and song-writer, 1771-1841. DIBDIN, Thos. Frognall, D.D., a celebrated bibliographer and antiquarian writer, 1775-1847. DIBIL-AL-KHOSSAI, an Arab, poet, 765-860. DICEARCHUS, a Greek philosopher, historian, and geographer, disciple of Aristotle, 4th cent. b.c. DICETO, Raoul De, an Engl, hist., 13th cent. DICK, Sir Alex., a Sco. physician, remembered for introducing the culture of rhubarb, 1703-1785. DICK, Major-Gen. Sir Robert Henry, a Scotch peninsular and medical officer, killed at the battle of Sobraon, 1846. DICKINSON, E., an Eng. arclneol. 1624-1707. DICKSON, A., a Scot. wr. on agricul., d. 1776. DICKSON, D., a Scotch divine, 1591-1664. DICKSON, J., a Scotch botanist, died 1822. DIDEROT, Denys, was born in 1713, at Lan- gres in Champagne, where his father was a re- spectable tradesman. Educated for the church, but declining to take orders, he was next placed in the chambers of a legal practitioner in Paris ; but, in like manner, he abandoned the law. Literature now became his profession ; and, after a few years of obscure drudgery, he became one of the most famous among those literary and scientific men, whose attacks on the established order of things, religious and ecclesiastical as well as political, are alleged to have acted so powerfully in precipitating the French revolution. It was Diderot that pro- jected the huge work which, receiving the contri- butions of these so-called philosophers in their several departments, gave them their usual title of ' Encyclopedists.' The ' Encyclopedic, ou Dic- tionnaire Raisonne - des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers,' was designed, not merely to supersede the imperfect dictionaries of universal knowledge that already existed, but to teach, on every occa- sion which could admit the teaching, those social doctrines which were held by the winters. Among 201 DID the contributors were Voltaire, Rousseau, and seve- ral very eminent men of science ; the work was edited at first by Diderot and D'Alembert, and afterwards by the former alone ; and, among its very unequal contents, his articles are distinguished both for good writing and for versatile ability. The publication continued, amidst many obstacles, from 1751 to 1769. In the course of it, and after- wards, Diderot wrote several didactic treatises, in- decent and irreligious novels, and two sentimental comedies ; and his published correspondence, espe- cially with Voltaire and Grimm, throws much light on the gloomy picture which French society and morals then presented. He died at Paris in 1784. [W.S.] DIDIER, St., a Christian bp. and martyr, 264. DIDIER, last king of the Lombards, 757-773. DIDO, a princess of Tyre, eel. as the founder and queen of Carthage, supposed date about 880 B.C. DIDOT, the name of a family distin. in the his- tory of French printing, the most celebrated of whom is Firmin, the inventor of stereotyping, and also a classical scholar and author, 1764-1836. DIDYM US, a Greek grammarian, 1st cent. B.C. DIDYMUS, a divine of Alexandria, 308-395. DIEBITSCH-ZABALKANSKI, a Russian gen- eral and favourite of Alexander, and commander in the war against the Poles 1830, died 1831. DIEFFEXBACH, J. F., a German surgeon, celebrated for his skill in supplying artificial noses, curing strabismus or squinting, &c, 1795-1848. DIELHELM, J. H., aGer. antiquarian, d. 1764. DIEMEN. Anthony Van, governor-general of the Dutch establishments in the East Indies, was born at Kuilenberg 1595, and going to India became successively accountant to the govern- ment, and member of the supreme council. In 1631, or 1632, he returned to Holland as com- mander of the India fleet, and the year following was raised to the dignity which he enjoyed till his death, in 1645. While holding this office, namely, in 1642, he sent Tasman on a voyage to the south, when that part of NewHolland was discovered which has since been called Van Diemen's Land. DIEPENBEKE, A. Van, a Fl. pain., 1607-1675. DIEREVILLE, a French navigator, 17th cent. DIES, Gaspard, a Portuguese painter, d. 1671. DIETERICH, J. C, a Ger. savant, 1612-1669. DIETRICH, C. G. E., a Ger. painter, 1712-1774. DIETRICH, J. F., a Ger. Latin poet, 1753-1833. DIETRICH, P. F., Baron De, a mineralogist, first constitutional mayor of Strasburg, guill. 1793. DIEU, Anthony, a French painter, 1662-1727. DIEU, Louis De, a Dutch prot. min., eel. as a biblical commentator and Orientalist, 1590-1642. DIEU, St. Jean De, arelig. founder, 1495-1550. DIEZ, Juan Martin, a dist. guerilla chieftain of Spain, exec, for alleged conspiracy, 1755-1825. DIGBY, Sir Everard, an English gentleman, executed for his complicity in the gunpowder plot, 1581-1609. His son, Sir Kenelm, a naval com- mander under Charles I., and philosophical writer, 1603-1665. John, of the same family, earl of Bristol, a political negotiator and partizan of Charles L, 1580-1653. George, Lord Digby, son of John, a zealous royalist, 1612-1676. DIGGES, Leonard, an English geometrician, died 1574. His son Thomas, an astronomer and mathematician, died 1595. Sir Dudley, son of DIO Thomas, a diplomatist and ambassador, author o a treatise on right, 1583-1639. Drnu.v, mm the last named, au. of some political tracts, d. 1642 DILLENIUS, John James, a German botanist first professor of botany at Oxford, 1687-1747. DILLON, the name of an Irish family, the firs of whom mentioned by biographers is Went worth earl of Roscommon, a hanger-on of the Englisl court, 1633-1684. Others are mentioned in thi service of France, as Arthur, lieut.-gen., distin under Vendome and Villeroi, 1670-1733. Hi grandson of the same name, governor of St. Kitt' and Tobago, deputy to the estates-general, com- mander of the army of the north, and afterward in the army of Dumouriez, ex. 1794. Theobale the father of the last named, massacred, and hon oured with a place in the Pantheon, 1792. DILWORTH, Thomas, author of a series o useful school books, died 1670. DIMSDALE, Th., an Engl, phys., 1712-1800. DINO, or DINUS, a jurist of the 13th centurj DINTER, G. F., a Germ, theologian, 1760-1831 DINTERUS, E., a French chronicler, d. 1448. DIOCLETIAN, a common soldier who becam emperor of Rome, 286, eel. for the persecution corr against the Christians 303, abdicated 306, died 31c DIODATI, Dominic, an It. savant, 1736-1801 DIODATI, Giovanni, a protestant divine c Geneva, kn. as a biblical annotator, 1576-1649. DIODORUS of Sicily, a famous Greek his torian, au. of a universal hist, in 40 books, of whie only 15 and some fragments are extant, 1st c. B.< DIODORUS of Tyre, a Gr. philos., 2d c. b.c DIOGENES of Apollonia, a Greek philo sopher of the Ionic or physical school of Anaxi menes, 5th century B.C. DIOGENES, the Babylonian, a Stoic philoso pher, teacher of dialectic in Rome, 200 B.C. DIOGENES, the celebrated Greek cynic, was native of Sinope, in Pontus, where he was bor 413 b.c. He was banished from his country fo coining false money, and repaired to Athens where he studied philosophy under Antisthenei and surpassed his master in the rudeness of hi manners, and his austere views of human nature He walked about the streets with a tub on hi head, in which it is said he lodged at night. H is the type of cynicism, and for his zeal as moralist nas been called the 'Mad Socrates, Being on a voyage he was taken by pirates am sold into slavery at Corinth, where ne becam tutor to the sons of a rich citizen, but died in th greatest misery, B.C. 324. His reputation pro cured him a visit from Alexander the Great, wb asked Diogenes if there was anything in whid he could gratify him. ' Only,' he answered, ' do no stand any longer between me and the sun.' Som moral ' sentences ' are extant under his name, bu they are thought to be apocryphal. The inliabi tants of Sinope raised statues to his memory, an< the marble figure of a dog was placed on a big] column erected on his tomb. DIOGENES LAERT1US, a Greek philosopher supposed to be of the Epicurean school, celebrate! as an historian for his very valuable ' Lives of th Philosophers,' 2d century B.C. DIOMEDES, a Latin grammarian, 5th century DION, a disciple of Plato, eel. for deliver. Sicil; from the tyranny of Dionysius, assassin. B.C. 354 DIO DION CASSIUS, a Greek historian, 3d cent. DION CHRYSOSTOME, a Greek orator, 1st c. i DIONYSIUS, a Greek painter, 5th cent. B.C. ! DIONYSIUS, the first of the name, called the Efcfer, tvrant of Syracuse, 405-368 B.C. DIONYSIUS, the second, called the Younger, son and successor of the preceding, 368-356 B.C. DIONYSIUS, a patriarch or bishop of Alexan- dria, dist. in the condemnation of Sabellius, 248-265. DIONYSIUS, an ancient geographer, surnamed Periegetes, from his poem containing a description of the world in Greek verse, 4th century. DIONYSIUS, the Akeopagite, a bishop of Athens, to whom certain writings containing an application of Platonism to Christianity have been dubiously attributed, burned alive about 95. DIONYSIUS of Halicaknassus, author of an hist, work entitled 'Roman Antiquities,' abt. 30 B.C. DIOPHANTUS, a mathematician of Alexan- dria, who flourished about the year 480 a.d. He originated a peculiar department of Algebra, which still bears his name. It relates to questions about whole numbers, squares, cubes, primes, &c. The best edition of his work is by Fermat. DIOSCORIDES, Pedanius, a celebrated Greek physician and botanist, was born at Anazarba in Ciiicia. The dates of his birth and death are not known ; but it is generally believed that he lived in the reign of the emperor Nero. He is said to have been named Phacas, from his face being marked with spots like lentils. He was a soldier in his youth, and it is surmised he may have been attached to the army as physician. He practised medicine, and he tells us himself that he travelled over Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and part of ancient Gaul, in quest of plants. His works contain chiefly an account of the medicinal virtues of the plants he describes ; and their principal value ap- pears to consist in their having given rise to numerous learned disquisitions, and an immense deal of controversy, in after times, as to the iden- tity of the species he mentions. This, no doubt, contributed much to advance the knowledge of botany amongst the medical men who succeeded him, and who in these times were almost the only persons who studied plants. The first printed edition of his works appeared at Venice, in the original Greek, in 1499 ; but since then many edi- tions have been printed, and translations made into almost every language of Europe, except English. In late times Tournefort made much use of his works, and still more lately they have given origin to the ' Flora Groeca' of Sibthorp, which has been edited by Sir James Edward Smith. A genus of plants has been named after him by Plumier; the dioscorea, a genus which contains the yam. [W.B.] DIl'PEL, John Conrad, a German physician and chemist, remarkable for his pretensions in theology and alchymy. He is the disc, of Prussian blue, and of an oil which bears his name, 1672-1734. DISNEY, John, an English divine, distin- guished for his activity and disinterestedness as a magistrate, 1677-1730. A descendant of the same name, chaplain to Bishop Law, and author of religious biographies, 1746-1816. D'ISRAELI, Isaac, the son of a Venetian merchant, of Jewish extraction, who had settled in England, was born at Enfield, near London, in 17G0. His education was chiefly received at Am- DOD sterdam and Leyden, and was completed by a tour in France and Italy. Coming, at an early age, into possession of an independent fortune, he was able to devote the whole of his long life to literary study and composition. In the first stage of his authorship he contributed poems to the Gentle- man's Magazine,' and other periodicals, and wrote some small novels, of which the satirical piece called 'Film Flams' is said to have been one. But he soon began to confine himself to his favourite department of Literary History ; commencing, when he was twenty-five years old, those miscellaneous collections and remarks, which, though pleasant and gossiping rather than philosophically critical, have preserved and disseminated a very large mass of cu- rious and valuable knowledge. In 1791 appeared the first volume of his ' Curiosities of Literature,' which were extended to three volumes, gradually enlarged, and followed by a second series in 1823. In 1795 he published his ' Essay on the Literary Character,' and, in 1796, his 'Literary Miscellanies.' The most interesting of his works, ' The Calamities of Authors,' and ' Quarrels of Authors,' appeared in 1812, 1813, and 1814; and these were followed, in 1816, by his ' Character of King James I.' A subsequent work, the ' Commentaries on the Life and Reign of Charles I.,' gained for him from Ox- ford the honorary degree of D.C.L. In 1839 he became blind, but was still able to complete his ' Amenities of Literature,' which had been designed to be a part in a survey of the ' Literary History of England.' Mr. D'Israeli died in the beginning of 1848, at his country-seat, Bradenham house, in Buckinghamshire. The late chancellor of the ex- chequer is his eldest son. [W.S.] DITTON, Humph., an Eng. geomet., 1675-1715. DJEMCHlD, an ancient king of Persia, regarded as the founder of Persian civilization, abt. 800 B.C. DLUGLOSS, J. L., a Polish hist., 1415-1480. DOBROWSKI, J., a savant of Hung., 1753-1829. DOBSON, M., a physician and natural philoso- pher, died 1784. His wife, Susannah, a clever miscellaneous writer, close of the century. DOBSON, William, a distinguished English portrait and historical painter, of the reign of Charles I., was born in London in 1610, where he died in 1646, at the early age of thirty-six. Dob- son's education consisted chiefly in copying pic- tures by Titian and Vandyck, which he met with at his master's, Sir Robert Peake's. He was re- commended to the king by Vandyck, and succeed- ed him as Sergeant Painter to Charles I., who had a high opinion of Dobson, whom he called the English Tintoret. (Walpole, Anecdotes of Paint- ing in England, &c.) R.N.W.] DOD, John, a Heb. scholar and divine, called by Fuller ' the last of the Puritans,' 1547-1645. DODD, C, an English catholic historian, d. 1745. DODD, Ralph, a civil engineer, author of many works of great public utility, and a great promoter of steam navigation, 1761-1822. His son, George, dist. in the same prof., the projector and resident engineer of Waterloo Bridge, d. 1827. DODD, Dr. William, author of num. religious and other works, b. 1729, executed for forgery 1777. DODDRIDGE, Sir J., an Eng. jurist, 1555-1628. DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., the son of an oilman, was born in London on 26th June, 1702. Both parents being very pious, took extraordinary 203 DOD pains to rear their numerous family in the nurture and admonition of the Lord; and Philip, the youngest, was introduced by his mother to a know- ledge of the characters and scenes of the Old and New Testament history through means of some Dutch tiles that lined a corner of their sitting-room. The associations of those primitive pictures, together with the remembrance of the sound and pious re- flections his parent founded on them, made indel- ible impressions on his infant mind. In his child- hood he was left an orphan ; and the little patri- mony bequeathed to him having been lost through the imprudent management of the trustee ap- pointed by his father, young Doddridge was in- debted to "the kind liberality of Mr. Samuel Clarke, a dissenting minister, and. master of a private school at St. Alban's, who took him into his house, and educated him gratuitously. Doddridge repaid the kindness of his disinterested and pious benefac- tor by not only making uncommon attainments in learning, but by strong and beautiful evidences of Eersonal religion. His early wish was to devote is life to the ministry, but great difficulties lay in the way to the accomplishment of this object ; and while he was anxiously pondering the matter in his mind, he received an offer from the duchess of Bedford, who lived in the neighbourhood, and had heard of his character and circumstances, to send him to either of the two universities, on condition of his becoming a clergyman in the Church of England. So tempting an offer it required strong and conscientious principles to resist. But his dissent being the result of enlightened and matured conviction, he respectfully and gratefully declined the proposal of his noble patroness. His old and steady friend, Mr. Samuel Clarke, now undertook to bear the expense of his education ; and Doddridge, regarding this offer as indicating the leading of Providence, gladly embraced it, by repairing to the academy of Kilworth, in Leicestershire, where, under the auspices of the learned and pious Dr. Jennings, he pursued the requisite studies with great ardour. On 22d July, 1722, he was licensed to preach, and such was the fame of his pulpit ministrations that he soon found himself settled over the congregation at Kilworth, as successor to Dr. Jennings. At the end of seven years he re- moved to Harborough, to be assistant to the vener- able Mr. Some ; but this situation, too, he ere long relinquished, to take the superintendence of a dis- senting academy for the training of young minis- ters, an office to which his high celebnty as a scholar and divine procured his unanimous appoint- ment by the electors. A very pressing invitation from the Independent congregation in Northamp- ton, enforced by the advice of Dr. Watts and other friends to accept it, led him to a new sphere of labour; and from 24th December, 1729, he dis- charged in that town the double duty of pastor of a large congregation and tutor to the Theological Seminary. Seldom has there been a more labori- ous never was there a more conscientious life than that of Doddridge. To serve his Divine Master was the ruling principle of his heart ; and to the advancement of the sacred cause he brought all the energies of an active mind, and all the stores of an almost boundless knowledge daily to bear. Many students repaired from all parts of the king- dom to enjoy the benefit of his prelections; and DOL amongst these not a few who afterwards rose to distinction, not among the dissenters only, but in the established churches of England and Scotland, in America, and even in Holland. The university of Aberdeen conferred on him, in 1736, the honor- ary degree of Doctor in Divinity. He was a volu- minous author. Amongst his works, all of which have long been well known and highly valued in the religious world, we may enumerate his ' Sermons on Regeneration,* his ' Sermons to Young People,' his ' Life of Colonel Gardner.' But the principal are the ' Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul,' and the ' Family Expositor.' Dr. Doddridge's frame, never robust at any time, was enfeebled by his incessant labours, and severe cold having settled on his lungs, and been followed by symptoms of consumption, he was advised to try the effects of a sea voyage. On 30th September, 1751, he sailed from Falmouth in a vessel bound for Lisbon, where he landed on 13th October, and being completely exhausted he sank in a few days, expressing to Mrs. Doddridge, who accompanied him, his firm faith and joyful hope in Christ. f^R. J.] DODINGTON, George Bubb, or according to his title, Lord Melcombe, an English statesman, best known as author of a ' Diary,' 1691-1762. DODONiEUS, R., a Dutch botanist, 1517-1585. DODSLEY, Robert, the well-known booksel- ler and miscellaneous writer, was born of poor parents, and though he commenced life as a foot- man, rose to considerable eminence as a dramatic author and essayist, and acquired a handsome for- tune as a publisher. His literary connections and friendships include the first names of last century. The most celebrated of his theatrical pieces is ' Cleone,' a tragedy, and the most useful of his speculations the 'Annual Register,' commenced 1758, in conjunction with Edmund Burke. ' He bore an excellent private character, was modest in his prosperity, grateful to his early friends and patrons, and disposed to bestow on others the same kind assistance which he himself had experi- enced.' Born at Mansfield 1703, died 1764. DODSON, M., an Engl, theol. wr., 1732-1799. DODSWORTH, R., an Eng. antiq., 1585-1654. DODWELL, Hen., a famous wr. on controver- sial, theological, and classical subjects, 1641-1711. His son, of the same name, a lawyer and sceptical writer, 1742. His younger son, William, arch- deacon of Berks, and an able divine, 1709-1765. DOEDERLEIN, J. A., a Ger. hist., 1675-1745. DOEDERLEIN, J. C, a Ger. theol., 1746-1792. DOERFEL, G. S., a Germ, astronomer, 17th c. DOES, Jacob Van Der, a Dutch painter, 1623-1673. His son, of the same name and pro- fession, distinguished as 'the younger,' 1654-1693. Simon, his eldest son, a pupil of his father, whose style he adopted, 1653-1717. DOGGET, Thos., an Irish playwright, d. 1721. DOGHERTY, Thos., a writer on law, d. 1805. DOGIEL, M., a Polish historian, 17th centurv. DOHM, C. W. Von, a Prus. diplom., 1751-1820. DOLABELLA, Publius Cornelius, the son- in-law of Cicero, successively tribune, consul, and governor of Syria ; after the death of Caesar, he put an end to his life when besieged by Cassius m Laodicea 43 b.c. DOLCE, Carlo, a Floren. painter, 1616-1686. Agnes, his daughter, also a painter, died 1690. 204 DOL DOLCE, Louis, a Ven. liter, savant, 1508-1568. DOLET, Stephen, a French reformer and literary savant, burned as an atheist, 1509-1546. DOLGORUCKI, John Michalovitsch, a distinguished Russian soldier and poet, 1764-1824. DOLIVAR, J., a Spanish engraver, 1641-1710. DOLLOND, J., an English optician, distin- guished in conj. with his sons for many improve- ments in optical and mathem. instru., 1706-1762. DOLOMIEU, Deodatus, a Fr. geologist and mineralogist, whose name has been conferred on a calc. stone which he was first to describe, 1750-1801. DOMAING, Mohammed, an Ar. nat., d. 1405. DOMAT, J., a French jurist, 1625-1765. DOMBAY, F. De, an Aus. Oriental., 1758-1810. DOMBEY, Joseph, a Fr. phys., one of the most eel. French naturalists of the last ct., 1742-1793. DOMENICHINO, the name by which Do- menico Zampieri is commonly known. He was born at Bologna in 1581, and studied some time under Denis Calvert, but afterwards entered the school of the Caracci. Domenichino painted a long time at Rome, and his picture of the Com- munion of St. Jerome there, in the Gallery of the Vatican, is considered one of the masterpieces of Italian painting, yet the painter received only ten guineas for it. Able in drawing, expression, and composition, Domenichino had many enemies, by whom he was much persecuted, both at Rome and Naples. He died in the latter city April 15, 1641, and it was supposed that he was poisoned by the agency of the notorious triumvirate Spagnuolet- to, Corenzio, and Giambattista Caracciolo, known as the ' Cabal of Naples.' Domenichino is gene- rally considered the ablest of the pupils of the Caracci. (Bellori, Vile de 1 fittori, &c. ; Passeri, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] DOMETT, Sir W., an Eng. nav. offi., 1754-1828. DOMINIC, De Guzman, generally called St. Dominic, founder of the order of friars named after him, and of the inquisition, noted for his cruel per- secuting spirit, 1170-1221. [Dominican Friar J . DOMINIC LORICATUS, so named from wear- in" an iron cuirass, an Italian monk, died 1060. DOMINIS, M. A. De, a Jesuit and phys. of Dal- matia, the fust to explain the rainbow, 1566-1624. DON DOMITIAN, or, with all his names, Titus Flavius Sabinas Domitianus, one of the most cruel and debauched of the Roman emperors, bora 51, succeeded Titus 81, assassinated 96. DOMITIUS, procl. emp. at Alexandria, 288-290. DOMITIUS AENOBARBUS, a Roman consul, 122 b.c. A praetor and consul of the same name was the husband of Agrippina and father of Nero. DON, Sir G., a British officer, 1756-1832. DONALD I., king of Scotland, the first prince of that country who embraced Christianity, d. 216. DONALD II., slain by his successor 254. DONALD III., succeeded 254, slain 260. DONALD IV., distinguished for his piety and foi aiding the children of Ethelred to recover Northum- berland, died 647. DONALD V., conquered by the Picts, d. 828. DONALD VI., dis. by his victory over the Danes and the friendship of Alfred the Great, 894-904. DONALD VII., otherwise called Duncan, dis- tinguished for his repulse of the Norwegians, mur- dered by Macbeth, 1034-1041. DONALD VIII., called the Bane, or Donald Bane, usurped the throne 1093-1098. DONALDSON, Jo., an artist and au., 1737-1801. DONALDSON, Jos., a miscel. writer, d. 1830. DONALDSON, W., aphil. writer, 17th century. DONATELLO, an Italian sculptor, 1383-1466. DONATI, A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1584-1640. DONATI, V., an Italian naturalist, 1713-1763. DONATO, F., a doge of Venice, disting. for having preserved the neutrality of the state during the wars between Charles V. and Henry II., and for enriching it with works of art, 1545-1553. DONATO, L., a doge of Venice, distin. for his successful resistance to pope Paul V., 1606-1612. DON AT US, an African bishop, the author of the schism named after him, 4th century. DONN, Abb., an Engl, math., 1718-1746. His brother Benjamin, a math, andarith., 1729-1798. DONNE, J., an Engl, poet and theol., 1573-1631. DONNER, Raphael, a Ger. sculp., 1688-1740. DONNINI, Jerome, an Ital. painter, 1681-1743. DONNISSU, Marquis De, a Yen. gen., ex. 1793. DONIZETTI, Gaetano, was born at Ber- famo in the year 1798. His father destined im for the law, but for which profession he him- self had no liking. His first taste seems to have lain towards painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to the study of music, in which he achieved a very high and prominent position. > His first master in music was the celebrated Simon Mayer, and he studied for three years at the con- servatory of Bologna under Mattei. He composed in all sixty-three operas, the first of which, ' Enrico di Borgoyna,' was performed at Venice in 1818, in which Madame Catalani sustained the principal character, and in which Signor Fioravanti also took a part. Up to the year 1827 he had com- posed no fewer than nineteen operas, of which the ' Zoraide ' was the most successful. In 1828 he ceased to write in the style of Rossini ; and his own great originality first developed itself in 'Esule di Roma,' which was performed at the San Carlo at Naples, and in which Lablache sustained the principal bass part. This was his earliest triumph, and the new style gave ample promise of the future career of 4 II Maestro.' In the same year he composed other three operas. In 205 DON 1^29 he produced 'II Tana' and 'II Castello di Kenil worth,' at the San Carlo. In 1830 he wrote tour operas for the same establishment, and an Oratorio, ' II Diluvio Universale. ' For the carnival of 1831 he composed his 'Anna Bolena,' which established his reputation, and after which every manager in Europe became desirous to have a work from the great composer. His next opera was ' Fausta.' In 1832 he composed ' Ugo Conte di Parigi,' the ' Elisir d' Amore,' and ' Sancia di Castiglia;' next year he wrote 'II Furioso,' 'Pari- sina,' and 'Torquato Tasso.' 1834 gave to the world his other masterpiece, ' Lucrezia Borgia,' and ' Maria Stuiivda.' In the same year he com- posed ' Rosmonda d' Inghilterra.' In 1835 he wrote ' Gemma di Vergi, ' Marino Faliero,' which was first performed in London, and the world-re- nowned ' Lucia di Lammermoor,' which was brought out at San Carlo. In 1836 he composed ' Belisario ' for the carnival of Venice, and produced ' II Campanello,' ' Betly,' and ' L'Assidio di Calais.' In 1837 he wrote two operas, namely, 'Pia di Tolomei' and 'Roberto Devereux.' In 1838 he composed ' Maria di Rudenz ; ' in 1839 ' Gianni di Parigi ; ' and in 1840 ' La Fille du Regiment ' for the Opera Comique of Paris. This year he also produced ' Les Martyrs ' and ' La Favorita.' In 1841 he composed ' Adelia,' in 1842 ' Maria Pa- dilla ' and ' Linda di Chamouni.' In 1843 he pro- duced his ' Don Pasquale ' for Grisi, Mario, Tam- burini, and Lablache, which was brought out at the Italian Opera of Paris. In the same year he com- posed for Venice his lyric tragedy, 'Maria di Rohan,' and for the Academie Royale of Paris his ' Don Sebastian de Portugal.' At the carnival of Naples in 1844, his sixty-third and last opera ' Cate- rina Cornaro,' was produced, while two unfinished operas were amongst his manuscripts, and he was preparing another comic opera for Grisi, Mario, Ronconi, and Lablache. At this time his mind, which had been so severely tasked, utterly gave way, and he was first taken to a Maison de Sante at Vitiy, near Paris : subsequently his nephew, who was then director of music to the sultan at Constan- tinople, had him removed to a house at the Champs Elysees. He was ultimately conveyed to Bergamo, where it was thought the scenes of his early life might assist his recovery ; but all was of no avail. He died on the 8th of April, 1848, after five days' struggle, surrounded by his early friends and ad- mirers. Donizetti was married to Virginia Vas- seli, the daughter of an advocate in Rome, who died in Naples in 1835. Donizetti succeeded Zingarelli in the direction of the conservatory at Naples, and held office as chapel-master to the imperial court of Vienna. He composed, besides his operas, various detached vocal pieces, masses and vespers, a Miserere, some quartetts, overtures, variations for the piano-forte, a Monody for the death of Malibran, &c. Donizetti was an excel- lent poet as well as a musician, and wrote some of his own libretti. In rapidity of composition he rivalled Rossini, and has been known to score an opera in twenty-four hours, a period barely suffi- cient for the mere manual labour of writing down the notes. [J.M.] DON US, the first of the name, pope for about a year, 677 ; the second, elected 974-975. DOODY, Samuel, an Engl, botanist, d. 1706. DOU DOPPET, F. A., a man of letters, and gen. of the Fr. rep. army, mem. of the coun. of 500, 17 DORAT, C. J., a French dram, wr., 17.> 1-17X0. DORAT, John, or, according to the Latinized form, Auratus, a Fr. scholar and poet, 1507-1588. DORIA, the name of an illustrious family of Genoa, the chief of whom are Oiucrto, dist. for a naval victory over the Pisans, 1284. Zamba, who defeated the Venetian admiral, Dandolo, 1298. Paganino, who defeated the Venetian admiral, PisanL 1352-1354. Lucikn, killed in a battle with the Venetians, in which his fleet was victo- rious, 1379. Pierre, who was compelled to sur- render his whole fleet to Victor Pisam, 1380. A_n- drea, surnamed the ' Father and Defender of his Country,' dis. as the greatest commander and pa- triot of which the state can boast, 1468-1560. DORIA, P. M., a Neapolitan philos., 1675-1743. DORIGNY, M., a French painter and engraver, 1617-1663. His sons Louis and Nicholas, dis- tinguished in the same arts, the former 1654-1742, the latter 1657-1746. DORION, C. A., a French poet, 1770-1829. DORISLAUS, Isaac, a Dutch civilian, lecturer on history at Cambridge, and ambassador to Hol- land, assassinated 1649. DORLEANS, J., a French historian, 1644-1698. DORLEANS, L., a French satirist, 1542-1029. DORPIUS, M., a Dutch savant, 1460-1525. D'ORSAY, Count, a well-known director oi fashion, celebrated as a sculptor, died 1852. DORSET, Thomas Sackville, earl of, am- bassador, chancellor of Oxford, and lord treasurer, distin. both as a statesman and author, 1527-1608. Edward, his grandson, bearing the same title, a partizan of Charles I., and regent during his absence in Scotland, 1590-1652. Charles, one of th cavaliers and wits of the court of Charles II., 1637- 1706. Lionel, lord-lieut. of Ireland, 1686-1765. DOSA, G., a peasant of Transylvania, proclaimed k. of Hungary, and met with a horr. death, 1513. DOSITHiEUS, a Jewish priest, 2d cent. B.C. DOSHTLEUS, a heretic of Samaria, 1st cent. DOUCE, Francis, author of ' Illustrations of Shakspeare and of Ancient Manners,' died 1834. DOUCIN, L., a French Jesuit and historian, an ardent defender of the bull ' Unigenitus,' d. 1726. DOUGLAS, the name of an ancient and illus- trious Scotch family, the earliest of whom are William 'The Hardy,' died 1302. 'The good Sib James,' a companion in arms of Robert Bruce, killed in battle with the Moors, 1331. William, a natural son of the preceding, called ' England's scourge and Scotland's bulwark,' killed 1353. Archibald, brother of Sir James, regent in 1333. William, lord of Liddesdale, 'the flower of chivalry' in the 14th century. After these the following are mentioned with the title of earls : 1. William, distinguished at the battle of Poictiers, d. 1384. 2. James, his son,k. at the battleof Otter- burn, 1388. 3. Archibald, surnamed 'The Grim,' date unknown. 4. Archibald, born 137 1, cele- brated for a victory over the earl of March and Henry Percy 1401, killed at the battle of Verneuil 1425. 5. Archibald, ambassador to England for the release of James I., 1437. 6. William, treacherously murdered at a banquet in the castle at Edinburgh the same year. 7. Unknown. 8. William, the most imperious and powerful of the 206 DOU e, stabbed by James II. at Stirling, 1452. 9. ures, brother of the preceding, and last earl of onglas, taken prisoner after vainly attempting to venge his brother's death, and died in a monas- ry, 1488. A younger branch of the same family distinguished as earls of A ngns. The best known these are George, married to the daugh- of king Robert III., 1397, and Archibald, illed the Great Earl of Angus, distinguished at e battle of Torwood, father of Gawin, bishop of unkeld, and of the two Douglases killed at Flod- jn, died 1513. The younger branch of the Angus mily claims James Douglas, the celebrated irl of Morton, and regent of Scotland, beheaded r the murder of Darnley, 1581. DOUGLAS, James, earl of Morton and Aber- jen, fnder. of the Edin. Philos. Soc, 1707-1768. DOUGLAS, Jas., a Scotch anato., 1675-1742. DOUGLAS, John, a learned divine and critic, lecessively bp. of Carlisle and Salisbury,1721-1807. DOUGLAS, Sylvester, Lord Glenbervie, a tember of parliament, and chief commissioner of cods and forests, 1743-1832. His son, F. S. N. 'OUGLAs, member for Banbury, and author of a Comparison between the Ancient and Modern reeks,' died 1819. DOUGLAS, , a Scotch botanist, 1799-1833. DOUJAT, J., a French savant, 1606-1688. DOUSA, John, or Van Der Does, a Dutch eneral and scholar, author of 'Annals of Hol- and,' 1545-1604. His eldest son, John, a Latin >oet and scholar, distinguished by the friendship f Scaliger, 1571-1596. His fourth son, Francis, i savant, born 1577. His son Didier, 1580-1663. DOVALLE, C, a French poet, 1807-1829. DOVER, G. J. W. Agar Ellis, Lord, a bio- Taphical and historical writer, contributor to the eviews, &c, 1797-1833. DOW, Alexander, a Scotch Orient,, d. 1799. DOW, Gerard, a celebrated Dutch Genre >aintiT, was born at Leyden in 1613 ; his father, rho was a glazier, brought him up a glass-pain- er, but having placed him with Rembrandt, when n his sixteenth year only, the good use the young winter made of his opportunity enabled him to stablish himself in the more independent profes- ion of a painter. Few men have ever attained och wonderful mastery or delicacy of execution as Jerard Dow. He died rich at Leyden in 1680. Ichalken, Mieris, and Metzu, were his pupils. Houln-.iken, Groote Schouburg, &c.,l.) [R.N.W.] DOWLAND, John, a celebrated performer on he lute, was born in Oxford in the year 1562, and rx)k his degree of Bachelor of Music in 1588. He omposed a great deal of music, all of which, saving ne or two madrigals, is forgotten, and was a great ayourite with the public. The ' Passionate Pil- rim' ha.s devoted a sonnet to Dowland, which, ven were his beautiful madrigal, ' Awake, sweet iOve,' irrecoverably lost, would render his name mmortal. He died, it is generally believed, in tenmark in the year 1615. [J.M.] D< IWNES, Am.w., a Greek scholar, 1550-1627. DOWN HAM, G., an Irish theologian, d. 1634. DOWNING, C, a puritan divine, 1606-1644. DOWN MAX, Hugh, an Engl, poet, 1740-1809. DRA BICIUS, N., a Ger. enthusiast, 1587-1652. '. a legislator of Athens, 7th cent. B.C. DUAGONKT IT, H., an ltd. jurist, 1738-1818. 207 DRA DRAGUT, an Ottoman corsair, killed 156o. DRAKE, Francis, an English antiq., d. 1770. DRAKE. Francis Drake, the chief of the English Naval Worthies of the reign of Elizabeth, and the first man who circumnavigated the globe in a single voyage, was born in lo46, near Tavis- tock in Devonshire. His father was a poor clenjv- man ; and Francis was the eldest of twelve sons, nearly all of whom were bred to the sea. He was apprenticed while a lad to the master of a coasting bark, which sometimes made voyages to Holland and France. In this humble employment Drake grew up to be a thorough seaman ; and he also by his steadiness and good conduct so gained the esteem of his master, that when the old man died, he bequeathed his bark to the diligent and skilful young mariner. Drake continued his old master's trade in her for some time; but his spirit of adven- ture caused him at last to sell her, and employ the proceeds in a trading voyage to the West Indies in 1565 and 1566, during which he suffered much ill usage and loss from the commander of some Spanish cruizers. On Drake's return he joined Sir John Hawkins in an adventure to the Spanish Main, which proved calamitous at the fime, but which must have done much in qualifying Drake for his subsequent achievements. The little squadron which Hawkins and Drake commanded, was treach- erously attacked by a Spanish fleet in the port of St. Juan de Ulloa, and four out of the six English ships were destroyed. Drake returned to Eng- land with the loss of all his property ; but with the gain of valuable experience, and with an increase to that keen antipathy to the Spaniards, which marked him throughout life, and which is best paralleled by that which Nelson afterwards felt to the French. In 1572 Drake succeeded in fitting out three small vessels, and sailed to the Spanish Main on a voyage of reprisals. He failed in an attack on the city of Nombre de Dios; but he landed on the isthmus of Panama, and captured a large treasure, which was being conveyed on mules to Nombre de Dios for exportation to Spain. It was in the course of this adventure that one of the native guides who led the English across part of the isthmus, showed Drake a lofty tree from whose summit might be discovered the Pacific ocean, along which no Euro- pean flag, save that of Spain, had hitherto ever floated, and the coasts of which were believed to teem with treasure-cities of boundless magni- ficence. Drake climbed this 'goodlie and great high tree,' as he himself termed it, and gazing thence on the broad Pacific, he with great solemnity ' besought God to give him health and life once to sail an English ship in those seas.' This was no barren vow of transient enthusiasm. On his re- turn to England, Drake prepared a squadron for a voyage into the South Pacific through the straits of Magellan. It consisted of five vessels, the largest of which was only of 500 tons. Drake sailed on the 13th December, 1577, and on the 20th May, 1578, he anchored in the port St. Julian of Magellan. There one of the companions of Drake, named Thomas Doughty, was tried by Drake and the other officers of the fleet, and put to death on a charge of mutiny and conspiracy. This execution has long been made a subject of heavy imputation on Drake's character, but Sir John Barrow in his late work, 'The Naval DRA Worthies of the Reign of Elizabeth,' has printed some contemporaneous records of Doughty s trial, which prove his sentence to have been just, and his death necessary. Drake emerged into the Pacific from the perilous straits of Magellan on the 6th of May, but his ship, the Golden Hind, struggled with difficulty through heavy gales ; and all her consorts abandoned her or perished. With his one vessel Drake now began his attacks upon the Spanish treasure-ships that were sailing in fancied security along the coast of the Pacific ; and the Golden Hind was soon deeply laden with Spanish gold and other valuables. Drake now thought of returning home ; but an attempt to re- pass "the straits would have thrown him within the reach of a large force, which the enraged Spaniards had collected to intercept him. He resolved, therefore, to seek a passage home round the north of America ; and by unrivalled boldness and skill, worked his ship to a high latitude along the wes- tern coast of the Atlantic. Yielding at length to the increased severity of the winter season, and the natural obstacles which his crazy bark and worn-out crew encountered, Drake steered west- ward across the Pacific for the Philippine islands, and thence for the Cape of Good Hope. He doubled the Cape on the 15th June, 1580 ; and on the 25th September in that year, the Golden Hind came safely to anchor in Plymouth harbour, having been two years and ten months at sea, during which time she had sailed round the whole world. Drake's exploits, and the treasure which he had brought home, made all England ring with his renown. Queen Elizabeth knighted him, and dined in state with him on board the Golden Hind. The Spaniards were loud in their protestations, and demanded that Drake should be given up to them as a pirate. There was at this time nominal peace oetween the two countries; but Spanish troops had often aided the rebels against Elizabeth in Ireland, and England, on the other hand, had sustained by men and money the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain. In the New World the arrogant claims of the Spaniards to exclude all other nations from the seas of Central and Southern America, and the cruelties which their officers practised, had created a system of reprisals ; and 'no peace beyond the line,' was the rough and ready maxim of the English mariners. The nation adopted it. Queen Elizabeth refused to give up or to punish Drake ; and in the open war which soon broke out between her and Spain, Drake did noble service to his country and his queen. In 1585 he attacked and burnt the collected shipping in Cadiz harbour, and thereby delayed for a year the sailing of the Spanish Armada against Eng- land. And when in 1588 Spain sent that huge agglomeration of her fleets and armies against our shores, Sir Francis Drake was the boldest and the sagest among that bright band of our naval heroes who baffled and beat the haughty Spaniards ; and who forced the shattered remnants of their so-called Invincible Armada to flee in disaster and disgrace round the north of Britain and Ireland back to the harbours of the peninsula, which they had quitted in such confidence of vindictive success. In 1595 Drake sailed on his last voyage in conjunction with his old comrade Sir John Hawkins, on an ex- pedition against the Spanish West Indies. The DRO English were unsuccessful in this enterprise. Th< suffered severely by the diseases of the climate, which the brave Sir Francis fell a victim. Ai miral Drake died on board his own ship off Port bello, on the 28th January, 1596. [E.S.C DRAKE, James, a political satirist, 1667-170 DRAKE, Dr. Nathan, a physician of Ha< leigh in Suffolk, distinguished as an essayist < English literature, and especially on periodic literature from the time of Addison, 1766-1836. DRAN, H. P. Le, a Fr. surgical wr., 1685-111 DRAPARNAUD, J. P. R., a French natural 1772-1805. His brother, Victor Xavier, a dr matist, au. of the ' Prisoner of Newgate,' 1773-183 DRAPER, Elizabeth, the friend of Sterne ai Raynal, to whom the former addressed his lettei published under the name of Yorick, 1742-1775. DRAPER, Sir William, a military office known as a controversialist from his defence oft] marquis of Granby, 1721-1787. DRAYTON, Michael, one of the mo esteemed of the early English poets, most admin for his pastorals and chivalrous subjects, born Harshull in Warwickshire, 1563, buried in Wes minster Abbey, 1631. DREBBEL, Cornelius Van, a Dutch philc and chem., inv. of the thermometer, &c, 1572-163 DRELINCOURT, Charles, a French prote tant, author of ' Consolations against the Fears Death,' &c, 1595-1669. Laurence, his son, learned divine and author, 1631-1681. Charle his third son, a physician, died 1697. DREW, Samuel, a methodist preacher, cele as a metaphysician for his ' Essay on the Immi teriality and Immortality of the Soul,' 1765-183 DROLLINGER, C. F., a Ger. lyric, 1688-174 DROUAIS, J. G., a French painter, 1763-178 DROUET, Jean Baptiste, master of the po in the village of Sainte-Menehould, and once soldier of the dragoons, has obtained a remarkab name in the history of the French revolution t his arrest of Louis XVI. when he attempted 1 fly the kingdom, 20th June, 1791. His curiosil was awakened by the arrival of travellers undi very unusual circumstances, curiosity ended i suspicion, and his suspicions were confirmed by comparison of the king's portrait, engraved on tl French assignats at that time, with the pretende Baron Korff in the Berline. With the zeal of Eatriot, and the decision and boldness of a soldie: e galloped by a cross road to the town of VareE nes, and prepared his measures so effectuallv, nol withstanding the near neighbourhood of Choiset and Bouille, that the carriages were stopped, an the king conducted to Pans. If Lafayette ws justifiable in declaring the flight of the king ' in famous,' and the country had reason to trembl for its independence with Louis in the army of th coalition, it is impossible to deny that Drouet' arrest of the king was an act of patriotism ; and viewing it in this light, the National Assembl rewarded him with a gift of 30,000 francs, whil the people, in 1792, returned him to the Nations Convention. In the capacity of deputy he vote for the most violent measures, and had the atro city to propose that all the English in Franc should be snot. In 1793 he accompanied th army of the North as commissary, and was sbu up in Manbeuge, when that place was reduced fc 208 DRO last extremity by the Austrians, and was ten prisoner in a sortie which he headed. Being nh'ned in the fortress of Spitzberg, situated on a ;k some two hundred feet high, he attempted to ;ape by means of a parachute, but falling avily to the ground, was captured again. He subsequently exchanged with some of his nrades against the Ring's daughter, and in the council of 500. He joined the con- racy of Babeuf against the order established er the 9th Thermidor, but was permitted to ape by the Directory, and, after an adventurous :eer abroad, became sub-prefect of Sainte- nehould under the consulate. In 1815 he peared as deputy of the Marne in the Chamber Representatives during the hundred days, and following year was banished from France with regicides. In 1824, an old man who had been lown some years past under the name of Merger, d was esteemed a good Christian, died at Macon, ien people were surprised to discover that he is no other than the 'bold dragoon ' who arrested e king at Varennes. [E.R.] DROUET, S. F., a French savant, 1715-1779. DROUOT, Gen. Count, artillery offi. under Na- ileon, and one of his most faithful fob, 1774-1847. DROZ, F. N. E., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1735-1805. DROZ, Peter Jacquet, a Swiss mechanician, r 21-1790. His son, H. L. Jacquet, distinguished ice his father for his surprising skill, 1759-1791. DRUMMOND, George, distinguished for his lblic spirit as provost of Edinburgh, and in the bellion of 1745, 1687-1766. DRUMMOND, James, third earl of Perth, a (scend. of Andrew, k. of Hungary, dis. as chan. 'Scot., and as a partizan of James II., 1638-1716. DRUMMOND, Thomas, inventor of the lighlkn. r his name, and under secry. for Ireland, d. 1840. DRUMMOND, Wm., a Scotch poet, 1585-1649. DROIMOND, Sir Wm., F.R.S., a political ne- >tiator and classical and antiquarian au., d. 1828. DROIMOND-DE-MELFORT, L. Hector, Dtnte De, a general in the French service, distin- lished as a tactician, 1726-1788. DRURY, Joseph, a classical scholar and divine, sad master of Harrow, acknowledged by Lord vron as the ' best and worthiest friend he ever issessed,' 1750-1834. DRUSILLA, Julia, a daughter of Germanicus id Agrippa, mistress of Caligula, died 38. An- her Drusilla was wife of Claudius Felix. DRUSIUS, John, a German critic, 1550-1616. DRUSUS, a Roman consul, poisoned 23. DRUSUS, Claudius Nero, a distin. Roman mmander, father of Germanicus, d. 9 B.C. DRUSUS, M. L., a Rom. tribune 122 B.C., consul 2. His son, of the same name, tribune 90-89 B.C. pBYANDER, F. E., a Flem.his., 16th century. DRYAXDER, Jonas, a Swed. natur., 1748-1810. DRYDEN, John, born in 1631, was the grand- n of Sir Erasmus Dryden, or Driden, of Canons- shbv, in Northamptonshire. From his father, e third son of the family, he inherited a small bate, yielding fifty or sixty pounds a-year. He is sent from Westminster School to Trinity Col- Zp, Cambridge, where he resided till 1657. For e next three years he was engaged in public isiness in London, under his mother's cousin, r Gilbert Pickering, a puritan, and a partizan of DRY Cromwell. His principal kinsmen on the father's side belonged to the eame party. Thus trained and thus connected, he began his literary career by verses on the death of the Protector; but his disinclination to the principles in which he had been brought up, and the vacillation of opinions by which he was distinguished through life, showed themselves very speedily. The Restoration, occur- ring when he was in his thirtieth year, excluded him for the time from government employment and patronage ; and he at once devoted himself to literature as a profession. Having to rely on it for support, he did not long content himself with obscure drudgery in prose, or with verses, though he wrote many, on public events. Yet his ' Annus Mirabilis,' celebrating the eventful year 1666, pre- saged his eminence as a descriptive and didactic poet. But the stage, now restored, and becoming the fashionable amusement, offered itself as the only means through which his pen could furnish a livelihood ; and, in the course of twenty-five years, he wrote twenty-seven dramas. The most remark- able of these were his Heroic Plays, pieces of a kind which, imported from France, was the favourite during the greater part of the reign of Charles II. These have aptly been described by Sir Walter Scott as being just metrical romances of chivalry thrown into the form of dialogues. In this un- natural but seductive class of compositions Dryden was unsurpassed ; and, amidst all their exaggera- tion and unreality, his Tragic Dramas are works of great genius. His Comedies, belonging to the Spanish school which had become so popular, and whose chief merit was sought in complex ingenuity of plot, have little literary value ; and they are tainted, as deeply as any plays of their time, by the moral depravity which disgraced the restored Eng- lish stage till after the close of the seventeenth century. Indeed, the pain which one feels in see- ing the intellectual powers of Dryden wasted on his serious dramas, is aggravated when we contem- plate the moral degradation displayed by his comic ones. Hardly less mortifying is it to know, that the great poet was conscious of his own inaptitude for the writing of plays; and that he panted to display, on a field better adapted to his diffusive genius, the pomp of imagery, the strength of pas- sion, and the magnificent skill of versification, which he felt to be but ill bestowed on his heroic and tragic pieces of theatrical declamation. It was the cherished dream of his life to give to the English language a national epic, whose theme would probably have been the exploits of the romantic King Arthur. There are, in fact, two circumstances only that can at all console us for the lamentable misapplication of Dryden's labour. In the first place, the writing of his heroic plays served as his apprenticeship to the art of versifica- tion and expression. Out of his rhymed dialogue arose that mastery of the English heroic couplet which he was the first to acquire, and in which no succeeding poet has nearly equalled him. Secondly, the prefaces, dedications, and essays, with which he accompanied his dramas, exhibited him at once as the earliest writer of regular and elegant Eng- lish prose, and as the first who can be said to have aimed in our language at anything like philoso- phical criticism. Those prose fragments of his are still instructive to the critic of poetry ; and 209 DRY they contain some of the most felicitous specimens of style which our tongue has ever produced. During the few years next after the Restoration, dramatic composition was almost his only employ- ment. Of his heroic plays of this period, which [Dryden's House in Fetter Lane. 1 were written in rhyme, the finest were the two parts of 'The Conquest of Granada.' He was under an engagement to write plays for the king's theatre, which gave him an income of more than three hundred a-year : in 1665 his cir- cumstances were a little improved by his uncom- fortable marriage with Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the earl of Berkshire ; and in 1670 he received, with a salary (irregularly paid) of two hundred a-year and the famous butt of wine, the joint offices of historiographer-royal and poet- laureate. In the latter part of Charles's reign the fashion in dramatic matters began to change : and this, with jealousies of playwrights and courtiers, gave birth to the celebrated burlesque play called ' The Rehearsal,' of which Dryden, under the nick- name of Bayes, was the principal victim. Politics now offered to the laureate a new kind of theme, of which he availed himself by publishing, in 1681, his ' Absalom and Ahithophel,' the best of all poet- ical satires. 'The Medal' and ' Mac-Flecknoe,' works of the same kind, followed immediately. Now, likewise, he began to write tragedy in blank verse, 'All For Love' being his most successful experiment of the kind. In the ' Religio Laici,' also, he presented to the public, in 1682, his first elaborate attempt at didactic poetry. The tone of hesitation, and the character of the arguments, adopted in this defence of the Church of England, betrayed a state of mind leading by an easy pro- gress to the change of faith which the poet soon avowed. In 1685, soon after the accession of James II., Dryden was received into the Church of Rome. His conversion secured him in court favour, and was rewarded by an addition of a hundred pounds a-year to his pension. But it was pro- bably sincere ; and the new creed was unflinch- ingly adhered to when it had become unprofitable and dangerous. It produced rich poetical fruit in DUB ' The Hind and the Panther,' in which the dryne of dissertation is enlivened by ingenious allegory.- The Revolution, taking place m the poet's lift; seventh year, deprived him of his pensions, aaffl his royal and courtly patrons ; but it neither lo\ ered the place which he held as the first j>oet his time, nor damped the ardour of bis litera: exertions. The last twelve years of his life, thai spent in hard toil and under heavy discouragement produced some of his best works. In 1690 he ga' to the stage his tragedy of ' Don Sebastian,' tl best and most interesting of his serious plays. ] 1697, amidst many other labours, he threw off at heat his 'Alexander's Feast,' one of the most an mated of all lyrical poems, though not conceivi in the highest tone of lyrical inspiration. In tl same year appeared his nobly spfrited translate of Virgil, for which he had trained himself by pr vious versions from the classics published in tl volumes he called ' Miscellanies. Lastly, in t] spring of 1700, were published his ' Fables,' which, imitating in verse the prose of Boccacci and remodelling (not always for the better) tl antique poetical pictures of Chaucer, he not on showed that his warm imagination burned brightly as ever, but that his metrical skill hi been increasing to the close of his life. That li was about to end. Gout and gravel had long di turbed him; and erysipelas in one of his leg terminating in mortification, destroyed him < May-day, 1700. He was buried in Westminst Abbey, between the grave of Chaucer and that Cowley. [W.S DUBARRAN, Bakbeau, a mem. oftheFreni convention and Com. of Public Safety, 1750-181 DUBOCAGE, G. B., a Fr. canal eng., 1626-169 DUBOIS, Anthony, Baron, a dist. Fr. surgeo appointed accoucheur to the empress, 1756-1837 DUBOIS, Edward, a periodical writer ai journalist, distin. in light literature, 1775-1850. DUBOIS, G., a French historian, 1628-1696. DUBOIS, Jr., a French sculptor, 1626-1694. DUBOIS, J. B., a French essayist, 1753-1808 DUBOIS, P., a French savant, 1636-1703. DUBOIS, P. G., a French translator, 1626-169 DUBOIS, William, a Fr. cardinal and state man, justly branded in his. as infamous, 1656-172 DUBOIS-CRANCE, Edmund Louis Alexi Dubois-Crance performed a part in the French n volution which may be related in few words, bl from which the most important consequences ha\ resulted. He was the propounder of that formic able military engine known as the conscription, tl first idea of which he submitted to the nation! convention in 1793 as reporter of the military com mission. ' In a nation that would be free, whe surrounded by powerful neighbours and rent b faction,' he remarks, ' it behoves eveiy citizen to I a soldier and every soldier to be a citizen, and there is no hope of this, France is near the term < her annihilation If you once tolerat exemptions and substitutes, all is lost.' The advic of this stern soldier and honest republican was re sponded to by a decree for the levy of 300,000 mei with promotion from the ranks, and shortly after wards by Barrerc's famous proclamation for a lev en masse. One other memorable service was per formed for the republic by Dubois-Crance, in the re duction of Lyons, and such was the esteem in whic 210 DUB nilitary talents were held that he was appointed, 799, the successor of Bernadotte as minister of . He was a stout opponent of the revolution vhich Napoleon attained the supreme power, ever after remained in the obscurity of private He is the author of several military and poli- l memoirs publ. between 1789 and 1804, and wo pamphlets written against Barrere 1795. a at Charleville 1747, d. at Rhetel 1814. [E.R.] UBOS, J. B., aFr. literary savant, 1670-1742. UBOST, A., a Fr. painter, 1769-1825. UBOUCHAGE, F. J. Gratet, Viscount, a -ninis. of marine under the Bourbons, 1749-1821. 'UBOURDIEN, J. aFr. controv. wr. 1652-1720. UBRAW, J. S., an hist, of Bohemia, d. 1553. UBUISSON, P. U., a French dramatist, exe- ;d as an accomplice of Hebert, 1748-1794. 'UCANGE, Victor, a Fr. novelist, 1783-1833. UCAREL, A. C, a Fr. antiquar., 1713-1785. 'UCASSE, J. B., a celeb. Fr. admiral, d. 1715. UCHAL, James, an Irish divine, 1697-1761. UCHANGE, G., a Fr. engraver, 1662-1756. UCHAT, J. Le, a French author, 1658-1735. UCHATEL, Gaspard, a republican of the ich revolution and member of convention, norable for his vote against the execution of the J, to register which he was carried from his sick wrapped up in blankets ; born 1766, guillotined i a party of the Girondins 31st October, 1793. UCHER, Gilbert, a Latin poet, 16th cent % UCHESNE, Andrew, a Fr. hist, and geogr!, brated for the number of his works, 1584-1640. UCHESNE, A. N., aFr. naturalist, 1747-1827. UCHESNE, C, physician to Henry IV., and lor of ' Memoirs' concerning him, date unknown, ther physician of Henry IV., named Joseph jhesne, dist. as a chemist and poet, 1544-1609. UCHESNE, H. G., aFr. naturalist, 1739-1822. UCHESNE, L., a French savant, born 1588. UCHESNOIS, J. R,, a Fr. actress, 1777-1835. UCIS, J. F., a French tragic poet, 1733-1816. UCK, Arthur, an Engl, jurist, 1580-1649. UCK, Stephen, an English poet, died 1736. UCK WORTH, Sir J. T., anEng. admiral, dist. lie West Indies during the late war, 1748-1817. UCLERCQ, J., a curious annalist, 15th cent. UCLOS, A. J., a French engraver, last cent. UCLOS, C. P., a French historian, 1704-72. UCOS, Jean Francois, one of the clearest ted, and most honest in accepting the con- lences of his convictions, of the party of Giron- i, was born at Bourdeaux 1765, and was rned as deputy for his native city to the Con- tent Assembly in 1791, and to the National vention in 1792. His name is not identified i any particular measures, but his oratory was iant, his advice listened to with respect, and nfluence felt in the debates, in which he par- : with indefatigable zeal. He was more toler- than the other members of the Gironde, and ured to promote a fusion of republicans of y shade of opinion. He shared the fate of his y, though somewhat later, through the in- lce of Marat, and was guillotined at the early of twontv-eight, 1st November, 1794. [E.R.] UCOS, Roger, like many other actors in the ich revolution, was an advocate, and embrac- extmne opinions at the commencement of that h, succeeded in talking his way to the Na- 211 DUG tional Convention in 1792. He was then thirtv- eight years of age, having been born in 1754. There is nothing to show from the beginning to the end of his career, that he had any other talents than those of a respectable lawyer, or any princi- ples but those which he could adopt with the greatest eclat for the time being. In this spirit he seems to have voted for the death of the king ' without delay,' and afterwards opposed himself to the Girondins. In January, 1794, he served the Jacobin's Club as president, and after a few ups and downs, had settled as a magistrate in a country village, when Barras drew him from his retirement, and he became a member of the direc- tory and the council of elders. On the 18th Bru- maire (9th October, 1799), he lent himself to the coup d' etat of Napoleon, and was rewarded with the third place in the provisional consulate, as the Abbe Sieyes was with the second. On the 20th, Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos, held their first sitting in the Luxembourg, and on Sieyes's suggest- ing that one of them should act as president, Du- cos promptly replied, ' Vous voyez bien que c'est le general qui preside,' (the general presides of course!) Ducos seconded whatever Buonaparte proposed, and though Sieyes felt that he was re- duced to a mere cypher, they proceeded to frame the new constitution, which was adopted by the votes of the people, and Buonaparte being confirmed in his office of first consul, replaced his former col- leagues by Cambaceres and Lebrun. From this period Ducos is known as a member of the senate, and of the upper chamber during the hundred days. He was proscribed by the Bourbons in 1816, and died the same year in consequence of being thrown out of his carriage. His brother, Nicolas, Baron Ducos, acquired distinction as one of Napoleon's generals, and survived him many vears. [E.R.] DUDLEY, Edmund, a minister of state under Henry VII., executed with Empson at the com- mencement of the following reign, 1462-1510. His son John, duke of Northumberland, and father of Lord Guildford Dudley, whom he married to Lady Jane Grey, executed for treason, 1502-1553. Ambrose, another son of the duke, called the Good Earl of Warwick, 1530-1589. Robert, his fifth son, earl of Leicester, celebrated as the fa- vourite of Elizabeth, 1532-1588. Sir Robert, son of the last named, and the Lady Douglas, celeb, for his skill in hydraulic engineering, 1573-1630. DUDLEY, Sir H. B., a noted journalist, poli- tician, and dramatic writer, long known as a man of pleasure in London, and a magistrate, 1745-1824. DUDLEY, The Right Hon. J. W. Ward, earl of, foreign secretary under Canning, 1781-1833. DUDLEY, Thomas, an English engra., 17th c. DUELLI, R., a German historian, died 1740. DUFAU, F., a French painter, died 1821. DUFF, a king of Scotland, 968-973. DUFFET, G., a Flemish painter, 1594-1660. DUFOURNY, L., a Fr. architect, 1734-1818. DUFRENOY, A. G., a Fr. poetess, 1765-1825. DUFRESNOY, Alph., a French artist, and au- thor of a poem on painting, pub. 1684, 1611-1665. DUFRESNOY, A. I. J., a Fr. phvs., 1733-1801. DUFRESNY, C. R.., a Fr. dram.', 1684-1724. DUGARD, Wm., an English classic, 17th cent. DUGDALE, Sir William, the famous herald, DUG author of the 'Monasticon Anglicanum,' md other historical and antiquarian works of groat value, distin^. for his adherence to Charles I., 1605-1686. DUGHET, Gasparh, an Ital. paint., 1613-75. DUGOMMIER, J. F. Coquille, a French general, distinguished as director of the siege of Toulon, &c, bom 1786, killed 1794. DUGUAY-TBOUIN, Rene, a Fr. naval com- mander in the Sp. war of succession, &C, 1673-1736. DUGUESCELTN, Bertrand, a French cava- lier, constable of France in the time of Charles V., chief agent in expelling the English, 1314-1380. DUGUET, J. J., a Fr. relig. wr., 1649-1733. DUHALDE, J. B., a learned French Jesuit, au. of ' Descriptio de la Chine,' &c, 1674-1743. DUHAMEL, J. B., a Fr. ecclesiastic, disting. as a speculative and practical philos., 1624-1706. DUHAMEL, J. P. F. Guillot, a Fr. mineralo., inv. of new methods for joining metals, 1730-1816. DUHAMEL-DU-MONCEAU, H. Louis, a dis. contrib. to science, esp. to agriculture, 1700-1782. DUHAUSSET, Madame, a lady attached to the Marchioness Pompadour, author of ' Memoirs of the Court of Louis XV.,' 1720-1780. DUJARDIN, B., a French historian, last cent. DUJARDIN, C, a Dutch painter, 1640-1678. DUKE, Rich., an Engl. div. and poet, d. 1711. DUKER, C. A., a German savant, 1670-1752. DULAURE, J. A., a Fr. hist, and savant, mem. of the convention and council of 500, 1755-1835. DULON, Louis, a Germ, musician, 1769-1826. DULONG, P. L., a French chemist, 1785-1838. DUMANIANT, J. A., a Fr. dram., 1754-1828. DUMARESQ, H., an Eng. officer, dist. in most of the battles of the late war, and at Waterloo, 1792-1838. DUMAREST, R., a Fr. medallist, 1750-1806. DUMARSAIS, Cesar Chesneau, a French philologist, called by D'Alembert ' The La Fon- taine of Philosophers,' 1676-1756. DUMAS, Al. Davy, a Fr. general, 1762-1806. DUMAS, C. L., a Fr. medical wr., 1765-1813. DUMAS, Hilary, a French savant, died 1742. DUMAS, L., a Fr. writer on music, 1676-1744. DUMAS, M., a Fr. gen. of division, min. of war under the restoration, au. of memoirs, 1753-1837. DUMAS, P., a French translator, 1738-1782. DUMAS, R. F., a French advocate, president of the revol. tribunal, born 1757, guillotined 1794. His brother, J. F. Dumas, an author, 1754-1795. DUMESNIL, M. F., a Fr. actress, 1713-1803. DUMONCEAU, J. B., a Fr. general, 1760-1821. DUMONT, F., a French sculptor, 1688-1721. DUMONT, F., a Fr. portrait paint., 1751-1833. DUMONT, G., a Fr. statistical writer, 1725-88. DUMONT, G. M., an architect of the last cent. DUMONT, H., music, to Louis XV., 1610-84. DUMONT, John, a political and hist, writer, historiographer to the emp. of Germany, 1660-1726. DUMONT, J., a French painter, 1700-1781. DUMONT, P. S. L., born at Geneva 1759, a friend and fellow-labourer with Mirabeau, and after, with Jeremy Bentham, whose works he translated into French, author of ' Souvenirs sur Mirabeau,' and ' I^ettres sur Bentham ;' died at Milan, 1829. DUMONT D'URVILLE, Jules Sebastian . a celebrated French navigator, was born at Conde-sur-Noineau, 1791. In 1822 he went out with M. Duperrey as second in command, and DUM made the tour of the world in the corvett Coquille. In 1826 he was appointed eapt; the Astrolabe in a second voyage to the ! Seas to discover, if possible, some traces ( Perouse. His voyages have enriched science valuable collections of objects and discoveries France owes to him the Venus of Milo, besidi memoirs which illustrate his vast knowledg< intrepid seamanship. He had been named admiral, when he perished with his wife and by the accident on the Versailles railway, the carriages were burnt on the 8th of May, DUMOULIN, C, a Fr. jurisconsult, 1500 DUMOULIN, E., a Fr. journalist, 1776-1 DUMOULIN, P., a Fr.prot. theol., 1568- DUMOURIEZ, Anne Francois Duperi a commissary in the French army, author translation of ' Ricciardetto,' an It. poem, 170 DUMOURIEZ, Charles Francois Du rier, son of the preceding, a distinguished g< of the French revolution, disgraced by his ab attempt to act the part of a Monk, was bo Cambrai in 1739, and died in exile at Tr Park, near Henley-upon-Thames, 1823. Hi educated both as a man of letters and a sc and at twenty-four years of age, had seen campaigns, and received twenty-two woun the cavalry service. Disappointed with the of captain, though graced with the cross c Louis, and a pension of 600 livres, he endeav to open a road to fortune by combining the acters of a military adventurer and a political the scene of his intrigues being successive] little island of Corsica, the kingdom of Fori Poland, and Sweden, and his reward for th of these sendees a short sojourn in the Bj which favour was conferred upon him by XV. On the accession of Louis XVI. he the command of Cherbourg, with the title of nel, but it was not until the revolution brok that his ambition, his love of adventure dauntless courage, and his diplomatic talents, brought into full play, or his condition ele above obscurity. Having attached himself 1 Girondins, he became in 1792, minister for fo affairs, and on their dismissal by the king, res his duties in the field, and at length found hi in command of the army opposed to the dt Brunswick. His determined stand in the wc Argonne, gave the opportunity for Kellerman his dragoons, and other divisions of the am defeat the Prussians at Valmy (20th Septei 1792), after which, it appears, he negotiated the king of Prussia, allowing him to witlulnv defeated army on condition of being permitl pursue his ambitious designs for acquiring sovereignty of Belgium. On the 12th of No ber he defeated the Austrians at the battle of appes, took Liege, Antwerp, and shortly i wanls Breda in Holland, but was beaten at winden, 18th March, 1793, by Prince Cob with Avhom he entered into secret negotiatio: restoring the constitutional monarchy; his being to march upon Paris with the Autf dissolve the Convention, and proclaim the d Chartres (Louis Philippe) king. Reports < treasonable practices, however, had reachc ear of government, and a commission arrivj his quarters with power, if necessary, to orda 212 DUN [or arrest. He succeeded, by surprise, in con- ung the members of this commission to an Aus- n prison ; but it was too late to turn the course 3vents : his troops were already in revolt, and nest morning (3d April, 1793) he barely ceeded in escaping with his life across the bor- . A reward of 300,000 francs was offered for head, but he evaded pursuit, and at length nd a safe asylum in England, where he enjoyed friendship of the duke of Kent, Mr. Canning, I many other distinguished persons. His career llustrated by a great number of works from his a pen, the bare titles of which would almost upy the space of this notice ; his ' Memoirs of Revolution ' may be mentioned as the most in- serting. [E.R.] )UNBAR, George, a celebrated Greek scholar 1 professor of Greek in the university of Edin- gn, author of a Greek lexicon, 1774-1851. )UNBAR, W., a Scottish poet, 1465-1535. DUNCAN I., k. of Scotland. See Donald VIL DUNCAN II., usurped the thr., andassass. 1059. DUNCAN, Adam, Lord Viscount, a Scotch ad- ral, dist. for his victory over De Winter, the tch commander at Camperdown, 1731-1804. DUNCAN, Andrew, a Scot, phys., 1745-1828. DUNCAN, D., a French naturalist, 1649-1735. DUNCAN, Mark, a Scotch phil., 17th century. DUNCAN, Martin, a controv. div., 1505-1590. DUNCAN, W., a Scotch logician, 1717-1760. DUNCOMBE, W, an EngL dram., 1690-1769. s son John, a miscel. wr. and poet, 1730-1786. DUNDAS, Sir David, a Brit, gen., 1736-1820. DUNDAS, H., Vise. Melville. See Melville. DUNDAS, Robert, a Scotch judge, father of rd Melville, 1685-1753. His elder son, of the ne name, member for Edinburgh, and president the Court of Session, 1713-1787. DUNDAS, Thomas, a Brit, officer, 1750-1794. DUNDRENNAN, Lord, Thomas Maitland, listinguished Scotch judge, 1792-1851. DUNGAL, an Irish philos. writer, 9th century. DUNLOP, Wm., a Scottish divine, 1692-1720. DUNN, S., an English mathematician, last cent. DUNNING, John, Lord Ashburton, the cele- *ted counsel for Wilkes, attorney-general, chan- ilor for Lancaster, &c., 1731-1782. DUNOD, P. J., a French antiquarian, 1657- 25. His nephew, Ignace Dunod De Char- lgk, an historian and jurisconsult, 1679-1752. DUNOIS, John, a nat. son of Louis d'Orleans, i. in the expuL of the Engl. fromFr., 1407-1468. DUNS SCOTUS, John, '-the subtle doctor,' was rn about a.d. 1265. The place of his birth has t been satisfactorily ascertained, Scotland, Eng- ld, and Ireland laying claim to the honour. me point to Dunse, in Berwickshire, as the spot his nativity, and others contend for Dunstance, Northumberland. The probability is that he is of Scottish extraction. He received his ear- st education at a Franciscan monastery in New- stle, and afterwards studied at Merton College, cford, in which he became professor of theology 1301. His prelections on the 'Sentences' of iter Lombard are said to have been attended a crowd of 30,000 students, then resident Oxford. Though such a statement appears to a romantic exaggeration, it certainly proves the odigious fame of the lecturer. In 1307 the DUP philosopher removed to Paris, by command of the general of his order. He had already gained great notoriety in the French capital by a public disput- ation on behalf of the immaculate conception of the Virgin. Immense applause attended his lec- tures in Paris, and he was styled Doctor subt'Uis. In 1308 he was ordered to Cologne to found a new university there, and defend the same theological dogma. On arriving at that city, the inhabitants met him in a body, and he was drawn into the ancient town in a triumphal car. Soon after bis arrival, however, he was seized with apoplexy, and died in November, 1308, at the early age of forty- three. Duns Scotus excelled in the knowledge of canon and civil law, in philosophy, mathematics, and theology. His mind was eminently fitted for abstruse discussion, and subtle dialectics, and was sharpened into a morbid acuteness and pertinacity by continued practice. He displayed keenness and versatility in detecting invisible distinctions; in multiplying hypotheses which differed from each other only in some verbal incidents ; in untwist- ing every thought and proposition as by an intellec- tual prism ; in speculating upon themes above the reach of human knowledge, and in the multiplica- tion of ingenious theories without proof to sustain them, or utility to recommend them. Hypothesis supplanted investigation, and the interpretation of nature, or the question, what is ? was superseded by previous conceptions of what might or should be. The Franciscans gloried in Duns Scotus, as their rivals the Dominicans extolled Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas was the more orthodox, and Sco- tus was at least semipelagian. Scotists and Tho- mists divided the mediaeval schools, and the for- mer as being realists, were opposed to the Occa- mists who were nominalists, or held that universal terms were simply names, and not the signs of ac- tual existences. The ' Opera Positiva ' of Duns Scotus are very numerous, and have not been printed ; but his ' Opera Speculativa ' were pub- lished in 12 folio volumes at Lyons in 1639, the editor being an Irishman of the name of Luke Wadding. Six of these tomes are filled with the famed prelections on Peter Lombard, already re- ferred to. The industry that could by its own composition amass such a huge collection of MSS. during so short a life, must certainly have been equal to the genius of the great schoolman. [J.E.] DUNSTABLE, John, an Eng. musician, 15th c. DUNSTAN, St., an English statesman and pre- late, abp. of Canterbury, and absolute master of the kingdom under Edward the Martyr, 925-988. DUNTON, J., abooksel. andmis. wr., 1659-1733. DUPATY, F. B. Mercier, pres. of the pari, of Bourdeaux, author of ' Letters on Italy,' &c, 1746- 1788. His son Charles, a sculptor, 1771-1825. DUPERIER, C, a Fr. and Latin poet, 1620-92. DUPERRON, James Davy, Cardinal, a Swiss recusant from the prot. church, dist. as a contro- versialist, 1556-1618. John, his brother and sue. in the abprick. of Sens, author of An Apology for the Jesuits,' died 1621. James, nephew ot the preceding, almoner of Henrietta Maria, died 1649. DUPIN, Baron, a statistical au., 1767-1828. DUPIN, C, a writer on public law, 1700-1769. DUPIN, Louis Ellis, an eccl. his., 1657-1719. DUPIN, P., a French jurisconsult, 1681-1745. DUPLELX, Cesar, a Fr. satirist, died 1641. 213 DUP DUPLEIX, J., Fr. gov. of Pondicherrv, d. 1703. DUPLEIX, Scipio, a Fr. historian, 1566-1661. DUPONT, Leo, a French sculptor, 1795-1828. DUPONT DE LETANG, Count, lieut.-gen. in the French army, minister of war, &c, 1765-1840. DUPONT DE NEMOURS, P. S., a member of the French assembly of notables, &c, a writer on political economy, 1759-1817. DUPONT, A., a French advocate, 1759-1798. DUPORTAIL, N., a Fr. statesman, died 1802. DUPPA, Bryan, an Eng. prelate, 1589-1662. DUPPA, R., a miscellaneous writer, died 1831. DUPRE, A., Fr. consul at Smyrna, died 1832. DUPRE, C, a French savant, 16th century. DUPUIS, Charles Francis, a celebrated philosopher of the period of the French revolution, whose great work, < Origine de tous les Cultes,' originated the scientific exploration of Egypt in the period of its occupation bv Buonaparte, 1742-1809. DUPUIS, T. S., an Eng. musician, 1733-1796. DUPUYTREN, William, Baron, born at Pierre Buffier6, 1777 ; died at Paris 1835. One of the most distinguished surgeons of modem times, and an eminent example of the beneficial results of the system of public competition estab- lished in France. By his industry and talents he became surgeon to the Hotel Dieu at twenty-six, and professor of surgery at thirty- three. He visited the hospital morning and evening at six o'clock, and for twelve years was never once absent ; each morning he attended to 300 patients, delivered a clinical lecture, performed several operations, gave advice to some hundreds of out-patients, and then walked home to breakfast at half-past ten. After this he saw his private patients, attended to the examination of medical students, performed his private operations, and at six in the evening again went the rounds of the hospital. His princi- pal work is his memoir on artificial anus, which forms a happy application of the principles de- veloped by John Hunter. Dupuytren possessed a remarkably fine person and strong constitution, so as to enable him to undergo immense bodily fatigue. But he possessed an extremely irritable temper, which made him insupportably capricious and inconsistent, often impelled him to rash and wrong acts that he would fain have recalled in his cooler moments, and ultimately destroyed his nervous system. He was a most successful practitioner, having left 296,000 to his daughter, Madame de Beaumont, besides 8,000 to endow a professorship, and 12,000 for a benevolent insti- tution for medical men. [R.D.T.] DUQUESNE, A., a Fr. naval offic, 1610-1688. DUQUESNOY, F., a Flem. sculpt., 1594-1646. DURAND, D., a Fr. protes. histor., 1681-1763. DURAND, F. J., a Swiss statistician, 1727-1816. DURAND, J., a French painter, 1699-1767. DURAND-DE-MAILLANE, Peter Totjs- saint, a deputy to the constituent assembly, &c, author of a history of the convention, 1729-1810. DURANDI, J., an Italian historian, 1739-1817. DURANTE, Fr., a Neapol. comp., 1693-1755. DURELL, John, a learned divine, 1625-83. David, a supposed descendant of the preceding, distinguished as a biblical critic, 1728-1775. DURER, Albrecht, the most celebrated Ger- man painter of the sixteenth century, was born at Nurnberg in 1471, and became the pupil of 214 DUR Michael Wolgemuth, the most eminent painter j engraver at Niirnberg at that time. Albert hi self was not only distinguished as painter t engraver, but also as sculptor. The inscription his tomb claims for him an unrivalled reputat in these matters 'light of the arts sun artists painter, engraver, sculptor, without < ample.' He died at Nurnberg'in 1528, worried [Albert Durer's House at Nurnberg.] death, according to Pirkheimer, by his wife's tei per. _ The enlarged mind of Albert Diirer is shoi in his persevering curiosity to travel into otl countries, and personally ascertain what was the doing, as well as in the versatility of his accoi plishments as an artist. He visited Italy in t year 1506, more especially Venice and Manti and his opinion that Giovanni Bellini was the b( ()ainter in Venice is preserved in one of his o^ etters to his friend Pirkheimer in Niirnberg. I also visited the Netherlands in the year 1521, ai some interesting observations are preserved in 1 diary of this visit. (Reliquien von A Ibrecht Dun Nurnberg, 1828.) He was the author of sever works relating to his art, as, 'Instructions Measuring with the Level and Circle,' &c., 152, ' Some Directions with regard to the Fortificati< of Cities, Castles, and Villages,' 1527; and 'Foi Books on Human Proportions,' 1528 ; all of whi< have been reprinted and translated. Albe Durer's reputation as a painter is great in Ge many, but ne is better known as an engraver ai designer out of his own country. His executu is exquisite as a copperplate engraver, but it doubtful whether he actually executed many wooi cuts; his most celebrated compositions are son series of woodcuts, but he is supposed to ha' drawn on the wood only. Of these remarks! series of designs the most valued are the Greate and Lesser, Passion ; the Revelations of John ; tl Life of the Virgin ; the Triumphal Car of the En peror Maximilian I; and the Triumphal Arch the same emperor. The Great Passion appeared twelve cuts in 1511 ; The Lesser Passion in thirt; seven cuts in quarto, also in 1511; the Revelatifla in sixteen cuts, folio, in 1498 ; the Life of the Virg in twenty cuts, date of first edition uncertain. Tl 'V^ _^^$ ( (^CCfat&U *^/09Z& DUR jlvo series relating to the emperor Maximilian jbpeared the Arch in 1515, in ninety-two pieces, Sid the Car in 1522, in eight pieces. The works V Alhert, paintings and cuts, nave all a fine dra- matic character of composition, abounding in sen- Iment and the highest order of expression, and Lough in form or design gothic in taste, correct hd select in general proportions ; but his draperies -e hard and angular, and his costume is purely Lnciful. (Heller, Das leben und die Werhe Al- Vecht Diirers, 1831; Nagler, Kunstkr Lexicon; Lusler, Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei, 1837.) [R.NVV.] DURET, C., a French naturalist, died 1611. DURET, F., a French sculptor, 1730-1816. DURET, L., a Fr. medical writer, 1527-1586. D'URFEY, Th., an Engl, song-writer, d. 1723. DURHAM, James, a Scotch divine, 1622-58. DURHAM, John George Lambton, earl of, ne of the great leaders of the movement for re- irm, born 1792, member of parliament for his na- ive county 1813, married to the daughter of Earl irrey, 1816, distinguished as a parliamentary re- >rmer, 1821, member of the cabinet under Earl "rey, 1830, mission to Russia, 1833, ambassador to Jussia, 1835-37, gov.-gen. of Canada, 1838, d. 1810. DURHAM, Admiral Sir P. C. Calder- vood, memorable for his escape from the Royal leorge, and his services in the last war, 1777-1845. DUROC, J. C. M., Due De Frioul, and marshal f France, a distinguished officer and diplomatist inder Buonaparte, whose friend and confidant he emained till his death; born 1772, killed 1813. DURUPT, C, a French painter, 1804-1839. DURY, John, a Scotch divine, 17th century. DUSART, C, a Dutch painter, 1665-1704. DUSSAULT, J. J., a Fr. misc. wr., 1769-1824. DUSSAULX, J., a French savant, 1728-1799. DUSSEK, J. L., a German comp., 1762-1812. DUTENS, Louis, a Fr. miscel. wr., 1729-1812. DUTILLET, J., a French historian, died 1570. DUVAL, Alex. V. P., a Fr. nov., 1767-1842. DUVAL, Andrew, a literary savant of France, 1564-1638. His son William, a physician, and classical scholar, and historian, 1570-1646. DUVAL, Amaury, a French antiq., 1760-1837. DUVAL-D'ESPREMENIL. See Espremenil. DUVAL, J. B., a Fr. Orientalist, 17th century. DUVAL, V. J., a Fr. numismatist, 1695-1775. DUVANCEL, A., a Fr. naturalist, 1792-1824. DUVENEDE, M. V., a Flem. paint., 1674-1729. DUVERNEY, J. G., a Fr. anatomist, 1648-1730. DUVERNOY, J. G., a German anatomist and botanist, instructor of the illus. Haller, 1691-1759. DUV1VIER, C. R., aFr. engineer, 1771-1821. DUVIVIER, J., a French painter, died 1832. DUVIVIER, P. S. B., a Fr. medallist, 1730-1819. DUVOISIN, J. B., a Fr. theolog., 1741-1813. D WIGHT, Timothy, S.T.D., LL.D., was bora 14th May, 1752, at Northampton, Massachusets, tracing his descent to Puritan ancestors, who had emigrated from England. His father, who was a pious and intelligent merchant, maintained a strict n of religion ; and his mother, who was a daughter of Jonathan Edwards, whose intellectual vigour and acumen she inherited, used every endea- vour to impress the infant mind of her son with the principles of genuine morality and true religion. Timothy, in his childhood, gave evidences of extra- DWI ordinary quickness. But the judicious manage- ment of his parents averted the sad consequences which the early luxuriance of mental development too often produces in precocious youth. He was withdrawn from school, and, by the prudent direc- tion of his mother, his education was conducted at home in such a manner as to develop the strength, and at the same time exercise the versatility, of her son's opening mind. At the age of thirteen he was considered fit for entering Yale College. During the third year of his attendance he devoted him- self with indefatigable ardour to the pursuit of his studies, and his attainments in literature were as diversified as they were extensive. He acquired distinction especially by the well-known beauty of his penmanship, and by his skill in poetry and music. At the age of nineteen he was appointed tutor in Yale College : and the extent of his quali- fications for this academic office will appear from the statement of the single circumstance, that he conducted his pupils during the first session through spherics and fluxions into the ' Principia of New- ton.' With an ardent pursuit of the exact sciences he combined the rare talent of a passionate love of poetry ; and he composed at this early age an epic poem on ' The Conquest of Canaan,' which is said to have contained many descriptive passages of great beauty. His first views were directed towards the law as a profession. But changing his thoughts, he determined to study for the ministry, and after completing the usual curriculum he was in June, 1777, licensed to preach the gospel in his native county of Hampshire, in the state of Massachusets. Having accepted the office of chaplain to General Parson's brigade, he joined the army at West Point in October, and he continued in this situation till his father's death obliged him to quit the army and return home to the assistance of his mother. With filial devotion he exerted himself to ensure the sup- port and comfort of his surviving parent and her young family, by accepting various civil appoint- ments, to which he was prompted more by a sense of duty than by any congeniality of taste or inclina- tion. In the midst of these occupations, however, his literary and theological pursuits were continued with unabated ardour. His talents and acquire- ments were widely known, and a vacancy having occurred in 1795 in the Presidency of Yale College, all eyes were directed towards Dwight as the best qualified to superintend the interests of that great literary institution. His administration ere long produced a happy revolution on the character of that seminary ; by his mild and judicious manage- ment disorders were repressed, and the students, who had been deeply tinctured with infidel princi- ples, and were consequently dissolute in their con- duct, became distinguished for sober-mindedness, and the observances of Christian piety. Respect for the talents and acquirements of the president, as much perhaps as his discipline and lectures, led to this auspicious change. Dr. Dwight was indeed no ordinary man. He possessed a rare union of intellectual qualities, an independent tone of think- ing, great originality of views, a masculine under- standing, a playful fancy, and rich and lively powers of illustration. All these mental characteristics are advantageously displayed in his 'Theology,' a work which, although originally composed in the form of sermons, contains a complete system of 215 DYE divinity, expounded on principles of scientific ar- rangement. Two other works came from his active pen, viz., 'Travels in New England,' in 4 volumes, and 'Posthumous Sermons,' in 2 volumes. In his sixty-third year Dr. Dwight's health began to de- cline, and after a severe and lingering illness his useful life was closed on 11th January, 1818. [R.J.] DYER, Sir E., a pastoral poet, bora 1540. EDG DYER, Geo., a famous scholar and miseel. wr., editor of Valpy's edition of the classics, 1755-1841. DYER, John, an English poet, 1700-1758. DYER, Sir J., an eminent lawyer, 1512-1582. : DYER, Sam., a learned writer, 1725-1772. DYER, William, a nonconform div., 17th cent. DYKMAN, P. a Swedish antiquar., died 1718. DZEHEBY, A., alearn. Mahomedan, 1274-1347. E EACHARD, J., an English theol., 1636-1697. EADMER, an ecclesiastical historian, died 1124. EANDI, J. A. F. J., a wr. on phys., 1735-1799. EARLE, Jabez, a dissenting minis., 1676-1768. EARLE, John, alearn. prelate and royal., au. of ' Microcosmography,' bp. of Salisbury, 1620-1665. EARLOM, R., an engrav. of London, 1740-1822. EATON, Wm., Amer. con. at Tunis, 1764-1811. EBALD, a king of Kent, 616-640. EBBESEN, Niels, a Danish patriot, d. 1340. EBED-JESU, an Assyrian poet, 14th century. EBEL, J. G., a French geologist, 1764-1830. EBERHARD, duke of Friuli, and father of Be- renger, who became king of Italy, 846-868. EBERHARD, C., a German mathematician in the service of Russia, 1649-1730. His son John, an architect and author, 1723-1795. EBERHARD, J. A., a Ger. philo., 1739-1809. EBERHARD, J. H., a Ger. lawyer, 1743-1772. EBERHARD, J. P., a Ger. natur., 1727-1779. EBERHARD of Franconia, father of Conrad I., k. of Ger., slain in the contest with Otho 939. EBERT, F. A., a German compiler, 1791-1834. EBERT, J., a Ger. Hebraist and theol., 1549- 1614. His son Theodore, a Heb. scho., d. 1630. EBERT, J. A., a German translator, 1723-1795. EBION, supposed founder of a sect, 1st century. ECHARD, Laurence, an English historian and divine, author of a history of England which was in repute until Rapin's appeared, 1671-1730. ECHINUS. See Erizzo. ECKARTSHAUSEN, Chas., a German mystic, natural son of the Count Charles of Haineblausen, and keeper of the archives of Bavaria, known in all languages by his work entitled ' God is the Purest Love,' which, before the close of the last century, had run through sixty editions in the original German, bora 1752, died, after a life passed in the practice of every virtue, 1803. ECKHARD, G. L., a German painter, 1769-1794. ECKHARD, J. F., a German savant, 1723-1794. ECKHARD, J. G., a German hist, 1674-1730. ECKHARD, Tobias, a Ger. philol., 1662-1737. ECKHEL, J. H.,anAus.numismat., 1737-1798. ECKHOF, C, a eel. Ger. tragedian, 1722-1778. ECKIUS, John, a polemical author, celebrated for his oral and written controversies with the re- formers, especially with Luther, 1483-1543. ECKIUS, Leonard, a German lawyer, d. 1550. ECLUSE, Charles De L', better known as Clusius, a Flem. phys. and botanist, 1526-1609. ECLUSE -DES-LOGES, Peter Mathurin De L', a doctor of the Sorbonne, editor of an edition of ' Sully's Memoirs,' 1715-1783. EDDY, J. H., an Amer. geographer, 1784-1817. EDELIXCK, Gerard, a Flem. eng., 1049-1707. EDELMANN, J. F a Br. pianist, 1719-1794. 210 EDELMANN, J. C, a Ger. philos., 169S-1767. EDEMA, Gerard, a Dutch paint., 1652-1700. EDEN, Sir F. M., a statistical writer, d. 1809. EDEN, Sir M., afterwards Lord Henley, diplom. and ambass. during the late war, d. 1*02. EDENIUS, Jordan, a Ger. contro., 16:>4-1<;0G. EDER, G., a catholic theologian, 1524-1586. EDGAR, a Saxon k. of Eng., reigned 95!t-<J75. EDGAR-ATHELING, grandson of Edmund! Ironside, and neph. of Ed. the Confessor, the rightm heir to the crown worn by the latter and bv Harold. EDGAR, kg. of Scotl., son of Malcolm" III. and Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheline. rgnd. 1097-1107. EDGE WORTH, Maria, was~bom in Berkshin on New- Year's Day 1767. She was a daughter oi the first marriage of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, o) Edgeworth's-town, in the county of Longford: but she never was in Ireland, unless for a few months in childhood, till 1782. In that year hei father, succeeding to the family estate, took m his residence on it : and there his daughter's liit_ was chiefly spent. Indeed, the only exceptions were short visits to England, France, and Scot- land, and two years passed at Clifton, on accomi; of the delicate health of members of the family The history both of Miss Edgeworth's authorship and of her life, was closely dependent on her affec- tionate and respectful association with her father He was a man of much miscellaneous knowledge sanguine and speculative, who possessed grea mechanical ingenuity and originality, and exhibitec in other pursuits a singular mixture of benevolence self-esteem, and eccentricity. He sat in the IrisK parliament which was elected in 1798, and advo- cated the views of the partv of which Lord Charl< mont was considered as the head. But his favourit occupations, besides mechanical contrivances experiments, were the improvement of his es and of the condition of his tenantry, and the edu cation of the many children who gathered rounJ him in the course of four marriages. Mr. Edge ', worth's experience, as a landlord and magistrate placed at the disposal of his daughter that larg] stock of incidents and characters which she use- 1 in her novels with so much shrewdness, humoui! and kindly feeling ; and though these works wer! written exclusively by herself', they were ahvay submitted to his revisal. His zeal in the trainin of his children, and his constant desire for improvl ing the current methods of education, made th father and daughter joint authors in works intende f for the use of youth. The most ambitious of thj joint productions is the series of essays entitle ' Practical Education,' first published in 1798, an i afterwards reprinted and altered more than onH The series of story-books, however, is really mot valuable as well as better known. It had bee III EDG begun in 1778, with the first part of ' Hairy and Lucy,' written by Mr. Edgeworth and his second wife' Honora Sneyd ; but this story was not pub- lished for many years ; while, in the meantime, it suggested ' Sandford and Merton ' to Mr. Edge- worth's friend Mr. Day. It was at length inserted [Edgeworth's-l'own.J in Miss Edgeworth's ' Early Lessons,' which after- wards received a continuation from her father; while her ' Parent's Assistant,' like all other parts of the series that came from her pen, showed a striking superiority in all respects over the portions that were not hers. Another joint work was the ' Essay on Irish Bulls,' published in 1803 ; and, Mr. Edgeworth having died in 1817, there ap- peared, in 1820, his ' Memoirs,' of which the first volume was written by himself, and the second by his daughter. The series of Miss Edgeworth's novels began in 1801 with ' Castle Rackrent ;' which was followed by the ' Moral Tales,' ' Belinda,' 'Leonora,' 'The Modern Griselda,' 'Popular Tales,' the ' Tales of Fashionable Life,' and ' Patronage ;' and ' Harrington and Ormond' appeared in 1817. The venerable authoress reappeared with ' Helen ' in 1834, and closed her labours more recently with the child's story of ' Orlandino.' She died at Edgeworth's-town in May 1849. [W.S.] EDGEWORTH, Richard Lovell, an Irish gentleman, eel. as an essayist, and for several in- genious inventions. Among the latter is his claim to the telegraph. His ' Memoirs ' were begun by himself and continued by his daughter, 1744-1817. ElMiEWORTH, Roger, a learned div., 16th c. EDGEWORTH-DEFIRMONT, Henry Es- sex, a Fr. abbe of Irish descent, confessor to Louis XVI. at the period of his execution, 1745-1807. EDITH, St., a natural daughter of Edgar, k. of England, embraced the relig. life and died 984. EDMONDES, Sir T., a minister of state in the administr. of Sir Francis Walsingham, 1563-1639. His son, Sir Clement, a class, scholar, 1566-1622. EDMONDSON, H., an Engl, gram., 1607-1659. EDMONDSON, J., a wr. on heraldry, d. 1786. EDMONDSTONE, a Scot, painter, 1795-1853. EDMUND THE MARTYR, from whom Bury St. Edmund's is named, king of the East Angles, tit to death by the Danes 870. ED.M END L, sue. as k. of Engl. 941, killed 947. EDMUND II., surnamed 'Ironside,' succeed. 1016, shared the crown with Canute, and m. 1037. EDW EDMUND DE LANGLEY, earl of Cambridge and duke of York, fourth son of Edward III., guardian of the kingdom during the absence of Richard II., 1399, which he betrayed to the duke of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., died 1402. EDMUND PLANTAGENET, earl of Kent, brother of Edward II., executed through the craft of Mortimer 1330. EDMUND, St., abp. of Canterbury, died 1242. EDRED, a Saxon king of England, 946-955. EDRIDGE, H., an English painter, 1768-1821. EDRIS, founder of a Mahommedan dynasty, poisoned by a slave of Haroun-al-Raschid 793. EDRIS IL, son and sue. of the preced., 793-828. EDRIGSI, Mohammed, a descendant of the foregoing, dist. in Sicily as a geographer, 12th ct. EDWARD. The Saxon kings of England of this name are Edward the Elder, son and suc- cessor of Alfred the Great, reigned 901-925. Ed- ward the Martyr, son and sue. of Edgar, at the age of fifteen, 975 ; mur. 978. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and sue. of Hardi- canute, 1041, died 1066. In the Norman line they are Edward I., whose son was the first prince of Wales, 1272-1307. Edward IL, his son and successor, deposed 1327, mm*, by the con- nivance of his queen and Mortimer 1328. Ed- ward III., son and successor of the preceding, dist. for his heroism and successes against the Scots and French, died 1377. Edward IV., son of the duke of York, descended from the daughter of the duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III., reigned 1461-1482. Edward V., son of the preceding, mur. by the duke of Gloucester 1483. Edward VI., son of Henry VIII. and Queen Jane Seymour, reigned 1547-1553. The English princes of this name are Edward the Black Prince, a i\\- [Tomb of Edward at CanterMiry] mous name in the French wars. He was the eldest son of Edward III., and was born in 1330. In 1345 he accompanied his father in his expedi- tion to France, and displayed unusual heroism at the battle of Crecy. In 1356 he gained the battle of Poictiers, and brought the French king and his son prisoners to England. He died before his father, in 1376, leaving two sons, the elder of whom, Richard, was the successor of Edward III. His wife was Jane, daughter of Edmund, earl of Kent, a princess of such beauty, that she was called 'La Belle.' Edward Plantagenet, the last descendant of the house of York, beheaded after a long imprisonment in the Tower, 1445-1499. Edward of Lancaster, prince of Wales, son of Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, m. after the battle of Tewkesbury. 1453-1471. EDWARD, king of Portugal, 1433-1438. EDWARD of Braganza, inf. of Por., d. 1649 EDWARDS, Bryan, author of a civil and com- mercial history of the West Indies, 1743-1800. EDWARDS, Edward, a mathem., 1738-1806. 217 EDW EDWARDS, George, an Engl, nat., 1G93-1773. EDWARDS, Jon., an Engl, divine, 1629-1712. EDWARDS, Rev. Jonathan, President of New Jersey College, was born 5th October, 1703, at Windsor, Connecticut. His extraordinary acute- ness of intellect, which developed itself in his early boyhood, was applied in his mature age chiefly to the prosecution of moral and theological researches. He became greatly distinguished as a metaphysical and speculative divine. At the same time he pre- pared himself with diligence for the active duties of the ministry, in which, after a few temporary engagements elsewhere, he was permanently em- ployed at Northampton, Massachusets, having been ordained colleague and successor to his grand- father, Mr. Stoddart, loth February, 1727. His ministerial labours in that place were followed by remarkable results. A religious excitement, cele- brated in the annals of American revivals, took place in 1735 among his people. Multitudes were deeply impressed, and evinced their cordial recep- tion of the truth by its sanctifying effects on their characters and lives. His church was greatly en- larged, and his stated congregation immense. But it happened in this case, as in all great and sud- den movements, whether in the religious or politi- cal world, that numbers who had joined him were influenced by momentary feeling, rather than by deep and lasting conviction; and accordingly, while not a few were devotedly attached to him as their spiritual father, and an eminent servant of Christ, others became disgusted with his high- toned purity of principles, and his impartial exer- cise of discipline. So strongly did the current of discontent set in, that this faithful minister seeing little prospect of doing further good in the place, contemplated resignation ; but he was anticipated in this step by a few leaders of intemperate zeal and exasperated passions, who convened the con- gregation, and having secured the appointment of a council obsequious to their views, determined to vent their revenge on their faithful pastor by giv- ing him a summary dismissal. This disgraceful proceeding was earned into effect 22d June, 1750. Mr. Edwards bore the trial with admirable equani- mity, and evinced his Christian temper by agree- ing more than once to supply the vacant pulpit before his successor was appointed. This generous conduct, instead of mollifying the popular feeling, was requited by a vote of the inhabitants prohibit- ing his return. But he was amply compensated for this bitter hostility of a proud and worldly community, by the expressions of Christian sym- pathy that came from various parts of the church, and the liberal contributions that were sent from Britain, and particularly from Scotland, to re- lieve his destitution. Mr. Edwards now directed his energies into other channels, and afterwards laboured for six years as missionary to the Hou- satonic Indians at Stockbridge in Berkshire county, where he employed his summers during the absence of the tribes on their hunting excursions in the composition of theological works, which spread his fame throughout the world. In January 1758 he was reluctantly prevailed on to accept the presi- dency of the college of New Jersey ; but before he had fully commenced his duties he was, owing to the prevalence of the small-pox in that place, ad- vised to undergo inoculation ; the experiment, how- EGR ever, at his age, being in his fifty-fourth year, proved too violent for his constitution ; the remedy superinduced a most malignant form of the dis- ease, and he was cut off on 22d March, 1758. He was a voluminous writer, his works comprising eight volumes. His essay on the ' Freedom of the Will,' his treatises on ' Original Sin' and on the 'Affections,' and his ' History of Redemption,' are generally known and highly valued. l.'.l. [ EDWARDS, R., a British dramatist, 1523-1578. EDWARDS, Thomas, a presbyterian divine, author of a fierce attack on trie ' sectaries' under the title of ' Gangraena,' died 1647. His son John, a deacon in the Church of England, author of an answer to Locke, 1637-1716. EDWARDS, Thos., au. of a pungent criticism on Warburton's edition of Shakspeare, 1699-1757. EDWARDS, Wm., a Welch mason, distrn. for his remarkable skill in bridge-building, 1719-1789. EDWARDS, W. F., a nat. of Jamaica, principal fndr. of the ethnological society, &c, 1777-1842. EDWIN, a k. of Northumberland, reig. 616-653. EDWIN, John, an Engl, comedian, 1749-1794. EDWY, a king of England, 955-959. EGBERT, a Saxon king of Kent, 664-673. EGBERT, king of Wessex, renowned for uniting the heptarchy into one kingdom 827, died 838. EGBERT, an Eng. ecclesiastical writer, d. 767. EGEDE, Hans, founder of the Danish missions in Greenland, and au. of the nat. his. of that coun- try, 1686-1758. Paul, his son, and fellow-labourer T author of a Greenland dictionary, &c, 1708-1789. EGERTON, Daniel, an Eng. actor, 1772-1835. EGERTON, Fran., earl of Bridgewater, dis. as a Gr. scho., au. of the life of T. Egerton, 1756-1829. EGERTON, John, bp. of Durham, 1721-1787. EGERTON, Thomas, baron of Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley, chancellor of England before Lord Bacon, dist. as an upright lawyer, 1540-1617. EGG, John Gaspar, a Swiss agriculturist, founder of several industrial colonies on principles similar to those of Robert Owen, born 1738. EGGS, the name of several Germans all of Rhinfeld. John Ignatius, an Asiatic missionary, 1618-1702. Richard, a Jesuit and Latin poet, whose life was written by his father, P. L. Eggs, 1621-1659. Leonce, a Jesuit, Latin poet, and moralist, 1666-1717. George Joseph, a learned writer, 1670-1750. EGIL, or EIGIL, a bard of Iceland, 10th cent. EGINTON, Fr., an Eng. pain, on glass, d. 1805. EGIZA, a k. of the Spanish Visigoths, 687-700. EGIZIO, M., a Neapol. archaeologist, 1674-1745. EGLANTINE. See Fabre-D'-Eglantine. EGLOFF, Louise, a Ger. poetess, 1803-1834. EGLY, C. P. Monthenault D', a French hist and mem. of the Acad, of Inscriptions, 1696-1749. EGMONT, a noble family of the low countries, of whom the most distinguished are Ciiaklks, duke of Gueldres, 1467-1538. Lamoral, count of Egmont and prince of Garre, a dis. soldier and pa- triot, beheaded by Alva, 1522-1568. His son Philip, killed at the battle of Ivry, 1590 ; and his younger son Charles, an adherent of the house of Orange, died 1620. EGNAZIO, Battista, a lear. Ital., 1478-1553. EGREMONT, George O'Brien Wyndham, earl of, distinguished for his general munificence and patronage of arts and letters, 1751-1837. 218 EIIL EHLERS, M., a Ger. philosopher, 1732-1800. EHRENHEIM, F. G., a Swed. baron and states- man, au. of works in nat. philosophy, 1753-1828. EHRENMALIN, Arvid, a Swed. savant, last c. EHRENPREUS, The Count, a Swed. senator, sec. to Charles XII., and after his death one of the principal organizers of lear. institutions, 1692-1760. EHRENSCHILD, C. B., a Danish statesman, time of Frederick III. and Christian V., 1629-1698. EHRENSCHCELD, N., a Swe. adm., 1674-1728. EHRENSTEN, E., an ambas., sec. of state, and chancel, of Swed. under Chas. Gustavus, 1620-1686. EHRENSTRAHLE, D., a Swed. jur., 1693-1769. EHRENSTRAL, D. C, a Swe. pain., 1629-1698. EHRENSWCERD, Augustus, count of, field- marshal of Sweden, distin. for his part in many great works of defence, died 1773. His son Chas. Frederic, born 1770, implicated in the conspi- racy of Anckarstrcem and exiled, died 1826. EHRET, G. D., a German painter, 1710-1770. EHRHART, B., a German botanist, died 1756. EICHHORN, J. G. C, a German entomologist, and evangelical minister, 1718-1790. EICHHORN, John Godfrey, a Ger. theolog., historian, and Oriental scholar, dis. for his works in biblical criticism, prof, at Gottingen, 1752-1827. EKEBERG, G., a Swed. navigator, 1716-1784. EKEBLAD, Claude, count of, a Swed. ambas., minister of foreign affairs, mem. of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and chan.ot Abo, 1700-1771. EKSTRCEM, Daniel, a Swed. mechan., distin. for his improvement of mathem. inst., 1711-1755. ELBEE, N. G. D., gen. in La Vendee, 1752-1793. ELDON, John Scott, earl of, a distinguished judge, was born at Newcastle in 1751. He was the eleventh of fifteen children. His father, who was a coal-fitter, and who possessed some of the careful qualities of his distinguished son, gradually amassed a considerable fortune, which enabled him to bring up and educate his large family respectably. [Grammar School at Newcastle.J John became a remarkable instance of the high suc- cess which may be obtained in England by the hon- est devotion of talents, though not brilliant, to one absorbing occupation ; for though he received an Oxford education, he was totally destitute of literary taste, and never could compose a good English sen- tence a peculiarity in which he differed much from his accomplished brother, Lord Stowell. Sir Samuel Romilly mentions how painful he felt it to ELI be obliged to confess to the Lord Chancellor his total inability to understand the meaning of some clauses of a bill drawn by his Lordship, on which his opinion was desired. On the 18th of Novem- ber, 1772, he committed the sole rash act of his life in eloping with Elizabeth, the daughter of Mr. Aubone Surtees, the banker ; and the young lady, contrary to the usual experience of such matches, found in him a constant, kind, and affec- tionate husband. He was called to the bar on 19th February, 1776. Some years elapsed before he had an opportunity of showing his abilities. It is a frequent anecdote about great barristers that they have owed their success to suddenly under- taking a case in which the originally retained counsel is taken ill or breaks his engagement, and such an incident in 1780 really was the foundation of Scott's business. In June, 1788, he was made solicitor-general, and in February, 1793, attorney- general. He was subject to much unpopularity as the adviser and conductor of the ineffective pro- secutions for treason at that exciting juncture. In 1799 he was made chief justice of the Common Pleas, and became all the more admirable a common law judge that he could not give way to the doubt- ing propensity which beset him on the woolsack. In 1801 he became lord chancellor, and with the short interval of the Fox and Grenville adminis- tration, in 1806-7, he held that office until the accession of Lord Lyndhurst in 1827. His hesi- tation and procrastination became proverbial ; but it must ever be admitted that it arose from a con- scientious desire never to leave the slightest par- ticular of any of the complex cases before him unexamined and unweighed. He was a bigotted admirer of the law, of which he was so consum- mate a master. Projects of law reform cut him to the soul, and he has been represented as shedding tears on the abolition of the punishment of death for stealing five shillings in a dwelling-house. He died on 13th January, 1838. [J.H.B.] ELEANOR of Austria, sister of Charles V., q. of Portugal 1519, q. of France 1530, d. 1558. ELEANOR of Castile, queen of Navarre, as wife of Charles III., 1375-1416. ELEANOR of Guienne, q. of Louis VII., 1137-1154, and afterwards of Henry II. of England, by whom she became the mo. of Richard I., d. 1204. ELEANOR of Provence, daughter of Rai- mond Berenger V., and queen of Henry III. of England, called Saint Eleanor, died 1292. ELEANOR-TELLEZ, queen of Por., 1371-1405. ELEAZAR, a German rabbin, 13th century. ELGIN, Thomas Bruce, earl of Elgin and Kincardine, eel. for his collection of Grecian anti- quities, bora 1771, Turkish ambas. 1789, d. 1840. ELI, judge and high priest of Israel, 12th c. B.C ELIAS, or ELIJAH, the most remarkable of the Jewish prophets, distin. above all the others as tho forerunner of the Saviour, 10th to 9th ct. b.c. ELIAS, Elvita, a Jewish critic, 1472-1549. ELIAS, M., a Flemish painter, 1658-1741. ELIO, Fr.-Xavier, a Spanish general, ex. 1822. ELIOT, John, an Indian missionary, 1604-1689. ELIOT, Thomas, a scholar of Cambridge, au- thor of a Latin and English dictionary, died 1546. ELIOTT, Geo. Augustus, Lord Heathfield, distinguished in the late war by his gallant do- fence of Gibraltar, 1718-1790. 219 ELI ELISE, an Armenian historian, died 480. ELISEE, J. F. Copel, called 'le pere Elisp>,' or Father Elishah, a eel. Fr. preacher, 1726-1788. ELISEE, M. V. Talachax, generally called Father Elisee, surg. of Louis XVIII., 1753-1817. ELISHA, successor of Elijah in the prophetic ministry, 9th century B.C. ; (2 Kings ii. 13). ELIZABETH, the first of the name, queen con- sort of England, daughter of Sir R. Woodville and widow of Sir John Gray, mar. to Edward IV. 1464, died 1488 ; the second'oi the name, daughter of the E receding, wife of Henry VII., and mother of [enry VIIL, 1466-1502 ; the third of the name, ELIZABETH, queen of England, was born at Greenwich on 7th September, 1533. She was the daughter of Henry VIIL by Anne Boleyn, and her position in reference to the descent of the throne was peculiar, since the accession of her sister, Mary, conveying the inference that Henry's mar- riage to Catharine of Arragon was valid, rendered the issue of the second marriage illegitimate. An act had, however, been passed in Henry's reign, which, fortunately perhaps, cut the knot by set- tling the crown on the two princesses successively. During the reign of her brother, King Edward, she spent a very happy life, following her natural dis- position for hard study, and not only acquiring many accomplishments, but practically applying them to the acquisition of a profound knowledge of mankind. During the reign of her sister the scene changed, and she underwent five uneasy years of difficulty and danger. Her conduct was marked by extreme sagacity, courage, and caution. She proved that her adherence to the principles of the reformation was not so much in her mind a matter of essential belief as of preference between a good system and a bad system, for she submitted in some measure to the ritual of Rome. On the other hand, when we know the extreme rigidness of Mary's bigotry, it is necessary to believe that nothing but a considerable amount of sisterly affec- tion could have prevented her from sacrificing one who was likely so far to undo all that she had her- self done at the sacrifice of so many lives. Queen Elizabeth's accession to the throne dates from 17th November, 1558. Her glorious reign is matter of history. A contrast to that which followed, it was marked alike by prudence and decision. The ecclesiastical revolution, which every one saw must follow her accession, went on so gradually, and at the same time so distinctly, that the Romish hier- archy had abandoned their cause before it was finally decided against them. A main character of her reign is, that from the first she chose wise advisers, and through all her personal caprices kept them to the end. Another eminent feature of her policy was to watch the growth of discon- tents, and appease them ere they became dan- gerous. Thus, when such complaints as shook the throne in the next reign, and overturned it in that of Charles, began faintly to appear, she stepped forward and redressed the grievances as from ner own princely beneficence to her suppliant people, and hence she preserved her prerogative untar- nished, while she appeased discontent. How far sovereigns of such ability are advantageous to a free country may be questioned. England cer- tainly never came so near arbitrary power as in her reign. With all her political capacity, her per- ELI sonal failings were signally preposterous. Her desire to be considered lovely ana to be loved ap- proached a monomania. She appears to have had a singularly unpleasing aspect for a woman harsh features, a rough yellow skin, dim eyes, an iras- cible indented mouth, and sandy hair yet no one could too grossly flatter her beauty, and it was impossible to make a portrait with the slightest degree of truth which she could tolerate. Sir Walter Raleigh speaks of ' the pictures of Queen Elizabeth, made by unskilful and common pain- ters, which, by her own commandment, were knocked in pieces and cast into the fire.' On more than one occasion she was allowed, and al- lowed herself, to exult in the notion that she was the object of the despairing love of her servants but she never permitted either vanity or affection to disturb the policy of her reign. To the jealousy arising out of ner peculiar weakness we may at- tribute the great blot on her name her harshness to Mary of Scotland. It has now been proved that she distinctly indicated how good a sen-ice she would count it secretly to put the captive out of the way; and it is creditable to the English public men of the day that none of them would take her hint as a warrant ' to break into the bloody house of life.' Elizabeth died on 24th March, 1603. [J.H.B.] [Tomb of Elizabeth.] ELIZABETH, Christina, empress of Germ., and grandmother of Marie Antoinette, born 1691 ; married to the archduke Charles 1708 ; died 1750. ELIZABETH of Hungary, daughter of An- drew II., and wife of Louis IV., landgrave of Thuringia, known as St. Elizabeth, 1207-1231. ELIZABETH, queen of Hungary, married to Charobert 1319 ; regent of Poland for her son 1370-1380; died 1381. Another of the name, wife of Louis, and regent after his death, 1382 ; murdered 1386. ELIZABETH-PETROWNA, emp. of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great, born 1709, succeeded 1741, died 1761. Another princess of the name, known as Elizabeth-Alkxikuna, of the house of Baden, was the wife of the emperor Alexander, b. 1779, married to the grand duke 1793 d. 18M 220 ELI ELIZABETH, Philippine Marie Helene, commonly called Madame Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., the faithful friend and companion of the royal family in their flight to Varennes, and during their imprisonment, born 1764 ; executed, on the pretence of corresponding with her other brothers, afterwards Louis XVIII. and Charles X., by the revolutionists, 10th May, 1794. ELIZABETH, Princess Palatine, daughter of Frederick V., and pupil of Des Cartes, 16i8-1680. ELIZABETH, queen of Portugal, daughter of Peter III. of Arragon, known as St. Elizabeth, died 1336. ELIZABETH, queen of Spain: the first, Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II. and Catherine de Medici, born 1545, married to Philip II. 1559, died 1568. The second, Eliza- beth of France, daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de Medici, born 1602, married to Philip IV. 1615, died 1644. The third, Elizabeth Far- nese, daughter of Edward II., prince of Parma, born 1692, married to Philip V. 1714, died 1766. ELLA, a Saxon chief who made a descent upon Britain, and became king of Sussex 491, died 514. ELLA, a king of Deira, Northumb., 559-588. ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Lord, an eminent English lawyer and judge, was born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, about the year 1748. As the son of the celebrated bishop of Carlisle, he began life with favourable prospects. He had not become conspicuously known to the public until the trial of Warren Hastings, in 1785, opened up for him a very great arena of exertion. His function of leading counsel for the accused in a matter involving so much variety and extent of new and perplexing matter was one which no man could perform in a satisfactory manner with- out great ability, and Law received for himself the high confidence of the public and his profes- sion. He was made attorney-general in 1801, and lord chief justice of the King's Bench in 1802. He held the office for sixteen years, which covered a very trying period ; and though he was a man of hasty temper, and sometimes deemed arbitrary, he obtained a character for fairness and indepen- dence. The last important business in which he was engaged was the trial of William Hone, charged with libel. The proceedings assumed an almost controversial character between the accused and the judge, and it was said that the mortifica- tion of the latter in being defeated by the verdict of a jury hastened his end. He died in December, 1818. [J-H.B.] ELLERS, J., a Swedish miscel. wr., died 1790. ELLEY, Lieutenant-General Sir John, a brave horse soldier and officer, distinguished in the last war, died 1839. ELLIOT, J., an Eng. phy. and chem., 1747-87. ELLIOT, W., a designer and engrav., 1717-66. ELLIOTT, Ebenezer, the celebrated 'Corn Law Rhymer,' was born at Masborough, near Iiotherham, 1781, of humble parentage, and died at his residence near Barnsley, 1819. He was possessed of an athletic genius, and of that love of nature which marks the genuine poet. It is well known that his ' Corn Law Rhymes ' assisted in exciting that revolt of the manufac- turing population against a shameful impost, which produced our recent commercial changes; ELM but the name of Elliott will be remembered as the teacher and friend of the poor long after these circumstances have become matter of dry his- tory. His 'Village Patriarch,' ' Ribbledin,' and other outpourings of his muse must always occupy a distinguished place in the popular poetry of England. Elliott possessed the happy talent of combining business with literature, and realized a competency in the iron trade ELLIS, Clement, an Engl, divine, 1630-1700. ELLIS, Geo., a miscellaneous auth., 1745-1815. ELLIS, G. J. W. Agar, Baron Dover, celeb, for his investigations in histor. subjects, 1797-1833. ELLIS, H., an English navigator, died 1806. ELLIS, John, celebrated as a naturalist, was born in London about the year 1710. He died in 1776. Ellis was a merchant in London, but it appears he was not successful in business. The study of natural history, which had been an amuse- ment in his earlier years, became in his distresses a consolation to him, and a serious occupation ; while a situation under government rendered him in the latter period of his life comfortable and indepen- dent. He is the author of several valuable papers on subjects connected with natural history, both botanical and zoological; but his chief claim to the great reputation he enjoys rests upon his works on corallines. A little previous to his time Peyssonell had made known to the French Aca- demy his discovery of the animal origin of corals and madrepore, while Bernard de Jussieu had de- monstrated the animal nature of several corallines. Ellis, perhaps without knowing these discoveries, had his attention directed to the same subject, and succeeded in demonstrating clearly and satisfac- torily the animality of an immense number of zoophytes, which, till his time, had been always classed amongst plants. His opinions were disputed, and the controversies arising therefrom gave Ellis further opportunities of more decidedly proving the truth of his discoveries. He is thus justly entitled to the credit of at least substantiating the fact that corallines are animals. His ' Essay Towards a Natural History of Corallines' was translated almost immediately into French and German, and procured for him the friendship and correspondence of Linnaeus, who dedicated to him a genus of plants by the name of Ellisia. [W.B.] ELLIS, John, a fugitive wr. and versifier, an intimate acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, 1698-1791. ELLIS, W., a writer on agriculture, 17th cent. ELLISTON, Robert William, one of the most. versatile of British actors, was born in Lon- don, 1774, and was educated for the church, but disappointed his friends, and appeared on the stage in 1796. In 1803 he was appointed acting manager at the Haymarket, and his popularity was so great, that the performance was removed to the Opera House. His subsequent career as lessee and manager of various theatres, was marked by utter recklessness, not to say insanity on some occasions. His greatest character was that of Duke Aranza in ' The Honevmoon.' Died on the 7th July, 1831. ELLROD, G. A., a Bohemian philol., 1709-60. ELLWOOD, Thos., a religious writer and con- troversialist of the Quaker persuasion, 1639-1713. ELLYS, Anth., an English divine, 1693-1761. ELLYS, Sir R., a biblical scholar, died 1742. ELMAKYN, G., an Arab, historian, 1223-1273. 221 ELM ELMSLEY, Pet., D.D., a dist. classical schol. and philologist, contrib. to the reviews, 1773-1825. ELOY, N. F. J., a Fr. medical hist., 1714-88. ELPHINSTON, a Scotch naval com. in the ser- vice of Russia, dist. against the Turks, 1720-1775. ELPHINSTON, Arthur, Lord Balmerino, a partizan of the Pretender, executed after the defeat of Culloden, 1688-1746. ELPHINSTON, J., a native of Edinburgh, in- ventor of a new orthography, 1721-1809. ELPHINSTON,Wr, a Scotch prelate, 1431-1514. ELPHINSTONE, George Keith, Viscount Keith, a naval commander, distinguished in the American war, at the siege of Toulon, and the Cape of Good Hope, 1747-1828. ELPHINSTONE, Major-Gen. George Wil- liam Keith, a Waterloo officer, commander-in- chief of the Bengal armv during the disasters of Afghanistan, 1782-1842." ELRINGTON, Th., an Irish mathem., d. 1835. ELSHOLTZ, J. S., aPruss. botanist, 1623-1688. ELSNER, Ch. J. H., a Pruss.phys., 1777-1834. ELSNER, J., a Prussian theolog., 1692-1750. ELSNER, J. Th., a Polish theolog., 1717-1782. ELSTOB, W., an English antiquarian, 1673- 1714. His sister, Elizabeth, author of a Saxon grammar, &c, 1683-1756. ELSYNGE, H., a parliament, hist., 1598-1654. ELVIUS, P., a Swed. astronomer, 1710-1749. ELWES, John, a notorious miser, 1714-1789. ELYOT, Sir Th., an English moralist, d. 1546. ELZEVIR, a distinguished name in the history of literature, borne by a family of printers, re- markable for the choice and beautiful execution of their works. Louis, the first of the family known to biographers, was a bookseller of Leyden, close of the 16th cent. M ATTHEW i hi son i born 1565, was a bookseller at Leyden 1618. Isaac, eldest son of Matthew, and first printer of the family, Leyden, 1617-1628. Bona venture and Abraham, brothers of the preceding, and the most famous of the familv, partners at Leyden, 1626-1652. John, son of Abraham, bora 1622, in partnership with his cousin Daniel, 1652-1654, died 1661. Daniel, the last printer of the family, son of Bonaventure, bom 1617, after the death of John associated with his cousin Louis, who had long flourished at Amsterdam, died 1680. The Elzevir edition of the classics, and other works, are still held in high esteem for their correctness and beauty. ELZHEIMER, A., a Ger. painter, 1574-1620. EMADI, a famous Persian poet, d. 1275. EMANUEL, a Heb. poet and gram., 13th cent. EMANUEL, surnamed the ' Great,' king of Por- tugal, born 1469, succeeded 1495, died 1521. EMANUEL, duke of Savoy. See Philibert. EMERIC, or HENRY, k. of Hungary, 1196-1204. EMERIJON, B. M., a Fr. jurist, 1725-1785. EMERY, Ja. A., a Fr. theologian, 1732-1811. EMERY, John, an English actor, 1777-1822. EMERY, M. Particelli D', a French financier under Mazarin, historian of Mantua, died 1650. EMILIANUS,procl.emp.ofRomeandmurd.253. EMILIUS. See .Emilius. EMLYN,Hehry, an Eng. architect, 1729-1815. EMLYN, Thomas, anonconf. theo., 1663-1743. EMMERY, J. Z. Cl., Count De Grozyeulx, a Fr. statesman, dep. to the states-gen., 1752-1823. ENG EMMETT. Robert Emmett, the son of a physician at Cork, was born in 1780. While quite a Tad he took an active part in the efforts made by the association called the United Irishmen, to separate Ireland from Great Britain, and establish her as an independent republic in 1798. When these attempts failed, Robert Emmett escaped to France, where he remained till the winter of 1802. He then returned to Dublin, and strove to reor- ganize the Irish malcontents, and renew the rebel- lion. On the 23d of July, 1803, a rising in Dub- lin took place at Emmett's directions ; but the in- surgent mob of the Irish capital proved as cowardly as they were furious ; and Emmett, in disgust at the outrages which they committed, and finding himself utterly unable to rule the storm that lie i had raised, escaped from the rabble rout and the troops, who, after some strange delay, appeared, and more easily put them down. Emmett re- mained for a short time concealed among the Wicklow mountains; but, returning to Dublin, was tracked, apprehended, tried, and convicted of high treason. He was executed on the 20th Sep- tember, 1803. He met his fate with manly cour- age and Christian resignation ; and his whole demeanour, both at his trial and on the scaffold, gained for him the pitying admiration of many, who, while they condemned his erroneous theories, and his mischievously rash enthusiasm, felt com- pelled to pay homage to the purity of his motives, the fervour of his eloquence, and the excellence of his general character. His fate, and that of Miss Curran, the lady to whom he was engaged, form the subjects of two of the finest and most popular of Moore's Irish melodies. [E.S.C.] EMMETT, Th. Addis, a barrister, elder brother of the Irish patriot, escaped to Amer. and d. 1827. EMMIUS, Abbo, a German divine, 1547-1826. EMO, Angelo, a Venetian statesman, 1731-92. EMPECINADO, the surname of Don J. M. Diez, a Spanish warrior and patriot, exec. 1825. EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher of the school of Pythagoras, the first who added to the doctrine of metempsychosis the transmigration of souls into vegetables, the first also to distinguish love and hate as moving forces, and to describe the four elements as fundamental differences of matter. He was a man of distinguished patriot- ism, and some curious traditions are related of him. . Lived about the middle of the 5th ct. B.C. EMPSON, Wm, F.R.S.L., prof, of law at Hayle- bury college ; an able critic and scholar, d. 1852. EMSER, Jerome, a German catholic theolo- gian, dist. as an opponent of Luther, 1477-1527. ENDEL, Manoah, a Polish rabbi, died 1585. ENFIELD, Dr. William, author of 'The Speaker,' and other works, a dissenting minister, and teacher of the Belles Lettres at Warrington Academy, 1741-1797. ENGEL, John James, a German philosopher, dramatic writer, and literary savant, professor of morals and liter, at Berlin, 1741-1802. His brother, Ch. Christian, a man of letters, 1752-1801. ENGEL, Sam., a Swiss geographer, 1702-84. ENGELBERT, a theologian of Styria, d. 1331. ENGELBRECHT, John, a Gennan visionary, was born at Brunswick 1599, and died in his na- tive place, after wandering from city to city, in 1642. His father was a tailor, and John was ap- 222 ENG prenticed to the same business, but his health failed him, his malady being augmented by the severity of his religious practices, and he assumed the character of a prophet as early as 1622. There can be no doubt about the reality of his trances, and also that he possessed the extraordinary faculty of going without food or drink for many days together, and of sleeping for almost incredible periods. The ' Works, and Divine Visions, and Revelations, of John Engelbrecht.' were first pub- lished in German in 1625. The 'Visions' were translated into English by the learned Francis Okeley in 1780. The most striking of these is a vision of the three states, the ecclesiastical, the civil, and the economical: besides which he de- scribes a ' Vision of Heaven and Hell,' a ' Vision of the New Heaven and the New Earth,' and ' Of the Mountain of Salvation.' The vision of the ' Three States ' is evidently symbolic, and more in- dependent of Engelbrecht's idiosyncracy than the others, which take their colour from his precon- ceived notions. His appeals to the moral and re- ligious sense of his readers are energetic, and carry along with them the fullest evidence of their sincerity. His grand mistake is that into which Quakers and enthusiasts of all classes have be- trayed themselves the supposition that their glimpses of spiritual things are necessarily an in- spiration of the Holy Spirit. Okeley's edition of Engelbrecht contains a notice of John William Francis Petersen, and his wife Joanna Eleanora de Merlan, both famous visionaries, and a specifi- cation of Engelbrecht's works in the complete German edition of 1761. [E.R.] ENGELBRECHT - ENGELBRECHTSON, a leader of the Dalecarlians, in whose quarrel he marched upon Stockholm, defeated Eric XIII., and was named administrator of Sweden, together with Canuteson, whom he assassinated, 1436. ENGELGRAVE, H., a Flem. ascetic, 1610-70. ENGELHARDT, C. A., a Ger. jurist, 1768-1834. ENGESTROEM, J., a Swedish Orientalist, 1699-1777. His son Eustace, a mineralogist, 1738-1813. Laurence, another son, an am- bassador and statesman, 1751-1826. ENGHIEN. See Conde, Louis Ant. Henry. ENNIUS, Quintus, a Latin poet, 239-169 b.c. ENNODIUS, Magnus Felix, a divine of the Roman church, by descent a Gaul, 473-521. ENOCH, in Scripture a son of Cain (Gen. iv. 17), and a son of Jared (Gen. v. 18). EXT, George, an English physician, noted for his defence of the discov. of Harvey, 1604-1689. EXTICK, or ENTINCK, John, a miscellane- ous writer, author of a spelling dictionary, a hist. of London, a Latin and Eng. diet., &c, 1713-1773. KYI IX OPUS, the first architect and founder of Venice, b. in Candia about the end of the 3d ct. EXTUECASTEAUX, Jo. Ant. Brune, D\ admiral of the French fleets in the East Indies, was bom at Aix, in Provence, 1740. In 1791 he was sent out by France in search of La Perouse ; and, the nature of the inquiry leading him to keep near shore, he ascertained with great exactness the out- many coasts. New Holland, W. and S.W. ! asmania, New Caledonia, &c, have been accurately delineated by him. He failed in de- tecting any trace of the celebrated navigator, and died before returning home, in the vicinity of Java, EPA 1793. _ Rossel, who succeeded him in command, has written an account of the voyage, 2 vols. 4to, 1808. [J.B.] ENZINA, a poet of Old Castile, 15th century. ENZINAS, F. De, an Andalusian Jesuit, and missionary to the Philippine Islands, 1570-1632. EOBANUS, Helius, a German poet and pro- fessor of eloquence, born in Hesse 1488, died 1540. EOGAN, EOGHAINN, EOGHANN,or EOAN, names which figure in the old Irish annals as the half-fabulous stock of the houses of O'Brien, MacCarthy, O'Neil. and O'Donnel, reaching as far back as the 3d century b.c. The chiefs of the last two were created peers of Ireland in the reign of James L, the first with the title of earl of Ty- rone, the second as earl of Tyrconnel. EON, a French visionary of the 12th century, who believed himself to be meant by the accusa- tive in the liturgical phrase Per eum qui venturus est judicare, &c, and professed to have visions and perform miracles in proof of his mission. He gained many proselytes, and gave them new names, such as 'Wisdom,' 'Terror,' 'Judgment,' and others equally striking. Eon died in prison about 1148, and his followers were consigned to the flames. EON DE BEAUMONT. See D'Eon. EPAMINONDAS, the Theban statesman and general, was of noble descent, but was born and reared in poverty. Of*his early life little is known beyond the fact that he was educated in, and adopted the doctrines of Pythagoras ; his public life extends from the restoration of democracy by Pelopidas and the other Theban exiles in b.c. 379, to the battle of Mantineia in b.c. 362. In the conspiracy which restored the independence of his native city he took no part, refusing to stain his hands with the blood of his countrymen ; but no sooner were the usurpers expelled than he became the prime mover in the Theban state, and claimed for Thebes the right of controlling the other cities of Bceotia. Impressed with these opinions he went to Sparta as ambassador in B.C. 371, to negotiate peace ; and his claim being rejected by the Spartans, Cleombrotus was sent to invade Bceotia. The contending parties met at Leuctra, b.c. 371, when the total defeat of the Spartans not only established the supremacy of the Thebans, but put an end to the superiority in arms which had been conceded to their opponents. Having thus succeeded in the first object of his ambition, he next conceived the design of substituting Thebes for Sparta as the ruling democratieal state in Greece, and for this purpose marched an army into the Peloponnesus m the winter of B.C. 369, when he inflicted a serious blow on the power of Sparta. A second expedition into the Pelopon- nesus in B.C. 368 proving unsuccessful, Epamin- ondas was disgraced ; and for some time his name does not appear in connection with any public measure. In a third expedition which he con- ducted in B.C. 366, he greatly extended the in- fluence of Thebes, gaining over to her interests, without bloodshed, the whole democratic confedera- tion in the Peloponnesus. Our limits prevent us from entering into the reasons which led to the downfall of the Theban influence. Achaia, Elis, and great part of Arcadia, returned to the alliance with Sparta ; and it was to check tins defection 223 EPA that Epaminondas invaded the relnponnesns ibr the fourth and last time in B.C. 362. The Spar- tans, along with the disaffected states, and aided by the Athenians, were prepared for the contest. The two armies met near M.mtineia, a city of Ar- cadia; and in the battle which ensued, Epaminon- das displayed with consummate skill the peculiar tactics to which he owed his celebrity ; but when in the full career of victory, he received a mortal wound, and was carried from the field. His army was thereby paralyzed, and no further attempt was made to follow up the victory. His private life was free from reproach ; and his public con- duct was regulated by a sincere love of his country. Before Epaminondas was bom, says Nepos, and after his death, Thebes was always subject to some foreign power; on the contrary, while he presided over her councils, she was at the head of Greece. [G.F.] EPARCHUS, Anth., a Greek poet, 16th cent. EPEE, Chas. Michel De L', a French abbe\ distinguished for his benevolence as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, fndr. of an asylum, 1712-1789. EPHORUS, a Gr. orator and hist., 363-300 b.c. EPHRAIM, the second son born to Joseph in Egypt by Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah. EPHRAIM, St., a Christian writer, 4th cent. EPHRAIM, an Armenian patriarch, 1734-84. EPICHARMUS, a Pythagorean philosopher and poet, au. of treatises on philosophy and medicine, and the sivpposed inventor of comedy, 5th ct. B.C. EPICTETUS, lived about 90 years after Christ. He is essentially the moralist or Rome a Stoic ; for Stoicism is simply the Roman character and genius represented in theory. The original monu- ments of his doctrine have mostly perished. EPICURUS, born at Athens 341 B.C.: he flourished after the decline of Speculative Philo- sophy, and when the irretrievable disruption of national affairs in Greece had repressed the Heroic in Action. At such a time, he taught with accep- tance that pleasure is the sole good, and that other aims are only the disturbances of humanity. The theoretical opinions of Epicurus were identical with those of all modern sensational Schools. We do not refer to his physical or cosmogonic specula- tions, which in the main he borrowed from Demo- critus; but to his conception of the origin and ground of human knowledge and thought. Hu- man knowledge, he said, flows from our sensations, which alone do not deceive: beyond the im- mediate results of sensation, we are conscious of what he termed ' anticipations,' meaning thereby simple generalizations, or classifications of our sensible experience: to such, add our 'passions,' or desire of pleasure and aversion from pain ; and the contents of the human mind are summed up. From a philosophy of this character, no other sys- tem of practical morals than that inculcated by Epicurus ever can arise. If the existence of uni- versal and necessaiy Ideas be ignored, an impera- tive in morals cannot be conceived of, nor will the name Duty have any meaning. Right denied, as an independent reality or a Law by itself, there is nothing for it as a rule of action, save the estimate of consequences ; and the only criterion by which we can value or measure consequences is their ten- dency to produce pleasure or pain. The fundamental problem in Morals thus corresponds with the specu- EPI lative problem whether the human mind is capable of apprehending the Absolute and Imperative, or' whether knowledge is simply empirical: neverthe- 1 less among empirical systems there is also a great 1 variety. Granting that pleasure is the aim of ac- tion, it remains to determine wherein man's true pleasure consists? The actual scheme of Epi-I curus is certainly not the lowest of which we have] record; but it would be wrong to pretend that it is a very elevated one. His maxims may be thus rendered: Accept and aim at any pleasure which will not be followed by any pain. Avoid pain that brings no pleasure. Avoid ever}' plea- sure that would deprive you of a greater pleasure, or cause a pain greater than the pleasure. Accept any pain that might free you from a greater pain, or that must be followed by a pleasure more in- tense than the pain. The ' virtue ' par excellence in such a system is prurience ; but it admits of others ; and Epicurus inculcated temperance, cour- age, energy to resist superstition and imaginary terrors, and justice on the ground that honesty is the best policy. He was himself temperate and benevolent ; disinterestedness seemed one of his necessities; he lived on water and crust, and in the midst of a fearful famine, he divided with his disciples his mite. He renounced what is ordi- narily called pleasure, because its enjoyments could not last ; not like Zeno, who repudiated it as evil, and incompatible with the freedom of the sage. We have only a few fragments of the writings of Epicurus; but his system is explained by Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, and many others : Diogenes Laertius discourses concerning it very copiously. Like Democritus, Epicurus owes much to the im- mortal song of Lucretius. [J.P.N.] EPIMENIDES, a philosopher and poet of the 6th century B.C., supposed to be the first who in- troduced the consecration of temples, the purifica-i tion of countries, cities, and private houses, into Greece, where he was held for an infallible prophet. EPLNAY, Madame De La Live D', or by her maiden name, Louise Florence Petkoxii/le, a French lady, celebrated for her attachment to, Rousseau, and as the authoress of ' Les Conversa- tions d' Emilie,' &c, 1725-1783. EPIPHANIUS, one of the Greek fathers, d. 403. EPIPHANIUS, surnamed 'The Scholastic,' Latin translator of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theo- doret, 6th century. EPISCOPIUS, Simon, whose surname in his own tongue was Bisschop, was born at Amster- dam in 1583. Sent to the university of Leyden in 1600, his inquisitive and ardent mind soon in-, volved him in the raging controversies of the time.' Ordained a pastor at Bleswyck in 1610, he was in a very short time chosen to be the advocate of the j Arminian party, at a conference which was held at| the Hague, and was at length raised to the chair of \ theology at Leyden, on the deposition of Vorstius. ( At the synod of Dort he was the accredited cham- pion of the Remonstrants, or Arminians. The vic- torious Calvinist, or Gomarist party, disgraced i their cause by inflicting civil pains and penalties i on their opponents. Episcopius was deposed and banished. The exile spent a short time in France, , then returning to Holland he became pastor of the church of the Remonstrants at Rotterdam, and re- moved finally to the rectorship of the Arunnian 224 EPO rmnasium at Amsterdam, where he died in 543. Episcopius was the divine of the Arminian irty ; reducing to a system the scattered views id unadjusted conceptions of his master Armi- us. His writings display no common shrewdness, irsatility, and eloquence ; the product of an ad- mturous and active spirit, that had a special lish in questioning ancient dogmas and unset- ing common belief. His power lay, however, ore in assault than defence ; he could sap and ine with fully more dexterity than he could erect new and symmetrical edifice. His life was writ- n by Limborch, a relative, and his theological orks were collected by Curcellaeus and Poellen- irg, in two folios, and published at Amsterdam 550-65, and reprinted at London 1678. [J.E.] EPO, Bcetius, a lawyer of Friesland, 1529-99. EPONINA, the wife of Julius Sabinus, a noble- an of Gaul, defeated in a revolt against Ves- isian, celebrated for her constancy and devotion, id executed with her husband 78. EPREMESNIL. See Espremenil. EQUICOLA, Mario, an Ital. hist., 1460-1541. ERACLIUS, a Rom. artist and art-wr., 11th c. ERARD, Sebastian, a native of Strasburg, lebrated for his pianos and harps, 1752-1831. ERASISTRATUS, a Gr. physician, 4th c. B. c. ERASMUS, an illegitimate son of Gerard, a azen of Tergou, was born at Rotterdam 28th Oct., :67. His paternal name he changed into Desire^ miable,' and afterwards prolonged into Desi- rius Erasmus the first a Latin, and the second Greek appellation, both with the same meaning the Dutch Gerard. He usually signed himself rasmus Roterodamus. He received his first edu- tion at Daventer, where the future Pope Adrian [. was his schoolfellow. But Erasmus was only irteen years of age when both his parents died, id the three guardians to whose care the orphan is left, squandered his property, and to gain the hole of his patrimony, as well as to conceal their llany, forced him into a monastery at Balduc, in rabant. Thence he was taken to another religious rase near Delft, and he assumed the vows at Stein 1486, having entered among the regular canons, lckily for the young scholar he was not buried a convent, as his Latin scholarship gained him e notice of Henry a Bergues, bishop of Cambray, bo kept him for a time as his private secretary, td then sent him to Paris to prosecute his studies, i the French capital the youngliterary Dutchman is in abject poverty, teaching a few pupils for re, nay for years he wandered about the conti- nt and in England, subsisting on the precari- is bounty of admirers. He visited this country r the first time in 1497, at the invitation of Lord ountjoy, and won the esteem of its most illus- ions men, such as Sir Thomas More, Dean Colet, nacre, Grocyn, and others, and published his r orice Encomium, Praise of Folly. In 1506 he avelled into Italy, took a doctor's degree at irin, obtained from Pope Julian II. a final release wi his monastic vows, and joyfully put on the ack tunic of the seculars. He spent some time Bologna, and resided for a short season at Venice ith the renowned printer Aldus Manutius, an d pub- hed his A dagia. At the invitation of Henry VII I., 1510, he revisited England, and taught in Cam- idge as a lecturer on Greek, and as Lady Mar- ERA garet professor of theology. But his itinerations were not over, for in 1514 he returned to the con- tinent ; and at the archducal request of him who was afterwards Charles V., he repaired as counsellor to Brabant. After several changes he removed to Basel in 1521, the scene of his highest literary labours, in conjunction with the printer Froben. In 1529, when the refonnation triumphed in Basel, the timid satirist of monks and popish cere- monies took refuge in Freiburg ; but in 1535 he returned. His health was now declining; gout and gravel had for some years severely tormented him ; his feeble frame was seized with dysentery, and he died at Basel on the 12th of July, 1536. The literary toils of Erasmus were incessant. Besides his invaluble labours in connection with the revival of learning, his most popular efforts were his satiri- cal assaults on the monastic orders, in his famous ' Colloquies,' and other productions. But his great work was the publication of the Greek Testament, out of various manuscripts, in 1516, folio, accom- panied with a new Latin translation. The Tes- tament was reprinted in 1519, 1522, 1527, and 1535. In the first year mentioned he also published the works of Jerome. He composed likewise a series of paraphrases on the New Testament, many of which display an admirable talent for exegesis. In his various prefaces and dedications, he nobly, eloquently, and repeatedly vindicated the open circulation of the inspired volume in the vernacu- lar languages of Europe. These publications raised up hosts of enemies to him, who called him heresiarch and forger, and he shrunk from suffering on account of protestant truth and freedom. With Luther, whom he at first eulogized, he maintained a bitter and protracted controversy about the ' Free- dom of the Will.' That his writings largely contri- buted to the success of the reformation there is not a doubt, though himself wanted the faith and courage to be a thorough reformer. His scholarship was extensive and elegant, his industry was unceas- ing, his Latinity is generally pure, his wit was ever sparkling in pleasant variety, his company was a scene of refined enjoyment, his fund of anecdote was inexhaustible, and the love of literature was the passion of his nature. Latin was more fami- liar to him than his mother tongue. Among his works, not already referred to, are his learned disser- tation, De recta Latini Grmcique Sermonis pronun- tiatione, his ' Letters,' full of interesting informa- tion ; his treatise, De Copia Verborum et Rerum, in which he insists on diversity of illustration and style ; his Ciceronianus, in which he heartily ridi- cules such pedants as would not use a Latin term unless it had the sanction of the great Roman orator; his Christian Soldier's Manual; and his EcclesiaMes, or the Art of Preaching, published not long before his death. The best edition of his col- lected works is in 11 volumes folio, Leyden, 1703-6. The first edition, in 9 volumes, Basel, 1540, was condemned to the flames by Pope Paul IV. [J.E.] ERASTUS, Thomas, a physician of Baden, better known in ecclesiastical history for his opin- ions in theology and church government, the fun- damental principle of which is, that the church should exercise no coercive power except through the arm of the civil magistrate. The Erastians in the Long Parliament were opposed to the presby- terians ; and in the Church of England, Bishop 225 ERA Parker may be considered the chief of this school. Erastus was born in 1524, and d. in Basle, 1583. ERATH, A. U. D., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1709-73. ERATOSTHENES, an astronomer of Alexan- dria ; died 194 B.C. He is distinguished in history for having first conceived the plan of measuring the earth. The means employed were the shadow of a style at Alexandria, and the distance of Alexandria from Syene, where the sun is vertical at solstice. His result was surprisingly near the truth, making a degree to be about 80 English miles : it is about 69. ERBACH, Chr., a Ger. composer, 16th cent. ERCHEMBERT, a Lombard historian, 9th c. ERCILLA-Y-ZUNIGA, Don Aeonso De, a gallant soldier in the service of Philip II., distin- guished in the wars of Spanish America, where his experience furnished the materials for the earliest epic poem of his native country, entitled ' La Araucana,' by which he is best known in France and England ; born 1525, died 1595. ERDESWICKE, T., an Engl, antiqu., d 1603. EREM1TA, D., a Flemish savant, 1584-1613. ERIC. The Swedish kings of this name of whom anything is known are Eric Edmund- son, Upsala king, died 885. Eric the Victo- rious, son of the preceding, and joint successor with his brother Olave ; celebrated for his victory over Styrbiom, son of the latter, who claimed the inheritance on his father's death; died 993, or soon after. Two kings, both bearing the name of Eric, contended for the throne in the civil war which broke out about 1066, and in this war both the kings and all the chief Swedes are said to have fallen. Besides these, four other Erics must have been known traditionally St. Eric, who reigned 1155-1160, being called Eric IX. After him comes Eric Canuteson, or Eric X., grandson of the preceding, called the good-harvest king, reigned 1210-1216. Eric Ericson, or Eric XL, a grave and righteous prince, in whom the race of St. Eric expired, reigned 1222-1250. Eric XIL, of the house of the Folkungers, who rose to power during the reign of the preceding : king during the life- time of his father, Magnus Ladislas, and at length poisoned by his mother, Blanche of Namur, 1350- 1359. Eric XIIL of Sweden, and VII. of Den- mark, before his election, duke of Pomerania, chosen in Sweden 1396; co-regent with Margaret of Waldemar to his dethronement by Engelbrecht- Engelbrechtson in 1434, and after that, having been again acknowledged, dethroned in all the three kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, at the death of that princess, 1439. Eric XIV., son of Gustavus Vasa, born 1533, succeeded 1560, compelled to abdicate by his brothers 1569, poi- soned in prison 1577. ERIC. The kings of Denmark of this name are nine in number two unknown in the 9th century, and then Eric I., called 'the Good, 1 reigned 1095- 1105. Eric II., reigned 1134-1137. Eric III., called 'the Lamb,' succeeded the preceding, and ab- dicated 1147. Eric IV., appointed by his brother, Abel, reigned 1242-1250. Eric v., succeeded 1259, assassinated 1286. Eric VI., reigned 1286- 1319. Eric VII., same as Eric XIIL of Sweden ERIC AXELSON, adminis. of Sweden,1466-7. ERICEIRA, Ferdinand De Menezes, Count De, a soldier, statesman, and historian of Portu- gal, 1614-1699. His grandson, Francis Xavler, ERN distinguished by his military talents and his learn- ing, author of ' The Henriqueida,' a poem, 1673 1743. The mother of the preceding, Jane Jose- phine De Menezes, distinguished for her liter ary works, died 1709. "ERIGENA, John Scotus, who seems from his surname to have been a native of Ireland and not of Scotland, was born about the beginning of the ninth century. He is often confounded with a Saxon monk whom King Alfred invited to England, and placed over his college at Oxford. Erigena spent the most of his time in France, and at the court of Charles the Bold. About the year 850 he wrote against Gottschalk on predestination ; and he also published a work on the Lord's Supper, de Corpora et Sanguine Domini, in which he com- bated the doctrine of transubstantiation. His theological writings were condemned by the coun- cil of Valence in 855, and that of Tangres in 859. But the great work of this schoolman is that named de Divisione Naturae, &c, printed at Ox ford by Thomas Gale in 1681. It is divided into five books, and is composed in the form of a dia- logue. This vast and amazing essay treats of great variety of subjects of God,*and the know- ledge of God of being, and its kinds and modes of the world, of sin and its nature, &c. in which abstruse and subtle discussions, a species of mys- tical pantheism, may be easily discovered. Erigen was well versed in Greek, and was deeply imbued with Neo-platonism, with those ideas and modest of thought which are associated with the names o:' Plotinus and Proclus. Hebrew and Arabic he , also acquired in his travels. Few, if any of contemporaries, could match this remarkable man either in genius or acquirements, in dialectics or sentiment, in intellectual acumen or in stores of erudition. His popularity was greater two centuries after his death, than during his life. The pseudo- Dionysian writings were translated by him, and these contributed also to mould the literature ol these mediaeval times. Various portions of his works have been discovered and published at dif- ferent times by Ducange, Mabillon, Angelo Mai! and MM. Ravaison and Cousin. The influence: which 'this meteor of the 9th century' exercisec on his own and succeeding ages by his profound and daring speculations in philosophy and theo- i logy was immense. He is supposed to have diec in France about the year 875. [J.E.J ERINNA, a Greek poetess, date unknown. ERIZZO, Sebastiano, a Venetian senator anc antiq., author of a work on numismatics, 1525-611 ERMENGARDE, daughter of Louis II., kg. ol; Italv, wife of Boson 1. 877, regent of Aries from 888! ERMERIC, or HERMENRIC, k. of the Swede* in Spain in the reign of Honorius, 409, died 440. ERNEST, duke of Saxe-Gotha, distinguished for his zeal in astronomy, and for his practica knowledge of that science, 1741-1804. ERNESTI, John Augustus, a celebrated Ger-j ! man critic, professor of literature and theology a; Leipzig, author of a great number of philological,' critical, and theological writings, editor of Home, and other classics, &c, 1707-1781. Augustus Wieeiam, his nephew, also a distinguished xavunt 1733-1801. John Christopher TheophiMJI another nephew, brother of the preceding, prof, o philosophy, editor of Greek classics, &c, 1756-1802; 226 EBN ERNST, IT., a German savant, 1G03-16G5. ERNSTING, C, a Germ, botanist, 1709-1768. EROSTRATUS, the celebrated incendiary who ed the temple of Diana at Ephesns, 856 B.C. ERSCH, John S., a German bibl., 1766-1828. ERSKINE, David, Lord Dun, an eminent ottish lawyer, and mem. of parlia., 1670-1755. ERSKINE, Henry, a presbyterian divine, suf- ed imprisonment under the Act of Uniformity, d finally minister of Chumside in Berwick, 24-1696. Ebenezer, his son, founder of the cession Church of Scotland, 1680-1754. Ralph, other son, and seceder along with his brother, thor of Sermons, &c, 1685-1752. ERSKINE, John, a Scottish theol., 1721-1803. ERSKINE, John, baron of Dun, a descendant the earls of Mar, dist. as a reformer, 1508-91. ERSKINE, Thomas, Baron, a lawyer and dis- iguished orator, the youngest son of David, earl Buchan, was born about the year 1748. He longed to a family of which some members were narkable for their genius, others for their folly, d he seemed in himself to be a union of these alities. He studied at the High School of Edin- rgh, and the University of St. Andrew's, enter- l successively the navy and army, before, from ne influence not explained, he began to study v. In his earlier years he acquired a meteoric rotation as a brilliant and fascinating master of ivivial conversation. He was called to the bar 1778. One of his earliest cases involved an ex- sure in that fertile field of political abuses, the miralty, when it was shown that landsmen re rated to seamen's pensions for electioneering rposes. He at once rushed into full practice, d was employed in every case where a brilliant nunciatory oratory of which he was an unri- lled master was desired. In 1783 he entered 3 House of Commons in Fox's interest, but the rid style of his oratory so captivating to a 7 or on the hustings failed to please that fas- iious audience. He was counsel in many his- ical cases, and performed heroically that duty the advocate which prompts him to shrink from thing, which, however much it may compromise i own taste, interest, or safety, appears likely to nefit the cause intrusted to him. His eminence an advocate made it necessary that he should appointed Lord Chancellor in the short accession 1806 of the Fox and Grenville ministry. The udence of the selection was much doubted ; and whs not fortunate for its object, since he had ac- mulated no wealth to support his position as a er.^ The strange eccentricities of his latter years, tering deeply into his domestic affairs, and mak- J, them matter of unpleasant notoriety, would ve rendered his claims embarrassing had he seen ! friends again in power. He died on the 17th November, 1823. [J.H.B.] ERXLEBEN, Dorothy Christina Leporin, adame, a lady who took a doctor's degree at the iyersity of Halle, author of a work on the culti- tion of the sciences by women, 1715-1762. Her n, John Christian Polycarp Erxlerkn, 'ting, as a philosopher and naturalist, 1744-77. ES, J. Van, a Flemish painter, 16th century. ESAR-HADDON, or SARGON, a king of tfyria (Isaiah xx). ESAU, the eldest of Isaac, sup. date 1836 b.c. EST ESCHENBACH, A. C, a German philologist, professor and deacon at Nuremburg, 1663-1722. ESCHENBACH, W. D', a Ger. poet, 13th cent. ESCHENMAYER, C. A., professor of philoso- phy at Tubingen, a disciple of Schelling, and after- wards the founder of a mystic doctrine, of which philosophy forms an elementary part. His works are, ' Philosophy in its State of Transition to No- philosophy,' 1803 ; 'Psychology,' 1822; 'The Philosophy of Religion,' in three parts ; ' Rational- ism,' 1818 ; ' Mysticism,' 1822 ; and ' Superna- turalism,' 1824. Eschenmayer died in 1822. ESCOIQUIZ, Don Juan, a Spanish author and diplomatist, 1762-1820. ESDRAS, a eel. Jewish doctor, 5th cent. b.c. ESDRAS, a patriarch of Armenia, died 639. ESMENARD, J. A., a Fr. miscel. wr., 1770-1811. ESPER, J. F., a German naturalist and astro- nomer, 1732-1781. His brother, Eugene, a natu- ralist, au. of ' European Butterflies,' &c, 1742-1801. ESPERIENTE, P. C, an Ital. hist., 1437-96. ESPERNON, J. L. De Nogaret De La Va- lette, Due D', originally known as Caumont when he attached himself to Henry of Navarre, was one of the most important persons in the reigns of Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. His intrigues at court were opposed to those of the Due de Guise, and afterwards of Richelieu, and he was the chief instrument in investing Marie de Medicis with the regency; born 1554, died 1642. ESPREMENIL, Jean Jacques Duval D', councillor of the parliament of Paris, and one of the first, movers of the revolution by his opposi- tion to the edicts of Lomenie Brienne; born at Pondicherry, in the East Indies, 1746, guillotined 1794. ESSEX. See Devereux. ESSEX, Jas., an English architect, 1723-1784. ESTAING, Ch. Hector, Count D', a French officer dist. in India and in the American war agt. the English, exe. as a counter-revolutionist, 1794. ESTAMPES, Anne De Pisselue, Duchess D', a celebrated court intriguante, mistress of Francis I., 1508-1576. ESTE, an illustrious house of Italy, from which the house of Brunswick is derived, and which owes its origin to the Carlovingian era, at the beginning of the 9th century. The most celebrated names are Albert Azzo D'Este, the first who possessed the city of that name, 1020-1117. Obizzo, first marquis of Este, lord of Padua in 1182, and afterwards marquis of Milan and Genoa. His son, Azzo V., who by his marriage acquired the sove- reignty of Ferrara, and became chief of the Guelfs of Venice, died 1192. Azzo VI., son of the pre- ceding, lord of Ferrara and Verona, died 1264. Hercules I., lord of Ferrara and Modena, whose court was graced by Ariosto, Bo'iardo, the Strozzi, &c, 1471-1505. His son, Alphonso, married to Lucretia Borgia 1502, a party to the league of Cambrai, reigned 1505-1534. Hippolytus, brother of Alphonso, and cardinal of Este, a patron of letters, partizan of Louis XII., and historian of the war of the French against the Venetians, 1479-1520. Alphonso II., grandson of the first of that name, duke of Ferrara and Modena, dis- tinguished as a patron of arts and letters, 1533- 1597. Caesar, an illegitimate descendant of Alphonso I., reigned at Modena 1597-1628. 227 EST Renaud, a partizan of Austria in the war of succession, and duke of Modena, 1655-1737. Hercules III., grandson of Renaud, and, like him, duke of Modena, was the last of this house in Italy, and his estates passed to Austria, by the marriage of his daughter with the archduke Fer- dinand, 1727-1797. ESTERHAZY, a noble family of Hungary, the best known of whom are Paul IV., Esteriiazy De Galantha, a general and literary savant, 1635-1713. His grandson, Nicholas Joseph, a great patron of arts and music, founder of the school in which Haydn and Pleyel, among others, were formed, 1714-1790. Nicholas, Prince D'Esterhazy De Galantha, dist. as a field- marshal and foreign ambassador, 1765-1833. ESTHER, queen of Persia, 6th century B.C. ESTIUS, W., a Dutch theologian, 1542-1613. ESTREES, an ancient and noble house of France, the best known of which are Jean D'Estrees, an artillery officer distinguished at the taking of Calais, 1480-1571. His son, Anthony, the defender of Noyon, and governor of the Isle of France, 1593. Gabrielle, the daughter of Anthony, duchess of Beaufort, and mistress of Henry IV., supposed to have been poisoned, 1571- 1599. Her brother, F. Annibal, duke and mar- shal, author of the ' Memoirs of the Regency of Marie De Medicis,' 1573-1670. His son, Jean, vice-admiral and Comte D'Estrees, appointed viceroy of America, 1624-1707. Caesar, brother of Jean, a cardinal and negotiator, 1628-1714. Jean, nephew of the preceding, foreign ambassa- dor, 1666-1718. Victor Marie, Due D'Estrees, son of the vice-admiral Jean, a distinguished naval commander, 1660-1737. Louis Caesar Letellier, Comte D'Estrees, a commander of the German army, when he defeated Cumberland, and marshal of France, 1695-1771. ETH, a king of Scotland, deposed 875. ETHELBALD, a k. of Mercia, reigned 716-55. ETHELBALD, the third Saxon k. of England, has the character of a profligate prince, 857-860. ETHELBERT, a k. of Kent, reigned 560-616. ETHELBERT, the fourth Saxon k. of England, son of Ethelwolf and brother of Ethelbald, 860-866. ETHELFLEDA, or ELFLEDA, daughter of Alfred the Great, and wife of Ethelred, count of Mercia, died 922. ETHELFRID, or ADELFRID, king of Nor- thumberland, killed in battle, 593-617. ETHELRED I., fifth Saxon king of England, predecessor of Alfred the Great, 866-871. ETHELRED II., son of Edgar and Elfrida, sue. Edward the Martyr as k. of England, 978, d. 1016. ETHELWOLF, the second Saxon king of Eng- land, son of Egbert, whom he succeeded in 838, and father of Ethelbald, died 857. ETHEREDGE, Sir George, an English dramatist and song-writer, 17th century. ETOILE, Pierre De L', a French chancery officer, whose journal has supplied much curious matter to the historian, under the reigns of Henry III. and Henry IV., 1540-1611. His son, Claude, a dramatic writer, 1597-1652. ETTMULLER, Mich., a Ger. phys., 1644-83. ETTMULLER, M. Ernest, son of the preced- ing, author of various memoirs, and editor of his father's writings, 1673-1732. EUD ETTY, William, R.A., was born at YorlcJ March 10, 1787. His father was a miller. In 1798 he was apprenticed to a letterpress printer at Hull, but having served his time, forsook thej mechanical art of printing for the more exciting! profession of a painter. Etty commenced thisi hazardous enterprise in London, in 1805, when he entered as a student of the Royal Academy, and,' became also, through the liberality of an uncle, a private pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence's for] twelve months, but received very little attention! from him. For long his pictures were rejected both at the Royal Academy and the British;] Gallery, but after about fifteen years' toil bis for- ] tunes changed, he received gradually more of then fublic attention, and in 1822 was enabled to visit] taly, where he found in Venice the chief attrac-J tions ; he returned with many studies to London !j in 1824, and exhibited his picture of Pandora in j 1825, for which he was chosen an associate of thei academy, and he was elected an academician in 1827. Etty died at his native place, Novemberji 13, 1849, in his sixty-third year, leaving a con- siderable fortune. He was in every respect onejj of the most distinguished painters of the English, school, but especially excellent as a colourist;i some of his pictures rival Titian's, or any of thejf great Venetians, as gorgeous displays of colour| His great powers were well displayed in the com- prehensive exhibition of his works at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, in 1849, the summer only beforc| his death. In this exhibition were many mirable pictures, including the nine great works, the triumph of Etty's life and ambition, as ad-.] mitted by himself in his autobiography, published in the ' Art Journal ' of 1849. He explains these.;,' pictures as follows : ' My aim in all my great pic- tures has been to paint some great moral on the heart.' ' The Combat,' the beauty of mercy ; tht three 'Judith' pictures, patriotism, and self-i devotion to country, people, and God ; ' Benaiah; David's chief captain,' valour ; ' Ulysses and th( Syrens,' the importance of resisting sensual delightil or an Homeric paraphrase on ' The Wages o:j Sin is Death ; ' the three pictures of 'Joan of Arc,; religion, loyalty, and patriotism, like the modem Judith. In all nine great pictures, ' As it was rm desire to paint three times three.' [R.N.W. EUBULIDES, a philosopher of Miletus, bes : , known for the captions arguments and insolubk, questions with which he endeavoured to embarras: the empirics, but especially Aristotle ; he was tb|j disciple and successor of Euclid, and is said M have instructed Demosthenes; born about 360 b.c' EUBULUS, a Greek comic poet, 370 b.c. EUCLID, a mathemat. of Alexandria, who floor-/ ished300B.c. No name of antiquity is better known His digest of geometrical propositions is a schoolbool,, still. His works have been often edited and repub- lished. Barrow's edition is very valuable ; but thi, best known in this country is that by Robert Simson EUCLIDES, the first archon of Athens, b.c. 403 EUCLIDES, a disciple of Socrates, and i'oimde of the philosophic sect of Megara, by which the art of dialectic was carried to high perfection was living about 390 B.C. EUDjEMON, J. A., a learned Greek, d. 1625. EUDES, duke of Aquitaine, reigned 688-735. EUDES, duke of Burgundy; theirs* of th 228 EUD tme reigned 1078-1103 ; the second, 1142-1162 ; e third, 1192-1218 ; the fourth, 1315-1349. EUDES, or ODON, king of France, 887-898. EUDES, John, a mystic writer, born 1601. EUDOCIA, the name adopted on her conver- >n to Christianity by Athenais, the daughter of jontius, a philosopher of Athens, and wife of the iperor Theodosius the younger; she was celeb. r ner learning and magnificence, and was divorced consequence of aspiring to the government ; died religious retirement at Jerusalem about 460. EUDOXIA, daughter of the preceding, and wife the emperor Valentinian III., and of Maximus. EUDOXIUS, an heretical writer of the 4th ct. EUDOXUS, a Gr. astrono. lived abt. 370 B.C. EUGENE, Francis, of Savoy-Carignan, corn- only called Prince Eugene, grandson of Ch. nmanuel I., duke of Savoy, and son of Eugene aurice, count of Soissons, distinguished as neralissimo of the imperial armies, and as a com- ,nion-in-arms of Marlborough, 1663-1736. EUGENIUS, a Rom. emp., elect, and slain 394. EUGENIUS, St., abp. of Carthage, 481, d. 505. EUGENIUS, the first of the name pope of Rome 4-657 ; the second, 824-827 ; the third, 1145- 53 ; the fourth, 1431-1447. EUGENIUS, the first of the name king of Scot- id, date unknown; the second, 427-449; the Ird, reigned 535-557 ; the fourth, 605-620 ; the "th, died 692; the sixth, reigned 692-694; the venth, 704-721 ; the eighth, 761-764. EUGENIUS, an astronomer and bishop of >ledo, died 636 ; another of the same name, dis- iguished as ' the younger,' known as a theologi- 1 writer and poet, and bp. of Toledo, died 660. EUGENIUS BULGARIS, a Greek prelate, st. for his philos. and math, writings, 1716-1806. EULER, Leonard, born at Bale 1707, died at . Petersburg 1783 : one of the greatest analysts last century, not indeed ranking with Des Car- 3, Newton, or Leibnitz, but by the unbroken cord of the world of science, claiming equality side Daniel Bernouilli and D'Alembert. A bare talogue of the immense labours and voluminous itings of this illustrious person would occupy 1 our space: it may, indeed, be said of him, hil tetigit quodnon ornavit; and his eager genius, rpassing industry, and exhaustless resources, 1 him through all the sphere of mathematical id physical science. Living immediately after the scovery of the infinitesimal calculus, no man did much to unfold its powers and simplify its ethods ; his great works on that subject are still odels of composition : and amid what sprung >m his abundant, his amazing fertility, the rms are found of the most important of subse- icnt advances : his work on * Isoperimeters,' ay be said to have provoked the calculus of ariations of Lagrange. With Bernouilli, Euler vided several prizes ; these two great men ran a rikingly corresponding race. The work by lich he is popularly known is his * Letters to a :rman Princess,' a work instinct with acuteness, d evincing marvellous powers of exposition, but the whole, perhaps, his only failure. He tries in it to break a lance with Leibnitz [offering a refutation of the scheme of monads. I' betrays, however, no sufficient comprehension I the meaning of this chief of German thinkers ; EUR nor in the case of Euler did destiny add to his ability as an analyst, the powers which constitute the metaphysician. [J.P.N.] EUMENES, one of Alexander's lieutenants, a sharer in the divided empire after his death, con- quered and put to death by Antigonus, B.C. 316. EUMENES, the first of the name king of Per- gamos, 263-241 B.C. ; the second, 198-157 B.C. ; the third, an infant son of the preceding, d. 158. EUMENES, a rhetorician of Gaul, 261-311. EUNAPIUS, a celebrated sophist, historian, and physician of Sardis, in the 4th cent., au. of ' Lives of the Sophists,' and a history of his own times. EUPHORION, a Gr. poet and hist., 3d c. b.c. EUPHRANOR a Greek painter and sculptor, 4th century, b.c. EUPHRATES, a Stoic philosopher, 2d cent. EUPHRATES, founder of the Ophites, 2d cent. EUPOLIO, an Athenian poet, kn. abt. 435 b.c. EURIC or EVRIC, k. of the Visigoths, 466-84. EURIPIDES, the last of the three great Greek tragedians, was the son of Mnesarchus and Clito, and was born in Salamis, whither his parents had retired during the occupation of Attica by Xerxes, on the very day of the glorious victory near that island, B.C. 480. That his father was a man of property is proved by the expensive education which Euripides received ; but it appears from the sarcastic insinuations of Aristophanes that his mother was of humble descent. Euripides listened to the lectures of the first philosophers of the day, studying physics under Anaxagoras, and rhetoric under Prodicus; and having on both occasions Pericles as his fellow-disciple. With Socrates he was on terms of the closest intimacy. Nor were the ornamental parts of his education neglected ; he was so well versed in gymnastic exercises that he gained two victories in the Eleusinian and Thesean athletic games when only seventeen years old ; and seems also to have cultivated a natural taste for painting. Some specimens of his skill in the latter art were preserved for many years at Megara. He is said to have attempted dramatic composition at an early age, and brought out his first tragedy in B.C. 455, when he was in his twenty-fifth year. On this occasion he gained the third prize ; but fourteen years after, in B.C. 441, he gained the first prize, and also in B.C. 428. According to Suidas ne gained five victories, one of which was with a posthumous play. His reputa- tion now spread far and wide ; and if the narrative of Plutarch is to be trusted, some of the Athenian soldiers who survived the disastrous termination of the expedition against Syracuse, were treated with kindness, and even set at liberty, for reciting such passages from his works as they happened to recollect, B.C. 413. Euripides continued to exhibit plays till B.C. 408, soon after which he retired into Magnesia, and thence into Macedonia, to the court of Archelaus, by whom he was received with distinguished honours. As in the case of jEschy- lus, the reasons for this self-imposed exile are obscure and uncertain. Report alleges that he was unhappy in his own family ; and the envy and jealousy excited by his literary reputation drew upon him the taunts and sarcasms of his political enemy Aristophanes. His intimacy with Socrates and Alcibiades likewise contributed to- wards rendering him unpopular; and it may 229 EUS therefore be inferred that prudence dictated his withdrawal from a country where his avowed sen- timents exposed him to danger. In Macedonia he continued to write some plays, one of which he inscribed with the name of his patron. Euripides died B.C. 406, at the age of seventy-five, and was buried at Pella. His countrymen in vain en- treated Archelaus to send his remains to Athens, where, however, they erected a cenotaph to his memory. In the estimation of the ancients, Euripides held a rank much inferior to jEschylus and Sophocles. With him the dignified simplicity of the ancient tragedy disappears, and its place is supplied by rhetorical declamations, subtle dispu- tations, and appeals to the sympathetic feelings. His works were held in especial favour during the middle ages ; and hence his remaining plays more than outnumber the extant dramas of both ^Eschy- lns and Sophocles. According to some authorities, Euripides wrote 92 tragedies, according to others 75. Of these 19 are extant, besides numerous fragments of the plays which have been lost. [G.F.] EUSDEN, Laurence, an obscure poetical wr. who in 1718 obtained the laureateship, d. 1730. EUSEBIUS, a pope, elected and died 310. EUSEBIUS, bishop of Dorylaeum in Phrygia, celebrated for his opposition to the Eutychian heresy, 5th century. EUSEBIUS of Nicomedia, an Arian prelate, and determined enemy of Athanasius, died 342. EUSEBIUS, Pamphili (that is, the friend of Pamphilus), was born at Cesarea, about the year 270. Pamphilus was his earliest friend in Cesarea, and gave the young student access to the large library which he had collected. Pamphilus was at length imprisoned, and Eusebius remained his attached and inseparable companion. And when the pri- soner suffered martyrdom under Galerius, in 309, Eusebius fled first "to Tyre, and then to Egypt. On his return, about 314, he was made bishop of his native city, and continued in that diocese till his death. In the year 325 he attended the coun- cil of Nice, and delivered a formal address to the emperor. The Nicene creed which condemned Arianism was in its earliest draught composed by him ; but he scrupled at length to subscribe it, after several important verbal alterations had been made upon it. His caution and moderation afterwards subjected him to the charge of that very heresy which the Nicene council had been summoned to confute. His views on the Trinity approached those of Ori- gen, and he seems to have held a species of subor- dination among the persons of the Godhead, which was incompatible with a consistent belief in the supreme deity of the Son. At the council of Tyre, in 335, he joined in deposing Athanasius on a charge of contumacy. Pnor to this period, in 330, he was offered the patriarchate of Antioch, but re- fused it ; and he died about the year 340. Euse- bius was a divine of great learning, accomplishments, and industry. Not a few of his numerous works have been preserved, which have been of great ser- vice to theology, especially to church history. His Prceparatio Evanyelica, in fifteen books, was, as its title implies, 'intended to prepare the pagan mind for the reception of Christianity, by showing the vast inferiority of other religions ; and his De- montbratio Evangelica, in twenty books, of which ten have been preserved, was meant for the Jewish EVA mind, and as a positive evidence for Christianity, especially in its connection with the oracles and prophecies of the Old Testament. His Ilistoria Eccksiastica, in ten books, reaches from the birth of Christ to the defeat of Licinius in 321. and is an important and valuable record. Besides his Life of Constant me, his Oration in praise of the same emperor, his Onomasticon, his tract against Hierocles, and his Eloge on the martyrs, we have his Chronicon, a Latin version of the second part of which by Jerome, has been long known. But an Armenian version of the whole work was founii some years ago, and published at Venice, in 1818: other discoveries have been made by the famoui Angelo Mai. The Theophania, another treatise o Eusebius, was discovered in a Syrian version, by Mr. Tattam in an Egyptian monastery, and has been translated into English, and published by tin late learned Professor Lee of Cambridge. [J.E." EUSEBIUS of S amos ata, a recusant from th party of Arms, kd. by a woman of the Arians, 379 E USEBIUS of Vercelli, a partizan of Athan asius, and determined enemy of the Arians, d. 372 EUSTACHIUS, Bartholomew, a distin- guished Italian anatomist who flourished in th sixteenth century, but of whose personal histon very little is known. Neither the date nor tht place of his birth have been accurately ascertained but it is generally believed that he died in 1570 perhaps at Rome. He was the most eminen - . anatomist of his time, and Haller says of him tha' he enriched the science with more discoveries thai any other person whom he knew. His anatomica plates, thirty-nine in number, were unpublishecj at his death, and were supposed to be lost, bui they were discovered at Urbino in 1712, and wen published in 1714, by Lancisi, physician to Popi Clement XL, and are still much esteemed. His naiw is preserved in that of the Eustachian tube whicl he discovered, and which runs between the inne, ear and the upper part of the throat; and th< Eustachian valve of the heart, which separates th< right auricle from the inferior vena cava. [ J. M 'C. EUSTATHIUS, a native of Constantinople! distinguished for his commentaries on Homer archbishop of Thessalonica, 12th century. EUSTATHIUS, St., a bishop of Berea, distin guished for his eloquence at the council of Nice as the enemy of Arms, deposed about 331. EUTOCIUS, a Greek mathematician, 6th cent EUTROPIUS, a Latin historian, 4th century. EUTYCHES, a celebrated Greek heresiarch oi the 5th century, who maintained that only on| nature, that of the Incarnate Word, existed rj Christ; condemned at the council of Chalet EUTYCHIUS, the name assumed by Said Be:i Battrie, a learned Arabian Christian, on becomin ' patriarch of Alexandria ; distinguished as a phy ' sician, theologian, and historian, 876-950. EUTYCHUS, a Latin grammarian, 6th cent. EVAGORAS, a king of Salamis, killed B.C. 374 EVAGRIUS, an ecclesiastical historian, 6th n EVAGRIUS, a monk and theolog. wr., 1th ct. EVANGELI, Antonio, an Ital. au., 1742-180.= EVANS, Abel, an Oxford schol. and wit, last I EVANS, C, a baptist minister, 1737-1791. j EVANS, Evan, a Welch divine, au. of v the poetry and litera. of his country, 1730-1790. EVANS, Jno., anonconf. preacher, 1680-17oC 230 EVA EVANS, John, author of a ' Sketch of Chris- ian Denominations,' &c, a baptist minister md schoolmaster of London, died 1827. EVANS, 0., an American median., 1755-1811. EVANS, Rice or Arise, a famous astrologer, utor of Lilly in the occult sciences, 17th century. EVANS, Thomas, a liter, bookseller, 1742-84. EVANSON, Edward, a Church of England [ivine, afterwards a unitarian writer, 1731-1805. EVEILLON, Jas., a French ecclesiastical writer, list, for his learning and benevolence, 1572-1651. EVELYN, John, one of the finest examples hat our history presents of the accomplished and rell-principled English gentleman, was born in .620, at his father's seat of Wotton in Surrey. Lfter having been educated at Oxford, he served s a volunteer in the Low Countries ; and during he period of the civil wars he remained abroad, tudying men and manners, statistics and science, he fine arts and polite literature. In 1652 he re- amed to England, and took up his residence at iayes Court beside Deptford, which had recently ome into his possession by marriage. His royalist pinions kept him in retirement till the restora- ion ; after which he took an honourable but not onspicuous part in public business, returning Iways to those quiet pursuits and speculations in duch his happiness consisted. He died in 1706, few years after having become owner of his aternal estate by the death of his elder brother. te was one of the original members of the Royal ociety, and a frequent contributor to its transac- ions. He wrote separate treatises on engraving, rchitecture, and numismatics; but the most aluable work he published was his ' Sylva, or a >iscourse on Forest Trees,' in which, and in nailer pieces, there is given, in an agreeable and vely style, much of curious information and of lgenious theory in regard to the writer's favour- e pursuits, planting and gardening. His ' Diary,' r hich was not published till 1818, is both interest- lg as a literary performance, and exceedingly use- jI for the knowledge it conveys of the times in hich Evelyn lived. [W.S.] [Wotton Church, the burial place of Evelyn.] EVERARD, AngElo, aFlem. painter, 1647-78. EVERARD, Nicolas, a Dutch lawyer and lagistrate, president of the Supreme Council, 162-1532. Three of his sons are also celebrated, -Nicholas Grudius, a Latin poet, councillor to EXM Charles V. and^ Philip II., died 1517. Adrtan Marius, a Jesuit and poet, chancellor of Guelder- land. died 1568. Johannes Secundus, an ele- gant scholar and poet of licentious principles, Latin secretary to the cardinal archbishop of Toledo, and Charles V., 1511-1536. E VERDINGEN, Aldest Van, a Flem. painter, excelled in romantic landscapes, &c, 1621-1675 EVERDINGEN, C^sar Van, a Flemish painter and architect, 1606-1679. EVIL-MERODACH, k. of Babyl., 562-560 b.c. EVREMOND, S. Charles, an amusing French satirical writer, died in England 1703. EWALD, Benj., a German med. wr., 1674-19. EWALD, John, a Danish dramatist, 1743-81. EWING, Greville, a Scottish dissenting min- ister, known as a biblical critic, &c, 1767-1841. EWING, John, a presbyterian divine, mathe- matician, and nat. philos. of America, 1732-1802. EXELMANS, Henry Joseph Isidore, a cele- brated French marshal, born at Bar le Due, in 1775, was engaged in most of the campaigns of Napoleon, and died in 1852. EXIMENS, Anth., a Span. Jesuit, 1729-1808. EXMOUTH. Edward Pellew, afterwards Lord Exmouth, was born 19th April, 1757, at Dover. His father was captain of the Post Office Packet on that station, and died early, leaving young Edward and five other children almost without friends or support. Edward Pellew en- tered the royal navy, and soon attracted notice by his extraordinary activity and courage. He served on board the Blonde off the American coast in 1776 and 1777, and in the last mentioned year he was with a party of seamen attached to Burgoyne's expedition from Lake Champlain to Saratoga. Young Pellew distinguished himself amid the dis- asters of this campaign by his indomitable spirit and alacrity. He was promoted on his return to England ; and when the war of the French revolu- tion began, Captain Pellew was appointed to the - Nymphe frigate. In command of this vessel he captured the French frigate Cleopatra, after one of the best fought actions of the war. He com- manded next the Arethusa, and in her he captured another French frigate, La Pomone, in 1794. He continued to do good service and to rise in rank during the war ; and he frequently signalized his remarkable personal strength and activity in sav- ing the lives of others at sea and in shipwreck. In 1816 he was an admiral in command of our Mediterranean squadron, and a peer by the title of Lord Exmouth. In the spring of this year he was ordered to repress the piracies of the Barbary states of the Mediterranean, to obtain the release of the numerous Christian slaves who were sold in cap- tivity at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and to bind these powers by express treaty to discontinue for the future their practice of carrying off Christians into slavery. The deys of Tunis and Tripoli con- sented; but the Algennes, confident in the strength of their fortification, and proud of their old piratical renown, refused. Exmouth gave them a speedy repetition of the lesson which Blake had given to their ancestors; and it was this time still mora sternly taught. On the 27th of August, 1816, the English fleet of five sail of the line, five frigates, four bomb vessels, and five gun brigs, anchored off Algiers : aided by a Dutch squadron of five frigates 231 EXP and a corvette under Admiral Von Capelbnr, which joined Lord Exmouth in the common cause of civilization and humanity against barbarian vio- lence and cruelty. Terms were offered to the Algerian, but haughtily rejected. At half-past two the Christian fleet took its station close to the fortification; the batteries of the Mahometans then commenced their fire, which was promptly answered by the British broadsides. For upwards of six hours a cannonade raged from sea to shore, and from shore to sea, which for obstinacy and destructiveness can hardly be paralleled in naval warfare. Nearly 1,000 officers and men were killed and wounded on board the English and Dutch ships, and at least 7,000 of the Algerines were computed to have fallen. The sea- ward batteries of the town, the mole, and the harbour walls, and the arsenals, were laid in ruins. Great numbers of the houses were destroyed ; and nine Algerine frigates, and a whole flotilla of smaller piratical vessels, were burnt or sunk. On the morrow Lord Exmouth prepared to renew the attack, but the dey now accepted the terms which he had previously scoffed at; and peace was granted to Algiers on condition of her abolishing for ever the enslaving of Christians, the instant delivery of the slaves of all Christian nations, and ample reparation and apology for the outrages and insults which the dey had offered to British sub- jects and the British flag. In pursuance of this treaty Lord Exmouth had the truly noble happi- ness of receiving on board of his fleet, three days after the battle, 1,083 fellow-Christians who had been groaning in slavery under Algerine masters. They were safely conveyed by the British fleet to their respective homes, and diffused through Chris- tendom the just renown of England and her vic- torious admiral. Lord Exmouth died on 23d January, 1832. He was a good as well as a great man ; and he gave on a deathbed of painful and lingering illness, even a brighter example of Chris- tian heroism than he had displayed on the quar- ter-deck in the hour of his brightest earthly glorv. [E.S.C.] EXPILLY, Claude, a Fr. lawyer, 1564-1636. EXPILLY, J. J., a Fr. statistician, 1719-1793. EYCK, Hubert and John Van, two cele- brated painters of Bruges of great importance in the history of art in Europe, owing to their substi- tution of varnish painting with oil, in the place of the old ordinary tempera painting with water. Hubert Van Eyck, so called, it has been sup- posed, from Eyck (or Alden Eyck) the place of his birth on the Maas, was born in 1366, and ap- pears to have been the real inventor of the new process of painting, which was discovered about FAB 1410, when his brother John Van Eyck may have been about fifteen or twenty years of age only ; they were then settled at Bruges, and they formed a great school there. The masterpiece of the Van Eycks is the altar-piece of the ' Adoration of the Lamb ' in the church of St. Bavon, Ghent ; this celebrated picture was finished by John in 1432, Hubert, who had executed the large figures of the upper part, had died at Ghent six years before, on 18th September, 1426. On the inscription on the picture the chief merit is properly given to Hubert, ' the greatest in art ;' John is merely mentioned as the completer of his brother's work: some por- tions of the picture are in the gallery at Berlin.-*- John Van Eyck was born about 1390-5, and died at Bruges in July 1441, as recently ascer- tained from documents by the Abbe* Carton (Le$ trois Freres Van Eyck, &c, Bruges, 1848). 1420 is the earliest date of any of his known pictures, and all the historic facts seem to show that John, so far from being the founder of the school of Bruges, was the pupil of his brother in common with several other early Flemish masters, though John's services to art were so great in many re- spects that he may well be considered as the head of the school. The invention of the Van Eycks is commonly called oil painting, but colours were mixed with oil long before this time, though pic- tures were not painted in this manner, but Vasari expressly explains that the Van Eyck method was varnish painting-oil with other mixtures, and it arose in the search for a good varnish for tempera pictures. This method was carried into Italy by Antonello of Messina, who having seen a picture by John Van Eyck in the collection of Alphonso, king of Naples, about the year 1443, set off for Bruges in order to learn the new method ; though he arrived some time after the death of Van Eyck, he contrived to acquire the method from some of his pupils, or the third brother, Lambert Van Eyck, and was thus the cause of oil painting gradually superseding fresco painting some years afterwards in Italy, first in Venice, then in Florence. Margaret Van Eyck, the sister of these three brothers, likewise painted. There are two pic- tures by John Van Eyck in the National Gal- lery. [R.N.W.] EYKENS, Peter, a Flemish painter, 16th cent. EYNDEN, R. Van, a Dutchart-wr., 1748-1819. EYRE, Francis, a Roman Cath. wr., d. 1804. EYSEL, J. P., a Ger. medical wr., 1652-1717. EZEKIEL, a prophet of the Jews, 6th ct. B.C. EZEKIEL, a Jewish dramatist, 1st century EZEKIEL, an Armenian astronomer, 673-727. EZQUERRA, a Spanish poet, 1568-1641. EZZ-EDDIN, an Arabian poet, 13th century. FABBRIZI, L. C. De, a Venet. savant, 15th c. FABELL, Peter, an Engl, alchymist, 15th ct. FABER, Basil, a Ger. lexicographer, d. 1576. FABER, F., a Swiss ecclesiastic of* the Domini- cans, author of 'Travels to Jerusalem,' 1441-1502. FABER, F. E., a German Hebraist, 1745-1774. FABER, John, a Roman Catholic divine, sur- named, ' The Hammer of Heretics,' from the title of one of his works, a native of Suabia, died 1541. FABER, J., a German naturalist, 1570-1640. FABER, John, a Dutch painter, died 1721. FABER, Samuel, a German hist., 1657-1716. FABRE, or LEFEVRE, J., a jurist, died 1340. FABERT, Abraham, a Fr. marshal, one of the most eel. gen. of the age of Louis XIV., 1599-1662. FABIAN, Robert, an Engl, annalist, 15th ct. FABIAN, St., a pope of Rome, martyred 250. FABIUS, the name of an illustrious Roman fa- 232 FAB lily divided into many branches, the common stock f which was Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, rho escaped alone from the massacre of his family t Cremera, 478 B.C., and made one of the decem- irate. After him are mentioned Fabius Am- ustus, dictator b.c. 350. Fabius Rullianus, ) whose name Maximus was added, twice dicta- )r, conqueror of the Samnites and Etruscans, 328- 80 B.C. Fabius Gurges, son of the preceding, msul of Rome. Fabius Pictor, the first writer f Roman history, 3d century B.C. Fabius Maxi- ms Verrucosus, considered the greatest of his imily, surnamed 'Cunctator' the temporizer, om his system of warfare, successfully exempli- ed in the conflict which he sustained with Han- ibal, died 205 b.c. Fabius Maximus Quintus, >n and next in office to the preceding, afterwards msul. Fabius Maximus JSmilianus, dis- nguished in the war of Persia and in Spain, consul 17 b.c. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, pro- msul for Spain, censor 126 b.c. Fabius Maxi- us Allobrogicus, consul 122 b.c. FABIUS, Marcellinus, a writer of the 3d ct. FABIUS, Rusticus, a Roman historian, 1st ct. FABIUS, W., a Flemish Greek scholar, 16th ct. FABRE, F. Xavier, a Fr. painter, 1766-1837. FAB RE, J., a Fr. poet and ecclesiastic, 18th ct. FABRE, John, the son of a French protestant, ho in 1756-1762 voluntarily suffered six years' avery in the galleys in place of his father, who as condemned for preaching, 1729-1797. FABRE, J. C., a Fr. ecclesiast. his., 1668-1753. FABRE, L., a French catalogue wr., 1710-1788. FABRE, M. J. V., a French poet, 1785-1831. FABRE, P., a French snrgeon, 1716-1793. FABRE D'EGLANTINE, Philippe Fran- ces Nazaire, the son of a burgess, born at imoux, 1759, was a dramatic author and pam- aleteer, and acquired a celebrated name in the >urse of the French revolution as a confederate ' the Jacobins. With the advantage of fine dents, and a literary education received in the liege of the doctrinaires, he united all the vices " a young man upon town, his conversational and usical abilities rendering him a highly agreeable not a very edifying companion. His short )litical history is soon written. On the 10th ugust, 1792, his notoriety as a pamphleteer voured his nomination as a member of the pro- sional commune at Paris, and he was afterwards )pointed secretary-general in the ministry of jus- ce under Danton. He was one of the members for aris in the national convention, where he voted r the king's death and other extreme measures, lough he had the honour at last of suffering for is moderation under the ascendancy of Robes- erre. He was arrested by the decree of St. Just, hich included Camille Desmoulins, Herault, anton, Philippeaux, and Lacroix, on a charge of >mplicity with D'Orleans and Dumouriez, to store the monarchy, and was executed with habot and Bazire, 5th April, 1794. His real ime, like that of his companions in misfortune, as the desire to return to moderate counsels, for lough he was weak, inconstant, and ambitious, 5 was neither treacherous nor cruel. Fabre ''Eglantine was accomplished in nearly all the ne arts, but only cultivated them for the sake of lining in society. He furnished the poetical FAB nomenclature of the republican calendar, the mathematical portion of which was contrived by Romme. fE.R. I FABRE DE L'AUDE, Jean Pierre, born 1755, and distinguished as an economist, was acting as advocate to the parliament of Toulouse when the French revolution broke out> the prin- ciples of which he adopted, so far as to secure his continuance in various government employs, until proscribed by the reign of terror. After the fall of Robespierre he was returned to the council of 500 (1796), and was successively a member of the tribunate (1801), president of the commission of finances (1804), senator (1807), and afterwards a count of the empire. His political alliances were purely circumstantial, for though he voted against the return of Napoleon to power in 1814, he appeared in the chamber of peers during the hun- dred days of the year following, and at length served the state under the Bourbons. He is the author of some works of temporary interest, upon imposts and political questions. [E.R.] FABRE DE L'HERAULT, Denis, first an advocate of Montpellier, and afterwards a mem- ber of the French national convention, where he was rather useful than eloquent, has acquired a name in the history of the period by his career in the war of the republic against Spain. He was sent to the army of the eastern Pyrenees as com- missary after the fall of the Girondins, and dis- played great courage, but so little prudential conduct that the French forces were routed in action, and their discipline reduced to anarchy. Fabre de L'Herault was killed in an attempt to rally the troops at Port Vendres, 20th December, 1793, and had a place decreed to him in the pan- theon of French worthies, while the generals Daoust and Delatre, of the same force, were exe- cuted on the imputation of treason in the same series of events. [E.R.] FABRE D'OLIVET, Ant., a Hebrew scholar, au. of ' Langue H^braique Restitute,' 1768-1825. FABRET TI, Raphael, an It. antiq., 1620-1700. FABRI, Alexander, an Ital. author, d. 1768. FABRI, Dominicino, an Italian Jesuit and professor of Belles Letlres, 1710-1761. FABRI, Gab., an Ital. theologian, 1666-1711. FABRI, Honorius, a Jesuit, distinguished as a naturalist and physiologist, professor of philoso- phy at Lyons, said to have anticipated the dis- covery of Harvey, 1607- 1688. FABRI, J., a polit. negotiator and annal., 14th c. FABRI, J. R., a jurisconsult of Geneva, 17th ct. FABRICIUS, Caius, a Roman general, sur- named Luscinus, disting. for his victories over the Samnites and Lucanians, twice consul, d. 250 b.c. FABRICIUS, Carretto, grand master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, fortified Rhodes, and made a treaty of alliance with the Persians against the Turks, died 1521. FABRICIUS, David, a Dutch minister and astronomer, a disciple of Tycho Brahe, died 1617. His son John, the first to discover the sun's spots, on which he wrote a work, ' De-Maculis in Sole Observatis,' published 1611, died about 1625. FABRICIUS, F., a German savant, 1524-1573. FABRICIUS, G., a German historian and poet, auth. of 4 De Veteris Roma? Situ,' &c, 1516-1571. FABRICIUS, J., a Ger. philologist, 1644-1729. 233 FAB FABRICIUS, J. Alb., a Ger. critic, 1668-1738. FABRICIUS, Jean Chretien, a celebrated entomologist, was born at Tundern, in the duchy of Sleswick, in 1742. He died in 1807. He was sent to the university of Upsal, where he studied under Linnaeus, and became one of his most at- tached and eminent pupils. Under such a teacher he obtained a very considerable knowledge in bo- tany and most of the other branches of natural history. Having one day dissected the organs of the mouth of a cockchafer, he conceived the idea of using the organs of mastication as the means of producing a classification of insects. He was ap- pointed soon after this professor of natural history at the university of Kiel, and from that time he devoted himself almost entirely to the study of entomology. In 1775 he published his ' Systema EntomologiaV in which he laid before the world his new mode of arrangement; and for the re- mainder of his life he continued in successive Eublications to evolve his system with much ability, [is svstematic arrangement has been followed by few, but his mode of distinguishing the genera is still retained by entomologists. Fabricius possessed a great knowledge of languages ; and he travelled over most of the countries of Europe in search of new insects, and for the purpose of examining the museums of the different towns he visited. He made frequent journeys to England, where he made the acquaintance and friendship of Banks, John Hunter, Francillon, and most of the naturalists of repute living at that time. He was much esteemed for his amiability of disposition ; and it is said, when he heard of the bombardment of Copenhagen by the English fleet a profound melancholy seized him, from which he never recovered. [W.B.] FABRICIUS, Jer., an Ital. phys., 1537-1619. FABRICIUS, L., a Ger. Hebraist, 1555-1629. FABRICIUS, Th., a fol. of Luther, 1501-1559. FABRICIUS DE HILDEN, W., a German sur- geon, auth. of a ' Manual of Medicine,' 1560-1634. FABRICY, Gab., a Fr. archaeologist, 1725-1800. FABRIS, N., an Ital. mechanician, 1739-1801. FABRONI, Angiolo, an Italian savant and journalist, distinguished for his biographies of 'Italian literati, of the Medici, &c, 1732-1803. FABRONI, Giovanni V. M., a natural philos. and wr. on agriculture, economy, &c, 1752-1822. FABROT, C. A., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1580-1659. FABRY, Jean Baptiste Germain, author of numerous works on history, politics, and religion, beginning with the ' Spectateur Francais,' in 1805, and all published anonymously; secretary to Fouche in the interest of Buonaparte, and after- wards a partizan of the restoration, 1780-1821. FACCIARDI, C, an Italian ascetic, 16th cent. FACCIOLATI, James, a celebrated Italian lexicographer, author of a great Latin dictionary, reprinted in 4 volumes folk/ 1839, 1682-1769. FACINI, Peter, an Ital. painter, 1566-1602. FACUNDUS, an African bishop, 6th century. FADLALLA, an Oriental historian, 13th cent. FAES, P. Van Der, aFlem. paint., 1618-1680. FAGAN, B. C, a Fr. dramatic wr , 1702-1755. FAGEL, the name of a Dutch family, dist. as partizans of the Stadtholder system. The principal members are Gaspar, an active party to the peace of Nimeguen, 1678, and to the policy which placed William III. on the throne of England, FAI 1629-1718; Francis Nicholas, his nephew, a dist. general, d. 1718; Henry, a statesman, dis- tinguished by the treaty of peace concluded between England and the Netherlands in 1814. FAGGIUOLA, U., a Ghibelline chief, kid. 1319. FAGIUOLI, J. B., an Italian poet, 1600-17-12. FAGIUS, P., a Ger. prot. theologian and Heb. scholar, dist. at the revival of learning, 1504-1549. FAGON, W. C, a French botanist, 1638-1718. FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, a physician and philosopher of Dantzic, inv. of the theniinme- ter and barometer which bear his name, 1686-1736. FAINI, Diamante, an Italian poetess, d. 1770. FAIPOULT, a French statesman, 1752-1817. FAIRFAX, Edward, an English poet and translator of Tasso, son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton in Yorkshire, and brother of Lord Fairfax, the subject of the following notice, whom he assist- ed in the management of his affairs. Besides his ' Tasso' and his own poems, which consist of twelve eclogues, he is the author of a prose treatise on witchcraft, and a history of the Black Prince, but the latter perished in MS. at the fire of Whitehall. He died in 1632, with the reputation of a gentle- man and a scholar. His son William is known for his translation of ' The Lives and Opinions of the most Celebrated Philosophers,' from the Greek of Diogenes Laertius. [E.R.] FAIRFAX, Ferdinand, Lord, father of the celebrated general by Mary his wife, daughter of the earl of Musgrave, and himself a general in the parliamentary army, is memorable for his total rout by the earl of Newcastle, 30th June, 1643, and his subsequent successes in Yorkshire. His military history is closely connected with that of his son, who was for six years his companion-in- arms, and who succeeded to the title and estates, by the death of his father, in 1648. Lord Ferdi- nand Fairfax had received his commission as ge- neral of the parliamentary forces in the north, at the commencement of the civil war in 1642, when he found himself opposed to a confederacy of the neighbouring counties, united in a league for the king by the politic earl of Newcastle. " This cir- cumstance must account for his early reverses, for though he never acquired the same importance as his son, he was a general of great valour. [E.R.] FAIRFAX, Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord Fairfax, born at Denton, near Leeds, in 1608, was the son of Ferdinand Lord Fairfax. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and served while a very young man under Lord Vere in the English auxiliary army in the Low Countries. On his return to England he married, and lived for some years in the country, a silent but stem observer of the follies and oppressions of King Charles's government. The Fairfaxes were zeal- ous presbyterians ; and, when the troubles of the nation broke out into civil war, they were active in arming their tenantry and maintaining the cause of the parliament against the royalists in Yorkshire and the neighbouring counties. Lord Ferdinand Fairfax was made general of the par- liamentary armies in the north, and Sir Thomas was general of the horse under him. The Fair- faxes sustained several reverses in the beginning of the war ; but Sir Thomas kept the field with in- domitable spirit, and gradually raised the discipline and corn-age, as well as the numbers of his troops, 234 u>r-\J//?sr/r6^ t^u^yka^. Q^wmk/ //-& -& *jsfot&J0t t ? sum,, y^fta & i_ya??2&j <J7tzrzi'. <pft#sr/ki <y / rab??ya? 2i na ^W (T t-Jrt&K* FAI 1644 he was one of the commanders on the par- mentary side in the great battle of Marston Moor, ich destroyed the royalist force in the north of gland. When the parliamentary army was new- >delled, Fairfax was appointed generalissimo, th Cromwell for his lieutenant-general. On the th of June, 1645, they fought and won the de- ive battle of Naseby. Fairfax then conquered e king's strongholds in the west of England, and fore the close of 1646 the war was ended. In strange series of intrigues and coup-de-mains lich now ensued, and which led to the trial d execution of the king, and the elevation of omwell to supreme power, Fairfax was a mere strument in the hands of more subtle and reso- te men. He was only fit for the field ; and the adiness and steadiness for which he was pre- linent as a soldier, utterly deserted him when he is required to act as a statesman. Clarendon ys truly of him, ' Fairfax wished for nothing at Cromwell did, and yet contributed to bring it to pass.' After the king's death Fairfax re- ined his commission, and lived in retirement tring the whole period of the commonwealth, e had inherited the family property and title on s father's death in 1647, and the management of 3 estates now became the whole employment of e late renowned generalissimo of the parliament's ctorious armies. Cromwell treated him with ntempt. After the great protector's death in >58, it became speedily manifest how unequal ichard Cromwell was to the government which id been bequeathed to him; and men of all irties, except some of the more enthusiastic re- iblicans, and a few of the army chiefs, looked to le recall of the old race of kings as the only leans of securing peace and order. Fairfax took !i important part in bringing about the restoration, Thile Monk was still in Scotland, Lord Fairfax bllected forces in Yorkshire, and declared himself ir a free parliament and the restoration of the Lonarchy. He refused, however, to take the chief bmmand of the enterprise out of Monk's hands, jttd sought neither rank nor wealth for himself in ting what he believed to be his duty. He was he of the commissioners sent 18th May, 1660, to fait upon Charles II. at Breda, and he accom- lanied the restored sovereign at the ceremony of Us coronation. He then retired again to his York- hire estates. Lord Fairfax died on the 2d Novem- Er, 1671. [E.S.C.] FAISTENBERGER, A., a painter of Tyrol, List, for his landscapes after Poussin, 1678-1722. FA1THORNE, W.,an Eng. engrav., 1616-1671. FAKHR-ED-DEEN, a prince of the Druzes, mnquished and stranded by Amurath IV., 1635. FAKHR-ED-DEEN-RAZZY, a Mussulman pistorian, quoted by De Sacy and Reinaud, 13th c. j FALCK, J. P., a Swedish naturalist, 18th cent. | FALCONBERG, the name of an ancient Eng- lish baronetage, one possessor of which distinguished |rimself as a Yorkist at the defeat of Clifford, and ;he succeeding battle of Touton, 1461. i FALCONBERG, Mary, countess of, third daughter of Oliver Cromwell, a woman of remark- 'ible beauty and spirit, and distinguished for her political talents, aided the restoration and d. 1712. FALCONE, A., a Neapolitan paint., 1600-1665 FALCONER, T., an Eng. chronolog., 1736-1792 FAN FALCONER, W., an English physician and chemist, distinguished as the discoverer of the pro- perties of carbonic acid gas, 1743-1824. FALCONER, William, a popular English poet and naval writer, author of 'The Shipwreck,' born 1730, lost at sea with the Aurora frigate, 1769. FALCONET, A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1611-1691. His son Camille, a literary savant, 1671-1762. FALCONET, S. M., a Fr. sculptor, 1716-1791. FALCONETTO, Giovanni Maria, an Italian architect, born at Verona 1458, died 1534. FALCONIERI, 0., an Ital. antiq., 1646-1676. FALEDRO, Vital, a Venet. doge, 1102-1117. FALENS, C. Van, a Flem. painter, 1682-1733. FALETTI, J., an Italian poet, 16th century. FALIERI, Marino, successor of Andrea Dan- dolo as doge of Venice in 1354, attempted to re- volutionize the state in 1375, when he was be- headed, and four hundred of his accomplices hanged. He is the hero of Lord Byron. FALK, J. D., a Ger. satiric poet, 1770-1826. FALKENSTEIN, J. H., a German antiquary, and compiler of historical documents, 1682-1760. FALKLAND, Henry Cary, first Viscount, was the son of Sir Edward Cary, and distin- guished himself as a statesman in the reign of James I., d. 1633. Lucius Cary, second Viscount Falkland, son of the preceding, well known to readers of history as one of the most perfect characters of his age, was born about 1610, and died of a wound which he received at the battle of Newbery, where he fought in the interest of the king, 1643. He was not only a gentleman, a scholar, and a soldier, but a sincere patriot. Henry Lucius Cary, third Viscount Falkland, son of the preceding, died young, 1663. FALKNER, Thomas, an English Jesuit and missionary, au. of a 'Descrip. of Patagonia,' d. 1780. FALLE, Philip, a divine of Jersey, 1655-1742. FALLETTI, Jerome, an Italian poet, ambas- sador for the princes of Este into the chief states of Europe, au. of The Germ. War,' &c, 1518-1564. FALLOPIUS, Gabriel, a famous Italian ana- tomist, the first to give exact descriptions of the organ of hearing, of the organization of the fcetus, and of the tubes of the uterus, since called by his name, professor at Pisa and Modena, 1523-1562. FALLOWS, F., an Engl, astrono., 1789-1831. FALSTAFT, J., an English captain, died 1469. FANCOURT, Samuel, a dissenting minis- ter and author, first projector of circulating libraries, which he began about 1740, died 1768. FANSHAWE, Sir Richard, an English poet and diplomatist in the interest of the crown at the period of the civil wars. He was a remarkable linguist, and was distinguished for his sincerity, both as a man and statesman ; he negotiated the peace between Spain and Portugal in 1665, and is the au. of ' Letters ' during his embassy, 1607-1666. FANTIN-DESODOARTS, Antoine Etienne Nicolas, a voluminous author of history and jurisprudence, born in Dauphine 1738, died in Paris 1820. M. Desodoarts made his debut as a Jesuit, and bore the title of Vicar-General of Em- brun, but appears not to have exercised its func- tions. He became known at the daAvn of the re- volution as an advocate of the Jacobins, and has given his principles to the world, more especially, in his work entitled ' Histoire Philosophique de la 235 FAN Revolution de France depuis la Convocation des Notables jusque' a la Separation de la Convention.' The critical account of liis works in the ' Biogra- phic des Contemporains,' would lead to the conclu- sion that he was an ardent imaginative writer, clear and elegant in the style of his narrative, but wanting in virtuous principle, and not reliable as j;n authority for the tacts of contemporary history. He is one of numerous examples supplied by the period, demonstrating that the education of the church and the bar at that time, was sufficient to pervert the noblest talents, and prepare men to accept the vilest expedients in politics and morals in place of principle. [K-R-] FANTONI, an Italian historian of the last cent. FANTONI, J., an Ital. anatomist, 1675-1758. FANTONI, J., an Italian lyric, 1755-1807. FANUCCI, J. B., an Ital. historian, 1756-1834. FARDELLA, M. A., a Sicil. philos., 1650-1718. FAREL, William, a native of the French Alps, and one of the earliest converts of the re- formed doctrines in Paris, is known as the pioneer of the reformation in Dauphine" and Switzerland. He was one of the most intrepid assailants of the Roman Catholic Church, and distinguished as a preacher rather than a writer. When addressing the agitated multitudes who listened to him, neither the clash of arms, the ringing of bells, nor the threats of his enemies, could stem the torrent of his eloquence. He was subject to much perse- cution, and escaped many dangers, dying m the seventy-sixth year of his age, in 1565. FARIA, Anth. De, a Portuguese adventurer, dis. himself against the Indian corsairs, 1505-1550. FARIA, M. De, a Portug. antiq., 1581-1655. FARIA-Y-SOUSA, Manuel De, a Portuguese historian, poet, and literary critic, secretary to the Roman ambassador, died 1647. FARIN, N., a Fr. miscellaneous writer, d. 1675. FARINACCI, P., an Italian jurist, 1554-1618. FARINATO, P., an Italian painter, 1525-1606. FARINELLI, named CARLO BROSCHI, one of the most extraordinary singers that ever lived, was born at Naples in 1705. In 1722 he was en- gaged at the Alberto Theatre of Rome, and while there contended with and overcame a famous per- former on the trumpet. From Rome he went to Bologna, thence to Venice and Vienna, at which latter place he was received with especial honour by the emperor Charles VI. He came to England in 1734, and the effect of his singing is described as being something like enchantment. In 1737 he went to Spain, where he remained for twenty years, enjoying the friendship and confidence of two monarchs, Philip V. and Ferdinand VI., and hav- ing power almost equal to a prime minister. Dur- ing his residence in Spain he had a pension for life settled upon him amounting to upwards of 2,000. There are many beautiful stories told of the good- ness of heart and disinterestedness of Farinelli which it is impossible to introduce into this brief memoir. In 1759 Farinelli returned to Italy, and took up his final residence at Bologna. One of his biographers says, ' this extraordinary musician and blameless man died in the eightieth year of his age.' [J.M.] FARISSOL, Abraham, a rabbin, 15th cent. FARMER, Hugh, an English dissenting min- ister and theologian, author of tracts on the mir- FAU acles, on demoniacs, on the worship of human spirits by the heathen, &c, 1714-1787. FARMER, Richard, a distinguished scholar and critic, author of an 'Essay on the Learning of Shakspeare,' 1735-1797. FARNABY, T., a wr. of school classics, d. 1647. FARNESE. The Italian house of this name has furnished history with many illustrious names, the principal of which are Peter, general of the Florentines, d. 1363. Peter Louis, son of Paul III., invested with the duchies of Parma and Pla- centia, killed in a revolt, 1547. Octavius, son of the preceding, and son-in-law of Charles V., d. 1585. Alexander, the elder brother of Octavius, a distinguished negotiator and ecclesiastic, 1520- 1589. Alexander, son of Octavius and Mar- garet of Austria, known in history as duke of Parma, and distinguished as a general in the in- terest of Philip of Spain, d. 1592. The last of the Farnese, except Elizabeth, wife of Philip V. of Spain, died in 1731, when the duchy reverted to her son Don Filippo, in whose possession it was confirmed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. FARNEWORTH, Ellis, rector of Carsington, in Derbyshire, known as a translator, died 1763. FAROALD, the^rs^ of the name duke of Spo- leto 570-601 ; the second, afterw. a monk, 703-724. FARQUHAR, G., an Irish comedian and dra- matic writer, author of 'The Constant Couple,' 'The Beaux's Stratagem,' &c, 1678-1707. FARRANT, Rich., an Eng. composer, d. 1585. FARREN, Eliza, a celebrated actress, after- wards countess of Derby, born in Cork, 1759, married to the earl of Derby 1797, died 1829. FARRILL, Don Gonzalo, a Spanish general and statesman, minister of war in 1808, under Ferd. VII., whose abdica. he opposed, 1757-1831. FASOLO, J. A., an Italian painter, 1528-1572. FASSINO, The Chev. N. H. J. De, a French painter, director of the Acad, at Liege, 1728-1811. FASSOLA-DA-PAVIA, Bernard, an Italian painter of the Milanese school, 16th century. FASTOLFF, Sir John, a brave English general, distinguished in the French wars of the 15th century, absurdly supposed to be the original of Shakspeare's Sir John FalstafF, died 1469. FATAH, Abou-Nasr, an Arab, wr., 6th cent FATIO DE DUILLER, N., a French mathe- matician and mechanical artist, residing in Lon- don, inventor of the jewelling of watches, and a great contributor to astrono. science, 1664-1753. FAU, J. N., a Latin poet of Naples, died 1665. FAUCCI, C, a Florentine engraver, last cent. FAUCHE-BOREL, L., a Swiss adventurer, employed as a spy by the Bourbons, 1762-1829. FAUCHER, Caesar and Constantine, twin brothers and soldiers, distinguished in the wars of the French revolution, born 1760, both shot 1815. FAUCHET, Cl., a French hist., 1529-1621. FAUCHET, Claude, a French priest, alike remarkable for his physical courage, and moral and intellectual intrepidity, was born at Dome, in the department of the Nievre, 1744, and was suc- cessively grand vicar of the archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the king, and 'abbs' commandataire' of Montfort, before the revolution, and afterwards constitutional bishop of Calvados. He began his political career as a chief of the Illuminati, and a reformer of the church, on the principles of pliilo- 236 FAU pphy and national independence advocated in is work ' De la Religion Nationale,' published 789. Rendered famous by his eloquence and his -ritings, he headed the deputation to De Launay, 'hen the Bastile was besieged, and advanced ivord in hand in front of the combatants, whom, ; is said, he rallied three times to the assault, t was Fauchet also who gave the sanction of a sligious blessing to the national tricolor when rst used, and advised the consolidation of the ational guard under the command of Lafayette. lS the revolution proceeded, he established a kind f political reunion in the vicinity of the Palais feoyal, and had Condorcet for one of his coadjutors, pa a board of correspondence devoted to the ropagation of the natural rights and duties of Trench citizens. As a member of the first parlia- ment he opened the debate on religion by a bitter beech against the priesthood, and publicly stripped Iff the insignia of his order. Notwithstanding his hare in scenes that were worthier of the Parisian emagogue than the minister of religion, he bitterly unented the king's death ; and as an ally, both n the score of humanity, and on philosophical rinciples, with the Girondins, he shared their fate, eing guillotined with the twenty-two on the 31st f October, 1793. The particular accusation gainst the Abbe* Fauchet was his complicity with Jharlotte Corday, he having introduced her to the itting of the convention, on the day of her arrival a Paris, but this was only a pretence to disguise he hatred of the terrorists. He is the author of umerous orations published between 1774 and 792, the most remarkable of which is his ' Ser- lon sur l'accord de la Religion et de la Liberte,' 791. [E.R.] FAUJAS DE ST. FOND, Bartholomew, a Yench naturalist, regarded as one of the founders f geological science, 1750-1819. FAUST, John, a German theologian, known s Dr. Faustus, and regarded as a magician from is being addicted to chemistry and astrology, &c. 'he legend of his compact with the devil, is the abject of Goethe's magnificent drama, and of a oem by Lessing, and other compositions of genius i the German language. Dr. Faustus lived at he beginning of the 15th century. FAUST, or FUST, John, a goldsmith of May- nce, to whom the invention of printing has been scribed, now allowed to Guttemberg, died 1466. FAUSTINA, the name of two Roman ladies, nother and daughter, both remarkable for their rofligacy. The elder was married to Antoninus 'ius, and died in the third year of his reign, 141 ; he younger was the wife of Marcus Aurelius. FAUSTUS, an Arminian prelate and hist., 4th c. FAVART, C. S., a Fr. comic au., 1710-1792. FAVIER, , secretary-general of the tates of Languedoc, author of ' Politique de tous as Cabinets de 1' Europe pendant les R6gnes de .ouis XV., et de Louis XVI.,' 1720-1784. FAVIER, N., councillor of the parliament of 'aris, au. of histor. memoirs, published 1572, 1579. FAVILA, king of Asturias and Leon, 737-739. FAVORINUS, a Platonic philosopher and hetorician, a native of Aries in Gaul. He was the uthor of some historical and philosophical works, nly fragments of which have been handed down a the citations of Diogenes Laertius, died 135. FEL , FAVORINUS, V., an Ital. scholar, died 1527. FAVORITI, one of seven illustrious Latin poets who flourished in Italy in the 17th cent., 1624-82. ^ FAVRAT, F. A., a Russian general, author of historical memoirs of the Polish war in 1794-96. FAVRAY, Anthony, a Fr. painter, last cent. FAVRE, A., a French jurisconsult, 1557-1624. FAVRE, P., a disciple of Loyola, 1506-1546. FAWCETT, Benj., a dissenting minister, last c. FAWCETT, John, an English actor, 1769-1837. FAWCETT, Sir W., an English officer, distin. in Germanv, au. of some milit. treatises, 1728-1804. FAWKES, F., a poet andmiscel. wr., 1721-1777. FAWKES, Guido, or Guy, a native of York, a soldier in the Spanish army serving in Flanders, executed with seven others in January 1606, for the gunpowder plot of the preceding 5th of Nov. FAYE, Ch., Fr. ambass. to Holland, 1577-1638. FAYETTE. See La Fayette. FAYEZ-BEN-NASRILLAH, tenth Fatimite caliph of Damascus, reigned 1155-1160 FEARNE, C, an Eng. metaphysic, 1749-1794. FEATLEY, Dan., a controv. divine, 1582-1644. FECHT, John, a German divine, 1636-1716. FECKENHAM, John De, properly John Howman, of Feckenham, the last mitred abbot who sat in the House of Lords, disting. for his ac- tivity, and for his writings against the reformation ; last abbot of Westminster, which appointment he received on the accession of Queen Mary, d. 1585. FEDER, J. G. H., a Germ, philos., 1740-1821. FEDOR-IVANOVITCH, czar of Rus., 1557-98. FEDOR-ALEXIEVITCH, or Fedor II., czar of Russia, reigned 1657-1676. FEITAMA, Sibrand, a Dutch poet, 1694-1758. FEITH, Everhard, a Dutch archasol., 16th c. FEITH, R., a Dutch dramatic wr., 1753-1824. FELIBIEN, Andrew, a French art-writer, friend of Nicholas Poussin, 1619-1695. His son J. Francois, author of ' The Lives and Works of Celebrated Architects,' 1657-1733. Another son, Dominique Michel, an ecclesiastical historian, 1666-1719. His third son James, a Roman Catholic divine, 1636-1716. FELICE, F. B. De, an Ital. critic, 1723-1789. FELICIANI, Por., an Ital. prelate, 1562-1632. FELICIANO, G. B., a Venetian schol., 16th c. FELIX. There are two saints of this name Felix, bishop of Dunwich, a founder of churches, monasteries, and schools, died 646; and Felix De Valois, a French ecclesiastic, founder of the order of the Redemption, 1127-1212. FELIX, the Jirst of the name pope of Rome, 269-274; the second, an anti-pope elected under the patronage of the emperor Constance, 355-358 ; the third, 483-487 ; the fourth, elected under the patronage of Theodoric, king of the Goths, 526- 530 ; the fifth, formerly Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, reigned as pope 1439-1449, abdicated in the last named year, and died at Genoa, 1451. FELIX DE BEAUJOUR, L., a Fr. economist, au. of Theorie des Gouvernements,' &c, 1765-1836. FELIX DE TASSY, C. F., a Fr. surg., d. 1703. FELL, John, a dissenting minister, disting. as a religious and miscellaneous writer, 1735-1797. FELL, Dr. John, bishop of Oxford, and son of Samuel Fell, distinguished for his learning and munificence to the university, author of some translations from the Latin, 1625-1686. 237 FEL _ FELL, Samuel, dean of Christchurch, and vice-chancellor of the university of* Oxford, distin- guished, like his son Dr. John Fell, as a royalist. He is said to have died of a broken heart on hear- ing of the execution of Charles, 1594-1649. FELLEXBERG, Philippe Emanuel De, a descendant, on his mother's side, from the fa- mous Dutch admiral Van Tromp, was born at Berne, in Switzerland, 1771, and is celebrated as an agriculturist, and founder of an institute at Hoffwill for the theory and practice of agriculture, including manufactories of the instruments and machines, and a school of industry for the poor, on the general principles of Pestalozzi. M. de Fellenberg, like every other practical benefactor of his fellow-creatures, had much envious and ignorant opposition to overcome before he was allowed to pursue his benevolent plans without molestation: a government commission was named to inquire into the working of his institute, the result of which was his recognition as a man of the highest talents and public virtue. He is the author of several works on agriculture, and of memoirs on the institution at Hoffwill, published at the beginning of the present century. [E.R.] FELLER, Francis Xavier, a Flemish Jesuit, ftuth. of an ' Historical Dictionary,' &c, 1735-1802. FELLER, Joachim, a German poet, professor at Leipzig, killed by falling from a window in a state of somnambulism, 1628-1691. His son, Joachim Frederic, secretary to the duke of Weimar, au. of ' Monumenta Inedita,' 1673-1726. FELLON, T. B., a Fr. Latin poet, 1672-1759. FELLOWES, R., LL.D., a misc. wr., 1770-1847. FELTHAM, Owen, an Engl, moralist, 17th ct. FELTON, H., a learned Engl, div., 1679-1740. FELTON, Nicholas, bp. of Bristol, d. 1626. FELTON, T. B., a French Jesuit, 1672-1759. FENELON, Francis De Salignac De La Motte, an eminent and pious Frenchman, was born in 1651 at the castle of Fenelon in Perigord. His studies were pursued successively at the univer- sities of Cahors and Paris, and having directed his views steadily toward the church, he became qualified to obtain orders at the age of twenty-four. His first appointment was Superior of the newly con- verted female catholics, and the extraordinary success with which he discharged the duties of this station brought him under the notice of Louis XIV., who employed him on a special mission to convert the protestants of Poitou. Fenelon stipu- lated that no means of conversion were to be used but those of persuasion, and having obtained the royal sanction to this express condition, he ac- cepted the embassy. In 1689 he was intrusted with a still more delicate and responsible office, that of undertaking the education of the duke of Burgundy and his younger brothers. It was for the benefit of his royal pupils that he wrote his Telema- chus, and to reward the assiduity and faithfulness with which he discharged his duties as preceptor to the royal children, he was elevated to the arch- bishoprick of Cambray. He had not been long, however, installed in that see, when espousing the cause of Madame Guyon, the famous pietist, whose principles were embodied in her book, the 'Maxims of the Saints,' he was rancorously at- tacked by Bossuet, his defence; placed by the pope in the list of prohibited books, and he himself FER summoned on pain of excommunication to re nounce the heresy. He read his recantation in tin pulpit of his own cathedral. But this was not tb end of his trials. Bossuet, who had beco' ter enemy, incensed the mind of Louis XI Y him, by alleging that ' Telemachus,' which had beei Eublisned through the perfidy of a secretary whi ad been employed in transcribing it, wa attack on the character of his government . 6onal ambition, his love of glory, and his p; pursuit of war. Fenelon was in consequent from the court. But a high tribute was paid to hi talents and worth by the foreign invaders, who b 1 the express commands of the duke of Marlboroqjl exempted his lands from pillage, while that himself, and his allies, showed him every mark o courtesy. Fenelon, though he continued withii the pale of the popish church, saw through it corruptions and gross superstitions. He was i very pious man, and his grand habitual aim wa to form his own character in conformity with tb mind of Jesus Christ. He was temperate almos to abstemiousness, ate little, slept httle, took m recreation except a few hours daily in the exercise of walking or riding, while all the rest of his timi was devoted to the discharge of his duties in socia intercourse with his friends, in visiting the poor in admonishing, reproving, or comforting his nod as circumstances demanded. The most of his re- venues were devoted to benevolent purposes, U help in the education of poor clergymen, to assis indigent old gentlemen, and to extend the meani of usefulness to the public hospitals. His death which took place in the thirty-third year of his age, showed, by the universal regret it produced how strong a hold he had taken of the hearts of hi countrymen, while his literary works have erecte( a monument which will transmit his name witl honour to a distant posterity. [R.J.* FENN, John, an Engl, catholic div., d. 1615." FENN, Sir J., an English antiq., 1739-1794. FENNER, W., a puritan divine, 1560-1640. FENTON, Edw., an Engl, navigator, d. 1603. FENTON, Elijah, a poet and dramatic writer chiefly celebrated for his share in Pope's transla- tion of the Odyssey, 1683-1730. FENTON, Sir G., an English transl., d. 1608. FER, N. De, a French geographer, 1646-1720. FERAND, J. F., a Fr. grammarian, 1725-1807 FERBER, John Jas., a Swedish mil auth. of ' Mineralogy of Bohemia,' &c, 1743-1710 FERDINAND, Cil, a French poet, die FERDINAND, John, a Sp. Jesuit, died 1595. FERDINAND L, emperor of Germany, brothe: and successor of Charles V., born 1503, king o Hungary and Bohemia 1527, king of the Romans 1531, emperor 1538 to his death 1564; in hi. ! reign the empire was separated from all depend dence on the papacy. Ferdinand II., <. of the preceding, born 1578, king of Bohei. king ot Hungary 1618, emperor 1619 to his deatl! 1637. The principal events of his reign revolt of Bohemia, subdued by the battle <>: and the progress of the thirty years' war. J i i: dinand III., son and successor of the preceding] born 1608, king of Hungary 1625, king ot 1 1627, king of the Romans 1636, emperor 1637 t his death in 1657. The great event of his reigi was the peace of Westphalia. 238 FER FERDINAND, king of Bohemia, the first three me as the preceding ; the fourth of the name, son ( Ferdinand III., born 1634, crowned king of tohemia 1646, king of Hungary 1647, died 1654. 'FERDINAND, king of Portugal, born 1340, ]cceeded his father Peter I., 1367, died 1383. j FERDINANDS, The, of Spain, are Ferdi- ivsdL, king of Castile and Leon, reigned 1037- 165. Ferdinand II., king of Leon, and regent of jkstile during the minority of Alfonso IX., reigned 57-1187. Ferdinand III., born 1200, king of ptile 1217, king of Leon 1230, died 1252. Jcrdinand IV., born 1279, king of Castile 1285, fed 1312. Ferdinand V., born 1452, married ibella of Castile 1469, became king of Castile 74, succeeded his father as king of Arragon 1479, ;d, after a glorious reign, signalized by the union the Spanish kingdoms, the subjugation of the oors, and the discovery of America, &c, 1516. srdinand VI., born 1713, succeeded 1746, died 59. Ferdinand VII., born 1784, named king his father, who abdicated 1808, detained at ilencay by Napoleon, who placed his brother seph on the throne till 1813, after which his ites revolutionized, 1819-20, and he died 1833. FERDINANDS, The, of Arragon, are Ferdi- lND L, called ' The Just,' succeeded 1412, died 16 ; and Ferdinand II., the latter being the me as Ferdinand V. of Spain FERDINANDS, The, of Naples and Sicily, are ;rdinand L, notorious for his debaucheries and lelties, reigned 1458-1494. Ferdinand II., gned 1495-1496. Ferdinand III., same as rdinand V. of Spain, who conquered a part of s kingdom, and ootained its investiture from the pe in 1510. Ferdinand IV., commonly called :rdinand I., king of the two Sicilies, third son Charles III., king of Spain, born 1751, suc- sded under the regency of Tanucci 1759, died r a troubled reign, interrupted by the usurpa- ns of the Napoleon kings, and the insurrections his people, 1825. FERDINANDS, The, grand dukes of Tuscany, > Ferdinand I., bora 1549, cardinal (de idici) 1563, duke 1574, died 1609. Ferdi- ud II., born 1610, succeeded 1621, died 1670. srdinand III., born 1769, succeeded 1790, war th France 1798, acceded to the confederation of 5 Rhine, and created prince of Wiirtsbourg by noleon 1806, rest, to his duchy 1814, d. 1824. FERDOUCY, FERDOUSI, or FERDUSI, K>ul-Cassim-Mansour, a celebrated Persian f, author of a history in verse, 916-1020. ERG, P. F., an Austrian painter, 1689-1740. ERGOLA, N., ageomet. of Naples, 1753-1824. rlFERGUS, the first of the name, founder of the IJottish monarchy, 4th century; the second, Unied 411-429 ; the third, died 767. ||FERGUSON, Adam, a Scotch philosopher, ttdecessor of Dugald Stewart in the chair of j pral philosophy at Edinburgh, author of ' Insti- ces of Moral Philosophy,' ' Principles of Moral \ n Political Science,' &c. The former of these has f fen often reprinted, and translated, and adopted as a Jet-book in some foreign universities : its principle ^admission of a moral sense, 1710-1776. 1 FERGUSON, James, a self-taught experimen- ! philosopher, mechanician, and astronomer of btJand, 1724-1816. FER FERGUSON, Robt., an Engl, divine, d. 1714. FERGUSON, Wm., a Scotch painter, d. 1690. FERGUSON, Robert, a Scotch poet, whose compositions in the lowland Scotch dialect entitle him to rank with Burns in descriptive power, though nothing that he has written can be com- pared with the lyrics of the bard of Ayr for ten- derness, and intense love of nature, was born at Edinburgh, where his father was accountant to the British Linen Company, 17th October, 1750. His parents intended him for the ministry, but he wanted the power of steady application to the necessary studies, and his father dying when he was seventeen years of age, he went to reside with an uncle near Aberdeen, who was at length tired of his poor relative, and allowed him to take the situation of copying-clerk at the office of the com- missary-clerk, and afterwards in that of the sheriff's clerk, in his native city. His love of poetry, and his conversational powers, not only unfitted him for this drudgery, but the latter, by a natural reaction against nis daily toils, involved him in habits of dissipation, which predisposed him to disease ; and it is melancholy to relate that the last penalty which the violated laws of nature exacted from him was nothing less than his mental derangement. In 1774, when in the twenty-fourth year of his age, he was sent to a poor asylum for lunatics, where he was subject to rules which in all human probability hastened his death, which took place in about two months afterwards, on the 16th of October. Burns always acknowledged with affecting tenderness his obli- gations to Ferguson, whom he styles his 'elder brother in misfortune,' and to whose memory, in the year 1789, he erected a handsome monument in the Canongate churchyard, the place of his interment. It is impossible to read the Scottish poems of Ferguson without acknowledging how closely Burns has followed his model in some of his most admired descriptive pieces. We may instance in particular, ' The Daft Days,' ' The Rising of the Session,' ' Leith Races,' ' Elegy on John Hogg,' and ' Cauler Oysters,' in which the most striking parallels may be traced. Ferguson could sing his native melodies with effect, and was a little too fond perhaps of practical jests. It is said that he never made an enemy, but it is only too likely that he lost a friend in his rich uncle for lack of that ordinary ' prudence ' which men of genius too often pride themselves in holding cheap. [E.R.] FERHAD-PACHA, grand vizier and minister of war to Amurath III., died in disgrace, 1594. FERISHTAH, Moh.-Cassim, a Pers. hist., an. of a 'Hist, of India under the Mussulmans,' 17th c. FERMAT, Pierre, an eminent French mathe- matician, born at Toulouse in 1595, died in 1667. Fermat was famed in his time as one of the most remarkable analysts in Europe ; neither will any historian deny his genius, or his success ; he is the author of much ingenious speculation ; he dis- covered curious and recondite theorems regarding numbers ; and invented a remarkable method for the solution of problems in maxima and minima. But a factitious interest has recently attached to him because of the singular claim "instituted by La Place that Fermat be considered the true au- thor of the Differential Calculus. It is not easy to conceive a stronger illustration of the sway of 239 FER national vainglory over the judgments even of great Frenchmen. The Differential Calculus, like most other new principles, especially demanded by the necessities of Science, was heralded by many partial and imperfect anticipations : an- ticipations always marked by one character- istic, they effected the solution of particular problems by methods akin to those of the Differ- ential Calculus; but of the generality, the true method of that remarkable branch of Analysis, they partook nothing. Fermat merely hit upon one such anticipation in his treatment of maxima and minima. The claim urged by La Place has led to a narrow scrutiny of the powers of this Geometrician, and they have not risen thereby in estimation. Many of his theorems regarding numbers seem lucky guesses on curious points, sought for systematically as such, rather than de- ductions by scientific procedures. [J.P.N.] FERMIN, Ph., a French naturalist, 1720-1790. FERMOR, Count Von, a Rus. gen., 1704-1771. FERNANDEZ, Alp., a Sp. monk, 1572-1640. FERNANDEZ, Alv., a Portug. navig., 16th c. FERNANDEZ, Ant., a Port. Jesuit, 1558-1628. FERNANDEZ, B., a Portug. Jesuit, died 1630. FERNANDEZ, Den., a Portug. navig., 15th c. FERNANDEZ, Diego, a Sp. historian, 16th c. FERNANDEZ, John, a Portuguese navi- gator, 15th century. FERNANDEZ, Juan, a Sp. navigat., d. 1576. FERNANDEZ, L., a Spanish paint., 1594-1654. FERNANDEZ, L., a Spanish paint., 1605-1646. FERNE, H., an Engl, controv. divine, 1602-61. FERNEL, J., a Fr. medical writer, 1497-1558. FERRACINO, B., an Ital. mechanic, 1692-1777. FERRAJUOLI, N., a Neapolit. painter, 17th c. FERRAND, Anth., a French poet, died 1719. FERRAND, Anth. F. Cl., Count, a French statesman, histor., and literary savant, 1751-1825. FERRAND, J. P., a French paint., 1653-1732. FERRAND, L., a French Hebraist, 1645-1699. FERRAND, M. L., a Fr. general, 1753-1808. FERRANDO, G., a Spanish navigator, 15th c. FERRANTINI, G., an Italian painter, 16th c. FERRAR, Nich., a pious enthusiast, founder of a religious house in Huntingdonshire, 1592-1637. FERRAR, Rob., bp. of St. David's, burnt 1555. FERRARA, Hippolytus of Este, cardinal of, governor of the duchy of Parma for France for the two years 1552-1554, lived 1509-1572. FERRARA, Anne of, daughter of Hercules II., and wife of the due de Guise, known as a political intriguante at the Fr. court, 1531-1607. FERRARI, a Provencal troubadour, 13th cent. FERRARI, And., a Genoese paint., 1599-1669. FERRARI, Ant., a Neapol. geogr., 1444-1517. FERRARI, B., founder of a religious order, Milan, 1497-1544. FERRARI, Gaudenzio, an Italian painter, assistant of Raff'aelle in the Vatican, 1484-1550. FERRARI, Giov. And., an Italian painter, pupil of Bernard Strozzi, 1599-1669. FERRARI, Greg., an Ital. painter, 1644-1726, His son Lorenzo, also a painter, died 1744. FERRARI, J. B., an Italian Jesuit, 1580-1665. FERRARI, L., an Italian mathematician, in- ventor of a method for solving equations to the fourth degree, 1522-1566. FERRARI, Octavian, an Italian philosopher, FEV professor of politics and morals, 1518-1586. Fran Cisco Bernardino, of the same family, an ec clesiastical wr. of vast erudition, 1576-1669. Oo tavio, nephew of the last named, a liter;! antiquar., and historiographer of Milan, 1607-169 FERRARI, P., an Italian architect, 1753-1825 FERRARI, W., an Italian historian, 1717-1791 FERRARINI, M. F., an Italian antiq., d. 1492 FERRARIS, Joseph, Count De, an Austria! gen. of artillery, dist. as a geographer, 1726-1814 FERRARS, Edw., an Eng. playwright, d. 1564 FERRARS, George, an English lawyer an< poet, whose arrest for debt when member of thi House of Commons, his release on their demand and the punishment of the prosecutors, estaMishe the privilege of mem. at that early period, 1512-79 FERRARS, H., an English herald, 1549-1633. FERRATA, Hercules, an Ital. sculpt., 17th c FERRAUD, Nicholas, born 1764, deput; from the department of the Hautes-Pyren^es tl the national convention of France, 1792, massacre* by the populace, 20th May, 1795, when nobl; resisting the invasion of the hall, and protectinj the president Boissy D'Anglas from their violence FERREIRA, Al., a Portug. jurist, 1644-1737 FERREIRA, Ant., a Portug. poet, 1528-1569 FERREIRA, A. F., a Portug. navig., 1600-58 FERRELO, B., a Spanish navigator, 16th cent FERRERAS, John De, an ecclesiastic histor. theologian, and literary savant of Spain, 1652-1735 FERRERI, Z., an Italian poet, 1479-1525. FERRET, Emile, a French jurist, 1489-1552. FERRI, the first of the name, duke of Lorraine 1205-1207; the second, died 1213; the third reigned 1251-1303 ; the fourth, born 1282, suc- ceeded 1312, killed at the battle of Cassel, 1328. FERRI, Alph., an Ital. surgical writer, d. 1575 FERRI, Ciro, an Italian architect, 1634-1689- FERRI-DE-ST.-CONSTANT, J. L., an Itafiai writer, au. of 'London and the English,' 1755-1830 FERRIER, Arn. Du, a Fr. lawyer and diplo- matist, chancellor of the kg. of Navarre, 1508-85 FERRIER, St. Vincent, an Ital. preacher ant theol., opponent of pope Benedict XIII., 1357-1415 FERRIERE, Cl. De, a Fr. jurist, 1639-1734. FERRIERES, C. Elie, Marquis De,memb. am historian of the Fr. constit. assembly, 1741-1804.' FERRON, Arnoul Du, a Fr. hist., 1515-1563. FERSEN, Axel, Count De, a field-marshal d Sweden, president of the diet of nobles, distingj by his share in the condemnation of Count Brah^i 1756. His son, Axel, chancellor of the universit ' of Upsala, born 1750, killed in an emeute, 1810. FESCH, Joseph, cardinal archbishop of Lyons; and brother of Lsetitia Ramolini, mother of Nnj poleon, disgraced in 1810 for his opposition t\ the emperor in favour of the pope, 1763-1839. FESCH, Seb., a French antiquarian, 1647-1715 FESTUS, Portius, Rom. gov. of Judaea, 60-6i; FESTUS, Sex. Pompeius, a Latin gram., 3d<| FETH-ALI-SHAH, king of Persia, 1762-18&J FETI, Dominico, an Ital. painter, 1589-1624] FEUERBACH, P. J. Anselme De, a Germa philosopher, distinguished for his adaptation of th code of Napoleon to his native country, 177J FEU1LLEE, Louis, a Fr. naturalist, d. Ii 52. FEVRE, Anthony Le, De La Boderie, man of letters, ambassador from Henry IV. lj Brussels and London, 1555-1615. His brothe: 240 FEV Br Lefevre Sieur De La Boderie, an lental scholar and poet, 1541-1598. FEYRE, Cl: Le, a French painter, 1633-1675. FEYRE, Jas. Le, aFr. catholic divine, d. 1716. IFEVRE, James Le, a Fr. ecclesiastic of great lining, distinguished by the friendship of Mar- ket of Navarre, and the celebrated Erasmus, ihor of ' Commentaries,' &c, 1440-1537. BfEVRE, J. B. Le, a French scholar, 1732-1809. FEVRE, N. Le, a French savant, 1544-1611. pEVRE, Tannegui Le, or Tanaquil Faber, ;7r. scholar, professor of the classics, 1615-1672. 'FEYRE, V. Le, a Flemish engraver, 17th cent. JFEYNES, H. De, a French traveller, 17th ct. nFICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, born in Upper katia, 19th May, 1762; died on 21st January, p.4. One of the most remarkable names in Philo- bhy since the death of Kant. The character- pes of his speculations are nearly the following, cognizing that Kant had given a full critique of b action of the Mind, on the substance of its kughts, Fichte demanded a critique of the act of Jnlung itself. What, he asked, is the content the act of consciousness? It reveals some- ng that is Me, and something which I call Not e: how are these related, what is this thing feeling which I call Not Me f It is a feeling, d can be nothing but a. feeling : there is nothing which we can be conscious except the Me, the inking principle and its modifications. What, L is the Not Me f Why is it thrown by us into form of an external or independent existence ? le Mind alone, indeed, is the sphere of the mind's erations ; but to its activity there are limitations ; it proceeds in the work of self-development by brt ; we are finite, and struggle towards the in- lite by steps or degrees. Now the consciousness this effort, the feeling of limitation, seems like e presence of an external obstacle ; at least we ectify it, and term it the Not Me. Adequate ice is not here allowed for criticism on this tern ; nevertheless, two characteristics of it must remarked. (See articles Hamilton, Hegel, :helling.) First, as a scheme of pure idealism resembles Berkeley's ; bu^-the architecture of it different. Berkeley supposed that the ideas we istake for the external world, are visions of mething Not Us glimpses of the Divine Intel- jence : Fichte, that they are nothing save the ind's own efforts. Hence he spoke of our con- ptions as creations; he deduced everything from ie Mind's activity. Secondly, the assertion of the [ind's Freedom and independent Energy, is the rrner-stone of Fichte's whole system. However fle his speculative philosophy, the tenacity with [hich he clung to this prime element of Humanity, jd to the best results in morals and politics. No Ian ever wrote whose pages burn more with what- ftsr can stir up the highest in all of us. He was a pry apostle of the Heroic : his morals are the pur- it Stoicism modified according to the acquisitions, jie culture, and necessities of this Age. And he lived phe preached. His theoretic philosophy has already pparted; but the Man Fichte, will ever be cher- hed as one of the noblest of his race. [J.P.N.J PICHTEL, J. E., a Hungarian natnr., 1732-95. PICIN, M., an Italian Platonist, 1433-1491. PIDDES, R., an English divine, 1671-1725. FIDEL1S, C, a learned Ital. lady, 1465-1558. FIE FIELD, R., an English divine, 1561-1616. [Birth-place of Fielding.] FIELDING, Henry, born in 1707, was the third son of General Fielding, and great-grandson of an earl of Denbigh. His classical education was received at Eton ; and he afterwards studied law at Leyden, which, however, he was obliged to leave in his twentieth year, on failing to receive supplies from home. His father had a large family, and appears to have been neither rich nor frugal. The son was fairly left to shift for him- self; and, seeking his fortune in London, he found, as he says himself, that his choice lay between being a liackney writer and a hackney coachman. Composition for the stage was his first pursuit, by which he contrived to lead the life of a gay young man for about nine years, from 1727 to 1736. During this time he wrote eighteen plays of one sort or another, which, though admitted to be dramatic failures, show, in passages innumer- able, the same vigorous sense and shrewdness, the same keenness of wit, and the same acuteness of critical discernment, which afterwards character- ized his novels. His translated farce of 'The Miser,' and his ' Mock Doctor,' are now oftenest remembered ; but neither these, nor his other comedies and farces, possess nearly so much originality or spirit as his burlesque parodies on the tragic drama, among which ' Tom Thumb' may be noted as being still by far the best thing of the kind in the English language. The audacity with which in his farces he satirized public characters, is said to have been the main provocation which led the government to establish a censorship of acted plays. In 1736 he married an amiable young lady, with whom he received about 1,500, succeeding, about the same time, to an estate of 200 a-year, in Derbyshire. He now retired to the country, where he lived with hospitable and careless extrava- gance, and found himself penniless in the course of three years. He returned to London, resumed his law studies, and was called to the bar. But he had no success in the practice of his profession, for which, besides other causes, he was now dis- qualified by frequent attacks of gout. To the anxieties and distresses of a precarious and scanty livelihood, was soon added the deep grief caused by the death of his wife, to whom, and to his chil- dren, the good-hearted and improvident man of pleasure was warmly attached. For ten years ho 241 FIE subsisted by miscellaneous literary drudgery. He made new attempts at dramatic writing; he pub- lished many fugitive essays and tracts, engaged in political controversy as an active Whig partizan, and was the conductor and chief writer of three successive periodical papers aimed at the Jaco- bites and their principles. About 1742 he wrote 'Joseph Andrews,' the first of those novels on which his fame depends. Notwithstanding its frequent seriousness, this piece was intended to be, and in many points really is, a parody on the sen- timentalism of Richardson's ' Pamela.' It was followed by ' Jonathan Wild,' a singular specimen of very vigorous but overdrawn irony. In 1749 he received from the government a small pension, and an appointment as a justice of peace for Middlesex and Westminster. The office, as then regarded and administered, was decidedly one which a gentleman would not have accepted un- less through necessity ; and it undoubtedly helped to degrade both Fielding's character and his feelings. Its duties, however, were discharged not only zeal- ously, but with an honourable integrity and disin- terestedness altogether new in the occupants of such places. He published an ' Inquiry into the In- crease of Thieves and Robbers,' besides other trea- tises bearing on law ; he was a remarkably effi- cient police magistrate ; and one of his last achieve- ments was the extirpating of several gangs of ruf- fians by whom London was infested. ' The His- tory of Tom Jones, a Foundling,' was written very soon after Fielding had been forced to embark in these ungenial and harassing employments ; when his health was already quite broken ; and when, by his own public acknowledgment, the honesty with which he filled his office left him so poor that the benevolence of wealthy friends had been re- quired for enabling him to subsist. It is not easy to understand the grounds on which ' Tom Jones ' has been defended against the charge of immor- ality; but in point both of genius, and of skill in art, it is the best novel ever written. It was fol- lowed in 1751 by ' Amelia,' which is very much inferior. The heroine is said to have been de- signed as a portrait of the author's second wife. In 1752 he attempted a new periodical, which drew him into quarrels with Smollett and other men of letters. His life was fast ebbing away: dropsy had been followed by jaundice and asthma. Ordered by physicians to a southern climate, he sailed for Lisbon, and died there in October, 1754, in the forty-eighth year of his age. He left behind him, besides other works, a spiritedly written ac- count of his ' Journev to Lisbon.' [W.S.] FIENNES, William, Lord Say and Sele, 'a grand rebel for twenty years' under Cromwell, afterwards lord privv seal and lord chancellor to Charles II., 1682-1662. His son, Nathaniel, one of Cromwell's privv council, 1608-1669. FIENNES, J. B. De, a French Orientalist and negotiator, 1669-1744. His son, J. B. Helin, an Orient, schol. and interpreter to the king, 1710-67. FIESCHI, Jos. Marie, the contriver of the in- fernal machine, exec, with his accomplices, 1836. FIESCO, J. L., count of Lavagna, eel. for head- ing the conspiracy against Andrew Doria in 1547. FIESOLE, Fra Giovanni Da, commonly called Fra Angelico, his family name was Guido, was born at Mugello in 1387 ; his surname FIR of Fiesole he acquired from the order of predicant at that place, whom he joined in 1409. He die in 1455. Fra Angelico was distinguished for hi pious life, and the same sentiment pervaded all hi works : he was remarkably methodic in his habit: he commenced every picture with prayer, and in variably carried out the first impression, lookin upon it as a species of inspiration. His princip: works are some frescoes in the convent of Sa Marco at Florence, and others in the chapel < San Lorenzo in the Vatican. Some accurate er gravings from these works are in course of publ : cation by the Arundel Society; their chief mer is their refined sentiment and high order of ej pression, in which qualities Fra Giovanni were, the type of his successors, the model of tl quattrocento school of painters ; a school in son respects supposed to be revived in the recent mil called prerapkaelite innovation in our own schoo but minute finish was an extremely rare characte; istic of the genuine quattrocento masters of Ital (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W! FIGUEIRA, L., a Portuguese Jesuit and mil sionary to Brazil in 1606, murdered 1643. FIGUEIRA, Wm., a French troubadour, 13th FILMER, Sir R., a wr. on governm., d. 1647 FINCH, Anne, an English poetess, died 1720 FINCH, Heneage, first earl of Nottinghar solicitor-general in the time of Charles II., 162! 1682. His son, Daniel, second earl of Nottin; ham, distinguished as a statesman, 1647-173 Edward Finch, brother of the first earl, was clergyman, and died 1642. FINCH, R., an English antiquarian, 1783-183' FINCK, Jasper, a German Lutheran, b. 15? FINDEN, Wm., a eel. Eng. engrav., 1787-185 FINGAL, a chief of Morven, celebrated in tl poem of Ossian, disting. against the Romans, 3d FINIQUERRA, Tommaso, a goldsmith Florence, where he was bom 1426, who by i accident became the inventor of metal plate prin ing. He was a niello engraver, and was in tl habit of, says Vasari, taking sulphur impressioi from his engravings, and printing with them < damp paper to see the effect of the design, wh< he discovered that though engraved he could tal the same impressions from the metal itself. The: is in the library at Paris a print representing tl coronation of the Virgin, with the date 1452, < 1450 according to Gaye, from a silver Pax \ Maso Finiquerra, still preserved in the collectic of the grand duke of Tuscany. This is suppose to be the oldest metal plate print extant : there a wood block prints much older. Finiqi already dead in 1464. (Lanzi, Storia Piltnrio &c; Bartsch, Peintre Graveur; Gaye, CarteM Inedito d' Artisti.) [R.N.W FINKE, Thos., a Danish mnthemat,, 1561-165' FINLAY, John, a Scotch poet, 1782-1810. FIORAVANTI, Leo, an Ital. alchemist, d. Lfl FIRENZUOLA, Ang., an Ital. poet, 1493 II I FIRMIAN, Charles, Count De, adniiiiistr.it. of the Austrian govern, of Lombardy, 1718-1 7m FIRMICUS, Maternus, a Christian wr., 4th FIRMILIAN, bishop of Caisarea, 3d centnrv. FIRMIN, G., a nonconformist div., 1617-1697 FIRMIN, St., bp. of Amiens, martyred 287 FIRMIN, Th., an Eng. philanthropist, 1 630-f! F1RMUS. lord of Mauritania, killed 372. 242 FIR FIRMUS, Marcus, a Roman general, pro- aimed emperor in Egypt, and killed 273. FISCHER, C. A., a German savant, 1771-1829. FISCHER, G. A., a Germ, mathem., 1763-1832. FISCHER, J. A, a Germ, physic, 1667-1729. FISCHER, J. B., a Germ, natural., 1730-1793. FISCHER, J. B., a Germ, architect, 1650-1724. FISCHER, J. C, a Germ, mathem., 1760-1833. FISCHER, J. C, a Germ, philologist, 1712-93. FISCHER, J. E , a Germ, historian, 1697-1771. FISCHER, J. F., a Germ, philologist, 1726-99. FISHER, Edw., an English Calvinist, 17th c. FISHER, John, hishop of Rochester, dis- lguished for his opposition to the reformation lder Henry VIII., and beheaded 1535. FISHER, John, bishop of Salisbury, tutor of e duke of Kent and Princess Charlotte, 1748-1825. FISHER, Payne, an English poet and herald, >et-laureate under Cromwell, died 1693. FISHER, Th., a periodical writer, 1772-1836. FITZ-GEFFREY,C, adiv. and poet, 1575-1636. FITZGERALD, Edw., Lord, son of the duke Leinster, a political partizan and rebel of Ire- nd, born 1763, shot in the struggle for his arrest '98. His wife, Lady Edward Fitzgerald, mmonly called Pamela, was supposed to be the .tighter of Madame de Genlis, by Philip Egalite, ther of the late king of the French, with whom e was educated at the Palais Royal. She died indigent circumstances at Paris, 1831. FITZGIBBON, John, a disting. lawyer, earl of are, and lord chancellor of Ireland, 1749-1802. FITZHERBERT, Sir A., a learned judge and riter on law, author of a 'Collection of Law ises,' &c, died 1538. His grandson, Nicholas, pposed author of the ' Antiquity and Duration the Roman Catholic Religion in England,' ac- pentally drowned 1612. Sir W. Fitzher- ert, a descendant of the same family, appointed Intleman-usher to the king, 1748-1791. | FITZHERBERT, Maria Anne, formerly Miss nythe, married to George IV. 1787, died 1837. FITZJAMES, James, duke of Berwick, son of tines II. and Arabella Churchill, sister to the ike of Marlborough, a distinguished commander the French army, born 1670, killed at the sge of Philipsburgh 1734. His second son, and almoner of Louis XV., and bishop of Sois- n8, 1709-1764. His son, Charles, a peer and arehal of France, 1712-1787. His great grand- n, Edward, duke of Fitzjames, an adherent the French court, died 1839. FITZSIMONS, H., an Irish Jesuit, 1569-1644. FITZSTEPHEN, W., an Eng. historian, 12th c. FITZWILLIAM, Wm., earl of Southampton, a val commander, dist. against France, d. 1542. FITZWILLIAM, the Right Hon. Wm.Went- orth Fitz william, fourth earl, aWhigstates- in of the period of the French revolution, afterw. Isociated with the duke of Portland and Pitt, \& after the death of the latter in 1806 president 1 the council in the Grenville ministry, 1748-1833. FIX.MILNER, P., an Aust. astron., 1721-1791. FLACCILLA, jElia, wife of Theod. the Great, jid mother of Arcadius and Honorius, died 385. FLACCUS, Caius V., a Roman poet, 1st cent. FLACIUS, M., a Ger. protes. theol., 1520-1575. FLAHERTY, R. O', an Irish histor., 1630-1718. FLAMINIO, Giov. Ant., an Italian teacher of FLA the Belles Lettres, 1464-1536. His son, Marc Antonio, a Latin poet, 1498-1550. FLAMINIUS, Nepos, Roman consul, 222 b.c. FLAMINIUS, Titus, Roman consul, 197 b.c. FLAMSTEED, John, born at Denby, near Derby, August 19, 1646, died in 1719. A most laborious and admirable observer, the founder of practical Astronomy in England : he was the first Astronomer Royal. Previous to his public appoint- ments, Flamsteed had shown great zeal and talent ; but his repute rests on the work he achieved after the establishment of the Observatory. Like his great predecessor Tycho Brahe, the instruments as well as the work were mainly his own ; drawn however, out of the scanty funds of a poor clergy- man instead of the coffers of a noble : nor was the illustrious Dane ever more conscientious, or more laborious ; few have excelled him in sagacity, or that theoretic faculty which is one pillar of strength to every first-class observer the power to know what to observe to make all work available for some permanent and important pur- pose. The Histoma Celestis Britannica contains our first trustworthy catalogue of the fixed stars the first at least which is available for modern objects ; and the mass of lunar observations made by Flamsteed, furnished Newton the means of carrying out and verifying his immortal discovery of Gravitation. The life of Flamsteed contains only one thing, which in one who contemplates it can give rise to pain. The revelations lately made by Mr. Baily, place beyond doubt the fact of the very unworthy treatment of this excellent observer by Newton and Halley. They outraged his feel- ings and sported with his rights; nor can the nature of the aim before them be at all accepted as their apology. [J.P.N.] FLATMAN, Th., an English poet, 1633-1688. FLAVEL, J., an Eng. Calvinist. divine, d. 1691. FLAVIEN, patriarch of Antioch, 381-404. FLAVIEN, patriarch of Constanple., 447-449. FLAVIUS, Caius, a Roman jedile, 305 B.C. FLAXMAN, John. This celebrated English sculptor was born at York, 6th July, 1755, but he settled early in London with his father, who sold plaster casts, &c. The occupation of the father gave Flaxman many opportunities which he might otherwise not have had, and as early as his twelfth year he gained the silver pallet or the Society of Arts for a model. Among his earlier efforts were the various designs which ne made for Wedgwood, which had a great share in elevating the general taste of the country, and which now promise a second time to exercise a beneficial influence upon it. In 1782 Flaxman married, and in 1787 took his wife with him to Italy, where he remained at Rome for seven years. During this time he exe- cuted his admirable designs in outline from Homer, ^Eschylus, and Dante, and his great group in marble, for Lord Bristol, of The Fury of Atha- mas ;' and ' Cephalus and Aurora ' for Mr. Hope. He returned to London in 1794, where his first work was the monument to Lord Mansfield in Westminster Abbey ; this was followed by several others there and in St. Paul's, as that to Lord Nel- son, the figure of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others. He executed also many private monuments, of which that to the family of Sir Francis Baring in Micheldever church is one of the most celebrated.. 243 FLE ITe produced also some works of a more purely poetic character, as the colossal group of Satan and the archangel Michael for Lord Egremont, the original model of which, with a great number of others, is now placed in a permanent gallery beneath the dome of University College, London, the munificent gift of Miss Denman, the sculptor's sister-in-law. The ' Shield of Achilles,' modelled for Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, is a remarkable work of another class, and completing the whole category of art to which sculpture is applicable : showing Flaxman working for the social refinement of the potter and the silversmith, for national glory, and domestic piety and affection, for the classic taste of the scholar, and the excmisite sentiment of the poet ; in all skilful and great. He was elected an aca- demician in 1800, and professor of sculpture in 1810 : he died 7th December, 1826, in his seventy- second year. His ' Lectures on Sculpture ' are published in one volume, octavo, with fifty-two plates, second edition, Bohn, 1838 ; they are 1. English Sculpture; 2. Egyptian Sculpture; 3. Grecian Sculpture; 4. Science; 5. Beauty; 6. Composition; 7. Style; 8. Drapery; 9. Ancient Art; and 10. Modern Art. These lectures, though his remarks on ancient art want the exact- ness and precision of modern scholarship, are com- positions of great interest, and much practical in- struction. [R.N.W.] FLECHIER, Esprit, one of the most cele- brated orators of the French church, born 1632, d. shortly after his promotion to the see of Nismes, 1710 ; auth. of a ' History of Theodosius the Great.' FLECK, J. F. F., a Prussian actor, 1757-1801. FLECKNOE, R., an English poet, died 1678. FLEETWOOD, Ch., a general in the interest of the parliament during the civil wars, dates unknown. FLEETWOOD, Wm., a writer on law, d. 1593. FLEETWOOD, Wm., bishop of St. Asaph, au. of ' A Plain Method of Christ. Devotion,' 1656-1723. FLEISCHMANN, J. M., a German agricul- turist, gardener to the court of Dresden, 1747-1831. FLEMING, Abr., a miscellaneous wr., 16th ct. FLEMING, Cal., a Socinian minis., 1698-1779. FLEMING, Ci.., constable of Sweden, d. 1597. FLEMING, Pat., a Roman Cath. div., b. 1599. FLEMING, Robert, son of a Scottish divine of the same name, who lived 1630-1694, is the author of a remarkable ' Discourse on the Rise and Fall of the Papacy,' the predictions of which have received a singular fulfilment. In this sermon, published 1701, Fleming ventures his opinion that the French monarchy would be humbled in 1794, that the period of the fifth vial extended from 1794 to 1848, and that in the last mentioned year the papacy would receive its most signal blow, and that it would be followed by the uestruction of the Turk. ' An Attempt to Prove the Calcu- lations of Fleming Incorrect,' was published soon after the recent flight of the pope, the writer arguing that the papacy had then irre- trievably fallen, while Fleming had expressly stated that it would continue longer! The date of Fleming's birth is unknown, but he died in 1716. [E.R.] FLEMMING, Heino H., Count De, a Prus- sian field-marshal and gov. of Berlin, 1632-1706. FLEMMING, or FLEMMYNGE, Richard, an Engl, prelate, fndr. of Lincoln college, d. 1430. i FLE FLETCHER, A., a Scotch political writer, i of Sir R. Fletcher, of Saltoun, 1653-17K;. FLETCHER, James, an hist, wr., 1811-182 FLETCHER, John, and Francis BeaumoI formed one of those partnerships which, thoi rare in all sections of literature except the drai have in it been very common, both in Engh and elsewhere. Beaumont, the younger son o judge, was born at his father's seat of Graced in Leicestershire, about the year 1585. By 1 poetry seems to have been prosecuted for own sake. Fletcher, whose father died bis] of London, had been born in 1579 at E where his father was then clergyman; a left an orphan and penniless when he waj mere youth, he had to fight his way for hi self, and earned his bread by writing. B of the poets were academically educated, Be; mont at Oxford, Fletcher at Cambridge. John Beaumont, author of the poem of ' lJoswo Field,' was the elder brother of the one; the r< gious poets, Giles and Phineas Fletcher, were c< sins of the other. About the beginning of seventeenth century, the drama was by far most flourishing department in the literature wl] then adorned England. All the poetical minds the nation turned to play-writing ; not a few s of genius, who are now remembered only for tl works of other kinds, Drayton and Daniel be instances, owed their contemporary fame in a gr degree to their plays ; and several, such as Fc whom we know only as dramatists, would p bably have gained higher success had they cu vated other walks of poetry. The names of Be mont and Fletcher appear together for the f time in 1607, when the latter was in his twen eighth year, and the former in his twenty-seco Beaumont had already published some miscellane poems : Fletcher's previous training in authors cannot be traced. The English drama, wl soon after 1590 had risen to its greatest gl under Shakspeare, was now not far from the i of its brightest period. The labom-s of its m illustrious master were about to close ; and m of those which were afterwards performed by 1 Jonson were fallings off from the vigour of prime. The two new poets stood, both in time i in spirit, between the era which was made glori by Shakspeare, and that which terminated, in middle of the century, the history of the OldE lish Drama. The two are said to have lived in same house in London till 1613, when Beaurn married. They continued to write, sometiii separately but oftener together, till 1616, w 1 Beaumont died, in his thirty-first year or earli Fletcher survived him for nine years, writing., tively the whole time ; and he died in London! the plague, in 1625. Fifty-three plays are eluded in the collection of works which we l sess as the fruits of those nineteen years, j beautiful pastoral of ' The Faithful Shepherdess known to have been Fletcher's; and sevejH other plays of the series were written afl mont's death ; other writers, however, saoH Massinger and Middleton, having perhap Fletcher in some of them. As to no oi other thirty-five plays can we assert at all pi tively, that it was written by Beaumont Fletcher alone, or by both together. We poi 244 FLE >o authentic information in regard to the circum- tances in which any of these were produced ; nor SB we trace anywhere internal dissimilarities, jufficient to prove even plausible conjectures as to fne several snares of the two dramatists. We dis- cover, it is true, in the later works of Fletcher, evi- |ence both of careless taste and of increasing horal depravation ; but the ethical faults had he- ron to show themselves in the very earliest pieces f the joint series. In virtue of the works thus ncertainly apportioned, Beaumont and Fletcher Ire acknowledged, all but universally, to stand, tnong our old dramatists, second to none but jhakspeare. If their title to this honour is at all fesputed, it can be in favour of Ben Jonson only, [heir dramas are more truly and finely poetical pan any others which their brilliant age produced, pcept only the noblest masterpieces of the great I aster ; in the pathetic and romantic they often e with almost everything that even he imagined ; id they abound in scattered passages of the most putiful and touching poetry. They wanted, jowever, not only Shakspeare's unrivalled success ji conceiving a drama as a whole, but also such tail and care in construction as that which is so jimirable in Jonson. Those who would easily prehend both the strength and the weakness of ese exquisite poets, may learn both from a very of the dramas which belong to the earliest ars of their career. Such are Fletcher's pas- ral already named; the romantically beautiful ay of ' Philaster ;' the harrowing but deeply oving 'Maid's Tragedy;' the spirited though re- lsive King and No King ;' and the lively bur- sque, ' The Knight of the Burning Pestle,' which "" s at once the chivalrous romances, and the r plays founded on them by Heywood and More poetical, perhaps, than any of these, The Two Noble Kinsmen,' the authorship of ich is the most desperate of the unsolved riddles ing out of these works : Fletcher is allowed to ve written part of it, and many are convinced at Shakspeare wrote the rest. Among the later ays, belonging to Fletcher alone, were several medies of Intrigue, which, partly by reason of eir theatrical liveliness, partly, no doubt, because their moral grossness, were the greatest favour- on the corrupt stage after the Restoration, le of these, ' Rule a Wife, and Have a Wife,' 11 keeps its place with a few necessary mutila- [W.S.] FLETCHER, Richard, bishop of London, id father of the celebrated dramatic writer, ed 1596. Giles, brother of bishop Fletcher, a et and ambassador to Russia, died 1610. His n, of the same name, author of a fine religious m, 1588-1623. Phineas, brother of the last Lined, author of an allegorical poem, &c, d. 1650. FLEURANGES, R. De Lamark, Lord of, a . marshal, dist. in the Italian wars, 1490-1557. PLEUREAU, Basil, a French hist., 1620-80. IFLEURIEU, C. P., Claret, Count De, a rench officer and hvdrographer, minister of Wine under Louis XVI., ana distinguished as e inventor of the sea chronometer, 1738-1810. FLEURY, A. H. De, a Fr. cardnl., 1653-1743. FLEURY, Cl., a French historian, author of H 'Ecclesiastical Historv,' in 20 volumes 4to, Manners of the Israelites/ &c, 1640-1723. FLO FLEURY, W. F., Joly De, attorney-general to the parliament of Paris, distinguished for his col- lections of the parliament registers, &c, 1675-1756. FLINDERS, Matthew, was born at Doning- ton in Lincolnshire, about the year 1760. He ' was early sent to sea in the merchant service, but joined the royal navy afterwards ; and in 1795 went to New Holland as midshipman in the same vessel in which George Bass was surgeon. His adventurous voyages with Bass have been noticed already. On returning to England he was pro- moted; and in 1801, as captain of the Investi- gator, 334 tons, sailed from England with a crew of 88 men, circumnavigated New Holland, and made accurate surveys in almost every part, contributing more than any other discoverer to our knowledge of this and the adjoining islands. He was accompanied by Mr. Robert Brown, one of the most distinguished naturalists of modern times, an astronomer, two painters, and a miner. His own ship being condemned, he left for England as passen- ger in a store ship, the Porpoise, and was wrecked on the N.E. coast, August 17, 1803. The Bridgewater, Capt. Palmer, and Cato of London, were in company; the latter also struck on the reef; but the former got over safely, and her captain pursued his course without rendering any assistance to the other ships' companies. Flinders, by his admirable ar- rangements, got the men landed upon a sandbank, a little raised above high tide. On the 26th, he left for Port Jackson, a distance of 750 miles, in a small open boat; reached in safety September 6th ; and returned October 7th to the rescue of the crews, with a schooner of 29 tons, which was in very bad condition, but the only vessel he could procure. Two other vessels came with him, one for China, the other to return to Port Jackson. A part of the men sailed for England with Flinders in the small vessel, which reached Mauritius in safety, but was so ill conditioned as to be able to proceed no far- ther. Here the French authorities seized him, and detained him for six years, treating him with cruel severity. His health was so much undermined when he reached England in 1810, that he only survived four years ; having succeeded, however, in complet- ing an account of his voyages, in 2 vols, with maps. He died July, 1814, on the same day on which his work made its appearance. During his captivity, a French expedition, under Baudin, with whom he had before fallen in, had been sent out to survey the coast of New Holland, and it was generally believed that Flinders was kept a prisoner in or- der to enable Baudin to publish before him. This at least he did, and re-named all the points before named by Flinders and others preceding observers were ignored, and the whole put forth as of Ban- din's finding, though he discovered only about 50 leagues instead of nearly 1,000 ; an instance of dishonest meanness happily of rare occurrence in any nation. [J.B.] FLIPART, J. J., a French engraver, 1723-1782. FLODOARD, a French annalist, 894-966. FLOGEL, C. Fred., a German au., 1729-88. FLOOD, Hy., an Irish orator, died 1791. FLOREZ, H, a Spanish historian, 1701-1773. FLORIAN, J. P. Claris De, a French fabu- list and miscell. wr. of considerable note, 1755-1794. FLORIDA - BLANCA, Fr. Ant. Monixa, Count De, a Spanish statesman, 1730-1808. 245 FLO FLORIO, J., an Italian grammarian, died 1625. FLORIS, F., a Flemish painter, 1520-1590. FLORUS, Roman governor of Judaea, 54-67. FLORUS, D., a Latin poet and theol., 9th cent. FLORUS, Lucius, a Latin historian, 1st cent. FLOTWELL, C. Chr., a Germ, theol., d. 1759. FLOWER, Benj., an Engl, politician, d. 1829. FLOYER, Sir J., an English medical writer, au. of ' The Touchstone of Medicines,' 1649-1734. FLUDD, Robert, an English physician and Rosicrucian philosopher, was the son of Sir Thomas Fludd, treasurer or war to Queen Elizabeth in France and the Low Countries, and lived 1574- 1637. It is usual with biographers to style his works a farrago of nonsense, without considering that natural philosophy, as cultivated at the present day, had no existence in his time Kepler and Gassendi, however, thought it worth while to write against him, and, what is curious, the former con- demns the ' chemists, Hermetics, and Paracelsites,' in one breath, complaining that they speak in enigmas, and receive for philosophy the fables of poets, while it is the endeavour of the mathema- tician to bring things to light. It is amusing to read in Fludd's ' Monochordium Mundi Symphoni- acum,' or reply to Kepler, how he turns the tables by proving that mathematics themselves come from the soul, and are concealed under fables with all the wisdom of antiquity. Fludd was a genuine brother of the Rosy Cross, and a man of enthusi- astic piety. The principle of his system is the re- cognition of two worlds in the universe, and the comprehension of all things in a grand harmony like that of the soul in the body. His works in- deed are not likely to be read with patience by the scientific inquirers of the present day, but they will always be interesting as a study in the history of speculative philosophy. It is to be noted also that the Theosophists kept alive the spirit of free inquiry when the church and the metaphysical schools were alike intolerant of it. [E.R.] FLURY, L. Noel, a Fr. economist, 1771-1836. FOGGINI, P. F., an Italian scholar, 1713-83. FOGLIETTI, U., an Ital. historian, 1518-1581. FO-HI, the first emperor of China, date unkn. FOINARD, Fr. M., a Fr. biblical wr., d. 1743. FOIX. The counts of Foix date from the be- ginning of the 11th century; the most celebrated are Raimond Roger, distinguished in the wars of Simon Montfort, died 1223. Gaston III., one of the heroes of Froissart, distinguished in the English wars, died 1391. Gaston IV., b. 1423, and declared successor to the kingdom of Ar- ragon in 1455, died 1472. After him the counts of Foix are confounded with the kings of Navarre. FOIX, F. De, a French prelate, 1504-1594. FOIX, Gaston De, nepnew of Louis XII., by his sister Marie, and commander of the French armies in Italy, b. 1489, killed at Ravenna 1512. FOIX, Louis De, a French architect, 16th ct. FOIX, M. A. De, a French Jesuit, 1627-1687. FOIX, Odel De, a French general, died 1528. FOIX, P. De, archbishop of Toulouse, ambass, to Scotl., Venice, England, and Rome, 1528-1584. teristic indolence showed itself from FOIX, P. De, cardinal abp. of Aries, 1386-1464. FOLARD, J. C, a Fr. mil. tactician, 1669-1752. FOLCZ, John, a German poet, 15th century. FOLENGO, G. B., an Italian commentator, and reformer of church discipline, 1499-1559. FON FOLENGO, Theofilo, a burlesque poet Italy, born 1491, d. in a monastery of Padua 15-1 FOLEY, Sir Thomas, an English vice-admit distinguished at Cape St. Vincent, the battle the Kile (where he led the British fleet into i tion), at Copenhagen, and late commander-i chief at Portsmouth, 1757-1833. FOLIGNO, F. Frezzi Du, an It. poet, d. 141 FOLKES, Martin, an English antiquary a philosopher, born 1690, successor of Sir Ha Sloane as president of the Royal Society 17^ vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries 171 contributor to the Philosophical Transactions, a author of numismatic tables, died 1754. FOLLETT, Sir William Webb, an emine lawyer, was born at Thopsam, near Exeter, on December, 1798. He exhibited an early feeblem of constitution so extreme, that it is said his frier could hardly anticipate the feasibility of his achi ing eminence in any pursuit. As he grew t however, he showed how vigorously the intellect! capacities may rise and flourish in associati with physical weakness. He studied at Trin College, Cambridge, where he took the degree M.A. in 1821. In the same year he comment practice as a special pleader, and he was called the bar in 1824, attaching himself to the weste circuit. Severe attacks of illness rendered nec< sary a careful economy of his strength, and a n adjustment of the sedentary and active emplc ments of the profession. His innate capacii however, and careful husbanding of his resourc led him by gradual and sure steps to professioi leadership. He attached himself to the Consen tive party, as represented by Sir Robert Peel, a entered parliament as member for Exeter in 18i He seldom spoke except in matters in which was carefully prepared ; and it has been rare fo: practising lawyer so readily to obtain the ear of 1 house. When Sir Robert Peel took office in 18- he became solicitor-general, and in 1844 he si ceeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-gener The consumptive symptoms, to which he had lo been liable, alarmingly increasing, he died on 2i June, 1845. [J.H.I FONBLANQUE, John, an eminent lawyer a advocate of the Whigs, author of a ' Treatise Equitv,' originally published in 1793, 1759-183' FONSECA, Ant. De, a Port, theol., 1517-8 FONSECA, Eleanora, Marchioness De, lady of Naples, distinguished for her beauty a rare mental endowments, born 1768, executed having espoused the republican cause, 1799. FONSECA, J. R. De, a Sp. prelate, 1452-15. FONSECA, Peter De, a Portuguese Jesij professor of philosophy at Coimbra, and aftH wards professor of theology at Evora, au. of ' Coi upon trie Metaphysic of Aristotle,' &c, 1528-15!. FONTAINE, C, a French poet, 1515-1589. J FONTAINE, Jean De La, one of the class ( of French literature, was born in 1621, at Cfl teau-Thierry in Champagne, where his father v superintendent of the royal forests. Hi and his education was very imperfect, about twenty-two years old when his liter bition was awakened by the odes of M from whose seriousness and dignity, how was soon diverted by the more congenial i 246 ' FON it such men as Rabelais. Succeeding to his Hsr's office, he married, neglected his wife and |nld, and allowed his property to waste away be- ne his eyes. One of Cardinal Mazarin's nieces, ping banished to Chateau-Thierry, admired his Erses, and carried him to Paris; and there, fceedily welcomed into the best literary and aris- Iicratic circles, he spent the last thirty-five years W his life. The first volume of his ' Contes ap- leared in 1664; a second was added in 1671. Bhese tales, though full of the fine touches of his j?niui, are grossly and unpardonably indecent. he twelve books of his ' Fables ' were published ji equil halves in 1668 and 1678. It is through liem that La Fontaine is universally known. I'itli no originality of invention, very little depth ' reflection, and a total incapacity of consecutive linking he is yet one of the most interesting and ttractive of writers. He is an inimitable teller of nail stories. His short flights of fancy, his inut strokes of observation, his transitions from ief moods of pathetic seriousness to flashes of le gayest wit, are all set off by a diction the most acefully and delicately refined, and breaking out cessantly into felicitous turns of novel expression. -La Fontaine's personal character made him at ice the pet and the laughing-stock of his friends id patrons. To him might be applied, with tie injustice, the epithet wrongly thrown on oldsmith, of 'an inspired idiot.' He was not Jy absent in mind, indolent to excess, and igno- nt alike of the world and of the most ordinary : he displayed a want of interest in im- things, and a dreamy absorption in trifles, are hardly to be understood or excused, un- they are accepted as tokens of strange intellec- weakness. Even from literature, the only thing " eh he had any knowledge, he caught no leas but such as lay within his own narrow [here. Reading Plato in translations, and hearing wages of the philosopher read by Racine, he ad- pred him enthusiastically as the most amusing f all writers ; and once, while dozing in the midst [ an animated theological discussion, he awoke p to ask the company whether they thought liint Augustine had as much wit as Rabelais. per it had become clear that he was unfit to Ike charge of himself or his affairs, he was re- ived as an inmate, and treated like an indulged ild, in the house of Madame De La Sabliere, a dy of rank. His patroness spoke of her three limals, the dog, the cat, and La Fontaine. After is lady's death another friend cared for him in a nilar fashion. In 1692, during a dangerous ill !S8, his confessor prevailed on him to make a iblic declaration of repentance for having pub- hed the ' Contes ;' and he was also induced, ough not till after long resistance, to burn a medy which he had written, and as to which we i not know whether it was or was not morally d. After this his chief literary employment was e versifying of the Latin hymns of the church. b died in 1695. [W.S.] \INE, N., a French historian, 1625-1709. FONTANA, A., an Ital. gem engraver, d. 1587. FONTANA, Aug., an Italian jurist, 17th cent. FONTANA, C, an Italian architect, 1634-1714. FONTANA, Dominico, an Italian architect d engineer, 1543-1607. His two sons, Julius FOO and John, also dist. as architects, the latter more particularly for hydraulic engineering, 1540-1614, FONTANA, Felix, an Italian naturalist and experimental philosopher, celebrated for his ana- tomical figures executed in wax, &c, 1730-1805. His brother, Gregory, a mathem. wr., 1735-1803. FONTANA, Fr., a Neapol. astrono., d. 1656. FONTANA, F. L., an It. cardinal, 1750-1822. FONTANA, G., an Ital. astrono., 1645-1719. FONTANA, M., an Ital. mathema., 1746-1808. FONTANELLA, F., a Ven. Hebraist, 1768-1827. FONTANELLE, J. G. D., aFr. an., 1737-1812. FONTANELLI, A. V. De, an Italian states- man and man of letters, member of the Junta of Modena, and distinguished for his practical abilities in the administration, 1706-1777. FONTANES, L. M. De, a French orator, poet, and political writer, senator under Buonaparte, and privy council, under Louis XVIIL, 1761-1821. FONTANEY, J. De, a French miss., last cent. FONTENAI, P. Cl., a French Jesuit, au. of the 9th, 10th, and llth volumes of the 'History of the Gallican Church,' begun by Longueval, 1683-1742. FONTENAY, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1654-1715. FONTENAY, L. A., De Bonafons, a French Jesuit, auth. of a Diet, of Artists, &c, 1737-1806. FONTENELLE, Bernard Le Boivier De, a distinguished literary savant and mathematician, called by Voltaire the most universal genius of the age of Louis XIV., was born at Rouen 1657, and died in 1757, on the eve of completing his centenary. He is best known in this country by his ' Conversations on a Plurality of Worlds,' and his ' Dialogues of the Dead ; ' while in France, his ' History of the Academy of Sciences ' is regarded as a masterpiece. His works form 5 vols, in 8vo, published 1825. The mother of Fontenelle was sister of the celebrated Corneille. FONTENU, L. F. De, a French archaeologist, auth. of memoirs on numismatics, &c, 1667-1759. FONTI, B., an Italian philologist, 1445-1513. FOOT, Jesse, an English surgeon, author of the 'Life of John Hunter,' &c, 1744-1827. FOOTE, Sir E. J., a naval officer, 1767-1833. FOOTE, Samuel, born about 1721 at Truro in Cornwall of an ancient family, was educated at Worcester College, Oxford. His father was mem- ber for Tiverton, Devonshire; his mother heiress of the Dinely and Goodere families. Young Foote was designed for the law, and had chambers in the Temple, but soon relinquished the study; married, entered fashionable life, and lost his fortune by gambling. Driven by necessity to the stage, he ventured upon the characters of 'Othello' and ' Fondle wife,' in the latter gaining some reputa- tion. In 1747 he became manager of the Hay- market theatre, performing there t lie joint part of actor and author. The first piece he produced was called ' Diversions of the Morning,' and ex- hibited well-known characters in real life, of whose peculiarities he proved himself to be an admirable mimic. Notwithstanding legal objections to this kind of stage caricature, Foote contrived to con- tinue his performances for many years, and even obtained, through the duke of York, a patent of the theatre for life, running from the 15th May to the 15th September in every year. On a party of pleasure with the duke and his friends he had previously the misfortune to break his leg, an acci- 247 FOP dent which necessitated its amputation. On the decline of his health, he disposed of his patent to Mr. Colman, on the understanding that he was to receive 1,600 per annum, and a stipulated sum whenever he chose to perform. A paralytic stroke prevented him from availing himself of this privilege more than two or three times. He after- wards resided at Brighton, and died at Dover, with an attack of palsy, 21st October, 1777. He wrote, besides his various mimetic entertainments, twenty dramas of small literary merit, but full of vivid sketches of character. His style he seems to have borrowed from Moliere ; but his humour was un- doubtedly original, and indeed peculiar. [J.A.H.] FOPPA, W., an Italian painter, died 1492. FOPPENS, J. F., a Flemish critic, 1689-1761. FORBES, Alexander, Lord Forbes of Pit- sligo, the supposed prototype of Scott's baron of Bradwardine in Waverley, commander of a troop of horse in the rebellion of 1745, and author of Moral and Philosophical Essays, 1 died 1762. FORBES, Sir C, a Scottish Indian merchant and M.P., disting. for his advocacy of 'Justice to India,' and for his private benevolence, 1773-1849. FORBES, Duncan, a Scottish judge, distin- guished at the time of the rebellion, 1685-1747. FORBES, James, au. of ' Oriental Memoirs,' and fellow of the Royal and Antiq. Societies, 1749-1813. FORBES, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, au- thor of a ' Commentary on the Apocalypse,' 1564- 1613. John, his son, professor of divinity and ecclesiastical history in King's College, 1593-1648. FORBES, R., a burlesque poet, d. about 1783. FORBES, Wm, first bp. of Edinb., 1585-1634. FORBES, Sir W., author of 'The Life and Writings of Dr. Beattie,' founder, in conjunction with Sir J. H. Blair, of the first bank in Edin- burgh, and a member of the literary club attended by Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, and Garrick, born at Pitsligo, 1739, died 1806. FORCELLINI, jEgidio, an Italian lexicogra- pher, the pupil and fellow-labourer of Facciolati in the great Latin dictionary, 1688-1768. FORD, John, one of the best of our old Eng- lish dramatists, was a contemporary of Beaumont and Fletcher, having been born in 1586. He was the second son of a country gentleman in Devon- shire, and became nominally a barrister. In re- gard to the details of his life hardly anything cer- tain has been discovered ; and as to the date of his death it is only conjectured that it did not happen before 1640. Ford is an exquisite master of rhythmic melody, and abounds in touches of sweet description. While, likewise, he has an in- satiable fondness for representing incidents pro- foundly terrible, his success in the filling up lies, not in the strength which was required for fitly embodying such scenes, but in a melancholy and wailing pathos, in which he is more effective than any other play- writer of his age. His genius, truly poetical, is lyric rather than dramatic. His earliest piece, acted in 1629, was the romantic play ' The Lover's Melancholy,' which contains his famous description of the nightingale. His manner, both of feeling and of expression, may be well gathered from that work and nis ' Broken Heart;' and some of the most touching passages in our poetry may be read in his revolting play, ' 'Tis Pity She's a Whore.' [W.S.] FOS FORD, Sir J., an hydraulic engineer, 160S FORD, Simon, a divine and poet, 1619-16)1 FORDUN, J. De, a Scotch historian, Uthcei FORDYCE, David, a Scotch writer on ehu tion and morals, 1711-1751. His brother, J ami a minister, and author of poems and sermonj, & 1720-1796. His second brother, Wii.i.um, physician, 1724-1792. George, son f t latter, also a physician, and writer on phvaolo; and medicine, 1736-1802. FOREST, John, a French painter, 1636-171 FOREST, P. De La, archbp. of Rouen, 13i4-6 FOREST, P. Van, a Dutch med. wr., I FORESTI, J. P., an Ital. annalist, 1434-1581 FORESTI, Ant., an Ital. historian, diel 169 FORESTIER, Ant., a French poet, 15fh cer FORESTIER, H., gen. of La Vendue, 1775-18C FORGEOT, N. J., a French dram., 1758-179 FORKEL, J. N., a German writer on the Hi tory and Theory of Music, 1749-1818. FORMAGE, J. C. Cesar, a French fabulL and Latin poet, 1749-1808. FORNARIS, Fabricius De, a Neapolitan di matic writer and actor, 1560-1637. FORREST, Th., an English navigator, d. 18( FORSKAL, Peter, a Swed. natural., 1736-( FORSTER, F., a German savant, 1709-1796. FORSTER, George, an Eastern traveller the service of the East India Company, died 171 FORSTER, John, a Germ, comment., d. 16] FORSTER, John, a Germ, divine, 1495-156 FORSTER, John Reinhold, an eminent r turalist, geographer, and philologist, born at Dii chau in Polish Prussia, accompanied Capfe Cook as naturalist in his second voyage, author a ' History of Voyages and Discoveries in t North,' &c; he was a distinguished linguist a literary savant,, 1729-1798. His son, Joi George Adam, of a similar genius, and author ' A Voyage Round the World,' &c, 1754-1794. FORSTER, N., an English divine, author ' Reflections on the Antiquity, Government, Ar and Sciences in Egypt,' &c, 1717-1757. FORSTER, V., a German law-writer, 16th cf FORSTNER, Chr., a Bav. jurist, 1598-1667 FORSYTH, Alexander John, A.M., LL.1 a Scottish clergyman and experimenter in chemist especially in fulminating powders, which led , his discovery of the percussion lock, 1769-1843.1 FORSYTH, Wm., a Scot, horticul., 1757-18*1 FORT, Francis Le, a native of Geneva, * rose to be prime minister of Peter the Great, a commander of the Russian forces, died 1699. i FORTESCUE, Sir John. See Aland. FORTESQUE, William, master of the roH 1741, an intimate friend of Pope, and the otlj writers of that day. FORTUNATUS, a French prelate, died 609.1 FOSBROOKE, Rev. Th. Dudley, F.S.A distinguished antiquarian writer and Saxon sc't lar, author of 'The Eeonomy of Mon;i a poem, 1796, ' British Monachism,' 2 1799, ' History of Gloucestershire,' ' lli^t City of Gloucester,' 'the Wye Tour,' ' Enevcloj dia of Antiquities,' &c, 1770-1842. FOSCARI, Francis, doge of Venice, of treason and deposed 1423. A Venetian senit and statesman of* the same name and fa tinguished for his patronage of the arts, ! 248 FOS I, M., a Ven. historian, 1632-1692. FOSCARINI, Mark, of the same family as the ing, a savant and doge of Venice, 1695-1762. FOSCARINI, P. A., a Venetian mathemati- author of a ' Letter upon the System of Co- icus,' the publication of which gave the signal I ibr the persecution of Galilei, 1580-1616. FOSCOLO, Ugo, an Italian poet, dramatic Writer, and literary savant, in the latter years of his life resident in England as a political exile, where he jbecame a contributor to the Reviews, 1776-1827. I FOSSATI, Dav. Ant., an Italian painter, jborn 1708. His brother, George, an architect, land writer on professional subjects, born 1710. FOSSATI, J. F., an Italian historian, d. 1653. FOSSE, Charles De La, a French painter, (1640-1716. His nephew, Anthony, a tragic Writer, 1653-1708. FOSSE, P. Th. Du, a French histor., 1634-98. FOSTER, H., an English navigator, 1797-1831. FOSTER, James, D.D., a minister of the inde jpendents, celebrated for his eloquence and popu Parity as a preacher, and for his theological and re Qigious writings, especially rcion ' in answer I FOSTER, John, a distinguished classical scholar and churchman, author of an ' Essay on the Nature of Accents and Quantity,' 1731-1773. FOSTER, John, was born 17th September, 1770, in the parish of Halifax, England. His father, who Tented a small farm, endeavoured to add to his scanty means by employing the intervals of agri- cultural labour in weaving. John was early trained to the same employment, and till the age of four- teen he was occupied in spinning wool to a thread by the hand wheel. At that period he entered into , especially his ' Defence of Revela- to Tindal, 1697-1753. the regular service of a master manufacturer, but he always entertained a strong distaste to manual labour. An inveterate habit of mental abstraction led him constantly to live in an ideal world of his own ; and as his weaving, in consequence of his mind being engrossed with a different train of thoughts, was too often executed in a slovenly and unworkman-like style, his employer was dissatis- fied, and discharged him from the service. His friends, who knew the piety, the great intellectual endowments, and literary taste of the youth, urged him to direct his views towards the ministry. His parents, who were a very religious couple, and con- nected with a small baptist church at Wainsgate, had instructed him carefully in the fundamental principles of the gospel as well as in the denomi- national peculiarities of their own sect, and he had, in accordance with his own ardent wish, been ad- mitted a member of the baptist church at the age of seventeen. In resolving now to devote his life to ministerial work, he of course contemplated ex- ercising his gifts within the pale of the baptist communion, and accordingly finished his course of preparatory study at the Baptist College, Bristol. During the whole of his college curriculum he ex- hibited the same mental qualities by which he was 80 much distinguished in after life an irrepres- sible curiosity to examine everything, great decision of character, an ambition of intellectual superiority, and a morbid desire to impart an air of novelty and freshness to old and familiar subjects, by striking out into original paths of illustration, or clothing them in the garb of an unwonted phraseology. He 249 FOU commenced his career as a preacher at Newcnsfle- upon-Tyne on 5th August, 1792, whence, after a brief engagement of three months, he went on in- vitation to undertake the pastorate of a baptist meeting in Swift's Alley, Dublin. In that place he continued to minister for three years, and at the expiry of that term he returned to England, being elected minister of the general baptist church of Chichester. But, unfortunately, his style of preaching, though powerful, and to an intellectual audience a great treat, was little fitted to make an impression on the popular mind. The congregation, small at the first, gradually diminished binder his superintendence, and at length became extinct. Through the kindly offices of his friend Mr. Hughes, secretary to the British and Foreign Bible Society, Foster was employed for a while on a local mission, and at length was intrusted with the board and education of twenty Africans who had been brought to this country to be trained as future missionaries in preaching the gospel in their own benighted country. This engagement having terminated; Mr. Foster resumed his pastoral duties by settling in 1800 at Downend, a country village in the neigh- bourhood of Bristol, where there was a small bap- tist community, and where he was introduced to Miss Maria Snooke, the ' friend ' to whom he ad- dressed his ' Essays,' and who at a subsequent period became his wife. At the end of five years he ac- cepted an invitation from a congregation in Frome, Somersetshire, the members of which, though few, were for the most part educated persons, and pre- pared to appreciate the talented and philosophical discourses of Foster, although many of them through the influence of their former pastor, had become unfortunately tinged with Arian principles. It was during his ministry in this place that Foster pub- lished his celebrated 'Essays,' and became the prin- cipal contributor to the Eclectic Review, the articles for which formed his staple or rather exclusive composition for thirteen years. A glandular affec- tion of the neck, which increased to an enormous size, obliged him to discontinue his public labours in the pulpit. He thenceforth employed himself chiefly in preparing works for the press, the chief of which were his ' Discourse on Missions,' and his 'Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance.' Mr. Foster, having greatly improved in his health, acceded in 1822 to the pressing invita- tion of some friends to deliver a fortnightly lecture at Broadmeadow chapel, Bristol, and this office he performed till Mr. Hall's settlement m town led to its cessation. Mr. Foster was a man of rather extreme views both in civil and religious politics. But he was eminently a man of God, and died on the 14th October, 1839, in the peace and joy of believing. [K.J.] FOSTER, Sir M., an Engl, judge, 1689-1763. FOSTER, Mark, a wr. on trigonometry, 17th c FOSTER, Sam., an English mathem., d. 1652. FOSTER, Wm., a writer on proportion, 17th ct. FOTHERBY, M., an Engl, divine, 1559-1619. FOTHERGILL, Geo., au. of sermons, 1705-60. FOTHERGILL, John, a med. au., 1712-1780. FO-THOU-TCHING, a celeb. Buddhist, d. 349. FOUCHE, Joseph. See Otranto. FOUCHER, P., a French archaeologist, auth. of 'Researches in the Persian Religion,' 1704-1778. FOUCHIER, Bert., a Dutch paint., 1609-74. FOU FOUGEROUX DE BONDAROY, A. P., a French archaeologist and naturalist, 1732-1798. FOULIS, R. and A., Scotch printers, celeb, for the beauty of their classics, died 1774 and 1776. FOULON, J. F., one of the first victims of the French revolution ; he was named minister of finance in place of Necker, 12th July, 1789, and having fled on the taking of the Bastile, he was captured and hung by the people a few days after. FOUNTAINS, A., an Eng. numismat., d. 1753. FOUQUET, H., a French physician, 1727-1806. FOUQUET, J. F., a Fr. missionary, 1690-1720. FOUQUET, N., finance minister to Louis XIV., died after nineteen vears' captivity, 1615-1680. FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, Ant. Quentin, the public accuser of the revolutionary tribunal of Paris, remarkable for the atrocious cruelty with which he exercised the terrible power confided to him against all parties, born m Picardy 1747, executed after the fall of Robespierre, 1794. FOUQUIERES, J., a Flem. painter, 1580-1659. FOURCROY, Antoine Francois De, born at Paris 1755, died 1809. The descendant of a once wealthy family, Fourcroy was the son of a poor apothecary, and after many vicissitudes was enabled to engage in the study or the medical pro- fession under the auspices of the distinguished anatomist Vic. d'Azyr. Under Bucquet he studied chemistry, and ultimately succeeded Macquer in the chair of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, which he held for twenty-five years with increasing popularity. During the heat of the French revo- lution, Fourcroy possessed considerable power, which he exercised in promoting improvements in the systems of scientific education. He took an active part in the institution of the polytechnic and normal schools, the museum of natural his- tory, the central schools, and in the re-establish- ment of the universities and colleges, which had been destroyed by the convention. His most FOX carry no menace of revolution. We ennnol describe here either the arrangements or th philosophy of the Phalange; but justice demands the avowal that Fourier's theoretic view in conflict with our highest conceptions ing the order of the Moral Universe. The Pha- lanx has been put partially to proof chieflj in America. The experiment has never si in the fullest sense; nevertheless, its projectors have read the lesson involved in the failure, and resolved to try again. The Foiirierists were one ol the schools in France, because of whose existence the cry of Socialism was recently raised, with th< aim to'overthrow the Republic: veryunwarrantablj in so far as they were concerned, for thev neithei desired nor threatened confusion. [J.P.N.l FOURIER, J. B. G., a French mathematiciar and physician, distinguished for his scientific me- moirs and historical preface, contributed to tin famous ' Description of Egypt,' where he accom- panied the expedition of Napoleon, 1768-1830. FOURIER, P., a religious reformer, 1565-1640. FOURNEL, J. F., a French jurist, 1745-1820. FOWLER, Chr., an Engl, puritan, 1611-1676. FOWLER, Edw., bp. of Gloucester, 1632-1714 FOWLER, John, an English printer, d. 1578. FOWLER, Th., a medical author, 1736-1801. FOX, Charles, an English artist, 1749-1809. FOX, Charles James, was born at No. 9, Conduit-Street, London, on 24th January, 1749. He was the third son of the Right Hon. Henry Fox, created Lord Holland in 1763. Charles was a frank, lively, popular child, became a family oracle in his infancy, and was supremely in- dulged. He obtained the rudiments of his edu- cation at a preparatory school at Wandsworth, kept by a Frenchman, which he entered in 1756, passing to Eton two years afterwards. In 1763, when he was but fourteen years old, his father indulged him with a gay tour on the conti- celebrated work was his System of Chemistry, nent, which not only interrupted his education, which at one time had a great reputation, and was but is said to have fostered the dissipated habits translated into English. In most of his experi- ! which stained his early career. On his return, he ments he had associated with him his pupil Vauque- I studied at Hertford College, Oxford. Again he lin, whom he had the merit of training and i travelled abroad; and on his return, in 1768, when patronising. He was twice married, and left son and daughter ; but he left no fortune, and his two sisters were afterwards supported by the faith- ful Vauquelin. [R-D.T.l FOURCROY- DE-RAMECOURT, Charles Rene De, a Fr. officer and engineer, 1718-1791. FOURIER, Charles, born at Besancon in 1772, died in Paris 1837. In recent times a new order of political speculations has obtained a hearmg, ana been confessed important, speculations affect- ing the fundamental principles on which modern societies are constructed. Struck by the evil in- herent in the fact that the multitudes are mere * hewers of wood and drawers of water,' St. Simon, Robert Owen, and others, have sought for new organizations, and declared war against the prin- ciple of competition, or ' selfishness,' as the basis of a right social fabric. Of these remarkable in- quirers, Charles Fourier is the most original and profound : practical by nature, and eminently sagacious, he took a more complete view of our human springs of action ; and proposed a scheme that might be tried and corrected by experi- ments on a scale of sufficient moderation to ! not twenty years old, he found himself member of parliament for Medhurst. In 1770 he became a junior lord of the admiralty, under Lord North. He remained, with an interval of two years, in connection with the North ministry until 1773, when he was removed somewhat contemptuously, and the ground of his dismissal has been attributed to rash and presumptuous ministerial acts, com- mitting his colleagues to a policy the reverse of what he himself afterwards held. Of course it was a political necessity that he should join the opposi- tion, and in the prosecution of the measures lead- ing to the American war, he found a ground of hostility congenial to the sentiments then ripening in his mind. Following out these principles he joined the Rockingham administration, but re- signed when the death of its leader made way for Lord Shelburne. Lord North and he finding each other side by side in opposition, thought they might work together in office, and in 1783 that coalition was made which has given just occasion for so much censure ; not because it was a coali- tion, but because instead of uniting together those who were near each other in sentiment by the 250 FOX bond of a common harmony of purpose, it was an attempt to unite those who were opposite by the tie of common hostility to the defeated party. Fox's connection with the ministry, nominally under the duke of Portland, and the defeat of his (India bill, suggested by the gro wing jealousy of the (prerogative of the crown, with the triumph of Kat's rival, young Pitt, are conspicuous and well- known historical events, which can only receive a passing reference. In the regency question he was evidently led by personal predilections to maintain that the office belonged to the heir apparent, and was not at the disposal of parliament. Since the commencement of the French revolution, we must date a great change in Fox's nature, arising from the serious reflections produced by events so momentous- He had been leading such a life of thoughtless dis- sipation as generally deadens the moral qualities as well as the intellectual perceptions. But he was one among the few who could preserve through such orgies ' the whiteness of his soul.' His mind was justly characterized by Grattan's reference to its 'careless grandeur,' and there never lived a statesman whose character is so free of sordid motives, narrow views, or paltry objects. His hearty rebuff of Napoleon's insinuation that his rival had countenanced assassinative plots, was characteristic of his candid, honest nature. It is strange that of one who was so much revered by his party and his personal friends, there should be no good biography, for the collection lately edited by Lord John Russell, though it passed through the competent hands both of Lord Holland and Mr. Allen, professes only to afford materials for a life of the great leader. The reason may, perhaps, be, because while we know Fox to have foreseen that the general good of the community, and not personal aggrandizement, or the triumph of a party, should be the object of a minister, yet his own place in history is that of the champion of a party rather than of a policy. In 1797 he formally seceded from parliamentary action, and lived a life of literary retirement, in which he wrote his historical fragment on the reign of James II. He returned to public life in 1801. In 1806 he formed the real leader of that Whig ministry nominally headed by Lord Grenville; but the ministerial career, of which so many high hopes were formed, was doomed to be brief, and he died on the 13th of September, 1806. [J.H.B.] FOX, Edward, a diplomatist in the service of Cardinal Wolsey, made bp. of Hereford, d. 1536. FOX, Francis, an English divine, died 1738. FOX, George, founder of the Society of Friends, first saw the light at Drayton, Leicester- shire, in the year 1624. His father was a weaver, who bestowed the greatest pains to instruct his son in the principles of revealed truth, and to im- bue his youthful mind with impressions of piety. Having entered the service of a grazier, young Fox was for several years employed in tending sheep, an occupation which both gratified his na- tural love of solitude and nursed his contemplative enthusiastic turn of mind. When sixteen years of age he conceived that he was honoured with a special commission from heaven ; and accordingly, in^ preparing for the work to which he was thus miraculously called, he abandoned business for foe years, lived entirely in the woods on such wild FOX plants and vegetables as he found there, but prac- tising long and frequent fastings, with many other austerities ; his days devoted to religious medita- tion and his nights passed in sleepless excitement. In 1648 Fox emerged from this wild and solitary life to enter on the active discharge of his mission. His first appearances were made in Manchester, where taking his station in the public streets, he at- tracted vast crowds of the people around him, and was several times imprisoned as a disturber of the fmblic peace. Most of the large towns of Eng- and he visited to propagate his doctrines. Great patience, self-denial, and at the same time confi- dence in the truth of his principles, distinguished him, for everywhere he was exposed to the rude and boisterous assaults of the populace ; and in London he was arrested and carried into the pre- sence of Cromwell, who, however, on due exami- nation dismissed him, being fully satisfied of the harmless tendency of his principles and conduct. Nay, the Protector frequently interposed to rescue him from the county magistrates. In the course of his itinerant ministry through England, he was successful in gaining numbers of proselytes, par- ticularly at Derby, where his followers first re- ceived the name of Quakers, from the tremulous tones in which they loved to speak, and from their calling on all to 'tremble at the name of the Lord.' After marrying the widow of Judge Fell, who had hospitably entertained him during his journey through Wales, Fox meditated a voyage of proselytizing in America and the West Indies. After two years' absence he returned to England, where he was subjected to renewed trials, was im- prisoned, tried by jury, and condemned for refus- ing the oaths of supremacy and abjuration. His sentence was indefinite imprisonment. But afti-r a year's confinement he was released by the una- nimous decision of the King's Bench. On recover- ing his liberty he travelled through Holland and various parts of Europe, diffusing his principles, and at length worn out by a life of incessant toil and austerities, he returned to England to spend the remainder of his days in retirement. Witn all his peculiarities he was a pious man, well versed in the Scriptures, and had an extraordinary^ gift iraye: FOX, Hen., the first Lord Holland, and father in prayer. He died in 1690. frS of the celebrated statesman, born 1705 ; member of parliament for Hendon, 1735 ; secretary at war, 1746-1756 ; raised to the peerage 1763, d. 1774. FOX, John, author of the ' Martyrology,' was a native of Boston, Lincolnshire, where he was born 1517. Early distinguished by his classical acquirements, he was elected fellow of Magdalene College, and directed his studies for entering the church. But having evinced a predilection for the reformed opinions, he was on a charge of heresy being preferred against him, expelled from the university, and deprived of his fellowship. His character for learning, however, procured hhn the patronage of several noble families, and amongst others the duchess of Richmond engaged him as tutor to the children of her brother, the earl of Surrey, then a state prisoner in the Tower. Edward VI. also befriended him, and restored him to his fellowship. On the accession of Mary, Fox, like a number of other reformers, sought an asylum on the continent, and after many wunder- 251 FOX ings he settled at Basle, as corrector of the press in an extensive printing office in that city. When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Fox hastened to return to his own country, and through the power- ful influence of Cecil, who was his friend, he was appointed to a prebend in the cathedral of Salis- bury, and might have obtained preferment, but for his conscientious scruples about some matters of ceremony. His celebrated 'Book of Martyrs' attests his hatred of popery, and his intense ad- miration of the principles of the reformation. He died in 1587, at the age of sixty-nine, leaving be- hind lum a high reputation for piety and learn- ing. [R.J.] FOX, Luke, an English navigator, 17th cent. FOX, Murillo, a Spanish savant, 16th cent. FOX, Richard, a statesman and favourite of Henry VII., successively bishop of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Durham and Winchester, distinguished in the latter vears of his life as a patron of learn- ing, born about 1466, died 1528. FOX, Stephen, a minister of state after the restoration, first projector of Chelsea Hospital as a home for retired soldiers, 1627-1716. FOY, L. S. De, a learned Fr. ecclesias., d. 1788. FOY, Maximilian Sebastian, a French statesman and soldier, one of the most celebrated orators of the opposition under the restoration; author of MSS. from which a 'History of the Peninsular War ' has been compiled, 1775-1825. FRA-BARTOLOMEO, an It. paint., 1469-1517. FRAC ASTOR, J., an Ital. astronom., 1483-1553. FRA-DIAVOLO, the pseudonym of Michael Pozzo, a leader of outlaws in Calabria, exec. 1806. FRA-GIOVANNI, an Ital. painter, 1387-1455. FRAMERY, Nich. Steph., a French comp. of the operas-comiques, and dram, wr., 1746-1810. FRANC, M. L., a French poet, died 1460. FRANCES, St., fndr. of the Collatines, d. 1440. FRANCE SCA, P. Dei/la, an Italian painter, the supposed teacher of Bramante, 1397-1484. FRANCHI, J., an Italian sculptor, 1730-1806. FRANCIA. Francesco Raibolini, commonly called Francia, from the name of his master, was born at Bologna, about 1450. He was brought up a goldsmith, and did not take up painting until he was nearly forty years of age, but at this time he executed some important works. He carried on both professions, and made a species of parade of his accomplishments by signing him- self Aurifex, jeweller, on his pictures, and Pictor, painter, on his jewellery. Francia was a great painter, indeed a consummate master in the style of art prevailing in his own day ; in that exact and rigid manner in which nature is scrupulously copied without any license of generalization : he is perhaps the highest representative in a technical view of the quattrocento school, that properly sig- nified by the modern misnomer preraphaelite. Francia's large picture in the National Gallery is a capital example of this early style, the second or Florentine manner of Raphael himself, which Fran- cia had some share in forming. He died at Bologna, 6th January, 1518. (Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, &e.; Calvi, Memorie delta Vila de di Francescoa liaibolini, &c. Bologna, 1812.) [R.N.W.] FRANCIA] Don Gaspar Rodriguez De, commonly called Dr. Francia, and known as the dictator of Paraguay, was born at Assomcion, in FRA that province, 1757, and began his career as i barrister. In 1810, when the Spanish province of the River Plate rebelled against the authorifr of the viceroy, Francia was already known fur hi' inflexible honesty and rare talents, in a countr where the judges themselves were openly corrupt and the policy of the Spanish government hat kept the people in the grossest barbarism an< political ignorance. The Buenos Ayreans havinj erected a new central government (which onl; declared its independence of the Spanish crown ii 1816), made an attack on Paraguay, and th latter, repelling its invaders, proceeded to debat the question of allegiance to Spain in any foro whatever. The influence of Francia prevailing the province declared its absolute independence and appointed him secretary of a triumvirate from which post, by the year 1815, he had risei to the sole dictatorship, which he retained till hi death in 1840. His marked policy in refusing al intercourse with his neighbours during this period and the complication of circumstances m th River Plate, has given his name as much notoriet; in Europe, as the heartless tyranny which he i accused of having exercised in domestic affairs In regard to the former, it would be easy to sho\ that his views were dictated by sound statesman ship ; for by all evidence, down to the fall of Rosas a more fickle and profligate class of people doe not exist than those ambitious of dominion in th province of Buenos Ayres; and the dream o Francia's life, a political and commercial treat with England, as the preliminary of any intercourse with the neighbouring states, was the only mean of saving his people from the same anarchy. A to the latter of these charges, Sir Woodbine Parish who accuses Francia of 'systematic selfishness, and declares his belief that ' a more bloody ani unscrupulous tyrant never existed,' himself writes ' It had been supposed that when Francia died Paraguay would have again joined the confedera tion of the provinces of the Rio de la Plata, but a yet (1852), that is not the case; and it woul< appear that there is a party there not only ambi tious of maintaining their independence, but, wha is still more extraordinary, disposed to continue ! system of isolation and tyranny little short of tha established by Francia. The fact is, with al their ignorance, the Paraguayans understam results, and there are circumstances in whicl mercy itself must seem cruel. Francia with hi own head and hands preserved order in Paraguay for twenty-five years, in which period the neigh bouring state of Buenos Ayres had changed it government, amid scenes of turbulence and blood : shed, nearly forty times ! [E.R." FRANCIS I., emperor of Germany, born 1708 exchanged his own duchy of Lorraine against thai of Tuscany 1735 ; manned Maria Theresa 1736 emperor of Germany, after a struggle of five yeari with the elector of Bavaria, 1747 ; died 1765. H* had six children : among these were Joseph, wh< succeeded him as Joseph II., and Marie Antoinette FRANCIS II., born 1768; succeeded his father Leopold II., 1792; signed the treaty of Camp Formio in the war of the French revolution 1797 recommenced hostilities 1799; treaty of Lunevilh 1802 ; coalition against France and battle o: Austcrlitz 1805 ; compelled by Napoleon to aban 252 FRA idon the imperial dignity of Germany, and took the title of Francis I., emp. of Austria, 1806 ; d. 1835. FRANCIS I., king of France, born 1494, suc- Jceeded Louis XII. after having married his daughter 1515 ; won the battle of Marigdano 1515, jsigned a treaty of peace in regard to Italy 1516 ; advanced his pretensions to the empire at the death of Maximilian 1519; met Henry the VIII. bit the Field of the Cloth of Gold 1520 ; commence- ment of hostilities with Charles V. 1521, and Krith Henry VIII. 1522 ; lost the battle of Pavia, and taken prisoner 1525 ; restored to liberty by (the treaty of Madrid 1526 ; alliance with Henry VIII., and their joint declaration of war against jthe emperor 1527-28 ; signed the peace of Cam- brai 1529 ; persecution of the Vaudois commenced |1544; died 1547. Francis II., born 1544, suc- ceeded his father Henry II. 1559, died 1560. i FRANCIS I., duke of Lorraine, b. 1517, sue. 1544, kL 1545. For Francis II., see Francis II. of Ger. FKANCIS, k. of the two Sicilies, rgnd. 1825-30. FRANCIS, duke of Brittany, the first of the laame reigned 1442-1450 ; the second, 1458-1488. i FRANCIS, duke of Modena, the first 1610-1658 ; the second 1660-1694 ; the third 1698-1749. FRANCIS, Anne, a learned Eng. lady, d. 1800. FRANCIS, C. J., a Fr. engraver, 1717-1769. FRANCIS, J., a French savant, 1722-1791. FRANCIS, Philip, a classical translator, tragedian, and political writer ; rector of Barrow, and chaplain of Chelsea College, died 1773. His son Sir Philip Francis, a political writer, dis- tinguished by his opposition to Warren Hastings, and his Whig principles, also as one of the reputed authors of the Letters of Junius, 1740-1818. FRANCIS, Pikebus, kg. of Navarre, 1479-83. FRANCIS, Romain, a Flem. architect, d. 1735. FRANCIS, Saint. The Roman Calendar con- tains five saints of this name. 1. Jean Bernar- don, commonly called Francis of Assise, founder of the order of mendicant friars named after him, was born 1182, and relinquishing the commercial pursuits to which he was brought up, devoted himself to poverty and self-mortification, and to the preaching of the gospel. His reputa- [ Franciscan Friar.} FRA tion for sanctity drew a great number of disciples around him, to whom he gave the first rules of their order in 1209, engaging them to vows of poverty and submission. Between this period and his death, which took place at Assise, in 1226, he founded many monasteries on the continent, and even travelled into Egypt to convert the Sultan Meleddin. In consequence of his habits of abstrac- tion, he had several visions of spiritual symbols. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in 1230. 2. The next in order of time is an illiterate ascetic named Francis of Paulo, founder of the Minims, or lowest religious order, born in Calabria, 1416, died at the convent of Plessis-du-Parc, 1507. Little is related of him except his solitary life and abstinence, and if he rivalled Francis of Assise in austerity, he was certainly far below him in use- fulness. 3. Francis of Borgia, a Spanish nobleman and courtier of the reign of Charles V., turned to a religious life by the solemn circum- stances attending the funeral of the Empress Isabella, after which he became a disciple of Ignatius Loyola, and was appointed by him to preach the gospel in Spain and Portugal, and finally succeeded him as chief of the Order. He is the author of many ascetic writings, and con- tributed much to the perfection of the organization of the Jesuits. Francis of Borgia died at Rome in 1572, and was canonized by Clement IX. in 1671. 4. Francis of Sales, bom of a noble family in the neighbourhood of Geneva, 1567, and first distinguished by the reclamation of the protestants in the neighbouring valleys. On the death of the bishop of Geneva, Francis of Sales succeeded him, and redoubled his zeal for the reform of the diocese and the monasteries. To further his benevolent designs, he instituted, in connection with Madam de Chantal, the Order of the Visitation at Annecy, in 1610. He died in 1622, after a life devoted to works of charity, and was canonized 1665. His religious works are highly esteemed, especially his 'Treatise on the Love of God,' and ' Introduction to a Devout Life.' 5. Francis Xavier, surnamed the 'Apostle of the Indies,' born at the castle of Xavier, in Navarre, 1506, began his mission at Goa, 1542, and died in one of the Chinese islands, 1552. He was the intimate friend and disciple of Loyola, and was for some time professor of philosophy at the college of Beauvais. He was canonized 1622, and his ' Letters ' published at Paris in 1631. Each of these ' Saints exhibits the spirit of enthusiasm in a different form, and the most pleasing to contem- plate is that of Francis of Sales. In Francis of Assise it affected a species of insanity, and aimed at dominion. The friars of his order were at last a voluptuous and lazy body. In the disciples of Loyola there was more of the spirit of worldly wisdom, and the greatest of them, St. Francis Xa- vier, was characterized by extreme subtlety. [E. !J.] FRANCK, J. M., a German writer, 1717-1775. FRANCE, Simon, a Latin poet, 1741-1772. FRANCK, Sol., a German numismatist, 17th c. FRANCKE, J. C, a German jurist, 17th cent. FRANCKE, J. V., a Danish philos., d. 1830. FRANCKLIN, Dr. Thomas, a classical trans- lator and divine, author of the ' Earl of Warwick,' and other dramas, a 'Dissertation on Ancient Tragedy,' and some miscel. writings, 1721-1784. 253 FRA FRANC(EUR, F., a Fr. composer, 1G98-1787. FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, N. L., a French statesman and man of letters, member of the directory in 1797, and for two years president of the senate under Napoleon, 1750-1828. FRANCOLIN, J. De, a French herald, 16th c. FRANK, G., a German physician, 1643-1704. His son, G. F. Frank, a physician and au., d. 1732. FRANK, J. P., a German physician, author of 'Systeme de Police Medicale,' 1745-1821. FRANKE, A. H., a Ger. philanth., 1663-1727. FRANKLAND, Th., an Eng. hist., 1633-1690. FRANKLIN, Benjamin, born in Boston, Mas- sachusets, 6th January, 1706; died on 17th April, 1790. The name of Dr. Franklin has long been an household word in America, he was her moralist, statesman, and philosopher: his disco- veries in Electricity have given him a permanent Elace in scientific history : and he deserves highest onour from all mankind, because of his services to the cause of rational Liberty and the indepen- dence of Nations. We must omit all details con- cerning Franklin's early life : however, if any one would sustain hope amid unpromising labour discern the inestimable value of small portions of time economized and put scrupulously to uses or learn how cheerfulness, patience, and fortitude, guided by good sense and integrity, must ever command success, he will find nowhere better instruction than in that graphic narrative of the events and struggles of his opening manhood, by which Franklin has let us into the innermost being of the journeyman printer of Philadelphia. Distinguished no less by practical benevolence, than by an almost intuitive appreciation of the wants and character of early American society, Franklin could not fail to rise into authority among his countrymen : accordingly we find him their favourite counsellor in most of the grave difficul- ties belonging to that epoch of American his- tory. Commencing public life in the struggle between the assembly of Pennsylvania and the old proprietary Governors, we again meet him propos- ing to the different States a project of union, which afterwards became the basis of the confederacy : then, on a mission to England regarding the American Stamp Act: afterwards driven from his loyalty Ambassador to France on the part of his countrymen ; the observed of all observers in Paris, soliciting aid in arms from the court, of Versailks: finally Minister to England, signing the treaty by which the mother country, in due humiliation, bowed her head before the independence of her former Colonies. It has been said that Franklin represented the practical genius, the moral and political spirit of the eigh- teenth century, as Voltaire represented its meta- physical and religious scepticism : this, at least, is certain, no man saw more clearly, or felt more profoundly in his own person, the political and moral ideas which necessarily bear sway in a strictly industrial community like the one emerging from infancy in the New World. Unconnected with England by birth or close association, he looked only with astonishment on those pretensions to prerogative, which certainly could find no natural soil, where all men were socially equal: and his system of morals in- cluded every sanction and precept, likely to re- FRE commend themselves to a people, who could ncvi reach prosperity unless through patient industr and the exercise of the prudential virtues. Bf code was ' The Way to Wealth :' and the wii dom of 'Poor Richard,' instructed every man, ho by the strength of his arm, and dominion over h passions, wealth might be attained and mai Since Franklin's time a new element has arise in America; powerful tendencies are developii with higher aims than mere wealth, and wlii< demand a larger code than the utilitarian. Fran] lin did not recognize, or rather had not foresee! the necessary advent of that speculative hab now very rapidly becoming dominant ov< American thought : but in his treatment of tl equally powerful tendency of which he saw tl influence, and whereof he himself so largely pa took, his ' Poor Richard ' is complete : he thre off all prerogative and tradition, and looked i things as they are. Temperance, Silence, Orde Resolution, Frugality, Activity, Sincerity, Justic Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquillity, Chastit Humility, these are his virtues; and Franklj teaches how to acquire them, by precepts, whic in earlier times, would have ranked as gold* verses ; they are as valuable as anything that hi descended from Pythagoras. It is rare that single mind establishes claims so various as thoi of Franklin : he ranks also among the foremoi as a Physical Inquirer and Discoverer. Attracte by the opening subject of Electricity, he wj the first who reduced it to order : and that gran step is owing to him which identified the attra< tion and repulsion of rubbed glass and ambei with the energy that produces lightning, an causes the most imposing of meteorological phenc mena. His memoirs on Electricity and other phj sical subjects, still astonish one by their clearnes and chastity, and the precision and elegance < their method ; their style and manner are t worthy of admiration as their doctrines. The gained for the author immediate admission to tl highest scientific societies in Europe. In his pel sonal bearing Franklin was sedate and weight; He had no striking eloquence ; he spoke sentent ously ; but men instinctively felt his worth, an submitted themselves to his wisdom. Excej Washington, whom in many qualities he muc resembled, the New World yet ranks amon her dead, nowhere so great a Man. An editio of his works in ten volumes has recently bee published by Jared Sparks, the excellent Edit( of the writings of Washington. [J.P.N. FRANKLIN, Eleanor Anne, an Englis poetess, best known by her maiden name of Poi den, wife of Captain Franklin, the well-know Arctic adventurer, 1795-1825. FRANTZ, a French painter, 16th century. FRANTZ, Wolfgang, a Ger. divine, 15(5 1-162* FRANTZKE, G., a German jurist, 15'J 1-KJ59 FRANZ, J. G. F., a German savant, 1737-89. FRANZ, J. M., a German geographer, 1700-6! FRA-PAOLO. See Sarpi. FRASSEN, C, a learned Frchman., 1620-171^ FRAUENHOFER, Jos. Von, a dist. opticia and natural philosopher of Bavaria, 1787-1826. FRAUNCE, Abu., an English poet, 16th cen FREDEGARIUS, a French annalist, died 660j FREDEGISUS, an EngUsh poet, 9th century. 254 FRE FREDEGONDA, queen of France, 543-597. FREDERICK I., emperor of Germany, sur- amed Babarossa, bora in the duchy of Suabia, 121 ; accompanied his uncle, Conrad III., to the oly Land 1147 ; succeeded him as emperor 1152 ; owned at Rome 1155 ; crowned king of Aries 178; undertook a new crusade 1188; drowned in yria 1190. Frederick II., born 1194, master the empire after a long struggle 1208 ; engaged a crusade 1227-1229 ; excommunicated by Pope regoiy IX. 1239 ; died 1250. Frederick III., )rn 1415, crowned emperor 1452 ; erected his ichy of Austria into an arch-duchy 1453 ; suf- red many reverses, lost his throne, and was re- ored, between 1482 and 1490 ; died 1495. FREDERICK I., king of Denmark and Nor- ay, born 1471; succeeded 1523; d. 1533. Fred- rick II., born 1524; succeeded 1558; died 1588. rederick III., born 1609 ; succeeded his father 548; war with Sweden 1658-1660; died, after the own had been made hereditary in his family, 1670. rederick IV., born 1671 ; succeeded 1699 ; with Sweden 1699-1720; died 1730. Fred- ick V., born 1723; succeeded 1746; died 1766. EDERICK VI., born 1768; succeeded his father overning as regent 1808; war of alliance bt France against Russia and Prussia 1813 ; lost ay 1814 ; died 1839. FREDERICK I., king of Sweden, born 1676, 'ated with his wife, Ulrica Eleonora, sister Charles XII., as king 1720, died 1745. FREDERICK I., king of Prussia, called, as jctor of Brandenburg, Frederick III., born 1657, cceeded to the electorate 1688, crowned king '01, died 1713. Frederick William I., born 168, succeeded 1713, died 1740. Frederick ., his son, called ' The Great,' (see next article). rederick William II., nephew of Frederick e Great, born 1744, succeeded 1786, united with a and Russia in the division of Poland, and the same year, 1797. Frederick William son of the preceding, born 1770 ; succeeded died, and succeeded by his son Frederick am IV., 1840. FREDERICK II., king of Prussia, commonly [Ued Frederick the Great, was born 24th January, [12, and began to reign in 1740. He found him- |lf in possession of a full treasury and a powerful Imy, which he soon employed in attacking Aus- K and conquering from her the province of Resia (1740-1742). In 1744 he engaged in a pond war with Austria, which was terminated in [45, and left him in possession of Silesia, but fth no augmentation ot power, though his mili- ty renown was raised through Europe. The feat struggle of the seven years' war began in 1756. pwsiawasnow attacked by the Austrians,the Rus- kns, the French, the Saxons, and the Swedes, and r destruction and dismemberment seemed inevit- le. England was her only ally. Prussia went ^Hltne struggle, and came out triumphant. [hen the peace of Hubertsburg was concluded in sia did not cede an inch of land, or pay a liar of money ; and from that time forth she was Agnized as one of the five great powers of Europe. r this glorious result she was indebted to her is not merely the military genius of cilcri-k. as displayed during the sanguinary mpaigns of the seven years' war, that demands FRE our attention, but we cannot help admiring also his moral courage and his indomitable energyunder reverses which would have crushed almost any other spirit. Though victorious at Prague, at Rossbach, and Lissa (1757), at Zorndorf "(1758), at Leig- nitz and Torgau (1760), he suffered heavy defeats at Collin (1757), at Hochkirk (1758), at Kunersdorff (1759); and his lieutenants, with the exception of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, were generally unsuccessful. But Frederick's firmness never failed him, even when all hope seemed lost. In a period of extreme danger, he wrote to Voltaire (who had advised him to beg mercy from his ene- mies), ' I am a man, and therefore born to suffer. To the rigour of destiny I oppose my own constancy. Menaced with shipwreck, I will bear the storm ; I will be a king in spirit; and I will die, as I have lived, a king.' After the conclusion of the war, Frederick exerted himself earnestly in reliev- ing the sufferings which so many years of carnage and devastation had brought upon Prussia. In 1772 he deeply disgraced himself, and permanently injured the cause of Order as well as the cause of Freedom throughout the world, by promoting and participating in the first dismemberment of Po- land. Frederick died 17th August, 1786. He was fond of the society of literary men, and was himself an author of many works of considerable merit. During his struggles against Austria and France, Frederick was regarded in England and America as the champion of protestantism, and he was called a second Gnstavus Adolphiis. He ill deserved the title. He had no religious faith whatever; and there are few princes of whom so many mean and selfish traits in private life are recorded as of the celebrated king of Prussia. [E.S.C.] FREDERICK I., king of Sicily, was the same who became Frederick II., emperor of Germany. Frederick II. of Sicily reigned 1296-1337. Frederick III., reigned 1355-1377. Frederick IV., 1496-1504. The last three were of the house of Arragon, and Frederick IV. was before count of Altomaia, and d. in France after losing his crown. FREDERICK I., elector of Saxony, reigned 1423-1428. Frederick II., 1428-1464. Fre- derick III., 1486-1525. Frederick Augus- tus, the first of the name as king, 1768-1827. FREDERICK I., as king of Wurtemburg, or Frederick II. as duke, reigned 1797-1816. FREDERICK, son of Theodore, king of Corsica, colonel in the army of the king of Wurtemburg, and his polit. agent in England, au. of 'Historical Me- moirs concerning Corsica,' committed suicide 1796. FREE, J., an English divine and miscellaneous writer, au. of History of Eng. Poetry,' 1711-1791. FREEKE, Wm., an English Socinian, b. 1663. FREELING, Sir Francis, secretary of the General Post Office for nearly fifty years, 1764-1836. FREEMAN, Wm. Peere Williams, an Engl. admiral disting. in the American war, 1742-1832. FREEMANTLE, Sir Thomas, a celebrated English admiral, 1765-1820. FREGOSO, the name of a Genoese family, of whom the following were doges of Genoa : Do- minique, reigned 1370-1378. Joseph, his son, elected 1390. and deposed the year following, Thomas, son of Joseph, reigned 1415-1421, re- elected 1436, and deposed 1443. James, brother of 255 FRE Thorn as, reigned about a year, 1447-1448. Pierre, elected 1450, yielded his seigniory to France 1458, and was killed in an endeavour to reconquer it, 1459. An archbishop, P. Fregoso, was many times doge between 1462 and 1488, and died in retirement 1498. Battista, his nephew, born 1440, elected 1479, deposed 1483. Octavian, elected 1513, yielded the sovereignty of Genoa to Francis I., king of France, 1515, and was con- tinued in command as governor till 1522. FREIND, John, an Engl, physician and wr. on med. science, au. of a ' Hist, of Pnvsic,' 1675-1728. FREINSHEM, John, a German scholar, lib- rarian to Queen Christina of Sweden, and professor of rhetoric at the university of Upsala, 1608-1660. FREMIN, R., a French sculptor, 1673-1743. FREMINET, M., a French painter, 1567-1619. dition, with miners, soldiers, &c, was sent out, 3 FRE RE, G., a French officer, 1764-1826. FRE RE, Right Hon. John Hookham, a scho- lar and fugitive wr., successor of his friend Canning as under secretary of state for foreign affairs, and disting. in ary o ral di FRY FROBENIUS, John, a Gcr. print., 14C0-15 FROB1SHER, Sir Martin, was born of hum parents at Doncaster, but the precise date is i certain. He became early convinced of the pos bility of a north-west passage to China , and the nope of gaining undying fame by its discove continued for fifteen years urging in various qu ters the equipment of an expedition. Dudl earl of Warwick, at length patronised him 1576. He left 8th June with three small vessi and returned 2d October, having reached no fart than Labrador and the coast of Greenland. In cations of gold were discovered, which led to 1 despatch or a larger squadron the following ye; and the quality of the ore brought home be: more favourably reported upon, an important ex; May, 1578 ; but the fleet was scattered by stor on the coast of Greenland, and obliged to reti home early in winter without effecting any sett merit. Probisher afterwards went to the W several diplomatic missions, 1769-1846. Indies with Drake, and on the defeat of the Spj FRERES, Theod., a Dutch paint., 1643-1693 FRERET, Nich., a French savant, 1688-1749. FRERON, Elie Catherine, a distinguished French critic and original writer, 1719-1776. His son, Louis Stanislaus, a member of the French convention, and founder of a violent journal en- titled ' L'Orateur du Peuple,' 1757-1802. FRESCOBALDI, G., an Ital. composer, 17th c. FRESNEL, Augustin John, an experimental philosopher, and member of the Academy of Sciences of France, distinguished as the discoverer of the polarization of light, &c., 1788-1827. FREYBERG, C. A., a German hist., 1684-1743. FREYE, Ch., a German miscel. wr., 1759-1800. FREYLINGHAWSEN, J. A., a Lutheran theologian and mystic of the Pietists, 1670-1738. FRICK, Jean, a German theologian and philo- sopher, 1670-1739. Elie, his brother, a theolo- gian, 1673-1711. Georges, son of Jean, author of a ' Dissertation upon the Salic Law,' &c, 1703- 1739. Albert, younger brother of Georges, dis- tinguished as a savant, 1711-1776. FRIES, J., a Swiss savant, 1505-1565. Mi- chel, his nephew, a wr. on natural history, d. 1611. FRIES, J. C, a Swiss painter, 1623-1693. FRIESE, Chr. Theo., a Polish hist., 1717-95. FRIESE, Martin, a Luther, theol., 1688-1750. FRIESS, J. De, an Aust. financier, 1722-1793. FRISCH, John Leonard, a German minister, author of works on natural history, ethnology, and language, 1666-1743. His son, Joseph Leon- ard, a minister and naturalist, 1714-1787. FRISCHE, J. Du, a French classic, 1640-1693. FRISCHLIN, N., a German savant, 1547-90. FRISI, Paolo, an Italian philosopher, 1728-84. FRISIUS, John, a Swiss divine and Orientalist, died 1565. His son, John James, author of many works on theology, philosophy, and philo- logy, dates unknown. Another son, John, suc- cessor of his father, as professor at Zurich, died 1611. Henry Frisius, a descendant of the pre- ceding, a theological and philosophical wr., d. 1718. FRISIUS, Simon, a Dutch engraver, 14th cent. FRITH, John, an Engl, reformer, burnt 1533. FRITSCH, A., a German savant, 1629-1701. FRITZ, Samuel, a Ger. missionary, 1653-1728. FR1TZE, J. T., a German med. au., 1740-1793. ish Armada received the honour of knighthood, acknowledgment of his services in the action. died in the end of the year 1594, from the effe of a carelessly dressed wound received in an atti upon Brest. [JJ FROILA, the name of three Spanish king! the first, king of Oviedo, reigned 757-768 ; second, king of Oviedo, and count of Gallicia short time in 875 ; the third, k. of Leon, 923-9 FROISSART, John, a celebrated French p and historian, whose Chronicles of France, Ei land, Scotland, Spain, and Brittany, constit one of the most precious monuments of the mid ages. He was attached to the court of Philippe Hainault, queen of Edward III., and mother of Black Prince, and after her death to several ci tinental sovereigns. He is supposed to have lr from 1326 to 1400. The best edition of Chronicles is that of M. Buchoz, 15 vols. 8vo, 18 There have been several English translations. FRONTEAN, John, a Fr. controver., 1614- FRONTIN, Claude, a French poet, 16th ce FRONTINUS, Sextus Julius, a Ron statesman and soldier, commander of the armies Britain, author of a work on tactics, &c, 40-10 FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, a celebra Roman orator and teacher of elocution, instrac of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, consul lj FROWDE, Philip, an English poet, died 17 FRUGONI, C. J., an Italian poet, 1692-1761 FRUITIERS, Ph., a Flemish painter, 17th <| FRUMENTIUS, St., the apostle of EthioJ consecrated a bishop by Athanasius 331, d. 36( FRY, Mrs. Elizabeth, whose maiden m was Gurney, was born in 1780 at Earlham, Kj folk, an extensive estate which had been in j possession of her paternal ancestry for many cj turies. The benevolence of her disposition displa] itself by her habit, while yet a girl, of visiting j poor on her father's property, and forming a sell for the education of their children. With this natl benevolence, however, she united an ardent fonc for the gaieties and frivolities of fashionable till through the powerful ministrations of Savery, an American Friend, she was brc the knowledge and love of the truth as it ill Jesus. Her character from that day was enti ] 256 FRY raged, and she became a genuine and consistent iristian. In 1800 she was married to Joseph y, Esq., of London, and consequently settled in 5 metropolis.. There she resumed her early- bit of visiting the poor ; and although she be- ne the mother of a large family, who were most iderly loved and assiduously trained, she yet ind leisure, by a rigid economy of time, and ar- lgement of domestic duties, to render her bene- ent offices to her poor and suffering fellow-crea- es. Every day was she found visiting charity tools, in the houses and lanes of the poor, and in i wards of sick hospitals, till at length by a provi- ltial train of circumstances, she was led to ex- id her benevolent attentions to the inmates of a ison and a lunatic asylum. The accents of iristian love found entrance into the hearts of wretched outcasts, and she became the hon- red instrument of remodelling the discipline d improving the state of our national prisons, the commencement of her career there was no issification of any sort, no separation between ,le and female prisoners ; all criminals, parents d children, men and women, those who were mparatively innocent with the inveterately de- aved, were indiscriminately huddled together, and these circumstances many left the prison far more miliar with crime than when they entered it. required no small resolution and faith to enter ch a den of iniquity as a British jail at that riod was ; but Mrs. Fry attempted it and was ccessful. Her dignity, and at the same time feminine gentleness, subdued their ferocity d won their attention ; she told them that vice the cause of all their misery, that if they ould return to virtuous habits, they might again ) happy, and she proposed rules for their obser- race, of which they unanimously expressed their roroval. Repeating her visit after a brief inter- u, and finding them equally tractable and sub- issive, she proceeded with her contemplated easures. She appointed a teacher to those chil- en who had been committed for petty offences, id many of whom were under seven years of age. iven their profligate mothers took an interest in lis infant school. Mrs. Fry next devised some Iknployment for the women, by teaching them to ibw, and supplying them with work. For the ac- Ipmplishment of this arduous undertaking she farmed a ladies' committee, some of whom made 1 a sacred duty to attend in the prison daily, so pat there was not a moment when the females rere not under the superintendence of some proper Ind efficient guide. A matron was at length bpointed to live in the prison, and take the over- fent of the female prisoners. But the ladies' com- bttee still continued their attendance, one giving hstruction in needlework, another in knitting, rhile a third read some good religious book, and fooke to them about the guilt and the wages of pn, the duty and superior happiness of a sober, laste, and religious life. In a few weeks the most shing moral revolution was effected within of the prison : not only the language of y, obscenity, and fiendish discord entirely ed, but women of the most abandoned rs were reclaimed to established habits of :ety, industry, and piety. The public interest greatly excited by the intelligence. Visitors FUL of the highest official station and noble rank visited the schools, and the most undoubted testi- monies were borne to the excellent principles and efficient working of these benevolent schemes. Mrs. Fry, while she continued her inspection of the prisons, extended her benevolent regards to other classes, such as making provision for female convicts, both during their voyage out, and at their allotted stations. She also visited all the principal jails in Scotland and Ireland, France, Holland, Denmark, and Prussia, and her last scheme of philanthropy was begun with a view to benefit British seamen, particularly to alleviate the miserable state of the coast guard; forming libraries and adopting means for circulating books and tracts in men-of-war ships. These anxious and multifarious labours made serious inroads on the health of this excellent lady. After trying the waters of Bath in the spring of 1844, she returned home no way improved, and gradually sank till she expired at Ramsgate, 11th October. Her death was lamented throughout Europe as a loss to humanity. She was, as she has often been called, ' the female Howard,' and like her proto- type, her benevolent exertions were the fruit of a lively and established faith in the gospel of Christ. [R.J.] FRYE, Thomas, an Irish artist, 1710-1762. FUCA, Juan De, a Germ, navigator, d. 1632. FUCHS, G. F., a German composer, died 1821. FUCHS, J. C., a German author, 1726-1795. FUCHS, Theophilus, a Ger. poet, 1720-1810. FUCHS, or FUCHSIUS, Leonard, a Bava- rian physician and botanist, author of ' Historia Plantarum,' 1501-1566. FUCHS, or FUSCH, R., a Fr. natural., d. 1587. FUENTE, J. L., a Spanish painter, 1600-1654. FUENTES, Count De, a Sp. gen., 1560-1643. FUENTE S, or FONTE, Bartholemew De, a Spanish or Portuguese navigator, 17th century. FUESSLI, Hans H., a Swiss hist., 1752-1832. FUESSLI, J., a Swiss annalist, born 1477. His son, Peter, historian of the Swiss wars, d. 1548. FUESSLI, J. C, a German historian, 1704-75. FUESSLI, J. M., a Swiss engraver, 1677-1736. FUESSLI, M., a Swiss painter and engraver, 1598-1664. John Gaspard Fuessli, his de- scendant, a distinguished artist and correspondent of the German savants, 1706-1782. His son, of the same name, distinguished as a naturalist, and for his drawings of insects, 1745-1786. His son, J. Rodolph, a designer, engraver, and painter, 1737-1806. His son, Henry, the distinguished painter known by the name of Fuseli, which see. FUGA, Ferd., an Italian architect, 1699-1788. FUGER, Fred. Henry, a Flemish painter of portraits, miniatures, and hist, pieces, 1751-1818. FUGERES, A. C, a French savant, 1731-1758. FUGGER, the name of a rich family of Augs- burgh, ennobled by the emperor Maximilian, the most remarkable of whom are Ulrich, a great benefactor of literature, 1528-1584. Anthony and Raymond, founders of two hospitals, a public garden, a picture gallery, a museum of antiquities, &c, in the 16th century. And Otho Henry, count of Kirschberg and Weissenhorn, 1592-1644. FULBECK, Wm., an English law wr., b. 1560. FULBERT, an Ital. ecclesiastic, 10th century. FULKE, Wm., an English divine, 16th century. 257 FUL FULLER, And., a baptist theolog., 1754-1815. FULLER, Isaac, an English painter, d. 1672. FULLER, Margaret. See Ossoli. FULLER, Nich., a learned divine, 1557-1622. FULLER, Dr. Thomas, an English historian and divine, author of the ' Worthies of England,' a ' History of the Holy War,' and many other popular and learned works, 1608-1660. FULMAN, Wm, an English antiq., 1632-1688. FULTON, Robert, an American engineer, of Irish parentage. His highest distinction is that of having been the earliest to establish practically the propelling of vessels by steam. Millar's ex- periments, which proved the practicability of the principle, were made in 1787 in Scotland, but Fulton's boat, which began to navigate the Hud- son in 1807, was certainly the first practical de- monstration of this application of steam, being five years prior to the success of Henry Bell on the Clyde, and nearly ten years prior to the first at- tempts on the Thames under Brunei's direction. Fulton was born 1765 in Pennsylvania. He com- menced life as a portrait painter in Philadelphia in 1783, but in 1786 he embarked for England, where he worked under his distinguished country- man West, the historical painter, for several years. The fine arts were destined, however, with Fulton to give place to the mechanical, for in 1794 he had been engaged by the duke of Bridgewater in canal projects, nad adopted and patented the sys- tem of inclined planes as a substitute for locks, had written a treatise on canals, and styled him- self civil engineer. He also invented a mill for sawing marble, and patented methods of spinning flax and making ropes. He had little success as a civil engineer in Britain. In 1796 he went to Paris at the invitation of Mr. Barlow, United States minister, in whose house he resided during seven years. His attention was here chiefly turned to submarine boats as warlike instruments of de- struction. The experiments, made first at the ex- pense of the French government, and afterwards tor the English government, proved failures. In the course of these experiments, in the year 1803, an experimental steam-boat was built and tried on the Seme. The success was indifferent. But perse- verance overcomes all difficulties. Mr. Livingston, the American ambassador in Paris in 1806, sup- plied Fulton with funds, who returned to America, and in New York launched a steam-boat, which be- gan to navigate the Hudson in 1807. He after- wards built other steam-boats, one of them a frigate, which bore his name. His reputation be- came established, and his fortune was rapidly in- creasing, when his patent for steam vessels was disputed, and his opponents were in a considerable degree successful. Though an amiable, social, and liberal man, the anxiety and fretfulness occa- sioned by the lawsuits about his patent rights, together with his enthusiasm, which led him to ex- pose himself too much while directing his work- men, impaired his constitution, and he died at the early age of forty-nine in 1815. His death occa- sioned extraordinary demonstrations of national mourning in the United States. [L.D.B.G.] FULVIUS, Marcus, a famous Roman, aedile 197 B.C., disting. in Spanish warfare as praetor 194, consul 190, censor with ./Emilius Lepidus 180. FULVIUS, And., an ItaL antiquarian, 15th ct. FYR FUNCK, C. G. Ferdinand De, a licntena general and historian of Brunswick, 1761-1828. FUNCK, Chr. L., a Ger. theolog., 1751-182 FUNCK, J., a German chronologist, 1518- FUNCK, J. G., a German theolog., 1680-175 FUNCK, J. H., a German savant, 1693-177', FURETIERES, A., a French lawyer, 1628-i FURGOLE, G. R., a Fr. wr. on law, 1690-17 FURIETTI, J. A., an It. cardinal, 1685-176 FURIUS, a Latin poet and annalist, 1st c. I FURIUS, Frederic, a learned Span., d. 15 FURLONG, Th., an Irish poet, 1797-1827. FURNEAUX, Ph., a nonconf. div., 1726-17 FURST, Walter, a Swiss patriot, coadju of William Tell and Arnold, 14th century. FURSTENAU, J. H., a German physician i medical author, 1688-1756. His son, J. Fri eric, same profession, 1724-1751. FUSELI, Henry, R.A., was born at Ziiri 7th February, 1741, and was originally brouj up for the church, and entered into holy orde but for some municipal interference his fan: thought it necessary for him to leave Zurich foi time, and he visited this country in company w Sir Andrew Mitchel in 1763. He here maintau himself by literature, and finally, by the advice Sir Joshua Reynolds, adopted the profession o: painter, and in 1770 set out for Italy : he retun to London in 1779, after an absence of eight yes He first attracted the public attention by liisjp ture of the ' Night-mare,' painted in 1781. T was a fair indication of the unusual bent Fuseli's fancy, thoroughly developed in his gr Milton gallery. He was elected an associate the Academy in 1788, and an academician in 17! In 1799 he finished his great Milton gallery forty-seven large pictures., which had occup him only nine years ; of these remarkable compc tions, the Lazar House ; Satan Starting from 1 Touch of Ithuriel's Spear; Satan Calling up Legions; the Lubbar Fiend; the Vision ot 1 Deluge ; Eve Newly Created, Led to Adam ; t Sin Pursued by Death ; were striking and origii works, of great power of conception and treatme though deficient in all minor technicalities of e; cution. Fuseli was chosen professor of painti in 1801, but resigned on being appointed to 1 keepership in 1805 ; he was, however, re-elecl in 1810, and held that office, together with 1 keepership, until his death, 16th April, 18! He delivered in all twelve lectures in the Acaden which are among the most valuable contributic to English art literature. (Knowles, Life a Writings of Fuseli, 3 vols. 8vo, 1831 ; Wornu Lectures by the Royal Academicians. &c. Bol 1848.) [R.N.y FUSS, Nicholas Von, a mathematician a natural philoso., pupil of Bernouilli, 1755-1826J FUST, Sir H. S., a disting. lawyer, 1778-18,1 FUZELIER, Louis, a Fr. drama., 1672-175; FYAZ-ALI, a Mahommedan savant, d. 1781 FYOT-DE-LA-MARCHE, Claude, Count Bosjam, a Fr. ecclesiastic and histor., 1630-172 FYROUZ, the first of the name king of Pe 83-107 ; the second, from about 457 to 488. FYROUZ-SHAH, the first of the Mi rulers of India bearing this name reigned time in 1236; the second 1289-1296; the sue. 1351, abdic. in favour of his son 1387, d. I 258 GAA G GAL AAL, Bernaert, a Dutch paint., died 1671. 5ABBIANI, A. D., an Ital. paint., 1652-1726. jABELCHOVER, Oswald, a German phy- an and historian, Tubingen, 1538-1616. JABIA, J. B., an Ital. Orientalist, 16th cent. 5ABINIUS, Aulus, a partizan of Pompey, )une 69 B.C., consul 58, aiterw. gov. of Syria. jABINIUS, Quintus, tribune, 140 B.C. JABRIEL, Severus, a Greek bishop, 16th ct. }ABRIEL of Sion, a lrnd. Maronite, d. 1648. ABRIELLI, Julio, an Ital. card., 1748-1822. JABRINI, Th. M., an It. mathem., 1726-1807. JACON, Fr., a French satiric, poet, 1667-1725. JADBURY, John, an Engl, astrologer, 17th ct. rADDESDEN, John of, an English ecclesi- c and medical author, 14th century. JADEBUSCH, F. C, a Ger. savant., 1719-88. AELEN, Alex. Van, a Dutch painter, pupil ohn Van Huchtenberg, 1670-1728. .ERTNER, C. Chr., a Ger. transl., 1712-91. AERTNER, Joseph, an eminent botanist, i born at Calu in the duchy of Wirtemberg in 2. He died in 1791. Gaertner studied medi- j at the university of Gottingen, and attended lectures of the celebrated Haller. He was ch devoted to the pursuit of natural history, . the lessons of his illustrious teacher there, and srwards of the able botanist Adrian Van Rogen Leyden, confirmed him in his choice. After ing his degree, he travelled into Italy, France, d, and England, and published several me- upon various subjects connected with marine and botany. In 1768 he was instituted r of botany and natural history at the ity of St. Petersburg, where he formed the his great work, upon which his eminent on depends. His health obliged him to his professorship at the end of two years, ;urn to his native land. There for eight he steadily pursued his arduous undertaking. len revisited England and Holland, where oseph Banks, and the equally celebrated rg opened to him the collections which d made, the one in the South Seas, the in Japan. At length his excellent work was to the world, and it will remain a monu- to his fame as long as the science of botany to be studied. Its object is to illustrate its and seeds of plants, and contains the tial generic characters and particular descrip- I w of the fruits of 1,000 genera, illustrated by ellent figures drawn by himself. In the defi- '> ton and anatomical elucidation of the parts of l is, Gaertner excels, and his work has rendered Hit essential service to the science of botany. wreber has named a genus of plants after him, fetaera. [W.B.] BAFFAREL, James, a French Orientalist, dis- ^Hhed for his rabbinical learning, 1601-1681. JAI 1'ARELLI, an Italian singer, 1703-1783. BAFURIO, F., an Italian composer, 1451-1520. ^Vffi, Thomas, an Irish missionary, d. 1655. pAGE, Thomas, com. of the British troops in rth America, and gov. of Massachusets, d 1787. GAGE, Thomas, an English divine, 17th cent. GAGER, Wm., an English dramatist, 16th ct. GAGINI, Ant., a Sicilian sculptor, 1480-1571. GAGLIARDI, P., an Ital. savant, 1695-1742. GAGNIER, J., a French Orientalist, d. 1740. GAGUIN, R., a French historian, died 1501. GAILLARD, Ant., a French poet, 17th cent. GAILLARD, Augier, a burlesque poet, 16th c. GAILLARD-DE-LONJUMEAU, J., a Proven- cal bishop, first projector of a Universal Histori- cal Dictionary, for which he collected materials afterwards used by Moreri, 1634-1695. GAILLARD, G. H., a French hist., 1726-1806. GAILLARD, John Ernest, the son of a peruke maker, was born at Zell about the year 1666, and was instructed in the science and prac- tice of music by Marichal, by Farinelli, and by Steffani. At the termination of his studies he was taken into the service of George, prince of Denmark, and after the marriage of that prince Gaillard came to England, where he remained till his death, which occurred in the beginning of the year 1749. He was generally esteemed as an elegant and tasteful composer. His principal em- ployment for several years of his life in London, was composing for the stage. [J.M.] GAINAS, a Gothic general, killed 400. GAINSBOROUGH, Thos., R.A., was born at Sudbury in Suffolk in 1727. He was the pupil of Hayman, but settled in 1758 in Bath, where he practised both portrait painting and landscape with such success, that he was induced to try his fortune in London, whither he removed in 1774 ; and he was soon accounted both the rival of Sir Joshua Reynolds and Wilson : Sir Joshua himself said of him in his ' Character of Gainsborough,' ' Whether he most excelled in portraits, landscapes, or fancy pictures, it is difficult to determine.' He was one of the original members of the Royal Academy, founded in 1768 : he died in London, 2d August, 1788, and was buried in Kew churchyard. (Edwards, Anecdotes of Painters, &c.) [R.N.W.] GAIUS, or CAIUS, a Roman lawyer, 2d cent. GALAS, Matthew, a Ger. general, 1589-1647. GALATEO, Ant., an It. geograp., 1444-1516. GALBA, Servius Sulpicius, a Roman em- peror, proclaimed in Spain 68, assassinated 69. GALBA, Sergius, a Roman consul, 144 B.C. GALE, John, a baptist divine, 1680-1721. GALE, Theophilus, a popular dissenting min- ister, and theological author, 1628-1678. GALE, Thomas, a divine of the Church of England, celebrated as a scholar and antiquary, 1636-1702. His son, Roger, a numismatist, 1672-1744. His son, Samuel, an archaeological writer, histor. of Winchester cathedral, 1682-1754. GALEANO, Joseph, an It, savant, 1605-1675. GALEN, Chr. Bernard Van, prince-bishop of Munster, born about 1607, died after a reign of twenty-eight years occupied in warfare, 1678. GALEN, J. Van, a Dutch mariner, died 1653. GALENUS, Claudius, usually called Galen, a celebrated Greek physician, who flourished in the second century of our era, and whose authority 259 GAL in the schools of medicine long continued to be equal to that of Aristotle in the schools of philo- sophy. He was the son of Nicon, an architect and geometrician, who had also cultivated with success various branches of knowledge, including astro- nomy, arithmetic, and grammar, and was born at Pergamus, a city of Mysia in Asia Minor, in, as is generally believed, a.d. 130, the fifteenth year of the reign of the Roman emperor Adrian. His mother's name is unknown, but she is described as a woman of violent passions and of an ungovernable temper, who, according to the testimony of her son, tor- mented her husband 'more than Xantippe did Socrates.' He received his medical education in his native city, but upon the death of his father, which happened in the twenty-second year of his age, he visited the medical schools of Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria, the latter of which en- joyed at that time a high reputation ; and subse- quently repaired to Cihcia, Phoenicia, Palestine, Scyros, and Crete. Having spent nine years in these travels, he returned to Pergamus, where he began the practice of his art ; and having been appointed by the high priest medical superinten- dent of the gladiators, it is supposed that in this melancholy occupation he acquired some know- ledge of the nature and cure of wounds. His sub- sequent history is very imperfectly known, but it seems tolerably certain that he visited Rome twice in the course of his life, where he acquired a high character for skill, and where, though bitterly op- posed, and, as some think, even persecuted by the Roman physicians, he formed intimate friend- ships with many of the leading men of the state, including the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who in- trusted to his care his son Commodus, then a child of nine years of age, and in a tender state of health. The place and the time of his death are equally un- known. Some respectable authorities, following Suidas, a Byzantine lexicographer, say that he remained at Rome after his second visit, and died there, a.d. 200, in the seventieth year of his age, and in the reign of the emperor Severus ; but one of his Arabian commentators has preserved a tradi- tion that he died in the island of Sicily, at the age of eighty-eight, which, as he was born in 130, would give the year 218 as the year of his death. Galen was a man of great talents and extensive erudition, and a very voluminous writer. His native tongue was Greek, and in that language he wrote, but he understood the Latin, the Ethiopic, and the Persic languages. His works are written for the most part in the Attic dialect, but his style, though eloquent, is diffuse and prolix. Suidas, who is our chief authority on this subject, says that he wrote no less than five hundred books on medicine, and two hundred and fifty on other subjects. Of these the greater part are lost. Of the former not above a half remain, and of the latter only a few fragments; while of his medical treatises forty-five are deemed spurious, and many are con- sidered of doubtful authenticity; yet notwith- standing of these defections, the received works of Galen, with the Latin translations, fill thirteen folio volumes. The best, or at least the most commodious, edition is that of Kiihn, in twenty 8vo volumes, begun in 1818, and finished in 1833. [J.M'C] GALERIUS, a Roman emp., reigned 305-311. GAL GALGACUS, chief of the Caledonians, 1st d GALHEGOS, M. De, a poet and dramatic wj ter of Portugal, 1597-1665. GALILEO, Galilei, a distinguished astron mer, was born at Pisa on the 15th of July, 15( His father, who was himself a philosopher, ha<3 family of three sons and three daughters, of whi Galileo was the eldest. He was distinguished a child by his skill in constructing toys and piec of machinery. To these mechanical accomplishing he added a taste for music, drawing,and painting, ai so great was his passion for pictures, that he w desirous of following painting as a profession. E father, however, having observed very decid indications of early genius, resolved to send hS to the university to study medicine. He accotf ingly went to Pisa, on the 9th November, 158 and was placed under the celebrated botani Cassalpinus, who then filled the chair of medicii In studying music and drawing, he found it nece sary to acquire some knowledge of geometry, b no sooner had he entered upon Euclid than ] conceived a violent passion for mathematics, ai devoted himself wholly to its study. While poi dering over the treatise of Archimedes De inside tibus in fluido, he wrote an essay on the hydro tatic balance, which was the means, through Gui< Ubaldi, of obtaining for him the appointment lecturer on mathematics in the university of Pis with a salary of only sixty crowns. Galileo hi even in his eighteenth year exhibited a gre antipathy to the philosophy of Aristotle ; bi in the discharge of his new functions at Pis he did not scruple to denounce his mechanic doctrines, and expose their errors in the lai guage even of asperity and triumph. On the sul ject of falling bodies he disproved his doctru by actual experiments made from the leanil tower of Pisa, and so great was the prejudi which was then roused against him, that he quitfr Pisa in 1592, and accepted of the professorship mathematics in the university of Padua. GaEI was converted to the doctrines of Copernicus ' the lectures of Christian Vurstisius, but even aft] his conversion he taught the Ptolemaic system j compliance with popular feeling. The reputati of Galileo was now widely extended. Cosmo, gra duke of Tuscany, invited him, in 1609, to resume li original situation at Pisa. Galileo accepted oft' invitation on condition that he should receive t\ title of Philosopher to his Highness, as well ! that of mathematician ; and while this negotiati! was going on he went to pay a visit to a friend ; Venice. There he learned, by common repo that a Dutchman had given Prince Maurice an c tical instrument which made distant objects ajM near the observer. Anxious to know what t; instrument was, he discovered the principle of! on his return to Padua, and having plao ends of a leaden tube two spectacle-glasses, tj one a plano-convex, and the other a plano-concal the latter being nearest the eye, he obtained! telescope exactly the same as a modern opej glass. This little instrument, which hai nifying power of only three times, he exhibited Venice to crowds of the principal citizens, and presented one of them to the senate, who gave him his professorship at Padua for life, ij raised his salary from 520 to 1000 florins. Ai GAL laving made other two telescopes, one magnifying ight^mi the other thirty times, Galileo applied hem to the heavens. With them he discovered he mountains and cavities in the moon, the round iiscs of the planets, and the four satellites of lupiter. He counted forty stars in the Pleiades, md found that many of the nebulae were clusters if small stars. The satellites of Jupiter were liscovered on the 7th January, 1610, and they vere afterwards found by our celebrated country- nan, Thomas Harriot, on the 17th October of the ,ame year. In directing his telescope towards Saturn, Galileo observed it to be like three o's, lamely, oOo, the middle one being the largest, hus approximating to the discovery of Saturn's ing, afterwards made by Huygens. About the ame time he discovered the crescent of Venus, nd the spots on the sun, which were seen about ix months later by Harriot in England. In the ly part of 1611, Galileo went to Rome, and k with him his best telescope. Here, princes, dinals, and prelates, hastened to do him honour, nd had the gratification of seeing the spots on ' e sun in the Quirinal gardens. The discoveries of alileo were ill received by the followers of Aris- tle. Prejudice and ignorance were thus combined ;ainst him, and in the controversies into which s was led, he treated his opponents and their unions with undue ridicule and sarcasm. The osophers and freethinkers of the day, many of horn had been Galileo's pupils, marshalled them- lves on his side, while the Aristotelian sages ere supported with all the influence of the lurch. While these parties were resting on the fensive, Galileo, in 1613, addressed a letter to s friend, the Abbe Castelli, to prove that the criptures were not intended to teach us science id philosophy, and that it was equally difficult reconcile the Ptolemaic and the Copernican stem with expressions in the Bible. In replying this letter, Caccini, a Dominican monk, made a srsonal attack upon Galileo from the pulpit, ridi- ling the astronomer and his followers. Roused by is attack, Galileo published a long letter defending b former views, which he dedicated to the grand ichess of Tuscany. Its reasoning was conclusive, id its influence powerful. It was felt to be hopeless meet his arguments by any other weapons than ose of the civil power, and with the resolution crush the dangerous innovation, his enemies termined upon appealing to the inquisition. A Jminican monk had paved the way for such a ocess by denouncing to that body Galileo's letter Castelli, and Caccini was induced to settle at >me, in order to embody the evidence against his ponent. In the year 1617, Galileo went to me, cited probably by the inquisition, and was pged in the palace of the grand duke's ambas- ior. When summoned before that body for his jretical doctrine, he was charged with maintain- j; the stability of the sun, and the motion of the (rth, and of trying to reconcile this doctrine to ripture; and after inquiring into the truth of Jse charges on the 25th February, 1615, it was ^reed that Galileo should be enjoined by Cardinal llarmine to renounce the obnoxious tenets, i to pledge himself, under the pain of imprison- nt, neither to teach nor publish them in future. i accordingly appeared before the cardinal, and GAL having renounced his opinions, and declared that he would neither teach nor defend them, he was dismissed from the bar of the inquisition. Thus successful in their first attempt to put down the truths of science, they conceived the bold plan of condemning the whole system of Copernicus as heretical. In order to frustrate this plan, Galileo remained at Rome, and there is reason to believe that he thus injured his cause. His letter to Cas- telli, Copernicus's work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies,' and ' Kepler's Epitome of the Copernican System,' were all inserted among the prohibited books. Notwithstanding these acts of hostility, Galileo was graciously received by Pope Paul V., in March, 1616, and even assured that while he occupied the pope's chair, he would pro- tect him against the calumnies of his enemies. About this time Galileo proposed a method of finding the longitude at sea by the eclipse of Jupiter's satellites, and expected that Philip III. of Spain would employ him to devote his time to the perfection of a method so useful to commerce. He failed, however, in this attempt. But the mortification which it gave him was compen- sated by the elevation of his friend Urban VIII. to the pontificate. In October, 1623, Galileo went to Rome to offer his congratula- tions to his holiness. The pope loaded him with presents, promised him a pension for his son, and on the death of Cosmo, recommended him in a special letter to the new grand duke of Tuscany. The cardinals even were propitiated, and in the same spirit his friend Castelli was made mathematician to the pope. Notwithstanding these acts of kindness, however, Galileo cher- ished the deepest hostility against the church, and his resolution to propagate his opinions seems to have been coeval with the vow by which he renounced them. He resolved to write a work in which the Copernican system should be demon- strated. This work, entitled ' The System of the World, by Galileo Galilei,' was published in 1662, and consists of four dialogues, in which he dis- cusses the Ptolemaic and the Copernican systems. The work is dedicated to Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany, and contains an ironical and insulting attack upon the decree of the inquisition. The doctrines which it defended were so widely dis- seminated, and so eagerly received, that the Church of Rome felt the blow which was thus given to its intellectual supremacy. Under these circumstances the pope aid not hesitate in his resolution to punisn its author. Galileo was accordingly summoned before the inquisition. Worn out with age and infirmities, he arrived in Rome on the 14th February, 1633, and on the advice of his friends he remained in strict seclu- sion in the house of the Tuscan ambassador. Early in April, when his examination in person took place, he was removed to the holy office, and lodged in the house of the fiscal of the inquisition, his table being provided by the Tuscan ambas- sador. It is stated by M. Libri, and generally believed, that in his examination he was put to the torture, and after this had taken place, he was allowed a reasonable time for his de- fence. Having duly considered his confession and excuses, he was again summoned to the holy office. On the 22d of June he wa3 con- 2G1 GAL ducted In a penitential dress to the convent of Minerva, sentence of imprisonment during the pleasure of the inquisition was pronounced upon him, and he was ordered to abjure and curse the heresies he had cherished. 4 The account of the trial and sentence of Galileo,' says Sir David Brewster, 'is pregnant with the deepest interest and instruction. Human nature is here drawn in its darkest colouring ; and in sur- veying the melancholy picture, it is difficult to de- cide whether religion or philosophy has been most degraded. While we witness the presumptuous priest pronouncing infallible the decrees of his own erring judgment, we see the high-minded philosopher abjuring the eternal and immutable truths which he had himself the glory of estab- lishing. In the ignorance and prejudices of the age; in a too literal interpretation of the lan- guage of Scripture ; in a mistaken respect for errors that have been venerable from their antiquity, and in the peculiar position which Galileo had taken among the avowed enemies of the church, we may find a shadow of an apology, evanescent though it be, for the conduct of the inquisition. But what excuse can we devise for the humiliating abjuration of Galileo ? Why did this master spirit of the age this high priest of the stars this re- presentative of science this hoary sage, whose career of glory was near its consummation why did he reject the crown of martyrdom which he had himself created, and which, plaited with im- mortal laurels, was about to descend upon his head ? If instead of disavowing the laws of na- ture, and surrendering in his own person the in- tellectual dignity of his species, he had boldly as- serted the truth of his opinions, and confided his character to posterity, and his cause to an all-rul- ing Providence, he would have strung up the hair- suspended sabre, and disarmed for ever the hos- tility which threatened to overwhelm him. The philosopher, however, was supported only by philo- sophy, and in the love of truth he found a miser- able substitute for the hopes of the martyr. Ga- lileo cowered under the fear of man, and his sub- mission was the salvation of the church. The sword of the inquisition descended on his prostrate neck, and though its stroke was not physical, yet it fell with a moral influence, fatal to the character of its victim, and to the dignity of sci- ence.' From the prison of the inquisition, where he remained only four days, Galileo was allowed to go to the house of the Tuscan ambassador, and after six months' residence there, to pass his term of imprisonment in his own house at Arcetri. The happiness of rejoining his family, however, was of short duration. His favourite daughter was seized with an illness of which she died; and having himself fallen into a state of ill health, he was permitted to go to Florence for its recovery in 1638. Here he was debarred from all intercourse with society, and it was only in the presence of an officer of the inquisition that his friend Castelli was permitted to visit him. During his five years' (.onfinement he composed his ' Dialogues on Local Motion,' and in 1636 he discovered the interesting phenomena of the moon's libration. About this time he lost the use of both his eyes, when he was negotiating with the Dutch government respecting GAL his method of finding the longitude. At a soni what later period almost total deafness supervene and having been attacked with fever ana palpH tion of the heart, he died on the 8th Januar 1642, in the seventy-eighth year of his ace. 1 was buried in the church of Sta Croce in Flored and a splendid monument erected to his memoi in 1737. For further information respecting Gi lileo see an admirable life of him in the ' Libra of Useful Knowledge ' by the late Mr. Drinkwat Bethum, and another of a more popular kind : Sir David Brewster's ' Martyrs of Science.' complete edition of his works was published i Milan in 1811, in 11 volumes, under the title < ' Opere di Galileo Galilei Nobile Fiorensino.' [D.B GALILEO, Vincent, an Ital. mathe., 16th o GALITZIN, a Russian statesman, 1633-1713. GALL, Francis Joseph, the founder of thi celebrated intellectual or cerebral physiology know as Phrenology : born at Tiefenbrunn, in tl duchy of Baden, 9th March, 1758 ; died in Par in 1828. The incidents of Gall's life were m numerous, and resemble those of many other pn pounders of new moral and intellectual doctnn< in Germany; silenced by one government, hai boured for a time by another, he became throug compulsion a peripatetic. His longest resident was in Paris, where, in conjunction with his dis ciple Spurzheim, he published his chief works.- Gall's fundamental maxims are as follows: j Moral qualities and intellectual faculties are in nate. 2. The exercise or manifestation of thes faculties and qualities depends on our organizatioi 3. The brain is the organ of all our appetites, sex timents, and faculties. 4. The brain is compose of as many special organs as there are original an independent appetites, sentiments, and faculties i human nature. 5. The form of the head or skul which in the main corresponds with the shape i the brain, suggests the means of discovering t observation what are any one's primary facultit and qualities. Of these maxims the last two aloi, are peculiar to Gall : they contain the germs his new philosophy, and suggested his method of oli servation. The philosophy, as distinguished fro] all previous physiologies, represents the brain li- as an organ, but an apparatus; to each convolutio or independent part of which, a distinct mentj function belongs : and the task of allocating o| various functions is reduced to that of eliminjHI by aid of multitudes of instances, that special crj nial organ, which always coexists and varies with o t special intellectual power or tendency. In conducj ing Observation Gall rightly resorted to the m, thod of extreme instances, seeking the mean of an organ from the mental accompanimei^H its great excess or signal defect. It is impodjH in this place to criticise phrenology: its subdivisi of the skull however, into a region of the appetitj and sentiments, a region of the emotions a moral powers, and a region of the intellect!* faculties these last subdivided into powers j observation and powers of combination, is j striking consistency with all the dynamic pliers mena of the human mind as manifested through 1) tory. Gall had and still has, many fbll> expositors: in Scotland the place of horn questionably occupied by Mr. Combe < burgh. [J.PJ 262 GAL GALL, St., bishop of Clermont, died 554. GALLA, a doge of Venice, killed 755. GALLACCINI, T., an Ital. savant, 1564-1641. GALLAIS, J. P., a Fr. journalist, 1756-1820. GALLAND, A., a Fr. Orientalist, 1646-1715. GALLAND, A., a French historian, 16th cent. GALLAND, And., a Venetian savant, d. 1779. GALLETTI, J. G. A., a Ger. hist., 1750-1828. GALLETTI, P. L., an Ital. savant, 1724-1790. GALLI, J. A., an Ital. philosopher, 1708-1784. GALLIANI, Ferdinand, an Italian ecclesi- astic, economist, and political writer, 1728-1787. GALLIENUS, emperor of Rome, 260-268. GALLIMARD, J. E., a Fr. mathem., d. 1771. GALLO, A., an Ital. agriculturist, 1499-1570. GALLO, And., an Ital. mathem., 1732-1814. GALLOIS, John, a French savant, 1632-1707. GALLOIS, Julian J. C. Le, a Fr. physiologist, auth. of ' Exper. on the Principle of Life,' d. 1818. GALLONIO, Ant., an It. ecclesiastic, d. 1605. GALLUS, jElius, a Roman general, 1st c. e.c. GALLUS, -Slius, a Roman jurisconsult, 1st c. GALLUS, Caius, a Roman astronomer, said to lave predicted or explained an eclipse, 2d c. B.C. GALLUS, Caius Vibius Trebonianus, era- Deror of Rome, proclaimed 251, assassinated 253. GALLUS, Cneus, or PUBLIUS CORNE- LIUS, a Roman poet and general, governor of Egypt, killed himself, when disgraced 69-26 b.c. GALLUS, Flavius Constantinus, nephew >f Constantine and brother of Julian, intrusted as Jsesar with the gov. of the East 315, beheaded 354. GALLUZZI, R., an Italian historian, d. 1801. GALT, John, a Scotch miscel. wr., 1779-1839. GALUPPI, B., an Ital. composer, 1703-1785. GALVANI, Luigi, born at Bologna 1737, died 798. A distinguished physician and physiologist. The name of Galvani has become a household word, lis great discovery of galvanism appears to have >een made about 1790. The story as told is as ollows : The physician had been preparing some rog-soup for his sick wife, and some of these ani- nals were lying stripped of their skins. An assis- ant had accidentally touched the crural nerves of me of the animals with the point of a scalpel in he neighbourhood of the conductor of an electrical nachine, which stood on the table, when the limbs rere immediately thrown into convulsions. Gal- rani soon satisfied himself that this same pheno- menon occurred with all animals' muscles, and thus aid the basis of the great science which has been toce erected. Galvani fell into a melancholy from me death of his wife, and the loss of his offices rom the occupation of Italy by the French, preyed n his mind, although he was ultimately restored to lis position a short period before his death in 1798. the account of his discovery of galvanism is con- pined in his treatise ' De Viribus Electricitatis in lotu Musculari Commentarius, 1791.' [R.D.T.] GALVER, L., a Spanish poet, 1549-1610. GAMA, Anthony De Leon Y., a Mexican eographer and astronomer, end of 18th century. GAMA, J. De, a Portuguese mariner, 17th ct. GAMA, Jeanne, a Portug. poetess, 1515-86. GAMA, Ph. J., a Portuguese poet, 1713-1742. GAMA, Vasco De, a Portuguese gentleman elonging to the household of Emanuel, king of rortugal, was a native of the small seaport pwn of Sines in that country ; the date of his | GAR birth is uncertain, and little is known of the events of his life till he was sent out on a voy- age to India, in 1497, ten years after the prac- ticability of the passage by this noted promon- tory had been established by Diaz. He sailed July 8, with three small vessels, carrying sixty men; and, after encountering tremendous gales in the neighbourhood of the Cape, which so dis- couraged his men, that he had the utmost difficulty in prevailing on them to persevere, he succeeded in doubling this dreaded headland Nov. 19th, and steered E. and then N.E. along the African coast till he reached Melinda, in 1st. 2 S. Here he found Christian merchants from India ; guided by one of whom he crossed the Indian ocean to Calicut between May 5th and 28th, 1498, being the first European who navigated these seas. Returning to Lisbon, September, 1499, he was received with distinguished honour by his sove- reign, who conferred upon him the title of admiral of the Indian, Persian, and Arabian seas. The expedition of Cabral followed; and in 1502 De Gama was again sent out with a powerful fleet. He returned in the end of the following year laden with rich treasures, and was created count of Vi- dequeyra. For twenty years discovery and con- quest in the east had been prosecuted by others, when De Gama, appointed governor of Portuguese India, sailed for Cochin. He died, however, soon after his arrival, December, 1525. 'Married to immortal verse,' the exploits of De Gama have gained a greater celebrity than sober history war- rants. Diaz had already robbed the formidable Cape of its terrors had determined its place with accuracy ; and led the way into seas before un- known. Beyond lay the richest countries of the world ; their treasures were unfolded by De Gama after a voyage exhibiting great skill and noble daring; and the results of which are only second in impor- tance to the grand discovery of Columbus. [J.B.] GAMBA, J. F., a French voyager, 1763-1833. GAMBARA, L., an Italian painter, 1541-1574. GAMBARA, V., an Italian poetess, 1485-1550. GAMBIER, Lord J., an English admiral, commander at the siege of Copenhagen, 1756-1833. GAMBOLD, John, a scholar and religious writer of the sect of Moravian Brethren, d. 1771. GAMELIN, J., a French painter, 1739-1803. GAMURRINI, E., an Ital. historian, 17th cent. GANDON, Jas., an Engl, architect, 1760-1824. GANDY, James, an English painter, 1619-89. GANILLE, C, a Germ, economist, 1758-1836. GARAMOND, Claude, a French engraver and letter-founder, eel. for his Greek type, d. 1561. GARAMPI, J., an Italian antiquary, 1725-92. GARASSE, Francis, a Fr. Jesuit, 1585-1631. GARAT, Dominic Joseph, a French states- man and metaphysician, ennobled by Buonaparte, 1749-1833. His nephew, Peter John Garat, a celebrated professor of music, 1764-1823. GARAY, John De, a Spanish officer and tra- veller in South America, born 1541, killed 1592. GARAY, Martin De, a Sp. statesm., d. 1822. GARCIA, Manuel, a Sp. comp., 1779-1832. GARCIA-DE-MASCARENHAS, Blaise, an epic poet and general of Portugal, 1596-1656. GARCIA- DE-PAREDES, Don Diego, a famous Sp. commander in Italy, &c, 1466-1530. GARCIA-SUELTO, a Sp. savant, 1778-1816. 263 GAR GARCILASO-DE-LA-VEGA. See Garcias. GARCIAS, G., a Span, missionary, 1554-1627. GARCIAS-LASSO, or GARCILASO-DE-LA- VEGA, a Spanish general and poet, distinguished in the wars of Charles V., 1503-1536. The same name was borne by a descendant of the sovereigns of Peru, called, on that account, ' The Inca,' and distinguished as a writer on the history and an- tiquities of his country, 1530-1616. GARCIAS-Y-MATAMOROS, Alphonso, a Spanish savant and biographical writer, 16th cent. GARDEN, Alex., a Scotch botanist, 1730-91. GARDEN, Francis, Lord Gardenstone, a Scotch lawyer and miscellaneous wr., 1721-1793. GARDIE, The Counts De La, distinguished in Swedish history, trace their origin to Pontus de la Gardie, a French adventurer, who entered the service of the king of Sweden, and married his natural daughter, and was accidentally drowned, 1585. The most distinguished is Mag- nus Gabriel, Count de la Gardie, grand chan- cellor and seneschal of Sweden, and a great pa- tron of arts and letters, 1622-1686. GARDINER, James, a British officer, remark- able for the incidents of his conversion to a reli- gious life, as related by Dr. Doddridge, born 1688, killed at the battle of Prestonpans, 1745. GARDINER, R., an English divine, 1591-1670. GARDINER, Stephen, bishop of Winchester, distinguished for his learning, his craft as a states- man, and his cruelty to the protestants, but especially as the tool of Henry VIII. in the pro- ceedings against Queen Catherine, 1483-1555. GARDINER, W., an Irish engraver, 1766-1814. GARDNER, Alan, Lord, a British admiral, distinguished at the close of the last cent., d. 1809. GARIBALDI, a Lombard king, reigned 671. GARISSOLES, A., a Fr. protes. wr., 1587-1650. GARNERIN, A. J., a Fr. aeronaut, 1770-1823. GARNET, Henry, an English Jesuit, born 1555, author of a work on ' Christian Renovation,' hanged for his part in the gunpowder plot, 1606. GARNETT, Th., an English physician, au. of works on medicine and natural history, 1766-1802. GARNIER, Count Germain, a French econo- mist, translator of ' Smith's Wealth of Nations,' author of ' Histoire de la Monnaie,' 1754-1821. GARNIER, J., a French theolog., 1612-1681. GARNIER, J. J., a Fr. historian, 1729-1805. GARNIER, Julius, a French savant, d. 1725. GARNIER, R., a Fr. dramatist, 1545-1601. GARNIER, Sebastian, a French poet, 16th c. GARNIER-DESCHENES, E. H., a French agriculturist, geographer, and mathe., 1727-1812. GAROFALO, B., an Ital. artist, 1481-1559. GAROFALO, B., an Ital. antiqu., 1677-1762. GARRICK, David, the most respected actor that ever trod the English boards, was born at Hereford, and was baptized in the church of All- Saints, in that city, 28th February, 1716. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, generally resided at Lichfield, but was about that time on a recruiting party; his mother's maiden name was Clough, daughter to one of the vicars in Lichfield cathe- dral. David at ten years of age was entered of the grammar school at Lichfield. At eleven he formed the project of getting a play acted by young gentlemen and ladies. The trial was made with ' The Recruiting Officer.' One of his GAR sisters played the part of the chambermaid ; he himself undertook Serjeant Kite. The after celebrated Doctor, Samuel Johnson, his boy-friend, was applied to for the prologue, which, however, he neglected to write. Not long after Garrick went to Lisbon, at the request of an uncle, a wine merchant there, and was acquainted with the un- fortunate Duke d' Aveixo. On his return to Eng- land he, in 1736, became one of Johnson's scholars at Lichfield ; but the latter growing tired of teach- ing the classics to two or three pupils, resolved on trying his fortune in London, and thither Garrick accompanied him. Here the latter lost no time in getting introduced to theatrical managers, and in 1741 obtaining an engagement at Ipswich, met with much success, under the assumed name of Lyddal. His first effort was in the pathetic char- acter of Aboan, in ' Oroonoko ;' but he matricu- lated in all kinds of stage business, condescending even to harlequin. In the winter of the same year Garrick ventured on the London stage. On the 19th October, 1741, he made his debut in Richard the Third at the playhouse in Goodman's Fields, and with his novel and natural style, startled the critics and the reigning actors. Quin, in particular, was much annoyed, saying ' If the young fellow was right, he and the rest of the players had been all wrong.' Being told that Goodman's Fields theatre was crowded every night to see the new actor, he said ' That Gar- rick was a new religion ; Whitfield was followed for a time ; but they would all come to church again.' Whereupon Garrick wrote this epigram : 'Pope Quin, who damns all churches hut his own, Complains that heresy infects the town, That Whitfield-Garrick has misled the age, And taints the sound religion of the stage : Schism, he cries, has turn'd the nation's brain; But eyes will open, and to church again I Thou great infallible, forbear to roar, Thy bulls and errors are revered no more ; When doctrines meet with gen'ral approbation, It is not heresy, but reformation.' After a visit to Dublin, Garrick returned to Lon- don, and acted at Drury, having entered into an engagement with Fleetwood, the manager, for fiv< hundred pounds a-year. At this theatre he provec equally great in Abel Drugger and Hamlet. Ht was also wonderful in Lear. But in consequenct of Fleetwood's farming the theatre to his trea surer, he soon seceded from the establishment On his return to the stage he was involved in controversy with Macklin ; and soon after was en i gaged for Covent Garden. Ultimately he wa;| solicited to purchase the moiety of Drury Lan<j patent, which he did for eight thousand pounds| When Garrick retired from the stage in 1776, thii same patent he sold for thirty-five thousanij pounds ; a fact which of itself is sufficient warran of his excellent management. One merit claims for him is the restoration of 'Macbeth,' Shaksperian dramas, with a closer adherence t 1 the text than was then usual. The chief oott plaint against him was his conduct towards livin j authors; and it must be confessed, that in bin was confirmed that usurpation of the poel by the actor from which the stage is hardly yc emerging. Davies, his biographer, observes o this point that, 'The time bestowed in rehears ing the piece, and the expense of new scene: 264 - ///.//>/'"./ ( y,/r/////?/.i . GAR resses, music, and other decorations, make it often ery ineligible to a director of a theatre to accept . new play ; especially when it is considered that he revival of a good old play will answer his end f profit, and reputation too, perhaps as well.' lie actor-manager, as the representative and in- leritor of the wealth of all dead poets, proves too wwerful a competitor for the living dramatist. n this way tragic actors find Shakspeare a tower f strength, and are by his means enabled to sup- iress the proofs of living genius. Garrick had trong reasons for the Stratford jubilee in 1769, ty which he gained increased celebrity and power. fins pageant he afterwards transferred to the stage, there it ran for one hundred nights. Mr. Gar- ick was also the founder of the Drury Lane Fund or decaved performers. A thoroughly successful nan in life, he was equally prudent and benevo- ent. He lived generously, kept the best society, nade lavish gifts to his friends and neighbours, md basked, till his death, in the sun of popular fcvour. He died 20th January, 1779, and was nagnificently interred in Westminster Abbey, leing attended to his grave by persons illustrious br their genius and rank. In the opinion of his idmirers Tie was the greatest actor that ever paced the stage. He was certainly the most ex- anplary as a man and moralist; and preserved, t be did not originate, the dignity of his profes- some of which display considerable humour, ind of many brief poems, prologues, and epilogues, bounding m wit, and in allusions to the manners rf his time. [J.A.H.] GARRICK, Eva Maria, wife of the celebrated ictor, originally an opera dancer, 1725-1822. GARROS, P. De, a Saxon poet, 15th century. GARROS, P. A., a French mechanic, d. 1823. GARTH, Sir Samuel, an English He was also the author of several dramatic < to simple generalizations ; and these attributes md poet, author of ' The Dispensary,' a burlesqu poem, ' Claremont,' an edition of ' Ovid's Meta morphoses,' and some fugitive pieces, 1671-1718. GARTH, Thomas, an Engl, general, 1744-1829. GARTHSHORE, M., an English physician, fel- low of the Roval and Antiq. Societies, 1732-1812. GARVE, Chr., a Ger. metaphysician, 1742-98. GARZI, Louis, an Italian painter, 1638-1721. GARZONI, J., an Italian savant, 1419-1506. GARZONI, P., a Venetian hist., d. abt. 1719. GARZONI, Th., an Italian author, 1549-1589. GASCOIGNE, G., an English poet, died 1577. GASCOIGNE, W., a nat. philosopher, 1621-44. GASCOIGNE, Sir Wm., chief iustice of Eng- land in the reign of Henry IV., celebrated for the mness, independence, and dignity with which laintained his office, lived 1350-1413. He he maintaine ancestor of the earl of Strafford, who was executed in the reign of Charles I. GASMANN, F. L., a Germ, composer, 1729-74. GASPABIN, T. A., a French republican, mem. of the convention and Com. of Pub. Safety, d. 1793. GASPARINI, F., an Ital. composer, 1650-1724. GASPARINO, B., an Ital. scholar, 1370-1459. NDI, Pierre, born 22d January, 1592, # it Digne ; died in Paris 24th October, 1655 : t the words of Tennemann, the most learned mug the philosophers, and the ablest philosopher mong the learned, of the seventeenth century. In speculative thinking, Gassendi represented the 265 GAS Sensational School, of which he may be considered the Founder in modern times: as such, he made stand against the Meditations of Des Cartes. In the eager polemic between these remarkable men, the critical guestion of Sensationalism, al- most in the form in which it still presents itself, was fairly raised : it must be conceded that the temper and moderation lay with Gassendi, al- though, in the estimation of the writer of this notice, the weight of argument belonged to his illustrious opponent. During the disputation, Gas- sendi had the merit of insisting that every mental conception of Principle, is necessarily preceded by the fact of an Experience; an assertion by no means sufficient to establish his philosophy, but remark- able as having first given expression to a maxim now held alike by Sensationalists and Ideal- ists, that in Sensation is the beginning or the occasion of all knowledge ; a maxim of which Des Cartes himself, perhaps, saw enough to render un- justifiable Locke's subsequent singular misrepre- sentation of the doctrine of innate ideas. This proposition granted, however, it in nowise fol- lows, as Gassendi contended, that the content of sensation is the measure of human know- ledge ; or that an Absolute and Necessary Truth is a mere generalization. Rational Psychology, ac- cording to Des Cartes, contradicts this : the attri- butes of universality and necessity cannot attach belong to many of our ideas. It is hardly requisite to say that the dispute thus raised, exists still : nay, the student desirous to master it, will scarcely find better instructors than Des Cartes and Gassendi. Gassendi was one of our most distinguished reformers, at a period when many great minds pushed forward the work of reform, claiming independence for thought. It may- be forgiven, perhaps, that in his early work against the authority of Aristotle, he was not careful to separate the true doctrines of the im- mortal Stagyrite, from wretched and sapless formulae deduced from him by the Schoolmen ; or that in his youthful zeal, he failed to approach with rightful respect, that great Shade to which so many ages have done willing reverence. His attack on Aristotle is the weakest of his writings, and cannot be acquitted of rashness : nevertheless, he was not wanting in respect for antiquity, witness his treatment of Epicurus. His fife of this philosopher is one of the best and most appreciatory memoirs, among the many that have been given of him: he wrote con amore. The Atomic Philosophy suited Gassendi's predilec- tions ; and one respects the just ardour with which he vindicates the character of his master, and clears his doctrines from vulgar misap- prehension. Gassendi's attachment to physical inquiries was strong: although not an original discoverer, the labours of no man of that day con- tributed more to diffuse right principles regarding the method of physical inquiry. In this depart- ment, his superiority to the Cartesians cannot be questioned : Des Cartes himself knew too little of that sphere of pure Induction, within which what we term Law or general Truths, can be nothing other than generalizations. As might have been ex- pected he adopted the Copernican system of the Universe, cautiously but intelligently; and greatly GAS contributed to bring about a right understanding of its significance. His life of Copernicus is a composition of mucb interest ; although probably inferior to his life of Tycho. He was a friend and correspondent of Galileo ; he avowed himself the disciple of Bacon ; and unquestionably his writ- ings prepared the way for those of Locke. Gas- sendi's personal character was of the highest order; gentle, serene, and dignified; modest, notwith- standing his wide repute; impartial and for- bearing. As a pious and faithful ecclesiastic he achieved a place in the hearts of the mountaineers amidst whom he lived, which long after years did not efface : they raised a statue to his memory. The works of this industrious thinker and voluminous writer have appeared in various forms. The Sieur de Montmort, to whom he bequeathed the duty, published a complete edition of them at Lyons, in 6 vols, folio, in 1658 : another edition appeared at Florence in 1727, edited by Averanius. [J.P.N. ] GASSICOURT, Ch. Louis Cadet De, a French writer on natural philosophy, &c, d. 1823. GASSIES, J., a French painter, 1786-1832. GASSION, J. De, a Fr. marshal, 1609-1647. GAST, John, an Irish historian, 1715-1788. GASTON DE FOIX. See Foix. GASTRELL, Fr., bishop of Chester time of Queen Anne, a wr. on the Trinity, &c, 1662-1725. GASULL, A., a Spanish painter, 17th century. GATAKER, Thomas, an English theologian and biblical critic, 1574-1654. His son, Charles, was distinguished as a controversial divine. GATTEAUX, N. M., a Fr. medal., 1751-1832. GATTERER, J. C, a Ger. savant, 1727-1789. GATTI, Bernard, an Ital. painter, 16th cent. GATTI, Oliver, an Italian painter, 16th cent. GAUBIL, Anth., a Sp. Jesuit and philosopher, celeb, as a missionary to the Chinese, 1689-1759. GAUBIUS, J. D., a Ger. medical wr., 1705-80. GAUCHER, C. S., a Fr. engraver, 1740-1804. GAUDEN, John, an English divine, 1605-62. GAUDENTIO, an Italian painter, 15th cent. GAUDENTIUS, St., bishop of Brescia, au. of a life of his predecessor Philaster, died about 427. GAUDENZI, P., an Italian poet, 1749-1784. GAUDENZIO, P., an Ital. savant, 1596-1648. GAUDIN, L. P., a Span, painter, 1556-1621. GAUFFIER, L., a French painter, 1761-1801. GAUFRIDI, J. Fr. De, a Fr. hist., 1622-89. GAUGAIN, Th., a Fr. engraver, last centurv. GAUGHER, N., a Fr. natur. philos., 1680-1730. GAULLI, G. B., an Italian painter, 1639-1709. GAULMIN, G., a Fr. miscef. au., 1585-1665. GAULT, Eustace, a French hist., 1591-1640. GAULTHIER, W., a French jurist, died 892. GAULTIER, Aloisius Edward Camille, a French ecclesiastic of distinguished benevolence, founder of schools for the poor, &c, 1745-1818. GAULTIER of Coutances, archbishop of Rouen, disting. as a political negotiator, died 1207. GAULTIER of Terouane, a Fr. hist., 12th c. GAUPP, John, a German mathema., d. 1738. GAURI, a Mameluke sultan, died 1517. GAUSSIN, J. C, a French actress, 1711-1767. GAUTHEROT, Ch., a Fr. painter, 1769-1825. GAUTHEROT, N., a French natural philoso- pher, au. of ' Researches in Electricity,' 1753-1803. GAUTHEY, E. M., a Fr. engineer, 1732-1806. GAVARD, H., a French anatomist, 1753-1802. GEB GAVEAUX, P., a Fr. composer, 1761-1825. GAVESTON, Piers, a Gascon gentleman, eel as the favourite of Edward II., beheaded 1312. GAVIROL, Soliman Ben, a Spanish rabbi grammarian, philosopher, astronom., &c, d. 1070 GAY, John, who was born in 1688, and die* in 1732, was first a silk-weaver's shopman, bu became an author, and the easy dependent of ga; and great people. He had much note in his owi day as a pastoral and mock-heroic poet ; and hi name is still preserved by his notorious ' Beggan Opera,' and his fluent and agreeable ' Fables.' Per haps he deserves remembrance better for his bal lads, l Black-Eyed Susan,' and ' 'Twas when tb Seas were Roaring.' [W.S.' GAY, J. J. Pascal, a Fr. architect, 1775-1832 GAY LUSSAC, N. F., one of the most disting chemists of modern times, is described by all hi associates as equally characterized by the amia- bility of his disposition, his kindness to the stu dent, and his disinterested and generous nature Brought up in the laboratory of Berthollet, hi subsequently showed that he had eminently bene fitted by the instructions of such a master u the science. His first important discovery wa that in 1808 of the union of gases by volume forming an additional argument in favour of th atomic theory of Dal ton in 1804, of the union o bodies by definite weights in the formation o: chemical compounds. He took an active part il the investigation of iodine in 1813, and in 1815 h< made the important discovery of cyanogen, whicl although a compound gas performs all the function of a simple body. Gay Lussac was possessed of grea powers of practical application ; it is only nece* sary to refer to his alcolometer, to his process o chlorimetry, and to his very convenient method o assay of silver by the wet way, which has beei familiar for above twenty years to those who wen fortunate enough to visit the Parisian mint, a ably conducted under the auspices of the subjec of our notice. His long and useful life terminate! on the 9th May, 1850, after several months' illness having been a member of the Academy fron 1806. [R.D.T.' GAY VERNON, J., a French marshal, distin guished for his gallantry as an officer, and for Ml talents as a mathematical writer, 1760-1822. GAY VERNON, Leonard, a French republi can and ecclesiastic, constitutional bishop c Vienne, 1748-1822. His brother, Joseph, a 1 officer and wr. on the art of fortifica., 1760-1822^ GAYOT-DE-PITAVAL, Fr., a French writer author of ' Causes CeUebres,' &c, 1673-1743. GAYTON, E., an Engl, humourist, 1609-166C 1 GAYWOOD, R., an Engl, engraver, 17th cent' GAZA, or GAZIS, Theodore, a Greek scfl lar and grammarian, celebrated as one of tb chief revivers of Grk. learn, in Europe, 1398-1 17; GAZALI, a Mahommedan savant, 1058-1112.1 GAZ^EUS, an ecclesiastical hist, 1554-1 til 2. GAZI-HASSAN, a Turkish statesman, <1. 179< GAZZANIZA, J., an It. composer, 1748-1810 GEBELIN. See Court-De-Gebelin. GEBER, John, an Arabian alchemist ar philosopher of the 9th century. GEBHARD, J., a Grk. philologist, 1692-1732 GEBHARDI, J. L. Levin, a German historii au of ' Hist, and Genealogical Memoirs,' 1099-176 266 GEB GEBHARDI, L. A., a Ger. historian, d. 1802. GEBLER, T. P., Baron De, a German diplo- matist, statesman, and savant, 1726-1786. GED, William, a Scotch goldsmith, inventor of the art of stereotyping, died 1749. GEDDES, Dr. Alex., a Scottish Roman Catholic divine, dist. as a learned wr., 1737-1802. GEDDES, James, a Scotch advocate, 1710-49. GEDDES, Michael, an ecclesiastical his- torian, chaplain at Lisbon, died 1714. GEDIKE, F., a Prussian writer on education, translator of the classics, &c, 1754-1803. GEDOYN, N., a French savant, 1667-1744. GEDYMIN, duke of Lithuania, reigned 1315-41. GEER, L., a Dutch statesman, settled in Sweden by Gustavus Adolphus. Charles De Geer, his descendant, a dist. Swedish naturalist, 1720-1778. GEHEMA, J. A., a Polish medical wr., 17th c. GEHLEN, A. F., a German chemist, d. 1815. GEHLER, J. C, a German naturalist, 1732-96. GEHLER, J. S. Traugott, a German jurist, chemist, physician, and mathematician, 1751-1795. GEHLER, W., a German savant, 1696-1765. GEHREN, C. Chr., a Ger. theol., 1763-1832. GEIER, Martin, a Germ. Lutheran, 1614-81. GEILER, John, a Swiss divine, 1445-1510. GEILHOVEN, A., a Dutch theologian, 15th ct. GEINOZ, F., a French antiquarian, died 1752. GEISA, the first of the name, king of Hungary reigned 1075-1077 ; the second, 1141-1161. GELADAS, a Greek sculptor, 5th century B.C. GELASIUS, the name of two bishops of Cassa- rea, the earliest of whom, called ' The Elder,' au- thor of some theological fragments, died 394; the second, called Gelasius of Cyzicus, au. of a history of the Council of Nice, lived about 476. GELASIUS, bishop of Rome, 492-496 ; Gela- sius, pope of Rome, 1118-1119. GELDENHAUR, G., a German savant, com- monly called ' Gerard of Nimeguen,' 1482-1542. GELDER, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1645-1727. GELEE. See Claude. GELENIUS, S., a German savant, 1498-1555. GELL, Sir William, a celebrated English antiquarian and classical scholar, 1777-1836. GELLERT, Christian Furchtegott, a po- pular German poet and moralist, 1715-1769. GELLERT, Christlieb Ehregott, elder br. of the preced., celeb, as a metallurgist, 1713-1795. GELLI, J. B., an Italian author, 1498-1563. GELLIBRAND, H., an English astronomer, author of many practical works, 1597-1636. GELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman lawyer and lite- rary savant, flourished at the beginning of the 2d century, author of the ' Attic Nights,' one of the most curious and valuable works of antiquity. GELON, a k. of Syracuse, reigned 491-478 B.C. GEMBICIUS, J., a Polish theolog., 1569-1633. GEMIGNANO, an Italian painter, 1490-1530. GEMINIANI, Francesco, one of the greatest violinists of his age, was born at Lucca about the year 1666. He received his first lessons on the instrument from Carlo Ambrogio Lonati of Milan, and the foundation of his musical knowledge was ' * by Alessandro Scarlatti. His last master on violin was Corelli. Geminiani composed three i of concertos, a work on Harmony, two trea- s on the Art of Playing the Violin, and several s for the harpsichord. In the year 1714 he GEN came to London, and soon established his reputa- tion as a great artist. Geminiani seldom played in public, and the money he received for his com- positions, the fees from pupils, and the presents he received from the noble and the wealthy when he could be prevailed upon to play at their houses, were the chief means from which he derived his living. Even with such sources of emoluments he might have made a fortune, but he was improvi- dent. Geminiani died at Dublin in 1762. [J.M.I GEMINUS, Th., an English painter, 16th ct. GEMISTUS, George, surnamed 'Pletho,' a Greek philosopher, and writer on the wisdom of antiquity, 1390-1491. GEMMA, R., a Dutch physician, 1508-1577. GENEBRAND, G., a Fr. Hebraist, died 1597. GENEST, Ch. Cl., a French poet, 1639-1719. GENET, Francis, a Fr. casuist, 1640-1702. m GENEVIEVE, the patron saint of Paris, be- lieved to have contributed to the conversion of Clovis, born at Nanterre about 423, d. about 512. GENGHIS KHAN, the founder of the great Mogul empire, and of the dynasty now tottering on the throne of China, was the son of a simple chief, and was born in Tartary in 1164. He suc- ceeded to his father's authority when only fourteen years of age, and soon afterwards, being compelled to take up arms in self-defence, struck terror into his opponents by his military talents and ferocious disposition. In 1205 he was crowned grand khan of all the Moguls and Tartars in a ceremony of great state, in the course of which he was hailed lord of the four quarters of the world, in a manner well calculated to excite the enthusiasm of his followers. In 1213 he was master of Pekin and all Northern China, and a few years subsequently had subjugated Persia and the most fertile regions of Asia, dying in the heat of his conquests 1227. His grandson, in 1255, seized on Bagdad, and completed the extirpation of Mohammedanism began by his ancestor. [E.R.] GENLIS, Stephanie, Countess De, was a na- tive of Burgundy, and born in 1746. Becoming well known in society after her marriage had given her aristocratic rank, she was chosen as gouvernante to the children of the notorious Duke of Orleans ; and by him she had a daughter, who was married, in 1792, to the unfortunate Lord Edward Fitz- gerald. She died, after a wandering life, in 1830, when her pupil, Louis Philippe, had just become king of the French. Her writings were numerous and miscellaneous ; the principal of them being novels, which possess little merit either of style or of matter, while they teach, with an affectation of fine sentiment, a morality very slippery and accom- modating. Her best and least exceptionable works are her stories and dramas for youth ; such as ' Adele and Theodore,' ' The Tales of the Castle.' and The Theatre of Education.' [W.S.l GENNADIUS, the name of two patriarchs of Constantinople, theirs* of whom ruled the church, 458-471, and the second after the capture of the city by the Turks, 1453-1460. The latter is author of several theological works. GENNADIUS, presb. of Marseilles, 5th cent. GENNARI, Benedetto, an Italian painter, one of the masters of Guercino, flourished 1633- 1715. His son, Barthelemi, a painter, bora 1594. His second son, Hercules, pupil of Guer- 267 GEN cino, 1597-1658. The eldest son of Hercules, called Benedetto the Younger, a pupil of Guercino, and painter to Charles II. and James II. of England, 1633-1715. Caesar, the son of the latter, continued the school of Guercino at Bo- logna, and died there 1688. GENNARO, Joseph Aurelius De, a Neapoli- tan magistrate and jurisconsult, 1701-1762. GENCELS, A., a Flemish painter, born 1640. GENOVESI, Antonio, an Italian metaphysi- cian and political economist, 1712-1769. GENSERIC, king of the Vandals in Spain, b. at Seville 406, succeeded his broth. 428, d. 477. GENSONNE, Armand, a distinguished mem- ber of the Girondist party of the Fr. revolution, guillotined after the events of the 31st Oct., 1793. GENSSANE, a French naturalist, died 1780. GENT, Thomas, an English antiq., 1691-1778. GENTIEN, B., a French historian, 15th cent. GENTILE, L. G., a Flem. painter, 1606-1670. GENTILIS, Alberico, an Italian jurist, 1551- 1611. His son, Robert, a doctor of the civil law, translator, &c, born 1590. His brother, Scipio, also a writer on public law, 1563-1616. GENTILIS, J. V., a Socinian of Naples, be- headed in Switzerland for heresy, 1566. GENTIUS, G., a German Orientalist, 1618-87. GENTLEMAN, F., an Irish dramatist, 1728-84. GENTZ, Fred. Von, a Prussian statesman and antagonist of the French revolution, author of ' The State of Europe at the End of the 18th Century,' &c, 1760-1832. GEOFFREY of Monmouth, author of a fam- ous chronicle or history of the first British kings, often quoted by men of letters, and remarkable for its curious legends. Geoffrey was successively archdeacon of Monmouth, bishop of St. Asaph, and abbot of Abingdon, where he died 1154. GEOFFREY I., duke of Brittany, succeeded his father 992, slain on returning from a pilgrimage to Rome 1008. Geoffrey II., third son of Henry II., king of England, succeeded to the dukedom by marriage 1175, died 1186. GEOFFREY I., count of Anjou, reigned 958- 988. Geoffrey II., reigned 1039-1060. Geof- frey III., reigned conjointly with his brother until the latter despoiled him of the government 1060-1067. Another Geoffrey, called ' Planta- genet,' was duke of Normandy, and count of An- jou and Maine towards the middle of the 12th ct. GEOFFROI of Auxerre, a disciple of Abelard, author of several theological works, d. after 1180. GEOFFROI of Pruilly, a French knight, distinguished as the stock of the counts of Ven- dome, and the legislator of tournaments, d. 1068. GEOFFROY, Louis Julian, a French critic, celeb, for his censures on the drama, 1743-1814. GEOFFROY, Stephen Francis, a celebrated French physician and chemist, member of the Academy of Sciences, professor of chemistry to the Garden of Plants, and of medicine and phar- macy to the College of France, 1672-1731. His brother, Claude Joseph, a naturalist and physi- ological author, 1685-1752. Stephen Louis, son of Stephen Francis, a dist. naturalist, 1725-1810. GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE, Etijjnne, a cele- brated zoologist, was born at Etampes in 1772. He died in 1844. He was a pupil of the great mineralogist Haiiy, and was appointed through GEO his recommendation assistant-keeper and demon J strator of the museum of natural history at th Garden of Plants. A few months afterwards h became professor of zoology there, and from tha time forwards he devoted himself with great zeal t that particular branch of natural history. I 1798 he was appointed one of the scientific com mission which accompanied the French army Egypt, and it is to his firmness France owes th possession of the papers and drawings made i that country by himself and colleagues. Upon hi return from Egypt he resumed his situation at th Garden of Plants ; but in 1810 he was a<:.un de snatched by government on a mission to Portuga Here he collected a vast quantity of minerals an! animals from the museums of that country, an succeeded in transporting them to Paris. Geof froy is the author of many important memoirs an! valuable works upon zoology. The most impoij tant, perhaps, of all is his ' Philosophic Ana| tomique,' the chief object of which is to demon! strate throughout the animal kingdom a unifonf plan of organization, recognizable by the existencij not of the same organs, but of the materials of th same organs in all. In connection with Cuvie. Geoffroy has contributed much to the progress u zoology in Europe. They created a school il which the study assumed a truly scientific charatj ter, and one which will long continue to exercty a salutary influence over the labours of sueeeedin' generations. [W.B. [Tomb of Geoffroy St. Hilaire.J GEORGE. The kings of England of this narj are George (Lewis) I., son of Ernest A elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Fro eric, elector palatine, and grand-daughter of Janil I., born at Osnabruck 1660 ; created duke of Call bridge 1706; succeeded Queen Anne, and th commenced the house of Hanover 1714 ; d. 17a George (Augustus) IL, only son of the pi ceding and the Princess Sophia, daughter of V duke of Zell, horn 1683 ; married to the Princ Caroline of Brandenburgh-Anspach 1705 ; reg< 1716; succeeded 1727; died after a victonc career in the Spanish and German wars, and t total subjugation of the Stuarts, 1760. 2<J8 * ( [/Jrrfw/-/^ ? cZsLe'/l-t // (/r'/-'/".j. r. >; .**- IH ^ H ^111*1111111 -11 .1 a.i. 1 1 . sL^w** . y/,>/ '//<//'///S. ' GEO grandson of the pre- ceding, and son of Frederic Louis, prince of Wales, born 1738; duke of Gloucester and prince of Wales 'on the death of his father 1751 ; succeeded to the throne 25th October, 1760 ; married to the Princess Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklenburgh Strelitz 1761 ; died, after nine years of mental aberration, 1820. George (Augustus Frederic) IV., eldest son pf George III. and Queen Charlotte, born 1762 ; breated prince of Wales and earl of Chester the Isame month ; married to Mrs. Fitzherbert 1784 ; jmarried to his cousin, Caroline Amelia Eliza- jbeth, second daughter of the duke of Brunswick, 11795 ; separated from his wife, Caroline, shortly iafter the birth of the Princess Charlotte 1796 ; lappointed regent in consequence of his father's jmental incapacity 1811 ; crowned king 1820 ; Idled 26th June, 1830. j GEORGE I., king of Georgia, reigned 1015- 1027. George II., 1072-1089. George III., J1156-1180. George IV., surnamed 'Lascha,' from about 1198-1223. George V., 1304-1306. IGeorge VI., 1306-1336. George VII., 1394- 1407. George VIII., 1524-1534. George (IX., 1600-1603. George X., 1676-1709. George :XL, who was the last king of Georgia, his son, David, having ceded his hereditary states to Alexander, emperor of Russia, succeeded his father Demetrius II. 1798, died 1800. GEORGE, or JOURI I., grand duke of Russia, land founder of Moscow, reigned 1149-1156. (George II., succeeded 1212, dethroned by his (brother Constantine 1217, killed in battle 1257. George III., succeeded 1302, killed 1320. GEORGE, prince of Denmark, son of Frederic III., and brother of Christian V., born 1653, mar- ried to the Princess Anne, daughter of James II., and subsequently queen of England, 1683, ap- pointed grand admiral of England on her acces- sion 1702, died 1708. ! GEORGE, patriarch of Alexandria, 620-630. GEORGE II., patriarch of Armenia, 876-897. GEORGE III., patriarch of Armenia, 1071-73. GEORGE, surnamed 'Amira,' an Oriental Bcbolar, and patriarch of the Maronites, d. 1641. | GEORGE CADOUDAL. See Cadoudal. GEORGE-LE-FOULON, 'The Cappadocian,' bp. of Alexandria 356, deposed by the Arians 362. GEORGE, Pisides, a Greek poet, 7th cent. GEORGE, Saint, the patron of England and Genoa, a supposed prince of Cappadocia, martyred in the persecution under Diocletian, 3d century. GEORGE of Trebizond, a Greek gram- marian, professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Vienna, and secretary to Nicholas V., died 1484. GEORGEL, J. F., a French Jesuit, 1731-1813. GEORGES, Chevalier De St., a French riolinist, musical comp., and swordsman, d. 1801. GEORGET, James, a French artist, celebrated as a painter on Sevres porcelain, 1760-1823. GEORGI, C. S., a German philologist, 1702-71. GEORGI, J. G., a German naturalist and wr. an the geography and ethnology of Russia, d. 1802. GEORGIADES, a Greek author, last century. GEORGIEWITZ, B., a Hungarian gentleman, long time captive among the Turks, and author of work on Turkish manners, died 1560. GEORGII, E. F. De, a Ger. jurist, 1757-1830. GERALDINI, A., an Ital. prelate, 1455-1525. GER GERAMB, Baron Ferd., a military adven., de- scended from a noble Hung, family, and employed in the military service of Austria and Spain, au- thor of ' Letters to Earl Moira,' born 1770. GERANDO, Marie Joseph De, born 1772, died in 1842 : a French metaphysician of consider- able note. He possessed a mind of much lucidity, and his industry was great. He improved on the system of Condillac rather returning to that of Locke. He may be called a logical preacher of the Scotch school. His chief work is the ' His- toire Comparee des Systemes de Philosophie ;' but he wrote much besides on education and philanthropic institutions. His other important work is entitled ' De la Bienfaisan Publique.' GERARD, an Arabian scholar, 1114-1187. GERARD, count of Auvergne, 839-841. GERARD, duke of Lorraine, 1047-1070. GERARD, a Hungarian missionary, killed 1047. GERARD, Alexander, an eminent divine of the Church of Scotland, professor of moral philo- sophy and logic at Marischal College, author of 'An Essay on Taste,' 'An Essay on Genius,' 'Dissertations on the Genius and Evidences of Christianity,' &c, 1728-1795. His son, Gilbert, a theologian and biblical critic, died 1815. GERARD, Balthasar, a Roman Catholicfana- tic, assassin of William I., prince of Orange, 1584. GERARD, Francois, a Fr. paint., 1770-1837. GERARD, G. J., a Flemish antiqu., 1734-1814. GERARD, James, an English surgeon and traveller in the Himalaya mountains, died 1835. GERARD, Louis, a Fr. botanist, 1733-1819. GERARD, L. P., a French moralist, 1737-1813. GERARD, Maurice Stephen, Count, a dis- tinguished French marshal, 1773-1851. GERARD op Vercel, a Fr. philol.,1480-1544. GERARD-DE-RAYNEVAL, J. M., a French diploma., and writer on public affairs, 1736-1812. GERARD-GROOT, or The Great, a Dutch theologian, and founder of a community of savants, kn. as the canons regular of Windeshem, 1340-84. GERARD-THOM, or TENQUE, the founder and first grand master of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, 1040-1121. GERARDE, J., an Engl, herbalist, 1545-1607. GERARDIN, S., a French natural., 1751-1816, GERARDS, Mark, a Flem. paint., 1561-1635. GERBAIN, J., a French savant, 1629-1699. GERBER, Sir Balthasar, a Flemish painter, knighted by Charles I., 1592-1667. GERBERON, G., a French ecclesiastic, author of a 'History of Jansenism,' 1628-1711. GERBERT, M., a German savant, 1720-1793. GERBIER, P. J. B., a French lawyer, 1725-88. GERBILLON, J. F., a Fr. mission., 1654-1707. GERCKER, P. G., a Prussian writer on the ancient diplomacy of Brandenbourg, &c, 1722-91. GERDES, D., a German theologian, 1698-1765. GERDIL, Hyacinth Sigismond, an Italian cardinal, theologian, and philosopher, 1718-1802. GERHARD, E., a Germ, philoso., 1682-1718. GERHARD, John, a German Lutheran theo- logian, 1582-1637. His son, J. E. Gerhard, a theologian and Oriental scholar, 1623-1668. jGERICAULT, Jean Louis Theodore An- dre, was born at Rouen in 1790. He was the pupil of Guerin, and became a great historical painter, and not less so for treating his subjects in a GER familiar manner ; he was also a genre painter of high class. His peculiar powers are well illus- trated in the great and magnificent picture of the ' Shipwreck of the Medusa/ painted in 1819, and now m the Louvre at Paris : there is a very beauti- ful mezzotint of this picture by S. W. Reynolds. Gerieault died almost at the threshold of his pro- mised great career in 1824. (Gabet, Dictionnaire des Artistes, &c.) [R.N.W.] GERING, Ulric, a Swiss painter, died 1510. GERLAC, P., a Dutch ascetic, 1378-1411. GERLACH, B. T., a Germ, savant, 1698-1756. GERLACH, Stephen, a German theologian, preacher and traveller, 1546-1612. GERMAIN, M., a Fr. antiquarian, 1645-1694. GERMAIN, Peter, a French artist in gold and silver, 1647-1682. His son, Thomas, dist. as a goldsmith, sculptor, and architect, 1673-1748. GERMAIN, Saint, bp. of Auxerre, died 448. GERMAIN, Saint, bishop of Paris, died 576. GERMAIN of Silesia, a German monk, au- thor of an Arabain and Italian dictionary, 17th ct. GERMAIN, Sophia, a French lady, eel. as a wr. on natural philosophy and mathematics, 1776-1821. GERMANICUS, Tiberius Drusus Cesar, son of Claudius Drusus Nero and the younger An- tonia, a niece of Augustus, was commander of the Roman legions in Germany when Augustus died in the year 14, and refused at the hands of his soldiers the offer of the Roman empire. He was a great and successful general, and was recalled to Rome by Tiberius, of whom he was the nephew and adopted heir, to enjoy the honours of a triumph, from which he was sent to a command in the East. He d. at Antioch, at the age of thirty-four, a.d. 19. GERMANUS, the fast of the name, patriarch of Constantinople, 715-740 ; the second, from 1222 to 1240, and again during the last year of his life, 1254-1255 ; the third, a few months in 1267. GERMON, B., a French Jesuit, author of ' De Veteribus Regium Fr. Diplomatibus,' 1663-1718. GERRARD of Haerlem, a Dutch painter, one of the first to practise in oil, 1460-1488. GERRARDS, G. P. Van, a Dutch painter, the friend and imitator of Vandyck, 1607-1667. GERSON, Chr., a German Talmudist, d. 1627. GERSON, G. C. De, a Fr. divine, 1363-1421. GERSTEN, C. L., a Germ, mathem., 1701-62. GERSTENBERG, H. W. De, a Gennan philo- sopher, dram, author, poet, and critic, 1737-1823. GERTRUDE, the name of three Roman Catho- lic saints, the fast, abbess of Nivelle, 626-659 ; the second, an abbess of the order of St. Benedict, and author of ' Revelations,' died 1034 ; the third, a daughter of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, d. 1297. GERVAIS, an English ecclesiastic of the middle ages, author of ' Letters,' died 1228. GERVAISE, Nicholas, a French missionary, author of descriptions of Siam and Macassar, killed by the Caribs, 1662-1729. Armand Fran- cis, his brother, a biographical writer, died 1751. GERVAISE of Tilbury, an English poet and historian, both in the Latin tongue, died 1218. GESENIUS, Frederic Henry William, an eminent German philologist and Oriental scholar, professor of Hebrew at the university of Halle, au. of a well-known Hebrew Lexicon, &c, 1786-1842. GESENIUS, W., a German phys., 1760-1801. GESNER, Conrad, a native of Zurich, distin- GHE guished as an indefatigable scholar, philosophy and naturalist, 1516-1561. GESNER, J. J., a missionary of Zurich, auth of 'Numismata Antiqua Populoruin et I'rbiun &c, 1707-1787. His brother, John, a physicii and naturalist, 1709-1787. GESNER, J. M., a philologist and classic scholar, born near Anspach, 1691-1761. His br ther, Andrew Samuel, a distinguished savai 1690-1778. J. Albert, his younger brotht distinguished as a naturalist, 1694-1760. GESNER, Sol., a German divine, 1559-1605 [Tomb of Gesner.] GESNER, or GESSNER, Solomon, a painfc of Zurich, better known as a poet, 1730-178 His son, Conrad, distinguished as a painter i horses and battle-pieces, died 1826. GESTRIN, J., a Swedish mathema,, 17th cen GETA, Publius Septimius, second son of tl emperor Severus, brother and associate of Cars calla, by whose orders he was murdered 210. GETHIN, Lady Grace, an English lady, dii tinguished for her literary abilities, 1676-1697. GEULINX, A., a Flem. philosopher, 1625-69, GEYSER, C. T., a Germ, engraver, 1742-180; GEYSER, S. W., a German author, 1740-180: GEZELIUS, J., a Swedish theologian and G scholar, bishop of Abo, au. of a Greek grammar, Hebrew grammar, &c, 1615-1690. His son, Joh: a theologian, part author of a commentary c the Bible, commenced by his father, 1647-1718. GEZELIUS, George, a Swedish di\ of abiog. diet, of illustrious Swedes, 1732-178% GHAZAN-KHAN, sultan of Persia, di GHEDINI, F. A., an Italian poet, 168 1-1 767. GHERARDESCA, Ugolina, a Tuscan nobl< man of the Guelph party, who was vanquished an starved in prison, together with three of his sor and one of his grandsons, 1288. GHERARDI, A., an Ital. painter, 1661-1702. GHEYN, or GHEIN, James Du, called 'Tl Elder,' a Flemish painter and engraver, 1501 1615. ' The Younger,' of the same name, a d< signer and engraver, born about 1610. GHEYN, Guido, a Flemish engraver, 17th ct GHEZZI, N., an Italian naturalist, 1685-1761 GHEZZI, Sebastiano, a scholar of I distinguished as an architect, painter, and sculj 270 GHI died about 1650. His son, Joseph, a painter, 4-1720. The son of the latter, Peter Leo, a nter and engraver, 1674-1755. rHIBERTI, Lorenzo, a celebrated Florentine lptor and goldsmith, was born in 1381. In he left Florence for fear of the plague, but lrned shortly afterwards, when he received ice of the great competition that was to take 3e on the occasion of completing the bronze es of the Baptistery of St. John. The centre ss opposite to the west end of the cathedral been already put up by Andrea Pisano, the ' gates were for the two sides. The commis- i for these two new gates was obtained by enzo Ghiberti, then a young man only twenty- years of age : the contract was given to Ghi- i" and his father, and other assistants, on the November, 1403, and the first gates, represent- the life of Christ, were put up in the place of ;e by Andrea Pisano, in April, 1424 ; and third gates, commenced on 2d January, 1425, 1 the histories from the Old Testament, were completed until 16th June, 1452, when they 3 gilded and put up in the place of Ghiberti's gates, which were removed to the other side, >site to those of Andrea Pisano. These great ts, of the last of which entire casts may be at Marlborough House, caused a new epoch namental art, being remarkable for their bold accurate imitation in the detail, for their skil- modelling of the figure, and masterly sym- ical grouping of the whole; on a scale of nificence, and technical completeness, alto- er unprecedented in modern art. During the and forty years that Ghiberti and his assis- 5, of whom his own son Vittorio was one of principal, were occupied on these complicated s, he executed also many others, monumen- i nd ecclesiastical, which must explain the ap- Eptly long delay in the completion of the gates. Ilerti died at Florence in 1455. (Vasari, Vife vfittori, &c, Florence 1848 ; Patch, La Porta cipale del Battiste.ro di San Giovanni, &c, nee, 1773.) [R.N.W.] HLINI, G., an Italian historian, 1589-1670. IINI, Luke, an Italian botanist, 1500-1556. IIRLANDAJO, Domenico, an Italian pain- and goldsmith, teacher of Michelangelo, 1493. His son, Ridolfo, also a painter, of his uncle David Curadi, 1485-1560. GOBI, J., an Italian composer, 1575-1650. AR, a Mahommedan savant, died 764. AHEDH, a Mahommedan savant, died 840. AMBERTI, F., an Ital. architect, 15th cent. ANNONE, P., a Neapolitan hist., 1676-1748. jNOTTI, D., a Venetian au., 1494-1563. ARDINI, Felice, who has been called the |l|ner, if not the founder, of the violin school in was born at Turin in 1716, and was en- a chorister at the Duomo in Milan, where he sd singing, the harpsichord, and composition, Paladini. He afterwards adopted the violin, Jtndied under Lorenzo Somis, one of Corelli's famous followers. After having visited the ipal cities of Italy, he travelled over Germany, length reached London in the year 1750, he soon reached the top of his profession, ?here he filled the highest professional posts to the musical artist. It is said that GIB when he first appeared at the Haymarket theatre, and played a solo on the violin, ' the applause was long, loud, and furious, and such as nothing but that which Garrick called forth had ever equalled.' In the year 1756, he in company with Mignotti, be- came the manager of the Italian Opera, and though he composed several operas, and acquired much fame, his undertaking was very unsuccessful. Giardini in the year 1763 retired from the manage- ment, after having lost a large sum of money. In 1784 Giardini went to Italy, where he remained five years. In 1789 he came back to England, but was not so successful as during his first resi- dence. In 1793 he went to Russia. His public performances at Moscow and St. Petersburg failed to produce the effect of his earlier efforts. He died in the latter city in poverty in the year 1796. [J.M.] GIATTINI, J. B., an Italian poet, 1600-1672. GIB, Adam, a Scotch divine, 1713-1788. GIBBES, J. A., a French physician, 1616-77. GIBBON, Edward, was born at Putney in Surrey, in 1737. He was the only child who sur- vived infancy, of a gentleman well connected and tolerably wealthy. Feeble health made his school days to be profitable in nothing but the acquisition of miscellaneous and undigested knowledge ; and, being sent to Oxford too young and quite unpre- pared, he spent fourteen months there in alterna- tions of irregular study and extreme idleness. At the end of this time, being a little more than six- teen years old, he embraced the Roman Catholic faith, and formally announced his conversion to his father. He was immediately placed under the care of a Calvinist minister at Lausanne, whose instructions led him in a few months back to pro- testantism. The five years he spent at Lausanne, closing in 1758, when he was just of age, formed the real commencement of his education ; and, at their close, he was not only a ripe scholar in French and Latin, but possessed or an extraordinary amount of historical and other information. He found leisure, however, for falling in love, unsuc- cessfully, with a young lady, who afterwards be- came the wife of M. Necker and the mother of Madame De Stael. For several years after Gib- bon's return to England, he lived chiefly at his father's house in Hampshire ; and, failing in at- tempts to obtain diplomatic employment, he accepted a militia commission, attended zealously to his duties, and rose to be lieutenant-colonel. But the studious habits and literary ambition which he had acquired, never flagged. In 1761, he published, in French, a short essay ' On the Study of Literature.' He extended his acquain- tance with English authors, and, beginning to leara Greek thoroughly, pursued the study zeal- ously, when, in 1763, he was allowed again to visit the continent. In Rome, next year, he conceived the design of his great historical work. Returning home in 1765, he passed some years unsatisfac- torily to himself, but not without much improve- ment both in knowledge and in skill of writing. In 1774, he entered the House of Commons, in which he sat for eight sessions ; and he was rewarded for his silent votes in favour of Lord North's adminis- tration, by holding for three years a seat at the board of trade. In 1770, he published, in answer to Warburton, his spirited Dissertation on the 271 GIB GIF Sixth Book of the iEneid. In the same year, the | cacy, are of a solid character, and very jud death of his father placed him in possession of a " fortune, which, though embarrassed, he was able to extricate so far that it afforded a handsome com- petence, and enabled him to devote himself exclu- sively to study and composition. In 1776, he published the first volume of ' The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' the first edition of which was sold in a few days, and was rapidly followed by others. The second and third volumes, appearing in 1781, brought down the narrative to the Fall of the Western Empire ; and for a while the author hesitated whether he should not here allow the work to drop. He resumed the design, however, in 1783, when ne fixed his abode at Lausanne. He has recorded, in an eloquent passage of his Memoirs, the mixed emotions with which, in a moonlight night of June, 1787, in a summer- house in his garden, he completed his great under- taking. Its last three volumes were published next year, the author visiting London to superintend the press, but returning in a few months to Lau- sanne. There he remained till, in 1793, he was called to England to console his friend Lord Shef- field on the death of his wife. His health was now very infirm ; and he laboured under dropsy. He died in London in January, 1794. The volumes called his ' Miscellaneous Works,' contain, besides reprints of his minor writings, and several essays not previously printed, an interesting collection of his letters, and an instructive autobiography. Some of these pieces show all that various erudi- tion, and that command of apt and powerful lan- guage, of which his chief work is so remarkable a monument. His exotic diction, and the pompous structure of his style, are open to strong excep- tions ; yet he is one of the most strikingly eloquent left a son, Christopher, who was also a musici writers in our language. The historical value of his 'Decline and Fall' is very great; and the extraordinary union of excellencies, of vast variety with general correctness of learning, of good judgment with vigour of narrative and description, deepens the regret with which we contemplate the sceptical taint that is diffused so steadily through the whole. [W.S.] GIBBON, John, an ancestor of the celebrated historian, known as a writer on heraldry, born 1629, died about 1700. GIBBONS, Grilling, a celebrated carver in wood, was born at Rotterdam, 4th April, 1648, and appears to have visited this country in 1667, the year after the great fire. Evelyn, who calls him the incomparable Gibbons, introduced him to King Charles II., and also to Sir Christopher Wren, who employed him extensively in the de- corations of St. Paul's. Gibbons received a place in the Board of Works, and was much employed at Windsor. In 1714 he was appointed master carver in wood to George I., with a salary of eigh- teenpence a-day. He died in London, 3d August, 1721. There are many fine specimens of Gibbons's carvings at Hampton Court, and at Petworth, the state room there being considered by some his masterpiece: also at Houghton; and there are some specimens still in St. James's Church, Lon- don. His works are in very high relief, and the details, fruit, flowers, game, &c, generally grouped in great clusters or festoons, and though from the proper distance they appear to be of extreme deli- . He made a taste for carvings of class fashionable, and had several skilful scho and imitators, as Selden, Watson, Dievot, Laurens; much work attributed to Gibbons doubtless executed by some one of these mei (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painters, &c, ed. Worn Bohn, 1849.) [R.N. GIBBONS, Orlando, Mus. Doc, who regarded as one of the greatest English musici was born at Cambridge, in 1583. He was < twenty-one years of age when he was appoir organist to the chapel royal, and in 1622. on recommendation of the learned antiquary Cam< who was his personal friend, the University Oxford conferred upon him their degree of Doi of Music. Some years afterwards, while he at Canterbury for the purpose of conducting musical performances at the marriage of Cha I., he fell ill of small-pox and died He was bu in the cathedral of Canterbury, where his i caused a simple and elegant marble monumenl be erected to his memory. His first publicati were madrigals in four parts for voices and vi but the best of his works are his church serv and anthems, many of which are still exfo ' The compositions of Gibbons are for the n part,' says one of his biographers, 'truly excelli and the study of them cannot be too strongly commended. The characteristics of his music fine harmony, unaffected simplicity, and an aln unexampled grandeur.' Another writer says, 'a a lapse of upwards of two hundred years, his a positions seem to have lost none of their freshn and are still, and likely to continue, the admiral of all real iudges of what is excellent in music' al judges i i, Chrisi but who inherited only a very meagre share of father's genius. Orlando Gibbons was survived two brothers, Edward, who was organist of B; tol, and master of the celebrated Matthew Loc and Ellis, organist of Salisbury. [J.] GIBBONS, Richard, an English Jesuit, I fessor of philosophy and divinity, 1549-1632. GIBBONS, Thos., an Engl. Calvinist, 1720- GIBBS, James, a Scotch architect, designei the Radcliffe Library at Oxford, the church of Martin's-in-the-Fields, &c, 1680-1754. GIBBS, Sir V., an English judge, 1752-185 GIBERT, J. P., one of the most learned French authors on the canon law, 1 660-1'.) Balthasar Gibert, of the same family, a ' ter on rhetoric, 1662-1741. John BalthasaJ! learned historian and chronological wr., 1711-1': GIBSON, Edmund, successively bishop of],- coin and London, distinguished as a writer ecclesiastical antiquities, and as a classical ecjl and translator, 1669-1748. GIBSON, Richard, a celebrated dwMM portrait painter, time of Cromwell, 1615-lflB| GIBSON, Th., a wr. of the reformation, d. n GIBSON, Wm., a mathemat. teacher, 178M GIFFEN, H.., a Dutch critic, 1534-1604. fl GIFFORD, Andrew, a Calvinistic and quarian wr., especially on numismatics, 1700- GIFFORD, John, a political and historical ter, whose real name was J. R. Green, 1758-3 GIFFORD, R., an English divine, 1725-18 GIFFORD, William, the son of a poor anc 272 GIL : ated tradesman, was born in Devonshire in 1756. I :oming in childhood a destitute orphan, he was I :cessively a cabin-boy and a shoemaker's ap- Jntice: but a benevolent patron put him to ijool; and, finding his way to Oxford, he there I ned aristocratic patronage, and, attaching him- i f to the Tory party, proved one of its most effec- 1(3 literary advocates. In 1798, he became editor i!the Antijacobin ; and for about sixteen years |U 1809, he edited the Quarterly Review. He is eminently qualified for such offices, both by I aptness and force of writing, his variety of in- Inaation, and his readiness and unhesitating lemence of satire. Not far from the close of century appeared his two satirical poems, 'The dad' and 'The Maeviadj' and his vigorous and rited translation of Juvenal was published in )2. His best services to letters were his editions Did English Dramatists. His ' Massinger ' ap- jed in 1808; his 'Ben Jonson,' the most aable of the series, in 1816 : and his editions of d and Shirley, completed by other hands, -e published in 1827 and 1833. He died in the I of 1826, bequeathing the bulk of his property the son of his early benefactor. [W.S.J 3IL, Father, a Spanish patriot, dist. in 1808. iILBERT, Davies, born at St. Erth in Corn- 1 1767, known as an antiquarian, and successor Sir Humphry Davy as president of the Royal iety, author of ' A Plain Statement of the Bul- i Question,' and many scientific papers. Gil- :fc was M.P. for Bodmin from 1806-32, d. 1840. ILBERT, F. H., a Fr. veterinarian, 1755-1800. ILBERT, Gab., a French poet, died 1680. JILBERT, Sir Humphrey, half-brother of Walter Raleigh, was a man of ardent tempera- it and chivalrous character, who engaged in geo- phical discovery from the love of fame and enture. Under patent from Queen Elizabeth, I sailed, in 1583, with five vessels and 260 men, ake possession of the northern parts of America. Newfoundland, whose fisheries were already ch frequented by French, Spanish, and Portu- se ships, he succeeded in establishing a colony, thus secured the influence of England in }e parts, the title being founded upon the t discovery by Sebastian Cabot. He ventured the Atlantic, on his homeward voyage, in a 1 of only ten tons; but after passing the >res he perished during the night in a storm, h all on hoard his little barque. He was seen the evening before, struggling with the waves, those in the Golden Hind (see Drake), which accompanied him from the coast of Virginia, in which he had been urged to take his passage ie. He has been called ' the father of western mization.' [J.B.] IILBERT, J., an English author, 1674-1726. "ILBERT, L. T., a Fr. author, 1780-1827. ILBERT, L. W., a Fr. med. au., 1769-1824. ILBERT, N. A., a French theolo., 1762-1821. ILBERT, N. J. L., a French poet, 1751-1780. ILBERT, N. P., a Fr. med. au., 1751-1814. ILBERT, Saint, a French monk, died 1162. ILBERT, Wm., an English divine, 1613-94. ILBERT, or GILBERD, William, an Eng- physician, distinguished as an experimental Msopher, and especially for his researches into properties of the loadstone, and for his attempt GIO to found a philosophical theory of the earth's magnetism upon experiment. His work, entitled ' De Magnete,' published 1600, is understood to be the foundation of all modern improvement in that branch of philosophy ; born at Colchester, where his father was recorder, 1540, died 1603. GILBERT-DE-LA-POREE, a celebrated Fr. theologian and philoso. of the Realists, 1070-1154. GILBERT DE SEMPRINGHAM, an English priest, founder of a religious order, died 1180. GILBERT DES VOISINS, a French magis- trate and writer on protestant liberty, 1684-1769. GILCHRIST, E., a Scotch med. au., 1707-74. GILCHRIST, J. B., a Sc. Oriental, 1759-1841. GILCHRIST, Oct., a dram, critic, 1779-1823. GILDAS, Saint, a British ecclesiastic, 6th ct. GILDAS, Saint, a celebrated English historian and theologian, of royal extraction, died 512. GILDAS, The Wise, a British monk, the most ancient author of this country, 511-570. GILDON, Roman governor of Africa, k. 398. GILDON, Ch., an Engl, dramatist, 1665-1723. GILIANEZ, a Portuguese admiral who contri- buted to the African discoveries, 1443-1446. GILII, P. L., an Ital. astronomer, 1756-1821. GILL, Alex., an English theologian, master of St. Paul's school, and teacher of Milton, 1564- 1635. His son and successor, of the same name, distinguished also as a Latin poet, 1597-1642. GILL, John, a baptist divine, 1697-1771. GILLES, John, a French musician, died 1705. GILLES, Peter, a classical trans., 1490-1555. GILLES, Peter, a Swiss protest, div., 17th ct. GILLESPIE, Geo., a Scotch divine, died 1648. GILLIES, John, an eminent Greek scholar and historian of Scotland, author of a ' History of Ancient Greece,' &c, 1747-1836. GILON, an Italian card, and author, died 1142. GILPIN, Bernard, a celebrated English re- former, called, on account of his pious and un- wearied exertions in Durham, the Apostle of the North and the Father of the Poor ; he was born in 1517, escaped the stake by the opportune death of Queen Mary, and died 1583. His life has been written by Bishop Carleton, and by his descendant William Gilpin. The latter, who is the well known writer on forest scenery, on the picturesque, &c, was a minister of the Church of England, and brother of Sawrey Gilpin the painter, 1724-1804. GILPIN, Richard, a nonconf. divine, d. 1657. GILPIN, Sawrey, an Engl, paint., 1733-1807. GIL-POLO, G., a Spanish poet, 1516-1572. GILRAY, Jas., an Engl, caricaturist, d. 1815. GIL-VICENTE, a celebrated dramatic author, called the Plautus of Portugal, 1485-1557. GIMMA, H., an Italian naturalist, 1668-1735. GIN, P. L. C, a Fr. miscel. wr., 1726-1807. GINANI, G., an Italian poet, died after 1634. GINANI, Joseph, Count, an Italian naturalist, 1692-1753. Francis, his nephew, a naturalist and agriculturist, 1716-1766. Paul, of the same family, a learned ecclesiastic, 1698-1774. GINGUENE, P. L., a Fr. historian, 1748-1815. GIOBERT, J. A., an Ital. chemist, 1761-1834. GIOCONDO, Fra. Giovanni, in Latin Jucundus, an Italian antiquarian and architect, editor of several classics, about 1435-1514. GIOFFREDO, P., an Italian hist., 1629-1692. GIOIA, Flavio, an Italian navigator, 14th ct 273 GIO GIOJA, M., an Italian economist, 1767-1829. GIORDANI, Guiseppe, sometimes called Giordanello, whose songs at one time enjoyed the highest popularity in Britain, was born in Italy about the year 1750. He came to England very young, and soon had all his time rilled up in giving lessons in music. In 1779 he entered into partnership with Leoni the singer, and they jointly became lessees of a theatre in Dublin, Giordani as composer, and his partner as singer. This specu- lation proved a complete failure, and in four years they were bankrupt. Giordani after this continued to reside in Dublin, where he had several pupils of distinction, and where he married the daughter of Tate Wilkinson. He composed two operas, ' An- tigone ' and ' Artaserse,' for the Italian Opera in England, and one for the English stage. He died in Dublin in 1789. [J.M.] GIORDANI, V., an Italian mathe., 1633-1711. GIORDANO, L., a Neapol. paint., 1632-1705. GIORDANO, S., an Ital. painter, 1779-1829. GIORGAKI, a Grk. naval commander, d. 1821. GIORGI, A., a Venetian Jesuit, 1747-1779. GIORGI, Ant. A., an Italian theolo., 1711-97. GIORGI, D., an Ital. antiquarian, 1690-1747. GIORGI, Maria, an Italian painter, 1780-1810. GIORGI, Marino, a Venetian doge, succeeded and died 1311. GIORGIONE, the name by which Giorgio Bar- barelli is commonly known. He was born near Castelfranco in 1477, and was the fellow-pupil of Titian with Giovanni Bellini at Venice. He became a great colourist, and his pictures are further dis- tinguished for objective truth of representation and effective light and shade. His pictures are very scarce : they consist chiefly of portraits. He died at Venice in 1511, at the early age of thirty- three. (Vasari, Vite <M Pittori, &c; Ridolfi, Ma- raviqlie deW Arte, &c.) [R.N.W.] GIOSEPPINO, an Italian painter, died 1640. GIOTTINO, Th., an Ital. painter, 1324-1356. GIOTTO DI BONDONE was born at Vespig- nano in 1276 ; he was the pupil of Cimabue, and appears to have owed the development of his ex- traordinary faculties almost wholly to that painter, who in one of his walks near Florence, saw Giotto, then a shepherd boy, sketching one of his flock on the ground, and perceived so much native talent in the attempt, that he persuaded the boy's parents to let him take him with him to Florence, and make a painter of him. Florence dates its preponderance in the history of Tuscan painting from the time of Giotto ; his works mark the era of the first great epoch of the art in modern times : the rigid traditional forms of the Byzantine school were finally laid aside for nature; the beautiful now supplanting the hideous as the fundamental element of the canons of art. Giotto was painter, sculptor, architect, and mosaic worker; he en- riched many cities in Italy with his works, (chiefly in fresco,) especially Florence, Rome, Naples, Padua, and Assisi ; and by his introduction of in- dividuality of treatment through the careful study of nature, established legitimate portrait. The frescoes of the Arena chapel, Padua, are in course of publication by the Arundel Society. Giotto was in Rome in 1298, he was at Avignon for some years afterwards, between 1305 and 1314; in 1316 he returned to Florence, in 1327 he visited GLA Naples, and he died at Florence in 1336. (Vai Vite efe' Pittori, &c, ed. Florence, 1846.) [R.N. GIOVANETTI, F., an Italian jurist, died 1 GIOVENAZZI, V. M., an It. savant, 1727-1 GIOVENE, J. M., an Italian natu., 1753-1 GIOVINAZZO, V., an Italian poet, died IS GIOVIO, B., an Italian savant and Latin { 1471-1544. Paul, his brother, bishop of No( a celebrated historian, 1483-1552. Paul, Younger, also a literary savant, 1530-1585. GIOVIO, J. B., Count, a poet, 1738-1814. GIRALDI, Lilio Gregorio, better know Gyraldus, a learned Italian poet, author history of the heathen deities, &c, 1479-1 Giovanni Battiste Giraldi Cintio, of same family, author of the ' Gli Hecatomiti ' Hundred Novels,' &c, 1504-1573. GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS. See Barri GIRARD, A., a Dutch wr. on algebra, d. 1( GIRARD, G., a Fr. gramma, wr., 1677-174 GIRARD, J., a French theologian, 1570-16 GIRARD, J., a French jurisconsult, died 1{ GIRARD, P. S., a Fr. engineer, 1765-1835 GIRARD, W., a French writer, died 1663. GIRARDET, A., a Swiss engraver, 1764-1 GIRARDET, P. A., a French mythol., 1733 GIRARDON, F., a French sculpt., 1630-17 GIRDLESTONE, Th., a physician and me< writer, author of ' Essays on the Hepatitics Spasmodic Affections in India,' &c, 1758-182 GIREY-DUPRE, J. M., a French republi kn. as a journalist and poet, b. 1769, exec. 17! GIRODET-TRIOSON, Anne Louis, a Fn painter, considered one of the greatest of modern school, instructed by David, 1735-182 GIROUST, F., a French composer, 1730-1: GIROUST, J., a French preacher, 1624-16) GIRTIN, Th., an English painter, 1773-18 GISBERT, Blaise, a French Jesuit and torician, author of various religious, critical, philosophical writings, 1657-1731. GISBERT, J., a Fr. theologian, 1639-1711 GISBORNE, Rev. Thomas, a divine of Church of England, eminent as a moralist miscellaneous writer, author of 'Principle Moral Philosophy Investigated,' 'An Inquiry the Duties of the Female Sex,' &c, 1758-1841 GISMONDI, C. J., an Italian mineralc and mathematician, 1762-1824. GIULIO-ROMANO. See Romano. GIUNTINI, F., an Ital. theologian, 1522-1 GIUSTINIANI. See Justinian. GJOERANSON, John, a Swedish ft known as a writer on the antiquity of the N< middle of last century. GJOERWEL, Ch. C, a Swed. wr., 1731-1 GLABER, P., a French chronicler, 11th cei GLADBACH, C. J., a Ger. naturalist, 1736 GLANVTL, B., a philosophical writer, 14th GLANVIL, Sir John, a learned English '. yer rod royalist, speaker of the House of C mons in the reign of Charles I., died 1661. grandson, of the same name, a lawyer and j trans, of ' Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds,' d. 1 GLANVIL, GLANV1LL, or GLANVD Ranulph De, an English judge and eras accomp. Richard I., and fell at siege of Acre, 1 GLANVILL, Joskph, an English divine,. thor of many philosophical and learned writ 274 GLA longst the more famous of which are his ' Van- of Dogmatizing,' 'Some Philosophical Con- [erations Touching the Being of Witches and itchcraft,' ' An Inquiry into the Opinion of the istern Sages Concerning the Pre-existence of uls,' 'Scepsis Scientifica, or Confessed Igno- ice the Way to Science,' and ' Plus Ultra, or the ogress and Advancement of Science since the ivs of Aristotle.' He was one of the new school philosophical divines of which Cudworth may regarded as the most illustrious example; born Plymouth 1636, d. in his rectory at Bath 1680. GLASER, J. F., a German chemist, 1707-1781. GLASS, John, a Scottish divine, founder of Glassites, since called Sandemanians, 1698- 13. His son, of the same name, a marine sur- ra, au. of a 'Description of Teneriffe,' 1725-1765. 3LASSE, G. H., an English scholar, died 1809. LASSIUS, S., a Dutch critic, 1593-1656. LAUBEB, John, a Dutch painter, 1646-1726. LAUBEK, John Rodolph, a German mist, and experimenter in alchymy, the dis- . of the sulphate of soda kn. by his name, 16th c. iLEDITSCH, J. T., a Ger. natural., 1714-86. JLEICHEN, C. H., a Ger. metaph., 1733-1807. LEICHEN, F. W., anat. philos., 1717-1783. LEICHMANU, J. Z., a Ger. savant, d. 1758. JLEIM, J. W. L., a German poet, 1719-1803. 1LEN, John De, a French engraver, 16th cent. JLEKDOWER, or GLENDWE, Owen, a Ich chief, descended from Llewellyn, the last ice of Wales, and distinguished for the long test which he maintained with Henry IV., born LI9, crowned by his adherents 1402, died 1415. .LEX IE, J., an Irish mathema., 1750-1817. fLEY, G., a French lexicographer, 1761-1830. iLIEMANN, J. G. T., a Danish geographer, I of maps of the Northern Countries, 1793-1828. LISCENTI, F., an Italian moralist, died 1620. (LISSON, Francis, a learned English phy- \ in, a native of Dorsetshire, was born 1597, died in 1677. He was for forty years profes- 5- of medicine in the university of Cambridge, I became a member of the College of Physicians t London in 1634. On the breaking out of the I war he retired to Colchester, but subsequently led in London, and was one of the original n ibers of the Royal Society. He enjoyed a con- Erable reputation in his lifetime, and wrote t* ral treatises on anatomical and medical sub- it >, which are respectfully spoken of by Haller, V which are now neglected. fj.M'C] r LOSKOUSKI, M., a Polish poet, 17th cent. LOUCESTER, Robert of, an old English ae chronicler, about the time of King John. LOUCESTER, William Frederic, duke ion of Prince William Henry, third son of leric prince of Wales, and brother of George born at Rome 1776, married to his first i, the Princess Mary, fourth daughter of Kill., 1816, died 1834. V ER, Mrs., an English actress, 1780-1850. LOVER, Richard, a distinguished Greek lar and poet, popularly known as the author das,' ' Hosier's Ghost,' &c, 1712-1785. LOVER, Tnos., a wr. on heraldry, 1543-88. K, Chkistoph, was born in Weiden- in the upper Palatinate, in the year 1714, his father held the situation of forester to GLU the Prince Lobkowitz. Early in childhood he went with his family to Bohemia, where his father died and left him without education, and in cir- cumstances little removed from absolute penury. Gluck was, however, gifted with a mind of no ordi- nary power, and he soon made his proficiency in music the means of placing himselt above want. He went from town to town as an itinerant musi- cian until he arrived at Vienna, where he met with a nobleman who became his patron, and in whose suite the young Gluck went to Italy, and became the pupil of the renowned Padre Martini. Here he was put upon the establishment of Prince Melzi as composer, and before he returned to Germany he produced several successful operas. His fame had now spread so far beyond the city of Milan, that in 1745 he was invited by the directors of the king's theatre to come to London, where he was to hold the situation of composer to that establishment. His success in London was not very decided. While in this situation he produced his 'La Caduta dei Giganti,' and 'Artamene' operas, and ' Piramo e lisbe' a pasticchio con- sisting of selections from all his previous works. After this Gluck went for a short time to Copen- hagen, from whence he was invited to return to Italy, where he produced his * Clemenza di Tito,' ' Antigonus,' ' Clelia,' ' Baucis e Philemon,' and ' Aristideo,' with varied success. He then went to Vienna, where in connection with Signor Calzabigi, an ingenious poet, he projected a new style of operatic composition, and in 1764 produced his ' Orfeo ' with the most complete success, ' Helen of Paris,' and ' Alcesti,' speedily following. Gluck now visited the principal cities of Italy, and when at Naples was engaged to compose two operas. On his return to Vienna he composed and produced his ' Iphigenia in Aulide,' the libretto of which was an adaptation of the text of Racine's Iphigenia. The fame of this piece reached Paris, whither Gluck was invited by the Academie Royale. On his ar- rival at Paris, Marie Antoinette immediately be- came his pupil and patron, and at her bidding the Iphigenia was produced on the 19th of April, 1776, under his own direction, and with the most trium- f)hant success, notwithstanding the prejudice which tad been fostered against it before its performance. Immediately after this Paris was divided into two bodies, Gluckistes and Piccinistes, the latter party being the devoted admirers of Piccini the Italiar composer, who was then rising into eminence ; but though the musical war raged for a long time, nevertheless, when the termination of hostilities arrived the triumph of Gluck was complete. Having composed two more operas, Gluck returned to Vienna in 1779, and never after quitted that city. In 1784 he was attacked by paralysis, under which he suffered until 1787, when ne died, leaving a fortune of j30,000, the fruits of his talents and industry. The writer of the sketch of his life in the Musical Library says ' The Chevalier Gluck for he had received an order of knighthood was a man of powerful mind, by means of which he supplied the deficiencies of early education. He reaa much, associated with literary and scientific persons, and reflected deeply; hence, all his works display an intellectuality not often found in the productions of the lyric stage, which have preserved them, and will continue to preserve them, while 275 GLY nearly all the compositions of his contemporaries and rivals have sunk into oblivion.' [J.M.] GLYCAS, Michael, a Greek historian, 12th or 13th century, author of a universal history. GLYNN, Robekt, an English poet, died 1800. GMELIN, J. F., a German chemist, 1748-1804. GMELIN, J. G., a German botanist, 1709-55. GMELIN, S. T., nephew of the preceding, au- thor of 'Travels through Russia,' &c, 1745-1774. GMELIN, W. F., a Ger. engraver, 1745-1831. GNEDITSCH, N., a Russian poet, 1784-1833. GNEISENAU, Augustus, Count Neidhard De, a Prussian officer, dist. at Waterloo, 1760-1832. GOAD, John, a classical author, 1615-1689. GOADBY, R., a miscellaneous writer, d. 1778. GOAR, James, a learned Fr. monk, 1601-53. GOB BO, Andrea, an Ital. painter, died 1527. GOBBO, Pietro Paolo Bonzi, called II- Gobbo, or Gobbo De Caracci, an Italian painter, famous for his repres. of fruits, 1580-1640. GOBEL, Jean Baptiste Joseph, a French ecclesiastic, born 1727, deputy to the estates general 1789, constitutional bishop of Paris, 1793, executed with Anacharsis Cloots, Hebert, and others, for his shameful endeavours to found the social order of the republic upon atheism, 1794. GOBELIN, Giles, an ingenious Frenchman, famous as a dyer of scarlet in the reign of Francis I., founder of the works where the admired Gobe- lin tapestry has been produced, 17th century. GOBERT, Napol., a French general, 1807-33. GOBET, N., a Fr. historian, died about 1781. GOCLENIUS, C., a German philol., 1485-1539. GOCLENIUS, Rodolph, a German logician and literary savant, 1547-1628. His son, of the same name, a naturalist and writer on animal magnetism, 1572-1621. GODARD, J., a French poet, 1564-1625. GODARD, J. B., a Fr. naturalist, 1775-1825. GODDARD, Jon., an Eng. chemist, 1617-1674. GODDARD, Rev.W. S., formerly master of Win- chester school, of which he became a benefactor, and late prebend, of St. Paul's and Salisb., 1757-1845. GODEAU, A., a Fr. ecclesias. hist., 1605-1672. GODEAU, M., a French religious au., d. 1736. GODEBERT, a king of the Lombards, 661-662. GODESCHALCUS, or GOTTESCHALCUS, was by birth a Saxon, and was educated in a monastery at Fulda. On arriving at manhood, he struggled hard against a monastic life, but Rabanus Maurus his future persecutor interfered, the influ- ence of Louis the emperor was invoked against him, and his early and unconscious consecration as a monk by his father, was held to be an inviol- able bond. On his subsequent removal to Orbais in the diocese of Soissons he was ordained a pres- byter, and we find him soon after travelling in Italy and Dalmatia. He had already in retire- ment drunk deep into the spirit of Augustine, and he reproduced in a prominent form his views on grace and predestination, especially in a discussion before Notting, bishop of Verona. But violent opposition was stirred up against him, and his tenets were condemned by the Synod of Mentz in a.d. 847. His fierce antagonist Rabanus Maurus then sent him to Hincmar archbishop of Rheims, to whose see the so-called heretic belonged. Hinc- mar immediately arraigned him before the Synod of Chiersey in 849, degraded him, scourged him GOD severely, and incarcerated him in the monastt Hautevilliers in the diocese of Rheims, where twenty-one years of confinement the noble cc sor died. In his last illness the communioi refused him, and his corpse was denied Chri burial. The controversy raised by Gottescl agitated the Romish Church for many ] Prior to his polemical appearances, Gottesch] for the brilliancy of his scholarship, had named Fulgentius. That his enemies carica his opinions is plain, but it is no less true tha naked and extreme statements were liable to conception, and unnecessarily stirred up preji His long and shameful imprisonment never t in the least his sincere attachment to the Av tinian theology. (_. [Armour of Godfrey of Bouillon.] GODFREY of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain first Christian king of Jerusalem, was hoi Bezy, near Nivelle. He served while young high distinction in the armies of the emperor 1 the IV. ; and, when near the close of the ete century all western Europe was roused to rescue of the Holy Land from the infidels, the of Godfrey was high throughout Christendoi piety and moral excellence, as well as for kni prowess. He entered fervently into the movement of his age, and was confessedly th< in rank and worth among the chiefs of the crusade. He not only signalized himself by y among the valorous, and by enthusiasm amor enthusiastic, but he showed also disinterested probity, skill, and prudence, which were of all and rarer order. He maintained the most_ plete discipline among his division of the Chri army, which he brought safely to the appc muster-place beneath the walls of Constants in the winter of 1096. By his sagacity and ness, he prevented hostilities breaking out bel the host of the crusaders and the Greek em] Alexius Comnenus ; and, in the spring of Godfrey led the Frankish nations into Asia ~b> to the siege of the capital of the Turkish sul 1 Nice. This city was captured after a siefl which the personal valour of Godfrey, as ti! his generalship, was frequently displayed.' 276 GOD ivas tall, well-proportioned, and of such remarkable trength and dexterity in the use of his weapons, ihat lie is said in more than one encounter to pave cloven his foe by a single sword-stroke from jkull to centre. After Nice was captured, the frusaders marched forward, and defeated a Turkish jrmy in the great battle of Doryloeum. They leached Antioch, in Syria, late in the winter of )097. The city was captured after an obstinate jasistance ; and the weakened army of the victors iras in turn besieged in its walls by an innumerable lost of the Mahommedans. After enduring much [uffering and loss, Godfrey led the crusaders in a Bidden sortie upon their enemies, which was com- pletely victoriou s. The enthusiasm caused among the Christian army by the supposed discovery of the relic [f the Holy Lance, was one great cause of this suc- ess. It was not till 1099 that the crusaders reached erusalem; and their numbers were then reduced y the sword and by disease to only 1,500 horse and j0,000 foot fit for service. The Mahommedan garri- pnwas far more numerous, and the city was formid- ply strong. But the zeal of the crusaders was |idomitable. After a siege of forty days, a suc- Ijssful assault was made, and ' on a Friday, at three ji the afternoon, the day and hour of the Passion, odfrey of Bouillon stood victorious on the walls Jerusalem ' (Gibbon). When the crusaders were ited with carnage and pillage, they deliberated on le important subject of choosing a ruler of their inquest; and, with the universal consent of the as- moly, Godfrey was hailed king of the Christian ngdom of Jerusalem. He showed his humility and ety by refusing to wear a golden diadem in the ty where his Saviour had been crowned with orns, and he desired to be called only Defender and iron of the Holy Sepulchre. During his short ign he gained several military advantages in the !ld against the Mahommedans, especially at As- lon, where he completely routed a large army bich the sultan of Egypt had sent to reconquer rusalem. Godfrey deserved still higher honour for J exertions in establishing order and justice in his minions, and in compiling a code of laws for his bjects. Unhappily for the infant kingdom, he 3d within a year from his accession. {J^S-Cl GODFREY, Sir Edmundury, an English igistrate who exerted himself in the discovery of e Popish Plot, and is supposed to have been u-dered, being found dead 17th October, 1768. GODFREY, Thomas, an American mathe- itician, died 1749. His son, of the same name, J earliest dramatic poet of America, 1736-1763. GODFREY of Viterbo, an Italian ecclesi- ;ic, author of annals entitled ' Pantheon,' 12th c. GODIN, Louis, a Fr. astronomer, 1704-1760. GODINOT, J., a French theologian, 1661-1749. GODIVA, an English lady, wife of Leofric, earl Leicester, in the reign of Edward the Confessor, leb. in the legends of Coventry for riding naked rough the streets to deliver the citizens from a tax. GODOLPHIN, J., an English civilian, 17th ct. GODOLPHIN, Sidney, earl of, lord high Usurer of England under Queen Anne, d. 1712. GODOLPHIN, Sydney, an Eng. poet, 1610-43. >\TN, J., a French Hebraist, died 1700. jOI)()ONOFF, Boris, czar of Moscow after V murder of Demetrius, 1599, died 1605. JODOY, Don Manuel, the celebrated 'Prince GOD of Peace,' originally a private soldier, rose to be prime minister of Spain, 1764-1851. GODWIN, earl of Kent, a powerful English baron in the Saxon period, celebrated for his tur- bulence and political intrigues, died 1053. GODWIN, Mrs. See Wolstonecraft. GODWIN, Thomas, an English prelate, suc- cessively dean of Christ Church, dean of Canter- bury, and bishop of Bath and Wells in the reign of Elizabeth, 1517-1590. His son, Francis, suc- cessively bishop of LlandafF and Hereford, and au. of historical and antiquarian works, 1561-1633. Morgan, son of the latter, also a churchman, deprived as a royalist during the civil war, d. 1645. GODWIN, Th., an English divine, 1587-1643. GODWIN, William, was born in 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His father was a dissenting minister ; and he himself, after having completed his education in the college at Hoxton, embraced the same profession, and preached for some years to a congregation near London. About 1782 he abandoned the pulpit, his opinions having undergone serious changes; and thenceforth he strove to make a livelihood by authorship. In 1793 he became famous, or notorious, by the pub- lication of his ' Inquiry concerning Political Jus- tice.' This celebrated work, founded on the dream of human perfectibility, is remarkable for that combination of vigour with want of comprehen- siveness and real profundity, which marked all its author's writings. His crusade against the exist- ing system of things in all its parts was next pro- secuted in a more popular shape, and with singu- lar force of passionate and descriptive eloquence, in his novel of ' Caleb Williams.' Strongly demo- cratic in political opinions, but gentle as well as brave, he always protested against the bringing about of social changes by force ; but, though he kept sedulously aloof from the plots which, in 1794, exposed Home Tooke ana others of his friends to prosecution for treason, he did them good service by his pen. In 1797, he published essays, moral and literary, under the title of ' The Inquirer.' The same year he married Mary Wol- stonecraft, in deference to the opinion of the world, after having lived with her for some time in obedi- ence to the opinion which he himself held in regard to marriage, and which she had advocated in her ' Vindication of the Rights of Women.' His wife died in giving birth to a daughter, who became Mrs. Shelley. By a subsequent marriage he had a son, a young man of great promise, who died of cholera in 1833. In 1799, Godwin published the picturesque novel of ' Saint Leon,' his last work of this kind that was worthy of his genius. ' Fleet- wood,' published in 1804, and ' Mandeville,' in 1816, are much inferior ; and ' Cloudesley,' which appeared in 1830, showed that the vein of self- scrutiny on which his strength depended, had been quite worked out. But, in 1803, he had entered a new path in his 'Life of Chaucer,' which, though wanting in unity and consecutive interest, is verj instructive. For some time after this he attempted business as a bookseller, and wrote a good many school-books under the name of Baldwin. In 1815, he published his 'Lives of John and Edward Phillips,' the nephews of Milton ; in 1820, he at- tacked Malthus in his ' Treatise on Population ; ' in 1828, he published the last of the four volumes 277 GOE of his heavy but valuable ' History of the Com- monwealth ; ' in 1830, appeared his essays called 4 Thoughts on Man ; ' and in 1834, his ' Lives of the Necromancers.' The poverty of his old age was alleviated by an appointment from the minis- try of Earl Grey. He died in 1836. [W.S.] GOEBEL, G. W., a German jurist, 1683-1745. GOEBEL, H. D., a Bavarian historian, 1717-71. GOEBEL, J. H. E., a Prussian savant, 1732-95. GOEBLER, J., a German historian, died 1567. GOECKINGK, Leop. Fred. Gunther Von, a Prus. poet of the school of Wieland, 1745-1828. GOELIKE, A. 0., a Ger. med. hist., 1671-1744. GOEREE, H. G., a Dutch theologian and phy- sician, died about 1643. His son, William, au- thor of a ' History of the Jewish Church,' an ' In- troduction to the Art of Painting,' &c, 1635-1711. John, the son of the latter, a distinguished pain- ter, engraver, and poet, 1670-1711. GOERTZ, George Henry, Baron, a German statesman, minister of finance to Charles XII., executed immediately after the king's death, 1719. GOERTZ, John Eustace, Count De, a Prus- sian diplomatist and political writer, 1737-1821. GOES, H. Van Der, a Flemish painter, 15th c. GOES, W. Van Der, a Dutch savant, 1611-86. GOESCKEN, H., a Ger. philosopher, 1612-81. GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang Von, is one of the most celebrated names in European litera- ture. It is the name of a poet who united, in an extraordinary degree, power of imagination and power of expression ; and who, not less remarkable for versatility than for vigour, produced, by the exertions of sixty years, works which exemplify, in one shape or another, every possible form and kind of poetry. Gothe holds, likewise, in the in- tellectual history of Germany, the position of a founder and inventor. His poems were almost the earliest in the language that deserved wide cele- brity ; they were, without exception, the first that were fortunate enough to attain it. Nor have they been more admired than imitated. To say nothing of the influence they have exerted among ourselves and elsewhere, nine-tenths of the poetry that has been heard in Germany during the last seventy or eighty years, have been little more than echoes thrown back from that of Gothe. The fact is a decisive testimony to the strength of his genius ; yet it could not have occurred but for that close- ness of sympathy with the spirit of his time, which the poet felt in every stage of his progress. Each of the most powerful impulses by which, in turn, the social and intellectual life of Germany was governed, found in him its earliest and also its most striking representative ; and, while he inter- preted the tendencies of the age with felicitous in- tuition, and prefigured their results with wonder- ful richness of imagination, he gained a firm hold on popular feeling through that very coldness and practicality of moral sentiment, which always kept him, in an ethical point of view, on a level with the world around him. He aimed sedulously at purifying and elevating poetical art ; he never aimed at making poetry the teacher of goodness. If the noble-minded and impassioned Schiller often embodied his lofty aspirations after truth and vir- tue in a form too anxiously and openly didactic, and if, even when he did not thus err, he imprinted on bis pictures a character of austere melancholy GOE which repels the worldly and the careless ; yel the other hand, Gothe assuredly violated hi laws of his art, when he studiously avoided indirect and suggestive teaching of goodness w is the most sublime prerogative of poetry, when he intrenched himself in a seeming tolen which is really little else than sceptical indiffere Gothe's father, a man in easy circumstai was a citizen of Frankfort-on-the-Maine ; and t the poet was born, on the 28th of August, 1 His hoyhood and youth thus fell into the pe when Germany was excited by the seven y war ; and when, in literature, the clear and e getic Lessing was laying the foundations of p] sophical criticism, inculcating intelligent res and affection for the arts of design, and protes against that slavish subservience to French i which had long prevailed among German me letters. Sickness in childhood cherished G61 native precocity; and his mind was devel< with remarkable rapidity. Besides the com branches of education, he busied himself drawing, music, and natural history ; and a bo poem on the scriptural history of Joseph, indie at once his poetical inclinations, and the sei direction which his thoughts then took. I the breaking off of a youthful love affair, w gave a name to the heroine of ' Faust,' and t features to ' Wilhelm Meister,' he was sent tc university of Leipzig to prepare himself for legal profession. Law, however, was little attei to ; and for speculative philosophy the young contracted a disgust, which he did not seel overcome in mature life, when Kant had be< the guide of almost all the finer minds of his a try. To classical studies, under the teachin the correct and tasteful Ernesti, he paid mor< tention. To his early French reading was added some acquaintance with English literal The discrepancies, however, between the diffe poetical schools, which he was unable to reco: by any critical theory that had yet been prese to him, almost gave him a distaste even for po< His inquisitive and doubting temper found not food in the contemplation of the relations of ciety, presented to him in no clearer fight 1 that which he derived from the French Encj pedists ; and his mind had already taken its liest steps in that course of thought and fee' which, breaking out at first in rebellion agains existing systems, led him by degrees to care 1 as to the truth or falsehood of any. Attei were made at play-writing ; and the uneasy t of mind, which he thus endeavoured to remov giving vent to it, was allayed more effect nail' the diversion of his thoughts to the study of fine arts, in the works of Winckelmann and o philosophical antiquaries. In 1768, he left Lei] and resided for a while in the country, when studied alchymy and chemistry, Paracelsus Boerhaave, and sketched for himself a new : gion, resting on a basis of mysticism or New-! tonism. In Strasburg he nominally con professional studies, taking his degree of do in laws in 1771. The intimacy which he t formed with Herder, worked beneficially hot! his literary opinions and taste, and on hia vtfl life. In 1773, he published ' Gotz of gen with the Iron Hand,' a romantic play, wii 278 GOE ! prose, and cast in the flexible and irregular bold of Shakspeare's dramatic histories. The velty of the undertaking was as attractive as the 'ce of imagination with which it was performed; Id, while every one was moved by the character Id fate of the true-hearted Gotz, there was for Bective minds a deep significance in the picture lich was presented, (under the symbolic forms feudalism,) of the destruction of the reign of rce, and the rise of a new world ruled by reason 1 established order. Here, too, the poet, in the multuous excitement of youth, poured forth his lotions with an unrepressed and infectious en- usiasm. Still more unreserved was the expres- >n of despondent and rebellious feelings, in his :nd work, ' The Sufferings of the Young Wer- which appeared in 1774. In its design itning more than a sentimental novel, and thus fading for a popularity much wider than ' Gotz,' JV'erter ' displayed domestic scenes so interesting, Id described these with a pathos so profound and I eloquence so flowing, that the hollowness of the prality was overlooked, and the real insignificance the events forgotten. The German language jssessed as yet nothing comparable to either of |e two works; their author himself never sur- jssed the ' Gotz ; ' and, after the appearance of hTerter,' Gothe was not only the most popular iter of his day, but also the writer from whom mpetent judges most confidently expected great rformance in his maturity. His fame imme- itely gained for him a position which enabled n to devote his energies, without interruption or piety, to literary study and invention. The jportunities were used with zealous industry jroughout the whole remainder of his long life ; d his skill of art was developed with a success wring in some degree for that narrowing of his ~ ithies, which was caused by the artificial phere of a petty court. The duchess of xe- Weimar, left a widow in the infancy of her a, the duke Karl-August, not only administered sely the civil affairs of her little sovereignty, but oceived the idea of making her miniature capital e intellectual centre of Germany. In 1774, in e course of his travels, the young duke made the quaintance of Gothe; and, on his assuming e government in 1775, the poet accepted the in- ation he received to attach himself to the court Weimar. Wieland, whose mental history was some points not unlike that of Gothe, was al- ftdy there, having been the prince's tutor; Herder s added to the band in 1776 ; Schiller was after- trds one of its members for a few years ; and ber poets, and critics, and novelists, were thered round these chiefs. Gothe was the iding spirit of the group, even during the last I of the eighteenth century, when these men thers were constructing and guiding the ure of all Germany ; and his supremacy be- yet more absolute afterwards, when, for sr generation, he stood alone, the last survivor ace greater than the greatest of their suc- s. He was ennobled, received honorary illorships and other appointments, and had wine share in the real business of the small But, in the most active period of his life, iost important office was that of theatrical Dr. Journeying to Italy in 1786, he spent 279 GOE two years in that country, which had much effect on his opinions and sentiments. In 1792 he ac- companied the duke on the campaign in France. In 1806 he married. Not long afterwards he re- tired from all active business; but in 1815 he was obliged to take office as prime minister, which he held till the death of his friend and patron the grand duke in 1828. He died at Weimar on the 22d of March, 1833, energetic to the last, both in body and in mind. For a dozen years after his settlement at Weimar, he seemed to be reposing on his quickly-won laurels. But he was very far from being idle ; nor, in that later period in which his most distinguished works successively ap- 1>eared, were these by any means the only fruits of his abour. He wrote accounts of his travels in Swit- zerland and Italy, and many critical and other essays ; and, amidst an unceasing stream of small poems few of them possessing much merit were some exquisite ballads and other pieces of a lyrical or reflective cast. For the stage of Weimar, like- wise, he furnished many plays ; among which, as having importance literary as well as theatrical, may be named his prose tragedies of ' Egmont ' and 4 Clavigo.' There still remain to be briefly noticed the works on which his celebrity mainly rests. The earliest of these were two dramas, which ap- peared in 1787, and flowed from the twofold inspira- tion of his residence in Italy. The ' Iphigema in Tauris' is a modern echo, finely and originally modulated, of the classical antique; the 'Tasso' is a realization of the fluttering spirit of romance which lingered in the courts and society of Italy when the realities of the middle ages had passed away. None of Gothe's works are so admirable as these two for skill of art ; none are more exqui- site in ideal beauty of imagery ; none are so cha- racteristically illustrative of the desire he always felt to attain, though it were by the sacrifice of sternly solemn truths, a placid and meditative har- mony of feeling. In 1795 appeared the first part (' The Apprentice-Years ') of his novel ' Wilhehn Meister.' It is one of the most poetical, and the Germans hold it to be also the most philosophical, of all prose romances. Its philosophy, like its slippery morality, must here be left untouched. Its introduction of criticisms on literature and art was eagerly emulated, giving birth to those 'Art Novels,' the breed of which has been propagated to our own day. The poet's fame rose to its zenith in 1798, on the publication of his world-renowned ' Faust.' It is easy to feel, or rather it is impos- sible not to feel, the singular poetic beauty of this wonderful poem, its unsurpassed felicities of imagery ana diction, and the impressiveness of the despondent melancholy which is the ruling temper of the whole. Philosophically considered, the 1 Faust ' is a propounding of the enigma of human life, with a refusal to accept, from religion, its only possible solution. In the same year, in ' Hermann and Dorothea,' Gothe attempted, as others had before him, at once to naturalize the classical hex- ameter in his native tongue, and to give epic form to a narrative of familiar life. At this point the series of the poet's great works may be said to close. There next occurred a long interval, marked by nothing of distinguished note. The appearance, in 1810, of the notorious novel of the ' Wahlver- wandschaften ' (Elective Affinities), while as- GOE suredly it denoted a falling off in creative genius, betrayed as clearly a settled declension of moral sentiment. The epicureanism in which the poet now found repose, was worse than the sceptical spirit of resistance which had disturbed his aspiring youth. In 1811 he published his interesting autobiography called ' Poetry and Truth,' (Dich- tung und Walirheit). His countrymen place much value on the collection of lyrics entitled the' West- bstlicher Divan,' which appeared in 1819, but seems to have been written much earlier. In 1821 'Wilhelm Meister' was completed by the second part, the 'Years of Wandering' (Wanderjahre). After this, Gothe's only sustained effort in poetry was the second part of ' Faust,' which was under his hands till the close of his life. None but his most bigotted disciples have ventured to pronounce it in any respect worthy of a great poet. During the last few years of his old age, his favourite employ- ments were some of the physical sciences both in vegetable physiology, and in optics, he published speculations whicli scientific men have thought worthy of notice. [W.S.] GOETTLING, J. F., a Ger. chemist, 1755-1809. GOETZ or GOEZ, Andrew, a German philo- logist, author of 'Introduction to Ancient Geo- graphy,' ' Index of the Lat. tongue,' &c, 1698-1780. GOETZ or GOEZ, Zacharie, a German theologico-philosopher, author of 'Disputatio de Hierarchiis Angelorum,' 1662-1705. GOETZ, J. N., a German poet, 1721-1781. GOETZE, G. H., a Ger. theologian, 1668-1728. GOETZE, John Augustus Ephraim, a cele- brated German naturalist and theologian, 1731- 1793. His brother, John Melchior, a protes- tant controversialist, 1717-1786. GOETZE, J. Ch., a Ger. bibliopole, 1692-1749. GOEZ, Damien De, a Portug. wr., 1501-1560. GOFF, Thos., au. of Sermons, &c, d. 1629. GOGUET, Anthony Yves, a learned French writer, author of a work in high repute on the origin and progress of knowledge, 1716-1758. GOHORRY, J., a French agriculturist, d. 1576. GOIFFON, J. B., a French botanist, 1658-1730. GOIFFON, J., a French astronomer, d. 1751. GOLDING, Arthur, an English poet and classical translator, 16th century. GOLDMAYER, A., a Ger. astronom., 1603-64. GOLDONI, Carlo, a dramatic writer and reformer of the Italian stage, 1707-1792. GOLDSMITH, F., a Latin translator, 17th ct. GOLDSMITH, Lewis, an English Jew, author of the ' Crimes of Cabinets,' and afterwards a hire- ling writer against Buonaparte, born 1763. GOLDSMITH, Oliver, the son of an Irish curate, was born in the county of Longford in 1728. Lissoy, in his native parish of Formey, is said to have been the original of his ' Sweet Au- burn.' The assistance of an uncle enabled him in 1744 to enter at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was idle and extravagant, and probably ill-used. He is said to have applied unsuccessfully for ordi- nation, and to have been for some time a family tu- tor. He threw away in a gaming-house the money which his uncle had given him to aid in his study of law ; but the same kind relative enabled him to become a student of medicine in Edinburgh, where he spent two years from the close of 1752, after- wards passing a year at Leyden. He next took a GOL pedestrian tour of twelve months on the i tinent, travelling as far as the north of Italy ; before or after this he was an usher in a scl Both of these experiences he has described in [Goldsmith' a [louse at Lissoy.] famous novel. In 1756 he came to London, attempted medical practice in a humble way, ' small knowledge and no success ; and, on sub ting to examination at the College of Surgeon qualify him for an appointment abroad, he rejected as insufficiently informed. He had ready been writing for the booksellers ; and thorship now became perforce his only meai livelihood. He drudged for the Monthly Critical Reviews, and for other periodicals; compiled his well-written ' Histories of Greece Rome,' and his ' History of the Earth and '. mated Nature.' It was in the intervals of toils that he produced those original works, w made him both in prose and verse, one of classics of English literature. In 1761 he w while in confinement for debt, his inimii 'Vicar of Wakefield;' and soon afterwards peared ' The Citizen of the World.' ' The ' veller,' which had been partly written abi and the beautiful ballad of 'The Hermit,' ' published in 1765. The former of these p< gave him great and deserved fame as a descri] poet, which was increased in 1769 by the pub tion of ' The Deserted Village.' He became more popular as a play-writer. His corned 'The Good-Natured Man,' which was acte< 1768, did not succeed greatly on the stage, was highly esteemed by Johnson and other cri and ' She Stoops to Conquer,' appearing in 1 was received with universal applause. The thor survived this brilliant success but a t time, and profited very little by the wealth w was now accruing to him. Industrious througl cessity, he was indolent by temperament : he careless and improvident in money matters, eqi ready to squander his painfully-earned gains al gaming-table, or to spend them in charity. Ge amiable, and good-hearted, he was also irreso vain, and capricious ; and, while Johnson anc other literary friends did not estimate hi enough his line genius, his conduct gave t much excuse for treating him, as they did, HI favourite and petted child. He died 1774. [W GOLIKOFF, Iwan, a Rus. histor., 1735-1 280 ^4 GOL GOLIUS, James, a Dutch Orientalist, author of an Arabic lexicon, a Persian dictionary, a his- tory of the Saracens, &c.^ 1596-1667. His brother, IPeter, an Oriental scholar and missionary, d. 1673. : GOLIUS, Theophilus, a Gr. scholar, d. 1600. I GOLTZ, Henry, a German painter, 1558-1617. I GOLTZIUS, Hub., a Dutch antiq., 1526-1583. I GOMAR, Francis, a protestant divine of Hol- land, chief of the sect of Gomarites, or anti-remon- strants, who were opposed to Arminius, 1563-1609. : GOMARA, F. L. De, a Sp. eccles. hist., 16th c. GOMERSALL, R., an English dram., 1600-46. GONDEBAND, king of Burgundy, 491-516. GONDEBAND, king of Austrasia, 584. GONDEMAR, king of Burgundy, 528-532. GONDEMAR, king of the Visigoths, 610-612. GONDERIC, kins of the Vandals, 411-428. GONET, J. B, a French theologian, 1616-1681. GONGORA-Y-ARGOTE, Luis, a Spanish icclesiastic and poet, whose works were imitated n the earliest German romances, 1561-1627. i GONSALVO, Fernando, hereditary count of Castile, and a disting. warrior, flourished 924-960. | GONSALVO, M., a Span, heretic, burnt 1374. GONSALVO of Cordova, or GONZALO- RERNANDEZ-Y-AGUILAR, a Spanish warrior, listing, against the Moors in Spain and the Fr. in Naples, and called the great captain, 1443-1515. GONTHAN, a king of Burgundy, 561-593. GONTHIER, a German poet, 13th century. GONTHIER, J., a Ger. anatomist, 1487-1574. GOOCH, B., an English wr. on surgery, last ct. GOOD, John Mason, an English physician nd author, distinguished for his skill in the an- ient, Oriental, and European languages, for his ranslations and original works, and his numerous ontributions to magazine literature, 1764-1827. GOODAL, W., a Scotch antiquary, 1706-1766. GOODMAN, Christopher, a Scottish refor- ler and coadjutor of John Knox, abt. 1520-1602. GOODMAN, G., an English prelate and theol., oted as a convert to the Romish Church, 1583-1655. GOODRICH, Thomas, bishop of Ely, distin- uished as a statesman and zealous promoter of tie reformation, died 1554. GOODWIN, Fr., an English architect, d. 1835. GOODWIN, John, an English republican and reacher, an. of ' Redemption Redeemed,' 1633-65. GOODWIN, Th., a Calvinist divine, 1600-1679. GOOGE, B., an Eng. poet and translator, 16th c. GOOL, John Van, a Dutch paint., 1685-1757. GORAN, a king of Scotland, reigned 501-535. GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of iree Roman emperors, the Jirst, or elder, Marcus JJTonius Africanus, descended from Trajan, reclaimed while proconsul in Africa, along with is son, who, being of the same name, is known J Gordian the Younger. The latter was killed action, upon hearing of which Gordianus ie Elder strangled himself. The third of the ime, Marcus Antoninus Pius Gordianus, as a grandson of the preceding, and was procl. np. after their death, and murdered after a reign six years, in the twentieth year of his age, 244. GOR] >ON, Alex., a Scotch antiquarian, d. 1750. I GORDON, And., a Scottish exper. philosopher, pown for his discoveries in electricity, 1712-1751. GORDON, Benj., a Fr. medical author, 13th c. (GORDON, Loud George, son of Cosmo GOU George, duke of Gordon, distinguished as a poli- tical character towards the close of the last cen- tury, and noted for his arrest on a charge of high treason, in consequence of the riots provoked by his assemblies of the people to oppose the catholic relief bill, born 1750, died in prison, 1793. GORDON, James, a Scotch Jesuit and theo- logian, distinguished for his zeal in making con- verts, 1543-1620. Another of the same name, au. of biblical commentaries and hist, works, 1553-1641. GORDON, R., a Scotch geographer, died 1650. GORDON, Th., a Scotch pamphleteer, d. 1750. GORDON, W., an independent minister settled in America, and a promoter of its independence, of which he became the historian, 1729-1807. GORDON, W., an English physician and phil- anthropist, distinguished as an advocate of free trade, and other popular movements, 1801-1849. GORE, Christoph., an American diplomatist, governor of the state of Massachusets, 1758-1827. GORE, Sir J., a naval officer, died 1836. GORE, Th., a writer on heraldry, 1631-1684. GORGIAS, a Greek sophist, 5th century b.c. GORI, G. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1691-1757. GORLiEUS,A.,aFlem.numismatist,1549-1609. GORSAS, A. J., a Fr. political wr. and member of the convention, exec, with the Girondins, 1793. GOSELINI, J., an Italian historian, 1525-1587. GOSSEC, Fr., a French composer, 1734-1829. GOSSELIN, Anth., a Fr. historian, 1580-1645. GOSSELIN, J., a French astronomer, d. 1604. GOSSELIN, P., a French mathematician, 16th c. GOSSELIN, Pascal Fr. Joseph, a French geographer, archaeologist, and statesm., 1751-1830. GOSSELIN, W., a French arithmetician, d. 1590. GOSSIN, P. F., a French republican, exec. 1794. GOSSON, Stephen, a minister of the Church of England, author of several dramas, 1554-1623. GOSTLING, W., an Eng. antiquarian, 1705-77. GOTH, Stephen, archbishop of Upsala, author of a new liturgy designed to Romanize the Lu- theran church of Sweden, published 1576. GOTHOFRED, Denis, a French Huguenot and jurisconsult, author of 'Corpus Juris Civilis,' 1549-1622. His son, Theodore, historiographer royal, author of an ' Account of the Ceremonial of the Kings of France,' 1580-1649. Denis, son of the latter, and his successor hi office, author of 'Memoirs of Philip de Commines,' &c.,' 1615-81. GOTTSCHED, J., a Ger. philosoph., 1668-1704. GOTTSCHED, John Christopher, a Ger- man dramatist and literary savant, professor of logic, philosophy, and metaphysics, at Leipzig, 1700-1766. His wife, Louisa Maria, distin- guished by her splendid literary talents, d. 1762. GOTTWALD, Ch., a Ger. naturalist, 1636-1713. GOUAN, Ant., a French botanist, 1733-1821. GOUFFIER, L., a Fr. naval com., 1648-1734. GOUFFIER, Marie Gabriel Auguste Lau- rent, Count De Choiseul, a French ambassador, and author of Travels in Greece, distinguished for his cultivation of the fine arts, 1752-1817. GOUGE, F. S., a French poet, born 1724. GOUGE, J., an adventurer, who was proclaimed king of France by the armed bands which he com- manded on the banks of the Rhone, 1361. GOUGE, William, an Eng. puritan, and au. of biblical commentaries, 1575-1653. His son, Tho- mas, also a clergyman and religious wr., 1605-81. 281 GOU GOUGES, Marie Olympe De, a French lady, authoress of some dramatic pieces, executed for her attacks on Marat and Robespierre 1794. GOUGH, Richard, an eminent antiquarian, au. of ' The Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain,' 1 Hist, of the Soc. of Antiquaries,' &c, 1735-1809. GOUJET, Cl. P., a French savant, 1697-1767. GOUJON, J., a French sculptor and architect, killed at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. GOUJON, J. M. C. A., a Fr. repub., 1766-1795. GOULART, S., a French historian, 1543-1628. GOULSTON, GOULSON, or GULSON, Th., an Eng. physic, and au. of learned works, d. 1632. GOURGAND, Gaspard, a eel. French general, disting. for his devotion to Napoleon, 1783-1852. GOUSSET, J., a French Hebraist, 1635-1704. GOUVEA, A. De, a learned Portuguese, 14th c. GOUVION-ST.-CYR, Laurence, a general and marshal of France, distinguished in the cam- Saign on the Rhine 1795 ; and under Moreau and oubert, in the campaign of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon he was made a peer of France, and served as minister of war. The latter years of his life were occupied in the composition of his several memoirs; died 1830. GOW, Neil, was born in Strathband, Perth- shire, of humble but honest parents, in the year 1727. His taste for music was early decided. At the age of nine he began to play, and was, it is said, self-taught, till about his thirteenth year, when he received some instruction from John Cameron, an attendant on Sir George Stewart of Grandtully. A trial of skill having been proposed, Neil was persuaded to enter the lists, and one of the minstrels, who was blind, being made the umpire, the prize was adjudged to Neil Gow, by a sentence in the justice of which the other competitors cheerfully acqui- esced. Having now attained the summit of his profession at home, the distinguished patronage, first of the Athole family, and afterwards of the duchess of Gordon, soon introduced him to the no- tice and admiration of the fashionable world. From this period, Gow was unrivalled in his department of Scotch national music. The different publications which have appeared under the name of Neil Gow, and which contain not only his sets of the older tunes, but various occasional airs of his own composition, are striking specimens of feeling and power of em- bellishment. These were set and prepared for pub- lication by his son Nathaniel, whose respectable character and propriety of conduct secured for him the esteem and favour of the public. In private life, Neil Gow was distinguished by a sound vigor- ous understanding, by a singularly acute penetra- tion into the character of those, both in the higher and lower spheres of society, with whom he had intercourse, and by the conciliating and appropriate accommodation of his remarks and replies, to the Eeculiarities of their station and temper. Though e had raised himself to independent and affluent circumstances in his old age, he continued free from every appearance of vanity and ostentation. He maintained to the last the same plain unassuming simplicity in his carriage, his dress, and his manners which he had observed in his early and more ob- scure years. He died at Inver, near Dunkeld, in 1807. Besides his son Nathaniel, he left another (John), who long resided in London, and who in- GRA herited much of his father's musical taste ! power of execution. Two other sons of eq eminent musical talent (William and Andre- died a few years before their father, but not they had established their reputation as true scendants of famous Neil. [J.] GOWER, John, an English poet, died 1402, GOWER, R. H., a eel. ship-builder, died 184 GOYEN, J. Van, a Dutch painter, 1596-16J GOZZI, Gaspar, an Italian poet, 1713-17 His brother, Charles, a dramatic wr., 1702-18 GRABE, J. E., a Germ, theologian, 1660-17 GRABERG, Olave, a protestant theologiai Sweden, au. of ' Thoughts on the Bible,' 17i6-l GRACCHI. The Gracchi, so often mentioi in Roman history, were the two sons of Tib. Se pronius Gracchus and Cornelia, the daughter Scipio Africanus, the elder. Gracchus, who 1 been twice consul, and had obtained two triumr. died while his sons were yet young, and Conn devoted herself exclusively to the charge and a cation of her children. Under her maternal gu ance, aided by the best Greek masters, they si surpassed in accomplishments all the Ron youths of the time. 1. Tib. Sempronius Grj chus, the elder of the two, was born b.c. 1 Scipio Africanus the younger had married his o sister ; and when he entered upon the commi of the army against Carthage, Tiberius accc panied him, and was present at the dcstructioi that renowned city. Nine years after he companied the consul Mancinus as quaestor Spam, where, by his integrity and disinterest ness, he gained the esteem of the enemy as wel the affections of the Roman soldiers. When Roman army under Mancinus was defeated by Numantines (b.c. 137), Tiberius succeeded in effi ing a treaty on reasonable terms, which, howei the senate refused to ratify. Tiberius, notwi standing, reaped the glory of having saved 20,1 men from destruction, and the people rewar his services with affection and gratitude. Dur the long wars in which the Romans had been i gaged, many encroachments had been made the public domains ; the nobles had obtained p session of extensive tracts, which were cultiva by foreign slaves ; and the poorer classes of 1 man citizens, being thus thrown out of employme were reduced to a state of pauperism. Tiberi sympathizing with the privations of the poor, solved to revive the Licinian law, which dehi the extent of public land tenable by any citiz With this view he was elected tribune of the peo in b.c. 133, and, in the face of unscrupulous opi sition on the part of the nobility, carried a 1 similar to that of Licinius. Tiberius himself, brother Caius, and his father-in-law, App Claudius, were appointed commissioners for m suring and distributing the land. At this crisis affairs, Attalus, king of Pergamus, died, bequea ing his kingdom and treasure to the Roman peo] and Tiberius proposed to divide the treasure am< the recipients of the land under the new law, enable them to stock their farms. This propo raised the indignation of the nobles to a 8 higher pitch. To prevent his law from being al lished, and also to secure his person against iini nent danger, he resolved to offer himself a candid for the tribuneship of the following year. On 1 282 GRA iy of election, his opponents demurred to his eli- bility, and night intervened before the question as decided. Next morning both parties presented lemselves at the capitol in readiness for acts of olence; the senators were resolved to kill Tibe- us, and his own partizans were prepared to de- nd him. Hereupon Scipio Nasica, after in vain > Idling upon the consul to defend the state, rushed !om the temple of Faith, where the senate had iUembled, followed by the nobility, overawed the i lob, seized their weapons, and killed about three fpndred, of whom Tiberius Gracchus was one, *lo. 133. Thus perished one of the truest Roman I atriots, whose memory has only in recent times I ten freed from the odium which centuries of mis- ' | {presentation had heaped upon it. 2. Caius Impronius Gracchus was nine years younger Tiberius; and at the time of his brother's was in the army of Scipio Africanus in Spain, fate of his brother seems to have deterred him acting as a commissioner under the agrarian or from taking any prominent part in public till b.c. 123. Returning then from Sar- where he had served two years as quaestor, was elected tribune of the people, and com- ced a career which speedily led to a fatal "usion. The measures which he proposed were ly vindictive and partly intended to establish own popularity ; of the latter class was a poor- authorizing a monthly distribution of corn to le at a merely nominal price ; the effect f which was to make the population of Rome lupers, and to attract the poor and indolent from I parts of Italy. Caius next directed his efforts rainst the power of the senate, deprived them of |e right of electing the judges from their own kmber, transferring it to the equites, and passed Jlaw enacting that the provinces of the consuls id praetors should be fixed before the election of jese magistrates. Being re-elected to the tribune- lip of the following year, he was chiefly employed I passing laws respecting the colonies, and him- flf established a colony on the ruins of Carthage, per the expiry of his period of office, he united tth the tribune Fulvius in inciting the populace I acts of violence, which led the senate to arm le consul Opimius with absolute power. The jnsul summoned Gracchus and Fulvius before b to answer for their conduct ; and, after some Itempts at negotiation, attacked and dispersed e popular party. Gracchus, who had taken no rt in the struggle, fled across the Tiber, and en- ring a grove sacred to the Furies, ordered his ve to kdl him. He thu3 perished, b.c. 121, at e age of thirty-three. [G.F.] GRACIAN, B., a Spanish author, 1584-1658. GRACIAN, J., a Flemish theolog., 1545-1614. GRADE NIJO, the Jurat of the name doge of Ve- ce 1289-1311; the second, 1339-43; the third, ho terminated the war with Genoa, 1355-1356. GRADENIJO. J. A., a Venet. prelate, 1744-74. GRANDENIJO, J. J., a Ven. prelate, 1708-86. GRADI, J., a learned writer, 16th century. GRADI, Stephen, an Ital. philologist, d. 1683. ''!: : ME, John, a Scotch poet, 1748-1772. ORJSTER, F. D., a Prus. savant, 1768-1830. GRjEVIUS, J. G., a German critic, 1632-1703. GRAFTON, R., an English annalist, 16th cent. GRAFTON, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, duke 283 GRA of, prime minister from 1765-1770, disting. also as a theolog. wr. on Socinian principles, 1736-1811. GRAFUNDER, D., a Pruss. Oriental., d. 1680. GRAHAM, George, an ingenious watchmaker, and mechanician, celebrated for the accuracy of his astronomical instruments, 1675-1751. GRAHAM, John, of Claverhouse, was horn in 1650. In early life he served as a soldier of fortune in France and Holland, but returning to Scotland in 1677, he was appointed commander of the ca- valry acting against the Covenanters, in that dis- turbed country ; and the energetic manner in which he executed the duty has caused his name to be all but execrated by the Scottish people ; yet Sir Walter Scott has pourtrayed him as a thorough soldier and gentleman, He was created Viscount Dundee. Killed at Killiecrankie 1689. GRAHAM, Sir John, the comp.-in-arms of Sir William Wallace, k. at the battle of Falkirk 1298. GRAHAM, Sir Rich., Lord Viscount Preston, ambass. from Charles II. to Louis XIV., 1648-95. GRAHAME, James, a religious poet of Scot- land, author of 'The Sabbath,' &c, 1765-1811. GRAINGER, James, a Scotch physician set- tled in London, known as a poet, 1723-1767. GRAMAYE, J. B., a Flem. historian, d. 1635. GRAMBERG, A., a German poet, 1772-1816. GRAMBERG, C. P. W., a German Oriental scholar and literary savant, 1797-1822. GRAMM, John, a Danish antiqu., 1685-1748. GRAMMONT, A. P. De, a French officer, dis- tinguished at the battle of Malplaquet 1709, and after that archbishop of Besancon, 1685-1754. GRAMMONT, F.J. De, abp. of Besancon,d.l715. GRAMMONT, N. De, a Fr. gen., exec. 1794. GRAMMONT, or GRAMOND, Gabriel De Barthelemy, Seigneur De, a Fr. hist., d. 1654. GRAMONT, the name of an illustrious French family, the best known of whom are Gabriel, a cardinal and diplomatist, time of Louis XII. and Francis I., died 1534. Anthony, duke of Gramont, marshal of France and viceroy of Na- varre, author of 'Memoirs,' died 1678. Ar- mand, son of the latter, and Count de Guiche, whose ' Memoirs ' also exist, 1638-1674. Phili- bert, count de Gramont, son of Anthony, known by his memoirs, written by his brother-in-law, Anthony, Count Hamilton, died 1720. Anthony, duke de Gramont, a French marshal and ambas- sador, known as count de Guiche, 1671-1725. Louis, duke de Gramont, lost the battle of Det- tingen, and was killed at Fontenoi 1745. The last duke of Gramont, father of the duke of Guiche and the countesses of Tankerville and Sebastiani, died 1836. GRAMONT, S. De, a Provencal poet, d. 1638. GRAN, Olave S., a Swed. missionary, 17th c. GRANBY, John Manners, marquis of, an English general, eldest son of the duke of Rutland, distinguished in the seven years' war, 1720-1770. GRANCOLAS, J., a French savant, author of many works on eccl. rites, ceremonies, and general history, and a controversial wr. on Quietism, d. 1732. GRANDET, J., a Fr. biographer, 1646-1724. GRANDI, G., an Ital. mathemat., 1671-1742. GRANDIDIER, P. A., a Fr. historian, 1732-87. GRANET, Fr., a French critic, 1692-1741. GRANGE, Joseph De Chancel De La, a French dramatic wr. and miscel. poet, 1675-1758. GRA GRANGENEUVE, J. A., a French republican of the Girondin party, born 1750, executed 1793. GRANGER, J., an Engl, biographi. wr., 1776. GRANGIER, B., a French poet, 16th century. GRANGIER, J., a French samnt, died 1643. GRANT, Anne, formerly Miss M'Vicar, and commonly called Mrs. Grant of Laggan, from a farm she cultivated in that neighbourhood, dis- tinguished as a miscellaneous writer, authoress of ' Memoirs of an American Lady,' ' Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlands,' &c, 1755-1838. GRANT, Charles, a proprietor and director of the East India Company, author of ' Observa- tions on the State of Society among the Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain,' 1746-1822. GRANT, Sin C, a British officer, died 1835. GRANT, Edwaf.d, an English writer, d. 1601. GRANT, Francis, Lord Cullen, an eminent Scottish lawyer and judge, 1660-1726. GRANT, J., a Scot, barrister, au. of ' Thoughts on the Origin of the Gael,' &c, 1743-1835. GRANT, Patrick, a Scot, judge, 1698-1764. GRANT, Sir Wm., an eminent equity judge, master of the rolls from 1801 to 1817, 1754-1832. GRANUELLE, Anthony Perrenot, Cardi- nal De, a distinguished French statesman, and viceroy of Naples, 1517-1586. GRANVILLE, GREENVILE, or GREN- VILLE, Sir Richard, a military and naval ad- venturer, killed in action under Sir Thomas Howard, 1591. Sir Bevil, his grandson, a royalist, and commander of a troop of horse raised at his own expense, killed at the battle of Lans- downe, 1596-1643. George, Lord Lansdowne, grandson of the latter, a poet and courtier, 1667- 1735. See Carteret, Grenville. GRAPALDI, F. M., an Italian poet, 15th cent. GRATIAN, a canonist of the 12th century. GRATIANUS, an emperor of Rome, born 359, associated in the empire with his younger brother, Valentinian II., 375, assassinated 383. A private soldier of this name was proclaimed emperor in Britain, and put to death four months aftwd., in 407. GRATIUS, a Roman poet, 1st century b.c. GRATIUS, O., a controversial writer, 16th ct. GRATTAN, Henry, an Irish statesman and lawyer, was born in Dublin about the year 1750. He was called to the Irish bar in 1772 ; and hav- ing attached himself to Lord Charlemont, he ob- tained, by the powerful influence of that aristo- cratic national leader, a seat in the Irish parliament in 1775. His fiery eloquence, essentially Irish in its impetuosity, which yet was guided by good taste and strong judgment, gave him an immediate influence both with parliament and the public, and his bold spirit speedily grasped at projects far beyond the more hesitating policy of his leader. His great object was to have a recorded declaration of the legislative independence of Ireland, and by obtain- ing it as he did, there is no doubt that he prepared his country to receive juster terms and a higher position in a legislative union with Britain tban she might have otherwise obtained. Besides the old assertion of the supremacy of the English crown in Poyning's Act, there stood, in the British statute book, so lately as the reign of George I., an offensive declaration of the legislative authority of the British parliament over Ireland. On the 16th of March, 1782, the Irish Commons, as the GRA result of Grattan's exertions, carried a declaral of rights condemning this legislative assumpti and by the cordial aid of Fox, then fortunately power, the offensive act was repealed by the Brit parliament. The Irish legislature resolved to si their gratitude by a vote of money to Gratt which, at his own desire, was reduced from j 100,000 originally suggested to 50,000. ] popularity was subsequently occasionally shal by the hostility of his great rival Flood. Unl many of his coadjutors in the struggle for Ii nationality, he was a warm friend of cath emancipation. He strongly opposed the uni and was for some time a member, but not a markable one, of the united parliament. He d on 14th May, 1820. [J.flj GRATUS, Roman gov. of Judaea, about 16-1 GRAUMANN, J. P., a Prussian financier, former of the monetary system of Germ., 1710- GRAUN, Carl Hkinrich, a German musi composer, chapel-master to Fr. the Gr., 1701-17 GRAUNT, Edw., an English clergyman, of ' Graecum Linguae Spicilogium,' &c, died 16 GRAUNT, John, a London draper, authoi ' Observations on the Bills of Mortality,' 1670- GRAVANDER, L. F., a Swed. poet, 1778-18 GRAVELOT, H., a Fr. engraver, 1699-1773 GRAVES, Rich., an Engl, clergyman and mi wr., auth. of ' The Spiritual Quixote,' 1715-18C GRAVESANDE, William James, an emin Dutch mathematician and astronomer, 1648-17 GRAVINA, Carlo Duke De, a Sp. admii died of a wound received at Trafalgar, 1747-18 GRAVINA, Dominico Da, an Italian histori author of a history of Naples, &c, 14th centur GRAVINA, Gian Vincenzo, a celebra" Neapolitan jurist and man of letters, 1664- 171* GRAVINA, Pietro, a Neapolitan poet, 15tl GRAVIUS, an annalist of Friesland, 16th ce GRAY, E. W., an eminent naturalist, d. 180 _ GRAY, Stephen, an English gentleman, d tinguished as an experimt. philosopher, d. 1736 GRAY, Robert, bishop of Bristol, author o 'Theory of Dreams,' 'Connection between 1 Sacred Writings and the Literature of Jewish i Heathen Authors,' &c, 1762-1834. GRAY, THOMAS,the son of a scrivener in Ix don, was born there in 1716. From Eton school !)assed to Cambridge, where he busied himself w anguages and poetry, and neglected mathemat and philosophy, as indeed he did ever afterwar Leaving the university in 1738, without taking degree in arts, he intended to study law, but in 1 meantime entered on a continental tour wi Horace Walpole. The two indifferently assorl companions travelled through France and Ital but a misunderstanding taking place, Gray i turned to England in 1741. His father being n< dead, he seems to have been in possession of mes enabling a person of moderate wishes and indole habits to dispense with the labour of a profi sion. He settled himself at Cambridge for t remainder of his days, hardly ever leaving t {dace, unless when he made tours to Wales, Sc< and, and the lakes of Westmoreland, and wh he passed three years in London, for access the library of the British Museum. His 1 thenceforth was purely that of a scholar; a it was spout in reading and desultory thinkii 284 GRA ther than in authorship. His knowledge was hJtifarious and exact. That he was intellectu- Hy active, in his own lazy and miscellaneous fehion, is shown by his ' Letters,' published after W death. These are admirable specimens of bglish style ; they contain some of the most pic- iresque pieces of descriptive writing in the lan- lage; they are full of acute, though fastidious iticism ; and they have innumerable touches of uet humour. He planned editions of classical ithors, and made collections for the purpose. it he completed nothing except those little ins, which, flowing from an intense though not ""e imagination, inspired by the most delicate tic feeling, and elaborated into exquisite terse- of diction, are among the most splendid orna- ts of English literature. His ' Ode to Eton ege,' published in 1747, attracted little notice ; 4 Elegy in a Country Churchyard,' appearing 1749, became at once, as it has always continued be, one of the most popular of all poems. Most bis other odes were written in the course of the ree years following 1753 ; and the publication of e collection in 1757 established his poetical re- lation with all who were competent to appreciate most refined beauties of poetry. In 1768, ter having been disappointed of the place when was last vacant, he became professor of modern story at Cambridge. He had long been distressed r attacks of gout ; and one of these killed him in 7L [W.S.] [Gray's House at Stoke.] GRAZIANI, A. M., an Ital. writer, dist. for his arning and the eloquence of his style, 1537-1611. GRAZIANI, G., an Italian poet, 1604-1675. GRAZIANI, J., an Ital. hist., abt. 1670-1730. GRAZIANI, J. B., a Florentine sculptor, whose al name was Ballanti, 1762-1835. GRAZZINI, A. F., an Italian poet, 1503-1583. iGREATOREX, Thomas, an eminent musical mbrmer and composer, dist. also for his studies ^ftematics, chemistry, and botany, 1758-1831. JGREATRAKES, Valentine, an Irish gentle- ian who became famous about the period of the formation for the cure of all kinds of diseases the touch. He was born in Waterford >28, and having come to England, served in the raamentary army from 1649 to 1656, and was towards a magistrate in the county of Cork, be date of his death is not known. GRE GREAVES, James Piekrepoint, a writer of much original value on education, 1777-1842. GREAVES, Richard, an Oriental scholar, anti- quarian writer, and mathematician, 1602-1652. His brother, Thomas, an Arabian scholar, author of annotations on the Bible, &c, died 1676. His br., Edward, a physic, and medical wr., d. 1680. GREBAN, S., a French poet, 15th century. GREBNER, P., a German visionary, 16th cent. GRECOURT, Jean Baptiste Joseph Wil- lart De, a French poet, born of a Scotch family, author of ' Philotanus,' a satirical history of the famous bull Unigenitus, 1684-1743. GREDING, J. E., a Germ, physician, 1718-75. GREEN, Edward Burnaby, a poet and classical translator, died 1788. GREEN, John, an English prelate, 1706-1779. GREEN, Matthew, author of 'The Spleen,' a poem in considerable repute when first published for its originality and wit, b. about 1677, d. 1737. GREEN, Th., a miscellaneous wr., 1770-1825. GREEN, Val., an Engl, engraver, 1739-1813. GREEN, W., an English divine, died 1794. GREENE, Maurice, a musical composer and organist, author of some much esteemed anthems, &c, named Doctor of Music by the university of Cambridge in 1730, and afterw. professor, d. 1755. GREENE, Robert, an English dramatist, miscel. wr., and poet, time of Elizabeth, d. 1592. GREENE, Thomas, successively bishop of Nor- wich and Ely, and vice-chancellor of Cambridge, author of discourses on Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell, &c, 1658-1738. GREENFIELD, William, an Oriental scholar, editor of the ' Comprehensive Bible,' &c, d. 1832. GREENHAM, R., a puritan divine, died 1591. GREENHILL, J., an English painter, 1649-76. GREENVILLE. See Granville. GREEVE, E. J., a Dutch Hebraist, author of a 'Dissertation on the Hebrew Rhythm,' 1754-1811. GREGOIRE, Henry Count, a member of the French constitutent assembly and the convention, and constitutional bishop of Blois, distinguished as an advocate of popular rights, for his faithful- ness to the Christian religion, and for his writings in fav. of the abolition of slavery, &c, 1750-1831. GREGORAS, a Byzantine hist., abt. 1295-1360. GREGORII, J. G., a Germ, geographer, last ct. GREGORIO, C, an Italian designer and engra- ver, 1719-1759. His son, Ferdinand, an engra- ver, born about 1740. GREGORIO, Maurice De, a learned theolo- gian of Sicily, author of 'Anatomia Totius Bibliae,' published 1614, died 1651. GREGORIO, R., an Ital. antiquar., 1753-1809. GREGORIUS, J. F., a Ger. savant, 1697-1761. GREGORIUS, Publius, a native of Tipher- num, distinguished at Venice as professor of an- cient literature, died about 1469. Emmanuel Frederic, his son, a theologian and philologist, author of numerous works in German and in Latin, 1730-1800. GREGORY. The saints of this name are Gre- gory Thuamaturgus, a convert of Origen, dis- tinguished by his writings and marvellous power in the conversion of the neathen, died about 270. Gregory Nazianzen, for whose history see far- ther on. Gregory of Nyssa, another of the Greek fathers, the biographer of Gregory Thuama- 285 GEE turgus, and himself a philosophical divine of the highest talents, born about 330, died 400. Gre- gory of Tours, author of a ' History of France,' and The Miracles of the Saints,' &c, 559-595. Gregory Lousavorisch, 'The Illuminator,' the apostle and first patriarch of Armenia, died about 336. Gregory, bishop of Agrigentum, author of Greek commentaries, died early in the 7th centm-y. And the first two popes of the name. GREGORY. The popes of this name are Gre- gory I., surnamed ' The Great,' and a saint in the Romish calendar, author of works which have often been reprinted, born about 544, raised to the pontificate 590, died 604. Gregory II., also a saint of Rome, succeeded 715, died 731. Gre- gory III., reigned about ten years, and died 741. Gregory IV., 827-844. Gregory V., born 972, died, after a pontificate of two years and nine months, 999. Gregory VI., elected pope 1045, deposed 1046. Gregory VII., elected 1073, died 1085. Gregory VIII., pope two months only, elected and died 1187. Gregory IX., reigned 1227-1241. Gregory X., 1271-1276. Gre- gory XI., b. 1331, reigned 1370-1378. Gregory XII., born 1325, reigned 1406-1417. Gregory XIII., distinguished by the reformation of the calendar, and one of the ablest civilians of his age, born 1502, reigned 1572-1585. Gregory XIV., born 1534, succeeded 1590, died 1591. Gregory XV., born 1554, succeeded 1621, distinguished as the founder of the College of the Propaganda, died 1623. Gregory XVI., born 1765, succeeded Pius VIII. 1831, died 1846. GREGORY. The patriarchs of Constantinople of this name are Gregorius, or Gregorius Cyprius, died 1290 ; Gregory of Rimini, a celebrated scholar, died 1357 ; and a third of the name who played an important part in the divi- sions which agitated the Turkish empire, and was hung by the populace of Constantinople 1821. GREGORY. The princes and patriarchs of Ar- menia of this name, besides G. Lousavoritch in the list of saints, are Gregory, the last prince of the race of the Mamigoneans, acknowledged by the caliph under the title of patriarch 659, killed in battle with the Chazars 683. Gregory Magis- dros, a prince of the royal race of the Arsacides of Persia, distinguished as a poet and man of let- ters, author of an Armenian grammar, &c, com- menced his political career in the time of John, king of Armenia 1030, and died 1058. Gregory II., the son and successor of the preceding, go- verned the patriarchate 1058-1105. Gregory III., nephew or Gregory II., succeeded Basil 1113, died 1166. Gregory IV., nephew of the preced- ing, reigned 1173-1193. Gregory V., nephew and successor of Gregory IV., imprisoned by the lords and clergy of Armenia on account of his de- baucheries, and perished in attempting to escape, 1193-1194. Gregory VI., father of Gregory V., and his successor in 1193, died 1198. Gregory VII., successor of Constantine I., 1294, died 1306. Gregory VIII., maintained a long struggle for the royal authority, and was at length killed, 1411-1418. Gregory IX., elected by certain of the clergy 1440, and not being recognized by the Eastern Armenians, submitted to Vartabied, chosen by them in 1441, and confined his own au- thority to Cilicia, died 1447. Gregory X., GRE reigned 1113-1461. Gregory XL, 1536-H Gregory XII., 1569-1573. Gregory XI known at first under the name of Serapion, ele( after the flight of David V. and Melchised 1603, fell into the hands of the dispossesM'd pa archs, aided by the Persians, and was cruelly i tured 1605, died, probably in consequence, 160 GREGORY: an illustrious Scottish fan name, recalling the continuous splendours of Bernouillis or Cassinis : we shall give the nai and little more of its most remarkable scions.? Earliest and perhaps loftiest, stands James G] gory, born in 1639 ; son of the progenitor of family, the minister of Drumoackin Aberdeen*! At the age of twenty-nine he became professo: mathematics in St. Andrews ; from which he j transferred to the same chair in Edinburgh, 16 He died at the early age of thirty-six, having gi the most brilliant promise as well as great peri mance. We owe him one form of the reflecting tel cope ; and in analytic power he sometimes rival Newton. His memoirs are very numerous, bespeaking talents and originality of the first on 2. David Gregory, nephew of James, b at Aberdeen in 1661 ; at the age of twenty-th he succeeded his uncle in the metropolitan ch David was an elegant mathematician and a gi astronomer. He became Savilian professor at ( ford ; and was one of the first who eompreheni and taught the philosophy of Newton. He diet 1708. 3. James and Charles, brothers of preceding, were also able mathematicians : Jar succeeded David in Edinburgh, and Charles b the chair in St. Andrews, which he transmitted another mathematician, his son, David. 4. N the Medical branch of this singular family. It ori nated in James, son of the great James Gregc and professor of medicine in King's College, Ab deen. He bequeathed his abilities and chair to son, Dr. James Gregory, a man of repute : 1 his celebrated son was, 6. John Gregory, M.l born at Aberdeen in 1724. Few men have more < served a high fame, than this eminent and excell* person. Thoroughly educated as a physician, united to that culture, great sagacity and mo: excellence, as well as refined tastes tnat led h into intimacy with all, the eminent men of t brightest era of Scottish literature. From the ye 1766 he held the chair of Practice of Physic the university cf Edinburgh ; and continued nil his death in 1792 an acknowledged orname of the metropolis. John Gregory is the auth of the ' Father's Legacy to his Daughters,' ai he will long be remembered professionally by 1 ' Elements of the Practice of Physic' The is a life of him by the naturalist Smellie. Dr. James Gregory, son of the preceding, su ceeded to his chair, and sustained his pla as a leading member of the Edinburgh .Medic School. The kind of genius which most distil guished this great family was not extinct ; i mathematical powers again broke forth. Son Dr. James, was 8. The late D. F. G nix, ok of Trinity College, Cambridge, an analyst re from Science at the earliest age : he would ha' rivalled his greatest predecessor. It is stated th; of this family no less than sixteen members ha held British professorships. [d.P.N GREGORY, archbishop of Corinth. 12th archbishop of Corinth, 12 th cent. GRE ! GREGORY, a king of Scotland, reign. 875-892. j GREGORY, George, D.D., an Irish divine, fed historical and miscellaneous wr., 1754-1808. GREGORY of Nazianzus, commonly called t. Gregory Nazianzen, was born at Arianzns, village at no great distance from the town which as given to Gregory his distinctive cognomen. [is pious mother Nonna, devoted him when an ifant to the service of Christ and the church. fis education, which commenced at Cassarea in 'appadocia, was prosecuted next at Caesarea ihihppi, and at Alexandria, and was finished at thens, where he began a life-long intimacy with jasil the Great. His father, of the same name, Ll been bishop of Nazianzus for many years, and i the course of time he was joined with his father I the administration of the church. He had pre- [ously refused from Basil the diocese of Sasima. t his" father's death he retired to Seleucia the ppital of Isauria, and spent three years in solitude d meditation. In 379 he went by urgent re- lest to Constantinople to preach to the remnant ' the orthodox party who survived the Arian per- cntions. His private chapel he named Anas- sia, but his eloquence and popularity became so lmense, that with the concurrence of the em- sror Theodosius, the general council exalted him I the patriarchate or archiepiscopal chair. But sections were soon started to the regularity and Uidity of his election, and he gladly resigned the e, delivering a magnificent farewell oration in e great church St. Sophia in June, 381. On his farney homeward he visited Cassarea, and pro- lunced his glowing funeral discourse on his friend L He discharged the duties of a bishop for a pef period at Nazianzus till his cousin Eulalius is installed, and at once he retired to the coun- r, where on his paternal estate at Arianzus he ent the remainder of his life in the cultivation his garden, and the composition of religious etry. Gregory died about the year 389. Among i literary remains have been preserved about sermons, 250 epistles, and nearly 400 poems. le life of this theologian was a species of combat fcween the active and the contemplative pro- asity within him. Ever seeking quiet he was sr forced into agitation and strife. Seclusion s earnestly coveted by him, but peculiar crises in S church summoned him into the arena, in which no sooner found himself, than he sighed again his calm retreat. His style, which seems based the model of Isocrates, is often highly eloquent, ; is frequently disfigured by exaggeration and srlaid with rhetorical embellishment. His poems often distinguished by peculiar beauties, though rred by their artificial structure and allusions. reral editions of his works have been published, t a good edition is still a desideratum. The tio princeps was published at Basle in 1550, a of the Benedictine edition only one volume Kgeared, and that at Paris, 1778. [J.E.] pKEGORY, Olinthus Gilbert, LL.D., an je and industrious English mathematician and hor. l>orn in 1774, died 1841. He wrote tuable elementary books of science, but is best mm bv his ' Evidences of Christianity.' pREGORYi St. Vincent, a Flemish mathe- i ti.ii.n. born at Bruges in 1584, died in 1667. BBE1FF, F., a German chemist, 1601-1668. GRE GREIG, Sam. Carlowitz, a naval officer b. in Scotland, and dist. in the Russian service, d. 1788. GRENADE, L. De, a Spanish ascetic, 1505-88. GRENVILLE. Several members of this family are known as statesmen, the principal of whom are Richard Grenville, afterwards Earl Temple, and his brother George, commonly called Mr. Grenville, the reputed author of the American Stamp Act. Lord Temple was born 1711, commenced his public life as a member of parliament in 1734, and died in retirement 1779. Mr. George Grenville was born in 1712, and served in parliament as member for Buckingham from the year 1741, till his_ death in 1770. The names of the brothers are mixed up with the party politics of the whole of this period, sometimes as warmly attached friends, and at others as political enemies. Mr. Grenville was connected with the administration in several subordinate offices from 1744 to 1762 ; the last five years of this interval, as a colleague of his brother, Lord Temple. In the last mentioned year he became secretary of state in the ministry of Lord Bute, and from that time to 1765 his brother was associated with Mr. Pitt in the opposition. In 1765 Mr. Grenville, who had risen to the premiership two years previously, was dismissed by the king, and a breach occurring at the same period between Mr. Pitt and Lord Temple the brothers were reconciled. Their char- acters were very different, but they were both agreed on the principle of taxing America as a legislative right, and Mr. Grenville had the manli- ness to carry out his convictions irrespective of the consequences. He was always regarded as the ablest man of business then in the House of Com- mons, and seems to have resembled the late Sir Robert Peel in many points. Lord Temple, on the other hand, was a man of factious and turbulent disposition, and if his name was not before the public in connection with any useful measure, it was sure to be extant in some pasquinade, per- haps as ' Lord Gawkey,' or ' Tiddy-doll.' He was a partizan of Wilkes, and thus united the opposite extremes in his political conduct. The late lib- rarian of Stowe has recently edited the correspon- dence of the brothers, which throws much light upon the political transactions of the period. In the third volume of these interesting papers he has collected a mass of evidence tending to prove that Lord Temple is the original of ' Junius.' [E.R.] GRENVILLE, Right Hon. William Wynd- ham, Lord Grenville, third son of Mr. George Grenville, born 1759, distinguished as a member of the House of Commons and a statesman from 1789 to 1806, when he succeeded Pitt as prime minister, died 1834. GREPPI, Carlo, an Ital. dramat., 1751-1811. GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, founder of the Royal Exchange of London, and the Gresham Lectures, was the son of Sir Richard Gresham, merchant and lord mayor of that city, and acquired univer- sal fame as a merchant for his knovyledge, sound judgment, and integrity. Besides his munificent endowments in the interest of commerce and the arts, he served the state as ambassador, and con- tributed greatly to placing the financial affairs of England upon a sound basis, being in constant in- tercourse and correspondence with Sir W Cecil. He was greatly honoured by Queen Elizabeth. 287 GRB He was born in London 1519, and died suddenly at his house in Bishopgate-Street 1579. GRESLON, A., a French missionary, 1618-97. GRESSET, F., a French philologist, 1795-1831. GRESSET, J. B. L., a Fr. dramatist, 1709-77. GRETRY, Andre Ernest Modeste, a celeb, compos, of Fr. operas, and wr. on music, 1741-1813. GRETSER, J., a Ger. controv. wr., 1561-1625. GREUZE, J. B., a French painter, 1726-1805. GREVILLE, Fulke or Foulque, Lord Brook, a dist. patron of letters, au. of the ' Life of Sir Ph. Sydney,' and mem. of the privy council, 1554-1628. "GREVIN, J., a French dramatist, 1540-1570. GREW, Obadiah, an English divine settled at Coventry, 1607-1698. His son GREW, Nehemiah, a physician and botanist, was born at Coventry about the year 1628. He died in 1711. Grew was educated at a foreign university, and after taking his degree, he settled in his native town as a physician. Here he com- menced making observations upon the physiology of plants, and in 1760 he communicated to the Royal Society his first thoughts upon the subject in a paper entitled ' Idea of a Philosophical His- tory of Plants.' His essay was so well received that he was invited to come to London, which he did in 1672. Upon the recommendation of Bishop Wilkins he was elected a fellow, and in 1677 he was appointed secretary to the Royal Society. His celebrated work, ' The Anatomy of Plants,' with an 'Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants,' was published in 1682, illustrated by many plates, and forms a perfect storehouse of facts upon vegetable anatomy, which has been freely made use of by succeeding botanists. His remarks upon vegetable secretions and their pro- perties are very ingenious his comparative ex- amination of the various kinds of fruits and seeds abounds in originality and he appears, from several passages m his works, to have discovered the doctrine of the sexes in plants, and the fecun- dating properties possessed by the dust of the an- thers. Linnaeus has named a genus of plants after him, Grewia. [W.B.] GREY, Charles Earl, was born on 13th March, 1764. His father, Sir Charles, was en- nobled for his military services in 1802, but the family was one of ancient renown, connected with early peerages, and there is no doubt that the rank and antiquity of his house exercised consider- able influence in mitigating prejudices against a career so boldly and steadily directed in favour of popular influence and democratic institutions as that of Earl Grey. He studied at Eton and Cambridge, and made the usual continental tour. He entered parliament as member for Northum- berland, in 1786, and two years afterwards was distinguished by being named one of the managers of the Hastings' impeachment. He became one of those whom personal attachment and political sympathy united under the standard of Fox ; but as the French revolution went through its stages, the bold and ardent young man was inclined to follow it with a far closer sympathy than the leader, now a veteran in parliamentary tactics, was disposed to sanction. He was an active member of the dreaded Society of the Friends of the People ; and in 1793 he brought forward a motion in favour of parliamentary reform, founded on a petition GEE from the society, boldly exposing the defec the existing system. But the policy of parliai tary reform had not only been deserted by and his friends, but was rather discountena than aided by the veteran members of the 1 5>arty, and he was left in a minority of 41 to le continued to be the bold and unhesitating nouncer, from time to time, of every minis! act savouring of corruption, extravagance, stretching of the arbitrary elements of the co tution; and in the extremely critical tim which he acted, there is no doubt not only the zeal and firmness of the young orator well tried, but that any man of less courage, i and capacity would have fallen a sacrifice t( zealous temerity. Holding the courtesy tit Lord Howick, he became first lord of the admi in the short Whig ministry of 1806. In No 1 ber, 1807, his father's death sent him to House of Lords, where he pursued his old p unaltered, save by adaptation to the new sph( exertion. He was the main object of the f less negotiations for a mixed ministry in 1 His history as the leader of the Whig minist 1830, which carried the reform bill, has too ] and important a place in the history of the aj afford materials for a satisfactory abridgn It is well known that Earl Grey's courage and i ness, undiminished by the years which had larged his sagacity and matured his pol: capacity, were greatly instrumental at that ti epoch in saving the country from a civil war. resigned office in July, 1834, and spent his de ing years in respected retirement. He was a of remarkably fine appearance and dignified i ners ; and though a friend of popular institut his habits were reserved, and were often chs terized as haughty. He was married in 171 Elizabeth, the only daughter of Lord Ponsc He died at Howick on 17th July, 1845. [J.E GREY, Lady Jane, whose tragical fate is known to readers of English history, was fanddaughter of Mary Tudor, sister of B III., and of Charles Brandon, duke of Sul This alliance was brought about by singular cumstances. The Princess Mary had been i ried to Louis XII., king of France, in pursuan a treaty of peace and confederacy, in the 1514, and about three months afterwards los husband, who was succeeded by his cousin Fri I. As the queen dowager had been of an amc disposition, there were more reasons than one tc the birth of a posthumous child. Francis, tl fore, connived at a private marriage betweei bashful widow and the duke of Suffolk, who then at the French court, and probably interj his good offices to reconcile Henry to the mi The issue of this union was a daughter, na Frances, who was married to Henry Grey, mai of Dorset, and as a consequence gave but Lady Jane Grey, at the family seat in Leice shire, 1537. Being educated as a protest ant, possessing talents which rendered her one of prodigies of her sex, the duke of Northumber easily prevailed on Edward VI. to name hei successor, thereby excluding his sisters Mary Elizabeth; the one of doubtful religion and other most certainly a bigotted catholic. Ins of an immediate competitor for the French en 288 GRE lierefore, the amorous embraces of Mary Tudor, ded by a little management at the French court, psed up one for the English in the person of i?r innocent, talented, and beautiful grandchild, "aving secured his purposes with the king, Nor- Wmberland married his son, Lord Guildford Dud- !y, to Lady Jane Grey, and they were both exe- jited after a phantom royalty of nine days, on the !>th of February, 1554. Lady Jane was only in j>r seventeenth year, and was remarkable for her lull in the classical, Oriental,and modern languages, lid for the sweetness of her disposition. j[E.R.] I GREY, Dr. Richard, a learned ecclesiastical pd religious writer, au. of the ' State of Religion [ England,' ' Engl. Eccles. Law,' &c, 1693-1771. I GREY, Zachary, LL.D., a divine and miscel. n\, editor of ' Hudibras,' au. of an ' Examination of jeal's History of the Puritans,' &c, 1687-1766. GREZIN, James, a French poet, 16th century. GRIBALDI, M., an Italian jurist, died 1564. GRIERSON, Constantly, an Irish lady, dis- oguished for her self-acquired classical and philo- phical attainments, and as a poetess, 1706-1733. GRIESBACH, John James, an eminent Ger- an critic, distinguished for his attainments in t.eological, biblical, and ecclesiastical literature, pecially for his edition of the Greek gospels, fth a critical history of the printed text, and ex- iaination of various readings, born in Hesse prmstadt 1745, died professor of divinity at the Liversity of Jena, 1812. JGRIFFET, H., a French historian, 1698-1771. GRIFFIER, John, known as 'Old Griffier,' a jemish painter, 1658-1718. His son, Robert, lied 'the Younger,' a landscape pain., b. abt. 1688. GRIFFIN, the last king of Wales, died 1050. (GRIFFITH, Eliz., a Welch novelist, d. 1793. GRIFFITH, M., an ecclesiast. au., 1587-1652. GRIFFITHS, R., a Welch reviewer, 1749-1803. GRIFFONI, M., an Ital. historian, 1351-1426. jGRIGNAN, Frances Margaret De Sevig- e, Countess De, an accomplished Fr. lady, daugh- Jr of the celeb. Madame de Sevigne, and au. of a Resume ' of the system of Fenelon, 1648-1705. GRILL, C., a Swedish economist, 1705-1767. GRIMALDI, the name of an illustrious family J Genoa, distinguished as partizans of the Guelphs, e principal members of which are Ranieri sumaldi, a naval commander, served as admiral France in 1314. Antonio Grimaldi, also a val commander and admiral, at length defeated the combined fleets of Catalonia and Venice, der Pisani, in 1353. Giovanni Grimaldi, lowned for a great victory over the Venetian miral, Nicolo Irevisani, in May, 1431. Do- anco Grimaldi, cardinal-archbishop and vice- pte of Avignon, distinguished at the battle of panto 1571, d. 1592 Geronimo Grimaldi, pal nuncio to Germany and France, and a itinguished philanthropist, 1597-1685. GRIMALDI, F., a Neap, architect, 16th cent. GRIMALDI, F. M., an Italian math., 1613-63. GRIMALDI, G. F., an Ital. painter, 1606-80. GRIMALDI, J., an Italian savant, died 1623. RIMALDI, Jos., a celeb, clown, 1779-1837. OKIMALDI, Marquis, auth. of a 'Project for forming the Pub. Economy of Nap.,' 1735-1805. GIJIM ALDI, Wm., Marquis Grimaldi of Genoa, 'employe of the East India Co., 1785-1828. GRO GRIMAIN, Anth., doge of Venice, 1521-1523. GRIMAIN, Domenico, son of the preceding, a learned cardinal and patron of letters, 1460-1523. GRIMAIN, H., a Dutch painter, 1599-1629. GRIMAIN, Marl, doge of Venice, 1595-1605. GRIMAUD, J. C. W. De, a French physi- ologist and medical writer, 1750-1789. GRIMBALD, St., a Flemish ecclesiast., 9th ct. GRIMBOLD, GRIMBALD, or GRIMVALD, Nicholas, an Engl, poet and translator, 16th ct. GRIMM, Frederic Melchior, Baron De, joint author with Diderot of a posthumous work in 16 volumes, entitled ' Correspondance Litteraire Philosophique et Critique,' containing the historv of French literature from 1753 to 1790. Baron Grimm is also the author of some smaller works published in his lifetime, and was in several political employs as minister and secretary. Born at Ratisbon 1723, died 1807. GRIMM, J. F. C, a Ger. physician, 1737-1821. GRIMOARD, Count Philip De, a French general, diplomatist, and man of letters, died 1815. GRIMOUD, Alexis, a Fr. painter, 1688-1740. GRIMSTON, Sir H., an Engl, lawyer, d. 1683. GRINDAL, Edmund, abp. of Canterbury, con- tributor to Fox's ' Acts and Monuments,' 1519-83. GRIOLET, J. M. A., a Fr. natural., 1763-1806. GRISAUNT, Wm., an English physician and astronomer, and a supposed magician, 14th cent. GRISCHOW, A., a German savant, 1683-1749. GRISEL, Joseph, a Fr. ecclesiastic and mystic wr., auth. of ' Chemin de l'Amour Divin,' 1703-87. GRITTI, Andrea, doge of Venice, 1523-1538. GROCYN, W., a learned Englishm., 1442-1519. GROENING, a German historian, 17th century. GROGNIER, L. F., a Fr. natural., 1775-1837. GROHMANN, John Godfrey, a laborious translator and compiler, professor of philosophy at Leipzig, au. of a ' Diet, of the Arts,' 1763-1805. GRONOV, or GRONOVIUS, the name of a celebrated Dutch family of savants, the principal of whom are John Frederic, professor of the Belles Lettres, and editor of many classics, 1611- 1671. James, his son, a critical and philological writer, 1645-1716. Laurence Theophilus, brother of James, an antiquarian and philologist, dates unknown. Abraham, eldest son of James, a physician and geographical author, dates un- known. John Frederic, and Laurence The- odore, brothers of Abraham, distinguished as naturalists, the former d. 1760, the latter 1778. GROPP, Ignatius, a Ger. histor., 1695-1758. GROPPER, J., a German polemic, died 1559. GROS, Antoine Jean, Baron, a celebrated French painter, a pupil of David, 1771-1835. GROS, Nich. Le, a Fr. theologian, 1675-1751. GROS, Peter Des, a French moralist, 15th c. GROS, Peter Le, a Fr. sculptor, 1666-1719. GROSE, Francis, an eminent English anti- quary and heraldist, au. of ' Antiquities of Eng- land and Wales,' ' A Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons,' ' Military Antiquities,' ' A Collec- tion of Proverbs,' A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue,' 'A Provincial Glossary,' 1731-91. GROSLEY, P. J., a French essayist, 1718-85. GROSS, J. G., a Germ, naturalist, 1581-1630. GROSS, J. G., a Bavarian author, 1703-1768. GROSS, David Gabriel Albert De, a Ger- man writer on military tactics, 1756-1809. 289 U GRO GROSSER, S., a German philologist, 1664-1 736. GROSSETESTE, GROSTETE, or GROST- HEAD, Robt., a lrnd. bp. of Lincoln, 1175-1253. GROSSMANN, Gustav. Fred. Wm, a celeb. German actor and dramatic writer, 17-46-1796. GROSSON, J. B. B., a Fr. archseol., 1733-1800. GROSVENOR, B., anEng. dissent., 1675-1758. GROTIUS, or GROOT, Hugo, a jurist, divine, historian, and general scholar, was born at Delft, in Holland, on 10th April, 1583. When eleven years old, he was sent to the newly-established {irotestant university at Leyden, where he had the brtune to study under Joseph Scaliger. He was so precocious, not only in the acquisition of know- ledge, but in the capacity of imparting his acquire- ments by literature, that at the age of fifteen he might be said to have a European reputation, and he was then received with distinction at the court of Henry the Great Nor did his boyish attain- ments indicate a premature exhaustion of his powers ; on the contrary, his mind seems to have grown with everv year added to his age, and he was ever accumulating new intellectual riches and enlarging his capacities. In 1613 he obtained the important office of pensionary of Rotterdam. But it was unfortunate that one whose conquests in important studies were so valuable, should have had his time occupied, and his mind distracted by the wretched polemical conflict which then shook the Netherlands. He became one of the illustrious victims whose sufferings are a scandal to the other- wise magnanimous history of the Dutch during that period. He involved himself with his friend, the great pensionary Barneveldt, in the Arminian controversy, and in 1619 was condemned to per- petual imprisonment by the triumphant party. He was one of those whose prison hours have en- riched the world, and the quantity of books which he kept passing to and fro m the end furnished the means of his escape. It was accomplished by his wife, Mary Reygensberg, a daughter of one of the great Dutch aristocratic families, who managed to have him removed from the prison in one of the book trunks. The works which he had hitherto published, scientific, critical, and poetical, are now comparatively obscure, but in prison he prepared his little treatise, De Veritate Religionis Chris- tianae, which has been perhaps the most popular 4 Evidences of Christianity ' ever published, and has been translated into every civilized tongue. But it was when subsequently living in retirement in France that he published his De Jure Belli et Pads, the foundation of the international law and European diplomacy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Though it consisted pro- perly of speculations derived from the principles of Roman jurisprudence, it was accepted as if it were the authoritative enunciation of the law of nations. After having, in his advanced years, visited various countries, he died on the 28th of August, 1645. [J.H.B.] GROTTO, Luigi, an Italian poet, 1541-1583. GROUCHY, Emanuel, Count, a marshal of the French empire, born at Paris 1766, and known as a brave and successful soldier in the wars of Napoleon, is chiefly memorable for the fatuity which seemed to rule his conduct at the battle of Waterloo. With thirty -five thousand men, and eight hundred pieces of canuon under his orders, GUE he remained immoveable, either by the prayei threats of the other generals, in a position w; could only be justified by the strict letter of instructions. It is not certain that he inter to betray the cause of Napoleon, but his culp indecision certainly contributed to the disa which befell the French arms. He was twice af wards summoned before a council of war, but time escaped judgment in consequence of court's declaring itself incompetent. Gron was included in the special amnestv of 1819, restored to his military rank on the a Louis Philippe. He died in 1847. [E. GROUCHY, N. De, a French savant, d. 15 GROUCHY, Sophia, sister of Marshal Gron< and widow of Condorcet, known as the translal Adam Smith's 4 Theory of the Moral Sentima and auth. of ' Letters upon Svmpathy,' died 1J GROULART, Cl., a French jurist, 1551-H GROVE, Hex., a dissent, minister, an. of ' Essay on the Soul's Immortalitv,' &c, 1683-1" GROVE, Joseph, an English writer. GRUBER, G. M., a German savant. GRUBER, G. W., a Germ, composer, 1729-1 His son, J. Sigismuxd. a savant, 1759-18"" GRUBER, J. D., a Flemish historian, 17 GRUEBER, J., an Italian missionary, " GRUNjEUS, S., a Germ, historian, U GRUNET, T. S., a Swiss naturalist, GRUPERS, Ch. U., a Greek hist., 16 GRUTER, or GRYTERE, John, a dist. and antiquarian of the Netherlands, 1560-1 GRYNJ1US, Simon, a German phil< classical scholar, and theologian, 149 John James, his grandnephew, also a theolog and biblical commentator, 1540-1618. GRYPHIUS. And., a German dramatist, J 1664. His son Christian, a lrnd. wr., 164&9 GRYPHIUS, S., a German printer, 149ftfl GUA-DE-MALYES, Jean Paul, a M geometrician and economist, disting. in m as the planner of the Encvclopedie, 1712-llH GUADET, M. E., a French republican of Girondist partv, executed at Bourdeaux, 1794 GUALANDI, J. B., an Italian transl., d. lj GUALDO-PRIORATO, Galeazzo, an ltd hist., an. of ' A Hist, of the Wars of Ferdinand and Ferdinand III.,' 'Hist, of Leopold,' 1606-7 GUALTERUS, or GWALTHER, Rodolw Swiss reformer, son-in-law of Zuinirlius. 1519- GUALTIERI, N., an Ital. naturalist, d. Iff GUARIN, P., a French Orientalist, 1678fl GUARINI, C. G., an Ital. architect, 16 GUARINI, G., an Italian poet, 1537- GUARINI, or GUARINO, a Latin I scholar, dist. at the revival of learning, i GUATIMOZIN, or QUAUTEMOTi last king of Mexico, murdered by Cor GUAY-TROUIN. See Duguay- GUAZZESI, L., an Italian savant, 17 GUAZZO, Mark, an Italian histor' GUAZZO, S., an Italian author, 15c GUELDRE, Edward, first duke of son of Renaud II., count of Nassau, 1?" GUELF, or GUELPH, the name of a g historical party or faction of the middle a derived from the name of a familv connected * the Saxon princes, and from winch the how Brunswick is descended. The first of the 290 GUE :e of Bavaria, reigned 1071-1108. The second, ) was his son and successor, died 1120. The ties which divided Europe for so many ages t the name of Guelphs and Ghibellines, after battle of Weinberg in 1140, when the Saxon iy was commanded by Welfon, or Guelph, bro- r of duke Henry. The Guelphs may be regarded dstory as the party of freedom and progress. 1UEXCE, Anth., a French author, 1717-1803. WER, J. A., a miscel. French wr., 1713-1764. MJERCHOIS, Mad., a relig. wr., 1679-1840. ''rUERCINO. Giovanni Francesco Bar- bi, commonly called Guercino from a cast in eye, was born at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590 : was self-taught He spent some time at Rome, lived chiefly at Cento, until the death of do in 1642, when he settled in Bologna, where lied rich in 1666. Guercino was an imitator laravaggio, and is one of the principal so-called ebrosi masters, from the great depth and kness of their shadows, but upon his settle- t in Bologna he modified his manner, endea- ring to bring it nearer to that of Guido. seri, Vite d Pittori. &c; Malvasia, Felsina rice.) [R.N.W.J UERICKE, Otto Von, a German expen. as., inventor of the air pump, &c, 1602-1686. UERRA, J., an Italian architect, 1544-1618. UERRERO, Vicente, one of the insurgent fs of Spanish America, president of the Mexi- repubhc in 1829, vanquished and shot by ainenti in February, 1831. UERRINO, T., an Italian mathemat., 17th c UETTARD, J. S., a Fr. naturalist, 1715-86. UEVARA, Anth., a Spanish prelate, cele- ;d as an eloquent preacner, died 1544. His lew, of the same name, a biblical commentator. UEVARA, J. N. De, a Sp. painter. 1631-98. UEVARA, Louis Velez De Las Duenas Sp. novelist and dramatic author, 1574-1646. UEVARA, Don Philip, a Spanish painter nwriter on art, died 1563. His son Diego, a inguished mathematician, died 1566. JEVARA, S., a Spanish poet, 1558-1610. JIBERT, a French historian, 1053-1124. JIBERT, an anti-pope, elected 1080, d. 1110. JIBERT, C. B., Count De, a French military r, 1715-1786. His son, James Anthony -olttus, a writer on tactics, 1743-1789. JICCIARDINI, Francesco, an eminent in historian and diplomatist, 1482-1540. JICCIARDINI,LuiGi, a nephew of the illus- J historian, au. of political works, 1521-1589. JICHE, Armand, Count. See Gramont. HCHE, Cl. De La, a Fr. prelate, d. 1555. JICHE, J. F. De La, honourably known in ist as the marshal de St. Geran, 1569-1632. iUICHE, P. De La, a diplomatist, 1464-1544. [JJICHE, Philibert De La, a distinguished Kh soldier, commander of the artillery at the feoflvry, 1540-1598. JIDI, C. A., an Italian lyric poet, 1650-1712. JIDI, L., a French theologian, 1710-1780. pIDO, DAkezzo, an Ital. musician, 10th ct. UIDO RENI, was born at Bologna in 1575, ecame one of the most distinguished pupils ) Carracci : he lived long in Rome, but settled d died in his native place, 18th August, GUI was somewhat in the forcible manner of Caravag- gio, he afterwards cultivated the ideal, and adopted a rather silvery tone of colour. Guido, though in the receipt of a princely income, from the enor- mous and constant demand for his pictures, died in debt : he was so embarrassed by his extravagant habits that he used to sell his time at so much per hour to the dealers, who on some occasions, it seems, were so exacting as to stand by him, watch in hand, to see that he performed the stipulated amount of labour. There are eight pictures by Guido in the National Gallery. He formed a con- siderable school; the most celebrated of his scholars was Simone Cantarini, called il Pesarese, by whom there is a remarkable portrait of Guido in the Gallery of Bologna. (Passeri, Vite de' Pit- tori, &c; Malvasia, Felsina Piitrice, &c.) [R.N.W.] GUIDOTTI, Paolo, an Ital. paint., 1569-1629. GUIENNE, Charles of France, duke of, br. of Louis XL, and formerlv due de Berri, 1446-72. GUIENNE, William, count of Poitiers, and duke of, one of the earliest troubadours, 1071-1126. GUIGNES, Joseph De, a Fr. Oriental scholar, and historian of the Huns, Turks, &c, 1721-1800. GUILD, William, a Scotch divine, 1586-1657. GUILLAIN, S., a French sculptor, 1581-1658. GUILLARD, N. F., a Fr. dramat., 1752-1814. GUILLAMET, Ch. Axel, an archit. and man of lett., b. at Stockholm of Fr. parents, 1730-1807. GUILLAUMET, F., a surgical writer, 17th ct. GUILLEMAIN, C. J., a Fr. dramat., 1750-99. GUILLEMEAN, James, a celebrated French writer on surgery, a pupil of Riolan, 1550-1613. His son, Charles, a physician, 1588-1656. GUILLEMINE, GUILLEMETTE, or GUIL- LELMA, a female visionary, fndr. of a sect, 13th c. GUILLEMINOT, Anne Charles, Count, a native of Belgium, employed by Napoleon as am- bassador, and by the due d'Angouleme, 1774-1840. GUILLIAND, C, a French divine, 16th cent. GUILLIM, John, an English writer on her- aldry, whose great work, ' The Display of Heraldry,' was really founded on a MS. presented to him by Dr. Barcham, the author. Guillim was born about 1565, was appointed rouge-croix pursuivant of arms 1617, and died 1621. GUILLIMARM, F., a German historian and savant, au. of ' De Rebus Helvetiorum,' &c, 16th c. GUILLORE, G., a Fr. religious writer, d. 1684. GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, a French physician and deputy to the states-general, whose name has been given to the instrument of death which he caused to be brought into use from hu- mane motives in the course of the French revolu- tion, born at Saintes 1738, died 1814. GUINET, F., a French jurisconsult, 1604-81. GUIRAND, Cl., a French philosopher, d. 1657. GUIRAND, G., a French antiquarian, 1600-80. GUISARD, P., a Fr. surgical writer, 1700-46. GUISCARD, Robert, first Norman duke of Apulia and Calabria, died in Cephalonia 1085. GUISCHARD, Ch. Gottlieb, a German preacher, afterwards aid-de-camp to Frederick the Great, and au. of works on milit. tactics, 1724-75. GUISE, the name of an illustrious French family, the founder of which was Claude, son of Rene IL, duke of Lorraine, who obtained letters of naturalization from Louis XII. in 1506, distin- He painted in various' styles, his earlier i guished himself at the battle of Marignano 1515, 291 GUI GUS was created duke of Guise in Pieardy by Francis I. in 1527, and died in 1550. The duke of Guise having married into the roval family, one of his daughters espoused James V. of Scotland, and be- came the mother of Mary Stuart. His eldest son, Francis, who succeeded to the dukedom, was one of the most remarkable men of the age, and was king of France in all but the name. He was the chief of the catholic 'League,' opposed to Conde and the Huguenots, and was assassinated 1563. The son and successor of the latter, Henry Duke of Guise, born 1550, inherited the power and ambition of his father, and was one of the chief actors in the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew. He was assassinated by order of the king 1588. The brother of Francis, and uncle of Henry duke of Guise, generally known as the Cardinal, of Lorraine, was the minister of Francis II. and Charles IX., and like the other members of his family, a cruel bigot and persecutor of the pro- testants, flourished 1525-1574. Charles, the fourth duke of Guise, eldest son of Henry the third duke, and Catherine of Cleves, became one of the chiefs of the League three years after the death j resistance, and ultimately forced his enem of his father, and was gov. of Provence, 1571-1640. | accede to a peace (1629), by which Sweden j Henry of Lorraine, the fifth duke, who became important extension of her territory. At thi generalissimo of the Neapolitan insurgents in the the emperor Ferdinand II. was engaged in revolt against Spain, and afterwards grand cham- | of persecution against the protestants and tl berlain of France, was born 1614, and died 1664. states of Germany. Sweden was an int The sixth duke of Guise, known also as Louis name are Gustavus (Vasa) I., born elected king by the states after defeating tian of Denmark 1523, abolished the I Catholic religion 1529, demanded and obtain succession in his family after subduing the of the Dalecarlians 1555, died 1560. Gusi (Adolphus) II. See next article. Guk III., born 1746, succeeded 1771, shot by A troem while preparing to inarch against the I republic 1792. Gustavus (Adolphus) l\ and successor of the latter, and like him, re able for his chivalrous spirit and obstinate e against the French ; deposed and banishi country 1809, died in Switzerland, after wi ing through the greater part of Europe undei ous names, and in the most straitened ci stances, 1837. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, born Decern 1594, succeeded his father, Charles IX., < throne of Sweden, October 30, 1611. In tht part of his reign, the Poles and Russians atl Sweden ; but the young king, putting himt the head of the Swedish army, made a Joseph of Lorraine, and prince de Joinville, a military officer under Louis XIV., flourished 1650-1671. The last of this house was a posthu- mous son of the latter, who d. abt. four years aftw. GUISE, Claude, a violent partizan of the league, nat. son of Claude the first duke, d. 1612. GUISE, William, an English divine, 1653-84. GUITON, John, a patriot of Rochelle, 1626. GUITTONE, an Italian poet, 13th century. GUIZOT, Elizabeth Charlotte Pauline de Meulan, Madame, wife of the distinguished statesman, author of novels and works for youth, 1773-1827. Margaret Eliza Dilson, niece of the preceding, and second wife of M. Guizot, also an authoress, 1804-1833. GULDENSTAEDT, John Anthony, a fam- ous Russian traveller and naturalist, 1745-1781. GULDINUS, P., a Germ, mathema., 1577-1643. GUMILLA, P. J., a Span, missionary, last ct. GUNDLING, J. P., a Ger. statesm., 1673-1731. GUNDLING, N. J., a Ger. philoso., 1671-1729. GUNDULF, a Norman ecclesiastic and archi- tect, time of William the Conqueror, builder of the Tower of London and Rochester castle, died 1108. GUNNER, John Ernest, bishop of Dron- theim in Norway, disting. as a botanist, 1718-73. GUNNING, P., an English prelate, 1613-1684. GUNST, P. Van, a Dutch engraver, last cent. GUNTER, Edmund, an English mathematician and astronomer, inventor of a famous rule of pro- portion known as Gunter's scale, 1581-1626. GUNTHER, J. C, a German poet, 1695-1723. GUNTHER, J. C, a Ger. natural., 1769-1833. GUNZ, J. G., a German anatomist, 1714-1754. GURTLER, N., a Swiss protest, wr., 1654-1711. GURWOOD, Colonel John, sec. to the duke of Wellington, and editor of his despatches, d. 1845. GUSMAN, Lewis, a Span, missionary, d. 1605. GUSTAVUS. The kings of Sweden of this protestant country, and could not behold wi difference the rapid strides which the I Catholic despot oi Austria, aided by the poj the king of Spain, was making towards the pation of European civil and religious li Austria had given special provocation to Gtu by aiding his enemies against him during the '. war, and he resolved to come forward as the < pion of the protestant cause against her. Gui Adolphus landed in Pomerama on 24th June, with only 8,000 men. He was reinforced I English and Scottish regiments, under the di Hamilton ; and, at the head of this little foi essayed to rescue the German protestants the powerful and long -victorious armies of and the other imperialist generals. Gustavi vanced, and was splendidly successful, thott met death in less than three years from hi planting his foot on German ground. Naj has well said of him, that ' notwithstandiii shortness of his career, it is one of great rac tions, in consequence of the boldness and ra of his movements, and the discipline and in dity of his troops. Gustavus Adolphus wai mated by the principles of Alexander, Han and Caesar.' Such is his praise, merely in a tary point of view his moral glory is still higl Gustavus, m 1630, conquered Rugen and Pol nia. In the following year he formed an al with the Saxons, and completely defeated the Austrian army under Tilly at Leipzig. He them a second overthrow nearthe river Lech, in Tilly was slain ; and all Germany was now o; to the Swedish arms. The Austrian empero recalled his celebrated general Wallenstem tc the Roman Catholic troops ; and thi fought his third great battle against the imp ists under Wallenstein's command at Lutzei November, 1632. Gustavus gave out Ln hymn to his army before engaging ; he le 292 GUT ds himself ; and then he led his cavalry into critical part of the fight. He was shot dead y in the battle, bnt his army gained a complete or y. Gustavus Adolphus was simple in his its, pure and just in all his dealings, and un- nedly earnest in his religion. He was inade- tely praised when he was named ' one of the best that ever wore a crown.' [E.S.C.] UTBIEN, Giles, a German Orient., 1617-67. UTCH, John, an Engl, antiquar., 1745-1831. 0THRIE, W., a Scotch miscel. wr., 1708-70. UTLER, N., a German savant, 1654-1711. UTTEMBERG, C., a Ger. engrav., 1741-90. [Statue of Guttenberg at Mayence.] UTTENBERG, or GUTENBERG, John, a I re of Sulgeloch, near Mentz in Germany, was n in 1400, and died on the 24th of February V L He is supposed to have made his first ex- nents in the art of printing with moveable 5 between 1434 and 1439, but it was in 1443 he turned his invention to account, and brought ] himself the persecution of the priests and ts. There are some points not cleared up in i listory of this invention, but it is now gener- igreed that the honour belongs to John Gut- Tg, and a society named after him meets y m his native city, where, also, a beautiful e by Thorwalsden has been erected to his JTZIKOW, a Russian musician, 1806-1837. JY, Thomas, the founder of the hospital of name, which he built and endowed at an ex- of nearly a quarter of a million sterling, was 1644, and accumulated his immense fortune, arly twice that amount, by stock-jobbing and ttrchase of seamen's tickets. He was also the of alms-houses and a library at Tamworth, great benefactor of Christ's Hospital, and of 80,000 to be divided amongst his He died in 1724. _ ARD, Adelaide, a Fr. pain., 1749-1803. JYARD, Anth., a French monk, 1692-1770. fYARD, B., a French theologian, 1601-1674. fY ARD, J., a Fr. historian, died about 1600 WARD, L., a French sculptor, 1723-1788. JYET, Ch., a learned Jesuit, 1601-1664. GUY GUYET, Fr., a French critic, 1575-1655. GUYETANT, J. F., a French surgeon, known as a topographical and medical writer, 1742-1816. GUYON, Claude Marie, a French historian, author of a ' History of Empires and Republics,' &c, 1699-1771. GUYON. Madame Jeanne Marie Rouviers De La Mothe Guion, or Guyon, was a French lady of good family, born at Montargis 1642, where also she was married at the age of fifteen, and in thirteen years afterwards left a widow with three children. Her marriage was not a happy one, in consequence of the tyranny of her husband and mother-in-law, who, acting under the advice of her confessors, endeavoured to withdraw her from the inward prayer and retirement to which, at the age of twenty, she began to addict herself. On the death of her husband she sequestered the greater part of her fortune as a provision for the education of her children, and completely aban- doned herself to the life of mystic piety, or ' per- fect contemplation,' generally known as Quietism, and of which we shall give an account in the ar- ticle Molinos. Her experiences are related with extraordinary candour and graphic simplicity in her ' Autobiography,' and are further illustrated in the 'Torrents,' written at Annecy, and contained in the 2 volumes of her ' Opuscules. She was at Grenoble, on her way to Paris, when she found herself ' sud- denly invested,' as she expresses herself, ' with the apostolic state,' and able to discern the condition of those that spake with her, so that, one sending another, she was occupied from six in the morning till eight at night speaking of divine things. ' There came,' she says, ' great numbers from all parts, far and near, friars, priests, men of all sorts, young women, married women, and widows ; they all came one after the other, and God gave me that which satisfied them in a wonderful manner, without my thinking or caring at all about it. Nothing was hidden from me of their inward state and condition. . . . . I perceived and felt that what I spake came from the fountain-head, and that I was only the instrument of Him who made me speak.' On reaching Paris she was thrown into prison, loaded with the vilest calumnies, by the connivance of her friends the priests, and endured altogether not less than twenty years of persecution, confinement, and exile. The great enemy of Madame Guyon and the system of Quietism was Bossuet, while for her champion she had the noble-hearted, eloquent, and illustrious Fenelon. She was liberated from her last confinement, in the Bastile, in 1702, and passed the remainder of her life at Blois, where she died 1717. Her complete works were published by Poiret in 39 vols. 8vo, and they comprise, besides those mentioned above, ' The Song of Songs, Inter- preted According to its Mystical Sense,' and several volumes of hymns remarkable for their graceful composition, and exquisite sensibility. Some of these were translated by Cowper. The life of Madame Guyon is not only a religious study, but a psychological one of very considerable interest. It is the history of a soul, humbled and polluted in its own sight, journeying through the gates of the mystic death, hating its own freedom and its own intelligence, struggling through the unclean places through which it is forced to pass, and at last arriv- ing in the presence of its Divine lover stripped of 293 GUY all, even its virtues as serene, as motionless as the eye of eternity. Though the system of Quietism is a protest against visions, revelations, ecstacies, and transports of all kinds, whether sensual or spiritual, yet the experiences of Madame Guyon are really a love story, and one which she pursues in her writings with a fearlessness as remarkable in such a woman as the purity of her imagina- tion. [E.R.] GUYON, L., a Fr. medical writer, died 1630. GUYON, S., an ecclesiastical hist., 1595-1657. GUYS, J. B., a French antiquarian, 1611-1693. GUYS, Peter Augustine, a French merchant, author of a ' Literary Journey into Greece,' &c, 1721-1799. His son, Peter Alphonso, a dip- lomatist and political writer, 1755-1812. GUYSE, James De, a French annalist and antiquarian writer, died 1399. GUYSE, John, an English Calvin., 1680-1761. GUYTON DE MORVEAU, Louis Bernard, a learned French chemist, and republican deputy to the legislative assembly and the convention, member of the Committee of Public Safety and the council of 500, and in the time of Napoleon one of the administrators-general of the mint, and direc- tor of the Polytechnic School. He is the discov. of the means of destroying infection by acid vapours, and auth. of various' chemical writings, 1736-1816. GUZMAN, Alfonso Perez De, a celebrated Spanish captain, ancestor of the house of Medina Sidona, 1258-1320. Others of the same house are HAG distinguished in Spanish history, the chii whom are Henry, known in the war of Gre 1494. His son, of the same name, distingu in Africa 1497, lost Gibraltar, rebelled and d disgrace 1508. And the son of the latter, a the same name, and successor of his comma the revolt, reconciled to Ferdinand II., ki Arragon, after ravaging Andalusia, 1514. GUZMAN, Louise De, regent of Portugal the death of her husband, King John, 1656-1 GWILYM, David Ap, a W bard, 1340-1 GWINNE, Matthew, author of 'Lette Chemical and Magical Secrets,' died 1627. GYGES, a king of Lydia, 718-680 B.C. GYLIPPUS, a Greek commander, 414 b.c GYLLENBORG, Charles, Count, a Sw senator and man of letters, ambassador in Lc when Charles XII. projected the invasion of land, high chancellor of Sweden in 1719, foreign minister in 1739, died 1746. His brol John, Otho, and Frederic, are also celebi the Jirst as a military officer under Charles the second as a literary savant and poet, an< third for his zealous promotion of useful k ledge. It was in the house of Frederic Gyllei that the first sittings of the Academy of Sci< founded in Stockholm in 1740, were held. GYLLENHIELM, Charles, Baron De, tural son of Charles IX., and grand admu Sweden, 1574-1650. GYZEN, Peter, a Flemish painter, born H HAAFNER, M., a Dutch writer, author of tra- vels in India and the Island of Ceylon, died 1809. HAAK, Theodore, a Germ, savant, 1605-90. HAAREN, W. Van., a Dutch poet and diplo- matist, 1700-1763. A member of the same family, named Onno Zwier Van Haaren, also a poet, and author of ' Christianity in Japan,' 1713-1779. HAAS, J. M., a Ger. geographi. wr., 1684-1742. HAAS, William, a letter-founder and printer of Basle, disting. for his improvements, 1741-1800. HABAKKUK, a Jewish prophet, 600 B.C. HABERKORN, P., a Ger. divine, 1604-1676. HABERLIN, F. D., a German historian, 1720- 1787. His son, Ch. Frederic, a jurist, d. 1808. HABERT, Francis, a French poet, 16th cent. HABERT, Isaac, a Fr. controver., died 1668. HABERT, Louis, a Jansenist wr., 1635-1718. HABERT, Philip, a French artillery officer and man of letters, 1605-1637. His brother, Ger- main, an ecclesiastic and poet, 1610-1655. HABICOT, Nich., a Fr. anatomist, 1550-1624. HABINGTON, Thomas, a political character, implicated in the conspiracy of Babington, known in literature as the collector of materials for Nash's history of Worcestershire, died 1647. HABINGTON, W., an English poet, 1605-45. HACAN, fifth caliph of Bagdad, 660-669. HACAN, a prince of Mauritania, regn., 954-985. HACAN-BEN-AL-HACAN. See Alhazan. HACAN-BEN-SABBAH, the founder of a poli- tical and relig. sect of Persia, whose successors are kn. as the 'Old Men of the Mountain,' 1050-1124. HACAN-BURZUK, caliph of Bagdad, d. 1356. HACHETTE, Jane, a French heroine of 1472. HACHETTE, J. N. P., a French math tician, au. of ' Descriptive Geometry,' 1769-1! HACKAERT, J., a Dutch painter, died 16 HACKERT, J. P., a German painter, 17$ HACKET, John, bishop of Lichfield, autl 'A Century of Sermons,' 'Loyola,' &c, 1592-] HACQUET, B., a French natural., 1740-1 HADDOCK, Sir R., a British admiral, d. HADDON, Walter, an English lawyer, thor of several Latin poems, &c, 1516-1572. HADJI-KHALFA, a Turkish savant, 1601 HADLEY, John, inv. of the quadrant, <L 1 HADORPH, J., a Swed. antiquary, 1630-1 HAEBERLIN, F. D., a Germ, histor., 172l HAEN, Anth. Van, a Dutch physic, 170' HAENDEL, G. F., a Ger. composer, 1684-1 HAFFNER, H., an Italian painter, 1640-1 His son, Anthony, a painter, 1654-1732. HAFIZ, Mohammed Shems-Ed-Dek celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz at th< ginning of the 14th century. His odes and h compositions have been translated by Sir W. J< Richardson, and others, and are universallj mired. He is supposed to have died about 13 HAGEDORN, Frederic Von, a celebi German poet, author of songs, fables, tales, moral poems, 1708-1754. His brother, Ch tian Louis, a writer on art, 1712-1780. HAGEN, John Van, a Dutch painter, 171 HAGEN, J. G., a German savant, 1710-17 HAGENBACH, J. G., a Swiss antiq., 17(K HAGER, J. Von, an Ital. Oriental., 1750-1 HAGUE, Dr. Charles, an eminent En; composer, and professor at Cambridge, 1769-1 294 HAH HAHN, L. P., a German tragedian, 1746-1787. HAHN, P. M., a Ger. mechanician, 1739-1790. | HAHN, S. F., a German historian, 1692-1729. HAHNEMANN, Samuel, the founder of hom- bpathy, was born of poor parents at Meissen, in kxony, 1755, and received his diploma as doctor 1 physic at Heidelberg, in 1781. The same year [(pointed district physician at Gomehn, ar Magdeburg, and continued his studies in iemistry and mineralogy with all the ardour of it enthusiast. In 1784, he removed to Dresden, id soon afterwards abandoned the practice of lysic in disgust, and confined himself to his ivate researches in chemistry and literature, lese studies began to acquire a fixed direction in '90, and in 1796 he commenced the record of eir results in the journal of his friend Hufeland, an article entitled ' Essay on a New Principle, z.' In 1805 he published his ' Medicine of sperience,' and in 1810 his ' Organon of Rational edicine,' in which the new doctrine was reduced a system, and methodically illustrated. In a cond edition, published 1819, the title of this :>rk was abbreviated, and became the ' Organon Medicine.' A third edition appeared in 1824, d was translated into English nine years after- ards. It was followed by a fourth edition in S29, and a fifth in 1833 (translated by Dr. tidgeon), each of which embodied fresh results, id enlarged the field which this indefatigable perimentalist had undertaken to cultivate. While is and the other works of the author mentioned :low were making their way silently over Europe, ahnemann himself was experiencing the usual te of the world's benefactor. In 1813 he had moved from Dresden to Leipzig, where he was rsecuted by the apothecaries as an empiric, and is had risen to such a height by 1820, that he is glad to avail himself of the protection offered him by the duke of Anhalt Cothen. In the me year he published his ' Pure Medicine ' in 6 k 8vo, and in 1829 his ' Theory of Chronic aladies, and the Proper Medicines for them,' in vols., which were enlarged to 6 vols, in a second ition, 1840. In the meantime, his domestic rcumstances were changed for the better by his wrriage in 1835 with a French lady, in whose fmpany he removed from Cothen to Paris, at the p of eighty. Hahnemann remained in Paris till s death in 1843, and had the satisfaction to hear at homoeopathy was about to have a chair at the uversity of Vienna, and that hospitals were t)posed in London, in Berlin, and in many cities Austria. The principles of his therapeutic form for such it undoubtedly is may be de- ribed as a recognition of derangements in the tal or spiritual force of the body, whether :casioned or not by material influences, as the Hmary causes of disease ; the cure of which is by ie reaction of the vital force against the remedy. he application of this theory consists 1st, in ie discovery ; and 2d, in the preparation of )ecific remedies corresponding to every species of morrnal action, and such remedies are found )th in theory and practice to be the assimulates the disease or medicines by which precisely ie same symptoms would be produced. The ^ason of the cure is difficult to express in few ords, and illustrations far below the refined HAL philosophy on which it depends have been used by professional writers. According to the terms of the theory, the medicines may be considered as diffusing themselves with a gentle but irresistible force, like that of light, between the mortal cor- ruption and the vital spirit in combat with it, and being more subtle than the disease, and yet like it, they engage the vital force in a quicker and more decisive conflict, and then gradually yielding before it, as their own virtue expires, the vital force is liberated, and, as a matter of course, re- sumes its normal action. This explanation, how- ever, is only half the truth, for it is well known that fluids "in effervescence are reduced to rest by the satisfaction of what may be called the hunger of one body for another, and something of this kind may take place when the assimulate is introduced to the disease. Be the explanation what it may, the discovery of the facts by years of Eatient and often painful experience, is the title of [ahnemann to the gratitude of society. He proved the virtue of an immense number of assimulates by testing their effects on himself and friends, and displayed equal art in the method of their refinement. His ' Organon of Medicine ' not only raises the art of healing to the rank of an exact science, but renders it an elegant and philo- sophical study ; while the facilities of its practical application have been carried to such perfection, especially by his followers in this country, that many mothers of families have become expert homoeopathic physicians, and rarely require the aid of a practitioner. Besides the works mentioned, Hahnemann is the author of some two hundred treatises on medical and physical science. [E.R.] HAI-GAOU, an Egyptian rabbin, died 1038. HAILLAN, Bernard De Girard, Seigneur Du, a Fr. histor., time of Charles IX., 1535-1610. HAINES, J., an English comedian, last cent. HAKEM-BAMFJLLAH, a Fatimite caliph of Egypt, noted for his despotism, reigned 996-1021. HAKEWILL, G., a learned divine, 1579-1649. HAKEWILL, H. J., an Engl, sculpt., 1813-33. HAKLUYT, R., an Eng. naval hist., 1553-1616. HALDANE, Robert, Esq., was the eldest son of James Haldane Esq., of Airthrey in Stirling, and Catherine Duncan, sister of the hero of Camper- down. He was born in London, 28th February, 1764. Both of his parents having died at an early period, he and his brotherwere placed underthe guardianship of their maternal uncles at Lundie. Thence they were removed to the High School, and subsequently studied for a few sessions at the university of Edin- burgh. Although heir to a large property, Robert's active and enterprising mind pointed to the naval profession, and so passionate a desire had he con- ceived for a seafaring life, that his friends at length gave their consent, and he entered the Monarch as a midshipman under the command of his uncle. Subsequently he was connected with Sir John Jervis as an officer on board the Foudroyant, and both from his energy of character, and his familiar knowledge of the French language, was intrusted with many difficult and delicate commissions during the war. On the re-establishment of peace in 1783, Mr. Haldane transferred his services for a time to a commercial company, for whom he per- formed a voyage to Newfoundland, and a second to Lisbon ; returning to Scotland, he relinquished 295 HAL the naval profession, and established himself at Airthrey, where for a period of ten years, he fol- lowed the pursuits of a country gentleman, his whole time being occupied in the improvement of his estate, or in the management of county and parochial affairs. Like many persons of an ardent temperament, he welcomed with enthusiasm the outbreak of the great French revolution, and in the excitement produced throughout this country by that political convulsion, roused against himself, by the too open avowal of his opinions, the jealousy and suspicion of the ruling party. A subject of infinitely higher moment than politics, however, now began to engross his attention. Led to the serious study of religion, he conducted his inquiries with characteristic ardour and perseverance, till having at length attained to enlightened and ma- ture views of Scriptural truth, he appeared before the world an evangelical Christian. His pursuits as well as his character were entirely changed, and he resolved on dedicating his future life to diffuse, as a missionary in foreign lands, the gospel which had imparted so much peace and joy to himself. India was the chosen field of labour, and having secured the promised co-operation of Messrs. Innes, Ewing, and Bogue of Gosport, to whom he guaran- teed adequate stipends while abroad, and the sum of 3,500 if compelled by bad health or other causes to return, he applied to the Indian govern- ment to sanction his enterprise. Missions being at that time scarcely known in the country, it was suspected that some sinister object was con- cealed under the name, and the com! of the East India Company Directors, after much deliberation, resolved that the superstitions of Hindostan should not be disturbed. Disappointed in this bold and original scheme of Christian benevolence, Mr. Hal- dane determined to employ his resources in spread- ing the gospel at home, and in conjunction with Rowland Hill, Mr. Simeon of Cambridge, and others, he produced an extraordinary revival of religion throughout Scotland. Mr. Haldane now seceded from the Established Church, and at his own expense, erected places of worship under the name of Tabernacles in all the large towns, and educated 300 young men under Dr. Bogue and Mr. Ewing, as preachers to officiate in these meeting- houses. Another scheme which originated with him had for its object the evangelization of Africa. To commence this undertaking, he procured thirty young children to be brought from Sierra Leone to receive a Christian education at his expense, and gave a bond for 7,000 for their board and educa- tion, which, however, the friends of emancipation in London undertook to defray. Many other plans of Christian usefulness both at home and on the continent are traceable to the untiring zeal of this pious gentleman. His personal labours in awaken- ing a religious spirit in the south of France, were successful beyond his own most sanguine expecta- tions; and both at Geneva and Montauban, he sowed the seeds of truth which are bearing good fruit to this day in the protestant churches of France. Mr. Haldane took a prominent part in the management of the Continental Society and the Bible Society of Edinburgh ; and in the painful controversy relative to the circulation of the Apo- crypha by the British and Foreign Bible Society, which led to the establishment of the latter. He was HAL the author of 'The Evidences of Christianity,' ' . Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans,' a various other religious works of minor importan His character was highly esteemed during 1 and his name will be transmitted to posterity connection with the revival of evangelical relig in Scotland at the beginning of the present a tury. He died 12th December, 1842. [R., HALDANE, James Alexander, Esq., v brother of the preceding. He was born at Di dee, 14th July, 1768. Having imbibed the fan passion for the sea, he was entered in his sevi teenth year a midshipman in the Duke of Mi trose, bound on a voyage to Bombay and Chi He had made three other voyages to the sa countries, when having proved his possess of the requisite qualifications, he was appoin captain of the Melville Castle. The vessel, ho ever, did not sail for four months ; and during tl interval, a great change took place in Capt Haldane's character. He became serious t thoughtful on the subject of religion ; and har determined to follow the example of his brotl who had already relinquished the seafaring life, disposed of his command for 9,000, and his sh in the property of the ship and stores for 6,( more. With this fortune of 15,000 he reti with his wife to Scotland in 1794, and gave hi self up to those religious inquiries which now i frossed his chief concern. Several years elap efore his views were established. But at leni he attained to a knowledge of the truth as well peace in believing; and the cases of both brothers Haldane, whose minds retained a d impression of their mother's piety and prayi must be added to the long list of testimonies i might be adduced to show the advantages of early religious education. Mr. James Halda having plenty of time at command, occupied hi self with many plans of Christian usefulne amongst which, the opening of Sabbath scha and itinerant preaching, at first in the villa around Edinburgh, and afterwards in the ot large towns of Scotland, were the chief. 1 principal coadjutor in these labours of love l John Campbell, the African traveller. In co pany with that zealous Christian, Mr. Hald made successive tours .throughout all Scotland far as Orkney ; and those who were awakened their preaching, were, through the liberality of ] Robert Haldane, accommodated with suita places of worship. Mr. James eventually accep the office of stated pastor in the Tabernacle, Le Walk, Edinburgh ; and in that capacity he ex cised, without any emolument, all the public i private duties of a minister with unbroken fide! and zeal for a period of fifty years. Although vacillated on some points of church governme he and his brother remained steadfast in their | herence to the general principles of the Sco baptists. He was the author of various fugil pieces on the religious controversies of the til But the memory of his name in the world, will preserved chiefly by the 'living epistles,' wh were the fruits of his evangelical labours, died in Edinburgh, 8th February, 1851. [R. HALDE, John Baptist Du. See Duhau HALE, Sir Matthew, a judge and consti tional lawyer, was born in Gloucestershire on 296 HAL November, 1609. Brought up among the puritans, vhile receiving an Oxford education, his early life eems to have vibrated between rigidity and ex- ess. It was through the auspices of Serjeant ilynn that his attention was turned to the bar, nd he entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1629. In the tormy times which followed, he held a more con- picuous place than one of his neutral and studi- es character generally obtains amid political con- ulsions. He was a hard student, and a thorough iwyer, both in the constitutional department and hat of private rights and obligations. In 1653 he ras made one of the judges of the Common Bench, s it was termed under the Commonwealth. His aund excuse for accepting this appointment, that be administration of justice is an honourable and seful occupation, whether the ruling power for le time be valid, or not, has been often cited, [is friends said less for his candour and honesty hen they defended him, on the ground that he lad evaded any formal announcement of allegiance j) the Protectorate. He seemed to have misgiv- hgs of his own, for he at one time refused to act \i a criminal judge while performing his civil imctions, and he would not hold office under lichard Cromwell. Indeed, with all his capacity nd his incorruptible honesty, a rare quality on pe bench in his day, it is shown by his supersti- ious cruelty on a celebrated witchcraft trial, and by fher incidents, that his mind was subject to way- ard caprices. He was made chief baron of the cchequer at the Restoration, and chief justice of le King's Bench in 1671. He d. in 1676. [J.H.B.] HALEM, G. A., a Germ, publicist, 1752-1819. HALES, Alexander, an English friar, dist. a scholastic divine and philosopher, 13th cent. HALES, John, an able scholar and divine of le Church of England, remarkable for the free- nn of his opinions, and for that reason classed nong the latitudinarians. He was born at Bath 1584, and educated at Oxford, where he became ofessor of Greek, and assisted Sir Henry Savile editing his edition of the works of Chrysostom. fter a life of considerable hardship, partly occa- the civil wars, and partly by his inde- ndence of thought, he died at Eton, in poor cir- unstances, 1656. The writings by which he is [town were published after his decease, and en- tled 'Golden Remains of the Ever Memorable k. John Hales of Eton College.' Among these bers is an interesting account of the Synod of )rt, at which Mr. Hales was present as an ob- rver. At this synod the representatives of the lglish Church advocated the universality of the sdemption, and their arguments had the effect of rning Hales from his previously rigid Calvinism. here is a quaintness and vigour in his style of riting which gives a somewhat fiavourish quality lden Remains,' and though he has been Bled a trimmer, he is often severe enough upon le formalists of his day. [E.R.] BALES, or HAYLES, John, a classical scho- K translator, and government employe, d. 1572. HALES, Steph., an Eng. nat. phil., 1677-1761. HAL FORD, Sir Hen., Baronet, an eminent phy- rian, whose paternal name was Vaughan, au. of ] Tofessional works and essays, 1766-1844. 11 ALII ED, Nathaniel Brassey, an Oriental polar, au. of a ' Bengalee Grammar,' 1751-1830. HAL HALI-BEIGH, a Polish captain, educated in Turkey, and distinguished as a linguist, died 1675. HALIFAX, George Saville, marquis of, a celebrated English statesman, promoter of the restoration, president of the council in the time of James II., and lord privy seal under William and Mary. He is the author of various small works, 'The Character of a Trimmer,' 'Advice to a Daughter,' ' The Anatomy of an Equivalent,' &c. Lord Halifax was also the author of ' Memoirs,' which were destroyed in MS., 1630-1695. HALKET, Lady Anne, an English lady, re- markable for her studies in theology and medicine, author of ' The Mother's Will,' &c, 1622-1699. HALL, Anthony, a learned divine, 1679-1723. HALL, Captain Basil, a well-known writer of voyages and travels, descriptive of his adven- tures and the places visited, chiefly in the Indian seas, and the southern coasts of America. Born at Edinburgh 1788, died in confinement on account of insanity, 1844. HALL, Edward, an English annalist, d. 1547. HALL, George, son of Joseph Hall, and bishop of Chester, author of sermons, &c, 1612-1668. HALL, Henry, a learned divine, 1716-1763. HALL, Sir James, baronet of Dunglass, an. of an ' Essay on Gothic Architecture,' &c, 1760-1832. HALL, John, an English poet, 1627-1656. HALL, Joseph, D.D., the pious bishop of Norwich, was born at Ashby-de-fa-Zouch, in the county of Leicester. Directing his views towards the Church of England, he was entered a student of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, _ and in the course of time obtained a fellowship. It was during his residence in that seat of learning, he published his satires and many other poetical pieces, which spread his fame far and wide. But ne abandoned the muses, having resolved to devote his chief attention to divinity, and in due time, being licensed to preach, was appointed rector of Halsted in Suffolk. In that rural retreat he com- posed his Contemplations,' which procured him the patronage of Prince Henry, and the rectory of Waltham. He was ere long called to mourn over the untimely death of that excellent prince and to preach his funeral sermon, which has been pre- served in the collection of his published writings, and abounds with passages of touching pathos and fervent piety. Mr. Hall was a man of very devo- tional habits, to fortify which he made a most rigid distribution of his time, having set hours for prayer, for reading divinity, for general literature and composition ; and so intense was his ardour in the pursuit of intellectual and spiritual improve- ment, that for a time he observed the strictest abstemiousness, taking for a while only one meal a-day. In 1616, he went to Paris as chaplain to the English ambassador. On his return he was appointed by King James to the deanery of Wor- cester, and in the following year he accompanied his royal master into Scotland, when that monarch made a progress into the northern part of his king- dom to prosecute his imprudent scheme of erecting episcopacy on the ruins of presbyterianism. None of' the unpopularity, however, of that measure fell upon Hall, whose pious character and temperate principles secured nim the esteem and respect of the most eminent Scotchmen of the day. From leaving Scotland, he was commanded to go ovef 297 EAL into Holland to attend the S)Tiod of Dort, which was held in 1618. But the protracted meetings of that famous convocation made a sad inroad on his health, and after an assiduous attendance of two months, he returned with an impaired consti- tution to England. The prominent part he had taken in the councils of that body, may be judged of by the fact that a medal commemorative of the assembly, was by the unanimous vote of the mem- bers, awarded and sent to him. He had no small share in achieving by his arguments and eloquence the signal discomfiture of the Arminians, and the condemnation of their doctrines in that Synod. Dr. Hall, for he had obtained the degree of D.D., being now a leading man in the Church of Eng- land, was marked out for promotion, and accord- ingly he was raised first to the see of Exeter, and afterwards, without any solicitation, to that of Norwich. Amid all the ecclesiastical tyranny of Laud, Bishop Hall preserved his moderation, and the clergy of his diocese were kept from the odium as well as the penalties of the Book of Sports. The bishop, however, had his season of trial. When the popular outcry ' No Bishops ' was raised, and an armed mob marched against the House of Lords, Hall with eleven of the lords spiritual joined in protesting against the measures which were passed in their absence ; and this document having been made a ground of impeachment, he with his pro- testing brethren were consigned to the Tower. On his liberation, he continued for a year to exercise his episcopal functions in Norwich ; but the popu- lar tide again set in strongly against his order, his house was attacked, his property sequestrated, himself insulted, and in meek resignation he re- tired into a small lonely place in Norfolk, where he spent the remainder of his days in acts of piety and charity, and at length died 1656, in the eighty-second year of his age. [R. J.] HALL, Richard, a Roman Cath. wr., d. 1604. HALL, Robert, a medical author, 1763-1824. HALL, Rev. Robert, the most eloquent preacher of modern times, was born at Arnsby, a village in the neighbourhood of Leicester, in 1764. His father was a baptist clergyman, and both his parents were distinguished for talents, prudence, and piety. Robert, the youngest of fourteen chil- dren, was of so feeble a constitution, that he could neither speak nor walk till near three years old. He learned to read by the inscriptions on the grave-stones ; and he showed at a very early age a passionate fondness for reading, and used to re- cline for hours with a book on the grass ; a habit which is thought to have produced that excruci- ating pain in the back to which he was subject during life. Even while yet a boy, Edwards on the Will and Butler's Analogy were his favourite books; and he would analyze as well as discuss them with great intelligence at the age of nine. His classical master dismissed him from school at eleven as already beyond the range of his own ac- quirements. He was in fact a young prodigy of genius and knowledge, and these precocious talents were combined with such genuine piety, that he was placed under the care of the Rev. John Ryland, tutor of the Baptist Academy, and at the age of sixteen, he was ' set apart ' to the office of the ministry by his father in presence of the congre- gation at Arnsby. In pursuance of his ministerial HAL views, he went to study at the unh ersity of Abe deen, where he enjoyed the prelections of Beatt: Campbell, and Gerard, ana where he made i Krivate friendship of Mr. afterwards Sir Jam lackintosh. He was noted among his felloe students as much for his habitual piety as for li pre-eminent talents. On the completion of r. college studies, Mr. Hall engaged himself as class cal tutor in the Baptist Academy at Bristol, ai at the same time acted as assistant to Dr. Eva in Broadmeadow chapel. At the end of five yea he removed to Cambridge, where he became assi tant, and afterwards successor to the Rev. M Robinson in the baptist church in that city. It w.j by his eloquent and elaborate discourses prepared f the meridian of that seat of learning, he rose the foremost rank of British preachers. His pul lie and occasional sermons were attended by crowti of the professors and young men, many of who sought and valued his friendship, dissenter thouj he was, amongst whom was the celebrated D Parr. In Cambridge some of his greatest worl were composed and published. His ' Christianr Consistent with the Love of Freedom' in 1791, h ' Apology for the Freedom of the Press ' in 179 his far-famed sermon on 'Modem Infidelity' 1799, his ' Reflections on War' in 1802, and h ' Sentiments Suitable to the Present Crisis ' in til year following. These were politico-religious di! courses, occasioned by the critical circumstances the country at the beginning of this century, aij they touched a chord in every patriotic heart. Bn while they evince the great powers of argumeJ and eloquence that so greatly distinguished M] Hall, they must not be considered samples of tlj food with which he fed his people. His ordinal discourses, though always replete with genius aij eloquence, were evangelical, calculated to edify bj people both by enlarging their Scriptural knot] ledge, and stimulating their faith and piety. 1| 1804, when he was at the very height of his repiJ tation, the mind of this extraordinary man sufFeni a sad eclipse, and yet at intervals during the ppj gress of his distressing malady, his genius snow forth by sparks of surpassing power and brillianc] His congregation showed their strong attachmei] and sympathy by raising an amount of .100, ai] another of equal amount to be given to his famij in the event of his death. Although he recovfil yet partial svmptoms of the disorder discov^fcl themselves, his connection with the congregBI in Cambridge was dissolved, and he was placed Ij his friends in the private establishment of D| Arnold of Leicester, ty whose skilful and judicioi treatment, his health was soon re-established, ail he resumed his preaching by itinerating througj the villages around Leicester. He becan: pastor of a church in Leicester, the same chappl which the celebrated Dr. Carey had once i and there by the splendour of his public tions, his fame as a public orator was more widely than ever. But Mr. Hall was n>\ allowed to continue in that comparatively limittj sphere. On the death of Dr. Ryland, he w;l urged to undertake the pastorate of the large ai flourishing baptist congregation in Bristol, and j that city he accordingly removed, all cla.' ing his arrival with enthusiastic joy. Aft < ing five years in that important sphere with ui 298 HAL vailed success, his health gave way. A spasmodic Section in the chest, added to his old constitutional >mplaint in the back, rendered him unfit for pub- duty. The unfavourable symptoms continued increase in spite of all the medical skill that enlisted in his behalf, and after a brief illness f ten days, this splendid orator and eminent ser- ant of Christ, died in February, 1831, in the xty-seventh year of his age. [R.J.] HALL, Thomas, a learned noncf., 1610-1665. HALLE, Claude Guy, a French painter and irector of the Academy, 1652-1736. His son, oel, a painter and superintendent of the Gobe- ns, 1711-1781. The son of the latter, John oel, a physician and medical writer, 1754-1822. HALLE, Peter, a French savant, 1611-1689, HALLENBERG, Jonas, a Swedish historian id naturalist, au. of a hist, of Swed., 1748-1834. HALLE R, Albert, M. D., a learned and eminent latomist and physiologist of last century, was orn at Berne, in Switzerland on the 18th October, 708. He was the son of Nicholas de Haller, l advocate, and chancellor of the county of Baden, id exhibited in early life very precocious powers, articularly in the acquisition of languages ; hav- lg at the age of nine composed for his own use a haldaic Grammar, a Hebrew and Greek Lexicon, od an Historical Dictionary containing upwards F 2,000 articles. He was originally destined for church, but subsequently turned his attention ) medicine, which he studied under Camerarius od Duverney at Tubingen, and afterwards at .eyden under Boerhaave, where he was the asso- iate of Albinus and Ruysch, and where also he raduated as a doctor. After visiting England nd France, he returned to Berne in 1730, and in 734 was appointed teacher of anatomy in that ity ; but his reputation having greatly extended, e was nominated Professor of Anatomy, Surgery, nd Botany, in the university of Gbttingen by leorge II. of England in 1736. Here he remained )r_ seventeen years, and here his great work, Disputationes Anatomicae Selectse,' by which e is chiefly known, was composed. He refused lie chair of botany in Oxford, and he declined olicitations from the king of Prussia, the states of lolland, and the empress of Russia. George II., a consideration of his great merits, obtained for mi a brevet as a noble of the empire, and he is ften spoken of as Baron Haller ; but he never ised this title in his native country. He left Jottingen for Berne in the year 1753, and spent he rest of his life in honourable but active re- trement in Switzerland. He died at Berne on he 12th of December, 1777, in his seventieth ear. ^ [J.M'C] HALLET, Jos., a learned dissenting minister, rath, of l Discourses on the Miracles,' 1692-1744. HALLEY, Edmund, a celebrated astronomer, gas born in London on the 8th November, 1656. Bis father, who was a soap-boiler, sent him to St. rani's school, where he acquired such a taste for Mtronoiny that before he left school he made pbservations on the variation of the needle. In M>73 be entered Queen's College, Oxford, ind while there devoted himself almost ex- plosively to mathematics and astronomy. In 1-676 he published his first paper in the Philoso- phical Transactions on the orbits of the primary HAL planets, and such was the reputation it acquired him, that he was soon after sent by Charles II. to St. Helena to make a catalogue of the stars of the southern hemisphere. In the course of two years he completed this arduous task, and in 1679 he fiublished his ' Catalogue of the Southern Stars.' n 1678 Halley was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in the following year he went to Dantzic to settle the controversy between Hooke and Hevelius respecting the use of telescopic sights in astronomical observations. After per- forming the tour of Europe in 1686 with his friend Mr. Nelson, the author of ' Fasts and Fes- tivals,' during which he made observations on the great comet in the observatory of Paris with Cassini, he returned to England, and married the daughter of Mr. Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived happily for fifty-five years. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1683 he published his 'Theory of the Variation of the Magnetical Compass,' in which he considers our terrestrial globe as one great magnet, with four magnetic poles near the north and south poles of the earth, the needle being always governed by the nearest of these poles. In consequence of the bankruptcy of his father, our author's pursuits were for some time interrupted ; but he soon returned to his studies, and was led in 1684 to examine Kepler's laws of the planetary motions, from which he drew the inference that the centripetal force must vary inversely as the square of the distance. Being un- able to prove this geometrically, he applied to Dr. Hooke and Sir Christopher Wren for assistance ; but having failed to obtain it, he set out for Cam- bridge in August, 1683, to consult Mr. Newton, who had by this time made great progress in establishing the doctrines of the Principia. Hal- ley was delighted with his reception, and the good news that Newton had brought the demonstration of the laws of the celestial motions to perfection. Newton, however, could not lay his hands upon the papers, but wrought them over again, and sent them in November to Halley by Mr. Paget, in the form of four theorems and seven problems. Upon receiving them Halley took another journey to Cambridge in order to confer with their author on the subject, and we find him on the 10th Decem- ber giving an account to the Royal Society of the curious treatise 'De Motu,' which Newton had shown him, to be entered upon their register. At a later period Halley prevailed upon Newton to complete his ' Principia,' the first book of which was exhibited to the Royal Society on the 20th April, 1686. It was put into the hands of Halley, then clerk to the Society, to report upon it ; and at a subsequent meeting on the 2d of June, Halley undertook the task of correcting the press, and of printing it at his own expense. In 1686 our au- thor published an account of the trade winds and monsoons on the seas near and between the tro- pics, which was followed by several other chemico- meteorological papers, in one of which, ' On the Circulation of the Watery Vapours of the Sea, and the Origin of Springs,' published in 1691, he first pointed out that beautiful provision, in conse- quence of which, a constant circulation of water is kept up between the atmosphere and the ocean. In 1691 he published a paper on the conjunction of the superior planets, in which he showed, as 299 HAL James Gregory had done long before, the utility of observing these conjunctions in order to dete r min e the sun's parallax and distance from the earth. In the year 1691 Halley became a candidate for the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford, and was opposed by David Gregory, who was the suc- cessful competitor. His failure on this occasion arose, according to Whiston, from his maintaining infidel opinions, and being generally regarded as a sceptic and a ' banterer or religion.' The same charge was preferred against him by Flamsteed, and Newton is said to have often reproved him for his infidelity. There is reason, however, to be- lieve that the charge of infidelity was founded on his having persisted in maintaining, as every philo- sopher and intelligent divine does now, that there was a pre-adamite earth, out of the ruins of which the present earth was made; and that he only laboured under imputations which have been often made since his day upon every distinguished indi- vidual who maintains great truths that appear to be inconsistent with the literal interpretation of Scripture. In 1692 Halley published his Hypo- thesis Relative to the Change in the Variation of the Needle, in which he supposes an interior globe with magnetic poles to move within our earth, and to produce the variation by the change in the re- lative position of the external and internal poles. In order to put this theory to the test of ob- servation, he conceived the design of obtaining measures of the variation-of the needle in different parts of the world. For this purpose King William appointed him captain of the Paramour Pink, in which he set sail on the 20th October, 1698, but after sailing along the coasts of Africa and America, a spirit of mutiny arose among his officers, and he returned to England in July, 1699. Having resumed his voyage, and finished his ex- periments, he returned on the 7th September, 1700, and was rewarded with the title of captain of the navy, and with half-pay during life. On the recommendation of Queen Anne, the emperor of Germany consulted him on the formation of a harbour on the coast of Dalmatia, and he went twice to the Adriatic on that errand. The em- peror when he saw him at Vienna presented him with a rich diamond ring, taken from his finger, and wrote a letter in his own hand recommending him to Queen Anne. On the death of Dr. Wallis in 1703, Halley was appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford:, and forgetting, or rather perhaps having discovered the falsehood of the charge of infidelity which had formerly been made against him, the university conferred upon him the honorary title of Doctor of Laws. In furtherance of the plan recommended by Sir Henry Saville, he began, in conjunction with Dr. Gregory, to publish the works of the ancient geometers, and several of the writings of Apollonius and Serenus, translated and edited by them, appeared in 1706 and 1710. Upon the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1713, he was elected secretary of the Royal Society, and while he held this office he made a number of interesting experiments on the diving bell at great depths in the sea, which were described in the Phil. Trans, for 1716, under the quaint title of ' The Art of Living under Water.' When the important office of astronomer royal became vacant in 1719, by the death of Flamsteed, Halley was appointed HAM his successor, and though he had now reached th! sixty-fourth year of his age he continued foi years without the aid of an assistant to carry on thl operations of the observatory with the most unre mitting assiduity. In 1731 ne published his ' Pro Bosal for Finding the Longitude at Sea within egree,' a method which he had suggests: as 1683, in an appendix to the second edition c Street's ' Caroline Tables.' In 1725 he drew ul his tables for computing the places of the planets' but he delayed their publication till he was enabled by new observations to make them more They did not, however, appear till 1749, after hi! death ; but they were long regarded as the most complete and accurate till they were supersedes by others founded on newer and more accurate obf serrations. In 1729 Halley was elected member of the Academy of Science in Paris. Ii 1737, when he was eighty-one years of age, he waj struck with paralysis in nis right hand, but he still continued to attend the Royal Society Club at it:' weekly meetings. The disease now gained ground upon him, and he gradually lost his strength. Htj was sustained chiefly by the cordials given him bjl Dr. Meed, and one day being tired of taking them'! he asked for a glass of wine, and as soon as he had drank it he expired in his chair without a groan, c the 14th January, 1742, in the eighty-sixth year < his age. He was buried in the churchyard of I and as he had himself requested, in the same ! with his wife, whom he had lost a few years befa His eldest daughter was buried in the same place i 1743. Besides this daughter he had other tw< and several children who died in infancy. One i his sons, who lived to manhood, died long bef his father. His two surviving daughters erectec over his remains a handsome tomb of Portlancjj stone. M. Mairan, who wrote the eloge nporl Halley, which was read to the Academy of Sciences' in 1742, concluded with the following just appre-i ciation of the universality of his acquirements : j ' While we thought the eulogium of an astronomer.ii a naturalist, a scholar, and a philosopher, compre-: hended our whole subject, we have been insensibly! surprised with the history of an excellent mariner,' an illustrious traveller, an able engineer, andj almost a statesman.' Notwithstanding the copious' details regarding the life of Halley given in the' ' Biographia Britannica,' a good life of that distin-j guished individual is greatly to be desired, and we} trust that the Rev. M. Rigaud of Ipswich will find! leisure to fulfil the intentions which his distin-j guished father had so much at heart. [D.B.T HALLIDAY, Sir Andrew, a physician and, traveller, celeb, as a miscellaneous writer, d. 1840. J HALLIER, F., a Fr. controver. wr., 1595-1659. ! HALLIFAX, S., a learned prelate, 1733-1790. HALLOIX, P., a French savant, 1572-1656. HALLORAN, Sylvester O', an Irish anti- quarian, au. of a 'Hist, of Ireland, '&c, 1728-188ft HALMA, F., a Flemish lexicographer, 1 HALMA, N., a Fr. archaeologist, 1755-1828. HALTAUS, C. T., a German hist, 1702-1758. HALYBURTON, Thomas, a Scotch divine, an-' thor of ' Natural Religion Insufficient,' 167 -1-171'-'. HAMAD, fndr. of a dynasty in Algeria, d. IGHi HAMADANI, an Arabian savant, 968-imi7. HAMAKER, H. A., a Dutch Orient., 1789- 1 881 HAMANN, J. G., a German philoso., 1730-88. 1 300 HAM I HAMAZASB, an Armenian prince, died 658. ; HAM EL, John Baptist Du. See Duhamel. j HAMILCAR, a general of Carthage, k. b.c. 229. HAMILTON, a distinguished Scotch family, the principal members of which are James, first iarl of Arran, d. 1519. James, the second earl of i^rran, duke of Chatelherault and regent of Scot- land, died 1576. Patrick, the first reformer, ,iurnt alive by the bishop of St. Andrews, 1503- j.527. James, first duke of Hamilton, beheaded Is a royalist after the battle of Preston 1649. jVilliam, duke of Hamilton, died after the battle if Worcester 1652. Anthony, Count Hamilton, Luthor of poetry and fairy tales, &c, 1646-1720. ! HAMILTON, Alex., succes. of Washington in he chief command, b. 1757, killed in a duel 1804. HAMILTON, Charles, an East Indian officer jud writer on Oriental subjects, died 1792. HAMILTON, Elizabeth, an Irish lady of con- iderable note as an essayist, 1758-1816. HAMILTON, Gavin, a Scotch painter, d. 1796. HAMILTON, Geo., earl of Orkney, dist. at the attle of the Boyne, and in subsequent actions under iVilliam III. and the duke of Marlborough, d. 1737. , HAMILTON, Hugh, an Irish prelate, mathe- matical writer, and prof, of nat. phil., 1729-1805. HAMILTON, Sir John, a British officer, dist. i the East Indies and the peninsula, 1755-1835. j HAMILTON, R., a medical writer, 1729-1793. I HAMILTON, R., a Scotch mathematician and piter on public questions, 1742-1829. i HAMILTON, Capt. Thomas, a miscellaneous biter, author of ' Cyril Thornton,' &c, d. 1842. HAMILTON, W., of Bangour,a Sc. poet, 1704-54. j HAMILTON, W., a Scotch artist, 1751-1801. i HAMILTON, Sir William, Bart., of Preston, Dunty of Haddington, one of the many talented cotchmen distinguished by labours in Mental cience. The family of Hamilton, which he repre- ssed, sprang from Sir Gilbert de Hameldon, Kinder of the House of Hamilton in Scotland, a launch cavalier who obtained his patent of creation In 1673. _ Sir William was third Baronet in posses- lion and eighth dejure. He was born in Glasgow in |791, and educated at Oxford, where he obtained iflrst-class honours. He was admitted a member of .be Scotch bar in 1813, became a contributor to the Idinburgh Review, and for the last twenty years I his life filled with great success the chair of logic and Metaphysics in the University of jdinburgh. He died on the 6th May, 1856. me following sketch was written during his retime : It is now_ long years since Sir William Lamilton had achieved a name For Encyclo- jediacal Learning in everything related, however tmotely, to the history and condition of Men- II Science ; and certainly no other, in modern pes, could readily be specified, with attainments j this description at all equivalent to his : never- eless at least until recently it. was known Uv by the few, that to acquisitions so various 'Id vast, our countryman adds the power to ijarshal and command them all; and that his rhrning, however immense, is used by him 'pply as an instrument whereby to rear and MOlidate a great and symmetrical body of (bought. Rarely indeed has the thirst unquench- Ir 6 *? r . w ^ a ^ m common speech is termed a ' Wen'ort knowledge, been combined with so sig- HAM nal a development of a priori power : it seems the pre-eminent charactensticof our philosopher's mind, that these two factors of all Science, exist in it together in full and symmetric integrity. No 5>roblem is resolved in his view, or even rightly aid for explication, until, in the first place, a complete scheme has been constructed of all its possible solutions, and the contributions of every former thinker arranged under due heads, and made to bring out their partial light : a step, preliminary indeed, but which can never be accomplished until the problem has passed through the mind, un- der the chief forms in which History presents it, and its fundamental conditions in all their purity and breadth been discerned. Few exercises are more pleasing than to follow Hamilton, as with eager and scrupulous conscientiousness he gathers to- gether the scattered hints of his predecessors, assigns them their place, and marks them with their value : his intense Love of Truth rises into the form of Justice : great popular names never pass with him as badges of desert ; nor is any one so obscure to whom a fragment of truth has in any form ever appeared that he may not be sur- rounded with his regard. A character so thorough, and, in the highest sense, veracious, must have at its root assuredly as its concomitant a clear and energetic moral nature ; nevertheless, the source of its strength, in this instance, is mani- festly what we have stated an earnest and un- faltering love of truth, and faculties harmonized to discern it. Regarding Philosophy as man's highest intellectual attainment, must not all trne workers appear as one brotherhood? Believing the conquest of august problems concerning Knowledge and Being, to be the Olympic prize of our Human Reason, shall the Runner not welcome every aid to his strength, or shall he expect that anything but strength can help towards the goal ? Fortunate, if at a time when languor and dissolu- tion threaten Philosophy once more, and reputations are sought and won through picking up and vending its merefiotsam and jetsam our Youth might haply attain skill in Method, increase in Sincerity, and learn the dignity of intellectual toil, through the example of Hamilton ! Let us briefly glance at the leading provinces occupied by our Philoso- pher. 1. It is not unknown now important a share of modern speculation has been devoted to the subject of Perception, since the times of Reid. Not in this country alone not even especially in this country; for some critique of the Act of Know- ing, is at the basis of all recent German Systems. As customary with him, not confining his regard to modern times, but surveying philosophical history from Plato downwards, Sir William, in his remarkable papers on Presentation and Repre- sentation, appears for the first time to have laid or constructed the full problem, and to have resolved it. The solution was, amongst ourselves, peculiarly opportune, arriving to discredit and destroy the confusion threatened by the rash but imposing ignorance of Brown ; nor was it less opportune abroad, inasmuch as it once more restored ' Natural Dualism ' to its sovereignty in Thought, and revealed the form of the gratuitous hypothesis that from earliest times had impelled men in vain search of schemes of Unity and the Absolute. Despotically, as the maxim of the im- 301 HAM mobility of the earth ruled in Astronomy until the time of Copernicus, and equally unquestioned the maxim that ' like only can know like? seems to have governed all theories of perception ; exerting more extensive influence than any other principle in the History of Philosophy. Under its sway the problem of perception became this how do Mind and Matter seem to meet? Meet they cannot, being unlike : is then Mind an illusion, or Matter an illusion ; or is there a certain medium partaking of both, through which they come together ? The maxim repudiated, and replaced by the simple assertion of consciousness, this immense fabric of speculation fell prone and helpless : and Hamilton's will ever be recognized as the hand that dealt the irrecoverable blow. Vindicating it, in name of Consciousness, as an undeniable fact, that the Ego and Non-Ego, as two distinct objects, are at the same moment, and with equal verity, present to the mind, he protested against all Unitarian Schemes, as insurrections, defying a primal Law ; and it is not too much to say that the energy and directness of his protest, upheld by his searching dissection of all untrue or par- tially true opposing systems, ancient and modern, marks the beginning of a sounder period in Men- tal Science. 2. It is needless to recall to a British, or indeed to any reader, the amount of attention given by our distinguished countryman to the subject of Logic, or the fame that has hence accrued to him. The grounds of Knowledge ascertained, and the veracity of Perception vindi- cated, next in order stands the Inquiry, what are the primary laws of thinking, or according to what forms does the mind operate on the matter of its thoughts? A large, although purely notional Science ; its foundation laid by Aristotle, and its domain surveyed ; portions of it minutely explored by Lord Bacon ; but in imminence of being all lost sight of, as a Science, in this country, or absorbed by its lowest and empirical part. Thoroughly has Hamilton revived the Stagyrite, and interpreted him to our compeers. Acknowledging to tne full the merits of Lord Bacon, he has passed beyond him to the higher position of the Greek; and presented logic again, as it appeared to that pene- trating and all-grasping intellect. Few will miss remarking that the fulness of his sympathy with Aristotle has its root in a corresponding univer- sality of character : no form or mode of speculation is foreign to Hamilton, as none were so to his predecessor. Of special contributions to the doc- trine of the syllogism we can say nothing here. 3. Logic we have termed a notional science, as it exclusively is. But it is conversant with laws obeyed by the Mind in thinking, and with primary notions that control, and are involved in these. What are these primary notions ? Our notion of Causality, for instance, is it a mere notion, or does it belong to Existence also? Space and Time are forms, apart from which we can perceive nothing, are they likewise external realities, or is -uings from external realities? Questions these peopling the vast and difficult heights of Meta- physics ; occupying intensely the greatest Inquirers of former times, and all Teutonic thinkers in our own ; but, until Hamilton spoke, wholly neglected in this country, where we rested content amid the low levels of elementary Psychology. No more HAM startling proof could be given of our inertness | to metaphysical research properly so called, tin the criticisms on Kant, &c, one finds in M Stewart's dissertations dissertations, notwitl standing that Hamilton has written, still present* as an adequate account of Philosophy! Wil corresponding knowledge and power, our distil guished Thinker has passed into this field : and h speculations concerning the ' Law of the Cond turned' concerning the principle of Causality- his adventures into the still more rugged sphei of Ontology, establish before every one who ca think or judge whatever the fate of his speci; conclusions that an Inquirer is amongst us, wl need bow his head before no Greek or Teuton them all. May health empower him to carry 01 his announced and cherished designs! Eveni indeed, are not in the hands of man; but tl ' Edition of Reid,' and the ' Discussions of Phik sophy,' are possessions ; and with gratitude th long Future will receive them. What, then, is tl probable issue of a life and labours like these Shall Hamilton succeed in reviving a taste ft Metaphysics ? Is it likely that many who profef to admire him will imitate his independence Shall he be the founder of a new and purified, profound and fearless Scottish School? If sue a result were possible, Hamilton's achievement and example would secure it : but for two reason; its advent seems, to the writer of this notice, moi than doubtful. First, There are abroad man indications, that when a new School in Philosoph shall be formed, its Methods must take greate account than has yet been done, of the issues c physiological research, and of the position of Hu manity in the great Hierarchy or Organizatior It is most true, as laid down by Des Cartes, thai the reality of mental phenomena needs no attesta] tion beyond consciousness ; but although physiologj must not absorb psychology, the two ought not, an ultimately will not stand apart : the methods am] science of the latter will assuredly be found t repose upon the former. But another cause ad verse to the immediate reconstruction of anj worthy and upright Mental Science, has sprunj out of circumstances whose unravelling is probabl; still more remote. Changes in the social an.; political relations of the different classes in thi! country however fertile otherwise of good fruit ! have recently elevated into preponderance an<j power, those unsystematic views on mind an<] speculative subjects, which alone can be expecte* among busy multitudes; a condition not favour] able, now nor at any period, to the existence of aij independent philosophic class. In a country lib ours, so practical, and where men are so fond oj political station, the tendency natural to such ai epoch will unquestionably be, rather to desire ana furnish support logical merely in form to sys- tems in vogue and popular, than daringly, anc with single eve, to follow out Truth. For a therefore, Philosophy may descend into sul>ser- vience. It remains to be ascertained by whai instrumentality, in the course of Providence, suffi- cient esteem and freedom shall become assured t< the Truth-Seeker; the Multitudes discerning, tha- in Truth alone, the prize of sternest que not in heaps of Opinion, rudis inuigestaque molu\ abide Safety ana Honour. 302 HAM HAMILTON, Sir William, the friend of Nel- i, known as a diplomatist and connoisseur in the 3, and in natural history, 1730-1803. His :ond wife, Emma, Lady Hamilton, married to after a long course of licentiousness, in 1791, a woman of extraordinary beauty, and still remarkable for her powers of fascination, became the mistress of Nelson, and his politi- agent at the court of Naples, and died at Calais the most abject distress 1816. JHAMILTON, William Gerard, a Scotch Wyer and statesman, remarkable for the elo- Uce of the only two speeches he was known to ike in the House of Commons, 1729-1796. HAMMOND, A., a miscel. writer, 1668-1738. HAMMOND, H., a learned divine, 1605-1660. HAMMOND, J., au. of 'Love Elegies,' 1710-41. HAMON, John, a French Jansenist, 1618-87. HAMPDEN, John, was born at London in (94. There is little to be commemorated of his life te what belongs to the history of the period, a all his connection with it is on the surface, for [ acts were open and public, and whatever his kdjutors may nave been, he was ever free of [ret machinations to serve private ends. He longed, like nearly all the leaders of the parlia- ntary party, to one of the worshipful and ancient mtry families. His was widely ramified among s English gentry, and he counted Cromwell, ;h other opponents of the court, among his con- itions. In 1619 becoming married to Elizabeth neon, to whom he was tenderly attached, he the life of a country squire, amid a numerous spring. He represented Grampound, and after- rds Wendover, in the earlier parliaments of arles I.'s reign, but he took little concern in jlic business until the long parliament, when he 1 gradually prepared himself to suffer or to ke, as occasion might require, in support of at he deemed the fundamental principles of the istitution. He was imprisoned in the gate- lse for refusing to participate in one of the ex- fftreat Hampden Church, the burial place of Hampden.] fled loans, but this effort at coercion was aban- jied. His resistance to the imposition of a tax Ihout authority of parliament, under the obso- k name of ship-money, came to its conclu- y in 1637, when the question was solemnly Jd in the Exchequer Chamber. The decision against him, and satisfied him that armed HAN resistance to the prerogative was necessary. He threw himself with entire devotion into the busi- ness of the Long Parliament, and much of the suc- cessful dexterity with which it was conducted was due to his skill and courage. He commanded a troop in the parliamentary army. He was mor- tally wounded in an affair with Prince Rupert on 18th June, 1643, and thus left the struggle while yet it seemed on the side of the parliament one of fair defence and self-protection, and before long- sustained animosity or projects of aggrandizement had mixed themselves with the views and conduct of the parliamentary leaders. [J.H.B.] HAMPER, W., a miscellaneous writer, d. 1831. HAMPTON, J., a classical translator, d. 1778. HAMZA, the first prophet or high priest of the Druses, author of 'The Book of Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity,' 11th century. HAMZEH, a shah of Persia, killed 1585. HANBAL, a Mussulman sectarian, 786-855. HANCKINS, M., a Ger. philologist, 1633-1709. HANDEL, George Frederick, the son of an eminent surgeon and physician, was born at Halle in Saxony, on the 24th of February, 1684. His father had designed that he should follow the pro- fession of the civil law, but his love for, and early progress in music, soon proved, as in many other instances, that the parental plans had to be given up. He was then placed under the tuition of Frederick Zachau, organist of the cathedral of Halle, where he made such rapid progress, that at nine years old he was able to officiate on the organ for his master, and had begun the study of composition. When only nineteen he went to Hamburgh, where he became director of the operas, and such was his ability and talent, that it excited the jealousy of a rival musician, John Matheson. These professors had been on terms of the closest intimacy and friendship for nearly six years, when a quarrel arose upon a point of professional etiquette which ended in a duel. They fought with swords, but luckily the point of Ma- theson's sword broke against a metal button on Handel's coat, which put an end to the combat. This encounter took place on the 5th of December, 1704. Matheson and Handel soon again became good friends, for we are informed by Matheson, that on the 30th of the same month he accompanied the young composer Handel to the rehearsal of his first opera ' Almeria,' and at the theatre performed the principal character in it. Next year Handel brought out his ' Florinda,' and in the year following 'Ne- rone,' both of which were favourably received. In 1708, he composed his ' Dafne,' up to which time he had written harpsichord pieces, songs, and can- tatas innumerable. Having become possessed of some wealth, he went to Italy, and he composed in Florence the opera ' Rodrigo.' From Florence he went to Venice, where in 1709 he produced his ' Agrippina ' which was received with acclamation, and in which horns and other wind instruments were first used to accompany the voice in Italy. Here Handel met with Dominico, Scarlatti, Gas- parini, Lotti, and other great masters of musical art. He next went to Rome, where he met Ales- sandro Scarlatti, and had an opportunity of hearing music of the highest class. Here he composed ' II Trionpho del Tempo ' and gained the friendship of Cardinals Ottobeni and Painfili, the latter of 303 : v\ tote **** sail jwiM kM*Mft* 111* *2ft II I I( |,ir,i till Hi.- nnd ! tbi ri W I" ,; ;>\\, I hi Idntiiilin i n ill mi mi my nl h ii, I' 'I hv H,. In 1, /I M.ii.n | :MI ,i c : i , ,. nt.lii V irro, wl mi i 'I to ' : inns , II,, ( :.,,ll, ,;-,,,. -n llllliy WIIH 'll I. In Hi' I,., 1 1 ' ||||lfttd. in. 'I lli' ' Ml .nl /ImmiIiii;: : he wholo if lowei Italy wai theri by , ii,, |, , r| ll mull) il, nd Hi'- Hdi III / | ,,| il,.- i:,, in. in nllii ., who hud hilhw to ,. : ,,ll , t r hi iviiy. Hut tin- (IiiiiiiI, r i|, ,,| |,||i I uir.li.il'.ii, nl lf.iMiiii.il wim oot ii''- only in my wild il,, I, ,,l hi .,,1,1, ml ThrtV now adottted ,lv fa II,. ited in n i. Hi Rom dele Wl, But Bv-fifthyearofhisage. [O.TJ TKO, tin' nam<- of several disting. Car the//^, an African explorer, author of the Bios of Hanno,' Oth cent. B.C.; the second. Briral, defeated by the consul Lutatiue, '243 M the third, a general, and rival of Hamilcar Bmnihal, died 204 n.c. N8AUI), I.i.-kK, an .in. printer, 1752-1828. NSCH, M. (}., a <; ., 1683-1762. BB- BACHSK, a German poet, 11!)1 l.wO. BIVILL, Jo i iK, a Latin poet, 12th century. BfWAY, Jonah, an English merchant and Heal writer, best known as a philanthropist fend of the lower classes. He was the B>al found'T of the Marine Society and the Ben Hospital, and a great promoter of Sun- Biools, 1712-1786. l.QUIN, king of Norway, the first of the Mo bom 915, reigned 931-903; the second, II A ft third, 1161 /..,//, I ",. i M,, |,|,| /,///, I'/n i.o,; th< tirih, 1297 I : I ' lli< ,,. ,,th, horn I iii.i 1846, nndei th< nam< of hi i thei. who wm king '' II,.- throw l.'iOl HAKALD, king of Ni -I,. ,i '):;:: , iIk .-,,,/ II,-, I !)'/H | II,. third, h'.in I'll. - .,-.-,, y 1047 and wt I I 1066 I i M/, ;. |,m I. .i,|, i\ ..mi of Maj/rin -IN ,il, out ll.'iO, ii.-.oi|,<-d tin- thftMii and wan fjui died l,y uriol.bei preti nd-r 1 186. ii a ija /.!>, king of i' ' I name known < lied tlw *'<</,//,, M.pi'd !):;0!)K0; II, i- r, ,//////, :....-.. I.. I I'lM.nr.d died in Kngbind 1017 ; the "-"'A II A I: A U), n I in." of Jutland, 91 HARCOUKT, ';- i Hi ri l>; ;i I'mii'I. military ( omiriandf r, di-d 1000. HAKCOUKT, Wii.i. (AM, earl of. r ofli'fr, 'Ii tn..' in tbl Aio'th M IIAIMM.I: , IIAItl)KNJlKIU) ; Ciiaii A . ... n Von, a I'm mi. miniater of state, an'! , the political 1 1 reactions connected with the recent war, 1750- 18*22. HAKDKNHKKO, I m <> Vow. :;.., :',v,u,w. IIAKIH, Ai.kx., a I HAKM< HAKDINO, J., HAKDINO. 'In HABDINGE, Nicholas, m English and poet, 1700 1758. HU SOU, GKOK0K, jttfW- HARDION J i ' historian, 1686-1766. HAKDOUI ll i I . i 1781 1 80S. HABDOU1H. l"ii', French Jesuit of great I'-.iioin;', rtoianubl* for his op ran ln-t.ory of antiquity, 164G-1730. HARDOUIN, I .'.. 1736-1817. HABDT, Hekma*x Vak rman philologist and biat. of the reformation, HABDT, l'/.Ani *, a Oer bibHo., 1748 1811 HABDW1CKE. the earls of. 8e Y n HABDY, A., a French dramatl t, 1660 I 1 HABDT, Bll C, an Knglish arlmirai, I 1779. HABDT, Vk r. AminuL Bta 'iHoMAaMAtv ii i',u.i, captain of the Mloof HARK, Db. FuAwcia, hp. of Chichester, dist. a* a learned writer and controversialist, died 1740. HA K I ; , Bmr, liOrd Coleraine, a dist. M and collector of antiquarian subjects, 1G93-1749. HARENBERO, J. C. t a Ger. hist., 1094-1774. H Alii. I II I '.r.. N-H1L1ZA. an Arab. poet, t HAKCKAVB, ., an Knglish jurist, 1741 IIAKIOT, T.i , an Kngl. algebraist, 1560-1 HARIRI, ABW -Moil, an Arab, au.,1064-1 \2\. HAHl.l.s, 'I. Chk., 0r. mwi^ ( L7M I HARLEY, Robkkt, earl of Oxford and Morti- mer, disting. at a statesman in the reign of Queen Anne, and in conjunction with the celeb. Uoling- broke, was born 1661. He became speaker of the of Commons in 1700, privy councillor and secretary of state 1704, chancellor 1710, and lord high treasurer, after his elevation to the peerage, from 1711 to 1715, when he received his I 205 HAR The principal event of his administration was the : I'tiveht concluded 1713, and he took no .bare in public business after his retirement. He mat patron of literature, and author of some political pamphlets, but deficient in nearly all the qualities of statesmanship. From 1715 to 1717 he was confined in the Tower with an im- peachment over his head, but was finally acquitted. He died in 1724. [E.R ] HARLOW, G. H., an Eng. painter, 1787-1819. HARMAR. John, a class, trans., 1594-1670. HABMENOPULUS, Constantink, a Germ, jurisconsult, grand chancellor of Constantinople in the reign of John Paheologus, 1320-1383. BASHER, Thomas, a dissenting minister, au. of ' Observations on the Scriptures,' 1715-1788. HARO, Don Luis De, a Spanish statesman, the minister and favourite of Philip IV., 1598-1661. HAROLD, the first of the name king of Eng- land, succeeded his father Canute the Great 1035, died 1039; the second of the name, son of Godwin, earl of Kent, usurped the throne 1066, and was vanquished the same year by William the Con- queror, and killed at the battle of Hastings. HAROUN-AL-RASCHID, in English 'Aaron the Just,' a renowned caliph of Bagdad, contem- porary with Charlemagne and the empress Irene, was born in Media 765, and succeeded his elder brother as fifth caliph of the Abasside dynasty in 786. He had already acquired immense popu- larity by his victories over the Greeks, and had made Irene a tributary of the caliphate. He now raised the empire of the Arabs to its highest pitch of grandeur, uniting the talents of a philosopher to those of a conqueror, and, like Charlemagne in the West, making his court the centre of arts and letters, and the refuge of men of learning from all parts of the Eastern empire. The Arabs never tire of their eulogisms upon the magnificence, generosity, and wisdom of this prince, as all the world has read in the ' Arabian Nights' Entertain- ments.' His reign was the Augustan era of the Arabian dominion, and his imaginative subjects have celebrated it as the age of enchantment and miracle. After the death of Irene, Haroun-Al- Raschid humbled her successor, the Emperor Nice- phorus, still more deeply, made immense conquests among the Turks and other tribes of Asia, and subjugated the sect of Ali in his hereditary domin- ions. He died in 809, leaving his vast possessions divided under his three sons, which prepared the way for endless jealousies, and produced many civil commotions in after years. Haroun not only promoted learning and the arts in his dominions, hut he was himself a poet, and was easily moved to tears by the recital of poetry. Yet he was often cruel, because, like a true child of the East, he was impulsive, and severe because politic. [E.R.] HARPALUS, a Greek astronomer, 5th ct. B.C. HARPALUS, the Greek governor of Babylon, appointed by Alexander the Great, killed 325 b.c. HARPE, John Fr. De La. See Lahaiu-e. HARPHIUS, H., a Flemish mystic, died 1478. HARPSFELD, John, an English prelate and religious wr., died 1578. His brother, Nicholas, & Greek scholar and ecclesiast. historian, d. 1583. HARRIMAN, J., an Engl, botanist, 1760-1831. HARRINGTON, IL, a phy. and poet, 1729-1816. HARRINGTON, J., a political wr., 1G11-1677. HAR HARRINGTON, J., a lawyer and scholar, J thor of the life of Dr. Stradling, 1664-1693. HARRINGTON, Sir J., an English pd author of ' Epigrams and Letters,' 1561-1612. i HARRINGTON, John, Lord, guardian if Elizabeth, daugh. of James I., and the friend *il correspondent of Henry prince of Wales, 1591-16 . HARRIOT, Th., an astronomer, 1560-1621.; HARRIS, G., a philological writer, died 179(j HARRIS, General Lord George, a Britii officer, dist. in the Amer. war and India, 1759-18'. HARRIS, J., a Gr. scholar and philos., knoi as a writer on art and the philosophy of langua , 1709-1780. His son, of the same name, first ear f Malmesbury, a diplomat, and hist, wr., 1746-18 1 . HARRIS, John, a divine and mathematics, well kn. as the first projector and editor of a cya psedia or dictionary of the sciences, died 1719. ! HARRIS, Walter, a medical writer, b. W HARRIS, W., author of sermons, died 1740. | HARRIS, W., a biographical writer, died 17: HARRISON, J., inventor of the sea chroi- meter, for which he received a government t mium of 20,000, 1693-1776. HARRISON, John, a general of the parliam tary army, executed after the restoration, 1670 HARRISON, T., a dist. architect, 1744-182 HARRISON, William Henry, president the United States, 1773-1844. HART, G. V., a British officer, 1752-1832. HARTE, Walter, a poet and essayist, ant r of a history of Gustavus Adolphus, died 1773. HARTLEY, David, an English metaphysin of some note ; horn 1705 at Armley in Yorksh : died in Bath 1757. Hartley's well-known, r rather, much-heard-of, work, entitled 'Obser- tions on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and i Expectations,' occupies 3 volumes 8vo. t consists of three distinct parts. Adopting e sensational theory of the origin of human kn - ledge to its fullest extent resolving Mr. Loc s ' Reflection ' into a modification of sensation,-' e endeavours first to explain all sensations and id ?, by material agency, viz., hypothetical vibration if a hypothetical fluid, connected with the nen s system. It is not improbable that Hartley esteeJd this theory of vibrations, his most import t speculation : happily for the permanence of is repute he contributed to Psychology sometlg much more valuable than one of those count * fancies, bubbling up in every age, but wlb attain no place in tne History of Science, probably indisputable that since Aristotle's t e the Law of Association, and its sway over e succession of mental phenomena, had not bee thoroughly studied or fully exposed as in I second division of Hartley's treatise. Hobbes d Locke had done little more than assert tins git Law ; but Hartley unfolded it with a clear ft which left little to be desired. The last portio the ' Observations' is occupied with disi human duty and virtue, on our relation to ( i, and hopes of a future life. Carried out the materialistic views of the, writer, on tl mental problem as to the origin of Ideas. < fail to issue in a scheme of simple negat: these momentous theories: fortunately, Hartley's 'instincts' prevailed over his logii has bequeathed much that is excellent and true. It 306 HAR cannot be denied however, that his hook as a whole is rather a set of dissertations, than a compact treatise : its scientific value being confined to its illus- tration of the Law already referred to. Hartley's life and character were beyond reproach. He was cheerful, placid, and actively benevolent. The Heart is often a trusty safeguard of the Head, amid the perils of Speculation. [J.P.N.] HARTLEY, David, son of the celebrated philo- sopher, dist. as a practi. man of science, 1729-1813. HARTLEY, Thomas, rector of Winwick in Northamptonshire, known as a pious and learned divine, author of 'A Discourse on the Kinds of Enthusiasm and Religious Experiences,' ' An Ac- count of the Mystic Writers.' ' Paradise Regained,' 'Sermons,' &c. In the latter part of his life he became the personal friend of Swedenborg, and the first translator of many of his works, 1707-1784. HARTSOEKER, Nicholas, a Dutch physi- cian and experimental philosopher, 1656-1725. HARTUNGUS, John, a Germ, transl., d. 1579. HARTZHEIM, Jos., a Ger. savant, 1694-1763. HARVARD, John, a nonconformist divine, and founder of a college in North America, died 1688. HARVEST, G., author of sermons, died 1776. HARVEY, Sir Eliab, a British admiral, de- scended from the illustrious Wm. Harvey, d. 1830. HARVEY, Gabriel, a lawyer and poet, about 1545-1630. His brothers, John and Richard, known as writers on judicial astrology, &c. HARVEY, Gideon, a physician, died 1700. HARVEY, William, M.D., the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was born at Folkstone, Kent, a.d. 1578, and died in London, a.d. 1657, aged seventy-nine years. This remarkable man, whose name is indissolubly associated with one of the most important discoveries ever made in phy- siological science, was educated first at the gram- mar school of Canterbury, and subsequently at Caius College, Cambridge, where he spent five years. He afterwards travelled through Germany and France, and proceeding thence to Italy, he fixed himself at Padua, the medical school of which city had at that time a high reputation, and there he became the pupil of Fabricius ab Aqua- pendente, the most distinguished anatomist of his [ age, from whom he acquired a knowledge of the I valvular structure of the veins, which laid the I foundation of his future fame. In 1602 he re- | turned to England and began to practise as a physician in London ; and in 1615 he was appointed professor of anatomy and surgery to the Royal [College of Physicians. There can be no doubt that his particular opinions on the mechanism of the circulation were formed long before, but they were first publicly announced from the chair of the college to which he was now attached in the year 1616. We cannot enter into anatomical and physiological details in this place, and it must suffice to say, that Harvey for the first time de- monstrated the double function of the heart in pending out blood from the left side, through the frteries, over the whole body, and in receiving it pack by the veins to the right side, whence it is propelled into the lungs, where it loses its impuri- ties, and is again rendered fit for use. This cle- jmentary truth, which is so familiar to us, was new b those days, and as it was opposed to the pre- vailing ideaii upon the subject, it was regarded by HAR his contemporaries as an audacious novelty ; and for upwards of twenty years the propounder of this doctrine was assailed by every species of detrac- tion and calumny. He had the good fortune, however, to survive these attacks, and to see his views universally adopted before his death; nor would it be easy to find a better instance of the application of the principles of the inductive philo- sophy to the investigation of natural phenomena than that supplied by the use which Harvey made of his knowledge of the internal structure of the veins, which, even in the hands of his master Fab- ricius, had been wholly unproductive. The veins have a feeble and imperceptible contractile power, if they have any at all, and Harvey at once saw that the valves were placed in these vessels to pre- vent the reflux of the blood in its progress back to the heart, and out of this conclusion mainly arose the discovery of the true theory of the circula- tion, with all its important consequences. Of this there can be no doubt, for there still exists in the museum of the College of Physicians six tabular views, as large as life, showing this pecu- liar structure of the veins, which were executed by him or to his order, and which were presented to that learned body by his collateral descendant, the earl of Winchelsea. His right to the merit of this great discovery is incontestable, yet there have been those in modern times who have disputed it, and who have asserted that he was anticipated in his conclusions by several of the anatomists of the an- cient world, and by some of his more immediate predecessors. The passages collected from the writings of antiquity by the diligence of such authors as Dutens go for nothing in an inquiry into the existence of a great physical fact, and touch Har- vey's claims to the smallest possible extent; but one name deserves to be mentioned in connection with this subject, to wit, that of the celebrated and unfor- tunate Michael Servetus, the Spanish physician, whom Calvin and his consistory tramed for heresy at Geneva. In the year 1553, a quarter of a century before Harvey was born, Servetus published a theological treatise, in which some singular pas- sages occur on the functions of the heart and lungs, which, though vague, would seem to indicate that he had an obscure idea of the pulmonic circulation and its uses ; but such loose speculations as Ser- vetus indulged in cannot for a moment be com- pared to the severe methods and rigid deductions of Harvey, who took nothing for granted that could be experimentally proved. One of his rules was, that ' Nature herself is the most faithful in- terpreter of her own secrets ' (De Generatione Ammalium). He consulted her oracles and disco- vered the truth. Harvey was physician successively to James I. and to his son, Charles I. In the train of the latter he visited Scotland in 1633, and he has left an account of an excursion which he made on that occasion to the Bass Rock, in the Frith of Forth ; and having adhered to the fortunes of his patron, he was present, though not as a combatant, but as the guardian of the two young princes, Charles and James, at the battle of Edgehill, in 1642. During the fight he employed himself by reading a book under a hedge, but a large cannon ball grazing the ground close to him while he was so occupied, he removed with his charge to a dis- tance trom the scene of action. In 1651 his 807 EAR residence at Whitehall was plundered, and his manuscripts destroyed, a loss which he ever after deplored, as they contained the results of the ex- periments of a hfe. His works are not numerous, but they are valuable ; and his treatise on the Generation of Animals is still a standard book. He died worth 20,000, which he bequeathed to his brother, Mr. Eliab Harvey, with the exception of a yearly sum of 56 for the annual delivery of an oration at the College of Physicians, which is still known as the Harveian oration. He was diminutive in stature, with a small, round, but expressive black eye. His temper was naturally choleric, and was rendered perhaps more so by severe attacks of the gout ; and in his philosophi- cal sentiments he is believed to have inclined to the opinions of his friend Hobbes, to whom he left a legacy of 10. There is a tradition that he destroyed himself by an over-dose of opium, to avoid the pain of a fit of his habitual malady ; but this story is now discredited, as it has been ascer- tained that he died of a slight shock of paralysis, which his aged and feeble frame could not with- stand. [J.M'C.] HARWOOD, Sir Baswick, an English physi- cian and writer on anatomy and physiology, d. 1814. HARWOOD, E., a disting. divine, 1729-1794. HASDRUBAL. See Asdrubal. HASE, Theodore, a German theologian and biblical commentator, 1689-1731. His son, James, a classical writer, died 1723. HASENMULLER, Daniel, a Ger. Orientalist, author of J Janua Hebraismi Aperta,' 1651-1691. HASLEWOOD, Joseph, one of the founders and editors of the Roxburgh Club, and the collec- tor of a large library of black letter lore and Elizabethan poetry, 1769-1833. HASSAN, a grandson of Mahomet, born 625, caliph after the murder of Ali, 660, died 661. HASSAN-PACHA, grand vizier of the Otto- man emp., and a dist. military command., d. 1790. HASSE, J. A., a Germ, composer, 1705-1783. HASSEL, J. G. H., a Ger. geogra., 1770-1829. HASSELQUIST, Frederic, a Swedish botan- ist, au. of a 'Journey to the Holy Land,' 1722-52. HASTED, Edw., historian of Kent, 1732-1812. HASTING, a Danish adventurer, died 890. HASTINGS, Lady Eliza., dau. of the earl of Huntingdon, founder of schools, &c, 1682-1739. HASTINGS, Francis Rawdon, son of the earl of Moira, born 1754, distinguished as a Brit- ish officer in the American war, in Holland, and the East Indies, and governor-general of India from 1812 to 1822, governor of Malta 1824, died marquis of Hastings 1826. HASTINGS, Warren, was born in 1733. He was the son of obscure parents, but he claimed an ancient and renowned descent, and from his early childhood it was his ambition to win back the domains of his ancestors. He was educated at Westminster School, and in 1750 was appointed a writer in the service of the East India Company. In the emergency through which the ability and valour of Clive saved the British possessions, his capacity was seen while the obscure clerk carried a musket as a volunteer, and he was chosen diplo- matic agent at the Durbar. After having re- mained fourteen years in India he returned to Britain, still comparatively obscure ; but his talents HAU were remembered, and after being named second in council in Madras, he was, in 1774, appointed to thj newly-created dignity of governor-general of Bengal. The bold measures which he took to defend the British interests from Hyder Ally is one of the great epochs in the history of the British Eastern Empire. By its audacious and somewhat unscrupulous character, his career startled and alarmed British statesmen on the morality of the policy which guided the British system in the Eastern Peninsula, and he was recalled to meet the celebrated impeachment moved by Burke on 4th April, 1786. The trial was begun on 13th February, 1788, when, according to Mr. Macaulay, | The high court of Parliament was to sit accord- ing to forms handed down from the days of the Plantagenets, on an Englishman accused of exer- cising tyranny over the lord of the holy city of Benares, and the ladies of the princely house of Oude.' Political events turned public attention into other channels during the impeachment, and when it had been almost forgotten it ended in an acquittal in April, 1795. He spent his old age in retirement ; the injury which his fortunes received by the expense of his defence being but partially remedied by the gratitude of the East Indian Company. He had a taste for letters, and wrote some secondary works now forgotten. He died on 22d August, 1818. [J.H.B.] HATCHER, Thomas, an editor of the 16th ct. HATFIELD, Thomas, bp. of Durham, secre- tary of Edward III., and companion-in-arms of Percy and Ralph Nevill, died 1381. HATSELL, John, chief clerk of the House of Commons, and a writer on parliamentary sub- jects, 1733-1820. HATTO, or ATTO-VERCELLENSIS, an Ital. prelate, known as an ecclesiastical writer, 10th ct. HATTON, Sir Christopher, a courtier and dramatic writer, chancellor in 1587, died 1591. HAUBER, E. D., a German historian, 1715-65. HAU BOLD, C. C, a Germ, jurist, 1706-1824. HAUFF, Wilhelm, a German mose writer, author of ' The Man in the Moon,' ' Extracts from the Memoirs of the Devil,' &c, 1802-1827. HAUG, J. C. F., a German poet, 1761-1829. HAUGWITZ, Chr. Henry Charles, count of, the Prussian statesman who signed the treaty of Pilnitz, born 1758, retired 1806, died 1832. HAUKSBEE, Francis, an English philosopher, known for his experiments in electricity, last cent. HAULTIN, J. B., a Fr. numismatist, 1580-1640. HAUSER, Gaspard, a mysterious being found in Nuremberg 1828, assassinated 1832. HAUTEFEUILLE, John De, a Fr. physician and mechanic, au. of curious treatises, 1647-1724. HAUTERIVE, Maurice, Count De, a French diplomatist and political writer, 1754-1830. HAUTEROUHE, Noel Le Breton De, a French dramatic poet and actor, 1617-1707. HAUY, Rene Just, a celebrated mineralogist, was born at Saint Just in 1743. He died in 1822. Sprung from poor parents, who were not able to give him an education, his excellent behaviour while a child, attracted the notice of some benevo- lent individuals in his native town, who induced his mother to take him to Paris. After some little time his kind friends obtained him a bursary at the College of Navarre. When he had completed his 208 IHAIT education there he became a teacher in the estab- lishment, and continued in that humble capacity 1 1 for several years. Affection for a friend induced !| him to study botany ; and accident led him to the il j lecture-room of M. Daubenton, at that time pro- jfl fessor of mineralogy. He was charmed with the Ml lecture, and found the study of minerals more j| suited to his taste than that of plants. He was i now thirty-eight years of age. For some time his II mind had been occupied with ideas relative to the I contrast between the forms of the vegetable and i ; mineral kingdoms, when one day examining a fine specimen of calcareous spar crystallized in prisms, he accidentally let it fall. Upon examin- ing one of the broken prisms, he found that the fracture showed as smooth a face as the original, but that the form of the crystal was changed into t of a rhomb. He repeated the experiment f upon many other minerals, and always found the same result ; the component pails of each mineral were found to have the same geometrical figure, and a nucleus always similar to itself; while the variety of external forms which the masses assume arose from the manner in which the smaller crys- tals composing it are arranged. Continuing his researches and experiments, he soon succeeded in establishing the true law of crystallization. This he has explained at full length in his ' Traite" de Mineralogie,' a work which has procured for him an immense reputation. In 1792 M. Haiiy was imprisoned along with many other ecclesiastics. By the assistance of his pupil Geoft'roy St. Hilaire, he was, however, soon after released, and remained for the future untouched and unmolested. In 1802 he was elected professor of mineralogy at the Gar- den of Plants. Napoleon treated him with much respect ; made him a canon of Notre Dame, and an officer of the Legion of Honour; but at the restoration he was treated with cruel neglect by the government, and died in comparative poverty. [W.B.] HAUY, Valentine, brother of the mineralo- gist, fndr. of an institut. for the blind, 1746-1822. HAVERCAMP, S., a Germ, critic, 1683-1742. HAVERS, C., an English anatomist, last cent. HAVET, A. E. M., a Fr. naturalist, 1795-1820. HAWEIS, T., a religious writer, 1734-1820. HAWES, Stephen, an English poet, 15th c. HAWES, William, a physician of London, founder of the Humane Society, and author of miscellaneous writings, 1736-1808. HAWKE, Edward, Vice-Admiral Lord, cele- brated for his victories over the French in the middle of last century, died 1781. HAWKER, Dr. Robert, a well-known evan- gelical div., au. of Commentaries,' &c, 1753-1827. HAWKESWORTH, John, LL.D., an essayist and miscellaneous writer of the age of Johnson, editor of ' The Adventurer,' 1715-1773. HAWKINS, Sir John, a London magistrate, known as a miscellaneous writer, 1719-1789. HAWKINS, Sir John, a British admiral, dis- tinguished against the Spaniards in the reign of Elizabeth, the first to begin the slave trade, 1520- 1595. His son, Sir Richard, a naval com- mander and writer, 1582-1G22. HAWKSMOOR, Nicholas, the pupil and suc- cessor of Sir Christopher Wren, as surveyor and arcliit. of the new churches in London, 16C6-1736. HAY HAWKWOOD, Sir John, an English general, distinguished in the wars of Edward III., d. 1393. HAWLES, John, a writer on law, 1645-1716. H AWLEY, Joseph, one of the ablest advocates of independence in the American legis., 1724-88. HAWORTH, A. H., an Eng. naturalist, d. 1833. HAXO, F. B., Baron, a Fr. officer, 1774-1838. HAY, James, the first Scotchman raised to the English peerage, created by James I. Lord Hay, Viscount Doncaster, and Earl Carlisle, died 1636. HAY, William, an English essayist, d. 1755. HAYDN, Francis Joseph, was born at Rohrau, a small town about fifteen leagues from Vienna, in March, 1732, of very humble parents, his father being a wheelwright and parish sexton, and his mother, before her marriage, having been cook at the chateau of a neighbouring noble- man. Haydn seems to have inherited a taste for music from his father, who had a fine tenor voice, and had made some progress as a performer upon the organ, and could accompany himself and his wife upon the harp. While yet quite a child he showed an early predilection for music, and a cousin of his father who was schoolmaster at Heim- burgh, taught him to perform upon the violin and sing with taste. This relation also taught him Latin, which qualified him to sing in the choir of St. Stephen's at Vienna, and where he soon attracted the attention of Reuter the chapel mas- ter. Haydn pursued his musical studies with great earnestness, and under circumstances of great privation. Such was his industry, however, that while he was under Reuter, no single day passed without his having devoted sixteen and sometimes eighteen hours to his music lessons. Having commenced to study composition, he at thir- teen years old, began to write a mass. He gained his livelihood from singing till the age of seventeen, when his soprano voice left him. After this period, being unable to pay for lessons in counterpoint and harmony, he procured an old work on the art, and in spite of the pedantic rules of the old book he had to study from, he soon became well informed in the science of music. About this time he became acquainted with Por- pora and Metastasio, with whom he spent some of his time very agreeably, but nothing of importance occurred in his life up till the year 1771, with the exception of an unhappy marriage, which he con- tracted with Anne Kellar, a prudish damsel, who, in addition to a tiresome parade of virtue, had, as his biographer informs us, a ' mania for priests and monks.' In the year named above, he was appointed chapel master to Prince Esterhazy, which appointment put an end for ever to his pecuniary embarrassments. In the service of this prince in the palace at Eisenstadt, Haydn pro- duced many of his great works, and under advan- tages which few composers ever possessed he had a full and excellent band, living under the same roof with him, at his command every hour of the day. Thus passed the life of Haydn till the year 1791, when he arrived in England to fulfil an en- gagement with M. Salomons, who was then giving concerts in the Hanover Square Rooms. During this engagement he produced six of his 'Twelve Grand Symphonies, and also published many canzonets, quartetts, sonatas, &c. In 1794, h'e again visitea London under an engagement to HAT Gallini, then manager of the King's theatre, Hay- market, and at which period he produced the re- maining six of his ' Grand Symphonies.' While in London, the greatness of his genius, and the amiability of his manners, brought him many friends, and rendered his success quite triumphant At the close of this engagement Haydn returned to Vienna, and never afterwards left it. In 1795, Haydn commenced the composition of his ' Crea- tion,' and was two whole years employed upon it. On one occasion, when asked why the Oratorio was not finished, Haydn answered with the utmost tranquillity ' I am long about it, because I wish it to last long.' This wish was a prophecy, his ' Crea- tion ' will last for ever. The ' Creation ' was brought out in 1798, and two years afterwards he gave to the world his ' Seasons.' The last great work upon which his genius exerted himself, was two sets of quartetts. In his latter years he em- ployed himself in setting accompaniments to some Scotch airs for the late Mr. George Thomson of Edinburgh. In 1805, he, by the advice of his physician, gave up all study, and from this time he never left his villa at Gumpendorff. The closing scene of this great composer's life was not less re- markable than his career was illustrious. The last time he appeared in public was at the per- formance of the ' Creation,' which was honoured by the presence of more than 1,500 people, amongst whom were many of the nobles and princes of Aus- tria. ' Surrounded by the nobility of Vienna and his friends, by artists, by lovely women, whose eyes were fixed upon him, listening to the praises of God, which he himself had imagined, Haydn bid a glorious adieu to the world.' Soon after this, war broke out between France and Austria ; this intelligence vexed him and exhausted the last re- mains of his strength. ' The French armies ad- vanced rapidly, and on the 10th of May, 1809, having reached Schonbrunn about half a league distant from Haydn's villa, they fired next morning hundreds of cannon shot upon Vienna, that city so much beloved by him. Four bombs having fallen close to his house, his two servants, with terror depicted in their countenances, ran to him; the old man, by an effort, rose from his arm-chair, and with a dignified air, cried, 'Why such alarm! know that, where Haydn is, no evil can happen.' But this exertion was beyond his strength ; a con- vulsive shivering prevented him adding more, and he was immediately conveyed to bed. On the 26th of May, he was almost completely exhausted ; notwithstanding, he had his piano moved towards him, and sung three times with a voice as loud as he could, ' God save the Emperor.' These were his last words. At his piano he became insensible, and he expired on the morning of the 31st. Haydn was very religious. The commencement of all his scores are inscribed with one of the fol- lowing mottoes '/ Nomine Domini,' or i Soli Deo Gliria,' 1 and at the end of them all l Laus Deo.' His works are exceedingly numerous in all classes. Among them are 116 symphonies, 83 violin quar- tetts, 60 pianoforte sonatas, 15 masses, 4 oratorios, a grand ' Te Deum,' a ' Stabat Mater,' 14 Italian and German operas, 42 duets and canzonets, and 200 divertimentos for particular instru- ments. [J.M.] HAYDON, Benjamin Robekt, was born at HAY Plymouth, 23d January, 1786 ; his father was a bookseller, and he was educated in early youth at Plympton Grammar School, where Sir Joshua Reynolds had been brought up. Haydon deter- mined upon becoming a painter, contrary to the wishes of his parents. His father, however, assisted him for several years in the metropolis : he visited London in 1804, and became a pupil of the Royal Academy in 1805. He had the advantage of the acquaintance of Northcote, Opie, and Fuseli, as ad- visers, and of Jackson and Wilkie as fellow-pupils. His ambitious views of art were early developed : in 1807 he exhibited a picture of the ' Flight into Egypt,' purchased by Mr. Hope, which procured him a commission from Lord Mulgrave for ' Den- tatus,' a picture which, from the dissatisfaction lie felt at its being placed in the ante-room in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1809, appears to have been the first cause of most of his subsequent trouble, for not imagining that others might not think so highly of the picture as he did himself, he made the supposed injustice a cause of quarrel with the Academy, and the notion of injustice, or rather owing to his inordinate vanity, a conspiracy to suppress him, developed itself into a monomania, and possessed his mind the whole of his life. Den- tatus has been admirably engraved in wood by his pupil Harvey. The encouragement, however, I which Haydon got from Lord Mulgrave, both! social and professional, gave a great impulse to his 1 exertions, and Dentatus was succeeded by a con- siderable series of great works. He now, to make! up some deficiencies of execution, devoted himself for half a year to the practice of portrait painting i at Plymouth, and after his return to London he] became an enthusiastic student of the Elgin Mar- 1 bles, then recently brought from Greece; the excel-! lence of which he professes to have been the first I to point out to the British public, rather naively! overlooking the claims of Lord Elgin himself, who! had spent 52,000 in securing them and bringing! them to England. The following are Haydon's! frincipal works in the order of their production : I n 1812 'Macbeth,' for Sir George Beaumont; in 1814 the 'Judgment of Solomon,' for which he; was voted the freedom of his native town, and in this year he visited Paris; in 1820 'Christ's Entry! into Jerusalem,' (now in America,) which pro-j duced him nearly 3,000 by its exhibition alone, in London, Edinburgh, and Glasgow; in 1821 1 'Christ's Agony in the Garden,' (in this year he) was married); in 1823 'The Raising of Lazarus,' i (now at the Pantheon,) in this year he was ar-j rested for debt, and passed through the Insolvent! Court; in 1826 'Pharaoh Dismissing the Israelites,'! and 'Venus and Anchises; in 1827 'Alexander and Bucephalus,' for Lord Egremont, and 'Eucles;'' in 1828 'The Mock Election in the King's Bench,'' purchased by George IV.; in 1830 'Napoleon at] St. Helena,' for Sir Robert Peel, a picture he after-) wards repeated in small nearly thirty times; in' 1832 'Xenophon's First Sight of the Sea,' in the! retreat with the 10,000; in 1834 'The Reform 1 Banquet,' for Lord Grey, ' Cassandra,' and ' Wait- ing for the Times;' in 1835 'Achilles at the Courti of Lycomedes Discovering his Sex ;' in 183(i ' Sam- son and Delilah,' (this year he passed a second time through the Insolvent Court;) in 1838 'Christ! Blessing Little Children,' for Liverpool ; in lbui) 310 IHAY e Duke at Waterloo,' also for Liverpool; in he lectured (gratis) at the Ashmolean Museum, :(jford, and henceforth his time was divided be- tien lecturing and painting ; he found the former Itj more profitable pursuit, his lectures are pub- Led: in 1841 'The Anti-Slavery Convention,' jjk 'The Maid of Saragossa;' in 1842 'Curtius jhping into the Gulf 5' in 1843 the cartoon of the Intry of the Black Prince into London,' with (ig John of France prisoner ; this was in com- lition for Westminster Hall, in which Haydon [led, a failure which some of his friends supposed jhave been fatal to him; in 1844 'Alexander lling the Lion,' and a large repetition of ' Napo- n at St. Helena,' which was purchased by the jig of Hanover ; in 1845 'Uriel and Satan ;' and ,;tly, in 1846 the ' Banishment of Aristides,' and jfero Watching the Burning of Rome,' represent- [5 the evils both of democracy and of despotism : ese last were two of a series of six which he had signed years ago, for the illustration of the old puse of Lords. These pictures Haydon exhibited usual, but he was unusually unsuccessful with em. He had often lost by his exhibitions, but metimes had gained large sums, as in the case 'Christ's Entry into Jerusalem;' in this last ihibition he lost 111 lis. 5d., and this loss at a me when he was penniless, added to his deep sappointment at not being employed in the de- lation of the Houses, at last overcame his all it indomitable energy, and he destroyed himself the 22d of June of this year, 1846. One of the itest entries in his diary is : ' Tom Thumb had 2,000 people last week, B. R. Haydon, 133.4 (the a little girl). Exquisite taste of the English eople.' It may be supposed by some that Hay- on was a martyr to his love of what is termed \1igh Art: the facts of his life show anything but jhis. He began his career with almost unexampled [ncouragement, and appears even at all times to pave found friends, who gave and lent him consider- able sums of money, from 50 to 1,000, and his professional receipts were by no means small; from the years 1831 to 1836 inclusive, he received from this source alone 4,617 2s. 3d., an average of 750 per annum ; yet he was always in diffi- culties sufficient to have harassed most men to death in as many months as Haydon endured them years : his debts amounted to about 3,000 at his death. The cause of common justice renders these details imperative, both from the extraordinary circumstances of Haydon's death, and his habitual accusations against the Academy for its jealous tyranny, and the people for their hopeless want of taste. Haydon had no other enemy than himself; he appears to have been wholly wanting in com- mon sense ; his ambition was so excessive that it destroyed his judgment, and his extraordinary energy wanted that counterbalancing ability to insure a real artistic success : he was impulsive and desultory, mistook the will for the deed, and neglected the commonest elements of excellence in execution ; he was extremely mannered ; with the exception of a large style of design (indicated, not executed), and a warm and powerful colouring, we miss every other requisite of a fine picture: yet such was his extraordinary vanity, that he identified the fate of the art of his country with that of his own efforts, and assumed all pro- HEB gress to have proceeded from himself, while per- haps no individual artist ever had less influence on the taste of his time, or even that of his own pupils, who do not retain a single trace of his style ; indeed, Sir Charles Eastlake, Sir Edwin Land- seer, and Lance, the fruit painter, Haydon's prin- cipal scholars, illustrate three as opposed paths, as the whole province of painting could possibly dis- play. (See Memoirs of B. R. Haydon from his Journals. Longman, 1853.) [R.N.W.1 HAYER, J. N. H., a Fr. relig. writer, 1718-80. HAYES, Ch., an Eng. mathema., 1678-1760. HAYES, W., a musical composer, 1708-1777. HAYGARTH, J., a medical author, d. 1813. HAYLEY, W., a poet and mis. wr., 1745-1820. HAYM, N. F., an Ital. numismatist, 1670-1730. HAYMAN, F., an English painter, 1708-1776. HAYMO, a German commentator, died 853. HAYNAU, Jules De, an Austrian general noted for his cruelty to the Hungarians in 1849, 1786-1853. HAYNE, F. G., a Germ, botanist, 1763-1832. HAYNE, Isaac, a colonel in the American army, executed by the English as a traitor 1781. HAYNE, Th., a learned divine, 16th century. HAYTON, theirs/ of the name, k. of Armenia, 1224-1268 ; the second, 1289-1308. HAYTON, an Armenian historian, died 1310. HAYWARD, Sir J., an Eng. historian, d. 1627. HAYWOOD, Elizabeth, a miscel. writer, au- thor of ' The Female Spectator,' &c, 1693-1756. HAZAEL, a king of Syria, 9th century B.C. HAZLITT, William, a well-known essayist and critic of art and poetry, was the son of a uni- tarian minister, and was born at Maidstone 1778. He was in early life an artist, but not satisfied with his attainments in this profession, he came to London and commenced the career of an author in 1803, from which time till his death in 1830, he was constantly before the public as a journalist and miscellaneous writer. His largest work is the ' Life of Napoleon,' in 4 vols., but he is most esteemed for the philosophical spirit of his criticisms. His literary remains, with a biographical memoir, were published by his son shortly after his death. HEADLEY, H., an English poet, 1766-1788. HEAPY, T., a water-colour painter, 1775-1830. HEARNE, S., an English navigator, 1735-92. HEARNE, T., an Eng. antiquar., 1680-1735. HEARNE, T., an archit. engraver, 1744-1817. HEATH, Benj., a learned writer, last century. HEATH, James, an historical writer, 1629-64. HEATH, Jas., a dist. engraver, 1756-1834. His son, Charles, also an em. engraver, 1784-1848. HEATH, Nicholas, archbishop of York and chancel, of Engld. in the reign of Q. Mary, d. 1560. HEATHCOTE, R., a miscel. writer, 1721-1795. HEBEL, J. P., a German poet, 1760-1818. HEBER, or EBER, a patriarch of Syria, from whom it is supposed the Hebrews derive their name (Genesis x. 24). HEBER, Reginald, a learned clergyman of the Church of England, 1728-1804. His son, of the same name, the well-known bishop of Calcutta, distinguished as a poet and essayist, 1783-1826. Richard, half-brother of Bishop Heber, known as a learned editor, 1773-1833. HEBERDEN, William, M.D., F.R.S., alearned and distinguished English physician, was born at 311 HEB London in 1 710. After the usual preliminary edu- cation at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, which he entered at the early age of seven, and where he remained till 1724, he was transferred to St. John's College, Cambridge. Here he graduated as B.A. in 1 7Js, and as A.M. in 1732 ; and having resolved to follow medicine as a profession, he obtained his degree as M.I), in that university in 1739. He practised as a physician at Cambridge, giving lectures on materia mcdica at the same time in the university till the year 1746, when he removed to London, where he speedily attained to great eminence, and where he continued to reside ever afterwards. He died in Pall Mall on the 17th of May, 1801, in the ninety-first year of his age. Dr. Heberden was one of the best classical scholars of his time, and one of the most perfectly instructed medical men England has ever possessed. It was to a suggestion of his that the ' Medical Transac- tions' owe their origin, and he contributed to the first three volumes of that valuable publication many important papers ; he is best known, how- ever, by his ' Commentaries on the History and Cure of Disease,' a posthumous work, published by his son in 1802. [J.M'C] HEBERT, a French writer, 13th century. HE BERT, James Rene, one of the Jacobin leaders of the French revolution, commonly called ' Pere Duchesne,' from the name of his journal, was born at Alencon towards 1755, and executed with his accomplices Chaumette, Anacharsis Cloots, and others, on the 24th of March, 1794. He was the most brutal journalist of the period, and played a leading part in every conspiracy against the establishment of law and order, and in the detestable massacres of September, 1792. On the 10th of August preceding he had been installed among the magistrates of the people at the Hotel de Ville, and from this period he laboured to exalt the municipal authority above that of the conven- tion. The Girondins were sacrificed in the straggle which ensued, but Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety only awaited a proper opportunity, and arrested the party of Hebert, at the very moment they were threatening a new insurrection. The followers of Hubert and Chaumette, generally called ' Hebertists,' were atheists, and their leaders were as obscene and cruel in outward conduct as they were irreligious in heart. The charge on which they were executed was that of endeavour- ing to destroy the republic by immorality. [E.R.] H EC ART, G. A. J., a Fr. philologist, 1755-1838. HECHT, Christian, a Ger. divine, 1696-1748. HECHT, Godfrey, a learned writer, d. 1721. HECKEL, J. F., a Ger. philologist, d. 1715. HECQUET, P., a Fr. med. author, 1661-1737. HEDERIC, Benjamin, a German philologist, an. of a well-known Greek Lexicon, 1675-1748. HEDIN, Sueno Andrew, a Swedish physi- cian, and author of medical works, 1750-1821. HEDGES, Sir Ch., a min. of state, d. 1714. HEDIO, Gaspar, a Ger. reformer, 1495-1552. HE D WIG, John, a Ger. botanist, 1730-1799. HEDWIGA, a queen of Poland, 1371-1399. HEDYYTGA, St., a religious founder, d. 1243. HEEM, J. De, a Dutch painter, 1600-1674. HEEMSKIRCK, Martin Van Veen of, a Dutch painter, time of Michelangelo, 1498-1574. HEEN, Chris., a Swiss numismatist. 1715-69. HEG HEENE, Lucas De, a Flem. paint., 1534-& HEEREN, Arnold Hermann Li:i>wig, learned professor and historian of Ger., 17t50-184 HEERKENS, G. N., a Germ, poet, 1728-180 HEGEL, George William Frederick, bo at Stuttgardt 1770, died at Berlin, in the flush of] fame, November 14, 1831. A philosopher wh< power and renown remind one of traditions concer ing a Pythagoras : he created a School, not or numbering in its ranks his most distinguish contemporaries, but exciting a whole people: t influence of Hegel diffused itself through the po tics and religion, as well as through all the spec lation of Germany. The principles on which tl remarkable thinker constructed his system are tw fold. First, his discovery, or alleged discovery, a universal law according to which Thought unfol itself the fundamental and sole law of /Jialecti Every thing or notion, says Hegel, exists to t mind, because it has, or is seen to have, a contr dictory : in other words, there is some other thi or notion standing out right against it, and opposition marking it off, or defining it. A n tion and its opposite, or contradictory, are t\ elements essential to every act of thinking ; and soon as these are realized, a third act or moveme supervenes viz., the effort to reconcile the tioo co tradiclories, or to find some third, and of com higher notion, in which they unite or bleu Three elements, therefore, a notion, its conti dictory, and the solution of the contradiction, a thesis, its anti-thesis, and the syn-thesis of the ti represent a complete act of logic, or one mov ment of dialectic ; and on the type of this moveme Hegel undertook to explain the entire course ai action of Thought in its efforts to comprehend t Universe. It were not easy to over-estimate t surprising skill with which a task so novel and a duous has been executed : in this respect indeed t ' Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences' 1 will ev be a marvel. Thought is presented to the asto ished reader, rising up from its barest express* through a gigantic scheme of ascending triple, until, having comprehended every form and sphe of possible knowledge, it reaches the Absolute ai the Infinite. The attempt has indeed failed : i failure was as necessary and has been as signal that of Babel ; nevertheless, in making it, Hej had successes that might have achieved station f many minds instead of one : he has thrown lig on the methods and relationships of several depar ments of knowledge, that will abide connected wi his name, as a rare and beneficent contribution 1 philosophy. Secondly, Hegel's next principle,- yet more distinctive, is also more unusui Schelling before him had spoken of the Absolute I the necessarily existing Unity blending together tl whole variety of thought and things ; Dut this AI solute he deemed an Essence, not irreconcileable wil the notion of God. Hegel resolved that nothii unintelligible no obscure residuum should rema in philosophy. What, he asked, is Reality ? Wh; is the thing truly known, in the Cogtto of D Cartes ? Is it other than Thought t I know nr self or my existence, because I think myself. I to the external world, as men term it, Fichte d> monstrated it a mere modification of the tliinkir principle; what is it too, then, save a mo<lificati< of Thought t What need in such a case of Esstnc 312 I mat k it HEG 1 1 1 Substances ? Thought is at once Knoicledge and Ij^ewce ; the Ideal is the true and only Real. |jd so disappear for ever, unknown quantities or Instances from philosophy ; and science at last is uate! Singular as this principle, taken by ', must look to the English reader, the conse- ces of its union with Hegel's. first assumption, still more astounding. If the knowledge of ings can be expressed or referred to one universal vement of dialectic, are not Things themselves the reality we can reach simply the evolution Thought, according to this movement ? In other rds, does not Dialectic represent, nay create by movements, all that we call the Universe ? At 9 point Hegel starts farthest away from Schel- Schelling's Absolute was primary, the great and ultimate principle necessary to harmonize variety of existence : according to Hegel the lute is evolved created as well as risen to, by ght ; God, in short, is not the discovery, but t issue of dialectic ; and exists nowhere nor in p manner, apart from our human consciousness! is needful in candour to warn the student, that must not judge of the verisimilitude of a scheme extraordinary, by this barest outline. No re- rkable system of thought, can fairly be separated m its details, inasmuch as these are the bridge which alone we can pass over from ordinary des of contemplation ; and it will not be con- ded that the high genius of Hegel failed to vide the strong semblance of such a bridge, ing that multitudes of the keenest thinkers in many not only became passionate adherents of doctrine, but put their sincerity to the test, accepting all its practical conclusions. It were dently out of the question to attempt here a mal criticism of Hegelianism : nevertheless there a few general remarks on the whole set of these [Hilosophies of the Absolute,' which, from our itish point of view, it may not be unfitting to pture, as the conclusion of this article. (See art. welling.) 1. There is one meaning and applica- q of the term Absolute, legitimized and accepted I this country, which must be carefully distin- ished from the common significance of the same (m in Germany. Truths fundamental to, and (eparable from our human nature, are in our glish phraseology, absolute, to that Nature : in ker words, we must accept these as ultimate and Jyitable conditions of human thought expressive, k, of the structure of that physical and rehical fabric, which is the composite being, Man. transcendental philosophy of the Absolute, on s other hand, is not a philosophy aspiring to dis- nand rest on truths of the nature of the foregoing; t one which aims at grasping, defining, and un- iing the absolute principle of the whole universe : 1 a reverential philosophy aspiring to discern the stence of a Primal Cause, a substratum and vidence ; but to apprehend the whole structure that prime efficiency, to formalize it, and deduce m it the necessity of all that has been, that is, i that shall unfold. To Man, such a philosophy simply unattainable. On the vexed question, j ether it is possible to effect the transition from rtaphysics to Ontology to infer from the exist- se of necessary truths, the existence of corres- ndin realities one may hold by the affirmative " all tenacity, and yet repeat the assertion that HEI a philosophy with snch aims is utterly unattain- able. From the intellectual and moral constitution of Humanity it may be legitimate to conclude some- thing concerning the attributes of the Primal Cause : but to fathom the nature of the Cause, is beyond reach of all those faculties that belong to us. Hu- manity is but one force among myriads one soli- tary though rich and potent Monad and it cannot encircle or comprehend the Infinite. Nay, this is manifested, by the very progressiveness of our own nature. What is absolute to us, we reach by Intui- tion ; and there is no part of humanity so educable as the Intuitive faculty. In the growth of this power lies the secret of the growth of civilization : and evidence abounds, that what we now discern of absolute or intuitive truth, is far from the measure of what may one day be accessible, without any transcendence of the sphere of Humanity. How vain then, how vainly audacious the attempt, through our present or realized insight, to reach the ultimate depths of Being ! 2. To whatever extent we can discern the Absolute or Infinite, it clearly must be through reliance in the first place on those ultimate elements or constituents of human thought : and as well in logic, as in masonry, it were fatal to remove the foundation scaffolding, simply because we have ascended several stages above it. But, these philosophies of the absolute, destroy the foundation on which alone they can rest : the logi- cal scheme of Hegel obliterates as entirely, human liberty, human personality, human morality in every one of its directest consequences, as the lowest materialistic systems. It is thus a practical paralogism, and issues in a defiance of that very Cogito of Des Cartes, to which at the outset it pro- fesses unquestioning allegiance. These irremediable defects inhere in most of our recent transcendental systems ; which are liable, besides, to equally fatal specific objections. It is gratifying to know, that in Germany itself, they seem to have run their course; and that modern thinkers, with aspira- tions humbler but more real, are now working out the various invaluable hints which their founders have thrown, on themes sufficiently promising, such as the Philosophy of History. Hegel's works have been collected and published in a great many volumes by the most eminent of his disciples. [J.P.N.] HEGESIPPUS, an ecclesiasti. historian, 2d ct. HEGEWISCH, T., a Germ, histor., 1760-1815. HEIDEGGER, J. H., a Swiss theologian and historian, au. of 'Historia Papatus,' &c, 1G33-98. HEIM, Eknest, L., a German medical writer, 1747-1834. His brother, J. L. Hkim, a min- eralogist, and writer on Thuringia, 1741-1819. HEIN, Peter, a Dutch captain, 17th century. HEINE, H., a German author, 1797-1847. HEINECCIUS, John Gotlikb, a German lawyer, and antiquarian writer, 1681-1741. His brother, John Michael, anantiquar., 1674-1722. HEINSE, J. J. G., a Ger. novelist, 1746-1803. HEINSIUS, Daniel, a Dutch philologist, his- torian, and Latin poet, 1580-166o. Nicholas, his son, a poet and classical editor, 1620-1681. Anthony, a member of the same family, grand pensionary of Holland, 1641-1720. HEINZ, J., a Swiss painter, 16th century. HEISS, J. De, a German historian, died 1688. HEISTER, Lawrence, a celebrated German 313 HEL physician and surgeon of the last century, was bofn at Frankfort on the 21st of September, 1683, and died at Hclmstadt on the 18th of April, 1758. He was much distinguished in his day both as a Ehysician and a surgeon, particularly as the latter, aving acquired a practical knowledge of the art of surgery as a surgeon of the allied army in the low countries. He was successively professor of anatomy and surgery at Altorf and Helmstadt. His works are numerous, and embrace treatises on anatomy, surgery, and medicine, but they are now little consulted. [J.M'C.] HELE, Thos., an English dramatist, d. 1780. HELENA, St., mother of Constantine the Great, and founder of a church on Calvary, 247-328. HELIODORUS, a Greek mathematician, 2d ct. HELIODORUS, a Gr. bishop and au., 4th ct. HELIOGABALUS, a Roman emp., 218-222. HELL, Maximilian, a Hungarian astronomer and writer on the magnet, &c, 1720-1792. HELLOT, J., a French chemist, 1685-1766. HELM AN, J. S., a Fr. engraver, 1743-1797. HELMERS, J. F., a Dutch poet, 1767-1813. HELMICH, W., a Dutch theolog., 1551-1608. HELMONT, Jean Baptist Van, generally numbered among the alchymists, was a native of Brussels, and was bom 1577. He was a public lecturer on medicine when only seventeen years of age, and at twenty-two received his diploma as a physician. Being rendered independent by his marriage with a lady of property in 1609, he dis- played his benevolence by practising his profession gratuitously, and devoted his leisure to the studies of which his name has become such a famous re- presentative. It is admitted that he was a great pioneer in chemical discovery, but there is also a fund of valuable truth under the obscure terms which are generally regarded as the mere conceits of his imagination. The archevs, for example, which makes a conspicuous figure in his works, is the mover of all the functions in the animal econo- my, and may be regarded as the vital aura which is the subject of so much popular curiosity, and the ridicule of so many learned professors, at the present day. It was from the archeus that Bar- thez derived his idea of a vital principle, and oper- ated a revolution in physiology. The same ele- ment, or spiritual essence of life, is recognized by nearly all the old philosophers under different names, and there is now every prospect of its coming within the pale of experimental philoso- Ehy. Of course, it is not pretended to deny that [elmont's works abound in crude notions, and wild fantastic theories, but even in these cases the imaginative may often find the road to some true, and now forgotten principle, from which the au- thor wandered away in the fire-mists with which he surrounded himself. Apart from all this, he was a perfect master of his art, and there is evi- dence of the astonishing cures he performed as a physician. He died in 1644, and in 1648 his col- lected works were published, according to his dy- ing request, by his son, Francis Mercury Van Hklmoht, who was also a speculative writer, and lived 1618-1699. [E.R.] HELMONT, M. Van, a Dutch paint., d. 1726. HELSHAM, R., a natural philosopher, d. 1738. HKLST, B. Van Deh, a Dutch pain., 1613-70. HELTAI, G., a prot. wr. of Hungary, 16th ct. HEL HELVETIUS. The physicians and philosopl of this name are sprung from a family of the P tinate, the first founders of which fled to Holl to avoid persecution at the period of the refon tion. 1. Jea^t Frederic, (Schweizer), i bears the reputation of an alchymist, was 1 physician to the armies of the republic, and several medals struck in honour of the serv rendered by him, flourished 1625-1709. 2. Ji Adrian, who carried the family name to Pi by going there in his youth, was the son of preceding, and was known in the city of his ad tion as the Dutch physician. He was ennoblec Louis XIV. for his services, having been suo sively equerry, counsellor of the king, and insj tor-general of hospitals. He is the author several medical works, especially on fevers, on plague, and on the extirpation of cancer, an< the discoverer of the curative virtues of ipecacuhi Some of his works went through several edit during his lifetime and afterwards ; lived 16 1727. One of his sons, 3. Jean Claude i rian, became councillor of state and first ph cian to the queen, and was a member of mos the learned societies of Europe. His works ' Idee Generale de l'Economie Animale, et Ob vations sur la Petite Verole,' and 'Princ Physica-Medica,' in which he attributes all dise to the fermentation of the blood, and its irrup into the lymphatic vessels. Like the other mem of his family, he was of an original and specula turn, and his hypotheses generally provoked < troversy. His son, the fourth and most fan of the name, is the subject of the folio v notice. [E HELVETIUS, Claude Adrian, born Paris 1715, died December, 1771. The celet at one time enjoyed by Helvetius, rests on his y De V Esprit a treatise on theoretical and pracl morality. Starting from the ground that ma a being simply and purely sensible, he rapidlj fers that morality signifies the search after plea and effort to avoid pain. Nevertheless, as remai in the article Epicurus, granting the postal the inquiry remains, how can one best attain p sure and avoid pain? And Helvetius desirei raise men to the pursuit of large objects, contrasts with this view, the mean morality of purely self-seeking and vulgar-minded, with higher but still narrow morality of sects and c ries, and this last with the generous and unfett action and serene enjoyments of the man wl sympathies are coextensive with his race. It to be said, in justice to one whose merits ; thinker are not great, but often unduly ato and depreciated, that action according to his cepts, would, by no means frequently, be foun jar with the results of a better system. Helvt was a good and keen observer : hence the mB Madame du Deffand, ' C est un homme qui le secret de tout le monde.' Besides his Es he wrote a treatise De V Homme. They are I and wearisome in the main . and before rec mending their perusal even to a student 1 fullest leisure, it would be fair to say that ev thing good in them may be obtained at a n cheaper rate. [J.P HELVETIUS, J., a Dutch poet, last centu; HELVICUS, C, a German savant, 1581-H 1 314 HEL LWIG, Amelia Von, a German lady, dist. oetess and for her great learning, 1776-1832. LWIG, G. A., a Prussian nat., 1666-1748. LWIG, John Otto, a German medical and collector of natural curiosities, 1654-98. rother, Christopher, a botan., 1663-1721. LYOT, Peter, a French ecclesiastic of extraction, author of a ' History of Monas- ders, Religious and Military,' 1660-1716. MANS, Felicia, the daughter of a Liver- nerchant, was born in that town in 1794. rowne wrote verses from her childhood, and hcd a poetical volume in her fourteenth year. second volume, containing poems on 'The "c Affections,' which appeared in 1812, her as already successful in the school of belL In the same year she married Captain who, after some years, went to reside on itinent, Mrs. Hemans remaining at home, five sons. Always devoted to study and ition, she now became more so than ever ; was matter of much regret, to the poetess as to the admirers of her verses, that she felt compelled, by the expenses attending the n of her children, to spend her powers in tost uninterrupted succession of small pieces, usually made their first appearance in the Is or the day. It is hardly, indeed, to be that, even with more favourable oppor- she would have succeeded much better she did in narrative or dramatic poetry. The icter of her genius was decidedly lyncal and Itive. But leisurely composition would doubt- ave checked the verbosity and mannerism |B are the besetting faults even of her latest jnest poems. As it is, there are not a few of mall pieces which are alike fine in feeling and action; and the very marked manner which gradually formed for herself has found a host ttitators. Her poems are admirable for purity ntiment and gentle pathos ; and her personal icter was amiable, modest, and exemplary. r several changes of residence, she died in an in 1835. [W.S.] EMELAR, J., a Dutch antiquarian, d. 1640. EMMELINCK, or HEMMLING, J., a painter rages, considered one of the first masters of flemish school, born 1450. EMMSEN, J., a Flemish painter, 16th cent. FMSKERCK, E., a Dutch painter, 1645-1704. EMSKERK. See Heemskirck. EMSTERHUYS, or HEMSTERHUSIUS, I emus, a learned Dutch critic and Orientalist, -1756. His son, Francis, a writer on arts i| philosophy, and an able statesman, d. 1790. \ G. De, a Spanish theolog., 1611-1704. I ' LT, Charles John Francis, a cele- jed Fr. historian and dramatic poet, 1685-1770. ENAULT, John D', a French poet, 17th ct. : EL, J., a Ger. mineralogist, 1679-1744. INDERSON, A., a Scotch divine, 17th cent. ENDERSON, John, an Oxford scholar and ^Ke occult sciences, 1757-1788. E USON, John, an actor who acquired >reat reputation in Falstaff, in which character * said never to have been equalled, was born in ?don 1747, and was apprenticed to a silver- Sth. He made his debut as a performer at l)h; after which he appeared in Shy lock at the HEN Haymarket theatre. He died suddenly of a brain fever in 1785. [J.A.H.] HENGIST, the first Saxon chief who established himself in England, king of Kent, 458-488. HENICHIUS, J., a German divine, 1616-1671. HENISCH, G., a Hungarian savant, 1549-1618. HENKE, Henry Philip Conrad, a Ger. prof, of theology, au.ofan 'Ecclesias. Hist.,' 1752-1809. HENKEL, J. F., a Ger. chemist, 1679-1744. HENKEL, J. F., a Ger. surgical wr., 1712-1779. HENLEY, Anthony, a fugitive writer and member of parliament, died 1711. His second son, Robert, born 1708, created Lord Northington 1760, chancellor 1757-1766, died 1772. HENLEY, John, a celebrated lecturer, gene- rally known as ' Orator Henley,' au. of ' Esther,' a poem, and editor of 'The Hyp Doctor,' 1692-1756. HENLEY, Samuel, a divine of the Church of England, known as a classical writer, died 1813. HENNET, A. J. U., a Fr. econ., 1758-1821. HENOUL, J. B., a Fr. historian, 1755-1821. HENRIET, Israel, a Fr. engraver, 1608-1661. HENRIETTA ANNE, daughter of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, 1644, married to the duke of Orleans, died 1660. HENRIETTA MARIA, daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis, born 1609, married to Charles I. of England, 1625, escaped with her infant to France, 1644, died 1669. HENRION, D., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1640. HENRION, F., a Fr. antiquarian, 1663-1720. HENRIOT, Francois. This audacious and bad man, who rose to be military commander of Paris during the reign of terror, was born in the precincts of the capital in 1761, and was released from prison, where he had been confined for theft, in the midst of the anarchy of 1792. He was a principal in the terrible scenes of August and September in that year, and headed the armed force of the sansculottes, or sections of Paris, in the insurrection of May in the year following, when the Girondins were overthrown. The triumph of Marat raised Henriot from this position to that of generalissimo of the national guard, yet he was utterly destitute of the talents necessary for command, as shown by his conduct on the 9tn Thermidor, when Robespierre and his party were arrested by Barras. On this occasion he set the example of a retreat, and returning to the Hotel de Ville, in a half-drunken condition, he was hurled from a window, with imprecations, by one of his colleagues. The fall, however, did not kill him, and he was executed with Robespierre and the others on the day following, 28th July, 1794. [E.R.] HENRIQUEZ, H., a Portug. miss., 1520-1600. HENRY. The kings of England of this name are Henry L, third son of William the Conqueror, born 1068, usurped the throne on the death of William Rufus, 1100, died 1135. Henry II., son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, by the empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I., born 1133; earl of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine 1151; married Eleanor, the queen widow of France, and countess in her own right of Poitou and Aquitane, 1152; succeeded Stephen as king of England, 1153; died 1189. Henry III., eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angouleme, born 1206, succeeded 1216, died 1272. Henry 315 HEN TV., eldest son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- caster, fourth son of Edward III., and the Lady Blanche, born lf!GC>, usurped the throne 1399, died 1413. Hknky V., son of the preceding, and Mary de Bohun, daughter of the earl of Hereford, horn 1388, succeeded 1413, invaded France and fought the battle of Agincourt 1415, died 1422. II km: y VI., son and successor of the preceding, when only ten months old, 1422, crowned at Paris 1430, imprisoned by the faction of York, and killed in the Tower, 1471. Henry VII., son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, and Margaret, a de- scendant of John of Gaunt, horn 1456, defeated Richard III., and proclaimed king 1485, manned to Elizabeth the heiress of the house of York, 1486, died 1509. Hbnbt VIII., second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth, born 1491 ; succeeded his father, and married to Catherine of Arragon 1509 ; defeated the French army at the battle of Spurs, and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513 ; interview with Francis I. on the field of the elbth of gold, 1520 ; war with France 1522 ; treaty of peace 1526 ; married to Anne Boleyn 1533 ; to Jane Seymour after the execution of Anne 1536; to Anne of Cleves after the death of Jane Seymour, and to Catherine Howard after the divorce of the latter, 1540 ; to Catherine Parr 1543 ; invasion of France 1544 ; peace with Fr. and Scotland 1546 ; d. 1547. HENRY. The emperors of Germany of this name are Henry I., son of Otho, duke of Saxony and Thuringia, born 876, reigned 919-936. Henry II., great grandson of the preceding, born 972, king of Bavaria 995, succeeded Otho III. on the throne of Germany 1002, crowned emperor at Rome 1014, died 1024. Henry III., brother and successor of Conrad II., reigned 1039-1056. Henry IV., son of Henry III., born 1050, suc- ceeded his father 1056, commenced the great war of investiture 1077, deposed by the diet of Mayence and died miserably 1106. Henry V., son of the preceding, bom 1081, reigned 1111-1125. Henry VI., born 11C5, succeeded his father, Frederic Barbarossa, 1190, died of poison 1197. Henry VII., duke of Luxemberg, elected 1308, died 1313. Another Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, was pro- claimed emperor on the deposition of Frederick II. 1246, and died the following year. HENRY, em. of Constantinople, reig. 1174-1216. HENRY. The kings of France of this name are Henry I., bom 1005, succeeded his father Robert, 1031, died 1060. Henry II., bom 1518, married to Catherine de Medicis 1533, succeeded his father Francis I. 1547, died of a wound re- ceived at a tournament 1559. Henry III., third son of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, born 1551, elected king of Poland 1573, succeeded his brother Charles IX. 1574, assassinated 1589. For Henry IV., called the Great,' see Navarre. HENRY. The kings of Castile ol this name are Henry I., bom 1205, reigned 1214-1217. Henky II., count de Transtamare, born 1333, maintained a contest for the throne, which he obtained 1366-1368, died 1379. Henry III., reigned 1390-1406. Henry IV., born 1423, suc- ceeded his father John II. 1454, died, and was succeeded by his sister, Isabella of Castile, 1474. HENRY, count of Portugal, killed 1112. HENRY, king of Portugal, reigned 1578-1580. HENRY, fourth .'.on of John 1. of Portugal and HEN Philippine, sister of Henry IV. of England, ] as Henry of Portugal, or the duke of Visei disting. as a promoter of discovery, 1304-141 HENRY, king of Jerusalem, reigned 115( HENRY, the first of the name king of C reigned 1218-1253; the second, 1285-1324. HENRY, prince of Prussia, third son o: deric William I., distinguished in the seven war, and as a diplomatist, 1726-1802. HENRY of Beois, bp. of Winchester, n of William Rufus, and Drother of king St< founder of the Hospital of St. Cross, died 11 HENRY of Ghent, a scholastic phil., d. HENRY of Hesse, a German phil., d. li HENRY of Huntingdon, an ancient c au. of a ' History of Engld. to a.d. 1154,' d. HENRY, Chas., M.D., a chemist, 1775-: HENRY, David, a Scotch printer, 1710. HENRY, F., a French mathematician, 16: HENRY, Matthew, the celebrated con tator on the Bible, was a native of Flim where he was horn at the farm-house of Oak, the dwelling of his maternal grandfatl 1662. His parents had retired to that pi: consequence of his father, Rev. Philip Henry ing been ejected from his parish in the neigl hood by the tyrannical act of uniformity. I of a very weakly and delicate constitution childhood. But his mental faculties wei markable for their precocious developmei vigour ; and as an evidence of this, it is sai( he could read the Bible distinctly in his thirc and the Greek New Testament in his ninth a very early age he received deep and lastin pressions of religion ; insomuch that when ] moved to a public academy at Islington, 1 distinguished amongst his school-fellows nol by the superiority of his classical and g learning, than by his settled piety. In 16 entered Gray's Inn as a student of law, no any view to the legal profession, but accord the fashion of the time, which considered branch of liberal education, and an exceller cipline for the youthful mind. But the b Henry's inclinations had been all along tc the ministry, and by a prudent economy time, he pursued his theological studies, resident at that school of law. He began to at first in a room which his father had fitt for public worship, and to which the people neighbourhood were in the habit of rep After a few of these private trials, he went visit to a friend at Nantwich, where he preachf great acceptance ; and the fame of his disc] having spread, he was invited to Chester, he preached in the house of a merchant to a audience which fomied the nucleus of his futuJ gregation. Such privacy was necessary at a when the law imposed great restriction on thi dom of preaching. But in 1687, prudence cessity led the government to adopt a more policy, and license was granted to dissenl preach. Mr. Henry having accepted a call dertake the functions of the ministerial of Chester, he was privately ordained, for the I ters wisely avoided in those days all nstenl display; and he had not been long settled i I town, when he drew around him a larg flourishing congregation. The duties of a m 316 HEN ch more onerous then than they are now ; Mr. Henry found no difficulty in accom- all that was required : two long services ith, a discourse in the neighbouring villa- st every evening in the week, besides visits ck of his congregation, as well as to the isoners in Chester jail. He continued ive years pastor of that place, and during EL lie went through the Bible more than tie course of expository lectures. In 1712, translated to Hackney, London, and in new sphere of ministerial labour, he deter- to pursue the same course of exposition he .opted in Chester. At the commencement ministry, therefore, he began with the first of Genesis in the forenoon, and the first of Matthew in the afternoon. Thus gra- and steadily grew his ' Exposition ' of the A large portion of it consists of his public while many of the quaint sayings and remarks with which it abounds, and which great a charm of raciness to its pages, were miliar extempore observations of his father ily worship, and noted down by Matthew in yhood. Worn out by his excessive labours the pulpit and the study, the constitution 'Inry began to give way. On returning from to his friends at Chester, the fatigue of tra- J increased by his corpulency, brought on ack of paralysis, which laid him up at Nant- and in the triumphant exercise of faith and this great and good man was removed from ifvorld and the church below on 22d June, rf in the fifty-second year of his age. [R.J.] |NRY, N., a French Hebraist, 1692-1752. |NRY, P. F., a Fr. historian, 1795-1833. .XRY, P., a nonconformist divine, 1631-96. KEY, R., a Scotch historian, 1718-1790. iXRY, S. E., a Fr. pharmacop., 1769-1832. SXRY, W., an English chemist, 1775-1836. iNRYS, Cl., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1615-1662. INRYSOX, R., a Scottish poet, 16th cent. :\\SLEN, P. G., a Ger. med. wr., 1733-1805. IENZI, Samuel, a Swiss poet, and hero of [jf Lessing's tragedies, executed for conspiracy, | His son, Rodolph, an author, 1731-1803. iPBURN, J. B., an En?, linguist, 1573-1624. BPBURN, R., a miscelf. writer, 1690-1712. IBACLEON, a heretic of the 2d century. LIDES, a Grk. philosopher, 4th ct. B.C. ERACLITUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher llihesus, lived in the 69th Olympiad, about 500 . The principle of his theory is the recognition fire of life, and the ethereal element of wis- I as the ground of all visible existences. Only nents of his works have been preserved, which irritten in the symbolic or transcendental man- Ifthe Pythagoreans. [E.R.] LI US, the first of the name emperor t, reigned 610-611 ; the second, Her- jjc-CoxsTANTiNE, son of the preceding, sur- i him only three months. BBACLIUS, or EREKLT, king of Georgia, bded by right when an infant, on the death of pther, 1648, obtained the government about f years subsequently ; died 1708. Heraclius W grandson, b. about 1720, began his political |r 1747, and died after a long reign 1798. LD, Diuier, a Fr. scholar, 1579-1C49. HER HERAULT-DE-SECHELLES, Marie Jeax, the friend of Danton, was born at Paris, of a noble family, in 1760, and when the revolution broke out had arrived at the post of advocate-general in the parliament of the capital. Notwithstand- ing the favour he enjoyed at court, Herault de Sechelles did not hesitate to join the popular party in the debates preceding 1789, and was present at the taking of the Bastile. In Septem- ber, 1791, he was returned to the legislative assembly (the first biennial parliament) by the electors of Paris, and the year following repre- sented the department of the Seine and Oise in the national convention. In each of these bodies he exercised great influence upon the direction of affairs, and when the constitution was accepted, he was made president of the national fete. For this post he was equally fitted by his eloquence as an orator, and the elegance of his person, for he was considered the handsomest man in France, but it was also the well-earned reward of his political honesty and patriotism. As events proceeded, the Committee of Public Safety was erected, and Herault became a member of it, in which capacity he received a letter from Lavater, who had been acquainted with him, expressing the surprise of the philosopher ' That a man placed so high by his birth, his education, his talents, the goodness of his character, and the sweetness of his manners, should become the accomplice of scoundrels, so gross, so ignorant, and so stupid as his colleagues.' Herault de Sechelles received this letter in com- mittee, and smiling as he read it, observed to one of his companions, 'These people do not under- stand our situation ! ' On the division of parties, Herault sided with his friend Danton, with whom he was guillotined, 5th April, 1794 ; his affianced bride, a young lady of high birth, and remarkable for her beauty, vainly endeavouring to move the heart of Robespierre. On the scaffold, Herault de Sechelles stept forward to embrace Danton, but the executioner prevented him, which gave occasion to the last words uttered by the great chief: 'Miserable! tu n'empecheras pas nos tetes de se baisir dans le panier ' (wretch ! you cannot hinder our heads from kissing in the basket). Herault de Sechelles is the author of several works, among others, of the ' Theory of Ambition/ published after his death, and of a work entitled ' Thoughts and Anecdotes.' [E.R.] HERBART, J. K, a Ger. philosopher, b. 1776. HERBELOW, Bartholomew D', professor of Syriac in the College of France, and author of ' Bib- liotheque Orientale,' 4 vols. 4to, 1625-1695. HERBERT, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cher- bury, a distinguished writer on natural religion, and the last of his age to embody the principle of deism in the language of a refined philosophy, was born of an ancient family at Montgomery castle in Wales 1581, and died in London 1648. He was cne of the most accomplished gentlemen at the court of James I., and distinguished himself by his romantic bravery in the service of the prince of Orange, and at a later period in the parliamentary army. His greatest work, 'De Veritate,' was published at Paris, where he was resident ambas- sador, 1624, and for a time he hesitated whether to give it to the world. ' Being thus doubtful in my chamber,' he writes in his ' Meinohs,' ' one fair 317 HER day in summer, my casement being opened to tlie south, the sun shining clear, and no wind stirring, I took my book, De Veritate, in my hand, and kneeling on my knees, devoutly said these words : thou Eternal God, author of the light which now shines upon me, and giver of all inward illu- minations, I do beseech thee, of thy infinite good- ness, to pardon a greater request than a sinner ought to make. I am not satisfied enough whether I shall publish this book De Veritate. If it be for thy glory, I beseech thee give me some sign from heaven ; if not, I shall suppress it. I had no sooner spoken these words, but a loud, though yet gentle noise came from the heavens (for it was like nothing on earth), which did so comfort and cheer me, that I took my petition as granted, and that I had the sign I demanded, whereupon also I resolved to print my book.' ' This,' he adds, how strange soever it may seem, I protest, before the Eternal God, is true ; neither am I in any way superstitiously deceived herein, since I did not only clearly hear the noise, but in the serenest sky that ever I saw, being all without cloud, did, to my thinking, see the place from whence it came. Some writers have accused Lord Herbert of hypocrisy, and others of vanity and self-delusion on this point, but, however extraordinary in a writer whose work was directed against belief in a revelation to a part of the world only, it is, to our mind, the highest proof of his sincerity. Besides this work, which was replied to by Gassendi, Lord Herbert is the author of Latin poems of great beauty, and of an Inquiry into the Errors of Paganism 'De Religione Gen- tilium, &c.' He was a general favourite, both at the English and French courts, and perhaps in- dulged in an execusable vanity on that account, but his frankness, generosity, and bravery, besides his great literary abilities, are acknowledged by all parties. [E.R.] HERBERT, George, a younger brother of the preceding, is remarkable for the contrast exhibited by his life and character when compared with that of Lord Edward, in whose refinement of nature he shared most liberally. The tastes of George in- clined him to the public life of a courtier, but he was educated for the church, and became rector of Bemerton, near Salisbury, where he settled down with a firm resolve to consecrate all his learning and all his abilities to advance the flory of that God which gave them ; ' knowing,' e said, ' that I can never do too much for him that hath done so much for me as to make me a Christian.'' George Herbert is remembered for the singular purity and beneficence of his secluded ex- istence, and chiefly as the author of poems, often quoted for their earnest delineations of the soul's experience, and for the spirit of love and gentleness breathed into them. These simple, yet beauti- ful compositions are contained in his 'Remains,' together with ' The Country Parson's Character,' which exhibits his own rule of life, and is a pic- ture of continued benevolence, and unwearied de- votion to the service of others. He was bom in 1593, and died of consumption in 1G32. [E.B.] HERBERT, William, earl of Pembroke, a great patron of letters, and himself a poet, 1580- 1630. Sir Thomas Herbert, of the same family, author of travels, and assistant of Dugdale HER in his antiquarian labours, born about 16( 1622. Mary Herbert. See Sidney. HERBIN, A. F. J., a Fr. Orientalist, 178 HERBST, J. A., a German musician, d. HERBST, J. F. A., a Ger. naturalist, 174! HERBURT, J., a Polish historian, 16th HERDER, Johann Gottfried Von, yt in 1744, in East Prussia. Younger than I and older than Gothe and Schiller, he beet timately connected with all of these distinj men; and he shares with them the hoi having created the literature of Germany, is one of the most eloquent writers of i Europe ; his works have the fervour of o with a brilliancy of fancy which almost b poetical ; and he is one of the few men wh united impressiveness and skill of comp various and exact erudition, and original comprehensiveness of philosophic thought father, a schoolmaster, was both too poor i ignorant to give facilities for the developn his son's genius : his early studies were proi by stealth. The kindness of a Russian e carried him to Konigsberg, where he studied Kant and others, and was able to obtain a dinate appointment as a teacher. Abandon study of medicine, he entered the church ; 1764, at Riga, holding an appointmeu preacher, along with a mastership in the ca school, he gamed celebrity by the digni earnestness of his pulpit oratory. He soon an author, and puolisned some of the best critical treatises on literature and art. making one or two changes of place, he spent five years as court-preacher at Biickeburg principality of Schaumburg-Lippe. This produced several of his principal theological In 1775, he was appointed to a theological sorship at Gottingen ; but the government, confirming the nomination, insisted on inv tion as to the professor's orthodoxy, to wl hesitated to submit. The difficulty was r< by the duke of Saxe-Weimar, who, less s lous in his theology than George, king of Ei and aiming at gathering about him all th spirits of his country, nominated him his preacher and general superintendent of th< siastical consistory. In 1776, Herder a Weimar; and in that little capital, then ccl< as the Athens of Germany, he spent the ren of his life, respected as a preacher, and asar promoter of education and other public in ments, and labouring unweariedly in his farious literary pursuits. He died in 180c voluminous works fall into three sections logy; philosophy and history ; and literatu the fine arts. The third section is thit w he displays most decisively his felicitous co tion of dissimilar powers. Notice is espech to his ' Spirit of Hebrew Poetry ; ' to trie ' che Walder,' which is a treatise on the be as exhibited in art ; and to those ballads, f on the Spanish romances of 'The Cid,* showed how very little was wanting to maJ der an illustrious poet. HERIOT, John, a miscel. writer, 1760- HERISSANT, Louis Anth. ProsmI geologist and naturalist, 1745-1769. Hk I L. Theodore, a diplomatist and historian 318 HER J. T. Herissant Des Carrteres, of the fc family, a grammarian, 1742-1820. JERITIER, Charles Louis de Bruselle \a eminent French botanist, au. of ' Flore de ce Vendome,' b. 1745, found murdered 1801. IRITIER, Nicholas L', a French translator imatic wri., d. 1680. His daughter, Marie te De Villandon, a novelist, 1664-1734. IRLICIUS, D., a Ger. astrologer, 1557-1636. IRMANN, J., a Ger. mathemat., 1678-1733. IRMANN, J., a Ger. naturalist, 1738-1800. JRMANN, Paul, a Ger. botanist, 1646-95. IRMANT, J., a French historian, 1650-1725. IRMAS, St., author of a book entitled 'The r,' and supposed to be the same mentioned in xvi. 14. The ' Pastor' of Hermas was highly ed by many of the early fathers, and Origen ises his belief that it was divinely inspired, ntains an account of the visions of Hermas, y seen by him in a state of ecstacy, and to be srstood in a symbolic sense : to which are added excellent precepts of morality and piety, and Similitudes' or figures of truth. In the ninth lese similitudes an ancient white stone of im- ie magnitude is described, which had a new opened in it ; and in the ' visions' Hermas re- that he saw six young men or angels building jwer of square white stones, symbolic of the istian Church. This book is further interesting as rding evidence that the early Christians believed he ministration of angels around men. [E.R.] IERMBSTjEDT, Sigismund Frederic, a man writer on practical chemistry, 1760-1833. [ERMELIN, Samuel Gustavus, Baron, a Bdish mineralogist and statistician, 1744-1820. IERMENGILDE, pr. of the Visigoths, k. 586. IERMES, or MERCURIUS, Trismegistus, a posed priest and philosopher of Egypt, who is ationed by Sanconiatho as the secretary and iser of Cronus, and as the original author of 'Cosmogony.' Although it creates some onsistencies, he is supposed to be the same as lothis, the second king of Egypt, who, Mane- i says, ' Built the palaces at Memphis, and left i anatomical books, for he was a physician.' is supposition is founded on a passage in San- liatho's 'Generations,' where we read, 'From sor (Mizram) descended Taatus (or Athothis), io invented tne writing of the first letters ; him ) Egyptians call Thoor, the Alexandrians oyth, and the Greeks Hermes.' These points vj be examined in the fragments of Cory. The rks extant under the name of Hermes are, oemander, or the Power and Wisdom of God ; ' ^sclepius, a Dialogue on the Deity, Mankind, d the World,' and some others supposed to be less antiquity than these, and all alike regarded supposititious. Their value, however, will be and very great in any attempt to determine e history of philosophy. In all likelihood the me belongs to two distinct persons, the later of lorn was an Egyptian philosopher and legislator, id the earlier a deification of all the ancient ilosophy and instruction of that mysterious nntry. [E.R.] HERMES, G., a Prussian theolog., 1775-1831. ERMES, J. A., a Ger. theologian, 1736-1821. ERMIAS, a Christian philosopher, 2d cent. HERMIAS of Alexandria, a neo-plat., 5th c. HER HERMILLY, V. D., a Fr. historian, 1707-78. HERMODORUS, a Gr. philoso., 5th cent. B.C. HERMOGENES, a Greek rhetorician, 2d cent. HERMOGENES, a Latin jurist, 4th century. HERNANDEZ, F., a Sp. naturalist, 17th cent. HERO, a eel. mathematician and machinist of Alexandria, 3d cent. b.c. Another of the name distinguished as a military engineer about 6th ct. HEROART, J., a Fr. medical author, d. 1627. HEROD, surnamed ' the Great,' k. of the Jews, b. b.c. 71, named king by the Roman senate b.c. 40, married to Mariamne 38, gained possession of his kingdom 37, occupied in rebuilding the Temple b.c. 17-19, died in the seventieth year of his age. HEROD, Agrippa. See Agrippa. HEROD, Antipas, son of the preceding, te- trarch of Galilee and Peraea, executed John the Baptist about a.d. 26, deposed by Caligula 39. HERODES. See Atticus. HERODIAN, a Greek historian, 3d century. HERODOTUS. Very few facts connected with the biography of the ' Father of History ' have come down to us. With the exception of the few data inci- dentally and indirectly supplied by himself, the no- tices of his life rest on comparatively recent or ques- tionable authority. Herodotus was a native of Hali- carnassus, a Dorian city in Asia Minor, was born b.c. 484, and was perhaps alive in the beginning of the following century. According to Suidas, his father was called Lyxas, and his mother Dryo, both de- scended from noble Halicarnassian families. Dis- gusted with the government of Lygdamis, the grandson of Artemisia, who was tyrant of his native city, he retired for a time to the island of Samos, whence he acquired the Ionic dialect, in which he afterwards composed his history. To collect the necessary materials for his great work, he entered, in early manhood, upon that course of patient and observant travel which was destined to render his name illustrious in all future ages. During his wanderings he visited almost every part of Greece and its dependencies, and many other countries, the affairs of which are treated in his work; investigating minutely the history, manners, and customs of the people. The shores of the Hellespont, Scythia, and the Euxine Sea ; Syria, Palestine, Colchis, the northern parts of Africa, Ecbatana, and even Babylon, were the ob- jects of his unwearied search. On his return from his travels he took a prominent part in de- livering his country from the tyranny of Lygdamis. But the expulsion of the tyrant did not bring tranquillity to Halicarnassus ; and Herodotus having himself become an object of dislike, again quitted his native city, and settled along with a colony from Athens, at Thurii, in the south of Italy, b.c. 443. Here he spent the remainder of his life, and here he wrote the work which has immortalized his name. The time and place of his death are matters of dispute. According to some he died at Thurii, and was buried in the market-place ; while others assert that he died at Pella, in Macedonia. His history consists of nfne books, which bear the names of the nine Muses. 'Next to the Iliad and Odyssey,' says Colonel Mure, ' the history of Herodotus is the greatest effort of Greek literary genius. The one is the perfection of epic poetry, the other the perfection of epic prose. Were it not for the influence which 319 HER fhe prior existence of so noble a model, even in a different branch of composition, has evidently exercised on the historian, his title to the palm of original invention might rival that of his poetical predecessor. In the complexity of the plan (of his history), as compared with the simplicity of its execution ; in the multiplicity and heterogene- ous nature of its materials, and ill the harmony of their combination ; in the grandeur of its historical masses, and the minuteness, often triviality, of its illustrative details; it remains not only without equal, but without rival or parallel in the litera- ture of Greece or of Europe.' [G.F.] HEROLD, J. B., a Bavarian historian, 1511-81. HEROLD, L. J. F., a Ger. comp., 1791-1833. HERON, Robert, a miscel. writer, died 1807. HEROPHILUS, a Grk. phvsician, 4th ct. B.C. HERRERA, Fr. De, a Span, lyric, 16th cent. HERRERA, Francesco De, called 'The Elder,' a Span, painter, 1576-1656. The younger of the same name, a paint, and architect, 1622-85. HERRERA, G. A., a Spanish agricult., 16th ct. HERRERA-TORDESILLAS, Antonio De, a Span, hist., au. of a ' History of India,' 1565-1625. HERRGOTT, M., a Ger. antiquar., 1694-1762. HERRICK, HEARICK, or HIRECK, Robert, an English clergyman and poet, descended from Eric, a Danish chief subdued by Alfred the Great, and settled with his people in East Anglia, and intermediately from a well-known family in Leices- tershire, was born 24th August, 1591. His uncle, Sir YV. Heyrick, undertook the charge of his education at Cambridge, and having friends at court, he was presented to the living of Dean Prior in Devonshire, 1629. In 1648, he was deprived by Cromwell, and coming to London, assumed the lay habit, and in the course of the same year published his poems under the title of * Hespendes, or the works, both Humane and Divine, of Robert Herrick, Esq.,' another collection in the same volume being styled ' His Noble Numbers, or his pious pieces, wherein (amongst other things), he sings the Birth of his Christ ; and Sighes for his Saviour's Suffering on the Crosse.' 'The poems of Herrick were well received at the time, but were almost forgotten again till the time of Dr. Drake. They are now recognized as genuine effusions of the English muse, and the best of them are unsurpassed in melody, sweetness, and variety of rhythm, by any similar compositions in the English language. They afford admirable illustrations of old English manners, English feel- ings, and English scenery, and a noble strain of piety breathes through the whole volume, notwith- standing its frequent licentiousness. Herrick himself was painfully conscious of these blemishes, but the poor royalist, wanting his 'fifths,' and cast upon the streets of London, should not be too harshly censured for a fault to which Shakspeare himself was not superior. Being a bachelor, he had no home in the metropolis, and his best hours were given to the wits and courtiers of the period. Selden, Ben Jonson, Denham, Cotton, and Endy- men Porter were among his friends. The date of his death is not known, but it was probably soon after 1660, when he was restored to his living by Charles II. 'A Genealogical Register of the name and family of Herrick,' was published by Jedediah Herrick, at Bangor, U.S., in 1846, HER and is a curious example of the pride of birth, of their English ancestry remaining with the re lican descendants of this ancient family. [I HERRMANN, F. A., a Fr. diploma., 1758-1 HERSCHEL, William, a distinguished a nomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th No' ber, 1738. He was the second of live i who were all educated as musicians, following same profession as their father. At the earh of fourteen William was placed in the band of Hanoverian foot guards; but seeing that there little prospect of promotion in his native com he resolved to try his fortune in England, ^ he arrived about the end of 1757. After ex encing the difficulties to which early genius is quently exposed, he was engaged by the ea Darlington to instruct a military band which then forming in the county of Durham. Whe had fulfilled this engagement he established 1 self as a teacher of music in the vicinity of L< Pontefract, and Doncaster, and conducted the pi concerts and oratorios in these towns. In '. he obtained the situation of organist at Hal and soon afterwards a more lucrative appointi in the Octagon chapel in Bath, where he was successful as a teacher of music, and a direct the public concerts. During his residence at I fax he acquired a considerable knowledgf mathematics, and having studied astronomy in popular writings of James Ferguson, he was a ous to see with his own eyes the wonderful c< tial phenomena disclosed by the telescope. ! tunately for science he was unable to purchas instrument for this purpose, and he then resolved to construct one with his own ha After surmounting the difficulties which at the practice of grinding and polishing specula completed in 1774 a five feet Newtonian reflet with which he could see the satellites of Ju] and the ring of Saturn. Not contented with instrument he made for himself several two : five feet, seven feet, eighteen feet, and twenty ! Newtonian telescopes, besides Gregorian ones e inches, one foot, two feet, three feet, and ten fe< focal length, and in order to get a good specu he ground and polished a large number upon same tool, and selected the one which happene have the best figure. In this way he made no fie than 200 seven feet, 150 ten feet, and about twenty feet telescopes. His mechanical amusemi were carried on along with his optical ones, am invented and executed a number of stands of dil ent forms for these instruments. His first reg observations with the telescope were made in 1' and subsequent years. They were published in Philosophical Transactions for 1780, and rel; to the periodical star in the neck of the wh and the height of the lunar mountains. In 1781 discovered what he at first thought a comet, bl turned out to be a new planet, which he called Georgium Sidus, but which has now recei the name of Uranus, from its being next to i turn. After this discovery, which extended reputation over Europe, George III. munificer enabled him, by the grant of a salary, to dev the whole of his time to astronomy. He there! took up his residence at Datchet, near Wind) where ne made many discoveries on double i triple stars, on the proper motion of the sun i her jar system, the spots at the pole of Mars, jd the' nebula? and cluster of stars observed by fessier and Mechain. On the 11th January, J87, he discovered a second and fourth satellite (the Georgium Sidus, and in 1790 and 1799, Jier five satellites, viz., the first, third, fifth, and tth, all of which move in a retrograde direction, jorbits almost perpendicular to the plane of the jiptic. Thus successful as an observer, he began 1781 to construct a thirty feet reflector, but 5 mirror, which was no less than three feet diameter, cracked in the cooling, and frustrated i plan. This disappointment induced him to sk for extraneous assistance in carrying out his ws ; and on the recommendation of Sir Joseph nks, George III. offered to defrav the expense a forty feet telescope, with a mirror four feet diameter, three and a-half inches thick, and ighing 2118 pounds. With this magnificent trument he discovered the sixth and seventh ellites of Saturn, and also the spots, belts, i flattening, at the poles of that planet. Till ) year 1820 Sir William Herschel communicated lost every year important papers to the Royal iety on nebula?, clusters of stars, the construc- of the heavens, the motion of the solar system, double stars, and on the four new planets be- ll Mars and Jupiter. We owe to him also the very of invisible heating rays beyond the red unity of the spectrum. Sir William Herschel elected an honorary member of most of the titic institutions in Europe and America. In he received the honorary degree of Doctor of j, and in 1816 he was presented with the deco- ions of the Guelphic order. In 1820 he was cted the first president of the Astronomical So- ty, and he published in the 1st volume of its Trans- aons, a paper on 145 new double stars. He had w reached that age when the mind as well as the ly requires a cessation from labour. His health d begun to decline, and on the 25th August, 22, he died in the eighty-fourth year of his age. the year 1788 Sir William married the widow John Pitt, Esq., and left behind him only one Id, the present Sir John Herschel. [D.B.] [Uerschel'i Tomb in Upton Church.] HEY HERSCHEL, Cakoline Lucretia, sister of the great Herschel, distinguished for the arduous assistance she rendered her brother in his astro- nomical pursuits, as well as for her own numerous and important observations, 1750-1848. HEKSCHELL, Dr. Solomon, a Jewish rabbi, cele. for his learning and benevolence, 1760-1842. HERSENT, G., a French divine, 1590-1660. HERTIUS, J. N., a Germ, civilian, 1651-1710. HERTSBERG, Ewald Frederic Von, a Prussian statesman, distinguished under Frederic the Great, 1725-1795. HERVAS, L., a Spanish savant, 1735-1809. HERVAY, Noel, a schol. philosopher, d. 1323. HERVET, G., a French savant, 1499-1584. HERVEY, James, a pious clergyman of the Church of England, an. of ' Meditations and Con- templations,' ' Theron and Aspasia,' &c, 1714-58. HERVEY, John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, a poet and political writer, author of ' Memoirs of George II.,' only recently published, 1694-1743. HERY, Thierry De, a med. author, d. 1599. HESHUSIUS, T., a Germ, divine, 1526-1588. HESIOD, an ancient Greek poet of uncertain date, whose works are chiefly valuable so far as they illustrate the Orphic philosophy and the my- thology of the ancients. The ascertained fragments of his writings are the Theogony ' or generation of the gods, and the ' Works and Days.' The latter is a kind of rude pastoral or calendar of agriculture, with occasional reflections. The fragment of another Eoem attributed to him entitled 'The Shield of [ercules,' and containing an account of the most celebrated heroines of antiquity, is considered doubtful. [E.R.] HESNAULT, J., a French poet, 17th century. HESS, J. J., a Swiss theologian, 1761-1828. HEUMAN, Chr.A., aGer.theolog., 1681-1764. HEUSINGER, J. M., a Ger. critic and philolo- gist, 1690-1751. His nephew, Jas. Frederic, a philologist and classical scholar, 1718-1778. HEVELIUS, John, a celebrated astronomer of Dantzic, author of ' Machina Ccelestis,' 1611-1687. HEVIN, P., a French jurisconsult, 1621-1692. HEYDEN, J. Vander, a Dut. pain., 1637-1712. HEWSON, W., a disting. physiologist, 1739-74. HEYLIN, Peter, an Eng. historian, 1600-62. HEYM, J., a Ger. lexicographer, 1759-1821. HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, was born in 1729, at Chemnitz, in Saxony, where his father was a poor linen-weaver. His education was gained through struggles as severe and protracted as any that have ever been undergone by men of letters ; and it was in the midst of great poverty that he was able, in 1755, to publish his edition of ' Tibullus,' the first work that made him known as a classical scholar. So obscure was his posi- tion long after this, that, when he was appointed to the professorship of eloquence at Gottingen on the recommendation of Ruhnken, it cost some trouble to discover where he was. Enter- ing on his duties at Gottingen in 1763, he passed nearly fifty years in that university, with unwearied industry, distinguished and varied usefulness, and brilliant and increasing reputa- tion. In classical studies, his own peculiar de- partment, he was especially noted for the fine spirit which he breathed into criticism, and for the richness of illustration which he threw on the 321 HEY ancient masterpieces of poetry from history and topography, and from the existing monuments of the fine arts. His Opuscula Academica ' contains many admirable treatises ; and there is great value in the critical apparatus embodied in his editions of Virgil, Pindar, Homer, and Apollodorus. Heyne died in 1812. [W.S.] HEYWOOD, Eliza, a novelist, 1693-1756. HEYWOOD, John, a dramatic poet of the age of Henry VIII., author of an apologue in verse, en- titled ' The Parable of the Spider and the Fly,' and of some plays and epigrams, died 1565. UK Y WOOD, Oliver, anoncf. div., 1629-1702. HEYWOOD, Thomas, an English actor and dramatist, author of ' A Woman Killed with Kind- ness,' and a great number of plays, of which the most part are lost, beginning of the 17th century. HLERNE, Urban, a Swd. nat. phil.,1641-1724. HIBBERT, George, a merchant of London, distinguished for his public spirit as one of the founders of the West India Docks, and as a public speaker and member of parliament, 1757-1837. HICKERINGILL, E., a military officer, afterw. in holy orders, kn. as a pamphleteer, 1630-1708. HICKES, Dr. George, a Saxon scholar and antiquarian writer, 1642-1715. John, his bro- ther, a nonconf. minister, exec, as a traitor 1685. HICKS, Fr., a classical editor, 1566-1630. HICKS, W., a fifth monarchy man, 1620-1659. HIDALGO, J. G., a Spanish artist, born 1656. HIDALGO Y CASTILLA, Don Miguel, a priest, dist. as a patriot in Mexico, executed 1811. HIEROCLES, an eclectic philosopher, 5th cent. HIEROCLES, a topographical writer, 6th cent. HIEROCLES, a Grk. grammarian, 7th century. HIEROCLES of Bithtnia, governor of Alex- andria, a writer against Christianity, and a great persecutor of the Christians in the time of Diocle- tian, 4th century. HIERON, thejirst of the name king or tyrant of Syracuse, 478-467 B.C.; the second, 269-215 B.C. HIERONYMUS, grandson and sue. of the pre- ceding, murdered after reign, ten months, 214 B.C. HIERONYMUS, St. See Jerome. HIFFERNAN, P., an Irish author, 1719-1777. HIGDON, Ralph, an Engl, historian, d. 13G3. HIGGINS, G., an antiquarian wi\, 1771-1833. HIGGINS, J., an editor and divine, 16th cent. HIGGONS, Sir Thomas, an English ambas- sador and man of letters, 1624-1691. His younger son, Bevil, a dramatist and historian, died 1735. HIGGS, G., an English theologian, 1589-1659. HIGHMORE, J., an Eng. painter, 1692-1780. HIGHMORE, Nathaniel, a celebrated En- glish anatomist and phvsiologist, 1613-1684. HIGUERA, J. R., a" Span. Jesuit, 1538-1611. HILARION, St., a monastic founder, 292-372. HILARY, a pope of Rome, sue. 461, d. 467. HILARY, St., a bishop of Aries, 401-449. HILARY, St., (Hilarius Pictaviensis), was bora at Poitiers in France, and became bishop of his native town about the year 350. Though he had been trained in paganism, and did not em- brace Christianity till he had arrived at manhood, yet his convictions were founded on enlarged in- telligence, and his life was spent in earnest, power- ful, and successful support of Trinitarian ortho- doxy against the innovations of Arianism. At the synod of Bessieres, 356, he so provoked the Arian HIL deputies, that on their application to the emp< Constantius, he was banished into Phrygia. 1 he remained in exile about four years, and coinp his principal works. But his uncompromising position to Asiatic Arianism so enraged his op] ents, that they petitioned for his recall, and champion returned in triumph to Poitiers, w he died in 367. Four years before his deaf! had impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, the accused unexpectedly proved his orthoc face to face with his accuser before the emp Valentinian, and Hilary was expelled from M as an enemy to the peace of the church, principal works are Twelve Books ' De Trinit a ' Tract upon Synods,' and l Two Addresse Constantius,' one a petition, and the other a co invective. In his commentaries on the gospt Matthew, and on the Psalms, the chief portk taken from Origen. Jerome compares his sty: the Rhone, not for its copiousness, but for quickness. But it is rugged, verbose, ftl rate, and occasionally obscure. The best editif the Benedictine, improved by Maffei, Verona, 1 2 vols, folio. HILDEBERT, an archp. of Tours, 1057-11 HILDEBRAND, the proper name of I Gregory VII. See Gregory. HILDEBRAND, a Lombard king, 736-744. HILDEBRAND, G. F., a Ger phy., 1754-1 HILDEBRAND, J., a Ger. theol., 1623-162 HILDEGARDE, Saint, a German vision ab. of St. Rupert's Mt., on the Rhine, 1098-11 HILDERIC, a king of the Vandals, 523-53 HILDERSHAM, a puritan divine, 1563-16 HILDIBALD, king of the Ostrogoths, 540 HILKIAH, a high priest of the Jews, 7th c. HILL, Aaron, an English poet, 1685-175C| HILL, Abraham, an Eng. scholar, 1633-1 \ HILL, George, a Scottish divine, 1748-18' HILL, Sir John, a miscell. writer, 1716-1 HILL, Joseph, alexicog. and antiq.,1625-1 HILL, Sir Richard, Bart., eld. bro. of the Rowland Hill, kn. as a polemical wr., 1733-18 HILL, Robert, a self-taught Oriental scl: and critic, author of Remarks on Berkeley's E on Spirit,' &c, 1699-1777. HILL, Rev. Rowland, A.M., a popular pious, though eccentric minister, was born Hawkstone, Shropshire, in the year 1745. was the sixth son of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart Hawkstone, in the parish of Hodnet. His v were early directed towards the ministry in i nection with the Church of England ; not, b ever, as a profession, but as affording him the and most influential means of communicatin. others those saving truths he felt of such r interest and importance to his own soul. He a very pious youth ; and his strong impression religion were all the more remarkable that higher classes generally in England at that t were either indifferent to religion, or held i false and defective views as to the leading r ciples of Christianity. Sir Rowland's family ' distinguished for tne regard they cherished exhibited for genuine piety. Richard, the el son, in particular, had early received serious pressions ; and it was through his influence correspondence that his younger brother, ; while a scholar at Eton, was brought to attet 322 HIL ! one thing needful. From Eton, Rowland re- ved to Cambridge, and the principles which d been sown in his mind at Eton, acquired later power and vitality during his residence at : university. He was a devoted and successful dent, for his intense application to his studies peared at his examination for his degree of chelor of arts, and he carried off the palm over his competitors by his superior acquirements in ysical science, particularly in optics, mechanics, d astronomy. But his mind at the same time is ardently bent towards the ministry ; and he ran to exercise the sacred functions during his legiate career, by not only holding meetings th some young friends of congenial views for yer and mutual improvement, but even forming ms of Christian usefulness beyond the walls of 6 university. They visited, exhorted, and prayed various parts of the town of Cambridge, parti- larly in the hovels of the poor and sick, and th the prisoners in the jail. Conduct, so much variance with the propriety of established aca- mic rules, drew down upon him and his friends, e indignation of the college authorities. Six of e young preachers, amongst whom were Whit- Id and Beveridge, received sentence of expulsion pm the university, and Hill was saved from a simi- r fate only by the weight of his family influence, pwland loved to itinerate, and he retained the me fondness for open-air preaching after he was jdained. He was appointed to the parish of insston, Somersetshire, in 1773, and there in ac- rdance with his favourite habits, he was instant in eaching almost every day in the week. The sshness and originality of his addresses attracted owds to hear him. Nor was he admired by a llgar and uneducated class only. Sheridan used ' say ' I often go to hear Rowland Hill, because s ideas come red-hot from the heart ; ' and Dean Eilner, the church historian, was so affected by King one of his sermons, that he went to the try <m the conclusion of the service and said, Mr. Hill, I felt to-day 'tis this slapdash preach - |g, say what they will, that does all the good.' Ir. Hill had a country house in Wales, where he rected a chapel, and was constantly engaged (reaching throughout the neighbourhood during fis summer residence. His wife kept a note of his arious engagements ; and when announcing them rom the pulpit, he used to look to her on naming I very place to see if he was correct. And so much r as he accustomed to confide in her accuracy, that e used to say at the breakfast table, ' Where do I jreach to-day ? ' Many persons of rank and for- ione having become his stated hearers, Surrey hapel was built for him in 1782, and in that chapel vast congregation assembled every Sabbath His ccentricities of manner, his quaintness of expres- ion, his anecdotes, and even witticisms in the mlpit, were quite forgotten and overlooked by the legular frequenters of this place of worship in the MO vein of sterling piety and spiritual instruction jhat ran through the service. In 1798, Mr. Hill lame to Scotland on the invitation of Robert Hal- ane, and preached to crowds in Edinburgh in the Circus and on the Calton Hill, as well as in various arts of the country. In 1824, he made another Gospel Tour,' as he called it, in Scotland, and iter a brief stay, returned to his labours in Surrey HIL chapel. He was a truly evangelical preacher, and he used to say ' Were I to live my life over again, I would preach just the same.' He closed his life and labours on 11th April, 1833. [R.J.] HILL, Rowland, Lord, a British general distinguished in the late war, particularly in the peninsula, and at the battle of Waterloo, born 1772, appointed commander-in-chief 1828, created a viscount, and died 1842. Lord Hill was the son of Sir John Hill, who succeeded to the title of Sir Richard Hill, Bart., elder brother of him and of the celebrated minister of Surrey chapel. HILL, Sir Th. Noel, a younger broth, of Lord Hill, known as a peninsular officer, 1784-1832. HILLEL, called ' the Elder' to distinguish him from the subject of the following notice, is regarded by Jewish writers as the most eminent among their ancient rabbis. He was born at Babylon, com- mencement of the 1st century B.C., and when about 40 years of age removed to Jerusalem, where he became chief of the Sanhedrim, and lived to the extraordinary age of 120 years. He was the first to classify the oral or traditional laws, subsequently embodied in the Mishna, or first part of the Tal- mud, and the transmission of which is verified in the work itself, at the commencement of the treatise Abotk or 'Ethics of the Fathers.' The other portion of the Talmud, called ' The Gemara,' contains expositions of the Mishna; the latter, therefore, is really the text-book of rabbinical lore, and hence the importance of its arrangement in a comprehensive digest. Hillel is always spoken of with respect for his humanity and patience, as well as his profound wisdom as a moralist. See Shammai. l^.R.] HILLEL, 'the Younger,' lived in the time of Origen, who is said to have been acquainted with him, about the middle of the 3d century. He was a great reformer of the Jewish calendar, his arrangement of which was nearer by far to astronomical exactness than that of Julian, which remained in use among Christians until its reform by Pope Gregory. Hillel has the reputation, also, of reforming the equinoctial and solstitial periods, and leaving behind him a correct text of the Bible, which he wrote with his own hand, besides contri- buting to the Talmud. He bears the title of Nasi, or prince of the captivity, and there is a tradition that he was privately baptized before his death by the bishop of Tiberias. [E.R.J HILLER, M., a Ger. Orientalist, 1646-1725. HILLIARD, N., an English painter, 1547-1619. HILPART, John, a Ger. divine, born 1627. HILTON, Walter, an English ascetic, 15th c. HILTON, William, R.A., an English historical painter, distinguished for his refined taste in de- sign, and a harmonious and rich style of colouring, was born at Lincoln, 3d June, 1786, and died in London 30th December, 1839. He succeeded Fuseli in 1825 as keeper of the Royal Academy. Owing to the too great quantity, or bad quality of nis vehicle, his pictures are already going to pieces. 'Serena,' and 'The Red Cross Knight,' presented to the National Gallery in 1841, is in too bad a condition to be exhibited. The morbid search after nostrums and glazing media, has been one of the most fatal obstructions to the establishment of a great school of painting in England. (Art Union Journal, 1840.) [R.N.W.J 323 IIIL ITILTZ, John, a German architect, 15th c. 1IIMERIUS, a Greek sophist, 4th century. HIMLY, C., a German physician, 1772-1837. HI MM EL, F. H., a Ger. musician, 1765-1804. HINCHCLIFFE, John, the son of a stable- keeper, rose to be bishop of Peterborough, 1731-94. HINCKLEY, John, an Engl, theol, 1617-95. HINCMAR, archbishop of Rheims, known as a controversial and learned writer, 9th eentury. HINDMARSH, Robert, a minister and con- troversial writer of the ' New Church,' author of 'A Seal on the Lips of Unitarians,' &c, died 1835. HIPPARCHUS, atynt. of Athens, 528-514 B.C. HIPPARCHUS, the greatest Astronomer of Antiquity ; or rather the founder of Astrono- mical Science. The dates of the birth and death of Hipparchus are lost ; Ptolemy speaks of him as alive between 160 and 125 B C: neither do any of his writings remain, excepting the Commentary on Aratus, a production of his youth. It has often been asserted that he observed at Alexandria ; but the careful criticism of Delambre leaves no ground for such a supposi* ; on : he laboured most probably in Bithynia; certainly at Rhodes. It is to Pto- lemy that we owe our knowledge of Hipparchus, who in the fulness of his admiration applies to him the epithet cairtxn xa.) ^Xotxifim (the lover of labour and truth); nor do we think that his successor has ever done him injustice, or sought, as Delambre would insinuate, to absorb a part of his glory into his own. As a pure observer, Hip- Earchus was probably never surpassed. Of course e wrought with rude instruments, affected by large errors ; but all that the Observer himself had to do, was achieved with highest probity and sagacity, and shaped by a rare philosophic spirit. To collect and describe facts exactly, is a service always valuable to Science ; more especially when Inquiry is in its infancy ; but Hipparchus added the loftier faculty of knowing the precise descrip- tion of facts, which ought to be observed the tacts pregnant with laws ; and he succeeded, there- fore, in laying the sure foundation of Astronomical Theory. The Ancients, it is well known, imagined the Earth motionless, and that all celestial bodies move uniformly in circles around it ; but, as mo- tions had been detected in the sky which are not uniform, it became the question, how, on the ground of these suppositions, can the observed irre- gularities be explained ? A very fertile idea had been started by Plato and Eudoxus, that a hea- venly body moving uniformly on a small circle, might ba carried round the earth by a larger circle ; and that apparent irregularities, would issue from the combination of these uniform motions. (See article Ptolemy). Hipparchus appropriated the idea, and realized it; ie. he laid down the actual machinery which would account for the precise irregularities observed. In this way he constructed a theory of the Sun and Moon ; and originated that refined scheme which endured until the period of Copernicus. Knowing where to stop as well as how far to adventure, he only collected ma- terials for the Planetary Theory, afterwards com- S feted by Ptolemy. We owe besides, to this great 'bserver the discovery of the J 'recession of the Egumoccet a first essential to a knowledge of the motions of the Fixed Stars : he may be said to have invented Trigonometry, plane and spherical ; nip and to have originated our graphical Geography.- The reign of Induction in Physical Science propa began with Hipparchus. [J.P.N HIPPASUS, a Pythagorean phibs., 5th c. b. HIPPIAS, an Athenian prince, killed 490 b.c HIPPIAS of Elis, a sophist, 5th century b.< HIPPISLEY, Sir J. C, a magistr , 17IJ5-182 HIPPO, a Pythagorean philoso., 5th cent, b.c HIPPOCRATES, a Gr. geometrician, 500 b.c HIPPOCRATES. A name common to at lea four physicians of antiquity, but generally reserve for Hippocrates the 2d, who was in many respec the most celebrated physician of ancient or modei times, and to whom the title of ' Father cine' has been applied. He was the son of Hen elides, a physician of Cos, in which island he wj born, in the year 460 B.C. His mother's namewj Phamarete, by race a Heracleid, while his fath( belonged to the Asclepiada?, as the descendants < Esculapius were called. His ancestors for genen tions had resided in Cos, where they all seem 1 have practised the healing art ; but little is know that can be relied upon of the incidents of his ow life, and what we have to say of him must b therefore scanty and unsatisfactory. Hippocrah received his elementary medical education from hi father, and subsequently studied under Herodicu: a physician of Selymbria in Thrace, who was or of the first persons to apply gymnastic exercises t the cure and prevention of diseases ; and his in structions in general science and philosophy froi Gorgias of Leontini, in Sicily, a distinguished s( phist and orator of those times, who would appe: to have been the brother of Herodicus. The perio at which he lived was also favourable to the dt velopment of his powers, for he was the conteir porary of Socrates, Plato, Pericles, Herodotus, an Thucydides ; and we may perhaps attribute to th: circumstance, as well as to the complete general an professional education he had received, the purit and elegance of his style. On the death of h: father he left Cos, and travelled for twelve yeai through Greece and Asia Minor, passing much ( his time in Macedonia, Thrace, and Thessaly; bt as dates are wholly wanting, it is impossible to sa in what years of his life these travels were pei formed. The same uncertainty attaches itself t all the subsequent movements of his life, nor is i possible to determine whether he lived permanentl in Cos, the medical school of which he raised t the highest pitch of eminence, or whether he st lected some city of extra-Peloponnesian Greece a his fixed place of abode. He died at Larissa, i Thessaly, though in what year is unknown, as hi age at the time of his death has been variousl stated at eighty-five, ninety, one hundred and fou and one hundred and nine years. He left two son: Thessalus and Dracon, both of whom were media men ; and a daughter whose name has not bee preserved, but who married Polybus, also a medio man. An account of the medical system of I lip pocrates would be unsuited to a work of this kim but we may state generally that he was a diliger and sagacious observer of nature, and that hi practice was regulated very much by the indica tions which a disease presented; hence he hn been considered the founder of the dogmatists, I rationalists, in medicine, a sect of great antiquity and which is not perhaps wholly extinct at thi 824 HIP h That the humoral pathology, which main- ned its ascendancy in Europe for twenty centu- s, was originally derived from his theory of the ing fluids, which he divided into blood, phlegm, lck bile, and yellow bile, is certain ; and there jo be no doubt that many of his opinions on cli- ate, diet, individual temperament, and the con- jtution of the atmosphere in the four different lisons of the year, influenced the belief of the fedical world down even to the age of Sydenham, p knew little or nothing of anatomy, and was t only unacquainted with the circulation of the pod, but with the distinction between arteries |d veins, which he arranges in the same class th nerves and tendons ; but in spite of this his ne was great, and numerous stories were in- pted after his death to illustrate his extraordinary lebrity. Thus he was said to have stayed the ligue of Athens, though Thucydides, who has (scribed it, and was himself a sufferer from it, ikes no mention of him whatever. It has been feo recorded that he was solicited by the inhabi- ts of Abdera to visit their city and to cure pmocritus the philosopher of insanity, and there extant a letter which is urged as a proof of this, lough it be a manifest forgery ; and that nothing ight be wanting to impress upon posterity a sense his universal authority, it is related of him that refused an invitation from Artaxerxes Longim- U8, king of Persia, to visit that country, together th a large sum of money, but that he declined nh because Artaxerxes was the enemy of Greece. pese and similar stories are now disregarded, and je looked upon as the fictions of a subsequent Je. Hippocrates wrote in the Ionic dialect of je Greek, and is considered by modern scholars a assical authority in that tongue. His works are perallv published in two folio volumes with Latin pnslations ; but there is considerable difference opinion among critics as to what properly be- pgs to him in the Hippocratic collection, and lat should be assigned to others, probably mem- rs of his own family. Those treatises which are jeived as the genuine compositions of Hippocrates i I. The 1st and 3d Books of the Epidemics ; . The Prognostics; III. The Aphorisms; IV. le 1st and 2d Books of the Predictions; V. The eatise on Air, Water, and Places; VI. The Jgimen in Acute Diseases; VII. The Treatise Wounds of the Head. [J.M'C] HIPPOLYTUS. Our space does not suffice to :ount the numerous and contradictory theories lich have been formed regarding this remarkable in. Eusebius, Jerome, Gelasius, and Photius, earlier times, have referred to him, but with an distinct and inaccurate knowledge of him ; the pnedictine monks could not dispel the obscurity bich hung over him, and the hypotheses of Baron- kTillemont, Fabricius, Le Moyne, Basnage, Cave, fd others, still left the subject in mist and confusion. ; very common opinion prevailed that he was a jshop in the East, and specially in some part of jrabia. It is now ascertained that he was a dis- ple of Irenaeus, was a bishop of Portus Romanus e harbour of Rome, after the reign of Trajan ; (id sufTiTed martyrdom under Maximus about the ar 23G. His statue was accidentally dug up in j'ol, and on its sides were inscribed a list of his )rks and the Paschal Cycle. All this is confirma- HOA tory of the description given of him by the Christian poet Prudentius. His works, so called, were pub- lished by Fabricius, in 2 vols, folio, and by Gal- landi in the second volume of his Bibliotheca Patrum. Hippolytus, as attested by all antiquity, was a voluminous writer on a vast variety of sub- jects, the majority of which were of a polemical character. A list of his polemical, doctrinal, his- torical, and exegetical works, the greater part of which are lost, will be found in the first volume of ' Bunsen's Hippolytus and his Age.' A MS. was brought from Mount Athos in 1842, which was called a treatise On all Heresies,' and was deposited in the royal library in Paris. In 1846, M. Millar having looked into the book, considered it to be a lost work of Origen, and had it printed in 1851 by the Oxford University Press, under the title of ' Origen Philosophumena.' The Chevalier Bunsen eagerly read the publication, and brought to bear upon it the peculiar sageness and tact of his critical erudition. The result is, that he has proved that the treatise belonged not to Origen as its author but to Hippolytus. In the course of his discussions he has thrown great light on the times and creed of Hippolytus, as well as upon the theology and government of the Roman Church in the times of Severus and Commodus. Hippolytus was more a man of labour than of original thought ; rather an honest and learned compiler than a wri- ter of independent vigour. [J.E.] HIPPONAX, a Greek satirist, 6th century B.C. HIRAM, a king of Tvre, 1025-985 B.C. HIRE, L. De La, a French painter, 1606-1656. His son, Philip, eel. as an astronomer, 1640-1719. Gabriel Philip, son of the latter, and successor in his employments, 1677-1719. HIRSCHING, F. C. G., a Ger. savant, au. of a 1 Dictionary of Celebrated Men,' &c, 1762-1800. HIRT, Aloys, a Ger. archaeologist, born 1759. HIRT, J. F., a German theologian, 1719-1783. HIRZEL, H., a German author, 1766-1833. HJELM, P. J., a Swed. mineralog., 1746-1813. HOADLEY, Benjamin, a prelate of the En- glish Church, and a chief of the partv whose firinciples were brought into fashion by the revo- ution of 1688, and the accession of the house of Hanover, was born at Westerham, in Kent, in 1676, and died at his palace in Chelsea, 1761. His ability as a controversialist, and his love of civil and religious libertv, became conspicuous in the strife of parties at the beginning of the last century, when he entered the field against Bishop Atterbury, and the High Church party. His share in this debate, and its intimate connection with the settlement of the new dynasty and the liberties of the country, was recognized by the House of Commons, who addressed the queen in his favour, and thus paved the way for his rapid promotion to the sees of Bangor, Hereford, Salis- bury, and Winchester, which he held in succession. In 1717, while bishop of Bangor, he preached the sermon before the king which gave rise to the famous Bangorian controversy, in which Hoadley was assailed by the chiefs of the non-jurors, and with most effect by William Law, the doughty champion of authority, both in church and state. This controversy was brought to a close about 1720, without conciliating either the high church party, on the one hand, or the dissenters on the 325 HOA other, and without adding much to Hoadley's character for consistency. With a fine intellect, he was constitutionally compliant and easy, and seems to have been wanting in fidelityto his conscientious convictions. In a word, it is most difficult to justify the career of such a man on any other principles than those of a worldly policy, and of that preference for the good and the true which may often be indulged in as a kind of luxury. Besides his numerous controversial pub- lications, Hoadley was author of 'An Account of the Life, Writings, and Character of Dr. Samuel Clarke.' prefixed to the posthumous works of the latter, published 1732: 'A Plain Account of the Nature and End of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper,' 1735 ; and a ' Letter ' Addressed to Cle- ment Chevalier, in 1756. [E.R.] HOADLEY, Benjamin, eldest son of the pre- ceding, was a physician and philosophical writer. He assisted Hogarth in composing his ' Analysis of Beauty,' and is well known as the auth. of a co- medy entitled 'The Suspicious Husband,' 1706-1757. HOADLEY, John, the youngest son of Bishop Hoadley, was educated for the law, but finally entered the church, and enjoyed several valuable preferments. He is the author of several dramatic works and poems, 1711-1776. HOAI-TSONG, an emperor of China, 1627-44. HOARE, P., F.S.A., a dram, au., 1764-1834. HOARE, Sir R. C, a county hist., 1758-1838. HOARE, W., an English divine, died 1657. HOARE, W., an ingenious artist, 1707-1792. HOBBEMA, M., a l)utch painter, 1611-1699. HOBBES, Thomas, born at Malmesbury on the 5th April, 1588, died on 4th December, 1679 : ' a great name in philosophy, on account both of the value of what he taught and the extraordinary impulse which he communicated to the spirit of free inquiry in Europe.' Criticism of Hobbes's speculations is here beyond our reach : the state- ment of a few facts regarding him will enable the student to judge whether the high eulogy just quoted, probably surpasses his deserts. So soon as Hobbes left Magdalen Hall, Oxford, we find those connections beginning which bound him, during a long life, in amity and confidence with the best families of England. Tutor to Lord Caven- dish heir of the princely house of Devonshire, he travelled with him through France and Italy. Death struck the pupil only two years after the de- mise of his father the earl of Devonshire. Hobbes, stung with grief, travelled again; but returned in 1631, at the entreaties of the dowager countess, to teach the young earl, then only thirteen. An inmate of this noble house, which he virtually con- tinued until his own decease, he mingled with all their extensive and distinguished circle ; and lived in intercourse with the most celebrated literary men of his own and other nations. Kennet in his ' Memoirs of the Cavendish Family' offers an inter- esting glimpse of the philosopher s daily life. He dedicated the morning to exercise ; the afternoon to study. Having climbed a hill and breakfasted, he went his rounds in the family, waiting also on dis- tinguished strangers, and conversing on the themes which occupied nim. At twelve o'clock he dined unceremoniously alone, and then returned to his study, where, with the companionship of his pipe, he devoted the hours to meditation and writing. HOB The subjects occupying him were the most solen that engage the human mind; and for the fir time had they engrossed the thoughts of a gre man in England. Loving truth, in the coveting the grounds of itnot in that of without grounds, and averring without unde standing he sought in an analysis of the hunu Intellect and Affections, the basis of man's dutin fiersonal, social, and political : in other words, .] onged to discern his place in the Universe as reasonable being, and like a brave and conscientio man to assert it. The enterprise was novel, bol and hazardous : novel, for in psychology he hi not one predecessor: hazardous, because no min ; save one of the first order, would have pretMl the necessary freedom, under pressure of the e: throned and inveterate Ignorance amid which ! lived, and of influences insidious and therefo more alarming, springing from his social attac) ments. But Hobbes surmounted all dangers. I can be said of him with perfect truth, that neith in his life nor writings, did he fail in integrity . effect on him of circumstances we discern not! trace ; he thought as a freeman, irrespective seductions or frowns; nay, the chances of li having given him Charles II. as a temporary puj he perilled the royal favour, as if he made l sacrifice ; to the honour of Charles be it recorde that the philosopher's uprightness did not cost hi the monarch's regard. It is easy to see that ' long life of such a kind, thrown "into the mid of those ages, could be no welcome apparition ; nj need Cromwell himself have dreaded a more tr just contemporary appreciation than Hobbes : b it is our grief and shame, that contemporary slai der has its voices still; that men in modern times wl never read one page of this illustrious thinker, b who desire their criticisms to be palatable, persi in making him a bugbear. Surely something mo than evil lay at the root of his extraordinary powc No man ever excited a wider and more lasth commotion. Clarendon, Cudworth, Bramhall, To nison, Harrington, Henry More, nay, in the wor of Warburton ' every young Churchman Militar. would try his arms in thundering on Hobbes's ste cap.' Now as then, men will repudiate many his opinions : that searcher for Truth had no help and he erred like others. Few thoughts are pure- unaffected by much that will perish ; but benea all, abides the Thinker, a veritable force of N. ture, formidable, incorruptible, fresh still aft all these centuries, gnarled it may be like an Enj lish oak, but also with roots profound holdh by the Earth, while slighter generations ft and disappear. Hobbes's style is a model the didactic ; clear and deep as the pen of an ei graver. Hallam says truly, that one could no mo change a word or expression in it, than in tl exactest mathematical formula. It does its du in distinctly expressing distinct thought ; and du alone is its aim. No more acceptable present h recently been made to the student of Engli; philosophy and literature, than the superb editi< of Hobbes's works in 16 volumes 8vo, which v owe to Sir William Molesworth. [J.P.N HO BE, Charlotte De, a French poetess, di ting, for her sweetness and sensibility, 1 7 HOBHOUSE, Sir Benjamin, a member of ti House of Commons and oi the government in tl 326 HOB )> of Mr. Addington, distinguished as the adver- gj of Pitt, and especially of his action against rtFrench republic, 1757-1831. OBLER, Francis, the well-known clerk of t'JMansion House, London, 1766-1844. ! OCCLEVE, Thomas, an English poet,15th c. OCHE. Lazare Hoche was born in 1768 a lontreuil, near Versailles, where his father was It >er of the royal stag-hounds. Hoche entered t army at the age of sixteen, and studied the iences with great diligence. He was a Jous supporter of the republican principles vjch the French revolution called into activity, a] he rose rapidly into distinction in the wars (linst the allied sovereigns. He behaved with jLliar skill and courage at the siege of Dun- fin 1793, and materially aided General Son- m in defending that city from the English army tjer the duke of York. He then received the mand of the army of the Moselle, and on the and 27th December, 1793, gained an impor- victory at Weissenburg. He now fell under suspicion of Robespierre and St. Just. He recalled from his command and sent to ion. The overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th jrmidor, saved Hoche from the guillotine ; and was placed at the head of one of the armies of Convention, that acted against the Vendeans he sanguinary civil war by which the west of ] nee was desolated. Hoche here displayed the lities of a statesman, as well as those of a eral. He reorganized his own army, which i become under his predecessors as disorderly as ras ferocious. He practised, and he made his >ps practise, humanity and good faith towards Ujeasantry. He won the confidence of the ean priests; and by these means, and by ing with the greatest skill and energy against b royalist bands as held out against him, Hoche omplished the pacification of La Vendee and ttany; an achievement more difficult, and re truly glorious than the most showy suc- ses of the other French generals of the revolu- lary wars. In 1795 Hoche defeated at Quiberon attempt made by the French emigrants, with aid of the English, to renew the war in Brit- y; and in 1796 he was placea at the head of expedition by which the French directory de- led to drive the English from Ireland, and [ke her a sister republic of France. Hoche (led on the 15th December, 1796, from Brest fleet of forty-three sail, and an army nearly strong; but this noble armament was by storms, and the frigate on board of Hoche himself had embarked, was separated the rest of the squadron, and with difficulty the French coast. In 1797 Hoche re- the command of the army of the Sambre ie Meuse, and prepared to invade Germany, to strike as deep blows against Austria in her Stern provinces, as Buonaparte was then deal- to her in the south. Hoche defeated the trians at Heffendorf, and was on the point capturing his opponent, General Kray, and the lole army of the imperialists, when he was ecked in the mid career of success by the news the pacification which Buonaparte and the chduke Charles had agreed on at Lroben. che died in 1797 after a short illness, at the HOF early age of thirty-three. Many attributed his death to poison, but there seems to have been no ground for these suspicions. He was not only one of the bravest soldiers and most skilful generals that the French revolution brought forward, but he was also an accomplished statesman, a sincere patriot, and a man of honour, generosity, and integrity. Napoleon, in speaking of him at St. Helena, truly said, 'Had Hoche lived, I must have subdued him, or he would have subdued me.' Unfortu- nately for France the chance of her being saved by Hoche from Napoleon's despotism, was taken from her by the premature death of the best of the heroes of the republic. [E.S.C.] HODGES, Nathaniel, a med. au., 1672-1684. HODGES, W., a landscape painter, 1744-1798. HODGSON, James, a mathema. wr., last cent. HODGSON, Dr. R., dean of Carlisle, a nephew and biographer of Bishop Porteus, died 1844. HODIERNA, J. B., a Sicilian astro., 1597-1660. HODY, Humphrey, a learned divine,1659-1706. HOEDT, Gerard, a Dutch paint., 1648-1733. HOEL, the first of the name, duke of Brittany, 509-545 ; the second, killed by his brother, 547 ; the third, 594-612 ; ihe fourth, 953-980 ; the fifth, 1066-1084; the sixth, 1148-1156. HOESCHEL, D., a Ger. Hellenist, 1556-1617. HOEST, G., a Danish navigator, 1734-1792. HOFER, Andrew, was chief of the Tyrolese in their heroic war against the French and Ba- varians in 1809. The Tyrol had been ceded to Bavaria by Austria at the peace of Presburg. But the Bavarians and their French allies had treated with insult and injury the ancient rights and usages of the Tyrolese, which their Austrian sovereign had always respected. Hence the feel- ing of loyalty to the Austrian emperor was fervent in the Tyrol ; and when Austria renewed war with France in 1809, the Tyrolese rose almost to a man in her cause. These brave mountaineers chose Hofer as their generalissimo. Hofer was at this time about forty-two years of age, and kept an inn in the village of Passayer. He showed him- self well worthy of his countrymen's confidence. Under his command the Tyrolese gave the French and Bavarian troops repeated and severe defeats, and for a time expelled them from the whole of the Tyrol. Hofer now acted as viceroy for the Austrian emperor ; and throughout his career he was as eminent for moderation and humanity, as for intelligence and valour. When Austria capitu- lated to Napoleon by the treaty of Schonbrun, in October, 1809, she again ceded the Tyrol to Bavaria ; and the Tyrolese were ordered to submit to their beaten and bitterest enemies as their lawful masters. They resisted gallantly; and it was only after repeated battles that the over- whelming armies of French, Saxons, and Bava- rians, which were now poured into the Tyrol, succeeded in quelling the brave mountaineers. Hofer for some time escaped the pursuit of his enemies, but he was at last captured on the 27th January, 1810. He was immediately sent to Mantua for trial before one of Napoleon's military tribunals. He was condemned to death, and ordered to be shot within twenty -four hours. He met his fate as a good Christian and a brave sol- dier. The spot on the bastion at Mantua, where he fell, is still visited as a holy place by his 327 HOF , countrymen, who cherish with just memory of their hero-martyr. pride the [E.S.C.] [Monument to Hofer at Inspruck.J HOFER, J. A., a Tyrolese juriscon., 1765-1820. HOFFBAUER, J. C, a Ger. philo., 1766-1827 HOFFMAN, Daniel, a Germ, divine, d. 1611. HOFFMAN, Frederick, a disting. German physician and writer on pathology, 1663-1742. HOFFMAN, F. B., a Fr. dramatist, long time lit. critic of the 'Journal des Debate,' 1760-1828. HOFFMAN, G., a Ger. medical au., 1572-1649. HOFFMAN, John James, a literary savant of Basle, author of a ' Universal Lexicon,' 1635-1706. John Maurice, his son, a physician and professor, au. of some valuable works on botany, 1653-1727. HOFFMAN, Maurice, a Ger. physician and anatomist, best kn. as a wr. on botany, 1622-1698. HOFFMANN, C, a Ger. med. author, d. 1648. HOFFMANN, C. G., a Germ, jurist, 1692-1735. HOFFMANN, Chr. Louis, a German physic, and prof., au. of a ' Theory of Disease,' 1721-1807. HOFFMANN, Ernest Theodore William, a Ger. dramatic writer and composer, 1776-1822. HOFLAND, Mrs. This popular authoress was the daughter of Mr. Robert Wreaks, a manufac- turer of Sheffield, where she was born in 1770, and where, at the age of twenty-six, she was married to her first husband, Mr. Hoole. That gentleman dying two years afterwards, left her in embarrassed circumstances, and she published a volume of poems by subscription, with the pro- ceeds of which she opened a school at Harrowgate, where she commenced the series of works which have rendered her name so popular, and effected so much good among young people. In 1808, she was married to Mr. Hofland, an admired landscape painter, and the year following she removed to London with him. In a few years, the fame of Mrs. Hofland was so well established that Queen Charlotte became her unsolicited patroness, and ' The Son of a Genius,' published in 1813, was translated into several of the con- tinental languages. The works of Mrs. Hofland are chiefly in the form of novels, or of contribu- tions to the magazines and annuals, but they are all marked by her desire to promote the improve- HOG ment and elevation of character, and we have I testimony of Mr. and Miss Edgeworth, that other book in their time had effected so mi good in Ireland, as the novel just mention Mrs. Hofland died in 1844, as justly esteemed her domestic virtues, her happy temper, and conversational powers, as for the talents wh have rendered her name familiar to the readers English literature. HOFLAND, Thomas Christopher, a d tinguished landscape painter, famous for his la scenery and classic subjects, 1777-1843. HOGARTH, William, was born in Lond 10th December, 1697 ; he was apprenticed at early age to Gamble, a silversmith, but at the t piration of his term in 1718, he took to engfl in copper for the booksellers. In 1730 he ml the only daughter of Sir James Thornhill, agai her father's consent, and set up as a portrait pai ter with considerable success. He now commenc his remarkable series of satirical paintings iefle< ing on the social abuses of his tune : The ' Hi [Hogarth's House.] lot's Progress' in 1734; the ' Rake's Progress' 1735 ; and the ' Marriage a la Mode' in 1745, n< in the National Gallery. In 1753 he appeared an author in his 'Analysis of Beauty, writt with a View of Fixing the Fluctuating Ideas Taste.' In 1757 he was appointed serjea painter to the king: he died in London, 26 October, 1764, and was buried at Chiswick. H garth was a good painter as well as a great satiris (Nichols, Biographical Anecdotes, &c, 178 1782 : Ireland, Hogarth Illustrated, Boyde 1791.) [r.n:w HOGENDORP, G. C. Von, a Dutch statesma who greatly promoted the return of the prince Orange by the insurrection which he excited, 181 His brother, Thierry, a general and minister war under Louis Buonaparte, 1761-1830. HOGG, James, the Ettrick Shepherd, claim erroneously it is said to have been bo on the 25th of January (Burns's birth-day), 177 He belonged to the vale of Ettrick, in Selka shire, where he followed the pastoral oceupati of his ancestors. His first published song, ' Dons Maedonald,' acquired extensive popularity. Afl several successful literary efforts, the most co siderable of which was a volume of ballads call ' The Mountain Minstrel,' Hogg, who had fail in sundry sheep-farming speculations, reinov 328 HOH Edinburgh in 1810, with the view of living by wits. He there published a volume of songs, le Forest Minstrel,' and conducted a periodical :ed ' The Spy,' which existed for about a year, vas not, however, until the appearance of ' The [Birth-place of James Hogg.] s Wake,' in 1813, that he became greatly inguished as an author. Besides 'The Pil- of the Sun,' ' Queen Hynde,' and other jcal works, Hogg wrote numerous tales and ;ls, few of which are now much read. He on terms of friendship with Scott, Wilson, other literary magnates of Edinburgh, and the ner in which he was made to figure in the )rated 'Noctes' of Blackwood although some- s complained of by himself contributed not ;tle to his fame. With less masculine sense Burns, and far inferior in tender and pas- ate earnestness, he yet possessed a higher tive fancy ; and many of his pieces, such as any Kilmeny,' are marked by a certain wild dreamy fascination, unlike anything else with :h we are acquainted. Hogg spent his later 8 at Altrive, on the Yarrow, where he died on Klst November, 1835. [J.H.] lOHEXLOE, Alexander Leopold, prince Wnd bishop of Sardica, celebrated for the sur- ging cures effected by him, was born in the Jpipality of Hohenloe 1794, and died at Gross- rtcun in Hungary 1849. The mother of the l\g prince was a woman of remarkable piety, H| being left a widow when he was only two of age, she had the entire control of his edu- " e religious habits induced upon him at were continued by his attachment to the when he went to Rome to complete his and he at length embraced the ecclesiasti- ession with the enthusiasm of a saint of the ages. He commenced his duties at Bam- and Munich 1817, and his preaching, it is drew tears from the most insensible, and t the most hardened to repentance. In 1821 lours of his miraculous power of healing to spread abroad, and it is remarkable that were chiefly effected by prayer, and that of them are said to have been performed distance with as much effect as under his own Space is not afforded us to recite particular but he gave sight to the blind, hearing if, speech to the dumb, and caused the HOL lame to walk. The derision which marks the recital of these facts by biographers who cannot dispute them, only proves their own want of that living faith and fervid charity which was the secret of the success of Prince Hohenloe. The flippant explanation of such phenomena by the sudden tension of the spirit, the ' force of imagina- tion,' or by other . kinds of mental impressions, is mere verbiage, unless it be understood that the spirit is also substance, as implied by Lord Bacon, who writes: 'There is the possibility of an action of one person upon another by the force of the imagination of one of those two persons ; because as one body receives the action of another body, so, one spirit is adapted to, receive the action of another spirit ; ' which agrees with what Dr. Hey- lin declares of touching for the scrofula, that he has ' Seen children brought before the king some hanging at their mothers' breasts, and others in the arms of their nurses, all touched and cured.' There is every reason to believe that the cures of Prince Hohenloe were magnetic healings, rendered doubly powerful by the religious spirit associated with them ; and that the substantive operation is the same in ordinary magnetism and in the cure of disease by faith, with a distinction which is more clearly traced in the article Mesmer. It is no disparagement of the mere facts in this case, that they were eagerly promulgated, and in some particular instances, perhaps, exaggerated by the Jesuits, whose re-establishment was greatly aided by them. Whether this 'new Xavier' lost his power, or chose to exercise it in private after the attacks that were made upon him by the sceptics is not known, but the fame of his performances had died away many years before his death. Prince Hohenloe is the author of several devo- tional treatises published between 1820-30. [E.R.] HOHENLOE, L. C. F. Leopold, prince of, one of the most ardent enemies of the French re- volution, in whose principality the emigrant nobles were permitted to organize their armies, and who furnished them with two auxiliary regiments, 1731-1799. His son, E. Aloys Joachim, distin- guished in the same line of policy, and a marshal of France under Louis XVIIL, died 1829. HOHENLOE -INGELFINGEN, Frederick Louis, prince of, a distinguished general in the wars of the Fr. rev., and commander of the Prus- sian and Saxon army defeated at Jena, 1746-1818. HOHENLOE-KIRCHBERG,princeof,ageneral of artillery in the service of Austria, died while commanding the army on the Rhine, 1796. HOLBACH, Paul Thyry, Baron D', a Germ, mineralogist, and wr. on Nat. Religion, 1723-1789. HOLBEIN, Hans, or Johannes, was born at Augsburg in 1498, his father and grandfather of the same name, being also natives of that city: the father, however, when Hans was about seven- teen or eighteen years old only, settled in Basle in Switzerland, apparently in 1519. The celebrated Erasmus is said to have been one of the first to appreciate young Holbein, and an unauthenticated story is told tnat the earl of Arundel, passing through Basle, recommended him to try his fortune in England. He, however, finally made the visit to this country to escape the ill-temper of his wife : he came to London in 1526, bringing letters from Erasmus to Sir Thomas More, who ultimately 329 iiol introduced Holbein to Henry VIIT., and he became tli.it king's favourite painter, and is not the least glory of his reign. He revisited Basle in 1538, and the municipalitv of the town awarded him an annuity of fifty florins for two years, with the hope apparently of retaining him there, but he returned to London, where he died in 1554. Hol- bein's gi 'nuine works are doubtless very numerous, but. M Walpole says, 'as always happens to a real gaunt, he has been complimented with a thousand wretched performances that were unworthy of him.' His stvle is manly and correct, but hard and formal ; tlie character, however, and individu- ality of many of his portraits, are evidently exact and masterly. He painted some religious and his- torical pieces; his masterpiece is perhaps the 'Family of the Burgomaster, Meyer/ now in the Gallery of Dresden, the father and sons on one side, and the mother and daughters on the other, are kneeling before the Virgin, who holds a dead or sick child in her arms, apparently one of the family. Holbein is also the author of a very celebrated series of designs, known as the 'Triumph of Death,' cut in wood and first published at Lyons in 1538 ; afterwards copied by Hollar and others. (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c, ed. Wor- num; Hegner, Hans Holbein der Jungere, Ber- lin, 1827: Passavant, Kunstblatt, 1846, Nos. 45, 46.) [R.N.W.] HOLBERG, Ludwig or Louis, baron of, a dramatist and popular wr. of Denmark, 1684-1754. HOLBOURNE, Sir R., a wr. on law, d. 1647. HOLCROFT, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer and translator, best known for his dramatic works and translations from the French, 1744-1809. HOLDEN, H., a Roman Cath. div., 1596-1662. HOLDER, W., a learned divine of the Church of England, known also as a writer on music, and one of the teachers of Sir Christopher Wren, d. 1697. HOLDERLIN, F., a German poet, 1770-1836. HOLDSWORTH, E., a clas. trans., 1688-1746. HOLDSWORTH, OLDSWORTH, or OLDIS- WORTH, Richard, a learned divine, and adherent of King Charles, whose execution is thought to have hastened his death, 1590-1649. HOLE, Richard, an English poet, 1802. HOLINSHED, or HOLLYNSHED, Raphael, author of the famous Chronicles known by his name, which comprise a history and description of England, Scotland, and Ireland, first published in 1577, and continued after his death by Stowe. Very little is known of his history, but he is sup- posed to have been steward to an English gentle- man. He died about 1580. HOLKAR. Three Mahratta princes of this name have acquired a distinguished place in the history of India. 1. Molhan Raou Holkar, distin- fuished in Portuguese and Affghan warfare, died 765. 2. Takoudjy, or Tuckagee, Holkar, the successor of the preceding, distinguished in many wars with the English, and for the introduc- tion of the European discipline into his army, died 1797. 3. Djeswant Raou, or Jeswunt Rao Holkar, third son of Takoudjy, who main- tained a war with the Marquis Wellesley in 1804, and died, after having been insane three years, in 181 1. The latter was succeeded by his son, Mi;l- kai: Rao, and in 1818 the Mahratta power was finally overthrown. HOL HOLE, Fr. Xavier, a Ger. canon., 1720-17! HOLLAND, Henry, first Lord. See Fox. HOLLAND, Henry Richard Vassal Fo Lord, a British statesman, was born on 2! November, 1773. His claim to remembrar depends more on the respect and affection of ] party and his personal friends, than on pub fame. As the son of an influential statesman, a the nephew of Charles Fox, he had an eai opportunity of practically knowing political li and mingling in public business. A consideral portion of his youth was spent abroad, and acqui ing a partiality for Spain, he was mainly instr mental, by translations and other efforts, in exc : ing a taste for Spanish literature in Britain. ] took his place in the House of Lords two years b fore the commencement of the present centui Save for the short period of the ministry of 18' [Holland House.} connected with his uncle's name, he was in oppo tion until the formation of the reform ministry 1830. He was a staunch Whig, sometimes star ing almost alone, and recording frequent prote: against overwhelming majorities, for the gr, body of his political associates were in the Hoi of Commons. He was as steady in his persoi as in his political attachments, and was aim' worshipped by a wide social circle of the first rr of his age. In his classic mansion of Holla House, his easy and munificent hospitality was great moment in uniting and strengthening ' f>arty. He joined the cabinet of 1830 as chanc or of the duchy of Lancaster. He died on '2 October, 1840. [J.HJ HOLLAND, Sir N., a painter, died 1811. HOLLAND, Philemon, a classical translat 1551-1636. His son, Henry, a bookseller n editor, date unknown. HOLLAR, or HOLLAND, Wenceslaub, Bohemian engraver, celebrated for his porta of women and of animals, &c, 1607-1677. HOLLES, Denzil, Lord, an English diplon tist and member of the Long Parliament, in wb he distinguished himself by his opposition to arbitrary measures of the government. He i one of the five demanded by the king on of high treason in 1611, but was sub known as a royalist, and promoted the R< 1597-1680. HOLLIS, Thomas, an English gentlem 330 IHOL l for his republican principles, author of ' Me- ' printed shortly after his death, 1720-1774. LLIS, Th. Pelham, known as a statesman ron Pelham and duke of Newcastle, d. 1768. W LLMANN, S. C, a Ger. philos., 1696-1787. LLOWAY, T., a celeb, engraver, 1748-1827. fLMAN, J. G., a dramatic author, d. 1817. BlMES, George, an antiquarian, 1662-1749. iLMES, Nathaniel, a learned div., d. 1678. iLMES, Robert, D.D., a learned divine and best known for his collated edition of the agint, of which 73 MS. volumes are deposited i Bodleian library. He was appointed pro- of poetry on the death of Warton, and te dean of Winchester, 1749-1805. OISTIOLD, Theodore De, a Danish phy- and botanist, died 1793. ILMSTROEM, Israel, a Swedish poet, a also as secretary of Charles XII., d. 1708. >LOFERNES, a general of Nebuchadnezzar, of Assyria, killed by Judith, probably in the e of the 7th century B.C. )LROYD, John Baker, earl of Sheffield, of the posthum. works of Gibbon, 1741-1821. )LSTEIN, C., a Dutch painter, 1653-1691. )LSTEIN, J. L. De, count of Lethraburg, a ih statesman, one of the founders of the Aca- of Sciences at Copenhagen, 1694-1763. )LSTEIN GOTTORP, Charles Fred- k, duke of, a nephew of Charles XII., and i-law to Peter the Great, 1700-1739. )LSTENIUS, L., a Ger. savant, 1596-1661 )LT, Francis Ludlow, a barrister and wr. w, many years editor of Bell's New Weekly enger, author of dramas, died 1844. )LT, John, a miscellaneous wr., 1742-1801. 3LT, Sir John, a famous English judge, rated for his patriotic opposition to the ores of James II., and for his acquaintance the constitutional law of England, was born lame, in Oxfordshire, 1642 ; and on the king's ision in 1685, had risen by his professional ence as an advocate, to the office of Recorder ondon. He had occupied this post about a and a-half, when he was compelled to retire nsequence of his opposition to the court, and gh he was afterwards made serjeant at law, levoted himself so entirely to the popular e, that he was rewarded on the accession of j William with the appointment of Lord Chief ice of the King's Bench, and with a place in privy council. In 1700 he declined the cellorship which was offered to him on the )val of Lord Somers, and remained in the b of judge, which he graced with his firmness, Mice, and impartiality, until his death in 1709. y anecdotes are related of him, illustrating rigorous opposition to the least exercise of a er superior to the law. On one occasion he solicited to support with his officers a party lie military sent to suppress a riot occasioned ;he_ practice of decoying young men for the tations. ' Suppose,' said the judge to the senger, 'the populace should not disperse at : appearance, what are you to do then ? ' ',' replied the officer, 'we have orders to fire hem. ' Have you, Sir? ' said the judge ; ' then i notice of this, if there be one man killed, and are tried before me, I will take care that you, HOM and every soldier of your party shall be hanged. Sir,' he added, ' go back to those who sent you, and tell them that no officer of mine shall attend soldiers ; and let them know at the same time that the laws of this kingdom are not to be executed by the sword; these matters belong to the civil fiower, and you have nothing to do with them.' t is proper to add, that when the officer had retired, Sir John himself repaired to the spot with a party of constables, and dispersed the mob without bloodshed ; also, that this incident occurred after the accession of William, which is a still greater proof of Holt's inflexible integrity. His professional remains consist of ' A Report of Divers Cases in Pleas of the Crown in the reign of Charles II.,' published 1708. [E.R.] HOLTE, John, a Latin grammarian, 15th cent. HOLTY, Louis Henry Christopher, a Ger- man poet and translator of English, 1748-1776. HOLWELL, J. Z., an employe" of the East In- dia Company, author of a narrative of his own and his fellow-prisoners' sufferings in the black hole of Calcutta, and of Researches in the History and Mythology of Hindostan, &c, 1711-1798. HOLYDAY, B., a learned divine, 1593-1661. HOLYOAKE, Francis, a country clergyman, kn. as the author of a Latin Dictionary, died 1653. His son, Thomas, a physician, author of a Dic- tionary founded on that by his father, 1616-1675. HOLYOKE, E. A., an American physician, known as a meteorologist and natural philosopher, as well as a professional writer, 1728-1829. HOLYWOOD, John, of Halifax, (in Latin John Sacrobosco,) an eminent mathematician, d. 1256. HOMANN, J. B., a Ger. atlas engr., 1664-1724. HOMBERG, W., a Dutch chemist, 1652-1717. HOME, David, a Scottish divine, 17th cent. HOME, Sir Everard, a Scotch surgeon, au. of 'Lectures on Compar. Anatomy,' &c, 1756-1832. HOME, Henry, a Scotch judge, best known as Lord Kames, and distinguished as a writer of great metaphysical acumen. Besides professional works, elucidating the law of Scotland, he is the author of ' Essays upon British Antiquities,' ' Es- says on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion,' 'Introduction to the Art of Thinking,' ' Elements of Criticism,' ' Sketches of the History of Man,' 'Hints upon Education,' and 'The Gen- tleman Farmer,' a work addressed to the improve- ment of agriculture, 1696-1782. HOME, or HUME, John, a minister of the Scotch Kirk, author of the well-known tragedy of ' Douglas,' and other works, 1724-1808. HOMER. The personal existence, the birth- place, and the era of the ' Father of Song,' have proved fertile subjects of discussion to literary antiquaries. Some of these have maintained that the Iliad and Odyssey are composed of a variety of legendary ballads, commemorative of incidents connected with the siege of Troy, which were the production of different authors, and were revised and skilfully interwoven in the age of Pisistratus ; and that the name Homer was merely the imper- sonation of the genius of epic poetry. Seven cities at least claimed the honour of having given birth to the poet ; and each of them seems to have had some tradition to allege in justification of its claim. The discrepancies of statement respecting the date of his existence are not less remarkable. : 331 HOM for of the eight different epochs assigned to him, the oldest differs from the most recent by a period of 460 years. According to the theory which carries along with it the greatest amount of proba- bility, Homer flourished in the second century after the taking of Trov, from about B.C. 1019 to B.C. 981. or from 166 to 200 years after the Trojan era, having been born about B.C. 1044. He ap- pears to have been an Asiatic Greek, and a native of Smyrna, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor ; and from the circumstance of having been brought forth on the banks of the Meles, a river which ran beside the city, is said to have obtained the name Melisigenes. It is impossible, however, to come to any satisfactory conclusion on subjects which history has given us such scanty materials to determine. On one point all traditions agree, that he was afflicted with blindness ; and his de- scriptions of external nature warrant the conclu- sion that this misfortune arose from accident or disease, and not from the operation of nature at his birth. The writers of antiquity unanimously considered the Iliad and Odyssey as the produc- tions of a certain individual called Homer; and there is no evidence that the question of divided authorship was ever entertained by them. The existence of wandering minstrels is recognized in the early literature of Greece ; and it has accord- ingly been inferred that the minute and accurate geographical knowledge which is displayed in his works, was acquired by the poet as he wandered from court to court, delighting his auditors with the ' Tale of Troy Divine.' ' Homer,' says Bent- ley, wrote a sequel of songs and rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small earnings and good cheer, at festivals and other days ot merriment ; the Iliad he made for the men, and the Odysseis for the other sex.' Such, it is probable, was the state of the Homeric poems till the time of Pisis- tratus, who, aided by certain literary men, made a collection of the poet's works, superior in extent and accuracy to all that had preceded it, and thus preserved to future generations the noblest monu- ments of Greek genius. The poems attributed to Homer are the Iliad and Odyssey, to which some have added the Homeric Hymns. The Iliad stands first as the oldest, and also the most complete specimen of a national heroic poem. Its subject is the revenge taken by Achilles on Agamemnon for depriving him of his mistress, Briseis, during the siege of Troy, and the evils which in conse- quence befell the Greeks. The poem is divided into twenty-four books, which detail the movements of the besiegers during the period of Achilles' wrath, and end with the death and burial of Hector. The Odyssey, which is likewise divided into twenty-four books, contains the adventures of Ulysses when on his return from Troy to his na- tive island Ithaca. The hymns, epigrams, &c, which are ascribed to Homer, are of very doubtful origin. ' In conception and portraiture of*charac- ter,' says Colonel Mure, ' and the deeper vein of tragic pathos, Homer may be equalled, if not sur- passed, by Shakspeare; in moral dignity of thought and expression by Milton ; in the grace and delicacy of his lighter pictures by Petrarch and Ariosto; and in the gloomy grandeur of his supernatural imagery by jEschylus or Dante. But no one of these poets has combined, in a similar IIOO degree, those various elements of excellence in of which they may separately claim to coin with him.' I (j HOMER, H., a classical editor, 1752-1791. HOMILIUS, G. A., a Ger. composer, 1711- HOMMEL, C. F., a German jurist, 1722-1; HONAIN, Arou-Yezid, an Arabian physi and translator of learned works, 9th centurv. HONDEKOETER, Giles, a Dutch lands painter, born 1583. Gysbrecht, his son and pil, celebrated for the representation of pou born 1613. Melchior, son of Gysbrecht, his superior in the same line of art, l'<;.*)i HONDIUS, or DE HONDT, a Flemi the first of whom, Jost or Jodicus, is die guished as an engraver, especially of m 1611. His son, Henry, called the Elder, for traits and landscapes, 1573-1610; the youi Henry for his portraits of the reformers. 1588-1644. William, a son of the precedm, portrait engraver, born 1601. Abraham, at posed grandson of the first Hondius, distingui as a painter of hunting pieces, 1638-1695. HONE, N., an Irish enamel painter, d. 1784 HONE, William, a miscellaneous writer political satirist, whose 'Every-day Book' is av of acknowledged value ; though prosecuted in earlier part of his career for a parody on the Li gy, he latterly became sub-editor of the Pal newspaper, 1780-1842. HONORATUS. There are two saints of name in the Romish calendar ; the first, bisho Aries and founder of the monastery of Lerius, i 429. The second, bishop of Marseilles, an religious writer, born about 420 or 425. HONORE - DE - SAINTE - MARIE, Bl/ Vanzelle, called the fath., a Fr. theo., 1651-1' HONORIUS, son of Theodosius the Great, \ 384, became emperor of the West, and his bro Arcadius emperor of the East, on the deatl Theodosius 395 ; died, after being shamefully t jugated by the Goths under Alanc, 423. HONORIUS, the first of the name, pojx Rome, 626-638 ; the second, 1124-1130 ; the th distinguished for his political activity, and for < firming the order of St. Dominic and St. Franc? Assise, 1216-1227 ; the fourtk, 1285-1287. HONORIUS of Autun, professor at that p of theology and metaphvsics, died 1140. HONTHEIM, John "Nicholas De, a Gen Catholic theologian, author of works designee effect a union among Christians, and opposed the political system of the Vatican, 1700-1790. HONTHORST, Gerard De, a Flemish pair known in Italy as Gerardo della Notte, 1592-H His brother William, also a painter, 1604-16 HOOCH, P. De, a Flemish painter, 1643-1; HOOD, Robin, a chivalrous outlaw of the n of Richard I., whose exploits in Sherwood Fo are the subjects of many admired ballads. All popular legends celebrate his generositv and I in archery. The principal incidents of ; are to be found in Stowe, and a complete co! of the ancient poems, songs, and ballads rela to him was published by Ritson in 17D.3. HOOD, Samuel, Viscount, an English o mander, distinguished in several actions at commencement of the last war, particularly at bombardment of Havre; the defeat of Adm 332 noo 3rasse under Rodney ; the siege of Toulon ; the capture of Corsica ; after which he was d Governor of Greenwich Hospital, and pro- l to the rank of admiral. Born at Farncomhe vonshire, 1724, died 1816. )OD, Sir Samuel, a cousin and companion- ras of the preceding, died in the chief com- " of the East Indian fleet, 1814. )OD, Thomas, the son of a bookseller in on, was born there in 1798. After receiving scellaneous education, he was placed, in his nth year, in the counting-house of a Russian hant ; but, after an interval of repose on ac- of ill-health, he learned the art of engraving. $21, having already contributed fugitive papers riodicals, he became sub-editor of the London azine ; and for all the rest of his life he was thor by profession, though he also frequently ed himself and his readers by inserting in his s humorous illustrations designed and etched mself. His career was that of an honourable, y, and industrious man, who was never able lse himself above the necessity of toiling for a hood ; and who, long suffering under ill health, nued bravely, even on his deathbed, his efforts rovide for his wife and children. Hood's was of an extremely singular cast. It id, in an unusual degree, intensely serious on with strength of comic humour ; and per- his chief defect lay in his incapacity of either ling these elements harmoniously, or giving e to either without the other. As a punster as inimitable ; yet even here his most humor- iights bear with them a burden of thoughtful dng which is hurtful to their comic effect. two novels, ' Tylney Hall,' and the uncom- jd story called ' Our Family,' are the least essful of his attempts. The chief collections is witticisms are the ' Whims and Oddities,' ' The Comic Annual.' In a volume contain- 'The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies,' and r poems, he indicated the power of rising into h sphere of poetry. ' Eugene Aram's Dream ' ay striking ; and yet more pathetic is his well- rni ' Song of the Shirt.' This wild and vigor- piece was written shortly before his death, !b took place in 1845. [W.S.] 00 FT, Cornelius Van, an eminent Dutch ; and historian, 1581-1647. OOGE, P. De, a Dutch painter, died 1708. OOGE, R. De, a Dutch eng., abt. 1638-1720. OOGEVEEN, H., a Dut. Hellenist, 1712-91. OOGSTRAATEN, David Von, a Latin poet, I of a Dutch and Latin dictionary, 1658-1724. [OOGSTRAATEN, James Van, a Dutch friar, I of the first opponents of the reform., d. 1527. 100GSTUAATEN, Thierry Van, a lands- i i painter of Antwerp, 1596-1640. His son, Uukl, a painter and poet, 1627-1678. 100K, James, a composer of operas, melo- J mas and songs, distinguished for his amazing iiistiv, 1746-1827. His son of the same name, m of Worcester, author of some dramatic writ- 's, but more celebrated as a controversial divine ^Btical pamphleteer, died 1828. HOOK, Theodore Edward, born in London 1788, was the son of a musical composer. Edu- jed fliinsily, he became, in his teens, a writer of nis and farces (some of them successful) ; HOO while he was yet more famous for audacious prac- tical jokes. He found his way into gay and aris- tocratic society through his ready wit and inex- haustible fertility of puns, his musical accomplish- ments, and his extraordinary feats of extemporane- ous rhyming. In 1812, the liking which the Prince Regent had formed for him made him trea- surer of the Mauritius, without either knowledge of business or common prudence. In 1818, he was sent home under a guard, being accused of peculation ; and, though the criminal charge was dropped, he was held a debtor of government in a very large amount, which he never made any endeavours to discharge. He attempted, however, not unsuccess- fully, to serve the ministry of the day, by estab- lishing, in 1820, the ' John Bull ' newspaper ; and in it appeared his best witticisms, which indeed do not rise above the level of newspaper jesting. He wrote novels, the earlier of which, particularly ' Sayings and Doings,' were once fashionable. But for not a few years his career was both discredit- able and really unhappy. He was tasking his mind in authorship, while the greater part of his time was engrossed by the gay society in which his wit made him so acceptable ; his affairs were falling into irretrievable disorder through thoughtless ex- travagance ; and his health was giving way under increasing habits of intoxication. He died in 1841. [W.S.] HOOKE, Nathaniel, a native of Ireland, known as a zealous catholic and historian of Rome, and as the assistant of Sarah, duchess of Marl- borough, when compiling her memoirs, died 1763. HOOKE, Robert, a mathematician and experi- mental philosopher, dist. for his numerous mecnan- ical inventions and discoveries in science, 1635-1703. HOOKER, John, a learned historian and anti- quarian, born about 1524, died 1601. HOOKER, Richard, the famous author of the 'Ecclesiastical Polity,' was born about 1553, at the village of Heavitree, near Exeter. His own parents were in narrow circumstances, but the family had given several mayors to that city, and Richard was nephew of John Hooker, the historian, by whom he was introduced to Bishop Jewel. The latter provided for his education by sending him as clerk to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and settling a pension upon him. In 1577 he was received Master of Arts, and two years later appointed professor of Hebrew. Having taken holy orders in 1584, he was presented to the rectory of Drayton-Beauchamp, in Buckingham- shire, and about a year afterwards became master of the temple in London, where, at that time, Walter Travers, a zealous puritan, was afternoon lecturer. The opposition between the doctrines taught by Hooker, a staunch episcopalian, in the morning, and those of the presbyterian in the afternoon, soon grew to an open controversy. Travers was at length put to silence by the court of High Commission, and published his appeal to the Privy Council, the answer to which by Hooker, was the germ of the work on which his celebrity now rehts. The extensive learning and eloquent command of the resources of the English tongue displayed in that work have been the admiration of some of the greatest names in literature. It is hardly necessary to state that its principles are a defence of the English establishment, but it is 333 noo remarkable at the same time for its anticipation of the political doctrines of the Whigs, deriving all government from the implied consent of the people, or the free choice and judgment of the governed. The ' Ecclesiastical Polity ' is to this day the armoury of the Anglican Church. ^ Its author died in the rectory of Bishopshourne, Kent, 1600. His life was written by Isaac Walton, and published with the second edition of Hooker's works in 1666, and has since been frequently reprinted with them. [E-R.] HOOKER, Th., an English divine, 1586-1647. HOOLE, Charles, a schoolmaster, author of several introductory works in Latin, 1610-1666. HOOLE, John, a celebrated dramatic writer, translator of Ariosto and Tasso, &c, 1727-1803. HOOPER, George, bishop of Bath and Wells, distinguished as an Oriental scholar and ecclesias- tical antiquarian, 1640-1727. HOOPER, HOPER, or HOUPER, John, bishop of Gloucester under Edward VI., author of many pious works, burnt in the time of Qu. Mary, 1555. HOORNBEECK, J., a Dutch divine, 1617-6G. HOORNE, J. Van, a Dutch physician, 1621-70. HOPE, Charles, a distingd. Scottish lawyer Lord President of the Court of Session, 1763-1851. HOPE, John, a Scotch botanist, 1725-1786. HOPE, Thomas, celebrated for his works in illustration of art, especially of ancient costume and the life of the Greeks, died 1831. HOPE, Sir Til, a Scotch lawyer, died 1646. HOPITAL, Michael De L', a French states. and diplomatist, eel. for his integrity, died 1573. HOPITAL, Wm. Francis Anthony De L', Marquis De St. Mesme, a Fr. mathem., 1661-1704. HOPKINS, Ezekiel, a learned English prelate, 1633-1690. His son, Charles, a dramatist, 1664-1699. John, broker of the latter, author of ' Amasia,' a collection of poems, born 1675. HOPKINS, Lemuel, an American physician, distinguished as a political writer, 1750-1801. HOPKINS, Samuel, an American sectarian, au. of a ' Treatise on the Millennium,' 1721-1803. HOPKINS, Stephen, an American statesman, dist. as an economist and mathematician, 1707-85. HOPKINS, W., an English divine, 1647-1700. HOPKINS. W., an Arian writer, 1706-1786. _ HOPKINSON, Francis, a distinguished poli- tical writer of America, and an active promoter of American independence, 1738-1791. HOPPERS, J., a Dutch diplomatist, 1523-76. HOPPNER, J., a portrait painter, 1759-1810. HOPTON, Arthur, a mathemat., 1588-1614. HOPTON, Ralph, Lord, an Engl, general dist. in the Low Countries, and as a royalist, d. 1652. HOPTON, Susanna, areligi.wr., 1627-1709. HORACE. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was born near Venusia (now Venosa), a town on the confines of Apulia and Lucania, in the south of Italy, on the 8th of December, b.c. 65. The ma- terials for his life are derived almost entirely from his own works. His father, who was a respectable freedman, exercised the profession of a collector of payments at auctions ; and having, by this com- paratively humble calling, realized a competency, wilich he invested in the purchase of a house and farm in the neighbourhood of Venusia, there set- tled as a small farmer. In this house the poet was born, and here he spent the years of his boyhood. HOR When he was about twelve years of age, his f: not satisfied with the provincial school of Vei had him removed to Rome, and placed unde care of Orbilius, an old military man, whose demy was for a long period one of the & Rome. Though by no means rich, he had a der regard for the feelings of his son who was to mix with boys of the highest class ; and In cordingly provided him with the reqoun and attendance of slaves, he himself watchfll his morals with gentle severity. At the sclu Orbilius, Horace was instructed in grammar in the Latin and Greek languages ; Livius Ai nicus beino; the class-book in the former, Homer in the latter. Athens was at this tim garded as the university of the world ; and th Horace, in accordance with the prevailing pra repaired in his eighteenth year, b.c. 46, to com his education by a course of philosophy and sci under Greek masters. The advantages whic derived from his residence there are evince his familiarity with the whole range of Greek try, and especially with the terse and pointed guage of the Comedians. But the civil wars v followed the death of Julius Caesar, b.c. 44 temipted him in his studious and peaceful k ment. The arrival of Brutus at Athens, re the patriotic feelings of the youthful Romans, along with others, Horace ardently embracec cause of the Republic. Though entirely | perienced in war, he was promoted to the rar military tribune, with the command of a le and in this character shared in the defei Philippi, b.c. 42. After the battle, having forfeited his estate, he returned to Rome, v his poverty perhaps saved him from proscrip and by acting as a clerk in the quasstor's c and practising the strictest economy, he cont to live till he found means of making hi: known to the poets Varius and Virgil, by v his name was first mentioned to Maecenas, first interview with his future patron and f seems not to have been satisfactory ; for it wa till after nine months had elapsed that Mae< requested him to repeat his visit. This appar unpropitious beginning, however, was soon lowed by a friendship which speedily ripened intimacy ; and which introduced the poet t< highest and most refined society in Koine, friend of the prime minister found easy acce the emperor ; Horace was soon on terms of ( liarity with Augustus, and enjoyed his friem ; and patronage during the remainder of his 1 But the friendship of Maecenas brought some': more substantial to Horace than the mi ivinc of acquaintance in the higher circles his p. made him independent for life by the gift < estate in the Sabine territory, about thirty-four from Rome. The estate was not large, but it' prettily situated, and entirely suited to the t and wants of the poet. His admiration o beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood of ' (Tivoli), induced him to hire or purchase a co in that romantic town; and all the later yen his life were passed between these two coi residences and Rome. Horace died on the 11 November, B.C. 8, at the age of fifty-seven months after the death of his friend and p. Maecenas. His works consist of two boo) 334 HOR res, a book of Epodes, four books of Odes, two cs of Epistles, and a treatise on the Art of ;ry. "\\ ant of space prevents us from offering etch of Horace's character as a man and as a Though living on terms of intimacy with great, he retained through life his cherished pemlence, and complimented his powerful pa- s without the servility of flattery. His works commanded the admiration of all succeeding and though deficient, perhaps, in some of highest elements of poetry, will continue to be and studied as models of simplicity and cul- ted taste. [G.F.] ORAPOLLO. See Orus Apollo. ORBERG, M., a learned English divine, au- of a ' Treatise on Hell Torments,' 1707-1773. ORBERG, P., a Swedish painter, died 1814. ORDT, Count De, a Swedish officer m the ice of Russia, au. of ' Historic Memoirs,' d. 1785. ORMAN, W., a botanical author, died 1535. ORMISDAS, pope of Rome, reigned 514-523. ORMISDAS, the first of the name, king of da, reigned 271-272; the second, 303-311; third, usurped the throne, 457-460 ; fhefourth, d successor of the great Chosroes, 579-592. ORN, the name of a distinguished family in den, the best known of whom are Gustave, it Horn, one of the lieutenants of Gustave Iphe, and field-marshal and constable of Sweden he reign of Christina, born 1592. Arvid lnard, Count Horn, of the same family, prin- 1 instigator of the revolution of 1719, and chief he English party, 1664-1742. Frederick in, a general in the service of France, after- A& counsellor to Adolphus Frederick and tave III., 1715-1796. The son of the latter, tnt Horn, a man of letters, banished for his plicity with Anckserstroem, died 1823. ORN, Charles Edward, a ballad and opera poser, author of 'Cherry Ripe,' 'I've been ming,' and similar songs, 1786-1849. :ORN, F. Chr., a German critic, 1781-1837 [ORN, G., a Bavarian historian, 1620-1670. [ORN, J. Van, a Swedish physician, 1662-1724. [ORN, or HORNES, Philip De Montmo- rci-NiVELLE, Count, a Spanish general of the r Countries, executed for conspiring with the se of Orange 1568. His son, Floris De stmorenci, executed in Spain 1570. [ORNE, George,' a learned English prelate, [ known as the author of ' A Commentary on Book of Psalms,' was born 1730, and was y distinguished as a diligent Hebrew scholar, a partizan of John Hutchinson. His first lication was an ironical attack on Newton, in 1, entitled ' The Theology and Philosophy in aro's Somnium Scipionis Explained; or a Brief empt to Demonstrate that the Newtonian tern is agreeable to the Notions of the Wisest aents, and that mathematical principles are the r sure ones.' This was followed by several ks of a similar character in the course of the t ten years, including attacks on Dr. Shuck- , and Dr. Kennicott, with the latter of whom, young scholar, at a later period, became mately acquainted. Home took orders in 3, was successively president of Magdalen lege 1768, chaplain to the king 1771, vice- acellor of the university of Oxford 1776, dean 335 HOR of Canterbury 1781, and bishop of Norwich 1790. He died in 1792, and was buried at Elham, in Kent. There can be no hesitation in pronouncing that Bishop Home was a great biblical scholar, but too much inclined perhaps to write on subjects of which he had no true understanding. In proof of this it is enough to say, that the same hand which wrote in support of John Hutchinson, wrote against William Law. He is the author of many works besides the ' Commentary,' on which he bestowed nearly twenty years' labour, and the latter must always hold a distinguished place in biblical literature. [E.R.] HORNECK, A., a German divine, 1641-1696. HORNECK, O., a Ger. poet and hist., 1250-1310. HORNEMANN, Frederic Conrad, a celebr. Ger. traveller empld. by the African Soc, 1772-97. HORNER, Fr., a political economist, 1778-1817. HORNIUS, Geo., a Ger. historian, 1620-1670. HORNSBY, Th., an Eng. astronom., 1734-1810. HORNTHORST, Gerard, a distinguished Dutch painter, 1592-1660. HORREBOW, P., a Danish astron., 1697-1764. HORREBOW, V., a Danish navigator, 1712-60. HORROX, Jeremiah, a distinguished disco- verer in astronomy, author of a theory of lunar motion, afterwards verified by Newton, 1619-1641. HORSBURY, J., a Sc. hydrograph., 1762-1836. HORSLEY, John, an antiq. savant, 1685-1731. HORSLEY, Samuel, an English prelate, cele- brated for his numerous works in theology, science, and classical literature, 1783-1806. HORSTIUS, James, a German phvsician, author of a work on Sleep-walking, 1539-1600. His nephew, Gregory, a phvsician and medical author, 1578-1636. The son of the latter, of the same name, published his father's works in 1660, and his brother, Daniel John, was a writer on ana- tomy and editor of several medical works. HORSTIUS, J. M., a Germ, editor, 1597-1644. HORT, or HORTE, J., an Engl, div., d. 1751. HORTA, Garcias Ab., a Portu. herbal., 16th c. HORTENSE EUGENIE DE BEAUHAR- NAIS, daughter of Josephine, the consort of Napoleon Buonaparte, and of the Vicomte De Beauhamais, her first husband, was bom at Paris 1783, and married to Louis Buonaparte, the brother of Napoleon, in 1802. The match had been desired by the consul for political reasons, and it proved a most unhappy one. In 1806, Hortense became queen consort of Holland, and about a year afterwards was separated from her husband after giving birth to three sons : 1. Na- poleon Charles, who died in infancy, and whose intended adoption by Napoleon was refused by Louis. 2. Napoleon Louis, who was baptized by the pope Pius VII., and instead of attaining the high destiny proposed for him, was killed in an insurrection at Romagna 1832 ; and 3. Louis Napoleon, the present emperor of the French. On the divorce of her mother, Josephine, Queen Hortense joined her in her retirement at Malmaison, and after her death in 1814, so soon followed by the fall of Napoleon, became an unprotected and calumniated wanderer, until her residence was fixed at Augsburg by the king of Bavaria. She died October 5th, 1837. Her disposition was modest and retiring : her influence at the court of Napoleon was generously exercised in favour of the HOR distressed, and her affectionate solicitude for the emperor was fully manifested after the disaster of Waterloo. Hortense was duchess of St. Leu in vir- tue of a settlement made by the allies betw. the first fall of Napoleon and the hundred days. [E.R.] HORTENSIUS, a German classic, 1501-1577. HORTENSIUS, Quintus, a celebrated orator and consul of Rome, died b.c. 50. HORTON, Th., a learned divine, died 1673. HORUS APOLLO. See Orus Apollo. HOSEA, a prophet of Samaria, 8th cent. B.C. HOSEA, the last king of Israel, 8th cent. b.c. HOSKINS, John, an Engl, poet, 1566-1638. HOSPINIAN, R., a Swiss controv., 1547-1626. HOSPITAL, Michael De L\ See Hopital. HOSSFIELD, J. W., a Ger. mathe., 1768-1837. HOST, N. Th., a German botanist, 1763-1834. HOSTE, John, a Fr. mathematician, d. 1631. HOSTE, Paul, a French engineer, 1652-1700. HOSTILIAN, a son of the emperor Decius, reigned some months with Gallus, and died 252. HOSTUS, M., a Germ, antiquarian, 1509-1587. HOTHAM, H., the admiral intrusted with the blockade of the western coast of France after the battle of Waterloo, and who received Napoleon on board the Bellerophon, 1776-1833. HOTMAN, F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1524-1590. HOTTINGER, John Henry, one of the most learned of the Swiss reformers, especially in the Oriental languages, 1620-1667. John James, his son, also a classical scholar and theologian, author of Theological Dissertations, and an 'Ec- clesiastical History of Switzerland,' 1652-1735. HOTZE, J. C. Van, an Austrian gen., k. 1799. HOUARD, D., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1725-1802. KOUBIGANT, Ch. Fr., a learned French priest, au. of a Latin version of the Bible, &c, 1686-1783. HOUCHARD, Jean Nicholas, a general of the French revolution, the successor of Custine in the command of the armies on the Moselle and the Rhine, executed on a charge of treason, 1740-93. HOUDON, J. A., a French sculpt., 1741-1828. HOUDRY, Vincent, a Fr. Jesuit, 1631-1729. HOUEL, J. P. L., a French painter, 1735-1813. HOUGH, John, bishop of Worcester, celebrated for his opposition to James II., 1651-1743. HOUGHTON, Major, an African trav., d. 1791. HOULAGOU, a Mogul prince, died 1265. HOUMAIOUN, the second Mogul sultan of Hindostan, born 1509. Being defeated in 1541 by Chir-Khan, he reconquered his kingdom in 1555, and died the following year. HOUNG-WOU, a Chinese emperor. 1327-1398. HOUSTON, W., a disting. botanist, died 1733. HOUTEVILLE, C. P.. a French ecclesiastic, author of La Verite" de la Religion Chrdtienne, Prouve'e par les Faits,' 1688-1742. HOUTMAN, Cornelius, founder of the first Dutch factory in the East Indies, 1550-1608. His brother, Frederic, governor of Amboine, and author of a Malay dictionary, 1607. HOVEDEN, Roger De, an English historian, of the times succeeding the annals of Bede, namely, from 731 to the third year of King John, 1202. His work is held in the highest esteem by the learned for its faithfulness. HOW, William, a botanist, 1619-1656. HOWARD. The Howards are well known as one of the noblest families of England, and many HOW of them have arrived at distinction. The prineir are Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, and thl duke of Norfolk, an eminent statesman and na\ and military commander, distinguished at t battle of Flodden, 1488-1554. Edward, vounger brother of the preceding, and admiral England, killed in action with the French, 151 Henry, earl of Surrey, eldest son of Thomas, ; accomplished chevalier, and the first polite writ of love verses in the English tongue, beheaded a trumpery charge of high treason, 1516-1W Henry, second son of the poet, and earl of Nort ampton, known as a trimmer at court and as man of letters, implicated in the murder of Ove bury, 1539-1614. Charles, known as Lo Effingham and earl of Nottingham, and grandsi of the duke of Norfolk, commander of the chanr fleet on the invasion of England by the Spani Armada, 1536-1624. Thomas, earl of Arund and earl marshal in the reign of Charles I., knov as a diplomatist and antiquarian, died 164 Henry, his second son, and sixth duke of Norfol by whom the Arundelian marbles, collected by 1 father, were presented to the university of Oxfoi about 1668. Charles, eleventh duke of Norfoli and formerly earl of Surrey, known as a statesm;| in opposition to Lord North and Pitt, 1746-181 5| HOWARD, Catherine, daughter of Lo| Edmund Howard, third son of Thomas duke j Norfolk, married to Henry VIII. on his divorj from Anne of Cleves, 1540, beheaded 1549. HOWARD, Edward, a lieutenant in the royj navy, author of Rattlin the Reefer,' ' Jack Aslior and other marine novels, died 1842. HOWARD, Frederic, earl of Carlisle, son j Henry the fourth earl, and grandson of Williaj fourth Lord Byron, known as a poet and a partizij of the government, 1748-1825. HOWARD, George Edward, a poet, arctj tect, and political writer, died 1786. HOWARD, H., a miscellaneous writer, authl of ' Memorials of the Howard Family,' 1757-11 [Birth-place of Iloward, Clapton, Middlesex ] HOWARD, John, the philanthropist, was bo at Hackney, London, in 1726. His father left i immense fortune, but in his will, expressly pr, hibited his getting the control of it till he h reached his twenty-fifth year. His bound him an apprentice to a grocer. B purchased his indentures, he left the business HOW ;t, and set out on a continental tour. On his i to London, he married his landlady, a widow lerably older than himself, out of pure grati- ?or her attentions to him during a lingering m. But she dying soon after, he again re- { to travel, and went to Portugal with a view unine the ruins of Lisbon after the earth- L The vessel in which he sailed was attacked | French privateer, and all on board made lers. Besides the loss of his liberty, he was ;ted to various and severe privations in his of confinement ; and it was the recollection i personal sufferings that awakened his sym- 3S for the inmates of prisons. Being released exchange of prisoners, he returned, and his ind earnest efforts were made to bring the zt before the public and the parliament of in. He now married a second time, but his lied in a few years after, leaving him with an shild. For a time he resided on his estate at ngton, Bedford, dividing his attention be- ithe management of his property, and the stic education of his son. But this son, be- ig the subject of a hopeless derangement, was a to be placed in an asylum ; and having no t home, he sought occupation in the pursuit favourite schemes of benevolence, the ame- ion of prisons*. With this view, he visited, in every prison in the United Kingdom, and pub- [ the result of his inquiries. The same course nations he resolved to pursue in foreign ries ; and accordingly, in 1778 and the four Jrmg years he inspected all the public prisons lance, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland, rards extending his tour into the southern ries of Europe. He now entered on a new ifferent course of philanthropic pursuits, an y into the causes and cure of the plague. n was now directed to those countries | subject to the ravages of that dreaded pesti- : the countries of the Levant. On his return [gland, he published an account of the chief i -ettos in Europe, and his object was so far cd by the attention of skilful and scientific t as well as the general public being power- I excited by his details. Commencing a second \ )f inquiry, he resolved to travel through the In part of Europe with Egypt and Asia ir. Leaving the shores of Britain in 1789, he i?d through Holland and Germany, anxious tch Petersburgh, Moscow, and the shores of flack Sea in the proper season. In his pro- BpCDDgh the south of Prussia he had reached laon, when he was seized with malignant which after a few days' illness, terminated fctraordinary career on 20th January, 1790. s buried in a spot marked by himself about miles from Kherson, and a rude obelisk is ftd over his grave, bearing the brief Latin in- Jiaon, 'Vixit proper alios,' he lived for the good 'Jhers. His benevolence was not merely the I of a warm and feeling heart, which sym- Pjsed deeply with the sufferings of humanity, ed on Christian principles, for he lived Wed strong in the faith of the gospel. [R. J.] WARD, Sir R., an Eng. histor., 1626-1698. WARD, S., a composer of ballads, d. 1783. WARD; Sir W., a distin. lawyer, 13th cent. )WDEN, John Francis Cauadoc, Baron, HUB a native of Ireland, distinguished in the army, 1762-1832. HOWE, Charles, a religious wr., 1661-1745. HOWE, John, a noncont. divine, 1630-1705. HOWE, John, a noted politician of the reign of William III. and Queen Anne, in office under the latter, and succeeded by Walpole on the accession of George I., died 1721. HOWE. Admiral Earl Howe was born in 1725, and was the second son of Lord Viscount Howe. He entered the navy at fourteen, and dis- tinguished himself for courage and seamanship as he rose through the various ranks of the service to that of post-captain. In 1758 he succeeded (by his elder brother's death) to the family estates and honours ; but he was true to the sea, and was in constant active employment to the end of the Seven Years' War. When France took part against England in the American war, Lord Howe was admiral of our fleet off the American coast, and gained great credit by successfully keeping the French admiral D'Estaign in check throughout 1778, though Howe's fleet was far inferior to that of his adversary. At the end of that year Howe returned to Europe, and performed the important service of relieving Gibraltar. In 1788 he was made an earl. _ At the commencement of the war against France in 1793, Howe took the command of the western channel fleet at the king's earnest and personal request. In the next year he succeeded in bringing the main French republican fleet to action, and gained the great victory of 'The Glorious First op June.' Lord Howe was now seventy years of age, but he lived to do his country more good service ; and it was he who won back, by judicious kindness, many of our seamen to their duty in the alarming mutinies at the Nore and Spithead. Earl Howe died 4th August, 1799. [E.S.C.] HOWE, Sir William, brother of the famous admiral, and successor of General Gage in the command of the British forces in America, d. 1814. i HOWEL, Lawrence, one of the non-juring divines, celebrated for his great learning, died 1720. HOWEL-THE-GOOD, or HYWEL DDA, a famous legislator and king of all Wales, 10th cent. HOWELL, James, an Eng. hist., 1595-1666. HOWELL, W., a celebrated historian, d. 1683. HOWLEY, W., abp. of Canterbury, 1765-1848. HOWSON, John, a learned prelate, 1556-1631. HOYLE, E., a writer on whist, &c, 1672-1769. HUARTE, John, a Spanish philosopher, au. of a curious and valuable work, transl. into English by Carew and Bellamy, and entitled 'The Trial of Wits,' and first publisher of the alleged letter of Lentullus concerning the Saviour, born 1520. HUBER, Francois, an eminent naturalist, was born at Geneva in 1750. He died in 1831. Very early in fife Huber manifested a great love for the pursuit of natural history. A cataract, however, showed itself in his eyes while he was still a youth, and before he arrived at manhood he had become totally blind. Before his eyesight failed he had had his attention drawn to the ex- amination of bees. Having read the works of Reaumur and Bonnet, he believed that many of the statements made by those authors with regard to their history, were at variance with what he had himself observed ; and to ascertain the cor- 337 Z i HUB rectness of his opinion became the chief object of his life. Huber was fortunate in finding an affec- tionate wife and an attached servant, who devoted their lives to him with the greatest tenderness and assiduity. Not being able to see himself, he made use of their eyes : and under his directions, and as- sisted by the invention of several kinds of glass hives, Madame Huber and the faithful Burnens were en- abled to carry on their observations undisturbed and at leisure. By these means he succeeded in collecting together an immense number of facts with regard to the economy of bees which were be- fore that time unknown. These he published at various times, and his different memoirs were col- lected by him and published in 1814. This ren- dered his name famous throughout Europe; a fame which was increased by the knowledge of the fact, that these accurate observations had been made by a man totally blind from his youth. M. De Candolle has named a genus of plants after him, Huberia. [W.B.] HUBER, J., father of the preceding, an. of ' Ob- servations on the Flight of Birds,' 1722-1750. HUBER, John, a native of Geneva, known as an artist in paper and writer on balloons, 1722-1790. HUBER, John James, a native of Basle, cele. for his works in anatomy and botany, 1707-1778. HUBER, John Rudolph, a distin. painter, called the Tintoret of Switzerland, 1668-1748. HUBER, Mary, a Swiss philos. wr., 1694-1759. HUBER, Michael, a native of Bavaria, trans- lator of Gellert, Gesner, and Winckelmann into French, 1727-1804. Louis Ferdinand, his son, a journalist, 1764-1804. Therese, a daughter of Heyne, and wife of the preceding, distinguished as a novelist, 1764-1829. HUBER, Samuel, a Swiss divine, 16th cent. HUBER, Ulric, a Dutch savant, 1636-1694. His son, Zacharias, also a learned wr., 1669-1732. HUBERT DE L'ESPINE, a French traveller in Tartary, author of ' Description des admirables regions de Tartarie,' published at Paris, 1558. HUBERT, F., a French engraver, 1744-1809. HUBERT, M., a Fr. preac. and au., 1640-1717. HUBERT, St., the apos. of Ardennes, 7th cent. HUBNER, John, a German geographer and historian, 1668-1731. His son, of the same name known as a man of letters, died 1758. HUBNER, Martin, a Danish publicist, 1725-95. HUDDART, J., a distin. navigator, 1741-1816. HUDDE, John, a Dutch mathem., 1640-1704. HUDDESFORD, G., a burlesque poet, last ct. HUDDESFORD, W., a naturalist of last cent. HUDDLESTONE, Robert, a Scottish anti- quarian, editor of a new edition of ' Toland's His- toid of the Druids,' 1776-1826. HUDSON, Henry, an able English navigator, to whom we owe many important discovenes in the northern regions. Nothing is known respect- ing him till 1607, when he was sent out by a com- pany of London merchants to seek a passage to India directly across the pole, many previous expeditions having failed to discover either a north- east or a north-west passage. Leaving the Thames on the 1st May, in a small vessel, with only ten men and a boy, he sailed for Greenland, which he reached in lat. 70. Before he was stopped by ice, he had succeeded in advancing alongthe E. coast HUG of Spitsbergen, and returned by Nova Zemblajj the North Cape. He made several other vi| ages in pursuit of the same object, during one; winch he was in the service of the Dutch, and dj covered the North American river which bears name. In his last voyage, undertaken A], 1610, he discovered the large gulf or inland ; named after him, and which, three years lat was carefully examined by Sir Thomas Butt I Hudson was obliged to pass the winter in southern part of it, so that on the return of su| mer his provisions were nearly exhausted, and and his men were exposed to great hardships, ing obliged to subsist upon moss and fr men became mutinous, and resolved to turn master and those faithful to him adrift, that limited stock of provisions might last the lon< The ringleader was a young man named Green | respectable connections, who had been be! brought out by Hudson in order to separate him fr vicious companions, with whom he was leadin profligate life. The conspiracy broke out on the 2 of June ; the captain was seized and bound, ; with eight others, his staunchest friends, mostj whom were sick or lame, was turned adrift ai floating ice, in the strait which bears his nai Some meal, and an iron pot, a fowling-piece i ammunition, were the only means allowed th of preserving their lives ; and there can be j doubt that they soon perished miserably. Am< the fourteen who remained on board were Rot! Bylot and Habbakuk Pricket, to the latter! whom we owe the only account there exists of latter part of Hudson's voyage. The wre! Green was killed soon after in an affray with j natives ; Robert Ivet, the next most guilty ail Green, died of starvation. Most of the rest read the west coast of Ireland, after dreadful sufl ings. [J.ll HUDSON, Dr. John, a critical an., 16G2-17! HUDSON, Th., a portrait painter, 1701-177 HUDSON, W., a distin. botanist, 1730-1793 j HUE, Francis, a valet of Louis XVI., mt\ of a narrative of his last years, 1757-1819. HUERTA, Vicente Garcia De La, a Sp 1 ish tragedian, editor of a critical edition of the tj , Spanish plays, 1729-1797. HUET, Peter Daniel, a French pri as a philosopher and biblical scholar, 163 HUFELAND, C. W., a Ger. phys., 1762-18! HUFNAGEL, G., a Flemish poet and natuij ist, skilled as a painter of animals, 1545-1600. j HUGFORD, Ignazio, a painter, 1703-1778| HUGH, or HUGUES, the name of seyi; princes of the middle ages, the most distinguis of whom are Hugh the Great, son and sua sor of Robert as count of Paris, and father' Hugh Capet, died 956. Hugh Capet, son of preceding, and founder of the third dynasty of kings of France, born 939, crowned at Rheh 987, died 996. Hugh of Provence, king Italy, died 947. Hugh I., duke of Burgun reigned 1075-1078, died 1093. Hugh II., reig 1102-1142. Hugh III., a distinguished war and crusader, succeeded 1162, died in Asia 11 Hugh IV., a crusader and companion-in-arm!l St. Louis, 1218-1272. Hugh V., the last of dukes of Burgundy of this name, reigned 13ij beyond the 80th parallel, considerably to the north 1315. Besides these, four kings of Cyprus 338 HUG ritioned : Hugh I., reigned 1205-1218. Hugh ;;j 1253-1267. Hugh fil., called 'The Great,' [17-1276. Hugh IV., king of Cyprus and rksalem, sue. Henry II. 1324, abdicated 1361. [UGH, Saint. The earliest saint of this )!'.e is a French prelate who administered the ljeses of Paris and Bayeux, died 730. Next in k of time is Hugh of Cluny, abbot of the artery of that name, flourished 1023-1109. [I third Saint Hugh, a bishop of Grenoble, [ling, for having located Bruno and his com- mons in the Grande Chartreuse, lived 1053-1132. UGH of Amiens, a native of that place, after- i|ls prior of Cluny, kn. as a theologian, d. 1164. I UGH of Bregi, a bard of the 13th century. UGH of Flavigny, abbot of that place in and author of the ' Chronicle of Verdun.' UGH of Fleury, abbot of that place, and De La Puissance Royale,' &c, 11th century. GH of Poitiers, a chronicler, 12th cent. UGH of St. Cher, a learned monk and al, au. of a Bible Concordance, died 1263. UGH of St. Victor, a theologian, died 1140. feUGHES, John, a poet and miscellaneous ter, translator of Fontenelle's ' Dialogues of the to,' &c, 1677-1720. Jabez, his brother, a kical translator, and miscel. writer, 1685-1731. JUGHES, John, a learned editor, 1682-1710. IUGHES, Griffith, a naturalist, last century. IUGO, C. L., a French savant, 1667-1739. "UGO, Herman, a Ger. Jesuit, 1588-1629. UGONET, W., a Fr. statesman, exec. 1477. UGTENBURGH, James Van, a Dutch lands- painter, born 1639. John, his brother, dis- uished as a painter of battle-pieces, 1646-1733. UGUES, Victor, French governor of Guada- during the first revolution, 1770-1826. UGUET, M. A., a Fr. prelate, executed 1796. HJLDBICH, John, a Swiss divine, 1683-1737. lULL, Thomas, a dramatic writer and actor, fhder of the Theatrical Fund, 1728-1808. IULLIN DE BOISCHEVALIER, L. J., a Ipch writer, author of ' Repertoire Historique de Involution,' and ' De l'Empire,' 1742-1808. ftULLIN, P. A., a French general, 1758-1841. IULLOCK, Sir John, a disting. lawyer and jb, author of the ' Law of Costs,' 1764-1829 ItULME, Nathaniel, a med. wr., 1732-1807. IULSE, Sir S., an Eng. officer, died 1837. IULSEMANN, J., a Ger. divine, 1602-1661. JULSIUS, Anthony, an Oriental scholar and l(jlogian of Holland, 1615-1685. Henry, his I a learned divine and professor, 1654-1723. IULST, P. Vander, a Dutch painter, famous Bus flowers and insects, 1652-1708. IULSWIT, J., a Dutch painter, 1766-1822. ilUMANN, J. G., a French minister of finance, tar of several cabinets, 1780-1842. IUMAYUN-NESIR-ED-DEENY MOHAM- li D, second Mogul emp. of Hindostan, 1508-56. IUMBERT, the first French cardinal, 11th ct. [UMBERT, J. A., a French general, 1767-1823. IUMBOLDT, William Von, the brother of J illustrious author of * Cosmos,' was born in ' mdam 1767, when his father was chamberlain 'he Princess Elizabeth of Russia. In his youth Ike all the young people of Germany at this I he was influenced by the sentimental en- rof which Goethe's * Werter' still remains a HUM the literary monument ; and besides entering into friendly alliances with his fellow-students, he cultivated an intimacy with the most distinguished women of the age. Of the latter amiable sentiment, his Letters to a Female Friend' translations of which have appeared in English are a pleasing memorial. It is as the philosopher and statesman, however, that the name of William Humboldt has acquired an European reputation. The intimate friend of Schiller and Goethe, his name is imper- ishably associated with the revival of philosophy and letters in Germany; and, as a statesman, with the political history of the court of Berlin. In 1800, two years after publishing his sesthetic essays under the title of ' Hermann and Dorothea,' he was appointed Prussian minister at Rome ; and during the eight years that he resided there, acquired a wide reputation as an archaeologist, and a master of historical philology. On returning home, he was appointed councillor of state, and minister of worship and education, and at once applied himself to the reform of existing institu- tions, and the organization of the university of Berlin, a task of no slight consequence in the chaos of philosophical speculation with which he found himself surrounded. The wishes of the king being accomplished in this respect, Humboldt re- sumed his diplomatic career as ambassador to Vienna ; and from 1810 to the congress of Aix-la- Chapelle in 1818, his name is associated with every important transaction in the politics of Eu- rope. In 1819 his connection with the court of Prussia was broken off, in consequence of his at- tachment to constitutional principles, and his op- position to the decrees of Carlsbad, which intro- duced the censorship of the press, and certain measures controlling the universities. The agent in these transactions was the chancellor Harden- berg, who had become the tool of Metternich; and Humboldt having been dismissed from the ministry, henceforth devoted his whole time to literature. The remainder of his days were passed at his seat near Berlin, where he died on the 8th of April 1835, deeply regretted by the whole Ger- man nation. His works, which are of a miscel- laneous character, generally bearing on history, archaeology, and philology, including the remains of Eastern civilization, have been published at in- tervals since his death by his brother, Alexander von Humboldt, who is still the honoured friend and counsellor of the king of Prussia, and is re- vered as the patriarch of philosophy throughout Europe. William von Humboldt may justly be taken as a pattern of the depth and diversity of the German mind, and as the promise of a richer future for the German nation. Ha stands like the representative of the change from spirit to life, from idea to reality, in which the German mind is engaged ; for he was one of the first and ablest who took this step. He adhered to the past, ad- vanced boldly forward, and put his trust in hu- manity and his country. (Lives of the Brothers Humboldt from the German of Klenche and Schlesier) [E.R.] HUME, Sir A., a naval officer, 1748-1838. HUME, David, born in Edinburgh, 26th April, 1711; died there on 25th August, 1776: unques- tionably the most remarkable personage of the Augustan era of Scotland. Referring for the ex- HUM terr.al details of Hume's life to his charming Autobiography, we shall require more than our usual space to characterize, however succinctly, the Philosopher, the Historian, and the Man. I. The place and functions of the metaphysical speculations of this great Thinker, are not only ? miliar but unique in the History of Modern hilosophy. At the period in question, Mental Science had fallen into the lowest possible state, not in Britain merely, but over Europe that, viz., of a conscious inconsistency : principles were ac- cepted and conclusions evaded; beliefs timidly relied on, betwixt which, and all grounds of cer- tainty then acknowledged, lay an impassable hiatus. The sensational philosophy always agreeable to the practical tendencies of the English mind, had just reached its culmination under guidance of the genius and earnestness of John Locke ; and we were undergoing its consequences in the dwarfing of systematic morals, and the gradual im- poverishment of religion ; saving ourselves as to the mere form of Faith, by refuge in tradition, or, what is worst of all, willing subjection to gross paralogisms. When Science exists only through paltering with Reason, when it accepts as its function, the office, not of discerning Truth, but of finding excuses for Beliefs, it is Science no longer, but a corruption and hypocrisy ; and how- ever it may come, its destruction is a blessing. Hume appeared as the Destroyer. Gifted with an Intellect clear and fearless, he carried principles remorselessly to their consequences; and proved beyond question, that on the grounds of the exist- ing philosophy, all Belief must disappear. If he reached Universal Scepticism, it may be said that he yet had a faith sounder than any in the Philo- sophy he destroyed ; he trusted in the only ground of human certainty, viz., in our Human Reason; and had the rare courage to follow where it seemed to lead. It is not easy to conceive the degree of consternation spread through every region of existing speculation, by the ' Essay on the Idea of Necessary Connexion,' the 'Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,' the ' Natural History of Religion,' and their other companions. Hume had divested himself by this time of the scholastic rudeness of the author of the ' Treatise on Human Nature,' and become one of the most pleasing and accomplished writers of any period. His blows resounded accordingly through all cultivated so- ciety : it was heard everywhere with amazement, that by a Logic apparently invincible, the basis of all certainty respecting Man, Nature, and God had been destroyed, and that doubt irremediable was the sole inheritance of our Race ! It is need- less to say that the resting-place of Humanity was saved ; but not by invalidating the reasoning of the trenchant Scotchman. Hume's triumph was complete ; only, it was the existing Philosophy that he laid in ruins. His logical demolition of the Idea of Cause, awoke in the spirit of the illus- trious Kant that train of thought which has illumined Germany until now; and Dr. Reid, moved by the same influence, wrought less sys- tematically, but in a corresponding direction, towards the foundation of the School which has played so wholesome a part in the re-edification of Mental Science. In something of this light will History regard the Metaphysician Hume. HUM II. The clearness of Intellect and pea sagacity that distinguished Hume, shine out where more brightly than in his political historical writings; although we discern h !>erhaps more palpably, those defects which fi nm for his task as Destroyer. Eager to genera, skilful as sagacious, and incapable of fluenced by surrounding opinions, we fin his political essays steadily surveying and defii \ most of those great truths regarding which Adam Smith afterwards elaborated in i ' Wealth of Nations,' and which the civilized w at length accepts as its guide : nor will a time J come when the general reflections strewn thro every page of the ' History of England ' will c< to instruct and elevate the Statesman. The during position of the ' History ' indeed, is 1 of a rich philosophical treatise ; not that o] History in the true significance of that terra : can anything be imagined more incongrt; than its usual connection on the book-shelf, v a set of continuations and chronicles, more or accurate in dates, but dry in wisdom as in st When Hume wrote, History as a critical scic was not known as it is now ; and unfortunately i had not the industry, accuracy, nor the gen I impartiality of his compatriot Gibbon. i\ worse, he had no sympathy with the most pov ful of the springs of action moving the timed depicts : had ne comprehended these, nis name w< not have been known in Philosophy merely as' name of a Destroyer. His narrative of the iflBI the Stuarts and of the struggles which freed Engkj is simply fictitious, and should be read as scj try his picture of Cromwell by the documents] cently brought under light of the sun by Thoj Carlyle. III. The character of this distingubj person has been misunderstood and misrepJB alike by friends and foes. His nature was a g| one, but not developed in some most vital directs No man of his time had a stronger understand larger intellectual capacity, finer tastes, bif courage, or a more rooted love of independe His temperament, too, was greatly enviable: had no violent passions, so that he was tried by temptations ; he was delicate, and modest ; he no malignity ; he was candid and kindly. Stil is impossible to concur with Adam Smith, 'tha approached as nearly to the idea of a perfe wise and virtuous man as perhaps the natur human frailty will permit.' His fatal deficit has been already adverted to, he had no s^ pathy with the largest, the profoundest portion of Human Nature. He treated the Puritans as he not through malignity, but because, he could not preciate them : he knew nothing of the value of sa fice to the Unseen : the morals he understood y simply calculations of visible consequences. In m respects Hume was a wise man ; but we must nol down his dislike of Enthusiasm to the repose tranquillity of Wisdom. The highest indeed, seldom enthusiastic, because it has cerned the meaning of the Laio of lAi that in this various and complex Universe, no p ciple acts singly, or ought to enjoy absolute r Hume had not this wisdom; he merely dish* enthusiasm because he had no part or parcel i the principle which sustained those ent! with their life-blood they purchased the libertit 340 HUM 'land. See Mr. Burton's excellent volumes on xie. His philosophical works are out of print : last and best edition, in 4 volumes, was pub- by Mr. Black of Edinburgh. [J.P.N.] [Tomb of Hume, Edinburgh ] IUME, David, a nephew of the great historian, j I a writer on the Scotch criminal law, 1756-1838. IUME, J. D., adisting. financier, 1774-1842. iUMMEL, J. N., aGer. musician, 1778-1837. IUMMELIUS, J., a Ger. mathem., 1518-1562. 1UMPHREY, Laurence, a learned divine, (hor of a ' Life of Bishop Jewel,' &c, 1527-1590. HUMPHREYS, Jas., an eminent jurist, d. 1830. IUMPHRY, Ozias, a painter, 1743-1810. 3UNAULD, F. J., a Fr. anatomist, 1701-1742. HUND, W., a Bavarian historian, 1514-1588. HUNERIC, a king of the Vandals, 477-485. rlUXXIADES, John Corvinus, vaivode of knsylvania, and general of the Hungarian armies, kimmished against the Turks, died 1456. IHUNNIS, W., a poet, age of Elizabeth. HUNNIUS, Gills, a German divine, 1550-1603. js son, Nicholas, also a dist. theolog., 1585-1643. HUXNOLD, Fr., a German Jesuit, last century. {HUNT, Henry, an active English politician, Is bora about the year 1773. His name was 8 of great notoriety during the first qiarter of b nineteenth century, but little will probably be membered of him at its end. Yet he had some (alities of a peculiarly English and sterling char- ter. His name is associated with the mob and Ugarity, but he had considerable ancestral claims, |a one of the few of his remembered sayings is b retort on Sir Robert Peel as the first of a fiily of tradesmen who became a gentleman, lile he himself was the first of a race of gentle- pa who had become a tradesman. In early life he m a high Tory, but during the greater part of his eer he expressed extreme Radical doc- nes. Whatever ne did, whether in selling his lmparable blacking and his roasted corn, in- tod as a substitute for coffee, or offering his represent a county, he spread his doings world with liberal profuseness, and was Ptted with any kind of notoriety, provided it pre abundant. In 1830 he succeeded in entering HUN parliament, where he remained for a short time as member for Preston. If not attended to in parliament, he always made himself heard. His voice possessed a peculiar shrillness which made it audible amidst all other ordinary sounds, and it was remarked that over all the shuffling and coughing of an impatient House, his speaking was as clearly heard as the ringing of a factory bell through the murmurs of a crowd. He died in 1835. [J.H.B.] HUNT, Jeremiah, a dissenting divine, au. of 'An Essay towards expl. the History and Revelations of Scripture in their several Periods,' 1678-1744. HUNT, Th., a learned Hebraist, 1696-1774. HUNTER, Alex., a Scotch phys., 1729-1809. HUNTER, Anne, wife of John Hunter the cele- brated anatomist, distinguished a a writer of lyrical poetry, 1742-1821. HUNTER, Chr., an antiquarian, 1675-1757. HUNTER, Henry, a Scotch divine, author of 'Sacred Biography,' a translation of Lavater's Physiognomy, ' Lectures on the Evidences of Chris- tianity,' &e., 1741-1802. HUNTER, John, a Scotch classic, 1747-1837. HUNTER, John, a Scotch commander and vice-admiral, distin. under Lord Howe, 1738-1821. HUNTER, William, a distinguished anato- mist, physiologist, and physician, was born_ at Long Calderwood, in the parish of East Kilbride, in the county of Lanark, Scotland, on the 23d of May, 1718. He was the seventh of ten children, and being destined for the church was sent to the University of Glasgow at the age of fourteen, where he remained for five years. He now l-esolved to abandon the study of theology and to apply himself to medicine, and with this view became the private pupil of Dr. Cullen at Hamilton, with whom he remained for three years. He then pro- ceeded to Edinburgh with the design of qualifying himself to become the partner of Cullen ; but, in 1741, he repaired to London in search of fame and fortune, and found both. After studying under various masters of acknowledged ability he com- menced as a lecturer on anatomy in 1746. In 1747, he became a member of the corporation of surgeons ; in 1750, he graduated as a doctor of medicine at the University of Glasgow; and in 1756, he became a licentiate of the College of Phy- sicians. He was afterwards successively elected physician to the Lying-in-Hospital ; fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies ; professor of ana- tomy to the Royal Academy ; physician extraor- dinary to the queen : and in 1781, president of the College of Physicians. He died on the 30th of March, 1783, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. In the course of a long and laborious life, devoted to the highest objects of science and humanity, Dr. Hunter had collected a magnificent anatomical museum, a valuable library of rare and curious books, and a considerable number of paintings and coins, all of which he bequeathed to the University of Glasgow, with a sum of 8,000 to support and augment the collection. This fine museum was transferred to Glasgow in 1807, where a very ele- gant building from a design by Stark had been erected for its reception at a cost of 12,000. Dr. Hunter was an active and zealous contributor to the medical literature of his time, and was engaged in some sharp controversies with several of his 341 HUN contemporaries on disputed points in anatomy and physiology ; but the work t>y which he will be chiefly remembered is, ' The Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus,' one of the most splendid publications that ever issued from the press, and in collecting the materials for which he spent thirty years. It consists of thirty-four plates engraved by the most eminent artists of the day, with explanations in English and Latin, and ap- peared in 1775 ; but the treatise illustrative of it oe did not live to publish. That duty was under- taken by his nephew, Dr. Baillie, who published in 1794 An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus and its Contents,' compiled chiefly from the MSS. of his uncle. [J.M'C.J HUNTER, John, the youngest brother of Wil- liam Hunter, and one of the most remarkable men of his own or any other age. He was born at Calderwood on the loth of February, 1728, and lost his father when he was ten years of age. He seems never to have exhibited any aptitude for scholastic learning, and there can be no doubt that his early education was greatly neglected, and that much of the obscurity of his style in after life was attributable to that cause. How he spent the first twenty years of his life is not ascertained, but there is a very general belief, amounting to some- thing like a tradition, that he was apprenticed at the age of seventeen to a Mr. Buchanan, a cabinet- maker in Glasgow, who had married his sister Janet. If so, he must have been engaged in this mechanical occupation for three years, for it was not till the year 1748 that his brother William, now firmly established as a lecturer on anatomy, sent for him to London, and placed him in his anatomical theatre, where he soon became an ex- pert dissector, and a complete anatomist. He studied surgery under the celebrated Cheselden ; in 1751 he became a pupil in St. Bartholomew's ; and in 1756 he was appointed house surgeon to St. George's Hospital. Notwithstanding the defects of his general education he rapidly surmounted all the difficulties that lay in his way, and by his extraordinary genius and great assiduity had ac- quired by the year 1761, a fixed position and an established reputation in the anatomical and sur- gical worlds. But his health began to suffer, and in that year he was appointed to the medical staff of thearmy, in which capacity he served for three years in France and Portugal, when he returned to London with renovated strength, and began that series of observations and experiments on the in- ferior animals, which laid the foundation of his fame as a comparative anatomist. He died sud- denly on the 16th of October, 1793, in one of the apartments of St. George's Hospital, in the sixty- fifth year of his age. Of John Hunter's contribu- tions to science during the last twenty years of his life it is impossible to give even an outline in this place, but they were numerous and of the highest value, nor is it too much to say that this remark- able man, by the vigour of his own talents, laid the foundation of all those improvements in sur- fery, physiology, and comparative anatomy, which ave been made since his time. After his death, his museum, which had cost him 70,000, was bought by the government from his widow for 15,000, and by it was presented to the Royal College of Surgeons. John Hunter died childless, HUR and as his brother William never married, direct race of two men possessed of the big genius is extinct. [J.jj HUNTER, Robert, author of the fan Letter on Enthusiasm, which has been attrib both to Swift and Shaftesbury, appointed gove of Jamaica, 1728, and died 1734. HUNTER, William, a Scotch physician, wr. on subjects connected with Hindostan, d. 1 HUNTINGDON, Henry of, author c General History of England from the Ear Accounts to the Death of Stephen, 12th centc HUNTINGDON, Selina, countess of, a mous name in the history of Calvinistic method was the second daughter of Washington, Ferrers. She was born in 1707, and left a wi by Theophilus Hastings, earl of Huntingdon 1746. Previous to her husband's death, she received deep impressions of religion, and attac herself to the ministry of Whitfield whom appointed. The ample jointure of which became possessed was almost wholly devotee the cause of religion in connection with the Me: dist Christians. She founded the college of veeka in Wales, in which young ministers i trained studded destitute localities with chapels, and maintained a band of itinei preachers to supply them in rotation, carrying all the correspondence herself. On the inetho body splitting into two, she espoused the Car istic party under Whitfield. On the least Treveeka expiring, she erected a more exten at Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. The m of Lady Huntingdon is inseparably identified the great revival of evangelical religion in country during the eighteenth century, and ij scarcely possible to estimate her services I highly. For although some of her peculiar o][ ions may be disputed, yet her zeal and piety vli unquestionable, and many parts in England! this day are reaping the fruits of her Chris'}: liberality and devotedness to the cause of evj gelical missions. She died at the advanced ag) eighty-four, at her mansion-house in Spafield, her remains were deposited in the family vaj Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire. HUNTINGDON, William, a sectarian preacji of the party of Calvinistic methodists, authoij: many controversial works, 1744-1813. HUNTINGFORD, George Isaac, s bishop of Gloucester and Hereford, disl as a Greek scholar and theologian, 1748 HUNTINGTON, R., a learned div., 1636-171. HUNTON, Philip, a political writer, proijl of the new college erected by Cromwell, died 19 HUPAZOLI, Francis, a native of Sardii remarkable for his great age, 1587-1702. HUQUIER, J. G., a Fr. engraver, 1095-177 HURD, Richard, best known as the autho.jl ' Dialogues Moral and Political,' and of ' Letl on Chivalry and Romance,' which were publis | in a collected edition of 3 vols. 8vo, 1765, was son of a farmer, and was born at Coi Staffordshire, 1720. As early as 1742, he tained a fellowship in Emanuel College, andji 1757 was appointed rector of Thurcaston, Leicestershire. After this he was su preacher to the society at Lincoln's Inn, 171 archdeacon of Gloucester, 1767 ; bishop of III 342 HUE and Coventry, 1775 ; preceptor to the prince ales and the duke of York, 1776 ; and bishop Worcester, 1781. In 1783 he declined the offered to him by George III., and lived ted with the honours already showered upon till 1808, when he expired in his sleep, after r days' confinement to his bed. Hurd was a satirist, and a great proficient in polite itore. His Dialogues were a covert attack B e ' big wigs,' and the principles of arbitrary rnment; but he seems to have outlived the mtented vanity, or the earnestness in the e of freedom which dictated them, and to m subsided into the man of learned leisure, and polite scholar. He was the friend and rapher of Bishop Warburton. A complete on of his works which he had himself prepared he press, was published in 1810, in 8 vols. 8vo. h interesting information concerning the life, acter, and works of Bishop Hurd will be d in volume VI. of Nichol's Literary Anec- [E.R.] URDIS, James, an English poet, 1763-1801. LUKE, Charles, a French theologian of the lenists, au. of a ' Diet, of the Bible,' 1639-1717. URET, G., a French engraver, 1610-1670. [USCUSKE, E. T., a Ger. philoso., 1761-1828. LUSKISSON, William, a British statesman, i'i born on the 11th of March, 1770. He was : son of a country gentleman, and succeeded to -, e landed property. In spending a few of his y years in France, he not only saw many of the dng events of the revolution, such as the cap- i of the Bastile, but had a personal intimacy l several of the actors in them, and joined the y called the ' Societe de 1789.' Though this one of the clubs of the moderate party, his nection with it brought on Huskisson a taunt lacobinism, at a time when French principles, hey were termed, were received with intense ror by the upper and middle classes in Britain, showed an early soundness of opinion in eco- nic matters, by offering a warning against the ition of fictitious paper-money by assignats. returned to England in 1792, and in 1796 en- id parliament as member for Morpeth. He }d several subordinate ministerial appointments, I made himself valuable by his sagacity and iiness capacity, He was one of the first practi- statesmen, since Pitt had changed his views, iose conduct was influenced by the doctrines of ie trade, and though his opinions are far behind e which have prevailed in the legislation of the sent generation, he was viewed in his own day as is man, who had treacherous designs on I interests of his country. In 1821 he showed nself favourable to the modification of the corn vs, and in 1823 he carried the relaxation of the vigation act, which sanctioned reciprocity trea- s. _ In 1827 he took the office of secretary to the onies, and continued to hold it under the duke Wellington. Having, on a point of etiquette, to sr his resignation, it was so readily accepted t the duke evidently desired to be rid of him. the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester ilway on 15th September, 1830, he stumbled in stily crossing before a train, which passed over n, and so wounded him that he only survived a hours. [J.H.B.] HUS HUSS, John, was born about 1370 at Hus- sinatz, a village in Bohemia. Though sprung of humble parents, he was sent to the university of Prague, and on completing his studies was ad- mitted to priest's orders in 1400. The opinions of the English reformer Wycliffe having reached Bo- hemia, Huss, on mature consideration, was led to adopt them, and as a professor and preacher in Prague, he exposed with vehemence the abuses and vices of the Romish Church and clergy. The patronage of the queen Sophia protected him for a season, if not from molestation, at least from personal injury. But the archbishop of Prague was terribly provoked, and so were many of the clergy, by the intrepidity of Huss, and by his op- position in the university to Pope Gregory XII. In some fierce discussions which took place as to the balance of elective power among the youth of various nations attending the university, Huss, urged by his Realistic and national partialities, took the part of the Bohemians so effectively, that the German students, to the number of some thou- sands, withdrew, retired to Leipzig and founded its university in the year 1409. The reforming energy and perseverance of Huss so enraged his ecclesias- tical superiors, that the archbishop of Prague ordered the Bohemian translation of the books of Wycliffe to be burned, and suspended Huss, while Pope John XXIII. solemnly excommunicated him. But the ardent spirit of the reformer did not quail, and both in his native village and at Prague he continued his denunciations of purgatory, indul- gences, and clerical corruptions. Having at length opposed a papal bull which had been fulminated against Ladislaus, king of Naples, he excited such tumults that he was summoned to the famous Council of Constance, and though a ' safe conduct ' had been granted him by the emperor Sigismund, he was nevertheless impeached, arrested, and cast into prison, and on his refusal to confess his guilt or retract, he was condemned as a heretic, and burnt on the 6th of July, 1415. The causes of this severe and unjustifiable treatment of Huss, may be found in his bold and unflinching honesty of pur- pose, in the sacerdotal enmity which his sermons and literary labours had stirred up against him, and especially in his avowed Realism, and his hatred of the German Nominalists, some of whom, such as Gerson, were his principal judges. His labours, history, and martyrdom, were not without abundant fruit in the succeeding cen- tury. rj.E.] ral, sur- HUSSEIN-PACHA, a Turkish admiral, sur- named 'the Little,' fav. of Selim II., 1750-1803. HUSSEIN-PACHA, the last king of Algiers, born 1773, proclaimed dey 1818, dethroned by the French under Marshal Bourmont, 1830. HUSSEY, Giles, an Eng. painter, 1710-1788. HUSSEY, Sir Richard, a British admiral employed in reducing the Ionian isls., 1776-1842. HUTCHESON, Francis, born in Ireland 8th August, 1694, died in Glasgow 1747. To Hutcheson must be awarded the honour of reviv- ing speculative philosophy in Scotland. In 1729 he obtained the chair of Moral Philosophy in the university of Glasgow; and he certainly started that line of thinking in Psychological questions which Reid afterwards, with so great success, followed out. Besides manuals for the use of his class, he 343 HUT published during his lifetime the ' Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,' and an essay ' On the Nature and Conduct of the Pas- sions and Affections.' His ' System of Moral Philo- sophy,' in 2 volumes 4to, appeared after his death. He energetically asserted the existence of Moral* Sense, or a power to discern good in itself, and claimed for our Idea of the Beautiful, the character of originality and independence. Hut- cheson's intellect was vigorous, and he evinced in all his writings singular freedom and freshness. There is an excellent life of him by Principal Leechman. HUTCHINS, John, an Engl, divine, au. of the Hist, and Antiquities of Dorsetshire,' 1696-1773. HUTCHINS, Thomas, a geographer and general of the United States of America, author of historical and topographical works, 1730-1789. HUTCHINSON, Ann, a religious enthusiast of New England, banished from the colony by an ecclesiastical synod, and killed, with fourteen others of her family, by the Indians, 1643. HUTCHINSON, John, was an English gentleman whose name became famous as a speculative philosopher and interpreter of the Bible in the early part of last century, and is now generally mentioned with disparagement. The publication of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia in 1687, in which the philosopher supposed the planets to move through a vacuum, provoked Mr. Hutchinson, who was a great student of antiquity, and of the Hebrew Scriptures, to pub- lish his work entitled ' Moses 1 Principia,' which appeared in two parts, 1724 and 1727. The de- sign of Mr. Hutchinson was to demonstrate that a celestial matter pervades the whole creation, spiri- tual and natural, whereby Jehovah is master of the material worlds, whereas the theory of Sir Isaac Newton supposed a universe without a God, or a God who acts by arbitrary power. This philosophical doctrine, which is supported by the recent discovery of an interplanetary ether, was, in the work of Hutchinson, a pure deduction from the Scriptures, his principle being that the He- brew language is perfectly formed, so as to convey perfect ideas, without the redundancy or deficiency of letters common to other languages ; hence, that it was perfectly adapted to be the medium of a revelation, and that religion and philosophy were united in the system or Moses. Hutchinson at- tacked Dr. Woodward, author of a ' Natural His- tory of the Earth,' as well as Sir Isaac Newton. He wielded his pen with the hand of a master, and with little respect for the feelings of his op- ponents. Among his adherents were Bishop Home, Jones of Nayland, Julius Bate, Drs. Hod- fes and Wetherall, Parkhurst, Romaine, and Dr. amuel Clarke. He was born at Springthorn in Yorkshire 1674, and died 1737. [E.R.] HUTCHINSON, John Hely, an Irish lawyer and statesman of distinguished talents, but remark- able selfishness, 1715-1794. His son, of the same name,a distinguished military officer, and successor of his brother as earl of Donoughmore, 1757-1832. HUTCHINSON, Thomas, the historian of the colony of Massachusets, born 1711, chief justice of that province, 1760, lieutenant-governor 1758- 1770, governor to 1774, died 1780. HUTCHINSON, W., a county hist., 1732-1814. HUTTEN, Jacob, the founder of the ' Moravian HUT Brethren,' whose successors are supposed to h been the adherents of Zinzendorf, 16th century, HUTTEN, Ulric Von, a German poet miscellaneous writer, best known as a clnunpioi the reformation, 1488-1523. HUTTER, Eeias, a German divine, author Polyglott of the New Testament in twelve 1 guages, and of a version of the Hebrew Bible, ( tinguished by many peculiarities, in which the ca Psalm is given in thirty languages, 1554-1603. HUTTER, Leonard, a German theologian ; polemical writer of the reformation, 1563-1 til 6. HUTTICH, J., a German archaeologist and i mismarist, au. of ' Antiq. of Mayence,' 1 HUTTON, Charles, LL.D., a very labori. cultivator of Mathematical Science, and a dese ing writer ; born at Newcastle-on-Tyne 1737, d 1823. We owe to Dr. Hutton many valua works on elementary mathematics, especially ' Course designed for Cadets in the Royal Milit Academy,' in 3 vols. 8vo ; but his import) contributions to scientific literature are his 'D tionary of Mathematics,' in two large 4to volum* and in another direction, his abridgment of I Philosophical Transactions in 18 vols. 4to. ] Hutton seems to have been a very success teacher; and accordingly he was beloved by pupils. His manners were simple, his tern: equable and mild, and his attachments warm a unalterable. HUTTON, Dr. James, born at Edinburghl? died 1797 : one of those Inquirers of genius w have power to seize the opportunity of effecting revolution in Science. Hutton's mind was capa of earning distinction in any department of physi research; and we owe him various important hin for instance, he was the founder of Psychometi but it is in Geology that his name stands as 1 mark of an epoch. During Hutton's early care geology had not shaken itself free from cosmolof and existing theories regarding the formation the Earth, were modelled on the ideas of his coi patriot Werner; who, misled by a limited t perience, considered all rocks as stratififlKj produced by the subsidence of matter first diffus through water. Hutton's important acl consisted in the discovery, through facts, that] large class of rocks are igneous ; and that t existing forms of the surface of our planet res' from two opposing forces constantly in pis and of whose efficiency we know neither t beginning nor the end. The phenomenon tr established the truth of these views, was, afi anxious research, discovered by Hutton in Gl; Tilt viz.: a fine instance of granite branchi out in veins at its junction with the sedimenta. rocks ; manifesting thereby indisputable evidence its igneous origin. Hutton's work on the Theo of the Earth, abounds with philosophical views many points of geological theory of the ki entitled to the name of predictions: to hii first of all, the significance became appare of the previously well-known fact of unconjbrmai stratification. On an occasion, which has b come classical, he took his favourite pupils, Pr fessor Playfair and Sir James Hall, to the cli near St. Abb's Head, where the schists of t Lammer muir are undermined by the Playfair has left on record, how, interpreted 1 344 HUT sagacity, the simple, and till then Darren ile fact of one rock lying on the edges of ther, became witness to enormous intervals successive epochs, until 'the mind grew dy by looking so far into the abyss of time,' the awed listeners became sensible 'how ch farther reason may sometimes go than igination can venture to follow ! ' Sustained Shenomena at once palpable, numerous, and usive, Hutton's important views rapidly made v among men of science : and, notwithstanding 'ir novelty, and the stupendousness of the they open into the past, the popular be- has now accommodated itself to them, and olts no more at the notion of the unfathomed tiquity of the Earth, than at the august thought t the myriads of lustres in the Firmament, are rids. This consummation came not without a iggle, but thanks to. the ' press,' which could aid Copernicus, the struggle in this case 5 neither severe nor prolonged. Hutton may said to have revealed the second of the dimensions of the Material Universe the lension, Time. The student who has not d the affectionate biography of this philoso- 5T by Professor Playfair, has still a rare treat in re. [J.P.N.] 3UTTON, M., an English prelate, 1529-1605. 3UTTON, William, a self-educated author, efly of local histories and antiquities, 1723-1815. BUXHAM, John, a medical writer, died 1768. 3UYGHENS, Christian, born at the Hague ft April, 1629 ; died 8th June, 1695 : a very cessf'ul and celebrated cultivator of the Mathe- tical and Physical Sciences. It requires a long rative to sum up Huyghen's contributions i discoveries ; to appreciate them in their rela- ii to history and his time, is wholly incompatible ft our space. In pure geometry he gave theo- (is for the quadrature of the Hyperbola, the ipsis, and the Circle; in Mechanics, he laid TO the theory of the Pendulum, and its appli- ion to the Clock ; he discerned the synchronism the Cycloid, invented the theory of Involutes i E volutes of Curves, and explored the doctrine Centres of Oscillation: most important of all he lounced the law of the motion of bodies revolv- ; in circles, thereby grazing the law of gravita- a. In Astronomy, we owe him the memorable covery of Saturn's ring, at that time a most ;acious solution of very puzzling appearances. Optics he laid the foundation of the theory of durations, explaining by means of it pheno- na which by the theory of Emanation Newton dd not touch. Few cultivators of Abstract ence had a clearer, or more correct intellect ji Huyghens ; he showed this, more especially in ready appreciation and powerful grasp of the ctrine of Gravitation : he adopted the new view rifice of his previous attachment to the irtices of Des Cartes, and this at a period of life men have rarely freshness enough to alter \'vr opinions. His works are collected in four 4to [J.P.N.] KJYGHENS, C, a Latin poet, 1596-1687. tHENS, Gomarus, a Roman Catholic ologian, professor of philosophy at Louvain, and r friend and defender of Quesnel, 1631-1702. PIUYOT, J. N., a French architect, 1780-1840. HYR HUYSMANS, HUYSMAN, or HOUSEMAN, Cornelius, a Flem. landscape painter, 1648-1727. HUYSMAN, James, a Flemish painter, exe- cuted the altar piece at St. James's, 1656-1696. HUYSUM, Justus Van, called ' the Elder,' a Dutch landscape painter, 1659-1716. His son, of the same name, known as Young Huysum, a painter of battles, 1684-1706. His son, John, distinguished as a flower painter, 1682-1749. HUZARD, J. B., a Fr. agriculturist, 1755-1839. HVITFIELD, A., a Danish histor., 1549-1609. HYACINTH, Saint, a German friar, celebrated as apostle of Poland and Russia, 1183-1257. HYDE, Edward. See Clarendon. HYDE, Henry, a dramatic writer, died 1753. HYDE, Thos., D.D., a dignitary of the Church of England, kn. as an Oriental scholar and au. of a ' History of the Medes and Persians,' 1636-1703. . HYDER-ALI, an Indian prince of Arabian origin, born in Mysore, 1718, took the field with his brother, who was in alliance with France, 1751, and in the interval between that period and 1780, acquired for himself an independent sovereignty, and nearly brought the presidency of Madras to ruin. His death occurred at a critical period in 1782, and he was succeeded by his son, Tippoo Saib, who was driven from the Carnatic in 1783. HYGINUS, a pope of Rome, about 138-143. HYGINUS, Caius Julius, a freedman of Augustus, and keeper of the palatine library, au. of an astronomical poem, and a book of fables. HYPATIA, daughter of Theon of Alexan- dria, celebrated for her beauty, illustrious in her genius, and hallowed through all time by her mournful death. She was torn to pieces by the mob of Alexandria, in her earliest prime, in the year 415. Hypatia was a neo-platonist. Charmed by the re- flection therein, of the noblest intellect of Greece, and attracted by its mysticism, she professed that philosophy in public lectures ; and her purity and elevation of soul enhanced the fame accruing from her eloquence. The period of her teaching was that of the first conflicts of Christianity with Pagan- ism : the religion of brotherly love was then too often a symbol of insurrection to the ignorant and the poor, insurrection against culture as well as false worship, against intelligence as well as aris- tocracy and pride. Cyril, of Alexandria, a man of courage, but not averse from turbulence and tyranny on his own side, was Bishop : and he did not enough repress passions certainly not ap- proved in his Evangel. He accounted Hypatia his personal foe ; and probably did not regret that with the temples of her deities, a martyr fell. The character of this brilliant victim is traced with genuine sympathy by Mr. Kingsley in his recent romance one of those fictions which are truer than most histories. [J.P.N.] HYPERIDES, an Athenian orator, andpartizan of the Byzantines, killed by Antipater, 322 b.c. HYPERIUS, G. A., a Flemish theolog., 1511-64. HYPSICLES, a Greek mathematician, 2d cent. HYRCANUS, John, or HYRCANUS I., suc- ceeded his father, Simon Maccabeus, as high priest and prince of the Jews, B.C. 135, d. B.C. 107. Hyrcanus II., eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus, became sovereign pontiff, B.C. 70, was dethroned by his brother Aristobulus, and restored by the Romans as a tributary prince 63, beheaded by Herod 29. 345 IAC IACAIA, a Turkish adventurer, 17th century. IACOUB-TCHELEBY, a son of Amurath I., strangled by order of Bajazet, 1389. IANAKl, a Greek prince of Moldavia, 1708. IBARKIA, Joachim, a Spanish printer, cele- brated for his improvement ot the art, 1725-1785. IBAS, a bishop of Edessa in Mesopotamia, sup- posed to have favoured the doctrines of Nestorius, and deposed on that account by the council of Ephesus, 449. He was reinstated by the council of Chalcedon 451, and died 457. IBBETSON, Agnes, a botanist, 1757-1823. IBBETSON, James, a divine and ecclesiastical historian, 1717-1781. His son, of the same name, learned in Saxon and Norman antiquities, 1755-90. IBBETSON, J. C, a painter, died 1817. IBBOT, Benjamin, a learned div., 1680-1725. IBEK, an Arabian author, died 1348. IBEK, Az-ed-deen, sultan of Egypt, 1251-57. IBN-AL-ATSYN, surnamed Arr-eddyn, ' the glory of religion,' an Arabian historian, 1160-1233. IBN - AL - ATSYR - ABOULSAADAT - MO - BAREK, an Arabian grammarian and author, lieu- tenant to the king of Moussoul, 1150-1268. IBN-AL-ATSYR-NASZ-ALLAH, an Eastern vizier under the son and sue. of Saladin, author of 4 The art of the Writer and the Poet,' 1162-1239. IBN-AL-COUTHYAH, author of a ' History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs,' died 978. IBN-AL-DJOURY, an Arab, historian, d. 1201. IBN-AL-FARADHY, a Spanish Arab, author of a ' Chronicle of Spanish Savants,' died 1012. IBN-AL-FORAT, an Arab, historian, died 1405. IBN-AL-KHETIB, surnamed 'the Tongue of Religion,' au. of a ' History of the Kings of Gren- ada,' and ' Lives of Spanish Writers,' 1313-1374. IBN-AL-MOKAFFA, a Persian writer, d. 757. IBN-AL-OUARDY, a geograp. writer, d. 1350. IBN-AYYAS, an Arabian geographer and his- torian, author of a history of Egypt, &c, 16th cen. IBN-CADHY-CHOBAH, a Mussulman doctor of the sect of Chafei, 1289-1386. IBN-COTAIHAH, an Arabian historian, b. 829. IBN-DJOLDJOL, an Arabian transla., 10th c. IBN-DOREID, a celebrated Arabian philologist and poet, author of many works, 838-933. IBN-EL-A'LAM, an astronomer, died 985. IBN-EL-AWAM, an agriculturist, 12th century. IBN-FAFEDT, a mystic poet, 1181-1235. IBN-KHALDOUN, an Arabian magistrate, celebrated as an historian and jurist, author of a ' History of the Arabs and Berbers,' 1332-1406. IBN-KHILCAN, an Arabian historian, 1211-81. IBN-WASIL, an Arabian diplomatist, historian, philosopher, and jurisconsult, 1207-1268. IBN-YOUNIS, an astronomer, 979-1008. IBRAHIM I., governor of Africa under Haroun- al-Raschid, and founder of a dynasty, died 809. Another of the name in the same line of princes called Ibrahim II., died 902. IBRAHIM I., an illustrious sultan of the race of the Ghaznevides, distinguished by the extension of his empire into India, and by the promotion of the arts and sciences in his dominions, reigned IBR 1058-1099. Ibrahim II., or Ibrahim I., ei peror of Hindostan, succeeded 1517, killed 152G IBRAHIM, brother and successor of Amura IV., as sultan of Turkey, in 1640, killed 1649. IBRAHIM, a pacha of Egypt, 1585-1590. IBRAHIM, grand vizier under Soliman I exec, for treasonable correspon. with Austria, 15c IBRAHIM, caliph of Bagdad, 744-750. IBRAHIM-BEY, a famous Mameluke cbi vanquished by Mehemet Ah in 1805, died 1816. IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, a Turkish savant co verted to Christianity, translator of the Scriptou into the Arabian tongue, 1641-1697. IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, a native of Poland, w became a dignitary of the Ottoman empire, a introduced pnnting in 1728. IBRAHIM- EL - GAUHARY, a minister Ibrahim and Mouradbey, sultan of Egypt, disti guished as a father of the people, died 1791. IBRAHIM-EL-HALEPY, an imaun of Co stantinople, celebrated as a jurisconsult, 1456-15^ IBRAHIM-MANSOUR-EFFENDI, a Germ, adventurer, who embraced Mahommedanism, aj introduced the discipline of Europe into the Turj ish armies ; after serving Ali-Pasha as engine i he wrote a ' Memoir of Greece and Albania' unc his government; he at length shot himself Paris, on account of destitution, 1826. IBRAHIM-MOLLAH, a T. vizier, stran. 171! IBRAHIM PASHA, the son and successor! Mehemet Ali in the government of Egypt, vi\ also the chief instrument in establishing nis dj nasty, and deserves to rank with his father amo the founders of empires. He was born at Caveli in Roumelia 1789, and enjoyed his first milita] triumph at Cairo in 1819, after subjugating the Wi habees, and wresting from their hands the he! towns of Mecca and Medina. In 1824 the suits; as suzerain, demanded the aid of an Egyptian a mament to suppress the Greeks, and the glory i Ibrahim, whose name had become famous througj out the East, and who had introduced the Europe j discipline into his armies, pointed him out as tj commander of the expedition. For nearly foj years he overran the Morea, which became oj extended field of ruin and bloodshed, but he was j length compelled to retire by the victory gain! at Navarino by the combined fleets of France, and Russia, on the 20th of Octi In 1831 he was sent by his father, at the head ! 24,000 infantry, four regiments of cavalry, a J forty pieces of artillery, to the conquest of Syi| which he effected so completely as to arrive witl one hundred and fifty miles of Constantinople, which juncture a Russian army marched to int< ; cent him, and he concluded a treaty of peace which several provinces were added to his lathe government. In 1839, the Porte endeavoured recover Syria, and on the 24th of June, Ibrahj gained the battle of Nezib, by which the road wi again opened to Constantinople ; but the combini forces of England, Austria, Russia, and Pruss| were drawn up between him and his prize, a Acre being reduced by bombardment, the afia IBR Egypt and the Porte were settled by their joint isters. After the evacuation of Syria, Ibrahim iplied himself to the arts of peace in Egypt, and jien Mehemet Ali became incapable of continuing jj government, he was made viceroy according 1 the terms of succession granted in the firman I the sultan in 1841. He enjoyed this dignity jly two months and ten days, and died in No- nber, 1848, when he was succeeded by his jphew, Abbas Pasha. Ibrahim Pasha was a man debauched habits, but a great soldier and sa- kious statesman. As may be supposed, in a 'mtry like Egypt, just emerging from the bar- Irism of ages, and in a family which had fought | way out of obscurity, he was quite unlettered, k nevertheless, well acquainted with the cour- ses of European society. [E.R.] IBRAHIM-TCHAOUICHKEKHIE, a bey of rypt, raised to the throne of the Mamelukes, |i)0, poisoned in the attempt to deliver his jintry from the usurpation of the Turks, 1760. gBYCUS, an Italian lyric poet, 560 B.C. ffBZAN, judge of Israel after Jephthah. |DACIUS, a Spanish chronicler, 4th century. IDES, EverardYsbrantz, a German traveller, [of a 'Journey from Moscow to China,' 18th ct. JIDMAN, N., a Swedish savant, 18th century. pDRIS, Gawr, a Welch astronomer, whose pe is borne by one of the highest Welch moun- ns, date unknown. IENICHEN, G. A., a Ger. savant, 1709-1759. IERMAK, a Cossack chieftain, died 1583. IETZELER, C, a Swiss architect, 1734-1791. KEZDEDJERD, the first of the name, a Sassan- fle king of Persia, reigned 399-419 ; the second, lo endeavoured without success to introduce the Irship of Zoroaster into his dominions, reigned B-457 ; the third, last king of the Sassannide pasty, succeeded 632, vanquished by the Arabs 16, assassinated in his retreat 650. ffFFLAND, A. W., a German actor, 1759-1814. ilGNARRA, N., a Neapol. antiqua., 1728-1808. fGNATIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, d. 878. IGNATIUS, foun. of the Jesuits. See Loyola. IGNATIUS, St., surnamed Theophorus, one the apostolic fathers, or first doctors of the arch, bishop of Antioch in Syria about 69, suffered krtyrdom 107 or 116. He is the author of etters,' which are translated in Archbishop ake's compilation. IGOR, the first of the name, grand duke of Usia, 913-945 ; the second, grand prince, 1146-7. (IHRE, John, a Swedish philologist, professor poetry and eloquence at Upsala, 1707-1780. IKEN, Conrad, a Germ. Hebraist, 1689-1753. ILDEFONSE, St., archb. of Toledo, 607-669. ILICINO, B., an Italian poet, loth century. IILIVE, Jacob, a printer and letter-cutter, re- iurkable as a controversialist, and author of the jeged book of Jasher, 1730-1763. jILLYRICUS, Flacius, the Latinized name of ^Hgfc Flacius, or Francowitz, a German theolo- k 1520-1575. IMAD-EDDALAH, a king of Persia, died 949. IMAD-EDDYN, a Persian histor., 1125-1201. KMBERT, B., a French poet, 1747-1790. IMBERT, J. G., a French painter, 1654-1740. IMBERT, W., a French author, 1743-1808. IIMBONATI, C. J., an Italian Orien., d. 1687. ING IMHOF, G. W., Dutch gov. of India, 1705-50. IMHOFF, John, or James William, a German historian and genealogist, 1651-1728. IMISON, an English mechanician, died 1788. IMPERATO, F., a Neapolitan painter, died 1565. His son, Jerome, a painter, died 1620. IMPERATO, F., a Neapolit. naturalist, 16th c. IMPERIALE, F., a Genoese poet, 14th century. IMPERIALI, G. B., an Italian physician, author of some admired Latin poetry, 1588-1623. His son, Giovanni, a writer of medical history and biography, 1602-1670. IMPERIALI, Giuseppe Renato, a Genoese noble, cardinal, and governor of Ferrara, disting. for his probity, talents, and learning, 1651-1737. IMPERIALI, G. V., a Genoese poet, died 1645. IMPERIALI-LERCARI, F. M., doge of Genoa when it was cannonaded by Louis XIV., 1684. INA, king of the West Saxons, 689-726. INCHBALD, Elizabeth, the daughter of a Suffolk farmer, was born in 1753. At the age of sixteen, she eloped from home, with no more blameable design than the foolish one of seeking her fortune. Miss Simpson very soon became the wife of Mr. Inchbald, a respectable London actor, by whom she was brought on the stage, and played for a good many years. After 1784, she wrote plays, amounting to nineteen, several of which were very successful: her comedy of 'Wives as they Were and Maids as they Are ' is still acted. She edited three collections of plays. Her best literary works were her two novels : ' A Simple Story/ 1791 ; and ' Nature and Art,' 1796. She lived prudently and irreproachably, and accumu- lated several thousand pounds, which she be- queathed chiefly to the Roman Catholic poor. She died at Kensington in 1821. fW.S.] INCHOFER, Melchior, a Hungarian Jesuit, jurisconsult, historian, and theologian, 1584-1648. INCLEDON, B. C, a eel. vocalist, 1764-1826. * INEZ DE CASTRO. See Castro. INGE and HALSTAN, joint k. of Sw. 12th ct. INGE, the younger, a k. of Sweden, 12th cen. INGE, two kings of Norway, 12th and 13th ct. INGEBURGE, queen of France, 1193-1236. INGEGNERI, A., a Venetian poet, 16th cent. INGENHOUSZ, John, a Dutch physician and chemist, au. of ' Exp. on Vegetables, 1730-1799. INGHEW, W. Van, a Dutch pain., 1651-1709. INGHIRAMI, Curzio, an Italian antiquarian, author of ' Etruscan Antiquities,' 1614-1655. INGHIRAMI, Tomaso Fedra, an eminent Italian poet and orator, 1470-1516. INGIALD, a king of Sweden, 7th century. ING LIS, Henry David, a miscellaneous writer, first known under the assumed name of Derwent Conway, born in Scotland 1795, d. 1835. INGLIS, Hester, the writer of some beautiful manuscripts preserved at Oxford, 16th century. INGLIS, Sir James, a Scotch officer and parti- zan of the French, author of the well-known ' Complaint of Scotland,' died 1554. INGLIS, John, D.D., a Scottish divine, author of a ' Defence of Ch. Establishments,' 1796-1834. INGOUF, F. R., a French engraver, 1747-1812. His brother, P. Charles, an eng., about 1746-99. INGRAM, Robert, a theologian, 1727-1804. INGRASSIAS, Giovanni Filippo, a native of Sicily, dist. as a physician and anatomist, 1510-80. 347 IXG INGUIMBERT, J. D., :.n Italian theologian, founder of an hospital and pub. library, 1683-1757. INGULPHUS, abbot and historian of the monastery of Croyland in the time of William the Conqueror, born in London about 1030, died 1109. 1NXKS, Lodis, a French priest, secretary of James II., and author of his Memoirs, bom 1G50. His brother, Thomas, an antiq. wr., 1662-1744. I N N OC EXT. The popes of Rome of this name are Innocent I., a saint of the Roman calendar, flourished in the time of Alaric, 402-417. Inno- cent II., pope in the age of Abelard and Arnold, with whose doctrines, as well as with rival popes and kings, he was kept in continual conflict, 1130- 1143. Innocent III., a pope of extraordinary spirit and political sagacity, who arrived at despotic authority over the kings of Enrope, and pursued the most sanguinary measures against the Wal- denses and other heretics, 1198-1216. Innocent IV., pope, 1243-1254. Innocent V., one of the most celebrated theologians of the age, succeeded and died 1276. Innocent VI., reigned 1352- 1362. Innocent VII., 1404-1406. Innocent VIII., who laboured to promote a union among the Christian princes, in order to withstand the Turks, predecessor of Alexander VI., 1484-1492. Inno- cent IX., elected and died 1591. Innocent X., a great enemy of the treaty of Westphalia, and the doctrines of Jansenius, 1644-1655. Innocent XL, distinguished for his enmity to Louis XIV., for his extreme austerity, and for having proscribed the teaching of Molinos, 1676-1689. Innocent XII., distmg. as a good and enlightened prince, 1692-1700. Innocent XIIL, reigned 1721-1724. INTERIANO DE AYALA, Juan, a Spanish monk, known as a poet and wr. on art, 1656-1730. INTIERI, B., an Italian economist, died 1757. INTORCETTA, Prosper, a learned Sicilian Jesuit and missionary to China, 1625-1696. INVEGES, A., a Sicilian historian, 1595-1677. IOUSAF-ABOU-'L-HAXEX, a Moorish king of Grenada, began to reign 1048. IPHICRATES, a famous general of Athens, defeated the Lacedaemonians 392 B.C., and re- lieved Sparta when invaded by Epaminondas 368, died some time after 357 b.c. IPHITUS, king of Elis, celebrated as the founder of the Olympic games, 8th century b.c. IRAILH, A. S., a French historian, 1719-1794. IRBY, Fr. Paul, a naval officer, 1779-1844. IRELAND, John, author of 'The Life of Henderson,' and ' Hogarth Illustrated,' died 1789. IRELAND, John, dean of Westminster, distin- guished as a theological writer and patron of learn- ing, and as a contributor to the earlier numbers of the Quarterly Review, 1762-1842. IRELAND, Samuel, a collector and publisher of literary curiosities, disgraced by the publication of the pretended Shakspeare MSS., which appeared in 1796, and had been forged by his son, of whom he was the unconscious dupe, died 1800. IRENAEUS, St., was a native of Asia Minor, and a disciple of Polycarp. He is supposed, when still a young man, to have come to Gaul along with Pothinus, by whose instrumentality several churches were formed, the most famous of which were those of Lyons and Vienne. On the death of Pothinus, in a.d. 177, he succeeded him as bishop of Lugdunum (Lyons). This high office he continued 348 IRE to hold till his death about the end of the centu His ministry was a series of active, zealous, a| devoted personal labours, and he strug for the purity and the enlargement of the chur The current controversies, such as that about 1 proper time of keeping Easter, attracted attention, and in the name of the Gallic churches, resisted with vigour the incipient encroachments the bishop of Rome. His great literary work! his refutation of the Valentinian form of tj Gnostic heresy, and is usually named Advert, Haereses. The original Greek, with the excepti of a few fragments preserved by succeeding w ters, has been lost, and the remainder of the wc; is in a barbarous Latin version. He is also so' posed to have written the graphic and pafhe! account of the persecution endured by the churclj of Lyons and Vienne, which is still extant in t form of a letter. The character of Irenaeus tJ that of an honest, ardent, and amiable Christi, pastor possessed of a well-instructed mind! versant in the various phases of theological err but often seduced into puerility by the allegoriJ methods of interpretation then so prevalent a bewitching. The common idea, that Irenae was a martyr, rests on no good foundatic None of the writers of his own age, or th immediately after it, ever allude to such an evei The editio princeps of his works was, under t , charge of Erasmus, published at Basel, 1526, 8 the excellent edition of Grabe appeared Oxford in 1702, folio, and in Paris in 1710, unt the care of Benedictine Massuet. There are al editions by Grynaeus, Basel, 1571 , Gallasiv Paris, 1570; and Feuardentius, Cologne, \h ( .\ But the best, and most recent edition, is in 2 vo 8vo, Leipzig, 1853, edited by Stieren, and suppli with the prefaces of the preceding editions, a. with ample notes and prologomena. [J.F IRENE, empress or the East, like Mary que| of Scots and some of the Medici, is one of the marked characters in whom the reader of histo becomes personally interested to a degree far e ( ceeding his sense of justice in the case, and whe, powers of fascination not unfrequently charm t pen of the historian at the distance of ages. Bo at Athens of a private family about 752, she w ( raised to the throne of Constantine by her ms riage with Leo IV.,who succeeded his father six ye<'j after the celebration of their nuptials, in 775. In 7j in consequence of the death of Leo, she became r< gent of tne empire for her son Constantir the tenth year of his age, and the court ot tinople was soon a perpetual scene of intrigue u counterplot, which led to the most ruthle In this struggle, the uncles of the young empercj fired with as much ambition, and endov infinitely less personal grace and love of art ftJ the beautiful Athenian, were ranged on one si , with the iconoclasts, and Irene on the other suj ported the worship of images, and had the addn. and firmness of purpose to carry her point, whi< was finally decreed in a council held at Nice, 7j In the meantime, the education of her son, who she never meant 'to exercise the supreme pow<; was totally neglected; and when he arrived i maturity, and was put in forcible possession of 1 father's authority by the troops, he not only Pjc-v . incapable, but most unscrupulous and cruel in t IRE cise of his authority. With a reckless and itious woman like Irene on the watch for her jrtunity, and his subjects alienated in disgust, not surprising that her emissaries were at able to seize on the person of the emperor, having done so, they put out his eyes, and daimed Irene the only person that had shown capability of sustaining the weight of govern- it. She had reigned five years sole empress, was negotiating a marriage with Charlemagne, ah would have united the Eastern and Western fires, when Nicephorus, the grand treasurer, me leader of a revolt, and having brought some of her eunuchs to his party, succeeded ethroning her. A few months afterwards, she in exile at the isle of Lesbos, a.d. 803, still the vigour of her years, and in all likelihood cen-hearted by her fall. We ought to have itioned that Irene obtained some advantages r the Saracens during her regency, and concluded treaty of peace with Haroun-al-Raschid. [E.R.] RET ON, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, iinguished as a parliamentary general in the 1 war, and lord deputy of Ireland after the iblishment of the commonwealth. He was one ihose who signed the warrant for the king's th. Bom 1610, died at Limerick 1651. RGENS, Olans, a Norway savant, last cent. RICO, J. Andrew, a learned Italian, disting. i theologian, philos., and historian, 1704-1782. RLAND, B., a French jurisconsult, 1551-1612. RNE RIUS,called alsoWERNERUs, Warnerus, jUARNERtjs, a lawyer of Bologna, regarded as restorer of the Roman law in the middle ages, n about 1065, died after 1138. RVING, Rev. Edward, was a native of Dum- teshire, having been born at Annan on 15th gust, 1792, of respectable parentage. His ec- Itricities began to display themselves at school, even in boyhood he was singular in his dress, Inner, and phraseology. Of all the branches of acation, he excelled in arithmetic and mathe- Itics, and his superiority in these departments beared so decidedly during his curriculum at i college of Edinburgh, that as the foremost jail competitors, he was appointed mathematical icher in the burgh school of Haddington, and b year following in the school of Kirkaldy. e latter situation he held seven years, when [ring become a licentiate in the Church of atland, and going on a visit to Edinburgh, happened to preach in St. George's church. ie of his hearers on that occasion was Dr. lalmers, who engaged him to be assistant- nister in the parish of St. John's, Glasgow. fchougk he was not esteemed there a popular pacher, his great talents and peculiar eloquence :re appreciated by a select, but devoted band of mirers, who sounded his praises far and wide, 1 his fame reached London. In 1822, Mr. tfng was invited to preach in the church of the Httn Asylum in London, then vacant, and HK elected minister of the chapel, Dr. Chal- !re introducing him to his new charge in August that year. London is so immense a field, that preacher even of moderate talents can reckon th certainty on obtaining an audience. ach more a preacher like Irving, who, to high d undoubted talent, united great eccentricity in IRV sentiment and manner. An eloquent speaker, he yet indulged in a quaint style formed on the model of the Elizabethan age ; delivered his discourses with prodigious energy ; and made fearless in- discriminate attacks on everything civil as well as ecclesiastical he considered wrong or faulty. Such a preacher was soon surrounded by multi- tudes. It became ' the fashion ' to attend Mr. Irving's church. People of all ranks and charac- ters, literary men, philosophers, statesmen, com- mons, and noblemen of the highest name and in- fluence, flocked to his church. Within a year after his settlement in the metropolis, he published a vol- ume of discourses, which he entitled ' For the Ora- cles of God, four orations ; For Judgment to Come, an argument in nine parts.' So extraordinary was the demand for this volume, that three large editions were sold within six months. From his great popularity, Mr. Irving was called frequently to plead the cause of many charitable and Chris- tian institutions. In 1824, he preached the annual sermon for the London Missionary Society ; and on that occasion, as he had acquired the habit of pro- tracting the services to an unusual length, he ex- hausted himself so much, that he was obliged to pause twice to rest himself. The discourse was afterwards published under the title : ' For Mis- sionaries after the Apostolic Schools, a series of orations in four parts,' and dedicated to his friend Coleridge. In the following year he preached the annual sermon for the Continental Society, and on that occasion, too, disgusted many even of his friends and admirers by extending the services to more than four hours' duration. He wished to train his own mind to habitual occupation with religious thoughts, and as he thought others should do so too, he refused to abridge his discourses. Mr. Irving, through the influence of Coleridge, became strongly inclined to mysticism, and, having com- menced the study of unfulfilled prophecy, which he preposterously held out as the key to the right interpretation of the Bible, he gradually plunged into a sea of the grossest absurdities. Attaching himself to what was called ' The Albury School of Prophets,' he not only adopted Millennarian views respecting the personal reign of Christ on the earth, but began to entertain some singular opinions of the model Christian church. These opinions, leading him to conceive that it was want of faith that prevented the miraculous gifts of the primi- tive age from being enjoyed by the church in mo- dern times, he with his flock, being true believers, laid claim to the power of working miracles, and speaking with unknown tongues. These wild ex- travagances, together with the sad errors in doc- trine into which Mr. Irving fell, compelled the courts of the Church of Scotland to interfere. He was at length declared no longer belonging to her communion, and he with his deluded flock, who followed blindly in all his vagaries, withdrew from Regent Square church to a new chapel that was built for his reception. Exhausted by anxiety and incessant labours, Mr. Irving's iron constitution gave way, and, while on a tour through his native country, undertaken for his health, he died, at Glas- gow, Dec. 8, 1834, in the Cathedral of which his remains were interred. The Irvingites still form a considerable body, and a scheme is at present be- ing carried out for building churches in all the large 349 IRW towns of the United Kingdom in connection with this sect. Towards the completion of this scheme, it is reported that Henry Drummond, Esq., the eminent London banker, has given the munificent donation of 100,000. [R.J.] IRWIN, Kvi.i.s. an English poet, 1751-1817. ISAAC, son of Abraham and Sarah, 2266 B.C. ISAAC, a patriarch of Armenia, died 1440. ISAAC, Angelus, emperor of the East, pro- claimed on the day when Andronicus Commenus was killed by the populace 1185, dethroned and deprived of his sight by Alexis, his brother, 1195, reinstated by the crusaders, and put to death the same year by Alexis Ducas, 1204. ISAAC COMMENUS, emperor of the East 1057, abdicated 1059, died in a monastery 1061. ISAAC KARO, a Spanish rabbi, 15th century. ISAAC LEVITA, a rabbin of the 16th centurv. ISAACSON, H., an Eng. chronolo., 1581-1654. ISABELLA of Austria, daughter of Philip II., king of Spain, and of Elizabeth of France, born 1566, married to Albert, son of the emperor Maximilian, 1598, deprived of the sovereignty of the Low Countries, which she had received after the death of her husband in 1621, died 1633. ISABELLA of Bavaria, daughter of Stephen II., duke of Bavaria, born 1371, married to Charles VI. of France, 1385, died miserably at Paris, after a reign marked by intrigues and crimes, 1435. ISABELLA of Castile, queen of Spain, daughter of John II. king of Castile, born 1450, married to Ferdinand V., king of Arragon, 1469, died 1504. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella is the most glorious in the Spanish annals, and from the year 1492, they bore the title of ' king ' in common. In her rgn. the inquisition was founded. ISABELLA of France, daughter of Philip the Fair, born 1292, married to Edward II. of England 1308, dethroned her husband with the aid of her paramour, Lord Mortimer, 1326, confined in the castle of Risings by her son Edward III., on attaining his majority, 1330, died 1358. ISiEUS, an Athenian orator, 4th century b.c. ISAIAH, a prophet of the Jews, son of Amos, and nephew of Amaziah, k. of Judah, 7th ct. b.c. ISCANUS, Joseph, a Latin poet, died 1224. IS E LIN, Isaac, a Germ, philosopher, 1728-82. ISELIN, J. C, a Germ. Orientalist, 1681-1737. ISEMBERT of Xaintes, a French architect, employed to finish Old London Bridge 1209. ISIASLA V, the first of the name grand duke of Russia, reigned 1054-1078: the second, 1146- 1154; the third, 1157-1161. ISIDORE, archbishop of Thessalonica, 15th ct. ISIDORE of Alexandria, a saint and par- tizan of Athanasius, b. in Egypt abt. 318, d. 404. ISIDORE of Charax, a Gr. geographer, 1st c. ISIDORE of Miletus, a Greek architect, em- ployed by Justinian at Constantinople, 6th cent. ISIDORE of Pelusium, a saint, and disciple of Chrysostom, author of Letters valued for their remarks on Scripture passages, on theological questions, and on church discipline, d. about 440. ISIDORE of Seville, a saint, and ecclesias- tical writer and historian, distinguished for his piety and erudition, born about 570, died 636. A collection of spurious canons intended to prove that all ecclesiastical authority emanated from the ee of Rome, was a long tune attributed to him, ITU but they have been proved to be the for^erip: an ecclesiastical writer of the 8th century^ kn as Isidore Mercator, or Peccator. ISLA, J. F., a Spanish Jesuit, 1714-1783. ISLEIF, an Icelandic historian, 11th centun ISHMAEL, a son of Abraham and 1 1 the supposed father of the Arabians, 2280 b.c. ISHMAEL, founder of the dynasty of i Sophies in Persia, 1487-1524. Ishmael II., grandson, succeeded 1576, poisoned 1577. ISOCRATES, a famous Athenian orator s teacher of rhetoric, was born about 436 b.c, was a contemporary of Socrates. He is reckoi by Cicero among the first to perfect the melody] Greek prose, and was so warmly attached to \ country, that he took no food after the i, of Cheronea, and four days afterwards died , starvation and grief in the ninety-eighth year | his age. There are some discourses and <S| still extant under his name ; and it is record that he never, by writing or accusation, injurecj single individual. ISRAEL BEN AARON, a Prussian rabbi, a thor of ' The Light of Israel,' published 1701. ISSELT, M. D\, a German historian, d. 159',| ISTLIVANFIUS, Nicholas, vice-palatine Hungary, and historian of that country, died 16:! ISTRIA, Vincentello D'., viceroy of Corsi.j born 1380, made viceroy 1421, executed 1434. ITALINSKI, A., a Polish diplomatist, d. 183 ITAND, J. M. G., a Fr. physician, 1775-183 ITTIGIUS, Th., a Ger. theologian, 1644-17;; ITURBIDE, or YTURBIDE, Don August^ a Mexican officer, born of a distinguish in 1784, is remarkable for his sudden elevation the supreme power as emperor of Mexico, and )j his tragical fate after he had played his part , the drama of Mexican independence. When a yoke of Spain was shaken off by some of the Air rican provinces in 1816, Iturbide was in comma ; of the royal army of the north, occupying Gna axuato and Valladolid, and a false charge of d:| loyalty being preferred against him, he retir from active service, in reality, as it appears, watch events, and to find means in the ruin the Spaniards for the gratification of his ambiticj His plans being matured, and a command offer, to him, he declared for the independence of t ! Mexican people, and having freed his country i the common enemy, he outwitted the republican and was proclaimed emperor by a coup d'etat, M 18th, 1822. Unable to maintain his authority | a state of anarchy, which only a real king of mi could have controlled, he tendered his abdicate in the March following, and being handsome* frovided for, covenanted to reside in Italy. Froj taly, notwithstanding, in the beginning of 182; he removed to England, and encouraged by t'j division of parties in Mexico, addressed a letter the congress, offering his services as a privaj officer, to restore order not waiting an answ(| however, but embarking for the seat of empii with a magnificent imperial mantle, proclamation crosses, uniforms, and insignia of all kii which to caparison and dazzle the poor M The message of Iturbide was received and read congress on the 28th of April, and its writer ul stantly proclaimed an outlaw; who, ignorant the fact, arrived in person on the 12th of Jul ; 350 IVA m to be shot on the 19th, and thrown into an nionoured grave, without coffin or shroud, like a i\ It is evident there was no national feeling njivour of this adventurer, as was indeed hardly pkble in such a country and under such circum- Sces, yet the event might have been very dif- fiiut had he returned earlier. The rich and pjulous state of Guadalaxara, where the military eimand was in the hands of Bustamenti, was in fibur of Iturbide, and in revolt against the su- p ne government, but was subjugated by con- e s about a month before his arrival. One last epce was thrown in his way by La Garza, under ur of making him prisoner, but Iturbide had her the nerve nor the address to profit by it, the soldiers he might have commanded, had >een a Napoleon, led him to execution. [E.R.] VAN, the first of the name prince of Georgia, m to reign 1057 ; the second, grandson of the ieding, distinguished in the war with the Turks 1 123 ; the third, grandson of the latter, reigned i at the middle of the 12th century. VAN, an Armenian prince in the service of kings of Georgia, died 1231. VANOFF, a Russian dramatist, 1777-1816. VAR WIDFAMNE, the founder of a line of dish and Danish kings in the 7th century. IVES, Edward, an English traveller, d. 1786. VES, John, an Engl, antiquarian, 1751-1776. JAC IVETEAUX, N. V., a French poet, 1559-1649. IVO, IVES, or YVES, bishop of Chartres, au. of a collection of decrees, canons, &c, 1035-1115 IWAN. The Russian sovereigns of this name are Iwan I., who succeeded his father in the principalities of Vlodomir, Moscow, and Novogorod, 1328, and died 1340. Iwan II., his grandson, reigned 1353-1358. Iwan III., the conqueror of the Tartars under Achmet Khan, the first to adopt the black eagle, and claim the sovereignty of all the Russias, 1438-1505. Iwan IV., grand- son of the preceding, and first czar of Russia, surnamed ' the Terrible ' on account of his cruel- ties, but a great promoter of commerce and civil- ization, 1530-1584. Iwan V., who, being deaf and dumb, was associated with his brother, Peter I., reigned 1682-1696. Iwan VI., poisoned in infancy, 1740, to make way for Elizabeth, daugh- ter of Peter I. IXNARD, M., a French architect, 1723-1795. IXTLILXOCHITL, Ferdinand D'Alva, an. of a history of the old Mexican kings, 17th cent. IZAACKE, R., historian of Exeter,died 1700. IZIOCALT, the fourth king of Mexico, and real founder of its government, reigned 1433-1455. IZMAILOV, a Russian journalist, 1780-1832. IZQUIERDO, Don Eugenio, a Spanish diplo- matist, signed the truce of Fontainebleau, d. 1816. IZZEN-CHOLLACH, a French poet, last cent. AACOB, a learned Talmudist, 16th century. 1 renown. He had spent many years in the haras- AAPHAR-EBN-THOPHAIL, an Arabian I sing and inglorious conflicts with the Indians on osopher, author of ' The Improvement of Hu- the frontier, when the second war with Britain in Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yok it,' a philos. romance, transl. by Ockley, d. 1198. [ABALOT, F. F., an Ital. theol., 1780-1834. IAB1NEAU, H., a Fr. eccles. wr., died 1792. fABLONOWSKI, C. G., a Ger. nat., 1756-87. rABLONOWSKI, Joseph, Count, grandfather i Stanislaus, king of Poland, known as a poet I translator ; died commencement of last cen- y. Joseph Alexander, Prince Jablonowski, the same family, founder of a literary society ich bears his name, and author of a biography the great Polish generals, 1712-1777. ilABLONOWSKI, Uladislas, a Polish general the service of Fr. at St. Domingo, 1769-1802. JABLONSKI, Daniel Ernest, a Hebrew idar and protestant divine of Germany, 1660- 11. John Theodore, his brother, a distin- lished lexicographer, 1654-1731. Paul Ernest, ii of Daniel, a theolo. and lear. wr., 1693-1757. JACKSON, Andrew, president of the United ;ates, was born in South Carolina, on the 15th iMarch, 1767. His father, a settler of Scottish scent, died early, leaving him, with two older pthers, to the care of their widowed mother. He By showed a hardy self-relying nature, and when |t a boy he shouldered a musket in the war of dependence. With the versatility of employment jculiar to the progressive character of the new publican empire, he became a lawyer as well as fwldier ; and he was at the same time a judge of p supreme court of Tennessee, and a major-gen- d in the army of the United States. This was called him to more distinguished services. In 1815 he signalized himself by the defence of New Or- leans. On this occasion he showed that somewhat haughty disregard of civil rights, which was a con- spicuous feature of his character ; and perhaps it was well for the constitution of the United States that in the midst of his triumphant popularity he found himself surrounded by legal difficulties and dangers. He was subjected to damages for pro- ceedings affecting private parties consequent on his suspending the constitution, and enforcing martial law at New Orleans. There has been no states- man from whom, had opportunity served him, the constitution of the States was likely to run so much risk. He depended on his military renown and democratic principles for the votes and sup- port of the multitude, and might thus in a less firmly settled government have been a very dan- fjerous man. After having served in various pub- ic capacities, he became, in 1824, a candidate for the presidency. Though he had the largest num- ber of votes, no one had a sufficient number to be elected, and Adams was selected by the representa- tives, according to the constitution. In 1828 Jack- son was elected by a large majority. The older party viewed this event as the ascendancy of principles fraught with danger to the United States ; and this feeling was echoed from other countries, when it was seen that his policy was connected with territorial aggression, and the aggrandizement of the slave-holding interest. On the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank, a main instru acter in which he was to reap his great | ment of influence to the federal government, he 351 JAC boldly trusted to popular support, and used liis veto against the chambers of congress. His pre- sidency lasted until 1837. He died on 8th June, 1845. [J.H.B.] JACKSON, Arthur, a noncf. div., 1593-1666. JACKSON, Cyril, an eminent div., 1746-1819. His brother, William, bishop of Oxford, a clas- sic al translator and mathematician, 1750-1815. JACKSON, John, a portrait pain., 1778-1831. JACKSON, John, a famous controver. divine, philosophical writer, and chronologist, 1686-1763. JACKSON, Joseph, a letter-founder, 1733-92. JACKSON, Robert, a physician and profes. writer, especially on the fevers of Jamaica and America, and the use of cold water, 1751-1827. JACKSON, Thomas, a learned div., 1579-1640. JACKSON, William, a musical composer and writer ; distinguished also as a painter, 1730-1804. JACKSON, William, an Irish protestant clergyman, convicted of a treasonable correspon- dence with France ; d. of poison at the bar, 1795. JACOB, the patriarch of the Bible, is supposed to have been born abt. 2206 B.C., and d. abt. 2061. JACOB, a Cistercian monk, and native of Hungary, killed while preaching a crusade, 12th c. JACOB, Al Bardi, or Burad^eus, a bishop and apostle of the Monophysites in the 6th century. JACOB, Ben Hajim, a rabbi of the 16th cent. JACOB, Ben Napthali, a learned Jew to whom, in conjunction with Ben Aser, the invention of the Masoretic points is ascribed, 5th century. JACOB, Edward, an antiquar. wr., d. 1788. JACOB, Giles, a writer of numerous works on legal subjects and in polite literature; among which are his ' Lives and Characters of English Dramatic Poets,' ' Law Dictry.,' &c, 1690-1744. JACOB, Henry, founder of the first congrega- tional or independent church in England, and au- thor of theological treatises by which that reform was promoted, died about 1624. His son, of the same name, a learned writer, 1606-1652. JACOB, Jehudah Leon, a Spanish Jew, an. of a ' Descrip. of the Temple of Solomon,' 17th ct. JACOB KOLB, G., a Fr. antiq., 1775-1830. JACOBjEUS, Oliger, a Danish antiquarian, naturalist, and literary savant, 1650-1701. His son, James, a learned writer, died 1738. JACOBI, A. R., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1746-1825. JACOBI, Frederick Henry, born at Dussel- dorf, 25th January, 1743 ; died at Munich, where he was President of the Academy of Sciences, 10th March, 1819. Jacobi, distinguished pre- eminently as a writer no German in modern times having attained a style of greater lucidity and beauty led the reaction which followed on the various scepticisms arising in the specu- lations of Kant, and explained in our article on that philosopher. The scepticisms chiefly related to the question how far are we entitled to infer the existence of an external reality, from the existence of a primary conception? Ja- cobi opposed to them an imperturbable dog- matism, asserting with unshrinking confidence, the legitimacy and sufficiency of such conclu- sions as the following : ' I think, or have an idea of the Supreme Being therefore he exists.' It cannot be doubted that this faith-philosophy, ds it was designated, had considerable, and a very salutary influence in recalling to logicians the JAC authority of our Intuitions ; but Jacobi 1 a true and philosophic faith is not s\ with blind confidence in whatever may in the mind ; it is confidence justified by and defensible on grounds capable of" I and vindicated. He exceeded in this directit even the excesses of the Scottish School ; althoui his expositions are everywhere distinguished I acuteness, and adorned by so remarkabl that his disciples have named him a mod* The correspondence of this celebrated writer perhaps the most interesting of any recent left us. Goethe declared that it represen and sums up a whole century. Jacobi may considered the founder of a School : and to ha had no slight influence in moulding the illustrio Schleiermacher. [J.P.K JACOBI, John Geo., brother of the j a dist. professor and wr. of polite liter., 1740-181 JACOBILLI, L., an Italian savant, 1598-16<i JACOBS, F. C. W., a Ger. critic, b. 1764-18 JACOBS, Jurien, a Swiss painter, 1610-16( JACOBS, Lucas, a Dutch painter, 1 JACOBS, P. F., a Flemish painter, 1780-18( JACOBSEN, M., a Spanish commdr., by who the Armada was saved from total ruin, d. 1633 i JACOBSON, John Ch. Gottfried, au. o| 1 Technological Diet, of All the Arts,' &c, 1726-* JACOPI, J., an Italian anatomist, died 1813J JACOPONE, or JACOPO DA TODI, an Iti monk, whose real name was Jacopo de BenI detti, author of ascetic writings and hym! which have given him a place among the poets Italy. The hest known of these is the fame 1 Stabat Mater Dolorosa ; ' died 1306. JACOTIN, Peter, a Fr. geograph., 1765-18; JACOTOT, Jean Joseph, celeb, as the au.1 a plan of universal education, successively capti of artillery under Napoleon, secretary to the miti ter of war, member of the chamber of represen' tives 1815, prof, of literature at Louvain, and diri tor of the military school of Belgium, 17, JACQUARD, or JACQUART, Marie Josek celebrated as the inventor of a loom for the wef ing of damasks, was born at Lyons 1752, and d'. 1834. He was the son of a common workm and first exhibited his machine in 1801, siji which, it has been adopted in every manufact i - of Europe and America, and is admitted to m): an epoch in the weaving art. He was appoint by Napoleon to an employment in the ' C toire des Arts et des Metiers,' and tl Lyons has erected a statue to his memory. JACQUELIN, J. A., aFr. poet, 1776-1827. JACQUELINE, countess of Holland, 1400-:; JACQUELOT, Isaac, a prot. div., 16 47-17 . JACQUEMARD, S., a Fr. poet, 1772-1830.1 JACQUEMIN, J. B., a Fr. geomet., 172(1-17 . JACQUEMONT, Victor, a celebrated Fre naturalist and traveller in the East Indies, 1). 18 JACQUES, M. J., a Fr. theologian, 1 , JACQUET, Eugene Vincent, a Fr. nm . and au. of works on the East, languages, 1811!. JACQUET, J. C, a Fr. pamphleteer, last O JACQUET, Louis, a French Jesuit of a 'Parallel between the Greek and Freii tragic writers,' 1732-1794. JACQUET, Peter, a Fr. jurisconsult, d. 17 : JACQUIER, F., a learned mathemat., 1711- 352 JAC ACQIHN, A. P., a French author, 1721-1780. ACQUIN, Nicolas Joseph, a Dutch botanist, hor of a magnificent work entitled ' Florae Aus- jcae ' with 500 coloured engravings, 1727-1817. IADELOT, N., a Fr. physiologist, 1738-1793. AECK, C, a German engraver, 1763-1809. AECK, M., a German jurisconsult, 1783-1833. JAEGER, J. W., a German divine, bora 1647. AGKLLOX, a duke of Lithuania, born about ji, united the kingdom of Poland to his own jhis marriage with Hedriga, and reigned as idislas V., 1386, died 1434. AGEMANN, C. J., a German savant, d. 1804. AGO, Richard, an English poet, 1715-1781. AHN, John, a professor in Vienna, disting. m Oriental and biblical scholar, died 1817. AILLOT, Hubert Alexis, a French geo- >her, born about 1640, died 1712. AKOB, L. H. Von, a German economist and osopher of the school of Kant, 1759-1827. ALLABERT, J., a Swiss exp. phil., 1712-68. AMBLICUS, a Syrian novelist, 2d century. AMBLICUS, a Platonic philosopher, 4th cent. AMBLICHUS, or IAMBLICHUS, the fa- s Neo-platonist and pupil of Porphyry, was i at Chalcis, and died about the year 333. Platonism was far from pure, for it was adul- ted with many orientalisms, and degraded umerous superstitions. Yet his contemporaries ; lavish in their praises of his genius. His tise on Pythagoras contains a life of that gopher, full of ridiculous puerilities and por- s, and has also several chapters on ethics and netry. The book ' On the Mysteries,' is an upt'to prove the divine origin and perfection he Egvptian worship, with its theosophic doc- 's and mystic ceremonies. Many of his other cs, such as his Commentaries on some of o's Dialogues, are lost. His treatise on the teries was published by Gale, Oxford, 1678, This Jamblichus is often confounded with r two persons of the same name. [J.E.] IMES. The saints of this name are 1. The tie, brother of Saint John, put to death by bd Agrippa 44. 2. A bishop of Jerusalem, her of St. Simon and St. Jude, killed by the le, G2. 3. A bishop of Mesopotamia, 4th cen. IMES. The kings of Scotland of this name James I., son of Robert III., born 1394; ined in England by Henry IV. and Henry V., W423; succeeded to the throne 1406; mur- ",d 1437. James II., son of James I., born 1 ; succeeded 1437 ; killed at the siege of Rox- ;h 14<J0. James III., son of James II., born t ; succeeded 1460 ; killed near the field of urn 1488. James IV., bora 1472; suc- t'ather James III. 1488; married Mar- hter of Henry VII. of England, 1503 ; Hodden field 1513. James V., son >or of the latter at the age of eighteen 1513 ; married Madeleine, daughter of jcis I , lo.'JG ; (lied, when his only child, Mary, lays old, 1542. James VI., grandson me preceding by his daughter Mary, who was Jnedto Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, born 1566; lined at Stirling by the insurgent nobles 1567; eth as king of England 1603 ; d. 1625. - I., king of England, same as James 'lf Scotland. James II JAN ceeded his brother, Charles TL, 1685; lost his throne and took refuge in France 1688 ; landed in Ireland, and lost the battle of the Boyne 1690 ; died 1701. JAMES I., king of Arragon, born 1206, sue. 1213 ; died 1216. James II., reigned 1285-1327. JAMES I., king of Majorca, son of James I., king of Arragon, flourished 1248-1311. James II., grandson of James L, reigned 1324-1349. JAMES of Bourbon, count of La Marche, and second husband of Jeanne II., queen of Naples, whom he married after the death of Beatrix of Navarre, his first wife, died 1438. JAMES of Majorca, third husband of Jeanne I., queen of Naples, whom he married on being delivered from his three years' imprisonment in an iron cage, 1362 ; died duke of Calabria 1375. JAMES of Vitri, a French cardinal and his- torian, persecutor of the Albigenses, died 1244. JAMES of Voragine, an Ital. prelate, d. 1298. JAMES, John Thos., D.D., bishop of Calcutta after the death of Bishop Heber, 1786-1829. JAMES, Robert, a physician and professional writer, auth. of a ' Medical Dictionary, and celeb, for the preparation of a fever powder, 1703-1776. JAMES, Thos., auth. of school-books, d. 1804. JAMES, Thomas, a distinguished navigator and discoverer, author of a curious journal, 17th c. JAMES, Thomas, a learned divine and collec- tor of curious MSS., author of a ' Treatise on the Corruption of Scriptures, Councils, and Fathers,' 1571-1632. His nephew, Richard, a distin- guished scholar, 1592-1638. JAMES, William, a land surveyor, distin- guished as the first projector of the Manchester and Liverpool railway, and regarded as the father of the railway system, 1771-1837. JAMES, William, a naval historian, d. 1827. JAMES, Sir W., an E. Indian officer, 1720-83. JAMESON, G., a Scotch painter, 1586-1644. JAMESON, W., an English savant, author of ' Spicilegia Antiquitatum iEgyptii,' last century. JAMET, P. C, a French author, bora 1701. JAMI, an Oriental poet, 1414-1494. JAMIESON, Rev. John, a Scottish seceding minister, born at Glasgow 1759, ordained at For- far in 1786, translated to Edinburgh 1797, author of many popular professional works, but is best known to the world at large by his 'Historical Ac- count of the Culdees of Iona,' his 'Hermes Scythi- cus,' and above all by his 'Etymological Diction, of the Scottish Language.' Died at Edinburgh 1838. JAMIN, N., an ascetic of Brittany, 1730-1782. JAMYN, Amadis, a French poet, 1538-1585. JANE. See Jeanne, Joan. JANEWAY., J., a nonconform, divine, 1636-74. JANI, Ch. D., a German philosopher, 1743-90. JAN1CON, Francis Michael, a French pro- testant, known as a political writer, 1674-1730. JAN1N, Joseph, a French historian, 1715-94. JANITIUS, C, a Polish historian, 1616-1643. JANNES and JAMBRES, the name by which Paul calls the magicians who resisted Moses in Egypt, and supposed to be the same as Jamne and Jotape mentioned by Pliny, and as the Jo- hunni and Mamre of the Talmud. JANOSKI, J. D., a Polish savant, 1720-1786. JANSEN, H., a French translator, 1741-1812. JANSENIUS, Cornelius, bishop of Ghent, his grandson, sue- I author of a * Harmony of the Gospel,' 1510-1576. 353 2 A JAN JANSENIUS, James, professor of divinity at Louvain, au. of Scripture Comment., 1547-1625. .] AN SSKX, CuKM-.iLLE, (Cornelius Jansen- ns\ was born in a hamlet called Accoy, close upon Leerdam, in Flanders, in a.d. 1585. In 1602 he went to study at Louvain, but his severe industry brought on a malady which required change of air, and "the young student repaired to Paris, where he formed a friendship with Jean du Verger de Hau- ranne, better known as the Abbe* St.Cyran in the sub- sequent history of Jansenism. The two friends re- tired to Bavonne, where they spent several years in earliest study and meditation. On returning to Louvain, Janssen was elevated to the principality of the college of St. Pulcheria, became doctor of theology in 1617, and was added to the number of professors in ordinary. Twice was he sent by his college to Spain on business of moment. He was raised to the bishoprick of Ypres in 1 635; a work writ- ten by him against France for forming alliances with protectant states having contributed to secure him such patronage from the court of Spain. He died of the plague in 1638, in the fifty-third year of his age. A large part of his life at least twenty years of it had been spent in studying and col- lecting the works of Augustine. The result of his labours his 'Augustinus,' scarcely finished at his decease he submitted to the judgment of Pope Urban VIII. His friends published the posthumous volumes at Louvain in 1640. The Jesuits, who were favourers of Pelagianism, were its bitter and truculent opponents. Five propositions were se- lected to be condemned, and after many scenes of strife and papal anathema, the Bull Unigenitus was issued by Pope Clement XL, which put under ban the evangelical doctrines of Quesnel, Janssen, and the whole party. Port-royal, the happy abode of so many of them, had before this time been razed to the ground by Jesuit malice and intrigue. [J.E.] JANSSEN, or JOHNSON, Cornel., a Dutch portrait painter, disting. in England, 1590-1685. JANSSENS, A., a Flemish painter, 1569-1631. JANSSENS, Victor Honorius, a Flemish painter, disting. in historical subjects, 1664-1739. JANTET, A. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1747-1805. JANUARIUS, a bishop and saint of the Romish Church, beheaded in the persecu. under Diocletian. JANVIER, Antide, a French mechanician and writer on the chronometer and orrery, 1751-1835. JANVIER, Dom Rene Ambroise, a learned French monk and editor of Hebrew, 1614-1682. JAPHETH, the third son of Noah, and the Japetes of profane history, ancestor of the Greeks. JAQUELOT, Isaac, a Fr. divine, 1647-1708. JAQUOT, Blaise, a Fr. jurist, abt. 1580-1632. JARCHI, Solomon Ben. See Raschi. JARD, Francis, a Fr. preacher, 1675-1768. JARDEL, a Fr. archaeologist, died after 1793. JARDIN, N. H., a Fr. architect, 1720-1799. JARDINE, G., a Scotch philosopher, 1743-1827. JARD1NIER, C. D., a French engr., 1726-74. JARDINS, Mary Catherine Des, a French novelist, best kn. as Madame de Villedieu, d. 1683. JARDYN, Karl Du. See Dujardin. JARNOWICK, G. M., a eel. violinist, 1745-1804. JAROPOL or JAROPOLK, the first of the name, grand duke of Russia, reigned 973-980 ; the iccond, grandson of the preceding, 1132-1138. JEB JAROSLAW, or JAROSLAV, George, grn duke of Russia, a great patron of learn., d. 100 JARRIGE, Peter, a French Jesuit, 1605-61 JARRY, Lawrence Guilhaud Dr. preacher, kn. as a poet and relig. wr., 1658-173 JARS, Francis De Rochechouak i De, a French officer, disting. in the annals of t Bastile for his singular courage, died 1670. JARS, Gabriel, a Fr. mineralogist, 1732-6 JARVIS, John, an Irish artist, distinaS as a painter on glass, born about 1749, died 18( JASON, a tyrant of Thessalia, 4th cent. b.c. JAUCOURT, Louis, Chevalier De, a Freii med. wr., and contrib. to the Encyclo., 1704-17' JAUGEON, N, a Fr. archaeologist, died 172 JAULT, Aug. Fr., a Fr. translator, 1700-17, JAUREGUI-Y-AGUILAR, Juan De, aSp* ish painter, poet, and translator, 1566-1(107. JAUSSAUD, L. De, a Fr. Hellenist, 1580-16 1 JAUSSIN, L. Arnaud, a Fr. historn., d. 17, JAY, John Michael Le, an Oriental schcj and advocate of the parliament of Paris, d. 167J JAY, John, an Ameri. statesman, 1745-182' JAYADEVA, a eel. Hindu poet, 12th to 15tlj JEACOCKE, Caleb, a tradesman of Lond| celebrated as a debater; author of a ' Vindicat of the Moral Character of the Apos. Paul,' d. 17 JEAN EVANGELISTE, Le Pere, was), Capuchin of Louvain, who was known to be livjj in 1639. He is the author of a work entitji 'De Regno Dei in Anima,' which is the firj: introduction to the understanding of mystical n jects ever written, and is the only work atjl comparable to Boehmen's 'Divine Vision.' Ii this eulogium we must be understood to incluci second part, added to the editions of Frank;! in 1690 and 1692, and entitled 'De Separate Animae et Spiritus,' or ' The Separation of ! Soul and the Spirit, illustrating the inw]l ascent of the Bride through the degrees of Le Love.' In support of his thesis concerning <e soul's gathering in to herself, of her introvers,;, and of her drawing near and exalting herself a God, the author cites many famous name^f admitted integrity. It is altogether a curious jd valuable treatise on the state of ecstacy. [E ] JEANES, Henry, an Eng. theolog., 1G11- . JEANNE D'ALBRET. See Albret. JEANNE, queen of Naples. See Joax. JEANNE, Henriquez, queen of Castile d Arragon, wife of John II., died 1468. JEANNE-LA-FOLLE, queen of Castile, daitf ter of Ferdinand the Catholic, wife of Phi duke of Austria, and mo. of Chas. V., 1482-1 '< JEANNE of Navarre, daughter of Henr ., king of Navarre, and wife of Philip the Fair, g of France, 1272-1305. JEANNE of Valois, or St. Jeann; of Louis XL, founder of a relig. order, 1464-1 a JEANNIN, Peter, kn. as President Jeai I a Fr. financier, minister of Henry IV., \h 10-1 -' JEANROI, D., a Fr. med. writer, 17 JEANSON, B., a French architect, died U . JEAURAT, E. S., a Fr. mathematician, foq I of the observatory at the mil. school, 1724-18 1 JEBB, John, an Irish prelate, autl ' Essay on Sacred Literature,' &c, 1775-18 JEBB, John, a learned divine and Oii scholar, who became a physician on p 354 JED cinanism, 1786-1786. Samuel, his uncle, a irned editor of the nonjuring party, afterwards phvsician, died 1772. Sir Richard Jebb, t., son of Sam., physicn. to Geo. III., 1729-1787. JEDAAIA, H., Rabbi, surnamed Habbedrasci, Jewish poet and theologian of Spain, 13th cent. JEFFERSON, Thomas, an eminent American itesman, was born in 1743, at Shadwell, in Vir- iia. He was educated as a lawyer, and combin- y with his professional training great scholarship, d a capacity of expressing himself with ease and ecision, he became of eminent service in drawing e documents connected with the establishment American independence, and otherwise aiding the arrangements connected with that great ent. He prepared the first draught of the De- lation of Independence, which was revised by anklin and Adams. In a document relating to ; disposal of his estates in his old age, he gave is brief and distinct account of his history : ' I ne of age in 1764, and was soon put into the minatfon of justices of the county in which I ed, and at the first election following I became e of its representatives in the legislature ; was ?nce sent to the old Congress; then employed two irs with Mr. Pendleton and Mr. Wythe on the re- al and reduction to a single code of the whole iy of the British statutes, the acts of our assem- r , and certain parts of the common law ; then cted governor , next to the legislature, and to ngress again ; sent to Europe as minister-pleni- tentiary; appointed secretary of state to the a- government ; elected vice-president and pre- ent ; and, lastly, a visitor and rector of the uni- sity of Virginia.' His opinions were strongly pressed on the principles of government and the ly legislation of the United States He was a trough republican, and the opponent of the erative party; but it requires to be kept in w that this opposition was derived from the old nerican school of abstract republicanism, and lality of citizenship, and had little harmony :h the later anti-federalism, and its appeals to ;>b influence to accomplish conventional purposes, us, while he abolished primogeniture and the arch establishment, he also restrained the slave de, and his sentiments were in favour of the abo- Son of slavery. In 1801 he succeeded the elder i.ams as president, by choice of the House of Re- hsentatives, who had to decide between him and ' opponent, on account of an equality of votes. ,ere is no doubt that this choice was eminently Ipitious to the stability of the constitution, when n that his rival was the unscrupulous ll clever Colonel Burr. Jefferson filled the office eight years, and from the year 1809 he lived retirement in Virginia, until his death on the i of July, 1826, the anniversary of the declara- i of independence, and the day on which his nd and rival, the elder Adams, died. [J.H.B.] FFKRV, J., a div. and moralist, 1647-1720. FFKRY, Th., a nonconfor. divine, last cen. KEY, Francis, one of the most masterly lira and most eloquent writers in the English was a very remarkable instance ot the abination of different and dissimilar faculties, as II as of indefatigable energy and rapid versati- ' m the employment of mental powers. During i twenty-five years when his literary labours JEF would have seemed to be incessant, he was prac- tising the legal profession with activity and in- creasing success : he was the leading barrister in the Scottish courts, while he continued to vindicate his place as the first literary critic of his time ; and in his declining years, when literature had ceased to be for him anything more than an amusement, he gained, by his knowledge and acuteness and industry on the bench, an eminent reputation among the best judges that have administered the law of Scotland. He, too, the good lawyer and celebrated writer, was a singularly eloquent and effective speaker; fluent, refined, and masterly in public oratory, and in private society one of the most brilliant of talkers. In his writings, again, to say nothing of the variety of information in- volved in the diversified fields over which he ex- Eatiated, there is an admirable union and an armonious balancing of vigorous thought with impressive representation: gay and graceful wit, sometimes luxuriating too keenly to be good-na- tured, alternates with the natural expression of serious feelings which are always refined and not infrequently profound ; and an imagination almost fertile and original enough to have made him a poet, throws over all his writings a wealth of feli- citously illustrative imagery hardly ever employed to garnish so much of active and sagacious think- ing. Francis Jeffrey was born at Edinburgh in October, 1773. His father, a lawyer by profession, was one of the deputy-clerks or registrars of the Court of Session, the supreme law-court of Scot- land. After having passed six years at the High School of Edinburgh, he studied at the university of Glasgow for two sessions of six months each, and afterwards, in his eighteenth year, resided for a few months at Oxford. His youth was spent in industrious reading, which embraced classics, history, ethics, criticism, and the Belles Lettres: he was indefatigable in practising composition, and in early manhood wrote many verses. At the age of twenty-one, he was admitted to the Scottish bar, where, for not a few years, he was so little employed as to have full leisure for literary pur- suits. The first number of the Edinburgh Review, which contained five papers of Jeffrey's, appeared in October, 1802, when he was just twenty-nine years old ; and he became its editor after the first two or three numbers. The celebrity which the Review at once attained was owing more, in an incalculable degree, to him than to any other of the contribu- tors : the papers which he furnished to it were for many years very numerous, and were those on which its critical authority rested ; and his skill and industry in editing were very valuable. At first considerably open in its politics, the Review soon became decidedly Whiggisn ; and the Quarterly was established as a rival. But, for a good many years after this, its energy suffered no perceptible dimi- nution ; and the exertions of its editor were unre- laxed, in spite of the claims of a professional prac- tice, which was now becoming very great. In the meantime, in 1802, he had married a relation of his own, whom he soon lost, to the deep grief of a heart keenly awake to the domestic and friendly affections. In 1813 he married a grand-niece of John Wilkes, crossing to the United States to bring her home. In 1815 he became the occupant of the beautiful villa of Craigcrook, near Edin- 355 JEF bA which, improved by his fine taste, became a DUM of meeting for many of the most distin- guished persons in Europe. In 1816 Jeffrey's [Craigcrook Castle.] eloquence as a public speaker found for the first time an adequate field ; trial by jury, which had hitherto been confined in Scotland to criminal causes, being then extended to civil questions. From this time till he ceased to practise, he was the acknowledged leader of the Scottish bar. In 1820, and again in 1821, he was elected Lord Rec- tor of the university of Glasgow by the students, an honour which has since been cordially accepted by some of our most eminent literary men and statesmen. In 1829 his professional brethren au- thoritatively acknowledged his standing, by ap- pointing him Dean or President of the Faculty of Advocates. He immediately resigned the editor- ship of the Review, which had long been burden- some and undesirable. At this point his literary life may be said to close. During the twenty- seven years, he had contributed to the Review about two hundred articles. A new stage in his history opened with the accession of the Whigs to political power. In December 1830, he was ap- pointed Lord Advocate, an office which, besides many other duties, involves those of a secretary of state for Scotland. He necessarily entered parlia- ment, but too late for eminent success, being now in his fifty-eighth year, without adequate training for the peculiar arena, and with a voice already broken so far as to deprive him in a great measure of the advantages which had belonged to his powers of oratory. His chief speeches in the House of Commons were made in support of those measures of reform in parliamentary representation and civic government, which it was his official duty to in- troduce. In May, 1834, he was raised to the bench as one of the judges in the Court of Session, assuming, according to the Scottish fashion, the honorary title of Lord Jeffrey. He delighted in his judicial duties; and no man ever performed them better. The remaining years of his life were spent in peace and honour. Never was old age more kindly or more placid ; and, when the last scene arrived, the regrets of a whole community were poured on his grave. In 1841, an attack of bronchitis, the disease which had often distressed and at length destroyed him, compelled bin to seek repose for some months. In 1843 he pub- JEL lished, with unfeigned reluctance, three volum* containing selections from his 'Contribution! t the Edinburgh Review. 1 He died at Edinburgh o the 26th of January, 1850, leaving a widow wh survived him but for a very short time, and daughter, whose husband, Mr. Empson (also sim: dead), became the third editor of the Edmbwrg Review. [W.S. JEFFREYS, George, Lord, an English law yer, whose name, though he was a man derable ability, is better known by the infani than the capacity of its owner, was born in th year 1648. He was the sixth son of a moderate] wealthy country gentleman, unable to give hir more than a good education as a barrister, and h had thus to fight his way in the world a functio to which he brought abilities, perseverance, and a utterly unscrupulous nature. Until he ! tered his nerves by dissipation, he was not desti tute of courage, and he first obtained notice b attending an assize at Kingston during the plagu<i when other members of the profession were* fright ened away. He became recorder of London, an: gradually rose, until, in 1683, he became chiil justice of the King's Bench. In this capaefr after Monmouth's rebellion, he lent himselt mo: in the spirit of a savage chief than of an Englis! judge to the exterminating policy of the court, ar: his judicial condemnations obtained the charaij teristic name of Jeffreys' campaign. He was ini mediately rewarded with the office of lord bnjl chancellor, when he transferred his services to less sanguinary sphere. His wild recklessness demeanour, his dissipated life, and his unscrapi lous perversion of the judicial function in matters, mixed up with an able discharge of b duty in other questions, make a curious and vari> narrative in the memoirs of Jeffreys by Woolric: Conscious of danger, if not of guilt, at the Revohi tion, he disguised himself as a sailor, and lurk at Wapping to attempt an escape. A man, who he had terrified from the judgment-seat, reco nized his ferocious eyes glaring from a tavern wi dow, and gave the alarm. He was with difficul rescued from popular vengeance, and removed the Tower, where he died, on the 19th Apr 1689. [J.H.E JEFFREYS, Geo., an Eng. poet, 1678-1755! JEFFRIES, John, an Am. physic, 1744-181: JEGHEN, Chr., a Ger. engraver, 1578-1635 JEHAN-GHIR, Abul Muzakkf.k Nou*b deen Mohammed, emperor of llindostan, si and successor of Akbar, 1605, died, after a rri dist. by the encouragem. of art and litera., 1627 JEHOAHAZ, king of Judah, about 609 B.C. JEHOAHAZ, king of Israel, 848-832 B.C. JEHOIACHIN, king of Judah, about 594 b.< JEHOIAKIM, king of Judah, 608-597 B.tt JEHORAM, a king of Judah, 888-885 r.x. JEHOSHAPHAT, king of Judah, 913-888 B JEHU, a prophet of Israel, about 932 B.C. JEHU, a king of Israel, reigned 876-^ JEKYL, or JEKYLL, Sir Joseph, s \Y) lawver and statesman of the reign of George 1664-1738. His brother, Thomas, a < and author, dates unknown. Their descends Joseph, an eminent barrister, solicitor-general the prince of Wales, 1752-1837. JELAL ED DEEN ROUMI, a Per. poet, 18*1 356 JEL ijELGERHIUS, J., a Dutch paint., 1776-1836. JE.LLINGER, C, a Germ, theolog., 17th cen. JENISCH, Bernard, Baron De, a German lientalist, and historian of Persia, 1734-1807. IjENISCHIUS, P., a Flem. savant, 1558-1647. JENTSHID, or GIARNSCHID. See Djemchid. JENKIN, R., a learned divine, 1656-1727. JENKIN, W., a nonconfor. divine, 1612-1685. j.JENKINS, David, a famous judge and royalist, ,. of ' Reports and Polit. Tracts,' &c, 1586-1667. JENKINS, Henry, a native of Yorkshire, who >d in poverty when 169 years of age, 1670. JENKINS, Sir Leoline, a native of Glamor- inshire, ambassador at the Hague in the reign of carles II., and a distinguished civilian, 1623-85. JENKINSON. See Liverpool. JENKINSON, Anthony, an English gentleman [0 was sent out (1558-1559) to inquire into the nmercial resources of Central Asia. He was the it Englishman who crossed the Caspian, and s first person who in modern times has given an :ount of that sea. He reduced its dimensions longitude ; and made many other accurate deter- nations of geographical positions. JENKS, Benjamin, a clergyman of the Church England, author of ' Prayers and Offices of votion,' 1646-1724. JENNENS, Charles, a gentleman of fortune, >t suggestor of oratorios in England, died 1773. TENNER, Ch., an English poet, 1737-1774. JENNER, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., the dis- erer of vaccination, was born at Berkeley, in jucestershire, on the 17th of May, 1749. He t his father, who was vicar of Berkeley, early in !, and the direction of his education devolved jn his brother, the Rev. Stephen Jenner. He played at an early age a taste for natural his- y, and being destined for the profession of medi- e he was apprenticed to Mr. Ludlow of Sod- ry, near Bristol, a respectable provincial prac- ioner ; and subsequently removed to London in 70, where he became for two years a house pupil the celebrated John Hunter. On the comple- m of his education in London he returned to his live place, where he began business as a general petitioner, and soon acquired an extensive and ill-deserved reputation. In 1798, he made lit discovery with which his name is now per- mently associated, namely, that a pustular iption on the teats of cows, and supposed to be ntical with the disease called the ' Grease ' in : heels of horses, had such a relationship to the tter of small-pox, that if inserted into the man constitution it would be protected against it terrible disease. This great fact was an- unced publicly by Dr. Jenner in 1798, but it s coldly received, and both the public and the fession were extremely sceptical as to its truth, is now too firmly established to be shaken, j'Ugh the amount of protection is not so great as at one time supposed ; still the saving of hu- \n life from this discovery has been immense, |1 assuredly scientific medicine has never be- Iwed upon humanity a more precious gift than ice of vaccination. It was proposed to is distinguished physician by a grant of "it the House of Commons would only ), and even that with difficulty. It is lancholy to be obliged to state that Jenner's 357 JER life was embittered by the controversies to which his discovery led, and that an amiable, a virtuous, and an accomplished man, was disturbed by petty squabbles, to which his nature was utterly ab- horrent. He died on the 26th of January, 1823, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried on the 3d of February in the chancel of the parish church of Berkeley. _ [J.M'C] JENNINGS, Dr. David, a dissenting minister of great learning, author of ' An Appeal to Reason for the Truth of the Holy Scriptures,' and a pos- thumous work on ' Jewish Antiquities,' 1691-1762. JENNINGS, Henry Constantine, a celebra. collector of antiquities and objects of vertu and natural history, author of works connected with religious and philosophical inquiries, 1731-1819. JENSON, N., a French printer, 1420-1483. JENYNS, Soame, a country gentleman, known in the political world as a member of parliament, and partizan of Sir Robert Walpole, and distin- guished in literature as one of the most elegant and ingenious writers of his age. Besides poems, essays, and political tracts, he is the author of ' A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil,' published 1757, and 4 A View of the Inter- nal Evidence of the Christian Religion,' which be- came the subject of a considerable controversy, born in London 1704, died 1787. JEPHSON, R., an Irish dramatist, 1736-1803. JEPTHAH,ajudgeofthe Hebrews, 1243-37 B.C. JEREMIAH, one of the Jewish prophets, 630b.c. JEREMIAH, patriarch of Constantinople, 1572. JERNINGHAM, Edward, an English poet and dramatist, author of 'The Rise and Fall of Scandinavian Poetry,' &c, 1727-1812. JEROBOAM, the first of the name king of Israel, 962-943 B.C. The second, 817-776 b.c. JEROME, or according to his full Latin name, EUSEBIUS HlERONYMUS SOPHRONIUS, was bom of Christian parents at Stridon, a town of Dal- matia, about the year 331. After enjoying high educational advantages under his father, he was sent to Rome to prosecute his studies. On being baptized he made a tour into Gaul, and remained for a few years at Treves, carrying out his likings for Christian and ecclesiastical literature. On leaving Gaul, the probability is that he returned to Rome, and at Aquileia, in 370, he composed his earliest theological essay the first-born of a numerous progeny. Here also he formed his intimacy with Rufinus, a friend whom afterwards he so heartily abused. In 373 he carried himself, his library, and some friends to the East, passed through Thrace and the other provinces on his line of journey, and on his arrival at Antioch one companion died, and himself was visited with an alarming illness. This malady seems to have darkened his spirit, and deepened his resolution to live in cloistered solitude. Soon after he retired to a desert east of Antioch, and spent four years in ascetic torture, hard literary laoour, and self- education. His retreat was at length invaded by controversy, for Meletius and Paulinus fought for the pre-eminence in the church at Antioch, and he espoused the interest of the latter. In 379 he returned to Antioch, and was ordained a presbyter. The next year he visited Constan- tinople, where for three years he enjoyed the friendship and patronage of Gregory of Nazianzus. JER Flere he translated the Chronicon of Eusebius, and portions of the works of Origen. The contests at Antioeh still raged, and Meletius being dead, Pope Damasus summoned Paulinus and his party to Rome, in order to ascertain the bearings of the Suarrel. In the conferences held on the subject, erome officiated as secretary, and the pope became so interested in him, that he retained him in the Western capital, and urged him especially to the revisal of the Latin version of the Bible. But his passion for a monastic life led him to describe its virtues and glories in such impressive pictures, that the ladies of Rome were filled with his enthusiasm, and so much did the furor spread, that husbands, brothers, and fathers denounced Jerome, and the very populace insulted him. On the death of Damasus, his discretion prompted him to leave Rome, and he returned to the East in 385. There immediately followed him two wealthy devotees, the widow Paula, and her daughter Eustochium. With these ladies and their female attendants, Jerome travelled through the Holy Land, and having visited Egypt, he finally settled at Bethlehem, in 386, where Paula erected four religious establishments, three for nuns, and one for monks. This latter monastery Jerome go- verned for many years, and spent the remainder of his life in the composition of many religious works. In the great controversies of the period he bore no inactive share. The Pelagians, whom he had so bitterly castigated, were at length tempted to retaliate with secular hostility, and a band of them invaded his retreat, and so endan- gered his life, that he was obliged to spend two years in secrecy and exile. Safety being restored, he returned in 418 to his cell ; but his exhausted nature at length sunk amidst unceasing labours and mortifications, and he died at the age of ninety, on the 30th September, 420 The life of Jerome was a busy one. He wrote on almost every subject. Biography, history, theology, biblical translations, polemics, and commentaries on a very large portion both of the Old and New Testaments, kept him in incessant toil. His Latin style is pure and terse on the whole. He excelled all his con- temporaries in erudition. He wanted the glowing fancy of Chrysostom, and the serene temper and symmetrical intellect of Augustine, but he was beyond them both in critical skill and taste. His faults lie upon the surface ; a hot and hasty dis- position, wnich so resented every opposition, and magnified trifles, that in his towering passion, he heaped upon opponents opprobrious epithets and coarse invective. Haste, eagerness, and acerbity, appear also in his letters and expositions. His mode of life must have greatly aggravated this touchiness and irascibility, as it deprived him of the mollifying influence of society and friendship. His heart was estranged from human sympathies ; and save when lighted up by the ardours of his indignant passion, it was like his own cell, cold, gloomy, and uninviting. The works of Jerome will always maintain for him the esteem of Chris- tendom. There is in them a great deal that is baseless, fanciful, and one-sided, but very much that is useful and instructive in exegesis and theo- logy. In the Vulgate, the Old Testament was translated by him directly from the Hebrew, and the New Testament is a re vision of previous trans- JOA lations. The first of those works, great meritorious as it is, was received witli some i picions, under which the translator was very patient and fretful. The first edition of Jeroi work was that of Erasmus, Basel, 9 vols, fi 1516. The Benedictine edition appeared in 5 ^ folio, 1693-1706. The best edition is that of 1 larsi, in 11 vols, folio, which originally appei at Verona, 1736-1742, and was reprinted quarto at Venice in 1766-72, in 24 parts, usn bound in 11 volumes. ("J JEROME EMILIANI, a Venetian officer in Austrian service, afterw. arel. founder, 1481-1, JEROME of Prague, an intimate friem John Huss, and like him a martyr of the tS said to have copied the writings of Wickliff Oxford, and to have studied at the univeflJM Paris, Heidelberg, and Cologne. His career reformer dates from 1400 to his death at the s in 1415, and the scenes of his activity wer Bohemia, Poland, and Hungarv. He was a of great learning and dignity of manner, and' dured his fate so courageously as to e.x< ;: miration of his enemies, who have also testi to the superiority of his character. JEROME of Santa Fe, a Spanish Jew, markable for his conversion to Christianity, his writings against the errors of the Ji JERUSALEM, J. Fr. William, a Gerj divine, author of ' Letters on the Mosaic Reli[ and Philosophy,' on ' German Literature,' 1709-1789. The suicide of his son, ' Young jli salem,' suggested to Goethe the story of Wert JERVAS, Charles, an Irish portrait par who became fashionable as an artist. He ji, lished a translation of Don Quixote; died 173 JERVIS, John. See St. Vincent. JESSEY, Henry, an eminent clergyman i suffered imprisonment at the Restoration fo i nonconformity. He was a learned Ori<-. lar, and distinguished for his biblical knowl * Minister of St. George's, Southwark, during li Commonwealth ; died 1633. JESUA, Levita, a Spanish rabbi, 15th c(, JEUFFROY, R, V., a French gem and r 1: engraver, 1749-1826. JEWEL, John, bishop of Salisbury i of Queen Elizabeth, is distinguished as ablest and most eloquent writers ag Romish Church. His 'Apology for the C'liui i England' is the work by which he is be but he is the author of many controvert equally learned and judicious, and mosl are rendered agreeable reading by tin and antiquarian notices dispersed throi The most important of these is the co with Dr. Harding, arising out of a sermon preJi* by Bishop Jewel at St. Paul's Cross, and OH called his ' Challenge Sermon.' The works cwl eminent prelate have been recently publish!! the Parker Society. JEZZAR or DJEZZAR, a common MairM who rose to be pacha of Acre and S.tida. lb el the former place, under the direction of Sir Smith, against the whole force of Napoleonll was compelled to raise the siege 21st MftJ,H Jezzar died in 1804. JOAB, the general of King David, d. 100H JOACHIM, a relig. founder of Spain, 1130-W| 358 JOA JOACHIM, George, a savant of the Tyrol, st known as an astronomer, 1514-1596. [House of Joan of Arc] JOAN of Arc. The proper name of this roic and pure-hearted woman was Jeanne arc, and her birth-place the village of Dom- mi, on the borders of Lorraine. Here she first w the light in 1410, and being the child of poor .rents, she was inured to servitude, and acquired at extraordinary skill as an equestrian, which is afterwards so valuable to her, by riding the >rses to water. She was piously educated, and len about thirteen years of age as appears >m her own history, which is best collected from e process of her trial at Rouen she began to ive visions, and to be informed of her mission r the deliverance of France. In 1428-9, the es of all Europe were turned upon the city of leans, the siege of which was closely pressed the English, in alliance with the Burgundians, iile Charles VII., despairing of his throne, had sembled the deputies of the French towns still maining under his government, at Chinon, to liberate upon their approaching ruin. This was e critical moment chosen by Jeanne Dare, or ways pointed to, as she averred, by her celestial sitants, for the deliverance of her country. She esented herself to Baudricourt, the governor of e neighbouring town of Vaucouleurs, and manded to be conducted to the French court, issnasions, and the extreme danger of the umey were urged in vain, and in due course she rived at Chinon, inspired the phantom of a ig with a share of her own spirit, and was esented to the assembly. The popular enthu- ism rose to the highest pitch when Joan ap- ared at the head of the troops in armour, her autiful hair hanging in ringlets upon her onlders, her soldier's bonnet adorned with white ithers, and the sword of St. Catherine to point e way to victory. In due time, on the 29th of pril, 1429, La Pucelle entered the city of rleatis, and finally accomplished the strange of her early life by conducting the king Kheims, where he was crowned in her presence i the 17th of July. Here, according to all that 1 stated afterwards, her mission was ended, it Dunois, the French commandant, commonly Ued the bastard of Orleans, persuaded her to main with the army, as a consequence of which, JOA she was taken prisoner by the English at Com- peigne, after performing prodigies of valour, on the 24th of May, 1430. Her trial and condemna- tion on a charge of sorcery is one of the foulest blots in history, and is to be attributed, not to the English authorities only, but at least in as great a degree to the ecclesiastical party, headed by Pierre Cauchon, the bishop of Beauvais, who had a quarrel with Charles VII., and chose this method to revenge himself. It is pitiable to read in the process of her trial the exquisite mental torture to which this poor girl was subjected after being bound with iron chains by a crowd of subtle theologians, who had prepared their questions beforehand, with a view to entrap her into con- tradictions, in order to sustain the charge of demoniac intercourse. Her answers, however, were wonderfully consistent. She declared that her mission was from God, because she had been prepared for it for years past by celestial agents, the chief of whom were Saint Marguerite and Saint Catherine, who appeared richly clothed, and crowned, and always accompanied with a brilliant light. She called them her holy protectresses. To the question, how they could speak, being pure spirits, without members, she answered she knew not, it was the will of God ; she only knew that their voices were sweet, and their language beautiful, their counsel holy! It was again objected that they were mere appearances, with- out reality: 'Whether they be apparent or real,' said the heroine, 'I have proved them, and I Avould rather lose my head than deny their being. I am as sure of it,' she added, ' as I am of my faith in Jesus Christ.' She was asked what they advised her in regard to the process: she answered, 'To reply without fear.' 'Whether they hated the English?' She said 'They desired them to return to their own country.' One of her judges tried the purity of her imagination, by asking her if St. Michael had appeared clothed or naked. 'Think you,' she said, 'that God has not the means of clothing his spirits ? ' Such questions were multiplied and twisted into every variety of form, to disconcert her if possible, but she pre- served her dignity and modesty through all, and ended by an admonition addressed to the infa- mous Cauchon, ' Oui, je suis envoyee de Dieu yes! my mission is of God! You say that you are my judge. Have a care what you do, for you stand in great danger!' She knew her fate, as she told the earl of Warwick, who visited her in prison, and she was prepared to die whenever God pleased, but she would fain have returned to her father and mother, and kept their flocks again, and her sister and her brothers would have been so glad to see her! She was burnt alive, the virgin-martyr of French liberty, on the 31st of May, 1431, in the twenty-first year of her age, and it is remarkable that her dying predictions" in regard to the final expulsion of the English were literally accomplished. Jeanne Dare never shed any blood with her own hand, but rode into the midst of the enemy at the head of her troops, who followed her with unbounded confidence in her supernatural powers. [E.R.] JOAN of Naples. This accomplished and ill-fated princess was the daughter of Charles, duke of Calabria, and granddaughter of Robert, 359 JOA king of Naples, to whose authority she succeeded in right of her deceased father 1343. In order to unite the claims of the two branches of the house of Anjou, and secure the tranquillity of her reign, Kin;; Robert had married her to Andrew, youngest son 'of Carohert, king of Hungary, when they were both children. The match was not a ' happj ts, us one, cither for the princess or her subjects, Dy whom Andrew, a man of unamiable and gross disposition, was about equally beloved, and a conspiracy being formed against him, he was murdered in 1345. In 1347 the queen married her kinsman Louis of Tarentum, who had been her lover, and was the principal instigator of the conspiracy ; and the circumstances led to a war in which Charles III., duke of Durazzo, became a principal actor, and Avignon with its territory was ceded to the pope by Queen Joan. Louis survived these events till 1362, when Joan was married again to James of Arragon, and for a fourth time, in 1376, to Otho of Brunswick. Eventually, Charles of Durazzo usurped the throne of Naples, and caused the queen to be suffocated in 1381. The daughter of Charles, known as Joan II. of Naples, who succeeded to his ill-gotten power in 1414, and died 1435, was married successively to William, the son of Leopold of Austria (1404-6), and to James, count of La Marche (1415). She was a woman of profligate character, and no re- deeming virtues are recorded of her. Joan L, on the other hand, who possessed commanding talents, and governed her dominions with great skill, has had many apologists, and Laharpe has made her history the subject of one of his tragedies. [E.R.] JOAN, Pope, the subject of a scandalous story which relates that a woman was elected to the papacy under the name of John in the middle of the 9th century, and that she reigned for nearly two years and a-half, when she was taken with labour-pains in the way to the Lateran Basilica, and compelled to discover her sex. It is held by some that the story has been clearly disproved, but even grave historians assert that women of scandalous lives had great influence over the papal councils at that period, and perhaps there are few historical events truer than this story if it be understood by metonymy one thing being Sut for another not altogether unlike it. Pope oan is understood to have been an English woman, and to have acquired her reputation by teaching divinity, disguised in man's clothing. The first to mention this delectable piece of scan- dal was Marianus Scotus, a monk of the abbey of Fnlda, who died in 1086, and a full account of her life, attributed to F. Durant, was published at Geneva, in 1578. Its refutation, if it may be considered such, is due to the learned protestant David Blondel, who displeased the protestants thereby as much as he had gratified them by his book 'De Episcopis et Presbyteris.' In 1785, however, a work was published by Humphrey Shuttleworth, entitled ' A Present for a Papist, or the History of the Life of Pope Joan, proving that a woman called Joan really was Pope of Rome.' See John. [E.R.] JOANES, Vicentio, a Sp. painter, 1523-1579. JOASH, a king of Israel, 832-817 b.c. JOASH, a king of Judah, 870-831 b c. JOAZAR, high priest of the Jews, 614-630 B.C. JOH JOBELOT, J.F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 10'20-17( JOBERT, Louis, a Fr. antiquarian, 1637-17] JOCONDUS, John, an Ital. archit., 16th a JODELLE, S., a French dramatist, I JODRELLE, R. P., an En dramatist and crit au. of ' Illustrations of Euripides,' 174f> JOECHER, C. T , a Ger. historian, 1 JOECK, C, a Ger. map engraver, 17' JOFFRID, an abbot ot Croyland, si, be the original founder of Cambr. univer., 12th JOHANNOT, C. H. A., a Ger. pain., 1 > JOHN, the forerunner of the Saviour, coii menced his preaching to the Jews and baptizing S and was executed by Herod Antipas, 32. JOHN, the apostle and evangelist, commene preaching the gospel, shortly after the crucifixic in Asia Minor and among the Parthians. He * the first bishop of Ephesus, and the writer of t gospel kn. by his name and of the Apocal., d. ( JOHN, the first saint of the name, commor called Climachus or Scholasticis, was abbot' the monastery of Mount Sinai, and lived to the early part of the next century. Another 9 John was patriarch of Alexandria, and liv about 550-619. A third was a native of Provemj and founder of a monastic order, 1161-1213. | Jourth, surnamed ' De Dieu,' was a native Portugal, and celebrated as a founder of charital] institutes, 1495-1550. A fifth, commonly cal!| John De Santa Crusa, or John De Yepez," knov as the associate of St. Theresa in reforming t Carmelites, 1542-1591. And besides these, tj first pope of this name. JOHN, the name of several ecclesiastics a! prelates, the most celebrated of whom are Joi Scholasticus, patriarch of Antioch, a compij of canons, &c, died 578. John of Salisihk bishop of Chartres in 1164, author of a life| Becket, died 1182. John of Paris, a learnl Dominican and theological writer, died 13(, John of Ragusa, a popish prelate, known a public character and disputant against the Hi sites, about 1426-1443. John De Ciielin. popish bishop and reformer, 16th century. A John, bishop of Chiemsee in Bavaria, author ' Onus Ecclesise,' same period. JOHN I., elected pope 523, and sent ambassaci to Constantinople by Theodoric, the Arian king Italy, after which he was imprisoned and died confinement, 526. John II., reigned 533-5i; John III., 560-573. John IV., 640-642. Joi V., 685-686. John VI., 701-705. John VI i 705-707. John VIII., author of many lett< ! which are still preserved, 872-882. John Ll 898-900. John X., distinguished as a niiliti' leader by the conquest of the Saracens in Ital elected 914 or 915, imprisoned and put to dea' 928. John XL, elected at the age of twenty-fr, 931, died in prison 933. John XII., born 9c' elected 956, deposed on account of his debaucher 963, died 964. John XIII., rei-ned 965-9*1 John XIV., succeeded 964, died in prison 9*| John XV., elected and died 985. John XV succeeded 986, and died, after a pontificate of t years, disturbed by the pretensions of Cresceiitii who proclaimed himself consul, 996. Joi XVIL, elected and died 1003. John XVII reigned, as nearly as can be ascertained, 1004-lOf John XIX., 1024-1033. John XX. or XX; 360 JOH ceeded 1276, and died by an accident 1277. 01 XXII., author of works on medicine and ivmy, reigned 1316-1334. John XXIII., ted 1410, deposed 1415, died 1419. An [pope, named John XVIL, was inhumanly rdered, 998; and Pope Joan, whose story is sidered fabulous, is sometimes called John IX. OHX, king of England, youngest son of Henry born 1166, succeeded his brother Richard ur De Leon, and is supposed to have murdered ice Arthur, 1199 ; invaded France 1214, signed great charter 1215, died 1216. OHN, king of France, the first of the name, )sthuinous son of Louis X., born and died 1316. ix II.. son of Philip V., born 1319, succeeded 0, taken prisoner by the Black Prince at the ous battle of Poitiers 1356, died 1364. OHN, king of Jerusalem, and regent em- >r of Constantinople during the minority of iwin II., flourished 1204-1237. OHN I., emperor of the East, surnamed isces, succeeded 969, poisoned 975. John mmknus) II., son of Alexis Commenus, born 3, succeeded 1118, and died after a glorious n, 1143. John (Ducas) III., surnamed Va- s, born 1193, succeeded 1222, died after a n of thirty-three years, distinguished, by his piests and good government, 1255. John See Lascaris. John V. See Cantacu- us. John VI. and VII. See Pal^oi.ogus. I >HN I., kino; of Castile and Leon, born 1358, *eded his father Henry II. 1379, died 1390. in II., born 1405, succeeded his father Henry 1406, died 1454. OHN I., king of Portugal, born 1357, usurped throne 1384, died 1433. John II., born 1455, .eeded 1481, died 1495. John III., succeeded 1, died 1557. John IV., chief of the house Jraganza, born 1604, delivered his country from Spaniards and proclaimed king 1640, died 13. John V., born 1689, succeeded 1705, 1750. John VI., born 1767, became regent :onsequence of the mental incapacity of his her, the queen regent, 1793, returned to bL and took the title of emperor on the inva- of the French, 1808, succeeded his mother 5, returned to Portugal 1821, died 1826. 3HN I., king of Sweden, called John Sver- son, reigned 1216-1222. John II., same as l, king of Denmark. John III., born 1537, eeded 1568, abdicated 1592. )HN, king of Denmark, born 1455, succeeded ather, Christian I., 1481, king of Norway >, king of Sweden 1497, dethroned by the lies 1512, died 1513. )HN ALBERT, k. of Poland, reig. 1492-1496. [)HN of Austria, a natural son of the em- Y Charles V., distinguished in the service of 'ip II. of Spain at the bat. of Lepanto, 1546-78. l)HN of Gaunt, or Ghent, du. of Lancaster, 4 son of Edward III., and father of Henry IV., i| of England, born at Ghent 1340, died 1399 rince greatly distinguished himself in the ch wars, and acquired great popularity in Eng- as the patron of" Wickliffe. See Lancaster. )HN HIKCANAS, son of Simon Maccabaeus, n he succeeded as high priest and prince of Uews, B.C. 135, died, after a reign of 29 years, i iguishedby his victories and ref'urms, b.c. 106. JOH JOHN of Pisa, a dis. architect, 13th century. JOHN of Udino, an Italian painter, d. 1564. JOHNES, Thomas, a gentleman of Shropshire, distin. as a man of taste and letters, 1748-1816. JOHNSON, Ch., a dramatic wr., died 1748. JOHNSON, John, one of the nonjuring divs., known as a learned and religious wr., 1662-1725. JOHNSON, M., a painter, reign of James II. JOHNSON, M., an antiquarian, died 1755. JOHNSON, R., a grammarian, died 1720. [Birth-place of Samuel Johnson.] JOHNSON, Samuel, the son of a bookseller, was born at Lichfield in 1709. Beginning his studies at Oxford in 1728, he was obliged by poverty to retire after three years without taking a degree. He became successively, an usher in Leicestersliire, the drudge of a bookseller in Birmingham, and the head of a school established with some money he acquired by marrying, in 1736, a widow who was much older than himself, but to whom he was sincerely attached. The school speedily failed; and, in 1737, removing to London, Johnson entered on his long course of literary toil. His reputation rose very slowly : the greater part of his time was wasted, for many years, on desultory and occa- sional efforts ; he had an unhealthy constitution, and a strong tendency to hypochondriac melan- choly. For the twenty-five years during which he struggled for a livelihood, he had no leisure either for systematizing his knowledge, or for con- centrating his thoughts ; and when, at length, he obtained a small competency, he was already fifty- three years of age, with decayed strength and soured temper, and with a weariness of labour which made him too glad to enjoy in indolent re- pose the fame he had so hardly won. The works which, in these adverse circumstances, Johnson f>roduced, were celebrated beyond measure in the after half of his century ; and, though they add disappointingly little to our stock either of solid knowledge or of literary invention, they are extra- ordinary monuments both of vigour and originality in thinking, and of great though ponderous power of expression. During his long period of hard labour, the mere quantity of his writings was very great. A large proportion of them appeared in 361 jon 'The Gentleman's Magazine' or as pamphlets; and most of these are quite forgotten. His two Ewtacad satires, ' London,' and ' The Vanity of uman Wishes,' are striking specimens of reflec- tion and diction ; but neither they nor his tragedy of Irene ' entitle him to be considered as a poet. ' Rasselas,' written in a week to pay for his mother's funeral, is one of the most interesting and characteristic of his works. His two sets of periodical essays, The Rambler ' and ' The Idler,' are in no respect comparable to their models of Queen Anne's time. For eight years from 1747, Johnson's attention was chiefly engaged by his 'Dictionary of the English Language,' a work highly honourable to the author in the circum- stances in which it was produced, but possessing little of real philological value. In 1762, after having, though a devoutly religious man, refused to take orders, Johnson obtained, through Lord Bute, a pension of three hundred a-year. Not long afterwards he was received into the house of Mr. Thrale. He was thenceforth the dictator of a large society of accomplished persons, and the acknowledged chief of the literature of his day. In 1765 appeared his edition of Shakspeare, the preface to which, with all its shortcomings, is a very fine and instructive contribution to the philo- sophy of poetical art; his 'Journey to the Hebrides,' the liveliest of his writings, was pub- lished in 1775 ; and his ' Lives of the Poets,' the last of his works, appearing in 1781, is remarkable alike for its impressive composition, and for its mix- ture of valuable truth and strong prejudice in criti- cism. Johnson died in 1784, at his famous house in Bolt-Court. In 1790, his reputation was re- vived and extended by Boswell's ' Life.' This curious collection of sayings, the most minute re- cord that was ever taken down from any man's lips, is now generally held to convey a more favour- able impression of his real strength, both in thought and in language, than anything in the works which he wrote and published. [W.S.] JOHNSON, Samuel, a learned divine, famous for his zeal against popery, in the reign of James II., for which he underwent many penalties and cruel personal suffering; author of 'Julian the Apostate,' &c, 1649-1703. JOHNSON, Samuel, a dramatic writer and actor, au. of ' All Alive and Merry,' &c, d. 1773. JOHNSON, T., an eminent herbalist, d. 1644. JOHNSON, T., a classical editor, last century. JOHNSON, Sir W., an Irish officer, d. 1774. JOHNSTON, Arthur, a Scotch physician, distinguished as a Latin poet, author of ' Deliciaj Poetarum Scoticorum,' &c, 1587-1641. JOHNSTON, C, an Irish wr., au. of ' Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea,' died about 1800. JOHNSTON, John, a physician of Poland, distin. as a naturalist and historian, 1603-1675. JOHNSTONE, Bryce, D.D., a Scottish divine, author of a ' Commentary on the Revelation,' 1747-1805. His nephew, John, a Scottish min., and ed. of Dr. Johnstone's Sermons, 1757-1820. JOHNSTONE, Chevalier De, a military ad- venturer in the service of Charles Edward the Pretender, au. of ' Mem. of the Rebellion,' b. 1720. JOHNSTONE, G., a member of parliament, and political agent of the English government, author of ' Thoughts on our E. Ind. Acquisitions,' d. 1787. JON JOHNSTONE, James, a Scottish physicia and physiological inquirer, 1730-1802. His eoi John, a med. wr., and biogr. of Dr. Parr, d. 1831 JOHNSTONE, J. II., an Ir. actor, 17 JOINVILLE, John, Sieur De, a Fr. whose ' Life of St. Louis ' is one of the n able documents of the middle ages, 1228-1318. JOLIVET, Jean Baptiste Moyse, Cour De, a French statistician and financier, 1754-181! JOLLY, Alex., a Scotch prelate, 1755-1838. JOLY, Claude, a Fr. writer, au. of ' Maxim for the Education of a Prince,' 1607-1700. JOLY, Claude, a Fr. rel. writer, 1610-1678. JOLY, Guy, the confidential secretary and bio grapher of Cardinal De Retz, 17th century. JOLY, J., a Fr. poet and translator, d. 1840. JOLY, J. R. t a French historian, 1715-1805. JOLY, M. A., a Fr. comic writer, 1672-1753. JOLY, M. E., a French actress, 1761-1798. JOLY, Ph. L., a Fr. lexicographer, 1680-175c JOLY-CLERC, N., a Fr. naturalist, died 1817 JOLY-DE-BEVY, Louis Ph. Joseph, a Fi lawyer and theologian, author of ' Le Parlemen Outrage,' 1736-1822. JOLY-DE-FLEURY, W. F., a French juris: procureur -general after D'Aguissau, 1675-1756. JOMELLI, Nicolo, a celebrated composer an musician of Naples, 1714-1774. JON-ARESON, an Icelandic poet, 1484-1550 JON^E or JONAS, Runolph, an Iceland) scholar, author of philological works, died 1654. JONAS, a Jewish prophet, died about 761 b.< JONAS, Arngrim, a learned historian and ar tiquarian of Ireland, 1545-1640. JONATHAN, a high priest and leader of tl Jews, dist. in the war with Syria, killed 144 b.c. JONES, David, a Welch poet, died abt. 1780 JONES, Edward, a Welch musician, d. 1821 JONES, George Matthew, a naval office! au. of ' Travels in Norway, Sweden,' &c, JONES, Griffith, a Welch minister, by his zeal for religion and education, 1GS1-1761 JONES, Griffith, a miscel. writer, connect with Dr. Johnson and Goldsmith, 1721-1786. JONES, Henry, an Irish dramatist, d. 1770. JONES, Inigo, was born in London abo- 1572. He was patronised in early youth 1 William earl of Pembroke, who is supposed have sent him to Italy to study landscape paini ing: he took up architecture later, about 160j after his return. The little attention he paid this art in his first visit to Italy is shown j Crewe Hall, Cheshire, positively attributed Jones, and St. John's College, Oxford, or t Grotto at Wilton ; the first in what is called t Elizabethan style, and the latter, abortive attemj: at the classical. The Elizabethan, a modificati of the Renaissance imported from the L< Countries, supplanted the Tudor in England, t last remains of' ecclesiastical style, which had I come generally obnoxious after the persecutio against all such religious expressions by the Ii gent Somerset, and after the fires of Smithfiel yet in the comparatively distant times of Ini Jones, attempts at the Gothic were rare from i; difference or neglect, rather than from any re gious animosity. Jones was himself the grc, pioneer to the revival of classical taste in tl country, which was thoroughly established by I > /,, //// ' fyn< 'awuo' CSL4t>meZ3 JON |br )pher Wren, though both committed the jroi it inconsistencies of style in their own re- |cn ons of old buildings. Jones visited Italy a w time in 1613-14, and on this occasion fceif to have completely mastered the principles Italian Renaissance, as exemplified in the ailigs of Palladio and others, of which in White- l anqueting House we have a noble monument own production, but yet only a small frac- ioi f the magnificent palace, which report gives III js I. the credit of having wished to carry out , iortunitv afforded : the whole design of this ru royal palace may be seen in several sheets in V bell's 'Vitruvius Britannicus ;' it was to a^iad seven courts, and its extreme dimensions have been 1,152 feet by 720 feet ; a scale gniticence which perhaps may be termed isf ary, in spite of the experience of any age the time of the Roman emperors. The ulng at Whitehall was executed in the reign of a si., 1619-21 ; he was surveyor of works, and is appointed about the same time to restore h. len St. Paul's Cathedral, to which old Nor- m and Gothic structure he added some years ifl rards (1639) a Corinthian portico and other iftssance features, the whole of which, however, destroyed in consequence of the great fire of A Jones was but little more fortunate in St. I, s, Covent Garden; this absurdly overrated I ture, little better than a barn as regards any nental feature, was built for the earl of Bed- in 1631, and w;.s destroyed by fire in 1794, as faithfully restored by Hardwick in the Anng year: it is valuable as an example of sme simplicity and agreeable proportions, wich Hospital is another, and one of his successful works, erected by his nephew and law, Webb. Jones died in London in 1652, y. Webb, who married his only daugh- lublished some of his designs ; and a complete n of his works was published by Kent, 1770. s copy of ' Palladio,' with which he travelled ly, and containing his own marginal notes, is preserved in Worcester College, Oxford. Ipole, Anecdotes of Painters, &c, Bohn, >5 [R.N.W.] )NES, Jeremiah, a learned div., 1693-1724. )NES, John, an English divine, last century. )NES, John, a medical writer, 16th century. "TES, John, a Hebrew scholar, 1575-1636. IES, John, an American phys., 1729-1791. )NES, John, LL.D., a philological writer, minister of the unitarians, died 1827. JONES, John Gale, a celebrated political iter of the period of the French revolution, tinguished as a leading member of the London esponding Society, 1771-1838. TONES, John, a Welch lawyer and man of au. of a ' History of Wales,' &c, 1772-1838. TONES, John, a Welch antiq., 16th and 17th c. ffONES, Leslie Gkove, aid-de-camp of the ike of Wellington in the peninsular war, and mmandant of Brussels during the battle of aterloo, afterw. kn. as a poli. writer, 1779-1839. H^S, Owen, a Welch antiquary, 1740-1814. [JONES, Paul, a naval commander in the Iterest of the colonists during the American war [independence, was born at Selkirk, in Scotland, [36, and died in poverty at Paris, 1792. He 3G3 JON was a man of dauntless courage, and great ability as a sea captain, and was for a long period the terror of the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. His principal action was a combat off Flamborough head with the convoy of the Baltic fleet in 1779, in which he proved the victor, and captured the two frigates opposed to him. He was compli- mented for his success on this occasion by an invitation to Paris, where the cross of military merit and a sword of honour were presented to him by the king. The congress of the United States also voted him a golden medal for his services during the struggle for independence, but though his valour merited such an acknowledgment, it is difficult to find any trace of republican virtue in his conduct, unless an intense hatred of the English be esteemed such. At the conclusion of the war he entered into the service of the Russians, and retiring in disgust solicited a command from Austria and France, which, however, he did not obtain. 'Full of vanity,' says a French writer, ' he believed that only a king was worthy of such an admiral!' His career is at once an example and a warning, for it points to the unhonoured grave which awaits all those, whatever their present reputation and talents, who are led by their selfish passions, instead of principle, even in the path of glory. Paul Jones had neither the wisdom nor the ambition to adopt the country that he had so well served, and instead of the Washington of the seas, it is difficult to regard him in any other light than that of a bold buccaneer. [E.R.] JONES, Rice, a Welch poet, 1715-1801. JONES, Thomas, a Welch divine, 1756-1807. JONES, William, an em. mathe., 1680-1749. JONES, William, commonly called 'Trinity Jones,' or ' Jones of Nayland,' and well known for his public spirit and ability as a writer, was a clergyman of the Church of England, born at Lowick, in Northamptonshire, 1726, and appointed perpetual curate of Nayland, in Suffolk, where he went to reside about 1776. He was the intimate friend and biographer of Bishop Home, to whom in early fife he had presented the doctrines of John Hutchinson, of which they were both dis- tinguished advocates. His works are 'A Full Answer to Bishop Clayton's Essay on Spirit,' 1753 ; ' The Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity Proved from Scripture,' 1757 ; ' An Essay on the First Principles of Natural Philosophy,' 1762 ; 'Remarks on the Confessional,' 1764; 'Physio- logical Disquisitions, or Discourses concerning the Natural Philosophy of the Elements,' 1781; 'A Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Holy Scripture,' 1787 ; and, when the French revolution broke out, a series of tracts well known by their title of ' The Scholar Armed against the Errors of the Times ; ' and ' A Letter from Thomas Bull to his brother John,' written in support of government. His ' Memoirs of Bishop Home,' to whom he became private ch sip- lain after his elevation to the see of Norwich, were published in 1795, with an introductory exposition of the theological and philosophical doctrines of Hutchinson. Jones of Nayland was the original projector of the British Critic ; and besides his literary endowments was a great pro- ficient in church music He died in 1800. [E.R.] JON JONES, Sir William, whose researches in Oriental literature, and his surpassing genius as a translator from the Eastern languages, have ren- dered his name illustrious throughout Europe, was born in London, 1746, son of Mr. William Jones, an eminent mathematician, and devoted himself to the study of the Oriental languages while a stu- dent at Oxford. When twenty-four years of age, he translated the life of Nadir Shah from the Per- sian into French, and, in 1771, published a gram- mar of the Persian language, which still maintains its ground as a work of standard value. Between this period and 1783, when he received an appoint- ment as judge in the supreme court of judicature in Bengal, this laborious student published his commentaries on Asiatic poetry, written in Latin ; and we may here remark, that it is difficult to say whether his fine taste for poetical composition, or his extensive learning and philosophical insight, is the more admirable characteristic of his genius. On his arrival in India, he established an Asiatic Society for the purpose of collecting materials to illustrate the history, learning, and antiquities of the East; and as he succeeded in rallying the learned around him, the publication of their transactions commenced almost immediately. He died suddenly in the heat of this career, so new to English learning, in 1794; and his collected works, with a life by Lord Teignmouth, have since been published in an edition of 13 volumes 8vo. To Sir William Jones belongs the merit of a great originator, as well as that of an unrivalled linguist. Until his appearance, and the impetus given by him to the study of Asiatic literature, the English scholar might well blush for the little that had beer, achieved in that direction by our own coun- trymen. The encouragement, indeed, has been miserably small, compared with the necessities of the case ; and, at this moment, the officers of the Asiatic Society can tell us what volumes of invalu- able matter must remain buried in obscurity, even on their'own shelves, for want of funds. We ought to add, that Sir William Jones was an accomplished lawyer, a warm lover of freedom, and, as an Indian judge, indefatigable and irreproachable. [E.R.] JONG, L. De, a Dutch painter, 1616-1697. JONGE, N., a Danish geographer, born 1727. JONIN, G., a French poet, 1596-1638. JONSIUS, John, a German savant, 1624-1659. JONSON, Benjamin, was born at Westminster in 1573. His father, a Scotsman by descent, dying in his boyhood, the widow married a bricklayer ; and Ben Jonson is said to have been taken from Westminster school and obliged to work at his stepfather's trade. We read also of his having enlisted as a soldier, and served in the Low Coun- tries. On the other hand, the obscure accounts we have of his youth represent him as having studied both at Oxford and at Cambridge; and it is certain that, in one way or another, he had ob- tained a good education, and was especially a ripe and exact Latin scholar. He cannot have been much older than twenty, when, like so many men of genius in the later part of Elizabeth's reign, he attached himself to the theatres. He became an actor, but was a bad one ; and his life was chiefly spent in play-writing, amidst the fluctuations of success incident to that pursuit, and the alterna- tions of poverty with something little better, which JOR made up the history of almost every one of our dramatists. But his fame stood very 1 own time. In the most brilliant perio : speare's career, Ben Jonson was the who contested the palm with him; . whole history of the Old English drama, aqjH [The Globe Theatre ] Beaumont and Fletcher come nearer, or so near, t the excellence of the great master. Hi' ous, not graceful, a skilful and reflective artist rather than an impulsive or imaginative poet ; bu there is great force in his comic pictures of charac ter, and a striking pomp of eloquence in his tragi dialogue. In 1598, he exhibited his first success ful piece, the prose comedy of ' Every Man in hi Humour ; ' after several other plays, his dignifie< tragedy of 'Sejanus' appeared in 1603; ' Volpone a comedy in blank verse, abounding both in elo quence and poetry, was played in 1605 ; in 160S came ' The Silent Woman,' a comedy constructed with great regularity and admirable skill; and th roll of his good plays was closed in 1610, by th lively and energetic comedy ' The Alchemist. I; 1619, he was appointed poet-laureate. But hi later years were spent in poverty ; and his natura gloominess of temper was aggravated both by th failure of his popularity and by ill-health. H died in 1637, and was buried in Westminste Abbey. His uncompleted ' Sad Shepherd,' a pas toral drama, and many of his lyrics, show a deli cacy both of poetical feeling and of diction, beyon anything that appears in his other works ; and hi learning, especially in philology, is proved byseve ral prose dissertations. [W.S. JORAM, a king of Israel, 887-876 B.C. JORDjENS, J., a distin. Flemish painter, pupi of Adam Van Vort and Reubens, au. of many work- in the churches in the Netherlands, 1594-1678. JORDAN, Camille, a political orator an statesman of the French revolution, and member o the chamber during the hundred days, 1771 -1m.' JORDAN, C. S., a Prussian writer, 1700-1746 JORDAN, Dorothea, an eminent actress, born in the neighbourhood of V 1762, was the daughter of Captain Bland, gentleman. She adopted the stage for a as the means of support for her mother. Wales, with whom her father had elo] first appeared at Dublin in the character in ' As You Like It;' and afterwards gained con 364 jor le repute as a juvenile tragedian. Her next lent was at the York theatre ; where she for three years, and took the name of fordan, though never married, by which she was thenceforward known. Her debut Ion was in the part of 1'eygy, in 'The Girl ;' in which, and in Nell in The Pay,' she proved equally successful. Her business was now fixed ; but she also oc- ly appeared in the pathetic characters of Her celebrity betrayed her into an with a royal duke, with whom she for le resided in great splendour ; but (such icertainty of such connections) she died at |ud, 5th July, 1816, in poverty and obscurity, standing a long and brilliant theatrical The circumstances attending her seclu- mysterious. and are not cleared up by ideus biography, notwithstanding the Jmeans of information possessed by hiin. |, the impression left upon the mind by his re is, that Mrs. Jordan did not die at the id time stated ; but lived probably under name in England for seven years longer ; lich, a liquidation of her debts was pub- ivertised. Be this as it may, her theatrical ras one of the most illustrious; and her that natural sort which commands the on of the best judges. As a woman, too, seems to have been of the kindest, and lestic duties to have been performed with irv attention and devotion to the best in- of her family. [J.A.H.] iDAN, J. C, a Bohemian scholar, d. 1740. H DAN, Sir Joseph, an English admiral, Md a victory over the Dutch, 1672. DAN, T., a dramatic wr., time of Charles I. JhDANO. See Giordano. JtjDEN, E., an English chemist, 1569-1632. J<' DENS, G., a Dutch jurisconsult, last cent. J< NANDES, a Gothic historian, 6th cent. HUN, Dr. John, flourished about the mi of last century, having been born in 1698, .d ied 1770. He, and his patron Arch- il Herring, are fair exponents of the learning wctrrae of the Church of England, and of if irit by which it was animated at that ! Jortin was rector of St. Dunstan's in jst, and afterwards of Kensington, near Hi. He is the author of ' Discourses Con- Ik the Truth of the Christian Religion,' ' Re- rj upon Ecclesiastical History,' ' Remarks I the works of Erasmus,' ' Miscellaneous rations upon Authors, Ancient and Modern,' J various other criticisms and learned tracts. jiyate character was most estimable; and plic life marked in a high degree by indepen- integrity. This is saying a good deal llrinister of the Church of England in an age ^promise and difficulty, and such, it is well s the first generation or two which revolution of 1688. [E.R.] Kl'H,son of Jac.and Rachel, 2113-2003 B.C. ii I., emperor of Germany, born 1676, ngary 1689, king of the Romans 1690, | led his father, Leopold I., as emperor, 1705, *u711. Joseph II., son of the emperor, Ms I., and of Maria Theresa, born 1741, king uins 1764, emperor after the death of JOS his father 1765, but did not really govern until the death of Maria Theresa, when lie became king of Hungary and Bohemia, 1780, died 1790. Joseph II. was the brother of Marie Antoinette, and was remarkable for his ambition and activity as a reformer and statesman. JOSEPH, or JOSEPH EMMANUEL, king of Portugal, born 1714, sue. his father, 1750, d. 1777. JOSEPH-ALBO, a Spanish rabbi, 15th cent. JOSEPH of Exeter, a Latin poet who ac- companied Richard 1. to Palestine, au. of heroic poems on the Trojan war and the crusades, 12th c. JOSEPH, Meir, an Italian rabbi, 1496-1554. JOSEPH of Paris, or Father Joseph, whose proper name was Francis Le Clerc Du Trem- blay, an agent of Cardinal Richelieu, 1577-1638. JOSEPHINE, first wife of Napoleon Buona- parte, and empress of the French, was by birth a Creole, and was born at Martinique, 1763. Her maiden name was Marie Joseph RoseTacher- De-La-Pagerie, which she exchanged for that of Madame de Beauharnais, when she married the viscount of that name at the age of fourteen, for which purpose she was brought to France by her father, in terms of a previous betrothal. As the pretended memoirs of her life cannot be trusted, we omit the scandal connected with her residence at the court of Marie Antoinette, and simply record the fact that she became the mother of two chil- dren, Eugene and Hortense the latter of whom became queen of Holland. In 1787, her mother then suffering from illness, she returned to Marti- nique, and remained in the island till her safety was threatened by the insurrection, three years later, when she escaped to France, and rejoining her husband, who was a chief of the constitution- alists, made her house the rendezvous of the politi- cians and men of letters belonging to his party. The viscount de Beauharnais was executed under the ascendency of Robespierre in 1794 ; and Jose- phine, saved with difficulty by Tallien, met Napo- leon soon afterwards at the house of Ban-as, and was married to him in 1796. From that period till her divorce in 1809, her history is identified with the emperor's, not only personally but politi- cally. Passionately devoted to him as a man, his glory as a sovereign was also dearer to her than her own happiness, and the unbounded influence she exercised over him was never abused, as Napo- leon himself acknowledged, by a word of bad counsel. It had been predicted twice over, at Martinique and in France, that Josephine would be queen ; and as stormy scenes would sometimes occur be- tween her and the emperor, she has been heard to exclaim, ' They speak of your star, but it is my star that rules these events ! ' And, in fact, Buona- parte was greatly indebted to her political talents and her fascinating manners, if not for his elevation to the throne, at least for his welcome among the influential circles of Parisian society. Her divoreo was urged by the family of Napoleon, and by such statesmen as Fouche and Talleyrand, for the sake of an heir to the throne and the consolidation of the new dynasty ; and, when resolved upon, Jose- phine meekly retired to Malmaison, and was suc- ceeded by the Austrian bride of her husband. She saw the emperor for the last time in January, 1814 ; on the 4th of April he abdicated, and, on the 29th of the month following, Josephine breathed her last 865 JOS in the arms of her children. Like her husband, she was born for empire ; and he, however blinded by dynastic ambition, must have lived to feel that her divorce was as mistaken in policy as it was inde- fensible in principle, and cruel in the execution. It is singular, and only poetical justice to add, that Josephine, after all, should have given an heir to Napoleon in the person of her grandson, the present emperor, Louis Napoleon. LE.R.] JOSEPHUS, Flavius, the historian of the Jews, descended, on his father's side, from the high priests of his nation, and, on his mother's from the Asmonean princes, was born at Jerusalem in the year 37. He was remarkable from boyhood for the promise of those high qualities which he after- wards displayed as a commander and man of let- ters ; and after studying in every school of learn- ing, submitting himself to the initiation of the Essenes, and even mortifying his flesh in the desert, he attached himself to the Pharisees, and acquired a high reputation among them for his prudence and wisdom. After a visit to Rome at the age of twenty-six, to intercede for some of his country- men who had. been condemned, by Felix, he was appointed commissioner from Jerusalem to the dis- turbed district of Galilee, and shortly after be- came its governor Unable to prevent the internal dissensions which prevailed among the Jews from ripening into a revolt against the Romans, Jose- phus reluctantly undertook the conduct of a war of which he foresaw the issue, and for forty-seven days defended Jotapata against the whole force of Vespasian and Titus. After the fall of the city, Josephus saved his life by a stratagem worthy of Machiavel, and saluted his conquerors as the future masters of the world, the issue of the war, and the elevation of Vespasian and Titus, he avers, having been shown to him in dreams. He accom- panied Titus to the siege of Jerusalem, and endea- voured to act as mediator, but was repulsed by his countrymen as a traitor Finally, he lived in hon- our at Rome, and is supposed to have died about the year 95. The works of Josephus are his ' Jewish Antiquities,' the defence of his history 4 Against Appion,' ' The Martyrdom of the Maccabees,' and his noble ' History of the Jewish Wars,' which is that of an eye-witness of all he relates Besides these, which are among the most interesting and valuable remains of antiquity, he wrote his own ' Life,' the public portion of which is further am- plified in the ' Wars.' We learn from the former that he was thrice manned, first, at the instance of Vespasian, to a captive virgin, who soon afterwards left him ; second, to a lady of Alexandria, whom, he says, ' I forsook, because her manners pleased me not, although she was the mother of my three children ! ' and, thirdly, to a native of Candy, ' en- dowed with as laudable manners as any other wo- man whatsoever.' Opinions differ as to the reli- ability of some things that Josephus relates, but in matters personal, his disclosures are as candid as they are edifying. The politic shrewdness of Jacob, the learning of the ancient priesthood, and the valour of his ancestors, the Maccabees, were all united in him. It is no slight proof of his worldly wisdom, that he survived the destruc- tion of his people, the last unexceptionable Jew of the whole race. [E.R.I JOSEPIN, a painter of Naples, 1560-1640. JUA JOSHUA, the successor of Moses u mil chief and leader of the Jews, abt. 1534-149 JOSI, Henry, a connoisseur in art, late k< of the prints in the British Museum, JOSIAH, a king of Judah, 639-6 JOSQUIN-DEPROZ, a Flem. musi< ian, 15 JOUBERT, Bartholomew Cathajm general of the French republic, born 17G9, I at the battle of Novi when fighting again* Russians under Suwarrow, 1799. JOUBERT, F., a learned Fr. priest, 1689-1 JOUBERT, L., a Fr. med. writer, 15299 JOUFFROY, J. De., a Fr. cardinal, d. 14! JOUFFROY, Theodore S., a Fr. philosoi translator of Reid and Dugald Stewart, and thor of ' Lecons sur le Droit Naturel,' 1796-H JOUFFROY D'ABBANS, Cl. F. I).. De, a French mechanician and capt. of infiu to whom the Academy of Sciences has awi the honour of having first applied steam to i gation, contrary to the received opinion in ] land and America in favour of Fulton, 1751-1 JOUIN, A., a Jansenist and poet, 1081-17. JOURDAIN, Alphonse, count of Touli and founder of the city of Montauban, 1103-1 JOURDAIN, Amable L. M. Michel B ellet, a French dentist, afterwards an Orii scholar, author of * Tableau de L'Histoire Gouvernement, de la Religion, et de la Litten de la Perse,' 1788-1818. JOURDAIN, F. C , a Fr. arohjeo., 1690-1! JOURDAN, A. J. L., a Fr. jurist, 1791-H JOURDAN, Jean Baptiste, a general ol French revolution, born 1762, appointed go of division 1793, general-in-chief of the am Italy, and marshal of France, 1803-1804, los battle of Vittoria, fought in support of Jos. Bn parte, 1813, gov. of the 'Invalides,' 1830. d. 1 JOURDAN, Mathieu Jouve, comn called ' Jourdan Coupe Tete,' a monster in man shape, who became a leader of brigands murderers during the French revolution, am ercised supreme power at Avignon till the ai of the republican forces under Choisi and Di martin, 1791, executed 1794. JOUSSE, Daniel, a Fr. lawyer and mi matician, au. of ' Traite de la Sphere,' &c, 17(M JOUVANCY, J , a Jesuit hist., 1643-169C JOUVENET, J., a French painter, 1644-1 JOVELLAKOS, Gaspar Melchior D distinguished literary savant, statesman, and matic poet of Spain, born 1744, minister of jn 1799, killed in an insurrection, 1812. JOVIANUS, Flavius Claudius, born succeeded Julian the Apostate as emperor of R and restored Christianity 363, died 364. JOVINIAN, an Italian reformer, 4th cento) JOVINUS, a native of Gaul, consul of I 367-370. His grandson, of the same name, tained the title of emperor 411, killed 412. JOVIUS, Paul, an Italian hist., 1483-15S JOY, Rt. Hon. H., an Irish judge, 1767-1 JOY, JOYE, or GEE, John, a biblical sch dist. as a promoter of the reformation, d. 1561 JOYCE, J., a miscel. writer, 1764-1816. JOYNER, W., an English poet, 1622-1706 JUAN of Austria. See John of Aust JUAN of Austria, a natural son of P IV., king of Spain, dist. as a general, 1629-K 366 JUA MAN Y SANTACILIA, Don George, or DQ JORGE JUAN, a Spanish mathematician jligineer, 1712-1774. iLfBA, the first of the name, king of Numidia, gjfleded his father Hiempsel, r,.c. 50, joined gjb and Cato against Caesar 49, died by his dflhand when the cause was lost by the defeat dttiapsus, B.C. 46. The second of the name, 3Jnd successor of the preceding, was led a cap- ma Caesar's triumph, but afterwards made king JKsoritania, and married to the daughter of Jlaira and Antony. He distinguished himself Jfcturalist, historian, and philoso., d. A.n. 23. J?PE, Augustus, a Fr. historian, 1765-1824. 1|DA, Leo De, a Ger. reformer, 1482-1542. "DA, Hioug, a Jewish rabbi, 11th century. ijJDAH, the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, and Jfather of the existing race of Jews. IJJ DAH HAKKADOSH, or the holy, a learned M, born in Galilee about 120, distinguished as Wounder of the school of Tiberius, and as the Ufler of the Mishna, died 194. DAS LEVITA, a Spanish rabbi, 1090-1140. JDAS MACCABiEUS, a valiant leader of the H in the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, ; his father Mattathias, in the line of the Alonean princes, B.C. 166, fell, heroically fight- Ugunst overwhelming numbers, b.c. 160. L'DITH, a heroine of the Jewish nation, whose - recorded in the well-known book of that n e, the date and the authorship of which are bi uncertain, but which probably dates after t] Babylonish captivity. UEL, Nicholas, a Danish admiral, 1629-97. UENIN, G., a French theologian, 1650-1713. UENIN, P., a French historian, 166- -1749. UGLARIS, A., an Italian Jesuit, died 1653. UGLER, J. F., a Ger. philologist, 1714-1791. UGURTHA, a king of Numidia, vanquished b he Romans and starved in prison, 106 b.c. i ULIA, a martyr of Carthage, killed 440. ULIA, the only daughter of the emperor Au- fltus, and wife of Marcellus and Agrippa, equally cibrated for her beauty, her debaucheries, and llgenius, starved to d. by order of Tiberius, 14. ! I LI A, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina, fi a victim to the intrigues of Messalina, 17-41. ULIA, a daughter of Julius Caesar and Cor- ifa, and wife of Pompey the Great, d. B.C. 53. if ULIA DOMNA, second wife of the emperor Jferus, and mother of Caracalla and Geta, dist. jghe patroness of arts and letters, 170-217. JULIAN, an Italian theologian, 5th century. PULIAN, a Spanish prelate and theologian, and hint of the Roman calendar, died 690. JULIAN, Flavius Claudius, emperor of '.me, nephew of Constantine the Great ; famous because of his effort to re-establish the : paea and worship of Paganism 5 hence named ' Apostate. He was born at Constantinople in 1, and died at the age of thirty-two, of a wound leived near Ctesiphon, in the midst ot his con- t with Sapor, king of the Persians. The life of a remarkable person was altogether singular, laping death, always imminent during his lier years, chiefly through protection of the icurity to which the jealousy and avarice of his isin, the possessor of the purple, had doomed Q, he grew up a philosopher, first instructed by JUL Christian bishops, and then an attached pupil of the school of Athens. The necessities of Con- stantius recalled him to the capital, and procured his adoption as Caesar: but, naunted by guilty terrors, the Emperor virtually banished him to Gaul, under guise of assigning him that exhausted and perturbed region as a Province. In a position thus inauspicious, the extraordinary military and administrative talents of Julian first burst forth. Repression had not broken the spring in him ; neither had a life of study unfitted him for action. He restored discipline, consolidated and inspired the legions, overthrew the Germans and pacified Gaul. Deprived of his government by the sleepless enmity of Constantius for the hatred of the timid is never asleep he was proclaimed Augustus by the soldiery, and had just entered on civil war, when the death of his unworthy relative opened his path to the throne. Then Julian began the work for which he imagined that Fate had pre- pared him, a work in itself impracticable ; and the attempt to perform it involved him in contro- versies so bitter, and actions so questionable, that it would have been vain now to attempt to disen- tangle his motives, even had the history of these times been much more reliable than any early history is. It is alleged that he revolted from the unjust repugnance of the Church to Philo- sophy as such, and hated its intolerance. Unfor- tunately, the early Church was intolerant, and had learnt too soon the process by anathema . and it is equally true, that intolerance was especially foreign alike to the religion of Rome, and the philosophy of Athens ; the first having ever ad- mitted without scruple, new gods to seats on its Olympus ; and the latter, inspired by the Alex- andrines, endeavouring at that period to discern the secret meaning of all forms and modes of Mythology, resolving them into symbols But if Julian had been moved solely by a respect for liberty, he would have remained firm by his earli- est measures viz., the restoration of the old gods, and the equal protection of their worships. On the contrary, he persecuted those he blamed as persecutors, closed their schools, and launched into all the excesses of reaction. The great and catholic moral pointed by his history is this no Power can revive in this world, that which ev-n a revolution has destroyed. The destruction of ancient systems, although by apparent vio- lence, is never possible, unless new moral elements, and forces, have been born and risen into efficiency, in other words, until these systems have ceased to represent the life of the world, and become unfit to evolve the future. In matters of Religion especially, reaction can, on this account, replace the form only : the faith has gone, and the husk the ceremony and the dogma can never be propped up as a verisimilitude. Julian had much activity, and as already stated, singular administrative skill; but the weakness inherent in every Reac- tionist, passed with him too, into its usual, if not- unfailing issues fanaticism and frenzy. [.T.P.N.] JULIANA, a woman of remarkable talents and military courage, who possessed great influence at the courts of the Mogul emperors of Hindostan. She was the daughter of a Portuguese named Augustin Dias D'Acosta, and was born in Bengal, 1658. Died 1733. 367 JUL JULIANA, a devotee of the reign of Edward III., who immured herself in a stone cell at Nor- wich, and having suffered from extreme mortifica- tion, wrote a book of devotion entitled ' Sixteen Revelations of the Love of God,' containing an account of her visions, or the ' Showings ' by which her reflections were illustrated. The MS. of this work was preserved by the monks, and pub- lished by a learned catholic named Cressy, in 1670, who could discover nothing concerning her history beyond the hints which are scattered through the work itself. It appears, however, that she was about thirty years of age when the principal of her visions occurred, in the year 1373, and that she was severely tempted, and deeply experienced in what the mystics regard as the spiritual life. Her book was reprinted in the quaint language of the period in which it was written, by G. H. Parker, in 1843. The most interesting of her visions is one of the Virgin Mary, which Juliana has related with an artless- ness and sense of wonder which it is impossible to accuse either of insincerity or extravagance. [E.R.] JULIEN, P., a French sculptor, 1731-1804. JULIEN, S., a Swiss painter, 1736-1799. JULIO ROMANO. See Romano. JULIUS, the^rs^ of the name, pope of Rome, a partizan of Athanasius, and a saint of the Ro- man calendar, reigned 337-352. The second, one of the most unscrupulous political intriguers that ever occupied the papal cnair, distinguished as a soldier and a magnificent patron of arts and letters, born 1441, reigned 1503-1513. The third, in whose time the council of Trent was re-opened, reigned 1550-1555. JULY AT, Fleury, a French poet, 16th cent. JUMELIN, J. B., a French chemist, 1745-1807. JUNCKER, Chr., a Ger. philolo., 1668-1714. JUNCKER, G. H., a Ger. med. wr., 1680-1759. JUNG STILLING. See Stilling. JUNGE, Joachim, a native of Lubeck, eminent as a math, and natural philosopher, 1587-1657. JUNGER, J. F., a Germ, dramatist, died 1797. JUNGERMANN, Godfrey, a Ger. translator and commentator, died 1610. His brother, Louis, a botanist, 1572-1653. JUNIUS, Adrian, a Dutch savant, 1512-1575. JUNIUS, Francis, a French scholar, professor of divinity at Leyden, and fellow-labourer with Tremellius upon his Latin version of the Old Tes- tament, author of commentaries and theological works, lf45-1602. His son, of the same name, born at Heidelberg, em. as a philolo., 1589-1677. JUNKER, G. A., a German Jesuit, 1716-1805. JUNOT, Andoche, a marshal of the French empire, and duke d'Abrantes, born 1771, entered the army as a volunteer 1791, distinguished at the siege of Toulon 1793, general of division in Egypt 1801, governor of Paris 1804, commander of the army in Portugal 1806, lost the battle of Vimiera, and compelled to capitulate, 1808, after- wards gov. of the Illyrian provinces, and d. 1813. JUNOT, Laura Permon, wife of the preced- ing, and duchess of Abrantes, distinguished as a novelist, but chiefly by her ' Memoirs,' 1784-1838. JURAIN, Cl., a French antiquarian, died 1618. JURET, Fh., a French poet, 1553-1626. JURIEU, Peter, a famous protestant theo- logian, bom at Men, in the Orleannais, 1637; JUS died at Rotterdam, where he occupied a chn theology, and was pastor of the Walloon ih 1713. He was a great partizan of William and engaged protestants and catholics in coi versy with about equal animosity. The abtl his works is a ' Critical History of Doctrines Modes of Worship.' JURIN, James, an English physician, dig as a mathematician and natural philos., 1684-] JURINE, L., a Swiss naturalist, 1751-181 JUSSIEU, Antoine De, an eminent bota was born at Lyons in 1686. He died in 1758. possessed an extensive knowledge of botatf rilled the situation of professor of that MjH the Jardin du Roi at Paris. JUSSIEU, Bernard De, a celebra tanist, and a younger brother of the above, also bom at Lyons, in 1699, and died in 1777, derived his taste for botany from his brother, through his interest was nominated, in 1722 tanical demonstrator at the Jardin du Roi. 1 XV., wishing to make an extensive botanical den at Trianon, intrusted the execution and si intendence of it to Bernard de Jussieu. He left behind him very few writings, but he n theless exercised a great influence upon the t of botany in France; and his arrangement o: plants cultivated in the garden of Trianoi shown by his catalogues, proves that he had i menced practically demonstrating the na method so beautifully and fully carried out i wards by his celebrated nephew. [ \\ JUSSIEU, Antoine Laurent De, ne] of the above, and upon whom his uncle's m seems to have fallen, was bom at Lyons in ] He died in 1836. He was appointed, in ] assistant to Lemonnier, the professor of bot and, in 1777, obtained the general administr of the Jardin du Roi. In his lectures, and ii memoir of the new arrangement of plants ii royal garden, he explained for the first time cl and with precision, the fundamental principl the natural method of arrangement of plants, in 1789, he published his ' Genera Plantarui work which employed him four years in brin out. In this excellent work, he has earned satisfactorily the first principles of the na classification of his uncle Bernard, and the found and sagacious manner in which he has plied these principles to the institution of natural families has caused the Jussieuan m to be adopted by almost all botanists throug the world. In 1793, when the royal garden remodelled, and became the Jardin des Pla Jussieu was appointed professor of rural bot and afterwards was chosen by his colleagTOj director and treasurer of the museum of NJ History. Like his uncle, Bernard, he had be< almost totally blind for some years before death. [W JUSSOU, H. C., a Ger. architect, 1754-18 JUSTEL, Christopher, a French sa\ and ecclesiastical antiquarian, whose works i trate the history of France in the middle i 1580-1649. His son, Henry, editor of some c father's MSS., 1620-1693. JUSTI, John Henry Theophilus, a Ger mineralogist, author of a 'Treatise on Money, Mineralogy,' ' Chemistry,' &c, 1720-1771. JUS STIN, surnamed ' The Martyr,' but anciently Philosopher,' was born about the beginning oiie second century, of pagan parents, at Flavia polis (Naplous), the ancient Shechem or Sy- in Samaria. He was brought up in the re- lijin of his parents, and studied in succession the He, Peripatetic, Pythagorean, and Platonic phi- I pay. But none of them fully satisfied his iJkss and inquisitive mind, though the last mtHj inflated him. Meeting with an old and T&able Christian in one of his solitary walks by Iflsea-side, he was surprised by the conversation, |rn his own ignorance of many things, and d to read the Hebrew Scriptures. This in- wiew led at length to his conversion., when he -J still but a young man. His subsequent life id spent in the earnest diffusion of the faith Jch he had embraced. He visited Alexandria, J was no stranger in Rome. He suffered death er Marcus Antoninus, in a.d. 165 or 166 ; and jisually recorded, his prime accuser was a Cynic ]josopher of the name of Crescens. The mode opis martyrdom is uncertain; some affirming tfc he was scourged and beheaded, and others u- he was put to death in secret. The best ijks of Justin are in the form of apologies one, dbably in a.d. 150, addressed to Antoninus 1b, and a second to Marcus Aurelius about the jt 164. The ' Dialogue with Trypho the Jew,' aract, the genuineness of which nas been un- spessfully attacked, is a defence of Christianity ainst Jewish assaults and prejudice, and is founded rjn a personal discussion. The argument is own from the types and prophecies of the Old Itament, but the interpretation is often fanciful a inexact. Doubts are entertained about the auineness of other works ascribed to him, such he ' Oration,' and ' Cohortation to the Greeks,' t| famous Epistle to Diognetus, and the tract Monarchy of God.' Some other spurious tttises are assigned to him, and many of his uips have been lost. As Justin continued to Y the garb of a philosopher, so he never re- the philosophizing spirit. His Platonic lions gave peculiar colouring to his views and f many Christian doctrines, and some of 1 arguments were not learned in the school ot ties. His erudition, however, is always it to Christianity; but his style is often kei though expressive. His works in whole N in parts have often been published. The !P P nnce ps was published by Robert Stephens, Iris, folio, 1551. A better editio appeared under J care of Maranus, Paris, 1742. Thirlby pub- ed the Dialogues, London, 1722, in a tall and Hdsome folio, and the last and best edition, jped by Otto, was issued from the press at Jena, volumes 8vo, 1844. The separate pieces been reprinted, and not a few of them ie been translated into English. Useful informa- on the life, times, and theology of Justin, may W>t in Bishop Kaye's 'Writings and Opinions ' lartyr,' Cambridge, 1829, and especially Hwo German works of Semisch on the subject, at Hamburg, 1842-1848. [J.E.] TIN, a Roman historian, 2d century. I., emperor of the East, born 450, iceeded Anastasms 518, made Justinian his eague in the empire, and died 527. JUS . JUSTIN II., son of Vigilantia, sister of Justi- nian, sue. the latter, 565, died in retirement, 578. JUSTINIAN I., emperor of Constantinople, was the son of a farmer, and of the sister of Justin, who from entering the army as a simple soldier, had become emperor, and was succeeded by his nephew, then in the forty-fifth year of his age, 527. Some months before the death of his uncle, Justinian had persuaded him to consent to his marriage with Theodora, a well-known actress and courtezan, who was declared Augusta, and crowned the same day as her husband. About the same time, Belisarius, the friend and future general of the new emperor, was married to Anton- ina, a professional companion of Theodora; and to the intrigues and jealousies stirred up by these two women is to be attributed the principal part of the untoward circumstances which have cast a stain on the personal character of Justinian. The political events of his reign may be summed up in the wars of Belisarius and the eunuch Narses, who obtained splendid successes over the Persians in the East, and the Vandals and Goths in Italy, and in the terrible sedition which broke out at Con- stantinople in 532, and was extinguished in the blood of thirty thousand persons. In the latter case, Justinian would have fled from his capital, and in all probability have lost his crown, but for the courage and talents of Theodora, whose vices were gilded by some of the rare qualities befitting an em- press. The glory of his reign is the famous digest of the Roman law, known generally as the Justinian Code, which was compiled out of the Gregorian, Theodorian, and Hermogenian codes, by ten of the ablest lawyers of the empire, under the guid- ing genius of the jurisconsult, Tribonian. Their labours consist 1. of the ' Statute Law,' or Justi- nian code, properly so called ; 2. the ' Pandects,' a digest of the decisions and opinions of former ma- gistrates and lawyers, these two compilations con- sisted of matter that lay scattered through more than two thousand volumes, now reduced to fifty ; 3. the ' Institutes,' an abridgment, in four books, containing the substance of all the laws in an ele- mentary form ; 4. the laws of modern date, includ- ing Justinian's own edicts, collected into one vol- ume, and called the ' New Code.' These labours, which a Caesar had not been able to accomplish, were completed by the year 541 ; and we can only lament that Christianity was not in its prime at that epoch, whereby the spirit of natural right and equity had been infused into them, in place of the dogmas of authority. Besides this important work of imperial reform, Justinian was a great builder and engineer, and works of public utility were kept constantly in progress in all parts of the em- pire. He was remarkable for temperance and chastity, and not less so for his great learning and diligent application to business ; but his religious bigotry, and his weakness in the hands of Theodora, marred all his good qualities. Died in the eighty- third year of his age, 565. [E.R.] JUSTINIAN II., surnamed ' Rhinotmetus,' be- came emperor of the East on the death of his fa- ther, Constantine, 686, when he was about sixteen years of age. He was deposed and banished for his cruelty, by his general, Leontius, 695 ; regained his throne ten years afterwards, and, exhibiting the same ferocious disposition, was assassinated, 711. J 2B JUS JUSTINIANS, The, or, GIUSTINIANI of Venice, descended from the emperors of that name, form a long roll of famous names. The prin- cipal of these are Lorenzo, or St. Laurent, the first patriarch of Venice, a man of remarkable pub- lic and private virtue, author of sermons, letters, and ascetic tracts, 1380-1465. Leonardo, his younger brother, distinguished as an Oriental scholar and poet, procurator of St. Mark, 1388-1446. Ber- nardo, his son, procurator and member of the council of ten, author of a life of Lorenzo Giustinian, and of letters and speeches delivered by him on various occasions, 1408-89. Bernardo, uncle of the latter, a learned ecclesiastic and dignitary of the order of St. George, author of a History of the Military Orders,' published 1692. Sebastian, ambassador to England in the reign of Henry VIII., 1515-1519. Orsatto, a Greek translator and poet, 1538-1603. Pompeius, a celebrated general and historian of the Flemish wars, 1569-1616. Marc-Antonio, elected doge of Venice 1684, died, after sustaining a war with the Turks, 1688. Nic. -Antonio, a learned theologian, who became bishop of Padua, and edited an edition of Athana- sius, and a chronology of the bishops of his see, 1712-1796. Angelo, proveditor of freviso when the state was invaded by Buonaparte in 1797. [E.R.] JUSTINIANS, The, or GIUSTINIANI of Genoa, assumed the name without the right of descent. The principal of the family are Augus- tin, bishop of Nebo, or Nebbio, and the most learned man of his age, 1470-1536. Jerome, a tragic writer, born about 1560. Horace, a learned car- dinal, risen from a poorer branch of the family, died at Rome 1649. Michel, a learned ecclesi- astic, author of many works left in MS., 1612- 1680. Vincent, a famous connoisseur, whose collection of engravings forms the ' Giustinian Gal- lery,' published 1640. Fabio, a learned prelate, adopted into the family when a youth, 1579-1627. KAL The name occurs in other parts of Italy bes Venice and Genoa; of these we may men Giovanni, a native of Candy, distinguished i poet, died about 1556 ; and Lauren i renzo, a professor at Naples, author of aijfl works, &c, 1760-1825. JUVARA, F., a Sicilian architect, 1685-fl JUVENAL, Decius Junius, a celebrated man satirist, was born at Aquinum, in Camps at the beginning of the reign of Claudian. first satire being directed against Paris, a favoi of Domitian, Juvenal was exiled to Eg pretence of an appointment, and died there a advanced age, 128. Only sixteen of his MflH main, most of which are considered masteM of that class of writing. They have been trail by Dryden, Gifford, and others. JUVENAL, the name by which a gramma named W. Jouvenneaux is known, abt. 1460-1 JUVENAL, or JOUVENAL DES URSIN French statesman who owed his elevation to re ing Charles VI., born about 1350, died 1431. son, of the same name, archbishop of Rheims, historian of Charles VI., died 1473. JUVENCUS CAIUS VECTIUS AQUILEN one of the earliest Christian poets, b. in Sp., 4 JUVENEL, F., author of a ' History of Crusade under the Pontificate of Urban II ' History of the Moors in Spain,' and a ' Hi* of the Popes,' 17th century. JUXON, William, successively bishop of B ford, bishop of London, and archbishop of Car bury, was a prelate of great learning, chief!] membered for his fidelity to Charles I., whoi attended at the Isle of Wight, and whose last quests he received on the scaffold. He is the an of a sermon, entitled 'The Subject's Sorrow Lamentation on the Death of Britain's Josiah, ] Charles,' published 1649, and ' Some Consider* upon the Act of Uniformity,' 1662, Died 16( K KAAB. See Caab. KAAS, Nicholas, the principal of the four re- gents appointed to govern Denmark during the minority of Christiern I., born 1535, chancellor 1573, regent 1588, died 1594. KAAU-BCEBHAAVE, Abraham, a Dutch anat. and phy., nephew of the illustrious Boerhaave, and court physician at Petersburgh, 1713-1753. KABBESE, J., a Dutch painter, died 1660. KABEL, A. Vander, a D. pain., 1631-1695. KACUFFER, C. T., a Ger. hist., 1757-1830. KADLUBEK, or KODLUBKO, Vincent, a Polish historian, and bishop of Cracow, died 1223. KAEMPF, J., a Bavarian physician, 1733-87. KAEMPFER, Engelbert, (1651-1716), a traveller and naturalist, was a native of the princi- pality of Lippe-Detmold in Germany. In the ser- vice of Sweden and the Dutch he visited most countries of the East ; and has recorded his many curious and interesting observations in two works, 4 Amoenitates Exoticae,' and a ' History of Japan.' In 1693 he returned to Amsterdam, and the fol- lowing year took the degree of Doctor of Physic at Leyden ; and settling in his native place was ap- pointed physician to the prince. This brought him into extensive practice, which he enjoy his death. A genus of the ginger tribe, (S mimeee,} is named after him. KAESTNER, Abraham Gotthelf, a mathematician and astronomer, author of'nume works in pure and mixed math., and a ' Demon: tion of the Immortality of the Soul,' 1719-18C KAFOUR, a sultan of Egypt, died 968. KAHLE, L. M., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1712-' KAHLER, W. or J., a Ger. divine, 1649-1' KAI-KAOUS, a king of Ivan or Persia, w history is not well ascertained, 7th century B KAI-KAOUS, a Turkish sultan, 1210-121 KAI-KAOUS II., a Turkish sultan, 1244-! KAI-KHASRON, the name of three sul theirs* of whom reigned 1192-1210; the set 1237-1244; the third, 1266-1283. KAIN, H. L. C, a French actor, 1728-177 KALB, John, Baron De, a French officer- became major-gen. in the American army, kill] action under General Gates, 1732-1780. KALCREUTH, Count Adolph. Fredi a field-marshal of Prussia, distinguished ir seven years' war under Frederick the Great] :i the wars of the French revolution, 1737-181* 370 ALDI, KAL LDI, George, a learned Jesuit of Hungary, ml of theologv at Olmutz and Presburgh, d. 1634. flALE, or KELF, W., a Dutch paint., 1630-93. ijALKBRENNER, Christian, aPrussian Jew, Urn as a musical composer and historian, 1755- Jk. His son, Christian Frederick, distin- jfced as a pianist, 1784-1849. ALL, Abr , a Danish historian, 1743-1821. [ALL, J. Christopher, a Prussian philo- |Jt and Oriental scholar, 1714-1775. His son, Wholas Christopher, the same, born 1749. UVLLGREW, a Swedish dramatist, 1751-1795. LALM, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, professor at bo, author of ' A Naturalist's Tour in North and of ' Dissertations on the Agriculture JCWnmerce of Sweden,' 1715-1779. JjALRAAT, Abraham Van, a Dutch painter ifecalptor, 1643-1699. His brother, Bernard, Mngmshed as a landscape painter, 1650-1721. AMBLI, M., a Ger. sculptor, about 1717-86. AMENSKI, Count, a Rus. general, last ct. Uf-HI, or KHANG-HI, a Chinese emperor, ce is a patron ofjarts and letters, reig. 1661-1722. AMPEN, J. Tan, a Dutch painter, 17th cen. AMPENHAUSEN, Baron Balthazer De, I issian historian and publicist, 1772-1823. AXDJATOU, a khan of the Moguls, 1291-95. ANDLER, J. J., a German artist, dist. for th >eauty of his figures on porcelain, 1706-1776. A XXI, J. A., a Ger. Orientalist, 1773-1824. \XT, Immanuel, born at Konigsberg, 21st 24 ; in which city he spent a long life of ; rs in the tranquillity so acceptable to a Sal: he died on 24th February, 1804. It has iflened to two of Europe's most illustrious TIkers since the revival of Philosophy, to talrtake the same momentous problem regard- fcjhe Grounds and Limits of Human Knowledge : t*pen, almost contrasted in character, but each n to his age, offering a solution so pro- > i and suitable, that his works stand as an which, as its commencement, a spacious ra e of Metaphysical History will ever be dated : jK Inquirers were Kant and John Locke. Bmsted in mental character for, while Locke, Jig in the peculiar genius of his country, I not to adventure beyond the concrete the jtfcal the objective, the intellect of Kant rested an analytic power, an ability to pierce abstractions and construct Systems, cer- r surpassed since the days of Aristotle, two great men were so placed, that in U common revolt against scepticism and Biatism, it fell to them as if through necessity, tPpok at their common subject from those Mite points of view, which in philosophy, M stood for the most part also as contrasted, by the dogmatism of less discreet Car- Hat, who were ever inclined to arrest in- Hfenient Inquiry, by interposing the obstacle II so-called Innate principle or truth Locke Hated our harmony with the External World, hastened to vindicate for its action on Mind, BJnportant part which that action plays in the paction of human knowledge : Kant, on the hand, lived in times when the claims on Mf of Sensation instituted by Locke had H riwn to excess ; when the figurative expres- he Englishman, that the mind is a tabula KAN rasa had become accepted as a literal maxim ; and the unrelenting scepticism of Hume had driven from systematic philosophy all recognition of Energy in Mind, Personality in Man, or of Permanence Substance and Truth, in Nature or anywhere. Accordingly, it was his distinctive vocation to reassert the Force of the Thinking principle, to re-establish it as a Power, co-ordinate, and at least coequal with the External Universe: and he accomplished his task so thoroughly, that the despotism of mere Sensationalism can never reappear in the progress of modern thought. Inevitably, perhaps, from his position, Kant's tendencies lean unduly towards Idealism : never- theless, profiting by his long posteriority to Locke, the solution offered by the profound and penetrat- ing German, is assuredly the completest which our human Intellect has yet elaborated ; and, however surprising to the English reader, it may be also asserted, that by no one, since the Stagyrite wrote, has clear and definite thought been ex- pressed more clearly, or more conscientiously guarded from possible misapprehension. We shall endeavour as distinctly as we can encumbered by the necessary brevity to offer an appreciation of Kant's remarkable labours. I. Two considera- tions are essential to a right apprehension of the achievements of the sage of Konigsberg . First ; as it is necessary to repeat, his effort was to establish the grounds and limits of Human Know- ledge destroying scepticism on the one hand, and discrediting dogmatism on the other: and Secondly; He sought to accomplish this double object by defining exactly the spheres of those two factors of all knowledge the Mind and Nature ; thus rescuing Truth from doubt, although Sensation alone might not account for it, and by rigorously appreciating and surveying the action of the purely Mental Force, warning us not to mistake for real, what is merely notional. To carry out the foregoing aim was the effort of Kant's life ; and his philosophy was hence rightly designated the Critical Philosophy : although he has surveyed many departments of Doctrine, his efforts point everywhere rather to Criticism, than to Doctrine ; he has shown rather how Philosophy may become a Science, than filled in the matter of the Science. Taking his writings as a whole even allowing that the whole is a composite of isolated parts they go with the strong light of Criticism nearly around all possible knowledge. The mind manifesting its energies mainly under three Modes, usually discriminated as the Intellect, the Emotions, and the Will (see article Krause), Kant has tracked its corresponding laws and methods of action, in his classical treatises the Critique of the Pure Reason the Critique oj the Judgment and the Critique of the Practical Reason. To complete the two latter works, several of his smaller treatises are needful as a supplement ; but, with this addition, they may be justly esteemed as contributions yet un- surpassed, to the disentangling of difficulties in theoretical and practical Morals, and to the establishment of fundamental canons in ^Esthetics. Both works abound in passages of noble Eloquence: the Critique of the Practical Reason presents the best appreciation offered by any modern Thinker, of the system of Epicurus, and the morality of 371 KAN Stoicism : the Critique of the Judgment achieved n influence in Germany which even the super- ficial student of the literature of that country will not fail to recognize ; and in the section on Tele- ology, the philosophical rudiments appear, of that recent method in Natural History, which will constrain a reconstruction of all the Sciences of Organization. It is, however, of the Critique of the Pure Reason only, that, in illustration of Kant's manner, we shall here give any particular account. II. As the foundation of this memorable Critique, Kant inquires, what characteristics must attach to Knowledge drawn simply from Sensation, or from Experience f Sensation, or experience, can inform the mind of facts only, of things that are, because they are felt ; it never can show that a thing must be, or that it is universally. The characteristics of necessity and universality, then, cannot come from experience; the pro- ducts of which must be empirical, and can never rise higher than generalizations: so that whenever either characteristic inheres in a notion, we are obliged to infer that the said notion is, in thus far, not a pure product of experience, but an experience viewed and modified by some quality or energy of the thinking faculty. The criterion obtained, let the Intellect, or the Pure Reason be examined ; and the factors of the whole separated, after a full analysis of its contents. The Pure Reason, or the Faculty of Knowing, operates in three dif- ferent modes First, that of Sensibility, or our power to construct representations of objects by means of the sensations they produce: Second, the Faculty which co-ordinates, unites, and dis- cerns the relations of these representations, or the Undekstanding: and Third, that loftier Faculty which bestows on Knowledge its highest Unity- passing beyond Sensibility and the Understanding, and seeming to descry Ultimate and Eternal Laws ; this faculty is the Reason. Of the con- tents of the Sensibility then, what are the a posteriori, and what the a priori elements? What portion of a perception is Empirical, and what Necessary and Universal? The perception of a fact or thing as existing, is clearly empirical ; but we cannot perceive anything without con- ceiving it as necessarily existing in Space and Time: these conceptions no mere apprehension of empirical existence can supply ; therefore they are Forms of our Sensibility, qualities or forces belonging to the perceiving agent, by which a new nature, so to speak, is impressed on the thing perceived. With regard to the Understanding again, we discern that it universally classes objects under certain determinate relations, which rela- tions it considers universally applicable : these relations, therefore, or the Categories, are the Laws, or Formal principles of the Understanding its constituent elements or rather the Conditions under which alone, in virtue of its structure, it can work. In his determination of the Categories, Kant analyses alongside of Aristotle; nor, ir the works of the two great men are compared, will it appear, that, to the philosopher of Konigsberg, thought had advanced for so many centuries, in vain. One of the Categories of the Understanding is the relation of Cause and Effect: the Student will at once discern how easily under this view of it, the German disposed of the otherwise bewildering KAN speculations of Hume. Beyond Sensibility a Understanding lies the Reason, governed j a priori Ideas, one of which elevates us conception of the Soul, or to the transcer Unity of Man ; a second, the ground of all r Cosmology ; and a third, that constructs t tion of God. How limited the glimpse a by these abrupt words, of the amplitude a f>erb proportions of the Critical Philosophy. et the Student be assured that for the fin in History the problem it undertook ha entirely solved: no longer does the region Subjective Human Knowledge contain dar visited, or unexplored corners. III. The < now ventured as to the labours of Kant, is n nounced in ignorance of the questionings to they have given rise. Numerous the modifi proposed on his table of the Categories ; as exceptions to other interior peculiarities system : but these whatever their plausib weight little affect the merits of his gigan symmetrical scheme. We have said, he that its tendencies lean unduly ( towards Ide and it is necessary now, to shfcw in what ner the foregoing speculations open and in the questio vexata of modern thought supreme difficulty of existing metaphysics, Critical Philosophy, has indeed saved all sary Truths by referring them to Laws Mind conditions under which alone the Tl Organism can operate: but, what is the r between these Laws subjective, and exten objective Realities f Space and Time the a elements of the Sensibility do they not exist Universe as well as for Us? Is that represei purely Ideal, by which the marvels of mate: are placed before the mind, sparkling tl Infinity and evolving through all Timet Categories of the Understanding, again th tion for instance of Cause and Effect all they are necessitated through the nature of tl derstanding itself, are they all purely subj< Is there not a world of phenomena, regula laws which are their exact counterparts, i bring us into whose presence, our Intellectu ture is the instrument ? So, finally of the B the Idea of God is a necessity with it, only a subjective necessity, does not that sity conduct us towards a Real, ever-livin creating, all-sustaining Omniscience ? The will not learn without dismay that Kant den legitimacy of every attempt to effect a transi Reality, from the region of the Speculative I By a process that at least is ingenious, which he is supported by our own Sir V Hamilton, he did effect a bridge towards \ alities of Ontology ; he assumed the exist< God as a consequence ot the Law of Mcj nevertheless, it is his dictum, that the reprfl tions of the Sensibility and the verities Intellect, authorize our belief in no objective terpart; and that Existence, as recognized b] is a mere Noumenon a thing originating a tion, but unknown as to its qualities, and tl) able. Doubtless one is startled by such a con< but it were folly to underrate the difficult} checked the advance of Kant. Many and var ; efforts to remove it; with what success, thi the place to declare : with not a few Inquir 872 KAN _ j to accomplish the feat seems to have passed | its accomplishment. Nevertheless, on the occur- of such difficulties, even when they seem to eh the insuperable, it is something to discern their existence need not surprise us ; and that their appalling magnitude is no reason for ;e despair (article Leibnitz). The question -which Inquiry is here impinging, has to do th the lowest down the least accessible portion lour human Nature. As we have remarked else- !iere ; the faculty of Intuition, the power to look heath Sensation into Realities Intueri is, hough the most educable, the most difficult to hrrehend, and the least educated of all the_ forms I energy appertaining to Mind. It acts, indeed every mind, but it acts imperfectly; rarely does act through reflection, or, as yet, so that we h explain its operations. Let the student turn Sir William Hamilton's celebrated memoir on Presentation and Representation; he will find fere how sadly men have erred, and how toil- mely they have laboured, before that single act j Intuitive Perception could be described ! That jt of Intuition, as we now understand it, is mply the act constraining our acceptance of an jective reality, corresponding to Kant's subjec- re Laws or Forms of the Sensibility : is it not fely then, that a deeper and clearer view, in the to remaining and corresponding directions, shall able us to assert as authoritatively, concerning v& Objectivity of Laws which we apprehend in e meantime, simply as regulating Forms of the nderstanding and the Reason ? Between these ro classes of Forms or constituent elements, and je Forms of Space and Time, there is much in Immon ; especially this vital characteristic no eculative doubt can destroy our practical belief at they have real correlatives. Nay, it may be leged even as Kant rightly asserts with regard the Practical Reason, or the Law of Morality at without that belief, or rather that intuition, k faculties would not operate. Perception indeed jrolves no conscious voluntary act ; the working f the Understanding and the Reason, on the other ind, do involve one ; and it appears safe to aver lat unless for the conviction, that we are con- rned about a great and real Universe, apart pm the Thinking Subject, the Human Will would Use to urge the Understanding to evolve its jlations, or the Reason to aspire after that ighest Unity which, in obedience to its nature, it ruggles to attain. It were unsuitable to close this nperfect notice of the Philosophy of Kant, without kord concerning the character and aspects of the hilosopher. We have said that he lived in tran- pillity, devoted to meditation. But it were wrong 1 fancy him the abstracted sage. His benevo- simplicity were great ; he much relished inglmg with its innocent gaieties ; and he as beloved by the young. He was a man of un- lpeachable probity ; and that sincerity which is W right arm of Genius in its contests for Truth, i inseparable from his nature. His ideas in morals ive been surpassed in elevation by no writer m istory; he never uttered a word or committed a ratence to the world, derogatory to man's highest r which the sternest virtue would recall, pure lover of Truth, he proclaimed and vindi- Med liberty of Thought and Speech : Philosophy, KEA with Kant, was no make-believe neither the for* mula of a School, nor an affectation of the Salon but an earnest discernment of the rights and duties, the functions privileges and position of Humanitv, and therefore a reverential offering by our Human Reason to the august Power that formed it. There are now excellent editions of Kant's collected works in German, by his pupils ; good French translations of several of them; 'an English version of the Critique of the Pure Reason by Mr. Hayward, and one of his Ethics by Mr. Semple. [J.P.N.] KAO-TSOU-OUTI, a Chinese emp., 355-422. KAO-TSOU, the first of the name, emperor of China, founder of the Tang dynasty, reigned 619- 626, d. 635 ; the second, founder of the Haou-Tein dynasty, reigned 935-942 ; the third, founder of the Haou-Han dynasty, reigned 947-951. KAO-TSOUNG, theirs* of the name, emperor of China, reigned 648-684; the second, 1127-1161. KAPNIST, Vasili V., a Rus. poet, 1756-1813. KARAMSIN, Nicholas Mich^elovitch, historiographer-royal of the empire of Russia, councillor of state in 1826, author of a History of Russia, and works in polite literature, 1765-1826. KARNKOWSKI, S., a Polish hist., died 1603. KAROLI, J., a Hungarian divine, 16th century. KARPIUSKI, F. ; a Polish dramatist, d. 1823. KARSTEN, W. J. G., a German physician and mathematician, 1732-1787. His brother, F. C. S. Karsten, an agriculturist, 1751-1829. Their nephew, Didier L. Gustave Karsten, a learned mineralogist, 1768-1810. KATE, L. T., a Dutch grammarian, last cent. KATER, H., an Eng. mathematician, 1777-1825. KATONA, S., a Hungarian hist., 1732-1811. KAUFMANN, Mary Anne Angelica Cath- erine, a French lady remarkable for her talents in painting and music, 1741-1807 KAUNITZ-RIETBERG, Wencelaus An- thony, prince of, an Austrian states., 1710-1794. KANTZ, Constan. F., an Aus. hist., 1735-97. KAY, or CAIUS, Thomas, head master of University College, Oxford, author of a work written in vindication of the superior antiquity of Oxford, in a controversy with Dr John Kaye of Cambridge, died 1572. KAY, or KEY, W., a Dutch painter, 1520-1568. KAYE, KEYE, CAY, or CAIUS, John, a learned physician, founder of Caius College, Cam- bridge, of which he w r as the first master, author of professional works, and a Hist, of Cam., 1510-73. KAYSSLER, A., a Ger. philosopher, d. 1822. KAZWINI, Zachariah Ben Mohammed Ben Mahmoud, an Ar. geogra. and nat., d. 1283. KEACH, Benjamin, a baptist wr., 1640-1704. KEAN, Edmund, one of the greatest tragic actors of which England can boast, and possessed of decided genius for the drama, was, on his mother's side, great-grandson of Harry Carey, re- puted author of ' God save the King.' The date of his birth is dubious, but he is stated to have been born in Castle-Street, Leicester Square, in Novem- ber, 1787 ; but to have himself asserted that 17th March, 1790, was his birth-day. He seems to have been placed on the stage when an infant, and to have thus appeared in processions and pageants both at Drury Lane and the Haymarket theatres. At these periods he was remarked for his shyness, 73 KEA but attracted the sympathy of Miss TiJswell, an actress of some standing, who was able to recom- mend him to a manager in Yorkshire, where he acted under the name of Carey. Hamlet, Lord Hastings, and Cato, were the parts which even then he was capable of filling; and he showed besides much elocutionary skill in recitations from Hilton and Shakspeare, which attracted the at- tention of Dr. Drury, who sent him to Eton school, where he remained three years, and acquired con- siderable knowledge of Latin. After this, he played Hamlet and Shylock, first on the Birming- nani stage, and afterwards at Edinburgh, Sheer- ness, Sevenoaks, Tunbridge Wells, and Swansea. At about the age of nineteen, we find him at Wateiford, in Ireland, where he acted Douglas, and obtained a wife, remaining there two years, after which he visited Weymouth, Exeter, and Taunton. At Dorchester, he is said to have per- formed, not only in tragedy and comedy, but in opera and pantomime. By the intervention of Dr. Drury, he was ultimately recommended to the committee of Drury Lane theatre ; at which theatre he made his debut 26th January, 1814, as Shylock, to a meagre house, but the few who were present became convinced of his genius ; the critics were in his favour, and on waking the next morning the young actor found himself famous. His Richard the Third, Hamlet, and Othello, con- firmed the favourable impression. His career was thenceforth assured, and his successes were of the most brilliant description. As a contrast to the classical style of the Kemble school, his acting was impulsive, fiery, and startling. After several sea- sons of triumph in England, Scotland, and Ireland, he visited America, being induced to that step by some private circumstances which permit not de- tail. On his return to England, he became man- ager of the Richmond theatre, and died in the house attached thereto, 15th May, 1833. His funeral was numerously attended by distinguished persons, and he was interred in the cemetery belonging to the old church at Richmond, near the grave of Thomson and Burbage. A cenotaph has since been placed on the church wall by his son, Mr. Charles Kean, the present manager of the Princess's theatre. Had the father been as prudent as the son has proved, his life would have been happier, and his ultimate triumph more decided. His genial aptitude for acting was indisputable, and the ghtning-flashes frequent during his extraordinary performances, astonished the critic as much as the ordinary spectator. We have certainly had no performer whom the conscientious biographer can cite as his superior in tragic effect and passionate elocution. [J.A.H.] KEANE, John, Lord, son of Sir John Keane ot Belmont, dist. as an officer in the peninsular war, and for his capture, in 1839, of Ghuznee ; 1780-1844. KEATE, George, a poet and miscel. writer, au. of an 'Account of the Pelew Islands,' 1729-97. KEATING, G., an Irish historian, d. abt. 1625. KEATS, John, was born in London in 1796. Some years of his boyhood were spent in a school at Enfield. There he received classical impressions which moulded the form of his youthful fancy and feelings, producing a singularly interesting, though anomalous, kind of images, by their mixture with the romantic ideas which modern poetry afterwards KEL inspired. When he was about fifteen year! ol was apprenticed to a surgeon in London; poetry had taken close possession of his mind the art was enthusiastically practised. In he published a volume of poems, which was noticed. Next year appeared ' Endymion, a F Romance.' This poem displayed a predomii of imagination over judgment, so decided i prompt a doubt whether even maturer years < have qualified the writer to attain very higl cellence ; but it has an affluence of imagery, i ideality, and an exquisite grace of feeling, v make it to poetical minds one of the most w tive of all poems. It was criticised by Giffa the Quarterly Review with savage severity, attack affected the young poet very deeply, has even been said to have caused or accele the consumptive symptoms which soon sh themselves. He published, however, in 181 new volume, containing, among other pi ' Hyperion,' ' The Eve of Saint Agnes,' ' La and ' Isabella.' In a paper on his former vol which now appeared in the Edinburgh Rem was justly said by Jeffrey, that, with all its f both of matter and of diction, no book coul more fitly put into the hands of a reader, as i to ascertain whether he had a native relit] poetry and a genuine sensibility to its inta charm.' The poetry of Shelley, and that of B may be pointed to as the earliest indicatio: those poetical tendencies which have been fij developed by Tennyson and his school. The sought renovation of health in Italy, but in He died at Rome in December, 1820, when hi recently completed his twenty-fourth year. H KEATS, Sir R. G., a naval officer, 1757- KEBLE, Joseph, an Eng. lawyer, 1632-1 KEDER, N., a Swedish antiquarian, 1659-: KEENE, Edmund, bishop of Ely, 1713-1' KEILL, John, a Scotch mathematician, ] 1721. His brother, James, a physician medical author, 1673-1719. KEISAR, W. De, a Flem. painter, 1647-1 KEISER, R., a German musician, 1673-1; KEITH. See Elphinstone. KEITH, George, a Scotch sectarian, a works for and against the Quakers, d. abt. 1. KEITH, James, youngest son of William 1 earl marshal of Scotland, distinguished as a marshal in the service of Prussia, 1696-1758. KEITH, Thomas, a professional accoui and mathematician, author of ' Introdu Works in Geometry,' &c, 1759-1824. KELAOUN, sultan of Egypt, 1279-1290 KELGREN, H., a Swedish poet, 1751-17S KELLEHOUN, Moritz, a Ger. pain, andt director of the academy at Munich, 1768-183 KELLER, J. B., a Swiss statuary, 1638-1 KELLER, G., a German historian, 1750-1 KELLER, D. L. Chr., Count, a Prussian <3 matist, kn. at the congress of Vienna, 1757-i KELLERMANN, Francis Chuistop duke of Valmy, a famous general of the Fj revolution, was born at Strasburgh 1735, and, bracing the military profession when a youth risen to the rank of camp-marshal, besides se in several political missions, before the comm ment of the revolution. In 1791, he was appo to a command in the army of the Moselle, an 374 KEL c ied himself in organizing the defence of the iflitier against the emigrants and the duke of /josmck. On the 19th of September, 1792, he Beted, by forced marches, at the head of twenty- Jtm thousand men, his famous junction with Du- jjiiriez, and, the following day, intrenched on the fehts of Valmy, resisted an attack of forty-five liusand Prussians and twenty thousand Aus- Jns. This famous victory was the first in the : ies of successes which marked the career of the jjublic and the empire, and was gained by the lf ill-provided levies of the patriots over ex- jtenced troops. On the same day the national jlvention was assembled in Paris. On the mor- ti, the republic was proclaimed, and the news Jiving in the camp of Valmy after their victory, 1 4s the occasion of great rejoicings, in the midst jjwhich the duke of Brunswick with his army IJrossed the frontier. Escaping the denunciations itfcustine, who sought his ruin, Kellermann was -i minted, in 1795, commander-in-chief of the army lithe Alps and Italy, and in a short time found r ltwelf auxiliary to Napoleon, whose star rose 4 Ive him. His position afterwards was that of a t iator and peer of France ; and, like many others jhis order, he made peace with the Bourbons on ! fall of the emperor. He died in 1820. [E.R.] KELLEY, Edward, the seer and companion of f Jctor Dee in his alleged intercourse with spirits, ~* is born in Worcester 1555, and is said to have fen educated at Oxford, but, leaving the university "raptly, was captured in Lancashire, and for some ; : Jme, it is supposed, lost his ears. It must have I fen soon afterwards that he made the acquain- | pee of Dr. Dee, who was at first persuaded that [lley ' had been brought into unison with him by Idiation of the angel Uriel,' for as early as 1589 ! ey had separated again. The cause of their dis- -> reement was Kelley's indulgence in magical prac~ \es for the sake of gain, which the Doctor could ate ; and, left to himself, our adventurer lived handsomely upon his profits, but pined the honour of knighthood from the Em- ror Rodolph. It was the popular belief that itlived the time of his compact with the JviL, and was carried off bodily by infernal spirits _:ht of his wife and children but accord- : g to unadorned history he was imprisoned for Ties, and died of the injuries he received nle endeavouring to escape, in 1595. He is e author of poems on chemistry and on the philo- I Ipher's stone, and was the penman of several '^courses, which are printed in Casaubon's ' Rela- t>n of What Passed for Many Years Between Dee and Some Spirits,' published 1639. Some rious particulars concerning him will be found in eaver's ' Funeral Monuments ; ' and there are me MSS., both of his and Dr. Dee's, in the shmolean Museum at Oxford. ' [E.R.] KELLISON, M., a catholic divine, died 1641. KELLY, Hugh, an Irish dramatist, 1739-77. KELLY, John, an English clergyman, author 1 A Practical Grammar of the Ancient Gaelic, Language of the Isle of Man,' 1750-1809. KELLY, Michael, an Irish singer, 1762-1826. KELP, Justus J., a Ger. philologist, 1650-1720. KEMBLE, Geo. Stephen, a popular actor and anager, br. of the eel. J. P. Kemble, 1758-1822. KEMBLE, John Philip, next to Garrick, the KEM most eminent of English actors, but in style, the contrast of his great predecessor, being as reflec- tive as he was impulsive. His father, Roger Kemble, was theatrical manager at Prescot, in Lancashire, and in that county, John Philip was born, February, 1757. He was educated first at the Roman Catholic Seminary of Sedgelev Park, Staffordshire; and afterwards at the college of Douay, being intended for one of the learned pro- fessions. His own course, however, had been already determined on, and he commenced active life as an actor at Liverpool, after which he visited York and Edinburgh. At Liverpool he acted in a tragedy of his own composition, called ' Belisarius ;' and soon after published a volume of Fugitive Pieces,' which, however, he sought to suppress. His appearance in London took place 30th Sep- tember, 1783, at Drury Lane, when he performed ' Hamlet,' with extraordinary applause ; though it was five years before he became leading tragedian. About that period, too, he succeeded to the man- agement of the theatre, which he conducted till 1801, during which he restored some good old plays, and produced some original pieces, including a musical entertainment of his own, entitled ' Lodoiska.' Next year, he became the manager and the purchaser of a sixth share of Covent Gar- den theatre, but the destruction of the edifice by fire in 1809, caused him much trouble, which, after its rebuilding, was increased, in consequence of the prices being augmented, and the boxes arranged too exclusively for the accommodation of the aris- tocracy. Public disturbances, known by the name of the O. P. Riots, ensued, and continued for several nights. On his retirement from the stage, 23d July, 1807, Mr. Kemble was complimented with a public dinner, which was attended by persons of rank and talent. He died at Lausanne, in Switzerland, 26th February, 1823, of a paralytic attack. Mr. Kemble's style of acting was emi- nently regulated by art; his performances were premeditated, and as little as possible was left to natural impulse. This style was most suited to the artificial characters of the drama, such as Cato, Ccriolanus, Hamlet, King John, Jaques, and Penruddock. In his different managements, Mr. Kemble brought his learning to bear on the business and decorations of the stage, which is, accordingly, indebted for some of its earliest re- forms to him. But he preferred building his re- putation on the old drama, to risking it in the pro- duction of novelty the ill consequences of which mode of proceeding, ultimately resulted in the to- tal fall of the two patent theatres, which are now superseded by smaller establishments. [J.A.H.] KEMBLE, Priscilla, widow of the preceding, formerly wife of the actor Brereton, 1755-1845. KEMENI, prince of Transylvania, 1660-1662. KEMP, Joseph, a dist. composer, 1778-1824. ' KEMP, J. T., a Dutch missionary, 1748-1811. KEMPELLEN, Wolfgang, Baron, a Hunga- rian dramatist and mechanician, inventor of the famous automaton chess-player, 1734-1804. KEMPER, J. M., a Dutch juriscon., 1776-1824. KEMPIS, Thomas A, whose real surname was Hemmerken, or Hammerlein, was born at Kempen near Cologne in 1380, was educated at the school founded by Gerhard Groote at De venter, to which he was sent at the age of thirteen ; en- 375 KEN tered seven years afterwards the convent of St. Agnes, formally assumed the monastic habit in 1406, and finally became the superior of the same establishment His was an earnest practical piety, and his writings are deeply embued with his pecu- liar devotional spirit. A tinge of ascetic mystic- ism is very apparent in his so-called works. The work by which he is best known in this country is the ' Imitation of Christ,' (De Imitatione Christi,) which is but the title of the first book of a larger treatise, (De Contemptu Mundi). It is, however, suspected not to be of his composition, the pro- bability being that the work was only translated by A Kempis, but in reality composed by the Chan- cellor Gerson of the university of Paris. Thomas A Kempis died in 1471, aged ninety-two ; not one of those Titans who win immortality by intellectual prowess, but one of those humbler saints whose calm and meditative piety surrounds their memory with an undying fragrance. [J.E.J KEN, Ta., bp. of Bath and Wells, and one of the seven sent to the Tower by James II., 1637-1711. KENDAL, G., a Calvinistic divine, died 1663. KENDRICK, J., an Amcr. navigator, d. 1800. KENICIUS, P., arbp. of Upsala, 1555-1636. KENNAWAY, Sir J., an East Indian officer and diplomatist, time of Tippoo sultan, 1758-1836. KENNEDY, James, a relig. founder of Scot- land, bishop of St. Andrews, and lord chancellor, and one of the regency time of Jas. III., 1405-66. KENNEDY, J., a chronologist, d. about 1770. KENNEDY, J., a Scotch antiquarian, d. 1760. KENNEDY, William, a Scottish lawyer and antiq., au of the 'Annals of Aberdeen,' 1759-1836. KENNET, White, an English prelate, dist. as a political partizan in the time of Atterbury and Sacheverel, author of historical and antiqua- rian works, 1660-1728. His brother, Basil, a learned divine and antiquarian, 1674-1714. KENNETH, the first of the name, king of Scotland, 604-606 ; the second, reigned 823-854 ; the third, succeeded 978, assassinated 994. KENNEY, J., an Irish dramatist, d. 1849. KENNICOTT, Benjamin, an Eng. div., dist. as an Orient, scholar and biblical critic, 1718-83. KENRICK, W., a miscellaneous wr., d. 1779. KENT, Edward Augustus, duke of, fourth son of George III., and father of Queen Victoria, born 1767, commander of the British forces in North America 1799, governor of Gibraltar 1802, married to Victoria Maria Louisa, widow of the hereditarv prince of Leiningen, and youngest daughter'of the d. of Saxe-Coburg, 1818, d. 1820. KENT, James, was born at Winchester, in 1700, where at an early age, he was admitted into the choir of the cathedral under the tuition of Mr. Vaughan Richardson, then organist. He afterwards became one of the children of the Royal Chapel, where, under the care of Dr. Croft, he laid the foundation of his future greatness. The first situation which Kent obtained was organist of the chapel of Trinity College, Cam- bridge; and his next and last was organist of Winchester chapel and college, where he continued to his death, which occurred in 1776. As a com- poser of sacred music Kent's fame stands on a secure basis, and many of his anthems will take rank amongst the most sublime musical works of I any age or country. [J-M.] | ' 3 KEP KENT, William, a Eng. painter, 1685-1; KENYON, Lloyd, Lord, chief justice oi King's Bench, first distin. as counsel for George Gordon along with Mr. Erskine, 1733-] KEPLER, John, a distinguished astronc was born at Wiel, in Wirtemberg, on the December, 1571. His father, Henry Kepler, an officer in the army w r ho had reduced lmna poverty by his extravagance. His mother, C erine Guldemar, gave premature birth to a John Kepler, who was a sickly child. Afte covering with difficulty from small-pox, he sent to school in 1577. Having become bank his father was obliged to keep a tavern at El] dingen, and his son John was taken from si to perform the functions of a servant ii father's house. When he was in his fifto year, he was received into the school at monastery at Maulbron, established at the refo tion as preparatory for the university of Tubfa where he was admitted as Bachelor in 1588; returning to the school to complete the i course of study, he took his degree of Mas! 1591, holding the second place in the examini While attending the mathematical lectun Msestlin, a disciple of Copernicus, he adopte< opinions of his teacher, and wrote an ess prove that the primary motion was produce the rotation of the earth. In 1594 ne wm willingly made to accept the astronomical els Gratz, though he knew little of the subject, was thus forced to study astronomy, and in he devoted all his leisure time, and all his m energy to study the size and the motions o planets, and their orbits. Finding no re law in the planetary distances, he made num attempts of the wildest and most specnl character, but though he ventured to pt them in 1596 in his 'Prodromus of Co graphical Dissertation,' he obtained no results, and was satisfied with the little repnt which his ingenuity had procured for him 1597 he made a foolish marriage with a y widow, and in addition to pecuniary difficult] which this involved him, he was obliged to into Hungary to escape from the persecute the catholics. Though he was soon recall his professorship by the states of Styria, h not occupy it long. Tycho, whom he visito Prague in 1600, induced" him to become his i tant, but he was not fairly settled in this office till he was attacked with a quartan and embroiled in a quarrel with Tycho. 1 Kepler came to Prague in 1601, Tycho pres him to the emperor, who gave him the til Imperial Mathematician on the condition of a ing Tycho in his calculations. Their first work was the computation of the RudolphineTi the expense of which was defrayed by Rud Upon the death of Tycho, in 1601, Kepler ceeded him as principal mathematician t< emperor, with a handsome salary, partly fror imperial treasury, and partly from the Stal Silesia. In 1606, Kepler published a 'Sn ment to Vitellio,' in which he treats of the o; part of astronomy, and had very nearly stui on the law of refraction, afterwards discover! Snellius. In 1611, he published his Dio^ an admirable work, which laid the foundati KEP I science of optics. In this work he gives the tjory of the telescope, describes the astro- ioical one with two convex lenses, expounds ti spherical aberration of lenses, and the law of tkl reflexion at the second surfaces of bodies. I work, however, on which his fame rests, is i 'New Astronomy, or Commentaries on the lltions of Mars,' published in 1609. In this vk lie proves that Mars moves in an elliptical :ie of the foci of which the sun is placed, i. that the Radius Vector, or the line joining ti planet and the sun describes equal areas in cjai times. These two great discoveries, the first ijie in physical astronomy, he extended to all tfplanets in the solar system, and it was through llm that Newton, Hooke, Halley, and Wren, iependently arrived at the great law of the iinution of gravity with the square of the lance. In the midst of the studies which led these fine discoveries, he was harassed Jh pecuniary difficulties which were the bane of ljexistence. His salary was ever in arrears, and ti treasury of Rudolph was always < empty. La the death of the emperor, however, in 1612, bier's arrears were paid. Mathias, the brother si. successor of Rudolph, re-appointed him im- jjial mathematician, and he was permitted to 2ept of the professorship of mathematics at Is, in Austria. He had lost his wife and one of ]j children by small-pox in 1611, and his family consisted of a daughter born in 1602, and a born in 1607. He married a second time in lb, and added to his family three sons and two ighters, who, along with their mother, survived About this time, Kepler was summoned to diet at Ratisbon, to give his opinion on the brmation of the calendar, a subject upon which published a short essay. His pension was ^Ji- arrears, and in order to support his ilyhe was obliged to compose what he calls .rile prophesying almanack,' which, he adds, ' scarcely more reputable than begging, unless in its saving the emperor's credit, who abandons i| entirely, and would suffer me to perish with Ipger.' In 1617, there appeared one of the :ist interesting of his works, entitled ' The Har- ijaies of the World.' It is dedicated to James pf England, and is remarkable as containing . I celebrated law that the squares of the periodic he planets are as the cubes of their dis- I his law occurred to him on the 8th rth, 1618, but from a blunder in his calcula- te he rejected it. Having discovered his error 'ithe loth May, he recognized with transport I absolute truth of a principle which for seven- s had been the object of his incessant He was almost frantic with joy; 'the is cast ' he exclaimed, ' the book is written to read, either now or by posterity, I care not {ich. It may well wait a century for a reader, as waited 6,000 years for an observer.' ithe same year Kepler published the three first >ks of his ' Epitome of the Copernican Astro- ny,' the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh appear- in 1622. In 1620, Sir Henry Wotton, the Iglish ambassador at Venice, visited Kepler while through Germany. He urged the astro- Jner to take up his residence in England, luring him of a welcome and an honourable KER reception ; but neither the welcome nor the recep- tion, which is all the encouragement he would have got, would have released him from his pecuniary difficulties. ' If the imperial mathema- tician, therefore,' as Sir David Brewster (Martyrs of Science, p. 243) has remarked, 'had no other assurance of a comfortable home in England than that of Sir Henry Wotton, he acted a wise part in distrusting it, and we rejoice that the sacred name of Kepler was thus withheld from the long list of distinguished characters whom England has starved and dishonoured.' Notwithstanding his own pecuniary difficulties, the emperor Ferdinand, in 1622, ordered the whole of Kepler's arrears to be paid, including those due by Rudolph and Mathias, and he supplied also the necessary funds for completing the Rudolphine Tables. The wars of the reformation, however, interfered with this and with every peaceful pursuit. Kepler's resi- dence at Linz was blockaded by the catholic peasantry, and his library sealed up by the Jesuits ; and it was not till 1628 that the Rudolphine Tables, founded on the observations of Tycho, and his own laws, appeared at Ulm in a folio volume. The Grand Duke of Tuscany sent him a gold chain in testimony of his approbation of this great work, and Albert Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, munificently invited him to reside at Sagan, in Silesia. With the emperor's permission he accepted this offer, took his family to Sagan in 1629, and by the duke's influence obtained a professorship in the university of Rostock. Find- ing it difficult in this remote locality to obtain payment of his imperial pension, the arrears of which were 8,000 crowns, he went to the imperial assembly at Ratisbon, to obtain them. The vexation which the failure of this attempt occa- sioned, and the fatigue of his journey, threw him into a catarrhal fever, which was accompanied with an imposthume in his brain, the result of excessive study. Medical skill failed, and he died on 5th November, o. s., 1631, in the sixtieth year of his age. His remains were interred in St. Peter's churchyard, at Ratisbon, and on his tomb- stone was placed an inscription written by himself. This monument was destroyed in the wars which desolated Germany, and it was not till 1803 that the prince bishop of Constance erected a handsome monumental temple near the place of his inter- ment, surmounted by a marble bust of Kepler. Between 1594 and 1630, Kepler published 33 separate works, and he left behind him 22 volumes of MSS., four of which contained his correspon- dence. The correspondence was published by Hansch, in 1718, but no part of the other MSS. now in the library of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, have been thought worthy of publication. See Mr. Drinkwater Bethune's Life of Kepler, and his life in Sir David Brewster's Martyrs of Science, second edit. [D.B.] KEPPEL, Augustus, an English admiral, son of William, earl of Albemarle, distinguished in ac- tion with the French off Ushant, 1725-1786. KERALIO, L. Felix Guinement De, a Fr. savant, historian of the war between Russia and Turkey, 1731-1793. KERCKRING, T., a Dutch anatomist, d. 1693. KERESSTUNG, Aloys J. De, a Hungarian savant, au. of a ' Comp. of Univ. Hist.,' 1763-1825. 377 KER KERGUELIN-TREMAREC, Yves Joseph De, a French navigator and naval hist., 1745-97. KERI, F. B., a Hungarian historian, d. 1769. KERI, J., a Hungarian philosopher, died 1685. KERL, J. C, a German organist, 17th century. KERN, Vise. De, a Ger. surg. wr., 1760-1829. KERR, Robert, a surgeon of Edinburgh, dis- tinguished as a naturalist and historian, died 1814. KKRRICK, Thomas, an English divine, au. of * Observations on Gothic Architecture,' d. 1828. KERSAINT, Arm and Guy Simon, Count De, a French naval officer and public writer, at- tached to the Girondins, executed 1793. KERSEY, John, an Eng. mathemat., 17th ct. KESSEL, John Van, a Flem. pain., 1626-1690. His son, Ferdinand, also a painter, 1660-1696. His nephew, Nicholas, same profes., 1684-1741. KESSEL, T. Van, a Dutch engraver, b. 1620. KESTNER, C. W., a Ger. med. wr., 1694-1747. KETEL, C., a Dutch painter, 1548-1602. KETT, Henry, an English divine, 1761-1825. KETT, William, leader of an insurrection in the reign of Edward VI., defeat, by Warwick, 1549. KETTILMUNDESON, Matts, or Mathias, administrator of S wed. on the flight of Birger, 1317. KETTLE WELL, John, a pious and learned div., au. of ' Measure of Chr. Obedience,' 1653-95. KEULEN, J. Van, a D. pain., 1580, d. 1656. KEULEN, J. Van, a D. map engr., last cent. KEULEN, L. Van, a D. mathemat., d. 1610. KEYM, Paul, a mystic writer, on the prin- ciples of Jacob Boehmen, one of a numerous class who have treated of mystic subjects scholastically, without the experience of intuition and temptation. He is briefly alluded to by Poiret in his epistle, De Auctoribus Mysticis, 47. [E.R.J KEYSLER, J. J., a Ger. antiquary, 1689-1743. KEYZER, A. and H. De, D. painters, 17th ct. KHADIJAH, first wife of Mahomet, died 628. KHAIN-BEG, a pacha of Egypt, died 1522. KHAISANG, a Chinese emperor, 1281-1311. KHALED, an Arabian general, surnamed by Mahomet The Sword of God,' dist. 630-642. KHOSROU, king of Persia. See Chosroes. KICKX, J., a Flem. botanist, 1772-1831. KIDD, Samuel, a divine and Oriental scholar, au. of ' Illustra. of Chinese Symbols,' 1801-1843. KIDDER, R., a learned prelate, died 1703. KIEFFER, J. D., a Fr. Orientalist, 1767-1833. KIEN-LONG, emperor of China in the time of Lord Macartney's embassy, a poet and patron of literature, born 1710, reigned 1735-1800. KIERINGS, A., a Dutch painter, 1590-1646. KIERMAN, G., a Swed. statesman, last cent. KIERNANDER, John Zechariah, a Swe- dish missionary to the East Indies, 1711-1799. KIESEWETTEN, Christopher Gottfried, a Ger. musician, dist. as a violin player, d. 1827. KIESEWETTER, J. G. C. Christopher, a German philologist and philosopher of the school of Kant, died about the end of last century. KILBYE, R., an English divine, died 1617. KILLIGREW, Catherine, wife of Sir H. Killigrew, an ambassador, dist. for her skill in the learned languages and poetry, abt. 1530-1600. KILLIGREW, Margaret, second wife of William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, au. of the life of L-r husband, and ' Miscellanies,' d. 1673. KILLIGREW, William, a courtier and dra- KIN matic writer of the reign of Charles II., 160 His brother, Thomas, a famous humourist favourite of Charles II., author of sera ] and some time political resident at Vi Henry, a third brother, also a v. and chaplain to James, duke of York, born date of nis death unknown. An \ i latter, dist. for her beauty, her unhl and her skill in hist, painting, au. of pi KILMAINE, C. J., a French general. 175, KIMBER, Isaac, a dissenting m as a biographical and historical writer, 1 (J92- His son, Edward, author of a ' History of land,' and miscellaneous works, died 17M. KIMCHI, David, a famous rabbi of Sp* high repute among all denominations of hi scholars, as a Scripture commentator and g marian, was born at Narbonne, where he p the greater part of his life, towards the end o 12th century. His father, Joseph Kimchi, flourished about 1160, and his brother. Mi were eminent Oriental scholars, and exposito Scripture, to which character the latter added of a moralist ; but neither of them acquired putation comparable with that of rabbi David, respect in which he is held by the Jews is gi enhanced by his defence of Maimonides, as an tor between the French and Spanish Jews in His philological works furnished Buxtorf wit! materials for his 'Thesaurus' and 'Lexicon;' his commentaries have been largely incorpo with the Bibles of Venice and Basle. F catalogue raisonne of his writings, which in a Talmudic Dictionary, see the ' Bibliotheca braica' of John Ch. Wolf, published at Hamb 1715-1733. Kimchi died in Provence at at ceeding old age, 1240. [] KING, Edward, a youthful poet, who drowned on his passage to Ireland in 1637, whose fate is eel. by Milton in his poem of Ly< KING, Edward, a biblical critic and antiq author of ' Munimenta Antiqua,' ' Remarks Signs of the Times,' ' Hymns,' &c, 1724-180 KING, Gregory, an engraver and ha painter, author of ' Natural and Political vations and Conclusions upon the State and dition of England,' and distinguished for the he took in state ceremonials, 1648-1712. KING, John, D.D., a controversial dirii the Church of England, 1652-1732. His so the same name, a physician, 1696-1738. KING, John, a learned prelate, distingn as a preacher and speaker in the Star Chai about 1559-1621. His son, Henry, chapla Charles I., and dean of Rochester, author of mons and Poems, 1591-1669. John, broth the latter, a dignitary of the church, and at of Sermons, &c, died 1639. KING, John Glen, an eccles. antiq., d. 1 KING, Peter, nephew of the illustrious . Locke, distinguished for his ecclesiastical lean born 1669, lord chancellor 1725, died 1733. KING, Peter, great grandson of the precei distinguished for nis speeches and writing subjects of political economy, 1775-1833. KING, Captain Philip Parker, made voyages (1817-1822) to the coast of Austr and added greatly to our knowledge of the h tropical portions of that continent. 8 KIN Richard, a polemical writer, 1749-1810. fG, Sir Rich., a naval officer, 1771-1834. fG, Rufus, aii Am. statesman, 1755-1827. TG, Thomas, a eel. dramatic wr. and actor, of Love at First Sight,' &c, 1730-1805. TG, William, LL.D., a humorous writer rkable fertility in the reign of Queen Anne, for his satires on the characters and of the day, 1663-1712. fG, William, an elegant writer, 1685-1763. TG, Dr. William, successively dean of St. ' ;'s, bishop of Deny, and archbishop of Dub- : born at Antrim in Ireland, but descended a Scottish family, in 1650, and commenced er, as a divine, as chaplain to the archbishop in 1676. He died in 1729, and is now remembered for his treatise, ' De Origine on the origin of evil, which produced ani- sions from Bayle and Leibnitz, which be- | in fact, together with his ' Discourse on Fre- tion,' &c, to a widely-extended controversy attributes of God, continued through many at the commencement of last century, and Jing the names of the most eminent church- and freethinkers of the day. Archbishop ; did not reply to the censures of Bayle in his " le ; but, after his death, answers were found and were embodied in the notes upon a I edition of the work, published by Edmund who was opposed to him on his fundamental >le of analogy. The endeavour of the Arch- had been to reconcile the existence of evil "the goodness of God, without supposing a i of evil co-eternal with Deity ; and his me- | of argument was to represent the divine attri- essentially different from the moral attri- i of the human mind, which are used as their while the opposite writers held them to be me, but infinitely greater. The key to this rersy will be found in Clissold's lectures on 'Connection between Theology, Psychology, ~bysiology.' [E-R-] IGSBOROUGH, Edward, Viscount, a fel- the Antiquarian Society, au. of a valuable : on ' The Antiquities of Mexico,' 1795-1837. "TGSMILL, Andrew, a puritan divine and st, 1538-1569. His relation, Thomas, pro- of Hebrew at Oxford, from 1569 to 1579. IGSTON, Elizabeth Chudleigh, duch- a profligate woman of the court of George L720-1788. IAIRD, The Hon. Douglas, known as a lof Bvron, and a patron of letters, 1786-1830. ISKI, F. J., an Austrian general, 1739-18U5. ~~>ING, N. M., a Swed. trav., 1630-1667. ING, Thomas, dean of Peterborough, a of divinity at Cambridge, author of a on the Thirty-nine articles, &c, d. 1822. >ING, H., a German philologist, died 1678. 'IS, Andrew, D.D., an English Socinian kn. as a biographical and miscellaneous founder of the ' New Annual Register,' and of a ' History of Knowledge, Learning, and in Great Britain.' The best known of his the ' Biographia Britannica,' 1725-1795. iY, John Joshua, an artist patronised III., author of 'The Perspective of ture,' and father of the celebrated Mrs. 1716-1774. KIR KIRBY, Rev. William, an eminent entomo- logist, was born in Suffolk in 1759. He died in 1850. He was educated at Cambridge, and in the year 1782, was admitted into holy orders. In 1796, he became rector of Barham, having done the duties of curate of that parish for fourteen years. He first studied botany, and while collect- ing the plants of the neighbourhood in which he lived, he had his mind directed to the study of entomology. A little ' lady bird ' or * lady cow ' (Coccinella 22 punctata), one day attracted his attention on the window, and his admiration was so much excited, that he began to collect insects with as much zeal as he had already done plants. He has published many valuable papers and me- moirs on various entomological subjects, in the ' Linnajan Transactions ' and ' Zoological Journal ' but his great fame as an entomologist is derived from his ' Monographia Apum Angliae,' or History of English Bees his ' Introduction to Entomo- logy,' in conjunction with Mr. Spence, and his description of the insects in the ' Fauna boreali Amencana ' of Sir John Richardson. The first of these works at once stamped him as one of the best entomologists of the day; and had he written nothing else, his fame would have been established. The second has been translated into German and French, and has gone through six or seven edi- tions in this country, and combines the popular form with great scientific merit. Mr. Kirby con- scientiously performed his duties as a clergyman ; he was beloved by his parishioners, and enjoyed the esteem and friendship of most of the natural- ists of his own country, as well as of the continent of Europe and America. He was honorary presi- dent of the Entomological Society of London, fellow of the Royal, Linnaean, Zoological and Geo- logical Societies, and honorary member of several societies abroad. His life was prolonged to the venerable age of ninety-one. [W.B.] KIRCH, Gottfried, a celebrated German as- tronomer, 1639-1710. His wife, Mary Margaret Winckelmann, assistant of her husband, and author of astronomical works, 1670-1720. Chris- tian Frederic, son of the preceding, an astro- nomical observer and author, 1694-1740. KIRCHER, Athanasius, generallv called 'Fa- ther Kircher.' was a Jesuit of great fearning and varied abilities, born at Geysen, near Fulda, in Germany, 1601 ; died at Rome, in the situation of a professor of Hebrew and mathematics, 1680. His accomplishments seem to have ranged from the lowest to the highest point of the scale of hu- man ingenuity ; including many useful discoveries in his experimental philosophy, and some of the most abstruse subjects of inquiry in his speculations. His works, which were written in Latin, consist of thirty-six volumes, twenty-two of which are in folio, and nearly all the rest in 4to. In such a mass of writing and learned research, it may be supposed there is a good deal of trifling import ; but in his case, as in others of a similar kind, the extent of his labours has been the greatest obstacle to the due appreciation of them. Kircher's fa- vourite subject was the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and the school of Champollion glory over his dark guesses, as so many detected crimes against their new canon of criticism. It may be said, however, that he made the best he could of his 379 KIR traditional and other materials used seholastirally ; collecting with much labour, and putting together with marvellous ingenuity, the scattered notices which he found in ancient writers, and sparing no pains in making his own observations. Besides his literary and professional labours, Kircher tra- velled in China, He also collected a valuable museum' of antiquities, which he bequeathed to the college of Rome. [E.R.] KIRCHER, Conrad, a Germ, divine, 17th ct. KIRCHER, H., a Ger. missionary, 1608-1676. KIRKALDY, W., a partizan of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, executed at Edinburgh 1573. KIRKLAND, T., a medical author, 1721-1798. KIRKPATRICK, J as., an East Indian officer, known for his works in Oriental learning, d. 1812. KIRMANI, an Arabian author, 14th century. KIRSTEN, KIRCHSTEIN, or KIRSTENIUS, G., a German physician and botanist, 1613-1660. KIRSTEN, M., a philologist, 1620-1678. KIRSTEN, Peter, an Arabian scholar, physi- cian to Queen Christina, b. in Prussia 1577-1640. KIRWAN, Richard, born in Galway in the middle of the last century, died 1812. A dis- tinguished chemist, was originally, it is said, des- tined for the bar, but ultimately prosecuted chem- istry and mineralogy. He published a work on the ' Temperatures of Different Latitudes,' ' Ele- ments of Mineralogy,' ' Essay on the Analysis of Mineral Substances,' 'Essay on Phlogiston, 'Essay on Geology,' ' on Manures,' &c. It was his work on * Phlogiston ' which gained him most notoriety. It was distinguished by the able defence which he made of a bad cause ; but which was thoroughly refuted by Lavoisier, who succeeded in banishing for ever this myth from the field of chemistry. He was un- doubtedly the first chemist who appreciated the importance of inorganic substances as manures, and who advocated a knowledge of the constitu- tion of minerals as being the only criterion of their true position in nature. [R.D.T.] KIRWAN, W. B., an Irish divine, celebrated for his pulpit oratory, dean of Killala after his conversion to protestantism, 1754-1805. KITCHENER, Wm., an eccentric physician, author of ' The Cook's Oracle,' &c, 1775-1827. KITE, Charles, a medical author, died 1811. KLAPROTH, Heinrich Julius Von, son of the famous chemist of that name, distinguished as an Oriental scholar and critic, was born at Ber- lin in 1783. He abandoned the pursuits of his father, after making considerable progress in them, for the fascinating studies connected with the his- tory and antiquities of the East ; and as early as 1802, commenced the ' Asiatic Magazine ' at Dres- den. In 1805 he accompanied a Russian embassy to China ; and in the three years, 1807-1810, was employed by the Academy of St. Petersburg in ex- ploring the Caucasian mountains. On returning to Germany in 1812, he was appointed professor of the Asiatic languages at Berlin. In 1815 he visited Paris with the allies, and was so charmed with its attractions, that France became his adopted coun- try, and the remainder of his days were devoted to the propagation of Asiatic literature, including the organization of the Asiatic Society, in that ca- pital The works of Klaproth embrace nearly all the subjects of interest connected with Eastern learning, races, languages, monuments, and gene- KLO ral history. We may mention among tho! French, a Criticism of Champollioi: Chemistry translated from the Chii tation on the Roots of the Semitic I his editorial labours on the 'Asij I Died at Paris 1835. KLAPROTH, Martin Henry, born at W< gerode, 1743, died 1817. A student in vai laboratories at Quedlinburg, Hanover, B without any very distinguished insl roth became in his twenty-eighth ye Valentine Rose,who,however,dyingin a fewmoi he established a laboratory and class of his ow Berlin, and afterwards, when a university established, he became attached to it. Hfa was one of incessant labour, and he left volumes, with materials for a seventh, conn of upwards of 200 analyses of miner cuted with such accuracy, that his results eve the present day, with all the ad van 1 quent improvements, are quoted as models. was the discoverer of uranium, zirconia, titanic i (although anticipated by Gregor) strontian I anticipated by Crawford and Hope) tellurium oxide of cerium, which he termed ochroita). contributions to processes of analytic chemi were invaluable ; probably no chemist having developed more ot the characters of inorganic stances. Klaproth was modest, generous, selfish, and exhibited the benevolent tenden( his character, by the honourable care whicl bestowed on the education of the children of lentine Rose. He was also distinguished by religious principles, which directed his com and enabled him to avoid superstition on the side, and infidelity on the other. IRX KLASS, Fred. Chr., a Ger. landscape pail d. abt. 1800. His brother, Christian, d. 17 KLAUBER, J. S., a Ger. engraver, 1753-1 KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a famous gei of the French revolution, distinguished for his vices in Egypt, where he was assassinated 18( KLEIN, B., a German composer, 1794-183 KLEIN, E. F., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1743-11 KLEIN, F. A, a Ger. theologian, 1793-185 KLEIN, G. M., a Ger. philosopher, died 18 KLEIN, J. T., a Ger. naturalist, 1685-175! KLEIST, E. C. Von, a Ger. poet, 1715-17 KLEIST, H. Von, a German poet, 1776-1* KLEIST VON NOLLENDORF, Count Fi H. Ferdinand Emilius, a distinguished F sian general, 1763-1823. KLENKER, J. F., a Ger. theologian, 1749-1 KLINGEMANN, A., a Ger. dramatist, b. 1 KLINGENSTIERNA, Samuel, a Swt philosopher and mathematician, au. of Men upon Optics, an edition of Euclid, &c, 1689-1 KLINGER, F. M. Von, a Rus. dram., 1753-1 KLINGSTET, C. G., a Rus. pain., L657-t KLINTBERG, C, a Swed. financier, 1767-1 KLOCKER, D., a German painter, 168*4 KLOPSTOCK, Friedrich, a German was highly celebrated till the public taste rea a new direction from the more brilliant ^oniut the greater versatility and ease of (lothe. was horn in 1724, at Quedlinburg, in Pru Saxony. After receiving a regular (-duration. studying theology, he abandoned all profess views, and devoted himself entirely to litera 380 KLO his residence from place to place, re- considerable time at Copenhagen, whither B invited with a pension ; and the last of his life were passed at Hamburg, died in 1803. His greatest work, the >ic called ' The Messiah,' was published 1748, but not completed till 1773. Its dignity, its overflow of feeling, and its ty of diction, have long ceased to receive .tion which was once lavished on them, especially those of a religious cast, are valued by his countrymen, in spite of Lent obscurity. He made himself known ly also by philological writings. [W.S.] 'STOCK, Margaret, wife of the pre- fc author of a tragedy entitled ' The Death Hel,' and ' Letters from the Dead,' d. 1758. I OSE, F. J., an English composer, d. 1830. 1 OTZ, C. A., a German critic, 1738-1771. 1 UBER, J. L., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1762-1840. UGEL, G. S., a Ger. mathema., 1739-1812. ,UIT, A., a Dutch historian, 1735-1807. UPFEL, E., a Ger. theologian, 1733-1811. "ETH, D., a Hun. astronomer, 1783-1825. ]|TAPP, G. C, a Ger. theologian, 1753-1825. APTON, Geo., an Eng. pain., 1698-1788. JfjARSKI, S., a Polish savant, 1700-1775. lEIP, Chr. H., a Germ, painter, 1748-1825. KELLER, Sir Godfrey, a famous portrait Her, who was born at Lubeck about 1648, and Bind great distinction in England in the reigns m Urles II., James II., and William III. Many k portraits are at Hampton Court. He died Hbnerous circumstances 1723. RIAJENIN, J. B., a Russian poet, 1742-91. fclBB, Rev. William, distinguished for his ttkons in the cause of negro emancipation, was bo in 1800. He arrived in Jamaica in 1824, to Hr as teacher of a baptist school, and in 1829 be pastor of the mission church at Falmouth. efforts to improve their condition secured the n gratitude and affection of the poor negroes, provoked the jealousy and hostility of the Sots. After suffering many indignities in Hp he returned to England to advocate his ^Hto cause, and his heart-stirring appeals in Apr of total emancipation no doubt had their influence in inducing the British legis- ire to pass the great measure of 1833. He M afterwards returned to Jamaica, and died wllow fever in 1845. NIGHT, E., a comic actor, 1774-1826. N'liiHT, G., a speculative philosopher, last c. SIGHT, Henry Gally, M.P., distinguished man of taste and letters, author of ' Ecclesi- " Architecture of Italy,' * Architectural Tour mdy,' and many works in classical and literature, 1786-1846. 1GHT, Richard Payne, a gentleman of distinguished for his taste, his knowledge ical literature and antiquities, and as a iof the arts, author of ' A Discourse on the of Priapus, in Sicily,' ' An Essay on the IphabeV &c., 1750-1824. [GHT, S., a learned divine, died 1746. [GHT, Th., a dramatic writer, died 1820. [GHT, Th. And., brother of R. P. Knight, veg. physiology and horticulture, 1758-1838. IGHTON, Hy., an old chronicler, 15th ct. KNO KNIGHTON, Sir W., a physician and courtier, finally private secretary to George IV., d. 1836. KNITTEL, F. A., a Ger. minister, 1721-1792. KNOES, O. A., a Swedish savant, died 1804. KNOLLES, R., an English historian, d. 1610. KNOLLES, Sir Robert, a famous warrior of the reign of Edward III., called by French histo- rians Canolle ; he is said to have built Rochester bridge with his spoils acquired in France, 1317-1407. KNOLLIS, Sir F., an Eng. statesman, d. 1596. KNORR, G. W., a German engraver, 1705-61. KNORR-A-RUSENORTH, Christian, a fa- mous Oriental scholar and cabalistic wr., 1636-89. KNOTT, Ed., a learned Jesuit, 1580-1656. KNOWLER, W., an English divine, 1699-1767. KNOWLES, T., a learned divine, 1723-1802. KNOWLTON, T., an antiquarian, 1692-1782. KNOX, John, a tradesman of London, author of 'A Systematic View of Scotland,' written from his own observations, which had for their object the settlement of new towns in connection with a her- ring fishery on the N. E. coast of Scotland, d. 1790. KNOX, John, was born at Gifford in East Lothian in 1505. In his boyhood he attended the grammar school of Haddington, and in the year 1522 he was sent by his father to the university of Glasgow, and the name of Johannes Knox stands among the incorporati of that year. His precep- tor was Mair, or Major, at that time professor of philosophy and theology, who removed in the fol- lowing year to St. Andrews, whither Knox seems to have followed him, and where he taught the current philosophy. Before his twenty-fifth year Knox was ordained to the priesthood. But his examination of popish theology as usually taught did not satisfy him, and from the writings of Jerome and Augustine he turned to the study of the Scriptures themselves. By degrees he re- nounced scholastic theology as useless and unsound ; and about the year 1535, his mind began that decided process of scrutiny and repudiation which ended in his withdrawal from St. Andrews, and the vengeful arm of Cardinal Beaton, and in his formal avowal of protestantism about the year 1542. He soon found an asylum at Langniddrie, in the house of Hugh Douglas, to whose sons he acted for a short time as tutor. The principles of the reformation had now been spreading for some time the stake had been consuming its vic- tims the murder of Cardinal Beaton had pro- duced an immense excitement, the conspirators still held the castle of St. Andrews, and as it was reckoned a place of safety, Knox and his pupils took refuge in it at Easter, in the year 1547. Here he taught and exhorted, and being called to the ministry, exercised also the functions of a Christian pastor, and solemnly dispensed for the first time in public in Scotland the ordinance of the Lord's Supper, after the primitive and protes- tant mode. But in the month of June, a French fleet came to the assistance of the Regent Arran, invested the castle, and forced it to capitulate. Knox and some others were transported to Rouen, confined on board the galleys, and loaded with chains. After a severe and unhealthy imprison- ment of nineteen months, he was liberated in February, 1549, and repaired to England, was at once recommended to the English council, and sent by Cranmer to preach in Berwick. For two 381 KNO years he continued there, labouring with charac- teristic ardour, exposing the delusions of popery with no unsparing nand, and gaining hosts of con- verts to the cause of the reformation. Tonstall, bishop of Durham, cited him to Newcastle, and the undaunted Knox delivered a public vin- dication in presence of the bishop and the learned priests of his cathedral, and so increased his fame, that the priw council in London appointed him one of King Edward's chaplains, with a salary of .40 a -year. He was consulted also about some chants in the Book of Common Prayer, and fetters] form of service for the English Church, [is plain speech in the north of England made him many enemies, so that he was summoned to appear at London, where he had already declined a living, and commanded to vindicate himself; and he was there in full enjoyment of the roval patronage, when King Edward died, 6th July, 1553. After the accession of Mary he left the capital, preached in various parts of the country, and was married at Berwick to Mar- jory Bowes, a young lady to whom he had been long and warmly attached. Finding himself in increasing jeopardy, he left the kingdom and landed at Dieppe, on the 20th January, 1554; set out the next month and travelled through France to Switzerland, was cordially received hy the leading divines of the Helvetic churches, re- turned to Dieppe in order to gain information from his native land ; went back to Geneva and won the friendship of Calvin ; was again at Dieppe to learn still more of his family, and the cause of truth in Scotland ; took charge for a brief time of a dis- turbed church at Frankfort, revisited Geneva, and recrossed the channel in 1555. After visiting his wife at Berwick, he preached in Edinburgh and various parts of the country, patronised by many of the nobility and gentry ; dispensed the Lord s [Knox's Pulpit at St. Andrews.] Supper in Ayrshire, the region of the Scottish Lollards ; was in consequence of his zealous labours ordered to sist himself before a convention of the clergy, in the church of the Blackfriars at Edinburgh, but the summons was set aside, and the ' diet deserted.' Being about this time chosen KNO pastor of the English congregation at Gene\ with his family departed for Switzerland, remained in Geneva for the two following The English version, usually called the G Bible, was made at this time by the Ei exiles, and here, too, Knox blew ' The First of the Trumpet against the Monstrous iV of Women.' A series of changes favotifl the reformation had in the meanwhile been t place in Scotland, the protestants had g multiplied, the prospect of coming persec had banded them together, and Knox, on invitation, landed at Leith 2d May, 1559. sooner was it known to the terrified pries that the ardent reformer had returned, tb was proclaimed an outlaw. Joining wiU brethren, he repaired to Perth, and pre zealously against idolatry, while the chicane the Queen Regent, and the accidental folh priest so enraged the mob, that they pulled several religious houses and churches, over the altars, and defaced the pictures and in This tumult, the origin of which has been misrepresented, Knox distinctly ascribes fc ' rascal multitude.' The Queen Regent mtu her host to quell these riots ; and the prot< leaders, aware of her ultimate design, rata army in self-defence, but a treaty prevente< hostile engagement. The 'lords of the cong tion' were now alarmed into activity. Knox down to St. Andrews, and soon, as the effi his instructions, the popish worship was peac abolished, and the church stripped at once idolatrous symbols. This example was qu but not as peacefully followed in many other of the kingdom ; and so there perished valuable works of art, which had been deg by their application to superstitious pnf] When his party had obtained temporary pi sion of Edinburgh, Knox was chosen mini* the city, but he retired with the protestant : on the approach of the regent, made an ext< tour, and preached in many of the larger t After being formally ordained at Edinburj 1560, he pursued with ceaseless zeal the of reformation : a Confession had been al drawn up, a Book of Discipline was added the organization of the church was so far mat that the first General Assembly of the Chul Scotland was held at Edinburgh, on the December, 1560. No sooner had Queen arrived in Scotland, than she had a long int with the stem reformer, after a sermon whicl offended her. This was followed by meetings, but to no purpose. Knox's sermo this time were bold, defiant, and mightj tongue was a match for Mary's sceptre, was accused of high treason, but acquitt* spite of all the malignant influence of < and court. After being about three ye widower, he married in March, 1564, Mai) daughter of Lord Ochiltree, and connected the roval blood of Scotland. His dispute the abbot of Crossraguel about this peri familiar to most readers. The reformer | vered amidst growing difficulties the marrii the queen with Darnley, and its melancholj sequences the attempt to restore popery- ;ual assassination of Rizzio his own virtu 382 n KNO >nt, and the queen's refusal of permission im to return to Edinburgh. Darnley was bred Mary wedded Bothvvell soon resigned our of her son, appointed the earl of Murray during his minority, and fled to England good regent was assassinated, but Knox it his post at Edinburgh. Yet the re- eath, and his own multifarious anxieties labours during these critical times preyed his constitution, and in October, 1570, he ack with apoplexy. In the course of a ks he was able to preach again, but not ^Jb wonted vigour. In the meantime the l'g party gained strength by the weakness of 0X, the abilities of Maitland, and the defec- of Kircaldy of Grange ; and when the civil broke out he retired to St. Andrews, still ing on by tongue, pen, and counsel, the great to which his life had been devoted. During ion of arms he returned to Edinburgh, shone out in his pristine style when, on ng of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, he onced in glowing terms Charles IX. of France. however, soon seized his emaciated and after a very brief period of increasing ,y, he died 24th November, 1572. Two afterwards his body was interred in the ryard of St Giles. The funeral was attended _i immense concourse of weeping and af- d people, as well as of the resident nobility, the Regent Morton pronounced over him the own eulogium, 'There lies he who never the face of man ' Knox was of small _ , and by no means of a robust constitution. character has been pourtrayed very differently " >us writers. Indiscriminate eulogy would as much out of place as sweeping censure be unjust. The reformer was cast upon an of violence and change, and he needed a ident energy. Elegance and delicacy of were not common at the period, and ave been crushed in the tumult. Knox and wrote his honest thoughts in transparent in terse and homely simplicity, and with of uncouthness and solecism than might ined. He was obliged to appear not like r in the graceful folds of an academic toga, a warrior clad in mail, and armed at all for self-defence and aggression. It must been a mighty mind that could leave its i on an entire nation, and on succeeding He was inflexible in maintaining what he be right, and intrepid in defending it. His was menaced several times, but he moved not the path of duty. The genial affections of friendship, and kindred, often stirred his amidst all his sternness and decision. In he resembled the hills of his native country, ich with their tall and splintered precipices, " shaggy sides, and wild sublimity of aspect, often conceal in their bosom green valleys, jar streams, and luxuriant pastures. [J.E.] aNOX, Robert, an East Indian officer, au. of History of the Island of Ceylon,' pub. 1681. KNOX, Vicesimus, a clergyman of the Church {England, distinguished as a theological writer H essayist, was born in 1752 ; and, though edu- ed at Oxford, received his degree of D.D. from liladelphia. He was considered an eloquent KOS preacher, and much in vogue for preaching charity sermons, &c. ; died 1821. His son, Rev. Thomas Knox, D.D., succeeded him as master of Tunbridge grammar school, and in the rectories of Rumwell, and Ramsden Crays, in Essex. Died suddenly, 1843. KNUPFER, N., a German painter, 1603-1660. KNUTSSON, Torkel, grand marshal and senator of Sweden, beheaded at Stockholm 1305. KNUTZEN, or KNUZEN, Mathias, a German fanatic and atheist, in great notoriety about 1674. KNUTZEN, M., a Ger. philosopher, 1713-51. KOB, J., a German philosopher, 1598-1661. KOCH, C. W., a native of Strasburgh, distin. for his researches in middle age antiquities, and author of ' The Revolutions of Europe,' 1737-1813. KOECHER, H. F., a Ger. Orient,, 1747-1792. KOECK, P., a Flemish engraver, 1490-1550. KOEGLER, J., a Jesuit missionary, 1680-1746. KOEHLER, J. B., a German critic, 1742-1802. KOEHLER, John David, a learned German, author of laborious works in history and archaeo- logy, 1684-1755. John Tobias, one of his fifteen sons, a learned numismatist, 1720-1767. KOENIG, E., a naturalist of Basle, 1658-1731. His son, of the same name, a mathem., 1678-1752. KOENIG, F., a Ger. mechanician, died 1833. KOENIG, G. M., a German savant, author of a Latin Biographical Dictionary, &c, 1616-1699. KOENIG, H. G., a Ger. bibliopole, 1697-1757. KOENIG, J. G., a dist. Ger. botanist, 1728-85. KOENIG, S.H., a Swiss theologian, 1670-1750. His son, Daniel, translator of Arbuthnot on An- cient Coins, killed by a mob at the age of twenty- two, 1725-1747. Samuel,, brother of the pre- ceding, prof, of philosophy and ethics, 1712-57. KOEPPER, J. H. J., a Ger. Hellenist, 1755-91. KOERNER, Chr. Godfrey, a literary savant of Saxony, kn. as a wr. on aesthetics, 1756-1831. KOERNER, Theodore, son of the preceding, celebrated as a lyrical poet and dramatic author, and for his patriotism and courage as a soldier, born 1788, shot on the plains of Leipzig when fighting against the French, 1812. KOES, Frederic, a Danish astr., 1684-1766. KOETS, R., a Flemish painter, 1655-1725. KOHL, J. P., a German historian, 1698-1778. KOIALOWICZ, Albert, a learned Polish Jesuit, au. of a ' History of Lithuania,' 1609-1674. KOLBE, or KOLBEN, Peter, a German as- tronomer, author of a ' Description of the Cape of Good Hope,' 1675-1726. KOLLER, Baron F., an Aus. gen., 1767-1826. KOLLMAN, A. F. C, a Ger. com., 1756-1829. KONIGSMARK, Maria Aurora, countess of, celebrated for her share in the political trans- actions of the period, as the mistress of Augustus II., king of Poland, and mother, by the king, of the famous Marshal Saxe, 1678-1768. KORTHOLT, Christian, a Lutheran divine, flourished in Germany, 1633-1694. His grandson, of the same name, also a theologian, 1709-1751. KOSCIUSKO. Thaddeus Kosciusko was born in 1756, of a noble but not wealthy Lithuanian family. He was educated for a military life ; and, while young, he went to America with other volun- teers, and served the United States in their war of independence against England. He accquired high credit there for skill and courage, and rose to the rank of general in the American army. At 383 KOS the end of this war, Kosciusko returned to Poland. When the crowned conspirators of Prussia, Russia, and Austria, attacked Poland in 17'.12, 1793, and effected the second partition of that unhappj at the head of one of the national armies, until the treacherous cowardice of the Polish king Stanis- laus paralyzed all the efforts of the defenders of the land. Kosciusko now became a refugee; but when the Poles rose against their oppressors in 1794, Kosciusko returned to serve his country. He was rapturously welcomed. The Poles made him their generalissimo, and their dictator. Never did a nation trust a great man more generously ; and never was a trust more nobly and disinterest- edly fulfilled. He maintained order ; he strove to ameliorate the condition of the serfs. He sum- moned an assembly of representatives of the nobles, and of representatives of the cities. And he gave a brilliant example of an enthusiastic lover of liberty, who was stained by no deed of violence or injus- tice, and who was never hurried by democratic favour into forgetfulness of the shortcomings, as well as of the capabilities, of the age and nation in which he lived. In the field, Kosciusko struggled long and gallantly against adverse fortune and overwhelming numbers. Simple in his habits, un- affected in his manners, amiable and mild to his comrades and associates, chivalrously bold in dan- ger, and sternly resolute when duty required, he was the idol of his soldiers' hearts ; and he com- manded esteem even from his foes. After many alternations of success, Kosciusko was at last wounded and taken prisoner by the Russians at the fatal battle of Maciovice (1st October, 1794), and the complete downfall of his country soon followed. He was for some time kept in prison by the Russians ; but, in 1796, the emperor Paul released him, and offered him rank in the Russian armies, which was declined. Kosciusko passed some time in the United States and in England, and he then lived in retirement near Paris. He saw through the selfish ambition of Napoleon, and refused to become a soldier of fortune under the French Eagle. In 1814, he exerted himself to obtain for Poland, from the Russian emperor Alex- ander, a free constitution like the English, an am- nesty for all exiles, and the institution of schools for the education of the serfs. Disappointed in the hopes which he formed respecting Alexander's treatment of his country, Kosciusko retired in- to complete privacy at Soleure in Switzerland, where he closed his unstained and noble life in 1817. [E.S.C.] KOSE GARTEN, B. C, a Dutch theologian, 1722-1803. His son, Louis Theobul, a dramatic writer and translator, 1758-1818. KOSTER, H., an English traveller, 1793-1820. KOSTROW, E. L., a Russian poet, died 1796. KOTTER, Chk., a German prophet, 1585-1647. KOTZEBUE, August Von, born at Weimar in 1761, became an advocate. In 1781 he received the first of a series of appointments under the Russian government. Public business divided his time with literary composition, especially drama- tic : he was for two years poet of the court theatre at Vienna ; and his place of residence was changed several times, partly through feuds into which he became entangled with Gothe and his KRA adherents. In 1817, he received from the Rt court an appointment more lucrative than ho able, being charged with the duty of commoi ing to his employers information as to the st opinion in Germany. He aggravated the popularity of this employment by scoffing at 1 and constitutional opinions in a wean which he conducted; and, in 1819, Sand, ani student, seeking him out in Manhcim, didwr. thought to be good service to the father M assassinating the Russian spy. Besides a r, of other works, Kotzebue wrote nin( The best of these are to be found among the < dies, some of which have lively wit and exac servation of manners; but he is best knoi England, and not to the credit of German ] ture, by some of his serious plays, such as ' Pfa ' The Stranger,' and Lovers' Vows.' Hu countrymen would be very unwilling to have productions accepted as fair specimens of dramatic poetry. I \ KOTZEBUE, Otto Von. son of the brated German dramatist, went with Kr stern as midshipman in a voyage to Japan in the object of which was to establish a trot tween Russia and that country. In 1815 1 sail from Plymouth on a voyage round the i as lieutenant in command of a Russian si 180 tons, and made some important discoveri the north-west coast of America. Disabled accident, he abandoned the idea of penetrati the Polar Sea, and returned home in 1818. captain of a ship of war in the same servii made a second voyage in 1824-1826, and covered some islands in the Pacific. Accoui both voyages have been published ; of the by himself; of the second by Escholtz, the known naturalist who accompanied him. KOULNEFT, J., a Russian gen., 1773-18 KOUMAS, C. M., a philosopher, mathemat and gram., b. in Thessaly 1775, d. at Trieste KOURAKIN, Boris Ivanovitch, a Rus, and ambassador to Paris and London, 1677-1 KOURAKIN, Prince, a Rus. diplo., 1752- KOUTOUSOFF* Smolenskoi, field-ma of Russia, distinguished in the late war, 1745- KRACHENINNIKOW, Stephen, a Ru naturalist, and writer on Kamtschatka, 1712- KRAFFT, J. C., an Aus. designer, 1764-1 KRAFFT, J. L., a Flemish engraver, last KRAFT, George Wolfgang, a Ge physician, distinguished as an experimental [ sopher, 1701-1754. His son, W. Louis, ai tronomer, 1743-1814. KRAHE, L., a Flemish painter, died 1790, KRANACH, Lucas Sunder of, a distingu painter, time of Luther and Melancthon, t portraits by him are still in existence, 1475-' His son, of the same name, also a painter, d. KRANTZ, A., a German historian, died li KRANTZ, G., an eccles. historian, 1660-1' KRASICKI, Ignatius, prince bishop of mia, and one of the most distinguished liter Poland, born 1735, died at Berlin 1801. KRAUS, G. M., a Ger. painter and eng., li KRAUS, J. Ulric, a Ger. engr., 1615-17 KRAUS, M., a Germ, philologist, 1526-16; KRAUSE, Charles Christian Fred; born at Eisenberg 6th May, 1781, died on 381 KRA ember, 1832. Mention of this ingenious and )und metaphysician is introduced here, with simple view of recommending to the English ent one of the most judicious successors of t. His writings are altogether fertile. In so s the writer is aware, he is the first who has Highly supplanted the old division of the mind faculties, by proposing to examine it under its i normal modes of action as it thinks, feels, wills. In itself a great reform, suggested aps by Kant's scheme of three Critiques; Rxause has many other claims that would kfully be recognized by a thoughtful English- RAUSE, F., a German painter, 1706-1754. RAUSE, G. F., a Prus officer, 1768-1836. RAUSE, G. F., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1718-84. RAUSE. J. C, a Prussian historian, 1749-99. RAUSE, J. C. H., a Prus. savant, 1757-1808. [RAUSE, J. G., a Ger. philologist, 1684-1736. [RAUSE, KRAUSS, or KRAUS, J. Baptiste, akrned prelate of the Benedictine order, 1700-62. [RAUSE, S. A., a Dutch painter, 1760-1825. IRAY, Baron De, a native of Hungary, dist. aTgeneral in the Austrian service, died 1801. [REBEL, T. F., a Ger. geographer, 1729-93. [REUTZER, Rodolph, a celebrated musical eJposer and performer on the violin, 1767-1831. fREYSIG, F. L., a Ger. physician, 1770-1839. FRUDENER, Bourcard Alex. Constance, Ion De, a Russian diplomatist, 1744-1802. His It, Juliette Vietinghoff, Baroness De Hdener, authoress of ' Valerie,' a romance founded per own life, and afterwards celebrated as a nfchetess, time of Napoleon, 1766-1824. RUMMACHER, F. A., a rel. wr., 1768-1845. [RUNITZ, J. G., a German compiler, 1728-96. RUSE, Ch., a German savant, 1753-1827. RUSEMARK, Baron De, a Prussian general, rwards political ambas. to France, died 1821. BUSINSKI, J. T., a Polish mission., d. 1754. UEHN, C. G., a Ger. med. author, 1754-1840. DEN, M., an Austrian savant, 1709-1765. UH, E. M , a German poet, 1731-1790. UHL, H., a German naturalist, 1797-1821. UIILMAN, Quirinus, a native of Prussia, LAB celebrated for his prophecies, for which he was burned alive in Russia 1689. A list of forty-two works written by him is given in Adelung's ' History of Human Folly.' KUHN, J., a Prussian savant, 1647-1693. KULM, J. A., a German anatomist, 1680-1745. His brother, John George, a physician, d. 1731. KULM ANN, E., a Russian poetess, 1808-182,3. KUNCKELL, J., a German chemist, 1630-1702. KUNRATH, H., a Ger. alchymist, died 1605. KUSTER, G. G., a Ger. historian, 1695-1776. KUSTER, L., a German critic, 1670-1716. KUTTNER, C. G., a German trav., 1755-1805. KUTUSOFF. See Koutousoff. KUYCK, J. Van, a Dutch painter on glass, born 1530, suffered at the stake 1572. KUYP, or CUYP, A., a Dutch pain., 1606-67. KUYPERS, G., a Dutch Orientalist, last cent. KYDERMYNSTER, or KIDDERMINSTER, Richard, a learned eccles. and antiquar., d. 1531. KYNASTON, Sir Francis, a courtier of the reign of Charles L, dist. as a poet 1587-1642. KYNASTON, John, an Eng. divine, 1728-83. KYRLE, John, a distinguished benefactor, im- mortalized in the writings of Pope as ' The Man of Ross,' died at the age of ninety in 1754. [Kyrle's Summer House.J A AN, H. Vander, a Dutch engrav., b. 1690. AAR, or LAER, Peter Van, a Dutch pain- called, from his style, Bamboccio, 1613-1675. ABACO. See Abaco Anthony. A BAD IE, John, a French Jesuit, who became kable as a preacher of new doctrines, and had y followers in France and Germany, 1610-1674. the father of Rachel and Leah, and the idson of Nahor, about 1800 B.C. ABARRE, S., a French architect, 1764-1824. ABARTHE, P., a Fr. traveller, 1760-1824. ABASTIE, Joseph Bimard, Baron De, a ich archaeologist, editor of a new edition of iencs des Medailles,' 1703-1742. ABAT, John Baptist, a French missionary, au. of several relations of his travels, 1663-1738. ABBE, C, a French jurisconsult, 1582-1657. ABBE, P., a French antiquarian, 1594-1680. ABBE, Ph., a learned Fr. Jesuit, 1607-1667. LABBEY, F., a French antiquarian, 1653-1727. L ABE, LorsiE, surnamed ' the beautiful rope- maker,' a native of Lyons, distinguished for her extraordinary talents and courage in arms at the siege of Perpignan; besides her poems in three different languages, she is the author of a dra- matic piece, entitled 'Debat de la Folie et de l'Amour,' 1526-1566. LABEDOYERE, Charles Angelique Fran- cois Huchet, Count De, one of Napoleon's gen- erals, shot for rejoining the emperor, 1786-1815. LABEO, the surname of several Roman families, the most celebrated members of which are Quin- tus Fap.ius, consul, 197 B.C. Antistius, a sena- tor and jurisconsult, died 31 b c. Caius Antis- tius, son of the preceding, a jurisconsult and his- torian. Antistius, a proconsul and painter, of the 1st century ; and Attius, a poet, and contem- porary of Nero, 1st century. 385 2C LAB LABERIUS, a Roman dramatist, died B.C. 44. LABEY, J. B., a French geometr., 1750-1825. LABIENUS, TITUS, a Rom. general, k. 45 B.C. LABORDE, A. De, a French poetess, last cen. LABORDE, H.F.,CountDe,aFr.officer,d.l833. LABORDE, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit, and writer on the mechanism of electricity, d. 1777. LABORDE, J kan Jose De, a gentleman of fortune, who became banker to the court of France, and was executed 1794. His son, F. G. Joseph. a deputy to the constituent assembly, died in Eng- land 180L His third son, A. L. Joseph, count de la Borde, a liberal deputy of the restoration, aid-de-camp to the king after 1830, author of an itinerary of Spain, and of several political and antiquarian works, 1774-1841. LABORDE, John Benjamin De, first valet de chambre to Louis XV., distinguished as a com- poser and writer on the hist, of music, exec. 1794. LABORIE, J. B. P., a Fr. physician, 1797-1823. LABOULLAYE-MARILLAC, P. C. Made- leine, Count De, a French chemist, 1774-1824. LABOUREUR, J. Le, a Fr. historian, 1623-75. LABRADOR, J., a Spanish painter, died 1G00. LABRE, B. J., a monk of La Trappe, 1748-76. LABROUSSE, Clotilda Susanna Courcel- lks De, bom 1741, was an ascetic of the order of St. Francis, who became greatly celebrated by her frophecies at the period of the French revolution. Ier impulse was to travel over the world, in order to convert the whole human race by her preaching, but her superiors refused their consent, and she addressed a memorial on the subject, with an ac- count of her life, to M. Pontard, the constitutional bishop of Dordogne. This document came into the hands of Dom Gerle, once a monk, who in 1759 entered into a correspondence with her, and in 1790 endeavoured to introduce her into the na- tional assembly. She afterwards went to Rome, preaching to the populace on her way, and propos- ing to herself the conversion of the pope, but she was arrested in Italy, and imprisoned in the castle of St. Angelo till 1796, when the directory procured her liberation. Two years later she returned to Paris with the French troops, and was surrounded with a circle of believers till her death in 1821. The duchesse de Bourbon published some curious particulars concerning her in 1791, and her works were collected by Bishop Pontard in 1797. La- martine has perpetuated the mistaken belief that she died in the castle of St. Angelo, while the chair of the illuminee was occupied by Catherine Tlieos, the new flame of Dom Gerle, at Paris. [E.R.] LABRUNE, J. De, a French historian, d. 1743. LABRUYERE. See Bruyere. LA-CAILLE, Nicolas Louis De. born March 15, 1713, died March 21, 1762 ; a celebrated French astronomer ; one of the best Observers in modern times. He had no superior in industry, activity, and honour; and i'ew men have ever handled instruments, equal to him in that envi- able power, which enables the Observer to produce exactness of result, even though his instrument be imperfect. La-Caille was honourably connected with that measurement of the degree of the meridian in France, which rectified Picard's erroneous esti- mate, and went to establish the true shape of the Earth ; but his principal achievements lay at the Cape of Good Hope, where he remained four years LAC surveying the southern lnavens. After fixing! {daces of about ten thousand stars, he returned 'aris and published the results of his voj works are numerous, the chief being the / Astronomic and the Ctcltnn Australe. i pal catalogue has recently been recomputed w every care, and republished. No name in Obser tion ranks higher than La-Caille's. [J.P.] LACARRY, Giles, a French Jesuit, and p fessor of polite literature, philosophy, and tn logy, celebrated as a numismatist, 1605-1684. LA-CATHELINIERE, Nicholas Ripai De, one of the most daring of the Vendean cbi born 1760, executed at Nantes 1794. LACAZE, L. De, a Fr. medical writer, 17fl LACEPEDE, Bernard Germain Etibb De La Ville Sur Illon, Count De, a celebfll French naturalist, pupil of Buffon and Daubent author of ' Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupe Ovipares et des Serpents,' ' Histoire Naturelle Poissons,' ' Histoire Naturelle des Cetaces,' t 1756-1825. LACHAN, G. De, a French antiquarian, las LACKMAN, A. H., a Germ, philol., 1694-17 LA-CLOS, Peter Ambrose Francis Cj derlos De, a French officer after the revolut: editor of the 'Journal des Amis de la Constituti and author of 'Les Liaisons Dangereuses,' ' Poesies Fugitives,' 1741-1803. LACOMBE, F., editor of the ' Letters of Ch tina Queen of Sweden,' a ' Dictionary of French,' &c, 1733-1795. LACOMBE, J., a miscellaneous writer, aul of a ' History of Christina, queen of Sweden,' 17 1801. His brother Honors Lacomke Prezel, a writer on jurisprudence, born 17fl LACOMBE-SAINT-MICHEL, Jean Pfl a French officer, and conventionalist, 1749-18C LA-CONDAMINE, C. M. De, a Fr. astronoi au. of travels in the interior of America, 1701-1' LACRAIX, S. F., a Fr. geometrician, 1765-15 LACRETELLE, P. II., a French author, tmguished for his writings on jurisprudence, the reform of the criminal code, 1751-1824. LACRUZ, J. De, a Spanish painter, 16th c LACRUZ, J. Inez De, arelig. poetess, 1614 LACRUZ, M. De, a Sp. his. painter, 1750- LACRUZ-Y-CANO, R.. a Sp. dramat., 1728 LACTANTIUS. Lucius Caecilius Lact tius Firmianus, was in all probability a na of Italy, and born about the middle of the t century. He studied rhetoric in Africa, as the p of Arnobius. His own fame as a teacher of the 6 art^was so extensive, that Diocletian invited hii settle at Nicomedia, and open a school of orat But his career in this Greek city was by no m< so successful as might have been anticipated f imperial patronage ; and therefore he devoted hours, not to rhetoric, but to literary composit When an old man, he superintended the educa of Crispus, son of Constantine, and he seemi have died in Gaul, perhaps about 330. The p cipal work of Lactantius is his ' Divine Institu divided into seven books ; designed to re paganism, and show, in various ways, the sup< purity and lustre of the Christian faith. Lac tius wrote also two tracts ' On the Anger of G and ' On the Workmanship of God,' along wit Symposium, an Itinerary, and numerous EpL r LAC oems. The disquisition ' On the Death of the cutors,' which many critics have assigned to er Caecilius, describes the miserable fate of who attempted to suppress Christianity by [ and fire. The style of this Father has been admired, and he has been called the j tian Cicero. Certainly he excels all his con- raries in the classical form of his style, in j Taceful and rhythmical construction of his 4 is, and the easy and lucid sequency of his < aes. His knowledge of theology was very 4 ficial and inaccurate. The editio princeps of 1 1 orks was printed at Subiaco, in 1465, and other editions have followed at various and in various places. His book 'On the ] Ai of the Persecutors' has been twice translated j English, by Gilbert Burnet 1687, and by Sir fl 1 Dalrymple 1792. [J.E.] C T, Don St., a Spanish general, 1775-1817. .CY, John, a dramatic wr. and actor, d. 1681. lCYDES, a Greek philosopher, B.C. 241. DERCHI, J., an Italian historian, d. 1738. DERCHI, J. B., an Ital. jurist, 1538-1618. DISLAUS, k. of Bohemia. See Uladislas. D1SLAUS, k. of Poland. See Uladislas. .DISLAUS I., king of Hungary, born 1041, injeded 1079, died 1095, and was canonized for wiety by Celestin III., 1198. Ladislaus II., call the infant, succeeded and died the same fc 1200. Ladislaus III. succeeded 1272, assas- fter a life of debauchery and a disgrace- Pfign, 1290. Ladislaus IV., the same as Ulsfas V., king of Poland, succeeded his fa- thtn the latter dignity, 1435, and was elected by ihHungarians, 1440, killed in battle by the Sui- te jmurath, 1444. Ladislaus V. succeeded in the ifrear of his age, 1444, and died suddenly 1458. LfSLAUS VI., son of Casimir IV., king of Po- ia:| and called, according to the Polish form of hit aine, Uladislas II., became king of Bohemia 14 and king of Hungary 1490, died 1516. IDISLAUS, or LAUNCELOT, king of Naples, 1876, sue. his father Charles (Durazzo) III. tod by Louis of Anjou 1411, died 1414. JJVOCAT, J. B., a Fr. Hebraist, 1709-1765. lDVOCAT, L. F., a Fr. philoso., 1644-1735. XUS, a Rom. emp., procl. and kil. 266. S, Caius, a Roman commander, com- jm-in-arms of Scipio Africanus, consul B.C. 190. Blon, of the same name, surnamed 'The Wise,' its an oratorand man of letters, consul b.c. 140. lENNEC, R. T. II.. a Fr. physic, 1781-1826. lER, Peter De. See Laae. US, Marcus Valerius, a naval com- Wler of Rome, opposed to Philip of Macedon, til he defeated B.C. 214, consul 210, died 205. VI X US, Publius Valerius, con., b.c 280. ;.\ ' X I US, Torrentinus, archbishop of Meck- Iptraguished as a Latin poet and ed.> d. 1595. BE, R. De, a Fr. des. and engr., 1654-84. i E, A. De, a Swiss minister, died 1618. E, J. Elie Laniget De, a French ma- Utician, 1671-1748. His brother, Jean Fran- iomatist and man of letters, 1674-1731. |FA\ ETTE, Gilbert Motier De, a French Mial, dist. in the wars with the Engl., b. 1428. KITE, Louise Motier De, maid of Nir to the queen of Louis XIIL, and founder of invent of Chaillot, where she died, 1665. LAF LAFAYETTE, Marie Madeleine Pioche De La Vergne, Comtess De, a eel. novl., 1632-93. LAFAYETTE, Marie Paul Jean Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis De, one of the most illustrious names in the annals of modern history, was born at Chavaignac, in Auvergne, 1757, and commenced his career at the court of Louis XV., at the period when hostilities were commencing between Britain and her American colonies. At the age of twenty he left the arms of his bride, and, fitting out two vessels with arms and provisions, sailed for Boston; was received by Washington and his army with acclamations, and, joining their ranks as a volunteer, was wounded in his first action near Philadelphia, and com- manded the vanguard of the patriot army at the capture of New York. On returning to France, when peace was concluded with the mother coun- try, Lafayette found himself in possession of an immense popularity, and presently took his seat with the notables, convoked in 1787. The ques- tions of public right in ferment at this crisis are matters of history. Lafayette embraced the popu- lar cause, and was the first to demand the convo- cation of the estates-general. Elected deputy to the latter body in 1789, he proposed the ' Declara- tion of Rights,' which he had brought from the free soil of America, as the preliminary of a con- stitution. Proclamation of this world-renowned document was made July 22, and it furnished the French people with the metaphysical reasons for the ' sacred right of insurrection ' a well-known phrase of Lafayette's. Meanwhile the Bastile had been taken July 14, the national guard organized, and Lafayette appointed to the command. In this capacity he rode a white charger, and shone the impersonation of chivalry, and twice the royal family owed their preservation to his address and courage the greatest of these occasions being the march on Versailles, 5th and 6th of October. Some months later, 12th May, 1790, he joined Bailly in forming the club of Feuillants to counteract the Jacobins formerly ' the friends of the constitu- tion,' to which his party had belonged before its final transformation. The arrest of the king at Varennes, being followed by the petition for his deposition on the field of Mars, Lafayette lost much of his popularity by assisting Bailly to dis- perse the people, which was not accomplished with- out bloodshed. In the lull of the popular enthu- siasm he returned to his native fields, the national guard, on his retirement, presenting him with a bust of Washington, and a sword forged from the bolts of the Bastile. When the coalition was formed, and their armed troops threatened the frontier, he was appointed general of one of the armies opposed to them. While in this command, the progress of the Jacobins, and the outrages committed upon the royal family, provoked him to address letters of remonstrance to Paris, and these not producing any eifect, be was chivalrous enough to leave his troops and appear at the bar of the assembly. Before leaving the capital on this oc- casion, he had arranged with the king for a review of the national guard, when the ' constitution' was to be saved by a coup de main ; but the review was countermanded in the night, Lafayette rejoined his army, was burnt in effigy by the sansculottes of Paris, and, at length, endeavouring to escape from 387 LAF Frinee, was captured bv the Austrians and im- prisoned at Olinutz. fie was confined from the failure of the constitution to the assumption of power by Buonaparte, and released in 1797. La- favctte had no share in any of the events connected with the death of the king and the reign of terror, ami, in the years following, rejected every overture of the consul and emperor. His first movement in public was made after the battle of Waterloo, when he endeavoured to preserve the chamber of representatives in being, on the principle that it derived its authority from the electors not from Buonaparte, by whom it was convoked and with the view of restoring the public liberties. These arguments were urged upon Blucher and Welling- ton without effect, and Lafayette returned to pri- vate life. In the year 1818, he became a member of the chamber of deputies, and, resuming his career as an advocate of constitutional principles, had the satisfaction of seeing the dream of his life realized in 1830. It was to Lafayette, intrusted with the power of a dictator, in his original char- acter of commander of the national guard, that Louis Philippe owed his elevation to the throne. Time, wiser or more capricious than he, allowed him to see the stone hurled at the feet of his idol, and he carried this saddest of all lessons with him into eternitv, 1834. [E.R.] LA-FERTE-IMBAULT, Maria Theresa G i.( >ffrin, Marchioness De, celebrated for her lite- rary abilities, 1715-1791. LAFFITTE, James, the principal of a famous banking establishment at Paris, distinguished in political history as an Orleanist, 1767-1844. LAFFON-LADEBAT, a political writer of the legisl. assembly and council of elders, 1746-1829. LAFITAU, J. F., a French Jesuit, distinguished by his accounts of the North American Indians, and the discoveries of the Portuguese, died 1740. His brother, Peter Francis, a French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 1685-1764. LAFITE, Ma. Eliz. De, a Fr. writer, 1750-94. LAFOND, C. Ph., a Fr. violinist, 1776-1842. LAFONT, Joseph De, a dramatist, 1686-1725. LAFONTAINE, Augustus Henry Julius, a celebrated German romance writer, 1756-1831. LAFONTAINE, John De. See Fontaine. LAFOREY, Sin F., a Brit, admiral, 1767-1835. LAFORGE, J. De, a French poet, 17th centurv. LAFOSSE, C. De, a French painter, 1640-171(3. His nephew, Anthony, a drama, poet, 1653-1708. LAFOSSE, J. B. J. De, a Fr. engrav., b. 1721. LAFOSSE, J. F., a Fr. preacher, 1734-1813. LAFOSSE, Stephen W., and his son, Philip Stephen, dist. as veterinary surgeons, last cent. LAGARAYE, Claude Tous. Marot, Count De, dist. as the founder of schools for the young, and hospitals for the aged and sick, 1675-1755. LAGARDE, Anthony Escalin Des Aimars, Baron De, a eel. naval tactician and diplom., d. 1578. LAGARDE, Philip Bidard De, a French dramatic writer and man of letters, 1710-1767. LAGARDIE. See Gardie. LAGERBRING, S., a Swed. historian, 1707-88. LAGERLOEF, Peter, professor of eloquence at Upsala, and historian of N. Europe, 1648-1699. LAGERSTROEM, Magnus Von, a Swedish tavant, translator, and natural philos., 1696-1759. LAGNY, T. F. De, aFr. mathema., 1660-1734. LAG LAGOMARSINI, J., an Ttal. tnvcmt, 1698-1 LAGRANGE, a Fr. classical transla., 1738- LAGRANGE, Joseph De Chancel De,i dramatist, eel. for his precocious talents, 1675-1 LAGRANGE, Joseph Louis, born at Ti 25th January, 1736, died at Paris, 10th A 1813; a man prevented only by the ri Laplace, from being held, by common com the most illustrious geometer of modi The honourable rivalry of these great men wai most life-long ; nor could it be easily declifl any special date which was foremost in the i Living at a time when the exigencies of H demanded, and its possessions pointed to new thods and great conquests, their united lab constitute its Modem Epoch: now to one, then to the other, the glory of the last adv was due. Speaking of the sum of their achi ments, this perhaps may, without injustice said, if Laplace, to some extent, surpassed compeer in the range of his view, and manifle more of an encyclopaedic force, that high n which belongs to intensity in the power of neralizing, and therefore to taste and lucidit composition, must be awarded to Lagrange. Analyst ever possessed a finer appreciation of thod, than tne illustrious Piedmontese ; w name accordingly is inscribed among the Fat every department of Inquiry Avhich arrested notice. This especial characteristic of his genitK best appear through a brief synopsis of his i achievements. I. In reference to the effort Lagrange to bestow on the Infinitesimal Calc a logical place in pure Analysis, it cannot per! be asserted that success was complete ; nefl less his positive success has been underval Previous to his time, that Calculus had beencl regarded as a powerful Instrument towards portant positive results. Indeed, if one ej that ever-memorable section of the Principi could not be said that attention had been pai its philosophical basis, so much as to the effi of its methods ; nor had the expositions eitbi Leibnitz or D'Alembert rendered farther rest unnecessary to the solidity and symmetry o Transcendental Analysis. Desirous to estabfifl symmetry, Lagrange proposed to discard consi ation alike of Infinitesimals and Limits; an attach the new Power to the old Foundation! presenting differentials as co-efficients of the cessive terms of the Infinite Series represei a Function in which the variable has receive* increment. The validity of his proof that e function thus modified, must be representei the series known as Taylors Theorem, has strongly contested : but apart from such critic it is very certain that by resting the d the Calculus, on the doctrine of Infinite Series do not get rid of the Idea of a Limit: we can attach no notion to an Equation, one si which is an Infinite Series, except that the c and apparently definite side expresses the 1 of that Series : and besides, in every a] the Calculus of Functions thus based- Geometrical or Dynamical Problems ter was reduced to the necessity of again din employing the logic and phraseology of Lii Unless however, as vitiated by this logical an< most technical defect at the threshold, the su< 388 LAG e Theorie des Fonctinns cannot be questioned. ^ 'ange has not succeeded in discarding the deration of Limits, he has presented Analysis greater dependence upon it, than are other hes of Science. After the publication of that able work, it could nowhere be said that aneous element inhered in the Method of t, but only that it belonged to the nature thing treated: and as a necessary and im- ate effect of this disentangling every pure and ii live Method in Analysis assumed its proper ge- Sty, and put forth its natural^ power. The ;nt who would appreciate the gain thus accru- prom the Theorie des Fonctions, may refer to ; it accomplished in the treatment of Series; hat is yet more special, to its exposition of lature and treatment of Contacts. 11. The achievement of Lagrange in pure Analysis, equally illustrative of the peculiar character sp-asp of his genius, we mean the discovery ie Method of Variations. Almost from the f Geometrical Science, problems of maxima ninima, had been a favourite and at the same a difficult exercise with Inquirers : separate ons varying in ingenuity had througn the st of wits, been attained for specific problems, ; was reserved for the differential calculus to ice that general method foreshadowed by which diminished the intellectual in- of such problems, by rendering them all ' resolvable. But as this difficulty disap- d, a new class of problems, related to the 4ous class but much less manageable, gra- i y absorbed attention ; and singularly enough 30 became the chosen battle-ground on which lest spirits of Europe contested for superiority. bistory of the problem of the solid of least re- <ce is well known ; but it was only one inci- the rivalry of mathematical genius. Now on between the new class of problems of Isoperimeters as they were termed old maxima and minima, is the following : em regarding a maximum or minimum is fnd those values of certain unknown quan- which constitute a certain specified function - l ination of these quantities, a maximum or : an Isoperimetrical problem on the other is this, to determine a function or combi- of certain unknown quantities, so that some cified and determinate function of that shall be a maximum or minimum. The access of difficulty and complicacy here, is ; and to these new problems Lagrange a new method, as grasping, as exhaustive method of the Differential Calculus in the ise. And not only did his Calculus of put an end to all efforts after special s; but it became, like the simpler calculus, method of immense comprehensiveness rer: even now, its resources and applica- |are not more perhaps than generally sketched -III. Next in order of complicacy, if not of are the achievements of Lagrange in bods of Rational Mechanics. This great of Mathematical Science, also consisted, to the publication of the Mecanique An- of separate analytic artifices, whose au- rested on a number of separate general Lagrange combined the whole: or rather LAG he rose above those separate and special principles; producing a method of contemplating mechanics, and a course of procedure, that involved and con- nected them all. The Principle of Virtual Veloci- ties became in his hands the foundation and sum- ming up of all Statics ; and by a dexterous use of D'Alembert's theorem in Dynamics, he suc- ceeded in reducing all Dynamical investigations under the category of strict Statics. His new calculus of Variations was indispensable as an in- strument ; and it enabled him to realize to the ut- most, the grand necessity of his intellect, viz. i to co-ordinate, what he found separate; and so to establish the fixed and final Method of the Science. It is rare that a work like the Mecanique Analytique comes to be valued at once; nor has this work been so : nevertheless, it has been of greater service to Dynamical Theory than the achievements of any man since the times of Galileo. Through some strange caprice, Lagrange, after concluding his imper- ishable volumes, conceived a strong distaste alike at the subject and his own labours. He did not open the printed volume for a long time ; and his thoughts found refuge in meditation on the History of Religion and Medicine. His friends have said, that what the Analyst thought, on these apparently incongruous subjects, would have made the fortune of several ordinary writers. IV. What we have said of Lagrange refers mainly to his remarkable influence on Method in Analysis. His specific discoveries are as remarkable, although unsuited even an enumeration of them to a work like this. It were wrong, however, to omit his crowning achievement in reference to the mechanism of our Solar System ; especially char- acteristic as it is, of the commanding genius of the man. He and his compeer had worked elaborately at the problem of perturbations that problem which Newton bequeathed to after time. That the several bodies of the Solar System im- portantly influence each other, and so affect the arrangements of the system, was a consequence of the Law of Gravitation ; but the result, or the harmony of those perturbations had yet to be discerned. Drawing his conclusion from a large induction, Laplace had asserted the invariability of major axes of the Planetary Orbits, and of course, the Stability of the System as a fact: Lagrange, from a higher flight, showed the necessity of that Invariability, and therefore of the permanency of the Planetary Mechanism. It was indeed a great discovery: he proved that because of the dispositions of the Planets, their arrangement nearly in one plane, the uniformity of the directions of their motions, and the proximity of their orbits to the circular form, this stability must exist: so that, if present arrangements come to an end, it will be through no imperfec- tion ; but because, that gorgeous though they are they are somehow subject to the doom of all finite things, and notwithstanding their augustness only part of some development yet more gigan- tic, beats of the pulse of a still grander life. It is not easy to estimate the amount of this advance beyond the position of Newton, who thought that our system contained the seeds of dissolution, and that, in the words of Leibnitz, a time would come, when Deity, would require to interfere and LAG re-adjust bis worn-out mechanism ! The life of Lagrange had some anxieties, but it was crowded with honours. Called to Berlin by the great Frederick, he early obtained the position due to him. Afterwards, for many years, he resided in l'aiis, in command of the first employments. _ By rare fortune he escaped the fate of Lavoisier when ' in a moment a head fell which the world might not replace in a century : ' and with Laplace he shared the early labours and glories of the Ecole Normcde. Take him as a whole, abstract science has in modern times possessed no other servant so great. [J.P.N.l LAG KEN EE, Louis John Francis, a French historical painter, 1724-1804. His brother, John JAMBS, called the younger, 1740-1821. The nephew of the latter, Anselm Louis, 1775-1882. LAGUERRE, L., a French painter, 1663-1721. LAGUERRE, M. J., a eel. cantatrice, 1755-83. LAGUILLE, L., historian of Alsace, 1658-1742. LAHARPE, A. E., a Fr. general, 1754-1796. LAHARPE, F. C, a Swiss republ., 1754-1838. LAHARPE, Jean Francois De, born at Paris in 1739, was the son of an artillery captain of Swiss extraction. In early manhood he became an author by profession. His strength lay in lite- rary criticism, which at length became his chief employment. He is a useful and judicious critic, though not a profound one; and his analyses of celebrated works are especially instructive. Much may be learned as to modern literature, and a fittle as to that of Greece and Rome, from his volu- minous ' Lycee, ou Cours de la Litt^rature,' which cod tains lectures he delivered in Paris from 1786. He died there in 1803. [W.S.] LAHIRE, Philip De, a French mathematician and astronomer, 1640-1719. His son, Gabriel Philip, a geometrician, 1677-1719. Jean Nicho- las, brother of the latter, a botanist, 1685-1717. LAHIRE, S. V. See Vignoles. LA-HUERTA, G., a Span, painter, 1645-1714. LAHYRE, L. De, a French painter, 1606-1656. LAINEZ, Alex., a French poet, 1650-1710. LAINEZ, or LAYNEZ, James, a Sp. Jesuit, general of the order after Loyola, 1512-1565. LAINEZ, S., a French opera singer, died 1822. LAING, Alexander, a Scotch antiquarian and miscellaneous writer, editor of the ' Eccentric Ma- gazine,' 1778-1838. LAING, Alex. Gordon, an African explorer, born at Edinburgh, 1794, murdered on the route from Timbuctoo, 1826. LAING, Malcolm, a Scotch hist., 1762-1819. LAING, W., a Scotch bookseller, 1764-1832. LAIRE, Francis Xavier, a French Hbrarian, au. of a ' Catalogue of Printed Books from the Inven- tion of the Art to the year 1500,' &c, 1738-1801. LAIRESSE, G., a Flemish painter, 1640-1711. LAIS, a Sicilian courtezan, assassina. B.C. 350. LAISNE, Anthony, a Fr. archaeologist, 17th c. LAJARD, P. A., a Fr. statesman, 1757-1808. LAKE, Arthur, a dignitary of the Church of England, known as a religious writer, died 1626. LAKE, Gerard, first Viscount Lake, an English general, distinguished in Germany during the seven years' war, and as commander-in-chief in India. 1744-1808. LA LA, a female painter, 1st century B.C. LALAMANT, John, a dialing, sacant, 17th c. LAL LALANDE, J De, a Fr. lawyer, 1622-17( LALANDE, Joseph Jeromb Le Fraj De, born July 11, 1732, died in Paris 1th j 1807 ; an observer of much industry, and a minous writer, who contributed something to th vance of astronomy, and much to a i knowledge of it. He was one of the group o vans whom Frederick the Great gathered ar him ; and he conducted the observafo by that eccentric monarch at Berlin. On hi turn to Paris he pursued his researches ; often i municating memoirs to the Acadeii He assisted Clairaut with materials for his < fmtation of the return of Halley's comet ; ished an account of the transit of Venus ; coinj his great work on astronomy, which cxtenc four 4to volumes ; and drew up his eight thousand stars. He also edited and \ many elementary treatises. The catalogue oi lande has been recently published i i and is of considerable value. His systematic historical works have given place to others: though the ' Traite" ' may still be consulted advantage by the student. We owe . the completion of Montucla's valuable Histo Mathematics. [J.I LALANDE, M. Richard De, a French poser, celebrated for his ballet music, 1G57-17 LALANE, P., a French poet, died 1661. LALAUNE, Noel De, a Fr. divine, 1618-1 LALLEMAND, Baron, a Fr. gen., 1774-] LALLEMAND, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1710-1 LALLEMANDET, J., a Fr. theol., 1595-1 LALLEMANT, J. P., a learned Jesuit, ki as a great adversary of the Jansenists, 1660-1 LALLEMANT, L., a learned Jesuit, 1578-1 LALLEMANT, P., an ascetic writer, 1622 LALLEMANT, Richard Couteray, a Fi printer and editor, known for his fine edirioi the classics, 1726-1807. His brother, Nichc was associated with him in these works, and ther brother, Richard Xavier Felix La mant De Maupas, was vicar-general of Avran and president of the Academy of Rouen, died! LALLEMENT, W., a journalist, 1782-182 LALLI, Giov. B., an Italian poet, 1572-K LALLOUETTE, A., a Fr. author, 1653-1; LALLOUETTE, F. P., a theologian, died 1 LALLOUETTE, J. F., aFr. compos., 1653-1 LALLOUETTE, P., a Fr. physician, 171 LALLY, Thomas Arthur, Count De, h of Tullendally, or Tollsndal, in Ireland, was scended from one of those devoted adlieren the Stuarts who became naturalized in France who there acquired distinction in the servi the crown. He was born in Dauphinfe, 1702 began his military career in an Irish regit commanded by his uncle, General Dillon, greatly distinguishing himself at the sieges of Menin, Ypres, and Furnes, and particularly i battle of Fontenoy (dating from 1733 to 174i| was appointed ("1756) commandant French, possessions in the East Indies. Oj arrival tnere, at the end of April, 1758, waj declared with the English, over whom he obt a series of successes, but was at length def| before Madras, and then besieged in 1'ondiclj upon which he had been compelled to fall j Here, with less than a thousand men, he rei LAL LAM hole English army for several months, and ! Like many other naturalists, Lamarck's first study urrendered when reduced to the last extremity iry 16, 1761. He now became the prisoner e English, but was soon liberated, and, re- to France, was arrested on a charge of in. All the perils and toils he had under- were rewarded by the corrupt administration | |at expiring monarchy by his judicial murder, e vain effort to hide from the public eye their factious dishonesty. He was dragged to the with a gag in his mouth to prevent him addressing the people, and was executed ,1766. " [E.R.] LLLY-TOLLENDAL, Trophimus Gerard, De, son of the preceding, was born at i 1751, and though he was ignorant of his I itage until the eve of his father's execution, he himself to obtain the re- establishment of feood name. His filial efforts were virtually with success in 1778, though the last r ial form was never completed in consequence i le troubles of the period, and in 1783 he ned possession of his estates. In 1789 he i ne a deputy of the noblesse to the estates- " and was one of the most popular mem- of that body when it changed its name to the nal assembly, and commenced the erection of nstitution. In the fruitless labours directed is end he was a warm supporter of Lafayette ; lespairing of the monarchy and the constitu- he retired with Necker, in September, 1790, published an address to the French people. ^Tfce 10th of August, 1792, he was arrested jke Jacobins, but escaped the massacres of Sep- l *r, and arrived safely in England ; where, as palist, and a writer in the interest of the emi- he enjoyed a small pension from the go- He was authorized to return to France e first consul in 1801, but took no part in affairs till the restoration, when he became r of the privy council, and, in that capa- accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent during ~ dred days of 1815. After the second re- he was made a peer of France ; and, g true to his principles, resisted the at- of the Bourbons to resume their arbitrary He died a few weeks before the revolution , 1830, and has left a name in consider- repute both as an historico-political writer and et. [E.R.] VLOXDE, F. R., aFr. antiquarian, 1685-1765. ^LUZERNE, Caesar Henry, a nephew of sherbes, min. of foreign affairs under Necker. ^LUZERNE, Cesar William Cardinal of the clerical deputies to the estates- and the first to propose the establishment representative system in France, author of se- [ theological and political works, 1738-1822. ", J. B., a paint, and architect of Naples, abt. 579. Another of the same name, b. 1660. Julia, a Venetian painter, last century. ANNA, J., a Sicilian poet, 1580-1640. AMANON, R. P., a Fr. naturalist, 1752-1787. AMARCK, or as his real name is, Jean Bap- Pierre Antoine De Monet, an eminent jjt was born at Bazantine in Picardy in He died in 1829. A soldier in his youth, already begun to distinguish himself, when t compelled him to relinquish the army. was botany. The first work he published was the 'Flore Francaise,' which, appearing at a time when Rousseau had made botany fashionable, met with an astonishing degree of success. Other botanical works soon followed, and for some time Lamarck seemed completely occupied with these, and works of a more speculative kind, which do not now add much to his reputation. In 1793 he was appointed to a chair attached to the museum of natural history at the Garden of Plants, which had for its object the history of insects and the lower animals, which Linnaeus had arranged under the general name of worms. At this time he was fifty years of age, and the study of zoology was nearly new to him. Such, however, were his zeal and assiduity in preparing himself for the duties of his chair, that m a few years he had made him- self thoroughly master of the subject; and his great and excellent work, the ' Histoire des Ani- maux sans Vertebres,' will ever entitle him to take his place in the very first rank of zoologists. Asa conchologist, Lamarck's name stands pre- eminent, and the Lamarckian arrangement of shells is still that of the present day. A sad affliction overtook him in his latter days. He gradually lost his sight, and for some years before his death he was totally blind, while an injudicious invest- ment of his money in some swindling schemes, reduced him in his old age to comparative poverty. [W.B.] LAMARQUE, F., aFr. conventiona., 1755-1839. LAMARQUE, Max., a Fr. general, 1770-1832. LAMB, Lady Caroline, daughter of the earl of Besborough, and wife of the Hon. William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne, distinguished as a novelist and fugitive writer, 1786-1828. [House of Charles Lamb] LAMB, Charles, the son of a barrister's clerk, was born in London in 1775. He was educated at Christ's Hospital; and, being disqualified by stam- mering from being sent to college on the foundation, he became, in 1792, a clerk in the India House. He retained this place for thirty-three years, living with a sister, to whom he devoted himself in circum- stances of melancholy interest, and indulging those literary tastes which constituted his happiness. 391 LAM lie died in 1834. From the days of Lis schoolboy friendship with Coleridge, he always continued to associate with men of Tetters ; no one could have been more admired or liked than he was by his friends ; and during the last period of his lite his name was one of the most famous of the day, though few of those who knew it were really fami- liar with his works. lie was a man of unquestion- able though eccentric genius. His sphere of thinking was very confined, but he moved in it with great independence ; his fancy was lively and origi- nal, but very irregular; he had great power both of pathos and of quiet humour, and oscillated cap- riciously between the two extremes ; and his taste, keenly alive to the beautiful, was gratified not less by the oddest puns which his teeming fantasy suggested to him. His style is characterized by a singular engrafting of modern peculiarities on the diction of our Old English writers ; and hetook equal delight in rapturously expatiating on the beauties of Elizabethan literature, and in observing and chro- nicling the oddities of contemporary life in the aspect in which it presented itself to him. His tragedy of 'John Woodvil,' published in 1801, is a disjointed series of beautiful imitations of the old dramatists: some of his smaller poems are strangely touching. He criticised with intuitive fineness of feeling in his ' Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets ' (1808) ; and there are suggestive criticisms, especially on the drama and the stage, in others of his productions, The most notable of these are the fantastically beautiful ' Essays of Elia.' [W.S.] LAMB, George, younger brother of Lord Mel- bourne, a reviewer and sec. of state, 1784-1834. LAMB, Sir James Bland Burges, Baronet, only son of George Burges, Esq., known as a jour- nalist and miscellaneous writer, 1752-1825. LAMBALLE. The Princess Lamballe, whose fate is one of the most piteous stories of the French revolution, was a descendant of the house of Savoy- Carignan, and was bom at Turin, 1749. In 1767 she married the Prince de Lamballe, son of the Due de Penthievre, and the year following was left a widow at the age of eighteen. Her subse- quent history is closely connected with that of Marie Antoinette, who made her the superinten- dent of her household, and the agent of her bounty. The queen and the princess were passionately at- tached to each other ; and the latter, who had escaped to England at the commencement of the horrors of 1792, hastened back again when she heard that the queen was in prison, and with heroic fortitude asked, and obtained permission to share her misfortunes in the Temple. This indul- gence was thought too merciful hy the commune of Paris, who ordered her, at the end of August, to be imprisoned separately in La Force. Im- mense sums of money, and many agents among the dangerous party were set in motion to save her, but even ! Hubert and Lhuilier could not conduct her in safety through the ranks of the assassins at the outside of the prison, on the fatal 3d September. The circumstances of her murder f.re too horrible to repeat. Her head was after- wards paraded at the top of a pike before the wh.dows of the Temple, and conveyed in the same in the midst of a drunken saturnalia, to the Palais Royal. The Due D'Orlcans, who was LAM dining within, went to the window, and, as writer is assured by a connection of one who in the room at the time, said to his compan ' It is only Lamballe; I know her by her l>eai hair ! ' Writers of all parties a Princess de Lamballe was as goo beautiful. Lamartine has given Marie Antoinette, which was found in the hi the princess after her assassination, to provide for her own safetv by remaining the old Due de Penthievre. This I unknown, is a touching proof of the frienc which united the unhappy princesses. [1 LAMBARDE, W., an emin. lawyer and ai auth. of a Treatise on the Saxon La LAMBECIUS, P., a Dutch histo LAMBERT, a king of Italy, reigned 892-8 LAMBERT, brother and successor of Guy, i of Spoleto in 917, duke of Tuscany also 929 posed and deprived of his sight by his brotbu LAMBERT, a Benedictine chronicler, 11th LAMBERT, a bishop of Arras, died 1115. LAMBERT, Anne Therese, Marquise a lady distinguished for her literary talents, fmtronage of learning, authoress of writings ished after her decease in 1733. LAMBERT, A. B., an Eng. botan., 1761-1 LAMBERT, C. F., a laborious French writ historical and archaeological subjects, died 17( LAMBERT, F., a protestant theol., 1487-1 LAMBERT, G., an English painter, 1710-1 LAMBERT, John, a general of the pj mentary forces during the civil war, cbienj markable for his opposition to the protecto especially of Richard Cromwell. In the ye; the counter-revolution he was preparing i contest with Monk, as the chief of the ext republicans, but was arrested, and after the r ration banished to Guernsey. His taste foi arts of peace was shown in retirement bj devotion to horticulture and flower painting, was bom about 1620, and educated for the He became a Roman Catholic, and died 1692. LAMBERT, John Henry, a German mi matician and philosopher of Fr. descent, rei the ablest geometrician of the 18th cent., 1721 LAMBERT, Jos., a Fr. religious wr., 1 654-] LAMBERT, Mich., a Fr. musician, 1610-1 LAMBERT, S., a Fr. Jesuit and poet, & 1 LAMBERTI, A., a Neapolitan mission., M LAMBERTI, B., an Italian painter, 1652-1 LAMBERTI, L., an Ital. Hellenist, 1758-1 LAMBERTY, W. De, a Fr. politi., 1660-1 LAMBESE, Charles Eugene, of Lorr colonel of the royal allemands under Louis 3 and a noted enemy of the revolution, 1751-18! LAMBIN, Dionysius, or Denis, prof of eloquence and of Greek and Latin literatu the college of France, author of valuable comi taries and translations, 1516-1572. LAMBINET, P., a Fr. bibliopolist. 1712-1: LAMBRECHTS, C. J. M., a jurisconsult political character of Belgium, 1753-1823. LAMBRUN, Margaret, the widow of aS< adherent of Mary Stuart, remarkable for hei tempt to assassinate Queen Elizabeth. LAMBTON, John George. S LAMBTON, William, an English officer. ductor of a great trigone, survey of India, d. 1 LAM LAN SENGERE, P. De, a Fr. an., 1761-1831. : him into a certain sympathy with resisiants, irre- ET, Adrian Augustine De Bussy De, spective of any critical appreciation of their worth, of the Sorbonne, dist. as a casuist, d. 1691 But for writers and thinkers of the La-Mettrie ,TH. Three brothers of this name became class, there is neither apology nor palliation. Op- characters in the events of the French ' posing what they term bigotry, they are them- >n, and all had previously distinguished ves in the cause of American independence, ng in the wake of Lafayette. 1. Alexan- " e most noted of them, born 1760, distin- himself in the estates-general by his pro- organizing the army, which was instantly He served in the army of the north under and Lafayette, and, sharing in the flight latter, was captured by the Prussians, and at Magdeburgh during the three years Being set at liberty, he next entered ercial pursuits at Hamburgh, and re- to France under the consulate, obtained a In this capacity he served the state usly to the first restoration, but lost fa- accepting office under Napoleon during red days. In 1821 he was returned to ber of deputies, and was an active mem- the opposition till his death, in 1829. He a ' History of the Constituent Assembly,' is valuable as the work of an eye-witness. ,es, the next in importance, born 1757, of the first among the noblesse to go over third estate in the estates-general, when ed themselves into a national assembly. at first devoted to the people, and was dan- wounded in a duel with Lautrec, fought interest. At a later period he shrank e gulf that was opening under his feet, and more decidedly a constitutionalist. He in the army of the north as general of under Lafayette, and fled with the rest of in August, 1792. Returning to France he accepted military service under Napo- e was elected to the chamber of deputies and died a partizan of Louis Philippe 1832. dore, a constitutionalist like his brothers, member of the legislative assembly, fled to d during the reign of terror, 1793, and y known subsequently as a representative the hundred days. Died, aged 81, 1837. t Lameths possessed military skill and per- courage ; but they were drawn into the po- cause by vanity and the example of others, ^oon lost heart in the movement. [E.R.l iMETHEBIE, Jean Claude De, a French ician, dist. as a natur. and phil., 1743-1817. t-lIETTRIE, Julian Offroy De; born do 1709, died at Berlin 1751 : one of group of eccentric, and in the main not reputable persons, whom, under the name hilosophers, Frederick the Great collected It were needless to enumerate, and an waste of time, to criticise the works published Mettrie, on what he called philosophy : the ad neither heart nor head ; dissolute, foolish, lous, he obtained his degree of repute and through a certain reckless insolence and gaiety. He belonged to the set which that stupidest and dullest of works the de la Nature. For Frederick, some apology be conceived : he brought great men around as well as persons like La-Mettrie ; and his a of resistance and contest, induced selves the most inveterate bigots ; attributing re- ceived opinions to ignorance, they have never un- dergone the labour of acquiring any knowledge; without morals, they undertake to "dogmatize on morality ; incapable of earnest thought, they ven- ture to propagate systems of philosophy ! [J.P.N.] LAME Y, Andrew, a Ger. historian, 1726-1802. LAMI, Bernard, a Fr. ecclesiastic, dist. as a mathematician and religious writer, 1645-1715. LAMI, F., a French philosopher, 1636-1711. LAMI, J., an Italian archaeologian, 1697-1770. LAMIA, governor of Syria, 1st century B.C. LAMIO, L. M., a Fr. missionary, 1765-1831. LAMIRAL, Dominique Harcourt, a French traveller and writer on Africa, 1750-1795. LAMMA, Augustine, a Venetian pain.. 16th c. LAMONNjE, B. De, a Fr. savant, 1641-1728. LAMOTHE-LE-VAYER, P. De, a French sa- vant, member of the academy, and preceptor in th royal family, author of works which afford valuable illustrations of the remains of antiquity, 1588-1672. LA-MOTTE, Anthony Houdart De, a Fr. poet, dramatic author, and critic, 1672-1731. LA-MOTTE, F., an Austrn. musician, 1751-81. LA-MOTTE, Jeanne De Valois, Countess De, an infamous woman connected with the court of France, implicated with the pretended Count Cagliostro and the Cardinal de Rohan in the fraud of the diamond necklace, by which undeserved dis- grace was entailed upon the Queen Marie Antoin- ette ; born of poor parents at Fontette, in Charn- igne, 1757, died in London 1791. LA-fl " A-MOTTE-FOUQUE, Frederick Hein- rich Karl, Baron De, a German poet and novelist, descended from an ancient Norman family, best known as the author of ' Undine ' and for his war songs, 1777-1843. His wife, Caroline, also a novelist, died 1831. LA-MOTTE-PIQUET, Toussaint Wit, Count De, a eel. naval commander of France, 1720-1791. LAMOURETTE, Adrian, a philosophical di- vine and constitutional prelate of France, connected with Mirabeau in the revolution, 1742-1794. LAMOUREUX, a French sculptor, born 1674. LAMOUROUX, John Vincent Felix, a French naturalist, professor at Caen, 1770- 1825. LAMPE, F. A., a Fr. protes. theol., 1683-1729. LAMPILLAS, F. X., a Span. Jesuit, 1739-98. LAMPLUGH, T., an English prelate, 1615-91. LAMPREDI, U., a Neapol. savant, 1761-1836. LAMPRIDIO, B., an Italian poet, 16th cent. LAMPRIDIUS, Aelius, a Latin histor., 4th c. LANA, F. De, an Italian mathem., 1637-1700. LANA, Ludov., an Italian painter, 1597-1646. LANA-PERZI, F., an Italian Jesuit, 1631-87. LANCAROT, , a Portuguese navig., 15th c. LANCASTER. The royal house of Lancaster flourished in two lines. The first commences with Edmond, son of Henry III. and Eleonora of Pro- vence, and brother of Edward I., employed by the latter as ambassador to Philip of France, and afterwards as commander in the expedition for the recovery of Guienne. Born in London, 1245; died at Bayonne, 1296. Thomas, his son and 393 LAN successor in the earldom, cousin-merman to Ed- ward II., headed the confederacy of barons against Piers Gavaston, and, finally, shared the responsibility of his death with Hereford and Arundel. He was at length taken in arms against the sovereign, and beheaded at Pomfret, 1322. lli.NKY (previously earl of Leicester), brother and heir of Thomas, joined the conspiracy of Isabella and Mortimer against Edward II., and received the king into his custody at Kenilworth. He was freed from this charge on account of his too great humanity; and, when fortune changed, was ap- pointed guardian and protector of the person of his son, Edward III. He died 1345. Henry, his son, (previously earl of Derby,) after vainly endea- vouring to make peace with John, king of France, under the mediation of the pope at Avignon, was sent with an army into Normandy, and took part in the victory of Poictiers and the subsequent French wars. About this time his title was changed to duke of Lancaster, this degree of no- bility being then newly introduced into England. He died 1362. The next duke of Lancaster com- mences a new lineage, that of the princes opposed to the house of York. The first in the line was John of Gaunt, or Ghent, third son of Edward III., born 1339. He was married successively to the daughter of Henry, the last duke, who died without male issue, and to the daughter of Peter, king of Castile. His name is one of the most cele- brated in English history, and in the chivalry of the middle ages. Died 1399. Henry of Here- ford, the successor of John of Gaunt in the duke- dom, was son to him by his first wife. He claimed the crown by descent,'by the mother's side, from Fdmond the first earl, who was popularly supposed to be the elder brother of Edward I., and to have been deprived of the succession by his father for Personal reasons. He became king by deposing lichard II., 1399, and was a prince of great ability and valour. He reigned till his death in 1422, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son of the latter also inherited the crown as Henry VI., and in his reign the feuds of York and Lan- caster broke out, which ended in the union of the two houses in the person of Henry VII. See York. [E.R.] LANCASTER, Captain, afterwards Sir James, had command of one of three ships fitted out in 1591 for the first English expedition to In- dia by the Cape. The object was less to establish trade than to harass the Portuguese; but the result was unfortunate. One of the ships was sent home from the Cape with the sick, another was wrecked on the coast east of the Cape ; Lancaster's ship only reached India. On her return, however, she was driven by storms to the West Indies and lost, Lancaster and seven men escaping and re- turning to England in a French vessel. In 1594 he made a predatory voyage to Brazil against the Portuguese. His most important services, how- ever, were rendered in his conduct of the expedi- tion sent out to India by the East India Company in May, 1601, soon after their charter was obtained.. In compliment to his zeal in promoting the dis- covery of a north-west passage, the existence of which he firmly held, Baffin named after him the sound leading from Baffin's Bay (Sea?) to the Arc- tic Ocean. His death occurred in 1G20. [J.B.] LAN LANCASTER, Joseph, well known ass mulgator of the system of national cdiuatioi troduced by Dr. Bell, was born in London o: scure parents, of the Quaker persuasion, in ] He commenced his career by openi poor children in St. George's Fields, and was publicly known for his enthusiasm in the cam had adopted. He died at New York in ind circumstances, 1838. LANCELLOTI, or LANCILLOTI. Sr.ro a learned Italian writer, historian of gation of Mount Olivet,' to which he 1 H and author of 'Impostures of Ancient Hist &c, flourished about 1575-1643. LANCELLOTTI, G., an It. jur., aht. 15K LANCELOT, A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1G75-] LANCELOT, Cl., a Fr. grammarian, 161f LANCHARES, A., a Sp. painter, 158641 LANCILOTTI, F., an Ital. paint LANCILOTTI, J., an Italian painter, 150< LANCISI, Giammaria, or Joa an Italian physician, eminent as an anatomist physiologist, was born at Rome in 1654, and after an undisturbed professional career, in ] He surpassed the anatomists of his day in g ralizing on form; and while demonstrating fundamental structure of the arterial coats, the joint action of the nerves and the blood ii motion of the heart, he drew the attention oi students to more remote causes of structure motion, and recommended the study of analo Having discovered the lost copper plates of tachius, he edited a set of tables from them; besides the value of his own writings to the fession, bequeathed a magnificent library of 2C volumes to the Hospital of the Holy Ghost was physician and chamberlain to several p between 1688 and his death in 1720, and a n ber of many learned societies, as well as a m: of polite literature. LANCJEAN, Remi, a Flem. painter, died! LANCON, N. F. ? a Fr. jurisconsult, 1694-1 LANCRE, Peter De, a provincial councilh France, whose name is celebrated in many trial witchcraft, and as a writer on demonoL >gy, d. 1 LANCRET, N., a French painter, 16U0-17- LANCRINCK, Prosper Henry, a painfa German extraction, employed by Sir Peter Le painting the grounds, landscapes, flowers, o ments, and sometimes the draperies of his pr pal pictures, born about 1628, died 1G'J2. LANDAIS, or LANDOIS, Peter, a favoi minister of Francis II., duke of Brittany, fora his tailor, executed by conspirators, I486. LANDEN, J., an Eng. mathematician, 171 LANDENOLFE, the first of the name, pi of Capua, 884-887 ; the second, prince of Benev and Capua, succeeded 982, assassinated 993. LANDER, Richard and John, who ( pleted the solution of the great problem of Aft geography left half-finished by Mungo Park, born in Cornwall Richard in 1804, his you brother two years later. The former abandonee trade of a printer, to which botli were brought in order to accompany Captain Clapperton oi second journey to Africa, in the capacity of at dant. On the death of Clapperton at Soccs 13th September, 1827, he proceedi to Funda, intending thence to trace the oun 394 LAN jer to its embouchure ; but meeting with natives, and being without a companion to id cheer him, he was obliged to make for \ on the bight of Benin, by the nearest 'He reached it in safety on the 21st No- r, two years two months and fourteen days ' departure from it with Clapperton ; and 2r took ship to England. Having sub- to government a plan for exploring the of the Niger, which was approved of, and ice being reposed in him, from the intel- address, and bravery he had already ed, Lander was commissioned, by instruc- | dated 31st December, 1829, to trace the river from Katunga, to the sea, to Lake or wherever its stream should carry him. )ther,' says Lander in his account of the r , ' eagerly volunteered to accompany me, i the government refused to allow him a or make him even the promise of a ' John's name is mentioned in the in- ns ; and to him was assigned the duty of inquiries, as far up as Boussa and Yaoori, the books and papers that belonged to Park, believed to be in possession of the of that country. Richard himself was I all the articles that he asked for his per- convenience during his journey, together [200 dollars in coin, and leave to draw for we at Badagry if required ; his wife was to 100 during the ensuing year, and on his a gratuity of 100 was to be paid to him- On such slender means, and such slight ations, did these two enterprising and high- young men undertake one of the most missions, and accomplish one of the most ag and important discoveries of modern 'Science,' says Lieutenant Becher, 'was of the question ; and all depended on that ij quality of mind, determination of purpose, iing feature in the character of our country- without which science itself is of little avail.' Production to Journal in Family Library.) [Landers left England on the 9th January, and departing from Badagry on the 31st , with a small escort, crossed the country to Katunga, following Clapperton's route in icond journey. Thence they turned north- | to Boussa without separating, as originally aplated, visited the scene of Park's lamented and discovered some portions of his pro- r, but not his journal, or any papers of value. Yaoori, on the 2d August, they began the of the river, and without serious molesta- reached as far as Kirree. Here they were led and made prisoners, and taken down the to Eboe, within the delta. At this place, by lise of a considerable ransom, for which a promise was given to a friendly chief, King ley were delivered from the imminent dan- I being sold as slaves, and they pursued their rard course. On the 18th November, 1830, venturous travellers reached the sea by the ^Nun (Brass river of the English), one of the 'branches of the Niger, which has its mouth bight of Benin, and thus set for ever at the long-disputed question of the course of great river. The feelings of satisfaction and which now filled their minds at the suc- LAN cess of their mission, and their deliverance from so many dangers, were speedily changed to those of bitter regret and disappointment, by the disgrace- ful conduct of a countryman. Captain Lake, of the English brig Thomas, on board of which they were taken at the mouth of the river, peremptorily re- fused to honour their draft for goods and arms in favour of King Boy ; and the kind-hearted chief was driven from the ship with terrible threats. On their return home, however, orders were sent out to pay the proper demand. The Landers found their way home from Fernando Po by Rio de Janeiro, and reached Portsmouth on the 10th June, 1831. On their voyage to Rio, they learned that Lake and his crew met a violent death at the hands of pirates. By the kindness of Lord Gode- rich, then colonial secretary, Richard Lander was placed in circumstances of 'honourable compe- tence,' and a government appointment promised to his brother. To Richard also was awarded the first prize given by the Royal Geographical So- ciety, value fifty guineas ; and at the same meet- ing at which it was presented, the African Asso- ciation, which had accomplished so much for dis- covery on that continent, was incorporated with the Geographical Society, and thus no longer maintained a separate existence. In the following year, the Landers returned to Africa with the expedition projected by Mr. M'Gregor Laird and other gentlemen of Liverpool, for the purpose of establishing a settlement on the Upper Niger, and opening trade with the interior. From causes, however, which might have been avoided, and could again be foreseen and met, this expedition proved a total failure. Among the great number who perished were the two Landers ; Richard, from wounds received in an affray with the na- tives, and John, from the effects of the climate. An interesting account of their discoveries, their joint production, published before leaving Eng- land, forms three volumes of Murray's Familv Library. [J.B/j LANDI, Chev. G., an Ital. painter, 1756-1830. LANDI, Cos., an Ital. numismatist, 1521-64. LANDI, Count J., an Ital. moralist, 16th cen. LANDI, Ortensio, an Ital. wr., d. abt. 1560. LANDI, Vergusio, a military chief, 14th cen. LANDINO, C, an Italian classic, 1425-1504. LANDO, a pope, who reigned six months in 913. LANDO, a prince of Capua, reigned 842-862. LANDO, Conrad and Lucius, the chiefs of one of the troops of mercenaries that overran Italy in the 14th century. LANDO, M., gonfalonier of Florence in 1378. LANDO, P., doge of Venice after Gritti, 1539-45. LANDON, C. P., a French painter, 1760-1826. LANDON, Letitia Elizabeth, the daughter of an army agent resident in London, became fa- vourably known to poetical readers while she was hardly beyond the years of childhood, by many pieces of verse published in the Literary Gazette. In 1824, while she was still very young, appeared, with her early signature of L.E.L., the first of her volumes which attracted general notice. It con- tained, with smaller pieces, ' The Improvisatrice.' Other poems of considerable extent showed her to possess much affluence of fancy, and excellent power of expressing romantic emotion. Her strength, however, was wasted, like that of Mrs. 395 LAN Hemans, in a constant succession of small pieces contributed to magazines and annuals ; nor did she ever fulfil the promise of high genius held out by her youthful effusions. She was the authoress, also, of three sentimental novels, In 1837 she married Mr. Maclean, the governor of the settle- ment at Cape Coast ; and, accompanying her husband to Africa, she died there in 1838, in consequence of having taken an over-dose of medi- cine. [W.S.] LANDUS, an Ital. physician, assassinated 1562. LANE, Sir Richard, a statesman of the reign of Charles I., who made him lord chief baron of the exchequer, and one of the privy council. He is the author of ' Reports ' in the court of exchequer in the reign of King James, and in 1640 was counsel for the earl of Strafford. Died in 1650 or 1651. LANFRANC, archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Pavia in 1005. When but a young man, and after having studied at Bologna, he travelled into France, stayed for a time at Avranches, and en- tered the monastery of Bee, of which he ultimately became the prior. His teaching here attracted immense crowds of students from all the countries of Europe. William, duke of Normandy, appointed him in 1062 abbot of the monastery of St. Stephen at Caen. He refused the archbishoprick of Rouen, but as counsellor to the Conqueror he came over to England, and was by his influence elected to the see of Canterbury in 1070, and he remained in this high office till he died, May, 1089. Lanfranc was a man of independent spirit, and was no vulgar flatterer of popish pretensions, while he stoutly contested the pre-eminence with Thomas, the arch- bishop of York. He was also a politician of no mean order, and took an active share in all the business of church and state. He was besides one of the early founders and expositors of the schol- astic philosophy. He has left commentaries on the Epistles of Paul, a tract on transubstantia- tion, and some letters. His works were published bv Luc D'Achery, in one volume folio, at Paris, 1648; and in England by Dr. Giles, Oxford, 1844, in two volumes, 8vo. [J.E.] LANFRANC, an Ital. wr. on surgery, 13tn cen. LANFRANC, or LANFRANCO, Giovanni, an Italian painter, pupil of A. Caracci, 1581-1647. LANFREDINI, J., an Ital. cardinal, 1680-1741. LANG, Ch. N., a Swiss naturalist, 1670-1741. LANG, or LANGE, John Michael, a German divine and Oriental scholar, 1664-1731. LANGALLERIE, Philip De Gentil, Mar- quis De, a military officer who served thirty-two campaigns in the French army, and, in consequence of a quarrel with his superiors, entered into the service of Austria, and was subsequently known at the courts of Poland and the Hague. He was imprisoned by the Austrians on a charge of in- triguing with the Turks, and died at Raab, 1717. LANGARA, Don J., a Sp. admiral. 1730-1800. LANGBAINE, Gerard, an English divine, author of several learned works in history and theo- logy, 1608-1658. His son, of the same name, au- thor of 'English Dramatic Poets,' &c, born 1656. LANGBEIN, A. F., a Ger. writer, 1737-1835. LANGDALE, Lord, Henry Bickersteth, a cele- brated English lawyer, 1783-1851. LANGDALE, Sir Marmaduke, an English officer, dist. in the civil wars as a royalist, d. 1061. LAN LANGE, Anne Frances Elizareth, a actress, born at Genoa of Fr. parents, 1772- LANGE, C, a German philologist, died h LANGE, F., a French painter, 1676-lfl| LANGE, F., a French writer on I LANGE, J., a Prussian physician, 1485-1 LANGE, J., a German jurisconsult, lfiffl LANGE, J., a German philologisl LANGE, J. R., a Flemish painter, died 16 LANGE, Laurence, a Swedish ployed as ambassador to China by Peter the ( and appointed governor of Irkoutsk on reto from his third mission in 1737. He publU narrative of his travels, which contains mm teresting information on China and the Chm LANGE, Rodolph, provost of Munster tinguished for his learning, and for revival of polite literature in Germany. 1 140- LANGE, W., a Danish savant, 1G22-1C82. LANGEBECK, James, a learned writa philologist of Jutland, author of works illn ing Danish history and antiquities, 1710-177 LANGELAND. See Longland. LANGENDYK, P., a Dutch poet, 1762-11 LANGERON, Count Andrault De, aF officer in the service of Russia, 1763-1831. LANGES, N. De, a Fr. antiquarian, 1525- LANGETTI, J. B., an Ital. painter, 1635- LANGHAM, Simon De, an English monk rose to be abbot of St. Peter's, Westminster finally, archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal name occupies a considerable place in the h of the reign of Edward III., who seized the t ralities of his see, and was a long while at a with him and his party. He died at Avi 1376, but his body was solemnly removed i Benet's chapel in Westminster Abbey, whe tomb still exists. LANGHORNE, Daniel, an English divin as a writer on British history and antiq., d. 1 LANGHORNE, John, known as a miscella writer and poet, was born at Kirkby Stephe Westmoreland, 1735, and lived by his professi a tutor and curate in the Church of England was the author of many fugitive pieces, pub) from about 1759 to 1765, when he became a tributor to the ' Monthly Review,' and, fron period to his death, in 1779, enjoyed considi repute in the literary world such as it then In 1804, his son published an edition of his r, with a life of the author; and his brother, liam, who died before him in 1772, had some l cal skill, and assisted Langhorne in a trans] of Plutarch. LANGLE, H. M., a Fr. composer, 1741-1* LANGLE, J. M., a French divine, 1590- His son, Samuel, author of a ' Letter on the ferences between the Church of England an< Dissenters,' died 1699. LANGLES, L. M., aFr. Orientalist, 1763- LANGLEY, B., an English architect, died: LANGLOIS, Eustace Htacinthe, a Fi designer, engraver, and antiquarian, 1777-18! LANGLOIS, J., a French journalist, 1770- LANGLOIS, J. B., a French Jesuit, 1G63-: LANGLOIS, M., a Latin poet of the 15th LANGRISII, B., an Eng. med. writer, d. I LANGTOFT, P., an Eng. chronicler. 1 Ith LANGTON, Stephen, an English ecclesi 396 LAN ed in France, and appointed to the see of rbmy by Innocent III., in the reign of King The quarrel on this occasion, between the land the crown, brought the kingdom under [terdict, and the king was compelled to yield tesion of the diocese, upon which Langton en- [in 1213. Langton was a learned man, and commentaries on tbe Scriptures. He also a strenuous advocate of the independence English Church, and manfully resisted the of the pope. Died 1228. [E.R.] JGUET, Hubert, a French diplomatist and ] writer, who, being a protestant, narrowly I the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and died i service of the prince of Orange, 1518-1581. KGUET DE GERGY, Jean Baptists PH, a doctor of the Sorbonne, distinguished " itable founder, 1675-1753. His brother, Joseph, a member of the French Academy, hbishop of Sens, also distinguished for his ence, 1677-1753. rGUSCO, Philip, Count De, a Guelph r, who held the supreme power at Pavia from I to 1313, died a prisoner at Milan 1315. 1ERE, N., an Italian musician, 1568-1646. [INO, B., a Lombard painter, died 1558. IJUINAIS, Joseph, a French ecclesiastic, " to protestantism, and an associate of the jaedists, died about 1808. JINAIS, Jean Denis, nephew of the distinguished as a great Oriental scholar ryer, but more especially for his consistent cy of constitutional principles, under every i of the French government, from the assem- : the states-general to the restoration. He is 'hor of many political and learned works, a considerable contributor to the reviews lals. Born at Rennes 1753, died 1827. I AY, Ch. De, an able general of Brabant, I the service of Charles V., about 1470-1527. TAY, J. C, a Dutch poet, 1738-82. IEAU, Peter Anthony Victor De, a French grammarian and ecclesi- 1758-1830. IES, Jean, Due De Montebello, one of >n's marshals, was born at Guienne 1769, prenticed to a dyer. In 1792, he entered or as a volunteer, and distinguished himself first campaign of Italy, and afterwards in rincipal actions which have shed such a lustre French arms. He was mortally wounded battle of Essling, in 1809 ; and Napoleon the remarkable eulogium upon him, that he icome greater by every day's experience. At I he said, Lannes had more valour than genius 't), but his spirit was continually mounting i level of his courage ; and he, whom he had pigmy, he lost a giant ! [E.R.J BUE, Denis De, a Fr. printer, died 1650. IOUE, Francis De, one of the most cele- Calvinist captains of the 16th century, 'shed in the principal actions fought with ,Tie, and killed at the siege of Lamballe, 1591. He is the author of 'Military and Dissertations.' His son, Odet, a man of Ili a also in the military service of Henry and Stanislaus Louis De La Noue, of :ie family, served in the French armies in paign of 1741 and 1756, and was killed in 397 LAP the affair of Saxenhausen, 1760. He is the author of ' New Military Constitutions.' His life was written by Toustain. LANOUE, J. S. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1701-61. LANSBERG, J., a Bavarian ascetic, died 1539. LANSBERGHE, P., aFlem. astron., 1561-1632. LANSSELUIS, P., a Sp. Hebraist, 1580-1632. LANTARA, S. M., a French painter, 1745-78. LANTIEN, S. F. De, a Fr. author, 1736-1826. LANZANI, A, a Lomb. painter, 1645-1712. LANZI, Luigi, an Italian antiquarian and phi- lologist, and writer on the fine arts, 1732-1810. LANZONI, J., an Italian savant, 1663-1730. LAO-TSEE, LAO-TSEU, or LAA-KIUN, a Chinese philos., who is regarded as the reformer of the sect of Tao-Tsee, flourished in the 6th c. b.c. LAPARA, L., a French engineer, 1651-1706. LAPEROUSE, Jean Francois Galaup De, was born at Alby, dep. of Tarn, 1741. At the age of fifteen he was appointed a midshipman in the French navy, and served with great distinc- tion at home, in the East Indies, and in Canada, up till the peace of 1783. Soon after, he was put in command of an expedition destined to explore the Pacific, with instructions admirably laid down, but embracing a range of discovery much too wide for one expedition to overtake in a reasonable time. The French government had been excited by the example of England, and longed to reap such a harvest of glory as had been recently gained for her by her most accomplished and successful navigator. La Perouse was to deter- mine everything left incomplete by Cook, to fill up every gap in the maritime geography of the globe. Verification of Cook was not contemplated ; for the French authorities had full confidence in his accuracy, and La Perouse regarded his memory with 'unbounded veneration/ The expedition consisted of two fine frigates, the Boussole and Astrolabe, fitted out in the most complete man- ner, and with such a staff of scientific men as had never before been sent afloat. Yet there is hardly an expedition on record which ended so disas- trously, and to which a like melancholy interest has so long attached. On the 1st August, 1785, the expedition sailed from Brest, and proceeded westwards by the straits of Magellan ; and after visiting several islands in the Pacific, hastened to fulfil instructions by making the American coast in lat. 59 N., and exploring it southwards from the point where Cook had begun his examination, going north. But as La Perouse found it im- possible to reach this latitude earlier than June (1786), and as his instructions obliged him to be in China by February, too little time remained for a satisfactory survey of this broken coast. He arrived at Monterey in September, repaired the ships there, and crossing the Pacific westwards, fixed the position of the Ladrone and Bashee islands, and on 2d January, 1787, cast anchor at Macao. The work appointed for the succeeding summer was an investigation of the coast of Tartary from Corea towards the N.E. This La Perouse successfully accomplished, and was the first to give an accurate coast outline of those regions. From Kamtschatka, with the permission of the Russian governor, he sent M. de Lesseps home to France, overland, with his journals and despatches ; a duty which this enterprising young LAP mnn safely fulfilled, and was thus the first who crossed through the whole length of the old world. The expedition now sailed south to the Navigator's islands, where twelve persons belonging to the ships, among whom was ML de Langle, captain of the Astrolabe, were killed in an unexpected attack by the natives. La Perouse soon after reached Botany Bay, where he refitted for his third voyage. Before proceeding upon this, however, he fortu- nately sent home by some English ships the journals and charts of his various discoveries from the time M. de Lesseps had left. His plan of operations for the future was laid down in a despatch, dated 7th February, 1788; this proved to be the last communication ever made by him. He sailed from Botany Bay in the same month, and from that date till" the year 1826, all trace of the expedition was lost its fate was involved in complete mystery. In 1791, an expedition was sent out under D'Entrecasteaux (q. t\), in search of the lost navigators ; but no intelligence was obtained. No further effort was made by the French : but the fate of La Perouse was a constant subject of inquiry to the voyagers of other nations. At length, in May, 1826, Captain Dillon, in the ship St. Patrick, returning from Valparaiso to Pondicherry, and calling at the island of Tucopia, in the northern part of the New Hebrides group, to learn the fortunes of some persons landed there in 1813, from the ship Hunter, Captain Robson, on board of which Dillon had been at the time, found in possession of one of those persons who was a Lascar, a silver sword guard, on which he thought he could trace the initials of La Perouse's name. His cunosity was strongly excited, and he at once instituted inquiries among the natives. From some of them who had visited the adjoining isles, he found that two ships had been many years before wrecked on one to the N.W. called Vanikoro, or Recherche isle ; and that several articles of French manufacture were in possession of the islanders. With this intelligence he returned to India ; and in January, 1827, was sent out in command of a ship, the Research, to make a full investigation of the facts. He returned to Calcutta in April ; and in February, 1828, reached Paris with many relics of Perouse's ships, collected at the island of Vani- koro. Several brass guns were raised from a coral reef; and many articles were purchased from the natives as fragments of a theodolite, barometer tubes, iron bolts and bars, pieces of china, the backboard of a ship with the fleur-de-lis carved upon it, a silver candlestick, a ship's bell with the inscription ' Bazin m' a fait,' millstones, &c. Count Lesseps, who was still living, believed the backboard to be that of the Boussole, that the guns and millstones were the same as he had seen in the ships ; and Sir William Bctham deter- mined certain armorial bearings on the bottom of the candlestick to belong to the family of Colignon, the name of the botanist who was on board the Boussole. The natives asserted to Captain Dillon that one of the ships had struck, and then gone down in deep water, at a place pointed out by them ; and that the other ran on a coral reef, and kept together till the crew had landed upon the island, where they remained five months, and then sailed away in a small vessel of their own con- struction. It appears clear, therefore, that it was LAP the Boussole which stuck upon the reef, nnd Astrolabe that went down. Whether La Pen was among those who left the island, and v was the fate of those who thus braved t of the sea, must ever remain an ini mystery. Captain Dillon was received with g favour by Charles X., and rewarded with a i sion of 4,000 francs. In the following French navigator Dumont D'Urville c<u: observations of Captain Dillon, and brought li additional relics, raised from the reef on w the Boussole went to pieces. [J LAPIS, G^tano, an Ital. painter, 1704-17 LAPLACE, Peter De, a French magisti killed at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, an of 'Commentaries on the State of Reli^H the Commonwealth,' ' The Use of Moral Phil f)hv,' and ' The Excellence of the Christian igion,' 1526-1572. LAPLACE, Peter Anthony De, a mil laneous writer, and translator of many Em works into French, including a wretched vei of Shakspeare and Otway, 1707-1793. LAPLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis De, 1 at Beaumont-en-Auge, near Honfleur, in Ma 1749, died in Paris on 5th May, 1827. It i vain indeed to propose to present within rigorous limits of our volume, either the chars or the achievements of this titanic Geomi The works of his illustrious compeer La Gn are also, in their detail, utterly remote from preciation, unless by masters in mathema science ; but then, through the exquisite tasi that great man, his perfect conception of met and his eminent possession of that blending fusing imagination, which on whatever it i cerns itself withal demands, as a necessity, imposition of unity and symmetry, the eye i of the ordinary onlooker, cannot rest on achievement of his, without discerning somet of its import and beauty, and of its value in tending or rearranging some large domaii Analysis. That La Place had nothing of ^Esthetic Faculty, it would require indeed sc thing beyond hardihood to assert, seeing thi the Systeme du Monde he has left a resum all Modem Astronomy, unsurpassed, for pei cuity and elegance, in any Scientific Literature; a verdict scarcely less favourable must be nounced on parts of the Essai I'hilosophique les Prohabihtes and those exquisite, but too and brief sketches of Mathematical History. N theless, it is unfortunately true, that in his i massive works especially in that one whic his imperishable monument, the Hfecan Celeste he has shown so great a negligenc disdain of art in composition, that to this and chiefly through this defect, it is, to the i instructed, a heaviest labour to peruse it. Th ing apparently always of results, and rare) ever of methods, he starts from one mode of position to another, with perplexing rapidit not caring apparently, provided he can co-ordi or rather present in successive order the truth has to expose, from what source his powe. exhibit them comes, or whether or not they set down as flowing easily and naturally ou each other. Something of this apparent!* gence ought undoubtedly -to be kid to the gig; 3<J8 LAP of his enterprise one that could have led in its vastness at no former time, ch no one has ventured to undertake it was not like that which fell to the lot of viz. : the privilege to explain and for ever a grand Law of Nature, but it of that Law through all the intricacies actual Universe, the tracking of it as by conditions and circumstances, and evaluation of its effects. Still further ; by no means unlikely, that this over- to speak of his subject-matter, al- to permit himself that supreme indif- which has so often induced reprehension, the claims and discoveries of his prede- and rivals. Lagrange's name, for instance, mentions; one of the finest analytic disco- that Geometer he simply calls ' the formula 21 of the second book of the Mecanique Ce- treats more summarily still, the remark- of our own Brook Taylor ; nor indeed y one go to his volumes for information unless he is first in possession of intive merits of all our Analysts. If , or any feeling akin to it, gave rise to 'ar reticence, the jealousy must indeed morbid; for, irrespective of the debt him for his immense compositions, La- achieved enough, of distinct and posi- very, to secure as enduring a fame as to anv man, since the lifetime of Newton, ikes, it is true, are apart and rugged ; but both wide and deep. With an infelicity le in him, Napoleon is said to have uously designated Laplace the Hnfini- philosopher? Infelicitously ; inasmuch sly any epithet could have been selected j)licable: there is no modern mathema- Twhose power of generalizing was more _, or in whose mind it more preponderated, "almost at any page, for instance, of the "lary Theorie des I'robabilites: from the ; chapter which unfolds the yet unfathomed of Generating Functions, down to the are sown through it, as if broadcast, H fresh methods such as that with regard integrals and of wholly unsuspected It is the same with all writings of his, on the metaphysics of his subject ; ever we find the largest views indicated in a or unpretending phrase; and in still pable illustration it may be permitted us that far-famed 'Nebular Hypothesis,' be it exactly accurate or not, leads the imagination searching a solution of amental constitution of our planetary jack into the depths of ages, when orbs were not, or existed only in the of the Generic Powers, that were then their birth ! From a mind of such a and indeed from no other, could have |g his specific and lustrous contributions to jnomy, for instance the discovery of the dity of Jupiter and Saturn the settle- |af the old puzzle regarding the acceleration mean motion of the Moon the theory of Satellites or that earliest indication of of stability within our system. Beyond all, however, the crowning glory of the LAP 'infinitesimal philosopher' is unquestionably the power that conceived, and the corresponding forti- tude that executed the Mecanique Celeste. This book, as we have said, had no predecessor ; and a second Laplace must arise, ere it shall be threa- tened by a rival. Extending to five quarto vols, of investigation generally abrupt through its over- condensation, it is divided into the sixteen books whose general titles we subjoin. 1. The General Laws of Equilibrium and Motion. 2. The Law of Universal Gravitation, and the Motion of the Centres of Gravity of the Celestial Bodies. 3. The Figure of the Celestial Bodies. 4. The Oscillation of the Sea and the Atmosphere. 5. The Rotation of the Celestial Bodies. 6. Par- ticular Theories of the Planets. 7. Theory of the Moon. 8. Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. 9. Theory of Comets. 10. Miscellanea, Refraction, &c. 11. Figure and Ro- tation of the Earth. 12. Attraction and Repul- sion of Spheres, and the Statics and Dynamics of Elastic Fluids. 13. Oscillation of Fluids covering Planets. 14. Precession, Libration, and the Ring of Saturn. 15. Supplement to Book II. 16. Further views concerning the Satellites. Within this immense programme placed as if paren- thetically one finds the most striking notices on almost every important problem of mechanical physics; any one of which, would have made the tortune of an ordinary mathematician. The Stu- dent, betaking himself to Laplace, must not go, however, under any delusion. To the best in- formed we have said, the perusal of this stupen- dous work is no holiday task: nor should that valuable assistance be declined, afforded by the an- notated translation of the Mecanique, munificently presented to the world by the excellent American Dr. Bowditch. In an unhappy hour for the com- pleteness of his fame, Laplace went aside from the field of pure science to become a politician. The cause of Napoleon's displeasure with him is unknown ; certainly the Emperor himself gave no correct account of it. For many reasons, indeed, we should consider Laplace quite unlikely to take suc- cessful part in that great game, in which Empires were the stakes; but that had signified less, if he had preserved an ordinary constancy. To the First Consul, he had dedicated the First Edition of the Mecanique, not living to publish a second. But from the Second Edition of the Theorie des Proba- bilites published after the Restoration he meanly struck out the former dedication to Napoleon Empereur. One has required so often to lament political degeneracy among Scientific men in France, and their proneness to bend the knee be- fore existing power, that it is refreshing to turn to the unsullied integrity of our late illustrious Arago. Another charge, commonly brought in this country against our mathematician, we are constrained in all honesty to repudiate ; at the very least, we demand the verdict of Not Proven. Origi- nating, we believe, in Professor Robison's feverish book on continental Free Masonry, and further sus- tained by mistaken views as to the relations of the ' Nebular Hypothesis,' the rumour has gone wide abroad, among the religious public of Great Britain, that this great Geometer professed himself, or was an Atheist. It is scarcely necessary to say that Laplace never wrote on Ontology : but we deem it LAP incumbent to add, that after a careful review of his written works, with reference to this interesting point, we are prepared to disallow the title of any- one to repeat such an assertion. In the present state of thought and language on such matters, there is no rule which ought to be more sacred than this, Sentiments ought never to be imputed; nor that right tampered with, which belongs to every man the right to define and designate his own' Concerning those loftier verities of Ontologv, vision, alas ! does not come equally clearly to all ! But one's apprehension of Realities so aweple, must not be measured by his degree of glibness in speech, or that often irreverent aptness in the re- petition of words and formulas, which in itself, ar- gues, after all, nothing superior to the parrot's faculty. To the failings of this great French Geo- meter^ the splendour even of Ml achievements, ought, indeed, in nowise to blind us : in regard to the relations of his inner soul to the Infinite, if we cannot rest without curiosity, at least let us judge justly, in charity, and with hope recalling, in all humility, his own last words on Earth Ce que twits connaissons est pen de chose; ce que nous vjnorons est immense ! [J.P.N.] LAPO, James, or Jacopo, of which it is the diminutive, a distinguished Florentine artist, died 1262. His son, Arnolpho, an architect and sculptor, died 1300. Another Lapo, or Jacopo, distinguished as a canonist, died 1381 ; and Ric- no Di Lapo, a painter of Florence, and grand- father of Giottino, was born 1330. LAPPOLI, Matthew, an Italian painter, died 1504. His son, J. Anthony, a painter, 1492-1552. LARA, a celebrated Spanish family, the foun- der of which was Ferdinand Gonzalez, count of Castile and Lara, died 970. In 1130, the family was divided into two branches, the first with Manrique De Lara, who took the title of vis- count of Narbonne, for its stock ; and the second deriving from Ordogno Perez, and preserving the title of count of Lara, until it became extinct in the latter half of the 14th century. The mem- bers of this family played an important part in the civil wars of Castfle, under Alphonso X., Sancho IV., Ferdinand IV., and Alphonso XL, with whom they often disputed the crown. LARCHER, P. H., an eminent French critic and Hellenist, author of remarks on Voltaire's phi- losophy of history, under the title of a ' Supple- ment,' &c, 1726-1812. LARDIZABAL, Don Manuel De, minister of Ferdinand VII., 1750-1823. LARDNER, Dr. Nathaniel, a learned dis- senting minister, author of Credibility of the Gos- pel History,' ' Letter on the Logos,' 'A Vindication of Three of our Saviour's Miracles,' 'The Testi- monies of the Ancient Jews and Pagans in favour of Christianity,' a ' History of Heretics,' &c. Dr. Lardner was educated among the presbyterians, and, in 1729, became assistant minister at Crutched Friars, 1684-1768. LAREVEILLERE-LEPEAUX,LouisMarie, described by Napoleon as a hot and sincere patriot, and a fanatic by temperament, was born 1753, and became a member of the constituent assembly, the convention, the council of elders, and the directory. Ho had a considerable share in the direction of affairs, and was chief of the sect of Theophilanthro- LAS pists. His peculiar talents led him tention to the details of business, while he le Ban-as the exercise of authority. Died 1824. LARGILLIERE, N., a Fr. painter, 1656-1 LARIVE, J. M. De, a Fr. tragedian, 1744-1 LARIVEY, P. De, a Fr. dramatist, died II LARIVIERE, P.J. H., a member of the Fr assembly and convention, dist. among the Gi dists, whose fate he escaped by flight, 1760-11 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD. See Rochei CAULD. LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN. SeeRocHEjA< LEIN. LA ROMANA, Marquis De, a Spanish wn dist. against the French in the late war, died 1 LAROON, M., a Dutch painter, 1653-1705 LARREY, Dominique Jean, Baron, a < brated military surgeon, and devoted followi Napoleon Buonaparte, who pronounced him most virtuous man that he had known, 17C6-1 LARREY, Isaac De, a French historian o: reformed religion, who fled to Holland on the i cation of the edict of Nantes, au. of a ' Histoi England,' a ' Hist, of Louis XIV.,' &c, 1638-1 LARRIVEE, H., a French actor, 1733-180 LARROQUE, Matthew De, a French pr tant and controversial divine, 1619-lO.s-i. His Daniel, a protestant minister, and author of V^ritables Motifs de la Conversion de 1' Abt la Trappe,' 1660-1731. LARRUYA, E., a Span, statistician, died 1 LARUE, Gervais De, a French ecclesi and antiquarian savant, author of ' Histoire Trouveres,' &c, 1751-1835. LARUE, J. S. De, a Fr. historian, 1765-18 LARUETTE, J. L., a French actor, 1731-1 LA SALLE, Ant. C. L. Collinet, Count \ general of cavalrv, killed at Wagram, 1775-18 LA SALLE, H., a French author, 1765-18! LASCA, the assumed name of A. F. Grazj a burlesque poet and novelist of Florence, b. 1 LASCARIS. Two learned Greeks of this i were among the fugitives who quitted Consti nople in 1454. The first, Constantine Lasc/i died at Messina 1493. He is the author of first book printed in the Greek character. second, Andrew John Lascaris, of the t family, distinguished as a scholar and ambassi was patronised by Leo X., and became princip the Greek college founded at his own insfe Died at Rome 1535. Constantine Lascaris is erally called Byzantinus, and John, or Am John, Rhyndacenus. LASCARIS, A., an Ital. economist, 1776-1 LASCARIS, P., grand mas. of Malta, 1560-1 LASCARIS, Theodore, a Greek prince, kr as Theodore I., son-in-law of Alexis Ang emperor of Constantinople. After the takh that city by the crusaders in 1203, Lascaris sessed himself of Bithynia, Lydia, the coas< the Archipelago, and of a part of Phrygia, w he formed into a kingdom, with Nica tal, and reigned over it from 1206 to his d. 1222. The second of the same name, born 1 succeeded his father, John Ducas, as einpen Nicasa 1255, and died 1259. The son of the I named John Lascaris, succeeded him whei years of age, and died the same year. His su> sor was Michiel Palaeologus. 400 LAS VSES. The count of this name, Marin Emmanuel Auguste Dieudonne, was nan of patrician origin, whose history is to of a chivalrous devotion to Napoleon Buona- I i e was born at the chateau of Las Cases, -He department of the Haute- Garonne, in 1766, 3 acquired distinction in several actions as a ll officer: among these, was the storming of Saltar by the combined fleets of France and Un. At the outbreak of the French revolution, tinned the emigrants at Coblentz, and after tang in the fruitless efforts of the Vendean war aijthe expedition to Quiberon, settled in Eng- laj. He was among the first of the emigrants wturn to France on the invitation of Napoleon ; M having engaged himself as a volunteer under .'liadotte, when the English attacked Flushing iij809, he became known to the emperor, and Mually rose high in his confidence. His loyalty tiiapoleon shone the brighter for his reverses in lit and the year following, when he accompanied hato St Helena, and remained in the closest inti- iw with him for eighteen months. At the close &ch day, Las Cases noted all that transpired, . thought expressed by the emperor, in a jonal, which has since been published as a ' Me- nnal of Sainte Helene ;' and in the perusal of must be remembered, that it came under of Napoleon, leaf by leaf, as it was writ- is modern Bayard was at length sent a to England, and treated with every indig- to say petty spite, by the government of under Lord" Castlereagh. The Emperor Flcis at last interfered in his favour, and he was aired to pass the remainder of his days in peace ne vicinity of Paris. Died 1842. ' [E.R.] ^SCO, or LASKI, John A, a Polish theolo- gi kn. as a promoter of the reformation, d. 1560, ISCY, or LACY, Peter, Count De, an Irish ho entered into foreign service after the of Ireland by William III., and became a fi^marshal of Russia, and governor of Lithuania, U -1751. His son, Joseph Francis Maurice, C it De Lascy, born at St. Petersburg 1725, be- m a marshal in the service of Austria, d. 1801, ASERNA SANTANDER, Ch. An., a learned B ivan, au. of ' Diet. Bibliographique,' d. 1813, 1SIUS, L. 0., a Ger. philologist, 1675-1750. ASNE, M., a French engraver, 1596-1667. ASSALA, M., a Spanish poet, 1729-1798. . LLE, A. De, a Fr. metaph., 1754-1829. LS, Richard, an Oxford scholar, who Wme a convert to Romanism, and wrote 'Travels My,' born 1603, died at Montpellier 16G8. '. Orlando Di, an eminent musician of Bjiria, author of a great number of sacred com- 1520-1596. His works were published w* sons, Rudolph and Ferdinand, both of tine, themselves in the same profession. <\'E, J. M. F., a Fr. physician, 1717-88. IBS, a Greek poet, about 500 B.C. S, P., a French pathologist, 1741-1807. SIO, Noel, an Ital. savant, 1707-1792. AN, I'eter, a Dutch painter, 1581-1649. Nicholas, a painter and engr., b. 1619. i K. V. De Paule, a French botanist, rf Hortus Burdigalensis,' 1739-1823. LAT General Synopsis of Birds,' in 6 vols. 4to; an ' Index Ornithologicus ;' and ' A General History of Birds.' The latter is contained in 10 vols. 4to, and is esteemed his greatest work. Born at Eltham in Kent 1740, died 1837. LATHAM, John, a physician of London, author of several contributions to the Medical Transac- tions, and of a work on ' Diabetes,' 1761-1843. LATIL, J. B. M. A. Anthony De, cardinal and archb. of Rheims, conf. of Charles X., 1761-1839. M.John, an English physician, eminent m ornithologist and antiquarian, author of ' A 401 [Birth-place of Latimer.] LATIMER, Hugh, one of the early English re- formers, was born at Thurcaston, near Mount Sorrel, in Leicestershire, about 1472. After taking his de- gree at Cambridge, he entered into holy orders, and was quite a zealot on behalf of popery. The influ- ence of Thomas Bilney induced him to scan the sub- ject more thoroughly, and to study the Bible. His eyes were gradually opened, and at the age of fifty-three he renounced Romanism. His bold opi- nions against many Romish errors soon made him notorious in his own university and elsewhere. He even ventured to remonstrate with Henry VIII. on the sin and danger of prohibiting the Bible in English. Through the patronage of Thomas Crom- well he was appointed to a living in West Kintoa, Wiltshire, where he preached with great earnest- ness and fervour the evangelical truths of the refor- mation ; and he first became chaplain to Ann Bo- leyn and then bishop of Worcester in 1535. When the act of the six articles was passed, he dissented, and proved his sincerity by resigning his bishoprick. For his disinterestedness and firmness he was com- mitted to the Tower, where he lay a prisoner for six years ; and though the accession of Edward led to his liberation, he would on no account re- sume the government of his see. No sooner had Mary ascended the throne, than Latimer, as might be anticipated, became a marked object of papal ven- geance. He refused to fly from the royal citation, conscious that his hour was come. After a manly vindication of his opinions, he was, along with Rid- ley, condemned to the flames. On the day of his martyrdom at Oxford, 16th October, 1555, he ap- peared in a shroud, was, with his fellow-sufferer, bound by an iron chain to the stake, and five bags of gunpowder were fastened round his body. Tliw faggots were kindled, and Latimer, turning to Rid- ley, cried with prophetic voice, ' Be of good comfort, master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this 2D LAT day light such a candle, by God's grace, in Eng- land, as, I trust, shall never be pot out.' Latimer's sermons, which were collected and published, London, 1826) in two octavos, are distinguished by quaint and homely sense, and pointed and vigorous admonition, the offspring of a playful temper, a happy disposition, and a sincere and noble heart. [J.E.] LATIMER, W. f a dist. scholar of the 16th cent. LATINI, Brunetto, a literary savant, and partisan of the Guelfs, author of ' Tresor de Toutes Chows,' a species of encyclopaedia, written in French, and inventor of the Terza Rima. He was one of the first teachers of Dante, 1220-1294. LATINI, Latino, an Italian critic, 1513-1593. LATOMUS, J., an adv. of Luther, died 1544. LA TOUCHE-TREVILLE, Louis Rene Ma- delaine Lavassor De, vice-admiral of France, and deputy of the noblesse, 1745-1804. LATOUR, Theodore, a general and count of the Austrian empire, born 1780, appointed minister of war, and barbarously murd. by the popul. 1848. LATOUR-MAUBOURG, Marie Victor Fay, Marquis De, a royalist general, minister of war in 1820, afterw. gov. of the 'Invalides,' 1756-1831. LATOUR. See De Latour, Tour. LATREILLE, Peter Andrew, one of the greatest entomologists of France, member of the Academy of Sciences, and professor at the Museum of Natural History, 1762-1833. LATROBE, B. H., an Eng. architect, d. 1820. L'ATTAIGNANT, Gabriel Charles De, a French ecclesiastic, known as a popular poet and gallant, 1697-1779. LATUDE, Henry Mazers De, a French cour- tier, who was liberated from the Bastile in 1784, after an imprisonment of thirty-five years, occa- sioned by his intrigues against Madame Pompa- dour. He is the author of ' Memoirs,' which have made his name eel. throughout Europe, 1724-1804. LAUD, William, archbishop of Canterbury, and favourite minister of Charles L, was a prelate of great learning, and in all probability of sincere in- tentions, but he was carried away by the high sa- cerdotal and regal doctrines which prevailed under the Stuarts. He was bora at Reading 1573, be- came fellow of St. John's College 1593, obtained a living in the Church of England 1607, and was appointed chaplain to James I. in 1611. With Laud's abilities and doctrines, promotion followed as a matter of course, and it became the aim of his life to unite the three kingdoms in one profession of religion. The power of the Star Chamber, courts of high commission, fines, pen- ances, and all the means he could command, were strained to this purpose. Since the Union, the Scotch presbyterians had infused much of their own spirit into the English puritans, and when Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton, came bleeding from the scaffold, such a spirit was aroused as only the blood of those who had provoked it could allay in the minds of the people. It was in 1628 that Laud succeeded the duke of Buckingham as prime minister; in 1630 he became chancellor of Oxford; in 1633, archbishop of Canterbury, and chancellor of the university of Dublin : and in 1637, he pro- cured that decree of the Star Chamber which de- etroved the liberty of the press, and made him the universal censor and demi-gorgon of opinion in 402 LAU England. With full allowance for all that c urged in favour of his zeal for reli cause of learning, it is neither surpri regretted that he shared the fate Pity for an infirm old man, and the well-k bigotry of his enemies, would persu wise. The historian, however, is bound to choice between these emotions and the demor tion of a nation, to be followed eventually by horrors as those of the French revolution, was declared guiltv of treason by a bill of al der, and executed on Tower Hill, Januar 1645. LAUDER, Sir Til Dick, Baronet, a fs novelist and miscellaneous writer, known as a tributor to Blackwood's and Tait's Magazines for his works descriptive of Scottish scenery, at Edinburgh 1784, died 1848. LAUDER, W., a Scotch writer, known f false accusations of plagiary agt. Milton, d. ] LAUDERDALE, Duke of, an English si man, minister of Charles II. from 1G7U to It LAUDERDALE, James Maitland, ea a statesman of the party of Fox, born 1759 ceeded his father as a Scotch peer 1789, tot seat in the House of Lords as one of the repi tative peers of Scotland 1790, created a peer< United Kingdom, and became chancellor of land 1806, died 1840. The earl of Lauderdal author of ' Letters to the Peers of Scotland,' lished 1794, and devoted the last ten years < fife to agricultural pursuits. LAUDIVIO, L., an Italian poet, 15th cen LAUDON, Gideon Ernest, Baron Von, a brated Austrian gen. of Scotch descent, 1716- LAUDOUNIERE, Rene De, a French g man, distinguished in an attempt to co! Florida, when nearly all his companions massacred by the Spaniards, author of ' Hi Notable de la Floride,' published 1586, twenty after his adventure. LAUGIER, A., a French chemist, 1770-1: LAUGIER, M. A., a miscel. writer, 1713- LAUGIER DE TASSY, a Fr. hist., last i LAUJOU, P., a French dramatist, 1727-1 LAUNAY, or LAUNEY, Bernard i Joukdan, Marquis De, governor of the Basi the commencement of the French revolutior born in that fortress, of which his father ws veraor before him, in 1740. The circumstan which he was placed by the attack of the po) were so unprecedented, that it, is not surpj the most contradictory charges have been brj against him. Early in July, 1789, he was I by three strangers above the common rank) asked him what he intended to do if the fti should be attacked? 'My conduct,' he rij ' is regulated by my duty : I shall defend it.' I afterwards, he caused an immense quantity oil, der to be transferred from the arsenal to th'i tile, and, on the 14th of the month, the form besieged and taken. Rather than yield, De Lj had seized a cannoneer's match to blow il place, but he was turned back from the ma j by two of his own officers with fixed bay After the capitulation of the garrison murdered, and his head paraded through the with six others, elevated on pikes, of his body is not known. The Bastile ff| II LAU In 1383, and when it was destroyed only jrisoners were found in it. It was levelled ground as the monument of an arbitrary jrtiich had endured for ages ; and the Me- >f Latude, who had issued from its gloomy in 1784, after a confinement of thirty-five irere in all probability a great provocative estruction. [E.R.] [Siege of the Bastiie.] iUNEY, J. B. De, a Fr. deputy, 1752-1831. lUNOY, J. Dk, a doctor of the Sorbonne, kr ti as a theologian and critic. 1603-1678. lURA, or LAURI, F., an Ital. paint., 1623-94. kURAGUAIS, Louis Le Felicite, Due De :ps, and Count De, a French dramatist and illaneous writer, 1733-1823. LURATI, P., an Italian painter, 1282-1340. NUREMBERG, W., a Ger. physician, 1547- il His son, John, a mathematician, d. 1658. LURENBERG,, P., a physician, naturalist, iLtronomer, 1585*1639. His brother, John, a ik and Latin poet, hist., and math., 1590-1658. LURENCE, French, professor of civil law at ird, known as a miscellaneous writer, died if His brother, Richard, professor of Heb- i archbishop of Cashel, and a distinguished ibrian, 1760-1839. LlJRENS, Andrew Du, a French physician Unatomist, died 1609. His brother, Honorius, &ishop of Embrun, under Henry IV., d. 1612. LURENS, Henry, an American statesman ambassador, 1724-1792. His son, John, a Wficer and friend of Washington, killed towards jlose of the war at the age of twenty-six. URENS, L. Des, a Fr. theologian, died 1671. LURENT, J. A., a Fr. painter, 1763-1833. HJRENT, P., a French engraver, 1739-1809. HJBENT, Peter Joseph, a mechanic of Iters, celebrated as an hydraulic engineer, and p construction of artificial limbs, 1715-1773. fURIERE, E. J. De, a Fr. jurist, 1659-1728. (.URISTON, James Alexander Bernard larquis of, a diplomatist and marshal of grandson of Law, the financial projector, 1768. He was distinguished in the wars empire, and became ambassador to England bearer of the propositions of peace, or of preliminaries of peace between Great and France in 1802. He was promoted to rank under Louis XVIIL, and d. 1828. LAV LAUTREC, Odet De Foix, Seigneur De, one of the bravest captains of France in the 16th cen- tury, died at the siege of Naples 1528. LAUWERS, N., a Flemish designer, bom 1620. LATJZUN. The Duke deLauzun, formerly Count Antonine Nompar de Caumont, is the hero of an intrigue with Mademoiselle de Montpensier, the granddaughter of Henry IV., to whom, it was al- leged, he was secretly married. Died, after a long imprisonment and exile, 1723. LAVALETTE, Anth. De, a eel. Jesuit, whose shameful practices in the middle of last cent, con- tributed to the expulsion of his order from France. LAVALETTE, Marie Chamans, Count De, a distinguished soldier of the French revolution, who was born 1769, and, becoming a favourite of Buonaparte, was appointed director-general of the post office, and counsellor of state under the em- pire. He shared the misfortunes of the emperor in 1814, but resumed his functions and promoted the cause of Napoleon during the hundred days, for which, after the restoration, he was condemned to death. By the aid of his wife, and three Eng- lish gentlemen at that time in Paris, he had the good fortune to escape from prison. Died 1830. LAVALETTE, Emilie Louise De Beau- harnais, countess of, and wife of the preceding, deserves a separate notice for her conjugal fidelity and courage. Being a niece of the empress Jose- phine, she was manned to Lavalette at the instance of Napoleon towards the close of the last century, and after the condemnation of her husband in 1815, whose execution was fixed for the 21st of Decem- ber, she exchanged clothes with him in prison, and thus enabled him to escape. For her conduct on this occasion she was accused, along with her ac- complices, of a conspiracy against the state ; and though the charge could not be supported, the anxiety she had undergone, and the loss of her husband, ended in insanity. LAVALLEE, John, Marquis De, a Fr. drama, and miscellan. writer in the magazines, 1747-1815. LAVATER, H., a Swiss physician, 1560-1623. LAVATER, John Gaspar, the famous writer on physiognomy, was born at Zurich 1741, and died in 1801 of the wounds which he received when his native town was taken by the French, under Massena., when he was busy in the streets animating the defenders and aiding the sufferers. He was pastor of the principal church in his na- tive place, and has left a high character for moral purity and benevolence of disposition. His ' Phy- siognomy,' consisting indeed only of fragments, or materials, towards a system, was published in 4 volumes 4to, 1775, illustrated with numerous en- gravings. The popularity it immediately acquired was due, in some measure, to the fact that many of the heads were portraits, and his descriptions often a good-humoured satire upon well-known characters. Some of his hints are very valuable, and his inductions sufficiently supported by facts ; but there are many crude observations, and proofs of hasty generalization, which have done much per- haps to prevent physiognomy from making any considerable progress. Besides this popular work, Lavater wrote 'Aphorisms on Man,' 'Jesus the Messiah,' ' Swiss Lays,' ' Spiritual Hymns,' ' A Look into Eternity,' and ' The Secret History of a Self-Observer.' He is unjustly ridiculed for hia 403 LAV belief in spirits, and their agency in Iranian affairs, which is nevertheless a characteristic common to the greatest names in literature and histOTf. His real fault is want of method, without which the greatest philosophical insight must fail to create a system. It cannot be denied, however, that he II a moralist, and the more, perhaps, for this very deficiency. As an art-writer he may he more open to criticism, yet his work contains many valuable precepts. [E.R.J LAVATER, L., a Swiss theologian, 1527-1586. LAVAUR, W. I)e, a French author, 1653-1730. LAVAUX, C, a French advocate, 1747-1836. LAVAUX, J. C. T., a Ger. lexicog., 1749-1827. LAVICOMTERIE DE ST. SAMPSON, Louis, a political writer, and partizan of the French revo- lution, au. of 'Crimes des Rois de France,' d. 1809. LAVINGHAM, R., a prior of Bristol, au. of an abridgment of Bede's History, close of 14th cent. LAVINGTON, George, bishop of Exeter, chiefly known for his Enthusiasm of the Metho- dists and Papists Compared,' was born 1683, and died 1762. This work, possessing singular hu- mour, and marked by much learning, is utterly deficient in a true appreciation of the facts con- tained in the Diary of Wesley. As the raillery of a gentleman and a scholar, the book may be un- exceptionable, but it is a singular production for a prelate of the church, and can only be excused by the extravagances it was intended to correct, and the ignorance of its author. Besides this amusing work, and its continuation applied to the Mora- vians, Bishop Lavington published some occasional sermons. [E.R.] LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, horn in Paris 1743, guillotined 1794. With the advan- tages of birth and station, Lavoisier acquired an excellent education, distinguishing himself at an early period by the precocity of his talents. Al- though Lavoisier might probably have gained celebrity by the discovery and determination of the characters of new bodies, he chose a more impor- tant field, viz. that of generalization, and of thus explaining the bearings of what appeared to others isolated facts of comparatively httle import. It was by making use of the discovery of oxygen by Priestley that lie was enabled to supply a theory of oxidation and combustion, which has stood the test of three quarters of a century, although he has laid himself open to the charge of at least want of candour in appearing to deprive Priestley and Rutherford of the credit of their discoveries of oxygen and nitrogen. By this theory he extin- guished the idea of phlogiston which had only served to obscure all new discoveries. Another valuable contribution to the science by Lavoisier, was the chemical nomenclature which he is under- stood to have invented, and which is still retained, having served as the basis of all subsequent im- provements in this important branch of the litera- ture of the science. Occupied in his researches on respiration, and in the discharge of his government duties, he was suddenly deprived of life during the horrors of the French revolution. [R.D.T.] LAW, Edmund, bishop of Carlisle, was born at Cartmel, in Lancashire, and lived 1703-1787. He was the author of an ' Inquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time,' &c, published 1734 or 1735, in a controversy with Dr. Clark, arising out of a prcvi- LAW ous translation by Law of Archbishop King's upon the Origin of Evil. His other work 1 Considerations on the Theory of 1. flections on the Life and Character the works of Locke, with a life ami to these his sermons and lesser tr physical and theological subjects. Law wa posed to the doctrine of analogy assumed by . bishop King and Bishop Brown, and held the moral attributes of the human mind we: same as those of the divine, only that the greater in the latter case. See King. LAW, Edward. See EllenboroucjB LAW, John, the celebrated financial proj was born at Edinburgh, son of a banking smith there, about 1670; and being thematician and accountant, was en government to bring the accounts ot the re into order. Thus initiated into the knowlei finances and of public business, and posseat restless, scheming disposition, it ap] that the industry of the country was langui for want of money to employ it. This led famous project for a Land Bank. A vicious mercial theory prevailed at that time, which its rise from the recent introduction of bank and the supposition that a large currency c tutes the wealth of a country without regard commercial wants. The Bank of England the British banks generally, had acted upo mistaken notion, and created great disap] ments and irritation, by suddenly limiting loans when they discovered the drain of gold it created. It was at this juncture that Law forward with his scheme for issuing paper i equal to the value of all the lands in the king and on his proposal being rejected by the p ment of Scotland, earned it to the continen finally procured its adoption by the duke o leans, regent for Louis XV., then in his rity. Hitherto bank notes had not been st France. Mr. Law commenced his operatic 1717, and between that period and 1720, wh( bubble burst, France was converted into on stock exchange, and at last covered with Our limits do not admit of particulars in m so difficult of explanation as financial opera but the basis or Law's project was the ide: paper money may be multiplied to any e provided there be security in fixed stock; the truth is, if the bulk of a currency is inc beyond the actual wants of commerce, all its or separate coins and notes, must depreci! proportion. In the working out oi I a trading company was created which hat; veyed to it the whole province of I the possessions of France on the bai sissippi, which, besides, obtained by purchaj charters and property of the Senegal Compaij India Company, and the China Company, a, came the sole public creditor by fanning the! of the taxes and revenues of the kingdom ,' ruin of this vast machinery at that particnll ment, and with the suddenness that it ocj was produced by an edict of the regent, M 1720, reducing the value of the note.-, in 01 of Mr. Law's protestations, to an equality wijl of the French coinage, which, in foi frequently been altered by the govej 404 LAW Bonvenience. This breach of faith instantly = _ their circulation, the deplorable results of went nigh to produce an insurrection of e. Law became an exile, and after wan- in England, Holland, and Germany, at last i Venice, fully convinced of the solidity of m, 1729. See Lauriston. [E.R.] W, William, one of the most powerful and " 'of English writers in the interest of reli- was born at KingselifFe, in Northampton- 1686, and educated for the Church of Eng- at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he degree of M.A., and obtained a fellowship 11. On the death of Queen Anne, 1714, he J to take the necessary oaths of allegiance to r dynasty, and thus cut himself off from ope of preferment in the church. In 1717, irian controversy was commenced by the ot Hoadley on the" principles and practices e nonjurors, and Law defended his cause in Letters,' remarkable for their logical com- bss and command of language. In 1721 and he made a further exhibition of his principles temarks on the Fable of the Bees,' and ' The wfulness of Stage Entertainments.' In the year he also published his ' Christian Perfec- " in 1729 his ' Serious Call to a Devout and This work is universally acknowledged most stirring appeal to the practical, sense of mankind, in behalf of religion, ritten, and its 'characters' are not inferior and conception to those of La Bruyere. only work by which Law is known to the at the present day. Our author had now > domesticated in the family of Gibbon, as to the historian's father, with whose sister, Hester Gibbon, and her friend, Mrs. Hxitche- aftenvards established himself at Kingscliffe capacity of chaplain and almoner. After Serious Call,' he published one of the most of his logical works, entitled 'The Case answer to Tindal's ' Christianity as the Creation ;' and this, excepting such cor- ce as he carried on in which he was a master was the last production of his pen his adoption of the principles of Jacob len. His acquaintance with those works may to the years between 1733-1736. In year 1 T he sprang like the eagle from fresh fast- ed published his book of the ' Sacrament' srer to Hoadley, which unfolds his new philo- al divinity in the happiest manner. In appeared his ' Christian Regeneration,' which mj another ' Serious Call,' written from x ground, followed by his ' Earnest and Seri- nswer to Dr. Trapp,' who had attacked his Perfection' and ' Serious Call.' In 1740 Appeal' was given to the public, the aim of i is to confute Arianism and Deism from the lature of things; and, in the same year, a der to his opponent, entitled, with a fine of the humorous, ' Dr. Trapp Vindicated the Imputation of being a Christian.' In his ' Way to Divine Knowledge' opened the dsof a positive religion, founded on the prin- contained in the writings of his master. It ed by the ' Spirit of Prayer,' introduc- the ' Spirit of Love,' published 1752, which ssterly demonstration that the wrath to be LAW quenched is not in God, but the creature, who can possess no goodness by birth of his natural parents. Law died in 1761, immediately after completing the most eloquent and perfect of all his works| ' An Humble, Earnest, and Affectionate Address to the Clergy. '_ It is not easy to do justice to his character and influence in few words ; but he was the first teacher of Wesley, who afterwards quar- relled with him ; and England owes him a great debt in the revival of evangelical religion, and the reaction against the worldliness of the church estab- lishment, which characterized the commencement of last century. However mistaken in the foun- dations of his mvstical system, he was always guided by high principle, even to the matter of his bachelorship, which he maintained to the end of his days. Besides the works we have mentioned, he edited an edition of Bcehmen, in 4 volumes 4to, which are embellished with drawings, made by a German named Frere. There are likewise some minor tracts from his pen, not included in our enumeration, and among these is a dialogue on 'Justification,' between a churchman and a Calvinistic methodist, published 1759, in answer to Beveridge. All the memoirs of Law are miser- ably deficient in appreciation of his genius and consistency. [E.R.] LAWES, Henry, the court musician of Charles L, and the composer of Milton's 'Comus,' &c, 1600-1662. His brother, William, also a musical composer, the subject of the next notice. LAWES, William, a celebrated composer, was the son of Thomas Lawes, vicar-choral of Salisbury, of which city he was a native. In his early life he was a member of the choir of Chi- chester, from which place he was called to become one of the gentlemen of the chapel royal in 1602, and afterwards one of the church musicians to King Charles I. He lost his life at the siege of Chester, in the year 1645. [J.M.] LAWLESS, John, an Irish agitator, 1772-1837. LAWRENCE, French. See Laurence. LAWRENCE, J., an Eng. agricul., 1756-1836. LAWRENCE, S., an E. Indian gen., 1697-1775. LAWRENCE, Thos., an English physician and medical wr., au. of the life of Harvey, 1711-1783. LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, P.R.A., was born at Bristol, 4th May, 1769. He obtained an early reputation at Bath as a portrait painter in crayons, and as early as 1787 established himself as a por- trait painter in oils in London, where four years afterwards, 1791, he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1795 an academician ; he had previously succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as painter to the king. He was knighted by the prince regent in 1815, and in 1820 succeeded West as president of the Royal Academy. He died in London, 7th January, 1830. Sir Thomas had perhaps, since the days of Vandyck, an unri- valled career as a portrait painter; he, however, owed his chief success to the skilful flattery of his female portraits, the complexions of which left nothing to be desired : his male pictures, as a rule, bear no comparison with his female ; besides being ill-proportioned, they are wanting in manly char- acter; still his portraits of the emperor Francis, of Pius VII., and of the Cardinal Gonsalvi, in the Waterloo Gallery at Windsor, are among the greatest masterpieces of the art extant. 405 LAW (Williams, The Life and Con-eepondence of Sir Thomas Laiorence, 1831.) [K.N.W.] LAWSON, Sir John, a naval commander and rovalist, killed in action with the Dutch, 1665. J, AX, Rkv. W., an eminent astronomer, d. 1836. LAYA, J. L., a French dramatist, 1761-1833. LA YARD, C. P., a divine and scholar, d. 1803. LAZARUS, prince of Servia, 1386. LAZERI, P., an Italian theologian, 1710-1789. LAZIUS, Wolfgang, a learned physician, and writer on history and antiquities, 1514-1565. LAZOWSKI,' a Polish refugee, distinguished as an active agent in the Fr. revolution, died 1793. LAZZARA, N., an Ital. archaeologist, 1744-1833. LEACH, Wm. Elford, an eminent naturalist, and curator in the British Museum, 1790-1836. LEAD, Jane, was a mystical writer, whose works date from 1683, or thereabouts, to the close of the century, and who died in 1704. She wrote from her own experience of the spiritual life, and the state of departed spirits, but qualified by a previous acquaintance with the system of Boehmen. Her works are a ' Revelation of Reve- lations,' explaining a portion of the Apocalypse, 1 The Laws of Paradise given forth by Wisdom to a Translated Spirit,' ' The Wonders of God's Crea- tion Manifested in the Variety of Eight Worlds,' &c. This woman, of singular learning and expe- rience, belonged to a society of ' illuminati,' pre- sided over by Dr. Pordage, and, at a later period, to the ' Philadelphians,' among whom Dr. Francis Lee was eminent. The latter has written the life of Jane Lead, and some prefaces to her works. She lived at a period when some great develop- ment from the spiritual world was universally ex- pected, but especially in Germany. See Swe- DEXBORG. j^E.R.] LEAH, the wife of Jacob, and mother ot Reu- ben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, dates uncertain. LEAKE, John, a phys. and medi. wr., d. 1792. LEAKE, Richard, one of the bravest officers that ever served in the English navy, created master- gunner of all England, and celebrated for his skill in pyrotechnics, 1629-1696. His son, Sir John, admiral of England, celebrated for the relief of Gib- raltar, &c.,1656-1720. Stephen Martyn Leake, nephew and biographer of Sir John, distinguished in heraldry and numismatics, 1702-1773. LEANDER, a French ecclesiastic, died 1667. LEANDER, a youth of Abydos, who was accus- tomed to swim across the Hellespont in order to visit his mistress on the opposite snore, and was at last drowned in a tempest, date unknown. LEANDER, St., archbishop of Seville, 6th cen. LEAPOR, Mary, the daughter of a poor gar- dener, authoress of original poems of great merit, and 'The Unhappy Father,' a tragedy, 1711-1735. LEARCHUS, a Greek sculptor, B.C. 700. LEBAILLY, A. F., a Fr. author, 1756-1832. LEBAS, J. P., a French designer, 1707-1784. LEBAS, P. F. J., a member of the French con- vention and Committee of Public Safety, killed himself when arrested with Robespierre, 1765-94. LEBAUD, P., a French historian, 16th century. LE BEUF, John, a Fr. historian, 1687-1760. LEBID, Ben Rabiat, an Arab, poet, died 673. LEBLANC, Claude, b. 1669, secretary of war to Louis XV. during the years 1713-1726, d. 1728. LEC LEBLANC, F., a Fr. numismatist, did I LEBLANC, H.. a painter of Lyons, 17th < LEBLANC, J., a French poet, died about LEBLANC, J. B., a French author, 1707- LEBLANC, Marcel, a Jesuit mission. to( au. of a 'Hist, of the Revol. of Siam,' 1653-] LEBLANC, R., a French classic, about 151 LEBLANC, T., a Fr. commentator, 1599- LEBLANC, V., a Fr. traveller, abt. 1554- LEBLANC, W., bishop of Toulon as a philologist and Latin poet, 1520-1588. nephew, of the same name, also a prelat* Latin poet, 1561-1601. LEBLANC DE GUILLET, Anthony Bi called, a dramatic author, 1730-1799. LEBLOND, G. M., a Fr. numisma., 1738- LEBLOND, J. B., a Fr. naturalist, 1747- LEBLOND, W., a Fr. mathematician, 1704- LEBON, Jos., a mem. of the conv., 1765- LEBRET, H., a Fr. historian, died about LEBRUN, A. L., a French author, 1680-1 LEBRUN, C, acele. French painter, 1618- LEBRUN, C. F., duke of Placentia, (list. statesman and scholar, time of Napo., 1739-1 LEBRUN, D., a French jurisconsult, died LEBRUN, J. B. P., a French painter, 1748- LEBRUN, L., a Jesuit and poet, 1607-lfil LEBRUN, Pierre, a French theologian, ; 'Histoiredes Pratiques Superstitieuses,'1661- LEBRUN, Pigault, a Fr. novelist, 1742- LEBRUN, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, c the most celebrated of French lyric poets, flooi at Paris, 1729-1807. LEBRUN-DESMARETTES, J. B., a Jam writer, au of a ' Life of St. Paul,' &c, 1650- LECAT, C. N., a surgeon of Picardv, 1700- LECCHI, G. A., an Ital. mathema., 1702- LECENE, C, a Calvinist minister, 1647-1 LECERF, P., an ecclesiastical wr., 1677-1 LECERF DE LA VIEVILLE, J. H., chs lor of Normandy, and a wr. on music, 1674- LECLERC, David, professor of Hebre Geneva, 1591-1665. His brother, Stephi physician and scholar, died 1676. LECLERC, John, nephew of the precedi laborious theological writer and critic, whose \ are well known, and frequently quoted, b] learned. The most famous of his wri biblical history, and consist of commentaries, written in Latin, lived 1657-1736. I lis brc Daniel, celebrated as a medical writer and tomist, 1652- 1728. Laurent Josse Le Ci son of John, also a learned writer, died 1736. LECLERC, John, a French painter, 1587- LECLERC, J. B., a member of the French vention, and writer on music, 1755-1826. LECLERC, M., a dramatic writer, 1622-1 LECLERC, N. G., a French physician, a of ' Histoire Physique, Morale, Civile, et Pol: de la Russie,' 1726-1798. LECLERC, P., a famous Jansenist, 1706- : LECLERC, S., a cele. Fr. engraver, 1637- LECLERC, Victor Emanuel, a French ral, who distinguished himself in Italy, anc| married to Pauline, the sister of IS afterwards became the wife of Prince Cainille I hese. Leclerc, who entered the republican ani a volunteer, was born in 1772, and died of th j low fever on an expedition to St. Domingo, 1 40G LEC CLEECQ, C, a French missionary, 17th ct. I COAT, Yves Maria Gabriel P., a French mJHlL, appointed by Buonaparte military chief H port of Boulogne, 1757-1826. jIlCOCQ, R., a politician of the 14th cent. IbCOINTRE, Louis, called ' Lecointre of Ver- In,' a deputy to the legislative assembly and Drench convention, and a bitter enemy of the Gildists, born 1750, died unnoticed 1805. iTE, F., a French sculptor, 1737-1817. ; TE, J., a Latin poet, died 1707. iCOMTE, L., a Jesuit and astronomer, author Memoirs on the State of China,' died 1729. MTE, L., a French sculptor, 1643-1695. "ITE, M., a female engraver, born 1719. IICONTE, A., a French jurisconsult, d. 1586. llCONTE, L. J. F., a French author, d. 1740. 1E-CONTEUR, John, a native of Jersey, dist. M officer of the British army in India, where he Use the prisoner of Tippoo Sultan, 1761-1835. IfCT, James, a lawyer of Geneva, 1560-1614. fDERLIN, J. H., a Ger. philolog., 1672-1737. iDERMUTTER, M. F., a physician of Nurem- f a work on the microscope, 1719-1760. IfDESMA, A. De, a Spanish poet, 1552-1623. IX, C, a French architect, 1736-1806. llDRU, A. P., a French botanist, 1761-1831. EDRU, N. P., a French physician, 1731-1807. ".DUTCH, E., an Irish antiquary, 1739-1823. EDYARD, John, a famous American travel- blom at Groton, in Connecticut, 1751. After e among the Indians he came to Eng- k and sailed with Captain Cook on his second Up, the narrative of which he published. His (enterprise was a pedestrian tour round the U; but being prevented from continuing his ley by the Russian government, he returned ndon, and was employed by the African Asso- Bsn. He had proceeded as far as Grand Cairo, iesign of penetrating the interior of that Heating country, when he died of a virulent ^Ise, 1788. '. XNE, sometimes considered the founder Hie Shaking Quakers, was born at Manchester, L and after becoming the mother of several tren, whom she lost at an early age, gave Wflf up to religious contemplation, with the ttiction that the union of the sexes was the sin. The society to which she attached been founded by three prophets from nes, who came to London in 1705, and tly advanced by a person named James , in 1747. Anne Lee, having become the edium of a spiritual manifestation, was as their spiritual head, or ' mother in rist,' in 1771. In 1774, she accom-* some of her people to America, in order >e persecution, and after travelling through ngland, fixed her abode in the neighbour- All. any, where she died, or, in the language tes, 'withdrew from their bodily 1784. Her case is a very remarkable Bang other statements, she declared that had entered into heaven until the year fhich marked the commencement of a new ation ; and she claimed for herself to be d as the ' Bride of the Lamb,' mentioned in h chapter of the Apocalypse. Her followers Bd to a considerable number after her death, LEE and, for a short time at least, established a com- munity of goods. [E.R.] LEE, Charles, a British officer, who engaged in the service of General Washington in the Ameri- can war of independence, died 1782. LEE, Edward, archbishop of York in the reign of Henry VIII., and a zealous opposer of Luther, 1482-1544. LEE, Francis, a learned writer on philosophi- cal, scriptural, and mystical subjects, was a physi- cian, descended, by his mother, from the Percies of Northumberland, and by his father from the same family as the earls of Lichfield He was born in 1660, and being left an orphan when between four and five years of age, was educated under the care of his aunt, Mrs. Elizabeth Jenkins. On receiving a fel- lowship at Oxford, he became tutor to Sir W. Dawes, afterwards archbishop of York, and at a later period to the son of Lord Stawell, with whose fa- mily he remained on terms of intimacy many years after. From 1691 to 1694 he travelled in Italy, and practised as a physician for some time at Venice. In 1708 he was in London. In 1719 he went to France, and died on his journey at Gravelines. It is a curious circumstance that he was known to Peter the Great, and, at his request, drew up proposals for the advancement of his kingdom, the spirit of which, if not the form, has continued to guide the czars of Russia. His works are very numerous, but they were all published anonymously, or in the names of others. Some of them were collected in two volumes octavo, and published for the benefit of his wife and daughter, but these were by no means his most important labours among which may be reckoned his ' History of the Montanists.' His mystic poems are among the highest of that class, and his scriptural commentaries, though false in essential principles, exceedingly ingenious. [E.R.] LEE, Henry, an American general, who com- menced his career in the army of independence, and was afterwards governor of Virginia, 1756-1818. LEE, Nathaniel, an English dramatic writer, author of the 'Rival Queens,' &c. Having at- tempted the stage as an actor without success, he directed his powers to dramatic composition, and produced a number of tragedies. He lat- terly became insane, and was two years an inmate of Bedlam, died 1692. LEE, Rachel Fanny Antonina, a lady of fortune, au. of an ' Essay on Government,' d. 1829. LEE, Samuel, a nonconf. divine, 1625-1691. LEE, Rev. Samuel, D.D., late regius professor of Hebrew in the university of Cambridge, and a great master of biblical and Oriental literature, wasori- finally a poor carpenter, and was born in the neigh- ourhood of Shrewsbury, 1783. He is one of the most remarkable instances on record of persever- ance in self-education under the most embarrassing circumstances, rewarded at last by the highest suc- cess in the honourable career he had chosen. His principal works are a Hebrew Grammar, a Hebrew Lexicon, and a new translation of Job. He was editor of the Scriptures in the Arabic, Persian, and Malay languages. Died 1852. LEE, Sophia, a novelist and dramatic writer, author of ' The Chapter of Accidents,' and of three stories in the ' Canterbury Tales' of her sister, Miss Harriet Lee, born in London 1750, died 1824. LEECHMAN, W., a Scottish divine, 1706-1785. 407 LEE LEEM, Canute, Rsavant of Norwav, 1 697-1 774. LEEPE, J. A. Van., Dut. painter, 166 1-1 ! 20, LEEUW, G. Vamm:k, a Dutch paint., 1643-8& His br., Peter, of the same profession, 1644-1705. LEEUWEN, S., a Dutch jurist, 1625-1682. LEE YES, Wii.n.ui, a country clergyman, and composer of sacred music, author of the air of ' Auld J.'uhin Cray,' 1749-1 LEFEBRE, V., a Flemish engraver, born 1642. LEFEBURE, S., a French engineer, died 1770. LEFEBURE, L. H., a Fr. botanist, 1754-1839. LEFEBVRE, A. B., a Fr. engineer, 1734-1807. LEFEBVBE, Francis Joseph, duke of Dant- zic, a marshal and peer of France, commander of the imperial guard at the battle of Jena, 1755-1820. LEFEBVRE, P., a French author, 1705-1784. LEFERON, J., a Fr. \vr. on heraldry, 16th cent. LEFEVRE, A. M., a Fr. antiquarian, last cent. LEFEVRE, Cl., a French painter, 1633-1675. LEFEVRE, F. A., a Jesuit and poet, 1670-1737. LEFEVRE, J., a French astronomer, d. 1706. LEFEVRE, J., an old chronicler, died 1390. LEFEVRE, N., a French philologist, 1544-1612. LEFEVRE, N., a French chemist, died 1674. LEFEVRE, P. F. A., a drama, an., 1741-1813. LEFEVRE, R,, a cele. portrait painter, d. 1677. LEFEVRE, T., a French savant, 1615-1G72. LEFEVRE DE BEAUVRAY, Peter, au. of a Diet, of Hist, and Philosophical Research,' b. 1724. LEFEVRE DE LA BODERIE, William, a learned Orientalist, part editor of the Polyglott Bible of Antwerp, 1541-1598. His brother, An- thony, an able negotiator, and the discoverer of tlie treason of Biron, author of an account of his embassies to England, died 1615. LEFEVRE-G1NEAU, Louis, professor of na- tural philosophy and mechanics in the college of France, distinguished also as a politician, and for his share in the introduction of the new system of weights and measures, 1751-1829. LEFORT, Francis James, a native of Geneva, who became the favourite of Peter the Great, and the founder of the Russian army, 1656-1699. LEFREN, Laurence Olaveson, a Swedish savant, author of ' Discourses in Philosophy and Theology,' 1722-1803. LEFRERE, J., a French historian, died 1583. LEGALLOIS, Julian J. C., apbys. of Brittany, au. of ' Exp. on the Principle of Life,' 1775-1814. LEGAUFFRE, A., a French jurist, 1568-1635. LEGAY, Louis P. P., a Fr. author, 1744-1826. LEGENDRE, Adrian Marie, born in Paris 1751, died there on the 16th January, 1833. A mathematician who would have been at the head of the most illustrious School in modern Europe, had he not possessed as compeers Lagrange and Laplace. The contributions of Legendre to Analysis, were numerous and important, but it is less easy to give an account of them, as they con- sist rather of individual achievements in various departments of Science, than in the completion and co-ordination of comprehensive theories. But it may be said of him with perfect justice, that he rarely touched a subject without advancing our knowledge of it, and connecting his name perma- nently with its progress : we owe him, for instance, the celebrated proposition regarding the spherical excess in Trigonometry ; and in his memoir on the Orbits of Comets, is the earliest proposal to LEG employ the fertile method of tlw Legendre's chief works are his I ail Integral, in which he first ski mination and development of Elli a subject afterwards treated by hi the Traite des Fonctions EUipiiqucs, Theorie des Nombres; and his E'emens metrie, a work of high elegance. A ti of this work into English with important by Legendre himself, was edited by B Brewster, and is well known in this con attracted, at the time of its publieatio derable notice, by the fresh im] discussions on the vexed question' a subject which at different pe had much occupied M. Legendre. 1 ; : not true that the effort of the French Ge< surmount the difficulty by aid of the mere j of Functions, met with any success ; nev his process, and the criticisms to whic subjected, seem to lead pretty nearly 1 seat of that difficulty. If a proposition demonstrated, or is "made to lean on or paralogisms, there is no doubt that ir exists where there ought to be none, imperfection must be either a flaw in the d tive process, or an inadequate statement of damental principles, the axiomata not sufficient to sustain the whole science. lb certainly no flaw in the logic of Geometry: i therefore must exist in the list of axioms, indeed appears the opinion of all Geometere most have fallen into the error of s the defect necessarily relates, to that specific proposition, where difficulty appears. This is in nowise a le, ence: and nothing but failure could atten effort to supply the deficiency by new post or axioms regarding parallel lines. The h faculties can lay down no axioms regardir finity, and are not entitled to the conceaa any postulate. Infinity, in our hi: expression of it, is simply the negation of fin and no qualities can be predicat it, unless they be negations, or the limit to which the qualities or a series of finite form be shown to tend. The imperfection of Elem< Geometry cannot, accordingly, have anythin mediately to do with the theory of parallel it merely happens that in our usual system existence of some fundamental detect first aj when that theory is treated of. The defect seems to lie in Euclid's inadequate coi necessarily distinctive nature of two defitM butes of geometrical quantity -form and magn The Greek Geometer did not trace out the m in which we acquire our notions of these attri! and he did not therefore recognize it as an a that the attribute of form has no dependeri the attribute of magnitude. The phenome Universal Belief, indeed, amply sustain the t sition ' If any figure exists or is must exist or be conceivable with the same, whatever its magnitude;' or any other ment, involving the truth, that in our Perc of the Geometrical qualities of an Object, alone is definite ; Magnitude being inde and an analysis of the process of Perc reveals the root of that belief; the notij 408 LEG ihule involving an estimate of the dis- of the object, while the notion of Form is, at urce, independent of every variable quan- Now, the foregoing axiom, or some one to it, is involved in Legendre's raise en equa- ls well as in the subsequent processes of d himself; and that step justified Le- 's process is correct. It does not, however, aid from the notation or procedures of ions, to remove the long known imperfection metry : a judicious use of the principle now to, being quite adequate, without our ng from ordinary methods. Legendre's life spent in privacy and strenuous labour in the :ce of Science. He was not a favourite with of the governments of France; but felt satisfied the moderate competency that accrued from pplication of his attainments. [J.P.N.] GENDRE, Gilbert Charles, marquis of lubin Snr Loire, an antiquarian and historical er, 1688-1746. XDRE, Louis, one of the principal actors French revolution, was born at Paris, 1756, commenced life as a sailor. The year 1789 d him occupied as a butcher, and well prepared le roughness of his two professions to take apart opular tumults. He was soon recognized as of the people in his own quarter, and greatly ished himself at the storming of the Bas- influence now became very considerable, he took an active part in the insurrectionary _ .ents of the 5th and 6th of October, 1789, tthe people marched upon Versailles of the of June, 1792, when they invaded the Tuil- -and of the 10th of August following, when rd were massacred, and the royal family isoned. He acted between Danton and the classes of the people as founder of the Cor- 's Club in October, 1789 ; and it is a singular of the savage sincerity which existed between men, that they covenanted whichever of the should detect the other in any defection from popular cause should poinard him. Legendre id his way from the convention into the Com- of Public Safety, and he was the principal r in favour of Danton, when accused by Ro- The latter easily talked him down, and Danton was executed, Legendre fawned upon destroyer until the 9th Thermidor, when he piged his friend by joining the reaction. He was chief instrument of the convention in defeating subsequent attempt of the Jacobins, and finally ime a sober member of the council of 500. died in 1797, and by bequeathing his own j for dissection, made it appear somewhat less iderful that he should have proposed to cut up t of Louis XVI. among the eighty-six depart- ite of France. [E.R.] DRE, L., a French historian, 1655-1733. Anthony, a learned protestant divine it, 1594-1661. His nephew, John, also arned divine, pastor of the Walloon church of den, and author of a history of the Vaudoise 1615-1670. JJGER, Francis Barry Boyle St., a bar- er-at-law, known as a fugitive wr., 1799-1829. iEGER, F. P. A., a Fr. dramatist, 1765-1823. ', St., bishop of Antrim, and one of the st important personages of the 7th century. 409 LEI LEGGE, George, baron of Dartmouth, com- mander of the fleet in the interest of James II., died while imprisoned in the Tower, 1647-1691. LEGGIER, P., a French dramatist, 1734-1791. LEGNANO, Stefano Maria, commonly called ' II Leganino,' an Italian hist, painter, 1660-1715. LEGOBIEN, C, a French historian, 1653-1708. LEGONIDEC, J. F. Ma-Mau. Agatho, a na- tive of Brittany, dist. as a Celtic scholar, 1775-1838. LEGOTE, P., a Spanish painter, died 1662. LEGOUVE, J. B., a French gentleman, distin- guished as a man of letters, 1730-1782. His son, Gar. Ma. Jean Baptiste, a dramatist, 1764-1813. LEGRAIN, J., a French historian, 1565-1642. LEG RAND, Albert, a Dominican preacher, au. bf the ' Lives of the Saints of Brittany,' d. 1640. LE GRAND, Anthony, a French ecclesiastic and theologian, the first to reduce the philosophy of Descartes to the scholastic method, 17th century. LEGRAND, J., a French moralist, 1350-1422. LEGRAND, J., a French historian, 1653-1733. LEGRAND, James William, a famous archi- tect, and writer on the edifices of Paris, 1743-1807. LEGRAND, L., a French theologian, 1711-1780. LEGRAND, L., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1588-1664. LEGRAND, M. A., a French actor, 1673-1728. LEGRAND, Peter, a celebrated buccaneer, dist. against the Spaniards time of Louis XIV., d. 1670. LEGRAND, S. A. M., a Fr. Orient., 1724-1784. LEGRAND D'AUSSAY, Pierre Jean Bap- tiste, a learned Fr. Jesuit and fabulist, 1737-1800. LEGRAS, J., a French singer, 1739-1794. LEGRAS, N., a French Hebraist, 1675-1751. LEGRAS, P., a French sculptor, 1656-1719. LEGUANO, S. M., an Ital. painter, 1660-1715. LEGUAT, F., a French traveller, died 1735. LEHMANN, C. G., a German savant, author of a ' Precis of the Natural Hist, of Man,' 1765-1823. LEHMANN, J. G., a Ger. mineralogist., d. 1767. LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William; bom at Leipzig, 3d July, 1646; died at Hanover, 14th November, 1716: his tomb may be seen at the extremity of the Grand Alley near the gates ; it is a small temple, with the inscription Ossa Leibnitzii. There has been but one man in mo- dern Europe who, in the attributes either of uni- versality or intensity of genius, can be named as compeer to the marvellous intellect we are now to contemplate his compatriot, Goethe. The sphere of the latter, indeed, lay chiefly within the domain of our human sentiments, and the strifes, the defeats, and victories of Practical Life ; never- theless, across this fundamental diversity, it is easy to recognize a co-ordinate catholicity and force, raising both to conscious and serene supre- macy, and stamping them as law-givers. With- in the vast regions of speculative Thought, there was no department unvisited by the ever-living activity of Leibnitz, or unillumed by his bril- liancy: nor in consequence of the very pro- foundly of his conceptions is there any writer, whose speculations it is more easy to divest of their relation to occasion and time, and present as a contribution to all ages. Jurisconsult, historian, theologian, naturalist, mathematician, metaphy- sician of the highest order Leibnitz has left everywhere the firm impress of his all-piercing In- tellect, and sleepless industry; there being not more than one of those large ranges of thought, LEI t'v.t e.in well be described :md presented now, apart from commemoration of his achievements. A Juris- OOOODlt by early profession and predilection, be descended, like a Hash, towards tbe necessary principles of all Law and alone in bis time, recog- nized tbe pre-eminent grasp and philosophy of the Jurisprudence of Bow A philosophical Jurist, it is the fashion with men of practice and detail, to scorn as no lawyer, but rather as the jurist of the closet or the drawing-room : the industry and ac- curacy of Leibnitz however, might well affright the most plodding practitioner ; and he showed that the philosopher alone, can attain the faculty to track and interpret those practical labyrinths. We ap- peal to his Essay, Nova Methodus Discendce Docen- dceque Jurisprudentice, to the Traile Sur le Droit th Sourcrainete it d'Embassade, or to the elaborate ( odex Juris Gentium Diplomat icus. Solicited by the elector of Brandenburg to prepare a memoir of that rising House how untiring the energy he displayed ! Throwing off in the way of bye-play such "treatises as the Disquisitio de Origine Frnaicorum, the Accessiones Historical in two vols. 4to, and various pieces in the Collectanea Ftymologica, he prepared for the House of Brandenburg, a history from the era of its birth, such as the greatest of European States might not unjustly envy; the results of which immense and conscientious labours, are now republishing by M. Pertz. Again, as Naturalist, with foresight like Goethe, and a superior me- thod let his wonderful Pkotocea speak for him ! Catching apparently, at a glance of the phenomena unanalyzed as all these then were the main force or their indications, he seizes firmly the ttvo grand originators of present in- organic forms, viz.: the aqueous and the igneous: and the honour fell to him, first among Euro- peans, to repudiate the common opinion that petrifactions are mere freaks of Nature, but instead, relics of her history. The Protogam, indeed, is rather a sketch than a finished work, a mode of composing not unusual with Leib- n.tz; for, although no man was less of a vision- ary, his conceptions of the attainable, extended far beyond what even an age could accomplish. In the Protogcea, and wherever he has left his track, his power to discern the extent of any sphere of Thought, and to lay down its grander outlines, seems even more vigorous than his power to fill in details : without such a faculty, indeed, he could not have been the Lawgiver: over the unparalleled diversity of Ideas, which our modem world owes to his genius, no intellec- tual Force could have held sway, unless its in- stinct of Unity, or its faculty of Generalizing, had pure. Name With the exception, perhaps, of the great already mentioned, modern Literary History exhibits a grander spectacle nowhere, than the In- tellect of tins Hanoverian, moving with so supreme a power, through so wide a diversity of regions, and, in its own sovereign fashion, subjecting all to itself. But we must speak much more in detail, of the Metaphysical, Religious, and Mathematical Specu- lations of this illustrious Man. I. The writings and achievements of Leibnitz in Mental Philosophy are great and various. One important work, is purely . leal Nuuveaux Essuis sur I' 'Eutcudement LEI nunmin. It is avowedly a critique on Locke's E on the Understanding: and notwithstanding Reid, Stewart, and Cousin, have since written not overstepping justice to term it th> able criticism to which that Essay has ever yet I subjected. None of Locke's mistakes regar'dinj doctrines of Des Cartes, escapes the eye man Philosopher; and very few of the consd which the general views of the Englb since received, are not initiated in that ren^fl work. Had Mr. Stewart and his immedi cessors in this country, been earlier acquainted \ these Essays which are not in the edition of. tens much of their own exposition would 1 taken on a mere scientific form. But the d achievements of Leibnitz in this field, transc the sphere of mere psychology. They are t fold, and as follows; First: Starting f the true Cartesian foundation avowing that Human Mind can obtain no conception of ] Existence, save through its Intuitions Spik< had recently asked with clear and resolute sp what ultimate information reaches us ttytt these intuitions, what mean we by the Nfll Substance, which is the basis of all our idea Externa] or Independent Being? Following, fortunately, not only the method, but also specific psychology of Des Cartes, that emir Thinker described our primary Idea of Snkfl as characterized in the main by the attribut Extension; and in stem logical deduction fi this fallacy, he reared his huge, but symmetr Scheme of Pantheism. Logical to theutterm his views took fast hold on Philosophy ; nor was gloomy despotism challenged, until it snrrende and fell at the command of Leibnitz. What, greater Thinker inquired afresh, what realh our primary Idea of Substance f What truly is" Notion, which in virtue of the necessities of Being we accept as the foundation of our Idea External Existence V Is it, that such existenc mere extension an inert mass, on which chan are impressed, or within which, as mere modifi tions, they proceed? Or, on the contrary, is the conception of active force, inwoven v it? Can we form a rational conception of i external Substance, unless as an Lxl erg)', which, by its inherent Activities. self known to us? Leibnitz, by simp] the foregoing question, succeeded in luncefu associating the Idea of Cause, indissolubly w the Idea of Substance: he broke down, a; for ever, Spinozistic Pantheism ; and the ground of his own scheme of Mona i wrong, perhaps, to speak of the celebrat of Monads as a System properly so called : at events, it is by our accepting it as an VluMrnh that it most readily becomes intelligible to the E. lish Mind. What know we then of Exi cent that it is a Force ? What for instance the Cr tat that ' Geometer of inanimate Nature ' tin! an Energy or simple Power, having tin i assimilate what is external, and therewith build a fabric in accordance with definite laws ? Animal, if not an Energy alike primal and indi sible, unfolding its Nature and attributes, thrui the forms into which it constrains whatever it N milates ? What is Man save aloftier M on as, or ating sovereignly on what is around it, ckalleng 410 LEI r sphere, and, so to speak, establishing its dyntuty ? Stretch higher still ; what else orlds, those vast globes swimming in Ether, tentates or Primal Faculties ; or what those er and unseen Intelligences among whom as :rs, the Eternal has apportioned his offices ? for a moment under the Idea of the Exter- iverse, according to this conception of it, if an illustration could be found, more apt ressive ? No dead Extension, of which the frame no conception ; but, around and beneath our feet in the dust, and aloft h the great vault of Heaven Energy and Existence synonymous with Force; the and forms of Things, but indices of Powers ! That primary notion of Substance ge across which we pass to our conception ities, analyze it profoundly as you will, u find it represented best by the scheme of -Oftener than once it has been asserted more one gets rid of the mere terms rms of modern Speculation, tbe more conscious of rising into unexpected har- with Leibnitz. A truth still more deeply one analyses his Second great metaphysi- oception Ms notion, viz.: of Pre-Estab- Harmony. This very remarkable scheme iturally out of that of Monads. If Ex- as we apprehend it, is the development dent individual Energies, how comes it Energy does not distract or possibly anni- another, but rather assists it ? How are ion, intercourse, progress, possible ? Is it ly because the sphere) the necessities, the of each Monas, are primarily, by sovereign ipremest Wisdom, adjusted to all that en- it? To appreciate these questions aright, ect on Man. The utmost we can predi- Man is this, he is a primal Force, building onderful scheme of nerves, and by that in- ntality, holding intercourse with everything tl. But how is that intercourse realized? eceives through these nerves nothing but ins. No image or direct picture of any- rithout, is ever substantially presented to how then, on being aroused by a simple Mi, does the Monas read its cause, or touch Universe that hems it in ? This ques- aches the mystery of our Intuitions, or that : te and inexplicable Faculty, by which we from what is felt to what is : and by of speech can the nature or affluence of ty be better indicated, than by the term hshed Harmony. We spring towards of sensation, simply because the Soul, | Monas is by pre-adjustment, in per- ony with all things ; and because in the stage of self-consciousness, that Harmony w. In ourselves in fact, we possess the I all things : the Soul is a glorious micro- ti n which every phenomenon and law, form and energy, has its correspondent and rpart : so that, the stroke of an undulation t he stroke of another on the eye, reveal, doubt or illusion, that wonderful Universe LEI Understanding, and those more spiritual Ideas of the Reason, are known to be counterparts of mate- rial systems wherein these relations are realized, and of farther off and as yet scarcely descried, pure but real Intelligences. Go to the roots of the mysterious subject, and in something of this sort, all theories of perception and all such philosophies must end. And if this, or aught like it be tree, no marvel that the theory of our Intuitions ex- amined apart should have been found so fraught with difficulty and fertile of doubt. Self-con- sciousness being the highest and last attainable knowledge ; that which lies at the root of our be- ing, is not likely to be discerned, or reduced within logical theme, while culture is only painfully un- folding. To have defined the strict but exten- sive domain of Intuition, is, we believe, one of the main glories of Kant : not only, however, need it cause little uneasiness that he accounted so many of those laws and Ideas, subjective only ; but, it may be asserted, that as Humanity advances, others now but dimly recognized as dreams, will advance through clearer Subjective reality, into fullest Objective distinctness. II. A very large amount of meditation and personal ex- ertion were given by Leibnitz not only to the sub- ject-matter of Religion, but also to the affairs of the Church. We can refer in this place, only to the leading results of his Thoughts, and the spirit in which he approached such themes. Recognizing through a high metaphysic, the necessary existence of God in his fullest person- ality, he bows before him as Creator of the sub- lunary Machine, and as Ruler of Spirits. Be- cause He is a Being of perfect Wisdom, no work of His can be other than perfect; hence, says Leibnitz, the condition of things around us, is the ' best pos- sible ;' an Optimism with which he endeavours to reconcile the mystery of Physical and Moral Evil, in his TheodicU. Evil, he conceives the sign and consequence of limitation; and that each Monas inferior to the Supreme, must experience limitations, simply because it is Finite. Whether, by this striking and ingenious scheme, Leibnita has succeeded better than others, in reconciling with Man's Intellect and Heart, that painful mys- tery of Evil that painfullest mystery of Sin it were beside our purpose at present to inquire. But it is necessary to remark that the optimism of the Hanoverian differs toto ca;lo, from that of Pope and Bolingbroke. According to the ' Essay on Man ' the maxim ' whaieier is, is best,' simply represents an imaginary co-existence of all forms and grades of Being, from zero up to Deity; while Leibnitz strove to demonstrate, that the Universe is a compact Harmony, in which each Being has indeed an independent place, but an independence insured by the necessity of its Existence to the Existence and Life of all others. The two views stand in utter contrast: the one deducing harmony^ from activity and duty; the other, identifying independence with simple isola- tion. More important, however, than any attain- able positive result on matters so mysterious, ap- pear to us, the Spirit and Method moving these and sounds ; so that, at the stroke of Inquiries. Satisfied that no Faith could be real, sensation, Space, Time, Extension, Form, f all spring up as by miracle ; and so sulj -ctive relations or Categories of the or even intelligible, unless its foundations were df tected in the Human Reason, Leibnitz, in this sense, was a nationalist. Attached to the Church, 411 LEI he ret Bought incessantly for the ground of its relief's: and on no occasion did he falter in his adhesion to that law of Human Lil>crtv, which is the source of Toleration. It is needful to keep the ; truth in view, to interpret aright the position of Leibnitz with regard to the affairs of the Clntvch. Attracted, like every great Mind and Statesman of that time, by the" influence of Church questions on the peace and destinies^ of Europe he conceived the project of reconciling differences; and he conducted a remarkable cor- respondence with Bossuet and Pelisson, with the view to discern a basis of reconcilement. For ibuitz's practical sagacity was in fault: Boon informed him. that truth belonged to the Church alone ; that the only possible aim of dealing with the Protestants of Augsburg, was that they might recant and re-enter the Church. Bos- suet had not reached the position of Leibnitz: nor diil he care, in political transactions, to acknowledge what he well knew viz.: that although Keligion, like every Transcendental subject, must rest, on what ' passes all Understanding,' even the great- est of its verities can have no hold or standing place, if dissevered from relationship with the Reason of Man. An external Rule in Morality grows into a Principle, only when it has become harmonized with the Moral Nature of the Agent: and so, Transcendental Propositions, are Dogmas only and not Beliefs, until they have possessed themselves of what is universal and inherent in the Reason, which avows adhesion. But between the Mind and all transcendental Truth, there is this natural Harmony ; and on such conviction Leib- nitz grounded his hopes. The age of the Revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes however, was not any more than those recent ones through which, the world has rolled an age for 'Religious Union.' To this phase of our Philosopher's activity be- longs the work recently published in this country under the title 'A System of Theology, by G. W. Von Leibnitz.' His recent Editor Guhrauer, has quite traced the origin of this treatise. Its real title is 'An Exposition by a Protestant, of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church, made with a view to re-establish Unity.' Leibnitz simply desired to express, with that specific aim, the most catholic views then held by the Church. III. Pass now, however, into an nndebateable land. Not one, in which the vast powers of our remarkable Thinker are most conspicuously shown; but where neither they nor his achievements can be subject of dispute. The epoch we write of, was one of great Mathema- ticians: but, on the continent, Leibnitz was Primus inter Primos; and this, although he was not a pro- fessional mathematician. He did not attain this place, through mere ingenuity or success in the solution of problems ; although in neither, when he pleased, was he ever second: but through that rooted attachment to Method, which characterized all his intellectual nature. In Dynamics and Ma- thematics, his achievements uniformly tended to- wards the generalization and perfecting of the fore- most conceptions floating in his time ; and he cared little for distinction of any other kind. That me- morable success of his, which will ever retain his name in the foremost rank of scientific Discoverers, was of this class. We allude, of course, to the Infinitesimal Calculus; the honour of which, it is a LEI signal national misfortune, that our English ma maticians endeavoured so vainly to wrench i him. That Newton also discovered that po 1 ful method, no Historian of Scien the regret is, that in course of the associl of these Kings and Peers, tv, could have induced our Countryman, to q tion the pretensions of his rival, liis Rffl have said: did rivalry really exist V true sense. Not in their respective functi not in the nature of their respective faculties; these were incommensurable. It habit, with writers English and Foi pare these two vast Intelligences : f red, as intense and limited pov, er the gl ice of an Eagle surveying 1 1 a Universe. Which Potentate; was accordingly not easy to decide. V bend before the Image of the immorta piercing to the depths of one univer terial Nature : is the spectacle less admirable, Mind, contained by no limits, and, u] pathies large and various as the boi intelligence" with matter, penetrating everywl and if not always discerning Laws, approac more nearly to their discovery than any, eve its greatest predecessors? Dugald Stewart n well and unhesitatingly declare that I.itera and Science, in their widest significance, gi more by the universality of Leibnitz, than special subject could have lost through the d sion of his powers. The private habits of illustrious Inquirer, were those of a seder student. He mingled freely personally as as by correspondence with all the remarl men of bis time; but his hours were chiefly s in his chair. He was of small stature, shj bent : his head very large, and with small piercing eyes. So long as Germany values supremacy in the Empire of Thought a n macy that has raised her above both Greek Roman fame she will cherish as one of her : precious monuments, that little temple which tects the Ossa Leibnitzii. [J.F LEICESTER. See Dudley. LEICESTER, Thomas William, earl of, Viscount Coke, distinguished for his munif encouragement of agriculture; born 17;V2, r; to the peerage, after sitting in parliament n years as a partizan of the Whigs, 1837, died 1 LEICH, J. H., a German philologist, 1720- LEIGH, Charles, a physician and medical au. of a ' Natural History of Lancashire,' 17tl LEIGH, Sir Edward, a theologian, histo and critic, distinguished in public lire of parliament, a member of the assembly of div and a colonel in the parliamentary : an author, by his ' Critica Sacra, 1603-1671. LEIGHTON, Alexander, a Scottish d and physician, professor of moral philos< at Edinburgh, and author of ' Zion's Plea,' ' The Looking-glass of the Holy War. 1 1 works being reputed as seditious, I>rosecuted by the Star Chamber, and ated. He is said to have died insai prisonment of eleven years, 1568-10 II. LEIGHTON, Robert, son of the ptfefl became an episcopalian, and is known I able theologian and eloquent preacher, 1613- lj 412 LEI EISMAN, J. A., a German painter, 1604-1698. EISSEGUES, Corentin Urbain James SI strand De, vice-admiral of France, disting. j the capture of Guadaloupe, &c, 1758-1832. JSJAY, C, an ecclesiast. wr. of Geneva, d. 1552. r ,EJAY, Gab. F., a Fr. philologist, died 1734. iEJAY, Guy Michel, an advocate of the par- ]nent of Paris, distinguished by publishing a Jyglott Bible, 1588-1674. MjEUNE, J., a French priest, 1592-1672. ,EJEUNE, P., a French missionary, 1592-1664. .EKAIN, H. L., a French actor, 1728-1778. ELM, Cl. M., a French poet, 1745-1791. .ELAND or LAYLONDE, John, a famous an- iiarian, born in London at the commencement of J16th century. He was educated for the church, : I after taking holy orders became chaplain and J-arian to Henry VIII., who, in 1533, appointed h his ' Antiquary,' with a commission to mvesti- je ' England's antiquities, and peruse the libra- Is of all cathedrals, abbeys, priories, colleges, and ces where any records, writings, or secrets of tiquity were deposited.' He executed this com- tsion'with the most unwearied diligence, and jd in 1552, after suffering two years from mental jangement. Twelve volumes of his MSS. were jerwards deposited in the Bodleian library, and | remaining portion in the Cottonian collection the British Museum. They have been greatly Jorted to by antiquarian and historical writers, p some portion of them published. LELAND, John, a learned presbyterian minis- , located in Dublin, and dist. by his analysis 1 refutation of deistical writings, 1691-1766. . LELAND, Thos., a divine and classical scholar, p in Dublin 1722, author of a ' History of Ire- Id,' a ' Life of Philip of Macedon,' &c, d. 1785. jLELIE, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1755-1820. LELLI, Hercules, an Italian painter, architect, Uptor, and engraver, Bologna, about 1700-1706. LELLI, J. A., an Italian painter, 1591-1640. 1LELONG, Jas., a priest of the oratory at Paris, ft. as an historian and bibliographer, 1665-1721. HiELY, Sir Peter, a famous portrait painter of p restoration, whose family name was Vander Les. He was born in Westphalia, 1617, and re- ved the honour of knighthood from Charles II. ted 1680. LEMAIRE, J., a Dutch navigator, died 1616. 1EMAIRE, Jean, a French historian and poet, w flourished about 1473-1547. LE MAIRE, M. E., a French classic, 1767-1832. LEMAN, Thomas, a Church of England clergy- in, distinguished by his researches in Roman and .itish antiquities, 1751-1827. LEMARE, P. A., a Fr. grammarian, 1766-1835. LE.MAURE, C. N., a Fr. cantatrice, 1704-1783. LEMENE, F., an Italian poet, 1634-1704. LEMENS, B. Van, aFlem. painter, 1637-1704. LEMERY, L. R. J. C, a Fr. astron., 1728-1802. LEMERY, N., a French chemist, 1645-1715. LEMLTTAY, P. G, a Fr. painter, 1726-1760. LEMIKRRE, A. M., a Fr. dramat., 1723-1793. LEMIRE, A., a Brabant historian, 1573-1640. LEMIRE, N., a French engraver, 1724-1801. LEMOINE, F., a French painter, 1688-1737. LEMl )INE, J., a French cardinal, died 1313. LEMOINE, P., a French poet, 1602-1672. LEMOINE, S., a protestant divine, 1624-1689. LEN LEMON, G. W., an Eng. etymologist, 1726-97. LEMONNIER, Anicet C. Gabriel, a French hist, painter, and pupil of Vien; Rouen, 1743-1824. LEMONNIER, Nicholas, a French professor, author of ' Cursus Philosophias,' 1675-1757. His eldest son, Peter Charles, a learned astronomer, first teacher of Lalande, 1715-1791). His second son, Louis William, distinguished as a physician and experimental philosopher, and a contributor to the Encyclopaedia, 1717-1779. LEMONNIER,, P. R., a dramatic wr., 1731-96. LEMONNIER, W. A., a class, transl., 1721-97. LEMONTEY, Peter Edward, a member of the French assembly, distinguished as a poet and historian, by his History of the Regency,' his re- markable work entitled, 'An Essay upon the Mo- narchic Establishment of Louis XIV.,' and various dramas and poems, 1762-1826. LEMOS, P. J., Count De, a Spanish statesman, born about 1560, president of the council of the Indies 1609, viceroy of Naples 1611, died 1634. LEMOS, Thos., a learned Spanish monk of the Dominicans, au. of ' Panoplia Gratia?,' 1550-1629. LEMOT, F. F., a French sculptor, 1773-1827. LEMOYNE, Jean Baptiste, or, more cor- rectly, Mayne, a French opera compos., 1751-96. LEMOYNE, J. L., a French sculptor, 1665- 1755. His son, J. Baptiste, same prof., 1704-78. LEMOYNE, P., a French Jesuit, 1602-1671. LEMPRIERE, John, best known as the author of a ' Classical Dictionary,' first published in 1788, was an English scholar and divine, born at Jersey about 1775, appointed to the rectory of Meeth in Devonshire, 1811, died 1824. LEMUET, P., a French architect, 1591-1669. LEMUET, R., a Fr. mathematician, died 1739. LENCLOS, Anne, or Ninon, De, a woman of pleasure, remarkable for her personal charms, and her influence over the men of learning, of the 17th century, born at Paris 1616, died 1706. LENFANT, A. C. Anne, a French Jesuit and preacher, born 1726, massacred in Sept., 1792. LENFANT, J., a French painter, 1615-1674. LENFANT, James, a protestant minister and controversialist, author of a history of the ' Coun- cil of Constance,' ' History of Pisa,' ' History of the Wars of the Hussites,' &c, 1661-1728. LENG, John, bishop of Norwich, disting. as a classical translator and commentator, 1665-1727. LENGLET-DUFRESNOY, Nicholas, a Fr. ecclesiastic, who was five times committed to the Bastile for his writings and independent conduct, author of a ' Method for Studying History,' ' His- tory of the Hermetic Philosophy,' &c, 1674-1755. LENGUICH, Godfrey, an historian and pub- licist of Dantzic, 1690-1744. Charles Benja- min, of the same family, a numismatist, 1742-1795. LENNARD, Sampson, a companion-in-arms of Sir Ph. Sidney, disting. as a translator, died 1633. LENNEPH, J. D. Van, a D. Orient., 1714-71. LENNOX, Charlotte, of whose personal his- tory little is known, save that she was the daugh- ter of Colonel James Ramsay, lieutenant-governor of New York, and a youthful widow, distinguished herself as a novelist and dramatic writer and trans- lator, in the time of Dr. Johnson. She was highly esteemed by her personal friends, Johnson and Richardson, but outlived them, and died in penury in the eighty-fourth year of her age, 1804. 413 LEN LENOIR, A., a French arclueologist, 1762-1839. LENOIR, J. C. P., a Er. magistrate, 1732-1807. LENOIR, N., a French architect, 1726-1810. LENOIR, Stephen, a celebrated maker of ma- thematical instruments, 1744-1832. His son, P. 8. M. Lenoir, accompanied the savants in Na- poleon's expedition to Egypt, 1776-1827. LENOTRE, A., a famous gardener, 1613-1700. LENS, A. C, a Flemish painter, 1739-1822. LENS, Bernard, a designer and engraver, flourished in London 1659-1725. His son, of the same name, an engraver and painter of London, horn 1680. Another Bernard Lens, also an en- graver, was bom at Brussels about 1730. LENTHAL, William, speaker of the House of Commons in the parliament of Charles I., from which oiHce he was dismissed by Cromwell in 1653, but re-elected in the following year, and also in the rump parliament. Born 1591, died after the restoration, when he was pardoned by the king, 1663. LENTULUS, the surname of a branch of the famous Cornelian family of Rome, the principal of whom are Publius Cornelius Lentulus, an accomplice of Catiline, consul 71 B.C., strangled in prison 66. Lentulus Spintiierus, a friend of Cicero, and a partizan of Pompey. Cneius Cornelius Lentulus ; surnamed Gaetulicus, con- sul a.d. 26. Lucius, son of the latter, put to death for conspiracy in the reign of Caligula, LENTULUS, a supposed proconsul of Judasa, to whom a letter, describing the Saviour, has been attributed, but which is pronounced a fabrication. LENTULUS, a mimic, or comedian, 1st century. LENTULUS, C, a German savant, 17th cent. LENTULUS, Cesar J., a Swiss officer in the service of Austria, 1683-1744. His son, R. Scipio Lentulus, dist. in the seven years' war, 1714-86. LENZ, C. G., a German savant, 1763-1809. LEO, a disciple of Plato, killed 350 B.C. LEO, archbishop of Thessalonica, 9th century. LEO, an ecclesiastic and hist, of Ionia, 10th cen. LEO, ' the grammarian,' one of the authors of the Byzantine History, begun by Theophanes, wrote his part about the year 1013. LEO L, pope of Rome in the age of Attila, and a saint of the Roman calendar, author of letters, sermons, &c, and distinguished by the surname of ' Great,' reigned 440-461. Leo IL, who intro- duced the custom of sprinkling with holy water, and is also acknowledged a saint, reigned 682-G83. Leo III., re-established, after a conspiracy, by Charlemagne, whom he crowned emperor, 795-816. Leo IV., who was principally engaged in restoring the city, and securing it against the Saracens, 847-855. Leo V., elected, and deposed, and died in prison, within a few weeks, in 903. Leo VI., who is also behoved to have died in prison, after reigning about six months, in 928. Leo VII., famous as a disciplinarian, and an advocate for the marriage of priests, 936-939. Leo VIIL, whose reign was one long scene of political dis- turbance, 963-965. Leo IX., a saint of the Ro- man calendar, distinguished by his efforts to reform the clergy, and for his capture by the Normans, who defeated him near Beneventum, born 1002, reigned 1049-1054. Leo X.; see next article. Leo XL. a pope of the Medici family, like Leo X., succeeded and died a month after his election in 1605. Leo XII., whose reign was disturbed by LEO the Carbonari and other secret societies, am was chiefly occupied with the internal police states, and in political negotiations, Dorn reigned 1823-1829. An anti-pope, named contested the papacy with Benedict VIIL, i the name of Gregory VI., in 1012. LEO X., Pope. Giovanni De Medic* I son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was boi Florence on the first day of December, 1475. was early destined to the church, reoefl tonsure when but a boy seven years old, at year following got several ecclesiastical p ments. At the age of eleven he was m cardinal by the title of S. Maria in Dom Three years afterwards he took up his reifl Rome as one of the princes of the church, b the election of Alexander VI. he was oblig retire to Florence. After some turns of foi in consequence of the broils among the r, states of Italy and France, he was raised i popedom in 1513, under the name of Leo X crowned with unusual pomp and ceremony i successor of the Galilean fisherman. Seven of political generosity graced the commena of nis reign. His great desire was to re-est the peace of Europe, and he entered into I with Louis XII. He also renewed the sittu the famous Lateran council, and brought th a conclusion in 1517. Afterwards he ioiiM league against Francis I., but ultimately ei into a concordat with him. As the tide of ebbed and flowed, he made occasional att< to rouse the Swiss against the French leagued himself with Maximilian and Henry of England, and at a future period, and fo same purpose, with Charles V. in 1521. A fo able conspiracy on the part of some of the < nals against him was discovered in 1516 Cardinal Petrucci, who was at the head of i1 condemned and strangled in prison. In se fence Leo created at this period in one day ti one new cardinals. He canned the glory ( Roman see to a pitch of unparalleled splei and the grateful citizens of las capital ere< statue in his honour. His heart was set the defeat of the Turks, and he endeavoui combine the princes of Europe against The project which seems always to hav cupied his mind, was the expulsion of the F power from Italy, but in the midst of his triti at Milan and Parma, he suddenly died, 1st Di ber, 1521, not without great suspicion of 1 been poisoned. The completion of the chur< Peter was another of his cherished plans, ai papal indulgences issued to raise the nec< funds, created or fostered that discontent th in a short time to the reformation in Gen Leo was at first wishful of gentle measun ward Luther, but ultimately published the f; bull which Luther so publicly and contempt! burnt before the gate of Wittemberg. TJ the brief pontificate of Leo was so unsuecc his patronage of literature and the arts was ficent, as was exhibited in his restoration < Roman academy, his founding of the Greek tute and the establishment in Rome of a press, his encouragement of search alter E. manuscripts, his handsome treatment of n letters, such as Musurus, Ariosto, and Vid 1 414 LEO entntion of the library of the Vatican, and pitious employment of Raffaelle the painter ariety of immortal works. As the head of Ian ducal house, Leo would have eclipsed all mpeers. Though his character and actions t in all respects comport with the idea of his visible head of the church, yet he is better very many of his predecessors. His talents good, though his erudition was not profound, tes were fine in the arts, but his politics crooked, and his diplomatic schemes had more than wisdom about them. In all his or the popedom, he never forgot the ad- ent of the house of the Medici. Apart his ecclesiastical status, he must be regarded e of the zealous and successful co-operators in ival of letters. [J.E.] SO L, emperor of the East, surnamed ' the and ' the Great,' was a Thracian of obscure and succeeded to the throne of Constanti- 457. After restoring peace to the empire, had been rent by religious quarrels, and de- ited by the barbarians, he died 474. Lko II., amed "' the Younger,' grandson of the preced- gucceeded him, and is supposed to have been Bed ten months afterwards, 474. Lko III., the Isaurian,' distinguished by his suc- s against the Saracens, reigned 717-741. Leo grandson of the latter, and husband of the Irene, reigned 775-780. Leo V., sur- d 'the Armenian,' dethroned Nicephorus, and led for seven years, disturbed by the inroads fi Bulgarians, and the religious struggles of the j-worshippers, 813-820. Leo VI., surnamed Philosopher,' distinguished himself by the de- of the Hungarians ; but sustained a disastrous with the Saracens, who at last defeated him, (. He was succeeded by his brother, Alex- and his son, Constantine VI., and is the of an esteemed work on Tactics. I., prince or king of the Armenians, esta- in Cilicia, began to reign 1123, was taken by John Commenus in 1137, and died in 1141. Leo II., called ' the Great,' grand- of the preceding, obtained the permission of emperor, Henry VI., and the pope, Celestine to take the title of king, and reigned 1185- Leo III., who greatly aggrandized his , reigned 1269-1289. Leo IV, succeeded and was dethroned and slain by a Mongul " 1308. Leo V., who saw his kingdom de- by civil wars, and the invasion of the ukes and Turcomans, reigned 1320h*2. Leo burned king 1361, was chased from his by the sultan of Egypt 1375, and, retir- France, died there 1393. the Hebrew, a cabalist of the 15th cen. I John, surnamed ' Africanus,' a traveller grapher, born of Moorish parents, who was ' to Christianity by Leo X., and, becom- Italian scholar, translated into that lan- his ' Description of Africa,' originally writ- Arabic, died about 1526. Leonardo, an eminent musician, re- one of the greatest opera composers of 694-1745. f Marsi, a chronicler of the 12th cent. OF Modena, a learned rabbi, died 1654. of Orvieto, an ItaL chronicler, 12th c. LEO LEO, Pilatus, first professor of Greek at Flo- rence, who lectured there about 1360. LEON, Diego, a Spanish general and partizan of Espartero, bom 1804, executed 1840. LEON, F. L. De, a Spanish poet, 1527-1591. LEON, P. L. De, a Spanish historian, 16th c. LEONARD, N. G., a French poet, 1744-1793. LEONARD, St., an anchoret of Limousin, founder of a monastery near Limoges, died 559. LEONARDI, F., a Venetian painter, 1654-1711. LEONARDI, J., a religious founder, 1540-1609. LEONARDO, A., a Span, painter, 1580-1640. LEONARDO, J., a Span, painter, 1616-1658. LEONE-Y-GAMA, Antonio, cele. for his ex- tensive knowledge of Mexican antiquities, d. 1802. LE ONI DAS, the first of the name, king of Sparta, immortalized by his glorious defence of the pass of Thermopylae against Xerxes, reigned 491- 480 B.C. The second of the name, began to reign B.C. 257, was banished, and replaced by Cleom- brotus, 254, recovered his throne 239, died 238. LEON-LEAL, F. De, a Span, painter, 1610-87. LEONTIUS, an ecclesiastical historian, 6th cen. LEOPARDI, A., a Venetian architect, d. 1510. LEOPARDI, J., an Italian poet, 1798-1837. LEOPOLD, duke of Lorraine, father of Francis L, emperor of Germany, was the son of Charles IV, and was born 1679. He was restored to his dukedom, of which Louis XIV. had despoiled him by the peace of Ryswick, 1697, and was married to Elizabeth of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., d. 1729. LEOPOLD of Austria, elected duke of Ba- varia, after the death of Henry the Proud, 1138-42. LEOPOLD, margrave of Austria, and a saint of the Roman calendar, succeeded 1096, married Agnes, sister of the emperor Henry V., and died 1139. He was canonized 1485. Leopold I. or II., surnamed ' the Glorious,' third son of Albert I; r succeeded as duke of Austria 1308, and compelled Louis of Bavaria to divide the empire with his brother T Frederick; died 1313. Leopold II. or III., surnamed ' the Courageous,' born about 1350,, took a part in the Italian wars, and was slain in a battle with the Swiss. 1386. LEOPOLD I., emperor of Austria, born 1640, succeeded his father, Frederick III., 1658, died 1705. Having defeated the Turks in 1664, the commencement of his reign was signalized by a truce of twenty years which he concluded with them. From 1672 to 1679, he sustained a dis- astrous war with Louis XIV., which was then concluded by the peace of Nimeguen. A truce of twenty years with Louis XIV. did not prevent a renewal of hostilities in 1 688, which were termi- nated by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. During this latter interval, the Hungarians, headed by Tekeli, and supported by the Turks, rose in arms 1677, and even besieged Vienna, which was re- lieved by Sobieski and the Poles 1683. The other principal events of his reign were the elevation of Hanover into an electorate 1692, of Brandenburg into a kingdom 1702, and a new war with the Turks, who were conq. by Prince Eugene 1697. LEOPOLD II., emperor of Germany, second son of Francis I. and of Maria Theresa, was born 1747, and succeeded his brother, Joseph II., 1790. The events of his reign were some successes obtained over the Turks, a quarrel with Prussia, terminated by the treaty of Sistow 1791, the troubles in Bel- 415 LEO gium 1790, and the famous declaration of Pilnitz against &* French revolution. He died March 2, 1798, and was succeeded by his son, Francis IT. LEOPOLD, A. D., a Germ, author, 1691-1753. LEOPOLD, C. G. De, a Svved. poet, 1756-1829. LEOPOLD, G. A. S., a Germ, wr., 1755-1827. LEOWTTZ, C, a Buhem. astrologer, died 1574. LEPAUTRE, Anthony, a French architect, 1614-1691. His brother, John, a designer and engraver, 1617-1682. Peter, son of Anthony, a sculptor, 1659-1744. LEPAYS, R., a French poet, died 1690. LEPEKHIN, J. I., a learn. Russian, 1739-1802. LEPELLETIER, C., a Fr. theologian, d. 1743. LEPELLETIER, C., a Fr. financier, 1683-1689. LEPELLETIER, J., a French savant, distin- guished in art, languages, mathematics, medicine, and alchymv, 1633-1711. LEPELLETIER - DE - SAINT - FARGEAU, Louis Michael, one of the old French noblesse, and a deputy of his order to the estates-general in 1789, was born in Paris 1760, and inherited a large fortune from his parents. On the 4th of August of the year first mentioned, he voted for the aboli- tion of feudal privileges, and, what is more, car- ried the decree into full effect in his own person. When the estates -general resolved itself into a constituent assembly, St. Fargeau joined the pa- triots of the left, and was returned again to the national convention in 1792. His votes in the process against the king had great influence over the court^.and led immediately to his own death. On the eve of the king's execution, and before the votes were summed up, St. Fargeau had stepped out for refreshment, and was in the act of paying the restaurateur, when a stranger, who proved to be one of the Icing's body guard, suddenly ap- proached and asked him if he were not Lepelletier who had voted for the king's death V he replied 'yes,' and added that he had voted as his con- science had dictated. 'Sc61erat,' exclaimed his inteirogator, ' voila ta recompense !' and instantly run him through with a sword which he had con- cealed under his cloak. Lepelletier St. Fargeau was the author of several works on law and poli- tics, and of a life of Epaminondas. [E.R.] LEPIDUS, Marcus ^Emilius, the Roman tri- umvir, had been sedile B.C. 52, prastor 49, and consul with Caesar 46. The latter, when he be- came dictator, made Lepidus general of the cavalry, and, on Caesar's death, he divided the empire with Octavius and Mark Antony. At first he had the whole of Spain and Gallia Narbonensis, but on the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, he was compelled to exchange those provinces for Africa, which left him without any real authority in the state. He was included in the triumvirate of B.C. 37, but was deserted by his troops, and banished to Circeii by Augustus. Died 12 or 13 b.c. LEPRINCE, A. X., a Fr. painter, 1799-1826. LEPRINCE, J., a French painter, 1733-1781. His sister, Marie Leprince De Beaumont, a writer of works for young people, 1711-1780. LEROUX. J. J., a Fr. med. writer, 1749-1832. LERY, J. D., a French navigator, 1534-1611. LE SAGE, Alain, bom in 1668, was the son of a lawyer in Brittany, and, being left an orphan in childhood, lost his patrimony through the careless- bifl guardian. In 1692, after having studied LES at the Jesuit college of Yanr.es, he i where he was admitted as an advo betook himself exclusively to literal was for many years very obscure ; tew of his were successful, and he long wrote for the theatres only. Whatever the reason may been, he received no share of the pal the government lavished on many nun who much inferior to him ; but he was well rccei good society. Entering on the stud literature, and using the comedies of that Ian with ability, but with little success, in his he turned the Spanish models to a ri use in his comic novels. Some of t'. the liveliest and wittiest of their el- able as cool and observant dissect i weaknesses. The earliest of them. 1707, was ' The Devil on Two Sticks ' (Le ] Boiteux), avowedly a continuation of a S] story. His most celebrated work, ' Gil though it has been charged with plagia seems to have really been as much his own sign as it certainly was in those details, whic stituted its eminent merit. In ' The Advei of Guzman D'Alfarache,' he confessedly bor largely from a Spanish original. Le Sage d Boulogne in 1747. LES AGE, G. L., a learned physician, 1724 LESCAILLE, James, a Dutch printer dist. himself as a poet, 1610-1677. His dau Catherine, a poetess and dramat. wr., 1649- LESCAN, J. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1749-: LESCURE, L. M., a French royalist, 176 LESKO, the names of several dukes of P the best known of whom are Lesko IV., reignc 913. Lesko V., 1194-1202. Lesko VL,12 LESLEY, A., a Scottish antiquary, 1694 LESLEY, John, bishop of Ross, in Set celebrated as the advocate and ambassador oi Stuart, in whose defence he wrote several els works, born 1527, retired to the continent in became bishop of Constance 1593, died i monastery of Guirtenberg, near Brussels, 15 LESLIE, John, a native of Scotland, wl successively bishop of the Orkneys and of I and Clogher in Ireland, and is distinguish* linguist ; he died more than a hundred yea 1671. His son, Charles, author of the i books, entitled ' The Snake in the Grass,' ai Short and Easy Method with the Deists ;' guished also by his adherence to the Preten consequence of which he lost all hope of ment in the church, was born in Ireland 1650, and died 1732. LESLIE, Sir John, born at Largo, ir shire, 16th April, 1766, died 3d November at his seat at Coates. Leslie's life was an one, and he rose to a considerable place in s He succeeded Professor Playfair in the cl mathematics in the university of Edinburgl on the death of that eminent man, he agai ceeded him in the chair of natural pi contributions of Sir John Leslie to British w r ere various : he occupied himself with the rimental theory of Heat, and produced, as h several delicate instruments, such as the ential thermometer., his claim to the inv however, has been strongly contested. It w easy to challenge for him very sound judge 416 LES jch impartiality in his philosophical estimate of :. < er Inquirers ; nor was his style of exposition, i tten or oral, remarkably well suited to a philo- i hical subject. Still, he had the faculty of in- ' tion, and a dash of what, in one sense, may be I ned genius. His knowledge was extensive ; ] reading having been vast, and his memory i larkably tenacious. Leslie at one time ob- led a singular popular repute, from the effort of ; Church, to hinder his induction as pro- I ior of mathematics. The hostile charge was I 1 c of some form of infidelity, based on his espousal < lume's views as to the Idea of Necessary Con- I] lion. The interference failed, and certainly was tdj idicious. It is not often that inferences as to I life or religious sentiment, based on spe- fctive views, have been approved by succeeding 'iles. If Leslie's doctrine was incorrect under ijii point of view, that of his opponents was quite Blmtenable, viewed from another. The contro- MfJ, however, gave rise to many ingenious pamph- w L among which was the Essay on Cause and I feet, of the late Dr. Thomas Brown. [J.P.N.] .ESSER, Augustin Creuse, Baron De, a I Jmatic author and man of letters, 1771-1839. KR, F. C, a Germ, naturalist, 1692-1754. .KSSING, Gotthold Ephraim, the son of a ' iheran pastor, was born, in 1729, at Kamenz, *jUpper Lusatia. In 1746 he entered the Univer- I ot Leipzig, where he continued to prosecute -v studies with extraordinary activity, and many directions, but showed a strong disinclin- ittach himself to any professional pursuit. b dissatisfaction of his father, who was both a ir man and severely orthodox, was increased by ij intimacy which the youth contracted with tnd by his writing one or two little thea- fad pieces. After being recalled home, and ' tting Berlin, he completed his academical course ' Wittemberg. In 1753 he cast himself fairly on I I world as a man of letters, taking up his abode . I Berlin, where he remained for seven years. jen in this opening stage of his career, he firmly I W)lished his position as the earliest and most rrgetic of the pioneers who prepared the way I I an original development of German literature. js chief friends and coadjutors at this time were ! philosophical Jew, Moses Mendelssohn, and solai, the author and bookseller. With these he operated in laying the foundation of criticism Germany, by the ' Bibliothek der Schonen Wis- wchaften,' and the ' Literatur-Briefe.' His stu- Italian, Spanish, and German, directed / to the drama, furnished him with abun- 4 nt materials for his denunciation of the dryness ility of the French taste, which then pailed among^ his countrymen. His own imi- WD of the English drama, having no higher iMel than Lillo, produced at first nothing better |n his domestic tragedy in prose called 'Miss ipson.' About this time, however, he Irtly composed, also in prose, his vigorous and essive tragedy of ' Emilia Galotti,' a modern jiptation of the story of Virginia. To this period ewise belong his ' Fables,' which, both the me- W and the prose ones, are very striking pieces reflection, and, like all his other writings, mo- ^^Hku- and symmetrical style. For five years, ki 1760, he lived at Breslau, as secretary to the 417 LES commandant. Here he seems to have been less stea- dily industrious than before, mixing a good deal in society, and having for a time a strange fondness for the hazard-table. But, at Breslau, among his military acquaintances, he planned or composed his spirited drama, ' Minna von Barnhelm.' Here also the study of the arts of design, to which, as exhibited in the master-pieces of Greece, Win- ckelmann was now inviting attention, led him to begin the composition of that which is the most valuable of all his works, ' Laocoon,' or an ' Essay on the Limits of Poetry and Painting,' which was published in 1766. The title of this admirable work indicates but imperfectly its commanding scope. The comparison instituted is between Poetry on the one hand, and the Arts of Design on the other ; and between the several Fine Arts (Poetry included), as contrasted with each other. The purpose of all these arts being assumed to be sub- stantially the same, those differences of process are indicated, which arise between the arts by reason of the differences in their instruments. This, like all Lessing's other philosophical speculations, is merely a fragment, a collection of hints, not the exposition of a system; but the principles which he ha3 here established go farther towards found- ing a just theory of literature and art, than any other assthetical work that could be named. For some years after leaving Breslau, Lessing led a shifting and uncomfortable life His longest residence was at Hamburg, where he became, by necessity, not from choice, director of a theatre set on foot by some sanguine lovers of the drama. One satisfactory fruit of this abortive undertaking, was the series of masterly criticisms on celebrated plays, which he called the ' Hamburgische Drama- turgic.' In 1770, after marrying the widow of a Hamburgh merchant, he removed to Wolfenbuttel, being appointed keeper of the library. Here he spent the last eleven years of his troubled life, but not in peace. He was, indeed, meritoriously ac- tive and useful in discharging the duties of his office ; but he became entangled more hotly than ever in those theological controversies, which he seems to have entered at first only as the cham- pion of literature and the drama, but in which he now became the assailant in his turn. His devia- tions from orthodox belief were denounced loudly on his publishing a piece called ' Fragments of an Anonymous Writer, which he asserted to have been discovered in manuscript in the library, but which was confidently alleged to have been com- posed by himself. His dramatic poem, also, ' Na- than the Wise,' published in 1780, while it is fine and interesting as a series of epic pictures and solemn thoughts, is at least equivocal in its reli- gious aspect." Lessing's last work was his short treatise on ' The Education of the Human Race.' A voluminous correspondence, and many critical pa- pers and notes, are brought together in the collected editions of his works. After much sickness and vexation, he died at Wolfenbuttel in 1781. [W.S.] At the date of Lessing's birth, it could hardly be said that a national German Literature existed, nor had those peculiar philosophic and critical move- ments begun which have now long inspired its pe- culiar life. But the period was auspicious for a re- vival. Frederick the Great had just Durst the limits that restrained the political influence of Northern 2E LES Germany, and by a series of exploits unparalleled in modern warfare, was evoking the heroic in Teutonic genius, and teaching his people self-respect and self-dependence, by bis vigorous compulsion of Europe to recognize Phuna as one of her integrant nations. Lessing was the Frederick of Thought. By nature wholly Teutonic, he too, sounded a trumpet call ; and with a restless energy in nowise inferior to Frederick's, an ac- tivity and plenitude of resources that overlooked no opportunity, he dashed, now into this region of dormant literature, now into that unpenetrated department of philosophy, until he had laid the foundation of almost every conquest that has illustrated the recent ever-memorable career of his kindred. The earliest efforts of this remark- able person lay in that direction in which he accomplished one of bis latest and greatest triumphs, viz.: literary Criticism and ./Esthetics. His History of the Theatre; on Letters on Litera- ture; his Life of Sophocles; his Dramaturgy; his Fables perhaps, and bis Theory of the Apologue, belonged to a career which culminated in the Laocoon, that great classic treatise on the respec- tive limits and characteristics of Painting and Poetry. Without forgetting the immense debt that must ever be held due to Winckleman, it may be averred with justice, that in Lessing's Laocoon, all those rich thoughts and aspirations concerning Art, which so enrich modern Teutonic speculation, find their natural root. Striking at once at the principle of distinction, he establishes, that as the arts of Design labour for the gratifica- tion of the outward sense, their proper sphere is within the Beautiful; whereas Poetry and written thought, appeal to the Imagination, which can reconcile itself even to deformity. 'The conse- quences,' says Goethe, ' of this splendid thought were illumined to us as by a lightning flash ; all the criticism that had hitherto passed sentence was thrown away like a worn-out garment ; we thought ourselves redeemed from all evil, and fancied that we might venture to look down with some compassion upon the otherwise so splendid sixteenth century, when, in German sculptures and poems, they knew bow to represent Life only un- der the form of a well-bedizened fool, Death under the misformed shape of a rattling skeleton, and the necessary and accredited evils of the world un- der the image of a Devil in Caricature.' Lessing, however, did not confine himself to precepts, he led the way by his own admirable dramas, to the practical revival of that highest and profoundest Art. Beginning with a drama of common life, Miss Sarah Sampson, he entered a vigorous pro- test against the frivolities of the super-classic school, and asserted the true function of the Drama, Next and far more perfect, Minna Von Baritlitlm ; then his still greater work, Emilia Galolti; and he crowned his triumph by the incom- parable Nathan the Wise. Incapable of their reach of imagination, and by no means gifted with the amazing penetrating power of a Shak- speare or a Goethe, nevertheless, Lessing has been surpassed by few in that species of Drama, named the moral Drama rather one, which, in th<- largest sense, aims at manifesting systemati- cally, through the Dramatic form, the sphere and aspects of some great principle. His anuly tic faculty LES was of the first order; his conceptions ra equalled in deiiniteness ; and bis mode of exp sion especially excelled in chastity energy and cision. Who has read Nathan, and can again sight of him ? Few creations surpass this Hen the qualities of repose and elevation ; nor do 8 of the inferior characters fail to attract coi ponding admiration. It was Lessing's last g work the song of the Swan: but its accents I provoked more than an empty and dying e< they have raised many hearts "to the highest! ception we can form of the virtues of Cfl and Tolerance. The intellect and influence of 1 sing extended far beyond the range of vEflfl and the Drama : nor perhaps, has bis sway i Germany, or rather his profound appreciation o tendencies, and foresight of their effects, morel ing illustration and record, than in the celebn Wolfenbuttel Fragments. The work of Reims although shaped and annotated by Lessing, tl remarkable writings first stirred that spirit, wl issued in the memorable critical and rationalsch of Germany. In these Fragments appear the : formal attack on the then unquestioned tene Protestant Churches the absolute authority of Scriptures. These writings are declared to be n Historical documents, which, like all other i documents, must be subjected to the test of c cism : it is asserted that the foundations of CI tianity are not solely in the gospels which i be modified by Inquiry, their text altered, much of it repudiated as spurious: ChrisjB all the while not losing its truest foundat which is in the heart and the reason of Man. were, of course, quite out of place to cntieise h favourably or unfavourably, these Wolfenbuttel] positions : the important point is, that under conduct of Lessing, they foreshadowed, for goo for evil, so much of the future of German thouj how new they were at the time, appears in reclamations of Pastor Goeze of Hamburg, dealt with them after the manner of Anal ma. Lessing followed up with bis tract on Education of the Human Race, in which he tempts to shadow out more definitely, the probi future relation of Humanity to the Christian velation. It is more difficult to state with pr sion the attitude of Lessing towards philosophy properly so called. Practical as he and earnest, he thought and speculated chiefl; reference to practical problems and interests; nei theless, the speculative schemes of his great { decessors could not be indifferent to him. Jut after Lessing's death, disclosed in certain letter Mendelssohn, the particulars of a privati tion, tending to establish that bis friend had into the pantheism of Spinoza. The reporting such conversation must ever be proteste as breach of confidence; and it is almost a; a source of misrepresentation ; what thinker t not, in the frankness and confidence of in 1 course, give utterance at times to momentary pressions, as if they were his abiding ones ? 1 much is unquestionable Lessing has not writ one solitary word inconsistent with a firmi sion in the Personality of Man. This great wri indeed, belongs to a class of minds \ misapprehended minds, which none bul so far akin to them, car. rightly uj 418 r LES ftenest in antagonism, or in a critical attitude, inkers like Lessing do not generally express eir whole thought ; they dwell only on the part the common thought, from which they dissent. > far, however, from heing ruled by mere nega- ms, it is certainly more probable that their dis- nt arises from a completer view and possession of ]th; and that their effort is confined, to the desire separate truth from error, or, at all events, from la-essentials. Be that as it may, the writer I whom we speak, stands fitly as the herald of |g modem era in his native land : he polished i; mother tongue and made it classical ; and as [ have seen, he initiated several of the more re- krkable movements for which our Teutonic pthren are now famous. His life was that of a tve unbending literary man. Not exempt from fe disasters of such a life, he was not exempt [m all its errors : but even amidst error he pos- hed himself, lie did not resign the freedom, or Epromise the dignity of the Thinker. [J.P.N.J LESSIUS, Leonard, a learned Jesuit, suc- Jsively professor of philosophy and divinity at iivain, 1554-1623. LESTANG, Anthony De, a French savant, jnor of a ' History of the Gauls,' d. 1613 or 1617. LESTERPT-BEAUVAIS, B., a partizan of the fcndists in the convention, executed 1793. LESTRA, F., a French traveller, 17th century. .KSi RANGE, or LETRANGE, Rene D'Hau- efort, Viscount De, gov. of Puy in the interest ihe Leaguers, seneschal 1595, died about 1621. /ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a partizan of irles I., famous as a political writer, and trans- it from the learned languages, 1616-1704. . UR, Eustace, one of the greatest pain- tl of France, called the French Raphael, 1^617-55. ESUEUR, J., a French historian, died 1681. UR, J. F., a Fr. composer, 1763-1837. ESUEUR, Peter, a French wood engraver, 1B-1716. His son, of the same name, who died IB, and his son, Vincent, died 1743, followed t same art. Their nephew, Nicholas, d. 1764. ffiSUEUR, Th., a famous mathematician, au. Principles of Natural Philosophy,' &c, 1703-70. ESUIRE, R. M., a French author, 1737-1815. ETHIEULLIER, Smart, a native of Essex, ing. as a naturalist and antiquarian, died 1760. ETI, Gregorio, author of an immense num- of works on history, which are generally re- ied as more entertaining than trustworthy, was i at Milan in 1630, and died 1701. Among his is are a ' History of Sixtus Quintus,' three ^nes, 1669 ; a 4 History of Philip II.,' 1679 ; distory of England,' 1682 ; 4 The Cardinalism je Roman Church ;' ' Life of Queen Elizabeth ;' b Nepotism of Rome,' &c. SNE, W. F., a Fr. economist, 1728-1780. ETTICE, John, an English clergyman, known poet and miscellaneous writer, 1737-1832. M, John Coakley, a native of the t Indies, distinguished in London as a phy- la, author of professional works and writings jatural history, 1744-1815. EU, J. J., a Swiss author, 1689-1768. EU, Ph. De, a French engraver, born 1570. EUCHT, C. L., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1645-1716. EUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, who lived Men the 4th and 5th centuries b.c, and to whom LEV the first idea of the atomic system is attributed, which was afterwards perfected by his disciple Democritus. Kepler and Descartes were much indebted to the ancient doctrines of these masters for the explanation of the planetary vortices. Ba- con remarks that Democritus and Leucippus were so much taken up with the particles of things as to neglect their structure. LEUCKFELD, J. G. ; a Ger. savant, 1668-1726. LEUSDEN, J., a Dutch Hebraist, 1624-1699. LEUTINGET, N., a Ger. historian, 1547-1612. LEUWENHOECK, Antoine, a celebrated na- turalist, was born at Delft in 1632. He died in 1723. His first title to distinction was derived from the superior skill he manifested in cutting glasses for microscopes and spectacles. He after- wards became more famous for the use he applied the microscope to. His whole life, which was a long one, was devoted to making anatomical obser- vations and experiments, and researches in natural history ; and his numerous papers in the Philoso- phical Transactions of London show his industry and perseverance. His observations upon the con- tinuous nature of arteries and veins ; upon the composition of the blood; upon the structure of the crystalline lens of the eye; upon the spermatic animalcules ; and the history of some of the more minute animals as observed by the microscope, have established his reputation as an accurate obser- ver, and diligent inquirer into the secrets of nature. His fame during his lifetime had spead far and wide ; and when Peter the Great of Russia passed in 1698 by Delft, Leuwenhoeck was expressly in- vited to an interview with his majesty, and de- lighted him by exhibiting through his microscope the circulation of the blood going on in the tail of an eel. [W.B.] LEVACHER, G., a French surgeon, 1693-1760. LEVAILLANT, Francis, a native of Guiana, dist. as an African trav. and naturalist, 1754-1824. LEVASSOR, M., a French historian, 17th cent. LEVE, Ant. De, a cele. Span, general, d. 1536. LEVEQUE, P., a French historian, 1713-1781. LEVER, Sir Ashton, a gentleman of fortune, who impoverished himself by collecting a museum of natural history, which was exhibited in Leices- ter Square from 1775 to 1785. Died 1788. LEVER, Thomas, an eloquent minister of the reign of Edward VI., au. of sermons, &c, d. 1577. LEVERIDGE, R., a famous singer, 1670-1758. LEVESQUE, L. C, a Fr. authoress, 1703-1745. LEVESQUE, P. C., a learn, histor., 1736-1812. LEVESQUE-DE-CARAVALIERE, P. A., the author of ' Poesies de Roi du Navarre,' 1697-1762. LEVESQUE-DE-POUILLY, L. J., a French magistrate and political writer, 1691-1750. His son, J. Simon, also an author, and member of the Academy of Inscriptions, 1734-1820. LEVI, the third son of Jacob and Leah. LEVI, David, a tradesman of London, remark- able for his self-acquired learning, author of ' Letters to Dr. Priestley, in answer to his Letters addressed to the Jews,' a ' Hebrew-English Dic- tionary,' a ' Hebrew Grammar,' ' The Rites and Ceremonies of the Jews,' &c, 1740-1799. LEVI-BEN-GERSHOM, a learned rabbi and disciple of Aristotle, born in Provence, 1290-1370. LEVIEUX, R., a Fr. painter, time of Louis XV. LEVINGSTON, James, a Scottish royalist, 419 LEV created by diaries I. Lord Leviiigston of Almont and earl of Calleudar, died 1672. LEVIS, Fkanc 'i.n, Duke He, a French marshal, distinguished in Canada, 1720-1787. His son, riKi:i:iA Maria Gaston, Due De Levis, a mem- ber of the constituent assembly, known as a politi- cal writer ami moralist after the restor., 1764-1830. LEVIZAC, John Pons Victor Lecoutz De, au. of several works on French literature, d. 1813. LEWELLIN. See Llywelyn. LEWENHAUPT, A. L. Count De, a Swedish general, who died in Russia after a captivity of ten years, 1710 ; author of ' Memoirs,' published 1757. LEWENHAUPT, C. E., of the same family as the preceding, sent to Finland against the Russians in 1742, and, failing of success, beheaded in 1743. LEWIS, John, a Church ot England divine, dist. for his antiquarian learning, au. of a ' History of John Wickliffe,' ' History and Antiquities of the Abbey Church of Faversham,' &c, 1675-1746. LEWIS, Matthew Gregory, a popular no- velist, author of 'The Monk,' &c, 1773-1818. LEWIS, Captain Meriwether, had the joint conduct with Lieutenant Clarke (q.v.) of the first expedition across the Rocky Mountains un- dertaken by the United States government. LEY, or LEIGH, Sir J., an em. lawyer, created Baron Ley and earl of Marlborough, 1552-1628. LEY, John, a controversial divine, 1583-1662. LEYBOURN, W., a mathemat., d. about 1690. LEYDECKER, Melchior, a Dutch theologian, au. of ' The Rep. of the Hebrews,' &c, 1652-1721. LEYDEN, John, a Scotch physician, eminent as a linguist, antiquary, and poet, 1775-1811. LEYDEN, John of, a famous leader of the anabaptists, was a tailor's apprentice at the Hague at the close of the 15th century, and his proper name was John Boccold, or Bockels. The events which have handed his name down to posterity form a bloody episode in the history of the Refor- mation. The movements of Luther had been pre- ceded by political and social commotions in Ger- many, and as it gained strength, the spiritual freedom which it promised was carried down into these disaffected elements. Political sects every- where sprang up, who grounded their dogmas in the religious principles of the reformers, and raised the cry of equality against the princes and nobles who had so long oppressed them. The ignorant, the poor, the hopeless, the turbulent, swelled these dangerous bodies to scores of thousands, and they were only vanquished in one principality to rise with fresh vigour in another, and hegin a new reign of terror under other and more daring leaders. One such was John of Leyden, who began to ac- quire influence among them in 1533, about which time he associated himself with the anabaptist Mathison. The name of the party was derived from the alleged necessity of rebaptism into the church, (that of infants being held invalid,) and as the church with them was also the state, this baptism became as the oriflamme of an armed propaganda which threatened every form of exist- ing order. In 1534, the city of Munster was di- vided into two hostile camps, the anabaptists having become so numerous as to proclaim a new religious and political constitution. The prince-bishop was soon deprived of all authority, and collecting his adherent* around him, aud adding to their number LIB troops of mercenaries, he laid regular siege t( 1 New Israel.' Meanwhile, John of Leyden am wife had been proclaimed king and queen, an more than six months their devoted follower fended the city. At length, in June, 1535, troops were admitted by treason in the still of night, but not to an easy conquest. Posse was disputed street by street, and the greater i ber of the anabaptists perished in the combat- city afterwards being delivered up to pillagt eight days. John of Leyden, and some two a accomplices, were taken alive, and executed hv uary, 1536, with the cruelty usual at that pe The anabaptists accepted the free principles o: Reformation without the Bible, in place of n they laid claim to particular inspiration. Lib Quakers, their more peaceful successors, they the subjects of preternatural convulsions visionary hallucinations, which often ended in fir and demoniac possession. See Storch, K CER. [ 1 LEYDEN, J. G. Van, a D. chronicler, d. 1 LEYDEN, Lucas Van. See Jacobs. LEYSER, A., a Prussian jurist, 1663-1752 LEYSER, Polycarp, a theologian of the fession of Augsburg, 1552-1601. His gr nephew, of the same name, a literary savant, 1 1728. John, of the same family, author of merous works in favour of polygamy, 1631-K LEYSSENS, N., a Flemish painter, 1661-] LETO, A., a Spanish painter, 17th century LEYVA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1580-1 LEZARDIERE, Marie Pauline De, of Theorie de la Politique de la Monarchic I caise,' 1754-1835. LEZAY - MARNESIA, Claude Fra Adrian, Marquis De, a man of letters, knoi a deputy to the estates-general, and for hi tempts in 1790 to form a colony in North Arm 1735-1800. His son, Adrian, Count De I Marnesia, a political wr. and diplom., 1770-11 LHOMOND, C. F., a Fr. grammar., 1727-1 L'HOPITAL. See Hopital. L'HOSE, Nestor, a Fr. Orientalist, 1804-1 LHUYD, Edward, a Welch antiquarian, at of an 'Irish-English Dictionary,' 'Archfto Britannica,' &c, 1670-1709. LHUYD, LHWYD, or LHOYD, H., a lea antiq., au. of a ' History of Cambria.' &c, d. 1 LIANS, T. P. De, a Span, painter, 1575-1 LIARD, Joseph, a Fr. engineer, 1747-188 LIBANIUS, a famous rhetorician, born at tioch, and educated at Athens, author of nnm< oratorical and moral treatises, most of whid still extant, flourished in the time of the em] Julian, about 314-390. Libanius was the tet of St. Basil and John Chrysostom. LIBANIUS, G., a German savant, 16th cei LIBARID, a Georgian general, wbo made self independent in 1045, and was assassin. V LIBARIUS, A., a German physician, di guished as the first to speak of the transfusw blood from one living being to another, died 1 LIBERALE, G., an Italian painter, 16th LIBERALE, V., an Italian painter, 1451-1 LIBERATUS, an eccles. writer of the 16tt LIBERGE, M., a Fr. jurisconsult LIBERI, C. P., an Italian paint' LIBERIUS. the successor of Julius as po] 420 r LIB lome, 352. At first the friend of Afhanasins, ho fas exiled on his account by the emperor Con- Itantius, but afterwards most weakly and wickedly Inscribed to the Arian tenets. Liberius, how- jver, at last died a good catholic in 366. I LIBIGKI, J., a Polish poet of the 17th century. j LIBURNIO, N., a Venetian savant, 1474-1557. ! LICETI, F., an Italian philosopher, 1577-1657. i LICHERIE, L., a French painter, died 1687. LICHTENAU, Wilhelmina Euke-Rietz, fountess Von, a favourite of Frederick-William fne of Prussia, author of ' Memoirs,' 1754-1820. I LICHTENBERG, George Christopher, a fetural philosopher and moralist, author of many jieces of wit and humour, including a satire on he system of Lavater, entitled ' The Physiognomy f Tails,' and really distinguished for his contri- jitions to the physical sciences, 1742-1799. [LICHTENSTEIN, Joseph Wenceslaus, tince Von, an Austrian field-marshal, 1696-1772. (LICHTENSTEIN, John Joseph, Prince Von, Ji Austrian general and diplomatist, time of Na- pleon, 1760-1833. His cousin, Aloys Gon- kque, distinguished himself at Leipzig 1813, and impaigns of 1814-1815. LICHTNER, M. G., a Ger. fabulist, 1719-83. j LICINIUS, Caius, a Roman poet, 1st c. B.C. j LICINIUS, Caius Flavius, a native of Dacia, obscure origin, who was born about 263, and came emperor of Rome in 312. He was de- ated by Constantine 323, and put to death the ar following. His son, Flavius Valerius, ho had been declared Csesar in 317, was put to iath at Constantinople in 326. LICINIUS-STOLO, a Roman plebeian, who he- me tribune B.C. 375, and consul 363 and 360. LICINIUS-TEGULA, a Roman poet, 200 B.C. LIDDEL, Duncan, a Scotch physician and ma- ematician, founder of a professorship, 1561-1613. LIDEN, J. H., a Swedish writer, author of a listory of the Poets of Sweden,' mid. of last cen. LIDNER, B., a Swedish poet, 1759-1793. LIEBE, Ch. S., a Gr. numismatist, 1687-1736. LIEBLE, Ph. L., a French ecclesiastic, au. of 'he Limits of Charlemagne's Empire,' 1734-1813. LIEMAKER, N., a Flemish painter, 1575-1647. LIERRE, J. Van, a Flem. painter, abt. 1530-83. LIEUTAUD, J., a Fr. astronomer, 1660-1733. LIEUTAUD, J., a Fr. anatomist, 1703-1780. LIEVEN, Count Von, a Swedish general and nator, dist. at Narva and Pultowa, 1670-1733. UEVENS, J., a Flemish Hellenist, 1546-1599. LIEVENS, J., a Dutch painter, 1607-1663. LIGARIO, P., an Italian painter, 1686-1752. LIGHTFOOT, Dr. John, a Hebrew scholar d divine of the period of the parliamentary wars, rn in Staffordshire 1602, died, vice-chancellor Cambridge, 1675. He was a great master of ibbinical learning, and was much admired for his mper and disinterested conduct in the difficult ne8 through which he had to pass. The Polyglott ble, and Poole's Synopsis Criticonim, are among e great works promoted by him. His own works Te published m 2 vols, folio, 1684, a second ition in 1686, and one of three vols, in 1699. i octavo vol. of his ' Remains,' with some notices bis life, was published by Strvpe. UGHTFOOT, John, a Church of England uister, who dist. himself as a botanist, 1735-88. LIL LIGNAC, Joseph Adrian Le Large De, a priest of the oratory at Paris, distinguished as the author of several curious works in natural history and theology, died 1762. LIGNE, Charles Joseph, Prince De, was born of an ancient family at Brussels in 1735, and distinguished himself as a general in the Austrian service from the period of the seven years' war to the congress of Vienna, during the session of which he died, in 1814. He is author of several political works, and of ' Memoirs ' of great interest. His works were collected in 6 volumes 8vo, 1817. LIGONIER, John, earl of, a companion-in- arms of Marlborough, bom 1678, commander-in- chief 1757, died 1770. LIGORIO, Piero, an architect and antiquary of Naples, who shared the direction of the works at the Vatican with Michelangelo, and that of the erection of St. Peter's with Vignola. He died in 1583, and his MSS. and designs collected from the antique, form thirty folio volumes. LIGOZZI, J., an Italian painter, 1543-1627. LIGUORI, A. M. De, an ascetic wr., 1696-1787. LILBURNE, John, a famous English republi- can, whose merits far surpass the reputation in which he has been held, was born of an old family in the county of Durham, 1613, and, after receiv- ing a common education, became a clothier in Lon- don. He was thoroughly imbued with the temper of the times, and was first known to the public through a prosecution of the Star Chamber for com- plicity with Bastwick. His intrepid defence of his rights as a free-born Englishman, before that dreaded bar of the high church party, gained for him the familiar appellation of ' free-born John.' He was condemned to receive 500 lashes at the cart tail, and to stand in the pillory ; but his spirit was only aroused by this disgraceful punishment, his name became the watchword of a large and tumultuous party, and the House of Commons voted the sentence ' barbarous and illegal.' Such a man was not likely to be 'slow' when active measures were resorted to by the parliament. He fought bravely at Edge Hill and Marston Moor, and be- came lieutenant-colonel under the earl of Manches- ter ; for an assault upon whose character he suffered imprisonment, and underwent many hardships His chief fault was the want of a more statesman- like spirit, so that he was continually sinking from the leading position he might have held, in virtue of his integrity and intrepidity, to that of a dema- gogue. He boldly accused Cromwell and Ireton of treason, and the former tried, in vain, to make him comprehend the real situation of affairs, and seems at last to have given him up in despair, and to have prosecuted him from necessity, while he val- ued his steady qualities and incorruptible nature. Reduced to quiescence under the iron hand of the Protector, his political enthusiasm subsided into the religious, and the famous John Lilburne became a preacher among the Quakers. Died 1657. [E.R.] LILIEBLAD, G., a learned Swede, 1651-1710. LILIECRANTZ, J., a Sw. statesm., 1730-1815. LILIENBERG, J. G., chancellor of Sweden, and president of the council of mines, in the reign of Frederick I., died at the end of the last century. His brother, Eric Gustavus, served in France under Marshal Saxe 1740, and died 1770. LILIENTHAL, M., a Germ, divine, 1686-1750 421 LIL LILIO, Luigi, in Latin, Ltt.ius, an Italian ma- thematician, author of the plan for reforming the calendar effected by Gregory XIII., died 1579. LILLO, George, an English dramatic writer, famous in the delineation of domestic tragedy, author of 'George Barnwell,' 'Fatal Curiosity,' 'Arden of Faversham,' and other pieces. Lillo carried on the business of a jeweller, and was a man of unblemished character, 1693-1739. LILLY, John, a dramatic writer, author of 'Endymion' and 'Midas,' acted before Queen Elizabeth, and of a famous pamphlet, entitled Martin Mar-Prelate,' about 1553-1600. LILLY, William, whose reputation as an as- trologer raised him to considerable importance at the time of the parliamentary wars, was born in Leicestershire, 1602, and was "in service in London as a bookkeeper, when his master died, and gave him the opportunity of marrying his widow. This lady possessed a small fortune of about 1,000, and dying six years afterwards left him master of considerable leisure, and of the art of invoking spirits, which he had derived from the instruction of Evans, a Welch clergyman, and from the study of Cornelius Agrippa. The first public trial of his art, however, was an attempt to discover a buried treasure in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey with the use of the divining rod, the chief movers in which were Ramsay and Scot. The actors in this scene were terrified from their purpose by a storm which threatened to bury them beneath the ruins of the abbey, and Lilly, who claims the merit of having 'laid the spirits' by which it was raised, attributed their failure to the want of faith and better knowledge in his companions. In 1634 Lilly ventured on a second marriage, which proved unfortunate as a commercial speculation, for though the bride possessed a dowry of 500, she spent more than she brought. In 1644 he published the first of his almanacks, which he continued during the remaining thirty-six years of his lifetime, under the title of ' Merlinus Anglicus.' The predictions contained in this ephemeris, and his interpretation of the three suns which appeared in the heavens that year, on the birth-day of Prince Charles, brought our astrologer a valuable reputation, and he was soon consulted by both the political parties who divided the kingdom. There can be no doubt that his advice was often well-founded, and his predic- tions frequently verified by the events ; but it is just as certain that he was a man of no character. He was a double-dealer and a liar by his own show- ing, but as staunch a believer in his own honesty as in the truth of his art, and perhaps as decent a man as a trading prophet could well be under any circumstances. It is some excuse that he was courted by noble and crowned heads at home and abroad, and richly rewarded by them. In 1648 the parliament of England gave him an annual pension of 100, which he threw up in disgust two years afterwards on receiving some affront ; yet he was able to lay out large sums in the purchase of landed property. He died in 1681, leaving works of great interest in the history of astrology, and of some importance as characterizing the times in which he lived, and the historical persons with whom he was associated. [E.K.] LILY, William, first master of St. Paul's school, author of a well-kuown Latin grammar, LIN 1468-1522. His son, George, a dignitary of church, and writer of history, died 1559. Pkt brother of George, and his son of the same na were also distinguished in the church, and the ter, who died in 1614, is author of ' Sermons.' LIMBORCH, H. Van, a D. painter, 1680-1; LIMBORCH, Philip, pastor of a congrega of Dutch Remonstrants, and professor of divin was born at Amsterdam 1633, and died in pos: sion of a high personal character and reputat 1712. He was nephew, by the mother's side Episcopius, and edited some of his papers in c junction with Hartsoeker. His own works ' Theologia Christiana,' a defence of Arminian pi ciples ; a ' History of the Inquisition,' a ' Comm tary on the Apostolic Writings,' &c. LIMIERS, H. Ph. De, born of French pan in Holland, cele. as a critic and historian, d. 17 LIMN MUS, J., a German publicist, 1592-K LINACRE, Thomas, a physician and scho greatly distinguished in the reigns of Henry A and Henry VI II., 1460-1524. LINCK, J. H., a German naturalist, 1674-17 LIND, James, an English physician, died 17 LINDANUS, W. D., a native of Uort, disl guished as a controversial divine, and theoloj of the Roman Catholic Church, 1525-1588. LINDBLOM, A , a Swedish prelate, 1747-1$ LINDEN, J. A. VANDER,a D. phys., 1609- LINDERN, F. B. Von, a Ger. botan., 1682-17 LINDET, A. T., a French priest, and meir of the convention, 1743-1823. His brother, J. Robert Lindet, a member of the Committe< Public Safety, died 1825. LINDSAY, Sir David. See Lyndsay. LINDSAY, J., a nonjuring minister of Lone au. of a ' History of the Regal Succession,' d. 17 LINDSAY, R.. a Scottish historian, 16th ce LINDSEY, Theophilus, a Church of Engl divine, afterwards known as a preacher and wr on Socinianism, 1723-1808. LINDWOOD, W., an English divine, died 14 LINGARD, Dr. John, the Roman Cath historian of England, was born in Winches 1771, and made his first appearance as an aut in 1805, when he wrote a series of letters in Newcastle Courant, entitled ' Catholic Loyi Vindicated.' To Dr. Lingard belongs the i honour of refusing a cardinal's hat. He died, a a life of ' illustrious obscurity,' 1851. LINGLOIS, P. F., a French jurist, 1580-16! LINGUET, Simon Nicholas Henry, a a brated political writer and historian, bom 17 executed after taking an active part in the Fre: revolution, 1794. LINIERE, F. P. De, a French poet, 1628-17 LINIERS-BREMONT, Don Santiago, Spanish commander, who defended Buenos A\ against the English in 1806-7, and having trea with Buonaparte, was shot by a party of revc tionists, 26th August, 1809. LINLEY, Thomas, a distinguished vocal cc poser, received his first instructions in music ft Thomas Chillcott, and afterwards from the a brated Paradies. Linley was for many years c ductor of the oratorios and concerts at 15; and has been called the restorer of the music Handel, in the same sense as Garrick was of plays of Shakspeare. Linley went to Lon 422 LIN ind became joint patentee of Drrny Lane theatre ,ith his son-in-law, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, i which establishment he, for many years, con- tacted the musical department of the entertain- ments. He composed music for the following 'ieces, namely 'The Duenna,' 'The Carnival of i'enice,' ' Selima and the Royal Merchant,' ' The tamp,' 'The Spanish Maid,' 'The Stranger at ifome]' 'Love m the East,' and many other jieces. His madrigal for four voices, I Let me, careless and until ouglitful lying, Hear the soft winds above me flying,' j considered equal in all respects, and superior to bry many of the most celebrated compositions of he same class. Linley died in London in 1795, id was buried in Wells cathedral, in the same mlt with his daughters, Mrs. Sheridan and Mrs. ickell. [J.M.] LINLEY, Thomas, a son of the preceding, cele- ated as a violinist, drowned at the age of twenty- /o, 1778. His younger son, William, a writer id composer of songs, born about 1767. LINN, William, a minister and protestant dter of New York, 1752-1808. His son, John [.air Linn, a distinguished poet, 1777-1804. LINNiEUS, Charles, or Cakl Von Linne, e of the greatest systematic botanists and na- ralists the world has ever seen, was born in reden in 1707. He died in 1778. Sweden is stly proud of having given birth to Linnaeus, s father was a poor clergyman in a rural dis- ct, who could scarce afford to give his son an ncation for a profession, and was at one time ;irly apprenticing him to a shoemaker ; and yet see this son in after years, by dint of his own nius and talents, rising to the rank of a noble- in, and exercising; even while alive, a most ex- ordinary and universal influence over the whole ence of natural history. During the earlier years his life he endured many privations and much verty ; but his extensive acquirements procured n numerous friends, and in 1741, at the age of rty-four, he succeeded in being appointed to the ifessorship ot medicine at the university of Up- a, where he had studied in his youth ; Rosen s professor of botany, a chair which Linnaeus old have preferred, but by an amicable arrange- nt the former lectured on medical subjects, lile the latter taught natural history. Previous his appointment to this chair Linnaeus had tra- led through Lapland, where he had been sent ithe Academy of Sciences for the purpose of ex- jring the natural history of that arctic region ; Ihad visited and examined the great mines' of eden, where he acquired a good knowledge of leralogy ; he had explored the natural history ilia, for which purpose he had been sent Jthe governor of that province ; he had visited . Germany, Holland, and England, and IH thus laid up a vast store of knowledge in all kingdoms of nature. The extent of this Jwledge may be judged of from his ' Sy sterna wWBj a work which has now been before the Id for more than a century ; and which, not- Mbstanding that our acquaintance with the nature has increased a hundred-fold since I time, is almost indispensable to every na- tjdist even at the present day His acquire- LIS ments in natural history were universal ; still it is in botany that he has obtained most success and his greatest glory. His arrangement of plants by the sexual system, or by the number, disposition, &c, of the stamina and pistils, maintained the pre-eminence over all rival systems till very lately, and even now, though superseded in a great mea- sure by the natural method of Jussieu, retains a most useful place in the study of botany. The binomial nomenclature which he introduced into botany and zoology, or the use of trivial or specific names appended to the generic, to distinguish the different species of animals and plants, is one of the most important helps to the advancement of the study of natural history that has ever been discovered, and which alone would have immor- talized the name of Linnaeus. In 1747 Linnaeus was appointed physician to the king ; in 1753 he was created a knight of the Polar Star ; and in 1757 he was raised to the rank of nobility. [W.B.J LINT, Peter Van, a Flemish historical and portrait painter, 1609-1668. His brother, Hen- drick, a painter and engraver, end of the cent. LINTHOCST, J., a Dutch painter, 1755-1815. LINUS, a supposed bishop of Rome, 1st cent. LINWOOD, Miss, famous for her exhibition of needle-work pictures in Leicester Square, was born in Birmingham, 1755, and died 1845. Her copies of pictures from the old masters possessed extra- ordinary merit; and forone of them, which she be- queathed to the queen, she is said to have refused an offer of three thousand guineas. The collection met the usual fate of such things after her death, and was dispersed by auction. LIONEL, lord of Ferraro and Modena, 1441-50. LIOTARD, John Stephen, a famous enamel painter, who was called 'the Turk' on account of adopting the Turkish costume, born at Geneva 1702, died about 1776. His brother, John Michael, distinguished in Paris as an engraver, died after 1760. LIOTARD, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1729-1796. LIPENIUS, M., a German divine, 1630-1692. LIPPERT, P. S., a German artist, 1703-1785. LIPPI, Francesco Filippo, a painter of Flo- rence, born about 1412, died 1469. His son, Philippino, also distin. as a painter, 1460-1505. LIPPI, Lorenzo, a famous painter of altar pieces, known also as a burlesque poet, 1606-1664. LIPPO, a Florentine painter, assassinated 1347. LIPSIUS, J. G., a Ger. numismatist, died 1820. LIPSIUS, Justus, a celebrated philologist, critic, and antiquary, and prof, at Leyden and Lou- vain, born at Isch, near Brussels, 1547, died 1606. LIRELLI, S.,an Italian astronomer, 1751-1811. LIRIS, Leo Du, an astronomer. 17th century. LIRON, J., a learned ecclesiastic, 1665-1748. LIS, or LYS, John Vander, a Dutch painter, 1570-1629 ; another of the same name, 1600-1657. LISCOV, Chr. L., a German poet, died 1760. LISLE, Claude De, a French geographer, historian, and genealogist, 1644-1720. His son, Louis, a physician and wr. on astronomy, d. 1741. LISLE, Sir G., a royalist officer, famous for his defence of Colchester, snot by the republicans 1648. LISLE, J. Troins De, a Provencal adventurer and alchymist, b. abt. 1662, d. in the Bastile 1712. LISLE, W., an English antiquary, died 1637. LISLE. See Delisle, Delisle-De Sales. 423 LIS LIST, Frederic, a political economist and member of the parliament of Wurtemberg, founder of the Zollverein or customs union, 1789-1846. LISTER, M., an English naturalist, died 1712. LISTER, T. H., a miscellaneous writer, 1801-42. LISTON, John, was born in Norris Street, FTaymarket, in 1776, and was educated at Dr. Barrow's, Soho school. In 1795 he became him- self second master at the Grammar, or Library school, Castle Street, Leicester Square, under Archdeacon Tennyson, and was all his life long a great reader. From this school he was, however, expelled for acting plays with the big boys, and went into an office as a clerk. The first time he performed in London, was at the Haymarket, on a benefit night, as Rawbold, in The Iron Chest.' Alter this, obtaining 40 from a friend for the purpose, he resolved to adopt the stage as a pro- roawon, and spent the money in the purchase of theatrical properties. He then acted at Taunton, Exeter, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. His first comic part was Diggory in ' She Stoops to Con- quer,' and he raised the character at once into im- portance. On the 10th June, 1806, Mr. Liston appeared again at the Havmarket, as a debutant, in Sheepface, in 'The Village Lawyer.' Miss Tyrer (afterwards his wife) made her first appear- ance there also on the same night, as Agnes in 4 The Mountaineers.' His next character was Zekiel Homespun. But it was not until the following October, and at Covent Garden theatre, that he secured extraordinary attention, by the part of Jacob Gawkey, in ' The Chapter of Accidents.' The reputation thus acquired he quite established by his Lord Grizle in ' Tom Thumb,' in which he had to sing ' the dancing song ' three times. His elegant and symmetrical form was exhibited in this feat, and undoubtedly contributed to his re- markable success. His wife also produced a simi- lar sensation in Queen Dolabella Notwithstand- ing his^ success in these comic and burlesque parts, Mr. Liston thought himself a tragic actor, and 17th May, 1809, attempted Ocfavian. His Domi- nie Sampson, indeed, and Adam Brock evinced touches of genuine pathos. In 1823, Mr. Liston had an engagement at Drury Lane of 50 a-week, which he commenced with Tony Lumpkin. His Maworm next year was applauded by George IV r . himself, who encored the celebrated sermon ; and the public nightly afterwards imitated the royal example. In 1825, he appeared in his famous character of Paul Pry; this was the climax of Mr. Liston's popularity. The furor for the play was immense. Mr. Liston was henceforth to be seen moulded in all conceivable materials plaster, clay, china, butter; he gave signs to pub- lic houses, names to coaches, and portraits to Socket-handkerchiefs. In 1831, Mr. Liston joined radame Vestris at the Olympic, where he enjoyed an income of 60 a-week, and appeared as Domi- nique, in a new piece, by Mr. Charles Dance, called 4 Talk of the Devil.' At this theatre, Mr. Liston continued until 1837. The last night he performed was at the Lyceum, for the benefit of Mr. James Vining but he never took a formal farewell of the stage. His death took place on the 22d March, 1846, from apoplexy. The attributes of j Mr. Liston's acting were nature, thought, and a dist. judge of the state of New York, 1 LIVIUS ANDRONICL'S ' fcludy ; his conduct in private life was exempl ary, LIV and he was remarkable for attention to his r gious duties. [J.A.] LISTON, R., a famous surgeon, 1794-1847 LITHGOW, W., a Scotch traveller, d L1THOV, Gust., a Swedish poet, bo LITTA, Pompeo, Count, an Italiai antiquarian, died 1852. LITTLE, W., an English historian, born 113 LITTLEBURY, J., an English divine, LITTLETON, Adam, a divine of the Cliurcl England, celebrated for his skill in t: languages, au. of a Latin dictionary, &c, LITTLETON, Edw., a divine and poet, .1. 17 LITTLETON, or LYTTLETON, Thom1 famous authority in matters of law, wa- in the reign of Edward IV., and author ol on 'Tenures,' which is the text-book of Cok Commentaries, died 1481. Judge Littleton i three sons William, ancestor of the Lords I tleton of Worcestershire ; Richard, a lawyer the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII.; t Thomas, knighted by Henry VII. for the capt of Lambert Simnel. A John Littleton i scendedfrom William, was a partizan of the ear Essex in the reign of Elizabeth, and died in pri 1600. Edward Littleton, descended fr Thomas, was lord-keeper in the reign of Charles and created baron of Mounslow in . v flourished in 1589-1645. Another descendant Thomas, was a Sir Thomas Littletos of the H. of Commons in the reign of AY LITTRE, Alexis, a Fr anatomist, 1 1 LITTROW, J. J., a Ger. astronomer, died 18| LIVERPOOL, Charles Jexkinson, earl a member of parliament and statesman, who oo pied various offices from 1761 to 1784, and d at the age of eighty-one, 1808. His son, Robe Banks Jenkinson, earl of Liverpool, born 17 was the famous statesman who held the premi ship from 1812 till 1827. Died 1828. LIVIA-DRUSILLA, a Roman empress of t Claudian family, who was first married to Til Claudius Nero, and forcibly taken from him Augustus, who divorced his own wife in order marry her. Having no children by the empei 1 he adopted her sons by her first husband, onti whom, Tiberius, became his successor. Li died in the eighty-sixth year of her age. 29. LIVIA-LIVILLA, granddaughter of the p ceding by her other son, Drusus Germanicus, m i ried her cousin, Drusus, son of Tiberius, and M ing poisoned her husband in concert with Sejanj died in a dungeon 35. LIVINEIUS, J., a Flemish divine, died 159:' LIVINGSTON, Edward, an American law; and statesman, au. of a new criminal code. d. IK LIVINGSTON, John, minister of I church at Rotterdam, auth. of ' Letters ' LIVINGSTON, Robt., a distinguished Ame| can statesman and diplomatist. He was one; the committee who drew up the declaration independence; in 1780 was secretary for fore) affairs; and after filling the office of chancellor the state of New York was appointed minister; France in the time of Buonaparte ; 1746-1818. LIVINGSTON, William, an Ai. and statesman, 1723-90. His son, Broc See And 424 LIV [VY. Titus Lrvius Patavinus, the only trious Roman historian of the Augustan age, bom at Patavium (now Padua), a town of Lombardo- Venetian kingdom in Italy, B.C. 59, he consulship of Caesar and Bibulus. The ame, Patavinus, seems to fix the place of his ,' but, according to some authorities, he was [Livy From an Antique Bus/.] at a village six miles to the south of Pata- , The records of his life, like those of many atl s of the literaiy men of antiquity, are meagre unsatisfactory the materials necessary to fa a connected narrative having been supplied e imaginations of some of his biographers, sing the early portion of his life, perhaps itive town, he appears to have gone to iring the reign of Augustus, where his dents soon obtained for him the favour amatronage of the emperor. As an admirer of th ancient institutions of his country, Livy atihed himself in opinion to the party of Pom- pe and considered him as the greatest of Roman Semen and heroes; but Augustus, entertaining there regard for the historian, did not allow ship and patronage to be affected by po|cal opinions, though they seemed to call in emion the right by which he ruled the destinies Hmm. Having spent the greater part of his Ha the metropolis, he returned in old age to of his birth, and there died a.d. 18, in ry-seventh year of his age. He left a also a daughter, who married L. Magius, of rhetoric, a man of moderate talents, I his subsequent success principally to his >n with the historian. The preceding ment contains all the authentic facts win have descended to us in connection with personal history of Livy. Many other par- are related by wnters who profess to mil the life of the Roman historian ; but these Hither altogether illusory, or rest upon evidence wl i will not bear examination. Thus he is said tope commenced his career as a rhetorician, ealo have written a work on that science ; to haibeen twice married, and to have left two sons d daughters; to have been in the habit. I, Horace, and other wits of the day, of much of his time at Naples; and to have ted the notice of Augustus by present- ujjb him some dialogues on philosophy. He is LLO also said to have been the tutor of Claudius, afterwards emperor, and to have recommended to his pupil, in early life, to attempt historical com- position. Livy has erected for himself an enduring monument in 'his History of Rome. This great work, which he modestly designated Annates (Annals), contained the history of the Roman state from the earliest period till the death of Drusus B.C. 9, and originally consisted of 142 books. Only 35 of these have descended to us; of the others, with the exception of two, we possess Epitomes, or short summaries, but the books themselves have been entirely lost. The existing books were brought to light at various times ; some of them towards the middle of the sixteenth century, and a fragment of the ninety- first book appeared for the first time in 1772. The hope so long entertained by the learned, that the lost b~oks would yet be recovered seems now to have yielded to despair. From internal evidence there appears to be reason for believing that the history was divided by the author into decades, or portions each containing ten books. The first decade, which embraces the history till b.c. 294, is entire ; the second is lost ; the third, fourth, and the first five books of the fifth, containing the history from B.C. 219 to B.C. 167, also remain to us. Of the other books nothing has been pre- served except some inconsiderable fragments. It is impossible to ascertain the time during which the historian was occupied with his great work. Nicbuhr fixes the commencement of it in b.c. 9, when he was fifty years old, and believes that he had not fully accomplished his design at the close of his life. In forming an estimate of Livy as an historian, it is necessary to bear in mind the object which he seems to have proposed to himself. As a Roman and a patriot, his grand purpose was to celebrate the glories of his native country, and the disinterested patriotism which raised it to universal supremacy. He adopted the early his- tory as he found it, exhibiting the legends in attractive language, without inquiring into their authenticity. He makes no pretensions to the character of a critical historian, and thus, in some degree, escapes from the charge which may fairly be alleged against him, of not consult- ing the public records. ' His style may be pro- nounced almost faultless ; and a great proof of its excellence is, that the charms with which it is in- vested are so little salient, and so equally diffused, that no one feature can be selected for special eulogy, but the whole unite to produce a form of singular beauty and grace. The narrative flows on in a calm, but strong current, clear and sparkling, but deep and unbroken ; the diction displays rich- ness without heaviness, and simplicity without tameness. Nor is his art as a painter less wonder- ful. There is a distinctness in the outline and a warmth of colouring in all his delineations, whether of living men in action, or of things inanimate, which never fail to call up the whole scene, with all its adjuncts, before our eyes.' [C.F.J LLORENTE, Don Juan Antonio, a Spanish historian and chancellor of Toledo, 1756-1823. LLOYD, Charles, bishop of Oxford, and for some time a teacher of Sir Robert Peel, 1784-1829. LLOYD, David, a Welch biographer and his- torian, reader to the Charter-house in London, and 425 LLO LOC raShflt of a ' Life of General Monk,' ' Memoirs of ( main points which constitute it a landmark Persons who Suffered for Loyalty,' &c, 1G25-91. the circumstances in which it arose and LLOYD, EDWARD, a Welch antia., 1660-1709, LLOYD, Henry, a Welch officer m the sen-ice of the kins; of Prussia and the empress of Russia, author of works on tactics, and of a ' History of the Seven Years' War,' 1729-1783. LLOYD, Nicil, a learned writer, 16.14-1680. LLOYD, Roeert, an English poet, 1733-1764. LLOYD, William, a dignitary of the Church of England, distinguished for his writings relating to history and divinity, and his share in the poli- tical transactions of his time, born in Berkshire I87. chaplain to Charles II. 1666, bishop of St. Asaph 1680, bishop of Lichfield 1692, bishop of Lichfield 1699, died 1717. Bishop Lloyd was one of the prelates who joined Sancroft in protesting against the toleratiou act of James II. LLYWELYN, the name of three Welch princes the Jirsl reigned over South Wales, and fell while defending his country from the Scotch in- vader, Aulaff, 998-1021 ; the second, king of North Wales, married to the daughter of John, king of England, died, after reigning forty- six years, in 1 240 ; the third and last sovereign of Wales, fell in battle against Edward I., after a reign of twenty- eight vears, 1282. LLYWELYN, the name of two Welch bards, the earlier of whom lived between 1130 and 1180, the later, a native of Glamorganshire, died 1616. LLYWELYN, Th., a Welch divine, died 1796. LOBAU, George Mouton, Count De, a general of the French empire, distinguished for his gallantry and his adherence to Napoleon, who called him ' the best colonel that ever commanded a French regiment,' was born 1770, and, being wounded at Waterloo, was sent prisoner to Eng- land, where he remained till 1818. Having re- turned to France, he took part in the revolution of 1830, and was the successor of Lafayette as com- mander of the national guard. He was made a peer and marshal of France 1831. Died 1839. LOBB, Theophilus, a medical wr., 1678-1763. LOBEIRA, Vasco, a Portuguese writer, author of the romance of ' Amadis de Gaul,' died 1403. LOBEL, M. De, a Flem. botanist, 1538-1616. LOBINEAU, G. A., a learned wr., 1666-1727. LOBKOWIZ, G. C, Prince Von, an Austrian general, 1702-1753. His son, Joseph, a famous military officer and ambassador, 1725-1802. LOBO, Gerard, a Span, poet, d. about 1668. LOBO, Jerome, aPortug. mission., 1593-1678. LOBSTEIN, J. F., a Ger. anatom., 1736-1784. LOCATELLI, L., an Ital. chemist, died 1637. LOCCENIUS, J., a Swedish hist., 1599-1677. LOCHNER, J. J., a Ger. numismat., 1600-1669. LOCHNER, M. F., a Ger. naturalist, 1662-1720. LOCK, Mat., an Eng. composer, abt. 1635-77. LOCKART, Alex., a Scot, lawyer, 1675-1732. LOCKE, John, born at Wrington, near Bris- tol, on 29th August, 1632; died at Oates, in Essex, on 28th October, 1704. A name than which there is none higher in English philosophical literature ; the name of a Man, surpassed by no one, in that worth which constitutes the dignity of an independent English gentleman. It is notour intention to offer in this place an analysis of the celebrated Essay Concerning the Human Under- standing;' suffice it to touch rapidly on those peculiarities that gave [Birth place of John Locke.] Falling, like Kant after him, on a period of o sidedness or dogmatism when statements ac rate in the main, had, through their imperfect as representatives of the whole truth, been twis into assertions of error Locke found the freedon the Human Understanding attacked by the C; tesians, with the weapon named by them 'Inn Ideas.'' Inquiry he found fearless and ratio stopped at both its termini : truths eki within its reach were repudiated because pretended conflict with so-called Innate Lie and regions apparently beyond the sphere of i faculties, were on the same authority sketel out and described, with the pedantry of a n chanical Surveyor. To determine the length ofi tine, was therefore Locke's first resolve ; nor c it be asserted that his preliminary war with 1 nate Ideas, is in the sense in which he looked the subject wholly unsuccessful. Rightly int preted, his theory is this no authoritative be! can be found in the Mind, which has not origin in Experience ; and the most extensive nearly universal Beliefs existing, are shaped a coloured by the varying experience of the in and nations entertaining them. The thesis, stated, cannot be impugned; neither the valne its assertion at the epoch of Locke: but c philosopher fails in establishing the propositi which he supposed to be his thesis, viz., tt there are no Beliefs in the mind of man, wbk although suggested by, and in their forn dependent on Experience, cannot yet be e plained unless we attribute to the Thinki Faculty, a proper and independent Force. Des Cartes himself did not Locke imagined he thought: and, to tl trious Man the first three chapters of ; have therefore no true reference. Following o his partial, because controversial first \; proceeds to unfold in what manner eve nized or defensible notion, belonging to tin Understanding may grow up in it. An imperfe first view we have said for while looking the error, he misses the truth of the Ca he never even proposed to establish bj minary and rigorous analysis, what those cha 426 i mm mmmm s wSMm fflBKm //,' //'// . .^/. "//,/. </x/s 'S/sr//^nr / ' LOG ristics of otir various classes of Ideas are, which every just philosophy must give an )unt. Missing therefore, not unnaturally, of their main characteristics ; confounding ssity and infinity, with the simple attributes generality, and immensity, he proceeds to de- all the forms and results of the Understand- from our pure Sensations, and the operation ;hese of what he terms Reflection. Closely tinized, Locke's Reflection amounts to nothing e than the exercise of Memory, Compar- and, the processes known as Association. exercise of the Mind as a voluntary Agency ed seems to remain ; but as Leibnitz soon ted out, and as subsequent History showed, descent from this Scheme was easy, towards undisguised Sensationalism of Condillac and French School of the close of last century, harge John Locke as sound and practical a ier as ever lived with the extravagances of hypothetic schemes, were the worst injustice ; rtbeless, there is no precaution against the at excesses of sensational philosophy, in his of presenting the genesis of human thought ; it cannot be gainsayed, that the ' Essay ' in important directions, has been the parent Iig ourselves of as much mischief as could well 3ace amidst the realities of the English mind. Hy antagonistic to absolutism in thought or life, i less repellant of the doctrines of Sir Robert er, than of all theocratic dogmatism, this re- able work seemed, however, to harmonize with otions of rational liberty ; and it became the rite text-book of our best men during the dif- periods when Locke wrote. Himself practically sd with the sense of personality and inde- :e in all things, our Philosopher stood by tional Liberty, suffered with it, and shared iumphs. Menaced by the Court party as )t a court as the sun ever shone on, then d in England he withdrew to Holland, and time found shelter. During this voluntary his name was erased from the roll of the of Christ Church Oxford, in conse- of a Royal Mandate ; and the spirit of itition went so far as to demand the rendi- our philosopher from the States-General, times, however, were dawning on England. Revolution in 1688, Locke returned in the that brought home our future queen, the of Orange ; and henceforward his career perous. His residence in Holland, how- Ms not without avail to him. Associating with dissentient protestants, he acquired notion of that cardinal principle, on the l of which alone, Protestantism can live ; showed this in his Letters, on Tolera- as well as in the just freedom of his It is seldom that a personal History ich delights one, as that of John Locke. ily can no one discern a stain on the nature of the great Englishman , but his 3al career, is everywhere in strictest accor- with the principles he laboured to establish, attached to the cause of Toleration, civil or he scrupled not to suffer for either, nor s opposition to any faction ever drive him noderation and justice, disincline him to his opponents aright, or to conceal the 427 LOK excesses of the party, whose fortunes he mainly espoused. He accepted Human Liberty as a basis of his philosophy; and practically stood by that. Few writers, before or since, in England, have had a finer sense of the respect owing to the determinations of the personal Conscience. The student is specially recommended to the admirable life of John Locke by Lord King. f J.P.N.] LOCKMAN, J., a miscellaneous wr., 1698-1771. LOCKYER, N., a nonconf. divine, 1612-1684. LOCRE-DE-BOISSY, J. W., a German of French descent, distinguished as a writer on com- mercial law, 1758-1840. LODGE, Edmund, clarencieux-king-at-arms, well known for his ' Portraits of Illustrious Per- sonages of Great Britain,' besides which he wrote ' Illustrations of British History,' and other works of great learning and research, 1756-1839. LODGE. Thomas, an English poet, died 1625. LODGE, William, an engraver 1649-1689. LOEFLING, P., a Swed. botanist, 1729-1756. LOESEL, J., a German botanist, 1607-1656. LOFTE, Capel, well known as a miscellaneous writer and contributor to magazine literature, was a gentleman of property, who was educated for the law, and became one of the magistrates of Suffolk, born in London 1751, died 1824. LOFTUS, Dudley, an Orient, scholar, 1612-95. LOGAN, John, a pleasing versifier and poet, was born in the county of Edinburgh in 1748. When a very young man he edited the poems of the deceased Michael Brace, and involved himself in controversy by printing in the volume pieces which he claimed, probably with justice, as his own. In 1770 he became minister of the parish of South Leith ; and his two volumes of Sermons, published after his death, show him to have pos- sessed a singularly fine flow of animated elo- quence. He was also one of the most active and valuable of the contributors to the collection of metrical ' Translations and Paraphrases,' used in the public worship of the Church of Scot- land. He delivered Lectures on History, a sy- nopsis of which he published, and aspired un- successfully to a professorship. A volume of f)oems, appearing in 1781, was extremely popular ; iterary avocations engrossed his attention more and more ; and he soon came decidedly into colli- sion with the opinion of the public in Scotland as to the proprieties of the clerical profession, by pub- lishing and bringing on the stage his tragedy of ' Runymede.' His spirits sank, and his habits be- came irregular. He retired from his pastoral charge, spent about two years in London as a re- viewer and pamphleteer, and died there in the end of 1788. [W.S.] LOGAU, Frederick, Baron De, a German poet, whose epigrams and other pieces have been edited by Lessmg, 1604-1655. LOGGAN, David, an engr. of Dantzic, d. 1700. LOHAIA, Ib., an Arabian savant, 8th century. LOIR, Nicholas P., a Fr. painter, 1624-1670. LOISEAU, J. F., a Fr. republican, died 1822. LOISEAU, J. S., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1536-1617. LOISEL, A., a French jurisconsult, died 1822. LOKMAN, an ancient Arabian philosopher and fabulist, surnamed Alhakim, or the Wise. He is supposed to have been contemporary with King David, and even to have lived under his patronage LOL and died in Jerusalem, but his history is involved in great obscuritv. The fables which bear his name were first published in 1636, and his name is given to a chapter in the Koran. LOLI, Laurent, an Ital. painter, 1612-1691. LOLLARD, or LOLLHARI), Walter, burnt for supposed heresy at Cologne in 1322. There is little reason to suppose that lie was the namefather of the sect of the Lollards, or Lollhards. The pro- bability is, that the term is an old German one, of the same root as our word lull, in the phrase, lull to sleep ; and that it was given to those sects in whose religion psalm-singing in a low tone formed a distinguished part. It was thus applied by popish ecclesiastics to a great variety of religious parties on the continent as a term of reproach, and in England, was appropriated to the followers of Wycliffe. [J.E.] LOLLI, or LOLLY, Antonio, a celebrated violinist, was born at Bergama in 1723. From 1762 to 1773 he was concert-master to the duke of Wurtemburg. He afterwards went to Russia, where he became a great favourite with Catherine II. He died, after a lingering illness, at Naples in 1802. [J.M.] LOLLIANUS, a Roman emperor, killed 267. LOLLIUS, Marius, a Roman consul, 21 B.C. LOM, Josse Van, a Dut. physician, 1500-1562. LOMAZZO, J. P., an Ital. painter, abt. 1538-92. LOMBARD, C. L., a Fr. surgeon, 1741-1811. LOMBARD, J. G., a Prus. statesm., 1767-1812. LOMBARD, J. L., a wr. on tactics, 1723-1794. LOMBARD, L., a Flemish painter. 1482-1565. LOMBARD, Peter, best known as the author of a book of ' Sentences ' collected from the fathers of the church, whose contradictions he en- deavoured to reconcile, was a native of Novara, in Lombardy, and died soon after his election to the archbishopric of Paris, 1160. His work acquired a high degree of celebrity in the middle ages, and gave rise to many glosses and exposi- tions by theologians of all classes, which are now out of date. He was also author of some Scrip- ture commentaries. LOMBARDI, A., an Ital. sculptor, 1487-1536. LOMBARDO, J., an Ital. sculptor, b. abt. 1510. LOMBARDO, Pietro, a Venetian architect and sculptor, who flourished with his sons, Anthony and Tulxjo, in the 15th century. The nephew and pupil of the latter, Santo Lombardo, dis- tinguished as an architect, 1504-1560. LOMBART, P., a French engraver, 1612-1682. LOMBERT, P., a Fr. translator, died abt. 1710 LOMEIER, J., a Dutch philologist, 1636-1699. LOMEIR, J., a Dutch prot. divine, 1636-1699. LOMENIE, Anthony De, secretary of state, and ambassador of Henry IV. to London, died 1638. His son, Henry Augustus Lomenie, Count De Brienne, minister of state, and author of ' Memoirs,' died 1666. The son of the latter, Louis Henry, Count De Brienne, secretary of state under Louis XIV., died insane, 1635-1698. LOMENIE - DE - BRIENNE, Athanasius Louis Marie, brother of the eel. finance minister, sec. at war in 1787, perished on the scaffold 1794. LOMENIE -DE-BRIENNE, Stephen Chas. Dk, finance minister of Louis XVI., was born at- Paris, 1727, and being educated for the church, was first known as au enemy of the protestants. 428 LON In 1763 he became archbishop of Toulouse, would seem, from the first, to have aspired t> part of a Mazarin, or a Richelieu in 1 1 out possessing either the ability or the unserupi daring necessary to it. In 1797, after figrmi a commission for the reform of the clergy coquetting with the philosophy of and the encyclopaedists, he became a memlx the assembly of notables ; and having heade< party by whom the administration i overthrown, he succeeded that unfortunate as ister, adopted his plans, and proved himself as incapable of executing them. 1 however, in quietly dismissing tin then attempted a bold stroke by parliament of Paris to Troyes, but v. after was compelled to recall it, ai compromise. In the spring of 1788. famous edict for altering the constitution of parliament, and establishing the 'grand baillia and the 'plenary court,' to do the work w that body had refused, namely, the registrati* the king's edicts; and in the execution of measure was reduced to the necessity of dismit the parliament with the aid of military f For about two months he tried to bring nis machinery of government into working order parliaments of the provinces everywhere ra their hydra heads to carry on the battle begt Paris. About this time" he was promoted U rich archbishopric of Sens, and received a dmal's hat from Rome, which he returnei 1791, and gained thereby a little fresh populsj At the end of his two months' despair, July, lj he was compelled to announce the convocatkj the estates-general for the month < ing._ On the 24th of August he retired froroj ministry, and was succeeded by Necker, hi : by this time raked together the elements of! wildest conflagration the world ever saw. H(i arrested in February, 1794, and died of aporj the same night. LOMONOSSOFF, M. Wassiliewitch; famous poet and historian, regarded as the fi! of Russian literature, 1711-1764. LONDONDERRY. See Castlereagh. j LONG, Edward, a West Indian judge, fa] as a political wr. and hist, of Jamaica, 1734-1 LONG, J., an English traveller, last centu' LONG, Roger, a divine of the Church of land, eminent as a mathem. and ast LONG, St. John, a native of Lin came known in London about the y medical practitioner, and acquired great celei by his specific for consumption and for < diseases generally considered incurable by tht culty. Not being educated for the profession was twice put on his trial for the death o' patients, and on one of these occasions no less \ sixty-three persons of the higher classes appj in his favour. He accumulated a large tort and died at the early age of thirl Three years previously he published ' Disco\ in the Art of Healing.' LONG, Thomas, one of the nonjiiring divj author of several learned works conn cause to which he belonged, 1621-1700. LONGBEARD, W., a famous demagogue o reign of Richard I., cruelly executed 111)6. m LON VN'GEPIERRE, Hilary Bernard De, a if Hellenist, classical critic, and poet, 1659-1721. (NGINUS, Cassius, a Greek philosopher and ^Jns rhetorician, born about a.d. 210, put to death Wnrelian at Palmyra in 273 a.d. Longinus seems tolre been a prolific writer, but no work of his Jeached us, except the Treatise on the Sublime. authorship of this remarkable treatise has rmtested ; but there is not much doubt that ought not to be deprived of the merit nerally attached to his name : it is a treatise him among the most eminent critics tiquity. Longinus was the friend and teacher e Heroic Zenobia : he fell with her fortunes ; is fate will go down through all history as a tain on her imperial conqueror. One of the recent and best editions of his celebrated se, is by M, Egger, Paris, 1837. The other tents attributed to the Greek philosopher, are [J.P.N.] )NG1NUS, Flav., exarch of Italy, 568-584. NGLAND, or LANGLAND, John, a learned te, confessor to Henry VIII., 1473-1547. >NGLAND, or LANGELAND, Robert, a Wickliffe, regarded as the oldest poet in _h language, author of The Visions of wman,' a satire upon the Roman clergy, The Plowman's Crede,' written in 1369. NGMAN, Thomas Norton, many years of the well-known publishing firm of Messrs. & Co., b. 1770, d. of an accident 1842. (NGOBARDI, N., a Sicilian Jesuit and mis- &k ry, auth. of ' Letters from China,' 1565-1655. iNGOMONTANUS, Christian, a Danish sal lomer, assistant of Tycho Brahe, and profes- KBt mathematics at Copenhagen, 1562-1647. ^.INGUERUE. Louis Dufour, Abbe De, a muaat, reputed the greatest scholar of hisage, au. of intiquities of the Chaldeans and Egyptians,' 'Lorical and Geographical Description of France,' 'T Annals of the Arsacides,' &c, 1652-1733. i>NGUEVAL, James, a French Jesuit, and bi-ian of the Gallican church, 1680-1735. j'NGUEVILLE, the name of a noble French Hjf, the principal of whom are Francis Nlkans, son of the celebrated Dunois, died H His son, of the same name, at whose in- Hl in 1505, the county of Longueville was *d into a dukedom by Louis XII., died 1512. Htrother, Louis, a combatant at the battle of gp and at Marignano, died 1516. Claude, Bj at the siege of Pavia 1525. Leonard, at Wk instance the dukes of Longueville were al- title of princes of the blood royal by HMes IX., died 1571. Henry, who. commanded M the Leaguers, and in 1589 won the battle nlis, died 1595. His son, of the same name, ider Louis the XIII., and was afterwards used with Conde and Conti, as partizans of jfronde, died 1663. The wife of the latter, * Genevieve, sister of the great Conde, dis- Mshed for her part in the wars of the Fronde, pn a religious retirement. The last of the Bf were two son s of Henry and Anne, the H of whom died in a convent, 1694; and the op, C. Paris, was killed at the Rhine, 1672. jNGUS, a Gr. romance writer, 4th or 5th c. ERUS, John, a learned German editor, i. His son, Adam, a physician and na- LOR turalist, 1528-1586. His grandson, John Adam, a physician and man of letters, born 1557. LOON, Theod. Van, a Flem. painter, 17th c. LOOS, Cornelius, a D. theologian, died 1595. LOOS, 0. H. De, a wr. on alchymy, 1725-85. LOOS, P., one of the encyclopaedists, died 1819. LOOSJES, Adrian, a Dutch novelist, last c. LOPE-DE-RUEDA, a Sp. dramatist, d. 1564. LOPE DE VEGA, whose full name was Lope Felix de Vega Carpio, was bom at Madrid in 1562, and died there in 1635. Lope, a man of adventurous disposition, led a very active life till he had attained middle age. After having been secretary to the duke of Alva, he was obliged to conceal himself for a time in consequence of a duel; he served as a soldier, and narrowly escaped shipwreck in the Armada. On the death of his second wife, he took holy orders ; but this step, though it removed him from business, did not slacken his literary activity. He was one of the most prolific of all authors, composing with a ra- pidity which, while it implied extraordinary talents, made it impossible that his works should possess high merit, either in design or in execution. Be- sides writing epics and many other kinds of poems, he produced a number of dramas, so great as to be almost incredible. He himself states it at up- wards of fifteen hundred; and more than five hun- dred plays attributed to him are actually in print. They embrace all the varieties of kind which are to be found among the works of his successor Cal- deron ; and they abound both in snatches of wit and poetical fancy, and in ingenuity of dramatic invention. Though Lope was not the founder of the Spanish Drama, he was the first who made its romantic irregularities attractive through force and originality of genius. While Cervantes, who was fifteen years his senior, was neglected and starving, the writings of Lope procured for him overflowing wealth, and a popularity such as hardly ever was gained by any other living poet. [W.S.] LOPES, F., a Portuguese historian, 14th cent. LOPEZ, Alonzo, a Spanish critic, 16th cent. LOPEZ, Edward, a Spanish navigator, 1578. LOPEZ, Narciso, a general in the Spanish army, commander of the late expedition to Cuba, was born in Venezuela 1799, and was first known in the troubles of 1814, as a liberal. He after- wards enlisted in the royalist army, and at the close of the civil war had attained the rank of colonel, being then only twenty-three years of age. Some years subsequently he was in various official em- ploys at Cuba, and in 1849 commenced his revo- lutionary attempts in the United States. He was garotted at Havannah, 1st September, 1851. LORCH, Melchior, a Ger. paint., 1527-1586. LOREDANO, Leonardo, doge of Venico during the trying period of the league of Cambray, founder of the famous Council of Ten, reigned 1503-1521. P. Loredano, reigned doge 1507- 1570. F. Loredano, 1752-1762. LOREDANO, J. F., a Venetian poet, called 'the Elder,' died 1590. ' The Younger,' of the same name, flourished 1606-1661. LORENZ, J. M., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1723-1801. LORENZI, B., an Italian poet, 1732-1822. LORENZI, J. B., an Ital. sculptor, 1528-1594. LORENZINI, A., an Ital. painter, 1665-1740. LORENZIKI, L., an Ital. mathema.. 1652-1721. 429 LOR LORENZINI, or LAURENTINI, Francesco Maria, an Italian priest and Jesuit, 1680-1743. LORET, J., a French poet, died 1665. LORGNA, A. ML an Ital. geometr., died 1796. LORIA, or LAURIA, Roger De, a famous admiral, bom at Loria in Naples in the middle of the 13th century, died 1305. LORIOT, A." J., a Fr. mechanician, 1716-1782. LORM E, P. Dk, a French architect, died 1577. LORRAIN, Claude, thepainter. See Claude. LORRAIN, Robt. Le, a Fr. sculp., 1666-1743. LORRAINE, Cil, cardinal of. See Guise. LORRAINE, C. De, an ecclesiast. wr., d. 1631. LORRAINE, the Chevalier De, a descen- dant of the Guises, dist. as a courtier and favourite of the due D'Orleans, br. of Louis XIV., d. 1702. LORRAINE, Francis De. See Guise. LORRIS, W. De, a French poet, 12th century. LORRY, Paul Charles, a French jurisconsult and canonist, 1719-1766. His brother, Anne Charles, a physician and learned wr., 1726-1783. LORT, Michael, an Eng. divine, 1725-1790. LOSANA, M., an Italian naturalist, 1758-1833. LOT, the son of Haran, and nephew of the pa- triarch Abraham, with whom he travelled to Egypt, and afterwards settled in Canaan ; supposed date about 1900 B.C. LOTEN, John, a Swiss painter, died 1681. LOTHAIRE. The sovereigns of this name are two emperors Lothaire I., son of Louis le Dd- bonnaire, and third successor of Charlemagne, born about 795, associated with his father 817, crowned king of Lombardy 820, emperor 840, abdicated, and died soon afterwards, 855. Lothaire EL, born 1075, elected emperor on the demise of Henry V., 1127, convoked the famous diet of Magde- burg 1135, died 1137. Two kings of France Lothaire I., same as the emperor of that name, vanquished by his brothers, Louis and Charles, at the battle of Fontenai, and forced to abandon his pretensions by the treaty of Verdun, 843. Lo- thaire II., born 941, succeeded 954, died 986. A king of Lorraine, second son of the emperor Lothaire I., who raised him to that dignity 855, died 869. A king of Italy, son of Hugues of Pro- vence, poisoned by Berenger 950. A king of Kent, brother and sue. of Egbert, 673, kd. in battle 685. LOTI, Carlo, a painter of Munich, 1632-1698. LOTICH, Peter, a distinguished apostle of Lutheranism, in the county of Hanau, died 1567. His nephew, of the same name, known in Latin as Lotichius, surnamed Secundus, one of the greatest Latin poets of Germany, 1528-1560. Christian, brother of the latter, an elegant scholar and poet, died 1568. John Peter, grandson of Christian, a critic, historian, and Latin poet, died 1669. LOUDON, John Claudius, a native of Lan- arkshire, educated as a landscape gardener, was born 1783, and died 1843. He is author of many valuable and popular works on gardening, agricul- ture, and architecture, the principal of which are 'Observations on Laying out Public Squares,' 4 On Plantations,' On Country Residences,' ' On the Formation of Gardens,' and ' Hothouses,' ' Encyclopaedias of Gardening and Agriculture,' 'The Gardener's Magazine,' and 'The Magazine of Natural History,' both of which were the first periodicals devoted exclusively to these subjects, 4 Encyclopxdia of Plants,' 'Hoitus Britannicus,' LOU 'Arboretum Britannicum,' &c. Mr. Loudoi first cousin to Dr. Claudius Buchanan. LOUET, G., a French jurisconsult, died 1 LOUIS. The German sovereigns of this are Louis Le Debonnaire L, West and king of France, son of Ch his second wire, Hildegarde, born 77 of Aquitaine by his father 781, and as king and emperor 814, died 840. Louis Young) II., son of Lothaire I., born about king of Italy 844, associated with his father i empire 849, emperor 855, died 875. Louti Blind) III., grandson of Louis II., bomj succeeded his father in the kingdom crowned emperor at Rome the year ai ing Berenger 900, deposed and blinded by B<] fer 903, died 923. Louis (the Infant) orn 893, king of Germany 899, sui father, Arnulf, as emperor 908, died 912. L V., son of Louis, duke of Bavaria, and Mat daughter of the emperor Rodolph I., born ] chosen emperor by a part of the electors, whil others adhered to Frederick, son of Albert,! peror and duke of Austria, 1314 ; defeated tht ter, who then renounced his pretensions, 1 died 1347. Besides these in the line of Gei emperors, history mentions Louis the Gerila a third son of Louis le Debonnaire, who rev against his father 817, beat Lothaire at Foirj 841, and had a considerable kingdom beyond] Rhine secured to him by the treaty ot Vej 843 ; d. 876. His son and successor was Louis Saxon, killed in battle with the Normans 88: LOUIS. The kings of France of this nami Louis I., same as the emperor Debonn Louis II., born 846, named king of Aquill by his father, Charles the Bald, 867, king of Fr! 877, died 879. Louis III., eldest son and cessor of the preceding, died 882. Louis born 920, reigned 936-954. Louis V., the of the Carlovingian kings, born 967, succeedei father, Lothaire, 986, and was poisoned, it is i at the instigation of Hugh Capet, by his Blanche, 987. Louis VI., son of Philip I. Bertha, born 1078, associated in the governi with his father 1100, king 1108, died li37. U VII., son of the preceding, born 1120, succe his father 1137, engaged in a crusade 1147 vorced his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, who soor terwards married Henry II. of England, 1149, i ried Constance of Castile 1154, engaged in a with England 1167-1176, died 1180. Louis V son of Philip Augustus and Elizabeth of Hain; born 1187, succeeded his father 1223, died 1 Louis IX., eldest son of the preceding and Blai of Castile, famous in French history by the n of Saint Louis, born 1215, succeeded his fa under the regency of Blanche 1226, embarked the Holy Land at the head of an army of 50 men 1248, returned to France after the deat his mother 1254, undertook a second crusade, died of the pestilence while besieging Tunis 1 Louis X., son of Philip the Fair and Jean of varre, born 1289, king of Navarre 1304, kin, France 1314, died 1316. Louis XL, son of Cht VII. and Marie of Anjou, born 1423, marrie Margaret of Scotland 1436, became leader of a volt against his father 1440-14 12 and 1455 ; l ceeded to the throne 1461, died 1483. Li 430 LOU n of Charles, duke of Orleans, and Mary es, born 1462, succeeded to the throne _ivaded the Milanese in alliance with the Jtians 1499, divided Naples with Ferdinand of 1 1501, joined the league of Cambray against r enetians 1509, died 1515. This prince was in 1473 to Jeanne, daughter of Louis XL, he repudiated, on his accession, in order to Anne of Brittany, the widow of his prede- Charles VIII. The latter dying in 1514, ed in the year following, some three , before his death, the Princess Mary, sis- Henry VIII. Louis XIIL, son of Henry 1 Marie de Medici, bom 1601, succeeded his under the regency of the queen-mother 1610, sd of age, and convoked the estates-general last time before the French revolution, 1614 ; d to Anne of Austria 1615, took the famous ieu into his counsel 1624. For the events wlicy of his reign see Richelieu. Louis see next article. Louis XV., son of Louis f Burgundy, and of Marie Adelaide of Savoy, 710, succeeded his great-grandfather, Louis under the regency of the duke of Orleans, married to Maria Leczinski, daughter of laus, nominal king of Poland, 1725, war iermany in the interest of the latter 1733, defeated at Dettingen in the war occasioned chery to Maria Theresa 1743, peace of hapelle 1748, war with England concern- colonies 1755-1763, died 1774. See Law, r. Louis XVL, see article below. Louis , son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, 785, supposed to have died in the Temple 15. Louis XVIIL, brother of Louis /bora 1755, married to Louisa of Savoy 1771, 8C d to Coblentz when the king was arrested ft pennes 1791, assumed the title of king of n and Navarre 1795, restored on the fall of Bod 1814, retired to Ghent during the hun- Hbnrs, and replaced on the throne after the of Waterloo 1815, died 1824. IlJIS XIV., the most magnificent of the Bour- Hngs, and one of those great spirits by whom Mm are moved, and the polity of states corn- ill changed, was the son of Louis XIIL and Bnf Austria, and was born after his mother Hnented her sterility for twenty-three years, Jptember, 1638. He succeeded to the throne jjthe regency of the queen-mother, guided by Mazarin, 1643, but did not commence " government till the death of the latter, ar after the treaty of the Pyrenees and with Maria Theresa, which had been the articles. The events of this long to call it, are briefly related under the akin ; in this place, therefore, we shall Ives to a summary of the succeeding The external political events of his lenced with the exaction of a proper re- his government from the court of Rome, The next event was a brief war with terminated by the peace of Breda, 6 his father-in-law, Philip IV., being claimed Flanders and Franche-Comte d having won them in two campaigns, ' the former was secured to him by the ix, 1668. Soon afterwards, a quarrel d, and the terror inspired by his suc- LOU cesses, provoked a general alliance against him, headed by the prince of Orange, and Louis himself took the field, with the great Conde" and Turenne under his orders, 1672. The war continued till 1678, when it was terminated by the treaty of Nimeguen, which, with its almost immediate re- sults, secured great advantages to the French crown. In 1687 Louis was compelled to defend him- self against a still more formidable league, occa- sioned by his revocation of the edict of Nantes, and a long catalogue of wars was concluded by the peace of Ryswick, 1697. During this period he supported the Stuarts, and was obliged by the treaty just mentioned, to acknowledge the prince of Orange as king of Great Britain, under the title of William III. In 1701 the succession of his grandson to the Spanish crown was disputed by the rest of Europe, and a long succession of wars, in which the military genius of Marlborough de- veloped itself, was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Louis, though aged and reduced to stand at bay, still retaining vigour enough to save France from the dismemberment threatened by the allies, and to leave to his successor his most valuable conquests. II. The internal administra- tion of his government in this long period had been marked by the highest magnificence, and con- ducted to the most splendid results. The favourite motto of Louis, ' L'Etat, c'est Moi,' was quite as much the expression of a principle as of personal pride, and it meant the extension and consolida- tion of the state from its own centre, in place of the distraction of government occasioned by the feudal system. He carried this principle into effect immediately after the death of Mazarin, by dispensing with any future prime minister; and the issue of it (besides its results in his political wars) was to humble the noblesse, and raise the talent of the middle classes to places of trust as in the person of Colbert. His great fault politi- cal as well as moral was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685, by which Henry IV. had secured the liberties of his protestant subjects. It was the fruits of his religious bigotry excited by prelates who divided the nation between the ob- scure disputes of the Jansenists and Molinists, and who persuaded Louis that his glory was interested in the preservation of the ancient religion the more easily that Jansenism opened the door and prepared the way, as became evident even then, for the philosophy of the Revolution. III. The domestic history of Louis, for the greater part of his life, is far more open to censure than any part of his pub- lic conduct. His succession of mistresses, De La Valliere, Montespan, Fontange,and some less known perhaps, exhibits him in the character of a sensu- alist, and we can only say that he was not an unre- pentant one, for, at least, the last twenty years of his life. To Madame de Maintenon, aided by the oc- casional eloquence of Bossuet, belongs the credit of reforming him in this particular, and the most scep- tical of historians have not been able to show that Madame owed her influence to any sacrifice of hon- our, or that she was not really married to him in 1684, about a year after the death of his queen, Maria Theresa. Apart from all this, Louis XIV. was distinguished by high qualities of heart and mind, and his self-command and moderation in all that pertains to his sovereign character, cannot be 431 LOU doubted. He most completely realized the idea of a monarchy at a period when the habits of thought, and the manners of a people, naturally fickle, and tired of his long reign, were taking a new direc- tion ; and if he loved warlike enterprise too much, as indeed he deplored on his death-bed, he also loved France, ana did all in his power to develop the resources of commerce, industry, literature, and art, and to discover the efficient' instruments of a wise administration. Died 1715. [E.R.] LOUIS XVI., king of France, was the second son of the prince dauphin, son of Louis XV., and of Maria Josepha of Saxony, daughter of Frederick Augustus, king of Poland. He was born at Ver- sailles, and named Due de Berri 1754, became dauphin by the death of his father 1765, and was married to Marie Antoinette of Austria 1770. Amiable, irresolute, and timid, he succeeded to the stained and tottering throne of his grandfather when twenty years of age, 1774, and was crowned at Rheims, amidst the enthusiastic applause of his people, June 11, 1775. Apparently, no sovereign ever ascended the throne under happier auspices, but really no European throne ever stood on the verge of a more terrible abyss ; the incapacity and corruption of the governing body being already confronted with the philosophic pride and wild vigour of the governed just awakening to a sens3 of the ' rights of man.' He commenced his reign happily by promoting many useful reforms, and calling the most upright men to his ministry among others, Turgot and Malesherbes, but it was soon evident that the resources of the state were utterly disproportionate to its expenditure, ami discoveries were continually made which brought the court and the government into contempt. As usual in such cases, one palliative succeeded ano- ther, while the root of the evil remained untouched ; and when the distresses of the people were ex- pressed in open disaffection, the ancient machinery of government was found insufficient, either as a means of effectuating the will of the people, or of controlling their blind impulses by the imposition of a more enlightened authority. The issue of this was the convocation of the 'notables,' who met twice, under the ministries ot Calonne and Lomenie Brienne, 1787 and 1788, and of the ' estates- general,' which assembled at the beginning of May, 1789. This body declared for a constitu- tion' as the first necessity of France, and took a solemn and united oath not to separate until they had made it. The real conflict between the people and the court was commenced by this act; the disposition to insurrection acquired a form of legal- ity, and the passions of those who might be cap- able of leading the populace were fairly unloosed. Mirabeau, Lafayette, Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Robespierre, and Marat, are among the names of such, and may be consulted in this volume. As a first step, the 'third estate,' or plebeians in the ' estates-general,' refused to acknowledge the clergy and the noblesse as separate bodies, and many of these joining them, they assumed the name of a ' national assembly.' Against this body the guards refused to act, and the people, soon enrolled in clubs and in a national militia, surprised the govern- ment by storming the Bastile, July 14, and commit- ting some deplorable excesses. The national assem- bly, presuming on its actual power under these LOU circumstances to make the constitution, ca self ' the constituent assembly,' and promi the ' rights of man' as a basis. To the exci of these occurrences was added the mad effects of a famine in the succeeding autumi the worst forms of clubbism commenced, a Marats, Carriers, Henriots, and Tinvillei into note. In June, 1790, the king attem] fly, and was arrested at Varennes, the meeting to petition for his deposition beh persed by musketry on his return. On the i September following he accepted the consti and on the 1st of October the first biennial ment, or legislative assembly, met for the tr tion of business. The power of ' veto ' havia granted to the king, by this new compact, ] unhappy enough to use it against every imp measure proposed by the parliament. In the of another year his deposition was again ag tumultuous processions took place, the palac was invaded, and the king compelled to we red bonnet, or cap of liberty. As time wc the republicans became thoroughly organize in August, 1792, the Marsellaise were qua in Paris, the Tuileries besieged, the Swiss massacred, and the royal family imprisoned Temple. The party of Danton now occupi foreground of events, and prepared to assei 'national convention,' and resist the thre invasion of the emigrants and the Germans the duke of Brunswick. The first act of thic which met towards the end of September, i pronounce on the fate of Louis XVI., wl declared guilty of a conspiracy against the g safety of the state, by 693 votes out of 729, j be worthy of death by a majority of 433 a 288. Danton uttered what the national a tion felt under these circumstances : ' the coa kings threaten us ; we hurl at their feet, ai [The Temple Prison.] of battle, the head of a king.' For no crime own, Louis was guillotined, in pursuance ( judgment, January 21, 1793, displaying to tl moment the same singular equanimity of t< not to say insensibility, that had marked his career. In private character he was a man 432 LOU eeptionable virtue a good husband, and a good ister, but, as a king, deficient in every neces- y quality except that of well-meaning. [E.R.] [LOUIS PHILIPPE, late king of the French, (s the eldest son of the duke of Orleans, brother JLouis XVI., and of Marie, daughter of the duke Penthievre. He was born at Paris 1773, and J1791 was commander of a troop of dragoons un- r Kellermann, in which capacity he distinguished jnself at Valmy and Jemappes. After the exe- lion of his father, (see Orleans), Louis Philippe ped to Switzerland, and commenced those ro- Intic wanderings through Europe and America, !h which the public mind has been rendered jiiliar. In 1800 he settled at Twickenham, near jidon. In 1807 he visited Naples, and two jrs later was married to Amelia, second daugh- iof the king, after which he settled at Palermo, restoration of the Bourbons to 1830, he 1 in France, and in that eventful year I placed on the throne as constitutional king, inly by the influence of Lafayette, who declared accession 'the best of republics.' Often his E swayed beneath him, but he preserved his Brace, with singular astuteness, till 1848, when the Biblican party suddenly recovered the victoiy of 4ch they had been defrauded eighteen years before, M Louis Philippe became an exile m England. jse events are so recent, and the causes of them aso universally known that we think it unneces- n to enter into details. Perhaps the history of i king will read nobler in the light of an- r age, but for the present we can only regard II as the victim of his own cleverness and his Mn ambition. He descended to the grave with Mrespect than his very misfortunes demanded, eke 2Cth of August, 1850. [E.R.] [Tomb of Louis Philippe] son of Ferdinand, duke of Parma, born received the crown of Etruriafrom Buonaparte ^-Tige for his duchy in 1801, died 1803. " , k. of Spain, reigned eight months, 1721. , king of Hungary, called ' the Great,' 3, succeeded 1342, elected king of Poland d 1382. The second of the name, born succeeded his father Ladislas, as king of LOU Hungary and Bohemia 1516, drowned himself, after being defeated by the Turks, 1526. LOUIS, duke of Savoy, reigned 1451-1465. LOUIS, duke of Anjou, the first of the name, son of John II., king of France, born 1339, main- tained a struggle with Charles of Durazzo for the throne of Naples 1380-1382, died 1384. The second of the name, son and successor of the pre- ceding, born 1377, was crowned king of Naples by Clement VII. 1390, and died, after a long struggle with Ladislas, without conquering his kingdom, 1417. The third of the name, son and successor of the preceding, born 1403, died 1434, after a fruitless struggle for the kingdom of Naples with Alphonso, king of Arragon. LOUIS of Arragon, succeeded his father, Peter II., as king of Sicily, 1342; died 1355. LOUIS of Tarentum, second husband of his cousin, Joan of Naples, was married to that prin- cess in 1347, driven from the kingdom by Louis I. of Hungary, they were recalled by the Neapolitans in 1352, died 1362. LOUISA, Augusta Wilhelmina Amelia, queen of Prussia, bom 1776, queen 1793, d. 1810. LOUISA of Lorraine, queen of France, born 1554, married to Henry III. 1575, died 1601. LOUISA MARIE of France, the last of the daughters of Louis XV., 1737-1787. LOUISA of Savoy, duchesse d'Angouleme, daughter of Philip, duke of Savoy, born 1476, mar- ried to Louis d'Orleans, count of Angouleme, by whom she became mother of Francis I., 1488. Being appointed regent during the expedition of her son to the Milanese, and during his capti- vity, 1515 and subsequent years, she governed the kingdom with great wisdom, and was respected by all the princes of Europe ; died 1532. LOUISA-ULRICA, queen of Sweden, sister cf Frederick II., king of Prussia, born 1720, married to the prince Gustavus Adolphus 1744, became queen mother 1751, died 1782. LOUREIRO, J. De, a Portu. botanist, d. 1796. LOUTH-ALY-KHAN, seventh regent of Persia, and the last of the Zand dynasty, born 1768, de- feated and put to death by Aga-Mohammed 1794. LOUTHERBOURG, Ph. J. De, a painter of Strasburg, distinguished for his battles and hunt- ing pieces, 1740-1812. LOUVEL, Louis Peter, a saddler by trade, who conceived such an intense hatred for the Bour- bons that it became a monomania, and caused him to assassinate the due de Berri, February 13, 1820. This event led to political consequences of great moment ; but Louvel declared to the last that he had no accomplices. He was executed the same year, at the age of 37. LOUVET, Peter, the name of two French historians, the first of whom flourished 1569-1646 ; the second 1617-1680. LOUVET-DE-COUVRAY, Jean Baptiste, a Fr. novelist, and mem. of the conven., 1760-97. LOUVIERS, Ch. James De, a famous defen- der of the liberties of the Gallican church, coun- cillor of state to Charles V., king of France, 1376. LOUVILLE, C. A. D'Allonville, Marquis De, a French diplomatist, time of Philip V., 1668- 1731. His brother, James Eugene, Chevalier de Louville, author of a number of curious treatises on physical and astronomical subjects, 1671-1732, 433 2F LOU LOUVOIS. See Tellier. LOUYS, E., an ecclesiastical writer, died 1682. LOVAT, Simon Fraser, Lord, a Scotch noble- man, and partizan of Charles Stuart, b. 1657, and educated in France among the Jesuits. He entered the English army and obtained a captaincy. He ioined the stronger party at the period of the rebel- lion, but concurred secretly in the enterprizes of 1745. He was found guilty and executed, 1747. LOVE, Christopher, a presbyterian minister, and member of the Assembly of Divines, beheaded for conspiring against the republic, 1618-1651. LOVE, James, son of Mr. Dance, the architect of the Mansion House, known as an actor, d. 1774. LOVEIRA, Vasco, a Portug. writer, d. 1325. LOVELACE, Richard, a poet and dramatic writer, son of Sir William Lovelace of Norwich, where he was born 1618. He was distinguished by his fidelity to Charles L, in whose interest he expended his whole fortune, and died in poverty, 1658. His poems were published in 2 vols. 8vo, under the title of ' Lucasta.' His plays are ' The Scholar,' a comedy, and ' The Soldier,' a tragedy. LOVIBOND, Edward, an English poet, author of ' The Tears of Old May Day,' and an admirable portraiture of Johnson and Garrick in ' The Mul- berry Tree,' died on his estate at Hampton 1775. LOW, G., a Scotch div. and naturalist, 1746-95. LOWE, Lieut. - General Sir Hudson, K.C.B., guardian of Napoleon at St. Helena, was the son of an officer in the British army, and was born in Galway while his father's regiment was quartered there, 1769. He was brought up to the military profession, and performed his first impor- tant services in Corsica at the period of the French revolution, after which, in 1800-1801, he went to Egypt, and fought at the battle of Alexandria. In 1803 he was despatched on a secret mission to Portugal, and subsequently served against the French in Naples, and, when Murat became king, in several important islands of the Mediterranean ; the principal of these operations being his defence of Capri, which, however, he was compelled to evacuate. In 1813 he was sent to northern Ger- many, and, joining the allied Russian and Prussian armies, served under Blucher during the whole of the campaign, and was with him in every action till the surrender of Paris, when he was despatched to England with the news of Napoleon's abdication, and was knighted by the regent. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Sir Hudson Lowe was attached to the duke of Wellington's armv as quarter-master-general, but left it early in June to take the command of the troops at Genoa, des- tined to act against Marseilles and Toulon. It was during his occupation of the last mentioned place, on the 1st of August, 1815, that he received orders to return home to take charge of the captive em- peror ; an office which an angel from heaven, as Montholon confessed, could not have fulfilled to the satisfaction of the French. It is a little curious, however, that the complaints of that sen- sitive people met with a ready sympathy in Eng- land, and some of our foremost writers, as Sir Walter Scott, Sir Archibald Alison, and Lord Campbell have echoed their sentiments. On the other hand, the editor of the recently published papers of Sir Hudson Lowe, professes to have established, from a judicial review of the mass LOW of documents confided to him, that no blan attach either to the British governmei home, or to the governor of St. Helena, as I the treatment of Napoleon. At leasi case stated for the first time as it eye of an impartial lawyer, and the actua terials to decide upon. We are much mis! however, if the legal tribunal can be ailmitti final one in such a cause. Sir Hudson Low at an advanced age, 1844. LOWE, Peter, a Scotch surgeon, died 1( LOWENDAHL,ULRicFr<i,i>KKirWAi.m Marshal De, a native of Hamburgh, desc from a natural son of Frederick III., king of mark, and distinguished as a commander i service of Austria, France, Poland, and fi He acquired immense repute by his share i battle of Fontenoy, and the sieges of Fl towns, flourished 1700-1755. LOWER, Richard, an eminent physicia anatomist, author of a tractate on the hear the motion and heat of the blood, in whic transfusion of the living fluid from the vesi one animal to those of another is treated of. about 1631, died 1691. His relative, Sib liam Lower, was a courtier and dramatist reign of Charles I., and died 1662. LOWICZ, Jeanne, Princess De, wife < grand duke Constantine of Russia, died 1831 LOWITZ, George Maurice, a German nomer, born 1722, murdered by the bands of atchef, at the capture of Dmetriefsk, 1774. son, Tobias, a chemist and naturalist, 1757- LOWRY, Wilson, an engraver, 1762-182 LOWTH, Robert, D.D., a celebrated 1 in the Church of England, was born at Bn 27th November, 1710. From Winchester i he went to Oxford, and having distingt himself by his literary attainments, was, in chosen professor of poetry in that university 1744 he was appointed rector of Ovingtc Hampshire. Resigning that situation, he ] several years on the continent, and on his i was appointed archdeacon of Winchester rector of East Woodhay. He was well knoi a scholar ; but it was not till the his lectures ' On the Sacred Poetry of the Heb in 1753, that he became known as one of th biblical critics of his age. That work pr< him a high reputation both at home and a and it still maintains a distinguishes works on the literature of the Scriptures. ferments flowed rapidly upon him, for hebi successively bishop of Limerick ; and leavin land he was ma'de prebend of Durham ; bis)} St. David's in 1766 ; and bishop of Lomj 1777. While he discharged with exerj diligence the duties of that important see, hi tinued with the greatest ardour to prosed! biblical studies, and as the fruit of his asm industry, 'Isaiah, a New Translate liminary Dissertation and Notes,' contribul extend his fame. The beauty an this translation have been long and univ* admitted. Bishop Lowth was the author of if minor works, the chief of which are, '1!)' of William of Wykeham,' and 'The duction to English Grammar.' He i palace in 1787, at the age of seventy-six. V 434 LOW iLOWTH, Sim., an English divine, an. of ' Stric- |es on Dr. Gilbert Burnet's Works,' &c, d. 1720. iLOWTH, William, father of Bishop Lowth, 4 subject of a preceding notice, and himself a jrned divine, author of numerous practical and lological works, born in London 1661, d. 1732. .OYER, G., a Dominican missionary, d. 1715. SjOYER, Peter Le, Sieur De La Brosse, a ]jnch writer of great learning, author of a curi- i! work on Spectres, and one of still greater sin- entitled ' Edom, or the Iduma?an Colonies i Europe and Asia,' 1550-1634. LOYKO, Felix, a Polish hist., abt. 1750-1800. OYOLA, Ignatius, or Don Inigo Lopez 1 Recalde, the founder of the order of Jesuits, * the youngest son of Don Bertram, and was born i 491, at the castle of Loyola, in the district of t puzcoa in Biscay. He was attached in his J\ ;h as a page to the court of Ferdinand and ella, and trained up in all the vices and fri- culiar to his position. When still a man he entered the army, and during his of Pampeluna in 1521 against the French, severely wounded, and a long and tedious ent was the result. The invalid, however, himself with the Spanish legends of the and other works of a kindred character, was seized, and in a fit of mystical de- e renounced the world, made a formal to the shrine of the Virgin at Montserrat, and 24th day of March, 1522, laid his arms on , and vowed himself her knight. Arrayed garb of a pilgrim he then went to Manresa, ted himself to deeds of benevolence, which t renown. His next resolution was to the Holy Land, and after ten months' at Manresa, he travelled to Barcelona, a "ng, sincere, and resolute ascetic, sailed or Rome, received the blessing of Pope ., and at length reached Jerusalem in 1523. After staying but a brief period led by Venice and Genoa to Barcelona, I he began in earnest to study Latin at the f three-and- thirty. At the end of two years, in 1526, he removed to Alcala in order to j himself master of philosophy. His retreat ;lona was hastened by the danger he " in exposing and attempting to remedy int disorders in a convent of nuns. His ties of thought and address made him sus- at Alcala, and the inquisition charged him *' 'icraft, warned, threatened, imprisoned, Uy dismissed him. The indomitable stu- not to be crushed, but repaired at once ica, where he met with a similar treat - Little did those inquisitors dream of the that slumbered in the strange and self- recluse. Leaving Spain, which could not te his motives, or divine his character, he Paris in February, 1528, where he studied [lowest classes of the university with un- humility, begged for his daily sustenance, " lionally startled his friends by religious Several young men admired his un- zeal and drew around him, and of the two domiciled with him, one was the famous avier, afterwards known as the apostle Their hearts were on fire for the con- the world, and they took solemn vows LUB of chastity, poverty, and entire consecration to the church, in the subterranean chapel of the Abbey of Montmartre. At length, these compan- ions, ten in number, agreed to leave Paris and meet in Venice in January, 1537. As they resolved to go to Jerusalem, they went to Rome to receive the papal blessing and came back to Venice in order to embark. But a war with the Turks frustrated their intentions, and their enthusiasm was in the meantime expended in various forms of effort. Rome naturally became their head-quarters, and Loyola conceived the idea of founding an order to be devoted to the very work in which he and his fellows were so ardently engaged. The nature and plans of the new institution were sketched, and submitted to the pontiff Paul III., who, under certain limitations, confirmed it on 27th Septem- ber, 1540 ; but three years afterwards those limi- tations were withdrawn. Loyola was president of the order, and remained in Rome in order to direct and stimulate its movements. Thus sprung up the order of the Jesuits the mightiest by far of the kindred institutions of the Church of Rome, and which has more than once shaken the nations of Europe. The order increased with great rapid- ity; it nad a romantic origin and a definite aim. Loyola founded at Rome an asylum for converted Jews, and a penitentiary for reclaimed females. Julius III. in 1550 confirmed the order, and Loyola remained its general till his death on 31st July, 1556. At his death the society consisted of more than 1,000 persons possessing 100 religious houses, and divided for the prosecution of its la- bours into twelve provinces, reaching from Spain to India and Brazil. Loyola was beatified by Paul V. in 1609, and canonized by Gregory XV. in 1622. His famous 'Spiritual Exercises' were published at Rome in 1548. Many even in his own church deny that he had enough of learning to write this book, or even enough of ingenuity to construct the rules of the order of Jesus, affirming that he was in both respects the instrument of minds more refined and subtile than his own. His was a self-sacrificing fanaticism. His life was a spiritual knighthood undaunted in the cause which he had espoused. His labours were soon appreciated by the church, and the society of Jesus became a mighty engine before which popes themselves have trembled. Its secrecy has defied investigation, and its unscrupulous means are only surpassed by the devoted spirit of its combined phalanx of agents and associates. Luther and Loyola represent progress and check, march and counter-march, action and reaction in the same epoch of the ecclesiastical world. [J-E.J LOYSEAU, C, a Fr. jurisconsult. 1566-1627. LOYSEAU, J. S., a Fr. jurisconsult, d. 1822. LOYSON, C, a French publicist, 1791-1820. LUBBERT, Sibrand, a learned Dutch divine, and deputy to the synod of Dort, 1556-1620. LUBERSAE, Abbe De, a French antiquarian, 1730-1804. His nephew, J. B. Joseph, bishop of Chartres, and dep. to the est.-general, 1740-1822. LUBIENECKI, Theodore, a Polish artist, 1653-1720. His brother, Christopher, a pain- ter, born 1659. LUBIENIETZKI, Stanislaus, in Latin, Lh- bieneccius, a famous Socinian of Poland, and his- torian of the reformation in that country, 1623-75. 435 LUB LUBIN, Aug., a Fr. geographer, 1624-1695. LUBIN, Eilhard, a Ger. philolog., 1565-1621. LUCA, G. B. De, a Neapol. cardinal, d. 1683. LUCA, Ignatius De, an Aust. geogr., 1746-98. LUCAE, S. 0., a Ger. physician, 1787-1821. [Lucan From an Ancient Medal.'] LUCAN, the commonly received name of Mar- cus Ann.<eus Lucanus, was born at Cordova (then Corduba) in Spain, 38, son of a Roman knight, who was youngest brother of the famous Seneca. It was his misfortune to find a rival poet in the emperor Nero, and to receive the prize in a public competition with the sovereign, who then forbade him to recite his verses in public. This circumstance, perhaps, added to the general hatred of his crimes, induced Lucan to join a con- spiracy formed against him, and the plot being discovered, he is believed to have accused his own mother, in the hope of pardon. If so, Lucan could only have repented of his weakness, when, not- withstanding, he was condemned to die. He chose to have his veins opened and then bled to death, in the twenty-seventh year of his age, 65. The only portion of his compositions that has descended to the present age, is his Pharsalia,' an unfinished description of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. It has been translated into English by May and Rowe, and is much esteemed for the spirit of freedom and morality which it breathes, in numbers of genuine poetry. LUCAS, Charles, an Irish physician, and member of parliament, distinguished in the oppo- sition to government, 1713-1771. LUCAS, Francis, a Flem. divine, died 1619. LUCAS, J. A. H., a Fr. naturalist, 1780-1825. LUCAS, J. J. S., a Fr. commander, 1764-1829. LUCAS, Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, a poetical and miscellaneous writer, abt. 1625-1673. LUCAS, Paul, a French traveller and antiqua- rian, auth. of many descriptive works, 1664-1737. LUCAS, Peter, a French sculptor, 1691-1752. His two sons Francis, a sculptor, flourished 1736-1813 ; Jean Paul, a painter, died 1808. LUCAS, Van Leyden. See Jacobs. LUCCA, B. La, an Ital. historian, 1236-1327. LUCCHESINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, a Jesuit, and ecclesiastical writer in Lucca, about 1638-1710. LUCCHESINI, Giovanni Vincenzo, alearned wr., sec. of briefs under Clement XIL, 1660-1744. LUCCHESINI, Girolamo, Marquis De, a na- tive of Lucca, disting. as a man of letters, and 436 LUC Prussian minister under Frederick II.. 17.V2-1 His brother, Cesar, a philologist, 1755-lfi LUCENA, J. De, a Portug. Jesuit, 1550-1 LUCHI, M. A., an Italian cardinal and I logist, 1744-1802. His uncle, Bon theologian, 1700-1785. His brother, Lou learned ecclesiastic and antiquary, 1703-178 LUC1AN, the most brilliant and . writer of the second century ; born in Assyria, on the banks of the Euphrates lived between A.u. 120 and 200, under Tr Hadrian, and the Antonines. His life extremely varied : he had followed many pri sions; and mingled with all classes of men, various nations. In his youth a sculptor; we him soon a lawyer the profession of his pred tion practising at the bar in Syria and Gr Next a teacher of rhetoric, settled in Gaul, w he collected a large school, and an siderable fortune. Withdrawing from professi life, he sprung up into the Lucian of History, wr incessantly, but at the same time always tn ling; he visited Macedonia, Cappadocia, Paj gonia, and Bithynia, resting for any long terval only in Athens ; and he died in Ej administering a lucrative office which he < to the emperor Commodus. A life so var would have endowed a mind, even of ordi quickness, with much practical knowledgi mankind, and given an insight into the a< condition of society : so that with Luc exquisite command of Greek, and his unex tionable taste, he could in nowise have faile rise into one of the best and most entertai writers of the time. Nevertheless, if the p. bestowed on him be nothing more than is at excellences like these, we shall ill appreciate character and influence of one of the most midable pens ever wielded in Antiquity In k ness of wit, not very unequal to Aristophanes j self, whose talents for popular but signifi burlesque he also inherited Lucian was g besides with that boldness, that sense, and j sincerity which is insight, belonging only tcj greatest minds ; and he brought the whole of lj rare advantages to the execution of a task, i which none is more arduous, and only one noblJ the waging of an unrelenting war with every and colour of charlutanerie in his time Descer among the details of life, he holds up to ridl and scorn, although mainly to ridicule, the pil lent follies and vices of society in those cent) the parasite, the waylayer of legacies, the so( ing but vacant bell, the vender of morality: tl it seems, and multitudes like them. early days, appeared. But Lucian and displays greatest courage, in his the widest spread the most general torn iniquity. The ancient religions were then tdj ing; and ancient wisdom had shrunk into a wit * sham and formality. The vulgar ha into the spiritual sense of the my: took the stories of the gods in I way, believing them without evidence, nwi' historical, descrying nothing of their pocti|< beauty, but dogmatizing well ! 1 superstition a large proportion of tin addressed; and truly they helped to shatter it ! our author wrote yet more earnestly, and devep LUC ighest power, when his turn with the philoso- s had come. It is grievous to think of it, ntly so it was, that wisdom and morals professed by men who knew no wisdom, n| understood nothing of morals : the dialectic nttlden-mouthed Plato had passed into sheerest try, and the virtues of the Stoics were to d at so much per head. Could a Society such men for its wise men, endure long the Earth? If pen could have shamed it, pen had been Lucian's. But no such salva- was in store : emptiness having once seized philosophy, as pharisaism on a religion is neither hope nor help for it under the sun ! Lucian's best dialogue, in scourge of the sophers, is ' The Angler.' A function of this assumed and unflinchingly carried out, ted boldness indeed ; but, sad for the cotem- reputation of the Scorner of Samosata! t, tT^aXXe, xpotn*i?*Xki t no quarter to him hom quarter was never given ! But at this extremity of a long interval of time, and in re like ours, we may descry the sense, believe patriotism, and even doubt the ' infidelity ' aan. The vices he warred with, are none of so that we can afford to be temperate, and hope to be impartial. The experience of centuries having discredited superstition, xtinguished insincerity men may now enjoy it, and admire the polish, for surely they it be offended by the satire of the Dialogues Dead. [J.P.N.] CIAN, St., a presbyter of Antioch, who suf- raartyrdom under Diocletian in 312. CIFER, the schismatic bp. of Cagliari, the p. of Sardinia, and a saint of Rome, d. 370. CILIUS, a Roman satirist, 149-103 B.C. CINI, A. F., an Italian designer, 17th cent. HCIUS, a Greek writer of the second century. H&US, the Jirst of the name, pope and saint a {me, was elected 252, and the next year suf- H martyrdom. The second, succeeded 1144, rilled by a blow from a stone in a popular W145. The third outlived several popular com- WJis, and reigned 1181-1185. HCIUS, J., historian of Dalmatia, died 1G84. 1ICKNER, N., a marshal of France, 1722-94. BjCRETIA, one of the noblest names in Ro- jlistory, was the wife of Colktinus, a near in of Tarquin the Proud, king of Rome. lory, as related by Livy, is to the effect that Hb Tarquinius, the king's eldest son, was in- U With a passion for her, moved by her ex- Hbeauty ; and becoming a guest at her house M the absence of Collatmus, succeeded in dis- Hing her person. Entering her chamber in Hfht with a drawn sword, and finding himself Hfely repulsed, he threatened to slay her, and Hue body of a slave in her bed, to make it M that he had killed them both in the act of ty. The dread of being thought so infamous 1 Lucretia to yield, but with a resolve that Httdr of her husband and her own innocence *t| be avenged. She summoned her father Blr husband from the camp, who came ac- Bfied by their kinsmen, Valerius Publicola rutus, and having recounted the events of B*it,she suddenly stabbed herself to the heart Haoncealed dagger. The bloody poniard was LUD snatched from the wound by Brutus, and the wit- nesses of this sad tragedy swore by the ' once pure blood ' of Lucretia, not to rest till they had ex- pelled the Tarquins from Rome. This event, which occurred B.C. 509, was the signal of Roman freedom, the kingly government being abolished, and a republic established by the conspirators, of whom Junius Brutus became chief. Poets and artists have vied with each other in celebrating the heroism of Lucretia, and her name, like that of Penelope, has furnished the most significant ex- pression for all that is noble and chaste in the female character. [E.R.J [Lucretius From an Antique Gem.] LUCRETIUS, the commonly received name of Titus Lucretius Carus, an eminent philoso- pher and poet, born at Rome about 96 B.C., and said to have died by his own hand in the forty- fourth year of his age, about 52. He is admitted to be one of the greatest of Roman poets for de- scriptive beauty and elevated sentiment, while his philosophy is subject to the errors inevitable to the state oi science at that time. His poem, which is entitled ' De Rerum Natura,' embodies accurately the Epicurean doctrine on the nature of things, and was first published in 1486. It has been translated into English by Creech and Mason Good. LUCULLUS, Lucius Licinius, a naval and military commander of Rome, born about b.c. 115, and distinguished in the war with Mithridates from the time of Sylla to B.C. 66, when he was sup- planted by Pompey. He lived about twenty years longer, in an elegant retirement on the coast of Campania, and his costly habits have rendered his name a bye-word for all that is luxurious and ex- travagantly refined in taste. He was at the same time a great master of literature, and his house was ennched with a valuable library and works of art, which were opened to the curious and the learned, among whom was his friend Cicero. LUDEKE, C. W., a Prussian savant, 1737-1805. LUDEWIG, J P. De, a Ger. jurist, 1668-1743. LUDICAN, a king of Mercia, 823-825. LUDIUS, a Roman painter, age of Augustus. LUDLOW, Edmund, one of the principal chiefs of the republican party in England during the civil war, born about 1620, distinguished at the battle of Edgehill 1642, successor of Ireton in the go- vernment of Ireland 1650, died in exile 1693. Lud- 437 LXTD low is the author of curious and valuable ' Me- moirs,' published 1698. LUDOLPH, Job, a German Orientalist, distin- guished for his researches in Ethiopian history and the Ethiopic dialects, 1624-1704. His two nephews Henry William, distinguished as a Greek and Russian scholar, 1655-1710 ; and Job, as a mathematician, 1649-1711. The son of the latter, Jerome Ludolph, a physician, 1677-1728. LUDOLPH, an ascetic writer, about 1300-1370. LUDOVICUS, or LUDWIG, Godfrey, a phil- ologist and literary savant of Prussia, 1670-1724. LUDOVICUS, C. Gunther, a professor of Leipzig, author of a ' Plan for a History of the Philosophy of Wolf,' and ' of Leibnitz,' 1707-1778. LUDWIG, C. F., a phys. of Leipzig, 1757-1823. LUDWIG, C. T., a Germ, botanist, 1709-1773. LUGO, John De, a Spanish cardinal and theo- logian, 1583-1660. His brother, Francis, a Jesuit and theologian, 1580-1652. LUINI, Bernardin, an Ital. painter, 16th ct. LUKE, the evangelist, said to have been a Jewish proselyte, converted by the preaching of Paul, and a physician by profession, was a native of Antioch, and probably wrote his gospel, as well as the Acts of the Apostles, while a prisoner in Rome a.d. 63. He was a companion of Paul in many of his jour- neys, and is understood to have been acquainted with the family of Mary, and even to have seen the Saviour in his youth. He died at the age of eighty-four, and was never married. LULLI, Anthony, a Fr. grammarian, d. 1582. LULLY, Jean Baptiste, born at Florence in 1634, showed such a remarkable taste for music that a cordelier, from no other consideration than the hope of his some time becoming eminent in art, undertook to teach him the guitar. While under the care of his kind guitar master he at- tracted the attention of the Chevalier Guise, a French gentleman, who took him at ten years of age to Paris, to be page to the Mdle. de Montpen- sier, niece of Louis XIV. While in this menial capacity he used to spend his leisure time in prac- tising upon an old violin, and his taste in music having reached the ear of the princess, she imme- diately procured a master to teach him the violin, and in the course of a few months he was elevated to the rank of a court musician, and afterwards admitted into the king's band, which was styled the ' Les Petits Violons,' of which corps he soon afterwards became the head. From this time Lully's fame as a performer and composer was fully established and recognized. At this time one who could read music at sight was esteemed as a great musician, and not one-half of those then living in France were so far accom- plished as to be able to play an accompaniment on the harpsichord or theorbo to the exercises of the scholars. Lully in this respect contributed greatly to the progress of musical science, and in his compositions introduced many of the improve- ments which have since become inseparable from compositions of the slightest kind. In the year 1686 the king having recovered from a serious indisposition which threatened his life, Lully was required to compose a Te Deum. Accordingly he wrote one, which was as remarkable for its excel- lence as it was for an unhappy accident which be- i'el the composer during its performance, which he LUL conducted. In the midst of one of the moven of this work, Lully struck his foot with the with which he was beating time. This ci considerable inflammation, and the injury wi untraetable that his physician advised him to his little toe cut off; and, after a delay of days his foot ; and at length the whole limb. this juncture an empiric offered to effect a without amputation. Two thousand pistoles to be his guerdon if he succeeded ; but, as n have been expected, Lully became one more ri to the popular faith in quackery. He die 1687, and was interred in tne church of the D lent Augustines, at Paris, where an elegant ] solemn was erected to his memory. Lully's now chiefly rests on his overtures, a spee* composition of which he is said to have oe inventor. He wrote several operas, motet* other compositions for the church, besides a l ber of symphonies in three parts for violins, had two sons, Lottis and Jean, also musie They in conjunction composed the musio t opera named ' Zephire et Flore,' which waJ formed at the Acadernie Roy ale in 1688. [J LULLY, Raymond, a great theurgist philosopher of the middle ages, was of Catak descent, and was born at Palma, the capit Majorca, 1235. He commenced life as a cot and man of pleasure, but was converted j about thirty years of age to the religious chiefly by the exhortations of a married lad whom he had professed the most ardent devo For about ten years, 1265-1275, he lived mo less in a solitary place, and became the subjt remarkable ecstacies and visions the end b that his prayers for wisdom to convert the hei were answered, he says, by a singular illumini of his mind, in which the principles of tl became manifest to him. In this light, witl aid of his investigations in Arabian philosc he conceived a new system of dialectic, which be consulted in his 'Ars Generalis Ultima/ published 1480 ; the 'Ars Brevis,' published 1 and the 'Arbor Scientiae,' 1482. The ft* these (of which the second is an abridged met proposes a universal art, or science of scienct the principles of which all others are suppoa be comprehended, and by the aid of which 1 maintained they could all be demonstrated. ' Arbor Scientiae,' or tree of knowledge, cont a demonstration of the love of God and the ne bour, traced from its root to its fruit. It if possible to enumerate all his works, btlt general object is to demonstrate by an i ble method, all the primary truths of religior eluding the existence and life of Christ , and embrace in their scope, the physical and meta sical sciences ; and, as a necessary consequence doctrines of the alchymists, who claim Rayr Lully as one of their greatest masters. His ] tical means to attain the end of his life we; large in their scope as his system of logic; anj embodied them in three proposals, which M u| upon the pope and Philip the Fair, making r.j journeys to effect his purpose. These won 1. 1 all the existing military orders should be foi into one body. 2. That the works the philosopher Averrhoes, should bo absol suppressed. 3. That monasteries should be | 438 LUM Jl parts of the world, to instruct in strange yes and in the new dialectic, such as d^enter into vows for the conversion of infi- It must be admitted that this was a magni- t political design, and there is nothing in nis- * to compare with it, except the achievements Raymond Lully, disappointed, after indefatigable efforts to procure the adop- t of his system, embarked for Turin, to com- rjice his apostleship single-handed, and there, it i elieved, he found the death of a martyr, 1315. s acquired great celebrity, and were often in the 16 th century. The best of his is the French priest Ant. Perroquet. licules his pretensions, and calls him an | rant friar, but without exhibiting any appre- ll don of what he really teaches. [K-K-] f] [JMAGNE, Marie De, religious founder of Ibrder of ' Filles de la Providence,' 1599-1657. - 1 >EN, A., a Scotch antiquar., 1720-1801. MS DEN, M., a Scotch Oriental., 1777-1835. I^HDI, V., an Italian aeronaut, 1759-1799. JND, L., a Swedish jurisconsult, 1638-1715. JNEAU DE BOISJERMAIN, Peter Jos. itrcis, a miscellaneous writer, author of a *mentary on Racine,' a ' Course of History lEereraphy,' &c, 1732-1801. ;. J. C, a German compiler, 1662-1740. r, Th., an English scholar and transla- te; ec. to Richard Pace, when ambas., 1498-1532. IPTON, D., an Eng. biographer, 17th cent. >N, W., an English divine, d. abt. 1726. BPUS, or WOLFIUS, Christian, a monk of Sthugustin, known as a canonist and theolo- Jl612-1681. PUS, Servatus, a Fr. theologian, 9th cent. RBE, G. De, a French antiquarian, d. 1613. SHINGTON, W., an Eng. statesman, d. 1813. SIGNAN, G. De, a Fr. crusader, died 1194. SSAN, Margaret De, a French novelist asiderable genius, author of a great number torical romances, 1682-1758. THER, the great German reformer, was at Eisleben, 10th November, 1483. As he pro on St. Martin's Eve, and baptized the y, he received his Christian name of Mar- father, who was a poor miner, left Eisle- Mansfeld, when the infant Martin was six months old. Here the hardy labourer d, as to have at length two blast-fur- his own, and to be thus enabled by a be- Providence, to give his son a good edu- After getting such tuition as the place of residence could afford, Martin was sent at of fourteen to school at Magdeburg, where forced him, with other boys, to tra- rieighbouring villages and to sing hymns is of procuring a supply of victuals. Re- next year to Isenach, he was pressed by difficulties, and compelled to a similar of relief, till a benevolent family took him roof. His father was anxious that his study law, and Martin entered the uni- of Erfurt in 1501. The fashionable schol- hilosophy occupied him here for a series of and 'the whole university admired his During the second year of his studies at being a laborious reader, and in the habit " " ig the college library and devouring its LUT volumes, he found a copy of the Latin Biblo, a book he had never seen before, and which on his reading it, stirred up strange and rapturous sensa- tions within him. Not long afterwards his severe studies produced an alarming illness, which brought him face to face with death, and created serious and permanent religious impressions, which were so deepened by the death of a very intimate friend and fellow-student by a stroke of lightning, that he at once resolved to become a monk, and leaving all his property behind him, but a Virgil and Plautus, and giving his astonished friends a hearty farewell banquet, he entered the monastery of the hermits of St. Augustine. Here the ambi- tious scholar soon felt the crushing despotism of those monkish brothers, for he was forced to do the most menial and disgusting offices, and the master of arts was made a servant of all work- sweeper, porter, and beggar, for the lazy drones who buzzed in the convent. Still, he did not ne- glect his studies, and he strove earnestly all the while to obtain that spiritual peace and sanctity which he had imagined must be easily found in a religious establishment. Alas ! he watched, fasted, prayed, read, and did penance on himself in vain. His melancholy could not be relieved by such ghostly mechanism. His was not a mind to be cheated into quiet by monastic routine, or degraded and hushed by morbid asceticism. But the conver- sations of Staupitz, his vicar-general, at length led the young Augustinian to feel the freedom and peace of the gospel, and he was ordained to the priesthood, and celebrated his first mass, in his twenty-fourth year. By the influence of Staupitz, Luther was m 1508 called by Frederick, elector of Saxony, to be a professor of philosophy in the university of Wittemberg. Here in a short time he taught also biblical theology, and obtained more internal serenity, and a deeper view of the Divine plan of redemption. He began to preach too with that vigour, impetuosity, and eloquence which soon at- tracted immense crowds. About 1510 he was sent to Rome on ecclesiastical business, and his mind received a terrible shock by what he wit- nessed of the idleness, profanity, and sensuality of the Romish clergy and laity, and the grief and in- dignation he experienced during this visit to the city of the pope, caused the veil to fall from his eyes. On returning from the Italian metropolis, he was, in 1512, made doctor of divinity, and he continued to preach boldly, attacking the scholastic philo- sophy, and basing his arguments more and more on the Holy Scriptures. The court of Rome, to supply its luxuries, and aid in building St. Peter's, had commissioned indulgences to be sold in Ger- many. The traffic was carried on with the utmost effrontery, and under a regular tariff, and Tetzel was a fit instrument for the nefarious commerce in the souls of men. Some of the people of Wit- temberg, who had confessed to Luther, refused to abandon their sins, and pleaded the indulgences which they had bought. The spirit of Luther was fired the spark was laid to the train which ended in so mighty an explosion. He preached and re- monstrated, and on the 31st October, 1517, nailed to the door of the castle church his ninety-five theses, and sent a copy of them to the archbishop of Magdeburg. The consequent discussions with Tetzel at Wittemberg, and his debates upon the LUT same subject at Heidelberg, only increased and deepened the agitation, and added to Luther's po- pularity. By and bye he was summoned to ap- {>ear and answer at Augsburg before the papal egate, Cardinal Cajetan. At the several interviews he stood firm and resolved, and the friar Martin returned in triumph to his cell and his lecture- room. The excitement was now so prodigious that the courteous Elector wished him to leave the city the idea of a capital penalty for him was loudly talked of, and the unquailing Luther at last ap- pealed from the pope to a general council. But Militz, another legate, was appointed, and at a meet- ing which took place at Altenburg in 1519, Luther was so far cajoled as to write an humble and apo- logetic letter to Leo. The letter was unheeded the reformer became more and more alive to the errors of the church the disputation with Eckius still forced him onwards, and, being too honest to conceal his convictions, he took advantage of the press, and his works found a wondrous and immediate circulation. Rome became seriously alarmed, and Leo at length issued a bull of excom- munication, which Luther publicly and contemp- tuously burnt before an immense assembly at Wittemberg. The German mind was thoroughly roused, and prepared to throw oft' the yoke of Rome. Luther's separation from Rome was now complete. Leo urged the new emperor, Charles V., to appre- hend and punish the turbulent and daring heretic, but by the influence of the elector of Saxony, the reformer's cause was tried at Worms. On his way to Worms, Spalatin, apprehensive for his safety, despatched a messenger to forewarn and dis- suade him from continuing his journey, but the magnanimous champion replied, ' Go tell your mas- ter, that though there were as many devils in Worms as tiles upon the house-tops, I will enter it.' On the 16th of April he reached this city, attired in his friar's cowl ; multitudes met him, and he entered it attended by 2,000 persons. Before his 204 august judges, the emperor and his nobility, his courage did not fail, for clearly and fully did he vindicate his past procedure, and he steadily appealed to the authority of Scripture. The re- sult was, that Charles issued a rescript ' against the evil fiend in human form,' 'the fool,' and the blasphemer,' and put him under the ban of the empire. Luther had already left the town, pursuing the road that took him to Mora, that he might see his aged grandmother. He resumed his journey the next day, but as be passed through the depths of the Thuringian forest he was roughly seized by five horsemen, and canned to the castle of Wartburg, and a whole year he lay there in solitude, while his friends mourned his absence or death. But his powerful patrons had in this way provided for his safety. This period of forced re- tirement was not mis-spent, and though he had to wrestle with morbid and nervous sensations, pro- duced by his confinement and sedentary life, he translated the New Testament into German, which was published in 1522. Leaving his Patmos, and returning to Wittemberg, his undaunted energy earned all before it, the reformation was ushered in, and in 1524 Luther abandoned the monastic dress the last symbol of his connection with Rome. hed his fanatical opponents, who did more injury to his cause than his papal adversaries, LUT gallantly entered the lists with Henry VI] England, and fought stoutly with Erasmus o Freedom of the Will. In 1525. he was marri Pomeranus, to Catherine von Bora, who hai her convent about two years before, and ' hit [Luther'i and lovely Ketha' proved a kind and affect wife to him. The labours of Luther were al period incessant, for the care of all the chu was upon him, and many of the states of many embraced his doctrines. From 1517 to I every year saw him publish a book or books ag some form of papal error. The anabaptists a sad thorn in nis side, and by their wretchei cesses brought great scandal upon his works, translation of the Bible occupied a large porta his time, for it was the mainstay of the refo tion ; and commentaries on almost all the 1 of the Bible proceeded from his unwearied Councils were in those days reckoned a grand cific for healing ecclesiastical discord, and were not a few in the life of Luther : Won 1521, Nuremberg in 1522-23, when the Ge princes presented a list of ' a hundred grievar another at the same place in the following at which the members resolved to work out t as possible the decisions of that of Worms, that of Augsburg in 1525, adjourned to Spir 1526, at which a general council was dema Another diet was convoked to meet in Febr 1529, and the imperial and popish party bavin mastery, decreed to suppress the reformatio; force. Against this bloody decree the dej solemnly protested, and the reforming bam' ceived from this circumstance the appro; name of Protestants. Luther and ZwingliJ quarrelled about the nature of the Lord's Sir and maintained a worse than idle contest,] met personally for disputation at Marburg. diet of Augsburg met in 1530, the conf prepared by Melanchthon was submitted to il protestantism, in spite of all obstacles, was i established among the German nations. many interruptions and incessant labours, I continued at Wittemberg during his rem: years. In his sixty-second year his health to give way the strong man was After an altercation with the law) destine marriages and certain female fashw dress, he indignantly left Wittemberg for EiH 410 I! c>.an t han LUT ie month of January, 1546. The river Issel g swollen, he was five days upon the road. On 17th of February he complained of oppressive in his chest. Momentary relief from it was obtained ; but he was again attacked in the ;, and after brief but earnest religious exer- and thrice repeating the inspired words, 'Into ands I commit my spirit God of truth thou redeemed me,' he expired between two and o'clock in the morning. His disease is sup- to have been angina pectoris, but some say, the stomach. On the 19th his body was in a leaden coffin and carried into the ere it was removed for burial, and on the the hearse arrived at Wittemberg, where the city stood around the gates in deepest sor- and lamentation. Luther was buried in the kirche, and many a traveller has read the inscription that still stands over his tomb. one will deny that Luther was one of the He had an earnest and honest nature ger alike to cowardice and dissimulation, he did, he did with his might. That he ies spoke roughly and wrote harshly, no w better than himself ' I was born,' said fight with devils and storms, and hence it is writings are so boisterous and stormy.' It a leonine temperament to do the work of Luther. Yet he was a man of a loving us heart playful and happy with ltis family or friends. He liked hilarity, and mind rejoiced to unbend. Intellect and were alike powerful within him, for with clearness of reason and conscientious deci- was often swayed by impulse. In those he uttered or wrote those expressions, ,ve so often the semblance of inconsistent So much was he formed to lead opin- he could not easily bear contradiction, was incredible, as his remaining works Luther had great natural capabilities for and he had sedulously studied its theory, very many hymns and set them to music, he published his first hymn with music in sheet ; the next year he wrote seventeen similar accompaniment, and in other subse- his muse was not idle. Forty-two tunes were composed by himself and his But amidst all his literary labours, his of the Scriptures stands pre-eminent, iware of the difficult and responsible task, assistance in every form and from every quarter. When the Hebrew terms be- to botany and zoology perplexed him, he d the physician Sturciad, and he also ob- oseful information from his friend Spalatin, only instructed him in natural history, him specimens from the superb collection which belonged to the elector of Saxony, even employed butchers to dissect animals nee, that he might be able to discrimi- render accurately the various sacrificial the Levitical code. But especially did he erudite and skilled professors of theology aid. They met from time to time, each repared himself for the interview by a elaboration of the literary materials be- to his department of investigation. At epeated and prolonged consultations, Luther LUZ invariably presided, and he had always spread out before him, his own manuscript, the ink of which was scarcely dry, the Hebrew Bible, and the Latin Vulgate. On his one hand sat Melanchthon, with the Greek Scriptures before him, and on his other was placed Casper Cruciger, with his notes made from the Chaldee Targums. Bugenhagen, usually called Pomeranus, from the country of his birth, was also by their side, ready with his suggestions from the rabbinical writings and the old Greek versions. These scholars did their work with marvellous pre- cision and fidelity, for they sometimes returned four- teen successive days to the reconsideration of a doubt- ful clause or word. In short, Martin Luther was one of the few men whom Providence occasionally en- dows, prepares, and raises up for gigantic enterprise. He lived to see his work of religious emancipation immoveably rooted among the German nations the work of one man and one age. He sowed the seed in tears, but he saw the harvest gathered with joy. Luther was a man of a compact physi- cal frame, with broad shoulders, a large and mas- sive brow, and a firm set mouth. His works have been often reprinted. The best edition of his cor- respondence is that of De Wette, Berlin, 1825-28, 5 vols. 8vo. His Table Talk, all of which is not authentic, is one of the foundations of his Me- moires by Michelet, Paris, 1837. A good edition of his works was published at Halle, in 24 volumes, 1737-53, and another edition, in 12mo, is in course of publication at Erlangen, 1826-53; 51 volumes have already appeared, and the whole is to occupy 60 volumes. There are many separate lives of the reformer, among which may be enu- merated those of Pfizer, Meurer, Jiirgen, Konig, Weydmann, and Wildenhahn. I J.E.J LUTI, or LUTTI, B., a Ital. artist, 1666-1724. LUTMA, J., a Dutch engraver, 1609-1685. LUTTERELL, H., an Irish engraver, b. 1650. LUXDORF, B. W., a Danish savant, 1716-88. LUXEMBOURG, Francis Henry De Mont- morenci Bouteville, Due De, one of the greatest generals of the age of Louis XIV., was a posthu- mous son of the count de Bouteville, and a pupil in war of the great Conde. He was constantly opposed to William III., and was successful against him in the battle of Nerwinde 1695, when 20,000 men were left on the field. Born 1628, commander- in-chief in Holland 1672, marshal 1675, died 1695. One of his sons, Christian Louis, served in the Austrian war of succession, 1675-1746. The ne- phew of the latter. C. F. Frederic, was also a French marshal, 1702-1764. His wife, Made- leine, widow of the duke de Boufflers, was cele- brated at the court of Louis XV., 1707-1787. LUYKEN, John, a Dutch engraver, 1649-1712. His son and pupil, N. Gaspard, d. before him, 1660. LUYNES, Charles D'Albert, Due De, de- scended from a noble Florentine family named Alberti, who established themselves in France in 1413, was born at Pont St. Esprit 1578, and was godson of Henry IV. In the reign of Louis XIII. he became prime minister, and at length constable of France ; died 1621. His son, Louis Charles, an ascetic writer, and one of the Port-Royal sa- vants, author of many works published under the name of ' Laval,' flourished 1620-1690. LUZAN, Ignatius, a Spanish poet, 1695-1754. LUZZATTO, S., a Venetian rabbi. 17th cent. 441 LYC I.YOON, a Greek philosopher, 4th cent. r>.c. LYOOPHRON, a Greek poet, 2d century B.C. [Lycurgus /Vow an Ancient Statue j LYCURGUS, the great legislator of the _ Lace- daemonians, was the son of Eunomus, king of Sparta. His history commences with the year 898 b.c, when he might have usurped the throne on the death of his brother, but preferring to guard the kingdom for the unborn child of the latter, he devoted himself to the study of legislation. On his nephew becoming of age, Lycurgus travelled into Crete, Egypt, and Asia, and thus prepared himself to give Sparta the laws which have rendered his name immortal. His object was to regulate the manners as well as the government, and to form a warrior nation, in which no private interest should prevail over the public good. It is said that Ly- curgus persuaded the Spartans to swear that they would observe these laws till his return from an- other journey, and that he then departed, and they never heard of him more. One account states that he starved himself to death, but it is more probable that he retired to private life, and died naturally, as Lucian records, at the age of eighty- five. [E.R.] LYCURGUS, an Athenian orator and political functionary, about 408-325 B.C. LYDGATE, John, an old English poet, who flourished soon after the time of Chaucer, and is known to have been living in the middle of the 15th century. His history is very obscure, but he was a monk of Bury St. Edmunds, and was or- dained a priest 1397. His principal works are ' The Siege of Troy,' ' Story of Thebes,' and The Fall of Princes.' LYDIAT, Thomas, an English divine, distin- guished as a chronologist and mathem., 1572-1649. LYDIUS, B. L., a German protestant divine, established at Dort as a refugee in 1603, died 1629. His son, James, a divine and critic, was also a minister at Dort, dates unknown. LYE, Edward, an antiquarian savant, au. of an ' Anglo-Saxon and Gothic Diet.,' &c, 1704-69. LYELL, Charles, father of the well-known geologist, a Scotchman, disting. as a discoverer in botany, and translator of Dante, 1767-1849. LYFORD, William, a wr. of practical divinity, rector of Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, 1598-1653. LYS LYNAR, Roch Frederic, Count De, a Di statesman and scholar, author of political v and travels, 1708-1781. His son, ('. <;<>tt disting. as a publicist and ascetic writer, 174J LYNCH, J., an Irish polemic, died about 1 LYNDE, Sir Humphrey, an English m trate, known as a writer in favour of protes! ism, 1579-1636. LYNDSAY, Sir David, one of the mo* mous of the old Scottish poets, was probably in or soon after the year 1490. He is ua described as ' of the Mount,' which was bis f nal estate in Fifeshire. He received instnictu the university of St. Andrews ; and, in 1512, i he may have been a little above twenty yean was placed about the person of the new- {)rince, who afterwards became James V. of I and. He first appeared, both as a public ser and as an author, in 1528, when the young threw off his subjection to the Douglases, h next year he was appointed Lyon-khiir-at-ar and he was employed afterwards on other charges, both before and after his royal patron. He sided with the Refon to the extent, at any rate, of desiring and proi ing purification of ecclesiastical polity and dii line ; but he never figured very prominently ii fierce quarrels of his time, and spent hi I years so quietly that it is not known wba died. He can be traced positively till 1553. poetical works have nothing of high or fine pot inspiration; but they abound in practical sense and sagacity, show great observation oi ciety and manners, and are written with rem able force of language, and tremendous strengi sarcastic and satirical invective. The most i resting of them is his ' Satire of the Three Esti a huge dramatic piece, hovering between the goric moralities, and those more modern plaj which individual personages were introduced. ' Monarchy, a Dialogue between Experience ai Courtier,' is his largest composition, bnt heavy ; and his ' Squire Meldrum' is an indifft attempt at poetizing the adventures of a n contemporary. The most successful of his tempts, besides many passages of his play, an small pieces of satire on the court, on politic! and on churchmen ; and chief of these are early productions, 'The Dream,' and the 'C plaint of the Papingo.' LYNDWODE\ or LINDWOOD, William ecclesiastical lawyer and statesman, in the r of Henry VI., and bishop of St. David's, d. 14 LYNEDOCH, Thomas Graham, Lord, a tive of Perthshire, who greatly distinguished 1 self as an officer of the British army during late wars, born 1750, died, governor of Dum ton castle, 1843. LYON, George Francis, a famons Aft traveller, and advent, in the arctic seas, 1795-li LYON, J., an English physician, 17:5 4-181/ LYONNET, P., a Ger. naturalist, 1707-17? LYONNET, R., a medical writer, 17th cent LYONS, Israel, son of a Polish Jew, dia guished as an astronomer, mathematician, botanist, 1739-1775. LYRA, Nicholas Dk, in Latin Lyranu Scripture commentator of Normandy, died 13-1 LYS, tha name of several painters 1. J( 442 LYS >ek Lys, a Dutch genre painter, born at 1600. 2. John Lys, flourished at Olden- 1570-1629. 3. Du Lys, ot the family of j Dare, called Nicoletto by the Italians, died 1732. SANDER, a Lacedaemonian general, who put to the Peloponnesian war by his victory lie Athenians 405 B.C. He established the tyrants' at Athens, and was killed in a 'with the Thebans 395. 5HANDER, or LYSCANDER, John, a antiquarian, died 1582. His brother, Cl. )PHErson, an historian, 1557-1623. JERUS, Polycarp, a Lutheran divine of 1552-1601. John, of the same family, on polygamy died 1684. >IAS, a famous orator of Athens, 4th c. B.C. HAS, a general of Antiochus Epiphanes, f Syria, vanquished by Judas Maccabaeus. JIMACHUS, one of Alexander's lieutenants, ime master of Thrace on the division of juests, and was killed B.C. 282. 'PUS, a Greek sculptor, lived B.C. 350. 5, a Pythagorean philosopher, B.C. 388. STRATUS, a Greek sculptor, 4th c. B.C. )NS, Daniel, an English physician and writer, died 1800. His son, Samuel, a I on topography and the Roman antiquities Britain, appointed keeper of the records ITower, 1763-1819. Henry, an English botanist, 1529-1607. ,ETON, George Lord, an author and was born in January, 1709, at Hagley, stershire, the seat of his father, to whose | and baronetcy he was heir. He showed life the same qualities which he afterwards j fluency of diction, and justness of He never rose above an easy mediocrity MAC either in literature or statesmanship, but his popu- lar amiable manners, his thorough chivalrous liberality of sentiment, and his good moral prin- ciples, justly made him an object of affectionate admiration among the men of genius of the age, and he thus occupies a more conspicuous position than his talents alone could have achieved. He is ranked among the converts from infidelity, but his religion did not become fanatical, and it may be questioned if it displaced anything beyond a dis- satisfied partial scepticism. He was twice mar- ried, and the object of his earlier choice, from the deep affection with which he regarded her when alive, and his grief for her death, made the con- trast with her successor, from whom Lyttleton found it necessary to separate, a matter of much sad remark among his contemporaries. Though his father was in office, he joined the young ' Pa- triots ' who drove Walpole from power. He 1 held several secondary offices, and preceded Mr. Legge as Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was created a baron in 1757, and died in 1773. His miscel- lanies, in prose and verse, are now forgotten, and his laborious but feeble history of Henry IL, is only known to historical inquirers. [J.H.B.] LYTTLETON, Charles, younger brother of the preceding, born in 1714, became bishop of Carlisle in 1762, and was distinguished for his antiquarian learning ; died 1768. Thomas Lyt- tleton, the son of Lord George, and his succes- sor in the peerage, was a young nobleman of dis- sipated manners, who possessed, however, much of his father's genius. He is the subject of a well-authenticated ghost story, which relates that he was warned of his death three days before it happened, in 1779, when he was in good health, and only thirty-five years of age. See (for other members of this family) Littleton. M John, a doct. of the Sorbonne, 17th c. the name of several Dutch painters a pupil of the younger Teniers, 1620- Nicholas, famous for his portraits, 1632- Dirk, or Theodore, or Thierny, great '-pieces and cavalcades, 1656-1715. God- ious for his altar-pieces, 1660-1722. J. G. E., a Prussian philos., 1766-1823. P. L., an Italian savant^ 1752-1836. iLON, John, a learned monk and his* I the Benedictines, celebrated for his know- ' ecclesiastical antiquities, and his skill as a an and controversial writer, born in the | of Rheims, 1632, died 1707. LY, Gabriel Bonnot, Abbe* De, a bro- I Condillac, eminent as a political and mis- writer of great learning, 1709-1785. )UL, J., a French prelate, died 1723. JUSE, Jan De, one of the most celebrated of the old Flemish school of Bruges, is the I master of any consideration who practised in this country. His family name appears [been Gossaert, but he signed himself Joan- 'ius, that is, of M abuse, his birth-place, was born about 1470 ; he studied in Italy, ' 1499 visited this country, where he was by Henry VII. ; there is a picture of this king's family, by him, at Hampton Court : he died at Antwerp in 1532. Mabuse was a painter of ex- traordinary ability : his best works are generally brilliantly coloured, well drawn, and finished with extreme delicacy , his masterpiece is also in this country the adoration of the kings, at Castle Howard, originally painted as an altar-piece for the abbey of Grammont, it afterwards fell into the possession of Prince Charles of Lorraine, from whose collection it was brought into England. (Van Mander, Leven der Schilders, &c. ; Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c.) [R.N.W.] MACABER, an old German poet, author of the 1 Dance of Death,' painted by Holbein. M'ADAM, or MACADAM, John Loudon, a magistrate and trustee of roads in Ayrshire, fa- mous for introducing the improved system of road- making which bears his name, born 1756, died, after declining the honour of knighthood, which was conferred on his son, Sir James Nichol Macadam, 1836. Mr. Macadam was substan- tially rewarded for this important national service by a grant of 10,000 from the government. Sir James Nichol Macadam died in 1852. MACARDELL, J., an Eng. engraver, d. 1765. MACARIUS, the name of two saints, the first or elder, a native of Alexandria, originally a baker, 443 MAC who became a disciple of St. Anthony, and passed the last sixty years of his life as a hermit, 301-391. The second, a contemporary of the preceding, who was persecuted for his zeal against the Arians, and is said to have had 5,000 monks under his direction, died 395. MACARIUS, a primate of Russia, died 1563. MACARTHY, Sir Charles, an Irish officer, killed in African warfare by the Ashantees, 1824. MACARTNEY, George, earl of, best known for his embassage to China, was a native of An- trim in Ireland, where he was bom 1737. He be- gan his career after taking his degree at Dublin in 1759, as tutor to the sons of Lord Holland. In 1764 he went as envoy extraordinary to Russia ; in 1769 was appointed secretary to Lord Towns- bend, lord-lieutenant of Ireland; in 1775, governor of Grenada and Tobago ; and in 1792-1795 was engaged in his famous mission with Sir George Staunton as secretary, who has published an ac- count of the embassy : died 1806. MACAULAY, Catherine, a famous historian and political writer of the last century, was the daughter of John Sawbridge, Esq., of Ollantigh in Kent, where she was born 1734. She commenced her literary career soon after marrying Dr. George Macaulav, a physician of London, and acquired great celebrity on account of the republican prin- ciples which gave the tone to her works. She was married a second time, in 1778, to a Mr. Graham, and died 1791. MACAULAY, Elizabeth Wright, an Eng- lish actress, who afterwards became famous as a country preacher, 1785- 1837. _ MACAULAY, Zachary, father of the popular historian Thos. B. Macaulay, dist. for his philan- thropic co-operation with Wilberforce, 1768-1838. MACBETH, the hero of Shakspeare's tragedy of that name, was a Scottish chief related to the reigning King Duncan, whom he assassinated in order to usurp his power 1040. He fell in battle by the hand of Macduff, 1057. MACBRIDE, D., an Irish physician, 1727-1778. MACCABEUS. See Judas. MACCHIETTI, J., an Italian painter, b. 1541. MACCORMICK, Ch., an Irish student of law, known as an historian and miscel. wr., 1744-1807. MACCRIE, Thomas, a Scottish divine, au. of a 'Life of Knox,' and a ' History of the Attempted Reformation in Italy in the 16th Cent.,' 1772-1835. MACCULLOCH, John, a physician who was born at Guernsey in 1773, and took his diploma at Edinburgh at the early age of eighteen. He was remarkable for the versatility of his powers, was employed by government in a mineralogical and feological survey of Scotland, and by the East ndia Company as lecturer on chemistry in their establishment at Addiscombe. Died, in conse- quence of an accident, 1835. MACCURTIN, H. an Irish lexicograp., 18th ct. MACDIARMID, J., a Scotch wr., 1779-1808. MACDIARMID, John, the well-known editor of the Dumfries Courier, died 1852. MACDONALD, A., a Scotch writer, 1757-90. MACDONALD, John, only son of Flora Mac- donald, who assisted the Pretender to escape in 1746, known as a writer on tactics and the tele- graph, &c., 1759-1831. MACDONALD, Stephen James Joseph MAC Alexander, duke of Tarentum, and mars! France, distinguished in the wars of the F empire, was descended from a Scot took refuge in France in the time of Napoleon spoke of him as the noblest of ehanu ana regretted much that he had not knowi better when in active service. Born at I 1765, died 1840. MACDOWALL, Sir A., an East Indian o distinguished in the Madras army, 1762-ltS MACE, F., a Fr. ecclesiastical wr. MACE, J., a French theologian, ! MACE, R., a chronicler in the tin. MACE, Th., an English musician, died U MACEDO, Francis De, a learne wards a cordelier of Portugal, author of num works, born 1596, died in prison 1681. MACEDO, J. A. De, a Portug. poet, d. II MACEDONIUS, the first of the n patriarch of Constantinople by the A posed 360 ; the second, elected 494, died 516, MACER, jEmilius, a Latin poet, about 24 MACERATA, G. Da, an Ital. painter, b. I MACFARLANE, Henry, a native of I land, known as a political and miscellai writer, was in early life a schoolmaster, pi mentary reporter, and newspaper editor. ] said to have assisted Macpherson in editinj poems of Ossian; he also translated som Buchanan's pieces ; 1734-1804. MACGILLIVRAY, William, M.D., LLi distinguished Scottish naturalist, died 1852. MACGREGOR, R., an E. Indian officer, d. ! MACHAM, Robert, the discoverer of the i of Madeira, was an English gentleman, wh( driven out of his course by contrary winds ' eloping with his mistress, m the age of Ed III., 1344. The story relates, that the lovers and were buried in the island by their crew, afterwards escaped to the coast of Africa, anc came slaves in Morocco. Their adventures, ten in Portuguese by Alcaforado, have been t lated into French; and the Rev. W. L. B< has made them the subject of one of his poeir MACHAU, W. De, a French po< ; MACHAULT, John De, a learned Fi Jesuit ; 1561-1629. John Baptist De J hault, another Jesuit writer, 1591-1640. Ja a third of the name, author of ' Missions to I guay,' &c, 1600-1680. MACHIAVELLI, Nicolo, whose name well known by the English abbreviai was bom at Florence in the year 1469. ^ seems to be known of his education than migi expected from the interest created by his <b guished place among political philosophers, the age of thirty, he is found deep in the perpl Italian politics of the period, having been seen of the board of ' The Ten.' In whatever ligh works may be dealt with critically, there doubt that they were founded upon the cl practical observation of political movement well as on a scholarly acquaintanceship with tory. But it must also be remembered, that ever deeply he was engaged in Italian conflict diplomacy, and however the Peninsula, wit multitudes of republican, monarchical, and ai eratic states, along with the hierarchy rulir large a portion of it, may have furnished an 441 MAC the politics of the world, yet, as in other merits of inquiry, the narrowness of the field be considered in estimating the conclusions inquirer. It is true, however, that one sed of his acuteness would add to his Ital- perience a consciousness of the machina- 1 France and the German empire, along ,e rising Spanish kingdom, to get pos- of Italy. The events of his life would fully told without a narrative of the very ted history of Italy during his active He had to conduct some extremely criti- rotiations for the Florentine republic with rfidious and rapacious Csesar Borgia, and raght has perhaps been often repeated, that could there have been more ferocity and ondensed within the compass of two human than when Borgia and Machiavelli met same cabinet. The political and critical about Machiavelli have centred round E! or discourse on the prince, intended not cation, but for the private instruction of ang princes of the Medici family. It has "ntained that he wrote to caricature the les he professes, but this is an unnecessary It is easy to see that he meant what he d his opinions are not wonderful, consider- school in which he was taught. He wrote and more extensive works, one on the books of the first decade of Livy's history 5r, a curious dialogue on the art of war. on the 22d of June, 1527. [J.H.B.] 3HIN, J., an English astronomer, 18th ct. Chart.es, Baron Von, an Austrian who rose to distinction during the wars of :h revolution, and was at the head of the Naples opposed to the French in Italy, The most remarkable incident in his career, surrender with 28,000 Austrian troops to tarte, for which he was tried by court- at Vienna. Born in Franconia 1752 ; died, and disgraced, 1828. KAY, And., a dist. mathemat., died 1809. KENZIE, Sir Alex., was a native of In- and at an early period of his life settled in After having Deen eight years in the of the North-west Fur Company, he was Fort Chipewyan 3d June, 1789, on an expedition towards the north, in which the great river named after him, and e Arctic Ocean in lat. 69. Some time (1771) this great barrier had been first at the mouth of the Coppermine River, by Hearne, an agent of the Hudson's Bay f. On another expedition, undertaken fcober, 1792, Mackenzie was the first to i Rocky Mountains and reach the Pacific. >lished an account of his travels, London, id soon after had the honour of knight- Ferred upon him. [J.B.] NZIE, George, a physician of Edin- or of a biography of eminent Scotch- hed 1708-1722. NZIE, Sir George, a Scotch lawyer scellaneous writer, whose judicial career in of the covenanters procured him the ap- of ' the blood-thirstv advocate ;' born at L636, died 1691. His relative, George izie, Viscount Tarbat, and first earl of MAC Cromarty, secretary of state in the reign of Queen Anne, and a writer on prophecy, &c, 1626-1714. MACKENZIE, Henry, born in 1745, survived till 1831. Though the writings which made his name popular were of a highly romantic and senti- mental cast, his life was one of steady routine. He was the son of a physician in Edinburgh; and there was obtained for him, very early, an appoint- ment as one of the attorneys in the Scottish Court of Exchequer ; a respectable, easy, and well-paid place. He held it till 1804, when the interest of his friends, and the value attached to pamphlets he had written in support of the government, gained for him the very lucrative office of comptroller of taxes for Scotland. His earliest novel, which was also his best, was 'The Man of Feeling,' published in 1771. 'The Man of the World' appeared in 1783, and was succeeded by ' Julia de Roubigne.' He edited the periodical called ' The Mirror,' in 1779 and 1780; and 'The Lounger' in 1785 and 1786. He furnished to each of these a large num- ber of papers, among which were some pleasing stories ; and he wrote also plays, translations from the German, and critical and other essays. [W.S.] MACKENZIE, J., a medical writer, died 1761. MACKENZIE, Sir Kenneth Douglas, a British officer, who was in active service from 1781 to 1815, died 1833. MACKESON, Colonel, an East Indian offi- cer and political agent of the British government, distinguished during the last twenty years in all the important transactions connected with our policy and military operations in the Punjaub, including the late war with Afghanistan. Died in the prime of life, 1853. MACKIE, John, a Scotch physician, 1748-1831. MACKINNON, Daniel, lieutenant-colonel of the Coldstream Guards, famous for the occupation and defence of Hougumont at Waterloo; born 1791, died, after writing a history of his corps, 1836. MACKINNON, Henry, a general in the pen- insular war, uncle to the preceding, born 1773, killed at the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo 1812. MACKINTOSH, Sir James, was born near Inverness, in 1765. From his father he inherited a small estate, the sale of which brought him several thousand pounds ; but in the early part of his fife he had to seek for maintenance by profes- sional labour. Medicine was his first pursuit, which he studied in Edinburgh, after having gone through the academical course of arts at Aberdeen. Going to London in 1788, he occupied himself much with literature, wrote for the press, and, in 1791, published the ' Vindicise Gallicse,' a vigor- ous but over-sanguine reply to the attacks of Burke on the French Revolution. Mackintosh had now turned to legal studies, and delivered with great approbation Lectures on the Law of Nature and Nations. In 1803, he distinguished himself by his defence of Peltier, a French emigrant, charged with a libel on Napoleon. In 1804, after having been knighted, he went to India as Recorder of Bombay. Having entitled himself, by seven years' service, to a retiring allowance of twelve hundred a-year, he returned to England. He sat in the House of Commons from 1813, acting on the Whig side, and making some impressive speeches, especially on reforms in the criminal law; but he was both too philosophical and too 445 MAC indolent to be a great parliamentary orator or debater. His power of conversation was highly celebrated ; and he was not less esteemed for his candour and amiability, than for his clearness and comprehensiveness of "thinking and the great di- versity of his knowledge. His writings, though valuable, scarcely came up to the expectations that were entertained of him. The best of them is his tine Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy,' contributed to the Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica, and since edited separately by Whewell. He wrote likewise a good many articles for the Edinburgh Review, ana an able but not animated 4 History of England' for Lardner's Cabinet Cyclo- paedia. His ' History of the Revolution ' of 1668, which was to have been his masterpiece, was de- layed by his indolence and fastidiousness, and left unfinished at his death in 1832. [W.S.] MACKLIN, Charles, an eminent actor and dramatist, in the opinion of some the first, in order of time, of stage-artists. He was born at West- meath, in Ireland, 11th May, 1690, and was for some time employed at Trinity College, Dublin, as a badgeman. He came to England in 1711, and attempted the stage, but returned to his old occu- pation until 1716, when he again became a candidate for histrionic honours, as an actor in the London theatre, Lincolns-Inn-Fields. He continued on the stage until 1789 Shylock being the part in which he was most distinguished, and to which he first gave the tragic reading which has been ever since retained. He was a man of great determination of character, and stood up for the professional rights of his brother actors, frequently to his own detriment. But his vigorous intellect at last gave way, his understanding being impaired before his death, 11th July, 1797. Considering his great age, 107, this, however, was not remarkable. What his mind had been remains proved by his works, yet popular, ' The Man of the World,' and his Love a la Mode,' two comedies of great merit. [J.A.H.] MACKNIGHT, James, a Scottish divine, author of a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' &c, 1721-1800. MACLAINE, A., an Irish divine, 1722-1804. MACLAURIN, Colin, a very eminent Scottish mathematician, born at Kilmodan, Argyllshire, in February, 1698 ; died at Edinburgh, 14th June, 1746. Distinguished for mathematical talent at a very early age having, it is said, discovered many of the propositions of his Geomelrie Or- ganica, when only sixteen he gained, after a competition of ten days, the chair of mathematics at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in his nineteenth year ; and in 1725, he was appointed to assist and succeed James Gregory in the same chair at Edin- burgh. Maclaurin's separate works are these: 1st, Geometrie Organica, a work on the description of Curves by the intersection of moving straight lines: 2d, A Treatise of Fluxions, in 2 vols. 4to, of which it may be safely said, that it is the best ever produced, with the view of expounding lo- gically the principles of Fluxions. It is prolix, although full of interesting matter: its value now is simply historical : 3d, A Treatise on Algebra; and 4th, The posthumous work An Account of Sir I$aac Newton's Discoveries, a model of a popular exposition. Maclaurin wrote many separate memoirs, and he had the honour of MAC dividing the prize of the Academy of S< for an essay on the Tides with Daniel Her Euler, and Cavalieri. During th this mathematician in Edinburgh, the irrur the Highland Clans under Prince Charles I occurred. Maclaurin planned and supcn the works thrown up tor the defence of tl and exerted himself in every possible way side of the Government. He was obliged account to take refuge in England for t hut he returned with Law and Order. Hii tical ability showed itself also in efforts to oi several public societies in Edinburgh. Th few scientific names that ought, in Scotlanc held more in honour. [ .1 MACLAURIN, J., son of the preceding, wj cated for the bar, and in 1787 became a judgi the title of Lord Dreghorn. He is au. of ' ments and Decisions in Remarkable Cases;' d MACLEAN, Mrs., L. E. L. See Land MACLEOD, John, a Scotch physiciai accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to author of ' The Voyage of the Alceste,' 1785 MACLEOD, Sir J., a Brit, general, 1755 MACLIAU, a duke of Brittanv, 560-577 MACLOU, or MALO, a Welch saint, di MACMICILEL, W., an Eng. phy., au. of a ney from Moscow to Constantinople,' 1784- M ACNALLY, L., an Irish dramatist, 1765 MACNICOL, Rev. Dr. Donald, a minister, and master of Gaelic literature a tiquities, 1735-1802. MACNISH, Robert, a physician of 61 known as a contributor to magazine lite under the appellation of 'the Modern Pj rean,' author of ' The Anatomy of Drunk* 4 The Philosophy of Sleep,' &c, 1802-1837. MACPHERSON, James, was born in ness-shire in 1738, and received an aca< education at Aberdeen. At the age of t while he was a country schoolmaster, he pu an indifferent heroic poem, 'The Highlander, afterwards, having gone southward as a tutor, he excited the interest of the poet Blair, and Adam Ferguson, by exhibiting furporting to be translations of old Celtic n 1760 he published a few specimens of entitled ' Fragments of Ancient Poetry, tra from the Gaefic or Erse Language.' After cursion which he made to the Highlands to other metrical relics, there appeared the poems which, ascribed by Macpherson to I have raised so much controversy as to their ge ness ; and which, through their strange ui genius and defect, have divided the critics as much in regard to their literary merit epic poem of ' Fingal,' with smaller piece published in 1762 ; the epic of ' Temora,' i panied by other poems, in 1763. The tra and poet now turned to business, and ol official appointments in Florida and the W( dies. After this he resumed literary emplo, chiefly historical, and was, in pamphlets and papers, an active and efficient partisan ministry. His political services procured f the lucrative place of agent for the nabob of and he sat in parliament for several years fron He died in 1796, at an estate which he ha chased in his native district of Strathspey. I 446 MAC ACPHERSON, Sir John, an employe* of the India Company, whose judicious manage- of affairs in the time of Hyder Ali and the war, saved the presidency of Madras ruin, 1767-1821. ACQUARIE, governor of New South Wales, $-1824. lACQUART, J- H.. a French physician, and J)r of the ' Journal des Savants' after Barthez, Kl768. His son, L. C. Henry, a physician ^mineralogist, 1745-1808. BaCQUER, Peter Joseph, a French chemist Hootch descent, known as a writer on natural ttsophy in the 'Journal des Savants,' 1718-84. fllbr., Philip, an advocate and hist., 1720-70. BLCQUIN, A. D., a French poet, 1756-1823. IpCRET, C. F. A., a Fr. engraver, 1750-1783. IJ/LCRIANUS, Marcus Fulvius, an Egyptian Hal, proclaimed emperor 260, k. in action 261. UlCRINO D'ALBA, an Ital. paint., 1460-1520. IfeCRINUS, M. O., a Roman emp., 217-218. IfcCRINUS, Salmoneus, the literary name Hhh Salmon, a French poet, 1490-1557. His Her, Charles, also a Latin poet, killed in the Here of St. Bartholomew, 1572. ttCROBIUS, Ambrosius Aurelius Theo- Ura, a Latin grammarian, author of the ' Sa- Uha,' &c, 5th centurv. HdALINSKI, A, a Polish general, 1739-1804. SnDAN, Martin, an English divine, who be- ia highly popular preacher at the Lock Hos- H author of several theological works, and of a Hbr polygamy in his book entitled ' Thelyph- li' 1726-1813. His brother, Dr. Spencer Ls, bp. of Bristol and Peterborough, d. 1813. HIDDEN, Samuel, an Irish clergyman, whose I is held in honourable remembrance as the Hntor of premiums for encouraging the useful me arts, from which the society for the en- Heement of arts and sciences in London took He. Dr. Madden, besides his poems, and a HI entitled ' Themistocles, or the Lover of his try,' published a singular volume of ' Letters Biographical Memoirs,' relating to events and Hie of the twentieth century, nearly the whole Hp of which was bought up and destroyed as Hk it appeared. This disting. benefactor of his Hi was of French descent; lived 1687-1765. RlDDOX, Isaac, successively bishop of St. pl and Worcester, au. of a 4 Vindication of the Wb of England in Answer to Neal,' 1697-1759. HDELEINE of France, queen of Navarre, Hi for the defence of her state against the Hris es of Ferdinand, k. of Arragon, 1443-1495. HDELENET, G., a Latin poet, 1587-1661. ijDER, J., a German philologist, 1626-1680. HPERNO, C, an Italian architect, 1556-1629. JERNO, S., an Italian sculptor, 1576-1636. H)ISON, James, fourth president of the W States, was born in Virginia 1758, and, educated for the bar, became a member of ~~ia convention in 1776. In 1784, he op- bill for a national system of worship ; preparing the constitution, and, in e a member of the first congress. His president dates from the retirement of >n, 1809 to 1817, and is marked by the Great Britain 1812-1814, at the conclu- which the northern limits of the United MAG States were fixed at Lake Hudson and Lake Su- perior. Mr. Madison died in 1836. His works have been published in 6 vols. 8vo. MADOC, or MADOG, a Welch prince, said to have discovered the American continent, and settled a colony there in 1170. A tribe of white Indians, inhabiting the country about the northern branches of the Mississippi, and speaking the Welch language, are supposed to be his descendants. Some account of him will be found in Owen's Bri- tish Remains, and Powell's History of Wales. MADOX, Thomas, a famous master of legal antiquities, author of numerous published works, and of a mass of MSS. in the Brit. Museum, last c. MADRID, J. F. De, an American statesman, born 1789, president of Colombia 1816, died 1830. MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, whose name is imperishably associated with the Augustan litera- ture of Rome, was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria, and flourished in the 1st century B.C. He was the companion of Augustus in nearly all his campaigns, and his most trustworthy counsellor in political matters. For the three years 18 15 b.c, he was invested with the government of Italy, and he was always sent to Rome on any emergency, either with the senate or the people, in case he was absent with Au- gustus. His great glory, however, was the happy influence that he exercised over the emperor as a patron of learning, and his own munificence and taste in the same direction. Virgil, Horace, and Propertius, are best known to us as the guests of his nospitable mansion on the Esquiline hill, but many others enjoyed his protection and friendship. Some poetical fragments of his remain to this day. Died B.C. 8. MAES, or MAAS. See Maas. MiESTLINAS, Michael, a German astrono- mer, 1542-1590. MAFFEI, or MAFFjEUS, the name of several noted Italians: 1. Vegio, a native of Lodi, dis- tinguished as a scholar and poet, 1407-1459. 2. Raphael, a savant of Tuscany, died 1506. 3. Benardin, a learned cardinal and antiquarian, 1513-1553. 4. Giovanni Piero, a learned Jesuit of Bergamo, author of a ' Life of Loyola,' &c, 1535- 1603. 5. Francesco, a painter of Vicenza, in the manner of Paolo Veronese, died 1660. 6. James, a painter and musician of Venice, known to be living in 1663. 7. The Marquis Alberto, a field- marshal of Bavaria, distinguished against the Turks before Belgrade, author of ' Memoirs,' 1662- 1730. 8. Francesco Scipione, brother and companion-in-arms of the latter, but more distin- guished as an antiquarian and dramatic author, 1675-1755. To him a statue has been erected in the principal square of Verona, in testimony of the honour that his genius has conferred upon the city. MAFFIOLI, J. P., a Swiss jurist, 1752-1833. MAGALHAENS, Fernando, to whose bold- ness, sagacity, and skill, we owe the first circum- navigation of the globe, was born in the province of AJemtejo in Portugal about the year 1470. Having entered the Portuguese navy, and served with distinction in the East, he was so dissatisfied at his merits being overlooked, that on his return home he sought employment (1517) in the service of Spain. These two nations were now engrossing maritime discovery, England having scarcely en- 447 MAG tered the field ; and so numerous and active were the navigates of the respective Services, that the claim of priority was often difficult to settle. An amicable arrangement had hence been come to in 1494, whereby all the new lands west of a meri- dian passing down the Atlantic, 370 leagues west of the Azores, were to belong to Spain, and those to the east of it to Portugal. The length of a de- gree had not yet been correctly measured, and con- sequently the' dimensions of the earth were imper- fectly known. (See Columbus.) It was thus uncer- tain how far 180, measured*either way from the upper, pr Atlantic, semi-meridian, would reach upon the Asiatic lands : in other words, what part ot those lands would be intersected by the lower semi-meridian. Now the Moluccas, or Spice is- lands, had been lately discovered ; and great value was set upon them by both nations. Some held that they should belong to Portugal. Magal- haens maintained the opposite view, that they could most easily be reached by sailing west, and should, therefore, be the property of Spain ; and he even offered to conduct a fleet thither by a western route, so fully was his mind occupied with the bold conception of passing round to the south of the American continent into the great ocean, lav- ing its western shores, which in common with Co- lumbus, he regarded as the Indian or Eastern Ocean. To the practicability of such a pas- sage many late discoveries were pointing; there was the analogy of Africa, whose southern cape had been doubled by Diaz in 1486 ; a council of able navigators, assembled under royal authority in 1507, had recommended the south American shores as the most promising field of discovery, and seem even to have pointed to the accessibility of India by that way : and in 1509 two members of this very council, Pinzon and Solis, had acted so vigorously on the recommendation, as to push discovery to the lat. of 40 south on the Brazilian coast; mutual misunderstandings alone having pre- vented them from gaining perhaps Cape Horn itself. Besides, the stirring intelligence had re- cently arrived that Nunez De Balboa had dis- covered the great southern ocean, the existence of which had been so nearly made out by Columbus himself. Already correct charts were numerous ; and doubtless, though here authority is wanting, a comparison of the Brazilian coast, rapidly trending to the south-west, with the tapering form of Africa, would suggest a like speedy termination of the land southwards, although the western coast was entirely unknown. But even with these sugges- tive circumstances thus known to him, the enter- prise of Magalhaens must ever be regarded as one of surprising boldness, and second only to the grand conception of the discoverer of the New World. Magellan, as he is generally called, was put in command of a fleet of nvc ships, two of 120 tons, two of 90, and one of 60 ; and the crews in all amounted to 236 men. He sailed 20th September, 1519, from San Lucar de Barrameda in the south of Spain, and reached a safe harbour in lat. 50 on the American coast, to which he gave the name of Port St. Julian, in the following April. This was the beginning of winter, which lasts with great severity till October, and he determined, therefore, to remain inactive during this period. His hands, however, were soon full enough ; discomforts pro- MAG duccd by the limited supply of provisions, a rigours of the climate, ripened into loud] pressed discontent, and a demand for an in ate return home; and at length broke oi open mutiny, headed by the officers of the ships, and in a great measure indeed eonfi thein. The ringleader, Luis de Mendoza, c of the Vittoria, naving granted a conferen< messenger sent by Magellan, w: stabbed by him, according to the instn which he had received. Resistance and next day another captain was a third put ashore upon the inln Magellan pursued his course in ( I the end of the month had entered t ; bears his name. He cleared it on 1 1 ber, and flushed with the feelings of triun success, stood boldly out into the unexplor panse of the vast Pacific. He had now bul ships ; one had been wrecked before enterii strait ; the other had parted company in the and returned home. On the 16th" March, Magellan reached the Philippine isles, havir len in with only two islands, which probabl; not been since visited. He enjoyed such coi fair weather, and favouring winds, that he to the ocean the name which it still bears, king of Zebu, one of the islands, was easily ir by a promise of assistance against his enem embrace Christianity, and, with a great nun his people, to receive baptism. Magellai soon called upon to fulfil his rash promis undertake an expedition against a hostile chi king of the island of Mattan. Here he ai men were bravely opposed by the natives Magellan, after a protracted struggle, fell ; contest. Towards the close of the day, wh Spaniards were giving way, he was felled stone ; a second broke his thigh bone, and 1 speedily pierced by many lances. The ba king immediately forgot his vows, and p death all the Spaniards who were on shore. who remained on board were too few in m to manage three ships; one accordingly was and in the other two, the Trinidad and Vii they pursued their voyage in search of th< luccas. At these they safely arrived, and kindly received by the king of Tidor. The dad remained to repair, and afterwards str> reach America by crossing the Pacific; bn driven back, and her crew made prisoners Portuguese. The other ship, the Vittoria, the command of Sebastian del Cano, wh' come out in the Conception as lieutenar turned home by the Cape of G< reached San Lucar 6th Septeml completing the first circumnavigation of the The good ship was drawn ashore, and low served as a monument of this mo voyage. The day on which Sebastian arrive! according to his reckoning, the 5th S having been lost in consequence of the we: motion of the vessel, that is, the tin in longer days. There had not, of i previous opportunity of noticing such a cj stance, and as it does not seem to have oc to any one that such an effect woul 1 be pro! no little difficulty was felt at the time in offij satisfactory explanation. It is easy to &c\ 448 MAG time was reckoned in longer days than those San Lucar ; and, therefore, there were fewer in criven time. If a ship had arrived the same day, ing circumnavigated the globe by sailing eas't- d, her captain would have called it the 7th September ; and the reckonings would have dif- Jd from one another by two days. [J.B.] JAGALLON, C, a Fr. diplomatist, 1741-1820. [AGALLON, F. L., a Fr. comman., 1754-1825. IAGALOTTI, Lorenzo, Count, an Italian alist and philosopher, who cultivated poetry he Belles Lettres under the name of Lmdoro he was a great experimental philosopher, as eminent for his pietv and munificence as for ve of literature, 1637-1712. AGANZA, the name of three Italian painters: IOVANNI Babtista, whom the Italians call agnano, from the title under which he ex- himself as a poet, 1509-1589. 2. Aless- :0, his son, a pupil of Fasolo, 1556-1630. iovaxni Babtista, ' the younger,' son of* itter. LGATI, C, a writer on surgery, 1579-1647. LGEE, William, a dignitary of the Irish au. of ' Discourses on the Scriptural Doc- of the Atonement and Sacrifice,' 1765-1831. IAGELLAN. See Magalhaens. jAGENS, J., a Danish philologist, died 1783. JAGEOGHEGAN, James, an Irish ecclesias- nthor of an ' Ancient and Modern History of td,' 1702-1764. &GGIO, F. M., an Ital. Orientalist, 1612-86. KGINI, G. A., an Ital. astrono., 1555-1617. K.GINN, William, was born in 1794, at [L where his father had an academy. He was w half through his teens when he completed ipademical course at Trinity College, Dublin, he afterwards received the degree of LL.D. j soon took his father's place as head of the which he continued to conduct for several embarking, however, in the meantime, in ' writing. From November, 1819, he was t contributor to Blackwood's Magazine, he invented and usually sustained the of Morgan O'Doherty, and wrote some i most spirited and audacious of the papers red in it. His prose was masterly in and in verse he was equally happy in Eng- ""odies and in Latin macaronics. In 1823 up his school and threw himself on the London. His union of various scholar- remarkable talent for popular writing, 2" in satire, speedily procured him employ- e was much trusted by Murray the book- and for a while he was joint editor of the \rd newspaper. But he had an unlucky [of getting into misunderstandings with his ' he was, indeed, the most capricious iy of writers, as well as one of the most and unthrifty of literary men ; and i for society soon degenerated into la- isottishness. In 1830, he was the founder, some years continued to be the cleverest f Eraser's Magazine. But his irregular rapidly increasing, and pecuniary ies gathering about him. He sank to ac- 1 engagements with such newspapers as the J jBl the beginning of 1842, he was thrown "" et prison for debt. He speedily ob- MAH taincd his release by passing through the Insol- vent Debtor's Court ; but he died of consumption, at Walton-on-the-Thames, in August of the same year. He was then in absolute beggary, from which the munificence of Sir Kobert Peel, exer- cised as soon as he was made aware of the case, came too late to relieve him. He dictated for Blackwood on his death-bed the close of the last of his ' Homeric Hymns,' the most ambitious of his serious efforts in verse. [W.S.] MAGISTBIS, Hyacinth De, an Italian Jesuit and missionary, 16(55-1668. MAGISTRIS, Simon De, an Italian Jesuit and Orientalist, 1728-1802. MAGLIABECCHI, Antonio, an Italian, ori- ginally a poor shop-boy, whose prodigious know- ledge of books made him the wonder of his age, and to whom the learned in his time were indebted for much valuable information. His literary re- mains, however, are of little value. Born at Flo- rence 1633, died 1714. MAGNAN, D., a French antiquarian, 1731-96. MAGNANI, C, an Italian painter, about 1580. MAGNENTIUS, Flavius, a native of Ger- many, who was born about 303, and from a sim- ple soldier in the Roman army, became emperor 349 or 350, killed by Constans II. 353. MAGNIERE, L., a French sculptor, 1618-1700. MAGNOL, P., a French botanist, 1638-1715. MAGNUS L, king of Sweden, b. 1240, reigned 1279-90. Magnus II., b. 1316, reigned 1320-74. MAGNUS I., succeeded his father as king of Norway 1034, and succeeded Canute II. as king of Denmark 1042, died 1048. Magnus II., king of Norway, reigned 1066-1069. Magnus III., 1087- 1103. Magnus IV., 1130-1139. Magnus V., reigned a short time only in 1142. Magnus VI., 1184. Magnus VII., 1262-1280. An English prince, named Magnus, son of Christian III., king of Denmark, was proclaimed king by the Livonians 1570, died 1583. MAGNUS, duke of Saxony, reigned 1073-1106. MAGNUS, John, archbishop of Upsala, a famous Swedish historian, and opponent of the reformation, 1488-1544. His brother, Olave, also an historian, was named archbishop, but being a catholic, lived at Rome, died 1568. MAGNUS, Jonas, bishop of Skara, 1583-1651. MAHMOUD, the first of the name, sultan of the Turks, born 1696, reigned 1730-1750. The second, father of the present sultan, born 1785, was placed on the throne by the janizaries after the murder of his predecessor 1808, sustained a war with Russia, which cost him Bessarabia, and the provinces of Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia, as settled by the treaty of Bucharest, from 1809 to 1812 ; the war of Greek independence, which ended in the separation of that country, and the annihi- lation of the Turkish fleet at the battle of Nava- rino, 1820-1828 ; exterminated the janizaries 1826; treaty of Adrianople with the Russians, who were on the point of entering Constantinople, 1829 ; independence of Egypt under Mehemet Ali, and the new treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi with the Rus- sians, 1832-1833; defeated at Nezib by Ibrahim Pasha, and died the same year, 1839. MAHMOUDY, sultan of Egypt, 1412-1421. MAHOMET. Under this name we have to compress within a few lines the history of a man, 449 2G MAH who, by the mere force of his genius and his con- j victions, subdued to his religion, his laws, and his j sceptre, whole nations; and whose authority, after the lapse of twelve centuries, is acknowledged by nearly two hundred millions of souls. We shall endeavour to perform this task conscientiously, stating only what we really believe to be the significance of the facts, however widely we may differ from writers of acknowledged repute from a Carlyle, on the one hand, who can see but little difference between Mahommedanism and Chris- tianity; and from Schlegel, on the other, who only discerns in it a ' Dead Theism, which begun and terminated in the most unbounded sensuality.' MAHOMET, or Mohammed, as the Arabians call him, was a child of the Koreish, the tribe which had been intrusted for five generations with the care of the sacred temple of Mecca, containing the black stone, and which claimed a lineal descent from Ishmael. He was born in 570, or according to other accounts, in the spring of 571, and was only two months old when he lost his father, Abdallah. In the sixth year of his age his mother died, and the care of the orphan devolved on his paternal grandfather, at that time chief priest, and he also dying two years after- wards, on his son and successor Abou Taleb, with whom Mahomet, while a youth, was engaged in several commercial adventures, and made many journeys. These excursions afforded the oppor- tunity for developing his military talents and his superior address ; and the esteem procured for him by such qualities was greatly heightened by the sincerity of his words and actions, the regularity of his life, and the precision of his judgment. When twenty-five years of age, he married a rich widow named Khadijah, whose commercial affairs he had previously managed, and during the whole of her lifetime, a period of twenty-five years, he is admitted to have been faithful to her. When about forty years of age, say in the year 610, Mahomet began to announce his apostleship to his own family, having previously passed much of his time in a solitary cave near Mecca, exercising himself in prayers, fastings, and pious meditations. At this period, the Arabs roved over their native deserts in a state of barbarian independence, neither the Assyrians, the Persians, the Mace- donians, nor the Romans, having been able to bring them under their yoke ; and the only common object which united them was the pursuit of gain in some pillaging excursion, or the annual pil- grimage to their idolized black stone. They were equally destitute of fixed principles and laws, licentious in their manners, and gross in their religious sentiments ; they possessed, however, the wild virtues of clansmen, they were generous and imaginative, full of rude moral strength, and over- flowing with animal energy. For four years Mahomet limited his communications to his own immediate relatives. In the fifth he invited them to a banquet, announced his determination to assume the office of a prophet and lawgiver by command of God, and demanded which of them would be his first minister. His cousin, Ali, accepted this office with enthusiasm the people of Mecca began to speak of Mahomet as a new pro- phet many reviled him as an impostor, others opposed liiin for political reasons and the most MAH part demanded miracles of him in proof i mission. Mahomet answered them by prod his ' Koran,' leaf by leaf, as occasion dejS and by the emphatic declaration that his ir was to restore truth and virtue by the sword reasoned with his objectors, preached to th grims flocking to Mecca, and as years j away, his fame became widely spread, an proselytes might be numbered in all the tril Arabia. In the tenth or eleventh j Taleb, Mahomet's uncle and pro; the enmity of the tribe began to manifest more openly. In the same year he Khadijah. In the twelfth year i< to him that he could only defend himse force of arms, there being at Mecca one ma of every tribe sworn to take his life. This of things ended in a civil commotion, from v on the 16th of July, 622, Mahomet fled to M< then called Yathreb, a journey for his life, the sands and rocks of the desert some 200 i All the Mahommedan nations date their from this epoch, which is called the year c ' Hegira,' the prophet's triumphant recepti Medina fairly marking the commencement < conquests. On arriving in this city, he ass the regal and priestly office which had belong his family at Mecca, and his proselytes flo to him from all parts, he was soon in a com to take the field against the Koreish, though greatly inferior numbers. He gained his battle on the 14th of March, 624 ; and ii course of seven years more had become mas all Arabia, and was at the head of an an 30,000 men who idolized him. The parti* of his lightning-like progress and victories i: brief period must be passed over, it being important to state by what attractions h< united these scattered bands into one phi We read of the ' Sensual Eudaimonism to 1 his creed opens so free a scope, both in this and the next,' yet, the fact is, compared wit previous practices of the Eastern nations supposed indulgences of Mahomet are rij itself. Frequent prayers, ceremonies of pui tion, alms-giving, the prohibition of wine and games of chance, are marks of an austere sys and though he defined the extent of their t indulgences, and gave them within certain a religious sanction, the existence of such! is no more chargeable on Mahomet thai Arabian complexion. His religion ritual, but it was consistent and pi was laid down like a firm liighwa j quagmire of superstition and gnosticism, \vl the Christian name was profaned, and tin rality of nature put to the blush. Ma succeeded, not because his theory of n possesses anything in common with the the Christianity, but because it was well calookl deliver the Eastern nations from the hybrid t trosities, both of faith and pracl between a corrupt Christianity and 1 1 pantheism. It was simply the first initiat) those nations into the design of provhiemr the Koran was neither an inspiration 131 Bible, nor an imposition. Its mel exactly suited to its practical bu unknown and unknowable, and his d 450 MAH stern as fate. Such a creed could become rbol of unity among the Eastern nations, very reason that it reposed in a depth ad the subtlety of their intellects, and as- >d no intelligible form till it reached the of their fiery passions. It was 'Islam,' ition, to those whose imaginations had defiled they had apprehended. We require space more particular, and will therefore only add, Mahomet expired in the arms of his favourite Ayesha, on the 8fch of June, 632. The scat- fragments of the Koran were collected two afterwards by his father-in-law, Abubeker, ded to bis authority, and took the title [E.E.] [The Ka<iba at Mecca] MET I., emperor of the Ottoman Turks, >, reigned 1413-1421, in which period he I Servia and Bosnia. Mahomet II., 0, began to reign 1451, subdued Thrace edonia, and took Constantinople 1453 : at the siege of Belgrade 1456, conquered Ireece 1458, put an end to the empire of I 1461, gained Lesbos 1462, Wallachia ia 1463, Caramania and /Egropont 1464, the Persians who had invaded Cappa- 2, subdued Georgia, Circassia, Moldavia, and the isles of the Adriatic, 1475, died [ahomet III., bora 1568, reigned during 'ed period of 1595-1603. Mahomet IV., began to reign 1649, deposed after a reign 1687, died 1691. )N, P. A. 0., a Fr. medical wr., 1752-1801. 'DEL, N., a Fr. antiquarian, 1673-1747. JO, Julien La, an Italian architect, His brother, Benedetto, a sculptor :, 1424-1498. Mich.ee, a Gr. alchvmist, 1568-1622. " E., a Fr. philosopher, 1601-1676. >. I., a Russian poet, 1725-1778. ,or MAILLAC, Joseph Anne Marie tc De, a celebrated French Jesuit and to China, where he resided forty-five translated the annals of the empire into 579-1748. D, J., a chief of the royalist party at MAI Paris during the captivity of King John, and the supposed assassin of Marcel in 1356. MAILLARD, Oeivieo, an eccentric preacher of the reign of Louis XL, famous for his daring reproofs of the vices of the court, 1440-1502. MAILLARD, S., an Austr. general, 1746-1822. MAILLARD, Stanislas, generally called Huis- sier or Usher Maillard, was a person of considerable notoriety in the French revolution, who commenced life as the lacquey of a nobleman, and was after- wards a soldier. His first appearance was at the storming of the Bastile 1789, when he crossed the moat on a plank to receive the written terms of the besieged in the midst of the combat. His next feat was to head the insurrection of women, whom he conducted by beat of drum to Versailles, and preserved in some kind of order ; preventing them, in fact, from committing many excesses, when La- fayette and the authorities were really powerless. He was an active party in the movements of the Champ de Mars when the national petition was signed for the king's deposition. In September, 1792, he acted as president of the fearful tribunal at the Abbaye prison, and, during the reign of terror, was an agent of the Committee of Public Safety. After the fall of Robespierre he is sup- posed to have changed his name, and the date of his death is unknown. To a ruthless disposition he added singular presence of mind and fertility of resources among the savage bands, whose excesses he at once shared and moderated. He is one of those warning instances with which the revolution abounds, of a certain talent and courage among the lowest classes of the people, which may easily degenerate to ferocity when not directed by educa- tion and religion. [E.R. ] MAILLE, Marshal. See Mailly D'Hau- COURT. MAILLE, Duchess of, a lady attendant on Marie Antoinette, who escaped the guillotine by two singular delays, followed by the fall of Robes- pierre, 1794. MAILLET, Benedict De, a Fr. consul, an. of a singular system of speculative philos., 1656-1738. MAILLY, Chevalier Db, a godson of Louis XIV., famous as a writer of scandal, died 1724. MAILLY, F. De, archbp. of Rheims, 1658-1721. MAILLY, J. B., a French historian, 1744-1796. MAILLY -D'HAUCOURT, Joseph Augus- tine De, camp-marshal of France, and one of the four supreme generals appointed by Louis XVI., with the sanction of the French assembly, to pre- serve order in 1790. His colleagues were Bouille", Rochambeau, and Luckner. He perished on the scaffold as a royalist at the age of eighty- six, on the 25th March, 1794. Louise Julie de Nesle, countess de Mailly, and her three sisters, who were all mistresses of Louis XV., belonged to the same family. [E.R.] MAIMBOURG, Louis, a French Jesuit, author of a ' History of Arianism,' ' History of the Ico- noclasts,' History of the Crusades,' and ' His- tory of Calvinism,' &c, 1610-1686. MAIMON, S., a Jewish philosopher, 1753-1800. MAIMONIDES, the name by which Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon is generally known, was a Spanish Jew bora at Cordova, most probably in 1139. He is regarded by the Jews as the prince of their philosophers and theologians, and his Ml MAT treatise ' Month Nebochim,' which illustrates some of the most difficult words and things in the sacred writings, is greatly valued among Chris- tians. When the work was translated it created a violent controversy, and divided the Jews into two parties, between whom the celebrated David Kimchi was appointed arbiter. Maiinonides died in Egypt, 1209. MAINARDI, Andrkw, an Italian painter, whose works date from 1590 to 1613. Mainardi, Lactantius, a youthful painter known at Rome in the time of Sextus Quintus.' MAINARDI, P. A., an Ital. mission., 1713-1767. MAINE, L. Aug., Due Du. See Montespan. MAINE DE BIRAN, Ma. F. P. Gouthier, a French philosopher and statesman, whose philo- sophical works were published hi 18-11 by M. Cou- sin, flourished 1766-1824. MAINO, Giasone, an Italian jurist, 1435-1519. MAINS, or MAY, J. H., a Ger. divine, 1653-1719. MAINTENON, Madame de, was the grand- daughter of Henry the Fourth's friend Theodore Agnppa D'Aubigne\ She was born in 1635, in the prison of Niort in Poitou, where her father, a profligate adventurer, was then confined. Left quite destitute on his death in her tenth year, Mademoiselle D'Aubigne spent her youth in de- pendence on her rich relatives, one of whom edu- cated her as a Calvinist, while another afterwards persuaded or compelled her to become a Catholic. Her harassing position made her glad to contract a nominal marriage with the famous wit Scarron, a deformed, old, and infirm man. Her beauty, liveliness, and propriety of conduct, gained for her Eowerful friends among those who frequented her usband's house ; and, on being left in poverty on Scarron's death, she was intrusted with the charge of the children born to Louis XIV. by Madame de Montespan. She assumed this office in 1669, and attended her pupils to court as they grew up ; and, though the king was at first prejudiced against her as a learned lady, the royal debauchee began by-and-by to be wearied of sensual amours and quarrelling mistresses, and to respect and esteem the prudent and well-informed governess of his children. She played her cards dexterously, and was zealously seconded by the clerical directors of his Majesty. The king married her privately, pro- bably in 1685, when her age was fifty, and his own forty-seven. For the remaining thirty years of his life she was his most confidential adviser, and shared in the obloquy of some of his worst acts, such as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. She was a virtuous woman, and a devout and bigotted Catholic, ambitious and resolute, but dis- interested and charitable. Her published letters give her a creditable place in French literature. She died in 1719, at the nunnery or school of Saint Cyr, which she herself had founded. [W.S.] MAINVIELLE, P., a member of the Fr. con- vention, execut. for his atrocities in October, 1793. MAIRAN, John James Dortoas De, a Fr. physic, au. of works in natural philos., 1678-1771. MAIRET, J., a French dramatist, 1604-1686. MAISON, N. J., a French marshal, 1770-1840. MAISTRE, Anthony Le, a French advocate and savant of Port-Royal, author of the lives of beveral catholic saints, &c, 1608-1658. MAISTRE. Count Joseph De : born at Cham- MAI bery, 1st April, 1753; died at his seat in mont, 26th February, 1821. De Maistre, passed through the overthrow of Europe, at his native State the subject of most oppos: tunes, had his mind naturally turned to affairs; and, as he was a man of unquest energy and superior genius, and gifted at th time with unusual powers of written expi we are not surprised to find him one of t tinguished literateurs of that strange but e period : he was the main stay, if not the i of a peculiar but influential" school. Ass in purpose, with De Bonald, D'E< lanche, and at first with La Menu Maistre may be held the most powerful ac and representative of a system, to which t tory of the Revolution and Empire, as well as in France still more recent, have given mu thority and colourable support : it is the I that societies and the world must be gover absolute and unquestioned power, founded, case on the theological tenet that terror, confessed and principal arm of the Supreme nor. The logical foundations of a schen from wanting in partizans, may be seen best Soirees de St. fetersbourq, a work displaj the best advantage De Maistre's remarkable and executed, while, at the northern capita the austerity and dignity of a Stoic, he repre the court of Piedmont reduced to that, poor isle of Sardinia. The Soirees de St. i oourg, are volumes, which it is salutary t( They carry out without hesitation or shri even to their utmost consequences, doctrini partially influence a large number even of nol fleeting minds: 'Sovereignty and chastise he says, ' are the two methods by which God reveals himself to mankind :' he tells us tl hangman is only a delegate of Providenc that the way to Order, is, force and absolutisi and simple: it is very painful to add, th God he worships, or rather the Idea on wl has bestowed apotheosis, is a being under the less dominion of irritation and vengeance, an no relations to that august Spirit, whose rei imprinted on the abstract forms of our hum telligence, and the Instincts of the human He well as bodied forth by that Religion in the ment of which we live. It were very unjust tribute these revolting practical dogmas, t sonal hardness in De Maistre; neither is origin wholly, in the disgust and appre^ caused by the excesses and confusion of wl had been a deploring witness. Much more, in the present case, they sprung from that; tience as to the existence of evil, which in j of a certain order, takes the place of imp with evil itself, and inclines them, alike l politics and theology, to cherish what *PH strongest and speediest means no matt-j impracticable for its eradication. With rej in the first place to secular politics, no doij method of authority has the merit of siml but the gist of the question is, where is tbj ficent authority? De Maistre in plies The Pope! a solution not likelf accepted in this country. Neither, in thoiji of History, in which we have 6een gre] spring up, and suddenly possess 452 MAI wer, is the example germane ; for in by far the ma- ity of instances nay, in every instance in which 'ir functions were beneficent with Caesar, with omwell, with Napoleon, these men were power> not because they wore the diadem, but because j at once led and obeyed: their Genius grasped tendencies and comprehended the necessities of Age, and so could give utterance to the will of i People. We protest, equally, against all such elusions, in their bearing on the providence of d. The mystery of the existence of evil we [not fathom; we venture on no Theodicee: but is not true that the Almighty Sovereign rules BTerror, or that man's salvation can come other- through the depths of his Love. Like is of one idea, the writers of whom we dogmatists : to which, they owe no slight jtion of their influence and apparent force. But ftongh a cause of momentary success, energy of kind involves no enduring power: the world Bs on more than one idea, and as it rolls, makes iJhavoc with the pedantries of Dutch gardening. Mwo volumes of De Maistre's letters, chiefly from a Petersburg have been published since his (Bh. They are worth more than all his philoso- I They aie instinct with acuteness, and offer Sfcpinions of a keen observer, on the men and that great period of history : his relations M Napoleon, are especially interesting. They i, the private character of De Maistre; and rigidity and gloom of the Creed utterly fin to obliterate the soft affections of the 1!!. [J.F.N.] LUSTRE, Lcuis Isaac Le. See Saci. UlTLAND, Sir Frederick Lewis, rear- Ural, commander of the Bellerophon, sent to Bk the French coast, and prevent the escape of llleon after the battle of Waterloo, was born H and greatly distinguished himself in the Mtian expedition under Sir Ralph Abercromby. jived Napoleon on board the Bellerophon, Jrefusing ail conditions, on the 15th of July, Died, commander-in-chief in the East L on board his flag-ship, the Wellesley, 1839. ~" VND. The noble Scotch family of this | boasts of several celebrated persons : 1. Sir Maitland, a poet, and keeper of the seal in the reign of Queen Mary, Known as the extraordinary lords of Session by the ' Lord Lethington, 1496-1586. 2. Sir Wil- Maitland, his eldest son, secretary to Mary. 3. John Maitland, lord of Thirl- second son of Sir Richard, secretary to VI., and chancellor of Scotland, known i a writer of Scottish and Latin poetry, bom 11537, died 1595. 4. John, grandson of the [ duke of Lauderdale, a partizan of Charles jpointed secretary of state and high commis- of Scotland after the restoration, 1616-1682. earl of Lauderdale, eldest son of James, th earl. See Lauderdale. LND, W., a Scotch antiqu., 1693-1757. TAIRE, M., a French savant, 1668-1747. 5ROY, Paul Gideon Joly De, a gal- officer, kn. as a wr. on tactics, 1719-1780. [ZIERKS, Ph. De, aFr. knight, who became Nor to Peter L, king of Cyprus, 1312-1405. |K), Francesco, or Ciccio Di, an Italian ' of operas and sacred music, 1740-1773. 453 MAL MAJOR, or MEIER, G., a German theologian, auth. of commentaries on the evangelists, 1502-74. MAJOR, Isaac, a German painter, 1576-1630. MAJOR, or MAIR, John, a Scottish divine, author of a ' History of Scotland,' &c, 1469-1547. MAJOR, J. IX, a Ger. antiquarian, 1634-1693. MAJORIAMOS, Flavius Julius Valerius, a Roman officer, proclaimed emperor at Ravenna 457, compelled to abdicate, and died 461. MAKAROF, a Russian author, 1775-1804. MAKKARY, Ahmed Ben Al, an Arabian historian of the Mahommedans in Spain, 1585-1631. MAKO, Paul, a Hungarian philos., 1723-1793. MAKOUSI, J., a Polish divine, 1588-1644. MAKRIZI, an Egyptian historian, 1360-1442. MALACHI, the last of the prophets, 408 b.c. MALACHI. St., archbp. of Armagh, 1094-1148. MALACHOWSKI, Stanislaus, a Polish statesman, and fellow patriot of Kosciusko, born 1735, president of the diet 1788-1792, president ot the senate after the peace of Tilsit 1807, died 1809. His brother, Hyacinth, a partizan of Russia, disting. in promoting the ruin of Poland 1793. MALAGRIDA, Gabriel, an Italian Jesuit and missionary to Brazil, who was accused of conspir- ing against the king of Portugal, and, finally, con- demned by the inquisition as a heretic, and burnt alive in 1761. Malagrida laid 1 claim to visions, and published ' The Life of St. Anne, composed (as the title reads) with the assistance of the Blessed Virgin and her Most Holy Son ;' 1689-1761. MALALA, J., a Greek historian, 6th centurv. MALAPERT, C, a learned Jesuit, chiefly dist. by his mathematical writings, 1581-1630. MALAVAL, F., a French violinist, 1627-1719. MALAVAL, J., a French surgeon, 1669-1758. MALCOLM, the first of the name, king of Scot- land, succeeded 943, and was killed in an insur- rection 958. The secon d reigned about 1003-1033. The third, called St. Malcolm, son of Duncan who was murdered by Macbeth, recovered his throne 1057, and was killed in battle with the English 1093. The fourth reigned 1153-1165. MALCOLM, James Peller, an engraver and antiquarian, born in America, and brought to Lon- don in the eighth year of his age, where he died 1815. He is known for his works descriptive of the ancient state of the metropolis, &c. MALCOLM, Sir John, an East Indian officer and diplomatist, distinguished as the founder of our political relations with the court of Persia, governor of Bombay from 1827 to 1831, author of a 'History of Persia,' 'A Sketch of theSikhs,' and other works relating to Indian affairs, 1769-1833. MALDEGHEM,P.De, a Flem. poet, 1540-1611. MALDONAT, J., a Spanish Jesuit, 1534-1583. MALEBRANCHE, Nicolas, born in Paris, 1638, died 13th October, 1715: author of Medi- tations, and the Recherche de la Ve'rite : through the clearness and surpassing beauty of his style, and the originality of his conceptions, deservedly ranking among the foremost literati of France*: one of the most famous, and at the same time among the least sound metaphysicians of that country; _ Starting from that fundamental mis- take, which misled a far greater man Spinoza, viz.: the error of Des Cartes regarding the idea of Substance, (article Leibnitz"), he fell into a scheme quite as fantastic as Spinoza's, although MAL wholly idealistic*, and likewise altogether fatal to the personality, liberty, and responsibility of Man. Defining Body, by the qualities of extension jmd mobility, and Spirit, by those of understanding and will; conceiving them equally incapable of in- dependent action, the Frenchman was forced to the conclusion, that in neither body nor spirit could changes occur unless through immediate operation by the First Cause. No action of Mat- ter on Mind being possible, how can we recognize an External Universe ? Only, says Malebranche, because the Ideas of the Divine Mind act upon us; we see everything in God, who is thus our only intelligible world. The idealism of Malebranche approaches nearest to Berkeley's : it is wholly opposed to that Ficiite, who makes the Ego the cause and creator of every idea. 'The writings of this philosopher are interesting, from their acute- ness, and the amount of truth incidentally brought out ; but unless as illustrative of one phase of the Cartesian error, they are valueless to History; they produced no school, and scarcely had appre- ciable consequence. [J.r.N.] MALEC-BEN-ANAS, chief of one of the four orthodox sects of Mussulmans, flourished 713-795. MALERML or MALERBI, Nicolo, an Italian monk, remembered as the first translator of the Bible into Italian, and author of 'Lives of the Saints,' born 1430. Date of his death unknown. MALESHERBES, Chretien Guillatjme De Lamoignon, was born at Paris on the 16th December, 1721. He belonged to the class called the noblesse of the robe, his father being chancellor of Paris. He passed through several grades of office, and was in 1750 made president of the Court of Aids. His functions were sus- pended by the temporary abolition of the parlia- ment in the reign of Louis XV., and were restored with its revival under Louis XVI al. He held office ig with Turgot, and resigned on his retirement. He belonged to the same school as his colleague a school between the wild scepticism of the philo- sophers, and the bigotted, or selfish pertinacity of the priests and nobles. Had it been strong enough, the Turgot and Malesherbes party might have saved France, but it was obliged to give way before the pressure of the established interests, until both parties were swept away by the hurricane of the revolution. Malesherbes wrote in favour of the liberty of the press, and in his own practice in office he was charged with giving it a dangerous license. He is the author of some miscellaneous works, but his name is now solely remembered for the genuine devotion with which he sacrificed him- self to protect a king to whose defects he was suf- ficiently alive. Aided by Tronchet and Deseze he acted as leading counsel for Louis XVI. Acts of loyalty far less decided were in that day the sure road to destruction. He was condemned to death, and guillotined on 22d April, 1794. [J.H.B.] MALET, Clacde Francois, General De, is the name of a French officer, memorable for one of the most daring and well-managed attempts to overthrow a powerful government recorded in his- tory. He was born in Franche-Comt^, 1754 ; and, in 1812, at the period of Napoleon's absence in Russia, was living at Paris under the surveillance I like a coward, had left Mallet to pull the t of the police, after a long imprisonment occasioned | His ballad of 'William and Margaret^ ha by his republican principles. On the night of the i much admired, but he is now only kept in r 4,54. MAL 22d of October, having prepared the ne< documents, and put on the habit of a c officer, he went to the quarters of severa' n tent s, accompanied by a single individual as his aide-de-camp, announced that Napole< dead, that the senate was assembled, and provisional government was declared. His r appearance and firm address imposed on tl cers, woke up in the dead of the night to i this startling intelligence, and in a short h two he had a large military force actually r ing under his orders to occupy the severa that he had assigned to them. At this ( moment, the incredulity and firmness of om General Hullin, the military commandant of saved the empire. Unable to reply to his ii gations, Malet discharged his pistol in his face real situation was instantly suspected by twe officers present, who threw themselves upon and toolc him prisoner. He was condemn! shot a week afterwards, October 29, 1812. [ MALET, Sir Charles Warre, an Easl diplomatist, provisional governor of Bombayii and author of an account of the temples of 1 published in the 'Asiatic Researches/ 1752- MALEZIEU, N. De, a Fr. teacher, 1650 MALHERBE, Francois De, whose according to La Harpe, marks an epoch French language, was born at Caen, 155. died 1628. He was the prof eye of Henr and is admitted to be the father of Frencl poetry. His ruling passion was purity of d and many anecdotes are recorded in illustra his nicety in this respect. His eulogy wa; written by Boileau : " Enfin Malherbe vint, et le premier en Fran Fit sentir dans les vers une juste cadence." MALHERBE, J. F. R., aFr. savant, 1733 MALIBRAN, Maria Felicia, one of thi highly gifted vocal performers of modern was the eldest daughter of Manuel Garcia, i nish tenor singer, and was born in Paris She made her debut in 1825 at the opera in don, and the following year went to New where she married M. Malibran, a French b from whom she was divorced by the French in 1836, and shortly afterwards married the brated violinist, M. de Beriot. She died thi year, during her engagement at the musical f in Manchester, regretted by all classes both : fine endowments and her generous dispositk MALINGNE, C, a French historian, 1580| MALLET, David, whose proper iamih was Malloch, known as a poet and writer, was born in Perthshire abor,: coming the friend of Pope and Bolingbrok brought under the notice of Frederick pri Wales, who kept a rival court at that tin made him his under- secretary. He was oci ally employed as a public writer by the g ment, and Bolingbroke made him a works in MS., which he published in 17;'i was Johnson, we believe, wno said of thi tion, that ' the scoundrel, Bolingbroke his blunderbuss against the peace of MAL e as one of the fossils of literary history. It be worth mentioning, that Gibbon's father ed one of Mallet's relatives when the his- i was about ten years old; d. 1765. [E.R.] ilXET, Edmund, a French divine, and of the Belles Lettres, translator of Davila's ry of the Civil Wars, and a writer in the 3opa?(h'a, 1713-1755. kLLET, F., a Swedish mathematician and omer, b. of a family of Fr. refugees, 1720-80. "LET, J. A., a Swiss astronomer, 1740-90. LET, J. R., a French economist, died 173G. _LET, P., a French military engineer, known author of a new orthography, bom 1630. ~.LET, Paul. Henry, a famous antiquarian and historian, first professor of history in ive city of Geneva, afterwards professor of jlles Lettres at Copenhagen, &c, author of lorthern Antiquities,' translated by Bishop I, and several histories of the northern king- 1730-1807. His son, H. Mallet-Pre- a geographer, 1727-1811. LLET-DUPAN, J., a native of Geneva, i as a royalist and political writer at the period [French revolution, when he was part conduc- the ' Mercure de France.' On seeking an i in London, he edited an anti-Gallican paper, the ' Mercure Britannique,' published in " 1799. He is the author of works also in ' and polite literature. He died at the house riend, Lally-Tollendal, at Richmond, in 1800. "EVILLE, Claude De, a French poet, iber of the Academy, 1597-1647. LMESBURY, James Harris, earl of, son Harris, the author of ' Hermes,' known rant of the English court from 1767 to the the century. He is author of ' Diaries espondence,' published in 1844. Born 1746, died 1820. ISBURY, William of, a famous Eng- orian of the 12th century, was born in So- lire about 1096, and is known to have been the year 1143. He held the office of lib- Hid precentor in the monastery of Malms- " which he had become an inmate. His I are a general history of England from the of the Saxons to 1126, a church history, luities of Glastonbury,' &c, which are all [esteemed as trustworthy chronicles 0, Vincent, an Ital. painter, 1625-1670. )MBRA, P., a Venet. painter, 1556-1618. )NE, Edmund, the well-known editor of re, was the son of an Irish judge, and at Dublin, 1741. He was called to the 11767, but possessing an ample fortune gave "ition to literature. He was the coadjutor in an edition of Shakspeare, but hav- rrelled with him, published an edition of in 11 vols. 8vo, 1790. Died 1812. 1UET, P. V., a Fr. statesman, 1740-1814. )UIN, P. J., a Fr. chemist, 1701-1778. *IGHI, Marcello, an eminent anatomist ologist, more especially distinguished for ches in vegetable physiology, was born _ia in 1628. He died in 1694. He J medicine at Bologna, took his degree there, 11656 was appointed professor of physic in rsity. He afterwards successively filled of medicine at Pisa and Messina, and MAL ultimately was called to Rome by Pope Innocent XII., and was made his physician and chancellor. Malpighi lived at a time when physiological in- quiries were prosecuted earnestly and with success; when nature had begun to be studied instead of books ; and when the dreams of the schools were giving place to practical inquiries and observations. He had early in life learned the necessity of mak- ing experiment the foundation of true philosophy, and was the first to use the microscope in anatomi- cal observations. While prosecuting his anatomi- cal inquiries connected with the animal kingdom, he was led to pay attention to the anatomy and physiology of vegetables. The structure and physiology of plants had hitherto been but little attended to. On these subjects, however, Malpighi has shown himself an original as well as a pro- found observer; and his excellent work on the Anatomy of Plants proves him to be possessed of merit of the highest kind. Succeeding botanists have not failed to draw largely upon his rich store of facts and observations, for his illustrations of the anatomy and external configuration of plants were found to be no less faithful than original. Plumier has named a genus of plants after him, Malpighia. [W.B.] MALTE-BRUN, Conrad, or Malte-Con- rad Brun, one of the most distinguished geo- graphers of modern times, and almost equally famous as a writer in favour of free institutions, was born in Jutland 1775, and died in Paris, a political exile from his country, 1826. Besides his important geographical works, and contributions to the ' Biographie Universelle,' he edited the fo- reign politics of the 'Journal des Debats,' and acquired some reputation as a poet. MALTHUS, Thomas Robert, was horn at the Rookery near Guildford in 1766. He studied at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took a mas- ter's degree in 1797. He took orders soon after- wards, and held a small living in Surrey. He mar- ried in 1805, and was soon afterwards appointed professor of history and political economy in the East India College at Haileybury, an office which he held till his death. Few men have lived a more calm and quiet personal life, and few have created a greater storm of conflicting opinion in the world without. It was in the year 1798 that he first published the views with which his name is ever associated, in his ' Essay on the principle of Population, as it affects the future improvement of Society.' He improved and matured the work in subsequent editions, and interwove its special opin- ions with a general view of political economy. Now that the controversial storm has passed away, his doctrines may be dispassionately appreciated. No one doubts his fundamental principle that the amount of the human race must be in a proportion to the amount of food which can be procured for their support. But instead of drawing from this an injunction to mankind to throw their energies into productiveness, and prepare for an increasing population an increased and sufficient provision, the tone of his argument seemed to tend to the necessity of preventing increase, from the dread that it might outdo the production of food. In truth, though a very sagacious writer in general, he omitted the influence of free trade, which puts all the world at the command of an increasing and 455 MAL producing people Maltlms published several pamphlets, and other works of temporary interest. He died on 29th December, 1834. [J.H.B.1 MALTON, THOMAS, an English artist and writer on geometry and perspective, author of 'A Picturesque Tour through London and Westmin- ster,' &c, 1726-1801. MALUS, STEPHEN Louis, a French physician and natural philosopher, celebrated as the dis- coverer of the polarization of light, 1775-1812. MALVASIA, C. C, an Ital. art-writer, 1616-93. MALVEUDA, T., a Span. Hebraist, 1566-1628. MALVEZZI, Virgilio, marquis of, a Spanish statesman, and comment, on Tacitus, 1599-1654. MAMBRUN, Peter, a learned French Jesuit, known as a Latin poet and critic, 1600-1661. MAMMEA, Julia, empress of Rome, and mother of Alexander Severus, murdered 235. MAN, C. De, a Dutch painter, 1621-1706. MAN, James, a learned schoolmaster of Aber- deen, editor of an edition of the works of George Buchanan, and party to a controversy with Ruddi- man, another editor of the poet, died 1761. MANAHAM, a Galilean adventurer, killed 66. MANAHEM, a famous disciple of the Essenes, who predicted the reicn of Herod the Great. MANAHEN, or MANAHEM, the sixteenth kino; of Israel, reigned ten years, 11th century b.c. MANARD, P.. an Italian poet, 1714-1800. MANARDI, G., an Ital. physician, 1462-1536. MANASSEH, the eldest son of Joseph, and father of one of the tribes, about 1714 b.c. MANASSEH, a Icing of Judah, 968-913 B.C. MAN Brissot. In 1793 he was appointed Comm to the executive power. He survived th public, but refused to accept any place und< imperial government. The fame of his wri and his political independence induced the < ror Alexander to procure an interview with 1 1814, and observing Mandar's short statu could not avoid expressing his Burprisa. ' replied this republican fire-eater, ' II n'y ar si petit que l'etincelle.' (There is nothing si than a spark.') He is author of many pol historical, and miscellaneous works, and of poems, evincing great genius and streng expression. Died 1823. M ANDER, C. Van, apoet and paint., 1548- MANDEVILLE, Bernard De, born at in Holland, about 1670, was a physician b; fession, who came to England and acquired notoriety bv his work entitled 'Th Bees, or Private Vices made Public Bei This book created quite a sensation by its in tendency, and was replied to by several en writers, among others, by Bishop Berkelej Hutcheson, and William Law. The dates works published on either side ran^e from to 1732. Mandeville died 1733. MANDEVILLE, Sir John De, was b St. Albans about the year 1300. II is fami' of considerable note, and his education libe the times. He seems to have practised thel art as a profession, till in 1327 he left Ei and entered upon his travels. These, he te extended through thirty-four years, and to MANASSEH, the high priest of the Jews, who I country of the East ; but the account wh went over to his father-in-law, Sanballat, and built the rival temple at mount Gerizim, 6th c. B.C. MANASSEH-BEN-ISRAEL. See Menasseh. MANASSES, a Greek writer of the 12th cent. MANBY, Peter, an Irish catholic wr., d. 1697. MANCHESTER, Earl of. See Montagu. MANCO CAPAC, the founder and legislator of the Peruvian empire, supposed to have flourished in the 12th century. Another inca of Peru, named Manco, succeeded his brother, who was put to death by Pizarro 1533, and after some years of war- fare was killed by the Spaniards. MANDAR, Jean Francois, a French priest of the Oratory, author of several pleasing poems in Latin and French, and distinguished for his virtues and talents as a pastor, 1732-1803. MANDAR, Michel Phillipe, generally called 4 Theophilus,' was nephew to the preceding, and is worthy of honourable mention beyond many of the most noted characters of the French Revolution. He was born in 1759, and acquired great influence among the popular societies, by devoting his powerful oratory to the cause of progress. During the massacres of September, 1792, he was vice- president of the section of the Temple, and did all in his power to prevent the effusion of blood. He went to Danton's house on the evening of the 3d, and, nearly all the leading men being assembled there, including Petion, Robespierre, Manuel, Fabre D'E^lantine, and Camille Desmoulins, he rnd upon them the immediate creation of a Dictature, and offered to take the risk of the proposal on himself. Jealousy of one another pi-evented the adoption of this suggestion, and Mandar reproached Robespierre with his hatred of 456 given contains so many inaccuracies, dictions, and childish absurdities, that dii attaches to the whole, and it is now gei held as of no value. His descriptions, flo like those of Marco Polo, had a powerful toJ on the mind of Columbus. MANES. See Manichaeus. MANESSE, J., a French naturalist, 1743 MANETHO, an Egyptian historian, wl high priest of Heliopolis, in the reign of Pi Philadelphus, about 304 B.C. Only fragm< his work, as cited by Josephus in his book a Appion, are now extant. These are colleci Cory, and they consist of an account of the sion and expulsion of a body of foreigner were called Hycsos, or shepherd I to be Jews, besides several tables of ancient MANETTI, G., an Italian historian, 1356 MANETTI, R., an Italian painter. 1571- MANETTI, X., an Italian naturalist, 17 MANFREDI, B., an Italian painter, 1572 MANFREDI, Eustachio, an Italian j trician, astronomer, and literary savant, lWa His brother, Gabriel, a mathemat., 168K MANFREDI, or MAINFROY, king of and Sicily, was a natural son of the ei Frederic II., who usurped the kingdom of he had been appointed regent in killed, fighting against his rival, 1266. MANGE ART, T.,aFr. numismatist, lf.9.5 MANGENOT, L., an ecclesiast. v MANGET, J. J.,a medical historian, ISM MANGE Y, T., an English divim MANGIN, C, a French architect, 17-M- MAXGIN, Cl., a French politician, 178(< J MAN LlANGOU-KHAN, emperor of the Moguls, ceeded 1250, killed in China 1259. llANICHAEUS, MANES, or MANI, was a Jsian of the third century, and educated in the ion of Zoroaster. Some affirm that he derived germs of his doctrine from a Saracen mer- at named Scythianus. His object was to in- horate Zoroastrian dualism with Christianity. the fervour of his fanaticism he gave himself | to be the Paraclete promised in the gospel of ^Tp y which he understood, not the Holy 1st, as many have erroneously imagined, but a mer commissioned to diffuse and perfect Chris- [ity, and free it from the vile corruptions of the genius Ahriman. This dualism, common tie East, was a mystic attempt to account for I origin and perpetuation of moral evil. (See ion). Manes appeared as a religious teacher Sapor I. As a man of multifarious accom- (lment he attracted great attention; but the Ity of the magi forced him to a speedy exile. wdered into distant countries still pursuing |mission, and in the East his contact with sm gave new shape and tinge to his eclectic On his return to Persia with a collection iinted Oriental symbols, Hormisdas received land his theosophic pictures with welcome, but his successor Varanes, Manes was appre- and according to an Oriental form of lent, flayed alive, while his skin was stuffed lining up before the gate of the city. His spread over various portions of the church, Lngustin was for a season fascinated by its itions. [J.E.] IILIUS, Caius, a Roman tribune, b.c. 68. riLIUS, Marcus, a Rom. poet, 1st c. b.c. ILEY-DE-LA-RIVIERE. The authoress I name was a daughter of Sir Roger Manley, jrated author of ' The Turkish Spy,' and was at Guernsey, of which her father was gover- Besides her dramatic writings and romances, libels she penned in that form, she was em- l as a political writer by the ministry of the land continued the 'Examiner' when it was Dished by Swift. Died, after a life of in- and plea'sure, 1724. ILIUS. Four illustrious Romans of this I are mentioned : 1. Marcus Manlius Ca- ius, a patrician general, who saved the capi- surprised by the Gauls about 390 or 392 id was thrown from the Tarpeian Rock 370 2. Lucius Manlius Imperiosus, named and compelled to abdicate for his despot- ic. 363. 3. Titus Manlius Torquatus, the preceding, famous for his magnanimity age, was appointed military tribune B.C. . dictator 352, and again 348, without pass- ugh the inferior dignity of consul. The office, however, he filled in 347, 344, and finally lost his popularity by the rigour of listration. 4. A second Titus Manlius Iuatus, who was appointed consul B.C. 235 ' i and, in the latter period, closed the temple after subjugating Sardinia. He refused insulate in 212, but was censor in 209. " A. T., a Flem. antiquarian, 1740-1810. IERS, John, marquis of Granby, a Bri- t, who distinguished himself in Germany Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, and was 451 MAN afterwards a member of the government, and com- mander-in-chief of the army, 1721-1770. MANNERT, C, a Bavar. historian, 1756-1834. MANNI, D. M., an Ital. antiquar., 1690-1788. MANNING, O., an Eng. antiquar., 1721-1801. MANNING, T., a disting. linguist, 1774-1840. MANNOZZI, G., an Ital. painter, 1590-1636. MANRIQUE, A., a Span, prelate, 1577-1649. MANRIQUE, S , a Span, mission., 17th cent. MANSART, Francis, a celebrated French architect of Italian origin, 1598-1666. His nephew and pupil, Jules Hardouin, called Mansart, architect of Versailles, &c, 1645-1708. MANSFELD, Peter Ernest, count of, an Austrian statesman and soldier, governor of the Low Countries after the death of the duke of Par- ma, 1517-1604. His natural son, Ernest, also count of Mansfeld, and an enemy of the Austrian empire, called the Attila of Christendom, 1585-1626. MANSFIELD, William Murray, earl of, was born in Perthshire on the 2d of March, i705. He was the fourth son of Viscount Stormont, and the vehement jacobitism of his family, some mem- bers of it being deeply involved in the rebellion of 1745, not only cast difficulties in the way of his early career, but was often successfully employed in debate by Chatham and his other opponents. He studied at Westminster and Christ's Church, Oxford. He was called to the bar in 1731. He wrote in his youth some poetry justly forgotten, but perhaps common tastes and pursuits may have been the foundation of that intimacy with Pope, which seems to have had a material influence on his prospects. Though no poet, he was essentially a man of genius. He cast entirely away the con- ventionalities of a Scottish Jacobite, and entered the arena of English politics and professional am- bition, with a talent and energy which gave him the full advantage of his aristocratic rank and sig- nal personal graces. A new class of business that of appeals from the Court of Session in Scot- land, to the House of Lords, fell largely into his hands ; and Pope has noticed him in a line more distinct than poetic, as ' so known, so honoured, in the House of Lords.' He became Solicitor- General in 1743, but it was not until 1754 that he took the next step in promotion as Attorney- General. In 1756, he was made Chief-Justice of the King's Bench. He clung tenaciously to this office, and would not take the risks and responsi- bilities of the Chancellorship at the demand of public or party spirit. His name has not been popular as a judge, and he has generally been contrasted with Camden as one who inherited the despotic spirit of the Stuart dynasty. The pre- judice was confirmed by his courageous conduct in the Wilkes' outrages and furnished a text for the savage attacks of Junius, who spoke of him as a fitting Pretor for Justinian. But, however narrow some of his opinions may have been, others par- took of a large liberality, and in the anti-catholic fervour connected with the outbreak known as Lord George Gordon's riots, he showed a humane, generous, and courageous toleration. He was a very great lawyer, not merely in a technical sense, but as one who could direct the practice of the courts towards broad principles of jurisprudence. Many departments in the mercantile law of Eng- land and Scotland were created by him, andamoiig MAN others the law of marine insurance was made and systematized by his decisions. He retired from office in 1788, and died in 1793. [J.H.B.] MANSI, J. D , an Italian savant, 1692-1769. MANSION, Colard, a writer and printer, cele- brated for introducing the art into Bruges, d. 1484. MANSTEIN, Chius. Hkrman De, a Russian general, au. of a 'Memoir' on Russia, 1711-1757. MANT, Richard, a famous Irish prelate, was born at Southampton, where bis father held a living in the church, 177G, and began his ecclesiastical career as vicar of Coggeshall, in Essex, in 1810. In 1820 he became bishop of Killaloe; in 1823 bishop of Down and Connor; and in 1842 was translated to the see of Dromore. He died in 1848. The works of Dr. Mant consist of a vast number of sermons and tracts, but his celebrity rests on an edition of the Bible, which he prepared in conjunction with Dr. D'Oyley. MANTEGNA, Andrea, an eminent painter of Mantua, whose two sons, one of whom was named Francesco, and his father, Carlo, were also artists, and fellow-workers with him, 1430-1505. MANTICA, F., an Italian cardinal, 1534-1614. MANTON, T., a nonconformist divine, 1620-77. MANTOVANO, Battista Spagnuoli, an ele- gant Latin poet, better kn. as Battista, 1448-1516. MANU, the supposed author of the Mdnava Sdstra, one of the sacred books of the Hindoos, containing a code of laws, is supposed by Sir William Jones to be the same as Minos in the Grecian mythology. There are fourteen Menus, of whom this one is the seventh. The name belongs to mythology rather than biography. MANUEL COMMENUS, fourth son of John Commenus, born 1120, succeeded his father as em- peror of the East 1143, d. 1180. See Commenus. MANUEL PALjEOLOGUS, born 1349, suc- ceeded his father, John Palasologus, as emperor of the East 1391, died 1425. MANUEL, F., a Portugese poet, 1734-1819. MANUEL, James Anthony, a famous leader of the opposition in the French chamber after the restoration, was born in Provence 1755, and after serving with distinction in the republican armies raised by the levy en masse, adopted the profession of the bar. He was a member of the chamber con- voked by Napoleon during the hundred days, 1815, and with all nis eloquence and power resisted the re-establishment of the Bourbons by the allied armies. Returned to the chamber in 1818, his patriotic fervour in the tribune, his high spirit, and his brilliant oratory, marked him out as the champion of French liberty, and kept the party of the ministers in continual terror His first speech in the session of 1823 was on the iniquity of the Spanish war, in which he reminded the crown that when the French territory was invaded under similar circumstances, the country had defended itself by the adoption of new forms and another energy ! This allusion to the destruction of royalty in 1793, exploded the mine which had long been prepared for his expulsion from the chamber, and, on refusing to depart, he was led out into the 6treet by the military. His walk home, followed by the whole of his party, was a popular triumph ; and though he returned, with the simplicity and dignity of a Cincinnatus, to his own occupations, he was elected again in 1824. Manuel died three MAR vears before the triumph of his cause in the Charles X., 1827. [ MANUEL, Louis Peter, born 1711, aei attorney-general to the commune of Paris revolution, and was executed November 14, MANUEL, N., a Swiss fresco painter ai tiric and dramatic poet. 1484-1530. MANUTIUS, or MANUZIO, is the name Italian family famous in the history of pri for their beautiful editions of learned work the invention of the Italic or Alrfine letter, I have been formed in imitation of the handv of Petrarch. Aldo Pio Manuzio, the flourished at Venice, 1447-1515. Paolo, I distinguished like his father both as a cli scholar and printer, 151 2-1574. Ai.i>o,theyoi son of Paolo, distinguished like his progei and greatly favoured by the pope, Sextus Qi who gave him apartments in the Vatican born at Venice 1547, and died childless 1597 MANVEL, Francis. See Manuel. MANWOOD, Sir Roger, an English ju this name flourished in the reign of Elizabet is said by Fuller to have written a book o forest laws. He died 1593. Such a bool first published in 1598 by John Manwooi is supposed to be the son of Sir Roger. MANYOKI, A. De, a Hung, painter, 17tl MANZI, W., an Italian savant, 1784-182: MANZOLI, P. A., a Latin poet, 16th cen MANZUOLI, T., an Italian painter, 1536- MAPES, Walter, an English poet, 12th MAPLET, John, a learned naturalist, 161 MAPLETOFT, J., a medical wr., 1631-1; MAPLETOFT, R., a learned divine, 1610 MAPP, M., a French botanist, 1632-1701 MARA, Elizabeth, a fam. singer, 1750- MARA, W. De, a Latin poet, 1470-1530. MARACCI, J., an Italian painter, 1637-1 MARACCI, L., an Ital. Orientalist, 1612- MARAIS, H., a French engraver, 1764-li MARAIS, M., a French composer, 1656-1 MARALDI, J. P., an Italian matheraat astronomer, and natural philosopher, 1665- His nephew, Giovanni Domenico, also d guished as an astronomer, 1709-1788. MARAN, P., a French theologian, 1683-1 MARANA, J. P., an Italian historian, 164 MARANGONI, J., an Ital. antiquar., 1673- MARANTA, B., an Italian botanist, 16th MARAT, Jean Paul, was born of pa unknown to history, at a place called Band Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1746. Before his sii energies were directed to political ends, he been ambitious of rising by his talents, travelled a good deal in England, Scotland, land, and France, and published several wor experimental science and philosophy. Son these had brought his name into repute, and subjected him to the sarcasms of Voltaire, took the pains to analyze his philosophical tn on man a work in which Marat had endeav< to illustrate the principles and laws of the i influence on the body, and those of the bo< the soul. The year 1789 found him in the tion of veterinary physician to the Count D'A thoroughly disgusted with his failure to rii society, and witn the ' quacks,' as he called t ' of the corps scientifique.' He began his pol 458 MAR r bv the composition of his Offrande a. la e,' followed by the issue of his journal ' Le liciste Parisien,' two months after the promul- ion of the ' Eights of Man ' by the constituent mbly. The club agitation was just commenc- and Marat joined the cordeliers, formed in ober, 1789, the most reputable members of ch were Danton, and Camille Desmoulins. thirst for glory, if it were only in the excess lis hatreds and crimes, provoked him to and proposals, which it was physically ossible any of his rivals could surpass in city, and gave to his denunciations a kind of )anc magnificence. Such was his proposal ' to the 800 deputies on 800 trees of the Tuil- -Mirabeau on the first of them,' for which s denounced by Malouet. From this period he 10th of August, 1792, he was hunted by users from one wretched abode to another ays contriving to issue his journal, the title hich was presently changed to ' Friend of the )le.' On the date just mentioned, the Tuil- was besieged, the royal family imprisoned, he new ' commune,' or municipality, formed republicans ; Marat also emerged from his ty, and filled the prisons with the ' suspect,' were disposed of by the massacres of Septem- On the evening of the 3d the famous cir- was issued, calling upon the departments to the example of the Parisians ; it was signed arat, the chief promoter of these horrors, his colleagues, ten in all, members of the de Surveillance, afterwards the Committee lie Safety. The convention being elected, became a deputy, and his appearance in issembly was the signal for Vergniaud and u to denounce his atrocities, and they read the tribune his demand for 270,000 heads as s of appeasing the country. The turbu- of such a sitting may easily be imagined, made no attempt to deny the charge. is Aw opinion, the result of the most rigid tion he could make, and he was willing a few drops of guilty blood to save millions innocent ! After the execution of the king, tie of Nerwinden was lost by Dumouriez, arch, 1793, and Marat, always gigantic in oceptions, accused all the generals of the of treason, and sought to bring them to trial Meantime his struggle with the Giron- had increased in virulence, and they suc- at last in summoning their terrible adver- before the revolutionary tribunal. This was one of the instruments set in action by party on the 10th of August : Marat to his trial attended by vast crowds of the and his acquittal followed as a matter not only so, but the people carried him i the convention in triumph, elevated on a 'rude palanquin, and covered with garlands proceeded on his way. He now assumed tatorship, that he had always advocated, he still resided in his squalid apartment | the wife of his printer, who had been by him, and who seems really to have On the 31st of May, 1793, he sounded bell, and with the aid of his seditious arrested the Girondin deputies, whose avenged on the 13th of July following, by 459 MAR the hand of Charlotte Corday. (See Brissot, CoBDAT.) The death of Marat Mas only has- tened a few days by his assassination, for he was already consumed by a disgusting malady : and it is melancholy to add, that he was almost adored after his decease ; his remains being deposited in the Pantheon with national honours, and an altar erected to his memory in the club of the cordeliers: these fanatics also claimed his heart, and pre- served it in a golden urn. Our sketch would be essentially incomplete if we did not add that Marat was perfectly sincere, and, in fact, that he made his convictions his sole religion. He sold his bed to bring out the first numbers of his journal, and lived in poverty at a time when he could have amassed wealth by merely selling his silence. Such a life is far more instructive, even as an example of depravity, when facts like this are properly understood. There is such a thing as consistency, and a kind of devilish virtue, in guilt, which is as rare as heroism in well-doing, and history might be ransacked for a more striking instance of it than the brief political career of Marat. [E.R.] MARATTI, Carlo, an Ital. painter, 1625-1713. MARBACH, J. R., a Ger. actress, 1805-1837. MARBECK, John, organist of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and the first composer of the cathedral service of the Church of England. He was au. also of a Scripture Concordance, for which he narrowly escaped the stake, time of Henry VIII. MARCA, the name of two Italian painters, the earliest, J. B. Lombardelli Della Marca, flourished 1532-1587. The later, Lactantius Della Marca, born about 1553. MARCA, Pet. De, a Fr. historian, 1594-1662. MARCANTONIO, the most renowned of the Italian engravers, was born about 1480, at Bologna, and was the pupil of the celebrated painter and goldsmith Francia ; his family name was Raimondi. Some of Marcantonio's earliest efforts were made at Venice, where he copied Albert Diirer's prints of The Life of the Virgin,' and of the ' Passion ;' for up to this time no Italian engraver was to be compared with Durer, whose prints became known in Italy after 1500. From Venice Marcantonio went to Rome, where he attracted the notice of Raphael, who largely employed him in the engraving of his designs : it is to his prints after Raphael that Marcantonio owes his present great reputation. There is a very fine collection of them in the British Museum. After the death of Raphael in 1520, Marcantonio was employed by Guilio Romano, and it was for engraving some lascivious designs by this painter that he was imprisoned by Clement VII. After the sack of Rome in 1527 he returned to Bologna, where he is supposed to have died about 1539, that being the last date on any of his prints ; but the dates both of his birth and death are quite uncertain. Marcantonio's prints are distinguished for their delicate outlines and execution, and gene- rally fine drawing ; some of the original impressions, before the plates came into the hands of Barlachi and Salamanca, have realized enormous prices, those with the names of these dealers are also val- uable, the later are retouches and inferior. The 1 Murder of the Innocents', after Raphael, is per- haps the most celebrated of his plates, more than half of them are anonymous, but many are marked. MAR M. or M.A., and M.A.F., joined as a cipher. Bartsch, in his IWutrt Crareur, describes 383 prints by this engraver, but several of them are doubtless by his distinguished pupils, Agostino Yenoziano, and Marco da Ravenna. Nagler, in his K Hustler Lexicon, describes 395 prints. The original account of Marcantonio, of whom we know so little, is in Vasari's Lives, &c. ; nothing bio- graphical concerning this great engraver has been ascertained since Vasari. [R.N.W.] MARCEAU, Francis Severin Desgra- viers, a celebrated republican general, whose military talents were only equalled by his gene- rosity and humanity in the Vendean war; born at Chartres 1769, fell in action with the Austr. 1796. MARCEL, N., a German painter, 1628-1683. MARCEL, Stephen, the patriotic defender of Paris after the battle of Poitiers 1356, assass. 1358. MARCEL, St., a bishop of Paris, died 440. MARCEL, W., a Fr. chronologist, 1647-1708. MARCELLINUS, a Greek chronicler, 6th cent. MARCELLINUS, a pope and saint of Rome, 6uffered martyrdom time of Diocletian, 296-304. MARCELLIS, 0., a Dutch painter, 1613-1673. MARCELLO, Benedetto, was born of noble parents at Venice in 1686. His father, Agostino Marcello, was a Venetian senator, and his mother, Paolina, was of the honourable family of Capello. Benedetto, having in early life received a thorough classical education, was committed to the care of his elder brother, Alessandro, who was a student of the mathematical sciences, natural philosophy, and music. Under this brother, the young Bene- detto applied himself to music and poetry, and soon made such progress that he was placed under Francesco Gasparini, to receive instructions in the principles of musical science. In 1716 the first son of the emperor Charles VI. was born, and at the celebration of the event, which took place at Vienna, a grand serenata, composed by Marcello, was performed with great applause. After this he composed a mass, which was first performed in the church of Santa Maria della Calestia, on the occasion of his brother's daughter taking the veil. He composed many other sacred works for the church of Santa Sophia, and was at the pains of instructing the clergy in the manner in which they were to be performed. In 1724, and the three following years, he wrote music for one, two, and three voices, for a paraphrase of the first seventy- five psalms, which are still remarkable for the scientific knowledge shown in their construction. Marcello was for many years a judge in the Council of Forty, and was for some years chamberlain and treasurer to the city of Brescia, where he died in the year 1739. He was buried with great pomp in the church of the fathers Minor Observants of St. Joseph of Brescia. [J.M.] MARCELLO, N., a Venetian doge, 1473-1474. MARCELLUS, the first of the name pope of Rome, 308-310 ; the second, a few weeks only, 1555. MARCELLUS, the name of several noble Ro- mans: 1. Marcus Claudius Marcellus, fa- mous for his victories over Hannibal and the Gauls, slain in battle against the former 208 B.C. 2. Marcus Claudius Marcellus, of the same family, an opponent of Cajsar in the senate, consul B.C. 51, assassinated 46. 3. Marcus Claudius Marcellus, called the younger, son of Caius MAR I Marcellus and Octavia, the sister of Aus ; He was adopted by the latter and married i daughter, Julia, but died aged eighteen, 23 MARCET, Alex., a physician of Geriji turalized in England, and known as an ( mental philosopher, 1770-1822. MARCH, Ausias, a Provencal poet, 15tl MARCH, S., a Spanish painter, died 166 MARCH AND, L., a Fr. composer, 1669- MARCHAND, P., a Fr. bibliopole, 1675- MARCHAND, S., a Fr. navigator, 1755- MARCIANUS, emperor of the East, 391 MARCILIUS, T., a German critic, 154] MARCILLA, W. Da, a Fr. painter, 1475 MARCION, was born at Sinope in Pontus the middle of the second century. His lath cording to some reports, not, however, wt thenticated, was a bishop of the church i place. His belief in Oriental and dualistic \ encrusted with other and similar specul was deemed by him compatible with be Christianity, and he attempted to form a ] geneous theology out of both materials. assumed as articles of his creed, the eten matter the existence of a benign and holy and of a Demiurgus little less than C might, but dark and malignant, and ] his appropriate sphere in an attempted dol over matter, for he created man, was the God of the Jewish race, and was to be overcome by the Messiah. Jesus, accord Marcion, had not, and could not have a re manity, for all matter is essentially sinful. notions are the crude effects of an earnest mind to resolve inscrutable mysteries by the ci of figments not only incomprehensible, but sistent and baseless. Marcion received as < ical only the writings of the apostle Paul, 1 he had a gospel which appears to have b interpolated copy of that of" Luke. To this was joined an austere and vigorous asccticii which victory over appetite was to be secured. MARCK, J. De, a Ger. protestant, 1655- MARCUZZI, S., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1725 MARDONIUS, a general in the army of 3 and son-in-law of Darius, k. at Plata>a B.C. MARE, Nicholas De La, a French co: sioner of police, distinguished as a wril police economy 1639-1723. MARE, Ph. De La, a Fr. historian, 1615 MARE, P. B. La, a Fr. diplomatist, 1753 MARECHAL, B., an eccles. savant, 1705 MARECHAL, G., a Fr. surgeon, 1658-17 MARECHAL, P. S., a Fr. writer, 17fiW MARELIUS, Nils, a Swed. geo<^r.. 1706 MARET, Hugh Bernard. See BAafl MARETS, Roland Des, a Fr. crit i< , 1 Bfl MARETS, Samuel Des, a learned Frenc testant, famous for his controversies with th man Catholics, 1591-1663. MARGARET. The queens and princes Great Britain of this name are 1. St. Marc;. queen of Scotland, sister of Edgar Atluling, ried to Malcolm 1070, died 1093. 2. Marc, of York, sister of Edward IV., married I duke of Burgundy. 8. Margaret of A daughter of Rene, titular king of Sicily, S and Jerusalem, born 1425, married to Hen: MAR died, after a life of extraordinary vicissitude uent on the wars of York and Lancaster, 4. Margaret of Scotland, daughter of es I., born 1425, died, after an unhappy mar- re with Louis XL of France, 1444. 5. Mar- ket Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry VII. . Elizabeth of York, and sister to Henry VTIL, born at Westminster 1489. This princess betrothed in her infancy to James IV. of tland, then of adult age, and married to him in ^K l 1506 she gave birth to a son, after- ils James V., and became regent of Scotland the death of her husband at the battle of iden, 1513. In 1514 she married Archibald, ^WAngus, of the family of Douglas. This ch surrounded her with strife and trouble for rest of her days, the first outburst of which the arrival of the duke of Albany, supported the French king in 1515, soon after which garet took refuge in England. She died in 1. Her life has been recently published by s Strickland. !ARG ARET. The saints of this name are the m of Scotland, and a virgin martyr of Antioch, M the patroness of Cremona, 3d century. ARGARET. The queens and princesses of are 1. Margaret, daughter of Raymond mger, count of Provence, born 1219, married uis IX. 1234, died, after acquiring a famous by the defence of Damietta, 1285. 2. Mar- OF Burgundy, married to Louis X., king ice, 1305, strangled for adultery 1315. 3. aret of Valois, sister of Francis L, born married in 1509 to the duke of Alencon, and j two years after the death of her first bus- to the king of Navarre, by whom she had D'Albret, mother of Henry IV., died 1530. garet of France, daughter of Henry II., 1552, married to the prince of Beam, after- Henry IV., 1572, divorced for her licentious- 1599, died 1615. 5. Margaret of France, fss of Savoy, daughter of Francis I., born 1523, ed to Emmanuel Philibert 1559, died 1574. UJGARET, queen of Norway, Denmark, and pn, who is often called ' the Semiramis of the >,' was the daughter of Waldemar III., king of rk, and was born at Copenhagen, 1353. i(53 she was married toHaco,lring of Norway, gest son of Magnus Ericson, in whose person overnments of Sweden, Norway, and Scania, been invested many years before. The mar- of Huco with Margaret took place under cir- tances of great political difficulty, and it ioned the banishment of twenty-four of the powerful of the Swedish barons, by whom ras and his son were afterwards deposed, and rt of Mecklenburgh placed on the throne, e the country was suffering from the oppres- of this foreign government, Margaret lost, in , her father, Waldemar ; in 1380, her husband, ' ; and in 1387 her son, Olave events which Mr queen regnant in Norway, regent in Den- , and in a situation to receive overtures from B* With a spirit and ambition natural t at once furnished her adherents tnd supplies of war, and the victory Hjfngi won by the high marshal of Sweden, Kielizou, Sept. 21, 1389, threw open the lom to her. The union of the three kingdoms MAR was concluded by the treaty of Calmar, where tne spiritual and temporal barons assembled for that purpose, on the 20th of July, 1397 ; Eric of Pomerania, the grand-nephew of Margaret, being elected her successor as the future sovereign of Sweden. She died in the port of Flensburgh, on board a vessel in which she had embarked for Den- mark, Oct. 28, 1412. Her memory has been exe- crated in Sweden, where the union was never popular, in about the same measure that her politi- cal virtues have been extolled in Denmark. The words of Geijer, the great Swedish historian, are sufficiently remarkable to be quoted on this point : ' The fate of the throne and the country was decided by the holders of power, from the casual motives of temporary interests, and by such was the famous union of the three northern kingdoms produced a mere incident, which bears some resemblance to a design ; but of a consciousness of what such a union was, or of what it might become, no glimpse is to be perceived, either among its founders or in any other quarter.' [E.R.] MARGARET of Austria, daughter of the emperor Maximilian I., born 1480, married suc- cessively to the Infant of Spain 1491-1497, and to Philibert, duke of Savoy, 1501-1506, became ruler of the Netherlands 1506, died 1531. MARGARET of Constantinople, daughter of Baldwin IX., became countess of Flanders and Hainault 1221, died 1279. MARGARET of Parma, a natural daughter of Charles V., married successively to Alexander de Medicis and Octavian Farnese. The latter event took place in 1540. From 1559 to 1568 she was ruler of the Low Countries, and was succeeded by Alva. She then retired into Italy, and d. 1586. MARGARET of Richmond. See Beaufort. MARGARITONE, an Ital. painter, 1212-1289. MARGERET, a Fr. adventurer, 16th century. MARGGRAFF, A. S., a Ger. chemist, 1709-82. MARGGRAFF, G., a Ger. naturalist, 1610-44. MARGON, W. De, a French author, died 1760. MARGUERIE, J. J. De, a French officer and mathematician, 1742-1779. MARGUERIT, J., a Spanish historian, cardi- nal, and chancellor of Arragon, died 1484. His grandson, Joseph De Marguerit De Bivre, a general in the service of Louis XIII., died 1654. MARGUERITE, Joseph Marie Solar De La, a statesman, soldier, and historian, noted for the defence of Turin against the French in 1706. MARGUNIO, M., an Ital. scholar, 1530-1602. MARIA, F. Di, an Italian painter, 1623-1690. MARIA, H., a painter of Bologna, 17th cent. MARIA, John, an Italian architect, 1458-1534. His br., James, a famous painter, dates unknown. MARIA. See Marie, Mary. MARIA. The queens of Spain of this name are Maria De Molina, queen of Castile and Leon, married to Sancho IV. 1282, regent of Cas- tile 1295 and 1312, died 1322. Maria Louisa, daughter of the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV., and of Henrietta of England, married to Charles II., king of Spain, 1662-1689. Maria Louisa, daughter of Victor Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, and wife of Philip V., 1688-1714. Maria Louisa, wife of Charles IV., and mother of Fer- dinand VII., 1754-1819. MARIA, empress of Germany, called Marie 461 MAR Roi, first wife of the emperor Sigismimd, and daughter of Louis L, kinu; of Hungary, born 1370, began to reign 1382, died 1395. MARIA CAROLINE, queen of Naples. See Caroline. MARIA FRANCES ELIZABETH, queen of Portugal, born 1734, became mistress of the king- dom at the death of her husband, Peter III., 1786, suffered by mental aberration 1790, died 1816. MAR I A LOUISA, second wife of Napoleon Buonaparte, daughter of Francis I., emperor of Austria, ami Maria Theresa of Naples, was born 1791. In 1810 she was married to the emperor; in 1811 she presented him with an heir, who was hailed king of Rome; on his fall, in 1814, she de- serted him for the company of her chamberlain, Count Neipperg, and became duchess of Parma and Placentia ; died 1847. MARIA THERESA, bora in 1717, was the eldest daughter of Charles VI. of Austria, who died in 1740. The succession of Maria Theresa to the hereditary dominion of the House of Hapsburg had been guaranteed by the principal states of Europe ; but, on her father's death, she found her- self assailed by the kings of Prussia, France, Spain, and Sardinia, and the electors of Bavaria and Saxony. Each of these princes laid claim to some part of the Austrian territory ; and Maria Theresa, at the age of 23, was called on to make head against the armies of all her neighbours, except the Turkish sultan, who alone acted towards her with fairness and good faith. Maria Theresa had been married in 1736, to Francis of Louvain, grand duke of Tuscany, but he was a prince of little intellect or energy ; and it was to the spirit of Maria Ther- esa herself, and the loyalty of her Hungarian subjects, that Austria owned its rescue from de- struction. When driven from her capital by her enemies, Maria Theresa repaired to Presburg, and summoned the Hungarian Diet. She appeared in the midst of the martial assembly with her infant son in her arms. She addressed them earnestly and eloquently in Latin, (a language long currently used in Hungary) ; and when she came to the words, ' The kingdom of Hungary, our persons, our children, our crown, are at stake, forsaken by all, we seek shelter only in the fidelity, the arms, the hereditary valour of the renowned Hungarian no- bility,' the Hungarian nobles and all present, with one unanimous burst of chivalrous loyalty, drew their swords, and shouted, ' Let us die for our King Maria Theresa,' [Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa.] This was no transient demonstration of zeal. The whole military force of Hungary was soon in the field : the current of invasion was checked, and by degrees the foes of Maria Theresa made peace with her, and ceased to reckon on their shares in the dismemberment of Austria. She was obliged to cede Silesia to Frederick of Prussia; but with this exception she was left in full posses- sion of her dominions, when the war of the Austrian succession was closed by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha- pelle in 1758. The loss of Silesia was a deep mortification to Maria Theresa, and the hope of recovering that province made her take an active part in the seven years' war against Frederick of Prussia. That contest, however, closed in 1763, leaving Prussia in possession of Silesia, and with no gain l* either side to Maria Theresa or Frederick. MAR Maria Theresa's husband had been elected em of Germany in 1745, and on his death in 1765, son Joseph was chosen to succeed him. But I Theresa retained in her own hands, throughot life, the administration of her vast domii which were generally governed by her in a and enlightened spirit. Her private characte irreproachable, and the morals and manners c court formed a bright exception to the gross fligacy by which the courts of nearly all the sovereigns of the age were disgraced. She sincerely pious, and Botta, the Italian histx passes on ner the high eulogy, that ' during a years' reign she always showed a love of h and truth.' Her share in the first partitu Poland is the great stain on the character of 1 Theresa. But she came unwillingly into this which was urged on her by the sovereigi Prussia and Russia, and by her son the em Joseph. She is said to have left a writtei cord that she consented to this measure o deference to the opinions of others, and tha foreboded evil consequences to Europe from act of injustice to one of its states. Maria Th died in 1780. [E.l MARIAMNE, an unfortunate Jewish prii grand-daughter of Aristobulus, and of Hyn the high priest, and wife of Herod the Great, history is related by Josephus in his Antkra commencing at book xv., from which it ap] that Herod was excessively fond of her. Sl condemned to death, by the machinations of Sal her husband's sister, on a false charge of adul B.C. 28. She met her fate with an air of grai and intrepidity worthy of her noble ancestry, am bitterly lamented by the king after her dec Another Mariamne, wife of Herod, was the da ter of Simon, the high priest, and mother of H< Philip, who married Herodias. MARIANA, Juan, a Span, histor., 1557-1 MARIANI, C, an Italian painter, 1565-lt MARIANUS SCOTUS, born in Scotland 1 known as the author of a Chronicle from beginning of the Christian era to 1083, which continued by Dodechinus to 1200. He was o ecclesiastical profession, and died at Mayence ] MARIBAS CATHINA, the most ancient torian of Armenia, 2d century B.C. MARIE. The queens of France of this i are 1. Marie De Brabant, married to P 1274, died 1321. 2. Marie D'Anglete daughter of Henry VII., who became the wife of Louis XII. 1214, died 1534. See G Lady Jane. 3. Marie Stuart. See M. 4. Marie De Medicis. See article next pag Marie Therese, daughter of Philip IV., kr Spain, married to Louis XIV. 16G0, died ] 6. Marie Lkczinska, daughter of Stanislas, of Poland, bora 1703, married to Louis XV. ] died 1768. 7. Marie Antoinette. See fo ing article. 8. Marie Louise, wife of Nape See Marta Louisa. MARIE-ANTOINETTE, the unhappy que Louis XVI.,was the daughter of Francis f., an empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and was at Vienna, 1755. Though only fifteen years o when she married the Dauphin, she was ac plished in the French, Italian, and Latin langu besides her native German; and was also a 462 MAR it in music and drawing. The goodness of her her noble carriage, and the sweet expression er countenance, easily won the hearts of a peo- whom enthusiasm is as natural as the air | breathe. Marie- Antoinette, becoming queen in was applauded to the skies whenever she 3d in public, and often had to stand on the of her carriage to show herself to the people. popularity was greatly augmented when she le the mother of a family, and especially when, T85, she presented the nation with an heir to throne. Soon, however, the expensive luxury le court, the exhaustion of the public finances, phe distresses of the people, had prepared the or scenes far different from these popular ova- j and the first shock was given to her popularity [transaction involving both money and charac- It had become known to the countess de la that the queen's jeweller had offered her a |ond necklace, which she declined on account ; enormous price, no less than 1,800,000 livres. stain possession of this treasure, the countess led she was authorized to negotiate for the l, and not only concluded the bargain, but the cardinal de Rohan a party to it, who was led that Marie-Antoinette had given him a a;ht meeting in the park of Versailles. The ."was not discovered till the first payment was ided, and though the countess, in May, 1786, idemned to be whipped and branded for her kous conduct, the queen never recovered the {opinion of her subjects ; add to which, there i certain levity in her conduct which continu- sd her to scandal, though no one now that she was guilty of the crimes laid to rge. When the Revolution broke out in [she became an object of the popular suspicion chiefly on accouut of her Austrian ans ; but, in a great degree, also, by reason high spirit and superior capability of resis- I and action when compared with her husband, XVI. It would be inconsistent with our to describe the incidents which marked the of this hatred on the one side, and of defiance on the other. Marie- Antoinette nprisoned in the Temple after the triumph of "lace, on the 10th of August, 1792 ; and there to believe that the willingness of the royal 'to submit themselves to their jailors, was [ to the persuasion that they had secured the of Danton, and that they were really dng the means provided for their safety. The ~~n of the populace, excited by Marat and lidons, and the coalition formed against i by the neighbouring powers, rendered such omise, if it existed, of no effect. The king ited on the 21st of January, 1793, and the Capet,' as Marie was called in the indict - tried by the revolutionary tribunal in lg October. She was only thirty-seven 'age, but her hair had turned white during '~ onment, and her only articles of dress J damp and ragged in the cell she occupied. ght was injured, and her beauty marred ! and long suffering. Her trial was only a nd mockery, but one of heartless brutality, it is impossible to read without a feeling of "I disgust and indignation. Her hours of suf- leveloped the best traits of her character MAR and Marie- Antoinette, on her way to the scaffold, commands the respect which might be challenged for her in vain, as the adviser of the feeble king, whose counsels she swayed, often but too fatally, yet always courageously. She was guillotined Oct, 16, 1793. [E.R.] [The Concierge- the Prima of Mane Antoinette.] MARIE DE MEDICIS, queen of France, was the daughter of Francis II., grand duke of Tuscany, and of Joan, archduchess of Austria. She was born at Florence in 1573. In 1600 she was married to Henry IV., and the yearfollowing gave birth to a son, who became Louis XIII., and whose dephprable weakness was the principal cause of her misfortunes. The amours of her husband rendered her life a most wretched one, and being of violent temper, she would frequently have struck him, had not the great Sully interposed between them. Her anxieties as a wife, and the absolute temper of Henry, prevented her from taking any part in state affairs during his life- time, and when, towards 1610, he contemplated taking the field against the house of Austria, and proposed making her regent in his absence, she manifested the greatest repugnance to the subject, always saying that it foreboded some great misfor- tune. In the year just mentioned, Marie agreed to the regency, on condition of being formally crowned ; a ceremony which the king had always deferred ; and this being done, the latter was stabbed on the day following, by Ravaillac, when preparing for the queen's entry into Paris (article Navarrk). The queen regent had lately acted under the advice of Concini, an Italian favourite, whom she presently created a marshal of France, and honoured with the marquisate of d'Ancre ; and she also retained among her advisers the duke d'Epemon, who was suspected of being privy to the assassination. Her apathy in regard to the investigation of this deed of blood, has stained her memory with the suspi- cion of being implicated in it, but there is really no other ground for supporting such a charge, and the hatred of the French would seem to have magnified all her faults. From 1610 to 1614 the court was a focus of intrigue and anarchy, which the queen had too little statesmanship, and too much of pas- sion to rule; and parties were arraying themselves 463 MAR for the struggle winch all foresaw in the estates- general. That body assembled in October, of the last mentioned year, and now the afterwards famous Richelieu placed himself at the head of the clergy, and began to feel his way to power. The boy king, this vear, was declared of age, and the factious nobles, who surrounded him, rilled his ears with rumours of Italian treachery, the issue of which was, that the queen relied entirely on Concini, who raised troops for her defence, and created a natural jealousy ot Italian domination in France. Thus strengthened, in 1616, Marie de Medicis imprisoned Conde, the most turbulent and daring of her enemies, in the Bastile, and hurled defiance at the nobles in full assembly. In 1617, Concini was assassinated, and soon afterwards the queen was compelled to retire to Blois, where the wily Richelieu joined her as a pretended friend, and, in 1620, ef- fected an accommodation which enabled her to return to court. The cardinal found the queen a good trump card in the game he was playing for absolute power, and even when she became aware of his treachery, her hot Italian blood was no match for his cool sagacity. Eleven years of struggle ended in the triumph "of Richelieu, and, in 1631, the poor queen became, first a prisoner at Compiegne, and then a wanderer in foreign lands. The close of her life is the saddest part of her story. Abandoned by all her family, and her own son on the proudest throne of Europe, the widow of Henry of Navarre died in want of the commonest necessaries. She breathed her last in a poor apartment at Cologne, the furniture of which she had disposed of for the means of supporting life, in 1642. To the faults of her Italian character, she joined the refined taste of her house for arts and letters, and France is indebted to her for the Luxembourg palace. Her excess of passion over judgment, and the anarchy around her make a sad contrast with the wisely regulated and prosperous ambition of great sove- reigns. In her best moments Marie de Medicis was only the mistress of a faction. [E.R.] MARIE, J. F., a French savunt, 1738-1801. MARIESCHI, an Italian painter, 1697-1744. MARIETTE, Jean, a French designer and en- graver, 1654-1742. His son, Peter Jean, an engraver and archaeologist, 1694-1774. MARIGNANO, Gian Giacomo Medichino, Marchese Di, a cele. Ital. commander, 1497-1555. MARILLAC, C. De, a French diplomatist, 1510- 1560. His nephew, Michel, keeper of the seals, and a partizan of Marie de Medicis, 1563-1632. Louis, a marshal of France, brother and fellow- conspirator with the latter, b. 1572, executed 1632. MARILLIER, Cl. P., a Fr. engraver, 1740-1808. MARIN, J. C, a French sculptor, 1773-1812. MARIN, M. A., a French ascetic, 1697-1767. MARINA, a beautiful and accomplished Mexi- can, who became the mistress of Cortes, and ren- dered the Spaniards great service, 16th century. MAIMNALI, H., an Ital. sculptor, 1643-1720. MARINARI, H., an Ital. painter, 1627-1715. MARINAS, H., a Spanish painter, 1620-1680. MARINELLI, L., aVenet. poetess, 1571-1653. MARINEO, L., a Sicilian historian, born 1460. MARINI, B., an Italian painter, 17th century. MARINI, F. L. Claude, called Marin, editor of the 'Gazette de France,' 1721-1809. MARINI, G., an Ital. antiquarian, 1742-1815. MAR MARINI, J. A., an Italian novelist, died MARINI, John Baptist, a famous po Naples, known as ' the Cavalier Marin,' 1569- MARINI, Marc, an Ital. Hebraist, 1541- MARINI, P. Ph., an Ital. missionary, 17tl MARINO, Saint, a native of 1) almatia, was originally employed as a stone-mason oi bridge of Rimini ; but, becoming a hermit, mil were said to be wrought at his tomb ; and th commodation necessary for the pilj sorted there, gave rise to the city and the n ture republic of San Marino; 4th century, MARINONI, J. J., an Italian mathemat: architect, and astronomer, 1676-1755. MARINUS, a centurion, procl. en MARINUS, a Platonic philosoph. MARINUS, J., a Flemish engra MARIOTTE, E., a Fr. expen. plains., 162 MARITI, J., an Italian traveller, died 179 MARIUS, Caius, one of the greatest sol and dictators of the Roman republic, was bo parents in humble circumstances, probably at retinum, about 157 B.C. Having entered army he became known to Scipio Africanua acquired so much repute that he was electee bune b.c. 119 or 120, praetor 116, and govern Spain 115. In 109 he joined Metellus as oi his lieutenants in the Jugurthine Avar, and years afterwards supplanted him in the comi of the army. He brought the war to a do 106, when Jugurtha, the king of Numidia, treacherously delivered into his hands by his Bocchus. Marius remained in Africa a year lo: and was then recalled to take the field against Cimbri and Teutones, at that time Roman empire. These barbarians numl 300,000 men in arms, and had defeated the c< Manilius, and the proconsul Caapio, at a coi the Romans of 80,000 soldiers, and 40,000 < followers. Marius had been appointed cortsi 107, when the conduct of the Jugurthine war intrusted to him, and in sight of this new da he was not only re-elected, but continued in consulate four successive years, though conl to law, b.c. 104-100. In 102 he combined forces of the Ambrones and Teut near Aix; and in 101, having joined his f with those of Catulus, he obtained an eq' decisive victory over the Cimbri, in the m bourhood of Vereellee. He was now hailed ' Third Founder of Rome,' and rewarded wi fifth consulate, followed by a sixth, which, said, was gained by corrupt practi* session of power had become too sweet to he i laid down. Perhaps another and n reason also influenced him. Marius v> chief of the plebeians the natural the Gracchi, who had shed their blood tha; rights of Roman citizens might be extended tj rest of Italy. In B.C. 90 this social war broki afresh, provoked by the murder oi renewed the proposal, and Marius came the respective chiefs of the plebeuai patricians. The latter, flushed with his recent, cess against the army of Mithridal yield the command to Marius, but m nis party in the capital, and disp street by street. Marius was defeat* lodged in prison, where a Cimbrian soldier vrm 464 MAR behead him, bnt let the sword fall from his hand meeting the stern glance of the captive, who de- nded of him how he dared to kill Caius Marius! e magistrates of Mintuma?, where this occurred, pressed by the strange circumstance, favoured the ;ht of Marius, and he sought refuge in Africa, ni whence, in 87 B.C., he was recalled by Cinna, that time consul, to take arms against his old rersary. The combined forces of Marius, ma. SertorhiS; and Carbo, soon entered Rome, 1 the bloody proscriptions which have con- iaed the name of Marius to infamy now took ce, exceeding all that was previously recorded Roman history. Caius Marius now served as tsul for the seventh time, with his new ally, I the same year, B.C. 86, on hearing that Sylla | i approaching, he endeavoured to drown care wine, and is supposed to have killed himself i h excess. His character marks him out as the 1 e of the class for whom he acted as the armed if in the social war, as that of Sylla places him i he foremost rank of the patricians. They were i ally relentless and guilty of blood. [E.R.] [ASIUS, Caius, the younger, son of the pre- < ng by adoption, served in the army of his 1 er, and became consul with Carbo, 82 b.c. I was defeated by Sylla, and caused himself to t illed bv one of his officers. ARIUS, Leonard, a Dutch divine, d. 1628. ARIUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Gaulonite em- p r of Rome, who was originally a smith and raon soldier, assassinated 267. ARIUS, Sim., a Ger. astronomer, 1570-1624. ARIVAUX, Pet. Carlet De Chamblain I a Fr. dramatic writer and novelist, 1688-1763. ARIVETZ, S. C. De, a French physician, and w m interior navigation, b. 1728, executed 1794. ARK, one of the four evangelists, and com- pJon of Saint Peter, said to have founded the Mdi of Alexandria, put to death 68. LARK, a pope and saint of Rome, 336. LARK, a heretic of the Eastern church, 2d cen. LARKHAM, Gervase, a soldier and scholar Hue reign of James I. and Charles I., author of pi works on husbandry and horsemanship, Hrod and Antipater,' a tragedy, ' The Poem of .P<fls,' and other fugitive works, died 1650. ARKLAND, A., a divine and poet, 1645-1720. ARKLAND, Jeremiah, a classical scholar Mzritic, son of the vicar of Childwall, in Lanca- tM, born 1693, died, after a life of learned re- ftttnt, 1776. S'.OROUGH. John Churchill, after- rjs duke of Marlborough, the greatest general JM England produced before the duke of Wel- Pjm, and one of the greatest of modern Europe, wjborn at Ashton, in Devonshire, on July 5, |M. His father was a gallant cavalier, who had In the sword in behalf of Charles I. ; by his Mer's side he inherited, by collateral descent, the 1 which had flowed in the veins of Sir pis Drake. In early youth, when at school in Hhlbire, he evinced a decided turn for warlike Hits, and was often found studying Vegetius on VJ affairs. At sixteen he received a commis- jpla the Guards, chiefly owing to the influence aater, Sarah, who was the favourite of the of York ; brother to Charles II. She trans- Hi the military genius of the family to her off- MAR spring, for her son, by the duke, who entered into the French service, afterwards became duke of Berwick, and by his great abilities, in command of the French armies in the Peninsula, counterbalanced the victories of his uncle, the duke of Marlborough, when in command of the armies of the allies in the wars of the succession. Thus the same English family furnished, at the same time, the deadliest enemy and the acknowledged saviour of the French monarchy. During his early life in the Guards, young Churchill, who was uncommonly handsome in person, as well as fascinating in manners, was involved in the usual dissipations of the court of Charles II. ; and even inspired a passion in the breast of one of the royal mistresses, the countess of Castlemaine, who presented him, as a token of her regard, with 5,000, which formed the com- mencement of his fortune. Soon after he was sent to the coast of Africa, and made his first essay in arms in warfare with the Moors ; and on his re- turn from thence, he was despatched with the Eng- lish auxiliary force in 1672 to co-operate with the French army in Flanders, in their campaigns against the Dutch. He there distinguished him- self so much, that he was publicly thanked by Louis XIV. at the head of his army ; and Marshal Turenne, who commanded it, prophesied that ' the handsome Englishman,' as he was termed, ' would one day make a great general.' He made four campaigns under Turenne; and it was there, as he ever after admitted, that he first learned tho art of war. Thus, by another of the strange revo- lutions of fortune in this extraordinary man, it was under a French marshal that he was taught the art which, matured by his genius, all but brought the French monarchy to destruction. When the war in Flanders was over he returned to London, furnished with the strongest possible recommenda- tion from Louis XIV. and Turenne to the king of England. In consequence of this support, and the increasing suavity and fascination of his man- ner, he rapidly rose in the Guards, and ere long was promoted to the command of a regiment in them ; while there his charms of manner and per- sonal beauty won the heart of Sarah Jennings, one of the maids of honour to the Princess Anne, who afterwards became queen, whom he married in 1678, and who exercised an important influence on his life and fortunes. Beautiful, high spirited, and ambitious, with great talents as well for con- versation as intrigue, she was unhappily, at the same time, arrogant, overbearing, and irascible ; so that it was hard to say whether she aided her husband's fortunes in after life most by her in- fluence at court, or marred them by the supercili- ous demeanour which involved her in continual quarrels, and at length entirely alienated the affec- tions of his sovereign. Though a courtier, and in- debted for his first rise to the favour of the duke of York, who continued his kindness to him when he became king on the demise of Charles II. in 1685, Churchill was a staunch protestant, and saw as clearly as any one the inevitable result of the headlong course which James II. pursued soon after his accession to the throne, in order to re- establish the Romish faith in his dominions. He did his utmost to dissuade him from the insane attempt, but in vain. The result was, that when the nation was driven to desperation, and forced to 465 2H MAR invite William prince of Orange over in 1688 to change the sovereign on the throne, Churchill felt himself constrained to espouse the side opposite to that of the reigning sovereign. He did this in a way which forma the only, but is, in truth, an in- delible blot on his memory. He did not resign his appointment under the sovereign whom he felt himself constrained to desert, and then appear in arms against him ; he retained his commission of the regiment of Guards, and exerted his influence to induce them to pass over to the enemy ; he did what Marshal Ney afterwards did to Louis XVIII., and honour can plead no apology for either. After the dethronement of James II., Churchill, who of course was immediately taken into favour with William III. who succeeded him, was employed in the south of Ireland in command of the royal forces, and there he rendered good service to the cause he espoused, by the reduction of Cork, Ban- don, Kinsaie, and other strongholds in the south of Ireland. He soon found, however, that it is an easier thing to dispossess a sovereign than render his successor acceptable to the nation. He was disgusted with the preference shown to the Dutch troops, and the insensibility of William to the real national concerns of England. These feelings were too warm to be concealed, and the result was that he fell into a correspondence with some of the Jacobites abroad, which led to his being arrested in 1691 on a charge of high treason, and deprived of his honours and employments. He was soon after liberated, as no evidence was found sufficient to authorise his detention, far less bring him to trial ; but he laboured for long under the suspicion of the court, and it was not till 1698 that he was restored to his rank as a privy councillor, and ap- pointed to the important situation of preceptor to the duke of Gloucester, the heir apparent to the monarchy. ' Make him like yourself,' said William III., in conferring on him the appointment, ' and you will leave me nothing further to desire.' The death of the king of Spain, who, being childless, had bequeathed his immense dominions to the duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., having involved Europe in a general war, Churchill, who by this time had been created earl of Marlborough, was called to act on a greater theatre, on which he acquired immortal renown. Even before the death of William III., he had been appointed to the im- portant situation of plenipotentiary at the Hague, where the negotiations were carried on ; and when the decease of that monarch led to the accession of his early and steady friend, the Princess Anne, to the throne, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied armies. War having been declared in May, 1702, he repaired to the camp near Nime- guen, where the allied army, 60,000 strong, was retiring before the superior armies of Louis XIV. The arrival of Marlborough, however, soon altered the state of affairs. Pointing to the dense French battalions, he said, ' These men will soon be our prisoners;' and he was as good as his word. He in- *>tantly took the initiative, threw the enemy into retreat, and followed up his successes by the cap- ture of four of their most important strongholds before the campaign was over, in the very teeth of their superior forces. Such was the vigour of his measures, and the skill with which they were taken, that he succeeded in capturing the strong MAR fortresses of Rusomonde, Liege, and Maest in a few months ; the last of which being sit on the river Meuse, which is navigable up gave him the entire command of that rivei the inestimable advantage of a water comrmi tion into the very heart of Flanders. The paign of 1703 was not equally prolific of events; chiefly from the 'Dutch deputies,' were invested with a negative on all measn the English general, absolutely refusing theii sent, now that the danger was removed truin doors, to any measures which seemed in the hazardous. One incident, however, of great in with reference to future events did take The French had with vast labour set of lines, covering the approach to Brussels the side of Maestncht, from whence it waa threatened by Lord Marlborough. He cott by a sudden nocturnal attack, however, in f( these celebrated lines, and this brought him I field of Waterloo, in the exact reverse posit that occupied by Napoleon and Wellington hundred and eleven years afterwards. The Fi thrown back on the forest of Soignies, had backs to Brussels and their faces towards I the allies stood on the ground occupied by Bl and Napoleon, and threatened the French from the wood of Ohain. The fairest opporl of finishing the war at a blow was prevente Marlborough had got between the French Paris, and defeat to them was ruin. He ean besought the Dutch deputies to take advanti it, but they would not. Such was his vexati this crossing, that next day he said, ' To-day ten years older than I was yesterday.' The a: tions of the English hero were amply gratif the following ye&r. Louis XIV. had deten to stand on the defensive in Flanders, and m great effort in Germany with a view to intim Austria, and from it to conclude a separate j His efforts were well nigh attended with ( success. Supported by Bavaria, with whom were in close alliance, the French armies, 8 strong, poured down the valley of the Da Munich was passed, Vienna threatened cabinet of Vienna menaced with an Hung insurrection in rear, was in an agony of appr sion. But the hour of deliverance Putting himself at the head of 30,* troops, Marlborough, who had previ' solid footing on the Rhine by the reduction < strong and important city of Bonn, crossed ov to Germany, stormed the intrenched cfl^^H lomburg with the loss to the enemv and defeated them at Blenheim witli the I 15,000 prisoners, 80 guns, and 100 stanJ Marshal Tallard, the French gem chief officers were made prisoners, recrossed the Rhine, the French were weakeif 40,000 men. Germany was delivered. and France threatened, by a single victory; I annals of Napoleon have no more d< to exhibit; and the result was, that tlie If armies, refluent on all sides, were driven bacl and reduced to the defence of their territory, f campaign of 1705 was not productive of ani morable events, from the Dutch deputies |i interposing and preventing all the <1 projected by the English general. But he rep 466 MAR triumphant career in 1706. Assailing the rich army, G(),000 strong, at Ramilt.ies, he lly defeated them, after a hard struggle, with loss of 15,000 men in killed, wounded, and ners. The effect of this great victory was the ate capture of Brussels and liberation of Austrian Flanders. Antwerp, Oudenarde, t, Bruges, and many of its chief towns de- " for the allies ; others, such as Menin, Ath, ond, and Ostend, were reduced after bloody by force of arms. Before the campaign ., the whole of Austrian Flanders, bristling strong fortresses, was recovered ; the Dutch obtained the barrier for which they had so ionately longed ; and the French armies, which recently threatened Vienna, were everywhere i back on their own frontier. Early in the {wing year, the allied arms sustained a serious se, by the surprise of Ghent and Bruges, h was effected by Prince Vendome, the French who was at the head of 100,000 men. if the treachery of these towns had induced , the vigour of Marlborough soon restored Suddenly wheeling round, when in the of retreat towards Brussels, he attacked y defeated the French at Oudenarde, ;he loss of 9,000 prisoners and 11,000 killed ded. Boldly then resuming the offen- he carried his victorious arms into France, and took Lille, though garrisoned by Boufflers with 15,000 men of the best in France ; in the face of Vendome, at the 100,000 men, relieved Brussels, which had atened in the interim, and concluded his t career by the recovery of Ghent and the former garrisoned by 1,800 men. The of war can afford no parallel of the skill ilution of that immortal campaign, which, end of the world, will be the subject of study tion of military men. The last of Marl- 's great victories was that of Malpla- 1709, which was by far the most bloody i fought, and was only gained after pro- of valour had been performed on both sides. ' resources of France had been brought forth, 000 brave men, intrenched to the teeth, receive the assault of an equal number of under Marlborough and his noble rival, Eugene. But nothing could withstand the " their attacks, and the heroic courage they into their troops. The whole French ere at length carried, though at a cost of nen to the victors, and the important for- Mons, commanding the high road to Paris, reward of the victory. This was the last t victories of Marlborough; for thence- MAR took Bethune, Aisne, and other places of strength on the French frontier, and he was making prepa- rations for the siege of Arras, the last strong- hold on the road to Paris, when he was, by do- mestic faction, interrupted in the career of victory, by being deprived of the command of the army, and even threatened with a parliamentary im- peachment for alleged and wholly fabricated mal- versations when in command. The consequences were soon apparent. The allies deprived of his military arm, and of the aid of the English con- tingents, were defeated at Denain, and the dis- graceful treaty of Utrecht was concluded, which left the crown of Spain in possession of the house of Bourbon, and deprived the nation of the whole fruits of Marlborough's victories. A more deplor- able instance of the triumph of faction over patriot- ism, of envy over generosity, of jealousy over heroism, is not recorded in history. Before this disgraceful coalition against him took effect, Marl- borough had obtained princely rewards from the nation.^ He was made a duke after the battle of Blenheim, and a sum voted to build the palace of the same name on the demesne of Woodstock, [Palnce of Blrthe which had been bestowed on him by Queen Anne. After his fall, the usual annual grants from the treasury were stopped by the malignity of the Tory ministry, and the magnificent pile was only finished by 60,000 which had been advanced from the private fortune of the duke. Marlborough re- mained in privacy, but firm in his principles, till the accession of the Hanoverian family in 1713, when he was made commander-in-chief; and by his admirable measures, contributed much to the almost bloodless suppression of the rebellion in he ceased to be a free agent. The Tory Scotland in 1715. This was his last public ser- ;home, who were jealous of his fame and en fhis power, never ceased their efforts to effect vice. He was soon after struck with a stroke of palsy, from which he only recovered to drag on a precarious and enfeebled existence, which was ter- .1 ; and at length, through the agency of E m, a dependent and niece of the duchess minated in serenity and hope, on 6th August, 1722, >ugh, who supplanted her mistress and | in the seventy-second year of his age. Napoleon in the royal favour, they effected it. had the very highest opinion of Marlborough ;h's proposed measures were all examined cabinet, and the requisite supplies re- lm. Still he worked on with patriotic a noble spirit, against all his difficul- in, by an unparalleled exertion of mili- passed the French lines ; besieged and 467 whom he always spoke of as one of the first cap- tains of any age or country. His career was in- deed astonishing, and may well have excited the admiration of his immortal successor. He never besieged a town he did not take, and he never fought a battle he did not gain. Never superior, MAR generally inferior to his opponents ; at the head of a multifarious army of six nations, he commu- nicated an united spirit to the whole mass, and rendered them invincible. Had he not been thwarted at home he would have taken Paris, and terminated, in his next campaign, the rivalry of torn- centuries. Humane, benciicent, and generous; in private life he dignified his warlike virtues by the graces and charities of peace. Factions assailed him violently during his life, as it in general does all who rise to extraordinary power and influence ; but history has revised its verdict, and pronounced him, but for the desertion of James II., as per- fect a character as the frailty of humanity will permit. [A.A.] MARLIANI, B., an Ital. antiquarian, b. 1650. M ARLORAT, AUGUSTUS, a French protestant divine, executed by order of Montmorency, 1506-62. MARLOT, D. W., a French savant, 1596-1667. MARLOWE, Christopher, was by far the most distinguished, and may indeed be said to have been the only man of great and original genius, among the English dramatists who imme- diately preceded Shakspeare. As to the events of his short life, we know hardly anything beyond the fact that it was as irregular and unhappy as that of most play-writers of his time. The date of his birth is not certain; but he was perhaps about thirty years old in 1596, when he was killed at Deptford in a discreditable brawl. Several of the plays which pass under his name were probably not his. But we are at least safe in attributing to him three of the most striking dramas in our language : the energetic and harrowing ' Jew of Malta ;' ' Edward II.,' a worthy precursor of Shakspeare's dramatic histories ; and the magni- ficently imaginative and finely thoughtful tragedy of ' Faustus.' Marlowe's versified translations, or rather paraphrases, from Ovid, Lucan, and the pseudo-Musaeus, are likewise very beautiful, both in imagery, in diction, and for their rhythmical sweetness. [W.S.] MARMION, S., an Eng. dramatist, died 1639. MARMONT, Augustus Frederick Louis Viepe De, due de Ragusa, the last survivor of Napoleon's marshals, was born of noble parents 1774, and commenced his military services in the army of the monarchy. He attracted the atten- tion of Napoleon by his excellence as an artillery officer, and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Marengo. He fought in all the cam- paigns from 1805 to 1807, and was created mar- shal of France after the battle of Wagram. He shared the fate of all Napoleon's generals opposed to Wellington in Spain, his crowning defeat being at Salamanca. He surrendered Paris to the allies in 1814, and afterwards became a steady adherent of the Bourbons. After the revolution of 1830 he was struck from the list of the army. Died at Venice 1852. MARMONTEL, Jean, was born of poor parents, at Bort, in the Limousin, in 1723. Educated chiefly in Jesuit schools, and at first intending to enter the order, he was able, when no more than eighteen years old, to teach philosophy at Tou- louse, with such success as enabled him to contri- bute_ to the support of his father and mother. In 1745, having come into correspondence with Vol- taire, and abandoned the idea of being a priest, he MAR sought his fortune in Paris. He (list in himself by poems and plays, winch are loi forgotten ; and he enjoyed reputation al critic, contributing to the ' Encyclopedia articles, which he collected under the ' Elements of Literature.' His best work ever, were those easy and graceful sketclie and manners, which he was pleased to call Tales.' The morality of the most serious < is equivocal ; that of others is positively ba longer novels, 'Belisaire' and 'Les Incajfl a literary point of view, much inferior to h stories. Several appointments which he sively received, made his circumstances eas] outbreak of the Revolution. He died in th< bourhood of Evreux on the last day of 1799. MARNE, J. B. De, a Fr. historian, 169 MARNE, Louis Anthony De, a Frenc tect, author of ' Histoire Sacree,' 1673-17J MARNIX, Philip De, baron of Sain gonde, a famous Calvinist and enemy of quisition, the defender of Antwerp in 1584 Alexander Famese, au. of ' Controversial ' a translation of the Psalms into Dutch vers Beehive of the Romish Church,' &c, 1538- MAROLI, D., an Italian painter, 1612- MAROLLES, M. De, a Fr. translator, 1 MAROT, Francis, a Fr. painter, 1667- MAROT, Jean, secretary and poet of [ Brittany, flourished 1463-1523. Cleme son, valet of Francis I., distinguished for hi ful poetry, 1495-1544. MAROT, Jean, a French architect and sional writer, 1630-1695. His son, Dai refugee in England, and architect to the p Orange, born 1660. MAROUTHA, a Syrian prelate and wr., MAROZIA, a patrician lady of Rome, beauty and intriguing disposition, aided great wealth, gave her immense influeno the close of the 9th century. She was : successively to Alberic, marquis of Camerii was killed 925 ; to Guy, or Guido, duke - cany, who died 929 ; and to Hugh of Pi whom she and her last husband had made Italy, in 932. She placed four popes on the Sergius III., one of her lovers, by whom a son, in 904; Anastasius III. in 911; I. 913 ; and her son, John XL, then in his i first year, in 931. Marozia had a sisteu dora, and a mother of the same name, one u was mistress of the pope John X. Loth tie were partakers in her licentiousness and ill as they were in her beauty and add virtual sovereign of Italy, and ma; pope or queen as the reader pleast Pope.) About 928-9, her soldii Salace of the Lateran, slew the brother I [., and took the pope prisoner, who d I afterwards. After her third marri struck one of her sons, who stonm guard with a party of young Roma] offender from the city, and finally impr mother in a monastery, or perhaps in the] St. Angelo, where she ended her < i . MARPURG, F. W., a Ger. musician, MARQUET, F. M., a Fr. botanist, Iff MARQUETTE, J., a Fr. mission: MARQUEZ, S., a Spanish painte i L6i 4C8 MAR 'ARQUIS, A. L., a Fr. botanist, 1777-1828. ARKACCI, Hippolyte, a learned Italian ographer, author of ' Bibliothasca Mariana,' 15. His brother, Luigi, a famous Arabian s lar and editor, 1612-1700. ARRE, J. De., a Dut. dramatist, 169G-1763. ARRIER, M., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1572-1644. ARRON, P, H., president of the reformed ch of Paris, and a partizan of the Girondins, at Leyden of French refugees, 1754, d. 1832. ARRYAT, Frederick, the son of a West i merchant, -was born in 1792, and died in ;. Entering the navy in his fourteenth year, ervcd with distinction during the war, and wards in the Burmese campaign ; and he be- s a benefactor to the naval profession by the prion of his well-known Code of Signals. He to be a post-captain and C.B. In the latter pf his lite he was active as an author and as a kzine editor. His ' Diary in America' was the don of much acrimonious discussion. Of his V naval stories, whose dashing liveliness and p vigour made them so popular, the earliest Frank Mildmay;' and among the rest it is gh to name ' Peter Simple ' and ' Mr. Mid- ban Easy.' [W.S.] kRRYAT, Joseph, son of Dr. Thomas Mar- I a merchant and M.P., known as a speaker rest Indian affairs, and on insurance, bank- Lnd similar topics, 1757-1824. KfiS, A. J., a French jurisconsult, 1777-1824. KfiS, Mdlle., a Fr. comedian, 1779-1847. kRSAIS, Cesar Chesneau Du. See Du- kRSAND, A., a Venetian savant, 1765-1842. 1RSAY, a French mystic writer, author of a entitled ' Le Temoignage d'un Enfant de la IB,' publ. anonymously in 9 vols. 12mo, 18th c. 1RSDEN, William, an eminent Oriental ir, son of a merchant of Dublin, born 1754, jpted in 1795 secretary to the admiralty, died n He is author of a grammar and dictionary 1 Malay language ; of a description of Eastern i| under the title of ' Numismata Orientalia ;' pssay on the East Insular Languages ; a trans- f the ' Travels of Marco Polo,' &c. In voluntarily relinquished his retiring pen- ' 1,500 per annum, and, in 1834, presented iental coins to the British Museum, and his (and Oriental MSS. to King's College. "3H, Right Rev. Hereert, D.D., suc- bishop of Llandaff and Peterborough, I the translator of Michadis, and author of tic Theology, was born 1758. He finished t ition in Germany, and while resident there litted some valuable information to the Bri- iment, for which he was rewarded with j: died 1838. IRSH, Narcissus, successively bishop of jin and Ferns, Cashel, Dublin, and Armagh, )f Institutiones Logica?,' 1638-1703. ^ [AL, A., a Scotch anatomist, 1742-1813. 5HAL, W., a nonconformist divine, au- l The Gospel Mystery of Sanctification,' a ommended by Hervey ; died 1690. 5HALL, Nathaniel, a learned minister Church of England, author of an edition of ~ ian, &c, last century. SHALL, S., a presbyterian divine, d. 1655. MAR MARSHALL, Thomas, a learned divine of the Church of England, known as a Saxon and Orien- tal scholar, 1621-1685. MARSHALL, W., an agricult. wr., 1745-1818. MARSHAM, Sir John, a learned writer on Egyptian history and antiquities, known in the 17th century as a royalist and M.P., 1602-1685. MARSHMAN, Jas., a baptist missionary, who became a proficient in the Eastern languages, and translated a part of the Scriptures into Chinese. He produced also an English version of the works of Confucius, and a ' Dissertation on the Characters and Sounds of the Chinese Language,' 1799-1837. MARSTON, John, a dramatic writer and sa- tirist of the age of Elizabeth and James I. The dates are uncertain, but he can be traced to 1633. MARSY, Balthason and Gaspard, brothers, natives of Cambray, both excellent sculptors ; the former lived 1624-1674, the latter 1628-1681. MARSY, C. S. De, a French author, 1740-1815. MARSY, F. Ma. De, a Fr. historian, 1714-1763. MARSYLI, Liugi Ferdinando, count of, a learned geographer and naturalist, distinguished in the service of Austria 1658-1730. MARTEL, F., a writer on surgery in 1601. MARTEL, S. A., a Fr. architect, 1569-1641. MARTELLI, Ludovico and Vicenzo, Italian brothers and poets, the former 1499-1527 ; the latter died 1556. MARTELLO, P. J., an Ital. dram., 1665-1727. MARTELLY, R., a French actor, 1751-1817. MARTENE, E., a learned ecclesias., 1654-1739. MARTENS, F., a German traveller, 17th cent. MARTENS, or MERTENS, Thierry, sur- named ' the Aldus of the Low Countries,' divides the honour with some others of introducing print- ing into the Netherlands. He is celebrated for his fine editions of the Greek authors, and was highly esteemed by the learned men of his age ; among others, Erasmus, who lodged with him, 1450-1534. MARTENS, William Frederic Von, a na- tive of Hamburgh, dist. as a diplomat., 1756-1821. MARTHA. See Sainte-Marthe. MARTHA, Sister, a benevolent female of Be- sancon, whose real name was Anne Biget, and whose virtues and humanity place her among the most distinguished women of our epoch, was born in 1748, and was in early life the inmate of a con- vent. She devoted herself from her youth up- wards, to the relief of the poor and afflicted ; and though she was nearly seventy years of age, in the campaign of 1814, she made almost incredible efforts to relieve the wounded. Every mark of honour was shown her by the allied sovereigns, and she had previously been presented with a medal by her country, inscribed ' Homage to Vir- tue.' She died in 1824. MARTI, Emmanuel, a Span, poet, 1663-1737. MARTIALIS, Marcus Valerius, a well- known Latin epigrammatist, generally called Mar- tial, born about 40, at the present Arragon in Spain. His poems, which consist of some 1,500 pieces, are interesting for their allusions to the persons and manners of the times, but abound with indelicacies. In the Delphin edition of 1680, these were omitted from the body of the work, and published all together at the end. Martial went to Rome when about twenty years of age, and ob- tained the favour of Domitian. Died 104. MAR MARTIANAY, J., aFr. ecclesiastic, 1017-1717. MARTI ANO, P., au Ital. physician, 1567-1622. MARTIGNAC, Jean Baptiste Silveke Al- gay, Vicomte De, minister of Charles X., author of an essay upon the Spanish revolution and the intervention of 1823, 1776-1832. MARTIGNAC, Stephen Aegay De, a French scholar, horn at Brives la Gaillarde 1620 or 1628, died 1698, author of ' Memoirs of Gaston,' &C. MARTILIERE, Count De La, a dist. French artillery officer, made a peer in 1814, died 1819. MARTIN, the name of several Saints: 1. A bishop of Tours, born in Pannonia, now Hungary, 316, died 397. He is considered the apostle of the Gauls. 2. An archbishop of Braga, in Portugal, an Hungarian by birth, known as an ecclesiastical writer, and a great preacher in Galicia, died 580. 3. Maktin-De-Verton, or Martinus Verta- vensis, founder and abbot of the monastery of Verton, born of noble parentage at Nantes 527, died 601. 4. The first pope of the name. MARTIN, the first of the name, pope and saint of Rome, whose memory is also honoured in the Greek church, reigned 649-655. The second, called also Martinus I., in whose time Photius was con- demned, 882-884. The third, called by some Martinus II., 942-946. The fourth, in whose time the Sicilian A r espers date, who supported Charles of Sicily against Peter of Arragon, and excommunicated Michael Palseologus, 1281-1285. The fifth, who put an end to the schism of the West, presided at the council of Constance, and laid his ban on the partizans of John Huss, 1418-1431. MARTIN, a king of Sicily, died 1409. MARTIN, , a French botanist, bora 1729. MARTIN, Aime, a French scholar and miscel- laneous writer, the pupil and friend of Bernard St. Pierre, whose widow he married. Born at Lyons 1786, died 1847. MARTIN, Andrew, a Fr. Cartesian, 1621-95. MARTIN, Benjamin, a famous optician and mathematical writer, who was originally a plough- boy in Surrey, and, contriving to educate himself, gave lectures on experimental philosophy, and car- ried on the business of an optician and globe maker in London, 1704-1782. MARTIN, Bernard, a Fr. classic, 1574-1639. MARTIN, Bernard, a Fr. chemist, b. 1629. MARTIN, C, an East India officer, 1732-1800. MARTIN, David, a Fr. protestant, 1639-1721. MARTIN, David, a Scotch artist, died 1797. MARTIN, Dom Cl., a Fr. ecclesiast., 1619-96. MARTIN, E., a French jurisconsult, 1714-93. MARTIN, F., a French navigator in 1601. MARTIN, F., a French governor of Pondi- cherry, last century. MARTIN, G., a Fr. bibliographer, 1679-1761. MARTIN, G., a French theologian, last century. MARTIN, J., a French savant, 1684-1751. MARTIN, J., a Fr. medical writer, 17th cent. MARTIN, J. B., a French painter, 1659-1735. MARTIN, J. B., a French singer, 1767-1837. MARTIN, M. J. D., a Fr. author, 1756-1797. MARTIN, Peter, a Fr. admiral, 1752-1820. MARTIN, R., a Spanish monk, died 1286. MARTIN, R., a Fr. mathematician, died 1811. MARTIN, Sarah, distinguished by her philan- thropical eiforts for the reform of criminals, and the education of the poor, was born in the neigh- MAR bourhood of Yarmouth, 1791, and supporter self by dressmaking. She began her e;ir< requesting permission to read the Scripfl prisoners, and became at last a great moralt prison reformer. She died in 1843. A volume of poems, written by her, lias since published. MARTIN, Thomas, an antiquarian, bo Thetford, of which place he wrote a history, died 1771. MARTIN, Thomas, a Roman Catholic tary, one of the six commissioners appoinl conduct the process against Cranmer, died 1 MARTIN, Thomas Ignatius, a Frew bourer, remarkable for his visions concerning XVIIL, to whom he communicated on the ject in 1816. Died suddenly, 1834. MARTIN, V., an Italian composer, 1754- MARTIN, W., an Eng. naturalist, 1767-1 MARTLNE, George, a Scotch physio] of medical and philosophical works, 1702-17 MARTINEZ, G., a Spanish painter, 16th MARTINEZ, H., a Mexican mathema., 1 MARTINEZ, J. L., a Span, painter, 1612- MARTINEZ, S., a Spanish painter, 1602- MARTINEZ, T., a Spanish painter, died 1 MARTINEZ, Pasqualis, the founder ( theosophical sect of Martinists, and presuu be a Portuguese Jew. He commenced his in tion in the masonic lodges of France, 1754 died at St. Domingo, 1779. Saint-Martin, confounded with him, was his disciple. Saint Martin. MARTINI, F. H. W., a Ger. naturalist, 172 MARTINI, G. H., a Sax. numismat., 172! MARTINI, Guiseppe San, an admirable poser and hautboy player, was born at Milan. came to England in 1723, and even at the time the works of Handel, Corelli, and Geminiani all the fashion, the compositions of Martini a remarkable degree ot popularity. He ws pointed director of the chamber music to Fred prince of Wales, in which situation he cont till about the year 1740, when he died. MARTINI, J. P. E , a Rhen. music., 1741- MARTINI, M., a Ger. theologian, 1572-1<J MARTINI, M., a Chinese missionary, 161j MARTINI, Padre Giambattis musician and composer, was born at BojM 1706. He was much celebrated as ing his life. His chief compositions were 1 service of the church. His fame, however, u pally rests on his works on the theory and f tice of music. He died of dropsy in the ell 1784. MARTINI, S., an Italian painter, 12 MARTINIERE, Anthony Arors zen De La, a French writer and comp tary to the king of Naples, and au. of l phical, Histor., and Critical Dictionary,' 1 MART1NOZ, H., a Fr. clockmaker, 1 MARTOS, Ivan Petrovitch, a fame sculptor, counsellor of state, and Academy at St. Petersburg, 1755-1835. MARTYN, Henry, a celebrated missi bora at Truro, in Cornwall, 18th February, His father, though a miner, was a very si_ Serson distinguished by his piety and intelu" fenry was educated at the grammar school 470 MAR e town, and surpassed all his school-fellows I assical acquirements. At the age of fourteen e a candidate for a scholarship in Corpus i College, Oxford, but failed. Having re- to continue a year longer at school, he after- became a student in St. John's College, bridge, to which be was led, chiefly to enjoy ciety of an intimate and valued friend, whose character and conversation produced a corn- revolution in the views of Martyn in regard ion. But his conversion, so far from inter- with his preparations at the university, to increase his ardour in literary pursuits, g him to regard time as a talent, for the improvement of which he was accountable. Jated to diligence by this high motive, he be- an indefatigable student, and his industry was d by the highest academical honours being " to him, for he was declared ' Senior Wran- m Jan., 1801, before he had completed his k year. He now engaged in superintending .dies of some pupils, while, at the same time, assiduously preparing for the election in 1802, when he was chosen Fellow of St. jsj and almost immediately after earned off" the prize for Latin prose composition which the ty had to bestow. Unseduced, however, by dour of these academical successes, Mr. Mar- res strongly ran in a totally different direc- he resolved on dedicating his life and ener- the service of God in the missionary cause. He a communication with the Church Mission- ty. This part of his plan, however, hav- ahandoned, in consequence of some family which made his sister dependent on him for his friends applied, and at length sue- in obtaining for him a chaplaincy in the East ~)mpany's service. Shortly after his arrival .tta, where he was to wait for his appoint- be was overtaken by fever, which nearly his life ; but the long interval of leisure him, before he was completely convalescent, ustriously improved in acquiring a know- Hindostanee,andmakinghimself acquainted state and feelings of the English residents After a lapse of five months, he received ntment to Dinapore, and his duty there read prayers to the soldiery at the barracks y sen ice he was allowed to perform for was no accommodation for their sitting, a was dispensed with. But not content with idgement of his work, he extended his by commencing to preach to the natives in ular language of India, and to this, at novel service, a great crowd chiefly of repaired. This service he continued, at the superintending five schools which lie had at Dinapore, visiting hospitals, and affbrd- jious instruction to all who came to him. tion to these public labours, he was privately \ in revising the sheets of the Hindostanee of the New Testament which he had exe- ntending the Persian translation which committed to the care of Sabot, and [ting the study of Arabic, in which language y meditated another translation. In the 1809 he removed to Cawnpore, where he under many disadvantages, being without , and having to preach in the open air, ex- MAB to the violence of the heat. Towards the end of that year, he began his ministrations to the heathen. ' A crowd of mendicants, whom, to pre- vent perpetual interruptions, he had appointed to meet on a stated day for the distribution of alms, frequently assembled before his house in immense numbers, presenting an affecting spectacle of ex- treme wretchedness. To this congregation he deter- mined to preach the Word of Life. The following Sunday he preached again to the beggars, in number about five hundred, and on the last day of the year he again addressed them to the amount of nearly six hundred. Afterwards Martyn, having become proficient in the knowledge and use of the Persic, resolved to extend his missionary labours to Persia. He accordingly established himself at Shiraz, with the immediate view of revising his Persian and Arabic translations of the New testament with the aid of some learned natives. In that place he remained ten months, improving the time that was not occupied on his version in religious discussions with the Moolahs and Soofis. In crowded assem- blies of those literary Persians, he appeared the single unassisted advocate of the Christian faith, and yet by his zeal, tempered by judgment, he ex- cited great stir and interest in religious inquiries. In that place besides the complete version of his New Testament, he completed, also, a Persian trans- lation of the Psalms, ' a sweet employment,' as he says, ' which caused six weary moons that waxed and waned since its commencement to pass un- noticed.' He had contemplated the presentation of his New Testament translation to the Shah in person, and for this purpose he went to Tabriz, where the king was sojourning in his summer camp. But the British Ambassador being absent, an intro- duction could not be obtained, and for want of that indispensable formality, admission was denied. At Tabriz he was seized with malignant fever, on the abatement of which, it was judged essential for the preservation of his life, that he should immedi- ately remove beyond the enervating influences of an Eastern climate. By hurried movements he endeavoured to reach Constantinople ; but at Tocat his sickness assumed an alarming appearance, and in that place, on the 16th October, 1812, this pious, devoted, and learned man 'fell asleep in Jesus, having earned a reputation which placed him in the foremost ranks of modern mission- aries. [R.J.] MARTYN, John, F.R.S., professor of botany at Cambridge, author of a ' History of Rare Plants,' ' The Grub Street Journal,' an edition of 'Virgil's Georgics,' &c, 1699-1768. MARTYN, Thomas, F.R.S., son of the preced- ing, dist. as a botanical and antiquar au., 1736-1825. MARTYR, Peter, one of the early protestant reformers, was born in 1500 at Florence. At first an Augustine monk, and even priest of a convent, he was so shaken in his religious views by studying the writings of Luther and Zwingli, that he aban- doned Romanism, and was obliged for this honest change of opinion to seek personal safety in exile. On the invitation of Edward VI. he came over to England, and occupied a chair of divinity at Ox- ford. In the reign of Mary he quitted England, and took up his abode in Zurich, where he died in 1562. He has written a number of theological treatises, among which his 'Loci Communes,' 471 MAR and some of his Commentaries, are best known at the present day. As a proof of the bigotry of the age it may be added, that the remains of his wife, who had died and been buried at Oxford, were dug up in the reign of Mary, and ignominiously thrust beneath a dunghill. [JE.J MARUCELLI, G. S., anltal. paint., 1586-1646. MABVELL. AVDBEW, a statesman and poet, was born at Hull on the 15th of November, 1620. Little is known of his education and early history, and in after life he was more distinguished by his firmness and honest adherence to constitutional principle, than either by his genius as a poet or his eminence as a statesman. He began his par- liamentary career in 1660, as representative of his native town. He was deeply imbued with the spirit of the long parliament, and brought its con- stitutional principles, and wonderful aptness for the transaction of collective business, into the parlia- ments of the restoration, in a great measure consist- ing of men of a totally different stamp. He was the first great practical advocate of the important prin- ciple that the constituency should know the con- duct of its representative, and that although he need not be a delegate merely to do what they require, yet he must be so far responsible that he is to be removed when he ceases to represent their senti- ments. He wrote a series of letters to his consti- tuents, describing the proceedings of parliament, and accounting for his own conduct ; and the electors on their part adhered to him with zealous steadiness. There is a well-known anecdote of his declining a bribe from the lord treasurer be- cause he had enough for a frugal dinner. Some of his pamphlets on the affairs of the day are valu- able for their clearness and correctness ; but his poetry is seldom read. The only office ever held by him was that of secretary of an embassy to the northern powers. He died on the 16th of August, 1678. [J.H.B.] House of Marvell, Highgate, London.] MARX, Jacob, a Germ, physician, 1745-1789. MARY, queen regnant of England, daughter of Henry VIII. and Catherine of Arragon, was born at the commencement of 1516, and succeeded her brother, Edward VI., in 1553. Her adherence to the Church of Rome gave occasion to the pro- clamation of her cousin, Lady Jane Grey, who was bnortly afterwards beheaded, and the party who MAR. had elevated her to the throne completely sub In 1554, Mary was married to Philip of Devoting herself to the restoration of the R Catholic religion, nearly 300 persons suffer the stake as heretics in the short spa four years. Happily for the nation, she died after the loss of Calais, November 17, 156f was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth! MARY, companion of William III. oi throne of England, was the eldest daught James II. by Ann Hyde, daughter of the lord cellor Clarendon. She was born 1662, marr William, prince of Orange, in 1677, and cai the throne in the interest of the protestfl gion after the Revolution of 1688. She di the thirty- third year of her age, 1694. MARY BEATRIX of Este, queen com James II., was married to him in 1673. Sh< birth to a son in 1688, who was acknowledg James III., by Louis XIV. Died 1708. MARY of Lorraine, queen consort of land, and mother of Mary Stuart, was the dat of Claude, duke of Guise. She was marri Louis II. of Orleans in 1534, and to Janw king of Scotland, in 1538. In 1542 she WJ a widow, and became regent for her infant d ter. Died 1560. MARY, queen of Scotland, was born i year 1542. The day of her birth, like the important events of her history, has been I of controversy, but it takes no wider range between the 8th and the 12th of December, father, James V., who died on the 13th, just of her birth ere he expired. The time gloomy and critical one for royalty in Sco but the frail infant survived contests and c< sions, in which one strong enough to take n them might have been sacrificed. While st yet in infancy, it was part of the policy of VIII. to unite the kingdoms by marrying '. his son Edward. He set about the accorc ment of this scheme with a characteristic haste, which roused the spirits of the Scots a it. The young queen's mother, M ary of Loi strengthened that alliance with the French which political events had created in Scotlar the Scottish statesmen settled the difficult England by sending the child to France sixth year. Her education was essentially t the French court, and it affords a general s< of some of the moral difficulties connecte her career, to collect from the sad history times the principles which she must hav imbibed. She was early affianced to the Da: and as he became King Francis II. in 15i' then was queen of France and Scotland. ground of Elizabeth's illegitimacy, the I party claimed for Mary the sovereignty of E as a descendant of the sister of He the union of the French and Scotti>h croi her person, made the claim formidable.] death of Francis, however, after reij months, broke the main element of pretensions. She was now only Q land, a country poor and turbulent. I with bitter regret the brilliant com 1562, she was received with a rude joy calculated to reconcile her to the change sordid and dreary chambers of Holyrood 472 MAS ,n were important national affairs in a condition tjrratify her, for in the previous year protestan- \p having been established, her religion had been iijpressed, and its profession rendered a crime. jihad many contests with Knox and ' the lords ihe congregation,' in which earnestness, zeal, m rugged determination on the one side, were J by feminine Avit and the overawing influence loyal rank on the other. It was on the 29th of h', 1565, that she celebrated her unhappy mar- lie with her worthless connection, Henry, Lord Holey. The next great event in her strange fler, was the murder in her presence of her humble id David Rizzio, the musician, her husband Bng on the assassins. It was on the 10th of fraary, 1567, that Darnley himself was mur- Hd, and the house in which he lived blown up lr the deed was accomplished. Many volumes H been written, and many are evidently in pre- lltion on the question of Mary's accession to the II, and it would be useless to attempt its dis- Hxm within such limits as the present. On the I of May, in the same year, occurred Mary's Ifiage to Bothwell the chief assassin, afact, round tthe main circumstances adduced by her op- ts cluster. On the 17th of June, she was to a retirement, which was virtually an im- nment, in Lochleven Castle. She escaped on ay, 1568, and, defeated on the field of Lang- sought refuge in England. She was received risoner by the jealous queen to whose throne iad asserted pretensions, and lived nineteen a captive. If Elizabeth is to be vindicated for iarshness by the recurrence of efforts to as- lary's right to the English throne, yet it is lined that the English queen threw out in- which tending towards secret assassi- admit of no vindication. After a trial the treason law of England, she was be- at Fotheringay Castle on the 8th of Feb- 1587. [J.H.B.] LCCIO, the name by which ToMMASO commonly known, Masaccio being a nick- i short for Tommasaccio, slovenly Thomas, MAS was born at San Giovanni in the Valdarno, in 1402. His earliest performances were in the Brancacci chapel, in the church del Carmine, at Florence, where he assisted his master Masolino da Panicale at a very early age, and after Masolino's death, continued the series left incomplete by him. The frescoes of Masaccio in this chapel, which con- tains also his most celebrated works, were executed apparently at two distinct periods, before 1430 and after 1434, when the Medici returned to Florence, and during this interval Masaccio may have visited Rome. He was admitted into the company of St. Luke in 1423, and the earlier or more conventional works may have been executed about 1425, com- prising ' The Expulsion from Paradise, ' 4 The Tribute Money,' and perhaps ' Peter Baptizing ;' the others probably ten years later, supposing they were not all completed before 1430, which is quite possible. These works show the state of painting as compared with that of sculpture, exemplified in the gates by Lorenzo Ghiberti, executed at the same time, 1425 being the mean date of the two gates. Masaccio was not behind Ghiberti, but may have owed much to his example, as also to the example of Donatello and Brunelleschi, with the last of whom he studied perspective. The as- sociation of so many men of remarkable ability is perhaps the chief cause of the great advance evident in all the arts in the early part of the 15th cen- tury ; their intercourse developed criticism, the soul of art. Vasari gives us a good .example : when Donatello exhibited his Crucifixion (now in the church of Santa Croce), Brunelleschi remarked that he had attempted the impersonation of the Son of God, while he had made only a vulgar peasant. The works of the Brancacci chapel mark the era of the second epoch of Italian painting, and as the whole, or at least the greater portion, of these frescoes were till lately assumed to be the work of Masaccio, his reputation was second only to that of Raphael for developing the progress of art ; but modern criticism appears to have rectified a com- mon misunderstanding of the text of Vasari, certainly through Vasari's want of precision. The chapel was commenced by Masolino da Panicale, continued by Masaccio, and completed by Filippino Lippi, the son of Masaccio's pupil, Fra Fihppo Lippi ; and it appears that Vasari's original account in the first edition of his Lives was correct, (the statement was left out in the second,) that besides other portions ' Paul Visiting Peter in Prison, ' and ' Peter and Paul before the Proconsul,' the two most lauded compositions of the whole chapel, were the work of Filippino, and executed about forty years after the death of Masaccio. The chief argument is founded on the fact of there being several portraits of men in these frescoes which can only have been executed at the later period ; still, the authenticity of these very portraits seems to rest solely upon the fact of their being published as such by Vasari, and until their authenticity is thoroughly established, the subject is not indisput- ably settled. It is a very difficult and interesting question, very important if true, and we owe its revival to a German and a Dane, Rumohr and Gaye ; but the editors of the new Florentine Vasari (1848) have taken up the argument on the same side with great intelligence : still the main point to be decided is the authenticity of the portraits. 473 MAS The Brancaeci chapel now contains fifteen distinct subjects, eight of which only are attributed by Gave to Masaccio. The completion of the chapel by Filippino raises another question, the date of Masaccio' s death. Vasari and Baldinucci state that he died in 1443, not without suspicion of poison ; at the same time it was currently reported, and it is repeated by Vasari and others, tliat Masaccio died in his 26th year. This, as we know for cer- tain that he was" born 1402, would place his death in 1428, before the death of Masolino, whom he succeeded, and it interferes with other statements, though it is well reconcileable with the incom- plete state of the frescoes of the chapel at his death, which is generally admitted to nave been sudden and early : supposing he died in 1443, as Vasari and Baldinucci state, the incompletion of the chapel is not so well accounted for. Rumohr gives an extract from the cathedral accounts of Florence, which seems to show that Masaccio was living in 1446. The works of Masaccio are of a high order as regards general technical qualities, well drawn, of a fine general character, and dramatic in composition ; and his figures are conspicuous for a simple and grand treatment of drapery, similar in character to those of the now familiar cartoons of Raphael. The difference between these celebrated cartoons and the fresco of Peter and Paul before the Proconsul, by Filippino, is not so much in style, as the great name of Raphael and the inter- vening forty years would lead one to suppose ; but this chapel was notoriously the principal school of Raphael, and nearly every other great painter at the commencement of the sixteenth century. But of course such glory as accrues to Filippino from his restored position is detracted from the reputa- tion of Masaccio. The celebrated figure of Paul in the cartoon of Paul Preaching, is taken from the figure of Paul in the fresco Visiting Peter in Prison, in this chapel, by Filippino, as is now generally assumed ; Rosini, however, in his History of Italian Painting, adheres to the old traditions. (Vasari, Vite, &c, ed Flor. 1846, Seqq ; Rumohr. Italienische Forschungen ; Gave, Cartegyio Inedito d' Artisti; Rosini, Utoria della Vittura Italiano, Pisa, 1848.) [R.N.W.] MASANIELLO, the commonly received name of Tomaso Aniello, a fisherman of Kaples, who headed the populace in their revolt against the Spanish viceroy, 1647, when only twenty-five years of age. "His career lasted but nine days, in which time he had 150,000 men under his orders, and was elevated to sovereign authority. He was murdered by four assassins, armed with arquebuses, and as the resistance he commenced never ceased till the Spanish yoke was broken, he has since been venerated as the liberator of his countrv. MASCAGNI, D., an Ital. painter, W7S-1636. MASCAGNI, P., an Ital. anatomist, 1752-1815. MASCARDI, Joseph, an Italian jurisconsult, born in the republic of Genoa, died 1630. Aug us- tin, his nephew, an historian and professor of rhetoric, 1591-1640. MASCH, A. T., a Ger. theologian, 1724-1807. MASCLEF, F., a Fr. Orientalist, 1663-172S. MASCOU, J. J., a Germ, historian, 1689-1762. MASCRIER, J. B. De, a Fr. eccles., 1697-1760. MASDEN, Don J. P., a Sp. histo., 1740-1817. MASENIUS, or MASEN, James, a German MAS Jesuit, known as a Latin poet, thcologiai critic, 1606-1681. MASERES, Francis, Baron, an eminen thematician, grandson of a French refugee, in London, 1731, died 1824. MASETTI, A., an Italian engineer, 1757- MASHAM, Abigail, a cousin of Sarah, di of Marlborough, and fav. of Queen Anne, <L MASHAM, Lady Damaris, daughter c Ralph Cudworth, and wife of Sir Francis Ma father-in-law of the preceding, remarkable f skill in arithmetic, geography, chronology, hi philosophy, and divinity, author of moral am gious discourses, 1658-1708. MASINISSA, an African pi-ince, died b.c MASIUS, or MAES, A., a Belgian Orient and theological writer, 1527-1573. MASKELYNE, Nevil, LL.D., born in don, 1732; died February, 1811, aged set nine: a very eminent British astronomer mathematician : he filled the important of Astronomer Royal with the highest cred forty-six years. To Maskelyne are owing important improvements in practical astroun especially in its application to Navigation : h ertions brought into general use the meth lunar distances. Maskelyne was unfortui obstructed by cloudy weather, in his attempt 1 serve the transit of Venus over the sun's di 6th June, 1761, for which purpose he had St. Helena. We owe him, however, the pla and successful carrying out of the effort to < mine the mean density of the Earth, b; observed deflection of the plummet at the n tain mass Schehallion. There have been few British practical astronomers who are en to rank with Maskelyne. [J.! MASON, Charles, assistant astronom Greenwich Observatory, d. in Pennsylvania 1 MASON, F., a learned divine, about 1566- MASON, John, a nonconformist minister, at Dunmow, in Essex, 1706, died 1763, k as a moralist and miscellaneous writer b] works, entitled ' Self Knowledge,' which has frequently republished, ' Practical Discou ' Christian Morals,' ' Essay on Elocution,' 4 ] on the Power of Numbers, and the Princip Harmony in Poetical Compositions,' ' Essa the Power and Harmony of Prosaic Numbers, A Life of the author, by his relative, John ft Good, was prefixed to an edition of the Knowledge,' published in 1811. MASON, Sir John, a famous statesman i; reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth, died 1566. MASON, William, was born in 1725, and cated at Cambridge. Entering the church father's profession, he held several preterm and was a canon of York long before his d which occurred in 1797. He is now rememl chiefly for having been the editor and biogrs of the poet Gray. In his life-time, however, ht not only esteemed for his accomplishments, | cially in music and painting, but likewise fa 1 in no smll degree as a poet. His 'En Garden,' amidst much dulness, contains pleasing bits of scenery ; and he showed j courage, not unsupported by power of tag and passion, in the attempt he made to natui 474 MAS Greek chorus in the modern drama. His first Elfrida,' is inferior to his second, ' Carac- on which his contemporary fame mainly [w.s.] ASOTTI, D., an Ital. lithotomist, 1698-1779. ASQUE DE FER. See Saint Mars. ASSA, N., a Venetian medical wr., d. 1563. A.SSANEILLO. See Masanieleo. ASSARD, J., a French engraver, 1740-1822. WSSARI, L., an Italian painter, 1569-1633. dSSARIA, A., an Italian physician, 1510-98. \SSE, J. B., a French painter, 1687-1767. i\SSENA. Andre Massena was born of le parentage at Nice in 1758. He entered rench army as a common soldier, and rose to :e of Rivoli, prince of Esslingen, and marshal mce. He highly distinguished himself in the Italian campaigns of Napoleon; and in 1799 he mmander-m-chief in Switzerland. He saved by the victory of Zurich, which he gained he Austrians and Russians in the autumn of ear. In 1800 he defended Genoa with re- le obstinacy and skill against the Austrians, ultimately starved into capitulation. In Massena commanded in Italy, and defeated hduke Charles at Caldiero. In 1809 he zed himself greatly at the battle of Esslin- r Aspern) in Germany, and by his firmness the French imperial army from utter de- on. In 1810 Napoleon sent Massena with rful force to conquer Portugal, and ' to he English and their Sepoy general into the But the genius and firmness of Wellington too much for the ' Spoiled child of Victory,' na was called in the French armies. The Torres Vedras were a barrier that the marshal dared not assail, and he retired ortugal in 1811, showing consummate mili- """ in the conduct of his retreat, and equal in his treatment of the unhappy country was the scene of the war. Massena was in d at Toulon at the time of Napoleon's first m in 1814. He promptly acknowledged III. ; but joined Napoleon in the next year return from Elba. He commanded the na- rd of Paris during the hundred days. Massena died in 1817. [E.S.C.] IEU, J. B., a French prelate, 1743-1818. IEU, W., a Fr. archaeologist, 1665-1722. SILLON, Jean Baptiste, the most cele- pulpit orator of France, was the son of a public, and born in 1663, at Hieres, in Pro- When only nineteen, he entered into the *ion of the Oratory, and immediately at- notice by the elegance of his manner and 1 style of his elocution. The first public of his eloquence were made at Vienne, performed the duties of Theological Tutor, grand occasion on which his powers of ora- strongly enlisted, was on the death of Villars, archbishop of that place. The ce of his funeral oration called forth uni- iration, and his fame being widely ex- he was invited to one of the principal in Paris. Although several preachers of were already stationed in that capital, determined to reach the summit of fame into a new path by himself, and he ac- his design ; for his pulpit addresses 475 MAS were in so novel a style, and so irresistibly attrac- tive, so plain and level to every understanding, yet so replete with pathos, and so distinguished for profound and accurate knowledge of human nature, his language was so copious, and his mastery over the passions so consummate, that he was acknow- ledged, with universal consent, to surpass all his contemporaries. Having frequent opportunities of preaching before the Court, he on one occasion had the finest compliment paid him that a preacher ever received. ' Father,' said the Monarch, ' when I hear other preachers, I go away much pleased with them, but when I hear you, I go away much dis- pleased with myself.' One sermon, described by Voltaire in the Encyclopedic, produced an extra- ordinary impression. The subject was ' The small number of the elect,' and so overpowering was the picture he drew of the scenes of the last judgment, ' that the hearers involuntarily started from their seats, and such a general murmur of surprise and acclamation arose as disconcerted the preacher him- self.' But the effect was in consequence greatly increased, and the excitement of the audience was carried to the highest pitch of intensity. The celebrated actor Barron, having gone to hear him, shortly after his settlement in Paris, waited on him in the vestry, and told him to continue as he had begun ; and, at another time, said to a brother actor, who accompanied him, ' my friend, that is the true orator, we are mere players.' Massillou was raised to the see of Clermont, in 1717 a pro- motion for which he was indebted to the Regent, who, after attending a course of sermons, was im- pressed with the highest ideas' of the preacher's merits. The publication of his famous sermons, entitled, ' Petit-careme,' two years after, procured him an honour of a different kind, the highest liter- ary honour that is known in France, that of being elected a member of the Academy. Massillon now- resided wholly and in complete retirement, devoting himself to the duties of his diocese, and being held in high and universal estimation, not only for the splendour of his eloquence and the greatness of his talents, but for his moral and religious worth ; he was a lively companion, a faithful friend, a kind and condescending master, and full of benevolence and charity to the poor. His death took place afc Clermont, in Sept., 1742, when he had nearly completed his seventy-fifth year. His published discourses occupy 14 volumes. [R.J.] MASSINGER, Philip, was born in 1584, at Salisbury, or perhaps at Wilton, the seat of the earl of Pembroke, in whose household his father held some office. He was sent to Oxford in his eighteenth year, probably with a view to his enter- ing the church. He left the university without taking a degree, and, for reasons which are not known, was thrown on the world penniless and unpatronised : his best editor, Giffbrd, infers from Eassages in his works that he had become a Catho- c. In 1606 he came to London ; and he was al- ways afterwards a play-writer, conferring on our language some of its dramatic masterpieces, but bearing even more than his share in the poverty which was suffered by almost all the dramatists of that brilliant and singular era. The particulars of his history are very obscure. We know, how- ever, that he wrote jointly with others, especially Fletcher, Middleton, and Rowley. A melancholy MAS MAT letter, written about 1613 to Henslowe the fheat- ! writer, who is said to have assisted Lord Tie ri'.al manager, shows him to have been then in ! of Cherbury in his life of Henry VIII., died ^ great pecuniary distress ; lie himself, in a dediea- MASUCCI, A. lion, dated 1632, thankfully acknowledges that the bounty of one or two men of rank had kept him alive ; and the obscurity of his sad career, at its close, is proved by the register of St. Saviours' in Southwark. which, in 1640, notes the burial of j who took orders at Oxford, but was Buspenjfl 'Philip Massingor, a stranger.' The famous col- nonconformity in 1633, and afterwards settle lection of manuscript plays, which the cook of the herald Warbnrton used for covering pies, contained twelve attributed to Massinger. Giftbrd an Italian painter, 1691-jH MASUCCIO, a famous architect and scu of Naples, flourished 1230-1305. MATANI, A., an Ital. mathematician, 173( MATHER. Richard, a native of Land names thirty-seven plays as being his in whole or in part, and prints eighteen of these. Some critics insist on placing Massinger next after Shakspeare; and it is at least indisputable that he is one of the very best of the Old English dramatists. He wants comic humour, but nas prodigious vigour, more, Indeed, than almost any of his contemporaries, in the conception and delineation of character; his representations of society abound in traits of keen observation, and boldly independent thinking ; his situations and incidents are devised with great originality and force; and his serious passages, though often wanting in natural pathos, have a lofty melancholy both of imagery and feeling, and a peculiar grace and melody of expression. He is known to play-goers by ' A New Way to Pay Old Debts;' his 'Maid of Honour' also has been re- stored to the stage ; and Rowe's ' Fair Penitent ' is a plagiarism from his ' Fatal Dowry.' Among his other works may be named especially the gloomy tragedy of ''The Unnatural Combat,' and ' The City Madam,' an extraordinarily spirited pic- ture of actual life, idealized into a semi-comic strain of poetry. [W.S.] MASSINGHERD, Sir Oswald, of Lincoln- shire, distinguished as a knight of St. John of Jerusalem, last prior of that order in Ireland, and last Turcopolier of Malta, born 1490 ; installed prior at the instance of Cardinal Pole in the reign of Queen Mary, 1550. MASSON, A., a French ecclesiastic, 1620-1700. MASSON, A., a French painter, 1636-1702. MASSON, C. F. P., a Fr. author, 1762-1807. MASSON, Francis, a Fr. sculptor, 1745-1807. MASSON, Francis, a Scot, botan., 1741-1805. MASSON, Innocent C, a general of the Car- thusian order of monks and learned wr., 1628-1703. MASSON, Jean, a French protestant, who took refuge in England on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, became tutor in the family of Bishop Burnet, and wrote some theological and critical works, flourished about 1680-1750. His brother, Samuel, part conductor with Jean of a ' Criti- cal Journal,' and pastor of the English church at Dort ; dates unknown. MASSON, Jean Papire, a French historian and geographical writer, author of ' Annals of France,' &c, 1554-1611. His brother, Jean, historian of Jeanne Dare, died 1630. MASSUET, the name of two learned Benedic- tines, the earliest of whom, Rene, was author of the ' Annals ' of his order, ' Lives of the Saints,' and an edition of ' Irenacus,' 1666-1716. The later, named Peter, became a protestant, and wrote several poor histories, 1699-1734. MASTERS, R., an antiquarian writer, 1713-98 MASTERS, Thomas, a schol New England. Died there 1669. Samuel eldest son, born in Lancashire 1626, accompi his father to America 1635, but returning to i land in 1650, was actively employed as a mix in various parts of the three kingdoms, and 1671. Increase, youngest son of in New England 1635, took his degree of B.j Harvard college 1656, and joined his broth Ireland 1657. He was afterwards known deputy to the English government in the can colonial freedom, and takes rank in literature religious essayist and historian, died 1723. < ton-Mather, D.D., son of the preceding, am most eminent of the family, was born at B( 1663, died 1728. His works are very nume: but the principal of them are ' An Ecclesiat History of New England,' 'The Christian Phi pher,' ' Psalterium Americanum,' and ' The \ ders of the Invisible World,' which is an ace of the trials of witches, with observations or operation of spirits in association with men. MATHIAS. See Matthias. MATHIAS, an emper. of Germanv, 1557-1 MATHIAS, C, a German savant,' 1584-16; MATHIAS-CORVINUS, one of the gre kings of Hungary, was son of John Hunnh born in Transylvania 1443, succeeded Ladislat 1458, crowned in 1464, after he had adva nearly to the walls of Vienna, and compellec emperor to recognize him, became king of B mia 1469, conquered Austria 1485, died 1490. MATHIAS, Thomas James, a writer in department of polite literature and criticism, became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridg 1776, and died at Naples 1835. Besides ' Pursuits of Literature,' and other publication English, he is the author of several works in | ian, which he wrote with great facilitv. MATHILDA, MATHILDE. Scc'Matiu MATHON-DE-LA-COUR, James, a Fr mathematician and experimental philosoi 1712-1790. His son, Charles Joseph, a sclj and miscellan. wr., b. 1738, exec, at Lyons 17; MATIGNON, James Goyon De, a marsh France, distinguished at the battles of J! Rocheabeille, and Montcontour. 1! the first to recognize Henry of Nai death of Henry III., and officiated as constat! his coronation, 1525-1597. MATILDA. The queens and princesses ol name are 1. Saint Matilda, wife of HenrJ Fowler, and queen of Germany, died 9<j8| Matilda, countess of Tuscany, boi ceeded her father, Boniface ill., 1054, ma successively Godfrey Le Bossa, son of the dnfi Lorraine, and Guelph, son of the duke of Ba;l died 1115. This princess is remarkable in hi) for her devotion to the papacy, whii with vast possessions, and thereby laid and poetical ! tion of long-continued wars between tin 476 w MAT je emperors. 3. Matilda, wife of William the pnqueror, daughter of Baldwin V., count of landers, and of Adela, princess of France, married I the duke of Normandy 1054, crowned queen of hgland 1068, died 1083. She had eleven chil- !<?n, the hest known of whom are Robert, jilliam Rufus, and Henry Beaufort. 4. Saint Jatilda, daughter of Malcolm king of Scotland, id queen consort of Henry I. of England, to nom she was married in 1100, died 1118. 5. Utilda, or Maud, daughter of the latter, born (00, was married to Henry V., emperor of Ger- jiny, 1111, Henry dying in 1125, she was united Ho years afterwards to Geoffrey Plantagenet, *1 of Anjou, and in 1135 succeeded to the rone of England by the death of her father. je was crowned, after vanquishing her rival kphen, 1141, but afterwards suffered a reverse, if took refuge in France, where she died 1167. ier the death of Stephen, her son by Geoffrey jintagenet, succeeded as Henry II. 6. Ma- Ida, countess of Angouleme and la Marche, jtrished 1179-1233. 7. Matilda Caroline, lighter of Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, jnddaughter of the princess Sophia of Zell, and i er of George III., bora 1751, married to Chris- !p VII., and became queen of Denmark in the rir of his succession 1766, divorced upon a flrge of adultery with Count Struensee, 1772, (|1, after much suffering, in the twenty-fourth jr of her age, 1775. IATSKO, J. M., a Hungarian astron., 1721-96. IATSYS, or MESSIS, Quintin, a Flemish titer, known as 'the blacksmith of Antwerp,' fling been originally a blacksmith or farrier, was In in 1460. He is the subject of an interesting U story which relates that he fell in love with 'tjdaughter of an artist, whose hand was only to tpbtained by a master of the same profession ; H 1529. He had a son, named John, who Jpted in the same style. ATTATHIAS. See Maccabeus. ATTEI, L., an Italian poet, 1622-1705. ATTEIS, P. De, a pain, of Naples, 1662-1728. ATTHiEI, C. F., a Pruss. savant, 1744-1811. ATTH^US, A., a Dutch jurisct, 1635-1710. ATTHESON, J., a Dutch music, 1681-1764. ATTHEW, the writer of the gospel so called, a publican or collector of the taxes imposed he Romans, who became one of the twelve Rties. He wrote his gospel from 30 to 40 years Christ, some writers say in the Hebrew or Ppc. The probability is, that one was written ebrew, a.d. 37 or 38, and another in Greek Bhe Gentiles 61. Tradition states that he died ttjthiopia. He is sometimes called Levi. ATTHEW, the first of the name, duke of IJaine, and a companion-in-arms of Frederick Urossa, reigned 1139-1176. The second, m 122( 1-1251. lATl'HEW, Tobtas, successively bishop of Miam, and archbishop of York, distinguished for Homing and virtues, was born in Bristol 1546, H1628. His son, of the same name, was a cour- II accomplished as an artist and man of letters, B tcte d the part of a Jesuit spy, 1578-1655. l\TTHE W of Westminster, one of the most Table, and most scrupulously accurate fathers Higlish history, was a Benedictine monk of the MAU Abbey of Westminster, and lived at an uncertain period in the 14th century. His history modelled on the style of Matthew Paris, extended to 1307, and was continued seventy years later by an- other hand. MATHEWS, Charles, an English comedian, with powers of mimicry never excelled, was born in 1776. His talents were various, and he had the rare capacity of creating characters out of slender materials given by the writers of his en- tertainments, which he denominated ' Mathews at Home.' To these monologues the comedian resorted, in the first instance, to occupy the inter- vals that occurred between his stage-engagements ; but they proved so successful as to command ulti- mately his undivided attention. He died in 1837. [J.A.H.] MATTHEWS, T., an English admiral, d. 1751. MATTHIAS, supposed to have been one of the seventy disciples, and the one chosen by lot to fill the plase of Judas as an apostle, is said to have E reached in Cappadocia, and to have died there. [is history is uncertain. MATTHIAS, the name of several high priests of the Jews, commencement of the Christian era. MATTHIEU, P., a French histor., 1563-1621. MATTHISSON, Frederic Von, a lyric poet of Saxony, author of the ' Adelaide,' the music to which was composed by Beethoven, 1761-1831. MATTIOLI, L., an "Italian painter, 1662-1741. MATTIOLI, P. A., an Ital. naturalist, 1500-77. MATTOCKS, Isabella, an actress, 1746-1826. MATURIN, Charles Robert, descended from a French family, who fled their country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, was bora in Dublin, 1782. He was educated for the church, in which he became a curate, and wrote some dis- courses directed against the errors of Rome. He acquired somewhat more celebrity, however, as a novelist and writer for the stage, and is said to have been an eloquent preacher, died 1825. MATURIN, Henry, an Irish clergyman, author of several tragedies and novels, 1772-1842. MATURIN O, an Italian painter, died 1527. MATY, Matthew, a Dutch physician, settled in England, known as a miscellaneous writer and librarian to the British Museum, born about 1718, died 1776. His son, Paul Henry, one of the librarians of the British Museum, and secretary to the Royal Society, 1745-1787. MAUBURNE, J., a Flem. ascetic, 1460-1502. MAUCROIX,'F. De, a Fr. transla., 1619-1708. MAUDUIT, A. R,, a Fr. mathema., 1731-1815. MAUDUIT, Israel, son of a dissenting min- ister, known as a political wr., London, 1708-87. MAUDUIT, M., a Fr. theologian, 1644-1709. MAUGARD, A., a French author, 1739-1817. MAULEON, A. De, a Fr. historian, died 1653. MAUNDREL, H., a eel. traveller, date 1697. MAUNOIR, P. J., a French theolog., 1606-83. MAUPEOU, Rene Charles De, born in Paris 1688, became vice-chancellor in 1763, d. 1775. MAUPEOU, Rene Nicolas Charles Au- gustin De, son of the preceding, was born 1714, and became chancellor of France 1768. His char- acter was that of a low and corrupt intriguer, and he preserved his influence with Louis XV., by pay- ing the most servile court to the king's mistress, Dubarry. In 1771 he banished the parliament of 477 MAU Paris, and substituted a royal council for it, called in derision 'the Maupeou parliament.' He was exiled to his own estates on the recall of the parliament by Louis XVI., 1774, and died peace- ably in 1792. His last act was a gift of 800,000 francs to the nation. [E.R.] MAUPERCHE, II., a French painter, 1606-86. MAUPERTIUS, P. L, Moreau De, one of the most celebrated mathematicians and astronomers of France, 1698-1759. MAUR, St., a French Benedictine of the 6th cmturv, whose name was adopted by_ a congrega- tion of religious persons in the period between 1618 and 1627. This order soon acquired author- ity over more than a hundred religious houses, and is famous for the number of learned men it has produced. MAURAND, Peter, a leader of the Albi- genses in the 13th century, born 1199. MAUREPAS, Jean Frederic Philippeaux, Count De, a French statesman, born 1701, flour- ished at the court of Louis XIV., from 1715 to 1749, when he was banished by the intrigues of Madame de Pompadour. He was recalled to the ministry by Louis XVI., in 1774, and it was by his advice that the French government aided the Americans in their war of independence ; d. 1781. MAURICE, elector of Saxony, celebrated as the founder of German protestantism, born 1521 ; killed in battle 1553. MAURICE, A., a Swiss minister, 17th century. MAURICE, F. W., a Swiss agricul., 1750-1826. MAURICE of Nassau, prince of Orange, one of the founders of the Dutcb republic, was the son of William I., prince of Orange, and was about eighteen years of age when the latter was assas- einated in 1584. It is explained in the article William how the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain was occasioned by the resolve of Philip to domineer over the protestant freedom of the country by the introduction of the inquisition. It is sufficient to add here, that the death of the stadtholder was followed by the re-annexation of the southern provinces to the Spanish crown, while the northern raised Maurice to the stadthol- dership, and refused the treacherous peace that was offered to them by the duke of Parma. From his accession to power in 1584 till 1609, Maurice continued the war of independence, the comman- ders opposed to him being Count Mansfeldt, the duke of Parma, the archduke Albert, or, strictly speaking, Albert's wife, Isabella, (* the only man in her family'), and last of all Spinola. After the capture of Ostend on the one side, and the strong fortress of Slnyfs on the other, and repeated proofs that, in the persons of Maurice and Spinola, two of the greatest masters of war were opposed to each other, Spain offered to treat with the united provinces on the basis of their independence, and in 1609 a truce of twelve years was agreed upon. In this interval the Dutch republic made immense progress, but all the fruits of liberty were distaste- ful to Maurice, whose tendencies were to absolute authority, supported by his religious zeal for the strictest form of Calvinism. Accordingly, in the Arminian controversy it suited his purpose to favour Gomarus, and in 1618, the synod of Dort being convened, which determined in favour of 1 Predestination,' he arrested the chiefs of the op- MAX posite party, and sent Barneveklt, the p< statesman, to the block, while Ledenberg es the rack by stabbing himself, and the 1< Grotius was consigned to perpetual imprison The remainder of Maurice's life was such Neophyte of blood deserved. The two s< Barneveldt stirred up popular commotions venge the death of their aged father, and fol him to the scaffold in 1623. In 1621, ala truce with Spain had expired, and Spinola rei the war with such superior strength, that he pelled Maurice, weakened by intestine divj to act on the defensive. He now sunk und mortifications, and died at the Hague, while was invested by the enemy, in 1625, leavin conduct of the war to his" brother and succ Frederick, whom he advised with his last I to recall the Arminians. MAURICE, Thomas, an Oriental schola historian, was descended from a respectable 1 family, and was born at Hertford, 1753. H a minister of the Church of England, and tant- librarian at the British Museum, wh died 1824. His principal works relate b history and antiquities of Hindostan. MAURISIO, G., an Italian chronicler, 131 MAURUS, H., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1632- MAURUS, T., a Roman poet, 1st century MAURY, Jean Siffrein, a French car political orator and literateur, was born of i family in 1746, and was distinguished for hi quence as a preacher and eulogist before the lution. In 1789 he was sent to the esi general as deputy for the clergy of Peronn< took part with the noblesse and the Ga church against Mirabeau. In 1791 he retu Rome, and in 1794 was made a cardinal. In he returned to Paris, and having tendered hie mission to Napoleon, became, four years wards, archbishop of Paris. He again & safety in Rome on the fall of the emperor in and died there 1817. MAUSSAC, P, J. De, a French hel and classical critic, 1590-1650. MAUVILLON, Eleazar, an Italian hisb secretary to Frederick Augustus, king of Pt 1712-1779. His son, James, an historical ^ and friend of Mirabeau, 1743-1794. MAVOR, William Fordyce, a Se clergyman of the Church of England, auth many works, the subjects of which are addi to the education of youth, 1758-1838. MAWE, Joseph, a master of the scienc mineralogy and conchology, author of a 'Tr on Diamonds and Precious Stones,' 'Familial sons on Mineralogy and Geology,' ' The Lin System of Conchology,' &c, b. abt. 1755, d. MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Va ius, one of six contemporary emperors of I reigned 306-312. MAXIMIANUS, Galerius Valeriu shepherd of Dacia, who became emperor o East, 305-311. MAXIMIANUS, Marcus Auremis Va ius Herculius, a Roman soldier, who be colleague of Diocletian in the empire 286. endeavoured to murder his rival Constantir whom he had given his daughter Faustina in riage, and being frustrated by the fidelity o 478 MAX r, strangled himself 310. He was the father contemporary of Maxentius. AXIMILIAN, a saint, martyred 295. AXIMILIAN I., emperor of Germany, son of emperor Frederic III., and of Eleonora of agal was born 1459. He first became an indent prince by his marriage with Mary of undy, the daughter of Charles Le Temeraire 'killed 1477. This match involved him jar with Louis XI., king of France, in which as successful, though he was defeated at a period by the Milanese. In 1486 Maximilian ilected king of the Romans, in 1493 emperor. '.ed in 1516, and was succeeded by his grand- harles V. Maximilian II., son of Ferdi- I., was born at Vienna 1527, elected king of tomans 1562, and succeeded his father as of Hungary and Bohemia, and emperor of 1564. Died 1576. IMILIAN, a duke of Milan, 16th cent. IMILIAN, the name of three sovereign of Bavaria. 1. Emmanuel Maximilian, d elector, known to history from 1685 to h in 1726. 2. Leopold Maximilian, and elector, succeeded 1746, died 1777. 3. lian Joseph, king of Bavaria, born crowned 1799, married his daughter to Beauharnais, son of Josephine, and had his raised to a kingdom 1806, joined the league France 1813. Died 1825. IMINUS, Caius Julius Verus, a herds- Thrace, born of Gothic parents, who became of Rome 235, killed by his troops 238. MINUS, Caius Galerius Valerius, ian peasant, known by the name of Daia, who was named Caesar by the influence wicle Galerius 305, and proclaimed emperor five others had already assumed the purple ned himself after his deft, by Licinius 313. US, Clodius Pupienus, a Roman proclaimed emperor by the senate along cimus Cselius Balbinus, in opposition to us, 237, killed along with Balbinus 238. MUS, Magnus, a Roman soldier, pro- emperor in Britain, and afterwards ac- d in Gaul and all the West 383, k. 388. IUS, Petronius, a noble Roman who emperor under peculiar and tragical cir- in 455, after he had been three times prsefect of Italy, and twice consul, year mentioned, Valentinian III. having " * an outrage upon the wife of Maximus, sinated at his instigation, and the latter his successor by the unanimous voice of in people. In less than three months he was murdered in the streets for lg to fly on the appearance of the fleet ic, king of the Vandals. [E.R.] IMUS, St., the first of the name, an i of Lombard, and bishop of Turin, 5th cen- [The second, a theological writer, died 662. IUS the Cynic, a pagan theurgist, Int of the emperor Julian, 4th century. ""IUS the Greek, an ecclesiastical $a- at Moscow 15th century. IIS of Turin, a bp. of that see, 5th c. IMUS of Tyre, a Phoenician philosopher, ished at Athens in the 2d century. fELL, Sir M., a naval comman., d. 1831. MAZ MAXvVELL, Robert, Lord, one of the lords of the regency for James V. of Scotland, d. 1546. MAXWELL, W. H., a lively English novelist, author of ' Wild Sports of the West,' &c, d. 1851. MAY, Louis Du, a French historian, 17th ct. MAY, Thomas, a republican poet and historian of the parliament of England, 1594-1650. MAYENNE, Charles of Lorraine, duke of, son of Francis, duke of Guise, a famous French commander in the interest of the catholics, 1554- 1611. His son, Henry, chamberlain of France, and governor of Guienne, born 1578, killed at the siege of Montauban, 1621. MAYER, Andrew, a Germ, astron., 1716-82. MAYER, C, a Jesuit and astronomer, 1719-83. MAYER, J. C. A., a Prussian anat., 1747-1801. MAYER, J. F., a German theolog., 1650-1712. MAYER, Tobias, a German astron., 1723-62. MAYET, S., a German writer, 1751-1825. MAYNARD, F., a French poet, 1582-1646. MAYNARD, Sir John, a lawyer and member of parliament, one of the managers of the trials of the earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud, 1602-90. MAYNE, Jasper, an eminent clergyman, who amused himself as a wit and plavwright, d. 1672. MAYNE, John, a Scotch poet, died 1836. MAYNO, J. B., a Spanisli artist, 1594-1654. MAYNWARING, Arthur, a political and mis- cellaneous writer, time of William III., 1668-1712. MAYO, Herbert, M.D., an English physio- logist, died 1852. MAYOR, Thomas, a Spanish friar, 17th cent. MAYOW, John, a physician and physiological writer, author of works on respiration and the muscular motion of animal bodies, 1645-1679. MAYR, G., a German Hebraist, 1565-1623. MAYR, J. De, a German adventurer, 1716-59. MAYRE, J., a Jesuit and poet, 1628-1694. MAZARIN, Julius, an ecclesiastic and states- man, was born at Piscina, in the Abruzzi, in the year 1602. He was educated for the church, and in 1641 received a cardinal's hat. His name is conspicuous in the history of Europe as prime minister of France in the middle of the seventeenth century. But he merely occupied a place created by the powerful genius of Richelieu, who in crush- ing the aristocracy, left to whoever should be prime minister of France during the minority of Louis XIV., one of the most important positions in Europe. Mazarin had to support the crown and the cause of Anne of Austria, during the miserable war of the Fronde, and he was at one juncture obliged to flee for personal safety. Had he been even as able a man as his predecessor, it could not have been expected that he should go- vern as a native Frenchman could, and perhaps nothing better proves how effectively Richelieu had subdued the discordant elements in France, than that an Italian should be able to govern the country. Mazarin died on the 9th of March, 1661. [J.H.B.] MAZ DAK, a Persian communist, who com- menced his agitation about 501, and was put to death after making a convert of the king Khobad. MAZEAS, J. M., a Fr. mathemat., 1716-1801. MAZELINE, P., a French sculptor, 1632-1708. MAZEPPA, John, the f;imous hetman of the Cossacks, whose name has been rendered familiar as one of Byron's heroes, was a native of the pala- 479 MAZ tinate of Podolia, and for some time a page at the court of John Casimir. Being discovered m an in- trigue with the wife of a Polish gentleman, the latter hound him on the back of one of the wild horses of the Ukraine, which carried him to the country of the Cossacks, with whom he remained, and in 1687 became their chief commander. He was a favourite of Peter the Great, who gave him the title of prince, but growing tired of the Russian yoke. Mazeppa allied himself with Charles XII. of Sweden, ana advised him to fight the disastrous battle of Pultowa. After his defeat he retired to Wallachia, and thence to Bender, where he d. 1709. MAZET, Andrew, a Fr. physician, 1793-1821. MAZO-MARTINEZ, J. B. Del, paint, to Philip IV. of Spain, and pupil of Velasquez, died 1G87. MAZOIS. F., a French architect, 1783-1827. MAZURE, F. A. J., a Fr. histor., 1776-1828. MAZZA, Andrew, an Ital. savant, 1724-1797. MAZZA, Angelo, an Italian poet, 1741-1817. MAZZHINGI, Joseph, Count, an eminent opera composer, descended from a family of Tus- cany, but born of an English mother in England, 1765, died at Bath 1844. MAZZOCCHI, A. S., an It. antiq., 1684-1771. MAZZUCCHELLI, The Count Giammaria, an Italian librarian, known as a literary bio- grapher and writer on antiquity, 1707-1765. MAZZUCCHELLI, The Abbe P., a philologist and antiquarian of Milan, flourished 1762-1829. MAZZUCCHELLI, The Chevalier Pier Francesco, called II Morazzone, an Italian pain- ter in the style of Tintoretto, 1571-1626. MAZZUOLI, Francesco, a celebrated Italian painter, called Parmiziano, or the Parmesian, from his native city, 1503-1540. His cousin and scholar, Girolamo, died about 1590. MAZZUOLI, J., a painter of Ferrara, d. 1589. MEAD, Richard, physician to George II., known as a professional writer, 1673-1754. MEADOWCOURT, Richard, a divine and critic, author of Notes on Milton, 1697-1769. MEARA. See O'Meara. MEARES, J., an English navigator in 1788-89. MECHAIN, Pierre Francis Andre, a dist. French astronomer and mathematician, 1774-1805. MEDARD, St., a Fr. prelate, flour. 457-545. MEDE, Joseph, a English divine, 1586-1638. MEDER, P. J., a Russian mineralog., 1763-1826. MEDICI. The illustrious Florentine family of this name begins with Salvestro, who enjoyed the rank of gonfalonier from 1378 to his banish- ment in 1381. John, his son and successor, dis- tinguished for his commercial enterprise, and for promoting the interests of the republic, flourished 1360-1428. Cosmo, one of the sons of the latter, born in 1389, and known as 'the father of his country,' acquired immense wealth and influence, and laid, the foundation of his reputation by the munificent patronage of letters, and the conjunc- tion of consummate statesmanship with his com- mercial enterprise. Many of the first Tuscan families combined against him, but he overcame all rivalry, and was for thirty-four years the sole arbitrator of the republic, and the adviser of the sovereign houses of Italy ; died 1464. Peter I., his son and successor, was born 1414, and became the victim of a revolt in 1469. Lorenzo the Magnificent, son and successor of Peter, was MED born 1448, and governed the state in con with his brother Julian, till the latter wai sinated by the Pazzi in 1478. Escapii this massacre he sustained a war with Ft of Naples, with whom he signed a detinitn in 1480. He then devoted himself to t secution of plans for the advancement of and the arts, revived the Academy of Pisa, another at Florence, collected a vast tre literature, and founded a gallery of art, i: the taste of Michelangelo was formed tu patronage. He died universally beloved a oured, in the zenith of his renown 1492. has been written by Roscoe. He had tin John, who became pope, (see Leo X.), and Peter. The latter, Peter II., succee( enzo, and was deprived of his estates w French invaded Italy in 1494. He finis career in the service of France, and was i 1504, leaving two sons, Lorenzo and Cosm lian II., brother and successor of Peter, a in favour of Lorenzo 1513, and became dtu mours by his marriage with the aunt of Fi He died 1516. Lorenzo II., eldest son < II., came to power by the abdication of hi and governed under the influence of Leo invested him with the duchy of Urbino. 1519, leaving an only daughter. (See Mil Medicis). After some reverses we find th re-established in the sovereignty of Florenc the influence of Charles V., with the title ( The first was Alexander, proclaimed du stabbed by his relative Lorenzino, after p his cousin Hippolytus 1537. Lorknzin derer of Alexander, was assassinated at V order of Cosmo I., 1548. (See Catheb Medici). Cosmo I., called ' The Great,' Florence, and grand duke of Tuscany, was of John the Invincible, descended from ] and was born 1519. He was raised to p the influence of Charles V., and abdicate vour of his son 1564. In 1569 he becair duke of Tuscany, and died 1574. I Maria, son and successor of Cosmo, ft 1541-1587. Ferdinand I., brother and sor of the latter, was also cardinal and gra of Tuscany, 1551-1609. Cosmo II., son i cessor of Ferdinand, 1590-1621. Ferdhtj son and successor of Cosmo II., 161 Cosmo III., son and successor of IVnlii 1642-1723. John Gaston, son a the latter, was the last of the Medici who over Tuscany, being compelled to abdic make way for Francis II., duke of Lorrain freat powers. He flourished 1G7 1-173 aughter, Anne, wife of John "William, Palatine, was the last of the famil MEDICI, The Chevalier Don Luid statesman of Naples, was born 1751, and became director of the police. From this) made his way to the ministry, and in tin Joseph Buonaparte, followed the fortund Bourbons. The arrest of Murat, the pu of Naples, and the struggles with the Cj were among the circumstances in whiclj came a distinguished actor. In 1818 hi a fugitive at Rome, but was in power 1824, and assisted in delivering the kingd the Austrian occupation. Died 1830. 480 MED IMEDICUS, F. C, aBavar. botanist, 1736-1808. iMEDINA, G. B., a Flemish painter, 1660-1711. iMEDINA, J. De., a Span, ecclesiastic, d. 1556. iMEDINA, Sir J., a portrait painter, 1659-1711. 'MEDINA, M. De, a Spanish friar, 16th cent. MEDINA, P. De, a Span, mathemat, 16th ct. 'MEDINA, S. J. P. De, a Span, poet, 17th cent. JMEDINA-SIDONIA, Gaspard Alonzo Pe- \z De Guzman, duke of, governor of Anda- jia in the reign of Philip IV., noted for his at- hpt to render himself independent in 1640. For tiers of the family, see Guzman. .IEDYN, Abon, an Arabian savant, died 1193. j,IEEL, J., a Flemish painter, 1599-1644. IEEN, H., a divine and class, scholar, 1745-1817. ilEEREN, or MEER, John Van De, called lie Old,' a Dutch painter of sea-pieces, land- Kes, and battles, 1627-1691. Another painter She same names, called ' the Younger,' and fa- wifi for his pastoral scenes. 1665-1698. [EGASTHENES, a Gr. historian, 3d cent. e.c. IfEGERLIN, D. F., a Ger. theologian, d. 1778. ItEGISER, J., a Germ, philologist, 1555-1616. llEHEGAN, William Alexander De, de- luded from an Irish family who went into France It James II., distinguished as an elegant mis- Uneous writer, 1721-1766. IJEHEMET ALI, born in 1765 at Cavalla, in 11 part of European Turkey which was for- Macedonia, He entered the Turkish army, red in Egypt against the French. He rose ;es in military rank and political impor- that country ; and at length in 1806 he __jd the post of pacha of Egypt from the i'g government. He finally broke the power i Mamelukes ; and by treacherously inviting | to a festival as friends, he obtained an oppor- j, of which he mercilessly availed himself, to re the last of these formidable cavaliers in He carried on by his sons several cam- in behalf of the sultan against the Waha- " els in Arabia ; and he afterwards sent under his son, Ibrahim Pacha, to the who gave important aid to the Turks in eek war of independence. In 1830 he ob- from the sultan the government of the I of Candia; and he next endeavoured to make master of Syria, which Sultan Mahomed him. He sent a large army to that nt province, and he was thereupon declared bv the Porte, and the Turkish armies were unst him. Mehemet Ali's troops had been ly trained by European officers, and they sultan's in every encounter. Peace was tween the powerful viceroy of Egypt and liated sovereign in 1833, by the interven- the chief states of Europe. Hostilities |out again between them in 1839 ; and, as the Egyptian forces were uniformly vie- over the Turkish. The armed interposi- the English, and the capture of Acre and fortresses on the Syrian coast by our the guidance of Admiral Napier, com- leheiuct AH to come to terms again with , He was obliged to give up Syria ; but [itarv pashalic of Egypt was secured to his children. Mehemet Ali was free from he was an earnest admirer of European and he strove to introduce it among MEL his Egyptian subjects. He showed a rare degree of higli-mindedness and generosity in 1840, by allowing the English mails and travellers to and from India, to pass unmolested as usual through his dominions, at the very time our fleet were blockading his capital, Alexandria, and were de- stroying his fortresses and garrisons in Syria. Me- hemet Ali died in 1848. [E.S.C.] MEHEMET-EFFENDI, a Turkish statesman, known as plenipotentiary of the Sublime Porte at the treaty of Passarovitz 1718, and ambassador to France 1720. He was exiled after the deposition of Achmet III., 1730. His son, Said, ambassa- dor to France in 1742, introduced the printing press, which he established at Scutari. MEHUL, S. H., a Fr. composer, 1763-1817. MEHUS, L., an Italian philologist, died 1791. MEIBOM, or MEIBOMIUS, the name of several learned Germans : 1. John Henry, a publicist and annalist, 1555-1625. 2. His son, of the same names, a physician and professional writer, 1590- 1655. 3. Henry, son of the latter, a physician and historian, 1638-1700. 4. Mark, a relative of the preceding, an antiquar. and Hebraist, 1630-1711. MEIER, J., a Prussian philologist, 1661-1732. MEIGRET, L., a Fr. grammarian, born 1510. MEINER, J. W., a Bavar. philologist, 1723-89. MEINERS, C., a Germ, historian, 1747-1810. MEINTEL, J. G., a Ger. theologian, 1695-1775. MEISNER, B., a German divine, 1587-1626. MEISSNER, A. T., a Ger. novelist, 1753-1807. MELA, Pomponius, a Roman geographer, 1st c. MELANCHTHON, Philip, was born at Bre- theim, in the lower Palatinate, in 1497. His father was an armourer, and his original German name was Schwartzerd, which, in imitation of Reuchlin and other learned men, he Grecized into Melanchthon, or as he used, especially in his latter days, to spell it, Melanthon. Both names denote ' black earth.' After having studied at Pfortzheim for two years, Philip removed to Heidelberg, where he became bachelor of arts ; and on being refused a master- ship, on account of his youth, he repaired to Tubingen, where he became a lecturer. In 1518 he received the high encomium of Erasmus, and, at the instigation of Luther and Reuchlin, he was the same year invited by Frederick, elector of Saxony, to fill the chair of Greek in the recently founded University of Wittemberg. At this seat of learning he was at once under the mighty spirit and influ- ence of his intrepid colleague Luther. His agency in the great Reformation has been overshadowed by that of Luther, but he was ever active and industrious in his own humble and unosten- tatious mode. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to Leipzig, in order to dispute with Eckius, and in 1521 he published his famous Loci Com- munes, a treatise which in his own lifetime went through sixty editions. In 1520 he married the daughter of one of the burgomasters of Wittem- berg, and by her had two sons and two daughters. During the progress of the Reformation he visited many cities, and was active in patronising semi- naries of learning. Nor was his pen idle in the cause ; and though his compositions had not the overwhelming torrent of Luther's rhetoric, yet their quiet, elegant, and self-possessed tone were not the less useful in aiding the emancipation and progress of Germany. He was as earnest as Luther to free 481 21 MEL theology from scholastic subtleties. There is no doubt that many of the plans carried out by the Reformers were the result of Melanchthon's wise suggestions. His Greek scholarship was also of continued and inestimable advantage to Luther in his work of translating the Bible. His own com- mentaries also show how his erudition qualified him to be a lucid, accurate, and elegant expositor. In 1530 Melanchthon was appointed to draw up the general Confession which was presented to the em- peror at Augsburg, and he also wrote the Apology for it. He was invited to dispute with the Sorbonne in 1535, but refused this invitation, as well as a similar and subsequent one from England. After Luther's death, Melanchthon was often sadly perplexed and harassed. The famous measure of the Interim did not find him disinclined to look upon it with a kindly eye. Men of bolder character rallied him on his irresoluteness, and pointed to his failures at Worms, Ratisbon, and Bonn. His orthodoxy was suspected, and he was blamed for the approxima- tion of his views on the Lord's Supper to those of the Swiss Reformers. These rough and unceremonious assaults often plunged him into grief. Melanch- thon died at Wittemberg, 19th April, 1568, aged sixty-three. The amiability, gentleness, and be- nignant purity of Melanchthon ; his zeal, learning, and ingenuity, have placed him next to Luther as an agent in the work of the Reformation. He sometimes fretted at Luther's overbearing vehe- mence, but he venerated its grounds ; and Luther, though he might doubt the propriety of Philip's procedure in some cases, and stigmatize it as mere expediency, was won by his gentle demeanour and unquestioned sincerity. These qualities, like the 4 still small voice,' often commended the new doc- trine where the whirlwind and thunder had only produced terror and revulsion. Melanchthon wrote on many topics besides theology, such as commen- [House of Melanchthon ] MEL edition printed at Basel in 1541. A new e has been in course of preparation and publi< for many years under the editorial care of Bn neider ana Bindseil. The general title is C L'eformatorum, and eighteen quarto volumes alreadv appeared. MELANDERHIELM, Daniel, a Swedisl metrician and astronomer, 172(5-1810. MELANTHUS, a Greek painter, 4th cent MELBOURNE, William Lamp., Vise the Whig statesman whose name and careei familiar to the present generation, was bo: 1779, and commenced his political life in p ment in 1805. The same year he marriei Lady Caroline Ponsonby, known to literati Lady Caroline Lamb, whose tastes were genial with his own, and who shared with the classical studies in which they were. froficient. In 1827 he became "secretar reland, and the next year, succeeding i father's title, entered the House of Lords. 1830 he joined the administration of Earl as home secretary, and in March, 1834, ceeded him as premier. From the autumn o same year to the spring of 1835, he was planted by the duke of Wellington and Sir R Peel, but at the latter period returned to p and retained the premiership, with the exce of a brief retirement in 1839, till the close t public life in 1841. Great difference of op prevails as to the statesmanship of Lord bourne, but he held office during that most t period when the Reform Bill was in agitation it required no mean talents, however well ported by party, to compete with such a state as Sir Robert Peel during subsequent years, was an accomplished gentleman, an a panion, and a finished speaker Di< MELCHTHAL, Arnold of. See Wixci RIED. MELDOLA, Dr. Raphael, principal ol Jewish rabbis in England, celebrated as a th gian and philosopher, died 1828. MELEAGER, a Gr. epigrammatist, 1st c : MELEAGP^R, one of the generals of Alexai who obtained Lydia on the division of the em slain by order of Perdicas, b.c. 323. MELENDEZ-VALDEZ, Jean Antonio, of the most celeb, lyric poets of Spain, 1754-1 MELETIUS, an Egyptian prelate, 4th ceir MELETIUS, a Greek geographer, 1661-17 MELFORT, Duke De. See Di; ME LI, Giovanni, a Sicilian poet, 1 7 1 - 1 - MELISSINO, a Russian officer, 1730-1( MELISSUS, an Eleatic philosop! MELISSUS, Paul, a German pa MELITO, St., a bishop of Sardia, MELITUS, a Greek orator and poet, wh<J! one of the principal accusers of Socrates. MELIUS, Srurius, a Rom. knight, k. b cJ MELLAN, C, a French designer, 1598-16] MELLO, P. De, a Portug. states) MELLON, Harriet, country a was introduced on the London stage tanes on various Greek and Latin classics, and Brinsley Sheridan, and became celebr some historical and philosophical treatises. His 1 marriage in 1814 with Thomas Coutts, works were published at Wittemberg in 4 vols. folio, in 1562 and subsequent years, and were re- printed several times. There had been a previous 482 wealthy banker, and in 1827 with the duke cp Albans. She died in 1837, leaving the bulk M immense property to the granddaughter of hen MEL hand, and youngest daughter of Sir Francis rdett, now known as Miss Burdett Coutts. IELMOTH, William, a learned bencher of | coin's Inn, chiefly remembered as the author of I digions work entitled ' The Great Importance :i Religious Life,' 1666-1743. His son, of the j e name, a classical transl. and poet, 1710-99. IELOZZO, F., an Italian painter, loth cent. lELVIL, Sir James, a Scottish statesman I historian, attached to the person of Mary irt. an. of ' Memoirs,' pub. in 1683, 1530-1606. ffiLVILLE, Andrew, was the youngest of i sons of Richard Melville of Baldovy, near litrose, and was born on the 1st August, 1545. in only two years old he lost his father, who 1 killed' at the battle of Pinkie, but his eldest er took an affectionate charge of him. Placed at the grammar school of Montrose, where e great progress, especially in Latin, he en- St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, in 1559, in rteenth year. Having finished the usual of study, he left the university in 1564, distinguished reputation, departed to the t, attended for two years the university of and was then appointed a regent in the col- f St. Marceon, when he was only twenty-one age. Leaving the place after a siege, he to Switzerland in a state of great fatigue itution, and on arriving at Geneva, ob- the chair of humanity in its academy. On to Scotland in July, 1574, he was im- chosen principal of Glasgow college by al Assembly. His zeal, assiduity, and this high position,were of vast profit to the ed seminary. In 1580, he was translated incipality of St. Mary's College, St. An- where his labours were very abundant in >rm of academic training and discipline, attention was also, and chiefly, devoted to 1 affairs, and he heartily and vigorously his convictions. On the subject of government his views were strictly presby- and the establishment of this form of co- administration in Scotland was mainly to his exertions and influence. Being of the General Assembly, which met at in 1582, he proceeded with an act of in defiance of a royal message to desist. ; at the next meeting of Assembly, he in- severely against the tyrannous measures of * and against those who had brought into the ' bludie gullie ' of absolute power, i charge led to a citation before the 1 for high treason, and though the not proved, he was sentenced to im- , Apprehensive that his life was really he set out for London, and did not re- north till the faction of Arran had been At length he took his former place in , and continued in hearty warfare for of the church. For his share in the son, the king dismissed him from ty, and charged him to confine him- the Water of Tay. The suspension, only brief. On the arrival of James from Denmark, Melville pronounced, rds published, a Latin poem of high d 4 Stephaniskion.' In 1590 Melville rector of the university. In 1594 he MEN was again moderator of the General Assembly. There was evidently after this time a strong desire on the part of the king to make the kirk a mere tool of political power, or to restore episcopacy. Melville strenuously resisted every such attempt, whether made in an open or clandestine form. A tumult in Edinburgh was taken advantage of, its ministers were severely dealt with, and by and by Melville was prohibited from attending church courts, and soon after confined within the precincts of his college. After King James's accession to the throne of England, Melville was summoned to London, with several of his brethren, and severely catechised and reprimanded by the royal pedant. Melville enraged the king by some verses he happened to write on the furniture of the royal altar, was found guilty of scandalum magnafum, finally imprisoned in the Tower, and deprived of his principality. At length, after four years' confinement, he was liberated, principally at the request of the duke of Bouillon, who wished him to occupy a chair in the university of Sedan. Melville arrived there in 1611, entered on his work with zeal, boldly refuted the Arminian- ism of one of his colleagues, and in his seventy- fourth year wrote a beautiful Epithalamium on occasion of the marriage of a daughter of the ducal house. Episcopal government had now been re- stored in Scotland ; but the old man was still such an object of terror that he was not recalled from exile. In 1620 his health, which had been seri- ously impaired during his incarceration in the Tower, failed him, and he died at Sedan in 1622, at the age of seventy-seven. Melville's Latin poems, such as his ' Carmen Mosis,' and those men- tioned already in this article, are classical produc- tions of a high order. He was a scholar ana divine also of no common attainments. He was active, cheerful, bold, candid and devout, and his im- petuosity often arose to sublimity, when he ap- peared in excited vindication of his church and country. Dr. M'Crie concludes his two interest- ing volumes of Melville's life with the declaration : ' I know of no individual, after her Reformer, from whom Scotland has received greater benefits, and to whom she owes a deeper debt of gratitude and respect, than Andrew Melville.' [J.E.] MELVILLE, Henry Dundas, Lord Viscount, son of Robert Dundas, Lord Arniston, was born in 1740, and joined the administration of Mr. Pitt when he obtained the reins of government, after the death of the marquis of Rockingham. Lord Melville followed the fortunes of his leader^ in or out of office, as home secretary, secretary of war, and first lord of the admiralty. He was impeached for neglect of duty in the latter capacity at the in- stance of Mr. Whitbread in 1805, but acquitted of the charges by his peers. He retired from office, however, and died in privacy 1811. MELVILLE, R., a Scotch officer, 1723-1809. MEMMI, S., an Italian painter, 1285-1345. MEMMO, Marc-Ant., a Ven. doge, 1612-15. MEMMO, Tribuno, a Venetian doge, 979-991. MEMNON, a king of ^Ethiopia, age of Troy. MEMNON, a Persian general, died 333 b.c. MEMNON, a Greek historian, 1st or 2d cent. MENA, J. De, a Spanish poet, 1412-1456. MENA, P. Dk, a Spanish sculptor, 1620-1693. MENA, P. G. De, a Spanish painter, 1600-74. 483 MEN MENAGE, Gili.es, a French ecclesiastic, cele- brated for his learning and bel-esprit, and called by Bayle ' The Varron of the 17th century,' was born at Angers, 1613, and died at Paris 1692. He was the protege of Cardinal de Retz, and the companion of the finest spirits of his age. He is the author of classical and philosophical works, poems, &c. MENAGE, Mat., a'Fr. ecclesiastic, 1388-1446. MENANDER, a celebrated Athenian poet, au- thor of a great number of dramatic works, of which only a few fragments remain extant, 342-299 B.C. MENARD, Cl., a French historian, 1580-1652. MENARD, F., a Fr. canonical wr., 1570-1623. MENARD, Leon, a Fr. antiquary, 1706-1767. MENARD, N. H., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1585-1644. MENASSEH, Bex Israel, a learned rabbin of Spain, author of ' The Conciliator,' in which many apparent contradictions in the Sacred Scrip- tures are harmonised, 1604-1659. MENDELSSOHN, Dr. Felix Bartholdy, was born at Hamburg, on the 3d of February, 1809. His father, who was an eminent merchant, is re- ported to have said that he was nothing more than the son of one great man and father of another. And this was in a great measure true. The grand- father of the musician was Moses Mendelssohn, who passed the greater part of his early life in making copies of the Bible. The poor copyist, by means of his talent, his indomitable perseverance, and his incredible energy, soon became one of the most illustrious philosophers in Germany. His works, which were devoured with eagerness, soon procured him a large fortune, which, bequeathed to his family, insured them all the luxuries of life, but did not corrupt their native goodness. Before young Felix, the subject of this memoir, was six years old, he gave extraordinary indications of a genius for music, lie astonished all Berlin by his precocious intellect, his docility, his obedience, and his eagerness for the acquisition of knowledge of all kinds, but more especially of that art in which he afterwards made himself so consummate a master. At eight years old he became a pupil of Berger on the piano, and of Zelter for composition and har- mony. Even at this early age, he read at first sight the most difficult works of Handel, Sebastian Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. He after- wards studied the piano under Klein, Hummel, and Moschelles. And he subsequently studied counter- point under Cherubini, who augured the greatest things of his pupil. Before he was nine years old, his performance on the piano-forte was so aston- ishing that his friends advised him to play in pub- lic; and, in consequence, he made his debut at Berlin hi 1819, where his success was most trium- phant. At ten years of age he knew all the great works of the masters named above ; and at twelve he improvised upon a given theme in a style so masterly, that old Goethe, the poet, shed tears and embraced the young artist. In 1824 he first pub- lished his compositions, which were four quartetts and a sonata. In 1827, his opera, Die Hochzeit de Camacho, was performed at Berlin, from which period, up to the day of his death, he produced all sorts of compositions with the most wonderful rapidity, and all perfect in their kind, from the ' Songs without Words,' to duets, songs, piano-forte works, and up to the Oratorio. But all this while ! October (1847). It was an attack of an a] } Mendelssohn did not devote his time exclusively nature. From that day until the 28th lie fj 484 MEN to the study of music. He was well acqi with natural philosophy, was an able draugli and a proficient in almost all modern lan< With English he was intimately acquaints like all well-informed Germans, he was passii fond of the works of Shakspeare. And thii tion and profound knowledge of the grea were reflected in the supplemental music M composed for the ' Midsummer Night's Dre which it is not too much to say that it is respects worthy to be wedded to the in; poetry which inspired it. This work was pei in London, in 1830, when Mendelssohn coi the orchestra. It caused an immense ser In 1833, Mendelssohn was appointed musi rector at Dusseldorf, which place he held 1 years, when he resigned and accepted the director of the Gewanhouse concerts at I At the musical festival at Dusseldorf, on i of May, 1836, his grand Oratorio, St. Pa first produced, which marked a new era history of music. In 1835 he was in I when he, at the Philharmonic Society, cob the performance of his Symphony in A During one of his visits to Britain, he made to the West Highlands of Scotland, and i talized his impressions of those wild and ro islands, lochs, and mountains, by his overi ' The Isles of Fingal.' His last and greatesl ' Elijah,' was first produced in this country, been performed at the Birmingham Music tival, in August, 1846. It was subsequent formed at Exeter Hall, London, in April, lb afterwards at Gloucester Musical Festival same year. While in England, he had the of an invitation to visit the queen, op occasion he received the most marked of the esteem in which he was held by h jesty and her royal Consort. It was at tl gestion of the queen, who furnished hit the theme, that Mendelssohn composed hi tish Overture. Soon after this he went to S land, to repose from the fatigues of stud while there he heard of the death of a dea loved sister, which event preyed hard upon hi and was the beginning of those ailments finally brought him to an early grave, languishing in grief in Switzerland, he wr< first act of an opera, 'Lorelei,' which, wit! other posthumous works, has been publishe his demise. During this period he was adv his medical attendants to abstain from all labour. He had been afflicted with two str paralysis, and his physician feared that would prove fatal, but he could not pause. was with him a law of his being. Mend could not five and be idle, and there is ] doubt that the labour he imposed upon hi had a large share in the cause of his deatl Moschelles published in the Morning Thursday, November 12, the following nit account of the last moments of Mend' which will appropriately close this brief! of the life of one of the greatest and m| ginal musicians that ever lived : felt the first approach of the nialady| ultimately terminated his life on the j MEN red moments of ease and relapses. During this iod he felt sufficiently well to take several car- tee airings. On the 28th, when in full convales- ce, a second attack occurred, but this was of M duration. He promptly recovered his senses, | his strength returned. Notwithstanding this, pelt severe attacks of headache, and could not Ip for three or four days. During the nights of H 2d and 3d of November his sleep returned, and slept seven hours consecutively. Upon his iking on the morning of the 3d, he felt quite E and his family had sanguine hopes of his re- c ry. He remained thus during the forenoon ; I at two o'clock he had a relapse, and a third pervened more violent and more prolonged tn any of the former ones. He recovered con- iflasness but slowly, after bleeding, application of fees, and vigorous friction. He was attended vbr. Clarus and Dr. Hammer of Leipzig. Mes- wers had been sent for Dr. Schbnbeinof Berlin, Use arrival was waited for with intense anxiety, "he did not come. The night passed in alterna- of agitation and tranquillity. Mendelssohn . all persons present, but spoke little. On ig of the 4th his state caused the most inquietude. The directors of the ' Gewan- ' decided on putting off the concert which Ito have taken place that evening. At the se- hour the sufferer became insensible, and gave signs of life than a strong and equal re- All the efforts of the medical men to sight and hearing were useless. From six it o'clock blisters and violent frictions were ited, but without success. In the meantime ires changed with frightful rapidity. At eight his respiration became feebler it lent that his end was near. At last, at 'clock on the 4th, alengthened sigh announced lendelssohn had rendered up his soul to his . Near his bed were his wife, his brother, ro doctors, Mr. Schleinitz, Mr. David, and All Leipzig is in mourning.' On the after- of the 7th of November, 1847, his funeral lies were performed with great pomp in the l's church at Leipzig, preparatory to the 1 of his remains to their last resting-place at The works of Mendelssohn, which were previous to his death, were one opera, ?s, two symphonies, three quartetts, atettes, two sonatas, a concerto for the a psalm, ' Non nobis,' an Ave Maria' lit voices, six books of songs without i two phantasias, three chorales, and number- hried themes, songs, duets, capriccios, &c, je piano-forte, and his two imperishable orato- jSt. Paul' and 'Elijah.'^ Among his MSS., | of which have been published since his death, m overture and symphony, several chorales, falpurgis Night,' cantatas, an operatta, 'The 1 Stranger,' some sacred pieces, and music to 'Antigone,' and the '(Edipus Colon- Mendelssohn left behind him a wife and in. His loss was mourned wherever as studied, and wherever his works were And every hour since his death his great- becoming more and more appreciated, and rks bid fair to become what they ought to most prized and popular of all the classical Jof the great masters. [J.M.] MEN MENDELSSOHN, Moses, a Jewish philoso- pher and moralist, who holds high rank among the literati of Germany, and has been dignified with the title of the Jewish Socrates, 1729-1786. MENDEZ, Moses, an English poet, died 1758. MENDEZ-PINTO, Ferdinand, a Portuguese, who sailed for the Indies in 1537, and being taken by the Moors did not return to his country until 1558. The relation of his adventures is as curious and ex- travagant as that of the Englishman, Mandeville. MENDOZA, Antonio Hurtado De, a Por- tuguese poet, statesman, and member of the inqui- sition, died 1631. Andreo, a member of the same familv, distinguished as a general, 1579-1606. MfiNDOZA, B. De, a Span, historian, 16th c MENDOZA, Diego Hurtado De, a Spanish diplomatist, historian, and man of letters, 1503-75. MENDOZA, Inigo Lopez De, first Marquis de Santillana, a dist. poet of Castile, 1398-1458. MENDOZA, J. G., a Spanish divine, auth. of a Hist, of China, where he was ambassador in 1584. MENDOZA, P. G. De, cardinal of Sp., 1428-95. MENEDEMAS, an eleatic philos., 4th cen. B.C. MENELAUS, a geometr. of Alexandria, 1st c. MENENIUS-AGRIPPA, See Agrippa. MENGOLI, P., an Ital. geometrician, 1625-86. MENGOTTI, F., an Italian engineer, last cent. MENGOZZI, B., an Ital. composer, 1758-1800. MENGS, Antony Raphael, an eminent Bohemian painter, born at Aussig 1728, became painter to the king 1746, professor 1754, painter to the king of Spain 1761, and principal of the Academy of St. Luke in Florence 1769. Besides works of art, consisting both of easel pictures and frescoes, he is author of valuable treatises on sub- jects connected with the principles of painting, and the characters of the great masters. He was an intimate friend of Winckelmann. Died 1779. MENG-TSEU, a Chinese philosopher, 4th c. b.c. MENINSKI, Fr. Mesgnien, anOrientalscholar, in the service of the Polish and Austrian govern- ments, 1623-1698. MENIPPUS, a Phoenician cynic, 4th cent. B.C. MENIUS, F., a learned Swede, died 1659. MENJOT, Ant., a Fr. physician, 1615-1696. MENLOES, D., a Swed. nat. philos., 17th cent. MENNANDER, C. F., a Swed. prelate, last c. MENNES, orMENNIS, Sir John, a military and naval commander, and member of the govern- ment after the restoration, kn. as a poet, 1598-1671. MENNO, called Simonis, or Simonson, from his parentage, a famous anabaptist, founder of the Mennonites, in the Low Countries, 1496-1561. MENOCHIUS, or MENOCHIO, James, an Italian jurisconsult, 1531-1607. His son, John Stephen, a learned Jesuit, author of a Scripture Commentary, &c, 1576-1655. MENODORUS, an Athenian sculptor, 1st cent. MENOU, James Francis, Baron De, a French general and deputy of the noblesse to the states- general, 1750-1810. MENSCHIKOFF, Alexander, the son of a Russian peasant, who rose to be a distinguished general and statesman, 1674-1729. MENTEL, John, the oldest printer of Stras- burg, originally a writer and illuminator of MSS., for whom the invention of printing was claimed by his descendant, James Mentel, flourished 1410- 1478. The latter, a learned physician, 1597-1671. 485 MEN MENTZEL, C, a German botanist, 1622-1701. MENZ, Fred., a Ger. antiquarian, 1680-1749. MENZEL, Fred. William, a traitor to the court of Saxonv, where he acted as cabinet secre- tary, 1726-171)6. MENZINI, B., an Italian poet, 1646-1704. MENZOCEHI, F., an Ital. painter, 16th cent. MERANO, F., a Genoese painter, 1620-1657. MERAT, L. G., a French botanist, 1712-1790. MERCATI, J. B., an Ital. engraver, 17th cent. MERCATI, M., an Ital. naturalist, 1541-lf>93. MERCATOR, Gerakd, a native of Flanders, distinguished as a mathematician and geographer, especially for the method of laying down charts and maps which goes by his name. This plan, useful in navigation, represents the surface of the earth projected on a plane, so that all the meri- dians and parallels are straight lines, 1512-1594. MERCATOR, Marius, a friend of St. Augus- tine, known as a controversial writer, 5th century. MERCATOR, N., a Ger. mathema., died 1687. MERCIER, Bartholomew, known in France as the abbe* de St. Leger, a miscel. writ., 1734-99. MERCIER, C, an ascetic writer, died 1680. MERCIER, C. F. X., a French wr., 1763-1800. MERCIER, John, a French Hebraist and com- mentator, died 1572. His son, Josias, a learned critic, died 1626. MERCIER, L. S., a Fr. politician, 1740-1814. MERCIER, N., a French grammarian, d. 1657. MERCIER, of La Vendee, a royalist chief, and camp marshal under the duke d'Artois, 1778-1800. MERCOEUR, Eliza, a Fr. poetess, 1809-1835. MERDDIN, a Welch poet, 6th century. MERGEY, J. De, a Fr. commander, 1536-1615. MERIAN, the name of a family of artists who flourished in Basle, 17th and 18th centuries. Mat- thew, an engraver, 1593-1651. His son, of the same name, also an engraver, 1621-1687. Maria Sibylla, sister of the latter, a painter and na- turalist, celebrated for her work on flowers and insects, 1647-1717. This accomplished lady was married to Andrew Graaf, a painter and architect of Nuremberg, by whom she had two daughters, both skilled in drawing, and one of them in the Hebrew language. Another member of the family, John Matthew Merian, was distinguished as a painter, and died 1716. MERIAN, J. B., a German philos., 1723-1807. MERIGHI, R., an Italian poet, 1658-1737. MERLE, M. De, a Fr. commander, 1548-1589. MERLIN, Ambrose, who has the reputation of an enchanter in the romance of Chivalry, was a British writer, who flourished towards the latter end of the 5th century. He is said to have lived in the court of King Arthur. The work attributed to him is a book of prophecies, which have been illustrated and compared with the English annals by T. Heywood, 1641. MERLIN, James, a French priest, died 1541. MERLIN, John Joseph, an ingenious fo- reigner, who long resided in London, and invented several pieces of curious mechanism ; among these was an automaton conjuror, the principal object in his exhibition at Clerkenwell, which he en- titled ' Merlin's Cave.' Died 1803. MERLIN, P. A., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1754-1838. MERLIN-OF-THIONVILLE, A. C, a member of ths Fr. assembly and convention, 1762-1833. MES MERMET, C, a French poet, 1550-1602 MERMET, L. F. E., a Fr. author, 1763-' MERODACH, a king of Babvlon, 8th cen MEROVEUS, a king of the Franks, 448- MERRET, Christopher, a native of Gl tershire, known in London as a physician ar turalist, 1614-1695. MERRICK, James, a clergyman of the C of England, chiefly known as a poet, and by Bishop Lowth ' one of the best of me most eminent of scholars,' 1720-1769. MERRY, Robert, a poet and dramat., 17J MERSCH, Van Der, a Flemish officer i service of France, who became leader of th< riots of Brabant in 1789. He afterwards i in the interest of the Austrians, and died 17! MERSENNE,or MERSENNUS, Mab French ecclesiastic, celebrated as a mathemi and philosopher, 1588-1648. MERULA, G., an Italian savant, 1424-14 MERULA, P., a Dutch historian, 1558-11 MERY, F., a French ecclesiastic, died 172 MERY, J., a French anatomist, 1645-172 MERY, L., a controversial writer, 1727-1' MERZ, James, a Swiss painter, 1783-180 MERZ, Ph. P., a German theologian, b. 1 MESCHINOT, J., a French poet, 1430-li MESMER, Frederick Anthony, the great promoter of animal magnetism, was a man physician, born at Mersburg in Suabia, His name belongs to that select class of 'CI tans,' so called, who have the misfortune 1 nounce principles which they do not really u stand themselves, but which are yet found i ture, and who get abused beyond measure, be they point out more than they can either e; or support to the satisfaction of science. career of Mesmer is soon related. In 1773- attention as a physician was called to the co sive movements by which a young lady i Oesterline was periodically affected, and in he published the theory, first suggested bi case, in a treatise entitled ' De Planetarum Ini A slight verbal inaccuracy in the statement o theory may easily make it appear, at first viei travagant, but fairly stated it is this : Th< venly bodies, but especially the sun and moo: upon all the elastic elements; thus, as is known, they cause and direct the flux and i of the sea and the atmosphere. The whoh verse, however, is pervaded by an element subtle than the air, which penetrates all b to which the nervous systems of all animi naturally respond as the eye to light, and h periodical sway of which, the body is neces: affected. Mesmer seems to have considered subtle medium to be one and the same wit magnetic element, and consequently to be ca of concentration, transmission, and directioi cording to the established laws of the magnet he soon found in practice that he could magi animal bodies as well as inert matter, by em ing the same agencies. At this time one F Hell was professor of astronomy at Vienna. Mesmer employed his workmen, and pro consulted the astronomer himself, to procui most suitable magnets for his experiments. ^ ever their respective shares may have been ii matter, they were shortly at issue before the 486 MES lell claiming the discovery as his own. This jMesmer to take higher ground, declaring that magnets were not at all necessary to the hut that they resulted from an action that jper to animal bodies themselves. Disen- . from his adversary by this step in advance, "iscoverer memorialised the Academy of es at Paris, the Royal Society of London, the Academy of Berlin : the two former did radescend to reply, and the latter in their an- treated him as a visionary. About this time, it was alleged that he had performed a almost amounting to the miraculous, upon a loiselle Paradis, who was suffering from serena and convulsive movements of the -the case, however, has been disputed, it known that the lady was quite blind in ; the probability is, that the effects were sroduced, but were not permanent. Disre- by the learned bodies to whom he had ad- " himself, and treated as a juggling impostor professional brethren, Mesmer removed [Vienna to Paris in 1778, and soon acquired a "dus popularity by his marvellous cures, and large sums of money subscribed by his It must be supposed that his deter- was to rise by his discovery, and to estab- elf in a position which he" might be able as the master of a school devoted to the and to effect this he allowed it to be un- that there was an esoteric doctrine of magnetism, with which even his most ar- iples, Bergasse and Deslon, were not ac- In the same spirit, and partly, we add, to produce a crisis favourable to his ion upon a great number of persons to- I Mesmer established the bayuet, a kind of "ic battery, around which his patients as- and when the crisis took place, (mani- in a great variety of startling effects), the agician appeared, to moderate and direct an in each case. The scenes at these re- drew the attention of the French govern- Mesmer's proceedings, and in 1784 a com- of savants was appointed, with instruc- i examine the means employed by Mesmer (results obtained. The members of this com- consisted of four physicians, one of whom Guillotin, and five members of the Acade- " lin, Leroi, Bailly, De Bory, and Lavoi- result of their inquiry was announced in drawn up by Bailly, and is well known to unfavourable not only to the truth of magnetism, but to its morality. Though and his disciples endeavoured to keep md, and succeeded in establishing many of magnetizers, and though, soon after- clairvoyance became popular, and was in- ~i as a new degree in freemasonry, the dis- found it necessary to quit France, and ; to England, resided here some time under * name. Mesmer passed the remainder of comparative obscurity, and died in his ice 1815, doubtless much happier in that his doctrine had been accepted by ~ed, and had found such advocates as id Puysegur, than in coquetting with its, and aggrandizing his name with a popularity. In regard to his supposed MES secret, and his refusal of any intelligible explanation of his process, we may repeat here what he himself urges in his ' Memoire sur la De'couverte du Magne- tisme Animal,' namely, that no reasoning can clear up the difficulties of such a subject, but only ex- perience. There is also another consideration. Pub- lic opinion in the time of Mesmer was influenced widely and deeply by the philosophy of the ency- clopedists, and any explanation that involved the recognition of spiritual laws would be received as empirical. At the present day the acknowledged head of curative Mesmerism in this country, prefers total ignorance on the part of his operators, and to treat animal magnetism as a material force only. That it is force operating between substance and sub- stance there can be no question, but then, is mat- ter anything more than one form or condition of substance ? If not, how are healings by prayer, and when the operator is far distant from his patient, to be accounted for? The truth is, neither Mesmer himself, nor any of his disciples down to the present hour, have been able to demonstrate the principles of the art, so as to include all its phenomena, because they cease to follow nature, and bow down before those false idols of the mind, against which they have been warned by Bacon, as soon as another condition of being is indicated. The Saviour himself generally healed by the touch, yet always from the spirit of love, and if the for- mer is found successful when the latter is not re- cognized, and if these touchings can be traced to their connection with material forces, it is only a proof that the material world is clothed over the spiritual, and that magnetism, gravitation, or any other term by which we designate jorce, is nothing but the manifested law of the Supreme Will, acting through the least things and the greatest, with or without a thankful recognition, in this condition of being, which we choose to call material. Cer- tain we are, that this whole subject is treated most unphilosophically, both by its friends and enemies, and that we must in this, as in all other cases, court and encourage nature to discover her- self if we would have her secret. The system of Mesmer was published in German at Berlin by the famous Nicolai, under the title of ' Mesmer- ismus, &c.,' 1815. [E.R.] MESSALA, a Roman general and orator, who commanded a legion under Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, died about the year 11, aged seventy-two. MESSALINA, Statilia, a Roman lady, who had for her fifth husband the emperor Nero, who had murdered her fourth husband, Atticus Visti- mus. After the death of the emperor in the year 68, she devoted herself to literary pursuits. MESSALINA, Valeiua, daughter of Valerius Messalinus Barbatus, was a Roman lady, who became the wife of Claudius, and shared with him the imperial throne. Her licentious conduct is un- Earalleled in history, for she not only made her usband's palace the scene of her debaucheries, but often quitted it at night, and acted as a com- mon prostitute. When summoned by the enraged emperor, after some fresh extravagance in the year 48, she attempted to kill herself, but wanted cour- age, and her enemy Narcissus, who dreaded the result of the interview, caused her to be despatched by a soldier. MESSENIUS, John, a Swedish savant, author 487 MES of ' Scandia Illustrata,' 1584-1637. His son, Ar- nold, historian of the Swedish nobilitv, ex. 1648. MESSIER, Cn., a Fr. astronomer, 1730-1817. MESSIS, Quentin, a Flem. painter, 1450-1529. MESTON, W., a Scottish poet, 1688-1745. ME TASTASIO, Pietro, the son of a pastry- cook named Trapassi, was born at Rome in 1698. When he was no more than ten years old, his talent for extemporaneous versification attracted the no- tice of the accomplished lawyer, Gravina, who adopted and educated him, and, with a whim savouring of the taste of the Italian academies, made him exchange his family name for its Hel- lenic synonyme Metastasio. The youth became celebrated as an improvisatore before completing his eighteenth year. Soon afterwards he inherited from his benefactor a considerable fortune ; but he spent it in no long time, chiefly through kindly but careless benevolence. He now began to write for the stage, gained in this field great fame but little profit at Naples and Rome, and, in 1729, was appointed Imperial Laureate at Vienna, His duties consisted in writing the Italian text for operas ; and this continued to be his occupation for the remainder of his life, except during the closing of the theatre at Vienna on the breaking out of the first war between Austria and Prussia in 1741. He died at Vienna in 1782. The 'libretto' of the operas, usually quite worthless, and treated merely as an adjunct to the music, be- came, in the hands of Metastasio, genuinely and beautifully poetical. The lyrical turn of his genius fitted him admirably for giving expression in words to the sentiment of the airs interspersed through the recitative of the dialogue ; and many of the songs in his operas, with some separate composi- tions of the sort (such as ' La Partenza'), are ex- quisite for the delicacy and fanciful charm both of their feeling and of their diction. He gave simi- lar excellences, in a wonderful degree, to the conception and design of his dramas, and to many passages of the dialogue. His works have a mo- notonous sweetness, an utter want of characteriza- tion, and a great deficiency in reality and practical interest. But the best of them, such as ' L'Olim- piade,' breathe a romantic air which is very de- lightful. [W.S.] METCALFE, Charles Theophilus, Lord, an East Indian officer and diplomatist, who was appointed governor of Jamaica after the emanci- pation of the negroes, and subsequently governor of Canada, 1785-1846. METELLI, Agustino, an Ital. artist, 1607-60. METELLTJS, the name of several illustrious Romans : 1. Caius C^ecilius, the conqueror of Macedonia and proconsul of Spain, known from 148 to 141 b.c. 2. Quintus CLecilius, his son, conqueror of Jugurtha in Numidia, exiled B.C. 100 by the influence of Marius and Saturninns. 3. Quintus Cecilius, son of the latter, and a partizan of Sylla against Marius, distinguished in the Spanish war, died b.c. 63. 4. Quintus Ce- cilius, son of the last named, distinguished in the war against Caesar, killed himself after the defeat of Thapsus, b.c. 46. METELLUS, H., a Latin poet, 1080-1157. METEREN, E. Van, a Flem. hist., 1516-1612. METHODIUS, the name of three personages in ecclesiastical history: 1. Saint Methodius, MEY author of a poem written against Porphyr some theological treatises, only fragments "of 1 remain ; supposed to have died a martyr abo or 312. He was successively bishop of 01; and Tyre. 2. Methodius, surnamed 'tht fessor, patriarch of Constantinople in 842. ] as a partizan of the image-worshippers, die 3. A Methodius, who is remembered alonj his brother, Cyrillus, as the first preacl Christianity among the Sclavonians, 9th cen METIUS, Adrian, a Dutch mathema son of an engineer, of the same names, 1571 His brother, James, said to have invented copes, died 1636. METKERKE, A., a Flem. scholar, 1528- METOCHITA, T., a Gr. historian, died 1 METON, an Athenian astronomer, 5th ct METTRIE, J. Offray De La, a pupil of haave, kn. as a physician and philosopher, 17 METZGER, J. D., a Fr. physician, 1739 METZU, Gabriel, a Dutch painter, 161 MEUNG, J. De, a French poet, 1200-13! MEUNIER, H. H. J., a Fr. general, 1758 MEUNIER, J. A., a French writer, 1707 MEURISSE, M., a Fr. theologian, died 1 MEURSIUS, John, a famous Dutch philologist, and historian, professor of Gn Levden, 1579-1639. His son, John, an arc! gist, 1613-1653. MEUSCHEN, J. G., a German theologia philologist, 1680-1743. His son, Fredi Christian, a writer on conchology, born 1' MEUTEW, Anthony Francis Vand Flemish painter, cele. for his battle-pieces, 16 MEXIA, Pedro, a Span, historian, died MEYER, Conrad, a Swiss painter, 1695 MEYER, Felix, a Swiss painter, 1653-1 MEYER, J., a Flemish historian, 1491-li MEYER, Jer., a German painter, 1735-: MEYER, J. D., a Dutch jurist, 1780-183 MEYER, Phii ippe, was born at Strasbi Alsatia, in the year 1737. At an early s went to college to study for the protestant cl but the love of music interfered greatly wi theological studies. At twenty years of age accident became possessed of an old harp having made some proficiency upon this n ment, he forthwith devoted himself exclusiv the study of music. Some time after tl studied the science of music under Miithel, a of the great Bach, and here Meyer's style ir said to have been formed. He soon after tbii to Paris, and thence to London, where be r< for several years. Having returned to Fran was induced to compose for the opera, whe style procured for him the sobriquet of the J Gluck. Several circumstances tended soon this to render Meyer unpopular; he return London about the year 1784, wbere be gave pretensions as a performer, and lived upon 1 putation as a composer. He died in 1819, It two sons musicians and composers, viz., Phi jun., and Frederick Charles. MEYER, Theodore, a painter and en$ of Zurich, 1572-1658. His son, RoDOl* engraver, died 1638. His second son, Ceo a painter and engraver, 1618-16^9. MEYNIER, C, a French painter MEYNIER, II., a French historian, lCth 488 MEY MEYRAUX, P. S., a Swiss naturalist, d. 1832. MEYRICK, Sir S. R., a lawyer of the ecclesi- ical court, author of a ' Critical Inquiry into iicicnt Armour,' on which subject he is consi- fed an authority, 1783-1848. MEYSSENS, John, a Flemish painter, born 12. His son, Cornelius, an engraver, b. 1646. MEYTENS, M. De, an Austr. pain., 1695-1779. MEZERAI, Francis Eudes De, one of the Jst celebrated of French historians, who flourished qthe time of Richelieu and Colbert, was born in jfO, and commenced his career as a political writer. I was some time attached to the army as com- but more lately received a pension from ij court as a man of letters, which he lost ' for mting what he thought to be the truth,' d. 1683. IEZERAY, J., a French actress, 1772-1823. jIEZIRIAC, Claude Gaspard Bachet De, ilr. archaeologist and mathematician, 1581-1638. jIICAH, the name of two Jewish prophets, the lifer of whom fl. in the 9th cent. B.C. ; the latter, Jifcor of the book of that name, in the 8th c. B.C. UIICILEL I., emperor of the East, successor |icephorus, 811, abdicated on occasion of a mili- !tf sedition, in favour of Leo the Armenian, 813, 11846. Michael II., succeeded Leo the Arme- M 820, died 829. Michael III., succeeded in lltbird year of his age, 842, under the guardian- WL of his mother, Theodora. In 859 he was per- illed by his uncle, Bardas, to assume the power pelf, and his mother shortly after died or grief a convent. In 866 he put Bardas to death, and me Basil, the Macedonian, his associate in the lire, who killed him, 867. Michael IV., was rs|>d to the throne by Zoe, after she had poisoned Hrasband, Romanus Argyrus, 1034 ; died 1041. WHiEL V., nephew of the preceding, occupied throne a few months after his death, and was jroned by Zoe and Theodora, 1042. Michael Hracceeded Theodora 1056, and was dethroned Mis officers, who elevated Isaac Commenus to Hjmperial dignity, 1057. Michael VII., son Hmstantine Ducas and Eudoxia, succeeded his tttr 1067 ; and, being dethroned by Nicephorus Mniates in 1078, retired to a monastery, and pi archbishop of Ephesus. Michael (Palaeo- wf) VIII., Decame regent for John Lascaris HL and emperor in 1261, after deposing and Hpg out the eves of his protege ; died, after a Hied reign, 1282. HCILEL, patriarch of Constantinople, 1043-57. UCH^EL, vaivode of Wallachia, 1595. ICILEL, king of the Bulgarians, 1245-1258. [CH/EL, the 'first of the name, grand duke of Ka. reigned 1175. The second, grand duke of Wj killed by the Tartars 1245. The third (or Bfccond), grand duke of Russia, succeeded 1304, Ho death by the Tartars 1317. The fourth, Epar of Russia, of the house of Romanof, called Bjbl Feodorwitch, born 1598, elected 1613, 4645. He was succeeded by his son, Alexis. HOILEL, king of Poland, elected 1669, d. 1673. HCfiL ANGELO DA CARAVAGGIO. A i:\VAGGIO. /JCH;EL ANGELO DELLA BATTAGLIE, Pf proper name was M. A. Cerquozzi, a Roman Hr, 1GOO-1660. jjCHAELIS, J. B., a German poet, 1746-72. CHAELIS, John David, a famous Orien- MIC talist and biblical critic, was born at Halle, 1717, where his father, Christian Benedict Michaelis, was professor of divinity and the Oriental lan- guages. He entered the university in 1733, and was admitted master of philosophy, and became assistant lecturer under his father in 1739. In 1746, he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy in the university of Gottingen, hav- ing previously visited England, and officiated as preacher at the German chapel, St. James's palace. During the remainder of his life he was associated with the principal learned societies of Europe, and was raised, in 1786., to the rank of Aulic Counsellor in Hanover, besides being em- ployed in many affairs of moment requiring the exercise of his statesmanship. His religious opinions were unsettled, but the strictest integrity formed the basis of his conduct. Died 1791. MICHAELIS, John Henry, great uncle of the preceding, born 1668, was a teacher of the Oriental languages at the university of Halle, and in 1699 became professor of Greek in the same in- stitution; in 1707 keeper of the university library; and in 1732 senior of the faculty of divinity, and inspector of the theological seminary. Died 1738. MICHAUD, C. I. F., a Fr. general, 1753-1835. MICHAUD, J., a French historian, 1767-1839. MICHAULT, J. B., a Fr. philologist, 1707-70. MICHAULT, P., a French poet, died 1467. MICHAUX, Andre, a French traveller, and writer on the botany of foreign parts, born at Ver- sailles 1746, died at Madagascar 1802. His son, Francis Andre, a writer on the forest trees of North America, &c, 1746-1802. MICHEL, C. L. S., a Fr. statesman, 1754-1814. MICHEL, J., a Gascon poet, died about 1700. MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI, was born at Castel Caprese in the diocese of Arezzo in Tuscany, 6th March, 1475. He was apprenticed for three years to Domenico Ghirlandajo on 1st April, 1488. His earlier studies were made in the so-called academy of Lorenzo de Medici, a garden containing sculptures near the church of St. Mark, and he was early patronised by that prince, after whose death in 1492, Michelangelo removed to Bologna; he returned to Florence in 1494, and now attained, by a statue of the ' Sleeping Cupid,' a great reputation. This statue was sold as an antique at Rome, which led Michelangelo to try his fortunes there, and he then executed his cele- brated Field, now in St. Peter's. He returned to Florence at the commencement of the six- teenth century, and further distinguished himself by his colossal David, now on the Piazza Gran- duca, and appeared for the first time in the char- acter of a painter; being commissioned by the Gonfaloniere Soderiui to paint one end of the Council Hall, the other end being awarded to Leo- nardo Da Vinci. Though Michelangelo made his cartoon known as the world-celebrated ' Cartoon of Pisa,' he never commenced the painting; the cartoon was exhibited in 1506, and created a great sensa- tion among the artists of Florence; it became, says Benvennto Cellini, ' The School of the World.' Michelangelo had visited Rome a second time dur- ing its progress by the invitation of Julius II., and at Bologna in 1507 he made the famous colossal statue of that pontiff, which was afterwards con- verted into a cannon and used against the pope by 489 MIC the Bolognese. In 1508 commences the groat career of Michelangelo as a painter ; he then visited Home for the third time, and was commissioned bv Julius II. to paint the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ; Raphael was ordered at the same time to decorate the Stanze, or dwelling rooms of the Vatican palace. The ceiling was finished on All- Saints 1 Day, 1st November, 1512, the actual painting of the frescoes having occupied only twenty months, the cartoons occupying the greater portion of the interval. These frescoes represent the creation of the world, and of man ; his fall ; and the early history of the world with reference to man's final redemption and salvation : they are the grandest productions of modern art, greatly superior to the ' Last Judgment ' executed on the altar wall upwards of twenty years after- wards. Michelangelo was occupied also during the progress of this ceiling with the monument of Julius, which was, however, finally suspended by the death of the pope in 1513; what was done of the monu- ment was arranged and put up in the church of San Pietro in Montorio ; the celebrated statue of Moses was one of the sculptures for the intended mauso- leum. Michelangelo was now for twenty years kept from the carrying out of his great design of the history of man in the Sistine chapel. Leo X. oc- cupied him for nine years in selecting marble in the quarries of Pietra Santa for the facade of the church of San Lorenzo at Florence, and he was employed in the Medici chapel of the same church during the pontificate of Adrian VI., and part of that of Clement VII., but finally in the tenth year of this pope, 1533, he was ordered to go on with the frescoes of the Sistine, and he completed the 'Last Judgment' in 1541, in the pontificate of Paul III. His last works in painting were the frescoes of the Capella Paolina, executed for Paul III., finished in 1549; he is said never to have Eainted in oil-colours. This extraordinary man ad appeared in a third character when seventy years of age, he was then, 1546, appointed to suc- ceed Antonio da San Gallo as architect of St. Peter's, and he continued architect during five pontificates, carrying the building out to the base of the cupola. (See Bramante.) This great artist was also a poet : he was never married. Michelangelo died 17th February, 1564, having very nearly completed his eighty-ninth year ; his body was carried to Florence and deposited in a vault in the church of Santa Croce. There is little space in a limited work of this character to enter upon any details of the extraordinary works of Michelangelo, spreading as they do, over four provinces of the fine arts ; most opinions concern- ing him are uniform in their expressions of praise : his name was the last word pronounced oy Sir Joshua Reynolds in the Royal Academy, and even his great rival, Raphael, is said to have exclaimed that he thanked God he was born in the days of Michelangelo. His most extraordinary achieve- ment is doubtless the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ; the Prophets and Sibyls of this great work are, for sublimity and grandeur, indisputably the triumphs of modern art. The element of his style, whether in painting or in sculpture, is an abstract imper- sonation of dignity, which sentiment prevails un- der whatever emotion the subject may be repre- sented. A similar uniformity of style in design, MID is of such constancy as to amount to mnnnei this mannerism of form is the chief defect the works of this great artist; but one overch muscular standard of form is evident for man man, or child, of every age and of every degi (Condivi, Vita di Michelangelo, &c. ; Y'asari, &c, ed. Flor. 1846 Seqq ; Duppa, Life of M\ angelo, &c; Taylor, Michelangelo Consider^ Philosophic Poet, &c; Wornum, Epochs of I ing Characterized.') U.N MICHELET, S., a French poet, 17^7-1*1 MIC HE LI, the name of three V- the first, Vital Micheli, successor of Faledro, 1096, died 1102. The second, 1). Mici reigned 1116-1130. The third, Vital Mio II., succeeded in 1156, killed in a sedition II MICHELI, Jamks Bartholomkw, a { astronomer and mathematician, 1692-1766. MICHELI, P. A., an Ital. naturalist. 1679-! MICHELOZZI, Michelazzo, a Flore sculptor and architect, pupil of Donatello, j 1402-1470. MICHIEL, J. L., an Italian savant, 1754-] MICHOVIUS, M., a Polish annalist, d. U MICHU, B., a Fr. painter on glass, died 1 MICHU, L., an opera performer, 1754-18C MICIPSA, a king of Numidia, 148-118 b. MICKLE, William Julius, a Scottish and scholar, employed as corrector of the rendon Press at Oxford, translator of the Li of Camcens, and author of some of the ' Old lads,' published by Evans, the bookseller. Bo Dumfries 1734, died 1788. MICRELIUS, J., a Lutheran divine, 1597-1 MIDDLETON, Conyers, well known as i lemical writer and critic, was the son of WI Middleton, a Yorkshire clergyman, and was at York 1683. In 1717 he was created a doct divinity by the mandamus of George L, on his to Cambridge, and his refusal to pay the fee manded by Bentley, the regius professor of divi involved him in a lawsuit, and, finally, in ar tion for libel brought against him by that ge man. The enmity thus established between t issued in a literary and critical controversy, * was interrupted by Middleton's going to Ita 1724, for the benefit of his health. In 1729, a controversy with Dr. Mead, concerning the dition of the medical men of ancient Ronn published his ' Letter from Rome,' showing similarity between the Roman Catholic religior the pagan rituals of antiquity. This work a a great popularity, but it laid its author ope ucion of being at and, two years later, his animadversions o: the suspicion at heart an unbelU Waterland, who had written against Tindal, ch such a feeling against him that he had nearly deprived of his degrees. The line of argni adopted by Middleton, who professed to she better method of dealing with the (Vccthinl will speak for itself; and it is stated thus cinctly in Tayler's ' Retrospect,' ' lb' shows 1 history the inadequacy of the simple rrligio reason to the necessities of the multitude. that, in every civilized community, there has ah been a traditional system of faith and wor adapted to them, distinct from thi of philosophical minds ; that where surh a tem was already established, though mixed 490 MID iehr superstition and folly, it would be wrong to smpt its overthrow, without being prepared to something better fitted for tbe purpose in its i ; that Socrates, and the wisest of the heathen, ays acted on this principle ; and that, conse- ltly, it must, a fortiori, be much more absurd mischievous to endeavour to substitute the [pie inferences of reason for a belief in Christi- r, which is the best of all traditional religions, st contrived to promote peace and the good jiety, and acknowledged by deists themselves $ the nearest of all others to their perfect law m and nature.' Such a book of course ex- Middleton to a fresh controversy, in the of which, 1731, he was appointed to the srship of mineralogy, then recently founded foodward. In 1734 he abandoned this uncon- appointment for that of librarian to the sity. In 1735 he wrote, controversially as concerning the origin of printing in Eng- In 1741 he published his greatest work, History of Cicero,' in 2 vols. 4to, which was I signal for a scholastic controversy on the au- " ity of certain documents adopted by him. 749, having thrown out an Introductory on the same subject two years previ- he gave to the astonished quidnuncs of the his ' Free Inquiry into the Miraculous which are supposed to have subsisted in istian Church from the earliest ages.' For replies to this work, Dodwell and Church ob- the degree of D.D. from the University of Middleton, however, published his ' Vin- i,' and, the year following, made an attack Sherlock, endeavouring to show that there uniform chain of prophecy pointing to the With such views as we have indicated, |singular divine could vet accept the living )mb, in Surrey, which he held at his death U. The only excuse we could imagine for a career as Middleton's, must be found in sttled state of the Church of England at lmencement of last century in all the cir- ices, to speak briefly, by_ which we should it for the rise of Wesleyanism, and the vari- ovements of dissent and free inquiry, which Med the period. [E.R.] DDLETON, Erasmus, a methodist scholar I, author of a ' Dictionary of Arts and tk ces,' last century. DDLETON, Sir Hugh, a citizen and gold- rt of London, celebrated for bringing a supply tf liter to the metropolis, was son of Richard Mitteton, Esq., governor of Denbigh castle. The Mof his birth, and the early events of his life, Rnknown, with the exception of the fact that kd been engaged in mining adventures in Wk. This costly enterprise for supplying Lon- Byith the fresh streams of Hertfordshire, dates 1608 to Michaelmas-day 1613, when the H was admitted into the reservoir at Penton- plat a cost of nearly half-a-million sterling. Reton was subsequently reduced to the neces- n occupying himself as an engineer. He was Hd a baronet in 1G22, and died 1631. >DLETON, R., a learned theologian, d. 1 304. l; JDDLETON, T., a dramatic writer, d. 1627. DDLETON, Thomas Fanshawk, the first i.^hop of Calcutta, was born at Redleston, 491 MIL in Derbyshire, where his father was rector, in 1769, and consecrated at Lambeth in 1814. He departed for the East the same year, and in 1820 founded a college at Calcutta for the education of clergymen and missionaries devoted to our Eastern possessions. His principal work is an erudite dis- sertation on the Greek article, which has given rise to some controversy. Died 1822. MIDDLETON, W., a Welch poet, 16th century. MIEL, Edmund F. A. L., a Fr. au., 1775-1842. MIEL, Jan, a Flemish painter, 1599-1664. MIERIS, Francis, a Dutch painter, pupil of Gerard Dow, 1635-1681. His son, John, a pain- ter, 1660-1690. His younger son, William, equally celebrated as a landscape and history pain- ter, 1662-1747. Francis, son of the latter, prin- cipally known as an historian, 1689-1763. MIFFLIN, T., gov. of Pennsylvania, 1744-1809. MIGNARD, Nicholas, of Avignon, a French painter and engraver, born at Troyes 1608, died 1668. His brother, Peter, ' the Roman,' an emi- nent painter, 1610-1695. Peter, son of Nicholas, an architect, 1640-1725. MIGNAULT, C, a Fr. jurisconsult, 1536-1606. MIGNON, Abraham, a celebrated flower pain- ter of Frankfort, teacher of Maria Sibylla Merian, and of his two daughters, who distinguished them- selves in the same Tine of art, 1639-1679. MIGNOT, C. F., usually called Marie, a beau- tiful peasant of Dauphin, who in 1672 became the wife of John Casimir, king of Poland, d. 1711. MIGNOT, J., a Fr. architect, end of 14th cent. MIGNOT, S., a doctor of the Sorbonne, dist. as an archaeologist and canonist, 1698-1771. MIGNOT, Vincent, the nephew of Voltaire, author of an Ottoman History, 1730-1790. MILBERT, J. G., a Fr. naturalist, 1766-1840. MELBOURNE, Luke, a Church of England minister, known as a poet and critical wr., d. 1720. MILDENHALL, J., a diplomatist of the age of Elizabeth, celeb, for his treaty of alliance with Persia, concluded in defiance of the Jesuits in 1606. MILDMAY, Sir Walter, a statesman of the age of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, disting. as the founder of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, d. 1589. MILE, Francis, a Flemish painter, 1644-1680. MILHOUSE, Robert, a poetical writer in the humble occupation of a weaver, author of ' Sher- wood Forest,' 'Vicissitude/ 'The Destinies of Man,' died 1839. MILIZIA, F., an Italian architect, 1725-1798. MILL, James, born in Kincardineshire on 6th April, 1773 ; died at Kensington 23d June, 1836 : one of the three or four remarkable minds which, in the generation just past, have vindicated the title of Scotland to a place of high glory in the annals of Inquiry and Thought. Mr. Mill was originally designed for the Scottish Church; but reflection inclined him to abandon a purpose of Life, which, however honourable, was not suited to his peculiar intellectual tendencies: and after some intermediate passages, he settled in London as a literary man in 1800, where he resided ever afterwards, and gained his very distinguished name. The work hy which Mill earliest rose into notice is the History of British India, one that through the profoundly of its general views, and its liberal spirit, will remain a classic among our English Histories. It is not, in merely literary ,.-. Mi -v MMfefcfc '- v > - v r Mi | M '.'-. '. ' :;: ..-.'_ y.v - 4 MHl \ttKKt$ to. 177*. Vltt rfbrflfc " GWk : "l: I H5. Hi ::' ft| M| -_.. MIL have crashed the unwieldy host between them. More than 6,000 Peruana wen left dead on the field, with a loss to the Grecians of less than 200 men, the rest were scattered or escaped in their ships, and Athens had obtained a victory, which not only liberated Greece, but raised the city to great importance. Immediately after the victory of Marathon, Miltiades was sent in command of an expedition to the jFgean sea, to reclaim the island conquests of the Persians, and was wounded while laying siege to Paros. The approach of the Persian fleet and other sufficient reasons caused him to raise the siege and return home, when he was condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents, and imprisoned in default. Miltiades died in confine- ment, as much hurt by the ingratitude of his countrymen as by the wounds, under which he sunk, only a year after his great victory, B.C. 489. The first historian of these events was Herodotus, who wrote about seventy years after the battle of Marathon, and derived his materials from the heroic poem of Choerilus. [E.R.] MILTIADES, a pope and saint of Rome, 31 1-314. MILTOM, John, was born in London on the 9th of December, 1608. His father, a man of good family in Oxfordshire, had been educated at the university, and disinherited for embracing protes- tantism ; on which he became a scrivener, and ac- quired a competent fortune. Milton's education was begun under a private tutor of puritanical opinions, and continued from his fifteenth year at St. Paul's School. He has himself related tnat his love of letters was deeply rooted before he was twelve years old, and was sedulously indulged in spite of headaches and weak eyes : he studied languages, both ancient and modern, delighted especially in poetical reading, and cultivated the musical taste which he inherited from his father. In 1623 he wrote his translations of the 114th and 136th Psalms. In February 1625, when he was a little above sixteen, he was admitted a pen- sioner at Christ's College, Cambridge. In the same year was written his ode ' On the Death of a Fair Infant ;' and in his nineteenth year he pro- duced the verses ' At a Vacation Exercise in Col- lege.' In the interval were composed several of those elegies, and other poems, which have gained for him the reputation of being one of the best among modern writers of Latin verse. But there is evidence yet more brilliant of the poetic ripeness of his youth. The ' Ode on the Nativity,' one of the noblest of all his works, and perhaps the finest lyric in the English language, was composed about December 1629, when the poet was twenty-one years old. The particulars of his life at the uni- versity are imperfectly known. The tradition of his having been whipped is ill-vouched and im- probable ; but the fact would not have been irre- concilable with the ideas of academical discipline which were then prevalent. He does appear to have at first excited the displeasure of the authorities, probably for too free expression of opinions, and certainly for no serious moral offence ; but he took his degrees of bachelor and master in the regular course, and was pressed by the fellows of his college to remain at Cambridge. He could not resolve to comply with the wish of his parents that he should enter the church ; and he declined also the profes- sion of the law, for which, indeed, he had always a MIL great contempt. In 1632, leaving the nnivei he went to the house of his father, who had chased an estate at Horton in Buckingham! In this retreat he lived from his twenty-fc year to his twenty-ninth ; a period which was only very important in the development o] mind, but very fertile in the fruits of his ge He read the Greek and Roman classics, besto particular attention on the historians ; and, his study of Spenser and Shakspeare, and contemporaries, had probably begun in boyl there is, in his own poems of this stage, muc prove that he now became exactly as well as miringly familiar with Italian poetry. Not after his retirement to the country, must have produced the verses which he contributed U masque of 'Arcades;' his exquisite masque of mus,' one of the masterpieces of English poetry, acted in Ludlow Castle at Michaelmas 1634 ; in 1638 was printed the monody of ' Lycida refined embodiment of classical fancies in "the ii woven melodies of the Italian lyrists. ' L'Alle and ' II Penseroso,' likewise, the most beau of all descriptive poems, had their birth all certainly in those few years of ' a calm and p! ing solitariness, fed with cheerful and conn* thoughts.' Milton, in short, had already achi immortal fame. The mantle of the Elizabe poets had fallen on him : and, though his bi career had now been aire ted, he would have illustrious as the last survivor, and one of the ] highly gifted, of that energetic and fruitful Nor is it uninteresting to note how the dran turn, which had been taken by poetry in the li part of Elizabeth's reign, still affected one w greatness was to reach its climax in works modi in another form, and breathing ideas of anc cast. The most poetical kind of the old drs was adopted and ennobled by him in the earlie his sustained efforts; there is extant, in his hand- writing, a memorandum of a hundred sto from Scriptural and British history, which presented themselves to him as fit themes for gedies, and the treatment of which, in sei instances, he lays down in outline ; and the 5 J taper contains a plan, the most elaborate of or working up, into a tragedy or mystery, the i dents which, in the end, took an epic shape in 4 ] adise Lost.' In 1638, Milton's father furnished with the means of visiting the continent, w he remained fifteen months. He first spei few days in Paris, and there made the acquf ance of Grotius. He then passed two montl Florence, finding his way readily into lite society, to which, indeed, he recommended hir by the remarkable skill with which he comp Italian verses; and at Arcetri, near that beau city, he waited on the illustrious Galileo, months more were spent in Rome ; and, both t and in Tuscany, his classical predilections, am sense of beauty in form, were richly nourishe the ruins and the scenery, the Greek sculptures the masterpieces of Italian painting. In I verses, addressed to Manso, trie patron of T he hints at a design of celebrating, in an epic O Arthur, the mythical hero of early British his Naples, where Milton became acquainted with accomplished person, was the farthest point o travels. He had intended to visit Sicily and Gr 494 QJtpfm Uc&m. Ci^&Z/ <L^//lf??l<&rJ C ///'/ MIL b the news reached him of the outbreak of dis- tianees in England; and his zeal on public . (which had shown itself in Rome by : rash talk on matters of religion,) made M immediately resolve to retrace his steps. g to Rome, and crossing the Apennines to B&na and Ferrara, he passed along Lombardy ir Venice to Milan, and thence crossed the Alps a, where he remained a considerable time. reached England about August, 1639, and is residence in London. The next twenty the times of the Civil War, the Com- jlrealth, and the Protectorate. Luring this d severe period the poet's lyre was'mute. il questions his views passed rapidly into ism: and his ecclesiastical opinions, Mne to episcopacy from his youth, were matured lie conflict around him, till he attached himself title Independents. Always deeply impressed tnthe importance of the great controversies of Bane, and naturally far from being disinclined to plemies, he threw himself promptly and into the vortex of the struggle. For a after his return from the Continent, he :;imself quietly in teaching his nephews : Edward Phillips, and other boys whom he peived into his house. Very soon, however, that career as a controversialist, which, is exposed him to much obloquy from i dissent from his opinions, has enrolled among the noblest and most eloquent of IheHters of Old English prose. His polemical re keen and sometimes abusive ; but they larly able. His first work of this sort ua treatise ' Of Reformation,' published in i 1 the attack then made on the bishops. gaged in the famous controversy, in which iters on the puritanical side wrote under tae pgrammatic name of Smectymnuus : to it he I four successive treatises, measuring h bishops Hall and Usher. It is inter- see the poet, in the heat of this fiery king back with regret on the time when 1 lived ' in the still and quiet air of delight- J kdies,' and avowing his design of still exe- ^Hfeis own proper sphere, some work worthy lity, some work nourished by observation nd ftding, and by ' devout prayer to that Eter- w ho can enrich with all utterance and edge.' At Whitsuntide in 1643, being thirty-fifth year, Milton married Mary r l the daughter of an Oxfordshire gentleman, to arty of the cavaliers. The courtship seems to wn short ; and we know little as to the circum- h, a few weeks after the marriage, ledhis ^^H her father's house, and to refuse to re- isband was vehemently indignant, pub- I ipwned her, and proceeded to justify the step pt of four Treatises, in which he maintains Lfulness of divorce for disobedience and other t of matrimonial unfaithfulness. The "ition of these works was decidedly the most \*> lar as well as the most objectionable step a controversial career. Before the last red, he gave forth, in 1644, his treatise non,' expressing views which, though |>ianism, are very elevated, and are H in a strain of finely ornate eloquence. - year gave to the public the grandest of MIL his prose works, an appeal, against all parties, in behalf of the freedom of the press. It was en- titled ' Areopagitica : a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing: to the Parliament of Eng- land.' Soon after this his wife, contriving to obtain an interview with him by surprise, and en- treating his pardon, a reconciliation ensued: she lived with him without further separation; and his three daughters were hers. Her parents, also, being dispossessed of their house by the parlia- mentarians, were sheltered by Milton ; and his in- terest with the ruling party was actively exerted to procure for his father-in-law a favourable com- position with the commissioners of the sequestrated estates. It is worth notice, also, that the poet's bro- ther, afterwards a catholic and judge under James 1 1., was one of the sequestrated royalists. In 164.3 Milton superintended a collected edition of his poems, Latin and English, some of which indeed, Lycidas being one, had not till now been acknow- ledged. Before this publication, Milton's sight had begun to fail. His left eye was almost blind in 1644, or very soon after. His strong feelings, however, made him, instead of sparing himself, enlarge his field of battle : he passed from ecclesi- astical to political questions. In February 1649, a few weeks after the death of Charles L, he pub- lished a treatise, defending his deposition and execution, and entitled ' The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates.' In March he accepted an appoint- ment as ' Secretary for Foreign Tongues ' to the Council of State. The extant order-book of the Council, and many letters also preserved, give evidence of his activity and usefulness in his office. By the desire of the Council, too, though without receiving any payment beyond his salary, he com- posed his ' Eikonoclastes, ' an answer to the ' Eikon Basilike,' which had been published as a work of the unfortunate king. This was followed by two books, written in Latin, being designed for circulation abroad : the ' Defence of the People of England ;' and the ' Second Defence.' In 1652, before the latter of these works was composed, he had become totally blind: and soon afterwards another Latin secretary was appointed to act along with him ; Andrew Marvel holding that place for a while. About this time his first wife died in childbed ; and the same fate befell his second wife, Catherine Woodcock, within a year of her marriage, which took place in 1656. It was to her memory that he dedicated his fine sonnet. His blindness, though it made him inapt for regular official busi- ness, left him able to perform important public duties. In 1655 he drew up the Protector's Mani- festo in justification of the war with Spain : and several controversial treatises came from his pen in the last years of the Protectorate. To his liter- ary employments he now returned with redoubled ardour. Some progress was probably made with his History of England, of which four books had been written before his appointment to the secre- taryship : he collected large materials (which were used by the Cambridge scholars in 1693,) for a Latin Dictionary, in amendment of the Thesaurus of Stephens : and there is good reason for believing that, during this period of honoured repose, he pro- ceeded a considerable way in the composition ot his great epic. The Restoration of 1660 con- signed Milton, for the last fourteen years of Ids 495 MIL life, to an obscurity winch, wearing no terrors for his firm soul, gave him full leisure to execute the mighty poetical task he had undertaken. At first he thought it necessary to conceal himself: his friends are said to have made a mock funeral for him : and a proclamation was actually issued for the apprehension of him and Goodwin the theo- logian. But, though the most offensive of his books were burned by the hangman, he was in- cluded in the act of indemnity ; and it is even asserted that his former office was offered to him, but of course refused. He had in the end inherited but little from his father, had failed in getting payment of the portion of his first wife, had lost money lent, and had had his house accidentally burnt. Accordingly, his circumstances were now indifferent, yet not very low for a man so moderate in his habits. He published, in 1G61, a Latin grammar in English. In 1664 he married his third wife, Elizabeth Minshul, of a good Cheshire family. In 1665, being in his fifty-seventh year, he completed ' Paradise Lost ;' and it was pub- lished in 1667. It was sold for five pounds to a bookseller, who engaged to pay a like sum for each fifteen hundred copies that should be sold from each of three editions of two thousand each. In two years the first of these additional payments was due and made ; a second edition was pub- lished in 1674, and a third in 1678. This was a large sale for a serious poem in an age like that of the Restoration ; and, though it could not meet with applause from the fashionable debauchees of the court, the hearty and respectful admiration of Dry- den was not the only tribute that was immediately paid, by competent judges, to the extraordinary merit of the only great epic in the English lan- guage. The poet next published his ' History of England,' down to the Norman Conquest ; and in 1671 appeared the ' Paradise Regained,' to which was subjoined ' Samson Agonistes.' His second epic was written with great quickness, perhaps altogether during a retirement of several months which he made to Chalfont in Buckinghamshire, on the breaking out of the plague in London in 1665. John Milton, one of the greatest of poets, and the very greatest of all poets who have con- secrated their genius to the service of Christianity, had now, amidst evil men and evil days, discharged the debt which, many years before, he had proudly said that he held himself to owe to posterity. He had enriched the world of poetry with a host of the noblest images and sentiments, and in his sacred epic had given to English diction and rhythm new and original developments. His literary labours closed with a Treatise on Logic, very ably written in Latin ; a new treatise in con- troversial theology, 'Of True Religion,' directed against popery ; and a Latin collection, published in 1674, or his private letters and academical ex- ercises. To the latest years of his life may have belonged the completion of his Latin treatise ' Of Christian Doctrine,' which, left unpublished till it was disinterred from the State Paper Office in 1823, showed him to have become decidedly an Arian. In July, 1674, having long been distressed by gout, and thinking himself near death, he gave his brother directions as to the disposal of his pro- perty. These throw some light on his domestic position. The facts exhibit traces of those infir- MIR mities of temper with which the great poet is ditionally charged. The current account, > represents his daughters as having been tr to read and write for him, appears to be true as to Deborah, the youngest ; and all of then lived uncomfortably with him and his third and had left his house some years before his d He was chiefly served in his studies and in position by Elwood the Quaker, by other v men who were attracted by his genius, and by whom he hired. He now intimated his inte (which his widow unsuccessfully attempte establish as a completed will") of bequeathing a property to his wife, leaving to his daug only, besides what he ' had done for them,' a i on their mother's family for her portion still paid. He spoke of them as his 'unkind dren,' and said they had been ' very undutif him.' He died, so easily that the moment wa perceived, on Sunday the 8th of November, ] and was buried beside his father, in the chani St. Giles in Cripplegate. [\ MIMAUT, J. F., a Fr. historian, 1775-18; MIMNERMUS, a Greek poet, 6th century MINA, Don Francisco Espoz y, a Sp general and statesman, born in Navarre 1781, of the guerillas when Spain was invaded b French 1809, defender of the constitution in | and again in 1820. He became an exile on occasions, but returned on the death of Ferdii and took an active part against Carlos, 1834, d. MIND, Godfrey, a Swiss painter, 1768- MINGARELLI. F., an Ital. theolog., 1724 MINIANA, J. E., an Ital. historian, 1671- MINOT, G. R., an Amer. historian, 1758- MINOT, Laurence, an Eng. poet, 14th < MINTO, Gilbert Elliot, Lord, born commenced his political career in the Hoi Commons 1794, and was governor-general of gal 1807-1812 ; died 1814. MINUCCIO, M., an Ital. prelate, 1551-K MINUTIUS-FELIX, Marcus, a Roman cate, author of the ' Octavius,' a Latin dial written in defence of Christianity, and for attributed to Arnobius, 3d century. MIOLLIS, A. F., a French general, 1759- MIONNET, T. E., a Fr. numismat., 1770- MIRABAUD, Jean Baptiste, a French first known as a translator of Tasso and Ar and afterwards for his free inquiries into the quities of religion, was born at Paris 1765. b teacher in the family of the duches.se d'Or and died 1760. The ' System of Nature,' lished under his name, was written by the 1 de Holbach, with the assistance of Diderot. MIRABEAU, Boniface Riquetti. Vis De, known as ' Barrel-Mirabeau,' was brotl the great tribune, and appeared in the es general as his adversary, being deputy fn noblesse of Limousin, lie was burn ia 175:' having emigrated to Germany in 1790, he there two years afterwards, commander of a which he had raised for the service of tlie and with which he joined the army MIRABEAU, Victor Riquetti, Marqu father of the preceding, was born in Provence and died 1789. He was a great _ political i mist, and was called ' the friend of men,' fro title of one of his works. His principles 496 MIR of Du Quesnay, and he suffered an imprison- for them in the Bastile. RABEAU, Honore Gabriel, Riquetti, De, one of the greatest orators of France, i first leader of the revolution, was son of Riquetti Marquis de Mirabeau, and was Bignon, near Nemours, 1749. Though ily was established in Provence, it was of origin, and Mirabeau derived from his an- all the genius and passion which mark the At the age of seventeen, his father endea- curb his spirit and reform his manners, years' imprisonment in the Isle of Rh, i to the fortress there, under the autho- a Lettre de Cachet. On being liberated he a regiment of dragoons, and after serving a n Corsica, returned to Provence involved in difficulties, as a means of extrication h, he married the heiress of the Marig- | family. This lady was already engaged to and the attempt to gain her hand was be- difficulties, all which were overcome by ]g spirit and intriguing policy of Mirabeau, the most cruel means to accomplish his His extravagance, and his old debts still upon him, and his life was so scandalous, became the terror of the peasantry around id is said to have treated his wife with itality. An apportunity being afforded Mirabeau, he contrived in 1774 to place ice more under arrest, first in the castle Jotuated on a rock in the gulf or Marseilles, rards in a fortress of the Jura mountains. named place Mirabeau seduced the lan it contained, the sutler's wife, and in carried off Sophia de Ruffey, wife of the le Monnier, the only being ne ever really 1 whose loss embittered all his after life, not fire his genius, and render him the man known to history. The lovers took in Holland, where Mirabeau commenced for the booksellers as a means of subsis- and while thus engaged they were both y a stratagem, Madame de Monnier being in a convent, and Mirabeau conducted to ', *&K [Castle of Vincennes.] the castle of Vincennes, where he re- liree years and seven months. Previous est he had been condemned by the parlia- MIR ment of Dijon, par contumace, and beheaded in effigy ; and all his endeavours to obtain a trial during this long imprisonment were in vain ; as were his efforts, pleading with surprising eloquence in his own cause, to recover his wife by law, who procured a divorce from him. The works which he had written up to this period were chiefly licen- tious productions, but he used the interval of his freedom in 1776 to publish an Essay on Despot- ism,' the fruit of which he had so bitterly tasted. Between the recovery of his liberty and the convo- cation of the 'Estates-General' in 1789, Mira- beau occupied himself as a political and historical writer, and becoming known to Calonne the fin- ance minister, went to Berlin on some secret mis- sion. His ambition, at the commencement of the national troubles, was to be returned to the estates-general as a deputy for the noblesse ; but being rejected by his own order, he threw himself into the arms of the popular party, and was the first in the assembly to defy the royal authority. The occasion was the famous sitting of June 23d, 1789, when the deputies were charged to separate by the king, to the end that each of the three orders might meet in its own separate place on the morrow. The noblesse and the majority of the clergy departed after the king and his retinue, but the commons still lingered in uncertainty, and Mirabeau began to address them on the mission with which they were intrusted by the nation. He was interrupted by the marquis de Br6ze, mas- ter of the ceremonies, who reminded them of the king's orders. The orator, flushed with anger, turned upon him with the glare of a lion ' Go, tell your master that we are here by the will of the people, and no power but the force of bayonets shall send us hence! ' The commons rallied to his voice as to the call of -a trumpet, and instantly de- creed the inviolability of the people's representa- tives, and being joined by some of the noblesse and the clergy, formed themselves into the national assembly, of which body, in January 1791, Mira- beau became president, only two months before his death. We have not space to follow his career in the assembly, and the great questions decided by the magic of his eloquence. His characteristic was irre- sistible power, not only expressed in the deep bass of his voice, but represented in his defiant looks, his large head, his massy black hair, which he shook from his brow like the mane of a lion when he as- cended the tribune, and his tall thick-set frame. 'His gestures were commands; his movements coups d' etat,' ' his sonorous phrases became the proverbs of the revolution.' He compared himself to Marius, 'less great for having exterminated the Cimbri than for having prostrated the Roman aristocracy.' The most graphic writers of every shade of opinion have exhausted their skill in words to reproduce him as the people's tribune, 'In fiery rough figure, with black Samson-locks under the slouch-hat, he steps along there,' writes Carlyle in The Procession, ' roughest lion's whelp ever littered of that rough breed !' After the first burst of passion as the orator, Mirabeau devised rationally, and intended honestly as the statesman. In less than two years from the commencement of his political career, it was terminated by his death, and it cannot be doubted that he foresaw clearly, and was prepared to resist strenuously, the evil 497 2K MIR designs of those who involved France in such cala- mities afterwards. It is difficult to believe that a man could be devoid both of shame and virtue in private life, and at the same time act sincerely as a politician, and yet it is highly probable that such was the case with Mirabeau. A man of wild un- governable passions, he had only just discovered the arena in which he could devote them to one sufficient end, and therein lies the whole secret. Like Danton, he took money from the court to support his extravagances, and still pursued his own purposes. When cut off by a sudden illness, 2d April, 1791, he was in all likelihood preparing to dissolve the national assembly, and to under- take the guidance of the nation as minister. He was honoured with a magnificent public funeral, and his remains deposited in the pantheon, from which, two years afterwards, they were removed and replaced by those of Marat. [E-R-] MIRAMION, M. Bonneau De, a French lady, celebrated as founder of a house of refuge for pros- titutes, and of the Miramionites, or restored order of the daughters of Saint Genevieve, 1629-1696. MIRANDA, Don Francisco, one of the ear- liest patriots of South America, was born about the middle of last century, and commenced his career as a soldier in the Spanish army. In 1783 he visited the United States and the principal countries of Europe, with a view to the indepen- dence of his country, and, in 1790, joined the French army under Dumouriez. Sharing in the unpopularity of that general, he was tried at the revolutionary tribunal and acquitted, but was banished by the directory, and at a later period by Buonaparte. From 1806 to 1810 he was engaged, with varied success, in the struggles of his country- men for freedom. He was at length captured by the Spaniards, and died in prison at Cadiz, where he had been confined four years, 1816. MIRANDA, R. De, a Spanish painter, last cen. MIRANDOLA, the name of a distinguished fa- mily in Italy, was first borne by Francesco Pico Della Mirandola, a chief of the Ghibellines, and prince of Modena, 1312-1321. The next, and most illustrious of the family, mentioned by bio- graphers, was Giovanni Pico Della Miran- dola, one of the greatest lights of his age (next article). After him are mentioned, Giovanni Francesco, his nephew, a great theological and philosophical writer, massacred, with his son, by Galeotto, 1533. Galeotto, the nephew and mur- derer of the preceding, succeeded to the principa- lity, and died 1551. Louis, son and successor of the latter, died 1574. Marie, the last of the dukes of Mirandola, was born 1688, and despoiled of his estates by the emperor Joseph I., in the Spanish war of succession. He retired with his family, who established themselves in France. MIRANDOLA, John Pico Della, was born in 1463. The precocious prince of Mirandola and Concordia showed great accomplishments in his youth, and challenged disputation on abstruse subjects in many of the most famous univer- sities. He had few matches in that age as a finished scholar and acute philosopher, a subtle debater and a polished gentleman, nay, he was deep in theology, and devout in his life. But his sun went down at mid-day, and he died at the age of thirty-two at Florence in 1494. His fond MIT pursuit was an endeavour to harmonize the ] sophy of Aristotle and Plato. His wurlcs published at Basel, folio, 1601, and consi letters, a treatise on the Lord's Prayer, the ] dom of Christ, the 15th Psalm, and Pft for a Holy Life, &c. MIRE VELT, M. J., a Dutch painter, 1568- MIRTCHOND, M., a Persian hist., 1433-1 MISSON, Maximilian, a Fr. writer, d. 1 MITAN, J., an engraver of London, 1776- MITCHELL, Andrew, a Scotch admiral, 1757, captured the Dutch fleet 1799, died 18 MITCHELL, Sir Andrew, English ami dor to Berlin, time of Frederick II., died 177 MITCHELL, Sir David, a naval commi and ambassador, time of William III., died 1 MITCHELL, J., a Scottish dramat., 1684- MITCHELL, Thos., a classical translatai contributor to the ' Quarterly Review,' 1783- MITELLI, A., an Italian painter, 1597-K MITFORD, George, a country gentlemai magistrate, father of Miss Mitford, the well-k novelist, 1760-1842. MITFORD, John, a miscellaneous wr., d. MITFORD, John Freeman, Baron Reda an eminent chancery lawyer, member of p ment, and speaker of the House of Commc 1801, subsequently lord chancellor of Ireland one of the privy council, died 1830. MITFORD, William, professoi of histo the Royal Academy, was Dorn in London and educated for the law, but entered partial and obtained a commission in the Harm; militia. His principal works are a 'Histo Greece,' an ' Essay on the Harmony of Langi ' Observations on the History of Christianity, some military treatises. Died 1827, MITHRIDATES, the first of the name, of Pontus, reigned 402-363 B.C. The se 336-302 B.C. The third, 302-2G5 B.C. The/a 266-222 B.C. The fifth, son and successor o preceding, chiefly known by his war witb inhabitants of Sinope, ended his reign abou B.C.. The sixth, who was the first of the kin Pontus to form an alliance with the Boo ascended the throne about 157, and was a sinated B.C. 124. The seventh, or the sixth cording to some accounts in which our Jij omitted, is the subject of the following notice MITHRIDATES, surnamed ' the Great,' of Pontus, and greatest enemy of the R< power, was son of Mithridates v., whom he ceeded at the age of eleven, b.c. 123. Soon attaining his majority, he commenced his can intrigue and conquest by attacking the Colch the empire of the Bosphorus, and, by the yeai 90, had openly broken with the Romans, the of whose power he had often before c To explain how, in a few years, he became si midable to the rulers of the world, we oog' mention that the rapacity and corruption oj Roman proconsuls had excited a spirit of hi and revolt in nearly all their provin* fact, the declining age of the patrician rep' when a social war was created by t! the privileged classes to withhold the rigntil the very name of Roman citizens fi of their subjects. Spartacus in Ital the head of all Spain in revolt, and the nanf 498 MIT hrins and Sylla sufficiently characterize the na- j-e of those critical times. Mithridates found the bple of the East ripe for change, and he was kfed as their deliverer by whole populations erever his standard appeared. In the first flush [his success, the inhabitants of Asia Minor rose lunst the Roman citizens dwelling among them, k it is estimated at the lowest computation that ; 000 persons, of all ages and of both sexes, were I to death, whether by order of Mithridates, or la spontaneous act of vengeance, can never be (lermined. Quick and indefatigable in his move- nts, Mithridates was soon master of nearly all ^|a Minor, besides Greece taken by Archelaus, his 1 (tenant; and so surprising was his talent for tj acquisition of languages, that he was able to erse with the natives of twenty-two different ons subject to him. The fortunes of Eome at crisis, b.c. 87, were intrusted to Sylla, who is army through Greece ; and, by the capture lithens and the victories of Chseronea and Or- llnenea, restored the Roman power in that coun- ti For four years Mithridates disputed posses- fi of Asia, but was at last compelled to succumb, p the loss of more than 200,000 men, and to {( ne himself to his hereditary dominions, not, hi iver, without more fighting during the execu- > treaty, which is sometimes regarded as i and war between him and the Romans. After tilieath of Sylla, which occurred in B.C. 78, M ridates levied another army, numbering about l<] )00 men, with a determination to expel the m ms from Asia. With this force he awaited hi: )portunity, and when the kingdom of Bithynia educed to a Roman province, which happened m e death of Nicomedia, he invaded the coun- m md, having beaten the army of Cotta, laid B to Cyzicum. Obliged to retreat by Lucullus, B was appointed consul B.C. 74, he was fol- B by the victorious Romans into his own states, B riven to seek a refuge in Armenia, then ruled B granes, who refused to deliver him up. Here, B t, with the facility of a Buonaparte, Mithri- fel raised a third great army, and, in B.C. 67, B Wely defeated the Romans under Triarius, the lieipant of Lucullus, who had been recalled; MKpllowing up his success, rapidly recovered the m part of his dominions. The Romans, whose - at this time trembling in the balance, Mednced to invest Pompey with absolute power nt| East, and by him, in B.C. 76, the forces of Bgdates were completely routed in a night at- Hjttff the Euphrates. Far from giving up a Bjje which had lasted nearly torty years, this Hrdinary man, after remaining some time in Hhnent, suddenly appeared at the head of Mr army, with the vast design of marching Hdy ; where he had reason to hope his forces Br 6 joined by the Gauls. This gigantic enter- BJroduced a revolt amongst his troops, headed 'j son, Pharnaces, whom they proclaimed Bj and Mithridates, after a single attempt to it at the head of his guards, endeavoured I poison and afterwards to stab himself; and Bj ttempts failing, caused one of his Gaulish W aries to put an end. to his existence. Thus Bid, in b.c. 64, the most formidable enemy B ome had ever encountered, and, in many & S one of the most remarkable men of MOI those ages. He was honoured with a magnificent funeral by Pompey, and Rome breathed again on hearing of his unexpected and unhappy end. In regard to the charges of cruelty brought against him, it ought to be remembered, as pointed out by a recent historian of the Roman emperors, that the materials for the history of Mithridates are fur- nished by his enemies, the chief source of them being the memoirs of Sylla. [E.R.] MITHRIDATES, the first of the name, king of Parthia, surnamed ' the Great,' succeeded B.C. 164, died, after conquering Media, Persia, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia, 139. The second, reigned 126- 86 b.c. The third, 61-53 B.C. MITTIE, J. S., a Polish physician, 1727-1795. MITZLER, Laurence Charles De Kolof, a German composer, settled at Warsaw, 1711-1778. MIZAULD, A., a Fr. astrologer, 1520-1578. MOAWIAH, first Ommiade caliph, 661-680. MOAWIAH II., third Ommiade caliph, 683-704. MOCHI, F., an Italian sculptor, 1580-1646. MODEER, A., a Swed. naturalist, 1738-1799. MODIUS, F., a Flemish critic, 1546-1597. MOEHLER, John Adam, professor of Romish theology at Tubingen, and author of many learned works in theology and church history, 1796-1836. MOEHSEN, John Ch. William, a learned physician of Germany, author of works on the his- tory of medicine, 1722-1795. MOELLENDORF, Richd. Joachim Henry, Count De, commander of the Prussian army dur- ing the dismemberment of Poland, and the suc- cessor of Brunswick on the Rhine, 1724-1816. MOESER, J., a German author, 1720-1794. MOESTLIN, M., a Lutheran divine, died 1650. MOET, J. P., a French author, 1721-1806. MOFFAN, N. De, a Fr. historian, 16th cent. MOHLER. See Moehler. MOHNIKE, T. C. F., a Ger. savant, 1781-1841. MOHSIN, Fani, a Persian poet, died 1670. MOINE, P. C. Le, a French savant, 1723-1780. MOIRA, F. Rayvdon, earl of, a general and statesman of the period of Fox and Pitt, distin- guished in the American war, and more lately in La Vendee, born 1754, died governor-general of the East Indies, 1829. MOIR, David Macbeth, born in 1798, at Musselburgh, in the county of Edinburgh, settled as a medical practitioner in his native town, and till his death practised his profession there with eminent ability and success. He became known in literature by poetical contributions to Blackwood's Magazine, which, beginning about 1817, were soon marked by the writer's signature of ' Delta,' and continued to be furnished very frequently dur- ing the remainder of his life. Some of these were collected in two separate volumes : ' The Legend of Genevieve, with other Tales and Poems,' pub- lished in 1825 ; and ' Domestic Verses,' (several of which are very beautiful,) in 1843. Destitute of strong invention and original imagination, the poetry of Delta is yet extremely pleasing, through its refinement of sentiment, its frequent flow of sweetly natural pathos, and its grace and delicacy both of diction and of imagery. He was still more successful in a very different walk, that of familiar comic portraiture in prose. His compositions of this kind, contributed to Blackwood at intervals during several years from 1824, were collected and MOI published separately, as ' The Life of Mansie Wauch.' This autobiography of a country tailor, though clearly suggested ny Gait's Scottish da- guerreotypes, has great humour and originality of its own. Dr. Moir was likewise the author of ' Out- lines of the Ancient History of Medicine,' and of a volume of Critical Remarks on Recent English Poetry, which had been delivered as lectures not long before his death. He died in July, 1851, re- gretted as one whose amiability and uprightness were quite worthy of his fine taste and various accomplishments. [W.S.] MOIVRE. See De Moivre. MOJON, J., an Italian chemist, 1776-1837. MOLA, P. P., an Italian painter, 1609-1665. MOLAI, James De, last grand master of the Templars, was born of a noble family in Burgundy, and entered the order about the year 1265. He was elected grand master, though absent from the East, on the death of William de Beaujeu, and was present at the recovery of Jerusalem by the Christians in 1299. After fresh reverses suffered in Palestine, Molai found himself in Cyprus, and was mustering his forces for renewing the conflict, when a summons from the pope obliged him to re- turn to France in 1305. The avowed object of his recall was to take measures for uniting the Tem- plar and Knights Hospitalers in one body. The want of union among the different military orders having occasioned much scandal and provoked many hazards in Jerusalem. Our knowledge of the facts is very obscure, but it is certain that the great wealth of the Templars had excited the avarice of Philip the Fair, and this, conjoined with political and religious reasons, produced an under- standing between him and the pontiff for their destruction. On the 30th of October, 1307, all the Templars throughout France were arrested by surprise, and their property seized, while the in- quisitors proceeded to examine them by torture and parole evidence on various charges of heresy, immorality, and unnatural crimes. As usual m such cases, many confessions were made to escape the agony of the rack, many died under the in- fliction, many recanted afterwards, and were burnt alive at the stake, and nearly all who suffered, ex- hibited the devotion and constancy of martyrs. James de Molai, and others of the order, appealed to the judgment of the pope, who held an oecu- menical council on the subject in 1311, and in May, 1312, published a bull abolishing the order. The grand master, after a long imprisonment, was cruelly burnt alive by a slow fire, on the 18th of March, 1314, at Paris. An apology for the Templars was published by Father Lejeune, Paris, 1789, and a history of their condemnation, written by Pierre Dupuy, appeared at Brussels, probably a reprint, 1751. This illustrious order took its name from the temple of Solomon, and inherited the traditions and spiritual symbols connected with its foundation the same, perhaps, that are faintly recognized in freemasonry. While it can- not be doubted that many such wandering knights were of licentious lives, and that their esoteric doc- trines were inconsistent with the papal dominion, it is absurd to suppose that the crimes committed by individuals were the laws of their order. They were just a more chivalrous kind of Illuminati than those of the last century, possessed higher 500 MOL traditions, a more earnest purpose, and great temptation to their destruction, im wealth. MOLARD, F. E., a Fr. engineer, 1774-11 MOLE, Edward, a French magistrate, t Henry IV., 1558-1614. Hisson, Matthew, cellor during the war of the Fronde, 1584-11 MOLE, F. R., a French comedian, 1734-: MOLE, John, an English algebraist, d. ] MOLESWORTH, Robert, Viscount, am dor to Copenhagen in the reigu of Williau author of an ' Account of Denmark,' 1656-1 MOLEVILLE, A. F. B. See Bkrtraxi MOLIERE is the name which Jean Bai Poquelin assumed on becoming a player, t which he is celebrated as the best comic wi France. He was born in 1622, in Paris, wh father was a ' tapissier,' or upholsterer, holdii an appointment in the royal household. Th< designed for his father's trade, was poorly edi till he was fourteen years old ; after which, 1 been inspired by his grandfather with a lov for reading and for plays, he obtained fro parents, with difficulty, the means of study the College de Clermont; and there, I making other acquaintances that gained pab for him, he attracted the notice and appro of the philosopher Gassendi. In his nme year, having been appointed to fill his fi place as ' valet-de-chambre tapissier ' to the he began to attend at court : his taste for the was now confirmed by the fashion which hai set by Cardinal Richelieu ; and he put himi the head of a few young persons who, playi first as amateurs, soon became actors by t sion. From about 1645, Moliere's history i amidst the wars of the Fronde : but he appt have wandered in the provinces with his and to have composed slight pieces for the 1653, when his first regular comedy, ' L'Eti was played at Lyons with great success. In guedoc, next year, he produced ' Le Depit A eux,' and, bent on his favourite pursuits, r to become the secretary of his old school-f the Prince de Conti. In 1658, Moliereai company, finding their way to Paris, receive patronage of the court : he was by this tii excellent actor; and he immediately showed he possessed both a power of observation a original invention, and a skill in dramatic com tion, much exceeding anything that had apt in his two earlier pieces. His clever sati literary and accomplished ladies, called ' Les cieuses Ridicules,' was followed by his huir farce, ' Le Cocu Imaginaire : ' ' L'Ecole des Ji and ' Les Facheux,' made him still more ft; as a witty and correct painter of life and mar and the series of his plays continued to be r. increased till 1673, when it was ended with h by ' Le Malade Imaginaire.' Some of his dies, such as that last named, ' Le M6decin J Lui,' ' Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme,' and ' ( Dandin,' are chargeable, notwithsl liveliness, with degenerating into bro several of his comedies, though they support his fame at the extravagant heiu which his countrymen raise it, are dent to justify his rank as at once o brilliant' and skilful of all comic dramatists, 1 MOL f very best of those that have written comedies qthe formal French model. Such praise belongs icially to 'L'Ecole des Femmes' (1662), m ilch is" his famous character of Agnes; ' Le Mis- irope' (1666), of which Wycherly's 'Plain- 1'iler ' is an imitation, with improvement in man- Jaient and degradation in morality; 'Le Tar- t s ' 667), so deservedly celebrated for its power- flpicture of hypocrisy in the person of the hero ; iT 4 Les Femmes Savantes ' (1672), in which Mindless pretensions are ridiculed with great lb of humour. In 1662, being forty years old, he feed an actress of seventeen, whose light-minded ttetry embittered his comfort. He is described Shaving been a thoughtful, generous, and good- Bted man, and more popular with his players m managers are wont to be. He prided himself mis skill in playing low comedy, as much at Ik as on the fame he won as a dramatic poet. H he all but died on the stage. In acting Kan' on one of the earliest appearances of his last comedy, he was seized with convulsions, n suffocated by blood from the chest. His refused admission to consecrated ground, king prevailed on the archbishop of Paris a. private funeral. [W.S.] [Tomb of Moliere.] JDLIERE, F. De, a French novelist, d. 1623. ipLIERES, Joseph Privat De, a French irian, known as a philosophical and mathe- tal writer, 1677-1742. 1HJ.N, or DUMOULIN, James, a French Bun, understood to be the original of the lifado of Le Sage, 1666-1755. I LINA, A. De, a Span, philolog., 1496-1584. MJLINA, J. I., a Mexican natural., 1740-1829. ptLINA, L., a Spanish Jesuit, author of a Ppn Free Will, which divided the theologians II day into two parties, called Jansenists and faU, 1535-1601. * LINERI, J. A., an Ital. painter, 1577-1640. JLINET, J., a French poet, died 1507. HlNIER, W., a French troubadour, 14th c. JNOS, Michael, was born in the neigh- Mod of Saragossa in 1627, but was chiefly re- Win Rome. In 1670 he published in Spanish Ijknous book, 'The Spiritual Guide,' which Hnslated into Italian, and published at Rome ML The object of the treatise was to teach Iflhe pious mind must possess quietude in its spiritual progress, that for this purpose MON it must be abstracted from visible objects, that thus drawn within himself, it becomes susceptible of heavenly influence, and that the special func- tions of intellect and will are merged wholly in God. This species of mysticism was named Quiet- ism. As it was in antagonism with the emphasis laid by the Church of Rome on external cere- monies, it brought down upon its author the hos- tility of the Jesuits and the higher powers. Mo- linos was thrown into prison in 1685, and though he recanted his errors, yet was he in 1687 con- demned to perpetual imprisonment, and he died unreleased in 1696. This system was espoused in France by Madame Guyon, and the good and great Fenelon, bishop of Cambray. [J.E.] MOLLER, Daniel William, a learned Hun- garian 1642-1712. MOLLER, H., a Lutheran divine, 1530-1589. MOLLER, J., a German philologist, 1661-1725. MOLLERUS, J. H., a Dutch statesman, minister of war in 1814, 1753-1830. MOLNAR, A., a Hungarian philologist, b. 1574. MOLLOY, Charles, a political and dramatic writer, educated for the law, b. in Dublin ; d. 1767. MOLYN, Peter De, called 'the Elder,' a Dutch landscape painter and etcher, born about 1600. His son of the same name, called ' Cava- liere Tempestu,' and 'Pietro de Mulceribus, famous for his storm pieces, 1637-1701. MOLYNEUX, William, an Irish mathe- matician and astronomer, author of a treatise on ' Dioptrics,' &c, 1656-1698. His son, Samuel, an astronomer and optician, was born 1689. Sir Thomas, brother ot the latter, a physician and philosophical writer, died 1733. MOLYNEUX, Sir Wm., a brave officer, dist. at the battle of Flodden, reign of Henry VIII. MOLZA, Francesco Maria, a licentious Italian, distinguished for his versatile skill in poetry, 1489-1544. His grand-daughter, Tar- quinia, remarkable for her extensive learning and poetical talents, 1542-1617. MONACI, L. De, a Venetian annalist, d. 1429. MONALDESCHI, Marquis De, a nobleman attendant on Christina, queen of Sweden, whom she caused to be assassinated at Fontainbleau, 1657. MONARDES, N., a Spanish naturalist, d. 1578. MONBEILLARD. See Montbeillard. MONBODDO, Lord. See Burnett. MONCE, F. De La, a painter of Munich, d. 1753. MONCEY, R. Adrian Jeannot, Duke de Conegliano, a French marshal, distinguished in the wars of Napoleon, and governor of the ' Inva- lides ' when the ashes of the emperor were brought from St. Helena, 1754-1842. MONCIEL, T. De, a Fr. statesman, 1790-1831. MONCONYS, B. De, a wr. of travels, 1611-65. MONCRIF, Francis Augustin Paradis De, a French poet and literateur, 1687-1770. MONET, Philibert, a Fr. savant, 1566-1643. MONETI, F., an Italian satirist, 1635-1712. MONGAULT, N. H., a Fr. writer, 1674-1746. MONGE, Gaspard, born at Beaune in 1746; died at Paris, 28th July, 1818 : one of the very greatest of those illustrious scientific men who graced and exalted the Republic, the Consulate, and the Empire. Educated as a military engineer at the college at Mezieres, he was transferred to the school of the Louvre in 1780, and thus was on the 501 MON spot, prepared to sustain his part in those subse- Juent stupendous events which stunned Europe, t must not be supposed that in the Revolution Monge figured as a politician ; neither at any period of his life did he evince sympathy with the mere struggles of Party ; but among the foremost, he came, with all the energy of genius, in aid of the Convention, when France first stood at bay, and then single-handed beat back the Coalition and shivered their Empires. That was indeed a time ! The super-human gallantry of the nation, and the prodigious force with which it rose in defiant vin- dication of its existence and rights, so strike one with amazement, and even at this late day so stir the blood, that, for the moment, one inclines to forget its crimes. It must be recollected, that not only was the enemy on the frontier, but the sup- ply was stopped of all those substances, even to the raw material, which had to be wrought into weapons of defence ; the means of procuring iron, steel, saltpetre, gunpowder, and many articles of prime necessity ' were,' says Biot, ' created during the reign of Terror.' The superintendence, or in terms more appropriate, the creation of the Engin- eering, fell in large part to Monge ; and it was out of his herculean exertions to man the fortresses and instruct the new army, that those world-famous schools the Ecoles Normale and Polytechnique at that time sprung up. Nor were the ties ever severed that bound him to the fortunes of France. Side by side with their young Buonaparte during the ever-memorable campaigns of Italy, he after- wards formed one of tie expedition to Egypt, whose records his pen has so largely enriched: and he kept the warm friendship of the Emperor, to the close of Napoleon's own career. It will be remembered as one of the earliest and meanest acts of the Restoration that purging of the Insti- tute, which got rid, by expulsion, of several associates to whom it then owed great part of its splendour : surely it is brighter honour to Monge that he shared the fate of Carnot, than if he had preferred to repent and be rewarded with La- place ! Monge's achievements, however, were not merely those of Action. He contributed in many ways to improve analysis, and made important steps in the application of analysis to Geometry : but that which makes his name imperishable, is a stroke of pure genius, constituting an epoch in the Science it advanced. While yet a young officer in the engineers, the happy thought occurred to Monge, that by a new and peculiar method of projection, every solid figure might be represented on plane canvas, so accurately that the relations of its various points might be determined by rule and compass. Applying his idea in the first place to the solid works of fortification, &c, he soon discerned that he held in his hand the principles of a Geometry altogether new, and of exhaustless capacity ; and that remarkable method was elaborated accordingly, which is now known as ' Descriptive Geometry.' A new Geo- metry, by every right, the Method of Monge has already conferred the highest benefits on all de- partments of practical science ; and it has opened to pure Geometry long courses of investigation, to which analysis alone had previously the key. No work yet exists exposing the foundation and na- ture of Descriptive Geometry as well as Monge's MON own : through its perspicuity, its taste, its prehensiveness, it ranks as a classic in n matics. It is said that the oral expositions < remarkable person were as fascinating as hisl His pupils considered him the ideal of a sophic teacher ; and a few who still survive tinue to speak of his lessons as among theii delightful recollections. [J. MONGELLAZ, Madame, a French i author of ' The Influence of Women upon ners,' 1798-1830. MONGEZ, John Andrew, a French phj and naturalist, 1751-1788. His brother, Anti author of several historical works, 1747-183. MONGITORE, A., a Fr. antiquar., 1663- MONK. George Monk, general und commonwealth, and duke of Albemarle aft restoration, was born in Devonshire in 1608 devoted himself early to a military life, an acquired some experience in the wars on th tinent, when the civil war broke out in El between Charles and his parliament. Mo first served on the king's side ; but he was prisoner in 1645, and after lying two years i son, he consented to take a commission parliamentarian army. He commanded fir his new masters in Ireland, where he distin^ himself greatly. He afterwards acted as hi ant-general under Cromwell in Scotland, he aided much in gaining the victory of Di Cromwell left him with 5,000 men to coi the subjugation of Scotland, a work which effectually performed. He was next emplo; an admiral of the commonwealth's fleet, a shared in the perils and the glories of th perate struggle with the Dutch navy, Blake so successfully conducted. He was soon back to command in Scotland ; and fi years he kept that kingdom in helpless subn to Cromwell, and in unprecedented order and quillity. On the first protector's death, proclaimed Richard Cromwell as Oliver's s sor ; but he soon discovered the weakness new ruler, and determined to follow that pol which he would both connect himself wil strongest party, and also lay that under the est possible obligation to him. He temp for some months ; listening to the advarn all sides, and saying little in return. He bi his army from Scotland to London, and con to dupe the parliamentarians and republic! the very last. He had made up his mind th royalist cause was the strongest, and he c on negociations with the Stuart princes, by I he secured high rewards for himself as Die of conducting their restoration. In Febi 1660, Monk threw off the mask altogether, manded the dissolution of the remnant o long parliament, and ordered a free one to bt vened. He introduced a messenger from the k the new parliament; and on the 3d <>t .May, received Charles II. on the beach at Dover, was rewarded by the dukedom of Albeinarl- large grants of offices and money. He wij sea again in 1666, against his old enemw Dutch, and maintained his reputation for cc and conduct. He died in 1670. Monk strong nerves, strong common sens. an accommodating conscience, a careful t< 502 MON j unchanging countenance, and an imperturb- le temper. He showed considerable skill in civil Jremment as well as in military affairs. He had i-ewdness enough to see what was best for the na- il's interest; and, if it also promoted his own, he I ability and vigour enough to bring it to pass, j was never unsettled by enthusiasm in deter- itiing his ends, and he was never checked by |iciple in choosing his means. [E.S C] i-IONK, Mary, a poetical writer, died 1715. BONK, Nicholas, brother of the famous duke (iilbemarle, became bishop of Hereford, d. 1661. 10XMOUTH, James, duke of, whose at- [ilace the crown of England on his head fjns an interesting and bloody chapter in our lory, was a natural son of Charles II., by Lucy Iters, and was born at Rotterdam, in 1619. was brought up in France as a catholic, and iflthe restoration of Charles, was treated with Iffy mark of affection by him, and acquired im- Iftse popularity by the possession of qualities wh are always dear to the people generosity M courage, united to a handsome person and M)le manners. It was reported that the king U been privately married to Lucy Walters, and Hpopular dislike of the duke of York, after- Uts James II., gave occasion to hopes that her Mmight succeed to the crown hopes which were rwripening into plots under the guidance of such mj as Shaftesbury when the king was pre- iad upon by his brother to declare in council thi the duke of Monmouth had no claims to fcimacy. In 1679, Monmouth was intrusted ri a command in Scotland, and defeated the ,Wianters at the battle of Bothwell Bridge, HJune, but was soon afterwards sent beyond *. at the instigation of his uncle. A few 4hs afterwards he returned without leave, and Ike the centre of the popular movements Mked by the arbitrary conduct of Charles, and Blread of the succession in the person of the M of York the same struggle in which the M of Lord William Russel, and Algernon ft? w ^re sacrificed. The result to Monmouth is exile in Holland, where he resided with refugees until the accession of James him with the long desired opportunity the issue with his sword. It is one of )lems of history how far the prince of favoured this enterprise. The duke in the neighbourhood of Lyme, in June, [with only 80 followers, and within twenty- i was at the head of 1,500 men, while troops were mustering to oppose him, the command of Churchill, afterwards the duke of Marlborough, and hundreds of were arrested for alleged complicity. the action took place which tenninated this )rise, Monmouth was proclaimed king >n, and had mustered nearly 6,000 men, and rustics none of the Whig aris- the regular army joining him, as he led to hope. The hostile forces met at >r, in Somersetshire, and more than a of the undisciplined followers of Mon- were killed before they yielded the field, was captured in a miserable condition, igwood, in the New Forest, and was on Tower Hill, on the 15th of July. MON The executioner was John Ketch, who had also beheaded Russel. Monmouth was the idol of the people, who refused for a long time to believe that he was really executed ; and it is curious to specu- late on what might have been the issue of his enterprise had he deferred it a year or two longer, when the undisguised tyranny of James, and the hopes of the catholics were prostrated by the glorious revolution of 1688. [E.R.] MONNET, A. G., a French chemist, 1734-1817. MONNET, J., a French writer, died 1785. MONNIER, L. G., a Fr. engraver, 1733-1804. MONNIER, P. Le, a Fr. philoso., 1575-1657. MONNIER, Sophie De Ruffy, Marquise De, a French lady of great personal and mental accom- plishments, who became the mistress of Mirabeau, and committed suicide after the death of one of her subsequent lovers, 1789. MONNOT, A, a French anatomist, 1765-1820. MONNOT, P. T., a Fr. sculptor, 1658-1733. MONNOYE, B. De La, a Fr. poet, 1641-1727. MONOD, H., a Swiss statesman, 1753-1833. MONOD, P., a Jesuit of Savoy, 1586-1644. MONO YE R, F. B., a Flemish painter, 1635-99. MONPON, H., a French composer, 1804-1841. MONRO, Alexander, the famous professor of anatomy, and one of the first founders of the repu- tation borne by the medical school of Edinburgh, was born in London, 1697, and finished his studies at Paris, under the eye of Boerhaave. He was appointed professor at Edinburgh, where he had first studied, in 1719 ; and published his first work, ' The Anatomy of the Bones,' 1726. He contri- buted many papers on anatomical, physiological, and practical subjects to the transactions of a society which he originated in Edinburgh, and of which he was secretary ; these were afterwards published in eight volumes. Died 1767. MONRO, Alexander, eldest son of the pre- ceding. See Munro, Alexander. MONRO, Donald, second son of Alexander, author of a 'Treatise on Medical and Pharma- ceutical Chemistry,' 1731-1802. MONRO, John, a wr. on insanity, 1715-1791. MONROE, James, fifth president of the United States of America, elected 1817 and 1821, d. 1831. MONS, J. H. Von, a Belg. chemist, 1765-1842. MONSIAU, N. A, a Fr. painter, 1754-1837. MONSYING, P. A., aFr. composer, 1729-1817. MONSON, Sir William, a writer on naval tactics, disting. against th.3 Dutch, 1569-1643. MONSTIER, A. Du, a Fr. historian, d. 1662. MONSTRELET, Enguerrand De, a provost of Cambray, author of annals, 1390-1453. MONTAGU, the name of a noble family, de- scended from one of the Norman barons who ac- companied William the Conqueror to England. The most noted in English history are Edward, who contributed to the overthrow of the duke of Somerset, in the reign of Edward VI., died 1556. Edward, earl of Sandwich, a general, admiral, and statesman, who served the commonwealth in company with Blake, and became a royalist of the restoration, born 1625, killed in combat with the Dutch 1672. Charles, earl of Halifax, a states- man of the reign of William III., 1661-1715. John, fourth earl of Sandwich, a diplomatist and statesman, author of a voyage round the Mediter- ranean, 1718-1792. George, an admiral, 1750- 503 MON 1829. And besides these, three celebrated names in the literary history of England mentioned below. MONTAGU, Elizabeth, formerly Miss Ro- binson, and wife of Edward Montagu, Esq., grand- son of the first earl of Sandwich, a lady of great literary ability, author of an Essay on the Writ- ings and Genius of Shakspeare,' 1720-1800. MONTAGU, G., a naturalist, died 1815. MONTAGU, Lady Mary Wortley, whose family name was Pierrepoint, was the daughter of the earl (afterwards duke) of Kingston. She was born in 1690, received a solid and somewhat mas- culine education, and when she was twenty years old translated, from the Latin, not the Greek, the Encheiridion of Epictetus. Marrying, in 1712, Mr. Edward Wortley Montagu, she became, through her beauty and wit, at once a chief orna- ment of fashionable society, and a flattered friend of Addison, Pope, and other men of letters. In 1716 she went abroad with her husband, then appointed ambassador to Constantinople. Her residence of two years in the East produced her celebrated ' Letters,' pieces abounding both in live- liness and in observation, and altogether reckoned deservedly among the very best things of their kind. On her return home she was able, not without much opposition, to introduce in England the practice of inoculation for small-pox, to which, seeing it in Turkey, she had submitted her own son. She wrote verses freely for many years, and continued to keep up her intimacy with literary men ; but she quarrelled with Pope, and was pil- loried by him in some of his bitterest verses. She spent several years on the continent, chiefly resid- ing near Venice ; and, coming again to England, died in 1762. Her daughter married George III.'s favourite minister, the earl of Bute. [W.S.] MONTAGU, Edward Wortley, son of the preceding, and au. of ' Reflections on the Rise and Fall of the Ancient Republics.' He exhibited traits of a most abandoned character from his school-boy days to the last hour of his life, 1713-1776. MONTAIGNE, Michel, Seigneur De, was born in 1533, in the French province of Perigord, on the small estate from which his noble and ancient family took their name. The course of his boyish education was very eccentric : among other pecu- liarities of it, he was taught Latin by speaking it in childhood, to the exclusion of French, which he learned afterwards as a foreign tongue. When we remember that Montaigne was a Gascon by birth and breeding, this fact may account for the com- parative purity of his style. He was sent to the college of Guienne at Bourdeaux, at a very early age, before George Buchanan had ceased to be a teacher there. Being a younger son, he studied law, and was for some years a counsellor in the parlia- ment of Bourdeaux : but, succeeding early to his father's moderate property, he was for the remain- der of his life a country gentleman. He resided almost constantly at his own chateau, making, how- ever, tours in France, visiting Paris, (where he had an honorary post in the royal household,) and jour- neying through Italy for his health in his later years. Living in the troubled time of the League, he was, though attached to the royal party, disgusted by many things done on both sides : and, obstinately remaining inactive, and distrusted by both factions, he was once driven from his house, and had his MON estate ravaged. About 1572, when he was horror at the massacre of St. Bartholonu began to record the fruits of his desultory r and musings. His ' Essays ' first appeared in but were repeatedly altered, and very much en] till they reached their complete shape in They show much of historical and other kno* with a great amount of shrewd and origii rambling thought. They are made rema amusing and interesting by the garrulous ei with which the writer keeps himself conti before us ; parading, without reserve, all tl tures of his character, his generous good-he ness, his love of ease, his triumphant vanit his singular and touching combination of < feeling with sceptical doubts, on points ol gion as well as of philosbphy. He died in in the sixtieth year of his age. His observi embracing the whole circle of human life been a rich storehouse of ideas for suco authors; and, not long ago, the autogra Shakspeare was found on a copy of the e Englisn translation of the 'Essays'.' [Tomb of Montaigne.] MONTALBANI, Count J. B., an Italian in the Venetian service, author of a work < manners of the Turks, 1596-1646. His son, "h Antonio, a naturalist, 1630-1695. Ol brother of Count Montalbani, a naturalis philosopher, 1601-1671. MONTALDI, P. J., an Ital. Hebraist, 1 730- MONTALEMBERT, Adrian De, a m engineer distinguished as a general in the years' war, and at the period of the revolut the adviser of Carnot, 1714-1800. MONTALEMBERT, Mark Rene Anhi ria, Count De, a French general and diplon who became an exile at the period of the r tion and served in the English army ti! restoration, 1777-1831. MONTALTO, the name of two doges of C 1. Leo, reigned 1383-1384. 2. Ant elected 1393, deposed and re-elected 1394, de again 1411. MONTANO, or DA MONTI, John Bai an Italian physician, and translator of some Latin classics, 1488-1551. MONTANO, J. B., an Ital. architect, d. 1 MONTANO, R. G., a Span, protectant, 1 MONTANUS, the founder of a famous I in the second century, lived in the village ofj aban, on the confines of Phrygia. remarks, 'the Phrygian temperament' is 504 MON tjt form of nature-worship, filled with magic and mass for which the province was already famous. 1 special supernatural element of Christianity j i;k with amazement such a people its miracles, md early gifts of knowledge and pro- ,3tic rhapsody. The object of Montanus was to >rdinate everything else in the church to those jrhuman and brilliant endowments, and to cast the shade its ordinary teaching and govern- Thus he maintained that he was the pro- Paraclete not the Divine Spirit, indeed, the predicted enlivener, purifier, and Comfor- He threw himself into states of transport, raved with fluent sublimity. A new church founded at Pepuza, their New Jerusalem, and tongues, and nervous spasms, were a daily r;le. The follower* of Montanus, among were two ladies, caught the infection, and contagious mesmerism quickly spread. It thougnt that the apostolic age was revived, that the phenomena of Pentecost were to be ? ed in augmented and interminable splen- , A transcendental code of morality was laimed, and in which fasts, penances, and | held a prominent place. Tertullian was by the delusion, and became the most and eloquent advocate of the system. im, in the essence of it, has not been to Phrygia, for it has been often in Europe, and has even crossed the [J.E.] NTANUS, Ben. Arias, a Spanish Orien- and antiquarian, 1527-1598. NTAUSIER,Charles De S ainte Maure, a French statesman, distinguished for his conduct during the civil wars of the 1610-1690. NTBEILLARD, Philibert Gueneau, a naturalist, and assistant of Buflbn in the tion of his great work, 1720-1785. NTBELIARD, Leop. Eberhart, Prince officer in the service of Austria, 1670-1725. NTBRUN, C. Dupay, Seigneur De, a pro- commander disting. at Jarnac and Mont- in the civil wars of France, 1530-1574. CALM DE ST. VERAN, Louis Joseph, De, a French commander, killed at the of Quebec, 1712-1759. ~^CHAL, C. De, a Fr. prelate, 1589-1651. CHRESTIEN, Anthony, a French play- and writer on political economy, d. 1621. TEBELLO, Due De. See Lannes. ECORVINO, J. De, a French miner, as a missionary to Tartary, 1247-1330. ""ECUCULLI, Raimondo, Count Di, an feneral and writer on tactics, 1608-1681. ICUCULLI, Sebastiano Di, a gentle- Ferrara, put to death on the allegation of caused the death of the son of Francis I., to have been poisoned in 1536. EGRE, A. F. Jenin De, a French phy- " wr. on animal magnetism, 1779-1808. EMAYOR, G. De, a Sp. poet, 1520-62. EMERLO, J. S., an Italian poet, 1515- son, Nicholas, histor. of Tortona, 1618. "NAULT, C. P., a Fr. writer, died 1749. ERCHI, J., an Ital. antiquarian, 17th c. EREAU, P. De, a Fr. architect, d. 1266. EREUL, or MONTEREUIL, Beknar- MON din De, a French Jesuit, known as an ecclesias- tical historian, &c, 1596-1646. MONTESPAN, Frances Athenais, Mar- chioness De, one of the mistresses of Louis XIV., was born 1641, married to the marquis de Montes- pan in 1663, and supplanted the duchess de la Valliere in the affections of the king, 1668. She maintained her influence over Louis several years, and had three children by him, but was compelled to give way on his marriage with Madame de Maintenon. Died 1717. [Birth-place of Montesquieu.] MONTESQUIEU, 6ari, De Secondat, Baron De, was born on the 18th January, 1689, at the castle of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, whence he held another title of nobility. He was a very hard student in his youth. He seems at first to have devoted himself to physical science, but he turned his more mature attention to law, the here- ditary profession of his family. In the year 1717 he succeeded both to the family estate and to the perpetual presidency of the parliament of Bour- deaux. While he occupied that high judicial office he laboriously performed its functions. His con- science would not permit him to sacrifice the pub- lic business to his literary and philosophical tastes, and he resigned his chair in 1726. He had five years earlier printed the most popular, but not the most important of his works, the ' Lettres Persan- nes.' A violent literary dispute has arisen from the question whether he withdrew or disavowed some of the religious opinions in this work, with the view of removing tne king's opposition to his being a member of the Academy at all events he succeeded in gaining his object. In 1748 he pub- lished his ' Esprit des Lois,' one of the most la- borious books ever written. It had an immense influence on the literature of the age, and founded that method of philosophising and finding out facts to justify opinion, which characterized his fol- lowers of the French school, and entered in a great measure into the spirit of the Scottish school of philosophy. Like most original minded men he brought to his work a degree of genius and know- ledge which his imitators could not cope with, and which concealed, in his hands, the defects of the system. His life is the history of his works, and the even tenor of his days was little disturbed by external events. Little is known of his per- sonal character and habits, and it is hence in- 506 HON teresting to find a curious notice of him in the memoirs of Lord Charlemont He, when a young man, visited Montesquieu. They set off" together on a ramble, when, as the narrator says, 'we soon arrived at the skirts of a beautiful wood, cut into walks, and paled round, the entrance to which was barricaded oy a moveable bar, about three feet high, fastened with a padlock " Come," said he, searching in his pocket, " it is not worth our while to wait for the key ; you, I am sure, can leap as well as I can, and this bar shall not stop me." So saying he ran at the bar and fairly jumped over it, while we followed him with amazement, but not without delight to see the philosopher likely to be- come our play-fellow. This behaviour had exactly the effect which he meant it should have. He had observed our awkward timidity, and was determined to rid us of it.' (Memoirs, 33). Montesquieu died in February, 1755. [J.H.B.] MONTET, J., a French chemist, 1722-1782. MONTETH, or MONTEITH, Robert, names common to two Scottish writers, one on historical subjects, and the other a collector of all the epi- taphs of Scotland ; last century. MONTEZUMA, the first of the name, king of Mexico, reigned 1455-1483. The second, Mexican emperor at the time of the Spanish invasion, suc- ceeded 1502, and died of a wound from a stone while in the hands of the Spaniards 1520. One of his children, baptized by the Spaniards, became the stock of the counts of Montezuma and Tula. MONTFAUCON, Bernard De, a French Benedictine, distinguished as a critical and anti- quarian writer, 1655-1741. MONTFORT, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1532-83. ! soned in the Bastile, and then exiled, 1686-1 MONTFORT, L. M. Grignon De, a Fr. Jesuit I MONTGLOT, Marquis De, a French and missionary, kn. as a relig. founder, 1673-1716. rian, camp-marshal time of Louis XIII. and MONTFORT, Simon De. 1. This name, fam- XIV., 1610-1675. ous in the middle age history of France and Eng- I MONTGOLFIER, the name of two bro land, was first borne by a knight crusader, de- j natives of France, celebrated in the history o scended from the lords of Montfort, near Paris, balloons, and in the manufacture of paper. His career dates from 1199, when he went to the elder, Joseph, lived 1740-1810. The yoi MON first incident in it being Montfort's recall frc government. In 1258 Henry had convol parliament, to procure supplies for the coi of Sicily. The occasion was seized by Mo and the barons, to make an armed protest aj his government, the end of which was th S ointment of twenty-four of their number, lontfort as president, to administer the affa the kingdom. Such a truce could not in th< nature of things be of long duration. king and his son, Prince Edward, endej ing to reconquer the royal authority b| fo: arms, were defeated at the battle ol an event which transferred the governme reality, to Simon de Montfort, though he acl ledged the bishop of Chichester and the < Gloucester as his associtf es. In the year folic January, 1265, De Montfort convened a j ment, in which representatives were sent fro boroughs for the first time on record, and originated the House of Commons. He wa the leader of the popular party, and was o to take the field by the disaffection of the < Gloucester, who soon after, with many other barons, joined Prince Edward, previously a tive with his father in the camp of Montfort battle of Evesham, 5th August, 1265, decidi contest. Simon de Montfort, overpowered by bers, fell in the midst of his friends, and the I his family succeeded as a matter of course. [ MONTGERNON, Louis Basil Carre 1 counsellor of the parliament of Paris, famo his vindication of the miracles wrought a tomb of the Abbe Paris, for which he was i Holy Land, companion-in-arms of Thibault, count of Champagne, out it becomes of more historical importance in 1208, when he was appointed chief of the barbarous crusade against the Albigenses, then protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse. In 1213 he obtained a great victory at Muret over the confederated armies of that pnnce, of his bro- ther-in-law, Peter, king of Arragon, and the nobles who had united with them, and was then appointed by the pope sovereign of all the countries con- quered from the alleged heretics. He was killed while besieging Toulouse, 1218. 2. The Simon De Montfort of English history, was a younger son of the preceding, who quitted France either in 1231 or 1236, in consequence of a dispute with Queen Blanche, mother of Saint Louis. He was the heir of estates in this country, which had been held by his family in the reign of King John, and on coming to settle here, received possession of them with the title of earl of Leicester. Henry III., in fact, received him into great favour, per- mitted him to marry his sister, the countess dowa- ger of Pembroke, and appointed him lieutenant- general, or seneschal, of Gascony. From this time the interest of English history turns on the dis- putes between this turbulent subject at the head of a confederacy of the barons and the crown, the James Stephen, born 1745, commenced his riments 1782, died 1799. MONTGOMERY, the name of a noble fi sprung from Roger de Montgomery, a panion-in-arms of William the Conqueror.^ son of Roger was banished the kingdom i reign of Henry I., and one of his descendanl created earl of Eglinton by James IV., 1502. briel Montgomery, a member of this fi had the misfortune to wound Henry II. in a nament, of which the king died, 1559. He wards distinguished himself in the religious of France, and was beheaded by order c catholic queen, Catherine de Medici, 1576. MONTGOMMERY, Richard, an Irish ge dist. as a partizan of the Americans, 1 737-E MONTI, J., an Italian botanist, 1082-176 MONTI, P. M., an Italian cardinal, 1675- MONTI, Vincenzo, an Italian poet ad matist, kn. also as a versatile politician, 1733- MONTJOIE, F. C. Galart De, a F royalist and man of letters, author of ' Prin of the French Monarchy,' and of a ' Histc Robespierre's Conspiracy,' 1756-1816. MONTMORENCY, the name of a noble F family, the first of whom was Bouchabi*, ; the great feudatories of the 10th century. 506 MON nguished in succeeding ages are, Matthew, ^"constable 1130, regent during the crusade died 1160. Matthew, grandson of the r, called the great constable, served in the ie against the Albigenses, and under the re- of Blanche, during the minority of her son, IX., died 1230. Charles, marshal and nor of Normandy, died 1381. Anne, con- of France, born 1493, companion-in-arms captivity of Francis I., 1525-26, gained the ofDreux against the Calvinists 1562, and | of St. Denis, where he fell gloriously, covered wounds, 1567. Henry I., second son of born 1544, fought with his father, and was ' marshal in Piedmont 1566. He was one first to recognize Henry IV., who made him ble 1593; died 161*4. Henry II., son of r, born 1595, was named admiral by Louis as early as 1612, and greatly distinguished hlf against the Calvinists. He was beheaded, [vainly opposing himself to the ambition of "bo, 1632. He was the last of the first branch of this house. His sister, Char- Margaret, became wife of the second prince of Conde, and mother of the great ; died 1650. fNTMORT, Peter Raymond De, a French rician, the disciple and friend of Male- 1678-1719. [NTPENSIER, Anne Maria Louisa D'Or- known as Mademoiselle, Duchess De, was iter of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of and of Marie de Bourbon. She is dist. part in the wars of the Fronde, and is au. loirs' and some romances, 1627-1693. >ENSIER, Anthony Philip D'Or- J Due De, younger brother of Louis Philippe, officer under Dumouriez, 1775-1807. TPENSIER, Catherine Maria of Duchesse De, daughter of the duke of land wife of the second Louis, due de Mont- r, noted for her hatred against Henry III., I the wars of the league, 1552-1596. "TPENSIER, Charles. See Bourbon. "'ENSIER, Francis De Bourbon, known as the prince dauphin, distin- 1 in the religious wars, and one of the first wledge Henry IV., 1539-1592. "7ROSE, James Graham, marquis of, b. lin early life attached to the covenanters, cards entered the service of Charles L, he gained several advantages. After of Charles I. he retired to France, and Germany, and took part in the last cam- |of the seven years' war. He next made it on Scotland in favour of Charles II., but, by his troops, he was delivered to the it, and executed at Edinburgh 1650. "JCCI, A., an It. philologist, 1762-1829. [JCLA, J. S., a Fr. mathem., 1725-99. "HL, J. M. Boutet De, a French dra- Iriter and actor, 1745-1811. |R, Karel De, a Dutch paint., 1656-1738. 1CROFT, William, a writer of travels hnalayan parts of Hindostan, died 1823. IE, Edward, son of a nonconformist of Abingdon, distinguished as a poet and l dus writer, 1712-1757. F., an African traveller, last century. 507 MOO MOORE, John, an eminent prelnte and pro- moter of letters in the reign of William and Mary, born 1662, died bishop of Ely, 1714. MOORE, John, archbishop of Canterbury, was b. in Gloucestershire, where his father was a gra- zier, 1733 ; promoted to the primacy 1783 ; d. 1805. MOORE, John, a physician and miscellaneous writer, was born at Stirling 1729, where his father, the Rev. Charles Moore, was minister of the Episcopal church. In 1772, he set out on his travels as the medical attendant and tutor of the voung duke of Hamilton, returning home in 1778. "The observations made in the course of their ex- tended tour over Europe, furnished the materials of his most interesting works. Died 1802. MOORE. Sir John Moore was born at Glas- gow in 1761. He was the son of Dr. John Moore, the well-known physician and author. He entered the army young, and soon rose to rank and distinc- tion. He served in Corsica in 1785, and afterwards in the West Indies, in Holland, and Egypt. In 1802 he did permanent benefit to our army by dis- ciplining several regiments as light infantry in a camp of instruction in Kent. He then introduced several tactical improvements, which have since been generally adopted in our service. After tak- ing part in two expeditions to Sicily and Swe- den, Moore received his most important command in 1808. He was then placed at the head of the British army, which was to co-operate with the patriots in Spain and Portugal, against the French invaders of the Peninsula. Moore advanced through the north of Spain to Salamanca ; but the Spanish armies with which he was to co-operate were routed by the French ; Madrid, which he was to protect, surrendered while Moore was on his march ; the reports and promises of the Spanish juntas and their agents proved to be mere bombast and lies ; and Moore found that the whole of the vast French armies of the Peninsula were gather- ing round him to overwhelm the small force that he commanded. A rapid retreat to the northern coast of Spain was the only chance of saving the English troops from destruction or surrender. This retreat was made in the midst of the severe winter of 1808-9, through the rugged country of Galicia; and it is almost unparalleled in military his- tory for the sufferings of the retiring army. Moore at last reached Corunna, closely pursued by supe- rior forces under Soult. Transports lay in the harbour to receive the British troops; but Soult pressed hastily forward, so that it was impossible to effect the embarkation without either checking the enemy by a battle, or entering into a conven- tion. Moore indignantly spurned the dishonouring proposal of a convention, and on the 16th January, 1809, drew his men out, though exhausted and shattered by the horrors of their retreat, to face the advancing French before Corunna. The troops did their duty, and repulsed Soult's columns on every point with severe loss ; but the victory was dearly purchased by the death of General Moore, who was struck down by a cannon shot, just as he had called on the 42d Highlanders to ' Remember Egypt ' and reminded them that ' though powder was short they had their bayonets.' Moore's wound was mortal : but he survived long enough to know that the enemy were beaten, and to remind his surviving friends that ' he had always wished to MOO die in that way.' His last words were a hope that 4 the people of England would be satisfied, tnat his country would do him Justice.' He was buried that very night, ' with his martial cloak around him,' in a grave hastily dug on the ramparts of Corunna. The glorious stanzas of Wolfe have en- nobled that burial ; but it ought to be mentioned to the honour of the French as well as of the English general, that Soult, when he entered Cor- unna after the embarkation and departure of the British, ordered a fitting monument to be erected to Sir John Moore. Moore's only fault was an excessive sensibility to popular opinion, which im- paired that political courage, which (as Nelson has truly said) is essential to a great commander. But a braver soldier, a more humane and excellent man, never stepped on a battle-field, than he who died the death of fame in command of the British army at Corunna, [E.S.C.] [Tomb of Sir John Moore.] MOORE, Sir Jonas, a mathemat. 1617-1681. MOORE, Philip, a minister resident in the Isle of Man, known as a Manx scholar, died 1783. MOORE, Thomas, was born in 1780, in Dub- lin, where his father carried on business with no great success as a wine merchant. He showed from boyhood an imaginative and musical turn ; and various circumstances concurred in impressing him early with that indignant and melancholy sense of the wrongs and sufferings of Ireland, to which his poetry owes so many of its most powerful touches. His family professed the Roman Catholic creed, as he himself* always continued to do; and among his father's friends were several of the United Irishmen, with others who were ardently bent on extorting redress from the government. The poli- tical disturbances broke out into rebellion while Moore was a student at Trinity College ; he wrote anonymously for a seditious newspaper, and was only saved from implicating himself deeply by faithfully keeping a promise which his mother prevailed on him to give. He took his degree in 1798, and went to London to keep his terms for the bar. Poetry, however, had taken possession of his mind ; and the amatory cast which always prevailed in his poems, was allowed in some of the MOO earliest of them to degenerate into repreh( looseness. His gay translation of Anacreon lished in 1800, was followed by the not ' Poems of Thomas Little ;' and the just se with which these and another miscellaneous? of his were treated in the Edinburgh Revieu duced the abortive duel between Moore and J At this period the poet's means were very si and his prospects discouragingly uncertain, his rising reputation as a song-writer, his n accomplishments, and his pleasing manners, tated nis introduction into aristocratic societ 1804, having obtained a registrarship in Ber through the patronage of Lord Moira, lie we to discharge the duties of the office. It pro be much less lucrative than he had expected in a very few months he returned home, allowed to leave a deputv, whose defalcation plunged Moore into embarrassments from he was long in being able to extricate himsel refused all aid from his friends, Jeffrey, nowca intimate with him, offering generous help. end, the claims being favourably adjustea, hi the whole sum from his literary earnings, wl continued to contribute liberally to the coin his parents. From the time of his return to land his course of life was very uneventful was thenceforth wholly the man of letters, porting himself by his pen, and courted in si especially that of the higher Whig circles of don. In 1811 he married Miss Dyke, wh been for a short time on the Dublin stage, ai able, attractive, and domestic lady. Soon wards he took up his residence in a cottag Ashbourne in Derbyshire, whence he remoi Sloperton, near Devizes. There he contim [Moore's Cottage at Sloperton.] live ever afterwards, visiting London howeve quently, and making other excursions, and obliged soon after his removal to the place U refuge on the continent from his Bermuda tors. In 1835 he received from Lord Melboi government a pension of three hundred a- and in 1850, when his health wascompletelybi and all his four children were dead, Mrs. Mom tained a pension of a hundred pounds. _ Hi in the beginning of 1852. Moore's writing into three groups: the serious poems; the and satiric rhymes; and the biographies and works in prose. In the first of these c the compositions that support his fame a) 508 MOO jh Melodies' (the series of which began in l) and other lyrics. Many of these are exquisite of diction, for beauty, not without same- of imagery, and for a refined and ideal kind They are poems for the drawing-room, [admirable as such. In ' Lalla Rookh,' pub- in 1817, the poet tried a more ambitions ; ; and, while there is here very great skill and | of execution, with a marvellous richness of and singular correctness of costume, it can- said that he has vindicated his claim to be , with Scott or Byron, among the great pain- romantic narrative. The second group of e's works, perhaps, shows his genius in a brilliant light than any of the others. Un- dgly severe in his attacks on those public per- Iwho were obnoxious to the Whig party, he le satire as gaily witty, and as irresistibly ig, as it ever can be. Kis chief political besides many fugitive contributions to ;rs, were 'The Twopenny Post Bag,' "Crib's Memorial to Congress,' and the for the Holy Alliance.' A lighter vein ned in 'The Fudge Family in Paris.' 1*8 prose works were really tasks performed sake of the gain they brought ; and the them can only be asserted to be performed taste and "care. If any of them was a | of love it was the gorgeous romance of ' The which appeared in 1827. The only that require to be named are the ' Life of ' (1825) ; and the ' Notices of the Life of on,' (1830). [W.SJ )RSON, Sir R., a naval officer, 1760-1835. |RALES, A., a Span, historian, 1513-1590. [RALES, C, a Spanish singer, 16th century. [RALES, J. B., a Spanish missionary, 1664. |RALES, L., a Spanish painter, 1509-1586. ~TD, John, a French surgeon, 1658-1726. sur Francois, his son, greatly distinguished ical writer, 1697-1773. John Francis son of the latter, an anatomist and lr.jri st, 1726-1784. ND, J. A., a Fr. architect, 1727-1794. TD, Louis Charles Ant. Alexis, a French general, disting. at the period solution and the empire, 1770-1835. fD, P. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1701-1737. TDE, C. Thevenot De, a French jour- wthor of ' Memoirs of Madame du Barry,' lotes of the Court of France,' 1748-92. IT, Philip, the historian of Colchester born in Jersey, 1700, died 1770. LTA, Olympia Fulvia, an Italian lady int principles, distinguished as the most _ woman of her age, 1526-1555. ' VTIN, Nicholas Fernandez De, a dramatic author of Spain, 1737-1780. Leandro Fernandez, appointed royal under Joseph Buonaparte, and considered ^s superior as a dramatic poet, was bom was a great student of Shakspeare and ,but especially the latter, d. at Paris 1828. VTO, Flavio Pellegrino, an Italian | father of Olympia Morata, died 1547. JELLI, S. Antonio, an Italian Jesuit )lo<:ist, born 1737. LUNT, Charles, earl of Peterborough MOR and Monmouth, a naval and military commander, time of William and Mary, 1658-1735. MORE, Alexander, a French protestant minis- ter, appointed professor of divinity, and pastor of the church at Middleberg in Zealand, author of theological works, 1616-1670. MORE, Antonio, a Dutch painter, 1519-1575. MORE, Francis, a famous lawyer, 1558-1621. MORE, Hannah, the greatest name in the list of female writers on moral and religious sub- jects in the last century, was born at Stapleton, Gloucestershire, in 1744. Her father, who had taken orders in the Church of England, was mas- ter of a foundation school, in that town, and gave his four daughters a liberal edncation. They were all highly accomplished, but Hannah was distin- guished above the rest of her sisters, both by her natural talents and her extraordinary thirst for knowledge. The Misses More, resolved on render- ing themselves independent, opened a boarding school for young ladies in the village, and soon after, on the advic of friends, transferred their seminary to Bristol. In that town, they met with signal success. Their school grew in reputation, and every year added to its numbers, till it out- stripped all other institutions of a similar kind, in the south and west of England. Hannah had early tried her powers in original composition, and at the age of seventeen, wrote her pastoral drama ' The Search after Happiness.' Having obtained the friendship of Garrick, she prepared several pieces for the stage, ' The Fatal Falsehood,' ' Percy,' ' The Inflexible Captive.' On attaining higher views of the character and duties of a Christian, she relin- quished all thoughts of writing for the stage. But although she renounced the theatre, she still retained her respect and friendship for Garrick, with whom, as literary friends, she conjoined Johnson, Burke, Reynolds, and their learned associates. The death of Garrick produced a great change on her charac- ter. Reading and reflection made her a Christian ; and she thenceforth dedicated her time and energies to works of piety and benevolence. She fixed "her [Hannah More's Cottage.] house at Cowslip Green, a beautiful residence in the neighbourhood of Bristol, and there devoted her time to literary pursuits. Having projected a series of didactic works, she published, m 1786, a little volume entitled, ' Thoughts on the Manners of the Great,' 'An Estimate of the Religion of the 509 MOR Fashionable World.' To counteract the principles of the French Revolution, she published ' Village Politics,' by Will Chip; and, next, a periodical work, 'The Cheap Repository Tracts,' including 1 The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain.' Resuming her didactic series, she published 'Strictures on the Modem System of Female Education,' which ob- tained the high approval of Bishop Porteus, who recommended the writer for the office of gover- ness to the Princess Charlotte. This was followed in rapid succession by ' Hints towards Forming the Character of a Young Princess,' ' Ceelebs in Search of a Wife,' and ' Practical Piety,' ' An Essay on the Character and Writings of St. Paul,' ' Christian Morals,' and ' The Spirit of Prayer.' By her vari- ous writings she amassed upwards of 30,000. Her sisters and she now relinquished public teaching, and devoted all their energies to the erection of schools, where there were no resident clergymen, and in which no less than twelve hundred children received, through their instrumentality, the benefits of a moral and religious education. In short, they produced, by their benevolent and Christian labours, so great a change on the aspect of society, that what had been a moral desert had produced in rich abundance, the excellent fruits of wide-spread intelligence, of elevated morality, and religious excellence. Miss More died in Sept., 1833. [R.J.] MORE, Henry, a dissenting minister, d. 1802. MORE, Henry, one of that profoundly learned and influential class of philosophical divines who arose in the 17th century to exorcise the spirit of Calvinism from the English universities. Born in 1614, and educated at Cambridge, he took his de- gree of B.A. in 1635, when he had already run through the scholastic philosophy, and rejected it with disgust for the warmer light and richer fancies of Platonism. The ' Germany Theology ' of Taulerus soon after rivetted his attention as the summit of the mystic divinity which he had pursued through the writings of the Platonists and the school of Mercurius Trismegistus. In the works of Tauler the mystic divinity was Christianized, and written from a certain depth of experience, and from the age of Luther to the close of the 17th century, he exercised a vast influence upon the class of minds that revolted from the dogmatism of Geneva. In this class Henry More holds a distinguished place with Cudworth, Glanville, Whichcote, and others of less note, and while he is on a level with the best of them as a prose writer and philosopher, he has the merit of being their representative among the poets. In 1640, after being admitted M.A., he published his ' Psychozoia,' or first part of the ' Song of the Soul,' containing ' A Christiano-Platonical Display of Life,' in passages which may be pro- nounced rich and beautiful in their very obscurity. His most popular work, however, is the ' Divine Dialogues,' and while the erudition and beauty of such productions are admitted, it is curious to read the exception taken by biographers against the author's consciousness of their origin, in thoughts, full of spiritual wonder, communicated to his spirit. Henry More refused the highest ecclesias- tical preferments, and chose a life of learned re- tirement and undisturbed contemplation, chiefly passed at the seat of Lord Conway. He died uni- versally beloved 1687. His works were published in 8 vols, folio, 1679. [E.R.] MOR MORE, Sir Thomas, was born in Milk- London, in the year 1480. His father, Sii was one of the justices of the king's bend was, according to the practice of the day, pi the household of Morton, the cardinal arcl of Canterbury, where the boy obtained a pre reputation for ready wit and subtlety of r which excited high expectations of future em After having studied at Oxford, he ente chancery practice at the New Inn, then tl of the other inns of court, but now almost ten. He entered parliament when he was twenty-second year, and immediately mi himself a place in history by standing forth privileges of the House of Commons to ti questions of supply as their own exclusive to Through his influence the aid deman< Henry VII. for the marriage of his daughter king of Scots was refused. It was not to pected that after a victory of this kind, More rise in the court of Henry VII. He lived f< time in retirement under the shadow of th displeasure, and it was then that without abs neglecting professional advancement he a his mind with the treasures of learning, whit him so illustrious among the statesmen of 1 A great portion of his studies lay in divinil he delivered lectures on St. Augustine's ta on the City of God. On the accession of VIII. he was soon put on the path of proi In 1521 he was knighted and made treas the exchequer. He appears to have ere th considerably enriched himself by practice, ar his wife, a daughter of Mr. Colt of New] Essex, he kept up a noble hospitality. VIIL, who knew and appreciated genius, 1 he as little permitted it as he did feminine and worth to stand in the way of his fei passions, used to be a frequent guest at table, where he enjoyed the intellectual : According to the account of Erasmus the there collected must have been one of th brilliant and engaging that the world ha seen, and it was adorned by virtues, which ti associations, high in intellect, have ofter wanting. In 1523 he became speaker of the of Commons, and in 1529 succeeded Wolsey perilous eminence of the woolsack. He had meantime published, among other works, 1 rious history of Richard III., and his I which, derived from the Greek for happy lai become the source of a proverbial expression language. That he meant this imaginary re seriously to embody his notions of a sound t of government can scarcely be believed by a who reads it, and remembers that the ei fanciful and abstract existence there de was the dream of one who thoroughly man in all his complicated relations, am deeply conversant in practical govern When Henry began those attacks on the supremacy, which, however sad his motive be, were instrumental in procuring the ref tion, More at once took up the position whi conscience dictated to him as a supporter old system. Henry marked him out for venj as an opponent of his matrimonial views. endeavoured to shield himself by an early ment from office. He was requested to U 510 MOR to maintain the lawfulness of the marriage Anne Boleyn. Though it was known that uld be the last man to disturb the succession, used to take the oath. This refusal was in- ted into high treason, under the statute, is condemned to death, and beheaded on the July, 1535. [J.H.B.] BEAU, H., a French poet, 1810-1838. BEAU, Jacob Nicholas, a French his- iples of Morality and Polity, and of Public B* (written for the use of the dauphin, after- Louis XVI.,) and of a political journal writ- ainst England, 1717-1803. EAU, Jean, a French historian, 16th cent. EAU, J. L., a physician, better known au de la Sarthe,' author of a work entitled Naturelle de la Femme,' 1771-1826. EAU, J. M., an emi. designer, 1741-1814. EAU. Jean Victor Moreau, was born e, in 1763. He was educated for the e enlisted when he was seventeen years thenceforth devoted himself to a military He was rapidly promoted during the first of the wars of the French revolution, 796 he was commander of one of the two armies that invaded Germany. The other which was under General Jourdain, was ly defeated by the Austrians, who then their whole force to bear upon Moreau. emergency Moreau extricated himself by a through the Black Forest, which is con- a masterpiece of military skill. Napoleon, gave Moreau the command of the armies of be and the Rhine ; and in the winter of Moreau gained the great victory of Ho- the most splendid of his achievements, was afterwards suspected of plotting Napoleon's government, and was banished ranee. He lived in retirement in America 813, when he returned to Europe and ' ie armies of the allied sovereigns against He was killed at the battle of Dres- tyear. [E.S.C.] AU, R., a French physician, 1587-1656. " U-SAINT-MERY, M. L. E., a deputy ituent assembly, and known as a wri- French colonies of America, 1750-1819. LSE, N., a Dutch painter, 1571-1638. A., a Swiss antiquarian, 1646-1703. L, J. A., a Fr. wr. on music, 1775-1825. L, R., a Fr. devotional writer, 1653-1731. LL, Thomas, a classical scholar and doc- ity, famous for his editions of Ains- d Hederick's lexicons, 1703-1784. ' LET, A., a French critic, 1727-1819. LLI, J., an Italian critic, 1745-1819. LOS, J. M., a priest and general in the war of independence, shot 1815. T, Louis, a French ecclesiastic, dis- as the first compiler of the great 4 His- ionary ' which bears his name, 1643-80. , Edw. Rowe, author of the ' History ities of Tunstal, in Kent,' was b. there, being rector of the parish, 1730. He ~nator of the Equitable Society for As- : .ves, and a wr. on that subject, d. 1778. MOR MORET, J., a French historian, 1615-1705. MORETO-Y- CABANA, Don Augustin, a Span, dramatist of the reign of Philip IV., 17th ct. MORGAGNI, John Baptist, M.D., F.R.S., an eminent Italian anatomist and physician, was born at Fork" in Italy, 1682 ; and died at Padua 1771. Morgagni was a rather voluminous writer, but the work by which he is best known is that entitled 'De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatome indagatis.' [J.M'C.] MORGAN, G. C, an exp. philosopher, d. 1798. MORGAN, Sir Henry, a famous buccaneer, appointed governor of Jamaica, by Charles II. MORGAN, W., a Welch prelate, died 1604. MORGAN, W., a famous mathematician, and writer on annuities and assurances, died 1833. MORGHEN, Raphael, a celebrated Neapol- itan engraver, 1758-1833. MORHOF, D. G., a German writer, 1639-1691. MORICE, Sir William, a relative of General Monk, raised by his influence to the office of sec- retary of state, author of a treatise on the Com- munion, died 1676. MORICE DE BEAUBOIS, Don P. Hya- cinth, an ecclesiastic and antiqunvy of Brittany, editor of Lobineau's History, &c, 1693-1750. MORIER, James, an English writer of Eastern travels, and novelist, 1780-1848. MORILLO, G., a Spanish poet, 16th century. MORILLO, P., a Spanish general, 1777-1837. MORIN, B., a French lexicographer, 1746-1817. MORIN, J., a French mathematician, 1705-64. MORIN, J., a French Orientalist, 1591-1659. MORIN, John Baptist, a French physician and professor of mathematics, best known as an astrologer and adviser of Richelieu, 1583-1656. MORIN, Louis, a famous botanist, 1635-1715. MORIN, P., a French critic, 1531-1608. MORIN, S., a Fr. visionary, burnt alive 1663. MORIN, Stephen, a French protestant, pro fessor of Oriental languages at Amsterdam, and a philological writer, 1625-1700. MORISON, J., a Scottish writer, 1762-1809. MORISON, Robert a native of Aberdeen, famous for his skill and writings in botanv, ap- pointed prof, at Oxford by Charles II., 1620-1683. MORISOT, C. B., a French writer, 1592-1661. MORISOT, J. M. R M a Fr. architect, 1767-1821. MORITZ, C. P., a German writer, 1757-1793. MORLA, Th., a Spanish general, died 1820. MORLAND, George, an English painter, famous for his landscape and interiors, embodying scenes in humble life, was born in London 1764, and was at his meridian about 1790. He became the victim of his low tastes and drunken habits, and died under arrest for debt in 1804. His his- tory is one of the most melancholy in the long list of those who have wasted then- talents, and mis- spent their time. His genius, his moral character, and the circumstances under which he produced hid works many of them to discharge an ale score entitle him to be regarded as the Sheridan of artists. His talent was most^ surprising in the de- lineation of pigs, introduced into his rustic scenes these animals being his favourite subjects. MORLAND, Henry Robert, a portrait pain- ter, son of a London artist, and father of the pre- ceding George Morland, died 1797. MORLAND, Sir Samuel, a diplomatist in the 511 OR service of Cromwell, afterwards an adherent of Charles II., distinguished for his mechanical inven- tions, among which are mentioned the speaking trumpet, an arithmetical machine, the fire engine, the steam engine, improved pumps, &c, d. 1695. MORLEY, George, an adherent of Charles II., appointed by him bp. of Winchester, 1597-1684. MORLEY, Thomas, a pupil of the celebrated Rynlo, and one of the gentlemen of Queen Eliza- beth's chapel, acquired much fame for his work, entitled ' A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Prac- tical Musicke.' He composed many songs, ballads, canzonets, and madrigals. A burial service of his composition still continues to be performed on solemn occasions in Westminster Abbey. It is supposed that he died about the year 1604. [J.M.] MORLIN, J., a German divine, 1514-1571. MORNAY, Philip De, Sieur du Plessis-Marly, an illustrious leader of the French protestants, and for more than thirty years in the service of Henry IV., who was greatly indebted to him for the success of his arms and negotiations. Born 1549, died some years after retiring from the court, during which he distinguished himself as a writer in the interest of protestantism, 1623. MORNINGTON, Garrett Wellesley, earl of, father of the duke of Wellington, acquired considerable celebrity for his musical compositions. He showed an early liking for music, and became, for an amateur, a very tolerable violinist. ' Here in Cool Grot,' is the most admired of his vocal works. The university of Dublin conferred upon him their degree of Doctor in Music. He was bora in Meath about the year 1720, and died in 1781. [J.M.] MORO, or MOORE, Antony, a Dutch painter, favourite of Charles V. and Philip II., 1512-1568. MORO, Christopher, aVenet. doge, 1462-71. MOROSI, J., an Ital mechanician, 1772-1840. MOROSINI, the name of several famous Vene- tians, 1. Dominichino, doge from 1148 to 1156. 2. Michael, succeeded as doge, and died the same year, 1382. 3. Paul, ambassador to the emperor, and to the kings of Poland, Bohemia, and Naples, 1406-1483. 4^ Andrea, a senator and historian of the republic, 1558-1618. 5. Francesco, bom 1618, distinguished in the wars with the Turks as generalissimo of the Venetian troops, afterwards procurator of St. Mark, and successor of Giusti- nian as doge 1688, died 1694. MORRELL, B., an Amer. navigator, 1795-1839. MORRIS, C, an Eng. song-writer, 1739-1832. MORRIS, L., a Welch antiquary, 1702-1765. MORRISON, Robert, the famous Chinese scholar and missionary, was born of humble pa- rents at Morpeth, in Northumberland, 1782, and was sent to Canton by the London Missionary Society in 1807. From this period to 1824 he was resident in China, and translated into that lan- guage the four Gospels, and the greater part of the Epistles. He wrote also numerous important works to facilitate the study of the Chinese tongue, the principal of which is his Dictionary, printed by the East India Company at a cost of 15,000. In 1824 Dr. Morrison visited England. In 1826 he returned to Canton, and died there 1834. MORSE, J., an American geographer, d. 1826. MORSER, A., a Swiss mechanician, 1771-1840. MORTIER. Edmund Adolphe Casimir MOS Joseph Mortier, marshal of France a of Treviso, was born at Chateau-Caml 1768. He joined a regiment of volunteei beginning of the revolutionary war, am under Kleber. Marceau, Pichegru, and M the early campaigns of that contest. In had reached tne rank of general of divis commanded the right wing of Massena's the battle of Zurich. Napoleon made hi: his marshals in 1804; and he was highl guished in the campaigns of the next yea the Austrians and Russians. In 1806 possession of Hanover and Hamburg, a with singular moderation to the inhabitai signalized himself at the battle of Frie 1807 ; and was then employed by the en Spain, where he won the battle of Ocana, he served in Russia, and took an active pa military operations of that year, and in 1813 and 1814. In conjunction with Marmont, Mortier defended Paris against lies, and fought the final battle of Montma was obliged to capitulate. Marshal Morti character for integrity, and his administra lity caused him to be much trusted and e by the Bourbons after their restoration. Philippe placed equal confidence in him; was riding by his side at a review of the guard of Pans, 28th July, 1835, when the machine, which Fieschi had prepared aga king, exploded, and killed, among many o veteran marshal. MORTIMER, John, an English ge known as a writer on husbandly, died 17 son, Thomas, vice-consul in the Austrian lands, known as a writer on commercial i cellaneous subjects, 1730-1809. MORTIMER, J. H., an English artist, MORTIMER, Roger, earl of, the j of Queen Isabella, b. in Wales 1287, execu MORTON, C, a learned antiquarian, ] MORTON, James, earl of. See Dou< MORTON, John, archbishop of Cai and cardinal, distinguished as a statesi partizan of the house of Lancaster, waa 1410. He rose in dignity through several ing reigns, from that of Henry VI. to Hei having escaped the hands of Richard, ho 1 this interval, and fled to the continent, joined the earl of Richmond. Died 1500. MORTON, R., a medical writer, died 1 MORTON, Thomas, a learned prelaj same family as the fam. Card. Morton, 15 MORTON, Thomas, a drama, wr., 17 MORUS, S. F.N., a German theolog., MORVAN, a king of Brittany, 818. MORVEAU. See Guyton De Mom MORVILLE, Ch. John Bait. Fl Count De, a Fr. ambass. and minister, 16 MOSCATI, P., a French politician, 174 MOSCHENI, M. C, an It. poet MOSCHUS, a Greek poet, about 200 l MOSCHUS, D., a Gk. poet and refuge* MOSCHUS, J., a Greek monk, of the Saints he had known in his MOSELEY, Benjamin, an English p experienced in the West Indies, author < fessional work on Dysentery, and of two on Coffee and Sugar, died 1819 612 MOS MOSER, G. M., a Swiss artist, 1705-1783. MOSER, John James, a German writer on blic law, author of a great number of important rks, 1701-1785. His son, Frederic Charles, tatesman and writer, 1731-1798. IOSER, W. G., a writer on forests, 1729-1793. OSES, the leader and legislator of the He- ws on their departure from Egypt, supposed 1725-1605 b.c. HOSES ALSCHECH, a Syrian rabbin, 16th c. tfOSES BEN-NOCHMANN, a Spanish rabbi, hor of 'Wars of the Lord,' &c., 1194-1300. rfOSES, C, an Armenian prelate, 5th century. rfOSHEIM, John Laurence Von, was born a noted family at Lubec, 9th October, 1694. was educated at the university of Kiel, where, a very young man, he became professor of losophy. "He was especially distinguished as a acher. He framed his discourses on the best nch and English models, and published some imes of sermons. Such was his popularity, the king of Denmark invited him to a chair e university of Copenhagen. In 1725 he was sa sd by the duke of Brunswick to the professor- of theology at Helmstadt, a sphere which he thily occupied for twenty-two years. In 1747 as appointed by George II. of Britain to the ity chair, and to the chancellorship of the ersity of Gottingen. In this responsible posi- he remained eight years, when he died, 9th ber, 1755. The works of Mosheim are nsive, consisting of numerous translations, fcises, sermons, and letters. He is chiefly known ittig us as a church historian, by his ' Com- JSaries,' and by his ' Institutes,' both written atin. The Institutes, which are a brief and compound, have been translated into German on Einem and Schlegel, and into English in ^ by Maclaine, minister at the Hague, and ifly by Dr. Murdoch of America, a third of whose admirable translation appeared in The last translation is incomparably the and must remove some prejudices against eirn which Maclaine's dry and unfaithful may have originated. Mosheim's Latin is too succinct to be either classical or t. His endeavour in recording the history aruggles of various religious parties was to -, e a dignified neutrality, which has been to such an extent, that to many it has ired to wear the aspect of complete indif- Such a view, however, would be very for those who read his sermons, and other ses, will discover in them a decided, intel- and ardent piety. [J.E.] )SNERON, J., a French writer, 1738-1830. >SS ; Robert, chaplain to William III., and ter in the Bangorian controversy, 1666-1729. phew, Charles, successively bishop of St. s and of Bath and Wells, d. 1802. Charles, the latter, bishop of Oxford, died 1811. ~SOM, Robert, an Irish prelate, d. 1679. SSOP, Henry, an Irish actor, 1729-1773. ""AERT, John, a D. painter, 1499-1555. TOWSKI, Count Thaddeus, one of the geous defenders of the independence of 1766-1842. HE-LE-VAYER. See Lamothe. THERBY, G., an Eng. physician, 1731-93. MOZ MOTHERWELL, W., a Scotch poet, 1798-1835. MOTTE. See La-Motte. MOTTEUX, P. A., a French poet, 1660-1717. MOTTEVILLE, Francoise Bertaud, Dame De, the favourite and biographer of Anne of Aus- tria, time of Richelieu, 1621-1689. MOTTLEY, John, son of Colonel Mottley, an adherent of James II., known as the biographer of Peter the Great and Catharine of Russia, and the alleged author of ' Joe Miller's Jests,' 1692-1750. MOTTRAYE, A. De La, a French traveller and historical critic, 1674-1743. MOUCHON, Peter, a Genevese ecclesiastic, and friend of Rousseau, author of a ' Table Analy- tique et Raisonn6e de l'Encvclopedie,' 1733-1797. MOUFET, or MUFFET, Thomas, a physician of London, distinguished as a professional writer and naturalist, died about 1604. MOUGIN, P. A., a Fr. astronomer, 1735-1816. MOULIN. See Dumoulin. MOULIN, J. F. A., a Fr. general, 1752-1810. MOUNIER, John Joseph, a political writer and orator, distinguished in the estates-general of France, 1758-1806. His son, Cl. Philippe, a statesman, 1784-1843. MOUNTAGUE, or MONTAGUE, Richard, a learned prelate, distinguished for his knowledge of ecclesiastical antiquities, and known to history as the personal friend and associate in principle of Archbishop Laud, 1578-1641. MOUNTFORT, William, a dramatic writer and actor, assassinated by his rival in love, Capt. Hill, after marrying Mrs. Bracegirdle, 1659-1692. MOURAD-BEY, chief of the Mamelukes, and companion-in-arms of Ibrahim Bey, was born in Circassia 1750. On the invasion of Egypt bv Buonaparte, he won the admiration of the French by his gallant resistance, but was forced to submit to Kleoer, who left him the government of Upper Egypt, under the French protectorate. Died 1801. MOURADGEA-D'OHSSON, Ignacius, a Swedish historian of Armenian descent, born at Constantinople 1740. While residing in the East as Swedish minister, he collected the materials of his ' General View of the Ottoman Empire,' pub- lished 1787-1790. Died 1807. MOURAVIEF, M. Nikitisch, a Russian poet, philosopher, and historian, tutor in the family of Catherine II., 1757-1807. MOURET, J. J., a Fr. composer, 1682-1738. MOURGUES, Michael, a French Jesuit and mathematician, author of 'Traite - de la Po^sie Francaise,' &c, 1642-1713. MOUSKES, Philip, a Fr. historian, d. 1282. MOUTON, G., a French astronomer, 1618-94. MOUTON, J. B., Sylvain, a Fr. Jansenist, one of the last refugees living in Holland, 1740-1803. MOXON, Joseph, a map maker and writer on navigation, mathemat., astrono., &c, 1627-1700. MOYLE, Walter, a classical scholar, member of parlia., and wr. on politi. economy, 1672-1721. MOYSART, F., a French writer, 1735-1813. MOYSES, David, page to King James, and au- thor of a diary, published as ' Memoirs ' of Scot- tish History, 1573-1630. MOZART, Johann Chrysostomus Wolf- gang Gottlieb, born in Salzburg, on the 25th of January, 1756, was the son of Leopold Mozart, a bookbinder of Augsburg, who studied music at 513 2L MOZ Salzburg, and was in 1762 admitted as one of the musicians of the prince-archbishop of that town. The young Mozart, born amidst music, soon evinced a most remarkable musical precocity. At tli roe years old he first began to show signs of that astonishing ability which afterwards made him one of the greatest amongst many great musicians. At four years old, almost without a lesson, he was able to play upon the harpsichord several minuets and other pieces of music. At five he made his first essays as a composer. In all the other studies proper to his age, as letters and arithmetic, he showed a marvellous aptitude, and very rapidly became a proficient in his juvenile tasks. Music, however, was always his favourite study, and his principal amusement. At six years of age, Mozart's father removed with all his family to Munich, where he, with his sister Mary-Anne, had the honour of performing before the elector, who re- ceived the infant artists with the most marked condescension. About this time he began privately to study the violin, and before his father, or any one else, was aware of his proficiency upon this instrument, he was able to acquit himself like a master in the second part of some most difficult concertos. Amid all the wonder and admiration which his great talents caused, Mozart never ceased to be a simple, good-natured, and unassuming child, and his instant obedience to the slightest request of his parents was one of his distinguishing traits. In 1763, when only seven years old, his family left Germany, and after having visited and performed in the principal cities of his fatherland, he in November arrived in Paris, and was intro- duced to play upon the organ at Versailles in pre- sence of the whole court. Here he published his two first compositions, and the wonderful powers of Mozart created quite an excitement amongst all classes of people. In 1764 he came to England, where he received the most unbounded applause, both from the court and the nobility before whom he performed. During his residence in England, he composed and printed six sonatas, which were by request dedicated to the Queen. He returned to France in 1765, and from thence went to Hol- land, and at the Hague, when not more than eight years old, composed a symphony for a full orches- tra, on occasion of the installation of the prince of Orange. They then returned to Paris, where they resided for two months, and where the young artist and his gifted sister were feted and caressed by all manner of people. They then turned their course toward Germany, and from this time for- ward Mozart devoted himself with increased ardour to the study of his art. In 1768 the two children performed before the emperor Joseph II. at Vienna, who ordered young Wolfgang to compose music to the opera buffo, La Finta Seinplice, which, though never performed, was approved of by all the masters and cognoscenti or the period. In 1769 young Mozart was nominated concert master to the archbishop of Salzburg. In the same year he went to Italy, where he was most rapturously welcomed. His first performance in Italy was given at Milan, where he was engaged to return and compose the first opera for the carnival of 1 771. At Bologna and Florence the reception he met with was equally flattering to the young musician. At the latter city he made the acquaint- MOZ ance of Thomas Linley, who, about his age, then a pupil under Martini, the celebrated vio! Mozart arrived at Rome in Passion Week, ai Wednesday went to the Sistine chapel, whe heard for "the first time the celebrated Misx which was prohibited to be copied, or in any ner published, on pain of excommunication. Good Friday the same Miserere was agiin formed, when Mozart was present with the copy he had made from memory concealed i hat, that he might have an opportunity of m corrections. This circumstance created at mense excitement at Rome, because the peer ties of the Miserere were thought impossible expressed by musical notation, and when I Mozart, in presence of some Sistine chorl sang the composition in the very manner in it was sung by those who had acquired it after long practice, the professional singen pressed their astonishment in terms of unmea admiration. The fame of Mozart after this was spread far and wide. His wonderful m talents and power of performing on the organ attributed to a charm which it was suppo carried in his ring. When the pope first him perform, he conferred upon him the ord the Golden Spur, and at Bologna he was elec member of the Philharmonic" Society, which at that time an honour rarely conferred even the greatest musicians. On the 26th of D ber, 1770, he produced at Milan his ' Mithrid which had a successful run of twenty night! caused him to be engaged to compose the opera for the year 1773. This opera was'! Silla,' which was performed twenty-six nigl succession. In the interval between the named above, he went to Venice and V* where he received the highest musical hoi At Milan, he, in 1771, composed an opera, ai ! ifiif inn [House of Mozart.] Salzburg in 1772 he composed another, foi election of the new archbishop. In 1775 his was so completely established, and so w known, that he could have made choice of enj ments in all the capitals of Europe. His fi E referred Paris, and therefore, in 1777, he, is mother, commenced his second journey toil 514 MOZ (hat city. The death of his mother made Paris insupportable, and he returned to his father at the jeginning of the year 1779. Some time after this I Mozart went to Munich, whence he went to : henna, and entered the service of the emperor, [ J) whom he remained attached during the rest of lis life, though tempted to leave him oy many ad- I Untageous offers. His principal works, composed | |>out and after this time, were ' Cosi Fan Tutti,' |Idomeneo,' ' L'Enlevement du Serail,' ' Nozze de lUgaro,' ' Don Giovanni,' ' ZauberfloteV ' Clemenza |T Tito,' 'Masses,' and his world-renowned 'Re- iBiiem.' During the time he was engaged in the jlmposition of the ' Zauberflote ' he began to be jbject to fainting fits, which recurred at short Jlnods till the close of his life, which took place . j the 5th of December, 1792, when he had not lftained to his thirty-sixth year. He left a widow lid two sons. His works, which are too numerous |lmention by name, were in all styles of his art, l' Id all great. He is one of the greatest masters of , jisic, and his works will live to all time. [J.M.] 1JMOZZI, L., a controversial writer, 1746-1813. SOZZI, M. A., an Italian historian, 1678-1736. llpIUDGE, Z achary, a dissenting minister, who ljerwards entered the Church of England, author ISSermons, &c, died 1769. Thomas, his son, languished for his improvement of the chrono- |4er, 1715-1794. John, brother of the latter, lihysician and professional writer, most distin- Ifched for his improvement of the reflecting scope, died 1793. William, son of John, an ffer m the army, and an employe in the trig- i; ifcnetrical survey, 1762-1820. JlUDIE, Robert, a famous writer on natural hpry, and contributor to magazine literature, wi in Forfarshire 1777, died in indigent circum- llces 1842. IlUGGLETON', Lodowicke, the principal of H enthusiasts, (his companion being John (Jt'e), who in the year 1651, announced them- Mis as the two last witnesses, and went from wb to place, denouncing with great violence all in they regarded as false professors of religion, , Meven magistrates and persons in authority. jr principal attacks were directed against the jBKers and Ranters, some of whom replied to in writing. The first publication of Muggle- entitled ' A Remonstrance from the Eternal declaring several Spiritual Transactions unto 'arliament and Commonwealth of England, Excellency the Lord General Cromwell, icil of State, the Council of War, and to love the second appearing of the Lord the only wise God and everlasting Father, for ever.' This pamphlet was first printed and was republished in 1710, with a por- the author, the subscription to which gives date of his life' Dyed the 14th of March, then aged eighty-eight years, seven months, sn days.' Muggleton is depicted with hair, low forehead, protruding brow, jh cheek bones, and what physiognomists I the aggressive nose. The exposition of les is given in his work called ' The Looking-Glass,' published 1656, and his formed a sect which has survived to the times. His fanaticism was perfectly sin- he more than once suffered imprisonment | MUL for the vigorous manner in which he prosecuted his ' Commission.' [E.R.] MUIS, S. M. De, a Fr. Hebraist, 1587-1644. MULLER, Andrew, a German divine and Oriental scholar, especially dist. for his labours in illustration of the Chinese language, 1630-1694. MULLER, Carl Ottfried, professor of archaeology at Gottingen, distinguished for his skill in mythology, 1797-1840. MULLER, Henry, a Ger. divine, 1631-1675. MULLER, Gerard Frederic, a German tra- veller and writer, skilled in the Russian language, and a long time resident in that country as histo- riographer of the empire. He is considered the father of Russian history, and is author of numer- ous valuable works in tl i at branch of inquiry. Born in Westphalia 1705 ; died in Moscow, where he had been appointed keeper of the archives, 1783. MULLER, J., a Dutch engraver, b. about 1570. MULLER, John, a Swiss historian, auth. of a ' Hist, of the Helvetic Confederation,' 1752-1809. MULLER, John, called ' Regiomontanus,' from his birthplace, distinguished as a Greek scholar, astronomer, and mathematical writer, 1436-1476. MULLER, J. S., a Germ, engraver, 1715-1782. MULLER, L., a military engineer of Prussia, au. of ' The Wars of Frederick the Great,' 1734-1804. MULLER, Othon Frederic, an eminent na- turalist, was born at Copenhagen in 1730. He died in 1784. He was born of parents in a humble sphere of life, and was destined for the church. Recommended by his learning and regularity of manners to the situation of tutor to the young Count Schulin, he travelled into various countries with him ; and was induced by his pupil's mother, a woman of excel- lent understanding, to engage in the study of na- tural history. Marrying advantageously, he aban- doned his intention of going into the church, and was enabled to devote himself exclusively to scien- tific occupations. As a naturalist he acquired a high reputation both at home and abroad, and was honoured by his sovereign, who conferred upon him various marks of high distinction. His first works were the Entomology and Botany of the part of his native country where he was born and resided, which was followed by a continuation of the great work begun by Oeder, the Flora of Den- mark. Zoology, however, soon superseded botany ; and we know no naturalist who has more ably illustrated the fauna of his native country than Muller has done his. Selecting chiefly those por- tions of the animal kingdom, which from their diminutive proportions, had till then been but little attended to, he struck out an original path, and clothing his descriptions of the little animals of his studies in elegant Latin, he has rendered his works accessible to, and made them the delight of all succeeding zoologists. His histories, or mono- graphs of the infusoria, the hydrachnae or water spiders, and the entomostraca of Denmark and Norway, are models of composition and monu- ments of prodigious patience; while his great work, which, however, he did not live to finish, the Zoologia Danica, is one of amazing accuracy, both in the descriptions and in the figures of the animals described, and is indispensable to every naturalist even of the present "day. The younger Linnaeus has named a genus of plants after him, Mullera. [W.B.] 515 MUL MULLER, W., a German writer, 179-1-1827. MUMMIUS, L., a consul of Rome, b.c. 146. MUNCER, MUNTZER, or MUNZER, Thos., a chief of the German anabaptists, executed 1525. MUNCHAUSEN, Gkklaoh Adolphus, Baron Von, Hanoverian prime minister, and foun- der of the universitv of Gottingen, 1688-1770. MUNCHHAUSEN, Jerome Ch. Frederic Von, a German officer, whose wonderful relations of his adventures in the service of Russia, sug- gested the story of Burger, remarkable for its humour and extravagance ; died 1797. MUNCK, J., a Danish navigator, died 1628. MUNDAY, A., a dramatic writer, died 1633. MUNDEN, Joseph Saunders, a comic actor, distinguished for humour, born in London, 1758. He was intended by his parents for the medical profession ; but, disliking it, he was next appren- ticed to a law-stationer. Here having learned to copy, he was originally engaged to write out the parts for the performers, and thus introduced to the histrionic profession, was sometimes permitted to tread the stage as mute, and at length joined a strolling company at Rochdale, Lancashire. In 1780, he was engaged as low comedian at the Canterbury theatre. It was not, however, until 1790 that he made his debut in London, when he appeared at Covent Garden, as Sir Francis Gripe, in ' The Busy Body,' and Jemmy Jumps, in ' The Farmer.' Transferred in 1813 to Drury Lane, he continued there till 31st May, 1824, when he re- tired. Old Dornton in ' The Road to Ruin,' was one of his most successful characters. Munden indulged in broad grimace, but added to his humour a pathos which was sometimes irresistibly touching. Unlike most actors, he was distinguished in private life by his economical habits, and ac- cumulated a large fortune. He died 6th February, 1832, in Bernard Street, Russell Square, where he had long resided. [J.A.H.] MUNNICH, Burchard Christopher, Count Von, a German officer in the sendee of Russia, who was exiled to Siberia. On being restored to favour, he appeared at court in the sheep-skin dress worn during his captivity ; 1683-1767. MUNOZ, J. B., a Spanish historian, 1745-1799. MUNOZ, S., a Spanish painter, 1745-1799. MUNOZ, T., a Spanish engineer, 1743-1823. MUNRO, Alexander, M.D., the son of Dr. Alexander Monro, professor of anatomy in the university of Edinburgh, was born at Edinburgh on the 20th of May, 1733, and after having been carefully educated as an anatomist, he was associ- ated with his father in the chair of anatomy in the year 1755, and ultimately succeeded him in that charge. This chair he held for the remainder of his life, which was terminated on the 2d of Octo- ber, 1817, when he had attained to the eighty-fifth year of his age. He is generally known in medi- cal biography as Munro Secundus, and, with his father, contributed largely to the establishment of the fame of the Edinburgh school of medicine; but though a skilful anatomist and physiologist, he could lay no claim to the possession of the in- ventive powers and the original genius of the Hun- ters, with both of whom he was contemporary, and with the elder of whom he maintained a bit- ter, but now forgotten, controversy on the origin of the lymphatics. [J.M'C.] MUR MUNRO, Sir T., gover. of Madras, 1760-1 MUNSTER, Count, a statesman of Han known at the congress of Vienna 1814, died 1 MUNSTER, George FiT/.d.AKKNd.;, eU eldest son of the duke of Clarence and Mrs. dan, born 1794, shot himself, after acquiring tinction as a valiant soldier in India, 1842. MUNSTER, Sebastian, professor of He at Basle, one of the most learned men of his | author of numerous works, 1489-1552. MUNTER, B., a German divine, 1735-179 MUNTER, F., a Ger. Orientalist, 1760-181 MUNTING, Abraham, father and son, tinguished as physicians and botanists, the fo died 1628, the latter 1626-1683. MURA, F. De, a painter of Naples, died 1 MURAND, E., a Dutch pointer, 1622-170 MURAT. Joachim Murat, le beau sabre the imperial armies, was bom in 1767, near gord. His father was a country innkeeper. Y Murat was distinguished, even in boyhood, ft courage, and for his horsemanship. He wa tended for the church ; but he entered the an the age of 20, and soon became notorious ft duels, and for the fervour of his democratic opir In 1795, when Buonaparte put down the nsi the Sections of Paris, Murat was an officer ii of the regiments of cavalry in the capital ; ai was of the greatest service to his future mast securing for him the possession of the park of lery, which was employed by Buonaparte so > tively against the insurgents. When Napoleoi made general of the army of Italy, he placed i on his personal staff: and he afterwards took with him to Egypt. Both against the Austrian Piedmontese in Italy, and against the Mame and Turks in Egypt, Murat proved his brilliani our, and his ability as a leader of horse. He reti from Egypt with Napoleon, and throughou consular and early imperial campaigns in Gerfi he increased his martial renown. His heig stature, his handsome features, his showy cosl and the unrivalled skill and grace of his norse ship, all combined to increase the effect whk daring courage and personal prowess pro( both on friends and foes. His white plume that of Henri Quatre, was the standard whk men followed best through the thick of every: He had little strategic ability. Napoleon, wl Elba, described him truly in these words ' Mil a good soldier one of the most brilliant n ever saw on the field of battle. Of no sui talents ; without much moral courage ; tiraio in forming his plan of operations : but the nM he saw the enemy, all that vanished his eyj the most sure, and the most rapid his co truly chivalrous. Moreover, he is a fine man! and well-dressed, though at times rather fan! cally. It was really a magnificent sight to se in battle heading the cavalry.' Murat m Caroline Buonaparte, Napoleon's youngest He was made a marshal of France, when tl pire was established, and in 1806 Napoleor him the grand duchy of Berg and Clevis. Ii Murat received from his imperial patron the J of Naples, and reigned over that beautiful c4 for seven years. Botta, the Italian bistorijtf of him, 'He was courteous and affable to ;| was no lover of rapine, still less of cruelty : 516 MUR I only was necessary to his happiness.' Such was ; Murals general character, both before and dur- i nghis royalty: but his implicit devotion to Na- i poleon made nim on several occasions become the Instrument, if not the cause, of act6 of great ! barbarity and injustice. In 1812 he joined Na- poleon in the great expedition against Russia, . ind was general of the whole cavalry of the brand Army. After the disasters of that cam- paign, Murat continued to serve under Napoleon Wgainst the Allies in Germany, till the great defeat f the emperor at Leipzig in the autumn of 1813, ;g jemed to render his cause desperate. Murat then J )Ught to secure his own possession of the Neapo- tan tin-one. He basely betrayed his benefactor ; ;; ; I ad, joining himself to the Allied Sovereigns against I ranee, he attacked Napoleon's forces in Italy. A j this treachery he preserved himself as king of J aples during 1814 ; but he found that the Allied 1 ,1 overeigns, though they suffered him to reign, re- <J irded nim with suspicion and ill-will. On learn- i'J g Napoleon's escape from Elba in 1815, Murat ;-;j stemmed to change sides again ; and he attacked ij e Austrians in Italy. He was speedily defeated, -J id obliged to take refuge in France, before the aliening of the campaign in Belgium between Japoleon and the Allies, by which the war was cided. So deep was the abhorrence among the ench soldiery of Murat for his treachery in the eceding year,' that Napoleon did not dare bring n to the French army ; though the emperor ew well Murat's value in the day of battle, terwards, at St. Helena, Napoleon referred to 5 subject, and said, that perhaps Murat, had he in at Waterloo, might have changed the fate of battle, and of the world. ' There were mo- during the battle,' said the emperor, ' when breaking of a single English square might have us the victory; and if ever there was the officer who could have done it, Murat was .' After the second fall of Napoleon, Murat ered about for some months in the south of ce and in Corsica : and finally, on the 7th ber, 1815, he landed with a small band of armed ers on the Calabrian coast,, in the chimerical of reconquering his kingdom of Naples. He speedily overpowered and taken prisoner. The rbon Neapolitan court showed him no mercy, sent before a military commission, tried, id, and shot within half-an-hour after ce. He met his fate with the chivalric that had ever distinguished him ; and his letter to his wife, written by him while the tions were making for his court-martial, is of the most pathetic and heroic that history preserved. When he confronted the soldiers were to shoot him, he refused to have his eyes and bade them 'spare the face, and straight to the heart.' Then he pointed to ~ \ with his right hand ; and held m the left lion picture of his wife and children, on he was gazing when the soldiers fired, and stretched a corpse at the instant, still hold- medallion to the very last. [E.S.C.] TORI, D., an Ital. painter, born 1661. .TORI, Lodovico Antonio, an Italian logist and historian, author of many valu- Works, successively librarian at Milan, and ' archivist and librarian at Modena, 1672-1750. MUR MURDOC, a king of Scotland, 715-730. MURE, Sir W., a Scotch poet, died 1657. MURENA, C, an Italian architect, 1715-1764. MURET, J. L., a Swiss economist, 1715-1796. MURET, M. A. F., an Ital. savant, 1526-1585. MURILLO, Bartholome Esteban, was born at Seville 1st January, 1618. He was the pupil of his relative Juan del Castillo. In 1642 ne visited Madrid, and was aided by Velazquez, then painter to the king, who procured him permission to copy in the Royal Galleries. Murillo returned to Seville in 1645, where he commenced that great series of works which have now made his name so glorious. He married a lady of fortune in 1648, which much aided his personal influence, and he succeeded in establishing an academy of the arts at Seville in 1660, and acted as president the first year. He died at Seville, 3d April, 1682, in con- sequence of a fall from a scaffolding at Cadiz, where he was engaged in the church of the Capu- chins, painting a large altar piece of St. Catherine. Murillo's principal works are eight large pictures which he painted for the hospital of St. George, called La Caridad, finished in 1674, but which were dispersed during the peninsular war: three are in this country ' The Return of the Prodigal Son,' and ' Abraham Visited by the Angels,' in the possession of the duke of Sutherland ; and ' Christ Healing the Sick of the Palsy,' called ' The Pool of Bethesda,' in the possession of Mr. George Tom- line, London, ' Our Lady of the Immaculate Con- ception,' painted in 1678, and lately purchased by the French government, for the enormous sum of 23,600 sterling, and the picture of the 'Holy Family,' or ' Trinity,' in the British National Gal- lery, are fine examples of Murillo's later style. In the later part of his life Murillo changed both his style and his subjects ; his earlier pictures, chiefly fancy subjects, and illustrative of humble life, are painted in a forcible manner, with predominant dark shadows; his latter works are of equal truth of character, but in a more elevated and chaste style, and are almost exclusively of religious sub- jects. (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico de los mas IUustres Profesores de las Belas Artes en Espana, Madrid, 1806; Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain.) [R.N.W.] MURNER, Th., a French poet, 1465-1533. ' MURPHY, Arthur, an Irish dramatic and miscellaneous writer, author of ' The Grecian Daughter' and other plays, highly popular in their time. Having supported the government, he was appointed one of the commissioners of bankruptcy. Born at Cork 1727, died 1805. MURPHY, James Cavanagh, an Irish archi- tect and antiq., au. of works on Portugal, d. 1816. MURR, Chr. Theophilus Von, bora at Nu- remberg 1735, distinguished as a literary savant, Orientalist, and bibliopole, died 1811. MURRAY, Alexander, a poor self-educated Scotchman, distinguished for his researches into the nature and origin of languages; bora 1775, professor at Edinburgh 1812, died 1813. MURRAY, Charles, a successful dramatic wr. and performer, born at Cheshunt 1754, d. 1821. # MURRAY, Daniel, late Roman Catholic arch- bishop of Dublin, was bora in 1768, and educated at Salamanca, where he was consecrated priest in 1790. He succeeded to the arcHbishopric in 517 MUR 1S23, and during the agitation for catholic eman- ' citation supported that measure by his influence, after which lie took no part in political questions. In 1831, he was joined with Archbishop Whately and others in the commission for Irish education, and sanctioned the institution of the Queen's Colleges ; he withdrew, however, on knowing the contrary pleasure of the pope. Died 1852. MURRAY, Sir George, a British general, born in Perthshire 1772, entered the army in 1789, and greatly distinguished himself in the late wars. In 1812 he was appointed governor of Canada ; and, returning to England on the escape of Napo- leon from Elba, became, after the peace, governor of Edinburgh castle. He held several other offices, and in 1828 was secretary of state for the colonies. The principal event of his political life was his de- feat at the Westminster election 1837. In 1841 he became master-general of the ordnance under Sir Robert Peel ; died 1846. MURRAY, Hugh, a Scottish geographer, his- torian, and miscellaneous wr., au. of many volumes in the ' Edinburgh Cabinet Library,' 1779-1846. MURRAY, James, a Scotch divine, 1702-1758. MURRAY, James, a dissenting divine, d. 1782. MURRAY, James, an East Indian officer, who commenced his career in the service in the Maha- rattas 1790, died 1807. MURRAY, James Stuart, earl of, a natural son of James V., king of Scotland, was born 1531, and educated in France with his sister, Mary, but joined the reformers soon after her marriage with the dauphin. His political history is connected with the fortunes of the queen, after whose im- prisonment hi Lochleven castle, 1567, he was pro- claimed Regent, and defeated her troops at the battle of Langside. He was shot by James Hamil- ton, whose wife he had seduced, 1570. MURRAY, John, a Scotch physician and chemist, author of works on the Materia Medica Pharmacy, ' Elements of Chemistry,' &c, d. 1820. MURRAY, John, the eminent "publisher whose name is associated with the works of Byron, dist. for his literary acquirements and liberality, 1778-1843. MURRAY, John And., a Swedish naturalist, 1740-1791. His brother, Adolphus, professor of anatomy, 1750-1803. A third brother, J. Philip, distinguished as a man of letters, 1726-1776. MURRAY, Lindley, born of Quaker parents in Pennsylvania 1745, was educated for the mer- cantile profession, and practised some time as a barrister. He afterwards realized a competency in his earlier pursuits, and acquired the leisure which he devoted to literary studies. He wrote, besides his well-known English Grammar and Spelling- book, several works on education and morals, d. 1826. MURRAY, Patrick, fifth Lord Elibank, a writer on the currency and public credit, 1707-78. MURRAY, William. See Mansfield. MURRAY, W. H., a Scotch actor, 36 years man- ager of the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, 1791-1852. MURRAY, Wm. Vans, an American diplo- matist, chiefly dist. for his services at the Hague, and at a later period at the French court, d. 1803. MUSA, Antonius, a Roman physician, cele- brated for his skilful cure of Augustus. MUSA, Ibn N., an Arabian general, 640-717. MUSA, Abu Abddallah Mahammed Ben, the earhest'Aiabian writer on algebra. MYR MUSiEUS, an ancient philosopher and p< who flourished at an unknown date at Athens. MUSJEUS, a Greek poet of the 4th centa author of the ' Loves of Hero and Leander.' MUSiEUS, John Charles Augustus, a p ular German writer and satirist, 1735-1787. MUSCALUS, A., a German divine, died 15! MUSCHER, M. Van, a Dutch pain., 1645-U MUSCULUS, Wolfgang, a German Hebr and divine, who distinguished himself among early reformers, 1497-1563. MUSGRAVE, Sir Richard, a member parliament, and collector of the excise at Dub author of ' Memoirs of the Rebellion in Iielai born about 1758, died 1818. MUSGRAVE, Samuel, a physician of Exei known as a classical scholar and critic, died 171 MUSGRAVE, William, grandfather of preceding, known as a medical writer and ai quarian, 1657-1721. MUSONIUS, a Stoic philosopher, 15th centi MUSS, Charles, an enamel painter, d. 18! MUSSATO, A., an Ital. historian, 1261-131 MUSSCHENBROEK, Peter Von, a Dt physician, celebrated as a natural philosopher mathematician, 1692-1761. MUSSO, C, an Italian prelate, 1511-1574. MUSURUS, M., a Greek savant, 1470-151' MUTIS, Don Giuseppe Celestino, aleai physician of Spain, dist. as a botanist, 1733-11 MUTIUS C^LIUS. See Sc.evola. MUZIANO, Girolamo, one of the most c brated Italian painters, at whose instance Academy of St. Luke was founded, 1528-1590 MUZIO, G., an Italian writer, 1496-1576. MYCONIUS, F., a German divine, 1491-li MYCONIUS, O., a Swiss reformer, 1488-11 MYDORGE, C, a Fr. mathemat., 1585-16" MYLE, A. Vander, a D. philolog., 1558-11 MYLIUS, J. C, a Ger. bibliographer, 1710 MYLNE, Robert, the architect of Blackfri bridge, London, afterwards surveyor of St. Pj Cathedral, and engineer to the New River C pany, born at Edinburgh 1734, died 1811. MYN, H. Vander, a D. painter, 1684-174 MYRO, a Greek poetess, 3d century b.c. MYRON, one of the most celebrated artisi antiquity, was born at Eleutherae in B<> 432 B.C. He was the pupil of Agelada.-. temporary with Phidias and PoTycletus : he established at Athens. Myron is remark among Greek sculptors for the comparative turalism of his forms as contrasted with the i style of Phidias and other great Greeks : he re sented man and animal with equal - almost, says Petronius, gave the souls of men animals to brass. ' He was,' says Pliny, ' cur in all corporeal detail, but paid little expression,' this is not a bad description of wbi now termed naturalism. The works of Myroi which very many are recorded, were mostf; bronze, of Delos ; but he was also a sculpt< marble, a carver in wood, and an e metals. The celebrated Townley Dis< quoit-thrower, found in the villa of II Tivoli, in 1791, is the work of Myron. I posed to be a marble copy of the original; i amongst all his great works, the mo>t was u bronze cow suckling a calf, set up in a pi 518 MYR at Athens: there are thirty-six epigrams this work in the Greek anthology. So extra- inary a popularity can he owing only to life- imitation, which must have been a compara- novelty. No quality in art is so popular, it is t the most vulgar and least informed can un- stand. The following will serve as a specimen ;he high reputation ot this remarkable work : it from an old Greek epigram in Curl's Anac- 'Tliis heifer is not cast, but rolling years Hardened the life to what it now appears: Myron unjustly would the honour claim, But nature has prevented him in fame.' cow was, in the time of Procopius, the sixth NAP century, in the temple of Peace at Rome. See a full account of Myron and his works, by the writer, in the Supple, to the Penny Cyclopcedia. [R.N.W.] MYRTIS, a poetess of Bceotia, 5th cent. B.C. MYRTIUS, Cherubin, a local historian, bom near Treves, and settled in an Italian monastery in 1592 ; date of his death unknown. MYTENS, A., a Flemish painter, 1541-1 G02. MYTENS, Daniel, the name of two Dutch painters, father and son, the elder, known to have been living in 1656, the younger, 1636-1688. MYTENS, M., a Swed. painter, famous for his imitations of the antique, born at Stockholm, 1695; d. at Vienna, where he was paint, to the court, 1755. MYTZES, a king of the Bulgarians, 1258. N IABEGA, an Arabian poet, 6th century. [ABI-EFFENDI, a Turkish poet, 17th cent. J ABIS, a general and tyrant of Sparta, who 4d a considerable part in the affairs of Greece fiji 205 to 192 B.C., at the time his country was Miflict with the Roman power. He was killed wis pretended ally, Alexamenes, after being re- nedly defeated by the army of the Achasan league. 'JABONASSAR, a k. of Babylonia, whose name Iks an era commencing 26th Feb., 747 B.C. [|ABOPOLASSAR. See Nebuchadnezzar. jlADAB, a king of Israel, 343-341 b.c. ||ADAL, A., a French miscel. wr., 1659-1741. H&DASTI, or DE NADAZD, Thomas, a Hgarian nobleman distinguished in the wars of lunand of Austria against Solyman II., and in tit of Charles V., 16th century. His grandson, Fixers, Count de Forgatsch, a patriot and his- toln, executed 1671. [\DAUD, Jos., a French ecclesiastic, d. 1792. kDAULT, J., a French naturalist, 1701-1782. I R.DIR SHAH, otherwise Thamasp Kouli mix, a famous military adventurer, who was Win Khorassan, 1688; and by 1736 had raised lilelf by a series of crimes and conquests to the ftie of Persia. He then invaded the empire of thpogul, and after carrying fire and sword thigh some of its richest provinces, enriched Hlf and his officers with nearly a hundred Bipns sterling in money, jewels, and effects. He Bpespatched in his tent, after a fierce personal Mgle with the conspirators, 19th June, 1747. EVIUS, C, a Roman dramatist, d. B.C. 203. JEVIUS, J., a Saxon physician, 1499-1574. iGOD, F. C, a French ascetic, 1734-1816. A.HL, J. A., a Prussian sculptor, 1710-1795. LHUM. one of the Jewish prophets, 7th c. B.C. llGEON, J., a French painter, 1757-1S32. RIGEON, J. A., a French atheist, 1738-1810. fllVEN, M., a Dutch painter, 1570-1651. JKHIMOV, a Russian poet, 1782-1814. ! LDI, NALDO, an Italian wr., d. about 1470. LDI, S., an Italian singer, killed 1819. HLSON, John, a Church of England min- ^^Hhor of historical works elucidating the !rf Charles I., 1638-1686. WON, V., a Ch. of Engl, divine, 1641-1724. HKGIS, W. De, a French historian, 14th ct. HNI, Giovanni Batista Felice Gas- *U a diplomatist and hist, of Venice, 1616-78. NANNI, Giovanni, an Ital. painter, called from his birth-place, Giovanni di Udine, 1494-1564. NANNINI, A., an Italian writer, 15th century. NANNIUS, Pet., the Latinized name of Peter Nanni, or Nanning, a Dutch philologist, 1500-57. NANNONI, A., an Italian surgeon, 1715-1790. NANTEUIL, P., a French dramatist, d. 1681. NANTEUIL, R., a French engraver, 1630-78. NANTIGNI, L. C, a Fr. genealogist, 1692-1755. NAPIER, Lieutenant-Gen. Sir Charles James, who combined the talents of a great administrator with those of a conqueror, and was in many respects one of the most remarkable men of the present age, was born in 1782, and began his military career in Ireland at the period of the rebellion. He won his first laurels in the peninsu- lar war, where he fought desperately under Sir John Moore, and became the prisoner of Ney, dreadfully lacerated by the wounds he had received during the retreat on Corunna. Being permitted to return to England on parole, he filled up a period of military inaction by writing several works on colonization, the state of Ireland, military law, and engineering. In 1811 he joined Wellington as a volunteer, and was present at some of his hardest fought actions in the peninsula, including Fuentes d'Onore and Badajoz. It was his fate to be absent on a cruising expedition when Europe was surprised by the sudden return of Napoleon, but he reached the army three days after the battle of Waterloo, assisted in what fighting there remained to do, and accompanied it to Pans. He was then some years governor of Cephalonia, and drew up a plan, in conjunction with Lord Byron, for achieving the independence of Greece, won the lasting gratitude of the Cephalonians, who call him the father of their country, and was ultimately recalled. In 1841, during the administration of Lord Auckland in India, he was appointed com- mander of the Bombay army, and commenced that reform of abuses which rendered his name a hate- ful one to the magnates of Leadenhall-Street, and the authorities under their influence. On the ap- pointment of Lord Ellenborough, his plan for a campaign in Afghanistan found support in a kin- dred spirit, and taking the field with only 2,000 men, he found himself face to face with an army of 30,000 whom he defeated with dreadful slaugh- ter at the famous battle of Meeanee, 17th Febru- ary, 1843. His forces were afterwards Augmented 519 NAP to 5,000, and with these he completed the con- quest of Scinde, by the defeat of Shere Mahomed at the head of 25,000 men in a pitched battle at Hydrabad. Lord Ellenborough appointed him governor of the conquered territory, and it was now that his brilliant talents as a ruler found the scope necessary for their development. Troops of bandits had to be put down, sutteeship abolished, a general survey of the country taken, roads made, the laws revised, the whole of the administration reorganized ; yet in addition to all this. Sir Charles Napier added to his labours the social improve- ment and education of the people ; besides writing and arguing against the opposition of the civil au- thorities of India. In the midst of these toils the battles of Ferozeshah and Sobraon finished the scheme of conquest while he was speculating on its enlargement, and in 1847 he was in- duced by the declining health of Lady Napier to return to England. In 1849 another Sikh war had broken out, and the anxious eyes of the country were fixed on Sir Charles Napier, who, conscious that his only friends were in the army and the people of England, for some time declined going. He vielded at last to the duke of Welling- ton, whose last words were, ' If you don't go, I must,' and forty- three days after he was in Bom- bay, where he learned that the war had been con- cluded. The manner of his reception by Lord Dalhousie completely realized his misgivings. ' In ten minutes,' (says Sir Charles) 'he told me in substance, nay, the words were, That in letters from England he had been warned against my en- deavouring to encroach upon his power, and had answered he would take d dgood care I should notV On such terms it is rather surprising that Napier remained commander of the army two years than that he tendered his resignation at the end of that period and returned home not, how- ever, until he had effected further reforms in all that came under his authority. He died at Oak- lands, near Portsmouth, 29th August, 1853, leav- ing a name that will long be honoured among the worthies of England a great soldier, a great ruler, and a fearless exposer of all manner of abuses. His last appearance in public was at the funeral of the duke of Wellington, when his usual gro- tesque appearance on horseback was rendered pain- ful by his too evident infirmity. The vanity so conspicuous in his writings, is rendered less objec- tionable than it might otherwise be, by his soldier- like frankness, and graphic skill in circumstantial description. The last from his pen is entitled ' Defects, Civil and Military, in the Indian Govern- ment,' lately edited by his brother, Sir W. F. P. Napier; the most interesting is his account of Scinde as he found it and as he left it. [E.R.] NAPIER, John, Baron of Merchiston, the illustrious inventor of logarithms, was the eldest son of Archibald Napier, of Edinbellie and Mer- chiston, master of the mint in Scotland. He was born at Merchiston castle, near Edinburgh, in 1550. After going through the usual course of study at St. Andrews, he is said to have applied himself to mathematics, during a tour to the Netherlands, France, and Italy. Upon his return to Scotland, he declined all civil employment in order that he might devote himself entirely to literary and scientific pursuits. The principal NAP subjects of his study were mathematics a sacred writings, and he began his career as thor by the publication of his comments; the apocalypse, under the title of ' A Plai co very of the Revelation of St. John.' Thl was translated into French, and published, vised by himself, at Rochelle in 1602, and wards in 1605 and 1607. It was highly by the protestants of France, owing to tl and learning with which he endeavoured t that the pope was the antichrist of Scriptur he was more successful in this discussion 1 others, in which he vainly attempted to ; future events from the revelations at Pati The attention of Napier was at this time d to other subjects than theology, though m feeling was the motive which impelled him task. In 1596 he addressed a letter to A Bacon, (the original of which is in the Are copal Library of' Lambeth), entitled ' Sea ventions Necessary in these Days for the I of this Island, and Withstanding Stn Enemies to God's Truth and Religion.' Tl of these inventions, is a burning mirror for di ing the enemy's ships at any distance, by i ing to a focus the beams of the sun ; and the another mirror for effecting the same obj reflecting ' the beams of any material fire or It does not appear that Napier made any < ments with these mirrors, or placed his inv< in the hands of those who alone could apply When, a short time before his death, a par friend implored him not to bury in the gra? himself such excellent inventions, he replk there was already too many devices for tl and overthrow of man ; and that as the mi the human heart would not allow mank diminish the number of them, ' they should be increased by any new conceit of his.' T reason to believe that Napier had previous to begun those investigations which led h the invention of logarithms. We are infon Wood in his ' Athenae Oxoniensis,' that Dr. a Scotchman, who had come from Denmarl Napier that Longomontanus had invented an 'of saving the tedious multiplications and di] in astronomical calculations,' and that thi done by ' proportionable numbers,' ' whicl Napier taking, he desired him upon his ret call upon him again. Craig, after some had passed, did so, and Napier then showed rude draught of what he called Canon Mi Logarithmorum; which draught, with some* tions, he printed in 1614.' Wood adds, '1 came into the hands of our author Briggs, i William Oughtres, from whom the relation ( matter came.' It is quite possible that Longi tanus may have been occupied with the atter abridge astronomical calculations, but if h made the slightest progress in such an inve tion, his friend Kepler would not have fai give him the credit which he may have des Whereas, in a letter to Cruger, he distinctly that 'nothing can surpass the method of > (Nepereanam rationeiri). The work in Napier gave his great invention to the worL published at Edinburgh in 1614, with the l ' Mirifici Logarithmorum Canon When the invention of logarithms was first 523 r NAP NAP to Mr. Henry Briggs, Reader in astronomy j usually considered as the period of his nativity ; Gresham college, and the improver of logar- ns, he was so surprised with admiration that he Id not rest till he saw the inventor. When heard of this he invited Briggs to Scotland, en they met, 'about one quarter of an hour spent each beholding the other with admira- before one word was spoken.' The Baron ertained his guest most nobly, and Briggs ted Merchiston castle every summer during life of his friend. Baron Napier improved tmometry by the invention of his universal which he calls the first circular parts, for mg all the cases of right-angled spherical es, and which was published in his pos- ous work, ' Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis structio,' which appeared in 1619. The last taction of our noble author was his ' Rab- gia seu numerations per virgolas,' published in r, and reprinted at Lyons in 1618, and 1620. instrument here described is known by the e of ' Napier's Rods or Bones,' an account of ' will be found in our various encyclopaedias, was the last work written by Napier. He at Merchiston castle, on the 4th April, o.s., in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and was in the church of St. Giles, Edinburgh, where tablet, with a Latin inscription, points out ial place of the Napiers. Baron Napier ice married, and has left behind him a race shed by their talents, by their writings, y their military and naval services. So was Napier's reputation, that the illustrious " dedicated to him his 'Ephemerides,' which in 1617 ; but the greatest compliment that paid to his memory was that of Laplace, speaking of the value of logarithms in astro- : ' This admirable invention,' he says, to the ingenious algorithm of the Indians, ucing to a few days the labour of several doubles, if we may so speak, the life of ers, and spares them the errors and dis- parable from long calculations ; an inven- which is the more satisfying to the hu- d, from its having been entirely deduced own resources. In the arts man makes the materials and the forms of nature to in- his powers, but in this case, it is all his k,' (' Systeme du Monde,' Liv. v., chap. iv. o, p. 326). See the ' Account of the Life, and Inventions of John Napier of Mer- by the earl of Buchan, Perth, 1787; life of him by one of his descendants, Napier, Esq., Edinburgh, 1834. [D.B.] ~TER, Macvey, a Scottish lawyer and savant, successor of Jeffrey as editor of inburgh Review' in 1829, and editor of edition of the ' Enc. Britannica,' d. 1847. KB, William John, Lord, a dist. naval born at Kinsale, 1787, appointed superin- of the trade and interests of the British in China 1833, died at Macao 1834. IONE, C. A. Galeani, an Ital. officer and gist, died 1814. His brother, J. Gale- nt de Napione, dist. as a dramatic writer. LEON BUONAPARTE, was born at in Corsica, on the 5th February, 1768. ards gave out that he was bornon 15th 1769, bein^ his saint's day, and that is but that the former is the real date is proved in the most authentic way by the attestation of himself, [View of Ajaccio.] his brother Joseph, and the principal members of his family, on occasion of his marriage with Joseph- ine, in 1795, which still exists in the parish re- gister, in Paris, where the marriage was solemnized. He had no interest at that time, and on that oc- casion, to make himself older than he really was, though he had a decided interest afterwards to make himself younger, as in the interval between Feb., 1768, and Aug., 1769, Corsica was annexed to France, so that he could not be a French citizen by nativity, without understating his birth. His family was respectable but not illustrious, and he always disdained to take advantage of the adventitious lustre of events. When some Italian genealogists, in the days of his greatness, tried to flatter him by tracing back his pedigree to the dukes of Treviso, he cut them short bv saying that his patent of nobility dated from tne battle of Montenotte, his first victory over the Austrians, in Italy. His mother was a woman of great beauty, courage, and ability, a peculiarity generally observed with those destined for future greatness; and having been taken with her pains in church, she was brought home, and Napoleon was brought into the world on a couch representing the heroes of the Iliad. He received the rudiments of his education at Ajaccio, in Corsica, where, by a curious coincidence, Count Pozzo de Borgo, afterwards his persevering and bitter opponent through life, was also instructed. Having early evinced a decided taste for military life, he was, at the age of eleven, sent to the mili- tary school, at Brienne, in Champagne, where he remained till he obtained his commission in the artillerv. Pichegru, afterwards so famous, and whom Napoleon in the end destroyed, left the aca- demy soon after the young Napoleon. At this academy, where he remained several years, his talents, especially for mathematics and the exact sciences, attracted the attention of his preceptors, who reported in the highest terms on his capacity to the government at Paris, and one of their memorandum books had this entry : ' Keep an eye on young Buonaparte, and promote him as fast as possible, for if you do not he will make his way for himself.' While at school, in a severe winter, the boys made bastions and ravelins of snow, and 521 NAP Napoleon distinguished himself at the head of the storming party. He received his first commission in tlie artillery at the age of sixteen. His figure was then diminutive and so thin that when he first appeared with his uniform on, and the huge part of it on his legs, he looked so ridiculous that Madle. Permon, afterwards duchess of Abrantes, with whom he was in love, burst into an immo- derate fit of laughter, which gave no small offence to the young soldier. His first employment in real service was at the siege of Toulon, in 1794, when it was observed ' that a young lieutenant of artillery was very busy about a gun.' Even in that subor- dinate situation, however, his talents made them- selves felt, and it was by his advice that the opera- tions were directed against an outwork on the Mount Taron, which, when taken, by commanding the ships in the harbour, rendered the place no longer tenable. When dictating a despatch there on the head of a drum to an unknown sergeant of ar- tillery, a cannon ball fell close to them and threw a quantity of dust on the paper. 'That is lucky,' ex- claimed the sergeant, ' we shall not require sand for this paper.' ' What can I do for you,' said Napo- leon, ' to evince my regard ?' ' Everything,' said the sergeant, ' you can convert my worsted shoulder- knot into an epaulette.' Napoleon recommended him for promotion, and he got his commission. His name was Junot, and he became duke of Abrantes, and one of the most distinguished mar- shals of France. After the fall of Toulon, Napoleon was for some time out of employment. He was suspected, not without reason, of being implicated with the government of Robespierre ; and he shared in the disgrace of its fall. He remained in conse- quence about five months at Paris without any oc- cupation, and in a state of extreme poverty. So low indeed were the fortunes of the future emperor fallen at this period, that, as he himself said, he never got his boots blackened, and never wore gloves, for they were a useless expense. His ima- gination, however, abated nothing of its vigour by the decline of his fortunes, and despairing of effect- ing anything in Europe he dreamed of the East, and entertained serious thoughts of offering his services to the grand seignor, with a view to push- ing his fortunes in Asia. ' Asia,' said he, ' contains six hundred millions of men, it is there alone that anything is to be done ! Europe is worn out, there is nothing practicable here.' He was ere long, how- ever, called to active and important duties in his own country. Though suspected and therefore unemployed by the government of the Directory, his abilities were well known ; and when the di- rectors were reduced to extremities by the insurrec- tion of the sections in October, 1795, the first great reaction against the crown and honour of the revolution, they cast their eyes upon him as the only man who could resuscitate their tottering fortunes. The first day's conflict, in which Gen. Menou commanded, turned out entirely to the advantage of the insurgents, who were 30,000 strong, all national guards, and comprised the whole flower and educated classes of Paris. In great agitation the directors sent for Napoleon in the evening, and gave him the command of their forces, which were only 5,000, shut up in the squares of the Carousel and the Louvre. Napoleon instantly took his line. In the night he despatched an officer, NAP destined for future greatness, Murat, to Sa a village in the neighbourhood of Paris, wl park of fifty pieces of artillery was placed, the chiefs of the national* guard with inconcei infatuation had neglected to seize Mun possession of the guns and brought them fuileries. This decided the affair. Next di insurgents commenced their attack from the c of St. Roch, in the Rue d'Honore, and at tb time from the opposite side of the river. Bu were received with so terrible a discharge of shot that after standing several rounds they and fled, leaving the victory to the regular and the government of the Directory iirmly fished. Napoleon was rewarded, as well he i for this important victory, by the command army of Italy. The favour of Barras as 1< member of the Directory, contributed also 1 elevation, as he had recently married Josei Beauharnais, his future empress, who ha< intimate with that profligate director, young Napoleon took the command of the ai Italy he was only 27 years of age, and whol accustomed to high command. He four troops in the most miserable condition, percl the shining summits of the maritime Alps,n they had been driven by the united arms Austrians and the Piedmontese, in the prw campaign, and in want of everything. Fron long sufferings he predicted a speedy chai their fortunes. ' Famine, cold, and misery,' s: in his flrst proclamation, ' are the school oi soldiers. Here on the plains of Italy ya conquer them, and then you will find comfoi riches and glory.' He was as good as his Descending like a torrent from the summit Alps he soon carried everything before him. ing defeated the combined, armies in several b he appeared before the walls of Turin and the Piedmontese government to conclude a sej peace with France, the condition of which w cession of all their fortresses to the conqueri] public, which at once gave him a solid footi Italy, and secure basis for ulterior oper against the Austrians. He was not long of ing this basis to the best account. Having refi his troops with a fortnight's rest and his pri with ample contributions he advanced to ] where he was received by the revolutionary with transports, which were soon cooled by tl position of a contribution of 800,000 on its ii tants, suppressed with dreadful severity an I rection in Pavia, and forced the ' terrible brii Lodi,' as he himself called it, though defend 25,000 Austrians. It was then, as he hai us in his memoirs, that high ambition took p sion of his soul ; he became impressed wit idea he was destined to do great things. F( ing up his career of success he defeated the trians in several encounters and compelled commanders to shut themselves up in Man strong fortress in the centre of the plain of bardy. Impressed with the importance _ ol stronghold, the bulwark of their possessions in the Austrian government made the for its relief. They successively collected powerful armies to relieve it ; one of which, a series of desperate actions, succeeded undi veteran Marshal Wurmser in penetrating t 522 NAP ess and reinforcing the garrison. But this ntage was gained only by incurring defeats in quarters ; for Napoleon raising the siege con- ated his forces and severely defeated the Aus- s, who were incautiously advancing in two tins separated from each other by the lake of da. The blockade of Mantua, encumbered 10,000 additional mouths, was now resumed, he Austrians assembled a second army for its but it was defeated by Napoleon with despe- oss on the dykes of Arcota. A third collected toI, composed of the best troops in the mon- , and shared the same fate on the Plateau of , on the banks of the Adige, between Verona rent. Despairing now of being relieved, and g exhausted all his means of subsistence, Qserwas obliged to capitulate. Napoleon, re- ng his age and valour, granted him honourable , and this campaign closed with the French ying on Mantua and the whole fortresses of the i, the barrier in that quarter of the Austrian rchy. Seriously alarmed now for the very nee of the monarchy, the cabinet of Vienna rewthe archduke Charles, who in the preced- paign had gained successes nearly as great iany, as Napoleon had in Italy, to oppose outable conqueror in the Venetian plains, ught with him 30,000 of his best troops, with victory on the Bavarian plains, and o youthful conquerors were arrayed against er on the banks of the Tagliamonto. But of Napoleon prevailed. With equal skill ig he forced the passage of the Tagliamonto, ve the archduke out of the Venetian plains ie passes of the Alps, and following him up he drove him from one pass and one position " er, till he had placed his standards on the g, the last ridge of the Alps, before they ay into the valley of the Danube, and from the steeples of Vienna are visible. Driven their last shifts, the Austrians sued for peace, Napoleon willingly accorded, for in truth his , how brilliant soever, was full of peril from far advanced, with only 35,000 men, into an dominions. On this occasion Aus- France adjusted their differences without for in return for large concessions to the g republic, the French handed over to e whole dominions of the republic of Venice, which at first had been neutral, and had, in of the contest, effected a revolution in Of France ; one of the blackest instances of ingratitude recorded in history. After Napoleon remained inactive for about a object of the utmost jealousy and terror to h government, to whom his unbending , his ambition, and fame rendered him )f the utmost apprehension. To get rid idable a rival, they fell upon the experi- offering him the command of a great ex- they were preparing against Egypt, and promised to bring Napoleon into the theatre ly and favourite dreams of ambition, and ived matters were not ripe for the revolu- he meditated in Europe, he acceded to The expedition, the greatest that ever modern times from the shores of Europe, 'sailed, having 35,000 soldiers on board, y fourteen ships of the line and above NAP 300 transports. Though Nelson was in the Medi- terranean straining every nerve to intercept the expedition, it arrived in safety before Malta, which at once capitulated to the French arms, and then steering for Alexandria, disembarked the whole troops there in safety in June, 1798. Napoleon, overjoyed with his good fortune in having escaped the English fleet, pursued his advantage with the utmost alacrity. Advancing from Alexandria towards Cairo, his army, after undergoing incredible hardships in the desert, arrived in sight of the Pyra- mids, where they beheld the Turkish army 30,000 strong, of which 15,000 were splendid Mame- luke horse, ready to receive them. Impressed but not daunted by the noble spectacle, Napoleon said to his men, ' From the summit of these monu- ments forty centuries are gazing upon you.' They were not unworthy of their mission. Drawn up in squares, a deadly rolling fire as from so many flam- ing citadels issued from their ranks, a charge of cavalry completed the rout of the Turks,Cajro opened its gates and the French dominion was established over the whole of Egypt. Meanwhile, a dreadful reverse, apparently fatal to Napoleon's prospects in Europe, had occurred at sea. Nelson having at length discovered where the French fleet was, had stood into the bay of Aboukir, where they lay moored under protection of the land batteries, and totally destroyed it, one only sail having escaped to carry the mournful tidings to France. This catas- trophe seemed fatal to the French army, for it cut them off from any communication with their country. Napoleon, however, was not discouraged. 'We must remain here,' said he, ' or emerge from it great like the ancients ;' and he immediately set about pre- paring an expedition into Syria. His plan was to rouse the Christian population of Lebanon and Asia Minor, and reinforcing by their aid his French troops, to approach Constantinople from the Asiatic side, and place himself on the throne of the East. Surprising success in the first instance attended his efforts. He crossed the desert which separates Asia and Africa ; stormed Jaffa, and cruelly massacred 4,000 prisoners taken in cold blood, laid siege to Acre, pushed on to Nazareth, the early dwelling-place of our Saviour, and defeated 40,000 Ottomans with great slaughter, at Mount Thabor. But this was the summit of his success. Sir Sidney Smith landed with a party of marines from the British ships at Acre, placed himself with his brave fol- lowers in the breach, when the place was on the point of falling, and infused such vigour into the defences that all the assaults of the French were repulsed, and Napoleon, abandoning all his ideas of Oriental conquest, was obliged to wend his way back with disgrace to Egypt. During the retreat, he poisoned several hundreds of his wounded soldiers, to prevent them from falling into the hands of the Turks, by whom they would have been barbarously massacred, and soon after was consoled for his re- verses by a victory over 20,000 Janissaries, whom the English landed in the bay of Aboukir. Yet though so great a career awaited him in Europe, Napoleon never ceased lamenting his check at Acre, and re- fieatedly said, especially when revolving his event- ul career in the solitude of St. Helena, when speaking of Sir Sidney Smith, 'That man made me miss my destiny.' But another fate awaited the young general. France speedily felt the want of 523 NAP his tutelary arm when it was withdrawn. ' The sun of Buonaparte,' as Mr. Pitt expressed it, ' was falling before the rising star of Suwarrow.' That daring and celebrated general, at the head of a combined Austrian and Russian army, had defeated the French in several pifcehed battles on the plains of Lombardy, regained all the fortresses, sur- mounted the maritime Alps, and appeared on the shores of the Var, on the frontiers of Provence. The republicans had been entirely driven out of Germany, and Massena, shut up in France with 50,000 men, with difficulty maintained himself against the superior army of the archduke Charles and Korsakow. In these circumstances all eyes were turned to Napoleon, as the only man capable of saving the country. He now felt, in his own words, that ' the pear was ripe,' and he resolved to return to Europe. His usual good fortune did not desert him on this occasion. Setting sail in a single frigate from Alexandria, he eluded the English cruisers who were anxiously looking out to intercept his return, and landed safe at Cannes, in Proven9e, in October, 1799. From thence he pro- ceeded to Paris, where finding the government of the Directory utterly discredited, and in the last stage of decrepitude, he ventured on the bold stroke of a coup d'etat, expelled the Legislatives from their halls by means of fixed bayonets, and under the name of ' first consul ' seated himself on the throne of France. His first care after this great success, was to expel the Austrians from Italy, the scene of his earliest triumphs and of such obstinate conflicts between them and the French. His plan for this purpose was laid with equal skill and secrecy. Assembling an army, styled ' the army of reserve,' at Dijon, in the heart of France, he suddenly led them across the St. Bernard, a pass 8,000 feet high, deemed impassable for artillery or carriages, over- came the resistance of the Fort of Bard, in the southern declivity of the mountain, entered Milan in triumph, defeated the Austrian advanced guard, 10,000 strong, at Stradilla, and encountered their main body, 30,000 strong, returning from the Var, at Marengo. After an obstinate conflict, in which he was on the point of being destroyed, he defeated them with great slaughter. The peculiar position of the two armies rendered this victory decisive, and demonstrated the strategetical skill with which Napoleon's plan of the campaign and march across the St. Bernard had been laid. The Aus- trians, returning from the Var, fought with their faces towards Vienna and their backs towards the maritime Alps and the bay of Genoa. Defeat in such circumstances was ruin ; antl Melas, the Aus- trian commander, was too happy to conclude a con- vention, in virtue of which, he was allowed to retire to Mantua after delivering up the whole fortresses of Piedmont to the victonous French. Securely seated by this great triumph on the Con- sular throne, Napoleon ere long forced the Aus- trians to make peace at Luneville, and thereby pacified the whole continent. He underwent a deep mortification, however, soon after by the suc- cessful result of the English expedition, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, to Egypt, and the wresting from his grasp of his whole conquests on the banks of the Nile. His projects for the destruction of this country, also the great object of his life, were blasted about the same time by Nelson's victory at NAP Copenhagen, which destroyed the northen tion, and the death of the emperor Paul withdrew Russia from that formidable s England and France now had no longer th< of fighting. They could not reach each ot they were both victorious on their respect ments, and like monsters of the land and de hostility could not be exerted against cad: Sensible of this they concluded peace in Jun which put the first period to the dreadful he of the revolutionary war. The peace, h proved only an armed truce. Both parti only gaining breath for a renewal of tb Napoleon did great things during its conti He reformed the whole civil administratis country, and commenced the code Napoleoi has survived his fall, and forms the most monument to his memory. He was indef during the interval of hostilities in increas navy ; and as the English government, in ol to the usual infatuated demand of the court reduction of the national armaments on the t peace, had seriously diminished the British ; were all but overmatched on our own elemea hostilities broke out again in 1803. Enc by this hopeful state of affairs, Napoleon a gigantic fleet for our subjugation, whi very near proving successful. Having su in forcing Spain into his alliance, he had a for assembling 70 sail of the line in the C who were to transport 130,000 men into E and 30,000 into Ireland, on board of 2,04 boats, which he had prepared at Boulogne i conveyance across the Channel. Vast as t was, it was on the very verge of proving i ful. The Toulon fleet set sail from Cad decoyed Nelson into the West Indies ; spec turning it encountered Sir R. Calder off Fu who, with 15 sail of the line, defeated theii took two sail of the line. This action pro\ to the whole design. Vellineuve, who com the combined squadron, retreated to Terro) instead of proceeding to Brest, where Gantheaume was ready with 21 sail of th join him, he went to Cadiz, where he w blockaded, by Nelson, and totally defeated with the loss of 20 sail of the line, on 21st ( 1805. Thenceforward the maritime war wi end, and Napoleon had to trust solely to com victories for our destruction. Instantly tal line he extracted out of his maritime def means of achieving his greatest land tri Russia had joined Austria, and the army of ter, 80,000 strong, had advanced to Uhn, in I Crossing France and the north of Gaini incredible rapidity, Napoleon def trians in several actions, and at 30,000 in Ulm, where they were forced fo- late the very day before the battle of Tr Advancing then, at the head of 180,000 mei the valley of the Danube he captured Vien totally defeated the combined Austrian and ! armies, under the emperor Alexander in pei Dec. 2. This catastrophe dro\' separate peace, which she only pur cessions of territory ; and the Kus by the loss of 30,000 men, wended their WI in mourning to their own dominions. Ne: the Prussians with infatuated hardihood 524 NAP e field. Napoleon encountered them at Jena uerstadt, and defeated them with such loss 1 a few weeks 100,000 men had disappeared " 120,000, with which they had commenced nflict. Prussia was speedily overrun, Berlin and the remnant of their armies driven back Vistula, where they were supported by the who now came up in great strength. 1 bloody actions took place during the depth ;er, in which the French discovered the sturdy of the new antagonists with which they had , and in a pitched battle fought at Eylau, on 1807, the French emperor was defeated e loss of 30,000 men. But ere long he had enge. Having gathered up all his reserves, lected 150,000 men round his standard, he sd the Russians, in June, 1807, and after bloody actions, defeated them in a pitched t Friedland, on July 14. The result of this h was the treaty of Tilsit, which virtually ing all lesser powers, in effect divided the jontinent of Europe between Napoleon and der. Insatiable in ambition, Napoleon had aer achieved that great victory over his enemies then he turned his eyes to the Peninsula, seized on Portugal, without a of a pretext, and decoyed the king, queen, ' apparent of Spain to Bayorme, where tween threats, treachery, and cajolery he in extracting from them all a renuncia- the throne of Spain, upon which he im- y placed his own brother, Joseph, and at time gave the throne of Naples to his in-law, Murat. About the same time he force the famous Berlin and Milan decree, to exclude the English permanently from le trade of continental Europe. His abo- treachery to the Spanish royal family p a frightful war in the Peninsula, which was attended with surprising success, surrendered with 25,000 men to Castanos, usia. Portugal was recovered by Welling- the French were obliged to retire behind But Napoleon was at hand to repair the Directing his whole reserves from Ger- Spain, he entered Navarre at the head of men, defeated the Spaniards in several retook Madrid, and pursued the English John Moore into Galicia, where, though ' at the eleventh hour a glorious victory over Sonlt and Ney, they were forced and return to England, weakened by a their numbers, and having lost the whole of the campaign. Austria deemed the favourable when the chief forces of Na- immersed in the Peninsula to endea- regain some of her lost provinces. She war accordingly in May, 1809, and advanced \000 men into Bavaria, when the archduke at first gained considerable success. But fled to the spot, defeated the Austrians pitched battles, and treacherously gaining of the bridge of Vienna, made himself that capital. He sustained, however, a soon after from the archduke Charles of Aspern, who defeated him with the men, and brought him to the very He recovered himself, however, and NAP six bridges in one night over the Danube, and de- feated the Austrians in a pitched battle which lasted two days, on the field of Wagram. This triumph won for France the peace of Presburg, which de- prived Austria of a fourth of her dominions, and for Napoleon the hand of the archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. He had previously been declared emperor of France in 1804, and divorced Josephine in order to make way for this splendid alliance, and as he was now re- cognized emperor by all the states in Europe except England, and admitted to a matrimonial connec- tion with the highest and proudest of them, he seemed to have arrived at the utmost limits of earthly grandeur and felicity. Nevertheless, it turned out otherwise, and his marriage proved not only the limit of his good fortune but the com- mencement of his decline. The emperor Alexander was personally hurt by the Austrian marriage, for Napoleon had been on terms of proposal for his own sister, and he never forgave the affront. This, coupled with the rapid strides of the French em- peror in northern Europe, who had halved Prussia, and incorporated Holland, the Hanse Towns, and nearly the whole of northern Germany with his dominions, led to a rupture with Russia in 1812. The whole of 1810 and 1811 was spent by both parties in preparing for this contest, which every one saw was approaching; and at length his pre- parations being complete, Napoleon crossed the Niemen, and mvaded Russia in May, 1812, at the head of 500,000 men, the greatest military armament of real soldiers ever seen since the be- ginning of the world. The Russians had not half the force to resist this crusade, and the consequence was they were driven back into the very heart of their territories. Smolensko was stormed by Na- poleon in person, and in a desperate battle fought at Borodino, on Sept. 6, when 30,000 men fell on both sides, the Russians were so far wasted that they were obliged to abandon Moscow to the con- queror. But this was the extreme point of the French emperor's success. The Russians burned their ancient capital to prevent it from affording shelter to the enemy ; the French reduced now by the sword, fatigue, and sickness to 100,000 men, were obliged to retreat on the wasted line of their former advance ; and the cold having set in with great severity they were attacked by the Russians on several occasions, with such success that not 20,000 escaped across the Niemen, nearly all in the last stage of exhaustion and misery. Napoleon him- self abandoned his troops in the middle of their suf- ferings, and made his escape to Paris on a sledge accompanied only by a single attendant. This ter- rible and unexampled reverse, coupled with the victorious career of Wellington in the same year in Spain, who had defeated the French in a pitched battle at Salamanca, recovered Madrid, and liber- ated all the southern provinces of Spain from their oppressors, produced a general insurrection in Europe. Prussia took up arms ; desperate battles were fought at Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, and other places ; and at length Napoleon having made a last stand at Leipzig, the battle of Giants began on 18th Oct., 1813. 300,000 Germans and Russians commenced the attack, which 200,000 French re- sisted. 2,500 pieces of cannon spread destruction ted 150,000 men in Vienna, threw i around, and after a bloody conflict of two days' 525 NAP duration, Napoleon was totally defeated with the loss of 40,000 men and 250 guns, and with difficulty brought back 60,000 of his vast army behind the Rhine. At the same time Wellington, who had totally defeated king Joseph in person at Vittoria, had crossed the Pyrenees and was threatening Ba- yonne, so that the French empire on all sides was crumbling into ruins. Early in the following spring, the allies invaded France along the whole course of the Rhine, while Wellington pursued his career of success in the south of France. Driven toex- tremities, Napoleon exerted himself to the utmost, and exhibited the most splendid military abilities. But, although he gained with forces greatly inferior several important victories over the allies, he was at length overpowered. Paris was taken by the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia in person, at the head of 200,000 men. Napoleon was dethroned, and the Bourbons restored to the French throne, and he himself banished to the Isle of Elba, where a mimic sovereignty was permitted him to console his mind after sucn a dreadful series of re- verses. But the restless mind and ambitious spirit of Napoleon could not long rest in this state of forced seclusion. Having ascertained that discon- tent was universal in the French army, the natural result of their misfortunes, he set out from Elba accompanied only by 600 of the old guard who had shared his exile, and landing at Cannes, marched to Paris without opposition, dethroned Louis XVIII., and re-established himself on the throne of France. He was then immediately denounced by the allied sovereigns, who set about collecting forces on his frontiers ; and despairing of averting a war by negotiation, he resolved, with his usual vigour and decision, to anticipate the allies and strike the first blow. He all but succeeded. Crossing the fron- tier of Flanders, on the morning of the 15th June, 1815, he attacked and defeated the Prussians, 80,000 strong, under Blucher, at Ligny, and the same day sustained a bloody conflict with Wellington's advanced guard, in which he was at length routed at Quatre Bras. But two days after he met the stroke of fate. Wellington retired to and stood firm at Waterloo, where, on the 18th, he gave battle to the French, with an army nearly equal in num- erical amount, but greatly inferior in artillery and the quality of part of his troops, being not more than a-half of them English. A desperate battle ensued, in which both parties displayed prodigies of valour, and victory seemed long doubtful. At length the Prussians came up late in the evening, and Napoleon was by the united allied force totally defeated with the loss of 40,000 men and 150 pieces of cannon. This victory was decisive : Napoleon fled to Paris, where he was soon after forced to abdicate the throne and surrender to the English cruisers. St. Helena was assigned as the future residence of the fallen conqueror, where he was guarded with the most vigilant care by the English troops and vessels, to whom the custody of the illustrious state prisoner was committed. He remained there fretting in inaction and loudly com- plaining of trifling indignities till the period of his death, which occurred on May 5, 1821. His con- duct there exhibited alternately the grandeur of a noble and the littleness of a despicable man. He \viyta several most able and interesting works, chl-ay relating to his eventful biography, and which, NAP not less than his long series of victories, ha tributed to his colossal fame; but at th time he fretted beyond measure at being dei title of emperor, and attended even at a ( by English sentinels in his rides. He was ficently treated by the English governmei expended 12,000 a-year on his private esi ment, and 400,000 yearly on the island ; ardent spirit could not brook even si indignity and real inaction. His imaginary ances, coupled with a hereditary malady, in the stomach, of which his father had died, 1 on a mortal distemper, of which he died May, 1821. He quitted this life during a storm of wind and rain, which recalled to h the roar of battle. His last words wen d'armee ' (head of the army). He was into .' ^"W 7 * [Tomb of Napoleon at St. Helena.] Slain's valley, in the island of St. Helen* whence his remains were, in December, 184 the consent of the English government, tra to Paris, where on the 15th of that moni were interred in a mausoleum under the dom Invalides, and now repose beside the bones renne andVauban, the paladins of France. '.''".: ' '.'" NAP APPER-TANDY. See Tandy. AKBONNE, the viscounts of, distinguished particular merits are, Aymeri, "died in yLand beginning of the 12th century. Ay- II., perished in Arragon, on his way to join onso against the Moors, 1134. Ermen- e, famous for the wise administration of her rnment, abdicated in favour of her nephew- died 1197. Pierre de Lara, nephew and issor of the preceding, abdicated in favour of 1194, died 1202. Aymeri III., son and ssor of the preceding, subdued by Simon de fort, who took the title of duke of Narbonne, 1239. Aymeri IV., or Amelric I., son uccessor of the latter, died 1270. Aymeri m and successor of the preceding, and his in the government, 1270, died 1298. ibi VI., or Amelric II., son and successor preceding, commander of the troops of Flo- for Charles II., king of Sicily, died 1328. Kl VII., his son, who succeeded him, died Amelric III., son and successor of the ling, died 1341. Aymeri VIII., brother uccessor of the latter, named admiral of s hy Charles V., 1369, died 1388. BONNE-LARA, Louis, Count De, min- war under Louis XVI., and lieutenant- and ambassador to Vienna under the , born at Parma 1755, died 1813. JBONNE-PELET-FRITZLAR, J. F., De, a French officer, died 1784. tBOROUGH, Sir John, an English naval dist. against the Dutch and Algerines, d.1688. k CISSUS, the freedman and favourite of memorable for his part in the fall of being afterwards exiled by the influ- ina, he died by his own hand 54. SSUS, St., patriarch of Jerusalem, t 216. DI, Jacopo, an Italian histor., 1476-1555. IN, Th., a French merchant, 1540-1616. DINI, P., an Italian violinist, 1725-1796. G, G. De, an Armenian ascetic, 951-1003. S, James, an eminent English composer of music, successor ot Dr. Green as and composer to the king, author of a on Singing,' &c, 1715-1783. His son, ', assistant librarian at the British Museum, " as a theologian and critic, died 1829. nephew of James, a clergyman of the England, 1762-1841. J. M. De, a Capuchin preach., 17th c. ES, the companion-in-arms of Belisarius, of the most successful generals of the Justinian, was an Asiatic slave and whom the latter had taken into favour ted to a command in 538. Between and 552, he put an end to the domin- Goths in Italy, and in 553 was himself ch, and fixed his court at Ravenna, sed under the emperor Justinus II. at Rome 568. ZEWIEZ, Adam Stanislaus, a lyri- * historian of Poland, 1733-1796. Z, Pamphila De, one of the Spanish of America, killed in Florida, 1526. rnelius, a catholic div., 1660-1738. , F., an Italian painter, died 1630. John, a distinguished architect of the NAV metropolis, originally a miniature painter, designer of Buckingham palace, the Brighton pavilion, the Haymarket theatre, the Regent-Street im- provements, &c, 1752-1835. NASH, Richard, a man of taste and pleasure, commonly called Beau Nash, and the King of Bath, in which city he was for more than fifty vears the arbiter of fashion. Born at Swansea in Glamorganshire 1674, died 1761. NASH, Thomas, a dramatic writer and satirist, known as the literary antagonist of the puritan writer Marprelate, flourished about 1558-1601. NASH, T. R., a divine and antiq., 1724-1811. NASINI, J. N., an Italian painter, 1650-1736. NASMITH, J., a divine and antiq., 1740-1808. NASMYTH, A., a Scotch painter, 1757-1840. NASMYTH, P., a Scotch painter, 1786-1831. NASSIR, Eddin, a Persian astrono., 1201-74. NATALE, J., a Span. Jesuit, who co-operated with Loyola, and became vicar-general, died. 1580. NATALI, P.. a Venetian hagiographer, 14th ct. NATALIS, M., a French engraver, died 1670. NATHAN, a Jewish prophet, 10th cent. b.c. NATHAN-BEN-JECHIEL, a learned rabbin, president of the synagogue at Rome, died 1106. NATHAN, Isaac, a rabbi of the 15th century, who was the first Jew to write a Concordance. NATHAN, Nata-Spira, a rabbi of the 17th c. NATTIER, J. M., a French painter, 1685-1766. NATTIER, L., a medal engraver, died 1763. NAU, M., a Fr. Jesuit missionary, 1631-1683. NAUBERT, B., a German novelist, 1755-1819. NAUDE, Gabriel, a French physician, author of an ' Apology for Great Men Accused of Magic,' the principal argument of which is his scepticism concerning the existence of spirits, 1600-1653. NAUDE, Philip, a Fr. mathema., 1654-1729. NAUDET, T. C, a French painter, 1774-1810. NAUMANN, Johann Gottlieb, master of the electoral chapel at Dresden, and one of the first German composers, was born of very poor parents, in a small village near Dresden, in 1741. He re- ceived his principal instructions in music from a Swedish master, named Van Weestrom, who took him to Italy and used him in a severe and nig- gardly manner. Though Naumann had to struggle on amidst poverty and hardships his industry never relaxed. He pursued his studies until he made himself one of the first musicians of his age. His compositions, which were very numerous, in- clude works of every kind, operas, oratorios, songs, cantatas, odes, compositions for the piano-forte, symphonies, &c. For the last years of his life, he devoted himself to the composition of sacred music, and left many valuable works in the library of the chapel of Dresden. He died of apoplexy, in the year 1801. LJ.M.j NAUNTON, Sir Robert, secretary ot state to James I., author of historical notices of Queen Elizabeth and others, died 1635. NAUSEA, F., a Ger. prelate, about 1480-1552. NAVAGERO, Andrea, in Latin, Nauger- ices, a Venetian noble, distinguished as a poet and orator, 1483-1529. NAVAGERO, B., a Venetian cardinal, 1507-65. NAVARETTA, Domingo Fernandez, a Spanish friar and missionary to China, died 1689. NAVARETTE, J. F., a Spanish painter, called ' El Mudo,' being deaf and dumb, 1526-1579. 527 NAV NAVARRE, Henry of, the popular designa- tion of Henry IV., king of France, was the son of Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, descended in the direct male line from Robert of Clermont, fifth son of Saint Louis. He is sometimes called Henry of Beam, from his birth-place, where he first saw the light in 1553. His mother, Jeanne D'Albret, educated him as a Calvinist, and though she imparted to him the full measure of her own intrepidity and intellectual superiority, it was un- accompanied with either her constancy of purpose or her domestic virtues. In 1569 she presented the young prince to the protestant camp at Ro- chelle, where he was hailed chief of the party its leaders at that time being the famous Conde' and Coligni. A few weeks afterwards, the battle of Montcontour deprived the Calvinists (or Hugue- nots as they were called) of 16,000 brave soldiers left on the field or taken prisoners, and on the 11th of August, 1570, the civil wars were hushed for the time by the peace of St. Germains. This was followed by a negotiation for the marriage of Henry with the Princess Margaret, daughter of Catherine de Medici, and sister of the reigning king, Charles IX., the catholic party, however, darkly plotting the massacre of St. Bartholomew, which, in August, 1572, drowned the marriage festival in blood. Henry, who was in the power of the king, saved his life by embracing Catholicism ; and re- maining at the French court till 1576, was imbued with its licentiousness and intriguing policy. Meanwhile the succession of Henry III., brother of Charles IX., in 1574, tended to a breach of the truce with the Huguenots, in consequence of the ambitious designs and religious hatred of the Guises, chiefs of the catholic league, and in 1576 Henry of Navarre made his escape from Paris, and rejoined the protestants, once more in arms. He now displayed all the qualities of a great com- mander, and some years following were occupied with military operations and negotiations for peace, in which the reigning king accumulated defeat and shame upon himself, under the dictation of the duke of Guise ; and the name of Henry of Navarre became identified with the protestant cause and the liberties of France. In 1585 he was excom- municated by Sixtus Quintus, and in October, 1587, obtained a splendid victory over the duke of Joyeuse at Coutras. The year 1588 was signalized by the attempt of the reigning king to liberate himself from the dictation of Guise, whom in De- cember of that year he caused to be assassinated. He then made overtures to Henry of Navarre, who joined him with his troops, and took the field against the league their reconciliation leading to his acknowledgment as the rightful successor by Henry III., who was assassinated in August, 1589. Henry of Navarre, at the head of his protestant subjects, had now to conquer his kingdom, his opponents being the duke of Mayenne, appointed lieutenant-general by the parliament of Paris, and in alliance with him the old catholic league, the house of Savoy, the forces of Spain, and the Cardi- nal de Bourbon, whom Mayenne acknowledged king. Henry repulsed Mayenne at Arques in 1589, and gained the great battle of Yvry in March, 1590, but was compelled to desist from the siege of Paris, and more lately from the siege of Rouen, both these cities being relieved by his active enemy NEA the duke of Parma. The forces of the two were capable of carrying on the war for a finite period, but neither of them could 1 obtain the superiority. So at least it se< their leaders, and as a consequence, in Jub Henry purchased the crown by his apostii catholics on their part agreeing to the to of the Huguenots. In 1594 he entered Pa principal cities of the kingdom soon snbni him, and in the same year tbe Jesuits we demned to exile in consequence of an atte the king's life by the fanatic John Chatel. enne held out in Burgundy till 1596, a Spaniards till 1598, when the war was co by the treaty of Vervins. By the edict of dated this year, Henry secured to his pit subjects the freedom of worship and edi and they were even allowed to occupy fortified cities as a guarantee of its ful The remaining political events of this re summed up in our account of Sully, th minister, whose designs were often cro Henry's intrigues with his mistresses. Thj Marie De Medici may also be consult* princess having been married to him on the of Margaret in 1601. Henry of Navarre the dagger of Ravaillac, 14th May, 1611 preparing for a political war with the h Austria, and was succeeded by his son, XIII. He was the most popular monan ever reigned over France, and was certai possessor of many high and kinglike qi The questionable point in his career is the c mise of his faith by the public profession of licism as a means of peace. Granting the si of his motives, there is the question wh ever could have had the faith of a protes the principles of the Bible, or the trust o vout man in the final triumph of God's On the other hand, the character of the nation must be considered, and the adapt) Calvinism and Catholicism, respectively, outward habits of a people in many respect* ourselves. NAVARRE, M., a Spanish theolog., 149! NAVARRE, P., a native of Biscay, knov military adventurer and engineer, died 152t NAYLOR, James, a well-known ent among the Quakers, was a native of Yd born 1616. Converted by the preach George Fox, after serving in the army 1651, he was punished with the sev< the age for his extravagance, and died lti6U NEAL, Daniel, a dissenting n of a 'History of the Puritans,' 'History o England,' and other works, 1678-1743. NEAL, or NELE, T., a catholic divine, b NEANDER, C. F., a German poet, 1724 NEANDER, Johann August, the celc Church Historian, was of Jewish descent, ai at Gottingen, 13th January, 1789. Havin placed in Hamburgh to attend the classical j of that town, he was introduced, during hi dence, to the acquaintance of several CI families, by whose conversation, as well religious works put in his way, he early ren Judaism, and embraced the Christian fait token of the sincerity and strength of his fi was publicly baptized, and, farther, 528 NEA me ' Neander,' from two Greek words signify- a new man. Having resolved to dedicate his to the pursuits of Theology, he repaired in 106-12, to study successively at the Universities Halle, Gottingen, and Heidelberg, and at the of that period, the extraordinary extent of his quirements raised him at once to the status of ofessor Extraordinarius of Theology. Thence, wide-spread fame procured his removal in a years to the Metropolitan University of Berlin, scene of his public labours and honours, and e he spent a life of intense devotedness to the dy of Ecclesiastical History and Literature, was a very pious as well as learned man. In his pursuits, his animating principle was the s of Christ, and the advancement of the Re- 's Kingdom : and accordingly he was a warm K>rter of Bible and Missionary Societies, to the Is of which, as well as to the cause of general ty, he frequently contributed the whole pro- Is of his publications. He took the greatest rest in his students, was always ready to assist and meritorious young men with his counsel his purse, and was in the habit of inviting a them every Saturday evening to his house, he held a familiar and literary conversazione. was an interesting and most instructive His classes were always crowded, and the s of ministers, protestant, catholic, as well minor denominations, scattered throughout who attended his prelections, show the his reputation, and the value of his liter- ces. From his extreme short-sightedness, as his fits of mental abstraction, he was eccentric in some of his habits. He was never trusted to walk alone in the streets ; t or his sister generally accompanying him house to the lecture-room, and waiting at to conduct him home again. He was a warm affections, of amiable manners, and onded charity. Many a poor student was ~ to him, not for gratuitous attendance on es only, but for maintenance at the uni- and not seldom has he been known to the money he had about him away, the mo- il appeal was made to his benevolence. The er, as well as the writings of Neander, has an extensive and beneficial influence on Jous sentiments and state of Germany, found in him a stern and uncompromising, (the same time, a calm and judicious opponent ; "ips none, in the modern school of Evan- I divines, not even excepting Schleihermacher tenberg, have rendered such essential in restoring his countrymen to soundness in Neander having been seized with sud- during the delivery of his lecture, was lty conveyed home, where he lingered sufferings till the 14th July, 1850, when ly fell asleep. His funeral "was attended concourse of citizens, many of them in rank in Berlin. A funeral discourse lounced, in German fashion, first in his [another address being delivered, by Dr. W, at the grave. Neander's works, held in high estimation in England as well as in his own country, several volumes. The chief of them are Christ,' in refutation of Strauss, his NEC General History of the Church,' and his ' Historv of the Apostolic Church.' [R.J.] NEANDER, M., a Germ, philologist, 1525-95. NEANDER, M., a German physician, 1529-81. NEARCHUS, a Greek navigator, 4th cent. B.C. NEBUCHADNEZZAR, whose name is other- wise written Nebuchadrezzar, Nabuchodonosor, &c, was a king of Assyria, who is supposed to have reigned from 669 to 648 b.c. NEBUCHADNEZZAR, otherwise Nabopolas- sar, was a king of Babylonia, who united with As- tyages in the conquest of Syria, and founded the second Assyrio-Babylonian empire, 626-605 b.c. NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 'the Great,' who is the king of that name so much spoken of in Scrip- ture, was the son and successor of the preceding. He died, after a reign of 43 years, B.C. 562. NECHAM, NECKHAM, or NEQUAM, Alex- ander, an English monk, who became abbot of Cirencester, and died 1217. He is author of a great variety of works remaining in MS. NECK, John Van, a Dut. painter, 1635-1714. NECKER, James, the famous minister at the commencement of the French revolution, was descended from a family originally German, and was born at Geneva, where his father was in practice as an advocate, 1732. Having in a few years made a handsome fortune as a banker, he became, in 1764, syndic of the French India Company, which was dissolved by the govern- ment in 1770. Necker, ambitious of rising in the public service, now made himself known as an economist by publishing, in 1773, his 'Eulogium of Colbert,' the beginning of his controversy with the economists of the school of Quesnay. His next step was to forward a Memoir upon the French Finances to Maurepas, president of the Council of Finances, who persuaded Louis XVI. to appoint him to the treasury, the direction of which he retained during the five years 1776-1781. In May of the last mentioned year he resigned, in consequence of being refused a seat in the council the fact being that his suppression of abuses had created him many enemies at court. < He then published his famous ' Cornpte Rendu,' in which he furnished the public with a clear statement of the condition in which he had found things, of what he had done, and what he had intended to do. The effect of this document was quite start- lingit was translated into all the languages of Europe ; and when the successors of Necker, Calonne and Lomenie Brienne, were compelled to retire by the disastrous state of the finances, the honest minister was recalled, and public credit begun to revive again. This was on the 24th of August, 1788. On the 6th of November he summoned the old notables, who had met under Lomenie Brienne in 1787, and they remained in session till 12th December. In January of the following year the states-general were convoked, in fulfilment of the previous pledges of the govern- ment, and in May they were assembled for busi- ness. The constitution of this body was ruled by the advice of Necker, to whom therefore it was owing that the members of the ' Tiers Etat ' were equal in number to the nobles and the clergy united. This circumstance occasioned a 'dead lock,' dis- agreement arising on matters of form necessary to constitute the assembly, and after three weeks 529 2M \:\ \ tUMbMn Lvv.-. : MM wS,i IMWinn Ml KM V*s:1 M \)^< u..-..v,-.. ;-.v; ;V.\ vv. - , -...>. m j r>f MMI1K n> M Mi <M S v. ' i/V.-, ' .v,. v -.> !v .-. '. : : . Hi I M '' I IM Ml I ' N :.<. i C " x '- ''' ' MMH MfM nr-r MM Ml *:-".s.-v vv. I -.si nmm y m Ms V IMM4 kw I M Mt MlMWi I I m tm mm*. \Wf f m4l*0l top*, mi dwaa* tm i*av \mi U^;mmm* wmSm ^m im Om :: mm ii*w If At f wfri n w x Ux wA m \m ^m&lmmmiAUkUmiVmmm**. aw Wt( waa, at **< traw HH, M6 tflKA t*MTf V waa A MMMIt } Ml JtaaafaMI Ml INI mmm> Wm aw^ ftfi w < By j it lnjaira MimM^ibMkftnrCitaaiM P0n1 mi war wiea Fn w a a , If* a** *- wiU fe rari. af t& arawMCmot ita W 1 fe v. i* *> ****** wvifWvMW w#- '^W aW w^MP^^WP^ JKMVMMaJaa* # 3HM- JBaarfcww rf Saafca *fc ** tie d *f tfear "ta, htttl, S twww waw ** la* UfWttM M0 HWf 0tW2*rfA{fgtfc* h*-. ***** Ml >.-. ifehW Afaf * tnttwm them m*b* ham, <m Dam* laaaoailil t*> Ml -->. OH ft* w aetiaa, t* ****** i falYaiat. *atav a*wri*gt**r. itkwJkataafti* tm SfomA mtmufGmn. Ia awwaatw** W tU We* hum*, ml tatter bm*mjmt*Emm*mlX*m a tamamm, taw Atimtk m H fw t fl mmx WW* Sek_ at GSWaatar *a taw 2*ta Jim, 1*6, W wcat * *M***tWmtk**<elft.JaBKvl*3. 1. bmtds'kyaitblbktNttftii a**, tW Vkfcwy, * ** ** aa*i*e **> tea 4ajV Far to tfeEMfi* " tart *f Mae fcaaai m taw wntmm *f a Fast* nl afar, i Caf*ai* Jar** r k Gcrnmr Hatter? eftiwlW 5*r*l War, niMiilli implii, irl ni fir 15tih ffgt. liML *&**& Ea^adoriralfeft Eaa^dlir tW brttaaw. H*arnTe4fCaafe**tWatSeafc; a**, a* the ISA *f COater, taw eacasr* mwmm earn* eat rf pet. Tmjw*mmtmm\Vj*mmi* atiwa* tMtk*, m tm taw i il i e/tWEarfa* n af 31 Iktf mm* tm torn Urn m&m Era* a* * waa, tW? hat 33 awl 7 fnra t ra *ram t 27 wf taw aaw aaai NEL 5 frigates tinder Nelson. On the 21st of October, lie attacked them off Cape Trafalgar. Forming his fleet into two columns, one of which he led him- self in the Victory, while Collingwood led the other in the Royal Sovereign, Nelson burst through the double line of the French and Spaniards, and brought on the close and general action, for which he had long ardently prayed. In four hours 20 of the enemy had struck ; others were flying in despair ; and the marine on which Napoleon had relied for the invasion of England was annihilated. But the victory was bought at the expense of the chief victor's life. About a quarter past one, in the heat of the battle, Nelson was shot through the back by a musket ball. He survived long enough to know that the victory was complete ; and his last words were, 'Thank God I have done my duty.' His ever-memorable signal to his fleet, immediately before the battle commenced, had been ' England expects every man to do his duty,' and, if ever a man lived and died in earnest, fearless, unselfish discharge of his duty to his country, it was Admiral Nelson, victor of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Tra- falgar. [E.S.C.] NELSON, Robert, a minister of the Church of England, known as the author of several devout and learned works, the principal of which is his well-known ' Festivals and Fasts.' For the sub- stance of this work, there is reason to believe, he was greatly indebted to Dr. Francis Lee. He is generally called ' the pious Nelson,' and was much esteemed by Archbishop Tillotson, who died in his arms. Born in London 1656, died 1715. NELSON, Samuel, an Irish patriot, and editor of the ' Northern Star,' in the rebellion of 1790. NEMESIUS, a Christian philosopher, 4th cent. NEMOURS, a titular name borne by several persons distinguished in French history, among whom are James D'Armagnac, Due De Nem- ours, cousin by marriage to Louis XL, who caused him to be beheaded 1477. Louis, his son and successor in the duchy, viceroy of Naples for Charles VIIL, killed at the battle of Cerignola 1503. Gaston De Foix, son of Mary, sister of Louis XII., killed at the battle of Ravenna 1512. Philip of Savoy, uncle to Francis I., who in- vested him with the duchy 1528. James of Sa- voy, a distinguished commander, 1531-1585. Henry, second son and successor of James, con- nected with the league, and afterwards with Henry IV., 1571-1632. Henry II., second son and successor of Henry I., born 1625, appointed archbishop of Rheims 1651, abandoned the church on the death of his elder brother, and married Mary D'Orleans, daughter of the due de Longue- ville, 1657, died 1659. This lady survived her husband many years, and, in 1694, was recognized sovereign of Neufchatel. She died in 1707, leav- ing valuable ' Memoirs' of the minority of Louis XIV. and the wars of the Fronde. The title was borne again by the second son of Louis Philippe, late king of the French. NENNIUS, a British historian, 7th century. NENY, P. Mac, a Belgian statesman, 1712-84. > NEPOS, Cornelius, a Roman historian of the time of Julius Caesar and the first six years of Augustus. The only remains of his works are some short biographies of twenty Greek generals, and of Hamilcar and Hannibal. )!). -1 NES NEPOS, Flavius Julius, emperor of the predecessor of Augustulus, 47o-475. NEPBEU, F., an ascetic writer, 1639-1 NERI, PoMPEO, an Ital. economist, 1707 NERI, Saint Philip De, founder of tl grcgation of the Oratory in Italy, 1515-1 NERLI, FlLIPPO, an Ital. historian, 1481 NERO, emperor of Rome, whose full name Lucius Domitius Nero Claudius C.inak. the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus and of pina, daughter of Germanicus. He was born at Antium, and after the marriage of his mo in third nuptials, with her uncle, the Claudius, was adopted by that prince, and ma to his daughter Octavia. When Nero was seventeen years of age his abandoned Eoisoned her husband, Claudius, and by mea er criminal favours succeeded in raising her the throne, over whom she expected to e the most absolute control. Nero became em in 54, and the year following disposed of the ful heir, Britannicus, by poison. For the fire years his public conduct, under the control of rhus and Seneca, was unexceptionable: in pr however, he disgraced himself by the most vices, and his mother endeavoured to retai influence by shamefully complying with his in- tions. In 59 Nero caused this detestable w to be murdered, and then, fearing no rival in gave full scope to the darkest traits of his c iter. In 62 he repudiated his wife Octavia 64 the burning of Rome occurred, which has charged, with great probability, upon Nero hi who, however, accused the Christians of th and made it the occasion of the most cruelties towards them. His debaucherie cruelties occasioned an almost general coi against him, known as that of Piso, in 65, covery of which led to more tortures and blow The revolt of Vindex was also suppressed, of Galba in 68 succeeded, and Nero escaped by stabbing himself, being then in the thirt;, year of his age, and the fourteenth of his He was a lover of arts and letters, and ]_ much taste as a poet and histrionic perfonne was the remark of Nero's father, Ahenob that 'nothing but what w'as hateful and I to mankind, could ever come from Agrippir. himself.' Yet, the story of a strange ha strewed flowers upon the tomb of this tyi well known. NERVA, Marcus Cocceius, emperor of was born 27, and was twice consul, v ' pasian in 71, and with Domitian in 90. ceeded to the sovereign power on the as of the latter 96 ; died 98. Trajan succ NESBIT, or NISBET, Alexander, a antiquarian and writer on heraldry, 1672-17 NESMOND, T. De, a French prelate, <lie< NESSE, C, a nonconformist divine, 16:21 NESSEL, D. De, a Ger. bibliographer, 16 NESSON, P. De, a French poet, 15th i NESTOR, a monk of Kieff, whose ar the sources of Slavonic history, 1056-1116. NESTOR, D., a classical writer, 15th i NESTORIUS, a patriarch of Constant: the 5th century, author of the Nestoriani which is represented to this day by a body of Christians in Mesopotamia, The pi 532 NET his doctrine was that of Anastasius, who held it it was the human person, and not the divine, rc suffered in Jesus. Nestorius was deposed by )uncil assembled at Ephesus 431. [ETSCIiER, the name of three Dutch painters rASPAR, the father, celebrated for his domestic s and portraits, 1639-1684. Theodore, his st son, a good painter of female portraits, 1661- 2. Constantine, younger brother of the r, dist. for his portraits and groups, 1670-1722. ETTELBLADT, Christian, Baron De, a dish jurist, histor., and antiquary, 1696-1776. ETTELBLADT, Daniel, a learned German er, 1719-1791. His brother, Henry, histo- of Mecklenburg, died 1761. ETTER, Thomas, an English monk, pro- r of philosophy and divinity, and privy coun- to Henry V., died 1430. JTTLETON, Thomas, a physician of Hali- tnown as a miscellaneous writer, 1683-1742. SUBECK, V. W., a German poet, born 1765. 5UHOF, Theodore Stephen, Baron Von, rman adventurer, born of a noble family at z in 1690, and proclaimed king of Corsica died in London 1755. :UKIRCH, B., a German poet, 1665-1729. ;UMAXN, G., a Germ. Hebraist, 1648-1715. UMANN, G., a German chemist, 1683-1737. UMAXN, J. G., a Lutheran div., 1661-1709. USER, A., a Germ, theologian, died 1576. VE, Timothy, a dignitary of the Church of id, and professor of divinity, son of a divine same names, author of ' Sermons,' ' Notes nal Pole,' &c, 1724-1798. LE, or NEVYLE, Alexander, secre- Archbishop Parker, known as a scholar t, 1544-1614. ILE, or NEVILLE, Henry, a republican d writer, member of the council, 1620-94. ILE, or NEVIL, Thomas, brother of Alex- 'evile, the dean of Canterbury, known as an benefactor of Trinity College, died 1615. ZAN, J., an Ital. jurisconsult, died 1549. BOROUGH, or NEWBURGH, William ionly known as Gulielmus Newbrigensis, c historian of the period, 1066-1197. CASTLE. See Cavendish and Hollis. COMBE, Thomas, chaplain to the second Richmond, known as a miscellaneous 1671-1766. COMBE, W., archbishop of Armagh, born "ormist parents, in Bedfordshire, 1728, a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' and an for a revision of the Bible, died 1799. COMEN, M., a nonconf. divine, d. 1666. COMMKN, Thomas, a country lock- projector of the means of creating a beneath the piston of the steam engine, NEW NEWTON, G. S., a disting. painter, 1794-1835. [COURT, R., an ecclesiast. lawyer, d. 1716. HGATE, Sir. Roger, an elegant scholar r of Oxford, which he represented in 1719-1806. ID, John, an English abbot, employed tist by Henry VIIL, died 1515. ID, P., a Dutch savant, 1764-1794. Sir Adam, a Scottish protestant |>lar, tutor to Prince Henry, son of James 533 [Birth-place of Newton.] NEWTON, Isaac, a celebrated mathematician and natural philosopher, was born at Woolsthorpe, near Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, on the 25th De- cember, 1642, o.s. His father, Isaac Newton, was proprietor and farmer of the manor, and died a few months after his marriage to Hannah Ayscough, so that young Newton was a posthu- mous child. He was so small at his birth that ' they might have put him into a quart mug,' but he gradually attained size and strength, destined to enjoy a vigorous manhood, and to survive even the average term of life. The estate of Woolsthorpe, worth only about 30 per annum, had been in the family upwards of one hundred years. The origin of the family is still in obscurity. Newton him- self, according to the usual forms, gave in his pedi- gree on oath to the Herald's Office in 1705, stating that he had reason to believe (from tradition), that his great grandfather's father was John New- ton of Wesby, in Lincolnshire ; but it is certain, that twenty years after this Newton told Professor James Gregory, that his grandfather was a gentle- man of East Lothian, and it is equally certain that Newton corresponded on the subject with the last baronet of the family, Sir Richard Newton of New- ton, and that this family considered Newton to be a distant relation of theirs. For three years Mrs. Newton watched over her only child with mater- nal anxiety till her marriage with the Rev*. Barna- bas Smith, of North Witham, by whom she had one son and three daughters. In consequence of this marriage Newton was left under the care of his grandmother, and was sent at the usual age to the day school at Skillington and Stoke. At the age of twelve he went to the public school of Grantham, where he was boarded with Mr. Clark the apothecary. Here he was very inattentive to his studies, and was low in the school till a quar- rel with a boy above him in the class, who had used him ill, induced him to apply diligently to his lessons till he rose above his rival, and reached the head of the class. During his leisure hours he occupied himself with all sorts of mechanical con- trivances, windmills, water-clccks, carnages, and paper kites ; and among his early tastes may be mentioned his love for drawing and writing verses, in neither of which he was destined to excel. On NEW the death of his father-in-law in 1656, his mother came to reside at Woolsthorpe with her three chil- dren and Isaac, who was now in his fifteenth year. He was recalled from school, to assist in the management of the farm; hut while he was occu- pied with books, models, water wheels, and dials, the business of the farm was neglected, and the cattle were luxuriating among the corn. Thus found to be unfit for the profession of a farmer, he was sent back to Grantham school, and in due time to Trinity College, Cambridge, with recom- mendations from his uncle, the Rev. W. Ayscough. On the 5th of June, 1661, when nineteen years old, he was admitted sub-sizar in Trinity College, very ill prepared for its course of instruc- tion by his preliminary mathematical studies. He had been disposed to undervalue the ancient geo- metry, and he afterwards confessed to Dr. Pemberton that he had applied himself to the works of Des- cartes and others before he had sufficiently con- sidered the Elements of Euclid. On the 28th April, 1664, he was elected scholar. He took his degree of B.A. in January, 1665. He was elected Major Fellow in March, 1668, and he took his degree of M.A. on the 7th July. On the 20th May, 1665, he committed to writing his first ideas on fluxions. In 1666, having procured a prism, he discovered the un- equal refrangibility of light, and the true doctrine of colours, and having drawn the erroneous conclu- sion that the improvement of the refracting teles- cope was impossible, he set himself to the construc- tion of a reflecting telescope. While thus occupied he was driven from Cambndge by the plague in 1666, and went to Woolsthorpe, where the idea of gravi- tation first presented itself to him, from observing the fall of an apple in his garden. Here he con- tinued his inquiries into the application of fluxions, and after his return to Cambridge in 1668, he made a very small reflecting telescope, which he described to a friend. On the 29th October, 1669, Newton was appointed to the Lucasian chair of mathematics on the resignation of Dr. Barrow, and from this time we may date the commencement of his great discoveries. His first communication to the Royal Society was a description of a second reflecting telescope, which excited great interest in England and abroad. The telescope itself was sent to the Society in December, 1671, 'for his majesty's perusal.' On the 18th September, 1672, he announced to the secretary, Mr. Oldenburg, a philosophical discovery which he considered the oddest, if not the most considerable detection hitherto made in the operations of nature. This was the discovery of the composition of light, which was read to the Society on the 8th Febru- ary, 1672, and which led him into interminable controversies with Hook, Hnygens, and several eminent foreigners. These controversies embittered his peace, and made him resolve to have nothing more to do with that litigious lady philosophy. On the 11th January, 1671, Newton was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1673 he was dis- appointed in a competition for the law fellowship, then vacant ; a disappointment increased by the fact that he was about this time in such circum- stances as to be unable to afford the weekly pay- ment to the Royal Society, who ' excused him.' Very soon afterwards, however, when his fellow- ship was about to expire, he obtained permission NEW from the crown to hold the Lucasian chair with a fellowship, without being obliged to * orders. On the 9th December, 1675, N< communicated to the Royal Society a discoui colours. This interesting paper contained details on the composition and decompositi white light, and anew hypothesis concern mgco with some propositions explaining the colo thin transparent plates, and their relation ' colours of natural bodies. This discourse brought Newton into a controversy with but notwithstanding this interruption, he wai occupied with those profound studies, the res 1 which were afterwards consigned in his imi work the ' Principia.' He had long ago dt from the laws of Kepler the important la\ gravity decreased with the square of the dis a law to which Sir Christopher Wren, Halle; Hook, had all been led by independent study demonstration of it, however, had been give) no proof obtained that the same power made the apple to fall, was that which re the moon and the other planets in their Adopting the ordinary measure of the radius, he had been lea to the conclusion th force which kept the moon in her orbit, if the as gravity, was one-sixth greater than that w actually observed, a result which perplexed hi prevented him from communicating to his the great speculation in which he was engage June, 1682, however, he had heard of I more accurate measure of the earth's and repeating with this measure his former lations, he found to his extreme delight force of gravity, by which bodies fall at the surface, 4,000 miles from the earth's diminished as the square of 240,000 moon's distance, was almost exactly equal which kept the moon in her orbit. Hence, it f< that the same power retained all the other si round their primaries and all the primaries ro 1 sun. In August, 1684, when Dr. Halley Newton at Cambridge, he learned from I ' had surmounted the difficulties of th motion, and promised him a copy of he had written on the subject. This Mota Corporum,' was after pleted, and presented to the Royal the 28th April, 1686, being the first t ' Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Ma The second book was sent to the So< 1st March, 1687, the third on the and the whole work published at the Dr. Halley about midsummer of that m have already seen that Newton discovered 1 trine of fluxions in 1666, the principle and ; tion of which he explained in his treatise ^i per Equationes numero terminorum which he communicated to Dr. Barrow i 1667. Although this treatise was nc till 1711, its contents were circulated Europe by letters between 1669 and principle of the new calculus war "' Principia in 1687, and the Algo cated to Dr. Wallis in 1692. Tl of fluxions was also made by Leibnitz troversy arose on the subject of priorit continued for nearly two centuries * mathematical world. The violent " 534 nit /.. id I 3 V.: tfj t D lri,'U>ls * u NEW -ty falsely charged their principals with plagiar- i, and thus embittered a controversy carried on ;h all the violence of politics or theology. There , be no doubt that Newton fast invented flux- s, and that Leibnitz was an independent inven- of them before Newton had published his thod. In the year 1692 a rumour prevailed oad that Newton had become insane, either intense mental application, or from the loss valuable MSS. by fire. It is quite true that Eton's health had at this time suffered from in- Ity to sleep, and that he had exhibited symp- is of a nervous indisposition in some of his let- to his friends ; but his mind had never given , and it was during this period that he wrote four celebrated letters to Dr. Bentley, and was lpied with the profound subject of the Lunar ry. Newton had now brought to a close the ,t investigations which had occupied the early the middle portion of his life. He was in the -third year of his age, and no mark of na- il gratitude had been conferred upon him, ough he was counted the pride of England, and ornament of his species. In this position a sphere of usefulness was unveiled to him, and tfi and honours awaited his acceptance. Montague, a fellow of Trinity College, jh twenty years younger than Newton, d his friendship at Cambridge. They had )gether in the convention parliament of 1688, had entertained the same liberal opinions in 'cs. In 1694 Montague was appointed chan- of the exchequer, and after consulting New- Locke, and H alley, he resolved to restore to trinsic value the adulterated coin of the With this view Newton was appointed of the mint in 1695, with a salary of about I and in 1699 he succeeded to the mastership, best office in the establishment, which was 1,200 or 1,500 per annum. In the year he was elected one of the eight associate of the Royal Academy of Sciences in In 1701 he was re-elected one of the mem- the university of Cambridge. In 1703 he losen president of the Royal Society, an which he held till his death, and on the 16th 1705, the honour of knighthood was con- upon him by Queen Anne in Trinity Lodge, s. When George I. ascended the throne i, Newton, then in his seventy-second year, favourite at court. His character, his re- and his piety, had gained him the favour i princess of Wales, afterwards queen consort forge II., who took great pleasure in his con- 'jn. She corresponded also with Leibnitz, as to have availed himself of this privilege i the character of Newton, by representing [ewtonian philosophy as false and hostile to Locke was involved in the same charge, _the king's desire an answer was prepared and Dr. Clarke, which seems to have the royal scruples. At the princess's re- [Sir Isaac gave her a MS., which he calls a pological Index.' The Abbe Conti having got | of it, published it in Paris without the leave I author, and thus involved him in a disagree- oversy. He was in this way induced for the press his posthumous work, en- l The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms,' NEW which appeared in 1728. In the year 1722, when in his eightieth year, Newton was attacked with a complaint in the urinary organs, which continued to afflict him till the time of his death, but though he suffered also from an affection of the lungs and gout, he was able on the 28th February 2 1727, to preside at a meeting of the Royal Society. He suffered, however, from the exertion which he made on this occasion, and as the master disease under which he suffered was found to be stone, no hope was entertained of his recovery. He pre- served his faculties entire till two days before his death, when he became insensible, and expired on Monday, the 20th March, 1727, between one and two o'clock in the morning, in the eighty-fifth year of his age. His body was removed from Kensing- ton to London on the 28th March. It lay in state in the Jerusalem Chamber, and was buried in West- minster Abbey, in a conspicuous part of which a monument was erected to his memory in 1731 by his relatives. Newton left about 32,000, which was divided among his four nephews and four nieces of the half blood, the grandchildren of his mother: one of them the beautiful and accom- plished Miss Catherine Barton, was married to Mr. Conduit, in Newton's lifetime, and they lived together. Mr. Conduit left an only child, a daugh- ter, who married Mr. Wallop, the eldest son of Lord Lymington. and from this cause all Newton's papers came into the hands of the Portsmouth family. The most important of Newton's philoso- phical works are his ' Principia,' already men- tioned, his ' Arithmetica Universalis,' his ' Geomet- ria Analytica,' his 'Treatise on Optics,' published in 1705, his ' Lectiones Opticas,' published after his death, and others which have been collected by Bishop Horsley, and published in 5 vols. 4to, under the title of 'Newtom Opera quae Extant Omnia,' London, 1779 and 1782. His literary and theologi- cal works, included in the same collection, are his ' Chronology,' his ' Observations on the Prophecies of Holy Writ,' viz., Daniel and the Apocalypse, and his ' Historical Account of two Notable Corrup- tions of Scripture.' For further information re- specting Sir Isaac Newton, see ' Life of Sir Isaac Newton,' by Sir David Brewster, London, 1831 ; a very brief but excellent Memoir of Newton by Professor De Morgan, in ' Knight's Cabinet His- torical Gallery,' vol. XL, p. 78-118; and 'Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton,' by Sir ^ David Brewster, in 2 vols. 8vo, (from the Family Papers), now in the press. [D.B.] NEWTON, John, a mathematician, 1622-78. NEWTON, John, a Calvinistic clergyman of the Church of England, author of a ' Review of Ecclesiastical History,' ' The Messiah,' a series of sermons on the well-known oratorio, a ' Narrative of his Life,' &c, 1725-1807. Newton was a friend of Cowper the poet, and his life has been written by the Rev. R. Cecil. NEWTON, R., a learned divine, 1676-1753. NEWTON, Thomas, a clergyman of the Church of England, originally a schoolmaster and phy- sician, author of a ' History of the Saracens,' ' The Herbal to the Bible,' &c, 16th century. NEWTON, Thomas, an English prelate, well known as the author of ' Dissertations on the Pro- phecies,' born at Lichfield, where his father was a wine and spirit merchant, 1704 ; appointed rector 535 NEY of St. Mary-le-Bow 1744, king's chaplain 1756, and bishop of Bristol 1761 ; died 1782. NEY. Michel Ney, marshal of the French empire, duke of Elchingen, prince of the Moskwa, an<l ' The Bravest of the Brave ' in Napoleon's armies, was the son of a cooper at Sarre-Louis. He was born in 1769. He entered the army very young ; and was a subaltern in a hussar regiment at the commencement of the wars of the revolu- tion. Ney soon attracted the notice of his com- manders, especially of Kleber and Hoche, by his valour and skill in the campaigns against the Austrian armies ; and in 1798 he had attained the rank of general of division. In 1799 he shared in the glories of Massena's campaign in Switzerland ; and in 1800 he aided, under Moreau, in gaining the victories of Moeskirch and Hohenlinden. Napoleon afterwards employed him as minister plenipotentiary to complete the submission of the Swiss to French ascendancy a task which Ney performed with success and thereafter stood high in Napoleon's favour. He was made marshal of the new French empire in 1804 ; and in the cam- faign of 1805 against Austria, he commanded the 'rench at the victory of Elchingen, whence the dukedom which the emperor conferred upon him was named. Ney contributed greatly to the over- throw of the Prussians at Jena, and to the defeat of the Russians at Friedland. In 1807 he was sent to the peninsula, and for some time com- manded iu Galicia, and on the northern frontier of Portugal. In 1810 he acted under Massena in the invasion of Portugal, which was baffled by the fenius of Wellington, and the lines of Torres edras. During that invasion, and during the retreat of the French army, which was its result, Ney displayed ' A happy mixture of courage and skill,' to adopt the words in which the English historian, Napier, has justly described his conduct. But the altercations between him and Massena were frequent and violent, and at last Massena deprived Ney of his command. Napier says that Massena's general views were as superior to Ney's, as the latter's readiness and genius for handling troops in action were superior to Massena's. In 1812 Ney served again under Napoleon, and took part in the invasion of Russia. He commanded the French centre at the battle of the Moskwa, and gained from that victory his princely title. His heroic bravery was still more signally dis- played in the dreadful retreat from Moscow. His honourable task was to protect tiie French rear. On leaving Smolensko, Ney, at the head of about 7,000 men, found his path barred near the river Losmina by a large Russian army under Milara- drovich. Ney was summoned to surrender 'A marshal of France never surrenders' was his answer, and he led his men on with the bayonet against the Russian batteries. Driven back repeatedly with frightful carnage, Ney counter- marched the remnant of his column, and wheeling to the left under shelter of the night, he eluded the Russian pursuit. He reached the bank of the Dnieper at a spot where the river was frozen over, but so thinly, that the ice bent beneath the soldier's tread. He effected the perilous passage, and in a succession of desperate contests with other Russian forces that strove to intercept him, Ney fought his way with 1,500 of Ids men to NEY Orcha, where Napoleon was with the the main army. Napoleon's joy was almost rj. turous when Ney rejoined him, for all bad belieH that the intrepid marshal must have been sl v or captive. The emperor hailed Ney as '' bravest of the brave,' which thenceforth beciB his undisputed title. After Napoleon left I army, Ney still continued to fight in the ifl against the advancing Muscovites. Thrice did rear guard which he commanded melt away bencl him Dy death, captivity, or flight ; and aa^H was it reorganized by the indomitable m^H At last, Ney, with only thirty men under tM defended the gate of Kowno, the last place in > Russian dominions through which the Frej retreated against the pursuing enemies, wfl his comrades escaped at tne other end of I He was himself the very last man to retire. M fired with his own hand the last shot a foes, threw the musket into the river N^H plunged into the neighbouring forests to bai^H enemies who held him in chase ; and after J^M of almost incredible personal adventures, rj^| his comrades in the Prussian territory.-^^H campaign of 1814 Ney was present at the of Lutzen and Bautzen, but he was del'.' great loss by the crown prince of Swej^H Dennewitz. He fell in consequence undfl^fl poleon's displeasure, and was little eri^H during the rest of the struggle against ^^^H which ended in Napoleon's first abdication, l the first return of the Bourbons, Ney | and probably felt great willingness to ser^^H loyally; and when, in 1815, the newa^^H Paris of Napoleon's escape from Elba, the command of the army which was sera oppose him. Ney expressed the utmost dj^H to the royal cause, and promised Louis j^H that he would bring Buonaparte to Paris 'Life! I wild beast in a cage.' There seems no reasoi i doubt Ney's sincerity in this unhappy cri career. He was an impulsive, rather tha> reflective man ; and prone botli to speak and : with more enthusiasm than consistency. he advanced against the emperor, he r letter from Napoleon, who summoned him by I magic name of ' The bravest of the bra\ his old master beneath the old banner, army which Ney was leading, showed, both offi I and soldiers, their fixed resolve to fighl and not against Buonaparte. Ney c; contagion. He became Napoleonist wil mence equal to that which he had dis] few days before in the Bourbon cause, an over with all his troops to the enn received him with expressions of the passion and welcome. But, though Key 1 deeply committed himself against the I Napoleon seems to have mistrusted hi' have long hesitated as to employing I campaign of 1815. It was only on the nigh the 11th of June that Ney received at order to join the French army in Belgium. I rying forward to the frontier, Ney met on the 15th at Charleroi, after active had commenced. Napoleon gave him t mand of the left wing, and sent him to post of Quatre Bras, and oppose the I Those who censure Ney's supposed v 53G NET romptness in this eventful campaign, should member that the marshal had been so suddenly ^pointed to his command, that he did not know le strength of the regiments placed under him, even the names of their commanding officers. n the 16th, Ney attacked the allies at Quatre ras, but after many hours' hard fighting was pulsed ; though he succeeded in preventing the ndish from marching to the help of the Prus- ins, who were being defeated by the emperor at gny. On the 18th, Ney acted as the emperor's atenant at Waterloo. He led in person several the fiercest assaults upon various parts of the itish line, and especially the final charge of the 1 guard. Never was his valour more nobly Bugh unsuccessfully displayed. His horse was led under him in the last great attack, and he s seen, both by friends and foes, on foot, his thes torn with bullets, his face blackened with der, striving, sword in hand, first to urge his n forward, and at last to check their flight. the second restoration of the Bourbons, Ney brought to trial by them for treason. He condemned by the Chamber of Peers on the December, 1815 ; and was shot, in pursuance bis sentence, on the morning of the next day. met death with the same firmness with which had braved it on the battle-field for five and rcnty years. Ney was an erring, but a noble- Irted man. He was honourably free from the iburities and vices that tarnish the fame of many fliis brethren-in-arms ; and, take him for all in llhe was a man in whom even deplorable faults suld have been forgiven. [E.S.C.] 1EYN, P. De, a Dutch painter, 1596-1639. ', IICAISE, C, a French antiquarian, 1623-1701. lICAISE, St., a martyr of the 3d century, said Me the first bishop of Rome. Another martyr al saint of the name was bishop of Rheims, 5th c. s'OR, commander of the Syrian army for Jfcochus Epiphanes, slain by Judas Maccabaaus lethoron B.C. 161. ICANOR. or N1CATOR. See Demetrius. |lCCOLAi, A., an Italian Jesuit, 1706-1784. SCCOLAI, J. B., an Ital. mathemat., 1726-93. CCOLI, N, an Italian writer, 1363-1437. CEPHORUS, the name of two saints the f\ a martyr of Antioch about 260 ; the second, I reek historian and patriarch of Constantinople, 750, died 828. ICEPHORUS I., emperor of the East, formerly ?i d treasurer and chancellor of the empire under r !, was proclaimed on the fall of the latter 802, fc 1 in war with the Bulgarians 811. Nice- Piiu:s II., born 912, succeeded 963, assassinated &5inisces, one of his generals, who sue. him 969. RU8 III., commander of the Asiatic forces, pH 1078, deposed by Alexius Commenus 1081. ilORUS, a Greek theologian, and me- of Kief, in Russia, 12th century. I'HOKUS-IiLE.MMIDAS.alearned Greek ^BAbot of a monastery at Miathos, 13th cent. CEPHORUS-BRYNNE, a Byzantine gene- k'came emperor of the East, and was 'JJfished by Nicephorus (Botoniates) III. 1078. N ICEPHORUS, married to Anna, daughter i menus, kn. as an historian, d. 1137. <U;rilORUS-CALLISTUS, a monk of Con- *t* nople, au. of an ' Ecclesiastical Hist.,' 14th c. 537 NIC NICEPHORUS-GREGORAS. See Gregoras. NICERON, J. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1613-1646. NICERON, J. P., a Fr. historian, 1685-1738. NICETAS, the name of several Greek writers David, author of a Life of St. Ignatius, 9th century. Aohominatus, or Choniates, author of An- nals, died about 1216. Serron, author of several panegyrics and Commentaries, 11th century. Eu- genianus, a novelist, 12th century. NICETAS, St., abbot of Mount Olympus, d. 824. NICETIUS, Flavius, a Gaulonite jurist, 5th c. NICETIUS, St., a bishop of Treves, appointed 527, died 566. Another of the name, bishop of Besancon, died about 612. NICHOLAS I., pope of Rome, in whose reign the schism between the Greek and Latin churches commenced, 858-867. Nicholas II., reigned 1058-1061. Nicholas III., 1277-1280. Nicho- las IV., author of Commentaries, 1288-1292. Nicholas V., a great patron of learning, founder of the Vatican library, &c, 1447-1455. An anti- pope (P. de Corbiere) assumed the title of Nicholas V., and died in prison about 1338. NICHOLAS, an emperor of the East, deposed after a few days' reign bv Alexis Ducas, 1204. NICHOLAS, a king of Denmark, 1104-1134. NICHOLAS, two dukes of Lorraine the first, born 1448, succeeded John 1470, died 1473. The second, succeeded his brother, Charles IV., who abdicated 1634, died 1670. NICHOLAS, three lords of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio the first reigned 1317-1346 ; the second, 1361-1388; the third, 1393-1422. This last, in his nineteenth year, was commander of the papal army directed against Milan, 1403. He caused his second wife, Parasina de Malatesta, to be put to death, together with his natural son, Hugues, for adultery ; a circumstance which has furnished Byron with the subject of one of his poems. NICHOLAS, patriarch of C'tinople., died 1111. NICHOLAS, a monk of Clairvaux, 12th cent. NICHOLAS, Eymericus, inquisitor-general of Spain, au. of ' Directorum Inquisitorum,' d. 1393. NICHOLAS of Munster, founder of a Ger- man sect in the sixteenth century, whose followers called themselves the family or house of Love. He published the ' Evangel of the Kingdom,' and other mystic works. NICHOLLS, F., an Eng. physiolog., 1699-1779. NICHOLS, John, a well-known name in litera- ture, was the apprentice and successor of Bowyer, an eminent and learned printer. He was born at Islington 1744, became the partner of his master in 1766, and died 1828. His works are ' Literary Anecdotes of the 18th Century,' 13 vols. 8vo, ' Illustrations of the Literature of the 18th Cen- tury,' 3 vols. 8vo, ' The History and Antiquities of Leicestershire,' 6 vols, folio, &c. NICHOLS, R., a poetical writer, born 1584. NICHOLS, W., a learned divine, 1664-1712. NICHOLSON, W., awr. onchemis., 1758-1815. NICIAS, an Athenian painter, 4th cent. B.C. NICIAS, an Athenian general, companion-in- arms of Alcibiades and Lamachus, put to death after the ill success of his expedi. to Sicily, b.c. 413. NICOLAI, a Dutch painter, born 1766. NICOLAI, Ch. Frederic, a famous bookseller and miscellaneous writer of Berlin, where he w;!9 born, 1733. He exercised great influence over the NIC direction of the new literature in Germany, both by his enterprise and his own writings nd is generally mentioned with the literati of the revo- lutionary philosophy. Died 1811. NICOLAI, E., a* Swedish theologian, d. 1580. NICOLAI, J., a Saxon philologist, died 1708. NICOLAI. N. A., a Ger. pathologist, 1722-1802. NICOLAI, M. M n an Italian writer, 1756-1833. NICOLAI, W\, a French writer, 1716-1788. NICOLAS, A., a French historian, 1622-1695. NICOLAS, Armelle, generally called the good Armelle,' was a French servant girl, remark- able for her charity and pious devotion, 1606-1671. LTer life was published in 1676, entitled ' The Triumph of Divine Love in the Life of a great servant of God.' NICOLAS, Sir Nicholas Harris, a naval officer who afterwards became a barrister, and devoting himself to literary pursuits acquired a distinguished name as a genealogical and his- torical critic. He is generally known by the shorter designation of Sir Harris Nicolas. His principal works are a ' Chronology of History,' ' Despatches of Lord Nelson,' ' Life of Hatton,' ' History of the Battle of Agincourt,' &c. He was engaged at his death on a ' History of the Navy,' and the Papers of Sir Hudson Lowe, the latter of which have since been edited by Forsyth. Born in Cornwall 1799, died 1848. NICOLAS, P., a Fr. mathemat., d. about 1720. NICOLAUS-DAMASCENUS, a poet and his- torian of Damascus, who lived in the 1st ct. B.C. NICOLAUS-MYNEPSUS, a med. wr., 13th c. NICOLAUS-PE.EPOSiTUS,amed.wr.,12thc. NICOLAY, L. H., a German poet, 1737-1820. NICOLAY, N., a French traveller, 1517-1583. NICOLE, Claude, a French poet, 1611-1686. NICOLE, F., a French geometrician, 1683-1758. NICOLE, N., a French architect, 1701-1784. NICOLE, Peter, nephew of Claude Nicole the poet, and one of the most celeb, of the Port Roval auth. as a moralist and theologian, 1625-95. NICOLEF, N. P., a Russian dram., 1758-1816. NICOLINO, G., an Ital. singer, eel. 1697-1717. NICOLLE, G. H., a Fr. journalist, 1767-1828. NICOLO DEL ABBATE. See Abate NICOLO-ISOUARD, generally called Nicolo, a famous theatrical composer, born at Malta of French origin, and distin. at Paris, 1777-1818. NICOLSON, William, a learned prelate and antiquary, author of three valuable works entitled respectively the English, Irish, and Scotch His- torical Library, b. in Cumberland 1655, d. 1727. NICOMEDES, a Ger. geometrician, 1st c. B.C. NICOMEDES. the frst of the name, king of Bithvnia, B.C. 278-250; the second, 148-L3; the tJnrd, time of Mithridates, 89-75. NICOT, John, a French statesman, 1530-1600. NICUESSA, D., a Span, navigator, 16th cent. NIEBUHR, Carstex, a celebrated Danish tra- veller, was born in the duchy of Lauenburgb, 1733, and having raised himself from the condition of a peasant to that of a land surveyor, was sent on a scientific expedition to Arabia in 1758. The object of this mission was to collect materials for illustra- ting the Bible, as suggested to the Danish govern- ment by Michaelis, and it occupied six years, from 1761 to 1767, in travelling through the East. Niebuhr published his ' Description of Arabia,' in NIE 1772 : his ' Travels in Arabia and cireumjact Countries,' in 2 volumes, 177 1-8, to whi volume was added in 1837. He was a; an office under the civil administration ot Hoist 1778. Died 1815. NIEBUHR, Barthold George, son of J (receding, was born at Copenhagen,'*1776. amous as an historian, diplomatist, and philolo holding, in fact, such high rank in the fi these characters, that he has originated i school of historical criticism, and our own A may be numbered among his followers, father's stories of the East, and the new Gr literature ushered in by such writers as Klopst Lessing, and Goethe, fixed his attention when c a boy ; and the Turkish war of 1778, the Revolution soon afterwards, and other great i ments of that age, deeply interested him ' fortunes of states. His memory and capai methodising knowledge were at the same time freat. By his eighteenth year he had acquire ome and at school, ten languages, to whicl a few years afterwards, he added as many n and there were few facts in the compass of hi to which he was not able to speak accura out the aid of books. In 1794 he was pursue his sudies at Kiel. In 1796 he Copenhagen as private secretary to the minister of finance, Count Schimmelman, 1797, exchanged this office for an appoinl the Royal Library. From 1798 to 1800 cupied with a literary visit to England land ; and in the last named year he m first wife, Amelia Behrens, and took up in Copenhagen as secretary to the Afn late. In 1804, he became first director and of the East India department of the Trade, besides being promoted to the for the affairs of Barbary, of which he ' been secretary. From 18C6 till 1810 he Prussian civil service, part of the time at the court of Holland, and, at Berlin, the department for managing the In 1810, Hardenberg having returned Niebuhr resigned, and became professor at the new university of Berlin till li" 4 1813 to 1816 he was engaged in affi connected with the administration of countries re-conquered from Napoleon, negotiations of the court of Berlin with and Holland ; besides instructing the in finance. In 1816 he went on a missioi and this occupied him till 1823. His obj procure a frank understanding and the new development of religion in G this, however, he was disappointed, and shrewdly observed that he might have position much easier there had he only Atheist ! He turned his lengthened account, however, in making those observations, which enter so largely in tories. At the close of this mission he the most important period of his life, as of history at the university of Bonn, there 1831. The great work of his li Roman history, to which must now be a series of posthumous works in c tion among others his ' And and Geography.' The novelty and value 538 tfc . //, , '' '. m m i /4 ! L^WM y/-_ ^V, NIE ronsist in their minute reproduction of the very ?ircumstances, in the midst of which the events of history occurred, and the faculty of the author for 'judging of similar occurrences from the conflicts of his own times. In politics, he was the friend of institutional freedom, with guarantees for a na- tional education and religion, and perhaps no rreater instance could be found of a statesman vhose life and manners so completely represented lis convictions. The men of the hour found it difficult to agree with him, simply because he had ;onvictions and acted up to them. [E.R.] NIEL, L., a French composer, died about 1760. NIELD, James, a goldsmith of London, who evoted himself, on retiring from business, to the jisitation and improvement of prisons, and pro- moted the Society for the Relief of Prisoners Con- Ined for Small Debts, 1744-1814. XIEMEYER, A. H., a German wr., 1754-1828. NIENEMBERG, John Eusebius De, a learned ianish Jesuit, distinguished as a writer and na- u-alist, 1590-1658. NIEPPERG, Count, an Austrian general, ho was a principal agent in the coalition against uonaparte, and afterwards lived with the em- ress Maria Louisa. 1771-1828. NIETO, David, a Venetian rabbi, 1654-1728. NIEUHOFF, John De, an agent of the Dutch last India Company, who wrote interesting nar- I fives of his embassies to China, &c, 17th cent. NIEULANT. A., a Dutch painter, died 1601. NIEULANT, W., a Dutch painter, 1584-1635. NIEUPOORT, W. H., a learned Dutch philo- tfst, professor at Utrecht, about 1670-1730. NIEUPORT, Charles Fred. Ant. Florent. e Prud'homme D'Hailly, Viscount De, a Fr. ;<lomatist and mathematical savant, 1746-1827. NIEUWELANDT, William, Van Den, a Jtch dramatic author and painter, 1584-1635. NIEUWENTYT, Bernard, a Dutch physician, le. as a philosopher and mathemat., 1654-1730. NIEUWLAND, Peter, a classical scholar, pro- sor of mathematics and physics, 1764-1794. NIFO, Algustin, an Ital. philosopher, d. 1538. NIGHTINGALE, Joseph, successively a me- odist and unitarian minister, author of ' Beau- ts of England and Wales,' and some religious !<rks, 1775-1824. INIGIDIUS-FIGULUS, Publius, a learned 'man and Pythagorean philosopher, to whose distance Cicero was much indebted in the defeat Catiline's conspiracy. Being banished by Caesar a partizan of Pompey, he died in exile B.C. 45. NIHUSIUS, B., a Ger. controv. wr., 1584-1657. SIMMO, A., a Scottish engineer, 1783-1832. SITHARD, a grandson of Charlemagne, known a French historian, 790-859. STTSCH, P. F. A., a German savant, 1753-94. sIVELLE, G. N., a Fr. theologian, died 1761. sTVELLE, J. De, a Flemish lord, known as an lerent of the duke of Burgundy, 15th century, ng dispossessed by his father, his estates passed iiis third brother, William, who was father "the constable, Anne de Montmorency. See '!rn, Montmorency. \ I V 1 ; LLE CHAUSSEE. See Chaussee. UVERNAIS, Louis Julius Baubon Mar- 1 i Mazakini, Due De, a French ambassador * political writer, 1716-1798. NOE NIVERS, G., a Fr. musical writer, died 1707. NTZAM-EL-MOLOUK, Koadjah Hassan, vizier to the Persian sultan, Alp Arslan, a great statesman, historian, andpatr. of learning, 1017-92. NIZAM-EL-MOLOUK, or AL-MOULK, vice- roy of the Deccan under Mohammed Shah, the Mo- gul emperor, to whose dethronement, by Nadir Shah, he was an active party; died 1748. NIZAMI, a Persian poet, died 1180. NIZZOLI, M., a Italian scholar, 1498-1575. NOAILLES, a noble French family, many mem- bers of which are distinguished in history. The principal are Anthony, admiral of France under Henry II., 1504-1562. Francis, brother of An- thony, ambassador to Venice, Constantinople, and London, 1519-1585. Louis Anthony, second son of Anne, first duke of Noailles, cardinal and archbishop of Paris, noted for his vacillation in the religious quarrels of the age, first against the Jansenists, and afterwards against the Bull Uni- genitus, 1651-1729. Anne Julius, brother of the latter, a marshal of France, 1650-1708. Ad- rian Maurice, son of Anne Julius, duke and marshal, distinguished in the Spanish war of suc- cession, afterwards commander in the wars of 1733-5 and 1743, when he lost the battle of Det- tingen. He was subsequently known as a states- man, and is the author of Political and Military Memoirs, 1678-1766. Louis, eldest son of the latter, duke and marshal, perished on the scaffold, 1713-1793. Philip, his second son, known as the marshal and duke de Mouchy, perished on the scaffold, 1715-1794. Jean Paul Francis, eldest son of Louis just mentioned, 1739-1824. Emma- nuel Marie Louis, marquis de Noailles, brother of the latter, 1743-1822. Philip Louis Mark Antony, prince de Poix, eldest son of Philip, the before-mentioned marshal de Mouchy, com- mander of a regiment of dragoons that had been raised by his grandfather in the war of succession, and a partizan of the Bourbons, 1752-1819. Charles, his son and successor in the command and the dukedom, 1771-1834. Louis Mark An- tony, viscount de Noailles, second son of the marshal de Mouchy, and uncle of the last men- tioned, born 1753. He was one of the first among the noblesse to join the commons in the estates- general 1789, and was killed at the Havannah 1804. Alexis, count de Noailles, son of the pre- ceding, a diplomatist of the restoration, 1783-1835. Alfred, brother of - the latter, bom 1786, killed in the retreat from Russia 1812. NOBILI, R., a Roman Jesuit, 1606-1656. NOBLE, Mark, a clergyman of the Church of England, author of historical and biographical writings, died 1827. NOBLE, Samuel, a learned minister of one of the congregations formed by the receivers of the writings of Swedenborg, author of an ' Appeal ' on behalf of those doctrines, and of ' The Plenary In- spiration of the Scriptures,' designed to enforce and illustrate the internal sense of the Word ; d. 1853. NOCETI, C, an Ital. savant, about 1695-1759. NOEHDEN, George Henry, a learned Ger- man, successively librarian and superintendent of the numismatic dep. in the Br. Museum, 1770-1826. NOEL, F., a Germ. Jesuit, known as a Chinese scholar and missionary, born about 1640, d. 1715. NOEL, F. J., a French scholar who fulfilled 539 NOE many administrative and diplomatic functions, and wrote many useful works of research, the principal of which is his 'Dictionnairede la Fable,' 1755-1841. NOEL, P., a Flemish painter, died 1823. NOETUS, an Asiatic theologian, supposed to have flourished about the middle of the 3d cen- tury. The Noetian Creed, attributed to him, is an endeavour to state the doctrine of Christ's divinity, without supposing a trinity of separate persons. NOGAROLA, Isotta, a lady of Verona, re- markable for her beauty, her learning, and her talents for poetry, 1428-1466. A brother of hers, named Leonardo, is also kn. as a theological wr. NOGAROLA, L., an Italian savant, 16th cent, NOGAROLA, T., an Ital. theologian, 18th cent. NOIROT, Claude, a Fr. writer on the origin of Masks, Mummings, &c, bom 1570, publ. 1609. NOLAN, M., an Irish lawyer, died 1827. NOLDIUS, Christian, a learned Danish min- ister and professor of divinity, 1626-1683. NOLLE KENS, Joseph Francis, an English painter, son of a Fleming, long resident in this country, 1706-1748. His son, Joseph, a cele. sculptor, and favourite of George III., 1737-1823. NOLLET, D., a Flemish painter, 1640-1736. NOLLET, J. A., a Fr. natural philos., 1700-70. NOMSZ, Jan, a Dutch poet, 1738-1803. NONIUS, Maroellus, a philosopher, 4th cent. NONIUS, or NONNIUS, the Latinized name of Pedro Nunez, a Portug. mathemat., 1492-1577. NONIUS, NONNIUS, or NUNNEZ, Lewis, a Spanish physician and philologist, b. about 1560. NOODT, Gerard, a Dutch jurist, 1647-1725. NORBERG, or NORDBERG, Dr. George, a Swedish historian, chaplain and biographer of Charles XII., 1677-1744. NORBERG, Matthias, a Swedish Orientalist, prof, of Greek and theology at Upsala, 1747-1826. NORBY, S., a Danish admiral, killed 1530. NORDEN, Fred. Louis, a Danish traveller, author of ' Memoirs upon the Ruins and Colossal Statues of Thebes,' and of ' Travels in Egypt and Nubia,' both illustrated, 1708-1742. NORDEN, John, a scholar and surveyor of the crown lands, author of several religious quaint works, died about 1625. NORDENANKER, J. De, a Swedish naval commander, author of several memoirs, last cent. NORDEN-FLEICHT, Hedwige Charlotte De, a lady of Stockholm, known in Sweden as a poetess, 1719-1763. NORDENHEIM, J. Christopher, a Swedish physician, and wr. on Hereditary Diseases, d. 1719. NORDENSCHOLD, a Swedish governor of Fin- land, disting. as a political economist, died 1764. NORDENSKJOLD, Augustus, a Swedish tra- veller, and one of several followers of Swedenborg who interested themselves in African enterprise, close of last centuiy. NORDIN, Charles Gustavus, a Swedish savant and statesman, author of ' Materials for Swedish History,' 1749-1812. NORFOLK, Roger Bigod, earl of, one of the barons who compelled Henry III. to confirm Magna Charta, died 1270. His nephew, of the same names, distinguished in the reign of Edward I., about 1301. See Howard. NORGATE, Edward, an Eng. artist, 17th cen. NOBIS, Henry, a learned Italian cardinal of NOR Irish descent, author of a ' History of ! ism,' and chief librarian of the Vatican, 1 1 NORIS, M., a Venetian dramatist, 1640-1710 NORMAND, Cl. J., a Fr. antiquary, 1704-6'! NORMANN-EHRENFELS, Chas.'Fkkd. L BRECHT, Count De, a Ger. officer, who organized .' armed band at Corinth, and was mortally wound I in the cause of Greek independence, 1784-1822. NORRIS, John, founder of a professorship aij prize essay at Cambridge university, 1731-1777. NORRIS, John, second son of Henry, first Lo ; Norris, distinguished in the military service France during the civil wars of that country. lj went to Ireland with the earl of Essex, and aftc wards served in Flanders under the archduke \ Austria, the duke of Lorraine, and William ; Nassau. In 1585 he was commander of the Engli troops sent to the aid of Antwerp. In 1588 he w intrusted with the power of the crown in Irela: by Queen Elizabeth, and in 1591 commanded t troops sent in aid of Henry of Navarre against t leaguers. He returned to his Irish government 1594, and died a few years after. [E.li NORRIS, John, whose name ranks among t principal of our philosophical divines, was born Collingbourne Kingston, in Wiltshire, of whi place his father was rector, 1657. He took 1 bachelor's degree at Oxford in 1680, and was a mitted M.A. 1684. In 1689 he became rector Newton Sodoc in Somersetshire ; in 1091 w promoted to the richer living of Bemerton ne Salisbury; and died there in 1711 after a life hard study, which probably hastened his enj Norris, at college, was an ardent student d admirer of Plato, and when, a few years afterwan the tendency of Locke's philosophy to one extm of belief, provoked a controversy which travell the length and breadth of Europe, he was fou; with the opposite party followers of Cartesi and Malebranche. He published his principal wo in 1701, entitled 'An Essay towards a Theory the Ideal orlntellectual World,' written, professed; in support of Malebranche the theory that perceive all things in God, whose thoughts, to n such a term, are our ideal forms. Norris, in sho; was an idealist, to the extent of declaring that aft all that had been argued from the time of Descart to his own, the existence of external objects sensation is only probable but by no means certat His other works, which rank in the Platonic cla of divinity with those of Henry More, his contcr forary and correspondent, are ' The Picture of Lo Jnveiled,' translated from Waryng, 'An Ideal Happiness,' 'Theory and Regulation of Loy ' Reason and Religion,' ' The Natural Immortali of the Soul,' together with poems and < on a variety of subjects. NORRIS, Sir John, a naval officer, (list, in tl Mediterranean under SirCloudeslevSJn^' NORRIS, Robert, a native" of I famous for his sojourn of eighteen years on tl coast of Guinea. He wrote ' Memoirs of 1 1 of Bossa Ahadee, king of Dahomey, an inlai country of Guinea, to which is added the authoi journey to Abomey the capital,' published in Loi don, 1789. NORRIS, S., a theological writer, died 1G3 NORRMAN, L., a Swed. Orient NORRY, C, a French architect, author 510 NOR NOV Jemoir of the Expedition to Egypt, -which he painter and writer on art, was born at Plymouth, ccompanied, 1756-1832. j where his father was a coachmaker, 1746. His NORTH, the name of a distinguished family, of j best works are 'Hubert and Arthur,' and 'The horn we may mention Sir Edward, an emi- Murder of the Two Princes in the Tower.' He nt lawyer, created Baron North, of Catlidge, in is author of Fables illustrated with his own de- ambridgeshire, by Queen Mary. Dudley, Lord signs, of 'Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds,' and orth, his great grandson, born 1581, distinguished ' a Life of Titian.' Died 1831. a partizan of the parliament, and appointed by em to the admiralty, died 1666. Dudley, son and iccessor of the latter, distinguished in parliament, id author of the ' Life of Edward, Lord North,' 3 assages Relating to the Long Parliament,' jght in the Way to Paradise,' &c, died 1677. >ur sons of the last named Francis, Baron lildford, lord-keeper of the great seal in the reigns Charles II. and James if., author of Political says and Narratives, and a Philosophical Essay Music, about 1640-1685. Sir Dudley, a great rkey merchant, author of ' Observations on the knners, Customs, and Jurisprudence of the rks,' died 1691. John, bom 1645, elected pro- sor of Greek at Cambridge 1672, and created D. the following year on the visit of Charles II., jd 1683. Roger, attorney-general to James II., bwn as an historical critic and miscellaneous Iter, died 1733. To the same family belongs the ilject of the following article. KORTH, Frederick, earl of Guildford, gener- il' called Lord North, belongs to English Itory as chief of the administration during the jlerican war of independence. He was appointed (pmissioner of the Treasury 1759 ; and resigned m his leader in July, 1765, when he joined the opsition to the Rockingham ministry. He came id office again with the Grafton ministry, 1766 ; ii 767 became chancellor of the exchequer; and ii 770 succeeded the duke of Grafton as minister, w q he brought in a bill for the repeal of all the (1 es lately imposed upon the American colonists, n the exception of that upon tea, and this ex- ct ion, in 1773, led to disturbances, which in 1775 i actual hostilities, and to the declara- k'pendeiice, 4th July, 1776. The struggle la d during the whole of Lord North's adminis- ti on, but was virtually ended by the surren- A f Lord Cornwallis, at York Town, 19th Oct., L . Lord North resigned on the 20th of March, L . He became earl of Guildford by the death Hither in 1790, and died 1792, after being tilted several years with blindness ; 1732-1792. RTH, G., an Engl, numismatist, 1710-1772. JRTHAMPTON, Earl of. See Howard. HAMPTON, Spencer Josh. Alwyne C'troN, marquis of, well known for his love of and literature, was born 1790, and suc- <*ld to the title of his father in 1828. He was kuln in the House of Lords as an advocate of measures; but the arena in which he t inguished himself was that already in- Iroin 1838 till 1849 he held the presi- of the Royal Society, and during this period 'on was the scene of frequent and reunions of the most distinguished men by, art, and literature. The marquis pton was also one of the presidents of Association, and he filled the same the Royal Society of Literature at the ' death, 1851. COTE, James, an eminent historical NORTON, Lady F., a religious wr., died 1720. NORTON, John, a wr. on orthography, 17th c. NORTON, Thomas, a barrister-at-law, known as a zealous Calvinist, and translator of the fam- ous ' Institutes.' He assisted Sternhold and Hop- kins in a metrical version of the Psalms, and is supposed to have died about 1584. NORWOOD, Richard, an English geometer, one of the first to measure a degree of the meri- dian, 1635. NORZI, Solomon, an Italian rabbin, 17th cen. NOSTRADAMUS, Michael, a physician of Provence, known as an astrologer in the time of Catherine de Medici. He composed ' Seven Cen- turies of Prophecies' in enigmatical rhymes, some of which are admitted to have been most exactly fulfilled; among others his prophecy, a hundred years before its occurrence, of the execution of Charles I., and still more surprising, of the exact date of the French Republic, 1792. He died in 1566. His brother, John, known as an historical writer, died 1590. Bis son, Cesar, a poet and historian, flourished 1555-1629. Michael, another son, known as an astrologer and prophet like his father, died 1574. NOTARAS, C, apatriarch of Jerusalem, d. 1733. NOTT, John, a surgeon in the employ of the East India Company, dist. as an Oriental scholar and poetical and miscellaneous writer, 1751-1826. NOTT, Major-Gen eral Sir William, an officer in the East Indian service, greatly distin- guished in the late Aftghan war, born at Caermar- then 1782, died 1845. NOTTINGHAM. See Finch, Howard. NOUE. See Lanoue. NOUET, James, a French ascetic, 1605-1680. NOUET, N. A., a French astronomer, d. 1811. NOUGURET, P. J. B., aFr. novelist, 1742-1823. NOULLEAU, J. B., a Fr. theolog., 1604-1672. NOUR-DJIHAN, wife of the Mogul emperor, Djihan-Guir, famous for the happy influence which she exercised over him, and said to be the disco- verer of the essence of roses, reigned 1611-1645. NOUR-ED-DEEN-ALI, suit, of Egypt,1257-59, NOUR-ED-DEEN-MAHMOUD, Melek-el- adel, commonly called Nouradin, or Nour-ed- deen, a celebrated Moslem ruler of Syria and Egypt, born 1117, succeeded his father in Syria 1145, commenced the conquest of Egypt after the death of Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, 1162, died when he was preparing to march against his ambitious lieutenant, Saladin, 1174. NOUWAYRI, Shehab-ed-deen Ahmed, an Arabian historian and encyclopaedist, 1283-1331. NOVA, J. Da, a Spanish navigator, 16th cent. NOVALIS, the literary cognomen of Fred- erick Von Hardenberg, a German literateur and poet, born at Mansfield near Eisleben, 1772, died 1801. His works were published by Tieck and Schlegel in 1814 the principal of them being lyrical poems and the philosophical romance 1 Heinrich Von Ofterdiugen.' 641 NOV NOVATUS, a presbyter of the church of Car- thage in the time of Cyprian, who procured his excommunication for heresy, and gave him occa- sion to form a new church. After this, in 251, Novatus went to Rome and became a partizan of his namesake, the subject of the following article. NOVATUS, NOVATIAN, or NOVATIAN US, supposed to be a native of Phrygia, and to have i Aper, who was stabbed witbout trial by Di NUMITOR, said to be the son of Pj NYS by order of the senate, when accidentally discover! four hundred years after bis time. NUMENIUS, a Christian Platonist, 2d centm- NUMERIANUS, Marcus An;i:i.n of Rome, succeeded his father, Cams, 2fc and is supposed to have been murdere months afterwards by his father-in-law, Arri been educated as a Stoic philosopher, was a pres- byter of the Roman Church, distinguished for his learning and eloquence. He is called the first anti- pope, from being chosen bishop of Rome by a min- ority of the clergy at the same time as Cornelius, whose election was confirmed by a council in 251. The party of Novatian was distinguished by their refusal to re-admit apostates to the communion of the church. This, with some other points of dis- cipline, gained for them the appellation of Cathari, or Puritans. The time of his death is uncertain. NOVERRE, J. G., a Fr. ballet comp., 1727-1810. NOVIKOFF, N. I., a Russian au., 1744-1818. NOWELL, Alexander, a dignitary of the Church of England, and the last surviving father of the reformation in this country, was born at Whalley, in Lancashire, 1507 or 1508. He was first employed as second master of Westminster school, and, in 1551, became one of the preben- daries of Westminster. He was among the exiles at Strasburg in the reign of Queen Mary, and, returning on the accession of Elizabeth, he became dean of St. Paul's in 1560. He is the author of the Church of England Catechism, and the founder of a free grammar school in his native county, and of thirteen Oxford scholarships. Died 1602. NOWELL, Laurence, younger brother of the preceding, became dean of Lichfield, and is known as the author of a Saxon Dictionary, now in the Bodleian library ; died 1576. NOY, William, attorney-general in the reign of Charles I., and author oi the ill-advised project for raising supplies without the consent of parlia- ment, 1577-1634. NUCK, A., a German anatomist, 1660-1692. NUGENT, George Grenville, Lord, known when a young man as Lord George Grenville, was the second son of the marquis of Buckingham, and brother of the late duke. He was born in 1789, and sat in tour parliaments, as member for Aylesbury, previous to the passing of the reform bill. In 1830 he became connected with the Whigs in the govern- ment ; and from 1832 to 1835 was lord high com- missioner of the Ionian Islands. He had no seat in the house from this period till 1847, when he appeared for his old constituency. Died 1850. Lord Nugent wrote ' Memorials ot Hampden and his Times,' and ' Lands, Classical and Sacred.' His name was generally a popular one. NUGENT, Robert Craggs, Earl, a descen- dant of the Nugeuts of Westmeath, known as a poet, died 1788. NUGENT, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer and translator, au. of a French Dictionary, died 1772. NUMA POMPILIUS, said to be the successor of Romulus as king of Rome, and distinguished as a philosopher and legislator, was of Sabine origin, and died after a reign of forty-three years, B.C. 672. ^ He was the founder of the most important religious institutions of the Romans, and left writ- ings explanatory of his system, which were burnt of Alba, and grandfather of Romulus. _ NUNEZ, or NUNNEZ, the name of several c tinguished Portuguese and Spaniards Aiqfl a physician and professor at Salamanca, died 16 Ferdinand, a learned philologist and class editor, about 1473-1553. Juan and Pedro, ( tinguished painters ; the former in the 16th o tury, the latter about 1614-1654. Matthi Nunez de Supe/veda, fresco painter to Philip ] in 1640, and Nunez de Villavicencio, a pupil Murillo, 1635-1700. NUNEZ DE BALBOA, a Spaniard, goven of the small colony of Darien, guided 1 of the Indians, that a great sea existed a fe^B journey to the south, undertook a most diffic and hazardous journey across the marshy tract! the isthmus in September, 1513, in th* I^H discovering the ocean so long the object to Coin bus of a fruitless search. Nearing at length watershed, his impatience became uncontrollal and he ran forward in advance of his men to eminence in sight. Having reached this, t mounted into a tree, his delighted eve fl^H the vast expanse of the boundless Pacific. now hurried forward, and plunging into the wa\ claimed the sovereignty of the ' Great South Si for the crown of Spain. From the natives of 1 coast he received the most wonderful accounts the power and wealth of the nations occupying 1 lands to the far south, which they affirmed tohi no end. Thirteen years after, the former statemi was fully confirmed by Pizarro ; six years af Magellan disproved the latter. Messengers immediately sent to Spain with the import, tidings; but instead of a reward, or import: appointment arriving for De Balboa, he was i: short time superseded in his government by Dav a mean, envious, and cruel man, who, four ye after, on some trifling accusation, had the hei discoverer of the Pacific put publicly to an igi minious death. NUNNING, J. H., a Ger. antiquary, 1675-17 NUVOLONE, the name of three painters Lombardy Pamfilo, the father, born about 16" died 1651. Carlo Francesco, his eldest s sumamed the Guido of Lombardy, 1608-18 Guisei-pe, younger brother of the latter, callet Pamfilo, a great painter of altar-pieces, 1619-17 NUZZI, Mario, an Italian painter, 1' NYE, Philip, a minister of the Chun ', land, who became a nonconformist, and have been a time-server and demagogue, 1 ' NYERUP, Erasmus, a Danish hisl NYMANN, G., a Germ, anatomist, 1594-t* m NYSTEN, Pierre Hubert, a Frew* } sician, distinguished for his researches in eleel physiology, author of a Dictionary Pathological Chemistry, and Experiments upon Muscular Organs of IVIan, and of the Red-lloo Animals, 1771-1818. 542 OAT {DATES, Titus, well known to English history ;a political intriguer in the reign of Charles II., l the son of an anabaptist preacher, and was in about 1619. He was educated for the Church England, and became chaplain in one of the g's ships, but was dismissed in disgrace, and ed the Jesuits. In September, 1678, having >ined the Church of England, he made a dis- ure of a pretended popish plot, which caused execution and imprisonment of many eminent ; and for which he received a handsome pen- and a residence at Whitehall, till the end of irles II.'s reign. On the accession of James, *as convicted of perjury and publicly whipped, recovered his liberty, and was pensioned again William III. Died 1705. BEID-ALLAK, a famous Arabian commander, ssively governor of Khorassan, Basrah, and fah ; killed 685. BEID-ALLAH, Abu Mohummed, the first >h of the Fatimite dynasty, reigned 910-933. BEiRNE, Thomas Lewis, an Irish prelate ra as a political and miscell. wr., 1748-1823. BEREIT, J. H., a Swiss alchymist, 1725-98, BERKAMP, F. J., a Ger. physician, 1710-176* F. Philip, prof, of anatomy, died 1793. ERKAMPF, C. Philip, the originator of ch manufac. of printed cotton, 1738-1815. RLIN, John Frederic, pastor of Wald- was born at Strasburg, on 1st August, 1740. father .held office in the Gymnasium of that and being a man of great vivacity, as well " "uous devotedness to his duties, was in the of taking his children on holidays to a small nial farm he possessed a few miles out of There entering into all the feelings and of boyhood, he joined in every active and y amusement, and especially, as playing ' at " was a favourite pastime, the father in- y acted the part or drummer and major. her, a woman of great talents, energy, imbued her family not only with her spirit and sound principles of religion, but her own passionate fondness for sacred and never did the children separate at night her leading the juvenile circle in chanting Luther's beautiful hymns. Dr. Lorentz, heal minister of high popular gifts, was ourite preacher, and as young Frederic fre- accompanied her to the Lutheran chapel, manner, as well as strains of the Doc- hing made such an impression on the and pious heart of the bov, that he shed the desire of devoting his future e service of God and the good of his fel- . Having completed his studies, and acted s as tutor in the family of an eminent sur- >?in Strasburg, Oberlin entered on the duties of ouUcred profession, by engaging to act in the 'lBty of chaplain to a French regiment which * uartered in the city. During the four years "* led that situation he prosecuted his private ')* with great ardour, and at the expiry of OBE mountainous district in Alsace. It was an exten- sive valley lying in a state of wild uncultivated na- ture, divided into two parishes, of which the Wald- bach was one, and comprising from eighty to a hun- dred families. These people, whose sequestered condition had hitherto placed them almost beyond [View ot tue Ban de la Roche.] the pale of civilization, were in a state of rude simplicity or rather barbarism, indolent and fil- thy because almost entire strangers to all the useful arts of lite ; and their state as to religion may be imagined from the fact, that they knew nothing of the Bible, except that it was a large book, said to have come from God. The idea of undertaking the pastoral duties of such a wild and neglected people, was a prospect from which most persons would have shrunk. But Oberlin was known to possess the self- denying spirit, the en- ergetic fortitude, and the enterprising genius suited to the exigencies of the place; and accordingly being urged by those who were interested in the regeneration of that people, he at length accepted the onerous charge. Oberlin was precisely of the cast of mind adapted for the Waldbach. A person of literary attainments or studious habits would have been perfectly useless in such a parish. The Eastor who aimed at doing any good required odily activity far more than study, and was under a necessity of combining physical and social with spiritual improvement. Wedded to habits of here- ditary indolence, the people made open resistance to Oberlin's first attempts at innovation; and although his experimental measures were of an ob- viously useful and practical character, they excused themselves in the usual spirit of the sluggard, on the plea that what had done for their fathers might well satisfy them. The resolute minister, no way discouraged, proceeded to the execution of his pro- jected schemes; and the first attempt he made was to form roads. Throughout the whole parish there was nothing but foot tracks, which were im- passable during the greater part of the year, and the Bruche, a stream that bounded it in the direc- , he resigned the office on obtaining a j tion of Strasburg was crossed only by a series of the Ban de la Roche, or Steinthal, a , stepping-stones, which, when the nvcr was swollen 543 OBE OCC by the winter rains, were submerged, so that for I who had entered with intelligent and nearly nine months the inhabitants were com- j activity into all his undertakings, her plr ':.] pletely secluded from all intercourse with the world. Oberlin proposed to throw a wooden bridge over this stream, and by excavating the mounds or blasting the rocks, construct a road to the city. Having assembled his parishioners in a field, be explained his design, and finishing his ad- dress with the words " Whoever is persuaded of the benefits of the bridge, let them follow me," he shouldered a pick-axe, and accompanied by his servant, commenced the work of excavation. The effect of his words and his example was electric. "When the first surprise was over, all classes old and young, otfered their assistance, and from morn- ing to night continued to labour for six months at their pastor's side with unabated assiduity till the bridge was erected. When opened, it received the name of Lepont de charite. The obvious advan- tages of this bridge disposed the parishioners to listen the more readily to other undertakings which their public-spirited pastor contemplated for their benefit. He opened roads to the neighbouring towns introduced the use of agricultural imple- ments sent the more promising boys, some to the nearest counties to learn farming, and others to Stras- burg to be taught the knowledge of different trades erected neat cottages instead of the wretched cabins of turf in which the inhabitants dwelt intro- duced the culture of the potato instead of the wild apples and pears which had hitherto formed their staple subsistence showed them the use of many common plants for food and physic instructed them in every useful art that tended to the comfort and advancement of social life, and made so many improvements in the villages, houses, fields, and gardens of the Steinthal, that the parish which at his entrance was a neglected waste, a dreary desert, began to blossom as the rose. These im- provements on the domestic, social, and agricultural economy of the Steinthal were only preparatory to other and higher reformations he contemplated on the moral state and religious character of the in- habitants. The confidence he had gained by his benevolent exertions for their temporal good he employed for promoting their spiritual welfare by establishing weekly prayer-meetings, introducing infant schools, as well as seminaries of a higher character, in which, besides the common branches of education, astronomy, agriculture, and various mechanical arts, such as plaiting straw, knitting, cotton-spinning by the hand, and the manufac- ture of silk ribbons were taught by masters and mistresses properly qualified for the office. He himself superintended the religious instruction of the children, teaching them not only to read and understand the history and principles of the Bible, but instructing them in a knowledge of sacred music by chanting the hymns sung in the church, and also of several branches of natural history, with a view of illustrating the perfections of God. By means of a printing press he had in his own house, he prepared religious tracts for distribution, and established itinerant libraries which, after being devoted to one village for three months, were then removed for the use of another. The expense of all these various schemes he was enabled to meet by the liberality of some Christian friends in Stras- burg. Oberlin having been deprived of his wife, care of his house as well as in the domes of the parish was supplied by a pious ai young woman, Louisa Schelper, who had long I resident in his family. There was need of so ea mical and prudent a manager; for during the orders consequent on the great French revolut Oberlin no longer enjoyed his scanty stipend, his maintenance was derived wholly from the i tributions of his parishioners. During the rn terror, however, when all worship elsewhere proscribed, he was allowed to minister to his fl an immunity for which he was indebted part the poor and isolated position of his parish, ! partly to the excellence of his own character, j at once the result and the evidence of the { improvements he had made, the populal Steinthal during his incumbency rose from iH or a hundred, to three thousand. Oberlin fl simple, earnest, evangelical preacher, and one c acteristic of his discourses was the numerous t\ dotes he introduced of persons eminent for p known to him by reading or intercourse. The p lation of his parish being of a mixed charactel preached on Sabbaths in French, and on F: evenings in German. Other meetings he hell reading to the people, and as he studied all to improve every moment of time, he causecl women to knit stockings; and when he had] or spoken long, he used to scop and say, are you tired yet?' or, 'you have had enough I night.' He was decorated by Louis XVIILj the legion of honour. Oberlin died in 1826, | age of eighty- six, having earned the ch being one of the most useful men that hav peared in any country in modern times. OBERLIN, Jeremiah James, elder br^ the preceding, distinguished as an antiquaria philological writer, b. at Strasburg 1735, d. ' OBICINI-OBIZZING, Thomas, a catho" sionary, afterwards professor of Oriental 1 died 1636. OBRECHT, Uletc, a Fr. juriscon., 1646-1 OBSEQUENS, Julius, a Latin wr., " OBSOPGEUS. See Opsop;gus. OCAMPO, F. D., a Span, historian, 16th I OCARIZ, or OCARITZ, Don Joseph, P lier D', a Spanish diplomatist, who held tl of charge ct affaires at Paris in 1792, and d ] guished himself by endeavouring to save XVL, born about 1750, died 1805. OCCAM, or OCKHAM. William of:; at Ockham in the county of Surrey about f of the thirteenth century; taught with success in Paris, in the early part of the ion a Franciscan, like his master, Duns Scotiuj greatest of the later Schoolmen by title f vincible Doctor;' the philosopher who gav final blow to the fantastic Realism of the ages, and perhaps the first effective blow authority of the Pope ; the predecessor of ' and Gerson, and, not remotely, the pr of Luther. It cannot be expected th work like this, any extensive appreciation given of a subject so thorny and strange Scholastic Philosophy ; nevertheless, oc be taken of our mention of Occam, to wa Student against hastily adopting those < 514 occ mmon views of its deserts, and its place in the story of Thought. Difficult to peruse, as most of e writings of these singular disputants unqes- jnably are, and in great part from the apparent irbarism of their language, it must not be over- Dked that this difficulty and uncouthness he- dged almost necessarily to the excessive subtlety id sagacity with which they attacked the highest oblenis that can engage the Human Intellect. falls to every new metaphysical school, or rather every great school in a new epoch, to invent in far its own language : take for example the itings of the Philosopher of Konigsberg, who, angely enough, was long reputed obscure 1 even unintelligible, because of the very pains took to render his expression of profoundest ought, about the clearest and most precise, of ich any language contains a record : nor is the lark of Mr. Hallam to be doubted, that as rds are meant to express precise ideas, ' it was mpossible,' in the times of which we speak, 'to te metaphysics in good Latin, as modern na- ilists have found it to describe plants and ani- s.' Besides the strangeness of terminology we must keep in mind that every age has a tion peculiar to itself, around which, as a centre, battle of Thought is contested; and it is by taking account of this specialty, and rating from it the tactics and efforts of the ending Parties, that one can come to recognize dentity in all ages, of these Parties and Tactics at one can discern in the East, in Greece and late, in those Middle Ages, and in mo- Europe, the representatives and movements orces, whose antagonism is perpetual, and whose conflicts we live. The form in which Schoolmen placed the great question they led, was mainly a grammatical one; but, ieath that form, those precise problems were 3 which divided the followers of Aristotle Xo, which sever Descartes and Hobbes, and Kant. If sometimes subtle to a fault, ute apparently to painful affectation an into which the grammatical form of their " ns inevitably led them Aquinas, Sco- hn, Abelard, and Occam, were neither nor sciolists, but brave divers into the of human thought: men who struggled 1 with the difficulties, the doubts, and the Soul : and, by their energy of purpose, ce in speech, and the firmness of the grasp hich they held the tendencies of their time, 'n emancipated the World. Let us note in on, and in general and catholic terms, the which engaged Occam. It is universally that Schoolmen became finally divided great sects Realists and Nominalists, -.er, whose leaders were Aquinas and Duns had a subdivision into Thomists and Sco- latter including the Conceptualists the great names of lioscelin, Abelard, The following were the positions by Occam. In those days as now, the first ' dispute was the Theory of Perception, we perceive ? How do Mind and Matter Occiim maintains that we know only two the existence of an object, and the exis- menlal impression. The notion of transmitted, he declares a pure fantasy. 645 OCC Certain senses, he says, receive an image of ex- ternal objects, (sight, for instance), but this recep- tion accompanies the act of perceiving, and does not constitute it. There are but two partial causes of sensation the Subject which feels; and the Object, that is perceived: further, we know nothing and need not inquire. And so of objects remembered: he rejects with equal decision the theory then in vogue, that we perceive or image what is past, through effect of Resemblances of objects continuing, as essences or shadows in the Mind : he says that Recollection is a power of the mind, and that we cannot define it more minutely. So also with regard to general terms or notions. They result from the action of the Intellect, on things perceived. Intelligible Species or Entities, representing general ideas, he utterly repudiates. The Mind, which has the faculty to perceive objects, has also a power to abstract, to compare, to differ- entiate, to combine. And so, it forms conceptions corresponding to these operations, and expresses their results. There was a prevalent belief or posi- tion connected with this subject, in reference to the Divine mind. His attributes of Justice, Good- ness, Wisdom, &c, were imagined separate Enti- ties, with which he held council, on proceeding to act. No! said Occam, these are modes or forms of the Supreme Reason ; they are At- tributes, and not Entities. The Nominalism of Occam as thus expressed, certainly does not reach that of Hobbes and Locke ; nor indeed can we easily distinguish it from views that would not be termed Nominalist, in these our modern times. But is it not easy to recognize, in the basis of such dis- putations, the most important difficulties of Philo- sophy those very problems that agitate ns still? One thing at least is clear ; questions of such sort regarding all things Human and Divine, clothed in any garb even in the grammatical could not be {>resented with the ardour of an Abelard, or the ogic of Occam, without stirring men's souls to an extent, so that no dogma of Popish Infallibility, could lay the tumult again. Occam, as we, have said, was therefore a legitimate progenitor of Luther: but another point of most anxious interest is inseparable from the subject we contemplate, we mean the singular influence on the fates of the World, of the genius of the French or Gallic race. It may be taken now almost as an historic maxim, that the Teuton originates Thought, France dif- fuses it, and the Anglo-Saxon realizes it, and gathers its good fruits. How strange in the providence of God, that Paris, even under its most absolute Monarchs, should have been the source moral as well as material of mightiest Revolutions ! Is it that the peculiar genius of the Gallic Race, endows it with the gift to foresee, as well as the facility to be dazzled, by new Ideas? Paris when most Catholic, was, par excellence, the seat of those intellectual strifes which ulti- mately destroyed the Pope : Paris when most absolute, was, through the popularity of the Encyclopaedists, the centre of those influences which first introduced the wildest Republicanism into Europe: Paris under a profound despotism, ploughed up the roots of every despotism in the old Continent : Paris, now, in its fresh anomalous condition, has, we doubt not, a similar and sin- gular Destiny to fulfil. [J.P.N.] 2N occ OCCHIALI, the common appellation of Kilig- Ali, captain pacha under Selim II., distinguished at the battle of Lepanto 1572, died about 1577. OCCO, AuoLrnus, a Ger. numism., 1524-1605. OCELLUS-LUCANUS, a Pythagorean philo- sopher, supposed author of a work ' On the Uni- verse,' B.C. 500. OCHINUS, B., an Italian polemic, 1487-1564. OCHS, Peter, a doctor of law, dist. at Basle for his part in the Helvetic revolution, 1749-1821. OCHTERLONY, Sir David, an officer in the service of the East India Company, disting. in the Nepaulese war, b. in New England, 1758, d. 1825. OCKLEY, Simon, distinguished for his Orien- tal learning, and his zeal in promoting the culture of the Arabian language, of which he was professor at Cambridge, was born at Exeter 1678, and died, prematurely, 1720. His principal works are a ' History of the Saracens,' a ' Life of Mahomet,' a ' History of the Present Jews,' from the Italian of Leo Modena, ' An Introduction to the Oriental Languages,' and 'The Improvement of Human Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yok- dhan,' translated from the Arabic O'CONNELL, Daniel, was born near Cahir Siveen in the county of Kerry, on the 6th of Au- gust, 1775. In his youth, and subsequently as the hospitable lord of Derrynane Abbey, he lived [Derryiiane Abbey.] much amid the wild scenery, and as wild popula- tion of his native district. It is still a scarcely accessible territory, with but scanty road com- munication through the narrow gaps in the moun- tain ranges, and so sterile, as to present even a part of Ireland thinly peopled. It is impossible to look at O'Connell's career and character with- out believing that the spot with which his career was so closely connected, had a characteristic in- fluence on his mind. His father was a petty landowner. Whether O'Connell was of high or humble birth, has been a matter ever disputed. He claimed high descent, and it was conceded to him by his Irish followers ; but this is one of the characteristics without which that singular people would never acknowledge leadership. It was necessary as a point of policy that he should be reported to come of the true old blood, and when he swept through the crowd in his great family coach, broadly emblazoned with a quartered shield OCO and conspicuous supporters, it was evident tl the large-built, handsome, rather highly dreta man, who looked around with the air of an Earn prince, was by no means the democratic Icadej a republican people. He had an uncle who nj high in the military service of France, of whonl used to speak as ashamed to own that his neplj occupied the humble position of an avocat. was educated at St. Owen and Douay, and at )j destined for the church, but the relaxation wll admitted Roman Catholics to the bar, opened! him a more brilliant career. He kept his term! the Middle Temple, and was admitted to the bar in Easter term, 1798. He was a very II student, and is described by Sir Jonah Barnnjl as having ' bottled ' a quantity of legal knowhf for subsequent use. His great characteristic] deed, as a daring leader of the people agains existing order of things, was the wonderful s ] city with which he could march along the b<| dary line of strict legal action without crossii or committing either himself or his followers, the Irish bar he was beyond all question the I advocate of his day, whether for oratory or a r j adaptation of the law. And thus, wl known that he collected large subsidies froi fellow-countrymen in the form of what was [ the patriotic rent, it must at the same til remembered that he gave up a practice as hi the as the Irish bar could afford. His later < is intimately connected with the recollectioij all who have paid attention to the passing of the day. It may be mentioned, howeve chronologically fixing the commencement historical career, that it was in the year 180 he first came forth as a champion of the Roman Catholics, by boldly proposing, in a meeting of the body in William- Street, Di the establishment of a general committee.] 1815 he made himself unpleasantly notor" killing in a duel Mr. D'Esterre, who cha him for calling the corporation of Dublin be When the ' Catholic Association,' aff formed by him, was denounced by the lav found means of evading the penalties, and r structing the association on a tinner basis. he proceeded systematically to obtain ele persons who could not take the oaths, st saw the necessity of concession, and the Catholic Emancipation Act was passed, the Reform Bill he became conspicuous head of a parliamentary body, who, acknowl his leadership, and voting together, were ' O'Connell's Tail.' About the year 1840 hei out the agitation for the repeal of the which became a failure in his hands. In i 1844 the government of Sir Robert Peel to grapple with him and the repeal agit gan criminal proceedings, and obtained tion, followed by a sentence of imprison it was reversed in the House of Lords, nell, however, was now an old man- shook his nerves and his position. It was 1 by the miseries of the potato blight, i 15th of May, 1847, he died during a Italy, which was called a pilgrimage, a posed to partake of a penitential or religld acter. O'CONNOR, General Arthur, uncle 546 oco ntorions Feargus O'Connor, and one of the prin- pal actors in the Irish rebellion of 1798, was riginally a barrister, and having the good fortune ) escape punishment, after that event went to ranee/ where the first Consul appointed him eneral of division. In 1809 he married the aughter of the famous Condorcet, niece on her lother's side to Marshal Grouchy, and in 1834 urchased the chateau of Bignon from the heirs of [irabeau, where he died 1852. j O'CONNOR, Chakles, a catholic clergyman, ithor of works elucidating Irish history, d. 1828. O'CONNOR, Roderick, king of Connaught, the time of the conquest of Ireland by Henry II. O'CONNOR, Turlogh, called 'the Great,' a jng of Connaught, who aimed at the entire sove- featr of the country, 1088-1156. CTAVTA, the sister of Augustus, illustrious her virtues, her beauty, and her accomplish- nts, was the widow of Claudius Marcellus, by ^jbe had a son and two daughters, when she s married, at the instance of her brother, to the wnvir, Mark Antony. The latter neglected her Cleopatra, queen of Egypt ; notwithstanding ich, Octavia displayed the most noble fidelity to and fortunes, and devoted herself to the ication of all his children. She died of the de- into which she was thrown by the loss of i by Marcellus, who was the intended heir Augustus, and who was idolized by the people iome, B.C. 11. [E.R.] )CTAVIA, a daughter of the emperor Claudius "essalina. She was the sister of Britannicus, at the age of sixteen, became the wife of The latter divorced her and married Pop- at whose instance she was put to death in twentieth year of her age, a.d. 62. DARPJ, G., an Italian painter, 1663-1731. ENATUS, Septimius, son of an Arabian who allied himself with the Romans against , king of Persia, and, after defeating the was associated with Gallienus in the em- He was married to Zenobia, who remained qu. myra after his death. Assassinated 267. ERICO-DE-PORTENAU, a cele. Francis- ionary, author of his travels, 1286-1331. ERICO, G. L., an Italian numismatist, 1803. pESCALCHI, the name of two noble philan- "ts of Rome the first of whom, Mark An- w, was cousin to Innocent XL, and founder . hospital for the destitute, died 1670. The id, Thomas, almoner to the same pope, foun- Fan institution for the education and employ- I of poor children, died 1692. MER, Lewis, a physician of Geneva, who ~"ished himself by the introduction of vac- the continent, author of a 'Manual of Medicine,' 1748-1817. !R, P. A., a Fr. administrator, 1774-1825. X)N, St., a famous abbot of Clugny, dis- edas a Latin poet and theologian, 962-1048. JGTON, Walter, commonly called ' Wal- JSvesham,' being abbot of that monastery, " in music and astronomy, 13th cent. . a Romish saint, and abbot of Clugny, for his reforms in monastic discip., 879-943. 1 OF Kent, a Iiencdictine monk, who be- iccessively prior of St. Saviour's and abbot OER of Battle Abbey. He is the author of some learned writings, and was a friend of Becket, died 1200. OECOLAMPADIUS, John, was born at Weinsperg in Franconia in the year 1482. He was educated at Heilbrun, and afterwards at Heidelberg. At Stutgard he met with the famous Rcuchlin, under whom he studied Greek so ardently as in a short time to compose and publish a Greek gram- mar. In 1515 he began to preach, and he cor- dially assisted Erasmus at Basle in publishing his Annotations on the New Testament. After this he entered the monastery of St. Bridget at Augs- burg, but after two years left it for more active labours. In 1521 the protestant light began to dawn upon him, and he soon came to the assist- ance of Zwingli, thte Swiss Reformer, and con- curred with him in his views of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in opposition to Luther. He was mingled up for many years in those discus- sions, and in the conventions held to secure agree- ment. He disputed with Dr. Eck at Baden, and the debate lasted eighteen days. Basle was his head-quarters, and the scene of his earnest and multiplied pastoral labours. In 1531 he was seized with severe and sudden sickness, and he died in December of that year, in the forty-ninth year of his age. He has left behind him several works, but his special memory lies in his living diligence, meekness, prudence, self-denial, and success in carrying on the Swiss reformation from Popery. His original name was Hausschein, House-lamp, which he, according to a prevalent custom, changed into the Greek surname Oecolampadius, of similar meaning. TJ.E.] OECUMENIUS, a Gr. commentator, 10th cent. OEDER, G. C, a German botanist, 1728-1791. OEFELS, A. F. D', a Ger. savant, 1706-1780. OEHLENSCHL^EGER, Adam, the greatest dramatic poet of the Scandinavian North, was b. 1777. He commenced his career on the stage, but abandoned the profession for literature, and finally became professor of Esthetics in his native city. Among his greatest works may be mentioned 1. 'The Death of Balder;' 2. 'The Gods of the North;' 3. 'Aladdin;' 4. ' Staerkodder ;' 5. 'Ha- kem-Jarl;' 6. 'Palnatoke;' 7. 'Axel and Val- borg ;' 8. ' The Admiral Fordens Kjold,' and many others. Died 28th January, 1850. OEHLMULAR, D. J., a Ger. archit,, 1791-1823. OELRICHS, G., a Germ, antiquarian, 1727-89. OELRICHS, J. C. C, a Genu, bist,, 1722-98. OELRICHS, J. G. A., a Ger. savant, 1767-91. OENOMAUS, a Greek philosopher, 2d century. OENOPIDES of Chio, a Pythagorean philo- sopher, 5th century B.C. OERN, N., a traveller and wr. on Lapland, 1707. OERNHEIM, or ORNSJOELMS, Claudius, called in Latin Aorhenius, a Swed. hist., 1625-95. OERNSCHOELD, P. Abraham, Baron De, founder of the manufacture of linens and prints in Sweden, died 1770. OERSTED, Hans Christian, professor of physics at the university of Copenhagen, and secretary of the Academy of Sciences in that city, was born 1777. He is the author of numerous works in physics more especially in magnetism and chemistry, most of which are written in Latin. His last production, in Danish, entitled 'Aanden a, Naturen,' caused a great sensation. Died 1851. 547 OES OESER, A. F., a painter and engraver of Pres- burg, 1717-1799. His son, Frederic, died 1792. OETINGER, Fred. Christopher, a learned philologist and mystic divine of Gennanv, who finally became prelate of Murhard, in Wurtem- berg, and died at the age of eighty, 1782. His principal work is the ' Earthly and Heavenly Phi- losophy of Swedenbor^ and Others,' which included notices of Bcehmen, Malebranche, Newton, Clu- vers, Wolffe, Plouquet, Bagliv, and Fricker. This publication involved him in considerable trouble with the Consistory; and in a controversy with Faber. Oetinger, however, was protected by the duke of Wurtemberg, as Dr. Tafel has been in the same cause by the present king. The son of Oetinger published a work, entitled ' Metaphysica et Che- mica,' his father at the time being interdicted from writing. This prelate was a great master of the philosophy of Leibnitz. [E.R.] OETTER, S. W., a German historian, 1720-92. OEXMELIN, A. 0., a Flem. buccaneer, au. of a History of the Adventures to India,' publ. 1686. O'FARRIL, G., a Spanish general, 1784-1831. OFFA, the successor of his uncle, Ethelbald, as king of Mercia, was placed on the throne after a successful insurrection in 757. He greatly ex- tended his kingdom, and added that of the East Angles to it by treacherously murdering Ethelbert. In nis latter years, he made peace with his con- science by the foundation of St. Alban's Abbey, and an annual payment to the pope, known in after ages as Peter's pence. Died 796. OGDEN, Samuel, a learned minister of the Church of England, born at Manchester 1716, master of Halifax school 1744-1753, and, finally, rector of Lawford and Stansfield ; died 1778. He is the author of some popular ' Sermons.' OGE, a Creole of the French colony of St. Do- mingo, who distinguished himself at the period of the revolution, as leader of an insurrection. Being overpowered by the troops, he and his lieutenant, Chavannes, were broken on the wheel. OGEE, J., a French geographer, 1728-1789. OGIER, C, a French writer of his travels and residence in the North of Europe, 1595-1654. OGILBY, John, an ingenious Scotchman, dist. as a literary speculator and author, 1600-1676. OGILVIE, John, a Scottish divine and poet, author of ' Philosophical and Critical Observations on Composition,' ' Evidence of Prophecy,' and an epic poem entitled ' Britannia,' 1733-1814. OGINSKI, Count, a Polish patriot, 1731-1803. OGLETHORPE, James Edward, an English officer, who distinguished himself in the German wars under Prince Eugene, and afterwards as chief founder of the colony of Georgia. Being sent in pursuit of the rebels in 1745, and not overtaking them, he was tried by court-martial, and honour- ably acquitted. Born in Surrey 1698, died 1785. O'HALLORAN, Sylvester, an Irish antiqua- rian, author of an Introduction to Irish History,' a 'General History of Ireland,' &c, 1728-1807. O'HARA, Kane, an Irish dramatist, died 1782. OIPENART, A., a Spanish historian, 16th cen. OISEL, or OUZEL, J., a Ger. civilian, 1631-86. OISEL, or OUSEL, P., a Ger. Hebr., 1671-1724. OISELAY, J. D', a French poet, 15th century. O'KEEFE, J., an Irish comedian, 1746-1833. OKOLSKI, F. S., a Polish historian, 17th cent. OLE OLAFSEN, the name of several distingaial Icelanders Magnus, a clergyman, and La translator of the Edda, 1573-1636. Stephi translator of the Edda and Voluspa, died 16* Eggert, a minister, distinguished as a naturali 1721-1776. His brother, John, an antiquaru 1731-1801. A third brother, Magnus, an adu nistrator and writer, 1728-1800. OLAHUS, Nicholas, a Hungarian prelate a statesman, au. of a ' History of Attila,' 1493-16< OLAUS, or OLOF, the first of the Swedi chiefs who received the title of king, born 98 received at his baptism the English name of Su fried 1008, died 1026. OLAUS, the name of two Danish kings i\ first of whom reigned in Jutland onlv, and n killed 814. The second, reigned 1086-1095. OLAUS, the first of the name, king of Nonr; reigned 994- 1000. The second, 1014-1 1 third, shared the throne with Magnus II., 10< 1096, and reigned alone 1069-1093. ThejH reigned, with his two brothers, 1103-1116. II fifth, born 1370, became king of Denmark ail Waldemar, 1376, and king of Norway on the del of his father, 1380 ; died 1387. OLAUS, P., a Danish chronicler, 16th cental OLAVIDES, Pablo Antonio Josef, Col De Pilos, a Spanish statesman, distinguished al promoter of agricultural industry in the Sie' Morena, and author of a religious work, entit 'The Triumph of the Gospel,' 1725-1803. OLBERS, H. W. M., a Ger. astron., 1758-18 OLDCASTLE, Sir John, commonly called ' good Lord Cobham,' was a domestic of the ecl of Henry V., and is both the first author and \\ martyr of our nobility. Becoming a disciple,' Wickliffe, he devoted Ins wealth and ene^H the propagation of the reformed doctrines, I which he was hung in chains and then burnt all 1417. His life has been written by Gilpin. OLDENBURG, Henry, a physician, bong the duchy of Bremen 1626, who became on^H first members, and the colleague of Dr. MM in the secretaryship of the Royal Society. ' published the ' Philosophical Transactions ' f 1665-1677, and died 1678. OLDERMAN, J., a learned German, 1 OLDFIELD, Anne, an Eng. actress. 1 1 OLDHAM, Hugh, an English prelate, to have been born at Oldham, near M; founder of the grammar school in the la town, and a great benefactor of Corpu- Oxford; died 1519. OLDHAM, John, a satiric poet, 16"; OLDISWORTH, W., a miscel. writer, d. Vt OLDMIXON, J., an historical wr., 1 1 OLDOINI, A., an Italian savant, 1(51 OLDSWORTH, E., an Eng. writer, 1 OLDYS, William, distinguished as {)hical writer, and for his great knowleiU ish books, was the natural son of Dr. \ chancellor of Lincoln, and was born 1 was almost constantly employed by the bookselij and died 1761. His principal works are a ' of Sir Walter Raleigh,' 'The British Librana* translation of Camden's 'Britannia,' and signed G. in the ' Biographia Britannica.' OLEARIUS, the name by which Adam CJff scHLiEGER is generally known, a famou.- 548 OLE Teller and mathematician, author of Stories m the Persian, a Voyage to the Indies, a Chro- le of Holstein, &c., 1599-1671. 3LEARIUS, Godfrey, a German divine, author biblical translations, &c, 1604-1685. John, son, author of ' Sacred Hermeneutics,' and vari- i theological works, 1639-1713. John God- ey, elder brother of the latter, an ecclesiastical grapher, 1635-1710. Godfrey, son of John, of historical and theological works, 1672-1715. 3'LEARY, Arthur, an Irish priest, distin- shed for his loyalty to the English government, hor of ' Addresses,' and of ' A Defence of his nduct and Writings,' 1729-1802. 3LEASHER, J., a Portuguese divine, d. 1663. UENSCHLjEGER, J. D., called ' Olearius,' a rman publicist and historical writer, 1711-1778. RLESNIKI, S., a Polish cardinal, died 1455. bLEY, Barnabas, a learned divine, who be- le archdeacon of Ely after the restoration, and I 1686. He published the works of Dr. Jack- and Herbert's ' Country Parson.' LGA, a woman of obscure birth, who became wife of Igor, grand duke of Russia ; and after death of her husband, in 945, governed the try for ten years as regent. Having become ristian, and contributed to the spread of the , she is regarded as a saint in the Greek " ; died 968. GIERD, grand duke of Lithuania, 1330-81. IER, J. J., a French ascetic writer, 1608-57. UNA, J. P., an Italian naturalist, 16th cent. uIVA, Alessandro, a Ital. cardinal, 1408-63. LIVA, F. P. D', a Span, wr., abt. 1497-1533. LlVA, John, an Italian antiquary, author of Progress and Decay of Roman Learning,' 689-1757. ^ * AREZ, Gasper Guzman, Count Duke Spanish statesman, devoted to the house of descended from the Guzmans of Castile, Rome, during his father's embassage to Quintus, about 1587, minister for twenty- during the reign of Philip IV. and his enemy, Richelieu, died a few months after " 1643. ECRANTZ, John Paulin, a Swedish , and master of polite literat., 1633-1707. R, Isaac, an English miniature painter, 7. His son, Peter, same profession, John, supposed to be his nephew, a on glass, 1616-1700. R, W., a physician of Bath, died 1764. T, Joseph Toulier D', a Fr. Jesuit, an elegant writer and classic, 1682-1768. TAN, Peter Robert, a relative and of Calvin, said to have been poisoned at 1536, and, by other accounts, to have Ferrara 1538. He was one of the first re- and published a French version of the s, which became the foundation of the Bible. RA, Francis Xavier De, a Portu- , who was connected with several em- becoming a protestant, took up his England, 1702-1783. RA, S., a Portuguese rabbin, d. 1708. R, C. M., a French critic, 1701-1736. F., chancellor of France, 1497-1560. James, a president of the parlia- ONK ment of Paris, born about 1460, died 1519. His son, John, a poet, and grand almoner, afterwards bishop of Angers, died 1540. OLIVIER, S., prof, of canon law, 1538-1609. OLIVIER, W. A., a Fr. naturalist, 1756-1814. OLIVIERI, A. C, an Ital. antiquary, 1708-89. OLIVIERI, D., an Italian painter, 1679-1755. OLLIVIER, R., a French writer, 1727-1814. OLMOS, F. A., a Span, missionary, died 1571. OLYBRIUS, Flavius Anicius, emperor of the West, died after a three months' reign, 472. OLYMPIAS, daughter of Pyrrhus, and wife of Alexander, king of Epirus, died about 240 B.C. OLYMPIAS, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, wife of Philip, king of Macedon, and mo- ther of Alexander the Great. Having been re- pudiated by Philip, shortly before his assassi- nation, b.c. 336, she is supposed to have instigated that crime, and was guilty of great atrocities dur- ing the minority of her son. Put to death b.c. 317. OLYMPIODORUS, a Platonic philosopher of Alexandria, commencement of the 6th century. Another philosopher of the same name and place, author of a commentary on Aristotle, about the end of the 6th century. A third savant of this name was deacon of Alexandria about the end of the 7th century, and wrote Commentaries. OLZOFFSKI, Andrew, a Polish statesman and prelate, distinguished for his wisdom and pa- triotism, born 1678. OMAR, the first caliph of the name, and father- in-law of Mahomet, succeeded Aboubeker 634, conquered Jerusalem 637, and Alexandria 640. It was on this occasion that the great library of the Ptolemies was destroyed, and in the reign of Omar that the institutions of the Mahommedans began to assume their proper form. He was assassi- nated by a Persian slave 644. The second Omar succeeded 717, and was assassinated 720. OMAR, the fourth and last Arabian king of Badajoz, sue. his brother 1082, and was k. 1090. OMAR, a eel. Mussulman doctor, abt. 1068-1142. OMAR-PACHA, dey of Algiers, 1815-1817. OMAYAH, or OMMIAH, a prince who ruled the Arabian tribe of Khoreish, the same to which Mahomet belonged, before the advent of the latter at the commencement of the 7th century. He was the stock of the Ommiade caliphs. O'MEARA, Barry Edward, a surgeon in the British navy, whose medical skill and knowledge of Italian induced the emperor Napoleon to invite him to St. Helena, in the capacity of his medical attendant. He remained with the emperor till 1818, when a rupture occurred between him and Sir Hudson Lowe, whose conduct he deemed op- pressive, and he returned to England. He became a partizan of O'Connell in his later years, and died 1836, at the age of sixty-six. He wrote ' A Voice from St. Helena,' and several other works on the same subject. OMMEGANCK, B. B., a Fie. painter, 1775-1826. ONESICRITUS, a Gr. historian, 4th cent. b.c. ONIAS, the name of several high priests of the Jews the first of whom governed the Hebrew re- public, 322-302 B.C. The second, 233-219 B.C. The third, who is much spoken of in the book of the Maccabees, 199-170 B.C. The fourth, called also Menelaus, reigned 172-162 B.C. ONKELOS, a celebrated rabbin, supposed to 549 ONO have been a native of Babylon, and to have flour- ished about the time of our Lord. He wrote tbe Cbaldee Targum, or paraphrase on the Pentateuch, which is remarkable for the purity of its language, and conformity with the Hebrew text. OXOMACRILUS, a Greek poet, 6th cent. B.C. ONOSANDER, a Greek Platonist, whose only remaining work is a discourse on the duties and virtues of the general of an army, 1st century. OORT, Lambrecht Van, a Flemish historical painter, born in 1520. Adam, his son, 1557-1641. OOST, Jacob Van, the elder, a Flemish painter, greatly distinguished for his numerous altar-pieces, born about 1600, died 1671. His son, of the same names, called the Younger, a portrait and his- torical painter, 1637-1713. OOSTERWICK, Maria Van, a pupil of J. De Heam, celebrated for her exquisite fruit and flower painting, 1630-1693. OPIE, Amelia, was the daughter of the late distinguished physician, Dr. Alderson, of Norwich, and the sister of Mr. Baron Alderson. She was married to John Opie, the eminent historical pain- ter, in 1784, and survived him nearly half a century. From an early period she devoted herself to literary pursuits, principally in the composition of works of fiction and moral tales. These have been chiefly admired for their simplicity and genial feeling. Her public literary career extended from 1805, when she published her ' Adeline Mowbray,' down to 1834, when her ' Lays for the Dead' issued from the press. Besides these she is the author of 'Detraction Displayed,' 'Father and Daughter,' ' Madeline,' ' Temper,' ' Valentine's Eve,' &c. But her happiest effort is considered to be the ' Illus- trations of Lying.' For the last twenty-five years of her life she was a member of the Society of Friends, and lived in the strictest retirement at Norwich, where in 1853 she died, aged 84. OPIE, John, the famous historical painter, was son of a carpenter, and was born in the neigh- bourhood of Truro, Cornwall, 1761. Having shown many proofs of his genius, he commenced painting under the advice of Dr. Wolcott, and at the age of twenty was introduced to Sir Joshua Reynolds, in London. He succeeded Fuseli as professor or painting at the Royal Academy, and was a lecturer at the Royal Institution. He wrote ' An Inquiry into the Requisite Cultivation of the Arts of Design in England.' Died 1807. OPINEER, P., a Dutch annalist, 1526-1595. OPITZ, or OPITIUS, Henry, a German divine and Orientalist, whose singular opinions as the pupil of Matthias Wasmuth, subjected him to much enmity ampng the learned, 1642-1712. OPITZ, or OPITIUS, Martin, regarded as the father of modern German poetry, 1597-1639. OPPIAN, a Gr. poet and grammarian. 3d cent. OPPIUS CAIUS, the name of two Romans the first, a tribune of the people, B.C. 215. The second, one of Caesar's lieutenants, 50 B.C. OPSOP.EUS, J., a German critic, 1556-1596. OPSOPiEUS, V., a Ger. philologist, died 1540. OPSTRAET, J., a Fr. Jansenist, 1651-1720. ORCAGNA, A., an Italian painter, 1320-1389. ORDERIC, Vitalis, an English monk of French . kn. as an ecclesiastical historian, 12th cen. ORDINAIRE, C. N., a Fr. naturalist, 1736-1809. OREGGIO, A., an Ital. theologian, 1577-1635. ORI O'REILLY, Alexanijer, Count, an Irish m ral, disting. in the service of Spain, 1735-179-1 O'REILLY, Andrew, Count, a native of L land, who became a general of cavalry in the! vice of Austria, and was governor of Vienna < it capitulated, 1741-1832. ORELLANA, Francisco, a Span, advent regarded as the discoverer of the Amazons, U ORESME, N., an eminent Fr. prelate, d. ' ORFANEL, Hyacinth, a Spanish missic and hist, of Japan, where he was burnt alive, ', ORFILA, M., a physician, celebrated fo: contributions to toxicological chemistry, bo Port Mahon in 1783, died in Paris 1853. ORGAGNA, A., an Italian painter, 1329- ORIANI, B., an Italian astronomer, 1753- : ORIBASIUS, a Greek physician, 4th cent ORIENT, J., a Hungarian painter, died 1' ORIENTIUS, St., bishop of Auch, d. abt ORIGEN, sumamed Adamantius, was at Alexandria about the year a.d. 186. father, Leonides, an intelligent and edu Christian, was martyred in the year Origen, his mother, and six younger sons, left in great destitution. The fatherless studied under Clemens Alexandrihus and monius Saccas, and made so great proficiency in his eighteenth year Demetrius the bishop ' him to the office of catechist. In this positit success in teaching Christianity was so great his life was threatened by his pagan ad\ During this period he practised peculiar auste and subjected himself to a strange agreeably to what he deemed the correct x of the statement in Matthew xix. 12. He | library of secular books for a perpetual i four oboli a-day, went without shoes, and sit the ground. About the year 212 he made i visit to Rome. On his return to Alexancb devoted himself more exclusively and to biblical studies. Among the persons i from error by him, was a man of Ambrose, who gratefully supplied his seven amanuenses and as many copyists, ger in which persecution placed him, obi: leave Alexandria in 215, and he tooi Caesarea. Here, though invested with astical office, he publicly expounded the 1 In the year following he was recalled dria, and still pursued his Scripture stn mediately afterwards he journeyed into his way through Palestine he was presbyter, and at Antioch had an inte earnest request, with Mammaea, mot emperor Alexander Severus. Tin trius, who had been for some tiii growing fame of Origen, now openly atts on his return. In an assembly of ; nounced sentence of exile upon Origen, ai in another degraded him from tin sent a circular to all the bishops concurrence in the judgment. In ever, Origen was protected ; he lived, stn preached in Caesarea. Persecution broke ' under Decius, and he was imprisoi lie showed himself prepared for was at length released. His si; shortened his life, and he died at 253, about his sixty- ninth year. The pi 560 ORI id character of Origen were marked by great piety, oderation, meekness, humility, and industry, nder trying provocation he maintained an un- ified temper, and in times of danger he was never inerved. His orthodoxy was impeached during s lifetime, and Origenism became in succeeding nturies an interminable theme of wrangling and cusation. The fancy of Origen did lead him ten astray into wild and extravagant specula- ns, such as the dream of an ante-natal exis- lce, the pre-existence of Christ's human soul, d the final restoration of men and fallen spirits, s grammatical knowledge did not preserve him m the common and enticing error of spiritual- g, or allegorizing Scripture. As a defender of faith, Origen was far before any of his contem- ies, as may be seen in his book ' against Celsus,' I the remains of the Philocalia, which was apiled out of his writings by Basil and Gregory Nazianzus, and principally from this clever nee. In the shape or commentary, scholia, homilies, he published on nearly the whole of ipture, though only a few portions of these iminous works have been preserved. His trea- De Principiis ' is extant in the Latin version lufinus. Others of his numerous works exist in scanty fragments. The ' Exhortation to tyrdom,' and the book * On Prayer,' have come to us. Eusebius speaks of having collected dred of his letters. But one chief province n's literary labours was upon the text of ture. His famous Hexapla, the best known s editions, presents, in successive columns the Hebrew in Greek characters, and the versions of Aquila, Symmachus, the ty, and Theodotion; other Greek versions occasionally added in additional columns. was a critical attempt to amend the text of " tuagint. The surviving remains of this and costly polyglot were published by Mont- in 2 folio volumes, Paris, 1714. The editions of Origen's works were chiefly in versions, such as those of Merlin, Erasmus, , and Genebrard. Huet published the exegeti- " in 2 folios, Rouen, 1688 ; but the Edi- ps is the Benedictine one, of De La Rue, 1733-59, 4 vols., folio, reprinted in fifteen by Oberthiir, Wurzburg, 1785. A later by Lommatzsch in twenty -five 12mo was printed at Berlin, 1832-48, and a was published by Redepenning in two i at Bonn, 1846. With all his skilled dili- lin biblical literature, Origen was not a safe J in theology. There is at the same time no that many of his works were interpolated, lis plain that he was prone to theorize, and "iund hypotheses which could not be sus- His hints were by and by broadened by into assertions, and his conjectures changed pve affirmations. We cannot but admire and erudition, though we smile at his _/, and refuse to admit the truth of many | dogmas with which his name has been so ^ected. [J.E.] JEN, the disciple and friend of Porphyry, ' the same time as the preceding, and was >r of Plotinus in the chair of philosophy mdria. DDL Cl., an Ital. architect, 1694-1775. ORL ORLANDT, P. A., an Ital. art-writer, 1660-1727. ORLANDINI, N., an Italian Jesuit, known as the first historian of his order, 1554-1606. ORLAY, B. Van, a Flem. painter, b, abt. 1490. ORLAY, J. Van, a Flem. painter, b. abt. 1656. ORLEANS, an ancient dukedom, and titular name borne by the princes of the blood royal in France, of which there are two lines : 1. The first line has given the following names to history : Louis I. of France, duke d'Orleans, second son of Charles V., born 1371, became regent in conse- quence of the mental incapacity of his brother, Charles VI., 1393, and was murdered by his cousin, the duke of Burgundy, 1407. This event was the source of the bloody feuds between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy. Charles, son of the pre- ceding, duke of Angouleme in his father's lifetime, taken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, died while attempting the conquest of the Milanese, which he claimed in right of his mother, 1465. He left a son, Louis II. of Orleans, who, in 1498, succeeded to the crown as Louis XII. Between the first and second houses we find John Bap- tist Gaston, third son of Henry IV. and Mary de Medici, born ^608, created duke of Orleans 1626, and noted for his intrigues during the reign of his brother, Louis XIII. He was banished to Blois by Mazarin in 1652, and died there 1660. 2. The second house of Orleans commences with Philip I., second son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, born 1640, received the title of Orleans on the death of his uncle, Gaston, 1660, and the next year was married to his cousin, Henrietta Anne, daughter of Charles I. of England. He is sus- pected of having poisoned this princess, and, in 1671, was married to Elizabeth of Bavaria, of whom his successor was born ; died 1701. Philip II., born 1674, succeeded to the title of the pre- ceding 1701, and became the celebrated regent Or- leans after the death of Louis XIV. He was edu- cated in profligacy by the abbe Dubois, and brought the kingdom to the verge of an insurrection (see Law); died suddenly 1723. Louis, son and successor of the latter, born 1703, was distin- guished for his accomplishments as a universal scholar and linguist. He died, after passing his life in a literary and religious retirement, 1752. Louis Philip, son and successor of Louis the preceding, born 1725, was lieutenant-general in the Flemish wars and governor of Dauphine. He was a man of taste and a lover of literature, and died generally regretted 1785. Louis Joseph Philip, son of the last named, see article below. Louis Philip, his son and successor, same as the late king of French. See Louis Philippe. Fer- dinand Philip Louis Charles Henry, eldest son of the late king of the French, was born 1810 at Palermo, and distinguished himself in 1831 at the siege of Antwerp, and more recently in the African campaigns. He was killed by a fall from his carriage, near Neuilly, 13th July, 1842. His sons are the present Count de Paris, born 1838, and the due de Chartres, born 1840. His sister, Marie, princess of Orleans, born at Palermo 1813, was greatly distinguished for her love of art, and especially for her skill in sculpture. She was mar- ried to the duke of Wurtemberg in 1837, and died of consumption 1839. Her greatest work is the statue of Joan of Arc, in the museum of Versailles. 551 ORL ORLEANS, Louis Philippe Joseph, Due D', father of the late king of the French, and cousin of Louis XVI., was horn at St. Cloud, with the title of Due de Montpensier, 1747, became due de Chartres 1752, and succeeded to the title and estates of his father in 1787. In 1769 he mar- ried the daughter of the due de Penthievre, and enjoyed some measure of the popularity that belonged to her as member of a family beloved by the people. In the conflict between the court and the parliaments, which preceded the revolution, Louis d'Orleans fully justified this preference by opposing the former, and, as a natural conse- quence, was received coldly by the royal family, and exposed to many mortifications at court ; one considerable instance of which was the refusal of the king to appoint him grand admiral of France a dignity that had fairly reverted to the due d'Orleans by ordinary custom. His predilection for the popular cause was accompanied by a private character undeniably bad. It may be enough to say on this point, that, as he frequently visited England, he was the boon companion of the prince of Wales, and shared in all those nameless crimes against morality that we com- monly understand by ' blackguardism.' The scene of his orgies in France was the Palais Royal. ' He changed the noble and spacious gardens of his palace into a market of luxury, devoted by day to traffic (as a means of repairing his shat- tered fortunes), and by night to play and de- bauchery a complete sink of iniquities, built in the heart of the capital a work of cupidity which antique manners never could forgive this prince ; and which, being gradually adopted as their forum by the indolence of the Parisian population, was destined to become the cradle of the revolution.' The due d'Orleans, in fact, and the Palais Royal, became the centre of the great conspiracy that was striding onwards to overthrow all that should have been dear to the descendant of a line of kings. Honour, decency, the privacy of the do- mestic life of royalty, and the fair name of his cousin Marie Antoinette, were all sacrificed by the man whose natural place at such a crisis was among the chief defenders of the throne. In 1792 Louis d'Orleans took his seat with the republicans in the National Convention, and adopted for him- self and his heirs the name of Egaltie even voting for the king's death, ' simply occupied with his duty,' as he expressed himself, ' and convinced that the enemies of public liberty deserved to die.' It has been affirmed that he went to see Louis executed, but this is by no means certain ; for his position, especially after the king's death, as first Erince of the blood, was such as to bring upon im the hatred and suspicion of all parties. He was accused, at last, of plotting to re-establish the monarchy, either in his own person, or in his family, and the Jacobins were resolved to rid themselves of the embarrassment of his presence. A revulsion of feeling seems to have taken place after his arrest, and he conducted himself with unexpected courage, propriety, and self-possession on the day of his trial and execution which took Slace, after several months' imprisonment, on 6th lovember, 1793. On being asked 'Whether he had not voted the death of the tyrant with the ambitious premeditation of succeeding him ? ' ORO 'No,' he replied, 'I obeyed my heart anc science.' ' Since you were determined t( demn me,' he added, 'you should have fount specious pretexts, for you will never pc one that you believed me really guilty of treason you charge me with.' Louis d'Orlean< truth, understood the temper of the people well to think of aspiring to the crown, and made himself too familiar with them to dreai any respect in such a character. The republi sacrificed him for future security, as they w have done every member of the royal family had been possible to secure their persons. ORLEANS-DE-LA-MOTTE, Louis Fra Gabriel D', born 1683, became bishop of An 1733, and died 1774. He is regarded as the i of a Christian minister, and is author of ' Spir Letters,' published 1777. His life, by Pro was published 1788. ORLEY, B. Van, a Flemish painter, 1490-1 ORLEY, Richard Van, and his son, distinguished at Brussels as miniature painter engravers; the former 1652-1732. ORLOFF, Gregory, a Russian general political intriguer, who greatly promoted vation of his mistress, Catharine II., to the I Being disappointed in his hope of sharing crown with her, and declining a private : he was supplanted by a new favourite, and insane 1783. He had one son by the e named Bobrinkski. Alexis, his brother i low-conspirator, was a man of gigantic and strength, and is said to have strangle! emperor Peter with his own hands. He was vourite of Catharine, and was married 1 princess Taranoff, daughter of the empress beth ; died 1808. Gregory Vladimirow nobleman of the same family, bearing the Count Orloff, was distinguished for his] age and culture of letters. He is author < torical, Political, and Literary Memoirs of ] a ' History of the Aits in Italy,' flour. 1778-1 ORME, Robert, son of Dr. Alexander ( a physician and surgeon, employed by the India Company, distinguished for his hi"' 1 '' works on British India, 1728-1801. ORMEROD, Oliver, a Church of I minister and polemical writer of the time oi I., author of ' The Picture of a Puritan,' an Picture of a Papist,' died 1626. ORMOND, James Butler, duke of, mander in the army of Charles I., and a sti adherent of his son Charles II., whose resl he laboured to promote, 1610-1688. B Thomas, earl of Ossory, distinguished as and military commander, 1634-1680. His son, James, second duke of Ormond, a par the prince of Orange, and afterwards of tl tender, 1665-1747. OROBIO, Balthasar, called by some J hers Isaac De Castro Orobio, was a ew, who professed the Roman Catholic ( his native country, where he was a physid professor of metaphysics. He was tortur imprisoned by the inquisition on real character, and afterwards on going to A dam, was circumcised and became a Jt wardly, on which occasion he took tl He wrote a philosophical book agaii '?, 552 ORO OROSIUS, P., a Spanish ecclesiastic, 4th cent. ORRENTE, P., a Spanish painter, died 1642. ORSATO, J. B., an Italian antiq., 1673-1720. ORSATO, Sertorio, an Italian antiquarian nd historian, usually called Ursatus, 1617-1678. ORSI, J. A., an Italian historian, 1692-1761. ORSINI, a noble Italian family, the most cele- rated of whom are Nicholas, count of Pitig- ano, a Venetian general, time of the league of Jambray, 1412-1510. His cousin, Lorenzo, or Ienzo de Ceri, conquered the duchy of Urbino, the interest of Leo X., and defended Rome gainst the constable Bourbon, died 1536. Ful- io, in the Latinized form, Fulvius Ursinus, a istinguished scholar and antiquarian writer, 1529- JOO. The popes, Nicholas III. and Benedict III., were of this family, and a branch of the mily entered the Neapolitan service, and became e counts of Nola and dukes of Gradina. Fran- 3CO and Paolo, of this branch, were strangled Sinegaglia by Caesar Borgia, and the cardinal rsmi was poisoned by Caesar's father, the pope lexander VI. See also Ursins. ORTE, or ORTHES, H. D'Aspremont, Vis- nnt D', governor of Bayonne at the period of e massacre of St. Bartholomew, in which, to his nour, he refused to participate. ' RTEGA, C. G. De, a Span, botanist, 1730-1810. RTELIUS, A., a Flem. geographer, 1527-1598. RTON, Job, an Eng. dis. minister, 1717-1783. RUS APOLLO, otherwise HORUS APOLLO, i HO R APOLLO, the supposed author of two ' ~.t books concerning the Hieroglyphics of the ns, first published by Aldus in 1505, was e of Egypt, and first taught as a gram- at Alexandria, and then at Constantinople, the reign of Theodosius, about 380. The sting fragment known by his name is sup- to be, substantially, of much older date, and ive been written in the Egyptian tongue, the ks we now have (according to this hypothesis) g a reproduction or abridged version in Greek, explanations of Orus Apollo have exercised a . deal the curiositv of the learned, and some signs are admitted to have the value he to them. The book has often been repub- ance the time of Aldus, and several times a Latin version, the latest being that of ans, Amsterdam, 1834. The following will some idea of the meanings of Orus Apollo : scarabaeus virility, paternity, strength ; the fate and providence ; the dew, or soft rain nne ; fire and water, as emblems of lustration expiation puritv; the ox temperance and ngtn ; the crocodile insane fury, rapacity, fjndity; the frog an imperfect or unformed nk; the lion's head watchfulness; the anterior Rubers of the lion power ; the lamp burning l the eye God ; the face without eyes, or two f\ represented over a mask the manes, or nrnal gods; the black dove constancy in jbwhood. It is quite clear that this interesting "pent of antiquity contains the remnant of Xp traditions of remote times, mingled with inventions or guesses. Orus Apollo gives the frping of the cross as future life or salvation, ^confesses that he cannot explain why. This Je crux ansata, erroneously regarded as the key W NUe, and usually held by Osiris. [E.R.J OST ORVILLE, J. P. D', a Dutch critic, 169G-1751. ORY, F., a French jurisconsult, died 1657. ORZECHOWSKI, Stanislaus, in Latin, Ori- chovius, a Polish orator and historian, 16th cent. OS, J. Van, a Dutch flower painter, 1744-1808. His son, T. William, a landsc. painter, b. 1776. OSBECK, P., a Swedish navigator, died 1805. OSBORNE, Francis, a parliamentary and re- publican statesman, formerly master of the horse to the celebrated earl of Pembroke, known as an historical and political writer, b. abt. 1588, d. 1658. OSIANDER, Andrew, a celebrated protestant theologian, who joined the party of Luther when he declared against indulgences, and took part in all the discussions when the confession of faith was formed at Augsburgh. Born at Guntzenhausen, in Franconia, 1498, died 1552. His son, Luke, called the elder, a. famous controversialist, 1534- 1604. Luke, son of the latter, chancellor of the university of Tubingen, 1570-1638. Andrew, another son of the elder Luke, well known as a theologian and commentator, 1562-1617. OSIANDER, John Adam, a theologian and philologist, professor at Tubingen, 1622-1697. His son, of the same names, a physician, 1659-1708. The son of the latter, who also bore the same names, 1701-1756. John, son of the first John Adam, distinguished as a philologist, 1657-1724. OSIO, F., an Italian historical critic, 1587-1631. OSIUS, a Spanish theologian, bishop of Cordova at the period of the council of Nice, 256-358. OSMAN, son of Ibrahim, emperor of the Turks, who was taken captive when a child by certain Maltese adventurers, and, being educated as a Christian, became vicar-general of the Dominicans at Malta : died 1676. OSMAN-BEY, Nemsey, a Hungarian officer in the service of Austria, who was born about 1740, and, when disgraced in his regiment, retired to Constantinople and became a Moslem. He was distinguished for his skill in archaeology and nu- mismatics, and was murdered by his servants, 1785. OSMOND, J. B. L., a Fr. wr. on books, d. 1775. OSMUND, St., a bishop of Salisbury, 11th cent. OSORIO, J., a Portuguese prelate, 1506-1580. OSSENBEECK, J. Van, a D. painter, 1627-78. OSSIAN, a Gaelic bard, who is supposed to have lived in the 3d century, and is represented as the son of Fingal, king of Morven. See Macpherson. OSSOLI, the Countess, better known as Mar- garet Fuller, was born in Massachusets, U.S., 1810, and when quite a girl was remarkable for the avidity with which she applied herself to classical and literary studies. She became mis- tress of a brilliant reputation in Boston and New York, chiefly founded on her conversational powers, and the leading part she took in the friendly conversazioni made up at her friends' houses, and in a less degree on the genius and sensibility displayed in her writings. In 1847, while on a tour in Italy, she became the wife of the marquis Ossoli, and on returning to America in 1850, they both perished by shipwreck on the beach of Fire Island. With her perished the MS. of a work on Italy, containing the last and ripest fruits of her genius. OSSORY, Thomas, count of. See Ormond. OSTADE, Adrian Van, a Dutch painter, 1610- 1685. His brother and pupil, Isaac, 1617-1671. 553 OST OSTERVALD, J. Frederic, a Swiss divine, author of a Catechism and a History of the Bible, 1699-1747. OSTERWICK, Maria Van, celebrated as a tlower painter, born near Delft 1630, died 1693. OSTIUS, a Latin poet, 1st centurv. OSTROJSKI, vaivode of Kieff, died 1608. OSTROWSKI, a Polish general, 16th century. OSTROWSKI, Th. Adrian Rawicz, a Polish statesman and friend of the constitution, 1739-1817. OSWALD, a saint and king of Northumberland, converted, and killed in battle 642. Another St. Oswald, bishop of Worcester and York, died 922. OSWALD, E., an Austrian savant, 1511-1579. OSWALD, J., a Scottish philosopher, last cent. OSYMANDIAS, a king of Thebes, who built the Memnonium, b.c. 2000. OTFRID, a German poet and divine, 9th cent. OTHER, OHTHER, or OTTAR, a Norwegian traveller of the age of Alfred the Great. OTHMAN, or OSMAN, the founder of the Otto- man empire and the dynasty of the Osmanlis, was a Turkish chief who made himself master of Bithy- nia, flourished 1259-1326. A second, of the same name, w r as the sixteenth Ottoman sultan, reigned 1618-1622. A third, who was the twenty-fifth sultan, reigned 1754-1774. OTHMAN AL RHADY, Aboue Said, a king of Fez and Morocco, reigned 1310-1331. OTHMAN-IBN-AFFAN, son-in-law of Maho- met, succeeded to Omar as third caliph 644. He was murdered by Mohammed, son of Abubekr, 656. OTHO, emperor of Rome, reigned 32-69. OTHO L, emperor of Germany, distinguished as the Great, was the eldest son of Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony. He was born 912, elected king of Germany 936, and crowned emperor 962, after subduing Bohemia and Italy, besides waging a suc- cessful warfare with Nicephorus, emperor of the East. Died 973. Otho II., son of the preceding, was born 955, consecrated king of Lombardy 962, and reigned as emperor after his father 973-983. Otho III., son and successor of the latter, was a boy when his father died, and died when only thirty years of age, probably of poison; 1002. Otho IV., son of Henry, the lion duke of Saxony, was born about 1175, and succeeded 1197. He was not re- cognized over all Germany till 1208, nor conse- crated till 1209. In 1214 he was totally defeated by Philip Augustus. Died 1218. OTHO, duke of Saxony, was the first hereditary lord of that country, and reigned from 880 to 912. Otho II., same as the first emperor of that name. OTHO, a duke of Burgundy, 956-965. OTHO, the first of the name, count of Bur- gundy, third son of the emperor Frederick I., suc- ceede'd him in the county 1190, died 1200. The second of the name succeeded the preceding by marrying his widow, Beatrice, 1200, and died 1234. The third, son of the preceding, died 1248. The fourth, eldest son and sue. of Alix, 1279, d. 1302. OTHO of Bavaria, elected king of Hungary 1305, was compelled to abdicate 1307. Otho, duke of Suabia, obtained the duchy of Bavaria in 976, and was killed the same year. The second Otho of Bavaria received the duchy from Agnes, mother of Henry IV., in 1061, and was slain after many reverses in 1083. The third, called ' the Great,' was nominated by Frederic Barbarossa, and reigned OTR 1180-11S3. The fourth, called the Illustrious, I ceeded his father, Louis I., 1231, died 1253. j OTHO of Brunswick. See Bnuxswicfl OTHO, Henry, Count Palatine, reig. 155(Wl OTHO, St., the apostle of Pomerania, 1060-lB OTHO, or OTTO, bishop of Freysingen, sol Leopold, margrave of Austria, and Agnes, daug { of the emperor Henry IV., celebrated as a cl nicler ; died 1158. OTHO, OTHON, or OTTON, George, a I Orientalist and rabbinical philosopher, 1634-lB OTRANTO, Joseph Fouche, duke of, ml ter of police under Buonaparte, was born at Naif in 1763. When the revolution broke out he r ( himself conspicuous by the extravagance of his B angues in the patriot club of that city, and in } was sent to the convention. His career as a teacbM philosophy before the revolution was probaj^H reason of his appointment, in convention, onH Committee of Public Instruction. This ^^H however, presented little scope for his amli^^^H he soon worked himself into the Committea^^H ance. In this capacity he displayed his abi^^H realizing a good deal of confiscated proper: use of government ; and his public spirit waS highly approved that he was next sent ^^^| battalion of troops in the city of Troyes. T^H of Louis XVI. was now approaching, and -^^H who had identified himself with the party O^^H voted for the instant execution of the king. ^^H tember, 1793, he was sent to the deparl the Nievre, to see the decrees of the co^^H executed ; and besides suppressing public ^^H he loaded himself with the spoil of the c^^H This mission being satisfactorily execute associated with that of Collot D'Herbois to LjLl and there the most horrible atrocities WQ^H mitted. His maxim was, that nothing O^H arrest the will of the people, ' the explosio^^H mine, the devouring activity of the flame, sh 1 1 express their power . . . their determinant r like that of the tyrant, should be felt as a thun { clap.' Such was the language of the day to wAI Fouch6 lent himself with Jesuitical cunning; jl for him there is no apology, as for a Marat, ir. sincerity. ' Brought up in a cloister, F< learnt that monkish humility which stoops on! > rise the higher; and he devoted himsel tyranny of the people, until he became tl ment of a new Caesar. More of an actor ' than Collot was by profession, he played t a Brutus with the soul of Sejanus.' 1 1 e w then, in his real element ; the overthrow the disgrace of the cross and the Bible, caused to be dragged through the street tail of an ass, the plunder of mansions i churches, and the wholesale butcheries of tl of Lyons, were coolly calculated for popular influence. After the pierre accusations were heard against him sides, and in June, 1795, he was driven out convention. Enabled to return by the M October, Fouche remained quiet for aboul years, and then, under the Directory, becai succession ambassador to Milan, Holland, and minister of police. This latti the very function for which nature had orgj Fouche', and for which his career had thoro prepared him. He was to the political Jesu enes or tne r the price \i fall of Roll- tinst him orjl 554 OTB Hhat Buonaparte became to the army ; in him the jative cunning of the born conspirator and the [jnished spy arrayed itself against the daring of jhe soldier, and the genius of the statesman. He ras wise enough to be aware that power like his auld only be exercised in secret, and hence his illingness to contribute to the establishment of apoleon as consul ; the successful soldier, on the ther hand, seems to have been always conscious the meanness and danger of employing such an strument ; but in this he had no choice, for un- he would have assassinated Fouche\ the only eans of keeping such a man harmless, was to nploy him in his own interest. Fouche had ixed with men of all parties, was thoroughly nversant with their projects, and held the reads of a thousand conspiracies in his hands, poleon finding such a man in authority, and his stem of espionage in full action, continued him office till the peace of Amiens in 1802, when his actions were united to those of the minister of stice, M. Regnier, and Fouche was sent to Aix the dignity of senator. In 1806, after Napo- >n had become emperor, a new coalition was gainst him, and to meet certain of its lergencies, Fouche resumed his post as minister of lice ; his evening parties from this time becom- more brilliant than ever, for he was now created of Otranto, and opened his drawing-room to old French nobility, many of whom acted as spies. Napoleon in the midst of his brilliant s, was restive under the general persuasion lurope that his throne was dependent on such I yet he retained the minister till his je with the Austrian princess, when he supposed that his dynasty was established, ing that event in 1809, Fouche had made ng exhibition of his power. During Na- ,'s absence in the campaign concluded by the of Schonbrunn, the English made a descent Belgium. Fouche* at this time was minister interior as well as minister of police, and .t consulting the emperor, he organized an of the National Guard with astonishing dity, and having put Bemadotte at its head, was not in favour with Napoleon, sent him pel the enemy ; about the same time he had, ally, his own private agent at the court of St. ?s's in the person of M. Ouvrard. The com- mons arising out of these circumstances de- ined the emperor's course, and after his id marriage Fouche* was appointed governor iome, the duke of Rovigo becoming minister of interior. It was well understood that this nge was equivalent to his disgrace, and Fouche* ained in a splendid retirement till the disas- I is campaign of Russia in 1812, when the em- ' >r, sensible of the mischief he might now do, ap- ited him governor of the Illyrian provinces, and the loss of Germany, still to keep him at a dpnce, governor of Naples. The services of ^Bwere not enlisted by the provisional govern- ttt of 1814, and there is a question how far he Ha party in any way to Napoleon's return from ft. He resumed his old function, however, ifiinister of police during the hundred days, and W the battle of Waterloo, advised the emperor abdicate, at the same time making his own He with the Bourbons at Ghent. The cervices OUD of Fouch6 were retained some time by Louis XVIII., but he soon found his position untenable, and thought it convenient to make good his retreat by going as ambassador to Dresden. The law of 1816, passed generally against all the regicides, deprived him of this last political refuge, and after travelling some time in Germany, he settled at Trieste. Fouche* died in 1820, leaving a fortune estimated at half- a-million sterling. [E.R.] OTT, John Henry, a Swiss divine, 1617-1682. His son, J. Baptist, eel. as an Orientalist, b. 1661. OTT, Pet. Chari.es, Baron, an Austrian field, marshal, disting. against the Turks, and more re- cently in the wars of Italy against France, d. 1800. OTTER, John, a Swedish Orientalist, 1707-48. OTTH, Adolphus, a Swiss physician, 1803-39. OTTINI, Pascal, an Italian painter, d. 1630. OTTLEY, William Young, late keeper of the prints in the British Museum, author of works con - nected with the fine arts, including a critical cata- logue of the National Gallery, ' The Italian School of Design,' ' The Origin and Early History of En- graving,' &c, 1772-1836. OTTO. See Guericke. OTTO, Everhard, a Ger.juriscon., 1685-1756. OTTO, Louis William, Count De Moslay, a French diplomatist, who negotiated the marriage of Napoleon with Marie Louise, 1754-1817. OTTO, ViENius, an Italian painter, 1556-1634. OTWAY, Thomas, was born in 1651, at his father's parsonage in Sussex. From Winchester school he was sent to Oxford, but left the univer- sity for London in his twenty-first year, without a degree. Going on the stage, he failed completely, and began to write plays in 1675. His tragedy of ' Don Carlos ' was extremely popular ; two or three comic pieces, though very indifferent, were licentious enough to please the debauched patrons of the theatres : the author was likewise a jovial companion ; and one of Charles IL's natural sons procured for him, in 1677, a commission in the army then serving in Flanders. Very soon, how- ever, he retired from service, returned to London in great poverty, and recommenced authorship. He now wrote some translations, and many occasional and miscellaneous poems, and produced a new series of plays. Among these were the two tragedies through which his name is remembered : 'The Orphan ' appeared in 1680, and 'Venice Pre- served' m 1682. Both of these, especially the latter, abound in that deep pathos which was so cordially admired by Dryden, and which attracted the sympathy of the poetic and imaginative Collins. Otway continued to be poor ; and his unfortunate life came to a close in his thirty -fourth year. He died, 1685, in a house in Tower-Hill, where he was hiding from his creditors ; and it is asserted that, suffering from hunger, he eagerly swallowed a crust of bread, and was choked hy it. [W.S.1 OUDENARDE. See Audenaerd. OUDENDORP, F. D', aD. philolog., 1696-1761. OUDET, Ja. Joseph, a French officer, born about 1773, killed at Wagram, 1809. OUDIN, Casimer, a French monk, author of ' Commentaries on the Ancient Writings of the Church,' 1638-1717. OUDIN, Cvesar, a French interpreter and diplo- matist, time of Henry IV., author of a translation of Don Quixote, died 1625. His son, Anthony- 555 OUD of the same profession, and author of a history of the Flemish wars, died 1653. OUDIN, C. F., a French writer, 17th century. OUDIN, F., a Jesuit and Latin poet, 1673-1752. OUDINET, M. A., a Fr. medallist, 1643-1712. OUDINOT, Charles Nicholas, duke of Reg- gio, and marshal of France, was the son of a mer- chant, and was born at Bar-Sur-Ornain 1767. He entered the army when nineteen years of age, and when the revolution broke out held the rank of captain. He embraced the popular cause, and rising to the rank of general, accompanied Massena into Italy as one of his staff-officers in 1799. His fortunes from this time were linked with those of Napoleon till the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814, when he became a Bourbonist. In that character he headed the army that invaded Spain in 1823, and was resident at Madrid some months as governor. In 1830, true to his principles, he adhered to the new dynasty. He succeeded Mar- shal Moncey as governor of the Invalides 1842, and died 1847. OUDRY, J. B., a French painter, 1686-1755. OUGHTRED, Wm., a minister of the Church of England, dist. as a mathematician, 1574-1660. OULOUGH-BEYG. See Ulugh-Betgh. OULTNEMAN, Henry D', a Flemish historian, 1546-1605. His br., Philip, an ascetic, died 1652. OUSEL. See Oisel. OUSELEY, Sir William, an Oriental scholar and wr. on Persian history and literat., 1771-1842. OUTHIER, R., a Fr. astronomer, 1694-1774. OUTRAM, or OWTRAM, William, a Church of England minister, celebrated for his learning as a theologian, 1625-1679. OUVILLE, Antoine Le Metel D', a French dramatist and translator, died about 1656. OU VRARD, Julian, a French grocer who be- came contractor to the army, and ultimately a political employe, died in England 1847. OUVRARD, Rene, a French ecclesiastic," (lis- ting, as a writer on music and polemics, died 1694. OUWATER, A. Van, a D. painter, 14th cent. OUWATER, J., a Dutch painter, 1747-1793. OVENS, Jurien, a Dutch painter, 1620-1668. OVERALL, John, a learned prelate, author of a work entitled ' The Convocation Book,' written in opposition to Parsons, to advocate the divine right of government. He had a share also in the translation of the Bible and the Church Catechism. Born 1559, died bishop of Norwich 1619. OVERBECK, Bonaventure Van, a Dutch historical painter and designer, 1660-1706. OVERBURY, Sir Thomas, known as an ele- gant miscellaneous writer, but more especially for his tragical death at the instance of the carl of Rochester and the countess of Essex, was bom in Warwickshire about 1581. He contracted an in- timacy with the earl, then Robert Carr, at the court of James I., and provoked the anger of the countess by endeavouring to dissuade his friend from marrying her; the fact being that he was privy to their intrigues, and well acquainted with the infamous character of the lady. Rochester had the address to procure the imprisonment of his friend in the Tower of London, by creating a cause of offence between him and the king, and, some months later, caused him to be poisoned there, September 15, 1613. Though suspicions were en- OVI tertained at the time, it was not till 1616 that II deed of darkness was discovered, when the infe: J agents were all apprehended, tried, and executj Rochester, now eari of Somerset, and the counbf were also tried and condemned, but they were b[ pardoned by the king, for private reasons, nephew of Sir Thomas Overbury, who bore ( same names, and inherited his estates, was^H of some curious tracts, published 1676-1677. J OVID. Publius Ovidius Naso, the lh poet of the Romans, was born at Sulmo, (now 5! mone,) a town in the country of the Peligni, ab ninety miles south-east from Rome, on the 2if of March, b.c. 43, the year which witnesi^H fall of the Roman consuls under the walls of jjc dena, the formation of the second triumvirate, if the cruel murder of Cicero. The leading eve' of his life have been transmitted to us co^H his own writings. His father belonged to an equestrian family, and the future poet was : second son, his elder brother being exactly twe months his senior. At an early age he was brouj to Rome along with his brother, and tbe^H cated under the most distinguished masten^^H the usual period arrived he repaired to Athens the purpose of completing his studies; and, befj returning to Rome, visited, along with the jp Macer, the magnificent cities of Asia Minor. (5 had manifested even in boyhood a decided taste poetical composition; but his father, believing tlj poetry did not necessarily lead to wealth or pot cal distinction, endeavoured to check the youth; aspirations of his son, and urged him to adopt l! profession of law, as that which opened up to h' the highest offices of the state. Parental n thority for a time prevailed, and his poeti] studies gave place to attendance in the foru On attaining the legal age, he performed succ- sively the duties of several of the minor offices state; but his bodily health and his mental cti stitution alike disqualified him for active or pub' life. Poetry was his delight ; and, therefb j notwithstanding the remonstrances of his fath he resolved to abandon the forum, and to dev(, himself exclusively to the cultivation of the mus He now courted the society of the most emint poets of the day; and the admiration which cherished for them is pleasingly evinced by 1 statement, that, when they were assembled, : regarded them as so many divinities. Among )\ most intimate friends were Macer, Property Ponticus, and Bassus. Ovid was married thi,' times. His first wife, to whom he was unit 1 when scarcely beyond boyhood, was, he tells t. unworthy of his affection, so that the union wj of short duration ; the second, though of Warn less character, was also soon discarded, witho any serious charge being alleged against her. t third wife, who belonged to the Fabian appears to have been every way worthy of t sincere affection which the poet entertained 1 her till the day of his death. By her he had daughter, Perilla, who was twice married, at had a child by each husband. Till the end of 1 fiftieth year, Ovid had spent a life of unint* rupted prosperity and enjoyment. His fortui though moderate, placed within his i luxuries of refined life, and his fame as a pc collected around him a large circle ol 556 OVI livers. The favour and patronage of Augustus the imperial family were also extended to him. ; a reverse of fortune, as sudden as it was xpecfed, was destined to overtake him. At close of the year a.d. 8. he was ordered by imperial edict to transport himself to Tomi, a >ny in the country of the Getse, on the shore he Enxine, a little to the south of the mouths the Danube. Eesistance was vain. Over- limed with grief he tore himself from the arms is afflicted wife, and set out in the month of ;mber for the place of his destination, which eached the following spring. The cause of banishment is a question which has long cised the ingenuitv of scholars; and though >us solutions of it have been proposed, it still inues to be a subject of discussion. The isible reason was the immoral tendency of Art of Love, which had been published for y two years, and to this Ovid frequently es ; but there is no room for doubt that the \l of the emperor had been excited by some aid more grave offence. The poet himself res that his offence was an inadvertence, r than a crime ; but his expressions, when ng to it, are ambiguous, and even incon- t This sudden transition from the luxury efinement of Rome to the inhospitable soil ' 'te barbarism of Moesia, would have tested y even the sternest philosophy ; and it be admitted that Ovid did not display great in submitting to his fate. He died at a.d. 18, in the sixtieth year of his age, and nth of his banishment. Ovid was born a he 'lisped in numbers, for the numbers ' and that he possessed high poetical is unquestionable. His judgment and however, are sometimes at fault, and the fancy and warmth of colouring displayed parts of his works are required to counter- the false taste and frigid conceit which themselves in others. At the same time, be granted that no poet, either ancient or has expressed beautiful thoughts in more ppjiriate language. The works of Ovid con- the A mores, or Loves, in three books ; roides, or Heroical Epistles, twenty-one in r; the Ars Amatoria, or Art of Love; the ia Amoris ; the Metamorphoses, in fifteen M the Fasti, in six books; the Tristia, in poks ; the Epistles from Pontus, in four li besides some minor poems. [G.F-] EDO, A. De, a Spanish prelate, died 1577. OEDO, Gonzalo Fernandes De, a Spanish iftWho became director of the gold and silver Wf Hayti, and is known as one of the earliest id jst historians of the New World. He was Mverer of the curative virtues of guaiacum. nt Madrid abt. 1478, date of his death unkn. O^IX, a famous British or Welch name borne ' n of Mexen Wledig, who was elected king ftjime of the Romans, and is numbered with its. Another wain was prince of AllO-1114, when he was killed by Gerald, We of Pembroke, whose wife he had seduced. W Owain Civeilog, known as a warrior , died about 1197. OJIlN-ULANDWR. See Glendower. OV IN, or OWEN TUDOR, the grandfather OWE of Henry VII., was lord of Pennrynydd, in Angle- sea. In 1426 he married Catharine", the widow of Henry V., and had three sons by her. The eldest became a monk. The second was Edmund, earl of Richmond, father of Henry VII., and the third, Jasper, earl of Pembroke. OWEN, George, an English physician, d. 1558. OWEN, Henry, a learned divine of the Church of England, born in Merionethshire 1716, died in London 1795. He is author of ' Observations on the Four Gospels,' ' The Intent and Propriety of the Scripture Miracles,' ' An Inquiry into the Pre- sent State of the Septuagint Version of the Old Testament,' an ' Introduction to Hebrew Criti- cism,' a ' Treatise on Trigonometry,' &c. OWEN, John, D.D., a scion of an ancient Welch family, was born in 1616 at Stadham, Ox- fordshire. His precocious talents and acquire- ments procured him admission into Queen's Col- lege at the age of twelve, and he was made Mas- ter of Arts at nineteen. Devoted to his studies at that age, he spent only four hours in bed, but at the same time was fond of all manly and athletic sports, which tended greatly to give vigour and stamina to his constitution. When only twenty- one, he headed the students in a determined resis- tance to some superstitious rites which the then chancellor of Oxford, Archbishop Laud, designed to impose: and though successful in putting down the innovation, Owen paid dearly for the part he acted, for he was obliged to leave the university. He immediately took orders, although he entered into no pastoral duties owing to the state of his bodily as well as mental health, for he became subject for a time to a deep and desponding anxiety about his spiritual interests. Owen's prospects in life were greatly affected by the part ne acted on the outbreak of the civil war. Having zealously espoused the parliamentary cause, an incensed uncle, who had promised to make him heir to his large estate, expunged his name from his will ; and he was left accordingly to his own resources. He went an entire stranger to London, and there com- menced his career of authorship by publishing his 1 Display of Arminianism,' a work suitedto the times. The society for purging the church of here- sies rewarded him through their Chairman with the living of Frodham in Essex, and during the year and a-half he resided in that parish, his popularity as a preacher was so great, that crowds flocked to hear him from all the surrounding districts. He resigned this living for a charge at Coggeshall, a market town about five miles distant, where he changed from the presbyterian form of church government to the congregational, as being more accordant with the primitive church of the New Testament. His name and character had risen so high, that he was invited to preach before the par- liament on 20th April, 1646, and on several occa- sions afterwards he performed the same duty, being selected particularly from his energy as well as his full approval of the proceeding to preach before that body on the day after the execution of Charles I. He became a favourite with Cromwell, who took him as his chaplain first to Ireland, and at a later period into Scotland. On returning home, his design was to resume his pastoral labours at Coggeshall. But the parliament having no- minated him dean of the university of Oxford, he 557 OWE removed thither in 1651, and was soon after chosen vice-chancellor. Daring his administration of the chancellorship, which he held for five years, he ren- dered important services, and by his moderation, jimid the sectarian contests that were then bitterly carried on, secured the love and respect of all par- ties. His duties as chancellor, though onerous, were not allowed to interfere either with his labour in preaching, or his pursuit in literature. He preached every Sabbath at St. Mary's, and he published seve- ral of his best works, such as ' The Perseverance of the Saints,' in 1(354, ' The Vindiciae Evengelicae, or the Mystery of the Gospel Vindicated,' and 'Com- munion with God,' which has been valued by many as one of his greatest performances. The restora- tion of the Stuart dynasty led, amongst other changes of government, to Owen's ejection from his university offices: and, having gone to reside at Stadham, a small estate he possessed, lived there in retirement, till, things having become settled and tranquil, he ventured to return to London, and take a public share in works connected with the in- terests of religion and learning. The rancour of the royalist and High Church party raged so violently against dissenters generally, and Owen in particular, that he contemplated seriously two successive offers made him of important offices in American colleges. His personal safety was sometimes endangered, for on one occasion, his mansion at Stadham was beset by troopers, and he narrowly escaped being made prisoner, by flight through a postern door. He was, even when invested with power and the chief direction of affairs, an enlightened and consistent advocate of the right of private judgment and re- ligious toleration. A brief period of respite was f ranted to the nonconformists, during Bucking- am's administration which commenced in 1667, and Owen undertook the charge of a numerous and influential congregation in Leadenhall-Street. But this interval of indulgence was of short dura- tion. A bill against conventicles was passed into a law in 1670, and by the fines and imprisonments it imposed, gave a heavy blow and great discour- agement to the cause of dissent. Owen about this time began to decline in health. His great and long-continued labours had made serious in- roads on a frame naturally robust and athletic, and having retired to a house at Ealing, occupied him- self in preparing his last work, 'The Glory of Christ,' for the press. He expired on 24th August, 1683, and was interred in the cemetery of Bunhill Fields. Owen has been often styled ' The Prince of Divines,' and his works, though marked by the tedious prolixity of the age, are a storehouse of valuable matter. [R.J.] OWEN, John, a Welch epigrammatist, d. 1622. OWEN, John, a minister of the Church of Eng- land, born about 1765, known as the secretary and historian of the Bible Society. He wrote also, | Pieflections on the State of Religion and Politics in France and Great Britain,' and ' The Christian Monitor for the Last Days.' Died 1822. OWEN, Lewis, a Welch Jesuit, horn 1572. OWEN, Thomas, a learned judge, died 1598. OWEN, William, one of the ablest English portrait painters, was born at Ludlow in Shropshire in 1769. He came to London, by the advice of Payne Knight, at the early age of seventeen, and became the pupil of Catton the Royal Academician. OXE He attracted also the notice of Sir Joshua Rej nolds by a copy he made of the ' Perdita ' of tbJ painter. Owen first exhibited at the Royal Act! demy in 1792 ; his connections increased soruH that in the following year he exhibited seven po:i traits. He frequently very much enhanced tl< value of his portraits by making them general, interesting as fancy pictures, such as 'Venni; ' The Bacchante' 'Cottage Child from Natur, 'The Children in the Wood,' &c. Hissucce! was certainly very great; notwithstanding tlj rivalry of Lawrence, Beechey, and Hoppner; ], had painted the Lord Chancellor and William Pij before his thirtieth year ; and the list of Owerj portraits comprises a very large proportion of tj men of rank and talent of the early part of tlj century. He was superior to Lawrence in maj heads : they were void of the simpering prcttim, and delicacy of complexion which injure many Lawrence's heads: the sitting full length William Scott, Lord Stowell, in his robes, is wort ' of Vandyck. He was elected a member of t Royal Academy in 1806 ; in 1810 he was maj principal portrait painter to the Prince Regeij and in 1813 he declined the honour of knighthoci He died 11th February, 1825, in his fifty-six year, after a lingering illness, though the'imnj diate cause of death was his taking opium inste of an aperient draught, owing to the mistake the druggist, who had misplaced the Ij^^H (Cunningham, Lives of the Most Eminen Painters, &c.) [R.N.V OWTRAM. See Outram. OXBERRY, W. H., a popular Englis] dian, 1808-1851. OXENBRIDGE, J., an Eng. theolog., l^H OXENSTIERNA, Axel, Count, one of I greatest statesmen that Sweden ever produc was born at Fano in Upland, 1583, and educa in several of the German universities. He mi his first appearance at court in the reign Charles IX., father of Gustavus Adolphus, : was employed in an important diploma; ii as earlv as 1606. Gustavus and Oxenstierna w great friends, and when the former succeeded i the crown in the eighteenth year of his age, latter, only ten years older, stood by his sid high chancellor. From that time, 1611, to majority of Christina, 1644, the name of Ox stierna occupies a large space in Swedish hist* indeed in the history of Europe, as the politi antagonist of Richelieu. Gustavus re] most unlimited confidence in his he; statesmanship, and we shall seeimmcii; Christina, though far from feeling the sail ship for him as her father, was compelled to do h( age to his true worth and ability. We ca 1 1 a few principal dates to mark his career. In 1 ; he negotiated the peace between Sweden mark. In 1617 he concluded the peaci bova, which followed the Russian cam] in 1630, when Gustavus took the field aj imperialists, he was invested with full in all civil and military affairs on the K the fall of the Swedish hero at Lutzen, 163! devolved on the chancellor to take me the security of the kingdom, and i ; trusted him with full powers, so that, in fac became virtual king during the minority of C 558 OXE a. The burden of the war and the administra- n both rested on his shoulders, and he -was not : man to shrink from the responsibility of either. October, 1633, he presented his memorial to council, which embraced a complete plan of jlic defence and finance, provided for the im- vement of towns, the abolition of burdens on ie, and the security of civil freedom. He was essarily intrusted with great power, and it is a of of his greatness that he retained it without ng his popularity; and though it was a period eform and reorganization, he consolidated the e, and placed the daughter of his friend on an npaired throne. In 1642 Christina began to ide at the council ; in 1644 she assumed the >rnment, and in the month of August, 1645, nstierna concluded the peace of Denmark, on ;h occasion she created him count of Soder- le. He was, of course, a principal party to the lusion of the thirty years' war, Dy the peace of Itphalia, 1648, and sent his son, John Oxen- ins, as plenipotentiary to the convention of the |M its on that occasion : it was in answer to his a essions of diffidence that the chancellor used lb rords which have become proverbial, ' You do ow, my son, with how little wisdom men erned!' Oxenstiema vainly opposed the tion of the queen to abdicate, and he died a ths afterwards in the same year, 1654. the daughter of Gustavus writes of him : great man had large attainments, having much in his youth. He contrived to read midst of his great occupations. He had a capacity and knowledge of the affairs and of the world. He knew the strong and reak points of all the states of our Europe. PAD He had consummate wisdom and prudence, a vast capacity, a great heart. He was indefatigable. He had an assiduity and application to business incomparable. He made it his pleasure and his only occupation ; and when he took relaxation his diversion was business. He was sober, as much as one could be in an age and country where that virtue was unknown. He was a full sleeper, and said that no affair had ever hindered him from sleeping in his life except twice : the first was the death of the late king, the other the loss of the battle of Nordlingen. He has often told me that when he went to rest he stript off his cares with his clothes, and let them repose till the next day. For the rest, he was ambitious but faithful, incor- ruptible, a little too slow and phlegmatic' [E.R.] OZANAM, J., a Fr. mathematician, 1640-1717. OZAROUSKI, Peter, hetman or grand-general of the crown of Poland, hung by the people of War- saw as a partizan of the Russians, 1794. OZELL, John, an English writer of great learn- ing and industry, whose principal works are trans- lations from the French, Italian, and Spanish. Among these are Don Quixote, Fenelon on Learn- ing, Rabelais, a complete version of Moliere, and some of the dramas of Corneille and Racine. He is introduced into the Dunciad by Pope, whose rival he was. He d. in the office of auditor for St. Paul's Cathedral and St. Thomas's Hospital, 1743. OZERETZKOVSKI, Nikolai Yakowle- witsch, a Russian naturalist, 1750-1827. OZEROFF, Wladislav Alexandrovitsch, a Russian officer, dist. as a dramatic wr., 1770-1816. OZI, Stephen, a French composer, 1754-1805. OZIAS, the chief of Bethulia, when it was be- sieged by Holofernes. See Holofernes, Judith. ; AW, Peter, a Dutch botanist, 1564-1617. (CATIANUS, Titus Claudius Marcius, usurper, killed by Decius about 249. JATUS, Latinus Drepanius, a poet and of the time of Theodosius the Great, 4th c, JDCA, Bartolomeo, Cardinal, born at Bene- 1756, was raised to that dignity by Pius a 1801, and distinguished himself in the i of the succeeding period as the enemy of who twice imprisoned him. He retired affairs in 1824, and has since published oirs.' Died 1844. IONI, A., an Ital. anatom., 1664-1726. OLI, L\, an Ital. mathematician, 16th a )RI, A., an ascetic writer, 1649-1730. or PACIO, an Ital. juriscon., 1550-1635. or PAICE, Richard, one of the most diplomatists and men of learning in the ry, was born in Hampshire about 1482, eu at the university of Padua. He com- his public life in the service of Cardinal e, or Bainbridge, whom he accompanied and was afterwards often employed in by Wolsey. Having fallen under the of that haughty prelate, he was impri- r o years in the Tower; and his mind was affected that, in the later years of his life, only in the possession of his faculties at He wrote several learned pieces, and was highly esteemed by his friends, Sir Thomas More and Erasmus. Died 1532. PACHECO, Francesco, a Spanish painter and art-writer, taught by the same master as Velas- quez, 1571-1654. PACHECO, Donna Maria. See Padilla. PACHYMERA, G., a Gr. historian, 13th cent. PACIAN, St., a Spanish prelate, 4th century. PACIANDI, Paola Maria, an Italian eccle- siastic, distinguished as an antiquarian and his- torian, 1710-1785. PACIFICUS, an Italian mechanician, 776-844. PACIFICUS, M., a Latin poet, 15th century. PACIO, Giulio, an Italian savant, 1550-1635. PACK, R., a miscellaneous writer, died 1728. PACUVIUS, M., a Roman poet, 2d cent. B.C. PADILLA, Don Juan De, a Spanish noble, who distinguished himself as leader of the popular party in a revolt against Charles V., during the period 1620-1622. He organized a general conven- tion of the malcontents under the title of a junta, by which body he was appointed chief commander of a force of 20,000 men, but not until the cause had been greatly endangered by an unskilful leader. He was taken prisoner at the rout of Villatar, April 23, 1622, and shot the following day. His wife, Donna Maria de Pacheco, exhibited the same heroic spirit as her husband, and, after his death, defended the city of Toledo till reduced to 659 PAD the last extremity. She then made her escape to Portugal, where she died in poverty. PADILLA, Lorenzo De, a Spanish antiqua- rian and historical writer, died about 1540. Hi6 nephew, Francis, author of an ecclesiastical his- tory of Spain, 1527-1607. PAER, F., an Italian composer, 1774-1839. PAEZ, F. A., a Portuguese divine, died 1532. PAEZ, Pedro, a famous Spanish Jesuit and missionary, author of a Description of Abyssinia, where he introduced the Roman Catholic faith, 1564-1622. Another of the name, Gaspard Paez, also distinguished in Abyssinia, 1582-1635. PAGAN, a king of Bulgaria, reigned 764-771. PAGAN, Blaise Francois, Count De, a fa- mous marshal in the French wars, founder of the French school of fortifying, 1604-1665. PAGANACCI, J., a French writer, 1729-1797. PAGANEL, P., a French politician, 1745-1826. PAGANI, the name of several Italian painters : Vicenzo, died towards the end of the 15th cen- tury. Lattanzio, his son and scholar, known as a painter till 1553, when he abandoned the art. Francesco, flourished at Florence, 1531-1561. Gregorio, son of Francesco, 1558-1605. Paolo, distinguished at Venice and Milan, 1661-1716. PAGANINI, Nicolo, one of the greatest vio- linists that ever lived, was bom at Genoa in 1784. His first lessons in music were imparted to him by his father, who seems to have discovered in the early infancy of the young Nicolo germs of that marvellous genius, which afterwards struck the musical world with wonder. At eight years old the boy was so far advanced that he took a pro- minent violion part in public saloons, as well as in the orchestra of the church. After having studied under Costa, Rolla, Ghiretti, and Paer, he was ap- pointed director of the orchestra to the court at Lucca. In 1828, after having performed in vari- ous cities in Italy, he visited Vienna, when a charge of having murdered his wife was brought against him. He was able, however, to successfully refute the ill-founded charge. In 1831, Paganini went to Paris, were he created an immense sensation. After this he went to Brussels, where his wonderful slight of hand on the violin created only laughter. In the year last named the ' Wizard of the Bow,' as he was called, came to England, where he met with astonishing success, and where he received larger sums for his public performances then ever had even been dreamed of before his advent. Paganini' died at Nice, in 1840, from a disease of the larynx, leaving an immense fortune. It has been said that though this great and original artist and inventor of difficulties and novel effects on the violin, was inordinately fond of money, he frequently ventured large sums at play in the faming houses at Paris and other capital cities. [is reputation is tarnished from the fact that he often condescended to mean tricks that he might secure the worthless applause of the crowds of 'pretended amateurs,' who flocked to his exhibi- tions. In person Paganini was tall and thin, with emaciated features, an acquiline nose, and long black elf locks, which personal peculiarities added greatly in the eyes of the unskilled, to enhance the merit of his performances. [J.M.I PAGE, William, a divine of the Church of England, au. of ' The Peace-Maker,' &c, 1590-1663. PAI PAGEAU, M., a French poet, 16th century. PAGES, F. X., a French novelist, 17 I PAGES, Garnier, a French politician, d. 18 PAGES, Pierre Marie Francois, Viscera De, a Fr. navigator, k. at St. Domingo, 1748-171 PAGET, Eusebius, a puritan divine, 15 1617. His son, Ephraim, a divine, 1575-164J PAGET, Lord William, a statesman and a bassador, reign of Henry VIII. and Edward u died 1564. PAGI, Anthony, a learned ecclesiastic of I order of cordeliers, author of Annotations on Annals of Baronius, 1624-1690. His nephl Francis, a cordelier and historian of the pon 1654-1721. A nephew of the latter, called I Abbe Pagi, author of a history of the N|H lands, about 1690-1740. PAGNEST, A. H. C, a Fr. painter, 1 7 PAGNINO, S., an Ital. Orientalist, 1470-161 PAINE, Thomas, born at Thetford, in Norfiji on the 29th of January, 1737. He was of hunjl origin, and conducted in early life his father's bi ness of a staymaker. He was destined to a vast notoriety which might have proved! enduring reputation if he had well applied i great talents with which he was endowed. I history may be cited as an unhappy illustration the defectiveness of any social system which ( not supply a legitimate place for the aQ^H longings of men of humble rank, by supphi them with education and the means of fl^H ment. In other conditions, Paine might have l!i a great popular preacher, a distinguished sta man, or an eminent lawyer. He went to Amaj at the outbreak of the war of independence, I there enlisted himself against the claims and* terests of his own country, by writing the pacl let called ' Common Sense.' He led a restless I passing from one employment to another. 1 generally said that he was repeatedly disnj^H misconduct. But the prejudices against his ?fl ings were so deep that all statements al^H personal conduct should be taken with^H In 1790, he published the first part of hi of Man,' a controversial attack on Burke's v I on the French Revolution. The second pai^H was a mere palpable attack on the constitinBB government of Britain, procured a verdictf^H againsti ts author in the King's Bench, flfl no doubt that this work, not undeservedly, lasi many abuses, but it, at the same time, sho^H so much a desire for reform as a reckless nflfl against every class and person wielding ] influence in society. The clear ten den i style and the appliance of his illustratioMj made many readers regret their defects, W 9H came still more flagrant in his subsequei i Reason.' He acted as a citizen of Frai for all his sympathy with the republic, he narofl escaped being guillotined by Robespien < died at Baltimore on the 8th of June, 1801V PAINTER, W., an English writer, 16th cenlh PAISIELLO, Giovanni, was born al in 1741. Having been placed at the J lege, in his native city, Paisiello soon distingiu P himself amongst his fellow-pupils when according to the rule of the college, to joi ing the hymn to the Virgin. His father induced to send him to Naples, that he mi 560 PAI msic, where lie was placed under the tuition of urante, a celebrated master of the period ; and, :ter five years' study, he became first master ong the pupils of the Conservatoire. His first ra was brought out at the theatre of Bologna, 1763. The reputation of Paisiello rose so h, that he had engagements to compose operas all the principal states of Europe, and in the osecution of his artistic career he visited Ger- any, Austria, Russia, and France. Paisiello, lose compositions were the most popular of the composed about sixty operas, besides masses, itatas, concertos, songs, &c. He was named anber of many learned societies in Italy, and was cted an associate of the French Institute, on the ,h of December, 1809. He died in Naples in the 1818, when his remains received a public eral, attended with all the pomp which the holic church knows so well to employ on nd occasions. On the evening of his funeral 1 Nina' was performed, when the king of Naples the whole court attended. [J.M.] AITONI, J. M., a Venetian writer, died 1774. AJOL, P., a French general, 1772-1844. .AJON, C, a Fr. protestant writer, 1626-1685. iPAJOU, H., a French author, died 1776. tAJOU, A., a French sculptor, 1730-1809. [AKENHAM, Sir Thomas, a famous naval klmander in the last general war, 1758-1836. :_|AKINGTON, Dorothy, Lady, supposed by jflHickesto be the authoress of the ' Whole Duty Wan,' died 1679. nALADINI, Filippo, a painter of the Floren- iil school, 1544-1614. His daughter, Arch- Ajela. a painter, poet, and musician, 1599-1622. JAIuOION, a Latin grammarian, 1st century. IALJlFATUS, an ancient Greek philosopher. : kLOLOGUS, the surname of several em- f*s of the East : 1. Andronicus II. and An- Msicus III., which see. 2. John VI., born at *4tantinople 1332, succeeded his father, Andro- w, 1341, shared his power with Cantacuzenus M.355, died, after a debauched life and many pes, 1391. He was succeeded by his son, John VII., grandson of John VI., 1390, associated with his uncle, Manuel, succeeded him 1425, died 1439. OX-Y-MELZI, Don Joseph, the brave of Saragossa, was a Spanish officer de- from an old family of Arragon. He was privacy at Alfranca, near Saragossa, when was menaced by the French armies in and was proclaimed governor by the people, only twenty-nine years of age, and without ence, on the 25th of May in that year. Such J*|he heroism of the people of Saragossa, headed byplafox, that the French were compelled to after a murderous siege and bombardment -one days. They returned, however, in reater force, under Marshals Moncey and in the month of November, and the for- few weeks later, was succeeded by Lannes. held out till the 20th of February men, and children fighting in its defence till it a heap of ruins, and suffering dreadfully epidemic fever. Palafox himself being by the disease, and, hopeless of success, ed the command to St. Marc, and the the city capitulated. PAL a prisoner at Vincennes till the restoration of Fer- dinand, who, in June, 1814, appointed him captain- general of Arragon. Died 1847. [E.R.1 PALAFOX- Y-MENDOZA, Juan De, a Spanish' statesman and prelate, best known by his ' History of the Siege of Fontarabia,' and his ' History of the Conquest of China by the Tartars,' 1600-1659. PALAPRAT, J. B. De, aFr. dramat., 1650-1721. PALAZZI, J., a Venetian historian, 1640-1713. PALEARIUS, A., an Italian scholar and theo- logian, executed at Rome for heresy, 1570. PALENCIA, A. De, a Span, historian, 15th c. PALEOTTI, G., an Italian cardinal, 1522-1597. PALESTRINA, Giovanni Pietre, Aloisia Da, sometimes, also, called Pierluigi, was born at Palestrina, the ancient Prasneste, near Rome, about the year 1524. It is believed that his first instructor in music was Claude Goudimel, a Hugue- not, native of Besancon, who was murdered at Lyons in 1572, on the fatal day of the St. Bartholomew. Having distinguished himself as a composer he was about the year 1551, admitted into the pope's cha- pel at Rome, where he was soon afterwards ap- pointed master by Pope Julius III. In 1555, it having been discovered that Palestrina had quitted the state of celibacy, Pope Paul IV. abruptly dis- missed him from his post, to which he was after- wards restored in 1571. He having brought church harmony to a degree of perfection that had never before been attempted and never since excelled, departed this life on the 2d of February, 1594. In the course of this master's life, the council of Trent having, amongst other matters, taken the state of church music into consideration, appointed two cardinals to superintend the reform, which they had resolved upon. Immediately, by their direction, Palestrina set about the duty, and pro- duced his celebrated work, known as ' The Mass of Pope Marcellus.' Such was the effect this work produced, that, when it was first performed, every person was enraptured, and the pope com- pared it to the heavenly melodies which the apostle John heard in his visions. The following account of Palestrina's death was entered in the register of the Pontifical chapel : ' February 2, 1594, this morning died the most excellent musician, Signor Giovanni Palestrina, our dear companion, and maestro de capello of St. Peter's church, whither his funeral was attended, not only by all the musicians of Rome, but by an infinite concourse of people, when "Libera me, Domine" (as composed by himself) was sung by the whole college.' Upon his coffin was inscribed ' Joannes Petrus Aloysuis Prcenestinus Musicce PrincepsJ' His works, which were very numerous, were chiefly ecclesiastical. Several of his motets and sacred songs are in use in England at the present day. [J.M.I PALETTA, J. B., an Ital. anatomist, 1747-1832! PALEY, William, D.D., a celebrated divine of the Church of England, was bom in 1743 at Peter- borough, Northamptonshire. At the age of sixteen he entered Christ's College, Cambridge. But unhap- pily, seduced by the influence of a few gay and dis- solute companions, the first two years of his uni- versity residence were entirely lost or misspent. Having had the wisdom and fortitude, however, to disentangle himself from this disgraceful connec- tion, he resolved on a course of devoted study ; and Its defender became such rapid progress did he make that, in 1768, he 561 2 PAL became a fellow of the college, and soon after col- league to Dr. Law in his public lectures on Moral and Political philosophy, as' well as on the New Testament. This early occupation directed the mind of Paley to those subjects, which, when more maturely studied, he gave to the public in works which have obtained him extensive fame as an author. Both as a college lecturer and a preacher. lie was greatly admired for his sound sense and discretion, especially for his extraordinary skill in simplifying the most abstruse and difficult subjects, and bringing them down to the level of the hum- blest capacity. His early patron, Law, who had become bishop of Carlisle, and who was well aware of Paley's merits, promoted his views in the church by presenting him first to the vicarage of Dalston, Cumberland, then to Appleby, in Westmoreland, till in the course of years, he rose to be archdeacon of Carlisle. It was not till 1785, that his ' Ele- ments of Moral and Political Philosophy' appeared. It was almost immediately adopted as a text-book in Cambridge ; and although its leading principle, that of expediency, has often drawn down upon the moral system of which it is the foundation, the weight of severe censure, the work from the sound sense that pervades it, as well as from the clearness and force of its arguments, still maintains its ground. Not long after, Paley again came before the world as an author by the publication of Horse Paulina?, or ' The Truth of the Scripture History ' proved from undesigned coincidences in the epistles of Paul. More than any other of Paley's works, this treatise displays the characteristic qualities of the author's mind, and it formed a most important contribution to sacred literature, not only from the intrinsic value of the work, but from its opening up a new line of argument in illustration of the evidences. Paley did not take any open or prominent part in the discussion of public or political questions. But his hostility to the slave trade roused all his ener- gies ; and having drawn up an answer to the claims of the slave dealers, sent it to the parliamentary committee immediately previous to the discussion of the subject in the House of Lords. It produced a deep impression, and the author was rewarded not only by seeing the adoption of his views, but by promotion to the rectory of Bishop- Wearmouth, one of the most lucrative situations in the Church of England. It was there he composed and pub- lished his ' Natural Theology,' amid the paroxysms of a painful disease which brought him gradually to the grave. Dr. Paley was suspected of hetero- doxy, having discovered a strong inclination to Arian sentiments. In other respects, he was a genial, warm-hearted, benevolent man, distin- guished for shrewdness and strong good sense; and those mental qualities which he possessed in so emi- nent a degree were brought to bear predominantly on the subjects of religion. Died 1805. [R.J.] PALFIN, J., a Flemish anatomist, 1649-1730. PALISOT-DE-BEAUVOIS, Ambr. Marie Fr. Joseph, a (list. French naturalist, 1752-1820. PALISSOT-DE-MONTENOY, Charles, a Fr. dramatic writer and literary critic, 1730-1814. PALISSY, Bernard De, one of the greatest geniuses produced by the French nation, painter, physician, chemist, naturalist, and economist, born about 1500, died in the Bastile, where he was im- prisoned by Henry III. as a Calvinist, 1589. PAL PALLADINO, Giacomo, or James, an It all prelate and theologian, generally called Giacc de Teramo, author of ' Consolatio Peceatorum religious romance, 15th century. PALLADIO, Andrea, a famous Italian an K tect, to whose skill Italy is indebted for matt; her most beautiful edifices, born at Vicenza author of a Treatise on Architecture,' first fished at Venice 1570, died 1580. PALLAD1US, the name of several ancient vants: 1. A bishop of Helcnopolis, in Bithy author of a ' History of the Hermits of the Dea and friend of Chrysostom, born about 368. %*, author of a ' Dialogue of the Life of Chrysosto written at Rome 408. It is a question among learned whether or not he is the same as the ceding. 3. A Roman writer on agriculture, so a Gaulish praefect, bom about 405. 4. A Rot prelate, mentioned as ' the first apostle of the f died about 450. 5. A physician of Alexandria, named Sophista, or Satrosophista, author of dical works in Greek, 6th century. PALLAS, the freedman and confidant of emperor Claudius, who, at his instance, )fl Agrippina. He was put to death by Nero. PALLAS, Peter Simon, a German tr and naturalist, author of works on the hist topography, and natural history of various par the Russian dominions, 1741-1811. PALLAVICINI, or PELAVICINO, the quis Oberto, a chief of the Ghibellines, died 15 PALLAVICINO, Ferrante, a satirical and man of letters, born 1618, beheaded 1644 PALLAVICINO, Sforza, an Italian card au. of a ' History of the Co. of Trent,' 1607-1 PALLIERE, V. L., a Fr. painter, 17e7-l PALLIOT, P., a French genealogist, PALLISER, Sir Hugh, a British admiral was born 1721, and after distinguishing hi several occasions, including the taking of was second in command to Admiral Keppelfr famous action off Ushant, 1778. On this oo a misunderstanding arose between the two of who preferred charges against each other, ended in the censure of Palliser. He becam* vernor of Greenwich Hospital, and died there ] PALLUEL, F. C. De, a Fr. agricult., 174 PALM, J. G., a German divine, 1697-M PALM, J. P., a German patriot, shot 180 PALMA, Jacob, the name of two Italian ; ters, the elder of whom was born at Bergamo ; and died at Venice 1574. The younger, bis nephew, flourished at Venice, 1544-16*28. PALMELLA, Don Pedro De Suza stein, duke of, a distinguished Portugue man, was born at Turin 1781 ; and after i tion in Portugal, followed by the custon pean travels of a nobleman, took a leadir the political troubles of his country, and 1 in opposing the succession of Don Miguel : PALMER, IL, a learned divine, 1601- PALMER, John, an English actor, in London about 1742, and commenced as an actor in inferior parts at the Ha\ Drury Lane theatres. Gradually increasing ' putation, he was at length appointed ma a new theatre proposed to be built in the I London, but not being able to procure a pat' returned to Drury, under circumstances of.] 562 PAL rcibarrassment, which ultimately induced him solve to emigrate to America, which country, ;ver, he never visited. His death was ra- table. It took place on the stage of the Liver- theatre, while performing the character of Stranger, and uttering the exclamation ;re is another and a better world.' This event rred 2d August, 1798. Mr. Palmer was one lose actors who are made by time and prac- He was a modest and punctilious man, i respected, with, it would seem, a dash of rstition in his character; and, according to en T seems to have had a presentiment of his i. [J.A.H.] LMER, John, held in remembrance as the projector of mail coaches, was a native of where he followed the trade of a brewer. the adoption of his scheme, he became comp- general of the post office, from which office is removed in 1792, died 1818. LMER, S., an historian of printing, d. 1732. LMIERI, M., an Italian annalist, 1405-1475. LMIERI, V., an Ital. theologian, 1753-1820. LMQUIST, Magnus, Baron De, a Swedish anatician, and president of the Company of 8, 1660-1729. .MSCHOELD, Elias, a Swedish historical n employed at Stockholm, died 1719. MINO-Y-VELASCO, A. Antonio, a inter and biographer of artists, 1653-1726. RAVE, John, a polite wr., died 1554. ELE, J. De, a Fr. theologian, 1536-1587. PHILIUS, a Greek painter, 4th cent. "HILIUS, St., a presbyter of Csesarea, in le, who suffered martyrdom in the perse- under Maximinius, 309. ARD, C. F., a Fr. poet, about 1691-1764. ' SIUS, a Stoic philosopher, 2d cent. B.C. CIROLI, G., an Italian jurist, 1523-1582. "KOUCKE, Andrew Joseph, a Flemish and literateur, 1700-1753. His son, Joseph, distinguished as a journalist at der of the ' Moniteur,' &c, 1736-1798. A. X., a Fr. numismatist, 1699-1777. AROLA, F., an Italian prelate, 1548-94. Nikita Joanovitch, Count De, a statesman, who rose to distinction in the of Peter the Great, and became prime to Catharine ; b. at Lucca 1718, d. 1783. INI, Gian Paolo, an Italian architect painter, 1691-1764. His son, Fran- in the same line of art, dates unknown. ONINO, J., a Hungarian poet, 1434-72. jENUS, a Christian philosopher, 2d cent. ALEON, H., a Fr. historian, 1522-1595. INIO, O., an Ital. historian, 1529-1568. IS, a Greek poet, 5th century B.C. ETIA, Maria Helena, an Italian j as an historical painter, 1668-1709. , G. W. F., a Ger. bibliog., 1729-1805. M.I, D. S., an Italian literateur, 1684-1751. BiL Hyacinth, or Giacinto, a native of ^distinguished for his part in liberating his e Genoese, 1729. He became one Jstrates of the country, and acted Mutenant of the king elected by the patriots. Wd to Naples on the invasion of the French, Mthere about 1755. His son, Pascal, is pPHct of the following article. An elder son, 563 PAR Clement, also a distinguished patriot, died in Italy, and with him, as he left only daughters, the name of Paoli became extinct. PAOLI, Pascal, was born in Corsica in 1726. His native island had long been under the oppres- sive domination of the Genoese, which the Corsi- cans made repeated efforts to shake off. Paoli was raised to the headship of the liberating party in 1755. He organized a regular civil and military government, and for thirteen years carried on the war of independence against the Genoese with un- varying spirit, and with general success. _ In 1768, the Genoese sold their right of sovereignty over Corsica to France. The French endeavoured to induce Paoli to recognize their dominion and adopt their interests, by lavish offers of rank and money. But Paoli rejected all their bribes, and made a gal- lant though unsuccessful resistance to the troops which they poured into Corsica. After the French conquest was completed, Paoli took refuge in Eng- land, were he was received with merited respect. The British government settled a pension on him, and he passed many years in honoured friendship with Burke, Johnson, and other distinguished Englishmen of the age. When the war of the French Revolution commenced, Paoli headed an expedition to Corsica, by which it was sought to detach that island from France, and unite it to the British dominion. This attempt, after some tem- porary successes, ultimately failed. Paoli returned to England, where he passed the remainder of his life in tranquillity. He died in 1807. He deserved the eulogium which the English historian Lord Mahon has pronounced on him, of being 'a brave and skil- ful soldier, and an upright and disinterested states- man.' He was also a warm and sincere friend; his literary acquirements were considerable ; and he was a man of spotless integrity and pure morals in private life. [E.S.C.] PAOLINI, P., an Italian dramatist, 1663-1726. PAPA, J. Del, an Ital. physician, 1649-1753. PAPIAS, a grammarian of the 11th century. PAPIAS, St., a bishop of Hierapolis, 2d cent. PAPILLON, A., a French poet, 1487-1559. P APILLON, John, two French wood engravers, father and son the former, 1639-1710 ; the latter, 1661-1710. A younger son, Nicholas, same pro- fession, 1663-1714. A grandson of the elder John, named John Baptist, noted for his foliage and flowers, 1698-1776. A brother of the latter, J. B. Michel, 1720-1746. PAPILLON, P., a French canonist, 1666-1738. PAPILLON, T., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1514-1596. PAPIN, Denis, an ingenious Frenchman, who assisted Boyle in many of his experiments, and in- vented the digester known by his name, died 1710. PAPIN, Isaac, a French divine, 1657-1709. PAPINIAN, a celebrated Roman jurist, 175-212. PAPON, J., a French Hellenist, 1505-1590. PAPON, J. P., a French historian, 1734-1805. PAPPENHEIM, Count, one of the most illus- trious generals of Austria during the thirty years' war, 1594-1632. PAPPONI, J., an Italian jurist, died 1605. PAPPUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, 4th c PAPPUS, J., a German divine, 1549-1610. PAQUOT, J. N., an Austrian hist., 1722-1803. PARABOSCO, G., an Italian poet, 16th cent, PARACELSUS. Philippus Aureolus PAR TlIEOPHRASTUS PAKACELSUS BOMBAST, AB Hohenheim, was born about the year 1493, near Zurich. Although he has left no discovery behind him, he is highly distinguished as the founder of the modern science of medicine. He instituted an immense number of experiments on the influence of chemical remedies in disease, and acquired much fame by the successful result of his treatment. He travelled extensively throughout Europe for the purpose of adding to his stock of knowledge, and of studying nature in her varied departments. He was professor of physic and surgery at Basle, from 1526 to 1527, when he abdicated his office and afterwards became a wanderer through various parts of Germany, Colmar, Moravia, Vienna, Hungary, and finally Salzburg, where he died in 1541, in his forty- eighth year. Paracelsus was a man of most dissolute habits and unprincipled character; and his works (Opera) are filled with the highest flights of unintelligible bombastic jargon, un- worthy of perusal, but are such as might be ex- pected from one who united in his person the qualities of a fanatic and a drunkard. [R.D.T.] PARADIN, William, a French historian, 1510- 1590. His brother, Claude, a writer on gene- alogy, &c, about the same period. John, cousin of the preceding, dist. as a poet, about 1508-1588. PARADIS, Paul, a Jewish convert, first pro- fessor of Hebrew at Paris, died 1559. PARADIS DE RAYMONDIS, John Zacha- riah, a Fr. moralist and agriculturist, 1746-1800. PARADISI, Count Agostino, an Italian poet, professor of civil economy and the Belles Lettres at Modena, born at Vignola, Reggio, 1736, d. 1783. PARADISI, Count John, son of the preced- ing, born about 1760, became director of the Cis- alpine republic in 1797, and, at a later period, pre- sident of Napoleon's Italian senate. He died 1826, distinguished as a philosopher and man of letters. PARASINA MALATESTA. See Nicholas. PARCK, Thomas, an engraver, 1759-1834. PARCELLES, John, a Dutch painter, noted for his storm-pieces, 1597-1641. His son, Julius, born about 1628, painted in the same style. PARCIEUX. See Deparcieux. PARDIES, J. G., a French savant, 1636-1673. PARDOUX, B., a French physician, 1545-1611. PARE, Ambrose, one of the greatest surgeons of modern times, called the father of French sur- gery, was born in 1509, and was professional ad- viser of four French sovereigns. Though a Hugue- not, he was in the fullest confidence of Charles IX., and by his favour escaped the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew ; died 1590. PAREJA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1606-1670. PARENT, A., a Fr. mathematician, 1666-1716. PAREUS, the name of three distinguished theo- logians and philologists of Germany: David Woengler, author of many commentaries, 1548- 1622. Philip, his son, about 1576-1650. Daniel, son of the latter, 1605-1635. PARFAIET, F., a Fr. dramatist, 1698-1753. PARIJI, J., an Italian architect, died 1635. PARINI, J., an Italian poet, 1729-1799. PARIS, A., a French ecclesiastic, 1631-1683. PARIS, F., a notary of Paris, known at the period of the revolution as a friend of Danton. PARIS, F., a French religious writer, d. 1718. PAR PARIS, Francis, commonly called the Paris, was a French ecclesiastic, born He died after a life of religious mortificatio charity 1727, and was buried in the cemet- Saint -Medard. Here the most extraon scenes took place, occasioned by the allege racles wrought at his tomb, where persons into convulsions and transports of prophet lirium. An account of these occurrence written by the magistrate Montqueron, an( only ceased when the government took measures, prosecuted some of the parties walled up the ground. PARIS, J. B. F., a French general, 1748-1820. PARIS, Jean J., a political writer, died PARIS, L. M., a writer on grammar. 174( PARIS, Matthew, one of our earliest historians, was a Benedictine monk of St. and is known from 1245, to the year of his 1259. He was a man of the highest chf and distinguished as a musician, poet, orato: logian, painter, and architect. His practical were turned to the reformation of monas> cipline, on which account he was sent to by the pope. His principal work, first pq in 1571, extends over English history from tl of William the Conqueror to his own tin earlier portion being lost. Other works exist only in MS. PARIS, M. A., a French general, killed PARIS, P. A., a French architect, 1747- PARIS, P. L., an actor of the French ren originally a priest of the oratory, executed 1 PARISAN, P. G., a French dramatist, 1 PARK, Sir J. A., a disting. lawyer, die PARK, Mungo, was born at the : Fowlshiels, near Selkirk, on the 10th Set 1771. An aptness for learning which I showed, and a reserved and thoughtful ' and grave deportment, which were nat him, and distinguished him through life, J his parents to select him as the moslJ of their sons for the ministry of the Cl] Scotland. His education was directed ingly ; but his own tastes and aspiration.] different turn, and choosing the medical] sion, he was apprenticed, at the age of M Mr. Anderson, a surgeon in Selkirk, remained three years, and then went to Edinburgh college, where his attends usual course was continued for three St, sessions, the term necessary for graduatj surgeon. A taste for botany acquired j period, and freely indulged in during his rambles, was of the greatest use to him aft] and may be said to have in a great determined his future career. A young n James Dickson, afterwards his brother-in-' to London to seek employment as a ga engaged by a nurseryman at Hammers! whose gardens Sir Joseph Banks was a f visitor. Dickson's superior intelligence Sir Joseph's notice; and when some yea j wards he began business on his own acccj seedsman, and waited upon Sir Joseph J most kindly received by him, and offei use of his library. Dickson gladly availe j of the advantages thus presented to 1 564 PAR me afterwards a distinguished botanist, author work on cryptogamic plants, and of many able papers in the Linns3an transactions. He Park with him on a botanical tour in the llands while he was a student ; and when Park wards went to London, on the completion of ourse, he introduced him to Sir Joseph Banks, igh wbose influence the situation of assistant >on in the Worcester East Indiaman was soon ued. Park sailed in February, 1792, and re- ;d the following year. He brought home interesting plants, and contributed to the scan Society a paper on eight new fishes from itra. He now remained for some time inac- enjoying intercourse with scientific men, to 1 he was introduced by Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, whose warm Iship towards him knew no interruption dur- is entire career. Sir Joseph was an active er of the African Association, formed in for the exploration of the central portions t continent ; and Park's attention must, of have been much drawn to the subject. Hav- ardour in the pursuit of his profession, and ly even no fondness for it, while he had herished a strong desire for foreign travel, natural that Park should offer himself to ssociation when they were looking out for r to Major Houghton, who had perished te attempt to reach the Niger from the west Park's knowledge of natural histoiy and e, his age the full vigour of youth his experience of a hot climate, his enthu- and a reputation for courage and address, d, it would seem, rather upon an observa- his personal qualities and general bearing, upon anything which he had yet done, recommendations of so strong a nature e Association accepted his offer. After due "on he left England on the 22d May, and on the 5th July reached Pisania, a factory 200 miles up the river Gambia, he remained some time with Dr. Laidley, ' "ent agent. Beginning his journey on the ber, he first crossed the country E.N.E. and then turning S.E. traversed the of Leedamar and Bambarra, till he sight of the Niger near Sego : ' I saw with pleasure the great object of my mission, g sought-for majestic "Niger, glittering to rning sun, as broad as the Thames at ster, and flowing slowly to the eastvmrd. ' to the brink, and having drunk of the d up my fervent thanks in prayer to Ruler of all things, for having thus far my endeavours witn success.' Thus, the was gained in the solution of a most dif- blem, deemed by his country of great inl- and which had already baffled the skill us enterprising travellers, and the efforts " states. Park was determined to work l fully out, by tracing the mysterious this great river. He found it impossible, ', to proceed farther down than Silla, near " on the 30th July he began his homeward ards the Gambia. Following the Niger as Bammakoo, and there turning to the crossed the country watered by the of the Senegal, by a route more southerly PAR than his former track, and at length reached Pisa- nia on the 10th June, 1797 ; having thus accom- plished a journey whose hardship and suffering are, perhaps, without a parallel in the history of inland discovery. Soon after he returned home ; and residing mostly at his native place, occupied himself in preparing an account of his travels. In August, 1799, being then in his twenty-eighth year, he married the daughter of his former master, Mr. Anderson, and, in October 1801, settled in the town of Peebles for the practice of his profession. During the few years which he spent here, he en- joyed much domestic happiness, and the privilege of associating with Sir Walter Scott, Dr. Adam Ferguson, the historian, and other persons of note. His mind was, however, kept in an -unsettled state up till the end of 1804, by several proposals from government for new schemes of discovery. One for a new expedition to Central Africa was at length matured, and Park was requested to take the com- mand. ' Park,' says his biographer, ' was so much afraid of encountering the distress of his family, that he proceeded directly to London from Edinburgh without returning to bid them a formal adieu.' Towards other friends he practised the same con- straint upon his feelings. He sailed from Ports- mouth January 30th, 1805. Pisania was again fixed on as the point of departure. His companions on his former journey were two negroes, and even these had accompanied him no farther than Yarra, so that for more than three-fourths of his journey he was quite alone. On the second journey he had stipulated for a good escort ; and the presence of two friends, Mr. Anderson, his wife's brother, as sur- geon, and Mr. Scott, a young neighbour, as artist. With these two friends, five artificers from the royal dock-yards, Lieutenant Martyn, thirty-five privates from the garrison at Goree, and Isaaco, a Mandingo, a priest and trader, as guide and interpreter, and forty asses with baggage, Park left Pisania on the 4th of May, 1805. He chose the route by which he had returned on his first journey ; but the time of starting was most unfortunate and ill-chosen, less by any fault of his, than the delay of the govern- ment in despatching the ships from England. On the 8th June the rainy season set in, and the mis- fortunes of the expedition began. On the 19th August, Park reached the summit of the mountain ridge, dividing the river basins of the Senegal and Niger, and came once more in sight of the latter, ' rolling its immense stream along the plain,' and, on the evening of the same dav, pitched his tent on the banks of the Niger at Bammakoo, where he had struck off from the river on his homeward route. Only seven men now remained; most of the rest had died of fever or dysentery by the way, among whom was Mr. Scott the artist; a few had been left sick in charge of friendly natives, but were not afterwards heard of. Nearly a month be- fore, the last of the forty asses had died. The ex- pedition now descended the river in two canoes to Sansanding, between Sego and Silla, where his brother-in-law, Mr. Anderson, and two of the men, fell victims to the dreadful climate. Lieu- tenant Martyn and three soldiers were all who now survived. With their aid, Park constructed a vessel, which was named the schooner Joliba, 40 feet long by 6 broad, and drawing, when loaded, only one foot water ; and having engaged a guide 5G5 PAR PAR and interpreter, named Amadi Fatouma, instead of j elevated to the primacy on the accession of Isaaio, who was sent back to the Gambia with his beth. He was among the first selected to pr journal and letters, purchased three slaves, and laid in a stock of provisions, he set sail down the river on the 17th ISovember, in the hope of tracing the remaining course of this famed stream, the lower part of which, according to the theory which he had formed, was identical with the Congo, or Zaire, entering the Atlantic in lat. 15 S. This, however, it was destined that the intrepid and en- thusiastic traveller was not to accomplish. His despatches, forwarded by Isaaco, contained the last intelligence ever received from him, and for many {rears his fate was involved in mystery. It was at ength distinctly made out by information gleaned from various quarters, that, about the beginning of June 1806, he had descended the river as far as Boussa, 650 miles below Timbnctoo ; that here his interpreter, whose engagement now terminated, was sent on shore with a present for the king of Yaouri ; that this was withheld by the Dooty, or chief, to whom it was given, and the king was told the white men had gone to return no more ; that the king hereupon imprisoned the interpreter, and sent a band of armed men to intercept Park's pas- sage at rocky narrows near Boussa ; and that here, after a vain struggle against superior numbers, Park and all his companions, except one of the negroes, leaped into the river to attempt their escape by swimming, and were drowned. Fatouma was afterwards released, and met with this negro. Their narratives, and Park's journal, with an intro- ductory sketch of his life and labours, were pub- lished together in 1815. Government paid to his widow, according to stipulation before he left home, the sum of 4000. His family consisted of three sons and one daughter ; the latter, mar- ried to H. W. Meredith, Esq., of Pentry-Bichen, Denbighshire, and his youngest son, Archi- bald, an officer in the East India Company's ser- vice, are still alive. All his brothers and sisters had families, many of whom are still living ; and several of his relatives occupy stations of high re- spectability in Glasgow. In person, Mungo Park was tall and muscular, and possessed an extraordinary- power of enduring fatigue ; and by his many noble, mental, and moral qualities, was no less fitted for the right conduct of the important enterprises in which he was engaged. [J.B.] PARK, T., a bibliographical writer, 1759-1834. PARKE, J., a famous musician, 1745-1829. PARKER, George, earl of Macclesfield, son of the first earl, who was lord chancellor of England, distinguished as a mathematician, died 1766. PARKER, Henry, Lord Morley, one of the barons who threatened Clement VII. with the loss of his supremacy if he refused his consent to the divorce of Henry VIII. He bears the reputation of a man of letters, and some of his works exist in MS., 1476-1556. PARKER, Matthew, the second protestant archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Norwich 1504, and was early distinguished by his progress in every branch of knowledge connected with the study of divinity. In 1533 he became chaplain to Queen Anne Boleyn, and was charged by her with the care of her daughter Elizabeth. He remained in concealment during the reign of Mary, though search was several times made for him, and was the Reformed Liturgy; and the ' Bishops'" E which remained in use till the present trans! was effected, was printed under his inspe< Archbishop Parker was also a great antiqus and had some share, either as patron or e in the work ' De Antiquitate Britannica; Eccl besides being the founder of the first Socie Antiquaries. He died 1575. PARKER, Richard, appointed admiral o fleet by the mutineers during the revolt a Nore, was a disgraced midshipman, who was ing at that juncture as a common sailor, a man of enterprise and address, and acquire mense influence over the men. On the redl of the mutiny by Lord Howe, he was hang board the Sandwich, June 30, 1797. PARKER, Robert, a puritan writer on. logical subjects, known from 1583 to 1607. son, Thomas, a theological and religious took refuge in America 1634, died there 167' PARKER, Samuel, a prelate of the rei James II., who at that period joined the p? He is author of a history of his own times ana other works, in particular ' A Discourse of [ siastical Polity,' written against the dissei born at Northampton 1640, died 1687. PARKES, Samuel, a practical chemist known as the author of many useful elen works, 1759-1825. PARKHURST, John, bishop of Norwich reign of Elizabeth, and previously the teacl Bishop Jewel, at Merton college. He late or eminent learning and piety ; 1.011-15i PARKHURST, John, author of the w Hebrew and Greek lexicons, was born in 1 amptonshire 1728, and educated at Clare Cambridge. He entered into orders, but h preferments in the church, and, possessing derable property, devoted himself to literar suits. He was a man of high principle, receiver of the philosophy of John Hu Died at Epsom 1797. PARKINS, J., a writer on law, 16th cei PARKINSON, J., a writer on botanv, d PARKINSON, T., a mathemat., 1745-1 PARMENIDES, of Elea, in Magna G| born about 536 B.C.; one of the chief Eleatic school. That great search cor substance of things occupied Parmer instead of finding Unity in Nature, 1 it in Mind alone. It is the Reason ceives and bestows Unity on Pluralit true Reality is Subjective. The schen menides is a pure Idealism, and open objections to which one-sided schemes an He exercised, however, much influence speculations of Plato. PARMENIO, a Macedonian gen., d. B.< PARMENTIER, Anthony A., a fa agricultural writer and philanthropist, PARMENTIER, J., a Fr. painter, It PARMENTIER, J., a French naviga also as a versifier and translator, 16th i PARMIZIANO. See Mazzuoli. PARNELL, Thomas, born at Dublin in took orders, and became archdeacon of Cll He received, also, other preferments 566 PAR Iterest of Swift, when he deserted the Whig ,rty on their fall in the latter part of the reign of leen Anne. He was a contributor to the Spec- _tor and Guardian, and, after flying to London his Irish parsonage, became intimate with the ding men of letters. His poetry comes nearer Pope's, in sweetness of versification, than do y other verses of the time : and he has not only leh felicity of diction, but also a very pleasing of sentiment, shown in such pieces as popular allegory 'The Hermit.' His death, ich occurred in 1718, is said to have been itened by intemperate habits, and these have attributed to the grief lie felt for the loss of wife. [W.S.] ARODI, Filippo, a Genoese sculptor, born >ut 1640, died 1708. Domenico, his son, an jorical painter, 1668-1740. Battista, brother Domenico, 1674-1730. Pellegrino, son of menico, a portrait painter, died after 1741. ^AROLETTI, Victor Modeste, an Italian sician, dist. as a philos. and natural., 1765-1884. ^ARR. See Catharine Parr. ARR, Richard, an Irish divine, au. of Ser- is and a ' Life of Archbishop Usher,' 1617-91. ARR, Samuel, an eminent classical scholar critic, was the son of an apothecary of Harrow- he-Hill, in Middlesex, and was born there He obtained a living in the Church of Eng- in the gift of Sir Francis Burdett, and wrote " works of temporary interest ; died 1825. ARR, Thomas, noticed here as an extraordi- instance of longevity, was a native of Shrop- He was born" in 1483, and laboured in hus- Iry till after he was one hundred and thirty old. He died in 1635, when nearly one hun- and fifty-three years of age ; and even then, Jarvey, who opened his body, found no internal of decay. His grandson died at the age of indred and twenty. ARR, W., a partizan of Mary Stuart, ex. 1584. &RRENNIN, D., a Fr. mission., 1665-1741. \RRHASIUS, a Greek painter, 5th cent. b.c. IRRHASIUS, Aulus James, an Italian imarian and classical editor, 1470-1534. LRROCEL, Bartholomew, a French pain- " 1660. His son, Joseph, a great painter ittles, 1648-1704. Charles, son and pupil osenh, 1688-1752. Ignatius, nephew and . of Joseph, died 1722. Pierre, younger of the latter, also a pupil of his uncle about 1720-1765. Ignatius, son of re, and last painter of the family, d. abt. 1774. lRRY, Caleb Hillier, father of the well- arctic navigator, distinguished as a phy- and naturalist, and more than forty years at the Bath hospital, was born in 1756. cipal work is entitled ' The Elements of " died 1822. BEY, R., bishop of St. Asaph, died 1620. RRY, R., a divine and theologian, 1722-1780. RRY, W., an English painter, 1742-1791. BSIN, J., a Dutch engraver, 16th century. BSONS, A., an English traveller, died 1785. RSOXS, James, a physician, anatomist, and arian, au. of several curious works, 1705-70. RSOXS, John, an anatomist, 1742-1785. |RSONS, Philip, a minister of the Church Wand, kn. as a miscellaneous wr., 1729-1812. PAS PARSONS, Robert, whose name is sometimes written Persons, an English Jesuit, famous for his intermeddling in affairs of state, 1547-1610. PARUTA, Paul, a Venetian diplomatist, and historiographer to the state, 1540-1598. PARUTA, Philip, au antiquarian, died 1629. PAS, Anth. De, a French general, 1641-1711. PAS, or PAAS, Crispin De, a Dutch designer and engraver, born about 1536, had three sons in the same profession : Crispin, the eldest, born 1570; William, the second, dates unknown; Simon, the third, a portrait engraver, born 1574. His daughter, Madeleine, also distinguished herself in the art, born 1576. PASCAL, the frst of the name pope, 817-824. The second, 1099-1113. The third, an antipope, elected in opposition to Alexander III., and sup- ported by the emperor Frederick, 1164-1168. Ano- ther antipope, of the name, headed a faction some time in 687. PASCAL, Blaise, was a native of Clermont in Auvergne, where he was born 19th June, 1623. His ancestors had, for several generations, held high offices in the French government, and his father was a provincial judge in his native county. Even in boyhood, the extraordinary power and acuteness of Blaise Pascal displayed" itself. His father, who was an eminent mathematician, under- took the sole management of his son's education, and for that purpose removed to Paris. The bias of young Pascal's mind being strongly inclined to- wards mathematical science, the prudent father, afraid lest the favourite subject might engross his mind to the neglect of other necessary branches, took care to give him little or no access to his library. He confined his son's attention, as much as possible, to the study of language's. But nature could not be repressed, and the daily pastime of the boy was to draw mathematical diagrams, with charcoal, on the floor. In this stolen enjoyment, his father surprised him, and the figure that was then absorbing his thoughts was the 32d proposi- tion of Euclid ; showing that he had already mas- tered all the previous elements that enter into that demonstration. His father thenceforth set him to the regular study of Euclid ; and so great was his proficiency in the science, that, before completing his sixteenth year, he had composed a treatise on conic sections, invented an arithmetical machine, for which, in 1649, he obtained a patent ; and at the age of twenty-three had finished those important experiments, in pneumatics and hydrostatics, which have so honourably connected his name with the progress of natural philosophy, and raised him to the same rank with Torricelli and Boyle. A serious illness, brought on by intense application to study, obliged him, for a long time, to suspend his fa- vourite pursuits, and on his recovery, circumstances occurred that powerfully diverted his thoughts into a different channel. During his protracted sickness, he had received deep impressions of reli- gion, so that under an overwhelming sense of its importance he resolved to renounce all the scientific and secular pursuits, to which his taste and genius so strongly directed him, and to apply his mind exclusively to the study of theology, and the means by which he might promote the best interests of his fellow-men. Through the loopholes of his pious retreat, however, he took an occasional glance at 5G7 PAS what was passing in the world, and on the out- break of the fierce contests that were waged be- tween the Jansenists and the Jesuits, Pascal showed himself a keen and powerful advocate of the former. It was in connection with the contro- versy respecting Arnauld, that he wrote his famous ' Letters of a Provincial to one of his Friends,' which first appeared in the year 1656, under the fictitious authorship of Louis de Montalte. They contain a most withering exposure of the false morality of the Jesuits, and the sentiments are ex- pressed iu a style of elegance, accompanied with the most sparkling wit and bitter sarcasms, which, although enlisted in a foreign and bygone contro- versy, have secured to the work a lasting fame. Pascal meditated a work of high importance, viz., an inquiry into the character and evidences of Christianity, and in the hands of so original, pro- found, and independent a thinker, there was reason to expect a production which would interest and instruct the whole Christian world. But his Pensees, or ' Thoughts on Religion,' a posthumous volume of loose and desultory fragments, which were meant to be woven into a regular composition, is all that was accomplished of this grand design, for he was arrested in the midst of his work by death in 1662, which happened so suddenly and in such suspicious circumstances, as gave some colour to the charge of his being earned off by poison. [R-J-] [House in which Pascal died.] PASCH, G., a German philologist, 1661-1707. PASCH, J., a professor of philosophy, d. 1709. PASCH, Jean, a Swedish landscape and marine painter, 1706-1769. Laurence, of the same family name, is known as a portrait painter ; and his daughter, Ulrica Fredkkica, was a member of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, 1735-96. PASCHAL. See Pascal. PASCHAL, C, a Fr. antiquarian, died 1625. PASCHAL, F., a Fr. dramatist, 17th century. PASCHIUS, G., a Ger. philologist, 1661-1707. PASCOLI, A., an Ital. anatomist, 1669-1767. PASCOLI, L., an Ital art- writer, 1674-1744. PASINELLI, L., an Ital. painter, 1629-1700. PASQUALIS. See Martinez. PAT \ PASQUIER, Stephen, an eminent Fre civilian, and enemy of the Jesuits, 1529-1615. PASS, PASSE, or PAAS. See Pas. PASSAROTTI, Bartalomeo, an Italian pi ter and engraver, died 1592. He had two si also disting. in art : Tiburzio, died 1612; Aurelio, who died between 1592 and 1605. PASSEMANT, C. S., aFr. astronomer, 1702 PASSE RAT, J., a French poet, 1534-1602. PASSERI, Giambattista, an Italian a quarian and naturalist, 1694-1780. PASSERI, Giambattista, an Italian pai and poet, 1610-1679. His nephew, Guiski also a painter, 1654-1714. PASSEROTTI. See Passarctti. PASSIGNANO, Dominico Cresti Da, a ting, painter of the Florentine school, 1568-161 PASSIONEI, Domenico, a learned Ita cardinal, and promoter of literature, 1682-176 PASSWAN-OGLOU, Osman, a pacha of din , in Bulgaria, who revolted against the porte, t his father had been put to death ; and, after [ struggle, compelled the sultan to confirm hii the government. He was afterwards faithfh the Turks in a war with the Russians, 1758-1 PASTEUR, J. D., a Dut. naturalist, 1763-1 PASTORIUS, J., a Ger. historian, 1610-16! PATARASI, L., an Ital. naturalist, 1674-1 PATEL, Peter, a French landscape pah- killed in a duel, 1654-1703. His son, of the s names, painted several emblematic subjects; d unknown. PATER, Paul, a Hungarian savant, 1656-1 PATERCULUS, a Roman historian, d. lfl PATERSON, C. W., a Brit, admiral, 1756-1 PATERSON, S., a bibliographer, 1728-180 PATICIII, A., an Italian painter, 1762-ll PATIN, Guy, a French physician, distingui.' in the disputes which divided" the profession cerning chemical remedies, as the determ: enemy of antimonial and similar preparati 1601-1672. His letters, which have beesq lished since his death, are curious and int Charles, his second son, distinguished as a sician and numismatist, 1633-1693. TheM the latter, and their two daughters, Chaklo and Gabrielle, were women of remari learning, and have left some writings PATISSON, M., a Fr. Hellenist, diedab PATKUL, John Reginald De, a _ of Poland, who distinguished himself b deavours to shake off the Swedish vol reigns of Charles XL and Charles XII. treacherously given up to the latter by and broken on the wheel 1707. PATON, R., an English painter, last cen: PATOUILLET, L., a Fr. Jesuit and cm sialist, an. of 'Apology for Cartouche,' 1' PATRAT, J., a French playwright, 1 PATRICK, A., a Polish prelate; 16th PATRICK, Peter, one of Justinian sadors, and finally master of the palace, tive of Thessalonica. Very little is known ing his history; and of his work, 'The 9 Ambassadors,' written in Greek, only some ments remain. PATRICK, St., the patron of Ireland, , w first to corvert the pagan Irish I and is supposed to have commenced his 568 PAT re in 433. According to his own account he s born at Kilpatrick, between Dumbarton and isgow, but other accounts represent him as a ;ive of Pembrokeshire and of Brittany. Nen- is, who wrote in the 7th century, states that original name was Maur, and that the name tricius was given to him when consecrated by pe Celestine. He fixed his residence at Armagh, ich is become the metropolitan see, and is sup- ed to have continued his missions about forty rs. Usher, however, places his death as late t93. 'ATRICK, Samuel, a divine and classical ic, editor of an edition of Hederick's Greek icon, died 1748. ATRICK, Simon, a learned prelate, horn at lsborough 1626, died bishop of Ely 1707. His is are ' Heart's Ease, or a Remedy against all lbles,' 4 Jewish Hypocrisy,' ' A Convert to the lent Generation,' ' Parable of the Pilgrim,' position of the Commandments,' a ' Debate be- n a Conformist and Nonconformist,' ' Treatise le Holy Communion,' ' The Devout Christian,' us and the Resurrection Justified by Witnesses eaven and Earth,' ' A History of the Church of rborough ' (of which he was dean), various para- and commentaries on the Prophets, and a r of occasional sermons. When rector of St. s, Covent Garden, he greatly endeared him- his parishioners by remaining with them g the wnole time of the plague in 1665. lTRIN, E. L. M., a Fr. geologist, 1742-1815. TRIX, P., a French poet, 1585-1672. TRIZI, A., an Italian historian, died 1496. TRIZI, F., an Italian Platonist, 1529-1597. .TTE, P., a French architect, 1723-1814. TTEN, T., an English theologian, 1754-90. TTISON, James, well known as member of t for London, and governor of the Bank igland, was born 1786. He was the repre- *ve of an old commercial family. His par- tary career began in 1835. In 1841 he was fill, but was returned on the death of Sh- in 1843, and again at the general elec- L847. Died 1849. ON, William, a native of Sussex, who hed himself as a poet, and died in his -first year, after a miserable life, 1706-1727. " "ZZI, J. V., an Ital. theologian, 1700-69. CTON, M. J. P., a Fr. mathemat., 1736-98. ITZ, C, a German painter, 17th century. L, or SAUL, (Acts xiii. 9,) was a native in Cilicia, and inherited the privileges an citizen. (Acts xxii. 28, 29.) His and education were wholly Jewish, and was of the highest order. Under the of Gamaliel, a distinguished Jewish Jerusalem, (Acts v. 34,) he became mas- Jewish law. (Acts xxii. 3 ; Gal. i. 14.) been also taught a useful mechanical trade, to the custom of the nation, for the Tal- he that does not train his son to some occupation is as bad as if he taught him The handicraft to which Saul was trained of a 'tent-maker.' Tent-making is a corn- popular branch of business in the East, light and portable edifices are in so constant requisition. Cilicia, Saul's na- ce, was famed for a certain species of PAU goat's hair, which was woven into haircloth. This form of industry may have been Saul's early em- ployment, and as such tent-cloth was largely used m the army, this manufacture may have suggested to the apostle's mind the many military figures and illusions which are scattered through his writings. (Acts xviii. 3.) His residence at Jerusalem com- menced at an early period, (Acts xxvi. 4,) and he was probably from twenty-two to twenty-five years old when Christ commenced his public ministry. He belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, as did also his father. (Acts xxiii. 6.) The preaching of the gospel by the apostles, and especially the fact of Christ's resurrection from the dead, on which they placed their chief stress, excited, of course, a violent opposition among the Jews, which, before long, broke out in open violence. Stephen, an eloquent and powerful advocate of the new re- ligion, was seized and stoned to death. Among the spectators, and perhaps promoters, of this bloody deed, was Paul; who, we may suppose, from the manner in which he was regarded by the murderers, and, indeed, from his own confession, was fully with them in the act. (Acts vii. 58. Comp. xxii. 20.) His temperament, talents, and education fitted him to become a leader in the per- secution of the apostles and their adherents ; and he commenced his career with a degree of zeal bordering on madness. He ' breathed out threaten- ings and slaughter.' His whole spirit was excited, against the new religion, and he even sought for authority to go to Damascus, whither many of the disciples had fled after the murder of Stephen, and bind and drag to Jerusalem, without distinction of age or sex, all the followers of Christ whom he could find. Just before he reached Damascus, however, he was arrested by a miraculous light, so intense as to deprive him of vision. He fell to the earth in helpless prostration and terror. (Acts xxii. 11.) At the same time Christ revealed himself as the real object of his persecution. (Acts xxvi. 15. Comp. 1 Cor. xv. 8.) Paul on being converted did not wait very long in Damascus ; and we are not to infer from the narrative of Luke that imme- diately on leaving Damascus he went to Jerusalem. The time which he spent in Arabia may be esti- mated at from one year and a-half to two years ; for immediately after his conversion, he must have spent at least some months at Damascus, before, as an apostle, he gave himself to his missionary journeyings, and such was his journey into Ara- bia, When now he had returned to Damascus, he commenced making known, unreservedly and ener- getically, the gospel of Christ in the synagogues of the Jews, in the same manner that he did in his first abode in that city. The following chronolo- gical arrangement will enable the reader to con- nect the principal events in the life of Paul : A.D. Paul's conversion. (Actsix.,) 21 st year of Tiberius, 3G He goes into Arabia, and returns to Damascus; (Gal. i. 17;) at the end of three years in all, he escapes from Damascus and goes to Jerusalem, (Acts ix. 23, <fec.,) 39 From Jerusalem Paul goes to Cilicia and Syria. (Acts ix. 30 ; Gal. i. 21.) From Antioch he is sent with Barnabas to Jerusalem to carry alms, (Acts xi. 30.) 48 The first missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas from Antioch, continued about two years, (Acts xiii., xiv.,) commencing, 45 PAU After spending several years in Antioch, (Acts xiv. '2$,) Paul and Barnabas are sent a second time to Jerusalem, to consult the apostles respecting cir- cumcision, tec, (Acts xv. 2,) 52 The Jews expelled from Rome, a.d 52-54; Paul, on his second missionary journey, (Acts xv. 40,) after passing through Asia Minor to Europe, finds Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth, (Acts xviii. 2,).. 54 Paul remains eighteen months in Corinth. (Acts xviii. 11.) Atter being brought before Gallio, he departs for Jerusalem the fourth time, and then goea to Antioch, (Acts xviii. 22,) 56 The apostle winters at Nicopolis, (Tit. iii. 12,) and then goes to Ephesus, (Acts xix. 1,) 57 After a residence of two years or more at Ephesus, Paul departs for Macedonia, (Acts xx 1,) 59 After wintering in Achaia, Paul goes the fifth time to Jerusalem, where he is imprisoned, (Acts xxi. ; xxiiL,) 60 The apostle remains two years in prison at Cesarea, and is then sent to Rome, where he arrives in the spring, after wintering in Malta, (Acts xxiv. 27; xxv., xxviii.,) 63 The history in Acts concludes, and Paul is supposed by some to have been set at liberty, 65 Probable martyrdom, 66 [J.E.] PAUL, the name of two saints besides the .tpostle, the earlier a hermit of the Thebaid, about 229-341. The later, a patriarch of Constantinople, elected 340, put to death 350 or 351. PAUL, theirs? of the name, pope, reigned 757- 767. The second, 1464-1471. The third, of the Farnese family, succeeded Clement VIL, 1534, excommunicated Henry VIII. 1535, concluded a league with the Venetians and Charles V. against the Turks 1538, concurred in the foundation of the Jesuits 1540, convoked the council of Trent 1542, died 1549. The fourth, reigned 1555-1559. The fifth, of the Borghese family, succeeded Leo XL 1605, sustained a quarrel with Venice, which was terminated by Henry IV. 1605-1607, died 1621. PAUL I., emperor of Russia, son of Catharine the Great and Peter III., was bom 1754, and suc- ceeded on the death of his mother 1796. He was assassinated 1800, and sue. by his son, Alexander. PAUL, an exarch of Ravenna, killed 728. PAUL of Burgos. See Paul of S. Maria. PAUL the Deacon, a monkish histor., d. 743. PAUL-DE-LA-CROIX, an Italian founder of a religious congregation, 1720, died 1775. PAUL of Samosata, bishop of that place, on the Euphrates, and patriarch of Antioch, flourished from 260 to 273. He was deposed for heresy 270, but could not be expelled from his dignities till after the fall of Zenobia. The sect of I'aulbins, or Paidianists, was named after him, and con- demned by the council of Nice. Their doctrines were a form of Socinianism. PAUL of Sancta Maria, a converted Jew, born at Burgos in 1353, died a dignitary of the church 1435. His three sons, Alphonso, Gon- salvo, and Aloares, also rose in the church, the elder of them becoming bishop of Burgos. He is the author of an abridgment of Spanish history. PAUL the Silentiary, a Christian poet, chief of the officers who had charge of Justinian's palace. PAUL De Vincent, one of the most revered saints of the Roman calendar, founder of the con- gregation of ' Priests of the Missions,' was born in humble life 1576 ; and in all the offices which he held, was renowned for his warm zeal and exten- sive charity ; died 16C0. PAU PAUL, A. L., a French ecclesiastic, 1740-11 PAULA, a sainted lady of Rome, died 404.1 PALLET, .1. J., a Fr. medical wr., 1740-1;| PAULET, W., an English courtier, 1475-lfc PAULI. SeePAULLi. PAU LI AN S, Aime Henri, a learned Fr. Jefc author of several philosophical works, 1722-1 i PAULIN -DE- SAINT - BARTHELEMY.l nameby which John Philip Werdin, an Aus E Carmelite and missionary, is generally known, principal scene of his labours was in the Indies, and he has left some valuable Ori works, 1748-1806. PAULINUS, the name of three saints i- bishop of Treves, elected 349, deposed 35:;, di exile 359. 2. A famous ecclesiastical writer, in Gaul 353, died bishop of Nola 431. 3. A i arch of Aquileia, 726-804. PAULLI, Simon, a Danish physician tt| tnralist, 1603-1680. His son, of the same settled at Strasburg as a painter 1661, auth miscellaneous publications, 1664. Another James Henry, was professor of anatomy i history at Copenhagen, and was employed in i of state by Christiem V. A third son, Oli born at Copenhagen 1644, became secretary f India Company, and acquired a large fortui commerce. He then suddenly announced hi as the subject of certain visions, in obeyinj mandates of which he lost his property, an deavoured to engage the Christian powers crusade against the Turks, for the purpo restoring Israel. He published numerous n in Flemish and German, and suffered imp.' ment in pursuit of this object, and at last in obscurity, 1715. PAULINI, C. F., a Ger. naturalist, 1643- PAULMIER DE GRENTEMESNIL, Ji! Le, a French physician, who witnessed the sacre of St. Bartholomew, and wrote on su 1520-1588. His son, James, a learned ant rian and philologist, 1587-1670. PAU LMY, Anthony Rkne DeVoyer] genson, Marquis De, a Fr. literateur, 1722-' PAULUS of iEdNA, a medical wr.,7th i PAULUS, .Emilius Lucius. See Mmv PAULUS, Julius, a Roman lawyer, 8ff PAULUS, Peter, a statesman of Dutch ders, author of a ' Commentary on the Tw Utrecht,' and other works, 1754-1796. PAUSAN1US, a Greek geographer, 2dce PAUSANIAS, a general of Cleombrot of Sparta, who distinguished himself at the of Plataea, and was afterwards detected in a sonable attempt to deliver his country to the sians. Having fled to a temple of Minerv sanctity of which secured him from violenc Greeks surrounded the building with stones, and thus starved him to death, B.C. I PAUSIAS, a Greek painter, 4th century : PAUSON, a Greek painter, 5th cent, n.c PAUW, C. De, a Dutch savant, 1739-17? PAUW, J. C, a Dutch classic, 17th ceM PAUW, Reignier, a Dutch magistral diplomatist, 1564-1636. Adrian, his i pensionary of Holland, 1631, plenipotentiary peace of Munster, 1648, died 105:;. brother of the latter, a statesman, 1 PAUWS, P., Dutch physician, 1504-1617 70 PAU PAUWELS, J., a Belgian composer, 1771-1804. PAVILLON, John Francis Du Chevron Du, a French naval commander, 1730-1782. PAVILLON, Nicholas, a famous preacher, born at Paris 1597, died bishop of Aleth 1677! Stephen, his son, a man of letters, 1632-1705. PAYNE, J., an English engraver, 1608-1648. PAYS, Rene Le, a French poet, 1636-1690. PAZ, J. A. De, a Spanish Jesuit, 1560-1620. PAZZI, Jacopo, chief of the Italian faction op- posed to the Medici, put to death 1478. PEACHAM, Henry, an accomplished gentle- man, who is supposed to have been tutor in the :arl of Arundel's family, and who wrote many vorks known to the readers of polite literature : ,mong these are some complimentary poems, The Gentleman's Exercise,' intended as a treatise n art ; ' Minerva Britannica,' a collection of em- lems in verse, illustrated with plates ; and ' The lomplete Gentleman.' This latter work is the one >r which he was most celebrated, and it has been equently reprinted. Died about 1640. PEACOCK, R., a learned prelate, 1390-1460. PEARCE, Nathaniel, a sailor famous for his ng residence in Abyssinia, 1780-1820. PEARCE, Zachary, successively bishop of igor and Rochester, distinguished as a classical lolar, and author of a ' Commentary on the mgelists,' 1690-1774. >EARSALL, R., a nonconf. divine, 1698-1762. IPEARSON, Edward, a learned minister of the lurch of England, author of a Norrisian prize ay on the 'Goodness of God, as Manifested in Mission of Jesus Christ,' a ' Collection of ayers,' and Tracts against the theory of Paley |moral obligation, 1756-1811. 'EARSON, George, a physician of London, 1 writer on analytical chemistry, died 1828. 'EARSON, John a learned English prelate, born in Norfolk, where his father was rector ike and Snoring, 1612, and died, bishop of Br, 1686. He is regarded as the greatest of his age, and is best known by his ' Ex- ^tion of the Creed,' published while he was of St. Clement's Eastcheap, 1650. The i\ of his other works is a ' Defence of the les ' of St. Ignatius. LRSON, Margaret Egeinton, disting. skill in the art of painting on glass, d. 1823. 3CHIO, G., an Italian economist, 1785-1835. "EI, J. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1693-1768. SCHANTRE, N. De, a Fr. dram., 1638-1709. pHMEJA, J., a Fr. literateur, 1741-1785. SCK, Francis, a dignitary of the Church of fid, known as an antiquarian and historian, "incipal works relate to English history, and tiqmties of Stamford, 1692-1743. KHAM, J., archb. of Canterbury, d. 1292. KWELL, H., a Calvinist divine, 1737-87. """JUET, Anthony, grand master of the i and forests of Rouen, known as a writer on st laws and general politics, 1704-1762. QUET, J., a French anatomist, 1622-1674. JjAZI, P., an Ital. antiquarian, 1644-1720. CDRO, emperor of Brazil, was eldest son of J VI., king of Portugal, eldest brother of Don and nephew to Ferdinand VII., king of He was born in 1798, and was married in Leopoldine, archduchess of Austria, daugh- C\ PEE ter of Francis I., emperor; and in 1829, when that princess had been dead three years, to Amelia, princess of Leuchtenberg, daughter of Eugene Beauharnais. In 1831 he abdicated the throne of Brazil in favour of his son, Pedro II., and came to England ; his object being to solicit aid against his brother, Miguel, who had usurped the throne of Portugal. The defeat of Miguel's fleet in 1832, by Admiral Napier, decided the war, which had been marked by some sharp engagements on land. Pedro died in 1834, and his daughter by his first wife, Leopoldine, ascended the throne. She was the late Queen Donna Maria. PEEL, Sir Robert, father of the celebrated statesman, was the third son of Mr. Peel, of Peel Cross, Lancashire. He was born in 1750, and amassed great wealth in the cotton trade, became a member of parliament, and in 1801 was created a baronet. Died at Dravton Manor, 1830. [Birth place of Sir lJobert Peel.] PEEL, Sir Robert, was born on 5th Febru- ary, 1788. His father was a celebrated manufac- turer, whose successful career was intimately con- nected with the development of the industrial energies of Britain during the great European war. The elder Peel left a princely fortune to be inherited by his distinguished son, and there is no doubt that the peculiar position in which he was placed had much influence on the mind of the statesman. In wealth and rank he was nominally among the aristocracy, and his own character was reserved and somewhat haughty. In the external movements of society he would feel his place a high one, and the proudest aristocracy were na- turally ever willing to acknowledge a considerable position to the clever, rich, and highly educated cotton-spinner's son. Yet he would have oppor- tunities of being conscious that he was not ad- mitted within the sacred arena of the old feudal aristocratic families, whose generations had been intermarrying for centuries. His was a nature to see and feel this, while the history of his father's rise, and all the antecedents of his own greatness, would concur to throw his sympathies into the cause of progress and energy. He studied at Harrow and Oxford, where he early distinguished himself among the most brilliant men of his day. When just twenty-one years of age he entered 571 PEE parliament as member for Cashel, and thenceforth the sphere of his exertions and triumphs was the House of Commons, in the history ot which his career will form a large feature. He was no ora- tor, nor was he properly speaking a natural and simple debater. His manner was the artificial one of thorough training, but for an artificial man- ner it was a good one, and the house from his practice got to like it, though to a stranger it was generally unpleasant. He could state his case clearly and forcibly, but he seldom liked to abandon a subject until he had discussed it at great length. He avoided in a marked manner the statement of general principles, as if he feared that he might afterwards nave to say or do something inconsistent with them, and he generally made out his case on the details of the matter, rather than on any wide rule or principle of political opinion. At the beginning of his parliamentary career he was ap- pointed to serve on Horner's bullion committee, and the peculiarities of his mind were then distinctly remarked. It was seen that he went into the in- quiry with opinions totally unformed that he pro- ceeded with the examination systematically and calmly, as if it had related to some philosophical question about the composition of metals, but that after having formed his opinions, he deemed it his function and duty to carry them resolutely into practice. In 1811 he was made under secretary tor the colonies, and in 1812, while only twenty- four, he received the very responsible appointment of chief secretary for Ireland. After carrying his celebrated currency measure of 1819, he became in 1822 home secretary. Refusing to take office un- der Canning, he joined the ministry of the duke of Wellington in 1828. Here by conceding catholic emancipation, against which he had previously protested, he did one of those acts which have been called tergiversation by some, and the result of honest conviction, rising above original pre- possession by others. He still, however, professed to belong to the Conservative party, and he be- came a strenuous opponent of Earl Grey's ministry and the Reibrm Bill. When a Conservative govern- ment was, from mere accidental and personal causes not well explained, established in 1834, he gallantly undertook the attempt to work it, though conscious that the task was hopeless. He became prime minister in 1841 with better pros- pects. The position in which he was placed was that of the head of a protectionist government, established to defeat and suppress the free trade party. As circumstances developed themselves in the few critical years from 1841 to 1846, some in- dications of opinion created alarm among the thorough protectionists, and it was seen that the prime minister becoming convinced of the truth of free trade, was determined to carry its principles into practice. After a repeal of the corn laws and other measures in the same spirit, he resigned office to the party to whom his later opinions legi- timately belonged, in the summer of 1846. He died on the 2d of July, 1850, of internal in juries caused by a fall from a horse. [J.H.B.] PEELE, George, a dramatic, writer and poet of the age of Elizabeth, was a native of Devon- shire, and died some time before 1598. He took the degree of M.A. at Oxford in 1579, after which he removed to London, and is supposed to have 57 PEL had the ordering of the city pageants. Five of hi: plavs are still extant. PEGEL, M., a German savant, died 1610. PEGGE, Samuel, father and son, both of th same name, distinguished as antiquarian writers the former, a minister of the Church of England flourished 1704-1796 ; the latter, a barrister, 1731 1800. Sir Christopher, son of the younge Samuel, was regius professor of medicine at Ox ford, and died 1825. PEINS, G., a German painter, 1500-1556. PEIRCE, J., a noncontorm. divine, 1673-1726 PEIRESC, Nicholas Cl. Fabri De, a gentk man of Florence, descended from the Fabri of Piai dist. as an antiquarian, Oriental scholar, astronc mer, and naturalist, and equally famous for h protection of the learned, born 1580, expired in tt arms of his friend and biographer, Gassendi, 163' PEIROUSE, Philip Picot, Baron De La, distinguished French naturalist, 1744-1818. PELAGIUS, sometimes surnamed Brito, usually supposed to have been a native of tl country, his Greek name being a translation of b Celtic one, Morgan. The opinions which ] afterwards advocated were probably the grow of many years, for at first during his residence Rome, whither he came in the year 400, he w noted only for his earnest zeal and austere a tivities. He had even the address to hold inte course with Augustine, when he visited Afri( and also with Jerome, without his being suspect of heresy. At length the agitation commence Pelagius, who had meanwhile gone to the East, w accused before John of Jerusalem and the synod Diospolis, but acquitted, though he was forma anathematized by Pope Innocentius, in ad. 41 Other sentences were passed upon the heresian and his subsequent history is unknown. His d< trines were a denial of the distinctive truths of scri ture and evangelical theology, such as origh sin and depravity, moral inability, and the ne divine grace to renovate. In fact, the ascribed to Pelagius, ignore the guilt of man, and but make him his own deliverer. In attempt!,' to denude redemption of mystery, he robbe^H reality. His opponents, however, complained of lubricity, and perhaps his own views are nc' judged of by the extreme sentiments of his Several of the works of Pelagius have de to us, such as his ' Commentaries on Paul's ties,' and his ' Confession of Faith.' PELAGIUS, a king of the Austurias, PELAGIUS, the first of the name, poj reign of Justinian, 555-559 ; the second, 57 PELAGIUS, Magloire, a man of cole became a general in the French army, died PELAGIUS, St., a convert of Antioch, PELETIER, Claude Le, one of the ; tinguished members of the ancient French ] trature, provost of merchants, and builder quay which bears his name at Paris, 163'* His brother, Michael, a learned man an cillor of state, died 1725. PELETIER, James, a French mathc and man of letters, 1517-1582. Jonx, his I a theologian, died 1583. James, their an ecclesiastic, executed in effigy for bis share in the death of the president Brisson PELL, John, a learned divine and ma 2 PEL tician, who settled at Breda as professor of philo- sophy and mathematics, and was a great corres- Eondent of Cavendish. Besides the works pub- shed by him, his MSS. and letters., in the British Museum, occupy nearly forty folio volumes. Born at tiouthwick, in Sussex, 1610., died 1685. PELLEGRIN, Simon Joseph, a French eccle- siastic, kn. as a dramatic wt. and poet, 1663-1745. PELLEPRAT, P., a Fr. missionary, 1606-1667. PELLERIN, J., a Fr. numismatist, 1684-1782. PELLETIER. See Lepelletier. PELLETIER, B., a pharmacopolist, 1761-97. PELLEW, Edward See Exmouth. PELLICAN, C, a Germ. Hebraist, 1478-1536. PELLICER, J. A., a Span, savant, 1740-1806. PELLICO, Silvio, was born at Saluzza, in Piedmont, 1789. He was known in early life as a >oet and dramatic writer, especially by his fine ragedy ' Francesca da Rimini.' In 1819, he started he ' Conciliator,' a literary and scientific journal, fhich brought him under the Austrian censorship, nd in 1821, he was arrested and condemned to eath with Count Gonfalonieri and others; all harged with conspiracy as members of the Car- onari societies. This punishment was commuted n the scaffold, and the patriots consigned to a hor- ble imprisonment ; that of Silvio Pellico, chiefly assed in the fortress of Spielberg, lasting till the eneral amnesty of 1830. The pathetic account of sufferings, ' Le Mie Prigiom,' produced an im- lse effect, and the name of Pellico, connected ith those of Gioberti and Balbo, has kept alive ^e purest flame of patriotism that has yet burned their unhappy country. He died in the house of e Marchesa Barolo, in February, 1854. [E.R.] PELLIEUX, J. N., a Fr. antiquary, 1749-1832. PELLISSON-FONTANIER, Paul, an emi- snt historian and member of the French Aca- my, who was educated for the law, and at the ;e of twenty-one published a ' Commentary on e Institutes of Justinian.' He is famed also for e courage with which he defended his old pro- itor, Fouquet, on whose disgrace he was con- ; ned to a five years' imprisonment in the Bastile. 8 works are a ' History of the French Academy,' [istory of Louis XIV., ' History of the Conquest Franche-Comte,' and 'Reflections upon Religious fferences.' Born at Beziers 1624, died 1693. k ELLOUTIER, Simon, a German of French t, au. of a ' History of the Celts,' 1694-1757. LOPIDAS, a famous Theban general, com- n-in-arms of Epaminondas, died B.C. 364. ELS, A., a Dutch miscellaneous wr., d. 1681. ELTAN, T. A., a Germ, theologian, 1552-84. ELTIER, J. G., a Fr. journalist, died 1825. EMBERTON, Henry, professor of medicine rresham College, and a member of the Royal ety, bears a distinguished name as a mathe- ician and natural philosopher. He was the lemporary and friend of Sir Isaac Newton. a in London 1694, died 1771. EMBLE, W., a learned divine, 1591-1623. EMBROKE, Mary Herbert, wife of Henry, of, a poetical writer, died 1821. EMBROKE, T., a painter, about 1700-1728. ENA, John, a Fr. mathematician, 1530-1560. ENA, John Nunez De La, a Spanish histo- of the Canary Islands, 1676. ENA, Peter, a French botanist, 16th century. PEN PENINGTON, Isaac, son of an alderman and mayor of London, famous as a writer among the Quakers, was born about 1617, joined that reli- gious body 1658, and died 1679. A daughter of his wife, by her former husband, was married to the celebrated William Penn. PENN, Sir William, a brave and patriotic admiral, dist. in the war against the Dutch under the duke of York, born at Bristol 1621, died 1670. PENN, William, was born in Windsor, on the 14th of October, 1644. His father was Sir Wil- liam Penn, a distinguished admiral, who boasted a high and ancient lineage. While the young man studied at Oxford, the great feud between the Puritan and Carabic party then raging was inter- rupted by the appearance of a new claimant to their allegiances, in a representative of the start- ling opinions of George Fox. From their boldness and originality, and their rejection of the authorita- tive restraints laid on both the other factions, this had a charm for one of young Penn's bold and original nature, and he joined the new sect resolv- ing to brave all the consequences. A far more painful portion of them, even than his expulsion from college, encountered him in the domestic circle, where the feelings of the proud old admiral were deeply wounded by finding his son a schismatic. It was one of the veteran's maxims, however, that conscience and honour were before all things, and the spirit and manliness with which his son car- ried out the principles he adopted seem to have appeased his indignation. In 1668, Penn published the first of his voluminous works ' Truth Exalted,' and two years afterwards he was imprisoned, under the conventicle act, for seditious preaching. In 1G77, he travelled on the continent with his celebrated brethren, Robert Barclay and George Fox. It was in the year 1681 that, in compensa- tion for a debt to his father by the crown, he received a grant of the province on the Delaware, called the New Netherlands. It was a signally fortunate incident that in the reckless disposal of such gifts at that time, one should have fallen into hands like his. Such was the foundation of the colony of Pennsylvania, now an empire. It was commenced in a spirit of magnanimous justice, incomprehensible to that age, in an agreement with the natives, and the admission that they had claims to be considered before the colonists took absolute possession. W T hen the relaxations with which James II. wished to purchase the assent of the dissenters to his Romish projects began, the conduct of Penn created suspicions and accusations which have clouded his fame. His position was peculiar, since it was not easy to find among the dissenting bodies any other man whose rank and importance made him so likely a medium of communication with the court, and, at the same time, the Quakers not having much harmony with the others, and being little liked by them, were more apt to accede to measures not generally ac- ceptable to dissenters at large. Thus Penn had friendly communications with, the court, and gave his support to its measures. Whether he dis- honourably implicated himself, is matter of too extensive controversy to be here entered on, and reference must be made to the vindication in Mr. Hepsworth Dixon's Memoirs, published in 1851. One charge against him is that when in Mon- 573 PEN month's rebellion, some young girls of Taunton were tiireatened with the punishment of death for having worked standards for Monmouth, Perm be- came the looker for their pardon, as a pecuniary consideration in favour of the maids or honour. Mr. Dixon has given reason to suppose that the negotiator was a different person, named George Penne, After the Revolution, Penn lived under the suspicion of favouring the Jacobite cause, and his latter davs were clouded. The death of his first wife in 1698, was followed by that of his eldest son. He married a second time in 1696. He was afterwards encumbered with debt, and died on the 30th of July, 1718. [J.H.B.] [Grave of Penn.] PENN A, L., an Italian composer, died 1693. PENNANT, Thos., a celebrated naturalist, was born in 1726. He died in 1798. His father was the proprietor of an estate in Flintshire, north Wales, to which he succeeded at the age of thirty-seven. He devoted almost all his spare time to travelling and the study of natural history and antiquities. He is the author of many works, some of which retain a considerable reputation. His ' British Zoology' is a work of much excellence, and his ' Tour in Scot- land' obtained for him a high character as an ac- curate observer. He made that country much better known to the English than it had hitherto been, and he assisted Lightfoot materially in his excellent work ' The Flora Scotica.' Amongst his other works we may more particularly mention his ' Synopsis of Quadrupeds,' and the 'Arctic Zoology ;' his ' Tour through Wales,' and the ' Antiquities of London.' He was a fellow of the Royal and Anti- quarian Societies, and many others, both at home and abroad, and corresponded with Linnaeus, Buf- fon, Haller, and many of the distinguished men of the day. Foster has named a genus of plants after him, Pennantia. [W.B.] PENNI, G. P., a Florentine painter, 1488-1528. His brother, Lucas, born about 1500. PENNICUIK, A., a Scot, physician, 1652-1722. PENNY, Edward, a painter, 1714-1791. PENNY, Thomas, an Engl, naturalist, 16th c. PENROSE, Thomas, a poetical wr., 1743-79. PENRY, or AP HENRY, John, the author of the famous tract which gave him the name by which he is generally known, Martin Mar-Prelate, was born in Wales 1559 ; and after taking his de- PEP gree at Oxford became an anabaptist, Brownist, m puritan, as he is variously called. He cuted for his opposition to the church, 1593. PENTHIEVRE, L.J. M. De Bourbon, Dtt, De, regarded as one of the most upright sttM men or France in the last centurv, 1725-1793. PENTZ, G., a German engraver, 1500-1550. | PENZEL, A. J., a Ger. philologist, 1749-lM PEPIN of Heristal, called also Pepin Li Gros, was the stock of the second dynaa^H Carlovingian line of French kings. He was g^H son by the mother's side to Pepin de Landen, wkt governed Austrasia in the reign of Dagobert, ant stood in the same relation by his father to til famous Arnaud, archbishop of Metz, who com! bined in his own person the characters of a warrior statesman, diplomatist, and prince of the churebj Pepin of Heristal took his surname from his seatM the Meuse, near Liege, while the Christian preftj derived from his maternal grandfather may bar! been chosen as a recommendation to the people o| Austrasia. The Austrasians, in fact, when Eoroini mayor of the palace of Neustria, became their MH governor by the death of Dagobert II. hl^H preferred the hazard of a contest in favour o| Pepin, to the yoke of the well-known tyrantJH a struggle was then begun which produced^ assassination of the latter, and made Pepin o' Heristal the virtual master of the Frank mona^H It is an historical question how far Clothaire flj and the Dagoberts contributed to the elevatim' of this family, who at length overthrew tberj dynasty, but there can be no doubt aboaJ^H facts, 1, that it was the period of a str^H between the local and the national powers, sfl^H we often recognize at a later age in the hj^H of feudalism ; and 2, that the Merovingian, or firs') line of kings, descended from Clovis, had beconi't a feeble, cruel, and debauched race. Thierry, whil reigned nominally during this struggle, was | exception to the rule in point of feebleness; am when Ebroin was vanquished, who had tyrannize* over him as well as the people, he refused frj make the amende honorable to those who h*< been injured. It was the disaffection thus pro duced that armed the followers of Pepin again* their common sovereign, and the king being feated, found that he had exchanged a hated by all his subjects for one whom t: garded as their saviour. Pepin, however, tented himself with the old title, 'Mayor Palace,' and not only propped up Thierry but crowned three of his descendants afl who are called in French history, Les Rois Ft ' Do-nothing kings.' The real power was grasped in the hands of Pepin Heristal, w[ dued the tributary princes by continual vi and consolidated the order of the state daring to assume the pageantry of it. He 714, leaving his natural son, Charles M take the next step in advance, which con administering the kingdom, not with of king indeed, but with the throne al vacant. PEPIN LE BREF, son of Charles MS grandson of the preceding, is the first France of the Carlovingian dynasty. He ceeded to his father's authority conjointly wit brother Carloman, in 741, and by falling 574 PEP ne with Childeric, a foolish prince of the mngian line, surnamed l the idiot,' acquired sanction necessary to support the continued mption of power by bis own family. While deric acted the part of the roi faineant, Pepin ref, so named from his short stature, was ing glory in the field, and in 746 was left rat a competitor by the retirement of Carlo- to a monastery. The clergy and the pope easily conciliated in favour of a power which ised to preserve the church from the surround- aarchy, and stop the progress of the Saracens, spread as far as the south of France. In 750, ? ore, Pepin le Bref dethroned Childeric, and g shaved off his long hair, which was an ;ial character of royalty with the Merovingian confined him in a monastery. In 752 he 1 himself to be consecrated at Soissons, and : received the pope himself (Stephen II.) as tioner for intervention in Italy. This was ginning of the Frankish empire, successor of Id Roman, which had ended in universal ly. Pepin and his queen Bertha were * in the church of St. Denis by the pope, king then accompanied him into Italy at of an army, besieged Astolphus, king of wnbards, in Pavia, and compelled him to his pretensions to the sovereignty of jpd the exarchate of Ravenna. Another tion was rendered necessary by the revolt of hus, who was again subdued by the ion of the church, who also obtained a signil over the Saracens, reunited Aquitaine to Tdom, and waged successful war against the a princes. Pepin le Bref died in the seven- year of his reign, 768, and was succeeded rlemagne. It is admitted by late historians is change of dynasty was coincident with "on of the eastern Franks, whose fresher guided by the chiefs of the Pepin family, them to push upwards to the seat of ient, and take the place of their feebler [E.R.] the second son of Charlemagne, born e king of Italy 781, died 810. [N, the first of the name, king of Aqui- the son of Louis le Debonnaire, and was Aquitaine was apportioned to him in B38. The second of the name was son ;ding, died in a monastery 864. IN, M., a Flemish painter, born 1578. 1LI, a rich Italian family who aimed at sign power in Bologna, 14th century. LI, A. H., an Italian poet, 1757-1796. JSCH, John Christopher, one of the Itheoretical musicians of modern times, was I Berlin, about 1667. He came to London and was engaged as musician at Drury ltre, where it is believed he assisted in the operas which were performed there. j the university of Oxford admitted him to : of Doctor in Music, At the instance of Rich he undertook to compose and adapt for the ' Beggar's Opera.' Having writ- on the ancient genera, which was read Royal Society, and published in the *1 Transactions, in the year 1746; he ranis was elected a fellow of the Royal He died in 1752. [J.M.] 5; PER PEPYS, Samuel, born in 1632, was the son of a tailor in London, but related to persons of dis- tinction, whose patronage procured him public offices, and introduced him into aristocratic society. After having served with much ability as a clerk in the Navy Board, he became secretary of the Admiralty under Charles II., and held the place till the Revolution. He died in 1703. Pepys was one of the strangest of mortals : with great talents and activity in business he united a considerable knowledge of several of the fine arts, and a suf- ficient turn for science to make him no unworthy president of the Royal Society : he was a man of much shrewd observation on the follies of others and the habits of his time, and yet himself a fop and an egotist, vain to the extreme of the ridicul- ous, and delighting in trifling and gossipping as much as in his more serious occupations. His own character is most amusingly shown, and that of his profligate age most instructively painted, in his ' Memoirs' and correspondence. A collec- tion of books and manuscripts which he bequeathed to Magdalen College, Oxford, contained 2,000 old English ballads, which were among the chief authorities of Percy in the compilation of his ' Reliques.' [W.S.] PERANDA, S., a Venetian painter, 1566-1638. PERAU, Gabriel, Louis Calabre, a French writer, author of the ' Secrets of the Freemasons,' a continuation of the ' Lives of Illustrious Men of France,' and editor of editions of Rabelais, Boileau, and Bossuet, 1700-1767. PERAULT, W., a Dominican writer, died 1275. PERCEVAL, John, fifth baronet of the family, and first earl of Egmont, was born at Barton, m Yorkshire, 1683, and died 1748. He was one of the founders of the colony of Georgia, and wrote several works of temporary interest. His son, of the same name, second earl of Egmont, was a member of parliament, and one of the privy council on the accession of George III. He was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Lovel and Holland, and wrote some political tracts. Born at West- minster 1711, died 1770. His second son is the subject of the following notice. PERCEVAL, Spencer, a lawyer and states- man, the second son of John Lord Egmont, was born in the year 1762. His education appears to have been private until he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar from Lin- coln's Inn, in 1786. This connection was of a sort which, at that time, secured immediate success even to ordinary abilities. He was made a king's counsel in 1796, when he entered parliament. He attracted the notice of Pitt by a constitutional pamphlet, and soon found himself in the path to political or professional advancement as he might incline. In 1801 he was made solicitor, and in 1802, attorney-general. When the Grenville minis- try was overturned in 1807, he led the new minis- try as chancellor of the exchequer. This appoint- ment marked the decided opposition of the new government to the tolerant views which had de- stroyed its predecessors. Perceval is one of the few men in the rank of statesmen, in this country, whose names are associated with rancour or intole- rant religious views, and they seem in him to have sprung less from a desire to oppress than from a cold ungenial nature. One of Lis rivals said that PER lie was like a fish, and the comparison seems to have been accepted by those who knew him. On the 11th of May, 1812, he was shot while passing through the lobby of the House of Commons by a man named Bellingham. Great alarm was, of course, felt that the maniac represented some poli- tical or religions combination, but it was soon discovered that his enmity was entirely on personal grounds. [J.H.B.] PERCIVAL, Thomas, a physician, who prac- tised his profession at Manchester, and was dist. as an ethical and miscellaneous writer, 1740-1804. PERCLIGIA, a Turkish visionary, who excited a commotion in Natolia, and was put to death, declaring himself an apostle of God, in 1418. PERCY, the family name of a follower of Wil- liam the Conqueror, from whom sprang the lords of Alnwick, in Northumberland. The members of this family best known to history are William De Percy, whose grand-daughters were married to the earl of Warwick, and to the brother-in-law of Henry I. After him a Henry De Percy, reign of Edward I. A second Henry was mar- ried to the Princess Mary of Lancaster, in the reign of Edward III., and it was his sons whom Richard II. created respectively earl of Northumberland and earl of Worcester. The latter was beheaded after the victory of Henry IV., near Shrewsbury, while the son of the former, Henry Percy, called ' Hotspur,' fell gallantly in the battle ; and his father, Northumberland, was killed in Yorkshire 1408. The son of Hotspur was restored by Henry V. to the title of earl of Northumberland, and was killed in the battle of St. Albans 1455. PERCY, Peter Francis, Baron, a French army surgeon, time of Napoleon, famous for his professional skill and devoted zeal, and the con- triver of perambulating hospitals, which he orga- nized for the army of the Rhine, 1754-1825. PERCY, Thomas, the well-known editor of ' Ancient English Poetry,' was the son of a grocer of Shropshire, who was educated at Oxford, and became a minister, and finally a prelate, in the Church of England. He was born 1729, obtained a vicarage in Northamptonshire 1756, and com- menced his literary career by publishing a Chinese romance in 1761. The fame of his first-named publication procured him an introduction to the Percies of Northumberland, and he became, in 1765, chaplain to the duke. In 1770 he published the 'Hermit of Warkworth,' and his translation of Mallet's ' Northern Antiquities ' Died at his episcopal palace of Dromore 1811. PERD1CCAS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, killed while aiming at the sovereignty after the death of Alexander, 322 B.C. PEREDA, A., a Spanish painter, 1599-1669. PEREFIXE, Hardouin De Beaugmont De, a French prelate and historian, 1605-1670. PEREGRINUS, a Cynic philosopher, 2d cent. PEREIRA, D. Nunez Alvarez, a Portuguese statesman and commander, 1360-1431. PEREIRA-DE-FIGUEIREDO, Antonio, a Portuguese ecclesiastic, theologian, and ecclesias- tical historian, 1725-1797. PEREIRA, G., a Spanish physician, 16th cent. PEREIRA, Jonathan, late physician to the London Hospital, distinguished for his knowledge of pharmacy and general science, author of ' Ele- PER mentt of Materia Mediea.' Born of hum tage at Shoreditch 1804, died 1853. PEREIRE, Jacob Rodrijuez, a Portugal famous as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, l^H PEREYRA, D., aPortog. painter, 15 PEREYRA, M., a Poring, sculptor, 1614-16 PEREYRA, V., a Spanish painter, di. PEREZ, A., a Spanish painter, 1660-1727. PEREZ, A., a Spanish jurisconsult, 1585-16 PEREZ, David, who was born of Spanish rents at Naples, in the year 1711, received musical education from Antonio Galli, and Fr.; cisco Mancini. He early showed an u genius for music, and his progress in 1 1 remarkably rapid. After having brought out owl at Palermo and in Naples, he was invitee where he soon became extremely popular. 1752, Joseph, king of Portugal, offeree! bin ation of chapel-master at Lisbon, which o^H accepted, and where his talents were as m prized as they had been in Sicily and Ital died in the service of the king of Port: sixty-seven years, after having resided at Lisb much admired and respected, during a perioc, twenty-seven years. Though wanting in grace, L compositions were valuable from the genii and power displayed in them. Like Han was blind during the latter years of his life, f ' when labouring under this severe deprivation, confined to his bed, he frequently, witbo^^H of any instrument, dictated compositions if^H parts. Besides twelve operas, he l^^H sacred music, which possesses almost uneqna beauty. PEREZ, Don Antonio, a Spanish statesn celebrated by the unhappy story of his love tor Princess d'Eboli. mistress of Philip II., and persecution it brought upon him. He also as an historian. Died in poverty at I ' PEREZ, J., a Spanish writer, 1512-15 PERGOLA, Angelo De La, one of the i able Ghibeline commanders of Italy, died 1427 PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista, was 1 near Naples, about the year 1704, and was under Gaetano Greco, and Durante. H covered that music, previous to his own I too much loaded with mere scientific embellisher he determined to leave the style in which he been taught, and to adopt the more meloi simple one of Vinci and Hasse. He composed eral operas, which did not meet with much sue His sacred compositions, however, were predated, and upon these his fame now died of consumption in 1737, and no sooner his death made public, than all the cities that had paid no attention to his works *'N , | was alive, strove which should do most justl ' them when he was dead ; and even , anxious to possess even the most trifling o, compositions. PERI, J. D., an Italian poet, 17th cenl PERIANDER, who is one of the seven re] sages of Greece, was a tyrant of Corinth, who * ceeded his father, Cypselus, B.C. 63.'i, and die the reputation of an able ruler B.C. 51 man of licentious manners, and, in the latter of his reign, became a cruel ruler. PERICLES, the greatest of Atheni was the son of Xanthippus, the conqueror oi 576 PER PER I Agarista, niece of the famous Cleisthenes. I absolute. But the boundless influence which he i date of his birth is unknown, but as he first had thus acquired was not debased by the promo- It a share in public business in B.C. 469, we may I tion of selfish objects. Averse to the further ex- tension by conquest of the Athenian dominions, he employed himself chiefly in consolidating the empire already acquired, in establishing the surplus popula- tion as additional colonies, and proving, when necessary, by military achievements, which place him high as a commander, that the resources at his disposal were sufficient to maintain the posij which lie claimed for his country. Believing r the supremacy of Athens rested on her maritl superiority, he bestowed especial care on the navy, and maintained a well-trained fleet in constant readiness for action. But Pericles found a more congenial occupation in cultivating the arts of peace. The public funds, which had been greatly increased by his management, were expended in the erection of those magnificent temples and public buildings which rendered Athens the wonder and admiration of Greece. Architecture and sculp- ture attained to a degree of perfection which modern ages have in vain endeavoured to rival, poetry started into full maturity, and the drama, in the hands of Sophocles, reached the highest excellence. From these peaceful pursuits Pericles was withdrawn by the Peloponnesian war (b.o. 431), which he lived to conduct for the first two years. At the conclusion of the first campaign he delivered the funeral oration in honour of those who had fallen, a speech which, as reported by Thucydides, is one of the most remarkable of all the composi- tions of antiquity. During the following year Athens was visited by the plague, which earned off his two sons, his sister, ana most of his intimate friends. In the middle of the succeeding year (b.c. 429) Pericles died of a lingering illness, which was perhaps connected with the epidemic, though not attended by any of its violent svmp- toms. [G.F.] PERIER, Casimir, a statesman of the reign of Louis Philippe, was born at Grenoble 1777, and from 1798 to 1800, or shortly after, served in the French army. In 1802 he commenced those com- mercial and manufacturing speculations, by which he acquired an immense fortune; in 1816 brought himself into notice by a financial pamphlet, and in 1817 was elected one of the deputies for the Seine. From that period till 1830 he opposed the minis- try, and on the 30th July became minister of the interior. He succeeded Lafitte as head of the government, in March, 1831. Died 1832. PERIER, James Constantine, associated with his brother, Charles, in the famous cannon foundries of Chaillot and Liege, and more lately in the manufacture of steam engines, was born at Paris 1742, and died 1818. He is author of an ' Essay on Steam Engines,' the construction of which he had studied in England. PERIERS, B. De, a French writer, died 1514. PERIGNON, Dominique Catherine, Mar- quis De, a peer and marshal of France, was born 1754, became a deputy to the legislative assembly 1791, succeeded Dugommier, and distinguished himself at the battle of Escola 1794, ambassador to Madrid 1796, marshal 1804, governor of Parma and Placenza 1806, and successor of Jourdan at Naples 1808, joined the Bourbons, and became a peer after the fall of Napoleon ; died 1818. [Pericles From, on Ancient Btist^ lately infer that he was bom soon after the ing of the fifth century B.C. He early gave ions of a mind capable of great achievements, Allowing his natural inclinations, spent his in retirement, devoting himself to those | which he felt to be best calculated for fit- to enter upon political life. His rank and opened to him the schools of the most it teachers of their respective arts and He was taught the higher music by rho contributed mainly to train him for ical career; was initiated into the subtleties lEleatic school under Zeno, and especially by the philosophical teaching of Anaxa- rith whom he was long united in intimate lip. By his intercourse with the last named jher, his habits of thought, and also the tone of his eloquence, were believed to formed ; and an abiding effect on his was produced by the sublime specula- | which he listened. No specimens of his lain to us ; but by the unanimous testi- ancient authors it is admitted to have le highest kind. In the year B.C. 469, after the ostracism of Themistocles, and time of the death of Aristides, Pericles engage in the political movements of the hereditary prepossessions led him to I cause of the people, and his pre-eminent nbined with untiring assiduity in public >n placed him at the head of the demo- arty, and in opposition to Cimon, who acknowledged leader of the aristocracy, period till his death, the biography of the history of his country. He aimed >w at the aristocracy through the coun- Araeopagus, which, notwithstanding the | opposition of Cimon, he succeeded in of its judicial power, except in incon- is. This triumph was soon followed cism of Cimon, an event which for left him without a formidable rival. 444 the power of Pericles was nearly 577 2P PER PERINGSKIOELD, John, professor at Up- sala, and secretary and antiquary to the king of Sweden, 1654-1720. PERKINS, Elisha, and his son, Benjamin Douglas, American physicians, known as advo- cates of metallic tractors as a means of healing, once famous by the name of Perkinism ; the lat- ter died 1799. PERKINS, William, a minister of the Church of Em;., kn. as a Calvinistic theologian, 1558-1602. PERNETTI, Dom Anthony Joseph, a learned French ecclesiastic of the Benedictine order, author of a curious Historical Journal of a voyage to the Falkland Isles, where he accompanied Bougain- ville ; a Dictionary of Painting, Sculpture, and En- graving, a Dictionary of Hermetic. Philosophy and Mythology, and several works on physiognomy and ethnology. He also published a translation of Columella, of Wolff's Mathematics, and of some of Swedenborg's works, 1716-1801. His brother, James, a priest, and historiographer to the city of Lyons, 1696-1777. PERON, F., a French naturalist, 1775-1810. PERONI, J., an Italian sculptor, 1627-1663. PEROTTI, N., a Italian grammarian, 1430-80. PEROUSE. See Laperouse. PERPENNA, a Roman general, and partizan of Marius, put to death by Pompey b.c. 74. PERPINIAN, P. J., a Spanish painter and theo- logian, one of the best modern Latinists, d. 1566. PERRAULT, Charles, a French barrister, who became comptroller-general of the royal build- ings, and a member of the Academy, and acquired great celebrity as a literateur and a poet, was born at Paris 1628. He commenced that famous con- troversy concerning the comparative merits of the ancients and moderns, in which Boileau advocated the former and Perrault the latter. His principal work is The Age of Louis XIV. Died 1703. Claude, brother of the preceding, celebrated as an architect, mechanician, and naturalist, flourished 1613-1688. Among his artistic productions are the colonnade of the Louvre, and most of the vases which ornament the gardens of Versailles. The ! and even commenced preaching, but PES Magazine, and finally became sole editor a prietor of the Momtng Chronicle. It wai suggestion that the modern plan of report adopted, by employing a succession of 1 instead of a single one. Died 1821. PEEEY, John, an English engineer and ler, an. of 'The Present State of Russia ;' i PERSEUS, or PERSES, the last king o don, was a natural son of Philip V., whom ceeded B.C. 179. He was vanquished by 1 mans B.C. 167, and died in prison at Rome PERSEUS, Aulus Flaccus, a Roman who directed his shafts against the gene ruption of the times, and died young, 62. PERSEUS, a Roman orator, 2d century PERTI, J. A., an Italian composer, 165 PERTINAX, Publius Helvius, the si of Commodus as emperor of Rome, was tin a charcoal burner, and was born 126, in tl of Adrian. He was assas. by the pnetoriaa three months of his elevation to the throne PERUGIUS, Pietro, whose family nai Vanucci, is most celebrated as the ma Raphael. He was born at Citta Delia Piei Perugia, 1446 ; and first distinguished bin a ' Descent from the Cross,' painted for the of Saint Chiara, at Florence, 1485. One best pictures is said to be an Infant Christ Albani Palace, at Rome. Died 1524. PERUSE, J. De La, a French poet, 161 PERUZZI, B., an Italian painter, 1481- PESARESE, the surname of Simon ( rini, an Italian painter and engraver, 1611 PESCATORE, Giambattista, an Itali and senator of Ravenna, died 1558. ^ PESCENNIUS NIGER, Caius, a gova Syria, proclaimed emperor of Rome at Ant the death of Pertinax 193, slain 195. PESSELIER, Charles Stephen, a dramatic author and poet, 1712-17(Jo. PESTALOZZI, Henry, descended J family of Italian origin, was born at Zuricl Januarv, 1745. He was educated for the ( principal of his writings are a Translation of V truvius, Memoirs of the Natural History of Animals, and Medical Essays. Peter, a third brother, wrote on fountains, 1674. Nicholas, a fourth brother, died young in 1661, and left a treatise entitled ' La Morale des Jesuits,' which was published in 1667. PERREAU, J. A., a French writer, 1749-1813. PERREIN, J., a French naturalist, 1750-1805. PERIER. See Duperier. PERRIER, F., a French painter, 1590-1650 PERRIER, F., a French jurist, 1645-1700. PERRIN, A. S., a Fr-nch painter, 1761-1832. PERRON. SeeDirpKRRON. PERRONNET, John Rodolph, a celebrated French engineer and bridge builder, 1708-1794 PERRO'T, Sir J., a naval officer, died 1592. PERROT D'ABLANCOURT, Nicholas, a Fr. wr., au. of several classical translations, 1606-64. reason abandoned this occupation when twenty-eight years of age. He then stud the law, wrote an essay on the ( Sparta, and on discovering the int of the profession, bound himself a] farmer. With the experience thus acqui spent the remainder of his property in the pi and cultivation of a piece of land, and f sake of employing the poor becaim cotton mill ; it is probable that he was mo both these enterprises by the 'iEmiiius' of seau, which afforded him a view of I and the only one which he could rci benevolent feelings. He began hi educator on his farm of Neuhof, by adn orphan children into his own house, whom! vided with food, clothing, and Helvetic government refusing to tj^^^H ance of his projects. This was in 1 i however, some time after publish! - - PERRY, James, known as a miscellaneous writer and journalist, was son of a man of business | romance, entitled 'Leonard and Getl at Aberdeen, where he was born 1756. He came I lie partly developed his ideas, 1 to London 1777, and was employed as a reporter by the Swiss Directory to the cl on the General Advertiser and the Evening Post, number of children who had In In 1782 he projected and edited the European the French wars. He was allowed the 578 PES essed convent at Stantz, the capital of Under- sn, and being compelled to abandon this by pproach of the French army, was transferred te canton of Berne, where the chateau of dorf, with its surrounding domain, was placed i disposal. Pestalozzi availed himself of this -tnnity to enlarge his plans, pupils flocked to who paid for their instruction, and he was o engage assistants. In 1804, after a tem- y removal elsewhere, he established himself i castle of Yverdun, in the canton of Vaud, , with its surrounding estate, was generously to him by that government. This change sen rendered necessary by the increase of his and Yverdun became a normal school. young men of all nations surrounded the ble philanthropist, and were instructed in system of education. The fame of Pesta- 9 widely spread, and his name ever)' where ed. The canton of Zurich nominated him ir of the Helvetic Consulta, convened by parte, and the emperor of Russia gracea bh the order of St. Wladimir. He continued dun till 1825, when he retired to Neuhof, 18*26 was named president of the Helvetic of Olten. Meantime, indeed, for some >ast, the institution of Yverdun had been ruin, and soon after the retirement of zi, his successor, M. Schmidt, was ordered the country. The works of this great or are ' Leonard and Gertrude,' already ed, ' How Gertrude Instructs her Children,' hes on the Course of Nature in the Edu- the Human Race,' ' Elementary Educa- d several others, developing his plan of on by objects, the essential principle of the drawing forth of the internal faculties. maybe thought of his system as a whole, t generation is deeply indebted to Pesta- the fresher thoughts and experiments plans suggested. It is his grand dis- to be among the first benefactors of the first to claim for their squalid children Ivantage of all that is impressive in art iful in nature the first to share his them, and to dwell amongst them, as a himself, in order, as he expresses it, that ' Teach those harassed with poverty to [E.R.] PET _ PESTALOZZI, J. J., a physician and profes- sional writer at Lyons, 1674-1742. Anthony Joseph, probablv his son, a phvsieian, 1703-1779. PESTEL, F. W., a German jurist, 1724-1805. PETAN, Paul, a chronologist and antiquarian, flourished at Orleans, 1568-1614. His great- nephew, Denis, commonly called I'etavins, one of the most learned chronologists of his age, 1583-1652. PETAVIUS, Dionysius. See Petan. PETER, the Apostle, whose name was ori- ginally Simon, was born at Bethsaida, in Galilee, and was about forty years of age when he became a follower of our Lord. He is supposed to have suffered martyrdom at Rome, along with Paul, 65. PETER, the name of five saints of Rome : 1. A bishop of Alexandria, martyred 311 under Maximinus. 2. Peter, surnamed Chrysohgus, an Italian prelate, author of Sermons and Homilies, died 452. 3. An archbishop of Tarentaise, died 1174. 4. Peter Nolasque, founder of the order for the redemption of Christian slaves from the infidels, entitled ' The Confraternity of Mercy,' died 1256. 5. Peter of Alcantara, a Fran- ciscan friar, 1499-1562. PETER I., emperor of Russia (next article.) Peter II., son of Alexis Petrowitz and the Prin- cess Charlotte of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel, born 1715, succeeded Catharine I. 1727, died 1730. Peter III., son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter I. and of Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein Got- torp, born 1728, was created grand duke by his sister. Elizabeth, 1742, and succeeded her 1762. He was put to death the same year by his wife, Catharine, who succeeded him as Catharine II. PETER THE FIRST, czar of Russia, was born May 30, 1672. He is usually called Peter the Great, nor can the epithet be justly denied to the man who gave his country sea ports, commerce, fleets, and manufactures, arts, and educational insti- tutions ; and who changed the despised and barba- rous Muscovy, which our ancestors spoke of as we now speak of Timbuctoo, into the Russia whose am- bitious schemes and preponderating force all the world now anxiously watches. Moreover, the exploits which Peter achieved, were mainly due to his own innate strength of character, and not to the fa- vourable coincidence of circumstances. If it be true that the secret of greatness lies in energy of the will, in resolute endurance, and in self-sacrifice, there are few historical personages in whom its elements have been more strongly developed than in the imperial organizer of the Russian power. Peter succeeded to the crown of Russia at the age often; but his half-sister Sophia, who held the regency, strove not only to keep him as long as possible from the exercise of power, but to render him unfit for it, by giving him a purposely defec- tive education, and by placing in his way, as he grew up, every temptation to idleness and sensu- ality. Much of the coarseness, the vice, and the savage violence which deformed Peter's career in after life, may be traced to the taints thus early given to his moral system ; the spirit must have been surpassingly strong and self-reiving that could rise to any greatness in manhood, after a boy- hood and early youth of such neglect and corrup- tion. In 1689 Peter emancipated himself from the regent's domination, and took the reins of govern- ment into his own hands. He strove hard to repair 679 PET the defects of his education ; he acquired, almost entirely by self-teaching, a knowledge of several foreign languages; he studied earnestly the me- chanical arts, especially such as related to ship- building; his darling object being to give Russia ships and commerce, though, when he began his reign, she possessed no sea- port except that of Archangel in the northern sea. He endeavoured also to form a body of troops on the model of the armies of the civilized nations of western Europe. He exercised them in hostilities against the Turks and Tartars on his south-eastern frontier, during which he gained the important city of Azoph. In 1697, having provided tor the safety of his empire, and left troops under the command of the best of the foreign officers who had aided him in his re- forms, so as to curb any reactionary movements of the discontented part ot his subjects, Peter travelled as a private person through Germany, Holland, and England. He laboured hard to improve his knowledge of ship-building, and other useful parts of practical knowledge. To do this the more effectu- ally he worked with his own hands as a common shipwright in the dockyard at Amsterdam, and [House in which Peter lived at Zaandam.] afterwards in the English yard at Deptford. Dur- ing his absence from Russia the Streutzes (the old Muscovite soldiers) mutinied, but were put down by General Gordon, whom Peter had left in command of his new troops. Peter hurried back to Russia, and punished the mutineers with frightful cruelty. He now proceeded with renewed vehemence in the changes of manners and dress, as well as the introduction of useful arts, which he forced upon his barbarous subjects. In his zeal to do good he was too frequently injudicious in choosing times and seasons for trie work ; and the least show of opposition irritated him into ferocity, which was fearfully aggravated by the habit of drunkenness, which he had acquired during his neglected youth, and from which he never set himself free. In 1700 the war between him and Charles XII. of Sweden commenced. At first the Swedes always defeated the Russians ; but Peter was not disheartened. He recruited his armies; improved their discipline, and foretold that in the long run the Swedes would teach them how to win. Charles XII. ne- glected the coast of the Baltic ; and Peter took advantage of this to pour troops into Ingria, Care- lia, Livonia, and Esthonia. In 1702 he laid PET the foundation of St. Petersburg on the N Not less than 100,000 lives are said to have I sacrificed in raising the future capital of Rv. among the swamps, where Peter ordered its f tion, and where, with characteristic pertinacit purpose and indifference to human suffering urged on the completion of the work, though t aware of its perils and difficulties. In 170' defeated Charles XII. in the decisive batti Pultowa ; and when the war between Sweden Russia was ended, by the peace of Nystadt in 1 Russia gained as part of her dominions, In Esthonia, and Livonia. Her empire was now fi planted along the coast of the Baltic ; and hi fluence upon Poland, and other eastern countr Europe, Christendom, was developing itself paramount ascendancy. Peter was less forti in his wars against the Turks. In his cam] on the Pruth in 1711, his army was surround' the enemy ; and he was only saved by the der of his empress, Catharine, who was with him who succeeded in either bribing or persuadhw Grand Vizier of the Turks into a negotiafw which the Russian army was permitted to i and peace was restored, though at the price ( restoration of Azoph. In his family Petl perienced heavy sorrows. His first marriagi duced mutual unhappiness; and his eldesf Alexis, thwarted all his projects, and conr himself with the disaffected party, who wist abolish all Peter's reforms and restore th Muscovite fashions. Peter compelled his t renounce all claim to the succession; and him before a high court, which condemned 11 death. Two days after this, Alexis died in pi It was said that he sickened when sentencM that his illness was natural ; but the true ml of his death is a mystery. Peters secoM favourite wife, Catharine, was a Livonian pu girl, who married a Swedish soldier, and becj prisoner of war to Peter's favourite generalj zikoff. Menzikoff made her his mistreaj Peter saw her and fell in love with her, ; her as his own. Seven years afterwards (m| he married her ; and she ruled Russia as < after his death. Peter died in 1725. It is collect anecdotes of coarse debauchery, of frantic cruelty, and injudicious obstinacy fi acts of his long reign. But, to estimate hill he and his deeds must be taken for all in J their grand result upon his country's fortun' be considered. Nor must the debasing dis tages of his early education be ever t'urgol those who sit in judgment on his characl ruler and a man. His last words were, ' that in respect of the good I have striven tc people, God will pardon my sins.' PETER, king of Castile, surnamed the born 1334, succeeded his father, 1350, assassinated, after a cruel reign, by his natural brother, 1309. PETER I., king of Arragon, King of Navarre, reigned 1094-11' succeeded his father, Alphonso II., 1196; put himself at the head of the Alhi defeated and killed at the battle of .Murct. by Simon de Montfort, 1212. Pi 1239, succeeded his father, James I., 1873 inherited the kingdom of Sicily by his mf 580 PET Constance, daughter of Manfred. He took ctive part in the expulsion of the French, and crowned in Sicily, after the massacre of the ian vespers, 1282 ; died 1285, after sustaining, ously, a war with Charles of Anjou and Philip ranee. Peter IV., born 1319, succeeded his , Alphonso IV., 1836, died, after a fruitless for the sovereignty of Castile, 1387. ETER I., king of Sicily, same as Peter III. of gon. Peter II., son of Frederick I., was ned 1821. during the lifetime of his father, ucceeded him 1337, died 1342. TER I., king of Portugal, born 1320, suc- id his father, Alphonso IV., 1357 ; died, after eficent reign, 1367. This prince was secretly ed to Inez de Castro, who was murdered by of his father 1339. Peter II., second son hn IV, born 1648, became regent after the his brother, Alphonso VI., 1667, compelled to recognize the independence of Portugal On the death of Alphonso, 1683, he re- the title of king ; died, while effecting the est of Estramadura, 1706. TER, king of Hungary, reigned 1038-1047. TER I., king of the Bulgarians, succeeded her 927. His reign was troubled with in- dissensions, and wars with the Russians seks ; died 970. Peter II., obtained the wer, in association with his brother, Asan, and they were both slain about 1195. ~ER I., king of Cyprus and Jerusalem, ed his father, Hugh IV., 1861, and was ted 1367. Peter II., son and successor receding, died 1382. PET became a professor of religion, and devoted his days to solitude and austere practices. About 1095 he was led by the prevalent feeling of the age to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, then in possession of the Turks, and was deeply im- pressed by the profanation of the holy places, the indignities suffered by the pilgrims, and the general oppression to which the Christian inhabi- tants of the East were then subject. The same feeling was universal throughout Christendom, and the popes had long cherished the design of an ex- pedition against the Mahommedans, which it only required the enthusiasm of a man like Peter the Hermit to render practicable. Urban II. received him as a prophet, and authorized his mission. He now traversed the greater part of continental Europe, riding on an ass, his head and feet bare, his body clothed with the coarse garment of a hermit, girded round the waist with a rope, and bearing a neavy crucifix in his hand. To under- stand his success, we must take into account the poverty^ of the masses, and the alluring prospect of a residence in Eastern lands, the scenes of which were painted in glowing colours by the apostle of the holy war. Thousands of outcasts had always been ready to follow the princes in their maraud- ing expeditions or political wars, and how much more in a war which enlisted the highest sym- pathies of their nature in its behalf, which re- ceived the sanction of the ministers of religion, and was regarded as the will of God ! The pope summoned a council, which met at Placenza and Clermont, and making an eloquent appeal to the assembly, was frequently interrupted V their ac- ER I., duke of Brittany, succeeded by his clamations. He was acknowledged chief of the with Alix, daughter of Guy, 1212, and, crusade, and ordered that every one engaged in it death in 1221, became chief of the league should wear a cross of red stuff. Peter, mean- great vassals against Blanche of Castile, while, collected a vast body of adventurers, esti- it to Palestine 1240, accompanied Louis mated at a hundred thousand souls, from the Egypt 1248, and died on the voyage home, borders of France and Lorraine, and while God- II., second son of John VI., succeeded his frey of Bouillon mustered those of higher rank in ', Francis I., 1450, died 1457. j a more soldierlike and deliberate manner, pro- ER, count of Savoy, suraamed ' the Little ' ceeded with this fanatic crowd, by way of the gne,' succeeded his father, 1263, d. 1268. Rhine and Danube to the East. Ignorant of the route, and without the means of subsistence, it is fearful to contemplate the disorders and sufferings of such a march. About a third part reached the mountains of Thrace, and Peter himself took refuge in Constantinople, where he awaited the coming of Godfrey of Bouillon. At the same time he induced the emperor Alexis to send troops in aid of his followers, about three or four thousand of whom were rescued. Peter accompanied the army of Godfrey, and was present at the storm- ing of Antioch, and before the capture of Jerusa- lem addressed the crusaders on the Mount of Olives. He then acted a short time as vicar- feneral for the patriarch of the holy city the esuit Outreman says, as viceroy. The latter part of his life, like the commencement, is wrapt in ob- scurity. It is not known when he returned to Europe, but he died in a monastery he had founded in the diocese of Liege, 1115. The movement he had commenced continued to agitate Europe for nearly two centuries, and its general effect upon the march of civilization may be pronounced almost incalculable. [E.R.j PETER of St. Louis, a French ecclesiastic of the Carmelite order, kn. as a poet, about 1626-84. JR of Alcantara. See above (Saints.) !R of St. Andrew, a theologian, philo- and hist, of the Carmelite order, 1624-71. of Blois, an ecclesiastic who settled id in the reign of Henry II., and is one of the most learned men of his age, it 1200. 5R CHRYSOLOGUS. See above (Saints.) OF Clugny, an abbot of that monas- also Peter the Venerable, and by name Peter Maurice, a distinguished and Latin poet. He was born 1092 or le abbot after Hugh II. in 1122 or . in 1140 gave shelter to the unfortunate and interceded for him at Rome. Died i works were published in 1522. OF Cottona, a name by which the iter, F. Berettini, is known. 1596-1669. THE HERMIT, preacher and leader crusade, was born in the eleventh and was first known as an officer in the the counts of Boulogne, serving in about the year 1071. After this he le years in the quiet of domestic life, 1 children, and on the death of his wife 581 PET PETER MAURICE. See Peter of Clugny. PETER NOLASQUE. See above (Saints.) PETER of Sicily, a political negotiator in the service of the emperor Basil in 870. He wrote a. History of the Manichseans, published 1604. PETER the Venerable. See P. of Clugny. PETERBOROUGH, earl of. See Mordaunt. PETERKIN, Alexander, son of a Scottish minister, and known of late years as a miscellane- ous writer, was born in 1781. He was educated as a solicitor, and, in 1843, was engaged pro- fessionally for the Strathbogie clergymen in the struggle which led to the disruption in the Scot- tish national church. Died 1S6. PETERS, Bonaventura, a Flemish painter, famous for his storms and shipping, 1611-1615. John, his brother and pupil, 1625-1677. PETERS, C, a German painter, 1808-1830. PETERS, C, a learned Eng. divine, died 1777. PETERS, F. L., a Flemish painter, 1606-1654. PETERS, G., a Dutch painter, born 1580. PETERS, Hugh, an English Jesuit, known as the counsellor and confessor of James II. PETERS, Hugh, a disreputable character who connected himself with the English republican Sirty as a pamphleteer and pulpit demagogue, e was born in Cornwall 1599, educated at Cam- bridge, and figured successively as an actor, a minister in the Church of England, and a preacher among the independents. Executed 1660. PETERS, William, a minister of the Church of England, best known as an artist, died 1814. PETERSEN, H., a Swiss minister, died 1820. PETERSEN, John William, bora at Osna- burg 1649, and pastor at Hanover, became cele- brated about 1692 for his prophetic announcements. He was then deposed, and died in obscurity. His wife, Jeanne Eleanora de Merlan, partook in his enthusiasm, and published his life. PETERSEN, P. N., a Ger. musician, 1761-1830. PETHION DE VILLENEUVE, Jerome, a Girondist leader of the French revolution, was the son of an attorney at Chartres, and was himself an advocate when chosen deputy to the Tiers Etat of the Estates-General. His character placed him in a political situation between the Girondists and Jacobins, but his political and philosophical creed was the same as Brissot's, and he held it sincerely and implacably. He was one of the most zealous parties to the propagation of the ' Rights of Man ' as the basis of a constitution, and it was at his instance that the Jacobin Club was reorganized which led to the foundation of the Cordeliers, and the separation of the more violent members. The nation at this time was with the moderate party, and the influence of Lafayette was only just on the wane. Pethion profited by it, as one of the most practical men in his party, and was successively president of the National Assembly, president of the Criminal Tribunal, and mayor of Paris. In the latter function he succeeded Bailly, November, 1791, and polled twice as many votes as Lafayette. On the famous 20th of June, 1792, when the mob of Paris compelled the king to put on the red cap, Pethion and Louis exchanged angry words ; the next day, however, the mayor addressed a proclamation to the people calling upon them to defend the constitution and the king, and to respect his person. He maiu- PET tained his position as mayor of Paris, victory of the Marseillaise on the 10th and the dreadful massacres of Septt found it impossible to prevent the ea that occasion. Returned to the National tion, he was unanimously elected its dent, and voted for the king's death, nounced in favour of delay. From thig^M was identified with the Girondists by the follo\ of Robespierre, and included in the proi^H of that body on the 31st of May, I was among the few who escaped the gtt^^H meet a more miserable fate. Having fled wUj^H and Salles to the department of Calv, made a fruitless attempt to raise the ]^^H and were obliged to hide in the woods. qBJ they put an end to their own existence, e^H starved to death, is not known, but the i^H of Buzot and Pethion were found by the f^k in a corn-field gnawed by wolves. PETION, Alexander Salies, pree^H the republic of Hayti, was a man of col^^H free at Port-au-Prince, 1770, and educate^H military school of Paris. He served with W^k tion in the French army, and after the ejH of the English, was an active party in toe>! wars of the island. In 1804 Dessalines bet chief of the infant republic, and having n self emperor, was killed in October, H^^H successor was Christophe, who also ass^^H kingly title, and it was against this h^^H Petion obtained his most signal victory et^H of January, 1808, a year after his owne^^H president. This success fully established authority as chief of the republic, and ht^H the presidency till his death in 1818, wh^^H succeeded by his friend General Boyer. PETIS, Francis, a learned French Oj^H and historian, 1622-1695. His son, ]^H Petis De La Croix, like him, a grea^^H scholar, but also a traveller in the Efljl successor as royal interpreter, 1653-1713. I Marie, son of the latter, professor of Arabin the Royal College, 1698-175*1. PETIT, A., a French medical writer, 1718 PETIT, A. T., a French physician ai on experimental philosophy, 1791-1820. PETIT, F. P. Du, a Fr. naturalist, 1664-1 I PETIT, Jean Louis, a celebrated French geon, born at Paris on the 13th of Ma and died in that city on the 20th of A\ aged 76. Petit enjoyed a deserved I tion during his lifetime, and was ui of the founders of modern French surgery, was remarkable for his professional i nthaMM industry; and his writings are still ' timation. The first edition of his work on theB. was published at Paris, in 12ino, in 1758, it w r as enlarged to two volumes. His tot Surgical Diseases was a posthumous work, anc published by his pupil, Dr. Lesne, in 177 four years after the author's death. PETIT, M., an advent, traveller, died 1 PETIT, M. A., a French surgeon, 17' PETIT, P., a physician, distinguished on physiology, and Latin poet, 1617-1687. | PETIT, P., a dist. mathematici: PETIT, S., aphilologist and theolog.,1" PETIT-DID1ER, Matthew, a learne 582 name, a doctor of the Sorbonne, and minous wr. in favour of Jansenism, 16G5 PET late, a great friend and advocate of ultramon- sm, and author of critical, historical, and mological dissertations on the Scriptures, 9-1728. His brother, John Joseph, a Jesuit theologian, 1664-1756. ETTT-THOUARS, Albert Du, a French mist, author of ' Botanic Miscellanies,' d. 1831. ETITOT, Cl. B., director-general of the Paris "ity, author of several tragedies and trans- its, 1772-1825. ETITOT, John, a famous enameller and iature painter, bora at Geneva 1607, died 1691. ETIT-PIED, Nicholas, a learned French nist, about 1630-1705. His nephew, of the 1 a very 5-1747. STiT-RADEL, L. F., a distinguished French tect, 1740-1818. His brother, Philip, a son and Hellenist, 1749-1815. A third bro- L. C. Francis, an archaeologist, 1756-1836. STITZ, J. Raimond De, author of a Lib- of Amateur Artists,' about 1715-1780. STIVER, Jas., surgeon to the Charter House, on, distinguished as a botanical wr., d. 1718. CTR.EUS, T., a Danish Orientalist, d. 1673. 5TRARCA, Francesco, was bom at Arezzo 'uscany in 1304. His father, a Florentine j, had been exiled two years before, in the disturbance which drove out the poet Dante ; e soon left Italy for Avignon, where the papal then resided. The son was educated there and tpellier, and then sent to study law at Bo- Though Petrarch certainly loved the JEneid an the Pandects, and copied ancient manu- more willingly than law papers, yet the sub- t course of his public life proves that he did ;lect professional pursuits, and that he pre- imself for being a useful man of business, to Avignon soon after he became of age, himself in possession of a small inhent- id indulged for some years in an altema- classicaf studies and political composition, gaiety (sombre, perhaps, but not the on that account) as the clerical court In the year 1327 he conceived an attach- to an Avignonese lady, young but already His attentions to her were treated much matter of course; the admirer was cer- never admitted even to the most innocent modern cicisbeism : there appears to have no time much intercourse between the ; and we do not know with certainty so as the lady's real name. She became fa- her lifetime, and is still celebrated, as of the verses in which Petrarch sang s: but his passion does seem to have le more than a flight of imaginative remarkable only for the length of its and for the genius of the person by was entertained. About. 1338 he retired or three years to dwell in the beautiful [of Vauclu.se, near Avignon. He himselt his withdrawal to the retreat which he lized, was caused by no reason more senti- r poetic than his disgust with the licen- ot the papal court, and the disappoint- the hopes of preferment which the pope out to him. Long before this time his ad accomplishments had procured for him PET not only distinguished patronage, but frequent and active employment. He now speedilv quitted Vaucluse for Italy, where he became the confi- dential friend and diplomatic agent of several sovereigns, and skilfully executed missions not only in Italy, but in France and Germany. Though he never took orders, his employers re- warded him by ecclesiastical benefices in the north of Italy ; and his longest residences were at Parma, Milan, Padua, and Venice. In 1370, when his health was already failing, through attacks of pal- pitation and epilepsy, he left Padua for the neigh- bouring village of Arqua, seated among the lovely Euganean Hills. There he built a house, still preserved, but was hardly ever free from illness till his death in 1374. Petrarch, whose life was thus active, is immortal in the history of literature in virtue of more claims than one. He is placed as one of the most celebrated of poets in right of his ' Rime,' that is, verses in the modern Italian tongue, of which he was one of the earliest culti- vators and refiners. Celebrating in these his visionary love, he modelled the Italian sonnet, and gave to it, and to other forms of lyrical poetry, not only an admirable polish of diction and melody, but a delicacy of poetic feeling which has hardly ever been equalled, and a play of rich fancy which, if it often degenerates into false wit, is as often delightfully and purely beautiful. But, though Petrarch's Sonnets, and Canzoni, and ' Triumphs,' could all be forgotten, he would still be honoured as one of the benefactors of European civilization. No one but Boccaccio shares with him the glory of having been the chief restorer of classical learning. He was himself a voluminous Latin writer, both in prose and verse ; and his fame as a poet in his own day, and his coronation in the Roman capitol in 1341, rested on his celebration of the second Punic war in his epic poem 'Africa.' But his greatest merit lay in his having recalled attention to the higher and more correct classical authors ; [Tomb ot IV tnuch.] in his having been an enthusiastic and successful agent in reviving the study of the Greek tongue ; and in his having been, in his travels and other- wise, an indefatigable collector and preserver of 583 PET ancient manuscripts. To his care we owe copies of several classical works, which, but for him, would, in all likelihood, have perished. [W.S.] PETRE, Sir William, a chancery clerk, em- ployed in the visitation of the monasteries by Henry VIII., for which he received a grant of abbey lands and knighthood, died 1572. PETRI, B., a professor of Brabant, died 1630. PETRI, C, a Danish divine, 16th century. PETRI, Suffrid, historiographer of the states of Fricsland, secretary to Cardinal Granvella, (see William 1. of Nassau), and professor of law at Cologne, author of historical and. philologi- cal works, died 1597. PETRI, or PETERSON, Laurence, one of the three principal Swedish reformers, first pro- testant bishop of Upsala, and a theological writer, 1499-1573. His brother, Olave, also a reformer, whose vehement addresses almost produced a civil war, author of ' Memoirs,' 1497-1562. A third of the name, Jo*tas Petri, bishop of Linkoping in the 17th century, was author of a Latin and Swedish dictionary, published 1640. PPjTROF, Wassilj Petrowitsch, a famous Russian poet and philologist, appointed her reader and councillor of state by Catharine, 1736-1799. PETRONI, R., an Italian cardinal, died 1314. PETRONIUS, Titus, called 'Petronius Arbi- ter,' a favourite of Nero, and supposed author of a fragment entitled ' Satiricon,' died 66. PETEUCCI, Pandolph, a citizen of Sienna who obtained the sovereign power, and died 1512. PETTUS, Sir John, a member of parliament, and deputy-governor of the royal mines, author of some professional and other works, died abt. 1690. PETTY, Sir William, son of a clothier in Hampshire, and founder of the Lansdowme family, was born 1623, and being educated as a physician, became, in 1650, professor of anatomy at Oxford. His talents, however, were of the most versatile description, and he had the happy gift of turning them to some practical account in every way that promised to be a source of emolument ; not satis- fied with teaching anatomy and chemistry, he became Gresham professor of music ; and as to in- ventions, a copying machine to write two letters at once, and a double-bottomed ship to sail against wind and tide, show what he was capable of. In 1652 he was appointed physician to the army in Ireland, to which he added the office of contractor for surveying the forfeited lands, one of the com- missioners for their division, clerk to the council, and secretary to the lord-lieutenant, Henry Crom- well. With the wealth thus amassed, he became a member of parliament in the time of Richard Cromwell; and as he succeeded in making his peace at the restoration, his lands were confirmed to him, with the honour of knighthood in addition, and the office of surveyor-general of Ireland. Even the fire of London., which destroyed the fortunes of so many, only provoked Sir W. Petty to fresh specu- lations, by which he recovered "his losses. He died 1687, leaving great wealth to his successors, and numerous tracts^ on economy, especially ' Poli- tical Arithmetic,' ' Taxes and Contributions,' and otber subjects growing out of his knowledge of Ireland. For his descendant, the celebrated statesman, see Shelih:hne. PETTYT, or PETYT, William, keeper of the PFI Tower records, author of writings on the Anci Constitution of Parliament, 1636-1707. PEUCER, G., a Ger. mathematician, 1525-16 PEUERBACH, G., an Austr. astron., 1423- PEUTEMAN, P., a Dutch painter, 1608-161 PEUTINGER, C, a Gr. antiquar., 1405-15^ PEYER, J. C, a Germ, anatomist, 1659-17" PEYMANN, Henry Ernest De, a Dan general, commander of Copenhagen during bombardment by the English in 1807. He ^ tried by his countrymen for signing the capitulati and condemned to death, a punishment wh was commuted to a long imprisonment ; died 18 PEYRARD, F., a Fr. mathematic, 1760-JI PEYRE, Marie Joseph, a French archito 1730-1785. His brother, Antoine Francob painter and architect, 1739-1823. PEYRERE, Isaac De La, a French protests the protege and librarian of the prince of Con author of a curious work on the ' Preadamit and the ' Restoration of the Jews,' 1594-16 His brother, Abraham, a jurisconsult, died 17 PEYRON, Jean Fr. Pierre, an histori painter, and director of the Gobelins manufacti 1744-1815. His brother, J. Francois, known an author. 1748-1784. PEYRONIE, F. De La, a Fr. surg., 1678-17 PEYROUSE. See Laperouse. PEYSSONNEL, Charles De, a French ai quary and consul of Smyrna, author of Memt of the Kings of the Bosphorus, &c, 1700-17 His son, who succeeded him as consul, was t distinguished historical and antiquarian writer the same countries, 1727-1790. His brotl John Anthony, was appointed physician .* naturalist to the island of Guadaloupe in 17 and was the first to write on the prodnJ^^T coral according to the received theory. PEZ, Bernard, a learned Benedictine of AJ tria, 1683-1735. His br., Jerome, 1685-^M PEZAY, A. F. J. Masson, Marquis Del French historical writer, 1741-1777. PEZENAS, Esprit, a French Jesuit, kn as a mathematician and astronomer, 1G92-173BB PEZRON, Paul, a monk of Brittany, knot as a chronologist, philolog., and antiq., 163JM PFAFF, J. C, a Lutheran theologian of W temburg, 1631-1720. His son, Chi:istoph| Matthew, a voluminous protest, wr., 1G-S6-17 i PFAFFRAD, G., a Germ, philosopher, d. 16 PFANNER, T., a Germ, archivist, 1041-171! PFEFFEL, J. Conrad, a native of fl| distinguished as a jurisconsult and diplosMll 1684-1738. Chr. Frederic, his eldest learned writer on public law, 1726-1807. Tfflf philus Conrad, young brother of the hfl dramatic writer, poet, and literateur, 1736-181 PFEFFERCORN, John, a converted Jew,*! endeavoured to persuade the emperor Maximilj to burn all the Hebrew books except the oH containing the principles of magic and i gerous matter, died after 1517. PFEIFFER, A, a Germ. Orientalist, I tiM PFE1FFER, J. F., a Germ, economist PFENNINGER, M., a Swiss graver, 1739-1810. Henry, of the sai a painter and engraver, who executed . for Lavater, born 1749. PFIFFER, or PFYFFER, L, a Swiss 584 PFI service of France, 1530-1594. Francis Louis, officer probably of the same family, retired from French army after fifty years' service, and cuted a beautiful plan of Switzerland in relief, existing in his native Lucerne, 1716-1802. FISTER, A., a German printer, died 1462. FLUG, Julius, an Italian prelate, died 1564. FN1TSING, M., a poet of Nuremberg, 1481- 5. FUGUER, M. A. D., a Swiss poet, 1777-1824. ILEDON, a Greek philosopher, who studied ;r Socrates, and subsequently founded a school hilosophv at Elis, since known as the Eleatic. o gave his name to one of his Dialogues. LEDKUS, Lucius, a Roman slave freed by astus, and known as the author of Fables, discovered to modem literature in 1596 at ns. In the reign of Tiberius he suffered from yranny of Lejamus. His fables are written mbic verse with remarkable purity. IAER, Thomas, a Welch poet, died 1560. [ALARIS, a cruel tyrant of Agregentum, in , who acquired his power about 572 B.C., and ^nt to death by one of his own horrible de- that of the brazen bull, 556 B.C. ARAMOND, a half-fabulous personage, sup- to have been the first king of France, and to " ned about 418 or 420. The Salic law is i to him. He was probably a chief of nks. RNACES, the first of the name, king of succeeded his father, Mithridates the Great, i85 B.C., died 157. The second, born 97 me king of Bosphorus 64, and, after ng Pontus, was killed in battle 47. VORINUS. See Favorinus. LIPEAUX, John, a French theologian ian of Quietism, died 1708. LIPPEAUX, A. Le Picard De, a Ven- eer of artillery, born 1768, joined the army e with the emigrants 1791, died in the service after the siege of Acre, 1799. "PPEAUX, J., a Jesuit, 1577-1643. YPEAUX, Raimond Balthasar, Mar- French governor of Canada, died 1713. BORATES, a Greek poet, 5th cent. b.c. CYDES, a Greek philosopher, from Pythagoras is said to nave acquired his of the Metempsvchosis, 6th century b.c. RECYDES, a Greek historian, 5th c. b.c. "IAS, a Greek sculptor and the most cele- ist of antiquity, was the son of Charmidas, pupil of Ageladas of Athens, where Phi- born, about 490 B.C., or even a year or , for according to this supposition he must 'y reached the mature age of fifty before ion of any of his most celebrated works, inerva and other sculptures of the Par- and the Olympian Jupiter. Phidias was t ornament of the age of Pericles, and nent at Athens about 450 B.C. ; the lat- of the period of Pericles, however, 444 to , probably in the best manner, the exact Piiidias, for his greatest triumphs were during the administration of the affairs by Pericles. Great patrons have generally at instruments to carry out their schemes, atron is himself developed by the oppor- in some respects both positions are true, PHI but the former is the more easily explained : the magnitude of an undertaking regulates and deve- lopes accordingly the faculties of "those who under- take. Thus Pericles, Julius II., and Ludwig I. of Bavaria, all found artists of the highest genius ready to accomplish all their desires. Pericles ap- pointed Phidias superintendent of public works. The Parthenon was completed 438 b.c, the year also in which Phidias dedicated his colossal statue of Minerva in ivory and gold, placed in the temple; the architecture was the work of Ictinus. In the following year he commenced, aided by Colotes of Paros, the great sitting colossus of Jupiter at Olympia, in Ehs, also of ivory and gold ; this was completed in the year 433, and was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. (See Quaktremere de Quincy, Le Jupiter Olympien, &c.) The great chryselephantine works, that is of ivory and gold, are the most remarkable monuments of which the ancient records give us any account; there seems to have been no limit to the magnifi- cence or art-glory to which the anthropomorphistic worship of the Greeks might not lead them. These gigantic images, from 40 to 60 feet in height, ap- parently of solid ivory draped in gold, with all necessary enrichments in colour, must have more than realized the grandest notion of a human god that any of the Greek devotees can have brought to their shrines. The unparalleled height to which statuary has attained among the ancient Greeks is, therefore, to be attributed as much to the utili- tarian end, the honour of religion and the stability of the priesthood, as to any aesthetic refinement, though this too did exist among the Greeks per- haps in a higher degree than any other people. The chryselephantine sculpture was the natural result of the Greek polychromy ; once established the system of colouring images, the costliness must necessarily enter into the material as well as the external decoration of the image; thus we find these great images gradually progressing from rude wood and stone, to marble, and to bronze, and finally (ostensibly) to ivory. The ivory was, how- ever, only a coating, the core of the statue was wood, the gold was real. Phidias executed six of these great works, but this of Elis cost him his life, for he was accused of having embezzled the gold given by the Elians for the draperies, &c. of the statue, and upon this accusation cast into prison, where he died within the year, 432 b.c. The ac- cusation appears to have been found to be quite groundless ; and in honour of the memory of the great statuary, the charge of the image was granted as an heir-loom to the family of Phidias, and when Pausanias visited Elis, 600 years afterwards, the descendants of Phidias still had the care of it. Another account states that it was in Athens, after his return from Elis, that he died, and that the charge in question related to the gold of the Min- erva, which Pericles himself had taken off, and or- dered to be weighed, and found exact ; that he was finally committed on a charge of impiety for car- ving his own portrait on the shield of Minerva, and that he died during imprisonment for this offence. The Olympian Jupiter adorned Elis for about eight centuries, it was then removed to Constantinople, by the emperor Theodosius, and was either lost at sea, or destroyed in the fire of the Lauseion, 475 a.d. In carrying out so many and extensive works, 585 PHI Phidias must necessarily have had many assistants. His principal scholars were Agoracritus, Alcamenes, and Colotes. Such were his assistants probahly in the extensive sculptures of the Parthenon, now in this country, and known as the Elgin marbles ; brought from Athens by Lord Elgin in 1803, and Eurchased by the British government in 1816. We ave in these wonderful works adequate testimony of the deserved reputation of Phidias, and quite sufficient to show that the arts of Greece, at least of the time of Pericles, cannot be too highly esteemed. AVe have in these marbles the best expo- sition of the ideal, and a perfect illustration of the assthetic element of style as distinct from mere representation or imitation. The so-called Theseus, thellissus, the Metopes, and the Panathenaic frieze all exhibit the most perfect ideality of form, at the same time of a grand generic character. The ideal or generic development of these sculptures ran only have resulted from the long experience of centuries, or from extraordinary circumstances, but partly from the combination of both. All healthy bodies, subject to similar exercise, would most pro- bably assume much the same character: the atnle- tic games of the Greeks, common and popular, gave their artists such opportunities of viewing the naked form in all its perfection, that the general excel- lence of their sculpture is not surprising. In the Elgin marbles we have doubtless all the several beauties of the athlete combined in the individual, yet so modified as altogether to obviate the sense of any special individuality, leaving only the im- pression of the perfect human form, illustrating its general attributes themselves in all their wonder- ful versatility and perfection, without suggesting for a moment the notion of a limited individual fitness or quality; always excepting when such special limit or quality is not the specific object of the individual representation, as m the Farnese Hercules, the type of muscular strength. This is the ideal in its" general and special development, and which we find invariably well illustrated in Greek sculpture, but nowhere with more refined grandeur than in the works of Phidias, as exempli- fied in the invaluable Elgin marbles. -(Miiller, Life and Works of Phidias -de Phidice vita et operibus &c, Gottingen, 1827. A very full account of Phi- dias and his works may be found in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, edited bv Dr. Smith.) [R.N.W.] PHILASTER, an Italian prelate, 4th century. PHILES, Manuel, a Greek poet, 14th centiirv. PHILELPHUS, Francis, a celebrated Italian philologist and state secretaiy, 1398-1481. PHILEMON, a Greek poet, 4th century B.C. PHILEMON, a Greek grammarian, 12th cent. PHILIBERT, the^ra! of the name, duke of Savoy, succeeded, his father, Amacleus IX., 1472, died 1482. The second, succeeded his father, Philip II., 1497, died 1504. PHILIBERT-EMANUEL, son of Charles Ema- nuel, duke of Savoy, grand prior of Castile and Leon, and grand admiral of Spain, died 1624. PHILIDOR, Andre, born at Dreux in 1726, was the son of a musician, whose real name was Michel Danican, but who, for the excellence of his performances upon the hautboy was named Phihdor by the king of France. The young Andre, in childhood, entered as page in the band of the PHI king of France, then under the direct! chapel-master Campra. After having left the jritfi ation of page, Phihdor settled in Paris, where ! supported himself from his income as t copier of music. Besides his musical talent, i had gained such a reputation as a chess plav: that he was induced to travel; according! the year 1745, he left Paris for Holland., Germail England, &c. During his travels lie flHI improved his musical taste. In 1753 he w| England, when he set Dryden's Ode to St. Oea to music. He had while here devoted h^^H tion principally to chess; and he gained CO^H fame from having published his analysi game, which is still referred to as an autfl| On his return to France, in 1754, he again Nflfl his musical studies, and produced music to adl matic piece, which was performed with grttjH| cess in 1759. This work laid the foundation of * musical reputation. Philidor, along with Dunii; Monsigny, is regarded as one of the founde modern French comic opera. After havin duced about twenty operas at the Opera Cfl he came to London in the year 1779, where 1 duced the music to Horace's 'Carmen Sei which is esteemed as his best work. He * London in 1795. PHILIP, the name of three saints: apostle, who is supposed to have preaol Phrygia, and died at an advanced age. deacon chosen by the apostles who preac Ca^sarea, where he received Saint Paul 58, d 3. Philip of Neri, an Italian ecclesiastic der of the oratory, &c, 1515-1595. PHILIP, son of Herod the Great and of man named Cleopatra, obtained from Afl the rank of tetrarch, and governed his stato great wisdom from B.C. 4 to a.d. 33. Af death his states were reunited to Syria. PHILIP, king of Syria, son of Antiochua dethroned by Tigranes B.C. 80, died 57. j PHILIP L, king of Maccdon, reigned i obscure period of its history when it was rej as a barbarian territory by the Greek states, B.C. 400. Nothing worthy of notice is re of him. Philip II., see next article. I III., a natural son of Philip II., reigned years after the death of Alexander the Gr was killed by order of Olympias 316 h.c. called Philip Arrhidseus. Philip IV., sue his hither Cassander on the throne of Ml b.c. 296, and died 295. Philip V.. son ( metrius III., succeeded at the age B.C. 233, his uncle, Antigonus guardian. After the battle of Cannae he e into a treaty with Hannibal, and thus broug Romans upon the stage of Grecia was totally defeated 197, and thou reasonable terms, left the struggle to his soi seus. Died B.C. 179. PHILIP II., by whose valour and genii little state of Macedon was raised to the supr over all Greece, was the third son of Al^ and was born in 3S3 or 382 B.C. He so* his elder brother, Perdiccas, in the first ph guardian of his infant son, but soon W sovereign, in the twenty-third year 360; the existence of rival claimant! and the exterior evils with which the stl Ml PHI reatened, rendering his usurpation, if it may he lied so, acceptable to the whole people. Philip d been detained at Thebes as a hostage from his teenth to his eighteenth year, and was thoroughly rsed in the tactics of Epaminondas, with whose ,her he had lodged ; besides which, his brother, rdiccas, had intrusted him with a government in icedonia, and had allowed him to organize ops. His chief military arm was the after- rds famous Macedonian phalanx, a force or- lized by himself the materials he drew upon ng a mountain peasantry accustomed to poverty I toil, without cities or even fixed habitations to der peace more desirable than war to them, lens and Thebes had reached their highest vigour B Philip came to the throne, but the latter . lost her presiding genius in Epaminondas, and former was seriously weakened by the ' social ' which now broke out, and which raged a 358 to 355 B.C. Philip took advantage of troubled period to possess himself of Amphi- 3, which gave him access to the gold mines of int Pangams, soon a source of immense revenue " n, and the reason of his founding the new of Philippi. The 'sacred war' earned on by Amphictyonic council against the Phocians, the Macedonians another great opportunity epping in as armed arbitrators, and with the ly purpose in view of humbling the power of and Athens. After the capture of Methone last possession of the Athenians on the sdonian coast between 354 and 352, Philip hed into Thessaly at the head of 20,000 men, himself out as the champion of Delphi, and ed his soldiers with laurel, which they :ed in the vale of Tempe. He was now joined e famous Thessalian cavalry, and having e master of Thessaly in 352, he endeavoured * the pass of Thermopylae, but was repulsed e Athenians ; Philip, however, compensated If by equipping a navy to harass the Athenian erce. From 349 to 347 he became victor in lynthian war, which made him complete of the Chalcidian peninsula and doubled wer. The terror of his name provoked the ppics ' of Demosthenes, who endeavoured to the people of Athens to form a general against him instead of which, each party sacred or Phocian war was anxious to ob- :S succour against the others. This state of led to embassages, the members of which, ie exception of Demosthenes, were cajoled or by Philip into a shameful peace, which in him master of the Phocian cities, of the of Thermopylae, and in the position of 1 to the Ainphictyon council. In the latter ty he was really the crowned protector of the faith, and in the spirit proper to his office | once marched into Greece, but instead of against the profane Locians, he seized the Elatea, and began to fortify it. Demos- Inow exerted all his eloquence and states- Tip to raise the ancient spirit of Grecian al- ienee, and a powerful army was soon in the it being without able or patriotic com- was defeated at the decisive battle of in August, 338 B.C. After this last freedom, Philip was acknowledged chief )le Hellenic world by all the states except PHI Sparta, and in 337 he summoned a congress at Corinth to organize an expedition against" Persia. While preparing for this enterprise he repudiated his wife, Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, and the same year espoused Cleopatra, niece of Attains, who bore him a son, looked upon as the rival of Alexander in the succession. These cir- cumstances led to dissensions at court, and in the year 336 b c. to the death of Philip, who was murdered at the instigation of Olympias while engaged in a religious festival. He had several other wives or mistresses, and was addicted to intemperance; but as a king, for political and military genius, for persuasive eloquence, the gen- eral spirit of humanity, and for courage in the field, the name of Philip of Macedon may vie with any in history. At the time of his death the first division of his army had passed into Asia, under the conduct of Attalus, and the young Alexander had already distinguished himself as commander of one wing of his army at the battle of Cha?roneia. [E.R.] PHILIP, emperor of Rome, was born in Arabia about 204, and having entered into the military service of the Romans, became praetorian prefect 243. The emperor Gordian was compelled to re- ceive him as a colleague on the throne by the army which had conquered Sapor, king of Persia ; and'in the following year, 244, Philip assumed the whole authority by putting his rival to death. He was killed in battle by the soldiers of Decius 249. PHILIP, emperor of Germany, was the second son of Frederick Barbarossa. He was bom 1178, became king of Suabia and Tuscany after the death of his father 1190, and emperor after the death of his brother, Henry VI., 1198. He was assassinated 1208, and succeeded by Otho IV. PHILIP I., king of France, son of Henry I. and Anne of Russia, was born 1052, and succeeded to the throne under the guardianship of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, 1060, died, after a troubled reign, mixed up with the affairs of William the Conqueror, 1108. Philip II., surnamed Augus- tus, son of Louis VII. and of Alix, daughter of Thibault, count of Champagne, was born 1165, suc- ceeded his father 1180, accompanied Richard Cceur de Lion to the Holy Land 1190, invaded Nor- mandy during Richard's captivity 1193, confiscated the possessions of King John in France, after the supposed murder of Arthur, 1203, prepared to in- vade England at the instance of the pope 1213, turned his arms against Flanders and gained the celebrated battle of Bouvines 1214, died 1223. Philip Augustus was one of the ablest princes that ever reigned in France, both as a commander and an administrator. Philip III., called the Hardy, was the son of Louis IX. and Margaret of Provence. He was born 1245, and succeeded his father 1270. In 1271 he possessed himself of Toulouse on the death of his uncle, Alphonso; in 1272 he repressed the revolt of Roger, count of Foix, and in 1276 sustained a war against Alphonso X., king of Cas- tile. The invasion of Sicily by Peter of Arragon, and the massacre of the French, known as 4 the Sicilian vespers,' caused him to make war against that prince, in the course of which he died, 1285. Philip IV., called the Fair, or Handsome, son of the preceding by his first wife, Isabella of Arragon, washorn 1268, and succeeded his father 1285. H< He 587 PHI was engaged in wars with the English and Flemings ; and in a quarrel with the pope, in the course of which he was excommunicated. Jnl303 the estates-general were first assembled. In 1312 he suppressed the Templars (see Molai) ; died 1314. He was an al >le but most despotic sovereign. Philip V., called the Long, second son of the preceding, was born about 1293, and succeeded to the throne in virtue of the Salic law, which excluded the daughter of his brother, Louis X., who died 1316. In his reign a cruel persecution began against the Jews, in the midst of which he died, 1322. Philip VI., called De Valois, was son of Charles, count of Valois, a younger son of Philip the Hardy. He was born 1293, and succeeded Charles le Bel 1328. In his reign occurred the wars with Edward III. of Eng- land, who claimed the French crown as grandson, by his mother, of Philip the Fair. Philip lost the battle of Cressy in 1346, when 30,000 men, and the chief of his nobility, were slain. He died dur- ing a truce with the English, 1350. "PHILIP I., among the Spanish kings, was the son of Maximilian I., emperor of Germany, by Mary of Burgundy. He was born 1478, and on the death of his mother, 1482, became sovereign of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, the right of which he transmitted to his posterity of the house of Austria. In 1496 he married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and in 1502 the young couple were acknowledged law- ful successors to the crown of Spain. In 1506 they were declared joint king and queen of Castile, and Philip died the same year. He was the father of Charles V. Philip II., (next article). Philip III., son of Philip II. and Anne of Austria, bom 1578, succeeded his father 1598, died 1621. Philip IV., son of Philip III. and Margaret of Austria, was bom 1605, and succeeded his father 1621. Besides a war with the Dutch, he had to contend against the league formed against the house of Austria by Richelieu, by which he lost many pro- vinces. In 1640 the duke of Braganza made him- self king of Portugal, in 1647 Massaniello led the revolt in Naples, and in 1648 Philip was compelled to renounce all claims upon the United Provinces by the treaty of Westphalia (see article Maurice of Nassau). In 1659, after the junction of Cromwell with France, and the victories of Blake, Philip concluded the treaty of the Pyrenees. In 1665 his forces were totally defeated by the Por- tuguese, and he died the same year. Philip V., second son of Louis the dauphin of France, great- fandson of the preceding, and grandson of Louis IV., w^as bom 1683. He succeeded to the throne of Spain by the testament of Charles II., and was proclaimed at Madrid 1700. The succession was disputed, and a league formed against it between England, Holland, Russia, Savoy, and Portugal, which led to a twelve years' war, concluded by the treaty of Utrecht 1713. By this treaty the Eng- lish obtained Gibraltar and Minorca ; Naples, Sar- dinia, the Milanese, and the coasts of Tuscany, were relinquished to the archduke Charles, who had been the rival of Philip, and was now be- come emperor ; and the duke of Savoy possessed Sicily. Philip now married Elizabeth Famese, princess of Mantua, and the notorious Alberoni became his minister, whom he was obliged to dis- miss, in 1720, by a fresh combination. He then PHI fell into a state of melancholy, abdicated in favour! of his son, Louis, and was obliged to resume the! crown in consequence of his death, 1724 ; died 1746,' PHILIP II., king of Spain, who projected^M conquest of England by the famous ' Armada,! was the son of Charles V., emperor, and of Isabella of Portugal. He was born at Valladolid in 1527,1! eight years after his father's accession to th^^H pire, and was married in succession to the Princes! Mary of Portugal, 1543, and to Mary, queen o.f England, in the month of July, 1554, the saimi year in which he became king of Naples and Sicihj by the abdication of his father. The most jealoui) precautions were taken on this occasion to pr uJM his assumption of any real power in this couidBi and the temper of the people, and the quee^^f self, were so little to his taste, that in the cofl of 1555 (August) he retired to Flanders. Ttfi was a political reason for this journey, how^H Charles V. was preparing to resign the empire le] first investing his son with his hereditary do^^H ions, and in the succeeding October he solemnly re! nounced the sovereignty of the Low Countries i; his favour, at an assembly of the states-general if Brussels. About a month after, Philip receive the sceptre of Spain and the Indies by the sam - self-abnegation of his father, and his first act waf to propose a truce with France, which was broke almost as soon as concluded upon. Till Septeml : ber, 1556, he lived rather a debauched life, ij would appear, in his Flemish dominions, and the! came to England, where he had the mortifij^H to be refused the ceremony of a coronation, an! the troops he demanded in aid of his war wit) France. These, however, were at length concede! to him by Mary, in violation of her marriag! : articles, and the levy, joined to the army <( Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, and Cour Egmont, assisted to gain the battle of St. Quintii 10th August, 1557. On the death of Mary in 155li Philip, who was still prosecuting the war, mac' proposals of marriage to her successor, EliznW fi and was refused; his military operations l^Hf 1 while greatly retarding the Reformation in th; country. In 1559 the French were reduced JM *t for peace, and the policy and the arms of Phili] though he was no soldier himself, were i by the peace of Chateau-Cambresis on or April in that year ; one condition of it bei the marriage of Philip to the prim beth of France, daughter of Henry II. Fre' from this political war, Philip now applied to the subjugation of the Moriscoes the dants of the Mahommedan conquerors ofSf | I and commenced that intestine struggle WD 4^H tE not terminated till the reign of his succesa^^HEi the course of the year (1559) he returned ladolid, having appointed his half-si sovereign of the Low Countries ; his that city was to send thirty-three the stake, of whose torments he went to witness. About the same time he seat of government to Madrid. In 15iii of the Netherlands commenced, which < separation of the seven northern provinces^ the crown of Spain, and their formation Dutch republic. This struggle lasted abo years till the close of Philip's reign ; the incidents are noted in other articles, (\r*n PHI of Nassau; Maurice of Nassau). The ents of this protracted struggle were varied in 67 bv a domestic tragedy the rebellion, arrest, id suspicious death of Don Carlos, the son of liiip and his first wife Mary of Portugal. Shortly towards he lost the queen Elizabeth, his third fe, and about the same time the Moors of anada revolted, whose subjugation was effected 1570. In 1571 the archduchess Anne of Aus- a became his fourth wife, and the same year his tural brother, Don John of Austria, obtained great naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks. 1580 his troops under Alva subdued Portu- , of which, and all its dependencies, Philip became sovereign. By this time the protes- t power and its policy had become centred in gland under Elizabeth, who at length openly ;aged herself in behalf of the Netherlands, and rywhere threatened the security of Philip ; the at that time being ruled by our great Admiral ike. In 1586 the pope, Sixtus Quintus, offered support to Philip, and the Invincible Armada prepared for the invasion of England. It was manded by the duke of Medina Sidonia, and Jly defeated by the combined Dutch and Eng- fleets, aided by a great storm in the British nel, 1588. The remainder of Philip's reign occupied with his French wars as a party to league, in pursuance of the same dark policy Henry IV. This struggle was concluded he peace of Vervins, 1597. (See Navarre). ip died at Madrid, 13th September, 1598; g earned for himself the character of a cruel and made the most desperate efforts to sus- the preponderance of Spain in Europe, and 'umph of the papacy. No European sovereign en able to resume the struggle on the same of magnificence to this day. [E.R.] TLIP I., count of Savov, succeeded his sr, Peter, 1268, died 1285. Philip II., of Savoy, succeeded Charles II., 1496, died Another Philip, born 1278, was prince of ia and the Morea. He began to reign over j at the death of Count Philip 1285, but deus V., his uncle, took the sovereignty, and hilip that of Piedmont ; died 1338. IILIP, the first of the name, count of Bur- jr, succeeded his mother, Jeanne of Valois, as ; of Artois 1335, and obtained the county of dy from his brother 1338 ; died 1346. The a son of the preceding, succeeded to the nties of Burgundy, Auvergne, Boulogne, )is, at the age of eighteen months, and 361. The third, Philip the Hardy, born received the duchy of Burgundy from his King John, 1364, and, by his marriage argaret of Flanders, became count of Flan- ' Artois, of Rethel, and of Nevers. He was the princes appointed to administer the ent of France during the incapacity of VI., and whose rivalry with the duke of created great troubles; died 1404. The ndson of the preceding by his son John, aret of Bavaria, was born 1396, and his father 1419; died 1467. He was Charolois, afterwards Charles the Bold. P, duke of Brabant, reigned 1427-1430. P, count of Flanders, called Philip of sue. his father, Thierry, 1169, died 1191. PHI PHILIP, elector palatine, born 1448, succeeded his uncle, Frederick, 1476, died 1508. A second of the name, Philip William of Neubourg, born 1615, succeeded the elector Charles 1686, died 1690. PHILIP, duke of Parma, born 1720, was son of Philip V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese, and son-in-law of Louis XV. He became duke of Parma, Placenza, and Guastalla, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 ; died 1759. PHILIP, duke of Suabia. See Philip, Emp. PHILIP of Alsace. See Philip, Count of Flanders. PHILIP of Orleans. See Orleans. PHILIP the Solitary, a Gr. monk, 12th ct. PHILIP of Thessalonica, a Greek epigram- matist, supposed no later than the age of Augustin. PHILIP of the Most Holy Trinity, a fam- ous missionary to Persia and the Indies, born at Avignon 1603, died 1671. PHILIP of Valois. See Ph. VI. of France. PHILIPPE, C. A., a Fr. magistrate, 1614-98. PHILIPPE, Louis. See Louis Philippic. PHILIPPI, H., a learned Jesuit, 1575-1636. PHILIPPICUS-BARDANES, emperor of the East, proclaimed, after causing the assassination of Justinian II., 711, dethroned by the people 713. PHILIPPIDES, an Athenian poet, B.C. 335. PHILIPPON, Baron, the French general who defended Badajoz in 1811 ; 1760-1836. PHILIPPUS of Acarnana, the friend and physician of Alexander the Great, whose life he saved, B.C. 333. PHILIPPUS, the name assumed by the im- postor, Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Perseus, and became king of Macedonia. PHILIPS, Ambrose, descended from an ancient family of Leicestershire, known as a poet and mis- cellaneous writer. He was the associate of Steele, Addison, and the wits of that period , born about 1671, died 1749. PHILIPS, Catharine, an accomplished lady, authoress of Translations from Corneille, 1631-64. PHILIPS, Fabian, a lawyer and royalist, au- thor of several political pamphlets, and of books re- lating to ancient customs and privileges in Eng- land, 1601-1690. PHILIPS, John, a poetical writer, 1676-1708. PHILIPS, Richard, F.R.S., F.G.S., an Eng- lish chemist, died 1851. PHILIPS, Thomas, a Roman Catholic minister and theologian, author of the ' Study of Sacred Literature,' ' Life of Cardinal Pole,' &c, d. 1774. PHILISTUS, an ancient historian, supposed to be a native of Syracuse, about 431-356 B.C. PHILLIP, Arthur, an English naval officer, first governor of Botany Bay, 1738-1814. PHILLIPS, Edward, son of Anne, the sister of Milton, and of Edward Phillips, secondary in the crown office, was born 1630. He was educated by his illustrious uncle, of whom he wrote a life. The best known of his works is a complete collec- tion of the Poets, with observations upon them, in which it is supposed Milton assisted him. His brother, John, at first a political adherent of his uncle, afterwards wrote in favour of the restora- tion. Dates unknown. PHILLIPS, Morgan, or Philip Morgan, a Roman Catholic controversial writer, 16th century. 589 rin PHILLIPS, Thomas, E.A., a distinguished por- trait painter and writer on art, bom at Dudley, Warwickshire, 1770, died, after co-operating in tlie foundation of the Artists' General Benevolent Institution, 1815. PH1LO of Biblos. a Greek liistorian, chiefly know! as translator of Sanconiatho from the Phoe- nician into the Greek language, fragments of which have been preserved in the works of Eusebius. He flourished m the reign of Nex - o. PHILO of Byzantius, a Greek architect, au. of a Treatise on Machines of Wat abt. 3d ct. b.c. PHILO, Junius, was born of Jewish parents at Alexandria, not long before the commencement of the Christian era. He was a devotee of the Platonic philosophy, and it tinges all his inter- pretations of the sacred books, in a.d. 41, he was sent as chief deputy from the Jews in Alexandria to the emperor Caligula, in order to defend them against Apion, who had charged them with the crime of disloyalty. Again did he go to Rome in the reign of Claudius. Several of the writings of Pljilo have escaped the wreck of time, such as his treatise De Mundi Opificio; his 'Allegories of the Law/ full of strange fancy and wild interpretations, his book 'On Dreams,' and numerous tracts on biblical subjects, filled with Platonism and alle- gory. His works have been edited by Turnebus, toL, Paris, 1552 ; by Mangey in 2 vols, fob, 1742 ; reprinted under the care of'Ffeiffer, at Erlangen, in 1820, and by Eickter in 8 octavo vols., Leipzig, 1828-30. [J.E.] PHILO of Larissa, a philosopher of Athens, who quitted that city on the success of the arms of Mithridates and "went to Rome, where he had Cicero for a disciple. PHILODEMUS, an Epicurean philos., B.C. 100. PHILOLAUS : a later Pythagorean : born at Crotona, or Tarentum, towards "the close of the fifth century before Christ. Aresas, a probable disciple of Pythagoras, was his master ; so that we receive the doctrine from Philolaus, only as it appeared to the third generation. (Article Py- thagoras). It has been repeated once and again that Philolaus, divined the true theory of the Uni- verse, and was the virtual predecessor of Coperni- cus. Nothing can be more false. In his scheme indeed, not the Earth, but Fire is placed in the centre of the Universe : that Fire, however, is not the Sun, which, on the contrary, he makes revolve around the central *v$. The scheme, in so far as it can be understood, is altogether fantastic, based on no observation or comparison of phenomena, but on vague and now unintelligible metaphysical considerations. The only predecessor of Coperni- cus in Antiquity, was Aristarchus of Samos, whose remarkable conjectures appeared first, in the Editio Princeps of Archimedes published after Coperni- cus wrote. [J.P.N.] PHILOPOEMEN, called the lost of the Greeks, was really their last great commander. He was born in Arcadia B.C. 253, became in 210 generalis- simo of the Achaaan League, and conquered the Spartans at which time he abolished the laws of Lycurgus. The greatest of his victories in this long struggle was the battle of Mantinea. He was put to death by poison when a prisoner of the Messenians b.c. 183, the same year that proved fatal to Hannibal and Scipio. PHO PHILOSTRATUS, Flavius, a Greek rhetor cian, author of ' Lives of the Sophists,' 'Commii( on the Heroes of Homer,' and a descriptive on art, entitled ' Ieones,' known about 193. iH ther Philostratus, his nephew, wrote a war similar to the ' Ieones,' and bearing the same till He was known about 217. PHILOTHEUS, a patriarch of Constantino!* author of several learned works, died about 13/1. PHILOXENUS, the name of three Greeks, tl most ancient a didactic, and burlesque poet, 444 380 b.c. The second, a painter, was conM porary with Apellcs, and is known to have exi cuted a battle-piece, B.C. 31(5. The third, calk also Xenaias, was a bishop of Heliopolis, and' writer in favour of the Svrian Jacobites, <T a.d. 518. PHILPOT, John, son of Sir Peter Philpot,! sheriff of Hampshire, known as a learned Calviai writer and minister of the Church of EngH burnt in Smithfield in the reign of Mary, 15flH^ PHILPOT, or PHILIPOT, John, a hfl and antiquarian, assistant of Camden, and edit of his Remains, time of James I. ; died 164 Thomas, his son, wrote a History of Heraldry. PHLEGON, a Greek historian, 2d century. PHOCAS, emperor of the East, 602-610. I PHOCION, a famous Athenian general, stf| man, orator, and diplomatist, chief of the cratic party at Athens, and a great oppoi Philip and Alexander. He was put to de poison B.C. 317, and afterwards honoured regrets of his countrymen. PHOCYLIDES, a Greek poet, 4th cent. PHOTIUS, one of the most illustrious his age, was born of noble parents in the < of the ninth century. He was also conne the marriage of his brother with the royal He held various secular offices under the such as that of protoa-secretis, or chief, and the captaincy of the royal life gua literary attainments were of a very high result of diligent and continued study, rose suddenly and unexpectedly to the su ecclesiastical dignity. The patriarch Ignat been deposed and banished, and Photius, tfl| a lavman, was elected in his room. In less thai | week he summarily passed through all the inferi) grades of office, was in as many successive dr j monk, reader, sub-deacon, deacon, presbyter, a) finally patriarch. This questionable procedure* confirmed by two councils, one in 853, and ti other in 859. But, in 862 Pope Nicolaus, in-CBjj sequence of a dispute about jurisdiction, dt^H the election void, and excommunicated Phofl^H his adherents. Photius, however, rot place, but a schism was produced between tj Eastern and Western churches. The ef^H Michael III. was assassinated in a.d. 867, and H murderer and successor, Basil L, exiled ABB brought back Ignatius his predecessor, &*4| general council held at Constantinople, in 869, t transaction was solemnly ratified. Whj^^H tius died, in 877, Photius was elevate former position, and his restoration was salflB by the head of the Western churches. Fl^H immediately laboured by the machiner]^^^B councils, to have all the previous j against himself declared null and oid, and on t 690 PHR punt, he incurred again the anathema of the e. Ecclesiastical intrigue and manoeuvre, and truth aud right in those days determined the ory. Leo VI. succeeded Basil in 886, and he lediately, but probably on unjust grounds, ished the restless patriarch to Armenia, where remained in exile till his death. The date of leath is unknown, but some place it in a.d. 891. tins was a scheming diplomatist, keenly alive to own interests, but not without a happy mixture enignity and decision. His weapons of self- nce and self-aggrandizement where those of the in which he lived, suppleness and chicaneiy, alous watch over all rivals, and the unscru- us use of every means to enjoy, retain, and e the most of the imperial favour and patron- Photius had been a voracious reader, and was an accomplished critic. His Myriobiblon or otheca is a review and epitome of ancient k literature in 280 divisions, and contains s of many rare and valuable works which selves have been lost. The best edition is that ekker, Berlin, 1824, 2 vols. 8vo. Numerous works were composed in the long life of this rious prelate and statesman, and many of his s have been collected. We have his Com- um, his Amphilochia, a theological treatise form of question and answer his collection nons, Homilies, a tract on the Procession of oly Spirit, one against the Manichseans, Com- es on St. Paul's Epistles, and a Catena on 'salms, &c, but many of these still slumber in No collected edition of his works has ap- Had Photius been a professional writer rrupted leisure, he could scarcely have writ- e, and when we reflect on his long and g life, on his chequered and absorbing as courtier and patriarch, polemic and exile, and preacher, we cannot surely with- admiration of his industry and erudi- [J.E.] HATACES, a king of Parthia, succeeded Phrahates IV., and killed in the year 9. HATES I., king of Parthia, succeeded her, Priapatius, 178 B.C., and, dying soon '" his kingdom to his brother, Mithridates. tes II., son of Mithridates I., reigned about b.o. Phrahates III., about 70-58 b.c. tes IV., obtained the crown by killing his Orodes, 37 B.C., and was killed in turn by Phrahataces, a.d. 9. Phrahates V., preceding, was absent at Rome when his usurped the throne, and was invested with Ity by Tiberius. He departed for Syria to his kingdom while Abraham III. reigned and died on his journey 35. " ~~ZA, G., a Greek historian, loth cent. GIO, F. C, a German divine, died 1543. "ICUS, three distinguished Greeks : t, an Athenian writer of tragedy, con- with jEschylus, 5th century B.C. The & comic poet of Athens, known B.C. 430. J surnamed Arrhabius, a sophist and of Bithynia, 2d century. IS, a Greek musician, 5th century B.C. ilip N., a French chemist, 1721-1799. TI, D. G., an Ital. antiqu., 1684-1754. an Ottoman admiral, 16th century. JZA, C, an Italian painter, 16th century. PIC PIAZZA, Jer. Bartholomew, an Italian con- vert to the Church of England, formerly a judge of the inquisition, author of an historical account of the inquisition and its proceedings, d. abt. 1745. PIAZZA, P., an Italian painter, 1547-1621. PIAZZI, J., an Italian astronomer, 1746-1826. PICARD, J., a French astronomer, 1629-1682. PICARD, L. B., a Fr. dramatist, 1769-1828. PICARD, M., a German savant, 1574-1620. PICART, Stephen, a French engraver, 1631- 1721. His son, Bernard, a designer and en- graver, author of 'Illustrations of the Religious Ceremonies of all Nations,' 1663-1733. PICCADONI, J. B., snperior-general of the order of Minors, a theologian and philoso., 1766-1829. PICCART, M., a Germ, philologist, 1574-1620. PICCINI, Nicolai, was bom at Bari in Naples in 1728. This composer has been regarded as the most fertile and original that the school of Naples ever produced. Like many other musicians, he was first meant to be brought up to the church, but the ruling passion frustrated all parental intentions. He studied in the conservatory of San Onofrio under Leo and Durante. In 1758 he was invited to Rome, where he brought out several operas. In Dec. 1776, he arrived at Paris, where he, in the course of a year afterwards, found himself opposed to Gluck, who about this time effected a revolution in French music. For some time the musical feuds of the admirers of the Italian and the German kept Paris in a ferment. Gluck was, however, at the termination of the war, pronounced victor. At the breaking out of the French Revolution, he returned to Naples, but the ministry there having forbid- den him to appear in public, he remained almost a close prisoner m his own apartments. In 1799 he returned to Paris, when the Emperor Napoleon appointed him inspector in the National Conser- vatory of Music, which situation he held till the time of his death, which took place in 1801. [J.M.] PICCINI, Joseph, eldest son of the preceding", known as a dramatic writer, 1758-1826. PICCOLOMINI. See Pius II. PICCOLOMINI, Cardinal, the name by which James Ammanati is best known, a famous name in the history of Italy, 1422-1479. PICCOLOMINI, Alessakdro, archbishop ot Patras and coadjutor of Sienna, known as a philo- logist, 1508-1578. Francesco, a relation of the preceding, known as a learned writer, 1520-1604. PICCOLOMINI, Alphonso, duke de Monte- mariano, an Italian adventurer who ravaged the states of the church, and was hung 1591. PICCOLOMINI, Octavia, an Austrian general of the same family as the preceding, 1599-1656. PICHAT, M., a French dramatist, 1786-1828. PICHEGRU, Charles, was born in 1761, of Barents in a humble rank of life, in Franche Comle. [e was educated for the army at the Military College of Brienne, where he was monitor to Na- poleon Buonaparte. The Revolution found him in the rank of adjutant ; and he rose rapidly during the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. At the end of that year he obtained the chief command of the army of the Rhine, which was then disorganized by a series of reverses. Pichegru restored discipline and spirit ; gained the victory of Haguenau, Dec. 23, 1793, and drove the allies before him into the, Dutch territory. The severity of that winter made 59J pic the passage of the frozen rivers practicable, and in January, 1794, Pichegru invaded and conquered Holland. He captured not only towns and for- tresses, but also some of the Dutch fleet, which was frozen up in the Texel. Pichegru sent his cavalry over the ice; and the strange spectacle was E resented of ships being attacked and taken by orse soldiers. Pichegru was favourable to the restoration of the Bourbons, and entered into a secret negotiation with their emissaries for this pur- pose. The French Directory suspected him, and recalled him from his command. He took part in the unsuccessful attempts at reaction in Paris in 1797, and was exiled to Guiana. He escaped thence to England, where he was well received. In 1804 he came secretly to Paris with other royalists; but he was arrested by Buonaparte's police and thrown into prison. He was found dead, in his bed there, on the morning of the 6th April, 1805. The Imperialists said that he had committed sui- cide ; the Royalists, that he had been murdered. There may be too much cause to suspect that Pichegru came foully by his death ; but we be- lieve Napoleon's assertion at St. Helena, that he, at least, was personally free from guilt in the mat- ter. [E.S.C.] PICHLER, Caroline, one of the most prolific novelists and dramatic wrs. of Germany, 1769-1843. PICHLER, G., a Germ, theologian, died 1736. PICHON, J., a French missionary 1683-1751. PICHON, T., a French writer, 1700-1781. PICHON, T. J., a Fr. theologian, 1731-1812. PICKEN, Andrew, a Scottish novelist and miscellaneous wr., born at Paisley 1788, died 1833. PICPAPE, N. J. P. De, a Fr. Jesuit, 1731-93. PICTET, Benedict, professor of theology at Geneva, author of a History of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, 1655-1724. His relation, John Louis, an astronomer, 1739-1781. PICTET, Mark Augustus, a naturalist and philosopher, president of the Society for the Ad- vancement of the Arts, at Geneva, 1752-1825. His brother, Charles Pictet De Rochemont, a political negotiator, agriculturist, and miscellane- ous writer, 1755-1824. PICTON, Sir Thomas, a gallant officer, de- scended from an old family of Pembrokeshire, entered the army as ensign in 1771, and, after serving in the West Indies, rose to the rank of colonel, and became governor of Trinidad in 1797. His next services were at the capture of Flushing, of which also he was appointed governor in 1809. He afterwards distinguished himself in the Penin- sular war, at Badajoz, Vittoria, Ciudad Rodrigo, and other great actions. Killed at Waterloo 1815. PICUS, Mirandulus. See Mirandola. PIDOUX, J., physician of Henry III., d. 1610. PIERCE, Edward, a famous painter of altar- pieces, ceilings, and architecture, died about 1715. PIERQUIN, J., a French priest, died 1742. PIERRE, Cornelius De Lapide, a learned Jesuit, au. of commentaries on the Bible, d. 1637. PIERRE, J. B., a French painter, 1714-1789. PIERRES, P. D., a French printer, 1741-1808. PIKRSON, C, a Dutch painter, 1631-1714. PIERSON, J., a philologist, 1731-1759. PIETERS, B., a Flemish marine painter, 1614- 1652. John, his brother, same profes., b. 1625. PIETERS, G., a Dutch painter, born 1580. PIN PIETRE, S., a French pbvsician, died 1616.1 PIETRI, P. Da., an Italian painter. 1 i PIETRO, M. Di, an Ital. cardinal, 1747-185; PIGALLE, J. B., an Italian sculptor, 1714-1 PIGANIOL-DE-LA-FORCE, J. AimarI French literateur and geographer, 1675-1753. I PIGAULT-LEBRUN, G. C. Antoine, a fl tile novelist and dramatic writer, 1753-1835.^1 PIGHIUS, Albert, a Dutch mathematicfi and Roman Catholic controversialist, ho 1490, died 1542. His nephew, Stephen VisAit a learned antiquarian, 1520-1604. PIGNA, Giameattista, a learned Italiafll torian of the house of Este, 1529-1575. PIGNATELLI, F., a Neapolitan statesujflB 1732, capt.-general of the Two Sicilies 1 ; general of the kingdom of Naples 1806, diedlSM PIGNONE, S., an Italian painter, 1612-l^B PIGNOPJA, L., an Ital. antiquary, 1571^B PIGNOTTI, Lorenzo, professor of .nil philosophy at Pisa, distinguished as an his^Hj and the most celebr. of Ital. fabulists, 173^^H PIGRAY, Peter, a French surgeon, died^H PILATUS, Leontius, a monk of Calabria, im> at the revival of letters in Europe, 14th centunl PILES, Roger De, a Fr. art-writer, 16^^H PILKINGTON, James, a learned Engl late, created bishop of Durham by Elizabeth, ttt the Marian persecution, 1520-1575. PILKINGTON, Letitia, a lady of Dutch : traction, born in Dublin 1712, and married to \; Rev. Samuel Pilkington. She wrote several JJ some poems, and her own ' Memoirs.' She d separated from her husband in consequ^^H irregular conduct, and was supported sometime' contributions obtained for her through the inteil :. ot'Cibber. Died 1750. PILLET, C. M., a Fr. biographer, died 1826| PILON, F., an Irish actor, 1750-1788. PILON, G., a French sculptor, died 159<8l PILPAY, an Indian fabulist, Bramin, and coi cillor of state to one of the rajahs, said to h j lived 2,000 years B.C. His fables were translaj into French by Galland in 1704, and by the A Dubois in 1826. PIMENOFF, a Russian sculptor, died 1833. PINA, Ruy De, a Portug. historian, died 15 PINART, M., a' French Orientalist, 16 PINAS, J., a Dutch painter, 1597-1660. PINDAR, the greatest of the Greek lyric po<| : was born, according to the best authorities, Cynocephala?, a village of Boeotia, betwi and Thespia, B.C. 518, and died b.c. 439, f completing his eightieth year. As is the case* most of the celebrated authors of anti few particulars respecting his life have i nutted to us, and even these arc derived I ancient biographies of uncertain authority value. According to one of these, he v of Daiphantus and Cleidice, and was b the time of the celebration of the Pyt (August or September), the latter fact being rived from one of his own fragments. He se to have been twice married, and to have had son and two daughters. His family, whirl descent from Cadmus., ranked among ' in Thebes, and enjoyed a hereditar skill in music, especially for fiute-pIayM^^B fession which, at that time, was held in h 592 PIN ion in the Boeotian capital. The youthful poet, whom the family talent had descended, at first jlied himself to that branch of poetry which s best adapted to the accompaniment of the ie ; and his father, who had observed in him the ications of poetical genius, sent him to Athens, ere, under the tuition of Lasus of Hermione, founder of the Athenian school of dithyram- poetry, he received that instruction in the art ch was necessary to enable him to attain dis- ition. While at Athens, he likewise availed self of the instructions of Agathocles and Apol- rus. Returning to Thebes in his twentieth , he further profited by the instructions and ce of Myrtis and Corinna of Tanagra, two esses who at that time enjoyed great celebrity 'hebes, and with both of whom he afterwards ended unsuccessfully for the musical prize, ar commenced his career as a composer of al odes at the early age of twenty, and his re- tion soon extended to all parts of the Hellenic i The productions of his muse were eagerly ted by different states and princes to com- orate remarkable events; the tyrants and lymen of Greece paid homage to his superior ; and the free states vied with each other in ing him as the great lyric poet of his age. , iEgina, and Opus conferred upon him the of electing him a public guest ; the inhabi- of Ceos employed him to compose for them a isional song, to the exclusion or two celebrated of their own ; and by the order of the priestess ' hi, he received a portion of the banquet of xenia. Pindar manifests in his works a religious feeling, and entertaining a pro- reverence for the gods, rejects those forms of ient legends which ascribes to them the and immorality of mortals. He dedicated to the Great Mother near his own house ; and erected statues to Jupiter- Ammon, ;ury in the market-place. Extraordinary were paid to him after his death. The s erected to him a statue of brass, repre- him with a diadem and a lyre, and a book on his knees; while the Lacedaemonians, they took Thebes, spared his house and and the same mark of veneration was shown to his memory by Alexander, small portion of his works have come down ie, and these, with a single exception, all to one class, the Epinician or triumphal celebrating respectively the victories in the four national games of Greece, the , Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Be- ne wrote dithyrambs, hymns to the s, dirges, drinking songs, mimic dancing gs of maidens, and panegyrics on princes, which we possess numerous fragments, late of Pindar as a poet must be formed Epinician odes alone, though it is evident testimony of the ancient writers, and par- of Horace, that he was equally celebrated departments of poetry. The subjects selected for his muse do not appear, at to be well fitted for sublime poetry; ius of the poet, summoning to its aid d mythology of the oldest times, and exploits of the heroes and demigods, object of his panegyric with a fascina- PIN tion which seems really genuine. ' He is chiefly remarkable for the gigantic boldness of his con- ceptions and the daring sublimity of his metaphors, which stamp him the Jlschylus of lyric poetry. The flights of his imagination are not, however, like those of the great tragedian, mingled with the in- tensity of human passion, which, while they carry us beyond ourselves, still come home to the heart. He has the light without the heat, his splendours dazzle, but do not warm us. There is little of human feeling in his works.' [G.F.] P1NDEMONTE, Ippolito, Count, an Italian poet, biographer, and miscellan. wr., 1753-1828. PINE, John, a highly talented English en- graver, appointed Blue Mantle in Heralds College, andengraver of the royal signets, 1690-1756. His son, Robert Edge Pine, a portrait and histori- cal painter, died 1790. PINEAU, G. Du, a French lawyer, 1573-1644. PINEAU, S., a French surgeon, 1550-1619. PINEDA, J. De, a Sp. theologian, 1557-1637. PINEL, Le P., a French priest of the oratory, known as a controversial writer, and for his vision- ary enthusiasm, died before 1777. PINEL, Philip, a celebrated physician of Paris, distinguished for his treatment of the insane, and his valuable works on the subject, 1742-1826. PINELLI, Gianvincenzo, a great collector of books and manuscripts, and patron of literature, born at Naples, of Genoese descent, 1535; died 1601. _ Maffeo, sometimes confounded with the preceding, also a learned bibliopole, and friend of Morelli, flourished at Venice, 1736-1785. PINELO, Antonio De Leon, a laborious writer on Spanish America, born in Peru 17th ct. PINET, Antohny Du, lord of Noroy, a mis- cell, writer and defender of protestantism', 16th ct. PINGERON, J. C, a French writer, died 1795. PINGRE, A. G., a Fr. astronomer, 1711-1796. PINI, E., an Italian naturalist, died 1825. PINKERTON, John, a native of Edinburgh, dist. as a poet, antiquarian, and geogr., 1758-1826. PINKNEY, William, an eloquent lawyer and statesman of America, distinguished as a political negotiator for the state of Maryland, and as a member of the senate, 1765-1822. His son, Ed- ward Coate, a naval officer, known to litera- ture as a poet, 1802-1828. PINSON, , a French surgeon, famous as a modeller of anatomical subjects in wax, 1745-1828. PINSON, or PYNSON, Richard, an early English printer, who was originally servant to Caxton, and introduced the Roman letter into this country, died about 1530. PINSSON, F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1612-1691. PINTO, F. M., a Portuguese traveller, 16th ct, PINTO, H., a Portuguese divine, died 1584. PINTO, Isaac, a Portug. economist, died 1787. PINTURRICHIO, Bernardino, a famous Ita- lian painter, scholar of Perugius, and associate in the labours of Raphael, 1454-1513. PINZI; J. A., an Ital. numismatist, 1713-1769. PINZON, Alonzo, Vincent Yanez, and Martin, three brothers, Spaniards, who had commands in Columbus' first voyage, and by whose exertions mainly it was that a sufficient number of men were induced to risk their lives on the perilous enterprise. Vincent Yanez was the most distinguished of the brothers ; he made 593 2Q PIO several voyages, on the most important of which he sailed in December 1499, and discovered Brazil, and the river Amazon, three months hefore Cabral took possession of South America for the crown of Portugal. [J.B.] PIOMBO. See Sebastiano. PIOZZI, Esther Lynch, a distinguished name in the literary circle of Dr. Johnson, was the daughter of John Salusbury, Esq., of Bodvel in Carnarvonshire, where she was born 1739. In 1763 she married Mr. Thrale, a brewer, and mem- ber of parliament for Southwark, and this gentle- man having made the acquaintance of Dr. John- son, the latter became a constant visitor at their house, at Streatham, in Surrey. In 1784 Mrs. Thrale, after a three years' widowhood, married Gabriel Piozzi, an Italian music-master, with whom she went abroad ; this match cost her the friendship of the great moralist, who had been greatly opposed to it. In 1786 she published 'Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson during the Last Twenty Years of his Life,' and in 1788 her corres- pondence with him. Her other literary produc- tions consist of poems and fugitive pieces or a mis- cellaneous description ; the chief of them is her poetical story, entitled 'The Three Warnings.' She returned to England after the death of Piozzi, and died at Clifton, near Bristol, 1821. PIPELET, F., a French surgeon, 1722-1792. PIPER, Charles, Count, councillor of state, and minister to Chas. XII. of Sweden, 1646-1716. PIPER, Francis Le, an English painter, of Walloon descent, died about 1740. PIPPI. See Romano. PIPPING, H., a Germ, theologian, 1670-1722. PIRANESI, Giambattista, Cavaliere, was born at Rome in 1707 ; he studied some time in Venice as an architect, but settled in Rome, and henceforth devoted himself to archaeology, and etching the various ruins and monuments of Rome, in which he was assisted by his son, the Cav. Francesco Piranesi ; and together they have produced the most extraordinary and interesting work, as a whole, that we possess on the magnifi- cence of the ancient Romans. Yet it must always be borne in mind that the archaeological was secondary to the artistic element in their admirable etchings, and much is supplied by enthusiasm and imagination, as well as what has been afforded by the actual monument; but the existing ruins as they were, are powerfully and faithfully given, and even the ornamental fragments have their pictorial truth, if not their exact proportions or details. The elder Piranesi died at Rome in 1778 ; the son at Paris in 1810, he was born at Rome in 1750. The son completed what the father commenced : the early editions are the most valued ; a complete collection is very rare, as all the monuments or series were published separately, and was worth, before the publication of the new Paris reprint, be- tween three and four hundred pounds. The new edition in 29 volumes, atlas folio, published at Paris, 1835-37, is worth about 70; it contains plates by some other artists besides the Piranesi, and some modern as well as ancient monu- ments. [R.N.W.] PIRES, Thomas, a Portuguese ambassador to rhina, the first European who ever went there in that capacity ; the date of his mission ^517. PIS PIRINGER, B., a Germ, engraver, 177G-182J PIRON, Aime, a French apothecary, dillfl as a poet, 1640-1727. His son, Alexis, a pol dramatic author, and man of wit, 1689-1773. I PIROT, E., a French theologian, 1631-1713.'] PIRRO, R., a Sicilian historian, 1577-1651. I PISAN, C. De, an Italian poetess, died 14M PISANI, N., a Venetian admiral, distinguisll in the third war between the Venetians ; Genoese, from 1350 to 1354, when he was tal captive with all his fleet by Paganino Doria. He* released at the conclusion of peace 1355, and d in obscurity. Victor, son or nephew of the p ceding, obtained a victory over the Genoese Antium in 1378, and was beaten by Lucien Do 1379. After three months' imprisonment at Ver he was restored to his command, and captu whole Genoese fleet at Chioggia. Died 13 PISANO, the surname of several distil artists of Pisa, very important in the ea of art in Italy. Giunta Pisano, or Gil. Giustino of Pisa, is the earliest known painter, and a crucifixion painted by him church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, at Assisi, i the year 1236, is still preserved ; it is a ' in impasto and absolutely great as a wor compared with anything we know of period in Italy. Giunta was anterior to This shows how little reliance is to be local and partial histories, especially whe duals are made heroes of. This picture, a fac-simile has been published by the D painter, Ramboux, in his ' Outlines from ' illustrating the Old Christian Art in Italy,' that so far from Cimabue being the father d^H painting, he was scarcely equal to Giunta, ^^M inferior in style of drawing. If an individ^H have the credit of reviving painting in Itah^H belong to Giunta Pisano, for anything we I^H yet, to the contrary; he is said to have won with the Greeks about 1210. There was BON ously an influx of Greek artists into Italy, after! Venetian capture of Constantinople in 1204, ! we know of no Greek works equal to this <. by Giunta. There are several other works of preserved, and the progress of the art was evide very slow, even down to the time of Masaccio, : j withstanding the great impulse given to it by ^ works of Giotto. Giunta was not notici sari. Niccola Pisano was equally distn^H as sculptor and architect, and must hold I^H rank in the former art that Giunta does in He distinguished himself as early as VI- logua, were he executed the celebrated tai^H Domenico. Niccola was also a great archr' he executed the church of the Fran at V was the pioneer of the Renaissance in sculpture and in architecture. He died ia 1] Giovanni Pisano, the son and ass: cola, and likewise one of the greatest oi sculptors and architects of Italy, died at Pi 1320, and was placed in the same tomb with father in the Campo Santo. Andrea was another early artist of Pisa, but net; tury later than Giunta ; he was a scOv^H architect, and the friend of Giotto, a senior. Andrea was born about 12fi works still extant by Andrea ' the bronze | of the Baptistery of St. John (see Gum' 594 PIS le most important. These two gates are still per- jct ; the exact date of their execution is disputed, hether they were finished in 1330, or only com- lenced in that year. The reliefs are from the life : John the Baptist, and the general design of the ite is said to have been made by Giotto ; but iotto's share, if any, must have been more that of architect than the sculptor, though even defin- w the panels and indicating the subjects ; he can arcely have had more to do with the design than is, or his name would have been more intimately sociated with them. The work appears to have a modelled by Andrea and his son Nino, and castings commenced by some Venetian artists 1330, and the complete gates to have been ished and gilded in 1339, with the exception of decorations of the architrave, which were led many years afterwards by Vittorio, the son Lorenzo Ghiberti, in order to make them har- with the other two sets of gates executed his father. The gates of Andrea were originally the centre of the Baptistery, opposite to the hedral, but were afterwards removed to the side, jive place to the more beautiful work of Ghiberti, the year 1424. Andrea was made citizen of rence, and died there in 1345 ; he was buried ;he cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore. All three of gates have been well engraved in outline by *o, Le tre Porte dot Battisterio di Firenze. ce, 1823. (Vasari, Vite de Pittori, &c. Flor., 1846, seq. ; Cicognara, Storia delta Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen ; i, Storia delta Pittura Italiana.) [R.N.W.j ISANSKI, G. C, a Ger. philologist, 1725-90. SISTRATUS, a citizen of Athens who raised to the sovereign authority in the time of to whom he was related, B.C. 560. Com- to retire from the city by the conspiracy of and Lycurgus, he returned soon after by a compromise, but was obliged to retire and suiFer an exile of eleven years, which nt in making preparations to recover his ty. In the eleventh year he reappeared at of an army and regained his power, which ed till his death, B.C. 527. He was a nt ruler, and did much to promote the rise literature. We owe to him the poems of their present form, Pisistratus having col- them, as they were scattered in detached parts " iout Greece, and digested them into order. AREF, A., a Russian poet, 1801-1828. ELEU, Anne De. See Estampes. ORIUS, John, a Ger. controversialist, son theran divine of the same name, 1546-1608. AIRNE, Archibald, an eminent phy- born and educated at Edinburgh, and even- settled there after holding a professorship 3 i. ,He founded his medical system upon ledge of mathematics, and wrote several works in support of it. Among his more writings may be mentioned a vindication claims of Harvey, 1652-1713. OIS, C., a French writer, died 1676. HON, Peter, a French magistrate, pro- y learned as a jurisconsult and philologist, le first to publish the laws of the Visigoths. represented by De Thou as one of the first , as well for probity, candour, and iety, as lor the extent of his learning, the PIT soundness of his judgment, and his political wis- dom ; born at Troyes 1539, died 1596. His brother, Francis, also a jurisconsult, 1543-1621. PITISCUS, Bartholomew, a German mathe- matician and astronomer, 1561-1613. His nephew, Samuel, a learned philologist, 1637-1717. PITOT, Henry, a French mathematician, tac- tician, and engineer, especially of canals, 1695-1771. PITROU, R., a French engineer, 1684-1750. PITS, John, a native of Southampton, who went to France, and becoming a catholic was pro- tected by the cardinal of Lorraine, known as a theologian and biographer, died 1616. PITT, Christopher, an English clergyman, author of miscellaneous poems, and a translation of Virgil, Vida's Art of Poetry, &c, 1699-1748. PITT, Thomas, the founder of the family of the great earl of Chatham, was born in Dorset- shire 1653, and towards the end of the century be- came governor of Fort St. George, in the East Indies. He made a large fortune, chiefly owing to his possession of a diamond, by which he cleared considerably more than 100,000. In 1716 he was appointed governor of Jamaica. He sat in four parliaments for Old Sarum and Thirsk, and died 1726. His eldest son, Robert Pitt, father of William, earl of Chatham, d. 1727. See Chatham. PITT, William, the second son of the great Lord Chatham, was born at Hayes in Kent, on the 28th of May, in the year 1759. He was edu- cated at home under private tuition until at the age of fourteen he entered at Cambridge. His biogra- phers are profuse in their testimonies to his preco- cious capacity and readiness in acquiring know- ledge. He was indeed saturated with tuition of all kinds, and taught from his earliest youth by his haughty father to consider himself the hope of the country. He thus acquired at the age when young men are just ridding themselves of boyish shyness an austere self-possession, which im- parted to everything he did an air of wisdom and authority. He never knew the nature of diffi- dence, and the easy assurance with which he took whatever duty or office presented itself, is sup- posed, not without good reason, to have deceived the world as to the extent of his capacity. In January, 1781, he was returned to parliament for Appleby, and at once threw himself into the busi- ness of the session with the confidence of an old debater. He boldly adopted the projects of reform, then rising into shape in Britain side by side with the discontents in France, and in 1782 brought on his motion for a reform in the representation of the people. On the accession of Lord Shelburne's admin- istration in July, he was made chancellor of the ex- chequer, and this invitation to retire from the party who were deemed Utopian theorists, showed that a well-founded reliance was placed in his ambition, overcoming his reforming propensities. It was in the December of 1783 that King George dismissed the coalition ministry, and placing young Pitt at the head of the cabinet, conducted with his able championship that battle in which the crown de- feated the political aristocracy. Among the states- men of the day, Dundas, afterwards his right hand man, had the sagacity to see beforehand that he would be victorious, and to sacrifice other pros- pects for a participation in his fortune. Once established in power, he ruled through seventeen 595 PIT PIU of the most eventful years of European history. ! was born at Cesena 1717, and succeeded Clemetj When his reign began he had not quite abandoned XIV., better known as Ganganelli, loth Februarl his old reforming views, and being well versed in the newly promulgated philosophy of Adam Smith, lie was partial to "the principle of free trade. But the French revolution drove him back from all progressive projects, and the frightened country submitted to a sort of ministerial and parliamen- tary despotism. The great conflict in which the young minister of a constitutional country mea- sured his strength with the young military despot of France, is matter of history familiar to all. That Pitt, although perhaps his powers have been somewhat exaggerated by panegyrists, showed great resources cannot be denied. His readiness in debate and promptness in comprehending busi- ness have seldom been equalled. What chiefly surprises people of the present day in the history of his career, is the vast amount of dissipation, and especially of drinking, with which his great labours were diversified ; but perhaps his frailties have, like his abilities, been exaggerated. It was said of him that he never was truly young, that he never had the freshness, naturalness, and open- ness of youth ; it is certain that he grew old be- fore his time, and he died of a broken and ex- hausted constitution, on the 23d of January, 1806. [J.H.B.] PITTACUS, one of the seven sages of Greece, was a native of Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, where he was born about B.C. 650. He was in- vested with the sovereign power by the people of Athens, and voluntarily abdicated after re-establish- ing the authority of the laws. Died abt. 570 B.C. PITTEBI, J. M., a Venetian engraver, 1703-87. PITTIS, T., an English divine, died 1687. PITTON, J. S., a Fr. historian, about 1620-90. PITTONI, J. B., a Venet. painter, 1687-1767. PITTS, William, an English artist, 1790-1840. PIUS I., pope and saint of Eome, is supposed to have commenced his pontificate, or rather bishoprick, about 152 or 153, and to have died 157. The date of his reign, however, as given by other authorities, is from 127 to 142. He was succeeded by Anicetus. Pius II. (jEneas Sylvius Picco- lomini), born 1405, succeeded Calixtus III. 1458, died 1464. He was a great theologian, diploma- tist, canonist, historian, orator, and, in fact, a pontiff" univerally accomplished. He made great efforts to organize a crusade against the Ottomans. Pius III. (Antonio Todeschini), enjoyed a pontificate of twenty-five days, 1503. Pius IV. (Giov. Angelo Medici, or Medichino, of Milan), succeeded Paul IV. 1559, died 1565. In his reign the council of Trent finished its sittings, which lasted from 1545 to 1563. Pius V. (Mi- chele Ghisleri), born of an obscure family in Piedmont 1504, succeeded the preceding 1566, he died 1572. In his reign, the bull In Ccena Domini was published, which claims privileges for the clergy irreconcilable with the civil authority ; he was succeeded by Gregory XIII., and canonized by Clement XL in 1713. Pius VI. and Pius VII. (following articles.) Pius VIII. (Francesco Xaverio Castiglioni), born near Ancona 1761, buc. Leo XII. 1829, and d. after reigning twenty months 1830. His successor was Gregory XVI. PIUS VI., pope of Rome, by name Giovanni Angelo Braschi, descended from a noble family, 1775. The first five years of his reign wereol cupied with public works and economical projecj among others the draining of the Pontiij marshes, which helped to embarrass his financJ and impoverish the state. In 17H0 his politics troubles commenced by the accession of Joseph I the power of the empress Queen Maria The9| the new emperor being bent on separating til church from the papal jurisdiction. This he dl by suppressing a great number of monasterie s^! bidding any intercourse between the remaindl and Rome, and taking upon himself the nominal of bishops even of those in Italy. The "gitl^H intrigues, and social troubles consequent on th{| proceedings, kept the pope fully occupied till tL French revolution ; and then, the invasion of Italy i i the French occasioned him still greater difficult^. In 1791 Avignon was united to France, the pop pretended to a neutrality which he did not obserw ; heavy contributions were imposed on him, a) Ferrara, Romagna, and the Bolognese, were incci porated with the newly-formed Cisalpine republic the price of peace, in fine, was the revocation of t / papal edicts launched against the Jansenists, ai| the acknowledgment of the civil constitution [ ; the French clergy Some disorders in Rome 1| tween the French and Italians, in course <^^H the French general Duphot was shot, led to tk expedition of Berthier, who arrived in Rome i the 10th of February, 1798, and on the loth pi claimed it a republic. The Vatican was now oj cupied by the French troops, the apartment i which the pope sat plundered before his eyes, a j even the ring stolen from his finger. He was th, taken prisoner., and being carried to France, di| there in August, 1799. PIUS VII., successor of the preceding, by nai ( Gregorio Luigi Barnaba Chiaramontl. a i of noble descent, and a native of Cesena, was be j 1740. He became a cardinal in 1785, and in tl character propitiated the favour of the French the period of his predecessor's humiliation. <j \ the fall of Pius VI. the papacy was taken unc | the protection of the coalesced powers, and jcj about the time of his death the combined trocj of Austria, Russia, and Naples, had succeeded j extinguishing the Roman republic. Cardii Chiaramonti was elected pope, and took I of Pius VII., at Venice, on the 13th of jH 1800 ; at the same time he appointed Cardinal G< j salvi his secretary. The power of the French volution was now grasped by the hands of am^ ter spirit, and instead of destroying the jj^H Napoleon was resolved on moulding it t. poses by whatever force might be necessii; great man knew that a nation could iii>: without a religion, and that the geni French demanded it rather as an instil an internal life. By the concordat of 1801 restored Catholicism in France, and bo VII. to recognize the independence of t church. In 1804 the pope was induced the emperor at Paris, hoping, perhaps, him from his purpose of extending ciples of independence to Germany and 1 this effort Pius VII. had the mortification t< as he still resisted the policy of the eiuj 596 PIV tter, in 1808 and 1809, united all the states of e church to the French empire, and on being communicated, arrested the pope himself, and ally carried him prisoner to Fontainbleau. ;re, on the 25th of January, 1813, the pope ;ned a concordat granting all that Napoleon manded, but retracted again, when the trench >n after were expelled from Germany. He now nporized and awaited the issue of events, and s restored to his capital on the 24th of May, 14, by the coalition of the protestant states, h the house of Austria, against Buonaparte, nsalvi now resumed his functions as papal secre- y, with a people reduced to servitude under aces who were the mere tools of Austria, and a atical conclave at Rome, who governed by a tern of mere terror and corruption and with- the slightest regard for the privileges and pros- ity of the papal subjects. In 1817 Pius VII. >ked the concordat of 1801, and concluded a ' one with the French crown, one effect of ch was the restoration of Avignon. This year, , he commenced the persecution of the secret Jties of patriots, known as the Carbonari, but a little deterred by the revolutions of 1820 and ' in Spain, Naples, aud Piedmont; the patriots e same time being soothed by the friendly "tion of Gonsalvi. Affairs were in this fever- ite when the aged pope died, as the result of ident, on the 20th of August, 1823. His sr was Leo XII. [E.R.] [ATI, G. F., an Italian savant, 1689-1764. Mary, an Eng. dramatist, d. about 1720. [ODATUS, a king of Caria, in Asia Minor, I known as the father of Mausoleus and Arti- whose names are familiar to history. He "led in the 4th century B.C. 1RRO, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, illegitimate son of a Spanish colonel of in- and a peasant girl of Estremadura, He was | at Truxillo about 1571. Neglected by his he was suffered to grow up in ignorance ness. But he had a strong frame and a Ispirit ; and, stirred by the marvellous tales J which Spain was filled about the newly-dis- world beyond the Atlantic, Pizarro left for Hispaniola, and served for many years i perilous and painful expeditions which Balboa, Pedrarias, and others, led into the and to the western coast of the American it. Pizarro was fifty years old before he the means of undertaking his great enter- *ainst the Peruvian empire, the wealth and rar of which had long been rumoured among lish settlements on the isthmus of Darien, liich no European had previously dared to ;; so formidable were the reports of its power, " terrific were the hardships of the voyage " march, which were to be overcome before tier of Peru could be reached. Pizarro's ite in his enterprise was Diego Almagro, of fortune like himself. The first attempt Peru was made in 1524, but produced beyond the discovery of some islands and the coast of the Pacific, though the suf- " the adventurers were extreme. Pizarro in for Panama in 1526 ; and succeeded ring part of the Peruvian territory, and the wealthy city of Tumbez. Nothing PIZ but the most heroic constancy on the part of Pizarro could have overcome the toils and suffer- ings which he and his little band experienced. On one occasion he and a few followers were detained for several months on an almost barren island. Worn down with famine, cold, and disease, many of the Spaniards wished to abandon the disastrous enterprise and return to Panama. Pizarro as- sembled them, and traced with his sword a line on the sand from east to west ; then turning towards the south, he said, ' Comrades, on that side are toil, hunger, nakedness, the drenching storm, battle, and death. On this side are ease and safety; but on that side lies Peru with its wealth ; on this side is Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian. For my part, I go to the south.' Saying this, Pizarro stepped across the fine, and thirteen of his band followed. At the head of this scanty but deter- mined remnant, Pizarro persevered ; and the arri- val of succour soon enabled him to leave the scene of suffering and trial, and to gain ocular proof of the value of the great prize which he aimed at. In 1528, Pizarro sailed to Spain, and there sought and obtained from Charles V. ample authority and rank for conducting the conquest of the great South American empire, the existence and results of which he was now able to demonstrate. But it was left to the adventurers themselves to provide the means of conquest ; and when Pizarro, in Janu- ary, 1531, sailed from Panama, on his third and last expedition, he had only 180 men under his command, 27 of whom had horses. Some rein- forcements reached him after he had landed on the coast near Peru ; but the whole force, with which he ultimately advanced into the heart of that em- pire, did not exceed 110 foot soldiers, 67 cavalry, and two small pieces of artillery called falconets. With this force (aided, however, largely by fraud) Pizarro overthrew the dominion of the Peruvian Incas, which extended over 35 degrees of latitude, over many millions of an orderly, industrious, civilized, and wealthy population, and which was supported by large armies of well disci- plined and veteran soldiers. Pizarro, after a march of great difficulty across the mountain chain of the Andes, reached the city of Caxamalca, near which the Peruvian Inca, or sovereign, Atahualpa, was encamped with numerous forces. Pizarro per- suaded Atahualpa to visit the Spanish camp, and then suddenly attacked the Peruvians who attended their monarch, and after a frightful massacre suc- ceeded in making the Inca his prisoner. The sub- mission of part of the empire was now easily effected, as the Peruvians obeyed implicitly the commands which their captive monarch issued at the Spaniards' dictation. After immense quantities of gold had been extorted from the natives as a ransom for their sovereign, Pizarro brought him to trial under a charge of exciting insurrection against the Spaniards, and put him to death. Pizarro then set up another member of the Peruvian family as Inca, and inarched upon Cuzco, the capital of the empire. The Spaniards now encountered fre- quent and obstinate resistance from the natives ; but the terror of the European fire-arms, and of the cavalry, told strongly in favour of the invaders ; though consummate generalship and indomitable bravery were also required. Pizarro's skill was 597 PIZ ever ready in each emergency, and liis courage was a quality in which the Spanish soldier was never deficient. Unhappily, he was equally signa- lized by insatiable avarice, remorseless cruelty, and habits of brutal license and outrage. Cuzco was taken by the Spaniards; and a desperate attempt, which the Indians made a few years after- wards to recapture it, was ultimately repulsed, though not till after the European power in Peru had been brought to the very brink of destruction. Feuds and civil war soon broke out among the conquerors : and Almagro, Pizarro's old comrade, was put to death, after being defeated in a pitched battle which he and his partizans fought against Pizarro's adherents. Pizarro, who now bore the title of marquess, ruled Peru for some time with almost royal power. He had founded the city of Lima as the new capital of Peru, and he devoted himself to its adornment, to planting European settlements in various parts of the provinces, to sending out expeditions of discovery beyond the frontier, and to working the mines, with which the conquered regions abounded. The lot of the na- tives under him was miserable; and though he lavished wealth and land on his own favourite fol- lowers, he treated the other Spaniards, especially those who had followed Almagro, with harshness and contempt. A conspiracy was at last formed against him by some of the surviving friends of that chief. They suddenly attacked Pizarro in his palace on the 26th June, 1541, and killed him after a des- perate resistance. [E.S.C/j PIZZI, J., an Italian writer, 1719-1790. PLAAT, Andr. H. J. Vander, a famous Dutch engineer and hydraulic mechanician, 1761-1819. PLACE, Ol. De La, a French priest, 17th ct. PLACE, Francis, a native of Durham, dist. for his etchings of landscapes, &c, died 1728. PLACE, Francis, well known as a politician, was born in humble circumstances 1772, and began his public career as secretary to the Constitutional Association, which numbered Hardy and Home Tooke among its members. He afterwards partici- pated in the" agitation for every great measure of reform, and especially in that for the abolition of the corn laws. He was also a great promoter of inventions and the industrial arts. Died 1854. PLACE, J. De La, a Fr. protestant, 1596-1665. PLACE, Peter De La, in Latin Platianus, or Plutea, a French jurisconsult, historian, and ma- gistrate, born about 1520, killed at the massacre of St. Bartholomew 1572. PLACE, P. A. De La, a French novelist and dra- matic writ., once editor of the Mercury, 1707-93. PLACENTINUS, or PLACENTIUS, Peter, author of a Latin poem, entitled ' Pugna Porco- rum,' in 360 verses, every word of which begins with a P, died about 1548. PLACETTE, J. De La, a Fr.protes., 1639-1718. PLACIDIA, daughter of Theodosius the Great, born at Constantinople about 388, became, in second nuptials, the wife of Constantius, a general of Honorius. Her son by him became emperor of the West under the title of Valentinian III., but the government was really administered by the empress-mother Placidia. Died at Rome 450. PLANCHE, R. De La, a Fr. historian, 16th ct. PLANCHER, Urbain, a learned Benedictine of St. Maur, au. of a history of Burgundy, d. 1750. PLA PLANCIUS, P., a Flem. protestant, 1552-162 PLANCUS, Lucius, a Roman tribune ai consul, supposed founder of Lvons, died about 1 PLANCY, W., a French Hellenist, died 1568, PLANER, J. J., a German botanist, 1745-178 PLANK, T. J., a German historian, 1751-183 PLANQUE, F., a French phvsician, 1696-176 PLANT, J. T., a German writer, 1758-1794. PLANTA, Joseph, minister of the German R formed church in London, librarian of the Briti; Museum, and historian of the Helvetic Coni deracy, 1744-1827. PLARTIN, C, a French printer, 1514-1589. PLATEN, D. F. De, a Pruss. general, 1714-S PLATER, F., a physician of Basle, 1536-161 PLATIERE, Imbert De La, a French geueR known as the marshal de Bourdillon, died 1567, PLATINA, the commonly received name of Ba tolomeo De Sacchi, an Ital. historian, 1421-i PLATNER, John Zachary, an eminent em gical writer and professor at Leipzig, 1694-174 His son, Ernest, a physician, moralist, and physician, 1744-1818. [Plato From an Ancient Gem.] PLATO, born at Athens or Egina about i\ B.C.; died in his eightieth year. There is no otb name in Speculative Philosophy like Plato's. 1 stands to the whole world of Thought, as Sh spere in Modern Times; not unapproachab neither unapproached, but possessing an unchii lengeable and scarcely explicable supremacy. _ | is very wonderful the catholic power and insig of this illustrious man, the entireness of his kno' ledge and sympathy, and of course the reach j his intuitions. M. Cousin has recently claim j him as an Eclectic; falsely, if by the epithet, would indicate a philosopher who select roaming through all by-gone speculal found a piece here and a piece there, fused them cunningly, so that neither solitary Thinker might feel that he or it b no part in him: but, with truth in the higluj degree, if he desired to claim for the mind j Plato a range so vast, a power to adventure deep and soar so high, that, what all sci. existent, and that have flourished since. partially, he saw completely, and so coi off their contentions, and adjust their c deuces into one grand Orb. The first ai PLA leral view we can take of him, tends directly tc~ rds such an estimate. Greece and the preced- and subsequent World as well was divided be- jen two opposing inclinations, that evolved two tile camps; the one searching after Unity le, the other finding in Phenomena the secret Things. Plato, grasped both, with all the or his powerful and perfectly balanced 1: he comprehended both sides of the medal of e. Athirst, at every moment of his life, and svery movement of his mind, for intercourse that Absolute Good, which is the Universal giver, and for whose sake all things are, he yet sympathy as thorough, with every discur- tendency of the Intellect, rejoicing in its dties and distinctions, loving Art and Politics, Human Interests and Laws, no less than the i mundane philosopher of them all. Turn phase of the Mind of Plato towards Modern >pe, there is no feature of our ever shifting lognomy not an event amid the buzz, and ling around us on which he would not have some welcome light: carry him to Egypt e land of Menu there too, he would have felt ye, only aloft, because nearer the centre of real Life, than those already absorbed, emo- Eremites. Notice his Theodicee. On the one Matter, the slave of Necessity, and itself Order; on the other, God, Intelligence, Freedom, transforming and organizing for this rude Substance incited by his Eternal the Idea of Good labouring ever more through multiplying forms into clearer rer expression : hence that march ever on- hence, also, the possibility of Wisdom and hy. From the extreme beginnings of ;, what School wbich has ascended among ysteries, ever elaborated a fairer Synthesis? not merely the profoundity, but this very sness of Plato, which renders the due com- ion of him, arduous. A System, one can at ie survey: but a noble and a full grown in variety as well as reach, a type of the ihensible Universe: didactic Thinkers, great as Aristotle, may by dint of ear- be gone round and round ; "but what for- adequate for a Shakspere, or a Goethe? Genius, instinct with Poetry as with Know- with which Science is not higher than Art, L * h permits no single Faculty to be exclu- be defined only by its unexhausted In- over the unfolding of the World, and there- ongs essentially to the category of the In- ible. Nevertheless the student must be ly warned against those ordinary com- of ordinary interpreters of Plato. No man more clearly The Truths he utters, are to realize ; but the Expression is trans- a mountain brook: no marvel though been held in this country obscure, see- a similar charge is laid, and moder- oved, against a writer of a much more order, but in distinctness and precision not to old Euclid himself, Immanuel Kant! too, that Plato is a Mystic, and veils, or Truth, through the excesses of his Plato is as real as his immortal is not a Mystic, unless Socrates was nomination, he has to overflowing. Beauty PLA hovers ever over him, and immortal fragrance is shed on the fluttering of her wings. The music of his periods reminds one of the murmuring of the Bees on Hymmetusi But Plato's sense of Beauty, only led him nearer to the Centre and Cause of Existence; and his Imagination unlike fashionable freaks of Fancy was the purest and loftiest phase of the Reason : it helped him to the discernment of pure Truth, because liker than any other Faculty in the Finite Mind, to the Creative Thought which preluded the birth of these my- riads of gorgeous Worlds. In proceeding to give an account of Plato's writings, we desire to acknowledge our obligations to the sketch by Mr. Maurice. Unless, in one or two point.;, at which we may detect the presence of the general Theory of the accomplished Writer, that sketch quite surpasses in its method and sym- pathy every other known to us:* on behalf of Schleiermacher, an exception might in- deed be entered; but we cannot be detained by Ast or Socher. Taught by Socrates, it could in no wise fail, that Plato, snould discern, equally with his Master, that the first step in Philosophy, is to persuade men to ascertain that they know what they talk of that they really comprehend the significance of the propositions on whose be- half they are prepared to contend. No form or vehicle for teaching could so well subserve this purpose as the Dialogue : it was the written re- presentative of the unforgotten way-side interro- gatories of Socrates ; and in the hands of Plato who, as we have said, held Reality as firmly as he held Speculation the Dialogue was no fiction, but an actual ascent, through the obstructions of Individual Character and Virtues, up towards un- seen and manifold Truths, lying as a substratum underneath the most vague and confused Opinion. How superbly, in this respect, each dialogue un- winds ! Never to discourage, far less to counte- nance the faintest element of Doubt, but to awaken the Conscience, and show Mankind that, superior to shadow-land, there is Reality and Light ; for this, and no lesser purpose, Plato followed his immortal Master, and constructed and exem- plified that unrivalled Dialectic. In the first (speaking according to Method, not to Time) class of the Platonic Dialogues, we find accordingly, an earnest effort to establish the cardinal Truth, that even beneath Fantasy there is Substance ; that be- neath whatever end, has been seriously pursued as a true end by Humanity, there is something, which if disentangled from the adventitious, would appear adequate as a purpose to arrest the attention of a healthful mind. While fusing in this way the Cyrenaic, Cynic, and Mec/aric Schools, i.e. divesting them of their speciality and exag- geration, Plato, once and again, demonstrates that the main error betokened by incomplete systems, is not the mere incompleteness of such assertions as ' Pleasure is the Good ' ' Self-denial is the Good ' ' Being is the Good ;' but that it lies in the carelessness, often amounting to moral in- aptitude for all Inquiry, which hinders men from distinguishing between the reality inhering in the proposition they maintain, and its simple acci- dents. And his invariable inference is, that the mental condition adequate to Inquiry, is indeed a high moral attainment; for that he only who 599 PLA PLA governs himself, who has subjected himself to | enumerations ; neither was he arrested lik continuous discipline, and can restrain his lower Nature, will ever be capable of that highest exer- cise of the Faculties which conducts to Truth. It may be asserted with all justice that, which, ages afterwards, Bacon accomplished for Physical In- vestigations, by his masterly exposition of the misleading Idolce, Plato in the course of his Dia- logues has thoroughly accomplished, in a way not less masterly, for the wider and more arduous sphere of Moral and Social Inquiry. Men have long practically acknowledged the authority of the dicta of Bacon : unhappily they are as yet little skilled in the precepts of the more ancient Orga- non. In the second class of the Platonic Dialogues, we are led to a more difficult order of contem- plations ; our Inquirer now passing to the Ante- Socratic Philosophers, and discoursing of Xeno- phanes, Purmenides, Htraclitus. It is singular that extremes almost always meet : Xenophanes and Ileraclitus, or still farther down Prota- goras, no sympathy can bind them, and yet we can trace a closest resemblance. Did not Xeno- phanes simply inculcate, that, of Being however real, Man can know nothing? And Protagoras, holding by the flux of Heraclitus, only went to say, that, immersed amid notions, and subject to temperament and circumstance, each Man is re- duced to frame a Universe for himself. Plato confronted, while, in one sense, accepting both; and during the polemic that ensues, we find gradually coming out into prominent relief, that chief peculiarity of what we may term his Meta- physics, viz.: the Doctrine of Ideas. Most true, with Xenophanes, that Being, or the Par- menidean One, is not representible or expressible, by the floating confused notions which occupy the sensual understanding, nevertheless, is not the existence of these very- notions these efforts, however imperfect, of the Understanding, to ex- press it, proof that there is in Being a reality to be expressed ; nay that attributes belong to it, in so far answering to these notions ? So also with Protagoras; it is verv certain that men practi- cally differ as to the Actions and Forms, entitled to rank under the Categories of Justice, Goodness, and Beauty . but is there not inherent in all men, conviction of the existence of a very Just, a very Good, a very Beautiful, else, whence sprung those imperfect notions, and what upholds them ? Thus far, it is evident that Plato merely asserts the reality of what in modern nomenclature we term Absolute Truths; but thereupon the question arises, what are these, and whence come they ? How does the Mind reach them ? Can knowledge reposing on mere Negations, or on the Contingent, ever take on the character of the Absolute? Many of our Modern Philosophies have remained satisfied with asserting the existence of Absolute Truths, and offering an enumeration of them. Kant, it will be recollected, went farther he found the Origin of the characteristics of Universality and Necessity, in Laws or Conditions of the Thinking Organism : that element of our Judgments, he said, is abso- lute, which irrespective of their subject-matter depends on the mind's own essential structure : absolutism, with him has thus a purely sub- jective origin. The immortal Greek adventured beyond both. Too scientific to remain with mere at the boundary of mere subjective knowk considered that Absolute Truths or Ide duct us towards the mist-enshrouded coast of to logy directly connecting the Finite 1 with the Infinite. The general cast of hi markable conception, is the following. Oi things that exist, there are pure forms or ai types, imperfectly discerned by our senses sensual understanding; but in the cognitio which alone, Knowledge, as distinguished Opinion, consists. This Form, or Archetyj, Idea, is a Thing's very Essence: it is the reality belonging to it. Far from being a n< or conclusion framed by the Mind, it is wholl; dependent of the perceiving mind; and is felt f so, whenever time Knowledge is attained. ! therefore, is not a system-builder; his lol attainment reaches no higher than this, thn endeavour, through discipline, through virtu may see what is. Neither, however, are substantial archetypal Forms, in themselves i pendent. Every Idea depends on some one 8 rior to it, and the root, consummation, and mony of all, is in the Idea of that Supreme Perfect Being, to whom, as Thoughts, thoj long; and in whose proper Eternity alone," can be thought of as Eternal. Assuredly we not to defend this Platonic system here ; scar we fear, have the few words permitted us, av to offer more than a vague hint of it. Le student, however, ponder well, on what R ledge must have meant, as conceived by Pg how lofty the aim of his Dialectic how objects, and how worthy the energies of, perhag most gifted speculative Genius who has impress upon the Earth! Nay, much low< our reader has made himself acquainted, thr History, with its various proposals regarding thorny problem as to Knowledge, let him re on what these have offered, in relation to that % our Human Spirit demands and say whic^H all, has recognized the conditions of that prob or down even to this later day succ satisfying these, better than Plato's? Of I chief class of the Dialogues, we have no say anything adequate. Having establi nature of Knowledge and the way to Plato proceeds to search after Unity sphere of Inquiry in reference to Mc and Nature. Of Plato's Physics as that puzzling and wonderful Timaws, to speak : let us just glance at his me results in social speculation, as set for Republic ; earnestly recommending to 1" reader, the study of the work itself, by recent translation by Messrs. Vaughan of Cambridge. The dialogue opens, dramatically. But as soon as the cha defined, the question is mooted whether . something eternal, or the mere Creature i that is, whether Society has a basis principle of Unity, independent of shiftr What then is Justice in a State f As the first two books, there cannot be two Justice a private Justice and a state the bond which unites man to his fellow, other, is the bond which bestows on every l its proper degree of coherence. In illustra GOO PLA kke up the picture of an actual Society, and critise ^arrangements. Nowhere is Plato less a mere Jjeculator than in this part of the Republic. So Lr from being an Utopian, he starts with the pre- ise that every selfishness exists, and every evil re- lit of it: and his practical question is, under what editions Society may nevertheless cohere ? Would J at the ensuing discussion had been accepted as a Lson, by all Time ! Not concerning himself with uicard or police regulations for the repression of il, Plato inquires, what are the Principles of !He in any possible Society, and how they may st be developed ? And his extensive treatment this momentous subject has caused the Repub- sometimes to be accounted a formal Essay on ucation. Classes are named as essential to all ing Societies the Magistracy representing the a of Wisdom Guardians representing the idea Fortitude and the Masses, subsisting through uperance of desire, self-restraining and sub- mg. Underneath all which, lies the funda- tal conception of Justice, that, by the asser- of whose Supremacy, he preluded the whole, re are parts of this superb dialogue so far ching, that the conflicts and consequent morals Modern Civilization can hardly as yet find ireciation for them. We refer especially what has been termed Plato's Communism his views of the ultimate relation of the ~*j. Concerning Problems, whose practical ition lies in the Future, it is wisest not to pro- b over absolutely: suffice it to refer only indignation to the uses made of his doc- here, to disparage his great name. Again rring to the Dialogue itself, we must close this f notice. The wisdom of Plato has taught and rished the most learned and the greatest of past s: there is no healthier exercise for the earnest now, than the study of his works. Nay there errors all around us errors in practical and Kive Politics, errors in speculative Religion * their roots deep in the imperfect portions lodern Civilization, which can find nowhere corrective. The best edition of the works immortal Greek, is the recent one by [J.P.N.] TO, a Greek poet, 5th century B.C. TOFF, or PLATOW, Count, a famous of the Cossacks, distinguished against the in Moldavia, and during the French inva- of 1812, born about 1763, died 1818. ' "TON, Beffschin, a Russian prelate, and "shed theological writer, 1737-1812. UTUS, Titus Maccius, regarded as the of Latin comedy, is supposed to have been d parentage, and was born in Umbria about 224 b.c. About twenty-one of his plays ' extant, the vast number attributed to him been reduced within that limit by the critic These have been frequently translated Italian, French, German, and English, and " 1 has devoted an essay to the life and writ- Plautus. Died b.c. 184. YFAIR, John, Professor, first of Mathe- and then of Natural Philosophy in the ' x y of Edinburgh; born 10th March, 1749, of Benvie, Forfarshire; died at Edin- th July, 1819. Mr. Plavfair, the son of a clergyman, was destined for the Church; PLA and indeed he occupied the living of Liff and Ben- vie, for a few years after the death of his father in 1773; but his scientific and literary tastes, and the power he could bring to the illustration of whatever scientific subject arrested his attention, quickly embarked him on a different and very dis- tinguished career. His bent towards Science, manifested itself quite early in life ; for, previous to the date just mentioned, he had stood, although a young man, competitor for several Chairs in our Scottish Universities : in his earliest attempt in Marischal College Aberdeen, he was defeated only by the veterans Trail and Hamilton. From the manse of Benvie, he passed, after a short interval of connection with Mr. Ferguson of Raith, to the joint professorship (in company with Dr. Adam Ferguson) of Mathematics in Edinburgh; and from that year 1785 he devoted himself, with remarkable success, to the advancement and adorn- ment of all leading Inquiries concerning the Laws of Nature. Were proof needed of Playfair's un- resting activity in the path of his affections, surely that is ample which the pages of the Edinburgh Review and of the Edinburgh Philosophical Trans- actions, will, to posterity, always afford. But ac- tivity was not his chief characteristic. With the instinct of a Mind placed above the Inquiry of its time, and therefore descrying its headlands, or the points at which it was passing farthest into the unknown, he seldom thought or wrote, unless on those questions on whose solution in either way, depended the shape and course of some opening and future science. To Playfair, Scotland owes its introduction to the arduous works of Laplace ; it was he who first publicly explained the value and criticised the methods of great National Sur- veys; he was the exponent of the labours of Maskelyne, in determining the density of our globe ; earliest he broke ground on the subject of Imaginary quantities, and renewed discussion on Porisms ; he led the way in Modern Geology by his masterly Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth ; and he left as a model for Scientific Histories, that exquisite, although unfinished 'Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science,' which prefaces the recent Flditions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Play- fair was distinguished by yet higher attributes. No man ever excelled him in the power of effective exposition ; and this is equivalent to asserting that he had that appreciation of Method, which apper- tains only to minds of the highest order, for it in- volves an almost instinctive power of separating between the important and the unimportant, and seizing the features of that Harmony, which un- derlies all phenomena. An intuition, we say ; for the gift seems inexplicable, unless as an expression more or less distinct, of that correlation between Mind and the external Universe, which Leibnitz designated as a Pre-established Harmony. But even these excellencies, great and rare as they are, do not in our estimation equal another viz.: the exquisite temper and wholeness of the Man. The memory of Playfair has yet scarcely faded amid the best circles of Edinburgh ; and affection for him, is, with many, as an heir-loom or favourite tradition that will descend. He was an example, in all things, of what culture apart from mere attainment can make a Man. The finest pas- 601 PLA 6.ige of the Roman Orator in his Archias, or the well-known lines of Ovid : iiigenuas didicissefideliter artes, Emollit mores, nee sinit esse/eros; when laid beside practical life and actual character, seem oftener a satire than a laudation ; but Play- fair might have recited them and never blushed. Mild and manly, liberal generous and sedafe, the best of the rising minds of bis time thronged around him, and drew strength and fair resolve from the symmetrical nature they contemplated. It is a good thing to advance science by original discovery; but infinitely greater that scientific thought should advance and emancipate the Man. Our Scottish Metropolis was at that period rarely fortunate. Beside Playfair, Dugald Stewart taught, a man of corresponding equality and com- mand of temper, of singular openness and moral reach. Others resembled them ; for, in virtue of their power of assimilation, two Minds so distin- guished, could not stand alone. Nor must we omit from the list, Professor John Millar of Glasgow author of the Historical View of the English Government. It is not too much, to say that by giving tone and expansion to the hearts and intel- lects around them, and growing up under their care, these remarkable persons have exercised most important influence on the recent progress of Britain, and thus on the destinies of the world. May Scotland never present herself under another garb ! We have certainly no ambition to ejaculate, Roma! Roma! Roma! Non e piu come era prima! [ J.P.N.l PLAYFAIR, William, brother of the preced- ing, an ingenious inventor and author, 1759-1823. PLAYFORD, J., a writer on music, 1613-1693. PLEE, A., a French botanist, died 1825. PEYEL. J., an Austrian pianist, 1757-1833. PLINY, the Elder, (Caius Plinius Secundus,) a distinguished writer on natural history and botany, was born a.d. 23, most probably at Novocomum, the modern Como (though Verona disputes with it the honour of being his birth-place). He died in a.d. 79. Inferior in grasp of intellect, but ranking only second to Aristotle as a natural historian, the name of Pliny shines out through the mist of an- tiquity with particular lustre. In his youth he served in the army, and in his move mature years held some important appointments in the state. Possessing an extraordinary aptitude for collecting information, and endowed with an amazing love for study, his whole life was devoted to the prosecu- tion of scientific pursuits. Rising before day-break, the early part of the morning was employed by him as his time for transacting business. The rest of the day was spent in study, and even during his meals, while taking his bath, or while on a journey, he had a reader attending him, to read from some favourite author. He took notes from every work he read, for he used to say, ' There was no book so bad but what might afford something valuable to be derived from it.' His writings were numerous, but the only one that has reached our times is his famous ' Natural History.' This great work is a perfect mine of observations ; though unfortunately the true and the fabulous are mixed up in nearly equal proportions. It contains, he says himself, extracts from no fewer than 2,000 volumes, from PLO authors of all kinds, travellers, historians, geqL phers, philosophers, and physicians. He lie part of it to the natural history of animals, ai the four books which treat of them, he has ami an immense number of facts, such as they known and believed at that time. The onl; rangement he adopts is according to their sis importance. The part which treats of bol occupies a much larger space ; ten books con ing the history of plants, and five, the rem derived from them. It is unfortunately impos now to recognize many of the plants he na scribed ; but his merits as a botanist or zoologu not to be judged of by comparing his knowl with ours, but by recollecting the age in whi< lived, and the effects which his works have h; keeping alive the knowledge of nature during dark ages which succeeded him. His death remarkable. During a tremendous eruntio Mount Vesuvius, Pliny, who had then tli mand of the fleet, wishing to save the poor in] tants of the country, in the neighbourhood o: volcano, and, at the same time, anxious to exa in person the awful phenomenon, sailed to the i of terror, and was unfortunately suffocated b; noxious fumes. It is generally believed that was the same eruption of Vesuvius that desti Herculaneum. [\^ [Pliny the Younger From an Ancient ust.] PLINY, the Younger, a nephew and ^H son of the preceding, distinguished as a^^H historian, and statesman, was born at Col^^H or 62. His mother, Plinia, was a sister of J fl the Elder, and he remained under the cfl^^| latter till his eighteenth year, when the of Vesuvius took place, which proved fal protector. He began his career as a 1.' vocate the year following, and in the n jan held a government in Bithynia. Tfl^^J his death is uncertain. PLOT, Bobert, a native of Kent, 'The Natural History of Oxford and StalW shires,' 1640-1696. PLOTINUS, the most famous teach^^H new Platonic school, was born at Ly 602 PLO tfvpt about a.d. 204. The original bent of his Ed was to speculation, and he had prosecuted ch studies under Ammonius Saccas, at Alexan- , la, for eleven years, when, in his thirty-ninth Lr, he joined the expedition of Gordian against > Parthians, as a means of enabling him to study , p philosophy of the East. At the emperor's death ifound his way back to Antioch, and afterwards jnt to Rome, where he taught for six-and-twenty .. jrs with great popularity, and where he gradually eloped nis system and composed many books, ch were corrected and arranged by his pupil phyry. He died in Campania in a.d. 274. phyry divided his master's 54 books into six neads, or sections of nine. The metaphysics of inus are obscure in their subtlety, though Plato his acknowledged guide and pattern. He held in order to perfect knowledge, the subject and set must be united, that the intelligent agent the tiling understood the apprehending and apprehended, must not be in separation ; the it naving everything spiritual within itself. it stress was laid by him upon pure intuition, as ime one of its gleams even the absolute and un- litioned might be discovered. Out of the spirit iveloped the soul, which is brought into contact i the sensuous world. Plotinus had learned scticism from Ammonius, but he added to mysticism peculiar to himself, while he at- )ted to clothe Paganism in the garb of a philo- theism. Probably towards the end of his transcendental visions and extacies were result of a diseased organization, which had reduced and emaciated by continued absti- . His system acquired great popularity in sub- Dt years, and sometimes opposed Christianity ften modified it. Creuzer's edition of Plo- in 3 vols. 4to was printed at the Oxford " f press in 1835, and the iEnneads ap- a Latin translation by Marsilius Ficinus, 1492. [J.E.] X)UCQUET, G., a Ger. metaphys., 1716-90. -OWDEN, C, an English Jesuit, 1743-1821. iOWDEN, Edmund, a Catholic lawyer, au- " ' Commentaries and Reports,' 1517-1584. WDEN, Francis, an Irish barrister, known historian and miscellaneous writer, d. 1829. .UCHE, Noel A., a professor of rhetoric at , distinguished as a naturalist and man of and for his opposition to the bull ' Uni- ' He is author of ' Spectacle de la Nature,' Histoire du Ciel, Id^es des Poetes, des es et de Moise,' 2 vols., ' La M6canique es,' and some lesser works, 1688-1761. 1NET, L., an Eng. botanist, 1642-1710. MTER, C, a French botanist, 1646-1706. REE, James, a Church of England | known as a miscellaneous wr., 1770-1832. "KET, Oliver, a Roman Catholic pre- inted on a false charge of treason, 1681. NKET, William Conyngham, Lord, was of the Rev. Thomas Plunket, pastor of a rian congregation, Enniskillen, Ireland. born there in 1761 ; and after practising as a barrister, became a member of parliament, under the patronage of Lord >nt. He soon distinguished himself in op- to the government, and especially in re- the legislative union, notwithstanding which JO) PLU he appeared for the crown on the prosecution of the patriot, Emmett, and addressed the jury with inhuman earnestness, in order to dissociate him- self, it is said, from the failing fortunes of those who were once his friends. Promotion followed as a matter of course. In 1803 he became solicitor- general for Ireland, and two years later attorney- general, from which time his rising fortunes were associated with those of Grenville and Fox in the government. In 1806-7 he was a member of the Whig cabinet with Lord Grenville and the late Earl Grey, and for many years afterwards was attached to the political interests of the former. The discontent which pervaded the country at the period of the Manchester massacre, and, in fact, to the end of the Castlereagh government in 1822, found no sympathy in the bosom of Lord Plunket, who earned the gratitude of the Tories by his ora- torical services in the extenuation of their errors, and the defence of their policy. As the first law officer of the Irish government during the vice- royalty of Lord Wellesley, in the time of Canning, he shared in their general unpopularity, but some- what later he acquired great credit by promoting the act of catholic emancipation. In 1827 he was raised to the peerage, and from that time to 1830 was chief justice of the Common Pleas in Ireland. After the retirement of Wellington, Lord Plunket had no further share in the legislation of the country, but remained chancellor of Ireland under the Whigs for many subsequent years, being suc- ceeded in that office by Lord Campbell. His pub- lic life ended in 1841, and he died at the advanced age of eighty-nine in January, 1854. [E.R.] PLUQUET, Francis Andrew Adrian, a learned French abbe\ author of a Dictionary of Heresies,' ' Essay on Luxury,' and ' The Classical Books of the Chinese,' 1716-1790. [Plutarch From an Ancient Gtm] PLUTARCH (Plutarchus\ was a native of Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia. Tne time of his birth is uncertain. From the few facts which he has recorded of himself, we learn that he was studying philosophy under Ammonius, at Delphi, when the Emperor Nero made his progress through Greece in the twelfth year of his reign, a.d. 66. His family was one of some importance in Chaer- onea, and members of it had held the highest civic offices in their native city. Of the events of hia POC life very little is known. It appears from his writings that he visited Italy and Rome, perhaps more than once ; and that he delivered lectures in his vernacular language on philosophy, in the imperial city, during the reign of Domitian, which were attended by most of those who pretended to be employed in the study of philosophy. It is probable that the substance of these lectures was afterwards embodied in his moral writings. At a late period in life he began to read the Latin authors, having, as he states, during his residence in Italy, been prevented from acquiring a know- ledge of the language by the circumstance of 'having so many commissions to execute, and so many people coming to him to receive his instructions in philosophy.' The latter part of his life was spent in honour and comfort in his native city, where he passed through various magis- terial offices, and enjoyed the honour and emolu- ments of a priesthood. He had four sons and a daughter. The time and circumstances of his death are unknown ; but his intellectual attainments and character have been transmitted to us in his works. The great work, which has immortalized the name of Plutarch, is his ' Parallel Lives,' which contains the biography of forty-six distinguished Greeks and Romans. The Lives are arranged in pairs, each pair containing the life of a Greek and a Roman, followed by a comparative estimate of the two. In a few cases the compara- tive estimate is omitted or lost. Besides these there are four other biographies which were writ- ten by Plutarch, and a life of Homer, which is sometimes attributed to him. Fifteen other bio- graphies have been lost. Few of the ancient writers have attained so extensive celebrity as Plutarch. His 'Parallel Lives' have delighted and instructed every successive generation since they were given to the world; and are equally acceptable to people of every age and class. As materials for history they have been found not altogether trustworthy ; but the chief object of the author was to delineate character as exhibited by the events of a man's life, whether these were important or trifling, and without a strict regard to the order in which they occurred. His other writings, which amount to upwards of sixty, are comprehended under the title of 'Moralia,' or ' Ethical Works ;' though some of these are of an historical or anecdotical character. In all his writ- ings a moral end is apparent. ' A kind, humane disposition, and a love of everything that is en- nobling and excellent, pervade his writings, and give the reader the same kind of pleasure that he has in the company of an esteemed friend, whose singleness of heart appears in everything that he Bays or does.' [G.F.] POCHARD, J., a French theologian, 1715-1786. POCOCK, Edward, son of a minister of the Church of England, bearing the same name, was bora at Oxford 1604, died 1691. He is greatly distinguished as an Oriental scholar, and for his learning as a theologian. His eldest son, Edward, published, in 1671, the ' Life of Hai Ebn Yokdan,' translated into English by Ockley ; and his son, Thomas, a translation from Menasseh Ben Israel 1 On the Term of Life,' 1699. POCOCK, Sir G., a brave admiral, 1706-1762. POCOCK, Isaac, a native of Bristol, first POI known as an historical painter, and afterwarc ; a prolific writer for the stage, 1782-1835. POCOCKE, Richard, a native of Souths ton, who became bishop of Ossory and Meath. is known as the writer of travels, 1704-1765. PODESTA, J. B., an Italian Orientalist, 17 POELENBURG, Cornelius, a Dutch scape painter, employed by Charles I., 1586- POERNER, C. G., a Ger. chemist, 1732-1' POGGI, S. M., an Ital. dramatist, 1685-17 POGGIANI, J., an Italian writer, 1522-15 POGGIO-BRACCIOLINI, a philologist historian, one of the first promoters ot It literature, 1380-1459. POHL, J. C, a German physician and f on vampyres, 1706-1780. J. Emmanuel, hit a physician and botanist, 1746-1800. POHL, J. E., an Austrian botanist, 1784-'. POILLY, Francis, a French engraver, 1 1693. Nicholas, his brother and pupil, 1696. J. Baptist, son of Nicholas, died Francois, brother of J. Baptist, died 1723. POINSINET, A., a French dramatist, 173 POINSINET-DE-SIRRY, Louis, a F dramatic wr., translator, and antiquar., 1733- POINTER, J., an English historian, last c POIRET, Peter, one of the greatest my writers produced in the protestant church, iS at Mentz, where his father was a sword-mak 1646, and became pastor of Amveil, in the c of Deux-Ponts, 1672. He was a master o Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, but h no taste for a merely scholastic divinity, he st the philosophy of Descartes, and during the years that he retained his pastoral charge, lished a work on Cartesian principleau^H ' Cogitationes Rationalia de Deo, Anima, et 1 which produced a considerable sensation, attacked by Bayle. In 1676, the conqn Louis XIV. occasioned Poiret's retreat to burgh, where he became acquainted with Ma Bourignon, and through her experienca^B first place, with the grounds of the my- sophy, the further study of which led hn^H out the defects of the philosophy of whose admirers have applied to his crit fable of the viper and the file. He publi digest of the mystic philosophy, including perience of Madame Bouricnon, wrought system, under the title of ' De jEconomi" ] or universal system of nature. The prir is abstraction, or the preference of a illumination to reason ; the same in esse quietism of Molinos, the annihilation oft philosophy, and the divine vision of Boel all these cases we are presented with a sure of experience, demonstrating the es a super-sensual wisdom, as manifested to 1 sent sceptical age in some rare examples voyance, the physical preparation being i same, though' produced by different means. Hamburgh Poiret removed to Rheinsburg, i neighbourhood of Leyden, where he died in A complete list of his works would be without a description of them, for which we j not space. The curious may consult the l raisonne, in the Memoirs of J. P. Nic lished at Paris 1727-1745. POIREY, F., a French theologian, 1584-1 604 POI I POIKIER, G., a learned ecclesiastic, 1724-1803. POIRSON, J. B., a Fr. geogrn|her, 1761-1831. POISSON, N. J., a Fr. theologian, died 1710. POISSON. See Pompadour. JPOISSON, Raimond, a French actor and dra- ktic author, died 1690. His son, Paul, an ex- jjent comic actor, 1658-1735. Philip, son of Jul, an actor and dramatic author, 1682-1743. Irnoi'lt, br. of Philip, a comic actor, d. 1753. OISSON, D. S., a French analyst, 1781-1840. ISSONNIER, Peter Isaac, a physician chemist, one of the first to read chemical lec- at Paris, and to devise the means of procur- fresh water from the sea, 1720-1798. ITEVIN, J., a Fr. astronomer, 1742-1807. OITIERS, Diana of. See Diana. j>OITIERS, P. De, a Fr. theologian, died 1205. POIVRE, N., a French naturalist, 1719-1786. POIVRE, Peter, a French ecclesiastic, known li traveller and philosophical observer, 1715. j'OIX, L. De, a French Orientalist, 1714-1782. 'OLANEO, C., a Spanish painter, 17th cent. lOLANO, P., a doge of Venice, 1130-1148. jOLE, Reginald, the famous cardinal and p|d legate in the reign of Queen Mary, was a iger son of Lord Montacute, cousin of Henry He was born at Stourton castle, in Stafford- 1500, and after completing his studies in Inglish and Italian universities, appeared at wurt of Henry VIII. in 1525. In 1529 he to Paris to avoid any share in the discussion king's divorce, but when Henry had resolved 't the question to the foreign universities, unlucky step caused his selection of Pole to sent him in that city. Instead of yielding, honestly returned home, and in 1531 refused * bishopric of York, which was offered him tion of compliance. The king having dis- him in anger, he consulted his safety by the kingdom, and rejoined the company of ' guished men he had known at Padua and The literary circle in which he moved was by Caraffa, Sadolet, Gilberto, Fregoso, arch- of Salerno, Bembo, and Contarini. These embraced the doctrine of Justification, their social meetings discussed the means ling the papacy their great principle to preserve the unity of the church under * government. In Italy, during the reign VIII., Reginald Pole rose to great dis- and, on the accession of Paul III. in raised to the cardinalate, as were his just mentioned. On the death of Paul, in lit was almost determined to put the triple ' on his head. His place in English history i under the date 1553, that of the acces- Queen Mary, who at once invited him to and gave him the place of Cranmer, deposed, as archbishop of Canterbury, in London, dignified as papal legate, in 1554, and was received by Mary in of her husband, Philip II. of Spain, at l ; s cross. On this occasion, as we read in indence of Bullinger, he addressed the the salutation of the Virgin ' Hail > of grace,' &c. He advocated moderate in the council, as may be supposed from tie disposition and his inclination to pro- opinions. After his death, we find Paul POL IV. complaining that England might have been retained with ease had Cardinal Pole been sup- ported in his measures. In 1556, Pole was created chancellor of both universities, Oxford and Cam- bridge, having previously been ordained priest, and inaugurated into his archbishopric the latter after the burning of Cranmer, which took place in March of that year. It is curious that Cardinal Pole survived the queen only a few hours. The circumstance is thus satirically alluded to in a letter addressed to Bullinger by E. Sandys, ' We yesterday received a letter from England, in which the death of Mary, the accession of Elizabeth, and the decease of Cardinal Pole is confirmed. That good cardinal, that he might not raise any disturb- ance, or impede the progress of the gospel, departed this life the day after his friend, Queen Mary, (17th November, 1558.) Such was the love and harmony between them, that not even death itself could separate them. We have nothing, therefore, to fear from Pole, for dead men do not bite.' (Letters from the archives of Zurich, published by the Parker Society.') Some allowance must be made for the asperity of party, for no one can doubt the sincerity, humanity, and learning of Cardinal Pole. Ranke shows that he injured him- self in Italy by boldly stating the doctrines of the Gospel at the council of Trent in 1545. [E.R.] POLEMBERG. See Poelenburg. POLEMO, three distinguished Greeks : 1. A philosophical teacher, who had for his disciples Zeno and Arcesilas, and who differed but little from Aristotle, died B.C. 270. 2. A geographical and historical writer, surnamed Periegetes, about 200 B.C. 3. A native of Laodicea, one of the most celeb, rhetoricians at the beginning of the 2d cent. POLEMO, the first of the name king of Pontus, under the triumvirate of Mark Antony, died 1. The second, his son and successor, was recognized king by Caligula 39, and deposed bv Nero 65. POLENI, J., a Venetian antiqua'r., 1683-1761. POLHEM, Christopher, Count, a Swedish engineer, member of the Academy at Stockholm, and contributor to its transactions on subjects of commercial economy and mechanics. The great works over which he presided are the docks at Carlscrona and the Trolhetta canal. The cele- brated Swedenborg was his coadjutor, 1661-1751. POLI, G. S., an Italian physiologist, 1746-1825. POLI, M., an Italian chemist, 1662-1714. POLIER, A. L. H. De, a Fr. Orient., 1741-95. POLIGNAC, Jules, Prince De, whose name, as the minister of Charles X., king of France, has acquired an European interest from the revolution of 1830, was descended from an ancient family, which suffered with the other noblesse of France by the establishment of the Republic in 1792. He became known to the political world as a party to George's conspiracy against Napoleon in 1804, and was rewarded with the title of prince by the pope of Rome for his devotion to the church after the restoration of Louis XVIII. From 1823 to 1829 he resided in London as ambassador, and then re- turned to head the administration which provoked the revolution of July. After a short imprison- ment and exile, he was allowed to reside in France. Died in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 1847. POLIGNAC, Melchior De, archbishop of Auch, and cardinal, was born at Languedoc 1661. C05 POL He received the purple on going to Rome as a diplomatist. Died 1741. POLIGNAC, Yolande Martine Gabrielle De Polastron, Duchesse De, a favourite of the queen Marie Antoinette, and gouvernante of the royal children, 1749-1793. POLITIAN, or POLIZIANO, Angelo, an Italian scholar who became tutor to the children of Lorenzo de Medici, and was appointed by him canon of Florence. He wrote a ' History of the Conspiracy of the Pazzi,' and edited a collection of Greek epigrams, 1454-1494. POLK, J., an American lawyer and statesman, b. 1795, elected president of the U.S. in 1844, d. 1849. POLLAJUOLO, Antonio, a painter, sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith of Florence, 1426-1498. POLLEXFEN, Sir Henry, an eminent law- yer and member of parliament, acted as counsel for the seven bishops in 1688, and was knighted alter the revolution, and appointed chief justice of the Common Pleas : died 1692. POLLICH, J. A., a Ger. naturalist, 1740-1780. POLLINI, C, an Italian botanist, 1783-1833. POLLINI, J., an Italian historian, 16th cent. POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a Roman consul, and friend of Augustus, most celebrated as the patrou of letters, and for the protection he afforded to Virgil and Horace ; died in the year 3, aged eighty. POLLIO, Trebellius, a wr. of Roman history, only fragments of whose works remain, about 300. [Birth-place of Robert Pollok] POLLOK, Robert, was born in 1798, in Ren- frewshire, where his father was a small farmer. After having worked for some years on the farm, he determined on becoming a preacher ; and, adding a little Latin to the elementary education he had pre- viously received, he entered, at the age of nineteen, on a nve years' course of study in the university of Glasgow. Afterwards, while he was a student of theology, he published two or three little prose tales oi a religious cast; and then, also, he was working up many of his poetical fragments into his ' Course of Time.' This energetic and ambitions poem appeared in the spring of 1827, and speedily obtained a popularity which it is not likely soon to lose. Its deeply religious character recommended it to serious persons; and it was admired by critics for the many flashes of original genius, which light up the crude and unwieldy design, and atone for 606 POL the narrow range of thought and knowledgi well as for the stiff pomposity that pervadjB diction. There are in it a few passages whicl strikingly and most poetically imaginative, some which are beautifully touching. The did not long survive to enjoy his fame, or to p; cute his profession, to which he was admitted, preacher in the United Secession Church- soon after the publication of his poem. 9 already shown symptoms of consumption, which became more decided ; friends, gained for him b fenius, furnished him with assistance for goii taly ; but he was able to travel no farther Southampton, where he died in September, 1 before completing his twenty-ninth year. [V POLLUX, Julius, two Greek writers, 8 times confounded together, the earlier, a g marian and sophist, born in Egypt about 180 : the later, an historian of the 4th century. POLO, Marco, was the son of a Ven merchant, Niccolo Polo, and was born abou year 1250. Some months before his birth father Niccolo, and uncle Maffio, resolved to the experiment of opening a trade with the 1 princes who had lately established themselv the East of Europe. For this purpose sailed for Constantinople with a valuable eai goods, which they disposed of to great advan and investing the proceeds in rich jewels, crossed the Black Sea, and travelling to B on the Volga, placed these at the service < * tar prince there. He rewarded them y ' the value of the jewels; and as they satisfied with their gains they now return home. This they could not consequence of the breaking out of a ^ two princes whose territories lay on They accordingly travelled round the i the Caspian, and reached Bokhara Here they remained three years ; and induced to accompany a Persian eml Grand Khan, Kublai, who then held ficent court at Kemenfu, in Chinese Ta received them into favour, and promot honour. This wise prince, like others I held the liberal maxim, which has rece own day much favour among statesme , forms of faith which are professed by great bers of persons should have encouragS^H support. Accordingly, in prosecution pose he commissioned one of his grandees.) the two Poli, on an embassy to the lord o p Christians, requesting his holiness to sendf wise men to instruct his people in the religio 1 i arts of the Western world. The Tartar died by the way; but the Poli pursued > journey in safety, exhibiting the Khan's seal upon a golden tablet, which he had f them as a passport. In 1269, having 1 years by the way, they reached Aciv. after arrived in Venice. Marco was proaching manhood, and his mother having in giving him birth, his father's ties to his_i city were less binding. Accordingly, in 12/ two brothers started on their retur of Kublai, taking young Marco with them bearing letters from Pope Greg< reached Tai-yuen-foo in safety, where the I" was then residing. Young Marco was retp* POL > the highest favour, and was employed on iv important missions both in China proper, tary, and the adjoining countries. lie held three years the high office of governor of the of Yau-tchoo-foo, in S.E. China. He thus >yed opportunities which no European has ever ;essed, of becoming acquainted with the ltry and its institutions. Polo's travels were jne time regarded as of no value, but his uracy in relating what he himself saw, has i from time to time in later years confirmed in markable manner. The best edition of his els is said to be that by Count Baldelli, 4 vols. Florence, 1827. It contains a map of Africa, rn in 1351, and another with the routes f'ol- d by the Poli in Asia marked upon it. The )ian and Chinese maps which Polo brought 5 are thought to have suggested to the Portu- s the passage by the Cape. The three Poli ined seventeen years in China; Kublai re- . to let them depart, till at length his grand- bw, reigning in Persia, sent ambassadors to ourt to ask in marriage a young princess of Hlood royal. It was found impossible for her d by land, and Marco having just returned a voyage to India, and represented the safety passage, the Khan reluctantly consented to uest of the ambassador, to let the Poli con- iem by sea to Persia, with the young prin- ' ed to be their master's bride. A fleet of ps was prepared, the Poli were loaded with empowered to act as the Khan's am- rs at the European courts, and entreated after they had visited their friends. t reached Ormuz in eighteen months and Venetians arrived in their native city in an absence of 24 years. They found ves forgotten of all their old friends and but a display of their enormous at a great feast which they gave, speedily a greater accession of new friends than id to be quite convenient. Marco was his return taken prisoner in a sea-fight Genoese, in which he commanded a He was carried to Genoa, and detained but treated with great kindness so his history became known. He sent to for his papers, and employed his leisure in his notes into shape. On his return, he led a settled and respectable life, and died ' old age. His father lived till 1316, and d family by a young wife. ^0 ELE, Richard, a minister of Truro, known as an antiquarian, biographer, and poet. His Histories of Devon and are highly esteemed ; 1759-1838. JENUS, a Greek author, 2d century. 1US, a celebrated Greek historian, who istinguished himself in public affairs dur- wars of the Achaean league, bom about died 122. BIUS of Cos, a medical writer, pupil and of Hippocrates, 5th century B.C. CARP, St., one of the most illustrious t of the Christian fathers, burnt alive ution under Marcus Aurelius, 167. CLES, a Greek sculptor, 4th century b.c sculptor of the name, flour, abt. 170 B.C. JfCLETUS, a Greek sculptor. 5th ct B.C. 607 POL POLYCRATES, a tyrant of Samos, put to death by Orontes, time of Cambyses, 6th century B.C. POLYCRATES, bishop of Ephesus, 2d century. POLYDORUS, Virgilius, an Italian histori- cal writer, who was sent to England by Alexander VI., to collect the tax called Peter's pence, and obtnined a living in the Church of England. His works are a ' Collection of Proverbs,' a Treatise on Prodigies, and particularly a History of Eng- land. He was a friend of Erasmus, and flourished about 1470-1555. POLYGNOTUS of THAsos,the earliest recorded painter of Greece, who has attained great fame, appears to have been settled at Athens about 463 B.C., whither he had accompanied Cimon after his conquest of Thasos. With Polygnotus painting was fully developed in all the essential principles of art, though his style might still want the delicacies of execution which distinguised the period of refinement about the time of Alexander the Great. The first portrait on record is the picture of Elpinice, the sister of Cimon, and his own mistress, which Poly- gnotus introduced in the ' Rape of Cassandra,' painted by him, in the ' Poecile' at Athens, a cele- brated portico illustrated with the history of the Athenians, and where the philosophers and others used to meet and gossip. Polygnotus seems to have been a complete painter, though established quite a generation before the execution of the Elgin mar- bles; his style was, however, doubtless, somewhat similar to the style of those great works, ideal or generic. There is a memorable passage in the Poetics of Aristotle, speaking in the very highest terms of this great painter. Aristotle says, com- paring him with two of his contemporaries : ' Dionysius paints men as they are, Pauson worse, and Polygnotus better than they are.' Many other Greek writers speak of him in the highest terms. Lucian enumerates him among the four greatest colourists of the Greeks, these being Polygnotus, Euphranor, Apelles, and Aetion. The greatest works of Polygnotus were the two extensive series of pictures (tempera paintings) executed on the two principal sides of the Lesche, or public hall at Del- phi, attached to the Temple of Apollo, as a con- venient place of meeting for the various Greeks from every part, who were in the habit of visiting Delphi, for the sake of consulting the oracle there, which was the most famous of all the Greek oracles. These pictures, executed most probably on panels of larch, and inserted into the walls, represented on one side, the war of Troy, and, on the other, the Descent of Ulysses into Hades to consult the Soul of Tiresias. Popular and general subjects which were necessarily interesting to Greeks of every race, and thus the most appropriate subjects for the decoration of so purely a national building. They were known as the 'Iliad' and ' Odyssey' of Polygnotus, though he had consulted all other traditions, as well as Homer, in their composition. The popularity of these works was. so great that the Amphictyonic Council (the deputies from the Greek cities who met every spring at Delphi) voted Polygnotus public hospitality throughout Greece, that is, including all cities in league, and in these towns, should the business of Polygnotus ever call him, he was entitled to be maintained at the expense of the municipality. So great an honour has been conferred apparently only on one man since, POL Apollodorus, the grammarian. Some similar at- tention, though in this case doubtless purely per- sonal, seems to have been paid to Albrecht Diirer, in his journey in the Netherlands, in 1520-21; he speaks in every case of being entertained by the Nurn berg Consul in the several great towns he visited. Great as the art of Polygnotus was, it does not seem to have approached that dramatic truth of representation winch distinguishes the works of Raphael, or many less considerable of the moderns. His art was representative almost as much as imi- tative , its object seems to have been chiefly ethic ; objects and events are indicated rather than abso- lutely presented, but, of course, this is more strictly true of the accessories ; a house for instance, or a wall, represented a city ; a man throwing down the stones of the wall, the destruction of the city ; a tent, an encampment; the striking or taking down a tent, a departure ; a ship, a fleet ; a few captives, a conquest ; a few warriors, an army ; and a few dead bodies, a victory. The ultimate value of works of this class depends upon the merit of the execution; perfectly treated they may be made perhaps more impressive than an actual dra- matic representation, as the very nature of the treat- ment compels the mind to reflection, one of the highest objects of all high art. (Bottiger, / deen zur Archaeologie der Mablerei; Wornum, Epochs of Painting Characterized.) [R.N.W.] POLYHISTOR. See Alexander, Solinus. POMBAL, Sebastian Joseph Carvalho- Melho, Marquis De, an arbitrary Portuguese statesman, 1699-1782. POMERIUS, J., a moralist, 5th century. POMET, Peter, a French chemist, 1658-1699. POMEY, Francis, a French Jesuit, 1618-1673. POMFRET, John, whose poetical works are now seldom read, was bora in Bedfordshire 1667, and became rector of Maiden, in that county. He published a volume of poems in 1699, the most Eopular of them being his ' Choice,' a picture of appiness founded on affluence and tranquillity. Some additional compositions were published after his death. That event was the consequence of an attack of small-pox, while awaiting in London his institution to a richer living in 1703. POMIS, D. De, a Jewish writer, 1525-1587. POMPADOUR, Jeanne Antoinette Pois- son, Marquise De, a mistress of Louis XV., in whose favour she succeeded Madame de Chateau- roux, 1744. She was then twenty-two years of age, and was created Marchioness the year follow- ing, with a pension of 240,000 francs. She was a woman of boundless extravagance, but gave great encouragement to arts and literature, did much to promote the establishment of the porcelain manu- facture, and the military school, and aided power- fully in the suppression of the Jesuits, died 1764. POMPEI, G., an Italian poet, 1731-1788. POMPEY, Cneius, surnamed ' The Great,' son of Pompeius Strabo, a Roman general, was born 106 b.c. He distinguished himself against the enemies of the Roman senate, both within the state and without, and at last fell in the struggle against Caesar for absolute power. The events which mark his career are briefly these. Like his father, under whom he commenced his military career, serving against Marius, Pompey ranged himself with the aristocratic party of the republic. POM He was in his twenty-third year only wheij raised three complete legions, 60,000 men, a own expense, and took the field in behalf of f at that juncture returning from his exped against Mithridates. By his twenty-sixth Pompey had defeated the remains of the M; party in Cisalpine Gaul, Sicily, and Africa, at his return to Rome, B.C. 83, was hailed Magn the great by Sylla; his audacious persevo also procuring for him the honours of a triu; On the death of Sylla in b.c. 78, Pompey we: proconsul to Spain, where the plebeian war continued by Sertorius, and after a four arduous struggle, he remained master of the" his opponent having been betrayed and ass nated. He returned to Italy in time to giv( finishing blow to the similar victories of Cra and in b.c. 70 Pompey and Crassus were el consuls. In possession of this office he res the tribunitial power, and afterwards dism his army, remaining at Rome as a private cit In the beginning of the year B.C. 67, he wa trusted with extraordinary powers, in order U stroy the lawless bands and the piratical ac turers who infested the coasts of the Mediterrai and having effected this, he was made abs dictator in the East, and superseded Lucull the command against Mithridates. The latb completely routed in b.c. 66, and soon afte coming master of Asia Minor, pursued his quests through Syria and Palestine as far a Red Sea. For these services he obtained a- magnificent triumph at Rome, and in b.c. 60 j Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate, the I of whom gave him his daughter Julia in man Succeeding events caused Pompey to draw the senatorial party, and with him, as the repres tiveof the patrician republic, went Cato, thek enemy of the ambition of Caesar. In B.C. 6ij| died, in the year following Crassus was sla Asia, and now the hostility between Cassari Pompey rapidly developed itself. The former^ ing applied for the consulship refused to prj himself in Rome as a private citizen, and ad of the senate declared him a public enemy u: he resigned his command. Instead of Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his troops 49, and Pompey, accompanied by Catqfl and the other nobles of Rome, fell back! Greece, where the great battle of Phar cided his fate. Pompey was advised to a asylum in Egypt, then ruled by a sovereign ] protected, Ptolemy XII. He was received pretended friendship, but treacherously] as soon as he had stepped ashore, B.C. 4$ head being cut off, it was sent to Caesar^ turned away from it and could not res: tears. Pompey fell, and with him the repulj Rome, for want of the art of government brilliance of his early victories carried hi power, but the remembrance of his greatnt the field was a poor compensation for the an that prevailed at Rome. POMPEY, Cneius, son of the prec deavoured to carry on the war against He was defeated at Munda, and soon after! B.C. 45. POMPEY, Sextus, younger son of Po the Great, continued the war after the def POM is brother, and the subjugation of Spain by Caesar, e made himself master of Corsica, Sicily, Sar- nia, and Achaia, and rendered himself formidable i a naval commander against the second triumvir- >. Being at length defeated and taken prisoner, was k. at Miletus, by order of Antony, B.C. 35. POMPIGNAN, John James Le Franc, Mar- is De, a French scholar and poet, whose works of dramas, moral discourses, odes in imita- of Virgil, and many pieces opposed to the new ilosophy, 1709-1784. His br., J. Georges, a late and writer on incredulity, 1715-1790. POMPONAZZI, Pietro, a famous Italian opher, who argued that the immortality of soul cannot be proved by any natural reasons, ; depends solely on revelation, 1462-1524. ^OMPONIUS-L^TUS, Julius, the Latinized ne of a learned Italian antiquary, 1425-1497. 'OMPONIUS Sextus, a Roman jurist, 2d ct. OMPONIUS. See Bellievre. >OMPONNE or POMPONE, Simon Arnauld, uise De, a Fr. statesman and diplo., 1618-99. NA, Francesco, an Italian writer, 17th ct. ND, John, an astronomer, born about 1767, Maskelyne as astronomer-royal, 1831, 1836. NIATOWSKI, Prince Joseph, nephew of t Stanislaus, born 1763, distinguished himself s under Kosciusko, the Polish patriot, be- minister of war to the provincial govern- established at Warsaw in 1806. In 1809 he ided the grand duchy against the army of nd. In 1813 he was named marshal of - during the battle of Leipzig, and displayed skill and gallantry in covering the retreat of ch. He was drowned in the Elster while Touring to efFect his own escape two days ards, 19th October. NIATOWSKI, Stanislaus, Count De, of Stanislaus Augustus, king of Poland, of Cracovia, and a companion-in-arms les XIL, flourished 1678-1762. TOWSKI, Stanislaus Augustus, the preceding. See Stanislaus Augustus. (NIATOWSKI, Prince Stanislaus, a " nephew of Count Stanislaus, distinguished of arts and letters, of which he was us protector; born at Warsaw, 1754, Florence, 1832. SKI, A. L., a Polish poet, died 1742. NS, a count of Toulouse, reigned 1037-1060. INS, a count of Tripoli, reigned 1112-1137. MS, J. F. De, a Fr. literateur, 1683-1733. S, J. L., a Fr. astronomer, 1761-1835. JSOXBY, Sir Frederick Cavendish, wr of the earl of Besborough, and distin- iid as a cavalry officer, was born 1783. He Ud the army as cornet in 1800, and became (cable for his gallant bearing in the penin- Wrar. He was present at the battles of Tala- RtJarossa, Vimiera, Salamanca, and Vittoria, dominated his brilliant career on the field of Moo, died 1837. PKSONBY, George, younger son of John >iby, speaker of the Irish House of Commons, 8. as a lawyer and statesman, 1755-1817. PfcSOXBY, Sir William, a British cavalry M born 1772, killed at Waterloo after a bril- Rbd successful charge against the Fr., 1815. POP PONTANUS, J., a Bohem. savant, 1542-1626. PONTANUS, J. Isaac, a Danish philologist and histor. of the city of Amsterdam, 1571-1639. PONTANUS, the common name of J. Jovien Pontano, one of the most elegant and fertile Latin writers of the 15th century, distinguished as a poet and historian, 1426-1503. PONTAS, J., a French casuist, 1638-1728. PONTE, L. De, a Spanish ascetic writer, known to Fr. literature as Dupont, 1554-1624. PONTIANUS, a pope of Rome, 230-235. PONTIUS, an ecclesiastical writer, 3d century. PONTIUS, the Latinized form of Paul Du- pont, an engraver of Antwerp, born 1596. PONTIUS, Constantine, a learned Spanish divine, died in prison while awaiting his execution as a protestant, 1559. PONTOPPIDDAN, Eric Ericson, a Dan- ish prelate, known as a theologian and Latin poet, 1616-1678. Eric, his grandnephew, a prelate and antiquary, 1698-1764. J. Louis, brother of the latter, a theologian, died 1799. PONTORNO, Jacopo, whose proper name was Carrucci, an eminent Ital. painter, 1493-1558. PONTOUX, C. De, a Fr. writer, 1530-1579. PONZ, Anthony, a Span, painter, 1725-1792. PONZIO, Paul, an Italian sculptor, 16th cent. POOL, H., a Dutch poet, 1689-1733. POOL, J. Van, a Dutch portrait painter, 1666- 1745. His wife, Rachel, daughter of Ruysch the anatomist, also a painter, 1664-1750. POOL, M., a Dutch engraver, born 1670. POOL, or POOLE, Matthew, author of a work highly valued by theological students, en- titled 'Synopsis Criticorum,' was a presbyterian divine, born at York 1624. He was ejected from his living when the act of uniformity was enforced in 1662, and in 1666 made himself obnoxious to another large party by attacking the Roman Church. After this occurrence he retired to Am- sterdam, where he died 1679. POPE, Alexander, was born in May, 1688, in London. His father was a linen-draper in Lom- bard Street, and, having spent his youth at Lisbon, had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, which his son, in an easy way, retained as it was taught to him. Pope inherited bodily feebleness from both parents : nis father was deformed, and his mother gave him his headaches and his Jacobitism. He was a very sickly child, and hardly less so in man- hood : he never grew to be taller than about four feet ; and his deformity and weakness of limbs were so great that, for many years before his death, he could not dress or undress himself. In these cir- cumstances Pope gathered his scanty education, and wrote poems which placed his name first in the brilliant literature of his time ; nor was he pre- vented by Ms infirmities from taking, in aristocratic society, the place which, in that age of patronage, was won by his literary celebrity and secured by the agreeableness of manner he had when his tem- per was not chafed. The poetic endowments of Pope were very fine ; and there occur in his works short passages that are among the gems of our poetry, and felicitous images and turns of expres- sion that have become household words. In fact no poet furnishes so many brief quotations as he does ; a distinction which he owes in part to the epigrammatic pointedness of his diction, and to th > 2R POP singular skill of his versification. But many of the striking lines and phrases which thus come into the mouths of every one, are either cold in feeling or positively unpoetical in matter : they are apt expressions of worldly shrewdness, not effusions of imaginative susceptibility. His rhythm, too, which in its way is perfect, has a mannerism and a mono- tonous smoothness, which make it more than doubt- ful whether, even in his favourite ten-syllable rhymes, he deserves to be held as having really improved on the manly and varied melodies of Dryden. The steadiness, likewise, with which he adhered to the themes and forms that had become fashionable under the guidance of that celebrated poet, made it impossible for Pope's real and unques- tionable genuis to develop itself freely ; and his prin- cipal poems are, both by the nature of their subjects and by the cautious and dissertative character of their tone, so very uncongenial to the poetical taste of our century, that it is not wonderful his writings should now be neglected and his place in the file of our poets degraded below his due. Yet, though the fact is little noticed, it was not without efforts in another direction, that Pope resolved to write for the drawing-room instead of the world ; it was not till he had exercised his youthful fancy on higher topics and in worthier forms, that he contented himself with gaining celebrity as an admirable writer of didactic and familiar verse, and as one of the very best of all poetical satirists. His edu- cation, ill begun at home by a Jesuit, was con- tinued with Tittle more success at school ; where, till the age of twelve, he learned hardly more than to admire Ogilby's clumsy translation of the Hiad, and Sandys' polished version of Ovid. The re- mainder of his youth was spent at Benfield, in Windsor Forest, where his father, having retired from business, had purchased a house and a few acres of land. Here the young poet was left to educate himself. He never became an accurate scholar, even in Greek, Latin, or French, which were his only studies beyond English literature ; but the sickly boy devoured books eagerly, acquired much literary knowledge, and wrote verses which his father encouraged and corrected. The ' Ode to Solitude,' printed among his works, dates from his twelfth year; before he was fifteen he had, likewise, made his translations of the first book of Stathls, and of Ovid's Epistle of Sappho ; and at this time, also, by producing his ' Imitations of English Poets,' he showed some love for those old masters whom afterwards he so unwisely neglected. Now, likewise, he wrote a comedy, of which we know nothing; a tragedy on the "story of Saint Gene- vieve; and an epic poem called 'Alexander,' which is described as having been an imitation of the Odyssey, and was preserved by him till, in the height of his fame, his friend Atterbury made him burn it. An inclination to linger in the purer fields of poetry was indicated also, though accompanied by little originality of invention or strength of poetic feeling, in the works by which he first intro- duced himself to the public. These were the ' Pas- torals,' printed in 1709, (when the writer was in his twenty-first year), but written a good while before, and already admired in manuscript by persons of rank to whom he had become known. They were received with great applause. In the Essay on Criticism,' which appeared in 1711, he stepped at POP once into that dissertative school of pcetry, I which his chief efforts were always afterwail made. The ' Essay,' with all its weakness of prl ciples and barrenness of poetical elements, is il only a wonderful production for a boy, but real equal, in many points, to anything he subsequen I wrote. His celebrity was effectually and ml deservedly secured in 1712, by the first edition his ' Rape of the Lock.' When, in his twen sixth year, he republished this poetic iinmortali: tion of fashionable trifles, with the addition of supernatural machinery, he had given to our li guage a mock-heroic poem, superior to Doilea [The residence of Pope.] ' Lutrin' and to everything else of the soi interval between these two versions of t; appeared ' The Messiah,' ' The Temple <4^H (founded on Chaucer), the 'Ode on St. (^H Day,' and 'Windsor Forest,' (probably writt^^B earlier). The poems which nave now beel^H have more of the essence of poetry tha^^H Pope's later works. During a second pa^H tending through more than a dozen years, hisc | employments were prompted by the necessitl securing a livelihood. His father, affected 1 political panic, had refused to invest his s^^H any way, and had lived on the capital, which already nearly exhausted ; and all Pope's writ had as yet gained him scarcely 150. He now dertook his Translation of the Iliad, which occu | him for more than five years, and, publishei subscription (from 1715 to 1720), produced tow author more than 5,000. It was recqj^H an admiration which will readily be yield^^H readers who can forget the original. I duced a quarrel witl^Addison, from who Pope, closely allied both by opinion and^^fl ship with Swift and the Tories, always stood at i distance. Pope's poor edition of Shakspe; i r lished in 1725 ; and his Odyssey, of whi books were translated by himself, appeal year and the next, adding considerably to fortune he had made by its predecessor. now hotlv engaged in those squabbles with small authors of his day, which einbittere rest of his life. In 1727, in three V^^H ' Miscellanies,' partly written by Swift ai he declared open war on his enemies 'On the Art of Sinking in Poetry. 1 himself took the crowning step H'trv. of his C10 POP 728, by issuing his tremendous satire ' The Dun- iad.' In 1715, when the Iliad had secured for him lie prospect of independence, he became the pos- ;ssor of the villa at Twickenham, which became unous as his residence for the last thirty years of is life. Here his father died soon, and his mother nne years afterwards. Both were keenly regretted j their son, whose affection for his family and for few friends was as strong as the jealousy and ritability which continually entangled him in larrels out of doors. From this pleasant retreat, ter the publication of the Dunciad, he tired off a " many squibs on his critics ; and, among other sks, he altered his great satire, dethroning its iginal hero, Theobald, (who had edited Shaks- are better than he had), and putting Colley Cib- in his place. But the principal employment of 5e years was the composition of a new series of rks, in which he emulated the half-prosaic try of Horace's epistles with great success ; ile he took a more ambitious flight in ethical ditations, for which he was philosophically very ly qualified, though he gave much grace and stness to the expression of his crude opinions, poems of this group embrace, besides some lor pieces, the ' Essay on Man,' setting forth, Bolingbroke, a theory of optimism, the con- aences of which he certainly did not understand ; Epistle on Taste,' which landed him, for the time, in squabbles with the great ; the 'Imita- of Horace,' with translations from the same and the 'Universal Prayer,' published in In 1737 he published selections from his pondence,' containing letters, many of which elegant but very artificial pieces of prose He was engaged to the last in his war e dunces ; for he contributed to Arbuthnot's " "ly witty Memoirs of Martinus Scrib- which appeared in 1741. His frail body, had held out longer than might have been d, was quite unable to support him into old Asthma and the beginnings of dropsy warned several months, that the end was at hand, himself to meet the catastrophe with calm jusness, and died in May, 1744, some days after ilng completed his fifty-sixth year. [W.S.] _J)PE, Sir Thomas, a Roman Catholic states- id and friend of Sir Thomas More, born in Ox- idhire 1508, fnd. Trinity College 1554, d. 1558. : j)PE, Walter, an English physician, known sjnovelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1714. tl'HAM, Sir Home Riggs, a naval officer, bo Jin Ireland 1762, most celebrated for his ex- |*on against Buenos Avres, for which he was Wlnanded after a trial, tne charge being that he toileted without sufficient authority. He was ftjvards commander-in-chief on the Jamaica iWn, and died 1820. JPHAM, Sir J., an Eng. judge, 1531-1607. IPPiEA, a Roman empress, wife of Nero, whfook her from her second husband, Otho, 62. Kit by a kick from Nero when pregnant, 65. iRliUS, Peter, a Dutch painter, born about 151 died 1583. His son, Francis, a portrait Njir of rare excellence, 1540-1580. Francis, "lounger,' son of the latter, and possessor of his HBCARI, Stkfano, a gentleman of Rome, iMied for conspiracy against Nicholas V., 1 153. POR PORCQ, J. C, a French theologian, 1636-1722. PORDENONE, the common name, taken from his birth-place, of Giov. Antonio Licinio Re- gillo, a Venetian painter, 1483-1540. Bernar- dino, who bears the same surname, a relation and pupil of the preceding, 16th century. Giulio, one of his nephews, also a scholar of his, 1500-1561. J. Antonio, brother of the latter, died 1576. POREE, Charles, a French Jesuit and rheto- rician, 1675-1741. His brother, C. Gabriel, a canonist, 1685-1770. PORLIER, Juan Diaz, surnamed II Mar- quesito, a Spanish general, born at Carthagena, in South America, about 1775, hung for conspiring against Ferdinand VII., after attempting to restore the constitution, 1815. PORPHYRY, one of the Neoplatonists, and early opponents of Christianity, was born a.d. 233, pro- bably in a Tyrian colony, settled in Batanea. His original name was Malchus, the Shemitic term for a king, but Longinus, his master, gave him the appellation of Porphyry, in allusion to the purple vestments of royal persons. He studied under Origen and under Longinus in his youth, but at thirty years of age attached himself, at Rome, to Plotinus, whose works he arranged and corrected. Leaving Rome, where his thoughts had often re- verted to suicide as the speediest means of freeing his spirit from its present prison-house, he went to Sicily, where he wrote his attack on Christianity. He seems to have returned to Rome, and he died about the year 304. Porphyry was a man of great abilities and erudition, and his elegant style con- tributed in no small degree to the popularity of the Plotinian philosophy (Plotinus). His asceticism may be found in his treatise ' On Abstinence,' and the strange but not uncommon union of superstition and scepticism may be seen in his doctrine of demons, in his ascription of the power of miracles to Plo- tinus, and in his record of a special extacy enjoyed by him in his sixty-eighth year, in which he was privileged to gaze upon the unveiled Divinity. He laboured to find discrepancies in the Scriptures, and he made a special assault upon the authenticity of the book of Daniel. The history of the gospels was also subjected to similar treatment. His 15 books against Christianity were ordered to be destroyed by the emperor Theodosus, so that we are only acquainted with their nature and contents through the replies made to them by such writers as Eusebius and Jerome. Besides his philosophical and antichristian works, Porphyry wrote commen- taries on Homer, and treatises on a great variety of miscellaneous subjects. [J-E.] PORPORA, Nicolo, born at Naples in 1689, was the celebrated pupil of the no less celebrated Alessandro Scarlatti. In early life he left home and composed and brought out operas with great success in Vienna, Venice, Dresden, and several other continental cities. In 1773 Porpora was en- gaged as composer and director of the operas established in opposition to Handel, but in spite of all the science, talent, and industry which he brought to the task he had undertaken, the London public heard his compositions with an indifference which, it is said, ' amounted almost to contempt.' Por- pora, therefore, quitted England in disgust and returned to Italy, where he became one of the prin- cipal masters in the Conservatory at Venice. He 611 POR late in life retired to Naples, where he died in great poverty at the age of 82. Porpora was particularly- fortunate as a singiug master, and amongst his most celebrated pupils were Farinelli, Mingotte, and Caffarelli, besides many other dramatic voca- lists. [J.M.I PORPORATI, A., an Ital. engraver, 1741-1816. PORQUET, P. C. F., a French poet, 1728-1796. PORSENNA, a king of Etruria, 6th cent. B.C. PORSON, Richard, an eminent scholar and critic, professor of Greek in the university of Cam- bridge, was born at East Raston, in Norfolk, where his father was parish clerk, 1759. He be- came professor in 1793, and two years later com- menced the Greek editions on which his reputation rests, by the publication of Euripides. Died in the office of librarian to the London Institution, 1808. PORTA, Baccio Della, better known as Fra Bartholomeo di San Marco, an Italian painter, friend and scholar of Raphael, 1469-1517. PORTA, Giambattista, an Italian of noble family, dist. as a natural philosopher, 1540-1615. PORTA, James Della, an Italian sculptor and architect, died about the end of the 16th cen- tury. His nephew, William, a sculptor, same age. J. Baptiste, his relation and pupil, 1542- 1597. Thomas, br. of the latter, dates unknown. PORTA, Joseph, called Porta del Salvati, a painter of the Florentine school, about 1520-1570. PORTA, or PORTIUS, Simon, an Italian philo- sopher, pupil of Pomponazzi, 1496-1554. Ano- ther Simon Portius, published Greek lexicons, 17th century. PORTAL, A., a French physician, 1742-1832. PORTAL, P., a French accoucheur, died 1703. PORTALIS, Jean E. Marie, councillor of state and minister of religion under Napoleon, 1746-1807. PORTE, Abbe J. De La, a French compiler, author of 'Esprit de l'Encyclopedie,' 1713-1779. His nephew, Sebastian, deputy to the assembly, the convention, and the council of 500, died 1823. PORTE, A. De La, a Fr. statesman, 1737-92. PORTE, M. De La, a French writer, 1530-71. PORTE, P. De La, a valet in the service of Anne of Austria and Louis XIV., author of 1 Memoirs of the Reigns of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV.,' 1603-1680. PORTE-DU-THEIL,Francis John Gabriel De La, an antiquarian and Hellenist, 1742-1815. PORTER, Anna Maria, a popular novelist, was the daughter of a military officer, who died soon after her birth. She resided in the neigh- bourhood of London with her mother and sister, and died at Bristol while making a tour for the re-establishment of her health in 1832. Her works are ' Artless Tales,' written before she was twelve years old, 1793-1795, 'Walsh Colville,' 1797, ' Octavia,' 1798, ' The Lake of Killarney,' 1804, 'A Sailor's Friendship and a Soldier's Love,' 1805, ' The Hungarian Brothers,' 1807, ' Don Se- bastian,' 1809, ' Ballads and Poems,' 1811, ' Re- cluse of Norway,' 1814, ' The Village of Marien- dorpt,' 'The Fall of St. Magdalen,' 'Tales of Piety,' ' The Knight of St. John,' ' Tales Round a Winter's Hearth,' and some others. PORTER, Jane, elder sister of the preceding, was born 1776, and commenced her literary career in 1803, by publishing her first novel, ' Thaddeus of Warsaw/ POS popular, and Miss Porter ever after retained t celebrity it brought her. The principal of her otl works are 'The Scottish Chiefs,' 'The Pastor's FL side,' ' Duke Christian of Luneberg,' ' Tales Rou a Winter's Hearth,' (to which the sisters contribul in common), ' The Field of Forty Footsteps,' ' Sir Seaward's Diary.' She went to Petersbi with her brother, Sir R. K. Porter, and after ^ was left companionless by his death in 1842, resic generally at Bristol. Died 1850. PORTER, Sir Robert Kerr, brother of 1 popular novelists, and himself distinguished as artist, author, and diplomatist, was bom at Di ham in 1780. After exhibiting some historical p tures in London he went to Russia as painter to \ emperor, and while there married a daughter Prince Scherbatoff. On leaving Russia he job the army, and was with Sir John Moore at battle of Corunna, receiving the honour of knig hood in 1813. From 1817 to 1820 he was trav ling in the East, and in 1826 was appointed con at Venezuela, where he resided till 1841. He tl obtained leave of absence with the intention visiting St. Petersburg and London, and died the former city, of apoplexy, 1842. His works 'Travelling Sketches in Russia and Swedi ' Letters from Portugal and Spain,' ' A Narral of the Russian Campagin,' and his travels Georgia, Persia, Armenia, and ancient Babylor PORTER, F., an Irish theologian, died 1705 PORTER, George Richardson, an Eng economist, 1793-1852. PORTES, P. Des, a French poet, 1546-160' PORTEUS, Beilbey, successively bishop Chester and London, was born at York in Y, and raised to those sees respectively in 1776 1787. He was a man of great literary abi His principal work is a ' Life of Arehbis Staker,' an edition of which, with the other ] ductions of his pen, was edited by his nephetjl late Dr. Hodgson, dean of Carlisle and recto St. George's, Hanover Square. Died 1808. PORTUS, Francis, an eminent Italian sch ' and classical critic, 1511-1581. His son, Armil , a distinguished Hellenist, died 1610. PORY, John, an English traveller and trs lator of Leo Africanus, sec. to the colony of Vi nia from 1619 to 1621 ; time of his death unknc PORZIO, L. A., an Ital. physician, 10.39-17 POSADAS, F., a Span, theologian, 1644-17 POSIDONIUS, a Stoic philosopher, who tai at Rhodes in the time of Mithridates, 1st ceir j B.C., and to whom Plutarch was indebted for j materials of some of his Lives, especially tiu J Marius, with whom Posidonius was acquaiw Another Posidonius flourished at Alexin about 260 B.C. He was a famous astronomer, f well versed in the physical sciences. POSSELT, E. H., a Ger. historian, 1763-U POSSEVIN, Anthony, a learned Italian J' and diplomatist, 1534-1611. His broth tist, a man of letters, 1520-1549. their nephew, a physician and Latin poet, 171 POSSIDIUS, St., an African prelate, 4th ' POSSIDONIUS. See Posidonius. POST, F., a Dutch painter, about 16: POSTEL, William, a remarkable visio acknowledged to be one of the most learne This interesting fiction became highly ! his age, was born in Normandy 1510. x 612 kM POS ,J?nt to the East to collect curious MSS. by Francis |, and on his return was appointed professor of mathematics and languages. He was banished |om France through the influence of the queen of iavarre, and died in a monastery 1581. ff POSTHUMUS, Aulus, a "Roman dictator, bnsul with Virginius, B.C. 496. See Postumus. | POSTLETHWAYT, Malachi, a member of lie Antiquarian Society, and writer on commercial jibjects, died 1767. [j POSTUMUS, Marcus Cassianus Latinius, Gaulish general and governor of that province, |Jho was proclaimed emper. in 257, massacred 267. 9 POTAMO, a Platonic philosopher, 3d century. TEMKIN, Gregory Alexandrovitsch, iRussian prince and field-marshal, was born at wlensko of a noble family in 1736. He entered army when young, and possessing great per- ~ advantages attracted the notice of the em- Catharine, with whom he became a special rourite. He greatly distinguished himself by victories over the Turks, especially by his con- of the Crimea, 1783, and of the cities of r, Otchakow, and Kilianova, 1787-1790. successes, and the favour of the empress, rested him with despotic authority in the Rus- empire. He died of an epidemic distemper ring the conquest of Jassy, 1791. IPOTENGER, or POTTINGER, John, a bar- r, poet, and miscellaneous writer, 1647-1733. IPOTENZANO, F., an Italian poet, died 1599. 1POTERAT, Marquis De, one of the secret its of French diplomacy during the revolution, b. in 1740, and was one of the state prisoners ;d from the Bastile in 1789. Died 1808. 'OTHIER, R. J., a French jurist, 1699-1772. TIER, C, a French comedian, 1775-1838. ITOCKI, Claudia, wife of Count Bernard jki, remarkable for her personal sacrifices in exercise of benevolence, especially during the [fish struggle of 1830-3; born in Posen 1802, " in exile at Geneva, worn out with grief, 1836. OTOCKI, Count Ignatius, grand marshal [Lithuania before the destruction of Poland, and Tow-patriot of Kosciusko, was born 1751. In H he took refuge in Saxony, and published a " ical tract upon the establishment and fall of constitution, returning, however, to share in last struggle for independence. He then passed time in the prisons of St. Petersburg and iw, and died at Vienna 1809. >TOCKI, Count John, a Polish ambassador A Ithe interest of Russia, author of a ' History of fe Primitive Russians,' &c, 1769-1815. rOTOCKI, Count Stanislaus, minister of Irehip and public instruction for the grand duchy IWarsaw, known as a publicist, 1757-1821. rOTOCKI, Count Stanislaus Felicie. a lish nobleman, in the Russian service, 1750-1805. POTOCKI, V., a Polish poet, 17th century. POTT, J., a German chemist, 1692-1777. POTT, Percival, a surgeon of London, author many valuable professional works, 1713-1788. POTTER, Barnabas, an English prelate, born Kendal about 1579, died 1642. Christopher, nephew, an eminent divine and partizan of arles L, born about 1591, died 1646. POTTER, F., a learned divine, 1594-1678. POTTER, John, author of the well-known POU ' Antiquities of Greece,' was a son of Thomas Pot- ter, a linen-draper of Wakefield, where he was born about 1674. He died archbishop of Canter- bury 1747. He published the first volume of his ' Antiquitates,' and a beautiful edition of Lyco- phronis Alexandra, before reaching his twenty- fourth year, in 1697. His theological works were published in 3 vols, at Oxford 1753. POTTER, Paul, a Dutch painter, 1625-1654. POTTER, Robert, a famous Greek scholar and translator of the Church of England, 1721-1804. POUCHET, F. A., a Fr. theologian, 1666-1723. POUCHET, L. E., a Fr. economist, 1748-1809. POUGENS, Marie Chapler Joseph De, a distinguished painter, and philological and archae- ological savant, 1755-1833. POUGET, B., an Italian cardinal, 1280-1351. POULAT, J. B., a French poet, died 1705. POULLE, Louis, a Fr. preacher, 1702-1781. POUPART, Fr., a Fr. anatomist, 1661-1709. POUPET, C. De, a Fr. statesman, 1470-1529. POUQUEVILLE, F. C. H. L., a celebrated French traveller and historian, 1770-1838. POURCHOT, E., a Fr. philosopher, 1651-1734. POUSCHKINE, Alex., a popular novelist, poet, and historian of Russia, born at St. Peters- burg 1799, killed in a duel 1837 POUSSIN, Nicolas, was born at Andelys in Normandy, about June 19, 1594, of a noble family of Soissons. He learnt painting under Quintin Variu of his native place ; then, when only eighteen years old, tried his fortune in Paris, and in 1624, in his thirtieth year, settled in Rome, where, with the exception of a visit paid to France in 1640-2, he dwelt the remainder of his life. He died there, Nov. 19, 1665. Poussin, though by birth a Frenchman, must almost be accounted among the painters of Italy ; his style is peculiar, 1 no works of any modern,' says Sir Joshua Rey- nolds, ' have so much of the air of antique painting as those of Poussin.' His pictures have been com- pared with coloured bas-reliefs, a term not inexpres- sive of his style. His peculiar leaning to this sculpturesque treatment may in some measure be explained by his close intimacy with his friend Du Quesnoy, the sculptor, known as Fiammingo ; they lived in the same house together at Rome. His colouring, compared with his drawing, is inferior and mannered, which is somewhat remarkable, consi- dering that he studied in the school of Domenichino at Rome, whom he considered to be the best pain- ter of his time. ' The Seven Sacraments,' painted twice by Poussin, are among his most celebrated works, and both sets are now in England, one at Belvoir Castle, the other in the Bridgewater Gal- lery, London. His works are very numerous ; the prints that have been engraved after his principal pictures only, amount to upwards of two nundred. Some of his best works are in the British National Gallery, as the ' Bacchanalian Festival,' No. 42, finely engraved by Doo, which constitutes an ex- cellent exponent of his style, with all his merits and peculiarities in perfection. He was a skilful landscape painter also, indeed one of the ablest of the landscape painters of Italy, though the greater fame in this department of his younger brother-in- law, GasparDughet, who took the name of Pous- sin, has eclipsed the reputation of Nicolas. Gas- par Poussin was born of French parents in Rome, C13 . POU PRA in 1613, and died there in 1675 ; like Claude he ! Drary, Covent Garden, and the Haymarket. was exclusively an Italian painter. The National Gallery possesses also some of the finest works of this artist. The sombre character of his landscapes is in some measure due to the dark grounds on which he painted. (Bellori, Vita di Nicolo Pus- sino, &c, Rome, 1672. Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of the National Gallery, &c.) [R.N.W.] POUTEAU, Cl., a French surgeon, 1725-1775. POWELL, David, a famous Welch antiquarian and minister of the church, about 1552-1590. His son, Gabriel, eel. as a controversialist, 1575-1611. POWELL, E., a popish divine, executed 1540. POWELL, G., an English actor, died 1714. POWELL, G., a Welch scholar, 1561-1620. POWELL, Sik John, an eminent lawyer and judge, dist. at the trial of the seven bishops, d. 1696. POWELL, W., an English actor, died 1769. POWELL, W. S., a learned divine, 1717-1775. POWER, Tyrone, was the son of an Irish fentleman, of the county of Waterford, and was orn 1795. His mother was left a widow in his infancy, and removed to Glamorganshire in South Wales, near the town of Cardiff, where there was a theatre. Here Power first appeared as Borneo ; the next notice we have of him is his attempting Orlando at Monmouth, after which he returned to the maternal retreat. On his return, some time after, to the stage, he began to discover his unsuit- ability for tragedy, and went into the comic line, and tried his juvenile strength in Mercutio, Bene- dict, Charles Surface, and Belcover ; occasionally, however, we find him doing pathetic parts, such as Alonzo, at Newport in the Isle of Wight. At Margate also he served alternately under both muses ; but, on the Kentish circuit generally, ap- pears principally to have adhered to Thalia, though at Newcastle-upon-Tyne we find Melpomene again in the ascendant ; and at Dublin he actually made his debut as Borneo, to which he added Jeremy Diddier. In 1818 Mr. Power retired from the stage, probably disgusted with its difficulties ; but in 1821 we find him making a new essay at the Olympic and Astley's theatres, which latter he quitted for the Lyceum, where he appeared on 2d July, 1822, as Bobert Haythorn, in 'The Turn- pike Gate.' In 1823 he was appointed manager of the Olympic, and soon after was granted an ap- pearance at Drury Lane, but produced no effect. Next year, at the Adelphi theatre, Mr. Power was enabled to make a stand in a new part called Val- mondi, and to achieve a triumph as Paddy CHal- loran, in a neglected Irish farce. It was with great unwillingness that he undertook the part, which, nevertheless, proved the stepping-stone to his fortune. He soon found it to his advantage to devote his abilities exclusively to the delineation of Irish characters. As an Hibernian representative Mr. Power enjoyed a rich brogue, a smart and viva- cious air, a whimsical leer that lighted up the jokes that came trippingly from his tongue, and a voice for singing in which he could indulge in the broadest patois. These qualities he exhibited in 'The Irish Tutor,' in Murtoch Delany, Phelim 0' ' Flanningan, Bory CMore, Pierce O'llara, CPlenipo, and a host of other characters, written expressly for him. His triumphs were witnessed within the walls of the three London theatres, Old 614 1840 Mr. Power migrated for America, whence never returned. After a most profitable caret notwithstanding ill health, he embarked in i steam-ship 'The President,' which sailed fro New York 11th March, 1841. It had 123 sot on board. On the 12th a great storm oceurre which raged for two days and three nighl Whether, as suspected, the vessel foundered wh beating between Nantucket shoals and Georgi Bank, remains unknown. Nothing more w ever heard of that fatal bark and its nuinero tenants : 'There is no ray By which her doom we may explore; We only know she sailed away, Was seen, hut never heard of more.' [J.A.B POWNALL, Thomas, a distinguished antiqn rian, and statesman, 1722-1805. POYET, B., a French architect, 1742-1824. POYET, W., chancellor of France, 1474-154* POYNET, or PONET, John, successive bishop of Rochester and Winchester, 1516-1566. POYNINGS, Sir Edward, a statesman oft reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. POYNTER, W., a theological writer, died 18S| POZZETT, P., an Italian savant, 1769-1816.1 POZZI, J. B., an Italian painter, 16th centijrl POZZI, J. H., an Italian poet, 1697-1752. POZZI, Stefano, a clever Italian painteiyl70j 1768. His brother, Joseph, a painter, died 17 POZZO, Andrea, an Italian Jesuit, dist I a painter, architect, and writer on art, 1642-17C1 POZZO, C. Del, an archasologist, died 1657. > POZZO, Count J. Del, an architect, b. 171; j POZZO -DI-BORGO, Charles AndrejJ Count, a native of Corsica, distinguished as! statesman in the interest of the 'Holy Alliancj was born in Corsica, 1764, and first became coj spicuous as a parfcizan of the English in the til] of Paoli. When Corsica was incorporated wi i France, Pozzo-di-Borgo became a political eii ploye of other governments, and contributed li services especially as a general and ambassadj in the Russian service to the overthrow of N poleon. He was a man of great political abili and foresight. After the fall of Napoleon, fro 1814 to 1830, he acted as Russian ambassador j Paris, and since then he was living about tf i years ambassador in London. Died in Paris, 184 j PRADES, J. M. De, a Fr. theologian, 1720-8 j PRADIER, James, a distinguished Freni) sculptor, 1792-1852. PRADO, B. De, a Spanish painter, died 1593| PRADO, J., a Spanish commentator, 1547-9 PRADON, N., a French poet, 1632-1698. > PRADT, Abbe Dominique De, distinguish as a political writer and diplomatist, was born Auvergne 1759, became a deputy of the ecclesia tical order to the estates-general 1789, having pr viously published the first of his political pamphlet entitled ' Antidote to the Congress of Radstad j After urging a coalition of Europe against ti. French republic he became a Buonapartist, ai assisted at Napoleon's coronation as king of Ital | After the fall of Napoleon be became an of the Bourbons. Died 1837. PRAM, C, a Danish poet, 1756-1821. PRASLIN, Cesar Gabriel De Cu PEA I De, a statesman and peer of France, cousin ie Due de Choiseul, 1712-1785. RAT, A. Du, a French cardinal, 1465-1535. RAT1LLI, F. M., an Ital. antiquarv, d. 1770. RATO, J. De, an Ital. philologist, died 1782. RATT, Charles, earl of Camden, chancellor ;rthe Rockingham administration, 1714-1794. KATT, Sir C., a peninsular officer, 1771-1839. SATT, S. J., a novelist, 1749-1814. RAXILLA, a Greek poetess, 5th century B.C. 8AXITELES, a famous Grecian sculptor, au- of works in bronze and marble, 4th cent. B.C. RAXITELES, a disting. carver, 1st cent. b.c. JAY, G., an historian of Hunejarv, 1723-1801. JEISSNITZ, Vincent, a celebrated Prus- discoverer of the water cure, 1799-1851. JEMONTVAL, Peter Le Gtjay De, a ch writer and mathematician, 1716-1767. JESTET, J., a Fr. mathematician, died 1690. JESTON, John, a learned puritan of the ch of England, author of a ' Treatise on the nant,' 1587-1628. 5ESTON, T., a dramatic writer, died 1598. tESTOX, W., a Scotch writer, 1742-1818. SETT, M., an Italian painter, 1613-1699. EVOST, Cl , a Fr. theologian, 1693-1752. llEVOST, I. B., a Genev. natural, 1755-1819. EVOST, P., a French painter, 1764-1823. EVOST, P., a French literateur, 1751-1839. lEVOST D'EXILES, Anthony Francis, llaneous writer and novelist, translator of Harlowe and Sir C. Grandison, 1697-1763. iVOST D'EXMES, Francis Le, a French and dramatic author, 1729-1793. VOST DE LAJANNES, M., a French ,te and prof, of jurisprudence, 1696-1749. VOST-SAINT-LUCIEN, R. H., a French on public law, 1740-1808. CE, John, a native of London, who went nee and became superintendent of the to the grand duke, and professor of Greek author of Scripture and Classical Com- , 1600-1676. CE, Sir John, an eminent antiquarian, of a Defence of British History in answer "orus, died about 1553. CE, Dr. Richard, a native of Glamorgan- ho attained eminence as a dissenting mmis- financial and political writer, 1723-1791. CHARD, James Cawles, well known for arches into the Physical History of Man- was born in Herefordshire, 1786. From 1845 he was in practice at Bristol as a , and then removed to London on receiv- appointment as commissioner on lunacy. HARD, R., a Welch divine, died 1644. EAUX, John, D.D., bishop of Worcester, i at Stoward, Devonshire, 17th September, His father not being in circumstances to the advantages of a liberal education, he ted to the liberality of a Christian lady in ;h, who sent him to a grammar school, he acquired an elementary knowledge of the * Greek languages. Having an unquench- for learning, ne travelled on foot to Ox- supported himself by some menial services college, his time being divided between the offices of the kitchen, and the study of ele- 615 PRI gant literature. A person of such energy and de- votion to the pursuit of knowledge could not but rise to distinction, and accordingly his great eminence procured his election as a member, till in due course he became rector, of the college. In 1615, he was appointed regius professor of divinity, with which office was then associated that of canon of Christ church, and afterwards he filled the high and more influential station of vice-chancellor for a series of years. His last and highest step in the ladder of preferment was his consecration to the see of Worcester in December, 1641. Amid all this dignity of station, however, he was not exempt from trouble, for his devoted loyalty to the cause of Charles I. exposed him to many hardships, and ultimately reduced him to such poverty that he was obliged to sell his library for the maintenance of himself and family. He was a man of mild, amiable, and unassuming manners, of great piety and such profound and extensive learning, that he was called by his contemporaries 'the Pillar of orthodoxy.' But he was withal the merest child as to know- ledge of the world, and so regardless of pecuniary matters, that he involved his family in great difficul- ties by his imprudence or carelessness about money. He died at Biedon in Worcestershire, 30th July, 1650, leaving to his children no legacy but ' God's blessing and a father's prayers,' as he expressed it in his will. [R.J.] PRIDEAUX, Humphrey, D.D., a divine of as great celebrity as the preceding, was born at Pad- stow in Cornwall in 1648. He began his education at Westminster school, from which he was sent to Oxford. He distinguished himself at that univer- sity by his scholastic acquirements; and it was during his residence there that he became author, by the publication of the ' Marmora Oxoniensa,' or the ancient inscriptions from the Arundelian mar- bles, a work which procured him the patronage of the lord chancellor Finch, afterwards earl of Notting- ham, through whom he was appointed a prebend, and afterwards dean of Norwich cathedral. Hav- ing become disabled through constitutional infir- mity from discharging the public duties of the ministry, he was obliged, under a conscientious sense of duty, to resign his offices in the church, and devote himself entirely to the cultivation of sacred literature. His ' Connection of the Old and New Testament with the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations,' and his ' Life of Ma- homet,' have long been held in high repute, and obtained an extensive circulation. He died No- vember, 1724. [R.J.] PRIESTLEY,. Joseph, was born at Fieldhead, near Leeds, in 1733, where his father was a wool- len cloth manufacturer. From the poverty of his parents he obtained only a medium education ; but he became a dissenting preacher, and continued in this vocation with various degrees of success till 1767, when he settled in a chapel at Leeds, and commenced his great literary and chemical career. In perusing the works of this remarkable man it is impossible to fail being struck with his intense love of truth. In his scientific note-books he re- gisters every fact as it appeared to his senses ; in his political and theological writings he fearlessly states his opinions as they are brought out by his cross-examination of his own thoughts and medi- tations, and that liberty of independent thought PRI which he claims for himself, he determinedly de- mands for others. In his scientific career his object was uniformly to question nature by every possible experimental investigation, and to state liis results as he obtained them. He laid the basis of the chemistry of the gases, and of those modes of investigation in the pneumatic branch of the science which are still pursued. He dis- covered a great variety of facts in this department of the science. To him we are indebted for the knowledge of oxygen, binoxide of nitrogen, sul- phurous acid, fluosilicic acid, muriatic acid, am- monia, carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide. England has produced few men endowed with greater versatility of talent than Priestley. Whether we view him as a pneumatic chemist, a theologian, an electrician, a historian, a politician, his writings bear the impress of an original mind, uncontrolled by any tendency to follow in beaten tracks, but constantly panting for new fields of in- vestigation. It will ever remain a stain upon the name of England that this noble-minded man, this honour to humanity, should have been compelled by persecution, on account of his religion and politics, to flee his native country. He died in America in the year 1804. [R.D.T.] PRIEZAC, D. De, a Fr. juriscons., 1590-1662. PRILESZKY, J. B., a learned Hungarian Jesuit and hagiographer, born 1709. PRIMATICIO, or LE PRIMATICE, F., an Italian architect and painter, 1490-1570. PRIMEROSE, Gilbert, a Scottish divine, chaplain to James I., and minister of the French church in London, author of ' Jacob's Vow,' and other theological works, died 1642. His son, James, a physician and medical wr., d. abt. 1660. PRINCE, J., a biographical writer, 1643-1723. PRINCE DE BEAUMONT, Madame Le, a French lady, settled as a teacher in England, au- thor of several works, died 1780. Her brother, John Baptist Le Prince, a painter, 1733-1781. PRINGLE, Sir John, a Scottish physician, eminent as a natural philosopher and professional writer, born 1707, president of the Royal Society 1772, died 1782. PRINGLE, Thomas, a Scottish poet and mis- cellaneous writer, was born at Blacklaw, Teviot- dale, 1789. He began life as a clerk,, and having attracted the notice of Scott as a magazine writer, soon after adopted literature as a profession, and endeavoured to establish a newspaper at Edin- burgh. Failing in this, he emigrated to the Cape of Good Hope, and, returning to England in 1826, became secretary to the An ti- Slavery Society. He was afterwards known as editor of the popular annual, ' Friendship's Offering,' and in 1834 pub- lished his ' African Sketches,' followed by his ' Nar- rative of a Residence in South Africa.' Died 1834. PRINSEP, James, an Asiatic antiquarian, sec- retary to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, 1800-40. PRIOLO, B., a French historian, 1602-1667. PRIOR, Matthew, whose period of authorship was contemporary with the last years of Dryden and the earliest stage of Pope, was a pleasing poet, possessing little vigour or originality, but remark- able for his skill in versification, and his gay and easy grace of imagery and diction. His occasional epi- grams and his lively but indecent tales, are his best productions; though there is merit, also, in his PRO semi-metaphysical poem ' Alma, or the Progree the Soul,' and in his attempt at religious poefl ' Solomon.' His poems were only the recrefl of a man actively engaged in public life. Bon 1664, he was the son ot a joiner in London. , cident having directed the attention of Lord Do to the boy's studious habits, education was proct for him ; and, on leaving Oxford, he distinguij himself, under the government of King Williair a dexterous diplomatist in several foreign missi Deserting his political party, like so many met higher rank in that slippery time, he shared, in latter part of his life, trie vicissitudes and dan of the Tories. He lived till 1721. [W PRIOR, T., an Irish economist, 1679-1751. PRISCIAN, a famous Roman grammar master of a school at Constantinople, 4th cent PRISCILLIAN, a Spanish heresiarch of fourth century. The errors which misled him been imported by one Marcus from Egypt. I cillian had both wealth and influence, so thai conversion gave eclat to the novel heresy, not a few were seduced by his eloquence and ample. After long contests, the matter was 1 for judgment before a council at Sarago 380, and the mostprominent of the sect were communicated. That Priscillian might ha* sacred shield thrown over him, he was made bi sect bishop of Avila. By a rescript of Grai the party was condemned and banished, thoofl decree was afterwards recalled. _ Under GH successor, Maximus, the Priscillianist leaders bishops were summoned to Bourdeaux for t Priscillian himself appealed to the emperor, : business was committed to Evodius, a min' state. The spiritual offence was brought 1 civil tribunal, and at Treves, in 385, Priscillian put to the rack, and induced to make sad i fessions, not only of error, but of hideous impuri At length he was executed, and the sword of sedition fell upon his adherents, who flourished ' a season in spite of the cruelties to which 1 1 were subjected. The heresy of Priscillian w. strange mixture of Gnostic and Manichaean j surdities, combined with allegorical interpretat and mystical rhapsodies. Sabellianism, or ' denial of a personal distinction in the Godhead, a further characteristic of the system. The were also severe ascetics, and necessarily so i their opinions of the origin and essence of ^H and, therefore, the accusation of their indulgin lasciviousness and unnatural lusts seems f^^H tion of their opponents. But they held a 1 k morality in reference to the obligation of ijflfl truth, and resorted to dissimulation in the JBB and defence of their dogmas. PRITCHARD, H., an English actress, 1711 PRITZ, J. G., a German divine, 1662-l^H PROBUS, Marcus Aurelius Vai native of Pannonia, who served in tl army, and became emperor after the deal i tus 276. He distinguished himself by sc\ tories over the barbarians in Gaul, and *|^^H by his mutinous soldiers 282. PROBUS, M. V., a Latin grammar^ ; PROCACCINI, Andrea, a pupil of < ratti, painter to the king of Spain, 166 < PROCACCINI, Ercole, an historical of Bologna, born 1520, died about 1591. J C1G PRO Lns were his pupils : Camillo, one of the first htists of that age, 1546-1626. Giulio Cesare, fine imitator of Correggio, 1548-1626. Carlo prroxio, celebrated for his landscapes, fruits, td flowers, dates unknown. The son of the latter, Uled Ercole the Younger, studied under his kcle, Giulio Cesare, and painted flowers with feat skill, 1596-1676. JPROCIDA, Giovanni Di, a native of Palermo, lief of the conspiracy against the French known [the Sicilian Vespers,' about 1225-1302. jPROCLUS, born at Byzantium 412 a.c. ; died I Athens 485. Esteemed by some the most ijwerful thinker of the Alexandrian School I opinion in which we cannot concur. His works, rever, are very numerous : an excellent edition ly of them, we owe to M. Cousin. 'ROCLUS, patriarch of Constantinople, d. 447. 'ROCOPE-COUTEAU, the received name of Coltelli, a French physician and dramatic |ter, 1684-1753. 'ROCOPIUS, a martyr and saint, 4th century. >ROCOPIUS, a Greek theologian, 5th century. pROCOPIUS, a Greek historian, 6th century. [ROCOPIUS, Demetrius, a Greek writer, ar of an account of the learned Greeks of at times, last century. fROCOPOWITSCH, 'Feophan, called the i Chrysostom, an archbishop of Novogorod, -1736. IRODICUS of Ceos, afterwards settled in is; where, in the times of Socrates, he pro- Wisdom, and taught like the other Sophists. ;ss, in one sense, was great ; for he accu- a large fortune having adapted his to all classes of purchasers ; the poor man his lesson for one drachma, while the rich charged fifty drachmas a-head. Prodicus fell under the lash of Aristophanes ; and it is sd that, for the crime of Atheism, he was aed to the fate of Socrates ; most strange ion ! Respecting Prodicus himself, there rtain dispute : the general rumour from An- being, that his life was not a pure one, and the money acquired by the teaching of Vir- |was dissipated by Pleasure. Mr. Grote, the nplished historian, has recently questioned grounds, some of which appear of weight, not, as a whole, carry full conviction. To us, it is true, we owe that famous apologue Choice of Hercules. It is not safe, however, from any abstract teaching concerning the character of the Teacher : it is rather :ter of the Teacher that gives value to teaching; insomuch, that even an imperfect 'ag, provided it presents the sincerity of its , will ever contain more to instruct and \ than extremest purism, which is only ds or prudery. Neither must the incul- of abstention from what is called worldly re, or of asceticism, in any form, be con- d with the Teaching of Virtue. True vir- asists in the influence of habits on the Soul ; a chief characteristic is, the purpose for either knowledge or habits are striven for. lebrated sneer of Gibbon That the virtues clergy are more dangerous to society than ices strikes deeper perhaps than that acute >pher thought. Certainly the Asceticism PRO in his eye, was the efficient cloak of all practical vice : but who can misinterpret even the sincere asceticism, and almost unparalleled devotion of the Jesuit ; or discern in it, aught other than the sacri- fice of his own being just as he would sacrifice the whole world to an immoral and most hazardous lust of Dominion ? The question now started is vastly more important, than in its bearing on the personal character of Prodicus. It involves, the entire problem regarding the position of the ' Sophists ; ' a class of Teachers in Athens, of which Prodicus may be taken as a supreme instance. That these Teachers formed no School is unquestionable; and it was only the sheerest folly, and a gross libel on the Athenian people, through which, they were ever imagined, banded, by malice prepense, to unfold and make popular an 1 Art of Lying.' The persons so called, had little connection with each other, taught varying and often opposing doctrines, and assuredly they be- lieved in a sense what they taught. Let us look more minutely at the phenomenon. And first, as to the so-called ' Art of Lying.' On nothing does greater confusion of thought exist in society, than with respect to the import of the phrase 'Speaking Truth.'' It is the meanest who in any age choose to distribute what they know to be false ; even although it has become a question of strange casuistry, how far the false in Fact, may be Iruth in principle and reality. Truth-speaking is not synonymous with the utterance of our existing convictions : it involves in- extricably, the far profounder question, with what impartiality, under what solicitudes of conscience, have these convictions been acquired ? And this again touches on the still deeper Inquiry In what spirit, and for what purpose may the Soul of Man present itself as a recipient before the great Universe ? Suppose, for instance, that Truth or Knowledge is sought, merely as an arm whereby to accomplish some specific external purpose, is there much reason to believe that either will be attained in their purity ? If Virtue is sought, so that it subserve Power ; and Knowledge, so that it enable its pos- sessor to acquire social or professional standing, is it likely that the quest for either will be successful? Are the conditions of any actual country or phase of civilization, so full and absolute, that the Mind in its search for Truth, may safely say, that it desires, and will receive nothing except what can be turned to account, under these conditions ? Now the so- called Sophists or public Teachers of Athens, pub- licly avowed the purpose of enabling young men to obtain power in the State. This, was the coveted prize the profession prepared for ; and in subservience to this end, and to no other, they taught. One thing only, could follow : the effort after knowledge became a struggle for effect ; the pursuit of truth, the culture of Rhetoric ; con- tests of words, obscured the importance of things : and Conscience is like the unsunned snow ; let a breath touch it, and its virgin whiteness disappears. But, if this state of things was fatal to the dis- cernment of Truth, much more certainly, did it render growth in Wisdom, impossible. Wisdom is the property of harmony and nobility of Soul ; and no more the result of Knowledge per se, than of the exercise of the meanest mechanical employment. The assertion may seem harsh, if 617 PRO not paradoxical ; but ask History nay, circum- spice. Does knowledge emancipate ? Are special acquirements, coveted for special ends, the very slightest guarantee against a poorness of sentiment and heart, of which one finds the exact congener among the rudest and most illiterate ? In this direction, it would appear, lay the error of the popular Teachers of Athens ; and with what- ever individual exceptions where have ever lived any extensive class of Teachers, who, at these Sophists are entitled to cast a stone ? The pure and large Mind of Socrates perceived the destructive error; and against it, his life was a pro- test. 'Make vourself virtuous and noble,' was his cry, 'and your uses will come'! A message so terrible and overturning, that it has never been delivered in any age even in part, without ruin to the Prophet. In Athens it led to Death: but in Athens it was heard, and permitted to ini- tiate a Revolution. In that great Democracy, the Prophet had to contend with Men, but not with Institutions ; therefore, although he fell, he suc- ceeded. (Article Socrates). [J.P.N.] PRODICUS, a heretic of the 2d century. PROKOPHIEV, Ivan Prokophievitsch, a famous Russian sculptor, 1758-1828. PRONY, Gaspard C. F. Marie, Baron De, a learned engineer, physician, and mathematician, professor at the polytechnic school, 1755-1839. PROPERTIES, Sextus Aurelius, a Latin poet, of the age of Ovid and Virgil, who shared with them the friendship of Maecenas, d. about 12. PROSPER, St., a learned theologian and his- torian of the 5th century, known for his opposition to the Pelagians. He was a native of Aquitaine, and survived Augustine, to whom he wrote in 427. Another Prosper, who lived about the same time, was a native of Africa, and wrote on the call of the Gentiles. A third, called Prosper Pito, was a poet and chronicler, and lived in Gaul towards the end of the 4th century. His works are often confounded with those of St. Prosper. PROTAGORAS ; one of the most celebrated of those Teachers of Athens, called Sophists. We have spoken of them under the article Prodicus. In its chief features, the philosophy of Protagoras, resembled that of Locke. He denied the Absolute ; and his maxim was that Man, or each Man, is the measure of all Truth. PROTOGENES, a Greek painter, 836 b.c. PROUDHON, J. B. V., a Fr. jurist, 1758-1838. PROVENZALE, Marcello, an artist in mosaic, eel. for his portrait of Paul V., 1575-1639. PROYART, L. B., a Fr. histor., abt. 1743-1808. PRUDENTIUS, Aurelius, a Christian, and native of Spain, author of valuable poems, b. 348. PRUDHOMME, L., a Fr. journalist, au. of 'The Errors and Crimes of the Revolution,' 1752-1830. PRUDHON, P. P., a Fr. painter, 1760-1823. PRYCE, William, a physician and mineralo- gist, author of a Cornish Vocabula'y and Gram- mar, last century. PRYNNE, William, famous in the history of English puritanism, was born of a good family at Swanswick, in Somersetshire, 1600, and became a barrister at law, and member of Lincoln's Inn at the time when Dr. Preston, a celebrated puritan divine, was lecturer there. It was the period when the illegal operations of the Star Chamber, and PRY the courts of high commission had reduced Engl to a despotism equal to that of France, while manners of the age were a scandal to religion good morals. Marshall, Manton, Calamy, Bur and other preachers in London, kept alive spirit of earnest piety and love of freedom, wl soon after produced the commonwealth w the mere sight of Burton, as Neale remarks, w; sermon against oppression. Prynne, who w* person of sour temper and austere practices, markable for his indefatigable application to sti begun to write in 1627, and in 1632 he published ' Histriomastixf a tedious work of more tha thousand pages, full of learning and curious qui tions, and written against plays, masks, danc and especially against women-actors. Some ] sages in this work were supposed to be leve against the queen, who had acted in a past performed at Somerset House ; and the langr of the book was certainly, like most others of' age, anything but refined and compliment The real cause of offence in the eyes of Archbia Laud, who originated the prosecution aga Prynne, was, of course, far other than this libel matter, namely, the opposition of Prynne and entire party to the Arminian system and the k diction of the bishops. The information inch; both the aspersions of the author against queen and the lords of the council, for their si in the diversions of the age, and his commenda of ' factious persons.' The cause was tried be the Star Chamber, and the condemnatioi Prynne was a matter of course. After a full h< ing he was sentenced to have his book bun the common hangman, to be degraded frdfl bar, and turned out of the society of Lincoln^ to be degraded at Oxford, to stand twice in pillory, at Westminster and CheapsiJe, and lose one of his ears at each place, to pay a fini 5,000, and then to be imprisoned for life. 1 must have been a moderate sentence in thfli of some of the lords of the council, for the Dorset addressed their prisoner in these wo ' Mr. Prynne, I declare you to be a schism- in the church, a sedition-sower m the col wealth, a wolf in sheep's clothing ; in a omnium malorum nequissimus. I shall fii 10,000, which is more than he is yet less than he deserves. I will not 81 at liberty, no more than a plagued man or dog, who, though he can't bite will foam ; b far from being a social soul that he is nol tional soul. He is fit to live in dens witl beasts of prey as wolves and tigers like hi therefore, I condemn him to perpetual imt ment ; and for corporal punishment I wool him branded in the forehead, slit in the nos have his ears chopped off.' The sentence wa cuted, and the general raid against nonconfa caused many to seek refuge in Holland. Ii Prynne, though in prison, wrote another entitled 'News from Ipswich' against the s of Laud, (see Laud), and being condemned to another fine of 5,000, and to lose the re der of his ears, had the very stumps hack and was branded on both cheeks in the pn of indignant thousands, on the 30th of June, In this last sentence Burton the famous pre and Bastwickthe physician, were included wit CIS PEZ the former was accompanied on his road to on by a vast concourse of the populace. In 1640 ane was chosen member of the long parliament ilewport, and was then released by order of the ise of Commons, together with his fellow-suf- s, and they entered London in the midst of a nphant procession which met them some miles i town. The House of Commons likewise voted 1 money in compensation, which they never got, msequence of the disturbed state of the times, cruel punishment these men had undergone ex- the spirit of the nation, and prepared it for the ge of government, yet Prynne was no party lose measures, and when Colonel Pride took sssion of the house, he was among the ex- id members ; he also published a ' Memento ' ist the trial of the king, for which he was im- ned by the parliament. His subsequent his- is that of an enemy of Cromwell, and having 1 in the restoration of Charles II., he was ap- id chief keeper of the records in the Tower, ied in that office at his chambers in Lincoln's 669. Wood calculates that he wrote a sheet . for every day of his lifetime after reaching estate. His custom was, when he studied, on a long quilted cap, which came an inch is eyes, serving as an umbrella to defend from too much light ; and seldom eating a would every three hours or more be munch- 11 of bread, and now and then refresh his ted spirits with ale. To this (says the of Neale) Butler seems to allude in his to his muse : hou that with ale or viler liquors )idst inspire Withers, Prynne, or Vicars, ' id teach them, though it were in spite 'nature and their stars, to write.' forks amount to forty volumes, folio and The most valuable, and a very useful ice, is his ' Collection of Records ' in four )lumes. [E.R.] JMYSLAS, a king of Poland, who seized on the death of Lesko VI. 1295, and sinated 1296. 'COVIUS, Samuel, a Polish statesman Jot of the Socinians, b. abt. 1592, d. 1670. "jMANAZAR, George, generally regarded assumed name of a singular character, to the literary world in the time of Dr. who at one period associated with him. S posed to have been born in France about e was the principal author of the ' Uni- "' tory,' and wrote a volume of Scriptural la version of the Psalms, and his own Me- Died 1763. [ENITUS, the last Egyptian king named )tus, sue. his father, Amasis, B.C. 525, by Cambyses after a reign of six months. Jf MIS, a king of Egypt, 599-594 B.C. 'IMETICHUS,akingofEgypt,whoreigned years, during fifteen of which he was ' to divide his power with eleven other He reigned alone from 652 to 614 was succeeded by his son, Necho. Ano- imetichus reigned 400-397 B.C. A Corinth, of the same name, reigned 585- after whose time the republican form of lent was established. [MUS, a king of Egypt, 819-810 B.C. PTO PSAMMUTHIS, a king of Egypt, 380-379 b.c. PSAUME, N., a French theologian, 1518-1575. PSELLUS, Michael Constamtine, a Greek physician, known as a classical commentator and mathematician, about 1105. Another Psellus, called Michael the Elder, wrote a work, ' De Operatione Daemonum,' in the 9th century. PSINACHES, a king of Egypt, who is said to have reigned from 1021 to 1013 B.C. PSUSENNES, the first of the name, king of Egypt, 1077-1037 B.C. The second, 1013-979 B.C. PSYCHRISTUS, a physician of the 5th cent. PTOLEMY (Soter) L, king of Egypt, natural son of Philip of Macedon, and an officer of Alex- ander the Great, succeeded to the government of Egypt on the death of the latter b.c. 324. He took the title of king 307, and raised the new capital of Egypt to the highest importance as the centre of commerce and learning. The museum and library founded by him gave birth to the fam- ous Alexandrian school Died B.C. 283. Ptolemy (Philadelphia) II., eldest son of the preceding by Berenice, began to reign in conjunction with his father 285, and became sole king 283. His reign fully sustained the reputation of the former, especially by his generous patronage of letters, one example of which is the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures, which he caused to be exe- cuted. Died b.c. 247. Ptolemy (Euergetes) III., son and successor of the preceding, continued his policy, and carried his victorious arms into Syria, Cilicia, and the whole country to the shore of the Euphrates. He restored the idols and much of the wealth ravished by Cambyses, and died, after a short reign, b.c. 222 or 221. Ptolemy (Philopator) IV., son and successor of the pro- ceding, whom he was suspected of having mur- dered, was a cruel and debauched character. He was named Philopator (lover of his father), ironi- cally. He caused his wife, Arsinoe, who was also his sister, to be put to death, and sustained a furious war with Antiochus the Great, whom he defeated near Gaza. Died B.C. 205. Ptolemy (Epiphanes) V., son of the preceding, was born b.c. 210, became king 205, and was poisoned by his courtiers 180. He brought the Romans into Egypt by appealing to them for protection against Antiochus the Great. He left three children Ptolemy Philometor, Ptolemy Physcon, and Cleo- patra, who was successively the wife of her two brothers. Ptolemy (Philometor) VI., son of the preceding and Cleopatra of Syria, was born b.c. 186, commenced his reign at the age of five years 181, protected by his mother. He was de- feated by Antiochus, and compelled to admit his brother to a share in the government 171. Died of his wounds, fighting against Alexander Balas in Syria, 146. Ptolemy (Euergetes) VII., brother of Philometor, became guardian of the young king, Ptolemy Eupator, and the year after superseded him on the throne by espousing the queen mother, Cleopatra, 145. He then killed Eupator, and con- tinued his reign, stained with debaucheries and cruelty, till 117 or 116 b.c. Ptolemy (Soter) VIIL, son of the preceding and Cleopatra, suc- ceeded 116, and sustained a war against nis mother, who preferred her other son, Ptolemy IX., till 106. After the death of Cleopatra and the expul- sion of Ptolemy IX., who haa usurped the throne 619 PTO in 88, he assumed the sovereign authority, and died 81 b.c. He left the crown to his daughter, Berenice, called also Cleopatra. Ptolemy (Alex- ander) IX., second son of Ptolemy VII. and Cleopatra, usurped the kingdom a short time dur- ing the reign of the preceding, and was dethroned, after murdering his "mother Cleopatra, 88. Pto- lemy (Alexander) X., son of the preceding, succeeded Ptolemy VIII. 81, under the patronage of the Romans in the time of Sylla, He married Berenice Cleopatra, whom he caused to be assassi- nated, for which he was himself massacred after a reign of nineteen days. Ptolemy (Auletes) XL, a natural son of Ptolemy VIII., was the only descendant of this line of princes after the tragedy just mentioned. He assumed the royal authority 81 B.C., but was not acknowledged king till 59. In 58 he was obliged to fly from Alexandria, and was in Rome, soliciting assistance to re-establish himself, till 55. He was then restored by Gabinius, the governor of Syria and lieutenant-general of Pompey, and died 52. Ptolemy (Dionysius) XII., eldest son of the preceding, succeeded to the throne conjointly with his sister, Cleopatra, under the protection of Pompey, 52. He became a parti- zan of Csesar in the civil wars, and after the battle of Pharsalia caused Pompey to be assassinated, who sought refuge in his states, 48. Aspiring to be sole King, he then took arms against Caesar, who had decided that Cleopatra should continue to reign with him, and was drowned in the Nile while flying from the field of battle, B.C. 47. Ptolemy XIII., younger brother of the preceding, was eleven years of age when Cleopatra was left sole mistress of Egypt by his death. She was compelled to marry hiim by Caesar, and he reigned with her till his death, 44 or 43 B.C. Ptolemy (C^esarion) XIV., an illegitimate son of Csesar and Cleopatra, obtained the title of king from the Roman triumvirs, B.C. 42. He was killed by order of Augustus at the age of eighteen, B.C. 30. PTOLEMY, two kings of Macedonia : theirs*, surnamed A lorites, a natural son of Amnyntas II., usurped the throne to the prejudice of his brother, Perdiccas, B.C. 371, and was dethroned by Pelo- pidas 368. The second, surnamed Craunus, eldest son of Ptolemy Soter and Euridice, succeeded B.C. 284, and was killed in battle with the Gauls 280. PTOLEMY APION, king of Cyrene, and all the Libyan dependencies of Egypt, was a son of Ptolemy VII. and his mistress Irene, and suc- ceeded 117 or 116 B.C. by the will of his father. He died b.c. 96, and bequeathed his estates to the Romans, who declined the bargain for a time, and gave the people their liberty. PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA, a son of An- tony and Cleopatra, was made king of Syria, Phoenicia, and Cilicia, by his father B.C. 32. He never reigned, however, but lived at the court of Juba, king of Numidia, having first graced the triumph of Augustus together with his brother, Alexander, and his sister Cleopatra. PTOLEMY, king of Cyprus, a natural son of Ptolemy VIII., succeeded to the sovereignty of that island at the death of his father b.c. 81. The Romans having resolved to reduce his kingdom to a province, he was poisoned B.C. 58. PTOLEMY, king of Mauritania, son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, daughter of Mark Antony and PUF of the last Cleopatra of Egypt, began to reigj or 20 b.c. Killed by order of Caligula a.d. 4 PTOLEMY, one of the petty sovereigns reigned in Syria after the fall of the Seleueides, ceeded his father, Menneus, probably as g. priest, 86 B.C. After the conquest of Mithnc the Great, he was protected by Pompey, and about 21 b.c. He was succeeded by his Lysanias, at whose death the Lebanon soverei was given to Cleopatra. PIOLEMY, an Egyptian priest and histc flourished in the reign of Augustus. PTOLEMY, Claudius, one of the most | tinguished men of Science of Antiquity : he dunng the first half of the second century;! his works on Astronomy and Geography tinued authorities and text-books for foui hundred years. In consequence of the close i nection between Ptolemy and Hipparchus, *i discoveries he reported, and whose labours hej tinued, it is difficult to detect Ptolemy's p deservings: but Delambre has evidently don| injustice from a desire to exalt Hipparchus. larger portion of the Planetary theory, as thai represented by the scheme of Epicycles, is un tionably due to him; and his great work- Almagest, or Syntax, is the only complete si matic work on Astronomy which the ancient' produced. As a geographer, Ptolemy is dj guished from Strabo: the work of the Ian confined to descriptive geography; while til Ptolemy is mathematical. A very edition of it has recently appeared m Gen| The Astronomical and Chronological wot Ptolemy, along with the Commentaries of 1] were edited and published along with a i translation, in six handsome quarto volume] the Abbe Halma. [J. PTOLEMY of Lucca, the ecclesiastical \ assumed by Bartolomeo Fiadoni, an hisl] 14th century. PUBITSKA, F., a Bohemian hist., 172* PUBLICOLA, Publius Valerius, su( of Collatinus as consul and founder of the 1 republic, 509 B.C., died 501. PUBLIUS SYRIUS, a Latin poet or draril of whose writings some fragments, or mo| fences, are preserved in the works of Sene was a native of Syria, and went to Rome condition of a slave about 50 B.C. PUCCI, F., an Italian theologian, died 1 j PUCELLE, R., a French lawyer, 16554' PUCELLE. See Joan of Arc. PUFFENDORF, Samuel, a historian, and naturalist, was born at Chemnitz in j in the year 1632. He was educated at if for the protestant ministry, but the bent i mind was in another direction. Through 1 strumentality of his elder brother he diplomatic service of Sweden. In the his duty he was detained at Copenhagen d rupture between Sweden and Denmark, said to have been during this period of leisure that he turned from the practice I theory of diplomacy and international re] In the year 1660 he published his we ' Elementa Jurisprudential Uni twelve years afterwards, the still better 'De Jure Natura? et Gentium.' He 620 PUG orical works, chiefly directed to gratify his Tned employes, which have only heen known e they were written by the author of the e on the law of nature and nations. This owed its existence in a great measure to original labours of Grotius. Puffendorf had a r and systematic mind, and a great capacity jeeing and developing views which were rational plausible, if not profound. In this he re- bled the Scottish school of philosophers with m his works, and especially a small ethical arise ' De Officio Hominis et Civis,' were ned of great authority. His views on the nalous position of the German empire created ast controversy, and such political influence t has been rare for theoretical writers to te. He died at Berlin, where he had been led by the elector of Brandenburgh, in [J.H.B.] GATSCHEFF, Jemeljan or Yemelka, a k general, who obtained military rank in ssian and Austrian armies, and afterwards ed himself off as Peter III., emperor of Russia, k the field in 1773, and, soon at the head 6,000 men, he was marching on Moscow, he was betrayed and executed 1775. GET, L. De, a French naturalist, 1629-1709. GET, Peter, one of the greatest artists by France, distinguished as a sculptor, tect, painter, and ship-builder, 1622-1694. n, Francis, an architect and painter, d. 1707. GHE, William Owen, a Welch literateur, of a Lexicon and other works, 1760-1835. GIN, A., a French designer, died 1832. GIN, Augustus Northmore Welby, was of a French gentleman who fled to England period of the revolution. He was born in and commenced his professional career as a painter and decorator at the Theatre Royal, it Garden : he published his first work, on ic Furniture,' in 1835, and ' The Glossary of ' stical Ornament ' in 1844. Died 1852. AYE, Count Joseph De, a French officer family, who sat as a deputy in the states- , and, being proscribed by the republic, in- the English government to undertake the ition to Quiberon ; died in England 1827. SANT, L., a Fr. geometrician, 1769-1843. JOL, A., a Fr. medical writer, 1739-1804. JOULX, J. B., a dramatist, 1762-1821. HERIA, jElia, saint and empress of the was daughter of Arcadius and Eudoxia. She rn at Constantinople 399, and governed the under the name of her brother, Theodosius, age of fifteen to the year 447, when she was After the death of Theodosius in 450, she imed empress, and ruled with Marcianus, she married, till her death in 453. She was of exemplary conduct, and has the credit bling the council of Chalcedon in 451. T, Luizr, an Italian poet, 1431-1487. AR, F. De, a Spanish historian, 1436-86. GO, D., an Italian painter, 1475-1527. '.US, or PULLER, R., anEnglish cardinal, d the university of Oxford, 12th cent. NEY, R., a dist. botanist, 1730-1801. TENEY, William, earl of Bath, descended n old family of Leicestershire, was born and commenced his career in parliament in PUR 1705. He became a privy councillor and secre- tary of war at the accession of George I., being then a friend and partizan of Walpole. He after- wards became the enemy of that minister, and was associated with Bolingbroke as editor of the Crafts- man. Died 1764. PULZONE, S., an Italian painter, 1550-1588. PUNT, J., a Dutch painter, 1711-1779. PUPIENUS. See Maximus Clodius. PURCELL, Henry, the greatest of English musicians, was born in 1658, as it is believed, in Westminster. His father and uncle were both musicians, and gentlemen of the Chapel Royal at the Restoration. It is known that Purcell's father died in 1664, so that the young musician could not have received much benefit from his instructions. It is not a little to be wondered at that there is no account of from whom he received his first lessons in musical art, though from the circumstance that he was entered as one of the children of the chapel when Cook was master, it is inferred that he had under him commenced his education. He is sup- S)sed, also, to have received lessons from Pelham umphreys, and afterwards from Dr. Blow, on whose tombstone was inscribed that he had been ' master to the famous Mr. Henry Purcell.' While still a boy, Purcell composed several Anthems that were thought worthy of being performed, and some of these juvenile essays in composition are in use in the English cathedrals to the present time. At eighteen years of age he was appointed organist at Westminster Abbey; and at twenty-four he was promoted to one of the three places of organist to the Chapel Royal. After this his fame was spread far and wide, and his sacred compositions were sought after with greediness and listened to with a feeling akin to religious rapture. From this period until thirty years after his death, his songs took precedence of all others, and only at length gave way before the fashionable operatic songs of the greater Handel. The works of Purcell embrace every species of composition then known, and all were far beyond those of his contemporaries. Pur- cell's first dramatic writings were to the songs in Nahum Tate's ' Dido and iEneas.' He afterwards composed music for Nat Lee's 'Theodosius, or the Force of Love,' which was performed at the Duke's theatre in 1690. In the same year he composed music for the 'Tempest.' In 1691 he set the songs of Dryden's, ' King Arthur' to original music. In 1692 ' The Indian Queen,' by Sir R. Howard and Dryden was brought out with music by Purcell. He next wrote music for D'Urfey's 'Don Quixote.' In D'Urfey's ' Pills to Purge Melancholy' several of his songs are published, as also in Playford's ' Singing Master.' In 1695 he composed music for 'Boadicea.' He also wrote airs, overtures, and interludes for many dramas. He composed three cantatas, two of which ' Mad Bess ' and ' From Rosy Bowers,' are still ranked as unrivalled works of their kind. After his death, which happened in November, 1695, his widow collected and published his works in 2 volumes folio, under the title of ' Orpheus Britannicus.' It is said of Purcell 'that his anthems far exceed in number those of any other composer, and would alone have furnished sufficient employment for a moderately active mind, and a life of average duration.' Purcell's remains were deposited in Westminster Abbey, where a 621 PUR tablet to his memory maybe seen, with the follow- ing inscription, said to be from the pen of Dry- den : ' Here lies Henry Purcell, Esq., who left this life, and is gone to that blessed place, where only his own harmony can be exceeded. Obiit. 21mo die Novembris, Anno setatis suae 37mo Annoq. Domini 1695.' [J.M.] PURCHAS, Samuel, a native of Essex, editor of a collection of voyages andtravels, abt. 1577-1628. PURE, M. De, a French writer, 1634-1680. PURI, D., a Swiss philanthropist, 1709-1786. PURI, J. P., a Swiss traveller, last century. PURVER, Anthony, a poor rustic of Hamp- shire, who mastered the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, and executed an English version of the Scriptures, which was printed at the cost of Dr. Fothergill. While engaged in these studies he settled at Andover as a schoolmaster, and finally became a preacher among the quakers. Born about 1702, died 1777. PUSCHKIN, A. S.. a Russian poet, 1799-1837. PUSSORT, H., a French jurist, 1615-1697. PUTTEN, Henry Van Der, called in Latin Fyicirus Puteanus, and in French Dupuy, a learned Dutch writer and poet, 1574-1646. PUTTENHAM, George, an Oxford scholar, kn. as a poet in the age of Elizabeth, d. abt. 1600. PUTTER, J. S., a Germ, publicist, 1725-1807. PUY, A. J. Du, a Fr. statesman, 1753-1832. PUY, H. Du. See Putten. PUY, Louis Du, a Fr. literateur, 1709-1795. PUY, Pierre, Du, a learned French antiqua- rian, historian, and theologian, 1582-1651. PUY-SEGUR, James De Chastenet, Vis- count De, a French officer, who was at thirty battles and a hundred and twenty sieges without ever receiving a wound. He was born in 1600, and is author of Memoirs relating to the period, 1617 to 1658 ; died 1682. His son, James Francis, commander-in-chief in the French Netherlands and marshal of France, author of 'The Art of War,' 1655-1743. The son of the latter, Francis Maximus De Chastenet, Marquis de Puysegur, a lieutenant-general, and writer on church pro- perty and the military art in China, 1716-1782. His second son, Anthony Hyacinthe Anne De Chastenet De Puysegur, better known as the Count de Chastenet, a navigator and archaeologist, 1752-1802. P. L. De Chastenet, Comte De Puysegur, son of the marshal, an officer and minister of war, 1727-1807. J. Augustus, brother of the latter, a distinguished prelate and deputy of the estates - general, 1740-1803. Armand Marie James, son of the minister of war, camp- marshal and physician, famous for his zeal in the propagation of animal magnetism, 1782-1825. PUZOS, N, a French accoucheur, 1686-1753. PUY, or PYE, H. J., a native of London, suc- cessor of Wharton as poet-laureate, 1745-1813. PYLE, Thomas, a minister of the Church of England, known as a Scripture commentator, and partizan of Hoadley in the Bangorian contro- versy, 1674-1756. PYM, John, member for Tavistock in all the parliaments of Charles I., and leader of the House of Commons during the struggle preceding the parliamentary wars, was born in Somersetshire, 1584, and educated at Oxford. He was the orator of the day, and such was his popularity, that he PYM was called ' King Pym.' The events which his career fill a considerable space in English tory. In 1626-1628 he was among those managed the impeachment of the duke of B' ingham and Dr. Manwaring the latter for his mon on the regal prerogative, in which he ar : that the consent of parliament was not neces for the levying of taxes, and that the Divine require implicit obedience to the king. In Pym and his party came into close relation with the Scotch Covenanters. When the parliament met, 3d November, 1640, he haran them on the grievances of the nation, which immediately took into consideration instead o king's speech ; thus he was the Mirabeau oi English Tennis Court. About a week aftero he made a more studied and more impetuous course on grievances, and impeached the ea Strafford not only of crimes against the state of immoralities ; he was also one of the mam of his trial, as, in short, he was always at the of the public business, and knew more of p; mentary matters than any man living. In F< ary, 1641, he spoke against Archbishop Lau occasion of his impeachment, and after the e: tion of that prelate he became chairman o committee appointed by the House of Com during the recess, which lasted from 9th Septe to 20th October, by which committee the sove authority was in some measure exercised, next great event, beginning of 1642, was tin peachment of the five members, Hollis, Ha* Hampden, Pym, and Strode, who were denu by the king for treasonable practices, and tected by the city ; on this occasion the km London, apprehensive of his personal a Pym, therefore, saw the commencement o. final struggle between Charles I. and his p ment, but he died before any decisive adv* had been obtained, on the 8th of December,] about a month after he had been appoint tenant of the ordnance. It was reported a j the royalists that the cause of his death wa bus pedicuhsus ; and in order to dispro? calumny his body was exposed for several dil the public gaze ; afterwards, it was attended < grave in Westminster Abbey by most of and commons in parliament. Shortly ' death Pym published a ' Vindication ' duct. After alluding to the divisions by the bishops, and their encouragemen malignants, he adds : ' For these reasons my opinion for abolishing their functions, conceive may as well be done as the dissoli monasteries, monks, and friars, was in Kinjj the Eighth's time : ' he concludes with that he was not the author of the present i tions ; with acknowledging the king for his sovereign; and with the honest convictitf when he was persecuted as a traitor merely) service of his country, no man could blame I taking care of his own safety by flying to the protection of parliament, who were ] to make his cause their own. The purit* shall attended Pym's deathbed, and in the f sermon which he preached before ] arli: " passed the highest eulogium on the strict no piety, and serenity of the depart- statesman. It is admitted that Pym was on 022 PYN [ret to urge the necessity of appealing to the |vord. On the restoration of Charles II., Pytn's ody was dug up in Henry the Seventh's chapel, lth those of about twenty others, including the iillant Admiral Blake, the mother of Cromwell, iid his daughter Mrs. Claypole, andtransferred to e neighbouring churchyard. He is said to have ft several children, and his lady, who died in 20, is reported to have been a highly accom- ished woman. [E.R.] 'PYNAKKER, A., a Dutch painter, 1621-1673. PYNSON, Richard. See Pinson. PYRA, J. E., a German poet, 1715-1744. PYRRHO, born at Elis, where he lived about > rear 340 B.C. Plato was then dead : disputa- 'ns had arisen in the Academy, which bad not a the fortune to obtain a second master : Aris- itle attacked it on all sides ; and philosophy s in confusion. In the midst of these quarrels, I remarkable person we have named arose, and ^claimed as the dogma of his Philosophy and II rule of Life ' I know nothing about it and i tain.' Of a man who wrote nothing, and lose character must be gathered from scraps served by auditors, it is impossible to speak in decision ; but to his power over his contem- daries, and, therefore, to his genius, the singular tbahnment of his name bears ample testimony. ( at mistakes have prevailed regarding the doc- ties of Pyrrho : notable Greeks had never so lie common sense, as a personage like what he i rulgarly imagined to have been : the stories a nt his doubting the evidence of his senses, and v ully butting against any post or rock in his simply absurd even more so than nilar myths, once prevalent regarding u shrewd and sagacious compatriot David We shall learn the nature of Pyrrho's n, through reflection on his position. The Kjme he propounded, or rather the resource to lied, was simply a tertium quid, in refer- I to Affirmative and Negative systems, y in his time. Now what were these? but the very conflict waging in philoso- ud ourselves the conflict, viz., between Iilism and Sensualism between doctrines of lute, and of the dependence of the Mind s functions, on the shows and events of ex- Ntture. There are two Schools, said whose systems, viewed from their differ- ^Hte of sight, appear equally probable ; and IHfcion of the strength of the arguments 8U lining them seems to be par. Is it not y then, that the problem sought to be is really insoluble by the human facul- therefore, that the true position, of the > : ie of Indifference ? In the principle of a u of this sort, there is certainly nothing : it involves little more than we find in >mies of Kant: assuredly it has firmer than thousands of popular dogmatisms on HHe. There is no reason whatever to suppose 'ho's doctrines went beyond this: he i^d subjective certainty, or sought to HV&the evidence of consciousness. One cau- Ethe student may be repeated : he ought to credit the follies, attributed to these ve Greeks ; for, if eminently speculative, re, in their quality of natural Artists, PYT eminently clear and practical also. There is a maxim of Coleridge's, which should, in no attempt at interpretation, be at any time lost sight of: ' Never suppose that you understand a man's Ignorance, until you are sure that you are not ignorant of his Understanding.'' [J.P.N.] [Pyrrhus From an Antique Bust.] PYRRHUS, son of iEcides, and king of Epirus, one of the most illustrious generals of antiquity, was born about 318 B.C., and was left an orphan in childhood under the protection of Glaucias, king of Illyria. He was placed on the throne of his ancestors by force of arms when about twelve years of age, and reigned peacefully five years, when advantage was taken of his absence to transfer the crown to his great uncle, Neoptolemus. After serving in the army of Alexander the Great, and greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, Pyrrhus recovered his domin- ions, which he shared with his rival, and then caused the latter to be put to death. He next contended with the Romans for possession of the dominions of Alexander the Great, and became master of Macedon. Among his principal battles was that of 279 b.c. against the Roman consuls Sulpicius and Decius. He was killed, gallantly fighting, at the siege of Argos, B.C. 272. The life of Pyrrhus is one of the most interesting written by Plutarch. [ E -R-] PYTHAGORAS lived, according to the chron- ology of Clinton, about 570 b.c. Cicero tells us, he settled in Magna Graecia, in the fourth year of Tarquinius Superbtjs, or when Rome had begun to rise between 520 and 530 B.C. : One of the most august Forms of which we can descry any outline, through these long twenty-four cen- turies ; nor, if we reflect, how thickly the mists have settled around all acts and Actors of that far past, can it be wonderful, that, as if his Shadow only, is now to be discerned. Before attempting to lay down on a modern canvas, even a space for that Shadow, we must consent to a few princi- ples of applicable historic criticism. And, foremost of all, it is imperative that we disconnect not only with Reality or Fact, but also with the pretensions, and therefore with the reputation of this memor- able Teacher, every shred of the marvellous thrtt so soon got fastened to his name. Not merely the 623 PYT story of the golden thigh a myth of the vulgarest kind, and valuable only as evidence that such myths spring up and endure, but also those manifold traditions concerning his supernatural instruction ; for assuredly in the tales of his initia- tion in the cave of the Cretan Jupiter, or that his system of morals flowed direct from inspired lips at Delphi, there is nothing beyond incidents of travel occurring to one who thirsted for all know- ledge ; and disfigured through the slavish venera- tion of disciples, who, instead of being fed by his genius, succumbed to his authority, and slid insen- sibly into such modes as those, of rendering reason for their ultimate formula and final appeal the ewrot i$n. Next, and with equal decision, we re- ject as binding on Pythagoras, the logical schemes constructed by his followers, even so early as the times of Philolaus. The schools founded on the name of an illustrious Master, never retain his genius ; and as in default of power of Insight, and the difficult power of Thought, there remains the easy exercise of Logic, it uniformly befals as already we have required to assert that the letter of the original teaching becomes substituted for its spirit ; symbols and figures of speech at first simple and catholic, are adduced in defence of mere dogmas and phantasms ; and worst of all effective and living Morals, touching on the prac- tical relations of Man with Society and God, are displaced by arid Theory. This is the process by which, in the words of a remarkable writer of our own day, Wisdom, is dried for sale and exporta- tion ; and has not its pestilence followed the steps of all mighty Instructors, whose feet have ever touched the soil of our World ? Let us not charge to Pythagoras, that doctrine which defines the Physical World by the number Jive, the Veget- able by the number six, the Animal by seven, Human Life by eight, Ultramundane Life by nine, and the Divine Life by the As*o, or Ten ! The Mind that has left so great a remembrance, and which fills that imposing portion of the sphere of Antiquity, did not gain its influence over the working Manhood by its time, through the concoc- tion or preaching of enigmas like these ! Lastly: we must not approach these ancient philo- sophies, or undertake their interpretation, as if they were inherently mysterious, or different in kind, from the aspirations of great and sincere Thinkers of our own day : The concealed lore of Egyptian priests, the secrets at Eleusis or Samo- thrace, were neither knowledge nor philosophies, but presumption and pretence, founded on the abuse of both. Greatness in Antiquity, is like Greatness now, its foremost affection being for the simplicity of Truth ; and to the right appre- hension of what that Greatness was, there is no path save one. The Ingenuous alone can under- stand the Ingenuous: The worthy Seeker, will ever carry along with him, faith in Greatness and reverence for it ; but this conviction, also, that, to whatever extent careful criticism of the influ- ences and circumstances, within which an Ancient Teacher lived, does not enable us to trans- late his thoughts into the universal language of the Heart and Reason of Humanity, to that same extent must he be held as severed from the Present, and therefore effaced from its Past. Under such dim but guiding lights, let us, PYT as best we may, and with rapid crayon, proceed t i sketch the features of the Crotonian sage. And first, as to the positi which Pythagoras started. He could have n] starting point except the fundamental ldi Ionian School, which, in an enlarged sen fundamental Idea of all Greek philoso]/ beneath the endless forms and singular cl outward things, there is some great I Principle, just as the unfathomed and de< ing ocean, rests underneath the billows 1 1 each other across its surface, and die in ri the shore. Now the Ionians, or tihephysit sought this principle in a common physical e&i ment; and, on the ground of imperfect obs or ruder experiments, one imagined I forms of substance could be traced to trai tions of Water; another to modifications of Am and a third laid it down that Fire is the i substance or Force. This form of the ge conception, must be taken as our first systemat ' statement of that problem, which still j^^H Chemical Analysts: it is the glory of Pyt that he struck out a new mode of tfa^| grand search, and laid the foundation of thai Physical Sciences, which look not for elements, btj relations, and, through these, for ultimate Lavs-\ indicating primal Forces. The most cons^H and inventive Mathematician of that epocb- found in Numbers, the expression of thi of Quantity, and in Geometry, an or could evolve the relations of Form. It v, foolish to pretend, that he proceeded far, reduction of phenomena within such ra^H but the idea of a possible science in this took strong hold of his masculine intt ' Greek imagination; and he embodied the tion, in the dogma of his School. These c o i were deepened, and his conception of the char* I ter of the Universe vastly enlarged, by what * i must consider either a most fortunate g a capital discovery. Struck, as could not fid! a Samian, by that unsurpassed music, which h; floated around him from infancy, in the Lyrics, and great Epics of Troy, he seems to ha- discerned that Harmony was representible 1 Number ; and hence the second fundamental b> i lief of his Philosophy, that Harmony too is and one of the first principles of Things. It m not be said, that in the expression of truths deep, an Inquirer, even sagacious as V) I must always have avoided fantastic 63^^| and mystical forms; but then his notions we correct at their root, and his faith a living practical one : he looked at the scheme around him, no longer as perplexing, but a mighty order and a solemn music, and I wonder and adoration ! Should the stud a tangible and veritable Image of such a phiT sophy, he must not go to Philolaus, or Aj Critics, but to the writings of John Kepi too, spoke strangely in his youth ; but those drea about relation and harmony, conducted him in end to a xr*iux, it etui to Laws which produc the epoch of Newton, and raised him inl i lasting Name. The sage and Lawgiver of Crot stands, however, towards the ancient and mode world alike, in a second aspect one that sh him on a platform quite above any which belon C24 PYX i mere Speculative Physics. First, or at least bst clearly in the Greek world, he felt and as- ; -ted the indestructible personality of the Human ifuh and that the ground of its Existence, is its .;)ral State. Children laugh at the doctrine of fe Metempsychosis; but observe what it really (mines, and the august verities it includes. It is i averment, in the first place, of the indepen- I ice of the Ego, or of the Soul, not merely of I rounding and changing accidents, but of its sent and apparent Life, an idea, which, in its jestic proportions can take possession of no id, without making it great. Pythagoras, sed none of these proportions. The soul is isured by its moral conditions, and its fates forms correspond with these. If it has done I its duty in its existing state, if it has been jht and elevated by experience, Death is the 5 towards some loftier form and more ex- ded sphere : if, on the contrary, in the conflict ight and wrong, it has done the wrong, and ped to be a slave of passion, what fate is pos- but descent, and the shape of grovelling es ? Be it remembered, this metempsychosis earliest practical representation of the no- of Immortality ; nor is there a truer account here, at so primal an age, of Man's Moral re- with the Gods. The history of the Soul, is supposed confined to this Earth ; and ore, the modes of Terrestrial Life, are taken ly presenting that History. No sublime lation announcing a purely spiritual Exis- had descended to illumine Pythagoras : and ds beyond this, were not then imagined ; he not that the lights of the midnight Vault hty Orbs, stretching upward and upward, rough serene Ether, and through every of circumstance and condition merg- to the Infinite. Surely it is no slight , and was enough to uphold his con- that knowledge came to him from a Source, that the mind of that illustrious reached so deep an insight, and could sus- large a belief. Realize now and combine o foregoing conditions, those warm and speculations concerning the Harmony of the and that profound conviction of Man's QUE large destinies, and the paramount import of his Moral Nature ; could a great Soul possessed by both, remain in inaction, or be satisfied with mere speculative teaching? Pythagoras, appears to have added that highest attribute of Humanity Wisdom, or the power practically to understand Mankind, and therefore to influence our Human Fates. Hence, his memorable effort in Magna Graecia to found a new Moral Commonwealth the first and the best Utopia, of which we have any record ; the excellence of its aim flowing from the character and principles of its Founder, and its sagacity demonstrated by its great success. Ignorance and external circumstance eventually prevailed to crash it ; but many ages elapsed, ere the fame of the great confederacy of Crotona, faded in Greece. We know little that is certain, of the positive laws of that Confederacy ; but its founda- tion was this, as Harmony is the rale of Uni- versal Nature, and the cause of its Stability, so must it be the rule of all Human Societies, which fulfil their object and may reach permanence. It is not easy to refuse assent to such a conceptions neither can one overlook that while it involve; the germ of all Utopias, framed from that time until now it expresses also, that which, as it becomes realized, constitutes the history of Civili- zation. It is probable that Pythagoras, like his successors, hoped too much from mere laws and external conditions of Order, and trusted too little to that inner and unseen order, which ordains that the ultimate sum of the World, shall be worked out by the efforts, and even through the imperfec- tions of the Individual ; nevertheless, his august Name must stand far up in that bright roll of Worthies, who have practically held by Reason, and not despaired of Humanity. Let the great Shade, have all honour. [J.P.N.] PYTHEAS, a celebrated mathematician, astro- nomer, and geographer, born in the Greek colony of Marseilles, then called Massillia, in the time of Alexander the Great. He is famous for his voyages of discovery, which are said to have extended as PYTHODORIS, a queen of Pontus, wife of Pole- mon I., and queen regent during the minority of her son, Polemon II., beginning of the Christian era. Q FADE, M. F., a Prus. philologist, 1682-1757. [ADRATUS, a bishop of Athens, known as the early apologists for Christianity, 2d ct. JADRIO, Francis Xavier, a learned Italian author of a History of Poetry,' 1695-1756. lGLIATI, Paolo, the earliest dramatist troduced music on the stage at Rome, 1606. iGLIO, G., an Italian painter, eel. abt. 1693. lGLIO, Lorenzo, a native of Italy, who anied his father to Vienna, and was edu- uad practised there as an architect, 1730- His son, Giovanni Maria, and his ne- Guilio and Guiseppe, were distinguished e painters, and flourished from about 1750- ). Dominico, the son of Guiseppe, called ualetto of Germany, 1786-1837. lINI, Francisco, an Ital. painter, 1611- 8 son, Luigi, a pupil of Guercino, 1643-1717. QUANZ, J. J., a Germ, musician, 1697-1773. QUARENGHI, G., an Ital. painter, 1744-1817. QUARIN, J., an Austrian physician, 1733-1814. QUARLES, Fran., an Engl, poet, 1592-1614. QUARREY, J. H., an ascetic writer, 1580-1656. QUATREMAIRE, J. R., a Benedictine of the congregation of St. Maur, kn. as a critic, 1611-71. QUATROMANNI, Sertorius, a miscellaneous Italian writer and classical translator, 1551-1606. QUELLINUS, E., an em. Flem. painter, 1607- 78. John Erasmus, his son and pupil, 1630-1715. QUENSEL, Conrad, a Swedish mathema- tician, 1676-1732. A relation of his, of the same names, author of ' The Swedish Flora,' 1768-1806. QUERENGHI, Antonio, a learned Italian, author of Italian and Latin poems, 1546-1633. QUERINI, Angelo Maria, a famous Italian cardinal and man of letters, 1680-1759. 625 2S QUE QUERLON, Anne Gabriel Mkusnifr Pf, a Frencli scholar, editor, and journalist, 1702-1780. QUERNO, C, a Neapolitan poet, died 1528. QUERSTEDT, J. A., a Ger. divine, 1617-1688. QUER Y MARTINEZ, Joseph, a Spanish physician, au. of ' The Flora of Spain,' 1695-1764. GjUESADA, Don, a Spanish general and royalist, murdered by the populace in 1836. QUESNAY, Francois, sometimes called the father of* the school of French economists, was born in the village of Ecquevilli in 1694. He was of peasant origin, and raised himself to notice by his acquirements as a physician. He was attracted from his obscure retreat to Paris, where he came under the notice of the potent Pompadour, whose patronage of the philosophical physician was one of the best acts of her life. He published some professional works, but his book on the most ad- vantageous method of governing mankind, pub- lished in 1768, is the achievement with which his name has been chiefly connected. At the root of his opinions lay a view long influential from its plausibility, that as the means of human subsis- tence, clothing, and generally the necessaries of life come from the earth, agriculture must be con- sidered the only productive kind of industry, all others being secondary, as they merely modify what it brings into existence. He inferred from this that the peasantry class ought to be encour- aged, to the neglect, or even the prejudice of others. His works have strikingly illustrated the view, that in such matters good is done by earnestly pushing opinions, however extravagant, since it was from Quesnay's teaching that the internal free trade in agricultural produce promoted by Turgot, and the abolition of the feudal exactions, were de- rived. He died in December, 1774. [J.H.B.] QUESNEL, Abbe, a Fr. controversialist, lastc. QUESNEL, Baron, one of Napoleon's generals, born 1775, found drowned in the Seine 1815. QUESNEL, Pasquier, a famous theologian of the Jansenist party, born at Paris 1634, died at Amsterdam, where he had taken refuge, 1719. QUESNOI, F. Du, a Flem. sculptor, 1592-1646. QUETIF, J., a French bibliographer, 1618-98. QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS, Francisco Go- mez De, a Spanish politician, best known as a poet and satirist, born at Madrid 1580, died 1645. QUEVEDO, P., a Spanish prelate, died 1818. QUICK, John, an Eng. comedian, 1748-1831. QUICK, John, a nonconf. divine, 1636-1706. QUIEN DE LA NEUFVILLE, James Le, a French historian of Portugal, appointed director of the posts in French Flanders, 1647-1728. QUIGNONEZ, Francisco De, an eminent Spanish cardinal and liturgical writer, died 1540. QUILLET, C, a French poet, 1602-1661. QUILLOT, C, a French quietist. 17th century. QUIN, James, a celebrated actor, was the son of an Irish barrister. He was born in London 1693, but educated in Dublin. His mother, un- fortunately, turning out to be a bigamist, poor Quin was treated as illegitimate, and inherited nothing of his father's fortune. In 1715, with his prospects thus blighted, and his education unfin- ished, he sought and obtained an engagement at Drury Lane, which he quitted in 1717 for the theatre in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, acquiring there great reputation in the stately characters of tra- QUI gedy ; such as Cato, Coriotanus, and Znnffcr, the stronger parts in comedy, among which wi Sir John Brute, Volpone, FaUtaff. Siv acting at Covent Garden, and in 1735 at Dn Lane, under Fleetwood, he received higher ter than any actor had previously commanded, pre-eminence he retained until the appearance Garrick, of whom he could not conceal his env and though he consented to act with the new p former in 1747 at Covent Garden, yet the res was so little favourable to his own position, t it is evident he gradually prepared for his final tirement. Quin was one of the admirers patrons of Thomson, the poet of 'The Seaso and, while unknown to him, spontaneously r sented him with one hundred pounds to deu him from an arrest ; and after the poet's death peared in his tragedy of ' Coriolanus,' and spofc prologue written by Lord Lyttelton, on wl occasion the actor is said to nave displayed common sensibility. He closed his career in IV in the character of Fahtaff, which he perfon for the benefit of his friend Ryan. His celeb in this part was very great, and there can be doubt from the accounts we have of it, that it ' a masterly and intellectual performance. He i at Bath, where he had resided for many yean 1766. His monument in Bath cathedral bean epitaph written by Garrick, in a spirit of appre tion highly honourable to both actors. [J. A QUINAULT, Philip, a celebrated lyric ] and opera writer, 1635-1688. QUINAULT-DUFRESNE,AbrahamAle: a celebrated French actor, 1G95-1767. His : Jeanne Francoise, an actress and literary fri of Voltaire, died 1783. Jean Baptist, bro' of both the preceding, and an actor, died V. Some others of the family were also distiiiguu on the stage. QUINCY, C. Sevin, Marquis De, a Fk officer and historian, flourished about 1660-M QUINCY, John, an English physician medical writer, died in London 1723. QUINETTE, M., a Fr. politician, died 1821 QUINQUARBOREUS. See Cinq-AbM QUINTILLIANUS, Marcus Fabius, a fan teacher of eloquence in the reign of Galba^H successors, was born about 42, probably ofj'^H ish family settled in Rome. The younger PtiTJ| one of his pupils, and in the reign of Doinitia: was intrusted with the education of two of J emperor's grand-nephews. His work ' De lH tione Oratoria,' is one of the most valuable^H antiquity. It has been translated into En^H Guthrie and Patsall. Date of his death iti^H QUINTILLUS, Marcus AureliusClMjB a Roman emp., who reigned seventeen day^H QUINTINIE, John De La, a celebral on horticulture, and director-general to th# r l j gardens at Versailles, 1626-1688. QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS, a I torian, supposed to have flourished in tin QUINTUS SMYRNiEUS, called also < Calaber, a Greek poet of the 5tli ecu! QUINZANO, or QUINTIANUS, I m only received name of J. F. Conti, Stoa, an Italian poet and philologist, 1 -i - QUIR1NI, A. M., an Ital. cardinal, K^H QUIRINO, P., a Venetian traveller, 15th 626 QUI QUIROGA, J., a Spanish Jesuit, 1707-1784. QUIROS, A., a Spanish missionary, died 1622. QUIROS, H. B., a Spanish canonist, last cent. QUIROS, H. B., Pedro Fernandez De, a lebrated Spanish navigator, d. at Panama 1614. QUIROS, T., a Spanish missionary, 1599-1662. RAC QUISTORP, John, a German minister and Lutheran professor of divinity, 1584-1648. His son, of the same name, also a divine and profes- sor, 1624-1669. QUITA, Domingos Das Reis, a Portuguese poet, cele. for his elegies and pastorals, 1728-1770. R RABANUS MAURUS, was born of French rents at Mayence in a.d. 776. On the complet- r of his early studies at Fulda in Hesse, he was ?re made a deacon in 801, and he betook himself Tour the following year to enjoy the tuition of s famous Alcuin. It is also apparent from his itings that he had in his youth made a pilgrim- ! toTPalestine. In his twenty-fifth year he be- le head of the convent school at Fulda, where his cessful teaching drew around him many pupils, . not a few of the nobility intrusted him with education of their sons. In 822 he was conse- d abbot, but he still directed the seminary, ch supplied many able teachers for the Frankish German churches. On a complaint of the iks that his absorption in literary pursuits lered the discharge of his more active conven- dnties, he retired in 842, after a presidency of ty years. He was, however, drawn out of voluntary seclusion in 847, on being made bishop of Mayence. In this situation he was poser and persecutor of Gottschalk, in con- ce of his doctrine of predestination. Ra- died in a.d. 856. His influence was great g the churches in the diffusion of practical , and he had several illustrious disciples. His tion and general attainments were respectable " e age in which he lived, and as a lecturer, cted his scholars in general literature ience as well as theology. He wrote com- ies on all the canonical books and many of yphal ones, and left behind him numerous sermons, and letters. A collected edi- the most of his works was published at 1627, in 6 folios. [J.E.] AUT, Peter, a French protestant minister, 1795. His son, John Paul, a protestant and deputy to the constituent assembly convention, author of numerous political 1743-1793. James Anthony, brother of , also a minister and deputy, 1744-1808. brother, Rabaut Dupuis, known only ician, died 1808. BE, Alphonso, a French journalist, his- and biographical writer, 1786-1830. ELAIS, Francois, is, of all humourists, the lously original, and the most remarkable g wit and humour ; but he is also the pulously audacious, and for many by far the most difficult to be understood. traditionally attributed to him many most of which are nothing more than cal jokes, or sayings profane or licen- wed from his writings. The facts which regard to his life, few as they are, suf- :e us wonder how it was, that he not the stake and the scaffold, but was a t to the hour of his death. He was &T poor parents, about 1483, at Chinon in Touraine ; and the time he spent in a conventual school at Angers, is said to have been put to pro- fit in no way, unless by making him intimate with his school-fellow Du Bellay, who was afterwards a cardinal, and his zealous patron and protector. He next became a friar in a convent of the Corde- liers ; and there he was a hard student, but is said to have been both dissolute and satirical. At all events, he eloped, studied medicine at Montpellier, took a doctor's degree, practised as a physician, lectured with success, and published, besides other works, translations from Hippocrates and Galen. While he was going through this stage in his his- tory, the patrons he had gained obtained permis- sion for him to transfer himself to the order of the Benedictines. He attended Cardinal Du Bellay when he was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1536; and on his return to France his patron procured for him a prebend, and the curacy of the village of Meu^.o^near Pari* He is believed to have died in 1553, and to nave then been about seventy years old. His famous romance appeared in suc- cessive fragments : it is a characteristic specimen of his oddities, that the second book, being pub- lished in 1533, preceded the first by two years ; and the third book was printed in 1546. When it had proceeded thus far, remonstrances from the clergy induced Francis I. to have it read to him : he pro- nounced it harmless ; and the author continued to be protected by Henry II. The fourth book, in which the attacks on the church, and sneers at re- ligion itself, became yet bolder, appeared only in 1552 ; and it was not till 1564 that the publica- tion was completed by the whole of the fifth book. The romance commonly goes by the name of its earliest parts : 'The Inestimable Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel, a Book Full of Pantagruelism.' Gargantua is a royal giant : the heroes of most of the adventures are Pantagruel, his son and successor, a good easy king ; and his favourite Panurge, the quintessence of buffoonery, sarcasm, and knavery. It is not easy to discover anything which Rabelais either believed or re- spected ; and his satire, with all its enigmatical cover- ings, tells terribly both on civil and on ecclesias- tical governments. But there is in it a large fund of good sense ; and the humour and fun, with all then- depravity, are often irresistibly comic. [W.S.] RABENER, T. W., a Ger. moralist, 1714-1771. RABUS, Peter, a Dutch critic, 1660-1702. RABUTIN, Roger, Count De Bussy, a French wit and satirist, time of Louis XIV., 1618-1693. RACAN, Honorat De Bueil, Marquis, a disting. poet and disciple of Malherbe, 1589-1670. RACHEL, the younger daughter of Laban, and wife of Jacob. She was the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, and died at the birth of the latter. RACINE, Bonaventure, a learned French priest and ecclesiastical historian, 1708-1755. 627 RAC RACINE, Jean, contests with his immediate predecessor, Corneille, the glory of being the greatest among the French Tragic Dramatists. Submitting implicitly to the code of laws laid down by the critics of his time, he did much to- wards making the Regular or Classical School of the Drama acceptable and permanent, by imparting to his tragedies all the perfection which it is possible to conceive genius as giving to works constructed on so narrow a model. His grace and melody of diction are exquisite; and his refined tenderness of feeling, often melting into profound pathos, breaks out through all the barriers imposed by the unities, and the simple plots, and the monotony of the rhymed Alexandrine verses. Racine was born in 1639, at La Fert6-Milon, in Picardy, where his father was a tax-collector. The most important part of his education was received in the school of the Port-Royalists, whose earnest piety and severe morality received no discredit either from the writ- ings or from the conduct of their pupil. In his twenty-first year he celebrated the marriage of Louis XIV., in a poem which gained him the favour of the king, exhibited not long afterwards by a pension, and followed by many other bene- factions. He began his dramatic career in 1663 ; but his first two tragedies, though not unsuccess- ful, really deserved the poor opinion expressed of them by Corneille, of whom they were little more than imitations. Racine's tine genius shone out with all its brightness in 1667, when ' Andromaque' was played ; and for ten years more he continued to produce, almost annually, plays, constituting a series of masterpieces, and exhibiting so little ine- quality that critical opinions are still divided as to their comparative merit. The first of these was the highly-finished comedy, ' Les Plaideurs ; ' but the success of this piece did not tempt the poet to diverge again from the tragic drama. ' Britannicus ' appeared in 1669, and was followed by ' Berenice ' (m which Racine measured lances with Corneille), ' Bajazet,' ' Mithridates,' the very skilfully con- structed 'Iphigenie,' and 'Phedre,' the work in which the dramatist's power in painting the ten- derness and fire of love is most strikingly displayed. In 1677, when the ' Phedre' came on the stage, Ra- cine and Boileau received honorary appointments as historiographers royal. The dramatist seems to have meditated making the office real ; and he is said to have been deterred from publishing his- tories by a rebuke, which some of his memoranda drew on him when they were communicated by his patroness, Madame de Maintenon, to the king. At all events he ceased, for twelve years, to write dramas, and never again wrote for the public stage. Some would have it that he was disgusted by the critical warfare which had been kindled by his latest plays ; others assert him to have been influ- enced by the religious impressions which, beyond doubt, now acted on him more and more strongly He made a happy marriage, superintended carefully the instruction of his children, and was much en- gaged in serious studies. He wrote a short ' His- tory of Port-Royal.' In 1689 ' Esther,' the first, and much the weaker, of his two sacred dramas, was played by the young ladies of St. Cyr. In 1699, the clencal directors of that school having prohibited stage-playing to the pupils, he sent 'Athalie' to the press, and had the mortification RAF to find that it was too devout and earnest for taste of the public. If no works had ever bt written except plays, and if there were no pU writers but those of France, the assertion would true which Voltaire makes as to this noble drar that it comes nearer to perfection than any ot literary work which ever issued from the hand: man. It was the last effort of its admirable autl He died from abscess of the liver, in great p? but with placid resignation, in 1699. [W. RACINE, Louis, son of the preceding, (list guished as a poet and miscellaneous wr., 1692-17 RACLE, L, a French engineer, 1736-1791. RADAGAISUS, leader of one of the Gerr hosts by which Italy was invaded at the beipnn of the 5th cent. Beheaded by Stilico 404 or 4> RADCLIFFE, Ann, a once popular novel whose maiden name was Ward, was born in L don, 1764, and at the age of twenty-three man to William Radcliffe, a graduate of Oxford, af wards proprietor and editor of the English CI nicle. The fashion of her romances was sot seded by that of the new school, headed by Sir V ter Scott, but they must always be esteemed principal of their class. Her great forte was the scription of scenes of terror, the surprise of sue or unseen danger, and the excitement of suspt Her first performance was ' The Castle of Athhn Dumblaine,' followed by ' The Sicilian Romtt ' The Romance of the Forest,' ' The Mysterie Udolpho,' and ' The Italian.' She also publi 'Travels through Holland and along the . in 1793. Died 1823. RADCLIFFE, John, founder of the j library of medical and philosophical sciajff Oxford, was an English physician, born at W field 1650. He took his diploma in 1682,1 having settled in London, became, in 1686,w cian to the princess Anne of Denmark. He' also occasionally employed by William IIL,' by Anne when she succeeded him as queen, was not in great favour with either of thenuj died in 1714, leaving 40,000 for the purpose? mentioned. RADEGONDA, a princess of the Franks, became the wife of Clothaire, and died i> monastery of St. Croix, founded by her, 587. RADEMAKER, two Dutch painters Gi flourished 1672-1711. Abraham, 1675-174*1 RADER, M., a Jesuit of Tyrol, 1561-16844 RADET, Stephen, one of Napoleon's genj by whom Pius VII. was escorted from Romrt prisoner in 1809, 1762-1825. RAEBURN, Sir Henry, a Scottish i esteemed second only to Sir Thomas I. a wren a portrait painter, was born at Stockbridge. j Edinburgh, 1756. He became president oi Edinburgh Academy of Painting, and when G >! IV. visited his northern capital in 1822, raj the honour of knighthood, and soon after tl I pointinent of first portrait painter to thekl Scotland. Died 1823. R^MOND, F. De, a Fr. historian, 1540- I RAFFAELLE. See Raphael. RAFFENEL, C. D., a French wr., 1797- f RAFFLES, Sir Thomas Stamford* (J guished as an administrator, travi turalist, was the son of Benjamin Raffles, c 1 in the West India trade, and wa3 born at i P 628 RAG Jamaica, 1781. He gradually rose from the posi- lon of a clerk in the India House to that of lieu- fcnant-governor, first of Java, and afterwards of ort Marlborough in Sumatra. In 1819 he estab- khed the British settlement and free port of Ingapore, and founded a college there for the en- fcuragement of Anglo-Chinese and Malay litera- ire. His principal work is a ' History of Java,' ht he sent home to England valuable collections J objects in natural history, and on his return [landed the Zoological Society, of which he was fst president. Died 1826. RAGGI, A., an Italian sculptor, 1624-1686. k RAGHIB PACHA, Mohammed, grand vizier [jthe Ottomans, a diplomatist and writer, 1702-67. [jRAGOTZKI, the name of several princes of ||ansylvania: 1. George, whose name is some- I pes spelt Racoczi, an ally of the Swedes during Ik thirty years' war, 1630-1648. 2. George the tiunger, joined the Swedes against Poland 1659, lid fighting against the Turks 1669. 3. Francis, llthor of a liturgy used throughout Hungary, died 1176. 4. Francis Leopold, the most famous of * family, conspired with Louis XIV. to deliver * Hungarians from the yoke of Austria, and was flared protector of Hungary in 1704. Being lUeated by the peace of 1713, he renounced his ilia estates, and retired to Turkey ; 1676-1735. IRAGUENET, Francis, a French writer on ipicellaneous subjects, au. of a ' History of Oliver Mmwell,' and a ' Life of Turenne,' 1660-1722. fJRAGUET, G. B., a French writer, 1668-1748. HtAGUSA, J., a Sicilian Jesuit, born 1665. /[ KAHX, John Henry, a name common to three loves of Zurich : 1. A voluminous writer of IHss history, 1646-1708. 2. A physician, 1709- .H6. 3. A physician, 1749-1782. rtAHN, J. H. G., a Prussian jurist, 1766-1807. BAIEVSKI, A., a Russian historian, 1813. 4 IAIKES, RoBERT,the founder of Sunday schools 4itngland, was a native of Gloucester, where he n born in 1735. He succeeded his father as *U)rietor of the Gloucester Journal, a paper in )*insive circulation. He was a man of great .ply, and, besides attendance on the ordinary op of public worship, was long in the habit of tenting early morning prayers every week-day Cathedral. As mignt be expected from a of such devout and eminently Christian sr, he was distinguished for his benevolent of every scheme and institution which was to ameliorate the condition or advance the of humanity. To him belongs pre- itly the high distinction of originating Sun- schools ; and the idea of those institutions suggested to his mind by witnessing the spectacle of youthful profligacy and dissipa- which the streets of Gloucester as well as other towns in England, exhibited on the Lord's At that time, it had long been a subject of " it among farmers and others that they suf- more from the depredations of juvenile delin- on that day, than on all the other days of together. The lower classes universally their children to roam at large on the and the fields, where they came in such that the country people were obliged to at home to watch their property. Mr. himself was unexpectedly led to witness a RAI similar scene, for having occasion, early one morn- ing, to go to a plebeian part of the town of Glou- cester, where was a large pin manufactory, he was greatly shocked by multitudes of poor children run- ning wild and riotous in the streets, and swearing such horrid oaths, as afforded sad evidence of the ignorance and depravity that prevailed amongst the class to which they belonged. He resolved on making some attempt to reclaim them from this state of moral degradation, which seemed so ex- tensively prevalent, and to give those wretched little creatures the benefits of, not only a secular, but a moral and religious education. After revolv- ing the subject long and anxiously in his mind, he at length prepared to reduce his scheme to practice. Having engaged the services of four women, ac- customed to teach poor children, at the rate of one shilling a- day, and who were to receive and instruct as many as he should bring every Sunday, he be- gan the operations of his school. But there were more difficulties lying in the way than he imagined, chiefly from the backwardness of the poor, and their indifference to send their children. A beginning, however, was made with a few, others soon fol- lowed, and the schools began to prosper. Read- ing, being marched to church under the care of their teachers, and after church, the repetition of the catechism for an hour, constituted the regular routine he established. ' With regard to the rules to be observed, all the children were required to come to school as clean as possible. Many were at first deterred, because they wanted decent clothing, but this was not to be supplied. Although without shoes or in a ragged coat, all were welcome, the only condition being clean hands, a clean face, and the hair combed.' Numbers pressed to the schools, the children varying from six years old to twelve or fourteen. Little rewards were distributed amongst the younger, and good places were pro- cured for the older children, and both of these produced the effect of exciting emulation. Such was the scheme which this Christian philanthropist devised for the moral and religious improvement of the poor ; and it soon drew general attention in England, from the beneficial results it produced. Similar institutions were ere long commenced in most of the large towns of England. A Sunday School Association was formed for the benefit of the poor children in the metropolis, and Mr. Raikes in consequence of his zeal and merits, was enrolled an honorary member. A far higher honour awaited this benevolent gentleman, in its being publicly certified after a long series of years, that not one of the scholars at his institution in Gloucester, had ever been either in the city or the county prisons. Mr. Raikes died in 1811. [R.J.] RAIMBACH, Abraham, a native of London, celebrated for his line engravings of Sir David Wilkie's pictures, 1776-1843. RAIMOND, J. H., a Fr. architect, 1742-1811. RAIMOND, St., the third general of the Domi- nicans, known as an ascetic writer, 1175-1275. RAIMONDI, Giambattista, a great Oriental scholar, born at Cremona, in Italy, 1540. He founded an Oriental press, under the patronage of the cardinal Medici, at Florence, and put all the Oriental books in order at Rome. From these circumstances, the college of the Propaganda took its rise. His Arabian Grammar was pub. in 1610. 629 RAI EAIMONDI, Marc A., a friend of Raphael, and fndr. of the It. school of engrav., 1488-1546. RAINBOW, E., an English prelate, 1608-1684. RAINE, If., a distinguished scholar, 1760-1810. RAINOLDS. J., a learned Eng. div., 1549-1607. RAITCH, J., a Servian historian, 1726-1801. RAJALIN, T., a Finnish admiral, 1673-1741. RAKOUBAH, or RAGUBAH, peischwah or prince regent of the Mahrattas, distinguished in the events which agitated the Mahratta kingdom in 1772 and 1782. Died in ohscurity. RALEGH, Carew, son of the great historical character noticed helow, was born in the Tower of London 1604, and made several fruitless efforts to regain the forfeited estates of his father. He received a pension of 400 a-year, however, and in 1659 became governor of Jersey, by favour of General Monk. He wrote a vindication of his father. Died 1666. His cousin, Walter Ralegh, became chaplain to Charles I., and was stabbed by his gaoler 1646. [Birth-place of Ralegh.] RALEGH, Sir Walter, born a.d. 1552, was the most remarkable man of that remarkable period, which is commonly called the Elizabethan age. He was of an ancient Devonshire family, and was educated at Oxford and the Temple. He then served for some years as a volunteer under Coligni and Conde, in France, and afterwards under the prince of Orange in the Netherlands. In 1579 he first displayed that zeal for maritime discovery and colonization, which is the most brilliant feature in his character. He joined an expedition to Ame- rica, which was designed to found a colony in New- foundland, but was beaten back by a superior Span- ish force. He then served in Ireland, and highly distinguished himself against the Irish rebels and their Spanish auxiliaries. In 1582 he appeared at Elizabeth's court, and was very graciously received. His reputation for soldiership, his learning, which was varied and profound, his eloquence and ready wit, and the personal advantages and accomplish- ments, in which he was pre-eminent, all combined in raising him high in his sovereign's favour. In 1583 he accompanied his half-brother, Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert, in another voyage to North America, which proved most calamitous, and in which Gilbert perished. Ralegh still persevered in his schemes for extending England's dominions beyond the At- RAL lantic, and in 1585 he sent out another expedite which discovered Virginia. He was one of most trusted and most trustworthy of the nn heroes of England, who defended her in 1{ against the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he ser in the expedition against Portugal under Dn and Norris. The youngr earl of Essex was with the troops employed on this occasion, anc was in a quarrel between him and Ralegh as the operations of the forces, that the unhaj jealousy between those two originated. A si time afterwards Ralegh fell under Queen Eli beth's displeasure on account of certain lo passages between him and Miss Throgmorl whom he subsequently married. He was prisoned for a time, but was soon released, gradually recovered the queen's favour. In 1 he organized and led an expedition to Cen and South America, in the hope of discovei Eldorado, the golden land, in the existence which all of that age firmly believed; nor we who have witnessed the discoveries of go! California, deride that belief as visionary wholly unfounded. Ralegh sailed to Guiana^, the neighbouring districts ; he explored the rivet! noco for 400 miles from its mouth ; and he an account of his voyage and the new counl explored by him, which is remarkable for the quence and graphic beauty of style which it plays. During the latter years of ElizabetM Ralegh joined Cecil in intriguing against Esf and he had the evil gratification of witness rival's ruin and death, little thinking that he himself to experience the retribution of a sill fate. James I. on his accession, at first tre^ Ralegh with favour ; but Cecil, who had in late queen's reign overthrown Essex by Ralf aid, was now determined to put down Rail and the king's mind was soon poisoned agains"! Walter. Deprived of his dignities and lucn appointments, Ralegh seems to have listene the schemes of other disaffected men for alte the line of succession to the crown ; but the on which he was tried and convicted in 16C' being a traitor in the pay of Spain, was iinprj and unfounded. He was sentenced to death, 1 his property was confiscated ; but James kepti close prisoner in the Tower for twelve years, I ing which time he wrote his great work, the '- tory of the World.' In 1615 James releasfff and permitted him to sail on an expedia| Guiana. This enterprise proved disastrous, an Ralegh's return home he was arrested, and J: resolved to put him to death under the old sex ' of treason that had been passed on him in There can be no doubt that James was mdfl to commit this disgraceful act by his desire tc the favour of the Spanish court, which nev&| forgotten the services that Ralegh had don England against Spain, and now clamoured It 1 for the blood of the English hero. Sir W was beheaded on the 28th October, 1618, it sixty-sixth vear of his age. The versatility c genius of tiiis great man is almost uiiparal. He was an excellent classical scholar, and read in metaphysics and divinity, generally conversant with the literature O' own and other modern countries. His writings are eloquent and vigorous; and he bSO RAL he author of several poems, small in length, hut reat in beauty. He was eminent in the mechan- al arts ; and was the originator of many impor- t improvements in ship-building. He was a iring navigator and explorer of new countries; d he was unwearied in his zeal for extending e commerce, and for creating the colonial power England. He was a sage, as well as a bold iptain by sea and by land ; he was a skilful hough not always a successful) politician ; and was pre-eminent in all personal accomplish- ents and courtly graces. He was also a liberal omoter of intellectual energy and eminence in hers ; and he was the patron and personal end of many of the most distinguished writers lo adorned that bright epoch of English liter- JE.S.C.] ALFH, James, a native of Philadelphia, known a political and historical writer and poet, came this country in 1725, died at Chiswick 1762. "AZZINI, Bernardo, an Italian physician, as a poet and professional writer, 1633-1714. AMBERG, J. H., an engraver, last century. MBOUILLET, a branch of the Angennes y, distinguished by the names of James, a trite statesman of Francis I., died 1562. rles, son of James, better known as the nal de Rambouillet, author of Memoirs, 1530- '. Charles, grandson of James, and Mar- de Rambouillet, camp-marshal and ambas- I 1577-1652. MBURES, David De, commander-in-chief he French archery, distinguished by his military ices, and killed at the battle of Agin court, 1415. MEAU, Jean Philippe, was born at in 1683. After having become acquainted the rudiments of music, he composed a musi- entertainment, which was received with great use when it was performed at Avignon. He received the situation of organist of the 1 church of Clermont in Auvergne, where mmenced his investigations into the principles isic. His fame as a theorist chiefly depends his work ' Demonstrations of the Principles ony,' which was published at Paris in From the principles enunciated in this his countrymen style Rameau 'The Newton rmony.' About this period he was called to where he was appointed director of the opera, king of France conferred upon this eminent " t the ribbon of the order ot St. Michel, and him to the rank of nobility. Rameau died year 1764. Besides his very numerous theo- works he composed many operas, ballets, is, concertos, songs, &c, &c. t^'^0 EL, Peter, a member of the French bly, and general of brigade, killed at the age in the campaign of the Rhine, 1761. His John Peter, a distinguished general of pire, was born in 1770, and assassinated the second restoration in 1815. MELLI, A., a French engineer, 1531-1590. "ESSES, or RAMSES, a name common to gyptian kings, who reigned from the 17th 13th century B.C. Ramesses V. is sup- to be the same as Sesostris. MUEY, C, a French sculptor, 1754-1838. It, C. W., a German poet, 1725-1798. tolMOHUN ROY, Rajah, a philosopher RAM and reformer of British India, was born at Bor- douan in the province of Bengal, 1774, or be- tween that and 1780. He belonged to the Brah- min caste, of the class esteemed for their learning and purity of blood, and seems to have devoted himself when quite young to the study of the sacred literature of the Hindoos. His endeavour was to discover the pure theism of the primitive revelation, and to separate it from the corruptions of the priesthood, and though great hopes were entertained of him by Christian missionaries, there can be no doubt that he regarded some parts of their system as equally idolatrous with the changes that had taken place in the religion of the Hin- doos. He adopted the philosophy and the pure morality of the precepts of the Saviour, but accept- ing no system of faith that was proffered to him, he applied himself to the study of the Hebrew Scriptures in the same independent spirit that he had examined the Vedas of his own country. Rammohun Roy, however, was not a speculative believer, but a practical reformer, and in political sentiments a republican. He had risen from the position of clerk in the office of the tax-collector of Rungpore to that of dewan, or chief native superintendent of the revenue, the highest office that a Hindoo could hold under the British govern- ment. In this official situation he acquired such a fortune as enabled him to rank with the zem- indars, or proprietors, and applying himself to administrative as well as religious reform, he eventually effected a change in the English jurispru- dence of Bengal. Circumstances led to his resi- dence at Calcutta, where he became a political writer and journalist in his native language, and . boldly adopted revolutionary principles, at the same time not forgetting the reserve of a statesman. In 1830 he was created rajah by the great Mogul, and sent on a mission to England for the settlement of his claims against the East India Company. He effected this object with great diplomatic skill, and while here he took an enthusiastic interest in the progress of the reform agitation, and the hopes it held out for the better government of India. He was claimed at this time as a convert to Christi- anity, and though generally considered a Unitar- ian, he usually attended the services of the Estab- lished Church. His Christianity, it should be re- membered, was based on a profound acquaintance with the metaphysics of the Hindoos, and on his researches into the primitive theism ; and though an ingenious countryman of our own, Thomas Maurice, had long since endeavoured to show the similarity between the Christian Trinity and the triad of Brahma, Vislmou, and Shiva, there are few orthodox Calvinists who would be disposed to agree with him. Rammohun Roy did not survive his acquaintance with European manners long enough to master the whole of this problem, but being attacked by sudden illness at Bristol, expired there on the 27tu of September, 1833. As his bio- grapher in the Gentleman's Magazine observes : ' When it is considered that Rammohun Roy was in a great degree self-taught, the extent of his acquirements must be admitted to have been re- markable. He was a thorough master of the Sans- crit language and of the Arabic ; he was an exceed- ingly good Persian scholar, and quoted the Persian ill 631 poets liberally, appropriately, and gracefully; and RAM of course, he well understood the Hindoo and Ben- gali tongues. He had read a great deal of English literature, chiefly historical ; and he wrote in our language with grammatical accuracy and ability. .... He was a quick and keen observer of character, and in the ordinary course of life dis- creet and prudent.' It may be added that his superiority to the native Hindoos generally, his vast knowledge, his independence of habit, and his well-known patriotism, gained for him the highest consideration in his own country. [E.R.] RAMOND DE CARBONNIERES, Louis Francis Elizabeth, a Fr. naturalist, 1755-1827. RAMOS, H., a Sp. mathematician, 1738-1801. RAMSAY, Allan, with the exception of Burns, the most thoroughly national of the Scottish poets, was born in 1685, at Leadhills in Lanarkshire. His father was in the employment of Lord Hope- toun at the lead mines, and is said to have been descended from a branch of the family of the earls of Dalhousie, a circumstance of which the poet was naturally vain, and which shines out in his works in the form of respect and attachment to the claims of ' gude bluid,' and gentle ancestry. His father died early, and his mother marrying again, he was sent to Edinburgh, and bound apprentice to a wigmaker, then a profession of a higher grade than in our times. Ramsay continued to pursue this humble avocation for several years after his apprenticeship was finished. In 1712, his first poetical production appeared, being an address ' To the most happy Members of the Easy Club,' Auld Reekie being then and long after, noted for its commercial clubs and associations. In 1716, he published an edition of James the First's poem of ' Christ's Kirk on the Green,' having added a second canto himself, and in two years after, a third. He now abandoned his original profession, and commenced business as a bookseller in Edin- burgh, a more congenial and fitting occupation for the poet and literary man. In 1720, he published himself, a collection of his poems, by subscription, and by which he is said to nave realized four hun- dred guineas, a very large sum considering the times, and which establishes the early and wide popularity which he had acquired. The most of the pieces in this collection had been issued by Ramsay as they were written, in sheets at a penny a-piece, and the good folks of Edinburgh had come to look upon them as a luxury, quite as necessary as ' caller haddies' or strong ale. Allan issued the first volume of his well-known ' Tea Table Miscel- lany' in 1724, and three more volumes at short intervals afterwards ; about the same time he pub- lished ' The Evergreen, a collection of Scots poems, wrote by the Ingenious before 1600.' The mag- num opus of this ancient writer made its appear- ance in 1725, ' The Gentle Shepherd,' the finest dramatic pastoral ever published. In a soft and gentle sweetness of expression, and in a rich ex- hibition of old Scottish manners and habits, interspersed with dramatic touches of nature and character, no Scottish poem has maintained a more permanent or a higher place in the national mind and affections. Some of the higher class poems of Burns can alone compete with it in this respect. In 1730 he published his ' Thirty Fables,' in which the story of ' The Monk and the Miller's Wife,' though somewhat broad in style, and previously RAN told by Dunbar, greatly increased his reputation a poet and painter of national manners. He appears to have withdrawn from the labours composition, and to have given himself up enjoyment of the select literary society of tri eminent men of his time and country, by whom conversation and talents were highly appreeiat He erected a house for himself on the north sid the Castle Hill, which is still we believe in ej tence, and where he died in 1758, at the advan age of seventy-two, full of years and honour. [T.. RAMSAY, Allan, son of the preceding, tinguished as a painter and writer on art, 1709- RAMSAY, Andrew Michael, better knc as the Chevalier Ramsay, was born at Ayr If and educated at Edinburgh. He was converts the Roman Catholic faith by Fenelon in 1710, rose to distinction under his patronage as govei to the duke of Chateau Thierry, and the prino Turenne. After this he went to Rome as precej to the children of the Pretender, called there Ja III., and, returning to Scotland, was admil into the family of the duke of Argyll. He diet St. Germain-En-Loire, the retreat of the ex Stuarts, 1743. His principal works are a ' Lif Fenelon,' ' The Voyages of Cyrus,' ' Discoi upon Epic Poetry,' a ' History of Marshal Turen and a ' Discourse on Freemasonry,' of which or in France, he was grand chancellor. He wrofc the French language with remarkable purity RAMSAY, David, an American physician member of congress, distinguished as an histoi born 1749, shot by a maniac 1815. RAMSAY, J., a Scottish divine, 1733-1789. RAMSDEN, Jesse, a native of Yorkshire, as an optician and instrument maker, 1735-18 RAMUS, or LA RAMEE, Peter, a celebr French philosopher, mathematician, gramraai and philologist, k. on St. Bartholomew's day, 1 RAMUSIO, or RAMNUSIO, G. B., a Ve traveller, geographer, and historian, 1485-155; RANCE, Armand John Le BouthilieM_ an ascetic writer, most celebrated as the refoi of the monks of La Trappe, 1626-1700. RANCHIN, F., a French physician, 1560-1 RANCHIN, Henry, author of a metrical sion of the Psalms in French, published 1697. j RANCK, , a Spanish painter, last cffl RANCONET, Aimer De, a famous antr" rian, and master of Roman jurisprudence, d. 1" RANCONNIER, J., a French missionary Paraguay, author of Letters, published 1636. RANDALL, J., an English divine, died 16 RANDOLPH, Thomas, an English poet, au. of the ' Muses' Looking-Glass,' 1605- RANDOLPH, Thomas, a minister t\ Church of England, born at Canterbury, his father was recorder, 1701, vice-chancell^B 1759, archdeacon of Oxford 1707, Margaret fessor of divinity 1768, died 1783. He several theological works. His son, John, 1749, was successively bishop of Oxford, and London, and a dist. Greek scholar ; died '. RANDOLPH, Sir Thomas, born in Kent 1 distinguished as ambassador to France, and Scotland, in the reign of Elizabeth, author of Letters, which have appeared in rm collections, and of an account of his EmbasB Russia, inserted in Hakluyt's Voyages. Di^| 632 RAN RANFAING, Marie Elizabeth De, a reli- ous founder, better known as the venerable other Elizabeth, 1592-1649. RANNEQUIN, RENNEQUIN, or SWALM SNKIN, inventor of a famous hydraulic engine, town as the machine of Marly, 1644-1708. RANTZAU, Josias, Count De, a French mar- al, distinguished in the German and Flemish wars, d as the chief instrument by whom the pro- itant religion was established in Denmark. Died the Bastile, where he had been confined by izarin, 1650. Henry, of the same family, an rologer, 1526-1598. SAOUL, or RODOLPH, son of Richard, duke Eurgundv, succeeded Robert, duke of France, ;h the title of king, 923 ; died 936. IAOUL, a duke of Lorraine, 1328-1346. IAOUL, archdeacon of Poitiers, 12th century. ?AOUL of Caen, a French historian, 11th "ct. tAOUL-GLABER, a Fr. chronicler, 11th cent. IAOUL. See Rollo. tAOUX, J., a French painter, 1667-1734. IAPHAEL, Santi or Sanzio, was born at >ino, in the Contrada del Monte, April 6, 1483. father, Giovanni Santi, gave him his first ructions in his art, and after the death of his ;nts, he was placed by his uncles, in 1494, with a-o Perugino, the most celebrated painter of the brian school, and then engaged on some frescoes ;he Sala del Cambio at Perugia. In October, I, Raphael removed to Florence, and appears to made this city his head-quarters until he called to Rome in 1508 ; with the exception few months passed at Perugia, in 1505, and a interval at Bologna the following year, he ied constantly at Florence. The works exe- d by him during this period are said to be in Florentine manner, those executed previously, '} first or Perugino manner, of which the nation of the Virgin,' now in the Vatican, the ' Spozalizio,' or ' Marriage of the Virgin,' " e Brera at Milan, are fine examples ; of his d or Florentine manner, ' The Entombment,' B Borghese Gallery at Rome, is the best ex- The ' St. Catherine ' in the National Gallery le same manner. During his stay in Flo- Raphael made the acquaintance of Fra Bar- neo, and that of Francia at Bologna, from of whom he had every opportunity of improv- ]f, independent of the enlarged views he have gained by moving from a provincial to so important a city as Florence, then even to Rome as a school of painting. Brancacci chapel alone was a school of art, 1506 Raphael had with other masters the inity of studying the world-renowned car- of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, in "on for the Council Hall. With such op- he could not but enlarge his manner, accordingly soon find in Rome a very much treatment of form, than even in the best of ntine works, though the first of his great in the Vatican is in his Florentine style. was invited to Rome by Julius II. through tryman Bramante, and he was already there in the beginning of September, 1508 ; gelo paid his third visit to Rome in the year, a coincidence which was doubtless of con- le advantage to Raphael, the younger man RAP the rivalry of Michelangelo being an invaluable stimulus to him. The first fresco of the Vatican stanze or dwelling rooms, was the Theology or 'Dispute on the Sacrament' as it is called: "this was completed in 1509. In the same room called the Stanza della Segnatura, are the frescoes of ' Poetry,' ' Philosophy,' the celebrated ' School of Athens,' and 'Jurisprudence,' all completed in 1511 ; his third or Roman style commences with the ' School of Athens.' In the second chamber, known as the Stanza delV Ellodoro, are, the ' Ex- pulsion of Heliodorus from the temple of Jeru- salem,' his grandest work, the ' Mass of Bolsena,' the ' Attila,' and ' St. Peter delivered from Prison,' all finished in 1514, the two former in 1512 during the pontificate of Julius. The third chamber, finished in 1517, called the Stanza delV Incendio, was painted almost wholly by Raphael's scholars ; the great works of the Vatican stanze, for which those chambers are so renowned, are comprised in those of the first two chambers mentioned. The fourth, really the first on entering, called the Stanza di Costantino, was nearly entirely executed under the direction of Giulio Romano after Raphael's death. It is worthy of remark, that the ceiling of the Sistine chapel by Michelangelo and the most celebrated frescoes of the Stanze, those painted by Raphael himself, were executed simultaneously between 1508 and 1512, and during the pontificate of Julius, no real lover of art himself, and who little suspected the almost inexhaustible source of [Residence of Raphael.] wealth which his simple undertakings were destined to prove to his country in after generations. The slow progress of the Vatican frescoes after the painting of the second chamber, was owing to the numerous commissions Raphael received from Leo X., who succeeded Julius, besides many from other art patrons in Rome and elsewhere. Raphael executed, between 1512 and 1520, besides numer- ous Madonnas, holv families, portraits, &c, the following great works and masterpieces ; the St. Cecilia, at Bologna ; the Madonna di San Sisto, at Dresden ; the Spasimo, at Madrid ; the Cartoons, at Hampton Court (1515-16) ; the frescoes of the Farnesina (1518), and his last and most cele- brated oil picture ' The Transfiguration.' In addi- tion to these labours, from 1515 he had the chief charge of the building of the new Basilica of St. Peter ; he was appointed capoarchitetto on the 1st of August of that year, by Leo X. This unri- G33 RAP vailed painter died at Rome on his birth-day, April 6, 1520, aged exactly thirty-seven years ; and after lving in state, with his own picture of the Trans- figuration at his head, he was buried with great pomp in the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, the ancient Pantheon, commonly called in Rome the Rotonda. The inscription on his tomb, written by his friend the Cardinal Bembo, and, therefore, deserving of all reliance, concludes with the follow- ing lines : Vixit An. xxxvii., Integer Integros. Quo die natus est, eo esse Desiit VuL Id. Aprilis, MDXX. He lived exactly thirty-seven years: he died on the same day of the year that he was born, April 6, which in 1520 happening to fall on Good Friday, led to tlie popular error that Raphael was born also on Good Friday, 1483, which fell in that year on the 28th of March ; should such have actually been the case,'and the inscription of the cardinal be wrong, the 28th March must be substituted for April 6, mentioned above as his birth-day. Raphael is said to have left property to the amount of about 16,000 ducats, a very large sum in those days when money had nearly ten times its present value. He be- queathed his painting materials, works of art, &c, to his two favourite pupils, Gianfrancesco Penni, and Giulio Romano, on condition that they should complete his unfinished works. Raphael was never married, but is said to have been engaged to Maria Bibiena, the niece of the Cardinal Bibiena, who, however, died before him. He was of a slight build, sallow in complexion, with brown eyes, and about five feet eight inches high. His tomb was opened in 1833 and the skeleton found entire with all the teeth perfect ; a mould was taken from his skull. His numerous school was completely dis- persed after the sack of Rome in 1527, but Giulio Romano revived it in some measure at Mantua. Besides the above mentioned painters, Pierino del Vaga, Polidoro da Caravaggio, and Benvenuto Tisio, commonly called Garofalo, were among his most distinguished scholars ; the last has been not inappropriately styled the miniature Raphael. It is matter of common regret that Raphael was removed so prematurely, as is assumed, from the world, many concluding that it is beyond our power to realize the perfection to which he might have carried his art had he been longer spared to prose- cute it ; this is, however, less than doubtful. Raphael if not too successful to improve, was far too much occupied ever to have had the remotest chance of surpassing his previous great works ; the later frescoes of the Vatican were neglected, and besides the important charge of St. Peter's from 1515, he was appointed at the close of the following year superintendent of antiquities, and of the excava- tions of Rome. He trusted almost entirely to assistants in his latter paintings : the cartoons at Hampton Court are perfect exponents of his later executions, and it would have been impossible for him to have returned to a more elaborate style : neither was it desirable. The rivalry of Sebastiano del Piombo, ardently encouraged by Michelangelo, appears to have given a transitory impulse to re- newed efforts at executory skill, but with no real advantage to his own characteristic style. Though more elaborate in composition and more highly finished, the 'Transfiguration' is not equal for RAP simple sublimity and grandeur to the ' Madonn San Sisto,' executed some years before. Baa] did not escape the pernicious any more than good influence of Michelangelo, whose style admirably adapted to his own character and i jects, but very inappropriate to Raphael's ; the i sequences were injurious. In the Stanza deW cendio we already find a loose slovenly Btyl design, heavy and vulgar, exhibiting mere phyt ethics, sentiment being sacrificed to limb. G art, to approach Raphael's, must consist of so thing more than vigorous limbs. Raphael's grea works are unrivalled, but it is not probable, sidering all the circumstances, that he would have equalled them again in his days of grand much less have surpassed them. As it is, his g soars above that of all his competitors, not exc ing Michelangelo himself; and nothwithstam that in individual qualities he was surpassed several, he is universally acclaimed the princ painters, and chiefly for those lofty sentime qualities of his works which all can feel but describe. In all his works the treatment is ordinate to the conception. He has scarcely i approached in propriety of invention, composii or expression ; and is almost without an equs the natural simplicity and grandeur of his for for moral force in allegory and history unriva for fidelity in portrait unsurpassed, and for i limity and grandeur of conception inferior Michelangelo alone. The prints after Raph works, including drawings amounting altogethi nearly 900, are extremely numerous and known : from Marc Antonio downwards, no pa"; has perhaps been better rendered. His biograp are likewise many and voluminous, in Ita French, German, and in English : one of the 1 i the great work of Passavant, Rafael von Ui und sein Vater Giovanni Sand, Leipzig, 181 the largest and most complete in every res*- There are besides : Vasari, Vite de 1 Piltorii in which the notice of the Florentine edition o Raccolta Artistica, 1852, is very complete ; fur Vita inedita di Raffaello da Urbino illustrate note daAngelo Comolli, Rome, 1790; Notizieh no Raffaello Sanzio aus Urbino, by Don Carlo Rome 1822; Rehberg, Rafael Sanzio aus Ut Miinchen, 1824 ; Quantremcre de Quincy, His, de la vie et des Ouvrages de Raphael, Paris, 1 Longhena, Istoria del/a vita e delle opere di Raj) Sanzio, &c, del Sig. Quartremere de QuimM Milan, 1829 ; Pungileoni, Elogio Storico di faello Santi da Urbino, Urbino, 1829-31 ; Dii yers, Appendice a Vouvrage intitule Histoir la vie et Des ouvrages de Raphael, &c, 1853 ; and in English Duppa, Life of ' Sanzio, London, 1816. Raphael is scar sentedin the National Gallery, notwithst have a specimen of each of his three The Vision of a Knight, St. Catherine, portrait of Julius II. The fragment of belonging to a second and inferior series on i\ by Francis I., is not by the hand of Raphael. ' the magnificent cartoons at Hampton Con these cannot be too highly valued, do not [ adequate idea of the exquisite sentiment pervades the majority or his greater pieces. The cartoons, however, at Hampton < are of such commanding grandeur of stj^Bi 634 RAP ley have been almost intuitively admitted now for [ree centuries as the inalienable type for apostolic presentation. [R.N.W.] TRAPHELENG, or REPHELENGIUS, the com- 'jonly received name of Francis Rantenghien, 'jlearned Orientalist of French Flanders, 1539- '97. His son, Francis, author of Latin poems ! jjd notes upon Seneca, published 1587. EAPIN, N., a French poet, died 1608. 4RAPIN, R., a learned Jesuit, 1621-1687. MBAPIX-THOYRAS, Paul De, best known as 3 author of an English history, was a nephew of celebrated Pelisson, and son of James Rapin ur de Thoyras, descended from a noble family Savoy. He was born in 1661, and came to 'land on the revocation of the edict of Nantes 685. He subsequently entered into the sen-ice the prince of Orange, and was with him in the ;h wars. On the death of that prince he retired Wesel, in the duchy of Cleves, where he corn- ed his history. He is considered an impartial I well-informed historian. Died 1725. {APP, John, a general and peer of France, born at Colmar, in Alsace, 1772 ; and was gsively aide-de-camp to Desaix and Buona- te during the consulate. He was employed by latter in the subjugation of Switzerland, and tly distinguished himself at the battle of Aus- itz, and the defence of Dantzic. He finally hed himself to the Bourbons, and died 1821. ASCAS, P. A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1567-1620. ASCHE, J. C, a Ger. numismatist, 1733-1805. ASCHI. By this name is known Solomon Jarchi, one of the most learned rabbins of Israelitish wanderers, who is said to have been at Troyes in Champagne, 1040, and to have there 1105. Other places have claimed the aur of his birth, and his surname is variously t, as Isaaki, Isarchi, Jarhi, Racca, Raschi, Raski. He was remarkable for the precocity is talents and the largeness of his mind : this, Tell as his adventurous disposition, may be ised from the fact that he commenced, when it thirty years of age, the extensive programme travels, intended to embrace every known / in the world, in order to collect materials ie history of his scattered people. In pursuit object he visited his brethren in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Armenia, Tartary, Muscovy, and Germany ; he was ed from using his materials, however, by nides, who considered the design impolitic time. He settled at Troyes, therefore, and his acquirements to biblical commentaries binical learning. Dr. Clarke says, Raschi a commentary on the whole Bible so com- obscure in many places, as to require a ge comment to make it intelligible.' On her band, it must be admitted that the physics and philosophy of the rabbis is little d, and though much obscurity may be in a mass of writing on traditional and ive knowledge, it is undeniable that the learning abounds in marks of genius and bundly philosophical reflections. Raschi buried at Troyes, but when the Jews were out of France they carried his remains with and rcinterred them at Prague. [E.R.] U>(JlilD. See Haroun-Al-Basciiid. RAV > RASCHID-EDDIN, a Persian historian, physi- cian, and vizier to the sultan Ghazan-Khan, 13th c RASES, an Arabian historian of Spain, 9th ct. RASORI, J., an Italian physician, 1766-1837. RASPE, R. E., a Ger. antiquarian, 1737-1794. RASTALL, John, an early English printer, author of several curious and learned works, and brother-in-law of Sir Thomas More, died 1536. His son, William, a judge, died 1565. RATCLIFF, R., an English dramatist, d. 1553. RATCLIFFE, Thomas, earl of Sussex, known as a statesman and ambassador, died 1583. RATRAMN, a French theologian, 9th centurv. RATSCHKY, J. F., a German poet, 1757-1810. RATTE, S. H. De, a Fr. astronom., 1722-1805. RAU, Christian, otherwise Ravis, Ravias, or Rave, a Prussian Orientalist, 1603-1677. RAU, J. E., a Prussian theologian, 1695-1770. RAU, J. J., a German Hebraist, died 1745. RAU, J. J., a German anatomist, 1668-1719. RAU, Sebald, professor of Oriental languages at Utrecht, 1724-1818. Sebald Foulques Jean, his son, a poet and Orientalist, 1765-1807. RAULIN, J., a French preacher, 1443-1514. RAULIN, J., a French physician, 1708-1784. RAUWOLF, L., a German botanist, died 1596. RAUZZINI, Venauzio, an excellent musician, and esteemed the greatest pianist of his time, was a native of Rome. In early life he went to Vienna, and afterwards to Munich, were he resided for several years. In 1774 he was engaged as one of the principal singers at the opera in London. After some time he retired to Bath, where he for many years managed the concerts. He composed several operas and a great variety of detached composi- tions, which were highly popular. He was long classed amongst the first scientific musicians who had made this country their home. Amongst his pupils may be mentioned Madame Mara, Mrs. Bil- lington, and Messrs. Braham and Incledon. Rauz- zini, who was universally esteemed and beloved in private life, died in 1810, aged 62 years. [J.M.] RAVAILLAC, Francis, the assassin of Henry IV. of France, was a Roman Catholic fanatic of singular character, born at Angouleme 1578, or 1579. His naturally gloomy temperament was deepened by a lawsuit, followed by an imprison- ment for debt, in the course of which he is said to have been haunted by visions, and acquired such a morbid nervousness, that the very name of a Huguenot would excite him to fury. It is not without a certain risk that one expresses any be- lief in reports of this nature except as symp- toms of disease, but it is impossible to overlook the historical evidence bearing on the circum- stances alluded to. The king himself also had a pre- sentiment of his fate, and repeatedly gave expres- sion to it ; even the courtiers for some time before the event were in a state of preternatural excite- ment. The design of Ravaillac, meantime, was the secret of his own bosom, and he took advantage of the queen's coronation, on the 14th of May, 1610, to put it in execution. Henry IV. was proceeding in nis carriage along the Rue de la Ferronerie when some obstruction occurred, and Ravaillac stepping on the wheel, struck his noble victim through the window ; he stabbed the king twice through the heart, and death was instantaneous. The assassin made no attempt to escape, but stood still with Gob RAV the bloody knife in his hand, and would have been cnt down by one of the gentlemen, but the duke d'Epernon interposed, and he was arrested. Ap- plication of torture failed to wring any confession from him implicating others, and he was torn to pieces by horses in the Place de Greve, on the 27th of the same month. The moral complicity of the catholic league in this tragedy cannot be doubted ; the fanaticism of the enemies of Henry IV. put the knife in Ravaillac's hand by a much surer method than that of bargain and sale. The death of Henry was followed by the regency of Marie de Medici. [E.R.] RAVENET, Simon Francis, a French en- graver, 1706-1774. His son, Simon, an engraver, born about 1755. RAVENNA, M. Da, an Ital. engraver, 16th ct. RAVENNE, J. De, a scholar of Petrarch, and one of the restorers of letters in Italy, 1350-1420. RAVENSCROFT, Thomas, a composer and publisher of music, famous for his Psalm tunes and works known to musical antiquaries, 17th ct. RAVESTEYN, John Van, a Dutch portrait painter, born about 1580. His son, Arnold, born at the Hague in 1615, was also a portrait painter, and in 1661 was chosen chief of the Society of Arts in his native place. Nicholas, of the same family, a painter of history, 1661-1750. RAVIS, or RAVIUS. See Rau. RAVISIUS-TEXTOR, whose proper name was J. Tixier De Ravisi, professor of rhetoric at the college of Navarre, 1480-1524. RAWENDY, Ahmed, an Arabian savant, author of a new doctrine of metempsychosis, died 905. RAWLET, J., an English painter, 1642-1686. RAWLEY, W., an English divine, who acted as chaplain and secretary to Lord Bacon, 1588-1667. RAWLINSON, Christopher, a famous mas- ter of Saxon and northern literature, 1677-1733. RAWLINSON, Sir Thomas, mayor of London in 1706, when he repaired and beautified Guildhall, 1647-1724. His eldest son, Thomas, a remark- able collector of books and MSS., the supposed original of Addison's Tom Folio, died 1725. Rich- ard, a fourth son of Sir Thomas, an eminent anti- quarian, died at Islington 1755. RAWSON, Sir W., an English oculist, d. 1829. RAY, Rev. John, a very celebrated botanist and zoologist, was born at Black Hetley, in Essex, in 1628. He died in 1705. Few events in Ray's life were striking or remarkable. His father filled the humble station of a blacksmith, but was able to give his son a good classical education. At the age of sixteen he went to the university of Cambridge, and in 1660 was ordained both deacon and priest at the same time. He held a fellowship in Trinity College for a number of years; but, in 1662, he was deprived of this by his scruples in conforming to the celebrated Bartholomew Act. During his residence at Cambridge, he had acted as tutor to many gentlemen of high rank, amongst whom especially was the son of Sir Francis Willoughby. Upon his being forced to leave the university, he travelled with his pupil through various parts of England, and on the continent, and on his return took up his abode for the most part at his friend's house, Middleton Hall, in Warwickshire. Mr. Willoughby was an ardent student of natural his- tory, and Ray, whose name had already become RAY famous as a botanist, assisted him in his stud, His kind patron and friend died in 1672, in prime of life, leaving two infant sons whom confided to the care of Ray, appointing him on his executors, and leaving him an annuity of . a-year. He soon afterwards married, and fin settled in his native village. The books which . published on botany are numerous ; and his sec edition of the ' Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Brif nicorum,' has been said by an eminent botanist f be of all the systematical and practical floras of country, the most perfect that ever came undei observation. His method of classifying plants I a natural one, distributing them according tc I number of their cotyledons, and has formed basis of that system, which is now, under the r | of Jussieuan, universally received by botanisl the present day. He is termed by Haller, greatest botanist in the memory of man ;' an Sir James Edward Smith, he is said to be most accurate in observation, the most philosop j in contemplation, and the most faithful in des I tion, amongst all the botanists of our own, or haps any other time.' As a zoologist, Ray r J also very high. Up to his time naturalists satisfied with Aristotle's classification of the ar j kingdom. Ray, however, conscious of its del and daring to think for himself, invented anc j founded on the structure of the Heart. C declares Ray to be the first true systematist c animal kingdom, and both he and Linnaeuaj themselves deeply indebted to his labours, in i succeeding systematic arrangements. We; conclude this brief notice of this justly celeb j man in the words of a learned botanist : ' We rf j acknowledge we are proud of being able to calj our countryman, for ne was in all respects a as he was great.' Plumier dedicated a gei Slants to the memory of John Ray, under tne . an-Raia. Linnaeus changed it to Ra-januM Sir J. E. Smith has more lately with better adopted the name Raiania. RAY-DE-ST.-GEINEZ, James Mj * French tactician, author of a military hist< I Louis XIV, 1712-1777. RAYMOND, several counts of Toulouse: * mond I., reigned 852-865. Raymond II., re j 918-923. Raymond III., son and success the preceding, created duke of Aquitaine and I of Auvergne by Raoul, king of France, 92m Raymond IV., born 1042, succeeded his bra William IV, in 1088, as count of Toulous of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence ; in he went to Jerusalem with the first cru refused the crown proffered to him after ture of the city; died in Syria 1105. Rat.] V., born 1134, succeeded his father 1148, died| Raymond VI., son of the preceding, born [ succeeded 1194, and, being a friend of the genses, was twice excommunicated 1208 and and despoiled of his estates by Simon de Md 1218, died 1222. Raymond VII., son of mond VL, and last count of Toulouse, 1197, and after struggling with his father f j recovery of his possessions, vanquished Sii Montfort in 1224. He was so enfeebled " continual wars, however, that he submitt humiliating peace with the pope and the Fran- 3 in 1229. He died 1242, leaving his J 636 RAY his only daughter, Jeanne, -who had married phonso, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX. RAYMOND, J. M., a Fr. general, dist. in the vice of the native princes of India, 1755-1798. RAYMOND, J. M., a Fr. chemist, 1756-1817. RAYMOND, Robert, Lord, solicitor-general the reign of Anne, and successively attomey- aeral and chief justice of the King's Bench in b reign of George I. ; died 1732. RAYMONDI. See Raimondi. RAYXAL, James, a French historian of Tou- [se, 1723-1807. His brother, Francis, a Greek [olar, 1726-1810. RAYNAL, William Thomas Francis, a bnch historian and political writer, was born at Geniez, in the Rouergue, 1711, and acquired European reputation by his ' Philosophical His- of the Two Indies.' He was a great partizan the encyclopedists, and a man of remarkable evolence. His other historical works are of note. Died 1796. tAYNAUD, T., a Fr. theologian, 1583-1663. IAYNOUARD, Francois Juste Marie, a nch dramatic writer and philologist, 1761-1836. IAZI, a celebrated Arabian physician, died 923. tAZOUX, J., a French physician, 1723-1798. 5AZZI, G. A., an Italian painter, 1479-1554. JE, Philip, an Italian agriculturist, 1763-1817. EADING, an English divine, 1588-1667. tEAL. See Saint Real. !EAL, Andrew, a Fr. politician, 1765-1832. EAL-DE-CURBON, Gaspard De, a French er 'On the Science of Government,' 1682- !. His nephew, Balthazar, an ecclesiastic learned writer, 1701-1774. ,EAL, Philip Francis, Count, an ally of iton during the French revolution, 1765-1834. EALINO, B., an Italian Jesuit, 1530-1616. EAUMUR, Rene Antoine Ferchault De, iebrated French physician and naturalist, was . at Rochelle, 1683, and died 1757. He has merit of reducing thermometers to a common dard, and the thermometer of 80 degrees, in- d by him in 1731, still bears his name. He was *ssful in several new applications of chemistry liferent branches of manufacture, especially le of porcelain and steel. His principal works 'Memoirs of his Discoveries,' 'The History of ' and a ' History of the Auriferous Rivers ice.' He was also the discoverer of the ise mines in Languedoc. BENTISCH, J. Frederick, a German disting. as a wr. on botany in 1804-1805. OLLEDO, Bernardino, Count Di, a soldier, poet, and diplomatist, 1597-1677. UFFI, P., a French jurist, 1487-1557. HI, N. A., a botanist of Naples, 16th ct. ENBERG, Adam, a learned theologian hflologist of Leipzig, 1642-1721. ^HTERS, T., a Dutch painter, 1700-1768. ~RDE, Robert, a native of Pembroke- and one of the first mathematicians in this to adopt the system of Copernicus, d. 1558. ENTRIELM, or REENTRIELM, James, Ish antiquarian, b. at Upsala 1644, d. 1691. ESDALE, John Freeman Mitford, a distinguished lawyer and statesman, who at the trial of Hardy and Home Tooke, "y became lord chancellor, 1748-1830. REG REDI, Francesco, an eminent natural philoso- pher, poet, and philologian of Italy, 1626-1697. REDI, J., an Italian painter, 1665-1726. REDING, Aloys, Baron Von, landemann and general of the Swiss at the period of the French invasion, born 1755, repulsed the French on the plains of Morgarten, 1798, became chief of the central government, 1801, died 1818. REDMAN, or REDMAYNE, John, a digni- tary and theol. of the English Church, 1499-1551. REDOUTE, P. J., a Flemish pain., 1759-1840. REED, Isaac, a miscellaneous writer and dra- matic critic, born in London 1742, died 1807. REED, J., a dramatic writer, 1723-1787. REES, Abraham, D.D., whose encyclopedia is well known, was born in Montgomeryshire, 1743, and educated as a dissenting minister in the academy of Hoxton. He was teacher of mathe- matics at that institution from 1762 till its disso- lution in 1784, and soon after taught philosophy and theology in the new college at Hackney. He was employed as editor of Chamber's Cyclopaedia in the period 1776 to 1786, and some years later edited the great work known by his name in 45 volumes 4to. Dr. Rees died in 1825, having at that time been minister of the chapel in Old Jewry about forty years. Rees's Cyclopaedia is still valuable as representing the state of knowledge just at the commencement of modern progress. REEVE, Clara, daughter of a clergyman of Ipswich, distinguished as a novelist, 1723-1808. REEVE, John, one of the most popular actors on the London stage, famous for his representation of burlesque character, was born in London, 1799, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane, in the character of ' Sylvester Daggerwood,' in 1819. The principal scene of his later performances was the Adelphi theatre in the Strand. Died 1838. REEVES, John, successively a barrister and magistrate, author of ' Thoughts on the English Government,' and of a ' History of the Law of Shipping and Navigation,' 1752-1829. REEVES, W., an English divine, 1668-1726. REGA, H. J., a French physician, 1690-1754. REGGIO, F., an Italian astronomer, 1743-1804. REGILLIANUS, Quintus Nonius, a Roman emperor, elected 261, killed 263. REGINALDUS, Valerius, otherwise Renaud orREGNAULD, aFr. Jesuit and casuist, 1540-1623. REGIOMONTANUS. See Muller. REGIS, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit and missionary to China, in the period 1708-1715. He is author of a Latin translation of the Y-King, and of a map of the country. His nephew, Joseph Charles, known as a man of letters, 1718-1777. REGIS, J. F., a French preacher, 1597-1640. REGIS, P., a French physician, 1656-1726. REGIS, Pierre Sylvan, whose proper name was Leroy, a Cartesian philosopher, 1632-1707. REGIUS, H. Leroy, or Duroy, a physician and Cartesian philosopher of Utrecht, 1598-1679. REGIUS, Urbain, or Le Roy, a learned re- former, poet, and professor of rhetoric, died 1541. REGNARD, Jean Francois, a comic poet, who ranks next to Moliere in French literature, and is remarkable for his adventurous life, 1647-1709. REGNAULD, Michael Louis Stephen, called 1 Regnault of Saint Jean D'Angely,' a Fr. magistrate and member of the estates-general, 1760-1819. 637 KEG REGNAULDIN, Thomas, a French sculptor, and member of the Academy, died 1706. REGNAULT, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1754-1829. REGNAULT, N., a Fr. physician, 1683-17G2. REGNIER, Claude Ambrose, duke of Mass*, a French statesman at the period of the revolution and the empire, 1746-1814. REGNIER, E., a Fr. mechanician, 1757-1825. REGNIER, a French Latin poet, 1589-1663. REGNIER, M., a French satirist, 1573-1613. REGNIER -DESMARAIS, Francis Sera- phin, a French writer, author of poems in his own language and in Latin and Italian, secretary to the Academy, and one of the most active editors of the dictionary, 1632-1713. REGNIER-DESTOURBET, H. F., a French writer and advocate of the Jesuits, 1804-1831. REGULUS, Marcus Attilius, a Roman general, consul B.C. 256, killed at Carthage 251. REGULUS - SERRANUS, Caius Atilius, consul of Rome B.C. 257, obtained the naval vic- tory of Lipari in the war with the Carthaginians. REHFELD, C. F., a Germ, physician, 1735-94. REHNSCHOLD, Charles Gustavus, a dis- tinguished senator and field-marshal of Sweden, 1651-1722. REICHA, Antoine Joseph, a celebrated musi- cal composer and theorist, was bora at Prague in 1770, and received his education at the university of Bonn. Between the years 1794 and 1807 he lived at Hamburg, at Paris, and at Vienna, where he produced several works which were eminently successful. In 1808 he revisited Paris, when he gave a course of lectures on composition, which were well attended. His career as an operatic composer then commenced. After the death of Mehul he was appointed professor of the Conser- vatoire de Musique, where he instituted a new and greatly improved method of tuition, which has had great effect over all Europe in improving the study and advancing the knowledge of music. In May, 1835, he was admitted a member of the National Institute, and he died in May, 1836. [J.M.] REICHARD, H. A. Ottocar, a statesman and literateur, dukedom of Gotha, 1751-18 '8. REICHARD, H. G., a German philologist, 1742-1801. REICHARDT, Christian, author of 'The Science of Agriculture and Gardening,' 1685-1775. REICHARDT, Johann Friedrich, was born at Konigsberg in Prussia, in the year 1752. This composer, whose talents developed themselves in a remarkable degree even in early infancy, studied for two years at the university of Konigsberg, un- der the great philosopher Emanuel Kant, and after- wards two years at the university of Leipzig. He then travelled through Germany, and on his return to Prussia he was appointed Director of Salt-works under government. Reichardt was chapel-master under three kings of Prussia, namely, Frederick the Great, and Frederick William II., and III. He was also manager of the French and German theatres, and conductor of the orchestra to the king of Westphalia, and member and correspondent of several learned societies. He composed an im- mense number of literary and musical works, the list of which is much too long to be given here. His musical works embrace all classes of compositions, operas, sonatas, and concertos for the harpsichord, REI concertos for the violin and violoncello, clioru songs, odes, overtures, and church music. He I in the year 1814. [J. REICHENBACH, George of, a distin. ms of optical instruments and telescopes, 1772-18; REICHSTADT, Napoleon Fran. Char JOSEPH Buonaparte, Due De, only son of poleon and his Austrian bride, Maria Louisa, born at Paris, 20th March, 1811. His birth an event of great political importance, and Nj leon himself announced it to the crowds thronged the Tuileries with the ambitious woi ' C'est un roi de Rome ! ' Napoleon, at this t at the height of his power, was preparing for struggle which every one foresaw must take p with the might of Russia, and as usual with 1 he anticipated the coalition by a sudden inva of the North. The young king of Rome had completed his third year when the disaster* Moscow and Leipzig opened the gates of Pari the allied armies, and was with his mothei Blois when the capital capitulated, 30th Ma: 1814. The emperor was exiled to Elba, and wife and son conveyed to Vienna, where young prince received the title of Due de Rei stadt, a petty principality of Bohemia, and : confided to the care of "the count Dietrichst His father made vain attempts to recover post sion of the child, for whose existence he had t a heavy price in the divorce of Josephine, ana his second abdication in 1815, he endcavourec secure his succession as Napoleon II. The M bons, however, were restored by the allied k reigns, Maria Louisa became duchess of P^ and mistress of Count Neipperg, and her son consigned to oblivion at the court of his gra father. The eyes of Europe were often tur upon the young Napoleon as he grew to manhc and displayed some of the rare qualities posse by his father; the governments of Louis XV 1 and Charles X. also may be supposed to have that his existence at the court of Vienna; perpetual menace. Whatever hopes or may have excited were set at rest by his j 1832, when a rapid decline terminated " the early age of twenty-one. The due stadt bore a strong resemblance to Napol finely chiselled mouth and chin, the ma head, and the deep brilliancy of his eyes, markably alike ; the same may be said of ] city for the penetration of character, general temperament. He applied hi tensely to military and historical stud especially to all that concerned the car father, but he had no real freedom at His portrait was almost the last object exile of St. Helena gazed upon, whose " ment is an evidence how much he still the child of his ambition : ' I recomme never to forget that he was born a Frenc and never to permit himself to become an i ment in the hands of the sovereigns who the peoples of Europe. He must never f in the ranks of those who combat with in any manner annoy her. Let him motto, " All for the trench people." ' REID, Thomas, born at Strachan in dineshire, 26th April, 1710 ; died in Glas October, 1795 : the illustrious founder C38 REI ottish School ' in Philosophy. The events Reid's Life were few, but most honourable to i; and the entire tenor of his Life, that which tted an unobtrusive, but earnest, and successful uirer into Truth. Under the influence of early nections, his thoughts naturally turned towards losophy, and the profession of the Church; he completed the studies needful to that end darischal College, Aberdeen. But about this od, Hume's Treatise on Human Nature aston- d and troubled Philosophy. Until then, Reid accepted Locke, and even the startling deduc- s of Berkeley did not alarm him. But Hume much farther. Along with the Material Id, he had banished those Spiritual conceptions ;h Reid held in greatest account; he denied, Personality, and therefore the Liberty and Re- sibility of Man. The sincere Scottish Clergy- , felt and knew, that, in a Philosophy whose iusions were so false, the most serious error inhere ; and that, as its Logic showed no flaw, "ault must He in the foundations. Soon after, 763, his great work appeared the ' Inquiry he Human, Mind on the Principles of Common -that vigorous protest on behalf of our Consciousness, which determined the long uent course of Scottish Philosophy. Pre- to the publication of this work, Reid had left " (in 1752) for the Chair of Moral Philo- in his Alma Mater; but the reputation " ed by the ' Inquiry,' procured his transla- te a more important sphere ; he was chosen "64 to succeed Adam Smith in the corres- w Chair in the University of Glasgow. In and 1788, he published his Essays on the In- ' Faculties, and the A ctive Powers. Philo- has recently obtained the classic edition Sir William Hamilton. We shall succinctly as possible the characteristics i Reform. The first fallacy in the system and his successors, at which he struck, doctrine of Perception. The problem, way does the Mind reach the external | had always been held fundamental in hy. And a favourite mode of conceiving is certain Images or Ideas, intermediate mind and matter representing the latter, hensible by the former constitute the # tween these two contrasted substances being the case, said Berkeley, we do not Matter or the External World at all ; and, Hume, we perceive and can know nothing The various forms and modifications cumbrous and purely fantastic conception tly been scientifically arranged and ex- by Sir William Hamilton ; who has afresh that Reid's solution of the vexed is the only tenable one. Perception, said not a representation, but a presentation. not reach it, from Sensation, through any , the world the cause of the sensation in the mind along with the sensation and with the same evidence. The root or of all our knowledge is thus essentially the Intuition is as immediate as the that gives rise to it. (Article Leibntiz). this simple solution, which is but the as- of a fact attested to be such by Consci- Beid dispersed the perplexities of preced- REI ing Thinkers, and ought to have prevented the rise of many of the ambitious and baseless schemes in which Germany has since then been unhappily so fertile. Reids next point, touched the rationale of our Judgments. According to Locke, a Judgment is the mere comparison of terms or ideas furnished by simpte apprehension : we receive ideas, said that Philosopher, alto- gether from Sensation ; the Mind compares these Ideas ; and, from this comparison, results^ know- ledge or judgments. Reid overthrew this doc- trine also. Judgments, he said, are not mere abstract terms; neither mere statements of the identity or discordance of abstract terms. They come from analyses of concrete notions by the Mind, acting according to its own inherent Lau-s, and under the sjoay of principles, belonging to its constitution, and of which none of its opera- tions are independent. This doctrine of Judg- ment, led our Inquirer, ineyitablv, to a farther and yet higher question, viz.: What are those Laws? What those Fundamental Principles of the Reason ? Reid replies, by a summary of First Truths, or Truths of Common Sense; and next by an analysis of the Faculties. Very few persons will now be disposed to say, that in the details or phraseology of these replies, Reid's system is un- impeachable. The name Faculty, was perhaps unfortunate, and no scientific, precise, or exhaus- tive method, guided his research after First Truths ; he merely enumerates a few principles, which he says are evident to Common Sense. Nevertheless, the solution offered is correct in the main ; and it is not an exaggeration, that it over- turned Sensationalism in this country. He car- ried with him the same method into Moral Inves- tigations, re-establishing on surest foundations, the Personality and Liberty of Man. It is of mo- ment that a correct apprehension be obtained of the exact place occupied by Reid and the Scottish School generally, in the history of later Mental Philosophy. That he stands among the foremost of that class of Thinkers who have contended with Scepticism in all its forms, and Sensationalism under whatever modification, does not require to be reasserted : the really important question is, what is the relationship of Reid's system to those of other Modern Leaders, who, in so far as his main object is concerned, have made common cause with him ? Among the great men, whose general aim was identical with Reid's, we easily distin- guish two Des Cartes and Kant : let us fix, then, the relations between Cartesianism, our Scottish Reform, and the Critical Philosophy. Now, it is not to be doubted that the foundation the starting point of unquestionable certainty is in all these systems the same : neither is the flory of having first descried that Common Sense 'oundation, to be withheld from the illustrious Frenchman. Previous to the labours of Des Cartes, the metaphysicians of Modern Europe, had discerned no absolute starting point; their schemes usually reposed on some abstract and often fanciful postulate; nor can more forcible illustration be given of the merit of Des Cartes' achievement, than the subsequent aberrations of Spinoza. The foundation, whose claims and sufficiency are so fully vindicated in the Treatise on Method and the Meditations, is simply this : 639 REI it is a First Truth possessed of an Absolute Cer- tainty, from which the certainty belonging to all other Truth is derived that 7, a Thinking Sicb- f'ect, exist. This Ego, then, being our first or pri- mary sphere of observation and scrutiny ; what find we there? And in establishing this foundation and putting this question, Des Cartes spread out the entire domain of Psychology. Sciences are built up slowly ; and psychological observation is peculiarly difficult: Des Cartes did not advance far with the superstructure ; he left hints merely and separate truths; and he often erred. The earliest subsequent progress may most justly be attributed to Reid, for Locke, with all his acute- ness, was not a sound Psychologist, he started from a Theory regarding the Origin of our Ideas. Consciousness, said Reid, which assures us of the existence and personality of the Thinking Subject, declares in a manner equally imperative, the phe- nomena and attributes of that Subject. It tells in the first place, of certain Faculties, or modes of action demanding faith for the operations of these Faculties. And it declares secondly, the existence of certain absolute principles or beliefs, from which in none of its actions, the Ego can shake itself free : principles which, when mixed up with the subject-matter of sensations, give rise to equally imperative contingent truths. As already indi- cated, Reid was rather a sound Thinker than pos- sessed of the Scientific Spirit. Although there- fore he discovered the foregoing Truths, and fully appreciated and unfolded their importance, he penetrated no farther. He descried fundamental facts in Psychology, but he never entertained an idea that Psychology any more than any other branch of Inquiry cannot be elevated into a Sci- ence, if attention be confined to examination of its separate fundamental Facts. That loftier ques- tion was beyond him What is the Organic Struc- ture of the Intellect of which these facts are pro- ducts or phenomena ? In other words, In what way are principles possible, which are not evolved by our faculties, but rather govern them, seeing that no faculty can construct any notion which does not pre-suppose these principles? And again, How comes it, that knowledge relative to the nature and action of the Faculties of an Individual Mind, can ever assume to be Absolute? It is into this arduous Sphere of pure Science that Kant boldly entered, and where his triumphs have been won. His arrangement or classifica- tion of the Mind's Modes of Energy (Faculties) is simpler and better discriminated than Reid's; he has traced the absolutism of First Truths to the fact, that d priori or constitutent Laws, fovern the Mind's action in every Mode of its Inergy; and he has exhausted the list of such Truths, by detecting these d priori Laws. Such, the relationship among these remarkable Thinkers. It has been signally unfortunate for the progress of Philosophy in Scotland, that we have not been disposed to regard our country- man as a contributor merely. Not satisfied with recognizing his immense merits, we have sup- })osed that he sounded all the depths of Psycho- ogic knowledge; thus wilfully shutting up our sympathies from the memorable advances" achieved since his time. Of late years, indeed, we have been growing sensible of our mistake. [J.P.N.] REM REIFESTEIN, John Frederick, a Prusf cameo painter and improver of the art, 1719-17 REIFFENBERG, Francis De, a Fre Jesuit, historian, theol., and Latin poet, 1719-" REIGNY, L. A. B., a French writer, 1757-li REIL, J. C, a Germ, phvsiologist, 1759-18: REIMAR,or REIMARIUS, Herman Samu a philologist and naturalist, professor of phil< phy at Hamburg, 1694-1748. His son, Henry, a physician and naturalist, 1729-1801 REIMMANN, James Frederick, a Gen savant, author of a ' History of Logic,' 16G8-1' REINA, F., a French writer, 1770-1825. REINBECK, J. G., a German theologian philosophical disciple of Wolf, 1682-1741. REINECCIUS, O, a theologian and Hebr editor of a Bible in four languages, 1668-1752 REINECCIUS, Reinier, an antiquarian disciple of Melanchthon, one of the restore! historical studies in Germany, 1541-1595. REINEGGS, J., a German traveller, 1744 REINER, W. L., a German painter, 1686-1 REINESIUS, Thomas, a learned phyi and archaeologist of Gotha, 1587-1667. REINHARD, F.Volkmar, aprotestantth) gian and moralist of Sulzbach, 1753-1812 REINHART, C. F., Count, a diplomatist, n ber of the Institute, and peer of France, 1751-J REINHOLD, C. Leo, a Ger. philos., one* first to enforce the doctrines of Kant, 17584 REINHOLD, Erasmus, a German astron and professor of mathematics, 1511-1553.1 son, of the same name, who was a phys wrote on geometry, and on a new star whick peared in Cassiopeia, 1575. REISER, A., a German theologian, 1628-1 REISKE, John James, an eminent philol and Arabic scholar of Saxony, 1716-1774.J wife, Ernestina Christina, was a Latin Greek scholar, and aided her husband in a labours, 1735-1798. REITZ, Frederick Wolfgang, a Ge philologist and editor of some classics, 1733-s REITZ, John Frederick, a learned pi gist, 1695-1778. His brother, G. Otho, a editor, 1702-1769, RELAND, A., a Dutch Orientalist, 167*1 RELTAN, Richard, a Church of EnglaM ister, naturalist, and classical editor, 1755-lf REMARD, O, a French bibliopole, 1766-/ REMBERSUS, one of the first promot Christianity in Denmark, d. abp. of Hamburg . REMBRANDT, Gerritz, commonly called^ brandt Van Rhyn, was born in his father on the banks of the Rhine between Leyerdoi Kowkerk, near Leyden, June 15, 1606. Heb, the pupil of Jacob Van Swanenburg, with he remained three years; he studied also > Pieter Lastman at Amsterdam, and Jacob Pi Haarlem. He settled at Amsterdam in 163 appears to have died there, according to 1mm July 19, 1664, but no register of his bori been yet discovered. Rembrandt was equal tinguished as an etcher and a painter ; his ings amount to nearly 400 : they are date* 1628 to 1661. The chief characteristic of hi* is forcible light and shade. He is well repn in the National Gallery; and his influen been more direct upon the British school oi 040 REM *s than that of any other master. (Immerzeel, mteekeningen op de Lofredd op Rembrandt, De Levens en Werken der Hollandsche en 'aanmsche Kunstschilders, &c, 1843 ; Bartsch, Peinter graveur; Burnet, Rembrandt and his fo, 1848.) [R.N.W.] tEMER, J. A., a Germ, historian, 1736-1804. {EMI, or REMIGIUS, the name of two saints the Roman calendar : 1. An apostle of the inks who baptized Clovis, and became arch- hop of Rheims, died 533. 2. An archbishop of ons, who was of Gaulish origin, and wrote nst Godeschalcus, presided at the council of ence 855, died 875. A third of the name, ed Remi, or Remigius of Auxerre, was a ledictine monk and commentator, died 980. {EMI, A., a French poet, 1600-1646. EMI, J. H., a French jurist, 1738-1782. EMONDI, Balthasar M., a Venetian bishop lante, disting. as an Orientalist, 1698-1777. EMUSAT, Claire Elizabeth Jeanne, ntess De, lady of the palace to the empress jphine, authoress of an Essay on Female Edu- n,1780-1821. EMUSAT, Jean Pierre Abel, professor of Chinese and Tartar languages at the college of ice, author of a Chinese Grammar, and some ble translations, 1788-1832. EMUSAT, P. F. De, a Fr. writer. 1755-1803. ENANUS. See Rhenanus. ENARD, J. A., a French architect, 1744-73. ENAU D'ELISAGARAY, Bernard, a fa- naval engineer and architect, an. of ' Theorie , Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux,' 1652-1719. NAUD, the first of the name, count of Bur- y, reigned 1027-1057; the second, succeeded I, died in the Holy Land, 1097; the third, ' ded 1126, died, and was succeeded by his ter, Beatrix, 1148. NAUD, the first of the name, count of Bar, " 1105-1149, and sustained a long struggle e emperor Henry V. The second, succeeded her, Hugh, 1155, died 1170. AUD, L., a French preacher, 1690-1771. AUD,orREGNAULD. See Reginaldus. AUDIE, Godfrey De Bapay, Seigneur . a party to the conspiracy of Amboise, 1560. NAUDOT, Theophrastus, a physician and roher, founder of the ' Gazette de France,' 1653. The 'Gazette' was continued by his :, Isaac and Eusebius. Eusebius, his is a learned Orientalist and ecclesi- historian, 1656-1720. 'AULT, A. C, a young woman, executed at for attempting the life of Robespierre, 1794. "AZZI, P. M., an Italian jurist, 1747-1808. E of Anjou, the last of his dynasty who the throne of Naples, and the father of t of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., king of was born at the castle of Angers in 1409, eded his brother as duke of Anjou and of Provence, 1434. He had previously be- doke of Lorraine by his marriage with Isa- *"e heiress of that state, and had suffered a tivity, and been deprived of the succession competitor, Anthony, count of Vaudemont. B still the prisoner of that polite gentleman he succeeded to the duchies of Anjou and in 1434, and when the death of Joan II. REN of Naples in 1435, gave him a claim to the Two Sicilies. These events, and the warlike employ- ment they promised to Rend, were a sufficient in- ducement for Anthony to rid his hands of him, and the heir of Naples and Sicily was permitted to fight his way to the throne. The succession was disputed by Alfonso of Arragon, who took Naples in 1442, and chased Rene back to Provence. But the conquests of the English had also de- prived him of his whole heritage in France, and Rene found himself a titular king of some of the fairest portions of the earth, and duke of Anjou, Maine, and Bar, without a province under his own command. Such was his position when the duke of Suffolk negotiated the marriage of Renews daughter with Henry VI., and it is thus alluded to in the taunts put in the mouth of York by Shakspeare : Thy father bears the type of king of Naples, Of both the Sicils and Jerusalem ; Yet not so wealthy as an English yeoman. Hath that poor monarch taught thee to insult ?' Margaret, however, if poor, was a finely accom- plished woman, and possessed the heroic spirit of many others of hei sex in that age ; her father, Ren6, also was distinguished by many of the quali- ties of a good and wise king, whose lot was cast in evil times; and he was called 'the good King Rene' by his subjects of Provence. Anjou and Maine were restored to him by the treaty with Henry VI., but Louis XL, in 1473, deprived him of the former, and attached it definitively to the French crown. It was according to the necessity and the spirit of the times, for the European monarchies were then absorbing the old feudal lord- ships and petty sovereignties into themselves, and forming the national monarchies, such as France became in the next century under Louis XIV. Rene - died at Aix in Provence, 1470, and so lately as 1823 a marble statue was erected to him in that city. He was the last count of Provence, that portion of his hereditary dominions having been annexed to France at his death. [E.R.] RENE II., duke of Lorraine, born 1451, suc- ceeded to the duchy in right of his mother, daughter of Rend of Anjou, 1493, died 1508. RENEE of France, duchess of Ferrara, second daughter of Louis XII., was born 1510. In 1528 she married Hercules II., duke of Ferrara, and was distinguished for her love of letters, and her friend- ship for Calvin and the protestants. Died 1575. RENNEL, Major, an East Indian officer, and distinguished geographical writer, 1742-1830. RENNELL, Thomas, dean of Winchester, and son-in-law of Sir William Blackstone, regarded as one of the most accomplished men of his age, author of Sermons, 1753-1840. His son, of trie same name, born at Winchester 1787, became in 1811 editor of the ' British Critic,' and published about the same time his ' Animadversions on the Unitarian Version of the New Testament ;' d. 1824. RENNEVILLE, Constantine De, author of a ' History of the Bastile,' in which he had been confined on a charge of treason ; born at Caen 1650, died in England 1724. RENNEVILLE, Sophie, a French lady, author of works on education, 1771-1822, RENNIE, John, a distinguished civil engineer, and the first perhaps who in the execution of 641 2T REN machinery carefully distributed and accurately calculated the strains of the different parts, so that these were justly proportioned, a feature which up to a very recent period was a peculiar characteristic of British machinery. He was born at Phantassie in Haddingtonshire, 7th June, 1761. His father was a farmer, celebrated for his skill and desire to improve agriculture. As early as 1780, on being asked at what season he began ploughing, answered that he ploughed at all seasons ! John Rennie acquired the rudiments of education at the school of JPhantassie and afterwards at Dunbar, where, on the promotion of the master, he, for a short time, conducted the school. He early displayed a love of nature, and an aptitude for mechanical contrivance, and the use of tools. He worked as a mechanic for some years under Andrew Meikle, a millwright of the district, under whose superin- tendence he assisted in the erection of some mills in Haddingtonshire, and went as far as Dundee to erect one on his own account. The opportunity presented itself, and Rennie took advantage of it, to attend the courses of lectures on mechanical philosophy and chemistry, by Robison and Black, in Edinburgh college. Prepared thus with what books and professors could teach, he entered the world ; and it may be said, that during all the course of his useful life, he was adding to his stock of knowledge, or seeking the means of improving his practice by observing the operations and effects of his own works, as well as of those which had been executed by other engineers. About 1781, or when in his twenty-first year, feeling himself qualified to practise the profession of civil engineer- ing on a greater scale than Scotland then afforded field for, he set out for London. On his way he spent some months with Watt at Soho. Soon after he was established in London, Bolton and Watt em- ployed Rennie in the construction of two steam engines, and the machinery connected with them, at the Albion Flour Mills. All the wheel work was of cast iron instead of wood, which had been always previously used in such machinery. The works were finished in 1789, and obtained Watt's highest commendation. Rennie continued to the last to be employed in the construction of steam engines and other machinery, and, at the same time, he was almost constantly engaged in designing or superin- tending those public works which have given him so just a claim to celebrity. Rennie designed and executed innumerable bridges, but his masterpieces are Waterloo bridge, the Southwark cast iron bridge, and New London bridge, the execution of which latter was left to his sons to complete. His great engineering genius was displayed besides in numerous canals for navigation successfully carried out under his direction ; in the extensive drainage schemes for the Lincolnshire fens, which he planned and executed ; in the magnificent London, and East and West India docks ; the Hull docks, where he constructed the first dredging machine used in this country. But the catalogue of his works cannot be recited here. He was indefatigable in business, and personally directed minutest details. He was a man of noble presence, of somewhat austere tem- per, and not very social habits. Chantrey, who made a bust of him, said of it that it was his (Ohantrey's) Jupiter. Until within a few years of his death he enjoyed excellent health. He died Oc- RET tober 16, 1821, at the early age of sixty-one, leavii many magnificent designs to be executed by h two elder sons, George and John, the latt now Sir John Rennie ; he was buried in St. Paxil Cathedral. [L.D.B.G RENNIGER, or RHANGER,Micilki., a n.iti of Hampshire, chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, ai author of Latin poems, 1529-1609. RENDU, A., a French painter, 1731-1806. I RENTI, Gaston Jean Baptiste, a Freni nobleman, remarkable for his ascetic devotion religion, and for his charities, 1611-1649. RENZI, A, an Italian writer, 1780-182.1 REPNIN, Nicholas Wasiuewitsch, Prin< a celebrated Russian diplomatist, 1731-1801. REPTON, Humphrey, a private gentlenu dist. as a wr. on landscape gardening, 1752-181 REQUENO Y VIVES, Vincent, a Span Jesuit, numismatist, and archajologist, 1743-18' REQUIER, J. B., a French writer, 1715-17$ RESENIUS, John Paul, a learned divine, i of a Lutheran clergyman of Denmark, 1561-16 His grandson, Peter John, professsr of mc philosophy and jurisprud. at Copenhagen, 1625- RESTAUT, P., a Fr. grammarian, 1696-176 RESTIF-DE-LA-BRETONNE, N. E., a fer and cynical French novelist, 1731-1806. RESTOUT, John, a French painter, directot the Academy, 1692-1768. His son, J. Berna: a painter and member of the Academy, died 17 RESTY, J. A., a Latin poet, 1755-1814. RETZ, Gilles De Saval, Seigneur Del French marshal, born 1396, distinguished him: in the wars with the English, and acquired a * graceful celebrity by his cruelties and infair debaucheries : hung and burnt 1440. RETZ, or RAIZ, Albert De Gondi, Mar De, a native of Florence, who came to France \ Catharine de Medici, and was rewarded with barony of Retz and a marshal's baton, 1522-1 His brother, Pierre, Cardinal De Retz, advai by favour of Catharine, 1533-1616. Their gn nephew is the subject of the following articlw_ RETZ, Jean Francois Paul De Goi; Cardinal De, the hero of the civil wars oii Fronde in the minority of Louis XIV., *^ son of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, general of: French Galleys, and was born at MontmiraiLM He was educated by St. Vincent de Paul | destined for the church, but turned out a D tious and turbulent character in his youth, preferred entering into the intrigues oi thej and heading the popular party opposed to and Conde. Tne only sincere parties in cabal, for it hardly possesses the dignity of r war, though it was marked by all the suffei one, was the distressed people, who be mere tools of ambition and faction. The manifestations provoked by De Retz were" to those which marked the commencements French revolution; and the year 1649 was] lized by the resort to arms and the er barricades. The court was obliged to lea\ till De Retz was purchased by a cardie which he was nominated by the king in 16 was then arrested, during the lull which ft by Mazarin, and remained a prisoner from | 1654, when he escaped to Spain, and goii that country to Rome, engaged in the int" 642 RET Ihe papal court. In 1661, the death of Mazarin jnabled him to return to France and make his eace with the king; he resigned, however, the tular archbishopric which he had held since the eath of his uncle, and received the abbey of St. enis in lieu of it. The remainder of his life resents a singular contrast with the part we have cetched; he abandoned his magnificent manner living, and sequestered the greater part of his come to the payment of his debts, amounting to re than a million and a-half sterling ; twice it aid, he wished to renounce the purple, which confessed to have purchased too dearly. He 1 at Paris, universally esteemed, in 1679, iving 'Memoirs' which are highly valued for eir impartiality, and for the sketches of charac- with which they are replete. [E.R.] RETZIUS, A. J., a Swed. botanist, 1747-1821. REUCHLIN, John, one of the most eminent ;rman scholars, prof, of Greek and Hebrew at Wit- nberg, and teacher of Melanchthon, 1455-1522. REUILLY, J. De, a Fr. traveller, 1780-1810. REUSCH, J. P., a Ger. philologist, 1691-1754. EUSNER, N., a German jurisconsult and tesman, author of some compilations and Latin 1545-1602. His brother, Elias, an anti- and historian, 1555-1612. USS, J. D., a Germ, philologist, 1750-1837. UTH, B., a Russian historian, last centnry. EUVEN, P., a Dutch painter, 1650-1718. EUVENS, John Everhard, one of the learned jurisconsults ever produced in Hol- was born at Haarlem, 1763, and perished at sels, the victim of a conspiracy in 1816. He one of the authors of the new criminal code he Low Countries. VEL, J., a French painter, 1684-1751. VELEY, Wili-ey, a pupil of Sir W. Cham- list, as an architect and antiquary, d. 1799. VELLIERE - LEPAUX, Louis Marie, sively member of the constituent assembly, nvention. and the directory, 1753-1824. VER, 11. F. G., a Fr. antiquary, 1753-1828. VIUS, J., a Dutch savant, 1586-1658. WBELL, Jean Baptiste, successively de- to the estates-general, the convention, and irectory of the French republic, in which he was replaced by Sieyes, 1746-1816. Y, J., a French chemist, died 1645. EY, Jean Baptiste, an eminent musical , several years director of the orchestra chapel of Napoleon, 1734-1810. 'HER, S., a German savant, 1635-1714. , J. De, a Flemish painter, died 1678. A, C. De, a Spanish Hebraist, 16th cent. YNEAU, C. R., a Fr. geometr., 1656-1728. YNER, E., a nonconf. div., abt. 1600-1670. YNIER, John Louis Ebenezer, a French il and statesman, 1771-1814. His brother, Anthony, an economist, 1762-1814. YNOLDS, E., an Engl, prelate, 1595-1676. YNOLDS, Sir Joshua, considered the ler of the English school of painting as regards ial characteristics, was born at Plympton nshire, where his father was rector, July 723. He was intended for the medical pro- but was induced by the perusal of Richard- Issays on Painting, &c, to take up painting profession. A handsome edition of these RHI essays was in 1773 dedicated to Sir Joshua by Richardson's son, comprising The Theory of Painting, Essay on the Art of Criticism, and The Science of a Connoisseur. Reynolds' first master was Hudson the portrait painter, with whom he was placed in 174.1. He first set up as a portrait pain- ter at Devonport, but in 1746 settled in London in St. Martin's Lane. In 1749 he accompanied Com- modore Keppel in the Centurion to the Mediter- ranean, and remained altogether about three years in Italy. He commenced business again in Lon- don in 1752, and soon became the most prominent painter of the capital. In 1768, when the Royal Academy was established, Reynolds was unani- mously elected president at the first meeting of the members, December 14, of that year, and he was knighted by George III. in consequence. In 1784 he succeeded Allan Ramsay as principal painter in ordinary to the king; and after an unrivalled career as a portrait painter, died at his house in Leicester Square, February 23, 1792. He was buried with great pomp in St. Paul's Cathedral, where a fine statue by Flaxman is placed immedi- ately below the dome, in honour of his memory. His large fortune, about 80,000, was inherited by his niece, Miss Palmer, who became afterwards marchioness of Thomond. His collection of works of art sold for nearly 17,000. Sir Joshua Rey- nolds, notwithstanding his careless and feeble drawing, was indisputably a great painter ; some of his portraits are among the first masterpieces of the art, whether as simple portraits, or as fancy pieces, as for instance, ' Lord Heathfield ' in the National Gallery, of the former class, and ' Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse,' at Dulwich, of the latter. His pictures are necessarily very numerous, their chief excellence is their natural grace, ful- ness of expression, substantial character, and fre- quently a charming richness of colour and light and shade. His eulogium cannot be better ex- pressed than in the words of Burke : ' He was the first Englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country ;' ' The loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere, general, and unmixed sorrow.' Sir Joshua has bequeathed to posterity besides his paintings, fifteen elegant and valuable ' Discourses,' of which a magnificent edition edited by John Burnet, was published bv James Carpenter in 1842. There is a full life "of Reynolds by North- cote, two vols. 8vo, London, 1819. [R.N.W.] REYRAC, Francis Philip Delaurens De, a French ecclesiastic and poet, 1734-1782. REYS, Anthony Das, a Portuguese divine, known as a poet and biographer, 1690-1738. REZZANO, F., an Italian poet, 1731-1780. REZZONICO, Anthony Joseph, Count Delia Torre, an Ital. critic, and gov. of Parma, 1709-85. RHAY, T., a French controversialist, 1603-71. RHAZES, an Arabian physician, died 932. RHEINEK, C, a German composer, 1748-96. RHENANUS, Beatus, a learned critic, and one of the restorers of letters in Germany, 1485-1547. RHENFERD, J., a Ger. Orientalist, 1654-1712. RHESE, J. D., a Welch philologist, 1534-1609. RHETICUS, G. J., a Swiss astron., 1514-1576. RHIANUS, a Greek grammarian, B.C. 200. RHIGAS, a modern Greek poet, and martyr of patriotism, was born in Thessaly about 1753. II 613 RHO Having organized a secret society to achieve the independence of Greece, he \v;is "arrested by the Austrian government, and, a rescue being feared, was drowned in the Danube, May, 17'J8. His poems are said to be full of inspiration, besides which he commenced a Greek journal, and trans- lated several French works. RHO, J., an Italian ascetic, 1590-1662. RHODE, J. G., a Germ. Orientalist, died 1827. RHODES, Alexander De, a Fr. Jesuit, dist. as a missionary to the East, from 1618 to 1660. RHODES, J., a Danish savant, 1587-1659. RHODIGINUS, Coslius, a learned Italian, called by Scaliger, who was a pupil of his, the Varro of his age. His proper name was Lodo- vico Celio Riccheei, 1450-1525. RHODOMAN, L., a Germ, savant, 1546-1606. RHUNKEN, or RUHNEKEN, David, an eminent critic and professor at Leyden, 1723-98. RHYNE, W. F., a Dutch naturalist, 17th cent. RHYZELIUS, Andrew, a Swedish antiqua- rian, chaplain to Charles XII., bp. of Lincoping, and member of the Upsala Academy, 1677-1755. RIBALTA, Franciso, a Spanish painter, 1551- 1628. Juan, his son and pupil, 1597-1628. RIBAS, Joseph De, a Neapolitan general, em- ployed in the service of Russia, and one of the nego- tiators of the peace of Jassi; born about 1735. RIBAS-Y-CARASQUILLAS, F. De, a Spanish Dominican, and adversary of the Jesuits, 1612-87. RIBERA, Anastasius Pantaleon De, a Span, poet and wit, time of Philip IV., 1580-1629. RIBERA. See Spagnoletto. RIBES, Anne Arnaud De, a French colonel of engineers, distinguished in Spain in the wars of the French republic and of the empire, 1731-1811. RIBIER, W., a French historian and deputy to the estates-general, 1575-1663. RIBIT, J., a French Hellenist, 16th centurv. RIBOUTTE, F. L., a Fr. dramat., 1770-1834. RICARD, D., a French translator, 1741-1803. RICARDO, David, a merchant of London, of Dutch descent, famous for his writings on finance and the statistics of public economy, was born 1772, and first appeared as an author during the discussion connected with the Bullion Committee in 1810. His great work 'On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,' was published in 1817. In 1819, he became member of parlia- ment for Portarlington. Died 1823. RICART, or RYCAUT, Sir Paul, an English traveller, historian, and diplomatist, died 1700. RICCATI, Vincent De, an Italian mathema- tician and engineer, 1707-1775. His brother, Jourdain, a musician, 1709-1790. RICCHERI. See Rhodiginus. RICCI, Antonio, an Italian painter, surnamed Barbalunga, taught by Domenicnino, 1600-1649. RICCI, C, an Italian painter, 1580-1620. RICCI, J. B., an Italian painter, 1545-1620. RICCI, Lorenzo, the last general of the Jesuits, born at Florence, 1703, died in the castle of St. Angelo, 1775. His nephew, Scipio, an Italian prelate, imprisoned for his attachment to the protestant doctrines, 1741-1810. RICCI, M., a Romish missionary, 1552-1610. RICCI, M. A., an Italian cardinal, 1619-1682. RICCI, Sebastiano, an Italian painter, who executed in this country the staircase at Montague RIC House, 1660-1734. Marco, his nephew pupil, born 1676, died at Venice 1730. KICCIARELLI. See Voi.tkkka. RICCIO, B., an Italian painter. 16th century RICCIO, Domenico, generally called Jirm sorci, an Italian painter, 1494-1567. His Felix, called Brusasorci the Younger, 1 550-1 Gf Baptista, the brother of the latter, and Cecil his sister, were also painters. RICCIOLI,Giovani Batista, a lea Jesuit and astronomer, 1578-l(ul. RICCOBONI, Luigi, called Lelio, an emim Italian dramatist and comic actor, born at Modi about 1674, died 1753. His first wife, Hele Virginia Baletti, was also an actress authoress, 1686-1771. Their son, Antonio Fr/ CESCO, was an actor, dramatic writer, and alci mist, 1707-1772. The wife of the latter, Mai Jeanne Laboras De Mezieres, a French la was disting. as an actress and novelist, 1713-92 RICH, Claudius James, the distinguis traveller and Orientalist, was born in 1787, 1 Dijon, in Burgundy, and was brought to Engl in his infancy, and educated at Bristol. He becj so remarkable for his skill in the Eastern langux that he obtained an appointment in the East In Company's service as early as 1803, when in - seventeenth year. In 1807 he resided with James Macintosh, at Bombay, and married daughter. His researches in Babylonia date f 1811 to 1820, and he died prematurely at Shi in 1821. His Oriental antiquities and MSS. purchased by parliament for the British Muse' His memoirs were published by his widow, went through a second edition in 1839. RICH, Penelope Devereux, Lady of 1 Robert Rich, was a daughter of the old eai Essex, and the affianced bride of Sir Philip Sid She is the Stella of his exquisitely beautiful verses, and is admitted to have been the fi woman of her age. The love story of ' Astrop . and ' Stella,' is one of the most painful of real life. It has been illustrated by the grai pen of Mrs. Jameson among others. RICHARD I., king of England, Cceur de Lion, the ' Lion-hearted,' was the son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Guienne^ had been divorced by Louis VII. of Franca^ was born at Oxford in 1157, and succeeded throne by the death of his father in 1189 ; previously displayed so haughty and rebelHl spirit, that it had contributed to lay the agedf in his grave. Remorse for his past mis was instantly followed by preparations $ crusade in Palestine, which had oeen resoll during Henry's lifetime, in consequence ol 1 progress in arms of the renowned Saladin. the 1st of July, 1190, Richard met Philif gustus of France in the plain of Vezel agreed upon the terms of a mutual exp he was then accompanied from Marseilles English barons, ana the kings rejoined at Messina, the appointed rendezvous of armies. Here the romantic episode of ' expedition against Cyprus, and his mar Berengaria took place. In the middle these interesting proceedings ended in the of the armament before St. Jean d'Acre, th for two years past besieged by the 644 RIC wder the emperor Frederic. The English monarch Immediately became popular among the knights, Lnd took a leading part in the operations oi' the liege. The fortress sun-en rlered, notwithstanding the efforts of Saladin to raise the siege on the 12th Sf July, and soon afterwards Philip Augustus ,,'leparted for France, pretending sickness, but really *[isgusted with the supremacy of Richard, and far ,. jutshone by him in feats of arms. Richard now harched from St. Jean D'Acre at the head of 00,000 men, and defeated Saladin in a general ngagement on the road towards Ascalon. This ctory put the crusaders in possession of the prin- pal towns along the sea-coast, and furnished ich a basis of operations that Richard was enabled press forward to the capture of Jerusalem. isaffection among the Christian forces prevented e accomplishment of this design, and Richard, taring of the perfidy of his brother, John, and p of France, concluded a truce with Saladin, d embarked for Europe on the 9th of October, 92. His fame had already been spread far and ide by the songs of the troubadours, and the ports of the pilgrims. Armed with a heavy ittle-axe, he never hesitated to rush single- mded into the midst of the enemy, and such teds are recorded of him as would be incredible they were not well attested by eye-witnesses. i the passage home he was shipwrecked near "** ;i iei, on the coast of Italy, and, disguising ilf as a pilgrim, he endeavoured to reach Eng- id by way of Germany. When near Vienna, his " ' d character was discovered, and Leopold, duke '' Austria, caused him to be arrested both in renge of his brother-in-law, the king of Cyprus, d of the contempt that Richard had shown for flag at Acre. On his captivity becoming known, [Castle of Tiornsteigen, the prison of Richard.] was concealed as long as possible, Richard ransomed by his subjects at the price of marks, and arrived in London on the 20th " ,1194. His contemptible brother, John, in connivance with Philip to usurp the and that monarch advised him of Rich- return, with the laconic warning to ' take f himself, for the devil had broke loose.' however, generously forgave him, and en crowned again at Winchester, crossed ' to France to chastise Philip. Hostilities were 645 RIC interrupted by a truce, and being resumed again a second truce was agreed upon, both which events occurred within the three years, 1196-1199. In the last-mentioned year Richard was preparing to return to England, when Vidomar, the count of Limoges, discovered a treasure, part of which he sent to Richard as his feudal superior. The lat- ter claimed the whole. Avariciousness could be no part of such a character, but it should be con- sidered that he had been at great costs in his recent wars, and his conscience may have told him that his subjects had paid a far higher ransom for him than he was worth as their sovereign. Provoked at the refusal of the Limousan, Coeur de Lion invested the castle of Chaluz, and haughtily refusing all overtures, threatened to hang the whole garrison as soon as he had taken the place. While reconnoitering this stronghold, he was shot in the shoulder with an arrow by a cross-bow-man, named Bertrand de Gourdon. The wound proved mortal, and Richard expired in the tenth year of his reign, on the 16th April, 1199. The garrison in the meanwhile had been defeated, and the king dis- played his usual magnanimity by ordering that Gourdon should be set at liberty. On the con- trary, the hapless man was flayed alive and then hung, by order of Marchadee, the leader of the Brabantine soldiers in Richard's army. The fame of Richard Cceur de Lion has been no less widely spread in the East than in his own country, and his daring passed into a proverb among the Sara- cens. He had qualities also that must have made him a great king, in every sense of the word, had he outlived his martial enthusiasm, or had war been pursued for political ends in those times as in later ages. [E.R.] RICHARD II., eldest son of Edward the black prince, and of Jane, daughter of Edmund, earl of Kent, was born at Bourdeaux 1366, and succeeded his grandfather, Edward III., 1377. He was called to govern in difficult times, when the nobles were turbulent and powerful, and the commons were just acquiring a knowledge of the power they might possibly exercise : his minority also was disturbed by the continuance of the French wars of his grandfather. At that time the modem principles of taxation were not understood, and disaffection was provoked by the exactions neces- sary for the public service. A priest, named John Ball, became the orator of the multitude, and the people rushed to arms under Wat Tyler, a poor man, whose daughter had been outraged by the indecent conduct of the collector of the poll-tax. This was in 1381, when the king was only fifteen years of age. Tvler, who lived at Dartford, in Kent, collected a body of 100,000 insurgents under his banner, and having pitched his camp at Black- heath r made a disastrous descent upon the metro- polis. The promises of the government caused the greater part of this force to disband, and their leader was stabbed in Smithfield while conferring with the king, by Walworth, mayor of London. Assassination under such circumstances was a dangerous experiment, but Richard at this critical moment, with great presence of mind, rode up to the insurgents, and declaring he would redress their grievances, finally persuaded them to dis- perse to their homes. By similar means the insur- rection, which had spread from county to county, RIC was everywhere suppressed in detail ; and when all was supposed to he over the concessions were withdrawn, and commissioners being sent to all parts, supported by a large army, 1,500 of the insurgents were executed. The display of spirit by Richard on this, and a few other occasions sub- sequently, was mere impulse or empty vanity, un- supported by any steadfast resolve or sense of justice ; and the remainder of his reign would be wholly comprehended in the history of his fall, and the assumption of power by a man of stronger will and more politic judgment, in the person of his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster. It is the history of favouritism and weakness on the one hand, giving abundant scope to ambition and strength of resolve on the other. Richard, become the prisoner of Henry, was solemnly de- posed on the 29th of September, 1399, and was either killed or starved to death in Pontefract castle at the beginning of 1400. The usurpation of the duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV., com- menced the civil wars of England between the red and white roses. [E.R.] RICHARD III., the most execrated of all Eng- lish princes, was the youngest son of Richard duke of York, and was born at Fotheringay castle in Northamptonshire, 1452. He was created duke of Gloucester in 1461, on the acces- sion of his brother, Edward IV., who claimed the throne as a descendant of Philippa, only daughter of the duke of Clarence, who was the second son of Edward III. In 1472 Richard married Ann, widow of the Lancastrian prince of Wales, and daughter of the great Warwick ; the sister of that lady having previously wedded his brother Clar- ence. The latter prince being his elder brother, stood in the way of Richard's ambition, who fomented the intrigues which proved fatal to him ; so that on the death of Edward in 1483, Richard became the natural guardian of his nephews, and was appointed legal protector of the kingdom. The elder of the boys was immediately proclaimed king as Edward V., the other was duke of York. The history of the times is only obscurely known, but the tradition of the murder of these princes in the Tower by order of Richard, is in all human probability substantially true, and a darker deed of treachery is not on record in any language. This event took place about the middle of 1483, and in January, 1484, the succession of Richard was confirmed by a servile parliament, his other rivals, the children of Clarence, having been de- clared illegitimate by defamation of the usurper's own mother. In about three months afterwards Richard lost his son, the prince of Wales, and within another year the daughter of Warwick fol- lowed her child to the tomb. Richard, thus made a widower, proposed to marry the Princess Eliza- beth, eldest daughter of his brother Edward, who was destined for the earl of Richmond, the heir of the house of Lancaster. The latter was abroad at the time, but now hastened the preparations for his intended return to deliver England from Richard's tyranny, and in fine, landed at Milford Haven on the 7th of August, 1485. Richard took the field at the head of 15,000 men, and met Richmond at the head of 10,000, with the assur- ance, however, of aid from Lord Stanley, who commanded another body of 7,000. The encounter I. RIC took place at Bosworth field, near Leicester, the 21st of August, and Stanley keeping his mise at the critical moment, secured the vict to Richmond. Richard III. was as brave as was cruel and politic. As the action grew des rate he fought with the courage of a hero, making a last determined rush at his opponent, fell under the number of assailants tnat clc around him. Richmond then became king ur the title of Henry VII., and having married EJ: beth, united thereby the houses of York and ~ caster, and thus terminated the civil wars, short a time, passed in expectation of his struggle, Richard can hardly be said to reigned, yet he distinguished himself by acts wl mark the statesman. Such acts, however, never be admitted to cancel crime ; the first act is to avoid evil ; the first possible right, independence of all wrong. [E RICHARD, two dukes of Noivnandy : Ri ard I., son and successor of William Long-Sw reigned 993-996. Richard II., son and sue sor of the preceding, 996-1027. A duke of gundy, reigned 877-921. A count of Evreux, accompanied William the Bastard in his exj tion against England, reigned 1037-1067. princes of Capua : Richard I., succeeded father as count of Aversa 1059, and was invt with the principality of Capua by the pope, Ni las II., 1062 ; died 1078. Richard II. succe 1091, and, being deposed by his subjects, wa established by Roger, duke of Apulia, 1098, 1105. Lastly, a count of Rhodes, who died a long reign about 1135. RICHARD, bishop of Chichester, died 125 RICHARD, archbishop of Armagh, sum Armachanus, said to have translated the into Irish, and a reformer of the friars, died 1 RICHARD of Bury, a learned state and patron of learning, was bora at Bur Edmunds 1287. He commenced his care tutor of Prince Edward, afterwards Edward became bishop of Durham in 1333, and chan and high treasurer of England in 1334 ; died RICHARD of Cirencester, a Bened monk of Westminster, author of works on ! and British history, died 1401 or 1402. RICHARD of Cornwall, an uncrownw peror of Germany, son of John, king of 1^^^ was born 1209, and first distinguished hinu Palestine. He was crowned king of Germi Aix-la-Chapelle to the prejudice of Conrad in and was remarkable for the wisdom of his at* tration ; died 1272. RICHARD of St. Victor, a Scottish and Scripture commentator of the 12th centi RICHARD, C, a Fr. mathematician, 15894 RICHARD, C. L., a political and eccl writer, author of ' Dictionnaire des Sciences siastiques,' b. in Lorraine 1711, shot at M RICHARD, Claude Louis, an excel! tanist, was born in 1754. He died in 182! grandfather was one of Bernard de Jussieu' deners at the Jardin du Roi at Paris, and had the superintendence of Louis XVth's _ Auteuil. Inheriting thus a love for botany, sion for the study was carried to the ex' parents wished him to study theology, as good prospects for him in the church, but 646 RIC ars, entreaties, nor threats, could prevail upon him i follow the line of life chalked out for him, and is father at last turned him out of doors at the age F fourteen, with a miserable pittance to support im. Nothing daunted by this rigorous treat- ent, the young enthusiast made his way to Paris, [ jhere he studied botany under Bernard de Jussieu, '*nd in a few years afterwards received an appoint- ment to proceed as botanist to Cayenne and the other rench colonies in America, fie remained there r eight years, and during that time made exten- re collections both in botany and zoology. Arriv- g in France in 1789, he found the men in power much absorbed in their own struggles for exis- nce to attend to scientific pursuits. He had as the mortification to find the little money he d previously accumulated gone, his health in- red and himself cruelly neglected. Unfortunately science these disappointments and blighted pes rendered him misanthropical and churlish. ) shut himself up from the scientific world, and iceforth studied for himself alone. The fine lections he made, thus became of no avail to his uitrymen, and he was exceedingly chary even in nmunicating to any one the results of his re- rches. In 1795 he was appointed professor of :ii any at the Ecole de Meaecine. His lectures El -e excellent and well attended ; and fortunately 'H ortion of them has been published by one of his 1(1 )ils from notes taken at the time. This work 11 I a few memoirs which he published in some of 4 scientific journals show that he possessed ori- - 'lal views in botany, and could express them with at conciseness and accuracy. He had in view intention of producing a new philosophy of ' any in the style of Linnaeus, as also a new : : ninology of the science, but he did not five to M lg them to maturity. [W.B.] tlCHARD G., a French missionary, 1764-1832. k UCHARD J., an ecclesiastical wr., 1639-1719. a UCHARD, J. P., a Fr. preacher, 1743-1820. in 1CHARDSON, J., an African traveller, d. 1851. 14 ICHARDSON, John, a leamed Irish prelate, 1 of Observations on the Old Testament,' d. 1654. Ba ICHARDSON, Jonathan, a distinguished an trait painter and writer on art, about 1665- 5. His son and literary assistant, died 1771. ro*i ICHARDSON, Joseph, a poet, died 1803. ICHARDSON, Samuel, the son of a joiner, born in Derbyshire in 1689. After passing ugh a village school, he was bound to a printer .ondon, and, after having been a few years fore - to his master, set up in business for himself, prospered as rapidly as his good conduct and istry deserved, was appointed printer of the nals of the House of Commons, and enjoyed estic happiness in two successive marriages, always fond of reading, was a voluminous r-writer, especially to ladies, and furnished to the booksellers. But his authorship j no farther than this, till he had completed iftieth year. He then agreed, on the request wo publishers, to compose a series of familiar instructive letters ; and, when he had worked tree months at his task, what he produced his novel of * Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded.' M published in 1740. It was the first novel mertic life which had broke in on the unna- 1 romances, (for Defoe had barred himself from RIC polite patronage by his unlucky choice of subjects); and it had therefore novelty, besides its great merit in natural and minute description, to recom- mend it to the extraordinaiy popularity which it immediately attained. In 1749 it was followed by ' The History of Clarissa Harlowe,' a novel whose pathos is so profound as to be positively painful. In ' The History of Sir Charles Grandi- son,' published in 1753, the author aspired some- what above the sphere of manners which he was best qualified to describe; but, in spite of this, and of the wearisome prolixity which reigns here yet more than in his other novels, this is really a fine picture of the ideal gentleman. It is to the immortal honour of Richardson that he, the earliest of our modern novelists, (unless Defce should be ranked among them,) produced works untainted by the immorality which disgraced Fielding and his other successors. He passed his old age in comfort and fame, being only a good deal spoiled by the homage of his admirers, particularly the ladies who flocked about him. He died in 1761. [W.S.] RICHARDSON, W., son of a Scottish minister, known as a miscellaneous writer and poet, d. 1814. RICHARDSON, W., a learned antiquarian and minister of the Church of England, 1698-1775. RICHE, Claude Anthony Gaspard, a Fr. physician, distinguished as a naturalist, 1762-1797. RICHELET, Cesar Peter, a Fr. writer, an. of several Dictionaries and translations, 1631-1691. RICHELIEU, Armand Jean Du Plessis, Cardinal, was born at Paris on the 5th of Septem- ber, 1585. The family name was Plessis, but many members of it became distinguished in con- nection with the territorial title of Richelieu. Ar- mand was a younger son, and was consecrated bishop of Lucon in 1607. It was a period when the possession of the great ecclesiastical dignities was not supposed in France to turn the habits of a young man of noble family from the usual licen- tious pursuits of his rank, but Richelieu was fonder of power than of pleasure, and he soon ac- quired it by ably and rigidly performing the func- tions of his high office. His court success is said to have commenced with a harangue which it fell to him to deliver to the young monarch, Louis XIIL, and which secured the attention and approval of the queen mother, Mary of Medicis. He received his cardinal's hat in 1622, and two years afterwards became chief minister of the crown. His ministry was remarkable for the development of great systems, and the chief of them was the breaking down the territorial power of the nobility, and con- firming the influence of the crown, which had long before brought the commons under subjection to a perfect despotism. His career was distinguished at once by daring and success. All who resisted him, including the highest princes of the blood, were remorselessly executed as common criminals, and thinking it necessary to his purpose, he drove his old patroness the queen dowager into exile. He broke the power of the Calvinists by besieging and taking their stronghold Rochelle. But his antipathy to them seems to have originated less in religious intolerance than in a desire to uproot those singular secular privileges which made them supreme even over the royal prerogative in the districts assigned to them. In counteracting the power of Austria, which was the second main 647 RIC principle of his ministry, he used for his purpose the Calvinists of the north, and the Mahommedans of the south, with thorough impartiality. He combined with his courage and great talent many ludicrous weaknesses. He died on the 4th of December, 1642. [J.H.B.] RICHELIEU, Alphonso Louis Du Plessis De, eldest brother of the statesman, known as the cardinal of Lyons, and distinguished for his charities ; 1582-1653. L. F. Armand, his grand-nephew, a marshal of France, and member of the Academy, was born at Paris in 1696 ; at the age of fourteen he was married and commenced life at court, died 1788. Armand Emmanuel, grandson of the latter, was born in 1766, and at the period of the emigration, 1789, took service under Suwarrow. In 1815 he returned to France, and became foreign minister. Died 1822. RICHER, Adrian, a distinguished French his- torian, 1720-1798. His brother, Francis, a juris- consult and writer on mythology, &c, 1718-1790. RICHER, E., a learned French divine, author of a work on ecclesiastical and political power, which gave rise to much controversy, 1560-1631. RICHER, E., an elegant and learned French writer, author of ' La Nouvelle Jerusalem,' d. 1835. RICHER, H., a dramatic writer, 1685-1748. RICHER, J., a French astronomer, died 1696. RICHERAND, Barno, a celebrated French surgeon and writer on physiology, died 1840. RICHMAN, G. W., a native of Livonia, prof, of natural philosophy at Petersburg, 1711-1753. RICHMOND, Charles Lennox, duke of, secretary of state and grand master of artillery, 1735-1806. His nephew, and heir of the same name, governor of Plymouth, lord-lieutenant of Sussex and governor of Canada, 1764-1812. RICHMOND, Legh, a minister of the Church of England, editor of a ' Selection from the Fathers of the Church,' and author of 'Annals of the Poor,' 1772-1827. RICHTER, A. G., a Ger. surgeon, 1742-1812. RICHTER, Jean Paul Friedrich, was born in 1763, in the principality of Baireuth, in Fran- conia. His father, a Lutheran village pastor, was so poor that his son's education was carried on with much difficulty; and, dying before Jean Paul reached the university, he left his family in great distress. The youth, bent on attaining scholar- ship, and intending at first to be a clergyman, struggled on for a while at Leipzig, often wanting bread ; and in 1783 he found his way to the press with a work (the ' Gronlandische Prozessen,') which showed him to have already opened his peculiar vein. Another of his strange sketches, ' An Extract from the Devil's Papers,' lay unpub- lished for several years, during which Jean Paul remained in the depths of penury. In 1793 he opened a school in the little town of Schwar- zenbach, in his native province ; and then also he attracted public applause for the first time, by the publication of ' The Invisible Lodge.' Thus en- couraged, he devoted himself entirely to author- ship, poured forth his works with rapidity, and became one of the most celebrated among the Ger- man writers of his time. He shifted his residence often till 1803, and then settled at Baireuth for the remainder of his life, which closed in 1825. J can Paul wrote philosophical treatises, such as his RID 'Levana, or the Theory of Education,' and the 'I traduction to jEsthetics ' (Vorschule der A But his fame rests on a kind of compositi are almost, yet not quite, novels or r They unite narrative, description, and : they pass from the wildest flights of grotesque a original humour to the depths of pathetic t< derness; they contain as much of striking thou| as ever was embodied in any work of fiction, as much of poetic imagination as ever was pressed in prose. His thinking is un system* but often wonderfully suggestive as well as acu and his style is entirely his own, and so eccenb that his books are not less difficult for Germ; than for foreigners. Among the works which his sixty volumes a few may be named : perns,' ' Quintus Fixlein,' ' Biographical Dh sions under the Skull of a Giantess,' ' Flower, Fr and Thorn-Pieces,' ' The Journey of the Regimei Chaplain Schmelzle,' ' Titan,' ' The Life of Fil ' The Comet, or Nicolaus Markgraf.' [W. RICHTER, Otto Frederick Von, sian traveller and Oriental scholar, 1792-1816. RICIMER, a Roman patrician and general Swedish origin, regarded as the ablest commai of the age. From the period of his first great I cess against the enemies of Rome in 456, he< posed and created the emperors at his will. 472 he stormed Rome, and gave it up to the lage and cruelty of his soldiers. He d. soon m RI.CIUS, P., a learned German, 16th centtu RICKMAN, John a distinguished statistic many years assistant clerk in the House of C mons, 1771-1841. RIDER, John, an Irish prelate, 1562-1633: RIDER, William, master of St. Paul'sp author of a ' History of England,' &c, died 17 RIDGLEY, T., a nonconf. divine, 1G67-M1 RIDINGER, J. E., a Germ, painter, 1695j RIDLEY, Glcster, an English diviqfl theologian, best known as a dramatic writer : poet, 1702-1774. His son, James, a chaplai the army, author of ' Tales of the Genii,' d. 11 RIDLEY, Nicholas, a martyr of the Enj Church during the Marian persecution, wafri in Northumberland, and educated at Newcajtf Tyne, at the commencement of the sixteentiU tury. He was soon known for his high at ments in theological learning, and his Pl9 commenced by Ins appointment as chaphyM archbishop of Canterbury (Cranmer) in 15^H the accession of Edward VI. in 1547, he k come a popular preacher of the doctrin^H reformation; in September of that year he appointed bishop of Rochester, and in "1549, o deprivation of Bonner, bishop of London. I] and Cranmer worked heartily together durin reign of Edward VI., but with this diffeij that Cranmer was more willing to trim his ssj the current winds, and Ridley stood tinner ljj individual convictions. It was a long time 1 he gave up the doctrine of the corporal pf the eucharist, and he never abandoned his | ence for episcopalian distinctions, the use ments, and the priestly manner of admi the Lord's supper. Ridley tried in vain to I cile Hooker, the bishop elect of Gh retention of these 'rags of superstition,' an latter underwent a long imprisonment 6,48 EID Ikbmitted to wear them. It is to Ridley, in short, llore than to any other prelate, that we are in- febted for the English liturgy as it exists at pre- I fnt ; and no one acquainted with the history of jf Idward the Sixth's reign will require to be told Ipder what difficulties it was formed. When the llalth of Edward was declining in 1553, he in- lced that prince to endow the public charities hich bear his name ; viz., Christ's Hospital, St. artholomew's, St. Thomas's, and Bridewell ; and the king's death joined the party who endea- ured to place the crown on the head of Lady ne Grey. Though he submitted himself to ary, he was committed to the Tower in July, 53, and in March, 1554, was conveyed to Ox- together with Latimer and Cranmer, to be for heresy. He walked to the place of exe- tion in his episcopal robes, a striking proof of } regard for those distinctions, and was burnt th Latimer on the 16th of October, 1555, in rat of Balliol college. He endured the torments the stake with great courage, and as the flames 1 not reach the vital parts so soon in his case, itimer expired before him. His works have en republished by the Parker Society. [E.R.] RIDLEY, Sir Thomas, of the same family as martyr, distinguished as a civilian, died 1629. RIDOLFI, C, an Italian painter, 1570-1644. RIDOLFI, C, a painter and historian, 1602-60. RIEBOV, G. H., a Germ, theologian, 1708-74. RIEDESEL, J. H., a Germ, diploma., 1740-85. BIEDINGEB, John Elias, a native of Ulm Suabia, dist. as a painter of animals, 1695-1757. RIEGGER, J. A. G., a Ger. canonist, d. 1795. BIEGO-Y-NUNEZ, Rafael Del, a Spanish and patriot of the revolution of 1820, born 85, executed after the restoration of Ferdinand ., November, 1823. RIEM, J., a German agriculturist, 1739-1807. RIENZI, or RIENZO. Cola, or Nicola Gab- De Rienzo, famous in Roman history for hi3 mption of the dictatorship in that capital, born of humble parents about 1310, and was vn in 1340 as a friend of Petrarch, and like the et, was distinguished by his love of the ancient mblican institutions of Rome, and by his pro- . knowledge of antiquity. He was also a orator, and was in the habit of addressing B people on their political degradation and the "lion of the nobles. His most frequent was the destruction of the noble monuments ancient Rome, the conversion of palaces and lbs into fortresses by the rival factions, and the al abandonment of the city by the popes, who sn resided at Avignon. His eloquent appeals bor- ed force from the ruins, in the midst of which addressed the people, and it was always easy give that political meaning to his harangues it the anarchy of the times dictated. The pal authority favoured a movement which held t some prospect of depressing the factions, and the 20th of May, 1347, Rienzo was accompanied the capitol, at the head of an immense multi- le, by the bishop of Orvieto, the pope's vicar, iwas then appointed the people's tribune with i sanction. In this character Rienzo, surrounded th a regular militia, re-established the adminis- ition of justice, sent ambassadors to other states, d was courted, as the mediator between them RIN and the pope, by some of the principal sovereigns of Europe. His power lasted no longer than the December of the same year, when a reaction took place, headed by the great families he had de- pressed, and Rienzo, abandoned by the people, sought refuge in Bohemia. In 1352 he was con- veyed a prisoner to Avignon, and would have been executed, but his own eloquence, the intercession of his friend Petrarch, and the death of Clement VI., saved him. Innocent VI., who succeeded Clement, found it politic to restore Rienzo to his dictatorship, but he was now hampered with re- strictions, and with the necessity of raising sup- plies of money for the pope. These circumstances, and the severities he found it necessary to exercise, alienated the city, and a popular tumult being excited, Rienzo was massacred on the 8th of Octo- ber, 1354. The popes continued to reside at Avignon till 1376, a period, in the whole of seventy years, bewailed by Petrarch as a time of barbaric devastation. [E.R.] RIES, Ferdinand, a celebrated musician, was born at Bonn in Germany, in the year 1784. His father and grandfather were both musicians, the one having been first violinist, and the other leader of the orchestra, at Cologne. The young Ferdi- nand received his musical education from Bemhard Romberg, and from Albrechtsberger. In 1801 he removed to Munich, and afterwards to Vienna, where he became the first acknowledged pupil of Beethoven, and where he laid the foundation of his future fame as a composer. In 1805 he was drawn as a conscript for the French army, but having in early life lost the sight of one eye from small-pox he was dismissed as being disqualified to serve as a soldier. He afterwards visited Russia, where he remained till 1813, when he arrived in England and was admitted a member of the Philharmonic So- ciety, where several of his compositions were per- formed with great applause, and where he was much admired as a piano-forte player. Having acquired a well-merited independence he returned to his native town, when he produced two German operas and an oratorio ' David.' He died at Frank- fort in 1838. [J.M.] RIETER, H., a Swiss painter, 1751-1818. RIGAUD, Hyacinth, a celebrated painter, called the Vandyke of France, 1659-1743. RIGAUD, Stephen Peter, professor of astro- nomy at Oxford, born at Richmond, 1775, d. 1839. RIGAULT, N., a Fr. philologist, 1577-1654. RIGHINI, V., an Italian composer, 1758-1812. RIGHTWISE, or RITWYSE, John, a classical scholar, and master of St. Paul's school, d. 1532. RIGORD, RIGORDUS, RIGOTTUS, or RI- GOTUS, a French ecclesiastic and historian of Philip- Augustus of France, died about 1207. RIGORD, J. P., a French antiq., 1656-1727. RILEY, John, an English painter, 1646-1691. RINALDI, Odesico, a learned ecclesiastical historian, born at Treviso, 1595, died 1671. RINCON, A. De, a Span, painter, 1446-1500. RING, John, a pupil of the two Hunters, dis- tinguished as a surgical writer, 1751-1821. RINGELBERG1US, Joachim Fortius, Ger- man Sherck, a disting. Flemish philos., 16th ct. RINGGLI, G., a Swiss painter, 1575-1635. RINK, F. T., a German Orientalist, died 1811. R1NNANN, S., a Swiss mineralogist, 1720-92. 649 RIN RINUCCINI, Ottavio, a Florentine poet, said to be the inventor of the opera, died 1621. RIO J A, P. Dk, a Spanish poet, 1590-1658. RIOLAN, Jean, a French physician of consi- derable celebrity, born at Paris in 1580, and died there in 1657, aged seventy-seven. He was a vigorous con- troversialist, and his somewhat numerous treatises were collected into 1 volume folio, in 1650. In conjunction with La Brosse he was the founder of the Royal Botanic Garden at Paris, to establish which he had obtained permission from Mary de Medicis, the mother of Louis XIII. [J.M'C] RIPAULT, L. M., a French savant, 1775-1823. RIPLEY, George, or Gregory, an English alchymist and poet, time of Henry VII., d. 1490. RIPPERDA, John William, Baron De, a military and political adventurer, who rose to great distinction in the empire of Morocco, born at Gro- ningen, in Flanders, 1680, died at Tetuan 1737. RIQUET, Peter Paul De, the engineer of the noble canal of Languedoc, to the execution of which he devoted the whole of his fortune, 1604- 1 680. This canal unites the Mediterranean with the Bay of Biscay, and the works were completed bv Riquet's two sons. "RISBECK, G., a Dutch historian, 1750-1786. RISDON, Tristram, a native of Devonshire, author of a ' Survey' of that county, 1580-1640. KISLEY, T., a puritan divine, 1630-1716. RITCHIE, Joseph, one of the victims of Afri- can discovery, was employed in an exploring expe- dition with Captain Lyon, and d. in Fezzan 1819. RITSON, Isaac, a medical pupil, distinguished as a professional and miscellaneous wr., 1761-89. RITSON, Joseph, an English lawyer, disting. as a literary antiquarian and editor, 1752-1803. RITTANGELIUS, or RITHANGEL, John Stephen, professor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg, author of several books founded on his Judaical learning, died about 1652. RITTENHOUSE, David, a celebrated Ameri- can astronomer and mathematician, 1732-1796. RITTER, J. B., a German chemist, 1762-1807. RITTER, J. W., a Ger. philosopher, 1776-1810. RITTERSHUYS, Conrad, a native of Bruns- wick, dist. as a civilian and philologist, 1560-1618. His son, Nicholas, a genealogist, 1597-1670. RITWYSE. See Rightwise. RIVARD, D. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1697-1778. RIVAROL, Anthony, Count De, a French Eolitical writer, celebrated for his bons mots and is satirical spirit, b. in Languedoc 1754, d. 1801. RIVAROLA, A., an Italian painter, 1607-1640. RIVAULT, D., a French tactician, died 1616. RIVAUTELLA, Antonio, a native of Pied- mont, dist. as an archaeologist and bibliop., 1708-53. RIVAZ, P. J. De, a Fr. chronologist, 1711-72. RIVE, John Joseph, a French ecclesiastic and writer on literary history, who was remarkable for his turbulence during the revolution, 1730-1792. RIVET, A., a French Calvinist, 1572-1651. RIVET DE LA GRANGE, Anthony, a learned Benedictine, author of a ' Literary History of France,' 1683-1740. RIVIERE, C. F., Due De, an emigrant noble and officer in the army of Conde\ who was gover- nor of the young due de Bourdeaux ; born 1765, condemned to death as a spy of the Bourbons, but saved by Josephine, 1804, died 1828. ROB RIVIERE, L., a French phvsician, 15? RIVIERE, Mercier De La, a distingufl political economist, author of ' The Order, Natffl and Essential, of Political Societies,' born abc, 1720, died 1793, or 1794. RIVIERE, P. J. H. La. See LarivierbM RIVIERE, Roch Lebaillif, Sieur De La.| eel. empirical physician and astrologer, died lwf RIVINUS, the Latinized name of AndH Bachman, a Ger. phys. and philologist, 160(91 RIVINUS, Augustus Quirinus, but whtl family name was Bachmann, an excellent botafll was born at Leipzig in 1652. He died in lH The son of a learned father, he soon became ecflfll distinguished himself; and filled the chair ofpHI ology and botany at the university of his nifll town. He was a correspondent of John Ray'sjBI published a classification of plants about the sal time as he did. His system was founded o nMl flower, on the number, regularity and irregula^H of the petals. He was the first to abandooBJ division of plants into trees, shrubs, and bdH ceous plants, an arrangement which was still elm to by Tournefort and Ray. His controversy ^H the latter upon this subject, is the chief thing *! has made Rivinus known to the botanists o^H country ; though the value of his works and bis gra! merits as a botanist, entitled him to higher jSI sideration than he has hitherto received at the! hands. Plumier has named a genus of plants^B him, Rivina. [W.B, RIZI, J., a Spanish painter and art-write} 1 1595-1675. His brother, Francis, a painter an ' architect, 1608-1685. RIZZIO, or RICCIO, David, an Italian musii cian and linguist, who became private secret^H Mary queen of Scots, and was murdered at Hfl rood House by Lord Ruthven, and the other accom plices of Darnley, 1566. It was pretended b^H enemies of the queen that an improper intimac ' existed between her and Rizzio, but all the pro' babilities are opposed to such a belief. The mat 1 recent work which throws any light on this subjae; is that of Miss Strickland. ROA, M. De, a Spanish historian, died 1637. ' ROBBIA, L. Della, an Ital. sculptor, 15th ct 1 ROBERT, earl of Annandale, father of Rober Bruce, who became king of Scotland, was relate to the blood royal by his mother, Isabella of Scot- 1 land. He was the competitor of Baliol for tfo crown on the death of Alexander III. in lM3| Died soon after the battle of Falkirk, which waf fought 22d July, 1298. ROBERT I., king of Scotland. See Bnuci. ROBERT II. and III. See Stuart. ROBERT, surnamed 'The Strong,' regarded u\ the stock of the Capet dynasty, died 866. ROBERT, king of France, son of the preceding, received the crown at Soissons from the lords op- posed to Charles the Simple 922, killed 923. ROBERT, called ' The Devout,' king of France, shared the throne with his father, Hugh Capet, 988, succeeded him as sole king 996, died 1031. ROBERT, emperor of Constantinople, 1219-28. ROBERT, emperor of Germany, 1400-1410. ROBERT, first of the name, duke of Normandy, called 'Le Magnifique,' and 'Le Diable,' succeeded his brother, Richard III., in 1027, or 1028 ing gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he C50 ROB poisoned at Nicaea in Bithynia, 1035. His rural son, William the Conqueror, suc- ded him. Robert II., surnamed 'Short anks,' son of the latter, obtained the duchy of rmandy after his father's death, 1087, died, the soner of his bro. Henrv, at Cardiff castle, 1134. 20BERT, called 'The Old,' duke of Burgundy, rd son of King Robert, was invested with the by by his brother, Henry I., 1032, and died 5. Robert II., succeeded his father, Hughes before his death 1272, and was married to s, daughter of St. Louis, died 1305. JOBERT, count of Burgundy, reigned 1303-15. tOBERT, duke of Bar, reigned 1351-1411. :OBERT, count of Evreux, reigned 989-1037. ROBERT, the first of the name, count of Flan- second son of Baldwin V., succeeded his hew, Arnoul, 1072, died in Palestine 1093. bert II., son and successor of the preceding, itly distinguished by his exploits at Jerusalem, crown of which was offered to him ; died 1111. bert III., reigned 1305-1322. IOBERT I., count of Artois, third son of Louis , and brother of St. Louis. Having accom- ied the latter into Egypt, he was killed at the tie of Mansourah 1250. Robert II., a posthu- is son of the preceding, was distinguished in second crusade, and was killed in a battle with Flemings near Coutrai 1302. Robert III., dson of Robert II., born 1287, was mortally nded in a battle with the French, and died in don 1343. OBERT of Anjou, king of Naples, distin- hed in the struggle of the middle ages between Guelphs and Ghibellines, was the third son of les II., and succeeded that sovereign by a sion of the pope in 1309. It is not easy to ess the real principles at issue between those ies, but, in general terms, the Ghibellines were friends of the ascendancy of imperial govern- 1 and the Guelphs were identified with the ite nationalities under the ascendancy of the h of Rome. Hence, the Guelph sovereigns often on the side of the popes, and were s opposed to the emperors of Germany and allies. With the crown of Naples conferred him to the prejudice of his nephew, Carobert, of Anjou received the remission of all the of his father to the papal see, and, besides , the lordship of several cities in Piedmont, the alliance of the Guelph cities of Tuscany : advantages which he offered in return being combined resistance of Italy to the pretensions 'enry VII. The policy of Robert was to tem- and hold his power in reserve rather than 'd a battle ; and he was known to say that he er gloried in the title of poet and philosopher hich he had some claim) than in that of king, championship of the church lasted from 1310 324, when the Neapolitan and Roman armies beaten, and Raimond of Cordova, who com- them, taken prisoner. Robert, however, interval, had acquired Genoa, and defended uisition with some show of military talent the Ghibellines of Lombardy, in 1318. In other projects he was disappointed. Two ts to conquer Sicily failed, and his only arles, after being defeated in his attempts on the war, died in Tuscany 1328. Robert ROB endeavoured to sustain the fortunes of his house, by marrying his daughter, Joan, to Prince Andrew, son of his nephew, Carobert, who had become king of Hungary, with what result may be seen in another article (Joan of Naples.) He died, esteemed by his own subjects, 1343. [E.R.] ROBERT of Auxerre, a French monk, author of a Chronicle of that place, died 1212. ROBERT of Geneva, an antipope, elected under the name of Clement VII., in opposition to Urban VI., 1378, died 1394. It was this election which commenced the famous schism of the West. ROBERT of Gloucester, an old annalist, supposed to have been a monk, reign of Edward IV. ROBERT of Lincoln, bishop of that see, and one of the most learned men of his age, died 1253. ROBERT of Vaugondy, Giles, geographer to Louis XV., 1688-1766. Didier, his son and successor, 1723-1786. ROBERT, F,, a French geographer, 1737-1819. ROBERT, the name of several French painters : Nicholas, famous for his miniature animals and plants, 1610-1684. Hubert, a painter of architecture and landscape, 1733-1808. Leopold, a pupil of David, dist. for his groups, 1794-1835. ROBERTI, Giovanni Batista, Count, an Italian professor and philosopher, author of metu- phvsical and literary works, 1719-1786. ROBERTI, J., a learned Jesuit, 1569-1651. ROBERTIS, Denis De, an Italian ecclesiastic, professor of philosophy and theology at Paris, dist. as an orator, poet, and astrologer, died 1342. ROBERTS, B. C, an antiquar. wr., 1789-1810. ROBERTS, Emma, an accomplished lady, known as the friend of Miss Landon, and authoress of 'Historical and Biographical Memoirs of the Rival Houses of York and Lancaster,' ' Oriental Scenes,' &c, died at Poonah, in India, 1840. ROBERTS, F., a puritan divine, 1609-1675. ROBERTS, P., a Welch divine, died 1819. ROBERTSON, Joseph, a minister of the Church of England, author of an 'Introduction to the Study of Polite Literature,' an ' Essay on Female Education,' and other works, 1726-1802. ROBERTSON, S. G., a Fr. aeronaut, died 1837. ROBERTSON, Thomas, a dignitary in the church in the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, au- thor of some grammatical tracts in Latin, 16th ct. ROBERTSON, Dr. William, was born in 1721, at Borthwick, in Mid-Lothian, where his father was then the parish minister. He went through the usual education for the Church of Scotland, and in his twenty-second year became minister of the rural parish of Gladsmuir, in Had- dingtonshire. He speedily displayed, in the eccle- siastical courts, that ability as a debater and orator, which afterwards, assisted by the weight of his literary reputation and his exemplary character, made him the leader of one of the two great parties in the church. In his retired manse he busied himself also with literature, associated with the men of letters who were then gathered in the Scottish capital, and in 1755-6 co-operated with Blair and Adam Smith in their attempt to establish an ' Edinburgh Review.' There, too, he wrote his first historical work, 'The History of Scotland during the Reigns of Mary and of James VI.' It was received with great favour, and appreciated by none more highly than by David Hume, 651 ROB between whom and Robertson there was a cordial good-will, in spite of literary rivalship and serious differences of opinion. Both in this and in his other works, Robertson shows himself an admirable story-teller, writing with remarkable animation, and in a style wbich, though not possessing Hume's ease, is wonderfully correct; and he was also a conscientious and successful investigator of origi- nal authorities. In the year of his first publica- tion he removed to Edinburgh, being appointed to one of the city churches ; and in 1762 he became also Principal of the University. About this time he refused a proposal from the government to take orders in England, with a view to his being made a bishop ; and in 1764 he was named historiogra- pher-royal for Scotland. His literary industry was not checked, either by his success, or by his multi- farious occupations and his close attention to his pastoral duties. In 1769 he published his most masterly work, ' The History of Charles V. : ' and two other productions less valuable followed ; the 'History of America' in 1777, and 'An Histo- rical Disquisition concerning Ancient India' in 1791. Of his pulpit eloquence, to which a warm tribute is paid by Dr. Erskine, his friendly col- league, though his opponent in the church courts, no specimen has been printed except one sermon. His death took place in 1793. [W.S.] ROBERTSON, William, an Irish divine, au- thor of ' An Attempt to Explain the words Rea- son, Substance, Person, Creeds, Orthodoxy, Catho- lic Church, Subscription, and Index Expurga- torius.' For this publication he was rewarded by the university of Glasgow with the degree of D.D., and was afterwards master of the Wolverhampton grammar school, 1705-1783. ROBERTSON, W., a grammarian, 1650-1686. ROBERVAL, Giles Person De, an eminent Swmeter, professor of mathematics in the College oyal of France, author of numerous memoirs, and party to a controversy with Descartes, 1602-1675. ROBESPIERRE, Francois Joseph Maxi- milien Isidore, the chief actor in the French revolution, was born at Arras in 1759. His father was of English origin, by profession an advocate, and though not rich, as few could be at a provin- cial bar, he was sufficiently well off to pay for the education of his children. Maximilien, therefore, was sent to Paris, and educated for the same pro- fession, at the college of Louis le Grand, where Camille Desmoulins was his fellow- student. At the outbreak of the revolution he was but thirty years of age, yet he had already acquired a liter- ary and professional celebrity in his native pro- vince, and possessed so much of the public con- fidence that he was sent as a deputy to the estates-general. Like many others in that assem- bly whose names, in the course of the next five years, filled every mouth in Europe, Robespierre was unknown and unmarked as a man of any like- lihood, and was destined to remain so until the popular applause had been exhausted by a Necker, a Lafayette, and a Mirabeau. Of all those assem- bled, however, he was the only man who went with a predetermined conviction, with a design as complete as his own devotion to it proved to be constant, and with a nature so impassible that his heart would never prevent him from adopting whatever means might recommend themselves to ROB his conscience as necessary. His characte that of a man formed by study, whose seutime were fashioned as of cold, polished steel, ; whose sense of justice, if it came warm from heart in early youth, had hardened into marble, 1 man in its proportions, incorruptible in its nati but statue-like in its frigid insensibility. Si was Robespierre as he played his part on the st of public events, yet this man apparently so sensible, had a brother whom he loved, and \ in return almost idolized him ; a sister to wh he had given up the little independence he had herited from his father ; and all those cherisl memories of a first love, to which the heart secret clings but the more fondly, as the outw features are moulded into indifference by disappoi ment. To state the whole truth, the friends Robespierre, and his political colleagues, exhibi the utmost devotion for his person, and the ob of a later attachment, on his part, could nt comprehend the maledictions heaped upon memory ; he was so pure, so virtuous, so genth she remembered him ! These facts may be inct prehensible, but they are such as we find on reo and no public life can be understood if the prn character and the circumstances created by it insufficiently known. Robespierre's sense of u tice, and his indifference to the means of acci plishing it, may account for his public influe: but they would leave the devoted friendship ( Lebas, a St. Just, and of a brother well acquani with his private life inexplicable unless there r some chord in his heart that responded to it. secret of that devotion must be sought in V knowledge of his character, and their admira of the perfect command that Robespierre posse* over his sensibilities, and the subjugation ofi whole nature to a stern logic, working by mat matical rule, and resolved to extract the synv trical order of his dreams out of the elem around him, regardless of all human feeling. J?j a long time this disposition remained unkno; and few could have supposed that his stwi manners and his sickly countenance concealedi real hero of the revolution. Such, however, the fact. Robespierre was deeply read in the torv of the Grecian and Roman republics, andi to his admiration for the examples set by tl| states and heroes of antiquity, may be mentiond Contrat Social of Rousseau. These were the dels according to which he had formed his : a state, and whether a Mirabeau declaime tribune, or a Necker and a Roland contriv cabinet, he advanced stealthily, but with certainty, towards his object. During sittings of the estates-general, he was observer of those who represented public in that body, but said little himself; but v discussion of the constitution came on, he fn occupied the tribune, and grew bolder in pression of his republican sentiments them acceptable to the people. Trial by enfranchisement of the slaves, the liber press, the abolition of capital punishmc among the special subjects advocated by ' was on a question of very different impor ever, that he was first recognized as the m? : people. We must here briefly review eve May, 1789, the states-general had asse 652 ROB fersailles. In June, the third estate or commons irtually rebelled against the crown, and being by some of the clergy and nobility, had ed'the title of a national assembly, against the guards had refused to act. In July the e was destroyed, the national guard enrolled Lafayette, and the ' Rights of Man ' promul- as the basis of a constitution ; the national bly then changed its title to that of consti- assembly. In the course of the next three ths the revolutionary journalism commenced, the creation of clubs ; the first of these was s Committee, which changed its name jcessively to French Revolution Club, Club of [Hall of the Jacobins. J Friends of the Constitution, and Jacobin's Club, jailed from its meeting in the hall of a Jacobite vent ; it was definitively formed on the 6th of ober, 1789. Soon after it the Cordeliers, a more violent body, agitated by Danton and Desmoulins, was formed ; and, in May, ', the Club of Feuillants, which was intended ally the constitutionalists against the Jacobins, me or other of these clubs all the characters > figured in the reign of terror rose to note, and t of the orators in the constituent assembly * alliance with them. Chief of these was who died suddenly in March, 1791, and him expired the hopes of the court ever to to an understanding with the people. Shortly , therefore, in the month of June, the king the royal family attempted to fly, and being " at Varennes, were brought back to Paris. . was Robespierre's opportunity. The people lost their idol in Mirabeau, and. were now in a of the highest excitement and exasperation, rator addressed the assembly in the dispas- and well-studied periods customary with and demonstrated by arguments drawn from Lttity,and by quotations from the Contrat Social, the king was responsible to the people as their magistrate, intrusted with certain executive 8, but himself forming no part of the representation. From this moment Robes- took the place up to which he had steadily ' from the beginning, as chief of the revolu- movement, and he now began to hint that tution was only a first step in the end to ved. Soon after, in September, 1791, ROB that document was completed and formally ac- cepted by the king ; and, the day following, the first biennial parliament, or legislative assembly, met for business ; this body was composed wholly of new members by the advice of Robespierre, who was crowned with oak leaves, and being placed in a carriage, from which the horses had been detached, was drawn through the streets by the enthusiastic people, who proclaimed him the ' real defender of their rights.' In the June previous Robespierre had been appointed public accuser at the criminal tribunal of Paris, and he retained this function till April, 1792, when he resigned it in order to devote himself to the popular cause in the Jacobin's Club. He studiously preserved himself free from all taint of violence or inconsistency, and yet acquired such influence in this body that he was named one of the new municipality after the insurrection of August, and in this capacity had to bewail the prison massacres ; on this occasion he betrayed more sensibility than on any other in the course of his history. The convention met in Sept., and Robespierre, supported by an immense popu- larity, became one of its members, and entered upon the last eventful stages of his political jour- ney. The first event was an accusation commenced against him by Barbaroux, who accused Robespierre of' an attempt to concentrate the public authority under his own hands in the Paris municipality; this, however, ended in words. The fate of the king was then decided on by the majority of all parties. Robespierre said little, but his words were, as usual, cold and decisive ; there was no rational doubt that the king must die, though he said it with regret, in order that the republic might live. The temper and policy of Robespierre was that of reason incarnate, and the lives of men, or thousands of men, were admitted into his balance of probabilities, as so many figures in a mathema- tical problem. The fate of" the king and the other members of the royal family hardly required the acceleration given to it by his hand; the real struggle for him, as he felt conscious, was with the two great parties who would resist the dictatorship at which he was determined to arrive ; these were the Girondins and the Montagnards, the former in- cluding nearly all the respectability, talent, and eloquence of France ; and the latter, the atheism and immorality. Robespierre's calculation of means was admirably ingenious, but it was still such as the circumstances dictated. The most scrupulous were to be sacrificed first, by aid of those less so ; the effect of which would be to throw all the odium of the terror upon the last and worst class, whom the dictator would then, in the face of the admiring world, vanquish himself; thus Robespierre the Apollo, born of France" the Latona in the midst of her terrors, was to vanquish the dreaded sea mons- ter, and institute the new Pythian games. This programme was exactly followed. The struggle with the Girondins was terminated by the proscrip- tions of the 31st May and 2d of June, 1793 ; the Dantonists, who stood next on the roster, fell with their chief on the 5th of April, 1794; and there now remained the vile faction of Hebert and Chaumete. Perhaps Robespierre had not calculated on the remains of the vanquished parties forming a coalition with these scoundrels against him ; such, however, was the case when he commenced 653 ROB the last struggle, by calling the Jacobin leaders and proconsuls to account for their atrocities. The critical hour was the 27th of July, 1794, called, according to the Republican calendar, the 9th Thermider. A month previous Robespierre had withdrawn from the Committee of Public Safety, and completely isolated himself from the men he had doomed to destruction ; in this inter- val the committees of death (those of Public Safety and General Surety) had grown more insatiate of blood daily. In a speech of remarkable daring Robespierre apostrophized the men of violence, and, as he well knew, staked his life upon the issue of it in the convention. The conspiracy against him in that body instantly betrayed itself, and he pro- ceeded to the club of Jacobins ; their enthusiasm was immense, and they urged him to arrest the two committees, and march upon the convention. This he absolutely refused to do, as an act that would brand him with the name of tyrant, and the next day, repeating his visit to the national repre- sentatives, was arrested by that body in the midst of a tumultuous scene ; the younger Robespierre, Lebas, St. Just, and Couthon, stood by him nobly, and became his fellow-prisoners. There might now have been a fierce struggle, but Henriot, mad with drunkenness, who should have headed the troops of the municipality, was arrested by the officers of the convention at the very moment when the prisoners were released and conveyed to the Hotel de Ville by Fleuriot, Pagan, and CofHnhal. Robespierre remained passive, and refusing to lend his sanction by word or gesture to any illegal act against the convention, was seized again by the soldiers of B arras, a small party of whom, con- ducted by Leonard Bourdon, forced their way into the Salle de VEgalite. Here, it has been repeatedly said, Robespierre attempted to destroy himself, and was found with his jaw shot through ; it is now proved, however, that it was the cowardly act of his enemies as they entered the room. He spoke no word and betrayed no emotion after his arrest, though he was subjected to every conceivable in- dignity and insult. The formalities at the bar of Fouquier Tinville soon gone through, Robespierre and his party were conveyed to the scaffold. His end is thus recorded : ' Before the knife was loosened the executioners pulled off the bandage which enveloped his face, in order to prevent the linen from deadening the blow of the axe. The agony occasioned by this drew from the wretched suf- ferer a cry of anguish that was heard to the op- posite side of the Place de la Revolution ; then followed a silence like that of the grave, interrupted, at intervals, by a dull sullen noise ; the guillotine fell, and the head of Robespierre rolled into the basket. The crowd held their breath for some seconds, then burst into a loud and unanimous cheering.' It was the second day only after Robespierre had made his last desperate effort for the Republic in the National Convention, July 28th, 1794. [E.R.] ROBESPIERRE, Augustin Bon Joseph, called the Younger, brother of the preceding, was born at Arras 1764, and became a deputy to the convention 1792. He was the devoted friend of his brother, and came forward to share his fate in the convention on the 8th Thermidor: the pre- vious year he had opposed himself with great ROB courage to the sanguinary proceedings of the r. consuls. When his brother was arrested, Lebas had shot himself dead, Augustin threw h self from a window of the Hotel de Ville, wh: however, only broke his leg. He was execu with the elder Robespierre and his colleagues following dav. ROBESPIERRE, Charlotte, sister of preceding, took up her abode at Paris when t became members of the convention, and had her admirer Fouche, who was no favourite of dictator. She was arrested on the 9th Thermic but soon after set at liberty and pensioned. ' Memoirs ' contain some interesting particul Died at Paris 1834. ROBILANT, Esprit Bex Nicolas De, ag dinian officer, engineer, and mineralog., 1724-18 ROBIN, Jean, a French botanist, keeper the Garden of Plants, 1550-1597. His accoun the king's garden was published 1601. Ves: sian, a brother of Jean, was also a botanist. ROBINET, J. B. R., a Fr. writer, 1735-182 ROBINS, Benjamin, an eminent mathei tician and engineer of artillery, employed by East India Company. He wrote several work gunnery and mathematics, and is said to I written the narrative of Anson's voyage, 1707 ROBINS, J., an astronomer, died 1558. ROBINSON, Anastasia, daughter of a ] trait painter, and pupil of Dr. Crofts in mt distinguished as a vocalist and opera actor, quitted the stage on account of her marriage to earl of Peterborough ; died 1750. ROBINSON, Mary, a woman of great bea known as an actress and miscellaneous writer, born at Bristol 1758. She was married w quite a girl to an attorney, and commenced! career on the stage under the patronage of ( rick, at Drurv Lane theatre. She attracted attention of the prince of Wales in the chara of Perdita, in the ' Winter's Tale,' and becanrtj mistress for a short time. Her chief meat* support in after vears was the produce of her j as a novelist. Died 1800. ROBINSON, Richard, archbishop of Arm and Lord of Rokeby, b. in Yorkshire 1709, d. 1! j ROBINSON, Robert, a nonconformist mi ter, born at Swaffham in Norfolk 1735, die convert to Socinianism 1790. He wrote on question which has again become the su^H public discussion, concerning marriage witl J deceased wife's sister, a ' History of Baptism,' ] ROBINSON, Thomas, a minister of j Church of England, author of ' Scripture Cha j ters,' &c, bom 1749. ROBINSON, Thomas, rector of Ousley, in Ci berland, au. of works in natural history, died 1' ROBISON, John, professor of natural phil j phy at Edinburgh, was born at Boghall, in Stirl shire, 1739, and died in 1805. He is chiefly markable as the author of a book which attraj considerable attention at the close of the cent j entitled ' Proof's of a Conspiracy against all ] Religions and Governments of Europe, < in the Secret Meetings of Free Masons, Illumii and Reading Societies.' This work ran thro i four editions in the course of a few months, bi now only creates a smile. It contains son particulars, however, bearing on the French n 654 ROB Ition. Mr. Robison, when a youth, was attached [ the royal navy, and was in the boat with General [olfe when he landed on the heights of Abraham 'fore the taking of Quebec. He is known as a iter in natural philosophy, and as a contributor the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' [E.R.] ROBORT ELLO, Francesco, an Italian philo- i Inst, and editor of Greek classics, 1516-1567. , ROB-ROY, or Robert the Red, the popular Jsignation of a Highland freebooter, whose real me was Robert Macgregor. He was born out 1660, and was a dealer in cattle till the >ellion of 1715, when he joined the army of the etender. Having lost his estates in this quarrel, became an outlaw, and his daring adventures I somewhat chivalrous character, have made a one of the heroes of Scottish romance. He d at an advanced age, probably soon after 1733. took the name of Campbell in consequence the Macgregors having been outlawed m the vious century. JOBSON, G". F., a native of Durham, dist. as a ter-colour painter and draughtsman, died 1833. JOBY, John, a banker of Rochdale, known to rature by his collections of the Traditions of icashire, perish, in the 'Orion' steam-boat 1850. tOCABERTI DI PERELADA, Juan Tomaso, leral of the Dominicans, distinguished as a writer avour of the papacy, b. in Spain 1624, d. 1699. IOCCA, A., an Italian ecclesiastic, 1545-1620. tOCHAMBEAU, Jean Baptists Donatien Vimeur, Count De, a French marshal, com- lder of the French forces sent in aid of the ericans, author of ' Memoirs,' 1725-1807. His j| , Donatien Marie Joseph, born 1750, killed I he battle of Leipzig 1813, ; IOCHE, E. De La, a Fr. mathemat., 16th cent. tOCHE, J. De., a French commander, of Swiss sent, famous for his defence of the castle of "lemont against the due de Rohan in 1621. It Memarkable that his portrait, still in possession ahe family, bears a striking resemblance to that oDliver Cromwell. IKOCHE, J. B. L. De La, a doctor of the Sor- . ope, au. of a panegyric ot St. Genevieve, d. 1780. KOCHE, P. L. Lefebvre De La, a French ligTman and learned writer, about 1740-1806. |K)CHE, Regina Maria, an English novelist, *>f ' The Children of the Abbey,' &c, 1765-1845. IOCHE, Sophie De La, a Ger. novelist, daugh- tlof a physician named Guttermann, 1750-1807. tOCHE-AYMOR, Charles Antoine De La, I elinal and archbishop of Rheims, 1692-1777. OCHECOTTE, F. Guyon, Count De, a r dist general, b. 1769, shot as a conspirator 1798. OCHE-FLAVIN, Bernard De La, a French J lit and historian of the parliaments, 1552-1627. OCHEFORT, W. De, a Fr. writer, 1731-88. OCHEFOUCAULD, F. De La, bishop of I 8 lis, cardinal and Rom. ambassador, 1558-1645. IEFOUCAULD. Francis, Due De La, Wee of Marsillae, a famous name in French Jptare, and in the troubles of the Fronde, 1613- lj). Several others of the name have been dis- til m8hed at later periods of French history, and tl last duke of this house was massacred at the flaye prison, in September 1792. OCHEJAQUELEIN, Henri De La, a fam- : of La Vendue, who became generalissimo ROD at the age of twenty-two, and sustained a straggle with the republican troops for ten months with great skill and intrepidity, born 1773, killed at Nouaille 1794. ROCHELLE, B. La, a Fr. actor, 1748-1807. ROCHESTER, John Wilmot, earl of, a pro- fligate favourite and wit of the court of Charles II., bom 1648, died prematurely, worn out with his debaucheries, 1680. ROCHON, A. M. De, a Fr. astron., 1741-1817. ROCHON DE CHABANNES, Marc Antony James, a French dramatic writer, 1730-1800. ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson Went- worth, second marquis of, leader of a section of the Whig party, and prime minister, was born in 1730, and succeeded to the estates and dignities of his father in 1750. On the accession of George III. party feeling ran high, and was greatly aggra- vated by the intrigues of the sovereign with his favourite, Lord Bute. These circumstances ren- dered it difficult to keep a ministry together, and recourse was frequently had to politicians of very middling qualifications. Such was Lord Rocking- ham, a man of unostentatious integrity and sound constitutional feeling, but on the other hand, neither a great orator, nor a statesman of very brilliant parts. He became minister in July, 1765, when the Grenville ministry was turned out, dur- ing the debates on the regency bill, which had become necessary in consequence of the mental afflictions of the king. The first measure of the marquis of Rockingham was the repeal of the American stamp act, which had received the royal assent in the March previous, but he reserved to parliament the right of taxing the colonies, and proceeded quietly with some constitutional reforms, such as the prohibition of general warrants. He also encouraged trade, in the way of protection from competition, then, and till lately, the political fashion. The weakness of this ministry yielded place to that of Pitt, afterwards eaid of Chatham, in June, 1766, and when the latter was succeeded by the administration of Lord North, the marquis of Rockingham went into opposition with the Whig chief. He became minister again after the fall of Lord North in March, 1782, but retired from office and from the world on the succeeding 1st of July. In this latter period Lord Rockingham appears to have been willing to sanction some measure of parliamentary reform, but it would be difficult to believe he was equal to any great emergency. A jeu d'esprit of the times runs thus : 'Truth to tell, if one may without shocking 'em, The nation's asleep, and the minister Rockingham !' [E.R.] ROCOCLES, J. B., a Fr. historian, died 1696. RODE, Chr. Bernard, a German painter and engraver, 1725-1797. His brother, J. Henry, an engraver, 1727-1759. RODE, P., a French violinist, 1774-1833. RODELLA, J. B., an Italian writer, 1724-94. RODERIC, or RODERIQUE, last king of the Visigoths of Spain, killed in battle 711. RODNEY, George Brydges, Lord, a famous British admiral, was son of a captain in the navy, and was born at Walton-on-Thames 1718. His principal services were the defeat of L'Etendiere's squadron, 1747 ; the bombardment of Havre, and the destruction of the stores intended for the 655 ROD invasion of England, 1759 ; tlie capture of several islands in the West Indies, 1761 ; the defeat of a Spanish fleet under Langara, near Cape St. Vincent, and of the French near Martinique, 1780 ; and the victory over De Grasse, the hest remembered of his achievements, 1782. For his long continued services to the nation, Rodney was rewarded with a baronetcy, and a pension, in the whole, of 4,000 per annum. Died 1792. RODOLPH of Hapsburgh, first emperor of Germany of this name, was born 1218, and suc- ceeded his father, Albert the Wise, as count of Hapsburgh 1210. In 1273 he was elected king of the Romans. In 1278 he defeated Ottocar, king of Bohemia, which enabled him to confer Austria, Styria, and Carniola on his son, Albert ; died 1291. Rodolph II., born at Vienna 1552, was crowned king of Hungary 1572, king of Bohemia and king of the Romans 1575, and emperor on the death of his father, Maximilian II., 1576. He lost the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia by the revolt of his brother, Mathias, and died 1612. RODOLPH I., king of Burgundy, shared the throne with his father, Conrad II., count of Aux- erre 886, took the title of king 888, died 912. Rodolph II., his son and successor, made him- self king of Italy 922, and, on renouncing this enterprise, founded the kingdom of Aries and Burgundy 933 ; died 937. Rodolph III., called the Devout, and the Do-nothing, grandson of the preceding, born 993, succeeded his father, Conrad, 994, died 1032. RODOLPH, three dukes of Saxony : Rodolph I., son and successor of Albert IL, reigned 1298- 1356. Rodolph IL, son and sue. of Rodolph I., 1356-1370. Rodolph III., nephew of the latter, succeeded 1388, died a prisoner in Bohemia 1418. RODOLPH, the first of the name, count pala- tine, succeeded his father, Louis IL, 1294, declared against Albert, duke of Austria, in favour of Adol- phus of Nassau 1300, died in England 1319. The second of the name, son of the preceding, succeeded his brother, Adolphus, 1327, concluded a peace with the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, 1329, d. 1353. RODOLPH, count of Rheinfelden and duke of Suabia, elected king of Germany 1077, killed 1080. RODON, or DE RODON, David, a French professor of philosophy and reformer, died 1664. RODRIGUEZ, Alphonso, a Jesuit of Valla- dolid, whose work on Christian Perfection ranks high in mystic divinity, and has been translated into all the European languages, 1526-1616. RODRIGUEZ, A. J., a theologian, 1705-1781. RODRIGUEZ, J., a Portug. missy., 1559-1633. RODRIGUEZ, V., a Sp. architect, 1717-1785. RODWELL, George Herbert, an English composer and writer, died 1851. ROE, Sir Thomas, a native of Essex, distin- guished as a traveller and diplomatist, was born at Low-Layton about 1580, and was knighted by James I. in 1604, soon after which he was sent by Prince Henry to make discoveries in America. His public life commences in 1614, when he was sent ambassador to the Great Mogul, at whose court he continued till 1618. The remainder of his life was fully occupied with political embassies, and his parliamentary duties as member for Ciren- cester and for the university of Oxford ; died 1644. ROEBUCK, John, a physician and experi- 656 ROH mental chemist, born at Sheffield 1718, died, raining himself by his projects, 1794. ROEDERER, Count, a French states?! professor of moral science and politics, 17." 1-1: ROEHL, L. H., a Ger. astronomer, died 17 ROEL, Hermann Alexander, a protes German divine and Cartesian philosopher, d. 1' ROELAS, J. De Las, a Sp. painter, died 1 ROELAS, P. De Las, a Spanish painter, tai by Titian, and regarded as the rival of Mm 1560-1620. ROEMER, O., a Danish astronomer, 1014-1 ROENER, J. J., a Swiss botanist, 1761-18 ROEPEL, C, a Dutch painter, 1679-1748. ROESEL, A. J., a German painter, 1705-1 ROESTRAETEN, P., a Dutch portrait paii who distinguished himself in England, 1627-1 ROGER, the name of several European prir Roger I., count of Sicily, is known to his from 1058 to his death in 1101. Roger IL, of the preceding, became Icing of Sicily 1130, died 1154. A cousin of the latter, Robert, c of Apulia, succeeded his father, Robert Guis< 1085, died 1111. Roger I., count ofCarcassc reigned 1130-1150. Roger IL, whose reign greatly disturbed by quarrels with Raymonc count of Toulouse, 1167-1194. Roger of M< gomery, count of A lenqon, nephew of Wil the Conqueror, succeeded 1070, and, having ac( panied William to England, commanded his vanced guard at the battle of Hastings, and created earl of Shrewsbury, died 1094. ROGER, or RICHARD, of Hexham, a n of that abbey, known as an historian, 12tli cenl ROGER of Hoveden. See Hoveden. ROGER, A., a Dutch protestant, 17th cent ROGER, E., a French missionary, 17th cenl ROGER, F., a French author, 1776-1842. ROGER-MARTIN, a French mathematician phvsician, mem. of the council of 500, 1741- ROGERS, B., an English composer, 17th ROGERS, C, an antiquarian, 1711-1784. ROGERS, D., a statesman, about 1540-15! ROGERS, G., an episco. clergyman, 1741-1' ROGP^RS, John, the first martyr of the i of Queen Mary, was first known as chaplal Antwerp, and afterwards as collaborateur of dale and Coverdale in effecting a translation oi Bible. He preached against popery at St. Pj Cross immediately after the accession of Mary,] was burnt at Smithfield, February 4, 1555. ROGERS, John, rector of St. Giles's, Crir gate, and a writer against Hoadley, 1679-172 '\ ROGERS, Thomas, chaplain to Bancroft, bi< of London, author of several works, 1568-161' ROGERS, Thomas, an episcopal clergyi author of 'Providence Displayed in the Cor tion of King William and Queen Mary,' 1660- ROGERS, Woods, a famous naval comma; and circumnavigator of the globe, died 1732.J ROHAN, a noble French family, numbering following eminent churchmen : Armand' 1 ton, cardinal and bishop of Strasburg, 1674-1 Armand, called the cardinal of Soubisse, gr. nephew of the preceding, and holder of the i dignities, 1717-1756. Armand Jule, his coi cardinal and archbishop of Rheims, 1695-1 Louis Constantine, brother of the latter, dinal and bishop of Strasburg, 1697-1779. h ROH ?ene Edward, Prince De Rohan, ambassador to fienna, bishop of Strasburg, cardinal and grand- lmoner of France, best known by the affair of the iamond necklace, 1734-1803. J. H. Meriadec, 'rince De Rohan-Gumene, elder brother of the 2 eckli'ce cardinal, born 1726, rendered himself i; otorious by his prodigalities, and by his failure for II lore than a million sterling in 1783. Louis t at rancis Augustus, Due De Rohan-Chabot, and in entenant-general in the French army, born 1733, as massacred at the Abbaye prison 1794. Louis Lj rancis Augustus, Due De Rohan-Chabot, \i rince of Leon, and cardinal, a descendant of the i bntmorencies by his mother, 1788-1833. Be- _'j ies these, are the names distinguished in the 3j ligious wars, as follows: .] ROHAN, Henry, Due De, and prince of Leon, i e of the most distinguished characters of his 'dj e, was born in Brittany 1579, and first acquired I] stinction at the siege of Amiens under Henry nj r ., when in the sixteenth year of his age. He i',| came chief of the Calvinist party on the acces- '1 n of Louis XIIL, and acted a principal part in ,l b insurrection of 1620, and all the ensuing wars. : ij 5 was a great political writer, and has left me- yjj rirs which are highly valued by historians. Died ,'y his wounds, received at the battle of Rheinfeld Vj 38. His wife, Margaret De Bethune, . , lighter of Sully, famous for her heroic defence ij Castres against the Marechal de Themines in jj 25, died 1660. His sister, Anne, distinguished her courage at the siege of Rochelle, and for ,j great learning and capacity, 1584-1646. His Ijjj ther, Benjamin De Rohan, lord of Soubisse, lj s also a Calvinist leader, and died in England, pi ere he had taken refuge, 1630. Tancred, a jjl sumed son of Duke 'Henry, was killed during m i troubles of the Fronde, in the nineteenth year ti^s age, 1649. ft IOHAN, Louis, Prince De, or Chevalier de kan, b. abt. 1635, executed for conspiracy, 1674. JOHAULT, J. a Cartesian philos., 1620-1675. ...jgOHDICH, F. W., a Prussian general, 1719-96. .01, Gilbert, a French jurisconsult, 16th cent. ,. >OKES, H., a Dutch painter, 1621-1682. y POLAND, the supposed nephew of Charlemagne, ; ] opular hero of the romance of chivalry, killed ;he battle of Roncevaux 778. JOLAND, count of Savoy, died 1263. vii POLAND, P. L., a French sculptor, 1746-1816. POLAND DE LA PLATIERE ; Jean Marie, at Villefranche, in the neighbourhood of 1732, was Inspector General of manu- and commerce in that city when the ch revolution commenced, and having em- popular principles, became, in 1790, mem- of the Lyons municipality. In February, 1, he was sent to Paris as deputy extraordinary, d the commercial interests of Lyons in the ttees of the Constituent Assembly, and ied there seven months, accompanied by his hearted wife, who is the subject of the fol- notice. This period dates from the con- ted flight of the king, iust before the death rabe;m. to the dispersion of the assembly the acceptance of the new constitution, and the Rolands acquainted with the rising ty of Robespierre and the Girondins, who not yet divided into distinct parties. They ROL now returned home to La Platifere for a short period, but in December returned to Paris: the office of inspector having been abolished, Roland had to claim a retiring pension ; but he was also invited back by the patriots to take a part in the movement, for at this juncture the invasion of the emigrants was impending, and the veto of the king had brought the parliament to a stand-still. The practical philosophy, commercial knowledge, and strict simplicity of Roland, recommended him to men of all parties, and when the patriot min- istry was formed in March, 1792, he was made minister of the interior. He kept his position till 13th June, when the royal veto upon the proposal to form a patriot camp around Paris, and upon the decree against the priests, provoked his celebrated letter to the king, written, however, by Madame Roland, and, as a consequence, his almost instant dismissal. This event was followed by the ar- rival of the Marseillaise in Paris, and the conflict at the Tuileries, on the 10th of August, when Roland was recalled, and Danton became minister of justice. The struggle between the Girondists and the municipality under the guidance of Robes- pierre filled up the period till the 31st May; the former party were then vanquished, and Roland was among the number who saved their lives by flight. He found an asylum with his friends at Rouen, but deliberately killed himself with his cane-sword on hearing of the execution of his wife, 15th November, 1793. His body was found by the road-side, and a paper in his pocket con- tained his last words, among which were these : ' Whoever thou art that findest these remains, respect them, as those of a man who consecrated his life to usefulness, and who dies as he has lived, virtuous and honest On hearing of my wife's death I would not remain another dav upon this earth so stained with crimes.' [E.R.] ROLAND, Manon Jeanne Philippon, Ma- dame, wife of the preceding, and herself the spirit of the Girondin party, was the daughter of a Paris engraver, and was born in that city 1754. She was the only child of nine left to the care of her father, who provided her with masters regardless of expense, and gave her a brilliant education ; the best ground for which existed in her native talents, her firm spirit, her personal beauty, and her un- doubted virtues. Antiquities, heraldry, philosophy, and, among other books, the Bible, made up her earliest studies ; her favourite authors, however, were Plutarch, Tacitus, Montaigne, and Rousseau. She became the wife of Roland in 1779, and as her love for him was founded on his antique virtues and his philosophic spirit, she has been called 'The Heloise of the eighteenth century:' he was also twenty years her senior. She became the sharer in all his studies, aided him in editing his works, and during his two ministries acted as his secretary, and entered into all the intrigues of his party without debasing herself by their meanness. She was the angel of the cause she espoused, the soul of honour and the conscience of all who embraced it ; while her boldness, her political sagacity, and her sarcastic eloquence were equally dreaded by their adversaries. After the flight of her husband, Madame Roland was arrested by order of the Paris commune, under the dictation of Marat and Robespierre, and consigned to the 657 2U ROL Abbaye prison, from which, on the 31st of October, she was removed to a more wretched abode in the Conciergerie. When sentenced, at the bar of Fouquier Tinville, she was eager to embrace her fate, and rode to the guillotine clad in white, her glossy black hair hanging down to her girdle. She declared her conviction that her husband would not survive her. On the scaffold, this noblest victim of the cause in which she suffered, apostro- phized the statue of liberty, and bowing her head before it exclaimed ' Ah Liberty ! what crimes are committed in thy name !' The moment before, she had asked for pen and paper ' to write the strange thoughts that were rising in her,' a request which was refused. She was executed on the 8th of November, 1793. Besides her miscellaneous works, Madame Roland left Memoirs composed during her captivity, and a last affecting composition in the Counsels of a Letter, addressed to her little girl ; the former, it is suspected, have been since tam- pered with. [E.R.] ROLANDER, Daniel,, a Swedish naturalist and traveller, flourished about 1720-1776. ROLANDINO, an Ital. chronicler, 1200-1276. ROLANDO, L., an Ital. anatomist, 1775-1831. ROLDAN, Peter, a Span, sculptor, 1624-1700. Louisa, his daughter and assistant, 1654-1704 ROLLA, A., a French violinist, 1757-1837. ROLLE, H., an English lawyer, 1589-1656. ROLLE, M., a Fr. mathematician, 1652-1719. ROLLI, P. A., an Italian poet, 1687-1767. ROLLIN, Charles, a celebrated popular writer, historian, and Latin poet, b. at Paris 1661, d. 1741. ROLLO, the leader of an adventurous band of Normans, who conquered the French province named after them in the 9th century, was the son of a Norwegian earl, named Ragnvald, whose father, again, was one of the petty chiefs or kings of Drontheim. This is the highest point to which his ancestry can be traced, notwithstanding the mistaken zeal of genealogists in honour of the English sovereigns descended from William the Conqueror. The circumstances which produced the expedition of Rollo, were briefly these. Harold Harfagra having, from 870 to 880, made himself master of all Norway, which had previously been divided into several petty states, caused many Norwegian chieftains to emigrate, who sought fresh homes in Iceland, the Orkneys, and the isles of Faro and Shetland, and infested the northern seas with their piratical excursions. One such was this Rolf, or Rollo, who, prohibited from ever returning to Norway by Harold, retired to the Hebrides, where many of the Norwegian nobility had taken refuge. His first attempts at the head of these adventurers were against England, but the order established by Alfred rendered his efforts fruitless. He then tried the security of the coast of France, and venturing up the Seine took Rouen, at that time called Neustria, from whence he proceeded to the siege of Paris. Charles the Simple, king of the Franks, was glad to pur- chase a peace by ceding the territory already conquered by Rollo, and which is supposed to have comprised that part of the ancient Neus- tria which corresponds to the department of the Seine, Jnferieure, and a portion of the depart- ment of the Eaire. He also gave him his daugliter, Giselle, in marriage. The bargain was concluded ani'u in tb ROM at St. Clair in the year 912, soon after wliicl Rollo, or Raoul I., as he was afterwards called was baptized by the archbishop of Rouen, in cathedral of that city. He is said to have i bited all the virtues of a religious, liberal prince ; he was also intrepid as a warrior and of such a noble stature that no horse cop ' carry him. Rollo died in 917, or, according other accounts, in 932, and was succeeded by hi son, William, surnamed Long-Sword. [E.R. ROLLOCK, R., a Scottish divine, 1555-1598. ROLT, Richard, supposed to have 1 at Shrewsbury 1724 or 1725, a miscellaneous writ< and historian, time of Johnson, died 1770. ROMAGNOSI, Gian Domenico, a distil political economist, b. at Piacenza, 1761, d. 183; ROMAINE, William, born at Hartlepool ' the county of Durham, 1714; distinguished as religious writer and divine of Calvinistic principle After several curacies he was successively chapla to the Lord Mayor, 1741 ; lecturer to the unib parishes of St. George's, Botolph Lane, and Botolph's, Billingsgate, 1748; lecturer to Dunstan's-in-the-West, 1749; assistant mornh preacher at St. George's, Hanover Square, 175 and rector of St. Anne's, Blacktriar's, 17 About 1752, he was also appointed professor astronomy in Gresham College, but is said to ha resigned in consequence of his zeal for the dc trines of Hutchinson. His principal works f ' Discourses upon the Law and Gospel,' ' The L of Faith,' ' The Walk of Faith,' ' The Triumph Faith,' ' Doctrine of the Sacrament,' and enlarged edition of Calasio's Hebrew Concordat; and Lexicon. He acquired considerable pop larity by writing against the naturalization of i Jews, a measure then under discussion in pari ment. Died 1795. ROMAN, John Helmich, a Swedish musici time of Ulrica Eleonora, 1694-1758. ROMAN, J. J. T., a French writer, 1726-17 ROMANA, Don Peter Cara YSureda,! quis De La, a Spanish general, 1761-1811. ROMANELLI, Abbe D., an antiquary topographer of Naples, 1756-1819. ROMANELLI, Giovan Francesco, an Ifea painter, 1617-1662. His son, Urbain, 1638-i ROMANINE, G., an Italian painter, famous an imitator of Titian, 16th century. ROMANO, Eccelino, or Ezzelino, Da,i Italian warrior, distinguished in the second crurij under Conrad III. 1147, died soon after 1175^ son, of the same name, succeeded to his fai$| lordship, and became a distinguished Ghil chief, died after 1235. The son of the lattaj of the same name, born 1194, was invested father, in 1215, with the principality of Ba and greatly increased his power. Such tyranny that Alexander IV., in 1256, proc a crusade against him, and he fell at Ca September 16, 1259. His brother, Albeb^ ruled at Treviso, was hunted down and B together with all his family, by the GuelphJ ROMANO, Giulio, the name by whiebfl Pippi, or rather De - Giannuzzi, is commonly kno was born at Rome in 1499, and early distinjH himself as one of the ablest and favourite pqfl Raphael. He completed with Penni (see RaphA' the frescoes of the Stanza di Costantino in 658 id ROM Vatican after the death of Raphael, in 1523, and a the following year entered the service of the uke Federigo Gonzaga at Mantua, where he suc- eeded in establishing a considerable school ; the elebrated Primaticcio who carried the Italian rinciples of painting into France was one of his upils. Giulio died at Mantua, November 1, 1546, xed only forty-seven, leaving extensive works in esco and many admirable oil paintings to justify s fame as the principal of all Raphael's scholars. e was also a distinguished architect, and may be nsidered perhaps the ablest of the Italian oma- ental decorators. His principal frescoes are The Fall of the Giants,' and the ' Story of Cupid Psyche,' in the Palazzo del Te at Mantua, specimen of his fresco painting has been recently esented to the National Gallery by Lord Over- rae ; as regards oil painting, he is supposed to ve had a great share in at least the under paint- of the principal of the later pictures of that iss by Raphael. (Vasari, vite de Pittori, &c., Ed. ., 1846, seqq. : Gaye, Carteggio lnedito <f fof.) [E.N.W.] OMANOFF. See Michel. OMANUS, a pope of Rome, 897-898. OMANUS I., emperor of the East, surnamed ms, was an Armenian soldier, who became associate of Constantine X., in 919 ; he was de- led by his sons, Stephen and Constantine, in and died in a monastery, 948. Romanus II., The Younger, succeeded his father, son of ntine X., 959, and died of intemperance, Romanus III., called Argyrus, became em- by marrying the princess Zoe, 1028 ; he was red by his wife and her paramour, Michael, I IV.), 1034. Romanus IV., surnamed *, was a condemned conspirator, who was ed by Eudoxia, the widow of Constantine and associated with her on the throne, Died, after being deposed and mutilated chael (Michael VII.), 1171. MANZOFF, Peter Alexandrovitch, ,t, a Russian general, born about 1730, suc- Prince Galitzin as commander-in-chief the Turks, 1770. He obtained many ad- is, and concluded the treaty of Kainardji, Named general of the second army directed ; the Turks, he threw up his command in in consequence of his disgust with Potemkin. 1796. His son and successor in the title, OLA8, distinguished as a diplomatist, and for "Totion of his wealth to patriotic and bene- objects, flourished 1753-1826. Michael brother and heir of the latter, died 1838. MBERG, A., a German violinist, 1767-1821. MBOUTS, T., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. ME DE LTSLE, Jean Baptiste Louis, nch physician and mineralogist, 1736-1790. MILLY, John, a watchmaker, born at 1714, who wrote on horological subjects Encyclopedie, and in 1777 established the 1 de Paris,' died 1796. His son, John a Calvinist minister, and writer in the p<*die, 1739-1770. MILLY, Sir Samuel, was born in London March, 1757. His father traded as a retail but was descended from a French refugee of consideration, and Romilly when subse- taunted in parliament about the obscurity ROO of his origin, could smile at the allusion as pecu- liarly inapplicable to him, were it even of impor- tance. His education was versatile and undecided, and it was long ere it took its final professional direction, for it was first intended that he should follow his father's trade, and when this view was abandoned he was articled to an attorney. He was called to the bar in 1783. By that time he had deeply studied his profession. He was at the same time master of a vast quantity of miscellane- ous knowledge which, however vaguely and irre- gularly acquired, was subject to the mellowing in- fluence of his own inquiring and deeply reflective mind. From early youth he was grave, earnest, and sensitive. He perhaps never in any of his sayings or writings approached nearer to wit or fancy than an occasional dry causticity bred of contempt, as when speaking of some complaints that a bill proposed by a very formal lawyer was not drawn like an act of parliament, he said that the writer had certainly defects of style, but that of being unlike an act of parliament was not one of them. He early and almost insensibly ob- tained a great share of chancery practice. Ever favourable to the progress of constitutional free- dom, he naturally took a deep interest in the great questions arising in the land of his fathers. Com- ing in contact with Mirabeau and other celebrated men of the revolution, they in their turn brought him in alliance with Lord Lansdowne and the heads of the British Whig party. He declined a seat in parliament until he was made solicitor- general by the Whig ministry of 1806. The disso- lution of that ministry in a few months concluded his tenure of office, but he cut out a career to himself by remaining in parliament as a law re- former. The main objects for which he fought were the removal of irregularities in the bank- ruptcy law, the subjection of land like other pro- perty to the attachment of creditors, and the insti- tution of moderate and certain for sanguinary and uncertain punishments in the penal law He was thus the practical experimenter in parliament of the jurisprudential views of Bentham, and the best testimony to their soundness is that they have now been the accepted law of the land for many years. He had married in 1798 a young lady whom he met at Bowood. His affection for her, originally very strong, deepened with advancing years, and her death in the autumn of 1818, so affected his then weakened nerves, that on the 2d of November he put an end to his own existence. [J.H.B.] ROMNEY, G., an English painter, 1734-1802. ROMULUS, the supposed founder and first king of Rome, 8th century B.C. RONALDS, H., an agriculturalist, 1759-1833. RONCAGLIA, Constantine, a learned theo- logian of the duchy of Lucca, 1677-1737. RONCALLI, Caval. Cristoforo, an Italian painter, b. at Pomarance in Volterra, 1552-1626. RONDANI, F. M., an Italian painter, 15th ct. RONDELET, F., a Fr. architect, 1743-1829. RONDELET, W., a Fr. naturalist, 1507-1566. RONSARD, P. De, a French poet, 1524-1586. RONSIN, C. P., a Fr. dramatist, 1752-1794. ROOKE, Sir George, a famous British ad- miral, was born at his father's seat, near Canter- bury, 1650, and was first employed as commodore on the accession of William III. in 1689. In 1692 659 ROO he was vice-admiral of the blue, and greatly distin- guished himself at the battle of Cape la Hogue, on which occasion he was knighted, appointed vice- admiral of the red, and received a pension of 1,000 a-year. In 1702 he destroyed the French and Span- ish fleets in Vigo Bay, and on the 22d of July, 1704, assisted at the capture of Gibraltar. Died 1709. ROOKE, Laurence, prof, of anatomy at Gres- ham College, and mem. of the Roval Soc, 1G23-62. ROOKER, M. A., a landsc. painter, 1743-1801. ROOS, a family of German painters: John Henry, a pupil of Adrian de Bie, 1631-1685. Theodore, his brother, 1638-1698. Philip, second son of John Henry, commonly called Rosa da Tivoli, from his long residence there, a great painter of animals and landscapes, 1655-1705. John Melchior, brother of the latter, 1659-1731. Joseph, grandson of Philip, a painter and en- graver, about 1728-1790. ROOSE, Nicholas, whose proper name was Liemacker, a painter of Ghent, 1575-1646. ROOSE, T. G. A., a Ger. anatomist, 1771-1803. ROPER, John, professor of philosophy, and one of the most learned theologians of Oxford, d. 1534. ROPER, William, attorney-general in the reign of Henry VIII., and son-in-law of Sir Thomas More. A Life of More, written by him, was pub- lished in 1712. His daughter, Margaret, was a lady of great accomplishments, and translated Eusebius into English. ROQUE, G. A. De La, a learned heraldist and genealogical writer of Normandy, 1597-1686. ROQUE, John De La, a French writer of his voyages and travels in the East, 1661-1745. His brother, Anthony, a journalist, 1672-1744. ROQUES, Peter, a French divine, 1685-1748. [House of Salvator Rosa.] ROSA, Salvator, was born near Naples, July 21, 1615. In 1635 he visited Rome and met with much success, and finally settled there, where he died, March 15, 1673. His favourite subjects were landscapes, chiefly of wild and romantic scenery, and these works he executed with consummate mastery. Many of his best pictures are in this country. (Passeri, Vile de 1 Pittori, &c. the life of Salvator by Lady Morgan is a romance.) [R-N.W.] ROSALBA CARRIERA, Madame, a famous Venetian portrait painter, 1675-1757. ROSAMOND, commonly called 'Fair Rosa- mond,' a famous name in our legendary history, ROS was a daughter of Walter Clifford, baron of Here; ford, and mistress of Henry II. One of her sor by him became archbishop of York. The facts I her history are not well ascertained, but she said to have perished, a victim of the jealousy i Queen Eleanor, about 1173. ROSAPINA, Francesco, an Ital. engraver, ce for his pictures from the old mastery, 1762-18411 ROSCELLINUS, RUZELIN, or RUCELB an ecclesiastic and scholastic philosopher of Bri tany, 11th century. ROSCHID IBX. SeeAvERROES. ROSCIUS, Quintus, a celebrated Roman act( and friend of Cicero, to whom he gave lessi declamation, lived about 129-62 B.C. Anoth Roscius, proscribed by Sylla, and accused of ! ing slain his father, was like the former a client Cicero, but little is known of him. ROSCOE, William, was born in 1753, became an attorney in Liverpool. It was in little leisure left by active business that he acquu his fine and tasteful scholarship, and distinguisr. himself as one of the most accomplished and ei gant writers of his time. He wrote pamphlets the slave trade and in defence of the French Re' lution ; and in 1796 his literary celebrity was est: lished by his first and best historical work, Life of Lorenzo de Medici.' In 1805 appea 'The Life and Pontificate of Leo X. ;' and n year Roscoe, who had now become a partner Liverpool banking-house, was elected to repres the borough in parliament. He produced sevt minor works, both in prose and in verse, and translated, and edited the works of Pope. 1816 the warm sympathy of his fellow-citi; was excited towards this excellent and philant T)ic man, by the failure of his firm. He die. 1831. [ W ROSCOE, Henry, youngest son of the pre ing, was born in 1800, and called to the ba 1826. He wrote the Lives of Eminent Br Lawyers in Lardner's Cyclopaedia, a Life of father, and edited North's Lives ; died 1836. ROSCOE, W. S., eldest son of the histos author of miscellaneous poems, and a transit of Klopstock's Messiah, left in xM.S., 1782-1&- ROSCOMMON. See Dillon. ROSE, George, a statesman and poll writer, was the son of an episcopal clergyma- Brechin, in Angus-shire, where he was bor 1744. He was brought up by an uncle who, a school in London ; and after serving as puri the navy, became keeper of the Exchequer re<* through the interest of the earl of Marchn While in this office he superintended the pub tion of the Domesday Book, and completec Journals of the Lords, in 31 vols, folio, r the ministry of Mr. Pitt he became presidfi the board of trade, and, with the exception J retirement during the Grenville administnj retained this post till his death, in 1818. wrote several valuable works on subjects conn with the revenue. ROSE, J. B., a French divine, 1716-1805. ROSE, H. J., a minister of the Ch. of lB^ dist. for his learning as a theologian, 1795-11 ROSE, Samuel, a lawyer, 1767-1804. ' ROSE, William, a French prelate, and v partizan of the catholic league, died 1602. I G50 ROS i BOSEL, J. A., a German painter, 1705-1759. I BOSELL, A. G., a Sp. mathematician, 1731-94. ROSELLI, A., an Ital. jurisconsult, 1380-1466. ROSELLINI, Ippolito, professor of Oriental uiguages at Bologna, and a great master of ]gyptian antiquities of the school of Champollion, room he accompanied to Egypt. After the death f the latter, he was intrusted with the publication f the great work resulting from their joint labours, ititled' Monuments of Egypt and Arabia,' 1800-43. ROSEN, Frederick Augustus, an eminent riental scholar, was born at Hanover, 1805, and scame professor of Oriental languages in the liversity of London. Died prematurely, after he id written or edited several important works, 1837. ROSEN, Gregory, Baron, a Russian officer, stinguished in the wars of Napoleon, 1789-1832. ROSEN DE ROSENSTEIN, Nicholas, com- nly called Dr. Rosen, a physician and pro- isional writer, 1706-1773. ROSENHANE, Shering, Baron De, a Swedish ator, diplomatist, and governor of Ostrogothia, 09-1603. His descendant of the same name d title, secretary of state, and commander of the ,er of the Polar Star, author of Memoirs, &c, 54-1812. Gustave, of the same family, a eteer, date 1680-1681. OSEXMULLER, John George, a German , and professor of theology, 1736-1815. His Ernest Frederick Charles, a distin- hed Arabic scholar, 1768-1835. John Chris- , another son, professor of anatomy and sur- author of professional works, 1771-1820. SIN, or ROSINUS, in German Roszfeld, i'uii hn, a learned antiquarian, about 1550-1626. { JOSINI, C. M., a Ital. archaeologist, 1749-1837. I tOSNY, A. J. N. De, a Fr. novelist, 1771-1814. if IOSS, Alexander, a Scotch poet, 1699-1784. je i JOSS, Alexander, a Scottish divine, who be- lt! le chaplain to Charles I. and master of the free ifei ool at Southampton, 1590-1654. Ross was a 83i l of considerable attainments in classical learn- hisa and philosophy, and made great pretensions to id Bowledge of the secrets of antiquity. Butler $24 s alludes to him : . i ' There was an ancient sage philosopher, That hath read Alexander Ross over.' ' View of All Religions ' is the work by which best known. )SS, D., an English actor, died 1790. V 1S, John, a learned prelate, died 1792. )SS, or ROUSE, John, canon of Osney, an it writer on the civil and ecclesiastical anti- of Warwickshire, died at Guy's Cliff 1491. 5SELLI, Annibal, a friar of Calabria, of a ' Commentary' upon Pimander, 1578. )SSELLI, Como, a Florentine painter, 1416- PlEBO De Cosimo, a pupil of Como Ros- 1441-1484. Matthew, a pupil of Pagani |Passegnano, 1578-1650. OSSELLI, Como, a Florentine preacher, and on the art of memory, died 1578. Stephen, 'ation, an historian, 1598-1664. 1ET, F. De, a Provencal poet, born 1570, 1630. Joseph, a sculptor, 1706-1786. II, the name of several Italians distin- in art : Antonio, a painter of the school, master of Titian, 14th century. ROS Antonio, a Bolognese painter, 1700-1753. An- gelo, a Genoese sculptor, 1671-1715. J. Anto- nio, an architect of Rome, 1616-1695. Mathias, a Roman architect, 1637-1695. Murio, a painter of Naples, taught by Stanzioni and Guido, 1626- 1651. Paqualino, a painter of Vicenzo, b. 1641. Properzia, a female sculptor of Bologna, b. 1495. ROSSI, Adelaide Helen Josephlse Char- lotte, Countess De, Madame Cellier, a French lady, author of numerous works connected with education, 1778-1822. ROSSI, B. De, an Italian critic, 16th century. ROSSI, D. J. B., an Ital. Orientalist, 1742-1831. ROSSI, Ignatius De, a Heb. scholar,1740-1824. ROSSI, Giovanni V., in Latin Janus Nidus Erythrceus, a philologist and biographer, 1577-1647. ROSSI, Girolamo, in Latin Rubens, a physi- cian and historian of Ravenna, 1539-1607. ROSSI, N., an Italian bibliopole, 1711-1785. ROSSI, O., an Italian archaeologist, 1570-1630. ROSSI, Pellegrino, Count, a noble victim of the popular cause in Italy, was born at Carrara, in 1787, and being admitted to the profession of an advocate at Bologna, was practising at the bar in that city from 1809 till 1814. In the latter year he was obliged to fly the country, through his com- plicity with the false movement excited by Murat, who had deluded the patriots of Italy with a pros- pect of their independence, which it was out of his power to realize. Rossi, after the fall of Murat, escaped to Geneva, and there rose to such professional eminence that we find him, in 1819, professor of law ; in 1820, a member of the coun- cil ; and shortly after, a deputy to the diet, and an active party to the revision of the federal constitu- tion. In 1833 he was induced to take up his residence in Paris, and, being naturalized, was appointed, in 1845, ambassador from the French court to Rome. Two series of circumstances would here require consideration in a more extended notice ; the first, strictly biographical, exhibiting the formation of Rossi's political convictions in the atmosphere of the doctrinaires of the French cham- ber; and, the second, the state to which the abominable government of Gregory XVI. and the several factions of Italy had reduced that unhappy country. The brief facts are, that the Papal court had maintained an unremitting war against every shade of liberal opinion ; the administration was wretchedly bad ; no equality existed in the eye of the law ; there was no statistics ; an enormous public debt; education and religious instruction utterly inadequate to the needs of the people, and a censor- ship of the press as dark as the Inquisition of the middle ages : add to this, the rancorous opposition of the political sects, the constantly increasing persecution to which they were all alike subject, and the general perversion of the moral sense and political conscience resulting from these causes, and we have a faint outline of the state of Italy at the period of Count Rossi's mission. In the following year, 1846, Gregory XVI. died, and Pius IX. succeeded him with a disposition to grapple with the difficulties of the country, supported as he was by the French influence represented by Rossi, and with the countenance of England exhibited in the mission of Lord Minto and the famous letter of Palmerston. A general amnesty, and the progress of administrative reform, were suddenly enliv cued 661 ROS by the revolution of Naples and Paris in February, 1848, and the impetus given in Italy drove two distinct political movements to a sudden head; that of Giovine Italia, which had been fostered by Mazzini ever since the revolution of 1831, and that which the writings of Gioberti and Balbo had ripened under the sun of Carlo Alberto in northern Italy. The latter came to issue first. Carlo Alberto, with the chivalrous blood of the house of Savoy in his veins, proclaimed the inde- pendence of Italy under one native sovereign at 4 Glorious Milan,' and Rossi warned the pope that if he did not grasp this sword, it would be turned against him ; the weak old man, however, proffered his services to Austria and Charles Albert as a mediator for peace, and the latter was the sacrifice. This hope being disappointed, the next effort of Rossi, who had been deprived of his employments by the French republic and become prime minister in Rome, was to form a league of the separate con- stitutional states, with deputies from each sitting in parliament ; and as this scheme acquired form and stability it became more and more distasteful to the republican party of Mazzini, by which, also, the efforts of Carlo Alberto had been paralyzed. All through these transactions there had been great tumults and some bloodshed apart from that of the war in Sardinia, and the demand which Mazzini and Giovine Italia opposed to the plan of Rossi, was that for a national convention. In fine the deputies were appointed to meet on the 15th of November, 1848, and Rossi himself represented Bologna. Precautions had been taken against an outbreak, and the carriages of the deputies went through masses of people into the court yard of the Vatican. As that of Rossi stopped at the portico, there was a cry for help, close at hand, and in the confusion created by it, the bystanders closed round the statesman, there was a momentary scuffle, and the quick flash of a dagger was seen ; for a while it was hardly known what had occurred, but it was only the corpse of Rossi that the doors were closed upon. The flight of the pope, and the establishment of the Roman republic, afterwards put down by French bayonets, wnich are still held at her throat, are matters of history, and too recent, perhaps, to be righteously judged. There is a serious question also, whether Rome, considering the geography of Italy and the requirements of commerce, can ever be the seat of government for a united Italy ; whether the dominion, whatever its form, of that beautiful but hapless country must , not occupy two seats Milan perhaps in the north, and Naples in the south. [E.R.] ROSSI, Piero De, a celebrated general of the 14th cent., chief of the Guelphs in Parma, d. 1357. ROSSI, Quirico, an Italian poet, 1696-1760. ROSSIGNOL, J. A., a republican general, com- mander in La Vended, 1759-1802. ROSSIGNOLI, Bernardino, an Italian Jesuit, who first produced the MS. of the ' Imitation,' bearing the name of J. Gersen, died 1613. ROSSLYN, Alexander Wedderburne, earl of, a Scottish lawyer and statesman, was born 1733, and first distinguished himself in parliament in opposition to the Grenville administration. He was successively solicitor-general 1771, attorney- general 1778, and chief justice of the Common Pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough, 1780. ROU From 1793 to 1801 he served with Pitt as cha cellor, and then retired with the title of earl Rosslyn. Died 1805. ROSSLYN, James St. Clair Erskine, e of, nephew of the preceding, and heir of .' peerage, was a distinguished peninsular offic and one of the most intimate friends of the dv of Wellington. Before succeeding to the peen in 1805, he was many years in the House of Co mons. In 1829 he became a member of pr council, and was its president under Sir Rol Peel in 1834. Died 1837. ROSSO, Del, called by the French MailreRo a distinguished Florentine painter, died 1541. ROSSO, J. Del, an Ital. architect, 1760-18; ROSTAN, C, a French botanist, 1774-1833 ROSTGAARD, Frederick De, archivist the k. of Denmark, and a great scholar, 1671- ROSTOPCHIN, Feodor, Count, a Rus statesman and general, commander at Moscow the period of the French invasion 1812, 1763-' ROSWEIDE, Heribert, a learned and minous wr. in ecclesiastical antiquities, 1569- ROTA, B., a Neapolitan poet, 1509-1575. ROTA, J. B., an Italian historian, died 178 ROTA, M., an Italian designer, 16th centir. ROTA, M. A., a Venetian physician, 1589-^ ROTA, V, an Italian dramatist, 1703- 178i ROTARI, Piero, Count, painter to the of St. Petersburg, born at Verona 1707, died ROTGANS, ., a Dutch poet, 1645-1710. ROTHARIS, king of the Lombards, 636-6 ROTHELIN, C. D'Orleans De, a Fr. and man of letters, m. of the Academy, 1691- ROTHENBOURG, Fr. Rodolph, Count a Prussian general and diplomatist, 1710-17f ROTHENHAMER, or ROTTENHAMEJ a painter of Munich, style of Tintoret, 1564- ROTHERAM, John, rector of Houghfo; Spring, author of an ' Apology for the Athar^ Creed,' and of a much valued treatise on the trine of Justification by Faith,' died 1788. ROTHERAM, John, an English phw and writer on ' The Properties of Water,' d. ROTHSCHILD, Mayer Anselm, fount* the house by which the financial operatic* Europe have been controlled since the corona ment of the present century, was a nat; Frankfort. He was educated for the priest but preferring the profession of a banker, ac great credit and wealth at the period of Nap occupation in Germany. Died 1812. ROTHSCHILD, Nathan Mayer, son preceding, and agent for his father in Li came to this country in 1800, and by the ex his loan operations acquired immense influfr a contractor in that branch of public credi died in 1836, and was succeeded by his elde the present Baron Rothschild. ROTROU, J. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1609-^ ROTTENHAMER. See Rothenhami ROTTECT, Charles Von, a native of successively professor of history, and prof politics and jurisprudence, in the universit native city, author of numerous works disting. his name throughout Europe, 17751 ROU BANE, B. G., a Russian author, 173 ROUBAUD, Peter Joseph Andi French economist and grammarian, 1730- -1 062 ROU ROUBILIAC, L. F., a French sculptor, known by several of his works in this country, 1725-1762. ROUBIN, Giles De, a French poet, died 1712. ROUCHER, J. A., a French poet, 1745-1794. ROUELLE, Wm. Francis, professor of chem- stry to the Garden of Plants at Paris, 1703-1770. brother, H. Marian us, a chemist, 1718-79. ROUGEMONT, F., a native of Maestricht, kn. s a Chinese missionary and scholar, 1624-1676. ROUGET DE LISLE, Joseph, the writer and mposer of the Marseillaise, was a French officer f artillery, born at Lons-le-Saunier, among the lura mountains, 1760. In the winter of 1791- [792 he was in garrison at Strasburg, and is aid to have passed most of his leisure at the house f the mayor of that city, where his skill on he clavicord and his social qualities made him a relcome visitor. It was here the Republican lymn was first composed and sung, at that parti- alar juncture when the king's veto had stultified very act of the first constitutional parliament, and le country was threatened with the invasion of the migrants and their German allies. The re- blance between this marching song and Burns's -cots wha hae wi' Wallace bled,' is most striking, d it would be difficult to believe that the one had suggested the other if Lamartine had not given somewhat romantic account of the manner of its position, which precludes the idea. The song just become known when the departments preparing to obey the call of Paris for a body j 20,000 patriot troops, and the band from Mar- f^ illes were the first to chant its threatening ,i, easures as they traversed France ; it afterwards b ;J; ade the round of Europe, and the footfall of " apoleon's troops as they scaled the Alps kept 'j ne to its wild notes. Rouget de Lisle's kind l!,i st was accompanied to the scaffold by this song, , d the composer himself only escaped by the fall Robespierre. He found no favour with succeed- f I governments, but carried his republican prin- J )les into private life and pursued the career of a u \ 1 ical composer and author. Died 1836. [E.R.] f ROUGNON, N. F., a Fr. physician, 1727-1790. r < -1 ROUILLE, P. J., a French Jesuit, 1681-1740. ROUS, or ROUSE, Francis, a native of Corn- rS ill, distinguished for his zeal as a republican and c :> ;mber of Cromwell's privy council, 1579-1659. - r r ROUSE, or ROSS, John. See Ross. T A ROUSSEAU, J., a French painter, 1630-1693. M ROUSSEAU, Jean Baptiste, a dramatic M thor, and the most eminent of the lyric poets, ra at Paris of humble parentage 1670, died 1741. * ROUSSEAU, Jean Francois Xavier, of the tit' ne family as the celebrated philosopher (follow- tb' ; article), a man of letters, and consul in Persia, in* 18-1808. His son, J. B. L. Xavier, consul at <* ?ppo, Bagdad, and Tripoli, 1781-1831. i 5 4PW)USSEAU, Jean Jacques, son of a watch- ker at Geneva, was born there on the 28th of e, 1712. The first half of the extraordinary of this extraordinary man, occupying thirty- itivei ee years, was spent in a succession of adven- 8, making the most painfully interesting part of record he has himself bequeathed to us, a re- exhibiting a hardy daring of self-inquisition, i (as he justly says) no other man ever ven- to communicate to the world. The history of period in Rousseau's career was not only quite ROU unproductive of literary promise, but would have appeared to forebode little or nothing either of moral worth or of intellectual achievement in any path. After learning something in a village school, he began life as the apprentice of an engraver ; and, on being harshly treated, he became addicted to idle- ness, lying, and stealing. At length he ran away into Savoy, and, giving hopes of his conversion to Catholicism, was received into an ecclesiastical school at Turin, where he read his recantation, but refused to prosecute his education for the priesthood. Being dismissed, he became a do- mestic servant: in one of his places he com- mitted a theft, and charged a waiting-maid with it ; from another he was dismissed for insolent in- subordination. Now, when he was in his eighteenth year, he was received by Madame De VVarens, a Swiss lady, residing at Annecy, and after- wards at Chambery. His patroness sheltered him in her house for ten years, pardoned him for two elopements, induced him to study French wri- ters, and supported him even when he disdained to retain employments which she more than once procured for him. The shameful issue is too well known. In 1741 he walked to Paris, having in his pocket fifteen louis, and a new scheme of musi- cal notation, which was at once condemned by the musicians. He found his way, it is not clear how, into the society of men of science and letters, such as Marivaux, Fontenelle, and Diderot ; and in 1743 friends obtained a place for him as a kind of secretary or clerk to the French ambassador at Venice. There he spent nearly two years, with no ap- parent improvement of morality, and with as little evidence of devotion to anv pursuit either profit- able or honourable. His dismissal by his master, and his return to France, closed his long period of aimless wandering. Rousseau came to Paris in 1745. Hiring a room in an obscure lodging-house, the strange man conceived a liking for the ser- vant-maid, The"rese Levasseur, a vulgar, unattrac- tive, and dull young woman of twenty-four. He took her to live with him as his mistress, and married her twenty years afterwards ; the attach- ment of the fantastic dreamer to her was only strengthened by time; and TheYese and her mother not only preyed on his narrow means, but aggra- vated his suspicious temper, and were continual mischief-makers between his friends and him. Five children born to the pair were coolly de- posited in the Foundling Hospital; and their father appeared to receive with profound indiffer- ence the failure of an attempt which some of his patrons made to identify and recover them. In the year of his arrival in Paris, after an unsuccess- ful attempt at the composition of operatic music, Rousseau found a place as a clerk in the employ- ment of a farmer-general, whose wife had laughed at him for making love to her some years before. About 1748 Diderot and D'Alembert engaged him to write musical articles for the Encyclopedic, which, as he said himself, he executed very quickly and very ill. He had great musical genius, but is pronounced to have never acquired more than a very middling knowledge of the science. Soon afterwards, being thirty-seven years old. he made the first attempt in authorship that indicated any true vocation for the pursuit. He read in a news- paper a prize-question proposed by the Academy CC3 ROU of Dijon : ' Has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to the corruption or to the purifi- cation of morals ? ' It seemed to him as if a new world of thought had revealed itself to his mind ; he dashed off a vehement denunciation of civilized life, sent it in, and obtained the prize. His in- distinct visions soon began to assume shape and colour. He was, it is true, little qualified, either by knowledge of history, or by exact philosophical habits, for working out true results in the problem of social progress : but his meditations brooded eagerly over the task ; his impregnable self-confidence satisfied him that he was able to perform it, and the power of passionate eloquence which lurked within, soon enabled him to impress the world marvel- lously with the representation he gave of his irregu- lar conceptions. Rousseau was not great, either as a poet or as a philosopher ; but he possessed, in an extraordinary degree, and with a felicitous proportion of the elements, that union of the two characters, which seems to be more powerful than anything else in commanding the sympathy and guiding the opinions of the world. In the works which he composed after the date now in question, he exercised this power with a success which no writer has ever surpassed. Meanwhile, however, he saw his way but dimly. His musical reputation was raised by the success of his opera, ' Le Devin du Village ;' and he wrote also a tragedy and three comedies, all of little worth. A second, but less successful prize-essay, ' On the Origin of Inequal- ity among Mankind, developed further his politi- cal speculations. He dedicated it to the magis- trates of his native town, visited Geneva, was full of republican enthusiasm, and professed himself again a Calvinist. And here it is worth while to notice, that, so far as any fixed opinions can be attributed to such a mind, Rousseau was never either atheist or deist: he was a desponding sceptic, who felt himself compelled to reverence the mor- ality of Scripture, little as he obeyed it in his life. He had now given up his clerkship for a govern- ment appointment, which he immediately resigned in a panic ; and henceforth, for a long time, his very narrow income was chiefly made up by copy- ing music, in which his friends employed him as a delicate way of giving aid to a proud man. In 1756 he accepted the invitation of Madame D'Epi- nay to take up his residence on her estate, in the valley of Montmorenci, at the retired country house called L'Hermitage. There he composed some of his most brilliantly eloquent writings. His touch- ing but veiy equivocal novel, ' La Nouvelle Eloise,' appeared in 1759 ; ' Emile,' an acute but chimeri- cal treatise on education, published in 1762, was condemned with reason, both by the archbishop and the parliament of Paris. Immediately after- wards, the ' Contrat Social,' the most systematic exposition of his dream of social equality, was re- ceived with still more serious disapprobation by the government, and Rousseau found it wise to take refuge in Switzerland. Thence, passing secretly through Paris, he departed for England in January, 1766, on the kindly invitation, and in the company, of David Hume, who found a friendly home for him at Wootton, in Derbyshire. There he wrote the first six books of his extraordinary 4 Confessions,' published after his death. If Rous- seau was sane before, he certainly was not so now : ROV his zealous and suspicious temper had becoi aggravated into a monomania ; he treated be Hume and his Derbyshire host with ungrate abuse, and quitted England in May, 1767. Afl a time of wandering through France, he w allowed to return to Paris in 1770, with a cauti to shun publicity, which he took a pride in setti at defiance His literary activity had now ceast He mixed much in society, though he had forme: been shy to excess. But his rudeness of manne and suspicious testiness, were worse than ev( and his despondency seemed often to pass h despair. His health was failing, and his pove: becoming severe. The marquis De Girardin offei him, as his residence, a pavilion in the beauti grounds of his chateau of Ermenonville, n Chantilly. There, after inhabiting it for a i weeks, he died on the 3d of July, 1778. [W. [Tomb oi J.J. Rousseau j ROUSSEAU, J. L. C, a Ger. chemist, 172 ROUSSEAU, P., a French writer, 1725-1; ROUSSEAU, S., an Orientalist, died 1820 ROUSSEAU-DE-RIMOGNE, Jean Loi Flemish mineralogist, 1720-1788. ROUSSEL, P., a Fr. physician, au. of Sys Physique et Morale de la Femme,' 1742-1802 ROUSSEL, P. J. A, a Fr. writer, 1750-11 ROUSSEL, W., a French savant, 1658-17! ROUSTAN, A. J., a theologian and contn sial writer of Geneva, 1734-1808. ROUTH, B., an Irish Jesuit, confessor t Princess Charlotte of Lorraine, 1695-1768. ROUX, A., a French physician, 1726-177* ROUYER, C. M., a French jurist, 1745-lt ROVERE, Della, a noble family of Sa in the state of Genoa, two of whom were (Julius II. and Sixtus IV.) The other prm members are John, nephew of Sixtus IV. I brother of Julius II., prsefect of Rome 1475. F l cesco Makia, son of John, duke of Urbin< general of Julius II., in whose interest heJ quered Romagna and Ferrara. He was den of his estates by Leo X. 1516, and recovered 1 on the death of that pontiff 1522, died of i jj 1538. Guido, his son and successor, a debal and cruel character, died 1574. Fran* < Maria, last duke of Urbino, an accompJ writer and patron of letters, 1551-1631 B Ubaldo, son of the latter, was a dissolutel racter, and died 1623. 664 CM J ^Jyrrd' /A'6a#y?n^ _ -^ _'/ ROV ROVE RE, J. S., a character of the French volution, who acted as lieutenant of the infamous Jourdan Coupe Tete,' 1748-1798. ROVIGO. See Savary. ROVIRA DE BROCANDEL, Hippolytus, a panish painter, taught by E. Munoz, 1593-1675. ROWE, Elizabeth, known as a moralist and ligious writer, was the daughter of a dissenting inister named Singer, and was born at Uchester, Somersetshire, 1674. In 1709 she became the ife of Thomas Rowe, who died in 1715. He rote some poetical pieces, and a supplement to utarch's Lives. Mrs. Rowe then distinguished rself by publishing, in 1728, ' Friendship in jath, in Twenty Letters from the Dead to the ving,' and soon afterwards ' Letters, Moral and itertaining, in Prose and Verse,' and ' The His- y of Joseph,' a poem. She died in 1737, and p years later Dr. Watts published her ' Devout ;erases of the Heart.' ROWE, Nicholas, a poet and dramatic writer considerable eminence, was born at Little Brook- d in Bedfordshire, in 1 673. His father, descended im an ancient family of that county, was serjeant- hw, and having educated his son for the same rfession, the latter was called to the bar ; he paid tie attention to the law, however, after the death his father, but rather devoted himself to the culti- fcion of polite literature. He published his first gedy ' The Ambitious Stepmother,' at the age of enty-four ; it was followed by ' Tamerlane,' in- lded as a compliment to King William ; ' The Fair nitent ;' ' The Biker ;' ' Ulysses ;' ' The Royal nvent ;' ' Jane Shore ;' and ' Lady Jane Grey.' } original poems consist of some pathetic ballads: '. version of Lucan's 'Pharsalia' is esteemed a : sterpiece, but it is not his only classical produc- I n, as he also translated ' The Golden Verses of j thagoras,' and the first book of ' Quillet's Cal- Jedia.' He also wrote a Life of Shakspeare. iwe became under secretary to the duke of eensbery, when the latter was secretary of state, j 1 on the accession of George I. he was appointed ] it-laureate. Died 1718. 'OWE, Thomas, a nonconformist minister, s ;hor of ' The Christian's Work,' died about " .5. See Elizabeth Rowe (above). ROWLANDS, H., a Welch antiquary, d. 1722. *OWLANDSON, Thomas, a famous carica- 1 ist of London, well known by his ' Illustrations lhe Tour of Dr. Syntax,' the ' Dance of Death,' L the ' Dance of Life,' 1756-1827. JO W LEY. See Chatterton. IOWLEY, William, a dramatic writer and w, of the age of Queen Elizabeth. IOWLEY, W., an Eng. physician, 1743-1806. OWNING, J., an Eng. divine, au. of ' A Com- Udious System of Natural Philos.,' 1699-1771. IOXANA, a Persian lady of great beauty, who 1 ame the wife of Alexander the Great, and was j to death by Cassandra, B.C. 311. ROXBURGH, William, a Scottish physician 1 botanist, superintendent of the botanic garden Calcutta, autlior of a valuable work descriptive the flora of India, and a great promoter of 1 lian agriculture, 1759-1815. JOY, Count, a French statesman, 1764-1847. iOY, Julian David Le, son of a celebrated Comaker, distinguished as an architect and RUB antiquarian, 1724-1803. Peter, his brother, a watch and chronometer maker, and writer on those subjects, died 1785. , ROY, P. C, a French satiric poet, 1683-1764. ROYE, F. De, a French jurist, died 1686. ROYE, Guy De, archbishop of Rheims, and partizan of the popes of Avignon, killed 1409. ROYEN, A. Van, a Dutch botanist, 1705-79. ROYER, J. N. P., a Fr. musician, 1705-1755. ROYER-COLLARD, Ant. Athanasius, prof, of medicine to the faculty of Paris, 1768-1825. ROYER-COLLARD, Pierre Paul, one of the select class of philosophical thinkers produced by France since the era of the Revolution, was born at Sompuis, near Vitry-le-Francais, 1763, and in 1789, when the Revolution commenced, was only obscurely known as an advocate of the parliament of Paris. In political sentiments he was a royalist and a friend of popular freedom ; in philosophy he became a disciple of Reid, and one of the first to lead the reaction against the mere sensationalism of Cabanis and Condillac. From the end of the Terror till 1810, however, Royer-Collard was more active as a politician ; especially as a member of the council established in France by Louis XVIII. , consisting of himself, and Clermont Gallerande, the Abbe de Montesquiou, Becquey, Cuvier, and others. Most of this period he was, according to the prevailing fashion, a sensualist, but the works of Reid were destined to enlighten him ; and, from 1811, when he was appointed professor of modern philosophy and history, he commenced reforming his opinions, and as he possessed great power as a logician and an orator, he soon began to be looked upon as the founder of a new school. On the restoration of the royal family, in 1815, Royer- Collard returned to political life, and his famous scholar, Victor Cousin, succeeded him as professor at the Sorbonne : he now joined the parliamentary opposition, and such was the reputation he enjoyed that, at the general election of 1827, he was returned for seven different places at the same time. The party in the chamber of representa- tives of which he was considered chief, is known to European fame as that of the doctrinaires, and its birth dates from the session of 1817 ; its history is marked by much philosophical pedantry, and its deficiency in momentum was shown by the helpless situation in which Guizot found himself at the revolution of 1848. What is the value, read by this light, of such namby-pamby dilletanteism in philosophy and politics as eclecticism signifies? Royer-Collard had the happiness to die, without reading that severe lesson, m 1845. [E.R.] ROYOU, T. M., a French ecclesiastic and jour- nalist, founder of the ' Ami du Roi ' in 1790, 1741- 1792. His brother, J. Corentin, a royalist, his- torian, and publicist, 1745-1828. ROZCE, Mademoiselle, a Dutch lady, re- markable for her skill in copying historical pic- tures solely with silk floss, 1632-1682. ROZIER, J., a French agriculturist, 1734-1793. RUAR, M., a German Socinian, 1588-1657. RUAULT, J., a French savant, 1580-1636. RUBBI, A., a Venetian poet, 1739-1810. RUBENS, Albert, son of the great painter, disting. as a savant and numismatist, 1614-1657. RUBENS, Peter Paul, was born at Cologne, June 29, 1577, where he remained with his parents, RUB natives of Antwerp, until his father's death in 1587, when he removed with his mother to Antwerp. After receiving some preliminary instruction from two other masters Rubens was finally placed with Otto Venius, the most celebrated master of his time at Antwerp ; he remained with Venius for four years, until 1600, when he went to Italy and entered the service of Vincenzio Gonzaga, as gen- tleman of the chamber, and copied several pictures for that duke, both at Rome and Venice. In 1605 he was sent by the duke on a mission to Philip III. of Spain, and while at Madrid, as previously at Rome, he was much occupied in portrait painting, but it is remarkable what a contrast the delicate and elaborately finished portraits of this early period, present, when compared with the bold masterpieces of his later years. This travelling, however, from one country to another, and thus early making himself acquainted with the various schools, was evidently of infinite advantage to him ; the glorious works of the Venetians seem to have made the most lasting impression on him. His return home was hastened by the illness of his [House of Rubens.] mother in 1608, but he did not arrive at Antwerp until after her death. The appointment of court painter to Albert and Isabella, in the following year, induced Rubens to give up his intention of return- ing to Mantua, and he decided upon settling at Antwerp. In 1610 he was married to his first wife, Isabella Brants, who died in 1626. In 1620 he visited Paris, by the invitation of Marie de Medici, and made there the sketches for his cele- brated Luxembourg series of painting in honour of that princess, and her marriage with Henry IV., now in the Louvre. In 1628 he was sent by the Infanta Isabella a second time to Spain, on a diplomatic mission to Philip IV., and in the fol- lowing year on a similar mission to Charles I. of England, who knighted Rubens in 1630, who appears to have presented the king with the picture of Peace and War, now in the National Gallery, on the occasion of this mission, when also Charles gave him the commission to decorate the ceiling of Whitehall palace, the pictures for which were after- wards executed in Antwerp. In 1630, also, he RUP married his second wife, Helena Forment, a beanti ful girl, in her nineteenth year only. Rubena^M at Antwerp, May 30, 1640, possessed of flH wealth, ana after one of the most remarkm careers recorded in the history of art. His sucMil was, however, only commensurate with his abilit ' 'He was perhaps the greatest master,' sayjM Joshua Reynolds, 'in the mechanical part of the a | the best workman with his tools, that ever exercB I a pencil.' His works are extremely numerotuwl prints alone after him amount to about 1,200 ; b I the majority of his pictures were chiefly execfll in large from his own sketches, and finished only! I himself; it is a physical impossibility that he a I have executed entirely all the pictures that II accredited to him. His pupils were able numerous, the principal were A. Vandyck, A. ml Diepenbeck, J. Van Hoeck, F. Van Thulden, 1 Sogers, Jordaens, Snyders, and Erasmus Quelfil He is still seen to the utmost advantage &^^| werp, but he is also gloriously represented in t Picture Gallery at Munich. His masterpiece I generally considered the Descent from the Cr^H the cathedral at Antwerp, but now sadly obscjfll there is, however, a fine old print of it by Lu< ' Vorsterman. (Grimbergen, Historische ^fjj^H schryving van P. P. Rubens, 1774-1840 ; n^H Peter Paul Rubens, his Life and Genius, tra^H R. R. Nael, edited by Mrs. Jameson, Le^H 1840.) ! II.X.V RUBENS. See Rossi, Girolamo. RUBINI, P., an Italian physician, 1760-181!: RUBYS, C. De, a French historian, 1533-16: RUCELLAI, Bernardo, in Latin Orice/laril a Florentine historian and diplomatist, 1449-15! His son, Giovanni, a poet and ambas., 1475-15! ' RUCHAT, A., a French theologian, 1680-17H RUDBECK, John, a Swedish prelate, chapl; ; of Gustavus Adolphus, and promoter of the pt ' lication of the Bible, called by his name, |W| 1636. Olof, his son, a learned physician, boi nist, and mechanician, 1630-1702. Olof, son , the latter, a botanist and philologist, 1660-^H RUDBORNE, Thomas, warden and archit \ of Merton College, Oxford, died about 1442. . RUDDIMAN, Thomas, a Scottish grammar and critic, editor of a complete and valuable edit of the works of Buchanan, 1674-1757. RUDENSCHOELD, Count, a Swedish ? man, who negotiated the marriage of the prb i royal of Sweden with the sister of the king ; Prussia in 1739, and was afterwards minister foreign affairs and chancellor, 1698-1783. RUDING, Rogers, an English divine, authoi i ] ' Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain,' 1 751-18 1 1 RUDOLPH, C. A., a Swed. natural., 1771-18 RUE, Charles De La, a learned Frem poet, and classical editor, 1643-1725. RUE, Charles De La, a learned Benedict] of the congregation of St. Maur, editor of an ey tion of Origen, which was finished by his n^H 1684-1739. The latter, Vincent De I also a learned Benedictine, died 1762. RUE, P. De La, a Dutch poet, 17th cent** RUFFHEAD, Owen, a miscellaneoi author of a ' Life of Pope,' &c, 1723-1769. RUFFI, Anthony De, a Frencli 1 historian, 1607-1089. His son. L. A: known as a man of letters, 1657-1724. 666 RUF RUFFINI, P., an Ital. mathemat., 1765-1822. RUFFO, D. F., a cardinal of Naples, 1744-1827. RUFINUS, or RUFFINAS, sometimes called the surname Toranius, a celebrated Italian jlesiastic and Scripture commentator, born at juileia about the middle of the 4th century. He braced the monastic life about 371, and accom- nied St. Jerome to the East; that father, how- r, afterwards wrote against him on account of apology for Origen. In 410 he was condemned a heretic by Anastasius, and soon after was ven to take refuge in Sicily by an irruption of Visigoths, where he died either that year or following. Besides his original works, he nslated from the Greek into Latin the works of jephus, Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, the ignitions of St. Clement, and the works of sil and Gregory Nazianzen. UFUS, surnamed ' the Ephesian/ a Greek rsician and poet of the 1st century B.C. iUFUS, Caius Musonius, a Stoic philosopher, nguished at Rome in the age of Tiberius. iUFUS, Publius Rutilius, consul and tri- of Rome, time of Sylla. IUGENDAS, G. P., a Ger. painter, 1666-1742. WGGIERI, C, an Ital. astrologer, 16th cent. UGGIERI, C., an Ital. philologist, 1714-1766. UGGLE, G., an Eng. dramatist, 1575-1622. UHL, Philip James, a member of the French rention, killed himself 1795. UHNKEN, D., a Greek critic, 1723-1798. fcfcUHS, F., a Gorman historian, 1780-1820. [tUINART THIERRY, a Benedictine of St. ilpr, distinguished as an ecclesiastical antiquar- H1657-1709. (ifUISDAEL, Jacob. This celebrated Dutch filter was born at Haarlem about 1635, and died 111, and was originally educated for the medical jitession. With whom he studied painting is not xrwn. His landscapes are numerous, and are all Wlnguished for a simple natural treatment, and secluded, rugged scenery ; generally of a cold * sombre character, but executed with great Juracy and selected with a true appreciation of picturesque, of that character generally desig- d the romantic; they are further distinguished fffheir ordinary daylight, in contradistinction to kanny effects of Cuyp or Berghem. Ruisdael's gfe has much of the character of the works of flper Poussin and Salvator Rosa in colour and Krai effect, but is distinguished from the works nese great painters by a much more elaborate bjtment of detail, and the chief portion of the aire by the special prominence of the fore- jflnds generally with RuisdaeL The peculiar ileryhe represents rocky, and yet on a small to i, reminds much more of the neighbourhood of tl Ardennes, than of Italy or Switzerland, both ol hich countries he is supposed to have visited, jTery improbably ; his favourite subjects are iApdes. He sometimes painted marine pieces, wwith great success ; figures he never painted, 9b we find in his landscapes were introduced fp by Ostade, Wouverman, A. Vandevelde, or tthem. His brother, Solomon Ruisdael, was M a good landscape painter, and being many Wb older than Jacob, was probably his instructor lie art; some of the pictures attributed to J#b may belong to Solomon, as considering his RUP moderately short life, the pictures of Ruisdael are very numerous ; he also etched a few plates. (Houbraken, Groote Schonburgh der Nederlantsche Konstschilders, &c. Amsterdam, 1721.) [R.N.W.] RUIS-GONZALEZ, a Sp. painter, 1633-1709. RULHIERE, Claude Carloman De, a French historian, who acted as confidential secretary to the baron de Bretuil, and accompanied him in his embassage to Russia, author of historical works concerning the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the Revolution in Russia 1762, and the Assembly of Poland, 1735-1791. RULMAN, Anne, a French jurist, 1583-1639. RUMFORD. Benjamin Thompson, commonly called Count Rumford, one of those practical geniuses and indefatigable workers in the cause of humanity by whom society will be carried to a far higher perfection than we know at present, was born at Rumford in New Hampshire, now Con- cord, 1753. He was married to a rich widow at nineteen, and had risen to some consequence when the American revolution broke out, but being a royalist was obliged to fly, and his wife soon after died in childbed. In 1776 he brought the news of Washington's success to the English court, and for his services to the crown received an appoint- ment in the foreign office ; this, however, he aban- doned in 1782 to take up arms in the colony, where he organized a troop of dragoons, and com- manded them himself with the rank of colonel. At the peace in 1784 Colonel Thompson received the king's permission to enter into the service of the king of Bavaria, and not only so, but was knighted on the occasion, and had half his military pay secured to him. In this service he rose step by step till the administration of the kingdom was in his hands, and he made such use of his power and influence that the face of things was entirely changed, and the country rescued from the abyss of squalid poverty into which it was sinking. It was for these services that he received among other honours the title of count taken from his native place. In 1802 he married the widow of Lavoisier, and afterwards lived at Auteiul, near Paris, devoted to researches in natural philosophy. Died 1814. [E.R.] RUMPH, G. E., a German botanist, 1626-1693. RUNCIMAN, Alexander, a Scottish painter of subjects from Ossian, 1736-1785. RUNEBERG, Ephraim Otto, a Swedish sur- veyor, mapmaker, and engineer, 1722-1770. RUNG, P., an English biographer, 1750-1823. RUNIUS, J., a Swedish poet, 1679-1713. RUNJEET-SING. See Singh. RUNNINGTON, Charles, an industrious writer on law, editor of several standard works, born in Hertfordshire 1751, died 1821. RUPERT, a Flemish abbot, 1091-1135. RUPERT, Prince, otherwise Prince Robert of Bavaria, a distinguished name in the history of Charles I., was the third son of Frederic V., elector palatine of the Rhine, by the princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter of James I., king of England. He was born in 1619, and though hardly of age at the commencement of the parliamentary wars, he offered his services to his uncle, who naturalized him, and advanced him to the dignity of a peer of England, and knight of the Garter. He exhibited littte prudence in his conduct of military opera- C67 RUP tions, but was remarkable for his impetuous gal- lantry and chivalrous bearing. He was in all the principal actions with the parliamentary forces, and led the charge at the battle of Naseoy : soon after which he surrendered Bristol to General Fairfax, with little show of defence. For this luckless step the king hastily dismissed him his service, and ordered him beyond seas, and Rupert had no further share in events till the disaffection of part of the English navy in 1648, of which he took the command in the interest of Charles II. With these ships he harassed the English trade, until Admiral Blake compelled him to retire from the English seas, and he lost many of them by shipwreck. He was subsequently at the French court with Charles II., and after the restoration distinguisbed himself as naval commander in the Dutch war against De Ruyter and Van Tromp His successes again were rather the reward of his daring courage than good management. They were such, however, as fully sustained the repu- tation won by the British navy under the great admiral whose outraged ashes were now reposing in St. Margaret's churchyard. Prince Rupert retired from warlike enterprise after the second Dutch war, 1672-4, and devoted his time to scien- tific pursuits, which had always indeed occupied his leisure. Chemistry and the arts were his favourite studies, and the composition of the well- known ' prince's metal,' is said to have been dis- covered by him. Died 1682. [E.R.J RUPPRECHT, F. C, a painter, engraver, and architect of Bavaria, 1779-1831. RUSBROCK, or RUYSBROECK, Jean, a cele- brated mystic writer, founder and reformer of the monastery of Groendal, au. of De Nuptiis, or Spiri- tual Marriage, and several other works, 1294-1381. RUSCA, E., an Italian physician, 1801-1834. RUSCA, F. D., a French general, 1761-1813. RUSCELLI, J., an Italian savant, died 1566. RUSH, Benjamin, an American physician and writer on the yellow fever, 1745-1813. RUSHTON, E., a catholic writer, 1572-1586. RUSHWORTH, John, secretary of Fairfax, general of the parliamentary forces, distinguished for his valuable historical compilations connected with the period, 1607-1690. RUSSEL, A., a Scotch physician, 1726-1805. RUSSEL, G., a divine and poet, 1728-1767. RUSSEL, W., a miscellaneous and historical writer, born in Mid-Lothian 1746, died 1793. RUSSELL, a noble family which has given several illustrious names to English history. The first of any note is Sir John Russell, "speaker of the House of Commons in the reign of Henry VI., and companion-in-arms of Henry VIII. in his French wars. He was created earl of Bedford, and enriched with the lands of the abbey of Tavistock and the monastery of Wobum ; died 1555. Wil- liam, fourth earl, and first duke of Bedford, was made a knight of the Bath at the coronation of Charles L, and became a member of the ' long parliament ' which met in November, 1640. At the battle of Edgehill 1642, he was general of horse for the parliament, but soon after that event he retired to private life, and appeared again at the restoration, when Charles II. created him a knight of the Garter. He survived to be present at the coronation of William and Mary, who created him RUT (1694) marquis of Tavistock and duke of Bedfifl[ died 1700. Lord William Russi;LL,secondaoi] of the preceding (next article.) Edward, cot|] of duke William, and earl of Orford, an ada^E distinguished at Cape la Hogue, 1651-B^B John, duke of Bedford, lord-lieutenant of IreuH ambassador to France 1762-3, died 1771. Fbai cis, son of the latter, and his successor in S] dukedom, chiefly distinguished as a patron of agri culture, 1765-1802. RUSSELL, Lord William, second son of th fourth earl of Bedford, was, according to the III graphy written by his descendant, born on ttj^H of September, 1639. His wife, the worthy parti^H tor in his fame, to whom he was married in 1661 (j was a daughter of the earl of Southampton, an 1 the widow of Lord Vaughan. He was not a m3| brilliant qualifications, his temper and habits MM to have been adapted more to domestic repose tjfci public life, and a strong sense of duty appears jH to have caused his memorable connection with tl I history of the reign of Charles II. He was set! ously listened to in the House of Comma^^H he acquired as much influence there as it waa^H haps possible for one independent man to ha^H an assembly so little influenced as it then was 1 1 the spirit which has usually guided the parliament t] England. It is a question in historical critical j whether reliance ougnt to be placed on the documec |1 which show that many distinguished mei the opposition were bribed by the king of Frant I but it is worthy of remark that Russell's nail does not appear in the list. The explosion of t II Ryehouse plot, his trial and fate, are important nu 1 1 [The Rye House.] ters of history. Contemporary with the pi for rescuing the constitution, there was an SH plot for the assassination of the king and his I ther, with which certainly Russell was not c j cerned, though he had some intercourse contrivers. Yet it can hardly be said that | not intend to take up arms against the power, and that his fate, presuming that po? be a legitimate one, was a stretch of the law. merit, in fact, consisted in, after serious and i consideration, resorting to resistance as better t 668 RUS [bmission to a government which had invaded the institution. And though he himself bore the pen- ty of the unsuccessful revolter, the country reaped [e fruits of his martyrdom in the revolution. He ks beheaded on the 21st July, 1683. [J.H.B.] IRUSSELL, Lady Rachel, distinguished by jr magnanimity at the trial of Lord William hssell, became his wife in 1667, and survived pi forty years. She is known to literature by jr mucli-admired ' Letters.' Died 1723. IRUSSELL, Michael, bishop of Glasgow and klloway, author of 'The Connection of Sacred Id Profane Histories,' and a contributor to the hcyclopajdia Metropolitana, 1781-1848. RUSSELL, William. See Russel. [RUST, George, a learned prelate, died 1670. KUSTICI, J. F., an Italian sculptor, died 1540. [RUTGERS, John, a Dutch critic, 1589-1625. IRUTHARD, C, a Dutch painter, 17th century. RUTHERFORD, Daniel, a Scottish physician jd professor of botany, Edinburgh, 1749-1819. KUTHERFORD, J., a Sc. physician, 1695-1779. RUTHERFORD, Sam., a dist. Scotch divine of A 17th ct., professor of divinity in New College, I Andrews, auth. of several controversial works. JRUTHERFORTH, Thomas, professor of divi- m at Cambridge, author of a ' System of Natural Klosophy,' a ' Discourse on Miracles,' and other Hcs, 1712-1771. IpUTHVEN, William, earl of Gowrie, a Scot- m nobleman, whose name is famous in history as fqef of the conspiracy formed in the reign of Ikes VI., with the view of compelling that march to expel the duke of Lennox and the earl l&rran from the kingdom. He perished on the Fold in 1584. His sons, John and Alexan- jk, were massacred by the armed followers of Jaes VI., under circumstances which have never Hi satisfactorily cleared up, in 1600. I kUTILIUS LUPUS, a rhetorician, 1st century. HJTILIUS NUMATIANUS, Claudius, a rave of Gaul, known as a Latin poet, and prae- |ft of Rome under Honorius, 5th century. KUTLEDGE, James, an English writer, who Hit to Paris and died there in prison, 1796. j KUTLEDGE, J., governor of South Carolina, Hi promoter of American independence, d. 1800. IKUTTZ, J., an Irish physician, 1698-1775. kUVIGNY, H. De, a Fr. general, 1647-1720. kUYSCH, Frederic, M.D., F.R.S., a famous |Itch anatomist, born at the Hague, 23d March, n|8, and died in 1731 at the great age of ninety- frtke. He was an ingenious and indefatigable anato- Mt, and having discovered a method of arresting mdecay of animal bodies by the use of a peculiar tt of injection, he collected a museum which for Mbeauty of the preparations was one of the won- 3 of the world. It was sold, in 1698, to the czar and was transported to St. Petersburgh. i age of eighty, Ruysch collected and arranged but the secret which he possessed died i him, and is no longer known ; though it is now that the antiseptic element employed by ras arsenic [J.M'C.J HER. Michael, a famous Dutch admiral period of the English commonwealth, was at Flushing in 1607, and having entered the in boyhood, became captain of a vessel as ~ 16155. His first laurels were won in the RUY West Indian seas, where he was sent to co-operato with the Portuguese hi opposition to the Spaniards, with whom the rising Dutch republic was now fighting the battle of their independence. These achievements, and his operations on the coast of Barbary, date from 1641 to about 1650, and such was the courage of Ruyter that, on one occasion, he entered the roadstead of Sall6e in a single ship, when the passage was disputed by five Algerine corsairs of large size. The action was witnessed by the inhabitants of the city, who placed Ruyter on a finely caparisoned horse, and conducted him in triumph through the streets, with the com- manders he had defeated led in sullen captivity. In 1652, when the war broke out between the English, and Dutch republic, Ruyter was appointed to the command of a squadron, ordered to convoy home a rich fleet of merchantmen, and he suc- ceeded in his mission, notwithstanding two days' hard fighting with Sir George Ayscough off Ply- mouth. In October of the same year he was joined by De Witte, and the two commanders con- tended with Blake and Ayscough on the Flemish coast. During the remainder of the war he fought under Van Tromp, and it is difficult to say whether the English or the Dutch most distinguished them- selves in the series of battles fought in the Eng- lish channel : in the action off Folkestone, Ruyter compelled Blake to fly for safety to the Thames. The war lasted two years, and in the final action, near Scheveling, Ruyter and Van Tromp were opposed to the Enghs'h under Monk and Lawson : success declared for the English, and Van Tromp being killed, Ruyter withdrew the wreck of the Dutch navy to the Meuse. The Dutch republic was now reduced to sue for peace; but Ruyter found immediate employment as commander of an expedition to Barbary, and in the recapture of the Dutch establishments on the coast of Africa ; besides which, in 1659, he was sent to aid the king of Denmark, and obtained two victories over the Swedish fleets. In 1665 the commercial rivalry of the two nations induced the English govern- ment, under Charles II., to declare a fresh war with Holland, and Ruyter was matched with varv- ing success against Monk duke of Albemarle, Prince Rupert, Sir G. Ayscough, duke of York, and the earl of Sandwich. In the course of two years several great actions were fought, and then negotiations for peace were entered upon. The preliminaries, however, were foolishly and insin- cerely protracted, and Ruyter taking advantage of the opportunity, sailed up the Thames as far as the Medway, and not only destroyed much ship- ping, but spread consternation as far as London. The peace of Breda, which immediately followed, lasted from 1667 to 1672, when Charles II. wan- tonly provoked fresh hostilities in gratification of the French alliance ; that court having been at war with Holland, and Ruyter actively engaged in it, since 1671. The first great action, between an armament of about 150 vessels on both sides, the Dutch fleet commanded by Ruyter, was fought off Solebay, on the coast of Holland, and again, the English and Dutch seamen dealt terrible de- struction against each other without either side obtaining a decided advantage. Peace was con- cluded between England and Holland in Febru- ary, 1674, and Ruyter was despatched to the RUY Mediterranean to carry on the war with the! French. One object was to relieve Messina, which was occupied by French troops, and guarded by a fleet of thirty sail, under the Ad- miral Duquesne ; the squadron of Ruyter numbered twenty-four sail, but it was reinforced previous to action by four Spanish vessels. These arma- ments encountered each other in desperate conflict off the eastern coast of Sicily, and Ruyter, almost at the beginning of the action, had both his legs shattered; he continued, nevertheless, to direct the battle, till there was no longer any probability of success, and then ordered a retreat into the port of Syracuse, where he died of his wounds on the 26th of April, 1676. [E. R.] RUYVEN, Peter Van, a Dutch painter of history, taught by Jordaens, and occupies high rank among the artists of his country. Many of his his- torical tableaux are in the chateau of St. Loo ; he was employed on the embellishments at the Hague when it was visited by William III., 1650-1718. RUZZINf, a doge of Venice, 1732-1735. RYCKAERT, Martin, a Flemish landscape painter, 1591-1636. David, his son and pupil, famous for his skill in the grotesque, was born 1615, and became director of the academy at Ant- werp 1667, date of his death unknown. RYCKE, J., a Flemish writer, 1587-1627. RYCKEH, T., a Dutch philologist, 1640-1690. RYDELIUS, Andreis, a Swedish theologian and philosopher, 1671-1738. His brother, Mag- nus, professor of history and theology, 1676-1712. SAB RYDER, Sir Dudley, a native of Yorkshire,! born 1691, attorney-general 1736 to 1754, d. 1756., RYFF, James, a Swiss surgeon, 16th century. I RYLAND, J., a baptist minister, died 1792. RYLAND, W. Wynne, an engraver of London, 1 born 1732, executed for forgery 1783. RYMER, Thomas, historiographer royal, and' collector of a vast mass of public documents rela- tive to the history of England and its conne^K with other states, was born in Yorkshire 1638 oi ' 1639, and received his appointment 1692. Thj publication of his collections was commenced ii< 1704, but the greater part remains in MS. at th(! British Museum. Died 1713. RYSBRACH, RYSBRAECH, or RYS -I BRECHTS, John Michael, an eminent l^^H sculptor, 1694-1770. His brother, Peter, A painter, 1657 1716. RYVES, Bruno, a dignitary of the Church o! England, born in Dorsetshire, distinguished as a: historical writer and annalist of the civil wan' died 1677. His relation, Sir Thomas Ryvbs, distmg. civilian, advocate to Charles I., died 1651 RZEWUSKI, Wenceslas, a Polish noblemai and general, who underwent a long imprisonment in Russia for his opposition to the pretensions (I that country. He was remarkable also for his ex tensive knowledge of literature, philosophy, an | the arts, and distinguished himself as a dramati ' author and poet, 1705-1779. His son, Severn I born 1745, has the reputation of being a trait; j to his country, and was hung in effigy 1794, S SAA, Emanuel, a Portug. Jesuit, 1530-1596. SAA DE MIRANDA, Francesco, a Portug. poet, who ranks next to Camoens, 1495-1558. SAAD ED DEEN MOHAMMED, called Khodjah Effendi, a Turkish historian, died 1600. SAADI, a distinguished Persian poet, whose entire works were published in the original Per- sian and Arabic at, Calcutta, 1791. His Gulistan (Garden of Roses) was .translated into English by Gladwin and Ross, and into French by Duryer, D'Aligre, and Gaudin; flourished 1195-1296. SAADIAS GAON, a celebrated rabbin, 892-941. SAARSFIELD, a Spanish general, 1795-1837. SAAS, John, a French bibliographer, 1703-74. SAAVEDRA FAXADRO, Diego De, a Span, histor. and diplomat., b. in Murcia 1584, d. 1648. SABACON, an Ethiopian conqueror, who founded a new dynasty in Egypt, 8th cent. B.C. SABAS, a sectarian of the 3d centurv. SABATEI SEVI, a pretended Messiah of the Jews, born at Smyrna 1625, died in prison 1676. SABATIER, A. H., a Fr. writer, 1726-1806. SABATIER, Antoine, called Sabatier de Cas- tres, from his birth-place, a French writer of the school of Helvetius, author of a Dictionary of Pagan Antiquity, Dictionary of Virtues and Vices, the Three Ages of Fr. Literature, &c, 1742-1817. SABATIER, Peter, otherwise Sabathier, and Sabbathier, author of an edition of all the Latin versions of the Bible, 1682-1742. SABATIER, R. B., a Fr. surgeon, 1732-1811. SABBAGH, Michel, an Orientalist and poet, b. of catholic parents at St. Jean D'Acre, 1784-1816. SABATHIER. See Sabatier. SABBATHIER, F., a Fr. compiler, 1732-180' SAB B ATI, L., an Italian botanist, last cent, j SABBATINI, two Italian painters : Andre Da Salerno, a pupil of Raphael, 1480-154.1 Lorenzino Da Bologna, died 1577. SABBATINI, L. A., an ltal. composer, d. 180' SABELLICUS, M. A., an ltal. hist., 1436-150 i m SABELLIUS, was: a presbyter of Ptoleraais, city in Pentapolis a province of Lybia Cyrenaic and lived about the middle of the third centur , Amidst the metaphysical attempts to explain tl I relation of the Persons in the Trinity, he stnu out a peculiar system. In opposition to the pr valent Alexandrian theology, which taught t! doctrine of subordination, he held that the thr names in the Trinity not only referred to relatioi wholly co-ordinate, but that the epithets Fatln Word, and Spirit, were but the designations I three separate phases or aspects of operations | which the one Divine Essence had chosen to e hibit itself. He thus denied all immanent d:J tinctions in the Godhead. The human and p( j sonal element in Christ was, according to hi , only the fleeting form of a Divine mani; and the Holy Ghost was merely a Divine ener in the hearts of believers. In fact, in his doctrine of personality there is an app Pantheism, and the Arian heresy was its istic product. The heresy of Sabellius was opposed by Dionysius of Alexandria, an ism laid hold of several of the orthodox bisho : extreme expressions. 670 SAB j SABIN, a king of the Bulgarians, 763. I SABINA, Julia, wife of Adrian, by whom she Us compelled to take poison, and died 138. ! SABIN IANUS, pope of Rome, 604-606. SABINUS, Aulus, a Roman poet, 1st century. SABINUS, George, whose proper German kme was Schelten, a Latin poet, 1508-1560. SABINUS, Julius, a Gaulish nobleman, who sumed the title of Caesar during the contest be- een Vespasian and Vitellius, and was executed the year 70. His two children, and his wife, jonina, who had displayed the most unbounded yotion for him, were also put to death. SABLIERE, Antoine Rambouillet De La, IFrench author, died 1680. His wife, Made- biselle Hessein, better known as Madame De L Sabliere, is distinguished by her love for b serious studies and the friendship of La Fon- tae. She died 1693. SABLIERE, C., a Fr. philologist, 1693-1786. 5ABOLI, N., a Provencal poet, 1660-1724. 5ABUNDE, R., a Spanish philosopher, d. 1432. 8ACCHETTI, F., an Ital. novelist, 1335-1410. 5ACCHETTI, G., an Ital. architect, died 1764. JACCHI, three Italian artists : Andrea, a j anguished portrait painter of Rome, 1600-1661. Wrlo, a painter and engraver of Pavia, 1616- lp. Piero Francesco, renowned for his per- be, flourished at Pavia about 1460-1526. tACCHI, J., an Italian musician, 1726-1789. ACCHINI, F., an Italian Jesuit, who con- t ted Orlandino's History of his Order, 1570-1625. ACCHINI, A. M. G., a composer, 1735-1786. ACHEVERELL, Henry, a notorious high c rchman and demagogue of the reign of Queen iie, was born about 1672, at Marlborough, Ire his father was a poor clergyman; and in 1 ) became preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, a le same time that he held the living of Can- nc, in Staffordshire. The Toleration Act of 1' ) had secured the free exercise of their religion tche protestant dissenters, then known under tflthree denominations of Presbyterians, Inde- Ments, and Baptists, but its operation was - ly resisted by such men as Sancroft the pikate, and other conscientious non-jurors, in- flpng the mystic divine William Law, and the ecclesiastical historian. These were m of high principle, who held themselves aloof fr the government they supposed were ruining HH| being content to sacrifice their every preferment in the cause. On the con- < heverell and his party made political tk of the general alarm, and were continually pithing abusive sermons against the Whig gornment and the dissenters. Sacheverell was |^ph brought to trial for two such discourses, IHp he had abused Lord Godolphin, then H treasurer, under the scurrilous name of IHp* We live in times when the miserable Bi of a Sacheverell would only create an hour *Wo's amusement, but it was far otherwise JM; he was seriously impeached, and being iht to trial before the peers, on the 27th of . 1710, he occupied that high court *w a month, and was then condemned to Mnsion for three years, and to have his ser- i burnt by the hangman. The whole country **how inflamed with resentment; Sacheverell SAD was escorted about by processions of horse and foot, the queen was everywhere followed by shouts for Sacheverell, and the dwelling-houses of emi- nent dissenters were shamefully plundered, and no one friendly to them could appear without being abused ; in fine, the general election of the ensuing autumn was so much influenced by this movement, that the Godolphin ministry was overthrown. On the expiration of his sentence, Sacheverell recommenced his incendiary harangues, chiefly, perhaps, to save appearances, and he was presented by the queen, now under Tory influence, and always zealously attached to the Church of England, to the rich living of St. Andrew's, Hol- born. He died in obscure retirement 1724, the last thing recorded of him being a bequest of 500 to Bishop Atterbury, his friend and representative among the prelates. [E.R.] SACHS, Hans, a German poet, 1494-1578. SACI, Louis Isaac De, whose proper name was Lemaistre, a learned Jansenist, 1612-1684. SACKEN, Baron, a Russ. general, 1770-1837. SACKVILLE, George, Viscount, third son of the first duke of Dorset, was born 1716, and was commander of the English and Hanoverian cavalry at the battle of Minden, 1759. Instead of bringing his troops into action when ordered, he was panic- stricken, and his pale looks and want of self-pos- session were marked by the other officers. He was tried by court-martial on the charge of cowardice, and not only dismissed the service, but had his name erased from the list of privy councillors. This man, however, became colonial secretary in the factious times of Lord North from 1775 to 1782, the period of the American war of indepen- dence. Died 1785. The affair of Minden is very fully discussed in the valuable history, now in course of publication, by Lord Mahon. [E.R.J SACROBOSCO. See Holywood. SACROVIRUS, Julius, the principal author and chief of the revolt of the Gauls under Tiberius, defeated at Autun by Silius, and slew himself, 21. SACY. See Saci. SACY, Antoine Isaac Silvestre, Baron De, one of the most universal scholars of our age, and particularly renowned for his Oriental learning, was born at Paris 1758, and occupied the first rank as professor under every form of government in France, from 1795 to the reign of Louis Philippe. He is author of several original works, and of many highly valued translations from the Oriental languages. Died 1838. SACY, Louis De, a Fr. advocate. 1654-1724. SADE, an illustrious Provencal family, one of whose lords is supposed to have been the husband of Petrarch's Laura. This family has given several statesmen and prelates to France since the 14th century. In recent times, two names distinguished in literature : James Francis Paul Alphonso, Marquis De Sade, author of Remarks on the Troubadours, and editor of an edition of Petrarch, 1705-1778. Donatian Alphonso Francis, his nephew, a licentious novelist, 1740-1814. SADEEL, A., a French Huguenot, 1534-1591. SADELER, John, a Flem. engrav., 1550-1610. Raphael, his brother and pupil, 1555-1616. Giles, nephew and pupil of John, 1570-1629. SADI. See Saadi. SADLER, A., chaplain to Charles II., d. 1680. 671 SAD SADLER, J., a political writer, 1615-1674. SADLER, Micilel Thomas, a philanthropist and member of parliament, distinguished by his exertions in favour of the poor factory children, author of Ireland, its Evils, and their Remedies,' and of a work against the Malthusian doctrine, entitled The Law of Population,' 1780-1835. SADLER, Sir Ralph, a reformer and states- man, who acted as the principal agent of Queen Elizabeth in Scotland, and as gaoler of Mary Stuart, 1507-1587. SADLER, W. W., a dist. aeronaut, 1796-1824. SADOC, a learned Jew, principal founder of the sect of Sadducees, 3d century B.C. SADOLETO, Jacopo, an Italian cardinal, famous as a philosopher and man of letters, at the period of the attempted reformation in Italy (see Pole), 1477-1547. His cousin, Paolo, a Lathi poet, 1508-1572. SAEMUND, Sigfusson, an Icelandic priest and historian, by whom the poems of the Edda were collected, died 1135." SAGE. See Le Sage. SAGE, B. G., a French chemist, 1740-1824. SAGE, John, a Scottish prelate, 1652-1711. SAGITTARIUS, Gaspae, whose proper name was Schutze, a Saxon archaeologist, 1633-1694. SAGREDO, Giovanni, a Venetian historian, who was elected doge in 1675. He resigned his office because not agreeable to the people. SAHED-IBN-ABAD, a celebrated Persian vizier, historian, and literaiy savant, 940-995. SAINCTES, Claude" De, a French catholic theologian, and partizan of the league, 1525-1591. SAINT- AIGNAN, Francois De Beauvil- liers, successively Count and Duke De, a French commander and statesman, remembered as a patron of learning, 1610-1687. Paul, his son and successor in the dukedom, one of the most virtuous statesmen of the court of Louis XIV., governor of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri, and a friend of Fenelon, 1648-1714. Paul Hippolite, brother and successor of the latter, a diplomatist and member of the Academy, 1684-1776. SAINT-ALBAN. See Saint-Giles. SAINT-ALBAN, Richard De Burgh De, earl of Clanricarde, an Irish nobleman, who aided in extinguishing the rebellion of 1600, 1565-1635. SAINT- AMAND, J., a French critic, d. 1754. SAINT-AMANS, J. Florimond Boudon De, a French agriculturist and botanist, 1748-1831. SAINT-AMANT, Mark Antony Gerard, Sieur De, a French poet, 1594-1660. SAINT-AMOUR, William De, a doctor of the Sorbonne, who wrote against the friars, d. 1272. SAINT-ANDRE, J. B., a protestant minister and member of the French convention, 1749-1813. SAINT- ANDRE, J. D'Albon, Marechal De, a famous commander of the catholic league, col- league of Guise and Montmorency, killed at the battle of Dreux, 1561. SAINT- ANDRE, Nathaniel, an anatomist, whose singularities of character are recorded by Nichols in his Anecdotes of Hogarth, died 1776. SAINT-ANGE, Ange Francois Fariau De, a French poet and classical translator. 1747-1810. SAINT-AUBIN, A., a Fr. engraver, 1736-1807. SAINT-AUBIN, Aug. Alexander D'Her- Ber, called, a French singer and actor, 1754-1818. SAI SAINT-AUBIN, C, a publicist. 1755-1820. SAINT-AUBIN, G. C. See Legendre. SAINT-AULAIRE, Francois Joseph 1 Beaupoil, Marquis De, a Fr. poet, 1643-1742 SAINT-CHAMOND, Claire Marie Maz relli, Dame De, a learned Fr. writer, 1731-17; SAINT-CLOST, Perros De, or Pierre ', Saint Cloud, writer of a satirical allego called the Romance of Reynard, which consi of 2,000 verses, and has been translated into European languages, 13th century. SAINT- CONTEST.Dominique Claude Bi beri,e De, a French statesman and diplomat 1668-1730. His son,' F. Dominique, minister state for foreign affairs in 1751, under the influe of Madame de Pompadour, 1701-1754. SA1NT-CYR, Odet Joseph De Vaux Giry, Abb6 De, a Greek scholar, preceptor of dauphin, son of Louis XV., died 1761. SAINT-CYRAN, Jean Duvergier De Ej ranne, Abbe De, a Jansenist theolog., 1581-K SAINTE-BEUVE, Jacques De, a writer Grace and Predestination, 1613-1677. SAINTE-CROIX, Guillaume Emmani Joseph, Baron De, a learned French histor author of ' Researches into the Mysteries Paganism,' ' Critical Examination of the Hi of Alexander the Great,' and other works of 1 value, 1746-1809. SAINTE-CROIX, or SANTA CROCE, Pi per De, cardinal and papal nuncio, 1513-158 SAINT-EVREMOND, C. Marguerite St. Denis, Seigneur De, a royalist and protty Mazarin during the troubles of the Fronde, cut guished as an elegant writer, 1613-1703. SAINT-FAL, S. M., a French actor, 1760-1 SAINT-FLORENTIN, L. Phelypeaux,0 De, son of Phelipeaux de la Vrilliere, ministc various functions for more than fifty years to I XV., and a debauched character, 1*705-1777. SAINTE-FOIX, Germain Francois Poui De, a French writer and antiquarian, 1698-17 SAINT-GALL, the Monk of, an anonyr Latin writer of the 9th century. SAINT-GELAIS, Octavius De, a poett bishop of Angouleme, and biographer of Louis 2 1466-1502. Mellin, his natural son, an eot astic, and au. of Latin and French poems, d. 1 SAINT-GENIES, J. De, a Fr. poet, 16074 SAINT-GENIS, A. N., a Fr. lawyer, 1741-1 SAINT-GEORGE, Chevalier De, a mul born of a negress at Guadaloupe, greatly di guished by his accomplishments at the Fi court, and especially for his skill as a swords He commanded a troop of horse at the begil of the revolution, 1745-1801. SAINT-GERAN. See Guiche. SAINT-GERMAIN, Count De, art character, some way connected with the Mm) of last century, and equally remarkable ftn extent of his knowledge and his communion] with the French court, especially with Louis and Madame de Pompadour. He is said to J died at Schleswig in 1784. The curious | compare with his pretensions the traditions oj Wandering Jew. which are collected toge '" the Chronicles of Cartophilus (so called), published by David Hoffman. SAINT-GERMAIN, Robert, Count 672 SAI ;suit and statesman, minister of war to Louis VI., author of Memoirs, 1708-1778. SAINT-GERMAN, or SEINT-GERMAN, hkistopher, an Erg. lawyer of the 16th cent. SAINT-GILES, otherwise Joannes Anglicus, Jean de St. A Ibain, a learned theologian, and ctor of medicine to Philip Augustus, king of ance, died about 1255. SAINT-HILAIRE. See Geoffroy. SAINTE-HUBERTI, Antoinette Cecilia jivel, a French opera singer, 1756-1821. SAINT-HURUGE, Marquis De, a character the French revolution, about 1750-1810. SAINT-HYACINTHE, Hyacinthe Cordon- ek, better known as Themiseuil de Saint Hya- ithe, an ingenious French critic, 1684-1714. SAINTE-HYACINTHE. See Charrerie. SAINT-JOHN. See Bolingbroke. 3AINT-JORRI, Pierre Dufaur De, in Latin trus Faber, a learned French Jesuit, 1540-1600. 5AINT-JOSEPH, Isidore, a theologian and torian of the Carmelites of Italy, died 1666. >AINT-JOSEPH, Pierre Mathiew De, erwise Pierre Foglia, an Asiatic missionary I botanist, born in Naples 1617, died 1691. IAINT-JULIEN, L. G. Baillet, Baron De, liscellaneous writer, 1720-1780. IAINT-JULIEN, Pierre De, a partizan of league, and historian of Burgundy, 1520-1593. AINT-JURE, J. B. De, an ascetic, 1588-1657. AINT-JUST, Antoine, one of the most re- kable characters, all things considered, produced he revolutionary epoch of France, was born at ise in the Nivernais 1768, and was only twenty- years of age when the revolution had grown to bite heat in 1792-3. He was the son of a t of St. Louis, descended from a distinguished y, and had passed through a brilliant career student, when he became adjutant-major in a of the national guard ; and in this position the acquaintance of Robespierre. The ce of these two men is one of the most in- ig studies presented by the history of those The intelligence of St. Just was as cold, |r, and glassy as that of Robespierre, his character stere, his ambition as great, his personal moral and physical, unsurpassed by any er known to history, and his enthusiasm dis- j tut generis, for we are not only unacquainted anything resembling it, but it appears as we it, to contradict the word itself. Light, ing, and dauntless, in Camille Desmoulins, laracter of mind strikes us as one common to : and to every cause ; in St. Just, on the con- F, heated to the highest pitch, and star-like in 'a;htness, it is yet fixed in preternatural aon, or if it ever stir, seems only to string nerves as by a magnetic tension to make the stronger and more resonant organ of the ite spirit. In cold impassive reason, the two | St. Just and Robespierre, resemble each other, the strict purity of their lives, but in this there is no comparison, and to explain St. |we must suppose the wildest enthusiasm in itward nature transfixed and bound down to purposes by the gleam of the frigid intel- in the inner. His almost feminine coun- and his perfect devotion to Robespierre, for St. Just this striking but profane SAI appellation : the Saint John of the Messiah of the People. He surpassed his master in impassibility as the terrible events of the revolution swept by, and on the night of the September massacres slept soundly in the same chamber where Robespierre paced up and down watching, as he expressed it, 1 like remorse or crime.' At this time, the name of St. Just was almost unknown to the people, but he took his place in the National Convention, which met soon afterwards, with the air of one accustomed to be heard and obeyed as an oracle. He was the mask of the spirit of Robespierre, and so perfectly devoted to him, that the ideas of the one were uttered by the voice of the other, not in slavish subjection^ but with more axiomatic and un- answerable simplicity, and with a more daring application to emergencies ; it was, as if the soul of Robespierre had two bodies, the one more plausible in utterance, the other sharper and more remorse- less. This devotion of St. Just was entirely due to the acquiescence of his reason in the sentiments of Robespierre, and to his solemn conviction that the republic could only triumph by those ideas : he was strictly the minister of Robespierre the dictator, and he embodied the conceptions of his master in those practical measures which could alone carry him to power. .The overthrow of the Gironde and the Dantonists was only a step towards the con- centration of every power of the state in the committees of the convention, formed to work under one head ; the struggle which he directed, in fact, was that of a republic one and indivisible, opposed to the idea of a confederation which it was impossible to form in imitation of the United States that had been the natural growth of time and circumstances. After the fall of the Girondins, the triumvirate of Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, was formed definitely in the committee of Salut Public, and under the dictation of this body, at the time when France was menaced with destruction, no right, whether of life or property, was allowed to be pleaded in preference to the supreme right of the nation to save itself. The inexorable logic of this argument, put in force, became the terror, and they who look upon a Robespierre and a St. Just as mere spirits of darkness, and agents of iniquity, should consider well the sorrowful nights and days which this young man of twenty-five or six must have passed when he wrote in his diary: 'It is but a small matter to quit a life like this, a state of being so miserable that the only choice left us, is to become the accomplice of crime or the helpless witness of it.' The most striking proof of his heroism was given when the Austrians, reunited to the armv of Cc ' onde, had forced the lines of Weissembourg, and were advancing upon Strasburg. Sent there with Lebas, in the character of a proconsul, St. Just charged at the head of the Alsatian peasantry, hastily armed, and, with an intrepidity tnat aston- ished the soldiers, rolled back the invaders, and saved his country. In this character he was the legal autocrat of the entire district, and in the emergency the lives and properties of all were at his disposal; was he therefore merciful or cruel when he saved ' thousands of heads,' as it is con- fessed, by sending one scoundrel to the guillotine ? In short, there is only one honest way of judging these men, and that is by the exceptional character 673 2X SAI of the times, and not as Christians, for such they were not, but as the heathen avengers of the crimes and errors of many generations of pretended Christians. St. Just, true to the last, accompanied Robespierre to the scaffold, and regarded with a disdainful air the crowd vociferating around him. He was executed on the 27th of July, 1794, or ac- cording to the republican style, on the 9 th Thermi- dor, year 2. His poems and political writings bear witness to his literary talents. [E.R.] SAINT-JUST, Godard D'Aucourt De, a dramatic and miscellaneous writer, 1770-1826. SAINT-LAMBERT, Charles Francis, Mar- quis De, a fabulist and philosopher, 1717-1803. SAINT-LAURENT, Baron De, a French artillery officer in the wars of Napoleon, 1763-1832. SAINT-LEU. See Hortense. SAINT-LO, A. De, a Fr. missionary, d. 1638. SAINT-LOUIS. See Louis (IX.) SAINT-LOUIS, See Peter of St. Louis. SAINT-LUC, Francois D'Espinay De, a French commander, who distinguished himself against the Calvinists, and became a master of artillery under Henry IV., killed 1597. His son, Timoleon, ambassador to England and marshal of France, 1580-1644. SAINT-MARC, C. H. Lefebvre, an editor, historian, and chronologist, 1698-1769. SAINT-MARC, J. P. Andrew Des Rosins, Marquis De, a poet and dramatist, 1728-1813. SAINT-MARCELLIN, a natural son of the celebrated Fontanes, distinguished by his valour at the battle of Borodino, in the Russian campaign of 1812, and as an opera writer, 1791-1819. SAINT-MARS, a French officer of quality, whose name has been preserved in history in connection with that most perplexing of all secrets, 1 The Man in the Iron Mask.' Vague rumours of such a prisoner were all that existed till the pub- lication of Voltaire's Louis XIV., when for the first time they assumed due consistency. After all that has been written on the subject, it cannot be said that more is known at this hour than had been re- lated by Voltaire, except some confirmations of the substantial accuracy of his account, and some additional traits of character, which may help to solve the riddle, if ever fresh light should be thrown upon it by the publication of hitherto unedited state documents. Briefly, the story is as follows : Towards 1662, a state prisoner of noble stature, and the most accomplished de- meanour, wearing a mask of black velvet, was consigned to the custody of Saint-Mars, at that time governor of the castle of Pignerol. In 1686, Saint-Mars was transferred to the Isle of Saint- Marguerite, in the sea of Provence, and he took his prisoner with him : he did the same when he became governor of the Bastile in 1690. This mysterious person was uniformly treated with the highest respect by the governor, who himself waited upon him, and the same deference was shown by the marquis of Louvois on occasion of a visit previous to his removal from St. Marguerite : his mask was so constructed with steel springs that he had perfect liberty to eat and drink ; he was served in the richest manner, and was accus- tomed to entertain himself with books and music. Before his transference to the Bastile, he seized an opportunity to scratch some intelligence on a SAI silver plate, which he threw out near a fishiu boat that he perceived moored to the shore; tl fisherman, however, was unable to read carried the plate to Saint-Mars, who would nl allow him to depart until perfectly sat i no discovery had been made. In the end tl prisoner died in the Bastile, and was buried the parish cemetery of Saint Paul, by midniffl November, 1703, under the evidently feigfl name of Marchiali : the furniture of his room, t" window casements, and every possible thing which he could have left any record, were th carefully burnt ; the ceiling was pulled down ai reduced to powder; finally, the Bastile recorc since perused, were found to contain only t obscurest allusions to him. The last statesra who possessed this secret was Chamillac, who, his deathbed refused to make a discovery of though entreated by his son-in-law, the seco marquis de Feuillade, he said he had been bou by an oath. The medical attendant of prisoner had never seen his face, but says that informed him a few days before his death that believed he was near sixty years of age; registry of the burial, on the other hand, gr forty-five as the age of the pretended Marcni but this again may have been designed to baffle vestigation. This strange history, it will served, commences about the period of Mazari death, and it covers the greater part of the reigi Louis XIV. It would be inconsistent with limits to discuss the conjectures to which it' given rise some of them sufficiently roman What surprises us is, that historians do not obse how little reason would be left for the careful j servation of the secret beyond the lifetime of prisoner, if it could be proved he was any one the persons hitherto supposed. [E. SAINTE-MARTHE, Charles Francis, M quis De, a French fabulist and poet, 1717-1801 SAINT-MARTIN, J. Antoine De, eel. for researches into the history of Armenia, 1791-1^ SAINT-MARTIN, J. Didier De, a Ctair missionary and writer in Chinese, 1743-180ll SAINT-MARTIN, Louis Claude De, ca by himself le Philosophe inconnu (which weni philosopher of the unknown), was born at Amk of a noble French family, 1743, and is said to if commenced his metaphysical studies updH 'Art of Knowing One's Self,' written by^H Abbadie, a French protestant theologian"! Hj sometimes confounded with Martinez P4jH lis, who was the real founder of the sect of A j tinists, and the first teacher, but by no mej^| master, of Saint-Martin. The period when tj two philosophical inquirers became acq^H was marked by a reaction against the s^H philosophy of the encyclopedists, against V Saint-Martin launched the first and mostvaj of his writings, entitled Des Erreurs et dela Vd published at Lyons 1775, between which j> and 1778 the operations of the genuine Ma(p in France had become extinct. The name, f~ still remained. The Chevaliers Bienfaisa formed under the name of Philalethes, and i have embraced the doctrines of Saint-Ma Swedenborg, invited the former to take the ] dent's chair in 1784, but he refused the as to Swedenborg, the writer has before 674 SAI iginal letter, written by a French disciple of his 1785, utterly disavowing the connection, and arging these very Martinists, so called, with e pursuit of magic : so much for the right of ch societies to assume names, and for the sar- of Lamartine (' Girondins,' vol. i. p. 188), at 'The theosophists, disciples of the sublime obscure Swedenborg, the Saint-Martin of rmany, pretended to complete the gospel, and nsfonn humanity,' &c. It is a point of some ;erest in the history of those times, for not only the occult societies of Germany and France luential among the people, but the most dis- guished princes were enrolled amongst them, may be read in the article Weishaupt. int-Martin was neither faithful to one system another, but coquetted with them all, Martinez squalis, Alchymy, Animal Magnetism, Sweden- g, and Jacob Boehmen, until he was cast tore in the midst of the French revolution, and ame, as he regarded himself, 'the Robinson isoe of spiritualism.' He possessed vast ori- al genius and metaphysical insight, and as a nker he digested and assimilated whatever he nd to his taste ; we should not be far from the th, perhaps, in pronouncing that the principles Boehmen had taken the deepest hold of his igination and reason^ and that much in his sr writings may be regarded as a modern re- duction of them, tinctured, however, by what had acquired from Swedenborg, and by his erience in animal magnetism. The first of works is mentioned above. It was followed 'Tableau Naturel des Rapports entre Dieu, >mme, et l'Univers,' 1782, the principle of ch is the explanation of things by man, and of man by things. In 1790 he published omme du Desir.' In 1792 the ' Ecce Homo,' nded to correct the rage at that time for mag- c prodigies, and to elevate the soul to sub- mysteries. In 1796 appeared 'Le Nouvel none.' In 1800, 'De l'Esprit des choses, ou d'ceil Philosophique sur la Nature des Etres r TObjet de leur Existence,' a work which have seen denounced as ' a tissue of foolish tions,' on the strength of an extract, is, notwithstanding, of great philosophic In 1802 he ushered to the light of day ' Le re de l'Homme Esprit,' with these remark- words : ' Although the subject of this work greater clearness than my others, it is remote from ordinary ideas to let me hopo uch success. I have often felt while writing the result would be much as if I had played ion of waltzes and contre-dances on my in the cemetery of Mont-Martre, where be fine to do with my bow, but really the i lying there would neither understand my nor dance to it !' Besides these and other of his own, Saint-Martin translated into the ' Three Principles,' and the ' Aurora,' b Boehmen. The Russian statesman, Prince , is said to have been his convert, but we aware whether any connection exists be- this fact and the rise of the Martinists in of Moscow ; a very insufficient account of will be found in Pinkerton's translation of concerning the state of the Greek church, the Scalvonic of Platon. Saint-Martin, like SAI so many others of the noblesse of France, suffered by the French revolution, and being implicated in a conspiracy, owed his life to the revolution of Thermidor. Died 1803. [E.R.1 SAINT-MARTIN, Michel De, a religious founder and writer, 1614-1687. SAINT-MAURICE, Alex. Ma. Eleonor, Prince De Montbarey, minister of war to Louis XVI. from 1776 to 1780, au. of Memoirs, 1732-96. SAINT-MAURIS, J. De, a French juriscon- sult, statesman, and diplomatist, died 1555. SAINT-MAURIS, Prudent De, a juriscon- sult and ambassador, of another family, d. 1584. SAINT-MEARD, Francois Jourgniac De, a journalist and chevalier of the order of Saint Louis, born at Bourdeaux 1745, and known at the period of the revolution as the editor of a royalist paper, entitled ' Journal de la Cour et de la Ville.' After the installation of the revolutionary leaders in the Paris Commune, by the insuiTection of August 10, 1792, Saint-Meard was arrested and imprisoned in the ' Abbaye,' where he became an eye-witness of the September massacres. He has related his terrible experience in a brochure entitled, 'My Thirty-six Hours' Agony,' the thrilling interest of which carried it through above a hundred editions. After the 'terror' Saint- Meard continued to frequent the literary salons of Paris, and received the humorous title of ' Presi- dent and General-in-chief of the Universal Society of Gobe-mouches.' Died 1827. [E.R.J SAINT-MICHEL, A. De, a Fr. wr., 1795-1827. SAINT-MORYS, Et. Bourgevin-Vialart, Count De, a French general, known as a naturalist and miscellaneous writer, 1772-1817. SAINT-NON, Jean Claude Richard, Abbe" De, a celebrated amateur in the arts, 1727-1791. SAINTE-PALAYE, J. B. De La Curne De, the historian of French chivalry, 1697-1781. SAINT-PARD, otherwise P. N. Van Blotaqtie, a French Jesuit and religious writer, 1734-1824. SAINT-PAVIN, Denis Sanguin De, a French poet and ecclesiastic, 1600-1670. SAINT-PERAVI, J. N. M. Guerineau De, a political writer and poet, 1732-1789. SAINT-PHILIP. See Baccalar Y Sanna. SAINT-PIERRE, Charles Irenee Castel, Abbe* De, a political writer and philanthropist, who was educated as an ecclesiastic, and devoted himself theoretically and practically to the public good. Among his works is a ' Project for a Per- petual Peace,' conceived at the congress of Utrecht (1713), and pronounced by the cardinal Dubois 'the dream of a good man.'' He was far in ad- vance of his age; and being excluded from the French Academy for the courageous expression of his opinions concerning the government of Louis XIV., that body took more than half a century to revise their judgment of him ; at length, in 1775, his eulogium was pronounced by D'Alembert. The French are indebted to him not only for his philosophical ' dreams,' but for that expressive word bienjaisance, which he introduced into the language. [E.R.] ST. PIERRE, Eustace De, a patriotic citizen of Calais, who distinguished himself when Edward III. of England besieged that place in 1347. SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. Bernardin De, a celebrated French writer, well known in this i 675 SAI try by his beautiful romance of ' Paul and Virginia,' was born at Havre 1737, and passed some time in the Isle of France, where the scene of his stoiy is laid, as an engineer. He was a friend of Rousseau, and author of works making altogether twelve volumes, recommending a higher virtue than that exhibited in his own life. Died 1814. SAINT-PRIEST, F. E. Guignard, Count De, an ambassador andpartizan of the Bourbons, 1735- 1821. His son, G. Emmanuel, a general who served against France, 1776-1814. SAINT-PRIEST, or SAINT-PRET, Jean Yves, an archivist and historian, died 1720. SAINT-RAMBERT, Gabriel De, a Cartesian philosopher and friend of Rousseau, died 1720. SAINT- REAL, Cesar Vichard, Abbe - De, a controversialist and historian, 1639-1692. SAINT-REMY, Pierre Surirey De, a French officer and writer on artillery, died 1716. SAINT-SAPHORIN, A. F. L. De Mkstral De, a diplomatist employed by the Danish court, a great connoisseur in art, 1738-1805. SAINT-SILVESTRE, J. L. Du Faure, Mar- quis De, a commander under Turenne, 1627-1719. C. F. Du Faure, of the same family and title, an historical writer, 1752-1818. N. H. Maurice Du Faure, called president St. Silvestre, a magis- trate and political writer, died 1811. SAINT-SIMON, C. F. De Rouvroy Sandri- court, a learned French prelate, and collector of a valuable library, 1727-1794. His brother, Louis De Rouvroy, Due De Saint-Simon, a statesman and diplomatist during the regency of the duke of Orleans, author of Memoirs of the highest value towards the history of his times, 1675-1755. SAINT-SIMON, Claude Henri, Count De, founder of a school of social science and rational doctrine named after him, was born at Paris 1760. Member of an illustrious family which traced its origin, through the counts of Vermandois, to Charlemagne, he had the best education that his country could then afford, and one of his teachers was the great encyclopedist D'Alembert. He entered the army, according to the prevailing fashion with the young nobles, in 1777, and though he hated war, he embarked, two years later, for America, and served under Washington, thinking only of some vast social design that would be pro- moted by the emancipation of America. In 1783 he returned to France, and quitting the military career, he was known at the period of the revolu- tion as a speculator, conjointly with a count de Redern, in the national domains : his object was to acquire property as a means of realizing his ideas, and he regarded the convulsions which then agitated society as nothing more than the pre- paratory destruction of the old order of things. During the Terror, St. Simon was arrested in mistake for another of the same name, and only recovered his liberty after the revolution of Thermidor, 27th July, 1794. His time and for- tune were now devoted with apostolic enthusiasm, to what he considered his mission, and, in 1807, he gave his ideas to the world in his ' Introduction to the Scientific Labours of the Nineteenth Cen- tury.' This work was intended as a supplement to the reports demanded by Napoleon on the progress of science since 1789, and in connection witn Saint- Simon's other works, may be said to contain the SAI germ of all that is valuable in Comte's posit philosophy. It declares the time arrived generalize the whole body of science with a \ to social progress, and lays down the principle tl' useful labour is the proper destiny of all men. was followed in 1808 by Letters addressed to Institute; in 1810, by a 'Prospectus of a N Encyclopaedia;' in 1814 by the ' Re-organizatior European Society ;' and nearly every year, in she by some fresh development of his philosophi speculations. The sum of his meaning may expressed somewhat in these terms : as Newton f reduced astronomy to a positive law when he covered gravitation, so may all the sciences speculations of men be brought, practically, t positive doctrine ; chemistry and the other branc of experimental philosophy come first ; me physical and theological knowledge follow in order of their remoteness from demonstration ; social science as the most complex of all complt the encyclopaedia of human knowledge and perience. Newton, it is argued, laid the foundat of this temple of science by demonstrating the of gravitation ; and Locke proved that it coulc" carried to completion by demonstrating the i fectibility of the human spirit. This, we saj the fundamental conception of Saint-Simon's, s has become more recently of Comte's, philosop it is to be regretted that, in the carrying ou' this idea, they are both deficient in the sense o: that constitutes religion, and in any true, or t tolerable recognition, of revealed truth ; the chi and its doctrines are at best a kind of spiri police force, easy to be dispensed with when positive theism is reached. These works, howe are valuable political studies, they point to vo\ results at which society must arrive, and \ suggest a valuable method of reviewing his and philosophy: to be safely used they mus treated like crude ore, from which the time sj is only to be extracted by a severe process. Simon exhausted his resources to such a de that he passed a severe winter without fuel almost without food. He once attempted suiti but the pistol-shot only deprived him of the e of one eye. He died at Paris May 19, 1825, " these last words on his lips ' L'Avenir est a n> (the future is ours). He left a small, but dev body of disciples at his death, who had for t organ a periodical entitled 'Le Producteurfl' then leader died of a broken heart, and his J being scattered by the interference of governn his successor, M. Enfantin, became an active moter of railways and other objects of immei utilitv. [E SAINT-SIMON, Maximilian H. Db botanist, tactician, and historian, 1720-1799JJ" SAINT-URSIN, M. De, a medical wii physician in the French army, 1763-1818. I SAINT VINCENT. John Jervis, earfj Vincent, and admiral of the British fleet, was bo 1734, at Meaford in Staffordshire. He enteret i navy at the age of ten, under Admiral Rodnejiii served in 1759 in the expedition against ( J and had risen to the rank of post-captain wH American war broke out. He distinguished . self greatly in the course of this war, and. knighted ; and early in the next great war ag revolutionary France he was made an adn 676 SAI 1 1797 he had the command of the Mediterranean ;et, and was specially employed in watching the :ets of Spain, which country was in alliance with ranee against England. The Spanish admiral last put to sea with 27 large ships of the line, d was brought to action by Sir John Jervis, who d only 15 ships of much inferior size and weight metal. This glorious battle was fought oiFCape , Vincent, 14th February, 1797, and ended in the nplete defeat of the Spaniards and the capture four of their ships. The English admiral was sed to the peerage for this victory by the title of rl St. Vincent, and received a pension of 3,000 r ear. In 1800, Lord St. Vincent was placed in imand of the channel fleet, and in 1801 he was de first lord of the admiralty, from which station was removed when Pitt returned to power in 4. Lord St. Vincent was a stem reformer of ses, having no respect to persons, and visiting misdeeds of men in rank and authority as erely as he dealt with the faults of the humblest man in the fleet, or the meanest artizan in the kyard. England is indebted to him not only for splendid sendees in action against the enemy, but the improved discipline and spirit, which he in- uced into every department of" our navy, among as well as men, and for the noble example votion to duty which he always set in his own .. He saw and brought forward into notice abilities of Nelson, Duckworth, Strachan, bridge, Parker, and many more of our best during the war ; and he was as firm a friend nour and merit, as he was an unflinching foe ishonesty and incompetency. Earl St. Vin- died 15th March, 1823. [E.S.C.] T-VINCENT, Gregory De, a French atician and writer on comets, 1584-1667. T-VINCENT, Paul De. See Paul. INT-YVES, C, an oculist, 1667-1733. ITER, D., an Austrian painter, 1674-1705. LA, Angelo, an Italian physician and her- chemist, died 1639. LA, N., an Italian composer, 1710-1800. LA. V., an Italian painter, 1803-1835. LADIN, otherwise* SALAH - ED - DEEN, l of Egypt and Syria, one of the most en- ned and chivalrous of Saracen princes, was at the castle of Tecrit, on the Tigris, of which *her was governor in 1137. His family had many warriors to the princes of Mesopotamia leppo, and Saladin was about thirty years of hen he accompanied his uncle, Shiracoh, in pedition to Egypt ; on whose death, in 1168, scame commander of the forces. Like Me- Ali in recent times, he possessed power and sufficient to render himself independent ; omit details of his wars, we find him master ia and Egypt in 1183, so far at least as to be dread of opposition from the native princes. *" istian knights, however, had carried their the East, and Saladin had been defeated before by Reginald De Chatillon, grand- of the Templars, who was now in posses- Jerusalem, and in the habit of committing ;es upon the Saracens. Saladin wisely his own anthority before attacking ers ; and among his national improve- ly be mentioned the foundation of colleges ipitals, and the fortification of his cities, SAL especially of Cairo. In 1187 he gave battle to the Christian army of 80,000 men on the plain of Hittin, or Tiberias, and having completely van- quished them, he slew Chatillon with his own hand, and took Guy of Lusignan, the Christian king of Jerusalem, prisoner : soon afterwards he captured the Holy City, and though he put the templars and knights hospitallers to the sword, the other Franks had the alternative of becoming slaves or paying ransom. News of these disasters arriving in Europe, produced the second crusade, in which Richard Coeur de Lion took part in alliance with Philip Augustus of France ; preceded a year or two by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who died before their arrival, and an immense host of combatants. The key of Syria, then, as it is now, was the fortress of St. Jean D'Acre, and the siege endured two years, 1189-1191, in which interval prodigies of valour were performed on both sides ; the fortress at length surrendered, and the crusade was concluded by another year's truce between Sala- din and Richard, after which the latter embarked for England. Neither of these remarkable characters were destined to survive their acquaintance with each other very long. Saladin was seized with a bilious fever at Damascus, and died there at the moment he was contemplating an extensive pro- gramme of conquests, in 1193. Christians and Saracens have vied with each other in writing panegyrics on the justice, valour, generosity, and political wisdom, of this prince, who possessed the art, not simply of acquiring power, but of devoting it to the good of his subjects. Seventeen sons and a brother survived him to share his power, and his conquests were presently divided into several states. " [E.R.] SALADIN II., great-grandson of the preceding, assassinated after a vain attempt to recover the dominion of Egypt, 1229-1261. SALADIN, J. B. M., a Fr. politician, d. 1810. SALARIO, A., a painter of Milan, died 1559. SALAZAR Y MARDONES, P. De, a Spanish historian of the emperor Charles V., died 1570. SALAZAR Y MENDOZA, P. De, a Spanish historian of that monarchy, 17th century. SALDEN, W., a Dutch divine, died 1694. SALE, A. De La, a French writer, 1398-1462. SALE, George, an Oriental scholar, best known by his translation of the Koran, was born in 1680, and died in 1736. But little is known of his personal history. He contributed the cosmo- gony, and a small portion of the other matter to the 'Universal History,' and his MSS. in the Radcliffe Library, comprise some valuable articles from Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature. SALE, Sir Robert Henry, an illustrious name in the annals of Anglo-Indian warfare, was born in 1782, and entered the army as ensign in the 36th Foot 1795. He was just in time to take a subordinate part in the achievements at the close of last century, which secured that magnificent country to the British crown ; his name was more distinctly marked, however, in the Burmese war of 1824-6, in the course of which he was commis- sioned as lieutenant-colonel. From that period till the commencement of our enterprises in Af- ghanistan, there was little opportunity for reaping other laurels ; but events were ripening, which soon demanded the soldier's prowess, and were 7 SAL destined to tax the utmost resources of our com- manders. These circumstances date from 1835, commencing with the mission of Alexander Burnes, the envoy of Lord Auckland, whose object was to negotiate for consolidating the government of Dost Mahomed, as a bulwark against the designs of Russia and Persia. There appears to have been much insincerity, and certainly a good deal of pro- crastination and timidity in these overtures, so that eventually Dost Mahomed, instead of becoming our ally threw himself into the arms of our enemies. In 1838 Sale was appointed to the command of the 1st Bengal brigade in the impending war, and his troops formed the advance throughout the whole Affghanistan campaign; finally, in September, 1840, he defeated Dost Mahomed at Purwan- Dutrah, and compelled him to surrender to Sir William M'Naghten. In 1841 the war was re- newed, and Sale commanded the brigade which stormed the Khoord Cabul Pass, but was com- pelled to retreat upon Jellalabad, followed by the army of Akhbar Khan. Shut up in this place, Sale and his gallant troops were closely besieged from the 12th of November, 1841, to the 7th of April, 1842, on which day he made a grand attack upon the besieging army, and so completely routed it, that he captured the guns, the ammunition, and the camp. In 1845 the Sikh army, commanded by Sirdar lej Singh, crossed the Sutlej, and Sale was now with the British forces under Sir Hugh Gough, as quartermaster-general ; the two armies met in deadly conflict at the battle of Moodkee, Dec. 18, and victory being declared for the British, Gough pushed on, and, four days later, fought the decisive battle of Ferozeshah. In the first action Sir Robert Sale had his left thigh shattered by a grape shot, which proved mortal to him ; he was then in the sixty-fifth year of his age. The principal works illustrating this series of events are a ' Narrative of the War in Affghanistan in 1838-9/ by Capt. H. Havelock, 2 vols., 1840 ; ' A Memoir of India and Affghanistan,' by J. Harlan, 1842, and ' The His- tory of the War in Affghanistan,' by J. W. Kaye, 2 vols., 1851. A curious little work was also pub- lished, by H. T. Prinsep, in 1844, entitled 'Note on the Historical Results deducible from Recent Discoveries in Affghanistan.' We may add that our Sikh enemies are the representatives of a religious reformation preached in India by a con- temporary of Luther. [E.R.] SALERNE, F., a French naturalist, died 1760. SALES, St. Francis De. See Francis. SALES, Louis, Count De, brother of St. Fran- cis, a soldier and diplomatist, famous for his de- fence of Savoy against the Spaniards, and of the city of Annecy against Louis XIIL; he also nego- tiated the treaty of Dole, 1577-1654. Charles, his son, governor of St. Christopher, 1625-1666. SALFI, F., a French dramatist, 1759-1832. SALGAR, a Turcoman chief, founder of the dvnasty named after him, died 1171. SALIAN, J., a French Jesuit, 1557-1640. SALICETI, G., an Italian physician, died 1250. SALICETTI, Christopher, a native of Cor- sica, who promoted the union of that country to France, and was successively deputy to the constituent assembly, member of the convention, and the council of 500, and finally minister of war at Naples under Joseph and Murat, 1757-1809. SAL SALIEVI, A., an Italian composer, 1750-18 SAL1MBEIN, Cavaliere Ventura, Italian painter of sacred subjects, 1557-1613. SALINAS, Francis De, a Spanish schol and writer on musical theory, 1513-1590. SALIUS, Hugues De, a French phvsician j antiquary, 1632-1710. His brother, Jean B. tiste, a writer on the wines of Burgundy, 17& SALISBURY. See Cecil, John. SALISBURY, W., a Welch lawyer, first tra lator of the liturgy into that language, died U SALLE, J. A., a French Jesuit, 1712-1778. SALLE, J. B. De La, a French priest founder of a religious order, 1631-1719. SALLRE, P. De La, a designer, 1723-1804 SALLENGRE, A. H. De, a Dutch wti counsellor to the prince of Orange, 1694-1723. SALLO, Denis De, a French writer, the fc der of modern periodical criticism, 1626-1669. [Sallust From an Antique Butt] SALLUST, (Caius Saleustius Crispu;j Roman historian, was born at Amiternund, a of the Salimes, to the north-east of Rome, B. Though a member of a plebeian family li educated for the service of the state, and ee upon public life during the struggle betwaj aristocracy and the democracy which ended subversion of Roman liberty. About the ! twenty-seven he obtained the quaestorship ; tribune of the people in B.C. 52, he took an < part in connection with the outrages which ttf in the murder of Claudius and the banishmf Milo, identifying himself with the popular i and thereby incurring the deadly hatred nobility. Two years after the expiry of 1] buneship he was expelled from the senates accusers on the ground of immoral condttd it is quite possible that his greatest offence \i attachment to the cause of the people, wl judges belonged to the opposite faction. Al degradation, he seems to nave repaired to ( camp in Gaul, and to have accompanied hi| ing his invasion of Italy. By Cajsar's inte] was restored to his seat in the senate, and to the office of prsetor B.C. 47, in which ftj he accompanied his patron to Africa, and, J conclusion of the war, was left as gov Numidia. While invested with this 678 SAL just he is said to have enriched himself by plun- >ring the country placed under his charge ; and e allegation is to some extent confirmed by the ct of the immense wealth which he afterwards issessed, and which he profusely expended in rming splendid gardens on the Quirinal hill. On 3 return from Africa Sallust withdrew from pub- affairs, and spent the remainder of his life in his surious retreat, engaged in the composition of e historical works which he left behind him. s death took place B.C. 34. His historical works asisted of 1. The CalUina, or History of the nspiracy of Catiline in B.C. 63, of the events of lich he was a spectator. 2. The Jugurtha, or His- y of the War maintained by the Romans against gurtha, king of Numidia, from B.C. Ill to 106, s materials for which he had probably collec- . during his residence in that country ; and 3. e Historice, or histories, in five books, which are i to have comprised the period from the death Sulla, B.C. 78 to B.C. G6. The first two works re conu down to us entire, of the last we have y fragments ; and the loss of it is the more to (gretted, as it must have contained an account Dne of the most important periods of Roman x>ry, respecting which our information is very igre and unsatisfactory. Of Sallust's character, politician and historian, very contradictory lions have been expressed both by the ancients the moderns. As a devoted partizan of Caesar, r as exposed to the censure of the party of Pom- ; and it is therefore probable that the charge mmorality, though not unfounded, was some- t exaggerated by party malevolence. The Ration of extortion in his province appears to on a firmer foundation. His philosophical in- actions have been blamed as misplaced, and ntaining opinions with which the writer did sympathize, charges which must perhaps be ome extent admitted. His two works, how- , must be judged as historical essays, illustra- of great political facts, and thus admitting a ter degree of latitude on the part of the r, than would be admissible in continuous itive. His style, though elaborate and arti- 1, is generally concise and perspicuous, but is "onally marred by the use of archaic words, by a love of brevity which is obviously the t of imitation. He is, however, entitled to the t of being the first Roman who wrote what is regarded as history. [G F.] LLLUSTIUS, a Platonist of the 4th century. LLMANAZAR, a king of Nineveh, 8th c. b.c. LLMASIUS. See Saumaise. lLMERON, A., a Span, theologian, 1515-85. iLMON, E. G., a Spanish statesman, d. 1832. lLMON, F., a French priest, 1667-1736. LMON, J., otherwise Maigret or Macrinus, tin poet, teacher of the children of Rene of 1490-1517. His son, Charles, a Latin massacred on Bartholomew's day, 1572. ILMON, Nathanael, a non-juring divine, n as an antiquary and extensive writer of r history, died 1742. Thomas, his brother, nologist and historian, died about 1750. iLMON, R. f an Eng. mechanician, 1763-1821. LMON, U. P., a Fr. mineralogist, 1767-1805. LMON, W., a miscellaneous wr., d. abt. 1700. LOME, a Jewish princess, died 72. I SAN SALOMON, J: P., a Ger. musician, 1745-1815. SALONIUS, a French prelate, 5th century. SALT, Henry, a traveller and philologist, author of an ' Essay upon Hieroglyphics,' d. 1827. SALTER, S., a learned divine, died 1773. SALTMARSH, John, an Antinomian minister, chaplain in the army under Fairfax, died 1647. SALUTATO, L. Coluccio Pierio, a Latin poet and chancellor of Florence, 1330-1400. SALVA, F., a Spanish physician, 1747-1808. SALVATOR ROSA. See Rosa. SALVERTE, Anne Joseph Eusebius Bacon- niere, a member of the French chamber of depu- ties, to which he was first returned in 1828. He was a liberal in politics, and wrote an ' Historical Essay upon the Names of Men and Places,' and a work on the ' Occult Sciences.' In the latter he ascribes all the mysteries of antiquity to the know- ledge possessed by the priests in natural philo- sophy, and, that failing them, to trickery and im- posture, 1771-1839. SALVI, N., an Italian architect, 1699-1751. SALVI, Tarquinio, an Italian painter, 16th cent. Giambatista, his son and pupil, 1605-85. SALVIANI, H., an icthyologist, 1514-1572. SALVIATI, F. Rossi De, an Italian painter, 1510-1563. ForSalviati 'the Younger,' seeroRTA. SALVIATI, Giovanni, an Ital. cardinal, dist. as a great protector of arts and letters, 1490-1553. SALVINI, A. M., a learned Italian, 1653-1729. SAMBUCUS, John, a learned Hungarian phy- sician, antiquary, and historian, 1531-1584. SAMERIUS, H., a German Jesuit, 1540-1610. SAMMES, A., an English antiquary, died 1679. SAMPSON, H., a nonconf. divine, died 1705. SAMPSON, Thomas, an eminent reformer and companion of the refugees at Geneva, nephew by marriage to Latimer, 1517-1589. SAMSON, Ole Johan, a Danish dramatist and author of Scandinavian Tales, 1759-1796. SAMSON, a judge of Israel, 12th century B.C. SAMUEL, the last judge of Israel, and one of their prophets, supposed date 1132-1043 B.C. SAMUEL, a king of Bulgaria, 971-1014. SAMWELL, David, surgeon of the Discovery when Captain Cook was murdered, died 1799. SANADON, N. S., a French Jesuit, 1676-1733. SANCERRE, L. De, constable of France, dis- tinguished in arms against the English, 1342-1402. SANCHES, Ant. Nunez Ribeiro, a Portu- guese physician in the Russian army, 1699-1783. SANCHEZ, F., a Portug. philoso., 1562-1632. SANCHEZ, Francisco, in Latin Sanctius Brocensis, a Spanish grammarian, 1523-1601. SANCHEZ, G., a Spanish Jesuit, died 1628. SANCHEZ, Peter Anthony, a learned Span- ish ecclesiastic and philanthropist, 1740-1806. SANCHEZ, T., a Spanish casuist, 1550-1610. SANCHEZ, T. A., a bibliographer, 1732-1798. SANCHO, Ignatius, a negro slave, remark- able for his attainments in polite literature, author of a ' Theory of Music,' ' Letters,' &c, 1729-1780. SANCHONIATHON, a Phoenician historian, regarded as the most ancient writer of the heathen world, is supposed to have been a native of Berytus, but as the age to which he is referred is beyond the historical epoch, nothing certain can be related of him. Even the authenticity of the fragments attributed to him has been disputed, but it only 679 SAN requires an ordinary acquaintance with the under- standing of those remote ages to be convinced that they are genuine remains of a very high antiquity, whether written by Sanchoniathon or any other. The histoiy attributed to him was composed in the Phoenician language, and its materials collected from the archives of the Phoenician cities, and from the registers preserved in the Phoenician and Egyptian temples. It was translated into Greek by Philo Byblius, in the reign of Hadrian, and the existing fragments of it preserved by Eusebius amongst the citations of his 4 Evangelical Prepara- tion.' One fragment is called ' The Cosmogony,' professedly derived from Tautus, Thoth, Athothis, or Hermes. Another, and by far the larger, is called the ' Generations ;' it presents many interest- ing points of comparison with the Mosaic Scrip- tures, and professes to be the real history of those times stripped of allegory. ' All these things, the son of Thaoion, the first Hierophant of all among the Phoenicians, allegorized and mixed up with the occurrences and accidents of nature and the world, and delivered to the priests and prophets, the superintendents of the mysteries, and they, per- ceiving the rage for these allegories increase, delivered them to their successors and to foreigners ; of whom one was Isiris, the inventor of the three letters, the brother of Chna, who is called ' the first Phoenician.' The third and last fragment is a few lines preserved from Sanchoniathon's history of the Serpent. The whole will be found in Cory, who suggests that Sanchoniathon's omission of any direct notice of the flood, in which he differs from all other ancient writers, may be accounted for by his determination to reject whatever was alle- gorical. [E.R.] SANCROFT, William, archbishop of Canter- bury, one of the prelates sent to the Tower by James II. in 1688, for refusing to order the public reading of the king's declaration of indulgence in favour of the Catholics, 1616-1693. SANCTIUS. See Sanchez. SANCTORIUS, Sauctorius, whose true name was San tori Sautorio, an Italian physician of con- siderable distinction, was born at Capo DTstria, in 1561, and died at Venice in 1636, aged seventy-five. He was the founder of what is called the Statical School in Medicine, and in 1612 published a treatise entitled, Ars de Medic'ma Statica, in which he endeavoured to estimate the loss of weight that the body undergoes by the various excretions, particu- larly by insensible transpiration, to which he at- tached much importance. [J.M'C] SAND, Christopher Van Den, m Latin Sandius, a German Socinian, 1644-1680. SAND, C. L., a German student, member of a secret society, and assass. of Kotzebue, 1795-1818. SANDBY, P., an English artist, 1732-1809. SANDE, John Van Deh, a Dutch jurisconsult and historian, died 1638. SANDEMAN, Robert, founder of the sect who took from him the denomination of Sande- manians, was a native of Perth, in Scotland, where he was born 1723. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and having married a daughter of the Rev. John Glass, became a fol- lower of his opinions and an elder in one of his churches. The subject of controversy which led to the formation of this party, was a particular view SAN of the nature of justifying faith, but they diflf also, from other communions in the matter discipline and church fellowship, especially in t administration of the sacrament of the Holy Sr per. Their fundamental tenets are Calvinis' Sandeman died at Danbury, aged forty- eig 1771. SANDEN, H. De, a Ger. physician, 1672-17 SANDER, Anthony, in Latin Sanderus Flemish topographer and antiquary, 1586-1664 SANDERS, Nicholas, a Roman Cath theologian and controversial writer, 1527-1580. SANDERS, R., a miscellaneous wr., 1727-17 SANDERSON, Robert, an English antiq rian, historian of Henry V., &c, 1660-1741. SANDERSON, Robert, bishop of Lincoln, tinguished for his extensive antiquarian, scholar and historical information, known as a casuist polemical writer. 1587-1663. SANDERUS. See Sander. SANDES. See Sandys. SANDFORD, Sir Daniel Kbyte, profe of Greek at Glasgow, son of Dr. Sandford, a late of the Scottish Episcopal Church, died 18 SANDFORD F., a heraldist, 1630-1693. SANDINI, A., an Italian historian, 1692- SANDIUS. See Sand. SANDOVAL, F. P. De, a Sp.histor., 1560-1 SANDRART, Joachim Von, a native of Fr; fort, disting. as a painter and art-writer, 160( SANDWICH. See Montagu. SANDYS, or SANDES, Edwin, a dignita the church, who was vice-chancellor of Cambi on the accession of Queen Mary, and suffered d sition and imprisonment as a partizan of ' Jane Grey. In the reign of Elizabeth he wasi cessively bishop of Worcester and London^ archbishop of York, and had a share in the t) lation known as the Bishops' Bible, 1519-! Sir Edwin, his second son, a traveller and d matist, to whom some sacred poems have i attributed, 1561-1629. George, brother o latter, and seventh son of the archbishop, a veller and classical translator, 1577-1643. declared that English poetry owed much t, beauty to the translations of' George Sandys, i was highly esteemed by his contemporaries f< learning and virtues. SANE, A. M., a French writer, 1773-181*. SANGALLO, Giuliano Giamberti, c an Italian artist and architect, son of Frau. Giamberti, 1443-1517. Antonio, his bri employed by Alexander VI. to convert Hadq mausoleum into a fortress, now the castle i Angelo, died 1534. Antonio, nephew of th< j ceding, and the most distinguished architect* family, a pupil of Bramante, 1482-1546. A\ nio Baptista Gobbo, brother of the lat translator of Vitruvius. His nephew, BasM a painter, decorator, and architect, 1481-1553 SAN-GIORGIO, Benvenuto Da, an I J historian and diplomatist, 1450-1525. SANMICHELLI, Miciiele, an Ital an friend of Bramante and Michelangelo, 1484-! j SANNAZARO, J., an Italian poet, 1458H SAN-SEVERO, Raymond De Sa:J prince of, a Neapolitan, eminent for his me inventions and as an amateur of the arts, IT. SANSON, Nicholas, a French geog SAN Eminent for the accuracy and number of his maps, l *l600-1667. His three sons, Nicholas, William, \{lnd Adrian, were remarkable in the same art. J 'tis cousin, James, a genealogist and ecclesiastical 1 historian of Abbeville, 1596-1665. m SANSOVINO, Jacopo Tatti, called, an Ital- , Ban sculptor and architect, 1479-1570. Fran- cesco, his son, a grammarian, 1521-1586. > SANTA-CRUZ, Alvarez De Bassano, Mar- ' iluis De, a Spanish admiral, died 1587. SANTA-CRUZ DE MARZENADO, Alvar, farquis De, a Spanish general, diplomatist, and actician, b. 1687, k. by the Moors at Oran, 1732. SANTEN, L. Van, a Dutch poet, 1746-1798. SANTERRE, Antoine Joseph, an actor in he French revolution, a brewer, of Flemish descent, ras born at Paris 1752. He was by no means the ode character sometimes represented, but well ducated, and the possessor of a large fortune, cquired in trade. His familiarity with the work- len in his employ, and his extreme generosity for in famine time, he gave away nearly 12,000 rorth of meat and rice) made him popular in St. jitoine, and he became commander of the battalion f that quarter. He displayed great courage and resence of mind at the storming of the Bastile, nd would deserve remembrance if it were only for ae other act about the same time, that of saving le invaluable Bibliotheque du Roi from destruc- on by the mob. In May, 1792, he became com- lander of the national guard, and on the 20th of one, when the Marseillaise had arrived, and the alace was invaded by the populace, he thrust his dlow patriots out of the queen's chamber and rotected Marie Antoinette and her children from urther outrage ; it is said that from this time may b dated the secret understanding that the queen ad with the agitators of the faubourgs. Many ther instances of the good nature of this Ajax of je Parisian populace might be mentioned, as that F causing the drums to cease beating for a few wments when Louis was on the scaffold; this ave the king the opportunity of addressing a few r ords to the people, and so provoked the Mar- allaise that they would have commenced firing ad not the drums instantly struck up again by rder of another general. Santerre possessing ttle talent, but a vast deal of courage, often run nmense risk to save life and property, and there i no wonder that he miscarried, when despatched La Vendee, in command of an army, to oppose lossignol. For this mischance, however, he was irown into prison, and did not recover his liberty ptil after the fall of Robespierre. His good- atured, and useful, though not very brilliant part ithis strange drama of history was now at an end, d he died in obscurity 1809. [E.R.] SANTERRE, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1651-1717. SANTEUIL, or SANTEUL, John De, in itin Saniolius, a French ecclesiastic and Latin ct, 1630-1697. SANTORIO. See Sanctorius. SANTOS, J. Dos, a Portug. mission., d. 1622. SANUDO, Marco, a Venetian general who palized himself in the army of crusaders who erthrew the Greek empire, 1153-1220. An- elo, son of the preceding, and his successor as ike of the Archipelago, 1195-1254. Marco, u of Angelo and third duke, died 12G3. Guli- SAR elmo, son and successor of Marco, 1284. Nicolo, son and successor of the latter, distinguished against the Genoese and the Turks. Giovanni, brother of Nicolo, sixth and last duke, married his daughter to the prince of Negropont, who became prince of Naxos. SANUTO, Livio,a Venetian noble, distinguished as a poet, historian, and geographer, 1530-1586. SANUTO, Marino, a Venetian traveller in the East, author of a curious work, 14th century. His relative, of the same name, historiographer to the state of Venice, au. of valuable Diaries, 1466-1531. SANZIO, J. De, an Italian painter, 15th cent. SAPOR I., king of Persia of the Sassanide dynasty, succeeded his father, Artaxerxes, 240. He invaded Mesopotamia 242, and having con- quered Armenia, Syria, and Cilicia, he put to death the emperor Valerius with great cruelty. He was defeated by Odenatus 269, and died 271. Sapor II., a posthumous son of Hormisdas II., was proclaimed 310, before his birth. He became an active and warlike prince in conflict with the Romans, and was a great enemy to Christianity, died 380. Sapor IIL, succeeded Artaxerxes II., 384, he kept peace with the Romans, died 389. SAPOR, a king of Armenia, 420. SAPPHO, a lyric poetess of old Greece, born at Lesbos, and supposed to have flourished about 610 B.C. Nothing certain is known of her life, but she is represented as a woman of dissolute morals, and is said to have drowned herself in consequence of the neglect of a youth with whom she had become enamoured. The invention of the Sapphic verse is attributed to her, but there only remains of her writings a ' Hymn to Venus,' and an ' Ode to a Young Female,' which have been rendered into English by Ambrose Philips. The contradictory traditions concerning her lite have led to the sup- position that other celebrated women of the same name must have lived at different epochs. SARABIA, J. De, a Span, painter, 1608-1669. SARAVIA, H. A., of Spanish origin, but reckoned among English divines, was a professor of divinity and friend of Hooker, 1531-1613. SARAZIN, J., a French sculptor, 1590-1660. SARAZNO, J., a French marshal, 1770-1824. SARBIEWSKI, Matthias Casimir, in Latin Sarbievius, a Polish lyric poet, 1595-1640. SARCHIANI, Guiseppe, an Italian economist, archivist of Tuscany during the revol., 1746-1821. SARCMASIUS. See Schurtzfleisch. SARDANAPALUS, the name of several princes of Assyria, the most celebrated of whom was the last sovereign of the first Assyrian empire. His reign dates from 836 to 817 B.C., when he was dethroned by Arbaces and Belesis, at the head of a revolt of the Medes, Persians, and Babylonians. In the last extremity, Sardanapalus, who had withstood a siege for three years in Nineveh, placed himself, his treasures, his wives, and his eunuchs on a funeral pile, which he fired with his own hand. He had ceased to exist when the city was taken, and that event was followed by the dis- memberment of the Assyrian empire. The above date is only an approximation to the true one, as authorities vary. [E-R-3 SARPI, Pietro, called Fra Paolo, a Venetian historian, and defender of the republic against the pope, Paul V., 1552-1623. C81 SAR SARRABAT, N., a French botanist, 1698-1737. SARRASIN, J. A., a Fr. phvsician, 16th cent. SARRASIN, J. F., a French' poet, 1603-1654 SARRASIN, M., a naturalist, 1659-1736. SARTI, G., an Italian composer, 1730-1802. SARTO, Andrea Vannucchi, called Del, the most dist. painter of the Tuscan school, 1488-1530. SASSI. SeeSAXi. SAUL, the first kins: of the Israelites, perished in combat with the Philistines B.C. 1040. SAULI, the apostle of Corsica, 1535-1592. SAUMAISE, Claude, in Latin Salmnsius, a native of Burgundy, eminent for his learning as a critic, commentator, Orientalist, and archaeologist. He was born in 1588, and having retired to Hol- land on account of his protestantism, succeeded Scaliger as professor of history at Leyden in 1631. In 1649 he wrote a Latin memorial m defence of Charles I., which was answered by Milton for the parliament. In 1650 he visited the court of Sweden by invitation from Queen Christina, and is said to have suffered from the climate, so that he never recovered, but died in 1658. His father. Benigne De Saumaise, was a Greek scholar, and counsellor to the parliament of Burgundy, 1560-1640. SAUMAREZ, James, Lord De, a British ad- miral, who was born in Guernsey 1757, and first signalized himself in the naval service during the American war. In 1797 he was in the action off Cape St. Vincent, and was second in command to Nelson at the battle of the Nile, fought soon after. In 1801 he was named rear-admiral of the blue, and appointed to the command of the squadron off Cadiz. With this little fleet he won a signal vic- tory, for which he received the thanks of both houses of parliament, and a pension of 1,200. He became vice-admiral in 1831, died 1836. SAUNDERS, Sir E., an Engl, judge, d. 1683. SAUNDERS, J. C, a dist. oculist, 1773-1810. SAUNDERS, W., a medical writer, 1743-1819. SAUNDERSON, Nicholas, a native of Thur- leston, in Yorkshire, who distinguished himself as a mathematician, though he was deprived of his sight by small-pox when only twelve months old. He was born in 1682, and succeeded Whiston as professor of mathematics at Cambridge university in 1711. The account of Saunderson's experience, the quickness to which his senses of hearing and feeling were heightened, and his surprising acquisitions, is one of the most interesting in bio- graphical literature. Died 1739. SAURIN, Elie, a French protestant minister, 1639-1703. Joseph, his brother, a natural philo- sopher and mathematician, remarkable for his independent spirit, and for his controversies with Rolle, Huyghens, and Rousseau ; he also abjured Calvinism, 1659-1737. Bernard Joskph, son of the latter, a dramatic writer, 1706-1791. SAURIN, James, one of the most eminent Erotestant ministers of France, was the son of a iwyer at Nismes, and became pastor of the Wal- loon church in London, and afterwards to the protestant nobles who had sought refuge at the Hague. He is the author of some theological and critical works, 1677-1730. SAURIN, Right Hon. William, an Irish lawyer, and attorney-general, 1767-1840. SAUSSAY, A. Du, a Fr. theolog., 1589-1675. SAUSSURE, H. B., a Swiss natural, and philo- SAV sopher, disting. for his valuable observations mad while exploring the glaciers of the Alps, and ft improvements in scientific instruments, 1740-99. SAUSSURE, Nicholas Theodore De, bor at Geneva, October, 1767 ; died April, 1845 ; son < the preceding. He accompanied his father in h travels, and assisted him in many of his researche He afterwards devoted himself to physiologies chemistry, and contributed many important papei to this department of science. Priestley ha shown that plants absorbed carbonic acid ; Sans sure confirmed this observation, and proved thi a small proportion of this gas in the atmosphei favours vegetation, but that a larger ainoui asphyxiates plants. He likewise devoted muc time to a siibject originally broached by Kirws viz., the connection between the inorganic coi stituents of plants and the soils on which tht grow, and established Kirwan's view that in organ food is necessary for vegetation. He lilcewi; made numerous researches on the composition the air, at Geneva, particularly on the proportic of carbonic acid which is present in different coi ditions of the atmosphere; and obtained resul which have been confirmed by the experiments more modern chemists with all the delicate appl ances of recent discovery. He was one of the fir persons to point out the identity of sugar of start and of grapes; and to invent modes of analyzh organic substances so early as the beginning the present century. [R.D.T SAUVAGE, D., a French historian, 1520-158 SAUVAGES, F. Boissier De, a French botai ist, 1706-1767. His brother, P Augustin, philologist, 1716-1795. SAUVAL, H., a French historian, 1620-1670 SAUVEUR, Joseph, a French physician ai mathematician, who created the science of musics acoustics, 1653-1716. SAVAGE, Henry, chaplain to Charles II., ai historian of Balliol college, 1604-1672. SAVAGE, John, a facetious divine, suppo author of a ' Collection of Letters,' &c, died 174' SAVAGE, Richard, has very little claim remembrance as a poet. Yet he threw oil* son happy lines and phrases, and, among others, t!' often-quoted verse, 'The tenth transmitter of foolish face.' His best poems, too, ' The Wandere and ' The Bastard,' have, especially the latter, ti- interest which belongs to strong feeling vented real facts. The history of this unfortunate mri was a tragic romance ; and it has preserved h name by having been related in one of the mo impressive of narratives. His biographer, Sanroi Johnson, who became acquainted with him wh1 the two were alike destitute and hopeless, spe^ of him with an affection which, amidst all ti j unlucky man's faults, must have been justified' t some good points in his character From Job son's 'Life of Savage' the facts may be be learned. He was born 1698, the illegitimate cW of two persons of rank, was persecuted by If mother, narrowly escaped execution for murde and, after a miserable life of forty-five years, die- a prisoner for debt, in 1743. [W.S SAVARON, J.,' a French writer, 1550-1622. SAVART, F., a French physician, 1791-1841? SAVARY, A. C, a French physician and puj of the physiologist Bichat, 1776-1814. C82 SAV SAVARY, James, fanner of the revenues of the French crown, and a writer on commercial law, 1622-1690. His two sons, James and JPhilemon, compiled ' The Universal Dictionary J of Commerce,' published 1723. I SAVARY, Nicholas, a French traveller and Orientalist, 1750-1788. Julian, his brother, historian of the wars of La Vendee, 1824. SAVARY, Rene, a distinguished French general. He was a native of Ardennes, and was appointed colonel of gend'armes by the first consul for his bravery, but perhaps more for his ready obedience in executing the sentence against the unfortunate Duke D'Enghien. He was created Duke of Roviga for his services in Prussia, and com- manded the army in Spain until the arrival of Joseph; he succeeded the duke of Otranto as minister-general of police. After the restoration he lived in retirement; but at the revolution in July, 1831, he was appointed commander-in-chief Df the African army, 1774-1833. SAVERIEN, Alexander, a French mathe- atician and writer on naval tactics, 1720-1805. SAVIGNY, C. De, a French writer, born 1540. SAVILLE, Sir Henry, a native of Yorkshire, Jistinguished as an elegant Greek scholar, mathe- natician, and patron of learning, founder of two )rofessorships at Oxford, 1549-1622. SAVILLE, George. See Halifax. SAVIOLI, L. V., an Italian poet, 1729-1804. SAVOLDO, G., an Italian painter, 16th cent. SAVONAROLA, J. M., a physician of Padua, 1384-1462. His grandson, Girolamo, next ar- icle. Raphael, of the same family, a compiler, .646-1730. Innocent Raphael, nephew of the atter, and an author, 1680-1748. SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO, or JEROME, iras born at Ferrara, 12th October, 1452. He snjoyed a religious education, and was in some espects a precocious youth. Though originally ntended for his father's profession, as a physician, ie secretly became a Dominican monk in 1474. Miter teaching philosophy for a season, he devoted lis whole attention to preaching, and produced a ;reat sensation by the pointedness and vehemence " his pulpit oratory. In 1489 he removed to Flo- unce, lived in the convent of St. Marco, and de- ilaimed with extraordinary freedom and daring, nd with unusual success, against every form of lypocrisy, vice, and unbelief. His unbounded in- raence and constitutional ardour, seem to have teated his imagination, and he ventured on occa- ional predictions, at once novel and startling, md published them in the form of authentic eacles, and under the impression that they were [enuine revelations to himself from heaven. With aracteristic boldness and energy, he interfered nth the politics of Florence, inculcated demo- racy, and opposed the ascendancy of the Medici, " that when they were expelled, he became a Bader of the triumphant party. These victors bnned a vast deliberative council, and discussed rith great pomp the affairs of state, while Savo- larola was exalted by them into a kind of prophetic nd judicial president of the republic. His enemies, l the meantime, accused him to the pope, Alexan- tar VI., as an impostor and a heretic. His holiness ummoned him to Rome, but the reformer refused o obey the citation. On this refusal he was ex- SAX communicated and forbidden to preach. But this sentence only excited him to more terrible denun- ciations, in which the pope himself was styled a usurper. A Franciscan inquisitor was sent to challenge and confront Savonarola, but the citizens interfered and sheltered him. The popular tide at length turned, when he shrank, after some vacillations, from subjecting his cause to an ordeal by fire. His antagonists entered the con- vent, dragged him out, placed him on the rack, and extorted some ejaculations from the unhappy victim, which their malignity easily construed into confessions of guilt. On being ultimately con- demned to death with two of his associates, he was first strangled, then his body was tossed into the flames, and his ashes were thrown into the river, 23d May, 1498. The most of Savonarola's writings were in Italian, and only a few in Latin. He left behind him about 300 sermons and 50 tracts. His 'Triumphus Crucis,' is a work of some power, but his genius is principally seen in those sermons in which the errors of Romanism are unsparingly condemned, and many evangelical truths illustrated and enforced, and which are also distinguished and filled with peculiar unction and piety. The opinions of Roman Catholic writers vary widely as to the character of this hevo- martyr, some holding him to be a saint, and others branding him as a heretic. Burned by one pope, he was tacitly canonized by another. Over the room he inhabited in the convent of St. Mark, still stands an inscription with the epithet ' Vir Apostolicvs.'' Savonarola was in many things in advance of his age, and was a reformer before the reformation. Eloquent, sincere, and devout, he laboured with heart and soul for his church and country, and met with that fate which the patriot and apostle have so often received from a fickle people, and an alarmed and vindictive despot- ism. [J.E.] SAVOT, L-, a French numismatist, 1579-1640. SAWYER, Sir Robert, one of the chief coun- sel for the seven bps., reign of James II., d. 1692. SAXE, Christopher, in Latin Saxius, a Ger- man philologist and literary historian, 1714-1806. SAXE. Count Maurice of Saxony, better known in history as Marshal Saxe, was the natural son of Augustus II., king of Poland, and elector of Saxony. Maurice was a soldier, and saw actual service at the siege of Lisle, when he was only 12 years old. He was at Malplaquet in 1709 ; and he afterwards served under Prince Eugene against the Turks. In 1720 he was introdueed to the Re- fent Orleans, who persuaded him to enter into the 'rench service, and gave him the rank of marshal. Though a married man, he was as notorious for the frequencv of his love adventures, as for his mili- tary abilities. He obtained the Duchy of Cour- land in 1726, through the fondness of the Duchess Anna for him, but he soon lost his new principality. He alienated the duchess by his inconstancy, and thus lost also the chance of becoming emperor of Russia, when Anna succeeded to the throne of the czars in 1730. When the war broke out between France and Austria in 1733, Marshal Saxe solicited and obtained employment in the French armies. He distinguished himself greatly at the siege of Philipsburg ; and when peace was made in 1736 he devoted some time to the study of the art of 683 SAX war, and to the composition of a treatise on that subject, which is still cited by military writers. It was in the general European war, which began in 1740, that he gained the triumphs by which he is best known. He commanded the French army at Fontenoy in 1745, and won a memorable victory over the English and their allies, which was fol- lowed by the conquest of all Belgium. At the commencement of the campaign of that year, Mar- shal Saxe was lying ill at Pans, with his constitu- tion utterly rained by the dissolute life which he had long led, and suffering under a severe attack of dropsy. His physicians told him that if he left Paris for the army they could not answer for his life. His answer was, ' The question now is not how I am to live, but how I am to go,' and he went and conquered accordingly. He was obliged to be tapped only five days before the battle was fought ; and he was carried about in a litter dur- ing the engagement. The victory of the French was due mainly to his skill and energy, and to the valour of the Irish brigade in the French ser- vice. In 1747 he gained a second victory over the English and their allies at Laffelt. He survived the conclusion of the war about two years, and died in 1750, loaded with honours by the French, who were indebted to him for the two chief of the very few successes which they have ever had in fair pitched battles against the English. [E.S.C.] SAXE-COBOURG. See Coburg. SAXE-GOTHA, Ernest, duke of, a comman- der in the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus, 1C01-1675. Ernest II., a great patron of the sciences and letters, 1745-1804. SAXE-GOTHA and ALTENBERG, E. Leo- pold, duke of, distinguished as a poet and musi- cian, 1772-1822. SAXE-TESCHEN, Albert, duke of, son of Augustus II., king of Poland, and brother of the dauphiness, mother of Louis XVI., known as an enemy of the French republic, 1738-1822. SAXE-WEIMAR, Bernard, duke of, one of the most celebrated generals of the protestants during the thirty years' war, 1600-1639. SAXI, or SASSI, Giuseppe Antonio, an ecclesiastical historian of Milan, 1675-1751. SAXO, called Grammaticus, on account of his learning, a Danish historian, 12th century. SAY, J. B., a French economist, 1767-1832. SAY, Samuel, a dissenting minister, known as a poet and essayist, died 1743. SCACCHI, F., an Italian savant, 1573-1643. SCACCIA, J., an Italian engineer, 1778-1833. SCiEVOLA, Mutius, one of the heroes of Ro- man story, said to have conspired with 300 others against Porsenna. He saved his life by an act of heroism, of which the record will be found in Livy. SCALA, Bartolommeo, gonfalonier of Flo- rence, and the historian of his state, 1430-1495. His daughter, Alessandra, wife of the poet Marullus, celeb, for her great learning, died 1506. SCALA, Deli a, a famous Ghibelline family of Ferrara, principal of whom are Mastino, elected podesta about 1260, assassinated by the Guelphs 1277. Albert, his brother, who avenged his death and governed after him from 1277 to 1300. Can Francesco, called ' The Great,' the most illustrious of the familv, grandson of Mastino, podesta from 1312 to his death in 1329. Dante, SCA who found a refuge at his court, has immortalizec him in verse. A second Mastino, nephew of th( latter, reigned 1329-1351. He was followed b] Can II. and Can HI., both his sons, the latter o: whom died 1375. Antonio, a natural son Can III., reigned with his brother, Bartolommeo and had him put to death 1381. He afterward) lost his estates, and died 1388. SCALA, D. De La, a physician, 1632-16/ SCALIGER, Julius Cesar, called the' Elder, a famous classical scholar and commentator, wa born at Padua or Verona in 1484, and beinj naturalized in France, died at Agen in 1558. Hi history is disputed, as he is not believed to be th person he represented himself, but rather a Guilu Bordone, son of Benedetto Bordone, a Paduan who followed the profession of an illuminator a Vienna. His inordinate vanity is supposed ti have prompted him to pretend to a relationshi] with the Scalas of Verona. He acquired grea reputation in France by his skill in polemics. SCALIGER, Joseph Justus, son of the pre ceding, and the creator of the chronological science was born at Agar in 1540, and in 1593 becam professor of polite literature at Leyden. He fa surpassed his father in learning, and drew large! upon his stock of words in all languages to abus his learned contemporaries, with many of whom like his father, he entered into angry controversies The merit belongs to him of inventing the Julia:, period. Died 1609. SCAMOZZI, V., an Ital. architect, 1552-16U SCANDERBEG, or BEY ALEXANDER, celebrated Albanian chief, whose proper name wa George Castriotto. His father, Prince John c Albania, gave him in hostage to Amurath I The sultan had him educated in the Mahommeda faith, and at the age of eighteen gave him th command of a body of 5,000 troops, which he le against the Servians. His father dying in 1435 he resolved to acquire possession of his hereditar principality. Being a man of great prowess ssoA energy of character, he soon effected his purpose^ having previously renounced the Mahommedai faith and allegiance to the sultan, by deserting i the Christians and joining Hunniades, general < the Hungarian army. Becoming chief of th Albanians, a protracted and harassing war fo lowed, with various fortune, until, by repeated successes, he completely consolidated his powe and preserved the independence of his countr He was a great terror to the Turks, who style him the ' White Devil of Wallachia,' and the Ai banians still celebrate him in their national son^ After his death, however, his country soon agai submitted to Mussulman rule, 1404-1467. SCANDIANESE, whose proper name -* Titus Ganzarini, an Italian dramatist, 1518-8IJ SCAPULA, J., a Germ, lexicographer, 16th <r SCARAMUCCIA, L. Pellegrini, a Milana painter and engraver, 1616-1680. SCARBOROUGH, Sir Charles, physician Charles II., known as a mathematician, 1616-91 SCARDONA, J. F., an It. physic, 1718-180C SCARLATTI, Alessandro, the founder of tl Neapolitan school of music, 1650-1725. His soi Domenico, a composer and harpist, 1683-175' Giuseppe, son of the latter, an opera compose 1718-1776. 684 SCA SCARPA, A., an Italian anatomist, 1747-1832. SCARRON, Paul, famous in French literature lbs a burlesque writer and comic poet, was born ht Paris in 1610. Having wasted his fortune I In debauchery, he commenced writing for the ; theatres, and received a pension from Anne of I Austria, which was withdrawn on the appearance lj>f his ' Mazarinade.' In 1652 he persuaded the Mademoiselle D'Abigne, afterwards the famous tfadame de Maintenon, to marry him, and for- unately for her, departed this life in 1660. The est of his works is the ' Roman Comique,' trans- ited by Goldsmith. SCARSELLA, Sigismund, 6urnamed Modino, n Italian painter, 1530-1614. His son, Ippouto, arnamed Scarlepino, a painter, 1551-1621. SCARSGILL, W. P., an English wr., d. 1836. SCAVINI, J. M., an Ital. physic, 1770-1825. SCHAAF, C, a Germ. Orientalist, 1646-1719. SCHAARSCHMIDT, Antony and Samuel, istinguished surgeons and anatomists, the former 720-1791, the latter 1709-1747. SCHABOL, J. R., a Fr. agricultur., 1690-1768. SCHADOW, Z. R., an Ital. sculp., 1786-1822. SCHADOW, J. G., a Germ, sculp., 1764-1850. SCHFFER,G.H., a Ger. Hellenist, 1764-1840. SCHjEFFER, J. C., a German naturalist, 18-1790. His brother, J. Gottlieb, a phy- 1720-1795. SCHALKEN, G., a Dutch painter, 1643-1706. SCHALL, J. A., a Ger. missionary, 1591-1659. SCHANK, John, a native of Fifeshire, distin- " bed as a naval officer and engineer, 1740-1823. "HANNAT, J. F., a Ger. historian, 1683-1739. HARD, S., a German compiler, 1535-1573. HARFENBERG, G. L., a German entomolo- duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 1746-1810. SCHARROK, R., an English philosopher of the 100I of Hobbes, 17th century. SCHATTEN, N., histor. of Westphalia, 1608-76. SCHATZ, G., a German poet, 1763-1795. SCHAUFELEIN, J., a Dutch painter and en- iver, taught by Albert Durer, 1487-1550. SCHEDE, P., a German poet, 1539-1600. SCHEDE, E., a Germ, antiquarian, 1615-1641. SCHEDONE, or SCHIDONE, Bartolomeo, Italian painter, style of Correggio, 1570-1615. SCHEELE, Charles William, a native of eden, born 19th December, 1742, at Stral- ld, Sweden ; died 21st May, 1786, at Koping Lake Moeler. This distinguished Swedish jmist, the son of a tradesman, was educated at jrivate academy in his native town, and after- rds at a public school, and then served his ap- nticeship as an apothecary at Gotheborg. He I sequently acted as assistant to apothecaries at :1 Imo, Stockholm, and Upsala. There his genius i racted the attention or the professors at this '. < ibrated university, who encouraged him in his : ] suits ; but it is remarkable that the Swedish I ernment, although aware of his talents, M, perhaps the ablest man which that ij has produced, ultimately to end his days humble apothecary in a village on the banks Moeler. To him we owe the discovery of chlorine, and of molybdic, tungstic, lactic, gallic, tartaric, oxalic, citric, malic, c, and saclactic acids, glycerine and oxy- He ascertained the nature and the consti- scn tuents of ammonia and prussic acid, the charac- ters of barytes and manganese, and the elements of the atmosphere. Few men of his century, with the exception of Priestley, can be compared with him as a discoverer. The last act of his life exhi- bits his character in a highly honourable phase. When in 1777 he bought the apothecaries' shop at Koping, he formed the intention of marrying the widow of his predecessor, and only delayed for the purpose of saving so much property as to make such an alliance desirable on her part. While labouring under a mortal rheumatic affection he declared his intention of marrying her in March, 1786 ; but his disease increasing rapidly, it was not till the 19th May that the ceremony was per- formed. On the 21st he left her all his property, and on the same day he breathed his last. [B.D.T.J SCHEELS, R. H., a Dutch savant, 1622-1664. SCHEFFEL, C. S., a Ger. physic, 1693-1763. SCHEFFER, John, a German archaeologist and literary savant, professor at Upsala, 1621-1679. His grandson, Henry Theophilus, a Swedish chemist and botanist, 1710-1759. SCHEIBE, J. A., a Ger. composer, 1708-1776. SCHEID, E., a Dutch Orientalist, 1742-1795. SCHEIDT, Balthazar, a German theologian and Orientalist, 1624-1670. His son, Valentine, a physician, 1651-1731. SCHEIDT, Chr. L., a legist and historiogra- pher to the king of Denmark, 1709-1761. SCHEINER, C, a Ger. astronomer, 1575-1650. SCHELHAMMER, Christopher, a Dutch botanist, 1620-1652. His son, Gonthier Chris- topher, a physician and botanist, 1649-1716. SCHELLER, E. J. G., a German lexico- grapher and philologist, 1735-1803. SCHELLING, Frederick William Joseph; born at Leonberg in Wirtemberg, 27th January, 1775 : his philosophical career seems closed, but Schelling still lives in honoured retirement near Berlin. We shall certainly not attempt to give a critical account of the speculations of this remark- able man. It must suffice if we can point out his place, in the history of recent German philosophy, and define his practical influence over his contem- poraries: nor do we undertake even this, unless under concession of the license to employ such general language as alone may convey to the reader of notices like these, some distinct concep- tion of the character of an obscure and difficult theme. The order of recent German speculation, as marked by its authors, is the following Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel. In the article de- voted to him, we have explained pretty fully the peculiar achievements of Kant, which were briefly these ; living in an age when the pure sensational philosophy had arrived at its lowest stage, deny- ing activity and even personality to Mind, he re- established by irresistible criticism, that Mind is an essential Energy and Force; and farther un- folded the specific Laws according to which that Force acts. He showed that whatever the exter- nal Universe on which the Mental Force acts, our Substantive Knowledge depends, for its form and nature, wholly on these Mental Laws. Nay overlooking to a large extent the possible power of Intuition properly so-called (article Leibnitz) he went so far as to say that, of the External Universe itself, we can know nothing save that it 685 SCH exists, or rather that an obscure something called the Noumenon exists. It is evident wherein Kant's merit lies; he established the prime Re- ality of Subjective or Mental Laws. Next, came Fichte. Can it be alleged, said he, that Philo- sophy is complete, so long as it recognizes, on the one hand, a Subjective Force, and opposite to it that hidden and impenetrable Externality called the Noumenon ? Let us look deeper into things ! What necessity for this Noumenon? Do we in reality know anything except the move- ments of Mind itself'; and is not the thing we term Externality, only our sense of obstacles in the way of the Mind's efforts to develop itself? Hence his pure Subjective Idealism: he re- jected the existence of everything except his Ego ; and it cannot be denied that he had several logical advantages over Kant. When Fichte's philoso- phy sustained by his wonderful ardour and elo- quence promised to become supreme, Schelling arose, and ventured a loftier flight. On first entering the philosophic arena, he was quite young; and a Temperament essentially poetic, warm with the Enthusiasm of early years, possessed as its companion and fellow-worker, an Intellect, which whatever its degree of incompleteness must, by all the world, be confessed to have been endowed with extraordinary powers. With Fichte, Schelling rejected Kant's dualism the first and fatal step of both, (article Hamilton). The ultimate principle of Philosophy, he said, must be One, or the Absolute. Now this Absolute can- not be in the Object or in Externality ; for that is not perceived or known to exist unless by a Mental Force distinct from itself; neither in the Mental Force of Kant, which needs a Noumenon to stir it to action ; nor in the Ego of Fichte, which only develops itself under the experience of obstacles. What then, is that, which all Philosophy seeks the One of Parmenides, the Substance of Spin- oza, that Absolute and Transcendent Reality, which is the foundation at once of all existence and all knowledge ; and, for Itself, has no founda- tion except Itself? It will be observed how nearly this Inquiry touches on the thought of all Religious Philosophy, so near is it, that the so- lution might appear contained in the Idea of a Supreme Mind, in whom we live, move, and have our Being. And Schelling actually finds it, in an Idea closely analogous the Idea of an A bso- late Subject of an Ego, not special like Fichte's, but Absolute and Transcendent, characterized by perfect unity, by liberty, reality, absolute substan- tiality, cause imminent, infinite, indivisible, im- mutable. The correspondence, however, is not more than apparent : at least, there is soon a widest divergence. From this Absolute, according to Schelling, all things flow, or rather they are only its developments : Material Creation is an expres- sion of its Infinite Reality, its positive manifesta- tion within the limits of the Finite ; and Mind is the act of its Self consciousness, it is the act or power by which its Laws and Ideas are directly seen and felt. No use then, he exclaims, of a Pre-estab- lished Harmony between the realms of Thought and Existence; for they are the same: the actual World is only the representation of Ideas, and Mind is the type of the Universe. The Subject and Object, are thus not only, mere harmonious SCH Opposites : they are Identical. There are tw distinct aspects under which this extraordinar and daring Philosophy of Identity, must be garded : a few remarks on each will enable us comprehend the nature and limits of Schelling influence. I. And, jirst, on that point of loft est moment as to the character of any Philost phy the place it assigns to the Mature an Duties of Man. Now, it cannot be doubted, tha whatever the glowing and gorgeous account it ca give of the attributes and dignity of the Reason- attaining in its high Inspirations, identity wil the Absolute itself Schelhng's philosophy is op< to that fatal objection already alluded to und article Hegel it builds upon Ideas obtain* through our human Consciousness, and finally d monstrates that these Ideas are untrue ! V should despair of success in an attempt to cou municate here, anything of a distinct account the conceptions of this remarkable German, as the position of the individual Ego ; but it is plai that there is no room among them either for o Human Personality, or our Human Liberty, writings, indeed, are full of impressive rei'erenc to Moral Liberty ; but he tells us, when na rowly questioned, that Liberty, as a power of i dependent action, is incompatible with the idea the Absolute. Neither on Schelling's system q personality of any kind inhere in the individj Mind. If we understand him aright, the soul nothing more than an Idea of the soul of G( Its Individuality perishes with the body of whi it is the living principle ; although, as an Idea, must live for ever, within the Thought of J Absolute, to which it returns. If, as has be alleged, this Pantheism is the most gorgeous of similar schemes that Philosophy, ancient or n dern, has evolved ; certainly it is also one of i least disguised. It was understood that af silence during those twenty years, within wh. the system of Hegel rose, flourished, and $ Schelling had undertaken to state his Philosoj anew, and to supplement it, so that Human Di and Responsibility should be saved. For this t> in 1841, he reappeared, in possession of the Of at Berlin; but after occupying that distinguisl place for three years, he has finally retired, out affording the world assurance of his success i Turning from the views of Schelling regard; Man, to those which inspire his conceptions of | External Universe, we pass from durknes*;! light. Considering this vast scheme of Mate Nature, not as a mere collection of dead jfl held together by external relationship; but a development now and for ever a developing! cessantly unfolding, of the attributes o^^ Supreme Intelligence how profound, impressive the Thought ! It is no exagga that this exalted and most true Idea, has in alike into the Science, Art, and Literature of many, the greater portion of that loftiness ai hering life, which nas stamped it with the in of Immortality. The Universe, said Schelli not merely an existence, it is a becomfy about-to-be. It is not a mechanism, but a gb organism: and on this ground Okl:n and] of his compeers wrought out those wonderful prophetic views, which even now to elat and discern in their details, is perhaps the lq SCH SCH [lory of our own illustrious Owen. II. We must His range of thought is incomparably narrower; 1 his imagery not only wants the inexhaustible variety of Goethe's, but also fails in reaching his romantic cast of refined ideality ; and his tone of feeling is less purely and abstractedly poetical. But his poetry, while its richness of imagination within its own sphere is magnificent, and while it is ruled by a very high sense of art, glows with a flame of intense and elevated moral emotion, which is irresistibly and delightfully impressive. It com- municates the spirit which prompted it, and which governed the character of the warm-hearted and conscientious poet, the spirit of love and reve- rence, of love for mankind, and reverence for all that is truly great and noble. It was accident and emulation, rather than innate aptitude, that led him to put forth his strength most frequently on the drama; and his greatest works are less excellent in their portraiture of character (which is monotonous and often unreal), than in their deep passion, their moral purity and dignity, and their beautiful array of imaginative adornment. Many of his smaller poems, his odes and ballads, are as tine as those of Goethe; and he was not only an animated and eloquent historian, but also an acute expounder of the laws of philosophical criticism. The short life of Schiller, beginning at a time whose literary character for Germany has been noted in the memoir of Goethe, is distributed, by his biographer Carlyle, into three periods. The first of these reaches from his birth, on the 10th of November 1759, to 1783, when he was in his twenty-fourth year. This was the time of his irregular youthful aspirations, a stage in his history which was in some points like the youth of Goethe. His father, a retired army surgeon, was still in the service of the duke of Wurtemberg; and the poet was born at Marbach, in that duchy. After shifting from school to school, he was, in 1783, by the command of the duke, placed for six years in a college recently founded at Stuttgard, and administered with a military formality of dis- cipline, which proved highly irksome to the pupil. He had contemplated being a clergyman. He was now compelled to study law ; and it was only as a change of evils that he accepted, after two years, the permission to betake himself to medicine. His favourite books were the critical and philosophical works of Lessing ; the ' Goetz,' lately published by Goethe, which prompted a juvenile tragedy ; and, among other poems, the 'Messias' of Klopstock, which tempted bim to an imitation in his four- teenth year. In bis nineteenth year he began to write 'The Robbers,' an irregularly impressive monument of youthful fantasy, an exaggerated picture of human passion and error, drawn by one who, in his own words, had ' presumed to delineate men two years before he had met one.' In 1780, having been appointed a regimental surgeon, he was able to print his tragedy : it caused universal excitement and much alarm, and brought on the author a ducal censure. In October, 1782, he absconded from Stuttgard to seek freedom and fame. In 1783 he published two other prose tra- gedies, 'Fiesco' and 'Cabal and Love.' Both | are remarkable works, and the latter is deeply in- j teresting ; but neither is worthy to have been any- thing more than a youthful ess:iy-piece of Schiller. I The second period of liis life opens here. Becom- asten, however, with a few and brief remarks, on e second main feature of this singular Scheme. " tiling's philosophy is a Philosophy of Iden- . He does not deny either Mind or Matter either the Ego or the non-Ego ; but he de- ares them variations in form only, and that they the same. The Mind is in one sense a mirror the external universe ; the Ideas of the former, the Laws of the latter: hence, every true osophy of Nature must aim at discerning the entity of these Laws with these Ideas ; for the scovery of such Identity is its ultimate triumph. Likewise from this essential aspect of Schelling's stem, much error, and much of highest value ive flowed. His own systematic ' Natur Philo- phiej is certainly very strange ; and no one in is country can recognize any accuracy in its thod. Undervaluing the guidance of Induction, institutes a description of d priori inquiry, urting from the Mental Pole ; and, laying down lat he finds there, as a sort of a priori schema, sets about constructing Laws of Nature, in cor- pondence with it. Nothing can well be con- ved farther from truth than his actual results ; hough even amid that extraordinary medley my curious germs and indications, lie hid shings of unquestionable genius. But the leral Idea has not been unproductive. It has pired many of the noblest productions of ethe ; and we can trace its influence through German poetry since Schelling first wrote, greatest achievements, however, lie in the ilosophy of Art. It has raised Art, from being lere imitation or copy of Nature, to a high re- rch after Archetypal Ideas, a research ducted in the main by that mysterious and Roundest Faculty belonging to our Human rit the Faculty of Imagination. The glish reader will find many conceptions drawn n Schelling, scattered through the prose writ- of Coleridge, whose remarkable mind a philosophy was especially calculated to anate. Of his successor Hegel, we have sady endeavoured to speak. See also article noza. [J.P.N.] 1CHELLINGS, William, a Dutch painter of and history, 1631-1678. Daniel, his and pupil, 1633-1701. CHERMER, L., a Dutch painter, 1688-1710. iCHERZ, J. G., a Ger. antiquarian, 16.8-1754. CHEUCHZER, John James, a Swiss phvsi- i and naturalist, 1672-1733. His brother, r, a botanist, 1684-1738. His son, John par, a naturalist, 1702-1729. CHEYB, F. C. De, a Germ, poet, 1704-1777. CHI AMINOSSI, Raphael, an Italian painter engraver, born at Borgo-San-Sepolcro, 1580. 3HIAVONE, Andrew, whose proper name Medula, a painter of Dalmatia, 1522-1582. CHIDONE. See Schedone. CHIEFERDECKER, John David, a German dogian and Orientalist, 1672-1721. CHIERSCIIMIDT, J. J., a German juriscon- and partizan of the doctrines of Wolfe, d. 1778. CHILL, Ferdinand Von, a Prussian officer, ing. in the war against the French, 1773-1809. CHILLER, Friedrich, is the only German who can contest the supremacy of Goethe. 687 son ing, for subsistence, poet ' to the theatre at Man- heim, he produced, besides small poems, the ' Phi- losophical Letters,' which show the continuance of his chaotic and unsettled state of mind ; and, in the ' Thalia,' a periodical devoted to criticism, and chiefly written by himself, he printed, in 1784, the first three acts of the noble ' Don Carlos,' his earliest dramatic piece in verse. In the spring of 1785 he gave up his place in the theatre, and went to live in the pretty village of Gohlis, in the wood- land meadows near Leipzig. There he wrote, in a more cheerful vein than hitherto, his beautiful ' Song to Joy.' ' Don Carlos,' completed in 1786, made him celebrated as one of the first of all Ger- man poets ; but he was weary of dramatic writing, and occupied himself much with lyrical and nar- rative ballads, like The Song of the Bell,' ' The Walk to the Forge,' ' Knight Toggenburg,' and ' The Cranes of Ibycus.' About this time also, he printed his extraordinary prose romance (never finished) called 'The Ghost-Seer.' He was next busied much with historical studies, and printed in part a 1 History of Remarkable Conspiracies and Revolu- tions.' Soon afterwards he visited Weimar, where he became acquainted with Herder and Wieland, and afterwards with Goethe, between whom and him there was at first much dryness, giving place by degrees to cordial esteem. In 1788 appeared the first volume of his admirable ' History of the Revolt of the Netherlands,' which procured for him what he had long panted for, a quiet and indepen- dent social position. His attainment of this object begins the third and last period of his fife. In 1789, being in his thirtieth year, he was appointed to the professorship of history at Jena, a few miles from Weimar ; and in the beginning of the next year he married happily. He retained his pro- fessorship for ten years, removing, in 1799, to Weimar, where he lived on a pension from the duke, and on the fruits of such literary labour as he was able to undertake. He had been threatened with a disease of the chest as early as the time of his settlement at Jena ; and the air of that place was pronounced too keen for him. The physicians indeed ordered, without effect, a total abstinence from intellectual exertion. Among the earliest fruits of this period were 'The History of the Thirty Years' War ' (1791), regarded as his best work of this kind; and several treatises on the Philosophy of History, taken from or prompted by his lectures. Afterwards, studying the philosophy of Kant, he endeavoured to apply its principles to Literary Criticism in several singularly interesting essays, among which may be noted the ' Letters on the jEsthetical Education of Mankind' (1795). A good many critical and other papers were fur- nished to periodicals; and large additions were made to the stock of his minor poems. But, amidst all these exertions, and with a disease which he knew to be killing him, Schiller composed also the last and finest series of his long Poems. He con- templated writing an historical epic : but the design was never executed, and he fell back on the drama. His last historical work suggested the idea of 4 Wallenstein ;' and this fine play, or series of plays, which has with justice been declared to be ' the greatest dramatic work of the eighteeenth century,' appeared in 1799. The tragedy of ' Maria Stuart' was published in 1800 ; the admirable ' Maid of SCH Orleans' in 1801; in 1803, in the beautiful but u perfect tragedy of ' The Bride of Messina,' Schif tried how far the forms of the Greek drama coi be accommodated to modern ideas ; and, in 18( the career of an illustrious poet was worth closed by the animated and poetical drama, 'W helm Tell.' That year, at Berlin, where he si his last play acted, Schiller's disease brought h to the brink of the grave. He recovered sutlicicn to return to Weimar, and died there on the 9th Mav, 1805. [W. S'CHILLER, J. G., father of the great po known as an agriculturist, 1723-1796. SCHILLING, F. A., a Ger. novelist, 1766-18.' SCHILTER, J., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1632-17 SCHIM, H., a Dutch poet, 1695-1742. SCHIMMELMANN, Ernest Henry, Cot Von, a statesman and patron of letters, died 18i SCHIMMELMANN, Henry Charles, Coi Von, a Danish minister of finance, 1724-1782. SCHIMMELPENNINCK, Rutger John, Dutch statesman and revolutionist, 1761-1825. SCHINNER, or SKINNER, Matthew, kno in history as the Cardinal of Sim, legate of pope Julius II., and chief of the intrigues oppoi to the pretensions of the French, died 1521. SCHINDLER, V., a learned German, d. 161 SCHLEGEL, John Elias, a German poet dramatic writer, some of whose plays are 8 acted in his native country, ancestor of the tinguished brothers of that name, 1718-17 John Henry, his brother, professor of hist* 1724-1780. John Adolphus, a third brotl distinguished for his literary talents as a theolog and poet, and particularly for his eloquence s minister of the Lutheran church, 1721-17 Charles Augustus, eldest son of the latter, officer in the service of the English East Id? Company, and a student of Sanscrit literature, c young. His other two sons are the subjects of following articles. SCHLEGEL, August Wilhelm Von, son of a Lutheran clergyman, was born at Hanc; in 1767. At Gottingen, where he was first e j cated for the church, he passed to philosophy studies, and distinguished himself by contribul both prose and verse to the leading periodic. In 1797 he began to publish his excellent transit of Shakspeare, which, after some years, he left t< completed and improved by Tieck. In the sn year he obtained a professorship at Jena. He ir ried a daughter of Michaelis; but, soon separat from her, and resigning his office, he spent sev years at Berlin. He there published the firsi two volumes of poems, which, with his class tragedy ' Ion,' were for a time highly estimat and he also translated Calderon. But his c occupation was the contribution of critical other papers to periodicals, in which, with- brother Frederick and Ludwig Tieck, he air at inculcating those views of literature w\) make up the system, called by the Germans l Romantic. In 1805 he became acquainted Madame de Stael, whom he taught pretty ne all she ever learned of German literature, attended during her travels for several years.^ ' eloquent and striking ' Lectures on DramaA and Literature,' which have made his nanw popular in England, were delivered at Vienn SCH and printed the year after. On the fall of apoleon he went to Coppet, and resided there till [adame de Stael's death in 1818. Next year he as appointed professor of history at Bonn, an See which he held till his death. Here he mar- ed a daughter of the theologian, Paulus; and this arriage, like the other, soon ended in a separa- jn. His ambition now, besides some minor objects, med mainly at skill and fame as an Orientalist ; id by his essays, translations, and teaching, he d very much for the study of the Sanscrit lan- lage. He died in 1845. [W.S.] SCHLEGEL, Friedrich Von, the younger other of Wilhelm, possessed both greater exact- ss of knowledge, and greater power of philo- jMcal thought : but he was obscure and mys- al, and carried completely away by that am of reverence for the middle ages, which his brother, Tieck, Novalis, and others, laid the foundation of their so-called Romanti- m. He was born at Hanover in 1772, and died 1829. Classical literature was the theme his earliest works. In 1796 he and his bro- t set on foot the ' Athenseum,' the first organ their peculiar critical opinions. His history erwards exhibits a constant changing of place, I an industrious and versatile series of literary rks ; while his pursuits were further varied by itical and official employment. The serious- i and consistency with which he carried out admiration of the mediaeval period showed mselves, in him as in some of the poets and sts, by a change of religion : he and his wife, a fhter of Moses Mendelssohn, became Roman olics in 1801. The same turn of mind made act, with sincerity but much unpopularity, zealous abettor of the political system of the itrian government. The works of his which best known in this country are the ' Lectures the History of Ancient and Modern Litera- ,' (1815), and the 'Philosophy of Historv,' 59). [W.S.] CHLEGEL, T., a Ger. philologist, 1739-1810. CHLEGEL, T. A., a Ger. physician, 1727-72. CHLEIERMACHER, Frederic Daniel test, an eminent German divine, was a native .reslau, where he was born in 1768. His :ation was obtained in the Moravian institu- at Niesky, and on leaving that academy in ' to pursue the study of theology, to whicn he resolved on dedicating his future life, he re- to the university of Halle. Having received he was in 1794 appointed assistant preacher ndsberg, on the Warte; and afterwards r of the charite, a large hospital in Berlin, it situation he continued six years, and dur- b incumbency published a variety of little , such as a German translation of Fawcett's the Monologues, Letters of a Minister out lin, and various contributions to religious literary periodicals. His translation of Plato gun at an early period ; and as that was a undertaking, comprising several large volumes, ublication extended over a series of years. g been appointed to a situation at Stolpe, he Berlin, in 1802, and settled in that curacy, he published a volume of sermons. He had wever, been a year resident at Stolpe, when chosen professor extraordinarius of divinity SCH at Halle and preacher to the university. On the separation of Halle from Prussia, in 1807, he returned to Berlin as a public lecturer, and in two years after was appointed first minister of Trinity church, and afterwards professor ordinarius of the new university in that city. At this period he published his celebrated ' Study of Theology,' and in consequence several literary honours were con- ferred on him, for he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and secretary to the Philosophical Society. It must be acknowledged, that, however eminent his literary and philosophical acquirements, he brought at this part of his career a spirit of rash theoretical speculation to the dis- cussion of theological subjects, that was deeply deplored by all simple hearted believers in the Gospel. Among his productions of this character must be ranked his ' Essay on the Gospel of Luke,' which was published in 1817 ; his ' Body of Divinity' (Christiche Glaube) was given to the world in 1822. This remarkable work, it is diffi- cult to describe, for its plan is altogether unique, consisting of a regular consecutive series of philo- sophical propositions, the elucidation of which by turns astonishes the reader with its profundity, perplexes him with its intricacy, and delights him with the ardent piety that pervades it. In 1828, Schleiermacher accepted an invitation to come to London, to preach on the re-opening of Dr. Stein- kopff's German church of the Evangelical Lutheran School. His text on that occasion was taken from Ephes. iv. 23, and the sermon, amid much that was of an eminently devotional and impressive strain, produced a great sensation by its novel and startling peculiarities. He was the author of several volumes of sermons, besides his last work on ' The Doctrine of the Christian Faith.' He died 12th February, 1834, in the full enjoyment of the comforts of the gospel. A posthumous portrait of him soon after his death was published, accompanied by an admirable hymn of Claus Harms, or ' Heaven as the Christian's Fatherland,' and under the picture the following inscription, ' Happy end of a celebrated Divine.' The early writings of this eminent man abounded in a strain of sentiment, that led to his being extensively classed with the Neologian divines of Germany. Nay, the bold and startling opinions he announced in his larger works gave rise to impressions still more unfavourable to his theological soundness, for he has been characterized by various writers as aSabellian, Hegelian, Fatalist, and even a Pantheist. Those who are most intimately conversant with his works, regard all such epithets as entirely unwar- ranted at any period of his life. There can be no doubt, however, that as he advanced in life his views became more scriptural and orthodox, and he must be considered as the great leader in that happy movement, which broke up the old school of German theology, as occupying a midway place between a Hegel and a Hengstenberg, between a dead Rationalism and a living Evangelism. He was a person of the most active habits. He preached every Sabbath, without notes, to a crowded audience, and his lectures at the university during the week attracted as great a crowd of admirers as his ser- mons in the church. He exercised an immense influence over the intellectual, and especially the religious character of his countrymen. [R.J.J 9 2Y SCH SCHLICHTEGROLL, A. H. Frederic Von, a German biographer and numismatist, 1764-1822. SCHLICHTINGIUS, Jonas De Buccowiec, a Socinian writer of Poland, 1596-1664. SCHLOEZER, or SCHLOETZER, A. L., a German historian and Orientalist, 1737-1809. SCHLUTER, A., a Dutch sculptor, 1662-1713. SCHMAUSS, John James, professor of public law and history at Gottingen, author of a ' Precis of the History of the Empire,' 1690-1747. SCHMIDT, B., a German jurist, 1726-1778. SCHMIDT, Christopher, a writer of Rus- sian history, Hanover, 1740-1801. His son, Conrad Frederic, a theologian and philoso- pher, 1770-1832. SCHMIDT, E.. a Germ, philologist, 1560-1637. SCHMIDT, F.'W., a German botanist, d. 1796. SCHMIDT, G. F., a Germ, engraver, 1712-75. SCHMIDT, J. A., a Lutheran div., 1652-1726. SCHMIDT, M. I., a Germ, historian, 1736-94. SCHMIDT, S., a German Orientalist, d. 1697. SCHMITH, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit and historian of Hungary, died 1767. SCHMITZ, H. N., a Dutch engraver, 1758-90. SCHMUCK, E. J., a Germ, physician, the first to write on magnetism in that country, died 1792. SCHNEIDER, C. V., a Ger. anatom., 1610-80. SCHNEIDER, E., or J. G., a German Hellen- ist, and actor in the French revolution, 1756-1794. SCHNEIDER, John Gottlieb, a German lexicographer, and naturalist, 1750-1822. SCHNURRER, C. F., a German theologian and Orientalist, 1742-1822. SCHOBER, G., a Germ, physician, 1670-1739. SCHOEFFER, Peter, one of the inventors of printing, was a native of Gernsheim in Darmstadt, and in early life followed the trade of a copyist at Paris. He was connected with Guttemberg and Faust from about the year 1450, and the daughter of the latter became his wife. He is supposed to have died in 1502. SCHOEPF, J. D., a Ger. naturalist, 1752-1800. SCHOEPFLIN, J. D., a German historian and publicist, professor at Strasburg, 1694-1771. SCHOLARIUS, a patriarch of Constantinople, who was secretary to John Palasologus, and changed his name to Gennadius, died 1460. SCHOMBERG, A. C, a divine, 1756-1792. SCHOMBERG, Armand Frederic De, de- scended from a German family, was born of an English mother of the house of Dudley in 1619, and began his military career in the army of Gus- tavus Adolphus. From 1661 to 1685 he was in the service of France, and became marshal, but in the last mentioned year he retired to Brandenburg in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and became Prussian commander-in-chief and prime minister. In 1688 he joined the prince of Orange, and was shot at the battle of the Boyne, 15th July, 1690. SCHOMBERG, Henry, Count De, and marshal of France, distinguished as a statesman, ambassa- dor, and commander, was born of an ancient family of Misnia, established at Paris, 1583, died 1632. His son, Charles, a marshal of France, and governor of Languedoc, 1601-1656. SCHOMBERG, Isaac and Ralph, two sons of a Jewish physician of Cologne, who died in Lon- don 1761. Isaac was a graduate of Leyden and SCH Cambridge, but was refused a fellowship in t College of Physicians, and died 1780. Rali practised as a physician at Yarmouth and Bal defrauded a public charity, and published a stol Life of Meeamas as his own, died 1792. SCHOMBERG, Isaac, a naval commander a historian, who distinguished himself in the fleet Rodnev, and in the victory of Howe 1794, d. 181 SCHONER, J., a Ger. mathemat., 1477-155: SCHOOCKINS, M., a Dutch critic, 1614-16( SCHOORL, SCHOREL, orSCHOREEL, Job a Dutch painter of the Italian school, 1495-156!, SCHOOTEN, F., a Dut. mathemat., 17th ee SCHOPENHAUER, Johanna, a popular G man authoress, who lived at Weimar, and enjc the friendship of Goethe, 1770-1838. ' SCHOPP, Caspar, in Latin Scioppius, a lean German, called the ' Grammatical Cur,' 1576-16 SCHOTANUS, C, a Dutch historian, 1603- SCHOTT, And., a learned Flemish Jesuit, 15 1629. Francis, his br., an author, 1548-162S SCHOTT, Gaspard, the pupil and friend Father Kische, famous for his discoveries in nati and experimental philosophy, 1608-1660. SCHOTTE, J. P., a Ger. physician, 1744 SCHRADER, J., a Dutch savant, 1721-178 SCHREIBER, J. F., a surgeon, mathematic and prof, of anatomv at St. Petersburg, 1705 SCHREVELIUS, Cornelius, a labor Dutch critic and lexicographer, Haarlem, 1615 SCHROECH, L., a Ger. physician, 1646-17 SCHROECKH, J. M., a native of Vienna, an of a History of the Church, 1733-1803. SCHROEDER, C, an Austr. general, d. 1? SCHROEDER, John Joachim, a Ger Orientalist, 1680-1756. His son, Philip Geor a physician and medical writer, 1729-1772. SCHUBART, C. F. D., a Germ, poet, 173< SCHUBERT, F., an Aust. musician, 1795-1 SCHRYVER, Peter. See Scriverius. SCHULEMBOURG, J. Mathias, Count a companion-in-arms of Prince Eugene, 1661-] SCHULTENS, Albert, a German Orien- and biblical commentator, 1686-1750. His John James, an Orientalist, and successor o father as professor at Leyden, 1716-1778. Hi Albert, son and successor of the latter, 174 SCHULTET, Abraham, in Latin Scultett eminent protestant divine of Germany, 1566- SCHULTING, A., a German jurist, 1659 SCHULTING, C, a D. theologian, 1540- SCHULTZ, Bartholomew, in Latin Scut a Ger. mathematician, who was employed by gory XIII. in reforming the calendar, 1540-1 SCHULTZE, E. C. F., a Ger. poet, 1789- SCHULZE, Benjamin, an Orientalist s<i and Lutheran missionary to India, died 176C SCHULZE, G. E., a Ger. philosopher, aufc a work opposed to Kant and Reinhold. 1761- SCHULZE, J., a German philosopher, p* of the doctrines of Kant, 1739-1805. SCHULZE, P. H., a Ger. physician, 168' SCHUMACHER, Heinrich Christi distinguished professor of astronomy, born a' stein 1780, died 1850. SCHURER, J. L., a Ger. physician, 1734 SCHURMANN, Anna Maria De, a nat Cologne, remarkable for the extent of her ' ledge in the arts and sciences, 1607-1678. 690 SCH i SCHURTZFLEISCH, Conrad Samuel, in Latin Sarcmasius, a German savant, 1641-1708. f SCHUSTER, G., a Ger. physician, 1701-1785. SCHUTZ, C. G., a Ger. philologist, 1747-1832. SCHWAB, J. C, a German mathematician and liilosopher, opposed to Kant, 1743-1821. J SCHWANTHALER, an eminent German -julptor, 1802-1848. ii SCHWARTZ, Berthold, otherwise Con- wantine Aucklitzen, a German monk, to jjhom the invention of gunpowder has been attri- jjited. He was preceded, however, by Roger icon, who died 1292. Cannon were first used the Venetians in 1300, and were employed by fle English at the battle of Cressy 1346. S SCHWARTZ, C, a Germ, painter, 1550-1594. ^SCHWARTZ, C. T., a Ger. savant, 1675-1751. JSCHWARTZENBURG, Charles Philip, ince Von, an Austrian field-marshal and diplo- itist, born at Vienna 1771. He negotiated the uriage between Napoleon and Maria Louisa in 09, commanded the Austrian contingent in the npaign of Russia 1812, and was general of the ops which entered Paris after its capitulation 1 L4; died 1819. 1? SCHWARZENBERG, Prince, the celebrated tf) strian statesman, succeeded Metternich as prime J> oister in November, 1848, when the Austrian ire was almost in ruins ; 1800-1852. CHWEDIAUR, or SWEDIAUR, F. X., a nch physician and naturalist, 1748-1824. CHWERIN, Curt Christopher, Count Von, -marshal in the service of Prussia, companion- of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, born killed at the battle of Prague 1757. IAVONI. M., an Italian painter, 1522-1582. 2. tCILLA, Aug., an Italian painter, 1639-1700. 13 iCINA, D., an Italian physician, 1765-1837. M iCIOPPIUS. See Schopp. IB 1CIPIO, the name of several illustrious Romans: rait . Publius Cornelius, general of cavalry and vllisul, 393 b.c. 2. Lucius Cornelius, sur- jtial led Barbatus, consul 297 b.c. 3. Lucius His einelius, consul 259 and censor 258 B.c. The sson ription on his tomb, discovered in 1780, is one i, H ;he oldest monuments of the Latin tongue. ,1'-. jNeius Cornelius, surnamed Asina, twice C!i!!<( ml, 260 and 254 b.c. ; he distinguished him- lo*l against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 5. Pub- liiiWB Cornelius, consul 218 B.C., in which year lo^lost the battle of Picinus, which left Hannibal in Salter of northern Italy ; he went as proconsul to red If in, and was killed there in the contest with 1540-1 rubal 212. 6. Cneius Cornelius, surnamed 1$ nis, brother of the preceding, filled the same alisti es, and reaped his laurels and his death in iillS n about the same time. 7. Publius Corne- er ,a l, surnamed Africanus the Elder, son of Pub- [0 Cornelius and nephew of the preceding (next ^r.ji le). 8. Cneius Cornelius and Lucius (or 1 lius) Cornelius, sons of Scipio Africanus, $} i little place in history; the latter, however, ijjpjsjj emorable as an historical writer, and for his \0 1 tion of the second Africanus. 9. Luci us Cor- I [us, surnamed the Asiatic, son of the Publius r was killed in Spain, and companion-in-arms )E ' j j t brother, Africanus. He was consul 189 B.C., jjjlmefeated Antiochus. king of Syria, but after- - died in obscurity. 10. Publius Corne- SCI lius, surnamed Nasica, son of the Cneius Corne- lius killed in Spain ; he is remembered as a man of the rarest public virtue, distinguished him- self as a jurisconsult, defeated the Lusitanians, and was consul 200 b.c. 11. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, surnamed Corculum, son of the preceding, consul 162 b.c. 12. Publius Corne- lius, surnamed Serapion, son of the preceding, was consul 138 b.c, and became sovereign pontiff by the choice of his fellow-citizens, without pre- senting himself at the election. He suppressed the sedition of Tiberius Gracchus, his cousin, at the cost of three hundred lives, B.C. 133, and was then sent on a mission to Asia, where he died 131. 13. His son, Publius Cornelius, was consul 112 b.c, and died the same year. 14. Scipio Nasica, son of the latter, known, in consequence of his adoption, as Metellus Scipio, and the enemy of Caesar, exercised great influence at the declining period of the republic; he killed him- self after the defeat of Thapsus b.c 46. 15. His son, Publius Cornelius, was consul in the reign of Augustus b.c 15, and was exiled for his inces- tuous intercourse with Julia. 16. The last of the Scipios known to history, grandson of the preced- ing, was a vile character of the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. He distinguished himself, however, as a soldier. SCIPIO AFRICANUS the ELDER (Pub- lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major), the greatest man of his age, was born b.c 234. He was the son of P. Cornelius Scipio who encountered Hannibal on the banks of the Ticino (b.c 218) ; and perished in Spain B.C. 211. When only seven- teen years old, Scipio saved the life of his father in the battle of the Ticino ; two years after (b.c 216) he fought at Cannae as a military tribune ; and, being one of the few officers who survived that fatal carnage, was principally instrumental in pre- venting the Roman nobility from leaving Italy in despair. The distinction which he had thus ac- quired secured his unanimous election to the aedile- snip in b.c 212 ; and in B.C. 210 he was sent as proconsul to Spain, nearly the whole of which country had reverted to the possession of the Car- thaginians. Here his remarkable talents first dis- played themselves ; his military skill defeated the enemy in the field of battle, while his personal influ- ence, his humanity and courtesy, gained for him the affections of the inhabitants of the country. Returning to Rome in b.c 206, he was unanimously elected consul for the following year, and obtained the province of Sicily, with power to cross over into Africa, if he should deem it necessary for the interest of the state. The senate resolutely refused him an army, thus rendering his command worth- less; but the celebrity of his name soon attracted volunteers from all the towns of Italy ; and having obtained a prolongation of his command, he pro- ceeded as proconsul to Africa (b.c 204), where, in conjunction with Masinissa, king of the Numi- dians, he obtained some advantages over the enemy. The Carthaginians in the meantime had collected a powerful army under the command of Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, and were aided by Syphax, a Numidian prince, who brought with him a numer- ous force. In the early part of B.C. 203, Scipio made an unexpected attack upon the two encamp- ments, burnt them to the ground, and destroyed 691 SCI nearly the whole army. The two generals, who escaped, soon returned with a fresh force, but were again defeated with great slaughter. The Cartha- ginians now becoming alarmed by these repeated disasters, resolved to recall Hannibal from Italy ; and at the same time opened negotiations for peace, during which they obtained a truce for forty- five days. Before the specified time expired, the Car- thaginian populace, who had never been desirous of peace, plundered some Roman ships which were bringing provisions for Scipio's army, and insulted the Roman envoys who were sent to demand re- paration. Hostilities were resumed on the arrival of Hannibal, who soon collected an army far superior in number to that of Scipio. Hannibal, however, foreseeing that the loss ot a battle would be ruinous to Cartilage, was anxious before it was too late, to conclude a peace ; and Scipio, fearing lest his enemies at Rome might succeed in sup- planting him in the command, was not unwilling to put an end to the war ; but the terms which he offered were such as the enemy could not, without entire submission, accept, and Hannibal was thus forced to continue to act on the defensive. Scipio now resolved to hazard a decisive battle, which his opponent cautiously avoided, till on the Roman army feigning a retreat, Hannibal followed with his cavalry, and was defeated in the neighbourhood of Zama. The decisive battle was at last fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, not far from the city of Zama. Scipio's victory was complete ; 20,000 of the Carthaginians were slain, and an equal number taken prisoners. The negotiations which ensued were concluded during the following year, when Scipio returned to Rome, and was received with the greatest enthusiasm. He entered the city in triumph, and obtained, in honour of his victories, the surname of Africanus. The rest of his life was passed in comparative quiet. He was censor in B.C. 199, and consul a second time in B.C. 194. He served as a legate in Greece under his brother, Lucius, who was consul b.c. 190 ; and having on his return been accused of receiving bribes from Antiochus, king of Syria, he quitted Rome and retired to his country seat at Liternum, where he spent the remainder of his days in the cultivation of his estate. He is believed to have died B.C. 183, leaving two sons and two daughters, the younger of whom was the mother of the Gracchi. Scipio, as a general, was second to none but his great opponent Hannibal ; as a Roman citizen he does not deserve equal praise ; he dis- regarded the laws of the constitution whenever these stood in the way of his own views and pas- sions. [C.F.] SCIPIO AFRICANUS the YOUNGER, (Publius C(nweKu8 Scipio JEmilianus Africanus Minor) was the younger son of Lucius jEmilius Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia, and the adopted son of Publius Scipio, the elder of the sons of the great Africanus. Scipio must have been born B.C. 185, as he took an active part, at the age of seventeen, in the battle of Pydna (b.c. 168), in which his father defeated Perseus, king of Mace- donia. From his earliest years he appears to have devoted himself to the study of literature; and even his arduous duties as a military commander did not prevent him from embracing every oppor- tunity of extending his knowledge of Greek letters SCI and philosophy. The historian Polybius whom he probably became acquainted in Gree was his intimate friend, and accompanied him nearly all his campaigns ; and the poets Lucil and Terence, at a later period of his life, enjo; his friendship and patronage. His fondness' Greek literature and refinement excited feeling uneasiness in the minds of his friends ; but to t Scipio added the virtues and patriotism of a genu Roman. He first attracted notice in B.C. when, in consequence of the disasters which befallen the Romans in Spain, great difficulty experienced in raising troops, which he at once moved by offering his services. As military i bune in the army of Lucullus he distinguis himself by personal courage, while his disintem integrity gained the affections of the barbarian' well as his own countrymen. On the breaking of the third Punic war in b.c. 149 he went to Afr still holding the rank of military tribune, and a< distinguished himself so much by his courage, t dence, and justice, as to gain the unlimited c fidence of all with whom he came in contact. b.c. 148 he returned to Rome, accompanied by wishes of all the soldiers that he might soor sent back as their commander ; and such was impression produced by his character and achii ments that, when he offered himself a candii for the aedileship for B.C. 147, he was elected i sul, though he had not attained the legal age, had Africa assigned to him as his province, his arrival in the Roman camp he speedily rest< discipline, and commenced a series of operat which ultimately confined the Carthaginians their capital. In the spring of the following ; he attacked the devoted city, which was defer from street to street, and from house to house, i after a struggle of three days, razed it to the groi When the arrangements necessary for redu Africa to the form of a province were compk- Scipio returned to Rome, where he obtain* splendid triumph, and also the surname of 1 canus. He was censor in B.C. 142. Meanw the war continued to rage in Spain, the inhabit of Numantia still continuing to refuse to ^ knowledge the supremacy of Rome. Scipio accordingly appointed consul a second time 134, and succeeded in reducing them to submit (b.c. 133) after they had suffered the most dr , ful extremities of hunger. For this victor' received the surname of Numantinus. During command in Spain, Tiberius Gracchus, to whose i ter, Sempronia, he was married, had fallen a vi to his efforts in favour of an Agrarian law ; | the conqueror of Numantia, on his return to I in b.c. 132, became the leader of the aristoc in preventing the law from being carried intoei He thus sacrificed the favour ot the people. making a violent speech in the Forum, in w he a second time publicly avowed his approv the death of Tiberius Gracchus, he went horn the evening, accompanied by the senate and aj number of the allies, and retired to his bed-J with the intention of preparing a speech fori following day. Next morning he was found in his bed-room ; and a general opinion prev that he had been murdered. Suspicion fell ' various persons ; and among others, upon his Sempronia, and her mother, Cornelia. {jfl SCL SCLATER, W., an English divine, died 1647. SCOPAS, a Greek sculptor, 4th century B.C. SCOPOLI, Giovanni Antonio, a naturalist id mineralogist of Tyrol, 1723-1787. SCORZA, S., a Genevese painter, 1589-1631. SCOTT, a family of dissenting ministers, the ^incipal of whom was Daniel, a writer of much .'' irning on the Trinity, died 1759. Thomas, his * If-brother, author of Sermons, died 1746. The : a of the latter, of the same name, published a V J rsion of the book of Job in 1774 ; and his second a, Joseph Nichol, both a minister and physi- _ in, died about 1774. .3 SCOTT, David, a Scottish historian, and par- ,J an of the Stuarts, 1675-1742. '. SCOTT, David, was born at Edinburgh in the J mth of October, 1806. His father, Robert Scott, | raght him up to his own profession, that of an en- j ( iver, but this pursuit being extremely distasteful i the younger Scott, he eventually took to paint- ;'l r in 1827, after the expiration of his apprentice- ;;' p. Having made several preliminary studies ; i efforts in Edinburgh, and attended the ana- '.' nical lectures of Dr. Monro, he considered him- ; ' f sufficiently prepared for an Italian tour. He ;'. rted in the autumn of 1832, and spent the j later portion of 1833 in Rome, where he painted '"} large unintelligible picture, which he called ;'' iscord,' or ' Household Gods Destroyed ;' a com- -' ation recalling Flaxman's Prometheus Chained, ;" ; in this case absurdly applied ; it suggests, if rthing, Samson awaking after the treachery of . lilah. He returned to England in the spring of ^ following year, to find ' the colouring of Eng- J i pictures of the day, white and vermilion, ' e ' lsy, raw, unnatural, and sketchy,' in common ] ; doubt with many other travellers on the con- '?, snt some years back. David Scott came home . levoted victim to the grand style, as fore- T dowed in his 'Discord,' but to the poetic or j ic, rather than the religious ; like Michelangelo, was a lover of the abstract, but wanting the pious devotion which certainly pervaded the d conceptions of that extraordinary man. now exhibited a long succession of pictures Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was ber, of varied merit, but all of an unusual cter and subject, classic and other history, ever, gradually asserting its claim to share ntion with abstract aesthetics, generally too to be felt at all by Scott's public ; but in H ie instances the work was a compromise be- H en the two, as in his ' Paracelsus,' or ' Alchy- 1 t,' and in his truly magnificent work, indeed *? masterpiece, ' Vasco de Gama encountering the ; it of the Cape,' now placed in the Trinity House ^eith. His perseverance in this unbeaten path ; spite of an almost constant succession of dis- 'i 1 ointments as regards the more substantial a f srds of art, gradually undermined his consti- : on, and he sunk at last into a premature grave ch 5, 1849, in his forty-third year. With aU :; Jl-timed abstractions, and moral peculiarities, they are abundantly shown in the very inter- 5 lg memoir of him by his brother, Scott was ,B H nestionably a very superior artist, and may n the martyr's branch with far more justice Haydon. Most of his works show a high uality, and many as pictures are vigorously SCO drawn and even gorgeously coloured, as for instance his admirable 'Triumph of Love,' in the possession of his brother, a subject offering a delightful spot of sunshine among the usually prevailing gloomy abstractions of his pessimist philosophy. Among his unquestionably good works, also, either for sentiment of execution or both, are : Queen Elizabeth in the Globe Theatre ; Peter the Her- mit , Jane Shore ; Richard III. ; Achilles address- ing the Manes of Patroclus. To these must be added some series of designs, as those illustrating the Pilgrim's Progress ; and his very remarkable and admirable series on ' The Ancient Mariner,' fully worthy of that extraordinary poem. For further details the reader may consult the Memoir of David Scott, B.S.A., containing his journal in Italy, notes on art and other papers, with seven illustrations, by William B. Scott, an ably planned work, and calculated to afford, if anything can, an invaluable lesson to all inordinately ambitious young artists, suffering under an impatient morbid hankering after the praise of those collectively, whose judgments individually they invariably profess to despise when unfavourable to them- selves. TR.N.W.T SCOTT, G. L., a mathematician, died 1780. SCOTT, Helenas, the son of a Scottish minis- ter, practised as a physician at Bombay, and wrote 'The Adventures of a Rupee,' died 1821. SCOTT, James, an episcopal divine, celebrated as a preacher and political writer, 1733-1814. SCOTT, John. See Eldon. SCOTT, John, a Quaker poet, 1739-1783. SCOTT, John, a miscellaneous writer, who commenced the publication of the ' London Maga- zine' in 1820, and was killed in a duel arising out of a literary quarrel 1821. His works are 'A Visit to Paris in 1814,' and ' Paris Revisited in 1815 by Way of Brussels, including a Walk over the Field of Waterloo.' SCOTT, John, a learned minister of the Church of England, author of 'The Christian Life from its Beginning to its Consummation in Glory,' and of some critical and casuistical works, 1638-1694. SCOTT, Sir Michael, generally reputed a magician, was a native of Scotland, remarkable for his learning and skill in the occult sciences. His works are ' The Secrets of Nature,' ' The Sun and Moon,' 'Mensa Philosophica,' an edition of Aristotle, and a translation of Avicenna's History of Animals from the Arabic into Latin ; died 1293. SCOTT, Michael, a Scottish merchant, author of the well-known sketches entitled ' Tom Cringle's Log,' which first appeared in ' Blackwood's Maga- zine.' Bora in Glasgow 1789, died 1835. SCOTT, Reynold or Reginald, a gentleman of Kent, remarkable for his work written against the common belief in witchcraft, which was replied to by Casaubon, Glanvil, and James I. ; d. 1599. SCOTT, Samuel, an English painter, d. 1772. SCOTT, Thomas, rector of Aston Sandf'ord, author of a 'Defence of Calvinism,' 1747-1821. SCOTT, Thomas, otherwise Rotheram, from his birth-place in Yorkshire, a prelate and states- man, died 1500. SCOTT, Sir Walter, had a pedigree, his sensu of which affected materially both the spirit of his writings and the events of his life. From the great border-family, now represented by the SCO dukes of Buccleuch, there came in the fourteenth century, as an offshoot, the family of Harden, the heads of which are barons of Polwarth. The poet's great grandfather was a younger son oi Scott of Harden ; his grandfather, poorly provided for, became a farmer in Roxburgh- shire ; and his father, Walter Scott, was a writer to the signet or attorney in Edinburgh, and mar- ried the daughter of a medical professor in the university. Walter, the fourth child of this couple, was born in the Old Town of Edinburgh, on the loth of August, 1771. He was a sickly infant, and became incurably lame in his second year ; and, after this, till he was about eight years of age, his childhood was principally spent at his grandfather's farm-house of Sandyknowe, where he became lovingly familiar with the scenery and tradi- tions and ballads of the border. In this stage he was fond of reading ; but, on being placed at the High School of Edinburgh, towards the end of 1779, he failed to distinguish himself in the regular studies of the class. He was, however, eminent for his historical and miscellaneous knowledge, for his skill in story- telling, and for his personal courage. In his twelfth year his love of ballad-poetry was ineradicably established, by the delight with which he perused Percy's ' Reliques.' In the winter of 1783 he entered the university of his native city, attending only one session, with little or no appar- ent profit. He never understood Greek beyond the elements, and had but a loose scholarship in Latin ; and the acquaintance, which he obtained in early manhood, with French, Italian, Spanish, and Ger- man, was very superficial. In May, 1786, when he was nearly fifteen years old, he was articled to his father, and attended regularly in chambers for about four years. For literary avocations he was making, undesignedly, full preparation, by devour- ing romances, novels, histories, and old plays; while he continued to distinguish himself by tell- ing and inventing stories. His father's intention, as well as his own, was, that he should come to the bar ; and his attendance in the debating-club, called the Speculative Society, was one of his steps of training, while it gave occasion for his writing of essays, exhibiting his turn for antiquarian and poetical studies. In 1792 he was admitted as a member of the Scottish Faculty of Advocates. In 1796 he published translations, in verse, of Bur- ger's German ballads, Lenora, and the Wild Hunts- man ; and he contributed to Lewis's Tales of Won- der. In 1798 appeared his translation of Goethe's prose drama, ' Goetz Von Berlichingen ; ' and in 1799 he wrote, and made known to his friends, the earliest of his considerable efforts in original poetry, the ballads of ' Glenfinlas,' 'The Eve of St. John,' and ' The Grey Brother.' Still he had gained no high literary reputation; nor was literary com- position more than an occasional employment for him. He paid an average amount or attention to his profession, and was desirous to secure an inde- Eendent livelihood from some source other than terature. In the end of 1797 he married Miss Carpenter, the daughter of a French emigrant, whose small fortune added something to his income : his father's death next gave him a moderate patri- mony ; and, in 1799, the patronage of the duke of Buccleuch and Lord Melville, to whose politics he steadily and warmly adhered, bestowed on him the SCO sheriffship of Selkirkshire, an easy office, wit! salary of three hundred pounds. In the same yt his poetical taste, both in rhyme and in diction, not in more important matters,) received a n impulse and direction from hearing unpublisl poems of Wordsworth and Coleridge, espech ' Christabel.' Now, likewise, easy in circnmstan and occupying a good position in society, Scott i sufficiently independent of professional labour devote himself more and more to less uncongei pursuits; and he gradually made authorship main business of his life. The brilliant peno< Scott's literary career extends from 1802, when was in his thirty-first year, to 1825, when he in his fifty-fourth. In the first of those yean published the first and second volumes, and in next year the third volume, of ' The Minstrels; the Scottish Border.' This publication gave ' at once a distinguished reputation. The old 1 lads were excellently edited ; the annotati showed great sagacity, good sense, and vari knowledge ; and there was undeniable promise the few ballads of his own that were inserted f collection. In 1802, likewise, he had begvu write what he called, in a letter to Ellis, ' a kin romance of border-chivalry, in a light-horsei sort of stanza.' This piece, insensibly swellin dimensions, soon became too bulky for the ' J strelsy,' and was reserved to be the foundat stone of Scott's celebrity as an original poet, was circulated among his friends, and warmly proved by Jeffrey, Wordsworth, and others ; ^ the author was editing the ancient romance of Tristrem.' It appeared at length, in 1805, u: the title of ' The Lay of the Last Ministrel.' success was immediate and unexampled, prise, doubtless, aided the result : the poem peared when genuine poetry had long been unh by the public, unless in the earliest volume Crabbe and Campbell; and it was also the vigorous poetical narrative that had been prod in England for more than a century. But, fun it was the earliest poem which was inspired b) animation and eagerness of the age that ga birth. The ' Lay' was not, anymore than its cessors, the effort of a poet aiming at the hi| effects of his art : but it was a work of genius and originality ; and, if inferior to sor Scott's later poems m mechanism, and less in strikingly poetical passages, it was more f fill than any of them to his design, of re-const ing the chivalrous romance in a shape accon dated to modern sympathies. ' Marmion,' con ing, in its description of the battle, one of the spirited passages in the whole range of our pc appeared in 1808 ; the beautiful metrical ron of The Lady of the Lake' in 1810 ; in 1811 r the ' Vision of Don Roderick,' indicating a deal of strength, which showed itself next year &j 'Rokeby;' in 1815 was published 'The Lo. the Isles ; ' and the list of the metrical rom closes with 'The Bridal of Triermain,' and 'H the Dauntless,' published respectively in 181< 1817, and both of them anonymously, hi course of this period, also, the poet editetj works of Dryden and Swift, contributed for to the Edinburgh Review, and in 1808 as zealously in establishing its formidable riwj Quarterly. He wrote also biographical andi 694 SCO !/ 1 prefaces, and performed much of other miscel- ineous labour. To such work he was led by those /j )mmercial engagements which he now formed, m ad which exercised in the end so disastrous an ^ ifluence on his fortune. His school-fellow, James ; allantyne, having been the editor and printer of f newspaper in Roxburghshire, was assisted by Scott i setting up a printing-house in Edinburgh ; and te poet, after having lent money to the firm, ' came really a partner of it in 1805. Not long f ; | forwards, his connection with trade became yet oser. He quarrelled with his bookseller, Con- ; :et able ; he desired to obtain facilities for giving to 1 ie world literature of a higher stamp than that on ^ nich publishers are likely to venture ; and, not j ry consistently with his desire, he entertained I nguine hopes of profit from a publishing busi- ly ss guided by a man of knowledge and influence ; J :e himself. Accordingly, in 1808, John Ballan- i ne, a brother of James, was placed at the head I a new publishing firm ; but here, as in the f rmer case, Scott was a partner to the extent of a * ird. All these arrangements were kept pro- ? indly secret ; in the eyes of the public, and even 1 bis most intimate associates, Scott was merely ]t * b patron and friend of the Messrs. Ballantyne. !l ' few years after the formation of these partnerships, \' ott entered on the second stage of his literary T )gress. He was one of the first to discover the ming popularity of his poetry ; and he cheerfully himself at work to regain his laurels on a new Id. He wished for fame: he wished also for He had long cherished the ambition of ter- '' ? orial possession ; and this ambition he could not [>e to gratify speedily from his ordinary means, >ugh his appointment as one of the principal ' rks of the Court of Session in Scotland (an hon- I "able and very easy post), added, from about 1812, rteen hundred a-year to his income. From this ssion arose many of the rash adventures which P illy ruined the publishing firm ; hence also, in ^ small degree, arose the eager industry with "' ich, when his prose works proved so profitable, 1 f poured forth volume after volume. In 1805, rh . Lie he was engaged on Marmion, he had begun ae : write a novel: in three weeks during the sum- 01 r of 1814 he added two volumes to it ; and it was '\ l )lished anonymously in July of that year, bear- * the name of ' Waverley, or, 'Tis Sixty Years ml ce.' For a dozen years afterwards, the Waverley {)S3 yels, popular beyond example, admired by critics f" Irell as devoured by the public, were showered V* in ceaseless succession ; and, although a few of ** earliest are decidedly the most vigorous and (Ml -like, it was not till towards the close of the ^ es that the falling off was steady or remarkable. lw s dates are, in themselves, enough to prove inar- ga* bos activity and fertility, and indomitable steadi - reari 5 f working. From 'Waverley' in 1815 to the I*' des of the Crusaders' in 1825, eighteen novels il & eared within eleven years. This was the last ;r- r of Scott's prosperity, or rather the last year ioti ing which the world was allowed to believe him J. sperous. The extraordinary success of the Ml '618 had enabled him to assume, more rapidly dh n he could have hoped, that place among the $ f ded gentry, which it was his fatal weakness to jlei rvalue so immensely. Purchasing, in 1811, a on the banks of the Tweed, naming it Ab- SCO botsford, and building a cottage on it, he acquired land around it till he possessed a considerable estate. He erected the baronial castle which we now behold, filled it with antiquarian nick-nacks and ornaments, planted and improved his grounds, and dispensed hospitalities which the most distinguished men in Europe were proud to partake. In 1820 he received a baronetcy ; and in the following year he figured as the director of the whimsical pagean- try which celebrated the visit of George IV. to Scotland. Even before this time both firms of Ballantynes were tottering ; and they were brought to the ground in the beginning of 1826, by the failure of Constable's house, with which they were deeply involved. The mortifying disclosure of Sir Walter's concealed partnership followed of course ; and his liabilities were found to amount to a sum not much short of 150,000. He acted like a man of courage and a high-minded gentleman. He refused to offer to the creditors any composition, or to accept from them any discharge ; he pledged himself to devote the whole labour of his subse- quent life to the payment of the debt ; he fulfilled the pledge, and died before his time through the toil which it cost him. A great part of the debt was satisfied during his lifetime ; and the balance of the principal was paid by his executors. One main aid in effecting the result was the collected edition of his works, with the personal notes which he condescended to furnish to it. But he produced likewise a new series of writings, which, although the later are distressingly indicative of decay, and the best of them are not of a very high order, must be looked on with the respect due to the motive which prompted them. In 1826 he published his novel of ' Woodstock,' written while his pecuniary anxie- ties and humiliation were at their height ; after- wards appeared the 'Life of Napoleon,' (partly written before the bankruptcy), the 'Tales of a Grandfather,' the first and second series of the ' Chronicles of the Canongate,' ' Anne of Geierstein/ a ' History of Scotland ' for Lardner's Cyclopaedia, two Dramas, and 'Letters on Demonology.' In 1831 the failure of the active intellect was shown [Dryturgh Abbey.] unequivocally by 'Count Robert of Paris,' and ' Castle Dangerous.' In 1830 Sir Walter had been attacked by paralysis, which recurred acutely more than once : and, prevailed on at last to pause from labour, he set out, in September, 1831, for the VJo SCO continent, of which, in his better days, he had seen very little. Naples was the farthest point he reached; the mind gave way completely; he was hurried home, and reached Abbotsford in July, 1882. There, after some days of unconsciousness, he died on the 21st of September. He was buried in Drvburgh Abbey. [W.S.] SCOTT, William. See Stowell. SCOTTI, C. G., an Ital. dramatist, 1759-1821. SCOTTI, J. C, an Italian Jesuit, 1602-1669. SCOTTI, Marcello, a learned ecclesiastic, born at Naples 1714, member of the legislative commission of the Neapolitan republic 1799, exe- cuted by the counter-revolutionists 1800. SCOUGAL, H., a Scottish divine, 1650-1678. SCRIBANI, O, a Flemish Jesuit, one of the twelve apostles commissioned by that body in Flanders, known as a controversial wr., 1561-1629. SCRIBONIANUS, a Soman commander, pro- claimed emperor in Dalmatia, and assassinated 42. SCRIBONIUS, a Roman physician, 1st cent. SCRIVERIUS, the Latinized name of Peter Schryver, a Dutch philologist and historian, 1576-1660. SCRIMZEOR, H., a Scotch writer, 1506-1571. SCROGGS, Sir W., an English judge, 1623-83. SCROPE, William, a writer on sporting sub- jects, 1772-1852. SCUDDER, H., a presbyterian writer, 17th cen. SCUDERI, George De, a French poet, novelist, and dramatic writer, 1601-1667. His wife was equally celebrated in epistolary composition. His sister, Madeleine, eminent for her wit and writ- ings as a novelist, 1607-1701. SCULTETUS. See Schultet, Schultz. SCULTETUS, or SCULTZ, John, a writer on surgery, born at Ulm 1595, died 1645. SCUPOLI, L., an Italian ascetic, 1530-1610. SCYLITZES, J., a Greek historian, 11th cent. SEAMAN, L., an English divine, died 1675. SEARCH, Edward. See Tucker. SEBA, Albert, a Dutch naturalist and phar- macopolist, Amsterdam, 1665-1736. SEBASTIAN, king of Portugal, son of the Infant John by Joanna, daughter of the emperor Charles V., was born 1554, and succeeded his frandfather, John III., 1557. In 1578 he led the ower of his nobility into Africa on a wild expedi- tion against the Moors, and perished in battle with nearly all his followers. Sebastian's fate being long uncertain, and having no issue to succeed him, gave occasion to many impostors to assume his name and title, and eventually to the annexa- tion of Portugal to Spain. SEBASTIANI, Francis Horace De, a cele- brated French marshal, distinguished during the republic, empire, and the monarchy, 1772-1851. SEBASTIANO, Del Piombo, the name by which Sebastiano Luciani is commonly known, from his office of the pope's keeper of the leaden seals. He was born at Venice in 1485, and was one of the pupils of Giovanni Bellini. He went to Rome about 1512, by the invitation of Agostino Ghigi, and soon contracted a friendship with Michel- angelo, by whom, as an oil painter, he was pitted against Raphael. The large picture of the Raising of Lazarus, in the National Gallery, was painted by Sebastiano, in which he is said to have been assisted by Michelangelo, in rivalry with the Trans- SEG figuration of Raphael. They were both painted Giulio de Medici, the bishop of Narbonne, were exhibited together in Rome, and are not unequal as to make the choice a matter of cou Sebastiano found his advocates. Sebastiano created Frate del Piombo by Clement VII. I ! the duty of this officer to fix the leaden seal to bulls, &c. A salary is attached to it, and Sebastiano del Piombo was no longer the pan Sebastiano Luciani had been : his ease made lazy, Michelangelo reproved him for idleness was a great portrait painter. He died at Rom 1547. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N SEBER, W., a German philologist, 1573-16 SECHELLES, J. Moreau De, a French sta man and financial administrator, 1690-1760. SECKENDORF, Guy Louis Von, a Gen statesman, divine, and ecclesiastical historian, 1( 1692. His nephew, Frederick Henon, Cc Von Seckendorf, a field-marshal and diplom in the interest, successively, of Prussia, Pol and Austria, 1673-1763. Leon, Baron De kendorf, a poet, of the same family, 1773-1805 SECKER, Thomas, archbishop of Canterb a great promoter of religion and ecclesias learning, author of Sermons, 1693-1768. SECOUSSE, D. F., a Fr. historian, 1691-1 SECUNDUS. SeeEvERARD. SEDAINE, M. J., a Fr. dramatist, 1719-1 SEDANO, John Joseph Lopez De, a lea Spanish writer and numismatist, 1729-1801 SEDGWICK, three puritan divines : Obad: preacher of St. Paul's, Co vent Garden, &c., ir her of the Westminster Assembly, 1600-1 William, called the apostle of Ely, dates unkn Doomsday Sedgwick, so called from preac the approaching end of the world, died about 1 SEDILLOT, J. J. Emmanuel, a French entalist and astronomer, 1777-1832. SEDLEY, Sir Charles, a dramatic wi courtier, and wit of the court of Charles II., afterwards promoted the revolution of 1688, at Aylesford, in Kent, about 1639, died 1701. SEDULIUS, Celius or C^ecilius, an IriH Scotch priest, known as a Latin poet, 5th cen SEED, Jeremiah, a learned divine, died]* SEEGERS, or SEGHERS, Gerard, a Fief painter of altar-pieces, 1589-1651. His brof Daniel, a flower painter, 1590-1660. SEELEN, J. H. De, a German philolci 1687-1762. SEEMILLER, Sebastian, a Bavarian O talist and bibliographical writer, 1752-1798. SEETZER, Ulric Jasper, a Dutch tad in the East, supposed to have perished 1811. SEGAR, Sir William, garter-king-at- ; author of ' Honour, Civil and Military,' died J SEGAUD, W. De, a French Jesuit, 1674-] SEGHERS. See Seegers.^ SEGNER, J. A., a Hungarian mathemat* and philosopher, 1704-1777. SEGNERI, Paolo, an Italian Jesuit, di as a preacher and theologian, 1624-1694g nephew, Paolo, a Jesuit and preacher, 1678*1 SEGNI, B., an Italian historian, died 1559' SEGRAIS, J. R. De, a French poet, 1G24-J SEGUIER, J. F., a learned botanist and M matist, allied to the noble family of that n whose names occur in the next article, 170S CfJfi SEG ei SEGUIER, Peter, a French diplomatist, whose e, i alents were opposed to the policy of Pope Julius Dot I., 1504-1580. His son, Anthony, a lawyer and on! mbassador, 1552-1626. Peter, grandson of the oi rst of that name, chancellor of France, and one II f the founders of the French Academy, 1588- to 672. Anthony Louis, of the same family, a 1 ; >yalist at the period of the revolution, 1726-1791. i SEGUR, a noble family of Guienne, principal of * 1 horn are Henry Francis, Count De Segur, and :a- sutenant-general, 1689-1751. Philip Henry, !il s son, Marquis, a marshal of France, minister of li ar in 1780 before Brienne, 1724-1801. Louis 16 hilip, son of the latter, companion-in-arms of tai sfayette in America, known also as a diplomatist , id historian, 1753-1832. Joseph Alexander, ten cond son of Philip Henry, a dramatic and mis- It llaneous writer, 1756-1805. .C, SEILER, G. F., a Ger. philosopher, 1733 1807. r ffl SEISSEL, or SEYSSEL, Claude De, a French ioli storian and political writer, translator of Euse- D>j is, and historian of Louis XIL, 1450-1520. li SEJAN, N., a French composer, 1745-1819. rt SEJAN US, Lucius iEnus, a prastorian general sia Rome, a favourite of the emperor Tiberius, put death for aiming at the supreme authority 31. 314 SELDEN, John, a famous scholar, antiquarian, d political character, time of Charles I. He was J4; ra at Salvington, in Sussex, and educated for the )l a r. He entered the House of Commons in 1624, d, d in 1640 represented Oxford in the long par- Bi[ tnent. He afterwards became archivist of the : m | wer and a commissioner of the admiralty. His 4 iole life was devoted to learning, and he bears inh $ cliaracter of a sincere Christian and a true M riot; 1584-1654. out! SELEUCUS, surnamed Nicator, .founder of the .- .; le of Syrian princes called Seleucidce, was one of > generals of Alexander the Great, and, on the it 4 tth of that prince, was governor of Media and jjr bylonia. He extended the dominion of his arms $1 1 policy as far as the Indus, and in 280 B.C. was i; i mowledged king of Macedon, Thrace, and Asia r[- nor. He reigned only a few months, and was h M assinated by Ceraunus 279 B.C. Seleucus II., y nanied Callinicus, succeeded Antiochus II. 247 a fl :., and after losing many of his provinces by the asion of Ptolemy III. 242, was taken prisoner the Parthians. He died in captivity B.C. 225. leucus III., surnamed Ceraunus, son and suc- sor of the preceding, was assassinated B.C. 222. Utucus IV., surnamed Philopator, was son of tiochus the Great, to whom he succeeded B.C. poisoned by his minister, Heliodorus, 174. leucus V. was son of Demetrius II., and was claimed king with Antiochus Grypus b.c. 125. was killed by order of his mother, Cleopatra, 2. Seleucus VI., son of Antiochus Grypus, ame king over a part of Syria in 97 B.C., and ^Jfc remainder from his uncle, Antiochus ricus, 94. He was killed the year following in contest which ensued with the son of the latter. ELIM, three emperors of the Turks: Selim >n of Bajazet II., born 1467, dethroned his and killed his two brothers 1512, defeated shah of Persia 1514, conquered Syria and rpt 1516-1517, died 1520. Selim II., suc- < Jed his father, Soliman II., in 1566, took ?rus from the Venetians 1570, and Tr.iis from SEN the Spaniards in 1571. In the same year he lost the great naval battle of Lepanto ; died 1574. Selim III., son of Mustapha III., was born 1761, succeeded his uncle, Abdoul Hamid, 1789, sus- tained a disastrous war against Russia and Eng- land, which was terminated by the peace of Jassi in 1792. He was afterwards the ally of England against France at the period of the expedition to Egypt, and signalized his reign at the conclusion of hostilities, by introducing our European civiliza- tion into his states. He was dethroned in 1807, and strangled the following year by order of Mus- tapha IV., who succeeded him. SELIS, N. J., a French writer, 1737-1802. SELKIRK, Alexander, upon whose adven- ture the story of Robinson Crusoe was founded by Daniel Defoe, was a native of Largo, in Fifeshire, where he was born about 1680. He was left on the island of Juan Fernandez in 1704 by a Captain Stradling, to whom he had given some cause of offence. He was rescued by Captain Wood Rogers in 1709, and is said to have related his adventures to Defoe, with a view to their publication. SELLE, C. T., a German physician, 1748-1800. SELLER, A., an English divine, 1647-1720. SELLIUS, Adam Buckhardt, a Russian monk and writer, originally of Denmark, d. 1746. SELLIUS, Godfrey, a native of Dantzic, known as a naturalist and historian, died 1767. SELLON, Baker John, known for many years as a police magistrate, author of a standard law- book, entitled 'Analysis of the Practice of the Court of King's Bench and Common Pleas,' born in London 1762, died 1835. SELVES, J. B., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1757-1823. SEMERY, A., a French theologian, 1630-1717. SEMIRAMIS, a queen of Assyria, of whom we have little certain historical knowledge. She is generally regarded as the wife of Ninus, and is said to have put him to death. The traditions agree that she reigned forty-two years after Ninus : she was called Rea on account of her atrocities. SEMLER, J. S., a German divine, 1725-1791. SEMPRONIA, two Roman ladies : 1. The wife of Scipio iEmilianus, a sister of the Gracchi, who is accused of having contributed to the death of her husband. 2. A lady concerned in the con- spiracy of Catiline. SEMPRONIUS, a name of frequent occurrence in Roman history. The principal who have borne it were the Gracchi (see that article); besides these may be mentioned Sempronius Asellio, a military tribune of Rome, distinguished in Spain B.C. 137. Sempronius Longus, consul of Rome B.C. 217, distinguished in the field against Han- nibal. Sempronius Tuditanus, a Roman tri- bune and commander, who was consul b.c. 203, and defeated Hannibal at Crotona. The others of the name are of less mark. SENAULT, J. F., a Flem. ecclesias., 1599-1672. SENDIVOG, M., a Polish alchymist, 1566-1646. SENEBIER, John, a protestant minister of Geneva, known as a natural philosopher and his- torian, 1742-1809. SENECA, Lucius Annaeus ; born at Cordova in the second year of our era; put to death at Rome by order of Nero in the sixty-sixth. A literateur, rhetorician, and philosopher, whose practical life is marked by all the singular contra- G97 SEN dictions that abound in his writings. At first a stern self-denying Stoic; then the ambitious politician intriguing with ladies at the court. Banished at the instance of Messalina, he writes his famous work on Consolations ; the next production of his [Seneca From an Antique Bust.] restless pen being a new Consolation, addressed to Polybius, a freedman a mean and miserable flat- tery intended for the ear of Claudius. Recalled by Agrippina, we find him installed, in company with Burrhus, as preceptor and guardian of Nero ; labouring avowedly during a few years, along with his firmer colleague, to restrain the passions of that disgrace of humanity ; boldly defending Burrhus in defiance of Nero, winking, meanwhile, at his pupil's worst excesses ; even prompting to evil, for if we can credit antiquity, Seneca suggested that revolting and most monstrous parricide all the while preaching the austerities of Stoicism : lastly, rising into the vigour of his best days, and, if with some ostentation, still meeting death as becomes a brave man ! Seneca, is perhaps the type and ideal, alike in action and thinking, of that large class of minds, possessed by a lively and restless fancy, and of remarkable qmckness in appreciating, who have yet no steadiness either of heart or intellect, and are totally deficient in that invaluable power the Faculty of Belief. High and low, large and small, in all grades of society and manners of life, we meet with such persons ; and although never consistent, they are yet in one sense always sin- cere i.e., they are ruled by the plan or opinion which is authoritative for the hour. Having no real Originality that which cannot be divorced from ability to penetrate towards Truth Seneca's literary writings are worthless: nor are his moral speculations stamped with the Tower-mark. In theory he is a copyist, and a bad one, for he sel- dom reaches the positive ground of any theory : and although in his practical writings he always dis- plays great acuteness, and expresses himself clearly and pleasantly qualities much increased by his large acquaintance with the surface of the world, even the best of his maxims are tarnished by the vice of exaggeration. Generally, the colour is of Gold, but the ring of the true metal is awant- "fr [J.P.N.] SER SENECAI, SENECA Y, or SENECE, Antoi Bauderon De, a French poet, 1643-1737. SENEFELDER, Aloys, a native of Mum inventor of the art of lithography, 1771-1834. SENKENBERG, H. C, Baron De, a juriscc suit, and aulic counsellor of the emperor, 170 1768. His brother, J. Christian, a physic and founder of an hospital at Frankfort, 17( 1772. R. Charles, son of the first named. jurisconsult and German and Latin poet, d. 175 SENNACHERIB, king of Assyria, B.C. 712-7 SENNERT, Daniel, physician to the dec of Saxony, 1572-1637. His son, Andrew, Oriental scholar, 1606-1689. SEPTIMIUS. See Severus. SEPULVEDA, Juan Gines De, a lean Spaniard, who was historiographer to the empe Charles V., and wrote his Life, 1490-1573, SERAIN, P E., a Fr. agriculturist, 1738-11 SERAO, F., an ltal. archaeologist, 1702-179, SERAPION, a physician of Alexandria, m posed to have written against Hippocrates, 3d e tury B.C. A second of the name was a Syr physician, author of two works still existing, or 9th century. A third, called Serapion J uni< was an Arabian physician and medical writer the 11th century. SERARIUS, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit, ca] ' the luminary of the German church,' 1555-16 SERASSI, P. A., an ltal. biographer, 1721 SERENUS, A. L., a Roman poet, 1st centra SERGARDI, L., an Italian satirist, 1660-17 SERGEL, J. T., a Swedish sculptor, 1740-18 SERGIUS, the first of the name, pope of time of Justinian II., 687-701. The * whose pontificate Italy was invaded by the cens, and Louis II. was consecrated king of 844-847. The third, one of Marozia's lovers, J father by her of John X., 904-911. The fm said to be the first who changed his name on asst ing the tiara, 1009-1012. SERGIUS, a patriarch of C'stantinople, 61(1 SERIEYS, A., a French compiler, 1755-181! s SERIMAN, Z., a Venetian writer, 1708-178* SERLIO, S., an Italian architect, 1475-155SP SEROUX D'AGINCOURT, John Bapt. Lev George, a Fr. historian and antiquar., 1730-18 SERPILIUS, G., a Hungarian ecclesiastic, f troversial writer and poet, 1668-1723. SERRA, A., an Italian economist, 16th cdl SERRA, M., an Italian painter, 1658-172J SERRANO, T., an Italian Jesuit, 1715-178 SERRAO, J. A., an Italian prelate, 1731-M SERRE, Hercules, Count De, a French sW man attached to the party of Richelieu, 1777-lf SERRE S, John De, in Latin Serratm learned French Calvinist and historiographer, lfi 1598. His br., Olivier, an agricuit., 1539-lt SERRES, Olive, a lady who claimed to princess of Cumberland, as the legitimate daurf of Henry Frederick, duke of Cumberland, O t sister of the Rev. Dr. Wilmot ; she was bjfl Warwick in 1772, and made a fruitless efiH obtain the recognition of her claims on the de of George III., previous to which she had b married to Mr. Serres, the king's marine p4| Died 1834. SERRONI, H., an ltal. theologian, 1517-fl SERRY, J. H., a French theologian, 1659-17 CDS SER SERTORIUS, Quintus, a partizan of Marius the civil war between the plebeians and the sena- rial oligarchy, headed by Sylla, was born in Italy lout 121 b.c. He reaped his earliest laurels in e war against the Cimbri and Teutones, on the uilish frontier, and there also became acquainted th the chief of the people. When Sylla triumphed Italy, Sertorius retired to his prsetorial govern- nt in Spain ; and though he was continually rassed by Metellus, he virtually rendered that untry independent under his command, and deavoured to give it the benefits of a pater- 1 government. He was assassinated at a ban- et to which he had been invited by the Roman leral Perpenna B.C. 72. [E.R.] SERVETUS, or SERVEDE, Michael, was n at Villa Nuova in Arragon, a.d. 1509. From birth-place he assumed ^the cognomen of Vil- lovanus ; and the surname Reves, which he put the title-page of his books, appears to be a aint transposition of the first two syllables of rvetus. His father was a lawyer, and wishing son to study for his own profession, sent him that purpose to Toulouse. But literature and lology occupied his attention and engrossed his rare. On returning to Spain he attached him- E" to Quintana, confessor to the emperor Charles and accompanied him first into Italy and then Germany. In the year 1550 he took up his re- jnce at Basle, and often conferred witn Oeco- ipadius on matters of theology. His mind now an to evolve its peculiar speculations, all in agonism to the current beliefs. In 1531 ap- red his first work at Hagenau, ' De Trinitatis oribus,' in which the notion of a Trinity was only discussed, but caricatured. The emperor ered the book to be suppressed, and the year awing Servetus published apologetic dialogues, demning the juvenility of the work, but still ntaining the same doctrines. In 1533 he it to France, studied at Paris, afterwards re- red to Orleans, and resided for two years as tor of the press at Lyons, busying him- with the study of medicine. In 1537 he re- ed Paris, and took the degrees of master of and doctor of medicine. Leaving Paris, after accusation by the Sorbonne, he settled ulti- ily at Vienne, and for a series of years prac- medicine. He had been a considerable time ing a book on Theology, and under the of ' Christianismi Restitutio,' it appeared at e in 1553, but without author's name or The book produced a great sensation sus- , in consequence of some Genevan correspon- with a French refugee called De Trie, fell SER and-thirty articles of charge, as we learn from one of his own letters. At the first hearing of the case Servetus made explanations, and at the second hearing Calvin himself attended. In the mean- time the council of Geneva wrote to Vienne, with information that Servetus was in custody, and re- solved as the trial went on to send communications to several of the cantons. The council of Vienne demanded back the prisoner, but with tears in his eyes he entreated the Genevan syndics to retain him, and sist him before their own tribunal. The Genevan magistrates stood upon prerogative, or the burning of Servetus would have happened at popish Vienne, and the protestant syndics were proud to rival a catholic city in severity of pen- alty. His prosecution was now given to the at- torney-general, and the charge of sedition was specially pressed against the accused ; for politics superseded theology in the discussion. Servetus replied at some length, and in his subsequent petition one of his principal endeavours is to clear himself from the charge of being a disturber of society. Calvin and he were confronted they had maintained a correspondence some months previ- ous, and Servetus actually craved an indictment to be preferred against the reformer. Calvin, in the meantime, had quarrelled with the council in a case of discipline ; the Libertine or anti-Calvinist ' party were growing in power, and Servetus hoped apparently to turn the tables on his principal antagonist. The opinion of the churches in Swit- zerland had now been asked, and they unani- mously condemned Servetus, though they differed as to the amount of punishment which should be inflicted on him. Toward the end of the pro- tracted investigation the influence of Calvin was little felt, and on the 26th of October, the un- happy Servetus was doomed to the stake the following day. Calvin interfered for a more leni- ent form of punishment, but his request was not granted. Servetus was greatly affected when he heard his sentence, though he gradually resumed his composure. Farell attended him, but seems to have made no impression upon his mind. The next day the sentence was carried into effect in all its cruel barbarity. The sufferer, during the half- hour of his consciousness amidst the flames, cried repeatedly ' Jesus, thou Son of the Eternal God, have mercy on me.' This execution of Servetus has acquired an adventitious eminence from its circumstances. Had he been burned at Vienne, the deed would have been known only as one of thousands inflicted by papal mandate. But the scene of the martyrdom in the protestant republic of Geneva, and the theological notoriety of Calvin, have given it an extraordinary and a polemical celebrity. Much has been said and written about it: it has barbed many a declamation: and the harsh and vindictive spirit of Calvin has been often reprobated. But the fact is, that only in the year 1842, were the original records of the trial dis- covered and employed in the account. M. De La Valayre in 1842 made good use of those docu- ments, and so did Rilliet in 1844, in his ' Relation du Proces Criminal Intent6 h Geneve en 1553 Contre Michel Servet,' &c. The result throws a on the 13th August, 1553. The accuser better and more faithful light on the whole trans- Spaniard was Nicholas de la Fontaine, a ' action. It is proved that while Calvin approved an, but Calvin himself framed the eight- ' of the punishment of death according to a theory 699 agth on Servetus, and he was imprisoned by |inquisitors. During the process he contrived ipe and fled at once to Geneva, where he lay icealment for a month, waiting an opportu- to set out for Naples. After his flight from le he was burned there in effigy, having previously condemned as an outlaw, and he have been burned in person, if he had not ortunely made his escape. As he was about ve Geneva for Zurich he was discovered, and i suggestion of Calvin he was at once appre- SER then commonly entertained, yet that he had little or no direct influence with the council during the latter portion of the trial. (See Calvin). The union Detween religion and politics in the govern- ment of Geneva, led its rulers to believe them- selves invested with the power of punishing heresy as a sin against God and a crime against the state. Nav, at the very same period Berthelier, a citizen, had been excluded from the church by Calvin, but the council declared him capable of receiving the communion. In 1547 Gruet, a leader of the Libertine party, had been beheaded for sedition, though religious opinion formed a special charge against him. In the document which contains the sentence against Servetus, assaults on Calvin and the Genevan ministers are not mentioned at all. Servetus himself held the same theoretic views, and in his indictment against Calvin he puts the alternative ' Till the cause be decided for his death or mine.' So that had he obtained supremacy in Geneva, he would not have scrupled to burn Calvin What a miserable misconception of human right and Divine enactment ! And it was certainly a sad and inconsistent thing for reformers to deny to others the toleration which they had claimed and gained for themselves. The career of Servetus was peculiar. Born in the land of the Auto-da-Fe, he was sent out of it to study, his father being afraid that his son's free speculations and pugnacious propensity would place him within the grasp of the inquisition ; and yet he perished neither in Spain nor France. Coleridge has said, that ' if any poor fanatic ever thrust himself into the flames, that man was Ser- vetus.' We cannot use these words in all their latitude ; yet, certainly Servetus, with all his ac- knowledged talents and gifts, was ambitious and arrogant, was, in short, what Mosheim calls a 4 semifanatic' But surely such a character did not merit so awful a penalty, and we may read in the flames of Servetus that man is responsible to God alone for his belief, that truth does not suffer by toleration, for fire is not able to extirpate what argument cannot overthrow. A passage is found in the ' Restitutio ' of Servetus, which has been understood by some as anticipating by seventy years, Harvey's famous discovery of the circulation of the blood. While we admit the boldness and eloquence of Servetus, his rare acquirements and restless industry, we are compelled to add that the equivocations made by him on his trial, both at Vienne and Geneva, do not place his moral character in the same favourable light. [J.E.] SER VIE Z, Jacques Roergas De, a French historian, 1679-1727. His grandson, Emmanuel Gehvaise, a soldier and writer, 1755-1 804. SERVIN, Louis, a French jurisconsult, who died suddenly when in the act of remonstrating with Louis XIII. against his tyrannical acts, 1626. SERVIUS, Maurus Honoratus, a Roman grammarian and commentator upon Virgil, 5th c. SERVIUS, Sulpitius Rufus, a Roman jurist and statesman, died in Antony's camp, B.C. 43. SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of Rome, succeeded his father-in-law, Tarquin the Elder, B.C. 578. Murdered at the instigation of Tullia and her husband, b.c. 584. See Tarquin. SESSA, an Indian mathematician, the reputed inventor of the game of chess, 11th century. SEY SESTINI, D., an Ital. antiquarian, 1750-1832 SESTO, Cesar Da, called the Milanese, aj Italian painter of the 16th century. SETTALA, Lcdovioo, in Latin Septalius, a eminent Milanese physician, 1552-1633. His son Manfred, an able mathematician, 1600-168QJ| SETTLE, Elkanah, known as a poet anj dramatic writer, born at Dunstable 1618, d. 1724 SEUME, J. T., a German writer, 1763-1810. SEVERINUS, a pope of Rome, 640. SE VE RUS, three Roman emperors : 1 . I . rj n Septimius Severus, the most important, w;| born on the African coast 146, and havi manded the legions of Illyria, was proclaimed! the death of Pertinax 193. He made many coil quests in the East, and in 208 came to this islanl where he built a wall between the Forth and t) Clyde, as a check against the Picts. He died at Yoi in 211. 2. Flavius Valerius Severus, killed 1 Maxentius, after a short indulgence in power, 3. Vibius Severus, proclaimed by the legions Illyria 461, died 465. 4. See Alexander. SEVERUS, founder of a Christian sect, 2d cer SEVERUS, A., a Greek rhetorician, 5th cent SEVERUS, C, a Roman epic poet, 1st centui SEVERUS, S., a Christian poet, 4th century. SEVIGNE, Marie De Rabutin Chanta Marchioness De, celebrated for her fine undt standing and epistolary talents, was born at t chateau de Bourdilly, in Burgundy, 1627. Afl the death of the marquis de Sevigne, she lived widowhood twenty-five years, devoted to the cation of her children. Her famous letters | addressed to her daughter, Madame de Grig Died 1696. SEVIN, F., a French philologist, 1682-174 SEWARD, Anna, a once popular writer, " as the friend and biographer of Dr. Darwin, t| the daughter of the Rev. T. Seward, rector ! Eyam, in Derbyshire, where she was born 17*| Her publications were the poetical romance Louisa, 1782 ; a Collection of Sonnets, 1799 ; i\ the Life of Darwin in 1804. She died in 1$ since which her Literary Remains and Cor pondence have appeared. SEWARD, W., a biographical writer, 1746fl SEWELL, George, a native of Windsor,, was settled as a physician at Hampstead, known to fame as a poet and miscellaneous v by his tragedy of ' Sir Walter Ralegh,' a ' Vi r tion of the English Stage,' &c. ; died 1726. SEWELL, WilliaM; son of a surgeon at j|J sterdam, whose father was an English reftj known as a Quaker historian, 1654-1720. SEXTIUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, lstttJ SEXTIUS-EMPIRICUS, a Greek philosfl and physician, time of Commodus. SEYBOLD, D. C, a Ger. philologist, 1747- SEYDLITZ, Frederic William, Baron] a companion-in-arms of Frederick the Great tinguished in the seven years' war, 1722-177$ SEYMOUR, Arabella. See Araukli SEYMOUR, Edward, duke of Somerset uncle to Edward VI., was brother to QueenH Seymour, and on his sister's marriage to He VIII. in 1536, was created Viscount Beauch* He distinguished himself in the Scottisl French wars, and in the struggle for power s I the death of Henry, became governor of the yo 700 SEY g and protector of the realm. In 1548 he was Tted duke of Somerset, and took the functions ord-treasurer and earl-marshal; in the same he headed the troops in Scotland, and won battle of Musselburgh. His power was at last cen by the intrigues of the earl of Warwick, rwards duke of Northumberland, and he was aded on Tower Hill, 22d January, 1552. EYSSEL. See Seissel. FORZA, a noble Italian family founded by COMO Attendolo, a peasant of the Romagna, was born at Cottignola in 1369, and enlisting company of soldiers that passed through the ge, rose gradually to the rank of general. He called Sf'orza on account of his great vigour. vas drowned in effecting the passage of the Pescara, in the service of Joan of Naples, . Franceso Alessandro, duke of Milan, a natural son of the preceding. He was born 401, and rose to distinction in the service of , afterwards as general of the Milanese troops ; as created duke by the leaders of a revolt in , died 1466. The descendants of the latter sssed the duchy through several generations. principal of them was Maximilian, who ed in the events that followed the league of brai, and died at Paris, in the reign of Francis >30. See Visconti. "ORZA, Bona, daughter of J. G. Sforza, one b preceding dukes, and of Isabella of Arragon, ne queen of Poland by her marriage with round I. in 1518 ; she died 1557. . LADWELL, Sir Lancelot, a judge and 3er of parliament, born 1779, vice-chancellor died 1850. ADWELL, Thomas, a dramatic writer, and ssor of Dryden as poet-laureate and historio- ler, was born of a good family in Norfolk He followed in the wake of Ben Jonson writer of comedy; died 1692. Charles, aed to be his son or nephew, also a play- , died 1726. AFTESBURY. The first earl of Shaftes- as the brilliant but inconsistent statesman arles II.'s reign. His son, the second earl, he father of Anthony Ashley Cooper, ird earl, the subject of this notice. He was London in 1671, and educated under the tendence of his grandfather. He travelled e years on the continent, and in 1693 en- the House of Commons, where he acted ically with the Whig party. His health threatening to fail, he went abroad in 1698, ied in Holland under the advice of Bayle Clerc. Next year his father's death called the House of Lords ; but, early in the reign le, his premature infirmities forced him to altogether from public life. Thenceforth he i himself exclusively with philosophy and Ore, till he died at Naples in 1713. In 1711 d collected his writings into a series, which titled 'Characteristics of Men, Manners, Wis, and Times.' The most important pieces collection are, the 'Inquiry concerning Vir- [Merit,' first published in 1699 ; and the Pla- lialogue, called 'The Moralists, a Philosophi- lapsody,' whose first appearance was in 1709. (as a philosopher and as a writer, Shaftes- las encountered extremes, equally undeserved, SHA of admiration and of censure. His style is elabo- rate, artificial, affected, and studded all over with foreign and pedantic terms of his own invention ; and ne very seldom puts off his offensive air of foppish condescension. But there is hardly a page of his volumes in which we are not struck by the elements of fine writing ; and some passages of his, with their lofty thoughtful eloquence, and their exquisite music of rhythm, are among the most beautiful things in the English language. The moral elevation and purity of the sentiments are always worthy of the amiable and irreproachable character of the author. The great defect in Shaftesbury's philosophical thinking is its indis- tinctness : he merely throws out hints, in a man- ner not unlike his master and model Plato, and often gives reason for believing that he himself had apprehended very obscurely the ideas he strives to express. Inconsistency, real or apparent, is a natural accompaniment of this mistiness of thought ; and the vacillating uncertainty of opinion betrays itself most of all when questions of religion are directly handled. His mind had received a wrong bias through the scorn he felt for the Toryism and Jacobitism then rampant hi the Church of Eng- land ; and the tendency was augmented by his observation of the popularity possessed, among the clergy as elsewhere, oy the philosophy of Locke, which Shaftesbury believed to contain the germ of evil religious consequences. Although, likewise, no thinkers could be more unlike than the cold and sceptical Bayle and the enthusiastic and aspiring Shaftesbury, the intercourse of the two did not improbably affect in some degree the opinions of the young Englishman. Accordingly Shaftesbury gives vent, especially in ' The Moralist,' to expres- sions and assertions, which fully justified Leland in uttering a warning against him in his ' View of Deistical Writers ;' while elsewhere he contradicts such passages directly, or neutralizes them by fine trains of devout meditation. In the philosophical system (if such it can be called) of the author of the ' Characteristics,' there are two or three pecu- liarities calling for hasty commendation. First, in Metaphysics he strenuously vindicated the possi- bility of d priori notions against the sensualistic philosophy of Locke ; and his views on this great question, while they called forth the warm admira- tion of Leibnitz, and accorded with the opinions of that great thinker, were likewise a foretaste of the creed taught afterwards in fragments by Reid and systematized (not in all points safely) by Kant and his disciples. In the second place, Shaftesbury's Ethical doctrines placed him, at two points, in op- position to systems then prevalent in England. He combated eagerly and convincingly the Selfish theory of Hobbes: he directed thinkers into a psychological track that had recently been neglected, when, refusing to confine himself exclusively (like Cudworth and Clarke) to the region of Reason or Intellect, he indicated Feeling as an essential ele- ment in all Facts of Conscience or operations of the Moral Sense or Faculty. [W.S.] SHAH-ABBAS. See Abbas. SHAKSPERE, William, 'born at Stratford- upon-Avon, married and had children there; went to London, where he commenced actor, and wrote poems and plays ; returned to Stratford, made his will, and died.' ' This,' says Steevens, ' is all that 701 sua is known, with any degree of certainty, about Shakspere.' We should have cared very little about the birth and marriage, the will, or the death, of this native of a petty country-town in the sixteenth century, but for the one other certainty, he wrote poems and plays.' That fact renders the minutest mcident in the life of this son of a Warwickshire yeoman a matter of interest to the whole human [Birth place of Shakspere. ] race ; for out of the cottage in which he was born, has gone forth a voice which is the mightiest in modern literature; which has had no small in- fluence in forming our national character; and which, in connection with the higher teaching from above, is refining and humanizing wherever its sound is heard. Steevens was in a great degree right, as far as regards a mere biographical notice of Shakspere. His real biography lies in a critical estimate of his writings, as compared with others of his time, and in his relation to the age in which he flourished. The documentary biography, beyond that furnished by the facts that tell us the dates of his several works, lies in a very narrow compass. William Shakspere was born in 1564. His baptism was registered in the parish church of Stratford, on the 26th of April, in that year. It was usual to baptize within three days of birth, and, therefore, his birth-day is held to be the 23d of April, the St. George's day of England. The probability, though not the certainty, is that he was born in the town of Stratford. The old house there, in which he is said to have been born, was unquestionably the property of his father, John Shakspere. His father was married and living in Stratford in 1558. His mother was Mary Arden, of the ancient family of the Ardens. The course of John Shakspere may be traced by the parochial and municipal records, from the ofhce of juryman of the court leet in 1556, to that of bailiff, or chief magistrate, in 1568. He has been held to have been a butcher, or a wool-stapler, or a glover. In an age when there was little subdivision of occupations, the yeoman cultivating his land, might have sold the carcases of his sheep, dressed their wool, and prepared their peltries. The oc- cupier of grazing land had no large separate markets for such commodities. There was a free grammar school at Stratford. We have no record that William Shakspere went to that school ; but why should we doubt that he was educated there ; it was the natural place of his education. Some wtitiM I la-li pedant! e can ) SUA persons have endeavoured to show that th tincture of grammar school studies in his wi that he was essentially unlearned. Such is now wholly abandoned, except by those m if there be any left, who think that there* no learning without a constant parade of it. has been stated by Rowe, that John Shakspere hi ' a large family, ten children in all.' There we other Shaksperes in Stratford. The registers di tinctly show that the father of the poet had fi children who survived the period of infancy, have no trace how William Shakspere was < ployed in the interval between his school-days i manhood. Some hold that he was an attorney's cilii The tradition is that he was a wild voung fello stealing deer. The certainty is that he was treast ing up that store of knowledge, and cultivap that range of genius, which made him whajB" became. At Shottery, a pretty village withhj mile of Stratford, is an old farm-house, J divided into several tenements, where dwe| family of the name of Hathaway , and this J perty remained in the possession of their- scendants. Anne Hathaway became the wil William Shakspere in 1582. The marriage- and license are preserved in the Consistorial CM at Worcester. By this marriage there were th children, Susanna, Hamnet, and Judeth. Hanu the only son, died in 1596 The two daughl survived their father, and inherited his property Soon after his marriage William Shakspere be connected with the Blackfriars' Theatre, in don. In 1589, when he was only twent years of age, he was a joint proprietor of] theatre, with four others below him in thej The players of the Blackfriars' were the Chamberlain's company, those who acted royal patronage. We know nothing of the the production of his first play. We can ab assign very few dates to any of his plays by the following table, which has been l Mr. Knight, of the positive facts which de dates previous to which they had be duced : Henry VI., Part I Alluded to by Na 'Pierce Pennile Henry VI., Part II Printed as ' The Part of the Cor tion,' Henry VI , Part III Printed as ' The Tragedy of Ric Duke of York.'... Richard II Printed , Richard IIL Printed Romeo and Juliet Printed Love's Labour's Lost Printed Henry IV., Part I Printed Henry IV., Part II Printed Henry V Printed Merchant of Venice Printed 1C00. tioned by Meres. Midsummer Night'sDream Printed 1600. ticned by Mer Much Ado about Nothing . Printed As You Like It Entered at Static Hall All's Well that Ends Well. Held to be menti< by Meres as Labour's Won' Two Gentlemen of Verona Mentioned by Mer Comedy of Errors. Mentioned by Mer King John Mentioned by Me Titus Andronicus Printed .... Merry Wives of Windsor.. Printed.. . Hamlet Printed..., 702 SHA elfth Night A cted in the Middle Temple Hall 1C02 lello Acted at Harefleld .... 1602 isure for Measure Acted at Whitehall 1604 Printed 1608. Acted at Whitehall 1607 king of the Shrew Supposed to have been acted at Henslow's Theatre, 1593. En- tered at Stationers' Hall 1607 Ins and Cressida Printed 1609. Previ- ously acted at Court 1609 cles Printed 1609 Tempest Acted at Whitehall .... 1611 Winter Tale Acted at Whitehall.. .. 1611 ry VIIL Acted as a new play when the Globe was burned 1613 he thirty-seven plays of Shakspere, the ex- ce of thirty-one is thus defined by contemporary ds. The six which are not so defined, are ibeline, Macbeth, Timon, and the three Eoman s. There are not many instances of the men- of Shakspere, during his lifetime, by writers is period; but one writer, Francis Meres, :es many of his more important plays, in 1598. poems carry their own dates, ' Venus and Bus ' was published in 1593 ; ' Lucrece' in the ' Sonnets ' in 1609. Meres had men- (d, in 1598, Shakspere's ' sugered sonnets igst his private friends.' Shakspere became in connection with the theatres. He pur- sd the principal house in Stratford in 1597, parcels of land in that parish. He became the-owner also by purchase. It is supposed he ceased to be connected with the theatres in for there is a valuation of his property in that for which he asked 1,433 6s. 8d. His father a 1601 ; and it is more than probable that the of poets succeeded him as a practical r in his native place. He had his actions in ailiff's court for corn sold and delivered. He looked up to by his neighbours, as there is nee in letters. His eldest daughter, in 1607, ed Dr. Hall, an eminent physician residing in ford. Judeth married Thomas Quiney, a sman of substance, in February, 1616. The of Stratford has another register two afterwards. On the 25th April, William re was buried in the parish church. Anne, rife, survived till 1623. She was amply pro- ^T by the laws of her country ; for the er part of Shakspere's property was freehold, ;he widow was entitled, for her life, to the t of one-third. The bequest to her of the d-best bed was one of affection, and not jlect. The best bed was always an heir-loom. eldest daughter, Susanna, died in 1649. h died in 1662. Neither left any heir-male. " e grand-daughter of Shakspere, Elizabeth inherited the bulk of his property. By her ' marriage she became the wife of" Sir John In half a century the family estates ill scattered, and went to other races ; with ception of two houses in Henley-Street, which Barnard devised to her kinsman, Thomas the grandson of Shakspere's sister, Joan. houses were purchased by the nation, in of the descendants of the Harts. [O.K.] AMMAI, a Jewish rabbi, president of the drhn, at first a disciple of Hillel, but after- snA wards dissented from his master, and set up a new college ; 1st century B.C. SHANFARAH, an Arabian poet, 6th century. SHARP, Abraham, an astronomer and mecha- nician, who became assistant to Flamsteed at the Royal Observatory, 1651-1742. SHARP, James, the victim of his intemperate zeal for imposing the system of the Anglican Church upon Scotland, was a native of Banffshire, where he was born in 1618. He was first an advo- cate of the presbyterians, but after the restoration became a tool of the court party, and was rewarded with the archbishopric of St. Andrews. The wan- ton cruelties which followed provoked the bitterest hatred against him, and, on the 3d of May, 1679, he was dragged i'rom his coach, and murdered in the presence of his daughter. This event occurred about three miles from St. Andrews. SHARP, John, grandfather of the celebrated Granville Sharpe (see below), was a learned pre- late and theologian. He was born at Bradford, in Yorkshire, 1644, and distinguished himself by preaching against popery in the reign of James II. After the revolution he was successively dean of Canterbury and archbishop of York; died 1713. His son, Thomas, archdeacon of Northumberland and prebendary of Durham, was a master of Heb- rew learning ; born about 1693, died 1758. SHARP, Rich., a gentleman of great wealth, well known in the literary world, and once a member of parliament, au. of 'Letters and Essays,' 1759-1835. SHARP, S., a writer on surgery, died 1778. SHARP, William, this eminent engraver was born in London, January 29, 1749. His father, who was a gunmaker, early apprenticed him to a bright engraver, and he commenced his career by engraving such works as door plates, &c, his first effort being on a pewter pot ; but in 1782 he completely resigned this business, and commenced as a fine engraver, executing plates after Stothard and others, for the booksellers, but he soon acquired a great reputation, and engraved many considerable works from the old and modern masters, and such is the delicacy and precision of his lines, that some of his plates are considered, both in this country and abroad, the finest specimens of line engraving extant ; as for instance, the portrait of John Hun- ter, after Sir Joshua Reynolds, or his ' Lear,' after West. Sharp died at Chiswick of dropsy in the chest, July 25, 1824. He was a member of the academies of Munich and Vienna, but had declined the honour of 'Associate Engraver' in the Royal Academy of his own country, considering the ex- clusion of engravers from the full honours of the academy, an affront to the profession. This exclu- sion is now (1853) suspended. Sharp is reputed latterly to have resigned his mind to the reveries of Richard Brothers, Joanna Southcote, and Emanuel Swedenborg. That he may at one time have had faith in all these is possible, but not simultaneously. To confound the sublime morals and doctrines of Swedenborg with the reveries of Brothers, or the delusions of Joanna Southcote, is not less ridiculous than to assume that an ortho- dox Mahometan could at the same time be a good Christian. [R.N.W.] SHARPE, Granville, was born in 1734 at Durham, and was apprenticed in trade, but, hav- ing a strong turn for literature, he abandoned the 703 SHA uncongenial pursuit of business. His friends having procured him a situation in the Ordnance Office, he continued for some time discharging the duties of that department until the declaration of war against America, and entertaining strong consci- entious objections to the policy and justice of that measure, he resigned his place. Being possessed of some means, he now resolved to dedicate his life to study and to the duties of active benevolence. He instituted the society for the abolition of the slave trade, and distinguished himself by his zeal in devising measures for the extensive distribution of the Bible. He was the author of various literary works. Besides several pamphlets on slavery, he published Tracts on the Hebrew language, and Remarks on the Definite Article in the Greek New Testament. Mr. Sharpe died on 6th July, 1813. . [R.J.] SHARPE, Gregory, a philosophical divine and Orientalist, born in Yorkshire 1713, died 1771. SHARROCK, Robert, a dignitary of the Ch. of England, and a writer on moralitv, 17th cent SHAW, C, a Yorkshire poet, 1739-1786. SHAW, G., a disting. naturalist, 1751-1813. SHAW, Sir James, a native of Ayrshire, who rose from the position of a merchant's clerk to the high office of chamberlain in the city of London. He was bom in 1764, and became alderman in 1798, sheriff in 1803, and lord mayor in 1805. The same year he was returned to parliament^ by the city, and continued one of its representatives till 18l8. In 1831 he was elected chamberlain, and died highly respected at the age of eighty, 1843. SHAW, John, an English divine, died 1689. SHAW, Peter, a medical writer, 1695-1763. SHAW, Samuel, a divine and schoolmaster, author of miscellaneous works, 1635-1696. SHAW, Stebbing, rector of Hartshorne, in Staffordshire, known as a topographical writer, and originally tutor of Sir Francis Burdett, 1762-1802. SHAW, Thomas, a native of Kendal, who be- came chaplain to the English factory at Algiers, and wrote an account of his travels, 1692-1751. SHEA, David, professor of Oriental languages at Haileybury College, and translator of Mirk- houd's History of the Early Kings of Persia, born in Dublin 1772, died 1836. SHEBBEARE, John, a physician and political writer, pensioned by the earl of Bute, 1709-1788. SHEE, Sir Martin Archer, second only to Sir Thomas Lawrence as a portrait painter, was born in Dublin 1769. He exhibited his first pic- ture at the Royal Academy in 1789, and at his death, in 1850, was senior member and president of that institution. He is author of several poeti- cal productions on art, and was in other respects a highly accomplished man. SHEFFIELD. See Buckinghamshire. SHELBURNE, William Petty, Lord, and fijrst marquis of Lansdowne, born 1737. Became president of the Board of Trade in 1763, and joined Lord Chatham's administration in 1766. After the dissolution of that ministry he was a zealous oppositionist till 1782, when he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs. He became head of the cabinet on the death of the marquis of Rockingham, which position he retained till the coalition of Lord North and Mr. Fox ; afterwards he was created marquis of Lansdowne, died 1805. SHE SHELDON, Gilbert, a munificent prelate v succeeded Juxon in the primacy, and besi expending above 66,000 in charitable otfl remained at his post in the midst of the afflic during the plague of London. Among the wo executed at his expense is the theatre which be his name at Oxford. Born at Stanton, in Staffo shire, 1598, died 1677. SHELLEY, G., a writing-master, died 1736. SHELLEY, Percy Byssiie, a poet of adn able genius, was, in the words which he appliec himself, ' a power girt round with weakne There is something marvellous in the rich origina of his imagination, and the ideal loveliness am forms which it pours forth. But his figurejj in the air without touching earth ; he want^B Eractical strength of sympathy and intuition j uman character; and, while always wecH thought with fancy, he thinks so obscurely that attempts at narrative fail completely, while those lyrical flights which are his best efforts often mystical or unintelligible. This ambiti turn of speculation, ill-directed and uncurl caused the unhappiness of his life as well as chief faults of his poems. With the utmost* tleness and amiability of personal demeanour, united an extreme confidence in his own opini on abstract questions; and, setting himself up,* the presumption of youth, in opposition to recei principles which he didnot understand, he madek self voluntarily an outcast, and remained throi life a martyr to his own indistinct chimeras. SI j ley, the son of a wealthy baronet in Sussex, was b I in that county in 1792. His school-days*! made uncomfortable by his sensitive and roH temper; and he was not distinguished as a scho 8 But he laid the foundation of good Greek scfl ship, and wrote two novels before he was S^H In 1808 he was sent from Eton to Oxford. El with very slight philosophical reading, he bea { entangled in metaphysical difficulties, and, at set g teen, was pleased to publish, with a direct JB to the heads of colleges, a pamphlet entitled '. | Necessity of Atheism.' He was immediately pelled. Soon afterwards he printed his poem i ' Queen Mab,' in which singular poetical beau ! are interspersed through a wild mass of specula) absurdities. His alienation from his fainuHl completed when, at the age of eighteen, he tt ! ried the daughter of a person who had kep i coffee house. After three years of misery to o ! parties, the ill-assorted marriage issued in a sepj ] tion ; and not very long afterwards Shelley "j. agitated into temporary derangement, by ld^H that his wife had destroyed herself. His ch2w were taken from him by a decree of the Cour j Chancery, on the ground of the atheism whiclj had avowed, and which he was too proud to retrac j compulsion. Already, among his various wsd( I ings, he had, in 1816, become acquainted with L | Byron, and lived near him on the Lake of Gen j There, and by the Lake of Como, he beflfl write poetry very sedulously, having for some tm written oftencr in prose. He studied and aflfl Wordsworth and Coleridge ; he was fan the Greek dramatists, from whom he mad^H fine translations ; but probably no models ioJ|^H him so much as Goethe and Calderon. Not 1 J after his wife's death he married the da 704 snE odwin, a lady well known as the authoress of Frankenstein' and other novels. They resided r a few months in Buckinghamshire, where they ade themselves beloved by their charity to the Dor ; and Shelley's generosity had been remark- le even in the poverty which he had more than ce suffered. During this time, Shelley wrote his quisite 'Alastor,' and the gorgeously obscure levolt of Islam.' In the spring of 1818 he and s family removed to Italy, where they at length ttled themselves at Pisa. In that country, with salth already failing, Shelley produced some of his incipal works, in a period of about four years, ich were the beautiful though dreamy lyrical ama called ' Prometheus Unbound ;' the gloomy gedy of ' The Cenci ;' the mysterious but attrac- e ' Epipschydion ;' ' Julian and Maddalo,' in lich he pourtrays himself and Byron : and many igularly fine small pieces, lyrical and reflective. July, 1822, when he had not quite completed j twenty-ninth year, he was drowned in a storm lich he encountered in his yacht on the Gulf of ezia. In obedience to his own desire, his body, len thrown ashore, was burned, under the direc- n of Lord Byron and other friends ; and the ies were carried to Rome, and buried beside the ive of Keats in the Protestant cemetery beneath 3 shadow of the pyramid. [W.S.] [Tomb of SheFey .] ELLEY, Mary Wolstonkcr aft, wifeof the was b. in 1797, and acquired great reputation r 'Frankenstein.' Among her other works edition of her hnsband's poems ; died 1851. ENSTONE, William, was born in 1714, in hire, where his father owned the small estate Leasowes. He spent his youth, at Oxford elsewhere, in literary idling and verse-making. ~"~ his thh tilth year he succeeded to the family ;y ; and his principal employment after- was the execution of those operations in ipe gardening, which made the Leasowes the show places of England, but involved the in pecuniary embarrassment. Shenstone a pleasant but not vigorous writer, both in and in prose. Iiis ' Pastoral Ballad' is one best pieces we have of its artificial kind, and SHE contains some fine touches, both of description and sentiment ; and his ' Schoolmistress,' a semi- burlesque imitation of Spenser's diction and stanza, has a spirit and originality which he never else- where showed. He died in 1763. [W.S.] SHEPREVE, or SHEPERY, John, one of the most learned men of his age, professor of Hebrew at Oxford about 1538, and author of Latin poems, &c, died 1542. SHERARD, or SHERWOOD, William, a learned botanist and antiquarian, who became British consul at Smyrna, and devoted much time in exploring Natolia and Greece ; bom in Leices- tershire 1659, died 1728. His brother, James, born 1666, cultivated a fine botanical garden at Eltham, in Kent, died 1737. SHERBURNE, Sir Edward, clerk of the ordnance in the time of Charles I., known as a poet and classical translator, 1618-1702. SHERIDAN, Thomas, grandfather of the dramatist (next article), was born in the county of Cavan about 1684, and though of poor paren- tage became a clergyman in the Irish Church. He was a friend of Dean Swift, and an incorrigible wit, a genuine Irish sloven, a ' quibbler, a punster, and a fiddler,' died in extreme indigence 1738. His son, Thomas, born at Quilea in 1721, went upon the stage in 1742, and was very successful as a tragedian ; he wrote a Life of Swift,' ' Lec- tures on Elocution,' and an ' Orthoepical Dic- tionary of the English Language,' died 1788. Frances, wife of the latter, and grand-daughter of Sir Oliver Chamberlane, acquired considerable repute as a novelist, especially by her delightful romance of ' Nourjahad,' 1724-1767. SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, was born at Dublin in 1751. His grandfather, Dr. Sheri- dan, a clergyman and schoolmaster in Ireland, was an improvident wit, and a friend and coadjutor of Swift ; his father, Thomas Sheridan, was well known as an actor and a teacher of elocution, and as the author of a Pronouncing Dictionary ; and his mother, a remarkably amiable and accomplished woman, wrote, besides other pieces, the fairy tale of ' Nourjahad.' Richard, an idle and mischievous boy, passed at school for a hopeless blockhead. But, though he had not learned to spell English when he left Harrow, at the age of eighteen, he was ambitious enough to join his friend, Halhed (the Orientalist), in publishing a translation from the Greek. He professed to study law in the Middle Temple ; but his prospects were very hazy indeed, when, being barely of age, he made a run- away marriage with Miss Linley, a beautiful and accomplished singer. He refused to allow his wife to perform in public ; and a small fortune she brought him was speedily dissipated by that care- less way of living, which he practised at all stages of his life. His career falls into two periods, ex- hibiting an alternation such as few men have gone through. The comic play-writer and theatrical manager transformed himself successfully into a statesman and orator. His earliest comedy, ' The Rivals,' appeared in 1775, when the author was not much more than twenty-three years old. This humorous and lively play was succeeded next year by the commonplace farce of ' St Patrick's Day,' and the witty and clever little opera of 'The Duenna.' In 1777, was played his celebrated 705 2Z SHE comedy 'The School for Scandal,' an inimitahle picture of the surface of society as seen on its weak side, and fuller of sparkling wit than any English play except those of Congreve. Sheridan's course of play writing may he said to have closed in 1779, with his witty and ill-natured farce The Critic' While engaged in bringing out his earliest plays, he became one of the proprietors of Drury Lane Theatre; and, acting as manager, he conducted his affairs with his usual carelessness. The wit which he exhibited in society was even more re- markable than that which glittered in his comedies ; but the one as well as the other was really gained (as his biographer, Moore, amusingly shows') by careful premeditation, and owed very mucn to unscrupulous and dexterous borrowing. Becoming intimate with Fox and Burke, and impressing these eminent men with a strong belief in his politi- cal and oratorical talents, he obtained a seat in parliament in 1780. He worked hard for the House of Commons, and was, in his great efforts, one of the most showy and striking of parliamentary orators. Of his famous speech on the trial of Warren Hastings, no record has been preserved that at all accounts for the extraordinary impres- sion which it unquestionably made. Losing his wife in 1792, he married again, in 1796, a lady with whom he received five thousand pounds ; and with this money and fifteen thousand pounds from shares in the theatre, he purchased an estate, and dreamt of living in splendour. But his affairs were already deranged beyond retrieval ; and his sottish habits were becoming more and more confirmed. The last dozen years of his life were spent in continual difficulties, which made it the more honourable to him that he adhered steadfastly to the Whigs, even when his patron and boon-companion, the Prince Regent, deserted them. He was treasurer of the navy during the short ministry of Fox and Gren- ville; but after 1812 he was no longer able to speak in the house. Abandoned by friends, hunted by bailiffs, and sunk in habits and feelings, the wit and orator died in 1816. Those who had not offered to cheer his deathbed, gave him a grave in Westminster Abbey. [W.S.] SHERLOCK, R., an English divine, 1613-1689. SHERLOCK, William, an episcopalian divine, was born in London, 1641, and received his educa- tion at Eton. Having distinguished himself at the university by his talents and acquirements, he obtained rapid preferment in the church, for, in 1669, he was appointed rector of the parish of St. George's, London ; in 1681, prebendary of Pancras, St. Paul's cathedral ; master of the Temple, and rector of Therfield ; in 1691, dean of St. Paul's. His best known works are a ' Practical Treatise on Death;' 'A Discourse on Providence;' and 'The Future Judgment' He died in 1707. [R.J.] SHERLOCK, Dr. Thomas, son of the preced- ing, and a clergyman of the Church of England also. He was born in 1678, and having repaired in due time to St. Catherine Hall, Cambridge, to prosecute his education, he became eventually master of that college. He afterwards succeeded his father as master of the Temple ; and it may be stated, as somewhat remarkable, that both father and son held this situation for the long period of seventy years. In 1728 he was elevated to the bench as bishop of Bangor, and thence, in 1 734, SHI he was translated to the see of Salisbury. A sti higher promotion was put in his offer, for he w* urged, in 1747, to accept the primacy. But th; high honour he was obliged to decline on accoui of his bodily infirmities. He was prevailed oi however, in the year following to accept the see London. His death took place in 1761. He wi a popular and voluminous author. His ' Sermoni his ' Use and Intent of Prophecy,' and his contn versial writings on the Bangorian Controversy for the chief of his published works. [R.J SHERWIN, John Keyse, an eminent eng and designer, born in Sussex of humble parenta about 1750, died 1790. SHERWOOD, Mrs., a popular English novel and writer of juvenile books, 1775-1851. SHIEL, Richard Lalor, born in Dubl 1793, and best known as a parliamentary orato was called to the Irish bar in 1814, when he 1) already distinguished himself as a speaker at pu lie meetings. His connection with politics dal from 1822, when he became an active supporter the Catholic Association ; and his career in pi liament from 1829, after the passing of the Catho Relief Act. In 1850 he went as her majest minister to the court of Tuscany; d. there 1851 SHIELD, William, an eminent English co: poser, was born at Smalfield in the county Durham, in the year 1749. He was apprentic to a boat-builder at North Shields, during wh period his musical talents began to develop the selves in such an extraordinary manner that was induced to devote himself wholly to the stfr of the science. Shield first appeared as a drama, composer in 1778. In rapid succession he p duced music to the Flitch of Bacon;' 'Rosin 'The Poor Soldier;' 'Robin Hood;' 'Fonta: bleau;' 'Marian;' 'Oscar and Malvina;' *f Woodman,' &c. In 1807 he made a tour of continent, and soon after his return home publisl his ' Introduction to Harmony,' which reache- second edition in 1817. He published alsc volume of glees, and ' The Rudiments of Thoroi Bass.' In 1817 the prince regent (George T appointed him to the situation of master oFM band of musicians in ordinary to the king, in wl situation he conducted the musical serviceftH coronation of George IV. He died in 1829. [J.i SHIPLEY, Jonathan, a prelate and poet writer, one of whose daughters became the wife Sir William Jones, born about 1714, died 1788. SHIRLEY, Sir Anthony, a famous East traveller, who became the ambassador of S Abbas to various courts of Europe, and Spai admiral in the Levant ; born at Weston, in qH 1565, supposed to have died in Spain about 1( His brother, Sir Thomas, travelled with him, published an account of Turkey. A third brot Sir Robert, was also his fellow-traveller, i like Sir Anthony, acted as ambassador of shah, 1570-1623. SHIRLEY, James, a well-known poet dramatic writer of the Elizabethan age, waa h in London about 1594, and educated at Ox 1 ] and Cambridge. After taking a curacy in j Church of England he became catholic, and i an unsuccessful attempt to establish a gram school, commenced writing for the stage. He rendered destitute by the great fire of London, roe SHI loth he and his wife were so affected with grief {and terror at this event, that they died within twenty-four hours of each other, 1666. SHIRLEY, Thomas, a relation of the traveller of that name, known as a medical writer, 1638-78. SHIRLEY, Walter Augustus, bishop of Sodor and Man, born at Westport, in Ireland, B.797, died 1847. SHLOEZER, A. L., a Ger. writer, 1737-1809. SHORE, Jane, the wife of a wealthy jeweller, in Lombard-Street, who became the mistress of Edward IV., and is represented as a woman of jxtraordinary beauty. Tn 1482, after Edward's leath, she was punished on an accusation of witch- araft by the duke of Gloucester, and deprived of ler house and fortune, but it is unknown where ihe died. There is proof that she was living in he reign of Henry VIIL, at which time she is poken of in high terms by Sir Thomas More. SHORT, J., a Scotch optician, 1710-1768. SHORT, T., a physician and professional writer, nthor, among other works, of a ' Natural History f Mineral and Medicinal Waters,' died 1772. SHOVEL, Sir Clotjdesley, a British admiral, rn of humble parentage near Clay, in Norfolk, bout 1650. In 1674 he served under Sir John larborough, and greatly distinguished himself in be attack on Tripoli. His other principal actions the victories of Cape la Hogue and Malaga. le was drowned by shipwreck on the Scflly slands, 22d October, 1707. SHOWER, Sir Bartholomew, an eminent iwyer and recorder of London, died 1701. His rother, John, a puritan divine, 1657-1715. SHRAPNEL, Henry, lieutenant-general in the tiyal artillery, inventor of the deadly case-shot, amed after him ' Shrapnel shells,' died 1842. SHUCKFORD, S., a learned divine, died 1754. SHUTE, J., a divine and royalist, died 1643. SHUTER, E., a popular comedian, died 1776. SHUTTLEWORTH, Philip Nicholas, bishop f Chichester, author of a ' Discourse on the Con- ency of the Whole Scheme of Revelation with ilf and with Human Reason,' and of a work st Puseyism, entitled ' Scripture not Tradi- 1782-1842. SIAUVE, S. M., a Fr. antiquarian, died 1812. SIBBALD, Sir Robert, a Scottish physician, [aturalist, and political writer, 1643-1712. SIBBS, R., a puritan divine, 1577-1635. SIBILET, M., a French poet, 1512-1589. SIBTHORP, John, regius professor of botany It Oxford, author of ' Flora Oxoniensis,' 1758-96. SIBYL, daughter of Amaury L, king of Jerusa- ;m, and successively wife of William Longsword, j whom she was mother of Baldwin V., and of fuy of Lusignan. With the latter she mounted le throne of Jerusalem 1186, the year preceding is death by the hand of Saladin. SICARD, an Italian prelate and historian, auth. ' a ' Chronicle,' published by Muratori, died 1215. SICARD, C, a French Jesuit, 1677-1726. I SICARD, Roch Ambrose Cucurron, a Irench abbe\ born at Foussenet, near Toulouse, 1742, succeeded the abbe L'Epee as master of the saf and dumb school in Paris 1789, died 1822. e had two narrow escapes during the revolution, ; which epoch he joined Jauffret in publishing B ' Religious, Political, and Literary Annals of SID France.' He wrote several works on the interest- ing subject which chiefly occupied his attention, and in 1800 established a printing press for the use of his scholars. SICHEM, C. Van, a Dutch engraver, d. 1580. SIDDONS, Mrs. Henry, daughter of a come- dian named Murray, became the wife of Mr. H. Siddons, son of the great actress (next article.) That gentleman dying in 1814, the brother of his widow undertook the management of the Edin- burgh theatre in her interest, where, for many years, she excelled in genteel comedy and the gentler parts of tragedy. Died after 1830. SIDDONS, Sarah, the most eminent of Eng- lish actresses, was the eldest daughter of Roger Kemble, and was born at Brecknock in South Wales, 14th July, 1755. Notwithstanding her father's connection with the theatre, there seemed at first small chance of her becoming an actress, as her parents placed her out as lady's-maid in the family of Mrs. Greathead of Guy's Cliff, near War- wick, and in that position the incipient queen of tragedy remained for two years. They resorted to this measure for the purpose of separating her from Mr. Siddons, a member of her father's com- pany, for whom she had an attachment; but to whom, notwithstanding such opposition, she was married in 1773. Two years afterwards she made her appearance in London, 29th December. Her debut had been procured by Lord Bruce, after- wards earl of Aylesbury, who had recommended her to Garrick, but the result was not flattering. The character, perhaps, was ill chosen Portia, in 1 The Merchant of Venice.' In the summer of next year we find her at Birmingham playing with Henderson, and subsequently at Bath with increas- ing success, in such parts as Euphrasia, Alicia, Rosalind, Matilda, and Lady Townley. On her next appearance at Drury Lane, 10th October, 1782, the actress proved triumphant. The part was better suited to her powers Isabella, in ' The Fatal Marriage.' This was followed by Jane Shore, Euphemia, Calista, Belvidera, and Zara, in The Mourning Bride.' In Dublin and Cork, in the following year, she enjoyed a repetition of her metropolitan triumph. On her return to London she attempted another Isabella, that of Shak- speare in the difficult play of ' Measure for Mea- sure.' This was in November, 1783. To the same year belong also her appearances in Con- stance, Volumnia, and Lady Macbeth ; and to the following, the rememberable circumstance of Sir Joshua Reynolds painting her portrait in the character of the tragic muse, of which he was so proud that he traced his name on the hem of the muse's garment. Her fame now became preroga- tive, and her profits large. At Edinburgh she re- ceived a thousand guineas for performing ten nights, with many presents, among them a mag- nificent silver urn, inscribed ' A Reward to Merit.' Mrs.' Siddons owed much of her success to her personal beauty and dignity; her voice was re- markably melodious, and her mental endowments were extraordinary. On her brother, John Kem- ble, becoming manager of Drury Lane in the spring of 1788, she appeared for his benefit as Katharine, in ' The Taming of the Shrew.' In the same theatre, also, she played Juliet in 1790, and Lady Macbeth in 1794. She transferred her 707 M r.. lemwfient - i i&i (! : Mf aay * Mri k0 tdfl M Ihbl m aeons ml SIG about 1503, and are sufficiently new and vigorous in style to account for the extraordinary progress in design generally displayed in the famous car- toon by Michelangelo exhibited in 1506. Such indeed is the extraordinary vigour displayed in these frescoes that Vasari and many others have indicated Signorelli as the immediate precursor of Michelangelo, who, says Vasari, always expressed the highest admiration for his works, and Vasari adds, that all may see what use he made of the inventions of Luca in his great work of the Last Judgment, in the Sistine chapel, especially in the forms of the angels and demons, and in the arrange- ment. The fact is indisputable, 6ome of the best figures are little more than transcripts from Sig- norelli. Luca died at Arezzo in 1524., whither he had retired, and where he lived, says Vasari, more after the manner of a nobleman than an artist. (Vasari, Vile de' Pittori, &c. Ed. Flor., 1846, seqq.) [R.N.W.] SIGONIUS, C, a learned Italian, 1520-1584. SIGORGNE, P., a Fr. philosopher, 1719-1809. SIGWART, G. F., a Germ, anatomist, 1711-95. SILANION, an Athenian sculptor, 346 B.C. SILHON, J., a French philosopher, died 1666. SILHOUETTE, Stephen De, a French states- man, dist. as a miscellaneous writer, 1709-1767. SILIUS ITALICUS, Caius, a Roman pleader, and author of poems on the Punic war, was born a.d. 16, and became consul under Nero, 68. He was afterwards proconsul of Asia ; died 100. SILVA, D., a learned Milanese, 1690-1779. SILVA, J. B., a French physician, 1682-1748. SILVERSTOLPE, A. G., a Swedish states- man, historiographer, and philologist, 1772-1824. SILVERIUS, a pope of Rome, 536-538. SILVESTER. See Sylvester. SILVESTRE, Israel, a French designer and engraver, 1621-1691. His son, Loins, a painter, and member of the Academy, 1675-1760. SIMEON, a Jewish rabbi who flourished about the year 120, and through fear of the Romans retired to a cave, where he lay in concealment twelve years, and composed the Zohar, a cabal- istic work. SIMEON, Charles, fifty-three years rector of Trinity Church, in the university of Cambridge, author of valuable theological works, published entire in 21 vols. 8vo, 1832. These consist of Discourses, forming a commentary upon every book of the Old and New Testament, born at Reading 1759, died 1836. SIMEON of Durham, an English historian of the Saxon and other kings from 616 to 1130. He probably died soon after the latter of these dates. SIMEON, J. J., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1749-1842. SIMEON, surnamed Metaphrastes, an eccle- siastic of Constantinople, who lived in the tenth century, author of ' Lives of the Saints.' SIMEON of Polotsk, a Russian preacher, ecclesiastical writer, and dramatist, 1628-1680. SIMEON, surnamed Stylites, a Christian fanatic who acquired immense fame by passing the last forty-seven vears of his life upon the tops of ruined pillars. He flourished, if such a word is at all applicable to him, from 392 to 461. A second saint of the name dwelt on his pillar six.ty- eight years, but the former was the original in- ventor of this pastime. SIN SIMEONI, G., an Italian writer, 1509-1570. SIMI, N., an Italian astronomer, 1530-1564. SIMLER, Josias, a Swiss divine, 1540-1576. SIMMONS, S. F., a learned physic, 1750-1813 SIMMONS. See Symmons. SIMNEL, Lambert, an impostor of the reig of Henry VII., who gave himself out for the duk of York, second son of Edward IV. He was de feated at the battle of Stoke 1487, and was punishe by promotion to an office in the king's kitchen. SIMON. See Montfort. SIMON, E. T., a French writer, 1740-1818. SIMON, J. F., a French antiquarv, 1651-171) SIMON, Richard, a French Hebraist theologian, who sustained a controversy wil Bossuet and the Port Royal savants, 1638-171 Another of the same names, published a Di tionary of the Bible in 1703, which was supe seded by that of Calmet. SIMON, V., a French dramatist, 1753-1820. SIMONET, E., a French theologian, 1662-173 SIMONETTA, Giovanni, a learned Sicilia, author of a History of Francisco Sforza, in whe service he was, died about 1491. Others of t family were also writers. SIMONIDES, a Greek poet, 558-468 b.c. SIMONIN, S., a poet and ascetic, died 1668. SIMPLICIUS, a Greek philosopher of the ti; of Justinian, in the 6th century, author of Col mentaries on the works of Aristotle and Epictet SIMPLICIUS, two saints of the Roman calf dar : the earliest, a bishop of Autun about 3< the latter, a pope, who sue. Hilary 467, died 4 SIMPSON, Edward, rector of Eastling, Kent, dist. as a divine and chronologist, 1578-16 SIMPSON, James, an Edinburgh lawj known as a writer on education, died 1853. SIMPSON, Thomas, the son of a poor we$| who rose through difficult circumstances to i professor of mathematics at the Royal Acada* author of Treatises on Fluxions, Chance, Annuit Algebra, and other subjects, born in Leicester^ 1710, died 1761. SIMS, James, a physician and profe writer, most distinguished as a botanist, d. SIMSON, R., a Scotch mathemat., 1687- SINCLAIR, Charles Gideon, Baron, i general and writer on military tactics, 1730-H3 SINCLAIR, SINCLAIRE, or SINCLA George, an engineer and professor of philosev at Glasgow, author of works on hydrostatics, the principles of astronomy and navigation, | wrote also a popular book on witches and ai ritions, entitled ' Satan's Invisible World i j covered.' Died 1696. SINCLAIR, Sir John, an eminent poHi| and miscellaneous writer, philanthropist, ] member of parliament, was born at l^H castle, in Caithness, 1754, and admitted to j English bar in 1775. Five years after, he bee j member for his native county, and soon a^H that celebrity as a public character which % nected his name with the stirring events^O commencement of the present century. He J the author of a ' History of the Revenue of 6ft I Britain,' and a ' Statistical Account of Sfl^H Died 1835. SINDHYAH, SINDIAH, or SCIK! j hadji, a Mahratta prince, who invaded llindo 10 :i Sv sin tin the fall of the Great Mogul in 1770, and De- laine master of Delhi, 1741-1794. |[ SINGH, Maha Rajah Runjeet, the despot jilf Lahore and Cachemire, was born in 1779, and ] ras first known as a captain of banditti. His Jjareer is one of the most remarkable among the llumerous instances of success which mark the llossession of genius and an iron will, in states of ;i lociety, which, however magnificent, may still be llalled barbarous. His troop of marauders swelled lb an army, which he brought into the highest state ||f skill and subordination, until it was sufficient Jb give him the command of millions of people. is died in the sixtieth year of his age, after a otracted illness, in 1839, and his funeral pyre is honoured by the voluntary death of four of } princesses and seven slave-girls. A portrait, d some particulars concerning this extraordinary in will be found in Mr. Princep's work on the llrisin of the Sikh Power. [E.R.] SINNER, J. R., a Swiss savant, 1730-1787. SIRANI, J. A., an Italian painter and engraver, 510-79. Elizabeth, his daughter, was also an tist, and was poisoned at the age of twenty-six. SIRI, V., an Italian historian, 1608-1685. SIRICIUS, a pope of Rome, 385-399. SIRLET, F., a German engraver, died 1737. SIRMOND, James, a learned French Jesuit, 59-1651. John, his nephew, historiographer yal, 1589-1649. Anthony, brother of the latter, Jesuit preacher and theologian, 1591-1643. SISMONDI. Jean Charles Leonard Si- )NDE De' Sismondi, divided his life, as he him- If says, between history and political economy. s works in the latter department are confessedly dilating, hypothetical, and unsatisfactory; but historical writings are very valuable, both for eir matter and their liveliness of composition ; and did good service also as a critic of Italian and ianish literature. He was the last of a noble nily, which, driven from Pisa into France by re- blican dissensions in the fourteenth century, was ain (being protestant) forced into Switzerland by \ 8 revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He was born 1773, at Geneva, where his father was a clergy- | bn. After completing the usual education in nis tive place, he was compelled, by losses of his her on the bankruptcy of the French funds, to jome a mercantile clerk at Lyons. The revolu- nary disturbances drove the family about for reral years, in the course of which" they spent elve months in England; and for five years, m 1795, Sismondi directed the cultivation of a tall estate which his father purchased in Tuscany. 1801, the family having returned to Geneva, fie Wished his sensible and useful 'Tableau de agriculture Toscane.' He had also made much toaration for his historical work on Italy ; but i > speculations in political economy were the first j be completed. In 1807 appeared the earliest \ umes of his excellent ' Histoire des Republiques Banes,' which was completed, in sixteen vols., 1818, and augmented in a subsequent edition. series of Lectures which he delivered at Geneva, published in 1813, and is well known in gland by a translation : ' Historical View of the [erature of the South of Europe.' In 1819 he kit to England, to marry a sister-in-law of Sir ickintosk. His principal employment SIX afterwards, was the composition o* his largest and most laborious work, 'L'Histoire Des Francais.' The first volume appeared in 1821 ; and he did not live to carry it farther than the reign of Louis XV. In 1822 he published ' Julia Severa,' a short but heavy historical novel of the Fall of the Roman Empire ; and a history of that period appeared in 1835. In the last year of his life he made himself unpopular at Geneva by advocating the expulsion of Prince Louis Napoleon from Switzerland. He died in his native city in 1842. [W.S.] SISMONDI, Ugilino, called Buzzachevino, a Pisan admiral, celebrated by his naval victory over the Genoese in 1241. SIVERS, H. J., a German naturalist, 1709-58. SIX, John, a Dutch dramatic writer, known also as the friend of Rembrandt, 1618-1700. He had a relation of the same name, who translated the Psalms into Dutch verse. SIXTUS, or XYSTUS, the name of several popes, of whom the most remarkable was Sixtus Quintus, the subject of the following article : the preceding four are Sixtus L, of uncertain date, sav 119-128. Sixtus II., like the former, a martyr of the Christian religion, 257 or 260. .Sixtus III., the successor of Celestine, 435, died 440, since which his name has been enrolled with the saints. Six- tus IV., a member of the noble family of Rovere, in Savona, succeeded Paul II. 1471. He took an active part in the conspiracy of the Pazzi against the house of the Medici dukes of Florence, and ranks among the most unprincipled occupants of the papal chair. He wrote some ascetic works, and founded the Vatican library ; died 1484. SIXTUS QUINTUS, one of the most celebrated of the popes of Rome, was descended from Scla- vonian parents who had fled to Italy at the period of the Ottoman conquest of their country. His father, Pereto Peretti, was a vine-dresser in the humblest circumstances, but so hopeful of the for- tunes of his son that he named nim Felix or Felice. This child was born in 1521, and educated by his uncle, Fra Salvatore, who had fortunately joined the Franciscan order of friars : before passing under his care, however, the young Felix had acted as swine-herd, or in any field oc- cupation by which a scanty addition could be made to nis parents' income. Felix Peretti made great progress in scholarship and dialectics, and being ordained priest acquired a valuable reputation by his oratory as Lent preacher in Rome, in the year 1552. His firmness in the catholic faith at this time under trying circumstances procured him also the friendship of the grand inquisitor, and the now rising churchman attached himself to the severe party of Ignatius and others, whose influ- ence was then beginning to be felt. In quick succession he became commissary - general at Bologna, inquisitor at Venice, and procurator- general of his order; and these steps gained, by dint of a pushing and resolute ambition, he is mid to have assumed the greatest humility, and affected the infirmities of old age ; the truth of such state- ments, however, is denied by Ranke, who justly observes that the highest dignities are not to be won by such means. It is much more probable that Peretti's energy as a reformer of his order, and the discriminating friendship of the pope, Pius V., marked him out as the man for the epoch, and wts SIX know that he stood firmly by his favourite, whom he clothed with the purple in 1570. The son of the vine-dresser was now ranked with the princes of Italy by the title of Cardinal Montalto, and he still varied his public labours by rural occupations. We are not informed of all the circumstances attending his election to the papacy, but he suc- ceeded Gregory XIII. in 1585, and at once com- menced the administrative and social reforms in Italy that he had so long contemplated. Unlike a recent example, he carried his measures with a high and firm hand, and so vigorously enforced justice, that the instances often read more like cold-blooded cruelty : his measures had the desired effect, however, of extirpating the bandits who had so long overrun the country, and of bringing some show of order out of the general lawlessness of society. We cannot enumerate here his great enterprises in administrative reform, or the mag- nificence of his public works, but they all mark his passion for order and completeness. His foreign policy was of the same trenchant descrip- j tion ; no half measures or vaporings were to be i tolerated ; for examples of this spirit, it may be sufficient to name the great catholic league, and the invasion of England by the Spanish Armada. Still more surprising and gigantic were his concep- tions as he grew old, as his rigid financial sys- tem enabled him to amass a large public treasure in the vaults of Saint Angelo. His designs now were sufficient to prove that he had perfected the government of his own states, and improved the discipline of the church, as an instrument of a more universal dominion than the papacy had ever reached ; even the Greek church and the empire of Mahomet were destined to be transformed under his hand. Sixtus Quintus breathed his last amid these visions of grandeur on the 27th of August, 1590. A storm burst over the palace of the Quirinal at the moment of his death, and it became an article of the popular faith that he had achieved his enterprises by a compact with the evil one, which had then expired. [E-R-] SIXTUS of Sienna, a preacher and theologian, born of Jewish parents, 1520-1569. SIXTUS of Vesoul, Jean Paris, called Le Pere, a French Capuchin and Orientalist, 1736-92. SKELTON, John, one of the early poet- laureates of England, when that office was con- ferred as a degree at the university, was born towards the close of the 15th century. He was known to be curate of Trompington and rector of Dip, in Norfolk, in 1507, and is understood to have garnished his sermons with a good deal of invective against persons in authority. His poeti- cal satires brought down upon him the displeasure of Wolsey, who ordered him to be arrested ; Skel- ton, however, was protected in the sanctuary of Westminster by the abbot, Islip, and d. there 1529. SKELTON, P., an Irish divine, 1707-1787. SKINNER, S., a philologist, 1622-1667. SKYTTE, J., otherwise Sceoderus, a Swedish senator, originally the preceptor of Gustavus Adol- phus, 1577-1645." His nephew, Laurence, known as an ecclesiastical writer, died 1696. SLATER, or SLATY ER, William, an elegiac poet, rector of Otterden, in Kent, 1587-1647. SLEIDAN, John, whose proper name was Piulipson, a celebrated Ger. historian, 15CG-66. SME SLINGELANDT, Peter Van, a famous Dutcl painter, taught by Gerard Dow, 1640-1691. SLINGELANDT, Simon Van, grand pension arv and treasurer-general of the United Province*- died 1736. SLOANE, Sir Hans, Bart., a celebrated botan ist and promoter of natural history, was born i Ireland in 1660. He died in 1752. He studie medicine, but being fond of natural history, devoted much attention to that science, and, in 168' accompanied the duke of Albemarle to Jamaica, short residence in that island enabled him to collei an immense number of plants, and other objects natural history, with which he returned to Englam and commenced the practice of his profession, this he succeeded admirably, soon acquiring a hie reputation, and becoming president of the Collej of Physicians, and physician to George II. H love for the natural sciences continued thronghoi his life. He was the friend and correspondent John Ray and most of the celebrated nature ists and philosophers of his time; and filled, wil great distinction to himself and advantage to tl Society, first, the office of secretary ; and, next, the death of Sir Isaac Newton, that of president the Royal Society. He is the author of mai valuable works and treatises, amongst which *i his catalogue of the plants of Jamaica, written Latin ; and his voyage to, and natural history < that island. He accumulated an immense stoj of objects of natural history, art, and antiquitiei which, along with his library, consisting of 50,01 volumes and MSS., he bequeathed to the BritL nation, upon condition that they would pay to 1 family a sum of 20,000 sterling. Parliame agreeing to this condition, secured the collectio- and having already become possessors of the h$l leian manuscripts, and the Cottonian library, d Eosited them in the fine old mansion, Montaj (ouse, which they purchased for the purpot ' and thus laid the foundation of the British M seum. [W.E SLODTZ, Sebastian, a sculptor, founder oT family of distinguished French artists, originally ' Antwerp, 1655-1726. His son, P. Amreosb,' designer, and professor of painting to the Fren< Academy, died 1758. Rene Michael, brother? the latter, a sculptor and designer, 1705-1764. SMALBROKE, Richard, bishop of St. David distinguished as a controversialist, 1672-1749. J SMALRIDGE, George, bishop of Brist known as a theologian and Latin poet, 1666-171 SMART, Christopher, an elegant classii scholar and poet, born at Shipbourne, in Kei ' 1722 ; d., the victim of a settled melnncholv, 17i1 SMEATHMANN, Henry, an English liatur.' ist and traveller in Africa, 1750-1787. SMEATON, John, a man of rare talent, w j occupies a most conspicuous place in the history civil engineering. He was amongst the first w! styled himself ' civil engineer,' and to no name | more unimpeachable character or higher talent c members of the profession point as its ty]J Smeaton was born in 1724, at the dawn of theflH of Britain's first display of commercial and man j facturing vitality. As a mere boy he showed ij bent to the mechanical pursuits. In 1742 hecai . to London, to attend the courts of law in We ' minster, in pursuance of his father's design 12 SME ke him an attorney like himself; but, in 1750, find him established as a philosophical instru- t maker in Great Turnstile, Holborn. The ling had taken its bent, and nature was too >ng for any effort of authority to give the tree >ther form. In 1752 and 1753, he made the ex- iments ' concerning the natural powers of water . wind to turn mills, and other machines depend- on circular motion,' from which resulted the ?t valuable improvements in hydraulic machines, . which remain to this, day a. standard of the losophical process of inquiry into practical stions. For this essay Smeaton received the ley gold medal of the Royal Society in 1759, ehich he had been made a member in 1753, in nowledgment of previous contributions to its isactions. In 1754, Smeaton travelled in Hol- 1 and the Netherlands, and there no doubt ac- ed a most important part of the engineering cation, which qualified him to occupy the con- iuous position he afterwards did as standing asel of his profession. In 1756, Smeaton corn- iced the great work which more than any other t be looked upon as a lasting monument of his I the Eddystone lighthouse. Two light- ses had been erected on the Eddystone Rock re Smeaton's admirable structure, of which the ; was swept away in a storm, and the second, ch was of timber, was destroyed by fire in ember, 1755. The cutting of the rock, for the ldation of the building, was commenced August, 6. The first stone was landed June 12, 1757. building was finished October, 1759, and the ern lighted for the first time on the 16th of month. In all, there were 421 days' work i the rock. This, Smeaton's first work, was his greatest : probably the epoch of its erection, other circumstances considered, it was the most ious undertaking that has fallen to the lot of engineer to execute, and none was ever more sfully accomplished. And now having been eted by thestorms of nearly 100 years, Smeaton's k stands unmoved as the rock it is built i proud monument to its great author. Robert Allan Stevenson have erected the Bell Rock the Skerry- Vor lighthouses since, but inguished as is the merit due to these men, r nave readily testified as to who taught the ; great lesson, and what was their example and idard of excellence. Smeaton's reports on the ks he executed or advised to be carried out, published in 1812, under the supervision of Society of Civil Engineers, founded in 1771 by n and his friends. These reports are a mine th for the sound principles they unfold and able practice they exemplify, both alike based observation of the operations of nature, affording examples of cautious sagacity in ap- Qg the instructions she gives by means within reach of art, Smeaton perfected the atmos- ic steam engine, but lived to see the far greater rovements of the steam engine by James Watt e into extensive operation. Smeaton dedicated Bpare time to philosophical study and investi- i don, and had an astronomical observatory at mhorpe near Leeds, his birth-place. Here, on th September, 1792, while walking in his , Smeaton was seized with an attack of ;is, and on the 28th Oct. he died. [L.D.B.G.] SMI SMELLIE, William, a Scotch physician, au- thor of a complete course of midwifery, died 1763. SMELLIE, William, a printer of Edinburgh, translator of Buffon's Natural History, and author of a work entitled the 'Philosophy of Natural History,' 1740-1795. SMIDS, Lttdolph, a German poet, 1649-1720. SMIRKE, Robert, a native of Carlisle, famous as a painter of historical and imaginative subjects, member of the Academy, 1752-1845. SMITH, Ar>AM, a very great name in Scottish Literature ; distinguished even amid those of our best writers and philosophers; and which will recall to all ages, as it now does to every civilized nation, the Man who by the authority of Reason laid the foundations of the Freedom of Industry, and of unfettered Commerce among States. Smith was born at Kirkaldy in Fifeshire on 5th June, 1723: in 1737 he entered the university of Glasgow, where he studied under Hutcheson: from Glasgow he passed to Baliol College, Oxford, returning to Edinburgh in 1748. In 1751, he ob- tained the Chair of Logic in his Alma-Mater; and in the subsequent year he was nominated to the professorship of Moral Philosophy. It is unneces- sary to record that his genius threw around this ancient University the greatest splendour of which it yet can boast, an assertion not to be modified, even although his successor was Reid. Resign- ing his chair in 1763, he accompanied the young duke of Buccleuch to the continent meeting in Paris, along with his old companion Hume, the distinguished Economist and Statesman, Tim- got and the celebrated Quesnay. Probably first moved thereto by his intimacy with Hume who, some time previously had published his ex- quisite Political Essays Smith had long turned his thoughts to the momentous subject which after- wards engrossed them; and his interest in it must have been greatly deepened by intercourse with the founders of that famous French School, which first aimed to reduce all Problems concern- ing the Public Riches, into the form of a Science. At all events, on his return to Scotland in 1766, he retired to his native town ; and after ten years of undisturbed meditation, he produced his imper- ishable work, ' On the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.' In just tribute to the ex- traordinary deserts of the Author of the ' Inquiry,' Government bestowed on Smith a lucrative and not laborious Fiscal Office. He fixed his resi- dence thereafter in Edinburgh, where he died on 8th July, 1790. As a Man, Smith left behind him the truest testimony to his worth viz., the best minds of his country mourning for their lost friend. He was simple and sincere, earnest in his beliefs, indefatigable in work ; nor do many of the odd anecdotes that still circulate regarding his absence and abstraction, fail to do their part in enabling us to complete a picture of him. Besides his great works, trie Theory of the Moral Senti- ments and the Wealth of Nations, he left a few philosophical Essays, among which is a precis of the early History of Astronomy, most exact, pene- trating, and beautiful. He had been engaged for many years on another work, that promised to be of higher moment than even the Wealth of Na- tions viz., a Treatise of Civil and Political Law meaning to trace at once the History and the 713 SMI Theory of Law, from their obscure commence- ments, in the infancy of Society and in the Hu- man Reason, up to their highest developments. It is only the student of Smith's actual works, who can conceive the amount of detriment to Science involved in the loss of such a Treatise. No fragments of it remain. We hasten to offer a brief account of the two great and completed investigations whose titles are as above. I. Dis- ciple of Hutcheson, the Author of the Theory of Moral Sentiments, is in clear revolt against the moral doctrine of Hobbes viz., that the founda- tion of Morality is the feeling of Self-interest, and also against the somewhat broader scheme of Utility, as propounded by Hume. Concurring with his Master, that we must seek that founda- tion in disinterested sentiment, he does not concur with him, that the required sentiment is Benevo- lence. In Smith's view the foundation of Morals is in Sympathy: we feel, he savs, that conduct right on the part of another, with which we sym- pathize; and we hence infer that such acts on our own parts, alone can be right, with which others sympathize. However narrow and singular this principle may seem as a basis, the skill, clearness, feeling and eloquence, with which the theory is developed, will ever attract admiration . nor per- haps is any portion of its development more in- fenious and striking, than where Smith shows, ow Reason working on the ground of primal feeling gradually forms the rules of Morality, involuntarily, almost, classifying the virtues; and so impressing on the mind those rules and classi- fications, that, in acting, we seldom or never re- quire to recur to consideration of the fundamental sentiment. Amidst the pleasure, however, with which we go along with these deductions, one very important question cannot fail to occur, May not something of the same kind be estab- lished, with regard to any other supposed foun- dation of morality? If accepting sympathy as that foundation we really act through rule, and a direct sense of the obligation of the several virtues, and not because of any immediate feeling of sympathy ; can it justly be averred against the simple or ultimate basis, that they are ever acting with direct eye to Self-Interest ? There is a truth here which sadly damages the scaffolding beneath certain declamatory criticisms! The errors of Smith's system are two. First, deriving the sense of right from sympathy with others, it pro- nounces, that no one can have a sense of right un- less through intercourse with others ; and that the quickness of that sense must be proportionate to the extent of such intercourse. The Author of the Theory, adopts this conclusion, and ingeniously but vainly defends it. The feeling of right, has sanctions in the Human Soul, which transcend everything that concerns intercourse with our fellows. Secondly, Like Hutcheson's scheme of Benevolence, and the doctrine of Utility itself, the Moral Theory of Sympathy, is quite too narrow ; mistaking an important moral motive, for the Supreme Faculty which weighs all motives, and determines Moral Action. This Supreme Faculty has been termed Conscience : we prefer to desig- nate it jrith Kant the Practical Reason: it ifi fJe Energy through whose unchallengeable supre- hgfl SMI macy, the philosopher of Konigsberg first cerned that Reality, which is the awful coun^ part of the Subjective Idea of God. II. ' Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the We; of Nations,' stands to the Science it created, in relation held by the labours of Lavoisier, to Ch cal Science, or the combined discoveries and vestigations of Copernicus, Kepler, andNcwtc Astronomy. Previous to the era of Adam Sm all Economic Theories rested on some abst: principle, demonstrated by no induction, merely assumed as true ; in other words, a p ciple expressive of the common notions of the ti It was reserved for the great Scotchman to ap for its foundations, to Observation, and Experit analyzed by Reason; to apply in this case strictest rules of Philosophic Induction ; and. the basis so discovered, to rear a permanent sti ture. It is not requisite now, neither would a' able space permit us, to follow Smith in this i scientious research. It is matter of common kn ledge, how clearly he discerned, and how fir he established, the truths that all things cov< by men are the produce of labour, and that quantity of labour employed in then- productio the real measure of value : nor have we leisur trace, the fine and continuous reasoning which. him from these simple and indubitable, but form unnoticed Principles, to the ultimate Laws wl determine the economic prosperity of Nati His achievements were indeed exhaustive, as bare contents of his Treatise suffice to show, consists of five sections. In the first he discu' the general causes of the formation, increase, decline of Public Riches, and of their distribu among the various classes of men, who make i modern Society. Next he analyzes the natun Capital, explaining the mode in which it gra ally accumulates, and the nature of its efficac the production of Wealth. The third and foi sections are occupied in examining the var* theories or abstract doctrines in Political Econo< that have successively prevailed at different ep< of History and among various Nations; and in termining their influence good and evil- the development of the arts and agriculture! industry and commerce. Finally, we havi searching glance at the nature of Public or S I Revenue, and inquiries concerning the best justest means of raising it by taxation. It m peculiarity of Smith indeed of every thinker on such subjects that at every stfl only of his inductive, but also of his dedw processes, he looks far around him over Soctfl well as deeply into the nature of Man ; so Ij what he writes may be sustained alike by exp< ence and principle: and few men have ever} sessed in so remarkable a degree, the power analyze experience to separate the causey complex phenomena, and assign to each the J tion of the result which is due to it. So rich ; in Historic criticism and illustration, thiS" Wealth of Nations is admitted by every reade possess a charm belonging to scarcely any wor the same kind, that either preceded or hfl lowed it. With the exception of one very M Thinker, who possesses at once an amo^^ political and historical knowledge and pom discernment, not inferior to Smith's, the " Sill SMI ters on this subject, since the publication of the ! fession of a solicitor, made no further effort to ,? assic Treatise, have rather been keen logicians r i m observers : and perhaps the highest compli- J"! int that can be paid to the Wealth of Nations, J 5 in the fewness and comparative unimportance of s modifications, which any of its conclusions have ; ( dergone, even from the scrutiny of such men ? Rieardo, Malthus, and James Mill. Smith in 2 lifetime reaped a deserved celebrity. On its , "* st publication, the Inquiry was hailed as the ' ganon of a new Science, and rapidly translated /; o eveiy language within civilized Europe. ; e id ever since, it has been adding triumph J1 triumph; prejudices, one after another, falling I ' 'ore its force ; and men and nations, in propor- * n as they acknowledge its worth, becoming 1; ire and more bound in brotherhood. Is then, y s remarkable monument complete; shall -,' lith's doctrines, unmodified, continue to govern l - ! i policy of States? A question not lightly be answered! The relations of the classes " v * thin Society are changing; and sentiments prac- 301 ally unknown in Smith's time, are pressing up- rd into sway. There is one great Element, even rards the production of the Wealth of a People, which, in this memorable work, one misses fcice. Among Machines, what one is equal in ght or productiveness to the Human Brain ? id how fares this, under the stern and withering ion of the Division of Labour ? It is foolish throw aside questions of this sort, under the rtence that they smell of Socialism. The man uld be daring who should deny, that under an ;anization permitting the culture and employ- nt by every one, of all his Human Faculties, no tion could fail to increase immeasurably in ealth, as assuredly it would in Dignity and ippiness. [J.P.N.] SMITH, Anker, an Eng. engraver, 1759-1819. SMITH, Charlotte, wife of a West India irchant, who, in a period of reverse, had recourse her pen as a means of support, and became a tinguished novelist and poetess; born in Sus- t, of parents named Turner, 1749, died 1806. SMITH, Edmund, a dramatic wr., 1668-1710. SMITH, Elizabeth, a young lady of remark- le accomplishments in ancient and modern lan- ages, polite literature, and mathematics, author a new translation of Job, and of the Life of opstock; born at Burnhall, near Durham, 1776, n prematurely of consumption 1806. ITH, G., a landscape painter, 1714-1776. ITH, Henry, a Ch. of England divine, whose ence rendered him highly popular, 1550-1600. TTH, Horace, joint author, in connection his brother, James, of the famous ' Rejected s,' was born in London in 1779, and be- a member of the Stock Exchange. These lar writers formed their literary partnership the establishment of the * Pic Nic' newspaper, Colonel Greville, in 1802, and were soon highly ed as periodical writers. The ' Rejected sses' appeared in 1812, on the re-opening of Lane theatre, and have continued popu- till the present time. Horace was afterwards guished as a novelist by his well-known Love and Mesmerism,' ' Brambletye ouse,' &c, and died 1849. James, who was ler by four years, and followed his father's pro- 715 keep his name in remembrance ; he died in 1839. SMITH, Sir James Edward, an English physician, founder and first president of the Lin- nasan Society, disting. as a naturalist, 1759-1828. SMITH, James, a native of Glasgow, whose name has become cele. in connection with agricul- tural and manufacturing improvements, 1789-1850. SMITH, John, a physician, 1630-1679. SMITH, John, a learned divine, author of ' Ten Discourses on Theological Subjects,' 1618-1652. SMITH, John, a mezzotinto engraver, abt. 1700. SMITH, John, known as Capt. John Smith, or Smyth, a military officer and traveller, whose life is intimately connected with the historv of New England, 1579-1631. SMITH, or SMYTHE, John, an ambassador, traveller, and writer on military weapons, 16th c. _ SMITH, John, an English divine and antiqua- rian, editor of an edition of the Venerable Bede, 1659-1715. His son, George, who completed the latter work, was author of a book entitled ' Britons and Saxons not Converted to Popery,' 1693-1756. SMITH, John, a native of Glenorchy, in Argyll- shire, and a minister of the Scotch Kirk, famous as an antiquarian and Celtic scholar, 1747-1807. His works are Alleine's Alarm, Catechism of Dr. Watts, and other small works, translated into Gaelic; 'Essay on Gaelic Antiquities, concerning the History of the Druids,' ' Ancient Poems, trans- lated from the Gaelic,' ' A Dissertation on the Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian,' a ' Life of St. Columba,' a ' Commentary on the Prophets,' &c. SMITH, John, a London banker, and member of parliament in the Whig interest, 1767-1842. SMITH, Dr. John Pye, was a native of Shef- field, were he was born in 1775. His father was a bookseller, and young Smith, from his facility of access to books, early acquired a strong taste for reading, which furnished him even in boyhood witii a large stock of miscellaneous knowledge, though from the nonconformist principles of his family, it was chiefly directed to the works of the Puritan divines. Having shown a decided bias for the minis- try as his future profession, he was entered a student of the Dissenting college, at Rotherham, under the superintendence of the able and learned Dr. Wil- liams. He was, on the completion of his term of study, appointed classical master of that institu- tion; and so much satisfaction did he give in the performance of his academical duties, that he was transferred in a few years to the higher and more important college of Homerton, first in the classi- cal and ultimately the theological chair. At an early period of life, he determined to produce a work on one of the leading doctrines of the Christian religion. And the influence of Priestley's writings having been productive of much evil in shaking the faith of many as to the divinity and atonement of Christ, he set himself to the composition of a work which should furnish a full answer and refutation of the Socinian heresy. This book, which he entitled ' The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah,' was hailed by all denominations as a most valuable contribution to theological literature ; and by the acuteness and force of its reasoning, as well as by its extensive erudition, raised the author to the foremost rank of British divines. He was compli- mented through Dr. Dwight of Yale college, SMI America, with the honorary degree of D.D. A supplementary volume was published in 1818, con- sisting of 'Four Discourses on the Priesthood of Christ.' Dr. Smith was led to direct his researches into various departments of the great field of science, especially into that of geology, and being deeply interested in the bearing of that new science on the truth of the Mosaic Record, he pub- lished in 1839 a treatise entitled, ' The Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Science.' Dr. Smith, after discharging the duties of the theological chair at Homerton for the long period of fifty years, resigned his profes- sorship in 1850, and at a public breakfast to which he was invited, he received from his friends a most gratifying and honourable testimonial in the form of i:2 ; 600 subscription for the aid of students in divinity to be called the Smith Scholarship. His death took place early in the following year in Southwark. [R.J.] SMITH, John Stafford, a famous composer of glees, anthems, and madrigals, died 1836. SMITH, John Thomas, keeper of the prints and drawings in the British Museum, a miscel- laneous and antiquarian writer, 1766-1833. SMITH, Miles, a learned prelate, one of the ministersemployedintranslat.theBible,1568-1624. SMITH, Richard, a Roman Catholic divine and professor at Douay, born in Worcestershire 1500, died 1563. The principal circumstance recorded of him is his attendance at the burning of Ridley and Latimer. SMITH, Richard, a Roman catholic divine and controversial writer, 1566-1655. SMITH, R. A., a Scotch musical composer, whose works, sacred and secular, bear testimony to his high genius and prolific industry. His com- positions are likely to maintain their place among the national music of Scotland, 1780-1829. SMITH, Robert, distinguished as a writer on optics and musical sounds, 1689-1768. SMITH, Rob. Percy, brother of the Rev Sydney Smith, a barrister and man of letters, 1770-1845. SMITH, S., a presbyterian writer, born 1588. SMITH. Sir Sidney Smith, born at West- minster in 1764, was the son of Sir John Smith, a veteran general of the seven years' war. Young Sidney became a midshipman at the age of twelve, and served in several ot the naval actions of the American war. He then entered the Swedish ser- vice and distinguished himself in the short war of 1788-1790 between Sweden and Russia. He was honoured by the Swedish king with the knighthood of the order of the sword. He returned to the Eng- lish service in the war between the French repub- lic and this country, and signalized his courage and skill under Lord. Hood in the operations at Toulon in 1793. He next commanded the Dia- mond frigate in the channel fleet, and drew the attention of both friends and foes by the ardu- ous enterprises which he undertook against the French coast and harbours. He was captured at Havre de Grace in 1796 in a desperate attempt to cut out a privateer that was moored in the Seine. Sir Sidney was taken to Paris and imprisoned in the Temple, where he was treated with peculiar and unjustifiable rigour, till he efFected his escape, and succeeded in reaching England in 1798. He now was appointed captain of the Tiger, 84 gun- SMI ship, and sailed to the Mediterranean. In when Buonaparte had marched his army from 1 to Syria, Sir Sidney Smith saved the ii tant fortress of St. Jean d'Acre, and thereto feated the whole scheme of the French exped The Turkish commandant, Djizzar Pacha, was to evacuate Acre and abandon it to the vict< French army, that was advancing along the from Jaffa, when Sir Sidney Smith arrived i bay, and decided the Turks on resisting. Sii ney had under his command the Tiger of 8- Theseus of 74 guns, and some smaller vessels, landed seamen and marines, guns, and ami tion, and co-operated zealously with the Pas strengthening the works during the interval c days, that elapsed before Buonaparte's army He was also fortunate enough to capture the flotilla that was conveying heavy guns and for the siege, and these were now arrayed in f of the place. The French appeared beft walls on the 17th of March, and a sieg menced which Buonaparte urged on for two with unremitting violence, and which the ' garrison and their English confederates with equal firmness. At last, after havii 4,000 of his best troops, Napoleon raised tl and retreated to Egypt. He always refetr the utmost bitterness to this disappointmei spoke of Sir Sidney as the man who made hi his destiny. Sir Sidney continued to serve Syrian and Egyptian coasts, and co-operated ii with the English expedition which Genera' cromby led to expel the French from the Ei Sidney not only as a naval officer prote disembarkation of the English troops, landed himself and took part in the operatii the troops on shore. He was wounded at the of Alexandria, in which Abercromby was Sir Sidney was made an admiral in 1805, distinguished himself under Sir John Dud in forcing the passage of the Dardanelles in 18fl He afterwards commanded on the South Amelia station ; and at the close of the war, he was seat in command in the Mediterranean. He died : 1841. [E.S.C SMITH, Sydney, was born in Essex, in 17$ and educated at Winchester and Oxford. Ab 1796 he became a curate on Salisbury Plain, whenc- two years afterwards, he removed with a pupil fl Edinburgh. There he became intimate in the km of energetic young men who afterwards became! famous ; and he receives the credit of having suj gested the idea of the ' Edinburgh Review, fl long continued to furnish that celebrated periodic with papers, which, though displaying neither gw knowledge nor great power of thinking, are irrwi tibly diverting and most effective, through tl writer's unscrupulous and biting sarcasm, h flashes of eccentric fun, and his unsurpassed sk in the art of quizzing. Sydney Smith's wit w. yet more celebrated in society, and established hi as one of the most brilliant talkers in the w circles of London. He migrated thither from BN burgh in 1803: in 1806 he received from Im Erskine a rectory in Yorkshire, where he refH for some years, and wrote his famous and stingo Letters on the Catholic Question in the name ' Peter Plymley.' In 1829 he was presentiB another living by Lord Lyndhurst ; and in 1$ 716 SMI 1 Grey made him a canon of Saint Paul's. In 9 he published a collected edition of his works ; he died in London in 1845. [W.S.] MITH, Thomas, chaplain to the English em- ;y at Constantinople, author of an Account of Turks, a Life of Camden, &c, 1638-1710. MITH, Thomas, a landscape painter of Derby, 1769. His son, John Raphael, celebrated his crayon portraits and mezzotinto engrav- , died 1812. MITH, Sir Thomas, secretary of state in the ns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, author of e Commonwealth of England,' 1514-1577. MITH, W., rector of Trinity church, Chester, lor of poems and translations, 1711-1787. MITH, William, a heraldist, died 1618. KITH, or SMYTH, William, a learned pre- founder of Brasennose College, Oxford, the of which he concerted with his friend, Sir R. on, died 1514. MITH, William, many years member of the se of Commons, in which he supported liberal snres, and advocated the dissenting interest, 1756, first entered parliament 1784, d. 1835. HITH, William, an eminent geologist, was at Churchhill, in Oxfordshire, in 1769, and ed the profession of a land surveyor. He is thor of many valuable works, the character hich may be briefly described by the terms in h the Geological Society of London awarded the Wollaston medal in 1831 : ' In consi- n of his being a great original discoverer ;lish geology ; and especially for his being rst in this country to discover and to teach tification of strata, and to determine their ion by means of their imbedded fossils.' 1839. OLLETT, Tobias, was the grandchild (by r son) of Sir James Smollett, of Bonhill in tonshire, and was born in that county in He was educated in Glasgow for the medical on; but he attended more to literature, a tragedy in his eighteenth year, and soon ards, by his grandfather's death, was left to n resources, and sought his fortune in Lon- Being appointed, in 1741, a surgeon's mate navy, he was present in the unfortunate tion to Carthagena, spent some time else- in the West Indies, and returned to England He threw himself perforce on literature livelihood, married a lady whose fortune to be disappointingly small, and destroyed ces he might have had as a play-writer by g with managers. 'Roderick Random,' t novel, appeared in 1748, and ' Peregrine in 1750. He next attempted medical in Bath; but, being quite unsuccessful, to London, and became an author for His time thenceforth was chiefly employed crmance of task work, relieved only at by the composition of his later novels, few pieces in verse, insufficient to give him iderable rank as a poet. He was naughty relsome, but good-hearted and benevolent ; union of qualities fitted him equally ill for money out of the precarious gains of author- ed for enjoying comfort in the stormy voca- ' political partizan and literary critic. The wn of his miscellaneous works are two : Sobieslu's troops. 717 SOB the indifferent translation of ' Don Quixote ;' and the very careless ' History of England,' of which the portion extending from the Revolution to the death of George II. has repeatedly appeared as a sequel to Hume. For a long time after 1756 Smollett edited, with great ability, but not less acrimony, the ' Critical Review,' established as an advocate of the Tory and High Church party ; and Wilkes's famous ' North Briton' owed its existence and its name to his paper ' The Briton,' in which he defended the administration of Lord Bute. His novel of ' Count Fathom' appeared in 1753 ; and 'Sir Lancelot Greaves' was written in 1756, while the author was undergoing imprisonment for a libel. Visiting the continent in 1763 and 1764, when his circumstances and health were shattered, and his spirits sunk by the death of his only child, he published, on his return, his clever but peevish 'Travels through France and Italy.' His ill- humour vented itself anew in ' The Adventures of an Atom,' (1767). After having applied unsuc- cessfully for a consulship in the Mediterranean, he was again compelled to seek for health in a warm climate; and, in 1770, he left England, never to return. He died near Leghorn in the autumn of 1771, having just completed ' Humphrey Clinker,' which is not only the liveliest of his works of fiction, but breathes often a kindlier and more gentle spirit than the rest. Hazlitt, in his ' Lectures on the English Comic Writers,' and in the ' Edinburgh Review,' has excellently described Smollett's novels, and contrasted their coarse and vigorous pictures of externalities with the fine dissection of character which is presented by Fielding. [W.S.] SMYTH, J. C, a Scotch physician, 1741-1821 SMYTH, William, well known as the friend of Henry Kirke White, professor of modern history at Cambridge, and author of historical works and poems, 1764-1849. SNAPE, Andrew, an English divine, d. 1742. SNAYERS, H., a Flemish engraver, born 1612. SNAYERS, P., a Flemish painter, 1593-1670. SNELL, Rodolph, in Latin Snellius, a Dutch mathematician and philologist, 1547-1613. His son, Willebrod, a mathematician, 1591-1626. SNEYDERS, orSNYDERS, Francis, a Flemish painter of hunting and battle-pieces, who frequently executed the animals and fruits in pictures of Rubens, 1579-1657. SNORRO-STURLESOX, an Icelandic histo- rian and mythologist, au. of the Edda, 1178-1241. SOANE, Sir John, a metropolitan architect, was born at Reading, where his father was a small builder, 1753. He became errand boy in the office of an architect, and rising to the position of a pupil was finally sent to Italy to pursue his studies by the Royal Academy. Died 1837. SOANEN, J., a Jansenist prelate, 1647-1740. SOBIESKI, John, king of Poland, famous in the wars which marked the last efforts of the Turks to extend their dominions in Europe, was born in Galicia 1629. His father, James, was gover- nor of Poland, and his military distinction was acquired in the Polish army, in the time of those weak kings, Casimir V. and Michael. In 1667, with only 20,000 men, he defeated an army of Cossacks and Tartars numbering 100,000, who left as many dead on the field as the whole number ot Casimir dying the year follow- SOB ing, might have heen succeeded by Sobieski, had he made any effort, but he permitted the election of Michel, and only acted upon the dictates of am- bition, when the latter haa proved his incapacity. A desolating civil war now threatened the country, as the adherents of Sobieski and of Michad were encamped against each other, but a new invasion of the Turks numbering 150,000 combatants, under Mahomet IV., suddenly announced a new danger. At this crisis Michael and his army took to flight, and the partizans of Sobieski, upon whose head a {irice had been fixed, swore to defend him : he then ed them against the Turkish hosts, and in another great battle put 15,000 of them to the sword, re- covered the spoils they had taken, and set 80,000 prisoners at liberty. While Sobieski was reaping these laurels in one part of the kingdom, Michael in another had concluded the shameful treaty of Budchaz, by which he bartered away a part of his dominions on condition of being supported in arms against his rebellious general ; against this treaty Sobieski appealed to the diet, and falling upon the Turks once more, beat them at Kotzin (1674), and took the fortress till then deemed impregnable, at a loss to the enemy of 20,000 men. On the day of this battle Michael breathed his last, and Sobieski commenced his reign under the title of John III. ; but he had hardly felt the weight of the crown before a new invasion of 200,000 Turks and Tar- tars summoned him to the field. Once more he led his brave Polanders against this redoubtable enemy, whom he charged with the inspiring battle- cry of 'Christ for ever;' his successes, however, produced no better result than an honourable treaty of peace, which had little more effect than a truce. In 1683 Sobieski was persuaded by the pope to enter into a defensive alliance with the emperor Leopold, and in July of that year the grand vizier, Kara Mustapha, led a vast army of 300,000 men against Vienna. The capital of the Austrian em- pire had no prospect but submission, when Sobieski, yielding to the entreaties of a sovereign who had refused him the title of 'majesty,' placed himself at the head of a small but devoted army of less than 20,000 men and proceeded to the seat of war by forced marches. On his way, he was joined by some of the German princes, whose reinforcements swelled his army to 75,000, and with this force he came in sight of the Turkish encampment, which he viewed from the ridge of the Kaiemberg over- looking the Austrian capital. From these heights Sobieski rushed down upon the enemy, and obtained a victory with the praises of which all Europe resounded. For the evil return rendered to this hero by the emperor Leopold, and consummated by the peace of Moscow in 1686, we have no space. He died at Warsaw, June 17, 1696, and years afterwards Charles XII. paused in his headlong course to visit his tomb, and drop a tear to his memory. [E.R.] SOBRY, F., a French writer, 1743-1820. SOCINUS, Faustus, nephew of Laelius So- cinus, and a descendant of tne illustrious house of the Sozini, was born at Sienna, in December, 1539. His family being suspected of heresy, Socinus at the age of twenty took refuge in France for a season, but returned to Italy on his uncle's death, and spent twelve years at Florence in the service of the grand duke. In 1574 he retired to Basle, SOC and four years afterwards was invited by tl court physician, George Blandrata, to Transy vania, where opinions similar to his own had be for some time professed. Francis Davidis h; held, as a legitimate deduction, that if Jesus be mere man, or a creature, it is idolatry to offer ai religious service to him. The arguments Socinus failed to convince him, and the refracto divine was thrown into prison, where he died afl six years of close confinement. In 1579 Socin visited Poland, but the unitarians of that count had scruples about admitting him into their coi munion. He left Cracow, after a residence four years, and soon after married the daughter a nobleman, who was his patron and protect and on whose estate he lived in retirement, gradually obtained influence in the country, , many persons of rank and wealth were led espouse his creed. In 1598 the mob subjee him to a cruel maltreatment, dragged him throt the streets, and burned his papers. Socinus d at a village in the neighbourhood of Cract March, 1604. The vague and floating anti-Tri tarian opinions on the person of Christ, which 1 for some time been abroad, were reduced Socinus into a system. He denied the Suprt Deity of the Saviour, affirming that he had no istence till he was born of the Virgin denied t the Holy Spirit is a person excluded the ato ment from his 'scanty creed,' regarding death of Jesus only as a martyrdom denied personality of Satan and refused the doctrine original sin and that of eternal punishment, short, he impugned all that in every age has b held distinctive of evangelical theology, views of his uncle, Laelius, seem to have first pressed his mind with those ideas, and t^^H discards all fanaticism, yet he indicates that ft , of that uncle's interpretations, was all biji special revelation to him from Christ H^| Opera, vol. ii. 505. The works of Soei the first two volumes of the ' Fratres Polony' M consist of numerous exegetical and pflj^H tracts, and letters ; a long account of an aq^H with Francis Davidis, the ' Responsio F^^| viensibus,' replies to Puccius and Solanus, a l cellany of disputations, with a variety of &I^H ists, and a life of the author prefixed by Ij^H knight. SOCINUS, Laelius, a celebrated he^^H uncle of the preceding, born at Sienna in 1 , but quitted Italy to join the reformation ]^H Switzerland, where he died in 1563. SOCRATES, born at Athens in the WM B.C.; suft'ered the punishment of death fof 'Jj piety' at the age of seventy. How ar^^H approach with a view to represent ti Just of the Earth! To analyze a sp system is comparatively easy ; even to tra * one's self to the position of its Framer, ai cern it as alone it can be discerned firoi is still a task chiefly for the Intellect : r, cult, but also, quite within reach of imp search, to estimate the illustrious Statesman^, 1)reciate the obstacles he overcame, and conjftr lend the space and duration of his infliu if the Inquirer be earnest and endowed wil tion of Imagination, need he shrink attempt to accompany the military lb i 718 M soc Bvcl his complex operations, and even to pnr- ipate his ardour amid the clangours of War. it Socrates ! The most just, the most exalted, e completest type of Humanity to which classic tiquity with its wonderful creations, ever gave th the nearest of all who preceded, to a Being name not here who, without ambition, or etence, or external advantage, but, through the iple force of Moral and Intellectual greatness, ik unrelaxing hold at once of the Heart and nd of the Ancient World, to think or write of m even those few broken paragraphs which ne we now undertake this, demands prepara- n of a different order, and much rarer moods. The Parents of Socrates were of no mark or note the Athenian State ; nor was their son gifted th any of those personal distinctions, which were indifferent account nowhere in Greece. A face B reverse of beautiful, flattened nose, protruding es, the entire physiognomy anything but attrac- e to a passer by, he made no attempt to veil or npensate deficiencies, by ordinary solicitudes: coarse tattered cloak, and oftenest unsan- lled, Socrates strolled through all Public places, the observed, however, of all observers ; fre- ently listened to by multitudes; and greeted the hearts of the choicest Youth of Athens, lenever he appeared. Closer inspection of the ly representations we have of him, goes, indeed, sertain length in explaining this latter remark- ie power of fascination. A massive head in- net with authority, a broad although rugged w, and that aspect of self-possession which fil- iates a Man to whom mastery appertained too ich of right, to permit him to feel conscious of not a vestige accordingly of repellent affecta- n, or assumption, or reserve ; but, on the con- ry, the light of the most genial Humour ever fterino; like sunshine among his singular fea- es. Qualities, of all others, the surest to win ay for their possessor to the respect and likings the cheerful and frank; but one higher, was Bded to obtain for Socrates that devoted and thusiastic attachment, which even a spirit mi- neable as Alcibiades, could not refuse, oad the gulf usually sundering Youth from Age, priving Age of its authority as Counsellor, and uth of the blessings of guardianship : but the rerance springs less from the inconstancy and pulsiveness of Youth, than from the rigidity of As Life advances, bonds multiply and tighten mnd most of us. Custom governs, as second iture : that is, we bend before social and con- ational moralities, beliefs, and expectations ; and get the modes of less fettered existence. No ranny of Custom, however, had subjected So- tes. Ever increasing in Knowledge and Wis- n ; to his latest hour he was youthful as at first : marvel, therefore, though young men clustered mnd him hailing him as best companion as 11 as Sire. Something like a mask of the inestim- le quality now spoken of, is not uncommonly irn springing from mere lack of thought, and ;htness of temperament. But it belonged to crates, because, through his moral and intellec- ll force he lived freely and consciously among i primary Intuitions, which Youth when rath is healthy simply obeys. He had de- snded to the roots of that rich Nature, of which SOC our actual Men are but stunted and fractional de- velopments ; and thus, were his sympathies so full and sincere. Hence too, that unaffected solemnity which often mingled very touchingly with his most humorous moments. He could not conceal from his own Soul, that he had gone deeper than Sense ; and that the Voices to which he listened came from beyond the World. It was not for an Intellect so masculine, to get entangled with un- manageable theories concerning the nature of the Intuitions: he simply felt their presence, and reverently bowed himself down : like Pythagoras, he said he had a Heavenly guide, and owed his safety to his 'Daemon? Turning from the Man to his mission, one might at first fall into something akin to disappointment at its apparent simplicity ; and because it had so little to do with the found- ing and promulgation of arduous Speculation. Yet the functions which Socrates appropriated, are just the most important that can fall to Mor- tal : and the methods he took to fulfil them, show by their nature, how profound and universal his objects were; for these methods, without one tittle of modification, are as applicable now as in long gone Athens, and will abide so through all time. Tva/di trtuvTov. Before acting or speaking, know what you propose. If you speak, know what you speak : if you believe, know what you believe : no Ignorance is so shameful as an assumed knowing or believing, what one knows not. Ascertain what your Mind, in verity is, and be that. Surely a simple message ! Do we marvel, that the de- livery of it consumed the Existence of one of the greatest of Men ? Circumspice ! It can scarcely require to be mentioned, that Socrates wrote nothing, and was not a professed Doctor. His plan was much more direct and practical. He seized on some one whom he met in his walks ; and, by searching conversation, constrained him into contact with the foregoing truths. For the most part he laboured to bring men to recognize two grand sources of evil two all prevailing and always prevailing detriments to Sincerity and Truth. Foremost, the careless, unconscientious use of words. A Word: observe what it is, what realities it ought to represent! First, it stands for a certain definite Thing a fact or form in Na- ture about which there can be no dispute; and secondly, by every one of its derivative meanings, it represents some actual analogy among Things, and certain equally definite laws of the Mind. To understand a wora, then, implies no slight know- ledge ; and the use of it requires proportional care. Do men really thus comprehend the words they employ ? Take up any common or received pro- position, and question a man who says he stands by it ; ask, if ne comprehends its terms ? We fear it is as certain now, as Socrates demonstrated it to be, in Athens, that no matter how momentous the proposition, no matter although some entire system of Morals, Politics, or Theology may hatfg en it aye, that ninety-nine in a hundred even of so-called* intelligent persons, would not come clear through the scrutiny! The power to construct language is an especial distinction of Humanity ; and the right and conscientious use of it, is the means by which alone we connect the past with the present, and discern through Nature and His- tory, those grand and serene principles of Order 719 soc which reveal a Supreme Government: employ it otherwise, and it veils reality; it is an excuse for not looking at Things ; the Mind becomes its in- strument ; Truth gives way to Dogma, and we are False wittiout a blush. Would that every generation had its Socrates! Again, Socrates, rejoiced to force on collisions with the profes- sional Teachers of his time, the class of men who had assumed the title of Sophists. It is now well and generally understood, that the once prevalent conception, that these Sophists were avowed and conscious teachers of Fallacies, is quite erroneous. They had no such distinction. Mere representatives in Athens, of the ordinary professional Teachers of almost every age, they were men who expounded Theories they had never bottomed ; and undertook, for fees, to prepare Young men, by the teaching of Oratory and Philosophy, for the daily work of Athenian public Life. Cer- tainly Socrates did not spare their presumptuous profession of Theories; and he rejoiced to do then, what, if he had lived on Earth for ever, he might have done every day and anywhere to reduce them, by his keen interrogations as to the signifi- SOC fosition of Socrates towards the Grecian Oiymt t is clear he had penetrated far deeper than Antl pomorphism, and discerned a moral Deity, the gi dian and father of Man. But he would not disf the Laws : partly, it may be, through his pract sense of the necessity of Order to all Progress; mainly through the Motive, which in a later prompted Spinoza to reply to his simple Hostess 'Your religion is good; you ought to seek no oil nor doubt that it will assure your salvation, ij'w it stimulates your piety, it helps you to lead a tr quil and virtuous life.'' What then, in pah wonderment we ask what had been done by most illustrious of the Greeks, that the Stat Athens could not be safe unless he should ne by Hemlock? What fault, indeed, could found in him ? ' Yet they only cried out more, "Not this man, but Barabbas .'" ' Exc of course, there is none, although there is expla tion. Athens was confessedly tolerant ; but case of Socrates was just that one, for wl toleration has existed nowhere or at any time, as Mr. Maurice acutely intimates, the new Teat had only announced some new theory, how< cation of their propositions, to the embarrassed \ antagonistic to those already afloat, no one w( avowal of Ignorance. But his antipathies were equally strong against the whole system of acquir- ing Knowledge as it was termed -for use. The thing to be accomplished, he said, is to become true Men, and the uses will follow. Does the Oak of centuries send out its strong arms that they may cast a shadow ? On the contrary, it ascends and spreads, through the vigour of its inner Life ; and then, tribes and nations sit down within the grateful covert. This, indeed, is no idle dis- tinction. Knowledge attained with chief view to specific uses, never forms the Man, and is not true Knowledge. Truth, in itself is not yet represented by conventional institutions and re- quirements : and the Mind which seeks in the first place to subserve these, must be satisfied to miss Truth. First and last, it was the counsel of So- crates Be Men TvaBi trtxvrov ! For thus alone can you become true citizens of Athens, or worthy to worship the Gods. The teaching of Socrates, in so far as we have sketched it, was critical only ; although his interrogations seldom failed to point the way to some momentous positive Truth. Concerning his own positive conclusions, we refer to the article Plato, desiring rather, in our remaining space to view him as a practical Citizen. And surely, Athens had never a better or a nobler one. Interior only to his love of Truth and Justice, was his ardent love of his natal soil, his desire for its prosperity, and his obedience to its Laws. When exigencies demanded, a willing patriot and brave soldier: he fought at Delium, Potidoea, and Amphipolis a pattern of endurance even to rank and file; and he bore himself without ostentation, or the wish for notice. If he spoke in public, it was to defend the innocent; and he cared not then, whether before an excited People or the Thirty Tyrants. During his whole long life, he never broke a Law refusing in his own case to sanction disobedience, by an easy escape from the consequences of one of the most unjust sentences recorded in History. Observe too, his careful treatment of the national Mythology his respect for the Gods. It is not easy to define precisely the have hated him not even would he have I blamed. By proposing his particular Theory, would virtually nave classed himself with other Teachers, and been a new Doctor. Socrates did not do this ; he did not propose a sect : he proved that the methods of all sects t unworthy, and their pretensions hollow ; he vc. war on the very profession of Sophist. The perience of the Ages, bears but one witness a the certainties in such a case. 'If,' says Maurice, ' a Teacher of this kind is right in w he says, he must be regarded as a public bene: tor ; the city must honour him above all its ( zens.' And for such a claim, why expect ance from those who are wise in their generati Isolation, was the seal of the greatness of Socra but it likewise caused and permitted the cr that destroyed him. Glorious, indeed, that 1 and noble Life : neither did he die in vain. A that are gone, and ages yet to come, will lit over Plato's admiring and affecting narrative, conversations of that last evening still warm hearts, and subdue our souls. We hear him the majestic old Man ; amid the afflicted gro alone unmoved discoursing of duty, and resie tion, and immortality an Immortality in showed him Death as a mere incident amid Lift not any sudden disruption or critical chang e the opening of a pathway towards worlds wl duty still exists, and wherein the Good and G who preceded him, surely for ever dwell. \ dom he had sought here ; Wisdom he would for there; only he should discern more and live more purely. The final moment It may be, that through that humour which 4 clung to him, or with other and now obsc intent, ' Crito, 1 he said, forget not the Cock I vowed to Esculapius.' 1 Socrates then departe ftvtijfAx.Kfnxi! 'The last,' cried Plato, 'of^ friend, the best of all men of this time, the wi and the most just of all men !' [J.P. SOCRATES, surnamed Scholastic!' - marian, professor of the law, and pleader at the in Constantinople, about the middle of the 720 SOD centurv, author of an ecclesiastical history which continues that of Eusebius from 309 down to 440. Ibis work is in much esteem as one of those original Jocuments which can be relied on for accuracy and fispassionate judgment. SODERINI, J. A., a Venetian antiquarian, numismatist, and Eastern traveller, 1640-KJ91. | SOLANDER, Daniel, Charles, an eminent haturalist, was born at Nordland, in Sweden, Miere his father was minister, in 1736. He tudied under Linnaeus, and became the com- ianion of Sir Joseph Banks in Captain Cook's first oyage round the world. The objects of natural istory collected in this expedition, which ter- linated in 1771, are now in the British Museum, re the MSS. of Solander. In 1771 he received degree of D.C.L. from the university of Ox- >rd, and in 1773 became assistant librarian at the -ritish Museum. Died 1782. SOLANO, F., a Spanish physician. 1685-1730. SOLARI, two Italian painters : Andrea, sur- med del Gobbo, born at Milan about 1480 ; Anto- o, called Zinguro, 1382-1455. SOLARI, J.'G., an Italian poet, 1737-1814. SOLDANI, A, an Ital. naturalist, 1736-1808. SOLDANI, J., an Italian poet, 1579-1641. SOLDANI, M., an Italian sculptor, 1658-1740. SOLE, Antonio Dal, a famous Italian land- pe painter, 1597-1684. His son, Giovanni Gui- ppe, a painter in the style of Guido, 1654-1719. SOLIER, F., a French Jesuit, ascetic writer, d historian of Japan, 1568-1638. SOLIMAN. See Solyman. SOLIMENA, Francesco, surnamed L Abate ccio, an eminent painter of Naples, 1657-1747. OLINUS, Caius Julius, a Latin writer of 3d century, author of ' Polyhistor,' a poor com- tion taken without acknowledgment from Pliny. OLIS, Antonio De, a Spanish historian and I author of a ' History of Mexico,' 1610-1686. 'OLIS, F. De, a Spanish painter, 1629-1684. 50LIS, J. D. De, a Spanish navigator, ltith c. OLIS, V., a German engraver, 1514-1570. OLLIER, J. B. De, a Fr. Jesuit, 1669-1740. OLOMON, the son and successor of David as ? of the Jews. jOLOMON, a king of Hungary, 1045-1100. IOLON, born at Salamis in the 638th year be- S Christ, whence he early removed to Athens : le one of the Seven Sages of Greece, of whom, his long distance of time, we can frame the nctest picture. Known in his youth as a poet, as well for his personal qualities, as because e station and repute of his family, highly ed in Athens, we find him at an early age ng his fellow-citizens, to rescind by acclama- the shameful decree, which, on account of ious defeats, had threatened death to any who should propose to renew expedi- against the revolted Salamis. Appointed ander, Solon returned victorious, only to ke and accomplish a far harder task. The relations in Attica were in confusion : in- of Government, Sects raged. The inhabitants hill country demanded a government of the democratic order; those of the plain wished ligarchy; those on the sea shore a mixed Draco's Laws so profuse in death-punish- and therefore so destructive of the best SOL sanctions of authority still prevailed; and that plague which afterwards so often threatened the extinction of Rome, viz.: the oppression of debtors by creditors, under the letter of harshest laws, had spread through Athens, widely and deep, the spirit of the worst kind of revolutions. To remedy these latter evils was comparatively easy, inas- much as each could be extirpated by one positive decree; and Solon, now intrusted with the supreme power, annulled Draco's Laws, altered the laws of creditor and debtor, and removed the hardships of existing relations, by an artifice not unknown to modern statesmanships an artifice never excusable unless under pressure of im- perative and inevitable necessity viz., a sweep- ing depreciation of the currency. But the work of adjusting political relations, or of framing a practical constitution for the State, was not so easy. Solon executed it in a way that enforced the assent, and even gained him the applause of all his countrymen ; nor through all their subse- quent and frequent vicissitudes, did the wisest of the Athenians ever cease to revert with longing regret to his wise Laws. In outline Solon's con- stitution was this : He divided the citizens into four classes, according to their wealth : the fourth class, containing the masses. To this class he refused access to any magistracy ; but that no man within the domain of Athens, might be ex- cluded from the rights, duties, and dignity of citi- zenship, he constituted a public assembly of the whole citizens, before which, all decisions of the higher courts might be brought in review: a privilege apparently restricted, but which soon convinced the Athenian plebs, that, in the last re- sort they were really masters of the Laws. Act- ing on that principle of checks, which however easily discredited by abstract logic has been found invaluable in experience, from the time of Athens and Rome, down to our own day, Solon sought security against haste or excess of the popular Assembly, first in the Council of the Areopagus, of which all who had been Archons were members, and which he invested with the general guardian- ship of the Laws ; and again in a second Council or Senate, charged with the initiative of every law, and the discussion of it, previous to its being ques- tioned in the Assembly: each of the four classes sending one hundred members to that Senate. Add to which, that to secure justice and aid the weakness of the poorer classes, he authorized any one to bring before the tribunals a transgres- sor against the person or property of any other: this he considered the most effective police : under Solon's laws, there were no processes as to Com- petence. Wiser than Lycurgus, Solon expected no perpetuity for his enactments ; he ordained them, therefore, merely for a century. Alas ! the Instability of Human affairs ! On returning from his travels, the Legislator found Athens again in confusion, and on the eve of the splendid but ab- solute monarchy of Pisistratus ! Want of success in Statesmanship is often good proof of deficiency in true Wisdom ; and their speedy failure might have thrown discredit on Solon's Laws. But in modem times, we can interpret more soundly : we have learnt the surpassing difficulty of planting in an old country, a new Tree. Surely, the sad ex- perience of France, establishes how inestimable 721 3A SOL the privilege and imperative the duty, to prune the brandies, and clear the roots so that it decay not nor fall of that umbrageous Oak under whose shade our forefathers lived! Solon, we have said, was a poet; he was more, the fragments that have reached us, prove him a master in Greek 6ong. He felt too, the dignity and power of the Art ; and he consecrated it to the same noble pur- poses to which he gave all his life the inculca- tion of high morals and philosophy, and the eleva- tion of the Athenian people. We omit here, be- cause they are universally known, those touching personal anecdotes related of him by Hero- dotus. [J.P.N.] SOLVYNS, Francis Balthasar, a Flemish artist who accompanied Sir Home Popham to the East, and published a picturesque description of the Hindoos, their Manners, Customs, and Reli- gious Ceremonies, 1760-1824. SOLYMAN, caliph of Damascus, 715-717. SOLYMAN, emir of Cordova, 1009-1016. SOLYMAN, three emperors of Turkey : Soly- mas (Tciielebi) I., proclaimed emperor after the defeat and capture of his father, Bajazet, by Timour, 1402 ; dethroned by his brother, Mousa, during a revolt of his subjects, and soon after killed, 1410. Solyman II., next article. Soly- man III., brother of Mahomet IV., succeeded on his deposition, 1688, having previously acquired the most effeminate habits by a forty years' resi- dence in a seraglio, died 1691. SOLYMAN the Great, second Turkish em- peror of that name, was born in 1494, and suc- ceeded his father, Selim, in 1520, being then in the twenty-seventh year of his age. The circum- stances of the period were such as to call forth the highest qualities that any statesman or sovereign could possess. The arms of Selim had been the terror of Christendom, and the next destination of his fleet, at the moment of his death, immediately after his conquest of Egypt, was a subject of the most anxious solicitude. A general league among the Christian princes was in agitation, and it was only their own mutual jealousies, and the designs of Francis I. in Italy, that prevented its realiza- tion ; added to which was the enmity of the haughty and warlike Mamelukes in Egypt, and the similar precarious state of many conquests on European territory. The situation of Solyman was much the same as that of the grand duke of Russia would be, if the throne of Nicholas, at the present crisis, were suddenly vacant ; but with this difference, that his enemies were anxious for war, and eager to observe the least indication of weak- ness, and take advantage of it to destroy the infi- del. It was the critical period of the consolidation of the Turkish power, and Solyman, without the ferocity of his father, instantly proved himself equal to the emergency. We nave not space to enumerate his conquests, but the Mamelukes were put down, the Hungarian army defeated, and Buda taken; he even besieged Vienna, but was compelled to retire with the loss of 80,000 men ; at the same time he improved the administration of his don unions, encouraged literature, opened roads, erected caravansaries, hospitals, and li- braries, and exhibited the most enlightened regard lor the welfare of the vast populations ruled by him. The titles bestowed upon Solyman indicate SOP his high qualities, for while his own countrymen designate him 'the Conqueror' and 'the Legis- lator,' he is called by Europeans ' the Great ' am ' the Magnificent : ' he was also a poet, and h< contributed greatly to form the present Turkisl language by the happy fusion of the Arabic an< Persian tongues, promoted by his example aw polity. He perished of fever in a new expedi' tion against Hungary, while encamped befonj the walls of Sziyeth, two days before its capture! 8th September, 1566. |_E.R SOLYMAN, two pachas of Bagdad : Soi.yma I., of Georgian parentage, reigned 1750-1 Solyman II., succeeded 1780, and reigned durin a period troubled by the incursions of the Wahs bees, and the ravages of Timour Pacha, in Mesc potamia; he repulsed the latter, and died 1802 SOLYMAN, emperor of Persia, 1666-1694. SOLYMAN, a general and minister of tl Sultan Selim I., governor of Egypt 152G-153* governor of Zemen 1588-1541 ; after which 1 became grand vizier. He enriched Egypt many public monuments, and caused a gener survey of the country to be made. SOMEREN, Cornelius Van, a Dutch ph sician, 1593-1649. His son, John, a magistrj; and poet, 1622-1676. SOMEREN, J. Van, a Dutch jurist, 1634-17( SOMERS, John, Lord, born at Worcest where his father was an attorney, in 1650 or 16J died 1716. He united the study of literati with that of the law, and became known as political writer in the time of Charles II., and 1688 was one of the counsel for the seven bisho The success of the revolution now opened the n to honour, and in 1695 Somers had become! high chancellor of England, with the title of L Somers, Baron Evesham. In the reign of Qu Anne he was one of the commissioners for effe ing the Union of Scotland, and in 1708 bea president of the council. SOMERSET. See Seymour. SOMERVILLE, William, a gentleman Warwickshire, who ranks with the inferior c of poets, author of 'The Chase,' a didactic descriptive ooem, in blank verse, 1692-1742. SOMMIER, J. C, a Fr. theologian, 1661-lP SOMNER, William, a Saxon scholar antiquarian, who held the office of clerk to ecclesiastical court of Canterbury, 1606-1669. SONNERAT, P., a Fr. naturalist, 1745-18! SONNIN, E. G., a French architect, 1709-1 SONNINI, C. N. Sigisbert Manon, O De, a French naturalist and traveller in We& Africa, Egypt, Greece, Wallachia, and Moldi au. of works of travel, and of an edition of Bf with a continuation, in 127 vols. 8vo, 1751-18 SOPHIA, empress of Constantinople, nietj Theodora, and wife of Justinian II., with she shared in the government of the state, the death of that prince in 578, she com against Tiberius Constantine, who had been r. to the throne by her advice, and, being dr* by him, was compelled to live in privacy. SOPHIA, half-sister of Peter the Gra czariness of Russia, was born 1667, and in placed herself at the head of the revolt ff Strelitzes. Having succeeded in her amb: designs, she reigned over the Muscovites .22 SOP names of her brothers, Peter and Ivan. The for- mer, however, finally possessed himself of the sole power (Peter the Great), and Sophia died a pri- soner in a convent 1704. SOPHIA-CHARLOTTE, queen of Prussia, laughter of Ernest Augustus, elector of Bruns- vick Luneburg, and second wife of Frederick I., L668-1705. She contributed to the foundation of [be Academy of Sciences at Berlin. I SOPHIA-DOROTHEA, queen of Prussia, aughter of George I., king of England, wife of Frederick William I., and mother of Frederick the Jreat, 1687-1757. SOPHOCLES, was a native of Colonos, a beau- iful village in the immediate vicinity of Athens, rb.ere he was born B.C. 495, being thus thirty ears younger than ^schylus, and fifteen years Ider than Euripides. His father, Sophilus, being man of good family, and possessed of considerable ealth, gave him a liberal education in all the terary and personal accomplishments of his age ; id these were still further enchanced by a person ninently handsome, which had been moulded and ained by the exercises of the palasstra. His oficiency in the knowledge of poetry and music, s having been instructed in the latter art by the mous Lamprus, is attested by the fact that, when s countrymen, after the battle of Salamis i.e. 480), assembled to celebrate, around the >phy raised by their valour, the glorious victory nch they had achieved, he, though a youth of teen, was selected to play an accompaniment on e lyre to the ptean, in which the chorus of uths sung their country's triumph. It is besides obable that he also composed the words of the e. The commencement of his career as a dra- itist took place under circumstances peculiarly *resting. iEschylus had for thirty years been } undoubted master of the Athenian stage, and s now to contest the palm with a youthful com- itor of the age of twenty-seven, whose great :omplishments and personal graces had excited unusual interest in his favour. The festival of s Dionysia was, on this occasion, rendered still re imposing by the return of Cimon from the rod of Scyros, bringing with him the bones of eseus. Ihe people accordingly flocked to the atre of Bacchus; and when Cimon and his e colleagues entered the theatre to offer the mary libations to the god, the chief Archon, epsion, instead of choosing judges by lot, 'ned the ten generals at the altar ; and, after istering to them the usual oath, constituted the judges between the rival tragedians. ore this tribunal Sophocles exhibited his first "y, and by their award obtained the first His subsequent career fully justified the on of the judges. From this epoch (b.c. 468) aintained the supremacy till B.C. 441, when bnnidable rival Euripides was preferred to him, gained the first prize. For sixty-three years hocles continued to compose and exhibit ; and g that period he twenty times obtained the prize, still more frequently the second, and ' descended so low as the third an amount of s which far exceeded that of his 1 great rivals. c. 440 he exhibited the Antigone, the earliest is extant dramas, a play which gave such tion to the Athenians that they appointed SOT him as a colleague of Pericles and Thucydides in the war against the inhabitants of Samos. He seems to have won no laurels in his military capacity. Several offices of honour and respecta- bility were conferred upon him in his old age ; he was made priest of Halon, a native hero; and after the disastrous termination of the Syracusan expedition (b.c 413) he was, in his eighty-third year, appointed one of the committee of public salvation; in which capacitv he consented (B.c. 411) to the appointment of" the council of Four Hundred. The last years of his life were disturbed by family dissensions. In consequence of his partiality for a grandson, his eldest son endeavoured to deprive him of the management of his property on the ground of incapacity and dotage. The only defence offered by the aged dramatist was to read in presence of his judges a passage from the (Edipus at Colonos which he had just written ; on hearing which the judges dismissed the case, and re- buked his son for his undutiful conduct. Sophocles died b.c. 405, after completing his ninetieth year. He is believed to have written 113 plays, of which only seven, along with some fragments, have descended to us. His private character seems to have been, on the whole, amiable ; the blemishes attributed to it being those of the age rather than the individual. In the hands of Sophocles the Athenian tragedy reached its highest degree of perfection. His language is pure and majestic, avoiding on the one hand the daring and sometimes rash flights of iEschylus, and on the other never descending to the common-place diction of Euri- pides. [G.F.J SOPHRANI, R., a Genoese biographer, 1612-72. SORANUS, two physicians of Ephesus, the earlier of whom dates about the reign of Trajan. SORANZO, J., a doge of Venice, 1312-1328. SORBAIT, P., an Italian physician, died 1691. SORBIERE, Samuel, a French physician, philosopher, and historiographer royal, 1615-1670. SORBIN, A., a French prelate, 1532-1606. SORBONNE, Robert De, a doctor in theology, who was the chaplain and confessor of Louis IX., and founded the college that bears his name, was born at Sorbon, a village in the diocese of Rheims, in 1201. His object was to found a society of learned theologians, who should live in common, and deliver lectures gratuitously, and this design he began to execute in 1253, by assembling a body of professors and scholars, whom he lodged near the Luxembourg palace. He died in 1274, and left the bulk of his property to render his bene- faction permanent. The Sorbonne formed one part only of the faculty of theology in the univer- sity of Paris, but its name became so famous that it was often given to the whole, and graduates were proud to name themselves of the Sorbonne, rather than the university. SOREL, Agnes, a maid of honour to the queen of Charles VII. of France, who has acquired a name in history by the influence she acquired over that monarch when she became his mistress, 1409-1450. SOSIGENES, an astronomer of Alexandria, who went to Rome in the time of Julius Cassar, and was employed by him in reforming the calendar, b.c. 45. SOSTRATUS, the architect of the renowned Pharos, or lighthouse, of Alexandria, 3d cent. B.C. SOTER, a bishop of Rome, 168-176. 723 SOT SOTHEBY, W., an English poet, 1756-1833. SOTHERON, Frank, a British admiral, em- ployed in the defence of Naples, 1767-1839. SOTO, Domingo, a Span, ecclesias., 1404-1560. SOTO, Ferdinand De, a Spanish adventurer and navigator, of whom an interesting account may be read in Bancroft's History ot the United States, died 1552. SOTO, Peter, a Spanish divine, 1500-1563. SOUBISE, Charles De Rohan, Prince De, marshal of France, and minister of state to Louis XV. In the earlier part of his career lie distin- guished himself in the field, but in his later years became implicated in the Dubarry intrigues, so dis- graceful to that court ; he was brother to the car- dinal of Soubisse (see Rohan), 1715-1787. SOUFFLOT, J. G., a Fr. architect, 1714-1781. SOULT. Nicole Jean De Dikun Soult, Duke of Dalmatia and Marshal of France, was bom in 1769, at St. Amand. His father was a notary. Soult entered the ranks of the army in 1785; and in 1791 he attracted the favourable notice of Marshal Lukner, and received a lieu- tenant's commission. He rose rapidly under Custine, Hoche, and Marceau, and particularly signalized himself in the victory of Fleurus. In 1799 he acted under Massena in Switzerland, and in 1800 he served under the same commander in the defence of Genoa. Soult was wounded and taken prisoner in a sally in the early part of this siege, but was set at liberty after Napoleon's victory at Marengo. Napoleon, who heard of Soult's bravery and skill, now employed him under his own eye ; and Soult's promotion went forward till he had reached the highest station. He was the first of the marshals whom Napoleon created in 1804, and he was the first marshal whom Napoleon made a peer. He was the chief organizer of the great army which was assembled at Boulogne for the invasion of this country; and when the 'army of England' was countermarched into Germany against the Austrians, Soult led the main column, and participated largely in the glories of the cam- paign of Ulm and Austerlitz. He took in the next year a distinguished share in the victory of Jena ; and showed consummate firmness as well as dar- ing in the desperate struggle at Preuss Eylau. In 1808 Soult was sent into Spain. He defeated the Spaniards at Reynosa, and subsequently com- manded against Sir John Moore, whom he engaged at Corunna. He next occupied the north of Por- tugal, but was surprised and defeated by Welling- ton at the Douro, and retreated with great loss and difficulty into Spain. In 1809 he gained the great victory of Ocana over the Spaniards, and subdued all the south-west of Spain, except the city of Cadiz. He lost in 1811 the hard fought battle of Albuera against Beresford. Soult was recalled to aid Napoleon after the Russian campaign ; but in the July of 1813, he was sent back to Spain to stem if possible the advance of Wellington after the English triumph at Vittoria, and to save the south of France from invasion. Soult did his duty nobly though unsuccessfully. He found the wreck of the French armies of Spain driven in disorgan- ization upon Bayonne ; the spirits of the men were damped by repeated defeats, and their discipline bad suffered proportionally. Against him the English and their allies were coming on, flushed SOU ! with success, in the highest state of efficiency, ant with Wellington to lead them. Soult restorer order and spirit among his men, and in a fortnigh from the time of his arrival at Bayonne he lei them boldly again into the Spanish territory agains the British. A series of engagements in and nea, the Pyrenees followed, in which Soult showe strategetic abilities of very high order, and gaine several partial successes, though ultimately hews driven hack into France. lie now defended native country against the invaders with indomil able courage, and an inexhaustible fertility of n sources. Repeatedly engaged, and almost constant) defeated, he still presented an unbroken froi against his assailants, and kept his retreatii army ready to dispute every tenable post, and seize any favourable chance of attack that fortui might offer. The final battle of Toulouse w. contested by him with undiminished skill ai courage ; and though, on the whole, the Engli,- were successful, Soult had the advantage on sever points of the battle ; 5,000 of his enemies h; fallen ; and he led his army safely out of the cit ready for further operations when the news arriv of the emperor's first abdication. In 1815 Soi joined Napoleon and fought at Waterloo, where acted as one of the emperor's major-generals. ( the second return of the Bourbons, Soult was 1 some time proscribed, but was ultimately restor to all his dignities. After July, 1830, he was mu trusted by Louis Philippe, who employed Soul talents in the war office, and also twice made h president of the council. He was present at c queen's coronation in 1838, as representative France, and was received with warm favour the English nation. The old marshal died at chateau of Soult-Berg, 26th Nov., 1851. [E.SJ SOUSA. See Souza and Faria. SOUTH, Robert, rector of Islip, in Oxfo: shire, distinguished as a theologian, more espe ally in the controversy with Sherlock on the Trill born at Hackney 1633, died 1716. SOUTHCOTT, Joanna, was born about 17 at Gittisham, in Devonshire. Her parents w in humble circumstances, and, until her na became celebrated, she obtained her living a domestic servant. Her case is a very curious c both in the history of psychology, and of reli, " enthusiasm. From her mother, who live< Joanna had reached the age of womanhood, she ceived the most exalted religious ideas, the exul ance of which her father often felt himself ca upon to check: she was still, however, a sober rat ber of the Church of England. At length she jot the early morning and evening meetings of Weslcyans, and, in 1792, associated exclush with that body. The religious exercises to wl Joanna was thus introduced seem to have J: duced, as exciting causes, her remarkable vi& and dreams, which soon took the form of }; phecies, and commanded universal attentj Some of her predictions received a remarkable; filment, especially that which she published j mediately after the conclusion of the peace Amiens in 1801 ; for she then derided the jo the nation, and gave the solemn assurance tb calamitous series of wars were about to break the events of which would be more terrible 1 any on record ; at a later period, sha as 724 sou asserted that Napoleon would never land in Eng- land, and that his power would be overthrown. The visions which formed the ground of these prophecies are often very striking as dramatic pictures, and the rude doggrel of her prophetic chants as frequently becomes picturesque, it once the cultivated mind can overcome the disgust first excited by their uncouthness, and their de- ficiency in common grammatical correctness. She began the publication of her prophetic pamphlets in 1794, and about 1804 was brought up to Lon- lon, and lodged at the west end by some of her idmirers, many of whom were persons of con- sideration in society. Soon after this event, an >ld man, named Thomas Dowland, and a poor y, named Joseph, also had visions, and a paper nanufacturer named Carpenter in whose employ hey were finally published many of them : we aention them here, however, because this Car- enter, conceiving himself to be the ' Eight Man ' f Joanna's prophecies, finally took her place as he chief of the sect who followed her, having first id the secession when she was believed by the lore enlightened of her followers to have fallen nder a delusion. That delusion consisted in the elief that she was destined to bring forth Shiloh, r the Messiah, and its origin is explained by Car- enter as the result of her believing that she was le church or bride itself, instead of its shadow or ipresentative. We may here mention, that pre- ious to its arrival at this idolatrous pitch, which is still painful to contemplate, Joanna had icupied a year in 'sealing' her followers, gen- ally but most unjustly regarded as a mere trick make money. The old man Dowland expired 1804, ten years after the commencement of his, >6eph's, and Joanna's prophecies, and 1814 was red upon by her for the birth of Shiloh. We nit fhe details of the amazing increase of her lowers, and the magnificent preparations made r this event, to state the simple fact, that she is deceived by appearances, and expired on the th of December, in that year having pre- Jnsly declared her conviction that, ' If she was ceived, she had, at all events, been the sport of ne spirit, good or evil.' The whole case, like my others of the kind, may be explained by the sily ascertained laws of psychology. Females ve been known, in states of temporary derange- snt, to go out naked into the streets : the voice ving told them that if they would put off their thes they would be invisible. Such are the iris only into which the spiritual language falls, clothes, in the symbolic tongue, are bodily tes, and those are what must be put off in order it the spirit may enter a life unseen by mortal :. We throw out the hint, because many such usions are abroad, and it may serve to show the sincerity of such a woman as Joanna, orant of spiritual laws, may be insufficient to rve her from the grossest errors. We omitted y that the appearance which Joanna mistook pregnancy was the result of a diseased condi- explained when her body was opened. The ailing thought of her writings is the redemp- of man by the agency of woman, the supposed se of his fall. [E.R.] OUTHERN, Thomas, a dramatic writer of the of Charles IL, bora at Oxmantown, near Dub- SOU Iin, 16G0, died 1746. His tragedy of 'Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage,' is deeply pathetic, and Dryden places him in the same rank as Otway. The principal of his other productions are ' Oroonoko,' and the ' Spartan Dame.' [Birth place of Southey.] SOUTHEY, Robert, was born in 1774 at Bristol, where his father was a linen-draper. In 1792, the means being furnished by his uncle, the English chaplain at Lisbon, with a view to Southey's becoming a clergyman, he was admitted at Baliol College, Oxford. He had already gone through much miscellaneous reading, had planned epics, and written plays. His studies at trie uni- versity became still more diversified- Rousseau and Godwin, and the contagious enthusiasm of the French Revolution, made him, for a time, a repub- lican in politics, and in religion a doubter or uni- tarian. Southey was the most unlikely of all men to become a minister in a church whose creed he did not cordially accept. He abandoned his clerical views, began to study medicine, but gave it up in disgust, and left Oxford in 1794. The principal fruit of the extreme opinions he then held was his drama of ' Wat Tyler,' never published by himself. In 1794 he made acquaintance with Coleridge; and, having already published poems in conjunction with his friend Lovell, he now, with his new ally, wrote 'The Fall of Robespierre,' and ' Joan of Arc' In 1795 Southey married, at Bristol, Edith Fricker, the sister of Mrs. Coleridge and Mrs. Lovell ; but, compelled by poverty, the pair imme- diately separated, the poet accompanying his uncle to Lisbon. On his return he published, in 1797, his ' Letters from Soain and Portugal.' He was still reluctant to emor<ice literature as a profession. The study of law was now commenced in London, but never zealously pursued, and gradually deserted alto- gether for literary study and composition His cir- cumstances were made easier by the friendship of Mr. W. W Wynn, who allowed him an annuity of 1(50 till he obtained the Laureateship. His youthful extravagances of opinion were already, to all appearance, quite extinct ; if he was not even far on the way towards that admiration of aristo- cratic principles and of the hierarchy of the church of England, which, oddly mixed up with liberal hobbies of his own, he entertained and expressed so vehemently in the later stages of his life. In 1 1803 he settled himself in a house called Greta 725 sou Hall, near Keswick; and there he resided for nearly forty years, labouring at his desk with thesteadi- n attorney's clerk, and dividing his time, easily and regularly, between the tasks by which he made his bread, and the undertakings by which he hoped to gain immortality. In 1813, his 'mania of man-mending,' as he called it, being completely cured, he was appointed Poet-Laureate, chiefly through the influence of Sir Walter Scott, who himself declined the place ; and the hundred a-year which it gave him was his only certain income till 183& when Sir Robert Peel conferred on him a pension of three hundred pounds. Out of the gains of his industry, the prudent and kind-hearted man of letters supported one of his sisters-in-law for some time in Ins house, and the other for many years ; while he brought up his family in respect- ability, and left at his death several thousand pounds in cash and insurances, and a large and valuable library. His sheet anchor was writing for periodicals, a kind of composition in which he was particularly skilful. The 'Annual Review' re- ceived his first contributions ; he wrote the histori- cal sections of the ' Edinburgh Annual Register' for the years 1808, 1809, and 1810 ; and he was a constant contributor to 'The Quarterly Review' from its commencement in 1808 till he ceased to be able to write at all. But his separate publica- tions amounted to forty-five, of which by far the greater number were works of his own in prose and verse, his share in the others being that of editor and critic. In his later years he relied for lasting fame on his historical works and his speculations on politics and society. But he was neither a deep or exact thinker, nor possessed of the highest requisites for historical narrative ; and the only permanent popularity he gained in this field was through his Lives of Nelson and of Wesley. 'The Doctor,' begun to be published anonymously in 1834, has much that is clever, and a great deal that is amus- ing; but it contains rather the collections of a reading man than the inventions or observations of a man of genius. All Southey's prose is excellent in style, easy and idiomatic, tasteful and clear, though wanting in point and tending to verbosity. His poetical merits nave been matter of keen con- troversy. He w r as a better artist than poet, lofty and just in his theory of poetical art rather than spontaneously imaginative or passionate in execu- tion. Yet, since he deserves liigh honour for the constancy with which he aimed at deliberate and symmetrical performance, in a time when most other poets worked from inconsiderate impulse only, it is satisfactory to find in his best poems so much that gives pleasure to the real lovers of poetry. ' Madoc' indeed is heavy and vague ; but 'Thalaba' (1801) and 'The Curse of Kehama' (1810), in spite of their extravagance of theme and their unwise experiments in rhythm, are very fas- cinating to imaginative readers ; and in ' Roderick the Last of the Goths,' (1814), he has come nearer than any other man of our century to the tone of the epic. In 1837 the death of Mrs. Southey, after long affliction, deeply depressed her husband, already worn out by his many years of honourable toil. In 1839 he found an affectionate companion for his decline, by marrying Miss Bowles, herself a well-known authoress. After this time his memory and other powers failed rapidly j and he had been SPA quite imbecile for a good while before his death which took place in March, 1843. j W.S. SOUTHGATE, Richard, an antiquarian, am" minister of the Church of England, 1729-1795. SOUTHMAN, P., a Dutch painter, 1580-1646,; SOUTHWELL, N., an Eng. Jesuit, died 1676. SOUTHWELL, Robt., an English Jesuit, sai. to be descended from an ancient family of Norfol or Suffolk, was bom in 1560, and entered the orde at Rome in 1578. Having come as a missionar to England, his design was discovered, and he tfl executed at Tyburn, February 21, 1595. suffered with great courage. He is the author several religious works and poems. SOUVARROF. See Suwarhow. SOUVTGNY, G. De, a Fr. Hellenist, 1598-167 SOUZA, John De, a Portuguese Orientalist ai state secretary, 1730-1812. See also Faria SOUZA-BOTELHO, Don Jose Maria, a Po tuguese diplomatist and man of letters, 1 1825. His wife, known as a novelist, died 1836 SOWERBY, James, originally a drawing-ma ter, known as a writer on botanical and mineral gical subjects, illustrated by himself, 1766-1822, SOYE, P. De, a Dutch engraver, 1538-1575. SOZOMEN, Hermias, an ecclesiastical hist rian, known as a pleader at Constantinople in t 5th century. The portion of his history now exta dates from 323 to 439. SOZOMENO, an Italian historian, 1387-115* SPADA, J. B., an Italian cardinal, 1597-16' SPADA, J. J., an Ital. naturalist, 1680-1774 SPADA, L., an Italian painter, 1576-1622. SPAENDONCK, Geraud Van, a Dutch pa ter, fam. for his flowers and miniatures, 1746-18! SPAGNOLETTO, the name by which G> seppe De Ribera is generally known in It* He was born at Xativa, near Valencia, in Spt January 12, 1588. He went early to Italy, an( so identified with Naples that he is commo enumerated among the painters of that schu Dominici indeed asserts that he was born in Ga poli, in the province of Lecce, in Naples, and t" his father, a Spanish officer, married there Dorc Caterina Indolli, a lady of Gallipoli, where Guise, was born, in 1593; but according to Cean I mudez, the lady, the place, and the date, are* three wrong. As Dommici is a great authority Neapolitan painters, nothing short of documf, can supplant his account; these, however, mudez professes to speak from, though he does give them. He was at first the pupil of Franc* Ribalta in Spain, he then studied in RomeT eventually with Michelangelo da Caravaggii Naples, and he not only adopted the natun style of this painter, but even surpassed him Is. own manner. Lo Spagnoletto was a painter prodigious power and facility, but of co-ordh jealousy and arrogance. He was a prominent nr ber of the infamous Cabal of Naples, the triuinvi headed by the Greek Belisario Corenzio, the t being Giambattista Caracciolo. These men reported to have resolved to expel or poison e painter of talent who should attempt to seM Naples : Domenichino is said to have been t victim, and they succeeded in expelling Ann: Caracci, the Cav. D'Arpino, and Guido. 8 noletto terminated his great but scandalous Cf in a remarkable manner. In 1648 his beau 726 SPA daughter. Maria Rosa, became the mistress of Don Juan of Austria, and accompanied that prince to I Palermo ; this had such a powerful effect on the roroud Spaniard that he disappeared from Naples and was never heard of more, leaving his wife and family with his large fortune at Naples. Cean Bermudez says he died at Naples in 1650, but in which he appears simply to have copied Palomino ; he gives no authority. Luca Giordano was the most distinguished of Spagnoletto's scholars. [Dominici, Vite del f J itlori, Scultori, ed Architetti Kapoletani; Ceun Bermudez, Diccionario His- torico, &c.) [R.N.W.] SPAGNUOLI. See Mantovano. SPALDING, John Joachim, an eloquent Swed- sh clergyman, author of several religious works, l714-1804. His son, George Ludwig, editor of in edition of Quintilian, 1762-1811. SPALLANZANI, Lazaro, an eminent physi- logist and naturalist, was born at Scandiano in he duchy of Modena, in 1729. He died in 1799. ie studied at Reggio and Bologna, and he soon cquired such a great reputation for learning, that he university of the former town invited him to ecome professor of logic, metaphysics, and Greek. hiring the six years he remained there his leisure ime was devoted to the prosecution of those physi- il researches that have rendered his name so cele- rated. He became afterwards professor at Modena, ad ultimately filled with great honour to himself ad credit to the university, the chair of natural istory at Pavia. At this latter place he had the iperintendence of the cabinet of natural history jlonging to the university; and with the view of lising it from the low state into which it had lien, he travelled through various countries, as r as Constantinople and Asia Minor, and made eat collections of objects in all the departments of iture, with which he enriched it. While at ienna. on his return home, he heard that some of s colleagues, enemies of his reputation, had ac- sed him of stealing some of the objects from the useum. His innocence, however, was clearly tablished ; it was proclaimed by an imperial edict, d he returned to Pavia with the greatest honour d eclat. Spallanzani's writings are numerous, d have procured for him an universal reputation a physiologist and naturalist. His experiments the reproduction of animals; his researches into i circulation of the blood; his works on the ysiology of animals and vegetables; and his Jeresting accounts of the infusoria and other croscopic animals, are full of new and interesting itter, and have added much to our knowledge of the subjects of which they treat. [W.B.] 1SPAXGENBERG, A. T., a Moravian prelate, thor of a Life of Luxendorf, 1704-1792. SPANHEIMS, Frederic, aGerman theologian, BBSSor of philosophy at Geneva, and author of reral works, 1600-1649. His son, Ezekiel, a med wr. and statesman, 1629-1710. Freder- brother of the latter, a theologian, 1632-1701. SPARFVENFELDT, J. G., a Swedish philolo- t, author of a Sclavonic dictionary, 1655-1727. SPARK, T., an English divine, 1655-1692. JPARKE, T., a puritan divine, 1548-1616. 5PARRE, Eric, a Swedish senator, who con- rated to place Sigismund III. on the throne of d, and was beheaded by Charles IX. 1600. SPE SPARRMANN, Andrew, an eminent Swedish naturalist, was born in the province of Upland about 1747, and was instructed in botany by Lin- naeus. In 1765 he made a voyage to China, and again in 1772 and 1775, to South Africa. He re- turned from these travels laden with specimens of natural history, both plants and animals. He died at Stockholm, where he had become keeper of the museum, in 1820. SPARROW, A., bishop of Norwich, died 1685. SPARTACUS, a native of Thrace, who became a soldier in the Roman army, and, having deserted, was sold as a slave, and finally numbered with the gladiators condemned to destroy each other for the amusement of the people of Italy. In the year 73 e.c, about the period when Italy was overrun with bandits and its seas infested by pirates, the period of anarchy and social ruin attending the decline of the ancient republic, Spartacus with about seventy of his companions in bondage effected their escape, and resolved that, since they were to die, the scene of their struggle should be a larger one than the blood-stained arena, and that they would fall as brothers. They were joined by fugitive slaves, and others of the oppressed classes, till their numbers swelled to an army, of which Spartacus became the commander. The details of the struggle are related by Livy, Plutarch, and Appian. Spartacus had no hope of conquering the whole power of Rome, but was resolved on escaping into Germany, and bearing away with him the spoils of the cities of his late masters. He fained three great victories in succession over entulus, Genlius, and the consul of the preceding year, Manlius, and his course was now open to the Alps, but dazzled by these splendid successes he led his troops southward again, and the next year, B.C. 71, he was defeated by Crassus. He per- formed prodigies of valour, before meeting with his death in this last action, and many of his com- panions in arms, who became prisoners, were crucified, and set up at intervals on the road between Rome and Capua. [E.R.] SPARTIANUS, Mtavs, a Latin historian, ot very indifferent repute, 4th century. SPEED, John, an English historian and anti- quary, was born at Farrington, in Cheshire, 1552, and was originally a tailor. His talents coming under the notice of Sir Fulk Greville, procured him an allowance which enabled him to abandon his business, and devote his time to literature. His works are 'The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine, presenting an exact Geography of the Kyngdomes of England, Scotland, and Ire- land, and the Isles adjoyning ; ' ' The History of Great Britaine, from Julius Caesar to James I. ; ' and 'A Cloud of Witnesses, or the Genealogies of Scripture,' prefixed to a new translation of the Bible in 1611. Died 1629. SPEGEL, Haquin, archbishop of Upsala, known as a poet and philologist, 1645-1714. SPELMAN, Sir Henry, an English historian and antiquary, born at Congham, in Norfolk, 1562, died 1641. His works are considered highly valuable. His son, Sir John, an archaeologist and historian of Alfred the Great, dates unknown. His great-grandson, Edward, a classical scholar and antiquarian, died 1643. SPENCE, Joseph, an accomplished scholar 727 1698, accidentally drowned 1768. SPENCER, John, a learned divine and critic, author of an erudite Latin treatise on the Hebrew Laws ami Rituals, born iu Kent, 1630, died 1695. SPENCER, JOHH CHABUCS, Earl, formerly Viscoint Altiiorpe, and known as a Whig statesman at the period of the Reform Bill, was horn in 1782. From 1806 to 1834 he was member for the county of Northampton, and soon after the accession of William IV. became chancellor of the exchequer. He was most remarkable for the zeal with which he devoted himself to agricultural im- provements. Died 18-15. SPENER, P. J., a German divine, 1G35-1705. SPE SPE and professor of poetry at Oxford, author of an ' work of art, which should resuscitate the world ol ' Essay on Lope's Odvssev,' and an 'Inquiry into | chivalry, in a shape not unacceptable to a genera- the Agreement between the works of the Roman ftion farther advanced in knowledge, and familial, Poets, and the Remains of Ancient Artists;' born with models higher than the old romances. Tin design was executed, in his ' Faerie Queene,' will, a marvellous affluence of imagery at once romantii and natural, and with a delicate feeling of th< tiful such as hardly any poet has ever surpassed If his symbolic meanings sometimes press them- selves on us so closely as to cool our poetic mood, they are as often embodied in scenes and figure which, with or without regard to their hidden v nification, entrance us by a spell as powerful those of the enchanters and elves amidst whom are brought to wander. And, though the plan c the work is too vast; though the half of it, whic is all that we possess, contains Six Books, each which is as long as most epics : yet these deal sue cessively with "successive characters and event which are sufficiently independent of one anothl to allow of their being studied separately, Avithoi detriment either to our comprehension of them, to the aesthetic effect they produce. The ' Faer Queene' is a great work, a work fairly comparab to the most illustrious of the narrative poems thi grace the continental literature of Europe. Att when we think of it as belonging to our Elizs bethan age, we should remember, also, that it the only work of the very highest class, exceptii only the dramas of Shakspeare, which that ag with all its fertility and energy, was fortuna enough to produce. Nor did it" exercise, on I generations immediately succeeding the poet's tin- much less of influence on the non-dramatic poet of England, than the masterpieces of the immort dramatist exercised on his successors. The ch racteristic stanza which Spenser invented for ] romantic epos, was the very smallest of the poii in which following poets were led, consciously unconsciously, by the example he had set them. The events of Spenser's life, though less obsa than those of Shakspeare's, are yet known so v< imperfectly, that his biographers can do little nw than tantalize the curiosity of their readers. 4 was born in London, probably in 1553, but p haps earlier. He was descended of a good fami probably some offshoot from the house of Althorj and a few circumstances in his early history hi suggested the supposition, that his father may hi been one of the Spensers or Spencers of Hui wood in Lancashire. He was admitted of Po broke Hall, in Cambridge, as a sizar, in 1569, 1 took his degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1573 t 1576. This is all that we know with certainly regard to his youth. In the north of England^ wrote his first considerable work, which is a an of twelv dar.' published in [Kilcolman Castle, the residence of Spenser.] SPENSER, Edmund, was, with one illustrious exception, the greatest of those poets whose genius brightened the last generation in the long reign of Elizabeth. Closing his life when Shakspeare was in the midst of his career, he was the earliest of the poetical stars that rose in that dazzling firma- ment. Indeed, although English literature had undergone great development as well as great changes during the two centuries that had inter- vened since the death of Chaucer, yet the long period gave birth to no poet of a very high order ; and, in this view, there was truth in the assertion made by Spenser himself, that he was the shep- herd boy, who after Tityrus his lay first sang.' The spirit of his inventions was caught from the older poetry of England, the irregular minstrelsy of the middle ages, with its chivalrous ideas, its fantastically gorgeous pictures, and (above all) its saturation in allegory. His forms, on the other hand, were prompted by those Italian studies, in which he was so well versed, and which, introduced earlier by Surrey and others, exercised so strong an influence over all the Elizabethan poetry. Spenser, without forgetting to emulate the lyrical and meditative effusions of Petrarch and his fol- lowers, aimed, in his greatest work, at doing for English, literature that which Ariosto and Tasso had recently done for the literature of Italy. He designed to construct, out of the undigested ele- ments of mediaeval song, a polished aud elaborate pastorals, called 'The Shepherd's Cal lished in 1579. These pieces are m unacceptable to ordinary readers, not only by fondness for old words and phrases which afl clung to the author, but by a frequent excess rustic familiarity both in sentiment and in expi sion. Yet some of them in whole, and passa^T^ all of them, justify to the full the reputation t gained for him. About the same time ha tempted into giving some countenance to the tempt of the learned physician Gabriel Harvey naturalize in England the hexameters and of prosodial forms and laws of the classical ton 28 SPE e was already engaged in composing his epic ; id, in his correspondence, mention is made of ne comedies which he had written before 1580. had become acquainted with Sir Philip Sidney, hose friendship he has commemorated in verse ; id lie was patronised, in early manhood, by Sid- y's uncle, the all-powerful earl of Leicester. In le year last named he went to Ireland, as secre- ry'to Lord Grey of Wilton, then appointed viceroy, d immortalized by the poet under the character Artegal, the personification of justice. Lord rey's government was very short ; but, while it sted, the poet was made clerk of the Irish Court Chancery, and received also a lucrative lease ehich he sold) of abbey-lands in the shire of oxford. In 1586 he received another grant, con- ining three thousand acres of land in the county Cork, on which stood his castle of Kilcolman. is residence must have been chiefly in Ireland for veral years; and, on his Irish domain, by his loved "stream Mulla, his great poem was princi- illy composed. In 1590, the poet being then in gland, were published its first Three Books, ich are also by universal consent the finest, e allegorical design, explained in an introductory ter to Raleigh, was set forth in the title-page : lie Faerie Queene, disposed into Twelve Books, shioning Twelve Moral Virtues.' In the Three ends which now appeared, were allegorized oliness, Temperance, and Chastity. In 1591 peared a volume of his minor poems, quaintly titled ' Complaints.' Its most noticeable pieces The Ruins of Time,' ' The Tears of the Muses,' d a long satirical fable called ' Mother Hubbard's le.' Spenser was addicted to complaining ; and, ough he had received so much from his patrons, d showed himself attentive and shrewd in mat- 's of business, he was poor in the latter part of j life, whether through improvidence or by rea- of the disturbed state of Ireland. In the same ar in which the 'Complaints' appeared, the een bestowed on him a pension of fifty pounds year. In 1595 he published ' Colin Clout's Come me Again,' a poem not only very beautiful, but pasting for its many allusions to the poet's per- al history. In the same year appeared a large ies of Sonnets, and the exquisite 'Epithalamion,' which he celebrates his recent marriage. In > Spenser brought to England, and published, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Books of ' The Faerie leene.' They are the Legends of Friendship, stice, and Courtesy. All that we possess beyond ise is a fragment containing Two Cantos ' Of liability.' The Six Books required for working t the design are traditionally said to have been in a voyage from Ireland ; but there is great ison for doubting whether the poem was ever in ility completed. The only other work of the et that calls for notice is his prose treatise, ' A ew of the State of Ireland,' written or finished 1596, but never published till 1633. It is a gacious book, *:na an excellent and vigorous 1 ecimen of old English prose. In September, 98, he was appointed sheriff of Cork. Perhaps is office caused the tragical catastrophe which stened his end. The rebellion of Tyrone break- 5 out immediately, Kilcolman castle was burned, d a new-born child of the owner perished in the luti. He and his wife escaped, and sought SPI shelter in London. He died there, on the 16th January, 1599. According to Ben Jonson he perished of want ; and the fact may have been so, although it seems improbable. His funeral, at all events, was splendidly celebrated by the earl of Essex; and his grave is in Westminster Abbey, next to that of Chaucer. [W.S.] SPERLING, Otto, a physician and naturalist or Hamburgh, 1602-81. His son, of the same name, professor of jurisprudence and history, 1634-1715. SPIEGEL, H., a Dutch poet, 1549-1612. SPIELMANN, James Reinhold, an eminent professor of chemistrv at Strasburg, 1722-1783. SPIGELIUS, or 'VAN DEN SPIEGHEL, Adrian, a Flemish medical writer, 1578-1625. SPILBERG, J., a Dutch painter, 1619-1690. SPILLER, John, a sculptor of promising talents, who studied under Bacon, and executed the statue of Charles II. for the Royal Exchange, born in London, 1763; died of consumption, 1794. SPINCKES, N., a nonjuring divine, 1654-1727. SPINELLI, F. M., prince of Scala, and a philo- sopher of the Cartesian school, 1686-1752. SPINELLI, M., an Italian historian, 1230-68. SPINELLI, N., a Jesuit of Naples, 14th cent. SPINELLI, or SPINELLO, a family of Italian artists who flourished in the 14th and 15th cen- turies, one of whom is said to have painted a figure of the devil so hideous, that it haunted him in his dreams, and occasioned a singular conference with the presumed original. This singular story is related by Vasari. SPINOLA, Ambrose, Marquis De, descended from a noble family originally of Genoa, was born in 1571, and entered into the military service of Spain at the period of the war in the Netherlands. His first great exploit was the reduction of Ostend, on the 14th September, 1604, after a siege of more than three years, and the loss of 130,000 men under previous commanders. This victory was rendered the more remarkable by the circumstance, that Maurice of Nassau, at the head of an equal num- ber of troops, had made repeated efforts to raise the siege, and Spinola, before his last successful assault on the city, had sustained fifteen terrible combats with him : such an achievement caused his name to resound through Europe, and he was soon after appointed commander-in-chief in the Netherlands. For the next twenty-six years the name of Spinola appears always foremost in the annals of that pro- tracted struggle, as the hero of the catholic party, and the house of Austria. We may mention among his exploits the capture of Juliers 1622, and of Breda in 1625. He was recalled from this com- mand in 1628 through the influence of intrigues at Madrid, and was subsequently employed in Italy against the French. His death was hastened by grief at the shameful manner in which his glory was betrayed in this new enterprise, and he expired at Castel-Nuova di Scrivia, Sept. 25, 1630. [E.R.] SPINOLA, Frederick, brother of the pre- ceding, and commander of the Spanish fleet of the Low Countries, killed in a naval action 1603. SPINOZA, Baruch, or Benedict, born in Amsterdam, 24th November, 1632; died in his solitary apartment at the Hague, 24th February, 1677 : it will astonish many to observe that this illustrious Thinker, whose name is the mark of an Epoch in Philosophy, and whose reputation is 729 SPI SPI more in the ascendant in a country like Ger- I of knowledge alone possesses absolute certain! and alone is worth the pursuit of the philosoph/ It is born when we discern some Absolute H ciple, from which, by rigorous deduction, the ch acter of the Universe, the phenomena of Mind a Matter, the nature of Man and God, can be ma to flow. Then we are superior to sense and illusions; Experience with its deceits and pha tasms, and Reasoning merely discursive, whic never lead to the absolute goal, are banished fr< the domain of Metaphysics. If, indeed, it \ longed to the Human Faculties to obtain tl primary and all-comprehending principle, Spino would be right ; but he has not brought out t Organ by which these Faculties ever reach t elevation from which he demands that Inqui start. His method is thus defective at the ot set, and immeasurably inferior to that of E Cartes, who not thinking of the desirable, b of the real and practicable lays down the ii moveable axiom, that Philosophy must ever bes in the certainties of Consciousness. II. Searchi for the adequate primary Principle of Philosopl Spinoza quickly and easily reaches the Idea Existence in itself, or as it is termed by him t Idea of Substance that which stands under . phenomena. What is this Idea? How can define Substance? It is infinite, it is perfect else it were limited and determined by somethi else, and would not be the ultimate principle Existence. But it must have attributes, or int ligible characteristics ? Spinoza speaks of two Extension and Thought, and the discussion i these occupies his system. It was suggested Leibnitz afterwards, that our Idea of Substan involves also the Idea of Cause, or of Force at Activity a criticism whose propriety is unqut tionable, and which of itself goes far to invalid! those terrible fatalistic conclusions, which, as shall see, inhere in the philosophy we are exp< ing. But apart from objections like these, thi is the fundamental one whence drew Spinoza ) knowledge of this Idea of Substance and its att butes? By what process, or in what manner c he convince any one of his right to that stupefy , many, attained no greater age than forty-five But paucity of years, was not the sole obstacle, of which in estimating Spinoza the just critic re- quires to take account. His parents were Portu- guese Jews, rich and of weight in the synagogue ; and the young Inquirer had to bear their frowns, as well "as that terrible excommunication of the Rabbis the formula schammatha. Disasters so grievous could not drive him from his Integrity, but they naturally disturbed very sadly the course of his meditations, depriving him of leisure, and inflicting nearly the keenest of anguish. The greatest and the wisest of his time, however, loved him : he enjoyed the respect of Van Ende and the De- Witts : and it may be imagined, how in- estimable, in such circumstances, the solace of such affection! Spinoza acted like the bravest of men. Resolute to live with meditation, he ac- quired the art of polishing lenses, that so like St. Paul he might supply, by the labour of his hands, his material wants : and, thus raised above the farther shock of circumstance, he rented a single chamber from Van den Spyck, an honest burgher of the Hague, wherein he henceforth lived and meditated, and produced the wonderful works which so stunned all Europe. To that little room the student must needs go back if he would dis- cern Spinoza : and he must further add, that the feeble, emaciated, and sickly form he sees writing there, had learned so well the value of indepen- dence, and had so felt the delight of searching for Truth, that, although sustaining nature on some such sum as our twopence or threepence a-day, he declined to be drawn from his retirement by munificent offers of patronage resisting the solici- tations even of the world-renowned Prince of Conde. In proceeding with the arduous endea- vour to explain the system of Spinoza, we bespeak the forbearance of scientific readers, and the gravest attention of all others : forbearance, be- cause we must write popularly ; and attention, be- cause the writings we are about to analyze are the true source of so much subsequent Philosophical History. > We shall divide our exposition into several distinct sections. I. Like his early and only master Des Cartes, Spinoza recognized the necessity of first laying down his Method of In- quiry, or determining by prior investigation the road which alone seemed likely to lead to Truth. There are, he says, three kinds of knowledge com- monly so called; the First, consisting of mere hearsay, and of vague experiences and impres- sions passively received making up those indis- criminate beliefs, and confused images, which are represented by the opinions and prejudices of the vulgar. Of such knowledge, the philosopher makes no account. The Second, is of a higher aim ; it arises when we seek the relations of things or of phenomena ; when after comparing objects and classing them by their resemblances, we as- cend to the general Law expressing their apparent Elace and function in the Universe. But this nowledge is also vitiated and incomplete; viti- ated, because we rarely discern or apprehend an object precisely as it is being misled by the im- perfection of our Senses: incomplete, because although it may lead us to a Law, it does not ex- plain or account for Law itself. The Third kind - of uipi, dous postulate f Can he indicate any proce different from an appeal to Consciousness? A J: yet, the system reared on that postulate, and over-rides every other truth of which sciousness testifies ! In this is the weakness such efforts ; and it is the ruin of all merely empn cal as well as of a priori schemes. The M atenaH who owns no mental phenomena except what hee gather from external nature, or explain by its schem and appearances, seldom reflects that seduced seeming clearness he is really employing deriv and secondary certainties (if the expression allowable) for the purpose of invalidating primary one. III. Let us contemplate now, t Fabric reared on this postulate by Spinoza : n where certainly, even in the strictly deducti sciences, is the reasoning more impregnable a: complete. Allow the postulate, and before you a mailed combatant, whose armour opens not chink for your arrows! This was the re triumph of Spinoza's massive intellect, as well 14 the secret of that power by which he so fl^B crushed opponents. Substance this infinirt substance or reality of all things must, because ]| 730 ih SPI ts infinity, have an infinite number of Attributes Qualities, else were it not infinite. Of these, lowever, two only are known, or manifested to us by e Universe, viz.: Extension and Thought. But ach Attribute of an Infinite Substance, must in it- elf be Infinite infinite in energy, though limited qualify : Extension, as Extension, can have no >ounds ; and Thought, as Thought, must have tbe acuity of Infinite expansion, owning no limits itherin Space or Time. Such the attributes that us define Substance ; if such attributes did not xist, or were not cognizable, the Infinite Abso- tite Substance, would be a mere negation, un- nown and unknowable. Turn now to the eparate attributes. Through what is Extension gnizable? Not in itself: Infinite Space, is a ord, a term without meaning, a simple nega- on. But as Substance has attributes, so Exten- Iion as an attribute, has modes or manifesta- ons. The modes or manifestations of Extension manifestations, through which alone we know ; are the forms which crowd it, and the motions hich diversify it. Each of these is Finite : they re therefore multiple; and by the infinity of their umbers, they come, in their totality, to equal the finite attribute they represent. This will at once lake plain the 16th proposition of the Ethics, ' It the nature of Substance to develop itself neces- rily by an infinity of attributes, which also are finitely modified.'' Again with regard to bought. Has not Thought its modes? For herwise how could it be known ? As Space is lown forth through Form, Thought is manifested rough Ideas. Ideas are its modes, and they too in number infinite. The variety of Things, lerefore, is no longer a mystery : it even belongs their Unity : so that the problem of philosophy solved. Before us, is this ineffable, and unap- jachable infinite and absolute Substance, un- lded through its Infinite attributes, which again themselves unfolded and rendered apprehen- ble by that infinitude of modes Forms and "eas which make up the Universe. The student ill not fail to detect the true parentage of uch of the scheme of Schelling. Spinoza rther declares, that as every mode of Extension _just correspond to a mode or Thought, the order id connection of Ideas, is necessarily the same the order and connection of Things, surely a itty close anticipation of the Philosophy of 'entity. IV. It now only remains, that we state ccinetly the conclusions accepted by Spinoza id inseparable from his system, regarding Man d God. It is easy to see, that the remorseless gic of Spinoza, could admit no Deity, apart from s Absolute Substance. God, according to this lilosophy, must in essence be that Substance; ley are convertible Names, with the same Attri- ltes. But in justice to that great Thinker, the udent must be warned, not to attach to the ord substance, conceptions of Inertness, absence of nderstanding, or of Will. If Spinoza has said that eity is void of understanding, he meant only ttty absolutely, just as he would have so spoken " Substance, that is, treated without regard to Attribute. We are dealing, it must never be rgotten, with a consummate logician, whose de- e method has no flaw; and he necessarily first with the most abstract conception SPO passing down by regular steps, from almost inac- cessible heights. Rather, the World, all Things are God ; the Material Universe, but also Intelli- gence: every firmament that shines, every thought that pierces the serene, every emotion that agitates the heart, every virtuous and heroic aspiration that raises humanity above circumstance and the grave these, ay, and manifestations, which hu- man eye nor ear has either heard or seen these, are figurations of Divinity gleams of the char- acter of that Essence which is All ! Surely we have no Atheism here; but a loftiest, however mistaken, Pantheism. It is said quaintly bv Novalis that Spinoza was ' intoxicated with God!' As to Man, the conclusions are too sorrowful. His Understanding is a mere succession of these modes of Thought; his Soul a more exalted or comprehen- sive Mode: and, as to every mode of Infinite Thought there is a corresponding mode of Exten- sion, each soul has a body which it animates, or of which it is the Idea. No personality here ; not a shred of human Liberty : Body and Soul, each a mere expression, impersonal and transient, of one phase of that huge all-comprehending Develop- ment. ! Spinoza saves, indeed, that form of Mor- ality within which he lived himself. Part of the Infinite, let us recognize our blessedness. To five, to enjoy in plenitude, we must concentrate our desires around one aspiration the longing to pos- sess God, which means to love Him, and thereby to live in Him. How poorly, this bare outline represents Spinoza ! Has the student who per- uses these lines, ever, under the dark vault of Heaven, or at the hour of midnight, experienced perplexity alike of Head and Heart, as he ques- tioned the Mystery of Things V So, likewise, did the young and heroic Jew of whom we write ; and the foregoing was his solution. It must in nowise be forgotten that the Philosophy of which, through mere exercise of Intellect, we give an account, was dug by this remarkable man, from the mine of his profound Nature ; what we describe, he created ; it is for us to examine and contemplate only, but he believed; it gave him dignity and integrity through Life, and did not impair his courage at a lonely Death. [J.P.N.] SPIRITI, S., an Italian historian, 1712-1776. SPIRITO, L., an Italian poet, born 1436. SPITTLER, Baron Von, a minister of state and historian of Wurtemberg, 1752-1810. SPITZNER, J. E., a Ger. naturalist, 1731-1806. SPIZELIUS, T., a Lutheran divine, 1639-1691. SPOFFORTH, R., an Eng. musician, 1768-1826. SPOHN, Frederic Augustus William, pro- fessor of philosophy and ancient literature at Leip- zig, born 1792, died prematurely when preparing to publish a work on hieroglyphics, 1824. SPOLVERINI, Hilarion, a Italian painter, famous for his battle-pieces, 1657-1734. SPOLVERINI, Marquis, an Italian adminis- trator and writer of poetry, 1695-1763. SPON, Charles, a French physician and Latin poet, 1609-1684. His son, James, a physician, antiquarian, and traveller, 1647-1685. SPONDE, Henry De, in Latin Spondanus, a learned French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 1568-1643. His brother, John, a classical scholar and editor, 1557-1585. SPONTINI, GAsrARo, a composer of sacred 731 SPO music and operas, was born at Majolatti, in the Roman states, 1778, and educated at Naples. He visited Paris in 1803, and in 1807 became director of music to the empress Josephine. This was followed in 1810 by his appointment as director of the Italian opera, which lie exchanged in 1820 for that of chapel-master at Berlin, where he remained till 18-1-2. Died in Italy 1851. SPONTONI, C, an Italian historian, 1552-1G10. SPORENO, J., an Italian historian, 1490-15G0. SPOTSWOOD, or SPOTTISVVOOD, John, archbishop of St. Andrews, descended from an ancient Scottish family, was born in the county of Edinburgh 1565. He accompanied James VI. to England, who raised him to the primacy, and made him one of the privy council for Scotland the same year. He laboured greatly to bring the Church of Scotland to the episcopal discipline, and became chancellor of that kingdom in 1665, two years after he had crowned Charles I. at Holyrood. Died 1639. Sir Robert, his second son, wrote a History of the Scottish Church, and was put to death by the Covenanters. SPRAGGE, Sir Edward, a naval commander, who distinguished himself against the Dutch admirals, Ruyter and Van Tromp, and was acci- dentally drowned 1673. SPRANGHER, Bartholomew, a Flemish painter, whose principal work is The Last Judg- ment, 154G-1623. SPRAT, Thomas, a learned English prelate, one of the first fellows of the Royal Society of London, of which he wrote a History; he was also the friend and biographer of the poet Cowley ; born in Devonshire 1G36, died 1713. SPKENGEL, K., a Germ, botanist, 1766-1833. SPRENGEL, M. C, a Germ, hist., 1746-1803. SPRENGER, B., a German agriculturist and writer on the Cultivation of the Vine, 1724-1791. SPRENGER, P., a Germ, historian, 1735-1806. SPURSTOW, William, minister of Hackney, near London, at the period of the civil wars, author of religious works, and of attacks on episcopacy, published under the name of Smectymmus ; d. 1666. SPURZHEIM, John Gaspar, a famous name in the history of phrenological science, was born at Longwich, near Treves, in 1776, and became ac- quainted with Dr. Gall at Vienna, where he studied medicine. From 1805 till 1813 he was the con- stant companion of Gall in his travels and scien- tific researches, and subsequently became an active promulgator of the new doctrine in England and France. He died in 1832, a few months after his arrival in Boston, United States. One of his dis- tinct claims is that of having demonstrated the fibrous structure of the brain ; but his works are too well known to require particular description. SQUARCIONE, Franceso, a painter of the Venetian school, and virtuoso of art, 1394-1474. . SQUIRE, S., a learned prelate, 1714-1706. STAAL, Marguerite Jeanne Cadier De Launy, Baroness De, the daughter of an artist of Paris, and, previous to her marriage, the attendant and the confidential friend of the duchess of Maine. Her faithfulness to the latter led to her own im- prisonment in the Bastile, on emerging from which she married M. de Staal, an oiHcer of the Swiss guard. The interesting ' Memoirs of Her Life ' were written by herself; 1G93-1750. STA STABEN, H., a Flemish painter, 1578-1658. STACE, P. P., or STATIUS, a Latin poet, 61-96 STACKHOUSE, John, nephew of the celo brated divine, distinguished as a botanist, d. 1819 STACKHOUSE, Thomas, a minister of Shrop shire, author of 'A General View of Ancient His tory, Chronology, and Geography,' dates unknown STACKHOUSE, Thomas, a well-known rel gious writer and theologian, was born in 168C He became minister of the English Church a Amsterdam, and finally rector of Bcnham Yalene in Berkshire, where he died in 1752. His prin cipal work is a ' History of the Bible.' STADION, Phil., Count, a diplomatist in th service of Austria, time of Napoleon, 1768-1824. STADIUS, J., a Flemish astronomer. 1527-79 STADLER, M., a Ger. mus. compos., 1748-186} STAEL, Anne Louise Germaine De, wj born in 1766 at Paris, where her father, M. Ne< ker, afterwards the celebrated minister of Franc was then a banker's clerk. At the age of twent she became the wife of the Baron De Stael-Hoh tein, the Swedish ambassador at Paris ; and ti< strong literary turn which she had already exhibite> now developed itself still further, and produced, I the course of her life, a series of works embracir almost every sort of composition in prose or vers At first sanguine in the cause of the revoluti she soon became warmly interested in the suffe ings of its victims, especially the queen, whom si had the courage to defend in print. In 1800 si entered on the course of speculation, in which si. was afterwards strongest, by publishing her ess: ' De La Litterature, consideree dans ses rappor avec les Institutions Sociales ;' and her very equiv cal novel ' Delphine' appeared in 1802. In th year her husband died. Madame De Stael i much too independent to be acceptable to Napole who banished her from Paris, and afterwap ordered her to confine herself to her chateau Coppet on the Lake of Geneva. From 1803 1 1815 she travelled much in Germany, Italy, ai England, and visited Sweden and Russia. IT ' Corinne,' in form a novel, and the most eloque* of all tributes to the antiquities and scenery Italy, appeared in 1807. Her most ambitioi work. ' De L'AIlemagne,' printed at Paris in 181' was seized by the police, and only published i London some years later. After the second res ' ration she lived chiefly in Switzerland, where i contracted a secret marriage with M. De Row She died in 1817. After her death, useful conte butions were made to the history of the timeai the publication of her ' Considerations sut Revolution Francaise,' and her 'Dix Anneogi Exil.' [Wi STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Eric Magnus, BM De, a Swedish diplomatist, born 1725, ministj plenipotentiary at the court of France from 17' to 1799, died 1802. He married the celebrat daughter of Necker in 1786, and assisted passivt in the French revolution till his recall. STAFFORD, a noble family belonging to.| Norman aristocracy of England. The prine" historical names are: Humphrey, a partizj Henry VI., created duke of Buckingham 14< Henry, his grandson, a favourite of Richard beheaded 1483. Edward, beheaded on an a sation of treason by Henry VIII. 1521. 732 STA STAFFORD, Anthony, a loomed writer, au- hor of ' The Life and Death of Henry, Lord Staf- ord,' died 1641. STAFFORD, William Howard, earl of, who eceived the title by marriage with the heiress of hat house in 1640, was the second son of Thomas, uke of Norfolk. He was executed in connection ith the gunpowder plot 1680. STAHL, G. E., a German chemist, 1660-1784. STAINER, or STAYNER, Sir Rich., a naval fficer, time of Cromwell and Charles II., d. 1G62. STAIR. See Dalrymple. STALBENT, A., a Flemish painter, 1580-1660 STALHENS, J., a Fr. theologian, 1595-1681. STANCAPJ, F., an Ital. Hebraist, 1501-1574. STANCAIRI, V. F., an Italian mathematician nd man of letters, 1678-1709. STANBRIDGE, John, a learned schoolmaster nd grammarian, known from 1481 to 1522. STANDISH, Frank Hall, a gentleman of )rtune, known as an elegant writer and connois- ur in the arts, author of a ' Life of Voltaire,' The Shores of the Mediterranean,' ' Notices on le Northern Capitals of Europe,' ' Seville and its icinity,' and ' Poems,' 1798-1840. STANHOPE, a noble English family, principal 'whom arer James, the first earl, who distin- rished himself both as a diplomatist and military Beer in the wars of William III., born in Hert- rdshire 1673, died 1721. Charles, grandson the preceding, and third earl, born 1753, was stinguished as a man of science by several valu- ta inventions, among which are the printing is, known by his name, a calculating machine, vessel to sail against wind and tide, locks for nals, a method for securing buildings from fire, id a monochord for tuning musical instruments. t the period of the French revolution he openly rowed republican sentiments, and even laid aside insignia of the peerage. By his first wife, Mighter of the great earl of Chatham, he had three ughters, one of whom is the subject of the fol- wing notice; his second wife, daughter of Mr. enry Grenville, bore him three sons ; died 1816. SI ANHOPE, Lady Hhster, whose remarkable e in Mount Lebanon may be numbered among e most interesting romances of history, was born 1766. Her father was the celebrated Lord Stan- >pc, and her mother a daughter of the great Earl hatham, consequently she was niece to William t, in whose house she resided, acting as his ivate secretary, and sharing in all his confidences, iographers are silent on the causes which "uenced her fate, after the death of her uncle, it they were principally two : First, the disgust her high nature for European society, created by r knowledge of the secrets of diplomacy, and the How deceitful life of all around her; and secondly, e mystic influence which prevailed for about ten tars at that period, and of which history takes tie note. It is certain, however, that from 1794 the death of Pitt, startling announcements were mtinually made by private letters to the min- ter, and prophecies were actually fulfilled both in is country and, France: it is probable that these rcumstances, exaggerated by her unrestrained pagination, and her longing for the free simplicity nature, finally determined Lady Stanhope to ave England. William Pitt having recom- STA mended his niece to the care of the nation, she re- ceived a pension of 1,200 per annum, with which, after his death, she commenced a life of great state ! in the East, and acquired immense influence over ; the Arabian population. Her manner of life, and | romantic style are well known ; we will only add, therefore, that it is unfair to judge her character from the reports of English travellers, for she was one of those high-souled women who not only re- fused allegiance to the empty mannerisms she had cast off, but was well able to answer every fool who forced his way into her presence according to his folly. She never married, but adopted the habit cf an Arabian cavalier, and under those bright skies, rode and dwelt where she pleased, virtually queen of the deserts, and mistress of the ancient palaces of Zenobia. Her permanent abode was in Mount Lebanon, about eight miles from Sidon, where she died in 1839. [E.R.] STANHOPE, P. D. See Chesterfield. STANISLAUS, a bishop of Cracovia, k. 1079. STANISLAUS, Augustus, the last king of Poland, was a son of Count Stanislaus Poniatow- ski, and of the princess Czartoryska. He was born in Lithuania in 1732, and was advanced to the throne by the intrigues of Catharine of Russia, aided by another of her favourites, the Polish traitor, Braneski, in 1764. It is hardly neces- sary to mention that the crowm of Poland was elec- tive, and that the people had been kept in a state of serfdom under a powerful aristocracy, circum- stances exceedingly favourable to the Russian de- signs, and productive at last of the infamous parti- tion of Poland, and the virtual effacement of that ancient kingdom from the map of Europe. The first partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, took place in 1773, and the second, after a long struggle, in 1792, when Kosciusko was defeated by the Russian general, Suwarrow. Stanislaus abdicated his vain title in 1795, and took up his abode in Russia, where he died, in receipt of a pension, the proper reward of his career, in 1798. [E.R.] STANLEY, Edward, bishop of Norwich, a younger son of Sir John Thomas Stanley of Alder- ley, in Cheshire, born 1770, author of a * Familiar History ot Birds,' published in 1835. He had been upwards of thirty years rector of Alderley, when he was elevated to the see of Norwich through his connection with the Whig party in 1837 ; d. 1849. STANLEY, John, a musical composer, 1713-86. STANLEY, Thomas, the name of three accom- plished men of letters, the first of whom, Sir Thomas Stanley, of Laytonstone, in Essex, wrote poems, and was knighted by Charles I. The second Thomas, and most famous of the three, was his son ; he was a master of philosophy and polite learning, and a friend of William Fair- fax, the translator of Tasto ; his works are ' The History of Philosophy, and Lives of the Philoso- phers,' and some original poems, and translations from the Greek, born 1625, died in London, 1678. The third of the name was a son of the latter, who translated when very young the Histories of MYvat,. STANLEY, Wm., a dignitary of the church, author of ' The Devotion of the Church of Rome compared with the Devotion of the Church of England,' 1647-1731. STANSEL, V., a German astronomer, 1621-90. 733 STA STE STANYHUEST, Richard, an Irish clergy- I (' The Drummer' being really _ Addison's) w; man, known as a poet and historian, 1546-1618. STANZIONI, M., an ltal. painter, 1585-1656. STAPEL, John Bod.eus A, a Dutch physi- cian and botanist, honoured by Linnaeus, d. 1636. STAPLETON, Sin Robert, a native of Carle- ton, in Yorkshire, who fought in the interest of Charles I. at the battle of Edgehill, 1642 ; and adhered steadfastly to the royal cause ; he wrote several dramatic pieces, and translations of the classic poets, died 1669. STAPLETON, Thomas, Roman Catholic pro- fessor of divinity at Louvain, known as a learned controversial writer, 1535-1598. STARCK, Samuel, a native of Pomerania, distinguished as a theologian and Oriental scholar, 1640-1697. His grandson, John Augustus, a theologian, Orientalist, and historian, professor at St. Petersburg, 1741-1816. STARK, W., a London physician, died 1769. STARNINA, J., an Italian painter, 1354-1406. STAEOYVOLSKI, Simon, a Polish ecclesiastic and historian of his country, died 1656. STASZIC, S., a Polish patriot, 1755-1806. STATIUS, Publius P., a Roman poet, 61-96. STAUNTON, Sir George Leonard, an Irish phvsician, who rose to the post of attorney- general m Grenada, and having attached himself to Lord 51acartney in the character of secretary, was afterwards known as a diplomatist, and his intimate adviser ; his principal services were dis- played in the arrest of 5Iajor-general _ Stuart, commander-in-chief of the 5Iadras army, in treat- ing with Tippoo Sultan, and in the embassy to China ; of the latter he published an interesting account in 2 vols. 4to, 1797. Born in Galway, 1737 ; died 1801. STAUPITZ, J., a German theologian, d. 1527. STAVELEY, T., a learned antiquary, d. 1683. STEBBING, Hkn., a friend of Bishop Sherlock, known as a writer in the Bangorian controversy, and the attack on Warburton's Legation, d. 1763. STEDMAN, J. G., a Scotch officer in the Dutch East India service, author of an interesting narrative, 1745-1797. STEELE, Sir Richard, was born in 1671 at Dublin, to which his father had gone from Eng- land as secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant. At the Charterhouse School in London, he formed a life- long intimacy with Addison. Steele next went to Oxford, but, bent on being a soldier, and dis- couraged by his family, eloped and enlisted in the Horse Guards. His officers, knowing him to be a gentleman, and becoming aware of his attractive social qualities, procured an ensign's commission for him ; and, in the gay company of the mess, he exhibited and cherished his good-hearted liveli- ness, his inclination for dissipated extravagance, and the sanguine flightiness which in later life made him a rash and unsuccessful speculator. Intervals of repentance for his follies gave birth, while he was in the army, to his tract ' The Chris- tian Hero ;' but he dealt more in play-writing, and produced lively and popular comedies, which had the merit (rare on the English stage for some time pre- viously) of being morally correct. His first piece, 1 The "Funeral, or Love A-la-mode,' was acted in The Tender Husband' in 1703, and 'The ' The Conscious Lovers,' which did not appear ti 1722. In 1709, by starting 'The Tatler/he hr the great merit of striking out a new kind of lit rary composition ; and his large share in this fir periodical, the active part he took in the ' Spe> tator,' and his still more active authorship in ' Tl Guardian,' place him second only to Addison amoi the Essayists. Before commencing ' The Tatle: he had become useful as a political pamphlet* on the Whig side, and was appointed ' Gazett writer, and afterwards a commissioner of stamp On the fall of the Whig ministry in 1710, t' Tories, anxious to obtain the aid of his pen, allow him to keep his place. But Steele, honourab true to his party, refused to write for their enemie and, not content with silence, he insisted in 17: on attacking the ministry in ' The Guardian, resigned his commissionership. He was tb brought into the House of Commons, but expell for matter relating to the succession to the crow contained in 'The Englishman' and 'The Crisi After the accession of George I., he again sat parliament, was knighted, and appointed a cor missioner for the forfeited estates in Scotland. 1 continued to write on politics. His 'Whig E aminer ' has been noticed in the memoir of Addisc In his latest years he was poor and embarrasse and he died in Wales in 1729. [W.S STEEN, F. Van, a Flemish painter, born 16( STEEN, Jan, a Dutch painter, 1636-1689. STEENWYCK, Henry Van, a Flemish pai ter, remarkable for his skill in delineating t interiors of churches and temples, 1550-1604. son, of the same names, distinguished in the line of art, was a friend of Vandyck, who int; duced him to Charles I. He was born in 1589, a | died in London at an unknown date. Anotl Steenwyck, celebrated as a painter of still li was born at Breda about 1640. STEEVENS, George, the well-known co mentator on the works of Shakspeare, was born Stepney 1736, and first appeared as an editor the immortal dramatist in 1766. In 1770 he as ciated his labours with those of Johnson, and tl joint edition appeared in 10 vols. 8vo, 1773. 1793 it was reprinted in 15 vols., the criticisms Malone having appeared in the interval. Steevi died in 1800. STEFANI, P. De, the earliest sculptor of Neapolitan school, about 1228-1310. His brotl Thomaso, a painter, was b. at Naples abt. 12J STEFANO, called // Fiorentino, an ltal painter, grandson and pupil of Giotto, 1301-13 Thomaso, his supposed son, called, from style, // Giottino, 1324-1356. STEFFANI, Agostino, a musical compo; claimed by the Germans as a native of Leip: and by the Italians as a countryman of theirs, i born in 1665, and was first known as a chori: at St. 5Iark's at Venice. He composed operas, but the most celebrated and numerou> his works are his chamber duets. Died 1729. STEFFENS, Heinrich, a naturalist, mis* j* laneous wr., and patriot of Copenhagen, 1773-1 I STEIBELT, D., a Germ, composer, 1760-1^ STEIGUER, N. F. De, a Swiss patriot, 1729- } STEIN, Christopher Godfrey Da: 1701. Lying Lover' in 1704. His only subsequent drama ' geographer and compiler, prof, at Berlin, 1771-1 734 } /,/,,/ ' //' ( ///////// //;/,///, STE i STEIN, G. W., a Germ, accoucheur, 1737-1803. STEIN, H. F. Karl, Baron Von, a Prussian itatesman and enemy of Napoleon, was born at [Jassau 1757, and became minister of finance and jrade at Berlin on the death of Struensee 1804. laving been exiled from Prussia by the influence f the dictator of Europe he retired to Prague, and a the disastrous year 1812, was with the emperor Alexander at St. Petersburg, He lived in privacy !fter the peace till 1827, when political circum- tances recalled him to public life; died 1831. STEINBART, G. S., a Ger. philos., 1738-1809. STELLA, a family of French artists : Francis, ! painter of altar-pieces, 1563-1605. James, the jiost eminent of the family, a painter, designer, ;nd engraver, 1596-1657. Francis, brother of tie latter, 1603-1647. Antoine, their nephew, painter and engraver, 1630-1682. Claudine, tster of Antoine, 1634-1697. Francoise, a scond sister, dates unknown. Antoinette, a bird sister, an engraver, 1635-1676. STELLA, F. A., a Venetian writer, 1757-1833. STELLA, J. C., an Italian poet, 16th century. STELLINI, J., an Italian moralist, 1699-1770. STELLUTS, F., an Ital. naturalist, born 1577. STENBOCK, Magnus, Count, a Swedish gen- ral and patriot, period of Charles XII., was born h 1664, and first bore arms under the princes of MJdeck and Baden, in the coalition against Louis CIV. He joined the army of Charles XII. at the nmmencement of his campaigns, and in 1701 larticipated in the glorious victory of Narva. He pen followed Charles in his meteor-like progress prough Poland, and when, in 1707, the Swedish lero halted in Saxony, meditating where next he jhould lead his veterans, Stenbock was made overnor of Scania ; in which post he gained the jpnfidence of the people by his firm administra- jion of justice. In 1709 Charles was defeated by j'eter the Great at the battle of Pultowa, and loon found himself shut up in Bender, on Turkish erritory. The Danes, who had been defeated by Charles at the beginning of his career, took adv- antage of this crisis to break through their pgagements, and send an invading army against Icania. where they took the town of Helsingburgh. kanbock rushed to the field at the head of the Swedish militia, consisting partly of undisciplined Hants assembled in haste, and rivalling his bsent sovereign in glory, gave the Danes a bloody icfeat ; he even followed the enemy into Ger- many, captured their cities, and gained a second Teat victory over the combined Saxon and Danish Irmy. This, however, was the limit of his sue- less. Listening to perfidious counsels, he pene- pted into Holland, and the Russians having ow joined his other enemies, he was at last com- pelled to capitulate. Stenbock became the prisoner If the Danes in 1712, and died in a miserable onfinement in 1717. [E.R.] ! STENGEL, L., a German physician, 1523-87. | STENO, M., a doge of Venice, 1400-1413. STENO, Nicholas, in Latin Slenonius, a fa- nous anatomist, author of professional and theolo ;ical works, born at Copenhagen 1638, died 1687 STEl'HANUS ATHENIENSIS, a Greek phy- ician and professor of Christianity, 7th century. STEPHANUS BYZANTINUS, a Greek gram- ..._ STE STEPHEN, the name of several saints: 1. The Jewish martyr, stoned shortly after the crucifixion of the Saviour, as recorded in Acts. 2. The first pope of the name. 3. The first king of Hungary of the name. 4. Stephen ofMuret, founder of a religious order in France, died 1124. 5. An English abbot, surnamed Harding, founder of several monasteries, died 1134. STEPHEN, several popes of Rome : Stephen I., reigned 253-257. Stephen II., died four days after his election, 752. Stephen III., successor of the latter ; in his time Pepin was invited into Italy to subdue Astolphus, king of the Lombards, and the foundation was laid for the temporal sove- reignty of the papacy, died 757. Stephen IV., reigned 768-772. Stephen V., who crowned Louis, son of Charlemagne, emperor, reigned seven months only, 817. Stephen VI., reigned 885- 891. Stephen VII., remarkable chiefly for his disgraceful treatment of the corpse of Boniface V., succeeded that pontiff in 896, and was strangled by his predecessor's friends 897. Stephen VI II., predecessor of John, son of Marozia, 929-931. Stephen IX., another pope of the period in which Marozia figured, 939-942. Stephen X., an ad- vocate for the marriage of the priests, and distin- guished by his eftbrts to unite the two churches, reigned only a few months, 1057-1058. Some- times only nine popes of this name are reckoned, Stephen II. being omitted. STEPHEN, four kings of Hungary : Stephen I., introduced Christianity into that country, and published a body of laws; he is numbered with the saints, and gives his name to the famous crown, reigned 997-1038. Stephen II., reigned 1114-1131. Stephen III., succeeded 1161; he aided the emperor, Manuel Commenus, against the Venetians, and was twice dethroned for short periods, first by his uncle, Ladislas, and afterwards by Stephen, a brother of Ladislas ; he died 1173. Stephen IV., reigned two years only, but gained an illustrious name by his victories over Ottocar, king of Bohemia, 1270-1272. STEPHEN, king of Poland, surnamed Bathort, was a noble Hungarian, born 1532, elected prince of Transylvania 1571, succeeded to Henry of Valois as king of Poland 1575, died 1586. STEPHEN, king of England, was the third son of Adela, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, and of Stephen, count of Blois. He was born in 1105, and was invited to the English court by his uncle, Henry I., who enriched him with estates and honours, and finally promoted his marriage with Ma- tilda, heiress of the county of Boulogne, and niece to David, king of Scotland. On Henr's death in 1135, Stephen, who was then in France, hastened to England, and was crowned king to the preju- dice of Henry's daughter, Matilda, empress of Ger- many; this event, however, was an advantage to the English nation, for he was a man ' noble and hardy, of passing comely favour and personage, excelling in martial policy, gentleness, and liberality towards all men, and though he had continual wars, yet did he never burthen his commons with exactions.' In such an age, there could be no question between a character thus described, residing at the seat ot government, and a woman connected by the nearest ties to a distant land, and if many of the barons kept I aloof from Stephen, it was probably far more from 735 STE a sense of the privileged despotism they might have retained in the latter case, than from any regard to the welfare of the state. It would seem, in fact, that Stephen's principal difficulties arose from his regard for the old Saxon population at a period when the harons were rising into importance, and to the disgust excited by it among the chi- valrous aristocracy introduced by his grandfather ; the insolence of whose bearing, and their followers infesting the highways, could not but be galling to the peaceful burgher. The intestine troubles produced by these causes were commenced by David of Scotland, to whom Matilda was more nearly related than Stephen. Invading England in the spring of 11 3G, that prince was induced to retire by the cession of Cumberland ; but returning again, in the year following, was defeated at the battle of the Standard, fought on Cutton Moor, August 22, 1138. Then followed, in September, 1139, the arrival of Matilda, supported' by the earl of Glouces- ter, and the disaffected barons, to whose forces Stephen was compelled to yield : the triumph of Matilda lasted from February to September, 1141, when the king recovered his liberty, and his rival took refuge in Normandy. Nor yet was Stephen allowed to wear the crown in peace, for Matilda having resigned her pretensions to Henry Planta- genet, her son, that chivalrous prince landed an army at Wareham, in 1153, and met the forces of Stephen at Wallingford. The threatened blood- shed, however, was now avoided by an annistice, for at this juncture the son of Stephen expired, and he was easily prevailed upon to conclude a treaty recognizing Henry as his successor, who had only just arrived at the age of manhood, and could afford to wait a few years : the interval was brief indeed, for Stephen died the year following, aged forty-nine, 1154. The foreign troops drawn by Stephen from Brittany and Flanders, and the for- tresses erected by the barons in their contests with him, were alike harassing to the people during his troubled reign, and besides all this he maintained a difficult struggle with the papal clergy. [E.R.] STEPHEN, James, a lawyer and political writer, who suggested and arranged the system of continental blockade, by which Napoleon was so greatly embarrassed during the late war ; he was rirst known as a reporter on the ' Morning Chro- nicle,' but attracted the attention of government by his anonymous pamphlet, entitled ' War in Disguise, or the Frauds of Neutral Flags,' soon after which he became member for Tralee. Mr. Stephen was connected by marriage with Wilber- force, and having resided some years at St. Chris- tophers, he was well acquainted with the colonics, and proved himself a valuable adherent in the cause of negro emancipation. Died 1832. STEPHEN, John, a Danish hist, 1509-1650. STEPHENS, Alexander, a miscellaneous writer, born at Elgin, in Scotland, 1757 ; died 1821. His works are 'A History of the War of the French Revolution,' ' Memoirs of Home Tooke,' 'Public Characters.'. Besides these he was a contributor to the ' Annual Obituary,' and the ' Monthly Magazine.' STEPHENS, Henry, the Jirst of a family of French printers, the most distinguished in those early times, when the most learned men devoted themselves to the perfection of the new art : he STE was horn at Paris about 1470, began printin| 1503, and died 1520. Francis, his eldest : is known to have carried on the business fr< 1537 to 1547. Robert, the brother of Franc and second son of Henry, born at Paris 1503, * protected by Francis I., but after that monarc death had a severe struggle with the doctors the Sorbonne: their enmity drove him to Gene in 1552, and he died there in the Cr.lvinist far 1559. Charles, brother of the latter, carri on the noble work in which his family had barked their fortunes, from 1535 to 15G4. Hens son of Robert, one of the most learned men a finest spirits of his age, was born at Paris 158 he ruined himself in the cause, and died in \ hospital of Lyons 1506. Several others of i family are mentioned, the last, Estienne A toine, bom at Geneva 1594, ended his ardiu career at the hospital Hotel Dieu 1674. STEPHENS, J., a learned divine, 1592-1665 STEPHENS, John, an officer of the array James II., who maintained himself by his g after the success of the revolution, and wrote seve works for the booksellers, died 1726. STEPHENS, R., an Eng. antiquary, died 17! STEPHENS, W., an English divine, died 17: STEPHENSON, George, a civil engineer extraordinary genius, not only in his art but affairs in general. As the names of Brindley j Smeaton are connected with our canal systei that of Arkwright with mechanical spinning ; Watt with the steam engine ; of Fulton with stei navigation ; so is that of George Stephenson t nected with our railway system, and we may t with the railway system of the world. Born humble parents at Wylam, in the county of Di ham, about nine miles west of Newcastle- on-Ty in April, 1787, he seems to have been left to own resources for education. His first job picking turnips at twopence per day. As a \t he was a ' trapper ' in the coal workings ; a there, in the lonely hours he spent with the B' of the men in the" pit depending on his attenti'j to the air (rap which he had to open and close, m minated the idea which, long after matured, entlt j him to be classed among the great benefactors] mankind. When he was fourteen or fifteen ye; of age he worked at Water-row pit as brakesm on the waggon-way between Wylam and Newbu He, therefore, became early experienced in t] working of and laws of motion of waggons 4 railways. As he often referred to this expedH in later years, and to actual experiments made that time, we have another proof to add to ma more that genius will always declare itself as eai I as the special subject of its delight is preafl for contemplation. About 1805 Stephenson 1] his father's roof and went to Killiiigworth, t j centre of the collieries worked by the ' grand allk Lords Ravensworth and partners. He went to K j lingworth still a brakesman ; but soon afterwB got the charge of the steam engine, an advancenfj which arose from the circumstance of his h^H successfully remedied defects in the valve gear of t J engine, after several ineffectual attempts hadflH made to do so by a then celebrated Geordy D" whose actual business it was. Stephenson b.j before this acquired a reputation among his feflo workmen as a repairer of clocks and watches. A j 36 ;. STE ointed engineer in consequence of this success, he narried, and a son was born, an only child, Robert, ho was early associated with his father in the rlorious career tracked by the name of Stephenson, atber and son. Between 1807 and 1815 Stephen- ion's attention was much drawn to the subject of ocomotive engines, many attempts having been nade during that period to introduce them on to ;he tramways and edge railways of the Northum- erland and Durham coal districts, with but very >artial success. After various trials and modifica- ions of his designs, George Stephenson started a ocomotive on the Killingworth railway on the 6th of tfarch, 1815, which embodied eveiy essential part if the locomotive of the present day, with the exception of the tubular boiler and expansion rear. This was not the starting point of Stephen- ion's public career, however, although it was bout this period that from his genius having been urned in another, for the moment, more important 'rection, he actually did come prominently before le public. It was as an inventor of the miners' afety lamp that Stephenson's pre-eminent merit is first recognized. As an independent inventor a safety lamp, depending on the same principles that of Sir Humphrey Davy's lamp, Stephen- i was presented by a number of the leading coal wners of the north with one thousand pounds and piece of plate. On that occasion the chairman, r. Charles John Brandling, said : ' A great deal I controversy, and he was sorry to say of ani- losity, had prevailed upon the subject of the safety imp ; but this he trusted, after the example of loderation that had been set by Mr. Stephenson's iends, would subside, and all personalities cease be remembered. As to the claim of that indi- idnal to testify their gratitude to whom they were at day assembled, he thought every doubt must ve been removed in the mind of unprejudiced Kersons by a perusal of the evidence recently before the public. He begged Mr. Stephen- 's acceptance of this token of their esteem, ishing him health long to enjoy it, and to enable m to employ those talents with' which Providence ad blessed him for the benefit of his fellow-crea- Stephenson in acknowledging the gift, ve the following pledge, which was nobly re- eemed during the subsequent part of his valuable " . ' I shall ever reflect with pride and gratitude t my labours have been honoured with the probation of such a distinguished meeting ; and may rest assured that my time and any talent possess shall hereafter be employed in such man- as not to give you, gentlemen, any cause to gret the countenance and support you have so lerously afforded me.' Though men of Stephen- 's scope and frame of mind are in a great asnre independent of education, they most roughly understand the advantages of it. e Stephenson, therefore, took special care to wire his son's receiving every advantage in this jr, and was well rewarded even in the beginning ; Robert Stephenson carried off mathematical and losophical prizes from Edinburgh university. first locomotive railway, for the purposes of slling according to the present principle of ion, was constructed between Stockton and arlington. Stephenson was engineer. The safety- mp testimonial had enabled him, in partnership STE with certain capitalists and his son, to establish the now world-renowned engine factory in New- castle. On the opening of the Darlington railway, in 1825, Stephenson's engines travelled with a speed of ten miles an hour; but his ideas and anticipations of the capabilities of this mode of transit, both as to speed and the effect it would produce when generally adopted, as he foresaw it must be ultimately, were such as he did not then even dare to express for fear of being pronounced insane! With the engineering of the Liverpool and Manchester railway, Stephenson entered upon the field of his great fame ; and from 1825 to 1847 he occupied the foremost position of all railway engineers, whether in Britain or on the continent. His son, and his pupils and assistants, spread the fame of his name and the principles of his practice from one end of the world to the other, and con- tinue to do so. Stephenson was a man of iron frame of body and mind, of plain manners, ardent temperament, eminently social habits ; too confi- dent of his powers and too sure of his position to be ambitious ; he unflinchingly pursued his own ends by all means, and seldom if ever failed in accomplishing his objects. He amassed great wealth, partly from his profession; but he was also an extensive coal proprietor, and it is no small portion of his renown that he mainly, on his own account, established the inland coal trade to the metropolis. He died at Tapton house near Chesterfield, aged sixty-seven, on the 12th August, 1848. [L.D.B.G.] STEPNEY, George, an English poet and am- bassador of the reign of James II., 1663-1707. STERBEECK, P., a Flemish botanist, 17th ct. STERLING, John, one of the most indepen- dent and true-hearted thinkers of this age, gener- ally known as an essayist and critic, was born at Karnes castle, in the Isle of Bute, in 1806. His father, Captain Edward Sterling, was a native of Waterford in Ireland, but was descended from a Scotch officer one of those who acquired military distinction in the army of Gustavus Adolphus. Captain Sterling also was a political writer, and editor of the Times newspaper. From 1810 to 1814 he resided in Glamorganshire, where his son became deeply imbued with that love of nature, and the ' metaphysical and religious ' value of its scenes, which is so conspicuous in his letters and essays. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the family went to reside in France, and barely man- aged to effect their escape in the following year, when the exile of Elba returned to reassert his lights; the family then settled in London. In 1824 John Sterling was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, and remained there till 1827, when lie left without taking a degree, but returned for that purpose in 1833, on resolving to enter the Church of England. Here he studied the classics under Archdeacon Hare, and though he did not become a thorough scholar, it is pleasant to read the con- fession of his old teacher that he was ' something better' in the mastery which he obtained over the spirit of the old Greek poetry and philosophy. In the interval between leaving college and taking orders, Sterling became a contributor to the Athenaeum and other periodicals, and pursued his literary avocations in London, under the influence of such men as Coleridge and Wordsworth, not to 737 3B STE forget his friends Carlyle and Frederick Maurice ; in 1830 he married the sister of the lady who be- came the wife of the latter. The connection of Sterling with the church as curate of Herstmon- ceux, of which place his friend, Archdeacon Hare, was rector, lasted no more than about six months, but in this period he devoted himself with reli- gious zeal to all the arduous duties of a country curate ; his health meanwhile giving way, and his convictions gradually ripening towards a more universal faith than that of the church articles. Before taking the curacy he had resided some two years at St. Vincent, in the West Indies, and after leaving it he once more travelled under more ge- nial skies than those of England, a measure ren- dered necessary by his tendency to consumption. These travels extended, by easy stages and long halts, from the south of France to Italy and Madeira, and were varied by his occupations as an author, but still more by the restless energy of his mind as a thinker, engaged in the deep problems opened up by the study of German literature and the Bible no longer to him a mere historical nar- rative but a great symbol, the interpretation of which none of his masters could furnish. About 1841 he published his tragedy of ' Strafford,' which had been to him a labour of love, the one in which his genius ' swam the lightest,' but it fell still-born from the press. In 1843 his sensitive frame, already weakened by the malady which consumed him, re- ceived a severe shock from the death of his mother and his wife within a dav or two of each other, and he breathed his last, kindly watched in his last illness by Mrs. Maurice, in the spring of 1844. Having appointed Archdeacon Hare and Mr. Carlyle his literary executors, the former published a collec- tion of his works, to which a memoir was prefixed, in 1848 ; and the latter his picturesque and affect- ing ' Life of John Sterling,' in 1851. We need not dwell on the distinction between these two works, the one lamenting his earnest strivings to- wards the truth as a deplorable fall, and the other so graphically sketching the ' victorious believer and the victorious doer.' We may add, however, one preg- nant sentence from the pen of Sterling himself: ' The quantity of inwardness, faith, and power, which has come before me in my own generation, cannot, I think, pass away into the Invisible with- out helping towards some great outward revolu- tion. But ! how perilous will be the position of any man who may stand forth as the leader and standard-bearer in such a movement! For how small and weakly charged were the " lofts of storied thunder" even in Luther's time, which the prince of this world could set loose against him, com- pared with those of modern civilization and philo- sophy, which would be just as fierce in their way as were, of old, the papacy and the empire.' [E.R.J STERN, J., a Bavarian painter, 1698-1746. STERN, T., a Dutch engraver, 17th century. STERNE, or STEARNE, John, a learned Irish physician, nephew to the famous Usher, at the time of his birth bishop of Meath, was born in that county 1622, and died 1669. He was better known as a theologian than a physician, and has left some learned works. His son, John, succes- sively bishop of Dromore and Clogher, died 1745. STERNE, Laurexce, though born in 1713 at Clomnel, owed his Irish birth, and the passing of STE his childhood in Ireland, to the fact that his fathci the younger son of a Yorkshire squire, was then lieutenant in a marching regiment. Laurence wa educated by his father's kinsmen ; and about 174 a clerical uncle obtained for him a prebend York Cathedral, and the living of Sutton, in tb East Riding. In addition to these preferment! after his marriage in 1741, his wife's family pre sented him to the parish of Stillington. ThereaS the two parishes being adjacent, he continued t perform duty in both, residing at Sutton, amusin himself (in his own words) with ' books, paintin; fiddling, and shooting,' publishing a couple of mons, quarrelling with his clerical brethren, an collecting, by observation and reading, the mat* rials on which his literary fame was to be built. B became celebrated immediately on publishing tl first two volumes of 'Tristram Shandy' in i?5 and his reputation increased till the appearance the ninth and last volume in 1766. The ' Sent mental Journey,' which came out in 1768, wi undoubtedly inferior, but is still the favourite wil many readers. His way of life soon ceased to b even outwardly, respectable. His publication two volumes of Sermons in 1760 was a pecunia speculation. In the same year he obtained anoth Yorkshire living; but his clerical duties seem have occupied from this time very little of r attention. He wandered about, enjoying his not riety in London, and making two continental ion nies, the one into France, the other into Ital The lightmindedness so evident in his works, not least so in the posthumous ' Letters,' edit by his daughter, led him into dissolute habits,- which improvidence was the least serious. } died, in lodgings in London, in 1768, leaving 1 family quite unprovided for. The moral tend* of Sterne's writings is unquestionably low ; \ freedom of plagiarism, especially from Rabel and Moliere, is audacious ; but his airy and grace humour is admirable, and some of his characb are among the most natural and original of comic portraits. \V.{ STERNE, Richard, a native of Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, who attended Laud at his exfl^ tion in the character of chaplain, and after restoration became archbishop of York. He m a treatise on Logic, and some Latin poems, besw |i his share in Walton's Polyglott Bible ; 1596-168 STERNHOLD, Thomas, an English scha and poet, whose principal claim to remembran J his share in the versification of the Psalms, d. 1W STESICHORUS, a Greek poet, 640-560 bxJ STETTEN, Paul Von, a Ger. historian, 1786. His brother, of the same names, 1 731-181 STEUART-DENHAM, Sir Jas, a Scottish I on political economy, grandson of the lord advoci of this name, born at Edinburgh 1712, died 17*1 STEVENS, A., an English architect, died 19] STEVENS, George Alexander, a sstM and humorous writer, originally known as a^H ling player, author of ' The History of Pope^B a novel, 'Lectures upon Heads,' and a nunrj' of songs, the most popular of which was *?w Storm ;' died 1784. STEVENS, R, J. S., a composer, 1753-183' j STEVENS, William, a tradesman of LoM cousin to Bishop Home, and distinguished fj him by his theological writings, 1732-1807. 733 STE I STEVENS. W. B., a divine and poet, 1755-1800. STEVENSON, Sir John Andrew, a famous musical composer, born in Ireland 1759, died 1833. His most popular work is the arrangement of the Irish melodies, adapted to the words of Moore, and executed in conjunction with him. He also wrote for the stage, and composed many anthems and glees. STEVENSON, John Hall, a clever satirist and humorous writer, described by Laurence Sterne, who was his intimate friend, in the character of Eugenius in Tristram Shandy, author of ' Crazy Tales,' ' Fables for Grown Gentlemen,' ' Lyric Epistles,' and ' Moral Tales,' 1718-1785. STEVENSON, Robert, a civil engineer, the :hief points of whose character were great sagacity, Fortitude, and perseverance. In private life he was i man of sterling worth, who consecrated to bene- icial ends every talent committed to his trust. 8orn at Glasgow in June, 1772, the son of a West [ndia merchant, he was, while yet an infant, left atherless, and circumstances conspired to render ;he widow and her onlv son, Robert, by no means well provided for. But the mother's energy over- same these difficulties, and Robert Stevenson re- wived a good elementary education. About 1787 lis mother married Mr. Thomas Smith, an ingeni- us man, who had commenced life as a tinsmith n Edinburgh, but who afterwards successfully im- >roved the mode of illuminating lighthouses, by ubstituting oil lamps with parabolic mirrors for he open coal fires which formerly served as >eacons for the mariner. Stevenson was at the arly age of nineteen intrusted by his step-father srith the superintendence of the erection of the ighthouse on the Little Cumbrae in the Frith f Clyde, and through this connection became, bout 1797, engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Joard, an office which he resigned in 1843, after ving filled its arduous duties for about half a entury. The great work of Stevenson's life, that pon which his reputation as an engineer princi- ally rests, is the Bell Rock lighthouse. To him j due the honour of conceiving and executing, a ower of masonry on the Bell Rock, a situation, un- oubtedly, from the level of the rock, which is overed at every tide, of much greater difficulty lan the Eddvstone. His zeal, ever alive to the ossibility of improving on the conceptions of his reat master, Smeaton, led him to introduce some ivantageous changes in the arrangements of the lasonry of the tower, suggested by the facility of rocuring stones of greater dimensions than Smeaton ad been able to get from the granite quarries of lornwall. Stevenson may, with the stnctest pro- iety, be said to have created the lighthouse sys- u of Scotland, and brought about its present state perfection. In no country has the calopric system f illuminating lighthouses been carried out so per- ctly as in Scotland; and whether we consider the scuracy and beauty of the optical apparatus, the rrangements of the buildings, or the discipline Merved by the light-keepers, we cannot fail to (Cognize the impress of that energetic and Mnprehensive cast of mind which directed the hole. In works of general engineering Stevenson as very extensively engaged in every part of Bri- an, and takes rank with Rennie and Telford in le annals of the profession. Mr. Stevenson died STE on the 12th July, 1850, in the seventy-ninth ver.r of his age. [L.D.B.G.] STEVENSON, W., an antiquarian, died 1821. STEVENSON, William, a clerk in the. record office, known as a miscellaneous writer, 1772-1829. STEVIN, Simon, in Latin Stevinus, a Flemish mathematician, teacher of Prince Maurice, and inspector of the dykes in Holland, died 1633. STEWART, Dugald, born in Edinburgh, 22d November, 1753 ; died at his seat on the Frith of Forth, 11th June, 1828: the eloquent^ disciple of Reid, and chief expounder of the Philosophy of the Scottish School. Appointed, at _ the early age of twenty-one, to succeed his father in the Mathe- matical Chair in the University of Edinburgh, an office honourably filled by him for five years ; he was on the retirement of Dr. Fergusson, elected Professor of Moral Philosophy. The charm of his style and manner was so great, and such the clearness of his exposition, that in a brief time his class-room was crowded by rising Youth from all quarters of the United Kingdom ; and it is not to be denied that in conjunction with Playfair and other celebrated men then in Edinburgh, he contri- buted powerfully to confirm that generous liberality of Thought prevailing in our northern metropolis, when Horner, Lansdowne, Brougham, Russell, &c. lived there as young men. This peculiar influence of his teaching too, was strengthened by personal intercourse with him. Of easy access, a kindly gravity, and much openness, he possessed every quality necessary to attach his pupils : and it is not rare even at this late day, to hear him spoken of with more than admiration. Stewart retained his office until 1810, when, on his retirement, Dr. Thomas Brown was instituted to the Chair. We wish it were possible to account as highly the Metaphysician, as we require to account the Man. His works, indeed, are voluminous, and few au- thors ever had the gift of a warmer, more perspi- cuous or persuasive style. Whatever idea he touches, he unquestionably adorns: nevertheless it cannot be asserted either that Stewart has done much to advance Speculation, or that he had per- sonally attained an adequate grasp of the History of Philosophy, and the place it has occupied in the long development ot Humanity. Reid and he, it must be remembered, stood in very differ- ent positions. Reid was essentially a Discoverer. Whatever the merit or defects of his system, it was a system framed by himself. Stewart, on the other hand, received it as a work accomplished: and, had he possessed the ability of his Master, the Philosophy of the Scottish School would nave grown greater under his hands, and passed on to- wards the condition of a Science. Undoubtedly he improved its phraseology, for instance, for the term 'Principles of Common Sense,' he substituted 'Laws or Elements of Belief;' he strengthened some of its weaker parts, and gave precision to others; and he enriched Reid's account of the Faculties, by much felicitous, and apposite illustra- tion witness his elaborate account of the Laws of Association: but, beyond Reid, he did not advance one hair's breadth : with him, as with his master, Philosophy confined itself to a statement or exa- mination of some fundamental ideas of the Rea- son ; neither attempting to account for them, nor to ascend to their origin, nor to follow them to 739 STE their applications. He left the Scottish School in all vital respects, in the condition in which he fonnd it, ' having,' in the words of Cousin, ' a commencement in psychology, but no regular logic, neither a metaphysic, nor a theodicoea, nor a cosmology a little of morals and politics, but no system.' Stewart's best work that in which alone we discern marks of scientific Thought is his Philosophical Essays; and his worst, is the most famous, viz., the Historical Dissertation in the En- cyclopedia Britannica. It may seem a harsh and presumptuous deliverance, but we have no dread of its being gainsaid that in our higher Philo- sophical Literature, it would be difficult to find a less adequate treatment of so great a theme. From the absence of coherence the absence of any trace of unitv or comprehensive principle, the Disserta- tion is liker the expansion of a commonplace book, than an effort to contemplate the continuous flow of Human Thought. It evinces too, an extraor- dinary defect of sympathy with the whole progress of speculation in modern continental Europe: Stewart manifestly knew nothing of Kant ; and he did not think it necessary to take notice of Spinoza! A singular illustration, surely, how strictly insular, we Scotchmen have been as Thinkers, until within these recent years: and therein a promise that brighter lights, in many ways, will break over our future. Let us conclude in the spirit in which we began, and pay to the memory of Stewart, the tribute owing to a bene- volent, upright, and liberal man of undoubted talent one of the most polished writers of his day, and as fascinating a Teacher as ever occupied a chair in our Metropolitan University. [J.P.N.] STEWART, Matthew, D.D., born at Rothe- say in 1717; died in 1785. A pupil of Robert Sim- son in the College of Glasgow, he early evinced great mathematical talent ; and, having given am- ple evidence alike of his tastes and power, he was called from the living of Roseneath to succeed Maclaurin in Edinburgh in 1747. He discharged the duties of this important office until 1772, when his son, the well-known Scottish metaphy- sician, began to assist him. Like all our British mathematicians of that period, Dr. Stewart was strongly attached to Geometrical Methods; and he evinced his singular command of them in the discovery, while at Roseneath, of the propositions published under the title ' Geometrical Theories,' by his ' Tracts, Physical and Mathematical,' and his ' Propositiones More Veterum Demonstratae :' the latter set of propositions, however, having been discovered by analytical methods, although demonstrated synthetically. The subsequent in- troduction of the Continental analysis mto Bri- tain, greatly diminished the interest at one time attached to such exercitations : but if we mistake not, the discovery of new, general, and very power- ful methods in Geometrical treatment, is about to produce a useful revival of old Tastes. [J.P.N.] STEWART, Robbrt. See Castlereagh. STEWART-DENHAM. See Steuart. STIFEL, Michael, in Latin Stifelins, a Lu- theran divine and mathematician, died 1567. STILES, Ezra, an American divine, president of Yale College, and author of a curious history of three of the regicides who fled to America at the period of the restoration, 1727-171)5. STI STILICHO, Flavius, a Vandal of great genii and bravery, who distinguished himself at tl declining period of the Roman empire and wt advanced to the highest dignities of the state I Theodosius the Great. After serving in the waT he represented that sovereign and sustained tl dignity of the Roman name at the court of Persi tlien ruled by Sapor III., and on his return w; rewarded with the hand of Serena, the einperoi adopted daughter, besides being intrusted, in 39 with" the guardianship of his two sons, Arcadii and Honorius. On the division of the empir Stilicho became virtual governor of the We: the character of first minister to Honorius, i the same power in the East was exercised by I finus, under Arcadius, the other emperor. ' military genius of Stilicho, after this period, exhibited in the reduction of Africa, which had I led into a revolt by Eutropius, the sue Rufinus at the Eastern court, and subsequent the great contests with Alaric and Radaga In the year 403 he routed the former near VeronJ and in 406 put the hosts of the latter to flight, ai I killed their commander. While Stilicho lived!" sustained the fortunes of the Roman name, but was accused of having a secret understanding ] Alaric, and treacherously put to death in The wives and children of 30,000 Germans were in his service were massacred at the time. [E.I J STILL, John, bishop of Bath and Wells, au| | of one of our vile old plays, died 1607. STILLING, John Henry, or Jung-Si ling, a native of Florenburg, in Nassau, where': was born in 1740, remarkable as a philosoptf and miscellaneous writer. Though brought u humble circumstances, he became, by the force I his natural talents, a physician and professor] the university of Strasburg, where he died in 18! j Author of ' Theory of the Human Spirit,' &c. STILLINGFLEET, Dr. Eward, was bor 1635, at Cranborn, Dorsetshire. Being de for the church, he was entered a student John's College, Cambridge, and being ordair 1657, was immediately presented to the : Sutton, Nottinghamshire. During his in this place, he published his ' Origines an apology or defence of revealed religion a t. manifesting so rare a combination of natural and acquired learning, that his reputatic divine spread far and wide. A shower of pre" was rained upon him. He was first a preacher of the Rolls' chapel, then to the" of St. Andrew's, Holborn, lecturer at the " and chaplain in ordinary to king Charles 1685 he published his ' Antiquities of the Church.' In 1688, immediately subsequent revolution, he was promoted to the see of Wd ter ; but, instead of reposing in the indolent < ment of his dignity, he engaged with inc ardour in the pursuits of theological liter! particularly in the composition of some controvert] works against the Socinians, as well as a 'i^H physical discussion with Locke. He died in! His works are comprised in 6 vols, folio. [R. STILPO, a Stoic philosopher, 306 B.C. STIRLING, J., a mathematician, 18th centl STIRLING, William, earl of, a Scottish! matist and poet, whose descendant is the pres 740 STO arlaimant of lands in Nova Scotia, granted to his Ancestor by Charles L, 1580-1640. I STOB.EUS, J., a Greek writer, 5th century. i STOCCADE, N., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. I STOCCHI, F., an Italian astrologer, 1599-1661. I STOCK, Simon, an English monk, who became fceneral of the Carmelites, and is known as an useetic writer, died 1265. I STOCKDALE, P., a Scotch poet, 1736-1811. I STOCKVICH, H., a Dutch painter, 1761-1818. I STOFFLER, or STOEFFLER, John, a Germ, mstronomer, born of poor parents, 1452, died 1531. | STOFFLET, N, a Venetian general, 1751-1796. 1 STOKE, E., a Dutch chronicler, 14th century. I STOLBERG, Frederic Leopold, Count, a "'erman diplomatist and man of letters, 1750-1819. STONE, Edmund, a Scottish mathematician, hose father was gardener to the duke of Argyll; e was patronised by the duke when a discovery as made of his self-acquired learning, but died in overty 1768. STONHOUSE, or STONEHOUSE, Sir James, infidel physician, who became a convert to hristianity, and a religious writer, 1716-1795. STORACE, S., an eminent composer, 1763-96. STORCH, A., a German theologian, 1501-1557. STORCH, H. F. Von, a celebrated political jonomist and statistician, b. in Riga 1766, d. 1835. STORCH, Nicholas, founder of the religious octrines of the anabaptists, was born at Stolberg Saxony, towards the close of the fifteenth cen- iry, and was therefore a young man when Luther mmenced preaching the doctrines of the refor- tion. He went much farther than Luther in scribing ancient authorities, for he denounced external documents and traditions whatsoever, id accepting no book but the Bible, he taught disciples to renounce the study of literature and eology, and trust to the Spirit of God to enlighten eir understandings. He insisted, also, on the jcessity of re-baptism, when that ceremony had sen performed in infancy, on the principle, that was an act of faith, and could not otherwise be ilid. Neither Calvin nor Luther could tolerate ese doctrines, and they became still more hateful the princes of Germany, when political ends, I the doctrine of the community of goods was sociated with them. For years past the poor lf-starved and half-naked serfs of Germany had n accustomed to assemble in great numbers, I with 'Bread and Cheese' inscribed on their nneis, had threatened the complete overthrow of existing state of society. This state of things ced at in another article (Leyden) and it to much bloodshed : at length the elector of ny, at the pressing instance of Luther, banished spiritual guide, m addition to executing their litical in the person of Munzer, 1525. Storch a man of the most amiable disposition, but the ptists of the present day deny all connection his party, to avoid the odium belonging to scenes of turbulence. He died in his retreat Munich, 1530. [K.R.] STORCK, A., a Dutch painter, 1650-1708. STORY, Joseph, an American judge and mas- r of jurisprudence, author of Commentaries on e Conflict of Laws,' 1779-1845. BTOSCH, P., a Germ, antiquarian, 1691-1757. pTOTHARD, Thomas, a distinguished painter STR and designer, whose beautiful compositions have become familiar to the public by the engravings of Collins, Heath, Parker, Cronick, and Medland. He was born in London 1755, and exhibited the earliest proofs of his talent in Bell's edition of the British Poets. The subjects graced by his pencil since then amount in number to many thousands, and they are often marked by that beauty of form and sense of human happiness, which are the highest recommendations of the pictorial art to the popular taste. The ' Procession of the Flitch of Bacon,' the ' Canterbury Pilgrimage,' and the 4 Wellington Shield,' are well known ; died 1834. His son, Charle3 Alfred, an antiquarian draughtsman, author of ' Monumental Effigies of Great Britain,' was born 1787, and accidentally killed 1821. STOW, John, one of our most valued antiqua- rian writers, was the son of a merchant tailor of London, and was born in Comhill about 1525. He quitted his trade when in his fortieth year, and being patronised by Archbishop Parker and Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, devoted his time to antiquarian studies. His first work, published 1565, was ' The Summary of the Chronicles of England,' which was published in an enlarged form, under the title of 'Flores Historiarum,' in 1600. His famous ' Survey of London ' appeared in 1598. Stow lived to beg his daily bread in his eightieth year, and died 1605. STOWELL, William, Scott, Lord, brother of Lord Eldon, civilian and member of the privy council, was born in Durham, 1745. His father was a coal factor in Newcastle, and that town was in hourly expectation of the rebels when his mother approached her confinement ; she was lowered from the walls in a basket, therefore, and conveyed to the other side of the river, at great hazard, where she gave birth to the subject of this notice, and his twin sister Barbara. Having completed his educa- tion at Oxford, Scott was admitted a fellow of that university in 1765; in 1772 he became bachelor of civil law, and in 1773, after his admis- sion as a bencher of the Middle Temple, was elected by the members of convocation to the office of Camden's reader of Ancient Histories. He held this appointment till 1785, and in the interim took the degree of doctor in civil law ; he also made the acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, whom he accompanied to Edinburgh. He now rose from one post of distinction to another, until in 1798, he was ap- pointed judge of the High Court of Admiralty, and a privy councillor. In 1790 he entered parliament as member for one of the pocket boroughs, but in 1801 took a more honourable seat as representative of the university of Oxford, where his exertions had insured a high degree of prosperity and efficiency to the Bodleian Library. He continued to repre- sent the university till he was raised to the peerage on the coronation of George IV. in 1821 ; the office of admiralty judge he retained till 1828, a period of thirty years, honourablv illustrated by the Reports of his decisions, which have been published by Dr. Robinson. Lord Stowell died January 28th, 1836. He was twice married, the second time to a daugh- ter of the famous Admiral Earl Howe. [E.R.] STRABO, a Greek historian and geographer, author of one of the most valuable relics of anti- quity, being a description of nearly every part of 741 STR the world known in his time, namely, the first century of the Christian era. This work is indis- pensable to the elucidation of ancient history. STRADA, Famianus, an Italian priest, histo- rian of the ' Wars in the Netherlands, 1572-1649. STRADA, J., a Flemish painter, 1536-1605. STRADELLA, Alessandro, a Neapolitan, who flourished about the year 1650. He was an excellent composer, singer, and performer on the violin. The romantic incidents in the life of Stra- della have often been narrated, and some years since they were selected as the subject of an opera, the music of which was composed by Von Flotow. He died from wounds inflicted upon him by the stilettos of two Venetian assassins, somewhere about the year 1670. His compositions were chiefly of a miscellaneous character. [J-M-] STRAFFORD, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, victim of his efforts to establish the arbitrary power of Charles I. in England, was the son of Sir William Wentworth, of Wentworth- Woodhouse in Yorkshire, and was born in Chancery Lane, Lon- don, in 1593. He was the eldest of twelve chil- dren, and having succeeded to the estates of his father, was soon after appointed custos rotulorum (keeper of the archives) for the West Riding, and in 1621 became member of parliament for his native county. At the commencement of the reign of Charles I., during the arbitrary administration of Buckingham, Wentworth stood nobly by the rights of the people he even bore imprisonment, the deprivation of his offices, and his tyrannical exclu- sion from parliament : he was among the foremost promoters of the famous Petition of Right: for, said he, ' We must vindicate what ? New things ? No, our ancient, legal, and vital liberties, by setting such a seal upon them as no licentious spirit shall hereafter dare to infringe.' It may seem strange that a man whose political life commenced thus, should leave his party and become the first sacrifice on the altar of freedom, but there are two considerations which explain all such anomalies those of character and circumstance. Strafford was a man of pre-eminent genius, haughty, auda- cious, and fond of power of that stamp who mingle with their nobler qualities a reserved am- bition, and ever hold themselves in readiness, like the couchant lion, to make a magnificent spring upon the object they mark out. Circumstances are the determining cause in such a case, and had Wentworth lived a few years later he might have anticipated the actions of a Cromwell, without his strict virtue ; as it happened, the critical death of Buckingham, who fell by assassination, before the popular cause had gained strength enough to promise much grandeur of success, following quick on recent overtures from the court, provoked the lion to make his spring on what he deemed nobler quarry than the cause he had so long waited on. It was no mean ambition, or obscure contest in which his promotion now involved the renegade, for the smouldering zeal of England for her ancient liberties, began to spread in bright flame, and Pym warned him of his fate, when he attempted to justify his conduct ; with him, beyond all question, the greatest spirit that the king had won to his cause, the question of a manly despotism on the one hand, or a free commonwealth on the other, was now to be debated, and his head was but the first stake in the STR game. _ We shall not consider it necessary to fol- low this great statesman and daring innovator from one employment to another, or note tht measures which brought him to ruin ; all this ii matter of history. In 1640, eight years after hii appointment as lord-deputy of Ireland, he was re> warded with the earldom, and his style changed t< that of lord-lieutenant, but he was now constrain by the king to await the meeting of parliament Charles, at the same time, solemnly assuring bin that ' not a hair of his head should be touched The popular party meanwhile, headed by Pym had prepared their accusation of Laud and Straf ford, and the impeachment was carried up to th bar of the House of Lords, on November 18, 1640 The accumulative evidence, and the well-knowj character of Strafford's designs, could leave n doubt of his intention to accomplish what tb indictment charged him with : ' to subvert th fundamental laws of the realm,' as construed b the parliament ; but the necessary legal evidena under the law of treason, completely failed then and Strafford made such a defence that the com mittee abandoned that mode of procedure, an framed a bill of attainder. Abandoned to bis fat by Charles, Strafford was executed in pursuant of this sentence on the 12th of May, 1641. H Letters, which make two folio volumes, were pnl 1 lished by Dr. Knowles in 1739. It is remarkab that Whitlocke, chairman of the committee t which the impeachment was conducted, thus test fies to the bearing of Strafford when on his trial:-] ' Certainly,' he says, ' never any man acted such part, on such a theatre, with more wisdom, cot] stancy, and eloquence, with greater reason, judj ment, and temper, and with a better grace in all b] words and actions, than did this great and exce j lent person ; and he moved the hearts of all h J auditors, some few excepted, to remorse ai pity.' [E.B STRANGE, Sir John, an English lawver ai { author of Reports, 1696-1754. His son, John,] naturalist and antiquarian, 1732-1799. STRANGE, Sir Robert, one of the most end nent historical engravers of Europe, was born j Pomona, one of the Orkneys, July 14, 1721. Aft| attempting various pursuits, he joined the Prete { der in 1745, and was present at the battle <| Culloden. He afterwards lived by drawing pel traits in Edinburgh, till he married in 1747, wh4 he went abroad, and resided first at Rouen a subsequently at Paris, where he commenced t j study of engraving under Le Bas, and he fina settled as an historical engraver, in London, 1751. His reputation soon extended beyond tf; limits of his own country: he has no superior IM line engraver generally ; he went again abro^H 1760, and though formally excluded from the flfl lish Royal Academy, when established in Lond(^ in 1768 he was successively elected a member ;]j the academies of Rome, Florence, Bologna, Parn I and Paris. He was knighted by George IIL 11 1787, and died July 5, 1792, bequeathing toptl terity many exquisite engravings from some of tj most celebrated Italian pictures. But the pkt| of Strange are far too elaborate to be numero' j they do not amount to sixty altogether : the Bfl| nese masters appear to have been his favourit | but one of his most celebrated works is a fu j I 742 STB ength of Charles I., after Vandyck. Strange is un- iiirpassed in the representation of flesh : a fine Bxample is the Venus of the Tribune, after Titian. Die question of the exclusion of engravers from the academy was one taken up very warmly by Sir Robert, he assumed tbe whole to be personal to limself. Certainly, in the original scheme for the bundation of the academy in 1753, it was designed that two out of the whole number of twenty -four should be engravers. It is gratifying to be able to state, that this standing cause of contention mong English artists has at length been removed: he height to which the dispute was carried at one irae, may be seen in a statement published by Sir Robert Strange himself, 'An Enquiry into the Rise md Establishment of the Royal Academy of Arts. To which is prefixed a letter to the Earl of Bute.'' London, 1775. (Le Blanc, Le Graveur en taitle louce, Part II., Leipzig, 1848 ; Longhi, La Cal- vyraphia, Milan, 1830.) [R.N.W.] STRATO, a Greek epigrammatic poet, presumed contemporary of Septimus Severus, from 193-211. STRATO of Lampsacus, a Greek philosopher, surnamed the physician, or naturalist, from the naterialistic character of his system. He was the successor of Theophrastus, and taught Ptolemy Philadelphus in Egypt. STRAUCH, F. R., a Sp. theologian, 1760-1823. STRAUCH, J., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1612-1679. STRAUCHIUS, jEgidius, a German mathe- matician and controversial divine, 1632-1682. STRAUSS, Jans Janszoon, otherwise John Struys, a Dutch traveller, author of Memoirs of lis Life, and of his journies through Muscovy, Tartary, Persia, and the East Indies. His travels late from 1647 to 1673. Died 1694. STREATER, R., an English painter, 1624-80. STRICKLAND, E., distinguished as a traveller aid naturalist, grandson of Sir George Strickland f Bayntun, in Yorkshire, and of the celebrated Dr. Cart wright, was born in Yorkshire 1811. His vels in Asia, followed by the publication of >apers on geology and ornithology, date in 1835. n 1847 he began his editorial labours upon the soology and geology of Professor Agassiz for the say Society. He succeeded Dr. Buckland as pro- 'essor of geology at Oxford, and was killed oy a ailway accident in September, 1853. STRIGELIUS, Victorious, a Ger. divine and hilosopher, period of the reformation, 1524-1569. STROEMER, Martin, a Swedish professor of latural philosophy and astronomy, 1707-1770. STROGONOFF, Count Alexander Von, ;he Maecenas of arts and letters at St. Petersburg, rn about 1750, died 1811. His nephew, Paul, military officer and statesman, died 1814. STROZZI, a Florentine name, which has been lustrated by many noble characters as states- len, warriors, and men of letters. The savants md poets are Pallas, chief of the university, md a devoted friend of learning, 1372-1462. Tito JTespasiano, a Latin poet and statesman, 1422- L501. Ercole, hia son, author of a poem on the Sreek language, and a friend of Bembo, born L471, assassinated 1508. Francisco Di Soldo, translator of Xenophon and Thucydides, known Dm 1550 to 1563. Ciriaco, or Chirioo, pro- fessor of philosophy and Greek at Bologna, 1504- 1665. Laurlntia, his sister, a nun, and author STR of festival hymns in Latin, 1514-1591. Giam- battista, an elegant writer, who was invited to Rome by Urban VIII., and had apartments in the Vatican, died 1634. Guilio, author of a fine epic poem on the origin of Venice, died 163C. Pietro, secretary of briefs under Paul V., and afterwards professor of philosophy at Pisa, 1575- 1640. Bernardo, surnamed // Cappucino and Ilprete Genovese, a painter, 1581-1644. Nicolo, a tragic writer, died 1654; and Giacomo, a poet and dramatist, flourished at Venice, 1583-1660. The public characters are those following : STROZZI, Filippo, a Florentine senator, born 1488, and allied to the Medici by his marriage with Clarice, niece of Leo X., famous in history for his attempt to expel that family from the republic. He was taken prisoner, and anticipated the public death reserved for him by self-destruction, 1538. His sons went to France, and engaged in the ser- vice of that state against Charles V., who pro- tected the Medici. Pietro, general of the French galleys and marshal, was killed at the siege of Thionville 1558. Leo, his brother, was chief of the forces sent to the aid of Mary Stuart ; he was killed in Italy 1554. Filippo, son of Pietro, born at Venice 1541, became colonel of the French guards, and distinguished himself at Montcontour and Rochelle ; he was wounded in a fight with the Spanish fleet off the island of St. Michael, and was then thrown overboard, though living, by order of the admiral, Santa Cruz, 1582. STRUDEL, P., a Tyrolese painter, 1660-1717. STRUENSEE, Adrian, a theologian and asce- tic writer, minister at Halle, in Saxony, 1708-1791. His eldest son, Carl August Von Struensee, a distinguished economist, tactician, mathema- tician, and statesman, 1735-1806. His younger son is the subject of the following notice. STRUENSEE, John Frederic, Count, whose fate is connected with that of the hapless princess, Matilda Caroline, sister of George III , was born at Halle in 1737, and became physician to Christian VII., king of Denmark, in 1768. The marriage of Christian had disappointed the ambi- tious hopes of the queen dowager, Julia Maria, who had hitherto been able to retain her influence at court, and had calculated on the succession of her son, Prince Frederic; she became, therefore, the mortal enemy of Matilda, who found herself neglected .by the king, and after a long pleasure excursion, in which he was accompanied by Stru- ensee, virtually separated from him. The first circumstance leading to any intimacy between Matilda and Struensee was the inoculation of her child, from which time she appears to have con- certed with him the counter intrigues which led to the ruin of both. He first became governor of the prince, then counsellor of the conferences and reader to the king ; his friend and firm coadjutor, at the same time, Count Brandt, being appointed director of the court spectacles. The imbecility of the king favoured any enterprise, however rash, and Struensee, once in action, contemplated no- thing short of a complete revolution in the state, by which the aristocracy was to be abased, and the people gratified with a free press and many useful reforms. All this was accomplished in 1771, and the adventurer became secret minister with the title of count ; having, however, a powerful party STU tinned the peace till 1399, when the succession o Henry IV. to the throne of England led to th renewal of hostilities ; died 1406. He was sue ceeded by his son, James, whose successors al bore the same name, the fifth of the line becom ing father of the unhappy Queen of Scots. Se ' STR of the nobles, headed by the queen dowager and Count Rantzau, opposed to hiin. Tins party be- gan by blackening the character of Matilda, who had been reconciled to the king by the influence of Struensee, and as scandal is always palatable to those whose conduct would most merit its enven- omed shafts, the press was set in motion against ' James, Mary. The other kings of this bona I the authors of its freedom. In fine, the same de- , were James the Sixth of Scotland and First c I plorable weakness that had enabled Struensee to ! England, Charles I., Charles II., and James II | effect his rash enterprise, was now used to his de- j by whose deposition in 1688 the Stuarts wer struction. Late one night in January, 1772, the finally expelled the throne. The son of the last named, James Francis Edward, called th Elder Pretender, was acknowledged king by Lou XIV., under the title of James III., in 1701, an in 1719 married the daughter of John Sobiesk conspirators suddenly forced their way to th king's apartment, persuaded him that he was about to be assassinated, and procured his order for the arrest of Struensee, his friend Brandt, and the queen. The latter was sleeping in her cham- ber at four in the morning, when Rantzau entered without ceremony and made her his prisoner, and it is well known that her life was only saved by the presence of the English fleet, by which she was conveyed to Germany. The charge against them was that of conspiracy against the state, aggravated by adultery. Struensee and Brandt were beheaded on the 28th of April, 1772, and four years after Matilda, not then twenty-five years of age, expired in Zell. [E.R.] STRUTT, Joseph, an artist and antiquarian writer, born at Springfield, in Essex, 1749, died in London 1802. Having been apprenticed to Ryland, the engraver, he united the study of antiquities to his profession, and produced the following valuable works: ' The Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England,' 1773 ; ' Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits, &c, of the English, from the Arrival of the Saxons to the Reign of Henry VIII.,' 1774- 1776; Chronicle of England,' 1777-1778 ; 'Bio- graphical Dictionary of Engravers,' 1785-1786; ' A Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of the People of England.' 1796-1799 ; and that most favourite of all his works, ' The Sports and Pas- times of the People of England,' 1801. STRUVE, George Adam, in Latin Struvius, a Ger. jurisconsult, 1619-1692. His son, Burck- hard Gotthelf, professor of history, 1672-1738. STRUYS. See Strauss. STRY, A. Van, a Dutch painter, 1755-1824. STRYPE, John, an indefatigable compiler of works relating to ecclesiastical history and bio- graphy, was born at Stepney, of German extrac- tion, 1643, and became rector of Low Layton, in Essex, about 1669. It was here, during a sixty years' incumbency, that he compiled his valuable works, the chief of which are his ' Ecclesiastical Me- morials,' the publication of which was completed in 1721 ; his ' Annals of the Reformation,' pub- lished from 1709 to 1731 ; and his ' Lives ot the Archbishops Cranmer, Parker, Grindall, and Whit- gift.' In the latter part of his life he became lec- turer at Hackney ; died 1737. STUART, the royal house of Great Britain after the union of Scotland. The first of the name was the only child of Walter, the Steward of Scotland, and his wife Marjory, daughter of King Robert Bruce ; he was born 1316 ; commanded the second division of the Scottish army at the battle of Hali- don, 19th July, 1333; concluded the treaty of Perth with Edward III., 1335 ; succeeded David II. under the title of Robert II. 1371, died 1390. His son, Robert III., reigned after him, and con- king of Poland ; he made some vain attempts t recover the kingdom, and died at Rome in 176; He resigned his pretensions to his son, Cm arm- Edward, born 1721, who fought gallantly for tl throne of his ancestors, and was defeated at Cu loden 1746 ; died at Rome 1788. The last of tl Stuarts was his brother, Henry Benedict, wl entered the church after the disasters of 1745, ar became titular cardinal of York ; on the death 1 1 Prince Charles, however, he assumed the vain tit j of Henry IX. The invasion of Italy by the Fren( I republic soon after, compelled him to seek safei in Venice, and he was there supported by a pensk j from the English crown. Died 1807. STUART, Arabella. See Seymour. STUART, Sir Charles, fourth son of Lo: | Bute, the favourite of George III., employed as j military officer beginning of last war, 1753-1801 J STU ART, Daniel, brother-in-law of Sir Jam 1 Mackintosh, many years editor and proprietor j the ' Morning Post' and the ' Courier,' 1766-184 1 STUART, Gilbert, a Scottish historian ai j miscellaneous writer, Edinburgh, 1742-1786. STUART, James, descended from the house Moray, and known as a partizan of the Whig was born at Duneam in 1776, and became a writ j to the signet in 1798. The chief event in 1 1 career was a fatal duel with Sir A. Boswell, & I of the famous biographer and friend of Dr. Join I son, which took place in 1822. Stuart being t victor, w r as tried for murder, but acquitted. 1835, when Lord Melbourne became premier, m was in London editing the ' Courier ' newspapt and was rewarded for his supporting the gover ment by the office of inspector of factories ; d. 184 STUART, James, commonly called ' Atheni j Stuartf was born in London, of Scotch parents, I 1713, and prosecuted his famous pedestrian travt in the period from 1742 to 1755. His ' Antiqi ties of Athens,' a work of high value for its pain taking research and truthfulness, appeared | 1762 ; died 1788. STUART, John, a Scottish antiquarian a j professor of Greek at Aberdeen, author of an ' A count of Marischal College and University,' * T'l Sculptured Pillars in the Northern Counties I Scotland,' and 'Observations upon the Vario : Accounts of the Progress of the Roman Arms Scotland,' 1751-1827. STUBBE, H., a learned writer, 1631-1676. STUBBS, G., an English divine, 17th centur j STUBBS, G., a disting. painter, 1724-1806. ' j STUBBS, or STUBBE, John, a sturdy purit and political writer, lived about 1541-1600. 744 ft. GLW-wr?ums Q^tofo&z STTJ i STUCKIUS, J. W., a Swiss divine, 1542-1607. ! STUKELEY, William, a famous antiquarian, born at Holbech, in Lincolnshire, 1687, died 1765. I His works are ' Itinerarium Curiosum,' or an j j Account of the Antiquities and Curiosities on his |Travels through Great Britain,' published 1724; B Pataographia Sacra, or Discourses on the Monu- ments of Antiquity that Relate to Sacred His- tory,' 1736; an 'Account of Stonehenge,' 1740, and some others. ' STUBE, Steno, called ' the Elder,' administra- tor of the government of Sweden, was the son of [the statesman, Gustavus Anundson Sture, by Bridget, half-sister of Charles Canuteson. The (historical events in which all the Stures figured unark the period of the union of the three king- jdoms, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, as effected my Margaret of Waldemar. Charles Canuteson, installed king in defiance of Christian I. of Den- park, expired in 1470. and Steno Sture, already Known for a ' skilful, cautious, and free-minded lord, and therewithal prosperous in his designs,' received the government at his death, with the counsel never to strive after the regal title, the assumption of which, by Charles, had brought nnany disasters upon the kingdom. Steno Sture was the man of the people, and the chief votes for his election were those of the peasants and burgesses ; few of the lords followed his banner. In the middle of 1471, Christian appeared at Stockholm with a fleet of seventy snips, and Steno advanced to the relief of the capital with about ten thousand men ; the strength pf the Danish army was about the same, and it was posted on a sandy height, called the Brunke- perg, outside the town. Here the battle for the independence of Sweden was fought, on the 11th pf October, and the Swedes gained a hard won victory, as mav be judged from the fact that no less than five hundred of the enemy fell around |the Danebrog or standard of Christian, who uitted Sweden, and made no farther attempts st it. The wise administration of the king- by Steno Sture now secured to Sweden a succession of happy years, and in 1477 he ded the university of Upsala. His later years ere disturbed by the invasion of Finland by ia, the accidental burning of Stockholm, the e, the failure of crops, and finally, by the vfval of the Danish claims under King John. All these circumstances combined to deprive Steno Sture of his power in 1497, but he regained it in 1501, and again carried matters with a high hand. He died by poison, probably administered by the physician of the Danish queen, in 1503. [E.R.] STURE, Suanto Nilson, successor of the preceding, was joined in the government.of Sweden by a warrior priest named Hemming Gadd, who was ' oftener seen at the head of an army or a fleet jthan at the altar.' Suanto is described as a val- iant warrior of a bounteous and cheerful disposi- tion. It was said of him proverbially that no one was admitted into his service who was observed to prink before the blow of a battle-axe, and that he would rather strip himself of his clothes than puffur a fellow-soldier to go unrewarded. He teems to have been hail fellow, well met,' with W>e peasantry, and made a gallant stand with them jagainst the pretensions of John, king of Denmark. 745 STL- He was marching against Prince Christian, son of John, when he expired suddenly in 1512. His administration had been one prolonged warfare with the Danes, and he succeeded in drawing into his alliance the Hanse Towns of Germany. His death was followed, a year later, by that of King John, who was succeeded by the cruel tvrant, Christian II. [E.R.] STURE, Steno SuAnteson, son and successor of the preceding Suanto Sture, and ' the noblest and most chivalrous of his family,' was elected administrator in defiance of the Danish faction, one of whom was run through at the feast in the castle of Stockholm, on that occasion. In 1516, the ambitious prelate Gustavus Trolle, connived at the revival of the Danish claims under Christian, and that invader was defeated by Sture at the battle of Brenn-Kirk, near Stockholm, 22d July, 1518. In this battle the Swedish banner was carried by a young noble, Gustavus Vasa, destined to be the avenger of his country, and the founder of a dynasty of kings. In the beginning of 1520, the Danish army made a new invasion, and a battle was fought on the ice of lake Assundun in West Goth- land. Steno was mortally wounded, and being car- ried out of the battle, died in his sledge while has- tening across the ice to Stockholm, where his wife, Christina Gyllenstierna, continued the resistance with great heroism. The Swedes, however, were routed, and the coronation of Christian was cele- brated by that 'massacre of Stockholm,' which makes one of the bloodiest chapters of history. Such were the results at which the policy of Mar- garet of Waldemar had arrived; aggravated, how- ever, by the bigotry of a dark and ambitious super- stition assuming the name of religion. These events possess more than the interest of old annals. The Stures of Sweden carried on the bat- tle of freedom and the Christian faith till the Gus- tavuses arose, to whose great victories we owe at this hour the peaceful possession of the Bible in Europe. [E.R.] STURGEON, William, a great discoverer in electro-magnetism and galvanism, was born at Whittington, in Lancashire, 1783. He was ap- prenticed to a shoemaker, and his career exhibits a striking example of the distinction that is some- times reached under the most difficult circum- stances, arising from a deficient education and social position. His experiments and works hav- ing led to his general recognition as a man of high science, Mr. Sturgeon was appointed professor of experimental philosophy in the military academy at Addiscombe : died 1850. STURGES, John, a theologian, died 1807. STURM, James, a German diplomatist, whose protest against the exclusion of the deputies of the reformed from the diet of Spires, in 1519, led to the appellation of 'Protestants,' was born at Strasburg 1489. He was employed in several em- bassies, and contributed materials towards Slei- dan's History of the Reformation; died 1555. STURM, John, in Latin Sturmius, called on account of his great learning the German Cicero, author of several original works and translations, Strasburg, 1507-1589. STURM, or STURMIUS, John Christopher, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Altorf, author of several works in physics, SUD 1635-1703. His son, Leonard Christopher, an engineer and writer on architecture, 1669-1719. To the same family belongs Christopher Chris- tian Sturm, a pastor at Hamburgh, one of whose works has been translated into most European languages; and is known in English under the title of ' Reflections on the Works of God,' born at Augsburg 1740, died 1786. STURT, John, a London engraver, 1658-1730. STURZ, H. P., a German writer, 1736-1776. STYLE, W., a writer on law, 1603-1679. SUARD, Jean Baptiste Antoine, an elegant writer, secretary to the Fr. Academy, 1733-1817. SUAREZ, F*., a Spanish theologian, 1548-1617. SUAREZ, J. M., an Ital. antiquary, died 1677. SUBLEYRAS, Peter, a French painter, taught by his father, Matthew, and by Rival, 1699-1749. SUBTERMANS, or SUSTERMANS, Justus, a portrait and hist, painter of Antwerp, 1597-1681. SUCHET, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, one of Napoleon's generals, was born at Lyons 1772, and rose to distinction in the wars waged by the republic in Italy. In 1800 he was major- general, and in 1805 began his career in the Spanish peninsula, where he rose to the command of one division of the army, and obtained his ducal honours. He became a peer of France after the restoration, and died 1826. SUCKLING, Sir John, a poet and courtier of the period of James I., was born at Whitton, in Middlesex, in 1609, and became the friend and companion of such men as Falkland and Devereux. At the period of the rebellion he displayed his loyalty and love of show by spending 12,000 in equipping a troop of one hundred horse, who proved too fine to De good for much in the field. Another trait of his character was exhibited by his endeavour to rescue Strafford, for which he was obliged to fly to France, where he died prematurely in 1641. He was an elegant writer, an accom- plished scholar, and a great wit. SUDAN, J. N., archivist of Lyons, 1761-1827. SUE, Jean Joseph, father and son, French surgeons, the former 1710-1792. Pierre, a ne- phew of the elder, author of a 4 History of Gal- vanism,' 1739-1816. SUENO, three kings of Denmark, the first reigned 985-1014. The second, his grandson, re- ceived the crown of that country to the prejudice of Harald, king of Norway, 1047, died 1074. The third, usurped the throne after assassinating Canute V., 1147, and was killed in battle with Waldemar, 1157. SUERKER III., king of Sweden from 1192-1210. SUETONIUS, Caius Tranquillus, a Roman advocate, who obtained the office of tribune through the influence of his friend, Pliny the Younger, and was afterwards secretary to Trajan. He is now known as an historian and miscellaneous writer, by his 'Lives of the Twelve Caesars,' and his 'Notices of Grammarians, Rhetoricians, and Poets,' still extant. SUETONIUS-PAULINUS, a Roman general, who became governor of Britain, and vanquished Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, 59. SUETT, Richard, a low comedian of great humour, and supposed to be inimitable in his'line. He was a native of London, and a choir boy in St. Paul's cathedral. He made his first appearance SUL on the stage at the Haymarket theatre, while yet very young; but afterwards sought practice in th. provinces, and particularly at York, where hij acquired some reputation. In 1781 he appearec] at Drury Lane, and became famous in coined' and broad farce. Among the parts for which hi was celebrated were Robin, Endless, and ])ich Gossip. He died in 1805 at the age of forty seven, habits of intemperance having led to hi: early death. [J.AjB SUEUR, Eustache Le, was born at M& Didier in 1617, and became the pupil of Siinoi Vouet at Paris, but by the aid of some of Marc antonio's prints after Raphael, and soni. pictures of that great painter in France, he deve j loped a style superior to that of any of his contera J poraries. His celebrated series of twenty-two larg Eictures, from the life of St. Bruno, now in th ouvre, was painted before his thirtieth year ; the* I were originally painted on wood in the cloister o I the Carthusians at Paris, but were transferred t canvas in 1766. Le Sueur died in 1655, in th j thirty-eighth year of his age. Considering his coir 1 paratively short life, his works are very numerom I and most of them are on a large scale : they hav I been well engraved by the Massards, G. Andrani and the two Picarts. His style was grand in design l and he excelled in composition, but he was deficien I both in colour and in chiaroscuro. The more show j style of Lebrun obscured the reputation of L I Sueur during his lifetime, but he now holds de i servedly a much higher place than his more success j ful rival. He is sometimes styled the FrencJ Raphael. In composition, in character, and in th I disposing of draperies, he was equal to the greatesl of the Italians. (Felibien, Entretiens sur les v'u #c.,desplus excellent Peintres, &c; D'Argenvilki Abrege de la vie des Peintres j Supp. to Penn 1 Cyclopaedia.) [R.N/W SUEUR, J. Le, a French protestant, d. 1681. | SUEUR, Peter Le, a French wood engravei-H 1636-1716. Nicholas, his nephew, 1690-1 ."64 J SUFFREN, J., a French Jesuit, 1565-1641. I SUFFRENSAINT-TROPEZ, Peter Andre*! De, one of the most dist. naval officers produce I by France, served under De Grasse, 1726-1788. I SUGER, the Abbe, a French statesman, tim f of Louis VII. and Louis Le Gros, 1082-1152. I SUHM, P. F., a Danish historian, 1728-1798. SUICER, or SCHWEITZER, John GaspM a Swiss theologian and Hellenist, 1620-l^H His son, J. Henry, a theologian and cominen j I tator on the Bible, 1644-1705. SUIDAS, a Greek lexicographer, who is sub J posed to have lived about the 11th century. Hill work is highly valuable for its details of literar ! J history, and its excerpta from lost authors. SULLA. See Sylla. SULIVAN, Sir Richard Joseph, a membe \ of parliament, and employe of the East Indij Company, author of ' Analysis of the Politic* History of India,' died 1806. SULLIVAN, John, an American general an j j member of Congress, afterwards a judge of Ne*1| Hampshire, 1741-1795. His brother, JajmI governor of Massachusets, author of ' Observat^M on the Government of the United States,' and fll ' Dissertation on the Constitutional Liberty offlH Press,' 1741-1808. 746 SUL SULLY, H., an English watchmaker, d. 1728. SULLY, Maurice De, bishop of Paris, cele- brated as a preacher, and for having laid the first stone of tlie cathedral, 1160-1196. Eudes, his successor, 1197-1208. SULLY, Maximiliex De Bkthune, duke of Sully, bom 13th December, 1560, was the second son of Francis de Bethune, baron of Rosny, a French protestant noble of high lineage, but impoverished patrimony. Young Maximilien Rosny was taken at the age of twelve to the court of Henry of Navarre, | (afterwards Henry IV. of France,) then in his twen- tieth year, and was solemnly commanded by his father to live and die with the royal master, to whom he was then assigned. Rosny accompanied Henry to Paris and narrowly escaped perishing in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. When the young king of Na- varre escaped from Paris, and renewed the armed resistance of the Huguenots against their catholic persecutors, young Rosny was with him, and be- came, while yet in boyhood, a captain of proved courage and skill. During the nineteen years of civil war, which elapsed before Henry was ac- knowledged king of France, Rosny rendered him the most eminent services, not only by valour and condnct in the field, but by his honesty and can- dour as an adviser, and also by the genius, as a financier and a statesman, which developed itself in the young noble, during the struggles and vicissitudes of this stormy portion of his chivalrous master's career. When the civil wars were at last ended, and Henry obtained undisputed possession of the crown, the internal affairs of the king- dom were in the most deplorable condition. There was the bitterest animosity of sect against sect. Agriculture, trade, and foreign commerce had suf- fered equally from the lawless violence of the ng factions ; the finances of the crown eply, and as it seemed irretrievably embarrassed ; and the resources of the state were dilapidated and apparently destroyed. Rosny now acted as the king's chief minister in reorganizing _ e kingdom out of the shipwreck of intestine strife and national bankruptcy. He was indefatigable searching out and redressing the abuses that d grown up in every department of the adminis- tration ; he investigated the origin and proper character of each branch of the revenue, and he personally examined the productive and commer- cial capabilities of the various districts and towns. e studied the modes of collecting the taxes and er imposts, that might be most lucrative to the , and least oppressive to the subject. The ernes, which he thus cautiously and wisely framed, were put into execution by him with equal firmness and skill ; and having found, when he Undertook the management of the French finances 1597. an empty treasury, an increasing national and an over-burdened and discontented po- pulation, he left in 1611 a surplus revenue, a large accumulation of treasure, and satisfaction and prosperity in every class of the community. It : not only as a financial reformer that he served king and his country. He was Henry's coun- cilor in all the king's great measures of the reign ^th regard to foreign affairs, and also in those hy hich liberty of conscience and full rights of citi- enship were guaranteed to the Huguenots, and by ~hich the effective administration of the law and SUT the maintenance of order and tranquillity were secured. He was liberally rewarded by his sove- reign with wealth and honours, and in 1606 was made duke de Sully, and a peer of France. After Henry's assassination in 1610 Sully retained his offices for a short time under Louis XIIL, but finding his influence decline and his counsels slighted, he retired from the court. Part of the occupation of Sully's after life was the composition of his well-known and valuable Memoirs. He died December 22, 1641. [E.S.C.] SULPICIA, a Roman poetess, 90 b.c. SULPICIUS, Gallus. See Gaixus. SULPICIUS -LEMONIA-RUFUS,Servius, a Roman lawyer, and friend of Cicero, 106-43 b.c. SULPICIUS, Rufus, a Roman orator, born 124 b.c, became tribune 88 ; he was decapitated by Sylla, as a partizan of Marius. SULPICIUS-SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical his- torian of the 5th century, author of a ' Life of St. Martin of Tours,' and an ' Ecclesiastical History.' SULZER, J. G., a Swiss writer, 1720-1779. SUMAROKOFF, Alexander Petrowitsch, a dramatic wr., poet, and fabulist of Moscow, con- sidered the founder of the Russian drama, 1727-77. SUMMONTE, J. A., a Neapolitan historian of the city and kingdom of Naples, who was rewarded for his labours by a persecution, and died 1602. SURITA, or ZURITA, Jerome, a Spanish historian and secretarv to the Inquisition, 1512-80. SURIN, J. J., a French Jesuit, 1600-1665. SURIUS, L., an ascetic writer, 1522-1578. SURREY. See Howard. SUSARION, an ancient Greek actor, supposed to be the inventor of comedy. SUSON, B. H., a French ascetic, died 1366. SUSSEX, Augustus Frederick, duke of, sixth son of George III., was born 1773. He married the Lady Augusta Murray, second daughter of the earl of Dunmore, in defiance of the royal marriage act, and though the marriage was pronounced void, they continued to live together till the lady's death in 1830. The chil- dren of this marriage were Sir Augustus D'Este, since dead, and a daughter, who became the wife of Sir Thomas Wilde, Lord Truro. The duke died in 1843, and was buried, by his own will, at Kensall Green Cemeterv. SUSSMITCH, J. P., a Germ, divine, 1705-67. SUTCLIFFE, or SOUTCLIFFE, Matthew, dean of Exeter, and founder of a learned estab- lishment at Chelsea, which proved the origin of the present military asylum, 1582-1629. SUTTON, Richard, one of the founders of Brazennose College, Oxford, and steward of Sion monastery, near Brentford, known 1490-1522. SUTTON, Thomas, founder of the Charter- house, was an accomplished English gentleman, and merchant, born at Knaith, in Lincolnshire, 1532. In 1569, being already secretary to the earl of Warwick, he was appointed master-general of the ordnance at Berwick, and greatly distin- guished himself in the northern rebellion, which broke out under the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland. In 1573, he commanded one of the batteries which compelled the castle of Edin- burgh to surrender to the English ; and the same year went to the assistance of the Regent Morton as one of the chiefs of a body of 1,500 men, sent 747 SUV into Scotland by Elizabeth. In 1582, Sutton married a relative of the earl of Warwick, and soon after commenced those speculations as a con- tractor, merchant, and armed privateer, by which he acquired his immense fortune. This was greatly augmented, however, by the value of the coal dis- covered in two manors which he had purchased of the bishop of Durham. After the loss of his wife in 1602, Sutton began to change his manner of living, and being deeply impressed with a sense of religion, he finally purchased the dissolved mon- astery of the Chartreuse, which he endowed most nobly with the bulk of his property : the purchase money alone was no less than 13,000, in those times a much greater sum than at present. He died at Hackney, in 1611, and his remains were deposited in a vault prepared for them under the chapel of the Charter-house. After his death, the nephew of Sutton, though munificently provided for, sought to invalidate the foundation of this charity, and the history of his attempt is supposed to implicate Lord Bacon as a particeps criminis. Like manv of our noble charities, the administra- tion of the Charter-house is said to have been marked by great abuse, the augmented value of the endowment being much more largely shared in by the officials and the school than the needy brethren; very recently, however, a vindication has been published by the present master, Archdeacon Hale, entitled, 'Some Ac- count of the Early History and Foundation of the Hospital.' [E.R.] SUVEE, J. B., a Flemish painter, 1743-1807. SUVENHUSIUS, William, professor of He- brew and Greek at Amsterdam, editor of an edition of the Mischna, with Notes, and a Latin version, published 1703. SUWARROW, or SOUVAROFF, Peter Alexis Vasilievitch, Count, a Russian general, remarkable for his headlong valour and barbarian energy of purpose, was born at Suskoi, in the Ukraine, 1730, and commenced his military career in the campaign against Sweden in 1747, shortly followed by the seven years' war. In 1762 he re- turned to his country, but took the field again in 1768, and obtained those successes in Poland which led to its first partition between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the events of which date from 1768 to 1771. In 1773 he led the Russian hordes against Turkey, and captured in succession Tour- takaye and Hirsout. In 1782 he defeated the Tar- tars of the Crimea, and obliged them to take the oath of submission to Russia : the next year he was appointed general-in-chief and governor of that country. The Turks having renewed the struggle in 1787, a desperate battle was fought at Kinburn, where Suwarrow was severely wounded, and com- pelled to seek repose in his litter ; his troops were soon after thrown into confusion, but the general mounted his horse, and reproaching them with their cowardice, threw himself almost into the midst of the enemy, and retrieved the fortunes of the field. The crowning victory in this campaign was the capture of Ismail, a fortress of Bessarabia, near the mouth of the Danube, in December, 1789. In 1794 the brave Polanders took the field under Kosciusko, to fight once more the battle of their independence, and in two months the Vistula was crimsoned with the blood of the patriots : on the SUW 4th of November, Suwarrow captured Prnga, and on the 9th he made his solemn entry into Warsaw. Much has been written about the excessive cruelty] practised on this occasion, but there is really no-] thing to show that it exceeded the usual practice j fiendish as it is of a victorious army ; and it if recorded that Suwarrow's eyes filled with tears when the keys of Warsaw were presented to at the remembrance of what had occurred. I was, in some respects, a man of almost barba character ; of this no denial can reasonably be ad- mitted ; but we are disposed to believe that his method of leading the Russians to victory was ait merciful as any method could be, and it is froiBj the Russian side of view that we ought to estimate the character of her commanders; to measure then by the higher standard applicable to our own coun- trymen, is manifestly absurd. Suwarrow's eccen- tricities enter largely into all the narratives of hiii career, but we can hardly find space for his per- sonal portrait, or for those traits of charactei which properly belong to biography. In height he barely exceeded five feet, he was miserably thin had a large mouth, a wrinkled forehead, and a fe*j patches of grey hair on his head. His contempt^ of dress could only be equalled by his disregard o every form of politeness, and some idea may b formed of both from the fact, that he was washes in the morning by several buckets of cold wate thrown over him, and that he often drilled his mei in his shirt sleeves, with his stockings hanging down about his heels ; like his men also, proudh dispensing with the use of a pocket handkerchief His favourite signal of attack was a shrill cock* crow : ' To-morrow morning,' said he, previous tij the storming of Ismail, ' I mean to be up an hoj before daybreak, I shall then dress and wash my*; self, then say my prayers, then give one gofl cock-crow, and capture Ismail.' _ His despatch*! announcing victory were equally singular, and we generally in doggrel rhvme. One of these, in } campaign of 1773, is literally rendered thus- was addressed to Prince Romanzoff: 1 Glory to God glory to thee, Tourtakaye's taken and taken by me ! The most remarkable points in his character as soldier were his contempt of strategy, and hi , devoted courage : his motto was ' Forward strike,' Nothing to be thought of but the of sive quick marches energy in attack the steel.' With these qualities he won the hea his soldiers, and obtained his great victories the Poles and Turks. They were unsuited, 1 ever, to the atmosphere of a court, and after death of Catharine, Suwarrow disgusted her cessor, Paul I., and retired to his estate of Khs schansk, where he remained till 1799. The of his heart to take a command against the Fr was then gratified, and he was sent into Italy I the head of 30,000 Russians, to co-operate v the archduke Charles of Austria. No exige or respect of persons could induce this stalwart < kern to alter his principles : asked for his pll by the emperor, he protested he had none, or, if 1 had, that he should not disclose them : present with propositions for defensive operations, he wo not hear of them ; ' Tell my lord, the prince, r I know nothing of the defensive ; I can only att I shall advance when it seems good to me to d 748 suz SWE so; and -when I do, I shall not stop in Switzer- ! the university of Upsal, and attended the lectures of the younger Linnseus. Soon becoming his own master he devoted himself to travel and collecting plants. While only twenty-three he undertook at his own expense a voyage to the West Indies and South America. He explored the botany of Jamaica, St. Domingo, and the other islands ; and after visiting the coast of America returned to Europe by way of England. In London he made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, Sir Hans Sloane, &c, and returned to his native country with great acquisitions in both knowledge and collections. He was soon afterwards elected a member of the Academy of Stockholm, and the year after made its president. He was called to the chair of botany at the medico-chirurgical institution of that town, and was decorated by his sovereign with the orders of Vasa and the Polar Star. He taught botany with much success at Stockholm, and continued a great upholder of the Linnaean system. He estab- lished many new genera of plants ; described with clearness and conciseness an immense number of species: and paid particular attention to crypto- gamic botany. Schreber has called a genus of plants after him, Schwartzia. [W.B.] SVEDBERG, or SWEDBERG, Jesper, bishop of Skara in Westrogothia, was bom on his father's estate near Fahlun in Sweden, 1653, and was many years chaplain in a regiment of cavalry, and super- intendent of the Swedish mission established in England and America. He was raised to the see of Skara in 1702 by Charles XII., and three years later became doctor of theology at Upsala. In 1719 the family was ennobled, and the name of Swedenborg adopted by his son, Emanuel, as men- tioned in the following article. Bishop Swedberg was a great writer, and among the fruits of his pen is an antobiography still in MSS. His children are the subjects of some curious notices, among which occurs the following : ' I have kept my sons to that profession to which God has given them inclination and liking ; and I have not brought up one to the clerical office, although many parents do this inconsiderately and in a manner not justi- fiable, by which the Christian Church, and also the clerical order, suffer not a little, and is brought into contempt. I have never had my daughters in Stockholm, where many reside in order to learn fine manners, but where also they leam much that is worldly and injurious to the soul.' This good old man died in 1735. [E.R.] land. I shall go, according to my orders, into Franche-Comte. Tell him that at Vienna I am at his feet, but that here I am at least his equal. He is a field-marshal, so am I ; he serves a great emperor, so do I ; he commands an army, so do I : he is young, and I am old. I have acquired expe- rience by successive victories, and I receive neither counsel nor advice from any one : I trust alone in God and my sword.' It is not surprising that he Was defeated by Massena at Zurich, and that a campaign thus conducted against the generals of the rising star of Napoleon, should have had an unsatisfactory termination, yet Suwarrow was never, at any moment, unworthy of his laurels. He was at length ordered to return, and died, ne- glected by the emperor, at St. Petersburgh, May 18, 1800. [E.R.] SUZE, Henrietta. See Cot,igxi. SUZE, H. De, archbishop of Embrun, 1250-71. SWAAN, J., a Dutch chemist, 1774-1826. SWAMMERDAM, Jean, a celebrated anatomist md entomologist, was born at Amsterdam in 1637. Ie died in 1680. His father was an apothecary, nd possessed a collection of objects in natural istory. Engaged while a mere boy in cleaning f m be articles in this museum, the young Swammer- am soon acquired a taste for the study of nature, md became an especial lover of entomology. He itadied medicine at Leyden, and took his degree here in 1667. He prosecuted his anatomical re- rches with great zeal and success, and was the t to discover the art of injecting the arteries and reins, which has proved of such use in dissections. i severe attack of a quartan ague obliged him to ntermit his studies for a time, and upon his reco- rery he relinquished his human anatomy, and de- nted himself almost entirely to that of insects. In .669 he published his ' General History of Insects,' n which he attempts a classification of them, ac- iording to their structure and the metamorphoses hey undergo. From this work he acquired great eputation, but in consequence of over-exertion in tudy, his health gave way. He fell soon after- rards into an extremely hypochondriacal state, carce deigning even to answer a question addressed o him, and at length became unfit for entering into ociety. In this sad state of mind he was struck rith the peculiar tenets of an extraordinary woman f that time, Antoinette Bourignon, and soon be- me plunged into the depths of her mystical de- otion. He fancied that he would offend the Deity >y continuing his anatomical pursuits, and throw- g away the scalpel, he followed his fanatical leader i Holstein. He returned some time afterwards to Lmsterdam, but his mortifications and mystical tadies had reduced him to the state of a living keleton. In one of his fits of melancholy, he tamed all the manuscripts he could lay his hands Jon ; but fortunately some time previous to this, IB limited means had compelled him to sell a KJrtion of them, which ultimately coming into the ands of Boerhaave, were published by him many after the unfortunate author's death. [W.B.J sense The Philosopher of Christianity, was born at Stockholm, 29th January, 1688. His parentage is shown in the preceding article, and as the events of his life were few and simple, we shall here limit ourselves to a sketch of his literary career, and a justification of the above title. In 1709 Emanuel Swedberg, afterwards Swedenborg, completed his education at the university of Upsala, and pub- lished his academical dissertation, consisting of moral sentences from the writings of Seneca, Pub- lius Syras, and others, illustrated with notes from the old Latin authors. From 1710 to 1714 he was journeying abroad, according to the custom in those days, sometimes writing heroic verses, epigrams, or love pieces in the Latin tongue to re- lieve his toils at the various seats of learning that he visited. In 1716 he commenced the publica- 749 SWE tlon of papers on the mathematics and physical sciences in his ' Daedalus Hyperboreus,' and was received into public employment as the colleague cf the famous Count Poiheim ; soon afterwards he was appointed assessor in the Metallic College by Charles XII., who honoured him with his personal friendship. In 1718, besides continuing the ' Dae- dalus,' Swedberg published a work on algebra, which included, among the higher rules of mathe- matics, the integral and differential calculus : the year following he assumed the style of nobility by favour of Queen "Ulrica Eleonora, and from that period had a seat with the nobles of the equestrian order in the triennial assemblies of the states. From 1719 to 1722, his professional avocations in- troduced him to the study of the fusibility and structure of metals, and, gradually, to the geome- trical principles of chemistry, for the further study of which, and the knowledge of mines, he journeyed some fifteen months through the Ger- man states. The titles of his works in this period indicate very clearly the progress of the Thinker proceeding steadily "through the physical sciences towards a philosophy of nature : the chief of them are 'Arguments derived from Appearances in Sweden in Favour of the Depth of the Waters, and Greater Tides of the Sea in the Ancient World ; ' Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Che- mistry ; ' ' Observations on Iron and the Elementary Nature of Fire;' and 'Miscellaneous Observations about Natural Things, especially Minerals, Fire, and the Strata of Mountains.' In 1734 he com- pleted one stage of this onward march by publish- ing his ' Principia,' contained in the first of three fouo volumes, which were issued at Dresden and Leipzig at the expense of the duke of Brunswick, and to publish which, Swedenborg undertook another journey. This work explains the produc- tion and nature of the elements, the formation and laws of the solar vortex, and the sublime analogy between the starry heavens and the magnetic sphere, it will be found to ante-date many im- portant discoveries, especially in the co-relation of magnetism, electricity, light, gravitation, and all the physical forces; while the practical part on mineralogy has been pronounced, in Cramer's ' Art of Assaying Metals,' ' magnificent and laborious.' While this work was passing through the press, its author made the acquaintance of Wolff's Onto- logy, and having found that his own theory of the elementary world agreed with it, his ambi- tion took wing, and he resolved to try the experi- ment of applying his principles to the deep sub- jects glanced at by that philosophy. His prompt reasoning flashed through all difficulties like a sabre-cut nature is all mechanism the soul is in nature these principles of his, with Wolff's seal on them, are the exponents of nature why, then, not demonstrate the nature of the soul with as much precision as that of the elementary world ? With Swedenborg to think was to do ; hence arose his Philosophy of the Infinite, a ' ProdromusJ as he calls it, written immediately after the perusal of Wolff in 1734 : in strict relation with all that pre- ceded it, this little work was but a plank thrown across the gulf which separated one field of thought from another, it carried Swedenborg from the dead mechanics of metals and ele- SWE him thinking about the body; he is curious know what the learned are doing whether tin have found the same key as himself; now, then fore, he buries himself for a few days in the lil rary at Dresden, reads the ' Biliotheque Italiquc which contains an account of the learned men the day, and finds to his extreme satisfaction, new and wide field open before 'him. The: learned men are divided into parties some affirn ing and others denying the animation of the brail others, again, with the microscope searching tl body through and through to decide these contest It is the same with the question of the atom constitution of the blood the existence of tl animal spirit in the nerves the growth of t 1 embryo in the womb the cause of the circulatio and all the kindred topics. Ruysch, Bianehi, Lee' wenhoeck, Borelli, Lancisi, Morgagni, Malphigl are here with all the treasures of art and learnm with anatomical preparations and models of human frame hardly equalled by anything in o own times, and finally, with the doctrines of ge metry and analogy already pressed into the servir Discovery and art had anticipated all the requii ments of the philosopher. It was only for Reas to take up the thread of demonstration at a poi where all confessed that nature was seen to wo most distinctly and perfectly. Swedenborg, short, reverting to his attempted demonstrate of the connection between soul and body on math matical principles, resolved to pursue his inqui from this fresh plane of induction Obliged to i turn for a season to his professional avocations, carried this high purpose along with him, and 1736 obtained leave of absence again for the pt pose of writing and publishing a great woi Space is not allowed us to follow him step by stu as we might do, in the conception and publicati of his works on the 'Animal Kingdom.' Thil years were occupied abroad in collecting a digesting his materials, and in 1740 ' The Eco* my of the Animal Kingdom, Considered Anatom cally, Physically, and Philosophically,' appeared \ Amsterdam, followed in 1744 by" 'The Anini Kingdom,' and in 1745 by ' The Worship and hl-i of God,' the latter, apart from its philosophy, I j knowledged by competent judges for one of the mi i gorgeous specimens of Latinity in existence. Tbfl works completed the Thinker's second stage ; $} among the doctrines contained in them are 4} coveries of high importance in physiology 8 awaiting an adequate criticism, or courting a<k J tion : such are the author's demonstration of 1 1 animation of the brain, and of its coincidence di i ing formation with the systole and diastole of V j heart, and after birth with the respiration of tl lungs of the beautiful provision for muscular act j derived from the respiration, exhibiting the funct I of the lungs in distributing and regulating mot I throughout the entire system of the law of sei I and society among the organs and of many otb j which it would be inconsistent with our limits j enumerate, but tending upwards to a rational p j chology. Through the whole of his career up to t point, Swedenborg's labours had grown, one tadJH of another, like a tree ; the goodly proportions i excellent fruit of which, placed him in the high j rank of scientific men ; he was not yet, howe\ | ments to the living. Treating of the soul had set ! the Philosopher of Christianity. 750 In after yeart !i SWE recognized these labours as Lis preparation : and they who know him best, are well aware that they are nothing more, and that their results enter no farther into his revelations than the words of a new language into the thoughts of an older one. It was in the year 1745, as he drew near the utmost limits of his philosophical inquiries concerning the soul, that he declares his eyes were opened to see spirits, and that, warned by a divine ap- pearance, he abandoned his uncompleted labours and worldly honours, and devoted himself to the new office to which he was called. This is a sub- ject we cannot discuss in a notice which is neces- sarily limited to information in matters of fact, but re may remark that the case of Swedenborg is essentially different from that of the visionaries of all ages who have discoursed with spiritual beings. Distinctly, his claim is this : not that he saw pints only, but that he actually lived with them as a spirit, seeing all things in the spirit world as one of themselves, and only existing here in the body, in order to use it as an instrument for pub- ishing the facts, and digesting in a rational form he conclusions to be derived from them. It is, ben, on the nature and value of these conclusions hat we dare to rest the whole weight of his claims our regard and to the title we have assigned lim, not as one of many Christian philosophers, rat as the veritable philosopher of the Christian 'aith ; as much the instrument of Providence in his age as Paul in a former, and doing precisely hat for present habits of thought that Paul did or the spirit of his age, grounded in Judaism or in dolatry. We do not say indeed that the systems of he Scotch and German philosophers have nothing common with Christianity, hut they stand, as heir warmest partizans will admit, on ground apart rom it, and the attempt to reconcile religion and hilosophy has never been cordially acknowledged is successful on either side. Theologians have slearly perceived that no system of philosophy has aken up, as essential to it, the Christian doctrine f Regeneration, the only pretensions of this nature i the course of eighteen weary centuries being iscoverable in the writings of the mystics more specially in those of Jacob Bcehmen,andhis eloquent xponent in this country, the nonjuring divine, Wil- iam Law. These latter have become obsolete, not ecause the problem could ever cease to engage uman attention, but for this very sufficient rea- on that the science they embraced had become many essential particulars inconsistent with our ctual knowledge of things, and the most they ould do was to keep alive the spirit of earnest iety, and the expectation of a future great develop- which had always been looked lor. Sweden- , it will be observed, wrote after Newton and e, with whose works he was acquainted, and man living was better informed on the progress science in his own day, and with the richer nar- it promised in the future ; step by step all the reat problems that had hitherto engaged atten- were brought under his review, and whatever significant of life or death in nature, seems to ve passed before him as the animals were brought Adam to see what he would call them. Such rn the man destined by Providence to furnish the ineteenth century with the Christian development philosophy; and here we will endeavour to state SWE in what this consists, and in what it does not. Cer- tainly, it is not a mere dialectic, for what, after all, is that, but a logical instrument, fashioned, if possible, to reconcile the self-sufficient reason with faith ; and what does the insufficiency of the Ger- man schools consist in except this, that the very process of reason by which the understanding ana the Word are sought to be reconciled, does but strengthen the former ? Besides, the true Christian Philosophy cannot, by the very conditions which call for it, be a bare method: like Christianity itself, it must be a result, and a final one. In this consists the supereminence of the mental philo- sophy contained in the theological works of Sweden- borg. It groups the thoughts round the affections, and it gives the latter a mighty power both to raise and to lower the former, so that the regenerate man, or him whose affections have been purified by the procedure of a pure love through them, is altogether another, even as a reasoning man, for he becomes the little child who has entered into the kingdom of God. This hint of the real nature of Swedenborg's philosophy is all we can here give ; and now a word or two on the two great subjects of development in which it is embodied : these are his doctrine of the Bible, and his doctrine of the spiritual icorfd. The fonner has never been repre- sented by him as an invented allegory, but as a per- fectly unique divine symbol, such as the supreme wis- dom becomes when it is breathed through the human mind, the self-intelligence meanwhile not interfering with its appropriation of images and figures. Let not these expressions be read carelessly, but deeply pondered, for they will be found to consist with a great law of intercourse between higher and lower intelligences ; they point, in short, to the marvellous fact, that the Word is the open gate between the world and heaven, which it links to- gether by a correspondence of thoughts and ideas : this can now be brought to the test of objectiveness through some states of clairvoyance, while its sub- jective test is open to all who know what Christian experience is. But the statements of Swedenborg concerning the spiritual world, are after all per- haps, the first and greatest difiiculty that his readers have to encounter, and even when these are not altogether discredited, the similarity between spiritual and natural things is regarded as offen- sive. In the first place this similarity is apparent only, and belongs to a superficial acquaintance with his meaning; the real similarity being not that of identity but correspondence, and arising from the universal law that the ideal is nothing, even in things spiritual, till it finds repose and form in the real or substantial. We have already alluded to the preparation of Swedenborg, as consisting in the mathematical discipline of his mind and his acquaintance with the sciences, two distinct courses of which he went through the elementary, in which all nature is reviewed as a mechanism, even to the intercourse between soul and body, and what we may term the concrete, which views the soul or living form in nature ; the one a study of the laws which unite the atomic parts of bodies, from the grain of salt up to the scattered stars of the firmament ; the other a study of organization from the least living part of the body, up to the rational soul dwelling in its whole order by influx and correspondence. This double course of prepara- 751 SWE tion, it may now be apprehended, was absolutely necessary if spiritual laws were ever to become sub- jects of study : and even if we grant, in any case, that Swedenborg has brought them down to a too rigid formula, the form is but the net needful to catcli these winged thoughts, or rather, the artist's stationary figure representing his ever living and varying model ; the life, the actual motion, cannot be "drawn, but only one phasis of it, from which infinite variety and living beauty may be inferred. We hold it nodisparagement of Swedenborg, there- fore, that when he had arrived at his spiritual man- hood, he was still as a child who had never left his mother nature that his ' umbilical cord was never cut,' as Emerson expresses it : had it been, we should have had another great mystic, another Bcehmen, Bourignon, or Peter Poiret, but we should still have awaited the Newton of the unseen uni- verse. We have not space to substantiate these hints as we could wish, by reviewing ever so briefly the mass of writing to which they apply ; yet we cannot conclude without a word or two on the principal of these works. The series commences with the ' Arcana Ccclestia,' published in London from 1749 to 1756. This work, a model of literary method and precision of language, is really the text-book of all that followed it, and is remarkable for the increasing depth of its meaning as we pass from volume to volume. The very heart of its contents, if we may dare trust ourselves to express so much in one sentence, is a psychological dis- closure of the struggle between the Divine and the human natures in the experience of the Saviour ; and it is in course of this development sometimes expressed in terms applicable to Him alone, some- times in the lower phraseology of all Christian experience that Swedenborg has evolved his philo- sophy, and established his doctrine of the Word. We may here repeat, therefore, what we have already intimated, that it is in vain to look for either of these in the set terms of a creed ; it is a study which frees the mind of all formularies, and the deeper it is pondered, the more confidingly may the spirit take wing in the pure ether : terms, we have indeed, precise and beautifully fashioned forms of thought in these writings, which are as the nests in the branches, to which the tired thoughts will always return for repose and se- curity, and the more gratefully the longer they have been on the wing : anything more than this Swedenborg would be the last among theologians to contemplate. That he speaks as a master is most true, but as one whose constant anxiety it is to place bis disciples on the same intellectual footing as himself, to lure them gently on, whether by persuasion or authority, till they may look at the same divine things that he gazed upon, less by prerogative than the constitutional right which belongs to all. In a word, if there is any truth in Swedenborg's revelations at all, their pre-eminent value consists in this, that they unite the under- standing and the Word; as the poet attracts the eye and the heart to nature not by a painted mirage, or a crowd of stilted figures to be taken for it, but by awakening instincts, and touching the chords which realty unite them within the human consciousness ; they are, therefore, speak- ing within the bounds of coolest reason, the very complement and last necessity of Protestant free- SWE dom, for no church can claim dogmatic authorfo over any man who has once possessed himseM this key to the Scriptures, ana no philosophv car have any dangers for him : all the stronger, there fore, becomes the moral authority of the church, fo it thus grounds itself in the reason and fn man. After the Arcana, Swedenborg pul>li>hed in 1758, a small tract ' Concerning the Last Judg I ment and the Destruction of Babylon," 'On the White Horse of the Apocalypse,' a tliir 4 On the Earths of our Solar System, and the Earths of the Starry Heavens,' and a sojlj mary view of his position in theological form entitled 'The New Jerusalem and its Heavenl Doctrine : ' he added to these, as his labour of the ' year, his account ' Of Heaven and its Wondcm accompanied with an 'Account of Hell.' Wha now is that Last Judgment and the DestroH Babylon, manifested, as he says, among spirits f 1757 ? Why the announcement of the commend ] ment of a new age, almost instantly followai speaking historically, by the earthquake of th French revolution, the commotion begun by whM is still spreading from land to land, and threats] to tremble under the feet of many generation* A question surely not answerable in these dayst final judgment upon all things by the contemj J tuous regard hitherto paid to it. Why also, |] may ask, this revelation of the Word coinci jet J with its publication in all the known languages ij the world ? That White Horse what is it bf I the free human spirit, the illuminated understand j ing, proceeding by which, through ages an nations, the Eternal Wisdom, as a crowned wan rior, subdues all that is contrary to its dominion I It may be easy to doubt one figure, even wbifl admiring its beauty and universality, but what this figure take a consistent place in the gran epic of the Scriptures and of human history, ar marches in due order with a thousand otbe i equally grand and universal? We can but s | these are some of the questions that the reader}' Swedenborg must be prepared to encounter, Wt by these glimpses at his meaning we are far fro J intending any eulogy : they are simply design* | to supply the place of a more elaborate destflfi tion. Swedenborg continued his developmei^H the Word and of Spiritual Laws during w whole remainder of his life a period, reckolBj|j from 1745, when his spiritual sight commei| of twenty-seven years. The principal works pnl lished by him after those mentioned above ^H his ' Doctrine of the Lord,' ' Doctrine of the Sa^H Scripture,' Doctrine of Life,' and ' Doctrine J Faith,' all in 1763 ; his ' Angelic Wisdom, CM cerning Divine Love and Wisdom,' and ' Con^H ing Divine Providence,' in 1763 and 1764. B i 'Apocalypse Revealed,' 1766; 'The Delights | Wisdom concerning Conjugal Love,' 1768 ; ai i 'The True Christian Religion,' 1771. None these works were published in his own couaJi] where the press was not free, but in London j Amsterdam ; for this reason he made seflfl journeys backwards and forwards, which were t only changes that marked his external life in t ' whole period. He died in London, in the eja^H fifth year of his age, 29th March, 1772. [KB SWEERT, E., a Dutch botanist, 17th century SWEERT, F., a Flemish historian, 1567-jH 752 SWI SWIETEN, G., a Dutch physician, 1700-1772. SWIFT, Deane, grandson of Godwin Swift, eldest of the uncles of the celebrated writer (next article), and a descendant by the mother's side from Admiral Dean, a naval commander of Crom- well's time; author of an Essay upon the Life, Writings, and Character of Dr. Jonathan Swift ; died 1783. His son, Theophilus, a miscel- laneous writer, died 1815. SWIFT, Jonathan, though Irish by birth, was of English descent. His grandfather was a clergy- man in Herefordshire, and married a cousin of the poet, Dryden ; his father, who was steward of the Irish inns of court, died very poor in 1667 ; and Jonathan was born at Dublin in November of the same year. The widow was thrown for support on her own relations, by whom her son was educated at the school of Kilkenny, and at Trinity College, Dublin. He was a careless student, and irregular in his conduct. Even then, however, he had worked in his vocation as a satirist, having sketched the 'Tale of a Tub' before he came across to England. This migration, occurring in 1688, opens the first of the four stages in the career of this singular and celebrated man. While he was always a polemic, and always strongest in satire, the opinions which he advocated, and the victims whom he attacked, were very different in the different periods of his activity. During the first of these periods, extend- ing from his twenty -first year to his forty-third, he was a zealous Whig ; for three years more he was engaged in supporting the politics and party of the English Tories ; and in his third epoch, the longest and most creditable of all, and reaching from his forty -sixth year to his sixty-ninth, his efforts were chiefly directed, always earnestly though not always wisely, towards improving the treatment and condition of Ireland. The closing period of his long life, lasting nine years, was spent in total inactivity, enforced by the decay of his faculties. On coming to England, Swift was received into the family of the accomplished Sir William Temple, whose wife was a kinswoman of his mother. During this first residence at Moor Park he studied hard, acted as secretary of his patron, became a favourite of William III., and refused the king's offer to give him a troop of | horse. He wrote Pindaric odes, which, being printed, compel an acquiescence in the unpalatable opinion expressed to him by Dryden : ' Cousin Swift, you will never be a poet.' But his practice of serious verse-making, was useful in training him for the production of those comic and satirical rhymes, which, though they want all the elements of poetry, abound so much in his characteristic humour and his apt vigour of diction, as to be among the best of his works, and the most curious monuments of his time. In 1694, having become discontented with his patron, he crossed to Ireland, took orders, and went to be a country pastor in Antrim, on an endowment of a hundred a-year. Perhaps this retirement was only a feint ; perhaps he found it to be a mistake. On receiving a friendly recall from Temple, he benevolently ob- tained a transference of his living to a poor curate in the neighbourhood, and returned to Moor Park in 1695. He had already begun his course of coquetry with ladies, by coming to a breach with his ' Varina,' in Ireland. He now began his tutor- 753 SWI ship and admiration of the unfortunate ' Stella,' who was a Miss Johnson, the daughter of Sir William Temple's steward, and then no more than thirteen or fourteen years old. During his second residence at Moor Park, he was led by his patron's share in the controversy between Bentley and Boyle, to write his ' Battle of the Books;' and pro- bably the ' Tale of a Tub' also was now completed. These early works, while they fly at game higher than his political satires, are as characteristic as anything he ever wrote ; and they are as full of talent, though not so well fitted for popularity, as the satirical romance which is his masterpiece. As a writer of plain, pure, vigorous, idiomatic Eng- lish, Swift has no equal ; and he has hardly any superior as a satirist, uniting extraordinary force with extraordinary humour, tremendously power- ful in invective, and yet more formid-able for the biting dexterity with which he wields the lash of irony. In reading his works we are never allowed to forget that he was ill-tempered, nor to suspect that, notwithstanding some good points, he was essentially bad-hearted and selfish; but we are impressed by his strength even when he uses it in defence of error, and diverted by his wit even when it plays on things true and sacred. The intel- lectual characteristics of his writings were equally Erominent in his conversation : when in good umour he was a marvellous talker, full of lively anecdote and jest; and he was always ready to throw back a stinging retort on an adversary. On Sir William Temple's death in 1699, Swift edited his posthumous works in London, and then accom- panied Lord Berkeley, who was sent to Ireland. Misunderstandings occurred as usual ; but, on his patron's recall next year, Swift was left in posses- sion of livings yielding nearly four hundred a-year. [Laracor Church.] He took up his abode at his vicarage of Laracor, in the county of Meath, made himself beloved for the charitable disposition which was one of his redeem- ing virtues, and discharged his duties as a parish clergyman with all the assiduity allowed by visits to England. These, however, took place every year, and sometimes lasted for several months. In 1704 the ' Tale of a Tub ' and ' Battle of the Books' were published together, and, though anonymous, were attributed by the public to the right author. The former of the two was generally disliked by the clergy ; and it was used as the means of infusing 3C SWI into tlie mind of Queen Anne an aversion to Swift, which made it impossible for his friends in the ministry to gratify his eager desire for ecclesias- tical preferment in England. The effect was not removed, either by his serious and manly 'Project for the Advancement of Religion,' or by the fine irony exhibited in the very title of 'An Argument to Trove that the Abolishing of Christianity in England may, as things now stand, be attended with some Inconveniences.' As early as 1708, when the latter of these pieces appeared, Swift was edging off from his political party. _ A real dissent from their opinions was indicated in more than one of those occasional pamphlets of his, which cannot here be so much as named. He was a vehement high churchman, and wrote against all relaxation of tests. In other points, such as his advocacy of annual parliaments, his doctrines would now make him be classed as a Radical. But his chief reasons for dissatisfaction with the Whigs themselves were two. They wounded his self-love by resisting demands of the Irish clergy, who had chosen Swift as their organ ; and, above all, they could not, or would not, make him a bishop. In the autumn of 1710, when the Tories had just come into power, a second mission from the Irish prelates introduced him familiarly to Harley and St. John : Godolphin, the Whig leader, treated him haughtily: and he enlisted in the cause of the new ministry with an envenomed alacrity. The most valuable service he rendered them was performed in the seven months ending in June, 1711, during which he wrote ' The Examiner.' Later in the same year he assisted the negotia- tions for peace by his tract ' The Conduct of the Allies : ' and, the discreditable treaty of Utrecht having been concluded, his defence of it grew into the 'History of the Four Last Years of the Queen.' Still his new friends contented themselves, even more than the old, with rewarding him by flatter- ing attentions. He proudly refused to be Harley's chaplain : and the minister, though he must have seen that he was hardly a safe man for the epis- copal bench, made the attempt to raise him. But the royal obstinacy proved insurmountable. As a last resource, the deanery of St. Patrick's Cathedral, in Dublin, was secured for Swift in the spring of 1718 : and, accepting this fairly lucrative appoint- ment as a sentence of exile, he departed, resolving, as he says in one of those bitter letters which are among the most vigorous of his compositions, to forget everything in England, and never see it again, 'if they have no further service for me.' He was speedily recalled to write one or two pamphlets, and to see the displacement of the Tories on the accession of George L He then returned to Ireland, and ceased to have any con- cern in English politics. Soon after 1714, when his residence was fixed in Dublin, he became involved, further than the world was allowed to suspect, in troubles arising out of his strange and unmanly flirtations. Stella, under the protection of a widowed lady, had come to live near him on his settlement at Laracor : and she now removed to Dublin, where she unexpectedly found a rival. This was Miss Vanhomrigh, the 'Vanessa' of Swift's verses, who had become acquainted with him in London much in the same way as Miss Johnson, and who now with her sister followed SWI him to Dublin. Stella's jealousy caused stormy scenes, which the Dean thought to terminate by marrying her secretly in 1716. The pair were never more than friends, before the marriage or after it ; a state of affairs for which various reasons have conjecturally been assigned. But, in 1723, Vanessa chose "to write to Stella, de- manding explanations; and Stella exhibited the letter to Swift. He rode off with it in a parox} of rage, presented himself to Vanessa, threw it on. her table, and departed without saying a wor^H The shock killed ner in a few weeks. Nor did his other victim long survive. He was ca^^H away from his last visit to England, in the end of 1727, to attend her on her deathbed. In the meantime he had continued to write with hifl usual frequency. In 1726 he lived with Pope iS.J his villa at Twickenham, and contributed to th## I first draught of ' Martinus Scriblerus : ' and theaBj also, he published the bitterest, most ingenioj^H and most amusing of all satires on human nature* the 'Travels of Lemuel Gulliver.' Lilliput an| Brobdignag will always preserve the name <M\ Dean Swift. Nor was any practical occasion too trifling to call forth his cynical wit : he never was | stronger than in his ' Polite Conversation,' and his mock ' Directions to Servants.' Irish affairs, however, were now his chief object ; and the interests of the nation were embraced with a fiery zeal, which, in its denunciations of wrongs in- flicted by England, forgot all distinctions of ; Eolitical party. The ' Drapier's Letters,' pub- shed in 1723, to expose a patent granted for copper coinage in Ireland, raised Swift, whom no j one hesitated to hold as the writer, to the summit of a popularity, which was augmented both by j many acts of private kindness, and by an inces- sant series of masked attacks on the government, and on prevalent abuses. Some of the best of the Dean's pamphlets are dressed in his favourite ironical garb. One of them is a plan for paying off the national debt, by the very simple process of confiscating and selling the church lands. K'jj another, he offers at once to increase capital in Ireland, and to diminish the surplus population; the little children are to be carefully fattened, and sold to the London butchers : the plan is recom- mended by a grave array of statistical calcula- tions ; and objections are answered in a series of the most tremendous sarcasms on Irish misery and English misgovernment. That Swift's energy was unabated in 1735, when he was in his sixw] eighth year, is proved by one of his best rhymed Eieces, 'The Legion Club,' a libel on the Irish [ouse of Commons, who had resisted claims of the clergy. But his last public efforts were made, in the same cause, during the succeeding year. Giddiness, and other symptoms, had h tended danger. His memory now began to fail; and terror of worse evils made him miserable, m the other powers gave way likewise. Aftex having lingered for three years in peaceful idiocy, lie died of hydrocephalus in October, 1745. He be- queathed his property, amounting to about 10,000, for the formation of an hospital in Dub- lin for lunatics and idiots. j W.S.J SWINBURNE, H, a civilian, died 1624. SWINBURNE, Hen k y, the descendant of an ancient Roman Catholic family, known as the 754 . SWI accomplished writer of Narratives of his Travels in Spain and the Two Sicilies, died in Trinidad 1803. SWINDEN, John Henry Van, a learned Dntch physician, professor of philosophy, logic, and metaphysics at Franeker, and of astronomy at Amsterdam, 1746-1823. SWINDEN, Tobias, rector of Cuxton, in Kent, author of a book strangely entitled, an ' Inquiry into the Nature and Place of Hell,' died 1720. SWINNOCK, G., a rector of Buckinghamshire, author of ' Heaven and Hell Epitomised,' d. 1673. SWINTON, John, chaplain to the English fac- tory at Leghorn, author of papers on Etruscan, Phoenician, and Eastern Antiquities, and a con- tributor to the Universal History, 1703-1777. SWITZER, E., an Eng. horticulturist, last cent. SYBRECHT, J., a Flemish painter, 1625-1703. SYDENHAM, Charles William Poulett, Lord, successor of the earl of Durham as governor- general of Canada, was born in London 1793, and continued the mercantile business of his father, J. Poulett Thompson, till 1830. Four years pre- viously he had become a member of parliament, and when the Whig administration was formed, he took office as vice-president of the board of trade and treasurer of the navy. In 1834 he be- came president of that board, and in 1839 was appointed to the government of Canada, having previously been raised to the peerage. He was killed in Canada by a fall from his horse, 1841. SYDENHAM, Floyer, an Oxford scholar and translator of Plato, whose death, through indi- gence and imprisonment for debt in 1788, gave rise to the Literary Fund. SYDENHAM, Thomas, M.D., a distinguished physician of the seventeenth centuiy, and some- times called the English Hippocrates, was born in 1624, at Windford Eagle, Dorsetshire, where his ancestors had been settled for many generations. Nothing whatever is known of the history of his boyhood, though it may be concluded from the condition of his family that his early education was not wholly neglected ; but we find that in 1642, at the age of eighteen, he entered Oxford as a com- moner of Magdalen Hall. His stay there, however, could not have been of long duration, for he shortly afterwards, probably in that very year, joined the army of the parliament, in which two of his brothers were then serving William, who attained to the rank of a colonel, and was ultimately governor of the Isle of Wight ; and Francis, who was a major of horse, and was killed in 1644. How long Thomas Sydenham, who is only known to posterity as the most eminent physician of his time, con- tinued to act as a soldier, or what exploits he per- formed in that capacity, are points which it is impossible now to ascertain, but he himself speaks of nis military career as having extended to several years, aliquot annos ; and Sir Richard Blackmore described him as a ' disbanded officer who entered upon the study of medicine for a maintenance and without any preparatory learning.' He seems to have re-entered Oxford in 1646, where he acquired a fellowship in All Souls, and he graduated there in 1648, as M.B. (Bachelor of Medicine). When lie settled in London is unknown, but he was cer- tainly there before 1661, as he describes the epi- demics of that year. In 1663 he became a licentiate of the College of Physicians, and in 1666 he pub- SYL lished his first medical work, which he entitled Methodvs Curandi Febres. In 1676 he took the degree of M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) at Cambridge, though not otherwise connected with that univer- sity, and in this year the first edition of his Obser- vationes Medicce appeared. In 1680 the first edition of the Epistolce Responsarios was pub- lished, and in 1683 the Tractatus de Podagra et Hydrope ; and in 1685, the collected edition of his works known as the Opera Universa. Syden- ham had been long afflicted by gout, which at length undermined liis constitution, and he died of that distemper, combined with other maladies, at London on the 29th of December, 1689, in the sixty- fifth year of his age. [J.M'C] SYDNEY, Algernon, the second son of Robert, earl of Leicester, was bom about the year 1621. In early youth he fought in the ranks of the parliamentary forces. Whatever sentiments influenced many of the other opponents of Charles I., his opinions, founded on the spirit of Roman republicanism, were inimical to all monarchy, and he proved them in his disgust at the ascendancy of Cromwell. He was abroad at the time of the restoration, and wandered about for some years scattering bitter sarcasms around against the objects of his political enmity. He was haughty and imperious in his own nature, and seems by no means to have courted the literary and social distinction which his genius might have achieved. His 'Discourses concerning Government,' was a posthumous work. It is full of powerful rhetorical arguments as when in answer to the proposition of Salmasius, that kingly government is typed in the superiority of one kind of animal over another, he answers that this is nothing but the superiority of brutish violence and injustice, and that the type, ' Though it should prove to be in all respects adequate to the matter in question, could only show, that those who have no sense of right, reason, or religion, have a natural propensity to make use of tneir strength to the destruction of such as are weaker than they and not that any are willing to submit, or not to resist it if they can which I think will be of no great advantage to monarchy.' He was permitted to return to England in 1677. Though he had probably deeper ultimate views, his connection with the Ryehouse plot, for which he suffered, was the same sub- stantially as that of Lord William Russell, already referred to. Sydney met his fate with iron firm- ness, and was beheaded on the 7th of December, 1683. [J.H.B.] SYEN, Arnold, a Dutch botanist, 1604-1667. SYKES, Arthur Ashley, a dignitary of the Church of England, and partizan of Hoadley in the famous Bangorian controversy, 1684-1756. SYLBURG, F., a German philologist, 1536-96. SYLLA, Lucius Cornelius, whose bloody proscriptions have passed into a proverb, was descended from a branch of the famous Cornelian family. He became quaestor when about thirty years of age, B.C. 107, and after obtaining military renown under Marius in Africa, became chief of the aristocratic party in the social war, and van- quished his old companion-in-arms in Italy ; he was then, b.c. 88, elected consul. Sylla had marched to his victory over Marius from the field of battle in which Mithridates had succumbed to 755 SYL him, and the latter having renewed the war. he led another expedition against hint b.c. 87. The suc- cess to which he had now become accustomed still attended the amis of Sylla, and his operations were one long series of victories, often, however, dearly bought ; it was in these wars that he cap- tured" Athens, and the victory was such a fearful one that the blood is said to have run out from the city g.-tes into the fields; the most snlendid monu- ments of Athenian art were also doomed to de- struction. While these events were taking place in the East, Marius and his party had recovered the dictatorship in Rome, and Sylla, hastily returning at the head of his victorious legions, gained a second great victory over the Plebeians, and en- tered Rome in triumph in the year 82. He was now absolute master of the lives, liberties, and property of the citizens of Rome, and he used his power as the head of an unprincipled faction, cradled in the blood and crimes of the expiring republic, may be supposed to have done. Sylla governed under the title of perpetual dictator, and strenuously applied himself to the reconstruction of the aristo- cratic constitution. His contempt for the people may be judged from the instance in which he addressed an assembly of them, on occasion of cer- tain complaints reaching him : he recited this apologue : ' A labourer when at plough was an- noyed by vermin, and he twice stopped from his work and pulled them off his jacket. But finding himself bitten again, to spare himself any further trouble, he threw the jacket into the fire. Now I advise those whom I have twice conquered, not to oblige me, a third time, to try the fire.' The wholesale nature of his confiscations may be judged from the number of his soldiers, namely, 115,000 men, whom he rewarded with settlements in Italy; finally, he enfranchised 10,000 slaves to increase the number of his partizans, and enrolled them among the free citizens. In a manner as extra- ordinary, he abdicated all power, b.c. 79, chiefly, we may presume, from his subsequent conduct, tiiat he might exchange the cares of state for the licentiousness of private life. This fact is a suf- ficient answer, one might suppose, to all that can be urged in behalf of his desire for the public good. No man who is unprincipled and licentious in private life, can deserve credit for any real virtue in his public acts. Sylla died of a disgusting malady b.c. 77, having previously written his 1 Memoirs.' [E-R-l SYLVESTER, or SILVESTER, first of the name pope and saint of Rome, reigned 314-323. The second, who was one of the most extraordinary men of his age as an astronomer, mathematician, and man of practical science, succeeded Gregory V. 999, and died 1003. Some of his writings are TAC extant. The third Sylvester was an antipope sefe up in 1044. SYLVESTER. Joshua, one of our inferior poets, translator of Du Bartas's 'Divine We* Works,' born in London 1563, died 1618. SYLVESTER, Matthew, a Church of Eng- land minister, ejected for nonconformity, 1662. SYLVIUS, F., a French grammarian, d. 1530. SYLVIUS, Francis Delaboe or Dunois, a Dutch physiologist and chemist, 1614-1672. SYLVIUS, Lambert, otherwise Vahdh Bosct, a Dutch biographer and poet, 1610-1681 SYMES, Michael, an English officer and Kast Indian diplomatist, author of an 4 Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava,' died 1809. SYMMACHUS, a pope of Rome., 498-514. SYMMACHUS, Quintus Aukklius, a pre- fect, pontiff, and augur of Rome in its declining age, remarkable for his eloquent appeal against the ruin threatened by the triumph of Christianity}. he is the author of 'Epistles' still extant, and be- came consul under Tneodosius in 391. His de- scendant, Quintus Aurelius Memmius, was a senator in the time of Odoacer 485, and was put to death by Theodoric 525. SYMMACHUS the Samaritan, a learneJ Christian of the sect of Ebionites, 2d century, j SYMMONS, Charles, a dramatic writer, and friend of literature, b. at Cardigan 1749, d. 182& His daughter, Caroline, a poetess, 1788-1812. SYNCELLUS, George, a monk of Constan- tinople, author of a Chronography, which contains an account of Egyptian kings, and corrects the i Chronicon of Eusebius, died 800. SYNESIUS, a bishop of Ptolemais, in Africa, in the 5th century, who had the advantage of | pursuing his philosophical studies under Hypatia. Author of Epistles and other writings. SYNGE, E., an Irish prelate, 1659-1741. SYPHAX, kg. of Western Numidia, d. 201 b.c. SYRIANUS, a philosopher of the school of Neoplatonists at Athens, died 450. SYROPULUS, Silvester, a Greek ecc astic, historian of the Council of Florence, 15th a SYRUS. See Publius. SZALKAI, Anthony, a Hungarian poet and dramatic author, author of the first regular drama composed in his native tongue, died 1804. SZEGEDI, John Baptist, a learned Hunga- rian Jesuit, historian, and jurist, 1699-1760. SZENT-MARTONIY, Ignatius, a Jesuit and astronomer of Portugal, who suffered a long i fl prisonment on the suppression of his order in that country, 1718-1793. SZTARAY, Antony, Count De, an Austria I general, opposed to Dumouriez, period of t$f French revolution, died 1808. TABARI, an Arabian historian, 839-925. TABARRANI, Pietro, an Italian physician, and author of Anatomical Observations, 1702-79. TABERNiEMONTANUS, James Theodore, a German physician and botanist, 1520-1588. TABOR, J. O., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1604-1674. TABOUET, J., a French historian, 17th cent. TABOUROT, S., a French poet, 1547-1590. TACCA, P. J., an Italian sculptor, died 1640. TACCOLI, N., an Italian historian, 1090-1768. -; TACHARD, Guy, a French Jesuit, known as a missionary to Siam and India from 1680 to 16^KI TACIl'US (Caius Cornelius), the Rod* historian. Tacitus was probably born in i of Nero, but neither the place nor the exact time j of his birth is known. It appears from a letter of 756 TAC the younger Pliny, who was born a.d. 61, that Tacitus was about the same age with himself, but a little older ; he may, therefore, have been born in A.D. 58 or 59. His parentage is veiled in the [Tacitus From on Antique Gem."] same obscurity ; but it is not improbable that his father was Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman knight, who is mentioned by Pliny as a procurator of the emperor in Belgic Gaul. We thus know nothing of the training which he underwent in youth, pre- paratory to the literary labours which he after- wards so ably performed. He has himself recorded a few facts illustrative of his career after he had attained the age of manhood ; and these form the only authentic history of his life. He owed his first promotion to Vespasian, and was indebted for further favours to his sons and successors, Titus and Domitian. In a.d. 77 C. Julius Agricola, who was then consul, betrothed to him his daughter, whom he married in the following year. He was one of fifteen commissioners appointed to super- intend the celebration of the secular games in a.d. 88, and held in the same year the ofhce of praetor. He was not in Rome when his father-in-law died there a.d. 93, nor does he state the reason of his absence. In a.d. 97 he was elected consul to supply the place of Virginius Rufus, who died dur- ing his year of office ; and pronounced over the deceased the funeral oration. In a.d. 99 he was appointed by the senate, along with Pliny, to con- duct the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa, who was impeached for malversation in his pro- vince ; and, on the testimony of his associate and friend, made a most eloquent and dignified reply to the arguments advanced in defence of the ac- cused. The time of his death is unknown ; but it may perhaps be inferred that he survived Trajan, who died a.d. 117. The extant works of Tacitus are 1. The Life of Agricola his father-in-law ; 2. A Treatise on the Manners and Customs of the Ger- mans ; 3. Histories ; 4. Annals ; 5. Dialogue on Orators, or the Causes of the Decline of Eloquence. The Life of Agricola is one of the earliest works of Tacitus, and must have been written after the death of Domitian b.c. 96. It has been much and justly admired as a specimen of Biography ; and is cer- tainly an affectionate tribute to the memory of an able administrator and a good man. His descrip- tion of ancient Germany and its people is not of much value as an historical document, though there can be little doubt that it contains the hearsay accounts which were prevalent in the age of the TAL author. The histories, of which only the first four books and a part of the fifth are extant, compre- hended the period from the accession of Galba (a.d. 68) to the death of Domitian (a.d. 96). The Annals comprised the period from the death of Augustus (a.d. 14) to the death of Nero (a.d. 68). Of these a part of the fifth book is lost, and also the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, the beginning of the elventh, and the end of the sixteenth, which is the last. The style of Tacitus is concise, vigorous, and expressive ; occasionally obscured by elaborate condensation, but always such as to impress the reader with a high opinion of the reflective powers of the writer. LG-F-1 TACITUS, Marcus Claudius, successor of Aurelian as emperor of Rome 275, died 276. TACQUET, A., a Flem. mathemat., 1611-1707. TADJ-EDDYN, an Arabian historian, d. 1275. TAFFI, A., an Italian artist, 1213-1294. TAFURI, J. B., an Ital. biographer, 1695-1760. TAGLIACOZIO, TAGLIACOZZI, or TAG- LIACOTIUS, Gaspar, an Italian surgeon, fam- ous for his method of curing wounds of the lips and nose, 1556-1599. TAHUREAU, J., a French poet, 1527-1555. TAILLASSON, John Joseph, a French pain- ter and writer on art, 1746-1809. TAILLE, J. De La, a French poet, dramatist, and historian, 1540-1595. His brother, James, a poet and author of several tragedies, 1542-1562. TAILLEPIED, Noel, a French biographer, antiquarian, and historian of the Druids, 1540-89. TAISAUD, P., a French jurist, 1644-1715. TAI-TSOU, emperor of China, 951-954. TAIE-TSOUNG, emperor of China, 977-997. TALBERT, F. X., a French priest, 1728-1803. TALBOT, Charles, successively earl and duke of Shrewsbury, descended from the famous war- rior of that name (next article), was born in 1660. He held the office of lord chamberlain to James II., but actively promoted the revolution of 1688, and became viceroy of Ireland and lord treasurer, d. 1717. TALBOT, John, earl of Shrewsbury, called 'The English Achilles,' renowned in the French wars, was the second son of Richard, Lord Talbot, and was bora at Blechmore, in Shropshire, 1373. Shakspeare calls him ' The Terror of France ' with historical correctness, his name at the time having really become proverbial in that country. The history of Talbot commences with his call to par- liament by Henry IV., after which, in 1412, he was appointed lord justice in Ireland, and in 1414 lord-heutenant. He first went to France in the reign of Henry V., 1420, and nine years later, under the regent Bedford, his exploits had ren- dered his name a word of terror. At this time, however, the Maid of Orleans (see Joan of Arc) turned the fortunes of war against him, and Talbot became the prisoner of Charles VII. from 1429 to 1432, when he recovered his liberty by ransom. Under date 1433, the French chronicler, Monstre- let, informs us how 'MessireJean de Thallebot' came into France, where he conquered many cities and fortresses; on this occasion, in fact, he re- asserted the English dominion in that country, and for his services was created marshal of the king- dom; at a later period, 1442, the earldom of Shrewsbury was conferred on him. We next hear of him in an embassage for peace 1443, and then, 757 TAL 1116. in his old lieutenancy in Ireland, onr affairs in France meanwhile going to ruin. In 1449 we read in old Monstrelet's annals, how valiantly he led three hundred men to the assault of Rouen, and planted the English flag on the battlements. He seems then to nave returned to England again, and in 1451 went back to Aquitaine as lieutenant- general with extraordinary powers : once more he led the 'noble English' to victory, and, at the head of less than five thousand combatants, recovered Guienne, aided, indeed, by the treason of Lesparre and others. Twice did Charles, and twice did Tal- bot, recover Bourdeaux, the latter, on the first of these occasions, becoming prisoner, when he was treated with great courtesy on account of his val- our, and presented by Charles with gifts of horses and gold and silver. In 1453 he marched to the relief of Castillon, then besieged by the French, and was killed by a cannon ball in the eightieth year of his age ; one of his sons also fell with him on the field of battle, and the English, no longer sustained by his heroic arm, were soon after ex- pelled from France. [E.R.J TALBOT, P., an Irish Jesuit, 1620-1680. TALBOT, R., an English antiquary, died 1558. TALBOT, William, successively bishop of Oxford, Salisbury, and Durham, 1659-1730. His son, Charles, Lord Talbot, brought up to the bar, was born 1684. In 1719 he entered parlia- ment, became solicitor-general in 1726, and lord chancellor in 1733 ; died 1737. Catherine, only child of Edward, his second son, author of several elegantlv written works, 1720-1770. TALFOURD, Thomas Noon, the author of ' Ion,' was born at Reading in 1795. He was edu- cated there at the Dissenters' grammar school, and instructed in classical literature by Dr. Valpy. In 1821 he was called to the bar, and first wore the Serjeant's gown in 1833. Two years later Serjeant Talfourd became a member of parliament, and published his famous tragedy, followed at intervals by 'The Athenian Captive,' 'Glencoe,' and the ' Castilian.' In 1849 he was appointed a judge of the Common Pleas, and was on the bench at Staf- ford, apparently in good health, when he suddenly breathed his last on the 20th March, 1854. ' Ion ' is acknowledged to be a fine classical production, abounding in passages of remarkable beauty. The character of Talfourd also was well worthy of his literary fame ; perhaps no man was more beloved in his own circle for kindness of heart, and all the virtues of social intercourse. His prose works are a ' Life of Charles Lamb,' Vacation Rambles,' and a biography of Mrs. Radcliffe. TALIESIN, otherwise Pen Bierdd, which sig- nifies ' chief of the bards,' one of the most ancient British or Welch poets, between 520 and 570. TALLART, Camille D'Hostun, Due De, a Fr. marshal, defeated by Marlborough, 1652-1728. TALLENTS, F., a nonconf. divine, 1619-1708. TALLEYRAND, a younger branch of the family of the counts of Perigord, the first of whom known to history was Helie De Talleyrand, who lived about 1100. After him we find Helie De Talleyrand Perigord, an influential cardinal and statesman, 1301-1364. H. De Talleyrand, count of Chalais, minister and favourite of Louis XIII., who was out-generaled by Richelieu, and perished on the scaffold 1626. Albert Ange- TAL ltque, cardinal and peer of France at the period of the revolution, fled with the emigration, but returned with the Bourbons, and in 1819 became archbishop of Paris, 1736-1821. TALLEYRAND-PERIGOKD, Charles MauI rice De, the character of his house who fills bfjf. far the largest space in history, the prince of diplo- matists, was born at Paris in 1754, and educatem for the church. His course of life was not veir consistent with this profession, but the wish of Ins dying father prevailed with Louis XVI., and he was named, m 1788, bishop of Autun, a rural diocese in the Bourbonnaise. The connection studies, and manners of the young prelate well still such as invited him to preserve his place in society, and he frequented not the less the gay salons of Paris, studying, if anything, Voltaire and Fontenelle, and drawing more closely to Mirajf: beau and the other stirring spirits of that perioB In May, 1789, the states-general met, and Talley- rand took his place with the clergy, and, adopting popular principles, actively engaged himself in the reorganization of the state, upon which that body so resolutely entered ; he even proposed the con* fiscation and sale of the church property, and when that measure was carried, zealously applied himself to the creation of a constitutional clergy. For these and similar misdeeds, he was excommuni* cated by Pius VI. some six months after he had given the sanction of the church to the people's cause by celebrating high mass on the ' altar of the country.' On leaving the church, Talleyrand at once assumed the character by which he is known to history, and went as ambassador to England with M. Chauvelin, with whom also fit was suddenly expelled from London by the minis* try of Pitt ; he then fled to America, his name being compromised in the discoveries of the iron chest, so soon followed by the ruin of the monarchy. He remained in his transatlantic asylum till after the fall of Robespierre, thus escaping the whob period of the reign of terror, and then, returning to Paris, became a member of the newly-founded National Institute, and minister of foreign affairs under the directory. It is at this point that the European interest of his histoiy commences, for he now conspired against his masters, and pro- moted the revolution which earned Napoleon to the summit of power. Here the question occurs, there- fore, What were his convictions ? Faith., in what any single party might understand by ^nncqBj Talleyrand had not; yet, he possessed some raw | quality of mind which, to him, supplied the place of such a faith, and which has been aptly deA 1 I nated a 'supernatural indifference,' ai ference not to his own fate, but to whatsofHl event might befall the men or the institutions sVi rounding" him, so that his own schemes remajH| buoyant. Napoleon's summary judgment ofr^H is perhaps nearer the truth than any more laboured criticism, and his words are these : ' Talleyrand was always in a state of treason, but it teas a flBI sonable complicity with fortune herself; bis cir- cumspection was extreme; he conducted towards his friends as if, at some future time^Mf I might be his enemies, and towards his en if they might become his friends !' This, after all . the apologies we have read for him, really 9tfg| to be the sum of the matter ; and however admir- 758 TAL TAL able such a character^ might be as a minister of I of the guillotine, at the same time that he revelled foreign affairs, there is surely too much of the in the proconsular splendour and debauchery of Mephistopheles element in it to satisfy any lover of which several other cities of France at that time honesty ; it is a judgment, also, by no means parte in character, for the fact stated is implied in the very apologies for him. What else is the argu- ment that he shifted from one party to another, lest he should partake in the threatened corruption of the body of which he foresaw the decay, except another way of stating his treasonable complicity with fortune ; and what would any cause be worth if all its supporters were in this state of perennial treason towards it? What, again, is the moral worth of that man, however great his capacity, who supports a cause on condition of its suc- cess V We should be doing injustice to the me- mory of Talleyrand, not to add that he earnestly desired peace, and the alliance of France and Eng- land in a progressive policy; his great misiortune was an overweening reliance on the shifts of diplo- macy, his too great willingness to adopt that expe- dient of abominable cunning though the expres- sion came from a nobler head than his ' tell a lie and find it truth ! ' Talleyrand remained foreign minister under Napoleon till 1807, when he was created prince of Benevento, and became grand- chamberlain, with the titular rank of vice-grand- elector of the empire. In 1809 he began his oppo- sition to the policy of Napoleon, and being deprived of his office of chamberlain, retired to Valencay, where it would appear he conspired against the emperor. The year 1814 found him acting openly with the allies, and he next appears as minister under Louis XVIII. In the latter years of the opposition which ended in the revolution of 1830, 1 alleyrand took no part in public business, but on the accession of Louis Philippe, as citizen king, he became ambassador once more in England. This appointment he held till January, 1835, when his great age caused him to resign it, and he was suc- ceeded by General Sebastiani. To him, more than any other man, Louis Philippe was indebted for the creation of his peace policy, maintained, say the French, ' at any price,' a matter this which must yet await, some time, a righteous judgment. Died 1838. [E.R.] TALLIEN, Jean Lambert, a Jacobin of the French revolution, chief agent in the fall of Robes- pierre, was born at Paris 1769, and was succes- sively clerk to an attorney, and in one of the government offices. At the epoch of the revolu- tion he became secretary to one of the deputies, and at the declining period of the Legislative As- sembly was editor of the ' Ami des Citoyens,' one of the journals by which the populace were goaded to anarchy ; he also actively assisted in organizing the insurrection of August 10, 1792, on the success of which he was appointed recording secretary of the Paris Commune. From this time Tallien Tanked with the most active members of the moun- tain, and aided in the destruction of the Girondins ; he was also implicated in the massacres of Septem- ber, and became president of the Assembly on the day of the king's execution. In the beginning of 1794 he was sent with Ysabeau to the city of Bourdeaux to crush the remnant of feeling remain- ing in favour of Girondism, and place the republi- can government on a secure basis : here he struck terror into the population by his remorseless use 759 presented a like example. One of the most beauti- ful and highly spirited women of that age was a Madame de Fontenai, daughter of the count de Cabarrus, a Spanish grandee, of French extrac- tion ; she was detained at Bourdeaux en route for Spain by the arrest of her husband, and was accustomed to address the clubs, where her appear- ance excited the greatest enthusiasm. Easily moved to pity by the terror around her, and fond of adventure and notoriety, this woman resolved to conquer the heart of the dreaded Tallien, and she succeeded so well that his greatest pride was to exhibit her in his splendid equipage, clothed in Grecian costume, to represent the goddess of liberty a parade of Oriental luxury and vice, which disgusted Robespierre beyond expression, while it amused the people and was the salvation of many of them, for whom this modern Thais was never tired of interceding. Being recalled to Paris as the last struggle between Robespierre and these corrupters of the people drew nigh, Madame de Fontenai was arrested, in the expectation that she would lend her assistance in the fall of Tallien, and, at all events, that she might not embarrass the action of Robespierre and Saint Just, She, however, proved true to her lover, and privately conveyed a note to him, in which she reproached him with cowardice if he suffered her now to perish on the scaffold. Thus exasperated, and certain that his own head would fall next, Tallien acted that daring part in Convention, on the 9th Thermidor, which proved the destruction of Robes- pierre : he was then elected to the Committee of Public Safety, and become president of the Con- vention ; now, also, Madame de Fontenai became his wife. He played a considerable part in subse- quent events, and was elected on the Council of 500 ; the ascendancy of Buonaparte, however, soon threw men of his stamp into the shade, and Tal- lien died, without ever recovering the undeserved importance he had once enjoyed, in 1820. His beautiful colleague, for such Madame de Fontenai really was, procured a divorce during his absence in Egypt, whither he had gone with Napoleon, and in 1805, was married to the count Joseph de Caraman, afterwards prince of Chimay : she died in 1835. Tallien, we ought to say, admitted his 'errors' as he called them, but pleaded the delirium of the times, a fact surely of some signi- ficance ; ignorant of what the future may have in store for us, let us ponder these circumstances, and consider well what monstrous births might yet be brought forth among the millions who know nothing of Christianity but the name, and little of civilization but its corrupting influences. [E.R.] TALLIS, Thomas, the master of William Byrde, one of the greatest of English musicians, was born early in the reign of Henry VIII. The most curious and extraordinary of his works which is still extant was his song of forty vocal parts. This great effort of musical science is carried on in alternate flight, pursuit, attack, and choral coun- terpoint to the end. This many-voiced piece of Gothicism is terminated by twelve bars of full harmony. Tallis died in 1585, and was buried in the old parish church of Greenwich. [J.M.] TAL TALMA, Francis Joseph, the Garrick of the French stage, was born at Paris about 1770, but a great portion of his boyhood was passed in Lon- non. He was educated at a boarding school in Lambeth, and then articled to a surgeon; but soon joined an amateur French company, under Sir John Gallini, at the Hanover Square Rooms, and appeared as Count Almaviva, in Beaumar- chais' comedy of 'The Barber of Seville,' and other characters. His taste was formed by wit- nessing the performances of Kemble and Siddons, and on visiting Paris as an actor, and making his debut on the boards of the theatre Francais, he ventured on the new style of acting, but as might have been expected, it was not immediately accept- able. An accident caused, at length, the acknow- ledgment of his merits. A tragedy by M. Chenier, entitled Charles IX., being accepted, and the part refused by the chief performer, M. Saintfnl, who accompanied his refusal with the sneering recom- mendation that it should be given 'to young Talma;' the recommendation was literally adopted, and Talma, by sedulous study of the part, and an adoption of proper costume, won a decided triumph by the performance. The advantage of his English education was in this apparent ; but still more conspicuously in the next occurrence. M. Ducis had undertaken a translation of Shak- speare's ' Othello,' with a catastrophe more suit- able, as he thought, to the prejudices of a French audience ; but Talma, enlightened by what he had observed of the English stage, insisted on the Shaksperian conclusion. The result was a mar- vellous success, which placed Talma at the sum- mit of his profession. He won a large fortune by his exertions, a high position in society, and the favour of the emperor Napoleon. He died at Paris, 19th October, 1826, having previously pub- lished (1825) 'Reflexions' on the histrionic art, distinguished by much truth and research. He was interred, according to his own directions, in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, without any reli- gious ceremony, but funeral orations by Jouy and Arnault were delivered at the grave. To change, it is alleged, his resolution on this score, the archbishop of Paris had sought an interview, but in vain. Talma's conduct, it is supposed, pro- ceeded from his resentment at the excommunication pronounced by the Roman Catholic Church against actors. A short time before his death, he em- braced his theatrical friends, Jouy, Arnault, and Duvilliers, but refused to see Madame Vanhove, his wife, from whom he had been long separated. At the funeral a magnificent hearse conveyed his remains, and was followed by fifteen mourning coaches, besides Talma's own, and several empty carriages, with a great number of literary and theatrical persons on foot, and a multitude exceed- ing four thousand individuals. A large concourse of citizens also filled the cemetery and surrounded the tomb. Such was the respect shown to the ^reat actor not excessive, though so significant, for to the artist reverence is always due, and the art of acting is one in which the characteristics of all the other arts are united. [J.A. H.] TALMONT, A. P. La Tremoiixe, Prince De, a royalist chief in the war of La Vendee, executed at his castle of Laval 1793. TALMONT, Gabrielle De Bourbon, Prin- TAM cess De, wife of Louis II. of La Tremouille, authod of works of devotion still in MS., died 1516. TAMBRONI, Joseph, a learned Italian poet and historian, 1773-1824. His sister, ClotildaJ professor of Greek at Bologna, 1758-1817. TAMBURINI, PiETRO,afamous Italian moralist] and writer on jurisprudence, 1737-1827. TAMERLANE, sometimes called ' Timour thai Tartar,' one of those grand old heroes who have hy past times disputed the empire of the world, wail born at Kesh, a town south-east of Samarcand, ia 1335. He was a descendant on the mother's side* of the Mongol emperor Genghis Khan, and beJ came sovereign ot Tartary after the defeat of Houssein, his competitor, in 1369 or 1370. Sa- luted emperor, with the surname of Saheb Kara m (Master of the World), he commenced to make good his title by invading Persia, and in a shorJ time, 1380, took possession of Herat and the whoJ of Khorassan. It was the age of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, and all the races of the East were more or less engaged in the struggle for empire. The feeling of Tamerlane was thus distinctly expressed: 'The earth ought to have but one master, as there is only one God in heaven; and what (he asked) is the earth, with all its in- habitants, for the ambition of a great prince?' The barbarian grandeur of resolve thus announce^ is greatly preferable, if only on the score of manly sincerity, to the same end sought by the tricks of- corruption and diplomacy, fearful as it is to contem- plate the progress of such a scourge, the cities de# stroyed, and the pyramids formed of thousands oft human heads, which were all that Tamerlane left to mark the spot where they had once flourished. These are scenes it is unnecessary to depict in detail, enough to state that the conquests of Tamerlane had reached from Moscow on the one hand, to Delhi in India on the other, before he marched against his last and greatest foe, the Sultan Bajazet. The eventful battle which decided the question whether the Osmanlis or the Tartars should be masters for the present was fought at Angora, on the 20th July, 1402, the number of combatants on the side of Tamerlane being 200,000 men, having twenty- six elephants, and on the part of Bajazet 300,0B men, with ten elephants. The conflict raged with fury six hours, and after 40,000 of the Turks were laid dead on the field, and 10,000 of their adver- saries, Bajazet became the prisoner of his con- queror, who retained him captive, though he treated him with great generosity, till his death in the year following. Tamerlane then, in 1404, re- turned to his capital, and insatiate of conquest, immediately organized an army of elite troops, numbering 200,000 men, destined to act againtl j China, but he was seized with a violent fever, and died, soon after taking the field, 18th February, 1405. This extraordinary man is supposed to be the author of a book of 'Institutes, Political and Mili- tary,' which has been translated from the into French and English. His portrait re] a warrior armed cap-a-pie, of lofty stature, with * i noble countenance, framed on the Greek mod^H and a head massive as that of Hercules. While : j extensive conquests, and the foundation of empires, i are rendered necessary by the ignorance and vice of whole masses of population, such a man must \ be numbered among the great of his kind ; the 760 TAM history of all such, however, proves hy accumu- lated instances, that their successes are only as so many judgments upon society, as grand, and it may be as beneficial in their results as the storms of the atmosphere. If it be so, the sudden rise of empires, and the recurrence of the experiment from age to age, whether under an Alexander, a iCa?sar, a Tamerlane, or a Napoleon, can but be for a temporal purpose; instead of pointing to universal dominion as the end of society, every fresh attempt does but prove the impossibility of such a result; the master mind seems but the electric spot to which the clouds gather from all Jsides, till the heavens are black, and the portent lexplodcs in thunder, or dazzles the world with its Jfires. The end of Providence is not to arm frail ; man with his thunders, but to render the air free |and pure around him : so long as ignorance pre- vails, so long as the darkest passions continue to Iferment and clash with each other, these scenes must recur. After all, we may hope, will come Ithose peaceful communities, of which the policy of lour own country and the spirit of its history afford jlthe likeliest promise the world has yet seen. [E.R.] I TAMMEAMEA, a king of the Sandwich Islands, co whom the merit belongs of beginning the civi- lization of his country, died 1819. j TAXCRED, a chief of the crusades, who headed a vast army collected from Apulia and Calabria, |ind founded the principality of Galilee on Lake ifiberias. He is one of the heroes of Tasso, and [lis exploits date from 1096 to 1112. TAN I) Y, James Napper, one of the leaders of 'the ' United Irishmen,' was born in 1757, and 'became secretary of the Catholic Association at Ifoublin, where he was a merchant, in 1791. Hav- ing escaped to France at the commencement of fthe government prosecution, he was commissioned fta general of brigade in the expedition directed Igainst Ireland under General Rey in 1798. After [he failure of this attempt he took refuge in Ham- urgh, but was delivered up to the English govern- ment, and condemned to death. The sentence, .however, was not executed, and Napper Tandy, mberated after the peace of Amiens, died at Bour- '.leaux, a colonel in the French service, 1803. I TANNAHILL, Robert, a Scottish lyric, and luthor of some of the most popular songs which nave been written since the time of Burns. He ivas born in 1774, in humble life, and followed the ii landicraft of a weaver. His education, as might expected, was of the most ordinary character, nd the necessity of daily toil necessarily restricted I is means of improvement. But the love of song ras strong within him, and on the loom he fre- uently composed his sweet but simple strains, . aving attached to it a small desk, to enable him p put down his thick-coming fancies as they arose, rhough his muse was not of a high-rate character, nd never continued long on the wing, there is a rentle pathos, and wild thrilling music in such : Jessie the Flower of Dumblane,' ' Gloomy winter's noo awa,' ' Loudon's bonny Woods and ' Iraes,' and some others, which have embalmed pern in the hearts and memories of his country- Tannahill was indebted to a Mr. R. A. inith, a popular composer of his day, for setting sveral of his pieces to music, and which contri- uted to their early and permanent notoriety. Like TAR others of the tuneful tribe, this unfortunate son of song was subject to fits of melancholy, which ter- minated in mental derangement, under the impulse of which he committed suicide in 1810, by drown- ing himself in a deep pool of the Paisley canal, leaving behind him a name and reputation, second to few of our minor and popular song- writers. [T-^-3 TANNER, A., a German ascetic, 1572-1632. TANNER, B., a German writer of the 17th cent. TANNER, Mathias, a Bohemian Jesuit and historian of his order, about 1630-1700. TANNER, Thomas, bishop of St. Asaph, author of ' Notitia Monastica,' an account of all the reli- gious houses in England and Wales, 1674-1735. TANSILLO, L., an Italian poet, 1510-1568. TANTARANI, M. Eddyn Achmed, an Ara- bian poet and professor at Bagdad, 11th century. TANUCCI, Bernardo, Marquis of, a cele- brated statesman of Naples, 1698-1783. TAPLIN, William, a veterinary surgeon au- thor of works on farriery and horses, died 1807. TAPPER, R., a French theologian, 1487-1559. TARCAGNOTA, J., a native of Gaeta, author of a ' Universal History,' died 1566. TARDIF, W., a French translator, 1449-1480. TARDY, C, a French physician, 1607-1670. TARGA, L., an Italian physician, 1730-1815. TARGE, J. B., a French historian, 1720-1788. TARGIONI-TOZETTI, Giovanni, an eminent Italian physician and naturalist, 1712-1783. TAR1N, J., a French savant, 1586-1666. TARIN, P., a French anatomist, died 1761. TARLTON, or TARLETON, Richard, a cele- brated actor and wit, author of a dramatic piece, entitled ' The Seven Deadly Sins,' died 1589. TARNOWSKI, called 'the Great,' an illustrious Polish general and tactician, 1488-1571. TARQUIN, two kings of Rome : 1. Tarqui- nius Priscus, fifth in the line of kings, succeeded Ancus Martius 614 B.C., and was assassinated by the sons of Ancus 576 B.C. He contributed much to the fortification and embellishment of the city, and signally defeated the Sabines and Latins : he is considered one of the most illustrious of the Roman kings. 2. Tarquinius Superbus, seventh king, grandson of the preceding, obtained the throne by the murder of Servius Tullius, whose daughter, Tullia, he had married. He was an able war- rior and statesman, but cruel and unprincipled in his conduct ; he was dethroned, and a revolution effected, by Junius Brutus, provoked by the outrage offered to Lucretia. The history of Tullia is one of the most atrocious on record, she having mur- dered her first husband in order to espouse Tarquin, and afterwards driven over the mangled remains of her father in the streets of Rome. TARSIA, G. De, a Italian poet, 1476-1530. TARSIA, P. A. De, a Span, historian, d. 1670. TARTINI, Guiseppe, was born at Pisano in Istria, in 1692. Tartini was first meant for the law, but music compelled him to follow her bidding, and thus the world gained a great violinist. The story of his dream in which he thought he had made a compact with the devil is well known. The result of this nocturnal vision was his ' Devil's Sonata ' still extant and which is esteemed as his greatest work. His life was full of struggles and adventures. He fought several duels, and married 61 TAR a cardinal's niece against the consent of both her father and uncle. He afterwards took sanctuary in a monastery, where he remained for two years. Tartini became the founder of a school of violinists, of which Nardini, Pugnani, Viotti, and Baillot wpre celebrated disciples. He died at Padua in 1770. [J.M.] TARUFFI, J. A., an Italian poet, 1722-1786. TASKER, WILLIAM, a translator and poet, rector of Iddesleigh, in Devonshire, died 1800. T ASMAN, Abbl Jaxsskn, was born at Hoorn in North Holland, about the year 1600. The skill and judgment which he displayed at an early period of his life in the service of the Dutch East India Company, brought him under the notice of its dis- tinguished governor-general, Anthony Van Diemen. His first commission on a voyage of discovery was received from his patron in 1642. For some years previously the Dutch had been vigorously prose- cuting geographical researches in the western Pacific ; and had already traced a large part of the Australian coasts ; but the southern and south- eastern limits were still undetermined. To ascer- tain these was the object of the expedition put under the command of Tasman in 1642, by the go- vernor-general and council of Batavia. He sailed from that port on the 14th August, and directed his course, first to Mauritius ; and then S.E. and E. across the Indian ocean, till on the 24th Novem- ber, he discovered a country, which he named Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the governor ; and which he considered to be a part of the great 'terra australis,' already in great measure sur- veyed. On the 2d December he doubled its southern limit; and thus proved that it did not extend to a great distance south, as had been before supposed. Tasman now turned northwards ; but meeting unfavourable winds, directed his course towards the east ; and, in a short time, was so fortunate as to discover New Zealand. Having traced a portion of its coasts, and made many other discoveries in the adjoining seas, he returned to Batavia, after a prosperous voyage of nine months, during which he made many important additions to geography, and cleared up many doubtful points. The results of a second voyage, undertaken in 1644, for a further examination of the same regions, are not certainly known ; but, judging from the instructions furnished to him, as given in ' Flinder's Voyages,' and from the cir- cumstance that his own name, those of the go- vernor-general, and his daughter Maria to whom Tasman was attached, and of two of the council who signed the instructions, are applied to places on the north coast, there seems no doubt that this iiortion of Australia was carefully examined by urn. Nothing is known of the after life of Tas- man, or of the time and place of his death. An account of the first voyage is given in the collec- tions of Th6v6not, Correa, and Callender; and with considerable fulness in the Penny Cyclo- paedia, svb nom. [J-R-] TASSEL, R., a French painter, 1588-1666. TASSET, J., a French musician, 1732-1820. TASSINS, L., a French surgeon, died 1687. TASSIN, R. P., a learned French Benedictine, author of ' The Literary History of the Congrega- tion of Saint Maur,' 1697-1777. TASSO, A., an Italian painter, 1566-1643. TAS TASSO, Bernardo, father of the great It poet, secretary to the duke of Mantua and c Italian princes, and author of several poems, of which is the romance of ' Amadis de G born at Bergamo 1493, died 1569. [Residence of Tasso.] TASSO, Torquato, one of the most celebrate and most unfortunate among all men of genius was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself noted in th< I roll of Italian poets. Bernardo, noble but poor had passed, from his native town, Bergamo, int the service of the prince of Salerno ; and his soi was born in 1544, at Sorrento, on the souther,! shore of the Bay of Naples. We cannot in an i degree understand even the soluble questions in th riddle of Tasso's life, without remembering what hi j character was. It exhibited such a preponder nice c i imagination and feeling, and such a consequenj tendency both to ideal dreaming and to timid an I irritable sensitiveness, as must probably in any cir | cumstances have unfitted him for active buaHfl and made it certain that his happiness and fl^H could not have been secured otherwise than by th I most watchful tenderness and protection. Place j in a situation of uncertainty and dependence overawed by haughty and capricious patron3, an , thwarted by the jealousy or contempt of rivj j worldlings, such a man was necessarily miserable j nor can we wonder that the fine mind at lemrt lost its balance under the shocks which it had t sustain. Tasso studied at Padua, devoted himse i to poetry in spite of the warnings of his MM- and published ' Rinaldo,' a romantic poem, at tt age of eighteen. There are still presen cantos of his greater work, written only a } and he began to remodel and continue it when he entered the service of the cardinal brother of the duke of Ferrara. The re parts of it at court, and beautiful lyrics j by the young poet, made his name famous : out Italy ; and he became yet better knov pastoral drama, the ' Aminta.' In 1 ' Gierusalemme Liberata,' one of the few great epi< which the world has seen, was complel its illustrious author had not the courage! t< it. Obscure stories are told of unfortun; what we know is, that the poet was aire; state of incipient derangement. Heput as a heretic, into the hands of the inqni Bologna, who wisely dismissed him as 7C2 TAS TAY Mac; he returned to Ferrara, escaped from a I his earnest love of truth, and his devotion to the welfare of the people, especially shown by preach- ing to them in their native German instead of Latm as had previously been the custom. Here also may be mentioned the influence of his style upon the German language, to which he gave a smoother rhythm, a more exact meaning, and a richer vocabulary than it had previously borne ; a circumstance which has given him a distinguished place in the history of German prose writers. His sermons are admitted to be models in this respect, but of all his writings we can only notice his famous ' Institutions,' commonly known as ' The German Theology,' a work which has been fre- quently translated into Latin and French, and exercised as much influence as any other single book on the development of religious thought. Wesley was at first captivated by it, but it went too deep for him, and he finally rejected it, and adopted those methodical religious exercises which acquired so great popularity. The sum of the 'Institutions' may be thus stated : 1. The most rigid performance of mere ceremonials amounts to nothing; it is all but the conceit of form, mere imagery ; the beginning of the spiritual life is pro- found abasement of heart and mind before God. 2. God must be loved above all things, and the neighbour as one's self; this supposes a resigna- tion of all sensual pleasures and external satisfac- tions, so far as they are not produced from the internal state towards God ; in like manner of all self-intelligence, conceit of the understanding, and pleasure of the imagination; this internal self- annihilation is more difficult than mortification of the body, because in the latter case the acts of piety may really be agreeable to the spirit and fall in with its humour. 3. The state to be reached is that of conjunction with God essentially, not under images, or by way of reflection ; He then becomes the effective good of the soul and illuminates the sacred shade with which man has surrounded him- self. These are the vital principles treated metho- dically in the Institutions, and Tauler himself was called The Illuminated Doctor, from the visions and spiritual voices that reached him. [E.R.] TAUNAY, A., a French sculptor, 1768-1824. TAUNAY, N. A., a French painter, 1755-1830. TAURELLUS, N., a German philosopher, whose endeavour was to establish a fixed demarcation be- tween theology and philosophy, 1547-1586. TAURI, D., a French anatomist, 1669-1701. TAWSEN, TAUSSEN, or TAGESEN, John, called the Luther of Denmark, one of the earliest promoters of the reform, in that country, 1494-1561. TAVANNES, Gaspard De Saulx De, a French marshal, and one of the most eminent of their commanders, distinguished in the wars of Italy, and in the religious wars which ended in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1509-1573. TAVELLI, J., an Italian theologian, 1764-84. TAVERNER, Richard, clerk to the signet in the reign of Edward VI., author of religious and theological works, born in Norfolk 1505, died 1575. TAVERNIER, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated Eastern traveller, bom in Paris 1605, died at Mos- cow 1686. He made an immense fortune in trad- nv<?nt in which he was placed, wandered on foot o his sister's house at Sorrento, and thence, in .579, came back to Ferrara. He is said to have iow become violent : at all events, the duke shut lim up in a madhouse, the hospital of Sant' Anna, rhere he was imprisoned for more than seven years. ["he 'Jerusalem' was printed repeatedly in 1581, a spite of his angry prohibitions. It is a hivalrous and Christian epic, displaying a beauty f poetic fancy which had not been reached by any ne since Virgil, and a melting tenderness of jeling which has not been equalled in any other reat narrative poem. In the meantime, its un- appy author was, by turns, seeing consolatory ugels or tormenting demons, and subsiding into atervals of calmness and sanity. He wrote in his ungeon some of his best pieces, both in prose and tt verse. He was released in 1586, and soon after- wards published his tragedy ' Torrismondo.' In 592 he showed evident decay of judgment by isuing an altered and spoiled edition of the ' Gieru- alemme.' His life was now one of wandering. He invited to come to Rome from Naples, and be rowned a poet as Petrarch had been. He obeyed he call, but said, truly, that he went only to die. 'he applause of crowds, and the honour paid to im by the papal court, shed some consolation ver his last days. The time had been fixed for is coronation, when he felt his end approaching, stired to the convent of Sant' Onofrio, on a hill verlooking the Eternal City, and there expired almly, in the spring of 1595. [W.S.] TASSONI, A., an Italian poet, 1565-1635. TASSONI, A., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1749-1818. I TASTE, L. Bernard De La, bishop of Beth- eem, author of Theological Letters on the subject Hf Convulsion aries, 1692-1754. I TATE, Francis, an English lawyer, author of Interesting antiquarian works, 1560-1616. I TATE, Nahum, successor of Shadwell as poet- sureate, author of Poems, and of a metrical ver- sion of the Psalms, 1652-1715. I TATIAN, a Platonic philosopher who became a Itlonvert to Christianity, and is numbered among I'Bhose early writers of the church who are charged IBrith heresy. He was born in Syria about 130, land taught in Mesopotamia about 172. T ATI US, a king of the Sabines, who was put [So death at Lavinium about 742 B.C. I TAUBE, F. W. De, a Fr. geographer, 1724-78. I TAUBMAN, Frederic, an eminent Ger. philo- llogist and critic, born in Franconia 1565, d. 1613. I TAULER or THAULER, John, in Latin Tau- yferus, a famous name among the mystic divines, was born at Strasburgh, as nearly as can be ascer- tained, about 1290, and died there in 1361. He Has a monk of the Dominican order, and in several Ipwpect s one of the most remarkable men of his age, If, indeed, he may not rightly be regarded as the Ifcerunner of Luther, who, as well as Melancthon, and our own Henry More, highly esteemed his works. His external history possesses little in- t beyond that which arises from the circum- stances attending his spiritual experience; the brothers of his order having greatly derided, and Even persecuted him. The peculiarity which ex- I him to this treatment was the slight esteem I p which he held their superstitious observances, g with diamonds ; his ' Travels,' published in 6 )ls., 1679, are highly valued. TAYLOR, Brook, a natural philosopher and 763 TAY mathematician, author of Experiments on Mag- netism, and other works, horn at Edmonton, in Middlesex, 1685, died 1731. TAYLOR, Henry, a rector of Hampshire, known as an Arian divine, died 1788. His son, John, well known as a writer of humorous verse by his ' Monsieur Tonson,' and similar pieces, and proprietor of the ' Sun ' newspaper, died 1832. TAYLOR, Herbert, Lieut. -General Sir, sec- retary to the duke of York while engaged in the French wars, and private secretary to George III. and Queen Charlotte, 1775-1839. TAYLOR, Jane, who distinguished herself as a poetical and prose writer for youth, was born in London, where Tier father exercised the profession of an engraver, 1783. She afterwards removed with him to Colchester, where he became minister to a dissenting congregation. She published her first work, ' The Beggar Boy,' in 1804. The prin- cipal of her other productions are ' Essays on Rhyme, on Morals, and Manners,' ' Original Poems for Infant Minds,' 'Rhymes for the Nursery,' a prose tale entitled ' Display,' &c, died 1823. TAYLOR, Dr. Jeremy, an eminent bishop of the episcopal Church of England. He was the son of a barber, who resided in Cambridge, and in that town Jeremy was born in 1613. His father having resolved to educate him for the church, he was sent first to the grammar school and after- wards to Caius College in his native town. His brilliant career procured him the patronage of Laud, then chancellor of the university, and from being private chaplain to his patron, he was ap- pointed to the rectory of Uppingham. Through the same influence, he was nominated to the office of chaplain in ordinary to Charles I., to whom on the outbreak of his troubles, Taylor rendered im- portant aid by accompanying him on several of the royalist campaigns, as well as by writing in defence of the English hierarchy. During the reign of the parliamentary party Taylor lost his benefice, and retired into Wales, where he supported himself by teaching a school, till he was taken by Lord Carbury into his house in the capacity of domestic chaplain. It was during his residence with that nobleman, that Taylor composed most of those brilliant discourses that have long ranked him among the most eloquent of British divines. Crom- well's spies kept a vigilant eye upon him, and he twice suffered imprisonment during the Protecto- rate. At the restoration his steadfast loyalty was rewarded by his appointment to the bishopric of Down and Connor, and the vice-chancellorship of Trinity College, Dublin. Besides his far-famed sermons, Taylor was the author of various other works of great repute the chief of which are 'Ductor Dubitantium, or Rule of Conscience,' 'Liberty of Prophesying,' and 'Holy Living and Dying.' Bishop Taylor died in 1667. [R.J-] TAYLOR, John, commonly ^called ' The Water Poet,' was born at Gloucester, in 1580, and for a long time followed the occupation of a waterman on the Thames, after which he kept a public house in Phoenix Alley, Long Acre. Living at the period of the rebellion he was a staunch royalist, but his manifestations of opinion were rather eccentric than dangerous. He died in 1654, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Paul's, Covent Garden. His works, published in folio, 1630, possess little TAY interest beyond that which attaches to the quaifc conceits and manners of a past age. TAYLOR, John, a learned dissenter, who be- came successively minister of a congregation S. Norwich, and tutor in divinity at the then newS founded Warrington academy, he is author M several works on theology and moral philosopbB, and is understood to have been of unitarian p^| ciples; born in Lancashire 1694, died 1761. TAYLOR, John, a dignitary of the ChurcW England, whose father was a barber at Shrew bury, where he was born 1704. He was a distH guished Greek scholar and civilian, and wrote soa valuable works ; died 1766. TAYLOR, John, an English oculist, knownH his travels, of which he wrote a narrative, last ceS TAYLOR, Sir Robert, the son of a London stone-mason, who became a famous architect and sculptor, and served as sheriff, 1714-1788. TAYLOR, Rowland, rector of Hadleigh, Suffolk, burnt alive in the reign of Mary, 1555. TAYLOR, Silas, an antiquarian writer, keepei of the government stores at Harwich, 1624-167*] TAYLOR, T., a puritan divine, 1576-1632. TAYLOR, Thomas, usually called 'the Plato' nist,' was born in London, 1758, and became clerl in a banking-house, afterwards assistant secretar 1 ' to the ' Society for the Encouragement of Arte J Manufactures, and Commerce.' He devoted al' his leisure to the study of Greek literature and th ' revival of the Platonic philosophy, for which h was eminently qualified by his keen philosophic* j insight, the richness of his imagination, and th , traces of his diction. He was fortunate enough t nd two munificent patrons in the duke of NorfoL'j and a retired tradesman named Meredith, the lat ; ter of whom settled upon him a pension of 10 ' a-year, while they both supplied him with th| expenses of publishing his valuable editions Plato and other masters of the Grecian philosophj \ Mr. Taylor was not simply a translator, though ' translator of such works would need to posses rare talents and indefatigable industry ; he wa ' also a commentator upon his originals, and carrie : on the war against Locke, in behalf of the Platoni doctrine of ideas, which regard the soul, not as J tabula rasa, but as a plenitude of forms. One c ! his concise arguments may here be cited: ' If* th j soul possess another eye different from that < ' sense (and that she does so the sciences su evince) there must be, in the nature of thing! : species accommodated to her perception dhj^H] from sensible forms. For if our intellects spectpf things which have no real subsistence, su 764 TAY tocke's ideas, its condition must be mnch more pnhappy than that of the sensitive eye, since this s co-ordinated to beings, but intellect could specu- ate nothing but illusions. Now if this be absurd, ind if we possess an intellectual eye which is sndned with a visual power, there must be forms sorrespondent and conjoined with its vision ; forms mmoveable, indeed, by a corporeal motion, but noved by an intellectual energy.' We cannot give he catalogue of Mr. Taylor's editions and com- nentaries, as it would occupy more space than his notice, but they all tend to a representation nd development of the Grecian theology and of entire history. Died 1835. [E.R.] TAYLOR, William, author of ' English Syria iymes,' and a ' Survey of German Poetry,' was he son of a merchant at Norwich, where he was orn 1765. He became an intimate friend of louthey at the close of the century, and editor of local paper, the ' Norwich Iris,' after which he istinguished himself in the metropolis as a re- iewer and critic, died 1836. TAYLOR, William Cooke, a miscellaneous riter in high repute for his indefatigable indus- r, the versatility of his talents, and the accuracy his works, was bom at Youghal, in Ireland, in 800, and died of the pestilence which ravaged country in 1849. Among his works are ' The ife and Times of Sir Robert Peel,' ' Manuals of jicient and Modern History,' ' History of Moham- ledanism,' 'Revolutions of Europe,' and 'The [istory of the House of Orleans.' TAYLOR, Zachary, president of the United tates, was born in Orange County, Virginia, 1790, d was descended from an English family who tttled in that state in 1692. His father, Colonel ichard Taylor, was a companion-in-arms of "ashington, and bore a name dreaded in Indian arfare ; his mother, as usual in the case of men ho in any way distinguish themselves, was a oman of nigh spirit and intelligence. The mili- iry life of Zachary Taylor, who was always noted his hardihood, commenced at the outbreak of le war with England in 1807, when he was com- lissioned as lieutenant, and sent to defend the bor- against the Indians : his great exploit on this jcasion was the defence of Fort Harrison on the ^abash, at the head of a garrison numbering only -two men. He rose from grade to grade till ecame general in the subsequent Indian wars ' Florida and Arkansas, but acquired his great )pularity in the invasion of Mexico, 1846, when crossed the Rio-Grande, and gained in succes- n the battles of Palo-alto, Resaca-de-la-Palma, rateney, and Buena- Vista. His character is y well expressed by the nickname of ' Rough- d-ready,' given to him, according to a very svalent fashion of honouring their great men, his countrymen. General Taylor was elected jsident in November, 1848, and entered upon ice in March, 1849. He was carried off suddenly, Fore completing his term, by an attack of cholera, July, 1850, and was succeeded by Vice-president 'ler. [E.R.] TEDESCHI, N., an Ital. canonist, 1389-1445. KEGEL, Eric, a Swedish historian, died 1638. TEGNER, E., a Swedish poet, 1782-1847. IEIA, last king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, nquished by Narses, and killed 553. TEL TEIGNMOUTH, John Shore, Lord, an Ori- ental scholar and administrator, connected with the Indian government in the time of Warren Hast- ings, afterwards closely allied with the philanthro- pists of this country, and first president of the Bible Society ; born in Devonshire 1751, died 1834. We are indebted to him for the complete edition of the life of Sir William Jones. TEISSIER, Anthony, a French protestant advocate, who became historiographer to the Prus- sian court, and wrote several works, 1632-1715. TEKELI, Emeric, Count, a patriot of Hun- gary, who headed the revolt of that country against Austria in 1676, died in exile 1705. TELEMANN, George Philip, a great com- poser of overtures, time of Handel, 1681-1767. TELESIO, Antonio, otherwise Thiletius, or Ti/esius, an Italian professor of literature and Latin poet, 1482-1533. Bernardino, his ne- phew, a philosopher and mathematician, 1509-88. TELFORD, Thomas, a celebrated civil en- gineer, a striking instance of the many on record of men who have by the force of natural talent unaided save by uprightness and persevering in- dustry raised themselves from the lowly estate in which they were born, to take rank among the master spirits of their age. Telford's father was a shepherd of Eskdale in Dumfriesshire, where Thomas, his only son, was born in August, 1757. His father died when he was an infant, and thus the care of Telford's early years devolved upon his mother, for whom he cherished an affectionate re- gard, and evinced true filial piety. He had the immense advantage peculiar to Scotchmen at that time, of the parish school education ; but at the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a mason in Langholm. The construction of small bridges, farm buildings, Scotch churches and manses, were the opportunities afforded him of obtaining practical knowledge. In his autobio- graphy he has expressed his sense of the value of this humble training, observing, that although con- venience and usefulness only are studied in such buildings, yet, ' as there is not sufficient employ- ment to produce a division of labour in building, he was under the necessity of making himself ac- quainted with every detail of procuring, prepar- ing, and employing every kind or material, whether it be the produce of the forest, the quarry, or the forge ; and this necessity, although unfavourable to the dexterity of the individual workman who earns his livelihood by expertness in one operation, is of singular advantage to the future architect or engineer, whose professional excellence must rest on the adaptation of materials, and a confirmed habit of discrimination and judicious superinten- dence.' In 1780 Telford went to Edinburgh, and enlarged his field of observation during two years' employment there, on the splendid improvements of that city then commenced. He then went to London, and was employed in the works of the quadrangle of Somerset House, where he says he 'obtained much practical information.' He was afterwards engaged as superintendent on various buildings at Portsmouth Dockyard. In 1787 he removed to Shrewsbury, to superintend alterations on Shrewsbury castle. Here he erected the new gaol, finally, in 1793, became county surveyor, an office which he continued to hold as long as he 765 I TEL TEL lived. Telford's first bridge was over the Severn the Salopian at Charing Cross, (now the ' Slim at Montford, consisting of three elliptical stone arches, one of 58 feet, the others of 55 feet span. In 1795 he erected the Buildemts iron bridge of 180 feet span. Henceforward his attention was almost solely devoted to civil engineering, The Elleamere canal, with its magnificent Christe and Pont-y-Cy- sylte viaducts, occupied him chiefly from 1795 to 1805. In 1801 Telford was deputed by govern- ment to report on the works desirable for the im- provement of the internal and external intercourse and trade of Scotland. In consequence of his re- ports the Highland roads and bridges were made, the Caledonian canal cut, and many ports and harbours made and improved, all of which works he superintended. The Caledonian canal was opened in 1823. It was a gigantic work for the period ; but has not proved of much use, or to have been very perfectly executed. In his exten- sive practice m bridge building he improved the general practice of engineers of this country, by adopting the important principle of making the spandrils hollow, and supporting the roadway upon slabs laid upon longitudinal walls, instead of fil- ling up the haunches with a mass of loose rubbish, which may press injuriously upon the arch, and often proves of serious inconvenience when the ma- sonry of the bridge needs any repair. Telford im- proved the Macadam system of road-making, and carried it into effect on the Holyhead roads, for which he was long engineer under the commis- sioners. The Menai suspension bridge on this road is a noble example of Telford's engineering skill and boldness in design, and even now in juxtaposition with the Britannia Tubular bridge, fairly divides with that great work the admiration of the intelligent observer The St. Katherine docks, London, are from Telford's design, and were executed under his direction. There are innumer- able happy details in the engineering, for an ac- count of which we must refer to the plates attached to his autobiography. The work of civil engineer- ing, on the success of which Telford seems to have looked with greatest self-complacency, is the im- provement of the outfall of the Seine river, by which the drainage of about 30,000 acres of richest sea land was secured, and that of some 80,000 acres greatly improved. This was finished in 1830. He was employed by Swedish governments in the construction of the Gotha canal, and often con- sulted by the Russian government. Before leav- ing Eskdale Telford had acquired some distinc- tion as a poet, and corresponded with Burns, recommending him to take up other subjects of serious nature similar to the Cottar's Saturday Night. He is said to have taught himself Latin, French, Italian, and German. He has left valu- able contributions to engineering literature in the articles architecture, bridge, civil architecture, in- land navigation, in Brewster's ' Edinburgh Ency- clopaedia,' and in his autobiography. He was F.R.S.L. and E. Telford became president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1820, and re- mained so till his death in 1834. In all the rela- tions of life he commanded respect and esteem. He was of athletic form, and reached the age of seventy without any serious illness. It was only late in life that he had any fixed residence. Even in London he lived in an hotel, for many years in but from 1825 he resided in 24 Abingdon-StraKj where he died on the 2d September, 1834, at fl age of seventy-seven. His mortal rem interred in Westminster Abbey. [L.D. TELL, William, the popular hero of independence : his story is open to grave do but the facts certainly known are these, time of Albert, archduke of Austria, Switx was divided into small baronial fiefs, and inc dent cities having a democratic form of ment; and these free districts, being surrou nearly by the imperial domains, were obje great jealousy to the house of Austria, by \ at last their subjugation was resolved upon, ready the archduke possessed the right pointing bailiffs for administering the jurisdiction in all these places, and such tionary was Gessler, the tyrant of the concerning Tell. When the purpose of t' trians became known, the natives of Uri, Sche and Underwalden, formed the nucleus of elation to defend their country ; and three pa Furst, Melchal, and Staffacher, led them to i January 13th, 1308, when the baronial were attacked and the oppressive barons out of the country. The legend of Williai supplies the circumstance which gave the for this sudden rising. Gessler, it is ss ' pointed governor or bailiff of Uri, cau plumed cap to be elevated on a pole in place at Altorf, and required the pea render the same homage to it as to nin probability is, that it was raised as a stanc rally his partizans, and discover the dis William Tell, supposed to have been the s of Walter Furst, treated this symbol with i and was ordered under arrest by the enra vernor : the story adds, that his liberty wa to him on condition of striking an apple, pis the head of his child, with a bolt from hi bow; it relates that he struck the [Tell'B Chapel on the Lake of Waldstaten.] having reserved an arrow, destined, as he avgj for the heart of the governor had his child recer any injury, he was still detained in custody i 766 TEL j Killed with irons. Gessler had reason to fear that the friends of Tell would liberate him if confined in the prison of Altorf ; he resolved therefore to convey him across the lake of Waldstaten to his own castle of Kupnacht. On the passage a violent storm arose, and Tell was released from his bonds as the only person capable of managing the boat, Kvhich he shoved towards a flat shelf that jutted pat into the lake ; on this he suddenly leaped, at the same time snatching up his cross bow, and pushing the boat from shore with his foot as he ook the spring: he afterwards lay in wait for "er, and shot him as he passed through a nountain defile. It was at this juncture that the ntry flew to arms at the call of Tell and his ellow-patriots, as already related : and there can no doubt that his story is substantially true, hough the embellishment of the apple seems to ave been borrowed from a legend of Denmark. Jot yet, however, had the Austrians given up all iope of conquering the 'audacious rustics,' as they styled the Swiss peasantry, and in 1315 the moun- ain passes were invaded by an army of 20,000 nen, under the archduke Leopold. This immense brce was totally routed by a little band of fourteen undred Swiss, in the pass of Morgarten, and Tell s believed to have been present in the battle He s said to have perished in the river Schachen, luring a great flood, in 1350. [E.R.] TELLER, W. A., a Ger. theologian, 1734-1804. TELLEZ, Balthazar, a Portuguese Jesuit, and istorian of his order and of Ethiopia, 1595-1675. TELLEZ DE SYLVA, Don Manuel, mar- uis of Aleyrete, a Portuguese historian, 1682-1736. TELLIER, Michael Le, secretary of state and hancellor of France in the time of Mazarin ; he as the chief instrument in procuring the revoca- ion of the edict of Nantes, the order for which e signed, and died a few days after, 1603-1085. son, Francis Michael, marquis of Louvois, linister of war, and the enemy and successor of !olbert, 1641-1691. Chakles Maurice, brother f the latter, archbishop of Rheims, and an active lover in all ecclesiastical affairs at that time, 1642- 710. Camille, fourth son of Francis, known as e Abbe de Louvois, a famous doctor of the Sor- onne, 1675-1718. TELLIER, Michael, a bigoted Jesuit, con- jsor to Louis XIV., and promoter of the bull Inigenitus ; his enmity to the Jansenists was so reat, that he demolished the very buildings of the tot Royal, 1643-1719. TEMANZA, T., an Italian architect, 1705-89. TEMPELHOF, G. F., a Prus. artillery officer and ician under Frederick the Great, 1737-1807. TEMPEST A, Antonio, a Florentine painter of mdscapes and battle-pieces, 1555-1630. TEMPESTA, Peter. See Molyn. TEMPLE, a well-known name in the history of nglish statesmanship, was first borne by Sir Villiam Temple, secretary to Sir Philip Sidney, rho died in his arms ; he afterwards accompanied he earl of Essex to Ireland, and became provost f Trinity College, died 1626. His son, Sir John, came master of the rolls and privy councillor in relainl in the reign of Charles II., and was an eye- fitness of the Irish rebellion, of which he wrote a lory, published in 1641. Sir William, son of be latter, was the statesman and diplomatist who TER played such an important part in the period oi William and Mary, and is also known as a miscel- laneous writer, 1628-1700. TEMPLEMAN, Peter, a physician of London, who became keeper of the reading-room in the British Museum, author of several works, 1711-69. TENIERS, David, the elder, a celebrated Flemish painter, pupil of Rubens, 1582-1649. TENIERS, David, the younger, was born at Antwerp in 1610 ; died at Brussels in 1694, and was buried at Pesth, a village between Antwerp and Mechlin, where he had purchased an estate. Teniers is one of the most distinguished of the Flemish painters, though in subject he belongs more to the Dutch school : his pictures are very numerous, and generally represent fairs, markets, merry-makings, guard rooms, beer houses, and other interiors. His execution is remarkably free, but thoroughly true and masterly in every respect. (Houbraken, Groote Schouburgh, &c.) [R.N.W.] TENISON, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, author of ' The Creed of Hobbes Examined,' ' Re- mains of Sir Francis Bacon,' and 'Sir Thomas Browne's Tracts,' 1636-1715. TENNANT, Smithson, professor of chemistry in Cambridge, and a discoverer in that branch of science ; born at Selby, in Yorkshire, 1761, d. 1815. TENNANT, William, a Scottish poet and philologist, professor of Oriental languages at St. Andrews, author of ' Anster Fair,' died 1843. TENNHART, John, a native of Saxony, re- markable for his alleged visions and writings, dic- tated by the 'interior voice,' 1661-1720. TENON, J. R,, a French surgeon, 1724-1816. TENTERDEN, Charles Abbot, Lord, an eminent lawyer, who succeeded Lord Ellenborough as lord chief justice of the King's Bench, was born at Canterbury, where his father was a hair-dresser, 1762. He acquired an extensive practice as a bar- rister in the Oxford circuit, on which he entered in 1775, and in 1802 he distinguished himself by the publication of a work since recognized as a standard on Maritime Law. His appointment a3 judge dates from 1818; died 1832. TENTZEL, or TENZEL, William Ernest, a German historian and antiquary, 1659-1707. TERAMO, Giacomodi, archbishop of Florence, and author of an ascetic romance, 1349-1417. TERBURG, G., a Flemish painter, 1608-1681. TERCIER, J. P., a Fr. diplomatist. 1704-1767. TERENCE, the short name of Publius Teren- tius, a celebrated author of Comedies in the Latin tongue, supposed to have been born at Carthage about 194 B.C. He was earned to Rome as a slave, and brought out his first play, the 'Andria,' in 166, and the others now extant between that period and 160 B.C. Shortly afterwards he Avent on a literary journey to Greece, and having trans- slated the plays of Menandez, is supposed to have died on his voyage home, about 146 b.c An English translation of Terence was executed by the elder Colman. > TERENTIUS, T., an Italian Jesuit and mis- sionary, who went to China in 1581 and died there. TERPANDER, a Greek poet of Lesbos, said to have improved the lyre, 7th century B.C. TERRASSON, John, a French ecclesiastic, known as a moralist and philosophical critic, 1670- 1750. Andrew, his elder brother, an eloquent 767 TER priest of the oratory, 1G68-1723. Gaspard, a third brother, a priest of the oratory, and author of a work censured by the Sorbonne, 1680-1752. Matthew, cousin to the preceding, a famous jurisconsult, 1669-1734. Anthony, son of Mat- thew, author of a ' History of Roman Jurispru- dence,' completed by order of the chancellor D'Aguesseau, 1705-1782. TERRIN, C, a French antiquarian, 1640-1710. TERRY, D., an English comedian, 1780-1828. TERRY, E., an English traveller, 17th century. TERSERUS, J., a Swedish theologian, b. 1605. TERTULLIAN, Quintus Septimius Flor- ens, was the son of a pagan centurion, and was born at Carthage, probably about a.d. 160. His original profession was that of a pleader, or lawyer, and he rose to eminence in the courts. On his being converted to Christianity, he was or- dained a presbyter in the church of Carthage. At the end of the second century he became a Montanist. (See Montanus). These peculiar views he illustrated with constitutional ardour and keenness. Even in his writings, composed prior to his conversion to Montanism, there are traces of that peculiar temperament which predis- posed him to the change. He is supposed to have died about the year 220. The fathers give Ter- tullian a very high character, and he stamped the impress of his spirit to some extent on the African churches. His works are great favourites of Cy- prian, and in asking for any one of them, he used to say to his attendants, Da magistrum, hand me my master. Among the Latin fathers Tertullian occupies a very distinguished place. He had not the sound sense of Augustine, nor the milder graces of Cyprian, but he was inspired with unconquer- able zeal, and his style burns with the fervour of his heart. His erudition was extensive, and his acuteness was seldom baffled. His writings ex- hibit on every page the skill and the defects of a rhetorician. Figures swell into absurd hyperbole, and the language is so twisted as often to be ob- scure. His arguments are frequently edged with satire, and loaded with severe vituperation. Ter- tullian's works consist of thirty treatises, apolo- getical, doctrinal, and ascetical. In the first he combats Jews and pagans, in the second he deals with heretics, and in the third he defends the rigid austerities of his peculiar creed. The best known of his works are his ' Apologeticum,' his ' De Praescriptione Hereticorum,' and his treatise against Marcion. His works were published in two folio volumes by Da Cerda, Paris, 1624; by Rigaltius, at the same place, in one folio, 1634 ; by Moreau, in three folios, Paris, 1657-58 ; twice at Venice, 1701-1744; by Semler, at Halle, in five volumes, 8vo, 1769-73, reprinted in 1827-29 in six 12mos. Leopold's edition occupies four volumes in Gers- dorfs 'Bibliotheca Patrum.' But the last and most complete edition is in three large volumes 8vo, Leipzig, 1854, edited with care, elegance, and copious indexes by Oehler, the third volume con- taining the most important of the dissertations bv preceding editors and historians on the life, character, times, and writings of Tertullian. Several of his tracts have been translated into English by Chevallier, Betty, Lord Hailes, and Dr. Pusey. [J.E.] TESMAN, J., a Germ, diplomatist, 1643-1693. THA TESSTER, II. A., a French physician, agricul- turist, and member of the Institute, 1740-1837. TESSIN, Nicodemus, crown architect of Sweden, and the designer of several great public edifices, 1619-1688. His son, Nicodemi Tessin, also a great architect, senator and mar- shal to the court, 1654-1728. Chari tavus, son of the latter, completed the | Stockholm, designed by his father, and was after- wards an ambassador and statesman, 1695-177J TESTA, Pietro, an Italian painter, 161 1 -1G50. _ TESTI, Fulvio, Count, an Italian poet, who died in prison for a political offence, 1593-1646. I TETENS, J. K, a Germ, politician, 1757-1807. TETZEL, John, a Dominican monk, who wa; appointed in 1517 to sell the papal indulgence*] which excited the first movements of the refoniw tion ; he was a man of bad morals him sold indulgences for the most shameful crime* past or future ; died of the plague 1519. THAARUP, T., a Danish poet, 1749-1821. THAIS, a Greek courtezan of remarkable bead who accompanied Alexander to Asia, and becami one of the wives of Ptolemy. THALES, born most probably in the yet 636 B.C.: according to Herodotus he was a citizelj of Miletus, although by descent a Phoenicia J We shall not enter on any of that mere gossip re garding Thales, which has floated downwards froijl Antiquity; but endeavour rather to discern some J thing, however little, that may be considere^H sure index to his pursuits and character. Thati! the opinion of the Greeks he occupied a most dis < tinguished place, cannot be doubted; for thel unanimously place him at the head of their list Cf seven sages; and in so far as we know, he i entitled to claim the origination of Greek Phife sophy. He was evidently a close observer^ material nature: it may be said that the Ioffl.1 School sprung from him. He had made hfli self master of all existing Astronomical loreil . whether it he a fact or a myth that he predkH the Eclipse of the Sun which occurred during tb I , battle between the Lydians and the Medes. fle i posing it a fact, it were quite wrong to endowHjj with familiarity with any form of scientific procei applicable to the calculation of Eclipses : but 1 ~ must have been well acquainted with the CjjH period comprehending the order of Eclipse His searching culture of Physics, is, ho*^H| more emphatically evinced by his cardinal maxii . ; that ' Water is the ground or primal elemenjH all Things ' a maxim not to be confounded^M mere fantastic conjecture, for it was evident^H result of a discriminating observation of the Mlj mense and essential influence of that element OV all forms of Matter and Life, as well as of its ew; singular transformations. That was no in^H | Mind, which at so early an epoch, led the wtH feneralizing on the ground of Observation. Bi- '. hales went farther : his thoughts were not COM ^ fined within the sphere of Physics. He tS^Bj also, that the 'World has a soul, is full of daee^HE His specific views are lost; but it is clear, eni from so slight an intimation, that he I^^bK way in those perilous questionings of the^^^H and the Infinite, which afterwards so distu^^^E, Greek speculation. Thales, besides, was a preij , tical worker among men. He is said to ha , 768 THA accomplished feats of Engineering, to have been skilful in business, and to have taken part in guiding the State. Could we reproduce him tho- roughly, it cannot be doubted, that we should discern a Potentate all worthy of the admiration of Greece. [J.P.N.] THALIUS, J., a German botanist, 16th cent. THAMAR, a queen of Georgia, 1184-1206. THEAULON, S., a French poet, 1744-1780. THEAULON, S., a Fr. dramatist, 1787-1841. THEDEN, J. C. A., a Ger. surgeon, 1714-1797. THELWALL, John, an orator of the London Corresponding Society, who was tried with Hardy and Home Tooke for high treason, afterwards a miscellaneous writer and lecturer, 1764-1834. THEMISON, a Syrian phvsician, 1st century. THEMISTIUS, a Greek philosopher and critic, pr&fect of Constantinople in 362. [Themistocles Frvm an Ancient Bust] THEMISTOCLES, an Athenian statesman and Keneral, of the period when Greece was menaced y the Persian empire, was born of obscure par- ntage in the latter half of the 6th century b.c. His public career was contemporaneous with that f Aristides, and the rivalry between them became subject of the highest public importance soon fter the battle of Marathon (see Miltiades). The character of Aristides seems to have been that of a sturdy republican Tory, resolute to stand upon he good old ways ; that of Themistocles was more ited to the exigencies of the period, and he pos- ssed far greater political foresight, not unmixed ith the duplicity so characteristic of statesman- lip in more modern times. Greece was threatened ith a partizan warfare between these leaders, the dispute was terminated by the banish- ent of Aristides, B.C. 483, and Themistocles was at liberty to pursue his policy. His great ob- was the creation of a navy, able to cope with of the Persians, and to the success of his may be attributed not only the salvation of but the supremacy of Athens over the other n cities. He had great difficulties, both al and political, to encounter, and even the ian oracle was at first opposed to him: a d response, however, though ambiguous, was reted in favour of his design, and Themis- soon found himself at the head of the Greek and well provided with ships. By a THE master stroke of policy, he fairly tricked both the Greeks and Persians into fighting the great naval battle off Salamis, in which he totally defeated Xerxes, b.c. 480 : he then took the necessary mea- sures for securing the supremacy of Athens by internal defences, the works of which were carried on in defiance of Sparta. In b.c. 466, the jea- lousies excited by his great power, led to his banishment by Ostracism, and he retired to the Persian court, where, it would appear, he forgot his patriotism, and plotted against his country. It is related by Plutarch, however, that he poi- soned himself rather than yield to the overtures of Artaxerxes. His death, from whatever cause, took place at Magnesia in Asia Minor, B.C. 470, or 472. [E.R.] THEOBALD. See Thibaut. > THEOBALD, Lewis, the hero of Pope's Dun- ciad,' known as a miscellaneous writer and com- mentator on Shakspeare, died 1744. THEOCRITUS, a Greek pastoral poet, some of whose 'Idyls' and 'Epigrams' are still extant, time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, b.c. 284-247. THEODATtJS, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, defeated by Belisarius, and killed 536. THEODEMIR, a prince of the Visigoths in Spain, who reigned over an independent state in New Castile, beginning of the 8th century. THEODORA, three empresses of the East : The earliest was the wife of Justinian, originally a dancer and courtezan, who ascended the throne with her husband in 527 ; she occasioned the dis- grace of Belisarius, in revenge of her quarrels with his wife, Antonina ; died 548. The second was the wife of Theophilus, who was left a widow in 842, and ruled as regent for her son, Michael III., till 857, when she was deposed and imprisoned in a monastery ; died 867. The third was daughter of Constantine VIII., and reigned a short time with her sister, Zoe, in 1042, and alone, after the death of Constantine IX., from 1054 to 1056. She was the last of the Macedonian dynasty. Another Theo- dora was wife of the Armenian emperor, Leo V. THEODORE, two popes of Rome : The first reigned 642-649. The second survived his elec- tion, in 898, three weeks only, and was succeeded by John IX. THEODORE, a king of Corsica, 1696-1756. THEODORET, a learned ecclesiastical writer and historian, born at Antioch about 386, d. 457. THEODORIC, two kings of the Visigoths in the south of France: Theodoric I., son of the fam- ous Alaric, was elected on the death of Wallia in 419 ; he was at war with the Romans some years, but afterwards entered into a league with them against Attila ; he was killed in the great battle with the latter on the plains of Chalons 451. Theodoric II., son of the preceding, acquired the throne by putting to death his elder brother, Thorismond, in 453; he extended the empire of the Visigoths to the foot of the Pyrenees, and was assassinated by his brother, Eunc, in 466. THEODORIC, surnamed ' The Great,' king of the Ostrogoths, and founder of their dominion in Italy, was born in 457, or 459. He was de- scended from the royal race of that people settled in Pannonia, and his father is supposed to have been one of three brothers who had divided the sovereignty over them, but this point is uncertain. 769 3D THE Sent M a hostage to Constantinople in his child- hood, he had the advantage of an education in the politics, philosophy, and jurisprudence of the Greek empire, and was restored to his father, now become sole ruler of the Ostrogoths, at the end of ten years. Italy at this time was swayed by the Heruli and Rugians, two branches of the Gothic stock, acknowledging Odoacer as their prince, whose authority was hated at Rome, and gave occasion to the interference of the Eastern em- peror, Zeno, in the affairs of Italy. With the forma] consent of the latter, Theodoric went to the conquest of his future kingdom, and having de- feated and slain Odoacer, was saluted king of Italy by the army in 493. He now assumed the Roman purple, and made Ravenna his capital ; a few years later he manned Andofleda, sister of Clovis, the Frank king. Schlegel's brief notice is sufficiently descriptive of his reign : ' He was highly esteemed in Rome, and by all the Germanic nations ; his name, like that of Charlemagne after him, was celebrated in the heroic songs of the Germans, while political writers and historical critics commend alike his talents and his virtues. His rule was generous and noble, he loved and honoured the arts and sciences which his age still possessed, and the last of Roman writers, Cassio- doras, and Boethius, were the ornaments of his reign.' The latter, indeed, and his father-in-law, Symmachus, were allowed by Theodoric to become the victims of false accusations, and his own death was hastened by the melancholy it induced upon him; the shade of Symmachus is said to have haunted him incessantly. Theodoric, like the Goths in general, was an Arian; he died at Ravenna in 526, and was succeeded by his son, Athalaric, who died in 534. The mother of this prince, Amalasontha, then became the wife and victim of Theodoric's nephew, Theodatus, who usurped the throne. These circumstances led to the interference of the emperor Justinian, and pro- duced the expedition of Belisarius in Italy. [E.R.] THEODORIC, an Italian surgeon, died 1298. THEODORUS, Pope. See Theodore. THEODORUS, or DIODORUS, bishop of Tar- sus in 394, distinguished against the Arians. THEODORUS LASCARIS. SeeLASCARis. THEODORUS PRISCIANUS, a medical writer of the empirical sect, in the 4th century. THEODOSIUS, called of Tripolis, or of Bithy- nia, a Greek mathematician and astronomer, of uncertain date, the age assigned to him varying from 50 B.C. to the 3d century. THEODOSIUS, called the Grammarian, a wri- ter of Svracuse, 9th century. THEODOSIUS the Great, emperor of the whole Roman world, was the son of a distinguished general of that name, who was executed at Car- thage by order of Gratian in 376. The young Theodosius, then about thirty years of age, retired to Galicia, which, according to some accounts, was his native place; but in the third year after he was recalled by Gratian, and proclaimed his colleague in Illyricum and the eastern provinces of the em- pire. Theodosius now proved himself the worthy successor of Constantine, and delivered the em- pire from the irruption of the Visigoths, both with the 6trong arm of the warrior, and the hardy kad of the politician ; he resembled him also as THE the champion of orthodoxy, and eventually com-, pleted the work that Constantine had only 'begun, by extinguishing idolatry, and strengthening the bulwarks of orthodoxy against Arianism. In 383 Gratian became the victim of a rebellion, and Maxi- mus, usurping the western empire, was defeated by Theodosius, who gave him battle on the banks] of the Drave in Pannonia. His triumphant entry I into Rome took place in 389, but before and after II this period he had the arduous task of suppressing | continual seditions in the great cities. The most I J threatening of these broke out at Thessalonica, 1 1 and Theodosius, yielding to his anger, and to the! J advice of Rufinus, sent a commission to punish,!! the inhabitants, some thousands of whom were II put to the sword, though Theodosius, too late, had 11 countermanded his orders. For this measure of k severity he was boldly deprived of Christian com-^l munion by Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, wb^H turned him back from the church porch, and onlyH consented to his reunion after a repentance o'f'll months. The abolition of paganism dates in 391,11 and the undisputed sovereign authority of Theo Jl dosius in 394, when he defeated Arbogastes, anfifl the pretender Eugenius. He now divided his B dominions between his sons Honorius and Area- jl dins, and expired at Milan the year following^M 395. [E.R1 THEODOSIUS II., grandson of the precedinj^B succeeded his father, Arcadius, as emperor of th^fl East, in 399. He was a feeble prince, but a body B of laws is named after him, the ' Theodosian Code,iH and he had to sustain a war with Persia, and a series -I of religious quarrels ; died 450. Theodosius u III. was proclaimed emperor on the deposition oil Anastasius II. in 715 ; he yielded the governmei^H in his turn to Leo III. in 716, and d. in a monasterj^M THEODOTION, or THEODOTUS, an EbioniM of Ephesus, translator of the Bible into Greek, 2d^H THEODULF, bishop of Orleans in the time Of J Charlemagne in 781, died in exile 821. THEOGNIS, an elegiac Greek poet, 6th c. B.(H THEON, a Greek painter, 4th century B.C. THEON, a celebrated mathematician and Phv-hli tonic philosopher of Smyrna, 2d century. THEON, the father of Hypatia, and himsi li learned mathematician, and master of the ancient*!: doctrines of the Alexandrine school, flourished 36fl|ll He wrote a work still extant. THEOPHANES, a Lesbian poet, and historuJJHi of the wars of the Romans in the time of Pomp^Hj the Great. He was first attached to Mithridat^^Bj afterwards to Pompey, and at length to Cses^Hi Only some fragments of his history are now extan^H but it was made use of by Plutarch. THEOPHANES, George, a Greek historical of the Eastern empire, died in exile 818. THEOPHANES, Prokopovitch, a Russia** 1 historian and archbishop of Novogorod, 1681-17flHHi THEOPHILE VIAU, or DE VIAL, a French ! satirist and epigrammatic poet, 1590-1626. THEOPHILLS, a saint and bishop of Antio^Bj who is reckoned among the fathers ot the churdjBB he was the first Christian writer to use the w^^ft Trinity 5 flourished in the 2d centurv. THEOPHILLS, patriarch of Alexandria, a^H an enemy of Chrysostom, 385 412. THEOPHILLS, a Greek jurisconsult, one of those employed on the Justinian Code, 627-50'J. 70. THE THEOPHILUS.emp. of Constantinople, 829-42. THKOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Greek philoso- ier and botanist, was born at Eresos (or Erisium) the island of Lesbos, in the year B.C. 371. He THE The conspiracy dates about He taught there with such increasing reputation, that he had at one time collected round him a number of pupils amounting to 2,000. He was distinguished for his engaging manners and great eloquence, which it is said procured for him his name Theophrastus, or the Divine speaker. He was the author of many works on various subjects, of which Diogenes Laertius enumerates 200. Several of them have been preserved, and amongst them two on botany, which prove him possessed of a comprehensive genius, and show him to be a diligent inquirer into nature. The many new ob- servations offered in his ' History of Plants,' and in his work on the * Causes of Plants,' his large views and the deep knowledge displayed by him of the secret laws ot organization have given him a great reputation, and caused him to-be looked up to as the father of botany. [W.B.] THEOPHYLACTUS, a Greek historian of some of the Byzantine emperors, 7th century. THEOPOMPUS, a Gr. historian, b.c. 380-308. THEOS, or THEOT, Catherine, one of those singular characters who acquired a strange notoriety at the period of the French revolution, by preten- sions to supernatural authority. She was born in _ 725, and had been known many years before the revolution as the claimant of a mission to regener- ate the human race , she had fallen into obscurity however till the events of 1794, when she took the place of Labrousse, another of these prophetesses, who had become a prisoner at Rome. The chief disciple of both these women was Dom Gerle, who formed the link between Catherine Theos and what- ever connection existed on the part of Robespierre ; and, besides this, acted as the high priest of the new religion that was founded upon her prophecies, and to which thousands of the populace attached themselves. A worship, with supernatural claims, initial rites, and certain spirit manifestations was really instituted, the phenomena of which are to he explained, not by naked imposture, but by the marvels of clairvoyance and animal magnetism misunderstood and blasphemously misappropriated. Unhappily, many noble and virtuous names became implicated by a series of misadventures in the re- nmons around this pythoness, and among others the lovely Madame de Sainte-Amaranthe and her amily, who were suddenly arrested, to the number I sixty-two, by order of the Committee of General surety, and charged with conspiracy Catherine Theos died in prison ; the rest were executed shortly p ore the fall of Robespierre, 1795. [E.R. j THERAMENES, an Athenian statesman and general, who took a leading part in the subversion &f the democracy, was born in the Isle of Cos, about the middle of the fifth century B.C. He was the Bolleague of Antiphon and Phrenicus, and all three laboured in the political designs of Pisander. The hope of this party was an alliance with Persia, which could not be brought to pass with a demo- racv, failing, as it would, to supply a sufficient "itical Persian supremacy. 411 B.C., and resort being had to terror, it was eminently successful : the orators of the people were disposed of singly by assassination, and 1 about the year B.C. 286. " He studied under I finally, by a sudden display of military power, the to and Aristotle, and was nominated by the I senate was dissolved, and an oligarchy of 400 estab- er as his successor in the school of the Lyceum, lished in its stead. Soon, however, the conspirators quarrelled among themselves, and Alcibiades was recalled at the instance of Theramenes and Critias, who pretended to moderation ; the 400 were then dispersed by flight, and some of them were put to death on the accusation of the minority. The re- storation of the democracy was followed by the most remarkable events of the Peloponnesian war, and Theramenes frequently distinguished himself as a commander ; at the naval battle of Arginusag, B.c. 406, he commanded the right of the Athenians. Soon after this, Athens was blockaded by sea and land, and the remnant of the 400 returned as vic- tors, under the standards of Lysander, with whom Theramenes conspired to re-establish an oligarchy this time, consisting of a smaller number, gene- rally called the thirty tyrants : among the princi- pal of this body were Theramenes and Critias. A struggle now commenced between the treacherous moderation of the former, and the cruel determina- tion evinced by the latter, the result of which was the condemnation of Theramenes. He was taken from the altar where he had fled for refuge, and on the cup of poison being presented to him, he drank, with bitter irony, ' To the health of the good Critias.' This event took place in 403 B.C. [E.R.] THERESA, Saint, a mystic writer and re- former of the Carmelite order, 1525-1582. THEROIGNE DE MERICOURT, a character of the French Revolution, is a name we should hardly admit into these pages, but for the sake of a word or two we have at heart, and cannot well find utterance of elsewhere. She was born at the village of Mericourt near Liege, where her family lived in opulence as farmers, was highly educated, and being remarkable for her beauty was seduced at the age of seventeen by the young lord of a neighbouring chateau. The period of the Revolu- tion found her at Paris, passing from one master to another among the great, and finally enrolling herself in the mass of courtezans, but all the while playing an influential part in secret polities, and as a club orator. At last, Theroigne became first in every scene of tumult ; clothed in a scarlet riding habit, and a plumed cap, she headed the most desperate attacks, and decided on the life and death of the victims of the faubourgs by a nod. After the excesses of the 10th of August this ama- zon inclined towards the moderate counsels of the Girondins: perhaps she had sufficiently avenged her dishonour, and the original cause of it had fallen among many others, vainly asking his life at her hands. Whatever the cause of her change, it gave offence to the furies of the guillotine, who, on meeting her one day, stripped her naked, and publicly whipped her on the ten-ace of the Tuil- eries. This outrage turned the miserable creature's brain, and she passed the remainder of her life, nearly twenty years, in a madhouse one of the saddest pictures of humanity, totally brutalized, that imagination ever conceived, Enough of her! but how many thousands of similar victims, pre- iiumber of traitors having a political interest in pared for a like career, if circumstances admitted 77L THE it, may be counted in the streets of our great cities V What a work it would be, in an age of noble endeavour like the present, to trample out this plague spot, this foulest image of hell upon earth, this crying disgrace of a Christian land ! In other days the youth of a nation have engaged in crusades and chivalrous fellowships, with objects in view that shed a far less glory upon thein, than a conquest such as this would confer on the age and nation that accomplished it. Here is a work of more genuine heroism than ever inspired the imagination of Jesuit or Paladin a work most truly Christian and full of promise, and one which most of all requires united action and persevering enthusiasm for its accomplishment. [E.R.] THESP1S, the inventor of tragedy, was a Greek poet, born at Xarca, in Attica, and became famous about 540 B.C. His stage was the chariot in which he drove about Greece, and his invention consisted in the introduction of a person who conversed with the chorus, and represented different characters by means of masks. THEUDIS. king of the Visigoths, 531-518. THEUDISELUS, successor of Theudis as king of the Spanish Visigoths, 548-549. THEVENARD, A. J. M., a French admiral, naval engineer, and administrator, 1735-1815. THEVENOT, Melchisedec, a French travel- ler, author of several curious descriptive works, 1620-1692. His nephew, John, also a traveller and writer, 1633-1667. THEVET, A., a French traveller, 1502-1590. THEW, Robert, an Eng. engraver, 1758-1802. THIBAULT, J. T., a Fr. painter, 1757-1826. THIBAULT, N., a deputy of the clergy to the estates-general, and an active politician, died 1812. THIBAUT, THIEBAUT, or THEOBALD, brother of Ladislaus II., king of Bohemia, re- markable for his uprightness as protector of his brother's kingdom during the crusade of 1147. THIBAUT, six counts of Blois .Thibaut I., count of Troyes, Beauvais, and Meaux, and first count of Blois, from 924 to about 978. Thibaut II., reigned 995-1004. Thibaut III., count of Blois, Tours, and Chartres, 1037-1089. Thibaut IV., a party to all the leagues formed against Louis le Gros ; he became master of Champagne in 1125 ; 1102-1151. Thibaut V., called ' the Good,' son of the latter, succeeded 1152, and became grand seneschal of France ; he died at the siege of Jean d'Acre 1190. Thibaut VI., last count of his house, succeeded Louis 1205, d. without issue 1218. THIBAUT, five counts of Champagne, the first two of whom are the same as the third and fourth of Blois. The third (or the fifth, according to the line of Blois) succeeded his brother, Henry II., 1197, died 1199. Thibaut IV., famous as one of the earliest troubadours, was born 1201, and added the kingdom of Navarre to his paternal dominions by a marriage in 1234. In 1235 he embarked in the crusades ; died 1253. Thibaut V., or Thi- baut II., as king of Navarre, was the son and successor of the preceding, died 1270. THIBAUT, two dukes of Lorraine : the first of whom reigned 1213-1220 ; the second, 1304-12. THIBAUT, two counts of Bar : the first of whom reigned 1191-1214 ; the second, 1239-1296. lL r !i' IAU THIBAUT, Anton Justus Friedrich, a famous jurist, professor at Heidelberg, 1792-1840. THO THICKNESSE, Anne, an accomplished Lidv, daughter of John Lord, solicitor and clerk of the arraigns, and third wife of Philip Thicknesse, lieutenant-governor of Landguard fort ; author of ' Biographical Sketches of Literary Females of the French Nation,' 1737-1824. Mr. Thicki, his second wife, was father of George Touchct, Baron Audley, and wrote some curious Memoirs reflecting on his son, 1720-1792. THIELEN, John Philip Van, lord of Cou-^ wenberg, a Flemish painter, 1618-1667. THIERRI, or THEODORIC, the name of four i French princes, two of whom are reckoned kings of France : THIBBBI I. (king of Mentz), eldest ! son of Clovis I., succeeded 511, and having ex- tended his kingdom at the expense of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, died 534. Thierri II. | (king of Orleans, Burgundy, and Austrasia), son^ of Childebert II., succeeded 596, and died of poison, leaving six natural sons, none of whom succeeded] him, in 613. Thierri III. (or Thierri L, king ofj France), third son of Clovis II., and brother ofj Clothaire III. and Childeric II., was placed on the' throne of Neustria and Burgundy by Ebroin, maire du Palais, in 670. He was defeated by Pepin of. Heristal in 687, and possessed no real power ; died 692. Thierri IV. (or Thierri II., king of France),' only son of Dagobert III., was taken from a mon- astery and placed on a pretended throne by Charles Martel, in place of Childeric, 720 ; died 736 or 737. THIERRI, J., a French philosopher, died 1660. THIERS, John Baptist, a learned French* theologian, remarkable for his curious choice of subjects, generally tending to reform, 1636-1703. THIERY, N. J., a French botanist, 1739-1780.: THIRLBY, Styan, a learned writer, editor of an edition of Justin Martyr, 1692-1753. THISTLEWOOD, Arthur, chief of a con- spiracy for murdering the cabinet ministers and exciting an insurrection during the administration- of Lord Sidmouth, was born near Lincoln, where: his father was a respectable farmer, in 1772. He was a man of education, and had squandered $ considerable fortune before embarking in his cri minal enterprise ; executed May 1, 1820. THOM, James, a native of Ayrshire, cele- brated as a sculptor, was born in 1799, and died at New York, where he had gone twelve or four- teen years previously, in 1850. He rose from the* condition of an obscure stone-cutter by his own unaided genius, and acquired a famous name in London for his execution of busts and groups iu Scotch graystone. The well-known group ol 'Tam O'Shanter' is from his chisel. THOM, John Nicholls, leader of the Cam terbury riots in 1838, was a native of Cornwi and first became known about the period < " Reform Bill. He assumed the name of Sir W Courtenay, knight of Malta, and, exhibiting fine person to the people, often graced by rich cos< tumes, completely fascinated them by his sing talents. In 1833, he became a candidate for Can terbury, and polled nearly a thousand votes, a: which he was confined four years in Maidsi lunatic asylum. Having escaped from the I tody of his friends, he reappeared in Kent in J 6pnng of 1838, and, claiming a divine mir "' persuaded nearly 100 of the most resolute cl acters to join him. The immediate object o 772 THO Thorn was to establish himself as lord of Kent, and the standard he raised was a loaf elevated on a pole, with a flag of white and blue, emblazoned with a lion rampant. This band really took the field at Boughton, on the 28th of May, and sus- tained a conflict with the military at Bossenden wood, on the 31st. Thorn, and eight of his party, fell before the fire of the soldiers at the first onset, and many others were seriously wounded : the dis- closures at the trial of the remainder, afforded the most painful evidence of the ignorance prevailing among our peasantry; and also marks of that noble faith in supposed greatness, which has animated the martyrs and heroes of the greatest events in the world's history, a singular proof that human nature is still the same as in past ages, and that only leaders are wanted for any cause, whether it be good or evil. This little episode in the peaceful annals of recent years, ought to be read as a lesson by our educators, and especially by the clergy. What has been may be again, so long as so many thousands of our countrymen are doomed to poverty and ignorance. The affair of Thom caused some discussion in parliament at the time. [E.R.] THOM, William, known as the poet of Inver- ury, was born at Aberdeen in 1788. He soon gave indications of poetic genius in some pieces which appeared in the Aberdeen newspapers ; and after- wards published two volumes, full of poetic feeling, which were well received by the public. In 1845 he visited London, where he wasj'eted, and had sub- stantial gifts conferred on him, but notwithstand- ing he died in deep poverty, in Dundee, in 1848. THOMAS, the apostle, whose name in Greek, signifying a twin, is written Didymus, was pro- bably a Galilean like his fellow-labourers, but his history is almost unknown. He is supposed, with good reason, to have travelled far East, even to China and India, in the course of his mission. The churches of Malabar have preserved some tradi- tions of his martyrdom. THOMAS AQUINAS. See Aquinas. THOMAS, count of Savoy, 1188-1233. THOMAS, Anthony Leonard, professor of the college of Beauvais, author of an ' Essay on the Character, the Manners, and the Understand- ing of Women,' 1732-1785. THOMAS, A. J. B., a Fr. painter, 1791-1833. THOMAS, Elizabeth, a writer of the times of Dryden and Pope, the latter of whom placed her in the Dunciad, author of Poems and Letters, and of a Memoir of her own Life, 1675-1730. THOMAS, J. E., a German painter, 1588-1653. THOMAS, John, a Flem. painter, 1610-1673. THOMAS, John, bishop of Rochester, 1712-93. THOMAS, R., a medical writer, 1753-1835. THOMAS, William, bishop of Worcester, au- thor of an ' Apology for the Church of England,' 1613-1689. His grandson, of the same name, rector of St. Nicholas, in Worcester, and an anti- quarian writer, 1670-1738. THOMAS, William, a Welch divine, known as a learned writer, and supposed to have been concerned in Wyatt's rebellion, ex. at Tyburn 1553. THOMASIN, or TOMASIN, called Tinkeidse, Cl'nr, or Zerk/er, a German poet, 13th century. THOMASIUS, James, a professor of Leipzig, among whose pupils was numbered the celebrated Leibnitz, author of The Origin of Philosophical THO and Ecclesiastical History,' 1622-1684. His son, Christian, a jurisconsult and philos., 1655-1728. THOMASSiN, three French engravers: Philip, died at Rome end of the 16th century. His relation, Simon, died 1732. H. Simon, the son and pupil of the latter, 1688-1741. THOMASSIN, L., a Fr. engineer, 15th centurv. THOMASSIN, Louis, a priest of the French oratory, known as a writer on ecclesiastical dis- cipline, 1619-1695. His cousin, Claude, also an oratorian and writer, 1613-1692. THOMOND, T., a French architect, 1759-1813. THOMPSON. See Rumford. THOMPSON, Edward, a miscellaneous writer and friend of Churchill the poet, famous for his sea-songs, born at Hull about 1738, died 1786. THOMPSON, William, dean of Raphoe, in Ireland, known as a poet, died about 1766. THOMSON, Alexander, a miscellaneous writer and poet, born 1762, died at Edinburgh 1803. He was the author of ' Whist,' a poem in two cantos, 1791 ; ' The Paradise of Taste,' 1793 ; 'The German Miscellany, consisting of Dramas, Dialogues, Tales, and Novels, translated from that Language,' 1796 ; ' The British Parnassus at the Close of the Eighteenth Century,' and some others. THOMSON, Andrew, a doctor and eloquent preacher of the Scotch Kirk, 1779-1831, t THOMSON, Anthony Todd, a Scottish phy- sician and professional writer, was born at Edin- burgh in 1778. In 1806 he commenced practice at Chelsea, and in 1826 became professor of medi- cal jurisprudence and the Materia Medica, at the London university. The professional works written by him are his ' Conspectus,' ' London Dispensa- tory,'. ' Materia Medica,' and a ' Treatise on Diseases of the Skin.' Besides these, he translated Sal- varte's ' Philosophy of Magic,' and edited an edition of Thomson's ' Seasons.' Died 1849. THOMSON, James, was born in 1700, at Ednam in Roxburghshire, of which his father was then the parish minister. To the images of agri- cultural life, with which this beautiful district fur- nished his childhood, were afterwards added scenes of another cast, in the pastoral parish of South- dean, to which his father removed. After having passed through the borough school of Jedburgh, he studied for several years at the university of Edinburgh. He was intended for the church, and is said to have been diverted from the profession by the censure of a theological professor on one of his exercises. At any rate, he had already written verses, and was ambitious enough to hope for fame by writing more; and, without any fixed view beyond literary employment, he started for London with his poem of ' Winter ' in his pocket. David Mallet, whose own literary reputation is long since eclipsed, conferred eminent service on literature by smoothing the way for Thomson, whom he hail known at college. The author of ' Winter,' being without money to buy a new pair of shoes, con- gratulated himself when a bookseller gave him three guineas for his poem. It was published in 1726, and became rapidly popular when one or two literary men had called attention to it. Thomson, provided for in the meantime as tutor in the family of Lord Binning, published Summer' and ' Spring' in ^ the next two years; and in 1730, 'Autumn' being added, the four poems were printed together, 73 rao under their common title 'The Seasons.'' The appearance of the series was a phenomenon more remarkable than \vc are apt to suppose. The raw young Scotsman, meditating among the Cheviot hills and by the banks of the Tweed, had struck out a vein of poetry winch had not been worked in England since the" restoration. When his poem appeared, the artificial school of Pope was in the fArliour in Thomson's Garden ] ascendant ; and the fashionable poets of the day were alike distant from simplicity and nature in the themes they selected, and in the form with which they invested them. Thomson was far from being pure in taste : his tone of sentiment, too, is very often mawkish, and his diction almost every- where pompous and pedantic. But the closeness with which he observed external nature has hardly ever been surpassed ; and the poetic intuition with which he apprehends the features of a landscape, and the moral associations which clothe it with the finest part of its beauty, is as keen and exquisite as that of Wordsworth himself. While the parts of his great work were in progress, Thomson pro- duced, among other things, his unfortunate tragedy of ' Sophonisba.' In 1731 he travelled in France, Italy, and Switzerland, as a tutor ; and the father of his pupil, on becoming the Lord Chancellor Talbot, gave him a sinecure place in his court, which was lost on the patron's death. This event drove him again to write for the stage. There is very little merit even in ' Tancred and Sigismunda,' the last and most successful of his plays. A pen- sion from the prince of Wales raised him just above penury; and in 1745 his friend Lord Lyttle- ton, coming into power, made him surveyor-general of the Leeward Islands, an office yielding him three hundred a-year. He had long worked on his 1 Castle of Indolence,' which he published in 1748. This beautiful poem shows a wonderful improve- ment in taste, and betrays a love of Old English poetry which was hardly felt by any other person of the time. The poet did not long enjoy the ease in which he was placed. Living in a cottage at Kew, he caught cold in sailing up the Thames'., and died of fever in 1748. He was a friendly, shv, and indolent man. [W.S.] THOMSON, John, a Scottish minister and landscape painter, born in Ayrshire 1778, d. 1810. THOMSON, Thomas, M.D., born at Crieff, lire, 12th April, 1773; died at Glasgow, 2d July, 1802. Dr. Thomson was educated at the THO parish school of his native place until his four- teenth year, when he was placed under the tuition of Dr. Doig, rector of the borough school of Stirling, and author of ' Letters on the Savage State,' a work which attracted much notice at the turn its publication. His master, an eminent clas>i scholar, speedily imbued him with a love of lit. fore, which afterwards enabled him t numerous improvements to his favourite s< ' On the conclusion of his scholastic studies flp gained a bursary by public competition at tlHH university of St. Andrews, where he remained i^^H three sessions. In 1790, while pursuing Ul literary and scientific studies at the university < Edinburgh, he succeeded his brother, afterwar^M the Rev. Dr. James Thomson, minister of Eccles,!! as one of the editors of the 'Encyclopaedia Brita^H nica.' His attendance on the lectures of the cetflR brated Dr. Black, during the sessions 1795-9611 imparted to him an intense interest in the scien^H of chemistry, which never deserted him during h^K subsequent career. He entered on this study wit^B devotion, and wrote the articles Chemistry, Mine^H* alogy, Vegetable Substances, Animal Substanca^M and Dyeing Substances, which all appeared befo^H the 10th December, 1800, and formed the groun^H work of his celebrated 'System of ChemistH^H which soon became the text-book of the science^H almost every country in Europe. In 1800-1 he I gave his first course of lectures in Edinburgh with fifty-two pupils ; a second course in the summ<^Bf of 1801 was attended by thirty-nine studen^H On the appearance of the first edition of his Cheinl 1 istry his winter class swelled to ninety-six mein- 1 hers. He continued his lectures till 1810, in the I lawyer's metropolis of his native country, attend^H usually by the most select of the Scottish a^B English students, as his roll-book contains su<H- names as James Mill the historian, James WajMf drop, Charles Badham, Henry Cockburn, Jairj^H T.allantyne, the distillers Haigs and Steins, Geor^B, Ballingall, John Abercrombie, Benjamin Traversal John Thomson, Andrew Rutherford, Sir James Sutfl tie, Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, &c. &c. His lectm^H formed, however, but a secondary portion of his en^fl ployment, his time being principally taken up witH the preparation of new editions of his System, con- I ducting an extensive series of researches upon brewl ing for the excise, a work which laid the basis of tfll Scottish legislation on this subject, and in varii^H chemical consultations. During this period, al^H he invented the system of symbols which are n^H in universal use, as modified in some respects fl| subsequent discovery, and introduced the use flfl Greek and Latin numerals to designate the va^H ous degrees of oxidation, &c. of which bodies ares^H ceptible, and which are also in general use. He hkjH wise first opened in this country a laboratory fopl practical manipulation. In 1810 he published bM ' Elements of Chemistry.' In 1812 he visitew Sweden, and published his travels in that cnunt^H In 1813 he commenced the ' Annals of Philo^H phy,' and continued to edit this journal for several I years. In 1817 he was elected lecturer on che^H istry in the university of Glasgow, a position:! which was endowed as a professorship in 1^^| In 1825 he published 'An Attempt to Kstabl^H the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment,' jfc 2 vols. 8vo, comprising the results of many thoBB 74 THO sand experiments to determine the atomic weights of bodies : the most important of which have been confirmed by subsequent experiments. In 1830-31 lie published the ' History of Chemistry,' in 2 vols. In 1836 ' Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology,' 2 vols. 8vo, being a portion of the seventh edition of his ' System of Chemistry.' His last work was ' On Brewing and Distillation,' 8vo, 1849. Dr. Thom- son's discoveries were exceedingly numerous, in- cluding chlorocromic acid, byposulphurous acid, hydrosulphurous acid, potash oxalates of chro- mium, potash chromate of magnesia, chloride of sulphur, called Thomson's liquor, and an immense number of salts, &c. &c, and above fifty species of minerals. Dr. Thomson invented Allan's Saccha- rometer, which is used by the Scottish excise, from which the idea of Bate's instrument, used in Eng- land, was taken ; the original inventor being thus deprived of the proper reward of merit. Dr. Thomson as a chemical teacher was most distin- guished. He has left behind him a numerous band of chemists, who occupy as teachers, manufac- turers, and physicians, some of the most prominent positions in the countrv. [R.D.T.] THOMSON, William, a Scottish minister who settled in London as an author, and became editor of several periodicals, au. of l The Man in the Moon,' and 'Memoirs of the War in Asia,' 1746-1817. THORE, J., a French physician, 1762-1823. THORER, A., a Swiss Hellenist, 1489-1550. THORESBY, Ralph, a merchant of Leeds, kn. as an antiquary and topographer, 1658-1725. THORILD, Thomas, a Swedish poet, philoso- pher, and critic of taste, remarkable as a writer on the beautiful in nature, professor at Greifs- walde and Upsala, 1759-1808. THORNDIKE, Herbert, a dignitary of the church, and a great wr. on church principles^ d 1672. THORXH1LL, Sir James, an eminent Eng- lish painter, was born at Weymouth in Dorset- shire, 1676. He was a nephew of Dr. Sydenham, the celebrated physician, who placed him under the tuition of an artist in London. Having painted the dome of Saint Paul's, he became his- tory painter to Queen Anne, and executed some allegorical subjects for her at Hampton Court. His masterpiece is the refectory and saloon of the hospital at Greenwich. He died after receiving the honour of knighthood from George I., in 1734. His son, James, inherited much of his genius, and he had a daughter, who became the wife of Ho- garth. . THORNTON, Bonnel, a humorous periodical writer, and boon companion of the elder Colman, born in London 1724, died 1768. THORNTON, John Robert, a famous botan- ist, younger sou of Thomas Thornton, (below), was bom about 1758, and became a physician in London. His works are 'The Philosophy of Medicine,' 'The Philosophy of Politics,' and that on which his fame chiefly rests, ' The Temple of Flora, or Garden of the Botanist, Poet, Painter, and Philosopher.' Died 1837. THORiVi'ON, Samuel, a well-known member of parliament, director of the bank of England, and governor of Greenwich hospital, 1755-1838. THORNTON, Thomas, a militia officer of West Yorkshire, author of several sporting works, and lather of the celebrated botanist, died 1823. THO THORPE, John, a physician of the county of Kent, author of professional and antiquarian works, 1682-1750. His son, of the same name, also an antiquarian, 1713-1792. THORWALDSEN, Bertel, (Albert) was born at Copenhagen, November 19, 1770. His father, Gottschalk Thorwaldsen, a carver of wood, being a native of Iceland: his mother was of a Danish family. Bertel attended the Danish academy, and soon made such progress as to undertake the carv- ing of figure-heads for ships. In 1793 he obtained the principal gold medal of the academy, which gave him the privilege of studying abroad at the expense of the government. He set out for Italy, May 20, 1790, in the Danish frigate Thetis ; he landed at Naples, and arrived at Rome, March 8, 1797, and he did not return to his native country until 1819, after an absence of twenty-three years. His first important commission was from Mr. Thomas Hope, in 1803, <ind it was owing to the liberality of this distinguished patron of the arts that Thorwaldsen was enabled to remain and pro- secute his profession in 'the Eternal City.' In 1812, on the occasion of Napoleon's expected visit to Rome, Thorwaldsen greatly distinguished himself by a sketch of the ' Triumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon,' which he completed with such ex- pedition that the frieze, in plaster, was fixed up in one of the halls of the Quinnal palace within three months of the date of the commission. It is a composition of great extent, measuring 160 Roman palms (the palm is about nine inches) in length, and five in height ; it has been twice executed in marble since, and is well engraved by Amsler of Munich. His principal works, however, were exe- cuted after his visit to Denmark ; he returned to Rome at the close of 1820, and acquired the highest European fame by the following works : Christ and the Twelve Apostles ; St. John Preaching in the Wilderness; and the monuments to Copernicus, Pius VII., Maximilian of Bavai'ia, Prince Ponia- towsky and others. The Christ and the St. John were for the church of our Lady at Copenhagen, where they are now placed. He again visited Denmark, in 1838, but finding the climate disagree with him, returned to Rome in 1841, but again visited Copenhagen in 1842, and died there sud- denly in the theatre,March 24, 1844, of disease of the heart, aged seventy-three. Thorwaldsen bequeathed all works of art in his possession to the city of Co- penhagen, to form a distinct collection, and the city now boasts of a great art museum, containing speci- mens of many classes of art, besides books, &c, known as the Thorwaldsen Museum; he left suf- ficient funds to endow it, and enable it to con- stantly add to its collection, foreign as well as Danish works. Thorwaldsen was never married, but left a natural daughter in Rome well provided. There is a cheap edition of outlines after all the works of Thorwaldsen, now in course of publication. (H. C. Andersen, Bertel Thorwaldsen eine bio- grajrfiische skitzze aus dem Danischan iibertragen von Julius lieuscher; and the writer's notice in the Supplement to the Penny Ci/clopcedia.') [R.N.W.] THOU, James Augustus De, in Latin 77m- anus, a celebrated French historian and Latinist, whose father and grandfather were both presi- dents of the parliament of Paris, 1553-1617. De Thou inherited the talents of his ancestry for 775 THO statesmanship, and was employed as ambassador ami finance minister. His son, Francis Au- gustus, born at Paris about 1607, was beheaded on account of his privity to the conspiracy of Cinqmars against Richelieu, 1642. THOUARS. See Petit-Thouars. THOUIN, A., a Fr. horticulturist, 1747-1823. THOURET, J. W., one of the most celebrated members of the French constituent assemby, born in Normandy 1746, executed 1794. His brother, Michael Augustus, a distinguished physician, 1748-1810. W. F. Anthony, son of the deputy, author of an Encyclopaedia, died 1832. THOYNARD, Nicholas, a French scholar, author of a Harmony of the Gospels, 1629-1706. THRASYBULUS, one of the great names of ancient Greece, period of the Peloponnesian or civil war between Sparta and Athens, was the son of Lycus, and was born at Steiria in Attica. He was commander of the infantry at Samos, when the Four Hundred was established on the ruins of the Athenian democracy (as noticed in the article Theramenes), b.c. 411. He immediately swore his soldiers not to recognize the oligarchy, and united with Theramenes and Alcibiades to effect their destruction : at the same time he continued his part in the Peloponnesian war, and to him be- longs the chief honour of the Athenian victory at Cyzicus. That dubious straggle being closed by the victory of Lysander, and the government of the humbled Athenians vested in the thirty tyrants, Thrasybulus took refuge in the Theban territory, where the patriots of the democracy once more rallied to him. After the death of Theramenes, Thrasybulus might have occupied his seat among the thirty, but he preferred the liberties of his country, and advancing at the head of the patriots, a thousand in number, he surprised the camp be- fore Phyle, on the frontier of Boeotia, and after repeated successes became master of the govern- ment. In the second of the battles fought on this occasion fell Critias, at whose instance Theramenes had been compelled to drink the poisoned chalice. The despotic Thirty were now replaced by a council of ten representatives, and Thrasybulus exhibited the highest magnanimity towards his enemies. At length, having generously taken the field in aid of the Thebans, menaced by the yoke of Sparta, he was massacred in his tent while encamped in Cilicia, b.c. 389. [E.R.] THRELKELD, Caleb, an English physician and naturalist, settled in Dublin, 1676-1728. THROSBY, J., a topographer, 1740-1803. THUANUS. See Thou. < THUCYDIDES, the historian, was an Athenian citizen, and belonged to the Attic borough Halimus. The date of his birth, which is not quite certain, was, perhaps, B.C. 471. Being of a good family, and living in a city which was the centre of Greek civilization, he received the highest education which the time afforded; and this, superadded to great ability, manifested itself in the ' eternal possession ' which he bequeathed to posterity. He is said to have studied rhetoric under Antiphon of Rhammus, the most distinguished orator of the time, and to have received instruction in philosophy from Anaxagoras. The well-known story of his having been moved to tears of emulation by hearing Herodotus recite his history at the Olympic THU games, is generally admitted to be without foun- dation. At the commencement of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 431), he entered the military service ol his country, and in B.C. 424, held the command ol a fleet of seven ships which lay off Thasos, when [Thucydides From an Ancient Bust.] Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian commander, inves Amphipolis, a <city on the Strymon, belonging the Athenians. Thucydides hastened to the assis tance of his countrymen ; and though he arrive too late to prevent a capitulation, he saved Eioi a seaport at the mouth of the river. In cons quence of this failure, he was banished by tl Athenians, or found it prudent to retire into volur tary exile, and passed the next twenty years of hi life as a refugee. The accounts as to the places i his residence during his exile, are various ar conflicting ; we may only infer, that he could nc live with safety in any place which was unde Athenian dominion. He himself states, that spent much of his time either in the Peloponnesi or in places under the Peloponnesian rule ; and ' minute description of Syracuse and the neighboi hood, leads to the belief that he visited tt localities. It may, at least, be confidently affir that, during this eventful period, he was an attet tive observer of the great struggle, collected tl materials for his history as the events proceeded^ and to some extent, reduced them to the form in which they have commanded the admiration of all succeeding generations. When peace was con- j eluded with the Lacedaemonians in B.C. 404, a decree was passed, permitting the return of all exiles; in consequence of which, Thucydides was restored to his country in the following yeaftji According to the united testimony of the ancienflj writers, he came to a violent end, having died bfl the hand of an assassin ; but the time and place of his death are not known. There was a tomb erected to his memory at Athens ; and he probably died there. The History of Thucydides was designed to comprise a complete account of* the events of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 431-404). but breaks off in the middle of the twenty-first year (b.c. 411). It is divided into eight Books, the last of which, in consequence of the absence of 176 THU speeches, and a supposed inferiority of style, has, without any good reason, been held by some critics as not genuine. Thucydides has always i first in the first rank of philosophical historians. His moral reflections are searching and profound; his speeches abound in political wisdom ; and the simple minuteness of his pictures is often striking and tragic. His style is concise, vigorous, and energetic ; every word has its appro- priate meaning, and not a clause is inserted which is not necessary for his narrative. Hence, he is sometimes harsh and obscure; his sentences are occasionally very involved, and the connection and dependence of the several parts difficult to per- ceive. [G.F.] THUGUT, F., an Austrian statesman, and party to the coalition against France, 1739-1818. THUILLIER, J. L., a Fr. botanist, died 1822. THULDEN, C. A., a Ger. historian, 17th cent. THULDEN, or TULDEN, Theodore Van, a painter and engraver, taught by Rubens, 1607-76. THUMMEL, M. A., a Ger. writer, 1738-1817. THUMMIG, L. P., a Germ, philos., 1697-1728. THUNBERG, Charles Peter, a Swedish xaveller and botanist, prof, at Upsala, 1743-1828. THUNBERG, D., a Swedish engineer, d. 1788. THUNMANN, J., a Swiss antiquarian, 1746-78. THCJRLOE, John, secretary of state during :he protectorate of the two Cromwells, and the hief agent in detecting the plots of Harrison and he fifth monarchy men, born at Abbots-Reding, in "Sssex, where his father was rector, 1616, died 668. His state papers, published in 1742, form valuable mass ot historical documents. THURLOW, Edward, Lord, chancellor in the eign of George III., was born at Little Ashfield, ear Stowmarket, in Suffolk, where his father was ector ; in 1732. He was called to the bar in 758, and entering parliament as member for 'amworth in 1768, became a distinguished sup- orter of the administration of Lord North. He ucceeded Dunning as solicitor-general in 1770, nd became attorney-general, after Sir William Grey, in 1771. On the 3d of June, 1778, he i appointed lord chancellor, and raised to the on the retirement of Lord North, and le accession of the marquis of Rockingham in 82, he still retained the seals by express favour the king, though he neither supported the min- nor was much liked by the premier. On coalition ministry of Fox and North being irmed, he was compelled to retire ; but he came to office again under Mr. Pitt, and, still pursu- ; his inconsistent course of action, was obliged withdraw in 1792, from which time he took no in public affairs. Lord Thurlow bears the laracter of an arrogant, factious politician, rather ie bully than the debater in parliament, but yet man of keen understanding : his character has sen delineated by Lords Brougham and Campbell, id slightly sketched by the recent editor of the * "ngham papers. From the latter we cite the wing: 4 To Thurlow in his private relations e praise may be fairly awarded. He was a 'lolar, and a good and ripe one. He was an "onate parent, and sometimes an active and 'ling patron. He had a kind of rough isity, which moved him occasionally to take good part a blunt remonstrance, and to prefer TIE one who thwarted, rather than one who fawned upon him. He befriended Johnson and Crabbe the one when the shadows of evening were closing upon him, the other when the trials of poverty pressed most heavily In worse times there have been worse chancellors than Edward, Lord Thur- low, but an age of comparative freedom and refine- ment has rarely exhibited one who so ill under- stood, or at least so ill discharged, the functions of a statesman and legislator.' Died 1806. [E.R.] THURMER, J., a Germ, architect, 1789-1833. THURNEYSSER, L., an alchymistand astrolo- ger, son of a goldsmith at Bale, 1531-1596. THUROT, Francis, a French corsair, who en- tered into the royal service, and harassed the Eng- lish commerce in the northern seas ; he was killed in an engagement when returning from his expe- dition to Ireland 1760. THUROT, J.F., a French Hellenist, 1768-1832. THWAITES, Edward, a Saxon and Greek scholar, professor at Oxford, and assistant of Dr. Hickes in compiling his Thesaurus, 1667-1711. THYNNE, Francis, a herald and antiquary, son of William Thynne, the editor of Chaucer, author of a Continuation of Holingshed's Chro- nicles, and a History of Dover, died 1611. THYSIUS, A., a Dutch historian, 1603-1697. TIARA, P., a Dutch savant, 1514-1586. TIARINI, A an Italian painter, 1577-1658. TIARKS, J. L., a Ger. astronomer, 1789-1837. TIBERIUS, Claudius Nero, the second em- peror of Rome, was born B.C. 42, and succeeded Augustus a.d. 14. He was a great general, and a master of Greek and Roman literature, but as he grew older in years he disgraced himself with every species of cruelty and debauchery. He was pro- bably insane long before the commander of his praetorian guard assumed the responsibility of put- ting him to death, March 16, a.d. 37. TIBERIUS CONSTANTINE, called also Tibe- rius II., one of the most virtuous emperors of the East, was a native of Thrace, and was brought up at the court of Justinian. He succeeded to the throne in 578, and having suppressed the con- spiracy- of Sophia, widow of his predecessor, reigned unchallenged till his death in 582. A third of the name reigned emperor of the East, 698-705. TIBULLUS, Albius, a Roman patrician and elegiac poet, whose productions are marked by much feeling for the beauties of nature and the pleasures of a country life. They are generally printed with the compositions of Catullus and Pro- pertius ; flourished in the 1st century. TICKELL, Thomas, a popular writer and poet of the age of Addison, was Dom at Bridekirk, near Carlisle, 1686. His father was a clergyman, and Tickell was educated at Oxford, where he became a fellow of Queen's College. He obtained an ap- fiointment as under-secretary of state through the riendship of Addison, and some of his pieces ap- peared in the Spectator ;' died 1740. His grand- son, Richard, a political writer, died 1793. TICOZZI, S., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1762-1836. TIECK, Ludwig, was born at Berlin in 1773, and studied successively at Halle, Gottingen, and Erlangen. Poetry was from boyhood his favourite study ; but, while he was always a ready and pleasing versifier, his poetical endowments, really very fine, worked most strongly when he wrote in 77 TIE promt TTis literary career exhibits three epochs. In the tirst of these, beginning about 1796, and lasting ten years, lie was one of the most efficient of the Romanticists, and, like Novalis, made the system attractive by displaying, in inventive com- positions, an originality of fancy and depth of feeling not possessed by the Schlegels, the critical chiefs of the school. The works he produced dur- ing this period were both numerous and diversi- fied. Some of them were Dramatic and Poetical Parodies, whimsically uniting jest and earnest ; the principal of these being ' Bluebeard' and 'Puss in Boots.' Others were Tales, or compositions like tales, which, following in the wake of J Wilhelm Meister,' are referred by the Germans to the class of 'Art-Novels:' such are the 'Effusions of the Heart of an Art-loving Cloister-Brother,' and ' Franz Sternbald's Wanderings.' Other pieces, like 'Genoveva' and 'The Emperor Octavianus,' are saintly or historical Legends, dramatically treated, with a close and studied imitation of the rude drama of the middle ages. Others again, and these the most poetical of all Tieck's works, are Popular Legends (Volksmiihrchen), related in a pvose narrative form, with great fulness of playful fancy, very much beauty of description, and a sim- plicity or naivete of manner which, sometimes fairly childish, is yet wonderfully pleasing. The first attack of a painful disease of the joints, which made Tieck very long an invalid, came on in 1806, and forced him to cease from literary labour for several years. He resumed work in 181 1, and for five years was chiefly busied on the Old English Drama, which he knew better than any other foreigner ever knew it ; while he translated it with great spirit, and criticised it, not indeed without great caprice and rashness of judgment, but with much delicacy of poetical feeling. He began with his ' Old English Theatre,' containing translations and criticisms of old plays, some of which were on themes afterwards handled by Shakspeare, while others were maintained by Tieck (on grounds abundantly fantastic and slippery) to be really his, in spite of the English critics. Visiting London in 1818, and reading and copying in the Museum, he collected materials for two volumes of transla- tions of plays preceding Shakspeare's ( ' Shak- speare's Vorschule'). In 1819, after a life of many wanderings, he finally took up his residence in Dresden, where he enjoyed a pension and honorary counsellorship. Besides collections of his earlier poems and other works, the chief business of this, the last period in his history, was the writing of short Novels, most of which first appeared in An- nuals; and which, critical and dissertative in character, and full of dialogue, have much more of analytic and reflective refinement than of narrative impressiveness, and show surprisingly little of the writer's early vein of poetry. Among the most interesting of these are ' Pietro of Abano,' and ' The Revolt in the Cevennes.' Others are ' Art- Kovels,' to which class belong the 'Poet- Life' and 1 Poet- Death,' having respectively fir their heroes Shakspeare and Camoens. Tieck died at Dresden in the spring of 1853. [W.S.] TIEDEMANN, Dietrich, a Ger philosopher and opponent of Kant, famous for his researches in the history of philosophy, anthropology, the origin of languages, and similar subjects, 1745-1S03., TIL TIEDGE, C. A., a German poet, 1752-1 84k TIEFFENTHALER, Joseph, a Tyrolese mis- sionary, thirty years resident in India, last cent. TIEPOLO, Giovanni Batista, called Tiepo- ktto, a celebrated Venetian painter, 1692-1769. TIEPOLO, J., a Venetian poet, 16th century. TIEPOLO, Jacob, a doge of Venice, distin- E. fished as a partizan of the Guelphs, P229-1249 auuknt, his son, doge 1268-1275. Bohemom of the same family, chief of a conspiracy a<_ r ains the doge, Gradinijo, which led to the establish- ment of the Council of Ten, 1310. TIEPOLO, N., a Venetian poet, 16th century. TIERNEY, George, a famous parliament^ debater and political writer, secretary for Ireland and president of the board of control during tb administration of Fox and Grenville ; b. in London where his father was a merchant, 1756, died 1831 TIGLATH PILESER, or THEGLAT-PHA LASSAR, son and successor of Sardanapa king of Assyria, supposed date 747-728 B.C. TIGNY, "Marin Grostete De. a French na turalist, who, aided by his wife, produced a wor in ten volumes on the natural history of insectr valuable as a compendium, 1736-1799. TIGRANES, several princes of Armenia: Tigranes I., a friend and ally of Cyrus, B.C. 565 520. Tigranes II., the first king of Armeul the Arsacides' dvnasty, was placed on the throE by his brother, Mithridates II., king c thians; he laboured many years in developing th commercial and industrial resources of the st B.c.128-95. Tigranes III., called the Great, i of the preceding, succeeded him in B.C. 95 married Cleopatra, daughter of Mithridates Great, and was his faithful ally in the gigantic | with Rome ; date of his death unknown, next Tigkanes was a captive at Rome, but came king by the authorization of Augustus, allied himself with the Parthians against masters ; died 6 B.C. His son, Tigranes occupied the throne a short time, and died Tigranes V., was a grandson of Herod, kir Judasa, and governed Armenia by sufferance Romans ; he was put to death by order of Tit a.d. 34. Tigranes VI., another depende Rome, figured in history about 61. Tigran es } reigned 142-178. Tigranes VIIL, succeedec his brother, Arsaces, about 408. In the which ensued, they were both reduced to cessity of surrendering their rights, the Theodosius, emperor of Constantinople, t to the Parthians. TIL, S. Van, a Dutch theologian, 1644- TILENUS, Daniel, a protestant theol the French church, bora in Silesia, 1563-161 TILING, J., a German phvsician, 1688-17B TILING, M., a German naturalist, died 168ft TILLADET, J. R. De La Marque Db, French writer, theologian, and philos., 1650-M TILLEMANS, Peter, a Flemish painter landscapes and imaginary views, 1684-1734. M TILLEMONT, Sebastian Le Nain De, ai mous critic and historian of the Port Uoyal, autll of a 'History of the Emperors and other Prim during the First Six Ages of the Church,' k Hit rials towards the Ecclesiastical History of the Fii Six Ages,' and of much other historical matt highly valued for extreme accuracy, 1637-1698. 73 ~ TIL TTLLET, M., a French agriculturist,, 1720-1791. TILLI, M. A., an Italian botanist, 1655-1740. TILLIOT, J. B. Lucotte, Seigneur Du, a 7reneh philologist and antiquary, 1668-1750. TILLOCH, Alexander, an ingenious Scotch rinter, who became distinguished as a miscellaneous vriter and journalist, was born at Glasgow, where lis father was a tobacconist, in 1759. In the :ourse of his business as a printer he discovered he art of stereotyping, but, finally abandoning hat business, he removed to London, and in 1789 >ecame joint-proprietor and editor of an evening iper, called l The Star.' In 1797 he commenced The Philosophical Magazine,' and having, from me to time, published a series of papers on theo - gical subjects, he added to these, in 1823, his Dissertations on the Apocalypse.' In July, 1821, commenced ' The Mechanics' Oracle,' a weekly eriodical devoted to the instruction of the work- lg classes : he also officiated as preacher to a con- dition of dissenters in Goswell-Street lioad. ome years before his death, which took place in uary, 1825, Tilloch was honoured with the egree of LL.D. by the university of Glasgow. TILLOTSON, Johx, D.D., a distinguished pre- ite of the English Church, was a native of Sowerby, "orkshire. His father was a clothier in that ounty town, and with respect to religious prin- [ples, was a nonconformist. His father having de- rmined to give his son a liberal education, young ohn was sent in due time to Clare Hall College, abridge, where the influence of the society in hich he mingled gradually dispelled his dissent- lg prejudices, and having resolved to adhere to tie establishment, he began in earnest to prepare )r the ministry in connection with the English Kirch. He soon rose to distinction as a preacher, od preferments flowed upon him in rapid succes- for he was first appointed to a curacy at heshunt, then he became rector of Reddington, readier in Lincoln's Inn, and lecturer at St. Lau- ?nce, Jersey. Tillotson was sincerely attached to le protestant religion, and an occasion occurred >r drawing out strongly his protestant spirit, when harles II. in 1672 issued a proclamation for liberty " conscience, under the covert design of favouring e Roman Catholics. Tillotson gave a decided op- osition to the measure both from the pulpit and the ress. Notwithstanding this opposition to their vourite policy, the government deemed it expe- ent to bestow on the popular preacher the highest yours of the crown patronage by appointing him rebendary in St. Paul's, and dean of Canterbury, lllotson evinced his protestantism on another casion in a still more decided manner, by the dvocacy of the Exclusion Bill against the duke of ork. One gross inconsistency, however, sullies ie otherwise honourable character and reputation Tillotson, viz., that in attending Lord William 11 on the scaffold, he used every effort to per- lade that patriotic nobleman to save himself by opting the principles of passive obedience, and he became himself not long after, one of the ost active enemies of the Stuart dynasty by pro- ting the revolution. The important services he dered to the cause of the prince of Orange, were warded on William III. being established on the tMi throne, by promotion first to the deanery St. Paul's, and not long alter by his elevation 7 TIL in 1691 to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury. He had enjoyed that high dignity only three year's, when his useful career was brought to a premature end by death. Tillotson was the popular preacher of his day, and in so great estimation were his dis- courses held, that even in that age, the copyright, though it was a posthumous publication, was sold for 2,500 guineas. Tillotson adopted a moderate Arminianism, and his discourses are accordingly devoted to the inculcation chiefly of the practical precepts of the gospel. In private life the arch- bishop was plain and unostentatious, kind to his relatives and charitable to the poor, liberal in his sentiments towards dissenters, and exercised the very extensive influence which his character as well as his office procured him in doing good, to all without regard to rank or sectarian distinc- tions; 1630-1694. [R.J.] TILLY. John Tsercles, count of Tilly, was born at the castle of Tilly, in South Brabant, in 1559. He joined the order of Jesuits in youth ; but soon left the ecclesiastical for the military pro- fession. He first entered the Spanish army, and served for several years under Alva, and the other Spanish commanders in the Netherlands. About 1599 he entered the service of the Austrian em- peror, Rudolf, and distinguished himself greatly in several campaigns against the Turks and the Hungarians. He then re-organized and commanded the army of the duke of Bavaria, and was also ap- pointed generalissimo of the forces of the Roman Catholic league in Germany. In the beginning of the Thirty years' war, Tilly subjugated Bohemia by the single great battle of the White Hill (1620). He then conquered the Palatinate of the Rhine, defeating decisively the protestant troops in the three days' battle of Stadt Loo, 1623. He next commanded against Christian, king of Denmark, who sought to aid the German protestants. Tilly out-manoeuvred and defeated him. When Gus- tavus Adolphus interfered in the war, Tilly was chosen to oppose the Swedish hero. He was now field -marshal, and commander-in-chief of the imperial forces. The first event of this part of the thirty years' war was the siege and capture of the city of Magdeburg by Tilly, 1631. The cruelty of the imperialist army on this occasion excited the deepest horror even in an age and country accustomed to military atrocities. Tilly him- self wrote to the emperor that no such spectacle as that of the ruin of Magdeburg had been wit- nessed on earth, since the captures of Troy and Jerusalem. In the autumn of the same year Tilly met Gustavus Adolphus at Leipzig, and was utterly defeated, though lie effected a soldierly retreat with part of his army. He was again beaten by the Swedish king at the passage of the river Lech, in 1632. Tilly was wounded in this battle, and died on the following day. He is said to have been personally of austere and pure character, despising all sensual enjoyments, and indifferent to wealth and honours. But the cruelties which ho permitted his troops to exercise upon the unoffending inhabi- tants of the countries which were the scenes of his campaign*, show the frightful effects of military fanaticism combined with religious bigotry, even in a commander, who himself takes no part in the license aud the violence which he sanc- tions. [E.S.C.] 70 TIL TILLY, Peter Alexander, Count De, a royalist officer of the period of the French revolu- tion, author of some political works relative to the events of that time, 1764-1815. Another Count Tilly, not of the same family as the preceding, took up arms for the republic, and afterwards served Napoleon, died 1822. TIALEUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, called 4 the Locrian,' from his birth-place ; known as the instructor f Plato, and highly eulogized by him. A Greek historian, of the same name, lived about 350 B.C. 'A third Tim^eus was a sophist of the third century of our era, and author of a Dic- tionary of Platonic phrases. TIMANTHES, a Greek painter, 400 B.C. TIMOCREON, a comic poet, 476 B.C. TIMOLEON, one of the greatest of Greek gen- erals and patriots, if not the ideal of the Grecian hero, was born in Corinth about 410 B.C. His first exploit was the deliverance of Corinth from the armed dictatorship of his elder brother, Timo- phanes, though it was necessary to put him to death, and bear the curses of his mother, who had made the tyrant her especial favourite. Timoleon, whose motives were not understood, was execrated for his share in this tragedy, and his existence became so burdensome that he meditated self- destruction, and retired altogether from public life : the affecting narrative may be read in Plutarch. After a lapse of twenty years, 343 B.C., he was recalled by the Corinthians, and sent to the aid of the Syracusans, then suffering from the despotism of the younger Dionysius. In this expedition, success attended upon success until all Sicily was redeemed from the cruel slavery to which it had been brought, and Syracuse became the seat of a republican freedom which linked in one brother- hood all the cities that had suffered from the petty tyrants who oppressed them: the Carthaginians were also expelled, and their army of 70,000 men, led by Hamilcar and Hasdrubal, defeated by a mere handful of patriots under Timoleon. It is the conduct of the deliverer after these victories that must decide his character, and to him belongs the rare virtue of abdicating a power which he still virtually exercised as a private citizen. Forty thousand Greeks flying before the sword of Philip, the father of Alexander, were glad to accept the new home offered to them in the devastated cities of Sicily; and Timoleon, having organized the states, retired to private life, but always attended the deliberations of the people. In his latter years he went to their assemblies in a chariot, from which he also addressed them on account of his blindness : it was his highest joy that he had se- cured to the Syracusans perfect freedom of opinion, and the impartial operation of the laws. He was so highly honoured, that his birth-day was kept as a public festival ; and when he died, B.C. 337, he was buried with great magnificence at the pub- lic cost. The value of his life was soon after proved by the anarchy which began to spread, and the unruly spirits which obtained the supremacy in Syracuse. [E.R.J TIMOMACHUS, a Greek painter, abt. 300 b.c. TIMON, a Greek poet, and disciple in philo- sophy of Pyrrho, B.C. 270. TIMON, surnamed 'the Misanthrope/ the ori- ginal of that character in Shakspeare, b.c. 420. TIN TIMON, E., a Greek physician, last century. TIMON, S., a famous Hungarian Jesuit, lust( rian, and antiquary, 1675-1736. TIMOPHANES, a tyrant of Corinth, who ws assassinated b.c 365. See Timoleon. _ TIMOTHEUS, a Greek poet and musician, ui rivalled in his age, 6th century B.C. He excelh in lyrical composition, and was a skilful perform- on the cithara, or harp, which he improved by tl addition of two chords. TIMOTHEUS, called ' of Thebes,' a celebrate musician, time of Alexander the Great. TIMOTHEUS, an Athenian general, who to< a distinguished part in the social wars, and w condemned for avoiding a naval conflict, B.C. 35 TIMUR. See Tamerlane. TINDAL, Matthew, one of the successors Toland and Shaftesbury in the School of Engli Deists or Freethinkers, was born at Beer Ferre in Devonshire about 1657, and was admitted do tor of laws at Oxford in 1685. He retained 1 fellowship during the reign of James II. by pr fessing the Roman Catholic faith ; he afterwar recanted, however, and adopting revolutiona principles, went to the other extreme, and wrc against the Nonjurors. He now became an adv cate, and sat as judge in the court of delegati with a pension from the crown of 200 per annul Some time afterwards, considerable attention w drawn to him, by his work, entitled ' The Rigl of the Christian Church ' and the ensuing contr versy 5 but the production which has rendered 1 name a memorable one was his ' Christianity Old as the Creation, which appeared in 1730, "ai frovoked replies from Dr. Warburton, Lelai 'oster, and Conybeare. Dr. Middleton endeavour- to take a middle course in this controversy, as nv be seen in that article, but the most effectii answer, though its very existence seems to haj been forgotten, was that embodied in the 4 Appe;< of William Law, published 1740. Tindal's line ; argument was mainly coincident with Shaf'tesb that the immutable principles of faith and must be found within the breast, and that n ternal revelation can have any authority equal ! the internal ; this he supported by much learni and show of argument, which Warburton thoug he had replied to by the mass of learned evider contained in his l Legation.' William Law, ma ing no account of literary evidence, replied by 1 masterly development of the philosophy of the and final recovery of mankind ; a book remarka| for close argument and for its many fine il lj trations, but now obsolete in certain fundametf principles. Tindal died in 1733, and was inti in Clerkenwell church, near the remaius of Burnet TINDAL, Nicholas, nephew of the pre chiefly known by his translation and contin of Rapin's History of England, 1687-1774. TINDAL Sir Nicholas Conynham, tinguished lawyer and member of parliamen rose to the dignity of lord chief justice 0; Common Pleas, 1777-1846. TINDAL, William. See*TYNDALE. TINELLI, T., a Venetian painter, 1586-1 TINGRI, P. F., a French chemist, 1743-181 TINTORETTO, Jacopo Robustl, called ft toretto from the circumstance of his father bei iurj no t ual 780 TIP dyer, was born at Venice in 1512. He studied nly a few days in the studio of Titian, and was hen dismissed by that great painter, for what use is not known. This circumstance had an dmirable effect upon him, it made him have more ecided recourse to his own resources, and his spirit well indicated in the words he wrote up on the Fall of his room : ' The drawing of Michelangelo nd the colouring of Titian.' He did eventually ecome the acknowledged rival of Titian in Venice tself; his Miracle of St. Mark, the Miracolo dello <ckiavo, his masterpiece, is now in the academy of "enice, and is generally admitted to be one of the inest pictures in Italy ; there is a good print of it y J. Matham. He died at Venice in 1594, aged lghty-two. Tintoretto is sometimes called il r urioso, from the extraordinary vigour and rapidity rith which he painted ; he was bold and grand, ut often careless; he is said to have had three iencils, one of gold, one of silver, and a third f iron. (Ridolfi, Le Maraviglie delV arte, :c.) [R.N.W.] TIPHAIGNE DE LA ROCHE, C. F., a French hysician and man of letters, 1729-1774. TIPFOO SAIB, the last sultan of Mysore, was orn in 1749, and made his first appearance in he field of Indian warfare at the head of 5,000 orse in 1767. His father was the sultan, Hyder ili, a soldier of fortune, who constructed his mpire out of the dominions of the great Mogul, len falling to ruins. In 1780 the progress of yder was arrested by Sir Eyre Coote, under the overnment of Hastings, and the French having )ined their forces to those of the sultan, the oung Tippoo became acquainted with Lally Tol 2ndal. In December, 1782, the death of his " er placed him on the throne of Mysore, and at e head of an army, then in the field, of 88,000 len, supported by a sum of three millions ster- ng in his treasury, besides costly jewels : he ontinued the war with a zeal far surpassing his ather's for Islamism, and in a short time not less han 100,000 persons were forcibly circumcised. 1 1784 he concluded an advantageous peace with Jeneral Matthews, who surrendered to him the lugger fort ; but in 1786 he took the field again, rovoked by a confederacy formed against him in louthern India, of which the Mahrattas were hief : the war on this occasion lasted till 1792, hen his late defeats at Travancore and elsewhere ompelled him to conclude a peace with the Mar- Corn wallis. The war upon which he had ntered, however, was a religious one, and Tippoo as too sincere and courageous to surrender India rithout a last struggle to the Christians. It is ertain that he entered into an extensive corres- Kmdence, which reached as far as Arabia, his urpose being to organize a general confederacy st the English ; but it is doubtful whether he e any overtures to the French : the advantage ie derived from his former acquaintance with them nAi realized in the superior discipline of his troops, purpose was anticipated by the government of ndia, then under the marquis of" Wellesley, who sent n invading army, numbering nearly 40,000 men, Qto his territories at the beginning of 1799. On caching Seringapatam, his capital, General Harris lemanded the cession of half his dominions, a rge payment in money, and four of his sons, be- TIT sides four of his principal subjects, as hostages- terms which the sultan rejected, in alternate rage and despair, at being thus bearded in his last stronghold. A breach having been made in the walls, the storming party, of 4,000 men, was led by Sir David Baird on the 4th of May, and Tippoo Saib, resolving not to survive the loss of his king- dom, met the fate of a hero in the thickest of the conflict ; his body was found amid heaps of slain, and interred with royal honours in his father's sepulchre, after which the empire of Mysore was dismembered. The reader desirous of further particulars may consult Murray's History of Brit- ish India in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, 1832, 2d edition, 1850; or Thornton's History of the British Empire in India, 1842. For the due ap- preciation of Tippoo's character, and the correction of some facts, compare the 'History of Tippoo Sultan, translated from the Persian of Myr Hous- sein by Colonel Miles,' 1845. [E.R.] TIPTOFT, John, earl of Worcester, a states- man and patron of letters, executed on a charge of treason, arising out of circumstances connected with his Irish administration, 1470. TIRABOSCHI, Girolamo, a famous historian of Italian and Roman literature, 1731-1794. TIRIN, J., a Flemish Jesuit, 1580-1636. TISCHBEIN, J. A., a German painter ?nd writer, 1720-1784. His brother, John Heinry, founder of a new school similar in character to the Venetian, 1722-1789. J. H. Conrad, their ne- phew, a painter and engraver, 1742-1808. J. H. William, brother of the latter, known from 1751 to 1803. J. F. Augustus, a third brother, a painter of portraits, 1750-1812. TISSARD, F., a French savant, died 1508. TISSARD, P., a French poet, 1666-1740. TISSOT, A. P., a French jurist, 1782-1823. TISSOT, C. J., a French physician, 1750-1826. TISSOT, J. M., a mathematician, died 1650. TISSOT, S. A., a French physician, and author of numerous professional works, 1728-1797. TITI, R., an Italian poet, 1551-1609. TITI, or TITO, Santi Di, a distinguished Ita- lian painter and architect, 1538-1603. TITIAN, or Tiziano Vecellio, one of the greatest of Italian painters, and the prince of colourists and portrait painters, was bora in the territory of Venice at Capo del Cadore in 1477. He studied in the school of the Bellini, first with Gentile and afterwards with Giovanni, with whom he was fellow-pupil with Giorgione, his own future rival. Titian first appeared as a great painter at the court of Alfonso 1., duke of Ferrara, in 1514, when he painted the ' Bacchus and Ariadne,' in the National Gallery. Two years later he had attained to the full vigour of his extraordinary powers ; in that year he executed his celebrated ' Assumption of the Virgin,' now in the academy of Venice, and hanging opposite to the Miracolo dello Schiavo by- Tintoretto ; the merits of both masters are well illustrated by the contrast. In 1528 Titian painted his 'St. Peter Martyr,' in which he has shown himself one of the first of landscape painters, especially of landscape as an accessory to figures. In 1545 he visited Rome, where he saw Michelan- gelo ; he returned to Venice in the following year. He is supposed also to have visited Spain, but this is doubtful ; Spain is however, extremely rich in 781 TIT the masterpieces of Titian : after Venice, the gal- lery of the Prado at Madrid gives the greatest dis- play of his powers. It has been assumed that Titian visited Spain partly from the fact of the patent of nobility, granted by Charles V., creating him Count Palatine of the empire, and knight of the order of St. Iago, being dated at Barcelona. This great painter died at Venice of the plague, in 1576, having lived to the extraordinary age of ninety-nine years. To describe fully his master- pieces alone, would occupy a volume ; of his scholars, Paris Bordone, Bonifazio Veneziano, Girolamo di Tiziano, and his own son Orazio Vecellio, were able painters. (Vasari; Ridolfi ; Zanetti, Delia J'ittura Veneziana, &c. ; Cadorin, Delia amore ai Venezianai di Tiziano Vecellio; Northcote, Life of Titian, 1830.) [R.N.W.] TITIUS, G. G., a German jurist, 1661-1714. TITON DU TILLET, Evkraud, a master of polite literature and patron of letters, projector of a French Parnassus in honour of Louis XIV., a description of wluch he published, 1677-1762. TITSINGH, J., a Dutch traveller, 1740-1812. TITTEL, G. A., a Ger. philosopher, died 1816. TTTTMANN, John Augustus Henry, a Ger- man professor of theology, au of ' Encyclopadie der Theologischen Wissenschaften,' 1773-1831. TITUS, a disciple of Paul, and preacher of the Gospel in Dalmatia, 1st century. TITUS LIVIUS. See Livy. TITUS, Flavius Vespa?ianus, emperor of Rome, was the eldest son of the emperor Ves- pasian ; he was born in the year 40, and educated with Britannicus at the court of Nero . like the latter, he gave way to vices which afforded little promise of a happy reign. From 67 to 70 he was carrying on the war in Judaea, the whole conduct of which devolved upon him on his father's elec- tion as emperor , the capture of Jerusalem, on September 2, of the year last mentioned, brought this struggle to a close, after which Vespasian and Titus were both honoured with a triumph. It is almost unnecessary to mention that the fullest details of this war, the unparalleled cruelties and sufferings with which it was attended, may be read in Josephus ; the episode of the passion of Titus for Berenice will be found in Suetonius. On the death of Vespasian in 79, Titus succeeded as em- peror, commencing, by repeated proofs of his refor- mation, one of the most princely and beneficent reigns in the annals of Rome i for this the wisdom of his father was partly to be thanked, he having associated Titus with him in the empire, and de- veloped the nobler traits of his character by the generous trust reposed in him. In the year of his succession the great eruption of Vesuvius took place, which buried Herculaneum, Stabise, Pom- peii, and other towns beneath its ashes; in the following year a fatal epidemic and a fearful con- flagration occurred in Rome, and in the next again, September 13, 81, Titus expired, perhaps of poison, and was succeeded by his brother, Domitian : the hopes he had excited were so great that his death was mourned as a public calamity, a rare honour for an emperor of Rome. [E.R.] TIZIANO VECELLI. See Titian. TOALDO, J., an Italian astrologer, 1719-1798. TOBIN, A. M. Dk., a Sp. painter, 1C78-1758. . TOBIN, John, a solicitor, bom at Salisbury, TOL author of ' The Honey Moon,"' 'All's Fair for Low and several other plays, 1770-18U4. James, h brother, a poet, died 1815. TOD, James, an officer of the East India Com pany. author of ' Travels,' and Surveys, died 183,' TODD, Hugh, vicar of Stanwix, in Cumbaj land, au. of a ' Description of Sweden,' 105.S-172! TODE, H. J., a German naturalist, 1738-178| TODE, J. C, a Ger. medical writer, 1736-181 TOFINO DE SAN MIGUEL. Don ViCKSg a Spanish matheinat. and astronomer, 17-10-1 S()( TOINARD, N., a Fr. antiquarian, 162i-170(i. TOLAND, John, one of those learned fret thinkers who rendered themselves conspIcM after the publication of Locke's philosophy, w; born in Ireland, of Roman Catholic parens, j 1669. As early as his sixteenth year, he shoo off the superstitions in which he had been educate* and in consequence of this change, completed h education at Glasgow and Edinburgh, taking tl degree of M.A. in the latter university in 169 At Leyden, where he next passed two yens, 1 made the acquaintance of Leclerc and Leibni and returning to England again, published, 1695, his 'Christianity not Mysterious.' TL work was launched forth in the midst of a contrt versy concerning Socinian principles that which South, Sherlock, Wallis, Howes, Cudwort and others, took part, and was designed to sin 'that there is nothing in the Gospel contrary reason, or above it, and that no Christian doctri* can be properly called a mystery." Attacks w< made upon the author from all sides, the grai jury of Middlesex answered his work in a ' Pr sentment,' and the Irish Parliament ordered it be burnt by the hangman. Toland had gone Dublin to escape the storm raised against huh chiefly by the Dissenters, in London, and he w now compelled to return to avoid a prosecution " the attorney-general of Ireland : thus alienafci from all parties he declared himself a ' Latitud: rian,' though he always professed himself a CI) tian. His subsequent works were, a ' Life Milton,' which accompanied an edition of tta author's prose works, ' Amyntor,' ' Origines Judi ica?,' 'The Philosophy of the Ancients,' ' Hypati ' Nazarenus,' ' History of the Soul's Immortal ! among the Heathens,' ' The Origin and Force Prejudices,' and numerous political pamphlet His principal object, so far as these bore on gion, was to sustain his original controversy, an destroy the authority of the Books of Scriptu* deemed canonical: but he was a vain man, pro of distinction, however obtained, and was prot more concerned about the great names he covi associate with his own, than the principles he pn fessed. He died at Putney in the fifty-third yei of his age, 1722. In this neighbourhood re ' " the Gibbons, Bolingbrokes, and Mallets. [E.FJ TOLEDO, Feknando Alvakez De, duke Alba, or Alva. See Alva. TOLEDO, F. De, Spanish viceroy of Peru, di; in prison after his return home, 1581. TOLEDO, J. De, a Spanish painter, died 164 TOLEDO, Don P. De, Spanish viceroy! Naples under Charles V., 1484-1553. Peter^j the same family, ambassador in 1608. TOLER, John, Lord Norbury, chief justice the Common Pleas in Ireland, rose to distincJ 782. TOL t the period of the rebellion, distinguished as u vit. 1745-1831. TOLET, F., a Spanish cardinal, 1532-1596. TOLET, F., a French physician, died 1724. TOLET, J., an English cardinal, died 1274. TOLLET, Elizabeth, an accomplished Eng- sh lady, author of Poems, 1694-1754. Her ne- hew, George Tollet, author of valuable Notes n Shakspeare, died 1779. TOLL1US, Cornelius, a Dutch philologist, orn about 1620, died 1662. His brotber, Alex- ffDER, also a philologist, died 1675. James, a hird brother, a learned physician and professor, 630-1696. Another Dutch philologist, named Iermann Tollius, was professor at Harden- yck and Leyden, 1742-1822. "TOLOMEI, J. B., an Italian Jesuit, cardinal, ad statesman, 1655-1726. Nicholas, of the mie family, a Jesuit and ecclesiastical writer, 699-1774. TOLOMMEI, Claudio, an Italian master and remoter of polite literature, 1492-1555. TOMASELLI, J., an Ital. naturalist, 1733-1818. TOMASINI, Giacomo Filippo, bishop of itta Nuova, a biographical writer, 1597-1654. TOMBES, J., a nonconformist div., 1603-1676. TOMLINE, George, successively bishop of incoln and Winchester, author of ' Elements of hristian Theology,' ' Memoirs of Mr. Pitt,' whose icretary he had been, and a ' Refutation of the harge of Calvinism brought against the Church ' England,' 1750-1827. The family name of this elate was Prettyman, but he took that of Mnline on inheriting an estate left to him. It TOMLINS, Elizabeth Sophia, a novelist i e id miscellaneous wr., b. in London 1768, d. 1828. i TONDUZZI, J. C, an Ital. historian, 1617-73. TONE, Theobald Wolfe, founder of the 3 sociation of 'United Irishmen,' was born in jj ablin 1763, and by profession a barrister. He j mmenced his political agitation in 1790, and in j 96 prevailed on the French directory to send ;., i expedition in support of the Irish insurrection. g| lis fleet was scattered by storms, and Tone was j;, ade prisoner when conducting a petty armament D ,j mewhat later. He committed suicide in prison, LJ wember 19, 1798. , ( TONSTALL. See Tunstall. j) TOOKE, Andrew, a learned schoolmaster and 1. athematician, born in London 1673, died 1731. . TOOKE, John Horne, a political character of ".', ry considerable consequence in the last century, ~ ted in the literary world as a grammarian and '" ilologist, was born in Newport-Street, West- inster, where his father was a poulterer, in 1736. ,.. is education having been completed at Cam- ,i| idge, he entered into orders, and became, in 1760, . ][ ?ar of Brentford in Middlesex. He was never r icerely attached to the church, however, but : .'' stowed the greater part of his time on law and litics, for which the factious nature of the times, , . d the supposed designs of George III. and Lord ite afforded abundant scope. From 1765 to 1767 ill published his philippics against the court and ' e chief justice, Lord Mansfield, in favour of .! likes the popular idol, and soon after made the ' quaintance of that gentleman, as well as of Vol- fe and Sheridan, on the continent. In 1770 and 1, a period of great political excitement in Lon- TOR don, he founded the Society for Supporting the Bill of Rights ; this produced a rupture between him and Wilkes, in consequence of the selfish advantages sought by the latter ; about the same time he promoted the publication of the Debates in Parliament, in defiance of the House of Commons. From 1773 to 1782 he was of course the avowed enemy of the administration of Lord North; and the friend of the American patriots ; in this inter- val he underwent a year's imprisonment and a fine of '200. The most important event of his life was his trial for high treason, in conjunction with Hardy, this took place at the Old Bailey in 1794, and was remarkable for the ability and self-pos- session with which Mr. Tooke defended himself; it ended in an acquittal, and he afterwards num- bered among his friends Sir Francis Burdett and Major Cartwright. In 1801 he became member of parliament for a nomination borough, having failed in two previous attempts as a candidate for the popular suffrages. Nothing particular marked his subsequent career, and he died at Wimbledon, hav- ing first destroyed all his MSS., in 1812 His freatest literary work is his ' Diversions of Purley,' rst published in 1786 ; attempts have been made to prove that he was the real ' Junius.' [E.R.] TOOKE, William, originally a printer, after- wards a foreign chaplain of the Church of Eng- land, author of ' Varieties in Literature,' ' Life of Catherine II.,' ' A View of the Russian Empire,' ' A General History of Russia,' and Translations of Lucian and of Zollikofer's Sermons; born at Islington 1744, died 1820. TOPFER, H. A., a Ger. philosopher, 1758-1833. TOPHAM, E., an English writer, died 1820. TOPINO-LEBRUN, F. J. B., a French histo- rical painter, perished on the scaffold, 1769-1801. TOPLADY, Augustus Montague, a cele- brated Calvinistic divine and controversial writer, was born at Farnham in Surrey, 1740, and became vicar of Broad Hembury in Devonshire, where he composed most of his writings, in 1762. In 1775 he removed to London, and from that period officiated at the chapel of the French Reformed, near Leicester Fields. Died August 11, 1778. TOPPI, N., an Italian historian, 1603-1681. TORDENSKIOLD, the name conferred on Peter Wessel, a famous Danish admiral, when ennobled by Frederic IV. for his victory over the fleet of Charles XII., king of Sweden, 1691-1720. TORELLI, Joseph, an Italian scholar and ma- thematician, editor of Archimedes, and translator of iEsop's Fables and of the iEneid, 1721-1781. TORELLI, L., an Ital. biographer, 1609-1683. TORELLI, L., an Italian jurist. 1489-1576. TORELLI, P., an Italian poet, 1536-1608. TOREN, Olaus, a Swedish naturalist and tra- veller in the East Indies, died 1753. TORFjEUS, Thormodus, in Icelandic Thor- MODUR TORFASON, Or TlIORMqp ToRVESEN, a learned historian of Norway, 1648-17J9. TORNIEL, or TORNIELLI, Augustus, gen- eral of the Barnabites, and wr. of annals, 1543-1622. TORNIELLI, J. F., an Italian poet, 1693-1752. TORQUEMADA, John De, in Latin Turre- cremata, a Spanish cardinal, confessor to Isabella of Castile, 1388-1468. A Franciscan friar, of the same names, published a ' History of the Wars and Discoveries in the West Indies,' 1015. A Thomas 83. TOR De Torquemada was first inquisitor-general of Spain, and acted with such relentless vigour that, in sixteen years, he had committed 8,800 victims to the stake, and 90,000 to various measures of imprisonment; he also banished 100,000 Jews from the country in that period, 1420-1498. TORRE, Bernardo Della, an ecclesiastical writer, chaplain to Murat, 1736-1820. TORRE, Filippo Del, an Italian antiquary and master of polite literature, 1657-1717. TORRE, Giovanni Maria Della, an Italian antiquary and natural philosopher, a great im- prover of the microscope, 1713-1782. TORRENS, Sir Henry, an Irish officer of the British army, who acted as secretary to Sir Arthur Wellesley in the peninsula, and since then became the promoter of many improvements in military regulations ; born in Londonderry 1779, died 1828. TORRENTLNUS,Hermann Van Beck, called, a Dutch savant, author of the earliest attempt at an historical dictionary, 1450-1520. TORRENTIUS-LiEVINUS, otherwise Lievin Vander Beken, a Belgian prelate, philologist, and Latin poet, 1525-1595. TORRICELLI, E vangelista, a famous Italian mathematician and natural philosopher, professor at Florence, time of Galileo, 1608-1647. TORRIGIANI, Pietro, a Florentine sculptor, who met with a tragical death in Spain, 1522. TORRIGIANO, T., a physician, 1270-1350. TORRIJOS, Don Jose Maria, a Spanish gen- eral, bora at Madrid 1791, distinguished himself in the revolution of 1820, executed 1823. TORRINGTON, George Byng, Viscount, a naval officer who served in the late war, 1768-1831. TORRUBIA, Jose, a Spanish Franciscan, his- torian, and naturalist, died 1768. TORSINELLO, H., an Ital. historicn, 1545-99. TORSTENSON, Leonard, Count, a Swedish general, time of Gustavus Adolphus, 1595-1654. TORSTI, F., an Italian physician, 1658-1741. TOSCAN, G., a Fr. horticulturist, 1756-1826. TOSCANELLA, Paolo Del Pozzo, an astro- nomer of Florence, time of Columbus, 1397-1482. TOSELLI, F., an Ital. biographer, 1699-1768. TOSHI, D., an Italian theologian, 1535-1620. TOSSANUS. See Totjssain. TOTILA, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, totally vanquished by Belisarius and killed, 541-552. TOTT, Claude Akeson, a Swedish general, distinguished against the Russians in 1573, d. 1596. TOTT, Claude, Count, a Swedish senator and ambassador, time of Christina, 1616-1674. TOTT, Francis, Baron De, a French officer and diplomatist, of Hungarian origin, employed at Con- stantinople and the Crimea, author of Memoirs of the Turks and Tartars, 1733-1793. TOTZE, E., a Prussian historian, 1715-1789. TOULLIER, C. E. M., a Fr. jurist, 1752-1835. TOULMIN, Joshua, successively a baptist and unitarian minister, editor of anew edition of Neale's History of the Puritans and other works, 1740-1815. TOUP, Jonathan, a classical scholar and critic, born at St. Ives, in Cornwall, 1713, died 1785. TOUR, B. De La, a French preacher, last cent. TOUR, Baillet, Count De La, an Austrian general, time of Joseph II., died 1806. TOUR, J. B. Bonnafas De La, a French Jesuit preacher and religious poet, 1712-1777. TOU TOUR, Maurice. See Delatour. . TOUR, Theodore. See Latour. TOUR D'AUVERGXE, Theophilus Matx Corret De La, called the first Grenadier o\ France, and long the terror of the enemy in Spanisr warfare, 1743-1800. TOURLET, R., a French Hellenist, 1770-1836 TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton Di brated botanist, was born at Aix in Provence ii 1656. He died in 1708. He was destined by hi parents for the church, but at the death of hi father he chose the profession of medicine. 1 Witan; was his favourite study, and to the prosecution o this, he ultimately devoted his life. He travelled ii quest of plants over the Alps and Pyrenees, throug! Spain and Portugal ; and afterwards visited Holla and England. He had for many years the superin tendence of the Jardin du Roi, and lectured o: botany to a numerous throng of students. Tourne fort was one of a celebrated triumvirate of botani which the end of the 17th and beginning of th 18th centuries produced. Ray in England, Kivinu in Germany, and Tournefort in France, were con temporaries and correspondents, and botany J much indebted to their labours for the progress has since made. Tournefort's method of elassirica tion of plants is derived almost entirely from th flower, and, considering the time in which it ws published, possesses very great merit. In Franc he is esteemed as much as Ray is in England ; an the two philosophers are justly reckoned each tb; pride of their country. In 1700 he was selected under royal patronage, to proceed to the Levaa to investigate the plants mentioned by ancier writers and to discover new ones. His journe occupied more than two years, during which I made a large collection of plants and other object of natural history; and upon his return he wi nominated professor of medicine at the college i France. His chief botanical works are the El< ments de Botanique,' and the ' Institutiones R Herbariae' which possess great merit. Plumii named a genus of plants after him, Pittonia; b|i Linnaeus afterwards changed it to Tournefort*' which it now retains. [W.B TOURNELY, H., a Fr. theologian, 1658-172$ TOURNEMINE, R. J. De, a learned Jesui author of ' Reflections on Atheism,' 1661-1739. TOURNEUR, P. C, a Fr. translator, 1736-8 TOURNIE, J. J., a Fr. mechanician, 1690-177 TOURNON, C. T. Maillard De, an Italu cardinal and legate to India and China, 1668-171 TOURNON, F. De, a French cardinal and dipk* matist, time of our Henry VIIL, 1489-1562. I TOURNON, P. C. Casimir Marcellin, Com De, a French statesman, died 1833. TOURON, A., a French biographer, 1688-177 TOURRETTE, Marc-Antoine Louis Cu ret De La, a French naturalist, 1729-1793. TOURTELLE, S., a French physician, au. of ' Philosophical History of Medicine",' 1756-1801.; TOUSSAIN, Daniel, in Latin Tossanus, learned protestant theologian, 1541-1602. PAf J his son, author of a Life of the elder Toussali and of various controversial works, died 16% James, a learned Hellenist, died 1547. TOUSSAINT, F. V., a Fr. deist, 1715-1772.? TOUSSAINT DE SAINT LUC, the fatbt^j a Carmelite and ecclesiastical historian, died 169 84 TOU I TOUSSAINT, L'Ouverture, was a negro, the son of African slave parents, and was himself a dave in St. Domingo daring the greater portion of his life. He is said to have been born in 1743. When the revolt of the blacks broke out in that island in 1791, Toussaint joined his fellow-country- men ; but he did not sully himself by participation n any of the atrocities that marked the furious struggle of blacks, mulattoes, and whites, each against the other two races, by which the unhappy island was devastated. Toussaint, by his courage and generalship in the field, and still more by his eloquence, his knowledge of character, and his po- litical skill and firmness, made himself chief of the negroes, who were the victorious party in the war. He reduced the part of the island, that had be- onged to the Spaniards, into complete submission. He formed and maintained a regular army of black soldiers, and black officers, disciplined after the European model ; and revived some slight degree f the commerce, by which St. Domingo had once >een enriched. By introducing a strict system of compulsory labour among the negroes, whom he illowed to receive a fourth part of the produce of their toil, he secured the blessing of industry for he land and the people, while the blacks still )rided themselves on being no longer the slaves of he white men. He maintained rigid military liscipline, and administered justice with stern and mpartial vigilance. Notwithstanding the severity >f his rule, he was idolized by the negroes, who egarded him as a type of the eminence which their ace was fitted to attain. Toussaint preserved a lominal allegiance to France, and assiduously urted Buonaparte's favour after the establishment )f the consulate. But Napoleon was resolved to educe St. Domingo into thorough submission as a solony, and after the peace of Amiens, in 1801, an irmy of 35,000 troops, under General Le Clerc, was lent on board a powerful fleet from the French >orts against the island. Toussaint and his fol- owcrs resisted for a time with valour and skill ; rat several of the negro generals deserted their [Castle of Jour.] ihief, and at last Toussaint made his submission, rod retired to a farm in the interior, leaving the French acknowledged masters of St. Domingo. TOZ For two months Toussaint lived in retirement, but the French were jealous of his possible influence over the negroes, and, on July 5, 1802, Le Clerc caused Toussaint to be arrested, and sent him a prisoner to France. He was confined in the castle of Joux, in the Jura mountains, where he died on the 27th April, 1803. Toussaint L'Ouverture is a bright example of the intellectual energy and greatness of which the maligned negro race is capable ; and his fate is one of the saddest among the many melancholy proofs of the guilt and meanness which have marked Europeans in their dealings with their African brethren. [E.S.C.] TOUSTAIN, G. F., a learned Benedictine, au- thor of a ' Traite" de Diplomatique,' 1700-1754. TOWERS, Joseph, a miscellaneous and politi- cal writer, born in Southwark, where his father was a dealer in second-hand books, 1737, died 1799. Towers began life as a printer, but became a preacher among the dissenters, and his merits were recognized by the degree of L.L.D., conferred upon him by the university of Edinburgh. Among his works are 'A Review of the Genuine Doctrines of Christianity,' A Vindication of the Political Opinions of Locke,' and some articles in the Bio- graphia Britannica. TOWERSON, G., a theologian, died 1697. TOWGOOD, Micajah, a dissenting minister, and famous advocate of the principle of separation from the Established Church ; born in Devonshire 1700, died 1792. TOWNLEY, Charles, a gentleman of Lanca- shire, who is numbered in the ranks of English scholars and connoisseurs, was born at the seat of his ancestors, 1737. He resided many years at Rome, where he collected the valuable marbles now in the British Museum, and known as the Townley Collection ; died 1805. His uncle, John, was an officer in the French army, and translated Hudibras into the language of his adopted coun- try; died 1782. TOWNLEY, James, rector of St. Bennet's, Gracechurch-Street, and subsequently master of Merchant Tailors' school, known as a dramatic writer, and chiefly by his piece, entitled 'High Life Below Stairs,' 1715-1778. TOWNSEND, John, founder of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum in St. George's Fields, London, was born in the metropolis 1757, and became minister to an independent congregation, first at Kingston in Surrey, and afterwards at Bermondsey. The Rev. H. C. Mason, vicar of the latter parish, was his coadjutor in founding the asylum, for which a patron was found in the person of the late duke of Gloucester. They also worked together on the 1 Family Bible,' known by the name of Mason's. Mr. Townsend died in 1826. TOWNSEND, Joseph, a minister of the Church of England, educated as a physician under Dr. Cullen at Edinburgh. He was first interested in religion by the movement of the Wesleyans, and for some time acted as chaplain to Lady Hunting- don, and pieached in her chapel at Bath; after which he obtained the living of Pewsey. He wrote several works, and died 1816. TOWNSON, T., a learned divine, 1715 -1792. TOWSTON, W., an English traveller, 16th ct. TOZER, H., a puritan divine, 1602-1650. TOZZETTI, G. T., an Ital. botanist, 1722-1780. 785 3E TOZ TOZZI, Luke, an Italian physician, 1638-1717. TRACY, Anthony Louis Claude Dkstutt De, a French moralist and politician, 1754-1836. TRACY, Bernard Destutt De, an ecclesi- astic and ascetic writer, 1720-1786. TRADESCANT, John, a Dutch naturalist and Asiatic traveller, gardener to Charles L, died about 1652. His son, of the same name, author of a description of his father's curiosities, died about 1662. The latter bequeathed his father's museum to Elias Ashmole, who gave it to the university of Oxford. The Tradescants intro- duced many new plants into this country. TRAETTA, T., an Italian composer, 1727-79. TRAHERON, B., a learned divine, 16th cent. TRAILL, Robert, a presbyterian minister, author of works highly esteemed among the Cal- vinists, born at Ely, in Fifeshire, 1642, died 1716. His son, Robert, was a minister in the county of Angus. James, son of the latter, became an epis- copalian, and was appointed, in 1765, bishop of Down and Connor; died 1783. TRAJAN, one of the most illustrious emperors of Rome, was born near Seville, in Spain, in the year 53, and was adopted by Nerva in 97. The custom of adoption, when the choice was happily made, prevented the dangers incident to an inter- regnum, and, in this instance, only three months intervened between that expedient and the acces- sion of the new Ca?sar. It is singular that Tra- jan was no connection or friend of Nerva's, but was chosen by him solely for his well-known virtues, his fine military spirit, and his general fitness for com- mand ; and so well had Rome reason to be satisfied with this choice, that the virtues of the new em- peror remained, for ages after his time, proverbial. The great victories or Trajan were obtained over the Dacians, Germans, and Parthians, and it was to commemorate the first of these that his fa- mous column was erected; imitated in our own times by that of Napoleon. By these victories he fixed securely the boundaries of the Roman em- pire on the banks of the Rhine and the Tigris. His internal administration was equally glorious, his reign being numbered with that of his succes- sor, Hadrian, and with the period of the two An- tonines, for its great clemency, and rigid discipline of justice these virtues being ever inseparable. Among his benefactions may be mentioned the humane and legal mode of dealing with the Chris- tians which he enjoined in his rescript to Pliny, appointed by him proconsul of Bithyma and Pon- tus. Trajan died at Selinus, a town in Cilicia, in August, 117. [E.R.] TRALLES, B. L., a Polish physician, 1708-97. TRALLIANUS. See Alexander. TRAPP, John, a minister of the Church of England, author of Commentaries on all the books of Scripture, 1601-1669. TRAPP, Joseph, commonly called Dr. Trapp, grandson of the preceding, and rector of Harling- ton, author of several learned works in divinity and polite literature, 1679-1747. See Law. TBAVASA, Cajetan M., an Italian theatine, preacher, and historian, 1698-1774. TRAVERS, N., aFrench priest, 1686-1750. divi . TRAVIS, G., an English divine, died 1797. TREBY, Sir George, a celebrated judge and lawyer, period of the revolution, 1644-17*02. TBI TREDGOLD, T., a civil engineer, died 18W. TREIBER, J. P., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1675-1727 TREILHARD, J. B., Count, a French juris! and deputy to the estates-general, 1742-1810. TRELLON, C, a French poet, lGtli century. TREMBECKI, a Polish poet, died 1812. TREMBLE Y, Abraham, an eminent naturalis and religious writer of Geneva, 1700-1784. TREMELLIUS, Emmanuel, son of a Jew o Ferrara, professor of Hebrew at Heidelberg, an< author of a version of the Bible, 1510-1580. TRENCHARD, Sir John, a member of parlia- ment and statesman, who was implicated in thi Rye-house plot and the rebellion of Monmouth 1650-1695. John, of the same family, a politica writer, of the Whig party, author of The Natura History of Superstition,' 1669-1723. TRENCK, Frederick, Baron Von Der, a cele- brated commander in the Austrian war of succes- sion, was born at Reggio, of a noble Polish family in 1711. His military career commenced frou 1738, when he entered the service of Russia. Ii 1740 he joined the Austrians, and became chief o the Pandoivrs. His cruel and rapacious conduc created him many enemies, and being thrown infc prison, he poisoned himself, after four years' con fmement, in 1749. Frederick, his cousin, au thor of the celebrated Memoirs, was born in 1726 and entered the Prussian service under Frederic! II. He was imprisoned in a dark undergrounc cell at Magdeburg for ten years, and at last per ished by the guillotine in France, 1794. Maur- ice Flavius, of the same family, was a write on public law, and died 1810. TRENEUIL, J., a French poet, 1763-1818. TRENTA, P., an Italian poet, 1731-1795. TRENTO, J., an Italian Jesuit, 1728-1784. TRESCHOW, Niels, a Norwegian philosophe and theologian, author of ' The Spirit of Christi anity,' and the ' Philosophical Testament, or God Nature, and Revelation,' 1751-1833. TRESHAM, H., an Irish poet, died 1814. TRIiSSAN, Louis Elizabeth De La Ver gne, Count De, a French officer and member o the Academy, author of a translation of Orland Furioso, and other works, 1705-1743. His soc the Abbe De Tressan, a writer, 1749-1809. t TRESSAN, Peter De La Vergne De, a mis sionary, born in Languedoc 1618, died 1684. TREUER, G. S., a Germ, publicist, 1683-1743 TREUTLER, J., a German jurist, 1565-1607. TREUVE, S. M., a Fr. theologian, 1651-1730. TREVISANI, Francesco, an Italian paintei taught by Antonio Zanchi, 1656-1746. Angelc his brother, a portrait painter, dates unknown. TREVISANI, M. A., a Venetian doge, 1553-54 TREW, C. J., a German botanist, 1695-1769. TRIBOLO, N. Di, an Ital. sculptor, 1500-155C TRIBONIAN, a celebrated Roman jurist, wh was employed by Justinian on the famous digest o the laws, died about 546. Tribonian bears a ver indifferent character ; a brief account of the grea work on which he was engaged may be seen ii the article Justinian. TRICALET, P. J., an ascetic writer, 1696-1761 TRICHET-DUFRESNE, Raphael, a Frenejs bibliopole and numismatist, 1611-1661. TRIER, J. P., a Germ, theologian, 1687-1 708. TBIEST, A. r a Flemish prelate, 1576-1C57. im TRI TRIEWALD, Samuel, a Swedish poet and statesman, 1688-1742. His brother, Martin, a j! mathematician and engineer, 1691-1747. TRIGLAND, J., a Dutch divine, 1652-1705. TRILLER, D. W., a Ger. physician, 1695-1782. TRIMMER, Sarah, authoress of numerous * works designed to promote the religious education of the populace, was the daughter of Joshua Kirby, and was born at Ipswich in 1741. The principal of her works was a periodical continued . several years under the title of 'The Guardian of ; * Education. Some of her books have been admitted into the list of the Society for Promoting Chris- ;^ tian Knowledge. She died in 1810, and was Ca buried in the family vault at Ealing. " TRIMNELL, C, a learned prelate, 1663-1723. TRINCANO, Didier Gregory, a military en- gineer and writer on fortification, born in Franche- f Comte - 1719, died about 1792. His son, H. L. 5 Victor, a mathematician, 1754-1785. !0D TRINCAVELLI, Victor, a physician and clas- , b sical editor of Venice, 1496-1568. ? TRIONFETTI, Lelio and Giambatista, Ita- ; K1 lian botanists : the former 1647-1722 ; the latter, :it< who was his brother, 1656-1708. * TRIP, Luke, a Dutch poet, died 1783. f TRIPPEL, A., a Swiss sculptor, 1747-1793. TRISSIN, or TRISSINO, Giov. Georgio, an 1 Italian poet, the first who wrote blank verse in '* that language, 1478-1550. r TRISTAN, J., a French numismatist, d. 1656. TRISTAN, L.. a Spanish painter, 1586-1640. 3 TRISTAN, N., a Portng. navigator in 1440-7. TRISTAN L'ERMITE, Francis, a French poet and dramatist, 1601-1649. His brother, Jean Baptiste, a poet, historian, and genealogist, died about 1670. fl TRITHEMIUS, John, a famous German theo- >& logian and learned writer, 1462-1516. "I TRIVET, Nicholas, an English Dominican, author of ' Annales Regium Anglia?,' died 1328. TRIVISANO, Marco, a Venetian biographer, EB died about 1674. His nephew, Bernardo, a ' < philosopher and literary savant, 1652-1720. " TRIULZI, Giam Giacomo, a distinguished : i general, born in 1447 of a noble Milanese family. Being slighted at the court of Lodovico Sforza, he entered the French service, and finally headed the invading army of Francis I., and won the battle of Marignano, which put the French in possession ' of Milan. Died at Chartres, 1518. TROGUS POMPEIUS, a Norman historian, author of a Universal History, abridged by Justin, and described by him as a man of antique elo- quence, time of Augustus. TROILLIUS, Samuel, a learned archbishop of Upsala, 1706-1764. His son, Uno, also arch- bishop of Upsala, and a man of letters, 1746-1803. TROLLE, Gustavus, archbishop of Upsala, and partizan of the Danish tyranny, killed in a battle in Norway after his expulsion, 1535. TROLLE, H., a Danish admiral, 1516-1565. TROLLE, G. H., a Swedish admiral, 1680-1765. TROMMIUS, A., a German divine, 1633-1719. TROMP, Marten Harpertzoan, a famous Dutch commander, was born in 1597, and received his first command from Prince Maurice in 1624. From 1637 to 1639 he was employed against the Spaniards and Portuguese, and was afterwards TSC matched against our own Admiral Blake ; it was Tromp who sailed up the channel with a broom at his masthead, protesting he would sweep the English from the seas. He was killed in an ac- tion off the Dutch coast, 29th July, 1653. His son, Cornelius Van Tromp, born 1629, dis- played extraordinary courage and skill in his con- tests with the English, and died peaceably at Am- sterdam in 1691. Some particulars will be found under the name of Ruyter, his fellow-com- mander. TRONCHAY, G. Du, a Fr. writer, 1540-1582. TRONCHET, F. D., a Fr. jurist, 1726-1806. TRONCHIN, Theodore, a protestant theolo- gian of Geneva, 1582-1657. Lewis, his son and successor as professor of divinity, died 1705. N. Dubreuil, of the same family, a journalist, died in Holland, 1640-1721. TRONCHIN, Theodore, an eminent physician of the same family as the preceding, and a relative, by the mother's side, of Lord Bolingbroke, a great promoter of inoculation in France, 1709-1781. His relative, John Robert, a jurisconsult, and writer against Rousseau, 1711-1793. TROOST, C, a Dutch painter, 1697-1750. TROWBRIDGE, Sir Edward T., a distin- guished British admiral, died 1852. TROWBRIDGE, Sir Thomas, a naval officer distinguished in the last war, supposed to have perished at sea in the Blenheim, 1807. TROSK, M., a German Orientalist, 1588-1636. TROTTER, Thomas, a physician in the royal navy, known as a professional and medical writer, born in Roxburghshire, died 1832. TROTTI, J. P. B., an Ital. painter, 1555-1602. TROTZ, C. H., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1701-1773. TROY, Francis De, a Fr. painter, 1645-1730. His son, same name and profession, 1676-1752. TRUBLET, N. C. J., a Fr. writer, 1697-1770. TRUCHET, John, a French monk, famous as an engineer and man of science, 1657-1729. TRUEBA, Don Telesforo De, a Spanish constitutionalist, who took refuge in England and became known as a dramatist, died 1835. TRUMAN, J., a nonconfor. divine, 1631-1671. TRUMBULL, John, an American lawyer and Soet, born in Connecticut, 1750 ; died 1831. onathan, his son, secretary to Washington, and member of Congress, 1740-1809. John, brother of the latter, a painter of history, some of whose productions adorn the capital at Wash- ington, 1756-1843. TRUMBULL, Sir William, a statesman and diplomatist, time of James II. and William III., well known as the friend and literary confidant of Dryden and Pope, 1638-1716. TRUSLER, J., a literary compiler, 1735-1820. TRYPHIODORUS, a Greek poet and gramma- rian, time of Anastasius, 6th century. TRYPHO, a Syrian usurper between Antio- chus VI. and Antiochus VII., B.C. 140-134. TSCHARNER, Bernard, a Swiss historian, died 1778. His brother, N. Emmanuel, 17/3-94. TSCHERNING, Andrew, a Prussian poet and philologist, 1611-1659. TSCHIRNER, Henry Theophilus, professor of theology at Wittemberg, an eloquent preacher, and author of several works, 1778-1828. TSCHIRNHAUSEN, E. W. Von, a learned 787 TSC German, distinguished for his discoveries in the art of manufacturing lenses and burning mirrors, and founder of the manufacture of porcelain in Saxonv, 1651-1708. TSCHOULBOF, M. D., secretary to the Russian senate and an historical writer, died 1793. TSCHUDI, Gili.es, in Latin jEgidius Tscu- dw, a Swiss historian and teacher of Zuinglius, 1505-1572. Dominique, his brother, an ecclesi- astic and historian, 1596-1654. J. Henry, also an historian, 1670-1729. TUAIRE, F., a French painter, 1794-1823. TUBI, J. B., an Italian sculptor, 1G30-1700. TUCKER, Abraham, the son of a London merchant, who was educated for the bar, and be- came known as a metaphysical writer. His prin- cipal work, entitled ' The Light of Nature Pur- sued,' was published under the fictitious name of Edward Search in 1765; flourished 1705-1774. TUCKER, Josiah, a dignitary of the Church of England, author of a ' Treatise on Civil Govern- ment' and ' Elements of Commerce,' 1712-1799. TUCKER, St. George, called ' the American Blackstone,' a distinguished lawyer and promoter of the independence of the United States, d. 1828. TUCKER, W., a learned divine, died 1620. TUCKEY, James Hengston, an African ex- plorer, au. of ' Maritime Geography,' 1776-1816. TUCKNEY, A., a learned puritan, 1599-1670. TUDWAY, T., a musical composer, 17th cent. TUDOR. See Owain. TUET, J. C. F., a Fr. philologist, 1742-1797. TULL, J., an agricultural writer, 1680-1740. TULLIA. SeeTARQUiN. TULLIN, C. B., a Norwegian histor., 1728-65. TULLIUS HOSTILIUS, successor of Numa Pompilius as king of Rome, b.c. 673-641. TULLY, George, rector of Gateside near New- castle, and a famous writer against popery, died 1697. His uncle, Thomas, a learned divine and controversial writer, 1620-1676. TULP, Nicholas, a Dutch physician who be- came burgomaster, and greatly disting. himself by his patriotic resistance to Louis XIV., 1594-1674. TUNSTALL, or TONSTAL, Cuthbert, a famous English prelate, uncle of Bernard Gilpin, was born near Richmond, in Yorkshire, about 1474. In 1516 he accompanied Sir Thomas More as am- bassador to Charles V., after which he became successively bishop of London and Durham. He was imprisoned in the Tower during the reign of Edward VI., and though he had shown a humane regard for the persons of protestants in the reign of Mary, he was deprived of bis liberty again in that of Elizabeth. His keeper, however, was Arch- bishop Parker, who entertained him in a friendly manner at Lambeth, where he died in 1559. TUNSTALL, James, vicar of Rochdale, author of Discourses upon Natural and Revealed Reli- gion,' and some classical commentaries, 1710-72. TURA, Cosmo, an Italian painter, 1406-1469. TURBERVILLE, George, a poet and trans- lator of Ovid, born at Whitchurch, in Devonshire, about 1530, died about 1600. His poetical descrip- tion of Russia was founded on the knowledge he obtained of that country as secretary to the Eng- lish ambassador, Sir Thomas Randolph. TURCHI, Alessandro, an Italian painter, taught by Brusasorci, about 1580-1650. TUR TURCHI, L., bishop of Parma, 1724-1803. TURENNE. Henri De La Tour D'AuM vergne, Viscount de Turenne, was born at Sedan,. I of anoble family, 16th September, 1611. At the agS|, of fifteen he served in Holland, and studied the all, of war under his maternal uncles, Prince Mauricei^B Nassau, and Prince Frederick Henry. In 1634 he-< l! received the command of a French regiment, anjM gained brilliant distinctions in the campaign in Flail^H ders. In 1639 he commanded with success in Ital^H and in 1643 he conquered Roussillon. In the nesSH year he was made marshal of France, and comfll mander of the French armies in Germany. Bflk gained the great battle of Nordlingen in 1645 ; a^H by his able manoeuvres, and decision and skill iflB action, he was the chief cause of the advantag^Mj gained over the imperialists in the latter part qH: the thirty years' war. When the civil war of tl^H French broke out in France, Turenne was first G^H gaged against the court, but afterwards becai^H the chief commander of the royal armies. In 16^H and 1655 he commanded against the Spaniard^* and the Low Countries, gained the battle of the r Dunes, and conquered the greater part of Flando^H The peace of the Pyrenees in 1660 closed this war: I? but when hostilities were renewed in 1667, Turenne V ran through another rapid career of victories in |, p Flanders, and the Spaniards were obliged to beg J- again for peace in the next year. In 1672 he w^H at the head of the French troops in Holland. He r took forty towns in twenty-two days, and won five I', pitched battles against the Dutch and Austrian^! He continued to guide the French arms with a^K most unvarying skill and success till the 27th July, y_ 1675, when he was killed by a chance cannon sh^B when reconnoitring the ground for an intend^H battle against the celebrated imperialist comma^K der, Montecuculi. [E.S.C.l J ' TURGOT, an English monk and historian MJ Durham, who became bishop of St. Andrews a^K primate of Scotland, died 1115. TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, born Paris, 10th May, 1727 ; died 20th March, 178M one of the purest and most virtuous of men ; c^H tainly the wisest statesman who appeared during tj^K latter days of the French monarchy. Could t^E fury of the terrible whirlwind which so so^E numbered that ancient and gorgeous monan^K among things that were, have been averted ml ' human providence, the man who alone couflt have saved that calamity was Turgot. In ea^K youth, intended for the Church, his studies w^B varied, and in regions seldom visited by men Jl Action. Fortunately for France his purpo^Bt, changed, and he turned his mind towards ^H functions of the Magistracy. Having obtainfl . some inferior appointments, the repute of his ad I , ministration was such, that in 1774, the Co^^K Maurepas, the first Minister, called him to the hifll . and responsible office of Minister of FinaneKM . Here, the consummate ability of Turgot had fullen scope; and for a time, alike Court and NatioaJ,., reposed on his unimpeachable probity. ^^H Finances of France, as is well known, were then ' fast verging towards that condition which forced]. on the Revolution. Turgot's remedies were di* \ tinct and simple 'No bankruptcy, no moil'..; Loans, no increase of Taxes; but a rigorous ex-jU amination of expenditure and resolute reduction. J '" 788 TUB Kor Was the panacea a mere proposal. The blister was equal to the realizing of it. And the reforms effected during his brief tenor of office were so numerous and important, that Public Credit for the time was re-established! Who niows not, however, that every financial re- former creates an army of enemies ? Is a sine- :ure destroyed? Not only its holder, but his fcttofly: not only these, but all who are thereby rat in fear, conspire against the formidable Min- ster. On a day marked black in the French Issti 12th May, 1776, Turgot was dismissed: K>or Louis XVI. having first remarked l Il riy a pie M. Turgot et moi qui aimons le peuple.' It vas about the middle period of his ministry that Turgot addressed to Louis that celebrated memoir >n the state of the Municipalities, in which he leclared that the safety of France depended on ,he realization of such a constitution as actually jrevailed long afterwards under Louis Philippe. The cause of the evil, Sire, is, that your people lave no constitution. The French nation is a ociety composed of different orders of men im- >erfectly united, and of a people among whom here are few social ties. On this account every nan is absorbed in concern for his private in- erests ; no one takes trouble about his public nties, or his relations with others.' Would that 'ranee had then obtained what might have con- erted mutual hatreds into a common patriotism, nd jarring classes into a Nation ! After these wo years of office, Turgot lived in retirement; ut an active and glorious one. He wrote much ; -the spirit of large and wise philanthropy breath- ig through every fine. He had an old attach- lent to political economy ; and his pen had fought 'ell in the war with Monopolies. He was fond of letaphysics especially as these bear on the 'heory of Language: his essay on Existence in ie Encyclopaedic is well known. But, perhaps, f all he has left, that which has the most endur- lg value are his Letters to an Ecclesiastic on oleraiion: his Discourse on the Advantages of le Christian Religion : a second Discourse on the 'rogress of the Human Mind: and Sketch of TUR qualified chemist; he recommended Dr. Turner, who was accordingly appointed. Dr. Turner was a man of the most amiable disposition, and of acute scientific talents. [R.D.T.I TURNER, J. H., an archaeologist, 1814-1851. Tniversal Eistoi'y. Pregnant as these are with nstruction for all time, we express the fervent k that some one of our many enterprising ublishers, may see reason to present them to the Iritish people. Turgot's whole works have been ollected recently and published in two elegant jyal 8vo volumes. [J.P.N. ] TURGOT, Francis, called 'the Chevalier,' br. f the preceding, and a colonial governor, 1721-89. TURGOT, M. S., a French provost, 1690-1751. TURLOT, F. C, a French writer, 1745-1824. TURN E BE, Adrian, in Latin Turnebius, a rench Hellenist and critic, 1512-1565. TURNER, D., an English botanist, died 1818. TURNER, D., a baptist writer, 1701-1798. TURNER, Edward, M.D., born in Jamaica, 797 ; died at London, 1837 ; the author of a aluable manual of chemistry, and of numerous ontributions to chemical mineralogy and stochio- letry. He began his career as a lecturer in Edinburgh. When University College was inst- ated, the lectureship of chemistry was offered to >r. Thomas Thomson, and on his declining to e Glasgow, he was requested to nominate a [Birth place of Turner.] TURNER, Joseph Mallerd William, was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, in the spring of 1775. His father earned on a small business as a hair-dresser; and it was over his father's shop in Maiden lane where most of his early efforts, in the art in which he eventually became so famous, were produced. His abilities appear to have been rapidly developed, for though un- aided by instruction from any master, he ob- tained admission as a student into the Royal Academy in 1789, in only his fifteenth year, and was an exhibitor in the academy the following year, 1790. In his early youth, Girtin, the water- colour painter, appears to have been Turner's chief adviser, who always expressed a high veneration for his friend's ability. Turner had also the very great advantage of freely copying in the Gallery, or from the collection of drawings of Dr. Munro in the Adelphi; and his elaborate drawings soon procured a public recognition of his talents : he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1800, and an academician in 1802. He was thus for fifty years one of the most distinguished mem- bers of that institution ; and after a life of almost unrivalled success, and an industry unsurpassed, this great landscape painter died unmarried, and under an assumed name, in an obscure lodging at Chelsea, 19th December, 1851. He was, however, buried by the side of Sir Joshua Reynolds, in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral. His life was in every sense a remarkable one; for its humble origin, and for its splendid results; retired and reserved always while living, the splendour of his tame among his contemporaries does not contrast more strongly with his habits of life, than the great and national character henceforth identified with his name, both by his reputation and the dis- position of his property, does with the singular humility of his closing career. His large fortune, 789 TUR both in pictures and in funded property, he has bequeathed to the nation ; his pictures, however, under the condition that the government provide a suitable dwelling for them within ten years, and his funded property towards the establishment of an institution for the benefit of decayed artists. Turner had three styles as a landscape painter, and as the history of every distinguished painter will show, his first manner was much distinguished for laborious care in execution : he was chiefly a water- colour painter in early life. The contrast of style between his early and latest works is remarkable the latter distinguished for its excessive looseness of execution, the former for its elaborate finish ; and, compared with his ordinary works, for a cold- ness of colour. This peculiar coldness of colour he displayed both in his oil and water-colour pic- tures ; and in some of the best of his early works, lie shows a decided imitation of Wilson. In middle life he adopted a much freer mode of execution, and a greatly richer style of colouring. His finest works belong to this middle period, of which the two pictures bequeathed by him to the National Gallery, to be hung between two Claudes, are fine examples: the sun rising in a mist, exhibited in 1807 ; and Dido building Carthage, exhibited in 1815. Turner may be judged by these works, as he himself considered them two of his principal masterpieces ; and the self-assertion of insisting upon their being exhibited by the side of the Claudes, shows that he courted, and required no indulgence from, our criticism. In comparison with Claude his execution is loose, even in his middle period ; but these two pictures do not suffer more by the comparison than the Claudes both are injured, as they are nearly in opposite extremes of taste; the Turners require some of his own later works as a foil, and in this case the two bequests might display the happy medium of exe- cution. The majority of Turner's works of this middle period are certainly masterly and brilliant in colour. In the last twenty years of his career he was extravagant to an extreme degree : he played equally with nature and with his colours : although we could not see such effects in nature as he latterly represented, he maintained that we should be glad to see them, nevertheless. Light, with all its prismatic varieties, seemed to have been the chief object of his studies ; individuality of form or character he was wholly indifferent to. The wild looseness of execution in Turner's latest works has not the apology of being attempted on scientific principles ; he does not work up a par- ticular point of the picture as a focus, and leave the rest obscure, as a foil, to enhance it : but all is equally obscure and wild. But were it otherwise, the philosophy would be very questionable: the infinite advantage of the human eye over instru- ments made by man is, that it can instantly adapt its focus to any object, and thus distinguish, within a limited range, the distant or the near equally well. It is this faculty of the eye which makes the natural landscape so charming; and, accordingly, nature also requires that the land- scape which professes to be its transcript should be finished in all its parts, and thus enable the eye to exercise its wonderful functions over it as it docs over a natural scene. Turner's works are very numerous in all his styles: he exhibited TWI about 300 pictures in the Royal Academy, wliich, however, constitute but a very small portion of hia works. In 1808 he published a work called Liber Sludiorum, or Book of Sketches, in imitation oi Claude's Liber Veritatis. (John Burnet, 'J'urucr and his Works, &c, 1852.) [R.N.W.] TURNER, Samuel, a diplomatist of the East India government time of Hastings, author of an account of his embassy to Thibet, 1749-1802. TURNER, Sharon, a solicitor of Londonj whose works on Anglo-Saxon history and sonj other subjects, are reckoned among the standard* of English literature, 1768-1847. TURNER, Thomas, chaplain to Laud, bishop of London, and finally dean of Canterbury, 1591 1(372. Francis, his son, bishop of Ely, one oi the seven prelates committed to the Tower bj James II., author of a 'Vindication of Archbishoi Sancroft,' ' Animadversions on a Pamphlet entitle^ the Naked Truth,' and other works, died 1700. i TURNER, William, rector of Walberton, uj Sussex, au. of a History of All Religions,' 1695.] TURNER, William, a dignitary of the churclq who wrote the earliest English herbal, entitled I 4 History of Plants,' died 1568. TURPIN, TULPIN, or TELPIN, John, it Lat. Turpinus, a Fr. prelate and chronicler, 8th c TURPIN, F. H., a French historian, 1709-1799 TURPIN DE CRISSE, Lancelot, Count, i French officer and writer on tactics, 1715-1795. TURRETIN, Benedict, a Swiss protestaul theologian, 1588-1631. His son, Francis, pro< fessor at Geneva and a theological writer, 1623j 1687. John Alphonsus, son of the latter, ant the most celebrated ecclesiastical writer and theolfli gian of the family, 1671-1737. Of the same famih were Michael, professor of divinity, 1646-1721 Samuel, son of Michael, professor of theology am Oriental languages, 1688-1718. TUSSAUD, Madame, the famous wax-modella and proprietress of the exhibition in London, wa) born in Berne 1760. She came to London il 1802, and died there in 1850. TUSSER, Thomas, a poet, called by Wartoj 'The British Varro,' born in Essex about 1511 died in London between 1580 and 1585. Hu rincipal work is quaintly entitled, ' Five Hundred oints of Good Husbandry vnited to as many 4 Good Huswiferie.' TUTCHIN, J., a political writer, died 1707. I TUTILO, or TUOT1LO, a monk of St. Gall, in Switzerland, distinguished as a painter, sculptol orator, poet, and musician, 9th century. TWEDDELL, John, an accomplished scholai and traveller, born in Northumberland 1769, died prematurely at Athens 1799. TWELLO, L., a learned divine, died 1742. ' TWINING, T., a classical scholar who was prtjj sented to the living of St. Mary's, Colchester, bj Bishop Lowth, born in London 1734, died 1804. J TWINING, W., an army physician and profe* sional writer, born in Nova Scotia, died 1835. J TWISS, Horace, a barrister and miseellaneo* writer, was the son of Francis Twiss, known as i man of letters, and of Frances, second daughterH Roger Kemble., the father of that celebrated family He was called to the bar in 1811, and cntcrec . parliament as member for Wooton Basset, in 1820 j in 1828, he was under-secret ary for the coloni* 90 ?rin oil TWI luring the administration of Wellington. He Sever obtained much success in political life, hut Bras highly esteemed in the social and literary lircle. The principal of his works is a Life of lord Eldon.' Died 1849. [ TWISS, Richard, a traveller of fortune, known lis a miscellaneous writer, 1747-1821. I, TWISS, W., a nonconformist divine, 17th cent. |! TWYNE, John, an antiquarian and mayor of ITIanterbury, died 1581. His grandson, Brian, an tntiquarian, was vicar of Rye, in Sussex, and Irchivist at Oxford, 1579-1644. I TWYSDEN, Sir R., an antiquary, 1597-1G72. I TYCHSEN, 0. G., professor at Rostock, and Ikuthor of several Oriental works, 1734-1815. I TYCHSEN, T. C, an Orientalist, 1758-1834. | TYDEMAN, M., a Dutch savant, 1741-1825. TYE, C, a musical composer, 16th century. TYERS, T., an English critic, 1726-1787. TYMPE, J. G., a Ger. theologian, 1699-1768. TYNDALE, or TINDALE, William, the enerable martyr and translator, was born in the undred of Berkeley, either at Stinchcomb, or "forth Nibley, Gloucestershire, about the year 484. At an early period he was sent to Oxford, vhere he took his degree, and also gave instruc- ions in Magdalen Hall. But he left Oxford for Cambridge, where it is believed that he took a legree. In 1522 Tyndale is next found as tutor in he house of Sir John Welch of Little Sodbury, not ar from Bristol, where he preached in the villages nd towns on Sabbath, and often disputed with leighbouring abbots and other Romish ecclesi- stics. Here too, he translated the ' Enchiridion tfilitis ' of Erasmus, as a present to his host and lis lady. _ His free opinions and discussions soon ;ot him into troublous examinations before the >opish dignitaries, but no penalty was inflicted on dm. He took the hint, however, left the county, md came to London, his mind being now fully >ccupied with the idea of translating the Scrip- ures. He soon found, as he himself quaintly ays, ' that there was no room in my lord of Lon- lon's palace to translate the New Testament, nay, jo place to do it in all England.' In London he metimes preached at St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, vhile Alderman Humphrey Monmouth took him nder his protection, and gave him an annuity of en pounds a-year, to enable him to live abroad, which ten pounds he was in return to pray for he souls of the alderman's father and mother. I'yndale on leaving England went first to Ham- mrg. It is often said that from Hamburg he roceeded to Wittemberg, where he met Luther, ho had now thrown off the last vestige of popish hraldom, and that there he completed his trans- ition of the New Testament. Ihe statement is pparently not correct, for during 1524 he seems nave remained at Hamburg, and in 1525 he ap- jears to have been first at Cologne and then at Vorms. At Cologne Tyndale seems to have com- lenced to print his first edition in 4to, but after sheets were printed the work was interrupted, id the translator and his coadjutors betook emselves to the Lutheran city of Worms, where the quarto was finished, and an octavo edition issued from the press. The prologue to the uarto has been republished under the name of A Pathway to the Scriptures.' The tiai;blator s TYN name was attached to neither of the two editions, and he assigns a reason for this omission in hia 'Wicked Mammon,' published in 1527. Copies of these versions early found their way into England. In 1526 Tunstall, bishop of London, fulminated his prohibition of them, and two years afterwards a number of copies were collected, nay, some were purchased by the bishop in Antwerp, and burnt at St. Paul's Cross. Warham and Wolsey were also dreadfully enraged, and Sir Thomas More was employed to denounce Tyndale, but his genius was foiled in the attempt, and Tyndale won a precious victory over the learned chancellor. Two editions were then printed at Antwerp, and found their way to England in vessels laden with grain. Endeavours were made to seize Tyndale and pun- ish all who assisted him, but he removed to Mar- burg in Hesse in 1528, and published there a book of great value 'The Obedience of a Christian Man.' The result of all the English opposition was, that, as Foxe expresses it, ' copies of the New Testament came thick and threefold into England.' We find Tyndale again at Antwerp in 1529, during which year a fifth edition was printed; the four books of Moses were also translated, printed each at a separate press, and put into cir- culation. The enemies of the translator endea- voured to decoy him into England, but he was too wary to be so easily entrapped, for he well knew what displeasure Henry VIII. felt at his tract, called ' The Practice of Prelates,' and what pen- alty the royal indignation would speedily inflict. After the martyrdom of Frith, Tyndale set him- self to revise and correct the version of the New Testament, and it was soon thrown off, with this remark in the preface, ' which I have looked over again with all diligence, and compared with the Greek, and have weded out of it many fautes.' But his enemies in England, whose power had been shaken by the copious circulation of the English New Testament, were the more enraged against him, and conspired to seize him on the continent, in the name of the emperor. An Eng- lishman, named Philips, betrayed him, and acting under such information, the authorities at Brussels seized him, in the house of Pointz his friend, and conveyed him to Vilvorde, twenty-three miles from Antwerp. Pointz, who had with difficulty escaped himself, made every effort for him, but in vain. The neighbouring university of Louvain thirsted for his blood. Tyndale was speedily condemned, and on Friday, the 6th October, 1536, in virtue of a recent Augsburg decree, he was led out to the scene of execution. On being fastened to the stake, he cried in loud and earnest prayer, ' Lord, open the eyes of the king of England,' and then was first strangled and afterwards burnt. His ashes flew, No marble tells us whither. The merits of Tyndale must ever be recognized and honoured by all" who enjoy the English Bible for their authorized version of" the New Testament has his for its basis. He made good his early boast, that ploughboys should have the Word of God. His friends all speak of his great simplicity of heart, and commend his abstemious habits, his zeal, and his industry; while even the imperial procurator who prosecuted him styles him, homo I doctus, pius et bonus. The works of Tyndale and 91 TYP Frith were collected and published in three vols. 8vo, London, 1831. [J.E.] TYPOEST, James, in Latin Typotius, a Flemish historian, died 1601. TYRANNIO, a Gr. grammarian, 1st cent. B.C. TYRCONNEL, Richard Talbot, earl of, a partizan of James II. in Ireland. TYRRELL, James, a barrister of the Temple, au. of a ' General History of England,' 1642-1718. TYRTjEUS, a Greek poet and musician, whose military songs and airs animated the Spartan army, and were constantly sung and played as long as that republic existed, 7th century B.C. TYRWHITT, Thomas, a famous scholar and master of polite literature, was born at Westmin- ster in 1730, and was successively under-secretary at war and clerk to the House of Commons. He resigned the latter situation in 1768, and devoted his future years to literature. Besides his valuable classic commentaries, Tyrwhitt edited Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Rowley's Poems, which he proved to be the production of Chatterton; d. 1786. TYSON, Edward, a physician and writer of curious works in comparative anatomy, 1649-1708. TYSON, James, a dramatic writer, 1799-1820. TYSSEUS, Peter, a Flemish historical pain- ter, 1625-1692. His son, Nicholas, famous for the representation of still life, flowers, fruit, armour, and military weapons, 1660-1719. Augustus, br. of the latter, a landscape painter, 1662-1722. TYTLER, H. W., a Scotch physic, 1752-1808. TYTLER, James, born at Brechin, in Scotland, 1747, celebrated as a miscellaneous writer, and editor of several periodical works. Died in Ame- rica, where he became a political exile, 1805. TYTLER, William, a Scottish antiquarian and ULA historical writer, was born at Edinburgh 1711, and' became a writer to the signet, in which profession he continued till his death in 1792. His principal works are * An Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Evidence produced against Mary Queen of^ Scots,' a ' Dissertation on the Marriage of Mary to Bothwell,' and the ' Poetical Remains and Life of! James I., king of Scotland.' His son, Alexan- der Fraser, Lord Woodhouselee, was succes- sively professor of history, judge advocate, and 1 justice of the Court of Session. He is the author] of several much valued historical and critical works, | the principal of which is his ' Elements of Gen-i eral History,' 1747-1813. The son of the latter, Patrick Fraser Tytler, the most eminent of the family, was born in 1190, and died after a lingering illness in 1849. His principal work is a ' History of Scotland,' in 9 vols., published at intervals from 1828 to 1843. Besides this con- tribution to historical literature he wrote a ' Life of the Admirable Crichton ; ' ' The Life and Writ- ings of Sir Thomas Craig;' 'Lives of Scottish Worthies ; ' a ' History of Discovery on the Nor-] them Coasts of America ; ' a ' Life of Sir Walter! Raleigh;' and a 'Life of Henry VIII.' In the latter years of his life he enjoyed a pension ofj 200 a-year, for which he was indebted to thai administration of Sir Robert Peel. TZETZES, John or Joannes, a learned gramJ marian and poet of Constantinople, author of a] valuable work entitled, Chiliades Variarum His-! toriarum, or Historical Miscellanies, 12th century.; His brother, Isaac, was also a man of taste and; letters, and held a magisterial office in Macedonia, j TZETZI, J. B., a learned writer, 16th century. TZSCHIRNER. See Tschirner. U UBALDI, G., a mathematician of the 17th cent. UBALDINI, Petruccio, an illuminator of Florence, who came to England in the reign of Elizabeth as a teacher of his native language, and wrote several historical works, from 1550-1588. UBALDINI, Roger, archbishop of Pisa, in 1276, noted for his cruelty as a Ghibelline chief. Having captured Ugolino and his sons, of the op- posite party, he shut them up in a room and left them to die of hunger. UBERTO, F. Degli, an Ital. poet, died 1370. UCCELLO, P., an Italian painter, 1349-1432. UCHENSKI, J., primate of Poland, died 1581. UDAL, John, a rigid puritan and Oriental scholar, died in the Marshalsea prison, London, 1592. Ephraim, his son, vicar of St. Augustin's, Walling Street, a zealous royalist, author of a treatise against sacrilege, entitled 'A Coal from the Altar, and other works, died 1647. UDAL, Nicholas, master of Westminster school, author of several works, 1506-1564. UDALRIC, duke of Bohemia, 1012-1037. UDEN, L. Van, a Flemish painter, 1595-1662. UDINA, Giovanni Da, an Italian painter, taught by Giorgione and Raphael, 1489-1562. LTFL'MBACH, or UFFENBACH, Z. C. Von, a learned German bibliographer, 1683-1734. His brother, John Frederic, a lyric poet, 1687-1769. Peter, a physician, died 1635. UGGERI, A., an Italian antiquary, 1754-1837, UGGIONE, M., an Italian pamter, died 1520. UGHELLI, F., an eccles. historian, 1595-1670^ UGOLINO. See Gherardesea. UHLICH, G., an Austrian historian, 1743-1794* UILKENS, James Albert, a Dutch naturalist and theologian, professor at Groningen, 1772-1825] UITENBOGAARD, J., a Dutch theologian of the party of Remonstrants, 1557-1650. ULADISLAS, seven kings of Poland : UlaJ dislas L, duke or king, succeeded his brothen Boleslas, in 1081 or 1082 ; his reign was troubled with civil and foreign wars, died 1102 or 11081 Uladislas II., succeeded his father, Boleslal III., in 1138 or 1139; he was deposed 1146, and died in exile 1159. Uladislas III., was electa! king 1202, and deposed in 1206 on account of his cruelties, died 1233. Uladislas IV., surname! Loketek, became master of the kingdom in 129AU was deposed by the states, and Wenceslaus electa! in his room, 1300, but was restored on the deatU of the latter in 1305 or 1306. He sustained a vrtm with the Teutonic knights, and died 1333. His son, Casimir III., called the Great, succeeded hifl^ Uladislas V., grand duke of Lithuania, ob- tained the crown by marrying Hedwiga, daughtep of Louis. See Jagellon. He was succeeded M his son, Casimir IV. Uladislas VI., son of Casimir IV., same as Ladislaus VI., king of 792 ULA rtungary ; see that article. Uladislas VII., son Iff Sigismond, was born 1595, and succeeded his ather 1632. He had previously sustained a war :ith the house of Romanoff, and now in 1633-4 e conquered the Turks and the Tartars of the Jrimea. Died 1648. ULADISLAS, three dukes or kings of Bohemia : -Uladislas I., reigned 1109-1125. Uladislas I., succeeded 1140, deposed and died in the same ear, 1173. Uladislas III., reigned only a few onths in 1198, and died 1222. The sixth king f Hungary and Poland of this name, became king f Bohemia in 1471. See Ladislaus. ULDIN, a king of the Huns, 400-412. ULEFELD, Cornifix or Corfito, Count, a )anish statesman time of Christiem VI., d. 1664. ULFT, J. Vander, a Dutch painter, 1627-80. ULLOA, A. De, a Spanish historian, d. 1580. ULLOA, Antonio De, a Spanish general and tatesman, a great promoter of industrial and cientific progress in that country, 1718-1795. Jlloa's great distinction was in the mathematical iences; and when very young he was sent to outh America to co-operate with Condamine and he other French academicians in measuring a de- ree of the meridian. His talents, more lately, rere turned to account in the construction of ublic works requiring engineering skill, the intro- uction of the woollen manufacture, &c. ULLOA Y PEREIRA, Louis De, a Spanish oet, time of Philip IV., died 1660. ULPHILAS, a Gothic bishop, known to history bout 375 as a delegate to the emperor Valens, om whom he solicited a settlement in Thrace for is countrymen. He is said to have translated the ible into the Gothic language, and to have in- ented the characters for that purpose. ULPIAN, a rhetorician of Antioch, 4th cent. ULPIANUS, Domitius, a famous jurist of ome, who became the chief minister of his pupil, be emperor Alexander Severus, in the year 222. T e is said to have been a resolute enemy of the hristians ; and having effected some reforms in he army, he was murdered by the soldiers at the ;et of the emperor and his mother, 228. ULRIC, Philip Adam, a native of the bishop- ic of Wurtzbourg, a teacher of jurisprudence and remoter of agriculture improvements, born 1692. ULRICA, Eleanora, two queens of Sweden. The wife of Charles XL, and mother of Charles II., was born in 1656 : her father was Frederick II. of Denmark, and her marriage with the Swedish king in 1679 facilitated the establishment f peace between the two countries. She died in .693. She was remarkable for her great learning nd beneficent disposition. 2. The daughter of he preceding, born 1688, succeeded her brother, "harles XII., as queen regnant in 1719, four years ifter her marriage with prince Frederick of Hesse assel. In 1720, she resigned the government nto the hands of her husband. Died 1744. ULRICH, J. H., a Ger. philosopher, died 1813. ULRICH, John James, a Swiss theologian, L569-1638. Another of the same names, professor >f moral philosophy and natural law, and an eccle- siastical writer, 1683-1731. John Gaspard, an ecclesiastic, author of a curious history of the Swiss Jews, 1705-1768. John Rodolph, a min- ister and author of ascetic works, 1728-1795. URQ ULUGH BEGH, a prince of the Tartars, grand- son of the famous Tamerlane, was born in 1394, and succeeded his father on the throne, in 1447. He had been accustomed to the cares of government from his boyhood, and greatly distinguished himself as a patron of learning, and by his own astronomi- cal observations, and works illustrating Eastern history and geography. His elder son having re- belled against him, caused him to be put to death near Samarcand in 1449 or 1450. UNDERWOOD, T. R., an artist and naturalist, author of ' Memorable Events in Paris during the Capitulation of 1814,' died 1835. UNGER, J. F., a Ger. economist, 1716-1781. UNTERBERGER, Ignatius, a painter of a Tyrolese family that has produced many cele- brated artists, born at Karales, 1744, died 1797. UNZER, John Augustus, a German physi- cian, distinguished by his works on physiological and psychological subjects, among which may be mentioned ' A New Doctrine concerning the Move- ments of the Soul and the Imagination,' ' Thoughts on Sleep and Dreams,' On the Sensitive Facul- ties of Animated Bodies,' ' The Physiology of Ani- mated Nature,' and Physiological Researches,' 1727-1799. His wife, Jane Charlotte, a poetess and moralist, died 1782. UNZER, Louis Augustus, a German writer, au. of a 'Treatise on Chinese Gardens,' 1748-75. UPHAM, W. E., an Eng. historian, died 1833. > UPTON, James, a learned schoolmaster and divine of the Church of England, editor of classical works, 1670-1749. His son, John, rector of Great Rissington, in Gloucestershire, also a classical editor, published an edition of Spenser's ' Faerie Queene,' and Notes on Shakspeare, 1707-1760. URBAN, eight popes of Rome: Urban I., succeeded Calixtus 1. in 222, and suffered martyr- dom in 230. Urban II., whose name was Otho or Eudes, a Frenchman, succeeded Victor III. in 1087 or 1088; he struggled against the pretensions of the emperor, and proclaimed the first crusade at the instance of Peter the Hermit, died 1099. Ur- ban III., reigned in the time of the emperor Fre- deric I., 1185-1187. Urban IV, time of St. Louis, to whom he offered the crown of Sicily, which was accepted by the duke of Anjou. 1261- 1265. He instituted the festival of Corpus Christi. Urban V., succeeded Innocent VI. 1362, at the period when the papal court was held at Avignon (see Rienzi); he removed to Rome in 1367, but returned again in 1370, and died at Avignon the same year. Urban VI., succeeded Gregory XL in 1378, and became the abettor of Charles Du- razzo against Joan of Naples, died after an unquiet pontificate 1389. Urban VII., died the twelfth day after his election in September, 1590. Urban VIII., successor of Gregory XV. in 1623, held the pontificate during a long and busy period marked by the disputes of Jansenism ; died 1644. URBA1N, Ferdinand De St., a French artist, and designer of medals to Innocent XL, 1654-1731. URCEO, A., a learned Italian, 1446-1500. URFE, Anne D', a French poet, 1555-1621. Honore, his brother, a novelist and historian of the gallantries of Henry IV., contained in his romance of Astraea, 1567-1625. URQUHART, Sir Thomas, a Scottish mathe- matician and philologist, time of Charles II. 793 URQ URQUIJO, Don Marianno Luiz De, a Span- ish statesman, time of King Joseph, 1768-1817. URREA, J. De, a Spanish writer, 16th cent. URRUTIA, J. De, a Span, general, 1728-1800. URSIN, J. F., a Germ, philologist, 1735-1796. URSIN, John Henry, ecclesiastical superin- tendent at Ratisbon, author of a ' Compendium of the Ecclesiastical History of Germany,' died 1667. George Henry, his son, a philologist and teacher of the Belles Lettres, 1647-1707. URSINS, Anna Maui a De La Tremoille, Princess Des, a celebrated name in Spanish his- tory, was born in France about 1643. She was married in 1659 to the prince of Talleyrand Cha- in's, and in 1675 to the duke of Bracciano, chief of the Orsini family. After the death of the latter, she was attached to the court of Spain, and really governed the country during the early part of the reign of Philip V. In 1714, however, she was banished the kingdom, and subsequently kept house for the Pretender, James Stuart. Died 1722. URSINS, J. Jouvenel Des. See Juvenal. URSINUS, B., a Germ mathemat., 1587-1633. URSINUS, Zachary, a German professor of divinity and friend of Melancthon, author of several works, some of which have been translated into English, and a man of high moral character, 1534- 1577. A descendant of his, named Benjamin, was raised to the prelacy when Frederic I. assumed the title of king of Prussia in 1701. For others of the name see above (Ursin.) URSULA, Saint, a virgin and martyr, sup- posed to have been a daughter of a British prince, and to have been put to death at Cologne at a date which varies from 384 to 463. There is a legend that 11,000 virgin martyrs suffered with her, which some have explained by supposing that she had a companion named Undecimila. It is pretty cer- tain, however, that many were put to death at the same time. She is regarded as the patroness of the Sorbonne. URSUS, Nicholas Raymarus, a Danish astro- nomer, and rival of Tycho Brahe, died 1600. URVILLE. See Dumont. USHER, James, D.D.. was born at Dublin, 4th January, 1580. Early destined for the minis- try, he was entered a student in the university of Dublin, where he acquired a brilliant reputation as a scholar in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and divinity. In this latter department, his unquenchable thirst for knowledge had led him into a course of reading far more extensive than what is commonly pursued even by enthusiastic students of theology for during his residence at the university, he had not only read the works of all the most celebrated of modern theological writers but even most of the fathers; and more especially he _ had gained so complete a mastery of the popish controversy, that at the age of eighteen, he entered the lists with a learned Jesuit who had given a general challenge to the protestants. With a reputation lor learning so high, his promotion in the church was rapid. Having in 1601 obtained orders in the episcopal church, he was appointed Sunday preacher before the government at Christ's church, Dublin. In 1607 he was chosen professor of divinity in the university and chancellor of the cathedral of St. Patrick. He now entered on a career of authorship; and the first work he undertook UTE being an historical dissertation on the government and discipline of the church, he made a tour through England with a view to prosecute some inquiries in the libraries of the two universities. His fame procured him a welcome reception in these vener- able seats of learning. His treatise was published, in London, 1610, and a copy of it having been pre- sented by Archbishop Abbot to King James, that monarch, delighted with so powerful a defence of his favourite episcopacy, loaded the author with tokens of his royal approbation raising him to the bishopric of Meath which was then vacant, and afterwards constituting him a privy councillor of Ireland. By the royal command, Usher went to reside some years in England to prosecute re- searches into the antiquity of the British churches, and during his residence there the archbishop of Armagh having died suddenly, he was elevated to the highposition of primate of Ireland, in January, 1624. The results of his antiquarian researches were given to the world in 1632, when he published a rare collection of letters from ancient MSS., extending from the year 592 to 1180. Ushei being a man of liberal sentiments as to church government, maintained a friendly correspon- dence with all the eminent men in the churches both of England and Scotland, and took a lively interest in the progress of the gospel throughout th* world, by whatever church or instrumentality the " t truth was diffused. Being, in 1640, driven from his see by the rebellion, and stripped of all hisproperty except hi3 books, he sought an asylum in England. In 1648 he was summoned to the Isle of Wight, to aid the king in negotiating with the parliament respecting the introduction of a uniform system of episcopacy. He sketched out a middle schema which obtained the warm approbation of his royal master as the best expedient to settle the dif- ferences. But the expectations of this good man were sadly disappointed. The Scottish peopb. would not receive it, and the imprudent attempt! to force it on their acceptance, gave rise to the re- ligious wars of which Scotland was the theatre during the seventeenth century. Usher agaijfa came before the world in 1650 as an author bj the publication of his celebrated 'Annals of tht Old and New Testament.' Various other work* issued from his industrious pen ; and he was tht author of the received chronology of the Biblei* After a long and active life, distinguished by use*, fulness and adorned by works of piety, he died qfl 20th March, 1656. [R.jj USHER, James, of the same family as thi distinguished prelate (preceding article), born ol catholic parents in 1720, and known as a phi]** sophical writer against Locke, died 1772. USSIEUX, L. D', aFr. agriculturist, 1747-180^ USTARIZ, Gabriel, one of the leaders of tht revolution in Spanish America, 1772-1814. USTARIZ, Jerome, a Spanish economist, aow thor of the k Theory and Practice of Commerflfl and Navigation,' died about 1760. USTERI, Leonard, a Swiss professor and proj motor of educational reform, 1741-1789. USUARD, a French hagiographer, 9th century*] UTENHOVIUS, or UYTTENOVE, ChaiuJ a native of Ghent, who cultivated the n their classic languages, and wrote in defen reformed religion in England, about 1536-1G00. | rot UVA TJVA, Benedetto Dell', an Italian ecclesias- i and writer of sacred poetry, 16th century. UVEDALE, Roijert, a classical scholar and tanist, born in London 1642. The date of his ath is unknown, but he assisted Dryden in trans- ting Plutarch's Lives. Another Uvedale traus- ted the Memoirs of Philip de Comines. UWINS, David, a physician and professional iter, whose attention was particularly directed mental diseases; he had the courage also to opt the principles of homoeopathy, in favour of hich he wrote his last pamphlet, 1780-1837. UXELLES, Nicholas De BlEj Marquis D', Fr. commander time of Louis XIV., 1652-1730. VACA DE GUZMAN, Joseph Maria, a aanish poet, born in Grenada abt. 1745, d. 1805, VACAORIUS, an Italian civilian, who became ofessor of law at Oxford, 12th century. VACCA, Alvar Nunez Cabeza De, a Spanish vernor of Paraguay, transported to Africa for his ^arice and cruelty in 1539. VACCA, F , an Italian sculptor, 16th century. VACCA BEKLINGHIERI, Francis, a Span- h physician, 1732-1812. His son, Andrew, a irgeon, died at Pisa in 1726. VACCARO, A., a painter of Naples, 1598-1670. VACCHIERI, C. A., a Ger. histor., 1745-1807. VACHET, B., a French missionary, 1641-1720. VADDER, L. De, a Flem. painter, 1560-1623. VADDERE, J. B., a Flem. historian, J. 640-91. VADE, John Joseph, a French play- writer id humorous poet, 1720-1757. VADIANUS, the Latinized name of Joachim on Watt, a German savant, 1484-1551. VADIER, M. W. Alexis, a Jacobin of the rench revolution, who took part in most of the olent scenes of that period, and was the accuser Catharine Theos and her party. The last scene i which he acted, was the conspiracy of Babeuf ; orn in Languedoc 1735 ; died in exile 1828. VAGA, Pierino Del, whose real name was Juonaccorsi, an Italian painter, 1500-1547. VAHL, Martin, an excellent botanist, was born t Bergen in Norway, in 1749 or 50. He died in 804. Vahl commenced his studies in natural his- ry under Strom at Copenhagen. After two years s removed to Upsal, where he prosecuted his bo- nical studies under the great Linnaeus, and be- atne one of his most distinguished pupils. _ He und favour in the eyes of Mademoiselle Linne, ut Linnaeus, at that time in the zenith of his fame, id not consider a poor botanist a sufficient match r his daughter. In 1779 he became lecturer and emonstrator of botany in the garden at Copen- agen, and a few years afterwards filled the chairs f natural history and botany in the university of hat town. He travelled under royal auspices and t the expense of his sovereign, through great portion Europe and made an extensive collection of lants. Being provided with excellent introduc- he had free access to the libraries and nuseums of the various literati of the towns he dsited. In London the rich herbarium of Sir Joseph Banks was open to him, and he had the )rivilcge of examining the manuscripts of Banks's 7 VAL UZ, John Peter, a Ger. scholar and poet, who filled several magisterial offices at Anspach, in Fran- conia, of which place he was a native, 1720-1796. UZBEK, a khan of a portion of the people now governed by the emperor of Russia, since called, after his name, Uzbeks, 1305-1342. UZES, Aldebert D', so named from his birth-place, bishop of Nismes, and one of the coun- cil which condemned the Albigenses, died 1180. UZZANO, Nicolo D', a Florentine statesman, attached to the aristocracy and the Guelph party, succeeded Albizz,i as chief of the republic, 1417, died 1432. After his death his political sup- porters became exiles from their country. friend Dr. Solander. He taught botany with much success at Copenhagen, and has left behind him several excellent works which have established his reputation as a first-rate botanist. A genus of plants was dedicated to him by his contemporary Thunberg, under the name of Vahlia. [W.B.] VAILLANT, Francis Le, son of the French consul at Paramibo, in Dutch Guiana, an eminent traveller and ornithologist, 1753-1824. VAILLANT, G. H., a Latin poet, died 1678. VAILLANT, Jean Foi, one of the greatest of European medallists, time of Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., by whom he was employed on several important scientific missions, born at Beau- vais 1632, died 1706. His son, Jean Francis Foi, was a physician, and cultivated the same branch of sciences as his father, 1665-1708. VAILLANT, Sebastian, an able botanist, who became director and professor at the Jardin du Roi, in the reign of Louis XIV., 1669-1722. The principal work of Vaillant is his ' Botanicon Parisiense.' He is said to have taught the sexual system of plants. VAILLANT, Walbrant, a French painter and engraver, 1623-1677. He taught three of his brothers who followed the same profession Ber- nard, James, and Andrew, but the particular dates are unknown. VAILLANT-DE-GUELLE, G., bishop of Or- leans, a philologist and poet, died 1587. VAISSETTE, J., a Fr. historian, 1685-1756. VALADON, Zachariah, a French Capuchin and missionary who laboured in Asia Minor, and signalized himself by his devotion to the suffering people during the plague at Marseilles, born about 1680, died 1746. VALARESSO, C, an Italian poet, 1700-1769. VALARSACES, a king of Armenia, descended from Mithridates the Great, 150-127 b.c. VALART, J., a French savant, 1698-1781. VALAZE, Charles Eleanore Dufriche De, one of the Girondin leaders of the French revolution, born at Alencon, 1751 ; died by his own hand at the bar of Fouquier Tinville, where his party were condemned to the guillotine, May 31, 1793. VALCARCEL, Joseph Anthony, a Spanish writer on agriculture, flourished about 1720-1792. VALCARCEL, Pio Antonio, Count De Luna- res, a learned Spanish antiquarian, 1740-1800. VALCKENAER, Louis Caspar, professor of 95 VAL Greek and archeology at Leyden, 1715-1785. His son, Jan, a statesman, 1759-1821. VALDEMAR. See Waldemar. VALDES, Anthony, a Spanish statesman, who in 1796 yielded his office to Emmanuel Godoi, about 1735-1811. Cayetano, his nephew, a member of the Cortes 1822, executed 1826. VALDES, F., a Spanish tactician, 16th century. VALDES, VALDESSO, or VALDESIUS, Juan, a Spanish controversialist and reformer, generally claimed by the Socinians, died 1540. VALDES, L. De, a Spanish painter, 1661-1724. VALDEZ, J. M., a Spanish poet, died 1817. VALDO, Peter, generally considered the founder of the Vandois or Waldenses, a body of Christians who separated themselves from the Church of Rome in the twelfth century, was born at Vaux, in Dauphiny, on the banks of the Rhone. He acquired a large fortune by commercial pur- suits at Lyons; and when he resolved to retire from business, not only devoted himself to the spiritual instruction of the poor, but distributed his goods among them, and in all respects treated them as his children or his brothers. The only version of the Bible in use at that time, was the Latin Vulgate, but Valdo, who was a learned as well as a benevolent man, translated the four Gospels into French, this being the first appearance of the Scriptures in any modern language. The possession of these books soon discovered to Valdo and his people that the church was never de- signed to be dependent on a priesthood, even for the administration of the sacraments; and his instruction, boldly followed by practice, became so obnoxious to the church, that he was first persecuted by the archbishop of Lyons, and at length anathematized by the pope. No longer safe at Lyons, Valdo and his friends took refuge in the mountains of Dauphiny and Piedmont; and there formed those communities which grew in peace, and flourished in rustic simplicity, ' pure as a flower amid Alpine snows.' From these mountain valleys the simple doctrine of Christianity flowed out m multiplied rivulets over all Europe ; Pro- vence, Languedoc, Flanders, Germany, one after the other tasted of the refreshing waters, until in course of ages they swelled to a flood that swept over all lands. Valdo is understood to have travelled in Picardy, teaching his reformation : he finally settled in Bohemia, where he died in 1179 ; the same year in which his tenets were condemned by a general council. [E.R.] VALDO RY, C, a French ascetic, 17th century. VALDRIGI, T., an Italian jurist, 1761-1834. VALENCIENNES, Pktee Henry, a French landscape painter, 1750-1819. VALENS, Flavius, emperor of Constanti- nople, son of a noble of Pannonia, was born in 328, and associated in the Roman empire with his brother, Valentinian I., who abandoned the East to him, 364. He embraced Arianism, and in 376 allowed the Goths, whom he had previously sub- jugated, to settle in Thrace. This warlike people, nowevcr, were provoked to take arms again, and having defeated the troops of Valens, they burnt the emperor in his tent, 378. < VALENS, Julius, a usurper of the Roman em- pire, proclaimed in the reign of Decius, and killed a few days afterwards in 251. VAL VALENS, Publius Valerius, a nephew o the preceding, killed by his soldiers 261. VALENTIA, G., a Spanish ascetic, 1551-1598 VALENTIA, P. De, a Span, jurist, 1554-162C VALENTIN, L. A, a Fr. surgeon, 1736-1825 VALENTIN, M., a French painter, 1600-1632 VALENTIN, M. B., a Ger. natur., 1637-1726, VALENTINE, B., an alchymist, 16th century VALENTINIAN, three emperors of Rome:- Valentinian (Flavius) I., elder brother c Valens, and son of Count Gratian, was born t Pannonia 321, and succeeded after the death < Jovian 364. He gave the Eastern empire to hi brother, and having defeated the Alemanni and th Quadi, died in a fit of passion 375. Valentinia: (Flavius) II., son and successor of the preceding was proclaimed emperor by the troops, and hi brother, Gratian, at once ceded Italy to him The latter shortly after was vanquished by Maxi mus, and Valentinian would also have lost M throne but for the timely help of Theodosius, era 1)eror of the East, who put Maximus to death, an eft Valentinian master of the whole Western em pire. He was strangled by order of his rebellion general, Arbogastes, 392. Valentinian (Pla cidius) III., oecame emperor at the age of six i: 425, under the regency of his mother, Placidia. H was assassinated in 455. VALENTINIANUS, founder of the sect c Gnostics named Valentinians, was a native of Egypt and became publicly known as a teacher of Strang doctrines in 140, when he went to Rome. He w excommunicated 143, and died after boldly devot ing himself to the spread of his tenets in Svria, 16( VALENTYN, F., a Dutch missionary," 17th ct VALERA, D., a Spanish historian, 15th cent. VALERIA, a Roman empress, daughter of Dio cletian, and wife of Galerius Maximus, exiled an killed after his death, 315. VALERIAN, Publius Licinius, a Roman em peror, born about 190, was proclaimed after th death of Gallus 253. He was defeated in the Eas by Sapor, king of Persia, and supposed to haie been flayed alive, 260. VALERIAN O BOLZANI, Pierio, in Lat^ Valerianus, a learned Italian, 1477-1558. VALERIANUS. See Valerian. VALERIUS, Lucas, an Italian mathematician called the Archimedes of his age, died 1618. VALERIUS FLACCUS, Caius, author of Latin poem, entitled Argonautics, 1st centurv. VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman historian who was in Asia with Sextus Pompeius, a.d. 14 besides which nothing is known of him. His woij contains many valuable anecdotes and example of moral excellence, and was one of the earlies printed after the revival of letters. VALERIUS PUBLICOLA, one of the founded of the Roman republic, 6th century B.C. VALESIO, J. L., an Italian painter, 16th cenl VALETTE, Jean Parisot De La, gram master of the order of St. John at Jerusalem, r* nowned for his defence of Malta in 1565, an< founder of La Valette ; died 1568. VALETTE, Simeon, whose proper name wa Fagons, a French mathematician, 1719-1801. t VALIERO, A., a Venetian savant, 1531-1606. VALINCOUR, Jean Baptiste Du Troi \ssro De, a miscellaneous French writer, 1653-1730, 96 - VAL | VALLA, Giorgio, an Italian professor of polite erature, known 1471-1486. VALLA, J., a learned theologian, died 1790. VALLA, Lorenzo, a distinguished Latin :holar, and one of the revivers of literature in the th century, born at Rome 1406, died 1457. VALLA, N., a French jurisconsult, 16th cent. VALLANCY, Charles, an English officer in a >rps of engineers engaged in the survey of Ire- nd, author of a-' Grammar and Dictionary of the ish Language,' 1721-1812. VALLE, Pietro Della, surnamed II Pelle- tno, a famous traveller in the East, au. of an ac- mnt of his travels, written in Italian, 1586-1652. VALLEE, G., a French deist, hung 1574. VALLEE, J. La, a French writer, 1747-1816. VALLI, E., an Italian phvsician, 1762-1816. VALLIER, F. C., a French poet, 1703-1778. VALLIERE, Jean Florent De, a French Beer of artillery time of Louis XIV., 1667-1739. is son, Joseph Florent, 1717-1776. VALLIERE, Louise Francoise De La acme La Blanc, Duchess De La, lady of hon- lr to Henrietta of England, and mistress of Louis IV., was born in Touraine 1644. She had two irviving children by the king, Mademoiselle de lois and the count of Vermandois, the latter of horn was legitimated in 1667. She was aban- med for Madame de Montespan, and retired to le convent of Chaillot in 1671 ; died 1710. Her and-nephew, Louis Cesar De La Baume e Blanc, Due De La Valliere, was a celebrated bliopole, nourished 1708-1780. VALLISNERI, Antonio, an eminent Italian ivsician and naturalist, 1661-1730. VALLCT, A., a French physician, 1594-1671. VALLOTTI, F. Antonio, an Italian musician id chapel-master in Padua, 1697-1780. VALMIKI, the most ancient and most cele- ated of the epic poets of India, author of the 'amayan, translations of which were published in nglish and German at the beginning of the pre- mt century. VALMONT DE BOMARE, James Christo- nER, a French naturalist, 1731-1807. VALOIS, Henry De, in Latin Valesius, a arned philologist and critic, 1603-1676. Adrian, brother, a philologist and historian, 1607-1692. harles, son of the latter, an antiquarian wri- sr and historian, 1671-1747. VALOIS, L. Le, a French Jesuit, 1639-1700. VALOIS, Yves, a French Jesuit, born 1694. VALPERGA DE CALUSO, Thomas Des, a lathematician, and Oriental scholar, 1737-1815. VALPY, Richard, an eminent classical scholar d schoolmaster, born in Jersey 1754, died 1836. Idward, his brother, a classical editor and minis- :r of the Church of England, died 1832. VALSALVA, Antonio Maria, an Italian bysician and anatomical discoverer, 1666-1723. VAN ACHEN, or AKEN, Hans, a German ainter, dist. for his sacred subjects, 1552-1615. VANBRUGH, Sir John, was the grandson of protestant refugee from the Netherlands, and son of a wealthy sugar baker. He was pro- ably born in 1666. We know very little as to the istory of his youth, or as to the training which nabled him not only to become one of the most elebrated among English architects, but, also, in VAN conjunction with Congreve, to prolong, in the be- ginning of the eighteenth century, the licentious cleverness that had characterized the comic drama in the reign of Charles II. He is said to have passed some years of his youth in France, and was afterwards, for a short time, an ensign in the army. His career as a dramatist belongs, like that of Wycherley, to a few of the earlier years of his manhood. Two or three of his six or seven plays deserve no record. The first of them, * The Relapse,' appeared in 1697 ; and ' The Provoked Wife,' the best of the series, immediately afterwards. In 1706 his vigorous picture of rascality, cailed ' The Con- federacy,' was brought out at the new theatre in the Haymarket, an unsuccessful speculation of Vanbrugh and Congreve. He left uncompleted, at his death, ' A Journey to London,' which was worked up by Colley Cibber into ' The Provoked Husband. He had, previously to the opening of this theatre, become eminent as an architect, by designing the magnificent pile of Castle Howard ; and Lord Carlisle, being then Deputy Earl Marshal, appointed Vanbrugh to be Clarencieux king-at- arms. The new herald's presumed ignorance of his science was indignantly complained of by his colleagues, and merrily jested at by himself. He was next chosen as the architect of Blenheim ; and, in the execution of this charge, in the midst of annoyances which (though vexatious in themselves) were sometimes as comic as anything in his plays, he produced the noblest monument of his striking though heavy architectural style. He died in 1726, having been liked as a good-natured man, and having lived more decently than he wrote. [W.S.] VANCE, G., an eminent surgeon, died 1837. VANCEULEN, or VANKEULEN, Ludolph, a Dutch mathematician, who made a remarkable approximation to the true ratio which the circum- ference of a circle bears to its diameter, died at Leyden 1610. VANCOUVER, George, the distinguished na- vigator, a pupil and successful imitator of Cook, entered the naval service in 1771, when only thirteen years old. He served as midshipman on Cook's second and third voyages, 1772-80. On his return home he was made lieutenant, and ap- pointed to the Martin sloop; and was variously employed in the public service for eleven years. In 1791 he received a command for the prosecution of maritime discovery. He was made captain, and appointed to the ship Discovery, again fitted out for an expedition. A small armed vessel, the Chatham, 135 tons, Captain Broughton, sailed in company; and the two ships left Falmouth on the 1st April, 1791. The objects, as laid down in the instructions, were to receive from the Span- iards the surrender of the settlement at Nootka, to survey the N.W. coast of N. America north- wards from lat. 30, with a special view to water communications with the interior, which might facilitate the operations of the fur traders ; to pass the winter in a survey of the Sandwich Islands; and, on the homeward, voyage, to make a careful inspection of the western coast of South America. The first three objects were successfully accomplished ; 9,000 miles of sea coast in North America were surveyed with scrupulous accuracy, after the manner of his great master, whose methods of preserving health also, he followed wjlu 797 VAX such success, that during his voyage of four years' duration, and through an arduous service, he lost hut two men from both crews. The third object stated was but imperfectly attended to, owing to the lateness of the season, and the stormy character of the weather. On the outward voyage to the Sandwich Isles, however, Vancouver had carefully examined the south coast of Australia, and a part of the shores of New Zealand. During his stay also at the Sandwich Isles, the native chiefs held a con- vocation, at which, after a protracted and amicable discussion, it was resolved to place the islands under British protection. Four European nations were at this time known to them, and they were in a condition to judge which of the four was the most likely to be a disinterested and able protector. The result was no doubt owing to the respect and confidence which Vancouver inspired. Ihe Dis- covery was safely brought into the Shannon on the 13th September, 1795. Her commander was now post-captain, the promotion having taken place the Erevious year. He was paid off on his return ; and, enceforth,occupied himself in preparing an account of his voyage, with charts exhibiting his surveys. The labour, however, which he had bestowed on this great work had undermined his constitution, and brought about a premature end. He died in May, 1798, before his work was finished; the printing had proceeded as far as the 408th page of the third vol., and the charts had all been completed some time before, under his own eye. The remain- ing part of the narrative was drawn up from his papers by his brother, John. [J.B.] VAN DALE, Anthony, a Dutch theologian and antiquarian, au. of ' De Oraculis,' 1C38-17U8. VANDAMME, Dominique Joseph, count of Unebourg, one of Napoleon's generals who was attached to the division of Marshal Grouchy at the battle of Waterloo, and subsequently offered to de- fend Paris with the 80,000 troops he had kept together, 1771-1830. VANDELLI, Domenico, en Italian physician and naturalist time of Linnasus. VANDERGOES. See Goes. VANDERHELST. See Helst. VANDERHEYDEN. See Heyden. VANDERMONDE, one of the most famous of modern mathematicians, 1735-1796. VANDERSKiETEN, Ferdinand, a Flemish economist and publicist, 1771-1823. VANDERVELDE, Charles Francis, the most eel. modern novelist of Germany, 1772-1824. VANDERVELDE, VANDENVELDE, or VAN VELDE, William, called the Old; a Dutch painter, skilled in the delineation of marine sub- jects, 1610-1693. His son, of the same name, called ' the Young,' regarded as the most eminent of all the marine painters, 1633-1707. There were three others of the name : Isaiah, born at Ley- den about 1591 ; John, his brother, a painter and engraver, born about 1598; and Adrian, who was a celebrated landscape painter, 1639-1672. VANDERVENNE, a Dutch painter, 1586-1650. VANDERWERFF, Adrian, a Dutch portrait and historical painter, 1659-1722. VAXDI, A. J. D.. a Germ, chemist, died 1763. VAN DIEMEN. See Diemen. VANDYCK, Antony, was born at Antwerp, March 22, 1599, and is the most distinguished of VAN all Rubens's^ numerous scholars. He lived wift that great painter for four years, and by his ad\ ict visited Italy, in 1621, where he remained for fin years, chiefly at Genoa, Venice, and Rome, an returned to Antwerp in 1626. A picture of fh Crucifixion painted for the church of St. at Ghent, raised his reputation at oi highest rank, and he attained equal distinctio: a portrait painter. Vandyck visited this coi a second time, 1630-31, but without attaining notice which he had expected : he accordingly turned to Antwerp ; but Charles I. having by him, a portrait of Nicolas Laniere, his eh master, sent him an invitation to return to country, and he was courteously received by l king, who lodged him at Ekclc^-iars' and confer the honour of knighthood upon him the follov year, 1633, with the title of painter to his mnje and a fixed salary of 200 per annum for These advantages fixed Vandyck in this com and he justified the king's choice by a long cession of the most magnificent portraits that yet been produced out of Italy ; indeed, the ] traits of Vandyck are by some preferred to of Titian ; they have not the pictorial force of 1 of the great Venetian, but they are more generally, and are distinguished for more car drawing and a more elaborate finish ; the men c Titian, and the women of Vandvck, are supi Vandyck died in London, December 9, 1641, a early age of forty-one. Yet, notwithstandin comparatively short life, such was his extraordina success that he accumulated a large fortune that time, about 20,000 sterling, though he in great style, keeping besides his town esta' ment, a country house at Eltham ; and he so good a table,' says Graham, ' that few pr were more visited or better served.' He buried in the old church of St. Paul, near tomb of John of Gaunt : his fortune was inl by a daughter, his only child. (Graham, toioards an English School; Walpole, Anecu Paintinq, &c. ; Carpenter, Memoir of Sir At Vandyck, &c, London, 1844.) [R.N. VAN-DYK, H. S., a miscellaneous writer poet, born in London 1798, died 1828. VANE, Sir Henry, a republican and relig zealot of the period of the commonwealth, was eldest son of the baronet of that name, and born at Hadlow in Kent in 1612. He was an the earliest of those whose religious opinions in duced them to seek a home in America, and ha?* ing gone to New England, in 1635, was appo governor of Massachusets. Being far from j lar among his fellow-colonists, he returned to land the year after, married here, and ent parliament : by the interest of his father was appointed joint treasurer of the navy wi William Russell. The measures in which he took part were the condemnation of Strafford Laud, followed, in 1613, by the ' Solemn and Covenant ' of which he was one of the promoters, as he also was of the 'Self-Denying nance.' He stood aloof from the king's trial, 1 the establishment of the commonwealth, one of the council of state : in this positic remained till Cromwell's dissolution of parli in 1653. Sir Henry Vane was, from the steady opponent of the authority assumed 79.8 VAN pry, his hope being that the Saviour would ap- ftar and establish a fifth universal monarchy, or lign of a thousand years ; he was most obnoxi- Is to Cromwell, therefore, the staunchest repre- ntative and upholder of whatever authority could ill be exercised in the state by human agency, l several occasions these two men were brought ;o personal contact, and while Cromwell ex- ited the greatest antipathy to the dreamy pectations, and the plausible temperament of me, the latter showed no deficiency of courage braving his resentment. After the restoration was condemned for treason, and beheaded on wer Hill, June 14, 1662. He wrote several rks, chiefly religious, at least as he understood e matter, pointing to ' The Total and Irrecover- le Ruin of the Monarchies of this World.' [E.R.] VAN-HELMONT. See Helmont. VAN-HOECK, J. T a Flemish painter of history, 00-1650. Robert, believed to be his relation, >o a painter, born 1609. VAN-HOOREBEKE, Charles Joseph, a emish botanist and pharmacopolist, 1790-1821. VAN-HUGTENBERG. See Hugtenburgh. VANIERE, James, a celebrated French Jesuit d Latin poet, 1664-1739. VAN IN I, Lucilio, a Neapolitan philosopher, rnt alive at Toulouse, 1585-1619. VANLOO, James, a Dutch historical and por- lit painter, 1614-1617. Louis, his son, excelled design, died 1712. Jean Baptiste, son of the ,ter, who became a fashionable portrait painter England, 1684-1745. Charles Andrew, led Carlo, brother of the preceding, a great itorical and imaginative painter, the most popu- artist of his time, 1705-1765. Louis Michael, i and seholar of Jean Baptiste, first painter to king of Spain, 1707-1771. His brother, iarles Amadeus, famed at Berlin as a history d portrait painter, born 1718. VAN-LOON, G., a Dutch numismatist, b. 1683. VAN MANDER, Charles, a Flemish painter i writer on antiquities, 1548-1605. VAN-MILDERT, William, bishop of Durham, tndson of a Dutch merchant settled in London, i a distinguished theologian, 1765-1836. VAN-NEVE, F., a Flemish painter, last cent. VAN NOORT, Oliver, was a native of Utrecht. is noted as the first Dutchman who circum- igated the globe, 1598-1601. He went out by Strait of Magellan and returned by the Cape. t the voyage was not made memorable by important discovery or other remarkable re- [J.B.] VANNI, Carlos, a Neapolitan apostate, who ayed the liberal cause in 1775, and put an end his existence at Sorrento, 1799. VANNI, several Italian painters: Fornio, a Bve of Pisa, 14th century. Francesco, skilled h as a painter and architect, 1565-1610. His i, Raifaelle, taught by Antonio Caracci, )6-1655. Giovanni Battista, best known as enpraver, 1599-1660. ITANXUCHI, Andrea Del Sarto, a very sbrated painter of Florence, 1488-1530. ^AN-OS, P. G., a Dutch painter, 1776-1839. VAN SCHOUTEN, or SCHOUTEN, William BNELIsan, an able Dutch navigator, was a 've of Hoorn in North Holland. He was sent VAS out in command of an expedition fitted up by some merchants of Amsterdam, who were suffering under the oppressive monopoly which the Dutch East India Company had obtained, in virtue of their exclusive right to trade to India by the Cape and the Strait ot Magellan. The object was to find another passage ; this Schouten successfully accomplished (February, 1616) by sailing to the south of Terra del Fuego. He named the extreme point of land after his native town ; and a strait passed through, Le Maire, after the largest contri- butor to the expense of the undertaking. [J.B.] VANSOMER, Paul, a Flemish portrait pain- ter, who acquired the highest distinction in Eng- land before the time of Vandyck, 1576-1621. VAN-SWIETEN, Gerard, a Dutch physician and commentator on Boerhaave, 1700-1772. VANUDEN, L., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. VAN-UTRECHT, Adrian, a Flemish painter, famous for flowers, fruit, shell-fish, &c, 1599-1651. VAN-VEEN, or VENIUS, Otiio, a Dutch painter, distinguished for his graceful composi- tions and fine heads, 1556-1634. VAN-VITELLI, Gaspard, a Dutch painter, 1647-1736. His son, Luigi, an architect, 1700-73. VARANDA, J., a French physician, 1620-58. VARATANES, the Greek form of the name of Barham, king of Persia. VARCHI, B., an Italian historian, 1502-1565. VARENIUS, A., a Ger. theologian, 1620-1684. VARENIUS, B., a Dutch geographer, 1610-80. VARGAS, A. De, a Span, painter, 1613-1674. VARGAS, F., a Spanish jurisconsult, 16th cent. VARGAS, L. De, a Span, painter, 1502-1568. VARGAS Y PONCE, Don Jose, a Spanish navigator and geographer, 1755-1821. VARIGNON, P., a Fr. mathemat,, 1654-1722. VARILLAS, A., a French historian, 1624-96. VARIN, J., a French botanist, 1740-1808. VARIN, James, a celebrated medal engraver, 1604-72. Joseph, of the same family, 1740-1808. VARIN, T., a French historian, 1610-1668. VARIUS, Lucius, a Roman dramatic writer and epic poet, who is highly spoken of by his friends, Virgil and Horace. Hardly a fragment of his writings is now extant. VARLEY, J., an English artist, 1777-1842. VAROLI, C, an Italian anatomist, 1543-1575. VARON, C, a French writer, 1761-1796. VARRO, M. T , consul of Rome, B.C. 216. VARRO, Marcus Terentius, a Roman states- man, and one of the most learned men of his age, was born at Rome B.C. 116, and died about 27. His learning and his actual writings were encyclo- paedic in extent, but of all his labours there now only remains extant a portion of his De Lingua- Latina, and his De Re Rustica, with some frag- ments of his Satires. VARRO, Poblius Terentius Atacinus, a Roman poet, and contemporary of the preceding. VARTAN, an Armenian pnnce, killed in action against the Persians 451. VARTAN, called Vertabied, the learned, an Armenian poet and historian of his country, 13th century. His 'Fables' were published by Saint Martin ; his history remains in MS. VARUS, consul of Rome, B.C. 12. VASARI, Giorgio, the celebrated author of the Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculp- 799- VAS tors, and Architects,' of Italy, from the earliest time down to the year 15G8, the date of the second edition of his work, was born at Arezzo in 1512; he visited Florence in 1524, and there made the acquaintance of Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto, and other great artists of the time. Vasari dis- tinguished himself both as a painter and an archi- tect, but his great and immortal service in the cause of art isliis most elegant and comprehensive series of biographies above alluded to. This un- paralleled biographical series, which Hay don ranked as the third book in the world, the Bible and Shakspeare holding the two higher places, can perhaps only be justly appreciated by the genuine lovers of their subject, and then only with diligent labour and study and considerable familiarity with the progress of modern art. It has gone through many editions in Italy , the first, or editio princeps, was published in Florence in 1550, in 2 vols. 8vo ; the second, also by Vasari, in 1568, in 3 vols. 4to, with woodcut portraits, coarse but full of character, and doubtless of much individual truth. The fol- lowing editions, and some other reprints, have appeared since Vasari's time: one at Bologna, from 16-17 to 1663 , one at Eome in 1759. with notes by Bottari ; another at Leghorn and Florence by Bottari, in 1767-72 ; another at Siena in 1791- 94, by Delia Valle, reprinted afterwards in the Milan edition of the Italian Classics ; another at Florence, in 6 vols. 8vo, in 1822-23, a reprint of the second edition of Vasari, without any notes of the eommentators, and even without an index. In 1832, the admirable German translation by Schorn and Fdrster was commenced, in 8 vols. 8vo, the last in 1849 ; and three good Italian editions have appeared within the last ten years or so ; the last commenced in 1846, in 12mo, by a society of young enthusiasts in the cause, is beyond all praise, the researches of Bumohr, Schorn, Gaye, and other foreign critics have been taken the utmost advan- tage of, many documents have been consulted, and this great work is perhaps now as well illustrated as it is ever likely to be, except some very unex- pected treasures among the old records of Italy should be discovered to throw new light upon this interesting subject. The editors are Carlo and Gaetano Milanesi, and Carlo Pini, of Siena. The best of Vasari's Lives are naturally the Florentines, and those who lived nearer to his own time. The notices of the earlier artists and those remote from Florence, have not escaped errors and misrepre- sentations, which are, however, now remedied in the various notes and comments with which the work is now enriched. But under any view the col- lection constitutes a remarkable series, not only for its prodigious store of facts, but also for its ex- treme beauty, grandeur, and fascination of style. An English translation has been lately added" to Bonn's Standard Library. The following is the full title of the Italian edition recommended : Le Vite de' pin eccellenti Pittori, Scultori, e Architetti. Di Giorgio Vasari: publicate per cura di una Bocieta di amatori delle arti belle. Flor., Felice Le Monnier, 1846-54, seqcj. Vasari died at Flo- rence in 1574, and was buried in Arezzo, his native place, and of which one of the greatest of its glories, of past or of future time, will ever remain the cir- cumstance of its having given birth to Giorgio Vasari [R.N.W.] VAU VASCO DE GAMA. See Gama. VASI, J., an Italian designer, 1710-1782. VASQUES, Alphonso, an Italian painte. born of Spanish parentage, about 1575-1645. VASQUEZ, G., a Spanish casuist, 1551-1604. VASQUEZ DE CORONADO, Francesco, Spanish navigator, time of Mendoza, 1540. VASSELIN, G. V., a Fr. historian, 1767-180: VATABLUS, J., a French Hebraist, died 154' VATACES. See John. VATER, C, a German physician, 1651-173: Arraham, his son, a great promoter of inocult tion, author of several works, 1684-1751. VATER, John Severinus, a distinguishe German Orientalist and theologian, 1771-1826. VATTEL, Emmerich, a jurist and man i letters, was born near Neufchfitel, in 1714. 1} was originally educated for the church, but h studies turned to the direction of philosophy at literature, while he found employment in the petl diplomacy of the smaller central states. Thus 1 was appointed, in 1746, minister from Poland 1 the Republic of Berne. The occasional petty dal bling in diplomatic duties, accompanied by abui dant leisure, which this office conferred, probab had considerable influence in the direction of h labours and the formation of his fame. Like a inhabitants of middle Europe, ambitious of literal fame in his age, he sought it in a study of Fren< literature, and an imitation of French model He wrote many works ; some on light literatur such as ' Sur la Natur d' Amour' others on m< taphysics ; but all alike forgotten. It was b fortune, however, to fill up a vacant space in tl literature of jurisprudence, by systematizing ai< placing in lucid order the writings on interm tionallaw, from Grotius downwards. His 'Drc de Gens' ' The Law of Nations, or Principles the Law of Nature Applied to the Affairs of Natioi and Sovereigns,' first published in 1758, has goi through many editions, been translated into sever languages, and become a universal text-bool Vattel died on 28th December, 1767. [J.H.B ! VATTIER, P., an Arabian scholar, 1623-166* VAUBAN, Sebastian Leprestre De, tl greatest military engineer and tactician of Franc was born in Burgundy in 1633 ; and commenc* his public career in the time of Mazarin. I took part in all the campaigns of Holland ai Flanders, and was created marshal in 1703. B] constructed or improved an immense number fortresses, directed as many as fifty-three sieM; and was present at one hundred and forty battle >trateg; ;y oj He wrote twelve folio volumes on Str* Died 1707, VAUCEL, P. L. Du, a Jansenist, 1640-1715. VAUGELAS, Claude Favre De, a memb- of the French Academy, and chief employe of tb body on the famous Dictionary, 1585-1650. VAUGHAN, Henry, author of poems, chief- devotional, bom at Newton, in Brecknockshi* 1621, died 1695. Thomas, his brother, author some Rosicrucian works, written under the title r. Eugenius Philalethes, died 1666. VAUGHAN, Sir J., a learned judge, 1608-7 VAUGHAN, Sir J., a judge and privy coin cillor, contemporary with Lord Lyndhurst, WiM ; and Denman, 1772-1839. VAUGHAN, W.. a poet and transl., 1577-164 800 VAU VAUQUELIN, Nicholas Louis, a French emist, instructed by Fourcroy, 1763-1830. VAUVENARGUES, Luc De Clapiers, Mar- quis De, a moralist and elegant writer, author of ' Introduction to the Knowledge of the Human Spirit,' and * Maxims,' 1715-1747. VAUVILLIERS, John Francis, a French savant, 1698-1766. His son, of the same names, learned Hellenist and statesman, 1737-1801. VAUX, Nicholas, first lord, a brave officer and favourite of Henry VIII., descended from a French family, died 1530. His son, Thomas, an dmired poet, 1510-1522. VAUX, Noel Jourdan, Count De, a marshal of France, dist. in the Flemish wars, 1705-1788. VAVASSOR, or VAVASSEUR, Francis, a French Jesuit, Latin poet, and philologist, 1605-81. VECCHIETTA, Lorenzo De Piero, an Italian ulptor, founder, and painter, 1482-1540. VECCHIO DI SAN BERNARDO, F. Men- socchi, called II, an Italian painter, 1510-1574. VEDRIANI, L., an Italian historian, 1601-70. VEEN, or VENIUS. See Van- Veen. VEGA. See Garcias. VEGA-CARPIO. See Lope De Vega. VEGA, G., a Germ, mathematician, 1754-1802. VEGETIUS, Flavius Renatus, a Roman niter on the military art, 4th century. VEGIO, Maffei, a Latin poet, 1406-1458. VEIGA, Eusebius De, a Portuguese Jesuit and stronomer, born in Coimbra 1718, died 1798. VEITH, L. F., a Germ, theologian, 1725-1796. VELASCO, F. De, a Span, general, died 1716. VELASQUEZ, Diego, a Spanish general, who ccompanied Columbus in his second voyage ; was mgaged in the conquest of St. Domingo, and ounded the city of Havana in the island of Cuba. 3e sent out the expedition which discovered ifucatan and Mexico, and despatched Cortez to ubdue the latter country; died 1523. VELASQUEZ CARDENAS Y LEON, Joa- juin, a Mexican astronomer, 1732-1786. VELASQUEZ DE VELASCO, Luis Jose, a Spanish antiquarian, 1722-1772. VELAZQUEZ, Don Diego Rodriguez De )Ilva Y, was born at Seville in 1599 ; he first tudied under Francisco Herrera, and afterwards vitli Pacheco, whose daughter he married. He isited Madrid in 1622, and in 1623 was appointed sourt painter to Philip IV. of Spain. He visited taly in 1629, and again in 1648, to make purchases f works of art for the king. He died August 7, .660. Velazquez has the reputation of being the reatest of Spanish painters ; he is chiefly distin- guished as a portrait painter, but he excelled also u history, landscape, and genre ; like the majority )f the Spanish painters, he belongs to the naturalist hool, he painted life as be found it, with extra- >rdinary force, facility, and skill. His greatest rorks are still at Madrid. (Cean Bermudez, Dic- ionario Hiitorico de los mas Ilvstres Profesores ie las Bellas Artes in Espana. See also the Penny Cyclopedia, and Stirling's Annals of the Artists of SjMin.) [R.N.W.] VELDE. See Vandervelde. VELEZ DE GUEVARA, Luis, a Spanish tirist and comic poet, died 1646. VELLEDA, a German prophetess, 1st century. VELLEIUS. See Paterculus. VEN VELLEGUS, Andrew Severin, a Danish historian and councillor of state, 1542-1616. VELLUTI, D., an Italian historian, 1313-1370. VELLY, P. F., a French historian, 1709-1759. VELSER, or WELSER, Mark, in Latin Vel- serus, a Ger. historian and philologist, 1568-1614. VELTHEIM, Aug. Frederic, Count Von, a Germ, archaeologist and mineralogist, 1741-1801. VELTWYCK, G., a Dutch poet, died 1555. VENANTIUS, a Christian poet, 6th century. VENCE, H. F. De, a Fr. ecclesias., 1676-1749. VENCESLAUS. See Wenceslaus. VENDOME, Cesar, Due De, eldest son of Henry IV. and of his mistress, Gabrielle D'Estrees, a refugee in England in the time of Richelieu, and minister of state under Mazarin, 1594-1665. Louis, his eldest son, viceroy of Catalonia, married a niece of Mazarin, and after her death took orders and became a cardinal, 1612-1669. Louis Joseph, son of the latter, successively Due de Penthievre and Due de Vendome, a famous general in the wars of Louis XIV., honoured for his services by admission to the honours of a prince of the blood royal, 1654-1712. His brother, Philip, prior of Vendome, and the last of his house, 1655-1727. VENEL, G. F., a French chemist, 1723-1775. VENEL, J. A., a French physician, 1740-1791. VENERONI, John, the Italianized name of Vigneron, a French grammarian, 17th century. VENETTE, J. De, a Fr. chronicler, 1307-1369. VENETTE, Nicholas, a French physician and physiologist, author of ' Tableau de l'Ainour Con- jugal,' and other works, 1632-1698. VP^NEZIANO, Antonio, an Italian fresco painter, 1310-1384. Domenico, a painter in oils, 1420-1476. Agostino, an engraver, 1490-1540. VENIERO, three doges of Venice: Antonio, reigned 1382-1400. Francesco, succeeded Marc Antonio Trevisani 1554, died 1556. Sebastiano, commander of the fleet at the battle of Lepanto, elected doge and died same year, 1571. VENIERO, Domenico, a distinguished Italian poet, 1517-1582. Francesco, his brother, a philo- sophical writer, died 1581. Lorenzo, a third brother, known as a poet, died about 1550. Maf- feo and Luigi, sons of the latter, dates unknown. VENINI, Francesco, a Milanese ecclesiastic, mathematician, and poet, 1737-1820. VENINO, J., an Italian Jesuit, 1711-1778. VENIUS. See Van-Veen. VENN, Henry, a minister of the Church of England, son of a divine named Richard Venn, au- thor of several religious works, 1725-1796. John, his son, author of Sermons, 1759-1813. VENNE. See Vandervenne. VENNER, T., an English physician, 1577-1650. VENNING, R., a nonconf or.' divine, 1620-1673. VENTENAT, Stephen Peter, a distin- guished French botanist, member of the institute, and author of several useful works, 1757-1808. VENTIMIGLIA, Giuseppe, a Sicilian prince and supporter of the constitution, 1761-1814. VENTURE DE PARADIS, Jean Michel, a French Orientalist and diplomatic agent, 1742-99. VENTURI, Giambatista, an Italian physi- cian, statesman, and literary savant, 1746-1822. VENTURI, P., an Italian Jesuit, 1693-1752. VENTURINI, J. G. Julius, a German officer and writer on tactics, 1772-1802. 801 3F VEN VENUSTL M., an Italian painter, 1515-1570. VENUTI, R., an Ititl. antiquarian, 1705-1763. VERBIEST, Ferdinand, a Flemish Jesuit, astronomer, and Chinese missionary, 1630-1688. VERCI, J. B. M., an Italian historian, 1739-95. VERE, Edward, earl of Oxford, a poet and statesman of the age of Elizabeth, born about 1540, died 1604. He sat on the trial of Mary Queen of Scots, in virtue of his office of lord high chamber- lain, and many traits of character, little to his honour, are recorded of him. VERE, Sir Francis, one of the most gallant of the commanders who distinguished themselves in the reign of Elizabeth, was born in 1554. He was the companion-in-arms of Prince Maurice in the Dutch war of independence, and defended Ostend with only 1,700 men against a Spanish army of 12,000. Died 1608. VERE, Sir Horace, baron of Tilbury, younger brother and companion-in-arms of the preceding, shared in the glory of his principal actions in the Dutch war. His great achievement was an able retreat with 4,000 men before the great general, Spinola, who commanded 12,000. Died 1635. VERELIUS, Olaf, one of the most distin- guished antiquaries of Sweden, 1618-1682. VERELST, S., a Flemish painter, died 1710. VERGARA, C/ESAR Antonio, a Neapolitan ecclesiastic and numismatist, born 1680. VERGARA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1726-99. VERGARA, N. De, called 'the Old,' a Spanish painter of history, painter on glass, and sculptor, 1510-1574. His son, Nicholas, called ' the Young, 1 a sculptor and architect, 1540-1606. VERGENNES, Charles Gravier, Count De, a French diplomatist and statesman, 1717-87. VERGERIO, Piero Paolo, professor of dia- lectic at Padua, and one of the restorers of litera- ture, 1349-1419. Another member of the family, bearing the same names, was at first a vigorous opponent of the reformation, but became a convert to protestantism, and died in Wirtemberg 1565. VERGIER, J., a French poet, 1657-1720. VERGNIAUD, P. V., one of the most eloquent leaders of the Girondin party in the French revolu- tion, was born at Limoges in 1759, and was prac- tising as an advocate at Bourdeaux, when elected to the Legislative Assembly, 1791. He was one of the twenty-two Girondists condemned by the Jacobins of the revolutionary tribunal, and exe- cuted October 31, 1793. VERHEYDEN, F. P., a Dutch painter and sculptor, born at the Hague 1657, died 1711. VERHEYEN, P., a Dut. anatomist, 1648-1710. VERHOEK, P., a painter and poet, 1633-1702. VERMEIREN, Augustin, a Flemish Carme- lite, author of Fables in verse, 1656-1703. VERMEULEN, Cornelius, a famous designer and engraver of portraits, 1644-1702. VEKMEYN, J. C, a Dutch painter, died 1559. VERNES, Jacob, a pastor of Geneva, known as an adversary of Rousseau, 1728-1790. ' VERNET, Claude Joseph, a French painter, in great esteem for his landscapes and marine sub- jects, more particularly the latter, in which he ex- celled, 1714-1789. A. C. Horace, called Carle, his son and pupil, famous for his battle-pieces, 1758-1836. Horace Vernet, the celebrated painter, is son of the latter, and was born 1789. VER VERNET, J., a Genevese theologian, 1698-17MJ VERNEUIL, Catherine LIenriette Dk Balzac D'Entraigues, Marquise De, a mistress of Henry IV., who acquired so much influence over'! him as to obtain a written promise of marriage, which it required all the firmness of Richelieu to annul: she conspired against the king after his marriage witli Mary de Medici, 1583-1633. VERNIER, P., a Span, mathemat., 1580-1637. VERNIER, Theodore, a politician of the revo- lutionary period, afterwards a peer of France, 1731-1818. VERNIQUET, E., a Fr. architect, 1727-1804. VERNON, Edward, an English admiral, born in Westminster 1684. His father was secretary of state to William and Mary, and having given his son a classical education, was disappointed by his adoption of a seaman's career. He first served under Admiral Hopson, and was in the action at Vigo, in October, 1702. His name became histo- rical, however, in 1739, by the expedition to Porto-- bello, the command of which was given to him, with the rank of vice-admiral of the blue. In 1741 he made an unsuccessful attempt upon Car- thagena, in conjunction with General Wcntworth, the graphic details of which may be read in Smol- ett's Roderick Random. Died 1757. VERNON, Robert, the munificent founder of the Gallery of British Art, named after him, and now in the national collection, was born in 1774, and acquired his vast fortune by trading in horses. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts in his life- time, and his bequest to the nation is said to have cost him 150,000. Died 1849. VERNON, T., a learned lawyer, died 1726. VERNY, C. F., a French poet, 1753-1811. VERON, F., a French Jesuit, 1575-1649. VERON, P. A., a French astronomer, 1736-70. VERONESE, Paul. See Cagliari. VERRIO, A., a Neapolitan painter, 1639-1707. VERROCHIO, Andrea Del, a Florentine pain-j ter, sculptor, goldsmith, and architect, 1422-1488.! VERSCHAFFELT, Chevalier P., called) Pietro Fiammingo, a Flemish sculptor and archi-i tect, 1710-1793. VERSCHURING, Henry, a Dutch painter oA landscapes and cavalry actions, 1627-1690. VERT, C. De, a French liturgist, 1645-1709. . VERTEGAN, Richard, an ingenious anti- quarian of Roman Catholic principles, born in Lon- don of Dutch parents, and settled at Antwerp;) author of 'Restitution of Decayed Intelligence; concerning the most noble and renowned Englisffl Nation,' published 1605 ; died about 1635. VERTOT D'AUB(EUF, Rene Aubert, Abb<$l De, a French Capuchin, author of works on thai Revolutions of Rome, Sweden, and Portugal, and a History of the Order of Malta, 1655-1735. VERTUE, George, an eminent English ena graver and antiquarian, born in London 1684, died 1756. His engraved works, consisting of portraits 5 and historic prints, are very numerous, and in higli repute for their accuracy. In the course of his anti- quarian tours he took many sketches of churches, - ruins, and other monuments; his literary remains consist of historic notices of artists, and anecdote* of painting, VERUS, jElius, grandson of Cejonius Commo-i dus, adopted son of Adrian, and consul of Romfl^ C02 VEB died 138. Lucius Verus, his son, joint emperor ith Marcus Aurelius, whose daughter he mai- led, flourished 130-169. VERZOSA, J., a Spanish writer, 1523-1574. VESALIUS, Andreas, the greatest anatomist >f his age, and the father of modern human ana- omy, was born at Brussels, either in April, 1513, )r December, 1514, for the year of his birth is un- rtain. He was descended from a family remark- able for the number of eminent medical men it had produced, and his father was attached in a medical apacity to the household of the archduke Charles, ifterwards the emperor, Charles V. He devoted limself at an early period of life to human anatomy ind dissection, studying under the most eminent nasters of the day, and between the years 1535 nd 1537 he served as a physician and surgeon with troops in the Low Countries. In 1544 he was ppointed chief physician to the emperor Charles E and on his abdication in 1555 he was nominated o the same office by his son, Philip II. His opposi- ion to the Galenic doctrines, his habit of dissecting uman bodies, then considered impious, and the reat reputation he enjoyed at the Spanish court, aised him many enemies ; and a rumour that he tad opened the body of a young Spanish nobleman rhose heart showed symptoms of vitality, having pt abroad, he was publicly accused of murder, he charge was taken up "by the clergy and the ledical faculty, to whom he was obnoxious, and lso by the relations of the deceased ; and though e enjoyed the protection of the king, he was ob- " to flee from the persecution by which he was ssaiied, and to travel into Palestine by way of xpiation of his alleged guilt. When this voyage ras undertaken is not exactly known, but in 1563 le senate of Venice invited him to return and fill le chair of anatomy at Padua, then vacant by the eath of Fallopius ; " and having embarked for that urpose, he was shipwrecked on the island of Zante ihe ancient Zacynthus), where he perished miser- bly of cold and hunger, on the 15th of October, 564, and his body having been recognized by a oldsmith of Venice, it was honourably interred in le church of St. Mary's, in that island. He was le author of numerous works, but that by which is best known is entitled, De Humana Corporis abrica. [J.M'C] VESLING, John, a German anatomist, and riter on the botany of the East, 1598-1649. VESPASIAN, whose full name in Latin was rrus Flavius Vespasianus, emperor of Rome, as born of an obscure family in the territory of le ancient Sabines, in the year 9. He rose to istinction in the Roman army, during the reigns Caligula and Nero ; and was conducting the rar in Judaea when he was proclaimed emperor by is soldiers, after the brief reigns of Galba, Otho, idVitellius, 69. He then left the prosecution of e war to his son Titus; and reaching Rome *>ut the middle of the year 70, entered upon his igh functions without opposition. The expecta- that had been raised by his ability, his es, and his indefatigable application to busi- were not disappointed ; but it is commonly elieved, and the report is adopted by Gibbon, lat he disgraced himself by a sordid parsimony. Iris is so incompatible with the generous qualities bo attributed to him, that the explanation must VIC be sought in circumstances, not sufficiently con- sidered, such as the dissatisfaction likely enough felt by the Prastorian guard, and by others who may have expected a more liberal distribution of the public money. The reign of Vespasian was marked by the pacification of Gaul, which had been disturbed by the revolt of Claudius Civilus, and by Agricola's conquest of Great Britain : the destruction of Jerusalem also took place, as mentioned under the name of Titus. Died in the seventieth vear of his age, 79. [E.R.] VESPUCCI. See Amerigo. VESTRIS, a family of dancers and theatrical performers: Gaetano Apoline Balthazar, distinguished at the Parisian opera, 1729-1808. Anna Frederika, his wife, 1752-1808. M Augustus, a natural son of Gaetano, 1760-1838. Marie Rose Gourgand Dugazon, a sister-in- law of Gaetano, distinguished by her performance in tragic parts, 1746-1804. VETTER, L. R., a Ger. pathologist, 1765-1806. VETTORI, F., an Italian antiquary, 1708-1778. VETTORI, F., an Italian physician, 1485-1528. VETTORI, Pietro, in Latin Victorius, a great promoter of literature in Italy, 1499-1585. VETTORI, V., an Italian poet, 1697-1763. VEZZOZI, Antonio Francesco, a learned Italian theatine and biographer, 1705-1785. VIANE, F. Van, a theologian, 1619-1693. VIANI, A M., an Italian painter, 16th centurv. VIANI, G., an Italian numismatist, 1762-1816. VIANI, Giuseppe, a painter of Bologna, 1636- 1700. Domenicho, his son and pupil, 1668-1711. VICARS, John, a presbyterian zealot of the commonwealth, author of several quaint works of a religious character, 1582-1652. VICARY, T., an English anatomist, 16th cent. VICENTE, G., a Portuguese poet, 1480-1557. VICENTE, J., a Castilian painter, last century. VICHMANN, B., a Rus. historian, 1786-1822. VICI, A., an Italian architect, 1744-1817 VICIANA, M., a Spanish historian, 16th cent. VICO, jEneas, an Italian antiquarian, engraver, and numismatist ; died about 1560. VICO, F., a Spanish historian, 17th century. VICO, Giovanni Battista, the first to pro- pose a philosophical method of considering human history, was born at Naples in 1668, and became professor of rhetoric in the university of that city. His life was passed in comparative obscurity in studying the works of the ancients, and in bringing his vast acquirements in jurisprudence and criti- cism to bear on the problem of human destiny. The principal labour of his life is his work entitled ' Principi di una Scienza Nuova,' first published in 1725, and which is, in fact, a philosophy of his- tory, recognizing the action of Providence, and the divine intention continually working out in social events ; in this view he has been followed by Schlegel, but with much less spirituality. What Vico would demonstrate is the analogy of one age and nation with another, as regards the succession of events, and these proceeding in a certain his- toric cycle, which he divides into three ages the divine, the heroic, and the human : he becomes, therefore, the interpreter of the mythical remains of antiquity, such as the Homeric poems, and dis- plays, in his way, the reason of national manners and. forms of government. The Universal His- 803 VIC ton-' of Bossuet, and the 'City of God' by Saint AmilMllll. were the 'only previous works tliat CMM be named in series with this of Vieo ; since his time besides Schlegel Kant, Herder, Lessing, ami Condoroet, have each developed their own particular svstems j to Vico, however, belongs the honour of opening out this new path through the fields of philosophy. The highest recognition he was his appointment as historiographer to the king of Naples in 1735. In 1743 he fell into a state of insensibility which lasted fourteen months, in all which time he knew neither his friends nor children : he died thus in January, 1744. [E.R.] VICQ D'AZYR, Felix, a French physician, famous as a naturalist and physiologist, author of valuable works, 1748-1794. YD TOR, several popes of Rome: Victor I., bishop and saint, succeeded 185, and was martyred, according to some accounts, 197 ; he was succeeded by Zephyrinus. Victor II., the friend and rela- tion of the emperor, Henry III., reigned 1055- 1057. Vi<rrcR III., succeeded Gregory VII., and died after a few months' pontificate, 1086-1087. Victor IV., an antipope, elected after Adrian IV. 1159, and supported by the emperor in oppo- sition to Alexander III. ; died 11G4. VICTOR AMADEUS I., duke of Savoy, was born 1587, son of Charles Emanuel I., and crowned 1630. He married the sister of Louis XIII., and in his latter years commanded the forces of that sovereign in his Italian wars, d. 1637. VICTOR AMADEUS II., duke of Savoy, and first king of Sardinia, was born in 1665, and suc- ceeded his father in the duchy 1675. He married Maria of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., but en- tered, nevertheless, on a tortuous policy, which in- volved him in a war with that monarch. Having acquired Sicily, he exchanged that kingdom in 1717 for Sardinia, by treaty with the emperor. He died two years after his abdicating in favour of his son, 1732. VICTOR AMADEUS III., son and successor of Charles Emanuel III., was born in 1726, and ascended the throne in 1773. He founded the Academy of Sciences at Turin, and exhibited the utmost anxiety for the welfare of his subjects. His hostility to the revolution in France, provoked a contest with that country in which his throne fell by the arms of Buonaparte, 1796. VICTOR EMMANUEL, king of Sardinia, son of the preceding, Victor Amadeus III., born 1759, succeeded his brother, Charles Emmanuel IV., 1802, abdicated during a revolt 1821, died 1824. VICTORLNUS, Marcus Aurelius, one of the thirty tyrants who assumed the Roman purple in the time of Gallienus, killed by his troops 268. VICTORLNUS of Feltre, a celebrated Italian philanthropist and charitable founder, 1379-1447. YICTORIUS. See Vettori. ^ II >A, Mahco Girolamo, an Italian prelate and distinguished Latin poet, about 1490-1566. YIDAL, B., a Provencal physician, 1741-1805. \ I DAL, D., a Spanish painter, born 1670. YIDAL, James, called the Old, a Spanish histo- nter, 1583-1615. His nephew, J. VlDAL Dl I.ii.m.o, called the Young, 1602-1648. V 'DAL, P., a Provencal troubadour, died 1200. \ 1EIL, Piliule Le, a French painter on glass VIL and writer on the art, 1708-1772. William, of the same familv and profession, 1675-1731. VIEILH DE BOISJOLIN, Claude Augus- tjn, a French biographical writer, 1788-1832. VIEIRA, Sebastian, a Portuguese Jesuit and missionary to Japan, 1570-1634. VIEIRA, or VIEYRA, A., a Portuguese Jesuit and missionary to Brazil, 1608-1697. VIEL, C F., a French architect, 1745-1819. VIEL, Charles Maria De, a converted Jew of Lorraine, and commentator on the Gospels, died a baptist about 1700. His brother, Lewis, entered the communion of the Church of England, and wrote on subjects of Jewish learning. VIEL, Stephen Bernard, a French priest, transl. of Telemachus into Latin verse, 1756-1821. VIETA, Francis, in Latin Viceteus, a French mathematician and algebraist, 1540-1603. VIEUSSENS, Raymond, an eminent French physician and anatomist, born in 1641, and died at an advanced age, between the years 1715 and 1720, though in what precise year is not known. His life was spent chiefly at Montpellier, and he ia known in medical history principally by a work on the nervous system, entitled, Neurographia Uni- versalis,' published in 1685. [J.M'C.'J VIGAND, or WIGAND, John, a German theo- logian and botanist, 1523-1587. VIGANO, S., an Italian dancer, 1769-1821. VIGEE, Louis Giles Bernard, a French poet who bears the reputation of having basely sung the praises of every successive government from the time of the republic, 1755-1820. VIGENERE, Blaise De, a French alchymist, and secretary of embassy to Rome, 1523-1592. VIGER, F., a French Hellenist, died 1647. VIGILIUS, an African bishop, 5th century. VIGILIUS, a pope of Rome, elected by the intrigues of Theodora, wife of Justinian, 537 ; died, after many reverses, arising out of his opposition to Justinian and the empress, 555. VIGILIUS, a Dutch jurisconsult and governor of Holland and Gueldres, died 1577. VIGNE, Andre De La, a French poet and historian, secretary to Anne of Brittany, 15th cent. VIGNIER, Nicholas, a distinguished histori- cal writer, physician, and historiographer to Henry III., king of France, 1530-1596. Ijis son, of the same name, an ascetic and controversial writer, con- verted from protestantism to the Catholic Church ; dates unknown. Jerome, a son of the latter, a priest of the oratory, known as a poet and histo- rian, 1606-1661. VIGNOLA, the common appellation of Giacomo Barozzio, a celebrated aremtect of Vignola, suc- cessor of Michelangelo in the works of St. Peter's, and au. of a Treatise on the ' Five Orders,' 1507-73. VIGNOLES, Stephen, better known under the name of Lahire, one of the most celebrated French commanders of the reign of Charles VIL, distin- guished in all the wars of his time with the Eng- lish, and above all at Jargeau and the battle of Patay in 1418, died 1442. VIGNOLI, J., an Ital. archaeologist, 1680-1753. VIGORS, N. A., an Irish zoologist, 1787-1 84ft VIGUIER, P. F., a Fr. Orientalist, 1745-1821. VILLA, A. T., an Italian poet, 1720-1794. VILLADOMAT, Antonio, a Spanish painter, born at Barcelona 1678, died 1755. 804 VIL VILLALPANDA, John Baptist, a Spanish Jesuit and Scripture commentator, 1552-1608. VILLALPANDE, Francesco Torrebianca De, a Spanish writer on demonology, 16th century. VILLALPANDE, Gaspard Cardillos De, a Spanish scholar and controversialist, died 1570. VILLALPANDE, J. De, chief of a Spanish sect analogous to the quietists, 16th century. VILLANI, Giovanni, an Italian historian, died 1348. Matteo, his brother, author of a continua- tion of his history, died 1363. Filippo, son of the latter, author of a further continuation, and of the first modern work on literary history ; known as a lecturer on Dante in 1404. VILLANI, N., a Latin poet, died 1640. . VILLARET, C, a French historian, 1717-1766. VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, L. T., a French admiral, distinguished in the last war, 1750-1812. VILLARS, Dominique, a French physician, au. of a Natural History of Dauphiny, 1745-1814. VILLARS, Montfaucon De, a French abbe, nephew of the celebrated father Montfaucon, and author of a prohibited book entitled * Comte de Gabalis,' from which Pope derived the machinery for his Rape of the Lock; born about 1640, mur- dered on the highway 1675. VILLARS, Pierre De, a French prelate, nego- tiator, and ascetic writer, 1517-1592. His nephew, of the same names and dignity, an ecclesiastical writer, 1543-1613. VILLARS, Pierre, Marquis De, a French general and diplomatist, died 1678. His wife, Marie Gigault De Bellefonds, friend of Maria Louisa, wife of Charles II. of Spain, author of ' Letters,' containing curious details of the Spanish court, 1772. Louis Hector, son of the preceding, duke of Villars, and a famous marshal of France, opposed in arms to the duke of Marl- borough, especially at the battle of Malplaquet, 1653-1734. His son, Honors Armand, duke of Villars and Prince De Martiniques, was remark- able for nothing but his famous parentage and the protection he offered to Voltaire, 1702-1770. VILLAUT DE BELLEFOND, a French tra- veller on the coast of Guinea, 1666. VILLAVICIOSA, Jose De, a Spanish inquisi- tor and burlesque poet, 1589-1658. VILLEBRUNE, J. B. Lefebvre De, a French Orientalist, philologist, and Hellenist, 1732-1809. VILLEDIEU, Marie Hortense Desjardins, Dame De, a novelist and poetess, 1632-1683. VILLEFORE, J. F. Bourgoin De, an eccle- siastical and biographical writer, 1652-1737. VILLEFROY, Wm. De, a learned Orientalist, founder of the Capuchin Hebraists, 1690-1777. VILLEGAS, E. M. De, a Sp. poet, 1595-1669. VILLEGAS MARMOLEJO, P. De, a Spanish painter of sacred subjects, 1520-1577. VILLEGOMBLAIN, F. Racine, Seigneur De, a Fr. statesman and historian of events during the reigns of Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV. VILLEHARDOUIN, Geoffrai De, an ancient French historian, and commander in the fourth crusade, which resulted in the capture of Constan- tinople, 1198. VILLEMOT, P., a Fr. astronomer, 1651-1713. VILLENEUVE, Huron De, a French poet, contemporary with Philip Augustus. VILLENEUVE, Pierre Ch. Jean Baptist VIN Silvestre, a French admiral who commanded at the battle of Aboukir in 1799, and at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805. On the latter occasion he was taken prisoner, but being soon after restored to liberty ne returned to France, and was ordered by Napoleon to remain at Rennes. In the despon- dency created by this circumstance, he committed suicide by piercing himself through the heart. VILLENEUVE, William De, a chevalier of Provence, historian of the conquest of Naples, whither he accompanied Charles VIII. VILLENEUVE BARGEMONT, Christo- pher, Count De, a Provencal statistician and man of letters, 1771-1829. VILLENFAGNE D'INGIHOUL, Hilarion Noel, historian of Spa and Lidge, 1753-1826. VILLERMAULES, M., a Swiss missionary and writer on the state of China, 1667-1757. VILLEROI, Nicholas De Neufville, Seig- neur De, a French statesman and diplomatist from the time of Charles IX. to Louis X1IL, a partizan of Guise and the Spanish alliance, author of AU - moirs, 1542-1617. His son, Charles, marquis of Villeroi, negotiated the marriage of Henry IV. and Mary de Medicis, died 1642. Nicholas, son of Charles, governor of Louis XIV. and marshal of France, 1597-1685. The most conspicuous of the family was F. De Neufville, Due De Vil- leroi, son of the latter, who was educated with Louis XIV., and took a leading part in his wars from 1693 to 1706. In 1715 he was appointed governor of Louis XV. ; died 1730. VILLERS, C. F. Dominique De, a French writer and philosopher, who became professor at Gottingen after the emigration of 1792, and wrote an Essay upon the Reformation,' composed under the influence of Madame de Stael and Benjamin Constant, 1767-1815. VILLETTE, F., a French optician, 1621-1698. VILLIERS, George. See Buckingham. VILLIERS, J. F. De, a Fr. physician, 1727-94. VILLOISON, J. B. D'Ansse De, an eminent Greek scholar and critic, author of several works and of manuscripts relating to Greek history, now in the Bibliotheque du Roi at Paris, 1750-1805. VILLON, F., a French poet, 1431-1490. VILLOTTE, James, a French Jesuit and mis- sionary to Persia and Turkey, 1656-1743. VINCE, Samuel, a native of Suffolk, author of several valuable works in mathematics and astro- nomy. He was born of poor parents, but being sent to college by the munificence of Mr. Tilney, became professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy at Cambridge, and held several livings in the Church of England. In 1786 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and his principal works appeared between that period and 1809. Died 1821. VINCENT, a Bohemian chronicler, who was a canon and archivist at Prague, 12th century. VINCENT of Beauvais, a learned Dominican, who composed an immense Resume, or Encyclo- paedia, of the learning of the 13th century, by order of Louis IX. : died about 1264. VINCENT, F. A., a French painter, 1746-1816. VINCENT, F. N., a French republican, born at Paris 1767, executed with Hebert 1794. VINCENT, Isabeau, an enthusiast of the re- formed religion, born in Dauphiny 1670. 805 YIN VINCENT 09 Lekins, an ascetic writer and monk of that place, died about 450. VINCENT <>i- Paul. See Paul. V I NCENT, Saint. See Ferrier. \ INTENT, Thomas, a nonconformist minister, remarkable for his courageous devotion to the afflicted during the great plague of London, author of God's Terrible Voice in the City by Plague and Fire,' an ' Explanation of the Assembly's Catechism,' ami ' Eire and Brimstone,' born at Hertford 1634, died 1671. Nathaniel, his :i religions writer and preacher, died 1697. VINCENT, William, rector of Allhallows, in I/mdon, author of several works interesting to scholars, 1739-1815. VINCI, Leonardo Da, was born at Vinci in the valley of the Arno below Florence, in 1452 ; he became the pupil of Andrea Verocchio. In 1483 he entered the service of Lodovico il Moro, duke of Milan, with a salary of 500 scudi per annum, equal to about a thousand pounds sterling at the present time. In 1485 he established an academy of the arts at Milan, and about ten years later, executed his celebrated picture of the ' Last Supper,' in oil colours, on the wall of the Refec- tory, in the convent of the Madonna delle Grazie in that city; there is a copy of this remarkable work, by Marco D'Oggione, now in the Royal Academy, London. Leonardo left Milan in 1499 and re- turned to Florence, and there commenced his great composition of the 'Battle of the Standard' for the Council Hall, in the Palazzo Vecchio. Michel- angelo being commissioned by the Gonfaloniere Soderini to execute a second design for the opposite end, this was the celebrated 4 Cartoon of Pisa,' exhibited in 1506, but neither work was ever executed in the hall, owing to political disturbances. In 1514 Leonardo visited Rome, but left again shortly afterwards without executing any works there, owing partly to a misunderstanding with Michelangelo, and to the pope's want of proper appreciation of his capabilities ; he entered the service of Francis I., with a salary of 700 crowns per annum, and accompanied that king to France in 1516, but he was now old, and he died in France at Cloux, near Amboise, May 2, 1519, without executing any work for the French king. Leonardo da Vinci has the most remarkable reputation of any of the illustrious artists of Italy. He was a man of universal ability in science and art ; he ex- celled in painting, sculpture, architectui e, engi- neering and mechanics generally ; in botany, ana- tomy, mathematics, and astronomy ; and he was also a poet, and an admirable extempore performer on the lyre. Mr. Hallam in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe, has the following re- markable eulogium on him : ' If any doubt could be harboured, not only as to the right of Leonardo da Vinci to stand as the first name of the fifteenth century, which is beyond all doubt, but as to his originality in so many discoveries, which probably no one man, especially in such circumstances, has pver made, it must be on an hypothesis not very untenable, that some parts of physical science had already attained a height which mere books do not record/ Unpublished MSS. by Leonardo con- tain discoveries and anticipations of discoveries, says Mr. Hallam, ' within the compass of a few Pi'ges, so as to strike us with something like the VIR awe of preternatural knowledge.' The principal of his published treatises is the Trattato delta Pit- tura, of which there are several editions in several languages. (Lomazzo, Truttato dtlla J'iitura, Scultura ed Architettura, Milan, 1584. Rome, 1844. Vasari, Vite, &c. ; Amoretti, Memorie Sto- riche su la Vita,<fc, Di Leonardo da Vince, Milan, 1804. See also the Penny Cyclopaedia.) [Ii.N.YY.] VINCI, Leonardo, a Neapolitan musical composer of the 18th century. VINCIGUERRA, Marc Antonio, an Italian poet and secretary of Venice, 15th century. VENDING, Erasmus, a learned Danish philo- logist and jurisconsult, 1615-1684. VINER, Charles, a writer on law, and muni- ficent benefactor of Oxford, 1680-1756. VINES, R., a presbyterian divine, died 1655. VINET, Elie, a French philologist, antiquarian, and learned editor, died 1587. VINKEBOON, or VINCKENBOOMS, David, a painter of Malines, 1578-1606. VINNEN, Arnold, in Latin Vinnius, a Dutch jurisconsult, regarded as the best commentator on the Imperial Institutes, 1588-1657. VIOLE, D. G., a Benedictine of St. Maur, an ecclesiastical writer and historian, 1598-1669. VIONNET, G., a Latin poet, 1712-1754. VIOTTI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian violinist and musical composer, 1755-1824. VIRET, Peter, a Swiss theologian, and one of the principal reformers, 1511-1571. VIREY, C. E., a French poet, 1566-1636. [Virgil From an Ancient Gem.j VTRGIL (Publius Viroilius Maro) wa3 born at Andes, a small village near Mantua, on the 15th of October, B.C. 70. He was thus five years older than Horace, and seven years older than the emperor Augustus. An old tradition has identified Andes with the modern village of Pietola, and may perhaps be accepted as true. Virgil's father was proprietor of a small estate which he cultivated ; and the future poet, after passing his boyhood there in the seclusion of his father's villa, was sent to school at Cremona, where he assumed the manly gown on his sixteenth birthday (b.c. 55). He next proceeded to Mediolanum (Milan) for education of a higher order, thence to Naples, where he studied Greek under Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, and afterwards visited Rome. In the capital he was instructed in the tenets of the Epicurean philosophy by Syroon, a philosopher of that sect, and is said to 800 VIR have had, as his fellow-pupil, Varus, to whom he afterwards inscribed his sixth Eclogue. He devoted himself to study with intense application, and thus laid the foundation of that varied learning, for which he was scarcely less remarkable than for Eoetical genius. It is uncertain how long he may ave been absent from home, and merely a con- jecture that, after completing his studies, or pro- secuting them so long as his feeble health would permit, he returned to his paternal farm, and there wrote some of the small pieces which are attributed to him. But his peaceful seclusion was disturbed bv an unexpected event, which is believed to be alluded to in his first Eclogue. Octavianus, (Augustus) on his return to Italy after the battle of Philippi (b.c. 42), assigned to a portion of his veterans the lands in the neighbourhood of Mantua, thereby depriving Virgil of his patrimony, which, however, was afterwards restored to him, by the intercession of powerful friends. Soon after this occurrence Virgil again visited Rome, was intro- duced to Augustus, and to his minister, Maecenas, the munificent patron of genius, and continued dur- the remainder of his life to enjoy their friendship and patronage. In B.C. 19, he visited Greece, intending to make a tour of that country, and to revise and perfect his JEneid ; but having met the emperor at Athens on his return from the East, and finding his feeble health fast declining, he resolved to accompany him to Italy. He succeeded in reaching the shores of his native country, and died soon after his arrival at Brundusium on" the 22d of September, b.c. 19, before completing his fifty- first year. In compliance with his wish, his body was conveyed to Naples, and there buried at the distance of two miles from the city. The works of Virgil consist of, 1. Bucolica, or Eclogues, pastoral poems, amounting to ten; 2. Geuryica (Georgics), an agricultural poem in four books ; and 3. jEneis (the ^Eneid), a national epic poem, in twelve books, besides some minor poems which are ascribed to him. The Eclogues are doubtless his earliest productions, and must, therefore, be estimated chiefly as indications of the future efforts of the poet. In the Georgics the powers of the poet are more matured ; freshness and vigour are given to a subject possessing but little of the poetic cal element; and the rude and rough hexameter of Lucretius is advanced to a degree of perfection which cannot be surpassed. The object of the jEneid is to give an account of the fortunes of ^Eneas from the period of his leaving Troy till his settle- ment in Italy, as indicative of the future greatness of Rome, and, therefore, abounds in allusions to subsequent events in Roman history. In point of artistic skill the iEneid is inferior to the Georgics ; and the defect is easily accounted for by the cir- cumstance that the poem did not receive the finish- ing revisal of the poet, and was therefore ordered by him, in his last illness, to be burnt. It was, however, preserved, and published by his friends Varius and Tucca. Virgil's character as an epic poet has been often assailed, and as often defended our limits prevent us from entering upon the question. It may be sufficient to say that, till thf appearance of the Paradise Lost, he held the second place in this the highest department of poetry, and though he has since descended to the third, he is inferior still only to Homer and Milton. [G.F.] VIS VIRGIL POLYDORE. See Polydorus. VIRGILLE-LABASTIDE, C. De, a French economist and mechanician, 1682-1755. VIRGINIA, a young girl of Rome, killed by her father Virginius, as the means of saving her from the dishonour threatened by the decimvir Appius Claudius, b.c. 449. The story relates that this tragedy led to the abolition of the decimvir- ate, equivalent to a change in the constitution of Rome : the facts are not well authenticated. V1RGINIUS-ROMANUS, a comic poet of Rome, age of Augustus, 1st century B.C. None of his works are now in existence. VIRGINIUS RUFUS, Lucius, a Roman gen- eral and governor, time of Nero. VIRIATHUS, leader of a revolt in Lusitania, defeated by Fabius iEmilianus, after a five years' struggle, b.c 144, assassinated b.c. 140. VISCANIO, Sebastian, a Spanish explorer of the coasts of New California, 1602. VISCHER, Cornelius, a designer and en- graver of Haerlem, about 1610-1660. His brother, John, an engraver, born 1636. VISCHER, Peter, a German sculptor and founder, taught in Italy, died 1530. His son, Hermann, killed by an accident 1540. VISCONTI, a noble Milanese family, who headed for a long time the party of Ghibellines. The principal are Otho, archbishop of Milan, and vanquisher of the Delia Torre party, 1208- 1295. His nephew, Matteo, called ' the Great,' perpetual lord of Milan and imperial vicar in Italy, 1250-1323. Galeazzo, his successor, who com- promised himself with the Guelphs after a long struggle against them, and was thrown into prison by the emperor, Louis V., 1277-1328. Azzo, son and successor of the preceding, declared against Louis, and was named vicar of" the church by the pope, John XXII. He greatly increased his terri- tories, and died 1339. Luchino, son of Matteo the Great, and successor of his nephew, Azzo, poisoned by his wife 1349. Giottanni, brother of the lat- ter and archbishop of Milan, was associated in the temporal government of Luchino, and increased his own importance at the expense of the papacy, died 1354. Matteo II., grandson of Matteo the Great, by his fifth son, Stefano, had a share in the sovereignty 1355, and was disposed of by poison. Galeazzo II., one of the amiable brothers of the latter, died 1358. Barnabo, another of the brothers and associates, was poisoned by his nephew, Giovanni Galeazzo, in 1385. In this long interval of power he had shown himself a cruel and debauched prince, but he laid the foun- dation of the university of Pisa, and managed to steer his course through difficult times. Gale- azzo, the first of this name with the title duke of Milan, having treasonably acquired the state in 1385, endeavoured to make himself king of Italy : he greatly increased the territory and the number of cities under his government ; died 1402. Gio- vanni Maria, eldest son and successor of the latter, being put to some trouble by the regency of his mother, made an attempt to poison her ; his subjects soon after revolted, and he was assassi- nated by a natural son of Barnabo 1412. Paolo Maria, brother of Giovanni, secured his authority by marrying the widow of the latter, and some- time after liad her beheaded. He increased his 807 VIS dominions by robbing the Swiss, and many valiant names in Italian history were engaged in his wars ; died 1447. The natural daughter of the last named having married a Sforza, gave rise to a new dvnastv in Milan. ' YIm'ONTI, Gaspard, of the same family as the preceding, a courtier and poet, 1461-1 !!;>. YISOONTI, Giovanni Batista, a leaned antiquarian, successor of Winckelmann as com- missary of antiquities at Rome, and keener of the pontifical museum, 1722-1784. His eldest son, Ennius Quirinus, far exceeded him in ability and learning as an archaeologist, and his works are regarded as high authorities. The principal of them is a 'Description of the Pio-Clementine Museum,' and Greek and Roman Iconographies, compiled by desire of Napoleon. Born at Rome 1751, died 1818. VISCONTI, J., a liturgist, died 1633. VISDELOW, C., a French Jesuit and Chinese missionary, au. of a ' Hist, of Tartary,' 1656-1737. YISDO'MIN'I, E an Italian poet, 1550-1622. VISE, Joseph Donneau De, a French histo- riographer and dramatic writer, 1640-1710. VTSETTI, J., an Italian poet, 1736-1813. VISSEHER, Rcemer, a Dutch poet, founder of a reunion of literary men, who contributed to restore the Dutch language, 1547-1620. Anne, his eldest daughter, called the Dutch Sappho, skilled in poetry, music, and painting, 1584-1652. Marie, her sister, also a dist. poetess, 1594-1649. VITA, J. De, an Italian archaeologist, 1708-74. VITALIANUS, a pope of Rome, 657-672. VITALIS. SeeC-RDERic. VITELLIO, or VITELLO, a Polish mathema- tician, the first European in modern times to write anything valuable on optics, about 1254. ylTELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman general, pro- claimed emperor in Germany at the time Vespasian was engaged in war with the Jews, a.d. 69. About the time he arrived in Rome, Vespasian was pro- claimed at Alexandria, and, on the latter arriving in Italy at the head of his hostile army, Vitellius was nut to death. VITELLIUS, Erasmus, a Polish prelate and negotiator at the diet of Augsburg, 1470-1521. VlTIGES, successor of Theodatus as king of the Ostrogoths in Italy 526, taken captive by Belisa- rius 540, died at Constantinople 543. VITRINGA, Campegius, a learned protestant divine and Hebraist, professor at Franeker, 1659- 1722. His son, Horace, a Hebrew critic, died in youth, 1680-1696. Campegius, his second son, a profes-sor and theologian, 1693-1723. VITRUVIUS POLLIO, Marcus, a Roman architect, the author of a well-known treatise on architecture in ten books, De Architecturd. The edilio princeps of this work was published at Rome about 1480, without date or name of printer, by George Herolt, in folio, and under the superintend- ence of Sulpitius : there have been many editions since, in the original Latin and in the principal European languages; in English, by W.Newton, in 1771-91, with plates, folio, London ; by W. Jilkms, R.A., in 1812 ; 'The Civil Architecture of truvius,' in two parts, 4to, being a translation of VLA vius' birth are known, but as he dedicated his book to the emperor Augustus, when he was already old, he is supposed to have been born about 80 b.c. This treatise is a very important work as explaining the knowledge of the ancients on the matters treated. Vitruvius mentions the several ancient writers to whom he was chiefly indebted, all of whose works are lost. See a summary account of this treatise in the Penny Cyclo- pedia. [R.N.W.] VITRY, Edward De, a French Jesuit, disting. as a numismatist and philologist, 1670-1730. VITRY, J. De, a French historian, died 1244. VIVARES, F., a French engraver, 1709-1780. VIVENS, Chevalier Francis De, a French physician and economist, 1697-1780. VIVES, John Louis, u. Latin Ladovicus Vives, a classical scholar, and one of the revivers of literature in Spain; born at Valentia 1492, died at Brussels, where he had settled as a teacher of the Belles Lettres, 1541. Vives was one of the teachers of the Princess Mary Tudor, and was ob- liged to leave England for writing against the divorce of Catharine. VIVIAN, Richard Hussey, Lord, eldest son of John Vivian, Esq., of Cornwall, and distin- guished as an officer in the late war, was born in 1775. He entered the army in 1793, and com- menced active service on the coast of France under Lord Moira. His first distinctive achievement was in the desperate affair at Corunna, when he covered the retreat of Sir John Moore. At Water- loo he commanded the sixth brigade of cavalry. After the peace he took an active part in politics, was appointed master-general of the ordnance in 1835, and created a peer 1841. Died 1842. VIVIANI, Vincentio, an Italian mathemati- cian, taught by Galileo, and honoured by the grand duke of Tuscany with the office of chief engineer. We owe to him the restoration of the lost treatises of Aristaeus and Apollonius of Perga ; born at Florence 1622, died 1703. VIVIEN, J., a French painter, 1647-1734. VIZZANI, jEneas, in Latin Vigianus, a physi- cian of Bologna, 1543-1602. Pompeio, an nisto- rian of that city, died 1607. Carlo Emanuel, a philologist and classical commentator, 1617-61. VLADIMIR, four Russian princes: Vladi- mir, called the Great, became master of the domin- ions of his father after assassinating his brother, Jaropolk, in 980, and commenced the civilization of Russia, and the foundation of the Christian reli- gion ; died 1005. Vladimir (the second, though not called by that title), eldest son of Yaroslaw, grand duke of Kief, became duke of Novogorod in 1038, conducted an expedition against Constan- tinople 1041, died 1052. Vladimir II., his great- grandson, commenced to reign 1113, and was distinguished for his humanity and wise adminis- tration ; he sustained a war with the Bulgarians, the Livonians, and the emperor Alexis Commenus, and was the first of the grand dukes who took the title of Czar, and assumed the characters of impe- rial dignitv; died 1125. Vladimir Andreio- witz, nephew of Ivan II., is remarkable for his re- nunciation of the power offered to him, in favour he drd, 4th, 5th, and 6th books only, and those I of his cousin, Demetrius, with the view of promot- not entire ; and by Joseph Gwilt, London, 1826, | ing the establishment of a regular order in the in royal 8vo. Neither the time nor place of Vitru- | succession. This occurred in 1364, and Vludhnir 808 VIA afterwards distinguished himself in arms against the Tartars. Died 1410. VLADISLAS. See Uladislaus. VLAMING, P., a Dutch poet, 1686-1733. VLASTA, a Bohemian amazon, who maintained a struggle for eight years in the endeavour to establish a state ruled by women, killed 743. VLIEGER, S., a Dutch painter, 17th century. VLIERDEN, Lambert De, a Flemish juris- consult and Latin poet, 1564-1640. VLIET, William Van, a Dutch historical and portrait painter, 1584-1642. VLIET, or VL1TIUS, J. Van, a Dutch juris- consult, philologist, and poet, died 1666. VOEL, J., a French Jesuit, 1541-1610. VOET, Gisbert, in Latin Voetius, professor of divinity and Oriental languages at Utrecht ; born at Hensden 1593, died i680. He wrote against the Arminians, and against the Cartesian philo- sophy, with much ill-feeling and personal bitter- ness. His son, Paul, was professor of law at Utrecht, and wrote several periodical works, 1619- 1667. Daniel, another of his sons, was professor of philosophy, and wrote on physiological and other subjects, 1629-1660. John, son of Paul, became a professor of law at Leyden, and is au. of a valu- able ; Commentary on the Pandects,' 1647-1714. VOGEL, C, a German composer, 1756-1788. VOGEL, J. W., a Ger. mineralogist, 1657-1723. VOGEL, Rodolph, a German physician and chemist, compiler of a ' Medical Library,' pub- lished between 1751 and 1771. VOGLER, J. P., a Germ, botanist, 1746-1802. VOGLI, J. H., an Ital. biographer, 1697-1762. VOIGT, G., a German theologian, 1644-1682. VOIGT, J., a Germ, bibliographer, 1695-1765. VOIGT, J. C, a German physician, 1725-1810. VOIS, A. De, a Dutch painter, born 1641. VOIS, R. De, a French ecclesiastic, 1665-1728. VOISENON, Claude Henry Fusee, Abbe De, a dramatic writer and wit, whose life presents a singular mixture of alternate devotion and licen- tiousness, born at the Chateau de Voisenon, near Melun, 1708, died 1775. The best of his ro- mances is entitled ' L'Histoire de la Felicite ;' some of his comedies were veiy successful. VOISIN, J. De, a rabbinical writer, 1620-1685. VOISIN, or VOYSIN, D. F., chancellor of France during the Orleans regency, 1654-1717. VOITURE, Vincent, a poet and man of letters, advanced by Mazarin, 1598-1648. VOLANUS, A., a Polish protestant, celebrated for his controversy with the Jesuits, 1530-1610. VOLCKAMMER, J. C, a physician and botanist of Nuremberg, last century. VOLCKAMMER, J. G.,aphysician and botanist of Nuremberg, 1616-1693. VOLCKMANN, J. J., a native of Hamburgh, known as a translator, 1732-1803. VOLKOV, Fedor Grigorievitch, a great Russian dramatist and actor, 1729-1763. VOLKYR, Nicholas, secretary to the duke of Lorraine, and historian of Alsace, 16th century. VOLLENHOVE, J., a Dutch poet and pro- testant theologian, 17th century. VOLNEY, Constantine Chasseboxuf, Comte De, enjoyed in the early part of this century a brilliant reputation, which, however, did not rest on such a basis either of deep learning or of solid VOL thought, as to secure its permanence. His most famous work, the ' Ruines, ou Meditations sur les Revolutions des Empires' (1791), is a piece of showy and even eloquent writing; but it has no real force as an exposition of the unsound and dangerous principles which it inculcates. Soon after it there appeared ' La Loi Naturelle,' a sys- tem of ethics founded on the basis of materialism. Before the publication of these works, he had done better service by his spirited and observant ' Voy- age en Syrie et en Egypte;' and afterwards he was a valuable labourer in the field of Ancient Chronology. His speculations on the Oriental Tongues led to much controversy, but seem to be now held quite destitute of worth. Volney was born in Anjou in 1757, and inherited after a time property enough to let him indulge in travelling and miscellaneous studies. He took part in the Revolutionary struggles, attaching himself to the party of the Gironde; and after the fall of Robes- pierre he was for some time a professor in the Ecole Normale. At first he was a favourite of Napoleon, who proposed to make him second consul ; but by and by he shared in the contempt with which the emperor treated all independent thinkers. He voted in the senate for Napoleon's deposition, and was created a peer at the Restoration. He died in 1820. [W.S.I VOLPATO, Giovanni, an Italian engraver ana writer on the principles of design, was born at Bassano 1733, died 1802. Volpato was instructed by Bartolozzi, and was employed to make engrav- ings from the paintings of Raphael at the Vatican. A monument by Canova has been erected to him. VOLPATO, J. B., an Italian painter, 1633-1706. VOLPI, Giovanni Antonio, a famous Italian scholar and Latin poet, 1686-1766. His brother, Gaetano, an editor and bibliographer, bora 1689. A third brother, Giambattista, a distinguished anatomist, taught by Morgagni, died 1757. VOLP1NI, Giambattista, an Italian physi- cian and disciple of Van Helmont, died 1714. VOLTA, Alexander, born at Como, Milan, 14th February, 1745; died 5th March, 1827, at Como. Educated in the public school of his na- tive place under the eye of his father, Volta at an early age directed his attention to the pheno- mena of electricity. About 1775 he published an account of his electrophorus, which in the smal- lest size forms a source of the electric fluid, a re- markable instrument at that period in the history of electricity. In 1776 and 1777 he noticed the production of carburetted hydrogen in stagnant pools. Although probably unknown to him, Franklin had described the same fact in 1774. He showed in 1780 that the burning of some of Pietra mala is due to this gas. In 1777 he first used eudiometers to fire gases in close vessels, and invented about the same time the electric gun and pistol, and the permanent hydrogen lamp. In 1779 he became professor of physics at Pavia. In the beginning of the year 1800, Volta con- structed the Voltaic pile, the most wonderful apparatus perhaps ever invented by man, since of the unparalleled truths developed by the agency of this simple invention, we have only yet seen the dawn. After this period he was made a senator of Lombardy by Napoleon, who likewise bestowed other favours upon him. But he made no figure eoj VOL as a political orator, falling short in this respect even of NewtOB, who, (luring his parliamentary is said to have spoken only once in the House of Commons, and the solitary oration was to direct the door-keeper to shut one of the win- dows, through which a draught of air was pro- jected upon the member addressing the House. Yalta, however, never uttered a word. In 1819, he retired from his professorship to his native town, and spent the evening of his days, beloved and honoured by his fellow-citizens. [R.D.T.] VOLTAIRE, the name capriciously assumed by FSAVOOia MaBU AbOUBT, was made by him more celebrated than any other word that we read in the literary history of the eighteenth century. There was hardly any department of literature to which Voltaire did not make contributions; and, to say nothing of many efforts trifling or unsuc- cessful, the variety of his genius is attested by the number and diversity of the departments in which he attained celebrity. He gave to the French language some of its finest tragedies, and its only epic that is worthy of the name ; a few of its liveliest novels, and many of the wittiest and most b ighly finished of its satirical and other light poems ; several of its most' spirited and judicious histories, and a large number of its most acute critical essaj r s ; and, above all, he poured out an enormous series of writings, which, though their claim to the title of philosophical may justly be questioned, passed in their time for the exposition of a true and great philosophy, and exercised on public opinion through- out Europe a tremendous and practical influence. He was a consummate master in the art of repre- sentation, owing his effectiveness much less to his great clearness and consecutiveness of thought, than to the remarkable skill and liveliness with which he puts his ideas into words : his poetical diction is very refined and terse; and his prose style is unsurpassed for its apt perspicuity, its easy and varied grace, and its brilliant turns and strokes of wit Against this large sum of merit, there has to be set off a heavy account of literary faults, caused chiefly by a lamentable predominance of moral evil. Voltaire was a bad-hearted man : he neither loved nor reverenced any object except himself and his own glory ; his vanity generated an irascible malignity, and a settled unbelief in all that is true and holy ; and, while his serious poetry thus became cold, his other works exhibit unrestrained in- dulgence in a sneering irony, which, taken along with their prevalent purpose, may be held as not unjustly imaged in Goethe's Mephistophiles. The dangerous political tendency attributed to Voltaire's writings was little more than indirect : the im- mediate objects of his attack were much seldomer kings than priests. He was, in fact, a bigot, a bigotted and intolerant deist. The atheism pro- fessed by some of his fellow-Encyclopedists, was regarded by him with a dislike as scornful as that with which he looked on Christianity ; and if the design which he avowed, of destroying the Christian religion, occupied him almost exclusively, this was only because that faith was nominally or really pre- valent, and because among its ministers were many of the enemies on whom he panted to be revenged. Trained in his youth amidst the unbelief and pro- liich pervaded the aristocratic society of Paris in the era of the Kegency, he taught literature VOL to mock at truths which he saw mocked at in real life ; and he thus became the direct agent in pro- pagating, but the indirect and unwitting instru- ment in finally overthrowing, the system of opinions and conduct which disgraced that evil time. Vol- taire was the son of Francois Arouet, an officer in the finance department of the government, and was born at a village near Paris, in 1694. He distin- guished himself in boyhood, at the Jesuit College of Louis-le-Grand, by his aptitude for learning, his malignant wit, and his inclination to scoff at religion. His godfather, a fashionable and literary abbe, introduced him at an early age into courtly circles, where he speedily learned the hollowness of everything around him, and acquired and exhibited his characteristic skill both in artful compliment and in biting repartee. He was next placed in the chambers of a lawyer, but speedily deserted them. Indecent satirical verses having been circulated on the death of Louis XIV., the notoriety of the young Arouet caused him to be suspected (wrongfully for once) of being the author. He was confined for a year in the Bastile, where he finished his tragedy ' (Edipe,' and sketched Ids epic ' L' Henriade.' He was now allowed by his father to take his own way. His tragedy, proving successful, was followed by others which failed ; the ' Henriade,' stolen in manuscript, as he alleged, was printed,with satirical verses which he said were interpolations. The publi- cation, thus called surreptitious, made him famous; and the same farce was repeated so often in his lit- erary career, that, in this case as in the rest, the whole was plainly a device of the author himself. He now experienced, much as Dryden did afterwards, the danger of associating witn aristocratic rakes. A man of quality, affronting the young poet in society, was put to silence by an apt retort ; hei took his revenge by making his valets give the upstart a beating ; Voltaire learned to fence, chal- lenged his insulter, and was answered by an im- prisonment of six months. On his release he wae banished from the kingdom. He chose to pass his exile in England, where he lived for three yeara (1726-1729). His French apologists say that he was here confirmed in his infidelity by his intimacy with Bolingbroke and others. No confirmation additional instruction was needed. Hardly more reason is there for the assertion that he made him- self profoundly acquainted with the English lan- guage and literature. He did learn very much of both ; but he never learned anything profoundly.' He became sufficiently acquainted with Shak- speare's works to ridicule them and steal from: them ; and he acquired English enough to write ludicrously blundering letter, which is preserved by the biographers of Pope. In England, at all events^ he learned how to publish works by subscription^ and perhaps also how to conduct commercial speculations. By the English profits of an edition of the ' Henriade,' he laid the foundation of a for- tune, which he afterwards increased enormously byi lottery tickets, gambling in the corn trade, and lending money at usurious interest. Thus, thou^" he soon affected to be above receiving any price tor his literary works, he was a rich man for many tj; years of his life, and a very rich one at its close. ' n . For several years alter he was allowed to return to ^ France, Voltaire shifted his residence often, having sometimes real occasion to dread the govern-! 810 VOL ment. Now, besides the Lettres Philosophiques,' (sketched in England, and very obnoxious,) appeared his ' Histoire de Charles XII., and several tragedies, among which were ' Adelaide dn Guesclin,' and 4 Zaire' (1732), his dramatic masterpiece. In 1788 Voltaire and Madam du Chastetet, a married woman of a mathematical turn, agreed to live together, and retired to the Villa of Cirey, on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine. There they lived, studied, and quarrelled, till 1749, when the lady, who had more lovers than one, died in child- bed*. Her example, and Voltaire's boundless pre- sumption, made him mistake himself so much as to publish the 'Elemens de la Philosophic de Newton.' In this retreat were composed, besides other tragedies, the two fine ones ' Mahomet ' and I Merope ;' as also the ' Siecle de Louis XIV.,' and, in part at least, the 'Essai sur les Mceurs et l'Esprit des Nations.' The retirement was inter- rupted by visits to Paris, by several other journeys, and by a secret mission to Frederic II. of Prussia, whom Voltaire had already visited. In 1750, on the invitation of this eccentric king, Voltaire settled at Berlin. He remained there for three years, during which he enlivened the royal circle by his wit, corrected the bad French of the royal philo- sopher and poet, and learned to demonstration, not only that courts are wearisome places, but that Frederic of Prussia and Francois Arouet were too like each other to be really friends. This period was not prolific in new compositions. Nor did much that was important come from his pen during the next few years, which he spent at various places in France, living for a time also in Germany, to collect materials for the 'Annales de 1' Empire,' which is described as being the only one of all his works that wearies the reader. In 1758, when he was in his sixty-fourth year, he purchased two small estates, lying not far from Geneva, though within the French frontier; and at his chateau of Ferney, in one of these, he passed the last twenty-two years of his life. Ferney was, during that time, what Abbotsford became, more worthily, in our own day, the muster-place of all the celebrities of Europe, whom the master of the mansion entertained hospitably, while he sedulously prosecuted his own literary labours. To this period, of vigorous old age, unimpeded by personal dangers, but far from being undisturbed by personal quarrels, belong very many of Voltaire's works, and some of his best. The last of his successful plays were 4 L' Orphelin de la Chine,' acted a little before his retirement, and ' Tancrede,' soon after it. A crowd of other tragedies were confessedly failures ; and his comedies always had been so. i La Philo- sophic de 1' Histoire ' (1765), was written as an introduction to the 'Essay on the Manners of Nations,' now completed and published ; and the | Histoire de Pierre le Grand ' appeared in parts from 1759 to 1765. Thus, as one of his French biographers observes, 'To combat religion with- out ceasing, and to make war on all who defended it; to defend his own glory against those who attacked it ; and to succour or avenge the innocent victims of human justice : all these diversified employments were far from absorbing his whole time.' There is here an allusion to a series of Voltaire's exertions, of which his vindication of the memory of Calas was the first. Though he VOS was doubtless led to defend the unfortunate Cal- vinist by regarding him as a victim of his own enemies the priests, his better feelings were keenly awakened as the long struggle proceeded , and this and several subsequent appeals of the same sort are among the best points in the conduct of the ' Philosopher of Ferney.' It should be noted, also, that, with all his frugality, he was a liberal and improving landlord, and a charitable neighbour. He quarrelled with his parish priest ; but he built him a new church. Towards the end of his days, indeed, he showed a desire of reconciliation with the ministers of religion, his expression of which scandalized his infidel friends as a piece of cowar- dice, while the clergy were disposed to regard it as shameless hypocrisy. He seemed to look no farther than obtaining the sacraments by pretences and tricks-, and he justified himself to his disciples by saying, that he wished his body to rest in conse- crated ground. It was, after all, not without decep- tion and intrigue, that his friends were able to procure this posthumous honour for the unrepent- mg apostle of unbelief. Having gone to Paris, where he had not been for twenty years, he died there in 1778, soon after having completed his eighty-fourth year. [W.S.] VOLTERRA, Daniel Rucardi De, a cele- brated Italian painter and sculptor, 1509-1566. VONCK, F., a Belgian advocate, known as one of the popular leaders in 1789, died 1792. VONDEL, Joost Von Der, a Dutch poet and dramatic writer, whose works have greatly aided in perfecting his native language, 1587-1679. VOPISCUS, Flavtus, a Latin historian, who lived at Rome in the time of Diocletian and Con- stantine Chlorus, commencement of the 4th cen- tury. He is considered one of the best writers of the Augustan histories. His work commenced with the history of Aurelian, but his remains now extant are the lives of the four tyrants, Firmus, Saturninus, Proclus, and Bonosas ; and of the three emperors, Cams, Numerianus, and Carenas. VORAGINE, J. De, an Italian Dominican, his- torian, and writer of sacred legends, died 1298. VORST, iELius Everard, a Dutch physician, director of the botanic garden at Leyden, 1565- 1624. His son Adolphus, a physician and botanist, editor of an edition of Hippocrates. 1597-1663. VORST, Conrad, in Latin Vorstiits, a Dutch theologian, successor of Arminius at the academy of Leyden, 1569-1622. William Henry, his son, a minister and Hebrew scholar, died 1660. VORSTIUS, J., a Lutheran controversialist, philologist, and Hebrew scholar, 1623-1676. VORT1GERN, a British king, elected after the departure of the Romans from this island in 454, killed in battle 485. VOS, Martin De, an eminent Flemish painter, instructed by his father and by Tintoretto. He ex- celled in landscapes and historical composition ; died at Antwerp 1604. Simon Paul, another artist of this name, excelled most in hunting pieces, and flourished at Antwerp about the same time, but the dates are not ascertained. VOSS, John Henry, a German poet and critic, who ranks also among the greatest of German translators and philologists, was born of humble parentage at MecklenLcrg in 1751. He studied 811 vos tote Hevne .it Gottingen, and in 1S09 was ap- pointed MOttmat at Heidelberg, in which office he 6. In his translations of Homer, and others of the chief classics, Voss is said to have preserved the metrical form of the original, the most minute details, and expressions of ideas, the epithets, and all the effective characteristics, with surprising fidelity. He has translated Shakspeare, but this endeavour is understood to be less successful. He was involved in many bitter controversies with Heyne, Stolberg, and Creurey. His own 'Idyls ' have the reputation of being charming additions to the native literature of Germany. VOSSIUS, Gerard, a Roman Catholic theo- logian and learned editor, died 1609. VOSSIUS, Gerard John, professor at Leyden and Amsterdam, celebrated for nis extensive learn- ing as a theologian and philologist, was the son of a protestant minister, and was born near Heidel- berg 1577. Some of his works are still considered of great value. He was killed by falling from a ladder in his library 1649. His son, Isaac, also bears a great name among the learned, but he was sceptical of revelation ; he settled in England and became canon of Windsor, 1618-1688. VOUET, Simon, an eminent Fr. painter, em- ployed in the Louvre and Luxembourg, 1582-1649. VOULTE, John, in Latin Vtdteus, a Latin poet, born at Rheims about 1542. VOYER, a family of distinguished Frenchmen : Rene, Seigneur D'Argenson, a soldier and diplo- matist, 1596-1651. His son and successor in the title, same name, a diplomatist and ambassador to Venice, 1623-1700. Marc Rene, son of the lat- ter, chancellor of France, minister of police, and a freat promoter of Lttires de Cachet, 1652-1721. lis eldest son, Rene Louis, Marquis D'Argenson, minister of foreign affairs, distinguished as a scholar and partizan of the philosophic doctrines, author of Essays,' 1694-1757. Marc Pierre, brother of the latter, successor of his father as lieutenant-general of police, and successor of M. de Bretuil as minister of war, was born in 1696. I lis name is a conspicuous one in the history of the Orleans regency : and having strenuously opposed WAD the system of William Law, he was out of favour till the great financialist had fallen into disgrace. He was a patron of learned men, and D'Alembert and Diderot dedicated the Encyclopddie to him. He was disgraced through the influence of Madame Pompadour in 1757 ; died 1764. His son, Rene, a distinguished commander, flourished 1722-1782. VOYS, A. De, a Dutch painter, born 1641. VOYSIN. See Voisin. VREE, or VREDIUS, Oliver De, a Flemish historian of his own country, 1578-1652. VRIES, Gerard De, a zealous Cartesian philo- sopher, flourished at Utrecht 17th century. VRIES, John Fredeman De, a Dutch pain- ter of architecture and perspective, 1527-1588. VRIES, Martin Gerritson De, a Dutch U navigator, time of Van Diemen, 1612. VRILLIERE, Louis Phelipeaux, Marquis De La, secretary of the Orleans regency, 1672-1725. VROOM, or VROON, Henry Cornelius, a Dutch marine painter, from whose designs the tapestry in the House of Lords, representing the defeat of the Spanish armada, was executed to the order of Admiral Howard, 1566-1617. VUEZ, A. De, a French painter 1642-1724. VUILLEMIN, or WILLEMIN, Jean, a French physician and Latin poet, 16th century. VUITASSE, C, a Fr. theologian, 1660-1716. VULCANUS, the Latinized name of Bonaven- ture de Smet, a learned Fleming, 1538-1614. VULSON, or WLSON, DE LA COLOM- BIERE, Marc De, a famous heraldic writer, who resided at Grenoble, till his domestic peace was destroyed, in the first half of the 17th century, and then took up his abode at Paris. He died in office at the court 1658. Among his works, which are of great value, may be mentioned ' Le Vrai Theatre d'Honneur et de Chevalerie,' 2 volumes in folio, 1 La Science Heroique,' and ' De L'Office des Roia d'Armes, des Heraults et Poursuivauts.' VUOERDEN, M. A., Baron De, a French ad ministrator, author of ' Historical Journals ' relat- ing to the history of Louis XIV, 1629-1699. VZESLAS, grand duke of Russia, rival of Isias- lav in their civil wars, 1068-1101. w WAAJEN, WAASEN, or WAEYEN, Jean Vander, a Dutch theologian, who has the repu- tation of being one of the best controversialists of that country, and was counsellor to the prince of Orange, 1639-1701. His son, of the same names, who succeeded him as preacher to the university of Franeker, died 1716. WAAL, or WAEL, Lucas De, a painter of Ant- werp, taught by John Breughel, 1591-1676. Cor- Mi.n s, his vounger brother, 1594-1662. WAGE, or WAlCE, Robert, an Anglo-Nor- man poet and chronicler, who was canon of Ba- yeux, and chaplain to Henry I. of England, 12th century. WACHTER, John George, a learned Ger- man philologist and antiquarian, 1673-1757. WACKEKBARTH, A. C. Count Von, an Austrian field-marshal and statesman, 1662-1734. WADING, or WADDING, Luke, an Irish priest, who held a professorship at Salamanca, and afterwards resided at Rome, author of a ' History of the Order of St. Francis,' and editor of several learned works, including Duns Scotus and Ca- laisio's Concordance, 1588-1657. WADDING, Peter, an Irish Jesuit, who be- came chancellor at the university of Gratz, in Styria, author of Latin works, 1580-1644. WADHAM, Nicholas, founder of the college that bears his name at Oxford, 1536-1610. WADSTROM, or WADSTRCEM, Charles Bernard, a Swedish engineer, memorable as a promoter of African colonization and discovery,! was born in Stockholm 1746. He visited Africa in company with the botanist, Sparrman, and I mineralogist, Arrhenius, in 1787, and on co: to London was invited to give evidence before privy council, in an inquiry tending to the al tion of the slave trade. His pamphlet on the : ject led to the establishment of the English col at Sierra Leone ; died at Paris 1799. Wadst 812 added some remarks upon the negro character to the work of Norris on Dahomey. WML, Lucas De, a Flemish painter, 1591- 1676. Cornelius, his brother, a painter of land- scapes and battle-pieces, 1594-1662. WAFER, Lionel, an English adventurer, who was originally a surgeon in the army, and sailed with Dampier. The latter having quarrelled with bim, put him ashore on the isthmus of Darien, where he remained some time with the Indians. He published an interesting narrative on his return home in 1690. WAFFLARD, Alexts James Maria, a French dramatic author, 1787-1824. WAGA, Theodore, a Polish jurist and histo- rian of his own country, 1739-1801. WAGENAAR, John, historiographer to the city of Amsterdam, author of a ' History of Hol- land from the Earliest Times to 1751/ The Pre- sent State ot the United Provinces,' ' Description of the City of Amsterdam,' and ' The Character of John de Witt placed in its True Light.' The first of these works extends to 21 vols. 8vo, and the edition of 1752-1759 is embellished with engrav- ings, maps, and portraits, by Houbraken. Wage- naar was born in Amsterdam 1709, died 1773. WAGENAAR, Luke Jansen, a Dutch pilot and writer on navigation, died 1596. WAGENHARE, Peter De, a religious pro- fessor and Latin poet, born about 1599, died 1662. WAGENSEIL, John Christopher, professor of history and jurisprudence at Altorf, author of WAL WAGNER, Peter Christian, a learned Ger- man physician and naturalist, 1703-1764. WAGNER, Tobias, a learned theologian and counsellor at Tubingen, 1598-1680. WAGSTAFFE, Thomas, a learned divine of the party of nonjurors, who adopted the medical profes- sion after the revolution, and finally became a pre- late : besides his Sermons, he wrote some political tracts and a vindication of Charles I., 1645-1712. WAGSTAFFE, William, known as a humor- ous writer, physician to Saint Bartholomew's Hos- pital, born in Buckinghamshire 1685, died 1725. WAHLENBERG, George, an eminent Swed- ish botanist and geologist, 1784-1814. WAILLY, Noel F. De, a French grammarian, 1724-1801. His son, Stephen A ugustin, author of a Rhyming Dictionary, 1770-1821. Charles, of the same family, a famous architect, 1729-98. WAILLY, P. J., a Fr. missionary, 1759-1828. WAITHMAN, John, an alderman and mem- ber of parliament of the city of London, well known as an advocate of popular rights; born in Den- bighshire 1765, died 1833. WAKE, Sir Isaac, an ambassador of the time of James I., born at Billing, in Northamptonshire, where his father was rector, about 1575, died 1632. He wrote several works, the principal of which is his 'Rex Platonicus,' of which six editions were published. WAKE, William, archbishop of Canterbury, a prelate of great learning and ability as a theolo- gian, was born at Blandford, in Dorsetshire, 1657. 'Tela Ignea Satanae,' which is a collection and re- I He became bishop of Lincoln in 1705, and arch- futation of all that the Jews have written against Christianity, 1633-1705. WAGER, Sir Charles, a brave naval officer, distinguished in the reign of Anne, 16G6-1743. WAGHORN, Thomas, a lieutenant in the royal navy, whose name will long be held in remem- brance for his achievement of the Overland route to India. He was born at Chatham in 1800, and having seen much service by sea and land in the employ of the East India Company, commenced the execution of his great project in 1827. His exertions were crowned with success, but his means and his health were both exhausted, and he died soon after receiving a meagre instalment of the thankful recognition to which he was entitled, in 1850. WAGNER, B., a professor of philosophy, 16th c. WAGNER, Charles Christian, a German physician and professional writer, 1732-1796. WAGNER, C. L., a Ger, theologian, last cent. WAGNER, Gabriel, a German polemic and philosophical writer, professor of literature and poetry at Hamburgh in 1696. WAGNER, Godefroi, a German divine, and editor of several learned works, last century. WAGNER, G. F., a German jurist, born 1631. WAGNER, J. G., a Ger. physician, died 1759. WAGNER, J. J., a Swiss physician, author of a Natural History of his country, 1641-1695. WAGNER, Louis Frederic, a jurisconsult and numismatist of Tubingen, 1700-1789. WAGNER, Paul, a magistrate and jurist of Leipzig, 1617-1697. Christian, his son, a divine and learned writer, 1663-1698. Gottfried, brother of the latter, a learned writer upon the origin of the Americans, 1652-1725. bishop in 1716. The most remarkable circum- stance in his history was his correspondence with the Jansenists, the end of which was to promote a union of the French and English Churches. Died 1737. WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, a classical scholar and theologian, originally a curate in the Church of England, was born at Nottingham in 1756. He left the church to accept the situation of classical teacher at Warrington, from which, in 1790, he removed to the dissenting college at Hackney. In less than a year this engagement was also brought to a close, and Mr. Wakefield gave himself up freely to opposition politics and attacks upon the religious systems, especially of the Church of Eng- land. His ' Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff' led to his prosecution and imprisonment for two years in Dorchester gaol. He was liberated in May, 1801, and died of typhus fever in the September following. He is author of several learned works, besides some of temporary interest. WAKEFIELD, Priscilla, authoress of nume- rous works, designed to promote the education and moral improvement of the young, was born of Quaker parents, named Trewman, in 1750, and died at Ipswich 1832. Her benevolent disposition was further shown by the foundation of savings banks, originally promoted by her for the benefit of the industrious poor. WAKEFIELD, Robert, a distin. Hebraist, and minister of the Church of England, died 1537. WALBAUM, J. J., a Ger. naturalist, 1724-99. WALCH, A. G., a German writer, 1736-1801. WALCH, B. G. T a German savant, 1756-1805. WALCH, J. G., a German theologian and philo- logist, 1693-1775. His son, J. E. Emmanuel, 813 WAL I learned theologian and naturalist, 172">-177S. ('hi:. W. Framoois, brother of the latter, an jtical historian and theologian, 1726-1784. 0, FKKDBBIC, a third hr., a jurisconsult, 1784-99. WALDAU, Q. E., a German savant, born 1745. WALDEGBAVE, James, earl of, an eminent statesman, governor of the prince of Wales, son of uithor of Memoirs, 1715-1763. WAI.DEMAIl I., called 'the Great,' king of Denmark, born 1131, succeeded Eric V., 1147. His reign was illustrated by expeditions against the pirates of the Baltic, and he compelled Mag- nus VI., king of Norway, to sign a humiliating died 1181. WALDBKAB II., called ' the Victorious,' younger son of the preceding, suc- ceeded his brother, Canute VI., 1202. He made many warlike expeditions into Sweden, Norway, and Germany, created a powerful navy, and revised the laws of his kingdom ; died 1241. Wal- demau III., eldest son of the preceding, was re- gent from 1219 to 1231. Waldemar IV., third son of Christopher IL, was in Bavaria at the death of his father in 1333. In 1340-4 he recovered part of his kingdom by force of arms, and obtained some further successes against Sweden in 1353 and 1357; eventually, however, he was glad to obtain peace by making some sacrifices ; died 1376. WALDENSIS, Thomas, a learned English Carmelite, born at Walden, in Essex, about 1367. He became the champion of the church against the reformers of the reign of Henry IV., and in that of Henry V., whose favourite he was, rose to be provincial of his order and a privy councillor. Henry V. died in his arms, and he himself de- parted this life while attending the youthful monarch, Henry VI., in France, 1430. WALDO, Peter. See Valdo. WALDIS, B... a German fabulist, died 1554. WALDKIRCH, John Rodolph De, a Swiss jurisconsult and historian, 1678-1757 WALE, Anthony De, a Flemish theologian and adversary of the remonstrants, 1573-1639. John, his son, a physician and anatomist, 1604-1649. WALES, William, an English mathematician, who accompanied Captain Cook on his second voyage in the character of astronomer, and was finally secretary to the Board of Longitude, author of several astronomical works, 1734-1798. WALINGFORD, Richard, abbot of St. Albans, known as an astronomer and historian, 14th cent. WALKER, Adam, an experimental philosopher and lecturer, was born in Westmoreland 1732, and brought up as a weaver, but devoting all his spare time to self-improvement, was early qualified' for a place in the intellectual world. He was settled in London as a professional man in 1778, and died there in 1821, Besides his works in experimental philosophy, he invented the Eidouranion, or trans- parent orrery, the revolving lights in the islands of Scilly, and several useful machines. His son, William, was also a lecturer on astronomy, and flourished 1766-1816. WALKER, Clement, a presbyterian and poli- tical writer of the time of Cromwell, was born at Cliffe, in Dorsetshire, and educated at Oxford. Previous to the civil wars he was usher of the exchequer, but at the commencement of those stir- ring times he became, in 1640, member of parlia- ment for Wells. His 'History of Independency' WAL and Cromwell's Slaughter House,' were the occa- sion of his committal to the Tower in 1649, and he died there 1651. WALKER, Sin Edward, clerk to the privy council in the time of Charles L, known as a heraldist and historian, died 1677. WALKER, George, a dissenting minister and teacher of theology, better known as a mathema- tician by his ' Doctrine of the Sphere,' was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne about 1734. He was one of the ministers of the high pavement meeting in Nottingham, and, after that, theological tutor at a dissenting academy in Manchester. Died 1807. WALKER, George, famous for his defence of Londonderry against James II., was born of Eng- lish parents at Tyrone, and became a minister in the Irish Church. He was killed at the battle of the Boyne shortly after his promotion to the bishop- ric of Deny, 1690. WALKER, John, a minister of Exeter, author of ' An Attempt towards Recovering an Account of the Numbers and Sufferings of the Clergy who were Sequestered in the Rebellion,' d. about 1730. WALKER, John, a well-known lexicographer, was born at Friern Barnet, in Middlesex, 1732, and lived by the profession of a schoolmaster and lecturer, having, however, first studied elocution with a view to the stage. His works are a ' Criti- cal Pronouncing Dictionary,' 'A Rhyming Dic- tionary,' ' Elements of Elocution,' ' Rhetorical Grammar,' ' Outlines of English Grammar,' and a ' Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names.' Died 1807. WALKER, John, a physician and geographical writer, who, at the time of his decease, was head of the London Vaccine Institution ; born at Cocker- mouth, in Cumberland, 1759, died 1830. WALKER, Obadiah, a Roman Catholic divine and writer on education, 1616-1699. WALKER, R., a portrait painter, 17th century. WALKER, S., an English divine, 1714-1761. WALKER, T., an English actor, 1698-1743. WALKER, T., a humorous writer, who filled the office of a police magistrate, 1784-1836. WALKER, W., a learned divine, died 1684. WALL, Edward, belonging to an ancient Irish family, was the chief promoter of the rebellion in that country in 1641, and, after the death of Charles L, succeeded the marquis of Ormond as viceroy. He was defeated by Cromwell, and escaped to France, where he died 1651. WALL, John, a physician and medical writer, chiefly remarkable for his researches to discover materials proper for china ware, and the great promoter of that manufacture in Worcester. He also discovered the virtues of the Malvern waters: 1708-1776. His son, Martin, an eminent physi- cian, professor at Oxford, 1744-1824. WALL, William, vicar of Shoreham, in Sus- sex, author of a ' History of Infant Baptism,' and ' Critical Notes on the Old Testament ;' died 1728. WALLACE, Sir William, the national hero of Scotland, is supposed to have been born about the middle of the thirteenth century. Like that of all men immortalized in the early history of nations as the vindicators of their independence, his life has been coloured and amplified by the ad- mixture of legendary poetry with fact. It has, however, to be remarked as to Wallace, that re- 814 WAL search in the documentary sources of history has tended to prove the main features of his career that he gathered hy his personal influence a large body of followers that though of humble origin ie became governor of Scotland that he gained ignal victories, and was the object of the special engeance of the English monarch. He is gener- lly said to have been the son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie, near Paisley, a man of an- cient family, though not of high rank. That he was himself knighted, and held the title of ' Sir,' or Sieur, is shown by the documents of the day. [t is usual to speak of the higher Scottish nobi- lity of the period as basely deserting their country and leaving the national contest to be headed by the one man who was faithful among the faithless. But it must be remembered that the nobility were men of Norman origin, whose sympathies natu- rally were with the court of their national learer, the Norman king of England. The northern Scots, chiefly of Saxon origin, were now made to feel the regal and aristocratic oppression under which the Saxons of England had been governed since the conquest. It is natural to suppose that Wallace's family belonged to the old gentry, who felt the ascendancy of the Normans, as Cedric the Saxon is so picturesquely made to do in Ivanhoe, and that the young man feeling his capacity for the task, became the leader of his oppressed countrymen, while the Norman nobles stood aside until ambition opened up for some of them a pros- pect of dominion in the liberated country. His first conflict with the English power is attributed to a romantic origin. Engaged in a dispute with some soldiers in Lanark, the lady of his affections afforded him refuge. She was slain by the for- eigners, on whom the young lover in his turn took signal vengeance. Being thus fairly at feud with the invading power, he gathered around him a "ually increasing body of his countrymen, and at last joined by such aristocratic leaders as las, Murray, and young Bruce, when Edward sent a force to quell them in 1297. These followers had not sufficient reliance on their leader, and with few exceptions made a separate submission. Wallace, however, still keeping together his hum- bler followers, attacked and defeated the English army on the plains of the Forth, near Stirling Bridge. The country appeared to be entirely liberated, and the successful leader carried his army across the border to make retaliation on Eng- land; a protection granted by him to the mon- astery of Hexham, dated 7th November, 1297, is one of the few documents relative to him which has been preserved. He assumed the title of re- gent of the kingdom, but the haughty nobles who had so few ties to Scotland, viewed his career with more jealousy than gratitude. Edward, who was absent during the reverses sustained by his forces, resolved, with his accustomed energy, to strike a decided blow, and on the 22d of July, 1298, the ; English king in person gained over him the victory of Falkirk. For some time Wallace led a wan- dering life, and conducted a sort of guerilla war until the year 1303, when he was taken pri- soner. He was removed to London, and on the 23d of August, 1305, executed under the English law, with every circumstance of cruelty and ignominy that could be devised. The English 815 WAL populace sympathized with his fate as that of a fellow-countrvman rather than an enemy. [J.H.B.] WALLENBOUKG, James De, an Austrian diplomatist and Orientalist, 1763-1806. WALLENSTEIN. Albert Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, born in 1583, was the most renowned German commander during the first half of the thirty years' War. He was of a noble family, and greatly increased his wealth and power by marriage. When the Danes took part in the struggle between the catholics and protestants in Germany, Wallenstein offered the emperor Ferdi- nand IL to raise and maintain an army of 50,000 men at his own expense, on condition that he was to have the uncontrolled command of them, and the privilege of indemnifying himself from the territories that they conquered. The emperor ac- cepted these terms, and Wallenstein raised his army of volunteers, gained repeated victories over the Danes and their allies, and overran nearly the whole north of Germany, though he was checked by the heroic resistance of the town of Stralsund. But the violence of his proceedings, and his haughty demeanour, excited the jealousy of many of the catholic princes against* him ; and the emperor deposed him from his command in 1629. Wallen- stein retired with calmness; relying on the pro- mises of a favourite astrologer that he would soon be gloriously restored. This actually took place in 1632. The Swedish hero Gustavus Adolphus had appeared in the meantime on the scene of war, and had crushed the imperialist armies. Tilly the emperor's favourite general had been killed in action with him ; and Ferdinand now trembling for his personal safety implored Wallenstein to resume the command. Wallenstein consented, but on terms of even more haughty independence than before. Such was the confidence that the soldiery placed in him, and such was the magic of his name, that the warlike youth of Germany crowded around his standard, and in a short time he encountered the Swedes at the head of a powerful and well- equipped army. He had the advantage over Gus- tavus and his Saxon allies in the early part of the campaign. He recovered several provinces from them, and defeated Gustavus when the Swedish king attacked his camp at Nurnberg. Wallenstein afterwards lost the great battle of Lutzen (Nov. 10, 1632) in which Gustavus fell ; but Wallenstein re-organized his army in Bohemia, and was ex- pected by the Austrian court to press hard on the German protestants and Swedes now that they were deprived of their great king. Wallenstein, however, remained inactive, and was accused by his enemies at Vienna of intriguing with the Swedes, with the view of making himself king of Bohemia. He was also hated on account of the comparative liberality of his religious opinions by the monks and Jesuits, who were all powerful in the emperor's councils. He was assassinated Feb. 25, 1634, by an Irishman named Butler, and some other foreign officers in his army. His murderers were rewarded by the emperor, and the vast pos- sessions of the duke were confiscated. Historians have differed as to the reasonableness or unreason- ableness of the suspicions that were entertained of Wallenstein's loyalty ; but there can be no differ- ence of opinion as to the deep atrocity of his tak- ing off. [E.S.O.] WAL WALLER Eomnm was one of the most fa- mous of English poets, for many years both before and after the Restoration ; and his celebrity was not completely eclipsed till, in the course of the pre- sent centnrv, our older poetical literature came to be more justlv appreciated, and strength of invagi- nation and feeling to be estimated more highly than elaborate correctness of form. Waller's works are Teesee of society and celebrations of public per- sonages and event's, with a large number of love- poems. Much inferior, not to Donne and Cowley only, but to several others of their class, both in imaginative form and in tenderness of emotion, he has a tine grace of fancy and diction, a wise purity of taste, and greater skill and care than almost any other poet of his age in the finishing and rounding off of his smaller compositions. His versification is exceedingly sweet; and he has un- questionable merit as a forerunner of Dryden in the improvement of the heroic couplet. Waller, born in Hertfordshire in 1605, succeeded in child- hood to a large patrimonial estate ; and he added to his fortune by a wealthy marriage. It was be- fore a second marriage that he paid unsuccessful addresses to Lady Dorothea Sidney, commemorated in his poems by the name of Sacharissa. After having been a member of the House of Commons in earlv youth, he sat again on the reassembling of parliament by Charles I. in 1640. At first he took his position with the party of Hampden, who was his cousin, and through whom he was con- nected also with Cromwell. But his vacillating temper soon showed itself; and, on the breaking out of the civil war, though he continued to sit in parliament, he was active in opposition to the pro- ceedings of the house. In 1643 he was arrested for participation in a plot, said to have been in- tended for raising the Londoners on the king's behalf. Several of the plotters, and among them a brother-in-law of Waller's, were executed ; and he himself escaped only through abject submission, and the most cowardly betrayal of the secrets of his friends. He was heavily fined, and banished from the country : but after the establishment of the Protectorate, Cromwell allowed him to return from France ; and he took up his residence at a house he had near Beaconsfield, in Buckingham- shire. Poetical panegyrics on the Lord Protector now flowed freely from his pen ; and it was quite characteristic of the man, that, on the Restoration, these were followed by verses ' To the King, on his Majesty's Happy Return.' He sat repeatedly jii parliament even in his extreme old age; and, though he was neither trustworthy nor trusted, his liveliness of talk, and his felicitous readiness of wit, made him one of the favourite speakers of the house. He died in 1687, and lies buried beside Edmund Burke. [W.S.] WALLER, SlB William, a famous general of the parliamentary army in the civil wars, born in Kent 1597, died 1688. His career was not unsus- pected by the independents, and at the restoration he became one of the members for Middlesex. He wrote a ' Vindication of his Character and Con- duct,' and 4 Divine Meditations.' WALLERIUS, John Gottsohalk, an eminent Swedish naturalist, professor of chemistry, metal- larv. and pharmacy, at Upsala, 1709-1785. WALLIS, G., a Swedish Orientalist, 1686-1760. WAL WALLIS, John, an eminent mathematician, I who held the office of archivist and Savilian pro- I fessor of geometry at Oxford, born at Ashford, in I Kent, 1616, died 1703. WALLIS, S., an English navigator in 1766-68. WALLIUS, or VAN DER WALLE, James, a Jesuit and Latin poet, French Flanders, 1599-1680. WALLOT, J. J., a German astronomer, settled as professor at Paris, executed 1794. WALMESLEY, Chakles, a Roman Catholic- divine and doctor of the Sorbonne. known as a mathematician, 1721-1797. WALPOLE, Sat Robert, better known by hii name in the House of Commons, than by his peer- age title as earl of Orford, was born at Haughton, bis father's family mansion, on the 26th of August 1676. His father dying in 1700, he succeeded t< his estate, and entered parliament. His education like that of other country gentlemen in that age was extremely imperfect, and it has been said, thai as he knew nothing of French, he and George I. who could not speak English, had to discourse oi state questions in bad Latin. His main power; were a capacity for business and a knowledge o mankind. In 1708 he was made secretary at war He was attacked, along with Marlborough, by th Tory government, which negotiated the treaty o Utrecht, and committed to the Tower on a charg of accession to commissariat peculation. With th Hanover accession came, of course, restoration influence, and the power of triumphing over hi enemies. He immediately entered on high offi but the foundation of his unexampled reign ministerial power, was in the dexterity and succes with which he adjusted the losses caused by th< South Sea scheme, so as to make their pressur least on those who were least culpable. FroD 1721 until 1742 he governed the British empire and during that period, though more than one enemies or rivals appeared to be on the eve of bear ing him to the ground, he righted himself by hi own admirable dexterity. He was a friend peace, and preserved it until a European war an; his downfall came together. The country owes t his government the origin of many important pro jects of practical statesmanship. Among the mos valuable of these was the plan for suspending th exaction of duties until commodities are brought in to market, by the arrangement now so well knowi as the bonding system. The excise scheme, as it wt termed, in which he proposed to bring this int practice, was so pertinaciously denounced by popt lar opinion, under the well-known cry, ' Libert property, and no excise,' that he required to abai, don it. Among his good qualities may be counte his clemency towards his political opponents, a desire rather to baffle them, than let them lj involved in dangerous schemes. But on the othij hand, there is no doubt that the charges of corrui tion made against him are well founded. If I carried out his objects in government he cared n< how this was done, and he did much to verify b own axiom, that every man has his price. H habits and manners were coarse as those of tl fox-hunters of his day, and we find his son, Horac in a party of ladies of the younger and more fa tidious generation, nervously anxious lest his fath should say things to drive them from the rooi His first wife was a daughter of Sir John HunU 816 WAL lord mayor of London, but he afterwards married his mistress, Miss Skerret, an event which the duchess of Marlborough loudly proclaimed, but which Coxe's elaborate biography does not men- tion. The fatal majority against him, which showed that his power was gone, was characteris- tically enough in an election case. It occurred on the 2d of February, 1742. On the 9th he was created earl of Orford, and on the 11th resigned. After three years of misery from unwonted inac- tion and painful disease, he died on 18th March, 17-1.5. [J.H.B.] WALPOLE, Horace, born in 1717, was the third son of Sir Robert. On leaving Cambridge, he travelled on the continent with the poet Gray, till the sensitive man of letters and the supercilious man of rank quarrelled and parted. For more than a quarter of a century from 1741 he sat in the House of Commons ; but, though he made some speeches, he was neither a distinguished nor a useful member. Government sinecures conferred on him by his father made up his income to nearly four thousand a-year. Thus enabled to indulge his natural indolence, he spent his life in luxurious lounging; watching and satirizing his political and fashionable contemporaries, coquetting haughtily with literature and literary men, with art and artists, building at Twickenham his Gothic toy- house of Strawberry Hill, and filling it with antiquarian and ornamental nicknacks. In his seventy-fourth year, by the death of his nephew, he succeeded to the Earldom of Orford; but the peerage made no change in his habits. He died six years afterwards, in 1797. Horace Walpole's literary productions never rise above the character of cleverness: but, in their several ways, all of them are clever ; and the best of them are among the cleverest of their kind. Neither his 'Anec- dotes of Painting in England,' nor his ' Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors,' would suffice to pre- serve the reputation which, professing to despise it, he really longed for vehemently. He attempted twice, with considerable success, the adventure of imaginative composition ; in the romance of ' The Castle of Otranto,' (1764), and the exaggerated tragedy of 'The Mysterious Mother,' (1768). He was more at home in his 'Memoirs of the Reign of George II.,' and the 'Memoirs of the Reign of George III.,' the bitterness of which has some excuse in his just indignation at the ill-usage suffered by his father. But the permanence of his celebrity rests on his ' Letters,' which offer a min- iature picture of society and public life for the greater part of his long life. They are cynical and ill-minded in the extreme, but always full of keen observation and lively description, and frequent in strokes of nointed wit ; and the style, though really formed "by great labour, possesses a masterly terseness and apparent ease. Both the Memoirs and the Letters were, by his own order, reserved from publication till after his death. [W.S.] WALPOLE, Horatio, Lord, brother of Sir Robert, preceding article, was born in 1678, and held several offices under government. Besides political pamphlets, he wrote an 'Answer to Bolingbroke's Letters on History.' Died 1757. WALSH, Edward, an Irish physician and army surgeon, author of ' A Narrative of the Ex- pedition to Holland,' &c. ; died 1832. 817 WAL WALSH, Peter, an Irish priest and political writer, who became professor at Louvain, and on his return to Ireland persuaded many of the clergy to subscribe a declaration disclaiming the pope's temporal authority ; died 1687. WALSH, William, a gentleman of Queen Anne's household, known as a poet, 1663-1708. WALS1NGHAM, Sir Francis, one of Queen Elizabeth's eminent statesmen, was born at Chislehurst, in Kent, 1536. He was first em- ployed by Cecil as ambassador to the court of France in the period 1570-1577, and then became one of the secretaries of state, and received the honour of knighthood. In 1586, three years after he had gone as ambassador to Scotland, he formed one of the Commission for the trial of Queen Mary, and when he died, in 1590, was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. While Walsingham was in France the massacre of St. Bartholomew took place, and his enmity to Mary Stuart was well grounded in his knowledge of the dark machinations of the Roman Catholics. Queen Elizabeth, who had a vein of humour in her com- position, and frequently addressed her ministers in a sportive manner, called him her moon, and in such a night as threatened Europe at that time, she had reason enough to congratulate herself on having a counsellor so honest and sagacious. He possessed political knowledge and foresight in a remarkable degree, and though it is said he was puritanically inclined, no man could have drawn a more distinct line where he believed, rightly or wrongly, that the toleration of princes should cease. Walsingham deserves honourable remem- brance also for the steady fidelity to his principles which he displayed at the French court, and his bold remonstrances with the king. His De- spatches are highly interesting, and may be con- sulted in the work of Sir Dudley Digges. [E.R.I WALSINGHAM, Thomas, a monk of St. Albans, historiographer-royal to Henry VI., about 1440, author of English chronicles. WALTER, John, late proprietor of the Times newspaper, and member of parliament, deserves honourable mention as the first to raise the cha- racter of the daily press, and bring the steam engine to its aid. He was born in 1773, and under- took the exclusive management of the Times, in the character of joint proprietor, in 1803. The successful application of the steam engine in this enterprise dates from 1814. Mr. Walter repre- sented Berkshire in parliament from 1832 to 1837, and was returned for Nottingham in 1841 ; d. 1847. WALTER, John Gottlob, an eminent Prus- sian anatomist, 1734-1818. Frederic Augus- tus, his son, also an anatomical writer and pro- fessor, 1764-1826. WALTHER, B., a German astronomer, d. 1504. WALTHER, G. C, a jurisconsult, 1601-1656. WALTHER, M., a German preacher and theo- logian, 1593-1662. Augustin Frederic, his son, an anatomist, author of a Treatise on the Tongue, 1688-1746. WALTHER, R., a Swiss theologian and Latin poet, 1519-1586. His son, Adolphus, a Latin poet of remarkable talent, 1552-1577. WALTON, Brian, bishop of Chester, and editor of the London Polyglott Bible, 1600-1661. WALTON, Izaac, a well-known writer on ang- 3G WAM lin- was born at Stafford in 1593. He died in I bongo his education was not a remarkably good one, and though he made in after life no pre- -ilouse of Izaac Walton.] tensions to learning, he jet became one of the most popular authors of the time in which he lived. He was originally a linen-draper in London, but ac- quiring a competency, he was enabled to retire from business and leave town. He was a pious man, of a thoughtful contemplative turn of mind, and during the time he was in'business was exceedingly fond of fishing. The river Lea was his darling haunt (still a favourite spot for Cockney anglers), and there he spent as much of his time as he could spare from his shop, in angling and contemplation. In 1653 he published his famous work, ' The Complete Angler, or Contemplative Man's Recreation.' In thi* work he introduced a good deal of information upon the habits of fresh water fishes, and figured with considerable accuracy many of the species of which he treats. The air of verisimilitude and unaffected benevolence which this work exhibits has made it the most popular book of its kind ever written ; a popularity which after the lapse of 200 years it still enjoys amongst the lovers of the 'gentle craft.' Walton was considered the most expert fisher of his time, and has been called the father of anglers. He spent a great part of his latter years in the so- ciety of eminent divines, and has left behind him 6everal biographical memoirs which are still highly thought of. He lived to the age of ninety. [WTB.j WAMESE, J., a French jurisconsult, 1524-90. WANGENHEIM, F. A. J. De, a Prussian Orientalist and writer on forest botany, 1747-1800. WANLEY, Nathaniel, rector of Trinity Church, in Coventry, author of ' Self-Reflection^' 1633-1680. His son, Humphrey, a learned liter- ary antiquary, secretary to the Society for Pro- 'Ihristian Knowledge, and librarian to the earl of Oxford, 1672-1726. WANSLEBEN, or VANSLEB, John Mich.ee., an Oriental scholar, and traveller in Abyssinia and Egypt, bora in Thuringia 1635, died 1679. WABBECE, 1'kkki.y, or Peter, a pretender to the English throne, who assumed the character and title of Richard, duke of York, one of the princes supposed to have been murdered in the Tower. Being defeated in arms, he was executed in the reign of Henry VII., 1499. Some obscurity still remains about bis history. WAR WARBURTON, Eliot B. G., an English novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1851. WARBURTON, John, a heral'dist and antiqua- rian, author of 'Vallum Romanian, 1 1682-1759. WARBURTON, Wm., D.D., a distinguished bishop of the English Church, was born at Newark in 1698. Having acquired the elemenfi of education at the grammar school of his native town, he served an apprenticeship to an attorney, and after the expiry of his term, opened chambers as a legal practitioner. Tiring, however, of the law, he turned his views towards the church, and was admitted to deacon's orders in 172:5. The legal studies of bis early life exercised a powerful influence in moulding his habits of thought as well as his treatment of controversial subjects: and to the non-professional course of his preparation for the church, must be ascribed that dislike to the routine of the regular discipline, and that pride he took in confounding the adherents to the beaten paths of theology, which formed one of the marked peculiarities in his character. Naturally of a strong, domineering temper, his arrogant dogma- tism, united to great skill and power in wielding the weapons of dialectic controversy, led him into the propounding and supporting paradoxes, which with all bis great learning and acknowledged excellen- cies, rendered him an unsafe guide. By the force of his natural and acquired talents, however, he rose to distinction in the church. In 1726, he obtained the vicarage of Greasley, and three years after, the rectory of Brant Broughton. During his residence in this latter place, he prepared several works for the press; the principal of which are Inquiry into the Causes of Prodigies and Miracles, a Treatise on the Legal Judicature of Chancery, and some Translations. These were soon followed by other productions of a higher character the Alliance between Church and State, which was first pub lished in 1738, and the first volume of the Divine Legation, which appeared towards the close of the same year. Although both of these works contri buted to establish his fame as a divine, it was not to either of them directly, but to another pr duction of his able pen that he was indebted for his elevation to episcopal dignity. This wis his ' Vin dication of Pope's Essay on Man,' which not only introduced him to an acquaintance with that poet, but procured him the friendship of Mr. Allen oi Bath, through whose influence he gained the patron age of the crown. He was successively appointee chaplain to the king, prebend of Durham, dean oi Bristol, and bishop of Gloucester, in 1759. Ii the conduct of the controversial wars it was hi: delight and pride to carry on, the temper of War- burton often presented a sad contrast to the meek- ness of the Christian character. But with all these palpable defects, he was a man of sincere anc habitual piety of a tender conscience of great benevolence, and a reigning zeal, which has rarelj been surpassed, for the propagation of Christi- anitv, as the greatest blessing to the human race His death took place in 1779. [R.J WARD, Edward, au. of ' The London Spy," and of a poetic version of Don Quixote, 1667-1731 WARD, Bernard, an Irish economist, settler 818 in Spain, and employed in the public service o; that country, 1750. WARD, John, a learned writer, professor o :-; WAR rhetoric at Gresham college, was the son of a dis- senting minister, and was born in London 1679. He began life as an assistant schoolmaster, and having made himself known as a classical scholar and antiquary, was chosen professor in 1720 ; died 1758. His principal works are ' Lives of the Gresham Professors,' and ' A System of Oratory.' WARD, Robert Plumer, a miscellaneous and historical writer, best known as the author of Tremaine,' was born in London 1765. He com- menced his professional career as a barrister, in 1790, and published his first work, an ' Inquiry into the Foundation and History of the Law of Nations in Europe,' in 1795. He entered parlia- ment in 1802., and became under-secretary for foreign affairs in 1805: afterwards he was succes- "vely one of the lords of the admiralty, and clerk of the ordnance. He died in 1846, and the Hon. E. Phipps has since published his 'Memoirs and Literary Remains.' WARD, Samuel, Margaret professor of divinity, known as a learned controversialist, died 16-13. WARD, Seth, bishop of Salisbury, eminent as a mathematician and astronomer, 1617-1689. WARD, T., a Roman Catholic divine, 1652-1708. WARD LAW, Henry, founder of the university of St. Andrews ; became bishop of that see in 1404, and was chiefly remarkable for his zeal in behalf of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a man of high character in other respects, but unscrupulous in his treatment of those he regarded as heretics, many of whom he sent to the stake. Died 1440. WARDLAW, Dr. Ralph, was born in Dal- keith, 22d December, 1779, a few months after which his family removed to Glasgow. Though bred in the principles of the Secession Church, he resolved to join himself to the Congregational party, and was, in 1803, ordained by his friend Mr. Ewing to be pastor in a chapel in Albion-Street : he afterwards removed to a larger place of wor- ship in George-Street. In 1811 he was associated with Mr. Ewing as one of the tutors in the Theo- logical Academy. Dr. Wardlaw acquired a high reputation as a theologian, and his professional merits were acknowledged by an honorary degree of D.D. His principal works are 'Discourses on the Socinian Controversy,' ' Sermons,' ' Man's Responsibility for his Belief,' * Lectures Against Religious Establishments,' ' Lectures on the His- tory of Joseph,' &c. He died 17th December, 1853, and his funeral was a public procession. [R.J.] WARE, James, an eminent oculist, died 1815. WARE, Sir James, called 'the Camden of Ireland,' author of works on the history and anti- quities of that country, 1594-1666. WARGENTIN, P. W., a Swedish astronomer, secretary to the Academy of Sciences, 1717-1783. WARHAM, Wm., archbishop of Canterbury and lord chancellor, was born at Okely, in Hamp- shire, 1460, and in 1475 admitted a fellow of New College, Oxford. His public life commenced in 1493, when Henry VII. sent him on an embassy to the duke of Burgundy ; he became keeper of the great seal in 1502, but resigned this office in 1515, in consequence of the ascendancy of Wolsey, who succeeded him ; died 1532. WARING, Edward, professor of mathematics at Cambridge, author of an ' Essay on the Prin- WAR ciples of Human Knowledge,' 'Properties of Alge- braic Curves,' and other works, 1734-1798. WARMHOLTZ, Charles Gusxavus, a Swed- ish bibliographer, 1710-1784. WARNER, Ferdinando, a doctor and clergy- man of the Church of England, author of a great number of works, theological, biographical, and historical, 1703-1768. John, his son, a writer on prosody, and translator of the history of ' Friar Gerund,' from the Spanish. WARNER, John, bishop of Rochester, distin- guished for his learning and munificence, and as a royalist at the period of the rebellion, 1585-1666. Among his charitable works may be mentioned the foundation of Bromley College, for twenty widows of royal and orthodox clergymen, and four scholar- ships in Baliol College for young Scotchmen. WARNER, J., an eminent surgeon, 1717-1801. WARNER, Richard, a botanist, 1711-1775. WARNER, William, an English scholar and poet, mentioned among the early writers to whom we owe the refinement of our language, 1558-1609. WARNERY, C. E., a French officer and writer on tactics, in the Polish service, 1719-1786. WARREN, C, a steel engraver, died 1823. WARREN, Sir John Borlase, an English admiral, employed in the expedition to Quiberon, destined to assist the Vendeans, was born at the seat of his family at Stapleford, in Nottinghamshire, 1754. After the Vendean expedition he joined the Brest fleet under Lord Bridport, and distinguished himself in 1798 by capturing the French squadron sent to invade Ireland. On the conclusion of peace he became a privy councillor, and was sent as ambassador to Russia ; died 1822. WARREN, Sir Peter, vice-admiral of the red, was born in Ireland 1703, and won his laurels by the capture of Louisbourg, and the total defeat of a French squadron sent to recover it> 1745-1747. In the autumn of the last-mentioned year his popularity occasioned his return to parliament as member for Westminster ; died 1752. WARSEW1TZ, C. Stanislaus, a Polish states- man, historian, and Jesuit: died 1605. WARTON, Joseph and Thomas, were bro- thers, and very like each other in pursuits and mental character. They share with Bishop Percy the honour of having given the first perceptible- impulse to that revolution in literary taste, which dethroned Pope and the Didactic school of poetry, and led poets and critics to a renewed study both of nature and of Old English literature. The Wartons have a place, likewise, among our minor poets; but in this character even Thomas pos- sesses but small merit. They were sons of a cler- gyman, who was professor of poetry at Oxford, and afterwards a vicar in Hampshire. Joseph was born in 1722, and lived till 1800. Thomas, born in 1728, died in 1790. Dr. Joseph Warton was the more active and independent thinker of the two ; and students of the principles of criti- cism have, since his time, estimated, more justly than did his contemporaries, the value of his ' Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope.' It was published, in separate parts, in 1756 (the same year with Percy's Reliques) and 1782. But Warton, a poor man during all the best period of his life, was diverted from systematic study and speculation by the toils of clerical duty, and after- 819 WAR wards bv those of teaching. He taught for nearly irs in Winchester Seliool, of which for tweiitv- seven years he was head master. Dr. Thomas Warton, being content to remain in the celihacv of Trinity College, Oxford, was able to imself without interruption to his favourite pursuits. He held the professorship of poetry for the usual ten years from 1757; and in 1785 he was appointed poet-laureate and Camden professor of history. Besides writing a good deal of poetry, ami several miscellanies and pieces of humour, he creditably edited Theocritus and one of the Greek Anthologies. But his really valuable efforts were made in' the criticism of Early English literature. His earliest performance of this sort was the ' Ob- servations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser,' pub- lished in 1752, and much enlarged in 1762. His great work, 'The History of English Poetry,' appeared in three successive volumes, in 1774, 1778, and 1781. He lived to write only a small portion of a fourth volume ; and the work closes abruptly near the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. It is ill-digested, desultory, and often very loose in reasoning: it contains many serious gaps, and very many positive errors, in detail. But even its mistakes and deficiencies are fewer than we might have expected from the first pioneer in so rugged a field ; and the value of the book makes it well worth the trouble which has been expended on it, in corrections and additions, by its recent editors, Price and Taylor. Its antiquarian learning is very great ; the poetical taste of the author is remark- ably fine; and the flowing and animated eloquence, which breaks out whenever the occasion permits, makes many parts of it as interesting as anything we have of the sort. [W.S.] WARWICK, a famous baronial name in Eng- land; the principal of those who have borne it are Guy of Beauchamp, commonly called Guy, earl of Warwick, a party to the league against Edward II., by which the favourite, Piers Gaves- ton, was beheaded, 1312. Richard, a favourite of Henry V., distinguished in the French wars, and regent in the time of his successor ; died 1439. Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, called the King Maker, slain at the battle of Barnet 1471. E i.) ward, grandson of the latter, beheaded by Henry VII. 1499. WARWICK, Sir Philip, secretary to Charles L, and member of the long parliament, author of a ' Discourse on Government,' and ' Memoirs of the King,' 1608-1G82. WARWICK, Vibrand Von, a Dutch naviga- tor, who prepared the commercial relations be- tween Holland and the Chinese in 1606. WASER, Anna, a Swiss painter, 1679-1713. WASER, Gaspard, a learned Swiss Orientalist and antiquarian, 1565-1625. His son, John Henry, a diplomatist, 1600-1669. WASER, H., a Swiss minister and economist, author of ' Chronologie Diplomatique,' 1742-1780. WASHINGTON, George, was born in West- moreland in the state of Virginia, on the 22d of February, 1732. His father was affluent, but George received merely the ordinary education of the young American colonist of the day, which was always meagre, unless when the ambitious parents sent a son to the home country. He had, however, but scanty literary or artistic tastes, WAS and studied only the accomplishments which aided his practical views. Though it has been questioned if he knew any language but English, it is understood that he studied French after the responsibilities of command had fallen on him, for the purpose of holding communication with the auxiliaries sent from France to join the army of independence. On the other hand, his practical ac- quirements were precociously developed. When but sixteen years old he was employed in survey- ing the vast wilderness assigned to his connection Lord Fairfax, in the district of the Allegany moun- tains. He pursued the profession of a surveyor, which in a country full of estates, utterly unknown in character and extent to their owners, was a lucrative one ; and he is said to have thus obtained an unconscious training for his subsequent warlik operations by acquiring a minute acquaintance with some parts of the country, and a knowledge of the general characteristics of the whole. Before he was twenty years old he received an important ,..,, command, as adjutant-general of one of the mili- J tary districts into which Virginia was divided to L resist the Indians, and his genius entitled him to ' more important command in the American war with France in 1754. In a mission across the frontiers to ascertain the objects of the French, he discovered by his extraordinary sagacity the views of aggran- dizement which led ultimately to the destruction of French power in America. He distinguished him self in the war which then broke out, and as all this occurred before he was twenty-three years old his history decidedly supports the theory that the faculty of the military commander is generally de- veloped early in life. It is believed, indeed, that many of the early calamities of that war might have been obviated if veteran British commanders had paid more respect to the sagacity of the young Virginian. In 1759 he married Mrs. Martha C tis, a widow. She brought considerable property to add to Washington's large estates, and for some years his hands were as full of business, in the management of private property and attendance on the provincial legislature, as they ever afterwards were when he was at the head of the Union. It was one of his peculiarities that he carried out small matters with the same articulate organization as large. He slurred over nothing, and his house- hold books, of which fac-similes have been exten- sively circulated, would have stamped him as 8 pedantic trifler, had they not exemplified the same rigid adherence to system and accuracy of detai' with which he subsequently organized the govern ment of a great nation. He took an unnoticeabk but active part in his own province, in the pre parations for the assertion of independence. He was appointed one of the delegates from Virgini? to the first general congress in 1774, and had thf command of the independent companies of the state. Still, his position had never been brilliant or evei conspicuous, and it is perhaps the most remarkabl instance of that common sense which characterized the revolution, that the supreme command of th army of independence should have fallen into hi hands. He became commander-in-chief on 15tfc June, 1775. To give his history from that perioe until, after completing the task assigned to him resigned his command at the close of the yeai 1783, would be to give a history of the American WAS war of independence. It may be only generally re- marked of his career, that it was almost to the conclusion a struggle not only against the British force, but the turbulence and factiousness of those who were influential in the new states and their army. It cannot be said that the brilliancy of his achievements gave him his great influence, for he was often beaten, and it was by taking ad- vantage of what his troops learned in hardships and defeats, that he was at last able to accomplish the sagacious and deeply planned movement by which Cornwallis was surprised and found it necessary to surrender. He was inaugurated as the first president of the United States, on the 30th of April, 1789. How he presided at the organization of a new empire, and regulated the enthusiasts, or self-seekers, who struggled for their peculiar objects, is, like his military career, matter of history. On more than one occasion, if he could not with certainty have achieved life-long despotic power, he might have acquired the flattering title of king, but it was his great merit that he sought only as much power and greatness as enabled him to do his duty, and no more. He retired from public life in 1796, and died on the 14th of December, 1799, leaving a reputation without a stain. [J.H.B.] [Tomb of Washington.] WASMUTH, M., a Danish Orientalist, 1625-88. WASSE, Cornelia Woutkrs, Baroness Von, a female writer of Brussels, 1739-1802. _ WASSE, Joseph, a native of Yorkshire, dis- tinguished for his classical learning, 1672-1738. WASSENAER, N. J., a Dutch physician and historian of Europe, died 16>2. WASSENBERG, Everard Von, a German historian of the reign of Uladislaus IV., b. 1610. WATELET, Claude Henry, a French pain- ter and etcher, author of several critical works on art of considerable value, 1718-1786. WATERHOUSE, Edward, an English divine, known as a heraldist and miscell. writer, 1619-70. # WATERLAND, Daniel, a learned divine, and dignitary of the Church of England, was born at Wasely or Walesly, in Lincolnshire, 1683, and died 1740. His principal works are of a contro- 821 WAT versial character, written against Jackson and Tindal : a complete edition was published in 11 volumes 8vo, 1823, by Van Milderr. WATERLOO, Anthony, a Dutch landscape painter and etcher ; born about 1618, died 1662. WATERLOO, G. B., a Latin poet, 1572-1597. WATRELOS, Lambert, a priest of Flanders, author of a Chronicle of Cambray, 1110-1172. WATS, Gilbert, an English scholar, d. 1657. WATSON, David, a learned Scotchman, best known for his version of Horace, 1710-1756. WATSON, Henry, a gallant East Indian officer and engineer, born at Holbeach about 1737. He distinguished himself at the siege of Belle Isle in 1761, and at the capture of Havannah 1762, but in a still more memorable manner by the works of Fort William ; died 1786. WATSON, James, a Scotch printer, author of a History of the Art in Scotland, died 1722. WATSON, John, a minister of the Church of England, known as an antiquarian, and historical and miscellaneous writer, 1724-1783. WATSON, Richard, bishop of Llandaff, author of several learned works, was born at Heversham, near Kendal, in 1737. He first distinguished himself as a natural philosopher, and in 1764 succeeded Dr. Hadley as professor of chemistry at Cambridge ; in 1771 he became professor of divin- ity. The theological works of Bishop Watson are, 1 An Apology for Christianity, in a series of Letters addressed to Edward Gibbon, Esq.,' 'An Apology for the Bible,' in answer to Paine's Age of Reason, and many miscellaneous Tracts and Sermons. His philosophical works are chiefly on Chemistry. Died 1816. WATSON, Robert, a Scottish historian and professor of the Belles Leltres, author of a ' His- tory of Philip II.,' born at St. Andrews about 1730, died 1780. Mr. Watson began a History of Philip III., which was completed by Dr. Thompson. WATSON, T., a nonconformist divine, d. 1690. WATSON, T., a catholic prelate, died 1582. WATSON, T., a song-writer, d. 1591 or 1592. WATSON, Sir William, a physician of Lon- don, eminent as a botanist and natural philoso- pher, especially for his skill in electricity ; corn in Clerkenwell 1715, died 1787. WATT, James, the author of improvements in the application of steam as a motive power which have identified his name with the steam engine. Directing the force of an original genius, early ex- ercised in philosophical research, to the improve- ment of the steam engine, he enlarged the resources of his country, increased the power of man, and rose to an eminent place among the illustrious followers of science and the real benefactors of the world. Watt was born at Greenock, 19th January, 1736, the son of James Watt, twenty years town councillor, treasurer, and bailie of Greenock. Being even in infancy, says M. Arago, of a delicate con- stitution, the early education of James Watt was in a great measure of a domestic character. His ill health seems to have led him to the cultivation oi his intellect with unusual assiduity. It is said that when only six years of age, he was discovered drawing geometrical figures on the hearth with chalk, and other anecdotes related of him justify the xemark which was elicited by a friend on the above occasion that he was ' a by ord'nar' wean.' WAT When about fourteen years of age he made an electrical machine, and' there is a curious anecdote related by M. Arago, to the effect that his aunt, Mr.-. Mmrhead, who did not entertain the same opinion as his father of the powers of the boy, upbraided him one evening at the tea table for what seemed to her to be listless idleness ; tak- ing off the lid of the kettle and putting it on again ; holding sometimes a cup and sometimes a t-ilver spoon over the steam; watching the exit of the steam from the spout, and counting the drops of water into which it became condensed. "With the increased light imparted by a knowledge of his subsequent career, the boy pondering before the tea kettle, will, as observed by his French enthusiastic biographer, be viewed as the great engineer pre- luding to the discoveries that were to immortalize him. In 1755, Watt went to London, and placed himself under Mr. John Morgan, mathematical and nautical instrument maker, in Finch Lane, whose business it would appear lay chiefly in making and repairing the instruments made use of in the ex- periments in mechanics and natural philosophy. Shortly after his return from London, about 1757, when Watt had scarcely attained his twenty-first year, he endeavoured to establish himself in busi- ness in Glasgow, but owing to his not being a burgess he met with opposition from the corpora- tion of arts and trades, who refused to allow him to set up even the humblest workshop. To the great renown of the authorities of the university, which is not under city jurisdiction, Watt was offered an asylum within the precincts of the college, where he established a shop, and he was honoured with the title of mathematical instrument maker The great men of the day Black, Dr. Dick, Professor Anderson, kindly befriended young Watt, and the more intelligent students were his intimate com- panions. The revival of commercial and manufac- turing enterprise in Britain had about this time directed attention to steam as a motive power. As early as 1761 or 1762, Watt made some experi- ments on the force of steam. But the event to which his invaluable discoveries may be most dis- tinctly assigned took place in the session of 1763- 64, when Professor Anderson sent him a model of Newcomen's steam engiue to repair. He soon repaired the model, which exists to this day in the museum of the natural philosophy class. While working at these repairs, ne was led to detect the imperfections of the machine itself, and to investi- gate those properties of steam upon which its action depends. About this time he left the col- lege and took up his abode in the town previous to his marriage with his cousin, Miss Miller, the daughter of a ' freeman,' in the summer of 1764. It is not possible to enter here on the nature of Watt's improvements in the steam engine, or to estimate their economical advantages; we must refer to treatises on the steam engine for informa- tion on these points. Suffice it here to say, that ^ att's invention of a separate condenser, and the ] y modifications of the arrangements of the mechanism of the engine, were in their main fea- tures completed as early as 1765. In 1768, the first patent was applied for, and obtained 5th Janu- ary, 1769. Dr. John Roebuck, the founder of in pre- to the university. Adam Smith, Dr. !': J Carron Iron Works, who had aided Watt WAT paring his third working model, was a sharer in this patent. Roebuck's affairs got embarrassed in the summer of 1769, and Watt was for the time deprived of the means of prosecuting his inventions. He dedicated himself, however, with great credit to general engineering and surveying during the interval which elapsed before the opportunity presented itself of his finally devoting himself to the carrying out of his improvements in the steam engine. It was while engaged in the greatest en- gineering work undertaken by him, the surveying and estimating a line of canal between Fort Wil- liam and Inverness, since executed by Telford on a larger scale than was then proposed, that Watt, in 1773, having been bereaved of his wife, determined to accept an invitation from Matthew Boulton, the founder of Soho, to settle in Fngland. Watt's con- nection with Boulton commenced early in the year 1774, and they remained in partnership till 1800, when Watt retired from business, but their friend- ship continued undiminished until Boulton's death. Of the spirited manner in which Boulton conducted the mercantile department of the establishment, some idea may be formed from the fact, that up- wards of 47,000 was spent before the patentees began to receive any returns ; but at length their remuneration began to pour in, and in no scanty L stream. In Cornwall and other mining districts, y especially where coal was not abundant, the new engines speedily replaced the old ; but down to 1794 the introduction of the steam engine into other three mining districts had been comparatively slow, and it has been stated, that at the expiration of the patent the aggregate power of the engines employed in London was not more than 650 nomi- nal horse power ; in Manchester about 450 horse power, and in Leeds about 300 horse power. As above alluded to, a volume would not suffice to ex- haust Watt's professional biography, and we musl leave our readers to inquire into this elsewhere. Of the private character of the great engineer a most pleasing account is given by Lord Jeffrey, who observes: 'Perhaps no individual in this ag {)ossessed so much and so varied exact information, lad read so much, and remembered what he It read so accurately and well. He had infini quickness of apprehension, a prodigious memory and a certain rectifying and methodizing power " understanding, which extracted something precion out of all that was presented to it.' In social con versation he allowed his mind, like a great cych paedia, to be opened up on whatever subject might best suit the taste of his associates ; and he mad> everything so plain, clear, and intelligible, that, it is remarked, scarcely any one could be conscious ol any deficiency in their own capacity in his pre- sence. Of a generous and affectionate disposition.* he was considerate of the feelings of all around him, and gave the most liberal assistance and en couragement to all young persons who showed, indications of talent, or who applied to him foi patronage and advice. As his death approached, he was perfectly conscious of his situation, anc calm in the contemplation of it, expressing hi* thankfulness for the length of days with which he had been blessed. He died at Heathfield, neai Soho, Birmingham, on the 25th August, 1819. He was fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh; correspondent of the French Instv 822 WAT tute, and an LL.D. of Glasgow university. By- public subscription a monument was erected to him in 1824 in Westminster Abbey, one of the best of Chantrey's works. The countenance of this statue has been characterized as the ' personification of abstract thought.' Other statues by Chantrey adorn George's Square, Glasgow, the University Museum, and the chapel at Handsworth, erected bv Watt's only son, who survived him, and who is since dead. ' [L.D.B.G.] WATT, Robert, a Scotch physician, author of professional works, and of the well-known index of British and foreign literature, entitled ' Biblio- theca Britannica,' 1774-1819. WATTEAU, Anthony, an eminent French landscape painter, b. at Valenciennes 1684, d. 1721. WATTS, Isaac, D.D., was a native of South- ampton, where he was born on 17th July, 1674. His father was a dissenter, and living at a time when nonconformity was a crime, he several times suffered heavy penalties, both by fine and imprisonment. Isaac early displayed a remarkable precocity ; and his greatest delight while a mere child, consisted in reading simple story books. At the age of four he began to learn Latin, and at seven, had attracted no small attention by his talent for versifying. His proficiency in classical studies was so much above the average scholarship of school boys, that some wealthy individuals, desirous of encouraging so gifted a youth, offered to bear the expenses of his education at one of the universities, if his father would have consented to his entering the established church. Prevented by conscientious scruples from accepting this generous offer, the father placed Isaac at a dissenting aca- demy, under the care of the reverend Mr. Rowe, an independent clergyman, eminent both for his piety and learning. At the age of twenty, his academic course was finished, but instead of commencing an active course of preaching, he resolved, with a rare exercise of humility, and distrust of his fitness for the pulpit, to return to his father's house, with a view of acquiring, during a season of religious retirement, those higher qualifications for the duties of the ministry, which no course of academic instruction, however extensive or varied, can supply. It was during this period that he first tried his poetic talents in the composition of sacred poetry; and so much were these sacred songs admired, that on their being collected and published in a little volume, they were unanimously adopted as the hymn-book of the independent chapel where his "father worshipped. After a retirement of two years under the paternal roof, he accepted an invitation from Sir John Hartopp, Bart, of Stoke-Newington, to undertake the office of tutor to his son. In this situation, he enjoyed ample opportunities for self-improvement; and while he was most conscientious in attending to the interests of his youthful charge, he pursued his own studies at the same time, with indefatigable industry; increasing his familiarity with the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, perusing the works of the most eminent biblical writers and divines, forming abridgments of many, and endeavouring to digest his acquired knowlege by the methods he afterwards described in his ' Improvement of the Mind.' In 1698, Watts entered upon the duties of the ministry, as assistant to l)r. Chauncey, pastor of the inde- 8 WAY pendent church, Mark Lane, London ; and on the death of that clergyman, was chosen to succeed him on 8th March, 1702. Under the auspices of this eloquent and fervid young preacher, the congregation rapidly increased, and continued for several years in the most flourishing condition, when an alarming illness, brought on by his vehement style of oratory, threatened to put a premature period to his life and usefulness. By due care and attention he recovered ; but his physical energies were so much impaired, that he was obliged, first, to employ an assistant, to relieve him of some part of his ministerial duties; and then afterwards, on the recurrence of a violent fever, which gave a severe shock to his enfeebled constitution, tie had, at his own desire, Mr. Price associated with him as colleague in the pastoral charge of his congregation. Compelled soon after to resign his public office, he went on a visit to the house of his friend, Sir Thomas Abney, knight and alderman, at Abney Park, Stoke-Newing- 1 1 ji i m 1 1 -TTOkPF [Abney Park, the residence of Isaac Watts.J ton ; and that visit, though designed at first to be for a few days, was prolonged to a residence of more than thirty years. In this hospitable man- sion he received "all the tender and assiduous attention which his infirmities required; and which were sweetened by the pleasures of cultivated society and Christian friendship. In 1728, the universities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen simul- taneously conferred on him the honorary degree of Doctor in Divinity. Seldom has such a title been bestowed on one so worthy to receive it. Dr. Watts' range of knowledge was almost unbounded, and although theology was of course the chief subject of his study, he had mastered the whole circle of the sciences. Dr. Watts holds a respect- able rank in the list of British poets. His poetry is chiefly of a devotional cast, and in regard to his hymns, Dr. Johnson has pronounced this high eulogium, ' That for children he condescended to lav aside the scholar, the philosopher, and the wit to write little poems, systems of instruction adapted to their wants and capacities.' Dr. Watts died on 25th November, 1748, in the seventv- fifth vear of his age. [B.J.] WAYNFLETE, William of, so called from his birth-place, in Lincolnshire, was the eldest son 23 WE A of Richard Fatten or Barbour. Commencing his distinguished career as head master of Winchester scliooi about 1420, he became provost of Eton, then in course of foundation by Henry VI., 1442, bishop of Winchester 1447, and lord high chan- cellor 1456. He founded Magdalen College, Ox- ford, and, though a true Lancastrian, was highly honoured by Edward IV. ; died 14SL>. WEAVER See Wekver. WEBB, F., an English writer, 1735-1815. WEBB. F. C, an antiquarian, 1700-1770. WEBBE. George, a native of Wiltshire, who became bishop of Limerick, and died in the castle of that town, where the rebels had imprisoned him, in 1641. He is the author of several religious works, the principal of which is entitled ' Practice of Quietness, directing a Christian to Live Quietly in this Troublesome World.' WEBBE, SAMUEL, a great English musician and composer, was bom in 1740. In his boyhood he was indentured to a cabinet-maker, but after the termination of his apprenticeship he devoted himself entirely to the study of music. At twenty- six years old he gained a gold prize medal for the bertemon from the Catch Club, and from the years 1765 to 1792 he had no fewer than twenty-seven medals awarded to him from the same club for glees, canons, odes, and catches. It was for this club that Webbe composed the famous glee Glori- ous Apollo.' His compositions of the class men- tioned amount to one hundred and seven. He composed, besides masses (he was a Roman Catho- lic) anthems, soncrs, &c, many of w hich are still sung. He died in 1817. [J.M.] WEBBER, John, an ingenious ai-tist, who was appointed draughtsman in the last expedition of Captain Cook ; born in London 1751, died 1793. WEBBER, Z., a Dutch theologian, died 1697. WEBER, Ananias, a German theologian, preacher, and controversial writer, 1596-1765. WEBER, Carl Maria Von, one of the greatest of German musicians, was born at Eutin m Hol- stein, in December, 1786. In 1797 he was taken to Saltzburg and placed under the tuition of Michael Haydn, (brother of the illustrious com- poser), and here he published his first works. Soon after this he went to Munich, where he re- ceived lessons in singing from Valesi, and in com- position from M. Kalcher, under whose supervision he wrote music for an opera ' The Power of Love and Wine.' In 1800 his opera the Wood Maiden ' was brought out, in 1801 ' Peter Schlemihl,' and soon after ' Rubezahl,' which afterwards appeared as the composition of Rode. In 1802 he set out on a professional tour through Germany, and in 1806 he went by invitation to Carlsruhe, where he produced several symphonies and concertos. At Darmstadt he composed his ' Abon Hassan,' and from 1813 to 1816 he was director of the opera at Prague. In 1822 he brought out at Berlin his work, ' Der Freischutz,' which produced an immense sensation in the north of Germany, and wherever it was performed. It was put on in London on the 23d of July, 1824. In November. 1828, Weber produced at Vienna his opera of ' Eurvanthe,' and in 1825 he accepted from Mr. Charles Kemble the offer of 500 to compose an or.era foe the English stage. This opera was 'Oberon,' which was brought out at WEB Covent Garden theatre, conducted by Weber him- self, on the 12th of April, 1826. Soon after unmis- takeable symptoms of pulmonary disease presented themselves, and the health of the great composer sank rapidlv, and his illustrious career closed on the 5th of June, 1826, when he was found lifeless in his bed. He was buried in the Roman Catholic chapel, Moorfields, permission to inter him in St. Paul's cathedral having been refused on account of his religion. [.EM.] WEBER, Emmanuel, a German historian, poet, and jurisconsult, died 1726. WEBER, G., a German savant, 1632-1698. WEBER, Henry William, a miscellaneous writer and archaeologist, was born at St. Peters- burg of German parents in 1783, and having been educated at Edinburgh and Jena for the medical profession, finally settled in Scotland as an author. His principal works are ' Metrical Romances of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Cen- turies,' ' Explication of Northern Antiquities,' ' The Battle of Flodden Field,' and an edition of 1 Beaumont and Fletcher.' Died 1818. [Birth place of Daniel Webster.] WEBSTER, Daniel, was born at Salisbury in the state of New Hampshire, on the 18th of Jan., 1782. He was a child of the wilderness, and but for the New England system of education, which pushed, even then, the means of instruction into remote solitudes, he would never have been en- abled to bring his great faculties to bear in public life. His acquirements were always scanty when compared to the great intellectual force with which he could apply tnem. He studied for the law in the joint capacity of attorney and barrister after the American fashion, and in 1807 removed from the obscure village of Boscawen to a larger field of exertion in Portsmouth, the chief town of the state. He was a great forensic orator, and his career at the bar was connected with many leading cases of great public and constitutional interest. In 1812 he became a member of congress, and at once took up a marked, though not a popular position, as he was opposed to the policy of the war with Britain. In connection with this struggle he was thrown into a contest which, reappearing at intervals, occupied more or less a great portion of his legis- lative exertion. The necessities of the war first suggested large projects for creating a state bank, and an expansive currency, which were opposed by Webster as likely to nourish the American failing 824 5 h WEB of reckless speculation. His policy of watching and adjusting the currency frequently saved the United States from monetary danger, and a remarkable instance of his wise strictness occurred, when by his exertion the payment of revenue in district paper, ever fluctuating, and sometimes 25 per cent, under its nominal value, was abolished, and pav- ments required in States currency. When the ?iuestion of the rechartering of the bank came back or discussion in 1832, he thought that changes in the constitution of the establishment, and in the wealth and population of the country, justified the measure, and he was ranged among its supporters. In 1826 he became a member of the senate, and was rechosen in 1833. From that time he filled for nearly twenty years the state offices nearest to the highest. That he should have been presi- dent, was the natural expectation of other nations, and his disappearance from the scene without having reached that distinction, is one of the in- stances which show that the Americans, perhaps wisely, are jealous of seeing very clever men in that powerful position. Webster died at Boston on the 24th of October, 1852. [J.H.B.] WEBSTER, John, an Engl, dramatist, 17th c. WEBSTER, Noah, the famous American lexi- cographer, was born in 1758, at West Hartford, and was descended from one of the earliest English settlers in that colony. Having studied for the law he was called to the bar in 1781, and devoted the whole remainder of his life to literary and pro- fessional avocations. Besides his ' Dictionary of the English Language,' a work of amazing indus- try and research, he wrote ' Sketches of American Policy,' 'The Grammatical Institute,' and other works. He also conducted one of the dailv papers of New York. Died 1843. WEBSTER, Thomas, a native of the Orkneys, known as professor of geology in the London Uni- versity, and a writer on that science, 1773-1844. Bis ' Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy' may be considered the result of his acquaintance with Count Bumford, in whose researches he participated. WEBSTER, William, an English divine, edi- tor of the Life of General Monk, &c, 1689-1758. # WECKERLIN, G. R., a German poet and poli- tical negotiator, 1584-1651. WECKHERLIN, G. L., a publicist and miscel- laneous writer of Wirtemberg, 1739-1792. WEDDERBUBN. See Rosslyn. WEDEL, C. H., a Prussian general, 1712-1782. WE DEL, George Wolfgang, a German physician and writer of many learned works, 1645- 1721. His son, Stephen Henry, a physician, 1671-1709. J. Adolphus, brother of the latter, same profession, 1675-1748. John Wolfgang, of the same family, a learned botanist, 1708-1757. WEDGWOOD, Josiah, famous for his im- provement of the English pottery manufacture, was born at Newcastle-under-Lyne, where his father was engaged in that branch of business, in 1730. He was well versed in natural philosophy, and produced his valuable results after numerous experiments upon the various kinds of clay and colouring substances, joined to a taste for art. He was the benefactor of his country in many other important matters, more especially in the promo- tion of the grand trunk canal, engineered by Brind- ley, and of a road through the potteries, died 1795. WEL WEENINX, or W r (ENIX, J. B., a Dutch pain- ter, remarkable for the versatility of his powers, 1621-1660. His brother, John, who excelled in hunting pieces and still life, 1644-1719. WEERDT, Adrian De, a Flemish landscape painter, flourished at Brussels, 16th century. WEERDT, Sebald De, a Dutch navigator, who was killed at the isle of Ceylon 1603. WEEVER, or WEVER, John, an industrious antiquarian, supposed to have been born in Lin- colnshire in 1576, died 1632. His work is the well-known 'Funeral Monuments of Great Bri- tain,' originally published in 1631. WEGELIN, James, a native of St. Gall, author of a ' Universal History,' and of a ' Memoir on the Philosophy of History,' 1721-1793. WEICHMANN, C. F., a German writer, author of ' The Unedited Poetical Productions of the Most Celebrated Writers of Lower Saxony,' died 1769. WEIDLER, J. F., a Germ, astron., 1691-1755. WEIGEL, Christian Ehrenfried, a German physician, distinguished as a botanist, last century. WEIGEL, Erhard, an eminent German as- tronomer and mathematician, 1625-1699. WEIGEL, V., a German theologian, 1533-1588. WEILLER, G., a German philosopher, d. 1826. WEIMAR, Anne Amelia, duchess of, daughter of the duke of Brunswick, distinguished by her patronage of literature, died 1807. WEINBREKNER, Frederic, a German archi- tect and friend of Lavater, distinguished as a man of taste and writer on science, 1766-1826. WEINREICH, V., a German savant, 1552-1622. WEISE, C, a German writer, 1642-1708. WEISHAUPT, Adam, a famous name in the history of secret societies, was a professor of canon law in the university of Ingoldstadt. He was born in 1748, and educated among the Jesuits, quarrelling with whom caused him to propose a counter association of the good and enlightened of all nations. The society organized in pursuance of this design, began working in 1776, and was finally known as the Society of Illuminati. In its founda- tion, an endeavour was made to combine all the working advantages and most striking symbols of Freemasonry and Jesuitism ; from the latter, its statutes of implicit obedience, and its espionage was derived ; from the former its order and ritual, but modified by the revolutionary ends which its leaders really proposed. This society was sup- pressed by the elector of Bavaria in 1783, and Weishaupt, quitting Ingolstadt, went to Gotha, where he was honoured with the dignity of Aulic counsellor. He died in 1822, and left several works illustrating the history of the Illuminati, and his views concerning the progress of society, and ' Mo- ral Perfectibility.' The Abbe Barruel and Pro- fessor Robison wrote exaggerated reports of tins and the many similar movements of the period. See further in the article Saint Martin. [I'LR.] WKISS, F. R., a Swiss statesman, 1751-1802. WEISSE, Christian Felix, a miscellaneous German writer and dramatic poet, author of several successful plays, and of songs and odes which are highly spoken of by the German critics. W T eisse likewise acquired great popularity as a writer of works for youth, 1726-1804. WEITZ, J., a Prussian philologist, 1576-1642. WELCHMAN, Edward, a digi.itary of the 825 WEL church, author of an ' Illustration of the Thirty- Nine Articles,' and a 'Defence of the Church of England,' 1665-1739. WELD, Thomas, an English cardinal, whose father, of the same name, was founder of the Ro- man Catholic college at Stoneyhurst, 1773-1S37. WELDON, John, an organist and distinguished ipos of cathedral music, died 1736. WELLER DE MOLSDORF, Jerome, a Ger- man theologian, distinguished for his piety and his connection with Luther, 1499-1572. James, of the same family, an Orientalist and theologian, author of a Greek Grammar, 1602-1664. WEI. LESLEY, Richard Colley W t elles- i.ky, maniuis of, was horn at Dublin on 20th June, 1700. He became in youth a very accomplished scholar and gave in early life greater promise of distinction than his renowned brother the duke of Wellington. He was an active member of the Irish House of Lords until the union, and at the same time had a seat in the English Commons, iironght first into notice by his views on the regency question, which pleased George HI. He received a British peerage as Baron Morning- ton, and the Irish title of marquis of Wellesley. It was in the year 1797 that the career in which he was destined to shine, was opened to him by his appointment as governor-general of India. It seemed at first no favourable prognostic of his career that just after the calamities which had occurred from intrusting a royal duke with the command for which he was unfit, and while a repetition of the same mistake was producing its fruits under the brother of the prime minister, Wellesley passing over veteran officers who had performed great achievements, should intrust high command to his young brother, Arthur. Whether fortuitous or wisely calculated, the result was for- tunate for the British rule in India at a very criti- cal time. The government of Wellesley and his brother's victories form the second great epoch after the operations of Clive and Hastings in the acquisition of the British Indian empire. Though he desired to return earlier, he was prevailed on to remain governor-general until the year 1803. He held several offices after his return, and was from 1821 to 1828 governor-general of Ireland. He died on 20th December, 1842. [J.H.B.] [Pangan Cattle, the birth place of Wellington.] WELLINGTON. Arthur Wellesley. after- WEL wards duke of Wellington, was bom at Dangan Castle in Ireland, on May 1, 1769. Marshal Ncv, Goethe, and several of the greatest men of the age were born in the same year. His father was Lord Mornington, an Irish nobleman, but he was of Norman blood, being lineally descended from the standard-bearer to Henry II. in his conquest of Ireland in the year 1100. His elder brother, who succeeded to the family honours, was a man of great genius and capacity, who afterwards became governor-general of India, and was created Marquis Wellesley. Thus the same family had the extra- ordinary fortune of giving birth to the statesman whose counsel and rule preserved and extended our empire in the Eastern, and the hero whose invin- cible arm saved his country and conquered Napoleon in the Western world. Young Arthur Wellesley, after having received the elements of education at Eton, was sent to the military school of Angers in France to be instructed in the art of war, for which he already evinced a strong predilection. He received his first commission in the army in the 33d regiment, which to this day is distin- guished by the honour then conferred upon it. The first occasion on which he was called into active service was in 1793, when his regiment was ordered abroad, and formed part of the British contingent, wdiich marched across from Ostend under Lord Moira, to join the allied army in Flanders. He bore an active part in the campaign which followed, and distinguished himself so much in several actions with the enemy, that though only a captain in rank, he came at length to execute the duties of major, and did good service in several well-fought affairs of the rear guard in which he bore a part. Though the issue of the campaign was unfortunate, and it terminated in the disastrous retreat through Holland in 1794, yet it was of essential service in training Wellesley to the duties to which he was hereafter to be called, for it was with an army at one time mus- tering 90,000 combatants that he had served; and his first initiation into the duties of his profession was with the great bodies which he was afterwards destined to command, and his first insight into war was on a great scale, to which his own achievements were one day destined to form so bright a contrast. After the return of the troops from Holland, the 33d regiment was not again called into active service till 1799, when it was sent out to India, to reinforce the troops there on the eve of the important war, in which Lord Wel- lesley, his elder brother, who was now governor- general, was engaged with the forces of Tippoo Saib. Young Wellesley went with them, and on his way out his library consisted of two books, which he studied incessantly, the Bible, and Caasar's Commentaries. On landing, his regiment, of which he had now become lieut.-colonel, was so conspicuous for its admirable discipline and the perfection to which the commissariat and all the arrangements connected with it had been brought, that it was specially noticed by General Harris, the commander-in-chief. Previous to the assault of Seringapatam, Tippoo Saib's capital, Wellesley was intrusted with the command of a nocturnal attack on an outwork which proved unsuccessful, from the troops missing their way in the dark and I getting into a deep water-course'which proved M 826 WEL be impassable. General Baird. litrtvever, the second in command, gave him next day an opportunity of renewing the attack, which he did with entire success. His regiment was not engaged in the assault which followed on May 4, when the town was taken ; notwithstanding which, he was next day appointed governor of it, a promotion obvi- ously done to gratify the governor-general, and deservedly felt as an undeserved slight by the gal- lant hero who had conducted and headed the assault. Whatever opinion may be formed on the merits of this appointment, one thing is perfectly clear, that Col. Welleslev immediately gave decisive proof of his entire adequacy to the discharge of the important duties to which he was called. Seringa- patam was. soon put in a respectable position of defence, the disorders consequent on the storm arrested, and the administration of the new dominions acquired for the Company put on the best footing. Ere long he was called to more active duties. Doondiah Waugh, a noted free- booter, having collected 5,000 horse, the wreck of Tippoo's forces, had renewed the war in the upper provinces; and was levying contributions in all quarters from the inhabitants. Col. Wellesley, upon this, put himself at the head of 1,400 horse, partly European and partly native, with which he pursued the Mysore chief. After undergoing incredible fatigues he at length succeeded in com- ing up with him and bringing him to battle. The result was soon settled, Doondiah was defeated and slain, and the first intelligence his partizans received of his death, was by seeing his dead body brought back lashed to a galloper gun. On this occasion, Col. Wellesley charged the Mysore horse in person at the head of the British dragoons. This brilliant achievement was the prelude only to still more important achievements. War having broken out in 1803 between the East India Com- pany and the Mahrattas, General Wellesley, to which rank he had now been promoted, received the command of one of the armies destined to operate against them. After having stormed the strong fortress of Achmednaghur, which lay on the road, he came up with the Mahratta force, 30,000 strong, posted at the village of Assaye. Wellesley's forces, at the moment, did not exceed 4,500 men, of whom only 1,700 were European ; and the half of his army, under Col. Stevenson, was at a distance, advancing by a different road, marated from his own by a ridge of intervening hills. But justly deeming the boldest course in such critical circumstances the most prudent, he took the resolution of instantly attacking the enemy with the small body of men under his im- mediate command. The result showed the wisdom as well as heroism of the determination. After a desperate struggle, in which he himself charged a Mahratta battery at the head of the 74th regiment, the vast army of the enemy, which comprised 18,000 splendid horse, was totally defeated, all their guns, 97 in number, taken, and their army entirely dispersed. It need hardly be said that this great victory had a material effect in breaking the power of the Mahrattas, and compelling them to conclude a most glorious peace, which closed Marquis Wellesley's administration. General Wel- lesley was made a Knight of the Bath for this victory, and he returned to England Sir Arthur WEL Wellesley. His next employment was at the ex- pedition under Lord Cathcart to Copenhagen, in 1807, on which occasion he commanded a division of the army. He was not engaged in the siege, but commanded a corps which was detached against a body of Danes, 12,000 strong, who had collected, in the rear of the British force, in the island of Zealand. They were dispersed without much dif- ficulty by a body of 7,000 men under Sir Arthur Wellesley. After the fall of Copenhagen he returned to England, and was nominated soon after to the command, in the first instance, of an expeditionary force of 10,000 men, which was fitted out at Cork, to co-operate with the Portuguese in rescuing their country from the tyrannic grasp of the French emperor. It was intimated to him, however, that Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew Dairy mple would, as soon as they arrived, supersede him in the com- mand ; and his friends urged him not to accept a subordinate command after having commanded great armies in the East. But Sir Arthur replied in a noble spirit : ' I have, as we say in India, eaten of the king's salt ; and I will serve his majesty in whatever situation he may be pleased to place me, be it supreme or inferior.' The expe- dition set sail in June, 1808, and landed on the coast of Portugal, when they were soon assailed by General Junot, who had marched out of Lisbon, with 19,000 men, to drive him into the sea. The British force consisted of 1G,000, and, as this was the first time the troops of the rival nations had met in the peninsula, great interest was attached to the conflict. The French were defeated after a sharp action ; and Sir Arthur had made prepara- tions to follow up his victory by marching the same evening to Torres Vedras, where he would be between Junot and Lisbon, and would either drive him to a disastrous retreat or force him to surrender. But at this critical moment, when the order had just been despatched for this decisive movement, Sir H. Burrard arrived and took the command. He belonged to the old school, with whom it was deemed enough to fight one battle in one day, and he gave orders to halt. Junot, in consequence, hastened back to Torres Vedras, without losing an hour, and regained the capital. Sir H. Dalrvmple soon afterwards arrived and con- cluded the famous convention of Cintra, by which the French evacuated the whole of Portugal. That convention excited unbounded indignation in Eng- land at the time ; but Sir A. Wellesley justly sup- ported it, for, when the opportunity of cutting off Junot from Lisbon had been lost, it was the best thing that could be done. Next year, still more operations were undertaken. Sir Arthur, who had now been appointed to the sole command of the army in Portugal, landed at Lisbon on April 4, and by his presence restored the confidence which had been much weakened by the disastrous issue of Sir John Moore's campaign in the close of the pre- ceding year. His first operation was to move against Marshal Soult, who had advanced to Oporto, with 20,000 men, and taken that city. By a bold movement he efi'ected the passage of the Tagus, under the very guns of the enemy, and drove the French to so rapid a retreat, that he partook of the dinner which had been prepared for Marshal Soult ! The French general, by 827 WEL retreat into Galicia, but not without sustaining I gnat as Sir John Moore had done in the _- year. He next turned towards Spain, ad having effected a junction with the Spanish general, Cuesta, in Estramadura, their united 0,000 strong, but of whom only 20,000 were English and Portuguese, advanced towards Mad- rid. They were met at Talavera by King Joseph at the head of 45,000 of the best French troops in A desperate action of two days' duration ensued, which fell almost entirely on the English and Portuguese, as the Spaniards, who were 38,000 in number, fled at the first shot. The French were in the end defeated with the loss of 8,000 men and 17 guns; but the fruits of victory were in a great measure lost to the English by the arrival of Marshals Soult, Ney, and Mortier, with the whole forces in the provinces of Galicia, Leon, and Asturias in their rear, which forced them to retreat to the Portuguese frontier. But one last- ing good effect resulted from this movement, that these provinces were liberated from the enemy, who never after regained their footing in them. The year 1810 witnessed the invasion of Portugal by a huge French army, 80,000 strong, under Marshal Massena, which, after capturing the for- tresses of Cuidad Rodrigo, and Almeida, pene- trated into the very heart of that country. Sir Arthur, who had now been created Viscount Wel- lixgti >x, had only 35,000 men under his command, with which, it was impossible to prevent the fall of those fortresses. But he took so strong a posi- tion on the ridge of Busaco that he repulsed, with great slaughter, an attack upon it by two corps of the French army, and when at length obliged to retire, from his flank being turned after the oattle was over, he did so to the position of Torres Vedras, thirty miles in front or Lisbon, which, by the advantages of nature and the resources of art, had been rendered impregnable. Six hundred guns were mounted on the redoubts, which was defended by 60,000 armed men. After wasting five months in front of this formidable banner, the French gen- eral was forced to retreat, which he did closely followed by Wellington to the Spanish frontier. There Massena turned on his pursuer, and he re-entered Spain with a view to bring away the garrison of Almeida, which was now invested ; but he was met and defeated at Fuentes d'Onore by Wellington, and forced to retire without effecting his object to Cuidad Rodrigo. The remainder of the year 1810 and the whole of 1811 passed over without any very important events, although a desperate battle took place in the latter year at Albuera, were Marshal Soult was defeated with the loss of 7,000 men by Marshal Beresford, in an attempt to raise the siege of Badajoz, which Wel- lington was besieging. He was compelled to desist from that enterprise after he had made great progress in the siege by a general concentration of the whole French forces in the centre and south of Spain, who advanced against him to the number or 60,000 men. But, though Wellington with- drew into Portugal on this occasion, it was only soon to return into Spain. In the depth of win- ter he secretly prepared a battering train, which he directed against Cuidad Rodrigo, when Mar- u-my, charged with its defence, was dis- persed in winter quarters, and after a siege of six WEL days, took it by storm in January, 1812. No sooner was this done than he directed his forces against Badajoz, which he also carried by storm, after a dreadful assault, which cost the victors 4,000 men. Directing then his footsteps to the north he defeated Marmont with the loss of 20,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, near Sala- manca ; and advancing to Madrid, he entered that capital in triumph, and compelled the evacuation of the whole of the south of Spain by the French troops. He then turned again to the north, and advanced to Burgos, the castle of which he at- tempted to carry, but in vain. He was obliged again to retire, by a general concentration of the whole French troops in Spain, 100,000 strong, against him, and regained the Portuguese frontier after having sustained very heavy losses during his retreat. The next campaign, that of 1813, was a continual triumph. Early in May, Wellington, whose army had now been raised to 70,000 men, of whom 40,000 were native English, moved for- ward, and driving everything before him, came up with the French army of equal strength, which was concentrated from all parts of Spain in the Plain of Vittokia. The battle which ensued was decisive of the fate of the peninsula. The French who were under King Joseph in person, were totally defeated with the loss of 156 pieces of can non, 415 tumbrils, their whole baggage, and an amount of spoil never before won in modern times by an army. The accumulated plunder of five years in Spain was wrenched from them at one fell swoop. For several miles the soldiers literally marched on dollars and Napoleons which strewed the ground. The French regained their frontier with only one gun, and in the deepest dejection. St. Sebastian was immediately besieged and taken after two bloody assaults, Pampeluna blockaded, and a gallant army, 35,000 strong, which Soult had collected in the south of France to raise the blockade, defeated with the loss of 12,000 men. Wellington next defeated an attempt of the French again to penetrate into France at St. Marcial, and following up his successes, crossed the Bidassoa, stormed the lines they had constructed on the mountains, which were deemed impregnable, and after repeated actions, which were most obstinately contested through the winter, drove them entirely from the neighbourhood of Bayonne, and com pleted the investment of that fortress, while Soult retired with 40,000 men towards Toulouse. Thither he was followed next spring by Wellington, who again defeated him at Orthes in a pitched battle, after which he detached his left wing, under Lord Dalhousie, which occupied Bourdeaux. Tl: main army, under Wellington in person, followed Soult and brought him to action, in a fortified position of immense strength, on the heights of Toulouse. The battle took place four days after peace had been signed, but when it was unknown to the allies ; it graced the close of Wellington's peninsular career by a glorious victory. Honours and emolu ments of all kinds were now showered upon -it- 1... English general. He received a field-marshal's bat from George IV. in return for Marshal Jounlar. taken on the memorable field of Vittoria ; he made a duke on the conclusion of the peace ; ceived the thanks of both Houses of Parliaine and grants at different times to the amount 828 WEL 500,000 to purchase an estate and build a palace. He was chiefly at Paris during the year 1814 con- ducting the negotiations for peace ; but on the return of Napoleon from Elba in March, 1815, he was appointed to the command of the united army of British, Hanoverians, and Belgians, 70,000 strong, formed in the Netherlands, to resist the anticipated attack of the French emperor. The French emperor was not long of making the antici- pated irruption ; on the 15th June, 1815, he crossed the frontier, and drove in the Prussian outposts, with 130,000 men. Next day he attacked the Prussians, under Blucher, with 80,000 ; and dis- patched Ney with 80,000 against Wellington's army, which was only beginning to be concentrated. A desperate action ensued at Quatre Bras, in which the French were at length repulsed with the loss of 5,000 men ; and, on the 18th, Wellington hav- ing collected all his forces at the post of Water- loo, gave battle to Napoleon in person, who was at the head of 80,000 men. His force was onlv 67,000, with 156 guns ; whereas, the French had" 250, and of these troops only 43,000 were English, and Hanoverians, and Brunswickers, who could be relied on, the remainder being Belgians, who ran away the moment the action was seriously engaged. Notwithstanding this great inequality, the British army maintained its ground with invin- cible firmness till seven o'clock, when the arrival of 50,000 Prussians, under Blucher, on Napoleon's flank, enabled Wellington to take the offensive. The result was the total defeat of the French army, with the loss of 40,000 men and 156 guns. Na- poleon fled to Paris, which he soon after left, and surrendered to the English, and Louis XVIII. having returned to his capital : his dynasty, and with it peace, was restored. The allies having determined to occupy the frontier fortresses, with an army of 150,000 men during five years, the command of the whole was bestowed on the duke of Wellington ; thus affording the clearest proof that his was the master mind which had come to direct the European alliance. This high and im- Sortant situation he held for the next three years, uring the whole of which time he discharged its arduous duties with the most consummate wisdom, justice, and discretion. Not only did he retain the entire confidence of the allied sovereigns and re- spect of their soldiers under his command, but he interposed in so efficacious a manner to lighten the enormous burdens laid by the treaty of Paris on France, as to earn the gratitude and receive the thanks of all well-informed persons in that coun- try. Mainly owing to his powerful intercession the period of occupation of the fortresses was shortened from five to three years, and the amount of contributions paid for its support of course pro- portionally lessened. Wellington resigned his eommand, and with it his magnificent appoint- ments in October, 1818, and returned to England, to the retirement of a comparatively private station, terminating thus a career of unbroken military glory by the yet purer lustre arising from relieving the difficulties and assuaging the sufferings of his vanquished enemies. In 1819 he was ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the army, which situation he held during the whole anxious years which followed, and by his able and far-seeing arrangements, contributed in an essential manner WEL to bring the nation without effusion of blood through the long years of distress which followed. In No- vember, 1827, he was, upon the dissolution of Lord Goderich's administration, appointed prime minis- ter, which situation he held till displaced by a hostile vote of the House of Commons, on Novem- ber 30, 1830, when the nation was convulsed by the passion for reform. This terminated his life as a political leader ; but he was again appointed commander-in-chief some years afterwards, which situation he held till his death. The vigour of his intellect and sagacity of his counsels appeared in the uniform success which, during that period, attended the military operations in every part of the globe. He suppressed the Canadian revolt in 1837; faced, undismayed, the Affghanistan disaster in 1841 ; arrayed the forces which again led our standard in triumph to Cabul in 1842; brought the_ Chinese war to a successful issue ; subdued the Sikhs and tribe s of Scindia, and rooted out of their almost impregnable fastnesses the formidable Caffres of South Africa. During all this period his counsels, whether at the head of or out of the cabinet, were uniformly directed to one object, the preserva- tion of European peace, which, mainly owing to his exertions, was preserved unbroken, save by domes- tic tumult, for forty years after his crowning vie tory at Waterloo. And thus the most successful military commander which Europe has produced, put the key-stone to the arch of his fame, by directing his whole energies, after a brief period of energetic warfare, to the preservation of the bless- ings and cultivation of the virtues of peace. His long and honoured life, after having been prolonged beyond the usual period of human existence, at length drew to a close. He had, some years before his death, alarming symptoms in his head ; so often the consequence of long- continued intellectual effort; but by strict abstemiousness and perfect regularity of life, he succeeded in subduing the dangerous symptoms, and he was enabled to con- tinue and discharge his duties regularly at the Horse Guards till the time of his death, which took place on September 18, 1852, at the advanced age of eighty-three years. He was honoured with a public funeral, and buried in St. Paul's, in the most magnificent manner, beside Nelson. The queen and all the noblest in the land were there ; a mil- lion of persons witnessed the procession, which went from the Horse Guards, by Apsley House, Piccadilly, and the Strand, to St. Paul's, and not a head was covered, and few eyes dry, when the procession appeared in the streets. Wellington was only once married. He left two sons, the eldest of whom succeeded to his titles and estates, the fruits of his transcendant abilities and great 1)atriotic services. The leading feature of his intel- ect was wisdom and sagacity ; of his moral charac- ter, a conscientious discharge of duty. In genius he was inferior to many, in foresight and just dis- crimination, to none. He was not gifted with the power of oratory, and had considerable difficulty in expressing his opinions ; but such was the solidity of his judgment and the strength of his under- standing, that what he said never failed to com- mand attention, and, for the last twenty-five years of his life, he exercised an undisputed ascendency in the House of Lords. In private life he was simplicity itself ; his habits were regular, his life 829 WEL abstemious ; he was punctual in keeping appoint- ed as.siaiu.us in the discharge of every dutv. Without any habits of ostentation he could, on fitting occasions, exhibit a Bplendotn becoming his rank ; and his simple habits enabled him to bestow innumerable sums on deserving objects, and l of greet numbers of his brethren in arms. Without asserting that he was free from all the failings common to the children of Adam, it may safely be affirmed that, as be was the greatest general recorded in British, and one of the greatest in European story, so he was one of the most immaculate characters winch has adorned the annals of his country. [A.A.] [Walter Castle] WELLS, Charles William, born of Scotch parents at Charlestown, in South Carolina, and settled as a physician in London, author of several physiological works, and of an Essay on Dew, the theory of which is now admitted, 1753-1817. WELLS, E., a learned divine, 1664-1727. WELLWOOD, Sir H. Moncrkiff, an eminent divine and pastor of the Scottish Church, 1750-1H27. WELLWOOD, Thomas, a Scottish physician, author of 'Memoirs of English Affairs from 1588 to the Revolution,' 1652-1716. WELSCH, C. J., a German philologist, 1624-78. WELSER. See Velser WELSTED, Leonard, one of the heroes of Pope's Dunciad, known as a poet and miscellaneous writer, born in Northamptonshire 1689, died 1747. WENCESLAUS, the name of several dukes and kings of Bohemia : Wenceslaus L, duke, 907- 936. Wenceslaus II., succeeded his uncle, Con- rad, 1191, and was driven from the throne three months afterwards by Przemislas, died in prison 1194. W'enceslaus III., as duke, or the jtrst as king, son of Przemislas Ottocar I., was born 1205, and associated in the government with his father in 1228. He began to reign alone in 1230, died 1253. Wenceslaus IV. or IL, succeeded to the throne of Bohemia 1283, elected king of Poland in opposition to Uladislaus IV. 1300, and king of Hungary 1301. He ceded the latter dignity to his son, and died 1305. Wenceslaus V. or III., son of the preceding, became king of Hungary when twelve years of age 1301, and ceded that country to Otho IV., when his father's death called him to the government of Bohemia in 1305 ; assassinated WER 1306. Wenceslaus VI. or IV., king of Boher and emperor of Germany, was the son of the e peror Charles IV., and was born 1359. He si ceeded to his father in 1378, but his cruelties debaucheries desolated the kingdom and led, 1394, to his deposition. This time he sui in re-establishing his authority, but in 1400 he solemnly deprived of the title of emperor, remained king of Bohemia only, till his death 1419. It was towards the close of his reign the wars of John Huss and Zisca broke out. WENCESLAUS, duke of Saxonv, succeeded brother, Rodolph IL, 1370, killed 1388. WENDELIN, Godfrey, a German asti mer, geometrician, and Latin poet, 1580-1600, WENGIERSKI, Andrew, the most celebra of four brothers, rendered famous by their zeal for the spread of Socinianism in Poland, 1600-1649. WENTWORTH. See Strafford. WENTZEL, J. C, a Ger. musician, 1059-1723. WENZEL, C. F., a German chemist, 1740-93. WEPFER, J. J., a German anatomist, 1620-95. WEPPEN, J. A., a Ger. dramatist, 1742-1810. WERDMULLER, John Rodolph, a Swiss landscape and flower painter, 1639-1668. WERDUM, Ulrich Van, a Dutch statesman s and historical writer, died 1681 WEREMBERT, a monk of St. Gall, distin- guished as a Latin poet and musician, died 884. ?, wi IF* in I;::.,;: WERENFELS, S., a German divine, 1651-1740. ^ WERF. See Vanderwerff. WERKMEISTER, Andrew, a German com- poser and writer on music, 1645-1706. WERNER, Abraham Gottlob, a distin guished mineralogist and geologist, was born at r t| Wehlau in Upper Lusatia, in 1750. He died in \\ 1817. His father was connected with an iron foundry, and the young Werner, having minerals m given to him as playthings, became familiar with * their names from his earliest childhood.. He w educated in the school of mines at Freyberg Saxony, and eventually became professor of mi eralogy and inspector of the mineralogical cabir there. He has conferred great benefit on the a ence of mineralogy by introducing a preci methodical language, well adapted for the descri tion of minerals, and has rendered much the sai service to it as Linnams did by his Terminology botany. As a geologist, he is the father of Neptunian theory, and however liable he is to charge of very grave errors, he has done vast g to the science by his causing it to be studied mo; systematically than it ever had been before. F< naturalists who have written as little as Werner, have enjoyed a higher reputation. As a mine: logist, the late Dr. Murray of Edinburgh used t prefer him to Haiiy. As a geologist, ProfesfJ Jameson ranks him as one of the first that ha ever appeared. His reputation appears to us oJ the present day much exaggerated. He lectured * with great zeal, assiduity, and success; and though " he has left few works behind him, he had the pie;.- ' sure of seeing a host of ardent pupils rising around W him, who by their writings and labours have ex- f tended his fame and spread a knowledge of the principles he taught throughout all Europe. A \ mineral has been named in honour of him, Wer- $L nerite. [W.B.] * WERNER, J., a Swiss painter, 1637-1710, 830 WEB ! WERNER, Paul Von, a Prussian general, dis- tinguished at the battles of" Prague and Breslau, 1707-1785. j WERNER, Zacharias, the son of a professor Li Konigsberg, was born there in 1768. The ill [egulated life" of this eccentric man of genius falls lito two stages, surprisingly unlike each other. In the first, extending from his twenty-fifth year \p his forty-third, he was, in alternate fits, a man If business, a dramatic poet, and a profligate : he btained, and threw up, official appointments under he Prussian government : he married three times, nd was three times divorced. In 1811 he became Roman Catholic, received priest's orders, preached ith great applause at Vienna during the Congress f 1814, and, in spite of extravagant oddities, was a opular orator in the pulpit till his death in 1828. Us Dramas have a gloomy impressiveness, both of nagination and passion, which (for some of us at ;ast) it is difficult to resist ; but they are full of oarse and hideous exaggeration, and of an am- itious mysticism with which he invests alike eligion and history, human conduct and his hobby f freemasonry. In his works, indeed, as in the enor of his life, there is much that can hardly be econciled with the supposition of sanity. The lost popular and least obscure of his works is his arrowing domestic tragedy, ' The Twenty-fourth f February.' In others he celebrates Attila, outlier, the Destruction of the Templars, and he Conversion of Pomerania by the Teutonic [nights. [W.S.1 WERNHEE, John Balthaser, Baron Von, a erman jurisconsult and publicist, died 1742. His ephew, M. Godfrey, a jurist, 1716-1794. WERNICKE, C, a German poet, died 1720. WERNSDORFF, Gottlob, and his son of the ame name, distinguished as philologists, the for- ler 1668-1729, the latter 1710-1774. WERNSDORFF, E. F., a second son of the receding, a learned historian of Syria, 1718-1782. WESLEY, John, great grandfather of the lethodist leader, was a clergyman of the Church f England, in the reign of Charles II. He received is education at New Inn, Oxford, and having listinguished himself by his piety, as well as his earning especially his attainments in Oriental iterature he secured the favour and patronage of )r. Owen, the vice-chancellor of the university. laving taken orders, he obtained the living of Jlandford, in Dorsetshire, and was ejected or nonconformity. Continuing still to preach, le suffered imprisonment four successive times. lis spirit being broken by the hardships and per- ecution to which he was subjected, he died at the arly age of thirty -four, at the village of Preston ; nd" such was the spirit of the times, that the .uthorities would not allow his body to be buried a the church of Preston. John Wesley married niece of Thomas Fuller, the church historian. [R.J.] WESLEY, Samuel, father of the celebrated lergyman of that name, was a minister of the "hurch of England, who held the livings of toworth and Wroote, in Lincolnshire, in 1700. le was a devoted and very pious, as well as learned lan. The country town over which he was ppointed, was noted for profligacy and vice : and he zeal with which he performed his sacred duties as so offensive to many of the wicked inhabitants, WES that they long meditated some plan of revenge. At length they set fire to the rectory. It was with the greatest difficulty the family were rescued, and the first act of the pious father on finding his children assembled in safety on the green before the blazing edifice, was to kneel down m the midst of the crowd, and give thanks to God for the deliverance. Mr. Wesley had some strong peculi- arities of opinion ; amongst which we may mention as the chief", that he was a most zealous advocate of the revolution. His wife was a violent partizan of the Stuart family: and this opposition of senti- ment produced so much domestic discord, that Mr. Wesley left his family and parish for some years, till the reign of Anne brought about a reconcili- ation. On the accession of" the Hanoverian family, the dissensions broke out afresh in the Epworth rectory, as M rs. Wesley refused to acknowledge their right to the throne. And then there occurred an incident which produced an extraordinary sensation throughout the country in 1716, under the name of the Epworth ghost. It consisted of some strangely mysterious noises that were made when the family were at prayers, and especially when they came to the supplications for King George and the prince. It is now generally believed to have been a Jacobite trick, which the servants or neigh- bours resorted to, in order to frighten old Wesley from his political allegiance. Mr. Wesley was the author of several works both in prose and poetry. The principal of these were, a ' Life of Christ ' in verse, ' The Histories of the Old and New Testaments' in verse, ' Elegies on Queen Mary and Archbishop Tillotson,' and ' Dissertations on the Book of Job.' He died April, 1734. [R.J.] WESLEY, Samuel, son of the former^ was born at Epworth, 1692. Although he was four years old before he could speak, he displayed great quickness and aptitude for learning, distinguish- ing himself to a very uncommon degree by his classical attainments, first at Westminster, and afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford. From Christ Church he returned to Westminster, in the capacity of usher ; and there took orders under the patronage of Bishop Atterbury. Having strongly imbibed his mother's political opinions, he assailed the administration of Sir Robert Walpole, with satirical abuse ; and rendered himself so obnoxious to the ministry, that when the office of under-master became vacant, and he was proposed as in all respects well qualified to fill it, the appointment was refused. Finding promotion at Westminster hopeless, he accepted the mastership of Tiverton school. Samuel was a religious man, but of sound and sober judgment. He disapproved of much both in the sentiments and conduct of his brothers, and for many years they never met. He died in 1739, in firm and unalterable communion with the Church of England. [R.J.] WESLEY, John, the great founder of the Arminian branch of methodists, was bom at Epworth, Lincolnshire, on 17th June, 1703. His father, the rector of that place, was a man whose great piety and zealous administration of discipline excited against him the hostile feelings of his parishioners. Their malignity drove them to the wicked purpose of setting fire to the rectory at midnight, and little Johnny Wesley, then a very young boy, was literally plucked as a brand from the 831 WES burning. The domestic education he received was strict lv of a religious character, and under the in- structive influence of his mother especially, his heart was earlv imbued not only with the know- ledge, but the "fear of the Lord. Having received ate of classical education at Charter House school, he was entered at the age of seventeen a student of Christ's Church, Oxford. While at that seat of learning, he became member of a private society consisting of a few young men of congenial piety, whose number amounted to fifteen, and who attracted great notice by the austerity of their manners and the fervour of their piety. Their meetings for social prayer and religious converse were held in Wesley s chambers they formed the purpose of partaking of the communion together once, as well as fasting twice a-week. From these objects of personal improvement, they ere long directed their views towards the religious enligh- tenment of the poor; and for that purpose they divided the town into districts, each of the mem- bers charging himself with the voluntary duty of* paying domiciliary visits and maintaining a re- ligions superintendence of the sick and destitute inhabitants. The novelty of such proceedings ex- fosed the young students to much satirical abuse, ut they persevered through good report and bad report, while the ardour they displayed in the prosecution of their studies, together with the honours that most of them gained, disarmed the college authorities of all grounds to complain that they were spending their time in pursuits not strictly academic. On Wesley's completion of his university studies, steps were in the course of being taken by his friends to procure his appointment to be assistant and successor to his aged father in the parish of Epworth. But for conscientious reasons, he declined the offer, and determined to remain at Oxford to diffuse his religious principles amongst the students. In 1735, being in London for the settlement of some family matters, he received from the trustees of the new colony at Georgia an invitation to go out to that settlement as missionary. Having consulted their mother, who advised their acceptance of the offer, John and Charles Wesley embarked for the Georgian settlement on 14th October, 1735. Several of their Oxford associates accompanied them as labourers in the missionary field, and in consequence, being too numerous for that place, Charles with one friend repaired to Frederica, while John settled at Savannah. There he soon gathered a large con- gregation, which continued to flourish for some years, till his vigorous and precipitate measures of discipline raised such a storm of indignation amongst the people, that he was forced to resign. Returning to England, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with the famous Peter Boehler, to whom Wesley himself ascribes the honour of being the agent in his conversion to vital Christianity. _ The date of this marked change in his religious character and views he fixes on 24th May, 1738. Whitfield having about this time returned to England, W T esley joined his standard, and both commenced an active career of field-preaching at Bristol, where also the first methodist chapel was erected, in 1739. Wesley afterwards returned to London, where he per- formed regular public worship in a large building WES in Moorfields. and that place, from its having beei f originally a foundry, was afterwards well knowi ' as the Foundry Church. Wesley's connection wit! i Whitfield was broken by the irreconcileable differ )' ence of their views on fundamental articles o - faith, he espousing Arminianism, while WhitfieL I was steadfast in his adherence to the Calvinisti - system. The rupture between these two grea i : leaders gave a shock to methodism, the effect of which remain to this day. But Wesley was a i undaunted as he was indefatigable. He peram b bulated the country, forming new congregations ii $ many parts; and being now untrammelled by th P] fetters of old or traditionary usage, he employe^ it r the services of lay preachers. The leading feature p of the ecclesiastical system he laboured to establisl Hi may be thus briefly described. The preachers wer i to itinerate, to depend on the gratuitous hospitalit; W of friends to the cause, instead of being provide! m for by a fixed stipend congregations were to b f divided into classes a vigilant inspection estab fc lished over the morals of all weekly meeting P were to be held at which the members of any clas '-' might have an opportunity of expressing thei - wants or describing their religious state and feel l& ings. He and his preachers, at the commence k ment of their itinerant labours, were exposed t fa maltreatment in a variety of ways, but they bor W- all annoyances, whether in the form of bodily in Ml jury or obloquy, with such fortitude and patienc as ere long disarmed the violence of their oppo nents. Wesley was a man of eminent piety an m devoted zeal, and yet in his character severs to blemishes appeared, the principal of which wer m ambition and vanity. He married late in lift p and from the violence and caprice of the lady' m temper, he seems to have made a wrong choice I ] for it proved an unhappy union. Wesley whil p preaching at Lambeth caught cold, which thre\ W him into a fever, and his weakened constitute p being unable to resist its ravages, he fell a victir lit to this malady on the 2d of March, 1791, in th io[ eighty-eighth year of his age, and sixty-fifth c A his ministry. [R.J. n WESLEY, Charles, third son of Samuel, an f i brother of John Wesley, was bora at Epworth W April, 1708. While at Westminster school, a. ili ! Irish gentleman of great fortune, of the name c ffl Charles Wesley., though unknown to the famih If! wrote, proposing to make him his heir; and accord in ingly, for several years the expenses of his edu lla cation were borne by his unseen namesake. I: fl'l course of time, a gentleman, supposed to be thi p Irish patron, waited upon Charles, and urged th t: youth to accompany him, and take up his residenc J] in Ireland. The family having left the young raai t i to act according to his own discretion, Charle Kl intimated his resolution to remain in England ; i: 1 consequence of which, the inheritance destined fo him was given to another, who taking the name c Wesley, or Wellesley, was the first earl of Morning ton, and grandfather of the duke of Wellington 'Had Charles made a different choice,' say Southey, 'there might have been no methodises the British empire in India might still hav been menaced from Seringapatam, and the undis puted tyrant of Europe might have continued t insult and endanger our shores.' Charles wen with his brother John to Oxford, took an activ 832 WES part in the meetings of their religious association at that university, and accompanied him on the missionary expedition to the Georgian settlement. At the Savannah, however, the brothers took different courses. Charles parted with his brother there, and in company with Ingham, one of his Oxford comrades, repaired to Frederica. The rigid discipline, however, he established at that settlement, disgusted the people ; and although he laboured incessantly for their spiritual welfare, yet having pursued measures for which the people could only have been gradually reconciled, espe- cially concerning the observance of Sabbath, and the rule of admission into communion with the church, he was at length obliged to leave. Charles returned to England, and having become acquaint- ed with Peter Bcehler, the Moravian, an entire change was produced on his religious views and feelings. He dated his conversion on 24th May, 1738 : and that has ever been considered a remark- ible day in the history of methodism. Having sstablished himself in London, he preached for a while to large congregations in Blackheath : but iisorders and confusion occurred there as formerly it Georgia, and Charles now commenced a course of itinerant preaching. While itinerating in York- shire, he was taken up, on suspicion of being a Jacobite, but having satisfactorily proved that he had merely used some scriptural expressions in a spiritual sense, without the remotest reference to ;he Pretender, he was acquitted. But this accus- ation tended to increase the obloquy under which ;he methodist leaders lay ; and on several occasions, Charles and his friends were exposed to great trouble and danger. The history and public iibours of Charles Wesley have been anticipated in ibe previous notice of his brother John. He named in the forty-first year of his age, Miss Sarah Guynne ; and after this event, he gradually iiscontinued his itinerating, to perform the duties, md enjoy the comforts of domestic fife. Latterly, lis opinions differed considerably from those of his >rother, especially regarding the evil tendency of ;he band-meetings, and other parts of the metho- iist discipline. Charles had a warm, poetical ancy, and wrote some beautiful hymns. He died a 1788. [R. J.] WESSEL, John, in Latin Wesselus, professor )f philosophy and theology at Cologne, celebrated is an adversary of the Realists, and the forerunner if Luther, born at Groningen 1419, died 1498. WESSELEY, Hartwig, a Jew of Copenhagen, famous for his Hebrew poetry, moral treatises, and commentaries on the Bible, 1723-1805. WESSELING, Peter, a distinguished German Bcholar and philologist, 1692-1764. WEST, Benjamin, P.R.A., was born at Spring- field in Pennsylvania, October 10, 1738. He Bommenced his career as a portrait painter at Philadelphia, he then removed to New York, and in 1760 visited Italy, where he remained about three years. In 1763 he visited England, and iras induced to remain in this country, through the many valuable connections which he formed here. West was introduced to George III. by Dr. Drum- mond, the archbishop of York, and he was almost angrossed by the king from the year 1767 until 1802, when he lost the patronage of the court through the illness of the king. He then com- WES menced his series of great religious pictures, to which he now chiefly owes his reputation. Of his earlier works, the ' Death of General Wolfe' is the most celebrated ; in this picture he introduced the sensible innovation of dressing men in their own clothes; painters had previously as a rule, very absurdly used the Roman costume on all historic occasions, a custom not a whit less foolish than dressing the Greeks and Romans in the costume of modern times ; the latter absurdity may indeed, at least, rest on the plea of ignorance of the real cos- tume. To account for such a fact at present, as that Sir Joshua Reynolds should have endeavoured to persuade West to dress Wolfe in the uniform of a Roman general of 2000 years back, defies reason. West deserves the profoundest gratitude of pos- terity, if it be just to identify such a revolution from the absurd to the rational with his individual efforts. He succeeded Reynolds as president of the Royal Academy in 1792 ; he died March 11, 1820, in his eighty-second year, and was buried in St. Paul's. (Gait, Life and Studies of Benjamin West. London, 1820.) [R.N.W.] WEST, Gilbert, a nephew of Lord Cobham, distinguished as a poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1706, and in 1752 appointed clerk of the privy council, after which he became treasurer of Chelsea Hospital. His principal works are his original Poems, a version of Pindar, and Observa- tions on the Resurrection. He was on intimate terms with Dr. Doddridge. Died 1756. WEST, James, a connoisseur in antiquities, whose collection of MSS. is now in the British Museum, president of the Royal Society from 1768 to his death in 1772. WEST, R., a learned lawyer, died 1726. WEST, Thomas, a Jesuit of Lancashire, author of a | History of Furness Abbey,' 1716-1779. WE STALL, Richard, a famous water-colour painter and designer, was born in 1765, and ap- prenticed in London to an engraver of heraldry. He commenced his career as an artist in 1786, being then on intimate terms with Lawrence ; and at the close of his life gave lessons to her present majesty, then Princess Victoria. His celebrity rests on his beautiful illustrations of Milton, Shak- speare, and Moore's Loves of the Angels. Died 1836. William, his younger brother, also an artist, is distinguished by his numerous illustra- tions of the picturesque, supplied to the booksellers, and collected in his own tours, 1782-1850. WESTERBAAN, Jacob, a Dutch priest, trans- lator of the Psalms, and author of Poems, 17th c. WESTERMANN, F. J., a French officer, dis- tinguished in the army of Dumouriez and after- wards in La Vendee; executed with the Dan- tonists 1794. WESTON, Elizabeth Jane, an English lady settled at Prague in Bohemia, and ranked with the poe'ts and Latin scholars of the 16th century. WESTON, Stephen, an Oriental scholar, who became rector of Manhead, in Devonshire, but re- signed his living to devote himself to literary pur- suits, author of Translations from the Chinese and Persian, a Chinese Dictionary, and several other works in philology, 1747-1830. WESTON, T., a comic actor, died 1776. WESTON, W., a learned divine, died 1760. WESTPHAL, E. C, a German j mist, 1737-92. 833 3H WES WESTPHAL, J., a Germ, theologian, 1510-71. WETHERElii, Sin Chari.es, an eminent lawver, who became attorney-general under the administration of the duke of Wellington, was born in 1770. At the period of the Reform Bill, he held the office of recorder at Bristol ; and his opposition to that measure nearly cost him his lite in the riots of 1831. His death, in 1846, was occasioned by concussion of the brain, produced by falling from his carriage. ' WETSTEIN, John Rodolth, a Swiss magis- trate, statesman, and writer on diplomacy, 1594- 1666. The second of the name., son of the preced- ing a theologian and classical scholar, 1614-1684. The third, son of the latter, a theologian and Greek scholar, 1647-1711. John Henry, a second son, a printer of classical editions, established at Am- sterdam, 1649-1726. C. Anthony, son of John Henry, a Dutch scholar and poet, 1743-1797. John James Wetstein, a theologian and philo- logist, well known for his labours on the New Testament, was also a member of this family. His ' Prolegomena' to a new edition of the Greek Tes- tament was published in 1730, and in 1751 the text itself was given to the world with every varia- tion that he had discovered, and his critical re- marks. Died in the sixty-first year of his age, 1754. WETZEL, J. C. F., a Ger. Hellenist, 1762-1810. WETZEL, J. G., a German writer, 1691-1755. WEWTTZER, R., a comic actor, 1748-1824. WEYSE, Christopher Ernest Frederic, a famous musical composer, was born at Altona, in 1774, and died in 1842. He excelled chiefly in oratorios and sacred music; but he composed a vast number of songs, which became highly popular among the Swedish peasantry. WEZEL, J. C., a German novelist, 1747-1800. WHALLEY, Peter, an English critic and divine, author of 'An Essay on the Method of Writing History,' ' An Inquiry into the Learning of Shakspeare,' an edition of Ben Jonson, and a 4 Vindication of the Evidences and Authenticity of the Gospel from the Objections of Lord Boling- broke,' 1722-1791. WHARTON, G., an Eng. astronomer, 1617-81. WHARTON, Henry, a learned divine, to whom we are indebted for valuable illustrations of our ecclesiastical history, 1664-1695. WHARTON, Thomas, an eminent physician and professional writer, b. in Yorkshire, 1610-73. WHARTON, Thomas, marquis of, eldest son of Philip, Lord Wharton, distinguished as a stren- uous opponent of the court in the reigns of Charles II. and James II., and as a Whig statesman under the administration of Lord Godolphin ; born about 1640, d. 1715. The revolutionary ballad of 'Lilli- bullero,' is attributed to him. His son, Philip, duke of Wharton, was an unprincipled politician, and turned about without scruple from the cause of the pretender to that of George I. He was a brave soldier, however, and wrote some poems and miscellaneous pieces which have been published. Died 1731. WHATELY, W., a puritan divine, 1583-1639. WHEAKE, D., a Cornish historian, 1573-1647. M HEATLEY, Charles, a vicar of Hereford- shire, au. of ' A Rational Illustration of the Book of Common Prayer,' and other works, 1686-1742. WHEATLEY, Francis, a self-instructed por- 834 Will trait painter, who excelled also in the delineation of domestic scenes, 1747-1801. WHELER, or WHEELER, Sir George, scholar and divine of the Church of England, who was born at Breda in Holland, where his parents were living in exile, 1650. After travelling Greece and Asia Minor he entered the church, anil obtained some rich preferments ; the chapel known by his name in Spitaltields was built at his ex pense on the estate belonging to him. His works consist of his ' Travels,' a highly valued produc- tion, ' The Protestant Monastery,' containing direc- tions for the religious conduct of a family, and ' An Account of the Churches and Places of Assembly of the Primitive Christians.' Died 1724. WHETHAMSHEDE, John, an abbot and chronicler of St. Albans, who lived to be more than a hundred years old ; ordained 1382, died 1464. WHICHCOTE, Benjamin, a philosophical divine of great influence in his day, was bom Shropshire, 1610, and died at the house of hi* friend, Dr. Cadworth, in 1683. He belonged t( what is called the Latitudinarian party. Beside his Sermons, we possess his ' Observations anc Apothegms,' published by one of his pupils in 1688 and ' Moral and Religious Aphorisms,' which ap peared for the first time in 1703. His Sermon were first given to the world by the earl of Shaftes- bury. WHISTON, William, well known as a divin and natural philosopher, was born at Norton i: Leicestershire, where his father was rector, in 1667 Having taken orders he became chaplain to th bishop of Norwich, and in 1696 published his firs work, entitled ' A New Theory of the Earth, froi its Original till the Consummation of All Things In 1698 he became rector of Lowestoft in Suffbll and in 1703 succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as pre fessor of mathematics, but seven years later, wi expelled the university on a charge of Arianisn He published several other works, and amon others a translation of Josephus, and his owi Memoirs. Died 1752. WHITAKER, Edward, a clergyman a schoolmaster of the Church of England, author 4 A General and Connected View of the Prophecies 1 Family Sermons,' &c, born 1750. WHITAKER, John, a clergyman of Comwaj well known for his learned writings on antiquaru and historical subjects ; born at Manchester abo' 1735, died 1808. Among his works are a ' Hi| tory of Manchester,' ' Genuine History of t Britons Asserted,' ' The Origin of Arianism,' ' Tl Real Origin of Government,' ' Mary Queen of S Vindicated,' ' Course of Hannibal over the Alp: ' The Life of St. Neot,' ' Histories of London a: Oxford,' besides Sermons, Poems, and various tical papers. WHITAKER, Thomas Durham, rector Whalley and Blackburn, author of several anl quarian works, and an edition of the Visions Piers Ploughman, 1759-1821. WHITAKER, William, a Calvinistic divine great eminence, born at Burnley, in Lancashi 1547. He was an active party to the religio disputes of his age, and was called by Cardii Bellarmine, the most learned heretic he had read. Died 1595. WIIITBREAD, Samuel, son of the eminf WHI brewer of that name, distinguished as a politician, was born in 1758, and was married in 1789 to Elizabeth, eldest daughter of the first Earl Grey. His career in parliament dates from 1790 to his death in 1815, and was marked by his impeach- ment of Lord Melville. He was a zealous Whig. He died in the year mentioned by his own hand. WHITBY, Daniel, a learned controversial divine, whose commentary on the New Testament is still held in high estimation, 1638-1726. WHITE, Joseph Blanco, a Spanish gentle- man of Irish descent, who became convinced of the eiTors of popery at the age of fifteen, while being educated as a Roman Catholic priest. He came to England in 1810, and devoted himself to literature, chiefly through the magazines and peri- odical press, 1775-1841. WHITE, Rev. Gilbert, a good naturalist and pleasing writer, was born at Selborne in Hamp- ihire, in 1720. He died in 1793. He was edu- jated at Oxford ; and was elected a fellow of Oriel College ; took his degree of M.A., and was ap- winted one of the senior proctors of the university. 3e soon left Oxford, and possessing a quiet, unam- atious disposition, a great love for the study of lature, and a particular attachment to the charms >f rural scenery, he fixed his residence in his na- ive village of Selborne. Nor could any offers vhich were made to him of settling upon a college iving, tempt him from his beloved retreat, but lere, in the enjoyment of competence and learned iase, he spent his days in serene tranquillity, be- oved by his neighbours and in correspondence with nany of the most learned antiquarians and natur- ii ilists of the day. In 1789 he published his Na- j. ural History of Selborne. The minute exactness fe f the facts contained in it, the good taste dis- i ilayed in their selection, and the elegance and the I iveliness with which they are described, render m his work exceedingly interesting and instructive, t nd make it one of the most generally popular r ooks on natural history ever written. It has gone hrough various editions, and still holds its popu- n iirity with all who can relish accurate descriptions ( f the habits of domestic animals, birds, and insects, es >y which they are surrounded. [W.B.] WHITE, Henry, a clergyman and literary al haracter of Lichfield, died 1836. ia WHITE, Henry Kirke, one of those many ffl ights that have been extinguished prematurely, is fe eeply interesting on account of his early struggles th nd the amiability and piety of his character. If H le had survived long enough for active usefulness, cot e might have been an invaluable clergyman ; but Ijis ; is difficult to believe that he would ever have aD een a distinguished poet. He was born in 1785, fl t Nottingham, where his father was a butcher. [is zeal for study in boyhood was not damped, 1 i ither by a succession of manual employments, or mt y the drudgery of an attorney's desk, at which he i ras by and by placed. Contributions to small eriodicals encouraged him to print, in 1803, a t olume of poems, which was severely reviewed, hi ut made him favourably known to Southey and j tber men of eminence. His religious opinions ia nd feelings had now taken a very serious turn ; nd Mr. Simeon, with the aid of his friends, pro- ured for him a sizarship in St. John's College, il Sambridge. In both of his two years at the uui- WHI versity, he distinguished himself eminently ; but the severity of the labour wore him out. He died in 1806, in his twenty-first year. Southey edited his 'Remains,' prefixing a very beautiful memoir. [W.S.I WHITE, James, a miscellaneous writer and novelist, born in Ireland, died 1799. WHITE, Jeremy, a nonconformist minister, and wr. in favour of universal restitution, d. 1707. WHITE, John, a barrister and political writer of the commonwealth period, commonly called Century White, from his principal publication; this work bears the following expressive title, 'The First Century of Scandalous Malignant Priests, Made and Admitted into Benefices by the Prelates ; or, a Narrative of the Causes for which the Parliament hath Ordered the Sequestration of the Benefices of Several Ministers Complained of before them, for Viciousness of Life, Errors in Doctrine, for Practising and Pressing Superstitious Innovations against Law, and for Malignancy against the Parliament.' Born in Pembrokeshire 1590, died 1645. WHITE, John, usually called ' The Patriarch of Dor chesler, J was a puritan divine, highly esteemed for his eloquence and piety, 1574-1648. WHITE, or WHYTE, John, a catholic divine, created bishop of Winchester by Mary, 1511-1560. WHITE, Joseph, a divine" of the Church of England, in high repute as an Oriental scholar, was born at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, 1746, and died 1814. He obtained great credit and preferment for his Bampton lectures, which, it was afterwards discovered, had been composed principally by Mr. Badcock, once a dissenting minister, further aided by contributions in Greek literature from Dr. Parr. His other works are ' Observations on Certain An- tiquities of Egvpt,' a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' &c. WHITE, 6V VITUS, Richard, a Roman Catholic professor and canonist, author of a Latin History of the British Islands, died 1612. WHITE, Robert, an engraver, 1645-1704. WHITE, Thomas, an English Aristotelian philosopher and catholic, known as a friendly dis- putant with Hobbes and Descartes, died 1696. WHITE, Thomas, the founder of Zion College in London Wall, and other charities designed to promote learning, was a native of Bristol. He commenced his public career as vicar of St. Dun- stan's, Fleet-Street, in 1575, and died 1624. The college and alms-house were built on the site of Elsynge priory, then in ruins, 3,000 being left by him for that purpose. WHITE, Sir Thomas, founder of St. John's College, Oxford, was a rich citizen and mayor of London. He was born at Reding in 1492. His mayoralty dates in the year of Wyatt's rebellion, and for his services at that crisis he received the honour of knighthood. Died 1566. WHITFIELD, George, founder of the Calvin- istic methodists, was a native of Gloucester, in the Bell Inn of which town, his father being a tavern- keeper, he was born 16th December, 1714. His father having died while George was yet young, the boy's education devolved solely on his mother, whose pious instructions and example had a powerful influence in imbuing his infant mind with strong religious impressions. Having resolved to cultivate the superior talents with which she saw 835 Will George was endowed, she sent him to a classical school. At the age of fifteen he had distinguished himself by the accuracy, extent of his knowledge, and taste' in Greek and Roman literature. But his mother not succeeding in the hotel, and becom- ing reduced to poverty, the progress of George's education was stopped, and being driven to under- take some menial place about the establishment, his manners and morals were much injured by his association with irreligious servants. Happily his impressions revived, and having been confirmed lie received for the first time the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. His mother's circumstances improving, she sent him to Pembroke College, Oxford, and there he joined in forming a small select society for mutual improvement in religious knowledge and personal piety along with the Wesleys and a few college contemporaries of kindred spirit. Dr. Benson, bishop of Gloucester, who was acquainted with his rare talents and piety, resolved to grant him ordination, and the solemn ceremony was performed at Gloucester, on 20th June, 1736. His first sermon, preached on the following Sabbath, produced an extraordinary sensation. From Gloucester he went to London, where he preached alternately in the chapel of the Tower and at Ludgate prison every Tuesday. In 1737 he joined his friends the Wesleys as a mis- sionary at the Georgian settlement. But he had only been four months resident there, when he returned to England both to obtain priest's orders and to raise subscriptions for erecting an orphan house iu that settlement. On his arrival in Lon- don, he found an outcry raised against him on account of methodism. Bishop Benson disregarded it, and ordained him a priest. But he was denied access to the pulpits of many old friends ; and hence he commenced the practice of open-air preaching in Moorfields, Kennington, and Black- heath, and other quarters, where his ministrations were attended by vast crowds. Having raised a fund of 1,000 for his orphanage, Whitfield re- turned in 1739 to the American continent. At Sa- vannah immense crowds repaired to hear him, and extraordinary scenes of excitement were enacted. On 25th March, 1740, he laid the first brick of the orphan asylum, and when the building was com- pleted, he gave it the name of Bethesda. Although his ministry was very successful at Savannah, he sighed for his native land ; and accordingly in 1741, he returned once more to Britain, where he continued with indefatigable diligence to preach the gospel. In prosecution of that object, he made a tour through England, Wales, and Scot- land, preaching in many places, and always in the open air, to immense crowds. While in Wales, he married Mrs. Jones, a widow to whom he had long cherished a warm attachment ; and shortly after his marriage, he repaired to London, where, it being winter, some of his admirers erected a wooden shed in which he preached. To this fragile structure, he gave the name of the taber- nacle, and it was the scene of some extraordinary awakenings. The journeys and voyages of this indefatigable minister amount to a number al- most incredible. He has stated in his memo- randum book, that ' from the time of his ordina- tion to a period embracing thirty-four years, he preached upwards of 18,000 sermons, crossed the WHI Atlantic seven times, travelled thousands of mild both in Britain and America;' and when hi strength was failing, he put himself on what h termed ' short allowance,' viz., preaching only one in every day of the week, and three times on th Sabbath ! Whitfield was no common preachei Parties of the most opposite character and prin ciples, such as Franklin, Hume, and John Newtor have united in bearing testimony to the beaut and effectiveness of Whitfield's pulpit orator; The death (in 1770), of this eminent servant c God was sudden, having been produced by a col caught while preaching at Portsmouth, and fo lowed by a severe attack of asthma, which put period to the life and labours of one of the moi devoted and successful ministers of Christ sine the days of the apostles. [R.J WHITEHEAD, D., an eminent divine, d. 157 WHITEHEAD, G., a eel. Quaker, 1636-1725 WHITEHEAD, John, a methodist physic* who attended Wesley in his last illness, preach his funeral sermon, and wrote ' Memoirs ' of h life, died 1804. WHITEHEAD, P., a satiric poet, 1709-1774, WHITEHEAD, William, successor of Cibb as poet-laureate, author of ' The Roman Fathe ' The School for Lovers,' ' Friendship,' and oth compositions of considerable merit; he was friend of Mason, who wrote his life, 1715-1785. WHITEHURST, John, a philosophical writ and maker of instruments, 1713-1788. WHITELOCK, Bulstrode, an eminent la' yer and friend of Cromwell, was the son of * James Whitelock, lord chief justice of the Kin; Bench, and was born in London in 1605. ] was one of the managers of the trial of Straffo: but took no part in that of Laud or the king, 1656, he was chosen speaker of the House of Co: mons, and in 1659 became president of the counjT of state, and keeper of the great seal. His histo p cal memoirs are highly valued, and Whitelock P greatly eulogized, as to personal character, PI Lord Clarendon. He died after many years' reti : f ment at Chilton Park, in Wiltshire, 1676. WHITGIFT, John, archbishop of Canterbn distinguished as a supporter of the Church of Ei land, was born at Grimsby in Lincolnshire 15 or, according to some authorities, in 1533. was regarded as a great persecutor both of puritans and papists, by their own partizans, Hooker and the episcopalians extol his moderat ^ and proper firmness. He died in 1603, almost fci his last words being ' Pro Ecclesia Dei.' WHITLOCK, Euiz., a famous actress, sit of Mrs. Siddons and the Kembles, 1761-1836. WHITTINGHAM, Sir Samuel Ford, a I tish officer, distinguished in the service of Sp during the peninsular war, died commander- chief at Madras 1841. WHITTINGHAM, William, a puritan div who became dean of Durham in the reign of El: I heth. He destroyed or mutilated manv of antiquities of the cathedral in his zeal a] poperv, 1524-1589. WHITTINGTON, Sir Richard, whose has been rendered popular by the legends cur * about him, the real truth concerning which never been ascertained, was a citizen and me of London. He probably rose from a humble sador from the English court to Peter th inthor of an Account of Russia, 1670-175 WHI ion, like so many others who have filled the magisterial chair. His last mayoralty dates 1419. WHITTINGTON, Robert, author of gram- matical works, long used in the English schools, lourished about 1480-1530. WHITWORTH, Charles, Baron, an ambas- the Great, 25. WHYTT, R., a Scotch physician, 1714-1766. WICHERLY. See Wycherley. WICKHAM. See Wykeham. WICKCLIFF. See Wycliffe. WICQUEFORT, Abraham De, a Dutch diplo- matist, author of Memoirs concerning ambassadors and their functions, 1598-1682. WIEGLER, J. C, a Germ, chemist, 1732-1800. WIELAND, Christopher Martin, a cele- >rated German poet, dramatist, and novelist, of the ast century. He has been called the German Voltaire. His works have been published in 51 rolumes, and embrace essays, tales, poems, histories, ind translations. ' Oberon,' a poetic romance in L2 cantos, is his best known production ; 1733-1813. WIELING, A., a German jurist, 1693-1746. WIER, John, in Latin Wierus, or Piscinarins, i Brabantine physician and writer on demonology and witchcraft, 1515-1588. WIFFEN, Jeremiah Holme, a Quaker poet, mthor of a translation of Tasso, and other popular productions in miscellaneous literature, including \ History of the Russells, 1792-1836. WIGAND, John, a learned divine, 1523-1587. WILBERFORCE, William, Esq., a distin- mished British statesman and Christian philan- thropist, was born in 1759, at Hull. Educated at ;he grammar school of his native town, he was transferred in due time to Cambridge, where his listinguished position as a scholar and a gentle- man is sufficiently indicated by the fact of his king chosen whenever he attained majority, to represent Hull in parliament. For a considerable Sme he was content to remain a silent member of e House of Commons, while at the same time he was a most active and intelligent observer of the onus of that legislative assembly. Reserving him- jelf for some great and important occasion, he mule his debut as a parliamentary orator on the tubject of the slave trade, and in his second session, he introduced a bill for the abolition of the inhuman traffic. The 12th of May, 1789, was the memorable day when that topic was first introduced ; and the journals of that period e unanimous in ascribing much of the interest Connected with the movement to the powerful and ffecting speech with which the bill was prefaced. Jr. Wilberforce was acknowledged both in and out of the house to have earned by that appear- ance, the reputation of one of the most eloquent orators of the age ; and the hearts of all good men in every part of the country implored blessings on the head of him who dared in the highest places of the land to advocate the cause of outraged humanity. A most violent and determined opposi- tion was organized by interested parties. Never- theless in the following year Mr. Wilberforce renewed his motion, and on the plea of insufficient evidence, the opposing party succeeded in procur- ing a postponement of the question. Many men would have been dispirited by these fruitless efforts, WIL and perhaps have relinquished their task in de- spair. But Mr. Wilberforce was not to be daunted. Having taken up his position on the ground of conscientious objection to all trafficking in slaves, he prosecuted the measure with that calm and unyielding determination which is al- ways the fruit of mature thought and strong prin- ciple ; and his patience was put to a severe trial ; for while he renewed his motion every session from 1792, he met with no better success than at first. In 1804, after a cessation for a few years, he brought the subject once more before the notice of a new parliament. But the public mind had made a prodigious advancement towards a better tone of feeling in regard to the slave trade, and the bill passed the third reading in the Lower House. In the Upper House, the consideration of the subject was postponed till the next session. A still more important step in advance was taken when the liberal cabinet in 1806 adopted the bill and threw all the weight of government influence into the scale. It was introduced into the Commons' House at the special request of Wilberforce under the auspices of Fox, and was passed by a majority of 114 to 15, and Lord Granville succeeded in carrying it through the Lords. But Mr. Wilber- force was universally regarded throughout the kingdom as the great champion of the cause and the most gratifying expressions of public gratitude were poured in upon him from all parts of the country. Mr. Wilberforce has established claims to public notice and esteem of another and even higher kind. He had become a decided Christian, at a time and in circumstances when to make an avowal of evangelical sentiments and to act in accordance with the high principles of Christian morality was a much more difficult thing than it is happily in the present day. The publication of his ' Practical view of Christianity,' a work in which he compared the defective notions of re- ligion that prevailed among the majority of pro- fessing Christians with the standard of the New Testament formed an era in the religious his- tory of this country ; and multitudes have traced to its perusal their first serious impressions of religion. The character of the distinguished author was a beautiful commentary on the prin- ciples developed in this book. Throughout a long life he sustained the character of a consis- tent Christian ; and that was no easy attainment for one who moved in the highest circles, and was constantly mingled in all the changes of the politi- cal world. But although his position was isolated, such was the sincere and unaffected piety such the prudent discretion that regulated his inter- course with general society, that he commanded the respect and esteem of all parties. Mr. Wilber- force terminated his honourable and useful life on 28th July, 1833, and on his deathbed enjoyed the comforts of that gospel in which he had reposed his faith for so many years of his life. [R.J.] WILBYE, J., a musical composer, 16th century. WILCOCKS, Joseph, bishop of Rochester, promoted the erection of the west front of West- minster Abbey, 1673-1756. His son, Joseph, an ingenious antiquarian, author of ' Roman Con- versations,' and ' Sacred Exercises,' 1723-1791. WILD, Henry, an Oriental scholar, born at Norwich, where he began life as a tailor about 837 WIL 1G84. The date of his death is unknown, but in 1784 lie published a translation of Mohammed's Journey to Heaven. He was a man of irreproach- able morals, and seems to have suffered much from his precarious means of subsistence. WILD, R., a divine and poet, 1609-1679. WILDBORE, Charles, a self-taught mathe- matician and miscellaneous writer, died 1802. WILDENS, J., a Flemish painter, 1584-1644. WILFORD, Francis, a German Orientalist, and officer in the British service, died 1822. WILFRED, a Saxon bishop and saint of the Roman calendar, who exhibited his architectural skill and his taste in embellishments, by the im- provement of York cathedral and the erection ot churches at Hexham and Ripon ; died 709. WILHEM, W. L. B., founder of the popular singing schools in France, 1779-1842. WILKES, John, was born in London on the 17th of October, 1727. His father, an afflu- ent distiller, gave him a high education, of which his capacity enabled him to take full advantage. He was learned and witty, and his attractive con- versation, aided by his fashionable tastes and lavish habits made him popular with the juvenile aristo- cracy of the day, both good and bad. His forbid- ding appearance has often been alluded to, but au- thentic original portraits, while they have a general resemblance to the expression in Hogarth's caricature, represent not a coarse rude demagogue, bnt the delicate sinister features of a sybarite and heartless profligate. He treated the mob for his own purposes much as his profligate companions of the Monk-monks' Club, who were so indignant at his becoming a demagogue, treated their female victims. It was in 1762 that, driven desperate by his extravagance, he commenced the North Briton. For a libel there printed, his house was searched under a general or indefinite warrant, and for this constitutional outrage he obtained a verdict for 10,000 against the secretary of state. The same event began his memorable conflict with the House of Commons. His expulsion in 1764 opened the question how far the majority of the house was entitled to deprive constituents of the pri- vilege of having their own representative, and he triumphed by the obnoxious resolutions being ex- punged in 1782. He had the art in all his strag- gles to keep not only on the popular, but the con- stitutional side. When no longer attacked he fell into insignificance, which, perhaps, he did not dis- like, as he had secured some lucrative offices. He died on 27th December, 1797. [J.H.B.] WILKIE, Sir David, was born in the parish of Cults in Fifeshire, November 18, 1785. In 1799 he attended the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh; entered as a student of the Royal Academy of Lon- don in 1805, and became at once a famous painter by the exhibition of his 'Village Politicians ' in the following year. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1811 ; visited the continent in 1825, for the sake of recruiting his health, and remained broad three years. When he returned he forsook f/em-e painting to which he owed his great popu- larity, and substituted a loose sketchy style of execution, and devoted himself henceforth chiefly to history and portrait. The change proved to be he failed in portrait, and from being the prince of ^enre-painters, he became only a very WIL inferior painter of history. He was knighted in 1836 ; he had already been appointed limner to the. king, in Scotland, and painter in ordinary to hia majesty. In an unlucky hour in the autumn of 1840, Sir David set out for a tour in the East ; he visited Constantinople, the Holy Land, and Egypt; he complained of illness while at Alexandria," and expired suddenly on board the Oriental steamer, off Gibraltar, June 1, 1841, and his body was com- mitted on the same day to the deep ; the coffin was lowered into the sea in 46 20' north lat., and 60 24' west long. (Allan Cunningham, Life of Sir David Wilkie., &c. London, 1843. The- Wilkie Gallery, &c. See also the Penny Cyclo- pedia) [R.N.W.] WILKIE, William, a Scottish minister and professor of philosophy at St. Andrews, author of ' The Epigomad,' an epic poem, 1721-1772. WILKINS, Sir Charles, called the 'father of Sanscrit literature,' was born at Frome, in Somer- setshire, 1749, and went to Bengal in the civil service 1770. He resided in India fifteen years, and in that period translated the Bhagavat Gita into English, and exhibited his mechanical skill in making the first Bengali and Persian types used in Bengal. On arriving in England he became I librarian to the Directors of the East India Com- pany, and published in succession the ' Fables ot Vischnou Sarma,' better known in Europe as the ' Fables of Pilpay,' his 'Arabic Grammar,' an edi- tion of 'Richardson's Dictionary' enlarged, and other works. Died 1836. WILKINS, David, rector of Hadleigh, in Suf- folk, and archdeacon of that county, known as an antiquarian and Saxon scholar, 1685-1745. WILKINS, John, brother-in-law of Olivei Cromwell, and bishop of Chester, was born Northamptonshire 1614. He was distinguished for his learning, especially as a mathematician and is the inventor of the perambulator or wheei for measuring distances. Died at the house of his friend, Dr. Tillotson, in London, 1672. WILKINS, William, an architect and writei on architecture, was born at Cambridge, where his father was a builder, in 1778, and succeeded Sii John Soane as professor at the Royal Academy in 1837. The principal of his edifices are the London University, St. George's Hospital, the University Club House, and the National Gallery in Trafalgar k p Square. His literary works are 'Remarks on the Buildings and Antiquities of Athens,' and ' The Civil Architecture of Vitruvius.' Died 1839. WILL, G. A., a Germ, numismatist, 1724-17 WILLjERTS, Adam, a Flemish marine painter. 1577-1640. His son, Abraham, born 1613. WILLAMOV, J. G., a Russian poet, 1737-77 WILLAN, Robert, a physician of London, kn as a professional and religious writer, 1757-1812. WILLDENOW, Charles Louis, a distin- guished botanist, member of the Academy of Sciences and director of the botanic garden at Ber J lin ; he wrote several works on plants, and col- lected a Zoological Cabinet which he presented tc the museum, flourished 1765-1812. WILLK, .J. <;.. a German engraver, 1717-1807.1 WILLEMET, P. R. F., a French botanist and traveller in the East Indies, 1762-1790. WILLEMET, Renie, a French botanist, direc- fej tor of the botanic garden at Nancy, 1735-1807. WIL WILLEMIN, N. X., a French antiquarian, de- signer, and engraver, author of 'The Civil and Military Customs of Antiquity,' 1764-1833. WILLEMUR, L. De Penen, Count De, a Spanish general and statesman, 1761-1836. WILLERMOZ, P. J., a French physician and chemist, 1735-1799. His son, P. C. Catharine, a physician and anatomist, 1767-1810. WILLET, Andrew, a learned divine of Cam- bridgeshire, author of works written against po- pery, and other theological subjects, born at Ely .562, died 1621. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. William I., king of England, was the illegitimate son of Robert duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, the daugh- ter of a tanner of Falaise. He was born in 1027. His father had no legitimate children; and when Duke Robert departed on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he persuaded his barons to swear allegiance to young William as his heir. Duke Robert died while returning from Palestine in 1035 ; and dur- ing the first years of William's dukedom, the ambitious feuds of the Norman barons and the aggressions of the king of France placed Normandy in a perilous state of anarchy and weakness. But as soon as William grew out of boyhood, he began to govern for himself; and after years of jeopardy and strife, he established a degree of order in his duchy, which was unknown in the rest of Europe, and he made himself universally known and respected among the princes of Christendom. William was related to Edward the Confessor king of England ; and he long watched anxiously for the time when the death of that childless sovereign should give him the opportunity for making himself king of this countiy. Edward died on the 5th January, 1066 ; and the Saxon Harold was chosen by the English to succeed him. But William speedily asserted his claims. Besides his relationship to the late king, he had been nominated, or he pre- tended that he had been nominated by the dying Edward as his successor : and he had in the pre- ceding year taken advantage of the temporary presence of his rival in Normandy, to make Harold, partly by force and partly by fraud, swear to help him in obtaining the crown of England. As soon as King Edward was dead, William demanded the execution of this promise ; and, on Harold's refusal, he prepared to assert his rights by the sword. He assembled, for the invasion of England, a host which Mackintosh has rightly termed ' the most remarkable and formidable armament which the western nations had witnessed.' He landed with this army in Pevensey Bay, 29th September, 1066, and on the 14th of the next month he fought and won the decisive battle of Hastings, in which Harold and the bravest thanes of* southern and central England perished. William advanced and occupied London, the Saxons generally submitting themselves to him ; and he was crowned king of England at Westminster on Christmas day, 1066. At first his rule was comparatively mild ; but the Saxon spirit chafed under the sense of foreign domination, and under the insolence of the Nor- lnan barons and prelates of the new king. Then came fierce local risings, with delusive partial suc- cesses over the foreigners, soon crushed by the disciplined troops and high military genius of the Conqueror. Then followed the re vengeful cruelties WIL of the king, the effects not so much of hasty anger, as of stern remorseless policy. He was resolved to establish his dominion and his dynasty firmly in England ; and neither fear nor mercy ever made William pause in employing the most efficacious means to work out a settled purpose. The insur- rections of the Saxons were visited by him with confiscation, massacre, and devastation ; and it is computed that a third of the old Saxon population of England was swept from the land during his invasion and reign. But, terrible as are the acts of cruelty with which William's memory is asso- ciated, it would be unjust to let them blind us to the high qualities which he displayed, as a ruler, and as an ordainer of our institutions. He main- tained the strictest order and internal peace. His military renown checked the ambition and cupidity of the marauding Danes, who had infested the English coasts for more than two centuries. He organized the feudal system here, with changes from its development on the continent, so as to keep down the turbulent insubordination and law- less violence of the nobility. He retained (though with many important modifications) the Saxon popular tribunals ; and altogether he may be truly said to have displayed a marvellous discernment of the two great principles of government, which re- quire centralized power in matters of imperial importance, and local self-government in matters of chiefly local interest. William the Conqueror died in 1087. It ought to be added that, like all the race of his great ancestor, Rolf the Ganger, who conquered Neustria 150 years before Wil- liam conquered England, he was eminent for his appreciation of intellect, science, art, and learning, and for liberality to all men of all nations by whom they were displayed. [E.S.C.] WILLIAM II., king of England, second son of the preceding, was born in 1060, and succeeded his father in the absence of his elder brother, Robert, 1087. The latter also allowed him to acquire the dukedom of Normandy by purchase, and then joined the crusaders. William reigned nearly thirteen years, and was killed in the New Forest by an ac- cident, as commonly supposed, in 1100. He was surnamed Rvfus, the red or ruddy, and bears the reputation of an evil and avaricious man. WILLIAM III., king of England, stadtholder of Holland, and prince of Orange, was the son of William II., stadtholder of Holland, and of Maty, daughter of Charles I. of England. He was born November 14, 1650. His father had died a little more than a week before the young prince's birth, and the party of aristocratic republicans among the Dutch, that was hostile to the ascendency of the house of Orange, eagerly took this opportunity of curtailing its power ; and prevented the offices of stadtholder and captain-general, which the father had held, from being conferred on the infant son. The great wealth and hereditary estates of the prince of Orange, his connection with the royal families of England and France, and the popularity of his name and house among the common people, still made young William an object of anxiety to the leading Dutch statesmen ; and he grew up surrounded by the officers and spies of a jealous government, that watched his every action and word, and every growing tendency of his disposi- tion with pretended courtesy but real suspicion. 831) WIL William thus early acquired, as a defence against the snares around' him, the reserved manners, and the habits of secrecy and self-reliance, that marked him throughout life. When he was twenty-one, tne disasters of the war against England and France, in which the Dutch were then involved, caused a general movement among the mass of the people against the De Witts and the other aristo- cratic chiefs of tho commonwealth. William was made stadtholder, and continued with this office and that of captain-general, and the other high Sowers which his ancestors had enjoyed. It is a eep blot on his fame that at this crisis of his life he neither exerted himself to prevent the murder of the De Witts by the infuriated people, nor did he take any steps to bring the murderers to justice. Towards the country, that thus made him its chief at a time of unexampled distress and peril, Wil- liam did his duty nobly. He encouraged the Dutch to reject the degrading terms of peace which the hostile kings offered, and to defend their father- land, town by town, and inch by inch. Nay, he exhorted them, rather than submit, to embark on board their vessels and found a new free state in the East Indies. He himself spurned with indig- nation the offers of Louis XIV. to bribe him by making him king of the United Provinces under the protection of England and France. When the French envoy pointed out to him the immense power of the invading armies, and that he was sure, if he rejected the proposals, to see both himself and Holland irretrievably ruined, William answered, ' I have thought of the means to avoid beholding the ruin of my country : I can die in the last ditch.' His heroism had its just reward. The progress of the French armies over Holland was checked. The emperor of Germany and other powers combined against Louis XlV. Charles II. of England was compelled by his parliament and people to make peace with the Dutch ; and at last the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678, left Holland free and independent after a war, in which William, though he met with frequent reverses, had won the admiration of Europe as a general and as a statesman. In the same year he married the prin- cess Mary of England, daughter of James II. by his first wife. William watched with the deepest in- terest the stouggle of parties in this country. He felt that his own peculiar mission was to defend the cause of civil and religious liberty in Europe against the ambition and bigotry of Louis XIV. It England could be brought to fill her natu- ral place as a free and a protestant state in this great strife William was confident of the result. But Holland and her other allies were unequal to a continued contest against the power of France, if England, under her Stuart rulers, was to act again as the tool and accomplice of the Bourbons. Hence, when the English, in 1688, sought the intervention of William against the misgovernment of James II., William eagerly embat-ked in the great enterprise of his age. He landed in this country in the November of that year, and gained almost bloodless possession of the kingdom. The houses of parliament solemnly chose him king of England by the bill of rights. In Scotland and Ireland the adherents of the abdicated monarch made some resistance in arms, but were ultimately put down. William himself decided the Irish war WIL by the great victory of the Boyne, which he gained in person over James and his followers. William's reign over these kingdoms was disquieted by many jealousies between him and his new subjects. He was offended at the limitations on the royal power and revenue, which the English Whigs introduced; and he was of course regarded with the bitterest animosity by the Jacobites, who cherished the fal- len cause of the Stuarts. The war also against France, which was the necessary consequence of the Revolution of 1688, brought many burdens on this country, and was attended with many losses in the field. The peace of Ryswick in 1697 was re- garded by all parties as no more than an armed truce ; and it was well known that Louis XIV. was scheming to unite the vast possessions of the Spanish crown to the dominion of France. Wil- liam sought to prevent this by two treaties between the principal European powers for the partition of the Spanish provinces on the death of the reigning king. But this only incensed the court of Madrid, and when the king of Spain died in 1700, it was found that he had bequeathed all his crowns to the grandson of Louis XIV., who forthwith repudiated the partition treaties, and prepared to seize this rich inheritance for the house of Bourbon. Wil- liam now applied all his energies to form a new league against France ; but in the midst of his warlike preparations he died at Kensington, 8th March, 1702. William III. was unquestionably a great man, but he was one of those coldly great men, who rather extort our admiration from our reason, than raise the sympathy or enthusiasm of our hearts. His permission of the massacre of the clan Macdonald, at Glencoe, is (like his conduct with regard to the De Witts ; ) a grievous stain on his memory. But we must judge him by the general character of his actions, and not by one or two culpable deeds. We must look to the circum- stances in which he was placed ; and we must con- sider what would have been the probable current of events in the latter portion of the seventeenth century, and in all after time, if the fraud, the rapacity, and intolerance of Louis XIV. and our own Stuarts had not been encountered by an opponent so resolute, so vigilant, so high-minded, and indo- mitable as William III. If we judge him thus, we shall feel that he deserves the imperishable gratitude of posterity, as the rescuer and preserver of our national independence, our constitutional liberties, and our right to worship according to a free conscience and a pure faith. [E.S.C.] WILLIAM (HENRY) IV., third son of George III., was born August 21, 1765, and entered the navy as a midshipman in the fourteenth year of his age. He reached the rank of admiral in 1801. In 1818 he married the princess Adelaide, eldest daughter of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, who bore him two daughters, neither of whom survived their infancy. He became heir presumptive to the throne by the death of the duke of York in 1827, and succeeded George IV. June 26, 1830 ; died 1837. The great event of his reign was the achieve- ment of the Reform Bill, by which this country was saved from the verge of a revolution. He left ten natural children, known as the Fitz-Ci.akences. WILLIAM, kincj of Scotland, surnamed ' the Lion,' succeeded his brother, Malcolm IV., 1165* and died 12 14. He was succeeded by Alexander IL 810 WIL WILLIAM, duke of Normandy, surnamed 'Long Sword,' was born in 900, and succeeded his father, Rollo, in 927. He was assassinated in 942. WILLIAM, surnamed ' Short Hose,' son of Ro- bert III., duke of Normandy, made a vain attempt to recover the estates of his father, of which he had been despoiled by Henry I. of England. He became count of Flanders in 1127, died 1128. WILLIAM, son of Henry I., king of England, invested by him with the duchy of Normandy, and perished by shipwreck 1120. WILLIAM, duke of Apulia, succeeded his father, Roger, son of Robert Guiscard, 1111, died 1127. WILLIAM, six counts of Holland, four of whom were also counts of Hainault, and one emperor of Germany: William I., who usurped the country on returning from a crusade to the prejudice of Ada, his niece, and died 1223. William II., grandson of the preceding, born about 1226, suc- ceeded his father 1234. In 1247 he was elected king of the Romans, and being proclaimed emperor by the papal legate in 1250, had to dispute the crown with Conradin IV., till the death of that prince in 1254. He was soon after recalled to his lereditary estates by a revolt, and lost his life in battle 1256. Willi am III. of Holland and I. of Hainault, succeeded his father, John, in both countries 1304, and died 1337 : he was surnamed the Good.' William IV. of Holland and II. of Hainault, son and successor of the preceding, jerished in a battle fought with his revolted sub- ects 1345. He was succeeded by his sister, Mar- garet, and her husband, the emperor Louis of Bavaria. William V. of Holland and III. of Hainault, son of Margaret and Louis, usurped the luthority of his mother 1349 ; he died miserably n a tower, to which he had been consigned for the nurder of one of his gentlemen in 1377. William VI. of Holland and IV. of Hainault, succeeded his ather, Albert, in 1404, died 1417. WILLIAM I. of Nassau, prince of Orange, the 5rst leader in the Dutch war of independence, was oorn in 1533 of Lutheran parents, but descended 'rom the ancient counts of that principality. Being rained to political employments at the court of Charles V., he conformed outwardly to Catholicism, ind had become governor of the provinces of Hol- and, Zealand, and Utrecht, while the reformed ioctrines were spreading and events were ripening for the revolt of the Netherlands. The leading circumstances of that great and glorious struggle, which lasted considerably more than half a cen- ;ury, were these. On the death of Charles V., ho had made great efforts to keep the Nether- lands free from ' heresy,' he bestowed those pro- nnces on his son, Philip II., king of Spain. The atter appointed Margaret of Parma, a natural laughter of his father, stadtholderess, with the Cardinal Granvella for her adviser, who began his career by prosecuting the protestants, and creating i vast number of bishoprics. The dark and re- lute despotism of Philip was shadowed forth in England in the reign of Mary, called the ' bloody,' nit in the Netherlands he was as the tyrant 'of lis own household, and so much the more unscru- pulous and persecuting. In 1564 the cardinal, Jrovoked by the opposition and hatred which he lid to encounter, departed for Spain, and shortly afterwards preparations were making to introduce WIL the inquisition, and this in the midst of a people already half Lutherans and Calvinists. In 1566 the nobles went in procession, and petitioned Mar- garet against this measure, and as they were treated with contempt, their remonstrances were followed by popular commotions. On this Alva was sent, at whose approach a hundred thousand of the most industrious Flemings took refuge in foreign countries, chiefly in England. This was the crisis at which William of Orange came for- ward, and raised the standard of independence, and the desperate circumstances under which he called the people to arms, may be referred to in the article Alva. Though that monster of cruelty was recalled at the end of six years, 1574, and replaced by a milder ruler, the Dutch continued the war, and Holland was liberated by the relief of Leyden, which William effected by laying the whole country under water, 1575. He was now elected stadtholder, and Calvinism became the established religion, to the exclusion of Lutheranism as well as the Roman Catholic faith. By the ' Pacification of Ghent' in 1576, William united all the provinces in one confederation, but he found it impossible to heal these internal causes of disunion, and the Spaniards, taking advantage of them, were able to repossess themselves of the southern provinces, under the duke of Parma, whence arose the pre- sent distinction between Holland and Belgium. Philip had now set a price on William's head, and, in 1582, an attempt was made to assassinate him, but he recovered from the wound. A second at- tempt, in 1584, was but too successful. One Balthaser Gerard, being introduced to the stadthol- der on the plea of business, he suddenly drew a Eistol, loaded with three balls, and shot him in the ody. The prince expired almost instantly : his last words were, ' May God have mercy on me, and these poor people ! ' He was succeeded, and the war carried on successfully, by his second son, Maurice of Nassau. [E.R.] WILLIAM, two kings of Holland, William (Frederick) I., styled king of the Netherlands, grand duke of Luxembourg, prince of Orange, and duke of Nassau, was born at the Hague in 1772. He distinguished himself in the wars with the French republic, and became an exile with his father, the hereditary stadtholder of the Dutch republic, in 1795 ; after his father's death he suc- ceeded first to the duchy of Nassau, and joined the Prussian army against Napoleon. He became king of Holland by the settlement of affairs which followed the fall of Napoleon in 1814, the countries united under his rule by the congress of Vienna being the old united provinces of Holland, the bishopric of Liege, and Belgium: the latter, however, was separated by the revolution of 1830. He abdicated in 1840, and died in 1843. William II., son and successor of the preceding as king of Holland, was born in 1792, and distinguished him- self in the peninsular war under Lord Wellington ; he also commanded the army of the Netherlands at the battle of Waterloo. His reign commenced from his father's abdication in 1840, and he died a few days after the revolution of March, 1848. WILLIAM of Apulia, a Latin poet and his- torian of the 12th century. WILLIAM of Auvergne, or of Paris, a French prelate and theologian, died 1249. 841 WIL there. During eleven years he prosecuted the work of an evangelist on that island, and on re- viewing his course at his departure, could bear this wonderful and gratifying testimony : ' When I found them in 1823, they were entirely savages and when I left them, they had not only embraced the Christian profession, but I am not aware that there was a house in the island where family prayer was not observed every morning and even- ing.' Burning with zeal to introduce the gospel into every island of the Pacific, this indefatigable missionary removed to another group the New Hebrides, which lay far westward. Having been welcomed to the island of Parna, Mr. Williams prepared to make a similar attempt in Erromanga. On approaching it, he and his two companions hailed some of the natives who were sailing in a canoe, and found they spoke a different language were of a darker complexion shorter in stature wilder in their appearance, and more jealous of the intentions of strangers, than the people in Parna. The missionaries tried to propitiate them by offering them some bread, and requesting the chief to give them some water, which he speedily fetched. Encouraged by these appearances, they waded ashore ; but scarcely had they landed, when they ran in all haste back to the sea, being pursued with hostile weapons by the savages. Mr. Williams had reached the edge of the water, but the beach being rugged and steep, he stumbled and fell, when the native who pursued him, taking advan- tage of the fall, struck him repeated blows with a club. Others running up, completed the work of destruction, by piercing his body with arrows. Before his two companions could venture to make the slightest attempt to rescue him, the savages had dragged the mangled remains away with them. Thus perished, in the prime of life and usefulness. a missionary who was ' in labours abundant ; ' anc whose 'Narrative' full of the most interesting anc delightful details, has been beautifully and justh styled, A Modern Acts of the Apostles.' [R.J." WILLIAMS, Sir Roger, a native of Mon mouthshire, dist. in the Flemish wars, died 1595. WILLIAMSON, Hugh, an American physi cian, astronomer, and member of congress, autho of a ' History of North Carolina,' and ' Observa tions on the Climate of America,' 1735-1819. WILLIAMSON, Sik Joseph, a statesman and collector of manuscripts, born at Cumberland, where his father was a clergyman, about 1630 He began his public career as clerk of the counci after the restoration, and became principal secre- tary of state in 1674 ; died 1701. WILLIS, Francis, a clergyman of the Churcl: of England, whose attention to mental disorder led to his adoption of the medical profession, anc to his appointment as physician to George III. died 1807. WILLIS, Thomas, a distinguished English ana tomist and physician, born at Great Bodwin, ir Wiltshire, in 1622, and died at London in 1675, h the fifty-fourth year of his age. Willis belonged to thd sect of Iatro-chemists, who resolved all the motions! of the human body, in health and disease, into tin chemical action and reaction of the solids and fluid' - , of which it is composed. He was deeplv involve* having discovered Rarotonga, the largest of the ' in the controversies of his age, but the" work I group, landed with a view to establish himself j which his name is known to posterity is that on 842 WIL WILLIAM ok Wykeham. See Wykeham. WILLIAMS, Anna, a miscellaneous and poet- ical writer, was the daughter of a Welch surgeon, whom she accompanied to London in 1730, and supported many years by the labour of her pen. In 1740 she became blind from cataract, and then had recourse to her needle till she was admitted under the roof of Dr. Johnson, who was struck with admiration of her generous devotion. She died in his house, Bolt Court, Fleet-Street, in the seventv-seventh year of her age, 1783. WILLIAMS, Sir Charles Hanbury, a diplomatist and man of letters, 1709-1759. WILLIAMS, Cooper, a chaplain hi the navy, and writer of voyages, &c, 1767-1816. WILLIAMS, Daniel, many years minister to a presbyterian congregation in Dublin, was born about 1644, at Wrexham, in Denbighshire. The latter part of his life was passed in London, and lie left his library in Redcross-Street, Cripplegate, for the use of dissenting ministers. Died 1716. WILLIAMS, David, founder of the ' Literary Fund,' was born in Cardiganshire, 1738 ; and after officiating some time as a dissenting minister, became a teacher of deism. This speculation not answering, Mr. Williams devoted himself to pri- vate teaching and literature, and at the close of his life was supported by the excellent institution he had himself projected. His principal works are an edition of ' Hume's History,' ' Lectures on Education,' ' Lectures on Political Principles,' History of Monmouthshire,' &c. Died 1816. WILLIAMS, Ephraim, an American general, founder of the college named after him, died about 1791. WILLIAMS, F., a Creole writer, died 1770. WILLIAMS, Griffith, bishop of Ossory, in Ireland, was born at Caernarvon, about 1589, and in the rebellion of 1641 became an exile from his see, which he recovered at the restoration. He wrote several religious works, and an account of the persecutions he had suffered. Died 1672. WILLIAMS, H. M., a female artist, 1759-1827. WILLIAMS, John, archbishop of York, and lord keeper in the reign of James I., was born at Aberconway in Caernarvonshire, 1582. He suc- ceeded Lord Bacon as chancellor in 1621, and was raised to the see of York in 1641. During the re- bellion he fortified and defended Conway castle in the interest of the king. Died 1650. WILLIAMS, John, a learned prelate, one of the divines who were promoted after the revolu- tion of 1688, b. in Northamptonshire 1634, d. 1709. WILLIAMS, John, the martyr of Erromanga, was born in a very humble rank, but being imbued with deep feelings of piety, early resolved to de- vote himself to missionary labours, and by his self-denying and zealous prosecution of his work, has obtained a name among the foremost of his evangelical contemporaries. Having entered into the service of the London Missionary Society, he was sent out in 1817 to their station in the South Sea Islands ; and the scene of his first duties there was in the Raiatea the largest and most central of the Society Islands, situated about one hundred miles' distance from Tahiti. He afterwards removed to what is called the Hervey Group of Islands, and WIL Anatomy of the Brain and Nerves, Cerebri Ana- tome, cui accessit Nervorum descriptio et Usus, which was published at London in 1664. Some of the opinions contained in this book are remarkable as bemg anticipations of the ideas on the functions of the brain long afterwards propounded by Gall, for he not only maintained that the cerebrum is the seat of the intellectual faculties, and the cerebel- lum of the involuntary movements, but that each part of the brain has its own separate functions. Another treatise on the soul of brutes, De Anima Brutorum, published in 1672, involved him in irri- tating disputes with theologians of the time, which are thought to have shortened his days. [J.M'C] WILLOUGHBY, Sir Hugh, commander in a voyage of discovery which sailed from London in 1553, at the instance of a company of merchants directed by Sebastian Cabot. The expedition, consisting of three vessels, was last heard of off Finmark, on the 30th July in that year, soon after which all must have perished. WILLUGHBY, Francis, a famous naturalist and friend of Ray, who arranged and published his MSS. on icthyology, 1635-1672. WILLYMOT, W., an English clergyman, schoolmaster, and classical editor, died 1737. WILMOT, John. See Rochester. WILMOT, John Eardley, chief justice of the Common Pleas, was born at Derby in 1709, and died 1792. He wrote 'Notes of Opinions,' which were published by his son in 1802. The latter, same names as his father, was born at Derby in 1748, and attained great eminence as a chancery lawyer. He died in 1815. WILSON, Alexander, a celebrated ornitho- logist, was born in Paisley in 1766. He died in 1813. His father was a man in poor circumstances, and Wilson himself was brought up to the trade of a weaver. His education was well attended to in early life, and he was possessed of an ardent poetic temperament of mind, accompanied with a strong predilection for the beauties of nature. He be- came disgusted with the drudgery of the loom; gave free vent to his poetical disposition, and for nearly three years he wandered over the country as a pedlar, selling muslins and poems. Both poetry and pedlary, however, turned out failures in his hands, and an unfortunate dispute between the journeymen and master weavers, in which he took an active part, rendering his residence in his native country extremely unpleasant to him, he emigrated to America. He arnved in that country in 1794, and for eight years he supported himself by weav- ing or perambulating the country with his pack, occasionally surveying land for the farmers, and latterly by teaching. In 1802 he was offered an engagement in a seminary at Kingsessing on the Schuylkill, whither he immediately removed, and which fortunately procured him the patronage of gome kind and influential friends. Amongst these was Mr. Lawson the engraver, who taught him drawing, colouring, and etching. Previous to his coming to America he had never shown any taste for ornithology; but his application now to draw- ing seemed to develop his latent talent. His first attempts were not successful, but as soon as he commenced the delineation of birds he made rapid progress. His success seems to have first suggested the idea of his American Ornithology. To accom- WIL plish this work he undertook many journeys through various parts of America, sleeping for weeks in the wilderness alone with his gun and his pistols in his bosom, performing solitary voyages on the great rivers in a frail canoe, and collecting all the birds of the districts through which he tra- velled. He drew, etched, and coloured all the plates himself, and after many delays and disappoint- ments, he at last procured a publisher, and pro- duced a first volume of his celebrated work. It far exceeded the expectations of the public, and eight volumes successively made their appearance, and procured him great and deserved reputation. Before he could finish his great undertakings, he was seized with a sudden and severe illness, and died at the age of forty-eight. Wilson's great wish was, to use his own words, ' to raise some beacon to show that such a man had lived ; ' and though his death was premature, he lived long enough to accomplish the object of his ambition. [W.B.I WILSON, Arthur, an English historian, who was secretary to Robert, earl of Essex, and steward to the earl of Warwick, 1596-1652. WILSON, Florence, a Latin scholar and pro- fessor of philosophy, born at Elgin in Scotland, about the beginning of the 16th century, died in Dauphiny, on his way home from Navarre, 1547 The work by which he is known is a dialogue, entitled ' De Tranquilitate Animi.' WILSON, H., an English navigator, died 1810 WILSON, Jamks, a navigator, who discovered the islands called Duff's group in 1796. WILSON, John, a composer of sacred music, born at Faversham in Kent, 1594, died 1673. WILSON, John, a Scotch vocalist, who at- tained great popularity by his manner of singing the beautiful lyrics of his native land. Born 1800, died at Quebec in 1849, while on a pro- fessional visit to America. WILSON, John, better known for many years of his life by the soubriquet of Christopher Isorth, was born in the town of Paisley in 1785, or, as some accounts say, in 1788. His father was an eminent merchant there, and the paternal mansion in the High-Street of that ancient borough, still attests the wealth and dignity of the family by its stately urban magnificence. Wilson received the elements of his education, we believe, with the late Mr. Peddie of Paisley, and afterwards under the superintendence of the parish minister of Mearns ; at the age of thirteen he entered the university oi Glasgow, and afterwards that of Oxford, in Mag- dalen College. From the latter source he doubtless imbibed that familiar acquaintance with, and rich appreciation of the classic writers, which, in happy union with his other qualities, constituted him one of the most eminent writers and literary men of his day. The first poem he ever published ob- tained the Newdegate prize in his venerable Alma Mater. For some years afterwards he lived at his beautiful retreat of Elloray, on Windermere, when, as a matter of course, he became intimate with Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth, the leading apostles of what was then called the Lake School of Poetry ; and the dreamy sweetness of whose style of composition tended to dilute and weaken the simplicity and vigour of his own. Pecuniary causes obliging him to leave Elloray, he joined his mother in Edinburgh, who was a woman of a high WIL order of intellect, qualified to be the monitor and helper of n emtio :i spirit. Here he began to study the law iur the profession of a barrister, but never actually assumed the professional toga. In 1812 appeared the Isle of Palms, and soon afterwards the City of the Plague, and Unimore, the prin- cipal contributions of his fanciful and capricious muse. There is a soft, liquid flow of musical ex- pression in these poems, with a vague, dreamy wildness and pathos, in combination with an exuberant fancy; and in the City of the Plague an irregular vigour and richness of imagination, resembling the outre grandeur of some of our old English dramatists. It is as a prose writer, how- ever, that Wilson takes rank among the literary Titans of his native land. His novels are not much read now, being over-informed with sentiment, and the characters pitched far above the average of Scottish rural and urban nature. The Trials of Margaret Lindsay and the Foresters are, however, exquisite specimens of composition as poetic prose. In 1820 he succeeded the celebrated Dr. Brown as professor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, an appointment severely and justly commented upon at the time ; and if we take Dr. Chalmers as an authority, whose dictum it was, that moral philosophy was the gate to theology, it reflected as little credit upon those who appointed, as upon him who accepted. At the same time began, and certainly oddly enough, his connection with BlachoooaVs Magazine, where appeared that famous series of political and literary pieces, which set all Edinburgh in a flame, so well known as the Noctes Ambrosianse. Wilson was always considered as the presiding genius loci, and amongst his associates were John Gibson Lock- hart and the Ettrick Shepherd, the latter chiefly as a butt. Rich in broad, coarse humour, and violating, not seldom, the conventional courtesies and even decencies of political and personal inter- course, their irresistible waggery, and biting sar- casm, raised the Edinburgh periodical to the high station it has always maintained. The genius of Wilson arose out or the rich overflow and exuber- ance of his animal spirits, themselves the result of a finely developed physical constitution, in fact, of a physique the most imposing and attractive that perhaps ever son of song was gifted with. We believe that the stories of the excesses of his youth and manhood were much exaggerated, as his fertile fancy and rich classical resources, with his irresistible tendency towards the ridiculous, would elevate him by their intense exercise, into a condition very like ebrius, if not ebriosus. In 1851, he resigned the situation of professor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh ; hav- ing been struck with paralysis, and expired on the 4th of April, 1854. With great propriety a Whig government granted him a pension of 300 a-year, and having lived down in himself, and in the minds of many others, the political acerbities of his youth and manhood, this eminent Scotsman has passed away, to occupy no mean niche in the Scottish Temple of Fame. [T.D.] WILSON, Kichard, R.A. This great land- scape painter was born at Pinegas, Montgomery- shire, and showing an early taste for drawing, was taken to London by Sir George Wynne, and placed with a portrait painter of the name of Wright. WIN W 7 ilson himself commenced his career as a portrait painter, and took to landscape tirst in Italy in 1749, by the advice of Zuccarelli and Vernet. Wilson returned to London in 1755, after an abseqof of six years, and acquired a great name in 1760 by his picture of ' Niobe.' He was one of the original thirty-six members of the Royal Academy, and succeeded Hayman as librarian in 1776. Towards the close of his fife he came into possession of some property from a deceased brother, and he retired to the village of Llanverris, where he died in 1782. Wilson, admirable as his pictures are, was not suc- cessful, some of his works sold better than others, and these he accordingly frequently repeated, hut generally with some slight difference. The figures of his pictures were frequently inserted by Morti- mer and Hayman ; his principal works are views in Italy; many of them have been admirably, engraved by Woollett. (T. Wright, Some Account of the Life of Richard Wilson, R.A. London, 1824^ [R.N.W.] WILSON, Sir Robert, a British officer and politician, was born in London 1777, and com- menced his military career in Flanders under the duke of York. He distinguished himself on many occasions during the wars against Napoleon, and was in Paris after his fall in 1815, where he aided in the escape of Lavalette. He sat in parlia- ment as member for Southwark from 1818 to 1831, and in 1842 was appointed governor of Gibraltar. Died 1849. WILSON, Thomas, bishop of Sodor and Man, greatly distinguished for his pious and exemplary conduct, was born in Chester 1663, and educated at Dublin. He was appointed to his bishopric in 1697, and refused to leave his people when preferment was offered to him. He wrote a ' History of the Isle of Man' and some religious works, but is chiefly distinguished for his acts of practical benevolence ; died in 1755. His only son, of the same name, born in 1703, was rector of St. Stephens, Wal- brook, for forty-six years. He rendered himself remarkable by his devoted admiration of the his- torian, Mrs. Macaulay, to whom he erected a statue in his church under the name of ' Liberty.' He wrote several works, among which are 'The Ornaments of Churches Considered,' ' A View of the Projected Improvements in Westminster,' and a pamphlet against distilled liquors. Died 1784. WILSON, Sir Thomas, a statesman and learned writer, age of Elizabeth, died 1581. WILSON, William Rae, a Scotch scholar, author of Travels in the Holy Land,' 1774-1849. WILTON, Joseph, a sculptor, 1722-1803. WILTZ, P., a French ascetic, 1671-1749. WIMPFEN, Felix De, a French officer and member of the estates-general, born 1745, pen- sioned by the first consul in 1799, died in the em- ploy of the state 1814. His brother, the Baron De Wimpfen Bornebourg, a general and writer on tactics, 1732-1800. WINCHESTER, T., rector of Appleton, in Berkshire, and a learned writer, known 1749-1773. WTNCKELMANN, John, a German protestant theologian, 1551-1626. His son, John Justus, an historian, born at Gnessen 1620. died 1697. WINCKELRIED, Arnold De, a Swiss peasant, who died gloriously fighting against the Austrians at Sempach, 1386. 844 Cjbn&mw*~dwznaj /7v*0U' crista/' (/,;-,,/, >v/< ///(???, WIN WINCKLEMANN, John Joachim, a cele- rated name in aesthetical and art literature, was am in the duchy of Brandenburg 1718. He de- ated himself to the study of antiquities at Rome, here he obtained an appointment in the Vatican, nd was murdered at Trieste on his way home- ards for the sake of some golden medals he pos- sessed, in 1768. His works on the history 01 art and ancient monuments have exercised the happiest influence on that description of literature, and are still invaluable as mines of information. W1NCKLER, T. F., an archaeologist, 1771-1807. WINDER, Henry, a learned pastor of the nonconformists, author of a ' Hebrew English Concordance,' and other works, 1693-1752. WINDHAM, Joseph, an artist and antiqua- rian, principal author of the ' Ionian Antiquities,' published by the Society of Dilettanti, 1739-1810. WINDHAM, William, a Whig statesman of the period of Pitt, was born in Norfolk, of an ancient family, in 1750, and made his first ap- pearance in parliament as member for Norwich in 1783. His talents caused him to be singled out by Burke as one of his coadjutors, and he always remained his constant friend and partizan. From 1794 to 1801 he was in office under Pitt as secretary at war. He became secretary again under Lord Grenville after the death of Pitt, and held office from 1806 to March 25, 1807; d. 1810. WINDHEIM, C. E., a German professor of philosophv and the Oriental languages, 1722-1766. WINDiSCH, C. G., a Germ, historian, 1725-93. WING, Vincent, an astronomer, 17th century. WINGATE, Edmund, an eminent mathemat., lawyer, and member of parliament, 1593-1656. WlNKELMANN. See Winckelmann. WINKLER, J. H., a German jurisconsult and philosopher of the school of Wolfe, 1703-1772. WINSLOW, Edward, the English governor of Plymouth, in North America, author of ' Good News from New England,' died 1655. WINSLOW, James, an eminent anatomist, born in the island of Funen, in Denmark, in the year 1669, and died at Paris in the year 1760, in the ninety-first year of his age. His system of ana- tomy was long the standard class-book of the schools, but in modern times it has been superseded by more perfect and more recent works. [J.M'C.] WINSOR, Frederick Albert, the projector of the present method of lighting the streets by gas, first adopted in Pall Mall, after some smaller experiments, in 1809. Died 1830. WINSTANLEY, Wm., originally a barber, au- thor of several literarv compilations, d. abt. 1690. WINSTON, T., an 'Engl, physician, 1575-1655. WINTER, G. S., a German veterinarian, 17th c. WINTER, John William De, a Dutch vice- admiral, who entered the French service under Dumouriez as a partizan of the revolution, and was defeated in the Texel, at a later period, by Duncan, 1750-1812. WINTER, N. S. Van, a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam, 1718. His wife, Lucretia Wil- helmina, a poetess, 1722-1795. Peter, son of Van Winter by a first marriage, author of poems and translations, beginning of the present century. WINTER, P. Von, a Ger. musician, 1754-1825. WINTHROP, J., an American astron., 1714-79. WINTLE, T., a learned divine, 1737-1814. WOL WINTRINGHAM, Clifton, a physician and professional writer, died at York 1748. His son, Sir Clifton, also a physician and wr., 1714-94. WINWOOD, Sir Ralph, a statesman and diplomatist, author of ' Memorials,' 1565-1617. WIRSUNG, C, a German physician, 1500- 1571. John George, an anatomist, assass. 1643. WIRTZ, J., a Swiss painter, 1640-1709. WIRTZ, J. C, a Swiss theologian, 1688-1769. WISE, F., a learned antiquary, 1695-1762. WISEMAN, R., a surgical writer, 17th century. WISHART, George, a martyr of the reforma- tion in Scotland, burnt alive 1546. WISHART, W., a Scotch divine. 1657-1727. WISHEART, George, chaplain to Montrose, period of the civil wars, author of an ' Account of the Wars in Scotland,' and a Biography of his patron, 1609-1671. WISTAR, Caspar, a professor of anatomy and physician at Philadelphia, author of professional works, and a ' System of Anatomy,' 1760-1818. WITCHELL, G., an astronomer, 1728-1785. WITEZOWITCH, P., a learned historian and antiquarian of Dalmatia, died 1773. WITHER, G., an English poet, 1588-1667. WITHERING, William, a physician and na- turalist, author of a ' Systematic Arrangement of British Plants,' born in Shropshire 1741, d. 1799. WITHERSPOON, John, a descendant of Knox, known as a divine in Scotland and America, born near Edinburgh 1722, died 1794. WITSIUS, or WITS, Herman, a Dutch divine, author of several learned works, 1G36-1708. WITT. See De-Witt. WITTE, E., a Dutch painter, 1607-1692. WITTE, G. De, a Flem. theologian, 1638-1721. WTTTE, or WITTEN, Henning, a German divine and biographical writer, 1634-1696. WITTICHIUS, Christopher, a protestant theologian and writer against Spinoza, 1625-1687. WITTOLA, M. A., a Ger. theologian, 1736-97. WITTWER, P. L., a Ger. physician, 1752-92. WLOOSWICK, P. N. Baron Horn Van, a Dutch archaeologist, born 1742, died in Paris 1809. WOBESER, E. W., a German poet, 1727-1795. W r ODHULL, M., a poet and translator of Euri- pides, born in Northamptonshire 1740, died 1816. WODROW, Robert, a Scottish ecclesiastical historian, born at Glasgow 1679, died 1734. WOEHNER, A. G., a Ger. Orient., 1693-1762. WOELFT, J., a German composer, 1772-1811. W T OFFINGTON, Margaret, a celebrated actress of last century, whose society was highly valued bv the elite of talent and fashion, 1718-60. WOIDE, C. G., a Dutch Orientalist, 1725-90. WOKEN, F., a German theologian, 1685-1734. WOLCOTT, John, commonly known by his assumed name of Peter Pindar, was a satirical poet and humourist, born at Dodbrooke in Devon- shire 1738 ; died in London, where he supported himself by his pen, and his skill as an artist, 1819. The painter Opie was indebted to him for his in- troduction to the busy world of London, Dr. Wol- cott having discovered his genius during his resi- dence at Truro. The chief of his productions is his ' Lyric Odes to the Royal Academicians :' his other poems are principally satires.. WOLDECK D'ARNEBOURG, J. G., a Prussian general of the seven years' war, 1712-1785. 845 WOL WOLF, B., Dutch painter, 1758-1825. WOLF, K. W., I Genua composer, 1735-1792. WOLF, Fbedebick Augustus, an eminent classical scholar and philologist of Germany, was born in the county of Hohenstein in 1759, and be- came professor at Halle and Berlin. He was en- gaged in a literary contest with Heyne, arising out of his principal work, the ' Prolegomena ad Homer- um,' or theory of the Homeric poems. Died 1824. WOLF, G. F., a German anatomist, 1735-1794. WOLF, Jerome, a learned German, professor of Greek at Augsburg, 1516-1581. W r OLF, John, a German historian, 1537-1600. WOLF, John Christopher, an eminent Lu- theran divine and philologist, 1683-1739. His brother, J. Christian, a philologist, 1689-1770. WOLF, John Christian, born at Breslau in 1679, died at Halle in 1754; a man of considerable energy and of varied attainments honoured to be- come member of the Academy of Berlin, the Royal Society of London, and the Academies of Sciences at Paris and Petersburg. Wolf, nevertheless, was of the class who flourish only when great men are gone : his industry was unquestionable, for he filled Europe with his words and books : his func- tion too was respectable; he dried, cut up, and sold the Philosophy of Leibnitz. The volumes pub- lished by him are most numerous; their simple titles would occupy a column of our Dictionary: it is unnecessary to print these titles, for none save Antiquarians will henceforth read Wolf. He was powerful in classification, subdivision, and nomenclature; to him, for instance, we owe the technical term Rational Psychology, as distin- guished from experimental : he thus designated his efforts sufficiently unsatisfactory to explain the facts of consciousness by the essence of the Soul. Wolf's greatest merit flows from his moral courage. He bravely contended for the rights of Free Thought, in the face of immense clamour and much persecution. His system and authority were hopelessly destroyed by Kant. [J.P.N.] WOLF, Peter Philip, an historian of the Jesuits and of Maximilian I., 1761-1808. WOLFART, P., a Germ, physician, 1675-1726. WOLFE, Charles, author of the famous ode entitled ' The Burial of Sir John Moore,' was a divine of the Irish Church, and was born at Dub- lin 1791. He died prematurely in 1823. His literary remains were published two years subse- quently by the Rev. J. A. Russel. WOLFE. General James Wolfe was born in Westerham in Kent, a.d. 1726. His father was a general, and young Wolfe entered the army at a very early age. He was honourably distinguished in the battle of Dettingen and Fontenoy ; and at the subsequent battle of Laffeldt in 1747, he attracted the special notice of his commander, the duke of Cumberland, who ever afterwards zealously aided in Wolfe's promotion and advancement. He was not more eminent for personal bravery and cool- ness in action, than for nis success in disciplining his men, while at the same time he won the heart of every soldier that served under him. When our great minister, the elder Pitt, undertook in 1757 to raise England from the temporary degra- dation into which she had then fallen, and to smite down the House of Bourbon in every quar- ter of the globe, he discerned the genius of Wolfe : WOL and wisely disregarding the conventional claims of seniority, Pitt intrusted to the young officer the highest duties in the conquest of French America. Wolfe, in conjunction with Amherst, led the force which besieged and captured Louis- burg in July, 1758, an achievement which gave us Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island. In 1759 Pitt conferred on Wolfe the still more im- portant command of the expedition against Canada, which was to advance up the St. Law- rence and attack Quebec from the west, while the other British commander in North America was to co-operate by assailing the French possessions from the opposite direction. Wolfe reached the Isle of Orleans in the St. Lawrence on the 26th June, with a force of 8,000 excellent troops, and with a fleet of twenty-two sail of the line under Admiral Saunders. Montcalm, the French governor of Canada, had concentrated all the military strength of the province in Quebec; and, though he was in- ferior to Wolfe in the number of regular troops, the zeal of the numerous French provincials who fought under him, the strength of his position, and the skill with which he fortified and watched each approach to Quebec, made Wolfe's enterprise appear almost hopeless. The English commander who invaded Canada from the other direction, and who ought to have invested Quebec from the up- per side, loitered on his march; and for two months Wolfe and his force lay below the city, unable to strike any effective blow, and taught by a severe repulse which they sustained on the 31s*t of July, with how strong and vigilant an adver- sary they had to cope. Wolfe's health was shattered by anxiety and fever; but he spared neither mind nor body ; and at length he himself discovered the cove above the town, which now bears his name, and the narrow winding path that leads from it up the cliff' to the heights of Abra- ham, a plateau to the west of Quebec, where the city's fortifications were feeblest. He succeeded in the night of the 12th September, in leading [Wolfe's Monument] 5,000 of his men up this path, and in surprising the post of Canadians by whom the summit was guarded. On the next morning Montcalm led his 846 WOL troops out to meet him, and the battle was fought, which determined the ascendency of the Anglo- Saxon race and language over the French in the New World. Both Wolfe and Montcalm fell. Wolfe was twice struck as he led on a bayonet charge which decided the day; and when the French were already broken, he received a third bullet, which was fatal, in the heart. He lived just long enough to know that the victory was com- plete ; and the last words of the young conqueror were 'Now, God be praised, I die happy.' Wolfe was as exemplary in private life, as he was emi- nent in the discharge of public duty, and his name is one of the purest as well as the brightest in the lone list of England's military heroes. [E.S.C.] WOLFERSDORF, Ch. Frederick Von, a Prussian general, bom in Saxe Gotha, 1717-1781. WOLFTEE, P., a Germ, historian, 1758-1805. WOLGMUTT, M., a Ger. painter, 1434-1519. WOLKE, C. H., a native of Hanover, distin- guished by his efforts, as a writer and founder, in the cause of education, 1741-1825. WOLLASTON, William, an eminent moralist and theologian, who was educated for the church, but having ample means left him by a rich rela- tion, devoted himself to literature. His principal work, and one which has been highly popular, is 'The Religion of Nature Delineated.' Born in Staffordshire 1659, died 1724. WOLLASTON, William Hyde, M.D., born 6th August, 1766, at East Dereham, near Nor- wich, of which his father was clergyman ; died 22d December, 1828, in London. Dr. Wollaston received a first-rate education, and having studied for the medical profession, settled first at Bury St. Edmunds. Afterwards, becoming a candidate for St. George's Hospital, London, and failing, he gave up the profession in disgust, and devoted himself to chemical pursuits. He examined with great care the crude platinum ore, discovering in it two new metals, palladium and rhodium, and improving the process for the manufacture of platinum, so as to enable him to realize a hand- some fortune. In 1797 he described three new species of urinary calculi the fusible calculus, the mulberry calculus, and the bone-earth calcu- lus. He also first described cystic oxide, and urate of soda calculi, the latter formed in the joints of gouty persons. He was the inventor of the periscopic camera, and of numerous ingenious optical and chemical apparatus. To him che- mistry is indebted for the methods at present employed for the estimation of ammonia, potash, and magnesia. Dr. Wollaston was a man of retiring habits, but by those who knew him in- timately he was held in high regard. He has been accused of a penurious disposition. The fact that he presented his brother with ,10,000 when asked to apply to the ministry in his behalf, seems to afford opposite evidence of the most sub- stantial and overwhelming description. [R.D.T.] WOLLE, C a German Orientalist, 1700-1761. WOLMAR, M., a Swiss jurist, 1497-1561. WOLSEY, Thomas, so well known in history as Cardinal Wolsey, is generally said to have been born at Ipswich, in the year 1471. His parents were so obscure, that whether or not his father followed the occupation of a butcher, attributed to him by the cardinal's enemies, has not been ascer- WOL tained. However it may have been achieved, young Wolsey obtained an excellent education, and ne had a brilliant student-reputation at Magdalen College, Oxford. He never was an ascetic. Though he must have worked hard dur- ing his college career, he seems to have had his full share of the dissipation of the day, and it is known that for some pecadillo he was on one occa- sion subjected to the penal discipline of the stocks. His first preferment, after he had taken orders, was that of Symington in Somersetshire, believed to have been obtained through the marquis of Dorset, whose sons he instructed. The turning point in his career appears to have been his ap- pointment as one of the chaplains of Henry VII. This introduced his abilities to the royal notice, and on his successful accomplishment of a delicate diplomatic mission to Flanders he obtained the rich deanery of Lincoln in 1508. It is not easy precisely to determine the source of the extraordi- nary influence which he exercised over Henry VIII. in the early years of his reign. He is said by his able scholarship to have aided in the composition of the celebrated Assertio Septem ISacramentorum,, against Luther ; but he was a favourite before he had an opportunity of performing this service. He was placed in the influential office of the king's almoner, through the recommendation of Fox, the bishop of Winchester ; and that calculating prelate is said to have advanced Wolsey for the purpose of counteracting his rival Surrey. When once the impetuous Henry had learned to seek counsel of Wolsey, it is easy to believe that his magnificent notions, his scholarship, his knowledge of life, and his accommodating morality, would please such a monarch. Preferment flowed in upon him. In 1514 he was made bishop of Lincoln. He was then in possession of lucrative livings both in England and France. In 1515 he was made car- dinal, and next year legate a latere, a commission which made him virtually the pope in England, giving him an authority which, if more limited in extent than that claimed by the bishop of Rome, was the more powerful, since it was exercised close at hand, and by one who knew the circumstances of the clergy over whom he ruled. Almost at the same time with these preferments he received the high ministerial and judicial office of lord chan- cellor. With his cardinalate he received the honour of the hat, usually conferred only on members of royal families. He held the bishopric of Tournay in France, and many other lucrative preferments in different parts of Europe. The vast influence which he exercised at the powerful court of England made his friendship an object not only to private seekers of preferment, but to the principal European powers. He aspired to the popedom at the time when Charles V. and Francis the First were competing with each other to succeed Maximilian as emperor of Germany. Hence each of them sought to secure the aid of Wolsey, by outbidding his rival in prospects of assistance towards the cardinal's great object, while he on his part had the too difficult task of making up his mind where to throw his influence, and of acting for one party with as little prejudice as possible to his influence with the other. He lost, much to his mortification, the great object which would have given him a securer foundation for power than he had in England, and 847 WOL ho ever treated the emperor Charles V. as one who had deceived him. No churchman in England had ever achieved so vast an amount of power and wealth as Wolsey, and, unfortunately for himself, he was fond of exhibiting it all to the world. He had a weakness for display, shown in the common anecdote about his having his portrait always taken in profile from one side, because the other was disfigured by a wart. The huge acquisitions made by fortunate prelates, and the ramifications of their influence by possessions all over Europe, were giving great alarm to thinking minds; and there is no doubt that the ostentation with which Wolsey displayed the offensive innovation hastened on the reformation. He had even given an im- pulse in the same direction by his enlightened projects for diverting some of the monastic pro- perty from its existing uses to the university of Oxford, and to other educational institutions. His qualities and defects are told with matchless truth and beauty in the words supplied by Shak- speare to his faithful followers : 'He was a scholar, and a ripe and good one; Exceeding wise, fair spoken and persuading; Lofty and sour to them that loved him not, But to those men that sought him, sweet as summer. And though he was unsatisfied in getting, (Which was a sin), yet in bestowing, mauam, He was most princely.' His enmity to the emperor inclined him to sanc- tion his sister's divorce from Henry, but as a high churchman he found it impossible to be the king's champion through the whole transaction. To justify his overthrow, charges were brought against him under the prcemunire statute against enforcing bulls from Rome. The charge was one which with the royal favour he might have met, but when it was directed from that quarter it was irresistible. After being subjected to some capri- cious oscillations of favour, a warrant was issued to apprehend him for high treason. Attacked by sickness, he sought refuge in the abbey of Leices- ter with the mournful saying, 'Father abbot, I am come to lay my bones among you.' He died Nc there on the 28th November, 1530. [J.H.B.] [Leicester Abbey] WOLSTONECRAFT, Mary, wife of William Godwin, au. of the 'Rights of Women,' 1759-97. WOLTMANN, C. L. De, a German historian and man of letters, 1770-1817. WOO WOLZOGEN, J. L., a Socinian wr.. 15%-" WOLZOGEN, L. Van, a learned Dutch tL gian and elocutionist, 1632-1090. WOMOCK, Laurence, bishop of St. Da and a controversial writer, 1612-1G85. WOOD, Anthony, author of the 'Histon Antiquities of Oxford,' and the 'Athena? ensis,' was born in 1632, and educated at the versity. His works were written with the fatigable zeal of an enthusiast, and are cpoted. He died in his native place, where h< lived and laboured, in 1695. WOOD, James, the banker and millionai Gloucester, was born there in 1756, and died I His only distinction is that of having sci together, by indulging in every meanness, nea million sterling. There is not a redeeming recorded of his character, and nothing could ei him to a place in our pages but the frequenc which the name of ' Je way of example which the name of 'Jemmy Wood' is quot WOOD, Matthew, knight and alderman ( London, was the son of a lace manufacturer t Tiverton, and was born in 1767. He acquired hi standing in the city as a hop merchant, and wt twice mayor, in 1815 and 1816; from the la? named year also he had a seat in parliament, an vfas well known as a reformer. Died 1843. WOOD, Robert, an Irish scholar and archaec logist, au. of a ' Description of the Ruins of Bal bee,' and those of 'Palmyra' or 'Tadmor,' 1716-7: WOODDESON, Richard, an English civiliai au. of ' Elements of Jurisprudence,' and ' A Sn tematic View of the Laws of England,' 1745-182: WOODFALL, William, a celebrated printe whose name became famous from the prosecutio to which he was exposed for printing the Lettei of Junius. Died 1803. WOODHOUSE, Robert, an eminent mathc matician and professor at Cambridge, author ( 'The Principles of Analytical Calculation,' an other works, 1773-1827. WOODHOUSELEE. See Tytler. WOODVILLE. See Elizabeth. WOODVILLE, Anthony, otherwise WYDE VILLE, brother of Elizabeth, queen of Edwar IV., and created by him Earl Rivers, was born i 1442. He made an unsuccessful attempt to crow the king's son, and was sent to the scaffold 1483 WOODVILLE, William, physician to tb Middlesex Dispensary and Small-pox Hospital i London, author of ' Medical Botany,' and a ' His tory of Inoculation,' 1752-1805. WOODWARD, Henry, a famous comediai dramatic writer, and composer of pantomime.' born in London 1717, died 1777. WOODWARD, John, a physician and pro fessor at Gresham College, distinguished as naturalist and antiquarian, was born in Derh shire 1665, and died 1728. His principal work' an ' Essay towards a Natural History of the Earl " WOOLLETT, William, was born at Maidst in Kent in 1735, and learnt engraving of J Tinney. He acquired early a great reputation landscape engraver ; his works of this class, i Wilson, are probably still unapproached. He graved also two of West's greatest works, th ' Death of General Wolfe,' and the ' Battle of th Hogue ;' which raised his reputation as an historii 848 woo (j cal engraver almost on a par with his name in land- scape. He was appointed engraver to George III. ; and died in London, May 23, 1785. Woollett is great for his colour, and his skill in representing variety of texture, also for an extraordinary force in his prints, owing to the judicious combination of the three methods, with aquafortis, with the graver, and with the dry point. His works after l e | Wilson constitute in themselves a delightful land- escape gallery, all unsurpassed as pictures or as M prints. [R.N.W.] WOOLSTON, Thomas, a deistical writer, who was originally a minister of the Church of England, 35 and wrote an ' Apology for the Christian Religion;' g at a later period, he was prosecuted for his 'Six i] Discourses on Miracles,' and his 'Defence' of- the aj discourses. Born at Northampton, 1669, d. 1732. itl WOOLTON, Johx, bishop of Exeter, known as it] a theological writer, 1535-1594. k WORDSWORTH, William, was born at Cockermouth in Cumberland, on the 7th of April, 1770. His father was an attorney there, and he a was the second of five children. Dorothy, the y only daughter, was his most cherished friend and ?a confidant during his life. The mother of the 1 family died in William's ninth year ; and the ID( father died five years afterwards, leaving to his children little fortune beyond a claim for law- 9 agency on Sir James Lowther, afterwards earl of i], Lonsdale. This debt remained unsatisfied till 1802, \ when, on the accession of the next earl, 8,500 B was paid in satisfaction of it. In 1787, after hav- ing been educated chiefly at the endowed school of ^ Hawkshead, near Esthwaite Lake, William was ", sent by his uncles to St. John's College, Cambridge, ill Be had read much in boyhood, especially poetry, jj uid had written English verses, in imitation (as he says himself) of Pope's versification, ' and a little j, e in his style.' One of these compositions presaged . two of the most prominent features in the character m jf his mind. It was, says he, ' a long poem, running upon my own adventures, and the scenery of the wuntry in which I was brought up.' The only Bonsiderable poem which he wrote while at the J, adversity, was ' The Evening Walk.' His vaca- m tions were devoted to wanderings in the country ; , j, Hid in the autumn of 1790 he spent nearly three n months in a tour on the continent, visiting France, a Switzerland, some of the Italian lakes, and the fa Rhine. He disliked the system of the university, i'j md attended little to the studies of the place. ^Indeed, it is to be observed that, through fife, Wordsworth was as little of a student as any ! literary man ever was. Except in poetical litera- m tore, his knowledge of books seems to have always been very slight. And if he was disinclined to n read, he was quite as much disinclined to writing : .", be had weak eyes, and great indolence. In his J mature years, he composed most frequently in the .' Bourse of his walks, without setting down a word ; a and many of his poems would certainly have been " m tost, had not the ladies of his family been at hand a, to record them. He has himself said, that, if he r J . had been free to choose his course of life, he would 1 have spent his days in travelling. To the adoption '* of a profession he was never able to make up his 1 mind. The church was proposed to him, but a. ipeedily rejected. His religious belief never was ^ Bach as to prevent his taking orders ; but his WOR opinions on the state of society, during his early manhood, would not easily have been reconcileable with the position of a clergyman in the Church of England. For several years after the outbreak of the French revolution, lie was an ardent republi- can. In 1791 he took his degree of B.A., and quitted Cambridge. In the close of the same year he went to France, where he spent nearly twelve months; and there he wrote the poem called ' Descriptive Sketches,' which betrays, yet more than * The Evening Walk,' the poetic strength with which he was endowed. These pieces were pub- lished in 1793. In that year, also, ' The Female Vagrant' was written. For some years he wan- dered about, gradually satisfying himself that he was justified m regarding poetry as his true voca- tion. He planned a monthly miscellany, which was to have been ' republican but not revolutionary ;' and he attempted to find employment in writing for the London newspapers on the opposition side. In 1795 he received a legacy of 900 from his friend and contemporary, Raislev Calvert. This generous and seasonable bequest fully answered the inten- tion of the donor : it enabled the poet to devote himself to study till the settlement of his father's affairs. In the autumn of 1795 Wordsworth began to five with his sister, their first residence being at Racedown in Dorsetshire. He commenced, but abandoned, a poetical imitation of Juvenal ; and in this year and the following, he made his first and last attempt in a kind of poetry very uncongenial to the cast of his genius, by writing the Tragedy of ' The Borderers,' Refused at Covent Garden, this piece remained in manuscript for nearly half a century. About this time, likewise, were written a good many of the earliest of those fine passages, which were afterwards dovetailed into ' The Excur- sion.' This is a fact particularly deserving atten- tion. The poet's blank-verse compositions, with their solemn tone of meditation, their purely dig- nified diction, and their sweep of rotund melody, were made known to the world only when he had passed middle age ; and they were treated by his critics as the fruits of improved skill and enlarged experience and purified taste. But he actually had at his command, and was continually expressing, this his highest mood of poetry, from his twenty- fifth year. Coleridge, with whom Wordsworth made acquaintance while in Dorsetshire, always insisted that his friend's first business ought to be, the completion of the Philosophical and Autobiographi- cal Poem, of which these fragments were designed as parts. But Wordsworth was never at all disposed to pay deference to the opinion either of affectionate friends or of hostile critics. With him, as with most of us, ' the boy was father of the man.' He had always been quietly self-willed ; and his character in manhood possessed the feature which he attributes to his early boyhood when he says : ' Possibly from some want of judgment in punishments inflicted, I had become perverse and obstinate in defying chastisement, and rather proud of it than otherwise.' At this time, indeed, as it has been remarked by his nephew, the whole tenor of his opinions led him to dissatisfaction with things existing ; and his political creed (perhaps in part through the shock which events on the con- tinent were beginning to give to it) affected his creed in literature. He perceived, with great I 31 WOR clearness, two or three deep-rooted faults in the remit poets of England : the artificial stamp of their diction ; their general inattention to external nature; their want of sympathy with ordinary events and with the feelings of mankind at large. He felt that lie possessed the power of producing poetry, in which these faults should be avoided. But, In the meantime, tempted partly by deliberate error in theory, partly by incidental eccentricities of taste and judgment natural to a self-trained and uncommunicative muser, he rebelled, not only against the false canons of literature, hut against several that are really true. In the poems with which he chose to make his first effort towards the reformation of the public taste, there are many points of thought, of sentiment, and of expression, which, as the most judicious of his admirers allow, would not have appeared if those poems had been written even a few years afterwards. Some things, indeed, especially the oddest and boldest of the colloquial words and idioms, were silently altered in the later editions. But the eccentricity of judg- ment lingered, in a great degree, to the last, fostered by the self-brooding solitude to which he devoted himself. The ' Lyrical Ballads,' to which chiefly these observations are applicable, made rapid progress in Wordsworth's next place of abode. This was Nether-Stowey in Somersetshire, where he lived for a year, removing to the place in August, 1797, in order to be near Coleridge. In the next year he wrote ' Peter Bell ;' and in autumn he published, in one volume, the twenty poems which (with three by Coleridge) make up the first edition of the ' Lyrical Ballads.' The poet was now in his twenty-ninth year. Immediately afterwards he went to Germany with his sister and Coleridge ; and, the party separating, Miss Wordsworth and her brother spent the winter of 1798-99, very un- comfortably, and seemingly with little advantage of any kind, at Goslar in Hanover. Here were written several beautiful pieces, among which were 'Lucy Gray,' and the fragments of blank-verse beginning ' There was a Boy' and 'Wisdom and Spirit of the Universe.' A beginning was also made with that first part of the great Poem, which Wordsworth's friends entitled ' The Prelude.' Wordsworth's long residence among the lakes of his native district began soon after his return to England. In the end of 1799 he settled with his sister in a small house at Grasmere, which he con- tinued to occupy for eight years. In 1800 were written The Brothers,' 'The Pet Lamb,' ' Ruth,' * Michael,' and 'Hart-Leap Well;' and, in the close of the year these and other poems made up a second volume of the ' Lyrical Ballads/ which appeared with a reprint of the first. To 1802 belong, among other pieces, ' The Rainbow,' ' The Leech-gatherer,' 'Alice Fell,' 'Intimations of Immortality,' and the two Sonnets on Buonaparte. Then, also, Wordsworth was working on ' The Excursion,' which at that time bore the name of ' The Pedlar.' In that year, he married Mary Hutchinson of Pen- rith, to whose amiability his poems pay warm and beautiful tributes. In 1803 he made a tour of some weeks in Scotland, being guided at Melrose by Walter Scott ; and he now became acquainted with Sir George Beaumont, whose name appears often in his writings. In 1805 he suffered the grief of losing his brother, Captain Wordsworth, who WOR perished by shipwreck. In this year were writtc 'The Waggoner' and the 'Ode to l)ut_\ ;' m 'The Prelude' was finished, and consigned to tl poet's desk for forty-five years. In 1807 WW printed two volumes of poems, composed sim 1800. They contain, besides several very fine ha lads, and many other small poems, the ' Sonne Dedicated to Liberty,' and the ' Memorials of Tour in Scotland.' These volumes were the objec of some of those critical censures, (severe but vei far from being groundless,) under which, with a his outward apathy and real self-esteem, the poe as his letters show, smarted very severely. ] 1808 he removed to Allan Bank at the head Grasmere Lake, where he lived for three year In 1809 he contributed to the 'Friend' of Cob ridge, who was then living with him ; and publishc his indignant and very eloquent pamphlet on tl Convention of Cintra. His political opinions hi now settled pretty much into the form they ev afterwards held, a kind of speculative Torvisr heightened by his church opinions, but balanced 1 many notions really democratic. In 1810 1 [Kydal Mount] printed, as an introduction to a set of Views of t district, his Observations on the Scenery of t Lakes, the most interesting of all things of the so In this year was born the last of his five childn two of whom died two years afterwards. In t spring of 1813, after one temporary change dwelling, he took up his abode at Rydal Mom two miles from Grasmere, which was his home thirty-seven years, and the scene of his de Then, too, by the interest of Lord Lonsdale, he appointed distributor of stamps for Westmorela an office which was executed by a clerk, and yiel< about 500 a-year. A second tour in Scof early in 1814, gave birth to a few poems ; a summer was published 'The Excursion,' the grea ?art of which had been written at Allan Bai 'his edition, consisting of five hundred copies, -w not exhausted for six years. ' Let the age,' wr< the poet to Southey, ' continue to love its c-' darkness ; I shall continue to write, with, I the light of Heaven upon me.' In the design this remarkable poem, it is difficult to discover ar thing that can justify commendation, whether look to it as an independent work, or regard it forming a part in that gigantic poem, which 1 author so long contemplated executing in whe 850 - J^ O-Z^D WOR But if ' The Excursion ' is to be judged by its best passages, hardly any poem in our language is equal to it. Some of its scenes, extending through hundreds of lines ; many passages of smaller ex- tent, but yet considerable; and innumerable verses, and phrases, and words; are among the most exquisite things to which any poetic mind ever fave expression. In 1815 appeared 'The White >oe of Rylstone,' a work instinct with a dreamy loveliness, and estimated by its author very highly. But it evinces, more plainly than any of his pre- ceding works, his incapacity to plan or conduct a sustained narrative; and it is characterized, even more than the ' Lyrical Ballads,' by that which Coleridge had publicly pronounced to be one of his friend's besetting nns ; namely, the prevalence of 'an intensity of feeling disproportionate to such knowledge and value of the objects described, as can be fairlv anticipated of men in general, even of the most cultivated classes.' Within a year or two before and after the publication of this work, the poet, in his usual fashion, proved his power of poetizing in a very different key, by composing several of those small pieces, whose elaborate re- finement, both of sentiment and of diction, has drawn forth the lively admiration of readers the most adverse to the peculiarities of his system. Such were ' Laodamia,' ' Dion,' the ' Ode to Lycoris,' and ' Artegal and Elidure.' In 1816 was composed the ' Thanksgiving Ode,' and a rhymed translation of Three Books of the iEneid. In 1819 appeared ' Peter Bell,' which was rather popular, and the ' Waggoner,' which was much the reverse. To that year belong the series of Sonnets on the Kiver Duddon. In 1820 Wordsworth, with his wife and sister, made a tour of four months on the continent, of which ' Memorials ' were published some time afterwards. In that year, too, a visit to Sir George Beaumont gave occasion to the very fine series ofSonnets called 'Ecclesiastical Sketches.' Wordsworth was now fifty years old, had written all his best works, and had laid most of them before the world. But, though the thirty years during which his life was still prolonged were unprolific of great performances, they witnessed very extra- ordinary cnanges in the reputation of the author. Poets were already familiar with his works, and acknowledged him as the chief in a new develop- ment of the art ; but ordinary readers, taking what thev found of him in the periodicals, knew as yet Only a few of his best passages and a great many Of his worst. The Edinburgh Review, supported afterwards by the Quarterly, had hitherto guided the public opinion as to his writings ; a turn was How given to the tide, by the eloquently vehement panegyrics which began to be showered on him in Blackwood's Magazine, about the year 1820. With- out taking account of minor points, we may cor- rectly consider Wordsworth's principal critics as looking at the functions and duties of poetry from |wo opposite points of view. Jeffrey paid regard mainly to the perfection or imperfection of the result ; Wilson and his friends were content with examining the state of mind out of which the result is generated. The former, severely pure in taste, demanded an elaborate work of art, symmetrically designed, and executed with care and dignity ; the latter sought for nothing beyond such proof of genius as might be furnished in a few striking pas- WOR sages, and held native endowment as more than suffi- cient to atone for imperfect execution. Scrutinized in the first of these aspects, all the brilliant poetry which arose in England during the first generation of our century was seriously defective , and that of Wordsworth, with all his deliberation and slowness of performance, was, through the natural character of his mind, still more open to exception than the effusions of Scott and Byron had been made by carelessness and haste. Even those who, having formed a competent acquaintance with Words- worth's works, felt themselves compelled to adopt this view, could not be, and were not, blind to the admirable beauties of detail, which, when blazoned forth by the pen of Christopher North, speedily made the poet's name to be a word of honour, even with those who knew none of his poems but in fragments, or who were wearied or repelled by the inanimateness and the disproportionate design of ' The Excursion.' The fame of the Poet of the Lakes grew yet wider, when his influence had shown itself decisively in that new school of poetry, which had its beginnings with Keats and Shelley. For a good many years before his death, Words- worth was not only acknowledged, and justly, to be really the greatest English poet of his time, but was regarded with a reverence allowing no possi- bility of faults. Symptoms of a wiser and more dis- criminating judgment have shown themselves of late; and, in no long time, the world will estimate justly and correctly the works of one of the greatest, as well as purest and most blameless, of the poets who have enriched and enlarged the domain of English literature. The period extending from Wordsworth's fiftieth year to his eightieth requires no minute notice. He lived among his beloved mountains, travelled much, suffered a good deal, and wrote little. Two visits to Scotland, in the former of which (in 1831) he saw Scott just before he left Abbotsford for the last time, provided many of the materials for a volume, published in 1835, ' Yarrow Revisited, and other poems.' The finest of these are the meditative pieces entitled ' Evening Voluntaries.' About this time the poet was deeply affected by political events ; and he felt yet more keenly the declining health of his sister, who became a confirmed invalid. In 1837 he made, for nearly six months, a tour in Italy, which suggested several pieces, printed, in 1842, in a volume called ' Poems, chiefly of Early and Late Years.' In it was inserted the Tragedy of ' The Borderers.' In tha year, being now seventy-two years of age, he re- signed his distributorship in favour of one of his two sons, and received from Sir Robert Peel a pension of three hundred a-year. In 1843, on the death of Southey, the same ministry appointed Wordsworth to be Poet-Laureate ; an office which he accepted only on the assurance, that it was to be entirely nominal and honorary. In 1847 he had to witness the death of his accomplished daughter, Mrs. Quillinan. He died on the 23d of April, 1850, being exactly the day of the month which closed the life of Shakspeare. His remains rest in the churchyard of Grasmere. [W.S.] WORGAN, J. D., an English poet, 1790-1819. WORLIDGE, T., a portrait painter and engraver of etchings after Rembrandt, 1700-1766. WORM, Olaus, in Latin Wormius, a Dutch physician and antiquarian, 1588-1654. 851 WOR WORONZOW, M. Larionowitz, Count De, a Batatas statesman and favourite of the empress Elizabeth, disgraced under Catharine, 1710-1767. WOKSDALE, James, a dramatic writer and painter, taught by Sir G. Kneller, died 1767- WOKSLEY, Sir Richard, the historian of the Isle of Wight, was born there in 1751 He became governor of the island, comptroller of the royal ousehold, and member for Newport. In addition to his historical work, he published a magnificent catalogue of his marbles and other antiques, under the title of ' Musseum Worsleianum.' Died 1805. WORTHINGTON, John, rector of Ingoldsby in Lincolnshire, author of religious works, &c, 1 The Doctrine of the Resurrection,' 1618-1671. WORTHINGTON, Thomas, a Roman Catholic theologian, died in exile about 1626. WORTHINGTON, William, vicar of Llarr- hayader in Denbighshire, and a dignitary of the church, was born in Merionethshire 1703, and educated at Oxford. Died 1778. His principal works are an ' Essay on the Scheme of Redemp- tion,' ' The Scripture Theory of the Earth,' ' On the Historical Sense of the Mosaic Account of the Fall,' and an ' Inquiry into the Case of the Gospel Demoniacs.' WOTTON, Edward, a physician and na- turalist, time of Henry VIII., 1492-1555. WOTTON, Sir Henry, a well-known states- man, diplomatist, and political writer, born in Kent 1568, died 1639. He went as an ambassador to Venice, the United Provinces, and several of the German courts in the reign of James I. His works are ' The States of Christendom,' ' Parallels between Essex and Buckingham,' 'Elements of Architecture,' ' Characters of the Kings of Eng- land,' and Poems, &c. WOTTON", William, a clergyman of the Church of England, remarkable for his precocious know- ledge of the sciences and Oriental languages, author of ' Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learn- ing,' a ' History of Rome, from the Death of Anto- ninus Pius to the Death of Alexander Severus,' ' Memoirs of the Cathedrals of St. David's and Llandaff,' and other works of less note. Born at Wrentham in Suffolk 1666, died 1726. WOUTERS, F., a Flemish painter, 1614-1659. WOUVERMAN, Philip, was born at Haarlem in 1620, where he died in 1668, aged only forty-eight. Though one of the most masterly of painters, he is said to have been disappointed. His works became very valuable soon after his death, and have increased in value since, but according to D'Argenville, who rather contradicts Houbraken, he was so supremely disgusted with the encouragement he received, that shortly before his death he burnt all his draw- ings and studies, in case they should encourage his son to follow the profession of a painter : he seems to have worked chiefly to have enriched the dealers even during his own lifetime. Wouverman's sub- jects are generally road-side, travelling, hunting, fighting, or plundering scenes, and such as admit of horses, which he constantly introduced in his pictures; it is a common belief that he never painted a picture without a white or a gray horse, but this is doubtless an exaggeration. He painted horses in small with unrivalled skill ; indeed, his mastery in every department of painting is per- fectly extraordinary, and his colouring is always WRE rich and transparent. All the works, howevei attributed to Philip Wouverman, are not his ; man were doubtless the productions of his brothei Peter Wouverman, who survived Philip man years ; a second brother, John, was a good land &c WB scape painter. (Houbraken, Groote Schouburgl [R.N.W. RANGEL, Hermann, a Swedish genera! rewarded with a marshal's baton by Gustavu Adolphus, 1587-1644. His son, Charles Gus tavus, greatly distinguished in the German wa and in the councils of his sovereign, 1613-1676. WRAXALL, Sir N. W., an indefatigable tra veller and historical writer in the civil service ( the East India Company, 1751-1831. WRAY, D., an archaeologist, 1701-1783. WREDE, Charles Philip, Prince, a Bavaria officer and statesman, who served as the ally ( Napoleon from 1805 to 1813, and in the two fo] lowing years joined the coalition, 1767-1839. WREN, Sir Christopher, was born at Ea: Knoyle, Wilts, October 20, 1632 ; his father w: rector of the parish. He was educated at Wes minster school, and showed great mechanic ability at a very early age. In 1646 he went Oxford, and entered as a gentleman commoner Wadham College; he took his bachelor's degr in 1650, became a fellow of All Souls, and a mast of arts in 1653 ; and in 1657, then only in I twenty-fifth year, was chosen professor of astr nomy in Gresham College, London, and in 166 Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, wb he also took his degree of doctor of civil law. the following year he was the chief mover in pr curing the foundation of the Royal Society, wni had already existed some few years as the Philos phical Club, and he became its president in 16 Such were the preliminary studies of Englam Greatest architect, but he had already commenc is great career in 1661 as assistant to Sir Jo Denham, the surveyor of the royal works, who w himself incapable of the duties of the offi Wren's first work in this capacity was a new h for the public meetings of the university, a co: mission intrusted to him by Archbishop Sheld the chancellor of the university, since celebral as the Sheldonian Theatre ; it was completed 1668. About the same time he built a new cha for Pembroke College, Cambridge, for his uncle 1 bishop of Ely. In 1665 he visited Paris. In 1( he succeeded Sir John Denham as surveyor of I royal works, with a salary of 100 per annt and as surveyor-general of the repairs of" St. Pau In 1672 he submitted plans tor a new chu I instead of attempting to repair the old one, wh . had been completely destroyed by the fire. commission was appointed for the execution of > work in 1673, and Wren having given up his p fessorship at Oxford, was appointed architect JF the cathedral, and was knighted by the king on occasion. This great work, in style the Ital renaissance, occupied nearly forty years; it \ completed in 1710 ; Wren receiving only a-year as architect of St. Paul's, but he execu many other churches and public buildings in L don at the same time, as 'The Monument,' Ten Bar, &c, besides some others in the coun Oxford, and Cambridge, Winchester, Greunw Hampton Court, &c. Of all his great works, je 852 WRE towers of Westminster Abbey are alone discredit- able ; be was, however, not very successful in his palaces, as for instance, the additions to Hampton Court, and Marlborough House, in both of which the apartments are of mean proportions, contrast- ing strongly even with the hunting boxes of many German princes. The cartoon gallery at Hampton Court is deplorably ill suited to its purpose. Sir Christopher never visited Italy ; his mastery of the Italian renaissance he owes probably mainly to the example of Inigo Jones; he has in St. Paul's achieved something more than a worthy rival of St. Peter's ; though on so much smaller a scale, it has internally through its so far more judicious proportions even a vaster effect than St. Peter's at Rome ; the interior, however, is painfully cold, but this is no fault of Wren's, it is the general want of colour and other decoration. The original design was more like St. Peter's than that carried out. In 1684 Wren was appointed comptroller of the works at Windsor, and in 1685 he was returned to parliament as one of the members for Plympton ; he sat also in following parliaments for Wind- sor and for Weymouth. In 1717, after the death of Anne, he lost the favour of the court, and was re- moved from his office of surveyor-general. He retired to Hampton Court, where he died Februarv 25, 1723. {Parentalia, 1750; Elmes, Life of Wren; Allan Cunningham, Lives of the Painters, &c. ; Penny Cyclopedia.) [R.N.W.] WREN, M., a learned prelate, 1585-1667. WRIGHT, Abraham, an English theologian, 1611-1690. His son, James, an antiquarian and historian of Rutlandshire, 1644-1715. WRIGHT, Edward, a mathematician, who is said to have discovered the true method of dividing the meridian line, about 1560-1615. WRIGHT, Joseph, a painter of versatile ability, commonly called ' Wright of Derby,' and particu- larly skilled in landscapes, and scenes in which the effects of fire-light is introduced, 1734-1797. WRIGHT, S., a nonconform, divine, 1683-1746. WRIGHT, W., a Jesuit and theologian, d. 1639. WRIGHT, W. R., president of the Court of Appeal at Malta, author of ' Horae Ionicas,' a work ^escribing the Greek isles, died 1826. WRISBERG, H. A, a Ger. anatom., 1739-1808. WUCHERER, F., a Ger. theologian, 1682-1737. WULFER, J., a Germ. Orientalist, 1651-1682. WUNSCH, C. E., a Prussian astronomer, physi- cian, and naturalist, born about 1730. WUNSCH, J. J. De, a Prus. general, 1717-88. WURMBRAND, John William, Count, an Austrian statesman and antiquarian, 1670-1756. WURMSER, Dagobert Sigismond, Count, an Austrian general who distinguished himself in the wars with the French republic ; born in Alsace 1724, died soon after he had been compelled to surrender Mantua 1797. WURSTEISEN, C, a mathematician and histo- rian of the city of Bale, 1544-1588. WURTZ, F., a Swiss surgeon, 16th century. WURTZ, G. C, a French physician, 1756-1823. WURTZ, J. W., a Ger. controversialist, d. 1826. WURTZ, Paul, Baron De, a general in the service of Sweden and the United Provinces, d. 1676. > WURTZ BURG, Conrad De, one of the ballad- singers of Germany, 13th century, author of the Nibelungen,' published 1757-1784. WYC WYATT, James, a metropolitan architect, builder of the Pantheon in Oxford-Street and of Fonthill Abbey, 1743-1813. WYATT, R. J., a sculptor of considerable emi- nence, was born in London, 1795 ; and instructed in his art by Charles Rossi, of the Royal Academy. In 1821, he went to Rome, and continued to reside there till his death in 1850. He was an indefati- gable worker, and produced some groups and statues which are much admired. The greatest of the latter is his Penelope,' which he was com- missioned to execute for the queen in 1841, at which period he visited England. WYATT, Sir Thomas, a courtier, statesman, and poet, who enjoyed the favour of Henry VIII., and was employed by him in several diplomatic missions ; born at Allington castle, in Kent, 1503, died 1541. His poetical works, which consist of love elegies and odes, have been greatly admired, and were first published with those of Lord Surrey. He was twice tried for sedition, but acquitted. His son, of the same name, was a zealous protes- tant, and was beheaded by Queen Mary in 1554. WYCHERLEY, Wm., was the oldest of those Comic Dramatists, whose licentiousness throws on the period succeeding the Restoration a disgrace not to be wiped away by the brilliant cleverness of their works. Less witty than Congreve, less gay than Farquhar, and inferior to Vanbrugh as a pain- ter of character, he has a vigour and good sense, and an ingenuity in the invention of lively incidents, not reached by any of these his contemporaries. He was the son of a Shropshire gentleman, and [Birth-place of Wycherley .] born about 1640. He was sent in his youth to France, where he learned the fashionable morality, and conformed to the fashionable religion by becom- ing a Roman Catholic. At the Restoration he was placed at Oxford, where he returned to the Church of England. The whole of his after life was that of an improvident and debauched man of pleasure. The dates at which his four comedies appeared range from 1669 to 1678 ; but the two earliest of them were, by his own account, written before he came of age, and the other two a considerable time before they were acted. 'The Plain Dealer,' a vigorous but unpleasing adaptation of Moliere's Misan- thrope, was composed when he was twenty-five years old ; and at thirty-two he wrote his lively and unprincipled comedy, 'The Country Wife.' 853 WYC About 1680 he married a young widow, the coun- tess of Drogheda, whose jealousy of her rakish husband made him uncomfortable, and whose bequest of her fortune to him served only to plunge him into lawsuits at her death. He lay for seven years in the Fleet prison for debt ; and even after his release, which is said to have been pro- cured by King James, he continued to be a needy man. When he was certainly above seventy years old, he married a young woman, being desirous, it is said, to disappoint a nephew whom he disliked. But he survived his marriage only eleven days, dying in December, 1715. [W.S.] 'WYCK, Thomas, called 'the Old,' a Dutch painter and engraver, 1616-1686. WYCLIFFE, WICKLYFFE, or W1CLIF, John De, was born at Wycliffe, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, about a.d. 1324. In early youth he was a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, but soon removed to Merton, of which he became a fellow. His favourite studies were metaphysics and theology. One of his earliest public appear- ances was m 1360 against the mendicant monks, with whom the university had a resolute quarrel. In 1361 he became master of Baliol, and was pre- sented to the rectory of Fillingham, in the diocese of Lincoln, which he afterwards exchanged for that of Ludgershall. Four years afterwards he was installed warden of Canterbury Hall, then recently founded by Archbishop Islep. In 1367, Langham, archbishop of Canterbury, expelled him from the wardenship, on which he appealed to the pope, Urban V., and a decision, after a delay of three years, was given against him. In 1372 he took his degree of D.D., and read lectures in divinity with great applause. He was sent soon afterwards as a commissioner to the papal embassy at Bruges, where he remained two years, and de- tected more narrowly the workings of the mystery of iniquity. On his return he was presented to the prebend of Aust, and the rectory of Lutterworth, through the patronage of the duke of Lancaster. Three hundred of his parochial sermons 'have been preserved. He had for some time been loud and bitter in his remonstrances against the idle and vicious clergy, and his vehemence and fidelity increased with his years. The enraged prelates summoned him before the convocation, Dut his powerful patrons saved him. In 1376 the monks drew up nineteen articles against him, taken from his prelections and sermons. These charges show that Wycliffe preached a species of protestantism denying transubstantiation and the supremacy of the pope, and severely condemning the abuse of her temporalities on the part of the church. Dur- ing the next year the pope sent to England five bulls against the reformer. But the king died before they arrived, and the universities would not act. The prelates, however, cited Wycliffe to appear before them in London. In the meantime parliament was in a dilemma on a question of casuistry, whether it were lawful to refuse the pope's demand that treasure should be sent out of the kingdom. The matter was referred to Wyclirt'e, and he at once decided that parliament might resist. He then, attended by the duke of Lancaster and the lord marshal, Earl Percy, ap- peared before the episcopal tribunal, and after boiuc altercation, left the court in safety. He WYC wns summoned to appear again at Lambeth in 1378, but the process was suddenly stopped by the queen-mother. In 1381 he published twelve theses against transubstantiation, and the archbishop of Canterbury formally pronounced the majority of them dangerous and heretical. Wyc- liffe left Oxford in 1382, and retired to Lutter- worth. There he laboured without intermission, and neither tongue nor pen was idle in the cause of evangelical truth and freedom. He had been threatened with paralysis a year or two previous, but in 1384 he was seized in the pulpit with a sud- den stroke, and soon after expired. Wycliffe'a [Wycliffe s chair.] works are very numerous, and are chiefly of a pole- mical and practical nature, induced by the spirit o. the age in which he lived. His English translatior of the Latin Bible, or Vulgate, was a work of grea: merit and necessity, for it unlocked the Scriptures t( the multitude, or as his antagonist, bewailing sucl an enterprise, worded it, 'the gospel pearl wai cast abroad and trodden under foot.' The papa schism that happened on the death of Gregon XL, stirred him up to compose a famous tract 'The Schism of the Popes.' His essay on 'Th< Truth and Meaning of Scripture,' contains strik- ing statements on the perfection and clearness o the Bible alone as the rule of faith. The Englisl style of the reformer is wonderful for his age, ami is clear and homely in its structure. Our presenB tongue was then beginning to raise itself int eminence and popularity. Chaucer's poetry am Mandeville's prose were evidence of its flexibilit; and power. Wycliffe's style is more commoi than theirs, for it speaks to the people in thei own vernacular. Wycliffe will ever be remem bered as a good and a great man, an advocate ( ecclesiastical independence, an unquailing foe t popish tyranny, a translator of Scripture into ou mother tongue, and an industrious instructor c the people in their own rude but ripening dialed May he not be justly styled the ' morning star c the reformation?' So much impression was mad by his works that one of his enemies complains- ' that a man could not meet two persons on th road but one was a Wicklifhte.' A convocatio: held at Oxford in 1408 prohibited the reading an diffusion of the reformer's version. At the counc of Constance in 1415, the dead Wycliffe was nouucod as a heretic, and his bones were orde 854 WYC to be exhumed from consecrated ground. Thirteen years afterward the decree was enforced by Pope Martin V., and Fleming, bishop of London, was ordered to see it done. His grave was opened, the bones taken out and burned, and the ashes cast into the stream that passes near the church of Lutterworth. As Thomas Fuller adds in his own style : This river took them ' into the Avon, Avon into the Severn, Severn into the narrow seas they into the main ocean, and thus the ashes of Wyc- liffe are the emblems of his doctrine which is now dispersed all the world over.' [J.E.] WYDEVILLE. See Woodville. WYDRA, S., a Polish matbemat., 1741-1804. WYERMANN, or WEYERMANN, J. Campo, a Dutch painter and writer, 1679-1747. WYKEHAM, William of, bishop of Win- chester, and lord high chancellor of England, was born at Wykeham in Hampshire 1324. He was promoted to his see after distinguishing himself in several state employments in 1366, and held the high office of chancellor, from 1367 to 1371. He promoted the formation of Winchester school and New College., Oxford. This eminent prelate died in 1404, and was buried in his own oratory in Winchester cathedral, where a costly monu- ment is erected to his memory. WYNANTS, John, a Dutch landscape painter, the teacher of Philip Wouvermans, 1600-1670. WYNANTZ, Godwin, Count, a jurisconsult and statesman of the empire, 1661-1732. WYXDHAM, H. P., an antiquarian writer and member of parliament for Wiltshire, 1736-1819. WYXDHAM, Sir William, an eloquent par- ot liamentary speaker and statesman of the period of "" Queen Anne, was born at Orchard Wyndham in Somersetshire 1687, and entered parliament as knight of the shire for his native county. In 1710 he was made secretary at war, and in 1713 chan- cellor of the exchequer. On the death of the queen he became a distinguished member of the opposi- tion, and in 1715 was committed on a charge of being implicated in the Scotch rebellion ; died 1740. Having married a daughter of the duke of Somerset, his eldest son, Sir Charles Wynd- ham, inherited the title of earl of Egremont, from his uncle. He died in 1763. tjl XACCA, E., a Sicilian poet, born 1643. XAINTONGE, Anne and Francis De, sis- ters of Dijon, who each founded a religious house of the Ursuline order, the former 1567-1621 ; o|the latter died 1639. XA1NTRAILLES, Jean Poton, Seigneur Do, a commander in the army of Charles VII. at the period of the expulsion of the English, died 1461. XAXTHUS of Lydia, a Greek historian, some o fragments of whose writings, published in the d(j collections of Creuser and Muller, are all that remain, flourished in the 6th or 5th century B.C. XANTIPPE, whose name has passed into a proverb for a scolding wife, was the spouse of crates the philosopher, and notwithstanding her ill temper was deeply attached to him. The date of her death is unknown. XANi'JITUS, an Athenian general, 5th c. B.C. XEN WYNN, Charles Watkins Williams, an experienced member of the House of Commons, having represented Montgomeryshire from 1797 to his death in 1850. He became secretary at war under Earl Grey from December, 1834, to April, 1835, but is chiefly memorable for the honourable constancy of his public and private conduct during this long career. He was a liberal supporter of the Welch school in London, and deserves to be named among the friends of literature. WYNNE, Edward, author of ' Dialogues on the Laws and Constitution of England,' 1734-84. WYNNE, John Huddleston, a native of Wales, who settled in London as an author, and wrote 'A History of the British Empire in Ame- rica,' and ' A History of Ireland,' 1743-1788. WYNTOUN, Andrew, a Scottish rhyme- chronicler, prior of the monastery of St. Serf's Inch on Lochlomond, died about 1420. WYON, William, R.A., a distinguished Eng- lish medallist, 1795-1851. WYRWICZ, Charles, a Polish Jesuit, histo- rian, and geographical writer, 1716-1793. WYSS, the name of several Swiss writers : Bernard, author of a history of events from the time of Rodolph of Hapsburg, still in MS., about 1463-1525. Nicholas, a chronicler of events connected with the reformation, killed in the battle of Cappeler, 1531. Hans Henry, author of a ' History of the Canton and City of Zurich,' pub- lished 1783. Felix, professor of theology at Zurich, 1596-1666. Gaspard, brother of the latter, a Greek scholar, dates unknown. WYTFLIET, Cornelius, a Flemish historian, and secretary to the senate of Brabant; date of his works 1598-1607. WYTHE, George, an American statesman and champion of independence, 1726-1806. WYTTENBACH, Daniel, a learned scholar and critic, born in 1746 at Berne, and professor from 1771 at Amsterdam and Leyden. He pub- lished an edition of the moral works of Plutarch, Historical Selections from Ancient Authors, and other works. Died 1820. WZABECZ, Wenceslaus Joachim, professor of surgery at Prague, author of several practical works on surgery, 1740-1804. XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general who defeated the Romans under Regulus, B.C. 255. XAUPI, J., a French ecclesiastic, 1688-1778. XAVIER. See Francis. XAVIER, Jerome, a Jesuit and missionary, of the same family as the saint, died 1617 XENOCLES, a Greek tragedian, 4th cent. B.C. XENOCRATES, a Greek philosopher of the Platonic school, employed as a diplomatist by Philip, king of Macedon, and remarkable for his integrity, B.C. 400-314. XENOCRATES, a Greek physician, 1st cent. XENOPHANES, flourished between 540 and 500 B.C., an Ionian by birth ; afterwards settled in Italy From the few almost oracular verses of Xeno- phanes that have reached us, we may still form a tolerably adequate conception of the nature of that important place, in the History of Greek Philoso- 855 XEN phy, which unquestionably belongs to him. Indif- ferent to the search of the Ionic School after a pri- mal physical element; neither sympathizing with the higher aim of Pythagoras, his mind was arrested by the direct question concerning the Gods. And his conclusions seem to have been as follows. Rejecting utterly the Gods of the Poets, and every modification of Anthropomorphism he declared, because he felt, that something being, reality is: but he denied that? man can reach its nature, or ever apprehend its attributes. Man can learn or conceive only what is like himself, or what is placed before mm by the senses. Be- ing, is not discernible bv sense; neither can it be similar to Man. lEssentially then it is incomprehensible, inscrutable, unknown, and un- knowable. Xenophanes, was not afraid to ascer- tain that he could see nothing, in the awfulness which is beneath visible Life. But he was no sceptic he believed that God is. These rever- ential and most pregnant thoughts, fill a large space in all subsequent Modern as well as Greek speculation. [J.P.N.] XENOPHON, the Athenian historian and philo- sopher, was the son of Gryllus, a native of the Attic borough Ercheia. The time of his birth and death is not mentioned by any ancient writer, but it has been with very considerable probability inferred that he was born about B.C. 444; and Lucian states that he attained to above the age of ninety. He began life as a soldier, and was pre- sent at the battle of Delium (b.c. 424\ In the flight which ensued he fell from his horse, and owed his safety to Socrates, on whose shoulders he was carried to a place of security. Having by this incident become known to the great philosopher of the age, he cherished for him ever after the warmest affection, and derived from him all his moral and philosophical principles. Nothing worthy of notice is known respecting him till B.C. 401, when, on the invitation of his friend Proxenus, he was induced to join the expedition of Cyrus the younger against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia. Before deciding, he asked the advice of Socrates, who recommended to him to consult the Delphian oracle ; but Xenophon, who had previously deter- mined to go, merely asked the oracle to what gods he should sacrifice in order to insure success ; and, having performed the required rites, proceeded to Sardis, where he arrived in time to join the expe- dition. Attaching himself to the army, without any military appointment, he accompanied it in its tedious march, and was present at the battle of Cunaxa in which Cyrus fell. On the death of their leader the barbarian troops fled, and left the Greeks alone in the plains of Mesopotamia. Cle- archus, whom they invited to take the command, and also others of the Greek generals were soon after massacred by the treachery of the Persian Satrap, Tissaphernes. In this emergency Xeno- phon came forward, and, with the consent of his countrymen, took a prominent part in conducting the famous ' Retreat,' of which he has left a minute and graphic account in the Anabasis. Not daring to attempt a return by the route by which they had advanced, they proceeded along the course of the Tigris, and across the high lands of Armenia to Trapezus (Trebizond), a Greek colony on the south-east coast of the Black Sea, and thence XEN found their way to Chrysopolis, which is opposite to Byzantium (Constantinople). On their arriva here the Greeks were in great distress, and the? therefore readily accepted the invitation of Seuthes" king of Thrace, to aid him in recovering th< sovereignty. They performed their promise ; bu the Thracian chief declined to pay the stipulatec reward, and it was with great difficulty that Xeno- phon got from him part of the sum agreed upon W Being still very poor, the Greeks next made ai to expedition into the plain of the Caicus ; and seiz- ^ ing the house and property of a wealthy Persian k thereby replenished their empty pockets. Of this spoil Xenophon obtained his due share. In con- sequence of his connection with the expeditioi K under Cyrus, Xenophon was banished from Athens about B.C. 399 ; and, as he remained in Asia, pro- bably joined Agesilaus, king of Sparta, during hi; expedition into that country in B.C. 396. Whei Agesilaus was recalled, Xenophon accompanied him to Greece, and was with him in the battl* against his countrymen at Coronea, B.C. 394 After the battle he returned with Agesilaus t( Sparta, and soon after settled at Scillus, in Elis not far from Olympia, on a spot presented to hin by the Spartans, where he was joined by his wifi and children. In tins secluded retreat he spent his time in hunting, entertaining his friends, and writ- ing the works which have immortalized his name After a residence of more than twenty years, h> was expelled from Scillus by the Eleans, and re- tired to Corinth, where he is believed to have died The sentence of banishment against him had beei previously recalled ; but Xenophon never revisitec his native city. The extant works of Xenophoi may be divided into four classes : 1. Historical the Anabasis, an account of the expedition o Cyrus the Younger, and the Retreat of the Tei Thousand, a model of perspicuous and interesting narrative ; the Eellemca, or Grecian Histories, i continuation of the History of Thucydides as far ai the battle of Mantineia(B.c. 362); the Cyropaedia an historical or philosophical romance, founded oi the real events of the early life of Cyrus; an< the Life of Agesilaus. 2. Didactic the Hippar- chicus, a treatise on Horsemanship; and tht Cynegeticus, a treatise on Hunting. 3. Political- two Treatises on the Constitutions of Sparta am. Athens, and a Treatise on the Revenues of Attica 4. Philosophical the Memorabilia of Socrates, i faithful record of the doctrines and sayings of th philosopher ; the Apology of Socrates, which pro- fesses to contain the substance of Socrates' ad- dress to his judges ; the Symposium, an account o a festive meeting, at which Socrates was present the (Economicus, a discussion on the duties domestic life ; and the Hiero, an imaginary con- versation between the tyrant of Syracuse anc Simonides. It is impossible in our limited spact to analyze the character of Xenophon as ai historian, a politician, a philosopher, and a general* It is not detracting from pre-eminent merit t( allege that his continuation of the History o Thucydides falls short of the original ; that, ii depth and philosophical acumen, he must yield tc Plato, while he is a more faithful exponent of th doctrines of their common instructor ; and that hit conducting of the Retreat of the Ten Thousanc presents many of the qualities of a great com- .: 856 XER if mander. His style exhibits the Attic dialect in its i purest and most perfect form ; clear, simple, and ij levoid of ornament. [G.F.] s, XERES, F., a Spanish historian of the con- k juest of Peru, where he accompanied Pizarro. it XERXES, king of Persia, was the son of Darius id ind of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. He succeeded tiis father B.C. 485, to the prejudice of his elder D, )rother, Artazabanes. Four years previously the id brces of Darius had been defeated by the Greeks v inder Miltiades at the battle of Marathon, and % he interval had been passed in preparing for a is second expedition. These preparations Xerxes ] sontinued on a scale of magnificence, almost in- U sredible, and in the spring of 480 B.C. he com- is nenced his march from Sardis : his army was m noved forward with great deliberation, and being is lumbered on its arrival in Europe was found to a nuster 1,700,000 foot, and 80,000 horse ; besides id :amels, chariots, and ships of war. These num- ie lers, and the undisciplined crowds who must have t ttended them, to supply their necessities, are per- to ectly bewildering to the imagination ; and they I ecome still more so when their varied costumes, in he silken and gilded tents, the standards, the fe ostly armour, and the variety of national weapons jjre considered. One of the political parties of 1 Jreece, it must be borne in mind, were in league it rith the Persian court, and the terror of the lie ountry verged upon despair of maintaining their . berties. Themistocles, however, while the pass i f Thermopylas was defended by Leonidas and his en partans, succeeded in rallying his countrymen, ednd having created a navy, defeated Xerxes on t the battle of Salamis. This great event took - lace in the year of the expedition B.C. 480. The ol 'ersians were allowed to retreat in such order as en hey could, but Mardonius, one of the principal ij ommanders, reserved a more manageable army, the I est he could pick from the flying host, and with si bese he was defeated by the combined Greeks to, lie year following. Xerxes was assassinated by oi irtabanus, one of the great officers of his court, ij dio aspired to found a new dynasty in Persia, I ,c. 465. [E.R.] k XERXES, the second of the name, king of h 'ersia, succeeded his father, Artaxerxes Longi- kj lanus, b.c. 424, and was assassinated 423. s , XIMENES, Augustin Maria, Marquis De, a , a 'rench poet, and friend of Voltaire, 1726-1817. k YDE XIMENES, F., a Spanish painter, 1598-1666. XIMENES, Francis, one of the Spanish mis- sionaries who introduced Christianity into Mexico, au. of a description of Mexican zoology and botany. XIMENES, Francis, known in Spanish his- tory as Cardinal Cisneros, from the territorial title of his family, was born at Torrelaguna in 1437. A great portion of his time was spent in obscurity and hard study. In 1492 he was made confessor to Queen Isabella, and in 1494 was made arch- bishop of Toledo. In 1507 he received the cardi- nal's hat. Along with his high dignities, he was possessed of vast revenues, but his influence arose from his discountenance of the luxurious and grasping habits of the higher priesthood, and his adopting the rigid discipline of the new order of St. Francis, with which he identified himself. He thus prepared the way for such internal reform as the Romish Church received. He was a great patron of letters, and by his exertions and expendi- ture produced the earliest edition of a polyglott Bible, known as the Complutension, from its publication at Complutum. The political career of Ximenes was a struggle for the establishment of the power of the crown above the nobles, and somewhat anticipated the policy of Richelieu in France. He died on 8th Nov., 1517. [J.H.B.] XIMENES, J., a Spanish poet, 16th century. " XIMENES, J. A., a Spanish theolog., 1719-74. XIMENES, Leo, a geometrician, astronomer, and engineer, of Sicilian birth, 1716-1786. XIMENES, L., a French ascetic, 13th century. XIMENES, Roderic, archbishop of Toledo, and author of Spanish histories, died 1247. XIMENO, V., an Italian biographer, 17th cent. XUARES, Gaspard, born in a district of Par- aguay, distinguished as a naturalist, 1731-1804. XUARES, or SUARES, Roderic, a "_ jurisconsult, time of Ferdinand and Isabella. XYLANDER, the Graecised name of William Holtzemann, a Germ, philologist, born at Augs- burgh 1532, d. professor at Heidelberg, 1576. He translated the works of Plutarch and Tryphiodorus. XYPHILIN, John, a patriarch of Constanti- nople, sprung from a noble family of Trebizond, and famed for his virtues and great learning, died 1078, after a patriarchate of twelve years. His nephew, of the same name, author of an abridg- ment of Dion Cassius, first published in 1551. XYSTUS. SeeSixxus. lt . YAHIA AL BARMEKI, Abou Ali, an Ara- I ian vizier of the Barmecide family, who played a ffl . onspicuous part in the reign of Haroun al Ras- ^ bid, and was put to death in 803. a YAKOUT, Scheab Eddyn Abdallah, an ffl irabian biographical writer and geographer, of j rreek origin and birth, 1179-1229. YALDEN, or YOULDING, Thomas, successor P Atterbury as preacher at Bridewell hospital, nown to fame as a poet and miscellaneous writer, II, 671-1736. The best known of his productions is j, is ' Ode to Saint Cecilia's Day.' J YANEZ DE LA BARBUDA, a Portuguese ^ ommander, who attempted the conquest of iB . irenada, and perished in the field, 1374. YANEZ, F., a Spanish painter, died 1560. YART, A., a French poet, 1710-1791. YATES, Frederick Henrt, a popular Eng- lish actor, and manager of the Adelpni theatre, was born in 1797, and made his first appearance on the stage in 1817. His abilities were extremely versatile, ranging from the exhibition of the deepest pathos to the humour of broad farce ; died 1842. YATES, Richard, a comic actor, who kept the stage several years in such characters as ' Fondle- wife ' in the ' Old Bachelor ;' died 1796. His wife, Anna Maria, a tragic actress, died 1787. YDELEZ, Stephen, a priest of Franche- Comt6, who devoted himself to the service of the sick poor, and wrote on the plague, 1581. 857 YEA YEARSLEY, Anne, known as a poetical and dramatic writer, was originally a milk -woman, and was born at Bristol about 1756. She was encou- raged to publish by Hannah More, and the profits of her works enabled her to engage in a more con- genial occupation as mistress of a circulating lib- rary; died 1806. YEATES, Thomas, an Oriental scholar, whose literary labours were devoted to the Bible as a translator and editor, 1768-1839. ^ EATS, T. P., an entomologist, died 1782. YE UK A. If. De, a Spanish ascetic, 16th cent. YELVERTON, Sir Henry, an English judge, author of ' Reports of Special Cases,' 1566-1630. FEPEZ, Antonia D', a Spanish Benedictine and historian of his order, died 1621. YEI'EZ, Diego D', bishop of Tarragona, and a learned historian, 1559-1613. YEREGUI, Jose De, a pious and learned ecclesiastic of Guyapuscoa, 1734-1805. YGLESIAS, J. De, a Spanish poet, 1753-1791. YMBISE, or IMBESE, Jean D', a magistrate of Ghent, who endeavoured to free his country from the Spanish yoke, and was executed 1584. YON, St., in Latin Ionius or (Eonius, a martyr of Christianity in France, 290. YORK, the house of, rival to that of Lan- caster, and possessor of an elder right to the crown, derived its claim from Richard, son to the duke of Clarence, who was the second son of Edward III. The line of Lancaster claimed from John of Gaunt, his third son. Richard, duke of York, succeeded the duke of Bedford as regent in France, during the minority of Henry VI. His claim to the crown was first asserted about 1450, after the rebellion of Cade, and he first took arms in defence of it by raising an army of 10,000 men in 1452. Thus began the wars of the red and white roses, which deluged England with blood. The duke was defeated at the battle of Wake- field, by Queen Margaret, and killed in the action, 24th December, 1460. It is questionable whether his son, Clifford, was murdered as generally under- stood. The last chief of the white rose was his son, Richard III. [E.R.] YORK, Frederick, duke of, commander of the British army in the Low Countries at the period of the French revolution, was the second son of George III., and was born August 16, 1763. He studied military tactics at Berlin ; and in 1791 married the eldest daughter of the king of Prussia. He died, involved in debt, occasioned by his pas- sion for gaming, on January 5, 1827. A vindica- tion of his command in Flanders has been recently published by his military secretary. YORKE, Sir Joseph Sidney, an admiral and member of parliament, perished in Stoke's Bay on returning from Spithead with all his ship's com- pany, 1831. YORKE, Philip, first earl of Hardwicke, was born at Dover in 1690, and educated for the law. He was appointed chief justice of the King's Bench, and raised to the peerage in 1733. From 1736 to 1756 he held the office of lord chancellor, and retired with the duke of Newcastle; died 1764. YORKE, Philip, second earl of Hardwicke, son of the preceding, was born in 1720. In 1738 he was appointed one of the tellers of the exchequer, and, in 1764, succeeded his father in the earl- : ; YOU dom. His distinction is that of a man of letter! He was joined by his brother, the Hon. ChablI Yorke, in publishing the ' Athenian Letters, or tli y Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of the Kin of Persia, residing at Athens duringthe Peloponne sian War.' His other works are ' The Correspon dence of Sir Dudley Carleton,' and ' Miscellaneou State Papers.' Died 1790. YORKE, Philip, third earl of Hardwicke, elde; son of Charles Yorke, was bom in 1757. He hel several public offices, and from 1801 to 1805 wt lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Died 1834. YORKE, Philip, of the same family as tl preceding, known as a genealogist and historiai was born about 1743, and died, after a life i literary leisure, in 1804. His work on ' The Roy: Tribes of Wales,' contains much curious an authentic matter. YOUNG, Sir Aretas William, a peninsuh officer, who was successively protector of slaves i Demerara 1826, and lieut.-governor of Prim Edward's Island, 1831 Died 1835. YOUNG, Arthur, a native of Norfolk, wl became rector of Bradfield in Suffolk, and preber of Canterbury. He wrote ' An Historical Disserti tion on Idolatrous Corruptions in Religion.' Di< 1759. His son, of the same name, born at h father's rectory in 1741, is well known as an agr cultural writer and rural economist, and was seen tary to the Board of Agriculture. Died 1820. YOUNG, Edward, was born at his father parsonage, near Winchester, in 1684. From 17( he held a fellowship at Oxford. In 1710 part his poem, 'The Last Day,' was inserted in tl Tatler; and the whole was published in 171 For many years from the latter of these dates, 1 continued to produce poems of various kinds. Tl most successful, and oy much the best of tliei till the appearance of his last and most popul work,were his Satires, which, appearing in separa pieces, were collected in 1728, under the name ' The Love of Fame, the Universal Passion.' H tragedy of 'Busiris' was acted successfully I 1719 ; ' The Revenge,' the only one of his tragedi that is now ever acted, appeared in 1721 ; and tl ' Brothers,' while in rehearsal, in 1727, was wit! drawn by the author, who, after having long lies tated between professions, had just taken order In 1730 his college presented him to the rector of Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, valued at three hui dred a-year ; and this was the highest preferinei he ever obtained, notwithstanding very frequer solicitations, which were continued when he wi very old. In L731 he married a widow, the daughfr of the earl of Lichfield. Lady Elizabeth Your, died in 1741 ; and her husband is supposed to haj begun, soon afterwards, the composition of tl ' Night Thoughts.' The publication of the poer taking place in sections, was completed in 174 With its want both of individual interest, and < genuine poetic imagination, this work could nt have gained the permanent celebrity it has, were not for the rarity of good religious poetry, ami tl readiness with which serious persons welcome ar. work of the sort. In its antithetical turn, and i perpetual ingenuity of strained analogies, not ui relieved by snatches of fine fancy, it reminds us the metaphysical poetry of the seventeenth ce tury. But the appearance of a work, so solem 858 YOU ind elevated m tone, at a time like that in which ;he 'Night Thoughts' came forth, was really a 'act hardly less encouraging for the prospects of iterature, than was the appearance of the exqui- lite ' Seasons ' of Thomson a few years earlier, ifoung survived till 1765. [W.S.] YOUNG, Matthew, an Irish prelate and nathematician, author of 'An Analysis of the Principles of Natural Philosophy,' and 'The Method f Prime and Ultimate Ratios.' Born in Roscom- Don 1750, died 1800. YOUNG, Thomas, horn at Milverton, Somer- etshire, 13th June, 1773, died in London, where le had long practised as a physician, on 10th May, .829. If extent of acquirement, originality m inception, and positive contributions to knowledge f highest importance, should ever give enduring ame, the claim might well have been made by foung. Some men, however almost through in- , j xplicable causes appear formed to be unfortunate; ;; nd unhappily Young lived and died in compara- ive obscurity. It is probable that his acceptance a 1818 of the Secretaryship of the Board of -.ongitude, and the connected editorship of the Jautical Almanac, contributed to this unhappy esult. It cannot be denied that he was not ex- ctly fitted for either office, and that his adminis- J ration of them, laid him open to the successful and :n ery eager attacks of persons who had no respect or his genius, nor for any man's, who, in truth tad neither the power nor the inclination to appre- ;j iate genius of any kind. Young's chief feats i re two. First, he successfully contests with t| ^resnel the glory of founding the Undulatory 1 lieory of Light. The idea of propagation by 1 Jndulations, in opposition to Newton's conception j] f propagation by Emission, had been started long I efore Young's time ; but to him unquestionably elonged the privilege of originating the explana- 5! ion of all those more delicate phenomena of Light, I I y his doctrine of Interference. This view had I ot the advantage of FresneVs ; he had no willing I nditory : in England, at the time, the superstition |i dth which we have hitherto been inclined to invest t; very illustrious insular name, had not been cleared ill way from that Immortality which belongs of right I D Newton. Young's other capital discovery dis- j, elled the mists from another sphere : it was he rho primarily detected the key to phonetic Hiero- lyphics. Previous to his time, the old Egyp- a ian symbols had been regarded simply as pictorial B Bpresentations real pictures, or real, through ,, nalogy. And, although some thought it probable lat the inscriptions also concealed an alphabetic jj rriting, no conception had been formed of the way uj I which pictorial representations could pass into j honetic ; and no key discovered therefore, to the a jntents of Egyptian records. Aided by the Ro- stta stone, Young divined the secret, clearly receding Chamtollion, and in theory penetrat- )g farther than even that acute and most deserving renchman ventured to go. We believe that if be merits of our remarkable Countryman were lade to rest even on those two memorable iscoveries, injustice would be done to him. His rind teemed with new and profound conceptions. YVE monument among the motley crowd in that National Mausoleum, where great men alone ought ever to have been permitted to repose the Abbey of Westminster. . [J.P.N.] YOUNG, Sir William, a miscellaneous writer and member of parliament, born near Canterbury 1750, died, governor of Tobago, 1815. YOUSOUF, the last governor of Spain for the Oriental caliphs, killed in battle 759. YPSILANTI, three Greek princes who distin- guished themselves in efforts to achieve the inde- pendence of their country. Constantine, born at Constantinople about 1760, became, in 1799, hospodar of Moldavia, and, in 1802, of Wallaehii. He was deprived of this dignity, and after the treaty of Tilsit, 1807, resided in Russia; died 1810. Alexander, the most distinguished of the three, was son of the preceding, and was born in 1792. He attained military rank in the Russian army, and, in 1820, became chief of the Hetaireia, an association of Greek patriots. He began the war of independence by crossing the Pruth, attended with only a few followers, in March, 1821, but after repeated defeats was obliged to abandon the cause and take refuge in Vienna, where he died in 1828. His brother, Demetrius, also headed the insurgents, and died 1832. YRALA, or IRALA, Domingo Martinez De, one of the Spanish conquerors of America, com- panion of Mendoza, died 1567. YRIARTE, I., a Spanish painter, 1635-1685. YRIARTE, Don Juan De, a learned archaeolo- gist, keeper of the Royal Library at Madrid, and chief author of the Improved Orthography and Punctuation of the Spanish Language, 1702-1771. His nephew, Domingo, a diplomatist, 1746-1795. Thomas, brother of the latter, a famous poet, comedian, and fabulist, editor of the Mercury of Madrid, 1750-1791. YSABEAU, Alexander Clement, a cele- brated character of the French revolution, born about 1750. Being sent as a deputy to the con- vention he became the colleague of Tallien, and a participator in his cruelties at Bourdeaux. He was subsequently a member of the directory and the council of elders ; died 1823. YSAURE, or ISAURE, Clemence, a lady who instituted the floral games at Toulouse, was bora there, shortly before the expulsion of the English, about 1450. Her lover being slain in battle, she consecrated her life to the Virgin ' and to the culti- vation of poesy. She left a considerable revenue for the celebration of the floral games, and for prizes given to successful poets. This festival was celebrated annually, in May, till 1806, when it was repressed. Its history was written by Poitevin. YVAN. See Ivan. YVAN, Antoine, founder of the religious order of Mercy, flourished in Provence, 1576-1653. YVART, J. A. Victor, an agricultural writer, called ' The Arthur Young of France,' 1764-1831. YVER, J., a French novelist, 16th century. YVES, Charles St., a monk of St. Lazarus, who left his order and became celebrated in Paris as an oculist, 1667-1733. YVES, St., a theologian and canonist, appointed nd he has left numerous other hints, that will bishop of Chartres in 1091, died 1115. robably yet start out into unexpected importance. YVETAUX, Vauquelin, a French scholar and Toung was buried in Farnborough ; but ne has a | poet, tutor to Louis XIIL, 1559-1649. 859 YVO YVON, Peter, a controversial writer and pro- selyte of Labadie, from about 1640. YVON, P. C., a French physician, 1719-1811. Y-YN, one of the greatest statesmen produced in China, was born about 1770 b.c. He was ZABAGLIA, Nicholas, an Italian mechanician and architect, to whom the method of transferring fresco paintings is attributed, 1674-1750. ZABAN, or ZABANIUS, Isaac, a Hungarian philosopher, and writer in favour of the atomic theory, born about 1670, died 1699. ZABARELLA, Francesco, cardinal and arch- bishop of Florence, a learned canonist and writer on ecclesiastical polity, 1339-1417. Bartolom- meo, his nephew, also archbishop of Florence, and professor of law, 1396-1442. Jacopo, a descen- dant of the preceding, a professor of philosophy and commentator on Aristotle, 1553-1589. ZABOROWA, James, a Polish publicist, em- ployed under the direction of the chancellor, in collecting the laws, 1502-1506. ZABUESING, J. C, a Ger. writer, 1747-1795. ZACCARIA, Francesco Antonio, a learned Venetian Jesuit, historian of Italian literature, and a defender of the papacy, 1714-1795. ZACCHIAS, Paolo, an Italian physician and man of letters, born at Rome 1584, died 1659. ZACH, Clara, countess of, daughter of a Hun- farian noble, executed for assassinating Casimir, ing of Poland, who had outraged her, 1330. ZACH, F., a German astronomer, 1754-1832. ZACHARIA, D., a French alchymist, 16th cent. ZACHARIA, G. T., a Ger. Orientalist, 1729-77. ZACHARIA, Justus Frederick William, a German poet, professor at Brunswick, 1726-77. ZACHARIAH, a king ot Israel, B.C. 784. ZACHARIAH, one of the Jewish prophets, flourished in the reign of Darius, 6th century b.c. ZACHT-LEEVEN, or SAFT-LEEVEN, Her- mann, a Dutch painter, 1609-1685. His brother, Cornelius, a painter of drunken frolics, 1606-73. ZACUTO, Abraham, in Latin Zacutus Lusi- tanus, a Portuguese Jew, known as a physician and professional writer, 1575-1642. ZAGO, O., an Italian engineer, 1654-1737. ZAHN, J., a Germ, mathematician, 1641-1707. ZAIDOUN, Aboul Walid Ahmed Ibn, a Spanish Arabian poet, 1003-1070. ZAINER, G., a German printer, 1430-1478. ZAIONCZEK, Joseph, a Polish general, who defended the cause of independence till 1814, and then became a partizan of Russia, 1752-1826. ZAKREZEWSKI, Ignatius Wygsygota, a member of the Polish diet, and one of those who distinguished themselves in 1794 in the cause of their country's independence, 1774-1802. ZALEUCUS, a Greek philosopher, renowned as the legislator of the Locrians, 500 B.C. ZALLINGER, J. B. De Tharn, a Tyrolese Jesuit and botanist, 1731-1785. James Antony, of the same family, a Jesuit, philosopher, and canonist, 1735-1812. F. Seraphin, a Jesuit and physician, 1743-1805. ZALLWEIN, G., a German canonist, 1712-66. ZALUSKI, Andrew Chrysostome, a prelate, ZAN minister for thirty-three years to Tai-Kia, whose reign was rendered, by him, one of the most happj and brilliant in the Chinese dynasty. He Uvea tc be nearly one hundred years old, and died in an honourable retirement. diplomatist, and grand chancellor of Poland, 1655- 1711. His nephew, Andrew Stanislaus, granc chancellor, distinguished as a patron of letters, died 1758. J. Andrew, brother of the latter, bishoj of Kiev, collector of a great library, destroyed al the capture of Warsaw by Suwarrow, 1701-1774. ZALUZANSKI, Adam, a physician and botanisi of Bohemia, 1 6th century. ZALYK, Gregory Georgiades, a Greek o! Thessalonica, secretary of embassy, and author of * French and modern Greek Dictionary, 1785-1827. ZAMAGNA, B., a Latin poet, 1735-1820. ZAMAKHSCHARI, Aboul Cassem Mah moud Al, an Arabian poet, 1074-1144. ZAMBECCARI, F., a Venetian poet, 15th cent Z AMBECCARI, Count Francesco, an Italiai aeronaut, born at Bologna 1756, perished in mak ing one of his experim. in balloon navigation 1812 ZAMBECCARI, Joseph, an Italian physician distinguished in comparative anatomy, 17th cent. ZAMBERTO, B., a Venetian author, one o the first to translate Euclid, 15th century. ZAMBONI, B., an Italian author, 1730-1797. ZAMET, Sebastian, a celebrated Italian finan cier and court intriguant, time of Marie de Medici whom he accompanied to France, born at Luce; about 1549, died 1614. His son, John, baron o Murat and camp-marshal, distinguished in th religious wars, died 1620. Sebastian, his secom son, chaplain to Marie de Medici, bp. of Langre and protector of the Port- Royal savants, died 1655 ZAMORA, A., a Spanish physician, 1570-164C ZAMORA, Bernard De, a learned Spanis] ecclesiastic and philologist, 1720-1785. ZAMORA, Gaspard De, a Spanish Jesuit author of a Scripture Concordance, 1546-1621. ZAMORA, L., a Spanish poet, died 1614. ZAMOSKI, John, nephew by marriage t Stephen, king of Poland, distinguished as a war rior, diplomatist, and patron of literature, calle- the ' Defender of his Country and Protector of th Sciences,' died 1605. ZAMPI, F. M., an Italian poet, died 1774. ZAMPIERI, C, an Italian poet, 1701-1784. ZAMPINI, Matteo, an Italian jurisconsul and partizan of the league, author of works o French history, 16th century. ZANARDI, N., an Ital. theologian, 1570-1641 ZANCHI, Basilio, in Latin Zanchius, an ele gant Latin poet, born at Bergamo 1501, died i prison 1558. Girolamo, his cousin, a celebrate protestant and friend of Peter Martyr, was com! pelled to leave Italy and become a professor i, Heidelberg. He was born at Alanzo, in the terri tory of Bergamo, 1516, and died, some time afte losing his sight, in 1590. His works form eigfc, volumes, ana one of them, on Predestination, ha been translated into English by Dr. Toplady. Th father of Girolamo, F. T. Zanchi, is known i ; Italian literature as an historian and Latin poet. 860 ZAN ZANE, J., a Venetian poet, 1529-1560. ZANETTI, Antonio Maria, Count, a Vene- tian antiquarian who contributed to the perfection of wood engraving, 1680-1766. J. Francesco, of the same family, an archaeologist and learned editor, 1713-1782. Alessandro, his brother, an art-writer and librarian of Saint Marc, 1716- 1778. Bernardo, a theologian and historian of the Longobardi, 1690-1762. Guido, a learned numismatist, keeper of the museum of antiquities 4*t Ferrara, 1741-1791. ZANETTINI, J., an Italian jurist, 1430-1493. ZANIBONI, A., an Italian poet, died 1767. ZANNICHELLI, J. Girolamo, an Italian physician and natural philosopher, 1662-1729. ZANNONI, J. B., an Ital. archseol., 1774-1832. ZANOLINI, A., an Ital. Orientalist, 1693-1762. ZANONI, A., an Ital. agriculturist, 1696-1770. ZANONI, Jacopo, a botanical writer, director of the botanic garden at Bologna, 1615-1682. ZANOTTI, J. P., an Italian painter and poet, a-feecretary of the Clementine academy, 1674-1765. Ercolo, his brother, a poet and writer on sacred j subjects, 1684-1763. F. Maria, a third brother, 1 iistinguished as a philosopher by his labours in I jopularizing the systems of Descartes and Newton II n Italy, 1692-1777. Eustachius, nephew of the in, ^receding, an astronomer, 1709-1782. t- ZAPF, G. W., a German savant, 1747-1810. H ZAPF, N., a German Hebraist, 1600-1672. ZAPPI, Giambatista, a philosophical writer jf Italy, born at Imola about 1540. His grand- H n, Giambatista Felice, a lawyer and poet, H inthor of Odes and Sonnets, remarkable for purity v >f style, 1667-1719. Faustina, the wife of the $ atter, was a daughter of the famous Carlo Maratti, M md like her husband was skilled in poetry. w _ ZARAGOZA, Jose De, a Spanish Jesuit, dis- ss ang. as a mathematician and astronomer, 1627-78. ZARATE, Augustin De, a Spanish historian W )f the discovery and conquest of Peru, 16th cent. I ZARATE, F. L. De, a Spanish poet, d. 1658. ZARCO, John Gonzales, a Portuguese navi- iii jator who discovered the islands of Porto Santo md Madeira, the former in 1417, the latter in 1419. He become governor of Madeira, and was t< ;he founder of Funchal. ff ZARLINO, J., a distinguished musician, com- i joser, and theologian of Chioggia, 1519-1599. i ' ZAROTTI, C, an Italian physician, 17th cent. ZASE, Ulric, a Swiss councillor ; although a satholic, he had a great admiration for Luther, whom he styled the Phoenix of Theologians. ai Many of his works were, consequently, put by the o: jope in the index ; 1461-1535. ZAVARONI, Angelo, an archaeologist and [1 riographer, born in Calabria 1710, died 1767. * ZAVAVI, Aboul Hassan, an Arabian gram- i marian, author of a poem on Syntax, 1168-1230. a ZAWADOWSKI, Peter Vassilievttch, b Russian minister of instruction time of Alexan- i ler, father of the present emperor, 1738-1812. i ZAYAS Y SOTOMAYOR, Maria De, a b Spanish lady, celebrated by her writings, last cent. ZAZIUS, Ulric, professor of law at Friburg, md author of several learned works, 1461-1535. His son, John Ulric, 1521-1570. ZEA, Don Francisco Antonio, a botanist Ud statesman, was bom in New Grenada 1770, ZEN and received the appointment of director of the botanic cabinet at Madrid. On the abdication of Charles IV. he became minister of the interior, and on the retreat of the French went to South America, where he aided in founding the republic of Columbia, of which he became vice-president. In 1820 he came to England as a diplomatic agent to that government and died here in 1822. ZEECHI, J., an Italian physician, 1533-1601. ZECCHI, Lelio, an Italian theologian, juris- consult, and canonist, died 1610. ZECCHINI, P., an Ital. physiologist, 1739-1793. ZEGERS, H., a Flemish painter, 17th century. ZEGERS, T. N., a Flemish ascetic, died 1559. ZEIBICH, C. H., a Hung, theologian, 1717-1763. ZEID-BEN-THABET, one of the secretaries of Mahomet. He greatly contributed to dissemi- nate the new doctrine, and made, by order of the caliph, Abou-Bekr, a complete copy of the Koran, which alone came to be considered as authentic. ZEIDLER, C. S., a Ger. historian, 1719-1786. ZEIDLER, J. G., a German poet, died 1711. ZEIRI-BEN-MOUNAD, called Al Taclani, chief of the Zeirites-Sanhadjites. He conquered the whole of the country extending from Algiers to Tripoli, and presented it to Obeid-Allah. He rendered great services to the Fatimites, and was killed at the battle of Mansourah 971. His son, Youssouf-Balkin, founded the dynasty of the Zeirites-Sanhadjites. ZEKY-KHAN, Mohammed, half-brother of Kerym-Khan, king of Persia, on whose death in 1779 he seized the throne. He was distinguished for nothing but his cruelty, and was put to death by his soldiers shortly after his assumption of power. ZELADA, F. X., an Italian cardinal, secretary of state, and librarian of the Vatican, 1717-1801. ZELLER, J. G., a Ger. physician, 1656-1734. ZELOTTI, Battista, an Italian painter, the fellow-student of Paul Veronese, under Antonio Badile, uncle of the latter, 1532-1592. ZELTER, C. F., a Ger. composer, 1758-1832. ZELTNER, Gustavus G., a German philologist and historian, 1672-1738. His brother, J. Con- rad, also a learned writer, 1687-1720. ZENDRINI, Bernardo, a celebrated mathe- matician and hydraulic engineer, employed by the Venetian and Austrian governments in important public works, author of several treatises, 1679-1747. ZENO. There were three celebrated Zenos, Zeno of Elea, the pupil and expounder of Par- menides ; Zeno of Cittium, in Cyprus, founder of the school of the Stoics ; and Zeno the Epi- curean, who lived in the times of Cicero, and had the honour of teaching that illustrious Orator, Philosopher, and Statesman. The two first alone, demand notice here. ZENO of Elea, in Magna Grascia, born about the year 500 B.C. Xenophanes had found, or rather divined Unity, in the Idea of an unknown God. Parmenides took a different view, and identified the Unity we seek, with the Idea of it; in other words, he asserted it to be wholly sub- jective. Zeno followed his great Master ; and if we rightly interpret enigmatical traditions con- cerning him, it appears that he must have ad- vanced very far. He is said to have denied the existence of Space, of Motion, and of many posi- 861 ZEN tire Relations : the very absurdity of the stories sot afloat respecting his doctrines, evinces how- much he must have been misunderstood not by tinporaries perhaps, but by later writers. Then is no clue to the foregoing statements, save one. His scheme must have corresponded almost exactly with Kant's : he had separated subjective laws from objective reality, and proclaimed that over the chasm between, he could discern no bridge. It is indeed sufficiently strange to detect traces of the illustrious German Thinker, at the far end of two thousand three hundred years! That our interpretation is most probably true, further appears from Zeno's great and undeniable achieve- ment. The existence of a Science of Logic, was discerned by him first of all ; and he laid down many of its Laws. Logic, be it remembered, is the Science which explores not the qualities or order of external Things, but the conditions under which the Mind moves, as it determines and judges; and what more likely, than that the reality of such a Science should be earliest seen by the Philosopher, who first of all recognized the dis- tinctiveness of Subjective Laws V [J.P.N.] ZENO of Cittium, in Cyprus, lived about 250 years before Christ. The external incidents of Zeno's life were in no wise remarkable ; his im- portance and fame rest on his being the founder of the sect of the Stoics, (named, because Zeno chose to teach under the Porch, or 2 root) a sect of greater and wider influence than any other that sprung up during the latter days of Greece, for it took root within the soil of Rome, and obtained sway over the Jurisprudence as well as the Morals of the Republic. The foundations only, of Stoic- ism, were laid by Zeno, who seems to have been indebted for his chief maxims to Antisthenes the Cynic ; it was perfected as a philosophical scheme by the more vigorous genius of Chrysippus of Soli, who reached the year 210 B.C. Stoicism is not a system of Morals alone ; it had its Logic and Theory of Nature besides. Its doctrine of the Human Understanding, or regarding the origin and nature of Knowledge, is surprisingly similar to John Locke's. Assuming Sensation as the source and foundation of whatever can be discerned in the mind, the Stoic claimed for Mind the power of acting on its sensations, comparing them, group- ing them, and judging so concerning them. In this way, a Judgment is formed by a synthesis of Sensations., what they termed a comprehensive representation, by a synthesis of individual Judg- ments; and finally, that ultimate and universal synthesis, which is Science. The critical student will not fail to observe that every trace of the profound philosophy of Plato had already dis- appeared. Next, as to Stoic Physiology. This is a Necessity, a Fatalism pure and simple. They speak indeed of God. They speak of Providence. And of the beauty and perfection of the order of the World, in which each atom has its harmonious place ; symmetry the most unchallengeable reign- ing through all, and the wisest economy also, seeing there is nothing useless not a solitary molecule that can be called superfluous, neither one, unnecessary. To closer scrutiny, however, this God of the Portico, appears an existence de- void of personality and self-consciousness: the is applied to an hypothetic germ or seed, ZEN from whose necessary and determinate develop ments, Nature and all the varieties of Beinj have sprung. There is no God distinct from th material Universe ; there is but one substance which, considered in its forms, is Nature in it essence, God. Assuredly also a powerful declen ^ sion from the Theism of the greater Times!- 'j Neither can we speak, in less qualified terms, of th I vaunted Morality of Stoicism. With much sem blance of nobleness, and undoubtedly containin wherewithal to nourish a noble nature, it is ye false through exaggeration, and that vicious ex clusiveness which always characterizes the deca of Science. It is verily a maxim to be engrave on every soul 'Be strong and free!' But th question recurs, what is strength ? Is it the powe to regulate passion and desire, to enthrone Reaso. as the judge or umpire over the tendencies in^ le from our complex nature, or th ambitious, the unnatural, the vain effort to extir pate passion and desire, so that ceasing to be Me we may rival the Gods ? No philosophy worth the name of Ethical, ever failed to recognize i as Man's primal duty, to curb the appetites, ex tinguish evil passions, and so govern the soul but the Stoic's conception of Order, is not govern ment, it is extinction: just as the blind despc destroys the freedom he cannot rule, and name his solitude Peace ! History never offers a mor certain indication of decrepitude of Thought an defect of true Manliness, than the acceptance ( exaggerations like these. Speaking scientifically they involve an omission of many of the essentn elements of the problem whose solution is aime at : and under another view, they more than indi cate the prevalence of practical insincerity : n it Human Being can get beyond the position of b Man ; and he who pretends to do so, universall e sinks below it. It is a singularly instructive fac that this 'complete liberty' of the Stoic, wt often held consistent with the worst excesse: & Having triumphed, the disciple held that no crim Nic could stain him : like multitudes of Mystics, he ha achieved salvation ; and neither worldliness, nc in meanness, nor crime, could suffice to disturb h; !p sanctimoniousness, or effect his Fall ! It is easy t to see that out of such a doctrine, Men in themselvef tt great, might extract much to augment their Fori titude. But if Stoicism aided in producing Scipio, a Thraseas, an Epictetus, or Marco Aurelius; it also evolved and justified thsM most disastrous record in the annals of Rome th i| issue of the almost maniac ferocity of Marcu Brutus. [J.P.N. ZENO, called the Isaurian, emperor of the Eas iti was a chief of the Isaurian guard who obtained th bl favour of Leo I., and married his daughte: ft Ariadne. He exercised the imperial power froi 464 to 491, when he found himself in the midst dangers, from which he sought the escape of oblifc vion in debauchery. Four days after his suspicion death, Ariadne married Anastasius. ZENO, Apostolo, called 'the father of tb Italian Opera,' was born at Venice in 1 669, an became famous by a periodical work entitled ' Tt Giornale de Litterati,' which he commenced i 1770. As a dramatic writer he is compared wit Corneille, and his works form 11 volumes, put lished in 1744. Died 1750. 8G2 ZEN } ZEXO, C, a Venetian admiral, 1334-1418. hi ZEXO, Nicoi.o and Antonio, brothers of the | ireceding, are celebrated in the history of naviga- I ion, by their alleged discovery of America prior to it he voyage of Columbus. It is considered probable u hat they reached Greenland. The former died - 1 1395, the latter 1405. Caterigo, grandson of 1 Lntonio, went as ambassador to Persia, and wrote B narrative of his mission, 1472. Nicolo, of the D| ame family, a man of letters, and member of the re ouncil of ten, 1515-1565. i ZEXOBIA, Septimia, a princess of Arabian a, escent, who became queen of Palmyra in the i esert, after the murder of her husband, Odenatus, \ l 267 . The latter was killed by his nephew at a re ptival, and Zenobia, who acted with great energy, ssumed the title of queen of the East. She was a eprived of her dominions by the emperor Aurelian li i 272. and died in a private retirement near j :ome. The celebrated critic Longinus acted as a er secretary, and was put to death by the Romans. b ZENOBIUS, a Greek sophist, 2d century, i ZEXODORUS, a tyrant of Syria, d. b.c. 20. i ZEXODORUS, a Greek sculptor, 1st century. i ZENTGRAVE, J. J., a Ger. theolog. 1643-1707. i ZEPERXICK, C. F., a Ger. jurist, 1751-1801. i ZEPHIEIXUS, a bishop of Rome. 197-217. J ZERBE, P. De, an Ital. missionary, 1712-1716. x ZERBIS, G. De, an Ital. anatomist, died 1505. a ZEEMEGH, J., a Hungarian histor., 16th cent. I ZERNITZ, C. F., a German poet, 1717-1744. 1 ZEROLA, T., an Italian canonist, 1548-1603. il ZESEN, P. De, a German poet, born 1619. 3 ZEUNE, J. C., a Ger. philologist, 1736-1788. fi ZEUXIS, one of the most celebrated painters of A itiquity, was born at one of the ancient towns of f [eraclea, probably in Macedonia, about 460 b.c. ill euxis was at the height of his reputation in the id me of Archelaus, king of Macedon, 413-399 B.C. ; n B painted the palace of this king at Pella, for ie; hich he was paid 400 minae, about 1,600 sterling. o [uch concerning Zeuxis has been preserved in ia icient writers ; nearly every notice reflecting upon k m the very highest praise, not only in the shape li ' popular anecdotes, but in the positive and cir- ft unstantial statements of art criticism : and some n ; the facts recorded concerning this painter, show o: aw similar must have been the ways of art among i ie Greeks upwards of 2,000 years ago, to what they '% ive been during their great epoch in Europe in hi lodern times. The naturalist development of art as t| unpared with its condition the generation before, in A ie time of Polygnotus is clearly demonstrated in the U, irious accounts of Zeuxis, both as to subject and sS s treatment, at the same time combined with the tJi ,eal or principle of selection ; art was no longer ta jrely representative, but thoroughly dramatic. H olygnotus, Zeuxis, and Apelles represent well ti ie three great phases of Greek painting, the H isenti.il, the dramatic, and the refined, in which m ie tecliincal qualities attained their utmost per- ction, and like most clevernesses obscured or t) iperseded more essential qualities. Amongst the jj lost remarkable works of Zeuxis, and they were H ianv, are mentioned particularly the celebrated Helen of Croton,' ana a ' Family of Centaurs.' d he former was painted from five beautiful virgins 'the city, and was one of the most celebrated of 1 the Greek pictures, and it has for ages been the ZIM theme of poets of all countries. Zeuxis himself subscribed on the picture the three lines from Homer which speak of Helen's beauty : 'No wonder such celestial charms For nine long years have set the world in armsl What winning graces! what majestic mien! She moves a goddess, and she looks a Queen.' Pope, 11. iii., 156-8. Lueian says that Zeuxis seldom or never exerted his powers upon such vulgar or hackneyed subjects as gods, heroes, or battles. His characteristics have been described as a grand style of form, com- bined with a high degree of execution, and power- ful effect of light and shade ; for Appollodorus, the Athenian painter, who may be termed the Greek Rembrandt, complained that Zeuxis had robbed him of his art. To all these fine qualities we must add his highest, his dramatic power of composition ; in expression Aristotle tells us that he was inferior to Polygnotus. There are several stories told about illusive pictures painted by Zeuxis and Parrhasius of Ephesus : the only value of these is to show that illusion was one of the qualities of Greek painting, which will acquire it a higher con- sideration in some minds than any other quality; (Wornum, Epochs of Painting Characterized, &c, and Penny Cyclopaedia, Art. Zeuxis.) [R.N.W.] ZEVECOT, J., a Flemish poet, 1604-1646. ZHINGA, Bandi, a queen of Angola, who main- tained a struggle for 28 years with the Portuguese, and after performing prodigies of valour was despoiled of the larger part of her dominions. She then submitted to be baptized as a means of pre- serving the remainder, 1581-1663. ZICHEN, E. De, a Flemish contro., 1482-1538. ZIEGELBAUER, Carachord, a German Benedictine and historian of his order, 1696-1750. ZIEGEXBALG, Bartholomew, a German philologist and missionary to the East Indies, 1683-1719. ZIEGLER, C. J. A., a Ger. physician, 1735-95. ZIEGLER, G., a German jurist, 1621-1690. ZIEGLER, J., a Latin dramatic writer and bio- grapher of Bavaria, 1520-1564. ZIEGLER, J., a Bavarian theologian, mathema- tician, and geographical writer, 1480-1549. ZIEGLER, W. C. L., a Ger. theol., 1763-1809. ZIEGLER, St. Kliprhausion H. Anselme De, a poet of Saxony, 1653-1690. ZILIOLI, A., a Venetian historian, 16th cent. ZIMARA, M. A., an Ital. physician, 1460-1532. ZIMISCES, emperor of the East. See John. ZIMMERMAXX,EberhardAugustiusWie- liam Von, professor of natural philosophy at Brunswick, author of political works and treatises in natural history, 1743-1815. ZIMMERMAXX, Henry, author of an account of the third voyage of Captain Cook, with whom he sailed in the Discovery, 1776. ZIMMERMANN, Johann Georg Von, was one of the most eminent of continental physicians in the eighteenth century, both as a practitioner and as a professional writer. His miscellaneous writings also were numerous ; and one of these, his striking but not very philosophical essay ' On Solitude,' is now, indeed, quite forgotten in Eng- land, but was once very popular among us. It was first printed, as a sketch, in 1756, and after- wards in its complete shape in 1785. Ziinmer-> 863 ZIM matin was born in 1728, at Brugg, in the canton of Bern. After having studied at Gottingen, he practised medicine successively at Bern and in his native town. His tendency to hypochondria showed itself even thus early, but did not disqualify him from either active practice or from zealous and miscellaneous studies. His professional cele- brity gained him, in 1768, the appointment of royal physician at Hanover ; after the second ap- pearance of his work ' On Solitude,' he was invited to St. Petersburg ; and the year after he attended Frederick of Prussia in his last illness. His writ- ings after this were chiefly gossiping collections, and expressions of the horror with which he re- garded the revolutionary principles that were ecoming prevalent. His melancholy continued to increase ; and he was completely deranged for some time before his death, which took place in 1795. [W.S.] ZIMMERMANN, John James, a Swiss theo- logian, professor at Zurich, 1685-1756. ZIMMERMANN, John James, an eloquent German preacher, generally regarded as a disciple of Boehmen and Brouquelle, whose doctrines he rendered highly popular; born in the duchy of Wurtemberg, 1644, died at Rotterdam, 1693. Zimmermann made many proselytes in Germany and the United Provinces, and at the moment of his death was about to depart for America to escape the persecution to which he had been sub- jected. For some years he was professor of ma- thematics at Heidelberg. The most notorious of his works is entitled a ' Revelation of Antichrist.' ZIMMERMANN, Joseph, a Swiss officer, poet, and military writer, 17th century. ZIMMERMANN, Matthias, a learned theolo- gian of Hungary, 1625-1689. ZIMMERMANN, William, a German pastor and controversial writer, 16th century. ZIMOROW1CZ, Simon, a Russian poet, about 1604-1629. A brother of his, named Bartholo- mew, was a biographical writer. ZINCKE, C. F., a German painter, 1684-1767. ZINGARELLI, Nicolo, an Italian musician, known at the court of Napoleon in the earlier years of the empire, and afterwards chapel-master at the Vatican, born at Naples 1752, died 1837. He is the author of several operas. ZINKE, G. H., a Germ, economist, 1692-1769. ZINKGREF, J. G., a German poet, 1591-1635. Z1NN, J. G., a German anatomist, 1727-1759. ZINZENDORF, Nicholas Louis, Count Von, founder of the Herrnhuters, or Moravian Brethren, was born at Dresden in 1700. According to bis own account (in his ' Natural Reflections on Various Subjects '\ he aspired to form a society of believers from his boyhood. On coming of age in 1721, he settled, with this object in view, on his estate at Bertholsdorf, in Upper Lusatia, and was there joined by several proselytes from Bo- hemia. By 1732 the numbers who had flocked around him amounted to six hundred, and all these were subject to a species of ecclesiastical discipline, or monastic despotism, which brought them in spirit and body, or was intended so to do, under the most absolute control of their leader. From an adjacent hill, called the Hutk-berg. was derived the name of the colony Buth des tierrn, contracted to Herrnhult, the name of the sect ; ZIS the apellation of Moravian Brethren was assume for his party by Count Zinzendorf, for the sake connection with the separatists of Bohemia ar Moravia, partly derived from Valdo, the forerunn of Luther : some of these, indeed, were among h colonists. Zinzendorf assumed various titles ; the chief of the Herrnhuters, all of which real pointed to a pontificate as his function. Fro 1733 his missionaries began to spread, not on over parts of Europe, but in Greenland and Non America even Africa and China were not forgo ten. To him, in fact, Wesley was directly indebtt for both his religious organization and his missioi ary plans, which became so eminently successfu that indefatigable labourer having passed son time with Count Zinzendorf at Herrnhuth. Tl interference of the government with the Counl projects, can hardly be regarded as a measure persecution, as secret doctrines were undoubted held by him, and thus motives given to his fc lowers, and objects sought, of which, wheth good or evil, the established authorities could ta; no cognizance. The history of the sect is curio and interesting: next to their organization classes, the use of singing, which furnished i. Wesleys with a valuable hint, is one of its mo remarkable characteristics ; under this head son singular details might be given. Somethii might be said also on the connection of a certa marriage rite with the theory of regeneration, t efficacy of which was probably tried by the Herr huters in common with the Quakers. Count Zi zendorf died amongst his people on the 9th June, 1760. [E.E ZINZENDORF, Philip Louis, Count Von, I Austrian statesman, by whom the wars with Turk; and France were decided, chancellor in the reip of Joseph I., 1671-1742. His son, of the sar names, a cardinal, 1699-1747. ZINZERLING, J., in Latin Jodicus Sincert a philologist of Thuringia, 1590-1618. ZIRARDINI, Antonio, a learned Italian juri consult and archaeologist, 1725-1784. ZISKA. The real name of this renown leader in the early wars of religion in Germa was John Trocznow. He acquired the name Ziska (which means one-eyed,) from the loss an eye in battle. He was born about 1380. ] was of one of the noblest families in Bohemia, a: was brought up in the court and camp of t emperor. Like the greater number of his Boh mian fellow-countrymen, he embraced the tern of John Huss ; and when that reformer was crue and perfidiously put to death by the council Constance, the Bohemians flew to arms to reven their leader's martyrdom, and to protect themseh from the persecution with which they were menac by the bigotry and tyranny of the emperor Sig mond. They elected John Ziska their general ; a in a few months he raised and disciplined a fc midable army, and organized a war of indepe dence throughout Bohemia. The emperor invad Bohemia, but Ziska attacked and utterly defeat him, 11th July, 1420. A negotiation and temp< ary pacification followed ; but the war soon bro out again with redoubled violence, each side bei exasperated against the other by religious fanat: ism, and by the thirst for retaliation for deeds atrocious cruelty. Ziska was everywhere victor 864 ZIZ melons. He invaded Austria and Hungary, and lost o his remaining eye at the siege of Raab". Though now entirely blind he continued to command the Bohemian armies, and gained a victory over Sigis- bj mond at Arssig, which placed the Austrian domin- ! | ions at his mercy. Ziska's ferocity was equal to his military skill; and his followers spread the most fearful and in discriminating ravages wher- ever they marched. The emperor now earnestly sought terms of peace, and a treaty, most humi- !oJli:iting to Austrian pride, was concluded by Ziska's ^Hkence over the Bohemians. Ziska was on his iimlway to meet the emperor when he died of the ^plague, 11th October, 1425. There is a legend that hy his dying orders his skin was, after his death Tj made into a drum, and used by the Bohemians in it their subsequent wars with the emperor. [E.S.C.] >( ZIZIANOFF, Paul Demetrievitch, a Geor- i gian prince in the service of Russia, assassinuted i at the instance of Khan Ibrahim, 1805. ii ZOBOLI, A., an Italian astronomer, 17th cent. rai ZOCCOLI, Carlo, an architect, engineer, and ion jurisconsult of Naples, 1718-1771. : i ZOE, a mistress of Leo VI., emperor of Con- tl stantinople, who was married by him after she M had defeated a conspiracy, and died in less than m two years after her elevation to the throne, 893. !i She is said to have poisoned her first husband. aj A second Zoe was successively the mistress and ,tl wife of the same emperor: she condescended to the m former character, in order to test the probability Zi of her supplying Leo with a successor, and was h ( crowned three days after the baptism of her son, ,B Constantine VII.,"in 905. The Jatter succeeded to u the throne in 911, and Zoe exercised the sovereign rh authority some time : she was at length exiled, and ? jj died in obscurity, 919. si ZOE, empress of the East, was the daughter o e Constantine IX., and became the wife of Romanus n III. in 1028, when she was in the forty- eighth year of her age. She was a debauched woman, and Hi became the murderess of her husband, in order to place her lover on the throne, who reigned under m the title of Michel IV. The latter dying, was suc- a ceeded by his nephew, Michel V., who was deposed !f by the people, and Zoe and her sister, Theodora, 8 proclaimed joint sovereigns. She displayed great I ability and firmness in the government; and in SI 1042 married in third nuptials Constantine Mono- t] machus. She continued to reign till her death ojj at the age of seventy-four, in 1052. r. ZOEGA, George, a Danish archaeologist, cele- ie | brated for his labours in Egyptian philology and 3 antiquities, 1755-1809. B ZOES, H., a French jurisconsult, 1571-1627. i]v ZOHEIR, an Arabian poet of the period of jp Mahomet. The work of his which has come down |m to the present time celebrates some of the Arabian princes, and was published at Leipzig in 1792, jj with a Latin translation and Notes. u ZOILUS, a Greek critic and rhetorician, author $ of works against Homer, B.C. 283-247. jt ZOLA, J., a Venetian theologian, 1739-1806. m ZOLKIEWSKI, Stanislaus, hetman of the f, Polish armies under Sigismond III., was engaged ej, in many important battles against the Russians, and died gloriously fighting against the Turks, Is 1547-1620. <H ZOLL, H., a German jurisconsult, 1643-1725. 865 ZOU ZOLLIKOFER, George Joachim, a Swiss pastor, famous for his amiable character and elo- quence as a preacher, author of ' Devotional Exer- cises ' and Sermons, which have been translated into English, 1730-1788. ZONARAS, John, a Greek historian and ascetic writer of the 12th century. ZONBOV, the last favourite of Catharine II. of Russia. He was made commander of the artillery, and realized an immense fortune from his exac- tions. Excited by Paul L, he took part in his assassination ; died 1817. ZONCA, Victor, an Italian architect, author of several curious mechanical inventions, of which he has written an account, published 1607. ZOPELLI, J., a Venetian poet, 1639-1718. ZOPF, J. H., a German historian, 1691-1776. ZOPPIO, Girolamo, an Italian dramatist, died 1591. His son, Melchior, a dramatic writer and philosopher, 1544-1634. ZOPPO, P., an Italian painter, died 1515. ZOPPO DI LUGANO, the commonly received name of J. B. Discepoli, an Italian painter of the Milanese school, 1590-1660. ZORG, Henry, whose proper name was Kok.es, a Dutch painter of interiors, 1621-1682. ZORN, J., a German botanist, 1739-1799. ZORN, P., a German philologist, 1682-1746. ZOROASTER, or ZERDUSHT, the founder, or rather, as we believe, the Reformer of the Religion of the Parsees ; born at Urmia, in Azerbijan, about 589 B.C., in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. We shall not speak here of the fables concerning Zoroaster, nor seek to follow him during the twenty years he is reported to have spent in medi- tation among the awful solitudes of inaccessible Elbrooz. It is of chief moment to recognize him as the earliest systematic expounder of that solu- tion of the Mystery of Evil, which may be termed Spiritual Dualism. He imagined two mighty spirits in contest Ormuzd and Ahriman God and the Devil; and in this, as we have said, he most probably reproduces an older mytho- logy of the Parsee race. In English, we have the doctrine of Zoroaster in the immortal verse of Milton ; nor indeed did the Hebrews ever have any notion of Dualism, until after their intermix- ture during times of captivity with the farther East. Ormuzd, was conceived by Zoroaster, sym- bolized by Light. The Sun a visible type of Him ; and Fire the expression of his energy. Fire-wor- ship spread, extensively through India and Higher Asia; but, as usual, it became a superstition. Schism followed on the death of Zoroaster, who, any more than other greatest Men, had no true Successor. [J.P.N/J ZORZI, Alessandro, in Latin Georgius, a Venetian theologian, 1747-1779. ZOSIMUS, a Greek historian of the 5th cen- tury, contemporary with Honorius and Theodosius the younger. His work is a history of the Roman emperors, reaching to the year 470, and is favour- able to Christianity. It was translated into Eng- lish under the title of ' The New History of Count Zosimus,' 1684. ZOSIMUS, a pope of Rome, 417-418. ZOUCH, or ZOUCHE, Richard, author of several works in Latin on civil, military, and mari- time jurisprudence, was born at Anstey, in Wilt-* 3K zou 6hire. about 1590, and was admitted a follow at Oxford in 1G09. He was afterwards a member of parliament, and Admiralty judge. Died 1060. ZOUCH, Thomas, born at Sandal, near Wake- field, in Yorksbire, in 1737, became rector of Wyelitl'e in tbat county, and prebendary of Dur- ham. In 1808 he declined the bishopric of Car- lisle on account of bis advanced age, and died in 1816. He wrote ' The Crucifixion,' a Seaton prize poem, ' An Inquiry into the Prophetic Character of the Romans,' ' Illustrations of the Prophecies,' a ' Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney,' and other works. ZRINGI, N., a Hungarian poet, 17th century. ZSCHOKKE, Heinrich, born at Magdeburg in 1771, inherited in childhood a moderate patri- mony, which enabled him during his youth and early manhood to gratify his desire of adventure and of various knowledge. After having been a family tutor, the literary man of a troop of players, and a student in the university of Frankfort-on- the-Oder, he was licensed as a candidate of theology, or preacher, in the Reformed or Calvinistic church, and was within a little of becoming pastor of a con- fregation in his native town. He next returned to rankiort, and lectured there on various branches of philosophy and theology Failing, however, to obtain a professorship, he settled, in 1796, at Reichenau in the Grisons, where he established very successfully a boarding-school for boys. The political disturbances, spreading into Switzerland, drove him within two years to seek refuge at Bern. His administrative ability, with his political opin- ions, recommended him to employment under the central government of the Helvetic Republic. In 1802 he settled near Aarau, the chief town of the canton of Aargau ; and there he resided for the remainder of his long life. Attaching himself in politics to that which may be regarded as having been the moderately democratic party, he held in succession several public offices, and distinguished himself by his activity in promoting social reforms, especially such as bore on the education of the poor. He died in the summer of 1848. Zschokke's published writings filled, when collected, more than fjrty volumes. Their kinds were various ; and he was far from being successful in some of these, especially his attempts at poetical and dra- matic composition. His most ambitious works were, his 'History of the Bavarian Nation and its Princes,' and his ' Jljptory of Switzerland for the Swiss People.' Thelatt<&, first published in 1802, be- came exceedingly popular, and is authoritative and excellent, though held not to be impartial. In his interesting ' Autobiography,' written in old age, he declared Himself the author of the ' Hours of De^ ; votion' (Stunden der Andacht), which was origj-> Z\fCCONI, J., a Venetian poet, 1721-1754. nally a Sunday periodical, designed for ordinary '*' gJJCKERT- J. F., a Ger. mineralogist, 1737-7 families. It became, on being collected, a great favourite throughout protestant Germany ; where its shortcoming in orthodoxy was held no serious drawback on its fervour of sentiment, its advocacy of unlimited tolerance, and its zealous inculcation of practical duty. The best known, however, of Zschokke's works are his Novels, which are very numerous, while some are of considerable length. The least successful of them are those which take the form of historical romances : be wanted the ktren^th of imagination and the depth of feeling requisite for recreating the past. The beat are ZUM those in which he paints reality and familiar life and in these there is a very agreeable mixture o broad humour with a light and cheerful sentiment ality ; while the grotesqueness of characterizatioi is supported by much originality in the inventioi of comic incidents. A considerable number o these comic tales, as well as several of the seriou: ones, are avowedly didactic. In some of them th author aims at teaching religious lessons, mud like those of the 'Stunden;' as in the dissertativ story of ' Alamontade,' and the serio-comic nove of ' Jonathan Frock.' In others he represents much in the manner of Mrs. Hamilton or Mis Edge worth, attempts at domestic and social re forms among the poor : such are 'The Goldmaken Village,' ' The Millionaire,' and ' The Hole a Elbows.' Several of the best are lively and strik ing embodiments of the weak points in social insti tutions, especially as these appear under absolut governments. Instances of the kind are these the tale, 'Who Governs?' in which a Europeai war is traced to the freak of a French chamber maid ; ' Small Causes,' in which the history of tw individuals is followed through a succession of trifl ing accidents; and 'The Adventures of a Ke\ Year's Night,' in which a prince and a policeman ex change places, and throw a petty court into conf u sion before morning. A good many of Zschokke' smaller novels have appeared in English periodicals and one or two of them, as well as his ' Autobio grapby,' have been translated separately. [W.S. ZUALLART, J., a German traveller, and au thor of descriptive works, 16th century. ZUAZO, H., a Spanish jurisconsult, died 1527. ZUBER, M., a Latin and Greek poet, 1570-162S ZUCCARDI, U., an Italian jurist, 1480-1541. ZUCCARELLI, or ZUCCTIERELLI, Fkan cesco, an Italian painter and engraver, taugb by Morandi, distinguished for his landscapes, ii which he introduced small figures, 1712-1788. ZUCCARO, or ZUCCHERO, Taddeo, a pain ter, after the Roman school, born at Urbino 15213 died 1566. His younger brother, Fedeihgo, painter and sculptor, prince of the academy o Saint Luke, famous for his gigantic figures adapte- to dome painting, 1542-1609. ZUCCHERELLI. See Zuocarelli. ZUCCHI, B., an Italian writer, 1560-1631. ZUCCHI, Giovanni, an Italian painter, taugh by Vasari, died 1590. Francesco, his brother famous for his mosaic work, died 1620. ZUCCHI, M. A., an improvisator, died 1764. ZUCCHI, N., an Italian Jesuit, 1586-1670. ZUCCOLO, L., an Italian moralist, 16th cent ZUCCOLO, L., an Italian jurist, 1599-1688. F- ^ClCHEM' D'AYTA, Vigilius, a FlemisJ jurisconsult, and president of the council, 1507-77 ZUINGLIUS. See Zwingi.i. ZUMALACARREGUY, Thomas, general ii chief of the Spanish army, was born in 1789, ant became a devoted partizan of Don Carlos, on thi death of Ferdinand VII., which took place ii 1822. He was the most redoubted opponent of thi armies of Christina and Donna Maria, and pos< sessed qualities which gained him the respect evei of his enemies. Zumalacarreguy died of wound received at the siege of Bilboa, 25th June, 1835. 866 ZUM ZUMBO, Gaetano Julio, a famous Sicilian - artist ; he learnt, without the assistance of a ?>' teacher, the principles of sculpture, and, after hav- !i ng profoundly studied anatomy, he gained great : 'i reputation by his figures in a coloured wax, the reparation of which he kept secret; 1656-1701. W ZUMSTEEG, J. R., a Germ, comp., 1760-1802. * ZUNIGA, Don Diego Ortiz De, historian of ^ he civil and ecclesiastical affairs of Seville, 17th ct. * ZURBARAN, F., a Spanish painter, 1598-1662. * ZURITA, J., a Spanish historian, 1512-1581. to ZURLA, P., an Italian antiquarian, 1769-1834. is ZURLAUBEN, Latour Chatillon De, an indent Swiss family, which produced many dis- ri Anguished warriors, from the 12th to the 16th >! senturies. The best known is Beat Fidele An- 1 toixe Jean Dominique, Baron Latour Chatillon I le Zurlauben, who became lieutenant-general, and I levoted his latter years to literature. His works ire a ' Military History of the Swiss in the French i service,' a ' History of the Swiss and their Allies,' I I ' Picturesque Tour in Switzerland,' and various 1 nemoirs ; born at Zug 1720, died 1795. ;i ZURLO, Joseph, Count, a Neapolitan states- I nan, born 1759, and named finance minister 1798. a [n this capacity he ventured on reforms which led ft ;o his dismissal, but he became minister again under II tfurat in 1809, and in the fresh circumstances of ill 1820. On the latter occasion the influence of the i Carbonari deprived him of power. Died 1828. S. ZUSTRIS, L., a Dutch painter, died 1600. i ZUZZERI, Bernardo, an Italian Jesuit and nissionary in Croatia, 1683-1762. J. Luc, of the I lame family, a celebrated numismatist, 1716-1746. 23 ZWANZIGER, J. C, a Hungarian philosopher 1. ind opponent of Kant, 1732-1808. i ZWEERS, Jerome, a Dutch poet, 1627-1696. ;'a 3is grandson, Cornelius, a dramatist, died 1774. ' ZWELFER, J., a German chemist, 1618-1668. ZWICKER, Daniel, a theologian of Dantzic, iiAhief of the Tolerants, 1612-1678. 23 ZWINGER, Theodore, a German physician ind philosophical writer, flourished at Basle, 1533- i( l588. His son, James, a physician and Hellenist, .4,09-1610. Theodore, son of the latter, a theo- ogian and superintendent of the churches at Bale, 597-1654. John, son of Theodore, a theologian nd bibliographer, 1634-1696. Theodore, son if John, a physician, anatomist, and botanist, e 1658-1724. John Rodolph, their nephew, a ihysician and founder of a scientific society, 1692- 777. Frederic, his brother, a physician and laturalist, 1707-1776. d ZWINGLI, or ZUINGLIUS, Ulrick, the great Jwiss reformer, was bom at Wildhausen, in the janton of St. Gall, in 1484. His early education [J *as carried on at Basel, and afterwards at Berne. i [Tie Dominican monks, in this place, attracted by lis talents and rising reputation, sought to entrap lim into their order, but his father, in order to emove him from the scene of temptation, sent him rff to Vienna. In 1502, and being eighteen years >f age, the young scholar returned home, and soon repaired again to Basel and took his degree as naster of arts. Under the teaching of Wittenbach, irho had been acting along with the famous Reu- shlin, his mind received the first germs of free inquiry those seminal truths, which, in his quick ind genial mind, soon ripened into harvest. He ZWI preached his first sermon in 1506, and was chosen pastor of Glaris. Here he remained ten years, and during that period he mingled in the strife of arms against the French. The young pastor, at the same time, devoted himself to the study of Greek and Hebrew, gradually irade the Scriptures his sole and supreme rule of authority, and pub- licly expounded the Gospels and the Epistles. In 1516 he had been chosen preacher to the Abbey of Einsidlen, a famed spot of popish pilgrimage and superstition, and the year following he removed to a similar position in the cathedral of Zurich. The effect of his honest preaching of the gospel soon became apparent in the city and country, and his general character and opinions produced a deep and universal sensation. While this state of tran- sition was so marked, the crisis was hastened, in 1518, by the arrival of Samson, the seller of indul- gences. The traffic in these ' Roman wares ' roused the indignation of Zwingli and led to a keen ex- posure and a successful resistance. Luther's writings were, at the same time, largely circulated at the recommendation of the reformer. The plague broke out, and, during its continuance, though weak himself from exhaustion, he assidu- ously tended the sick and dying. His zealous labours grew in number and results, the simpli- city of the gospel was more distinctly apprehended by him ; but the friends of the popedom were en- raged, and Zwingli was tried, in January, 1523, on a charge of heresy. Rome gained nothing by the trial. Zwingli presented 67 propositions, and de- fended them from Scripture. The reformer gathered courage with growing difficulties, and, in 1524, the council of Zurich remodelled the public worship ac- cording to the views and wishes of Zwingli. Pictures, statues, and relics were removed from the churches, and mass was abolished. Opposition to the reformed doctrines was meanwhile gathering in the other cantons. The question arose, whether each canton was free to choose its own form of religion, or whether the confederation should interfere;^ Zurich contended for its individual liberty and indepen- dence, but was opposed by the Waldstettes, or the primitive democratic cantons of Schwytz, Unter- wald, Urzug, and Lucerne. The triumph of the reformation at Berne, and other places, threw those forest cantons into wilder commotion, and, in consonance with their views of their federal polity, they took up arms for Rome. Zurich, encouraged by Zwingli, called out its troops and put itself into a posture of defence. Efforts were made to main- tain peace, but it was of no long duration, and after various diplomatic negotiations, hostilities finally commenced. Zurich nad also lost some- what of its earlier evangelical purity, while the neighbouring states were conspiring for its ruin. In the awful emergency, when the public mind was alarmed by a series of omens and prodigies, the reformer maintained tranquillity. The war began. Zurich was cowardly, dilatory, and far from being prepared, but the horn of the enemy echoed among their hills, and the devoted Zwingli mounted his caparisoned horse, took farewell of his wife and children, and went forth as a patriot and warrior to share in the common danger. The Ziirichers marched to meet the Waldstettes, but were de- feated at Cappel with great slaughter, 11th Octo- ber, 1531. Zwingli was found, 667 i after the battle, lying ZWI on his back and his eves upturned to heaven, with bia helmet on his head, and his battle-axe in his hand. He had been struck near the commence- ment of the engagement, and then as he fell and reeled, he was several times pierced with a lance. He was living when discovered in the evening; but the infuriated fanatics soon despatched him. Next day his dead body was barbarously quartered and burnt. Thus perished this hero-martyr. The contests of Zwingli and Luther on the nature of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper are well known, but the Swiss proved himself freer from early prejudice and traditional teaching than his neat German antagonist. It is needless to discuss the relative merits of the two illustrious reformers, their position and sphere of influence being so very different. The fame of Luther has overtopped that of Zwingli, yet the Swiss divine had perhaps more ZYR caution and sagacity, and certainly more learning and refinement than the Saxon. He was also earn alive to the errors of Rome, and though be died I young man, yet in his narrower circle of actior he carried out the reformation farther than Luthe: did. The works of Zwingli were published ii four folios, Tiguri, 1581 ; and in eight octavos edited by Schuler and Schultess, Zurich, -1828- 1842. [J.3 ZYTTI, A. Van, a Dutch theologian, 17th cent ZYLL, Otho Van, in Latin Zijlius, a Dutcl poet and professor of rhetoric, 1588-1656. ZYPE, Francis Van Den, in Latin Zypams. professor of anatomy at the university of Louvain author of a work published 1683. ZYRLIN, or ZIERLIN, G., a Swiss pastor an< Latin poet ; 1592-1661. An explication of the pro phet Abdias, written in German, is ascribed to him APPENDIX ABB ABBAS PACHA, viceroy of Egypt, was the grandson of Mehemet AH, whom he succeeded in 1849. He was a man of no particular character, but exhibited a friendly disposition towards the English, chiefly, perhaps, from his hatred of French influence. Died. July 13th, 1854, and was suc- ceeded by Said Pasha, the youngest son of Mehemet AH. A'BECKETT, Gilbert, was the second son of a solicitor of large practice in Golden square, London, who dealt in the now all but extinct business of providing young men of fortune with parliamentary boroughs. Young Gilbert, in com- mon with his brothers, was educated at West- minster school. Before A'Beckett had left West- minster, that talent for ridicule began to display itself, which a wit of the day very happily char- acterized, when he said ' A'Beckett would contrive to put the pyramid under a thimble.' At a very early age, in conjunction with one of the members Df the Mayhew family, he started a small publica- tion called the Cerberus, where will be found not \ few of the jokes and germs of articles that after- wards appeared full blown in Punch. Though vehemently admired and vehemently puffed by a clique, Cerberus proved a mercantile failure. No sooner had it ceased to growl, than the Beacon rose to warn; this more ambitious venture proved disastrous to the spirited publisher, Richardson. The Beacon ' paling its ineffectual fire,' A'Beckett and his staff were once more cast upon the bosom of mighty London. Something which seemed relief soon came, however, in the shape of an advertisement for a successor to ' Dirty Cummings,' the delicate sobriquet of the dramatic critic of the Weekly Dispatch. From among a host of com- petitors A'Beckett proved the successful candidate For the vacant office of theatrical censor, and great was the rejoicing of the literary troupe with which was associated. But, alas, A'Beckett was not long on the Dispatch before he was pronounced wanting in vigour and power. Once more adrift in conjunction with a humourist named Seymour, the Figaro in London was projected and produced. Original in idea, crisp and pungent in its articles and ow in price, the Figaro soon obtained a great sale. Mr. A'Beckett became a popular writer, clearing a thousand a-year by this venture. The success of Figaro led A'Beckett very rapidly into numerous publishing schemes, which ultimately landed him in the Insolvent Court, a crisis arising from his utter ignorance of business matters. On the estab- lishment of Punc/j, Mr. A'Beckett was employed Upon it principally in parodying courtly and com- mercial announcements, and in burlesquing Black- stone's ' Commentaries.' This latter vein being found popular, the histories of Rome and England were laid under contribution, but in many quarters pis invasion of the domain of history was sternly 869 ANG denounced as beyond the legitimate field of the humourist. About this time it was, he became connected with the Morning Herald and the Times. The bantering articles on the foundation of the British Association were understood to be from his pen. Called to the bar he made the acquain- tance of Mr. Charles Buller, and by him A'Beckett was put on a commission for reporting on the poor laws and the poor. The able report which he produced on this occasion procured him an appointment as one of the metropolitan magistrates in 1849. This appointment gave rise to much cavil on the part of legal aspirants, and the Morning Herald denounced it in some severe leaders, understood to have been written by the late Samuel Phillips. Mr. A'Beckett's sagacity on the bench fully justified the appointment which he held with the utmost satisfaction to the pubfic until his death. He died suddenly at Boulogne, in the autumn of 1856. ABERCROMBY, Sin Robert, fifth baronet of Birkenbog and Forglen, in the county of Banff. Born 4th February, 1784, died at Forglen House, June, 1855. ADAIR, Sir Robert, a diplomatist whose im- portant services date in the time of Fox and Canning, born 1763, died in his ninety-third year, October, 1855. He was the last surviving friend of Charles James Fox. An interesting notice of his career will be found in the 'Gentleman's Magazine.' ADAM, Sir Charles, a distinguished British admiral, died governor of Greenwich Hospital, 1853. ADAMSON, John, an antiquarian and man of letters, late treasurer and secretaiy of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, 1787-1855. AIKEN, Arthur, eldest son of the well known litterateur, and nephew to Mrs. Barbauld, was born at Warrington in Lancashire; 1773. He is the author of several works interesting to the naturalist, and was one of the founders of the Geological Society; died 1854. ALEXANDER, Robert, a native of Paisley, distinguished as a journalist, chiefly as founder of the Liverpool Mail, 1795-1854. ALTHORPE. See Spencer. AMARANTHE, Madame de Ste See Theos. ANCKLITZEN. See Schwartz. ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, mar- quess of, eminently distinguished as a cavalry offi- cer, was born in 1768. His father was Henry, the first earl of Uxbridge ; his mother, a daughter of the Very Rev. Arthur Champagne, dean of Clon- macnoise. In the early part of his career he bore the title of Lord Paget, but succeeded to his father's title in 1812, and was created marquess of Anglesey a few days after the battle of Waterloo. His noble spirit and military ardour was shown as early as 1790, when he raised among his father's tenantry the 80th regiment of foot, or Staffordshire ANG volunteers, at whose head, in 1794, he joined the duke of York in Flanders. In June of this year his talents for command and his gallantry were so well established, that he was appointed lieut.-colonel of the 16th light dragoons, and thus commenced his brilliant career as a cavalry officer. Though only twenty- six years of age, he took the place of Lord Cathcart, at the head of his brigade, during the temporary absence of that officer. In 1799, he accompanied the duke of York to Holland, and among other deeds of valour completely routed Gen- eral Simon, whose force amounted to seven squad- rons, while Lord Paget commanded only one. On this occasion he took five of the enemy's cannon, besides recovering some of our own pieces. From this period till 1808, Lord Paget devoted himself to the discipline of his regiment, the 7th light dragoons, and towards the close of this year was ordered into Spain to strengthen the forces of Sir David Baird, who was then advancing through Galicia, to effect a junction with Sir John Moore. It was now, in the famous retreat upon Corunna, and the final battle, that the noblest qualities of the soldier were displayed in the indomitable cou- rage and discipline of Lord Paget's troops, and the spirit of chivalry he infused into them ; for the re- treat was covered by a series of fights, in which the generosity and knightly courage of the middle ages were hardly less prominent than the word of com- mand. In 1809 Lord Paget returned to England, and his next appearance on the battle-field is at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, as earl of Uxbridge. It is impossible, in the narrow space at our com- mand, to do justice to his achievements at this crisis of the world's fate. The cuirassiers were deemed in- vincible. 'Twice,'oneofhisbiographersrelates, 'had the gallant earl led the guards to the charge, cheer- ing them with the rallying cry of, " Now for the honour of the household troops ! " when three heavy masses of the enemy's infantry advanced, sup- ported by artillery, and a numerous body of cuiras- siers. This formidable force drove in the Belgians, leaving the Highland brigade to receive the shock. At this critical moment Lord Uxbridge galloped up to the second heavy brigade, under the command of Sir William Ponsonby, when the three regiments were wheeled up in the most masterly style, pre- senting a beautiful front of above thirteen hundred men. As the earl rode down the line, he was re- ceived by a general shout and cheer from the bri- gade. Then placing himself at their head, they made the most rapid and destructive charge ever witnessed. The division they attacked consisted of upwards of nine thousand men, under Count d'Erlon. Of these, three thousand were made pri- soners, and the rest killed, with the exception of a few hundred men, who formed themselves under cover of the cuirassiers. After this, his lordship bravely led the same troops in several other bril- liant attacks, cutting in pieces whole battalions of the old French guard, into whose masses they pene- trated.' The earl was carried through these dangers without injury, but was struck in the knee by almost the last shot of Waterloo ; in conse- quence of which his leg had to be amputated. A few weeks, however, saw him convalescent again, and, besides the honours which he received on his return home, a pension of 1,200 a-year was awarded him, which he nobiy declined. His later 870 ARA years were chiefly devoted to the public service at master of the ordnance, except that he was viceroy of Ireland in the tumultuous period of O'Connelli ascendency. In 1842, he left his old companion:, in arms, the 7th light dragoons, and assumed tin command of the royal horse guards: four year later he was honoured with the rank of field-mar- shal. Died April 29, 1854. [E.R. ARAGO, Dominique- Francois -Jkan, ai eminent French mathematician and astronomer born 1786 ; died 1853. This remarkable mai was born in the village of Estagel, near Perpignan in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, on th> 26th of February, 1786. His father was a licen tiate of law, and the owner of as much propert; in land, vineyards, and olive plantations, as en abled him to support in comfort a numerou family; but the family itself was of Spanish de scent, and the future philosopher inherited witl his birth the passions of the south. His elemen tary education was received at the communa school of his native place; but on the remova of his father to Perpignan, he was sent to th college of that ancient city, where he followei the course of instruction pursued in the Frenc] academies of that time, which did not in elude the learned languages. His tastes, he tell us {Eistoire de ma Jeunesse), were at this earl- period purely literary, and the development of hi latent mathematical faculties he owed to an acci dental meeting with a young officer of engineers who was engaged in superintending the repairs o the ramparts of Perpignan, and who inspired hin with a passion for a military life. Learning fron his new friend that he had been a pupil in th Polytechnic school, and that a severe mathematica examination was required for admission into tha establishment, he determined henceforth to cultivat the mathematics, which he did with so much zea and success that in eighteen months he masterei the subjects contained in the programme of adi mission ; and having passed with credit the pre-' liminary examination, which was conducted by th celebrated Monge, at Toulouse, he entered th Polytechnic towards the end of 1803, carryinj into it, he assures us, a more profound know- ledge of analysis than most of the pupils contrive< to cany out of it. During the next three year his progress must have been very great, for wr find that, in 1806, he was appointed one of thi secretaries to the Board of Longitude, and that h< was shortly afterwards associated with M. Biot ii the measurement of an arc of the meridian Spain, a national undertaking which had beer suspended by the death of M. Mechain, to whorr, it was originally confided. He still indulged the hope of following a military career under the im-i mediate patronage of Marshal Lannes, but a dif-! ferent and more congenial destiny awaited him.; and the Spanish expedition, which consumed three; years at the most critical period of his life, first postponed the realization of his early hopes, and finally frustrated them. Biot having returned tc Paris, and war having broken out between France and Spain, Arago's position in a hostile country became one of extreme danger from which he wa only extricated by his own courage and dexterity.' Perched on the summit of a lofty mountain, on which during the day he used his geodetical in- ARA struments, and at night lit a signal fire, he was suspected by the Spanish peasantry to be a spy 1 who was communicating by telegraph with the > invading army. He was obliged-, therefore, to tli make his escape as speedily as possible, which he 1 did in the disguise of a Catalonian mountaineer, * proceeding, with his instruments and papers, to > Majorca, where he found shelter in the fortress of i Belver. There he completed his goodetical cal- K culations. and remained till the political fermenta- tion on the neighbouring continent extended to 'i Majorca, and rendered his further stay in that i island unsafe. His only way of regaining France, B however, was by proceeding," in the first place, to * Algiers, and thence embarking in an Algerine vessel destined for Marseilles ; but this vessel, d when within sight of her port, was captured by a k Spanish privateer, and the philosophical voyager ti sent as a prisoner of war to the fortress of Rosas, in and afterwards to the hulks at Palamos. After a m detention of several months, and undergoing many a hardships and indignities, he was liberated by the ii Spanish authorities, and allowed, with his Alger- ' ine companions, to proceed on his voyage to d Marseilles ; but a storm arose, the vessel was i| driven off the French coast and towards Africa, & and her passengers landed at Bougia, whence M. rlj Arago proceeded on foot to Algiers. After much lii delay, and some risk, the French consul procured a a passage for him in a French vessel bound to ts Marseilles, where he arrived safely, on the 2d of o July, 1809, after having been chased by an English il ship of war. The reappearance of the missing 03 philosopher in France, under circumstances so un- til usual, created a strong sensation in the scientific tj world. Among its other results it led to the form- 13 ation of a friendship between Arago and Alexander H Von Humboldt, which only ended with the death a of the former : while it also brought to the hero * of such strange adventures a rapid accumulation io of honours. On the death of the astronomer La- s lande, he was elected, in September, 1809, a member of the Academy of Sciences, and shortly afterwards he was appointed one of the professors of the Polytechnic school, and director of the im- perial observatory, in which he ever afterwards resided. In 1830, on the death of M. Fourier, he was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy ; and in 1834, he visited Great Britain, where he was received with the respect due to his eminent per- sonal and scientific character. The rest of his life would seem to have been spent wholly in France, and chiefly in Paris, where he occupied the highest social place that a man of letters can attain to, though the warmth of his nature led him into some troubles which a man of calmer temperament would have avoided. In political sentiment Arago was an ardent republican, but his integrity was respected by the heads of the differ- ent dynasties, imperial and royal, under which he lived. His strong political predilections, however, involved him in connections unfavourable to the calm pursuit of knowledge, and the consequences have always been regretted by those who knew ow little fitted he was by previous habits for e successful management of political affairs, took a conspicuous part in the revolutionary ement of 1848, and his appointment by the rovisional government of that year to the doubl ARB office of war and marine excited some merriment at the expense of the aged philosopher, who was certainly not in his right place at the head of the army and navy departments. The sanguinary contest in the streets of Paris, in June, shocked the sensibilities of a humane man, and dissipated many fond illusions which he had till then in- dulged, nor did he ever recover from the impres- sion which that terrible scene made upon him. An insidious malady (diabetes) which had begun about this time to manifest itself was aggravated by mental suffering, and the last vestiges of political hope that clung to him being extin- guished by the coup oV etat of December, 1852, it became obvious that his physical strength was rapidly declining under the combined pressure of bodily infirmities and disappointed hopes. He refused to take the oaths to the new govern- ment;' but a formal exception was considerately made in favour of a man who had deserved so well of France. Dropsy of the chest having succeeded to the disease he was originally afflicted with, he became gradually weaker, though his mind re- mained clear to the last; and notwithstanding the skill of his physicians, and the affectionate solici- tude of his family, he died tranquilly, but some- what suddenly, on the 2d of October, 1853. The leading points in the intellectual character of M. Arago would seem to have been, vigour of appre- hension, facility in acquiring knowledge, and a happy power of discrimination in its applica- tion. To these qualities he added that pure en- thusiasm without which no excellence can be reached, and habits of application which only a robust frame could have borne. He has been called the busiest man of a busy age, and it is reported of him that he considered every man idle who did not work fourteen hours a-day ! while the ran<re of his own knowledge, which was immense, shows that he did not recommend to others what he did not himself practise. ' The number and variety of M Arago's labours,' says the venerable Alexander Von Humboldt, ' on the physical con- stitution of the heavens and the earth will make it a very difficult task to write his life. In all these labours, we find the same penetration and the same anxiety for the advancement of science, and the same temperance in his conjectures.' His writings are so numerous that it is quite impossible to give a list of them in a sketch like the present ; but Baron Humboldt has arranged the subjects which he treated under the following heads: 1. literary and biographical ; 2. astronomical ; 3. optical; 4. electro-magnetical ; 5. meteorological and atmospherical; 6. physical geography. The Elorjes which he wrote, in his capacity of secretary to the Academy, are those of Volta, Dr. Thomas Young, Baron Fourier, James Watt, Carnot, Con- dorcet, Bailly. Of these, that on James Watt is the only one that has yet appeared in an English dress. A complete edition of his works in French, of which the first six volumes have been already printed, is in course of publication in Paris ; and there can be no doubt that, when completed, they will constitute the most fitting monument that could be raised to the memory of one of the most distinguished scientific men "that France has pro- duced in the preent age. [J.M'C] ARBOULN, Jambs, a merchant of London, 871 ARN author of a much admired treatise on the Regener- ate I. ill', 1742-18*22. ARNAUD, Marshal, De St., late commander- in-chief of the French forces in the Crimea, was born at Paris of humble parentage in 1801, and first distinguished himself in the wars of Algeria, where he went in 1830'. After the most brilliant services in the field, and the devotion of his talents to the task of colonization, he was appointed, in 1850, governor of Constantine, and in 1851 he subdued the Kabyles at the head of only 6,000 men. He then returned to France, and was appointed commander of the 2d division of the army of Paris, and minister of war. His career in the war with Russia is well known. On the 26th Sept., 1854, he was attacked by cholera, and being already weakened by disease, he died three days afterwards on the voyage to Constantinople. ARNOLD of MELCHTHAL. See Winckel- BIED. ARNOTT, Dr. Archibald, was born in 1771. Dr. Arnott entered the army about the age of twenty, and retired from active service in 1826. During the principal period of his career, he was attached to the 20th foot, sharing the perils and exploits of that regiment on the Mile, in Calabria, Portugal, Spain, and Holland, earning a medal with clasps for Egypt, Maida, Vimiera, Corunna, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, and Toulouse. After the war, Dr. Arnott accom- ganied his regiment to St. Helena and India. At t. Helena he became the medical attendant of Napoleon Buonaparte. Arnott's professional ability, ingenuous character, and upright and dignified deportment as an officer, and gentleman, at once secured for him the confidence and esteem of the emperor. Shortly before his dissolution, Napoleon gave Dr. Arnott a signal testimony of appreciation of his services. As the emperor lay on his death- bed, he caused a valuable gold snuff-box to be brought to him ; and with a last effort of depart- ing strength, he engraved the letter N with a pen- knife upon the lid, and presented it to Dr. Arnott. Napoleon also bequeathed to the Doctor 12.000 francs, and the British Government, to mark its approbation of his conduct, granted him 500. Napoleon expired with his right hand in that of Dr. Arnott. The Doctor's masculine and tenacious memory was richly stored with recollections and anecdotes of that momentous period, yet, with the exception of a very clear and distinct Account of the Last Illness, Decease, and post mortem Ap- pearances of Napoleon Buonaparte,' published in 1822, he could never be induced to write on the subject. Latterly, Dr. Arnott retired to his native pariah, and died on his patrimonial estate, Kirk- connel Hall, 6th July, 1855. ARUNDALE, Francis, an architect and anti- quarian, 1807-1854. ASTRAMPSYCHUS, a Greek author of the lower empire, whose Iambics are printed with Rigault's edition of Artemidorus. B BAGOT, Richard, late bishop of Bath and ells, was born in Northamptonshire, 1782. In 1803 he graduated at Oxford, and BEL sented by his father, William, first Lord Bagot, to the rectory of Leigh in Staffordshire. The year following he moved to Blithfield and became! canon of Windsor. In 1817, he was appointed a canon of Worcester; in 1829, was consecrated.! bishop of Oxford ; and in 1845, succeeded Bishop Law m the see of Bath and Wells. Two remark- able circumstances render his bishopric a memorable one the cessation of the ' Tracts for the Times,' in obedience to his mandate as bishop of Oxford, and the attack made upon him in the House of Commons by Mr. Horsman, for inducting the Rev. Mr. Bennett into the living of Frome. Soon after the latter occurrence symptoms of mental aberra- tion appeared, and the affairs of his diocese were administered, in accordance with an act of parlia- ment obtained for the purpose, by the Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. Died May 15, 1854. [E.R.] BANKS, Thomas Christopher, a remark- able writer on the genealogy of the peerages; was created baronet of Nova Scotia by the pseudo- earl of Stirling, 1760-1854. BARBER, Charles, a distinguished artist and associate of the literati of Liverpool ; late presi- dent of the Liverpool Academy, died 1854. BARCLAY, Captain, the famous pedestrian ; was descended from the same ancient family as the author of the 'Apology' for, the Quakers. He was bom in Kincardineshire, 1779, and performed his great feats in pedestrianism about the com- mencement of the present century. He was a claimant for the earldom of Monteith and Airth, in right of his mother, from whom he took the family name of Allardice. Died 1854. BARTLETT, William Henry, an accom- plished artist and traveller, author of numerous finely embellished works. Died on his passage from the East, 1809-1854. BATHORL See Stephen, king of Poland. . BATTISTA. See Mantovano. BEAUFORT, Henry Somerset, seventh duke, of, born 1792 ; served on the staff of the duke, of Wellington in the Peninsular war ; mem- ber for the borough of Monmouth from 1815 to 1832; junior lord of the admiralty, 1816-1819; succeeded to the dukedom, 1832; died 1854. BELL, Christopher, a Brit, adm., 1784-1 854J BELL, Currer. See Bronte. BELLEW, Sir Michael Dillon, Bart., of Mount Galway. Born 29th September, 1796, created a baronet in 1838, died in 18^5 at his family seat. BELLOT, Joskph Rene, a lieutenant of the French navy, whose noble devotion in the search) for Sir John Franklin has endeared his name to, England, was born in Paris, 1826, but generally; called himself a Rochefort man, in consequence of his removal to that city when about five years ofj age. He studied in the college of Rochefort tUU his sixteenth year, when he was removed to the? Naval School under public patronage, and in the course of two years began his career of active- service on board the Suflron. In the same yearJ 1844, he was removed successively to the FriedH land and the Bercean, and sailed in the latter ol these vessels to the coast of Africa. Here, in the summer of 1845, Bellot distinguished himself* in the expedition against Tamatave, and received the* in 1806 was pre- cross of the legion of honour on the recommenda-J 872 BER Jon of his commander, Capt. Eomaine Desfosses. >om the Berceau, which was afterwards lost, he emoved to the frigate Belle Poule, the com- modore's ship on that station, and, besides super- Qtending the signals, found time to give a course f lectures on geometry and navigation, to such of he crew as desired it. Soon afterwards he re- amed to France, and was almost immediately romoted (Nov. 15, 1847) to the rank of Enseigm 'e Vuisseun, being now in his twenty-first year nly ; and in this capacitv he shipped at first in the 'andore, and then in the corvette Triomphante, rhich sailed for the Plate River, July 23, 1848. n this cruise again his commander, Captain Sochet, poke of him as an officer of the highest promise ; nd having returned to Rochefort in August, 1850, e was soon afterwards appointed to convey troops Cherbourg in a small transport vessel which he ommanded for a month. This service closed his areer in the French navy, for it was in the spring f 1851 that he began to solicit his government for ;ave to take part in the expedition then preparing y Lady Franklin. His biographer remarks that iellot was passionally a voyager; and his journals rove the correctness of the observation, for they re marked by all the enthusiasm of discovery, nd scorn of danger that we find in the old oyagers, but he was also animated by a chivalrous dmiration of Lady Franklin, and a sympathy for er loss ; nor must we omit a desire to add to the lory of his country by planting the French flag, nd conferring the names of Frenchmen, for the rst time, on arctic lands. His request being ranted, Bellot sailed in the Prince Albert, a brig f 50 tons, commanded by Mr. Kennedy, which jft Aberdeen on its second voyage to the Northern ieas, in May, 1851, and returned in the year fol- jwing. In this interval the young adventurer lade an important geographical discovery in the ourse of a journey or at least 1,100 miles over the ;e, accomplished under great difficulties; he found, 1 short, that Boothia Felix was separated from he land of Somerset by a narrow arm of the sea, ow called Bellot Strait. While absent also, he ad been honoured with the rank of lieutenant in he French service. On his return, Lieutenant Jellot memorialized his government, and urged the nportance and humanity of an expedition to the 'olar Seas, but before any decision could be arrived t he requested and received permission to sail rith Captain lnglefield in the Phoenix, which left Voolwich, accompanied by the Breadalbane, in lay, 1853. On the 21st of August, he volunteered o carry a communication across the ice, and a ale coming on, the ice was parted from the shore nd drifted away with the current in a storm of now and wind. Bellot perished, and the Bread- lbane was wrecked in the same gale [E.R.] BERANGER, Pierke Jean, the Burns of 'ranee, was born at Paris, August 19, 1780, at the ouse of his grandfather, a Parisian operative ailor. Neither father nor mother seem to have ad much to do with the education of the future oet. His father, a native of Flamicour, near 'eronne, was constantly aspiring during a life all of adventure to attain a more elevated condi- ion than that in which he was born ; but unfor- unately he wanted the perseverance necessary to osure success in his ambition, being, in point of BER fact, rather too much addicted to tracing the great- ness of his ancestry ever to achieve his own. It was therefore to his grandparents that Beranger owed his first principles and impulses. With them he lived until his ninth year, and while under their roof, witnessed the taking of the Bas- tile. Forty years afterwards he celebrated the event within the prison De la Force. Before young Beranger had reached his tenth year, he quitted Paris for Peronne, where he was consigned to the care of a paternal aunt, who kept an inn in the suburbs of that town. The aunt was a stern disciplinarian, and though his services as pot-boy left the future poet but little leisure for reading, nevertheless it was under her roof that Beranger first made the acquaintance of Telemachus, Racine, and Voltaire. At the age of twelve he was struck by lightning in her house. So soon as he recovered from the severity of the shock, his first words were a sneer at the expense of the old lady. At the commencement of the storm Beranger had ob- served his aunt sprinkling her house all over with holy water. ' Pray, what good,' said he, 'has all vour holy water done ? ' At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to one Laion6, a printer. In this employment he began to learn the rules of orthography and language. But the school which contributed most to his intellectual and moral development was the School of Primary Instruc- tion, founded at Peronne by M. Bellue de Bellanglis. An enthusiastic admirer of Rousseau, M. Bellue had designed an institution for children according to the maxims of the citizen-philosopher. The exercises which the discipline of the school necessitated Beranger to compose, formed his style, awakened his taste, extended his knowledge, and directed his attention to public affairs. From this school he returned at the age of seventeen to his father at Paris ; and about this time the first idea of making verses dawned upon him. Moliere and La Fon- taine were his favourite authors; he studied their fine and minute points of observation, their verse, their style, and through this study arrived at some- thing like a just conception of his own proper talent. Days of darkness and adversity quickly succeeded. From the depths of his poverty Beranger conceived the idea of possibly interesting M. Lucien Buonaparte in his position, so, gathering up his songs, he sent them, together with a letter revealing his circumstances, to the brother of the First Consul. Lucien Buonaparte, ever ready to succour struggling genius, gave to Beranger the most generous recognition and the most substan- tial assistance. Subsequently, through the interest of M. Arnault, Beranger obtained an appointment to an office in the University, which he held for twelve years. In 1821 he was dismissed from this appointment on account of his political senti- ments. His works have been collected and pub- lished at six successive times in 1815, in 1821, in 1825, in 1828, in 1833, and in 1847. The collec- tion published in 1821 was prosecuted, and though defended by M. Dupin, senior, cost the author three months' imprisonment; the edition of 1828 was also prosecuted, and for it Beranger endured a captivity of nine months. The poet was also tried for reprinting some of the obnoxious songs in the account of his trial. At the revolution of 1848 Beranger was chosen a deputy to the National 873 BER Assembly, but he resolutely refused the honour. During the reign of the present Emperor of* France, the most flattering attentions were bestowed upon him hv Napoleon and Eugenie. Nevertheless, he held fast the integrity and simplicity of his repub- lican creed, and died as he had lived a man who flattered neither Kaizer, Pope, nor King Eager to make capital out of his dust, the Emperor de- creed him a public funeral; the state of parties in Paris, however, sadly marred the splendour of this spectacle, and robbed the imperial government of tne glory which, in other circumstances doing honour to the remains of the national poet of France, would unquestionably have thrown around the regime of Napoleon. Beranger died Julv, 1857. BEKESFORD, William Cark, Viscount Beresford, a soldier of distinguished bravery ; was born in 1770, entered the British army in 1778, and served in America, Egypt, and the Peninsula. He was raised to the peerage in 1814, and employed in various capacities connected with his profession until 1830. He died in 1854. BERKELEY, The Hon. Craven Fitzhard- inge, M.P., born May, 1805, was member of garliament for Cheltenham from 1832 to 1847. ied in 1855. BERLIOZ, Madame, formerly well known on the London stage as Miss Smithson, d.at Paris, 1853. BERNAL, Ralph, formerly member for Ro- chester, and a connoisseur in art, died 1 854. BETHAM, Sir William, remarkable for his labours in genealogy, heraldry, and other subjects of antiquarian research, was born in 1779. His father was a clergyman, and Betham was brought up to the printing business; but commenced his literary avocations by revising a portion of Mr. Gousjh's edition of Camden. About 1805, he went to Dublin as clerk to Sir Chichester Fortes- cue, then Ulster king-of-arms, and succeeded his employer in that office in 1820. He published many works, and devoted much of his time to the antiquities of Ireland and the Celtic tongue. Died at Blackrock, near Dublin, October, 1853. BETHELL, Rev. George, M.A., senior fellow and vice-provost of Eton College. Born in 1799; died August, 1857. BEXFIELD, William Richard, doctor in music, composer of ' Israel Restored,' was born in Norfolk, 1824. He had already distinguished himself by the composition of some fine chorals, fugues, and anthems, when he became organist of Boston church, though scarcely more than twenty- one years of age. His oratorio was performed at Norwich for the first time in 1851. Dr. Bexfield died prematurely in November, 1853. BIELKE. See De Bielke. BIRD, Golding, M.D., an eminent physician in London, and well known as the author of several works on natural philosophy, &c. Dr. Bird was born in Norfolk, in 1815, and whilst still a youth at school, manifested a decided taste for the study of chemistry and botany. He was brought up to the profession of medicine, and during his medical studies, had applied himself so zealously to the science of botany, that he obtained the prize given for that by the Apothecaries' Company. In 1836, before he was twenty-two years of age, he was appointed lecturer on natural philosophy at Guy's Hospital school of medicine, and afterwards he gave 874 BIS lectures on medical botany. Dr. Golding Bird's chief works are his 'Elements of Natural Philo- sophy,' 'Lectures on Electricity and Galvanism, and 'Urinary Deposits;' but his love for natura' history continued throughout his life, and his Eapers on 'the Siliceous Armour of Equiseturr [yemale'in the Linnaean Society's Proceedings. and on 'the Zoophytes of Tenby' in the Microsco- pical Society's Transactions, show that he coulc snatch time from the absorbing pursuits of at extensive practice to follow up his favourite studies In 1848-49 symptoms of disease of the heart showec themselves, and notwithstanding care and retire- ment from business to the healthy neighbourhood of Tunbridge Wells, ultimately proved fatal ir October, 1854, at the early age of thirty-nine. Dr Bird was assistant-physician to Guy's Hospital was a fellow of the Linna?an, Geological, am Royal Societies, and had for some time previoui to his death a practice of 5,000 a-year. [W.B/. BISHOP, Sir Henry Rowley, died on tltf 30th of April, 1855, aged sixty-eight years. Si: Henry, who was a native of London, had for his firs and principal master in music, Signor Francefl Bianchi, who towards the close of last century was engaged as opera composer for Billington ane Bianti. In 1806 Bishop was engaged at the open house as composer of Ballet music. Two yean later he began to write for the English theatres his first works being ' Caractacus,' and a panto- mime for Drury Lane; in 1809 his reputation wai established, and he produced at the above-namet theatre 'The Circassian Bride.' No second per- formance ever took place, because at the burmm of Drury Lane theatre the score of this work wai destroyed, From this period until 1826, he wrott incessantly for the two great theatres; and hii career as a dramatic composer may be said to hav terminated with the year named, when his ' Alad- din,' which was composed as a rival to Webert ' Oberon,' proved a failure. Operas, burletta* melo-dramas, incidental music to Shakspeare'j plays, adaptations of foreign operas, glees, am songs, all followed each other with remarkable rapidity during the years when he wrote for theatres. His regular dramatic compositi amount to no fewer than seventy in all, while glees (the most popular of those of any m( " English composer) and his songs, many of v will be long remembered, are almost limi During the late years of his life he composed Cantatas for the Philharmonic Society, wnich nothing to his reputation. Though he died ally in misery, he for many years enjoyed share of popular favour, and reaped large He was one of the first Philharmonic direi for some years conducted the Ancient Cone was elected professor of music at Edinburgh the legacy of General Reid, which situation filled only for some three years and held an E ointment at Oxford. He received the honoi nighthood from the Queen shortly after she to the throne. The Athenaeum says of him, he possessed more of the true artist tempera: more self-respect, and more energy, with the which he owned, and the opportunities wide commanded, he might have founded a school of matic music in this country. No ordinary gi delicacy, and freshness, distinguish his melodies. BIR Kie best of his airs and glees, the words are followed ind set with taste. His treatment of the opera was simple and clear neither feeble nor thin always impropriate, often elegant, and generally effective. There is music in "The Slave," "The Miller and his tfen," "Guy Mannering," " Maid Marian," "The Virgin of the Sun," " The Englishman in India," nd half a score beside of his operas there are ettings bv him for one and two voices of Shak- ipeare's choicest words delicate, melodious, and .nglish enough to make us express our regret that Jishop never comprehended his own strength, or is own responsibility, as a master and an inventor.' Sir Henry R. Bishop was improvident ; he died vithout leaving provision for the future of a son ind daughter twins without even providing for heir education In the last weeks of the com- )oser's life, means were set on foot to provide for he close of his life by a public performance, and a ubscription which might assist in rearing his hildren during the tender years of their infancy, >ut he died before the fruits of the benevolence his fellow-artists came to ripeness. The Musical World of May 5th, 1855, had an article >n the musical genius of Sir H. R. Bishop, rom which we extract the following passage: His death has left a gap which we look in vain o see filled up. That we have had, and still have, nore accomplished and learned musicians., is un- questionable ; but that we ever could boast, with he single exception of Purcell, a composer so in- ividual, and so identified with the sentiment of English national melody, is equally doubtful, ishop was not merely genuine ; he was prolific, id produced a great many things that are likely i endure as long as the art itself, which, after all, an be said of few composers. The melody of Jishop was a pure and flowing spring that had its ource in nature, and was therefore a gift from bove. His tune was varied and abundant. His ein of melody, as in the instance of far greater masters than himself, seems to open without an ffort. Nothing forced, exaggerated, or other- ise ungenial, was to be traced in his productions -we allude of course to his best, to the good ain from which time has sifted the chaff.' >n the 8th of April, of the same year, the Times, in n appeal to the public in favour of Sir H. R. Bishop, lys, 'No English musician has composed so uch and so well as Henry Bishop ; and probably one has produced so many things likely to endure, i every house where music, more especially vocal usic, is a welcome guest, the name of Bishop has een, and must long remain, a household word. Jho that has been soothed by the sweet elody of " Blow, Gentle Gales," charmed by the easures of " Lo ! Here the Gentle Lark," enlivened y the animated strains of " Foresters, Sound the heerful Horn," touched bv the sadder music of The Wind Whistles Cold," who that has been ranted by the insinuating tones of " Tell me, my eart," " Under the Greenwood Tree," or " Where le Wind Blows," which Rossini, the minstrel of the iuth, was wont to love so well who that has It sympathy with " As it fell upon a day, in the month of May," admired the masterpiece of* and chorus, " The Chough and Crow," or been oved to jollity at convivial feasts by " Mynheer Dunk," the most original and genial of comic 875 BLO glees, will not be grieved to hear that the inventor of them all, with so many more of equal merit and beauty, is in sickness and distress, without money, and no longer able to toil for it, deprived of all, that should accompany old age?' The perform- ance which was got up for his benefit yielded a considerable sum of money, but he did not live to enjoy any portion of the receipts. After the demise of Sir Henry, the subscription which was commenced for the benefit of himself and his chil- dren remained open for a considerable period, and various sums, from 25 downwards, were contri- buted by amateur noblemen, professional gentle- men, and others. We may mention, in passing, that the Covent Garden theatrical fund, and the firm of Broadwood and Sons, contributed each 50. There is therefore good reason to hope that the young children of the eminent artist and com- poser will be provided for during their nonage, and that they will be furnished with an educa- tion sufficient to carry them respectably through life. [J.M.] BLACK, John, late editor of the Morning Chronicle, was the son of a cottager, and was born near Dunse, in Berwickshire, 1783. He com- menced life as an errand-boy, and, like many lite- rary men who have risen to celebrity, devoted his early years to self-culture under no ordinary diffi- culties. At the age of twenty-seven, he walked to London with three halfpence in his pocket, but with an introduction to Mr. Perry, editor of the Morn- ing Chronicle, who engaged him as reporter. In 1821, he had risen to the post of editor, which he retained till 1844, when he retired from active life. Died in June, 1855. BLANQUI, Jerome Adolphe, one of the most distinguished publicists of France, born at Nice, 1798, died at Paris, Jan. 28th, 1854. His ablest work is entitled ' Cours d'Economie Indus- trielle.' M. Blanqui travelled many years in foreign countries, England, Italy, Germany, Aus- tria, and Servia, to study and compare the different processes of industry and social economy, the re- sults of which he has embodied in his works. BLOMFIELD, Charles James, late bishop of London, was born on the 29th May, 1786, at Bury St. Edmunds. From his father, who was a teacher there, he received his earliest education. But it was at the grammar school of his native place, where he spent some ten years, that he acquired the rudiments of that scholarship which afterwards secured lor him at Cambridge the dis- tinction of third wrangler, senior medallist, and a fellowship at Trinity college, together with Sir William Brown's gold medal for the Latin and Greek ode. Charles James Blomfield,though the son of poor parents, was fortunate enough to obtain the patronage of the marquis of Bristol and the second earl Spencer. With such ability and such patronage, his preferment in the church to which he had devoted himself was unusually rapid. At the early age of thirty-eight he was elevated to the bishopric of Chester, and four years afterwards to the see of London. During the quarter of a cen- tury which he held that conspicuous position he was universally recognized as the most eminent member of the episcopal bench. The disposal of the ample preferment in his gift was never pros- tituted to the objects of nepotism nor to the bias BLU of his political opinions. Bishop BlomfiVld was firm supporter of High Church principles, and was one of the prelates who entered their protest against the elevation of Dr. Hampden, bishop of Hereford, to the episcopate. His lordship was known among scholars by his admirable editions of .Ksehvlus and Callimachus. The best friends of his school and college career were those of his ripest years. The store of his reading and the fund of his anecdotes diffused a charm over the society of every circle which he entered. The enjoyment of his mental powers was preserved to the "close of his existence; his last act of con- sciousness was an act of prayer. He died in 1857. BLUNT, John Jamks, regius professor of divinity in the university of Cambridge; author of a ' Sketch of the Reformation of the Church of England 1 and other works, 1794-1854. BOXER, Edward, rear-admiral of the White, late commander of the port and harbour of Bala- klava, was a native or Dover, born 1783. He entered the service in 1798, and was some time in the flag-ship of Lord Collingwood. In 1840, he was engaged on the coast of Syria, and took part in the operations against St. Jean d'Acre. Died of cholera on board the Jason, June, 1855. BOXER, James Michael, nephew of the pre- ceding, and a lieutenant in the royal navy, died at Balaklava of cholera a few days before his uncle, 1855. BOYD, Dr. James Boyd, was born on the 24th December, 1795, at Paisley, where he received the elements of his education. At the university of Glasgow he particularly distinguished himself in the classics. After taking the degree of MA., he devoted himself to the study of medicine. Re- nouncing this pursuit, he became a student of theology, and in 1822, having completed his theo- logical curriculum, was licensed as a preacher of the gospel. In 1825 he was elected house governor of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh. In 1829 his Alma Mater testified its sense of his merits by con- ferring upon him the title of Doctor of Laws ; and in August of that same year he was appointed by the town council of Edinburgh to the classical mastership of the High School, a situation which he held for the long period of twenty-seven years. As a scholar he possessed great critical acute- ness, unusual variety, exactness of knowledge, and extreme refinement of taste. His labours in the field of classical and general editing were exten- sive and successful. In 1834 he prepared for the press an improved edition of Adam's ' Roman Antiquities,' which has been fifteen times reprinted. He subsequently edited Potter's ' Grecian Anti- quities;' Anthon's 'Sallust,' with additional notes and examination questions; Anthon's Select Ora- tions of Cicero,' with additional notes ; and last, but not least important or meritorious, Bishop Porteous's ' Summary of the Evidences of Chris- tianity,' with definitions, synopses, and examina- tion questions, supplied by the editor. Dr. Boyd died at his house, George square, Edinburgh, on the 18th August, 1856. BOYLE, Right Hon. David, a distinguished Scottish lawyer, born 1772, appointed president of the court of session in 1841, died 1853. BBAHAM, John, one of the most distinguished vocalists that ever adorned the English stage, was BRO born in 1777. He made his dtbut at the age of ten, and continued his long and brilliant career as a singer until a few years from his death. He was the composer of several popular operas, among which may be mentioned the ' Cabinet.' Brahain died in 1856. BRAYLEY, Edward Wedlake, F.S.A., an antiquarian and miscellaneous writer, whose numerous works are spread over the first quartei of this century, was born in Lambeth, 1773. Id 1825 he became librarian to the Russell Institution, which office he continued to hold till his death in 1854. Among the most valuable of his works may be mentioned ' History and Antiquities of tht Abbey Church of St. Peter, Westminster,' ' Londi- niana, or Reminiscences of the British Metropolis, and ' The Beauties of England and Wales,' the latter a work in 11 vols. BRITTON, John, architectural and archaeolo- gical writer, was born 7th July, 1771, at Kington St. Michael, in Wiltshire. During a long and honourable career he did good service in extending the study of British architecture and topography, and improving the public taste and feeling foj natural antiquities. Mr. Britton died on the 1st Jan., 1857. BROCKEDON, William, remarkable at one* as an artist and inventor, was the son of a watch- maker, and was born in Devonshire, 1787 ; diec 1854. His principal literary works are ' Italy Classical and Picturesque,' Fol., 1842-1843, anc 'Egypt and Nubia,' 3 vols, fol, 1846-1849. Th< most admired of his paintings is a portrait of hii son, ' A Student at King's College.' BROKE, Charles Acton, commander in thi royal navy, was the son of Admiral Broke, wh< commanded the Shannon in the famous actioiji with the Chesapeake. His services were chiefly ill the Mediterranean, of late years as signal mastea in the citadel of Zante ; died, aged thirty-sevenl September, 1855. BRONTE, Miss, the gifted and much lam novelist, known first as Currer Bell, was the elcS est of three sisters, daughters of the Rev. Patrick Bronte, vicar of Haworth. A volume of ' Poemi by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell,' published i} 1846, attracted little attention, but the appearand of ' Jane Eyre, by Currer Bell,' in October of thi' year following, took the critics by storm, anil astonished the world of every-day novel reader by its sustained intellectual power, and proofs < original genius. Curiosity was at once excited know more of the author, whose nom de disguised, as it was intended to do, her very the critics, however, remained completely at fa and the publication oF' Wuthering Heights' by sister Emily (Ellis Bell), and of ' Agnes Grey ' I her younger sister Anne (Acton Bell), did n tend to enlighten them. The veil was at len lifted under painful circumstances. Emily Bro died of consumption in Oct., 1848, shortly a: the publication of 'Wuthering Heights,' and the early spring her sister Anne was attenc to the same grave. The facts were stated their surviving sister, Miss Bronte', in a new edii of 'Wuthering Heights,' published 1851, wl touching memorial and recognition of the of her sisters, may still be read in the p: Meanwhile, in 1849, Miss Bronte herself 876 BRO lublished her second novel ' Shirley,' the scene of hich was laid in the dales of Yorkshire ; and in 853, her third and last work ' Villette,' appeared. Pant of space forbids the least remark on the enius displayed in these works, and their dis- nctive characteristics; it is enough to say that leir own high merits, and the sympathy of all ho read them for the gifted spirit whose life and haracter they epitomize, will far outlive any raise we could bestow upon ' them. The sad ory of Ellis and Acton Bell has now to be peated for their elder in years, as she undoubtedly ^as in genius and artistic skill. The hand of iss Bronte after her bereavement was solicited y the Rev. Arthur Nicholls, a gentleman who cted as her father's curate, but the latter was nwilling that his only remaining child should be aken from him. At length it was arranged that beir home should be formed under the old roof- ee, a new study was added to the parsonage, nd the lovers were married in 1855. Three nonths later the bride's constitution gave way, nd she sank rapidly from week to week till she reathed her last, on the 31st of May, 1855, appy in the consoling presence of her husband nd her aged father. [E.R.] BROTHERTON, Joseph, for nearly a quarter f a century M.P. for Salford, was the architect of own fortune, the consistent advocate of liberal pinions, of benevolent character, a strict vegetarian nd total abstainer, and much esteemed by all who new him. Mr. Brotherton died suddenly on the th Jan., 1857, much regretted. BROWN, James, an eccentric character of )nrham, author of numerous pieces written in erse, which exposed him to much ridicule. He ssumed the title of Baron Brown, in accordance th a fictitious patent of nobility sent to him ; in onsequence, it was waggishly stated, of his works aving been the means of converting the Mogul impire. His poems consisted for the most part f visions, prophecies, and rhapsodies suggested y some part or the sacred volume, of the contents f which he had an astonishing recollection. A iortrait and memoir of this person is given in Hone's Every Day Book,' vol. ii. [E.R.] BROWN, Samuel, M.D., was born at Hadding- on, February 23, 1817. Equally distinguished i literature and science, Dr. Brown gained, in the letropolis of his native country, a name second to one of the young men of genius who adorned the Icottish capital. His researches and experiments in hemistry attracted great attention. His apparent uccess in some elaborate processes for transmuting etals, almost led to the belief that the dreams of lchemy were about to be realized. Dr Brown's iews on these subjects, as expounded and illus- ated in lectures, commanded the admiration of cientific men before whom they were delivered, nd gained him the friendship of Jeffrey, dial- ers, and others capable of appreciating scientific inius and eloquence. When the chair of chem- Btry was vacant by the death of Dr. Hope, Dr. rown offered himself as a candidate, nor was he ithout considerable support; but the practical esearches and published works of Dr. Gregory, ogether with the known failure of some of Dr. rown's experiments, gave his opponent superior in the judgment of the electors. Subsequent 877 BRO to this event, he gave lectures, in conjunction with the late Edward Forbes, with whom kindred genius and scientific enthusiasm had brought him into association. In 1849, ' Galileo Galilei,' a tragedy, was published by Dr. Brown ; a work exhibiting much of his peculiar genius. The leading Scottish Reviews were frequently enriched by his literary contributions: some of the finest pap'ers in the North British were from his pen. Dr. Brown belonged to a family well known in Scotland. His grandfather was John Brown of Haddington, author of the Self-Interpreting Bible, and founder of circulating libraries. Dr. Brown died at Morn- ingside, Edinburgh, in 1856. BROWNE, Sir Thomas, author of the cele- brated ' Religio Medici,' was a physician, the son of a merchant, and was born in London, October, 1605. He was educated at Winchester and Oxford, and pursued his professional studies according to custom, while travelling abroad in France, Italy, and Holland, taking his degree at Leyden. He began practice in the neighbourhood of Halifax, but removed to Norwich, where he died, on the anniversary of his birth-day in 1682, leaving a reputation which will endure, as Dr. Johnson expresses it, ' while learning shall have any rever- ence among men.' His 'Religio Medici' was first published without his consent in 1 642, fol- lowed in the same year, on account of its many corruptions, by a genuine edition. In ten years, it had appeared in Latin, French, Italian, and German translations, and has ever since kept its f)lace, at least as a curiosity, in the hands of the earned. This work has given rise to much con- troversy, and it figures in the ' Index Expurga- torius.' It is a subtle and argumentative produc- tion, but is far from being so absolutely paradox- ical as it is sometimes represented, more especially in the second part, where the author sets forth his practical religion as the life of charity, and the love of God, in anticipation of Fenelon ; it ought to be remembered, also, that it was written, as the author declares, without a view to publication, expressing his ' Conceptions,' and containing many things that should be read in ' a soft and flexible sense.' It contains the ' Religion' of Sir Thomas Browne, so far as he really understood his own heart, and the subjects of which he treats in the more reasoning portion, may be taken as an expose of his mental Tiabits his manner of considering difficulties, his way of dealing with paradoxes and mysteries. It is only in this light it can be read fairly. His greatest work, the 'Pseudodoxia Epi- demica,' or 'Inquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors,' first published in 1646, has been fre- quently reprinted, and is still a text-book ; it well deserves to be characterized in the words of Cole- ridge, who describes the author as ' rich in various knowledge, exuberant in conceptions and con- ceits, contemplation, and imagination.' The popu- lar legends considered in this work, and the author's manner of dealing with them, are things as curious and entertaining in their way as anything in the pages of Pliny, though very different in the end of their, narration : it was answered by Alexander Ross in 1647. The other works of Sir Thomas Browne are an account of ' Urn Burial,' and 'The Garden of Cyrus,' besides a number of Tracts and a vast mass of MSS., including his correspon- BRU dence with Evelyn, Dugdale, and others; these are preserved in "the British Museum and in the Bodlei:in Library. A collected edition of his works, including Sir Kenehn Digby's 'Annotations on the Beligio Medici,' appeared in 1666: a modern edition was published in 4 vols. 8vo, 1836. [E.R.] BRUAT, Admiral, late commander of his country's fleet in the Black Sea, was born at Col- mar in" 1796, and obtained his first command in 129, when his ship the Silene was wrecked on the coast of Africa. On this occasion he became a prisoner at Algiers, and was released when that city was captured by the French. In April, 1845, he was appointed governor of the Marquesas, and in April following of all the French establishments in Oceanica In 1854, he became second in com- mand of the squadron in the Black Sea, and suc- ceeded Admiral Hamelin as first commander, when the latter returned home. He was present at the bombardment of Sebastopol, Oct. 17, and left for Toulon, Nov. 4th, 1855. Died on board the Ulm, in the roadstead of Messina, Nov. 25th. BUG HAN, Peter, a Scottish antiquarian, disting. for his researches in ballad poetry, d. 1854. BUCKINGHAM, James Silk, born in the village of Flushing, near Falmouth, 1786, was the son of a retired officer, formerly in the merchant ser- vice. In the age of Elizabeth one of his ancestors served in the fleet by which the Spanish Armada was discomfited, and a like adventurous career seems to have had irresistible attractions for all in his line of descent. Of seven children, James inherited the most of this passion, and his roving disposition and love of enterprise made him the frequent and favourite guest of Sir Edward Pellew, on board the Indefatigable. It is not surprising, therefore, that he went to sea while quite a child, but he had also, at the ripe age of ten, passed through the experience of a love adventure and been made prisoner; he was then, he tells us in his charming * Autobiography,' considered a hand- some boy, and as he lived to be a fine old man, the truth of this can hardly be doubted. In a few more years we find him settled with a bookseller in Devonport, and at fifteen he submitted to the manager of the theatre his tragedy, entitled ' The Conquest of Circassia ;' presently, however, he left his master, went to sea in a man-of-war, and when tired of the service ran away in disguise, and gave his attention, for a year, to the study of the law. With all this diversity of pursuits he found time to fall in love, and, before he was twenty years of age had a wife to support : for which luxury, we may state, he had to pay in manual labour, and worked some time in London and Oxford as a compositor. At length the sea drew him again into the service of man on a larger stage, and he went as a naval officer to the West Indies, and finally to Calcutta, where he endeavoured to establish himself by setting up his printing presses and exposing the abuses of the Indian govern- ment ;-- of course, his presses were seized, and the wide world was still before our bold adventurer. We cannot, for want of space, follow him in his ensuing travels through the East, but the title of his works will afford some idea of their extent. In 1822, he published * Travels in Palestine,' and 1 Travis in Arabia;' in 1827, 'Travels in Meso- potamia and the Adjoining Countries;' in 1830, in 878 BUC ' Assyria and Media.' Meanwhile, in 1825, Mr. Buckingham had established in London 'Thai Oriental Herald,' and at a later period he travelled again, this time far and wide on the American continent. He was now well known as a man of letters, an able lecturer, and an indefatigable pro- jector of social and legislative improvements ; and with the latter character as his special reconwl mendation, he was elected member of parliament j for Sheffield, and sat in the house from 1 882 to I 1837. No man, as it has been expressed, wa more before the public in his day, and few, wei think, have been more misrepresented. In 1843, he established a literary club in Hanover square, called ' The British and Foreign Institute ;' its object being a social re-union, in which persons of all nations might meet as on common ground, to enjoy literary society and promote certain public uses and reforms intimately connected witli the progress of the age. This design was carried out with Mr. Buckingham's usual zeal till 1840, when the institution was dissolved, partly as a conse-rf quence of the scandalous attacks that had been made upon it in the pages of Punch. In his ' Address to the British Public,' Mr. Buckingham fully vindicated the honesty of his character, and enumerated, as follows, a few of the ' projects'i which he had successfully accomplished: 1. Estab-f lishment of a free press in India ; 2. Liberty of settling in India for all British subjects ; 3. Powenj of purchasing lands by English colonists ; 4. Estab-. lishment of trial by jury in India ; 5. Abolition? of the burning of widows ; 6. Discontinuance of drawing revenue from idolatry; 7. Free trade for Englishmen with China ; 8. Opening of the overt land route to India; 9. Immediate emancipation! of British slaves ; 10. Establishment of temperancar societies (Mr. Buckingham, we ought here to observe, was president of the Temperance League) i 11. Providing public baths for the people; 12. Opening public walks and gardens ; 13. Establish^ ment of provincial museums ; 14. Forming public cemeteries for interment without towns; 15. Allow! ance of an annual grant to Polish exiles; 16i Abolition of impressment for the navy; 17. ProJ viding seamen's homes for the merchant seamen f 18. Formation of societies for the suppressior duelling; 19. Reduction of the tax on authors publishers. Of course it is not to be suppc that these reforms were all alike accomplished the unaided efforts of one man ; but such were i projects with which Mr. Buckingham was busy his lifetime, and their enumeration is interest as showing the measure of his sympathies, and utility always aimed at in the diversity of pursuits. Few men have led a more adventi life and seen greater vicissitudes of fortune, serving, at the same time, a constant effort to good on the largest possible scale. His career one which establishes (to use his own words w] announcing his Autobiography) ' that there is obscurity of birth, no privation of property, i no opposition, either of powerful individuals, still more powerful public bodies and governmi that may not be overcome by industry., intej zeal, and perseverance; no depth of misfo from which the victim may not hope to em by labour, economy, temperance, and that si: mindedness which regards the faithful BUO duty as the great object to which all others ast be made subordinate.' Mr. Buckingham sd June 30, 1855. [E.R.] BUONAPARTE, Charlotte Julia, princess Canino, eldest daughter of Joseph Buonaparte, g of Spain, and of Julia Maria Clary, sister of present queen dowager of Sweden, the widow Bernadotte. Born at Paris, 1802; married her usin Charles, son of Lucien, prince of Canino, 22 ; became princess by her husband's succession his father's title, 1840 ; died 1854. BURKE, James, lieutenant in the royal en- iieers, memorable for his gallant bearing in attack upon the Russian camp near Rust- fiouk, where he met the death of a hero, July 1854. CAMPBELL, Sir John, major-general, killed the assault on the Redan fort, June 18th, oo, was the son of Sir Archibald Campbell, nmander in the first war with the Burmese. $ was born in 1807, and was therefore in the me of life when he fell. His first experience of r was obtained on the staff of his father, in the rmese war ; subsequently, he joined the 38th ;iment, and served with it from 1837 to 1851, the Mediterranean, West Indies, and Nova 3tia. In the year last mentioned he returned England, and was appointed brigadier-general, being sent to the Crimea ; by a late brevet he am? major-general. He fell gloriously, cheering his men, and his body was found on the day lowing, close up to the abattis. His remains re interred at Cathcart's Hill. [E.R.] CANDLISH, Mrs., formerly Miss Jean Smith, last of the six ' belles of Mauchline' celebrated the verse of Burns, 'Miss Miller is fine, Miss Markland's divine, Smith she has wit, and Miss Betty is braw ; There's beauty and fortune to get wi' Miss Morton, "But Armour's the jewel for me o' them a'." e husband of Mrs. Candlish was a medical man, her son is the Rev. Dr. Candlish of Edinburgh. ARBUCCIA, General, one of the com- nders of the Erench army in the East, and a tinguished archaeologist; died 1854. 'ARLOS, Don, second son of Carlos IV., king Spain, and grandson, by the mother's side, of ids XV. of France, was born 1788. On the th of his brother, Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he mted the succession to the throne, but was at gth, in 1839, compelled to retreat into France. 1845 he abdicated his pretensions in favour of eldest son, Don Carlos Luis Conde de Monte- lin, who has since married a sister of Ferdinand Don Carlos died at CAT guards, 1810. His experience of active warfare commenced after the battle of Borodino, in the grand army headed by the Emperor Alexander, who took the field in person, January, 1813. He was then a lieutenant in the 6th dragoons, and remained with the allied forces through all the following campaigns, and was present at all the great battles fought in Germany and France, and finally at the capture of Paris. After the peace of 1814. he accompanied his father, Lord Cathcart, to the Congress at Vienna, and from that city he took his departure for Brussels as extra aid-de-camp to the duke of Wellington. In this capacity he was present at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, and afterwards remained on the staff of the duke as full aid-de-camp. After many years of regimental service he had retired on half-pay, when the rebellion in Canada broke out, the events of which placed him in command of all the troops south of the river St. Lawrence. Six years he remained in Canada, and having returned home he again retired on half-pay ; but his country still demanded his sendees, and, in 1852, he went out as governor and commander-in-chief at the Cape, where he at length brought the Caffre war to a conclusion. His return to England was only like a flying visit on his way to the Crimea, where his career is sufficiently well known. His fall at the battle of Inkermann is thus described by the correspondent of the Times : ' Sir George Cath- cart seeing his men disordered by the fire of a large column of Russian infantry which was outflanking them, while portions of the various regiments composing his division were maintaining an un- equal struggle with an overwhelming force, rode down into the ravine in which they were engaged to rally them. He perceived, at the same time, that the Russians had actually gained possession of a portion of the hill in rear of one flank of his division, but still his stout heart never failed him for a moment. He rode at their head encouraging them, and when a cry arose that the ammunition was failing, he said coolly, u Have you not got your bayonets?" As he led on his men, it was observed that another body of men had gained the top of the hill behind them on the right, but it was impossible to tell whether they were friends or foes. A deadly volley was poured into our scattered regiments. Sir George cheered them, and led them back up the hill; but a flight of bullets passed where lie rode, and he fell from his horse close to the Russian columns. The men had to fight their way through a host of enemies, and lost fearfully. They were surrounded and bayo- netted on all sides, and won their desperate way up the hill with diminished ranks and the loss of near 500 men. . . Sir George Cathcart's body was afterwards recovered, with a bullet wound in the head, and three bayonet wounds in the body.' Thus fell one of the brightest ornaments of the army a man who was fitted for any command, and worthy of the highest honours. We ought to remark that the profession is indebted to General Cathcart for a volume of commentaries, published 1850, in which the strategy of Napoleon and the allies in 1813 and 1814 is compared, and the prin- cipal battles described. [E.R.] CATHERINE, queen of Navarre, was the sister of Francis Phoebus, whom she succeeded 1483. 879 CAT In 1481 she rmrried John d'Albert, who was crowned kins with her in 1494 at Pampeluna. She died a raw months after her husband, after being despoiled of the government, in 1516. CATHERINE HOWARD* See Howard. CAVAIGNAC, Loui3 Eugene, a French general and politician, son of the celebrated conventionalist of the name. His elder brother was an eminent republican, and suffered a prose- cution for the active share he took after promoting the Revolution of 1830, in attacking the measures of Louis Philippe's government. While his brother was thus occupied in the arena of polities, the future general was serving in the army, which he er.tered on receiving a commission from the Polytechnic School. In 1828, he held a command in the French expedition to the Morea. Returning to France, we find him, in 1830, in garrison at Arras, where, as afterwards at Metz, he openly avowed his republican sentiments. In consequence of this declaration of his political opinions, he was sent to Africa, where he gained great distinction in the Algerine wars. In 1847, he succeeded Lamoriciere in the command of the province of Oran ; and in the following year was promoted to the governor-generalship of Algeria. His rule in Algeria was distinguished by great firmness and judgment. While holding that important office ne was chosen a delegate to the National Assembly for the two departments of : Lot and Seine. Ancestral connection induced him to sit for Lot. On the 24th February, a decree of the provisional government made him General of Division, a second decree made him Minister of War. The latter post was, however, declined by him, because he was not allowed to concentrate in Paris such a military force as he wished to maintain. It was not long after this ere events showed the necessity of placing the supreme military command in the hands of a single individual. Cavaignac was in consequence appointed Minister of War, and at once entered upon his command. It was on the 23d of May, that the President of the National Assembly delivered to him the command of all the troops appointed to guard the chamber. The 23d of June saw the Parisians once more behind the barricades. Two plans for suppressing the revolt were proposed. The executive committee was for spreading the troops over the capital; Cavai^nac's plan was the reverse of this, and con- sisted in concentrating his troops at certain points, and bringing them into action in large masses. The insurrections of July, 1830, and of 1848, had been treated by the existing governments as larger street riots, to be quelled in police fashion. Cavaignac treated the insurrection of June as the outbreak of a civil war, and met it in true order of battle. After four days' fighting in the streets, Cavaignac found himself the absolute disposer of the destinies of Paris and France, but, true to his republican principles, he laid down his dictatorship, like some ancient Roman, as soon as he had pacified the capital. The National Assembly, however, aware of the importance of his services, appointed him President of the Council, with power to nominate his own ministry. This position was held by him until the election of the President of the Republic, COC National Assembly, and the compliments of hi successor. When Louis Napoleon executed hi; coup d'etat, one of his precautions was to arres Cavaignac in his bedchamber. The General was however, released after a brief detention ; and ha, resided unmolested in Paris since that time, though in common with other distinguished Frenchmen he never acknowledged either the Dictators!* or the Empire. In July, 1857, Cavaignac was re turned as one of the ten deputies to Paris, in oppo sition to the imperialist party. His sudden death on the 30th October, 1857, has, however, take] from France one of the most patriotic of her song and one of the ablest of her generals. In cool resolute daring, and in the utter absence of all love of display, Cavaignac more nearly resemble! the duke of Wellington than any French general Cavaignac was buried at Montmartre: some 15,00' of the people of Paris escorted his remains to thei final resting-place. Among the mourners wer the chief of his old political friends, who ha emerged from their obscurity to do honour t their departed comrade. CHALON, John James, a distinguished paintei chiefly of landscapes and marine pictures, died a an advanced age, November, 1854. CHAPMAN, John, memorable for his exer tions in the cause of India, especially for the intro duction of railways and the cultivation of cottoD died 1854. CLAYTON A. B., an architect, 1795-1855. CLEMENCE, Isaurus. See Ysaure. CLINT, George, a painter and mezzotint en graver, remarkable for his theatrical and othe portraits, 1770-1854. CLONCURRY, Valentine Browne La* less, Lord, of Cloncurry in Ireland, was born if Dublin, 1773, and educated for the bar. Toward; the close of the century we find him identified w the movement party of his countrymen, a meml the Society of United Irishmen, and an of Curran, Grattan, Emmett, O'Connor, Edward Fitzgerald, and George Ponsonby. 1798 he was arrested on a charge of treason, after several examinations before the Privy C cil, he was liberated as ' imprudent rather criminal.' Arrested again in 1799, he did not his freedom till 1801, and in the meantime, by death of his father, had inherited the family t From that time till the visit of George IV, 1821, he remained at variance with the go ment, but was then graciously received by his jesty, and lived to become a sworn member of Privy Council. Died 1853. [E. COCHRANE, Charles, principal founder president of the ' National Philanthropic Im tion,' established in Leicester square for the of tbe unemployed poor, 1807-1H55. COCKBURN, Sir George, a distingn British admiral, born in 1772, and hono served his country from 1786 till the day death in 1853. COCKBURN, Henry Thomas, known title, Lord Cockburn, as one of the lords ol court of session and a lord commissioner of ticiaiy, was born in 1779. He holds a b: place in the rank of barristers, and possessed markable power and eloquence as a special pl< _ On laying down his extraordinary powers, Cavaignac received the thanks of the I In political doctrines tie belonged "to the 880 coc onstellation ofwhigs as his friend Lord Jeffrey, hose life and correspondence he published, 1852. I)ied 1 854. COCKTON, H., author of Valentine Vox' and ther contributions to light literature, 1808-1853. CODRINGTON, Admiral Sir Edward, born 770, entered the navy in 1783, and in 1794 was leutenant on board the flag-ship of Lord Howe, rom that time he took a distinguished part in lany great actions, but his name is chiefly asso- 'ated with the destruction of the Egyptian fleet at avarino, October 20th, 1827. On this occasion he commands of the king are said to have been xpressed in a sentence more pithy than dignified, -'Go it, Ned!' From 1832 to 1839 he sat in arliament for Devonport. Died 1851. COLBURN, Henry, the well known publisher, rejector of the 'New Monthly Magazine,' the Court Journal.' the ' United Service Magazine,' nd the ' Literary Gazette.' Died 1855. COLLYER, William Benjo, a distinguished heologian and popular preacher of the metropolis, ras the son of a builder at Deptford, and was ducated at Homerton. Died in his seventy- econd year, 1854. His ' Lectures on Scripture 'acts,' published in 1808. obtained for him the iploma of D.D. from the university of Edin- urgh. COLOMBIERE. See Vllson. COLQUHOUN, James, known as the Cheva- er de Colqulioun, distinguished as a diplomatist nd writer on the civil law, 1780-1855. His father as the celebrated writer on the police system f the metropolis. CONDER, Josiah, editor of the Patriot news- aper, was born in London, on 17th September, 7o9. At an early age Josiah Conder manifested iat poetical genius and literary taste which sub- jquently distinguished him. In 1814 he became roprietor of the Eclectic Review, being at that me a bookseller in London. In 1819 he dis- osed of the business to Mr. Holdsworth, and went reside at Watford, in Hertfordshire, retaining in is own hands the management of the Eclectic 11 1837, when Dr. Thomas Price became the pro- ietor and editor. During the twenty-three years 'Mr. Conder's editorship of this monthly journal, J enjoyed the assistance either more statedly or ore occasionally, of John Foster, Robert Hall, r. Chalmers, Dr. Pye Smith, Isaac Taylor, L. Twins, D.D., Dr. Vaughan, Charles March, and any other literary celebrities. In 1818, Mr. onder published a work on Protestant Noncon- >rmity. In 1824 he entered upon an engagement > compile the ' Modern Traveller.' In 1832 Mr. onder became editor of the Patriot newspaper, i office which he sustained with credit for twenty- lree years. Mr. Conder died on the 27th Decem- ir, 1855. CONYBEARE, The Very Rev. Wm. Daniel, ean of LlandafF, was born June 7, 1787. His iher was rector of Bishopgate. The late dean as educated at Westminster, and afterwards at hrist Church, where, in 1808, he took a first class classics, and a second in mathematics. At hrist Church, Conybeare was the associate of the te Sir Robert Peel, and is said to have been some- hat acquainted with the opinions of that eminent atesman, whom he used always to describe as a 881 COT whig at heart. From Christ Church he proceeded to Oxford, and shortly after taking his degree there, he entered upon the study of that science with which his name is inseparably associated. It was in 1814 his first communication was made to the ' Transactions of the Geological Society,' of which body he was, if not the founder, at least one of the earliest members. In the study of the new science, he was associated with Buckland and Phillips. His first paper in the ' Geological Trans- actions ' is a tract on the origin of a remarkable class of organic impressions occurring in the nodules of flint, in the course of which he estab- lishes that these substances are not, as was sup- posed, fossil corals, but produced by the infiltration of siliceous matter into shells, the calcerous matrix of which has perished. Mr. Conybeare completed his geological labours by the publication, in con- junction with Mr. Phillips, of the ' Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales.' The work was regarded as a marvel of compilation, and has often been referred to as one of the most useful manuals on the subject ever published. Mr. Conybeare was for many years rector of Sully; in Glamorganshire. In 1831 he was elected vicar of Bristol College. During that and the two following years he de- livered a series of lectures at the College, which were afterwards published, accompanied by an in- augural address on the Application of Classical and Scientific Education to Iheology. Originality of thought, and charm of style, gave these lectures an unusual popularity. In 1836, Mr. Conybeare became vicar of Axminster, Devon. In 1839 he was appointed Bampton lecturer to the University of Oxford. In 1847, at the instance of Dr. Cople- stone, then bishop, he was instituted to the deanery of LlandafF, resigning Axminster in favour of lis eldest son. Here the last eleven years of his life were passed in the prosecution of his favourite studies, and in the zealous discharge of his profes- sional duties. The loss of a son, the Rev. W. J. Conybeare, who promised to transcend in the world of letters, even the father's fame, is under- stood to have hastened the death of the venerable Dean of Llandaff, which took place on the 1 2th August, 1857, at Itchen Stoke, near Portsmouth. COOK, W. B., an engraver, 1778-1855. COOPER, Bransby, a distinguished English surgeon, nephew of Sir Astley Cooper, born in 1792, and at an early age entered the naval service, but being obliged to relinquish it from weak health, he embraced the medical profession. In 1812 he entered the royal artillery as surgeon, and gained great experience in the Peninsular war. He after- wards settled in London, was appointed demon- strator of anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital, and published many valuable papers. He died in 1853. COPELAND, Fanny. See Fitzwilliam. COPELAND, Thomas, a writer on surgery and other medical subjects, 1781-1855. CORRY, Armar Lowry, rear-admiral of the White, was born in 1793, and entered the naval service in 1805, under Capt. Sir H. Popham. He received his first commission, April 12, 1812, and sailed with Napier as second in command of the Baltic fleet, 1854. Died at Paris, May 1, 1855. CORVINUS, John. See Hunniades. COTTENHAM, Charles Christopher Pe- pys, earl of, formerly lord chancellor, was horn 3L COT in 1781, ami called to the bar in 1804. In July, 1831, he was returned to parliament through the interest of Earl Fitzwilliam ; in 1834 became master of the rolls, and in 1835 was appointed, in conjunction with others, a commissioner of the peat seal. In 1836, this high responsibility de- volved on himself alone. He continued in office till 1841 ; resuming it again while the whigs held the reins of government, from 1846 to 1850. Died 1851. COTTLE, JOSEPH, one of the earliest and most faithful friends of Coleridge, 1769-1853. CRICHTON, Rev. Andrew, a Scottish divine, many years editor of the Edinburgh. Advertiser, author and translator of many valuable contribu- tions to history and biography. Died 1855. CROKER, Thomas Crofton, whose name is identified with the fairy legends and traditions of the Celtic race, was the son of Major Croker, of the 38th regiment of foot, and was born at the house of his maternal grandfather, in Cork, 1798. He was a descendant of an old Devonshire family, some of whom had settled in the south of Ireland in the times of Elizabeth and Cromwell ; and, not- withstanding his high connections, was educated for a mercantile life. He passed much time in the south of Ireland in the period 1812 to 1815, col- lecting the legends and songs of the peasantry; at the same time employing occasionally his talent for sketching ; yet his first work, ' Researches in the South of Ireland,' did not appear till 1824. In the spring of the following year, he became renowned by the publication of his 'Fairy Legends,' to which he was indebted for the acquaintance of Sir Walter Scott, who met him with several other celebrities of the day at a breakfast party, at Mr. Lockhart's, in Pall Mall. The occasion "is inter- esting, as it forms the subject of a notice in Sir Walter Scott's journal, who characterizes Mr. Croker as ' the author of the Irish Fairy Tales, little as a dwarf, keen-eyed as a hawk, and of easy, prepossessing manners, something like Tom Moore.' Other interesting particulars concerning this interview will be found in the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' vol. xlii., p. 452. It may be added, that the best published likeness of him is said to be in Maclise's 'Snap Apple Night,' It would exceed our limits to specify all the legendary and other amusing or learned works we owe to the subject of our notice ; but we may briefly mention his contributions to the annuals, ' Daniel O'Rourke,' and ' Legends of the Lakes,' in which he was aided by the MSS. of Mr. Lynch. In 1832, he essaved his hand as a novelist, but was more him- self in 1839, as editor of 'The Popular Songs of Ireland.' This year also he took part in the formation of the Camden Society, and, in 1840, was still more active in founding the Percy So- ciety, both of which were benefited by his anti- quarian knowledge and literary talents as editor. Died at his house in Brompton, after a short ill- ness, August 8, 1854. [E.R.] CROLL, Francis, an engraver of Edinburgh, who was rapidly rising to eminence when he died, at the early age of twenty-seven, 1854. CUDDY, Lieut.-Colonel, a gallant officer, killed while leading his men up to the Redan fort, ber K, 1855. i I ITT, George, an artist distinguished for his DEN etchings, author of ' Wanderings and Pencilling amongst the Ruins of Olden Times,' 1779-1854. CURT1US, Quintus. See Qulntus. J) DACRE, Barbarina Brand, Dowasrer Baro ncss Dacre, chiefly celebrated for her'dramati writings, was born in 1757. Her father was th brave Admiral Sir Chaloner Ogle. Her works be gan to appear in 1821, and include translation from Petrarch. In 1831, she edited ' Recollection of a Chaperon,' and in 1835, ' Tales of the Peerag and Peasantry,' both written by her daughtei Mrs. Sullivan, the author of 'Ellen Wareham Died 1854. D'AGUILAR, Sir George, lieut. -general the British army, memorable for his services the Chinese war, 1785-1855. DARTMOUTH, William, fourth earl of, dis tinguished as a liberal promoter of popular institu tions ; born 1784, succeeded to the peerage on th death of his father 1810 ; died 1854. DAVID, M. D'Angers, the well known Frenc sculptor, died at Paris at the age of sixty -fiv< Jan., 1856. He was a pupil, and nephew by mar riage. of David the painter, and was an arden republican, as shown by the long list of great name who did honour to his funeral. DA VIES, Griffith, F.R.S., a distinguishe actuary, born at Caernarvon 1788, died in Londo 1855. DAVY, Lady Jane, daughter of Charles Ker Esq., of Antigua, and widow of the celebrated Si H. Davy, remarkable for her accomplishments am conversational powers, died 1855. DAWNAY, The Right Honourable Wii. liam Hendry, seventh Viscount Down, bor 15th May, 1812, died 26th January, 1857. DE BIELKE, Rodoi.ph, an eminent Danis diplomatist, was the successor of Count Reventlc as charge d'affaires in this country, and is memoi able for his services during the Schleswig-Holstei agitation, and the troubles of 1848. After leav ing England, he became Danish minister at th court of Berlin, and from thence had retired I Italy to recruit his health, where he was seize4 with cholera, and was so greatly reduced that ti died at Padua. July 26, 1855. DE LA BECHE, Sir Henry Thomas, a dis tinguished geologist, at whose instance the Museu* of Practical Geology was instituted, 1796-1855. DEMAINBRAY, The Rev. S. G. F. T., one < the chief promoters of the allotment system, ac thor of a pamphlet entitled, 'The Poor Man's Be! Friend,' 1759-1854. DENISON, Edward, late bishop of Salistnr was born in London, 1801, and at the time of hi appointment to the bishopric, March, 1837, held small college living at Oxford. He was in favotf of reviving the synodical powers of the churcl and was remarkable for his sincerity and cleames of judgment. He is the author of several worki chiefly in practical religion. Died March 6, 185- DENMAN, Thomas, Lord, born in Londc: 1779, was the son of a physician distinguished b the patronage of the court, and grandson of DEN juntry apothecary. His first teachers were Mr. nd Mrs. Barbauld, then keeping school in Nor- >lk ; his education was continued at Cambridge. l 1806, he was called to the bar; and in 1818, >ok his seat in parliament as member for Ware- am ; in 1820, for Nottingham. The same year, aving boldly ranged himself with Brougham and le other advocates of popular rights, he was also ppointed solicitor-general to Queen Caroline, t* le advocacy of whose cause left him proportion- * tely out of favour with the court. In 1828, his ** ;ar" began to rise under favour of Lord Lyndhurst; )D od, at the period of the reform bill, his brilliant M ualities, no longer under eclipse, carried him to f (fice. At the close of that struggle, therefore, we nd him, November 8, 1 832, appointed successor 111 f Lord Tenterden as lord chief justice of the , ling's Bench; soon after which he was made a j rivy councillor, and eventually, in 1834, raised * ) the peerage. Lord Denman performed the mctions of the high office to which he had been fr died with rare devotion to his duties and inde- ta endence of character till March, 1850., when he ft stired on the ground of ill health. He died at toke Albany in Northamptonshire, aged seventy- % x, September 22, 1854. [E.R.] T DENNISTOUN, James, an historical writer * ad amateur of art, was born in Dumbartonshire a i 1803 ; died in February, 1855. He was dis- nguished by his acquaintance with the literature id history of Scotland, and contributed some 1 Attesting papers to the reviews. His ' Memoirs <1 F the Dukes of Urbino,' is a well known and imired work ; since which we have from his pen I ae of the most interesting biographies that has S ppeared for many years, in the ' Life of Sir Robert a trange,' the eminent engraver, and of his brother- t-laW; Andrew Lumisden, secretary to the Stuart it rinces. Sir Robert Strange was the grandfather, a her mother's side, of Mrs. Dennistoun. DEPP1NG, G. B., a Fr. antiquarian, 1784-1854. nil DILLWYN, L. W., a Welch magistrate and i) aturalist, characterized as the father of English M Dtany, author of several important works, 1778- 4 855. mi DOBSON, A. R., a young architect of much ti romise, son of a gentleman of the same name, il >ng known at Newcastle-on-Tyne, perished in the i re at Gateshead, aged twenty-six, 1854. il DOD, Charles Roger, whose name is familiar ) the public as the founder of the ' Parliamentary i ompanion and the Peerage,' was born in his fa- in ler's vicarage of Drumlean in 1793. He was edu- i ited for the bar, but abandoned his legal studies m >r journalism, and was for many years a writer in ,1 le Times. Died 1855. St DONATO, Ncholas, doge of Venice, succeeded ohn Bembo, 1618, and died the month following. 4 [e was succeeded by Antonio Priuli. :i DONE, Joshua, a pianist and composer of cli msic, chiefly of songs, died in poverty, occasioned in j his irregular habits, aged about sixty, 1848. j DOVASTON, J. F. M., an essayist and poet, n athor of ' British Melodies,' and other poems, and i F a life of Bewick, the naturalist, with whom he [i as intimately acquainted, 1782-1854. i DUCIE, Earl, a distinguished English agri- ifl llturist and free-trader, 1802-1853. i DU PLAT, George Gustavus Charles EGE William, brigadier-general in the British army, died at Vienna, where he had proceeded, after the commencement of the late war, as military com- missioner. December 21, 1854. General Du Plat had been nearly forty years in the service, and was recently consul-general at Warsaw. His son, Capt. Du Plat, is an equerry to Prince Albert. DUPONT. See Ponte, Pontius. DUPONT, (De L'Eure,) Jacques Charles, chief of the provisional government of France in 1848, was born at Neubourg, in the department of Eux, 1767. He became mayor of his native place in 1792, and continued to fill numerous offices in the magistracy till the revolution of 1830, when he became minister of justice. The reaction under Louis Philippe soon deprived him of this position, and he then identified himself with the opposition in the chamber of representatives. He was pro- posed to the people by Lamartine, and hailed with universal applause as head of the government after the revolution of February ; died 1855. DUPUY. See Put, Putten. E EGERTON, Francis, the first earl of Elles- mere, of Ellesmere, county Salop, and Viscount Brackley, of Brackley, Northamptonshire, was born on the first day of January, 1800. He was the second son of George Granville, marquis of Stafford, who was afterwards created duke of Sutherland. His grandfather, the preceding mar- quis of Stafford, had married the daughter, and eventually co-heir, of Scroope, the first duke of Bridgewater, to whose estates the late earl suc- ceeded on the death of his father, assuming then the sole name of Egerton, in place of his patronymic of Leveson Gower. The Ellesmere peerage was a revival, having been first conferred on Thomas Egerton, lord chancellor of England in the reign of James I. The chancellor was created baron Ellesmere and viscount Brackley, but died before the promised earldom was conferred, which James granted to his son under the title of earl of Bridgewater. In the works of Bacon, as well as in the historical annals of the time, the name of lord Ellesmere frequently appears; and a still more interesting literary association is, that his appointment to the presidency of Wales and the Marches was the occasion of Milton writing his masque of Comus. The fourth earl of Bridge- water was created duke in 1720, the ducal title becoming extinct in 1803, though the earldom remained till 1828 in another branch of the family. The princely property of the Bridgewater peerage, including the magnificent collection of pictures, was devised by the last duke to his nephew the duke of Sutherland, with remainder to his second son, the deceased earl of Ellesmere. From Eton, where he received his early education, Lord Francis Leveson Gower went up to Christ Church, Oxford, where he took the B.A. degree in 1821. In 1822 he was returned to parliament, and became a devoted supporter of the policy of Canning. When the London university was projected he became one of its most zealous promoters, despite the outcry about its hostility to the church and to 883 ELC Oxford and Cambridge. In 1820, as Lord Francis Egerton, he was chief secretary for Ireland ; under the duke of Wellington, in 1830. he was secretary at war (hi the formation of Peel's government in 1841, he declined a seat in the cahinet. On the bill for the repeal of the corn laws being introduced he moved the address in reply to the roval speech. From 1829 to 1*34, he sat for the county of Sutherland, and from 1834 to 1846, for South Lancashire, which he represented at the time of his elevation to the peerage. From an early period Lord Ellesmere cultivated literary tastes, and published several works both in prose and poetry His lordship's name will, however, be more widely known in connection with art than literature. To the splendid collection of pictures he inherited he made numerous important addi- tions, and the Bridgewater Gallery, said to be worth more than a quarter of a million, is the finest private collection in Great Britain. The late earl was a fellow of several of the learned societies, was vice-president of the Literary Fund ; was one of the royal commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851, and a trustee of the British Museum. Few noblemen have better discharged the duties of their order. He died in 1857. ELCHINGEN, Due D', the younger son of Mar- shal Key, and the inheritor of his father's title, died at Gallipoli, on his way to take a command in the East, July 14, 1854. ELDON, John Scott, second earl of, grandson of the illustrious chancellor of that name, member for Truro from 1829 to 1831, died in 1854, having nearly two years before become of unsound mind. ELLIOT, Sir Henry Miles, foreign secre- tary to the government oflndia, author of a ' Bib- liographical Index to the Historians of Mahomme- dan India, and a Glossary, 1 1809-1854. ELTON, Sir Charles Abraham, a classical scholar and poet, died 1853. ESCOTT, Bickham, a political speaker and magistrate, member for Winchester, 1802-1855. ESTCOURT, Major-GeneralJames Buck- nall, bom 1802, died of cholera in the camp be fore Sebastopol, June 23, 1855. This gallant officer was appointed on the staff of Lord Raglan, and shared the glories of the principal actions in the Crimea; previously, in 1835, he had accom- panied the expedition to the Euphrates. EVANS, Arthur Benoni, late head master of Market Bosworth school, distinguished as a profound classical scholar and author, was born in Berkshire, 1781 ; died at Market Bosworth, Leicestershire, November, 1855. Dr. Evans was at once a linguist, naturalist, numismatist, musi- cian, mechanic, anatomist, artist, and divine ; and with all these talents he had a large share of those better qualities which gained for him the love and confidence of his parishioners. He belonged to the high church and conservative party. EWING, James, lord provost of Glasgow, re- turned member of parliament for that city at the general election in 1832 ; distinguished for the mu- nificent aid he afforded to various philanthropic movements; 1776-1854. EZZEL1N. See Romano. FIT F FABER, George Stanley, the celebrate writer on prophecy, was the eldest son of the Re- Thomas Fabcr, and was born in 1774. In 181 he became the vicar of Stockton-upon-Tces, bi exchanged this living for that of Long Newton i 1811. The latter he retained till 1832, when 1 was appointed master of Sherburn's Hospital, ne< Durham. Here he died, aged eighty, January 2' 1855. His chief work, which has gone throue five editions, is entitled ' Dissertations on u Prophecies that have been Fulfilled, are now Fu filling, or will hereafter be Fulfilled, relative t the great period of 1260 years; the Papal an Mohammedan Apostacies; the Tyrannical Reign i Antichrist, or the Infidel Power; and the Restori tion of the Jews.' FAUCHER, Leon, a French journalist wl rose into notice after the revolution of July I devoting his pen to the doctrines of free tra< and political economy, died at Marseilles, Dec. 1 1854. M. Faucher became home minister undi the presidency of Louis Napoleon, and was removt from office previous to the covp d'etat of Dec. 2. FAUCF1, John Saville, stage manager at author of several plays, father ot the celebrate Miss Helen Faucit ; died 1854. The most popuh of his productions are 'The Millers Maid,' ar ' Wappmg Old Stairs.' FAULKNER, Thomas, an industrious wrib on topographical and antiquarian subjects, foi merly a bookseller of Chelsea, 1776-1855. FELLOWES, Sir Thomas, a distinguishe British naval officer, 1778-1853. FERDINAND, duke of Genoa, younger broth< of Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, born 182 s married to Mary Elizabeth, daughter of the presei king of Savoy, 1850; died 1855. FERRIER, Susan, died at Edinburgh, on til 5th of November, 1854, at an advanced age. Mif Ferrier's novels were three: 'Marriage' (1818^ 'The Inheritance' (1824); and 'Destiny; or, Tl Chief 's Daughter' (1831). These works, of whip the first was especially popular, had their chii excellence in the vigorous faithfulness and di humour with which they portrayed characters as scenes of common and real life. The authore 'Marriage,' greeted by the author of 'Waverle; as ' a sister shadow,' maintained a dignified lady-like privacy, on which it would be unseemi to intrude. It may be enough to say, that hi father was one of Sir Walter Scott's official co leagues, a principal clerk of the court of session Scotland ; and that, through one of her brother she was connected by affinity with the family i Professor Wilson. [W.S. FIELD, George, memorable for his successfi application of chemistry to the arts; author Chromatics,' ' Outlines of Analogical Philosophy and other works; 1777-1854. FIELDING, Copley Vandyke, late presidei of the Old Society of Painters in Water Colour remarkable for the beauty of his marine subje 1 and landscapes, 1787-1854. FITZCLARENCE, Liei t.-General Lok Frederick, son of the duke of Clarence an Mrs. Jordan, grand master of the Scottish umi 884 FIT riasons, and a devoted officer of the Indian armv, 799-1854. FITZWILLIAM, Fanny Elizabeth, late of it( he Haymarket theatre, was born in 1803 ; died k t Putney, of cholera, September, 1854. Mrs. Fitz- I8t rilliam made her first appearance in public in tu 814, as Miss Fanny Copeland, and was particu- I irly successful at the Surrey theatre as Effie )eans in the ' Heart of Midlothian.* She married 1 lr. Fitzwilliam, an actor of Irish characters, in 2 822. Her most popular performances were at be Adelphi, especially with Mr. John Reeves in be ' Wreck Ashore.' Being an admirable mimic i'l be often performed more than one character in I be same piece. a FONTAINE, L., a Fr. architect, 1760-1854. J FONTAINE, Louis, a French architect, and on lember of the Academy of Fine Arts, 1764-1854. FORBES, Edward, F.R.S , born in the Isle of i fan in 1815, died in Edinburgh. November, 1854. I he tas'.e for Natural History which characterized it rofessor Forbes, and ultimately raised him to the 1 ink of one of the first and most philosophic natu- i ilists of the present day, showed itself in early jti fe. He was educated at the University of Edin- i urgh, where he was a pupil of the late Professors ameson and Graham, and studied the kindred jiences of Zoology, Geology, and Botany, with larked success. At the early age of eighteen he isited Norway on a Natural History excursion, rid made many observations on its native produc- ons and glaciers. In 1841 he was appointed natu- ilist to H.MS. Beacon on the surveying expedition > the Mediterranean, and made a tolerably extensive tur through Asia Minor. During this expedition i carried on an important series of dredging rations, which gave rise to his brilliant theories i the nature and distribution of submarine life in ference to geological changes. In 1843 he was ected Professor of Botany in King's College, ondon, as successor to George Don. He became icretary and curator to the Geological Society, id in 1845 was elected a Fellow of the Royal aciety. On the establishment of the Government ihool of Mines in connection with the Ordnance eological Survey under the direction of Sir Henry la Beche, Professor Forbes became Palseonto- gist to that institution ; and when the new mu- ium was opened in Jermyn street, hewas appointed rofessor of Natural History there. In this situ- ion he remained for some time, giving lectures crowded audiences ; and at the same time orked hard in various parts of the country in nnection with the Geological Survey. On the ;ath of Professor Jameson of Edinburgh, in the sar 1854, Forbes was immediately elected his iccessor, and entered on the duties of the chair of atural History in the University of Edinburgh ; the commencement of the summer session. here he was pre-eminently popular, and bade fair raise his own reputation, as well as that of the niversity of Edinburgh, to a high pitch ; but, as! a disease, the seeds of which had been sown his constitution some years previously, cut him F, after a very short but severe illness, and after had filled the chair only a fi'.w months. Forbes'a orks are very numerous, but chiefly consist of itaclied memoirs in many of the leading scientific urnals of the day. His first published separate 885 FUL work was the 'Malacologia Monensis,' a description of the shells of the Isle of Man. His next was the very pleasingly written ' History of the British Star-fishes;' then came his 'Travels in Event,' in company with Lieut. Spratt; the 'Natural History of the British Mollusca,' in conjunction with Mr. Sylvanus Hanley ; and the ' Natural History of the British naked-eye Medusae,' published by the Ray Society. He died, much lamented, at the earlv age of thirty-nine years. [W.B.] Forester, fanny. See Judson. FORREST, Robert, a self-taught Scottish sculptor, died 1853. FOURDRINIER, Henry, celebrated for his improvements in the means of manufacturing paper, was born in London 1766. He patented his machine for the manufacture of paper between the years 1800 and 1807, and after various vicis- situdes of fortune, his claims were acknowledged by the house of parliament in 1840. Died 1855. FRANKLIN, Sir John, the lamented arctic voyager, was the son of W. Franklin, Esq., of Moor's Enderly in Lincolnshire., and was born in that countv, 1786. He entered the navy in 1800, and served in the action of Trafalgar, and the expedition against New Orleans. At three differ- ent periods, previous to his last fatal enterprise, he penetrated the arctic ocean ; the first in 1818, the second extending from 1819 to 1822, the third from 1823 to 1827. After his return from the latter in 1828, he married the present Lady Frank- lin, then Miss Griffin, whose touching appeals and untiring efforts to procure his rescue, have given her a distinguished place in the catalogue of de- voted wives. It was on the !9th of May, 1845, that the ships Erebus and Terror sailed from the Thames, with official instructions which directed Sir John Franklin to proceed through Lancaster Sound and Barrow's Straits, to Cape Walker, and to use every effort to penetrate from that point to Behring's Straits ; at the same time, in case of cir- cumstances rendering this course impossible, he had full liberty to try any other passage. The voyage as far as Baffin's Bay was prosperous ; and the ships were last seen, with all well on board, moored to an iceberg in the middle of that bay, and about 200 miles from the entrance of Lan- caster Sound : this was on the 26th of July of the same year. Ever since, their fate has been shrouded in darkness; for notwithstanding the discoveries that have been made and the tales that have been related by the Esquimaux, there is nothing better than surmise in regard to the manner in which they perished, for this much it would be folly any longer to doubt. We may add, that Sir John Franklin's expedition was provisioned for three years, but, with careful management, it is possible he may have made them last four. [E.R.] FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, king of Saxony, born 1797, succeeded his uncle 1836, having six years previously been appointed co-regent of the kingdom. He was killed by an accident which overturned his carriage in Aug., 1854, and was succeeded by his brother John. FULCHER, Geokge Williams, a tradesman and magistrate of Sudbury, known as a poet and occasional writer, 1799-1855. FULLERTON, John, a Scottish lawyer, and one of the lords of the court of session, 1775-1851. rut FULTON, John, .1 native of Ayrshire, remark- able for his self- acquired superiority in the acquisi- tion of languages and the construction of mathe- matical instruments ; died 1854. G GABRIAS. See Babrias. GAISFORD, Thomas, dean of Christ Church, distinguished for his profound and varied erudi- tion ; editor of many classical works, 1779-1855. GARDINER, William, a writer on music and connoisseur in the fine arts ; author of ' Music and Friends,' and a work of travels, entitled ' Sights in Italy;' 1764-1854. GAVIN, Hector, a physician and sanitary reformer, author of many valuable works, died from an accidental shot at Balaklava, April 20, 1855. His most remarkable labours were in con- nection with the inquiries into the causes of disease in Newcastle and other towns of the north, during the late visitation of cholera. GAY. See Girardin. GENNAD1US. See Scholarius. GERVILLE, Charles Alexis Adrian Du- herissier, Mons. De, a distinguished archaeologist and antiquarian, author of numerous works, in- cluding a memoir of his own life ; 1769-1853. GIFFARD, Henry Wells, commander of H.M. ship Tiger, son of admiral John Giffard, died at Odessa from wounds received in defending his ship, June 1, 1854. Captain Giffard entered the navy in 1824, and was appointed to the rank of commander in February, 1838. In 1840 he ac- companied the expedition against China, and was present at the capture of Chusan, at the blockade of Ningpo, and at Amoy ; his ship was the Cruiser, 16. In 1846, he commanded the Penelope steam frigate, bearing the broad pendant of Sir Charles Hotham, on the coast of Africa. The accident by which his vessel was stranded in the neighbour- hood of Odessa, is too recent to require particular notice. Every effort that coald be made to get the ship off proved unavailing, and in a few hours, the Russians having brought their field guns to bear, opened a murderous fire from the cliffs, which compelled the Tiger to strike her flag. The crew having surrendered, became prisoners at Odessa, where it appears they were treated most kindly. Captain Giffard survived nineteen days, and was buried with military honours, Gen. Osten-Sacken attending the funeral. [E.R.] GIFFARD, John, a veteran admiral, whose son, Captain Giffard, is the subject of the fore- going notice, died in Southampton, aged ninety, Sept. 25, 1855. Admiral Giffard was a whig in politics, and was for many years the leader of that party in Southampton. GILBERT, J. F., a landscape painter, 1791- 1855. GILLKREST, James, a veteran medical officer and professional writer attached to the armv ; d. 1854. GILLMAN, Joseph, a native of Little Over, near Derby, born 1759, died in the ninety-sixth year of his age, June, 1865. This veteran was one of the foremost mutineers at the Nore, and is said tu have dictated the last and effective message to GRE Mr. Pitt. He served nnder Rodney, Hood, ar Nelson, and was one of the forlorn hope in tfc storming of Seringapatam. GILLY, William Stephen, a dignitary of tl- Church of England, author of several popul; works, especially concerning the Vaudois Con tians ; born in Essex, 1789, died in his vicarage Norham, 1855. GIRARDIN, Madame De, formerly Mdll Delphine Gay, celebrated among the literati France for her poems and other popular work was born about 1803. She was remarkable f her beauty when very young, and received a sped prize from the Academy, and a pension from tl crown, for her first poems in 1822. In 1831 si was married to the celebrated Emile de Girardi and after that period frequently wrote for fresse. Died 1855. GIRY. See Saint-Cyr. GODWIN, Major-General, an Indian offic( commander of the Bengal division of the army the recent Burmese war, 1785-1854. GOLDIE, Thomas Leigh, brigadier-genei in the army of the Crimea, killed at the battle Inkermann, in the same struggle in which Genei Sir George Cathcart fell, November 5, 1855. GOSSET, Montague, a distinguished surge of London, author of several valuable papers surgical literature, 1792-1854. GOULBURN, Henry, late member for t university of Cambridge, and a statesman of t Peel party, was born in 1784. He graduated M. in 1808, a year after his return as member J Horsham, and first took office as home secreta in 1810, under the duke of Portland. From 18 to 1818 he sat for the borough of St. German is, n< disfranchised, and in the latter year was retum for West-Looe. In 1821 he became Irish secretai and a privy councillor, an office which he vacat in 1828 for that of chancellor of the excheqv. under the duke of Wellington, retiring with t rest of the cabinet in 1830, when Lord Grey b came premier. In the interval from 1826 to 181 Mr. Goulburn had sat for Armagh, but in the { eral election of the last-mentioned year he m\ returned for Cambridge, and retained his seat 1 his death. In 1834 he became home secreta, under the administration of Sir Robert Peel, in Sept. 1841 chancellor of the exchequer, sin which he lived almost retired from the arena political agitation ; 1789-1856. GREENOUGH, George Bellas, an eniine geologist, born 1777, died at Nice 1854, ag seventy-seven. Mr. Greenough inherited an ami fortune, and sat for some time in parliament. 1 soon, however, forsook the tangled maze of politic and devoted his time to scientific pursuits. G< logy and geography were his favourite studies, m along with several other kindred spirits, he csta lished the Geological Society of London. Of tl he was the first president, and filled the chair sevei times on subsequent occasions. He also held ti office for two years of president of the GeograpM Society, and at his death bequeathed his extinsi collection of maps to be divided between these ti societies. He was a fellow of the Linnaean a: Royal Societies, and is the author of ' A Critil^ Examination of the First Principles of Geologj which has been translated into German, 'A Gei 886 GRE logical Map of England and Wales, with an accom- panying Memoir,' which has gone through two editions, and ' A General Sketch of the Physical Features of British India.' During his long life Mr. Greenough employed his time, his money, and his talents, in actively promoting geological know- ledge, and at his death left a sum of 500 to be spent in the arrangement and preservation of the maps, which we have already mentioned he had bequeathed to the Geological and Geographical J Societies. [W.B.] GRESWELL, William Parr, incumbent of Denton, Manchester, author of several learned works, 1765-1854. GUNNING, Henry, a distinguished official of Cambridge university, author of 'Reminiscences of the University, Town, and County of Cam- bridge from 1789 ;' 1768-1854. JE HALL, James, a writer on art, 1797-1854. HARDING, George Perfect, an artist in water colours, famous for his accurate copies of historical subjects, died 1854. HARE, Charles Julius, was born on the 13th September, 1795. He gave very early indications of being a sprightly and intelligent boy, and, like many other persons of distinction, he was much indebted for his mental training and refinement of character to the influence of his mother, daughter of Dr. Shipley, bishop of St. Asaph, as well as of his aunt, the widow of the famous Sir William Jones. At a suitable age he was entered a pupil at the Charterhouse ; and among the schoolboys contemporary with him at that classical institu- tion, were several who rose to literary eminence in after life, such as Waddington, dean of Durham, and Grote and Thirlwall, the learned historians of Greece. Having completed the usual curriculum of the Charterhouse, Hare was removed to Cam- bridge in 1812, and his scholarly acquirements having become well known during a lengthened residence at that university, he was elected a fel- low of Trinity College in October, 1818, and four years after was appointed assistant tutor of the college. In that prominent situation he had con- tinued ten years, when the family living of Hurst- monceux, in Sussex, becoming vacant by the death of his uncle, he was, by the urgent recommendation of friends, prevailed on to accept that rectory. His tastes were wholly academic, and it was not without a severe struggle that he brought his mind to exchange the congenial studies and society of Cambridge for the laborious duties and retired life of a country clergyman. Previous to entering on the administration of his parish, however, he made arrangements for enjoying a year's absence on the continent. Foreign scenes were not new to Hare, for he had spent several years of his youth in Ger- many; and it was during his residence in that country that he imbibed that profound admiration for the character and services of Luther, as well as acquired that strong predilection for German philo- sophy and literature which have stamped his writ- ings witli one of their most striking characteristics. Directing his travels now towards the south of HAR Europe, he. passed rapidly through France and even Switzerland, in his impatient desire to feast his eye with a sight of the classic scenes of Italy. Greece and Rome were the grand centres around which his associated ideas revolved, and in grati- fying his taste with a minute survey of localities which his imagination had invested with so much interest, he passed months which glided with un- noticed rapidity away. In the spring of 1834 he set out on his homeward journey, and forthwith took up his abode in the rectory of Hurstmonceux, which, during his incumbency, displayed the ap- pearance of a splendid mansion-house being adorned with many rare works of the Italian mas- ters, which, being a passionate admirer of art, he had, at great cost, collected abroad, as well as enriched with a valuable library of 12,000 volumes, a great proportion of which were in the German language. His domestic felicity was consummated by his marriage with an amiable and accomplished lady, sister of his former pupil and friend, Dr. Frederick Maurice. As a parish clergyman. Hare cannot be described as active or zealous in his work. He was, indeed, kind to the poor, when they waited on him. He was, moreover, a power- ful and eloquent preacher to people of cultivated minds or philosophic taste ; but his sermons were of so refined a strain, so occupied with the discus- sion of public questions, and protracted to so great a length, as to be altogether unsuitable for the edification of a rustic audience. In his additional office of archdeacon of Lewes, to which he was presented in 1840, he was more in his proper sphere, as appeared from the great interest which his charges to his clergy uniformly produced. It is, however, as an author in the general walks of literature that his name is most widely known. Few, indeed, there are, if any, among his contem- poraries, who equalled him in the variety, extent, and accuracy of his knowledge, in his thorough acquaintance with every form of opinion that pre- vailed both in this country and on the continent ; above all, with the researches and speculations of the great German writers in philosophy, theology, history, and general literature. His earliest ap- pearances before the world as an author were in his translation of the German romances and tales of Fouque' and Tieck. And it was he who, in con- junction with Thirlwall, bishop of St. David's, had the merit of introducing the English public to an acquaintance with the important labours of Niebuhr in the field of ancient Roman history. But it was particularly in the department of theo- logy that his familiar and minute acquaintance with German speculation was manifested ; and it will not be disputed that no person in the present day exercised a greater influence than Archdeacon Hare in stimulating the ardour with which the works of the great German critics are now read and studied in Britain. Among his original works, we may particularize his ' Parish Sermons,' ' The Mission of the Comforter,' Guesses at Truth,' which was the joint production of his brother Au- gustus and himself, 4 The Victory of Faith,' ' Vin- dication of Luther,' ' Biography of John Sterling,' 'The Psalms in English Verse,' papers in the 'Philological Museum,' and many other periodi- cals. Archdeacon Hare was a man of independent thought, and was noted for several eccentrici- 887 HAY ties, one of which was his adoption, on principle, of a strange, but, as he thought, right etymology of the English. Thus, for instance, he wrote preacht for preached, and publisht for published ; and while Thirlwall and Whewell, who both adopted the same peculiarity, afterwards re- turned to the ordinary practice, Hare, with char- acteristic firmness to what he conceived the truth, adhered to this singular mode of spelling, in all matters, grave or gay, common or sacred. He was taken suddenly ill in the autumn of 1854, so that it was with difficulty he delivered his last charge to his assembled clergy, and on his return home he continued for a few months in a lingering state, till he expired on the 20th January, 1 855, giving to his family a cheering sign of his hope, when he had lost the power of utterance, by point- ing with his finger upwards. f/R.J.J HAY, Lieut.-Gen. James, a British officer, distinguished in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, entered the army as cornet, 1795 ; died 1854. HEAD, Sik Geokge, elder brother of Sir Francis Bond Head, many years an active com- missariat officer ; author of several popular works, comprehending his personal memoirs and travels, and an account of the manufacturing districts of the United Kingdom ; 1782-1855. HENDERSON, Lieut.-General, a gallant British officer, commander of the guards at Waterloo : died 1854. HERBERT, Algernon, a barrister-at-law, re- markable as the author of several extraordinary works on abstruse subjects, scriptural, historical, and philosophical ; died aged sixty-three, June, 1 855. HEREDIA, Diego De, a Spanish patriot, chief justice of Madrid in the reign of Philip II. HERR1ES, Hon. John Charles, a member of parliament and statesman, was the eldest son of a London merchant. He was born in 1778, and became a junior clerk in the treasury, 1798. His next appointment was that of private secretary, first to Mr. Vansittart, and afterwards to Lord Bexley, secretary of the treasury. In 1811 he was appointed, successively, comptroller of army accounts and commissary-in -chief ; closing his merely official career in 1821 as auditor of the civil list. In 1822 he became secretary to the treasuiy and member for Harwich, which he con- tinued to represent till 1841. In 1827 he took office under Lord Goderich as chancellor of the exchequer, but soon afterwards resigned, in con- sequence of a quarrel concerning the appointment of Lord Althorpe, as chairman of the finance com- mittee. His resignation, it is said, was the chief cause of the failure of that administration, but the truth is, the cabinet of Lord Goderich was never firmly cemented, and so many opposite elements existed in it, that its dissolution was almost cer- tain from the beginning. From 1828 to 1830 under the duke of Wellington, Mr. Herries was master of the mint and president of the board of trade. In 1835, during the brief period that Sir Robert Peel held office, he was secretary at war. In 1841, as stated above, he ceased to represent his old constituents, and took no part in political affairs till 1847, when he was elected member for Stamford. In the meanwhile, the principle of free trade had been established by the complete success of the anti-corn law league ; and Mr. Herries, as 883 HUM a conservative, found no place in the administra- tion till the formation of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852, when he became president of the India i board. He retired from public life in the sprint of 1S53. Died at his seat, near Seven Oaks, Apn 24, 1855. [E.B.1 HERSEE, William, a miscellaneous writer, many years editor of the Warwick Advertiser, 1786-1854. HINKS, Rev. Thomas Dee, LL D., professor) of Hebrew and Oriental languages in the Royal Belfast Academy, was born in 1787, and died on the 24th February, 1857, at the advanced age of ninety. Dr. Hinks was peculiarly distinguished for his scholarship, and for the attention he paid to agricultural improvement. He commenced the Munster Farmers 1 Magazine, a work which did much to raise the standard of farming in the south of Ireland. In 1821 he was elected head master of the classical school in the Royal Belfast Aca- demy, and in the succeeding year was appointed professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages, an appointment which he held with great credit until his death. Dr. Hinks is the father of the distin- guished Orientalist of that name. HOARE, Sir Hugh Richard, born 1784, died 10th January, 1857. HOBHOUSE, Right Hon. Henry, keeper of state papers, and one of the ecclesiastical com- missioners for England, was born in 1776, and called to the bar in 1801. From 1817 to 1827, he held the office of under secretary of state for the home department, and was appointed keeper of , her Majesty's state papers after the discovery of I Milton's long lost theological work among the un- arranged documents in 1825. Died 1854. HODGSON, Fkancis, provost of Eton, a dis- tinguished classical scholar, 1781-1853. HOLLINS, John, a portrait painter, 1798-1855. HOLMES, John, assistant-keeper of the man- uscripts in the British Museum, and an author on \ several occasions, was born in 1800, and brought i up as a bookseller. We are indebted to his pen for a new edition of Cavendish's Life of Cardinal Wolsey,' published 1852; died April, 1854. HOOD, Francis Grosvenor, colonel in the 3d battalion of grenadier guards, born 1810, killed in the trenches before Sebastopol, October i 18, 1855. He was a grandson of admiral the first Viscount Hood, and was remarkable for his gallantry. After the battle of the Alma he re- ceived the special thanks of the commander-in- chief and the duke of Cambridge for the manner \ in which he brought his regiment into action. HOPE, William Williams, an eccentric char- - acter, who devoted his enormous wealth to gratify \ his taste for articles of vertu, and to the refine-* ments of music, literature, and art; died in Paris, 1854. His collections have since been sold. HUME, Joseph, was the son of a master mariner trading from Montrose, where he wasJ born in 1 777. Left fatherless at an early age, be was indebted to his mother for the training) which enabled him, on all occasions, to rise superior to the difficulties by which he was surrounded.* The smallness of her resources, as the mistress of a little shop in Montrose, did not prevent Mrs.}; Hume aspiring to a better position for her son,,ij and she apprenticed him to a surgeon-apothecary I HUN his native town. In 1796, he became a member the College of Surgeons at Edinburgh ; and iving obtained a professional appointment in the rvice of the East India Company, he left England the commencement of the Mahratta war. On e voyage out, he performed the duties of purser, addition to his own as assistant-surgeon; in dia he mastered the native languages, and acted interpreter of Persian to the army ; being at the me time postmaster, paymaster, and commis- riat officer. These multifarious occupations en- led him to return to England, in 1808, with a ill-earned fortune of from 30,000 to 40,000. then travelled a year or two in Europe and the jst; and, in 1812, bought a seat in parliament, rich he lost almost immediately by a dissolution. t this period of his life he became an active mber of the central committee of the Lancas- ian school system, and was most anxious to tain a place in the directory of the East India )mpany, in which, however, he did not succeed. 1818, he was sent to parliament as representa- re of the Aberdeen district of burghs, which jluded his native Montrose, and he continued to present the same constituency till 1830, when he is returned for Middlesex m conjunction with r. Byng. In 1837, he was defeated by Colonel ood ; but was returned for Kilkenny, by the aid O'Connell's influence, in the same month. In B conservative house of 1841 he found no place; t the following year he was returned by his old nstituents of Montrose, in whose service he pired. It is almost needless to characterize Mr. nme, whose political character and public services B as well known as the British constitution itself. )thing could overcome his almost dogged per- reranee in the course he had marked out for mself we ought rather to say, his inflexible inciples and amazing industry as a member of House of Commons. The blue books and rliamentary papers of the last quarter of a itury may be regarded as a lasting monument his unremitting application to business, of his nsistency in the cause of reform, and of his stories over innumerable abuses. From these es of almost repulsive literature must hereafter extracted the true story of his achievements, and i legends of the sinecurists and drones that his nchant arm has delivered us from. Died at i seat, Burnley Hall, in Norfolk, February 20, |5. [fi.R.l HUNT, Frederick Knight, late editor of Daily News, was born in 1814, and was early rown upon his own resources as an employe* in e office of the Morning Herald. By the most traordinary exertions he supported his mother d her five children, left unprovided for by the ath of his father., and yet contrived, by a Qrse of reading and self-culture, to prepare him- f for a professional career. He studied medicine well as literature ; to which circumstance we e one of his projects, 'The Medical Times.' iving become well known as a journalist, he was ected by Mr. Dickens as one of the assistant itors for the Daily News in 1816, and became editor in chief, 1851. Died in November, 18.54. . Hunt is author of ' The Fourth Estate : a itory of the English Newspaper Press.' 688 JAY INGLIS, Sir Robert Harry, whose name will long be remembered as a zealous churchman, and supporter of the charitable institutions of his country, was the son of the first baronet, who was for many years chairman of the East India Company. He began life as a member of the bar, but declining the law, took his seat in the House of Commons as member for Dundalk in 1824. At the close of 1 826 he became member for Ripon, and from 1828 to 1833 sat for the university of Oxford. Died in the seventieth year of his age, May 5, 1855. IXSOM, , a distinguished sculptor, settled many years past at Florence, died, 1855. JAMES, Edward, a dignitary of the Church of England, well known for his classical attain- ments, 1790-1854. JAMESON, Robert, a distinguished mineralo- gist and geologist, born at Leith 1773, died in Edinburgh 1854, in his eighty-Hrst year. Edu- cated for the medical profession, his attention seems to have been early directed to the study of natural history. At the commencement of his studies, the celebrated Werner was causing the sciences of min- eralogy and geology to assume much greater impor- tance than they had ever done before. Young Jame- son placed himself under his guidance, became a pupil at Freyburg, where Werner had established his school, and embraced with great ardour the par- ticular doctrines which he taught. In 1804, upon Dr. Walker's death, Mr. Jameson was elected his successor as Regius Professor of Natural History, Lecturer on Mineralogy, and Keeper of the Museum in the University of Edinburgh. The prevailing tendency of Jameson's mind was of a practical nature, and the duties attending his appointment to this chair were fulfilled with great zeal and activity for a long series of years. He rendered the study of natural history, and particularly mineralogy and geology, more popular in Edin- burgh than they had ever been before, and the museum attached to the chair was immensely increased by his exertions and judicious outlay of money. At his death, the collection of minerals and rocks amounted to 40,000 specimens; the fossils to 10,000 ; while of crania and skeletons there were no fewer than 800. Other kingdoms of nature were in like manner represented, and he had in addition collected together numerous draw- ings, casts, models, maps, and instruments for surveying. Professor Jameson's works are chiefly his valuable work on ' Mineralogy,' his 'Translation of Cuvier's Theory of the Earth,' and numerous papers contributed to the ' Wernerian Society's Transactions.' He was for many years editor of one of the first natural history and scientific periodicals of the day, the Edinburgh Journal,' and he was a fellow of almost all the learned societies of Europe, and several in America [W.B.] JAY, William, an eminent dissenting minis- ter, was born in humble circumstances at Tisbury JER JOH in Wiltshire, 1769. He began preaching when a I changed the Strand for Drury Lane, which prov mere youth, and was only sixteen when he was admitted into the pulpit at the Surrey Chapel. In 1791, he was settled as the minister of Argyle Chapel in Bath, where he died in his eighty-tifth year, Dec. 25, 1854. He is the author of many volumes of sermons, his last being ' Lectures on Female Scripture Characters,' published since his death, bat delivered nearly half a century ago. JERROLD, Douglas, was born on the 3d January, 1808, whether in London or Sheerness is doubtful. His father, Samuel Jerrold, was man- ager of the theatres of Sheerness and Southend. Among the theatrical folks who played on his father's stage was Edmund Kean, who carried him on the boards in Rolla, and with whom he also appeared as 'The Stranger's Child.' Like most young men bred up amidst the associations of the sea, Jerrold's thoughts, in reference to a profession, early took a nautical turn. From this predilection his lather in vain sought to dissuade him, but find- ing remonstrance useless, he procured for him a midshipman's commission in a man-of-war com- manded by Captain Austen, brother of the great novelist. Jerrold's health physically unfitted him for the naval profession. Retiring from the sea, at his own solicitation, he was apprenticed to a letter- press printer in London. After mastering the mechanical duties of a compositor, the caeoethes scribcndi innate in Jerrold developed itself. An essay on the opera of ' Der Freischutz ' was drop- ped by him into the editor's box of the Monitor, on which he was employed. He was made aware of the fate of his anonymous composition, not by a ' notice to a correspondent,' but by having it put into his hands to set up for the next number of the paper. The essay created a sensation, but the author preserved his incognito, until earnest in- uiry being made, he disclosed the authorship to the editor, who henceforth employed him upon literary work. Jerrold's career as a dramatic author now commenced. When only eighteen years of age, he wrote ' More Frightened than Hurt,' a two act farce, followed soon after by ' The Smoked Miser,' ' The White Milliner,' and nume- rous other productions. His 'Black-eyed Susan' was produced at the Surrey theatre with the most triumphant success ; for hundreds of nights it was performed without interruption; it retrieved the Fortunes of Elliston, the manager of the Surrey, then all but desperate, and it gave Mr. T. P. Cooke independence. ' The Mutiny at the Nore ' followed this great success ; and among the numerous pro- ductions of his pen at this period the most note- worthy are ' Nell Gwynne,' ' The Schoolfellow,' and ' The Housekeeper,' the ' Bride of Ludgate ; ' and transcending all these efforts at length ap- peared his 'Rent Day,' suggested from Wilkie's celebrated pictures. For this play Wilkie sent Jerrold a handsome letter, accompanied by a couple of proof engravings, with the great painter's auto- graph. ' The Rent Day ' proving nearly as great a success as ' Black-eyed Susan,' Jerrold resolved to take a theatre for himself, and thus reap the full advantage of his labours. In connection with Mr. Hammond he became joint lessee of the Strand theatre, and so long as Jerrold and Hammond kept by the Strand property success crowned their enter- prise. Unfortunately, in an evil hour, they ex- tl as signal a failure as the former had been a su: cess. About this time ' The Heads of the Peopl was published. In it Jerrold wrote ' The P( Opener,' ' The Lawyer,' ' The Pawnbroker,' a: other less known papers, all marked by his known and peculiar powers. When Punch w started, Mr. Jerrold was absent from England, b so soon as he returned he became one of its nu brilliant contributors. His early contributions Punch were signed ' Q,' and among these appear that most memorable of them all, ' On the Custc of Blessing Colours for the Army,' which 1 Society of Friends had reprinted and posl throughout the kingdom. ' Punch's Letters to | Son,' ' The Story of a Feather,' and the ' Cau< Lectures,' will keep green the memorv of Jerroli connection with that amusing and instructi serial. From some cause or other none of JerroL separate ventures were very successful. T Illuminated Magazine, the Shi/ling Magazine, a his Weekly Newspaper, were all of them more less pecuniary failures. It was in the Illuminai Magazine that Clovernook, perhaps the m< finished of his works, appeared. Jerrold's Sh ling Magazine first gave the world the tale 1 St. Giles and St. James,' in which, more coi pletely than anywhere else, may be found JerroL views of social ethics. When he had ceased cc nection with his Weekly Newspaper, he becai editor of Lloyd's, which, under his managemei attained an enormous circulation. He died Monday, 8th June, 1857, in the full vigour of 1 powers. To the last all about him had hopes his speedy recovery, even the doctor shared t delusion : he alone seemed to know that his end fl near. When asked how he felt, he replied, one that is waiting and waited for.' His dust ] poses in Norwood cemetery. His literary frier have presented a testimonial to his widow in t form of an annuity, the proceeds of various pt< . formances for her benefit. JEW, Wandering. See Saint-Germano JOHN, King of Navarre. See Albrkt. JOHNSTON, George, M.D., born 1797 j di 1855. Dr. Johnston was a native of Berwicksh in Scotland, studied medicine at the University Edinburgh, and was a pupil of the celebrated I Abercromby of that town. After taking his degl of medicine, he commenced practice at Belford Northumberland, but shortly afterwards removed; Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he continued to resi as one of the principal medical men of that toi till the day of his death. As a medical man was very successful in his practice, and procuii the love and confidence of his patients ; but it as a naturalist that he will be best known to pc terity. Botany being a part of the curriculum the Edinburgh School of Medicine, and an atte' dance upon the lectures on that science bei imperative upon students, Dr. Johnston was ffy led, like many of his contemporaries, to follow th study, and his ' Flora of Berwick-upon-Tweed' a proof of his earnestness and zeal in prosecutH it. While preparing materials for that work&a was at the same time paying particular attentM to the natural history of the marine invertebtw animals inhabiting Berwick Bay ; and his numerw papers in 'Jameson's Philosophical Journal 890 JOH w ' Loudon's Magazine of Natural History,' and the so 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' attest >jjl the amount of labour he bestowed upon their habits Pi and characters, while the illustrations from the n pencil of Mrs. Johnston conferred additional value on the important papers so published. Dr. John- ston's observations upon these comparatively speak- b ing obscure animals were continued for many years, a and perhaps no man since the celebrated Colonel a Montagu has done so much to advance our know- ai ledge of this neglected field of zoology. His more i mature works are his ' History of British Zoophytes,' t which has passed through two editions ; his ' His- st tory of British Sponges and Corallines,' a work 1 long ago out of print ; his ' Introduction to Con- u chology,' which has been translated into German ; ol and the first volume of the ' Natural History of the i Eastern Borders,' which for many years of his life j formed his chief solace in the midst of the har- 1 assing calls of his profession. This volume con- .1 tains the ' Flora of the district,' and has been * characterized as one of the most delightful botani- u cal works which has ever appeared. The ' Fauna ' :b was to have followed, but his death prevented its )1 completion. A ' Monograph of British Annelides,' I written as one of the series of catalogues of animals ;a contained in the British Museum, was nearly com- il pleted, and we believe is now in the press. Dr. Johnston was one of the editors of the 'Magazine of Zoology and Botany,' afterwards called the ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' which he continued to be till his death. He was the founder of the ' Berwickshire Naturalists' Club,' and of the 'Ray Society,' both of which institutions have done good service to natural history; was a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin- burgh ; LL.D. of the Marischal College of Aber- deen ; and had been twice elected mayor of the town of Berwick, to the interests of which he devoted much attention. [W.B.] JOHNSTON, James F. W., a popular writer on chemistry and some of the allied subjects, was born at Paisley in 1786; and became ' reader of chemistry and mineralogy in the university of Durham on its foundation in 1833. In 1843, he was elected chemist to the Agricultural Society of Scotland, an appointment which did not interfere with his former office, which he resumed till his death in September, 1855. Professor Johnston had the honour of studying chemistry under Berzelius. The most popular of his works is the well known ' Chemistry of Common Life.' JONES, Richard, a minister of the Church of England, and professor of political economy and history in Haileybury college, memorable for his part in effecting the tithe commutation, 1791-1855. JOWETT, William, a minister of the Church of England, author of several practical works, 1787-1855. JUDSON, Emily C, formerly Miss Chubbuck, a graceful American writer, was born in the state of New York about 1814. She was first known to the public about 1843 by her nomme de plume of ' Fanny Forester.' A collection of her sketches and poems was published at Boston in 1846 ; died 1834. JULIA SABINA. See Sabina. KIT K KAY, John, D.D., bishop of Lincoln, a learned prelate of the Church of England, 1783-1853. KEMBLE, Charles, the last surviving brother of that distinguished family of actors, was born at Brecknock in South Wales, 1775 ; died, aged seventy-nine, November, 1854. He possessed re- markable powers as a comedian, and acted the subsidiary characters of the drama with surprising effect. His career on the stage closed m the spring of 1840 ; but he occasionally appeared before the public as a reader of Shakspeare. The celebrated Miss Fanny Kemble, now Mrs. Butler, is his elder daughter. KEMBLE, John Mitchell, the eminent Anglo-Saxon scholar and archaeologist, was born 1806. Mr. Kemble was the eldest son of the late famous actor, Charles Kemble, and was educated, during his earlier years, by Dr. Richardson, author of the Dictionary of the English Language. In 1826, Mr. Kemble entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, and there graduated B.A. and M.A. At Cambridge he obtained a prize for English com- position, and became eminent as a speaker at the " Union," a literary society, consisting of Tennyson, Charles Buller, Maurice, Sterling, French, and others hardly less distinguished. Soon after Mr. Kemble had taken his degree, he, with a college friend, who now holds a high position in the English Church, and some other Englishmen, were induced by General Torrijos to engage in an enter- prise for the deliverance of Spain from the tyranny of Ferdinand, reimposed upon the nation by the Bourbons. The plot was betrayed to the Spanish Government, and Torrijos and his friends were shot. By a lucky accident Mr. Kemble was pre- vented from landing in Spain, and thus escaped the fate of his comrades. After this adventure, Mr. Kemble made a lengthened residence in Ger- many, where he contracted an intimate friendship with the celebrated Jacob Grimm, and was re- garded by that eminent philologist as one of the most promising of his disciples. On his return from Germany, Mr. Kemble was appointed editor of the British and Foreign Heviev), established by the late Mr. Kentworth Beaumont, chiefly for the purpose of directing public attention to the aggres- sive policy of Russia. Whilst engaged in the editorship of the Review, which, in his hands, was ably conducted, Mr. Kemble produced his ' Saxons in England,' a work which at once established his reputation as a historian. This work was founded, in a great measure, on his Codex Diplomaticus A Ivi 6'axonici, a collection of documents relating to the Saxon period, which he had amassed from various sources with infinite labour. A great archaeological work, the Horce Ferales, for which he found materials amongst the ancient sepulchres of Germany and England, was left by Mr. Kemble in such a state, that a portion of it at least can be published. Mr. Kemble died suddenly, in the full maturity and vigour of his powers, in Dublin, on the 26th Feb., 1857. KITTO, John, D.D., was a native of Plymouth, and, in his own opinion, of Phoenician descent ; for ' the Greek word Kiltof says he, ' is that which 891 KIT Dioscorides uses for the name of a species of cassia. And this again is called in Hebrew kidduh, which, as well as the Greek, probably represents the Phoeni- cian name of this aromatic. Now, the Phoenicians had much intercourse for tin with the remote part of Cornwall, from which my grandfather brought his family; and the probability is, that it was at least a Phumician name, if it does not imply a riuvnician origin for those who bear it.' Kitto's father was a master-builder, who, notwithstand- ing he possessed the greatest advantages for in- suring success in the world, yet neglected his business ami in consequence of the unfortunate habits into which he fell, was reduced to the necessity of becoming a jobbing mason, and plunged himself and family in deep distress. Among other consequences of this domestic po- verty, the education of young Kitto was neglected; for l>oth through the inability of his parents to bear the expenses of his schooling, and the neces- sity for assisting his father's labours, he was re- moved from the care of a teacher at an age when he was but an indifferent scholar even in the com- mon branches of learning. When he was twelve years of age, an accident happened, the conse- quences of which were felt through the whole of his future life. He was engaged assisting his father in new slating the roof of a house, and having ascended to the top of the ladder with a pile of slates on his head, he was in the act of stepping on to the roof, when suddenly losing his Eresence of mind, he fell from a height of thirty- ve feet into the paved court below. For a fort- night he lay in a state of insensibility; and when at length he awoke to consciousness, it was to be- come aware of the dreadful fact, that he was hope- lessly deaf. Various experiments were tried to re- store to him the use of his hearing, but although the tympanum of his ear was not destroyed, all means proved ineffectual for the recovery of the lost sense. In other respects he continued long in a state of the greatest nervous debility, and even after his recovery, it was found that he was totally unfit for resuming the manual labours of his former trade. Happily a strong literary taste, which, during his protracted confinement, was not created so much as it was more fully developed, led him to resort to books, first for pleasure, and after- wards for usefulness, till the idea gradually sprung up that it might be turned to account as a means of support, since he had become incapacitated for a more active employment. His reading was chiefly, though not exclusively, directed to sacred litera- ture ; and after two extensive tours which he was enabled successively to make through Russia, and Northern Europe, and especially in Persia and the countries of Western Asia, where his intelligent mind was struck and deeply interested with the observance among living people of manners and customs analogous to those described in the Holy Scriptures, he returned, resolved to use the "literary materials he had amassed for the illustration of the sacred volume. The fruit of his observations and researches appeared first in the issue of the Pictorial Bible : and the success of this publica- tion, though anonymous, was so encouraging, and htt fame as a commentator so fully established, that he found no difficulty in procuring'employmentfrom the booksellers in other undertakings of a similar 892 KRA kind. A great number of small compilations, suet as ' The Pictorial History of Palestine,' ' The Cour of Persia,' &c., came from his indefatigable pen; fo: being disqualified by his deafness from mingling ii society, and depending for support of himself anc family entirely on the produce of his literary labours, he wrought with extraordinary industry seldom less than fourteen hours in a'dav. I)r Kitto did not confine himself to these smallei works: zealous in the diffusion of all kinds ol knowledge that bore on the illustration of th< Word of God, he projected other undertakings ol a higher character and importance, both for learn ing mid philosophical discussion, than had been previously attempted in this country, and which the respect entertained by biblical scholars for his editorial qualifications enabled him, with the assis- tance of several able coadjutors, successfully to exe- cute. ' The Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature,' and 'The Journal of Sacred Literature,' which have con- tributed so much to extend the range of theological study among British divines, owe their existence to his skill and persevering industry. But the most widely popular of his works was, the ' Daily Illustrations of the Bible,' being original readings for a year on subjects from Sacred History, Bio- graphy, Geography, Antiquities, and Theology, especially designed for the family circle. This work is only a compilation, for the materials are gleaned from all quarters ; but they are arranged with great skill the style is distinguished by a beautiful sim- plicity and the subjects treated in such a manner as tends greatly to promote among common people the intelligent reading of the Scriptures. As a theological writer, in the peculiar department of illustration he chose, Dr. Kitto's distinguishing characteristics were patient research a sound judgment a strict and faithful adherence to truth, even in the most minute and trifling particulars ; so that he makes his readers feel they may place implicit confidence in the accuracy of his state- ments. Though never in orders, he was, on accour of his rare attainments in theology, honoured wit the degree of doctor in divinity; and he further rewarded by an annual pension of 1( from her Majesty. Worn out by his incessai labours, and perhaps the internal mechanism of th head having been permanently injured by the dread- ful accident that occasioned his deafness, he was, for a considerable time, subject to a painful neuralgic* affection, and obliged, by medical advice, to relin- quish all literary exertion for the space of twofl years. For the benefit of the waters, he removed^ with his family to Cannstadt, in Germany, and had not been long established there when he died in the spring of 1855. [R-J-T KLITZ, Philip, an English organist anba composer, author of several famous compositions,- 'Tales of the New Forest,' &c, 1805-1854. KHASINSKI, Count Valekian, a Polish diplomatist and historical writer, one of the most I distinguished of the exiles in this country, died at Edinburgh, Dec. 22, 1855. LAM LAMBERT, Mark, distinguished for his exeel- itj ence as an ornamental engraver, and once the issistant of Thomas Bewick, by whom the art of vood engraving was restored, 1781-1855. LAMENNA1S, Abbe De, the celebrated re- rtiblican writer, formerly a priest of the Church if Rome, died Feb. 27, 1*854. LANDMANN, George T., lieut.-colonel in the oval engineers, died in his seventy-fourth year, Aug. 854. Colonel Landmann saw a good deal of service, nd was actively engaged in engineering works during he great war, "dating from 1795 to 18 2. His me- aoirs, recently published, are interesting for their tore of anecdote and much curious matter of history. LANDSBOROUGH, David, minister of the Vee Church in Saltcoats, and an associate of he Linna?an Society, author of valuable scientific (lemoirs, 1781-1854. LANE, Hunter, an English physician and 1 istinguished professional writer, 1802-1853. LANGTON, Miss Jane, chiefly remarkable as he god-daughter of Johnson, mentioned in ' Bos- rell's Life' as the subject of a well known letter rritten by him, 1775-1851. LARDNER, Leopold James, remarkable as a nguist and bibliographer, late one of the assistants i the printed book department of the British Mu- eum, 1815-1855. LA RIVIERE. See Baillie, Roche. LARKIN, Nathaniel John, well known in ,ondon a few years ago as a maker of geometrical olids, and teacher of crystallography, died in the eventy-fourth year of his age, October, 1855, in le neighbourhood of Hornsey. Besides one or two lementary treatises, he published, in 1820, ' An troduction to Solid Geometry, and to the study f Crystallography.' The object of this work was ) demonstrate some of the curious properties elonging to the Platonic bodies, and their relations e to another, independent of the sphere. LAWRENCE, Abbot, late ambassador to England from the United States, was born in 93, and educated as a merchant. He had long een known as a public character and member of ongress, when, in 1843, he was appointed one of le commissioners for the settlement of the north- lstern boundary. In 1849, he accepted the post F minister at the court of London, and was well nown for his public spirit and efficient services 11 1852, when he returned home. The Hon. bbot Lawrence died at Boston. Aug. 18, 1855, nd is said to have bequeathed large sums to cha- table and other public purposes. LELIUS. See L^klius. LETELLIER. See Tellier. LICHFIELD, Thomas William Anson, earl F, postmaster-general from 1835 to 1841, in Inch period the uniform rate of a penny inland ostage was brought into operation, was born in 795, and succeeded his father in the peerage, >18. The assembly of O'Connell and other Irish embers at his house in St. James's square, iring the premiership of Lord Melbourne, gave s designation to the Lichfield House Compact ;' d 1854. LOC LLNDLEY, Robert, a distinguished violinist, died, aged eighty-three, June 3", 1855. LISlON, Mrs., formerly Miss Tyrer, and widow of the celebrated John Liston, a successful actress of comic parts, 1780-1854. LOCKHART, John Gibson, was the son of one of the city ministers of Glasgow, who belonged to a landed family in Lanarkshire. He was born at Cambusnethan (of which parish his father was then pastor) in 1794. Presented, by the senatus of the University of Glasgow, as a distinguished student, to one of the Snell exhibitions at Oxford, he entered at Baliol College in 18 9 ; in 1813 he took honours as a first-class man in Uteris huma- nioribvs; and he graduated as LL.B. in 1817. A little before this last date he had gone to study in Germany, the literature of which country he soon contributed to make known among us. He be- came a member of the Scottish bar, but can hardly be said to have made any serious attempt to prac- tise the profession. Literature soon became his constant business. From an early period in the history of ' Blackwood's Magazine,' founded in 1817, he was one of its ablest, and most active con- tributors. It was never doubted but he was the writer of some of the severest and most sarcastic of the papers, by which, in its palmy days, that en- ergetic but unscrupulous periodical infused so much of gratuitous bitterness, both into politics and into literature; and, though Lockhart s reputation as an unsparing satirist may have brought on him the imputation of having been the author of attacks really perpetrated by others, yet there were several circumstances, and among others the unfortunate affair ending in the death of John Scott, which in- dicated that he considered himself as bearing a large share of the responsibility involved in the management of the magazine. At all events, no one questioned the high talent, scholarship, and accomplishments, which he brought to bear on literature. Much of these, with a strong party spirit, but without the worst of the magazine-fea- tures, was exhibited in 1819, in his anonymous work, Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk.' In 1820, he married Sophia, the eldest daughter of Sir Wal- ter Scott. Afterwards he published, or rather collected from the magazine, his very fine and spir- ited versions of ' Spanish Ballads :' while, from 1824, appeared, successively, his striking novels, 4 Valerius,' ' Reginald Dalton,' Adam Blair,' and 'Matthew Wald/ His * Life of Burns,' in 1825, made, a volume in ' Constable's Miscellany.' In 1826, a year or two after Giffbrd had retired from the editorship of the ' Quarterly Review,' Lockhart was very deservedly chosen to be his permanent successor; and London was thenceforth his place of residence. There is not, probably, among compe- tent judges, any dissent from the opinion, that in his hands the 'Quarterly Review' was the most skilfully edited periodical of its day. On the death of his celebrated father-in-law in 1832, there was devolved on him a task which a more chivalrous man might have executed in a more generous spirit, and perhaps, also, with more of real wisdom and discretion. But the task involved difficulties which, probably, no man whatever could have vanquished completely ; and, whatever may be its faults, whe- ther of shortcoming or of excess, Lockhart's ' Life of Scott ' must long hold its place, as a singularly LON though painfully interesting monument in our lite- rary history, lii 1843, Lockhart's income, long (it is to ba believed) abundant beyond tbat of most literary men, was increased by some bundreds of pounds, on bis appointment, by Sir Robert Peel, to tbe sinecure office of auditor of the Duchy of Corn- wall. In 185.'5, be was compelled, by ill health, to retire from tbe management of the Review. He sought renovation of strength by a visit to Italy, but' in vain ; and he died, on the 25th of Novem- ber, 1854, at Abbotsford, which by that time bad become the residence of his son-in-law. His wife had long predeceased him ; so had his elder son, the boy to whom the 'Tales of a Grandfather' were dedicated; a younger son had followed in early manhood ; and Sir Walter Scott's family is now represented by Lockhart's daughter, Airs. Hope Scott. LW.S.J LONDONDERRY, Charles William, third marquis of, a gallant Peninsular officer, author of a 'Narrative of the War' in which he served; distinguished for his public spirit on several occasions, and especially for his friendly inter- ference in behalf of Abd-el-Kader ; born 1778, envoy at Berlin 1813, succeeded his brother in the peerage 1822, died 1854. We are indebted to his pen for a valuable contribution to English history in the correspondence of his brother. LOW, Right Rev. David, a Scottish prelate, remarkable for his acquaintance with the tradi- tions of the last two centuries, the most valuable of which were embodied by Mr. Chambers in his 4 Histories of the Rebellion ;' died in his eighty- eighth year, 1855. LUCAS, Frederick, a Roman Catholic po- lemical writer, elected in 1852 member for Meath, died in his forty-third year, Oct., 1855. LYONS, Edmund Moubray, commander in the royal navy, son of vice-admiral Sir Edmund Lyons, was born in 1819. Died of a wound re- ceived in the attack on Sebastopol, June 23, 1855. The operations of Captain Lyons in the sea of Azoff are fresh in every one's memory ; and he was equally successful in the expedition of the previous year to the White Sea. One of his officers writes : 'The navy has lost its greatest ornament; and we have lost one who, to us, was more than a friend ; he was so brave, so great, so good, and so amiable, that we all loved him much more than we knew.' His body was interred at Therapia, the greatest honour being shown to his memory by the officers who attended, and the crowds of people who flocked to his funeral. [E.R.] M MACDONALD, William Russell, a jour- nalist and miscellaneous writer, late editor of Bell's Life in London, and author of many pleas- ing productions for the young; 1787-1854. MACKAY, Charles, an eminent Scotch actor, was born in Edinburgh, October, 1787. When only nine years of age, he left Dunedin for Glasgow, but finally returned to his native city about the close of the year 1818. It was in the spring of 181!) that ' Rob Roy' was first produced in Edin- burgh. Mr. Mackay, who had alreadv made a MAI reputation in Aberdeen, now joined Mr. Murray's company; and, as Bailie Nicol Jarvie, earned the highest laurels. 'One would think,' said Sii Walter Scott, 'the part made for him, and him for the part. He is completely the personage of the drama the purse-proud, consequential magistrate, humane and irritable in the same moment; and the true Scotsman in every turn ol thought and action.' So complete was Mr. Mackay's identification with the character, that he became known among his acquaintance by the familiar cognomen of the ' Bailie. As a delineatoi of Scottish character as developed in the several dramas founded on our great romancist's novels. Mackay stood unequalled and unapproached. With his retirement, a certain set of characters disappeared from the stage, as completely as the true Lady Macbeth died with Mrs. Siddons. The Bailie was, no doubt, his masterpiece; but whc ever played Peter Peebles, Dumbiedykes, M Dods, Jock Howieson, and the rest, as he playec them ? His humour was intensely Scottish, dry. shrewd, rich, and pawky, yet independent, reserved, genial. His accent and pronunciation were perfect. His Scotch was not a vulgar, coarse, broad Scotch, but an easy, unaffected, natural dialect, spoken as a native language, not as an imitated patois, In his acting he never overstepped the modestj of nature; content to be appreciated by those who knew and enjoyed true dramatic talent without prostituting his humour to draw the laughter of the vulgar. Mr. Mackay continued s hardworking and respected member of the Edin burgh theatre till 1841, when he ceased to belong to the regular company, after twenty- twc years' honourable and successful service. In 1848. be resolved upon retiring from the stage. Mr; Wilson, the distinguished vocalist, made an offei of his services on the occasion, and in the name of the dramatic company, presented the veterat performer with an elegant cup. On some few occasions after this, did the Bailie revisit the scene of his former triumphs. Mr. Mackay died at Edinburgh, on the 2d November, 1857, in hi* seventy-first year. His departure snaps anothen of the now rapidly lessening links tliat bound the present generation to the generation of Scott ana his contemporaries. MACKENZIE, Thomas, a Scottish architect especially distinguished for his restorations of t\4 old baronial castles of his country ; died in the prim* of life, 1854. MACKESON, Colonel, an officer in the East India Company's service, distinguished as a diplew matist ; assassinated at Peshawur in 1853. MADOX, Willes, a painter of portrait and history; born 1813, died at Constantinople, 1854J MAI, Angelo, Cardinal, a distinguished clas- sical scholar, memorable for his discoveries of lost portions of the classics, late chief librarian of the Vatican, was born in the diocese of Bergamo, 178il His remarkable discoveries date from 1814, whet he was keeper of the Ambrosian Library at Milan* and an historical account of them written by Mfj Archdeacon Nares, was communicated to the Royal Society of Literature in 1824. A collected edition was published in ten quarto volumes, in the years 1825 to 1838. Cardinal Mai died at Albano in his seventy-thud year, Sept., 1854. 894 Ec MAN MANBY, Captain George William, the ventor of several kinds of apparatus for saving lees in case of shipwreck, died at Southtovvn, ar Great Yarmouth, in the ninetieth year of his r;e, November, 1854. He was the son of an cer in the army, and in 1803 was appointed irrack-master at Yarmouth. The wreck of the i nipe gun-brig, of which he was an eye-witness, lusing a great loss of life, was one of the causes it lat set his inventive faculties at work in devising me means of affording aid to the sufferers by or milar disasters. In this endeavour he was sisted by grants from the government, and red to be recognized as the benefactor, not of his vn country only, but of all Europe. He had the ippy consciousness of having saved upwards of 000 lives bv his various inventions. MANCHESTER, George Montague, sixth ike of, memorable as a leader of the English otestant party, and for his learned and thought- 1 works upon the Scriptures; 1799-1855. MANIN, Daniel, the distinguished Italian itriot, was born in 1804. When only in his venteenth year, he was received as a doctor of w at the university of Padua. Being unable practise as an advocate before the age of twenty- ur, he devoted the seven intervening years to the udy of jurisprudence, and to a translation of the maan law. Manin married early; and in one of e most retired quarters of his native city, passed early manhood among his family, his books, d friends. It was in this humble retreat that e future president of the Venetian republic earned of the emancipation of his country, anin was the opposite of all we associate with e stock-notion of an Italian revolutionist grave, ber, moderate, a lover of law, and a zealous pporter of order. He was never mixed up with y of the secret societies. A legist by profession, his aim to combat Austria with legal japons. He seized upon the weaknesses of the perial government, and made a handle of the vs which Austria herself had nominally granted thout permitting them to be actually put in For Venice and Lombardy he asked a parate government, a revision of codes, an nual budget, freedom of worship, and freedom the press. The revolution of 1848 found anin in prison ; and liberated by a decision of tribunal, he was immediately placed at the ad of affairs, and made dictator of the republic, oclaimed only a month afterwards. That nice stood a year's siege against the power of istria, was mainly due to the genius of Manin. ter the capitulation of Venice, in 1849, Manin ;ired to France, where he lived a quiet life, still 11 of hope for the future. Health had, however, lg been failing him, and the death of his wife d daughter hastened the hour that released this h-souled patriot from the tumult and unrest of th. He was buried at Montmartre. His funeral 3 public: the French government, this time, itaining from any interference. MANNERS, Lord Charles, a Peninsular icer and member of parliament, 1780-1855. MARIA, queen of Portugal, daughter of Pedro, late emperor of Brazil, was born at Rio de reiro, 1819, and left her native country for 895 MAC was disputed by her uncle, Don Miguel, who de- clared himself king of Portugal, and contested her claims till the taking of Lisbon in 1834. Her reign was afterwards a stormy and unhappy one, disturbed by civil war and endless political intrigues, the end of which was the triumph of the duke of Saldanha in 1851. Died Nov., 1854. MARIA ADELAIDE, queen of Sardinia, daughter of the archduke Reignier of Austria, born 1822 ; married to her cousin, Victor Emman- uel, 1842, who became king when his father ab- dicated in 1849; died 1855. MARIA THERESA, queen dowager of Sar- dinia, daughter of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, born 1801 ; married to Charles Albert, then prince of Savoy-Carignan, 1817 ; left a widow 1824 ; died 1855. MARKHAM, Frederick, successor of General Pennefather as commander of the second division in the Crimea, was bom in 1805, and first saw actual service in the field during the rebellion in Canada in 1837, when he was severely wounded. As lieut.- colonel, he served in the Punjaub cam- paign, 1848-1849, and was present at the siege of Mooltan and the battle of Goojerat. He was on his way to take the command at Peshawur, when the exigencies of the Russian war caused his recall, and he made a hasty journey into the Crimea. The previous state of his health led to his recall home after the fall of Sebastopol, and he died in London, Nov. 21, 1855. MARTIN, John, the celebrated painter of 'Bel - shazzar's Feast,' was born at Haydon Bridge in Northumberland, July, 1789; died at the house of Thomas Wilson, Esq., Douglas, Isle of Man, 1854. His father, who was a teacher of fencing in Newcas- tle, apprenticed him to a coach-builder and painter, but the indentures being subsequently cancelled, he finally placed him with an Italian artistjnamed Muss, who brought him to London to assist in painting on enamel. Here he married at the age of nine- teen ; and with this spur to exertion he painted, as early as 1812, his first picture, 'Sadak in Search of the "Waters of Oblivion,' which was sold for 50 guineas. Between this period and 1814, he pro- duced ' Paradise,' ' The Expulsion,' and ' Clytie.' In 1818 and 1819 he painted ' Joshua' and the ' Fall of Babylon.' In 1820, ' Macbeth,' which he regarded as his most successful landscape; and in 1821, ' Belshazzar's Feast,' for which he received the premium of 200 guineas from the British Institution. His other great works date between this period and 1828 ; the last of the series being the ' Fall of'Nineveh.' We must not omit, however, three remarkable pictures of later date recently exhibited in London, with the faults as well as the beauties of which every one interested in art must be familiar. Art-writers are generally agreed in admitting what it is impossible to deny the original genius and imaginative power of Martin. Among painters he well merits the appellation of a Dante or Milton, the same mystic grandeur and supernatural terror, contrasting with exquisite touches of nature's loveliness, characterizing his productions. His pictures of ' Pandemonium,' the ' Belshazzar,' and others of similar character, are not simply striking they are almost as startling in their effects as visions, and can never be forgot- ten by those who have once seen them, or even the MED engravings from them, m;iny of which were exe- cuted by the wrist himself." The illustrations of Milton, tor which he received 2,000 guineas, were aetuallv drawn by him on the plates. Martin hitherto has been' more popular with the public than with the critics of art, for the simple reason, perhaps, that he followed not their rules, and possessed few points of character with which they could sympathize : his talents, however, were sub- stantially recognized by the government of Belgium, and he was elected a member of their Academy. His genius, perhaps, was essentially inventive and architectonic; in proof of which he submitted to the government, some years ago, a magnificent design for the improvement of the metropolis, including the embankment of the Thames. [E.R.] MEDWYN, L"KD, the title assumed by John Hay Fokbks, Esq., as a judge of the court of session, and lord of justiciary, was born in 1776 at Edinburgh. He was called to the Scottish bar in 1799, and appointed judge in 1825. Died in 1854, two years after his retirement from the bench. MELLONI, Mackdonio, a celebrated Italian philosopher, who several times received the Rum- ford gold medal. Born at Parma 1801, died at Porticiin 1854. MERLE, Gibbons, an English journalist and author, best known as one of the editors of Galiy- nanVs Messenger; died 1855. MILL, William Hodge, D.D., a dignitary of the Church of England, professor of Hebrew, and a distinguished mathematician and Orientalist, was born in 1791. From 1821 to 1838 he resided in India, as principal of Bishop's College, Calcutta ; and contributed towards the evangelization of that country a work in Sanscrit, entitled ' Christa Sangrita.' He succeeded Dr. Lee as regius pro- fessor of Hebrew in 1848. Died 1853. MILLER, Hugh, Author, Journalist, and Geo- logist, born at Cromarty in 1802, was the descen- dant of a race of sailors, most of whom had made the ocean their tomb, not once during an entire century had a male member of the family been laid in the family burial vault. After many hair- breadth escapes his father ultimately met the common doom of his race, perishing in a storm off the coast of Peterhead while the subject of this brief sketch was yet only some five years of age. On his widowed mother now devolved the chief if not exclusive care and training of Hugh Miller. At the school of Cromarty the boy was no remark- able prodigy, a love of story-tellmg and a love of adventure were at this period his chief character- istics. Having acquired the usual education re- ceived by the peasantry of Scotland in her public schools, to which in his case was added a smattering of Latin, young Miller was sent to earn his bread at the craft of a mason, a profession in which he acquired considerable dexterity and excellence. The calling he had chosen developed the taste and furnished the opportunities of scientific investiga- tion. In 1829, he published a small volume of poetry, but poetry was not his forte, "Scarce hauflin* warmed wf minstrel fire, An* little skilled in lear o' rhyme," it was manifest that he would reap but few laurels on Parnassus. His next publication, ' Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland ' at once revealed MIL his peculiar powers. This work the late Bare Hume, nephew of the historian, a man of consul) mate taste and soundest judgment, said was writtt in an English st\ le which he had begun to regard one of the lost arts. About this time Hugh Mill withdrew from the drudgery of manual labour . a mason, having received an appointment in tl Commercial Bank at Cromarty. In this situatu he continued until called to Edinburgh to edit tl Witness newspaper, a journal which the lcadh members of what was known as the evangelic section of the Church of Scotland were about establish. The ability displayed by Mr. Mill as editor of the Witness is well known. Tl influence he exerted on ecclesiastical and educ tional events in Scotland was of no common ordc His paper speedily attained a commanding circul. tion, and it is with some little feeling of pardonah pride, that in his autobiographical memoir the sel educated editor records the fact that the Wilnt was read by a greater proportion of college br< men than probably any other Scottish jourm It was in 1840 that Hugh Miller's name fir began to be known beyond his native land. At meeting of the British Association for the advanc merit of Science held that year in Glasgow, Roderick, then Mr. Murchison, ever ready to dra attention to rising merit, gave an account the striking discoveries recently made by Mr. Mill in the old red sandstone of Scotland. Agassi who was present, pointed out the peculiarities ai importance of these discoveries, associating I name of the modest journalist with the wonderi fossil now known as the Pterichthys Milleri, spec mens of which were then under the notice of the se tion. Dr. Buckland following Agassiz, said he h* never been so much astonished in his life by Cj powers of any man as he had been by the geoloc " descriptions of Mr. Miller. He described the* objects with a felicity which made him ashanv of the comparative meanness and poverty of I own descriptions in the ' Bridgewater Treatis which had cost him hours and days of laboi The publication of the ' Old Red Sandstone ' w the details of the author's discoveries and research? more than justified all the anticipations that hi 1 been formed. The 'Old Red Sandstone' v followed, in 1817, by ' First Impressions of Engla and its People,' the result of a tour made durir the previous year, and suggested to him, we believ by his partner as a fitting theme on which might contribute a few interesting papers to i Witness. Parts of this work abound in the fine descriptive writing to be found within the comp* of the English language. ' Footprints of the Cre tor,' written in reply to that fascinating and highj popular work 'Vestiges of the Natural History, Creation ' still further extended his scientific fair exhibiting its author as one not merely possess* in a high degree the purely scientific faculty, b; as uniting to the most rigid scientific precision, i that love of theological and metaphysical disqui*j tion which distinguish the mental philosopher ai theologian. His latest work, 'The Testimony the Rocks,' is written in the same spirit and wi the same aim as the 'Footprints of the Create and has met a most unprecedented circulation the sad circumstances of his death no doubt co tributiug to deepen the interest of this his latt MIT labour. For some years previous to his decease, it was apparent that in Mr. Miller the vital forces had been sadly overwrought. The immense liter- ary labours he had undergone had relaxed the muscular energy of his powerful frame, and it was not difficult to detect even by his gait that the editor of the Witness had become the prey of those diseases which seem the heritage of the man of genius, just as surely as the gout seems the heri- tage of the high liver. Having conquered for him- self a position, gained a most honourable competency, known as the ablest literary defender of ecclesias- tical opinions dear to a large section of Scotchmen, and having earned a European reputation as the most eloquent expositor of the truths of geological science, it might have been anticipated that his sun which had hitherto shone with so lustrous a light, would yet for years to come have culminated in the horizon of human thought. But it was not to be ; and in the mysterious dispensations of provi- dence it came to pass that he, whom so many hearts so warmly loved and whose dying eyes so many thousands of his countrymen would have felt honoured to have closed, perished silent and alone. On the evening of the 23d December, though a state when all literary work should have been forgone, Mr. Miller corrected the last proofs of ' The Testimony of the Rocks.' In the morning, that noble heart which ere while heaved with such gener- ous emotion, was found torn by bullets and shattered by a revolver. In a paroxysm of insanity he had done the fatal deed. Thus gloomily perished this self-taught genius, the greatest man after Scott and Burns Scotland has produced. A col- lected edition of Mr. Miller's works is now being sublished by the Messrs. Constable, which will, we )elieve, include selections from his contributions, literary, ecclesiastical, and political, to the Witness ewspaper. MfTFORD, Mary Russell, was born on the IGth of December, 1786, at Alresford in Hampshire. Her father was a physician, a man of good family, md related by the marriage of a niece to the ducal iouse of Atholl ; her mother was the daughter of i clergyman in Hants. The student of literature night gain an instructive lesson in the art of dealizing, if he were here to institute a double com- parison. The materials for it would be furnished, m the one hand, by some of the pictures which Miss Mitford has painted in her prose works ; and, an the other, by the originals of the objects as they really existed, or even as they were described by the author when she ventured on disclosing a )art of the truth. Dr. Mitford, if we take him sven as his daughter is compelled to describe him n her autobiographical memoirs, would offer a itriking contrast to the ever wise and amiable !ather of the half-imaginary groups : a contrast ret more melancholy would be found to separate the rural ease, and plenty, and happiness, depicted d hinted at in ' Our Village,' from the struggles d anxieties, the alternations of prosperity and itstress, which made up the real history of the family. Dr. Mitford may have been, and probably ras, a pleasant person in companionship; but, ven from the facts reluctantly communicated by lis daughter, he must be pronounced to have been, the extreme, thoughtless, extravagant, and self- B He received a large fortune with his wife ; and 897 MIT he appears to have had, more than once in his life, a good professional practice. Other sums of money likewise came into his hands the largest item being 20,000, gained in a lottery, by a ticket which, at a time of pressing difficulty, he had in- sisted on purchasing for his daughter, then a little girl. One supply after another disappeared nearly as fast as it was obtained ; the family migrated from place to place, shifting painfully between opulence and poverty ; and at length the daughter had to support, first her father, and afterwards herself, by the hard earnings of literary labour. In 1842, when Dr. Mitford died, a subscription was raised by the friends of the family ; and soon after- wards Miss Mitford received a pension from the government. In early fife Miss Mitford's literary inclinations leant decidedly towards poetry and the drama. Her first publications were three volumes of poems, ' perpetrated,' to use her own good-hu- moured phrase, 'in less than two years,' and all pub- lished in 1806. Two of them were poetical narra- tives : Blanche, a Spanish Story ;' and ' Christina, the Maid of the South Seas.' They were followed, in 1812, by ' Wellington Hall, a Poem,' which de- scribed a coursing-match, and showed the predilec- tion for greyhounds with which the readers of her prose works have been made so familiar. Her love for dramatic poetry and acting, nourished in her childhood by a governess, whom she describes pleasingly, and strengthened, as she tells us, by her presence at performances of classical plays in Dr. Valpy's school at Reading, was allowed full scope for some years of her life. If her tragedies have not kept possession of the stage, this is no more than must be said of other poets of our age who are more celebrated. 'Julian' (1823) is really a fine drama for the closet ; ' Foscari' (1826) is not much inferior; and ' Rienzi' (1828) was, for a time, very successful in the theatre. ' Charles I.' was refused a chance, by the silly scruples which were the rule of action for George Colman, the licenser : the oriental opera of ' Sadak and Kalasrade ' failed, but perhaps through the music ; and several other plays, with fragmen- tary dramatic scenes, may be read in a collected edition. Long, however, before the appearance of Rienzi, Miss Mitford had, fortunately (in the end) for her own fame, been compelled to step aside into other paths. In her own brave words, ' the pressing necessity of earning money, and the un- certainties and delays of the drama at moments when disappointment or delay weighed upon me like a sin, made it a duty to turn away from the lofty steep of tragic poetry, to the everyday path of Village Stones.' The vein thus happily struck by Miss Mitford, presented itself to her in an extensive and various course of contribution to magazines and annuals. The earliest of her rural sketches were refused admission into the 'New Monthly Magazine,' during Thomas Campbell's nominal editorship. They first appeared, in 1819, in no more distinguished a vehicle than 'The Lady's Magazine.' They formed afterwards the first portion of ' Our Village ;' and the series was completed in five volumes in 1832. The town of Reading, near which the author lived for many of the latest years of her life, was the original of another series, ' Belford Regis,' published in 1835. A good many other stories and sketches of the 3M MIT same sort are scattered through periodicals ; and a few have been collected. Miss Mitford's prose pieces are wearisome to many readers, and must be so to all who crave strong excitement. They have, indeed, two sources of weakness: the lingering fondness and endless repetition with which she dilates on inanimate objects and groups ; the con- stancv (an odd feature in a practised writer of tragedies) with which she shuns and keeps back everything that is painful or even deeply pathetic. But her descriptions have both great truth, and, for lovers of nature of a certain kind, lively interest ; and over every character and incident she throws a semi-transparent veil of cheerfulness, which irradiates her pages as if with a continual flood of sunshine. It would be a curious thing to know how far she was indebted to reality, for the ami- abilities, and generosities, and_ felicities of her per- sonages ; or how far she practised, on any or all of her originals out-of-doors, the process of beauti- fying which we know her to have applied to her own fireside and its occupants. In 1852 appeared, in three volumes, Miss Mitford's ' Recollections of a Literary Life; or, Books, Places, and People.' The work contains very few personal details ; but it is a remarkably pleasant series of extracts, chiefly Eoetical, and of light criticism, almost always indatory, especially of her own friends. Particu- lars of her lite were prefixed by her more fully to the two volumes of her collected dramas in 1854. In the same year, too, were published her last works, ' Atherton, and other Tales.' In her ' Re- collections ' she had described, with a half-comic pathos, the miseries of an invalid, compelled to quit an old and favourite, but decaying abode. In her new house, Swallowfield Cottage, not far from the former, and, like it, near Reading, she spent her last days, in the cheerful contentment natural to her character, and with all the happiness that could be made for her by many and distinguished friends. She died there on the 10th of January, 1855. [W.S.] MITZKIEVITCH, Adam, a Polish poet, for- merly professor of the Sclavonic language and literature in the college of France. Died at Con- stantinople, 1855. MOLE, Louis Mathieu, Count, the celebrated French statesman, was descended from the old noblesse of that country, and was a youth when his father was beheaded in the reign of terror. Inheriting the talent which had rendered his an- cestors illustrious, he had therefore to make his way under very different circumstances, and at the age of twenty-five published a work, ; Essai de Morale et de Politique,' which attracted the attention of Napoleon, who appointed him, together with MM. Portalis, jun., and Pasquier, one of his Maitre des Requites, by which may be understood the func- tions of a law officer attached to the Council of State, somewhat resembling those of our masters in the Court of Chancery. In this character he was appointed, together with his colleagues, one of Napoleon's commissioners in the Grand Sanhedrim of tne Jews which was convened in Paris in 1806, with the ultimate object, probably, of their restor- ation to Palestine, but with the preliminary view of inducing them to enter the army. After this M. Mole - was made Prefect of Dijon, and while holding this appointment wrote the life of his great 898 MOL ancestor Mathieu Mole, who was president of the parliament of Paris during the wars of the Fronde : his subsequent honours under the empire were those of Conseiller d'Etat and Director-General des Ponts et Chausse'es, with the title of Count, supreme judge and minister of justice after the campaign of 1812, and president of the Council of Regency when Napoleon took the field in person again. In this character he remained faithful to the Empress Marie Louise, till released from his duty by the recommendation of Napoleon himself, and was then forced on Louis XVIIL, who could not tolerate the renegade nobility, by Talleyrand ; nevertheless, he became one of Napoleon's peers during the hundred days, and at the same time re- sumed his old functions of Director-General des Ponts et Chaussees, which he continued to exer- cise under the second restoration. In this period of his career M. Mole acted with the opposition against Polignac, and was of course a foremost man when Louis Philippe became king, who im- mediately appointed him foreign minister, and at a later period prime minister. The brilliancy of his reputation was now greatly enhanced by the ability with which he sustained himself against the attacks of MM. Thiers and Guizot ; and as this is the most fitting place to speak of his general char- acter, we may describe him concisely in the words of Lamartine l a man of political temperament, of ability for a crisis, agreeable to the Court, hon- oured by conservatives, and loved by the superior bourgeoisie; one of those national aristocrats whose, character accords with their birth, and whose native superiority wins for them honour and affection ev< from the most zealous democracy.' (Rev. 1 848.) Like several other of the chief statesm of France, he made what effort he could to sa the monarchy in 1848, and those failing, he after* wards lived almost retired, saving that he appeared once more as auditor to the Council of State dur- ing the Presidency of Louis Napoleon. His last, hopes, it is believed, were fixed on the restoration of Henry V. Count Mol6 died suddenly of apo-i plexy, Nov. 24, 1855. [E.R.] MOLESWORTH, Sir William, justly charv acterized as the liberator and regenerator of out colonial empire, was born in London, 1810. Hf was descended from an ancient family, in whosfj ranks have been numbered colonial governors}) courtiers, and naval officers, the barons of Pencaiv row, since the time of Elizabeth. Sir Williani became baronet at the age of thirteen by the deatl of his father, and was just rising to his majoritjj at the period of the reform agitation, in whicf cause he made his maiden speech at a count! meeting in 1831, having recently returned his travels on the continent. In 1832, he returned with Mr. Trelawney as M.P. for eastern division of Cornwall, and kept his till 1837, when his local influence failed to mi head against the conservative feeling that pi vailed : the same year, however, he was turned for Leeds in conjunction with Mr. Edward Baines. In 1841. foreseeing the defeat of tflj liberal interest, Sir VV. Molesworth declined thlj contest, and, retiring a while from the bustle oi] political life, he girded himself, by hard political] study, for future action. Southwark, in fine, haoj the honour of sending him to parliament in 184m ie MON and the same constituents have twice re-elected him, first, in 1853, when he became first com- missioner of public works; and again, on his ecent appointment as secretary of state for the colonies. The laborious zeal in one great cause, the political talents, and the persevering single- ess of purpose by which Sir William Molesworth at length attained this eminence, gave high promise of bis administrative abilities in office; but he had carcely time to realize his position when he was urprised by death, October 22, 1855. His early oss will be long and deeply lamented, and by lone so much as our expectant fellow- subjects in he colonies. Order and constructive ability, com- bined with integrity, independence, and unflinch- ng perseverance in the investigation of difficulties, ire rare political qualities, and the less brilliant some of the practical talents may be which go to nake up such a character, the more unselfishness ve may claim for their exercise. Another kind f tribute is still due to his memory. Sir "W illiam lolesworth is only recognized m one-half his haracter as a politician or statesman: he was lso the cultivated philosopher and man of letters. n 1839, he commenced publishing at his own ost, and has since completed, the works of Hobbes, i a beautiful library edition, English and Latin ; ie has also left in MSS. the materials, far ad- anced towards completion, for a life of that hilosopher. [E.R.] MONTGOMERY, James, the last survivor but ne, and a worthy member, though not among the reatest, of the great company of poets who glori- ed the first generation of our century, has re- entry gone to his rest, full of years, and of the onour that belongs to good men. He was born t Irvine in Ayrshire, on the 4th of November, 771. His parents, who were of the sect of Mo- ivians, emigrated in his boyhood on a missionary aterprise to the West Indies, where both of them >on died. Their son was left for education in a ;minary of the Brethren at Fulneck, in York- lire ; and there he spent ten years of his early auth. Much of the plaintive and devotional veetness which breathes through his poems may i attributed to the influence of the Moravian >irit ; but the Moravian rules were far from being rectly favourable to the cultivation of those ;erary and poetical tastes, which were early de- iloped in his mind, and had to be indulged by ealth when yielded to at all. His superiors wisely elded to his reluctance to the ministry, for which ley had designed him ; but no better place could i found for him than one behind the counter of a iscellaneous shop. Thence, after a year's servi- ide, he eloped, his possessions consisting of three illings and sixpence, and a volume of manuscript >ems. Starved out before being able to reach e great mart of letters, he took another place of e same sort as before, wTiting to his preceding aster for a character, and (to the credit of both irties) receiving one, with an invitation to return. few months afterwards he found his way to rndon ; and, although he failed to gain a pub- her for his poems, he obtained a place for him- If as shopman to a bookseller in Paternoster Row. Soon he returned to Yorkshire, and, in 1782, en- red the employment of Mr. Gale, of Sheffield, a okseller, who was also proprietor of a newspaper, t'.i'j MOO then called the Sheffield Register. Montgomery began to write for the newspaper ; and when, its politics being too liberal for the age, Gale found it convenient to quit England, his young assistant took the editorship. He re-named the print the Sheffield Iris, a name which in more recent times he made so respectable and so respected. In the meantime, however, troubles came over him. Al- though his writings are believed to have been ex- ceedingly moderate in tone, and are very unlikely, from his character and disposition, to have been otherwise, yet the jealous government of the day prosecuted and punished him twice in the course of twelve months. In January, 1795, for having printed (not written) a song on the fall of the Bastile, he was sentenced to imprisonment for three months, and fined twenty pounds : in Jan- uary, 1796, his sentence was a fine of thirty pounds, with imprisonment for six months, for having offended, by an account of a riot in the streets, a zealous volunteer officer, who was also a magis- trate. These events gave birth to a short series of poems : ' Prison Amusements, written during nine months of imprisonment in the castle of York'. Montgomery's larger poems soon began to appear: 'The Wanderer in Switzerland,' in 1806 ; 'The West Indies,' in 1809; and 'The World Be- fore the Flood,' in 1812. A second series of the same class was formed by ' Greenland,' published in 1819; and 'The Pelican Island,' in 1828. A good many of his early essays in the Iris are said to have been collected and reprinted ; and within the last thirty years have appeared his 'Prose by a Poet,' and 'Lectures on Poetry and Literature.' His prose writings, however, are of small account : nor have his more ambitious works, in verse, vitality or substance enough to float them down the stream of time. His name is preserved, and made dear to the lovers of poetry, inspired at once (a rare union) by genius and by devotion, through his minor poems of a lyrical and reflective kind. Such pieces as 'The Grave,' and 'The Common Lot,' are familiar to every one who loves poetry of a religious cast. His poetical works were collected into four volumes in 1841, and into one volume in 1850; and, in 1853, he published ' Original Hymns, for Public, Private, and Social Devotion.' His re- tirement from the editorship of the Iris took place in 1840; and the newspaper did not long sur- vive the loss. For the last few years of his life he possessed a government pension. He died at his house in Sheffield, April 30, 1854. [W.S.] MONTGOMERY, Robert, author of the ' Omnipresence of the Deity ' and other well known works, died at the beginning of December, 1855. Mr. Montgomery was educated at Oxford, and ordained about the year 1835. He was some time minister of St. Jude's episcopal chapel at Glas- gow, but the last years of his life he rented Percy street chapel in the metropolis, where his elo- quence in the pulpit and his amiable private character made him highly popular. MOORE, Lieut.-Col. Willoughby, an aged officer memorable for the noble performance of his duty on board the transport ship Europa, which was destroyed by fire on the night of May 31, 1854, being then on her voyage to the East, and about 200 miles from Plymouth. He remained on board the burning vessel to the last, making the MOO best arrangements in his power for removing the men (a detachment of the 6th dragoons! and is stated to have been at length driven into the mizen chains by the violence of the flames and to have there perished. MOORE, Mrs. Willoughby, lady superin- tendent of the officers' hospital at Scutari, died at her post, of dutv, Nov., 1855. MORGAN, John Minter, a well-known phi- lanthropist, author of a project for a self-supporting village, was born in 1783. His father was a wholesale stationer in the metropolis, and at his death left Mr. Morgan in possession of an ample fortune. Naturally benevolent, and desirous of active occupation, his attention was arrested by the projects of Robert Owen, on which he published his comments in a pamphlet, 1819. The year following he published his famous little work en- titled 'The Revolt of the Bees;' and thenceforth, by poems, lectures, or addresses, seizing with avidity on every opportunity presented by circum- stances, he sought to obtain a hearing for his plans. The essential point in which he differed from Mr, Owen was in the recognition of religious principles as the basis of his calculations. In 1842 he petitioned parliament for an inquiry into his pro- ject, entitled the ' Church of England Agricultural Self-Supporting Institute ; ' and, besides address- ing large public meetings on the subject, he pro- mulgated his views by the press in his ' Christian Commonwealth.' His plan was received with some favour in Germany, where an opportunity existed for comparing it with the Moravian establishments, and in this country it was viewed with favour by a scattered few of the clergy. Competition was the great evil it proposed to extinguish, and there- with much of the misery that afflicts society ; but the difficulty of raising a sufficient capital (40,000 was the sum proposed), no less than the prejudices of society, and perhaps the formality that charac- terized Mr. Morgan s plan, ever prevented the establishment of a model institute. The projector sought what consolation he could in the hope of a better future, and published, in 1850, a series of works bearing on the renovation and progress of society, called 'The Phoenix Library,' 13 vols., 12mo ; this series included the productions of his own pen, and, of course, ' The Revolt of the Bees.' Mr. Morgan died at his residence in Stratton street, Piccadilly, December 26, 1854, shortly after establishing an institution on Ham Common, called 1 The National Orphan House.' [E.R.] N NACHIMOFF, Admiral, well known as the commander of the Russian fleet when the Turkish ships were destroyed at Sinope, in Nov., 1853. Killed at Sebastopol, July, 1855. NIC most of his time abroad. The offer of his services, in the Crimean war was declined. NEWPORT, Gkorqe, a distinguished physi- ologist and naturalist, born at Canterbury, 1803; died in London, 1854. Mr. Newport is a good ex- ample of the benefits arising from the institution of those societies for the cultivation of literature and science, which are now so general throughout the country. Engaged as a youth in a humble business, he luckily had his mind directed to scien- tific pursuits through the influence of the literary society established in his native town. His taste led him to anatomical and physiological investi- gations, and was the means of inducing him to study medicine. This profession led him to follow still further these particular branches of study, and to the prosecution of them he ultimately de- voted his whole time and attention. His nume- rous memoirs in the Transactions of the Linnsean and Royal Societies, and in various scientific jour- nals of the day, established his fame as an origi- nal and acute observer, procured for him twict the Royal medal of the Royal Society, caused hire to be elected President of the Entomological So- ciety, and obtained for him from the Crown a pen- sion of 100 per annum. His last labours wen a course of patient investigations and experiments to show the changes undergone in the ovum of th frog during its development ; and it was to hir zeal in prosecuting these researches that he owec his death. Engaged in obtaining a supply of frogi in the marshes near London, he contracted a feve: which cut him off in his fifty-first year. [W.B V NICHOLAS, late Emperor of Russia, brother of his predecessor, Alexander, was born in 1796 and died suddenly, of paralysis of the lungs, sooi: after midnight, between March 1st and 2d, 1855 The career of Nicholas is one of the most remarks able in the annals of royalty, and his character om which would have stood out grandly in other ages Previous to his accession, the name of the Empero* Nicholas hardly belongs to history, but the fin* events of his reign stamped his character, and served, perhaps, to decide his policy once for a! towards his own subjects. The death of Alex: ander, Nov. 30, 1825, proved the signal for a wide spread revolt, which menaced the throne and thi existing institutions of the country ; for at its hean were many of the officers who had marched int Germany with the Russian army in 1812, aid there became acquainted with the theories of it publican and constitutional government TM conspiracy was general, extending from St. Peterej burg to Kief; and, in the capital, the populace wet] joined by the guards, under pretence of supportinl Prince Constantine, who had long before, definw tively resigned the crown in favour of his brothew On this occasion the young sovereign displayed a | the chivalry of his character, and as much by " personal daring as the terrible use he made of cannon in the streets of Petersburg, awed rebellious subjects into obedience. His coronat was celebrated with unusual pomp, Sept. 3, 1 at which time the affairs of Greece occupie" NAPIER, Sir George Thomas, a younger brother of the hero of Scinde, General Sir Charles James Napier, born at Whitehall, 1784, died at Geneva, September, 1855. He was in the chief \ attention of the Western powers, and made actions of the Peninsula, and at the siege of fest the ambition and the secret designs of Cuidad Rodrigo he lost his right arm. From I Russian government : for the present, he 1837 to 1844 he served his country as governor of | a settlement was effected by the treaty of the Cape of Good Hope, since which he passed | concluded July 6, 1827, between England, F; 900 NIC md Russia. In the meantime, war had broken >ut between Russia and Persia, in which, by the notorious arms of Paskievitch the Russian frontier ivas advanced to the Arras (Jrraes), as admitted in :he articles of peace signed at Turcomanchai, Feb., 1828. Thus another province was added to the Russian empire, besides which, and contrary to stipulation, she retained Talish and Moghan be- yond the Arras, as a means of easier entrance into ;he Persian dominions. On the 4th of the suc- ceeding April, war was formally declared against Turkey, for alleged violations of the treaty of Bucharest concluded sixteen years before, and an tfmy of 115,000 men crossed the Pruth: the sacrifice of life on both sides was very great, but Turkey was the sufferer in her possessions, and was compelled to conclude the treaty of Adrianople, sept. 14, 1829, which handed over to Russia the Circassian coast of the Black Sea, and was even stigmatized by Lord Aberdeen for its duplicity. The interest of these events to Western Europe was soon, however, absorbed in the greater peril created by the French Revolution of 1830, and the Czar himself was immediately occupied with the last desperate struggle of the Poles, which lasted from Nov., 1830, to Oct. 5, 1831, when the wreck of the patriot army surrendered to Rudiger and Paskievitch. This cruel and decisive conflict had hardly been terminated, when the revolt of the Pasha of Egypt against the Grand Sultan afforded the emperor an excuse for sending an expedition to the Bosphorus; at which opportunity he ex- torted from the Porte the clandestine treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, dated July 8, 1832, the effect of which was to close tha Dardanelles against the fleets of Europe, in a word, to place Constantinople by her own act, at the mercy of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea. This event was followed by political complications of no ordinary difficulty, which, in 1840, had nearly produced a war be- tween England and France, and led to our military operations in Syria, where the further advance of Mehemet Ali was checked by the operations ^ of Sir Robert Stopford and Commodore Napier. The succeeding years, till 1848, were not marked by any event that we need notice in this summary, but the intrigues of the Russian government are supposed by many to have secretly fomented the convulsions of that year, and there is historical evidence, that the Czar, whatever his apparent moderation, was ever watchful of his opportunity to crush the free institutions of the West, or, as he latterly expressed it, to 'put a stop to the materialism of England.' The opportunity for a first advance was created by the peril of the Austrian government, and in July, 1848, the Rus- sian troops were marched into Hungary in support of the house of Hapsburg, where Bern and Dem- binski at the head of 20,000 Poles had joined the Magyars : the Hugarians, it is well known, were eventually defeated by the surrender of Georgey to the Russian General Rudiger, on the 11th of August, and the immediate gain of the Czar was the fall of a constitutional government, which had been perilous in close proximity with his dominions. The events of the late war are too familiar to require an extended notice, but it may be mentioned that the quarrel originated, sub- stantially, in the assertion, by Russia, of a right O'CO to the protectorate of the Greek Church through- out the dominions of the Sultan; in support of which, part of the Russian army was ordered towards Moldavia, at the latter end of 1852, Two divisions actually crossed the Pruth at the beginning of July, 1853, the interim having been occupied by the mission of Prince Menschikoff to Constantinople, and the naval demonstrations on the part of England and France in Besika Bay. The subsequent occurrences to the death of Nicholas, are inscribed in the annals of our country in pages which can never be pronounced inglorious, what- ever faults of administration, and want of leading ability, may, at the same time, have been brought to light. The sudden death of the Czar, as he stood upright in his pride, serves to mark the character of the man, whose passions could sere his brain at the same moment that he preserved his unrelenting aspect, and moved among his courtiers and subjects with the haughty bearing of a demi-god, or a hero of the ancient world. The time, however, has not yet arrived to estimate his character fairly, and it must be conceded that selfishness of a merely personal nature formed no part of it. His temper and policy were alike imperial, and all his designs tended to the advance- ment of the glory of his country, and the im- provement of his people, so far, at least, as such designs are compatible with the absolute manner of government. [E.R.] NICHOLSON, George, a clergyman ana theological writer, died 1819. NICKLE, Major-General Sir Robert, an old Peninsular officer, late commander of the forces at Melbourne, memorable for his services at Ballarat, 1785-1855. NIXON, Samuel, a sculptor of London, whose principal works are ' The Four Seasons ' in Gold- smith's Hall, 1803-1854. NOLAN, Lewis Edward, captain in the 15th hussars, killed in the famous cavalry charge at Balaklava, was the son of the late Major Nolan, some time vice-consul at Milan. He obtained his first commission in the army of Austria, but entered the service of his country in 1839 as ensign in the 4th foot. He was a man of varied accomplish- ments, skilled in many languages, Eastern and European, besides being a matchless cavalier and swordsman. In 1853 he published a work on the ' Organization, Drill, and Manoeuvres of Cavalry Corps,' having first visited the principal military posts in Russia, besides other parts of Northern Europe. The fatal mistake under which the light cavalry were ordered to charge the Russian guns has been amply discussed in the public journals. Captain Nolan was killed by the first shot as he rode in advance of his men. [E.R.] NORBURY, Lord. See Toler. O O'CONNELL, Maurice, eldest son of the celebrated Daniel O'Connell. He was called to the Irish bar in 1827, and became member foi Clare in 1831 on the nomination of his father, after which he was seldom without a seat in par- liament. Died in June, 1853. <J 01 O'CO O'CONNOR, Feargus, the chartist leader., was born in 1796, at Dargaa Castle, county Meath. He was known in 1832 as one of the supporters of O'Connell, and obtained a seat in the first, reformed parliament for the county of Cork. At the general election of 1835, he was elected for Cork a second time, but was unseated on the petition of Mr. Longffcld : in the same year he contested, unsuc- cessfully, the borough of Oldham. From that period till 1847, though he was once or twice a candidate, be did not go to the poll, but he was then returned by the chartists of Nottingham, and was still member in 1852, when his mental aberra- tion became manifest. At the time of his greatest influence, Mr. O'Connor was proprietor and editor of the Northern Star, a weekly journal devoted to the political interests of the working classes. It was under the direction of this journal that the movement was set afoot which resulted in the famous petition for the charter, and the gathering in London of a large body of the working classes, April 10, 1848. Though since made a subject of ridicule, there was so little sense of security in the public mind at the time, that a large provision was made for the defence of the government and the capital bv the duke of Wellington ; the people, however, "dispersed quietly under the honest advice of their leader, and the petition was wisely abandoned when it was discovered that the mass of signatures was vitiated, by many that were either false or ridiculous. The political career of Mr. O'Connor was now at an end, and the total failure of his land scheme, followed by the un- merited disgrace and calumny to which he was subject, seem to have overturned the balance of his reason. His insubordination in the House led to his committal by the speaker during the session of 1852, and he was finally consigned to the care of Dr. Tuke of Chiswick, where he died, Aug. 30, 1855. Mr. O'Connor, like many of his countrymen, was a man of violent passions, but thoroughly honest in his intentions, and so far from mercenary that his devotion to the cause he espoused left him a beggar. The remnant of his followers expressed their sense of his disinterestedness in the motto displayed at his funeral, He lived and died for us.' [E.R.] OCTAV1US. See Augustus. OLAUS, Magnus, an archbishop of Upsala who lived during the first half of the 16th century. He is known throughout Europe as a legendary writer, his stories of Lycanthropy, of Mermen, and similar marvels being frequentlycited.^ An Eng- lish version of his work was published in 1658. OMMANEY, Sir John Ackworth, K.C.B., rear-admiral of the Red, was born 1783, and died on 8th July, 1855, at his seat, Warblington House, Havant, Hants. O'NEILL, John Bruce Richard, third vis- count and baron, memorable as the last of the hereditary chiefs of Ulster, 1780-1855. O'REILLY, The Hon. Dowelt,, for nearly a quarter of a century attorney -general of Jamaica, and president of the legislative council there, was born in 1795; died at his residence, St. Andrew's, Kingston, Jamaica, in October, 1855. OI'MOND, John Butler, second marquis of, distinguished for his contributions to the Belles Lettres, born in Dublin, 1808 ; died suddenly while bathing, 1854. 902 PAR OXLEE, John, a learned divine, remarkable for his industry and great literary capacity, born in Cleveland 1779, died 1854. He was master of 120 languages or dialects. His principal work is entitled ' The Christian Doctrines of the Trinity and Incarnation.' PACIFICO, Don, well known for his claims upon the Greek government, which had well nigh provoked a war, died in London at an advanced age, 1854. PAGET, Lord. See Anglesey. PAILLET, M., a distinguished French barrister and member of the assembly, died 1855. PAPWORTH, George, distinguished as an architect and engineer, 1801-1855. PARK, Patrick, a sculptor, died 1855. PARKER, Vice-Admiral Hyde, was the son of admiral Sir Hyde Parker, who died in 1807, and grandson of vice-admiral Sir Hyde Parker, who was lost in the Cato in 1782. He first entered upon active service in the navy in 1799, and attained the rank of post-captain after the expedition to Copenhagen in 1807. Since the peace he served some years on the Mediterranean station, and in 1845 commanded an experimental squadron. In 1852 he attained the rank of vice- admiral, and took office as one of the lords commissioners of the admiralty, under the duke of Northumberland ; died 1854. PARKER, Captain Hyde, son of the preced- ing, was born 1825, and obtained his first commis- sion April 5, 1844. Two years subsequently he joined the Constance, 50, Captain Sir Baldwin Walker, and in 1847 obtained the rank of com- mander. He was entrusted with an important command as captain of the Firebrand in the Black Sea fleet, and exhibited the highest qualities of the seaman. The squadron blockading the Danube was under his orders, and in a short period the military stations and batteries which had been the chief impediments to the free navigation of the liver were destroyed. In a fortnight after these achieve- ments, Captain Parker entered the river with a boat expedition, his object being to reconnoitre a battery commanding the quarantine ground. The pinnace in advance grounded, and a destructive fire was poured upon the boats. At this moment our young hero resolved to storm the forts ; and advancing at the head of his men, he received a ball in the heart, and fell dead in the arms of his coxswain. The correspondent of the Morning Herald thus alludes to his noble ,end, and sums up his character: 'Belonging to a family long distinguished in our naval annals, Captain Hyde Parker gave promise of equalling any of his race in services to his country. On receiving the news of his death, " Any one but him ! " was the universal cry throughout the combined fleet. " I have no one left like him ! " said our sorrowing admiral. The undaunted courage he had shown, added to his consummate ability, had already won for him a name which will not readily be forgotten. He was indeed no common man. We lament that there has passed from among us that genius which grasped instinctively questions which required from ' PAR others months of study that strange fascination of manner which made all who came into contact with him love and yet respect him that active in- tellect at home on every subject that generous spirit far more careful for others' welfare than his own that mind, so continually occupied in his country's service. Such was one who may per- haps be the last of his famous name. There ga- thered round to grace that funeral train the men of almost every nation ; the strong sons of his own land the brave children of our loved and noble ally the dark Italians all mingled, in martial pomp, with the troops of the Moslem, who then, for the first time, saw how France and England honour their warriors dead. But one feeling ani- mated all, from the ambassadors and representa- tives of the four great nations who bore his pall, down to the Turks and Greeks who, moved far beyond their wont, gathered round us in sympa- thizing crowds. Even their women cast aside their wonted reserve for the moment ; the tear was dropped over the fallen stranger who was to rest so far from his own land; from many a lip we heard the low murmur, " Kardesh, kardesh," " Bro- thers, brothers." His body was interred in the English cemetery at Pera.' It may be interesting to add that the fort against which he was gal- lantly advancing when he received his death- wound, was soon after in possession of his men, led by Captain Powell. [E.R.] PARMA. Ferdinand Charles de Bourbon, duke of Parma, born 1823, was the son of Charles II. and the Princess Theresa of Sardinia, daughter of King Victor Emmanuel. His father became duke of Parma on the death of Marie Louise, the widow of Napoleon, in 1847, and abdicated in favour of his son, who assumed the title of Charles III. March 14, 1849. He was assassinated March 26, 1854, and his widow became regent during the minority of her son. PARRY, Sir William Edward, rear-admiral of the White, was born at Bath, where his father Was in practice as a physician, 1790. In 1803 he entered the navy as volunteer on board the Ville de Paris, 110, and in 1810 was commissioned as ieutenant. His first acquaintance with the northern eas was in the ordinary service, affording protec- ion to the Spitzbergen whale fishery, and collect- ing observations towards the improvement of the admiralty charts. From 1813 to 1817 he was engaged in active sendee on the North American station, and at the close of that period was solicit- ng for employment in African discovery. At this ime, however, the Royal Society had memorialized he government to prosecute certain discoveries in he arctic regions, and as Parry had expressed himself equally 'ready for hot or cold,' he sailed for the north with Captain Buchan in May, 18)9. This expedition returned in November, 1820, and Lieutenant Parry was soon after rewarded with he rank of commander. Three other expeditions tt the arctic seas were undertaken by him as aptain of the Hecla ; the first extending over the ears 1821 to 1823 ; the second from 1824 to 1828, eckoning the whole period till the Hecla returned o England, her companion, the Fury, Captain loppner, having been wrecked ; the third, completed n 1827, in which, defiant of every risk, he advanced o the highest latitude ever reached, 82 45 '. Cap- PRI tain Parry was now rewarded with the honour of knighthood, and shortly after went out to New South Wales as commissioner for managing the affairs of the Australian agricultural company, an appointment which he retained till 1834. In 1835 he became assistant poor law commissioner in Norfolk, and in 1837 was employed by the admiralty to organize the packet service. Two other functions of his extend over several years, that of hydrographer to the admiralty from 1823 to 1829; and that of comptroller of the steam department of the navy from 1837 to 1846. In 1853 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of Greenwich hospital, shortly after his promotion as rear-admiral of the Blue. Died in July, 1855. Sir Edward Pany is the author of a small work, entitled ' Thoughts on the Parental Character of God,' besides narratives of his voyages. [E.R.] PASCO, John, rear-admiral, memorable as having performed the duty of signal officer at the battle of Trafalgar, when Nelson gave the order, ' England expects every man to do his duty ; ' 1776- 1854. J PAUL, Hamilton, a Scotch journalist, known as the college friend and companion of Campbell, editor of an edition of Burns, 1774-1854. PEPE, Guglielmo, a native of Calabria, well known as a general of the Neapolitan army, and a leader of the revolutionary party in Italy, was born in 1783, and first entered the army when Murat was king of Naples. He continued in the service after the restoration of the Bourbons, and was exiled for his share in the revolutionary movements of 1820-21. In 1848 he returned to his coun- try, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent to central Italy against the Aus- trians. At Bologna he was ordered to return, but instead of doing so he repaired to Venice, and served as commandant till trie surrender of the city in 1849. Died near Turin, Aug., 1855. _ PEREIRA, Jonathan, an eminent physician, distinguished in the metropolis as a lecturer on chemistry, botany, and the materia medica, died, in consequence of an accident, in his forty-ninth year, Jan., 1853. Dr. Pereira, by his labours on the materia medica, has the reputation of having developed what was practically a new science. His ' Elements of Materia Medica ' was published in its improved form in 1839. PHILLIPS, Samuel, well known as an essayist and journalist, was the son of a tradesman, and was born in 1815. Having failed in an endeavour to carry on his father's business, he devoted his time to literature, and appeared as the author of 1 Caleb Stukely,' in 1842. Subsequently he wrote for the Morning Herald, and was appointed liter- ary reviewer on the Times. Died 1854. PONSONBY, Lord, a diplomatist, 1771-1855. PORTSMOUTH, Newton Fellowes, fourth earl of, M.P. for Andover, 1772-1854. POTTINGER, Sir Hknry, a distinguished English diplomatist, died 1856. PRIULI, the surname of several Venetian doges. Lorenzo, who reigned from 1556 to 1559. Jeromino, brother and successor of the preced- ing, died 1567. Antonio, successor of Nicholas Donato in 1618. In his reign, that dangerous conspiracy was formed, of which St. Real has written the history; died 1623. PRO PROSSI, Tommaso, one of the most disting. authors and poets of modern Italy, 1789-1854. PUSEY, Philip, an eminent practical agri- culturist, late editor of the ; Agricultural Society's Journal,' 1799-1855. B RADOWITZ, Joseph Von, a Prussian general and military writer, was born in 1797, and was descended from the lesser nobility of Hungary. He received his military education in France at the time Jerome Buonaparte was king of Westphalia, and commenced active service as an artillery officer in 1812. After the peace, he devoted himself to religious and mystical studies, and having enemies at court, passed some time in honourable banish- ment, but was recalled^ to Berlin in 1840, when a war with France was imminent. In the revolu- tionary year 1818 he retired from the Prussian service, and became a member of the national assembly of Frankfort, the eventualities of which forced him to Berlin in the character of the king's friend and minister. Died Dec. 25, 1854. RAGLAN, Lokd, late commander-in-chief of the British army in the Crimea, was born 1788, and was first known as Lord Fitzroy Somerset. His father was the fifth duke of Beaufort, his mother a daughter of Admiral Boscawen ; he be- longed to the highest class of the English aristo- cracy. Having entered the army at an early age, he was selected by the duke of Wellington to serve on his staff in 1807, and was accordingly under fire for the first time in the attack of the British upon the Danish troops, in the expedition to Co- penhagen. He accompanied our great captain to the peninsula, being first appointed one of his aides-de-camp, and afterwards his military secre- tary. In the words of Lord Hardinge, ' during the whole period that the duke of Wellington was in the peninsula with the exception, perhaps, of a short time when he was in England for the benefit of his health Lord Fitzroy Somerset was at his right hand;' he was present in all the great actions of the peninsular campaign, and ever foremost in the field; at Badajoz, he was among the first to mount the breach, and it was to him that the governor delivered up his sword ; at Busaco, he was slightly wounded, and at Waterloo he lost his right arm. His rank at this time was that of lieut.-colonel in the 1st foot guards. His embassies and other minor services to the state, we pass over to mention that he held the office of military secre- tary, at the horse guards, for twenty-five years, being from 1827 to 1852, the year in which he was appointed master-general of the ordnance, and raised to the House of Peers by the title of Lord Raglan. Events were now ripening, which, it is impossible to deny, have shed a fresh lustre on the name of the gallant Fitzroy Somerset. In February, 1854, he was appointed commander of the forces proceeding to the East, and in the month of May succeeded the marquis of Anglesey as colonel of the royal horse guards (blue). At the beginning of May, he arrived with Lord de Ros, and the principal officers of his staff, at Gallipoli. At the end of August, and beginning of September, the allied armies were embarked for the Crimea, ROG and at daybreak on the morning of September 19th! the tents were struck, and the armies put itt motion, with the view of securing the desired basis of operations, and opening a communication with the fleet. The first great battle was now fought, in which Lord Raglan displayed all the valour ol his younger days ; at the critical moment he dashed forward at the head of his staff, many of who fell around him, and having crossed the bridge ol the Alma, obtained a point of view which enabled him to win the victory with a less sacrifice of lift than would otherwise have been possible. At Balaklava, as usual, Lord Raglan and his stafl were in advance of the troops at one moment under command of the guns of Sebastopol, at another, in front of a sudden apparition of Russian infantry. The same personal devotion marked his conduct at Inkermann, for shot and shell were fall- ing thick around him, when Colonel Gambier re- ceived his orders to bring up the two heavy guns (18 pounders'), which aided so materially to decide the fate of the day. At one moment a shell ex- ploded in the midst of the staff, killing or wound- ing many. After these hairbreadth escapes, it is singular to record the death of the veteran soldiei from natural causes, and the more so, that he still held the post of danger and of duty at the last hour. On the 29th of June, 1855, eleven days after the unsuccessful attack upon the Redan and Malakoff, Lord Raglan breathed his last in per- fect tranquillity; a short illness, aggravated by mental anxiety, being the only prelude of his fate. His remains were brought to England. [E.R.] RATTEE, James, distinguished for the beauty of his carvings, and other enrichments in the style of mediaeval architecture, 1820-1855. REHAUSEN, Baron De, successor of Count Bjornstjema as Swedish minister in London, 1802-1854. RENOUARD, Antoine Augustus, an emi nent French bibliographer, author of a valuable annotated catalogue of books ' Annales de l'lm- primerie des Aides,' ' Elemens de la Morale,' and; other works, died in Paris, aged ninety-eight, 1854. RHODES, Joseph, an artist and art teacher,* who had sustained his reputation in Yorkshire foil more than half a century, died 1855. His figures.^ landscapes, and flowers, afforded equal evidence or< his skill in execution. RIDDLE, Edward, a mathematician and as-< tronomer, late head master of the Greenwich Hos- pital schools, author of astronomical and othef! professional works, 1788-1854. RIGOLLOT, Marcel Jerome, a French phy sician, distinguished also as a naturalist and antics quarian, 1786-1855. ROBERTSON, Patrick, Lord, a judge of the- court of session, author of poems, 1791-1854. ROGERS, P. H., a landscape painter, d. 18c ROGERS, Rear-Admiral Robert Henli born August, 1783, died 8th January, 1857. ROGERS, Samuel, living to reach his nine third year, linked together in the history of Engl literature four successive generations. He v nessed in his old age the era of poetical interr num, in which there is claimed for Tennyson place of dictator : he had passed his own bright days in the reigns of Scott, and Byron, and Wor worth : his first volume had been printed in 904 ROG iame year with the first volume ot Bums : and he lad even, in still earlier youth, looked up with iwe to the critical throne of Samuel Johnson. Sogers was born at Stoke-Newington, near Lon- lon, on the 30th of July, 1763. He was the son of i London banker, whose association with his fel- ow-dissenters made ' Watts' Hymns ' to be the irst poetical studies of the schoolboy ; while his political activity may have aided in generating the ioet's mildly Whiggish opinions. His life was, yven for a literary man, singularly uneventful. He lad neither difficulties to combat, nor misfortunes ;o surfer. He was accomplished, both through edu- ation, society, and foreign travel : he was always affluent, so far at least as to possess means more han sufficient for the luxurious life of a bachelor, vho loved alike fashion, literature, and art ; and ill the days of his long life were spent in the feasant employments of an amateur in letters and n painting and music, and of a friend or patron of iterary men and artists. His own literary pro- luctions showed, from beginning to end, a strongly mitative tum. They are the effusions of a man inely impressible by poetical ideas ; decidedly not rf one who could himself either create novel im- iges, or strike out new channels of feeling. Some massages of his poems are very pleasing, seldomer through any vigorous pictures than through some ;ouch of emotion deeper than the usual vein. But sven in such passages we feel ourselves to be istening to what is merely an echo. Yet it is jurious and interesting to mark how, in period rfter period, the echo was caught from the pre- sent as well as from the past. One characteristic, lowever, of the English poetry of the eighteenth xntury, clung always to Rogers. His verses were elaborated, both for diction and for melody, with a are which scarcely any writer of our age has dreamt rf, and which most of them have despised. His prin- ripal poems were polished and repolished for years Mifore being thrown on the world; and while there vas thus gained a remarkable sweetness both of )hrase and of rhythm, the charm was but too jften purchased by an augmentation of that natu- ral feebleness, from which, perhaps, the writer uld hardly in any circumstances have altogether sscaped. In 1786, Rogers published, with other >oems, his Ode to Superstition.' In it the influ- ince of Gray is strongly perceptible : and Gold- imith was as plainly the model for his most popu- ar poem, ' The Pleasures of Memory,' which ropeared in 1792. In 1798, in his ' Epistle to a mend,' he had still received no teaching more ecent than that of Pope and his followers. As- rirations more active, but far from successful, rere evinced in 1812 by the fragmentary ' Voyage if Columbus ;' and his subsequent works showed itill more how he had been impressed by the more jnergetic school, which had grown up since his routhful taste was formed. In 1814, his 'Jac- queline ' was printed with Byron's ' Lara,' a com- >anionship which proved fatal to a weakish, yet Jretty tale. In 1819, appeared 'Human Life,' rhich many readers hold to be his best work ; but rarely this place is better deserved by 'Italy,' which, first privately printed, then much altered md corrected, from first to last, for ten or more rears, was in part offered to the public, in 1823. Vigorous or essentially original it is not, either in 905 ROW imagery or otherwise ; but it is full of fine taste, and of sympathy for beauty both in nature and in art, not unaccompanied with active observation ; and the polishing in which the timid poet so much de- lighted, was here performed with even more than his ordinary skill. With this poem Rogers's au- thorship may be said to have closed. During the time it lasted, he was the friend of many among the leading men of letters ; Byron, Moore, and Camp- bell being on terms especially intimate with him. He associated much also with some of the leading statesmen of the Whig party, especially Fox, Sheridan, Lord Holland, and the Marquis of Lansdowne. But likewise, from before Fox's death, his house in St. James's place continued to be for more than fifty years a place of meeting for all who, through genius, fashion, or celebrity of any kind, could interest his curiosity and grace his classic board. Rogers's breakfasts were things especially famous. A volume of ' Table-Talk,' already published since his death, has furnished the uninitiated with some specimens of the anec- dotes, oftener (it should seem) pointed than good- natured, with which he was wont to entertain his guests. The tone of his conversation is hinted in a fine of Moore's Diary : ' Rogers amusing and sar- castic as usual.' He possessed a large and ex- ceedingly choice collection of works of art, from which three paintings were bequeathed by him to the National Gallery. He was a kind patron of living artists, and spent 10,000 on illustrated editions of his poems. To literary men, also, and others in difficulties, he was generous : he relieved Sheridan's distresses ; Moore was obliged to him in the crisis of his Bermuda affairs ; and a loan from him enabled Campbell to purchase a share in the ' Metropolitan Magazine.' Rogers's attendances at picture sales and exhibitions, and at operas and concerts, and those other light devices in which he whiled away his time, lasted till he was extremely old. Indeed, they were stopped only when, being run over by a carriage in the street, he received an injury which confined him to his own house for the last few years of his life. He died there, on the 18th of December, 1855. [W.S.] ROSE, Sir George Henry, well known as having filled various diplomatic and other offices of state, author of several pamphlets ; died at an advanced age, 1855. ROSMINI, Abbe, distinguished in Italy as a writer on moral philosophy, and the founder of an order called after him the Kosminiani, 1797-1855. ROSSI, Countess. See Sontag. ROUSSLN, M., a distinguished French admiral, born 1781, entered the service in 1793 and was permanently employed during the war. On the establishment of peace he was engaged in scientific surveys, and in 1831 made a peer of France. He died in 1854. ROUTH, Martin Joseph, late president of Magdalen College, and a learned writer, died in the hundredth year of his age, December, 1854. His principal works are, the ' Reliquias Sacra?,' published 1814-1815, and an edition of Burnet, 1823. His memory is associated with the friend- ship of Dr. Parr, Porson, and many other names of another generation. ROWE, Rev. Samuel, a topographical writer and liturgist, 1793-1853. ROW ROWSON, Frederick, one of the directors of the National Freehold Land Society, author of 4 The Debater,' ' The Female Poets of Great Bri- tain,' &c, died 1855. RUBINI, Giambatisto, the famous tenor singer, was a native of Italy, born 1795. He commenced his musical career by playing the violin in the church of Romano, and made his first appearance on the stage in 1815 at Naples. In 1825 he went to Paris, and in that capital and London realized a large fortune, and acquired a brilliant reputation. Died March 2, 1854. RUTHERFORD, Andrew, Lord, an eminent Scottish judge, 1791-1854. RUTLAND, John Hendry Manners, fifth duke of Rutland, born 4th January, 1778, died 20th January, 1857. The duke of Rutland was known as one of the best landlords in England, and was deservedly popular among his numerous tenants. His Grace took little active part in politics ; but on all important questions generally voted with the conservative party. SAINT ARNAUD. See Arnaud. SAINT HILAIRE, Auguste, an eminentFr. naturalist, distinguished for his researches into the vegetation of the Brazils and of South Ame- rica, 1779-1853. SALE, Lady Florentia, widow of Major- General Sir Robert Sale, remarkable for the daring constancy with which she accompanied her hus- band in all his campaigns, died at Cape Town, 1854. At the period of the Cabool disasters, she became the prisoner of Akbar Khan, and after- wards gave the world an interesting memoir of her captivity. Lady Sale was in receipt of a pension of 500 a-year. SALTOUN, Alexander George Fraser, sixteenth lord, distinguished for his gallantry as a peninsular officer, and for his defence of Hougou- mont at the battle of Waterloo, 1785-1853. SAULL, William Devonshire, well known in the metropolis in connection with popular sub- jects of debate, as the working man's friend, died, aged seventy-two, 1855. He was a geologist and antiquarian, and has left a valuable museum. SAUNDERS, Thomas, a citizen and anti- quarian of London, memorable for his exertions in procuring the restoration of ' The Ladye Chapel,' in Southwark, 1786-1854. SAVILLE. SeeFAUCiT. SCHNEIDER. J. C. F a German musician, 1786-1853. SCORESBY, Rev. Dr. J. R. S. (formerly Captain William), was the son of an able and distinguished seaman in the northern whale fishery, and was born at Whitby, in Yorkshire. As chief mate of his father's ship, the Resolution of Whitby, in 1806, he sailed into the highest latitude then reached by navigators. In 1820, he published his account of the arctic regions, one of the most interesting records of maritime ad- venture ever written. On his retirement from the sea, Captain Scoresby entered into holy orders, and took a Doctor's degree. His discourses to 906 SON seamen are of peculiar excellence. Dr. Scoresby, in the latter years of his life, enriched the Edin- burgh Philosophical Journal, and other scientific periodicals, with valuable contributions. After a lingering illness, he died at Torbay, on the 21st March, 1857. SELWYN, William, an eminent lawyer, au- thor of a valuable professional work, known as ' Selwyn's Nisi Prius,' 1774-1855. SHADFORTH, Thomas, lieut.-colonel of the 57th regiment, killed in the attack on the Redan fort, June 18, 1855, was the son of Colonel Thomas Shadforth, now of Sydney. He entered the army in 1825, and fell gallantly in the fifty-first year of his age. While he was highly esteemed by Lord Raglan, circumstances prove that he was equally beloved by his men, whom he kept in a remark- able state of efficiency. SHEEPSHANKS, Richard, a Church of Eng- land minister, who devoted himself wholly to scientific pursuits, author of several articles on astronomical instruments, and similar subjects, in the ' Penny Cyclopaedia,' 1794-1855. SIBOUR, Monskigneur Marie Dominique Augustus, archbishop of Paris, born 1792, assassinated by Vesges, a priest, in the church of St. Etienne du Mont, Paris, in 1857. SIBTHORP, Charles De Laet Waldo, the well known member of parliament for Lincoln, and colonel of the Lincoln militia : was descended from an ancient family settled in Nottinghamshire. He was born in 1782, and first became member for Lincoln in 1826, since which he was constantly re- elected, excepting only in the year 1833. He was a staunch protestant and conservative, thoroughly honest, independent, and blunt in expressing hisi opinions. Died Dec. 14th, 1855. SMECTYMNUUS. See Spurstow. SMEDLEY, Rev. Edward, a learned minister of the Church of England, was the son of a minister of the same name, who was one of the? masters of Westminster school. He was born vm 1789, and was educated at Cambridge, where he- took the degree of M.A. in 1812. Between that J period and 1828, he took four of the Seatonian prizes for English poems, and published a history; of the Reformed Religion in France. He also* edited the ' Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.' Died at Dulwich in July, 1836. SMIBERT, Thomas, a Scottish journalist andi miscellaneous writer, died 1853. SMITH, Richard John, the celebrated actoi of the Adelphi, was born at York, 1786, where al that time his father and mother were staying, theuv engaged in their professional vocation as actors.1 He made his first appearance as a regular actor a^ Sheffield, where he played the Coward in ' Douglas,* 1 7th September, 1804. His first appearance iinj London was at the Surrey theatre, in May, 1810,* where he took the part of Farouche in the ' Blacfe Forest.' His connection with the Adelphi datei from October 12th, 1829. Died in March, 1855' Mr. Smith was devoted to his profession, and pos- sessed an antiquarian's knowledge of armour, cos-< tume, and prints. SMITHSON, Miss. See Berlioz. SONTAG, Henrietta, the famous soprani singer and actress, was born at Coblentz in 1805: of parents both belonging to the theatrical profess sou on. Her wonderful talents for song were de- loped by a musical education at Prague, and her rst subsequent appearance on the stage was at ienna in 1820 or 1821. In 1823 and 1824 she as chosen successively by Weber and Beethoven take a part in their operas, and finally appeared Paris and London. Soon afterwards she was larried to Count Rossi, and was thus lost to the age. The political events of 1848 compelled her resume her profession, and she succeeded Mdlle. ind at her Majesty's theatre, afterwards visiting any parts of Europe and America. Died of lolera in the city of Mexico when about to appear ' Lucretia Borgia,' 17th June, 1854. SOUTHEY, Mrs. Caroline, widow of the te poet-laureate, to whom she was married in S39, died at Buckland, near Lymington, in the sty-eighth year of her age, 1854. It has been ated that she was related to the poet William isle Bowles ; but this is an error, arising from her ther's name, who was formerly a captain in the my. Mrs. Southey was a poetess, and also a aceful prose writer. She enjoyed a pension of 200 a-year from the Queen, granted two years ior to her decease. SOWERBY, George Brettingham, an emi- nt conchologist ; born 1790 ; died in London $54. He was the son of James Sowerby, well lown as the proprietor and publisher of the nglish Botany,' edited by Sir J. E. Smith. He ems to have inherited his father's taste for na- ral historv, but it was chiefly to the study of nchology he devoted his time and attention. He alt largely in objects of natural history, but iefly shells ; and to him is due, to a great ex- t, a better knowledge in this country of the lebrated Lamarck's arrangement. Mr. Sowerby ltributed numerous papers on conchological sub- ts to the scientific periodicals of the day, and he is the originator and publisher of the ' Zoological urnal.' His principal work, however, and by rich he is best known is his ' Genera of Recent d Fossil Shells,' in two volumes ; but which, fortunately, was never completed. [W.B.] SPRATT, James, a captain in the royal navy, t. for his gallantry in the action at Trafalgar, d at Teignmouth, aged eighty-two, June, 1853. STANGER, William, M.D., an English na- ralist, attached to the Niger expedition in 1841 ; 12-1854. STEVENSON, S. W., a scholar and numis- tist, author of ' A Dictionary of Roman Coins,' d 'Travels,' 1785-1854. STOCKS, John Ellerton, M.D., a zealous d practical botanist. Born near Hull, 1820; d 1854. Dr. Stocks held a medical appoint- nt in the service of the East India Company, d devoted his leisure time to the study of botany, iring his service in India, he was for some time ipector of forests in Scinde, and was thus led travel much through that country and Beloo- Ustan. He fulfilled the duties also tor some time conservator of forests and superintendent of tanic gardens in Bombay, in the absence of Dr. bson, who held that appointment. In the course id duties he had opportunities, which he i not neglect, of forming an extensive collection plants, with a large senes of drawings made by tive artists, all of which he brought to this 907 STR country in the beginning of 1854, along with ma- terials, in a forward state of preparation, for a gene- ral work on the natural history, manners, customs, arts, manufactures, and commerce, agriculture, &c, of science. These collections he had com- menced arranging and putting in order, when ill- ness supervened, and he was carried off by a fit of apoplexy, in August, 1854, at the early age of thirty-four. Dr. Stocks was a man of great and varied attainments in literature, and had his life been spared, the science of botany, especially, would have been enriched by his valuable contributions. His published papers are chiefly contained in Sir W. J. Hooker's ' London Journal of Botany,' and ' Kew Garden Miscellany.' L^B-] STORER, James Sargeant, an English draughtsman and engraver, famous for his accurate delineations of the antiquities of our country, and for his topographical views, 1772-1854. STRANGFORD, Percy Clinton Sydney Smythe, sixth viscount, a distinguished diploma- tist and man of letters, was born 1780, and suc- ceeded his father in the peerage 1801. In early life, diplomacy and literature divided his attention at the court of Lisbon, and his translations from Camoens at that period are warmly eulogized by his countryman, Thomas Moore. In 1808-9, when, in consequence of the Portuguese revolution, the Prince Regent removed his court to the Brazils, and thus founded the Brazilian empire, Lord Viscount Strangford was residing in Lisbon with the rank of minister plenipotentiary, and appears to have enjoyed the full confidence of the royal family of Portugal ; in fine, he joined them in the emigration one of the most remarkable circum- stances of modern times and remained many years at Rio Janeiro, performing the same functions as at Lisbon. His subsequent missions were to the court of Flanders, 1817; to the Ottoman Porte, 1820 ; and to St. Petersburg, 1825, where he was succeeded by Lord Heytesbury. In 1828 he went on a special mission to the Brazils, in which year Don Pedro agreed to a treaty of peace with Buenos Ayres, and acknowledged the independence of Monte Video, and the Banda Oriental: with this mission his diplomatic career terminated. Since that period Lord Strangford attached him- self almost solely to literature, and at the time of his death had made a large collection of docu- ments towards the biography of his ancestor, Endymion Porter. Died May 29, 1855. [E.R.] STRANGWAYS, Thomas Fox, brigadier- fmeral commanding the royal artillery in the ritish army in the Crimea, was born 1790, and entered the artillery service in 1806. In 1813 and 1841 he was with the allied army in Germany, and distinguished himself in the battles around Leipzig. For these services the Swedish order of the sword was conferred on him. He served also in the de- cisive campaign of 1815, and at Waterloo was slightly wounded. His death at Inkermann was caused by a round shot, which blew away his leg. Mr. Russell relates : ' The poor old general never moved a muscle of his face. He said merely, in a gentle voice, " Will any one be kind enough to lift me off my horse V " He was taken down and laid on the ground, while his life-blood ebbed fast, and at last he was carried to the rear. But the gallant old man had not sufficient strength to undergo an STR operation, and in two hours he had sunk to rest, leaving behind him a memory which will ever be held dear by every officer and man of the army.' f E.R.] STRUTHERS, John, a minor Scottish poet and historical writer, born in Lanarkshire, 1776, died at Glasgow, August, 1853. His best poem is 1 The Poor Man's Sabbath,' first published in 1804, at which time the author obtained his living as a working shoemaker. For the last twenty years of his life he held the appointment of libra- rian at Stirling's library, Glasgow. STUART, Lord Dudley, the friend of Poland, son of John, first marquess of Bute, and of a daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker, was born in 1803. He commenced his public career at the critical period of 1830, when lie became member for Arundel, of course in the liberal interest. Home politics, however, did not engage much of his attention, his enthusiasm being excited by the arrival in England, at this time, of Prince Adam Czartoryski, and the wreck of the Polish army. Lord Dudley Stuart felt that the liberties of Europe were menaced by the advance of the Russian empire, and that the restoration of Poland was the only barrier that could be raised against her; this feeling, and a deep sense of the wrongs which the Poles had endured, took full possession of his heart and mind, and dictated his whole course of action. He fought the battles of the Poles almost alone in the House of Commons, keeping his seat for Arundel till 1837, when he was defeated by Lord Fitzallan. He then remained out of parliament for ten years, and eventually, in 1847, Avas returned at the head of the poll for Marylebone ; in 1852 he was re-elected without opposition. Lord Dudley Stuart rejected every proposal to take office, always declaring that he would accept no other than that of ambassador at the court of Warsaw. Zealous in this cause to the last hour, he left England in September, 1854, to recruit his health, and bent his steps to Denmark and Stockholm, where he might use his influence in procuring the adhesion of those powers. Though suffering from illness, he had two audiences of the king, and was so weak when he last visited the palace that he was carried up and down the stairs. These exertions, added to his extensive correspon- dence, proved too much for his exhausted constitu- tion, and he expired in Stockholm on the 17th of November. The immediate cause of his death was the deposition of water in the cellular mem- brane of the lungs. In early life Lord Dudley Stuart passed some years in the south of Europe, and was married to the daughter of Lucien Buona- parte, prince of Canino. [E.R.] SULLIVAN, John, a member of the supreme council of Madras, distinguished for his knowledge of Indian affairs and his unflinching advocacy of the native population, died 1855. THACKERAY, Elias, cousin to the popular author of that name, a minister of the Church of England, 1771-1854. Till ERRY, Augustin, historian of the Norman Conquest, was born at Blois, on the 20th May, THI 1795, of poor and humble parents. He passe* through his studies with distinguished success I the college of his native town. In 1811, oi quitting his college, M. Augustin Thierry enter! the normal school, where, after passing two years he was appointed professor in a provincial college The invasion of 1814 brought him to Paris. Firei with all the ardour of youth, and versed in th most varied studies, he had as yet no particula predilection for any distinct branch of sci' his political ideas, though fervent, partook of th confusion which characterized the period. ' yearned,' says Thierry, ' for a future, I knew no exactly what; for a liberty, whose definition, if give it at all, assumed something of this form :- a government with the greatest possible annum of individual guarantees, and the least possibl amount of administrative action.' There was a this time living in comparative obscurity in Pa a celebrated political economist, whose Memoirs* recently published, have created a sensation i England (St. Simon). The freshness and darin scope of the views of this thinker fascinated th youthful Augustin, who, quitting the university devoted himself with all the fervour of his natur to the study of the loftiest social problems, an attached himself to St. Simon as secretary an disciple. Thierry's co-operation with St. Simo was, however, of but short duration. In 1817, w find he has joined the Censeur Europten, wide enjoyed the reputation of being the most importaw and high-minded of the liberal journals of th period. The new school of French history ha not at this time raised its head. The annals < France lay utterly disfigured beneath the dull an arid nomenclature of the elder historians. ( 3 arnie: Millot, Anquetil, reigned supreme. No historian had yet thought of moving out of the beaten tracl when M. Thierry, having occasion to seek in tt history of the past materials for the polemics l the day, first descended into the arena, and younj< ardent, and yet unconscious of his vocation an destiny, entered upon that study which resulted t the establishment of the new doctrines and t es. Aristocracy, assailed and doH 908 mated from the days of the Grand Monarqi the epoch of the Restoration, had yet learnt nothing and forgotten nothing. With the retui of the Bourbons it once more raised its voic These w T ere the words which, through its ma eloquent champion, it addressed to new Franaj ' Enfranchised race, slaves wrested from our gcati depressed people leave was granted you to t>| free, but not to be noble : for us, all is of right ; f( you, all is of favour!' This pride of birth wil which Montlosier assailed the Revolution, meti M. Thierry an antagonist ' too proud to care |H whence he came.' The pretensions and inso^H of Montlosier were wholly based on the old right*! conquest. A century before this epoch Boulfl villier had sought to construct an historical systflfi based upon the distinction between the conqow and the conquerors in France. The Abbe Dubois a man of the people, stood forward to combat U theory by nearly as great a fallacy, by denying tl fact of a conquest at all. Montlosier had reH duced the theory of Boulainvillier, but he encofl tered an antagonist not more sincere, than the abbe, but incomparably more able. 1 THO LUgustin Thierry proudly accepted the fact of the inquest as the premises on which to found his laims in favour of the conquered. Not content ith establishing the original iniquity of the con- uest, he denounced it as the source of not merely he evils of the past, but of all present difficulties. The genius of conquest,' said Thierry, 'has made ;s mock of nature and of time ; it still hovers over his unhappy country ; it is under its influence that he distinctions of caste have succeeded to those of lood ; those of orders to those of castes ; those of itles to those of orders.' It was in the demolition f the theories of Montlosier, and defending the devolution, that Thierry's great work, the ' Histoire e la Conqueste de 1'Angleterre par les Normands,' ras produced. The immense sensation which it reated, is known to all in any measure acquainted nth the new school of French history. The great abours to which its author had subjected himself mpaired at once the health and the sight of the ccomplished historian. After a journey into Switzerland, and a visit to Provence, he returned o Paris somewhat invigorated in general health, ut his sight still declining, and almost blind, he esumed his labours in the field of history. At his period a young man, then unknown, but lestined ere long to take a brilliant position in iterature and journalism, Armand Carrel, became lis secretary. Young Carrel, by his friendly sarnestness of purpose, rendered the necessity of eading with the eyes of others less painful to Thierry than it had formerly been. His next rablication was the 'Lettres sur 1' Histoire de r ranee.' Shortly after the appearance of this york he was elected a member of the Institute. iut assailed by a nervous malady of the severest rind, he had once more to quit his beloved Paris, md betake himself to the baths of Juxenil. It was at these baths he became acquainted with and narried the lady who was to alleviate his suffer- ngs, by aiding him on his way through the evil lays of premature old age. Shortly after this the Academic Francaise awarded him the Gobert prize )f 400, which he held till death. Almost at the same time this honour was conferred upon him, \l. Guizot recalled him to Paris to preside over an indertaking honourable alike to the historian who jonceived it and the historian who directed it, the ;ask being to form a collection after the manner of he great Benedictine compilations devoted to the lobility and the clergy, of all the materials to be bund throughout France bearing upon the history )f the third estate. Combating alike blindness Mid paralysis, Thierry continued to the last to prosecute his favourite studies. He died in Paris, n May, 1856. His genius has been accurately summed up by one who knew him well: 'No listonan, ancient or modern, has exhibited in a ligher degree than he, that human sense which is ;he very soul of history. I mean that compre- lensive sensibility, synthetic without losing aught Df the true, which leads a writer to attach himself io the destiny of a whole people as to the destiny tf an individual ; following tins people, step by rtep, through ages, with an interest as earnest and emotions as vivid as though he were following the Bteps of a friend engaged in a perilous enterprise.' THOMPSON, William, alderman and mem- ber of parliament for London, was born at Kendal, UXB in Westmoreland, 1792. From 1820 to 1826 he sat in parliament as member for Callington, and from that period to 1831 he represented the city, where in the interim he had ' passed the chair,' as lord mayor. From 1832 to 1837, he was the po- pular candidate in Sutherland, but having changed his politics, he retired in 1841, and afterwards re- presented the county of Westmoreland. Died 1854. THORN, Sir Nathaniel, K.C.B., K.H., col. of the 3rd buffs, had been more than fifty years in the British service. He entered the army in 1802, went, in 1808, with the buffs to the Peninsula, shared in most of the engagements from that time to 1814. He was at Busaco, Badajoz, Talavera, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, and Toulouse. He had just returned from his inves- titure as a Knight Commander of the Bath, when he was suddenly taken ill, and died at his resi- dence, near Taunton, on the 28th January, 1857. TORRENS, Major-General Sir Arthur Wellesley, born 1809 ; died at Paris, where he was residing as military commissioner for this country, August, 1855. G eneral Torrens is memor- able for his gallant conduct at Inkermann, where he received a wound while cheering on his men, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. He received the thanks of parliament and was promoted in December, 1854. TRURO, The Right Hon. Thomas Wilde, first Baron Truro of Bowes, was born July, 1782, and educated at St. Paul's school. Early in life he adopted the avocation of his father, who was a solicitor, but ultimately he relinquished it for the higher branch of the same profession. He was called to the bar by the Hon. Society of the Inner Temple, in 1817, and rose to great eminence as a nisiprius advocate. After a singularly rapid rise at the bar, he was appointed solicitor-general in 1839, and in 1841 he became attorney-general. In 1846 he was raised to the bench as chief jus- tice of the court of common pleas ; in 1850 he became lord chancellor, and was created a peer with the title of Baron Truro. In politics Lord Truro was a strenuous supporter of the whigs. His powers as a debater were very superior. Lord Truro died on the 11th November, 1855, at his residence, Eaton square, London. TULK, Charles Augustus, a magistrate of Middlesex, author of several religious works, 1786-1849. TYLDEN, William Burton, brigadier-gen- eral in the royal engineers, died of cholera in the Crimea, September 22, 1855. He was honourably mentioned by Lord Raglan after the battle of the Alma; and it was owing to his exertions that Varna was saved from destruction when the powder magazines were in danger of ignition. u URE, Andrew, M.D., F.R.S., was born in Glasgow, in May, 1778, founded the Observa- tory of Glasgow, author of 'Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry,' and other well known works. Since 1830, Dr. Ure resided in London, where he died on the 2d January, 1857. UXBRIDGE, Earl of. See Anglesey. VAL VALPY, Abraham John, famous for his edi- tions of the classics, died in his sixt) T -eighth year, 1854. VAN EYCKEN, ,Toh>, a distinguished painter of Belgium, died in Brussels, Dec, 1854. VEDDER, David, distinguished as a poet and graceful prose writer, was born in the Orkneys, 1790, his father being a small laird in the island. Left an orphan at an early age, he became a sea- man, but at the age of thirty took a situation on land as tide surveyor, and remained in the service of the customs till about two years before his death. His works are, the ' Covenanters' Communion,' ' Orcadian Sketches,' ' Lays and Lithographs,' and his popular translation from the German of ' Rey- nard the Fox.' Died 1854. VICO, Lieut.-Col., joint commissioner for France with Lieut.-Col. de Lagondie, at the head- quarters of the British army in the Crimea, died before Sebastopol, July 10, 1855. VISCONTI, M., a distinguished French archi- tect, died 1854. VOROS MARTY, Michael, a famous Hun- garian poet, 1800-1855. w WADMORE, James, a well known patron of the fine arts, possessor of many great works of the old masters, and some fine pictures by Turner; 1782-1853. WAKEFIELD, Edward, author of ' Ireland, Political and Statistical,' died, at Knightsbridge in his eighty-sixth year, May 18, 1854. WALKER, R. F., an Oriental scholar and translator from the German, died 1854. WALLICH, Nathaniel, a celebrated botanist, born 1796; died in London, 1854. Dr. Wallich was a Dane by birth and parentage, and served in early life in the Danish settlement of Serampore in India, At the conquest of that place by the English, he was allowed to enter the E. I. Co.'s service, and being a devoted botanist, he obtained the appointment of superintendent of the botanical garden at Calcutta. He was the author of the ' Flora Indica,' and the ' Plantse Asiatics Rariores.' The former work was written while he was in In- dia, in conjunction with the celebrated Dr. Cary, and the latter was published by him after his com- ing to England. It is in three folio volumes, with 100 coloured plates, and is a monument of labour and perseverance. TW.B.1 WALWORTH. See Richard II. WARNEFORD, S. W., a clergyman, disting. as a benefactor to colleges and schools, 1763-1855. WARNER, Mrs., the celebrated actress, was born in Dublin, where her father was in business as a chemist, and when only fifteen years of age took a part with Macready at the Plymouth theatre. In 1836, she was engaged in Drury Lane by Mr. Bunn, and obtained great success in the 'Wrecker's Daughter.' She was afterwards engaged at the 910 WIL Havmarket, and in the Patent theatres (who under the management of Mr. Macready), wlier she divided the Shaksperian drama with Mis Faucit. At Saddler's Wells she was associate! with Mr. Phelps in sustaining the legitimat drama, and subsequently made a similar effort a Marylebone. Died of cancer in the breast, Sep. 25 1854. Mrs. Warner was the last great actress o the English stage, and is still without a successor. WARNER, Samuel Alfred, well known a Captain Warner, was a master in the royal navy and the son of a master mariner. His famou invisible shell was the subject of an experimen in 1841, at which Sir Robert Peel was present and again, in 1844., off Brighton, when the ' Johi o'Gaunt,' a vessel of 300 tons measurement, wai blown to pieces. A government commission ha< previously decided against his claims, and hi: 'long range' was never brought to trial. No- thing certain is known of his inventions by tin public, but they are regarded as the offspring o monomania. Captain Warner died suddenly a apoplexy in 1854. WAT TYLER. See Richard II. WATSON, Joshua, well known as a devote< and learned lay member of the Church of England: born in London 1776; died at Clapton, Januarj 30, 1855. Few men in recent times have equalled Mr. Watson in their devotion to the charitabk uses and institutions of the church, or in th capacity to serve her. Mr. Watson was alike prodigal of his money, his influence, and hi; special talents in the cause he loved. WATSON, Walker, ' the poet of Kirkintilloch, author of ' Jockie's far awa,' and many well knows popular songs, died at an advanced age, 1854. WEBB, Philip Parker, an author of several works on botany, remarkable for their scientific accuracy, and the extensive reading displayed in them, 1792-1854. WEST, William, formerly a bookseller, au- thor of several county histories, and of an amusing work, entitled his 'Recollections,' 1770-1855. WHARNCLIFFE. See Wortley. WHISH, Sir W. Sampson, a gallant general! in the service of the E. India Company, 1787-1853.' WHITTAKER, John William, a controversial divine, author of several learned works, and an iiH teresting essay on Ancient Etymologies, 1790-1854*1 WILDE. See Truro. WILKE, John, a member of parliament, best^ known as a collector of books and autographs,, 1765-1854. WILLIAMS, Edward, the once celebrate* Mo Fardd Glas, a Welch bard and writer, die* in the workhouse of Pen-y-bout, Glamorganshire^ at the advanced age of eighty, 1854. He was by trade a cooper, and adhered to it as a means of gaining his livelihood till the infirmities of age rendered it impossible to do so any longer. WILLIAMS, John, member of parliament fctfl Macclesfield from 1847 to the last general election,. 1851, when he was defeated bv Mr. Egerton. Bontf of poor parentage in Denbighshire, 1799 ; died?) suddenly, Nov. 29, 1855. WILLIAMS, S., a wood engraver and designer,^ celebrated for his illustrations in periodical and; other works, born at Colchester, 1778; died 1854. WILSON, Harry Bristow, D.D., an anti- WIL larian and religious writer, was born in London r 74, and in early life was appointed one of the asters of Merchant Tailors' School, of which in- itution he afterwards wrote the history. In 1816 ! became rector of the united parishes of St. Mary, ldermary, and St. Thomas the Apostle. In this dng he remained till his death, Nov. 21, 1854. WILSON, John, a celebrated landscape and arine painter, born in Ayr, 1774 ; died at Folke- one, April, 1855. WINDUS, Thomas, an antiquarian and col- ctor of articles of vertu, 1797-1855. WING, William, late secretaiy to the Ento- ological Society, and a clever delineator of the jects which engage the researches of that body, ^27-1 855. WOKTLEY. John Stuart Wortley, Baron harncliffe, born 23d April, }801. Was mem- ir for the West Riding, Yorkshire, from the neral election in 1841 to the period of his acces- >n to the peerage in 1845. Since that time he ivoted himself mainly to agricultural improve- ents. His death took place at his family man- ra, in October, 1855. WRIGHT, Fanny, once celebrated as a Social- ; and political agitator, was born at Dundee in 96, first attracted public attention by her book, iblished in 1818, entitled 'A Few Days in Athens,' d about three years afterwards gave the world jf ' Views on Society and Manners in America.' 1825 she returned to that country, and founded colony of redeemed slaves ; she even, in 1833, >peared as a public lecturer, and ' Fanny Wright cieties' sprang into existence. Her establish- ent being broken up, she joined Robert Owen at ew Harmony and edited the l Gazette,' but con 911 YEA tracted an unhappy marriage with a M. Darusmont. Died at Cincinnati, 1853. YATES, Joseph Brooks, a presbyterian min- ister, archaeologist, and man of letters, many years resident in Liverpool, 1780-1855. YEA, Lacy Walter Giles, lieut. -colon el of the royal fusiliers, was the eldest son of Sir Walter Yea, and was born in Bristol* 1808. He entered the army in 1825, and won his earliest and last laurels in the Crimea. He commanded the first brigade of the light division, the advance of which at the battle of the Alma makes one of the most tragical chapters in the history of the war. The correspondent of the Times, who re- cords in what confusion they advanced, relates also, ' The 7th fusiliers, led by Colonel Yea, were swept down by fifties ' (letter of September 21st); and in commenting on his death passes the high- est eulogiums upon him : ' A more thorough soldier, one more devoted to his men, to the ser- vice, and to his country, never fell in battle. . . . At the Alma he never went back a step, and there were tears in his eves on that eventful afternoon when he exclaimed to me, when the men had formed on the slope of the hill after the retreat of the enemy, u There ! look there ! that's all that remains of my poor fusiliers ! A colour is missing ; but, thank God, no Russians have it!'" He fell dead under a shower of grape shot after leading his men out of the trenches on the fatal 18th of June, 1855. [E.R.] BELL AND JJA1S, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA LIBEARY, BEEKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. may 20 1949 235168 jZ