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CYCLOPAEDIA 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. 
 
GRIFFIN'S PORTABLE CYCLOPEDIAS. 
 
 Well printed and illustrated, most ably edited, and wonderfully cheap ."Examiner. 
 
 ANALYTICAL CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 
 
 By Peofessor Eadie, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 Second Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 8s. 6d., cloth. 
 
 BIBLICAL CYCLOPAEDIA. 
 
 By Professor Eadie, D.D., LL.D. 
 Sixth Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d., cloth. 
 
 CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 
 
 By Professor Eadie, D.D., LL.D. 
 Eighteenth Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 5s., cloth. 
 
 CYCLOPAEDIA OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Edited by E. Rich, Esq., assisted by numerous Contributors. 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, 10s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 GENERAL GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD. 
 
 By James Bryce, M.A., F.G.S. 
 
 Map and numerous Plates. Post 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 CYCLOPAEDIA OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Edited by Isaiah M'Bcrney, B.A., and Samuel Neil. 
 Second Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. 6<L cloth. 
 
 BOOK OF NATURE; 
 
 Or, Cyclopedia of thb Natural and Physical Sciences. 
 
 By Professors Schoedler and Medlock. 
 
 Third Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 DICTIONARY OF 
 DOMESTIC MEDICINE AND HOUSEHOLD SURGERY. 
 
 By Spencer Thomson, M.D., L.R.C.S., Edinburgh. 
 Seventh Edition. Post 8vo, 7s. cloth. 
 
 CYCLOPAEDIA OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 By Robert Ddndas Thomson, M.D., F.RS..F. C.S. 
 
 Post 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. 
 
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HANDBOOK 
 
 BIOGRAPHY 
 
 ORIGINAL MEMOIRS 
 
 THE MOST DISTINGUISHED PEKSONS OF ALL TIMES 
 
 WRITTEN FOR THIS WORK BY 
 
 SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, D.C.L. 
 WILLIAM BAIRD, M.D., F.L.S. 
 SIR DAVID BREWSTER, F.R.S. 
 JAMES BRYCE, A.M., F.G.S. 
 JOHN HILL BURTON. 
 PROFESSOR CREASY, M.A. 
 PROFESSOR EADIE, D.D., LL.D. 
 PROFESSOR FERGUSON, A.M. 
 PROFESSOR GORDON, F.R.S.E. 
 JAMES HEDDERWICK. 
 
 JOHN A. HERAUD. 
 ROBERT JAMIESON, D.D. 
 CHARLES KNIGHT. 
 JAMES MANSON. 
 JAMES M'CONNECHY. 
 PROFESSOR NICHOL, LL.D. 
 ELIHU RICH. 
 
 PROFESSOR SPALDING, A.M. 
 PROFESSOR THOMSON, M.D., 
 RALPH N. WORNUM. 
 
 EDITED BY ELIHU RICH 
 
 TOtlj Numerous lltoatraiioits 
 
 SJXTH THOUSAND ,, , . 
 
 LONDON 
 CHARLES GRIFFIN AND COMPANY 
 
 stationers' hall court 
 1863 
 
^ b 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Several works, more or less resembling the present one, being already in 
 circulation, it is necessary to state why the Publishers have ventured to expect a 
 share of the public favour for a new Biographical Dictionary. 
 
 To many of these Dictionaries, considered as the production of individual 
 writers, a degree of merit, far from slight, must, in fairness, be conceded ; but it 
 would seem sufficiently evident, that no single scholar, however extensive his 
 attainments, could ever be expected to catch, or even appreciate all the points of 
 interest belonging to the numerous and varied classes of lives, which must be 
 included in a General Biography. The necessity of seeking a combination of 
 apt and effective talent, for the right production of any comprehensive Dictionary, 
 has long been recognized in the case of our great ' Encyclopaedias ;' and such a 
 combination was obtained for the service of Biography, by the editors of the 
 voluminous 'Biographie Universelle.' But the principle has not hitherto been 
 applied in the construction of any work of the latter kind, which would be por- 
 table and adapted for general circulation. 
 
 The volume now issued aspires to be a first attempt in the important direc- 
 tion alluded to. The Publishers have desired to intrust the execution of the 
 principal lives of each class of remarkable men, to practised writers, who have 
 cultivated the corresponding departments of Learning ; and from whom they had 
 therefore reason to expect biographical notices, really characteristic, and of 
 assured value. 
 
 In the departments appertaining to History, Politics, Law, Military science 
 and art, and Ecclesiastical affairs, valuable assistance has been obtained from Sir 
 Archibald Alison, John Hill Burton, Professor Creasy, Professor Eadie, Professor 
 Ferguson, and the Editor. The latter has also endeavoured to delineate the 
 peculiar character and services of the leading Mystics. 
 
 Classical authors are treated by Professor Ferguson. Theological and Reli- 
 gious literature was given in charge to Professor Eadie and Dr. Jamieson. Poets, 
 Novelists, and other great Men of Letters, are described by Professor Spalding : a 
 memoir of Shakspeare comes from the pen of Charles Knight ; and notices of the 
 Bards of Scotland from James Hedderwick and Thomas Davidson. 
 
 The principal names in the department of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences 
 were intrusted to Sir David Brewster and Professor Nichol. In the Experimental 
 Sciences, the department of Chemistry has been treated by Dr. R. D. Thomson ; 
 that of Natural History by Dr. Baird ; and Applied Science by Professor Gordon. 
 
 235168 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The distinguished names in Medical Science are treated by Mr. M'Connechy. The 
 eminent Geographers have been attended to by Mr. Bryce, who has endeavoured, 
 by considerable research, to give exact information on the discoveries made by 
 great travellers. 
 
 In Mental Philosophy, our volume is chiefly indebted to Professor Nichol, who 
 has furnished a resume of the doctrines taught by many of the Founders of the great 
 schools, under their respective names. To render this department more complete, 
 the Editor has ventured to introduce the name of Sir William Hamilton, although, 
 happily for science, that distinguished Metaphysician still labours amongst us. 
 
 The list of articles written by Professor Eadie in Theology and Church History, 
 includes the Fathers and Reformers, besides many of the mediaeval Divines and School- 
 men. Dr. Jamieson's catalogue is graced by the names of our modern Divines, 
 Missionaries, and Philanthropists. 
 
 In the department of the Fine Arts, the great Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, and 
 Architects, are characterized by Mr. Wornum, whose exact acquaintance with the 
 literature of these subjects is well known. The same may be said regarding 
 the Musicians, under charge of Mr. Manson ; and of the great Actors, whose 
 lives have been written by the dramatic writer and critic, Mr. Heraud. 
 
 In a work so varied in its contents, so closely printed, and produced by so 
 many hands, the Editor is conscious that there must be error ; and that to 
 many readers, the space will appear unequally divided. Perfection in all respects 
 is not pretended to ; but it is certainly hoped, that the design of the work, and 
 its general execution, entitle it to be regarded as a step of the right kind in 
 furtherance of popular literature. It has been his aim to allot sufficient space for 
 a satisfactory however brief memoir of all the leading or representative men in 
 each department ; room being provided, by limiting those of lesser note to a chrono- 
 logical notice, or brief description. It will be found, that many thousand names 
 are contained in this volume more than in any other portable Biography ; and 
 among novelties, may be mentioned the names of sovereigns, and ancient families 
 of importance, arranged in complete lists. The advantage of such lists to the 
 reader of history, will be obvious : many of them have been collated with great 
 pains, in order to the removal of current discrepancies. 
 
 The volume is further enlivened by numerous illustrations of the birth-places, 
 monuments, or other memorials of departed greatness ; all copied from the most 
 authentic sources. 
 
 London, 10/A May, 1854. 
 
LIST OF WRITERS. 
 
 Initials. 
 
 A.A. Sir Archibald Alison, Bart, D.C.L., F.R.S.E. 
 
 W.B. William Baird, M.D., F.L.S. 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 D.B. Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. L. & E., LL.D., &c. 
 
 Principal of the United College of St Salvador and St Leonard, St Andrewa 
 
 J.B. James Bryce, Jan., A.M., F.G.S. 
 
 Head Master of the Geographical Department High School, Glasgow. 
 
 J.H.B. John Hill Burton, Esq. 
 
 Author of a History of Scotland. 
 
 E.S.C. E. S. Creasy, M.A. 
 
 Professor of History in the University of London. 
 
 T.D. Thomas Davidson, Esq. 
 
 J.E. John Eadie, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 Professor of Biblical Literature, United Presbyterian Church. 
 
 G.F. George Ferguson, A.M. 
 
 Professor of Humanity, King's College, Aberdeen. 
 
 L.D.B.G. Lewis D. B. Gordon, F.E.S.E. 
 
 Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Glasgow. 
 
 J.H. James Hedderwick, Esq. 
 
 J.A.H. John A. Heraud, Esq. 
 
 R. J. Robert Jamieson, D.D. 
 
 Minister of St. Paul's, Glasgow. 
 C.K. Charles Knight, Esq. 
 
 J.M'C. James M'Connechy, Esq. 
 J.M. James Manson, Esq. 
 
 J.P.N. John P. Nichol, LL.D. 
 
 Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. 
 E.R. Elihu Rich, Esq. 
 
 W.S. William Spalding, A.M. 
 
 Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of 8t Andrews. 
 
 R.D.T. Robert Dundas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S. 
 
 Professor of Chemistry, St Thomas's Hospital College, London. 
 
 R.N.W. Ralph N. Wornum, Esq. 
 
 Department of Practical Art, Marlborough House, London. 
 
 The Articles which have no initials attached to them are, with few exceptions, written by the Editor. 
 
CYCLOPAEDIA OF BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 AA 
 
 AA, Peter Van Dek, a distinguished jurist, 
 pres. of the council of Luxembourg, 1580-1594. 
 
 AA, Peter Van Der, a learned bookseller of 
 Ley den, editor of numerous works, died 1730. 
 
 AA, Chr. Ch. Hy. Van Der, a celebrated 
 minister of Haerlem, 1718-1792. 
 
 AA, Gerard Van Der, a distinguished pa- 
 triot of the Netherlands, in the time of Philip II. 
 
 AAGARD, Christian, a Dane, distinguished as 
 a writer of Latin poetry, 1616-1664. 
 
 AAGARD, Nich., a philosophical and critical 
 writer, supposed brother of the above, 1612-1657. 
 
 AAGESEN, Svend, better known as Sueno, 
 a Danish historian whose works date about 1186. 
 
 AALAM, a renowned Persian astrologer of the 
 9th centy., confidant of the sultan Adah-Eddaulah. 
 
 AALSH, AALST, or AELST, EverhardVan, 
 a Dutch painter, 1602-1658. His nephew William, 
 of the same name, also a painter, 1620-1670. 
 
 AAMA, Guillardin, ak. of Ethiopia, 8th cent. 
 
 AARE, Dirk Van Der, bishop and lord of 
 Utrecht, celebrated for the perilous war which he 
 maintained against the count of Holland, d. 1212. 
 
 AARON, the associate and supposed brother of 
 Moses, died B.C. 1451. 
 
 AARON, St., a British martyr, 303. 
 
 AARON, St., an abbot of Brittany in the 6th 
 century, supposed founder of its earliest monastery. 
 
 AARON of Alexandria, a priest and physician of 
 the 7th century, the earliest writer who is known 
 to have mentioned the small-pox and measles. 
 
 AARON of Barcelona, a Spanish Jew, au. of a 
 work in Hebrew on the precepts of Moses, d. 1293. 
 
 AARON, a Scotchman by birth, made abbot of 
 St. Martin of Cologne, 1042, died 1052. Left 
 a work on the advantage of chanting the psalms 
 and other vocal music in churches. 
 
 AARON, Abhas, or Aves, a learned rabbi, and 
 editor of an edition of the foregoing, 1703. 
 
 AARON of Ragusa, a rabbin of the 17th cent. 
 
 AARON, or ARON, Pietro, generally called a 
 Florentine, but supposed to be a Fleming by birth, 
 was canon of Rimini in the 16th century, a com- 
 poser and auth. of many laborious works on music. 
 
 AARON, Ben Asser, a learned Masorite of the 
 11th century, commonly called Ben Asher, author 
 of a work on the Biblical Accents, and probably 
 chief of the college of Tiberias. 
 
 AARON, Ben Chaim, born at Fez, in the 16th 
 century, author of Commentaries on the Scriptures. 
 
 AARON, Hacharon, a rabbi of the Caraites, 
 born in Nicomedia 1346, author of several dogma- 
 tical works and commentaries. 
 
 AARON, Harischon, a rabbi of the Caraites, 
 born in the 13th century, at Constantinople, author 
 
 ABA 
 
 of a celebrated Commentary on the Pentateuch,' a 
 ' Treatise on Grammar,' &c. 
 
 AARON, Isaac, a Greek Jew, interpreter to 
 the emperor Manuel Commenus, died of torture 
 upon an accusation of sorcery, 1203. 
 
 AARON, Margalitha, a Polish rabbi, and 
 professor of Jewish antiquities, born 1665. Re- 
 markable for his conversion to Christianity, and his 
 unhappy death, which occurred in prison about the 
 year 1730 ; author of numerous ' Dissertations.' 
 
 AARON, Nasi Babel, a great cabalist, supposed 
 to have lived early in the Christian era, 
 
 AARON, Schascon, a learned rabbin of Thes- 
 salonica, died 1650. 
 
 AARSCHOT, Due D', a celebrated soldier of 
 the Roman church, died at Venice, 1595. 
 
 AARSENS, Corneille Van, a renegade pa- 
 triot and statesman of Holland, 1543-1623. 
 
 AARSENS, Francis Van, son of the preceding, 
 celebrated as a diplomatist, 1572-1641. 
 
 AARSENS, Francis, grandson of the last 
 named, author of a work of travels, 1655. 
 
 AARTGENS, or AERTGEN, a Dutch painter, 
 1498-1564. 
 
 AARTSBERGEN, Alex. Van, a Dutch noble- 
 man of the 17th century, distinguished for his ta- 
 lents and industry while at the university at Ley- 
 den, and afterwards eminent as a statesman. 
 
 AARTSEN. See .Ertsen. 
 
 AASCOW, A. B., a Danish physician, died 
 about 1780. 
 
 ABA, Owon, or Albon, a tyrant of Hungary, 
 slain by his soldiers, 1044. 
 
 ABA, a reputed magician, put to death by order 
 of the caliph Merwan, in the 7th century. 
 
 ABACO, Anthony, a Roman architect of the 
 16th century, author of a work illustrated with 
 engravings by his own hand. 
 
 ABACO, Av. Fel. D'El, a celebrated composer 
 and violinist of Verona, 1662-1726. 
 
 ABACO, Baron, an amateur composer and 
 violinist, lived at Verona in the 18th century. 
 
 ABACUC, a Christian martyr, reign of Claudius. 
 
 ABAD I., first Moorish king of Seville and 
 Cordova, died 1055, after a reign of 26 years. 
 
 ABAD II., son and sue. of Abad I., d. 1069. 
 
 ABAD III. succeeded to the throne of Seville 
 1083, made prisoner by the sultan of Morocco, and 
 died miserably in Africa. 
 
 ABADI, Ebn al, au. of a work on the Koran. 
 
 ABAFFI, Michel, a nobleman of Transylvania, 
 elected king, died 1690. 
 
 ABAFFI II., son of the preceding, whom he 
 succeeded when only 14 years of age, was compelled 
 to renounce his sovereignty, and d. in Vienna, 1713. 
 B 
 
ABACA-KJTAN, emj.eror of t>e Moguls, dis- 
 tii:oraish< ;'. a- ;v.i or.pcnen 4 : of the crusaders, d. 1282. 
 
 ABAGaRUS. See Abgarus. 
 
 ABAI, Hussein, author of a Harmony to the 
 various Commentaries on the Koran. 
 
 ABAILARD. See Abelard. 
 
 ABAISI, Tommaso, a sculptor employed with 
 his two sons in the cathedral of Ferrara, 1451. 
 
 ABAKER-KHAN. See Abaga-Khan. 
 
 ABAKUM, a Russian ecclesiastic, slain 1684. 
 
 ABALANTIUS, Leo, a Greek, who aided in 
 the murder of Nicephorus. 
 
 ABALPHAT, a native of Ispahan, celebrated 
 for having translated the work of Apollonius on 
 Conic Sections into Arabic. 
 
 ABANCOUR, C. X. J., Franqueville D', 
 nephew of the celebrated Calonne, and one of the 
 victims of the French revolution, 1792. 
 
 ABANCOURT, C. Frerot D\ a French officer, 
 born 1801, author of ' Memoirs on Turkey.' 
 
 ABANCOURT, F. J. Willemain D', author 
 of Fables,' &c., 1754-1803. 
 
 ABANO. See Apono. 
 
 ABANTIDAS, a tyrant of Sicyon, k. B.C. 251. 
 
 ABARBANEL. See Abrabanel. 
 
 ABARCA, or AB-ARCA, Sanctius, king of 
 Arragon and Navarre, killed in an engagem., 926. 
 
 ABARCA, D. Jeromiano, author of a history 
 of Arragon, lived in the 16th century, ^ To another 
 of the same family a history of Levant is attributed. 
 
 ABARCA, Martin De, a nobleman of Arragon, 
 eminent for his love of literature and knowledge of 
 numismatics : about the end of the 16th century. 
 
 ABARCA, Dona Maria De, a Spanish lady, 
 distinguished as an amateur painter, time of Rubens. 
 
 ABARCA, Pedro De, a Jesuit of Spain, emi- 
 nent as an historian and theologian, 1619-1682. 
 
 ABARIS, a reputed magician of Scvthia. 
 
 ABAS, an ancient sophist, to whom certain 
 liistorical commentaries are attributed. 
 
 ABASCAL, D. Jose Fern., viceroy of Peru 
 during the South American war of independence. 
 He was a native of Madrid. 1743-1821. 
 
 ABASCANTUS, a physician of Lyons, 2d cent. 
 
 ABASSA, a Turkish officer, strangled 1634. 
 
 ABASSA, ABBATSA, or A'BBAZAH, a sister 
 of Haroun al Raschid, whose singular marriage and 
 its results have furnished the romantic incidents of 
 many an oriental story. 
 
 ABASSARUS, the name of an officer who was 
 charged bv Cyrus with the rebuilding of the Temple. 
 
 ABASSON, an impostor who persuaded the 
 French and the Grand Turk that he was the grand- 
 son of Abbas, and was finally put to death. 
 
 ABATE, Andrea, an artist of Naples, d. 1732. 
 
 ABATI, Degli, a mediaaval Florentine family, 
 one of whom is placed in the ninth circle of hell, by 
 Dante, for his treacherous conduct to the Guelphs. 
 
 ABATI, an Ital. ecclesiastic and poet, 16th cent. 
 
 ABATI, Anthony, an Italian poet, d. 1667. 
 
 ABATI, an Italian physician of the 16th century. 
 
 ABATI, Nicolo, a painter in fresco, employed 
 at Fontainebleau and many Italian palaces, born 
 1512, died 1571, called also Dell 'Abate. His 
 relations Anthony and Peter of the same name 
 were also distinguished as painters. 
 
 ABATIA, F. Antoni, an alchymist, 17th cent. 
 
 ABATINI, Guido Ubaldo, a fresco painter of 
 Rome, 1600-1656. 
 
 ABB 
 
 ABATUCCI. See Abbatccct. 
 
 ABAUNZA, Peter, a Spanish au., 1599-164J 
 
 ABAUZIT, Firmin, an esteemed French author 
 distinguished also by the friendship of Sir Isaa 
 Newton, born at Uzes, 1679, died at Geneva, 1767 
 
 ABAZA, a Turkish pasha, remarkable for hi 
 military talents and official career, died 1636. 
 
 ABBA, author of a work explaining the difficul 
 words of the Talmud, 1543. 
 
 ABBA, Arica, a Jewish rabbi of the 3d cent. 
 
 ABBA, Thulle, king of the Pelew Isles, 1783 
 
 ABBACO, Paul Del, a Florentine poet an< 
 astronomer, cotemporary with Boccaccio. 
 
 ABBADABU, Amon, sultan of Seville, 1042 
 noted for his magnificence and military talents. 
 
 ABBADIE, James, a celebrated Protestan 
 theologian, 1658-1727. 
 
 ABBADIE, the author of a Dissertation on th 
 Conversion of the Gauls, published in 1702. 
 
 ABBADIE, Vincent, a French surgeon, trans 
 lator of MacBride's Essays, 1766. 
 
 ABBAS, an uncle and zealous partizan o 
 Mahomet, died 653. 
 
 ABBAS, Ebu Abbas Abdallah, surnamei 
 Rabbhani, was a son of the foregoing, and chief o 
 the Sahabuh or companions of the prophet, d. 687 
 
 ABBAS I., the seventh shah or king of Persia 
 by whom the ancient seat of empire was transfer 
 red to Ispahan. This prince is celebrated for hi 
 victories over the Ottomans. Many acts of domes- 
 tic cruelty tarnish the successes of a long reign o 
 41 years: died 1628, aged 70. 
 
 ABBAS II., the son and successor of Sephy 
 became shah of Persia, 1642, at the age of 13 
 died 1699 from the effects of his debaucheries 
 The most remarkable event of his reign was th 
 conquest of Candahar. 
 
 ABBAS III. succeeded to the throne of Persi; 
 when only eight months old, and died in 1736 
 after a merely nominal reign, under the usurpa 
 tion of Nadir Shah. 
 
 ABBAS, Ali, a Persian physician and astrono- 
 mer of the 10th century. 
 
 ABBAS, Ibu Abd-l-Mutalib, patens 
 uncle of Mahomet. His great grandson foundec 
 the dynasty of the Abassides. 
 
 ABBAS, Haly, See Ali Ben-Abbas. 
 
 ABBAS, Mirza, prince royal of Persia ; distin 
 guished by his efforts to introduce the culture o 
 Europe among his countrymen, 1785-1833. 
 
 ABBASAH, 1558-1634, a pasha of the Turkisl 
 empire. Distinguished as a military leader ji 
 two successive revolts. 
 
 ABBATUCCI, J a. P., a native of Corsica, dis 
 tinguished in its wars with the Genoese anA th> 
 French, afterwards opposed to Paoli, 1726-1812. 
 
 ABBATUCCI, Charles, son of the foregoing 
 became general of brigade in the French army, ant 
 was killed at the early age of 26, 1796. 
 
 ABBATISSA, a poet of Sicily, 1570. 
 
 ABBE, H., a painter, lived at Antwerp, 1670. 
 
 ABBE, Louise, called La Belle Conlonnim 
 celebrated for her personal attractions and poetica 
 talents, lived at Lvons in the 17th century. 
 
 ABBEVILLE, Claude D\ a Capuchin fathei 
 one of a mission to Marignon, the history of whici 
 he wrote, 1614. 
 
 ABBIATI, Filippo, an historical painter in oi 
 and fresco, born at Milan 1640, -died 1715. 
 
 2 
 
ABB 
 
 ABBO, Floriacensis, a learned abbot and 
 historian of the 10th century, who was employed 
 in an important mission to the pope, killed in a 
 tumult, 1004. 
 
 ABBON, or ABBO, Cernuus, a Norman monk 
 sj who was at the siege of Paris in 886, of which he 
 left an account in Latin verse ; died about 923. 
 
 ABBOT, Abiel, an American clergyman, au. 
 of Sermons and Letters, 1770-1828. 
 
 ABBOT, Charles. See Tenterden. 
 
 ABBOT, Charles, created Baron Colchester 
 1817, on retiring from the speakership of the H. 
 of Commons, was distinguished as a practical 
 statesman, 1757-1829. 
 
 ABBOT, Charles, author of a work on the 
 flora of Bedfordshire, was vicar of Oakley and 
 Goldington in that county ; died 1817. 
 
 ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canterbury in 
 the reigns of James I. and Charles I., was the son 
 of a clothworker, and early remarkable for his po- 
 lemical skill. He was an influential man at court 
 until Laud came into favour : he lost ground from 
 his attachment to Calvinism, 1562-1633. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, bp. of Salisbury, and eldest 
 brother of the foregoing, is esteemed" for his pro- 
 found and extensive learning, 1560-1617. 
 
 ABBOT, Maurice, youngest brother of the 
 foregoing, was an eminent merchant, and one of 
 the first directors of the East India Company. 
 Served in the office of sheriff and lord mayor, and 
 was knighted by Charles I. ; died 1640. 
 
 ABBOT, George, son of Sir Maurice, took up 
 arms in favour of Parliament, was author of several 
 religious works, 1600-1648. 
 
 ABBOT, Samuel, an English painter, born 
 1762, became insane and died 1803. 
 
 ABBT, Thomas, a German moralist, professor 
 of philosophy and mathematics, 1738-1766. 
 
 ABDALCADER, a Persian sheik of distin- 
 guished piety and wisdom. 
 
 ABDALLAH, the father of Mahomet, is re- 
 nowned in the traditions of his country, both for 
 his personal beauty and the purity of his manners. 
 He was originally a camel driver. 
 
 ABDALLAH, a pretender to the caliphate after 
 the death of his nephew, the first of the Abassides ; 
 slain by the troops of his rival, 755. 
 
 ABDALLAH, a caliph of the Saracens, who con- 
 quered Jerusalem in the eighth century. 
 
 ABDALLAH, governor of Badajos, and chief of 
 the Moors and Arabs in Portugal, 11th century. 
 
 ABDALLAH, the Arabian ldng of Spain at the 
 close of the 9th century, when the sovereignty 
 was entire, but in a declining state ; died 901, after 
 a troubled reign of four years. 
 
 ABDALLAH, king of Grenada on the close of 
 the 10th century. At this period the governors of 
 the chief cities had assumed the regal title. 
 
 ABDALLAH, Ben Yussim, founder of the 
 powerful but short-lived dynasty of the Almor- 
 avides, which flourished from 1094 till 1148, and 
 included the Arabian empire of Spain with that 
 of Africa. 
 
 ABDALLAH, fourth and last sheik of the Wah- 
 abees, defeated by Ibrahim Pasha, and beheaded 
 at Constantinople, 1818. 
 
 ABDALLATIF, a celebrated historian of Bag- 
 dad, 1161-1231. 
 
 ABDALMALEK, fifth caliph of the race of the 
 
 ABE 
 
 Ommiades, distinguished for his military conquers. 
 Commenced a prosperous reign of 21 years in 684. 
 
 ABDALONYMUS, a descendant of the kings 
 of Sidon, restored by Alexander. 
 
 ABDALRAHMAN an Arabian author, born at 
 Cairo in the middle of the 18th century. 
 
 ABDAL WAHAB, the founder of the Wah- 
 abees, a political and religious sect, who began 
 their opposition to the sultan about the middle of 
 last century. 
 
 ABDAS, a Persian bishop, the cause of the per- 
 secution under Theodosius, in which he himself 
 perished, 430. 
 
 ABDEL-ASIS, chief of the Wahabees, murdered 
 while at his devotions, 1803. 
 
 ABDEL-MELEK, caliph of Damascus, 685. 
 
 ABDEL-MUMEN, founder of the dynasty of 
 the Almoades, (which succeeded that of the Almor- 
 avides,) under the title of the Great Mehedi, or 
 forerunner of the Messiah, died 1163. 
 
 ABDIAS, the supposed author of an apocrypha] 
 history of the apostles ; about the 5th or 6th cent. 
 
 ABDOA, a Persian martyr, 250. 
 
 ABDOLMAMEN, or ABDOLMUMEM. See 
 Abdel-Mumen. 
 
 ABDON, a judge of Israel, b.c. 1148. 
 
 ABEILLE, Gaspard, a French wit and dra- 
 matist, born at Riezin 1648, died at Paris 1718. 
 
 ABEILLE, Scipio, brother of the above, au- 
 thor of a work on surgery, died 1697. 
 
 ABEILLE, Louis, pianist and composer, b. 1765. 
 
 ABEILLE, L. P., polit. economist, 1719-1807. 
 
 ABEL, according to Genesis, a son of Adam. 
 
 ABEL, the second son of Vladimir II., became 
 sole master of the Danish sovereignty after the 
 murder of his brother Eric. Killed in battle, 1252. 
 
 ABEL, Ch. F., a German violinist, 1725-1787. 
 
 ABEL, Dr. Clarke, an English physician and 
 naturalist, the historian of Lord Amherst's embassy 
 to China, died 1826. 
 
 ABEL, Hans, a painter of Frankfort, 15th cent. 
 
 ABEL, E. A., a painter of miniatures, last cent. 
 
 ABEL, Gaspar, a Germ, historian, 1676-1763. 
 
 ABEL, J., a disting. Germ, painter, 1780-1818. 
 
 ABEL, Nich. H., a distinguished geometrician 
 of Norway, 1802-1829. _ 
 
 ABEL, Thomas, a distinguished divine, teacher 
 of grammar and music to queen Catherine ; exe- 
 cuted by order of Henry VIII. 1540. 
 
 ABELA, J. F., knight com. of Malta, author of 
 Malta Illustrated,' 1647. 
 
 ABELARD, Peter, (ABAILARD, Pierre,) 
 one of the most illustrious of the mediaeval school- 
 men, was born in 1079 of a noble family, at Palais, 
 near Nantes in Brittany. The stirring incidents 
 of his chequered life, and especially his renowned 
 attachment to Heloise and its melancholy fruits, 
 have thrown a peculiar and romantic charm round 
 the name of Abelard. From his youth he devoted 
 himself to study, and throughout his whole career 
 he was at no pains to conceal his conscious pos- 
 session of superior ability. His first teacher was 
 Rosceline. Coming to Paris at the age of 
 twenty, and having soon rivalled and eclipsed his 
 tutor, Guillaume de Champeaux, he removed in 
 two years from Paris to Melun, thence to Corbeil, 
 and thence to Palais, his birthplace, teaching 
 philosophy all the while with great success. The 
 attractions of Paris soon drew him again to tlie 
 
ABE 
 
 metropolis, whore he attacked the Realism of his 
 old master with such dialectic dexterity and 
 vigour, that Champeaux's school was speedily 
 extinguished. By and bye his antagonist was 
 made bishop of Chalon-sur-Marne, and Abelard 
 commenced to studv theology under Anselm at 
 Laon. Having by his transcendent talent made 
 the seminary at Laon his envious enemy, he re- 
 turned to Paris, and opened a School of Divinity 
 with unrivalled popularity. In that school were 
 trained many men, from various countries, who 
 afterwards arrived at high ecclesiastical honours- 
 one pope, nineteen cardinals, and above fifty 
 bishops. In this zenith of his fame, when, accor- 
 ding to his own confession, pride and luxury had 
 seduced him, he fell in love with, and seduced his 
 pupil, Heloise, a young and fatherless lady not 
 over twenty years of age, and a niece of canon 
 Fulbert, one of the Parisian ecclesiastics. Heloise 
 was conveyed to Brittany, and bore a son in the 
 house of Abelard's sister. The canon insisted 
 upon a marriage, which accordingly took place, a 
 union which Heloise openly denied, to her uncle's 
 great vexation. Abelard next placed her in the 
 convent of Argenteuil ; but her uncle took a ter- 
 rible revenge for the abduction of his niece, by 
 means of some hired ruffians who broke into Abe- 
 lard's chamber, and inflicted on his person a dis- 
 graceful mutilation. Heloise on this took the veil 
 and became a nun, and Abelard retired as a monk 
 into the Abbey of St. Denis. At length he re- 
 sumed his prelections, but had the misfortune of 
 being suspected of heresy, and was condemned in 
 1121, by a council which met at Soissonns. Dis- 
 gusted with the persecuting and exasperated 
 monks of St. Denis, for he had denied their St. 
 Denis to be 'Dionysius the Areopagite,' he 
 retired to Troyes, and selected a retreat which his 
 subdued and chastened spirit named the Paraclete, 
 or Comforter, and in this convent Heloise was at 
 length established as superior. But the un- 
 fortunate recluse next provoked the ire of his 
 neighbour, Bernard of Clairvaux, and again for 
 suspected heresy did the council of Sens put its 
 brand upon him. He appealed to Rome, but did 
 not follow out his appeal. Worn out with fatigue, 
 persecution, and infirmity, he at length took 
 refuge in the priory of St. Marcel, where he died 
 21st April, 1142, at the age of 63. His body, 
 first interred at Cluni, was soon removed to the 
 Paraclete ; and twenty years afterwards Heloise 
 was buried beside him at her own request. Their 
 ashes lay undisturbed for 300 years ; but in 1497 
 they were transferred to the church of the abbey ; 
 then in 1800 removed to the garden of the Musee 
 Francais, in Paris; and lastly, in 1817, they were 
 deposited beneath a Gothic shrine in the cemetery 
 of Pere la Chaise. The brilliant talents and 
 oratory of Abelard are beyond dispute. As a 
 subtle and accomplished dialectician he had no 
 rival. His ' Conceptualism' forms an epoch in tne 
 Uftory of mind, and gave a salutary impulse to 
 in which he lived. In his ' Theologia' we 
 t a vigorous and original mind, often ham- 
 pered by its position and ecclesiastical subordina- 
 tion, but often asserting its native freedom and 
 untrammelled right, as, for example, in his illus- 
 tration of tlie mutual provinces of reason and 
 faith. In his book on Ethics, which be quaintly 
 
 ABE 
 
 called 'Scito te Ipsum,' he opposes the Romis 
 doctors on many points of morality ; and in hi 
 other Treatise, 'Sic et Non' 'Yes and No,' h 
 exposed their boasted uniformity of doctrine, am 
 produced in a scries of 157 rubrics, the contradic 
 tory opinions of the older teachers of the church 
 His works were published at Paris in 1614 ; an< 
 at the same place in 1836, Cousin publisher 
 ' Ouvrages inedits d'Abailard.' [J.E. 1 
 
 [Tomb of Abelard ami Heloise.] 
 
 ABELIN, J. Ph., better known as Jean Louii 
 Gottfried, a German historian, 17th century. 
 
 ABELL, Jno., a musician, celebrated at thi 
 court of Charles II. 
 
 ABELLI, Louis, bishop of Rhodes, 1604-1691 
 
 ABELLY, Ant., a Fr. ecclesiastic, emin. as ; 
 preacher, confessor to Catherine de Medicis : 1 *>th at 
 
 ABELLY, Louis, a Fr. ecclesiastic, author o 
 numerous theological works, 1603-1691. 
 
 ABENCHAMOT, an Arabian chief, whose ex 
 ploits against the Portuguese were the admiratioi 
 of the 16th centurv. 
 
 ABENDANA, Jac, a Spanish Jew, author o 
 a Hebrew Commentary, died 1685. 
 
 ABEN-EZRA, a celebrated rabbin, astronomer 
 and mathematician of Spain, whose commentarie 
 on the Sacred Scriptures are in high repute, bot] 
 among Jews and Christians, fl. in the 12th cent. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, author of severa 
 works on horticulture, published originally uncle 
 his own name and that of Mawe, 1726-1806. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, M.D., the eminen 
 author of ' Enquiries concerning the Intellectua 
 Powers,' published 1830, and the 'Philosophy of th 
 Moral Feelings,' published 1833, was born at Aber 
 deen, Nov. 11, 1781, and attained the highest ran] 
 as a practical and consulting physician at Edin 
 burgh ; died Nov. 14, 1844. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Alex., Lord, youngest brothe 
 of Sir Ralph, a judge of Scotland, and occasiona 
 essavist in connection with Mackenzie, 1745-1795 
 
 A'BERCROMBY, Dav., a Scotch physician am 
 author, 17th century. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sin John Robt., lieut.-gen. 
 second son of Sir Ralph, took the Isle of Franc 
 while governor of Madras in 1810; died 1817. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Patrick, a Scotch historian 
 physician to James II., died 1726. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph. This gallon 
 and skilful soldier, and upright and humane man 
 
ABE 
 
 was born at Menstrie, in the county of Clackman- 
 nan in Scotland, in October, 1734. He entered 
 the army at the age of eighteen, and saw some ser- 
 vice during the last part of the seven years' war in 
 Germany. He was not employed in the American 
 war ; and it was not until the war against revolu- 
 ..tionary France broke out, that the important part 
 | of Abercromby 's career commenced. He acted as 
 1 lieutenant-general to the Duke of York in the 
 campaigns in Holland, from 1793-5. Abercrom- 
 by's promptitude and courage, and also his good 
 sense and humanity, were greatly signalized during 
 these unfortunate operations of our troops ; and both 
 foreigners and fellow-countrymen noted the contrast 
 which his skill presented to the incompetency of 
 the other leaders of our army at that period. At 
 the end of 1795 Sir Ralph was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief in the West Indies, and conquered 
 several islands from the French. He was sent to 
 Ireland as commander of the forces, during one 
 part of the Irish rebellion, but his disgust at the 
 system sanctioned there by the government, 
 caused him to make indignant remonstrances, 
 which were answered by his recall. He served 
 again in Holland as second in command to the 
 Duke of York, in the disastrous expedition to the 
 Helder in 1799 ; and he again acquired the re- 
 spect both of friends and foes, by his good conduct 
 amid the imbecile blunders of those who were 
 associated with him in command. But it is from 
 the expedition to reconquer Egypt in 1801, when 
 he was placed in unfettered authority at the head 
 of a British army destined for a worthy object, 
 that the lustre of his fame is dated. Sir Ralph 
 reached the Egyptian coast in March, with a force 
 of about 12,000 effective men. The French army 
 that occupied Egypt, under General Menou, was 
 much stronger ; but Menou, though aware of the 
 approach of the English expedition, detached only 
 
 1>art of his force, under General Friant, to oppose the 
 anding of Abercromby's army. Abercromby placed 
 his men in boats on the 8th of March, and made good 
 his landing, though he was met by Friant's troops 
 with a heavy cannonade ; and the English, as they 
 reached the beach, were fiercely and repeatedly 
 charged both by the cavalry and the infantry of the 
 French. Abercromby then moved upon Alex- 
 andria, where the chief force of the French was 
 posted. A slight action took place on the 13th, 
 in which the English had the advantage ; but it 
 was on the 21st that the decisive battle was 
 fought which liberated Egypt. On that day 
 General Menou attacked the British with the 
 whole disposable force that he could concentrate 
 upon their position. He had from 12 to 14,000 
 troops in the field, a large proportion of whom were 
 cavalry; and his artillery was also numerous. 
 Abercromby had about 10,000 foot, and only 300 
 horse. He was also far inferior in guns. The 
 battle, (which the English call the battle of Alex- 
 andria, and which is termed by French historians 
 the battle of Canopus,) began about an hour be- 
 fore daybrerk, and raged with unusual obstinacy 
 till a little before 10 a.m. The French troops were 
 all veterans of Napoleon's army of Italy ; they at- 
 tacked with impetuosity ; and the English, who 
 had the fullest confidence in their chief, re- 
 sisted with their national stubbornness. Our right 
 wing rested on the ruins of some old Roman 
 
 ABE 
 
 buildings ; and this point was the key of our posi- 
 tion, and the especial object of the French assaults. 
 Abercromby rode to this spot, and encouraged his 
 men by voice, gesture, and example. On the 
 other side, Lanusse, the best of the French generals, 
 led on the assailing columns. Lanusse was shot 
 dead, and his columns driven back, but they soon 
 rallied and returned to the charge; and a splendid 
 division of French cavalry, under General Roize, 
 galloped forward upon the English infantiy that 
 was posted near the Roman walls. Sir Ralph was 
 attacked in person by some of these daring cava- 
 liers, and the brave old general, though ne dis- 
 armed his first antagonist, received a sabre wound in 
 the chest from another French trooper, who was 
 instantly shot down by a Highlander of the 42d. 
 Soon after this Sir Ralph received a musket shot 
 in the thigh ; but he refused to quit the field until 
 the enemy were thoroughly repulsed, and he saw 
 them flying from the field, which was strewed 
 with 1,700 of their killed and wounded, and also 
 with nearly 1,400 of the victorious English. When 
 the excitement of the battle was over, Sir Ralph 
 fainted and was carried off the field in a hammock, 
 amid the blessings and tears of the soldiery, who 
 loved him as a father. He was immediately car- 
 ried on board Lord Keith's flag ship, where he died 
 of the gunshot wound in his thigh, on the evening 
 of 28th March, 1801, in the 63d year of his pure 
 and honourable life. [E.S.C.j 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Rout., General, a younger 
 brother of Sir Ralph. For thirty years governor 
 of the castle of Edinburgh, died 1827. 
 
 ABERLI, J. L., a Swiss painter, 1723-1786. 
 
 ABERNETHY, Rev. J., an Irish dis.,1680-1740. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, (1763-1831,) a cele- 
 brated surgeon. A native of the north of Ireland, 
 he was educated in London, where his parents 
 are said to have resided. He became a pupil 
 of John Hunter, by whom he was thoroughly em- 
 bued with a determination to devote his remark- 
 able energies to the reform of the mode of practis- 
 ing the profession to which he was devoted. By 
 his master he was admirably instructed in the 
 organization of the human body, and his career is 
 a brilliant example of the successful application of 
 his early knowledge to the legitimate treatment of 
 disease. It was in combating the empirical ten- 
 dencies of his predecessors that he perhaps became 
 rather dogmatical in his manner, which, although 
 it rendered him a favourite with his pupils from 
 its eccentricity, produced enmity by its brusque- 
 ness. To a celebrated friend of the writer of this, 
 who was familiar with him, he said, upon talcing 
 a patient to him, and commencing to explain the 
 symptoms of the complaint, ' Hold your tongue, 
 sir, what have you to do with it T He became, at 
 an early age, surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospi- 
 tal, and lecturer in its medical school. His most 
 important works were on Physiology, on Surgery, 
 and on the treatment of local diseases. His great 
 merit was in pointing out the legitimate road on 
 which to practise the profession, and in carrying 
 out the principles of his great master, John Hunter, 
 with amazing energy and determination. [R.D.T.] 
 
 ABERNETHY ,' Thos., a Jesuit missionary in 
 Scotland, 1636. 
 
 ABERTINELLI, a Flor. painter, about 1512. 
 
 ABESCH, Ajjxa B., a painter on glass, d. 1750. 
 
ABO 
 
 ABGABUS, either the proper name or the title 
 of several kings of Edessa, one of whom was cp- 
 temporary with our Saviour, and is said to have 
 written to him. 
 
 ABGILLUS, a prince who accompanied Charle- 
 magne to the holy land, and is known by his sur- 
 name of Pi; ester John. 
 
 ABIAH. the second son of Samuel. 
 ABIATHAR. high priest in the time of David. 
 ABICHT,J.G.,aGermanorientalUt.l672-1740. 
 ABIGAIL, the wife of NabaJ and David. 
 ABIHU, one of the sons of Aaron. 
 ABIJAH, son of Jeroboam, king of Israel. 
 ABIJAH, king of Judah after Jeroboam. 
 ABU AH, the" wife of Ahaz, and mother of 
 Hezekiah. king of Judah. 
 
 ABILDGAARD, P. Cii., a Danish physician and 
 naturalist, died 1808. 
 
 ABILDGAARD, N. A., brother of the foregoing, 
 an historical painter, 1744-1809. 
 ABILDGAARD. Soren, a Danish nat., d. 1791. 
 ABIMELECH, a k. of Israel, killed B.C. 1206. 
 ABINGER, James Scarlett, Lord, an emi- 
 nent English practising barrister and judge, was 
 born in Jamaica about the year 1769. His family 
 was eminent and influential in the West Indies, 
 and his younger brother, Sir William Anglin Scar- 
 lett, became chief justice of Jamaica. He studied 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge, entered at the 
 Middle Temple, and was called to the bar on the 
 8th July, 1791, taking his degree of A.M. three 
 rears later. His practical sagacity, aided by a full, 
 handsome person, which gave him, even in youth, 
 an appearance of sedate importance, procured for 
 him a rapid and lucrative business. His temper, 
 discretion, and industry, were alwavs to be relied 
 on ; and few English barristers, wlule yet junior 
 counsel, have been intrusted with the sole manage- 
 ment of so many important cases. There was 
 nothing striking or inspiring in his eloquence, 
 nor was he remarkable for original or profound legal 
 views ; but he had the most lucrative of all char- 
 acters attached to his professional fame, that of 
 getting many verdicts. A writer in the public 
 gning himself ' Lorgnette,' who seems to 
 nave intimately studied his career, summed up his 
 characteristics' as a practical lawyer by saying : 
 ' Watchfulness, prudence in the management of a 
 at moral courage in the choice or rejection 
 of the means to be used on behalf of a client, ex- 
 perience of human nature, and great self-denial in 
 the exhibition of that experience ; these were the 
 chief agencies by which he acquired his ascendancy 
 over juries; while it is not surprising that he 
 should have also acquired great influence over the 
 bench, when he added intimate knowledge of the 
 intricacies of law to an unusual personal prefer- 
 ence for judges, and the prestige which almost un- 
 varying success gave him.' He received a silk 
 gown in 1816. He had before that date made un- 
 .1 attempts to get into parliament, where 
 he first sat in 1818 for Peterborough, a nomination 
 seat. He was one of the many eminent lawyers 
 whose peculiar forensic powers have failed to 
 please the House of Commons, and he was not 
 much heard there except on professional matters. 
 He had been an advocate of Romjlly'a law reforms, 
 and was generally counted in the Whig ranks, 
 but he took a distinct step in a gradual change, 
 
 ABS 
 by becoming attorney -general under Canning in 
 1827. When Sir Charles Wethcrall was dismissed 
 in 1829, for opposition to Catholic emancipation, 
 Scarlett took a farther step by becoming again 
 attorney-general under the Wellington administra- 
 tion, and he followed up his accession by severe pro- 
 secutions of the opposition papers. In 1884 he 
 was made chief baron of the Exchequer, and raised 
 to the peerage by the title of Baron Abinger. He 
 died on 7th April, 1814, of paralysis, which at- 
 tacked him when on circuit at Bury St. Edmonds. 
 His first wife, married in 1792, died in 1829, and 
 he was married a second time, a few months before 
 his death. [J.H.BJ 
 
 ABIXGTON.Tiios., an English hist, 1560-1647. 
 
 ABINGTON, Fr., B comic actress, 1731-1815. 
 
 ABIOSI, an Italian phys. and astrol., 15th cent. 
 
 ABIRAM, one of the seditious Jews, Numb. xvL 
 
 ABISBAL, Enrique O'Donnell, Count of, a 
 Spanish general who achieved many successes 
 against the French, 1770-1834. 
 
 ^ABISHAI, a nephew of David, king of Israel, 
 and one of the commanders of his army. 
 
 ABLAVIUS, a prefect, murdered by Constans. 
 
 ABLESON, John, a naval commander, 17th ct. 
 
 ABNER, first cousin and captain of the host 
 to Said, murdered by Joab, B.C. 1068. 
 
 ABNEY, Sir Th., distinguished for his friend- 
 ship to Dr. Watts, and his public spirit while lord 
 mavor of London in 1700 ; died 1722. 
 
 ABOS, the name of two brothers who distin- 
 guished themselves by the defence of Malta against 
 the Turks, end of the 17th century. 
 
 ABOS, author of the opera of ' Tito Manlio.' 
 
 ABOU, a judge eel. under Haroun al Raschid. 
 
 ABOU AM ROT. SeeARMBD-BBN Mohammed. 
 
 ABOVILLE, F. M., Count D', a French general, 
 1730-1817. 
 
 ABRABANELJsaac, a Portuguese Jew, author 
 of numerous commentaries, 1437-1508. 
 
 ABRADATAS, a king of Susa, of whom a beau- 
 tiful fiction is related by Xenophon. 
 
 ABRAHAM, the patriarch of the Jews, was 
 probably the youngest son of Terah, a descendant 
 of Shem. The chronology of his life is uncertain, 
 but it dates bevond 2000 years B.C. 
 
 ABRAHAM*, Nicil, a learned Jesuit, 1589-1656. 
 
 ABRAHAM, a Sancta Clara, a Roman 
 Cath. preacher, highly popular in Vienna, and re- 
 markable for his eccentric writings, 1642-1709. 
 
 ABRAHAM, St., an anchorite of the 4th cent 
 
 ABRESCH, Fr. Louis, a celebrated critic and 
 hellenist, 1699-1782. 
 
 ABREU, Alexis, amed. wr. of Portugal, 1622. 
 
 ABREU, Don J. Ant., a Sp. annalist, d. 1776. 
 
 ABREU, J. M. De, a geometrician, 1754-1805. 
 
 ABRIAL, A. J., a Fr. statesman, highly distin- 
 guished by Napoleon, 1750-1828. 
 
 ABRIL, a teacher of the classics, 1530-1590. 
 
 ABRILOLA, an Arabian poet, 973-1057. 
 
 ABROSI. an astrol. and phys. of Italy, 16th cent. 
 
 ABRUZZI, a landscape painter, 18th centurv. 
 
 ABRUZZO, Baltil, a Sicilian phil, 1601-1665. 
 
 ABSALOM, the son of David, k. B.C. 1023. 
 
 ABSALOM, archbishop of Lund, distinguished 
 for his public spirit and exploits in arms no less 
 than for his learning, 1128-1191. 
 
 ABSCHATZ. Absmah Von, a German states- 
 man and poet, 1646-1699. 
 
ABS 
 
 ABSTEMIUS, Laurentius, fabulist, 15th cent. 
 
 ABU, Moslem, governor of Khorassan, and one 
 of the chief instruments in establishing the Abas- 
 sides, put to death by Almanzor, 759* 
 
 ABU-AMON. See Ahmed-ben Mohammed. 
 
 ABU BE KIR, the first caliph, and successor of 
 Mahomet, disting. by his warlike talents and personal 
 moderation. The scattered chapters of the Koran 
 are supposed to have been collected by him ; d. 634. 
 
 ABUCARA, Theod., a controversial divine, 
 bishop of Caria in the 8th century. Another of 
 the same name who lived a century later, is noted 
 for the insincerity of his public life. 
 
 ABUDADAHER, the chief of an Arabian sect, 
 disting. himself by the pillage of Mecca, d. 953. 
 
 ABUL ABBAS, first caliph of the Abassides, 
 reigned 749-753. 
 
 ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, an Arabian 
 historian, born 1226. 
 
 ABULFAZEL, a vizier and historian of the 
 Mogul empire, assassinated 1604. 
 
 ABULFEDA, Ismael, a Syrian prince and geo- 
 grapher, 1296-1368. 
 
 ABULGAZI, BehAder, khan of the Tartars, 
 1645, and author of a Tartar history. 
 
 ABULOLA, an Arabian poet, 973-1057. 
 
 ABUNDANCE, Jean D',aFr. poet and satirist, 
 16th cent., most of whose works still exist in MS. 
 
 ABU-NOWAS, an Arabian poet, a favourite of 
 Haroun al Raschid. 
 
 ABU-OBEYDAH, a Mohammedan general, dis- 
 tinguished as the conqueror of Palestine and Syria, 
 and by the friendship of Mahomet, died 639. 
 
 ABU-TALIB, a native of India, author of a 
 Journal of Observations upon the English, trans- 
 lated by Major Stewart, died 1806. 
 
 ABU-TEMAN, an Arabian poet, esteemed the 
 second in degree of superiority by his countrymen ; 
 originally worked as a tailor, 805-6845-6. 
 
 ABUZAID, Mirza, a great-grandson of Ti- 
 mur, proclaimed sultan at Asterabad during the 
 civil wars fomented by Uleg Beg and his son. 
 Taken prisoner in the endeavour to extend his 
 empire, and put to death, 1469. 
 
 ABYDENUS, an historian, quoted by Eusebius. 
 
 ACACIUS, founder of the Acaciani, 4th cent. 
 
 ACACIUS, bishop of Berea in Syria, died 436. 
 
 ACACIUS, bishop of Caesarea, 339. 
 
 ACACIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, 471. 
 
 ACACIUS, tip. of Amida at the beginning of the 
 5 th cent., disting. for a great act of benevolence, hav- 
 ing ransomed 7000 Persians, who had been made 
 pnsoners of war, by the sale of his church plate. 
 
 ACADEMUS, a private citizen of Athens, from 
 whom the Academic grove, the favourite resort of 
 certain Athenian philosophers, took its name. 
 
 ACAMAPIXTILLI, first king of the Aztecs, 
 and founder of the city of Mexico, died 1420. 
 
 ACARQ, D', a Fr. gram, and critic, died 1795. 
 
 ACCA, bishop of Hexham in the 8th century, 
 celebrated as a divine, also for his versatile 
 literary talents, and his skill in psalmody. 
 
 ACCA, the nurse of Romulus and Remus. 
 
 ACCAMA, Bernard and Mathias, two 
 Dutch painters of the 18th century. 
 
 ACCARIGI, Fr., professor of civil law, d. 1622. 
 
 ACCARIGI, Jac, professor of rhetoric, d. 1654. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Donatus, a dusting, scholar 
 of the 15th century. 
 
 ACH 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, J., an au. and lecturer, 16th c 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, M., a Florentine poetess, d. 1610. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Ph., a dramatic poet, 1637-1700. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Nich., a disting. Neapolitan 
 statesman, 1310-1366. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Reinier, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, conqueror of Athens, Corinth, and Bceotia. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Zenobio, a Greek scholar and 
 poet, librarian to Leo X. 1461-1520. 
 
 ACCIEN, governor of Antioch when that city 
 was besieged by the crusaders, 1097. 
 
 ACCIO-ZUCCO, author of a versified transla- 
 tion of ;Esop, with poetical additions, 1479. 
 
 ACCIUS, L., a Roman tragedian, died b.c. 180. 
 
 ACCIUS, Nevius, a Roman augur, who op- 
 posed the expedition of Tarquin the elder against 
 the Sabines. 
 
 ACCIUS, T., a Roman orator, 1st century B.C. 
 
 ACCIUS, Tullius, the prince of the Volsci, 
 with whom Coriolanus formed an alliance when he 
 revolted from Rome. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Benedetto, a eel. jurist and hist., 
 secretary of the Florentine republic, 1415-1466. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Fr., brother of the preceding, a 
 jurist and poet, surnamed Aretinus, died 1483. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Bernard, son of Benedetto, an 
 improvisatore of disting. powers, d. about 1535. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Peter, a second son of Benedetto, 
 and card, of Ancona; noted as the composer of 
 the papal bull against Luther in 1519 ; 1455-1532. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Benedetto, card, of Ravenna, and 
 nephew of the two preceding, was called the Cicero 
 of the age. He was highly distinguished by Leo X. 
 and his successors, 1497-1549. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Leonardo, son of Fabricio, a na- 
 tural son of the preceding, author of a life of the 
 first Benedetto, &c. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Ben., a conspirator against Pius IV., 
 
 ACCORAMBONI, the name of several noted 
 Italians, one of whom was a niece of Sixtus V., and 
 the author of some poetry, murdered 1585. 
 
 ACCORSO, Fr., a fams. Ital. jurist, 1182-1229. 
 
 ACCORSO, Fr., son of the preceding, also cele- 
 brated as a jurist, died 1328. 
 
 ACCORSO, Mariangelo, a critical au., 16th c. 
 
 ACCUM, Fr., an eminent chemist, 1769-1838. 
 
 ACCURSIUS. See Accorso, Fr. 
 
 ACERBI, Enrico, a eel. Ital. surgeon, d. 1827. 
 
 ACERBI, Giuseppe, au. of Travels, publ. 1798. 
 
 ACERBO, Fr., a poet of Naples, 17th century. 
 
 ACERNUS, S. B., a Polish poet, called the 
 Sarmatian Ovid, 1551-1608. 
 
 ACESEUS, a Gr. artist eel. for his embroidery. 
 
 ACESIUS, bishop of Constantinople in the 
 reign of Constantine. 
 
 ACEVEDO, F. A., Sp. revolutionist, killed 1820. 
 
 ACEVEDO, Alonso, a Spanish advocate, dis- 
 tinguished for his humane opposition to the use of 
 torture, died about 1780. 
 
 ACH, Van, an historical painter, 1566-1621. 
 
 ACH&US, an ancient Greek poet. 
 
 ACHiEUS, gov. of Asia Minor, 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 ACHAIUS, king of the Scots from 788 to 819. 
 
 ACHAN, a Jew, stoned to death, B.C. 1451. 
 
 ACHARD, Anth., a learned divine, 1696-1772. 
 
 ACHARD, abbot of St. Victor in Paris, d. 1172. 
 
 ACHARD, Cl. F., aphys. and antiq., 1753-1809. 
 
 ACHARD, F. C, a Prussian chemist, d. 1821. 
 
ACH 
 
 ACHARDS, Eleazar, bp. of Avignon, d. 1741. 
 
 ACHAHIUS, EJWQ, a botanist, 1757-1819. 
 
 ACHAKY, or ASHAKI, founder of a Mahom- 
 medan sect, called alter bis name in the 8th cent. 
 
 ACHENWALL, Godfrey, a celebrated Prus- 
 sian jurist, the founder of statistics, 1719-1772. 
 
 ACHER, N., a French judge, author of an 
 abridgment of ' Plutarch's Lives,' died 1807. 
 
 ACHERLEY, Roger, a polit.writer, 1727-1740. 
 
 ACHERY, J. L. D', a learned monk, 1609-1085. 
 
 ACHILLAS, minister and general of Ptolemy. 
 
 ACHILLES, one of the great chiefs of the Ho- 
 meric poems, is represented as the grandson of 
 ^Eacus, and son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones. 
 His share in the siege of Troy, and particularly the 
 death of Hector, is described, in the Iliad, ana his 
 death in the 24th book of the Odyssey. 
 
 ACHILLES, Alex., a Prussian nobleman, au. 
 of works on physical science, d. in poverty 1675. 
 
 ACHILLES, Tatius, a Christian bishop, and 
 author of a Greek romance in the 3d century. 
 
 ACHILLINI, the name of three Italians of the 
 16th century, disting. in professional literature. 
 
 ACHISH, a king of Gath, with whom David 
 took refuge, B.C. 1060. 
 
 ACHMET I., suit, of the Ottomans, 1588-1617. 
 
 ACHMET II. sucedd. as sultan 1691, d. 1695. 
 
 ACHMET III. sucedd. 1703,depsd. 1730,d.l736. 
 
 ACHMET, dey of Algiers, from 1805-1808. 
 
 ACHMET, a gen. of Solyman, exec, for rebelln. 
 
 ACHMET, an Arabian wr. on dreams, 4th cent. 
 
 ACHMET-GIEDIC, grand vizier under Maho- 
 met II., was one of the greatest warriors and states- 
 men that ever conducted the affairs of a nation. 
 He was the idol of the people and the army. After 
 repeated displays of magnanimity, he was secretly 
 strangled by order of Bajazet, 1482. 
 
 ACHTER, Ulr., a Bavar. musician, 1777-1803. 
 
 ACHTSCHELLING, Lucas, a painter, 16th c. 
 
 ACIDALIUS, Valens, a classical wr., 16th ct. 
 
 ACIEY, Michel V., a Fr. sculptor, 1736-1799. 
 
 ACILIUS, Aviola, a Roman officer, burnt 
 alive, e.c. 19. 
 
 ACILIUS, Aviola, consul of Rome, 54. 
 
 ACILIUS, Caius, a Roman soldier of distin- 
 guished valour, in the time of Julius Caesar. 
 
 ACILIUS, Glabrio, consul of Rome, 2dct. B.C. 
 
 ACILIUS, Glabrio, consul of Rome, 91. 
 
 ACINDYMUS, Septimus, Roman governor of 
 Antioch, 4th century. 
 
 ACINDYMUS, Gr., a controversial au., 14th ct. 
 
 ACINELLI, a Genoese historian, 18th century. 
 
 ACK, Johann, a painter on glass, 16th century. 
 
 ACKER, Peter, a painter on glass, 15th cent. 
 
 ACKERMANN, Conrad, a comedian of Ham- 
 burgh, esteemed the Garrick of Germany, d. 1771. 
 
 ACKERMANN, J. F., a physiologist, 1765-1813. 
 
 ACKERMANN, J. Ch. Gottlieb, an eminent 
 phys. and medical writer of Germany, 1756-1801. 
 
 ACKERMANN, Rudolph, a German trades- 
 man settled in London, noted for his improvements 
 in lithography, &c, 1764-1834. 
 
 ACKERSDYCK, Cor., a writer on Logic, 1666. 
 
 AC KM AN, Wm., a Scotch artist, cotemporary 
 with the poet Thomson, whose merits he was the 
 first to appreciate. 
 
 ACKWORTH, G. Dr., one of the reformation 
 authors, a favourite of Archbishop Parker. 
 
 ACOLUTH, Andr., an orientalist, 1654-1704. 
 
 ADA 
 
 ACONTIUS, Jas., an eminent philosopher and 
 divine, converted to the protestant Faith, 16th cent. 
 
 ACORIS, king of Egypt, 4th century, n.c. 
 
 ACOSTA, Chr., a surg. and naturalist, 16th ct, 
 
 ACOSTA, Gabriel, a divine of the 17th cent. 
 
 ACOSTA, J., edt. of the Calcutta Times, d. 1820. 
 
 ACOSTA, Josh., a Peruvian Jesuit, author of a 
 history of the West Indies, died 1600. 
 
 ACOSTA, Manuel, author of a history of the 
 Jesuit missionaries to the East, 1541-1604. 
 
 ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portuguese, distinguished 
 for his inquiring spirit, who after many times 
 changing his creed and enduring much persecution, 
 committed suicide, 1640 or 1647. 
 
 ACQUAVIVA, A. M., Duke of Atri, distin- 
 guished as a patron of literature, and the first 
 publisher of an encyclopedia, d. 1529. Many 
 others of this family are remarkable as comman- 
 ders, statesmen, and men of letters. 
 
 ACREL, Olaf, a Swedish surgeon, 1717-1807. 
 
 ACRON, Helenius, a Roman grammarian, 
 
 ACRON a Sicilian physician, 5th century, b.c 
 
 ACRON, or Acronius, John, a physician and 
 mathematician of Friesland, 16th century. 
 
 ACRONIUS, John, a Dutch writer in opposi- 
 tion to the church of Rome, 17th century. 
 
 ACROPOL1TA, G., a Byzantine histor., d. 1283. 
 
 ACROPOLITA, Const., son of the preceding, 
 a theologian and minister of state. 
 
 ACROTATUS, son of Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, 
 rendered himself odious by the murder of Sosis- 
 tratus ; he died without having reigned. 
 
 ACROTATUS, grandson of the foregoing, be- 
 came king of Sparta, B.C. 268, killed in hattle. 
 
 ACTON, John or Joseph, the son of an Irish 
 physician, settled at Besancon, became prime 
 minister at the court of Naples towards the close 
 of the last century, and is noted as a bitter oppo- 
 nent of the French, 1737-1808. 
 
 ACTORIUS, Nason, hist., age of Augustus. 
 
 ACTUARIUS, Jo., a Greek physician, 13th ct. 
 
 ACUNA, Ant., bishop of Zamora, notorious for 
 his part in the civil wars of the period, behd. 1521. 
 
 ACUNA, Chr., a Jesuit missionary, author of a 
 work descriptive of the river Amazon. 
 
 ACUNA, Fernando De, a native of Madrid, 
 a great favourite with the emperor Charles Y., and 
 a writer of pastoral poetry, died 1680. 
 
 ADA, queen of Caria, B.C. 344. 
 
 ADEUS, or ADDED S, a Greek poet, 4th ct. B.C. 
 
 ADAIR, James, an Indian trader, author of a 
 work in which he deduces the descent of the North 
 American Indians from the Hebrews, pub. 1775. 
 
 ADAIR, James, serjeant at law, distinguished 
 as a counsellor and recorder of London, died 1798. 
 
 ADAIR, James Makittrick, a Scotch phy- 
 sician, auth. of several professional works, d. 1H02. 
 
 ADAIR, John, F.R.S., a Scotchman, distin- 
 guished as an hydrographer, end of 17th century. 
 
 ADALARD, abbot and founder of New Corbie, 
 which was designed by him as a nursery of mis- 
 sionaries to convert the northern nations. This 
 distinguished monk was cousin-german of Charle- 
 magne, and was bom about the year 753. 
 
 ADALBERON, archbishop of Rhehns, distin- 
 guished for his learning and statesmanship, con- 
 secrated Hugh Capet, 987, and died 988. 
 
 ADALBERON, Ascelin, bishop of Laon, also a 
 politician, noted for Ids treachery, died lUoO. 
 
ADA 
 
 ADALBERT, a French bishop of the 8th cent,, 
 who claimed inspiration, was condemned by the 
 council of Soissons, 744, and died in prison. 
 
 ADALBERT, bishop of Prague, savagely mur- 
 dered by the Bohemians, 997. 
 
 ADALBERT, archbishop of Bremen, died 1072. 
 
 ADALBERT, archbishop of Magdeburg, d. 1137. 
 
 ADALBERT I., duke of Tuscany, 847-890. 
 
 ADALBERT II., son of the preceding, 890-917. 
 
 ADALBERT III., associated with his father 
 Berenger as king of Italy, 950-961. 
 
 ADALOAD, king of Lombardy, 604-625. 
 
 ADAM, the first man, according to the received 
 chronology, lived to be 930 years of age ; the date 
 of his creation is fixed at 4004 years B.C. 
 
 AD AM of Bremen, an eminent historian of the 
 lurch, lived in the 12th century. 
 
 ADAM de la Halle, a French poet, 13th cent. 
 
 ADAM, Scotus, a doc. of the Sorbonne, 12th ct, 
 
 ADAM, Adolph. Ch., a musician, born 1804. 
 
 ADAM, Alex., Dr., a learned schoolmaster of 
 Edinb., au. of ' Roman Antiquities,' &c, 1741-1809. 
 
 ADAM, Al., a painter of battles, 1786-1812. 
 
 ADAM, G., a German landscape painter, d. 1823. 
 
 ADAM, Jacq., a learned Fr. writer, 1663-1735. 
 
 ADAM, Jean, a Jesuit preacher, 17th century. 
 
 ADAM, L. S., an em. Fr. sculptor, 1700-1759*. 
 
 ADAM, Nich. S., brother of the preceding, 
 rendered famous by his admired statue of Pro- 
 metheus chained, 1705-1778. 
 
 ADAM, Melchior, rector of a college at Heidel- 
 berg, noted as a voluminous biographer, d. 1622. 
 
 ADAM, Nich., a Fr. grammarian, 1716-1792. 
 
 ADAM, Robert, a celebrated architect, much 
 employed in London in conjunction with his brother 
 James, most distinguished for the Adelphi Build- 
 ings, 1728-1792. 
 
 ADAM, Robert, author of the 'Religious 
 World Displayed,' 1770-1826. 
 
 ADAM, Th., a clergyman who continued rector 
 of Wintringham for 58 years, though preferment 
 was continually offered him, 1701-1784. 
 
 ADAM, Rt. Hon. Wm., a distinguished lawyer 
 and politician, finally chief commissioner of the 
 Scottish Jury Court, 1751-1839. 
 
 ADAMjEUS, Theod., an author of the 16th ct., 
 especially of a work designed to promote a union 
 of all Christian churches, died 1560. 
 
 ADAMANTEO, a learned Talmudist, d. 1581. 
 
 ADAMANTIUS, a physiognomist, 4th century. 
 
 ADAMANUS, the biographer of St. Columba, 
 8th century. 
 
 ADAM I, Ernest, a Polish writer, 1750. 
 
 ADAMI, Leonard, an Ital. scholar, 1690-1719. 
 
 ADAMS, Abig., eel. by her ' Letters,' 1744-1818. 
 
 ADAMS, Geo., eel. as a mathematical inst. 
 maker, and scientific writer, died 1786. 
 
 ADAMS,Geo., son of the preceding, author of an 
 4 Essay on Vision,' &c. 1750-1795. 
 
 ADAMS, John, the assumed name of Alex. 
 Smith, one of the principal mutineers of the 
 Bounty, and since known as the patriarch of Pit- 
 cairn's Island,where the mutineers settled; d. 1829. 
 
 ADAMS, John, an astrol., reign of Charles II. 
 
 ADAMS, John, Rev., minister of the Scotch 
 church in Hatton Garden, and author of many 
 works of elementary instruction, died 1814. 
 
 ADA MS, J., an Amer. poet and preacher, d. 1740. 
 
 ADAMS, John, a celebrated American states- 
 
 ADA 
 
 man, the second President of the United States, 
 was born at Braintree, Massachusets, on 19th Oct., 
 1735. His fame is not associated with brilliant 
 oratorical displays, or with critical triumphs in 
 party conflict. His qualities were those of the 
 accomplished man of business, but they came 
 forth at a time, and under conditions that made 
 business capacities of the most momentous im- 
 portance to his own countrymen and to mankind 
 at large. The United States are the sole great 
 exception to the saying of Burke, that ' constitu- 
 tions are not made, they grow.' That a consti- 
 tution was framed for the States, on principles 
 which have attested their soundness for the place 
 and occasion bv their durability, is mainly to be 
 attributed to the sagacity of Adams, and espe- 
 cially to his thoroughly English capacity to turn 
 existing institutions and habits to the new condi- 
 tions of the people, instead of inventing untried 
 novelties. Hence his friend and rival Jefferson, 
 called him 'The column of Congress, the pillar 
 of support to the Declaration of Independence, 
 and its ablest advocate and defender.' Having 
 studied at Cambridge, Massachusets, he joined 
 the Suffolk bar in 1759, and practised in Quin- 
 cey. He married, in 1764, Abigail Smith, a 
 woman of great ability and high patriotic aspira- 
 tions, who brought to him the influential local 
 connection of the Quincey family, to which she 
 was related. Adams dated his expectation of the 
 coming revolution, and his preparation to partici- 
 pate in the reorganization of government in Bri- 
 tish America, to what he observed in 1761, when 
 the question of the legality of writs of assistance, 
 under the English exchequer system against the 
 Boston merchants, was tried. His first open advo- 
 cacy of colonial independence was in the support of 
 the application of the Boston citizens to have the 
 courts of law reopened, when they had been closed 
 on the ground that their proceedings were informal 
 without the use of that cargo of stamps which had 
 been forcibly detained by the citizens. He showed 
 his thorough independence, and brought on him- 
 self considerable odium by becoming counsel for the 
 soldiers charged with murder for shooting citizens 
 of Boston. In 1774, when Gage dissolved the as- 
 sembly of Massachusets, he was one of the five who, 
 before separation, were appointed to meet with other 
 committees of Washington, and he was thus instru- 
 mental in the construction of congress. On the 
 6th of May, 1776, he took the first step in the 
 declaration of independence, by a prominent motion 
 ' to adopt such a government as would, in the opin- 
 ion of the representatives of the people, best con- 
 duce to the happiness and safety of their constituents 
 and of America.' He was one of the committee 
 for preparing the celebrated Declaration. He had, 
 in the meantime, organized the system which gave 
 its war-service to the United States, and had been 
 chiefly instrumental in putting the army into the 
 hands of Washington. By his management of the 
 committee of correspondence, he organized another 
 great branch of service, that of the foreign depart- 
 ment. He was one of the commissioners appointed 
 to treat with France and Holland, and afterwards 
 was sent to negotiate the treaty with Britain. In 
 1789, he became vice-president, and on the retire- 
 ment of Washington, in 1797, he was chosen 
 president of the United States, remaining in office 
 
ADA 
 
 for one period of four years. He was all Ins life, 
 more or less, concerned in public business, and 
 lived to a good old age. The juncture of his death 
 was remarkable : it occurred in 1826, on the 4th 
 of July, the anniversary of the declaration of inde- 
 pendence. Before breathing his last, he made the 
 remark, ' Jefferson survives;' but it was not so 
 Jefferson had died at an earlier hour on the same 
 day. [J.H.B.] 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincey, an American states- 
 man, the son of John Adams, was born at Brain- 
 tree, Mussachusets, on the 11th July, 1767. He 
 received his name of Quincey from his maternal 
 grandfather, an influential citizen of the colony, 
 who died just as his celebrated grandchild was 
 born. Adams was cradled in the revolution, and 
 when but nine years old heard the first reading of 
 the declaration of independence from the old state 
 house in Boston. He accompanied his father in 
 his missions to France and Holland, and there ac- 
 quired the knowledge of foreign languages and 
 countries, and the wide systematic views which 
 made him invaluable to a country in which such 
 qualifications were necessarily rare. He took a 
 degree at Harvard with high distinction in 1787. 
 In 1791, under the signature of ' Publicola,' he sug- 
 gested some grave doubts about the soundness of 
 the principles actuating the French revolutionists, 
 very remarkable as the production of a republican 
 pen. In 1803, he was sent from the state of 
 Massachusets as representative to the senate in 
 congress, and sat until 1808. He had been for a 
 short time professor of rhetoric in Harvard, when, 
 in 1809, he was appointed representative of the 
 States at the court of Russia, and began his brilliant 
 and multifarious diplomatic career. In London he 
 completed the negotiations for the conclusion of 
 the second British American war. He was called 
 home in 1817, to serve in the cabinet of President 
 Monroe. On the election of a president in 1825, 
 the name of Adams was returned with those of 
 Jackson, Crawford, and Clay; but as there was 
 not for any one candidate the majority of electoral 
 votes required by the constitution, the selection 
 fell into the hands of the representatives who chose 
 Adams. He retired in 1829, declining the party 
 advocacy, which it was said might ensure his re- 
 election, and he has been looked back on with 
 regret as the last of those who occupied the chair 
 without being borne into it by a victorious faction. 
 In 1831 he began a career of valuable services as 
 a member of the House of Representatives. He 
 made many enemies by his sympathy with the 
 cause of negro emancipation. He was an active 
 pamphleteer, and contributed to periodical litera- 
 ture. He died, full of years and honours, on the 
 23d of February, 1848, and it has been customary 
 to speak of him as the last of the old and higher 
 class of American statesmen. [J.H.B.] 
 
 ADAMS, Jos., an em. medical au., 1758-1818. 
 
 ADAMS, Sam., one of the most ardent defen- 
 ders of American independence, member for Mas- 
 sachusets in the first general congress, noted for 
 his inflexible integrity, 1722-1803. 
 
 ADAMS, Sir Th., lord mayor of London, 1645, 
 distinguished as a royalist, 1586-1667. 
 
 ADAMS, Wm., an'English divine, a friend of Dr. 
 Johnson, and author of an answer to Hume on 
 Miracles, 1707-1789. 
 
 ADD 
 
 ADAMSON, Pat., abp. of St. Andrews, equally 
 noted for his talents and misfortunes, 1536-1599. 
 
 ADAMSON, Hy., nephew of the preceding, anl 
 author of a curious poem, died 1639. 
 
 ADAMUS SCOTUS, a eel. author of the 12th 
 century, best known for his curious 4 Dialogue be- 
 tween the Reason and the Soul.' 
 
 ADAMUS DORENSUS, awr. on music, 13th c. 
 
 ADANSON, Michel, a celebrated botanist, 
 was bom at Aix, in Provence, in 1727, died in 
 1806. He was educated at Plessis, studied in Paris 
 under Reaumur and Bernard de Jussieu at the 
 Garden of Plants, and afterwards made a voyage 
 to Senegal. He remained in Africa five years, and 
 during nis sojourn there collected an immense 
 number of plants and animals. Upon his return 
 to France, he found that Linnaeus had already 
 promulgated his artificial System of Nature to 
 the scientific world. To Adanson this arrangement, 
 and the arbitrary nomenclature of Linnseus, were 
 particularly distasteful. His grand aim was to 
 produce a classification of the objects of nature, 
 based upon the natural relations which these have 
 one with another. The first work in which he 
 proposed this method was his ' Voyage to Sene- 
 gal,' in which he made an attempt to classify the 
 mollusca according to the structure of the animal, 
 and not the shell which they inhabit. The next 
 was his ' Families of Plants,' in which he strove 
 to carry out the same principles in botany as 
 he had commenced in conchology. He has not 
 been very successful in this attempt, as a compari- 
 son between his system and that of Linnaeus will 
 show; but still, along with his teacher, Bernard 
 de Jussieu, he has the merit of indicating a method 
 of arrangement of plants by their natural affinities, 
 in opposition to the artificial system then in vogue. 
 He possessed a great knowledge of botany, and 
 was an accurate observer. He is the author of a 
 very interesting account of the immense tree called 
 by the natives of Africa the Baobab ; since named 
 after him Adansonia. He wrote also an account 
 of the trees which produce the gums of commerce. 
 At the revolution, Adanson was reduced to great 
 poverty, but afterwards received a small pension 
 from government. His will directed that a garland 
 of flowers, selected from the 58 families of plants 
 which he had established, should be the only de- 
 coration of his coffin. [W.B.] 
 
 ADAOUST, a Provencal poet, died 1819. 
 
 ADASHEV, Alexis,' eel. in Russian history 
 as the minister of Ivan the terrible, and disting. by 
 his virtues and talents, died in prison, 1561. 
 
 ADASHEV, Dan., younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding, disting. himself against the Tartars, and 
 was executed, together with his little son, and all 
 the near relations of Alexis, soon after the death 
 of that minister. 
 
 ADDA, one of the kings of Northumbria. 
 
 ADDA, a disting. artist and soldier of Italy. 
 
 ADDINGTON, Anth., a phvsician and politi- 
 cian, father of Lord Sidmouth, 1713-1790. 
 
 ADDINGTON, S., Dr., adis.minis. 1729-1796. 
 
 ADDISON, G. Hy., author of ' Indian Reminis- 
 cences,' born 1793. 
 
 ADDISON, Launcelot, father of the cele- 
 brated writer, and dean of Lichfield, was early 
 distinguished by his attachment to the Stuarts. 
 He is the author of several works ; 1632-17U3. 
 
 10 
 
ADD 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, was the eldest son of a 
 clergyman, able and learned, but not wealthy. He 
 was "born in 1672, at the rectory of Milston in 
 Wiltshire. He was educated chiefly at the Charter 
 House and at Oxford, and distinguished himself as 
 a writer of Latin verses, a good many of which 
 were afterwards published. He first appeared in 
 print by contributing English verses, some of which 
 were original, and others translations from the 
 classics, to Dryden's collections of miscellaneous 
 poems. Another of his poetical efforts was a poem 
 complimenting king William on the campaign in 
 which he took Namur. It was written after he 
 
 [Eirth-place of Addison.] 
 
 had been introduced to the notice of leading states- 
 men of the Whig party ; whose patronage of him, 
 prompted bv their expectation of his usefulness 
 m political life, appears to have been the cause of 
 his abandoning the intention he once had of enter- 
 ing the church. A pension, procured for him by 
 the interest of Lord Somers, enabled him, in 1699, 
 to visit the continent, where he resided for three 
 years. The best of his poems, a ' Letter from Italy,' 
 addressed to Lord Halifax, his earliest patron, was 
 written in 1701, while he was still abroad; and 
 his ' Travels in Italy,' the first large work which he 
 attempted in prose, exhibited very promisingly both 
 his classical and miscellaneous knowledge, and his 
 skill and liveliness in composition. Not very long 
 after his return to England, he wrote, on the sug- 
 gestion of the prime minister Godolphin, 'The Cam- 
 paign,' a poem celebrating Marlborough's victory 
 at Blenheim. He immediately received an appoint- 
 ment as one of the commissioners of excise, the 
 place having become vacant by the death of the 
 celebrated Locke ; he was speedily promoted to be 
 an under-secretary of state ; and he was secretary 
 to the lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, when the 
 ministry which he served was dismissed from office. 
 The time of his steadiest and most successful 
 activity in literature embraced the four years ex- 
 tending from this loss of place to the end of Queen 
 Anne's reign. The Tories being in power, he was 
 excluded from public employment. But, a short 
 while before this, he had begun to produce those 
 periodical essays by which his fame has been longest 
 and most securely preserved. In 1709, he began 
 to furnish papers to the Tatler, which was con- 
 ducted by his schoolfellow and friend, Richard 
 Steele. Early iu 1711, these two writers com- 
 
 ADD 
 
 rhenced the Spectator, which was continued every 
 week-day till the close of the following year. It 
 was then dropped, after having made up the 555 
 numbers commonly printed in its first seven vo- 
 lumes; Addison and Steele contributing almost 
 equally, and together writing all the essays except 
 sixty or seventy. In the course of 1713, the 
 Guardian received a large number of essays from 
 Addison: and then also appeared his celebrated 
 tragedy of ' Cato.' The immense popularity which, 
 partly through political considerations, this stately 
 drama gained, both among readers and among play- 
 goers, raised the reputation of the author to its 
 highest point. During the latter half of the year 
 1714, he contributed a good many papers to the new 
 series of the Spectator, making up its eighth vo- 
 lume. The accession of George I., occurring a little 
 before the publication of the Spectator was closed, 
 restored the Whigs to power, and thus again diverted 
 Addison from literature to politics. After having 
 acted as secretary to the regency, he was appointed 
 one of the lords of trade. Down to this point in 
 his history, there seems to have been really no good 
 ground for the allegations commonly made of his 
 inefficiency as a man of business. He had, indeed, 
 failed in parliament, having either not spoken at all, 
 or broken down in the only attempt he made. His 
 literary celebrity, however, and his modesty and 
 urbanity of manners, though they might have pro- 
 cured him a reception into the society of persona 
 of rank, could not have obtained and preserved the 
 confidence of successive statesmen if he had not 
 been quite competent to the practical details of 
 office. But it cannot well be doubted that he 
 was unfit, though it had been only through his in- 
 efficiency as a debater, for the last step which he 
 ventured to take on the ladder of ambition. In 
 1717, a dissension having occurred in the minis- 
 try, T ownsend and Walpole, the ablest members 
 of the cabinet, passed over to the opposition : and 
 in the administration which was formed by the 
 other Whigs, Addison became a principal secretary 
 of state, having Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's 
 son-in-law, as his colleague. His acceptance of 
 this office is commonly attributed to the influence 
 of his wife, the Countess-Dowager of Warwick ; 
 whom he had married a few months before, and 
 who is said to have, by her haughtiness and vio- 
 lence, made her husband unhappy, and to have 
 driven him to dissipation as a means of escape 
 from domestic discomfort. That Addison did be- 
 come sottish in the last years of his life has not 
 been clearly proved ; and one is glad to catch at 
 any reasons for disbelieving it. At all events, his 
 health was now giving way ; and the state of it 
 was made the excuse for his resignation of office, 
 which he tendered in April, 1718, after having 
 held it for less than a year. His only subsequent 
 efforts in literature that are worth noticing were, 
 an angry controversy with his old friend Steele, 
 who had joined the opposition section of the Whigs, 
 and his uncompleted treatise on the ' Evidences of 
 Christianity.' He died at Holland House, in Ken- 
 sington, in June, 1719, a few weeks after having 
 completed his forty-seventh year. Addison's poetry 
 is of very small account. His minor compositions 
 in verse hold but a low rank even in that did- 
 actic and half-prosaic school to which they be- 
 long. ' Cato' itself owed its fame, in a great mea- 
 
 11 
 
ADD 
 
 sure, to extrinsic circumstances : and it could not 
 liave been successful at all had not dramatic art 
 been then in a state of decay. It is a series of 
 dialogues rather than a drama: its speeches, often 
 eloquent, and almost alwavs morally noble, are 
 seldom truly poetical, and never passionate or 
 pathetic: and there is an equal feebleness in the 
 incidents and in the characters. It must lie al- 
 lowed, likewise, that no very great value belongs 
 to any of his prose writings, except his contribu- 
 tions to the Spectator and other periodical papers. 
 These, however, make up a large mass of literary 
 compositions, and possess distinguished merit and 
 importance. In the history of English style, a 
 marked epoch is constituted by the appearance of 
 the writers who are oftenest described as the Wits of 
 Queen Anne's time : and among these there were 
 none who exerted, on the manner of later authors, 
 so strong an influence as Addison. His grace and 
 refinement, accompanied by an admirable command 
 of familiar idioms, gave him a charm that was 
 wanting in the bare and stern writings of Swift: 
 and he was superior to Steele, not only in these 
 points, but also in his comparative freedom from 
 looseness and inaccuracy, and in his power of ris- 
 ing to dignity without losing ease or freedom. In 
 respect to matters higher than style, the merit of the 
 Periodical Essays is chiefly shared between Steele 
 the projector, and Addison, the only other steady 
 and active contributor. In those sketches of charac- 
 ter and manners, and those fragments of invented 
 stories, which were the most popular things in the 
 Toiler and its successors, Steele showed more de- 
 cisive originality, and greater breadth and force of 
 humour: but his coadjutor excelled him by far 
 both in delicacy of sentiment, and in the skill, in- 
 genuity, and consistency with which he worked 
 up his materials into finished pictures. To Addi- 
 son the Spectator owed, with hardly any exception, 
 its papers of a more elevated and solid cast, those 
 which made it an instrument of enlightenment to 
 its contemporaries, and entitle it to the grateful 
 attention of posterity. Such were its critical dis- 
 sertations, always abounding in good taste and 
 eloquent expression, the best of these being the 
 criticisms which did so much for recalling notice to 
 Milton : such were the papers on the ' Pleasures of 
 the Imagination,' (efforts highly meritorious in the 
 circumstances,) towards ascertaining the principles 
 on which philosophical criticism must be founded : 
 and such, also, were many meditative and religious 
 papers, some of them purely didactic in form, and 
 others allegorical, and all of them excellent alike 
 for their high ethical tone, and for their natural 
 and fine reflectiveness. If Addison's prose writ- 
 ings were once overvalued, the neglect and depre- 
 ciation with which it has lately been fashionable to 
 treat them, involve an error which goes at least as 
 far the opposite way. [W.S.] 
 
 ADDISON, Thos., an Engl. Jesuit, 1634-1685. 
 
 ADDY, Wm., a writer on stenography, 17th cent. 
 
 ADEL, or ADIL, k. of Sweden, 5th or 6th cent. 
 
 ADELAIDE, the amiable queen of William IV., 
 whom she married 1818; she was daughter of the 
 Duke Saxe-Meiningen; born 1792, died 1849. 
 
 ADELAIDE, the good and beautiful empress 
 of Germany, was the daughter of Kodolph II., king 
 of Burgundy; she was taken from a prison to 
 marry the emperor Otho I. 951 ; died 999. 
 
 ADn 
 
 ADELAIDE, mistress of Albert, duke of Ba- 
 varia ; assassinated by his son, 1392. 
 
 ADELAIDE of Savoy, the widow of Louis the 
 Fat, and wife of Montmorency, assumed the veil 
 in the abbev of Montmartrc, and died 1153. 
 
 ADELAIDE, marchioness of Susa, and founder 
 of the dominion enjoyed by the house of Savoy in 
 Piedmont, was the contemporary and rival of the 
 celebrated Matilda, duchess of Tuscany, 11th cent. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Madame Marie, eldest daught. 
 of Louis XV. and aunt of Louis XVI. k. of France, 
 born 1730, fled before the revolutionary stonn, 
 1791, died at Trieste, 1800. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Eugenie Louisa, sister of Louis 
 Philippe, and his best counsellor, was born 1777 ; 
 she was privately married to Gen. Athelin ; died 
 31st December, 1847. 
 
 ADELAIS, second queen of Henry I. of Engl, 
 eel. by the troubadours as ' the fair maid of Bra- 
 bant, and ancestress of the Howards, died 1151. 
 
 ADELARD, a learned monk of the 12th cent. 
 
 ADELASIA, queen of Sardinia, 13th century. 
 
 ADELBOLD, bishop of Utrecht, died 1027. 
 
 ADELBURNER, M., an astronomer, died 1779. 
 
 ADELER, Curtius, a naval com. in the service 
 of the Venetians and Danes, 1622-1675. 
 
 ADELFRID, a Saxon king, whose succession 
 united the prov. of Bernicia and Deira, 559. 
 
 ADELGISUS, king of the Lombards, 8th cent. 
 
 ADELGISUS, prince of Beneventum, 9th cent. 
 
 ADELGREIF, J. A., a German scholar of 
 high attainments, who believed that he was the 
 representative of God upon earth, that he was 
 accompanied by seven angels, and that he had a 
 mission to banish all evil from the world ; executed 
 on a charge of sorcery, 1636. 
 
 ADELHER, a schoolman and divine, 12th cent. 
 
 ADELUNG, Jac, a musician, 1699-1762. 
 
 ADELUNG, John, Ch., known throughout 
 Europe as a philologist. His great works are a 
 grammatical and critical Dictionary of the German 
 tongue, and a work of vast research called ' Mith- 
 ridates,' in which the remarkable affinities be- 
 tween the words of all languages are discovered. 
 His general knowledge of literature and the arts 
 is also displayed in various historical treatises, 
 more especially in a cyclopaedia of what he terms 
 'Human Folly.' He resided at Leipzig and 
 Dresden, usually devoting fourteen hours a-day to 
 hard study, and yet noted for his good cheer. 
 His works in all make about seventy volumes. He 
 was never married ; 1734-1806. [E.R.] 
 
 ADELUNG, Fr., nephew of the preceding, also 
 distinguished as an historian and linguist, b. 1768, 
 
 ADELWALCH, a king of Sussex, slain 686. 
 
 ADEMAR, or AYMAR, an historian, 11th cent 
 
 ADEODATO, an Italian artist, 12th century. 
 
 ADEODATUS, pope after Boniface IV, 
 614-617. Another of the same name elected 673. 
 
 ADER, Wm., a phys. of Toulouse, au. of a work 
 on the diseases cured by our Saviour, pub. 1621. 
 
 ADET, P. A., a writer on chemistry, envoy from 
 France to the United States, 1796. 
 
 ADGILLUS, first Chr. king of Frisia, 8th cent. 
 
 ADHAD-EDDAULAH, sultan of Persia, died 
 983, after a glorious reign of 34 years. 
 
 ADHED, last caliph of the Fathnite dynasty, 
 dethroned by Saladin, and died 1171. 
 
 ADIIELM, bp. of Sherborne, the first ecclesi- 
 
 12 
 
ADH 
 
 astic distinguished in the Anglo-Saxon church; 
 he is considered the father of Anglo-Saxon 
 literature, and the first English poet, died 769. 
 ADHEMAR, a troubadour of the 12th century. 
 ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, created duke of 
 Genoa by Charlemagne, on account of his success 
 against the Saracens, was chief of the illustrious 
 house of Orange. 
 
 ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, of the same 
 family, was a distinguished general of the crusades, 
 and bp. of Pays ; died of a contagion at Antioch. 
 
 ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, another of the 
 family, also a great soldier, made bishop of Metz 
 in 1327, died 1361. 
 
 ADIMARI, a Florentine family of the middle 
 ages, which has produced several disting. men of 
 letters ; one member of this family is known as a 
 parti z an of the Guelphs. 
 
 ADJUTI, Jas., convert to protestantism, prof, 
 of theology at Wittemberg, 1602-1663. 
 
 ADLER, Gaspar. See Aquila. 
 
 ADLER, G. Ch., a disting. teacher, 1674-1741. 
 
 ADLER, G. Ch., son of the preceding, a classi- 
 cal scholar and divine, 1734-1804. 
 
 ADLER, J. G., a Danish orientalist, born 1756. 
 
 ADLER, Ph., a German engraver, 16th cent. 
 
 ADLERBETH, G., a Swedish poet, 1751-1818. 
 
 ADLERFELDT, Gust., a Swedish noble who 
 accompanied Charles XII. in his campaigns, of 
 which he wrote a history ; killed at Pultowa, 1709. 
 
 ADLZREITER, chancellor and historian of 
 Bavaria, died 1662. 
 
 ADMIRAL, H., a poor Frenchman, executed 
 1794, for an attempt on the life of Robespierre. 
 
 ADMO, a German engraver, time of Augustus. 
 
 ADO, a distinguished abp. of Vienna, died 875. 
 
 ADOLFATI, an Italian composer. 
 
 ADOLFI, Giacomo, an It. painter, 1682-1741. 
 
 ADOLPH, a Germ, painter in England, 1750. 
 
 ADOLPH, a German sculptor, 16th century. 
 
 ADOLPHI, C. M., a medical writer, 1676-1753. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, count of Nassau, elected emperor, 
 1292 ; fell in battle against his rival Albert duke 
 of Austria, 1298. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, andbp. of Muns- 
 ter, distinguished for his turbulence, died 1394. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, son of the pre- 
 ceding, and founder of the order of Fools, d. 1448. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, duke of Gueldres, noted for his 
 repeated and cruel rebellions against his father 
 Arnold, and his desperate courage, 1438-1477. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, duke of Saxony, born 1685, noted 
 for his active and glorious share in the wars of the 
 empire during the first half of the 18th century, 
 and especially for the check given to Frederick the 
 Great after the surrender of Prague. Entered 
 into military service 1701, succeeded unexpectedly 
 to the duchv 1736, died 1746. 
 
 ADOLPHUS I., count of Holstein, 1106-1131. 
 
 ADOLPHUS II., his son, succd. 1131, k. 1164. 
 
 ADOLPHUS III., son of the preceding, de- 
 spoiled of his duchy in a war with Denmark, and 
 soon after died at the beginning of the 13th cent. 
 
 ADOLPHUS IV., son and successor of the pre- 
 ceding, recovered his duchy, 1227, but retired 
 from the world 1238, and spent the remaining 
 fourteen years of his life in a monastery. 
 
 ADOLPHUS VI1L, son of Gerard, count of 
 Holstein, sustained a long war with Denmark on 
 
 ADR 
 
 accotint of Schleswig ; he is disting. as a wise ruler, 
 also for his moderation in refusing the crown of 
 Denmark afterwards offered to him ; died 1459. 
 
 ADOLPHUS L, duke of Holstein and Schleswig, 
 celebrated as a warlike prince, 1544-1586. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, Frederick II., son of Frede- 
 rick I., king of Sweden, ascended the throne, 1751, 
 being then 41 years of age. In 1757 he was com- 
 pelled to take a part against Prussia in the 7 years' 
 war, though he was some years previously mar- 
 ried to a sister of Frederick the Great. Intrigue 
 and dissension marked the whole period of his 
 reign, and though a party in the state made 
 strenuous endeavours to extend the royal preroga- 
 tive, the king exercised little real power. The 
 state of the country at his death in 1771, is repre- 
 sented by a native historian as a picture of the 
 extremest anarchy that a state can reach under a 
 representative government. [E.R.] 
 
 ADOLPHUS, John, a eel. barrister and his- 
 torian of London, 1766-1845. 
 
 ADOMMAN, abbot of Iona, and author of the 
 curious life of St. Columba, died 703. 
 
 ADON, abp., and au. of Chronicles, 9th cent. 
 
 ADONIJAH, a son of David, put to death by 
 Solomon, B.C. 1010. 
 
 ADRETS, Fr. De Beaumont, a leader of 
 the Huguenots, noted for his daring and cruelty, 
 died 1587. His son, of like character, took a share 
 in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 ADREVALD, a theologian of the 9th century. 
 
 ADRIA, a Sicil. author and phys., died 1560. 
 
 ADRIAENS, L., a Fl. paint, on glass, 15th cent. 
 
 ADRIAENSEN, Alex., a Flm. paint., 17th cent 
 
 ADRIAENSEN, Cornelis, a learned ecclesi- 
 astic, 16th century. 
 
 ADRIAM, Marie, a young girl who fought in 
 the defence of Lyons when besieged by the troop3 
 of the Convention, and was executed, 1793. 
 
 ADRIAN, a Greek writer of the 5th century. 
 
 ADRIAN, Eman., Flemish musician, 16th cent. 
 
 ADRIAN, or HADRIAN, Publius jElius, 
 the Roman emperor was born 76, and brought 
 up under the eye of the empr. Trajan, his father's 
 kinsman, who adopted him as his son, and to 
 whom he succeeded, 117. He was a success- 
 ful soldier, and a great lover of literature and the 
 arts, but disgraced by the indulgence of sensuality. 
 In the course of his reign he visited nearly every 
 part of his dominions, and when in Britain, 
 120, built a wall eighty miles in length, from the 
 mouth of the Tyne to Solway Frith, to prevent the 
 incursions of the Caledonians. He was the restorer 
 of Jerusalem, which he named iElia Capitolina, 
 and where, on Mount Calvary, he erected a temple 
 to Jupiter; died 138. [E.R.] 
 
 ADRIAN I., pope of Rome, 772-775. 
 
 ADRIAN II., succeeded as pope, 867, died 872. 
 
 ADRIAN III., elected pope, and d. 885. 
 
 ADRIAN IV., an Englishman, at first a servant 
 in a monastery, elected pope 1154, died 1159. 
 
 ADRIAN V., elected pope, and died 1276. 
 
 ADRIAN VI., succeeded Leo X. 1522, d. 1523. 
 
 ADRIAN DE CASTELLO, a native of Italy, 
 distinguished for his learning and ability ; became 
 bishop of Hereford in the reign of Henry VII., 
 and afterwards residing in Italy was accused of 
 conspiracy against Leo X. His subsequent fate is 
 unknown. 
 
ADR 
 
 ADRIANI, M. V., a Greek scholar, chancellor 
 of Florence, died 1621. 
 ADRIANI, J. B., his son, an hist., died 1574. 
 ADRIAN!, M., son of the last named, d. 1604. 
 ADRIANO, a Spanish painter, d. 1650. 
 ADRICHONIUS, ClL, a Dutch hist. 1533-1585. 
 ADRY, J. F., rhetorician and hist., 1749-1818. 
 A DSO, Hekmericus, a monastic \vr., 10th cent. 
 ADUARTE, Diego, a Spanish hist., d. 1637. 
 DECIDES, or jECIDAS, a kin" of Epirus, said 
 to be a descendant of Achilles, killed B.C. 313. 
 DECIDES, k. of the Molossi, after Alex, the Gt. 
 jEDESLA, a female Platonist, the mother of 
 Ammonius. 
 
 /EGIDIUS, k. of the Franks from the deposition 
 to the recall of Childeric ; assassinated 464. 
 
 .EGIDIUS, de Columna, a monastic philoso- 
 pher and theologian, disting. in the 13th century. 
 ^EGIDIUS, Peter, a Flemish lawyer, d. 1533. 
 iEGIMUS, an ancient Greek physician. 
 jEGINHARD, the secretary of Charlemagne, 
 author of annals of his reign, and equally celebrated 
 for his love adventure with the emperor's daughter. 
 ./ELF, a Swedish theologian, 18th century. 
 .ELFRIC, St., surnamed the Grammarian, was 
 archbishop of Canterbury in the middle of the 10th 
 century. He is distinguished as one of the bright- 
 est luminaries of the age in which he lived, d. 1005. 
 ./ELIAN, the celebrated author of a ' History of 
 Animals,' a ' Treatise on Providence,' &c, distin- 
 guished for the purity with which he wrote the 
 Greek tongue, supposed to have lived in the 2d cent. 
 .ELIAN, Claudius, a Roman military writer. 
 ./ELIAN, a general in the time of Valens. 
 JE LI ANUS, Meccius, a Greek physician. 
 jELIUS MELISSUS, a Roman jurist, 2d cent. 
 jELIUS SEXTUS, one of the most eel. Roman 
 jurists, successively aadile, consul, and censor ; au. 
 of the earliest known work on jurisprudence. 
 jELST. See Aalsh. 
 
 jEMILIANI, St. Jer., a noble Venetian, the 
 founder of an hospital and religious order, 16th cent. 
 jEMILII, The, one of the most ancient and noble 
 of the patrician families of Rome. 
 .EMILIUS, Anth., a Dutch hist., 1589-1660. 
 jEMILIUS, G., a Latin poet, related to Luther. 
 jEMILIUS, Paulus, consul of Rome, B.C. 216 
 and 219, slain at the battle of Cannae. 
 _ jEMILIUS, Paulus, son of the preceding, dis- 
 tinguished in the Macedonian war, 3d cent. B.C. 
 .EMILIUS, Pau., an em. hist, of Verona, d.1529. 
 ./ENEAS, one of the heroes of Troy. 
 ./ENEAS, a Greek military author, 360 B.C. 
 ./ENEAS, or jENGAS, a monastic writer, 9th c. 
 .ENEAS GAZiEIUS, a Platonist, 5th cent. 
 .ENESIDEMUS, a sceptical pb.il., 1st century. 
 jEPINUS, the assumed name of Hoeck, one of 
 the most zealous of Luther's followers, 1499-1533. 
 jEPINUS, Franz, a German philosopher, 1724. 
 jERIUS, founder of a sect of the 4th century. 
 .ERSEUS. SeevERTSEN. 
 .ERTGEN. See Aaktoexs. 
 jERTSEN, or .ERSEXS, Peter, an em. hist, 
 painter, called Pietro Longo, on account of his tall- 
 ness. There are several Flemish painters of the 
 same name, three known to be sons of the preceding. 
 /KSOH1XES, an orator of Athens, 4th ct. b.c. 
 . K SC I II X E S, a poor Athenian philosopher, the 
 personal friend and pupil of Socrates. 
 
 JESO 
 
 jESCHRION, an ancient physic, of Pergamos. 
 
 J2SCHYLUS, a celebrated Greek dramatic wri- 
 ter, was born of a noble family at Eleusis in Attica, 
 B.C. 525, and died at Gela in Sicily, b.c. 456. \ 
 From an anecdote which is related of him by Paus- 
 
 anias, it appears that his youthful fancy was early 
 captivated by the exhibitions of the drama ; and I 
 he accordingly devoted his life to the service of the J 
 
 tragic muse. At the age of twenty-five, B.C. 499, ll 
 he first presented himself at the festival of Bacchus It 
 as a competitor for the public prize; and ftfteepli 
 years afterwards, b.c. 484, gained his first victory. I 
 The pre-eminence which he thus acquired was j 
 successfully maintained till b.c. 468, when he was 1; 
 defeated in a similar contest by his younger rival, 1 
 Sophocles ; an event which exercised a strong in- I 
 fluence over the rest of his life. Mortified at the I 
 indignity which, as he thought, had thus been put J 
 upon him, he quitted Athens and went to the court 
 of Hiero, king of Syracuse. Of the remaining por- 
 tion of his life but little is known, except that he 
 continued to prosecute his favourite pursuit ; and 
 that his residence in Sicily was of some duration, 
 may be inferred from the fact that it was sufficient 
 to affect the purity of his language. His thirteenth 
 and last victory was gained b.c. 458. On the 
 manner of his death, which was singular, the an- 
 cient writers are unanimous. While sitting mo- 
 tionless in the fields, his bald head was mistaken 
 for a stone by an eagle which happened to be fly- 
 ing over him with a tortoise in her bill. The bird 
 dropped the tortoise to break the shell, and the 
 poet was killed by the blow. iEschylus is said to 
 nave been the author of 70 tragedies, of wdiieh 
 only seven are now extant. The improvements 
 which he introduced in the economy of the drama, 
 were so important as to gain for him the distinction 
 of the Father of Greek Tragedy. To the single actor 
 of Thespis he added a second, and thus presented 
 the regular dialogue. He abridged the length of 
 the choral odes and made them subservient to the 
 main interest of the plot ; substituted a regular 
 stage for the moveable wain of his predecessor; 
 provided appropriate scenic decorations, and dresses 
 for the actors ; and removed all deeds of murder 
 and bloodshed from public view. His style is bold, 
 lofty, and sublime, full of gorgeous imagery and 
 magnificent expressions, suitable to the elevated 
 characters of his dramas. His plays have little or 
 no plot; and have therefore been blamed as defi- 
 cient in dramatic interest. But jEschylus was 
 illustrious not merely as a poet. Along with his 
 brother Cynaegirus he distinguished himself so 
 highly m the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, that 
 his exploits were eommemorated by a descriptive 
 painting in the theatre of Athens ; and it is pro- 
 bable that he took part in the subsequent battles of 
 Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataeae. His warlike 
 spirit is vividly pourtrayed in his tragedies, the 
 ' Persians ' and the l Seven against Thebes.' [G.F.J 
 .ESOP, generally known for the Fables attri- 
 buted to him, lived in the 6th century B.C. His 
 history is not well authenticated, but it is under- 
 stood that he was born in Phrygia, and acquired 
 his Greek education as a slave in Athens. He is 
 regarded as the inventor of the apologue, of which 
 his own compositions are also the purest models. 
 They have been trans, into all modern languages. 
 .ESOP, Joseph, a Hebrew poet, 16th century. 
 
 11 
 
MSO 
 I JvSOPIUS, Cl., a Roman actor, 1st cent. B.C. 
 I vETION, an ancient Greek sculptor. 
 JTION, a Greek painter, time of Apelles. 
 I JSTIUS, a celebrated heretic of the 4th century. 
 I jETIUS, a Roman general, eel. for his repulse of 
 Iftttila, assass. by the emperor Valentinian 454. 
 I JETIUS, an ancient physician of Sicily. 
 I iETIUS of Amida, a physician of the 5th cent., 
 luthor of a vast collection of medical treatises; 
 
 nderstood to be the first Christian physician 
 
 hose writings have come down to us. 
 
 AF ACKER, G., a German theologian, 17th ct. 
 
 AFER, Domitius, a eel. Roman orator, one of 
 the vilest partizans of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. 
 
 AFFLECK, Sir Ed., a naval officer, died 1787. 
 
 AFFLITTO, Eust. D', a Neapolitan au., 1782. 
 
 AFFLITTO, J. M., a Neapolitan au., d. 1673. 
 
 AFFLITTO, Matt., a Neapolitan writer, chief- 
 ly on legislation, 1430-1510. 
 
 AFFO, Iren.eus, an hist, of Italy, 18th cent. 
 
 AFFRY, Count Louis D', a Swiss commander 
 and statesman during the revolution ; died 1810. 
 
 AFRANIA, a Roman lady, eel. as an advocate. 
 
 AFRANIO, inventor of the bassoon, 16th cent. 
 
 AFRANIUS, L., a Roman orator and dramatist, 
 1st century B.C. 
 
 AFRANIUS, L. N., consul of Rome, B.C. 61. 
 
 AFRANIUS, T., adist. Rom. gen., 1st cent. B.C. 
 
 AFRASIAB, an ancient king of Persia. 
 
 AFRE, St., a German martyr, 4th century. 
 
 AFRICANER, Chr., one of the most dreaded 
 chiefs of South Africa, remarkable for the fruits of 
 his conversion to Christianity, died 1823. 
 
 AFRICANUS, Julius, a Christian hist., 3d ct. 
 
 AFRICANUS, Sextus, a Roman jurist, 3d 
 century B.C. 
 
 AFZELIUS, Adam, a Swed. bot,, 1750-1836. 
 
 AGABUS, a Christian prophet, 1st century. 
 
 AGAMEMNON, one of the heroes of Homer, 
 represented as the king of Argos, the Grecian 
 Peloponnesus, and disting. at the siege of Troy. 
 
 AGANDURU, R. M., a Spanish missionary and 
 historian, 17th century. 
 
 AGAPETUS L, elected pope, 535, d. 536. 
 
 AGAPETUS II., elected pope 946, died 955. 
 
 AGAR, P. Anth., a Provencal poet, died 1551. 
 
 AGAR, Jacques, a French painter, died 1716. 
 
 AGARD, Arthur, an antiquary of disting. 
 learning, one of the founders of the Royal Anti- 
 quarian Society, 1540-1615. 
 
 AGAS, Ralph, a disting. surveyor, 16th cent. 
 
 AGASIAS, an ancient Greek sculptor. 
 
 AGATHA, St., a martyr of Sicily, 3d century. 
 
 AGATHANGELUS, an Armenian historian,. 
 4th century. 
 
 AGATHARCHIDES, an historical and geogra- 
 phical writer, guardian or tutor of Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, 2d century B.C. 
 
 AGATHARCUS, a Greek painter, 4th ct. B.C. 
 
 AGATHAMERUS, a geographer, 3d century. 
 
 AGATHIAS, a Greek historian, 6th century. 
 
 AGATHINUS, a Greek physician, 1st century. 
 
 AGATHO, elected pope 678 or 679, died 682. 
 
 AGATHOCLEA, a mistress of Ptolemy Philo- 
 pator, noted for her share in the usurpation of the 
 supreme power by her brother Agathocles. Killed, 
 together with her accomplices, in a massacre by 
 the populace, about 204 B.C. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, an ancient Greek historian. 
 
 AGR 
 
 AGATHOCLES, the tyrant of Syracuse, was 
 the son of a potter, born about 359 B.C., and 
 elevated by his talents and intrigues from the rank 
 of a simple soldier until he became general, and 
 made himself master of all Sicily. He is said to 
 have died by poison, B.C. 287. 
 
 AGAZAVI, an Italian musician, 17th century. 
 
 AGELADAS, a Greek sculptor, 5th cent. B.C. 
 
 AGELET, Joseph, an astronomer, born 1757, 
 perished with La Perouse, 1785. 
 
 AGELIUS, Anth., a prelate of Naples, d. 160. 
 
 AGELNOTH, archbishop of Canterbury, 1020. 
 
 AGER, Nich., a phys. and botanist, 17th cent. 
 
 AGESANDER, a sculptor of Rhodes, 5th cent. 
 
 AGESIAS, a Platonic philosopher of Alexandria. 
 
 AGESILAUS I., kg. of Sparta 957 to 913 B.C. 
 
 AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta from b.c. 
 399 to 361, is one of the most prominent characters 
 in Grecian history. He is renowned for his con- 
 quests in Asia Minor, B.C. 395, and for his vic- 
 tories over the Boeotians and Athenians. In this 
 war, however, he was at length defeated by Epa- 
 minondas, B.C. 363, died 361. 
 
 AGGAS, Ralph, a surveyor and engineer, 16th 
 century. 
 
 AGGAS, Robt., a landscape painter, died 1679. 
 
 AGILA, king of Spain, from 549 to 554. 
 
 AGILAN, king of the Sp. Visigoths, 549-554. 
 
 AGILULFUS, king of the Lombards, 591-619. 
 
 AGIS, a Greek poet, time of Alexander. 
 
 AGIS I., king of Sparta, B.C. 1060 ; a second 
 king of this name reigned in Sparta, B.C. 427-399 ; 
 a third, B.C. 358-331 ; a fourth, B.C. 240. 
 
 AGLAOPHON, a Greek painter, 5th cent. B.C. 
 
 AGLIONBY, Edw., a poet, age of Elizabeth. 
 
 AGLIONBY, J. Dr., distinguished as a scholar 
 and critic, chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, d. 1610. 
 
 AGLIONBY, William, a diplomatist and cul- 
 tivator of the Belles Lettres, 18th century. 
 
 AGNELLO, doge of Pisa, 1364 to 1369. 
 
 AGNELLUS, And., a canon of Ravenna in the 
 9th century, author of Chronicles of that see. 
 
 AGNES, St., a Christian martyr, 303. 
 
 AGNES, queen of France, 1196-1201. 
 
 AGNES, empress of Constantinople, 12th cent. 
 
 AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady of 
 distinguished learning, 1718-1799. 
 
 AGNESI, Maria Teresa, sister of the preced- 
 ing, distinguished as a musician, born 1750. 
 
 AGNOLO, B., a Florentine sculpt., 1460-1543. 
 
 AGNOLO, G., an architect of Naples, 16th ct. 
 
 AGOBARD, a distinguished prelate, 9th cent. 
 
 AGOP, J., au. of critical and gram, works, 1675. 
 
 AGORACRITES, a celebrated Greek sculptor, 
 a pupil of Phidias, 5th century B.C. 
 
 AGOSTIN, M., a Sp. wr. on agriculture, 17th c. 
 
 AGOSTINI, L., an eminent antiquary, 17th cent. 
 
 AGOSTINO, Paul, a eel. musician, 1593-1629. 
 
 AGOUB, Joseph, a lyric poet, reviewer, and 
 Arabian scholar, 1795-1832. 
 
 AGOULT, W. D', a Provencal poet, 12th cent. 
 
 AGREDA, Maria D', a Spanish abbess, author 
 of a life of the Virgin Mary, alleged to be written 
 from Divine vision, 1602-16G5. 
 
 AGRESTI, Livio, an Italian painter, 16th cent. 
 
 AGRICOLA, C. L., a Ger. painter, 1667-1719. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cneius Julius, an eminent 
 Roman general, the father-in-law of Tacitus. 
 Born in the reign of Caligula, 40. He cUstin- 
 
 15 
 
AGR 
 
 guished himself by the subjugation of a great part 
 of Britain, of which he was made governor by the 
 emperor Vespasian. His successes and his high 
 character excited the jealous fears of Domitian, by 
 whom he was covertly withdrawn from public 
 emplovment, and soon after died, 93. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Fr., an eccles. au., 1575-1616. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Geo., a metallurgist, 1494-1555. 
 
 AGRICOLA, G. A., a horticulturist, 1672-1738. 
 
 AGRICOLA, John, a controversial divine, the 
 opponent of Luther and Melancthon, and leader of 
 the Antinomians, 1492-1566. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Nich., a Swedish reformer, d.1557. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, one of the restorers 
 of science and letters in Europe, 1442-1485. 
 
 AGRICOLA, St., bishop of Chalons, 6th cent. 
 
 AGRIPPA, an ancient sceptical philosopher. 
 
 AGRIPPA, an astronomer of the 1st century. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Camillus, an Italian arch., 16th c. 
 
 AGRIPPA DE NETTESHEIM, Henry Cor- 
 nelius, a talented mystic philosopher, secretary 
 to the emperor Maximilian, 1486-1535. 
 
 AGRIPPA I., Herod, grandson of Herod the 
 Great, and under Claudius, king of all Palestine, 
 died 44. See Acts xii. 23. 
 
 AGRIPPA IL, Herod, son and successor of the 
 preceding, died about the close of the 1st century. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, general of the 
 Roman armies, and friend of Augustus Caesar, 
 born 64 or 63 B.C. His virtues and military 
 talents contributed greatly to the felicitous course 
 and the glory of the reign of Augustus, whose 
 daughter lie married, and whom he would have 
 succeeded in the empire, but d. before him, B.C. 12. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Menenius, consul of Rome, b.c. 503. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Vipsanius 
 Agrippa, and wife of Caesar Germanicus, was born 
 some time before B.C. 12 ; d. in banishment, a.d. 35. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, daughter of the preceding, and 
 mother of the infamous Nero, was born some thne 
 before a.d. 17 ; assassinated a.d. 60. 
 
 AGUADO, Fr., a Spanish Jesuit, 1572-1654. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, Henry D', a French states- 
 man, 1634-1715. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, Henry Francis D', son of 
 the preceding, a eel. magistrate and advocate, 
 finally chancellor of France, 1668-1751. 
 
 AGUILA, C. J. E. D', a French hist., d. 1815. 
 
 AGUILLON, Francis, a mathema., died 1617. 
 
 AGUIRRA, J. S. D', a eel. Sp. prelate, d. 1699. 
 
 AGUJARI LUCRE ZIA, an It. singer, d. 1783. 
 
 AGYL.EUS, H., a jurist, disting. in the war of 
 the United Provinces against Spain, 1533-1595. 
 
 AHAB, king of Israel, 915 to 893 B.C. 
 
 AHAZ, king of Judah, died B.C. 722. 
 
 AHAZIAH, king of Judah, b.c. 885. 
 
 AHAZIAH, king of Israel, died B.C. 897. 
 
 AHLE, J. R., a Ger. musician, 1625-1673. 
 
 AHLE, J. G., son of the preceding, died 1707. 
 
 AHLWARDT, C. G., aGer.philolog., 1760-1830. 
 
 AHLWART, Peter, a learned German, cele- 
 brated as the founder of the Ahelites, 1710-1791. 
 
 AHMED, an Arabian poet, 10th century. 
 
 A1LMED-BEN-FARES, surnamed El Razi, 
 author of an Arabic Dictionary, 10th century. 
 
 AHMED-BEN-MOHAMMED, or ABOU AM- 
 ROU, a Moor of Spain, celebrated as an oriental 
 poet and annalist, died 970. 
 
 AHMED- BEN -THOULOUN, an Egyptian 
 
 AIT 
 
 chief, founder of the dynasty of the Thoulounidc 
 9 th century. 
 
 AHMED Ghiedik. See Achmet Giedic. 
 
 AHMED-KHAN, emp. of the Moguls after h 
 brother, Abaker-Khan, 1282, killed 1284. 
 
 AHMED RESMY HADJY, chancellor of tl 
 Turkish empire, author of an account of his ow 
 
 AHMED-SHAH EL ABDALY, an Affghs 
 chief, founder of the kingdom of Candahar an 
 Cabul, eel. for his victories over the Sikhs, d. 1775 
 
 AHRENDT, or ARENTS, M. F., a great travelk 
 and investigat. of Scandinavian antiquities, d. 1824 
 
 AHRUN. See Aaron of Alexandria. 
 
 AHUITZOL, king of the Aztecs before Monte 
 zuma IL, when they were conq. by the Spaniards. 
 
 AIBEK, First Mameluke sultan of Egypt, 1254 
 assassinated 1257. 
 
 AIDAN, one of the earliest preachers of Chris- 
 tianity in Britain, afterwards op. of Lindisfarne 
 died 651. 
 
 AIGNAN, Stephen, a political writer 
 tragic poet of France, 1773-1824. 
 
 AIGNEAUX, R. and A., le Chevalier. 
 Sieurs D', two brothers, noted as classical 
 scholars, 16th century. 
 
 AIKIN, E., a writer on architecture, died 1820. 
 
 AIKIN, John, M.D., celebrated as a miscel- 
 laneous writer, chiefly on moral and biographical 
 subjects, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in Lie- 
 cestershire 1747, and in 1764 became a student 
 the university of Edinburgh, but pursued his pro 
 fessional and literary career in London. His medi- 
 cal memoir appeared in 1780 ; and his principal 
 work, the General Biographical Dictionary, the 
 labour of which he shared with Dr. Enfield, at 
 various intervals from 1799 to 1815. From 1796 
 to 1806 he was also editor of the ' Monthly Maga- 
 zine,' and for nearly half a century continued to 
 enrich our literature with numerous elegantly 
 written and useful dissertations. Died at the age < 
 of 75, 1822. [E.R.] 
 
 AIRMAN, Wm., a Scotch painter, 1682-1731. 
 
 AILLAND, P. T., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1759-1826. 
 
 AILLY, P. D', a cardinal and theological dis- 
 putant, president of the council of Constance by 
 which John Huss was condemned, 1350-1419. 
 
 AILMER. See Aylmer. 
 
 AILRED, ETHELRED, or EALRED, a well- 
 known ancient historian, 1109-1166. 
 
 AIMAR, Rivault, jurist and adv., 16th cent. 
 
 AIMAR VERNAI, Jacques, a French peasant 
 celebrated as a diviner, 17th century. 
 
 AIMOIN De Varennes, a French poet, 13th c. 
 
 AIMON, or AIMOIN of Fleury, a French his- 
 torian, died 1008. 
 
 AIMON, or HAYMOND, an historian, and dis- 
 ciple of Alcuyn, died 853. 
 
 AIMON, bishop of Valence, 943-977. 
 
 AIMON, an ascetic writer, died 1174. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Henry, a nonconformist divine, 
 celebrated as a Hebrew scholar end Biblical com- 
 mentator, died 1622. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert, author of the well- 
 known Latin Dictionary, 1660-1743. 
 
 AIRAULT. See Ayrault. 
 
 AITKEN, Robert, a printer, noted as a jour- 
 nalist, &c, during the American revolution, d. 1802. 
 
 AITON, William, an Engl, botanist, d. 1793. 
 
 1G 
 
AIT 
 
 I AITZEMA, F. Van, a diplomatist of Friedland, 
 
 I commissioned from Holland and Bohemia to the 
 
 | imperial court, 1636. 
 
 I AITZEMA, Leon, nephew of the preceding, 
 historian of the United Provinces, 1600-1669. 
 
 I AIZO, a chief of the Goths, 9th century. 
 
 AJAX, one of the Homeric heroes, called the 
 
 I Locrian, or the Lesser, to distinguish him from his 
 
 tj more illustrious namesake. 
 
 AJAX, called the Great, is represented by 
 
 I Homer as the son of Telamon ; he is said to have 
 
 I died at Troy in consequence of a dispute concern- 
 
 1 ing the armour of Achilles. 
 
 AKAKIA, Martin, a medical author, 1479- 
 
 I 1588. His son, of the same name, and other mem- 
 
 j bers of the family, also distinguished themselves 
 
 I in the same profession. 
 
 AKBAH, or AKBEY-BEN-NAFY, a Saracen 
 governor of Africa, who overran the country as far 
 as the Atlantic Ocean, and prepared the conquest 
 of Spain, killed 682. 
 
 AKBAR MOHAMMED, emperor of the Moguls, 
 one of the greatest princes of modern Asia, died 
 1605, after a reign of 50 years. 
 AKENSIDE, Mark, was born in 1721, at 
 
 I Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where his father was a 
 butcher. Designing in his youth to become a 
 presbyterian preacher, he received from a fund of 
 the English dissenters the means of studying in 
 the university of Edinburgh, which afterwards he 
 honourably paid back. He speedily turned to 
 
 [Birth-place of Afcenside.] 
 
 medicil studies, which he completed at Leyden, 
 graduating there in 1744. In the same year 
 appeared his well-known poem, ' The Pleasures of 
 the Imagination.' This work not only has the 
 unavoidable faults of all didactic poetry, but 
 hovers in a middle sphere between fancy and 
 philosophy, in a manner which makes it obscure 
 and unsatisfactory, even to readers who are both 
 poetical and metaphysical. But it contains some 
 noble pictures, many trains of finely reflective 
 sentiment, and not a'few nice felicities of diction. 
 His subsequent effusions in verse comprehended 
 only a few very poor odes, some classically-con- 
 ceived inscriptions, and a ' Hymn to the Naiads.' 
 After having unsuccessfully attempted medical 
 practice in the country, he removed to London, 
 being aided by a pension from a wealthy and 
 generous friend. He now busied himself chiefly 
 
 ALA 
 
 in professional pursuits, attaining some scientific 
 eminence, but no large share of employment. He 
 was a man of high respectability and integrity, 
 but dogmatic and irascible ; and his brother- 
 physician, Smollett, ridiculed his pedantry in his 
 description of the 'feast in the manner of the 
 ancients.' He died in 1770. [W.S.] 
 
 AKERBLAD, J. D., a Swed. orient., 1760-1819. 
 
 AKERMANN, A., a Swed. engrav., 1718-1778. 
 
 AKIBA-BEN-JOSEPH, one of the greatest of 
 the Jewish rabbis, eel. for his confederacy with 
 Bar-Cokeba, the false Messiah, died of torture in 
 the reign of Hadrian. 
 
 AKOUI, a famous Tartar general, 18th cent. 
 
 ALABASTER, Wm, a learned divine, d. 1640. 
 
 ALADIN, or ALA EDDYN, a prince of Arabia, 
 who assumed the title of K. of the World, d. 1236. 
 
 ALA EDDYN I., emp. of Hindostan, 1294-1316. 
 
 ALAIN, R., a Fr. dramatic writer, born 1680. 
 
 ALAIN, Chartier, a Fr. writer, 14th century. 
 
 ALAIN DE LILLE, called the Great, also the 
 elder, to distinguish him from the following, was 
 bishop of Auxerre, 12th century. 
 
 ALAIN DE LILLE, or DE LTSLE, a divine 
 of such renown as to be called the Universal Doc- 
 tor, lived in the 12th or 13th century. 
 
 ALAMANNI, Louis, a statesman and poet of 
 Florence, 1496-1556. 
 
 ALAMIN, caliph of Bagdad, 809-813. 
 
 ALAN, chancellor of Scotland, 1291. 
 
 ALAN DE LYNN, a famous theolog., loth cent. 
 
 ALAN, ALLEN, ALLYN, or ALLEYN, Wm., 
 an English cardinal, who, in the interest of the 
 Romish church, prompted the intended invasion 
 of England by Philip II., 1532-1594. 
 
 ALAN, of Tewkesbury, the friend and historian 
 of Thomas a Beckett, died 1201. 
 
 ALAND, Sir J. Fortescue, otherwise Lord 
 Fortescue, an able judge and man of letters, born 
 1670, died between 1733 and 1748. 
 
 ALANO, H. De, a jurist of Padua, 14th cent. 
 
 ALANSON, Edw., a eel. surgeon, 1747-1823. 
 
 ALARD, Fr., a prot. theologian, converted from 
 the Roman church, died 1578. 
 
 ALARD, Wm., son of the preceding, d. 1644. 
 
 ALARD, Lambert, son of the last named, 
 celebrated as a Greek and Latin scholar, d. 1672. 
 
 ALARIC, a Saxon king, middle of the 6th cent. 
 
 ALARIG I., king of the West Goths, and con- 
 queror of the Roman empire at the commencement 
 of the 5th century, is one of the most remarkable 
 characters in the history of those times. Before the 
 appearance of this distinguished military leader, 
 some three centuries of despotism and corrupt admi- 
 nistration had reduced the one time mistress of the 
 world to a deplorable state of baseness and effemi- 
 nacy ; while the warlike Goths, engaged in a bor- 
 der warfare with the Roman troops, and sometimes 
 ravaging the provinces of the empire in return for 
 the insults heaped upon them, and the suspicion 
 with which they were regarded, were daily growing 
 more formidable. The defeat of the emperor Va- 
 lens had long since discovered to the 'barbarians' 
 their superiority over the masters of the fertile pro- 
 vinces which spread so temptingly before them; 
 yet their chiefs were kept in a willing obedience to 
 Theodosius the Great, and their ambition was 
 a long time satisfied by serving in the Roman 
 armies. At length, a.d. 395, the death of Thco- 
 17 C 
 
ALA 
 
 dosius, and the division of the empire between his 
 sons Honorius and Arcadius, renewed the disgrace- 
 ful intrigues which had been kept in suspense by 
 his able administration. The public immorality 
 and political baseness of the period were only 
 equalled by the private vices of the degenerate Ro- 
 mans; and the conviction became general that 
 nothing could avert the disorganization by which 
 society was threatened. At this juncture the Go- 
 thic hordes were set in motion by a party inimical 
 to the government of Arcadius in the east, and 
 Alaric, whose wild ambition had been flattered by 
 these overtures, commenced his famous march 
 from the Danube. It is possible that his fortunes 
 had been rising since the death of the Gothic king 
 Athanaric, a.d. 381, but nothing certain is known 
 of his early history save that he belonged to the 
 princely family of the Balti, descended from the Asae 
 or demigods of Scandinavia. The course of Alaric 
 at the head of his victorious troops was through 
 Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia, and Thessaly, into 
 Achaia, and everywhere the officers of Arcadius 
 betrayed their trust, or refused to fight ; while the 
 most glorious monuments of Grecian art fell a 
 sacrifice to these martial iconoclasts, whose name is 
 still synonymous with that of destroyer. The em- 
 peror of the west, taking alarm at his unexampled 
 successes, sent an army to the aid of his brother, 
 under the command of Stilicho, by whom Alaric 
 was kept in check, and prepared tor terms of ac- 
 commodation with a foe for whom he had no other 
 feeling than that of contempt, 398. By the terms 
 of the armistice for it was really only an armed 
 truce which ensued the Gothic chief was acknow- 
 ledged master of the Eastern Illyricum by the em- 
 peror of the east, who also declined the further 
 assistance of Stilicho; and by his own followers 
 proclaimed king of the West Goths, and of all the 
 tribes who acknowledged their kindred or allegiance. 
 Situated between the two empires, and subject to 
 the continued hostility of the Romans, Alaric em- 
 ployed himself in perfecting the equipment and 
 discipline of his troops, and after two years of pre- 
 paration suddenly forced the passage of the Alps. 
 His usual success attending hun in a succession of 
 battles and sieges, he was on the point of captur- 
 ing Honorius, when, at the critical moment, Stilicho 
 arrived with a levy of troops collected from Ger- 
 many and the other barbarian provinces of the em- 
 pire. The result was the final retreat of Alaric to 
 nis own government; but he had now measured 
 his strength against the legions of Rome in the 
 sunny plains of Italy, and had also come to a good 
 understanding with Stilicho, a man of splendid 
 abilities, and of a kindred origin with himself, 
 though he was now the sword and buckler of the 
 western empire. After the retirement of Alaric, 
 Italy was invaded by a host of the Gothic tribes, 
 commanded by Radagaisus, who were defeated by 
 Stilicho, and distributed over the face of the coun- 
 try. Alaric was rewarded for the strict neutrality 
 which he observed on this occasion by a rich pre- 
 sent from the Roman senate ; but he demanded a 
 more fertile province for the settlement of his own 
 people. While this demand was in agitation, 
 Stilicho was basely murdered at the instigation of 
 Honorius, whose tottering throne his arms and 
 diplomacy had so long upheld, and who had grown 
 jealous of his popularity perhaps, also, of his 
 
 ALA 
 
 affinity with the powerful king of the Goths, and t 
 of the friendly understanding between the tw 
 leaders. The threatening attitude now assumed 
 by Alaric, as the avenger of his friend, attracted 
 the discontented of all Italy to his standard, 
 and invitations from the court of Hono- 
 rius were not wanting to excite him to the enter- 
 prise. He commenced his second march towards 
 Rome in the year 405, and after a victorious pro- 
 gress entered the eternal city, its first conqueror 
 in six centuries. On this occasion his extreme 
 moderation, and perfect command of his troops, 
 have won for him the applause of the most cautious 
 historians his exactions only amounting to a few 
 thousand pounds' weight of gold and silver, and 
 certain costly robes ot silk and pieces of scarlet 
 cloth. Retiring from the city to negotiate, he 
 
 S itched his camp in the plains of Tuscany, but wj 
 rawn into Rome a second time by the perfidy i 
 Honorius. He now deposed a sovereign with whom 
 it was manifest no faith could be kept, and made 
 Attalus, a much esteemed Roman prefect, emperor. 
 The friends of Honorius, however, on the departure 
 of Alaric, endeavoured to rally again ; the new 
 emperor was deposed ; and the negotiations which 
 Alaric set on foot at a distance from the seat of 
 empire, proved fruitless. These events, in fine, 
 brought the now angry conqueror of Rome for the 
 third time into the midst of its doomed palaces 
 and temples, and the city was given up to pillage. 
 In all probability the nameless horrors of such a j 
 scene, mfamous as the sack of Rome is represented, 
 were not greater in degree than similar disasters 
 which have occurred within the memory of man, 
 and under the eye of more enlightened commanders. 
 The fall of Rome was followed by the desolating 
 march of Alaric and his troops towards the coast, 
 where he was preparing to embark for Sicily ; but 
 was surprised by a short illness, which terminated 
 in his death, a.d. 410. His faithful followers pre- 
 pared his grave in the bed of the river Busentinus, 
 which they diverted from its channel for the pur- 
 pose; and when the waters once more rolled in 
 their accustomed course, the workmen were put to 
 death, that no tongue might tell where the hero 
 lay buried, with the choicest spoils of Rome to do 
 him honour. [E. R.] 
 
 ALARIC II., was the ninth king in descent from 
 Alaric the Great, and succeeded his father Euric, 
 who had really added the Gothic monarchy of 
 Spain to that of Gaul, a.d. 484. Alaric had the 
 misfortune to ascend the throne at the critical 
 period when the Franks, under the celebrated Clovis, 
 were extending their dominions at the expense of 
 the neighbouring potentates, and was weak enough 
 to surrender Syagrius, the prince of Soissons, who 
 had been defeated, and had taken refuge at his 
 court, to the Frank king. The affronts to which 
 he submitted seem to have chafed the proud spirits 
 of his high-minded and chivalrous subjects, and the 
 general discontent which it occasioned was aggra- 
 vated by religious differences arising from the con- 
 stantly increasing opposition of his bishops to the 
 tenets of Ariamsm, always held by the Gothic 
 kings. Under these circumstances his kingdom 
 was inv..ded by Clovis, with the avowed design of 
 extirpating the Arian heresy, and a battle being 
 fought at Vouelle, in which the two princes met 
 in personal conflict, Alaric fell worthily by the 
 
 16 
 
ALA 
 
 hand of his rival, a.d. 507. The hody of laws 
 which is known as the code of Alaric, was digested 
 by order of this prince from those of Theodosius, 
 and applied to the exigencies of his own people. 
 After his fall, the arrival of his brother-in-law 
 I Theodoric, king of the East Goths, redeemed the 
 i honour of his kindred in the battle-field, and Clo- 
 i vis was compelled to accept terms of peace. See 
 Theodoric the Great. [E. R.] 
 
 ALASCO, J., the reformer of Pol., 1499-1560. 
 
 ALBA-LITTA, Count, a learned It., 1759-1832. 
 
 ALBAN, St., first Christian martyr of Great 
 Britain, killed at Rome, 303. 
 
 ALBANEZE, an Italian singer, died 1800. 
 
 ALBANI, J. J., cardinal, distinguished as a 
 theologian, 1504-1591. 
 
 ALBANI, Alex., a member of the same family, 
 distinguished as a virtuoso, 1692-1779. 
 
 ALBANI, J. F., card., nephew of the preceding, 
 disting. as a man of letters ; reduced to poverty by 
 the French, 1720-1803. 
 
 ALBANI, or ALBANY, Louisa Maria Caro- 
 line, countess of, the unfortunate wife of the last 
 pretender, Charles Stuart, married 1772, d. 1824. 
 
 ALBANO, Fr., an Italian painter, 1578-1660. 
 
 ALBANO, G. B., younger brother of the preced- 
 ing, also a painter, died 1668. 
 
 ALBANY, a ducal name, assumed by many 
 princes of the royal house of Scotland. The first 
 line began with the son of Robert II., and was ex- 
 tinguished in H. Stuart, 1460. The second line 
 commenced with Alexander Stuart, second son of 
 James II., and failed in his son John, who d. 1536. 
 
 ALBATEGNI, an Arabian astron., 9th cent. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, duke of. See Monk. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, A. J., Keppel, count of, a 
 Dutch gen., favourite of William III. 1669-1718. 
 
 ALBERGATI, C, an Italian actor, died 1802. 
 
 ALBERIC, a monastic historian, 13th century. 
 
 ALBERIC I. and his son ALBERIC II. tem- 
 poral lords of Rome in the 10th century, before the 
 ivil power was consolidated with the papacy. 
 
 ALBERONI, Giulio, card., a celebrated states- 
 man of Spain. The son of a gardener, he rose to 
 be prime minister: born 1666, died in exile 1752. 
 
 ALBERT of Aix, an hist, of the crusades, 12th c. 
 
 ALBERT of Stade, a chronicler, 13th century. 
 
 ALBERT of Strasburg, a chronicler, 14th cent. 
 
 ALBERT, Erasmus, a Germ, divine, 16th cent. 
 
 ALBERT, or ALBRECHT I., the son and succes- 
 sor of Rudolph of Hapsburg, both as duke of Aus- 
 tria and emperor of Germany, assassinated 1308. 
 
 ALBERT, archduke of Austria, and from 
 his alliance with Isabella, daughter of Philip II., 
 joint sovereign of the Netherlands, 1559-1621. 
 
 ALBERT I., founder of the house of Branden- 
 burg, from which the royal house of Prussia derives 
 its origin, 1106-1170. 
 
 ALBERT, marquis of Culmbach, surnamed the 
 German Alcibiades, a principal actor in the wars 
 of Charles V., 1522-1558. 
 
 ALBERT I., duke of Brunswick, died 1279. 
 
 ALBERT the Fat, son and successor in com- 
 mon with his elder brother Heinrich, to Albert I., 
 died 1318. He is the common ancestor of the 
 reigning house of Brunswick, and its junior 
 branch the house of Hanover. 
 
 ALBERT, Charles, duke of Luynes, constable 
 of France, under Louis XIII., 1578-1621. 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBERT, Louis Ch., duke of Luynes, a brave 
 commander and man of letters, 1620-1690. 
 
 ALBERT, Louis Joseph, duke of Luynes, 
 commonly called Count Albert, distinguished him- 
 self as a general, 1672-1758. 
 
 ALBERT L, dk. of Mecklenburg, 1335 to 1379. 
 
 ALBERT II., son of the preceding and of the 
 daughter of Magnus, king of Sweden, elected king 
 of Sweden 1363, dethroned by Margaret of Den- 
 mark 1389, died 1412. 
 
 ALBERT, Jane. See Albret, Jeanne D'. 
 
 ALBERT, Hy. Chr., a Germ, linguist, d. 1800. 
 
 ALBERT. See Albertus Magnus. 
 
 ALBERTET, a Provencal poet, 13th century. 
 
 ALBERTI, Aristotle, a celebrated mechanic 
 and architect of the 15th centurv. 
 
 ALBERTI, Ben., a patriot of Flor., 14th cent. 
 
 ALBERTI, Cherubino, a celebrated Italian 
 painter, 1552-1615. His brother Giovanni was 
 also a painter of eminence. 
 
 ALBERTI, Dominico, a Venetian composer, 
 celebrated for his skill on the harpsichord, last cent. 
 
 ALBERTI, G. W., a Germ, divine, 1725-1758. 
 
 ALBERTI, Jas., an Italian jurist, 15th cent. 
 
 ALBERTI, John, a Germ, orientalist, d. 1559. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leander, a monastic hist., d. 1552. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leoni Baptista, a universal artist 
 and man of letters, surnamed the Florentine Vitru- 
 vius, born 1404, died about 1480. 
 
 ALBERTI, S., a German anatomist, d. 1600. 
 
 ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, Francis, an 
 Italian lexicographer, 1737-1800. 
 
 ALBERTINELLI, M., an It. painter, 1475- 1520. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Fr., an It. antiquary, 16th cent, 
 
 ALBERTINI, Paul, a Venetian ecclesiastic 
 and man of letters, often employed by the state, 
 1430-1475. 
 
 ALBERTRANDY, J. Chr., a Polish antiquarian 
 and historian, 1731-1808. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS, or Albertus Gro- 
 tus, was born at Lauingen, in Suabia, according 
 to some in 1193, and according to others in 1205. 
 It is said that in early youth he was singularly 
 obtuse. But he soon displayed prodigious capacity, 
 so that his immense and varied acquirements rapidly 
 raised him to eminence. He studied at Paris, 
 Padua, and Bologna; in 1222 he became a Do- 
 minican friar, in 1224 was installed provincial of 
 the order, and was raised to the bishopric of 
 Ratisbon in 1260. Cologne was the chief scene of 
 his popularity and usefulness, though other cities 
 had been at an earlier period privileged with his 
 learned visits. But he had little relish for church 
 preferment, and resigned his episcopal honours, 
 m 1263, into the hands of Pope Urban IV. 
 Thomas Aquinas was a favourite pupil of his, and 
 the Albertists were a noted sect after their mas- 
 ter's death, in 1280. The fame of Albert rests 
 not on his genius, but on his multifarious erudi- 
 tion. He seems to have embraced the entire 
 circle of knowledge. Not only did he lecture on 
 Aristotle and his Arab commentators, Avicenna, 
 and Averhoes, with mediaeval acuteness and pro- 
 fusion, but his works comprise dissertations on 
 Theology, Alchymy, Physical Science, Natural 
 History, and Astronomy. His voracious mind 
 had stored itself so vastly with the encyclopaedic 
 knowledge of his age, that his books are rendered 
 comparatively useless by an incredible farrago of 
 
 19 
 
ALB 
 
 references, quotations, and digressions. Still, his 
 ardent pursuit of knowledge, and bis patient 
 attempt to present it in a connected and syste- 
 matic form, must ever cause him to be regarded 
 with peculiar veneration. His works, collected and 
 published at Cologne, in 1621, fill 41 folio volumes, 
 three of which are taken up with an explication 
 of the ' Sentences' of Peter Lombard. [J. E.] 
 
 ALBI, Bernard D', friend of Petrarch, d. 1350. 
 
 ALBICANTE, J. A., an Ital. poet, 16th century. 
 
 ALBICUS, or ALBICIUS, a phys. and arbp. of 
 Prague, noted for his lenient treatment of the 
 Hussites, died 1427. 
 
 ALBINI, Al., an Italian painter, died 1630. 
 
 ALBINO VANUS, a Kom. poet, age of August. 
 
 ALBINUS, a Rom. gen. proclaimed emp. same 
 time as Septimus Severus, deftd. by him a.d. 197. 
 
 ALBINUS, a Roman procurator under Nero. 
 
 ALBINUS, consul of Rome B.C. 157. 
 
 ALBINUS, Bernard, a Germ, phys., d. 1711. 
 
 ALBINUS, Bernard Siegfred, eldest son of 
 the preceding, a great anatomist, 1696-1770. 
 
 ALBINUS, Chr. B., brother of the preceding, 
 also distinguished as an anatomist, died 1778. 
 
 ALBO, Jos., a Spanish rabbi, 15th century. 
 
 ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, 6th century. 
 
 ALBON, a civilian and man of letters, d. 1789. 
 
 ALBON, Jacques D', marquis de Fronsac, 
 better known as the marechal de St. Andre, an 
 eminent French general, killed at the battle of 
 Dreux, 1562. 
 
 ALBONI, Paolo, a landscape painter, d. 1730. 
 
 ALBRECHT, J. Seb., a naturalist, 1695-1774. 
 
 ALBRECHT I., prince of Anhalt, died 1316. 
 
 ALBRECHT II., his son and successor, d. 1362. 
 
 ALBRECHT L, elector of Saxony, <L 1260. 
 
 ALBRECHT II., second son of Al. L, d. 1297. 
 
 ALBRECHT III., sue, as elector 1419, d. 1422. 
 
 ALBRECHT of Bavaria. See Albert. 
 
 ALBRECHT of Brunswick. See Albert. 
 
 ALBRECHT of Mecklenburgh. See Albert. 
 
 ALBRECHT, a German poet, 13th century. 
 
 ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Geo., the 
 most learned contrapuntist of modern times, was 
 born at Kloster Neuburg, a small town in Lower 
 Austria, in the year 1736. He acquired his first 
 knowledge of the organ and composition of M. G. 
 Monn. In 1772 he was appointed court organist 
 at Vienna, and subsequently chapel-master at the 
 cathedral of St. Stephen's in the same city. He 
 had for his pupils some of the most eminent musi- 
 cians of the last age, and amongst these the name 
 of Beethoven figures as the chief. Haydn had the 
 greatest friendship and esteem for Albrechtsberger, 
 and it is said that he frequently consulted him 
 professionally. His principal work is his ' Elemen- 
 tary Treatise on Composition,' which was first 
 Sublished at Leipzig in 1790. Albrechtsberger 
 ied in 1803. [J.M.] 
 
 ALBRET, Chas., lord of, constable of France, 
 commander of the French army at the battle of 
 Agincourt, where he was killed, 1415. 
 
 ALBRET, Alain, lord of, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, a general under Louis XII., died 1522. 
 
 ALBRET, Jean D', son of the preceding, mar- 
 ried to Catherine, queen of Navarre, died 1516. 
 
 ALBRET, Jeanne D', daughter of Margaret. 
 queen of Navarre, and mother of Henry IV. of 
 France, died 1572. 
 
 ALC 
 
 ALBUMAZAR, an Arabian philos., 9th cent 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, min. of Alph. XL, d. 1354. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Adolphus, founder of tin 
 Portuguese dominion in the East Indies, d. 1515. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, C. E., an historian, d. 1688. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, M., a Portuguese general. 
 died 1646. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, C, a Rom. orator, time of Augustus. 
 
 ALCAMENES, a Greek sculptor, 5th ct. b.c. 
 
 ALCAMENES, king of Sparta, 8th cent. B.C. 
 
 ALCiEUS, a Greek lyric poet, 6th cent. b.c. 
 
 ALGEUS, a somewhat later poet of Messenia. 
 
 ALCiEUS, a Greek comedian, 4th cent. b.c. 
 
 ALCIATI, Andr., an Italian jurist, one of the 
 first to revive the study of literature, died 1550. 
 
 ALCIATI, Fr., cardinal, nephew of the preced- 
 ing, also a distinguished jurist, died 1580. 
 
 ALCIATI, Terence, a Jesuit, 17th century. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, a Christian martyr, 2d cent. 
 
 [Alcibiadcs From an Ancient Bust.] 
 
 ALCIBIADES, the son of Cleinius, one of the 
 most remarkable men of antiquity, was born at 
 Athens about B.C. 449. He inherited from his 
 parents the highest rank, with almost boundless 
 wealth, and was endowed with a person unusually 
 handsome, with manners the most fascinating, 
 and with talents which would have raised him to 
 the highest distinction independently of the ad- 
 vantages which fortune had bestowed upon him. 
 Left an orphan at an early age, he was placed un- 
 der the wardship of his relative Pericles ; and be- 
 came the favourite pupil and companion of So- 
 crates. But his great qualities were marred by 
 inordinate vanity and love of notoriety, which led 
 him into wanton and offensive excesses ; evil tenden- 
 cies which the lessons of the philosopher failed to 
 counteract. The stirring events of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, B.C. 431-404, could not fail to call into 
 active operation the energies of a mind so ambi- 
 tious and so unscrupulous ; and accordingly, from 
 his first appearance in public life, B.C. 421, when 
 he prevented the truce between Sparta and Athens 
 from being carried into effect, he made the interests 
 of his country and his own reputation alike sub- 
 servient to his schemes of ambition. In B.C. 419 
 he was chosen general, and during the next three 
 
 20 
 
ALC 
 
 years took a prominent part in the complicated 
 struggle of intrigue and war which was carried 
 on in the Peloponnesus. In B.C. 415 he was the 
 leader in advocating the Sicilian expedition, and 
 shared the command with Nicias and Lamachus. 
 Soon after the fleet set sail, an agitation was re- 
 vived against him on the ground that he was im- 
 plicated in the mutilation of the busts of Hermes, 
 and his enemies succeeded in procuring his recall. 
 The proud spirit of Alcibiades could not brook this 
 indignity ; and, therefore, instead of returning to 
 Athens," he proceeded to Sparta, and becoming the 
 avowed enemy of his country, disclosed the plans 
 of the Athenians, and suggested the operations by 
 which their measures in Sicily were defeated. Sen- 
 tence of death was consequently passed upon him, 
 his property was confiscated, and a curse pro- 
 nounced upon him by the ministers of religion. 
 Through his instrumentality an alliance was 
 formed between the Spartans and Tissaphernes, 
 satrap of Lydia, which led to the revolt of many 
 of the Asiatic allies of Athens. But his influence 
 at Sparta was not long maintained; in B.C. 412 
 he took refuge with Tissaphernes, and by his un- 
 rivalled talents soon gained his favour; and in- 
 duced him to withdraw from his Spartan^ allies. 
 Being again the open enemy of Sparta, Alcibiades 
 now wished to effect a reconciliation with his 
 countrymen; and entering into a correspondence 
 with the leading men in the Athenian fleet at 
 Samos, was pardoned and recalled by the sol- 
 diers, and appointed one of their generals. For the 
 next four years he remained abroad, rendering im- 
 portant services to his country ; and having, by the 
 victories which he gained, re-established himself 
 in public favour, he returned to Athens, B.C. 407, 
 where he was received with great enthusiasm. 
 His property was restored to him, the priests were 
 ordered to revoke then: curse ; and as the crown- 
 ing honoiu* he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of all the forces by land and sea. But the fickle- 
 ness of the Athenian character again displayed it- 
 self. In consequence of the defeat of the Athenian 
 fleet at Notium B.C. 406, he was superseded in 
 the command, and went into voluntary exile in the 
 Thracian Chersonesus. After the establishment 
 of the tyranny of the Thirty in B.C. 404, he was 
 condemned to banishment. Upon this he took 
 refuge with Pharnabazus, satrap of Bithynia, in- 
 tending to proceed to the court of Artaxerxes, 
 when one night his house was surrounded by 
 armed men and set on fire. He rushed out sword 
 in hand, but fell overwhelmed with missiles, B.C. 
 404, in the forty-fifth year of his age. [G.F.] 
 
 ALCIDAMUS, a Greek rhetorician, 4th c. B.C. 
 
 ALCIMUS, high priest of the Jews in the time 
 of Judas Maccabaaus. 
 
 ALCIMUS, a Latin historian, 4th century. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a Platonic philosopher, 2d cent. 
 
 ALCIPHRON, a Greek writer, 3d or 4th c. B.C. 
 
 ALCMiEON, a natural philosopher and anato- 
 mist, 6th century B.C. 
 
 ALCMAN, a Gr. lyric poet, 7th century B.C. 
 
 ALCOCK, J., founder of Jesus College, Cam- 
 bridge, d. 1500. 
 
 ALCOCK, John, a comp. of music, d. 1806. 
 
 ALCOCK, Nathan, a pnysician, celebrated as 
 a Veturer on anatomy, last century. 
 
 ALCOCK, Thos., a medical writer, d 1833. 
 
 ALE 
 
 ALCUIN, or as he Latinized his name, Flac- 
 cus Albinus Alcuinus, was in all likelihood 
 bom at York about the year 735. Educated in the 
 monastic school at York, under Egbert and Ael- 
 bert, both of whom afterwards held the see of 
 York, he was promoted subsequently to be master of 
 the same school, and taught in it till 780. Arch- 
 bishop Eanbald sent him, in 781, to Rome, to get 
 for him the pallium, and Alcuin, on his return, 
 visited Charlemagne, at Parma. The emperor at 
 once became deeply attached to him, brought him 
 to his court, and heaped upon him honours and 
 emoluments. At the court of Charlemagne, 
 Alcuin was a general preceptor and counsellor. 
 Ultimately he retired to Tours, where he died 19th 
 May, 804. Alcuin was not only a distinguished 
 scholar, polemic, and poet himself, but aided and 
 directed his imperial master in patriotically diffus- 
 ing through the empire the means of literary and 
 theological education. He assisted at the councils 
 of Frankfort and Aix-la-Chapelle, at which the 
 errors of Felix and Elispandus on the person of 
 Christ were condemned. Altogether he was the 
 most distinguished man of his age. [J. E.] 
 
 ALCYONIUS, Peter, an Italian scbolar, 
 celebrated for his work on the Evils and Consola- 
 tions of Exile, died 1527. 
 
 ALDEGILEF or ALDEGREVER, a German 
 painter and engraver, 1502-1562. 
 
 ALDEGUELA, a Spanish architect, last cent. 
 
 ALDEN, J., a colonist of New Engl., d. 1687. 
 
 ALDERETE, Bernard, a Sp. Jesuit, d. 1657. 
 
 ALDERETE, D. G. De, a Sp. classic, d. 1580. 
 
 ALDHELM, St., an English prelate, d. 709. 
 
 ALDHUN, bp. of Durham 29 years, d. 1018. 
 
 ALDINI, Tobias, aphys. and botanist, 17th ct. 
 
 ALDINI, Giovanni, a natural philosopher, 
 nephew of Galvani, 1762-1834. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, Sylvester, an Ital. jurist, 
 in favour with Paul III., d. 1558. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, Cle., his son, became pope, 
 and is known as Clement VIII. Others or this 
 name are among the cardinals and princes of Rome. 
 
 ALDRED, archbishop of York, by whom Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror was crowned, d. 1069. 
 
 ALDRIC, St., bishop of Le Mans, 9th century. 
 
 ALDRICH, Hy., a theological scholar, famous 
 also as an architect and com. of music, 1647-1710. 
 
 ALDRICH, Robt., bishop of Carlisle, d. 1555. 
 
 ALDROVANDUS, Ulysses, a celebrated na- 
 turalist and collector of objects, 1522-1605. 
 
 ALDRUDE, countess of Bertinoro, celebrated 
 for her heroic defence of Ancona, 1172. 
 
 ALDUIN, a king of the Lombards, 6th cent. 
 
 ALDUS. See Manutius. 
 
 ALEA, Leonard, a religious writer of France, 
 who endeavoured to counteract the atheistical 
 spirit of the Revolution. 
 
 ALEANDRO, Gioralino, cardinal, commonly 
 called Aleander, a distinguished cultivator of 
 the belles lettres, noted for his fiery zeal against 
 the Reformation, 1480-1542. 
 
 ALEANDRO, Gioralino, great nephew of the 
 preceding, celebrated as one of the most learned 
 men of the time, d. 1629. 
 
 ALEMAN, a cardinal of the 13th century. 
 
 ALEMANNI, Nich., an antiquary, 1583-1626. 
 
 ALEMBERT. See D'Alembert. 
 
 ALEN, John Van, a Dutch paint., 1651-1G98. 
 
 21 
 
ALE 
 
 ALENCON. A long line of counts and dukes 
 of this name were celebrated in the middle ages, 
 from the 11th to the loth cent., the greater number 
 cf whom were of the blood royal of France. 
 
 ALENIO, Julius, a Jesuit missionary, d. 1649. 
 
 ALER, Paul, a French Jesuit, author of the 
 ' Gradus ad Parnassum,' 1727. 
 
 ALES, Alex., a theologian, 13th century. 
 
 ALES, Ai.kw, a Lutheran divine, d. 1566. 
 
 ALESIO, M. P. D', an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, a pupil of Michael Angelo, d. 1600. 
 
 ALESSANDRI, Alessanjdro, a lawyer and 
 scholar of Naples, author of some curious essays 
 on dreams and apparitions, &c, 15th century. 
 
 ALESSI, Galeas, arch, of the Escurial, d. 1572. 
 
 ALEXANDER, a philosopher of the 1st cent., 
 preceptor to the emperor Nero. 
 
 ALEXANDER, St., a Christian martyr, 177. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Paris, a Norman poet, 12th c. 
 
 ALEXANDER, an English abbot, excommu- 
 nicated and imprisoned by Pandulph, d. 1217. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Aphrodisiensis, a famous 
 Aristotelian philosopher, 3d century. 
 
 ALEXANDER, J., a Scotch engraver, celebrated 
 for his copies of Raphael, 18th century. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Noel, a Dominican, writer of 
 a church history in 26 volumes, 1639-1724. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Polyhistor, so called from 
 his vast erudition, 15th century B.C. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Solomon, right rev., a learned 
 Talmudist, converted to Christianity, and made 
 bishop of Jerusalem, 1799-1845. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Thos., earl of Selkirk, known 
 as a political writer and colonist, died 1820. 
 
 ALEXANDER, War., an artist, author of a 
 work on the costume of China, 1786-1816. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sir W., Earl of Stirling, a 
 statesman and poet of Scotland, d. 1640. 
 
 ALEXANDER, William, a major-general in 
 the American army; usually called Lord Stirling, 
 from his claim to the earldom, died 1783. 
 
 ALEXANDER, J., a writer on algebra, 1693. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Trallianus, a Gr. phys., 6th c. 
 
 ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO. See 
 
 Al.KSSANDRI. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE MEDICI. See Medici. 
 
 ALEXANDER L, succeeded his father as king 
 of Macedon, B.C. 501, died B.C. 451. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., the elder brother of Philip, 
 the father of Alexander the Great, succeeded as k. 
 of Macedon, B.C. 369. Assassinated B.C. 367. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great, son of 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, was born at Pella in the 
 autumn of b.c. 356. In the short space to which 
 we are necessarily restricted, it is impossible to 
 do more than enumerate a few of the leading 
 events in the life of this extraordinary man. 
 In bis fourteenth year, B.C. 342, Alexander was 
 placed under the immediate tuition of Aristotle, 
 and continued to receive his instructions till he 
 was unexpectedly called to the throne. Under 
 the superintendence of such a master the power- 
 ful mind of Alexander was rapidly developed, 
 and enriched with stores of practical and use- 
 ful knowledge. His physical education also was 
 carefully attended to ; he was trained to expert - 
 ness in all manly exercises ; and in horsemanship 
 is said to have excelled all his contemporaries. 
 When sixteen years old, B.C. 340, Philip, set- 
 
 ALE 
 
 ting out on an expedition against Byzantium,! 
 delegated to him the government during his 
 absence. Alexander's first essay in arms was 
 made two years later, b.c. 338, at the battle of 
 Cluvronea, by which his father established the 
 Macedonian supremacy in Greece. The murder of 
 Philip in B.C. 336, when about to march into) 
 Asia at the head of the combined forces of Greece, 
 raised Alexander to the throne at the age oil 
 twenty; and involved him in difficulties from 
 which the promptest energy could alone have saved 
 him. Several of the Grecian states, still fretting 
 under the effects of the battle of Chaeronea, con- ' 
 certed measures for throwing off the galling yoke, 
 but the vigorous promptitude of the youthful 
 
 [Alexander From an antique Crm] 
 
 sovereign frustrated their plans, and awed them 
 into submission. The assembled Greeks at the 
 Isthmus of Corinth, with the single exception of 
 the Lacedaemonians, elected him as successor to 
 his father in the command against Persia, thus 
 virtually acknowledging him as their sovereign. 
 Having now quelled opposition in the south, he 
 turned his attention to the barbarians in the 
 north, B.C. 335, and west, who had renounced 
 their allegiance, and established his dominion 
 from the northern limits of Scythia to the shores 
 of the Hadriatic. Alexander now devoted him- 
 self to preparations for his Persian expedition; 
 and, crossing the Hellespont in the spring of 
 B.C. 334, gained his first victory over the Per- 
 sian army on the banks of the Granicus, a small 
 stream which falls into the Sea of Marmora. 
 After reducing the towns on the western coast 
 of Asia Minor, he marched to Gordium in Gala- 
 tia, where he untied with his sword the famous 
 Gordian knot, and thereby established his claim 
 as the conquerer of Asia. Having been joined 
 here by reinforcements from Macedonia, he pro- 
 ceeded through the centre of Asia Minor to 
 Cilicia, where he nearly lost his life by bathing 
 when over-heated in the waters of the Cydnus. 
 His second engagement with the Persians took 
 place on the plain of Issus, on the shores of tho 
 Gulf of Scanderoon, b.c. 333, and ended in the 
 total defeat of Darius, who fled to the eastern 
 bank of the Euphrates, leaving his mother, wife, 
 and children in the hands of the conqueror. The 
 
 22 
 
ALE 
 
 magnanimity of Alexander was honourably dis- 
 played in the delicacy and respect which he snowed 
 to his helpless prisoners. The battle of Issus de- 
 cided the fate of the Persian empire ; but before 
 advancing in pursuit of Darius, Alexander judged 
 it prudent to make himself master of Phoenicia, 
 and especially of the towns on the coast. Tyre, 
 after a siege of seven months, was taken, b.c. 332, 
 and the inhabitants massacred or sold as slaves. 
 Proceeding next into Egypt, he received the ready 
 submission of the inhabitants, and founded the city 
 of Alexandria at the mouth of the western branch 
 of the Nile. In the spring of the same year, b.c. 
 331, he set out in quest of Darius; and proceed- 
 ing through Phoenicia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, 
 at length, in October, met with the immense host, 
 said to have amounted to more than a million of 
 men, on the plains of Guagamela, a village of As- 
 syria, about fifty miles from Arbela. Darius, who 
 was irretrievably defeated, fled to Ecbatana 
 (Hamadan) in Media. Alexander, as the con- 
 queror oi Asia, now assumed the pomp and splen- 
 dour of an Eastern despot ; and proceeding to Ba- 
 bylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was received by the 
 inhabitants as their undoubted sovereign. In the 
 beginning of B.C. 330, he marched into Media in 
 pursuit of Darius, who had there collected a new 
 torce, and, following him through the deserts of 
 Parthia, had nearly reached him, when the unfor- 
 tunate king was murdered by Bessus, satrap of 
 Bactria. The magnanimous conqueror caused the 
 body of his fallen enemy to be buried in the tombs 
 of the Persian kings at Persepolis, and spent the 
 remainder of the year in consolidating the con- 
 quests which he had already made. But uninter- 
 rupted success produced its usual effects upon the 
 mind even of Alexander. Hitherto sober and 
 moderate, he now became the slave of his passions; 
 gave himself up to arrogance and cruelty ; and in 
 the arms of pleasure shed the blood of his bravest 
 and most faithful generals. The next two years 
 were spent in reducing under his sway the remain- 
 ing countries of Central Asia ; and in the spring 
 of b.c. 327, he crossed the Indus, and entered into 
 the country of the Punjab, where he met with no 
 resistance till he reached the Hydaspes (Jelum.) 
 On the eastern bank of this river he was vigor- 
 ously opposed, but in vain, by Porus the native 
 king. Still pressing forward, he crossed the Ace- 
 sines (Chinab) and the Hydraotes (Ravee,) and 
 was preparing to cross the Hyphasis (Garra) when 
 the Macedonians, at last worn out by fatigue, re- 
 fused to proceed ; and Alexander, after using every 
 effort to induce them, was obliged to lead them 
 back. Returning to the Hydaspes, he there built 
 a fleet and sailed down the river, receiving as he 
 proceeded the submission of the inhabitants on 
 either side. On reaching the confluence, he de- 
 spatched a portion of his army into Carmania, and 
 continued his voyage down the Indus, the mouth 
 of which he reached about the middle of B.C. 326. 
 He here committed his fleet to the care of Near- 
 chus, and commenced his return by land to Persia, 
 reaching Susa in the beginning of B.C. 325. In 
 the spring of B.C. 324 he arrived at Babylon, which 
 he intended to make the capital of his empire. 
 But his boundless ambition was not yet satisfied. 
 He commenced preparations for the invasion of 
 Arabia; but, while cherishing this and other gigan- 
 
 ALE 
 
 tic schemes of conquest, was attacked by a fever 
 in May or June b.c. 323, and died after an illness 
 of eleven days. ' The history of Alexander forms 
 an important epoch in the history of mankind. 
 Unlike other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was 
 marked by something more than devastation and 
 ruin ; at every step of his course the Greek lan- 
 guage and civilization took root, and flourished; 
 and after his death Greek kingdoms were formed 
 in all parts of Asia, which continued to exist for 
 centuries. By his conquests the knowledge of 
 mankind was increased ; the sciences of geography, 
 natural histoiy, and others, received vast additions ; 
 and it was through him that a road was opened to 
 India, and that Europeans became acquainted with 
 the products of the remote East.' [G.F.] 
 
 ALEXANDER IV., a posthumous son of Alexr 
 ander the Great and Roxana, put to death at an 
 early age by Cassander. 
 
 ALEXANDER V., the son of Cassander, assas- 
 sinated by Demetrius, b.c. 295. 
 
 ALEXANDER BALAS, k. of Syria, b.c. 149, 
 dethroned b.c. 144. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Zabinas, king of Syria, b.c. 
 125, dethroned b.c. 121. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Jann.eus, king of the Jews, 
 from 106 to 75 B.C. 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Aristobulus II. , king of 
 Judaea, beheaded at Antioch, b.c. 49. 
 
 ALEXANDER Severus, emperor of Rome, 
 was born 205; succeeded 221 ; assassinated 235. 
 
 ALEXANDER, emperor of the East, born 870 ; 
 succeeded 911 ; died 912. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., bishop of Rome, 108-117. 
 The second of this name pope, 1061-1073; the 
 third, 1159-1181; the fourth, 1254-1261; the 
 fifth, 1409-1410; the sixth, 1492-1503; the seventh, 
 1655-1667 ; the eighth, 1689-1691. 
 
 ALEXANDER, king of Scotland. The first, 
 son of Malcolm, 1107-1124; the second, 1214-1249. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., son of the preceding, born 
 1241; crowned, 1249; defeated the king of Nor- 
 way, 1263; died, 1286. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Jageelon, grand duke of 
 Lithuania, and afterwards king of Poland, born 
 1461 ; king, 1501 ; died, 1506. 
 t ALEXANDER NEVSKY, grand duke of Rus- 
 sia in the 13th century ; celebrated in the annals 
 of the country as a saint and hero; 1218-1263. 
 
 ALEXANDER PAULOWITCH, emperor of 
 Russia and king of Poland, born 1777 ; succeeded 
 his father, Paul I., 1801. Joined the league of 
 Austria and England against France, 1805. In 
 alliance with Napoleon, under the articles of a se- 
 cret treaty, 1808-1810. Joined a new coalition 
 against Napoleon, 1812. Banished the Jesuits 
 from the Russian empire, 1820. Died Dec, 1825. 
 
 ALEXANDRINI, Julius, a physician, 16th ct. 
 
 ALEXIAS, a Gr. physician, 4th century, b.c. 
 
 ALEXIS, a Greek comedian, 3d century B.C. 
 
 ALEXIS (Comnenus) I., emperor of the East 
 at the period of the first crusade. His reign is 
 signalized by the extension and consolidation of 
 his dominions, through his victories over the Turks, 
 Scythians, and Normans. 1048-1118. 
 
 ALEXIS (Comnenus) II., succeeded as emp. 
 1180 ; dethroned and murdered, 1183. 
 
 ALEXIS (Angelus) III., usurped the empire 
 1195; dethroned, 1203; died, 1210. 
 
ALE 
 
 ALEXIS (Lk Jeune) IV., reined with his 
 father after the deposition of the preceding, until 
 he was himself deposed and put to death, 1204. 
 
 ALEXIS (DuCAS) V., reigned a few months 
 after the murder of the prece di ng, when he was 
 dethroned by the crusaders, and put to death by 
 order of Baudoin. 
 
 ALEXIS the Fat.se, an impostor who endea- 
 voured to pass for Alexis II. in 1191. 
 
 ALEXIS, Drago Comnenus, a descendant of 
 the Commenes, served in the French army, became 
 governor of Perche, and died 1619. 
 
 ALEXIS del Arco, a Sp. painter, 1625-1700. 
 
 ALEXIS, Mich.elovitsch, czar of Russia; 
 born, 1629 ; succeeded, 1645 ; died, 1677. 
 
 ALEXIS, Petrovitsch, son of Peter the 
 Great, disinherited by his father, and died in 1719. 
 
 ALEXIS, William, a Norman monk and poet, 
 supposed to have been martyred, 15th century. 
 
 ALEXIUS, Comnenus. See Alexis. 
 
 ALEYN, Charles, an English poet, d. 1640. 
 
 ALF, Abdal, a Persian poet, 15th century. 
 
 ALFARABIUS, an Arabian philos., 10th cent. 
 
 ALFARAZDAC, an Arabian poet, 8th century. 
 
 ALFARO, Juan De, a Spanish painter, 17th c. 
 
 ALFENUS, Varus, a Roman jurist, 1st c. B.C. 
 
 ALFIERI, a Roman architect, died 1767. 
 
 ALFIERI, Count Vittorio, descended of a 
 family both noble and rich, was bom in 1749, at 
 Asti, in Piedmont. Left an orphan in childhood, 
 he early displayed his self-willed obstinacy of cha- 
 racter ; and his education left him nearly as igno- 
 rant as it found him. At the age of sixteen he 
 became the uncontrolled master of his fortune and 
 his conduct ; and for several years his career was 
 one of restless wandering and dissipation. A love 
 of horsemanship and horses was one of his two 
 strongest passions: the other involved him in a 
 series of profligate amours, of which the most 
 scandalous had its scene in London. A love-affair, 
 not at all more creditable, in which he engaged on 
 returning to Turin in 1772, had the effect of awak- 
 ening for the first time his poetical susceptibility 
 and his ambition of literary fame. His qualifica- 
 tions for success were as unpromising as possible. 
 He appears to have added, during his travels, little 
 or nothing to the very small stock of knowledge 
 with which he left school ; and he never showed 
 any aptitude for observation either of men or of 
 other objects external to him. In point of lan- 
 guage, he was even whimsically deficient. He had 
 learned no Latin : the Italian dialect of his native 
 province is hopelessly corrupt : and, while he was 
 totally unpractised in writing, he spoke but indif- 
 ferently even French, the language of the Piedmon- 
 tese nobility and court. The young poet, inspired 
 by the thirst for glory yet more than by his newly- 
 awakened love of letters, set himself determinedly 
 to vanquish all difficulties, by now educating him- 
 self, lie learned Latin enough to put some of the 
 classical writers at his command ; and he studied 
 assiduously both the Tuscan or literary dialect of 
 Italy, and the principles of the drama, the kind of 
 composition by which his fancy had been attracted. 
 After bringing a play on the stage at Turin, in 
 1775, he took up his residence at Florence, for the 
 study of the Italian tongue in a region where it is 
 purelv spoken. In 1783, he published his first 
 series of tragedies, the Filippo, Polinice, Antigone, 
 
 ALF 
 
 and Virginia. A second series of six tragedies, ap- 
 pearing afterwards, contained, among others, the 
 Timoleone and the Rosmunda, In the third and 
 last series, which embraced nine, were the two 
 Brutuses, the Maria Stuarda, the Conspiracy of 
 the Pazzi, and the Saul, which contests with his 
 Filippo the honour of being his best work. In the 
 meantime, however, his studies suffered many in- 
 terruptions; and he travelled much, chiefly that 
 he might be near a lady to whom he had become 
 attached in Florence. This was the Countess 
 Stolberg, who derived the title of Countess of Al- 
 bany from being the wife (ill-used and neglected) 
 of the Chevalier Charles Edward Stuart. After 
 the death of this unfortunate prince, in 1788, his 
 widow and Alfieri lived together, and were under- 
 stood to have been privately married. They were 
 in Paris during the massacre of 1792, and, escap- 
 ing with difficulty, resided thenceforth at Flo- 
 rence. Alfieri's literary employments were now 
 prosecuted with increasing ardour; in his forty- 
 eighth vear he began to learn Greek, for the pur- 
 pose of studying the Attic drama ; and he wrote 
 a large number of pieces, embracing satires in verse, 
 a strange kind of political comedies, and his Me- 
 moirs of his own Life. He died in 1803, and was 
 buried in the famous Florentine church of Santa 
 Croce. His character was exceedingly peculiar, and 
 notwithstanding some fine and elevated points, can- 
 not but be pronounced unamiable. Its most promi- 
 nent features were an indomitable energy of will, 
 which was shown by the whole of his literary career, a 
 ceaseless craving for celebrity, and a boundless 
 self-esteem, which exhibited itself in a reserved 
 haughtiness of manner, and made him really a 
 bigoted aristocrat at heart, while professing and 
 supposing himself a violent democrat. Not less 
 singular are his Tragedies, the works on which his 
 literary fame depends. In their structure, they 
 carry to the furthest possible extreme the unity 
 and simplicity of the French drama of the seven- 
 teenth century. Their representation of character 
 is monotonous and deficient in individuality, but 
 sometimes very powerful, as in the portrait of 
 Philip II. ; and, in respect of sentiment, their 
 strength lies in the gloomy and deeply tragic. 
 The diction has, perhaps, more of vigour than any 
 other works in the same language, though this ex- 
 cellence is gained at the cost of adopting a con- 
 ciseness which is always rugged, and sometimes 
 obscure; and the versification is as unmelodious 
 as any combination of Italian words could be made. 
 Altogether these are remarkable works, which can- 
 not soon be forgotten, but whose literary merit 
 will always be differently estimated by different 
 critics. ' [W. S.] 
 
 ALFONSO I., sumamed the 'Catholic,' b. 693, 
 elected king of Oviedo and Asturias, 739, d. 757. 
 
 ALFONSO II., called the ' Chaste,' succeeded 
 as king of Asturias, 791, abdicated 835, died 842. 
 
 ALFONSO III., sumamed the 'Great,' b. 848, 
 k. of Asturias 866, added the kingdom of Leon to 
 his dominions, and was dethroned by his son, 910. 
 
 ALFONSO IV., sumamed the "'Monk,' king 
 of Leon and Asturias 924, abdicated 930, died in a 
 monastery, 933. 
 
 ALFONSO V, b. 994, king of Leon 999, pre- 
 pared the wr.y by his conquests and policy for the 
 union of Cvstiie ;" killed at the siege of Viseu, 1028. 
 
 21 
 
ALF 
 
 j ALFONSO VI. of Leon and I. of Castile, suc- 
 peeded his father 1005, and added the latter king- 
 dom to his dominions 1072, died 1109. 
 
 ALFONSO VII., the title assumed by Alfon- 
 so I. of Arragon, from his marriage with the 
 daughter of the preceding, and vainly contended for 
 fduring a period of seven years. 
 f ALFONSO VIII. (or the VII., omitting the 
 East named,) of Leon and II. of Castile, h. 1106, 
 succeeded 1126, made himself chief lord of all 
 Christian Spain, and assumed the title of emperor 
 Ill35, died 1157. 
 
 r ALFONSO IX., called the 'Noble,' b. 1155, 
 succeeded as king of Leon 1158, died 1280. 
 
 ALFONSO X., called the ' Learned,' b. 1221, 
 king of Leon and Castile 1252, dethroned by his 
 son 1282, died 1284. 
 
 ALFONSO XL, succeeded as king of Leon and 
 Castile in the year of his birth 1312, defeated the 
 Moors 1340, died while besieging Gibraltar, 1350. 
 ALFONSO I., surnamed the ' Battler,' king of 
 Arragon and Navarre 1104, contended for the 
 sovereignty of Castile as Alfonso VII. until the 
 death of his wife, and the succession of her son to 
 that kingdom ; died 1134, after gaining thirty-five 
 successive victories over the Moors, led by the 
 Almoravides. Alph II. reigned in Arragon 1163- 
 1196. Alph III. 1285-1291. Alph IV. 1327-1336. 
 ALFONSO V. of Arragon and I. of Naples, b. 
 1385, succeeded his father as king of Arragon, 
 Naples, and Sicily, 1416 ; died 1458. Alph II., 
 of Naples, reigned 1494-1495. 
 
 ALPHONSO, or AFFONSO I., inherited the 
 county of Portugal from his father, and was pro- 
 claimed king after a bloody victory over the Moors 
 1139, died 1185. Alph II., reigned king of Por- 
 tugal 1211-1223. Alph III., 1248-1279. Alph 
 IV., 1325-1356. Alph V., 1438-1481. Alph 
 VI., was deposed after a short reign of singular 
 brutality, 1657, died 1683. 
 
 ALFONSO, D'Este, the first of this name, duke 
 of Ferrara, 1505-1534; the second, 1559-1597; 
 the third, 1628-1629 ; the fourth, 1658-1662. 
 ALFORD, Mich., a Latin hist., 1587-1652. 
 ALFRAGAN, an Arabian astronomer, 9th cent. 
 ALFRAGO, And., an Arabian scholar of Italy, 
 author of a history of Arabian physicians and philo- 
 sophers, &c, died 1520. 
 
 ALFRED, an English bishop and historical 
 writer of the 10th century. 
 
 ALFRED, the ' Philosopher,' a writer greatly 
 esteemed at Rome in the 13th century. 
 ALFRED, a king of Northumberland, 7th cent. 
 ALFRED, the bastard, brother and successor of 
 the preceding, noted for his love of letters. 
 
 ALFRED, a Saxon prince, brother of Edward 
 the Confessor, who met with a cruel death in an 
 attempt to gain the crown, early in the 11th cent. 
 ALFRED, AELFRED, or ALURED, a cele- 
 brated Saxon monarch, is commonly called The 
 Great, and has better merited that title, by emi- 
 nent sendees to the world, than perhaps any other 
 of the celebrated monarchs who have borne it. 
 He is one of the men whose life forms an era, and 
 thus, like Lycurgus and Charlemagne, his name is 
 associated not only with the legislative improve- 
 ments actually accomplished by him, but with 
 many others which had an earlier origin, and came 
 to maturity near the time of his reign. From the 
 
 ALF 
 
 propensity to attribute to him every early and 
 beneficent feature in the English constitution, it 
 is sometimes difficult to discover his actual achieve- 
 ments ; while annalists and historians, anxious to 
 provide an ample account of one so famous, have 
 endeavoured to give particulars of so many events 
 in his life which could not be ascertained, that it 
 is difficult to separate the truth from the falsehood, 
 and tell what is really known of him. It seems 
 well ascertained that he was born in the middle of 
 the 9th century ; the year is stated as 849. He 
 was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the 
 West Saxons. Giving promise of great capacity, 
 his father gave him in his early youth opportuni- 
 ties of instruction by travelling twice to Rome, 
 and living for some time in France ; and there is 
 no doubt that the knowledge thus acquired by 
 him of a higher civilization, prepared him for the 
 exercise of that beneficent influence over his people 
 which enabled him to accomplish so many social 
 improvements among them. While his elder 
 brother, Ethelred, was king, they were both called 
 on by the king of Mercia to assist him and his 
 people against the Danish hordes overrunning the 
 
 [Alfred's Jewel.] 
 
 country, and oppressing the Saxon people. They 
 conducted a long contest with varied success ; but 
 though conduct and leadership seem to have been 
 on the side of the Saxon princes, the Danes had 
 numbers and ferocity. At a battle near Reading, 
 Ethelred received a mortal wound, in the year 871, 
 and when he died Alfred succeeded him. He 
 derived but gloomy prospects from the state of the 
 country, deeming the triumph of the Danes in- 
 evitable, but with an energy and courage, which in 
 spite of painful disorders never left him, he resolved 
 to defend, step by step, the territories committed 
 to his charge. A confused history follows, in the 
 course of which it is said that nine great battles 
 were fought in one year. The Danes, receiving 
 ever fresh recruits from the continent, pressed him 
 by degrees, until he ceased to command an army, 
 or even a guard, and, wandering alone, found 
 safety in a peasant's hut at Athelney, in Somer- 
 setshire. The old chroniclers tell a story so cha- 
 racteristic, that it has secured general belief, about 
 
 25 
 
ALG 
 
 his being set by the peasant's wife to watch the 
 baking of some cakes, and when his mind far 
 away devising projects for relieving his country 
 from the invaders he allowed the cakes to bum, 
 the honest woman scolding him sarcasticallv as 
 one ready enough to attend to the function of eat- 
 ing them, though he could not be at pains enough 
 to watch them. After lie had been a few months 
 in this retreat, he found means to gather some of 
 his most trusty followers, and to make at last a 
 small army, which harassed the conquerors, and 
 gradually increased. There is a well-known legend 
 of his preparing at last for a pitched battle with 
 the leader of the Northmen, Guthrun or Gorm, 
 and ascertaining beforehand the state and number 
 of the forces, by penetrating the camp in the dis- 
 guise of a harper. The battle which followed 
 crowned a series of successes, and in the year 897 
 restored him to his throne. It was his policy not 
 to attempt the extirpation of the marauders, but 
 to christianize and civilize them, mixing them up 
 with the other inhabitant* of the country. The 
 Danish chiefs, from fellow-kings, sunk to tribut- 
 aries, and, in the year 804, Alfred might be said to 
 be king of England. He had not been long at 
 rest, however, ere the Danes, reinforced from the 
 continent, and headed by a powerful leader, Hast- 
 ings, drove him into a new and arduous conflict, 
 which terminated in his favour in the year 897. 
 In the meantime he built vessels, and trained men 
 so effectively in maritime warfare, that he has been 
 deemed the founder of the British navy. He con- 
 finned and consolidated the Saxon institutions, 
 which divided the country into grades of munici- 
 palities, making the several communities of citizens 
 checks on each other's conduct, by being responsible 
 for the offences committed within their respective 
 communities. Thence he has been called the inven- 
 tor of the arrangement of the country into shires, 
 hundreds, and tithings, though he probably only 
 regulated and confirmed what had been previ- 
 ously in existence. He has been called the author 
 of trial by jury, but in our present understanding 
 of the system* it was not in practice until long 
 after his day. He was a great scholar and author, 
 and translated Boethius on the Consolations of 
 Philosophy, with other works, into Saxon. He 
 died either in 899 or 900. The memoir of him, 
 which bears the name of his contemporary Asser, 
 Was long deemed a genuine life, but its authenticity 
 has of late been doubted. [J.H.B.J 
 
 ALGARDI, Alex., an Italian sculp., 17th ct. 
 
 ALGAROTTI, FbAHCIS, a Venetian, equally 
 skilled in the sciences, letters, and arts, 1712-1764. 
 
 ALHAZAN, an Arabian astronomer, died 1038. 
 
 ALI, Ben-Abbas, commonly called Abbas 
 Haly, a celebrated physician b. in Persia, d. 982. 
 
 ALI, a near relation and confidential vizier of 
 Mahomet, equally eloquent as an apostle, and 
 valiant as a warrior of the new faith. Succeeded 
 to the caliphate 655, murdered by a faction 661. 
 
 ALI, an Almoravide sultan of Africa and Spain, 
 succeeded 1107, died 1143. 
 
 ALI, sultan of Africa, 1331-1351. 
 
 ALI, king of Granada, 1466-1483. 
 
 ALI, of Oude, the adopted son and successor of 
 the late Nabob, Asuf-ui>-Dowlah, was born of a 
 poor servant 1781. Having broken faith with the 
 English he was deposed, and subsequently im 
 
 ALI 
 
 prisoned for the murder of the English resident 
 Died in his confinement 1817. 
 
 ALI, Beg, a native of Poland, first dragoman ot 
 Mahomet IV., celeb, for his skill in lang., d. 1675. 
 
 ALI, Bey or Beg, chief of the Mamelukes, dis- 
 tinguished for his surprising valour and genius, 
 born 1728, killed 1773. 
 
 ALI, Ibn Buwayh, founder of a Persian 
 dynasty in the 10th century. 
 "ALI, Ibn Hammud, founder of a dynasty in 
 Cordova and all Moham. Spain, 10th century. 
 
 ALI, Pacha, of Jannina, was born about the 
 year 1750, at the little fortified village of Tepelene, 
 m Albania, in European Turkey. Ali's family 
 belonged to one of the Albanian tribes that 
 had long embraced Mahometanism ; and his 
 ancestors for some generations had been chieftains 
 of Tepelene. Ali's fr.ther had been stripped of the 
 greater part of his possessions by a confederacy of the 
 neighbouring chiefs; and when the old man "died of 
 a broken heart, AH was but a boy of fourteen years. 
 But Ali's mother, Khamko, survived, and was a 
 woman of remarkable energy. She- successfully 
 defended Tepelene, the last remnant of her son's 
 heritage, against his father's foes : and to her 
 example and influence, much both of the vigour 
 and of the ferocity which characterized Ali in after 
 years, may be attributed. As the lad grew up, the 
 mother trained him to make glory and revenge 
 the sole objects of his existence. He collected a 
 small band of armed followers, and made repeated 
 forays into the lands of his hostile neighbours. 
 Sometimes he sought adventures and booty alone, 
 
 common freebooter, or Klephtis, according to the 
 this adventurous manner ; and many of the vicissi- 
 
 modern Greek title. Ali'searly youth was passed in 
 
 tudes that he encountered are far more romantic than 
 any novelist ever invented. By the time that he 
 was twenty-four, he had recovered the greater part of 
 the hereditary territories of his family ; his wealth 
 and his retainers were increasing rapidly, and his 
 fame as a military chief was spread throughout 
 Albania, and the neighbouring provinces. He 
 now began to intrigue for promotion and influence 
 at the sultan's court ; and lavished his treasures 
 for that purpose in ' bribes among the leading 
 members of the divan at Constantinople. Partly 
 by these arts, and partly on the strength of the 
 more creditable claims which he acquired by doing 
 good service at the head of a body of Albanians in 
 the war of 1787, against Austria and Russia, Ali 
 obtained official rank and favour from the sultan. 
 He was made pacha of Tricala, in Thessaly, and 
 soon held other appointments ; but his great object 
 was to obtain the pachalic of Jannina, m southern 
 Albania, and by audacious craft and briber}', he 
 succeeded in this in 1788. Jannina thenceforth 
 was the capital of his dominions. Ali proved almost 
 invariably an overmatch for the other pachas who 
 entered into rivalry with him. He sometimes put 
 them down by open force, but he more frequently 
 ridded himself of such adversaries by secret assas- 
 sination, or by sowing calumnies against them at 
 the sultan's divan. The suppression of the little 
 local chiefs, and the subjugation of the indepen- 
 dent towns and tribes in Albania, was a task of 
 more difficulty. In particular, the tribe of the 
 Suliotes resisted him with the noblest courage; 
 and called into activity against them that fiendish 
 
 U 
 
ALI 
 
 rindietiveness which was a leading feature in his 
 character. Many years passed away before it was 
 gratified ; and Ah sustained from the Suliotes 
 more than one humiliating defeat. By degrees 
 this heroic race was overpowered, and in 1802, the 
 garrison of their last stronghold was massacred, 
 after a war in which Ali sullied himself by the 
 meanest perfidy, as well as by the most blood- 
 thirsty barbarity. Ali extirpated the robber-chiefs 
 who (as he himself had done in his youth) infested 
 the mountain passes of Albania. He crushed the 
 local independence of the chiefs, and made his 
 authority practically as well as nominally supreme 
 over their hereditary jurisdiction. His dominions 
 were made as orderly, and as secure for the merchant 
 and the traveller, as those of any European poten- 
 tate. He enriched Jannina and his other cities 
 with stately buildings, and secured them with 
 fortifications. He encouraged and protected fo- 
 reign merchants. He sternly enforced a complete 
 equality of the members of all religious creeds. 
 Swift to discover, and merciless to punish all 
 crimes, save his own, he gave Albania a degree 
 of tranquillity and prosperity, such as the country 
 had never enjoyed since the days of its ancient 
 Epirote princes. Ali Pacha watched with eager 
 interest the wars that raged throughEuropean Chris- 
 tendom, after the breaking out of the French revolu- 
 tion. His great object was to make himself master 
 of an ample and compact dominion, which was to in- 
 clude Albania, the Ionian isles, Macedonia, Thessaly, 
 and the whole of Greece. He obtained posses- 
 sion of the city of Prevesa, and other towns on the 
 mainland, but he could not gain the Ionian islands, 
 though he entered into a long series of intrigues, 
 alliances, and hostilities with the French and their 
 enemies, in succession. But though unable to 
 realize the magnificent scheme which he had 
 formed, Ali was for many years a prince of high 
 power and renown, whose favour was courted by 
 the statesmen of European as well as of Asiatic 
 courts. Had the late sultan Mahmud been as im- 
 becile as were his immediate predecessors, Ali 
 Pacha would, in all human probability, have closed 
 his career in prosperity and peace. But sultan 
 Mahmud was resolute to reform the anarchy of 
 his kingdom ; and his proud spirit chafed at the 
 idea of permitting his authority to be bearded by 
 a vassal like Ali, whose insubordination was so 
 imperious, and so notorious throughout the world. 
 A pretext was soon found for assailing him, and the 
 sultan proclaimed Ali a rebel, and all faithful Ma- 
 hometans were ordered to destroy him. The war 
 between the pachas who marched at the sultan's bid- 
 ding, and the old pacha of Jannina, commenced in 
 1820. At first Ali had the advantage ; but sultan 
 Mahmud inspired his lieutenants with some of his 
 own spirit. Many of Ali's strongholds were 
 wrested from him the greater part of his troops 
 deserted him his sons made terms with the ene- 
 my, or were slain; and before the end of 1820, 
 Ali was closely besieged in Jannina. It was in 
 vain that he bribed the sultan's ministers : Mahmud 
 declared that any person who spoke in behalf of 
 Ali should be put to death. Other sums of money 
 were sent from Jannina to Greece, with the view 
 of rr.ising an insurrection, and drawing away the 
 besieging army to suppress it. The Greek war of 
 independence was thus fomented, and some of the 
 
 ALL 
 
 Greek chiefs endeavoured to assist Ali in Albania, 
 but the Turkish troops steadily pressed the siege 
 of Jannina. At last Ali treated for a surrender : 
 and, by a piece of retributive justice, he who had 
 destroyed so many by first granting, and then 
 violating treaties of capitulation, now became the 
 victim of a similar fraud. Khurshid Pacha, who 
 commanded the besiegers, by giving a solemn 
 pledge that the sultan's pardon for Ali had been 
 granted, induced Ali to surrender, and then had 
 him put to death, though not till after the old 
 man liad defended himself desperately, and shot 
 three of the soldiers who were sent to slay him. 
 The gray head was cut off, and sent to Constan- 
 tinople, where sultan Mahmud received it with his 
 own hands, and exhibited it in grim triumph to 
 the members of his divan. Ali Pacha was killed 
 on 22d February, 1822. [E.S.C.] 
 
 l **tffe$p* 
 
 [Tomb of AH Pacha ] 
 
 ALIAMET, J., a French engraver, died 1788. 
 
 ALIBAUD, Louis, a republican, b. 1810, at- 
 tempted the life of Louis Philippe, and executed 
 at Paris 1836. 
 
 ALIMPIUS, a Russian painter, 12th century. 
 
 ALISON, R., an Eng. composer, 16th century. 
 
 ALISON, Rev. Archibald, a minister of the 
 Scottish Episcopal Church, celebrated for his philo- 
 sophical essay on Taste, 1757-1828. 
 
 ALIX, of Champagne, queen of Louis VII. of 
 France, married 1160, died 1206. 
 
 ALIX, Peter, a French divine, 17th century. 
 
 ALKMAAR, H., a German poet, 15th century. 
 
 ALKMADE, C, an antiquary, 1654-1737. 
 
 ALLAINVAL, L. C. D'., a dramatist, d. 1753. 
 
 ALLAN, D., a Scotch painter, 1744-1796. 
 
 ALLAN, Geo., son of the preceding, d. 1828. 
 
 ALLAN, Geo., an English antiquary, d. 1800. 
 
 ALLAN, Sir William, a disting. hist, painter, 
 b. in Edinburgh, 1782 ; sue. Sir David Wilkie as 
 President of the Royal Scot. Acad. 1841 ; d. 1850. 
 
 ALLARD, Guv, author of works connected with 
 the history of Dauphiny, died 1716. 
 
 ALLARD, J. F., a French bibliopole, a great 
 collector of literary curiosities, 1795-1831. 
 
 ALLARD, Jean Francoise, a French officer, 
 adviser of Runjeet-Singh, king of Lahore, b. 1785, 
 quitted France 1815, died 1839. 
 
 ALLARD, M. A. L., a deputy to the French 
 assembly, born 1750, executed 1794. 
 
 27 
 
ALL 
 
 ALLARTE, MARIE Gay, a French novelist and 
 translator, 1750-1821. 
 
 ALLARUS, Leo, a Greek physician, d. 1669. 
 
 ALLEGRAIN, Et., a French painter, d. 1738. 
 
 ALLEGRAIN, C. G., a French sculpt., d. 1795. 
 
 ALLEGRI. See Correggio. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Alex., an Italian poet, 16th cent. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Greg., an Italian composer, author 
 of the ' Miserere,' 1590-1640. 
 
 ALLEGRINI, Fr., an Italian painter, d. 1785. 
 
 ALLEIN, Joseph, author of the ' Alarm to 
 Unconverted Sinners,' 1623-1688. 
 
 ALLAN, Ethan, a distinguished general of the 
 American revolution, d. 1789. 
 
 ALLEN, Ira, brother of the preceding, and 
 secretary of Vermont, d. 1814. 
 
 ALLEN, John, chancellor of Ireland, murdered 
 by the Earl of Kildare, 1534. 
 
 ALLEN, John, M.D., a distinguished historian 
 and political writer, 1771-1843. 
 
 ALLEN, Paul, an American poet, d. 1826. 
 
 ALLEN, Th., a mathematician, 1542-1632. 
 
 ALLEN, T., antiquarian, 1803-1833. 
 
 ALLEN, W. H., an American naval officer, b. 
 1784; killed in action, 1813. 
 
 ALLESTREE, R., a celebrated divine, 17th c. 
 
 ALET, J. C, a French engraver, 17th century. 
 
 ALLEY, W., an English reformer, died 1570. 
 
 ALLEY, Rev. Jerome, LL.D., a theological 
 and political writer, 1778-1826. 
 
 ALLEYN, Edward, a celebrated actor of the 
 16th century, the companion of Shakspeare, and a 
 benefactor to learning and his country, as the 
 founder of Dulwich College, was born in London, 
 1st September, 1566. It is probable that he was 
 introduced to the stage through his mother's 
 second marriage with a haberdasher and player, 
 named Brown, and it is certain that he had a joint 
 share with him and one Richard Jones in certain 
 'playing apparels, play books, instruments, &c.' 
 In 1592 Alleyn married Joan Woodward, step- 
 daughter of the theatrical manager, Philip Hen- 
 slowe, and in conjunction with his new relative 
 undertook the management of the Rose Theatre, 
 Bankside, for a short season. After their separa- 
 tion Alleyn appears to have visited the provinces 
 by himself, but in 1600 they united again to build 
 
 [The Foituno Theatro.J 
 
 a new theatre, called ' The Fortune,' situated in 
 Cripplegate; and were also joint patentees in 
 ' the mastership of his majesty's games of bears, 
 
 ALL 
 
 bulls, and dogs,' exhibited at Paris Garden, which 
 they rebuilt in 1606. In the same year Alleyn 
 purchased the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis 
 Calton, and ten years afterwards, the death of 
 Henslowc left him sole proprietor of their various 
 speculations, to which he had already added a 
 snare in the Blackfriars Theatre, supposed to have 
 been Shakspeare's interest in it, purchased in 1612. 
 A career like this betokens a prosperous and 
 clever man, and accordingly he was known by his 
 contemporaries as ' famous Ned Alleyn.' In Ben 
 Jonson's estimate, he was equal to the great actors 
 of Rome, and seems most to have excelled in ma- 
 jestic parts. Greene's ' Orlando Furioso,' and 
 Marlowe's ' Jew of Malta,' are mentioned as char- 
 acters of his. The burning down of the Globe and 
 Fortune Theatres turned the current of his fortunes; 
 but before this reverse he had delighted in acts of 
 benevolence, and sequestered all his lands to the 
 college, designed for the support of one master, one 
 warden, and four fellows, three of whom were to be 
 ecclesiastics, and one a skilful organist, and also 
 of six poor men, six women, and twelve boys to 
 be educated in good literature. After some legal 
 difficulties the patent passed the Great Seal on the 
 21st June, 1619, and on the 13th September fol- 
 lowing, Alleyn having formally and publicly dis- 
 possessed himself of all property in the foundation, 
 entered it with his wife as inmates of the estab- 
 lishment and equals of those for whose comfort 
 and elevation it was intended. He still, however, 
 continued master of the king's games; and his 
 diary represents him as occasionally baiting before 
 the king at Greenwich. It was during his resi- 
 dence in the college, indeed, that the Fortune 
 Theatre was burned down, which he forthwith re- 
 built. Hiving lost his wife in 1624, Alleyn mar- 
 ried again, and expired himself on the 25th 
 November, 1626; by his will endowing twenty 
 almshouses, ten in the parish of St. Botolph, and 
 ten in St. Saviour's, Southwark, besides leaving 
 considerable legacies to his widow and relatives. 
 The motive to these various acts of munificence 
 has been superstitiousiy ascribed to the circum- 
 stances of Alleyn having been surprised by the 
 apparition of the devil in one of his performances ; 
 but no intelligent reader will pay the slightest re- 
 gard to so absurd a story. There may have been 
 some vanity the player's peculiar fault in the 
 transaction; since Alleyn manifested a partiality 
 for people bearing his own appellation, and directed 
 that the master of the college should always be of 
 the name of Allen or Alleyn. This situation is now 
 of great value ; the revenues of the foundation be- 
 ing large. The college is also rich in works of art, 
 Alleyn himself having left a considerable number 
 of pictures, and Sir Francis Bourgeois in 1810 
 having bequeathed to it his valuable collection. 
 Papers in the handwriting of Alleyn and Henslowe 
 are also among its treasures. Alleyn's diary, 
 which has been published by the Shakspeare 
 Society, is particularly instructive touching the con- 
 dition of the dramatists of the time. For the most 
 part, they were exceedingly poor, and the remu- 
 neration paid for their works was very small. 
 Those who, like Shakspeare and Alleyn, had the 
 theatres in their possession, profited largely by the 
 prevailing taste ; but the workers in the mines of 
 the drama laboured hr.rd in obscurity for the pre- 
 
 28 
 
ALL 
 
 carious means of subsistence ; and some of the de- 
 tails of their difficulties may be gathered from this 
 most interesting document. From these difficul- 
 
 "es Shakspeare was exempt ; a fact which sheds 
 light on his character and condition to which 
 sufficient attention has not been paid. The great 
 ness of the poet was in fact doubtless due to hi 
 favourable position as an actor and manager ; how 
 this was attained is a point on which some ex- 
 planation is yet desirable. [J.A.H.] 
 
 ALLIEN, L. De H., a French antiq., d. 1827. 
 
 ALLIONI, Ch., an Ital. botanist, 1725-1804. 
 
 ALLISON. See Alison. 
 
 ALLIX. See Alix. 
 
 ALLOISI, Balth., an Italian nainter, d. 1638. 
 
 ALLOW, Alex., an Italian painter, d. 1607. 
 
 ALLORI, Christophano, son of the preced- 
 ing, also an eminent artist, d. 1619. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washington, a distinguished his- 
 torical painter of America, d. 1843. 
 
 ALLUT, Jean, the pseudonyme of Elie Ma- 
 rion, a wr. of the 18th c. who claimed inspiration. 
 
 ALLY. See An of Oude. 
 
 ALMAGEO, Diego De, one of the Spanish 
 conquerors of America, confederate with Pizarro. 
 Made governor of Chili by Charles V. Defeated 
 and put to death in a quarrel with the Pizarros, 
 1538. His son of the same name was executed by 
 order of Herrada, after a bloody engagement, 1542. 
 
 AL-MAHDI, caliph of the Saracens, 776-785. 
 
 AL-MAMUN, or ABDALLAH, son of Haroun- 
 al-Raschid, and his sue. in the caliph., 814-833. 
 
 AL-MAMUN, sultan of Toledo, 1040-1077. 
 
 AL-MAMUN, sultan of Africa, 1185-1232. 
 
 ALMANASOR, a caliph of the Saracens, who 
 became a baker, died 1205. 
 
 ALMANSUR, or ALMANZOR, the Victorious, 
 caliph from 754 to 775. 
 
 ALMARUS, abbot of St. Austin convt., 11th c. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Em., a Portuguese missry., 16th ct. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Fr. De, Portuguese viceroy of 
 India 1505, killed at the Cape, 1509. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Lorenzo De, son of Francis, a 
 ccl. naval commander, k. in action with the Turks. 
 
 ALMELA, Diego De, a Sd. writer, 15th cent. 
 
 ALMELOVEEN, Theodore Jansen Van, 
 a Dutch physician and scholar, 1647-1742. 
 
 ALMERAS, Louis, a Fr. general, 1768-1828. 
 
 ALMINARA, Marquis, a Spanish diplomatist. 
 
 ALMOADES. See Abdel-Mumen. 
 
 ALMON, John, a political writer, 1738-1805. 
 
 ALMORAVIDES. See Abdallah-Ben-Yus. 
 
 ALOADDIN, a sheik of Syria, commonly called 
 the Old Man of the Mountains. In the history of 
 the crusades his followers are called Assassins, 
 corrupted from Arsacides, of whom he was prince. 
 
 ALOMPRA, a man of obscure birth, who 
 founded the Burmese empire, 18th century. 
 
 ALONZO DE VIADO, a Sp. reformer, b. 1775. 
 
 ALP-ARSLAN, a Turkish suit., 1064-1072. 
 
 ALPHERY, Mikepher, a Russian prince, who 
 became an English rector, and refused the offer of 
 the throne of Russia, 17th century. 
 
 ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. 
 
 ALPHONSUS, a Sp. historian, 14th centurv. 
 
 ALPHONSUS, Tostatus, one of the most 
 eminent theologians of Spain, 15th century. 
 
 ALPINI, Pkospero, a physiological "botanist 
 and physician, 1553-1617. 
 
 29 
 
 ALV 
 
 ALQUIER, a m. of the Fr. assem., 1742-1820. 
 
 ALSOUFI, an Arabian astronomer, 10th cent. 
 
 ALSTEDIUS, J. H., a Ger. divine, 1588-1688. 
 
 ALSTON, Ch., a Scotch botanist, 1683-1760. 
 
 ALSTROEMER, Joseph, a Swedish economist 
 of great practical ability, 1685-1761. 
 
 ALTDORFER, or ALTORF, Albert, a pain- 
 ter and architect of Bavaria, 1488-1578. 
 
 ALTEN, General Charles, a German officer, 
 disting. under Wellington, and created count Alton 
 after the battle of Waterloo, 1764-1840. 
 
 ALTER, Fr. Ch., a German critic, d. 1804. 
 
 ALTFRIDE, bishop of Munster, 9th century. 
 
 ALTHAMERAS, a Swiss reformer, died 1450. 
 
 ALTILIO, Gabriel, a poet of Naples, d. 1501. 
 
 ALTING, H., an em. Germ, divine, 1583-1641. 
 
 ALTING, James, son of the preceding, pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Groningen, 1618-1679. 
 
 ALTING, Menso, a Calvinist minister, d. 1612. 
 
 ALTING, Menso, a topographical wr., d. 1713. 
 
 ALTISSIMO, an Italian improvisatore. 
 
 ALTISSIMO, a Florentine painter, 16th cent. 
 
 ALTMAN, J. G., a Swiss historian, professor 
 of philosophy and Greek at Berne, 1697-1758. 
 
 ALTOMARI, a naturalist of the 16th century. 
 
 ALTON, Count, an Austrian general, died 1787. 
 
 ALTON, Count, brother of the preceding, killed 
 near Dunkirk, 1793. 
 
 ALTORF. See Altdorfer. 
 
 ALURED, an English annalist of the Britons, 
 Saxons, and Normans, 12th century 
 
 ALVA Y ASTORGA, Peter De, a Spanish 
 monk and mystical writer, 17th century. 
 
 ALVA, Ferdinand, duke of Alva, (or Alba, 
 as it is sometimes called,) stands unenviably pro- 
 minent in the history of the 16th century as the 
 sternest instrument of the sternest crowned bigot 
 of that age. Alva was born 'in 1508, of one 
 of the most noble families in Castile ; he entered 
 the army in early youth, and served with dis- 
 tinction in the greater part of the wars of the 
 emperor Charles V., both in Europe and Africa. 
 He was looked on as the first in ability and 
 in honour among the emperor's generals; and 
 when Philip II. succeeded to the throne of 
 Spain on Charles's abdication, Alva continued to 
 be the great military duke of the council and the 
 armies of Spain. He acted as Philip's plenipoten- 
 tiary in concluding the treaty of Chateau Cam- 
 bres in 1558, which was not a mere pacification 
 between France and Spain, but a league of the 
 Roman Catholic powers for the extermination of 
 Protestantism. Alva was henceforth the frequent 
 and confidential adviser of the most violent Ro- 
 manists in France ; and there is little doubt but 
 that it was in pursuance of his exhortations at the 
 interview between him and Catherine of Medici in 
 1565, that the hideous massacre of St. Bartho- 
 lomew was planned and perpetrated. The Nether- 
 lands, (including both modem Holland and modem 
 Belgium,) formed a valuable part, of the vast do- 
 minions which Philip had inherited. The Re- 
 formed doctrine had made great progress there, 
 and Alva urged on his sovereign the duty of extir- 
 pating heresy in every part of his kingdom, by 
 the same system of merciless persecution which 
 had been employed with seeming success in Spain 
 itself. In 1567 Philip determined on this fatal 
 policy, and ordered Alva to lead a veteran army 
 
ALV 
 
 into the Netherlands, giving him powers which 
 superseded all the ordinary governors and magis- 
 trates of the provinces. At the head of 20,000 
 chosen troops, Alva now commenced his reign of 
 terror at Brussels. He formed a council of 12 of 
 his most unscrupulous and merciless officers, which 
 he called the Council of Troubles, but which soon 
 acquired, and deserved, the name of the Council of 
 Blood. The council had unlimited power over 
 the properties and the lives of the Netherlanders. 
 Every one who was charged with heresy or dis- 
 loyalty, was dragged before this tribunal, which 
 dealt out confiscation, torture, and death, through- 
 out the unhappy country. Tumults soon followed, 
 winch gave a pretext for letting loose the ferocious 
 soldiery on the wretched inhabitants; and the 
 Spanish troops were permitted, and even encour- 
 aged by their commanders, to practise an amount 
 of licentious brutality and fiendish cruelty, such as 
 cannot be read of without shuddering, and which 
 excited general horror even in that age of reli- 
 
 fious wars. Alva's avowed maxim was that the 
 ing would rather see the whole country a desert, 
 than permit a single heretic to live in it. By 
 treacherously pretending great favour and respect 
 towards the counts of Egmont and Horn, two of 
 the principal chiefs of the Netherlanders, he suc- 
 ceeded in getting these noblemen into his power, 
 and then arrested them and put them to death 
 after a mock trial. The other national leader of 
 the provinces, Prince William of Orange, more 
 wisely distrustful of Alva, kept away from his 
 court ; and when the maddened population of the 
 northern provinces took up arms against the in- 
 tolerable tyranny of Spain, the Prince of Orange 
 became their chief, and levied an army in Ger- 
 many, with which he sought to rescue his country 
 from Alva. This was the commencement of the 
 glorious Dutch war of independence, which was 
 maintained for 68 years, and ended in the separa- 
 tion of the seven united provinces from the domin- 
 ion of Spain. In the first five years of that war, 
 which passed before Alva's recall from his command, 
 he fully displayed the high nature of his military 
 talents in battle and in siege, and still more in the 
 cautious skill of his manoeuvres. But the spirit of 
 resistance which he had aroused was unconquer- 
 able. He was ill seconded by the Spanish court ; 
 and his troops, ill paid and ill supplied, grew in- 
 subordinate and mutinous. Alva was recalled in 
 December, 1573, after a command of six years, 
 during which he boasted that he had brought 
 18,000 persons to the scaffold, besides the almost 
 countless numbers that had been massacred at 
 Haarlaem, and other revolted cities which his troops 
 took by storm, and those also who perished under 
 the unrecorded acts of wanton cruelty which the 
 soldiery were allowed to practise throughout the 
 unhappy country. In 1582 Alva was once more 
 employed by his sovereign, and led the expedition 
 against Portugal. The aged general completely 
 conquered that country in ten weeks, and placed 
 its crown on Philip's head ; an acquisition which 
 might seem to counterbalance the calamitous war 
 in the Netherlands. This was the last act of 
 Alva's long and active life, for he died in the 
 same year, at the age of 74. [E.S.C.] 
 
 ALVARADO, Don Pedbo, one of the compan- 
 ions of Cortez, lulled 1541. 
 
 AMA 
 
 ALVARADO, Alph. De, one of the compan- 
 ions of Pizarro, died 1553. 
 
 ALVARES, Affonso, a popular dramath 
 writer of Portugal, 17th ce ntu ry . 
 
 ALVAREZ, Eman., a Portuguese grammarian 
 rector at Evora, 1526-1582. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Ferd., a Port, poet, 16th century 
 
 ALVAREZ, Fr., a Port, divine, died 1640. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Gomez, a Sp. poet, 1488-1538. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Jose, a Sp. sculptor, died 1827. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Juan, a Sp. lawyer, died 1546. 
 
 ALVAROTTO, Jas., an Ital. lawyer, d. 1542. 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, P. C, count of, a diplo- 
 matist and historian of Hanover, 1745-1802. 
 
 ALVIANO, Bart., a Venetian general, distinj. 
 in the wars of the republic, 1455-1515. 
 
 ALVINTZY, Peter, a classical scholar and 
 minister of Hungary, 17th century. 
 
 ALVINZY, an Austrian officer, 1726-1810. 
 
 ALXINGAR, J. B., a Germ, poet, died 1797. 
 
 ALYATTE I., king of Lydia, 761-747 b.c. 
 
 ALYATTE II., king of Lydia, 610-559 n.c. 
 
 ALYPIUS, the architect employed by Julius to 
 rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, 363. 
 
 ALYPIUS, an African bishop, died 430. 
 
 ALZATE-Y-RAMIREZ, J. A., an astronomer 
 and geographer, 18th century. 
 
 AMAD-EDDOULAT, sultan of Persia, 933 to 
 949, founder of the Bouian dynasty. 
 
 AMADEUS. The counts of Maurienne of this 
 name are the ancestors of the house of Savoy. 
 Amad. I. and II. are of uncertain date. Amad. 
 III. fl. 1103-1148 ; Amad. IV, count of Savoy, 
 1233-1253; Amad. V. 1285-1323; Amad. VI. 
 1343-1383; Amad. VII. 1383-1391; Amad. VIII. 
 1391-1451 ; Amad. IX. 1465-1472. 
 
 AMADIO, And., an illuminator, 15th century. 
 
 AMADUZZI, J. C, a Rom. scholar, 18th cent. 
 
 AMAIA, Fr., a Spanish lawyer, died 1640. 
 
 AMAGE, a queen of ancient Sarmatia. 
 
 AMAK, a Persian poet, 6th centurv. 
 
 AMALARIUS, the founder of Christianity in 
 Saxony ; archbp. of Treves 810 ; ambassador from 
 Charlemagne to Constantinople 813, died 814. 
 
 AMALARIUS, an eccles. writer, 9th century. 
 
 AMALTHEUS, archbp. of Athens, died 1600. 
 
 AMALTHEUS, the name of several Latin poets ; 
 Jerome, 1460-1517; Mark Antony, his bro- 
 ther, 1475-1558; Francis, a younger brother, 
 married 1505; Jerome, son of Francis, 1506- 
 1574; John Baptist, another son, 1525-1573; 
 Cornelius, younger br. of thepreced., 1530-1603. 
 
 AMAND, Mark Antony Gerard, lord of St., 
 a French poet, 1594-1661. 
 
 AMAR, J. P., a eel. member of the French con- 
 vention, b. 1750, tried for conspiring with Babeuf 
 and acquitted, 1795, died 1816. 
 
 AMAR, Du Rivier, a miscellaneous author 
 and translator, born 1765. 
 
 AMARA-SINHA, a Hindoo poet and gram- 
 marian, author of a Sanscrit dictionary, 1st c. b.c. 
 
 AMARETTI, Abbe C, a mineralogist, b. 1743. 
 
 AMARITON, Jean, a philosopher, 16th cent. 
 
 AMARAL, Ant., a learned Port., 1753-1820. 
 
 AMASEO, Romulus, a Latin scholar and 
 teacher of the Belles Leitres at Padua, 1489-1552. 
 
 AMASIS, king of Egypt, 6th century B.C. 
 
 AMATI, a violin maker, lived about 1600. 
 
 AMATUS, a Jewish physician, lb'th century. 
 
 30 
 
AMA 
 
 AMATUS LUSITANUS, a Portuguese physi- 
 ian of Jewish origin, 1511-1561. 
 
 AMAURI DE CHARTRES, a mystic philo- 
 opher, condemned by Innocent III., 1204, d. 1209. 
 
 AMAURY I., king of Jerusalem, 1165-1173. 
 
 AMAURY II., assumed the title 1197, d. 1203. 
 
 AMAZIAH, king of Judah, B.C. 849-820. 
 
 AMBERGER, Chris., a Dutch paint., d. 1550. 
 
 AMBIORIX, k. of the Eburones, 1st cent. B.C. 
 
 AMBOISE, Fr., a miscell. writer, died 1612. 
 
 AMBOISE, G. D', a French cardinal and min- 
 ster of state, legate of Alex. VI., 1460-1510. 
 
 AMBOISE, Aimery, brother of the preceding, 
 
 disting. naval commander, and grand master of 
 he order of St. John of Jerusalem, 1434-1512. 
 
 AMBOISE, Chaumont, lord of, a French 
 ;eneral, nephew of the cardinal, died 1611. 
 
 AMBOISE, M. D', a French poet, died 1547. 
 
 AMBROGI, Ant., a Latin scholar, 1712-1788. 
 
 AMBROGI, Tesco, an Orientalist, 1469-1540. 
 
 AMBROSE, St., son of the praetorian praffect 
 >f Gaul, was probably born at Treves about 340. 
 :Iis father died when Ambrose was but a boy, but 
 le was well educated, and being possessed of great 
 hetorical powers, he soon rose to high eminence 
 is a forensic pleader at Milan. At the death of 
 jishop Auxentius, in 374, there was intense 
 struggle and conflict between the Catholics and 
 Brians about a successor, and Ambrose, as Con- 
 tular, happened to deliver a peaceful oration to 
 ;he people, when an admiring and forward child 
 aiedfrom a corner of the crowd, Ambrosius Epis- 
 zopus 'Ambrose Bishop.' The people hailed this 
 as an omen from heaven, and in spite of every 
 attempt on the part of Ambrose to elude the 
 honour, he was baptized, and eight days after his 
 baptism installed as bishop. The first literary 
 work of bishop Ambrose was to patronise and 
 advocate celibacy. But his principal efforts were 
 directed against Arianism, which enjoyed imperial 
 patronage, especially that of Justina, mother of 
 Valentinian II. The city of Milan was embroiled 
 in the conflict, but the bishop, backed by the 
 population, was more than a match for the em- 
 press-mother and her Gothic troops. He put his 
 episcopal power and prerogative to the test when 
 he kept the emperor Theodosius for eight months 
 under excommunication on account of a massacre 
 in Thcssalonica in which he had been concerned, 
 and made him do public penance ere he was 
 admitted into the great church at Milan. He also, 
 in 384, successfully resisted the re-introduction of 
 pagan worship. The affairs of his diocese occu- 
 pied the remainder of his life, and he died in 397. 
 Ihe theology of Ambrose was chiefly borrowed 
 from the fathers of the Greek church, and his 
 eloquence, though great, is often tainted with an 
 affected imitation of Ciceronian periods. His life 
 was so occupied with the political relations of his 
 high position, that he could not bestow upon 
 theology a calm, prolonged, and successful study. 
 He introduced into his cathedral the antiphonal 
 chants of the Eastern church, but the magni- 
 ficent 'Te Deum Laudamus,' which bears his 
 name, was a composition somewhat later than his 
 busy period. His works were published by the 
 Benedictines of France in two folios, in 1686-90, 
 and Cardinal Angelo Mai has also discovered and 
 edited two others of his literary productions. [J.E.] 
 
 AME 
 
 AMBROSINI, Ambrozio, a composer, d. 1700. 
 
 AMBROSINI, Bart., a botanist, 17th century. 
 
 AMBROSINI, G., a writer on demonology, 
 16th centurv. 
 
 AMBROSIUS, a religious poet, died 1541. 
 
 AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, a Br. k., d. 508. 
 
 AMEIL, Aug., a Fr. officer, d. in prison, 1822. 
 
 AMEILHON, H. P., a Fr. hist., 1730-1811. 
 
 AMELIA, Anne, a princess of Prussia, sister 
 of Frederick the Great, 1723-1787. 
 
 AMELIA, duchess dowager of Saxe Weimar, a 
 friend of Goethe, Schiller, and others, 1739-1807. 
 
 AMELIA, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, b. 
 1776, married 1793, died 1810. 
 
 AMELIA, daughter of Geo. III., 1783-1810. 
 
 AMELIUS, a Neo-Platonist, 3d century. 
 
 AMELOT, N., a French statesman, 1788. 
 
 AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, Nich., a Fr. 
 historian and translator, died 1706. 
 
 AMENOPHIS, the name of several kings of 
 Egypt, of uncertain date, but many ages B.C. 
 
 AMELUNGHI, Jerome, an It. poet, 16th cent. 
 
 AMENTA, a poet of Naples, 1659-1719. 
 
 AMERBACH, John, a printer, died 1552. 
 
 AMERBACH, Boniface, son of John, d. 1502. 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI, well known as the 
 navigator after whom the New World has been 
 named, was born at Florence in the year 1451. 
 Little is known of his history till Ferdinand of Spain 
 gave him employment as a pilot about the year 
 1495 ; at which time he was clerk or partner in the 
 house of Berardi, also a Florentine, a merchant in 
 Seville, and a contractor for the navy. On the 20th 
 May, 1497, by his own account, and in 1499 by 
 that of all others, he sailed from a port of Gallicia, 
 (Oporto?) with four ships, in the capacity of pilot to 
 Alonzo de Ojeda. In 27 days from the Canaries 
 the coast of S. America was reached, which he 
 traced westwards as far as Cape de la Vela, holding 
 occasional intercourse with the natives. Turning 
 northwards, he touched at Hispaniola or Haiti, 
 and reached Spain on 15th October, 1499. Sub- 
 sequently the king of Portugal engaged his ser- 
 vices ; and, by his own account, he performed threo 
 other voyages ; but these are considered apocryphal. 
 Returning to Spain in 1505, he was favourably re- 
 ceived; and on the death of Columbus, in the 
 following year, he was appointed chief pilot. In 
 1507, he published, in Latin, an account of his 
 voyages, which was eagerly read, and translated 
 into several languages. The first suggestion of 
 naming the continent after him was given in an 
 Italian account of his voyages-, and the claim 
 was not disputed. Although an able geographer 
 and skilful pilot, Vespucci cannot be vindicated 
 from the charge of having falsified facts, by repre- 
 senting his first voyage of earlier date, and m omit- 
 ting all mention of the traces which he found, on 
 the coast of Paria, of Columbus's visit made in the 
 previous year. He died in 1512. A certain Alber- 
 icus, or Albert Vesputius, is related in the Novus 
 Orbis' of Grynaeus to have performed a voyage to 
 the S. Atlantic in 1501, during which he fell in with 
 the coast of Brazil. [J.B.J 
 
 AMES, Fisher, an eloquent statesman anil 
 political writer of America, 1758-1804. 
 
 AMES, Joseph, a naval commander, d. 1695. 
 
 AMES, Joseph, author of an historical account 
 of English printing, 1689-1759. 
 
 ^1 
 
AME 
 
 AMES, WILLIAM, a controversial div., d. 1633. 
 
 AMFREYILLE, the Mrquis. D', a French 
 u.ival commander, time of Louis XIV. 
 
 AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, an officer disting. 
 in Flanders and America, 1717-1797. 
 
 AM HURST, N., a miscell. writer, 1701-1742. 
 
 AMICO, Ant., an antiquarian, died 1641. 
 
 AMICO, Faustin, an Ital. poet, 16th century. 
 
 AMICO, Vito, a theol. and antiq., 18th cent. 
 
 AMICONI, Giacomo, a Ven. painter, d. 1753. 
 
 AMILCAR, the father of Hannibal, k. 228 B.C. 
 
 AMIOT, Father, a Fr. Jesuit and missionary 
 to China, disting. by his long residence and re- 
 searches in that country, 1718-1794. 
 
 AMINTA, a burlesque poet, 16th century. 
 
 AMLETH, a prince of Jutland, 2d cent. B.C. 
 
 AMMAN, Jose, a Swiss painter, died 1591. 
 
 AMMAN, John Conrad, a distinguished 
 teacher of the deaf and dumb, 1669-1724. 
 
 AMMAN, John, a lecturer on botany, d. 1740. 
 
 AMMAN, Paul, a professor of physiology, 
 natural history, and botanv, died 1691. 
 
 AMMANATI, B., an Ital. sculptor, 16th cent, 
 
 AMMIANAS, a Latin historian, 4th century. 
 
 AMMIRATO, a Neapolitan poet, 1531-1601. 
 
 AMMON, Andrew, a Latin poet, died 1517. 
 
 AMMONIUS, a Syrian general, put to death 
 by Ptolemy Philometor, b.c. 145. 
 
 AMMONIUS, a surgeon of Alexandria. 
 
 AMMONIUS, an Athenian philosopher, 1st c. 
 
 AMMONIUS, a philosopher of the eclectic 
 school, flourished in the 6th century. 
 
 AMMONIUS, called Saccas, or Sack- 
 Carrier, from his first occupation at the port of 
 Alexandria, is the reputed iounder of the New 
 Platonic school. He was born in the second cen- 
 tury, and some affirm that he was born of Chris- 
 tian parents, but that in riper years he apostatized. 
 Porphyry affirms it, while Eusebius and Jerome 
 as stoutly deny it. Possessed of a creative genius, 
 and conversant with the prevalent philosophies, he 
 strove hard to form a species of eclecticism, in 
 which Christianity and all systems of philosophy 
 should be harmonized. In his attempt to accom- 
 plish this, he, as might be anticipated, robbed 
 Christianity of its prime peculiarities, and did great 
 violence to the current philosophies in accommo- 
 dating them to the new religion. The works ascribed 
 to him are numerous. Died 243, about eighty 
 years of age. Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus are 
 usually reckoned among his disciples. [J.E.I 
 
 AMMONIUS, Levinus, a Flemish monk of 
 distinguished learning, died 1556. 
 
 AMO, a negro from the gold coast, distinguished 
 for his profound learning, 18th century. 
 
 AMON, J. A., a German composer,' died 1825. 
 
 AMONTOUS, W., a Fr. mathemat., 1663-1705. 
 - AMORE, S. D., a Sicilian poet, 17th century. 
 
 AMORETTI, Ch., an It. mineralo., 1740-1816. 
 
 AMORETTI, M. P., a learned Italian, d. 1787. 
 
 AMORY, Tn., a dissenting divine, 1701-1774. 
 
 AMORY, Th., a literary recluse, author of 
 several eccentric works, died 1789. 
 
 AMOS, a Jewish prophet, 8th century, B.C. 
 
 AMPERE, Andre Marie, one of the greatest 
 discoverers in electro-magnetism, 1775-1836. 
 
 AMRU, Ben-El-As, a eel. warrior of the Islam 
 faith, conqueror of Egypt, Nubia, and part of Lybia; 
 ruler of Egypt 659, died 662. 
 
 ANA 
 
 AMRU, BKN-LETTH, suit, of Khorns., 878-902 
 
 AMULIUS, king of Alba, 8th centurv B.C. 
 
 AMURATH L, third Ottoman sul., i'n.ir. of thd 
 corps of Janissaries, b. 1319, sue. 1360, d. 1389. 
 
 AMURATH II., b. 1404, sultan 1422-1451. 
 
 AMURATH III., b. 1544, sultan 1575, diec 
 after the conquest of Raab, 1594. 
 
 AMURATH IV., bom 1609, sultan 1622, took 
 Bagdad 1637, died 1640. 
 
 AMYN AHMED, a learned Persian, 17th cent, 
 
 AMYOT, Jas., a learned Fr. prelate, d. 1593. 
 
 AMYRAUT, Moses, a Fr. theologian, d. 1664. 
 
 AMYNTAS I., king of Macedon, B.C. 510. 
 
 AMYNTAS II., king 394, died 370. 
 
 AMYRUTZES, a philosopher of Trebisond, who 
 became a Mahomedan, 15th century. 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philos., 600 b.c. 
 
 ANACLETUS, bishop of Rome, 73-91. 
 
 ANACLETUS, an anti-pope, elected 1130. 
 
 ANACREON, the eel. lyric of ancient Greece, 
 lived in the 6th cent. B.C., chiefly at the court of 
 Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos. He is said to 
 have been choked by a grape stone, in the act of 
 drinking wine, at the age of 85. 
 
 ANAFESTUS, first doge of Venice, 697-717 
 
 ANANIAS, high priest of the Jews, 47. 
 
 ANARIA, G. L., a wr. on demonology, 16th c. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., emperor of the East, bora 
 430, succeeded 491, died 518. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II., succeeded 713, deposed by 
 Leo III. 715, put to death 719. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., pope of Rome, 398-402. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II., elected 496, died 498. 
 
 ANASTASIUS III., elected 911, died 913. 
 
 ANASTASIUS IV., elected 1153, died 1154. | 
 
 ANASTASIUS, an anti-pope, elected 855-6. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, patriarch of Antioch, died 599. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, the Younger, patrh. 599-608. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, a Roman abbot, 9tti century. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, St., bishop of Laodicea, 2&S. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, a jurist of the 6th centurv. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, patriarch of C'nple, 449-458. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, the most illustrious philoso- 
 pher of the Ionian school ; celebrated in history as 
 the friend of Pericles, and because of his trial and 
 condemnation at Athens for alleged impiety. Ho 
 was born at Clazomene, in Ionia, in the seventieth 
 Olympiad: when twenty-four years of age he re- 
 moved to Athens, then the centre of civilization and 
 of Grecian nationality. Saved from death by the 
 intercession and influence of Pericles, he was ban- 
 ished from the adopted home where he had resided 
 for thirty years ; he passed the remainder of his 
 life at Lampsacus, and died there at the age of 
 seventy-two, surrounded by respect and honour. 
 Anaxagoras belongs in philosophy to the Ionic 
 school, that school whose researches were confined 
 to the nature and laws of physical phenomena. 
 Nevertheless, he differs in important respects from 
 his predecessors; and certainly he was the last In- 
 quirer in Athens who ought to have been subjected 
 to the accusation of impiety. The earlier Ionians, 
 in their imperfect efforts to comprehend the changes 
 of the external universe, generally imagined it pos- 
 sible to reduce all things to varieties of one single 
 element; for instance, it was a favourite specula- 
 tion that water is the principle or substance of 
 whatever exists; a dogma founded, perhaps, on 
 a rude observation of the changes of form or 
 
ANA 
 
 TinrJe, through which water may pass. Anaxagoras 
 lad the merit of discerning the necessary futility 
 jf all such generalizations, declaring that the ele- 
 ments, first principles, or atoms of things, must 
 be very numerous, or even infinite ; elements so 
 far resembling each other as to be capable of com- 
 bining together, and forming, by their various 
 unions, those varied properties or qualities which 
 we recognize in things. But, beyond this step in 
 itself highlv important Anaxagoras adventured on 
 another, of still greater consequence. Accepting, 
 like all the Ionians, the dogma that matter is eter- 
 nal that nothing can really be either created or an- 
 nihilated he saw, nevertheless, that the simple pro- 
 perties of an eternal and inert matter could not 
 explain the activity and harmony characterizing 
 the material universe. Hence, said he, the neces- 
 sity of another power the power of Intelligence. 
 I All things were in chaos ; then came Intelligence, 
 which introduced Order.' The functions of Intel- 
 ligence, as he conceived them, were indeed limited 
 merely supplementary, as Aristotle alleged, to those 
 of the physical forces : but the formal recognition 
 of the necessity of such an energy, was surely a 
 movement in philosophy as momentous as new. 
 It must be recorded, m fairness, and in palliation 
 of the condemnation of Anaxagoras, that to the 
 charge of impiety, that of a political crime was 
 added the greatest, certainly, of which a Greek 
 citizen could be suspected the crime of Medism, 
 or of favouring the interests of Persia. [J.P.N.] 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, a Gr. sculptor, 5th cent. b.c. 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, a Greek satirist, starved to 
 death for libelling the government, 400 B.C. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS, a Greek philosopher, the sup- 
 posed master of Pyrrho, 4th century b.c. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, an Ionian philosopher, the 
 disciple and successor of Thales, 610-547 B.C. 
 
 ANAXIMENES, the disciple and successor of 
 Anaximander, died 500 B.C. 
 
 ANAXIMENES, a Greek historian, one of the 
 preceptors of Alexander. 
 
 ANAXIPPUS, a Gr. comedian, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 ANCHIETA, Jos., a Portuguese missionary, 
 called the Apostle of the New World, died 1597. 
 
 ANCHWITZ, N., a member of the Polish diet, 
 the betrayer of his country in 1782, killed 1783. 
 
 ANCILLON, C, a Fr. historian, 17th century. 
 
 ANCILLON, David, a Fr. divine, 1617-1715. 
 
 ANCILLON, J. P. F., an historical and philo- 
 sophical writer of Prussia, 1766-1837. 
 
 ANCILLON, L. F., a religious writer, d. 1814. 
 
 ANCKARSTROEM, John James, the assassin 
 of Gustavus III., born 1758, executed 1792. 
 
 ANCONA, C. D', an Italian antiquary, 15th ct. 
 
 ANCOURT, Florent C. D', a French drama- 
 tist and actor, 1661-1726. 
 
 ANCUS MARTIUS, k. of Rome, 634-614 b.c. 
 
 ANCWITZ, Count. See Anchwitz. 
 
 ANDERSEN, Geo., a Ger. traveller, 17th cent. 
 
 ANDERSON, Ad., a Scotch historian, d. 1765. 
 
 ANDERSON, Alex., a scholar, 17th century. 
 
 ANDERSON, Sir E., lord chief justice at the 
 trial of Mary Stuart, died 1605. 
 
 ANDERSON, Geo., at first a labourer, but 
 subsequently accountant-general, author of a work 
 on the affairs of the East India Co., 1760-1796. 
 
 ANDERSON, G., an Eastern travel., 17th cent. 
 
 ANDERSON, J., a Scotch advoc, 17th cent. 
 
 AND 
 
 ANDERSON, James, a misccl. wr., 1739-1 08. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural 
 philosophy at Glasgow, 1726-1796. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, a magistrate and author 
 of Hamburgh, died 1743. 
 
 ANDERSON, L., chancellor of Sweden under 
 Gustavus Vasa, 1480-1552. 
 
 ANDERSON, R., M.D., a critical and biogra- 
 phical author, died 1830. 
 
 ANDOCIDES, a Greek orator, 468 B.C. 
 
 ANDOQUE, P., an historian, died 1664. 
 
 ANDRE, B., a learned Jesuit, born 1745. 
 
 ANDRE, C. C, a learned German, 18th cent. 
 
 ANDRE, J., a German composer, 1741-1800. 
 
 ANDRE, J., a Lutheran divine, 1528-1590. 
 
 ANDRE, J. V., a German mystic, one of the 
 first Rosicrucians, 1586-1654. 
 
 ANDRE, John, a major in the British army 
 during the American war of independence, hung 
 as a spy, Oct. 2, 1780. 
 
 ANDRE, St. See Albon, Jacques D'. 
 
 ANDRE, Y'ves Mari, a French Jesuit profes- 
 sor of mathematics, 1675-1764. 
 
 ANDREA, a chronicler, 9th century. 
 
 ANDREA, Caval Canti, a novelist and mis- 
 cellaneous writer of Italy, died 1672. 
 
 ANDREA, C, an Ital. tragedian, 17th century. 
 
 ANDREA, S., an Italian poet, 17th century. 
 
 ANDREADA, Ferdinand, a Portuguese ad- 
 miral, the first adventurer to China, 1518. 
 
 ANDREW, John Geo. Rein hard, a natural- 
 ist of Hanover, 1724-1793. 
 
 ANDREAS, James, a German reformer, sec- 
 retary of the conference at Worms, died 1590. 
 
 ANDREAS, John, a Corsican prelate, distin- 
 guished as a promoter of printing, 1417-1475. 
 
 ANDREAS, a learned prelate of Sweden, arch- 
 bishop of Lund, died 1228. 
 
 ANDREINI, Fr., a Sp. comic wr., died 1616. 
 
 ANDREINI, Isabella, wife of the preceding, 
 distinguished for her beauty and for her talents as 
 an improvisatore, 1562-1604. 
 
 ANDREINI, J. B., son of the preceding, u 
 dramatist and poet, born 1578. 
 
 ANDRELINI, Publio Festo, professor of 
 poetry and philosophy, died 1518. 
 
 ANDREOLI, G., an Italian sculptor, 16th cent. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, Anth. Fr., Count, a French 
 diplomatist and military officer, 1761-1828. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, Fr., an engineer, 1633-1688. 
 
 ANDREOZZI, Anna, an Ital. singer, d. 1801. 
 
 ANDREOZZI, G., an Ital. composer, 18th cent. 
 
 ANDRES, Juan, a Spanish author, 1740-1817. 
 
 ANDRES DES VOSGES, J. F., a misceUaneous 
 author and translator, bom 1744. 
 
 ANDREW, St., the apostle, crucified 95. 
 
 ANDREW of Cyrene, leader of a Jewish revolt 
 in the reign of Trajan. 
 
 ANDREW of Pisa, distinguished as an archi- 
 tect and universal artist, 1270-1345. 
 
 ANDREW of Ratisbon, an historian, 15th cent. 
 
 ANDREW, John, bishop of Aleria, d. 1493. 
 
 ANDREW, Tobias, a Greek scholar, d. 1676. 
 
 ANDREW I., king of Hungary, 1047-1061 ; 
 Andw. II., 1204-1235 ; Andw. ILL, 1290-1801. 
 
 ANDREWES, Gerr., a preacher, 1750-1825. 
 
 ANDREWES, H., a mathematician, computer 
 of the ephemeris, 1744-1820. 
 
 ANDREWES, J. P., a miscel. an., 1737-1779. 
 I D 
 
AND 
 
 ANDREWES, Pet. Miuss, a dramatist, d. 1814. 
 
 ANDREWS, Launcelot, bishop of Winches- 
 ter, dieting, as a scholar and divine, 1565-1626. 
 
 ANDRIEU, B., a medallion engrav., 1761-1822. 
 
 ANDREEUX Fr - W. J., Stanislaus, a Fr. 
 dramatist, poet, and miseellan. \vr., 1759-1833. 
 
 ANDRIOLL M. A., an Ital. writer, 17th cent. 
 
 ANDRISCUS, a pretender to the crown of Ma- 
 cedan, put to death 148 b.c. 
 
 ANDROCLES, an Athenian demagogue. 
 
 ANDROMACHUS, the physician of Nero. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, Livius, the oldest Latin dra- 
 matist, and Latin translator of Homer, 240 B.C. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, a Gr. architect, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 ANDRONICUS of Rhodes, the restorer of the 
 works of Aristotle, b.c. 63. 
 
 ANDRONICUS of Thessalonica, one of the 
 Greek refugees from Constantinople, to whom we 
 owe the revival of learning, died 1478. 
 
 ANDRONICUS I., emperor of Constantinople, 
 born 1110 ; shared the crown with Alexis, 1163 ; 
 caused him to be murd., 1183 ; dethr. and k., 1185. 
 
 ANDRONICUS II., born 1258; emperor, 1282; 
 dethroned, 1828; died, 1332. 
 
 ANDRONICUS III., born 1295; rebelled, 
 1321-5 ; emperor, 1328 ; died, 1341. 
 
 ANDRONICUS IV., joint sovereign with his 
 father, 1355 ; disinherited, 1373. 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, James, an 
 architect, distinguished in Paris, 16th century. 
 
 ANDRY, Nich., a medical author, died 1742. 
 
 ANEAN, Barth., a French poet, killed 1565. 
 
 ANELIER, a troubadour of the 13th century. 
 
 ANEURIN, a chief of the ancient Britons, 
 distinguished also as a poet, 6th century. 
 
 ANFOSSI, P., an Ital. musician, 1736-1795. 
 
 ANGE, Fr., of Pennsylvania, d. 1767, aged 134. 
 
 ANGELI, Bonaventura, an hist., d. 1576. 
 
 ANGELI, Peter, a Latin poet, 1517-1596. 
 
 ANGELICO, John, an Italian painter, d. 1448. 
 
 ANGELIO, a Latin poet, 1517-1596. 
 
 ANGELIS, Stephen De, a mathemat., 17th c. 
 
 ANGELO, Fioriozzola, an Ital. poet, d. 1548. 
 
 ANGELO, Policiano, a learned wr., 15th c. 
 
 ANGELO, Michel. See Michelangelo. 
 
 ANGELONI, Fr., an Italian historian, d. 1652. 
 
 ANGELUCCI, Theodore, an Italian poet, 
 translator, and physician, d. 1600. 
 
 ANGELUS, Chr., a refugee from Greece, pro- 
 fessor of the Greek tongue at Cambridge, d. 1638. 
 
 ANGERSTEIN, J. J., a virtuoso, distinguished 
 for his collection of paintings, 1735-1822. 
 
 ANGILBERT, St., abbot of Requier, d. 814. 
 
 ANGIOLELLO, J.M., a Venetian hist., 15th c. 
 
 ANGOT, a celebrated French privateer, d. 1551. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Charles De Valois, duke 
 of, a natural son of Charles IX. and Marie Tou- 
 chct; distinguished for his bravery in the civil 
 wars of France, and in the campaigns of Flanders 
 and Germanv, 1575-1650. 
 
 ANGUIER, Fr. and Mich., sculptors of Nor- 
 mandy ; the former of whom was most celebrated, 
 ;.nd died 1669 ; the latter, 1686. 
 
 ANGUILLARA, L., a botanist of the 16th c. 
 
 ANGUILLARA, an Italian poet, b. 1517. 
 
 ANGUISCIOLA, a female painter, 16th cent. 
 
 ANHALT-DESSAU, Leopold, prince of, the 
 creator of the Prussian army, 1676-1747. 
 
 AN LAN US, an artist and poet, 15th century. 
 
 ANS 
 
 ANICH, Peter, an astronomer, 1723-17C6. 
 
 AN 1(1 1 IX I, Lewis, a medaller, 16th century. 
 
 ANJOU, the dukes or counts of, descendant* 
 of the Carlovingian kings, ruled the province from! 
 about 870 to 1204, when the line ended in John, 
 king of England. The dukes of the house of Capet 
 reigned 1246 to 1290. The house of Valois, 1290; 
 to 1480. Since this period the dukedom has been 
 reserved as an appanage for the younger princes oi 
 the royal family of France. 
 
 ANKASTROM. See Anckarstroem. 
 
 ANNA COMNENA, daughter of Alexis L* 
 emperor of the East, celebrated for her beauty and 
 acquirements, born 1083 being defeated in a con- 
 spiracy for placing the crown on the head of her 
 husband, she devoted her life to letters, and wrote 
 the history of her father's reign ; died 1148. 
 
 ANNA de Candalles, queen of Ladislaus VI., 
 of Hungary, married 1502. 
 
 ANNA of Hungary, b. 1503 ; married Fred, 
 of Austria, 1521; died 1547 
 
 ANNA IVANOWNA, empress of Russia, born 
 1693 ; succeeded, 1730 ; died, 1740 
 
 ANNA PETROWNA, in whose honour the order 
 of St. Anne was instituted, born 1708 : married, 
 1725 ; died, 1728. 
 
 ANNE, queen of England before George I., 
 was the second daughter of James II. and Anne 
 Hyde ; b. 1664 ; mar. to George, brother of the k. 
 of Denmark, 1683 ; sue. her father, 1702 ; d. 1714 k 
 
 ANNE of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, and 
 mother of Louis XIV. of France, b. 1602 ; m. 1615 ; 
 regent of the kingdom, 1643-1661 ; d. 1666. 
 
 ANNE of Bretagne, queen-consort of France, 
 b. 1477 ; married to Charles VIII. 1491, and to 
 Louis XII. 1499 ; died 1514. 
 
 ANNE of Cleves, b. 1515 ; married to Henrv 
 VIII. and divorced, 1540 ; d. 1557. 
 
 ANNE of France, daughter of Louis XL, b. 
 1462 ; married to the lord of Beaujeu, 1474 ; gdi 
 vernante of Charles VIII., 1483-14*8 afterwards 
 duchess of Bourbon till her death, 1522. 
 
 ANNESE, Gennaro, a leader in the Massa- 
 niello insurrection, 1647. 
 
 ANNESLEY, Arthur, by turns a royalist ?>n& 
 republican, created earl of Anglesey for his share 
 in the Restoration, 1614-1686. 
 
 ANNESLEY, S., a eel. Eng. divine, 1620-1696. 
 
 ANNETT, Peter, a sceptical writer, d. 1778. 
 
 ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher, 3d c. B.C. 
 
 ANNIUS of Viterbo, a Dominican monk, 
 author of a literary imposture, d. 1502. 
 
 ANNO, archbishop of Cologne, 11th century. 
 
 ANOT, P. N., a miscellaneous author, d. 1823. 
 
 ANQUETIL, L. P., a French savant, author of 
 a Universal History, 1728-1808. 
 
 ANQUETIL Dt PERRON, A. H., broth, of the 
 preceding, disting. as an Oriental scho., 1731-1805. 
 
 ANSALDI, C. J., an antiquarian, 18th century. 
 
 ANSALDI, an Italian painter, d. 1816. 
 
 ANSART, A. J., a Fr. historian, 1723-1790. 
 
 ANSCARIUS, bishop of Hamburgh, 801-864. 
 
 ANSEAUME, N., a Fr. dramatist, d. 1784. 
 
 ANSELM, born in Piedmont in 1033, died in 
 April, 1109 ; the celebrated churchman and meta- 
 physician one of the greatest of those famous men 
 who have held the see of Canterbury. On the 
 death of Lanfranc in 1089, Anselm, then on a 
 visit to England, and whose wisdom, gentleness, 
 
 oi 
 
ANS 
 
 and solidity of character had gained for him Euro- 
 
 |)ean repute, was nominated to the primacy by Wil- 
 iam Rufus. It is not necessary to refer here to 
 the political history of this celebrated prelate ; nor 
 can we glance otherwise than cursorily at those 
 products of his genius the Monologium and the 
 I'roslogium, by which he is known in philosophy. 
 These two remarkable writings are dedicated to an 
 exposition of two demonstrations of the Existence 
 of God. The Monologium contains the usual in- 
 ductive argument inferring from the qualities of 
 Nature, absolute qualities or divine attributes ; and 
 resolving these into a divine and absolute Being. 
 Anselm's original work is the Prosoloqium ; and 
 certainly he has stated there, in every fulness, the 
 peculiar argument afterwards expounded by Des 
 Cartes. Briefly, the argument is this, expressed 
 nearly in his own words : ' The madman who 
 denies the reality of God, conceives, nevertheless, of 
 a Being more elevated than all others that exist, or 
 rather so perfect, that nothing no form of being 
 can be called superior to him. But he affirms that 
 there is no real existence corresponding to this men- 
 tal conception or idea. In making such an affirma- 
 tion, however, he contradicts himself. Denying the 
 attribute of existence to this very Being, to whom, 
 nevertheless, he attributes all perfection, he virtu- 
 ally says, that the most perfect is inferior to many 
 other things which are not perfect, but which en- 
 joy the supreme attribute of existence.' We shall 
 speak more fully of this peculiar form of argument, 
 by which the being of God is attempted to be in- 
 ferred from the idea of God, in our notice of Des 
 Cartes. Anselm's metaphysical writings have re- 
 cently been republished by Bouchittd, under the 
 title, Rationalisme Cretien : and Remusat has just 
 ! completed a valuable volume on the prelate's life 
 and character. [J.P.N.] 
 
 ANSELME of Paris, 1625-1094. 
 
 ANSELME, Anth., a French preacher, also a 
 distinguished savant : 1652-1737. 
 
 ANSELME, Geo., the Elder, a mathematician, 
 d. 1440. His grandson, of the same name, distin- 
 guished as a physician, d. 1528. 
 
 ANSON, George, Lord, was born at Colwich, 
 near Rugeley in Staffordshire, on the 23d April, 
 1697. His father was William Anson, Esq. of 
 Shugborough, a property in the same county, pur- 
 chased in the reign of James I. by William Anson of 
 Lincoln's Inn,an eminent barrister, the founder of the 
 family, and great-grandfather of the subject of the 
 present notice. Little is known of Anson's early 
 history ; he entered the navy as a volunteer with- 
 out patronage, and at the age of 19 or 20 was 
 serving in the Baltic fleet under Sir John Norris. 
 In 1717 he obtained a lieutenant's commission; 
 19th June, 1722, was made commander ; and as 
 captain of the Scarborough was sent in March, 
 1723-24, to S. Carolina, to protect British trade. 
 On the breaking out of the Spanish war in the end 
 of the year 1739, he was appointed to the com- 
 mand of a squadron, destined for the west coast of 
 S. America, to attack the colonies of Spain, and 
 cut off supplies by intercepting the treasure ships. 
 This was the origin of the voyage round the world, 
 for which Anson's name is best known. It proved 
 one of the most disastrous on record ; not by any 
 fault of the commander, but owing to the igno- 
 rance and imbecility which prevailed at head-quar- 
 
 ANS 
 
 ters. Several of the ships were ill-conditioned; 
 he was obliged to receive on board 260 infirm 
 old men, out-pensioners of Chelsea College, most 
 of whom were above 70, and none under 60 years 
 of age ; and the sailing of the squadron was de- 
 layed till the worst season. It did not leave St. 
 Helen's till 18th Sept., 1740, and soon after passing 
 Madeira, scurvy, fever, and dysentery broke out 
 among the crews. Tremendous gales, encountered 
 in rounding Cape Horn, dispersed the squadron ; two 
 ships were driven back along the coast of Brazil, 
 and never rejoined ; one was wrecked on the coast 
 south of Chiloe ; the commodore's ship the Centu- 
 rion, 60 guns, and the Tryal sloop, 8 guns, reached 
 Juan Fernandez on the 9th June ; the Gloucester, 
 50 guns, not till 23d July, having been under sail 
 for five months in a stormy ocean, ' a circumstance 
 unparalleled in the history of navigation.' The 
 health of the crew was completely restored in this 
 delightful island ; but out of the original comple- 
 ment for the three ships of 800 men, there now re- 
 mained only 335. A cruise of eight months on the 
 coasts of Peru and Mexico secured some rich prizes, 
 but added very little in the way of geographical 
 discovery, if we except some coast and port sur- 
 veys. The two other ships being disabled were de- 
 stroyed, and -with the Centurion only, containing all 
 the useful stores and the surviving men, whose ranks 
 had been again fearfully reduced by disease, An- 
 son crossed the Pacific to China, having remained 
 some time at Tinian, one of the Ladrones, ' an 
 earthly paradise,' to recruit. Leaving the Canton 
 river after a stay of five months, refitting and 
 provisioning, he lay in wait, on the coast of 
 Luzon, for the Acapulco galleon, which annually 
 brought an immense treasure from Mexico in re- 
 turn for goods from Manilla. This rich prize he 
 captured after a smart engagement with a force 
 more than three times his own, and thus possessed 
 himself of nearly a million and a-half of dollars and 
 35,682 oz. of pure silver. Returning to Canton 
 he sold the galleon, and soon after sailed for Eng- 
 land. Touching at the Cape, passing in sight of 
 St. Helena, and running in a fog through the 
 middle of a French fleet cruising in the channel, he 
 reached Portsmouth in safety, on 15th June, 1744, 
 after an absence of three years and nine months. 
 Not one of the 260 veterans returned. The trea- 
 sure was welcome ; the only other advantage was 
 the familiarizing British seamen with the dreaded 
 'southern ocean.' In 1748 an account of the 
 voyage in a thick 4to vol. was published by sub- 
 scription, ostensibly drawn up by Rev. Richard 
 Walter, A.M., chaplain in the Centurion, but really, 
 as Sir J. Barrow has shown in his life of Anson, by 
 Col. Robins, an engineer officer who went with 
 him. Several editions were called for. A second 
 volume, to contain the nautical observations, was 
 promised, but never appeared, owing to Robins 
 being hurried off to India. Even from the account 
 we have, however, we can see that m.ny errors in 
 seamanship were committed ; but the chronometer 
 was not then invented, and the lunar method, 
 though known to astronomers, was not yet prac- 
 tised at sea. Not long after his return we find Anson 
 at the head of the Admiralty Board as first lord. 
 In this capacity he rendered, great service to the 
 nation; he improved the ships, promoted the 
 most deserving officers in defiance of etiquette, 
 
AKS 
 
 and did much in laying the foundation of that pre- 
 eminence which the navy of Britain has long main- 
 tained. In 1747, on occasion of a victory which 
 he gained over the French, he was created baron 
 Anson of Soberton in the county of Hants. In 
 1718 he married the lady Elizabeth, daughter of 
 the lord chancellor, earl Hardwicke. His or- 
 dinary residence was Moore Park, Hertfordshire. 
 He died without issue, 6th June, 1762, having out- 
 lived his wife two years. His elder and only brother, 
 Thomas, died also without issue in 1771. The 
 bulk of the property of both was inherited by 
 George Adams, Esq. of Sambrooke, Staffordshire, 
 son of their only sister, who assumed the name 
 and arms of Anson ; but the title became extinct. 
 A new creation took place, however, in 1806, and 
 in 1831, the third viscount Anson was created earl 
 of Lichfield. [J. B.] 
 
 ANSON, P. H., a French author, 1744-1810. 
 ANSPACH, Elizabeth, margravine of, for- 
 merly ladv Craven, 1750-1828. 
 ANSTEY, Chr.. an English poet, 1724-1805. 
 ANSTIS, John, an Eng. antiquary, die : 1744. 
 ANSTRUTHER, Sir A., a lawyer, died 181/. 
 ANTAR, the hero of an Arabian romance, a 
 chief and poet of the 6th century. 
 ANTHEMIUS, consul of the East, 405. 
 ANTHEMIUS, emperor of the East, 467-472. 
 ANTHEMIUS, an architect of the 6th century. 
 ANTHING, Frederic, an officer in the Russian 
 service, companion of Suwarrow, died 1805. 
 
 ANTHONY of Burgundy, distinguished in 
 the military service of France, 1421-1504. 
 ANTHONY, P. G., a theologian, 17th century. 
 ANTHONY. See Antonius, Antony. 
 ANTIGNAC, A., a French song-writer, b. 1770. 
 ANTIGONUS CARYSTIUS, a Greek writer, 
 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, the Cyclops,' one of Alexan- 
 der's companions in arms; afterwards king of 
 Asia; killed 301 B.C. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, Gonatas, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, king of Macedon, 277-241 b.c. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, Doson, regent and king of Ma- 
 cedon, 230 b.c, till his death, 221. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, Sochosus, the reputed founder 
 of the sect of Sadducees, 3d century b.c. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, associated with Aristobulus I. 
 as king of Judaea, 107-106 B.C. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, son of Aristobulus II., king of 
 Judaea, B.C. 40 ; killed, B.C. 37. 
 
 ANTIMACO, Mark Antony, an Italian 
 scholar and poet, 1472-1552. 
 ANTIMACUS, a Greek poet, 5th century b.c. 
 ANTINE, M. F., a chronologist, 1688-1748. 
 ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth, eel. as the com- 
 panion and favourite of Adrian, drowned 132. 
 ANTIOCHUS, a Platonic phil., 1st cent. B.C. 
 ANTIOCHUS, a monastic writer, 7th century. 
 ANTIOCHUS I., k. of Syria, d. b.c. 261. Ant. 
 II., k., b.c. 261 ; d. 246. Ant. III., called the 
 Great, k., b.c. 223; assassinated 187. Ant. IV. 
 succeeded his father, but was kept a prisoner by the 
 Romans till 174 B.C. ; d. 164. Ant. VI., king, 
 B.C. 164; dethroned 162. Ant. VII., king, b.c 
 140; dethroned 128. Ant. VIII. reigned B.C. 
 126-97. Ant. IX. shared the kingdom with 
 the preceding, B.C. 112-95. Ant. X. and XI. 
 reigned 93-92 B.C. Ant. XII. reigned for a short 
 
 36 
 
 ANT 
 
 time before 83 B.C. Ant. XIII., king, b.c. C9 
 dethroned by Pompey, who reduced Syria to 
 Roman province, b.c. 65. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS I., king of Commagena, froi 
 about 69-32 B.C. The second of the same liami 
 king till 29 B.C. The third is supposed to hav 
 reigned about the commencement of the Christia 
 era. The fourth, from 38-72. 
 
 ANTIPATER, a Macedonian general, regen 
 for Alexander, and after his death master of th 
 European provinces : died 318 b.c. 
 
 ANTIPATER, k. of Macedon, 298-295 b.c. 
 third of the same name reigned a few days, 278 b.c 
 ANTIPATER, father of Herod the" Great, am 
 minister of Hyrcanus, 63-43 B.C. 
 
 ANTIPATER, son of Herod the Great, put t< 
 death for conspiracy, 2. 
 ANTIPATER, L. C, a Rom. historian, 2 b.c. 
 ANTIPATER of Sidon, a philos., 2d c. b.c. 
 ANTIPATER, a Stoic philosopher, 1st c. B.C. 
 ANTIPHANES, a Gr. poet, time of Alexander. 
 ANTIPHILUS, a Greek poet, time of Nero. 
 ANTIPHILUS, a Greek painter, 4th century. 
 ANTIPHON, a Greek orator, killed 411 b.c. 
 ANTIQUARIUS, J., an Italian scho., <L 1512. 
 ANTIQUUS, a painter of the 16th century. 
 ANTISTHENES, a Gr. command., 4th c. b.c. 
 ANTISTHENES, fnd. of the Cynics, 5th c. b.c. 
 ANTOINE. See Antony. 
 ANTOINETTE. See Marie Antoinette. 
 ANTON, Ch. Gottlieb, a German writer of 
 curious history, 1751-1818. 
 ANTON, C. G., a philologist, died 1814. 
 ANTONELLI, P. A., a Fr. officer, 1747-1817. 
 ANTONELLI, a painter, 15th century. 
 ANTONI, Seb. Degli, a tragedian, 17th cent, 
 ANTONI, an Italian officer, 1714-1786. 
 ANTONIANO, Sylvio, a poet, 1540-1603. 
 ANTONIDES, J., a Dutch poet, 1647-1684. 
 ANTONIDES, J., an Arabian scholar, 17th c. 
 ANTONINA, wife of Belisarius, distinguished 
 for her public spirit, 499-565. 
 
 ANTONINE DE FORCIGLIONI, a prelate 
 and saint of Rome, 1389-1459. 
 
 ANTONINI, Annibal and Joseph, two bro- 
 thers distinguished as historians, 17th and 18th c. 
 ANTONINUS, Liberalis, a Gr. am, 2dc. n.c. 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, a Roman emperor, b. 86 
 succeeded Adrian, 138 ; died 161. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, successor 
 of Antoninus Pius, 121-180. 
 ANTONINUS. See Commodus, Caracalla, 
 
 DlADUMENIANUS. 
 
 ANTONINUS, St., abp. of Florence, d. 1445. 
 
 ANTONINUS, bishop of Constantine, 5th ct. 
 
 ANTONINUS, a geographer, age unknown. 
 
 ANTONIO, or ANTONELLO, a painter, 15th c. 
 
 ANTONIO, a Spanish historian, 1617-1684. 
 
 ANTONIO, Pedro, a Spanish painter, d. 1675. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Godfrey, a Germ, lawyer, 17th c. 
 
 ANTONIUS, iELius N., a Span, hist., 16th c. 
 
 ANTONIUS, L., a Portuguese phys., 16th c. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Marcus, a Rom. orat., proconsul I 
 B.C. 103 ; proscribed by Marius, put to dth. B.C. 67. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Marcus, the eel. triumvir, grand- 
 son of the preceding, born B.C. 86 ; disting. in the 
 Jewish war; and aftenvards as the companion in 
 arms and friend of Julius Caesar. After the assas- 
 sination of the latter, and the overthrow of the re- 
 
ANT 
 
 kmUican party by the defeat of Brutus and Cassius 
 'at Philippi, Mark Anthony formed the triumvirate 
 with Octavius and Lepidus, B.C. 42. Anthony 
 [married the sister of Octavius, but neglected her 
 for the blandishments of Cleopatra; and having 
 quarrelled with his coadjutors, was defeated at the 
 I battle of Actium, and put a period to his own 
 [existence, B.C. 30. 
 
 ANTONY of Tuscany, a lawyer, 15th cent. 
 
 ANTONY, St., the Great, born in Egypt, 251 ; 
 retired to the desert, where he formed the first 
 community of monks, 305 ; died, 356. 
 
 ANTONY, St., of Padua, 1195-1231. 
 
 ANTONY of Bourbon, king of Navarre, by 
 his marriage with Jeanne D'Albret, 1548, and 
 father of Henry IV. of France, d. 1562. 
 
 ANVARI, a Persian astrologer, died 1206. 
 
 ANYSIUS, Giov., an Italian poet, d. 1540. 
 
 ANYTA, a Greek poetess, some centuries B.C. 
 
 ANYTUS, an Athenian orator, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 AOUST, the Marquis D', one of the violent 
 members of the French convention, d. 1812. 
 
 APACZAI, John, an Orientalist, died 1659. 
 
 APAFFI. See Abaffi. 
 
 APEL, or APELLES, John, a German re- 
 former, 1486-1536. 
 
 APELBOOM, a Dutch poet, died about 1780. 
 
 APELLES, founder of a heresy, 2d century. 
 
 APELLES, the most celebrated painter of 
 antiquity, was bom about 365 b.c. at Cos, or at 
 Colophon in Ionia. When already an accom- 
 plished master, apparently, he entered as a pupil 
 in the celebrated school of Pamphilus, at Sicyon, 
 and paid the enormous fee of this school, a tr.lent, 
 (about 220 sterling,) purely for the sake of the 
 reputation enjoyed by its pupils. Apelles seems 
 to have earned his unrivalled reputation partly by 
 his unintermittent industry, which became pro- 
 verbial, even among the Romans ' nulla dies 
 sine linea ' is a saying, according to report, which 
 originated with this great Greek painter. Painting 
 itself is sometimes termed by the Romans the 
 Apellean art. An examination of the particular 
 sendees of Apelles does not seem to justify his 
 extraordinary reputation, for he appears to have 
 been little more than a portrait painter, though 
 doubtless one of the very highest class. In every 
 respect, save one, however, he was surpassed by 
 some one of his rivals, but in the management of 
 the whole, in that peculiar quality which the 
 Greeks called Charts, grace or beauty, he was un- 
 rivalled. A list of his known works will convey 
 the most accurate notion of his style. Perhaps 
 the most celebrated was the Venus Anadyomene, or 
 Venus rising out of the ocean, which became in after 
 years such a favourite picture among the Romans, 
 that Ovid (Art. Amat. iii. 401,) paid it the extra- 
 ordinary compliment of saying, that but for this 
 picture, Venus would have still remained buried 
 beneath the waves of the sea. The picture was 
 painted for the people of Cos, where it remained 
 until removed three centuries afterwards by the 
 emperor Augustus to Rome, who took it in lieu of 
 100 talents tribute; an enormous price, and yet 
 less by some thousands than was recently paid for 
 the Soult Murillo by the French government. 
 The picture was, unfortunately, much damaged on 
 the voyage, and was, within a century from the 
 time of its dedication in the Temple of Julius 
 
 APE 
 
 Caesar, dictator, at Rome, replaced by a copy, by 
 order of Nero. The history of this picture is 
 worthy of note, as it is the prototype of so many 
 similar stories of later ages. Other celebrated 
 works were, King Antigonus on horseback ; a por- 
 trait of Campaspe, a beautiful slave and favourite 
 of Alexander the Great, who presented her to the 
 painter in reward for the picture which he made 
 of her ; several portraits of Philip of Macedon, and 
 of Alexander himself, who is said to have given 
 Apelles the exclusive right of painting him ; for 
 one of these, representing the king as Jupiter 
 hurling his thunderbolts, Alexander is said to 
 have presented Apelles with 20 talents of gold, 
 about 50,000 sterling, twice the largest sum 
 ever recorded otherwise, as the price of a pic- 
 ture. Further, are mentioned a figure of For- 
 tune, seated; a naked hero; a back view of a 
 Hercules ; a clothed figure of one of the Graces ; 
 Clitus preparing for battle, mounted on his 
 charger, and receiving his helmet from his arm- 
 bearer ; Antigonus in armour walking by the side 
 of his horse ; Archelaus with his wife and daugh- 
 ter; and the two following works, the only two 
 pictures by Apelles recorded, which appear to 
 have contained a considerable number of figures 
 Diana surrounded by her nymphs, in which he 
 was allowed to have surpassed the lines of Homer, 
 from which he took his subject ; and the pomp or 
 procession of the high priest of Diana at Lphesus. 
 The pictures of Apelles were probably mostly 
 painted upon panels of larch, (he used to boast 
 that he never painted upon a wall,) and executed 
 in distemper : the impasto was doubtless very 
 similar to that of the Italian quattrocento masters 
 before the introduction of oil painting. The 
 Greeks had abundant resources in colours, and 
 there is every reason to suppose that they were in 
 every respect as great in painting as in sculpture. 
 Apelles himself, among other distinctions, is re- 
 nowned for having introduced a very effective 
 mode of glazing, or toning his pictures, which Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds assumed to be the same process 
 adopted by the Venetians of the sixteenth century. 
 [See Protogenes.] Many anecdotes are re- 
 corded showing the intimacy between Alexander 
 the Great and Apelles, and others of still more 
 value, showing his own liberality of disposition, 
 and great skill and judgment in his art. One 
 anecdote, related by Pliny, as illustrating a pecu- 
 liar feature of Greek customs, may be recorded 
 here: Apelles had put in at Alexandria, driven 
 there by contrary winds ; Ptolemy I. was then, at 
 the close of the 4th century, B.C. king of Egypt, 
 with whom, while he was generrl, Apelles had 
 been on bad terms. Some of the painter's rivals at 
 the court of Ptolemy, taking advantage of this 
 circumstance, endeavoured to do him an injury; 
 they persuaded the royal fool to invite Apelles to 
 sup with the king. Apelles attended accordingly, 
 but Ptolemy indignant at the intrusion, demanded 
 by whom he had been invited ; when the painter 
 seizing an extinguished coal from the hearth, drew 
 upon the wall the features of the man who had in- 
 vited him with such mastery, that Ptolemy in the 
 very first lines recognized the portrait of his buf- 
 foon, and through this trifling incident became re- 
 conciled to the painter and received him into his 
 favour. Apelles survived Alexander many years; 
 
 37 
 
APE 
 
 he does not appear to have accompanied him as far 
 r.s Babylon ; the date of his death is unknown. 
 He left writings on the arts, which he dedicated to 
 his pupil Perseus; they have not been preserved. 
 lie was celebrated for the beauty of the horses in 
 his pictures. There was another Apelles, of Ephe- 
 sus, mentioned by Lucian, who lived at the court 
 of Ptolemy Philopator, about B.C. 220. (Pliny, 
 Hist. Nat. xxxv. 36; Plutarch, Arat. 12, Alex- 
 ander 4, Fort Alez. Mag 2, 3; Junius, Cataiogus 
 Artifiatm. &c. &c Wornum, Epochs of Painting, 
 vol.'i.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 APELLICON, a philosopher, 1st century B.C. 
 
 APER, Marcus, an orator, 1st century. 
 
 APER, Arius, a Roman prafect, killed 284. 
 
 APHTHONIUS, a rhetorician, 3d century. 
 
 APIAN, Peter, a German astron., 1495-1589. 
 
 APICIUS, a noted glutton, time of Augustus. 
 
 APIN, J. L., a medical writer, 17th century. 
 
 APION, or APPION, a celebrated grammarian, 
 and historian of Egypt, 1st century. 
 
 APOLLINARIS, Caius S., a grammarian who 
 taught at Rome, 2d century. 
 
 APOLLINARIS, bishop of Laodicea, 4th cent, 
 
 APOLLINARIS, son of the preceding, and re- 
 puted author of a heresy. 
 
 APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, a learned writer, 
 bishop of Hieropolis, 2d centurv. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Athens. See Zeuxis. 
 
 APOLLODORUS of Damascus, one of the 
 most celebrated architects of antiquity. He built the 
 forum and column of Trajan at Rome, of which 
 there are still magnificent remains, in the year 
 113 A.D. and was much employed by Trajan in 
 Rome and elsewhere. His most remarkable work, 
 however, was the great bridge over the Danube in 
 Bulgaria, where the Alt runs into that river; it 
 stood on 20 piers, 150 feet high above the founda- 
 tions, 60 feet wide, and 170 feet apart. It was 
 built for the emperor Trajan; the bridge was of 
 wood, but the piers were of stone. The wood- 
 work was afterwards destroyed by Hadrian, as it 
 gave the barbarians too great facilities for crossing 
 the Danube. Remains of the piers are still stand- 
 ing. Apollodorus is said to have fallen a victim 
 to the jealousy of Hadrian, who dabbled in archi- 
 tecture as well as other arts. (Dion Cassius, 
 lxviii. 13, Ixix. 4; Procopius de JEdif. Justiniani, 
 iv. ; Hirt. Geschichfe der Bauicunst.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 APOLLODORUS, a Greek painter, 5th c. B.C. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, a Greek gram., 2d cent. B.C. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, a naturalist, 1st centurv. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an architect, killed 130. 
 
 APOLLODRUS, a philosopher, time of Cicero. 
 
 APOLLONIA, a female martvr, 248. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, a Christian martvr, 2d cent. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, bishop of Ephesus, 2d cent. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, Collatius, a monastic poet 
 of Navarre, 15th century. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, Dyscolus, a grammatical 
 writer and historian, 2d century. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, Myndus, an astronomer and 
 astrologer, time of Alexander the Great. 
 
 APOLLONIUS of Perga, author of a treatise 
 on conic sections, 3d century B.C. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, Rhodius, a poet, librarian of 
 Alexandria, died B.C. 240. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, Tyaxeus, a Pythagor. philos., 
 and reputed worker of miracles, 1st century. 
 
 83 
 
 AQU 
 
 APONO, or ABANO, Peter of, a celebrated! 
 professor of medicine, noted for his studies in as- 
 trology and magic, 1250-1316. 
 
 APOSTOLI, G. F., a Latin poet, 16th centurv. 
 
 APOSTOLIUS, Michel, a learned Greek re 
 fugee from Constantinople, 15th century. 
 
 APPERLEY, C. J., a writer on sporting sub- 
 jects, known as ' Nimrod,' died 1843. 
 
 APPIAN, a celebrated historian, lived in the 
 reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonine. 
 
 APPIANI, Andrea, a painter, 1750-1818. 
 
 APPIANO, P. A., a disting. Jesuit, 17th cent. 
 
 APREECE, or RHESE, John, an antiq., 16th c. 
 
 APRILS, or HOPHRA, king of Egypt, 595 
 B.C. ; dethroned by Amasis, 570 B.C. 
 
 APROSIO, A., a monastic writer, 1607-1681. 
 
 APTHORP, East, a divine, 1732-1816. 
 
 APULEIUS, a botanist, 4th century. 
 
 APULEIUS, Lucius, the eel. author of a philo. 
 romance, entitled the ' Metamorphoses, or Golden 
 Ass,' a Roman Platonist of the 2d century. 
 
 AQUARIUS, a scholastic philosopher, 16th c. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Andr. Matt., duke of, a cele- 
 rated scholar and soldier, 1456-1528. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Claude, a Jesuit. 1542-1615. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Octavio, abp. of Naples, 1612. 
 
 AQUILA, an architect and savant of the 2d 
 cent., who was excom. for practising astrology. 
 
 AQUILA, Caspar, (the Latinized form of his 
 proper name Adler,) a friend and fellow-worker of 
 Luther in the Reformation of Germ., 1488-1560. 
 
 AQUILANO, an Italian poet, 1466-1500. 
 
 AQUILANUS, a physician of Padua, d. 1543. 
 
 AQUINAS, Thomas, usually called the Angelic 
 Doctor, Avas a younger son of the count of Aquino, 
 and was born at the castle of Rocca Sicca in 1227. 
 This place was situated on the border line between 
 the states of the church and the territory of Naples. 
 From his earliest years he was smitten with the 
 love of solitary study, and when a very young man 
 he entered the Dominican order. Force was em- 
 ployed to prevent his becoming a monk, but in vain. 
 So much was the youthful scholar wrapt up in his 
 own cogitations, that when he studied at Cologne, 
 under Albertus Magnus, his fellow-pupils gave 
 him the name of Bos Mutus, ' mute ox, 1 on ac- 
 count of his taciturnity and apparent stupidity. 
 In 1255 the university of Paris gave him the title 
 of Doctor in Theology. He lectured with brilliant ' 
 success in Paris, in several of the Italian uni- 
 versities, and ultimately at Naples. Being sum- 
 moned by the pope to attend a general council at ; 
 Lyons in 1274, he commenced his journey, and 
 had reached Terracina, where he died, at the age 
 of fortv-eight. He was canonized by pope John 
 XXII. "in 1323. The Parisian edition of his works 
 is in twenty-three folio volumes. But the amaz- 
 ing industry of Thomas during his brief life, is' 
 wholly eclipsed by his prodigious mental wealth, 
 as displayed in his ' Summa Theologian ' and ' Com- 
 mentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard.' In 
 concise and earnest simplicity of style, in subtle 
 and daring speculation, in purity and loftiness of 
 aim, in orthodoxy of religious sentiment, in acute- 
 ness and vigour, in breadth and depth of view, in 
 intellect and heart, in piety and temper, Thomas 
 Aquinas is the acknowledged prince of the medi- 
 aeval schoolmen and divines. [J.E.] 
 
 AQUINO, Ph., a learned rabbin, died 1650. 
 
AQU 
 
 AQUINO, L. Cl., an organist, died 1772. 
 
 AQUINO, Ch., a Jesuit, 1654-1740. 
 
 ARABCHAH, a Mahomed, historian, d. 1450. 
 
 ARABELLA STUART, a first cousin of James 
 I., and, from her near affinity to the crown, an ob- 
 ject of suspicion both to that prince and his pre- 
 decessor, Elizabeth. Died in the Tower, where 
 her long and melancholy confinement deprived 
 her of reason, 1615. 
 
 ARAGON, Tullia of, a poetess, 16th cent. 
 
 ARAJA, Fr., a musician, 18th century. 
 
 ARAM, Eugene, a schoolmaster of disting. 
 learning, executed for murder, 1759. 
 
 ARANTIUS, a celebrated anatomist, 16th cent. 
 
 ARATOR, a Latin poet, died 556. 
 
 ARATUS, a poet and astronomer, 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 ARATUS, general of the Achaean league, born 
 at Sicyon, 275 B.C. ; died 216 B.C. 
 
 ARBACES, governor of Media, 9th cent. B.C. 
 
 ARBAND, F., a French poet, died 1640. 
 
 ARBOGAST, L. F. A., aFr. savant, 1759-1803. 
 
 ARBOGASTES, a general in the Rom. armies, 
 of barbarian origin, d. 395. 
 
 ARBRISSEL, Robert of, an abbot, d. 1117. 
 
 ARBUCKLE, James, a Scotch poet, d. 1734. 
 
 ARBULO, P. M., a Spanish sculptor, 16th c. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, Alex., a Scotch divine, distin- 
 guished as a reformer, 1538-1583. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, a Scotch printer, 
 16th century. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, John, an em. physician of the 
 17th century, but more distinguished as a man of 
 letters and a wit ; the associate of Pope and Swift, 
 and the companion of Bolingbroke, at the court of 
 Queen Anne : 1675-1735. 
 
 ARCADIUS, emperor of the East, 395-408. 
 
 ARCERE, Ant., a French Orientalist, d. 1699. 
 
 ARCERE, Louis St., a French hist., 18th c. 
 
 ARCESILAUS, a Gr. philosopher, 4th c. b.c. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, the teacher of Socrates in phy- 
 sical philosophy, 5th century B.C. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a geographer, time of Alexander. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, bishop of Mesopotamia, 278. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, bishop of Csesarea, 440. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, chief general of Mithridates VI., 
 king of Pontus, 1st century B.C. 
 
 ARCHELAUS I., son of the preceding, high 
 priest of Comana, 63 B.C.; afterwards, by his mar- 
 riage with Berenice, king of Egypt; dethroned 
 and put to death B.C. 55. 
 
 ARCHELAUS II., son and successor of the pre- 
 ceding as the priest-king of the city of Comana ; 
 deposed by Julius CaBsar 47 B.C. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, son of the last named, king of 
 Cappadocia, b.c. 34 to a.d. 16. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, king of Macedon, B.C. 413-399. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, king of Sparta, 9th cent. b.c. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, the successor of his father 
 Herod the Great as ruler of Judaea ; deposed and 
 banished by Augustus on account of his cruelty, 7. 
 
 ARCHIAS, a Corinthian archit., 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 ARCHIAS, Aulus, L., a client of Cicero. 
 
 ARCHIDAMUS I., king of Sparta, B.C. 630 ; 
 the second of this name king, B.C. 469, died 427 ; 
 the third, reigned B.C. 361-355 ; the fourth, B.C. 
 296-293 ; the fifth, B.C. 240. 
 
 ARCHIDEMUS, a Stoic philosopher, b.c. 160. 
 
 ARCHIGENES, a Greek physician, 81-117. 
 
 ARCHILVETRUS, a Greek satirist, 7th c. B.C. 
 
 AHC 
 
 [Archimedes liossi, Gemme Anticke.] 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated of the 
 ancient geometers, was born at Syracuse, about 
 291 b.c. He was related, on his father's side, 
 to Hiero king of Syracuse, who deemed it an 
 honour to have so distinguished a philosopher 
 as his relative. Having acquired at an early 
 age all the knowledge which could be obtained 
 in his native city, he visited Egypt, which had 
 long been regarded as the great seat of science, 
 and he remained there for several years, enjoy- 
 ing the society of its distinguished men, and stor- 
 ing his mind with the knowledge which they 
 imparted. With a partiality which cannot be too 
 severely condemned, one of the biographers of our 
 philosopher has asserted that he conveyed to the 
 Egyptians more knowledge than he received ; but 
 even if we had not been assured by Abulpharagus 
 that he derived all his knowledge of mechanics 
 from the Egyptians, we might have deduced the 
 same truth from the well-known practice of the 
 Greek philosophers, who, in the infancy of their 
 science, went in quest of it to Egypt. Upon his 
 return to Syracuse, laden with the intellectual 
 spoils of the East, he devoted the whole of his time 
 to the cultivation of the mathematical and physical 
 sciences, and it was only when his country was in 
 danger that he abandoned his studies, and directed 
 all the energies of his mind against the enemies of 
 Syracuse. In the war which was carried on by 
 the Romans against Hiero, about the year 212 b.c. 
 they had obtained some signal advantages in 
 Sicily, and were thus emboldened to lay siege to 
 Syracuse itself. Inspired with terror at the naval 
 and military preparations of the Roman general, 
 the inhabitants were disposed to offer an ignomi- 
 nious capitulation. Archimedes, however, removed 
 their fears, and inspired them with courage. He 
 is said to have erected vast machines, under the 
 protection of the walls of the city, which baffled 
 the attempts of the Roman engineers, and carried 
 terror into the camp of the enemy. The machines 
 by which he resisted the assaults of the Romans 
 have not been described, and we can easily con- 
 ceive that he erected works of defence which dis- 
 concerted and alarmed his enemies; but when 
 we are told that he sunk the ships of the be- 
 siegers when they approached the city, by means 
 of long beams of wood, and that, with grappling 
 
 ;he vessels 
 
 hooks at the end of levers, he raised tl 
 into the air, and dashed them against the rocks or 
 the walls, we feel that we are in the region of 
 fable and romance, and must regard all such asser- 
 tions as among the impossibilities of practical 
 science. The inventions by which he is said to 
 
 39 
 
ARC . 
 
 have destroyed the Roman fleet when at a distance 
 are less incredible. We may well believe that he 
 had so improved the ballista? of the ancients as to 
 throw stones or missiles to a greater distance, and 
 with a greater force, than had been done before ; 
 and we may even admit that, bv a number of plane 
 mirrors throwing the reflected image of the sun 
 upon one point, he could bum a ship at a distance ; 
 but we cannot believe that the Roman fleet was 
 thus destroyed, unless we had it in evidence that 
 the crew were asleep. We have in the present 
 day better mirrors than Archimedes could com- 
 mand, and better machinery for uniting their re- 
 flections upon one point, but we venture to say 
 that a British or a French admiral would laugh at 
 any such attempt to annoy him. Buffon, it is 
 true, has endeavoured to attach a degree of proba- 
 bility to the story of burning a ship optically. 
 He combined 168 plane mirrors so that he could 
 direct the light of the sun which they reflected to 
 one spot, and he found that he could burn wood 
 with them at the distance of 200 or 300 feet. 
 This curious subject has been more recently 
 discussed by M. Peyrard. Assuming the accuracy 
 of Buffon's experiments that five times the heat of 
 the sim is sufficient to inflame planks smeared 
 with tar, M. Peyrard supposes that eight times 
 the sun's heat will set fire to all lands of wood ; 
 and upon this supposition he found that, at the 
 distance of about a mile and a-half, it would require 
 2267 mirrors to burn wood, and at the distance of 
 three quarters of a mile 590. This calculation 
 proceeds upon the supposition that their reflections 
 are all coincident, and that the mirrors have their 
 two surfaces perfectly plane and parallel. But it 
 is well known that these conditions are impossible, 
 and that the most perfect mirror that the most 
 skilful optician could grind and polish, would, at 
 the distance of three quarters of a mile, and much 
 less, scatter the light which it reflects over a sur- 
 face ten times greater than its own, and would 
 have very little power in the combustion of wood. 
 But there are other conditions necessary before 
 these mirrors, even if mathematically perfect, 
 could set fire to ships. The ships must be abso- 
 lutely at rest before the combined reflectors could 
 inflame the wood upon which they fell, and, as 
 has been already stated, the crew must be asleep 
 in the daytime when the sun is shining. We 
 regard, therefore, the story of the burning of the 
 Roman fleet to belong as much to romance as 
 the fishing for ships with hooks at the end of 
 levers, the sinking of them by long beams, and 
 the whirling of them in the air by ropes and 
 grappling hooks. It is no slight presumption in 
 favour of these opinions that the gigantic mech- 
 anism which the Syracusan philosopher is said 
 to have wielded against the Roman power was 
 of little avail in the defence of the capital. The 
 siege was converted into a blockade. During 
 the celebration of the festival of Diana, when 
 the Syracusans had indulged in a fatal security, 
 the Romans attacked and obtained possession of 
 the city. Marcellus had issued an order that 
 Archimedes and his house should be snared ; but, 
 either from ignorance of the order on the part of a 
 Roman soldier, or from the obstinacy of Archi- 
 medes in refusing submission, he was run through 
 the body while drawing a geometrical diagram on 
 
 ARC 
 
 the sand. Marcellus was deeply afflicted when he 
 heard of the event. He took the relatives of the 
 philosopher under his special protection, and in 
 erecting a monument to his memory, he fulfilled 
 the wish that Archimedes had expressed in his 
 lifetime, that a sphere inscribed in a cylinder 
 should be engraven on his tomb. The death of 
 Archimedes took place B.C. 212, and 140 years 
 afterwards, Cicero, while questor in Sicily, went 
 with a party of Syracusan nobles in search of the 
 tomb of the great philosopher, which his country- 
 men had allowed to go into decay. ' Remem- 
 bexing,' says Cicero, ' some verses, said to have 
 been inscribed on his tomb, which mentioned 
 that on the top of it there was placed a sphere 
 in a cylinder, I looked around me upon every 
 object at the Agrigentine Gate, the common re- 
 ceptacle of the dead. At length I observed a small 
 column rising above the thorns, upon which was 
 placed the representation of a sphere in a cylinder. 
 This, said 1 to the nobles, must be what I am 
 seeking. Several persons were immediately got to 
 clear away the weeds, and lay open the spot. As 
 soon as a passage was made, we found on the op- 
 posite base the inscription, with nearly the latter 
 half of the verses obliterated.' The reputation of 
 Archimedes did not require to be sustained by the 
 fables with which the vanity of his countrymen 
 has surrounded his name. His discoveries in geo- 
 metry, mechanics, and hydrodynamics would have 
 immortalized him, had posterity never heard of 
 his magical artillery against the Roman fleet. He 
 discovered that the surface as well as the solidity 
 of any sphere is equal to two-thirds of its circum- 
 scribing cylinder ; and that the ratio of the dia- 
 meter of a circle to its circumference is nearly as 7 
 to 22. It is to him that we owe the demonstra- 
 tion of the fundamental property of the lever, and 
 the method of finding the centre of gravity of plane 
 surfaces. He discovered the quaquaversus pres- 
 sure of fluids, and pointed out the condition under 
 which a solid body is in equilibrio w lien floating in 
 a fluid. He invented the screw for raising water 
 which bears his name; and we owe to him the 
 process of detecting the adulteration of the precious 
 metals, which he so successfully applied in proving 
 the impurity of the gold in king Hiero's crown. 
 A splendid edition ot the works of Archimedes was 
 printed at the Clarendon Press at Oxford, in 1792, 
 edited by our countryman, the Rev. Abraham Ro- 
 bertson. [D.B.] 
 
 ARCHINTO, the name of a noble family of 
 Milan, many of whom were distinguished as men 
 of letters, ecclesiastics, and statesmen, from the 
 12th to the 17th cent. Charles, founder of a 
 scientific academy, 1669-1732. Philip, abp. of 
 Milan, d. 1558. Giuseppe, abp. and card., d. 1712. 
 Octavius, an antiq. and diplomatist, d. 1656. 
 
 ARCHON, Louis, an antiquarian, 1645-1717. 
 
 ARCHENHOLZ, J. W. Von, a German his- 
 torian, 1695-1777. 
 
 ARCHENHOLZ, J., a Swed. hist., 1695-1777. 
 
 ARCHYTAS, a mathe. and philo. of the Pytha- 
 gorean schh, dist. for his prac. abilities, 5th c. B.C. 
 
 ARCO, Alph. De, a Sp. painter, died 1700. 
 
 ARCO, Nich., Count, a Latin poet, died 1546. 
 
 ARGON, J. Cl. Eleon. Lemiceaud D', a 
 military engineer of France, 1733-1800. 
 
 ARCO US, CJUAB of, a Fr. advocate, d. 1C81, 
 
 4U 
 
ARC 
 
 ARCUDIUS, Peter, a Greek priest, diplomatic 
 agent of Clement VIII., died 1635. 
 \\RCUDI, Alex. Thos., of, a biographical 
 writer of Venice, died 1720. 
 
 ARCULPHUS, a French traveller, 7th century. 
 
 ARCY, Patrick, a military writer, died 1779. 
 
 ARDELL, J. M., an Irish engraver, died 1765. 
 
 ARDENE, Esprit Jean De Rome D', a poet 
 of Marseilles, 1684-1748. 
 
 ARDENE, Jean Paul, brother of the preced- 
 ing, distinguished as a botanist, 1689-1769. 
 
 ARDERN, John, an English surgeon, 14th ct. 
 
 ARDERNE, Jas., an English divine, died 1691. 
 
 ARDINGHELLI, M., an algebraist, 18th cent. 
 
 ARDUIN, elected king of Italy 1002, d. 1015. 
 
 AREAGATHUS, a Greek physician, 3d c. B.C. 
 
 AREGIO, P. De, an Italian painter, 16th cent. 
 
 ARENA, Anth., a French poet, died 1544. 
 
 ARENA, Jos., a Corsican in the French service, 
 execut. 1802 on a charge of consp. agt. Bonaparte. 
 
 ARENA, James of, a jurist, 13th" century. 
 
 ARENDS, Th., a Dutch poet, died 1700. 
 
 ARENDT, M. F., a Danish antiquary and tra- 
 veller, remarkable for the singularity of his life and 
 adventures, 1769-1824. 
 
 ARENSBECK, P. D., a Swedish schl., d. 1673. 
 
 ARESI, Paul, an Italian prelate and theologi- 
 cal and philosophical writer, 1574-1644. 
 
 ARESON, the last Roman Catholic bishop of 
 Ireland, beheaded with his sons 1550. 
 
 ARETiEUS, a Greek physician, 1st century. 
 
 ARETIN, A. and J. G., two brothers and art- 
 writers of Germany, 18th century. 
 
 ARETIN, J. A* C. J., baron of, a diplomatist 
 and man of letters, 1769-1822. 
 
 ARETIN, J. C, brother of the preceding, a 
 statesman and author, 1773-1824. 
 
 ARETINO, Charles, a classical scholar, cele- 
 brated at Florence, 15th centurv. 
 
 ARETINO, Fr., a lawyer, 15th century. 
 
 ARETINO, Guido, a musician, 11th century. 
 
 ARETINO, an Italian painter, 14th century. 
 
 ARETINO, Leonard, an historian, died 1443. 
 
 ARETINO, Peter, an Ital. poet, eel. as a reck- 
 less satirist of princes and churchmen, 1492-1557. 
 
 ARETINUS, an Italian musician, 16th cent. 
 
 AREUS, king of Sparta, 268 b.c. 
 
 ARETIUS, Ben., a Swiss botanist and theolo- 
 gical teacher, died 1574. 
 
 ARGjEUS, king of Macedon, 618 B.C.; a second 
 of the same name usurped the throne, 393 B.C. 
 
 ARGAIS, Greg., a Spanish historian, 17th ct. 
 
 ARGALL, R., an English poet, 16th century. 
 
 ARGAND, a chemist of Geneva, died 1803. 
 
 ARGELLATI, Ph., an Ital. printer, born 1685. 
 
 ARGELLATI, Fr., son of Phelix, author of an 
 imitation of Boccaccio, died 1754. 
 
 ARGENS, J. B. Bover, marquis of, a philoso- 
 phical and miscellaneous writer, 1704-1771. 
 
 ARGENTERO, J., a phys. of Piedmont, 16th c. 
 
 ARGENTI, A., a poet of Ferrara, died 1576. 
 
 ARGENTRE, Bertrand, an historian and 
 jurist, president of Rennes, died 1590. 
 
 ARGHUN-KHAN, king of Persia, 1284-90. 
 
 ARGOLI, And., an Italian physician and 
 mathematician, 1570-1653. 
 
 ARGOLI, John, son of Andrew, a poet and 
 arclia'ologist, died 1660. 
 
 AKGOUNE, Noel, a critical author, d. 1704. 
 
 ART 
 
 ARGUELLADA, Raymond, a Sp., disting. 
 for his share in framing the constitution of 1812. 
 
 ARGUELLES, Augustus, a Spanish patriot, 
 brought into note by the revolution of 1812. 
 
 ARGUIJO, Juan De, a Sp. poet, 17th cent. 
 
 ARGUSTIN, Anth., a Sp. antiquary, 16th ct. 
 
 ARGYROPYLUS, John, one of the Greek sa- 
 vants, refugees of the 15th century. 
 
 ARI, or ARA FRODE, a scholar and historian 
 of Iceland, 11th century. 
 
 ARIADNE, a Gr. princess, daughter of Leo. Li 
 remarkable in the politics of the period, 457-515. 
 
 ARIARATHES, ten kings of this name reigned 
 in Cappadocia from the 4th to the 1st cent. B.C. 
 
 ARIAS MONTANUS, an Orientalist, 16th ct. 
 
 ARIBERT I., king of the Lombards, 653-661. 
 
 ARIBERT II., succeeded 701, deposed 712. 
 
 ARICI, &ESAR, an Italian poet, born 1785. 
 
 ARION, a Greek poet, 7th century, b.c. 
 
 ARIOSTI, Attilio, a composer 17th century. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Lodovico, the son of a gentleman 
 in the service of the dukes of Ferrara, was born in 
 1474, at Reggio, near Modena. His life, though 
 not prosperous, was far from being eventful : dur- 
 ing the whole of it he was employed, in various 
 capacities, by the ducal house of Este, who, nig- 
 gardly and careless in their treatment of this great 
 poet, behaved even worse in the next generation 
 to the unfortunate Tasso. From the schools of 
 Ferrara he passed to Padua, where he was compelled 
 to study law for five years, busying himself also 
 with the classics, and being at length allowed by 
 his father to abandon the legal profession. About 
 1503 he was received into the retinue of cardinal 
 D'Este, a younger son of the reigning duke of Fer- 
 rara. As he grew older, he was repeatedly employed 
 on confidential public missions by Alfonso, the next 
 duke, the cardinal's elder brother; and when, in 1517, 
 he lost the cardinal's favour by declining to attend 
 him into Hungary, duke Alfonso took him into his 
 own service. He received some trifling ecclesias- 
 tical appointments, capable of being held by a per- 
 son not in orders ; and for three years, from 1522, 
 he was busied in organizing and governing the 
 mountainous district of Garfagnana, which" had 
 just been re-acquired by the house of Este. He con- 
 tinued to be a needy man, though there is no rea- 
 son for supposing that he lived extravagantly or 
 irregularly; and, even if there was insufficient 
 ground for his complaints of the parsimony of his 
 patrons, it seems to be quite certain that they 
 were blind to his literary merit. His last few 
 years were spent in Ferrara, where he died in 
 1533. Ariosto would hold a place in the history 
 of Italian literature, although he had contributed 
 to it nothing but his minor works. His Rime, or 
 short pieces of familiar verse, such as sonnets 
 and other lyrics, are excellent in their class ; his 
 seven poetical Satires, gay, good-humoured, and 
 wittily observant, stand in the first rank among 
 Italian compositions of the kind; and there is 
 much of felicitous wit, not without great indecency, 
 in his five versified Comedies. But it is the ' Or- 
 lando Furioso' that makes him immortal, as one of 
 the greatest of modern European poets. This 
 celebrated work stands in an odd relation to simi- 
 lar poems that preceded it In the course of the 
 fifteenth centurv, metrical romances of chivalrv 
 appeared in Italy; and towards the close of that 
 
 41 
 
ari 
 
 century Pulci and Boiardo, borrowing: from the 
 romances the fabulous history of Charlemagne and 
 his paladins, and imitating much of that union of 
 the serious and the comic which marked the effu- 
 sions of the minstrels, worked up these materials 
 into chivalrous poems. Boiardo's Orlando In- 
 namorato ' takes its name from the love of its 
 hero, the knightly Orlando or Roland, for the 
 Eastern princess Angelica. Of this poem, Ariosto's, 
 (first published incomplete in 1516, and then in its 
 present shape in 1532,) is just a continuation. 
 Orlando's madness, caused by jealousy, fur- 
 nishes its title, and a considerable part of its 
 incidents. But Charlemagne's war with the Sa- 
 racens is fully related: isolated adventures of 
 many of his champions are continually intro- 
 duced ; and a prominence, which increases as the 
 work proceeds, is bestowed on the knight Rug- 
 giero and the beautiful amazon Bradamante. 
 The poem closes with events which remove ob- 
 stacles to the marriage of these personages, who 
 are represented as the ancestors of the family of 
 Este ; and their history is regarded as the leading 
 story of the Orlando, by those critics who are un- 
 willing to allow that it is nothing more than a 
 collection of episodes. If unity of design was 
 really attempted by the poet, he has certainly 
 failed in the execution : no one series of adventures 
 is so decisively prominent as to fix the attention of 
 the reader ; and the several stories are interwoven, 
 and alternately dropped and resumed, with a ca- 
 price and complexity which make it no easy task to 
 tollow the windings. The mixture of gaiety with 
 seriousness is continual ; yet these dissimilar ele- 
 ments are harmonized with much skill and deli- 
 cacy : and the airy sportiveness of fancy which is 
 prevalent throughout, and the extraordinary ani- 
 mation with which the chivalrous perils and acts 
 of heroism are depicted, concur in shedding over 
 the poem a charm which is irresistible. In point 
 of poetic adornment, the Orlando is at once rich 
 and original : Ariosto is as much superior to Tasso 
 in native genius, as he is inferior to him in skill 
 of constructive art. [W.S.] 
 
 ARIOSTO, Gabriel, brother of the celebrated 
 poet, also a poetical writer. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Horace, son of the preceding, a 
 poet and comedian, died 1593. 
 
 ARISI, Fr., an advocate and poet, 1657-1743. 
 
 ARISTiENATUS, an elegant Greek wr., 4th c. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, a grammarian and critic of 
 noted severity, 2d century B.C. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, a Greek philosopher of the 
 3d century B.C., whose works on astronomy 
 show that he was acquainted with the rotation 
 of the earth upon its own axis. 
 
 ARISTEAS, a Jewish chronicler, 1st cent, b c. 
 
 ARISTIDES, a Greek painter, 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 ARISTIDES, ^lius, a Gr. orator, 2d ct. B.C. 
 
 ARISTIDES, Quintillian, a didactic writer, 
 author of a work on music, 2d century. 
 
 ARISTIDES, a philosopher, 2d century. 
 
 ARISTIDES of Thebes, a painter, contem- 
 porary with Apelles, was, according to Pliny, the 
 greatest master of expression among the Greeks. 
 The same writer relates that when Alexander the 
 Great stormed Thebes, he was so struckwith a picture 
 by him of a dying mother with a child at her bosom, 
 
 AM 
 
 The works of Aristides were in great repute even 
 during his lifetime. Mnason, tyrant of Elatea, paid 
 him 3,600 for a single easel picture of a battle of 
 the Persians, containing one hundred figures only. 
 After the siege of Corinth, 146 B.C., Attalus III., 
 king of Pergamus, offered 5,300 for a picture of 
 Bacchus and Ariadne by Aristides, but the Roman 
 general Mummius, thinking the picture had some 
 hidden value in it, sent it to Rome, where it was 
 dedicated in the temple of Ceres. A celebrated 
 picture by this painter, preserved in the temple of 
 Apollo at Rome, was destroyed by a picture re- 
 storer, to whom the prsetor, M. Junius, had given 
 it to be cleaned before the celebration of the Apol- 
 linaria ; another of the incidents which show how 
 similar are the stories of ancient and modern art. 
 Aristides painted in encaustic, that is with wax 
 colours, the picture being afterwards burnt in. 
 (Pliny, Hist. Nat. vii. 39, xxxv. 4 8, 10 36, 11 39, 
 40.) 
 
 [The Pnyx at Athens.] 
 
 ARISTIDES, sumamed the Just, an Athenian 
 general and statesman, whose intrepidity greatly 
 contributed to the victory of Marathon. _ Being 
 banished through the intrigues of Themistocles, 
 B.C. 483, he was recalled by his countrymen to 
 oppose Xerxes, and distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Salamis. After serving in the highest 
 offices of the state, he died a poor man, 467 B.C. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, king of Argus, killed 242 B.C. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, a pupil of Socrates, and founder 
 of a school of philosophy at Cyrene, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 ARISTO, an Aristotelian, 3d century B.C. 
 
 ARISTO, Titus, a Stoic, time of Trajan. 
 ^ ARISTOBULUS I., a Jewish prince, succeeded 
 his father Hyrcanus as high priest, and took the 
 title of king 107 B.C.; died 108. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS II., usurped the throne 70 
 B.C.; deposed by Pompey 63 b.c. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS, brother of Mariamne, wife of 
 Herod the Great, killed 35. 
 
 ARISTOGITON, an Athenian, executed B.C. 
 516, for conspiring against the Pisistratides. 
 
 ARISTOMENES, a Greek general, representa- 
 tive of the royal house of Messene, 7th cent. b.c. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES, a celeb, name in the Greek 
 drama, author of numerous comedies, equally re- 
 markable for the beauty of their composition, and 
 their pungent satire, flourished in the 5th ct. b.c:. 
 His life and works have given occasion to a vast 
 amount of learned writing and critical inquiry, but 
 the facts known concerning him are few in number. 
 
 that he ordered it to be sent to his palace at Pella. I Out of 44 compositions of his, only 11 are extant. 
 
 12 
 
AM 
 
 [Aristotle from un Antique Bust.] 
 
 ARISTOTLE. This distinguished philosopher, 
 founder of the celebrated Peripatetic school, was born 
 at Stagira, a city of Thrace, in the year 384 before 
 Christ, His father, Nicomachus, was the physician 
 of Amyntas, king of Macedon, and his mother, 
 Phsestis, as well as his father, believed to have 
 been descended from Esculapius. Having lost both 
 his parents in early life, he was placed under the 
 guardianship of Proxenus, an eminent citizen of 
 Atarneus, a city in Mysia, and after completing 
 his seventeenth year, he repaired to Athens, to 
 study in the school of Plato. Here he remained 
 for twenty years, imbibing the noble spirit of his 
 master, devoting himselr to the acquisition of 
 every species of knowledge, and honoured in the 
 estimation of his teacher and of his companions, as 
 * the intellect of the school.' Upon the death of 
 Plato, 348 B.C., Aristotle took up his residence 
 at Atarneus, on the invitation of his friend Her- 
 meias, who though originally the domestic slave of an 
 Athenian banker, who had permitted him to attend 
 the school of Plato, was now independent sove- 
 reign of Atarneus and Assos. At the small but 
 interesting court of his friend, and surrounded by 
 the scenes of his early studies, Aristotle spent 
 three happy years, enjoying the society of intellec- 
 tual friends, and devoting himself with unremitting 
 assiduity to the study of nature. Here, too, he 
 had formed ties warmer than those of friendship. 
 Pythia, the niece of the king, had gained his affec- 
 tion, and when the unfortunate sovereign had 
 been betrayed by some worthless individuals who 
 had enjoyed his hospitality, and had forfeited his 
 life as a rebel against the king of Persia, Aristotle 
 fled to Lesbos with the family of his friend, and 
 was soon afterwards married to his niece, who did 
 not long survive her uncle. During his residence 
 at Mytelene, in Lesbos, which was continued for 
 
 rom 
 invitation 
 to superintend the education of Alexander his son. 
 The compliment thus paid to his talents and cha- 
 racter was too high to be rejected; and though 
 the duties which such an office demanded might 
 have interfered with the progress of his studies, 
 he cheerfully accepted of it, and took up his resi- 
 dence at Pella, wnen Alexander had reached his 
 fourteenth year. The king received him with the 
 most marked attention, and science and learning 
 have in no future age been more highly honoured 
 than they were at the court of Macedon in the 
 person of the distinguished Stagyrite, and through 
 
 two years, Aristotle seems to have received frc 
 Philip, king of Macedon, the flattering invitati 
 
 API 
 
 the liberality of the most powerful of sovereigns. 
 The Macedonian prince was instructed during live 
 or six years in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, 
 ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics 
 which had even at that time made some consider- 
 able progress. Aristotle made a new collection of 
 the Iliad for the use of his pupil, and composed a 
 treatise ' On a Kingdom,' which has not descended 
 to our times. Upon the death of Philip, in 336 B.C., 
 Alexander succeeded to the throne, when in the 
 twentieth year of his age, and Aristotle continued 
 to live with him as his friend and counsellor till he 
 set out on his Asiatic campaign in 334 B.C. The 
 delicate constitution and intellectual habits of the 
 philosopher prevented him, at the age of fifty, 
 from following his pupil in his martial career, and 
 he accordingly returned to Athens, where, in the 
 charming retreat of the Lyceum, he delivered his 
 lectures "to crowded audiences, while walking in 
 the shade, amid the trees and fountains with which 
 it was adorned. While thus instructing his pupils, 
 and enjoying the popularity and reputation to 
 which he had attained, he became, like all illus- 
 trious teachers of philosophy, the object of envy 
 and persecution. His rivals in learning directed 
 against him the usual calumnies which genius is 
 ever destined to endure from the ignorance and 
 malice of its enemies; and the heathen priests, 
 dreading the progress of truth as the greatest 
 enemy of their faith, charged the philosopher with 
 impiety and sedition. The friendship of Alexander 
 had hitherto shielded him from open persecution, 
 but upon the death of that monarch, in B.C. 323, 
 he was charged before the Areopagus as an enemy 
 to the religion of his country, and avoided the fate 
 of Socrates, which he knew awaited him, by mak- 
 ing his escape to Chalcis, a city of Eubcea. In this 
 city of refuge he spent the remainder of his life. 
 Exhausted with mental labour, and broken in 
 spirit by his misfortunes, his feeble constitution 
 gave way, and he died in 322 B.C., in the sixty- 
 third year of his age, about a year after his retreat 
 to Chalcis. His remains were carried to Stagira 
 by his fellow-citizens, and an altar and shrine 
 erected over his grave. The festival of Aristotelia 
 was instituted in gratitude for his services, and 
 even in Plutarch's time the garden of the philoso- 
 pher, with its walks and bowers, was exhibited to 
 the public. In his personal appearance, Aristotle 
 was defective. He is described as having little 
 eyes and slender limbs, with a feeble voice and an 
 imperfect utterance ; and he is said to have im- 
 proved the symmetry of his person by great atten- 
 tion to dress^ and the use of elegant ornaments. 
 The writings of Aristotle were earned to Rome 
 among the other spoils of Athens, when it was 
 captured by Scylla, and they were edited by An- 
 dronicus the Rhodian, about three hundred years 
 after they were composed. In our narrow limits 
 we can neither record the number nor estimate 
 the value of his writings. He divided philosophy 
 into three departments theoretic, embracing phy- 
 sics, mathematics, theology, and metaphysics ; effi- 
 cient, including logic, rhetoric, and poetry; and 
 practical, including ethics and politics. See Dr. 
 Gillies's Ethics and Politics of Aristotle, with an 
 account of his Life, 2 vols. 4to, 1797. [D.B.] 
 
 ARISTOXEN'US, one of the most celebrated 
 disciples of Aristotle, 4th century B.C. 
 
 43 
 
ARI 
 
 ARIUS, the noted heretic, was bora about the 
 middle of the third century. His entire life was 
 embroiled with disputes, principally with bishop 
 Alexander and with Athanasius on the divinity of 
 Christ. Arms held that God created his Son, 
 that the Son had not existed from all eternity, and 
 was not in dignity and essence equal with the 
 Father. This fatal heresy was solemnly condemned 
 by the great council which met at Nice in 325. 
 After numerous vicissitudes, strifes, and intrigues, 
 Arms was in the act of celebrating a triumph in 
 Constantinople, when he retired from the crowd to 
 satisfy a call of nature, and then and there sud- 
 denly died at a very advanced age. His enemies 
 rudely reckoned his manner of death a judgment 
 from heaven. Arms was a man of bustle and 
 ambition, soured by disappointment, and irritated by 
 defiant opposition, and his errors, if not prompted, 
 were at least shaped to some extent by the excit- 
 ing circumstances in which he was placed. [J.E.] 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, an extraordi- 
 nary man, whose genius has created a permanent 
 influence on the constitution of civilized society. 
 Bora in Preston in 1782, of humble parents, the 
 voungest of 13 children, he was brought up as a 
 barber. About 1760 he quitted this precarious 
 business, and dealt in hair, which he collected 
 about the country, and discovered how to dye it 
 and prepare it for wig-makers. From 1767, not 
 till he was 35 years of age, Arkwright gave him- 
 self up exclusively to the subject of inventions for 
 spinning cotton. In 1768 he was in Preston con- 
 structing his first machine. At this time his 
 poverty was such, that ' being a burgess of Pres- 
 ton he could not appear to vote till the party with 
 whom he voted gave him a decent suit of clothes ! ' 
 Apprehensive of meeting with the same hostile 
 treatment from the operative weavers of the dis- 
 trict as Hargreaves had met with, Arkwright re- 
 moved to Nottingham, where he became a partner 
 with Mr. Jedediah Strutt, the ingenious improver 
 and patentee of the stocking frame, and who ren- 
 dered essential assistance in perfecting the inven- 
 tion for which Arkwright obtained his first patent in 
 1769. The improvement for which the patent 
 was obtained, consisted mainly in the use of two 
 pairs of rollers, the first pair, between which the 
 carded cotton in the form of a 'spule,' or soft 
 cord, passed, revolving slowly ; and the second pair 
 revolving two, three, or ten times as fast, so as to 
 draw out the spule to one-half, one-third, or one- 
 tenth of its thickness when between the first rol- 
 lers. This invention was followed up by various 
 improvements and combinations of machinery, 
 and. mills for spinning cotton by this method were 
 erected in Nottingham first, and then at Cromford 
 in Derbyshire. The system has since been univer- 
 sally adopted, and in all its main features remains 
 unaltered to the present time. Out of this inven- 
 tion have grown up the largest manufacture, the 
 largest trade, some of the largest cities, the largest 
 revenue, and the largest national prosperity in the 
 world. Arkwright did not escape the system of 
 robbery and persecution, the fate of most patentees 
 of successful inventions then as now. By aid of 
 false witnesses a combination of the persons in the 
 spinning trade succeeded in 1781 in depriving 
 Arkwright of his patent right. The evidence 
 upon which the patent was annulled, and upon 
 
 ARM 
 
 which it has been much the fashion to depreciate 
 Arkwright's talents, was that of persons in a low 
 station of life, who spoke of circumstances which 
 had occurred 18 years before ! Arkwright's genius 
 was not that of a mechanic alone. Although 
 the details of manufacturing or commercial busi- 
 ness were altogether new to him, and although it 
 was five years before the works at Cromford returned 
 any pront, yet by indomitable energy he turned 
 the tide of prosperity and wealth to bis own ad- 
 vantage, and for several years regulated the cotton 
 market. He left great wealth to his heirs, who in 
 their generation increased their patrimony to the 
 most colossal fortune, perhaps, that has been 
 realized in Britain. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 ARLAND, J. A., a painter, died 1743. 
 
 ARLER, Peter Von, an architect, 14th cent. 
 
 ARLOTTO, M., a facetious writer, 15th cent. 
 
 ARMELLINI, M., a learned monk, died 1737. 
 
 ARMFELDT, Charles, baron of, a Swedish 
 general, time of Charles XII. 
 
 ARMFELDT, Gustavus Maurice, count of, 
 a Swedish statesman, died 1814. 
 
 ARMINIUS, or HERMANN, a German chief, 
 who maintained his ground for years against Varus 
 and Germanicus, and was at last slain by the 
 treachery of one of his countrymen, 21. 
 
 ARMINIUS, (Van Harmine,) was bom at 
 Oudewater, South Holland, in 1560. After study- 
 ing at Leyden he went to Geneva, and enjoyed the 
 prelections of Beza. His mind seems to have had 
 an early love of innovation, an early itching to 
 oppose established forms of thought and belief, 
 and he became a romantic supporter of the philo- 
 sophy of Peter Ramus. At the age of twenty-six 
 he was ordained minister of one of the churches in 
 Amsterdam, and preached with great acceptance. 
 His views soon became unsettled, and he was en- 
 tangled in controversy. In 1603 he succeeded 
 Junius in the chair of theology at Leyden. Next 
 session he attacked the doctrine of predestination, 
 and based it upon foreknowledge of faith and 
 merit. Gomar became his resolute antagonist. 
 The warfare waxed hotter and hotter, and the 
 States-general interfered, but to no purpose. 
 Arminius died in 1609. The candour and honesty 
 of Arminius are unimpeached, and his ability is un- 
 doubted, but the system which now bears his name 
 was elaborated after his death by Episcopius and 
 Limborch, several of its distinctive tenets not 
 being held by its name-father. [J.E.] 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, a eel. phys., au. of many 
 valuable works on medical science, 1784-1829. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, M.D., a Scotch physi- 
 cian, better known as a poet, was bom at Casleton, 
 on the banks of the Liddal, in Roxburghshire, 
 1709, and graduated at Edinburgh, 1732. He was 
 already distinguished by his love of literature and 
 the arts, but more especially for his classical attain- 
 ments and taste in poetry. After one or two pro- 
 fessional essays, he published, 1735, a poetical 
 brochure, entitled, an 'Essay for Abridging the 
 Study of Medicine,' a pleasant attack on the or- 
 thodox faculty, in the dialogue of which he is said 
 to have caught the very spirit of Lucian. This was 
 followed in 1737 by a professional work on a subject 
 requiring great delicacy in its treatment, and two 
 years afterwards by ' The Economy of Love,' a poem 
 which passed through several editions, ' more to the 
 
 41 
 
ARM 
 
 profit of the publisher than the reader.' His repu- 
 tation, clouded by this unfortunate sally of humour, 
 was fully established in 1744 by the ' Art of Pre- 
 serving Health,' which is still regarded as one of 
 the best didactic poems in the English language, 
 and has placed its author in the same rank as 
 Akenside. From this period to 1758, Dr. Arm- 
 strong published several fugitive pieces, more or 
 less correct in taste, and in the last-named year a 
 volume of sketches, remarkable for their ill-humour, 
 under the pseudonyme of Launcelot Temple, Esq. 
 In 1760, his poetical epistle entitled 'The Day ' was 
 published, as the preface declares, without the 
 knowledge or consent of the author, and procured 
 for him the enmity of Churchill, who retorted its 
 reflections in severe, and it may be unjustifiable, 
 terms. Armstrong was evidently dissatisfied with 
 his place in public esteem, and in all probability 
 had cherished a morbid sensibility on this subject, 
 which was ill concealed by the affectation of a 
 good-natured cynicism, described by the poet Thom- 
 son, who was also his intimate friend, as both 
 humane and agreeable, like that of Jacques in the 
 play.' This quality, whether agreeable or the 
 contrary, was abundantly manifest in a volume of 
 medical essays, published 1771, in which, however, 
 some advanced views in physiology are put forth. 
 The professional career of Dr. Armstrong brought 
 him little distinction. In 1741, we find him soli- 
 citing the appointment of physician to the West 
 Indian fleet. In 1746 he was appointed to the 
 hospital for lame and sick soldiers behind Buck- 
 ingham House, and in 1760 accompanied the Ger- 
 man army as physician. His collected poetical 
 works were published in 2 vols. 8vo, 1770, and 
 along with them his tragedy of the ' Forced Mar- 
 riage,' which had been rejected by Garrick. Dr. 
 Armstrong died in consequence of a fall when 
 stepping from his carriage, in 1779, and surprised 
 his friends by leaving a saving of three thousand 
 pounds out of his moderate income. [E.R.] 
 
 ARMYNE, Lady Mary, a woman of distin- 
 guished benevolence and attainments, died 1675. 
 
 ARNAL, J. P., a Spanish architect, died 1805. 
 
 ARNALD, a commentator, died 1756. 
 
 ARNALL, M., a political writer, noted as a 
 partizan of Walpole, died 1741. 
 
 ARNAUD, F. S. B., a miscellaneous author of 
 France, 1718-1757. 
 
 ARNAUD DE MERUIL, a Fr. poet, d. 1220. 
 
 ARNAUD, Fr., a French ecclesiastic, disting. 
 as a journalist and savant, 1721-1784. 
 
 ARNAULD DE VILLENEUVE, a famous 
 alchymist and physician, 1238-1314. 
 
 ARNAULD, Axth., a political writer, time of 
 Catharine de Medici, 1550-1619. 
 
 ARNAULD, Robt., son of Anthony, an an- 
 nalist and translator, 1589-1674. 
 
 ARNAULD, Henry, another son, born 1597, 
 bishop of Angers 1649, died 1692. 
 
 ARNAULD, Antil, another son, eel. as a philo- 
 sopher, theologian, and controversialist, 1612-1694. 
 
 ARNAULD of Brescia, an Italian reformer 
 and martyr, of the 12th century. 
 
 ARNAULT, A. T., a Fr. dramatist, died 1834. 
 
 ARNDT, Joshua, brother of Christian, author 
 of ' Ecclesiastical Antiquities,' 1626-1685. 
 
 ARNDT, Charles, son of Joshua, a professor 
 of Hebrew, 1673-1721. 
 
 ARN 
 
 ARNDT, Chr., a logician, 1623-1683. 
 
 ARNDT, C. Gottlieb Von, Councillor and 
 literary assistant of Catherine II. 
 
 ARNDT, Joh. Gottfried, hist., 1713-1767. 
 
 ARNDT, John, a divine, 1555-1621. 
 
 ARNE, Thomas Augustine, Mus. Doc, the 
 son of an upholsterer, was born in King-Street, 
 Covent Garden, London, in the year 1710. Arne, 
 who was by his father intended for the legal pro- 
 fession, was educated at Eton, and served a regular 
 term to an attorney ; but his love of music prevailed 
 overall obstacles, and contrary to his father swishes, 
 he forsook the subtleties of law for the then less lucra- 
 tive study of music. His ungovernable taste led 
 him to have recourse to strange and eccentric me- 
 thods for its gratification, of which the following- 
 incident furnishes an example: While engaged 
 in the attorney's office his means were limited, and 
 his musical appetite insatiable, but that he might 
 have an opportunity of gratifying it, he often, as we 
 find on the authority of Dr. Burney, used to avail 
 himself of the privilege of a servant, by borrowing 
 a livery and going into the gallery or the opera, 
 which was then appropriated to domestics.' 
 While an apprentice with the lawyer, the young 
 enthusiast received some lessons on the violin 
 from Michael Christian Festing, a German vio- 
 linist then in much repute, and in a short time 
 made so much progress upon that instrument that 
 he quitted his legal master and adopted music as a 
 profession. The first notice his father had of this 
 circumstance, was when on one occasion happening 
 accidentally to call at the house of a neighbouring 
 gentleman, he found to his surprise and consterna- 
 tion the young Thomas Augustine playing leading 
 violin with a party of musicians. This incident de- 
 cided the fate of Arne. The world gained a musi- 
 cian of much taste and delicacy of feeling, and lost 
 perhaps a discontented pettifogger. Soon after 
 this, Arne discovering that his sister, who after- 
 wards became Mrs. Cibber, had not only a fine 
 taste in music, but a ' sweet-toned and touching ' 
 voice, he gave her a course of instructions, and 
 qualified her to appear in Lampe's opera of Ame- 
 lia. Her voice and manner took so well with the 
 public, that Arne, then only eighteen years of age, 
 set to music for her Addison's Rosamond, in which 
 she personated the heroine, his younger brother 
 supporting the character of the Page. Arne's suc- 
 cess in his first opera induced him to compose 
 music for Fielding's Tom Thumb, which was 
 brought out in 1731. In 1738 he produced the 
 music to Comus, which established his reputation 
 as a lyrical composer. In 1740 he married Miss 
 Cecilia Young, a pupil of Geminiani, and went with 
 her professionally to Ireland, where both were well 
 received, he as composer and she as singer. In 1742 
 he returned to England, and produced two masques, 
 Britannia and The Judgment of Paris ; also Eliza, 
 an opera, and Thomas and Sally, a humorous after- 
 piece. In 1745 Arne and his wife were engaged 
 by the proprietor of Vauxhall, and here he com- 
 posed his charming songs, which are now so rarely 
 to be seen, and so greedily sought after by ama- 
 teurs and collectors in all parts of Great Britain. 
 It was not long after this that he composed his two 
 oratorios, A bel and Judith, but they met with no suc- 
 cess. His Artaxerxes, a free translation by himself 
 | from the Artaserse of Metastasio, upon which his 
 
 45 
 
ARN 
 
 f:ime as an operatic composer now rests, was com- 
 posed in 176** and it met with the most triumphant 
 success. In 1769 the university of Oxford conferred 
 upon Arne the degree of Doctor in Music. After this 
 he composed his opera The Fairies, the music for 
 Mason's Elfrida and Caractaciis, additions to Pur- 
 cell's King Arthur, several of Shakspeare's songs, 
 and the Stratford Jubilee, besides many glees, 
 catches, and canons. For his excellence as a writer 
 of srlees the Catch Club awarded him no fewer than 
 seven gold medals. His song and chorus, Rule Bri- 
 tannia, which will live for ever, ' may be said to have 
 wafted his name over the greater half of the habit- 
 able world.' Dr. Arne was seized with spasms of 
 the lungs, and died on the oth of March, 1778. On 
 his deathbed, having been educated a Roman 
 Catholic, he sought consolation from the rites of that 
 church, and his last moments were cheered by a 
 hallelujah sung by himself. Mrs. Arne died about 
 the year 1795. Dr. Arne left an only son, Michael, 
 who evinced a precocious taste for music, but never 
 attained the same eminence as his father. He in 
 conjunction with Mr. Battishill produced the opera 
 of Alcmena at Drury Lane in 1764, and afterwards 
 Cymon at the King's Theatre, from which he de- 
 rived both honour and fame. He died without 
 issue, but in what year we have been unable to 
 discover. [J.M.] 
 
 ARNE, Cecilia, wife of the celebrated Dr. 
 Arne, a distinguished cantatrice, d. 1795. 
 
 ARNE, Michael, son of the preceding, also a 
 composer of music, died about 1785. 
 
 ARNIGIO, an Italian poet, 1523-1577. 
 
 ARNHEIM, or ARNIM, a German baron, dis- 
 tinguished in the thirty years' war. 
 
 ARNIM, Ludwig A. Vox, a romancist and 
 poet of Germany, 1781-1831. 
 
 ARNISjEUS, a metaphysician, 16th century. 
 
 ARNOBIUS, Afer, a Christian writer, 3d ct. 
 
 ARNOBIUS, a biblical commentator, 5th cent. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, an American general who 
 was at first distinguished in the cause of indepen- 
 dence, but in 1780 entered into an engagement with 
 the British for the treasonable surrender of West 
 Point, where he commanded, 1740-1801. 
 
 ARNOLD, Chr., an astronomer, 1646-1695. 
 
 ARNOLD, God., a mystic divine, 1665-1714. 
 
 ARNOLD, John, a mechanician, 1744-1799. 
 
 ARNOLD, Nich., a polemical dis., died 1680. 
 
 ARNOLD, Richard, a chronicler, 15th cent. 
 
 ARNOLD, Samuel, Mus. Doc, was born 
 in London, in the year 1740, and received his 
 musical education at the Chapel Royal, St. 
 James's, from Mr. Bernard Gates and Dr. Nares, 
 who discovered in him the most promising ta- 
 lents. In the year 1760 he became composer 
 to the Covent Garden Theatre, and in 1766 he 
 undertook the duties of the same office at the Hay- 
 market. Dr. Arnold produced four oratorios, eight 
 odes, three serenades, forty-seven operas, three 
 burlettas, besides many overtures, concertos, songs, 
 and smaller pieces, the number of which is not on 
 record. The most popular of his works, several of 
 which still keep their place in public estimation, 
 were The Maid of the Mill, The Son-in-law* The 
 Castle of Andalusia, Inkle and Yarico, The Battle 
 of Hexham, The Surrender of Calais, The Chil- 
 dren in the Wood, The Mountaineers. The Cure of 
 iiaul, Abimelediy The Resurrection, and The 
 
 ARN 
 
 Prodigal Son. The university of Oxford con- 
 ferred upon him their degree of Doctor in Music 
 about the year 1773. In 1783, on the death of 
 Dr. Nnres, he was appointed organist at the 
 Chapel Royal and composer to the king; and at the 
 commemoration of Handel, which took place in the 
 year following, Dr. Arnold was nominated one of 
 the directors. He succeeded Dr. Cooke as conduc- 
 tor of the Academy of Ancient Music in 1783, and 
 was appointed organist of Westminister Abbey 
 in 1793. Dr. Arnold, who is described as having 
 possessed those personal manners and social virtues 
 which secure esteem, died on the 2d of October, 
 1802, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 Dr. Arnold married a lineal descendant of the 
 Baron of Merchiston, and left one son and two 
 daughters. [J.M.] 
 
 ARNOLD, Thos., a physician, 1742- 1816. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, D.D., was born at West 
 Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on 13th June, 1795. 
 He belonged to a respectable family, his father be- 
 ing collector of the customs in that place, and 
 having been destined for the ministry in the Church 
 of England, was in due time entered a student in 
 the university of Oxford. On completing his col- 
 lege studies in 1819, he obtained deacon's orders, 
 and immediately after took up his residence at 
 Laleham, near Staines, where for the nine follow- 
 ing years he kept a private boarding establishment, 
 intended chiefly as a school of preparation for the 
 universities. In the superintendence of this semi- 
 nary, the character of Arnold rapidly developed 
 itself, and was marked by an indefatigable activity, 
 a manly decision and detmiteness of purpose, above 
 all, by a settled religious faith, little to be expected 
 from the indolent and dreamy habits of his youth. 
 He was an eminent Christian, as well as a ripe 
 scholar ; and the principles on which he acted with 
 the utmost earnestness himself he infused into 
 the minds of his pupils, by leading them to unite a 
 high standard of intellectual accomplishments with 
 a Christian culture of the heart and affections. 
 The success of this system extended his fame far 
 beyond the obscure and limited locality of Lale- 
 ham ; and in 1827 he became head master of Rugby 
 school, having been nominated to that influential 
 office by n unanimous vote of the trustees, who 
 were told, on high authority, that ' he would 
 change the face of education all through the public 
 schools of England.' That expectation was not 
 long in being realized; for having also obtained 
 the appointment of chaplain to the school at 
 Rugby, in which capacity he preached discourses, 
 which have long been admired as models of ser- 
 mons for educated youth, he succeeded, while fully 
 sustaining the ancient celebrity of the institution 
 as a classical seminary, in imparting to it a new 
 and Christian tone. The great principle of his educa- 
 tional system was to make his pupils good men as 
 well as good scholars ; and accordingly, while la- 
 bouring to store their minds with useful and elegant 
 literature, he taught them to make religion the 
 daily rule of their life not to confine it to 
 Sabbath and the church, but to carry it into the 
 school-room, the play-ground, the secular duties 
 and familiar intercourse of every day. The bene- 
 ficial effects of the method pursued at Rugby led to 
 its general adoption in the other great English 
 schools, and produced a marked improvement on 
 
 M 
 
ARN 
 
 fie religious tone of sentiment and feeling among 
 the young gentlemen who thenceforth repaired to 
 the universities. The principle of combining reli- 
 gion with secular education, which Dr. Arnold had 
 successfully adopted in his school, he endeavoured 
 to carry out in all that he undertook. Thus he 
 maintained the identity of church and state, realiz- 
 ing a condition of society in which all the laws, 
 institutions, and measures of a Christian country 
 should be based on purely Christian principles. 
 With the same view, he accepted a place in the 
 directory of the London university, which he zea- 
 lously encouraged, from a liberal desire to extend 
 the benefits of a literary and scientific education to 
 all classes, irrespective of sectarian tests ; but he 
 wished to give it a religious character, and failing in 
 his efforts to make examination in the Scriptures 
 necessary for obtaining a degree, he resigned his con- 
 nection with that institution. In like manner, hav- 
 ing attempted in vain to infuse a Christian spirit into 
 the Penny Magazine, he established, at his own 
 risk, The Englishman's Register a periodical to 
 which his name and character would probably have 
 gained a wide circulation; but finding that the 
 publication demanded more time than he could 
 spare, he was obliged, after the issue of a few 
 numbers, to relinquish the undertaking. Dr. Ar- 
 nold is known as an author by several volumes of 
 discourses, by his History of Rome, composed on 
 the principles of Niebuhr, and by various pamph- 
 lets on matters of contemporary interest in religion 
 and politics. The government of Lord Melbourne 
 rewarded his public services by appointing him to 
 the chair of modern history in Oxford : but he had 
 only given his inaugural lecture, when a spasmodic 
 affection of the heart suddenly cut him off at 
 Rugby, on 12th June, 1842, in the forty-seventh 
 year of his age. [R. J.] 
 
 ARNOLDE, R., a chronicler, 16th century. 
 
 ARNOLFO, an Italian architect, died 1300. 
 
 ARNOT, Hugo, a Scotch historian, 1749-1786. 
 
 ARNOUL, king of Italy, 892 to 898. 
 
 ARNOUL, a French prelate, 12th century. 
 
 ARNOULT, S., a French actress, 1740-1802. 
 
 ARNOULT, J. B., a French writer, 1689-1753. 
 
 ARNULPH, or ERNULPHUS, bishop of Ro- 
 chester, historian, died 1124. 
 
 ARNTZENIUS, Otho, a Dutch savant, d. 1765. 
 
 AROMATRI, J., an Ital. physician, 1586-1660. 
 
 ARPINO, Jos., an Italian painter, 1560-1640. 
 
 ARRIA, the wife of Caecina Psetus, distinguished 
 by her tragical death, 42. 
 
 ARRIAN, a Greek historian, 2d century. 
 
 ARHIGHETTI, Ph., an Italian wr., 1582-1662. 
 
 ARRIGHETTO, or ARRIGO, Henry, a Latin 
 poet and ecclesiastic of Florence, 12th century. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, L., bishop of Mantua, 16th ct. 
 
 ARRIVABENE, J. F., an Italian poet, 16th ct. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, Aaron, distinguished as a 
 maker of maps and charts. 1750-1823. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, J., a puritan divine, d. 1659. 
 
 ARSACES I., elected king of the Parthians 
 after conquering Seleucus, 288 B.C., killed in battle 
 250 b.c. The succeeding kings were called Ar- 
 sacidae, to the number of twenty-eight, the dynasty 
 becoming extinct 217, when Artaxerxes succeeded. 
 
 A I!S ACES, king of Armenia, slain by Sapor 369. 
 
 ARSENIUS, tutor of Arcadius, 4th century. 
 
 ARSES tinir nf Pm-clo n.^ Q'!0 
 
 ARSES, king of Persia, b.c. 339. 
 
 ASC 
 
 ARSILLI, Fr., an Italian physician, 16th cent. 
 
 ARSINOE, mother of Ptolemy L, king of Egypt 
 after Alexander the Great. 
 
 ARSINOE, daugh. of Ptolemy, b. B.C. 316, mar. 
 to Lysimachus, k. of Thrace, 300 b.c, dethd. 280. 
 
 ARSINOE, sister of Cleopatra, by whose wish 
 she was put to death, B.C. 41. 
 
 ARTABAN I., king of Parthia 216 to 196 B.C. 
 
 ARTABAN II., succeeded 127, killed 124 b.c. 
 
 ARTABAN III., king 14 B.C., several times 
 dethroned by the Romans, died a.d. 44. 
 
 ARTABAN IV., king 216, dethroned 226. 
 
 ARTALIS, Joseph, a poet of Sicily, d. 1679. 
 
 ARTARIS, an Italian statuary, 17th centuiy. 
 
 ARTAXERXES I., k. of Persia, 465 to 424 b.c. 
 
 ARTAXERXES II., king, 404 to 362 b.c. 
 
 ARTAXERXES III., k. 359, d. by pois. 338 B.C. 
 
 ARTAXERXES, or ARDSHIR,the first Sas- 
 sanide king of Persia, reigned 217-240. 
 
 ARTAXIAS, the name of three kings of Ar- 
 menia; the first, about the middle of the 2d c. B.C.; 
 the second from 30 to 20 ; the third a.d. 16 to 18. 
 
 ARTEAGA, St., a Spanish author, died 1799. 
 
 ARTEDI, P., a Swedish naturalist, died 1735. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, a geographer, 1st cent. b.c. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, a writer on dreams, 2d cent. 
 
 ARTEMISIA I., queen of Caira, 480 b.c. 
 
 ARTEMISIA II., queen consort of Caira, 376 
 to 352, queen 352 to 350, B.C. 
 
 ARTEMON, a military engineer, 5th cent. B.C. 
 
 ARTEVELLE, James, chief of the popular 
 party in Flanders, killed at the instigation of the 
 nobles of Ghent, 1345. Philip, his son, leader 
 of a revolt 1382, killed the same year. 
 
 ARTHUR, the famous British prince, is sup- 
 posed to have flourished at the time of the Saxon 
 invasion, and to have d. in the battle-field abt. 520. 
 
 ARTHUR, duke of Bretagne, son of Jeffrey, 
 elder brother of John king of England, born 1187; 
 excluded from the throne 1199; taken prisoner 
 1202 ; assassinated, as supposed, 1203. 
 
 ARTIGAS, Don John, disting. in the wars of 
 the Banda Oriental, and Buenos Ayres, 1760-1826. 
 
 ARTIZENIUS, H., an historian, 1702-1759. 
 
 ARTIZENIUS, J. H., son of Henry, disting. 
 as a writer on jurisprudence, 1734-1797. 
 
 ARTIZENIUS, Otho, uncle of the preceding, 
 professor of the Belles Lettres, died 1763, aged 63. 
 
 ARTOIS, J. V., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. 
 
 ARTUSI, G. V., a musical author, 16th cent, 
 
 ARUNDEL, Mary, countess of, a lady of dis- 
 tinguished learning in the 16th century. 
 
 ARUNDEL, T., abp. of Canterbury, noted for 
 his violent persecution of the Reformers, 1353-1413. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Sir Thos., first lord of Wardour, 
 received his title from James I., distinguished 
 against the Turks, died 1639. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Thos., Howard, earl of, son of 
 the preceding, died at Padua, 1646. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Blanche, wife of the last named, 
 mem. for her defence of Wardour castle, 1583-1649. 
 
 ARVIEUX, Laurent D', an agent of the Fr. 
 court in Palestine, and the East, 1635-1702. 
 
 ARZACHEL, an astronomer, 11th century. 
 
 ASAPH, St., a British monk, 5th century. 
 
 ASBURY, Fr., bishop of the Episcopalian 
 Methodists, U. S., 1745-1816. 
 
 ASCHAM, Roger, a man of great learning, 
 the instructor of Elizabeth, died 1568. 
 
 47 
 
ASC 
 
 ASCHAM, Anth., envoy from Cromwell to 
 Spain, where he was assassinated, 1650. 
 
 ASCHER, a German rabbi, died 1321. 
 
 ASCLEPIADES, a Greek physician, d. B.C. 63. 
 
 ASCOLI, Lecco Di, a mathematician of Flo- 
 rence, bnrned as a heretic 1358. 
 
 ASCONIUS, a grammarian, 1st century. 
 
 ASDRUBAL, a celeb, general commanding the 
 army of Carthage, killed B.C. 220. Another Car- 
 thaginian general of the same name, d. B.C. 489. 
 
 ASDRUBAL, Barca, brother of Hannibal, 
 vanquished and slain 208 B.C. 
 
 ASELLI, Caspar, an anatomist, 17th cent. 
 
 ASGILL, Sir Ch., a British officer, died 1823. 
 
 ASGILL, John, a barrister, died 1783. 
 
 ASH, John, LL.D., a lexicographer, d. 1779. 
 
 ASHBURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, b. 
 1774, commenced his political life as Whig member 
 for Taunton, 1812 ; president of the Board of Trade 
 under the Peel ministry, 1834 ; envoy to the 
 United States on the Oregon question, 1842 ; d. 1848. 
 
 ASHIK, a Turkish poet, 16th century. 
 
 ASHLEY, John, a musician, last century. 
 
 ASHLEY, Robert, amiscellan. wr., 16th cent. 
 
 ASHMOLE, Eltas, celebrated as an antiquary 
 and alchymist, 1617-1692. 
 
 ASHIdUN, John Hooker, a distinguished 
 scholar of America, 1800-1833. 
 
 ASHWELL, Geo., an English div., 1612-1693. 
 
 ASHRAF-SHAH, king of Persia, 1722 to 1729. 
 
 ASKEW, Anne, a prot. martyr, reign of Henry 
 VIIL; b. 1521, burnt alive aft. suffer, the rack, 1546. 
 
 ASKEW, Anth., a scholar of the 18th century. 
 
 ASMONJEUS, a Levite from whom the illustri- 
 ous Asmonsean princes derive their name. 
 
 ASPASIA, a lady of ancient Greece, whose 
 house at Athens became the resort of the greatest 
 masters in philosophy and art, 5th century b.c. 
 
 ASITNWALL, Wm., a phvsician, 1743-1823. 
 
 ASSELIN, G. T., a French poet, 17th century. 
 
 ASSELYN, J., a Dutch painter, 1610-1650. 
 
 ASSEMANI, Step., a catholic writer, 17th ct. 
 
 ASSER, a French historian, died 883. 
 
 ASSER, a Talmudist, died 427. 
 
 ASSERMO, Menevensis, the instructor and 
 biographer of Alfred the Great, died 909. 
 
 AST, G. A. F., a philologist, died 1841. 
 
 ASTARIK, F., a composer, died 1803. 
 
 ASTEL, Mary, a divine and philos., d. 1731. 
 
 ASTLE, Thos., an archaeologist, died 1803. 
 
 ASTLEY, Ph., the eel. equestrian, 1742-1814. 
 
 ASTOLPHUS, k. of the Lombards, 749 to 756. 
 
 ASTON, Sir Arthur, a royalist, killed at 
 Drogheda when taken by Cromwell, 1649. 
 
 ASTON, Sir Thos., a royalist of Cheshire, taken 
 prisoner and killed 1645. 
 
 ASTOR, John Jacob, a native of Germany, 
 disting. as a merchant of New York, and particu- 
 larly for his enterprise in the establishment of the 
 American fur trade, 1763-1848. 
 
 ASTORGA, Marquis of, a Spanish diploma- 
 tist, viceroy of Naples 1672. 
 
 ASTORGA, Marquis of, disting. by his oppo- 
 sition to the French usurpation in 1807, declared a 
 traitor by Napoleon 1808, died 1814. 
 
 ASTORI, J. A., a Venetian scholar, 17th cent. 
 
 ASTOR1NI, Euas, a phvsiologist, died 1702. 
 
 ASTYAGEO, last king of the Medes, dethroned 
 by Cyrus, 6th century b.c. 
 
 ATT 
 
 ASTRUC, J., a French phvsician, 1684-1766. 
 
 ATAHUALPA, last Inca of Peru, killed 1553. 
 
 ATAIDE, viceroy of India 1569, died 1580. 
 
 ATANAGI, Denis, an Ital. author, 16th cent. 
 
 ATAULF, king of the Visigoths after Alaric. 
 
 ATHA, Hakim Ben., the original of Moore's 
 'Veiled Prophet of Khorassan,' who gave himself 
 out for an incarnation of the Deity, and met with 
 a tragical end, 8th century. 
 
 ATHALARIC, king of the Ostrogoths, 526. 
 
 ATHANAGILDUS, king of the Visigoths, 554. 
 
 ATHANARIC, king of the Visigoths, 4th cent. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, the great champion of ortho- 
 doxy in the fourth century, was born perhaps 
 about 296. His first appearance was in support 
 of his patron, bishop Alexander, against the Arians, 
 and he was not only present, though simply a 
 deacon, at the council of Nice, but was an active 
 and intrepid member of that assembly. His rising 
 fame led to his elevation to the see of Alexandria 
 when Alexander died. Bishop Athanasius was 
 immediately involved in contests, which ended only 
 with his life. Deposed most unjustly in 335, he 
 was reinstated in 338. Deposed again in 340, he 
 was reinstated in 342. His enemies prepared the 
 most unscrupulous charges against him, all of 
 which he refuted with an overwhelming force of 
 proof and eloquence. Again in 355 was he sen- 
 tenced to be banished, when he retired to the 
 Egyptian deserts, and again was he welcomed 
 back to the Egyptian capital. Once more 
 Julian the apostate exiled him, and once more he 
 was restored. A fifth time was he banished by 
 the emperor Valens, who, however, soon recalled 
 him, and Athanasius, after holding the primacy 
 for the long space of forty-six years, died at length 
 in 373. He was a man of holy life, a bold and 
 noble defender of the Godhead of the Saviour, an 
 orator of ready and commanding eloquence, and a 
 prelate of heroic and indefatigable activity. The 
 prejudices even of Gibbon were softened toward 
 him, and he has pronounced upon him a splendid 
 eulogy History, chap. xxi. The monks of St. 
 Maur published the works of this illustrious father 
 in three folios, Paris 1698. [J.E.] 
 
 ATHANASIUS, a prince bishop of Naples, 
 ravaged Italv, and died 900. 
 
 ATHELSTAN, king of England 925 to 954. 
 
 ATHENiEUS, a military engineer, 3d ct. b.c. 
 
 ATHENjEUS, a grammarian, 3d century. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS, a philosopher of the 2d ct. 
 
 ATHENAIS, the empress of Theodosius, distin- 
 guished for her learning, died 460. 
 
 ATHENADORUS, a Greek physician, 1st cent. 
 
 ATHIAS, Jos., a learned Jew, 17th century. 
 
 ATHLONE, Godfrey, count of, a Dutch 
 general, time of William III. 
 
 ATHOL, John Murray, duke of, died 1830. 
 
 ATKINS, Robt., a divine, 17th century. 
 
 ATKINSON, Hy., a mathematician, died 1831. 
 
 ATKINSON, Thos., a miscel. writer, d. 1833. 
 
 ATKYNS, Sir Robt., the patriotic defender of 
 Lord Wm. Russell, born 1621 ; chief baron of the 
 exchequer, 1688 to 1693 ; died 1709. 
 
 ATKYNS, Sir Robt., son of the preceding, h:2- 
 torian of Gloucestershire, died 1711. 
 
 ATKYNS, Rich., a writer on printing, d. 1677. 
 
 ATLEE, S. J., a French officer, died 1786. 
 
 ATTA, a dramatic poet, 1st century b.c. 
 
 48 
 
ATR 
 
 ATRATUS, Hugo, cardinal, an English physi- 
 cian and natural philosopher, died 1287. 
 
 ATTARDI, B., a monastic writer, 18th century. 
 
 ATTENDOLI, Darius, a writer on duelling. 
 
 ATTENDOLO, J. B., a poet, died 1592. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Lewis, D.D., father of the 
 famous Atterbury, 1631-1693. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Francis, bishop of Rochester, 
 celebrated as an eloquent preacher, born 1662, 
 arrested on a charge of conspiracy in favour of the 
 Stuarts 1722, died in exile 1732. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Lewis, LL.D., brother of the 
 bishop, author of sermons, &c, 1656-1731. 
 
 ATTICUS, Herodes, a eel. Greek rhetorician, 
 b. at Marathon 110, preceptor of Marcus Aurelius 
 and Verus, consul and governor of the free cities 
 of Asia 143, and subsequently ; died 186. 
 
 ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, the eel. friend of 
 Cicero, disting. for the purity of his lang., d. B.C. 33. 
 
 ATTILA. This distinguished leader was of 
 Mongol-Tartar origin, and succeeded his uncle as 
 king of the Huns, a.d. 434. At first the sovereign 
 authority was divided between Attila and his 
 brother Bleda, who together invaded Thrace, and 
 compelled the emperor of the East to purchase 
 their forbearance by a heavy fine and annual tri- 
 bute of gold, a.d. 442. Some three years later 
 Bleda was deposed and put to death, and Attila ac- 
 knowledged as only and sovereign lord of the noma- 
 dic hordes of Hungary and Scythia. This event is 
 only obscurely related, but it was either precipitated, 
 or shortly alterwards followed by the discovery of 
 a sword, the possessor of which acquired a sacred 
 character in the eyes of the Scythian barbarians, 
 who worshipped the god of war under that em- 
 blem; in short, it was believed that the divine 
 right to universal empire was bestowed on Attila 
 when this old weapon, which had long been buried 
 in the earth, was placed in his hands ; and it was in 
 this faith, added to the love of adventure and the 
 hope of gain, that he succeeded in rallying to his stan- 
 dard nearly all the barbarians of Scythia and Ger- 
 many. The war, in fact, to which Attila, soon at the 
 head of 700,000 combatants, challenged, the whole 
 civilized world, was a struggle for the ascendancy 
 between the free life of the desert and the luxurious 
 settlements which had transferred the sovereign 
 authority to some of the meanest and basest of 
 mankind. The character of Theodosius the younger, 
 emperor of the East at this time, contrasts unfa- 
 vourably in nearly every point with that of Attila, 
 who was remarkable for his simplicity and general 
 moderation, though subject to gusts of passion, 
 which, with his cruelty in war, well entitled him to 
 be called the 'terror of the world' and the 'scourge 
 of God.' The East, according to some accounts, 
 as far as the plains of Armenia, resounded with 
 the tramp of his armed hosts, and from the Euxine 
 to the Adriatic some threescore and ten cities 
 were given to fire and the sword ; while Theodo- 
 sius, who ought to have protected them with the 
 terror of his arms, was wringing the disgraceful 
 tribute and the means of supporting the equally 
 disgraceful splendour of his court, from his unhappy 
 subjects. Not daring to meet the enemy in the 
 tented field, the emperor, by his splendid promises, 
 engaged one of the members of an embassy from 
 Attila to poison him on his return home, but the 
 miserable man, overawed by the commanding pre- 
 
 ATT 
 
 sence of his chief, confessed the plot ; and perhaps 
 the most striking passage in his history is the bar- 
 baric scorn with which Attila denounces this at- 
 tempt of Theodosius as the treachery of a slave 
 towards one whose fortune and virtues had made 
 him master of the world ! The death of Theodo- 
 sius, a.d. 450, and the preparations of Martian, 
 who replied to the usual demand for tribute, ' that 
 he had gold for his friends and iron for his ene- 
 mies,' diverted the course of Attila from the East, 
 and pointed to the Western empire. Other induce- 
 ments to this famous expedition were not wanting. 
 Honoria, the sister of the reigning emperor Valenti- 
 nian III. had offered her hand to Attila as the means 
 of escape from a cloister to which she had been con- 
 signed for incontinence, and Genseric, the king of 
 the Vandals, had solicited his aid against Theodo- 
 ric king of the West Goths, whose destruction was 
 also a darling object of Attila's ambition. He com- 
 menced his march to Italy, a.d. 450, with an 
 immense army of Huns, swelled by the numerous 
 tributaries who owed him allegiance, and, crossing 
 the Rhine, carried devastation through the greater 
 part of Gaul and Burgundy, routing armies and 
 destroying towns in his progress. Meantime the 
 Roman army, under the command of ^tius, 
 strengthened by an alliance with the West Goths, 
 at whose head was Theodoric the Great, and with 
 the gallant Franks, prepared to offer the last resist- 
 ance of Italy to his advance. The armies met in 
 the environs of Chalons-sur-Marne, when the ap- 
 proach of Attila had already threatened Orleans 
 with destruction, and a bloody conflict ensued, at 
 which the slain has been variously estimated at 
 from one hundred and sixty to three hundred thou- 
 sand men. Although not routed, Attila was com- 
 pelled to retreat beyond the Rhine, and was hardly 
 dissuaded from an act of self-destruction which 
 he had contemplated rather than be taken captive. 
 The morrow of the battle discovered to him that 
 he could continue his retreat without molestation, 
 and he returned home only to recruit his forces, 
 and spread equal devastation the year following in 
 the plains of Lombardy. Ravenna and Rome itself 
 now trembled at his near approach, and his retire- 
 ment, with a vast ransom, from the cities of Italy, 
 has been attributed to a miracle. Between this 
 period and the death of Alaric, a.d. 453, a second 
 mvasion of Gaul is mentioned, which proved as 
 destructive to human life as the preceding. The 
 East also was again menaced with a reign of ter- 
 ror, and Italy feared that his threats to compel 
 the surrender of Honoria would yet be executed. 
 These, and the thousand wild apprehensions 
 which prevailed from the east to the west of 
 Europe, while he lived, were allayed by his sudden 
 death, occasioned by the bursting of a blood-vessel, 
 on the night of his marriage with the beautiful 
 Ildico. His wide -spread sovereignty, and the 
 dreaded power of the Huns, died with him ; the 
 confederacy of so many barbarous tribes, and the 
 savage enthusiasm with which they ranged them- 
 selves under his banner, being alike due to his 
 singular power of command and personal prowess. 
 It may be observed here, that the Hungarians 
 so called at the present day are not descended 
 from the Huns of Attila, but are chiefly a Majiar 
 race, with a mixture of Roman, Turk, Mongol, 
 Slavonic, and German elements. [E.li.] 
 
 49 
 
ATT 
 
 ATTIRET, J. Fr., a French Jesuit missionary 
 and painter, 1702-1768. 
 
 ATWOOD, Geo., F.R.S., a writer on mechanics 
 and mathematics, 1745-1807. 
 
 ATTWOOD, Thomas, an eminent composer, 
 was born in the year 1705, and commenced his 
 musical career as one of the children of the Chapel 
 Royal, St. James's, under Dr. Nares and Dr. Ayr- 
 ton. Happening on one occasion to perform at 
 Buckingham Palace, he attracted the notice of 
 George IV., then Prince of Wales, who took him 
 under his patronage, and sent him at his own ex- 
 pense to Naples in 1783, where he studied for 
 two years under Filippo Cinque and Gastaus 
 Latilla. He afterwards visited Vienna, where he 
 immediately became a pupil of Mozart, from whom 
 he received instructions till the year 1786, when 
 he returned to England, where he soon became one 
 of the chamber musicians to his royal patron, and 
 musical preceptor to the Duchess of York and the 
 Princess of Wales, afterwards the unfortunate 
 Queen Caroline. In 1795 Attwood succeeded Dr. 
 Jones as organist of St. Paul's Cathedral, and in 
 1796 he was appointed composer to the king. 
 About this period of his life he turned his atten- 
 tion to the composition of music for the stage, and 
 produced several operas, the literary portion of the 
 most of which may be regarded as dead, though the 
 music of many of them is as much admired as it was 
 when first performed. Amongst the most popular 
 of his operas may be named The Prisoner, The 
 Mariners, The Adopted Child, The Castle of Sor- 
 rento, and The Smugglers. The fantastic tricks, 
 and petty vanities of leading performers, disgusted 
 Attwood, and caused him to turn his attention to 
 sacred music, in which he was very successful. 
 For the coronation of George IV. he wrote his an- 
 them The King shall Rejoice, and for that of King 
 William III., Lord, Grant the King a Long Life, 
 both of which hold the highest place amongst this 
 class of musical compositions. In 1837 the 
 Bishop of London appointed him without solicita- 
 tion to the office of organist to the Chapel Royal. 
 He died in 1837, and his remains were buried in 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, beneath the great organ, with 
 every honour that the church and his professional 
 brethren could confer. Many of Attwood's works, 
 and they are very numerous in all the classes, 
 are destined to enjoy a lengthened popularity. 
 His style was founded principally upon that of 
 his great teacher, Mozart, who, according to 
 Michael Kelly, once said, ' Attwood partakes more 
 of my style than any pupil I ever had.' [J.M.] 
 
 AUBERT, Abbe, a French fabulist, last cent. 
 
 AUBIGNE, Theod. Agrippa D', one of the 
 most remarkable men of the 16th cent., an hist., 
 satirist, and poet, persecuted on account of his 
 attachment to the reformed religion, 1550-1630. 
 
 AUBIGNE, Constant, son of the preceding, 
 and father of Mad. de Maintenon. 
 
 AUBLER, J. B. C. F., a botanist, 1720-1778. 
 
 AUBREY, John, an antiquary, died 1700. 
 
 AUBRIET, Claude, a French painter, d. 1740. 
 
 AUBRIOT, Hugh, mayor of Paris, time of Ch. 
 V., incarcerated in the Bastile, which he had 
 erected as a fortress against the English, on a 
 charge of heresy., and rescued by the insurgent 
 populace 1382, died 6ame year. 
 
 AUBRY, Stepil, a French painter, died 1781. 
 
 AUD 
 
 AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, a French knight, 
 whose murder was discovered by the hostility of 
 his dog to Richard de Macaire, 1371. 
 
 AUBRY, C. L., a mathematician, last century. 
 
 AUBRY, J. B., a French prior, 1735-1809. 
 
 AUBRY, J. F., a Fr. physician, last century. 
 
 AUBRY, Mdlle., a ballet dancer, worshipped in 
 Paris as the goddess of reason, 1793. 
 
 AUBRY DE GANGES, Marie Olympie, 
 female republican, executed by Robespierre. 
 
 AUBRY, Dubonchet N., a French economist, 
 deputy to the Estates General, 1789. 
 
 AUBRY, F., amember of the Fr. Conven. and the 
 Committee of Public Safety, died in England 1802. 
 
 AUBUSSON, J. D', a troubadour, 13th cent. 
 
 AUBUSSON, Peter D', a soldier of the church, 
 distinguished against the Turks, 15th century. 
 
 AUCHMUTZ, Sir Sam., an Eng. gen., d. 1822. 
 
 AUCKLAND, Wm. Eden, Lord, a diplomatist 
 and ambassador, 1744-1814. 
 
 AUDE, Joseph, a dramatist, last century. 
 
 AUDEBERT, G., a Latin poet, died 1678. 
 
 AUDEBERT, J. B., an engraver, distinguished 
 in subjects of natural history, 1739-1800. 
 
 AUDEFROI, a poet of the 12th century. 
 
 AUDENAERD, R. Van, an engraver, d. 1743. 
 
 AUDIFREDI, an astronomer, last century. 
 
 AUDIFFREDY, Therese, disting. in Cayenne 
 for saving Pichegra and other victims of the coup 
 d'etat, 18th Fructidor, from starvation. 
 
 AUDIFRET, J. B., a diplomatist, died 1733. 
 
 AUDINOT, N. M., a dramatist, died 1801. 
 
 AUDLEY, Thos., chancellor of Henry VIII. 
 
 AUDONIN, king of the Lombards, 6th cent. 
 
 AUDONIN, J. Vict., entomologist, d. 1841. 
 
 AUDRA, Joseph, a French philosopher of the 
 revolutionary school, 1710-1770. 
 
 AUDRAN, the name of a Lyonese family 
 which has produced many distinguished artists : 
 the most eminent are Charles, 1594-1674; 
 Claude, 1597-1677; Claude, the Younger, 
 1641-1684; Gerard, 1640-1703; John, 1667- 
 1756 ; and Claude, a nephew of the first of this 
 name, 1658-1734. 
 
 AUDRAN, P. G., a Hebrew scholar, last cent. 
 
 AUDRIEN, Yves M., a French ecclesiastic and 
 revolutionist ; assassinated 1800. 
 
 AUDUBON, John James, a celebrated Ame- 
 rican ornithologist, was born in Louisiana in 1782. 
 He died in 1851. From his earliest years he was 
 devoted to the study of ornithology, roaming the 
 wild woods of his native country, listening to the 
 song of the singing birds, and picking up from his 
 father all kinds of information about their habits, 
 instincts, and migration. He commenced sketch- 
 ing his favourites while a mere boy ; but a few years 
 afterwards, when sent by his father to Pans, he 
 enjoyed the opportunity of having lessons in paint- 
 ing from the celebrated David. Intended for a 
 commercial life, he entered into partnership with 
 a young Frenchman, and returned to America to 
 carry on their business there. While his partner 
 was keeping the accounts, Audubon was shooting 
 birds in the woods or painting them in the count- 
 ing-house. At last wearied of the drudgeries of 
 business, he shook the trammels off, and, in spite 
 of the entreaties of his friends, betook himself to a 
 wandering life in the forest. Sleeping by night at 
 the foot of a tree, subsisting on the game which 
 
 50 
 
AUE 
 he shot, and which he cooked for himself; 
 floating down the silent rivers for hundreds of 
 miles in a frail canoe, and sketching from nature 
 as he went along, he accumulated a large collec- 
 tion of faithful and accurate drawings of the 
 feathered tribes of America. These were made 
 the size of life in every case, and he added the de- 
 tails of feet, legs, talons, and beaks, all measured 
 accurately by compass. Not being able to procure 
 subscriptions in America to enable him to publish 
 them, he visited England and Scotland. In Edin- 
 burgh he was received enthusiastically ; his draw- 
 ings were admired and highly praised, and there 
 he commenced engraving the figures which have 
 procured him such a high reputation. The publi- 
 cation of this extensive and gigantic work extended 
 over thirteen years ; during the intervals of which 
 he continued his journeys to the vast prairies and 
 forests of America, and neglected nothing which 
 could add to its value. If Audubon be indebted 
 to friendly assistance for his descriptions of his 
 birds, his drawings are his own, and his highest 
 claim to admiration is founded upon them, as they 
 exhibited a perfection never before attempted. 
 His work consists of 435 plates, containing 1,065 
 figures of the size of life, and has been pronounced 
 by Cuvier ' as the most gigantic and most magni- 
 ficent monument that had ever been erected to 
 nature.' Besides his great work, ' The Birds of 
 America,' Audubon is the author of another, en- 
 titled, 'Ornithological Biography.' A second 
 edition of 'The Birds of America' was published 
 in royal 8vo ; and before his death he had com- 
 menced the 'Quadrupeds of America.' This he 
 has left to be finished by his sons, who continue to 
 prosecute the science in which their father won 
 such fame. [W.B.] 
 
 AUERBACH, J. G., a German painter, 17th c. 
 
 AUERSBERG, Herbard, baron of, disting. 
 in the frontier war between the German empire 
 and the Turks, 16th centuiy. 
 
 AUGE, D. G., a French author, 16th century. 
 
 AUGER, Athanasius, a political and learned 
 writer of France, 1734-1792. 
 
 AUGER, L. S., a Fr. journalist, 1772-1829. 
 
 AUGEREAU. Pierre Francois Charles 
 Augereau, was born 11th November, 1757, in one 
 of the faubourgs of Paris. His father was a working 
 mason, his mother sold fruit. Young Pierre had 
 no education, except that of the Paris streets. He 
 enlisted while a lad ; and after some years of ser- 
 vice as a private in the French army, he entered 
 the Neapolitan, rose to the rank of sergeant, and 
 was a fencing-master at Naples when the wars of 
 the French revolution broke out. Augereau then 
 returned to France, and joined one of the insurrec- 
 tionary levies of 1792. He gained his successive 
 steps of promotion on the battle-field ; and in 1796, 
 when Buonaparte took the command of the army of 
 Italy, he found Augereau in high repute as a bold 
 and skilful general of division. That reputation 
 was augmented at Millesimo, at Ceva, at Lodi, at 
 Castiglione, at Roveredo, and many more of the 
 scenes of carnage that were so numerous at the 
 close of the last, and at the commencement of the 
 present century. In 1805, Augereau was a mar- 
 shal of France, and Due de Castiglione. It is from 
 these facts that Augereau's military talents must .. 
 be judged, and not from the terms in which Na- and in B.C. 27, he received from the senate tho 
 
 AUG 
 
 poleon, and the writers of the Napoleonic school 
 nave spoken of him. Augereau was not only a 
 furious, but a sincere republican of the revolu- 
 tionary era, and he gave frequent and deep offence 
 to Buonaparte by the coarse frankness of his lan- 
 guage after the establishment of the empire. At 
 last he reproached Napoleon on the battle-field of 
 Preuss Eylau, for the useless butchery to which 
 the French troops were exposed. For this he was 
 sent into retirement, and except a short period of 
 employment in the Peninsula, he was not again 
 intrusted by the emperor with a comnu.nd till 
 after the disastrous reverses in Russia. Augereau 
 acknowledged Lonis XVIII., after Napoleon's ab- 
 dication in 1814, and acknowledged Napoleon 
 again as emperor in 1815. But he was not em- 
 ployed in the campaign of Waterloo. He was one 
 of the court-martial that was first appointed to 
 try Marshal Ney, and refused to sit in judgment on 
 their comrade. Augereau died in 1816. [E.S.C.] 
 
 AUGIER, G., a troubadour, 12th century. 
 
 AUGURELLO, G. A., a scholar, poet, and al- 
 chymist, 1440-1524. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, Anth., a Sp. prelate, d. 1586. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, St., called the 
 apostle of England, died 610. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, bishop of Hippo, and most fa- 
 mous of the Latin church fathers, was born at 
 Tagasta in Numidia, 13th November, 354. In 
 early life he was loose, roving, and sensual, but at 
 Milan the influence of his mother Monica, and the 
 preaching of St.. Ambrose, produced, about 386, a 
 saving and permanent change on his heart and life. 
 He had already left the Manichean philosophy, 
 and now he renounced the study of rhetoric, which 
 he had taught with success at Carthage, Rome, 
 and Milan. He was ordained a presbyter 391, and 
 four years afterwards became coadjutor to Valerius 
 in the diocese of Hippo, now Bona in Algiers, and he 
 finally succeeded his colleague in 396. His life was 
 spent in active literary opposition against Manich- 
 aeans, Donatists, and Pelagians. When Hippo was 
 menaced by the Vandal hosts, Augustine died, in 
 the third month of the siege, at the good old age 
 of seventy-six. The influence of Augustine's theo- 
 logy has been felt in all succeeding ages of the 
 church. He compacted the truths of religion into 
 a system, with a logic whose severity is relieved 
 by the glow of his eloquence and the fervour of his 
 piety. His autobiography is contained in his famous 
 'Confessions; ' and his 'Civitas Dei' is universally 
 admired. But he wrote too much, and on too many 
 subjects, to be at all times either lucid or self-con- 
 sistent. His works are very numerous, and have 
 been often edited and published. The Benedictine 
 edition, Paris, 1679-1701, is in eleven handsome 
 folios. [J.E.] 
 
 AUGUSTULUS, the name given in derision to 
 Romulus, last Roman emp. of the West, dethroned 
 and pensioned by Odoacer, 475. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, the first Roman emperor, was 
 born at Velitrae, a town of Latium, in the consul- 
 ship of Cicero, B.C. 63. He was the son of Caius 
 Octavius by Atia, the niece of the famous C 
 Julius Caesar; and was consequently the grand- 
 nephew of the dictator. His real name was Caius 
 Octavius ; but, in consequence of his adoption by 
 the will of the dictator, he assumed that of Ctes; 
 
 51 
 
AUG 
 
 title of Augustus, the name by which he is now 
 best known. Having lost his lather at the age of 
 four years, he went to reside with his grandmother, 
 Julia, who watched over his feeble boyhood with 
 the most assiduous care. From his early years he 
 showed a great capacity, and gave evidence of that 
 prudence and foresight which characterized his 
 subsequent career. On the death of his grand- 
 mother, in his twelfth year, he pronounced her 
 funeral oration ; and returned to the house of his 
 mother, who, along with her husband, L. Marcius 
 Philippus, henceforth superintended his education. 
 At the age of sixteen he assumed the toga virilis, 
 the symbol of legal maturity; and in the same 
 year was made a member of the College of Pon- 
 tiffs. The dictator, who had always showed great 
 attention to his youthful relative, now took a more 
 active part in training him for public life, and mani- 
 fested his affection by the honours which he bestowed 
 on himself, and on the family to which he belonged. 
 Augustus seems to have been present in his camp 
 at the battle of Munda, B.C. 45 ; and it was here 
 that the dictator made him his heir, and adopted 
 him into the family of the Cajsars. Soon after 
 their return to Rome Augustus was sent to Apol- 
 lonia in Epirus, for the purpose of advancing his 
 military education, previous to accompanying the 
 dictator in the expedition which he meditated 
 against the Parthians ; and it was while here that 
 he was called upon to commence a contest the most 
 arduous perhaps that was ever undertaken by a 
 youth of eighteen. On the Ides (15th) of March, 
 B.C. 44., the dictator was assassinated in the 
 senate house; and Augustus, on receiving the 
 news, set out for Italv with a few attendants. 
 As the adopted son or the dictator, he now as- 
 sumed the name of Caesar ; and, encouraged by the 
 support of the veteran soldiers, proclaimed his re- 
 solution to avenge the death of his father; in other 
 words, to assert his claim to the sovereignty. 
 Appearing before the praetor, he formally accepted 
 the dangerous inheritance of the dictator's name 
 and property; and in the complicated struggle 
 which ensued, played his part with an art which 
 baffled the prudence of the oldest statesmen of 
 Borne. The contending parties first met under 
 the walls of Mutina, when Antony was defeated, 
 and forced to take refuge on the other side of the 
 Alps. In B.C. 43 Augustus was raised to the 
 consulship, notwithstanding the strenuous opposi- 
 tion of the aristocracy ; and, finding that his posi- 
 tion now rendered a reconciliation with Antony 
 desirable, proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul ; and here 
 the celebrated interview took place between 
 Antony, Lepidus, and himself, which resulted in 
 the formation of the second triivmvirate a union 
 which was cemented by the blood of many of the 
 noblest citizens of Rome. About the close of B.C. 
 42 the decisive battle of Philippi was fought, 
 which completely broke up the party of the senate. 
 During the next nine years Augustus relieved 
 himself of all his formidable opponents, with the 
 exception of Antony, with whom he had long fore- 
 seen that the final contest lay. The last struggle 
 took place at Actium, on the 2d of September, 
 B.C. 31, when Antony was totally defeated, and 
 Augustus placed in the undoubted supremacy of 
 the Roman empire. After settling affairs in the 
 East he returned to Rome, B.C. 29, and his arrival 
 
 AUR 
 
 was celebrated by three triumphs on three succes- 
 sive days. In B.C. 27 he affected to propose to 
 the senate to restore the old republican form of 
 government ; but at the request of his friends he 
 consented to retain the administration of affairs 
 for ten years ; and soon after was invested with 
 the highest military and civil authority, both in 
 the city and throughout the provinces. The same 
 pretended resignation and resumption of power 
 was repeated at intervals till the end of his life. 
 The great events of the period of Augustus belong 
 to the history of Rome, and cannot even be re- 
 ferred to here. After a reign of almost uninter- 
 rupted prosperity, he died at Nola, on the 19th of 
 August, 14, and was succeeded by his stepson, 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero. Augustus was a man of 
 middle stature, but well made ; and the expres- 
 sion of his handsome face was that of unvarying 
 tranquillity. Though naturally of a feeble consti- 
 tution, he attained to a great age by a strict ob- 
 servance of temperance in eating and drinking. 
 His early education had embued him with a taste 
 for literature, which he continued to cultivate 
 throughout his long life ; and his liberal patron- 
 age of learned men, especially in the persons of 
 Virgil and Horace, has procured the name of the 
 Augustan age for the brilliant period in which he 
 lived. [G.F.] 
 
 [Tomb of Augustus.] 
 
 AUGUSTUS I., elector of Saxony, 1553-1586. 
 
 AUGUSTUS II., born 1670; elector, 1694; 
 king of Poland, 1697 ; deposed by Charles XII., 
 1704 ; reinstated, 1709 ; died 1733. 
 
 AUGUSTUS III., his son and succes., d. 1763. 
 
 AUGUSTUS Fred., d. of Sussex, 1773-1843. 
 
 AULISIO, Dominic, a jurist, 1639-1717. 
 
 AULNAGE, F. H. S., a Sp. wr., 1739-1830. 
 
 AULUS GELLIUS, a eel. Latin scholar, author 
 of the ' Attic Nights :' lived 2d century. 
 
 AUMALE, Claude, count of, created duke of 
 Guise by Francis I., died 1550. 
 
 AUNGERVILLE, R., tutor of Edward III., 
 afterwards lord chancellor, &c, died 1345. 
 
 AUNOY, Countess of, a French wr., d. 1705. 
 
 AURELIAN, Lucius Domitius, b. 212, empj 
 of Rome 270, conq. of Palmyra 274, assassin. 275. 
 
 AURELIO, Louis, an historian, died 1(J37. 
 
 02 
 
AUR 
 
 AURENG-ZEBE, one of the greatest of the 
 Mogul emperors, reigned 1659-170 7. 
 
 AURIA, Vinci., an historian of Sicily, d. 1710. 
 
 AURIA, Jo., an astronomer, died 1595. 
 
 AURIGNI, Giles D\ a Fr. poet, died 1553. 
 
 AUSEGIUS, a French abbot, 9th century. 
 
 AUSONIUS, St., a martyr of the 3d century. 
 
 AUSONIUS, a Roman poet, 4th century. 
 
 AUSTEN, Jane, a novelist, 1775-1817. 
 
 AUSTREA, Don Juan, a Sp. admiral, b. 1545. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Ant. D', a composer, d. 1797. 
 
 AUVIGNY, J. D\ a French writer, born 1712, 
 killed at the battle of Dettingen, 1743. 
 
 AVALOS, Ferd., marquis of Pescara, a distin- 
 guished Spanish general, 1489-1525. 
 
 AVALOS, Alph., nephew and successor of the 
 preceding, 1502-1546. 
 
 AVAUX, Claude De Mesne, count of, a 
 French diplomatist and scholar, died 1650. 
 
 AVELLANEDA, Alph. Ferd., the assumed 
 name of a Spanish writer, who displayed his 
 enmity to Cervantes by publishing a continuation 
 of Don Quixote, and attacking the author, 1614. 
 
 AVELLONE, F., an Ital. dramatist, last cent. 
 
 AVERANI, Ben., a miscel. writer, died 1707. 
 
 AVERANI, Jos., a scientific writer, died 1738. 
 
 AVENTINE, J., an annalist, 1466-1534. 
 
 AVENZOAR, an Arabian phys., 12th century. 
 
 AVERDY, Clem. Ch., De L\ comptroller- 
 general of France, guillotined, 1794. 
 
 AVEROLDI, an antiquary, died 1717. 
 
 AVERROES, an Arabian philosopher, 12th ct. 
 
 AVERSA, Th., a dramatic author, 17th cent. 
 
 AVESBURG, Robert of, a chronicler, 14th 
 century. 
 
 AVlANO, Jerome, an Ital. poet, 16th cent. 
 
 AVICENNA, an Arabian philosopher, d. 1037. 
 
 AVIDIUS, a Roman emperor, 175. 
 
 AVIENUS, R. F., a Latin poet, 4th century. 
 
 AVILA, John D', a Spanish priest, called the 
 Apostle of Andalusia, died 1569. 
 
 AVILA-Y-ZUNIGA, Louis D', a soldier and 
 diplomatist, time of Charles V. 
 
 AVILA, G. G. D', an antiquary, died 1658. 
 
 AVILER, A. C. D', a French architect, d. 1700. 
 
 AVIRON, James Le Bathalier, author of 
 legal commentaries, 16th century. 
 
 AVISON, Ch., a musical composer, died 1770. 
 
 AVITUS, Flav., a Roman emperor, elect. 455. 
 
 AVITUS, St., a Latin poet, 5tn century. 
 
 AVOGADRO, the Count, a patriotic noble- 
 man of Brescia, defeated 1502. 
 
 BAB 
 
 AVOGADRO, Lucia, a poetess, died 1568. 
 
 AVRIGNY, C. J. L., a French poet, d. 1823. 
 
 AXELSON, Eric, a Swed. statesman, d. 1840. 
 
 AYALA, a Dutch physician, 16th century. 
 
 AYALA, Peter Lopez D,' a statesman, 
 general, and historian of Spain, died 1407. 
 
 AYALA, B. D', a Spanish painter, died 1673. 
 
 AYALA, J. L. D', a Spanish astrono., last cent. 
 
 AYAMONTE, Marquis of, a patriot of Anda- 
 lusia, executed 1640. 
 
 AYESHA, wife of Mahomet, died 677. 
 
 AYLMER, J., a controversial divine, bishop ol 
 London, time of Elizabeth. 
 
 AYLOFFE, Sir Joseph, an antiquary and 
 miscellaneous writer, 1708-1781. 
 
 AYMON, count of Savoy, 1329 to 1343. 
 
 AYMON, a priest of Piedmont, 17th century. 
 
 AYOLA, J. De, governor of Buenos Ayres 
 1536, killed by the Indians 1538. 
 
 AYRAULT, P., a French lawyer, 16th century. 
 
 AYRTON, Edm., a composer, died 1808. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, S., an antiquary and miscellane- 
 ous writer, 1745-1804. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, G. E., a writer last century. 
 
 AYSCUE, Sir G., an English admiral, coadju- 
 tor with Admiral Blake. 
 
 AYTON, Sir R., a Scotch poet, died 1638. 
 
 AZAIS, P. H., a miscellaneous writer, last cent, 
 
 AZALIAS, a female troubadour, 12th century. 
 
 AZARA, Don J. N. De, a Spanish diplomatist, 
 author, and antiquary, died 1804. 
 
 AZARA, Don Felix De, a commissioner sent 
 out by the Spanish government in 1781, to arrange 
 with Portuguese deputies regarding the boun- 
 daries of their respective territories in S. America. 
 He constructed good maps of the La Plata and 
 its affluents, and wrote an account of Paraguay, 
 whose chief value consists in its contributions to 
 natural history. [J.B.] 
 
 AZARIAH, high pr. of the Jews, 9th ct. b.c. 
 
 AZARIAH, or UZZIAH, king of the Jews, 
 8th century, B.C. 
 
 AZARIO, P., an historian, 13th century. 
 
 AZANAR, count of Gascony, founder of the 
 kingdom of Navarre, died 836. 
 
 AZOR, J., a moralist, 16th century. 
 
 AZUNI, Dominic Albert, a writer on mari- 
 time law, died 1827. 
 
 AZZO, P., an Italian jurist, 13th century. 
 
 AZZOLINI, Lorenzo, a satirist, died 1632. 
 
 AZZOLINI, Decio, an Italian cardinal, confi- 
 dant of queen Christina, died 1689. 
 
 B 
 
 BAAHDIN, Mah., a Persian jurist, 16th cent. 
 
 BAALE, St. V., a dram. p. of Holl., 1782-1822. 
 
 BAAN, J. De, a portrait painter, d. 1702. His 
 son James, also distinguished as a painter, d. 1700. 
 
 BAARDT, P., a Flemish poet, 18th century. 
 
 BAARSDORP, C, a physician, died 1565. 
 
 BAASHA, the usurper of the kgd. of Jeroboam, 
 whose whole race he exterminated, 10th cent. B.C. 
 
 BAAZIUS, J., aprel. and his. of Swe., 1581-1649. 
 
 BABA, a Turkish adventurer, 13th century. 
 
 BABA-ALI, first independent dey of Algiers, 
 elected 1710, died 1718. 
 
 BABA-ALI, a learned Mahomedan, d. 1569. 
 
 BABACOUSCHI, A. R, Mustapha, a Ma- 
 homedan author, 14th century. 
 
 BABBINI, M., an Italian singer, died 1816. 
 
 BABEK, Khoremi, a Persian socialist, de- 
 feated and slain, after 20 years' conflict, 837. 
 
 BABEUF, Francis Noel, born at Saint Quen- 
 tin, 1764, and unknown during the first years of 
 the revolution, except for his work on the Regis- 
 tration of Lands, has acquired a memorable place 
 in the history of the Directory, first, by editing 
 the 'Tribune of the People,' and afterwards by 
 conspiring against the government. The prin- 
 ciples he advocated were those of absolute equality, 
 
 53 
 
BAB 
 
 as the apostle of which, at the critical period when 
 the power of Napoleon Buonaparte was just ris- 
 ing, he displayed a singular inflexibility of purpose 
 and good faith. Before the appearance of the 
 ' Tribune,' he had published a work entitled the 
 ' Life and Crimes of Carrier,' which is considered 
 the most impartial account of that inhuman 
 monster. In his Journal, Babeuf took the sur- 
 name of ' Cains Gracchus,' and it is to his denun- 
 ciations of all terrorism, that we owe the well- 
 known apellation of the system which he de- 
 nounced. He was arrested in the month of May, 
 1796, and did not hesitate to make a daring 
 avowal of his ambitious hopes as the chief of a 
 great party. He endeavoured to escape the ig- 
 nominy of the guillotine by stabbing himself 
 several times with a poignard, secretly conveyed 
 to him by his son, but was dragged bleeding to the 
 scaffold twenty-four hours afterwards, with the 
 instrument of death still rankling in the wound. 
 His object, beyond all doubt, was to overthrow the 
 present constitution of society, and this, perhaps, 
 with the fallacy of his principles, is the worst that 
 can be alleged against him. [E.R.] 
 
 BABIN, F., a French casuist, died 1734. 
 
 BABINGTON, Anth., a catholic accused of 
 conspiring to place the unfortunate Mary Stuart 
 on the throne of England ; executed 1586. 
 
 BABINGTON, G., a learned bishop, 17th cent. 
 
 BABINGTON, Dr. W., an English physician 
 and mineralogist, 1757-1833. 
 
 BABO, J. M., a German dramatist, 1756-1822. 
 
 BABOUR, Mahomed, grandson, of Tamerlane, 
 proclaimed sovereign of Tartary 1483 ; conqueror 
 of Delhi 1525 ; and founder of the dynasty which 
 reigned in Hindostan till the 19th cent., d. 1530. 
 
 BABRIAS, a Greek poet, long known as Ga- 
 brias, through an error of the copyist. 
 
 BABUER, Theod., a painter, 17th century. 
 
 BABYLAS, St., a martyr of the 3d century. 
 
 BACAI, Ib. ben Omar, a wr. of biog., 15th c. 
 
 BACCAINI, B., a learned writer, died 1721. 
 
 BACCALAR Y SANNA, Vincent, a comman- 
 der and author of memoirs, died 1726. 
 
 BACCHANELLI, J., an Italian physic, 16th c. 
 
 BACCHID^, a dynasty of Corinth. 
 
 BACCHIDES, governor of Mesopotamia, and 
 commissioner of Demetrius, king of Syria, in the 
 time of Judas Maccabseus. 
 
 BACCHIUS, a Greek writer on music. 
 
 BACCHUS. See Boccuus. 
 
 BACCHYLIDES, a Greek lyric, 450 B.C. 
 
 BACCIO, And., an Ital. phy. and au., 16th ct. 
 
 BACCIO, F. B., an Italian painter, died 1517. 
 
 BACCIOCCHI, Maria Anne Eliza Buon- 
 aparte, princess of, was the sister of Napoleon, 
 born 1777; married to M. Bacciocchi 1797; 
 crowned with her husband, princess of Lucca and 
 Piombino 1805 ; fell with Buonaparte 1814, d. 1820. 
 
 BACELLAR, A. B., a Port, historian, d. 1663. 
 
 BACH, J. A., a jurist, 1721-1759. 
 
 BACH, Johann Sebastian, one of the most 
 eminent masters of musical science, was born at 
 Eisenach in Upper Saxony, on the 21st of March, 
 1685. The ancestor of "the remarkable family, 
 from which sprung the subject of the following 
 memoir, was Veit Bach, a native of Presburg in 
 Hungary, which city he was forced to leave dur- 
 ing the religious struggles of the 16th century. 
 
 BAC 
 
 He ultimately settled at Vechmar in Saxe Gotha, 
 where he resumed his trade of miller and baker, 
 and amused his leisure hours by practising on the 
 guitar. He imparted a taste for music to his sons, 
 and they again to their families, most of whom 
 adopted music as a profession, until they filled all 
 the offices of musicians, organists, and chanters, 
 in their native province. The greatest, however, of 
 the name, and one of the greatest of his age, was 
 John Sebastian, upon whom all writers on music, 
 as well in England as in Germany, have bestowed 
 the most unbounded laudations. Among many 
 others who have left their written opinions of the 
 excellence of this master, it is only necessary to 
 mention the names of Forkel, his biographer, 
 Marpurg, Handel, Matheson, Reichardt, Beetho- 
 ven, Von Reaumar, Mendelssohn, and Friedeman. 
 In 1695 the father of John Sebastian Bach died, 
 and he was left to the care of an elder brother, 
 who does not seem to have possessed that kindly 
 and affectionate nature which, like music, was 
 hereditary in the family. This brother, instead 
 of assisting him in his early studies, did all he 
 could to hinder him from progressing as rapidly 
 as he otherwise would have done. He even de- 
 stroyed a collection of studies which the young Se- 
 bastian, being denied candles, had copied by moon- 
 light. After the death of this brother, Sebastian 
 at a very early period of his life commenced his 
 professional career as a treble singer in the choir 
 of St. Michael's school at Luneburg. In 1703, for 
 reasons not now known, he quitted Luneburg and 
 went to Weimar, where he was appointed court 
 musician, and in 1708 court organist, and 
 director of the concerts to the duke. It was not 
 long after this that he received an invitation 
 to visit Dresden, where Marchand, a celebrated 
 French organist, then held office. A musical con- 
 test between this professor and Bach was arranged 
 to take place, but the Frenchman left Dresden 
 through fear of the German artist, whose fame had 
 preceded him. On his return to Weimar, Prince 
 Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen gave him the situation 
 of chapel master, and in 1723 he accepted the 
 office of director of music at Leipzig, which ap- 
 pointment he held till his death. On one occa- 
 sion he was invited by Frederick the Great to visit 
 Potsdam, where he was most honourably enter- 
 tained, and was received with the most marked 
 condescension by that monarch, for whom he com- 
 posed his world-renowned fugue, under the title of 
 'The Musical Offering.' This was Bach's last 
 journey. Constant study, frequently for days and 
 nights together, first weakened, then deprived him 
 of his sight. He died of apoplexy on the 30th of 
 July, 1750. Bach composed a great number of 
 works in almost every class of music, and all excel- 
 lent ; but it would occupy too much space to enu- 
 merate them here. He was great as a contrapun- 
 tist beyond all who went before him, and was no 
 more than equalled by the greatest of his contem- 
 poraries. His ' Passionsmusik ' and ' Chorales,' or 
 psalm tunes, have always been held in the highest 
 estimation of all his vocal compositions. The first 
 time that any portion of Bach's vocal music was 
 publicly performed in Great Britain was at the 
 London Institution, at the course of lectures de- 
 livered by Dr. Gauntlett in the spring of 1837. 
 In the ' German Musical Gazette ' for 1823, there 
 
 M 
 
BAG 
 
 was published a curious genealogical tree of the 
 Bach family, which shows that from Veit there were, 
 down to John Sebastian, who appears in the fifth 
 generation, fifty-eight male descendants, all of 
 whom, according to Forkel, made music their pro- 
 fession. Among the most famous of the relations 
 of Sebastian Bach may be mentioned, John Philipp 
 Emanuel his son, born in 1714, known as Bach of 
 Berlin, who was chapel master to the Princess 
 Amelia of Prussia, He died at Hamburg in 1788. 
 This composer left upwards of fifty different com- 
 positions, several of which were published after 
 his death. John Christian, another son of Sebas- 
 tian, the date of whose birth has not been pub- 
 lished, was known first as Bach of Milan, and 
 afterwards as Bach of London. This composer 
 came to London about the year 1769, and brought 
 out his opera of ' Orione, ' which was much ad- 
 mired for the richness of its harmony. He died 
 in London in the year 1782. John Christopher 
 Friedrich, the ninth of the eleven sons of Sebas- 
 tian, was born at Weimar in 1732. He held the 
 situation of master of the concerts at the court of 
 Buckeburg. He is said to have been the ablest of 
 performers upon the organ and clavichord of all his 
 brothers. William Friedeman, the eldest son of 
 Sebastian, was born in 1710, approached in his 
 compositions most nearly to the singular originality 
 of his father. He died at Berlin in 1784. George 
 Christopher was a famous composer and singer at 
 Schweinfurt about the end of the 17th century. 
 John Bernhard, nephew of Sebastian, was or- 
 ganist at OrdnutT, where he died in 1742. John 
 Ambrosius, the father of Sebastian, was musician 
 to the town and court of Eisenach, and John 
 Christopher, twin brother of the preceding, held a 
 similar situation to the court and town of Arm- 
 stadt. John CHRiSTOPH,organist to the court and 
 town of Eisenach at the close of the 17th century, 
 was considered one of the greatest masters of har- 
 mony and performers on the organ of his time. 
 One of his works, which is still extant, a piece of 
 church music, has twenty obligato parts, 'and 
 vet,' says the biographer of the family of the 
 Bachs, ' it is perfectly pure in respect of harmony.' 
 Johann Ernst, chapel master to the duke of Wei- 
 mar, was born in 1712, and died in 1781. Johann 
 Ludwig, chapel master to the duke of Saxe-Mein- 
 engen, and composer of church music, was born in 
 1677, and diedinl730. Johann MicHAEL,brother 
 to Johann Christoph, who composed some good 
 church music, was born at Armstadt in 1660. [J.M.] 
 
 BACHAUMONT, Fr. le Coigneux De, a 
 Fr. polit., afterwards known as an au., 1624-1702. 
 
 BACHAUMONT, L. P. De, a Fr. his., d. 1771. 
 
 BACHE, B. F., an American journalist, d. 1799. 
 
 BACHE, Rich., son-in-law of Franklin, d. 1811. 
 
 BACHELEY, J., a French engraver, d. 1781. 
 
 BACHELIER, J. J., a French painter, d. 1805. 
 
 BACHELIEN, Nich., a Fr. sculptor, d. 1554. 
 
 BACHELLERIE, Hugh, a troubadour, 12th c. 
 
 BACHIENE, G. A., an astronomer, died 1783. 
 
 BACHER, G. F., a medical author, 1765-1772. 
 
 BACHE R, Alex., son of the preceding, con- 
 tinued the observations of his father, died 1807. 
 
 BACHER, Theobald, a French diplomatist 
 and political agent, 1748-1813. 
 
 BACHMEISTER, H. L. C, a distinguished wr. 
 of works on Russia, historical and other, d. 1806. 
 
 BAC 
 
 BACHOVIUS, Reinier, and his son of the 
 same name, both known as jurists, the latter at 
 Heidelberg, 16th century. 
 
 BACHOT, Gaspard, a medical writer, 17th c. 
 
 BACICI, J. B. G., an Italian painter, d. 1709. 
 
 BACK, Abr., a Swedish naturalist, d. 1775. 
 
 BACKER, Jac, a Dutch painter, died 1664. 
 
 BACKER, A., nephew of the preceding, d. 1686. 
 
 BACKHOUSE,W., a practical alchymist andau., 
 instructor of the eel. Elias Ashmole, 1593-1662. 
 
 BACKHUYSEN, Rudolph, or Ludolph, 
 an eminent Dutch marine painter, 1631-1709. 
 
 BACKUS, Azel, a theologian, died 1824. 
 
 BACKUS, Isaac, a Baptist historian, d. 1806. 
 
 BACLER D'ALBE, Aubert L., a military 
 engineer and geographer, 1761-1824. 
 
 BACMEISTER, a German family of this name 
 has produced many distinguished men, lay and 
 clerical. Henry, a jurist, 1584-1629. Henry, 
 the younger, counsellor of Wurtemburg, 1670. 
 John, professor of medicine at Tubingen, 1710. 
 Lucas, a celebrated Lutheran divine, 1530-1608. 
 His son of the same name, also a theological writer, 
 1570-1638. The son of the latter, also of the 
 same name, professor of theology, d. 1679. Mat- 
 thew, son of the elder Lucas, a medical author, 
 1580-1626. Sebastian, an historian, 1646-1704. 
 
 BACON, Anthony, elder brother of Sir Fran- 
 cis, known as a man of letters and political in- 
 triguer in the reign of Elizabeth, born 1558. 
 
 BACON, Francis, Lord Verulam, Viscount 
 St. Albans, Lord Chancellor of England under 
 James I., Author of the ' Instauratio Magna.' The 
 attempt to describe or surround a mind like that 
 of our immortal Englishman, is akin to the effort 
 to survey some grand Power in Nature, whose mani- 
 festations are almost infinite in form, and the 
 sphere of whose efficacy is wide as the Universe. 
 The industry of all vast minds is unwearied : nor is 
 it ever safe to say of such, that any one department 
 of labour, or species of activity, belongs to them 
 peculiarly. From early manhood Bacon was im- 
 mersed in public affairs, intrusted with very oner- 
 ous functions ; in the first rank as Jurisconsult, he 
 moved in the work of reforming and arranging the 
 laws of England ; as Statesman he laboured effec- 
 tively in promotion of the treaty of Union that 
 foundation-stone of our modem British greatness; 
 in the capacity of Historian he produced the first 
 work in English literature meriting the name of 
 History, viz., his work on the reign of Henry VII.; 
 as Orator and Writer he had no equal in his 
 age -joining to energy and weight of expression, 
 a splendour of diction which sometimes may 
 dazzle too much ; and besides he renovated Philo- 
 sophy. There are two features only, in a charac- 
 ter so various and illustrious, to which we can re- 
 fer in our brief sketch, viz.: Bacon's achieve- 
 ments and value in philosophy, and his deserts as 
 a Man. I. The enterprise undertaken by this won- 
 derful Intellect, indicates by its very elevation and 
 comprehensiveness, the capacity of the genius that 
 conceived it. Bacon resolved to rescue science 
 from the deplorable uncertainties and obstructions 
 which then surrounded it to reconstruct the edi- 
 fice of human knowledge from its very foundations. 
 Of his projected ' Instauratio Magna,' the works 
 he has left are only fragments ; nor could they be 
 otherwise, for the execution of the gigantic plan is 
 
 bo 
 
BAC 
 
 erne of the leading tasks delegated to humanity, 
 which cannot be completed so long as the condi- 
 tion of humanity remains a progressive one. The 
 ' Instauratio Magna,' has six main parts : First, 
 Bacon felt it needful to challenge anew for inquiry 
 the respect and dignity that belong to it, to detect 
 the vices of the philosophy prevailing at his time, 
 and to point out the deficiencies requiring to be 
 filled up. Such is the aim of the treatise 'De 
 Augmentis.' Secondly, the Remedy had to be 
 discovered; the only certain cure for the evils 
 signalized. This cure is the use of the true Me- 
 thod, in the adoption of observation and experi- 
 ment instead of hypothesis, as instruments for the 
 discovery of fact, and in the substitution in such 
 inquiries, of induction for deduction or syllogistic 
 reasoning. The principles and processes of the 
 new method are elaborately exposed in the ' No- 
 vum Organum.' The third an&Jburth parts of the 
 1 Instauratio ' were planned as an exemplification 
 or instruction in the use of the new Organon ; the 
 former, viz., the 'Historia Naturalis et Experi- 
 mentalis, ' being dedicated to the collecting, by 
 aid of observation and experiment, of the greatest 
 possible mass of facts ; and the latter, the Scala 
 intellectus, to exemplification of discovery by induc- 
 tion, of general laws from these facts, and of the 
 application of these general laws by the inverse 
 
 Erocess of deduction, to particular cases compre- 
 ended within them. To finish this memorable 
 undertaking, it yet remained that the results of 
 the method, or the truths of philosophy be collected 
 and arranged; but rightly seeing that the dis- 
 covery of these was not a task he had to accom- 
 plish, but a legacy he had to bequeath, Bacon 
 was satisfied with drawing up other two books, 
 the first, or the fifth of his plan, named by 
 him ' Anticipations^' and the second or sixth, 
 4 Philosophia Secunda Sive Activa,' having refer- 
 ence to applications to action, or practice. 
 Such the grandeur of the intellectual Globe which 
 the mind of this Englishman endeavoured to span ! 
 It is in the second division of his great work 
 that Bacon's more positive achievements are un- 
 folded. And it must not be conceived that he is 
 here satisfied with a set of* general precepts, or 
 with general statements concerning the value and 
 superiority of his Organon. The new Method of 
 Inquiry, on the other hand\ is examined under 
 every light, and its right practice exposed in detail. 
 In the first place, Bacon passes under review all 
 the procedures of observation and every kind of 
 experiment, showing with what special precaution 
 facts must be sought for, and how we may esti- 
 mate the value of the various sorts of facts bearing 
 on any inquiry. With corresponding pains, and 
 still greater success, he unfolds in the second 
 book of the Organon in what way Induction en- 
 ables one to detect from the collected facts, the 
 true cause, or the true law of a phenomenon. 
 Having collected by observation all the facts 
 which precede or follow the phenomenon, it is 
 necessary to exclude those in whose absence the 
 phenomenon can be produced to notice and separ- 
 ate those others in whose presence it always is 
 f>roduced ; and lastly, to select from among the 
 atter class, such facts as vary iu intensity when the 
 phenomenon varies, i.e., which increase or diminish 
 in proportion to an increase or decrease of inten- 
 
 BAC 
 
 sity in the phenomenon. In this way, according to 
 Lord Bacon, the true cause is found; and an ap- 
 plication to this cause of a similar process, will 
 evolve its cause, until in the end we reach supreme 
 causes and universal laws. In appreciation of 
 these important and memorable labours, we have 
 room for only three brief remarks. First, it can- 
 not well be denied that in certain respects Lord 
 Bacon too much decried, or perhaps too little un- 
 derstood the syllogism; and that its peculiar 
 meaning and value, as the only legitimate instru- 
 ment in Deduction, ought to have preserved it and 
 Aristotle, its immortal author, from the unjust dis- 
 paragement which one regrets to find upheld by the 
 authority of so great a name. Nevertheless, this 
 injustice to the Greeks, arising partly from defect 
 of critical acquaintance with them, but more 
 from his well-grounded revolt against the deplor- 
 able methods sustained in physical inquiry under 
 shelter of their authority, m nowise impairs the 
 edifice Bacon himself reared, or attaches to it any 
 incompleteness. Secondly, it is not pretended, 
 with some exclusive and enthusiastic partizans, 
 that previous to the writings of our countryman, 
 no philosopher had sought truths by Induction, or 
 based his inquiries on observation and experiment. 
 It is certainly far from being true that Galileo, 
 for instance, in conducting his immortal researches, 
 pursued an erroneous course, or that although he 
 had studied the 'Novum Organum,' his career 
 of discovery would have been materially different ; 
 what is true is this no one before Bacon had 
 seen the full importance of the experimental and 
 inductive method, had discovered the extent of the 
 sphere of which it is the only legitimate occupant, 
 had explored its principles, and from principles 
 deduced rules for it as an Art. And it is equally 
 true, that every inquiry of value, undertaken since 
 the publication of his inductive code, has been 
 conducted, with or without the consciousness of the 
 Inquirer, according to laws laid down in that 
 code. Lastly, since the publication of the induc- 
 tive code, its laws have been enlarged and greatly 
 particularized, so that be it said, with perfect re- 
 spect to the Organon it is not to our countryman's 
 writings alone that we would point now for full in- 
 struction in his own philosophy. The exigencies 
 of the modern sciences, as well of observation as 
 of experiment, have obliged us to refine his pro- 
 cesses and multiply his precautions. The doctrine 
 of probabilities enables us to discern the relative 
 values of different classes of facts, with a precision 
 Bacon never dreamt of; and in the writings of mo- 
 dern authors let us say of Mr. Mill the methods 
 of induction are unfolded with a superior compre- 
 hensiveness and effect. But although the advance of 
 the physical sciences, caused by the impulse Lord 
 Bacon communicated, has exacted for them pro- 
 cesses more complete and perfect than his; when, 
 as to the moral sciences as to inquiry, political, 
 ethical, and religious shall the time arrive in 
 which inquirers sh..ll practically recognize the 
 validity even of the most general precepts in the 
 Organon ? The ultimate application of these pre- 
 cepts is sure ; but humanity has not yet acquired 
 the strength to accomplish it. II. The length to 
 which our analysis of Bacon's philosophy has ex- 
 tended, prevents our dwelling much on the charac- 
 ter of the Man. Nevertheless, one earnest, though 
 
 50 
 
EAC 
 
 brief word, in deprecation of the harshest treatment 
 which, with one exception, has ever been applied to 
 I mind so great. It is a canon we think which may 
 he observed absolutely with far greater safety than 
 it ever can be broken that highest intellect and vir- 
 tue are most closely allied ; nay, notwithstanding 
 appearances, their severance is impossible : certainly 
 no mind like Bacon's, living through its duration 
 amid a;reat ideas, ought to be suspected of volun- 
 tary descent to utter meanness, unless on evi- 
 dence which, concerning transactions of the kind 
 charged against him, has not come down assuredly 
 from that age. Dissimulation, indeed, connip- 
 tion, treachery to friendship it matters not what 
 the mind may be that is guilty of them ; the acts 
 are mean, and the mind foul. But the error in 
 the popular judgment lies here dissimulation and 
 corruption are inferred on the strength of obscure 
 circumstances, and without the necessary inquiry 
 whether taking the character of the mind into 
 consideration the said acts could possibly signify 
 to it, either dissimulation or corruption V At an 
 Old Bailey indeed, or in Banco Regis, judg- 
 ment must be summary ; but the Muse of History 
 holds in her hands scales of another order her 
 question is, do I rightly understand this Man f It 
 is passing strange to find Lord Bacon in the guise 
 of an ordinary criminal, and treated with no more 
 than the ordinary courtesy, before Lord Campbell's 
 judgment seat ! The errors of Bacon, in so far as 
 they are distinctly established, were mainly those of 
 compliance; and it will probably be found that they 
 must be classed among those involuntary acts, which 
 connect the best and wisest, through sheer force of 
 circumstances, with the times in which they live ; 
 involuntary, inasmuch as they are done because 
 they are usually done, and without rigid examina- 
 tion. Sad it were if through cause of conventional 
 compliances, everv eminent personage of our own 
 day might justly be branded as unveracious, and a 
 hypocrite ! Such as he was since Bacon's time, 
 Englandhasseen no greater and seldom a betterMan. 
 
 [Statu cl Bacon.] 
 
 ' And be it said he had this excellence, 
 That undesirous of a false renown, 
 lie ever wished to pass for what he was; 
 One that swerved much and oft, hut being still 
 
 BAC 
 
 Deliberately bent upon the right, 
 
 Had kept it in the main : one that much loved 
 
 "Whate'er in man is worthy high respect, 
 
 And in his soul devoutly did aspire 
 
 To be it all, yet felt from time to time 
 
 The littleness that clings to what is human, 
 
 And suffered from the shame of having felt it.' 
 
 Lord Bacon was born in London on 22d Jan., 1560, 
 d. 1626. There have been various editions of his 
 work the last by Basil Montague ; but an unexcep- 
 tionable edition is still a desideratum. [J.P.N .] 
 
 BACON, John, an eminent sculptor, the best 
 of whose works are the statues ot Dr. Johnson 
 and John Howard in St. Paul's, and the funeral 
 monument of Lord Chatham, 1740-1799. 
 
 BACON, Nath., one of the earliest and most 
 valiant patriots of America, educated as a lawyer 
 in England, died 1676. 
 
 BACON, Sir Nath., half-brother of Sir Fran- 
 cis, known as a painter, died 1615. 
 
 BACON, Sir Nicholas, lord chancellor in the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, and father of the cele- 
 brated philosopher, 1510-1579. 
 
 BACON, Anne, wife of the preceding, known 
 for her trans, from the Ital. and Latin, 1528-1600. 
 
 BACON, Ph., D.D., a comic writer, d. 1783. 
 
 BACON, Ph., a naval com., time of Charles II. 
 
 BACON, Robert, an English monk, influential 
 as a preacher at the court of Henry III., 1233-1248. 
 
 BACON, Roger, a Franciscan monk of the 
 thirteenth century, born near Ilcester in Somer- 
 set. This remarkable person, most worthy of 
 the name he bears, failed to be the restorer of 
 philosophy, neither from defect of energy or will, but 
 because the times were not yet ripe. Living at an 
 epoch of intellectual torpor and profound igno- 
 rance, and surrounded by men neither instructed 
 nor caring to become so, Bacon, as with the Chan- 
 cellor afterwards and the great Des Cartes, first 
 grappled with the question, Why is this ignorance? 
 Why is our human Reason a willing captive ? The 
 exposition of his reply occupies a large portion of 
 the ' Opus Majus ;' and the reply itself is not dif- 
 ferent m kind fr-m that which in all ages must, by 
 every original thinker, be found to the same 
 question. Irrational deference to Authority ; slavish 
 respect for Custom ; subjection to popular preju- 
 dices, and that vulgar selfishness which induces 
 men to reject as dangerous, or despise as puerile, 
 all knowledge they do not themselves possess, 
 these are the causes of darkness in all ages : nor 
 can they be overcome unless the independence and 
 dignity of Reason be acknowledged, the influence 
 of authority, custom, and prejudice discredited, 
 and Truth sought through careful and systematic 
 investigation of Nature. And in his quiet cloister 
 near Oxford, the monk wrought out principles 
 and modes of legitimate investigation, and success- 
 fully followed them. If not entitled to take rank 
 as the founder of experimental philosophy, Roger 
 Bacon was unquestionably the earliest philosophi- 
 cal Experimentalist in England. He recognized as 
 fully as Francis, the importance of experiment as 
 distinguished from deduction: and he had this 
 immense advantage over the Chancellor he joined 
 example to precept, and put in use, before his co- 
 temporaries, his own counsels. It is interesting to 
 reflect on the amount of actual discovery which 
 rewarded so much laborious research. Bacon 
 made signal advances in optics ; he was an excel- 
 
 57 
 
BAG 
 
 lent chemist, and in all probability discovered 
 gunpowder ; nevertheless, it is on his clear discern- 
 ment of true Method that his fame must rest. 
 During his unswerving pursuit of knowledge he 
 encountered the usual oppositions, and a share also 
 of encouragement. Pope Clement IV. aided and 
 cheered him ; but after the death of this protector 
 the smothered jealousy and dislike of the Francis- 
 cans broke forth, the mean and the weak are of 
 course ever the readiest and fiercest persecutors. 
 It is at once unjust and unwise to consider errors 
 and crimes of this sort as exclusive attributes of 
 the Romish church ; their root, on the contrary, lies 
 deep in the heart of man. The domain of phy- 
 sical inquiry is now wholly safe from the disorders 
 of intolerance; but there are large departments 
 of knowledge within which Reason is still not free, 
 where authority abides on its throne, and popular 
 prejudice stores up its thunderbolts. [J.P.N.] 
 
 [Roger Bacons Study at Oxford.] 
 
 BACON, or BACONTHORP, John, a learned 
 monk of the 14th century, died 1346. 
 
 BACOUE, Leonard, a Latin poet, d. 1694. 
 
 BACQUERRE, B., a medical writer, 17th ct. 
 
 BACQUET, a French lawyer, died 1597. 
 
 BACZKO, a Polish chronicler, 13th century. 
 
 BADAJOZ, Juan De, a Spanish architect, 
 middle of the 16th century. 
 
 BADCOCK, S., a polemical wr., 1747-1788. 
 
 BADEN, one of the sovereign families of Ger- 
 many, distinguished by many eminent statesmen 
 and military leaders since the 11th century. 
 Charles Frederick, born 1728, was defeated 
 {several times by Moreau, and concluded a treaty 
 of peace with the French republic 1796 ; adhered 
 to the Confederation of the Rhine 1805, and 
 received the title of Grand Duke ; died 1811. 
 
 BADEN, James, a critical writer and lexico- 
 grapher of Denmark, 1735-1805. 
 
 BADEN, Richard De, the original founder of 
 Clare Hall, Cambridge, 1326. 
 
 BADENS, Fr., a Dutch painter, died 1603. 
 
 BADESSA, Paul, an Italian poet, 16th cent. 
 
 BADI-EL-ZEMAM, the last descendant of Ta- 
 merlane who reigned in Khorassan ; died 1517. 
 
 BADIA, Domingo, a political agent and 
 traveller of Spain, 1766-1824. 
 
 BADIALI, Alex., an Italian etcher, 17th ct. 
 
 BADILE, Ant., an Italian painter, 1480-1660. 
 
 BADILY, a naval officer, time of Cromwell 
 
 BAH 
 
 BADUEL, Cl., a protestant theologian, d. 1561. 
 
 BAELI, F., a Sicilian historian, 17th century. 
 
 BAENGIUS, P., a Swedish historian, 17th ct. 
 
 BAERSIUS, H., a mathematician, 16th cent. 
 
 BAERSTRAT, a Dutch painter, died 1687. 
 
 BAFFIN, William, a skilful English naviga- 
 tor of the 17th century, deserving honourable 
 mention as the first who applied observations oi 
 the heavenly bodies for the determination of the 
 longitude at sea. Rules for the practice of the 
 method which he employed are given in his account 
 of the fourth voyage of James Hall, whom he ac- 
 companied to the coast of Greenland in 1612, pro- 
 bably in the capacity of pilot. Nothing is known 
 of his history prior to this date. In 1613 he com- 
 manded a whaling ship in the sea of Spitzbergen. 
 In 1615-1616 he went as mate with Robert Bylot, 
 on two voyages, whose object was the discovery of 
 a N.W. passage. In the second of these, the ex- 
 tensive bay named after him (which should now 
 be termed a sea, since it is known to open north- 
 wards), was discovered, and in great part traced. 
 He wrote an account of these voyages also. Many 
 of his statements are important, and highly 
 suggestive. He calculated the horizontal or 
 maximum refraction at 26' ; the present estimate 
 is 32' or 33'. In 1618 we find him mate of a 
 merchant vessel in the Arabian sea. In 1621 he 
 was killed at the siege of Kismis, a fort near Ormuz, 
 while engaged in an English expedition co-operating 
 with the Persians, in endeavouring to drive the 
 Portuguese out of the Persian Gulf. [J-B.] 
 
 BAFFO, G., a Venetian poet, died 1768. 
 
 BAFFO, a Venetian lady who was taken cap- 
 tive, and becoming his favourite sultana, enjoyed 
 great authority under Amurath III. 
 
 BAF-KARKAH, an Arabian mathematician. 
 
 BAGDEDIN, Mahomed, a mathemat., 10th c. 
 
 BAGE, Robert, a novelist, 1728-1801. 
 
 BAGFORD, J., an antiquarian, died 1716. 
 
 BAGGER, J., a learned Danish prel., 1646-1693. 
 
 BAGGESEN, Jens, a Danish poet, 1764-1806. 
 
 BAGLIONE, Caesar, a fresco painter, 17th ct. 
 
 BAGLIONE, G., a fresco painter, died 1644. 
 
 BAGLIONI, J. P., usurper of Perugia, put to 
 death by Leo X., 1520. 
 
 BAGLIVI, G., a medical writer, 1667-1706. 
 
 BAGNATI, an ascetic writer, 1651-1727. 
 
 BAGNIOLI, J. C, an Italian poet, died 1600. 
 
 BAGOAS, the murderer of Artaxerxes Ochus, 
 king of Persia, put to death B.C. 356. 
 
 BAGOPHANES, gov. of Babylon, time of Alex. 
 
 BAGOT, Lewis, bishop of Bristol, &c, author 
 of Sermons on the Prophecies, 1740-1802. 
 
 BAGRATION, K. A., a Russian commander, 
 killed at Moscow, 1812. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Chr., an English catholic, and 
 ecclesiastical historian, died at Paris 1626. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Ed., a political writer and par- 
 tizan of the Royalists, died 1662. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Ed., son of the preceding, assis- 
 tant of Dr. Busbv, died 1671. 
 
 BAGSHAW, H., another son of Edward, author 
 of Sermons, &c, died 1709. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Wm., a religious writer, d. 1703. 
 
 BAHA-ED-DOULAH, son of Adad-el-Doulab, 
 shah of Persia 989, died 1012. 
 
 BAHALI, an Arabian grammarian, died 842. 
 
 BAHIER, J., a French poet, died 1707. 
 
 58 
 
BAH 
 
 BAHRAM, or BEHRAM, I., king of Persia, 
 
 272-276. Bahram II., 276-293. Bahham III., 
 
 reigaed four months, 293. Bahram IV., 383-393. 
 
 Bahram V., 421-440. 
 
 BAHRDT, C. F., a German divine, died 1792. 
 
 BAIAN, And., a native of Goa, converted to 
 Christianity, and ordained as minister 1630. 
 BAIER, J. G., a botanist, 1677-1735. 
 
 BAIER, J. W., a German divine, died 1694. 
 
 BAIF, Lazarus, a French ambassador and 
 author, time of Francis I., died 1547. 
 
 BAIF, J. A., son of Lazarus, distinguished as 
 a poet, founder of an academy, 1570. 
 
 BAIL, Louis, a French divine, 17th century. 
 
 BAILEY, Nathan, a lexicographer, d. 1742. 
 
 BAILEY, Peter, a miscellaneous wr., d. 1823. 
 
 BAILEY, Walker, a medical author, d. 1592. 
 
 BAILIE, Lieut.-Col., distinguished for his 
 gallantry in the last war, 1778-1836. 
 
 BAILLET, Adrien, a Fr. critic, 1649-1706. 
 
 BAILLIE, Joanna, was born in 1762, at 
 Bothwell, in Lanarkshire, of which place her 
 father was the parish minister. Her mother was 
 sister of John and William Hunter, the famous 
 anatomists. Her life was spent in domestic pri- 
 vacy, and marked by no events more important 
 than the appearance of her successive works. 
 Her brother, who became Sir Matthew Baillie, 
 having settled as a physician in London, Miss 
 Baillie removed thither at an early age. She 
 resided in the metropolis, or its neighbourhood, 
 almost constantly, and died at Hampstead in Feb- 
 ruary, 1851. Her first volume of dramas was 
 published in 1798. Their design, as to which it 
 is not too much to say that the works were good 
 in spite of it, not by means of it, was indicated in 
 the title : ' A Series of Plays, in which it is at- 
 tempted to delineate the Stronger Passions of the 
 Mind, each Passion being the subject of a Tragedy 
 and a Comedy.' A second volume of the ' Plays 
 of the Passions ' appeared in 1802, and a third in 
 1812. The tragedies are fine poems, noble in 
 sentiment, and classical and vigorous in language. 
 But they were not fit for the stage ; and ' De 
 Montfort ' itself was with difficulty supported for 
 a while by the acting of John Kemble and Mrs. 
 Siddons. The tragedy of ' The Family Legend,' 
 not contained in the series, was acted in Edin- 
 burgh in 1809, after a visit the poetess had paid 
 to Sir Walter Scott. In 1836 she published 
 another series of ' Plays of the Passions,' of which 
 ' Henriquez,' and ' The Separation,' the former a 
 very striking piece, were attempted on the stage. 
 Some of Miss Baillie's small poems were exceed- 
 ingly good. [W.S.] 
 
 BAILLIE, Colonel John, distinguished as a 
 negotiator in the East Indian service, d. 1833. 
 
 BAILLIE, Matt., D.D., an anatom., d. 1823. 
 
 BAILLIE, Robert, a minister and delegate of 
 file Scotch Church, died 1662. 
 
 BAILLIE, Roche, better known as La Riviere, 
 a celebrated empiric and astrologer, died 1605. 
 
 BAILLOD, Dav., a Swiss writer, 16th century. 
 
 BAILLON, Eman., a naturalist, died 1802. 
 
 BAILLOU, Wm. De, a physician, distinguished 
 as ' The French Sydenham,' died 1616. 
 
 BAILLY, David, a painter, 17th century. 
 
 BAILY, Jean Sylvain, celebrated because of 
 his attachment to science ; still more through his 
 
 BAK 
 
 eloquence as the Historian of Astronomy; most of 
 all on account of his connection with the unfold- 
 ing of the first or great French revolution, and his 
 melancholy fate. Baily was born in Paris in the 
 year 1736 ; in 1790 he presided as mayor of Paris 
 at the Champ de Mars, over that vast" assemblage 
 when the united French people hailed the sup- 
 posed commencement of the Reign of Liberty and 
 Universal Brotherhood ; in 1793 one of countless 
 illustrious victims he perished on the scaffold. In 
 his attachment to the cause of rational liberty 
 Baily was constant through all calamity : it was 
 not desire of fame, nor the thirst to overthrow, 
 that led him towards the front ranks of the Revo- 
 lution; so, through abiding faith in humanity, 
 he died without the shame of relinquishing his 
 early principles and hopes, merely because the 
 effort to realize them had brought evil to himself. 
 Baily's Histroy of Astronomy is still very fasci- 
 nating: as a strictly philosophical work it does 
 not answer the highest ends, he was led astray 
 by the then novel and false doctrine of the 
 value of some ancient and forgotten knowledge. 
 As a technical History it is supplanted by the 
 laborious, but yet very insufficient history oi De- 
 lambre. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BAILY, Fr., the celebrated astron., 1774-1844. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Chr., an English diplomatist 
 and churchman, made a cardinal 1511. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Dr. John, an eminent phy- 
 sician and professor of astronomy, 1582-1643. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Wm., an Amer. capt., d. 1833. 
 
 BAINE, Mich., a theologian, 16th century. 
 
 BAINES, Edward, the distinguished member 
 of parliament, b. 1774 ; representative of Leeds, 
 1833 to 1840 ; died 1848. 
 
 BAINES, R., a Hebrew scholar, 16th century. 
 
 BAION, a French naturalist, last century. 
 
 BAIRD, General Sir David, distinguished 
 by his services in the East Indies, in the expedition 
 by which the Cape of Good Hope was taken, and 
 subsequently at Corunna, where the command of 
 Sir John Moore devolved upon him : entered the 
 army as an ensign, 1772, died 1829. 
 
 BAJARDI, an Italian jurist, 16th century. 
 
 BAJARDO, an Italian painter, died 1670. 
 
 BAJAZET, or BAYAZID, proclaimed sultan 
 on the field of battle 1390; after overrunning 
 Greece, he defeated Sigismund of Hungary and 
 the crusaders 1395 ; conquered and made prisoner 
 by Tamerlane 1402, died 1403. 
 
 BAJAZET II., succeeded 1481 ; after sustain- 
 ing a long conflict with the Christian powers, and 
 conquering Moldavia, Bosnia, and Croatia, he was 
 poisoned by his second son Selim, who usurped 
 the throne over Achmet, 1512. 
 
 BAJAZET, the original of one of Racine's 
 heroes, was a son of Achmet I., strangled by his 
 brother Amurath IV., 1655. 
 
 BAJOLE, J., a French historian, died 1650. 
 
 BAKE, Laur., a Dutch poet, died 1714. 
 
 BAKER, David, a monastic writer, died 1641. 
 
 BAKER, Geoff., a monastic historian, 1347. 
 
 BAKER, Sir G., a physician and antiquarian, 
 bom 1722, a baronet 1776, died 1809. 
 
 BAKER, H., a naturalist, born 1704, married a 
 daughter of De Foe, 1729, died 1774. 
 
 BAKER, David Erskine, son of Henry, a 
 writer of theatrical biography in 1764. 
 
 o'J 
 
r,AK 
 
 BAKER, Tno., an antiquarian, 1656-1740. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Richard, author of English 
 Chronicles, 1568-1645. 
 
 BAKEWELL, Robt., a grazier, died 1795. 
 
 BAKHTISHWA, the name of several physi- 
 cians at the court of Bagdad. 
 
 BAKI, an Ottoman lvric, died 1G00. 
 
 BARKER, P. H., a Dutch poet, died 1801. 
 
 BALAAM, a prophet or diviner, 14th cent. B.C. 
 
 BALADAN, a king of ancient Babylon. 
 
 BALAKLEI, a Tartar prince, 13th century. 
 
 BALAMIO, Ferd., a physician, 16th century. 
 
 BALASSI, Mario, a painter, 1604-1667. 
 
 BALBI, Adr., a geographer, 1784-1848. 
 
 BALBINUS, D. C, a Roman consul, elected 
 emperor, and slain 238. 
 
 BALBINUS, A. B., an historian, 1611-1689. 
 
 BALBIS, J. B., a botanist, died 1831. 
 
 BALBO, Lodovico, a composer, 16th century. 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nunez De, a Portuguese 
 discoverer, put to death 1517. 
 
 BALBUENA, Bernardo De, a poet, d. 1627. 
 
 BALBUS, Lucius Cornelius, a Spaniard, 
 made consul of Rome, b.c. 40. 
 
 BALBUS, a philologist, 15th century. 
 
 BALCANQUAL, Walter, chaplain to James 
 L, afterwards dean of Rochester, and bishop of 
 Durham, died 1642. 
 
 BALCHEN, J., an admiral, lost 1744. 
 
 BALDERIC, an annalist, 12th century. 
 
 BALDI, Bern., an Italian poet, died 1617. 
 
 BALDI, Camillo, an Aristotelian, died 1634. 
 
 BALDI, Jas., a German poet, died 1668. 
 
 BALDI, Laz., an Italian painter, died 1703. 
 
 BALDI DE UBALDIS, a jurist, died 1400. 
 
 BALDINGER, E. G., a medical writer, d. 1804. 
 
 BALDINI, Baccio, a physician, died 1585. 
 
 BALDINI, J. F., an Italian savant, died 1765. 
 
 BALDINUCCI, Ph., an artist and historian of 
 Florence, 1634-1696. 
 
 BALDOCK, Ralph DE,bp. of London, d. 1307. 
 
 BALDOCK, Robert De, chancellor of Eng- 
 land in the reign of Edward II. 
 
 BALDWIN, an archbishop of Canterbury, who 
 went to Palestine with Richard I. 
 
 BALDWIN, the name of several counts of 
 Flanders. The first of this name, elevated from 
 the office of grand forester, 837 ; d. 877. The 
 second succeeded 888, d. 918. The third began 
 his rejgn 958. The fourth succeeded 989, d. 1034. 
 The fifth succeeded 1034, and was regent of France 
 during the minority of Philip I., d. 1067. The sixth 
 succeeded 1067, d. 1070. The seventh reigned for 
 a short time in 1071. The eighth from 1111 to 
 1119. The ninth succeeded 1191, and d. 1195. 
 
 BALDWIN I., first Latin emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, was a son of the last named ; joined the 
 crusaders 1200 ; elected emperor 1204 ; taken 
 prisoner by the king of the Bulgarians, and pro- 
 bably died before 1206. 
 
 BALDWIN II., last Latin emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, succeeded 1228 ; dethroned by Michel 
 Palasologus 1261, died 1273. 
 
 BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, succeeded 
 his brother Godfrey Bouillon 1100 ; conquered the 
 most important cities on the sea coast of Palestine 
 from 1101 to 1109, died 1118. 
 
 BALDWIN II. succeeded Baldwin I., 1118; 
 taken prisoner 1124; ransomed 1126; died 1131. 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALDWIN III., king 1114; married into the 
 family of Commenus 1158 ; died 1162. 
 
 BALDWIN IV., king 1173 ; died 1185. 
 
 BALDWIN V. succeeded Baldwin IV. 1185; 
 and a few months afterwards died of poison. In 
 1187, Jerusalem was captured by Saladin. 
 
 BALDWIN D' ANESNES, son of Margaret, 
 countess of Flanders and Hainalt, known to litera- 
 ture as the historian of his house, 13th century. 
 
 BALDWIN, Abr., an American senator, born 
 1754, elected 1799, died 1807. 
 
 BALDWIN, Ben., an archaeologist, 16th cent. 
 
 BALDWIN, Fr., a jurist, 16th centurv. 
 
 BALDWIN, J., a French savant, died 1650. 
 
 BALDWIN, Theod., a monk, died 1191. 
 
 BALDWIN, Sir T., a miscellaneous wr., 17th c. 
 
 BALDWIN, Thos., a baptist, died 1828. 
 
 BALDWIN, William, a moralist, died 1564. 
 
 BALE, John, a zealous reformer and contro- 
 versialist, 1495-1563. 
 
 BALE, Robert, an annalist, died 1503. 
 
 BALECHOU, N., an engraver, died 1765. 
 
 BALEG, an Egyptian chief, 8th century. 
 
 BALEN, Heindrich Van, an historical and 
 landscape painter, 1560-1632. 
 
 BALES, Peter, a writing master, died 1600. 
 
 BALESDENS, J., an advocate, died 1675. 
 
 BALESTRA, Anth., a painter, died 1720. 
 
 BALFOUR, Alex., a novelist, died 1829. 
 
 BALFOUR, Sir And., a botanist, died 1694. 
 
 BALGUY, John, a theologian, died 1748. 
 
 BALGUY, Tho., son of John, 1716-1795. 
 
 BALIN, J., a priest and poet, 16th century. 
 
 BALIOL, Sir Alex., appointed chamberlain 
 of Scotland by Edward I., 1291. 
 
 BALIOL, Henry De, a Scotch nobleman who, 
 in 1241, accompanied Henry III. of England to 
 Gascony, died 1246. 
 
 BALIOL, Sir John De, founder of a college at 
 Oxford, and guard, of Alex. III. of Scot., d. 1269. 
 
 BALIOL, John De, son of the preceding, raised 
 to the throne of Scotland under the protection of 
 Edward L, 1291 ; in counter-treaty with France 
 1294; prisoner of Edward 1296-1299; d. 1314. 
 
 BALIOL, Edw., son of the preceding, invaded 
 Scotland and was crowned at Scone 1332 ; after 
 many reverses of fortune he finally resigned his 
 crown to Edward III. 1355 ; died 1363. 
 
 BALL, John, a preacher of reform, disting. 
 in the Kent insurrection, executed 1381. 
 
 BALL, John, a puritan theologian, 1585-1640. 
 
 BALLABENE, Gr., a composer, died 1803. 
 
 BALLANDEN, J., a miscellaneous wr., d. 1550. 
 
 BALLANTYNE, James, the eel. printer of the 
 works of Scott, ed. of the Kelso Mail, &c, d. 1833. 
 
 BALLANTYNE, John, brother of James, and 
 confidant of Sir W. Scott, died 1821. 
 
 BALLARD, Geo., a Saxon scholar, died 1755. 
 
 BALLARD, S. G., a naval officer, died 1829. 
 
 BALLARD, Volante Vashon, a fellow-voy- 
 ager with Vancouver, born 1774 ; captain in the 
 R.N. 1807 ; rear-admiral 1825 ; died 1832. 
 
 BALLENDEN, J., a Scotch historian, d. 1550. 
 
 BALLERINI, Peter and Jerome, two bro- 
 thers of Verona, distinguished as men of learning, 
 and joint editors of theological and classical works ; 
 the first, 1698-1764 ; the^last, 1702-1780. 
 
 BALLESTEROS, Fr., a Spanish offic, d. 133. 
 
 BALLET, Fr., a religious writer, 1702-1702. 
 
 60 
 
BAL 
 
 BALLEXSERD, J., author of a prize essay on 
 the medical and domestic treatment of children, 
 1726-1774. 
 
 BALLIANI, J. B., a writer on physics, d. 1666. 
 
 BALLIN, Claude, artist in gold and metals 
 to Louis XIV., 1615-1678. 
 
 BALINE, C. D., a medical author, died 1805. 
 
 BALMEZ, J. L., one of the most distinguished 
 of the modern writers of Spain, 1810-1848. 
 
 BALSAMO, L. and 0., Sicilian poets, 17th ct. 
 
 BALSAMON, patriarch of Antioch, died 1214. 
 
 BALSHAM, Hugh De, bishop of Ely, d. 1286. 
 
 BALTHASAR, Aug. De, an historian, d. 1779. 
 
 BALTHASAR, Chr., a protestant wr., 17th ct. 
 
 BALTHASAR, J. A., Felix De, a Swiss his- 
 torian of William Tell, died 1810. 
 
 BALTHAZAR, last k. of Babylon, 6th c. B.C. 
 _ BALTHAZARINI, an Italian composer, dis- 
 tinguished in the ballet, 16th century. 
 
 BALTICUS, M., a Latin poet, 16th century. 
 
 BALTUS, J. F., a Jesuit theolog., 1667-1743. 
 
 BALUE, John La, minister of Louis XL, born 
 1421 ; confined in an iron cage for treason, from 
 1469 to 1480 ; died 1490. 
 
 BALUZE, Step., a Fr. biographer, died 1718. 
 
 BALZAC, John Louis Guez De, an elegant 
 French author, 1594-1654. 
 
 BALZAC. This name, borne in the first half of 
 the 17th century, by one of the classics of French 
 prose, has again been made celebrated in our own 
 day, by one of the most vigorous, original, and 
 prolific of French novel writers. Honore De 
 Balzac was born at Tours, about 1799. He 
 came to Paris when a very young man, and was 
 thenceforth engaged constantly in the toils and ex- 
 citements of authorship. For several years he was 
 very obscure ; and the only separate works which 
 he then published, bore the assumed name of Horace 
 de St. Aubin. In 1829 there appeared, with his 
 real name, his romance of ' La Peau de Chagrin,' 
 wiiich at once gained him a celebrity that never 
 afterwards flagged. This striking story exhibits, 
 not only Balzac's extraordinary power of impres- 
 sive representation, but some of the most marked 
 characteristics of the school to which he belongs, 
 and in which, if he is not equal to Victor Hugo, 
 he is much superior to Dumas, and still more to 
 Sue and De Kock. They luxuriate in characters 
 and incidents which are horrible, rather than genu- 
 inely tragic ; and, when they condescend to pro- 
 fess a moral aim, they mar it by the gratuitous 
 grossness which they throw into the details of the 
 execution. The story of 'The Shagreen Skin' tells 
 how a young ruined gamester, about to throw 
 himself into the Seine, is rescued by a sorcerer, 
 who gives him a talisman, consisting of a piece of 
 shagreen. The possession of it ensures him the 
 
 f ratification of every wish he chooses to form; 
 ut -with everygratified wish the skin shrinks in 
 size, and when it is quite wasted away the posses- 
 sor dies. In another story, ' El Verdugo,' a young 
 Spaniard beheads his parents, and his brothers, 
 and his sisters, by common consent; life being 
 offered by a French general to any one of the 
 family who will be the executioner of the rest. 
 There is less of exaggeration, with very much of 
 intense interest, and of sternly accurate dissection 
 of social vices and evils, in several of the best of 
 Balzac's other novels. They are far too numerous 
 
 BAN 
 
 to be named. It may be enough to refer to ' La 
 Femme de Trente Ans,' and 'Le Pere Goriot' 
 Balzac attempted the drama likewise, but with 
 little success ; and he was an active contributor to 
 the 'Revue Parisienne,' and other periodicals. 
 After the revolution of 1848 he contemplated writing 
 romances of military life, and travelled to collect 
 materials. He died at Paris in Aug. 1850. [W.S.] 
 
 BAMBRIDGE. See Bainbridge, Chr. 
 
 BAMPFYLDE, Fr., a learned nonconformist 
 and member of parliament, d. in Newgate, 1684. 
 
 BAMPFYLDE, Sir C, a royalist, died 1691. 
 
 BAMPFYLDE, Sir C. W., a descendant of 
 the two preceding, assassinated 1823. 
 
 BANCHI, S., a Florentine priest who saved 
 Henry IV. from assassination, died 1622. 
 
 BANCROFT, J., bishop of Oxford, died 1610. 
 
 BANCROFT, R., archbp. of Canterb., d. 1610. 
 
 BANDARRA, G., a Portuguese poet, 16th ct, 
 
 BANDELLO, M., a writer of fiction, d. 1561. 
 
 BANDINELLI, B., an artist, died 1559. 
 
 BANDINI, A. M., an antiquarian, died 1800. 
 
 BANDURI, A., an historian, died 1743. 
 
 BANIER, Ant., a fabulist, 1673-1741. 
 
 BANIM, John, an Irish novelist, 1800-1842. 
 
 BANISTER, J., an anatomist, died 1624. 
 
 BANISTER, J., a botanical author, 1680. 
 
 BANISTER, J., a violinist, died 1679. 
 
 BANKERT, J. Van, a Dutch admiral, 17th ct. 
 
 BANKES, Sir J., a justice distinguished for 
 his loyalty to Charles L, died 1644. 
 
 BANKS, J., au. of a work on Cromwell, d. 1751. 
 
 BANKS, J., a dramatic author, 17th century. 
 
 BANKS, Thomas, a sculptor, 1735-1805. 
 
 BANKS, Sir Joseph, Bart., a celebrated bo- 
 tanist and traveller, was bom in London in 1743. 
 He died in 1820. Inheriting at an early age an 
 ample fortune, he resolved in order to gratify his 
 love for botany, to visit foreign countries at that 
 time little known to naturalists. For this purpose 
 he made a voyage to Newfoundland and the coast 
 of Labrador ; he accompanied Captain Cook in hi3 
 celebrated voyage of discovery to the South Seas; 
 he visited the coasts of Scotland, and spent some 
 time in Iceland. Banks never published any ac- 
 count of the vast collections of objects of natural 
 history he had made ; still they were not lost to 
 science. Fabricius described his insects; Brous- 
 sonet his fishes ; Gaertner profited by his fruits 
 and seeds; Robert Brown's Prodromus of the 
 plants of New Holland was composed in the midst 
 of his herbarium ; and many other botanists owe 
 him similar favours. Our parks and gardens are 
 indebted to Banks for many fine new trees and 
 shrubs from New Holland ; our colonies for a vari- 
 ety of the sugar cane from Tahiti, richer in sugar, 
 and which admits of more frequent cropping ; ana 
 our commerce for the flax of New Zealand, which 
 promises to be of such importance to our navy. 
 In 1777 he was elected president of the Royal 
 Society; soon afterwards created a bart., a K.B., 
 and a member of the privy council. He was a 
 great favourite with George III., who was fond of 
 botany and agriculture. His wealth and position 
 in society enabled him to become the patron of 
 science in his native country, and during the long 
 war which embroiled all Europe, he was ever ready- 
 to assist, both by his purse and advice, scientific 
 men of all nations. Many a man of science hag 
 
 CI 
 
BAN 
 
 been indebted to bis generous liberality, and ten 
 different collections of objects of natural history 
 made for tbe Garden of Plants, which bad fallen 
 into tbe bands of our cruisers, and brought to 
 England, were saved by his interference, and in 
 several instances, at his own expense, safely trans- 
 mitted to Paris. His published memoirs are few 
 in number, and not of any great importance, yet 
 bis name remains intimately connected with the 
 history of science. He presided for 41 years over 
 the Royal Society ; and at bis death he bequeathed 
 his herbarium and splendid library of books of na- 
 tural history to the British Museum, where they 
 remain monuments of his patriotism, talent, and 
 assiduity. [W.B.] 
 
 BANNAKER, Bexj., a negro slave, (listing, 
 as a mathematician and astronomer, died 1807. 
 
 BANNIER, Jonx, field-marshal of Sweden 
 under Gustavus Adolphus, 1601-1641. 
 
 BANNISTER, John, the celebrated comedian 
 and vocalist, born 1760 ; engaged at Drury Lane, 
 1779 ; retired 1815 ; died 1836. 
 
 BANQUO, a Scotch Thane, 11th century. 
 
 BANTI, Signora, a singer, died 1806. 
 
 BAODAN, an Irish king, 6th century. 
 
 BAPTIST, a Dutch painter, died 1691. 
 
 BAPTISTA, Fr., a curious writer, 17th cent. 
 
 BAPTISTE, J., a Flemish painter, 1635-1699. 
 
 BAPTISTE, J. G., a painter of Antwerp, em- 
 ployed by Sir Peter Lely, died 1691. 
 
 BAPTISTIN, J. B. ., a composer, died 1716. 
 
 BAR, N. De, a French painter, 17th century. 
 
 BARAGUAY-D' HILLIERS, L., a French gen- 
 eral, distinguished in the Italian and peninsular 
 campaigns, 1734-1812. 
 
 BARAHONA, Louis, a Spanish poet, 16th ct. 
 
 BARANZANO, R., a mathematical philosopher, 
 correspondent of Bacon, 1590-1622. 
 
 BARATIER, J. P., dist. for his early knowledge 
 of many languages, also as a critic, 1721-1740. 
 
 BARBA, A. A.., a mineralogist, 17th century. 
 
 BARBADILLO, A. J. De, a dramatist, 17th c. 
 
 BARBANEGRE, J., a French general, d. 1830. 
 
 BARBARELLI. See Giorgione. 
 
 BARBARIGO, Augustin, doge of Venice, 
 1486 to 1501. Nicholas, ambassador from Ve- 
 nice to Constantinople, died 1579. Gregory, 
 a cardinal and bishop of Padua, 1625-1697. John 
 Francis, twice ambassador to Louis XIV. ; 
 afterwards cardinal and bp. of Padua, 1658-1730. 
 
 BARBARINO, Francis, a poet, 1264-1348. 
 
 BARBARO, Francis, a noble Venetian, dis- 
 tinguished as a commander and scholar, 1398-1454. 
 Ermolao, a classical scholar, d. 1470. Ermolao 
 the younger, an ambassador and classical scholar, 
 1454-1493. Daniel, a classical scholar and rhe- 
 torician, ambassador to England, and patriarch of 
 Aquilea, 1513-1570. 
 
 BARBAROSSA, Aroush, a daring corsair, son 
 of a Greek renegade, who dethroned the Arab 
 sheik, and made himself dey of Algiers, 1516 ; 
 defeated and slain by the troops of Charles V., 1518. 
 
 BARBAROSSA, Khair Eddyn, brother and 
 successor of Aroush, the greatest sea captain of 
 his age ; died 1546. 
 
 BARBAROSSA. See Frederick. 
 
 BARBAROUX, C. J. Ma., member of the Fr. 
 convention, and one of the Girondin leaders, born 
 1767, executed 1794. 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARBATELLI, an Italian painter, died 1612. 
 
 BARBAULD, Anne L;etitia, chiefly cele- 
 brated for her ' Prose Hymns,' and 'Early Lessons' 
 for children, was the daughter of the Rev. John 
 Aikin, a dissenting minister resident in Leicester- 
 shire, where she was born on the 20th of June, 1743. 
 Whde a child she was remarkable for quickness 
 of intellect, no less than for the natural goodness 
 of her disposition ; and in later years for tbe ele- 
 gance of her taste, the extent of her acquirements, 
 and her skill in classical literature. For these 
 advantages Miss Aikin was greatly indebted to 
 the affectionate zeal with which her father culti- 
 vated her talents, and in some measure to the liter- 
 ary circle into which he was able to introduce her 
 on removing to Warrington, where he took charge 
 of the celebrated school in 1758. After fifteen 
 years of quiet seclusion, passed in these academic 
 shades, Miss Aikin was induced to publish a 
 volume of miscellaneous poems, which appeared 
 therefore in 1773, and met with the most natter- 
 ing success. In the spring of the following year 
 she became the wife of the Rev. Rochemond Bar- 
 bauld, with whom she opened a school in the vil- 
 lage of Palsgrave, Suffolk ; and took an active and 
 inluential part in its management as teacher of 
 composition, and the graceful exercises of reading 
 and speaking. Here they continued to reside for 
 the next eleven years, and it is to this period that 
 we are indebted for tbe works first alluded to, and 
 for some devotional compositions. Mr. and Mrs. 
 Barbauld then visited tbe continent for a short 
 time, and on their return home, the former became 
 pastor of a small congregation at Hampstead, 
 where the subject of our notice resumed her pen ; 
 first in the interest of the dissenters on the repeal 
 of the Test and Corporation Acts, and next in a 
 poetical address to Mr. Wilberforce, suggested by 
 the rejection of the slave bill. These spirited ap- 
 peals were followed by some religious essays, the 
 most remarkable of which is a singular discourse 
 for the Fast-day of 1793, entitled ' The Sins of 
 the Government the Sins of the Nation.' In 1802 
 Mr. Barbauld became minister of a congregation 
 at Newington Green, where he died in 1808, and in 
 this neighbourhood his widow resided till her death 
 in 1825, enjoying the company of her brother, and 
 literary friend, Dr. Aikin. The simplicity of Mrs. 
 Barbauld's life and manners, the refinement of her 
 imagination, and the purity of her soul, are well 
 represented in the works which have rendered her 
 name a household word in England, and to which 
 the cause of education is so much indebted. The 
 versatibty of her talents is shown in the critical 
 and biographical notices with which she amused 
 herself in the early period of her residence at 
 Stoke Newington, which include a selection of 
 papers from the ' Spectator,' and similar classics, 
 published in 1804, and an edition of the ' British 
 Novelists ' in 1810. Her last publication was a re- 
 markable poem, named from the year preceding 
 its appearance, 'Eighteen Hundred and Eleven.' 
 Her collected works were published soon after her 
 death, with a memoir by her niece, Miss Lucy 
 Aikin ; and the day is probably far off when her 
 ' Early Lessons ' will be superseded by any tbing 
 superior of the same class. [E.R.J 
 
 RABBAULT, J., an architect, last century. 
 
 BARBAZAN, Step., a French savant, d. 1770. 
 
 C2 
 
BAB 
 
 BARBAZAN, A. W. De, a French general dis- 
 tinguished in the wars with Burgundy and Eng- 
 land ; defended Melun 1420 ; died 1432. 
 
 BARBEAU DE LA BRUYERE, a French geo- 
 grapher and historian, 1710-1781. 
 
 BARBERET, a French agriculturist, last cent. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, C, a French physician, d. 1699. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, J., nephew of the preceding, a 
 distinguished jurist, 1674-1747. 
 
 BARBLANO, Alberic, count of, an Italian pa- 
 triot, made grand constable of Naples, 1884-1409. 
 
 BARRIER, A. A., author of a dictionary of 
 anonymous and pseudonomous works, died 1825. 
 
 BARBIERI. See Guercino. 
 
 BARBOSA, Aug., bishop of Ugento, d. 1648. 
 
 BARBOSA, Arias, a scholar, died 1540. 
 
 BARBOSA, Edward, a navigator, known as 
 the fellow-voyager of Magellan, killed 1521. 
 
 BARBOSA, Jo., an historian, 1674-1750. 
 
 BARBOSA, P., a lawyer, died 1596. 
 
 BARBOUR, John, a Scotch poet and chroni- 
 cler, chaplain of David Bruce, 1320-1378. 
 
 BARBOUR, J., an Amer. statesman, d. 1824. 
 
 BARBOUR, Ph. P., an Amer. lawyer, d. 1841. 
 
 BARBOUR, T., an American politician, d. 1825. 
 
 BARBUOT, J., a physician, 17th century. 
 
 BARCALI, a Mahommedan author, 16th cent. 
 
 BARCHAM, Dr. John, an antiquary, histo- 
 rian, and writer on heraldry, 1541-1605. 
 
 BARCHOCHEBAS, a seditious Jew who gave 
 himself out for the Messiah, and was slain after a 
 long resistance, and with an immense number of 
 his followers, 135. 
 
 BARCKHAUSEN, a chemist, died 1723. 
 
 BARCLAY, Alex., a miscellaneous wr., 16th c. 
 
 BARCLAY, J., a Scotch clergyman, minister 
 of Cruden, and au. of a curious poem, 1675-1710. 
 
 BARCLAY, J., a Scotch sectarian, died 1798. 
 
 BARCLAY, N., an eminent Scotch civilian, 
 rose to be counsellor of Lorraine, 1543-1605. 
 
 BARCLAY, John, son of the preceding, dis- 
 tinguished as a satirist, 1582-1621. 
 
 BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated Apologist, 
 was born in 1648, at Gordonstown, county of 
 Moray, and descended from an ancient and hon- 
 ourable ancestry, who for centuries had flourished 
 in the North of Scotland. The unsettled state of 
 things at home induced his father, Colonel Barclay, 
 to send him at an early age abroad, and accor- 
 dingly he received the greater part of his education 
 at Paris, under the superintendence of his uncle, 
 who filled the office of rector in the Scots College. 
 His parents being led from circumstances to appre- 
 hend that familiarity with continental manners 
 might produce in then 1 son a disposition favourable 
 towards the Roman Catholic religion, recalled him 
 to his native country, where he appeared an 
 accomplished youth, and combining the advantages 
 of a liberal education with great natural abilities, 
 he rapidly rose to distinction. His family having 
 embraced the principles of the Quakers, he was 
 persuaded ere long to follow their example, 
 and in conforming to the peculiarities of a sect 
 which was held in great disrepute, particularly in 
 Scotland, he felt himself laid under a necessity of 
 vindicating that course by the publication of 
 several treatises in their defence, characterized by 
 great variety of learning, as well as power of 
 argument. His first work, which was published 
 
 EAR 
 
 in 1670, was entitled ' Truth Cleared of Calum- 
 nies,' and appeared in the form of a controversial 
 pamphlet, in answer to an attack on Quakerism 
 by the Rev. Wm. Mitchel, a minister of the 
 Church of Scotland. His next publication, which 
 was issued in 1673, was a Catechism and Con- 
 fession of Faith, containing an exposition of the 
 principles of his religious communion ; and to this 
 he soon after added his 'Theses Theologicas,' 
 or Theological Propositions. Becoming enthusi- 
 astically attached to the cause of Quakerism, 
 which he identified with that of truth and the best 
 interests of humanity, he resolved on devoting his 
 future life to its extension in the world ; and with 
 this view, he in 1676 accompanied William Penn 
 in a tour of propagandism through England, Hol- 
 land, and Germany. It was while sojourning 
 at Amsterdam, in the course of those peregrina- 
 tions, that he published the great work which had 
 long occupied him, and on which his fame chiefly 
 rests ' An Apology for the True Christian Divin- 
 ity, as the same is preached and held forth by the 
 people in scorn called Quakers.' This treatise was 
 originally published in Latin, but was speedily 
 translated into most of the languages of Europe, and 
 while it greatly extended the reputation of its au- 
 thor, the principles it advocated became the subject 
 of keen and prolonged agitation. Barclay, on his 
 return to his native country, suffered much from 
 the severe edicts issued against the nonconformists 
 of the period, being imprisoned five months in 
 Aberdeen, besides other petty kinds of persecution in 
 the form of obloquy and fines. His high character, 
 however, for sincerity, as well as for talent and 
 learning, carried him triumphantly over all oppo- 
 sition, and latterly he enjoyed much distinction, 
 being honoured with an introduction to the English 
 court, and the partial regards both of Charles II. 
 and his successor, James II. Through the royal 
 favour he received a commission as governor of 
 East Jersey for life, whence he several times re- 
 turned to visit his native land, and it was in 1680, 
 the last visit he paid, he was seized with fever, 
 and died amongst his relatives, at Ury, in Aberdeen- 
 shire, in the forty-second year of his age. [R. J.1 
 
 BARCLAY DE TOLLY, M., field-marshal of 
 Russia, born 1755 ; director of the war against 
 Napoleon 1810 ; com. of the Russian troops at the 
 battle of Leipzig 1812, and in France 1815 ; d. 1818. 
 
 BARCOCHAB. See Barchochebas. 
 
 BARCOS, M. De, a Jansenist, died 1678. 
 
 BARD, Peter, a Flemish monk, died 1535. 
 
 BARD, J., a medical author, died 1799. 
 
 BARD, S. M. D., a (listing, physician, d. 1821. 
 
 BARDAS, brother-in-law of" the emp. Theo- 
 philus, and guardian of his son Michael ; usurper 
 of the supreme power 24 years ; put to death 866. 
 
 BARDAS PHOCAS, and BARDAS SCLERUS, 
 rival generals of the Greek empire, who disputed 
 for many years the supreme power, 970-990. 
 
 BARDE, J. De La, an ambassador and his- 
 torian of France, 1600-1692. 
 
 BARDESANES, a Theosophist of Syria, foun- 
 der of a sect in the 2d century. 
 
 BARDI, the name of several distinguished Flo- 
 rentines in the 17th century. 
 
 BARDILLI, C. G., a metaphysician, last cent. 
 
 BARDIN, P., a French author, died 1637. 
 
 BARDZUIKI, J. A., a poet, 17th century. 
 
 G.J 
 
BAR 
 
 BAREBONE, Praise God, a fanatic from whom 
 the Barebone's Parliament derived its name, 1653. 
 
 BARENT, Dietrich, a Dutch pain., 1534-1582. 
 
 BARENTIN, C. L. F. De, a French politician, 
 noted for his opposition to Necker, 1738-1819. 
 
 BARENTZ, William, a skilful Dutch pilot, 
 sent out by the United Provinces on three voyages, 
 between the years 1594 and 1597, in search of a 
 N.E. passage to China. He failed in the object, 
 but made some important additions to geography. 
 Bear, or Cherry island, and Spitzbergen were dis- 
 covered by him ; the latter, in 80, was found to 
 have good herbage and herds of deer, while Nova 
 Zembla, in 76o, was a barren waste. Suddenly 
 enclosed by ice on the coast of Nova Zembla, on 
 26th August, 1596, Barentz was obliged to remain 
 on this inhospitable shore till the following sum- 
 mer, and was thus the first navigator who wintered 
 in the Arctic regions. He left the island on the 
 '.4th June, with a crew of fifteen persons, in two 
 mall boats, his ship being disabled. He died 
 from fatigue on the 20th; but the adventurous 
 survivors held on their perilous voyage the most 
 extraordinary on record and traversing a stormy 
 ocean filled with floating ice, exposed to the ex- 
 treme of cold, famine, and sickness, and to fre- 
 quent attacks from bears borne along upon the ice 
 islands, or pursuing them through the water, they 
 reached in six weeks the port of Kola, in North 
 Lapland, a distance of 1600 miles. Here they 
 found three ships from their own country. [J.B.J 
 
 BARERE. See Barrere. 
 
 BARETTI, Jo., an Italian author, 1716-1789. 
 
 BARGRAVE, Isaac, chaplain to James I., 
 afterwards dean of Canterbury, died 1642. 
 
 BARHAM, Rev. Rich. Harris, the disting. 
 humourist known as Thomas Ingoldsby, 1789-1845. 
 
 BARISON, a nobleman of Pisa, created k. of 
 Sardinia by Frederick Barbarossa, d. in prison 1154. 
 
 BARKER, E. H., distinguished as a critic and 
 classical reviewer, 1788-1839. 
 
 BARKER, G., F.R.S., distinguished as one of 
 the original promoters of railways, died 1845. 
 
 BARKER, G. P., an American politic, d. 1848. 
 
 BARKER, J., a medical writer, 17th century. 
 
 BARKER, M. H, a fugitive writer, known in 
 magazine literature as the Old Sailor, died 1846. 
 
 BARKER, Robert, a portrait painter, inventor 
 of the panorama, died 1806. 
 
 BARKER, Sam., a philologist, died 1760. 
 
 BARKER, Thomas, a poet, 1721-1808. 
 
 BARKHAM. See Barcham. 
 
 BARKOK, a sultan of Egypt, 14th century. 
 
 BARKSDALE, Cl., a miscellan. wr., 17th ct. 
 
 BARLAAM, a theologian, 14th century. 
 
 BARLtEUS, a Latin poet, died 1648. 
 
 BARLAUD, A., a Dutch critic, died 1542. 
 
 BARLETTA, Gabriel, a preacher, 11th cent. 
 
 BARLOW, Francis, an artist, died 1702. 
 
 BARLOW, Joel, a political writer, deputy 
 from the U. S. to the French convention, and am- 
 bassador to Napoleon when he died, 1811. 
 
 BARLOW, Thomas, bishop of Lincoln, a casu- 
 ist, and controversial writer, 1607-1691. 
 
 BARLOWE, W., bp. of Bath and Wells, d. 1658. 
 
 BARLOWE, W., son of the bishop, a writer on 
 natural philosophy, died 1625. 
 
 BARMEK, the founder of the illustrious family 
 culled the Barmecides, whose various talents con- 
 
 BAR 
 
 tributed to the glory of Haroun-al-Rnschid and his 
 predecessors, and who were massacred, 802. 
 
 BARNABAS, St., the fellow-labourer of Paul, 
 supposed to have been stoned to death about 60. 
 
 BARNARD, J., D.D., a biographer, died 16^3. 
 
 BARNARD, Sir John, lord mayor, and M.P. 
 for London, the latter for 40 years, 1685-1764. 
 
 BARNARD, Theodore, a Dutch painter. 
 
 BARNAUD, Nich., an alchymist, 16th cent. 
 
 BARNAVE, A. P. J. Marie, by profession 
 an advocate, was born 1761, and distinguished in 
 the parliament of Grenoble during the first omi- 
 nous struggle against the despotic administration 
 of Lomenie-Brienne. Deputed to the states- 
 general by the province of Dauphine" in 1789, his 
 eloquence, and his almost wild enthusiasm in the 
 popular cause, marked him out as the rival of 
 Mirabeau, and when the latter favoured the court, 
 as his most dreaded adversary. One of a memo- 
 rable trio, his characteristic talent is well ex- 
 pressed in the epigram pointed at them : ' What- 
 soever these three nave in hand, Dupont thinks it, 
 Barnave speaks it, Lameth does it.' His love of 
 justice, in the abstract, was carried to a reckless 
 extreme in his decrees, as a member of the diplo- 
 matic committee for the reorganization of the 
 colonies, and their fatal effects led him to abandon 
 the system, though Sieyes and Robespierre de- 
 nounced his inconsistency as a treason. A member 
 of the famous Jacobin Club, he fought a duel with 
 the royalist Cazales, who had denounced the pa- 
 triots as 'sheer brigands,' but neither of them 
 received any serious injury. Like many others, 
 his enthusiasm for the revolution was saddened 
 and cooled down as he reflected upon the disasters 
 which had accompanied it, and his return to mo- 
 derate counsels was hastened by the situation into 
 which he was momentarily thrown by the flight of 
 the royal family, and their arrest at Varennes. 
 Appointed with Pethion and Latour-Maubourg 
 to secure the king's return, Barnave rode in the | 
 carriage with the Queen and Madame Elizabeth, ' 
 and touched by their distress, his conversion to 
 the principles of a constitutional monarchy was 
 completed. He was now denounced by the Jour- 
 nalists as a deserter of the popular cause, and at 
 the close of the session returned to private life, in 
 his native town of Grenoble, where he married the 
 daughter of an advocate. In August, 1792, he 
 was arrested on a charge of conspiring with the 
 royal family, with whom it was alleged he had 
 held treasonable correspondence ever since the 
 arrest at Varennes, and after a confinement of five 
 months, conducted to Paris, and condemned by 
 the revolutionary tribunal of Tinville. The effect 
 of his eloquence on this occasion was such as to 
 move even his sanguinary judges, and his friend 
 Camille Desmoulins wept on hearing his last 
 words. Arrived at the scaffold, he raised his eyes 
 to heaven : Behold, at length,' he exclaimed, 
 ' the reward of all I have done for liberty ! ' He 
 was executed in 1793, at the early age of thirty- 
 two ; and has left behind him a character remark- 
 able indeed for indiscretion, but equally so for its 
 honesty of purpose; and a name, as an orator, 
 scarcely surpassed by any in the revolutionary 
 annals. [E.B.J 
 
 BARNES, Joshua, a friend of the famous Dr. 
 Richard Bentley, was a native of London, where 
 
 64 
 
BAR 
 
 he was born in the year 1654. His rudimentary 
 education he received at Christ Church Hospital, 
 whence he was removed to Emmanuel College, 
 Cambridge. There he devoted himself to the 
 study of classical literature with so great assiduity 
 and success, that he rose to eminence as a Grecian; 
 Ms knowledge of the language of ancient Greece, 
 however, being more minute and accurate than 
 comprehensive, more limited to the niceties of the 
 grammarian, than based on the enlarged and 
 liberal views of the philologist. His reputation 
 
 f)rocured him the appointment of Regius Pro- 
 essor of Greek at Cambridge in the year 1695 ; in 
 1700 he changed his state by forming a matri- 
 monial alliance with a Mrs. Mason of Hemingford, 
 a wealthy widow, and by means of the fortune ac- 
 quired by his marriage with this lady, he was en- 
 abled to bear the expenses of his edition of Homer. 
 That work was published in 1710. The sale, 
 however, was not such as to remunerate him, for 
 in 1711 he applied, though unsuccessfully, to Lord 
 Barley for preferment in the church, in a series of 
 letters setting forth his claims, which are pre- 
 served in the Harleian collection. He died in 1712, 
 and was buried in Hemingford churchyard, where 
 his widow erected a monument to his memory. 
 His works, which are now forgotten by all but 
 a few scholars, were very voluminous. The fol- 
 lowing may be considered a correct list of them in 
 the order of publication: Sacred Poems, 1669; 
 The Life of Oliver Cromwell, The Tyrant, an Eng- 
 lish poem, 1670; Xerxes, and other dramatic 
 pieces in English and Latin ; a Latin Poem on the 
 Fire in London and the Plague ; a Latin Elegy on 
 the Beheading; of John the Baptist; Estherse His- 
 toria Poetica Paraphrasi, 1679; Select Discourses, 
 1680 ; The History of Edward the Third, 1686 ; 
 an edition of Euripides, 1694; a Discourse on 
 Matthew ix. 9; an edition of Anacreon, 1705; 
 an edition of Homer, 1711, 2 vols. [R. J.] 
 
 BARNES, R., D.D., a protestant martyr, 1540. 
 
 BARNES, Thomas, a political writer, late 
 principal editor of the Times, 1786-1841. 
 
 BARNEVELDT, John D' Olden, a Dutch 
 statesman, executed on a charge of treason, 1619. 
 
 BARNEY, J., an Amer. sea capt., 1759-1818. 
 
 BARO, Pierre, a protestant divine, 16th ct. 
 
 BAROCCIO, Fred., an Ital. paint., 1528-1612. 
 
 BARON, Bonadventure, the pseudonyme of 
 an Irish classic, named Fitzgerald, died 1696. 
 
 BARONIUS, C.,wr. of church annals, 1588-1607. 
 
 BAROZZI, Jas., an Ital. architect, 1507-1577. 
 
 BAROZZI, F., a Venetian nobleman, the most 
 learned mathema. of his time, died in the inquisi- 
 tion, being confined on a charge of magic, 16th ct. 
 
 BARRAL, Peter, a Fr. antiquarian, d. 1772. 
 
 BARRAL, Louis Mathias De, a Fr. emigrant, 
 archbishop of Tours under the empire, died 1816. 
 
 BARRAS, Louis, Count, a naval commander, 
 died a short time previous to the revolution, 
 
 BARRAS, Paul Francis, Count De, was born 
 of a noble French family of Provence, of whom it 
 was proverbial to say, ' Noble as the Barrases, old 
 as the rocks.' He was successively member of the 
 convention and directory, and played an impor- 
 tant part in the progress of the French revolution. 
 As early as the year 1775, when twenty years of 
 age, he sailed for the Isle of France with the rank 
 of second lieutenant, and was shipwrecked on the 
 
 BAR 
 
 Maldive Islands. After this he is found at Po?.- 
 dieherry, then invested by an English army, and 
 peace being concluded, returns to France, ready to 
 share in the political troubles of 1789. He is re- 
 presented at this time as a man of reckless and 
 dissipated habits; subject to fits of courageous 
 impulse ; tall and handsome of person, and of yel- 
 lowish complexion : in regard to mental character, 
 remarkable for the practical quickness of his ap- 
 prehension, and singular presence of mind under 
 emergencies. Fired with the prevailing enthusi- 
 asm in favour of reform, or seeing the means of 
 repairing his shattered fortunes, and satisfying his 
 restless spirit in the career it opened to him, he 
 presently declared against the court, and was ad- 
 mitted a member of the famous Jacobin Club. 
 From 1790 to 1792 we find him in the office of 
 administrator for the department of the Var, and 
 some other public employments, including that of 
 commissary for the army of Italy. As a member 
 of the convention in 1792, he voted for the king's 
 death, and declared against the Girondins. In 
 1793 he was sent to the south of France, and com- 
 manded the left wing of the army besieging Tou- 
 lon, where he became acquainted with Napoleon, 
 then captain of artillery in the same operations. 
 When the savage excesses committed by the com- 
 missioners and soldiers of the convention on this 
 and similar occasions became the subject of re- 
 monstrance in Paris, Barras and Freron were 
 exempted from the general imputation, and it was 
 only the popularity and audacious bearing of the 
 former that deterred Robespierre from laying hands 
 upon him. As the reign of terror drew near its 
 close, and Henriot menaced the convention with 
 his troops, Barras was intrusted with its defence, 
 and it was he who seized Robespierre and conveyed 
 him to the scaffold. The vigorous measures which 
 he now adopted against the party of the Mountain, 
 gained him the appointment of general-in-chief, 
 decreed unanimously by the convention ; and the 
 merit belongs to him of engaging Buonaparte in 
 the public service on the famous 13th Vendemiaire, 
 (4th October, 1795,) when the revolt of Lepelletier 
 was suppressed, and soon afterwards the govern- 
 ment of the directory established, of which Barras 
 was one. Residing in the Luxembourg palace, he 
 affected almost royal pomp, and for a while exer- 
 cised a marked ascendancy over his coadjutors; 
 but their subsequent dissensions, and the intrigues 
 of a formidable party, at the head of whom was 
 the notorious Sieyes, gradually sunk them in pub- 
 lic esteem, and prepared for the return of Buona- 
 parte from Egypt, and his sudden elevation to tho 
 consulship. Barras is accused of conspiring with 
 the English government for the restoration of tho 
 Bourbons, and this for the vilest of considerations, 
 yet he hailed with apparent joy the advent of the 
 illustrious soldier to whom he had first opened the 
 path of preferment. Without recounting the 
 petty intrigues of his later years, it is sufficient to 
 say, that his public career the mingled good and 
 evil of his political life closes with this epoch. 
 For whatever reason, he obstinately refused the 
 employments that were offered him through the 
 agency of Talleyrand, and at last died in retire- 
 ment on the 29th January, 1829. [E.R.] 
 BARRE, William Vincent, a Fr. refugee, au. 
 of a hist, of the first consulate, com. suicide 1829. 
 G5 I 
 
CAR 
 
 BARRERE, P., a French naturalist, d. 1755. 
 
 BARRERE DE VIEUZAC, Bertrand, 'The 
 Anaercon of the Guillotine,' as Burke styled him, 
 is one of the most sinister and conspicuous char- 
 acters of the French revolution, more especially 
 as a member of the Committee of Public Safety 
 faring the r< ign of terror. He was born at Tar- 
 bes in Gasccny, 1755, and being educated for the 
 bar, met -with considerable success as a youthful 
 advocate at Toulouse, besides being admitted a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences for his liter- 
 ary attainments. In 1785 he married a lady of 
 fortune, and it may here be remarked, that his 
 private virtues have been extolled in singular con- 
 trast with his perfidious conduct in public life; 
 to which anomaly, perhaps, his moral weakness, 
 and the brilliant talents which made him ashamed 
 of it, and caused him to assume the airs of a bravo 
 without the heart of one, among his more ierocious, 
 or to say the least, less polished colleagues, may 
 be in some measure the key. In 1789 he was sent 
 to Paris, as the representative of his own province 
 in the ' Third Estate ' of the 'Etats Generaux,' and 
 took his place with the more moderate reformers. 
 At this period he published a journal entitled ' Le 
 Point du Jour,' and acquired a high degree of popu- 
 larity by his eloquence both as editor and represen- 
 tative. At first loyal to the king, he was gradu- 
 ally carried away by the rising tide of republican- 
 ism, and we find him, on the 17th June, in the 
 ranks of those who provoked the revolution by 
 which the commons ot the third estate constituted 
 themselves a national assembly. When this body 
 at length separated, Barrere was appointed a 
 judge in the High Court of Appeal, and in 1792 
 deputed to the National Convention for the de- 
 partment of the Hautes Pyrenees ; acting as pre- 
 sident, in fact, when the king was interrogated, 
 whose situation in bygone times had excited his 
 most compassionate feelings. From this lime he 
 became the mouthpiece of the Jacobins, and 
 voted for the death of the king with the ob- 
 servation, so often since repeated, ' L'arbre de la 
 liberte ne croit qu' arrose par le sang des tyrans,' 
 (the tree of liberty only grows when watered by 
 the blood of tyrants.) On the 1st of April, 1793, 
 he was elected on the Committee of Public Safety, 
 and constantly acted as the reporter of its projects 
 to the convention, in which employment his in- 
 genious plausibility, and facile wit, were of essen- 
 tial service to those who had else stood grim and 
 stark in the midst of their atrocious conceptions. 
 It was Barrere who created the revolutionary 
 army by the memorable decree, ' All France, and 
 whatsoever it contains, of men or resources, is put 
 under requisition ;' and who gave for the motto on 
 their banners, ' Le peuple Francais debout contre 
 les tyrans,' (The French people risen against ty- 
 rants !) It was he who denounced Dan ton on the 
 one hand on a charge of too much moderation, 
 and Hebert on the other for his anarchic doc- 
 trines; who stereotyped the scenes of greatest 
 horror in a joke or an epigram, as when he said, 
 ' II n'y a que les morts qui ne reviennent pas,' 
 (It is only the dead who do not come back again.) 
 His fear of breaking with Robespierre made him 
 the instrument of cruelties which he jested upon, 
 and which he endeavoured to hide under the con- 
 ceits in which he clothed them, while his heart 
 
 C6 
 
 BAR 
 
 revolted; and if the absence of all principle is 
 rendered more conspicuous in one circumstance 
 than another of bis public career, it is in the haste 
 with which he moved the execution of the fallen 
 dictator without trial on the 9th Thermidor; 
 scarcely four-and-twenty hours after he had 
 fawned upon him. The disgusting facility of his 
 conversion did not prevent the reaction affecting 
 himself, more especially as he proposed the con- 
 tinuation of Fouquier Tinville in his office ot 
 public acccuser. The result was, his trial and 
 condemnation at the bar of the convention, the 
 fall of which, and the political complications of the 
 period, favoured his escape and concealment until 
 the amnesty which followed the 18th Brumaire 
 enabled him to return to Paris. He now presented 
 himself to the senate as a candidate for admission 
 into the legislative body, but Napoleon mistrusted 
 him, and he disappeared till 1815, when he turned 
 up as a member ot the chamber of representatives 
 during the hundred days. At the second restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons, he was compelled to retire 
 by the royal ordinance which expelled the regi- 
 cides, and resided at Belgium till the revolution of 
 1830, when he once more returned to his country, 
 and died 1841. He is the author of numerous poli- 
 tical and historical works, besides, the ' Point du 
 Jour,' and an anti-British journal, entitled the 
 ' Argus,' published under the imperial government. 
 His own memoirs have been published by MM. 
 Hipp, Camot, and David, in 4 vols. 8vo. [E.R.] 
 
 BARRET, Geo., a landscape paint., 1730-1784. 
 
 BARRETT, W., a topographical wr., d 1789. 
 
 BARRINGTON, John Shute, Viscount, a wr. 
 on protestant theology,, 1678-1734. Several of his 
 sons also distinguished Daines, as a lawyer, 
 1727-1800 ; Samuel, as a naval officer, d. 1800 ; 
 Shute, his sixth son, as bp. of Durham, 1734-1826. 
 
 BARROS, John De, a Portuguese his., d. 1570. 
 
 BARROW, Dr. Isaac, celebrated both as a 
 mathematician and a divine, was born in London, 
 in 1630. He was sent at an early age to the 
 Charterhouse School, where, however, his quarrel- 
 some temper, pugnacious habits, and proverbial 
 idleness, occasioned great annoyance to his teachers, 
 as well as deep dissatisfaction and pain to his 
 family. On his removal from that institution to 
 Felsted in Essex, he began to show a better dis- 
 position ; for applying himself to his studies with 
 spirit and indefatigable industry, his progress was 
 so rapid, and his attainments in various departments 
 of learning so high, that his master appointed him 
 tutor to Viscount Fairfax, of Emely in Ireland, 
 who was at this school. His father, who had 
 early destined him to a learned profession, entered 
 him, in 1645, a student of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. But his fortune having been greatly in- 
 jured through his attachment to the royal cause, 
 young Barrow would have been destitute of 
 the means to continue the expensive style of 
 living at that university, had it not been for 
 the liberality of the famous Dr. Hammond, who 
 gave him the benefit of his valuable friendship, 
 and through whose influence he, in 1649, obtained 
 a fellowship in the college. Having finished his 
 literary and philosophical course, he directed his 
 studies with a view to the practice of medicine, 
 and made great proficiency in the subsidiary sci- 
 ences of anatomy, botany, and chemistry. But, 
 
BAR 
 
 by the counsel of his uncle, bishop of St. Asaph, 
 and his own growing convictions of the duty 
 imposed on him by his oath as a fellow, he with- 
 drew from the further prosecution of those sciences, 
 and devoted himself to the study of divinity, re- 
 taining, however, his strong predilection, and ear- 
 nest pursuit of mathematics. Disappointed in his 
 hopes of obtaining the Greek professorship, he 
 resolved to dispel his chagrin by visiting the con- 
 tinent, but was so poor at the time, that to meet 
 the expense of his travels he had to dispose of his 
 books. In 1660, he was chosen to the Greek chair at 
 Cambridge ; and in July, 1662, he received another 
 appointment more congenial to his tastes, that of 
 geometry professor in Gresham college, London. 
 In 1663, he received the high honour of being the 
 first Fellow elected by the council of the Royal 
 Society after they were incorporated by charter; 
 and almost immediately after he was appointed 
 first professor of a mathematical lectureship 
 founded by Dr. Lucas, at Cambridge. This office 
 he held for six years, and then resigned it to Sir 
 Isaac Newton, having resolved to dedicate the rest 
 of his life to divinity. Several small preferments 
 he obtained in the church, till having by his 
 pre-eminence as a preacher been marked out as 
 capable of filling the most dignified stations, he 
 was, in 1670, created Doctor in Divinity, prepar- 
 atory to his being appointed Master of Trinity 
 College, and chaplain to the king. Charles had 
 conceived a strong partiality for him, and on be- 
 stowing these honourable preferments upon him, 
 said ' that he had given them to the best man in 
 England.' A further honour awaited him, in 
 being elected, in 1675, to the Vice-Chancellorship 
 of the university. But he was not destined to en- 
 joy these honours long, for on 4th May, 1677, he 
 was seized with fever, which in a few days ter- 
 minated his brief, though brilliant career. His 
 works in mathematics are still held in great esteem. 
 His sermons, with the exception of two, were 
 posthumous, though he had prepared them for the 
 press. They are remarkable for abundance of 
 matter, treasures of erudition, for splendour of 
 description, and a spirit of glowing piety. Charles 
 II. used to call him ' an unfair preacher, because 
 be exhausted every subject, and left nothing for 
 others to sav after him.' [R. J.] 
 
 BARROW, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., secretary 
 to the admiralty from 1804 to 1845; a distin- 
 guished biographical writer and promoter of dis- 
 covery, 1764-1848. 
 
 BARRUEL, Augustin, a French abbd, chiefly 
 kn. for his memorials of Jacobinism, 1741-1820. 
 
 BARRUEL DE BEAUVERT, Count Anth. 
 Jos., a partizan of the Bourbons, well known as a 
 jourii'ilist and biographical writer, 1756-1817. 
 
 BARRY, Girald, or Giraldus Cambrensis, 
 
 an English prelate and historian of the 12th cent. 
 
 BARRY, J. T., an ar. and wr. on art, 1741-1806. 
 
 BARRY, Spranger, a eel. actor, 1719-1777. 
 
 BARRY, Marie Jeanne De Vaubernier, 
 
 Countess Du, celebrated for her beauty and 
 
 infamous licentiousness at the court of Louis XV., 
 
 commenced her career in a millinery establishment, 
 
 through which she entered upon the life of a 
 
 courtezan, and was taken under the protection of 
 
 the Count du Barn'. Presented at court 1759, 
 
 v hen the place of Madame Pompadour was va- 
 
 07 
 
 BAS 
 
 cant, she became the king's mistress, and acquired 
 the most unbounded influence over him. The 
 dismissal and exile of the prime minister Choiseul 
 was decided upon under her influence, guided by the 
 ' corrupt D'Aiguillon,' and the ' time-serving Mau- 
 peou,' who were the most implacable^ enemies of 
 the parliament, which had now maintained a quar- 
 rel for nearly a quarter of a century with tin; 
 court. France, at this period, as the most vigor- 
 ous and deep-sighted writer of the present age has 
 described it, 'with a harlot's foot on her neck,' 
 was preparing for the fearful struggle of the 
 revolution, in which Du Barry, with so many 
 others who were either the glory or the shame of 
 their country, were doomed to perish. At the 
 death of the king, in 1774, she was ordered by 
 Louis XVI. into the convent of Pont-aux-Damcs, 
 near Meaux, but after some time permitted to 
 reside in the chateau built for her by the old king. 
 Here she lived some years in a creditable retire- 
 ment, but coming to England to procure money 
 for the use of the royal family by the sale of her 
 diamonds, she fell under the displeasure of the 
 revolutionary tribunal, and was condemned to the 
 guillotine at the age of forty-nine. It is the com- 
 mon remark of historians, that France was in- 
 debted for much of its demoralization to this 
 prostitute ; rather, it might be said, she had the 
 address to avail herself of the incredible corruption 
 that prevailed at the very heart of society. She 
 suffered at the close of the year 1793, uttering the 
 most pitiable cries for mercy on her way to the 
 scaffold. [E.R.] 
 
 BARSEBAI, sultan of Egypt, 1422-1438. 
 
 BART AS, Wm. De Saluste Du, a French 
 soldier and diplom., dist. also as a poet, 1544-1590. 
 
 BARTH, John, a French privateer, 1651-1702. 
 
 BARTHELEMI, Nich., a religious wr., 15th c. 
 
 BARTHELEMON, Francis Hippolite, a 
 comp. and violinist, b. at Bordeaux 1741, d. 1808. 
 
 BARTHELEMY, John James, a Fr. savant, 
 member of the Acad., and au. of the ' Voyage of 
 the Younger Anarchasis in Greece,' &c, 1716-1795. 
 
 BARTHEZ, P. J., a Fr. medic, wr., 1734-1806. 
 
 BARTHOLDY, J. S., a Prus. diplom., d. 1826. 
 
 BARTOLI, or BARTOLUS, a celebrated jurist, 
 whose works occupy 10 folio vols., 1312-1356. 
 
 BARTOLI, Cosmo, an Italian hist., 16th cent. 
 
 BARTOLI, D., hist, of the Jesuits, 1608-1685. 
 
 BARTOLO, an Italian jurist, 14th centurv. 
 
 BARTOLOZZI, Fr., an engraver, 1728-1815. 
 
 BARTON, Bernard, dist. as the 'Quaker 
 Poet,' by profession a banker's clerk, 1784-1849. 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth, a poor girl of Kent, 
 the subject of religious ecstacies, which led to her 
 execution, on a charge of high treason, 1534. 
 
 BARTRAM, J., an Amer. botanist, 1701-1777. 
 
 BARTRAM, Wm., son of the preceding, a dis- 
 tinguished ornithologist, died 1823. 
 
 BARWAK, J., a royalist divine, 1612-1664. 
 
 BARWAK, P., an em. physiologist, died 1705. 
 
 BASEDAW, J. B., a German wr. on education 
 and moral philos., fndr. of a normal school called 
 the ' Philanthropinum,' at Dessau, 1723-1790. 
 
 BASEVI, an architect, b. 1795, killed 1845. 
 
 BASIL, St., the Great, a celebrated patriarch 
 and ascetic of the Greek church, 326-379. 
 
 BASILIUS, a celebrated heresiarch, burnt alive 
 at Constantinople, 12th century. 
 
BAS 
 
 BASILIUS, Valentine, a .jurist, 15th cent. 
 
 BASILIUS L, emperor of the East, 866-886 : 
 the second of this name, who reunited Bulgaria 
 to the empire, reigned 976-1025. 
 
 BASILIUS, confid. of Constantine VII., d. 961. 
 
 BASILIDES, inventor of the Abraxas, 2d ct. 
 
 BASILISCUS, emperor of the East, 475-477. 
 
 BASILOWITZ, J., first czar of Russia, d. 1584. 
 
 BASKERVILLE, John, celebrated for im- 
 provements in letter-casting and print., 1706-1775. 
 
 BASKERVILLE, Sir Simon, a phys., d. 1641. 
 
 BASNAGE, Benj., a protestant divine, 1580- 
 1652. Anthony, his son, minister at Bayeux, 
 1610-1691. Samuee, son of Anthony, author of 
 politico-ecclesiastical annals, died 1721. Henry, 
 second son of Benjamin, a writer on jurisprudence, 
 1615-1695. Jacques, son of Hemy, the historian 
 of the Jews, &c, 1653-1723. Henry, brother to 
 the last named, a journalist and hist., 1656-1710. 
 
 BASNET, Edw., an Irish priest and soldier, 
 died in the reign of Edward VI. 
 
 BASS, George, a surgeon in the English navy, 
 who went out to New S. Wales, seven years after the 
 formation of that colony, along with Governor 
 Hunter, on board a ship in which the celebrated 
 Flinders was midshipman. Soon after reaching 
 Port Jackson, he and Flinders fitted out, at their 
 own expense, a small boat, eight feet long, which 
 they called ' Tom Thumb ;' and in this, with one 
 boy for their companion, they made two surveying 
 voyages in 1795 and 1796, along the coast south- 
 wards. Their report on the country led to the 
 founding of new settlements. Sent out by the 
 government in 1797, in a whale boat, with a crew 
 of six men, and provisions for six weeks, Bass con- 
 trived to make these last eleven weeks, and per- 
 formed a voyage of 600 miles. He traced a portion 
 of the southern shores of the continent, and found 
 that Van Diemen's Land, instead of being con- 
 tinuous with it, as Cook and others had asserted, 
 was separated by a wide strait. The question was 
 not, however, regarded as quite settled; and in 
 1798, on Flinders' return from Norfolk island, 
 Bass and he were sent out in a vessel of 25 tons, 
 with instructions to sail round Van Diemen's Land, 
 and examine the capabilities of the coasts. Their 
 successful voyage and favourable report soon led 
 to farther colonization. The strait received the 
 name of its discoverer. No danger could check 
 the ardour and daring of Bass. In 1796, he 
 attempted to penetrate through the_ extraordinary 
 rocky barrier which divides the maritime belt on the 
 east from the interior plains, and during fifteen days 
 encountered the greatest perils, ascending preci- 
 pices by means of iron hooks fastened to his arms, 
 and descending by ropes into the most frightful 
 abysses. Like many previous attempts, this proved 
 unsuccessful, and it was not till 1813 that a prac- 
 ticable pass was found, due west of Sydney. [J.B.] 
 
 BASSANI, G., a composer, 17th century. 
 
 BASSANO, an Italian painter, 1510-1592. 
 
 BASSANO, H. B. Maret, duke of, a political 
 writer and statesman of France, ordered to quit 
 England along with the ambassador Chauvelin, 
 1 7i2 ; afterwards secretary of state and confidant 
 of Buonaparte, as well as editor of his official organ, 
 the Monlttur ; fell with the empire, but returned 
 from exile 1820, and was recalled to official 
 employment by Louis Philippe ; 1758-1839. 
 
 EAT 
 
 BASSET, Peter, historian of Henry V. 
 
 BASSI, Laura, M. C, an Italian lady, made 
 doctor of philo., and prof, at Bologna, 17ll-177^. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE, F., a Fr. marsh., 1575-1646. 
 
 BASSUET, Peter, a Fr. surgeon, 1706-1757. 
 
 BASTA, George, a military writer, 16th ct. 
 
 BASTIDE, J. F DeLa, a mis. au., 1724-1798. 
 
 BASTWICK, John, a controv. wr., 1598-1660. 
 
 BATE, George, a diet, physician and medical 
 writer, historian of the civil wars, 1593-1669. 
 
 BATE, H., a poet and journalist, last century. 
 
 BATE, John, a writer on logic, 15th centurv. 
 
 BATECUMBE, W., a geometrician, 15th cent. 
 
 BATEMAN, W., fndr. of Trinity Hall, d. 1354. 
 
 BATES, Joah, an em. musician, 1740-1799. 
 
 BATES, W., a religious biographer, 1625-1699. 
 
 BATHE, Wm., au. of a curious philological work, 
 master of the Irish school at Salamanca, i564-1614. 
 
 BATHURST, Aleen, Earl, a distinguished op- 
 pon. of Walpole in the House of Lords, 1684-1775. 
 
 BATHURST, Henry, Earl, son of the preced- 
 ing, some time lord chancellor, 1714-1794. 
 
 BATHURST, Rt. Rev. Henry, bishop of 
 Norwich, 1744-1837. 
 
 BATHURST, Dr. H., son of the preced., d. 1844. 
 
 BATHURST, Ralph, a Latin poet, 1620-1704. 
 
 BATHYANI, C. J., a noble Hungarian, field- 
 marshal of Austria, born 1697, in service, 1716- 
 1747, died 1772. See also Batthyanyi. 
 
 BATHYLLUS; a eel. mimic, time of Augustus. 
 
 BATOMI, P. G., an Ital. painter, 1708-1787. 
 
 BATOU, Khan, sue. of Zenghis-khan, d. 1276. 
 
 BATSCH, A. J. G. C., a naturalist, 1761-1801. 
 
 BATTELY, John, an antiquarian, died 1708. 
 
 BATTEUX, Cii., a French classic, 1713-1780. 
 
 BATTHYANYI, Louis, a Hungarian noble- 
 man, distinguished for his connection with the 
 Austrian conflicts of 1848, and his unhappy fate. 
 He was born about the year 1809, of one of the 
 most illustrious families of the proud aristocracy 
 of Hungary. He was for many years the leader 
 of the opposition to Austrian domination, in the 
 upper house of Hungary, and by his talents and 
 judgment increased the influence naturally awarded 
 to his rank in that assembly. When the sweep of 
 revolutionary events in 1848 rendered it necessary 
 to form a Hungarian cabinet, Batthyanyi was in- 
 trusted with the function. It is said that at court 
 he was encouraged to treat Jellachich, the Ban of 
 Croatia, as a traitor, at the very time when that 
 leader was encouraged to invade Hungary and 
 subdue it for Austria. In September, as prime 
 minister of Hungary, he went to Vienna to en- 
 deavour to make moderate stipulations for preserv- 
 ing the nationality of Hungary on the one hand, 
 and on the other restraining it from violent out - 
 break ; but he found influences at work which ren- 
 dered this hopeless, and resigning, retired to his 
 estates. An accident disabled him from joining in 
 the warlike resistance to Jellachich had he desired 
 it, but he took part in the Hungarian parliament. 
 He went with a deputation to Prince Windischgraetz 
 to accommodate terms, but was not received. He 
 was arrested, and after some delay, by order of 
 Marshal Haineau, tried by court-martial and con- 
 demned to death. The conviction was for vague 
 offences, among others for resigning office ; and it 
 was said that the Austrian government took ven- 
 geance on a Hungarian nobleman for the disturb- 
 
 63 
 
BAT 
 
 ftnces of Vienna, and the murder of Latour. He 
 was condemned to be hanged, but an attempt to 
 commit suicide prevented the execution of the 
 sentence, and he was shot on Oct. 6, 1848. 
 
 BATTIE, Wm., a wr. on insanity, 1708-1776. 
 
 BATTISHILL, Jon., a composer, 1708-1801. 
 
 BATUTA, Ibn, an Arab Moor of Tangiers, a 
 celebrated traveller of the middle ages. He left 
 his native town in 1324. and travelled for 28 years 
 over the various countries of the East, chiefly for 
 the purpose of seeing holy places, and returned 
 through Central Africa to Fez, where he took up 
 his abode in 1353. A pretty fall account of his 
 interesting journey is given by Mr. W. D. Cooley 
 in his Hist, of Inl. and Mar. Disc. vol. i., from 
 the only materials known to exist, ' an extract 
 from an epitome.' [J.B.] 
 
 BATZ, Baron De, a member of the constituent 
 assembly, noted as a financialist, died 1822. 
 
 BAUDEAU, N., a Fr. economist, 1730-1792. 
 
 BAUDELOQUE, J. Z., a French accoucheur, 
 and writer on midwifery, 1746-1810. 
 
 BAUDIN, P. C. L., a French civilian, deputy to 
 the assembly and the convention, 1751-1799. 
 
 BAUDIUS, Doninio, a rhetorician, 15G1-1613. 
 
 BAUDOT DE JUILLI, Nicholas, au. of a 
 hist, of the conquest of England, &c, 1678-1759. 
 
 BAUDOUIN, Bex., a Fr. archaeologist, 17th c. 
 
 BAUDOUIN. See Baldwin. 
 
 BAUDRAIS, a theatrical writer, magistrate of 
 Paris during the reign of terror, 1749-1832. 
 
 BAUDRAUD, M. A., a geographer, 1633-1700. 
 
 BAUER, Fred., a German artist, died 1826. 
 
 BAUHINUS, John, a botanist, 1541-1613. His 
 brother Gaspard, also awr. on botany, 1560-1624. 
 
 BAULDRI, Paul, a chronologist, 1639-1706. 
 
 BAUME, Anth., a chemical author, died 1805. 
 
 BAUME, J. F. De La, a Fr. divine, died 1757. 
 
 BAUME, Nich. Aug. De La, marquis of Mon- 
 trevel, and marshal of France, 1636-1716. 
 
 BAUMER, J. W., a naturalist, 1719-1788. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, Alex. Gottlieb, a German 
 metaphysician and prof, of philosophy, 1714-1762. 
 
 BAUR, Fr. Wm. Von, a Russian general, au. 
 of memorials for a history of Wallachia, d. 1783. 
 
 BAUR, J. W an archi. and painter, 1610-1640. 
 
 BAWDWEEN, Wm., an antiquary, died 1816. 
 
 BAXTER, And., a Scotch philos., 1686-1750. 
 
 BAXTER, RiCHARD,adivine of great note among 
 the English nonconformists, was born 12th Novem- 
 ber, 1615, at Rowton, Shropshire. His father's con- 
 versation and example were the means of bringing 
 him under early impressions of religion, and al- 
 though he for a time contracted evil habits, such 
 as lying, stealing fruit, &c, his juvenile piety was 
 never wholly extinguished. Unfortunately, his 
 education was committed to teachers whose in- 
 competency, or unfaithfulness were such, that he 
 cannot be said to have enjoyed the advantages of 
 regular instruction ; and yet, by dint first of his 
 father's counsels, and afterwards of his own genius 
 and industry, he made attainments in knowledge 
 superior to those of most of his contemporaries. 
 His parents, who wished to procure him a place at 
 court, engaged him to the master of the revels ; 
 but the bustle and pageantry of the daily scenes 
 in which that situation brought him to mingle 
 were totally uncongenial to a mind like his, fond 
 of contemplation and retirement. With redoubled 
 
 BAY 
 
 zest he returned after a month's experiment to his 
 studies, and resolving to devote his attention to 
 divinity, prepared himself for the work in connec- 
 tion with the Church of England. Having at the 
 age of twenty-three received ordination, he offi- 
 ciated, first, as assistant at Bridgenorth, where 
 his reputation as a preacher procured him an ear- 
 nest invitation to become pastor of the church and 
 parish of Kidderminster. In that town his min- 
 istry commenced in 1640, and was distinguished 
 by a zeal and success rarely equalled. The un- 
 settled state of the times drove him from that post 
 of usefulness, and obliged him to seek an asylum 
 in various parts of England. Though he espoused 
 the cause of the parliament during the prevalence 
 of the civil war, and became chaplain of a regiment, 
 he was of decidedly moderate opinions, disapproved 
 of revolutionary principles, especially of the violent 
 measures adopted towards the late king, and did 
 not disguise his disagreement, in many respects, 
 with the conduct of both parties, in conducting 
 the affairs both of the church and the state. His 
 integrity and honest independence procured him 
 
 feneral respect, notwithstanding which, however, 
 e was subjected to much harassing annoyance. 
 Mr. Baxter, at the earnest solicitation of the 
 people, returned to Kidderminster, and discharged 
 the ministerial functions in that place with all his 
 wonted assiduity for a period of fourteen years. 
 Having begun to entertain conscientious scruples 
 about the et caztera oath, he relinquished the Church 
 of England, and repaired to London, where, arriv- 
 ing immediately before the deposition of Richard 
 Cromwell, he preached to the parliament the day 
 preceding their vote for the restoration of the king. 
 Having obtained a license, he preached frequently 
 in the metropolis, till, in 1676, a meeting-house 
 was built for him ; but after preaching there once, 
 he was dispossessed, seized by a warrant from the 
 Lord Chief Justice Jefferies, tried and condemned 
 for some passages in his Paraphrase on the New 
 Testament. Through powerful influence exerted 
 in his behalf with king James II., he was pardoned, 
 and on regaining his liberty he resumed his minis- 
 terial functions, preaching to large and attached 
 congregations in various parts of London. Mr. 
 Baxter was a most voluminous author, one hun- 
 dred and forty-five distinct works having proceeded 
 from his indefatigable pen. The chief of these are 
 his own ' Life and Times,' his ' Dying Thoughts,' 
 his ' Saints' Everlasting Rest,' and his ' Call to 
 the Unconverted,' of which 20,000 copies were 
 sold in this country in a single year, besides trans- 
 lations of it into all the languages of Europe. His 
 whole soul was absorbed by zeal for the glory of 
 God, and the salvation of men, and in the dis- 
 charge of his duty, he was fearless as much in 
 reproving Cromwell and remonstrating with the 
 profligate Charles, as in addressing a congregation 
 of plain and ordinary people. [ R. J.l 
 
 BAYARD, P. du Terrail, Chevalier "De, a 
 French knight, celeb, for his valour and loyalty, 
 killed in the Italian wars of Francis I., 1476-1524. 
 
 BAYER, John, a German astrono., 17th cent. 
 
 BAYER, T. S., a philologist, 1694-1738. 
 
 BAYEUX, N., a Fr. historian, killed 1792. 
 
 BAYLE, G. L., a French med. au., 1774-1816 
 
 BAYLE, Moses, a member of the Fr. conven- 
 tion and Com. of Safety, proscribed 1795, d. 1815. 
 
BAY 
 
 BAYLE, Peter, born at Carlat, in the 
 county of Foix, in 1647 : the son of a Calvinist 
 minister; one of the most learned and laborious 
 men of any age; witness that grand monument 
 he has left, the ' Dictionnaire Historique et 
 Critique.' His own account of the cause of his 
 extraordinary productive power is this, meriting 
 well a prominent place among the memoranda of 
 the ambitious student, 'Amusements, pleasure- 
 parties, games, collations, trips to the country, 
 visiting, and other recreations, necessary accord- 
 ing to what they say to many literary men, have 
 no place in my manner of life ; I lose no time in 
 them, neither do I spend any on domestic cares, 
 or in interfering with anything, soliciting any- 
 thing, or meddling at all with business. In this 
 way, a writer may accomplish much.' The events 
 of Bayle's life are eminently characteristic of his 
 habit of mind: at die time a Calvinist; at the 
 next a catholic ; then Calvinist again ; finally of 
 no tangible creed or even profession or care about 
 faith ot any sort : if his singular logical acuteness 
 enabled him to cut in pieces the arguments then 
 passing current for reasons, the defective force of his 
 moral and intellectual instincts seemed to render 
 him quite as happy and comfortable without a be- 
 lief as with one. His writings, accordingly, are 
 essentially critical and sceptical: he delights in 
 showing how those important questions which philo- 
 sophy would fain resolve are engirt by innumer- 
 able difficulties. Take as a specimen his treatment 
 of the position ' There is a Cod.' The usual proofs 
 apparently the soundest on which one rests 
 this position, that one, for instance, which would 
 infer the existence of a perfect Being, from the ex- 
 istence in the human mind of a corresponding 
 idea are open to manifold objections. Touching 
 the Divine essence, our ignorance seems insur- 
 mountable. Though all men might be said to 
 agree as to the being of a God, where is their 
 agreement regarding his nature; who can reconcile 
 his immutability with his liberty, his immateriality 
 and his immensity? His unity is not demon- 
 strated. His prescience cannot easily be accom- 
 modated to the free-will of man ; nor his good- 
 ness with the physical and moral evil prevailing in 
 the world, or with the eternal punishment of the 
 wicked. His decrees are impenetrable ; his judg- 
 ments incomprehensible. We can reach no higher 
 than negative conceptions regarding his divine 
 perfections. . . . Thus Bayle doubts rather 
 than reasons ; nay, he concludes, in the true spirit 
 of the Pyrrhonist, "that Reason is not a safe guide. 
 Never was style better adapted to such a thesis ; 
 clear, polished, keen, and passionless. No good 
 library should want the Dictionary ; and there are 
 few Inquirers who may not derive benefit from its 
 singular pages. Besides this Opus Majus, he 
 wrote several miscellaneous treatises, collected in 
 his ' (Euvres Diverses,' four vols. 8vo. He died 
 ' pen in hand ' at the age of fifty-nine, in Decem- 
 ber, 1706. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BAYLEY, Anseem, a Hebrew schol., d. 1791. 
 
 BAYLEY, the Bight Hon. Sir John, jus- 
 tice of the King's Bench, mem. of the privy coun- 
 cil, and author of a professional work, died 1841. 
 
 BAYLEY, Lewis, bishop of Bangor, died 1632. 
 
 BAYLEY, N., writer of a dictionary, 1753. 
 
 BAYLEY, Rich., a eel. anatomist, 1745-1801. 
 
 BEA 
 
 BAYLEY, Thomas Haynes, a lyrical poet, dra- 
 matic writer, and novelist, 1797-1839. 
 
 BAYLEY, Wm., an astronomer, died 1810. 
 
 BAYON, J. De, a French annalist, 14th cent. 
 
 BAZARAD, a Wallachian prince, 14th century. 
 
 BAZARD, Amand, a French carbonaro, after- 
 wards a follower of St. Simon, 1792-1832. 
 
 BAZIRE, Cl., am. of the Fr. conven., 1764-91. 
 
 BEACON, Thos. an English reformer, d. 1570. 
 
 BEARDE DE L'ABBAYE, an econom., d. 1771. 
 % BEATON, Card., abp. of St. Andrews, dis- 
 tinguished for his persecuting spirit, assass. 1546. 
 
 BEATON, Jas., neph. of the card., bp. of Glas- 
 gow, and au. of a history of Scotland, 1530-1603. 
 
 BEATRICE, a martyr and saint, 3d century. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, the well-known Scotch 
 poet and moralist, was the son of a small farmer 
 and shopkeeper, and was born at Laurencekirk in 
 Kincardineshire, 5th December, 1735. After pur- 
 suing his studies with the most brilliant success at 
 Marisehal College, Aberdeen, he was appointed 
 usher to the Grammar School of that city 1758, 
 where he enjoyed the society of many distinguished 
 men, especially of Reid, the metaphysician, from 
 whom he acquired the principles afterwards illus- 
 trated in his ' Essay on Truth.' In 1761, being 
 then in his twenty-sixth year, Beattie made his 
 debut in the literary world as translator of the 
 Eclogues of Virgil, and author of several small 
 poems which had appeared anonymously at vari- 
 ous times in the Scots Magazine.' In 1765 he pub- 
 lished The Judgment of Paris,' and in 1766 a 
 selection of his poems, with the addition of some 
 which had not hitherto appeared. Between this 
 period and 1770 he was preparing his famous 
 essay, which he designed to counteract the baneful 
 effects of materialism, by demonstrating the im- 
 mutability of moral sentiment, which involves, in 
 fact, the principle of a priori instruction and re- 
 velation. His personal history during this period 
 acquires some interest from his marriage with Miss 
 Dun, which took place in June 1767, and the friend- 
 ship of the poet Gray, soon to be terminated by the 
 death of the latter. The ' Essay on Truth ' at once 
 established the fame of its author, who received tie 
 flattering recognition of a degree as doctor of philo- 
 sophy from the university of Oxford, and the offer of 
 the professorship of moral philosophy in the univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh, which, for personal reasons, he 
 declined to accept, as he did a handsome living in 
 the Church of England proffered by Dr. Porteus. 
 It was in the flush of his success that Beattie re- 
 sumed his poetical studies, and gratified the English 
 public with his ' Minstrel,' a poem, written in the 
 style and stanza of Spenser, and embodying, in 
 the character of Edwin, a transcript of his own 
 ideas and pursuits in his younger days. The first 
 book of this celebrated poem appeared in 1771, the 
 second in 1774, and a new edition of the whole in 
 1777, and it brought the author so prominently 
 before the public that his merits were acknow- 
 ledged in 1773 by an annual pension of 200 from 
 the crown, graced, a little subsequently, by a pri- 
 vate interview with the king and queen. In 1776 
 his essays ' On Poetry and Music, ' On Laughter 
 and Ludicrous Composition,' and ' On the Utility 
 of Classical Learning,' appeared, forming one 
 volume with a new edition of his ' Essay on Truth.' 
 In 1790 and 1793 respectively, the two volumes of 
 
BEA 
 
 his ' Elements of Moral Science ' were first pub- 
 lished, and as a farther proof of his industry, there 
 is scarcely an interval between the publication of 
 the 'Minstrel' and his retirement in 1796, in 
 which literature was not more or less enriched by 
 his pen. It is sad to record that the insanity of 
 his wife some years past, and the death of his 
 sons, the younger of whom was suddenly snatched 
 from him at the period just mentioned, affected 
 at last his well-regulated mind. Though he re- 
 covered this shock, it was only to pass the remain- 
 der of his days in his now solitary home, where he 
 died of paralysis. 18th August, 1803. Beattie 
 has been described by one who knew him as a 
 man of middle size, robust in appearance, some- 
 what corpulent, and slouching in his gait. ' His 
 features were very regular ; his complexion some- 
 what dark. His eyes were black and brilliant, 
 full of tender and melancholy expression, and in 
 the course of conversation with his friends, be- 
 came extremely animated.' His eldest son, James 
 Hay Beattie, 1768-1790, gave proof of his philo- 
 sophical and poetical talents in some fragments 
 which were edited by his father, 1794. [E.R.] 
 
 BEATTY, Sir Wm, M.D., F.R.S., author of 
 an ' Authentic Narrative ' of the last moments of 
 Nelson, with whom he was professionally present 
 at the battle of Trafalgar, knighted 1831, d. 1842. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP, Alph. De, a French historian, 
 of the war in La Vendee, Suarrow, &c, 1767-1832. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP, Jos., an astronomer, political 
 agent of Buonaparte in the East, 1752-1802. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP, Richard, an Engl, architect, 
 employed at Windsor and elsewhere, died 1481. 
 
 BEAUCHAMPS, P. F. G. De, a dramatic poet 
 and historical writer on the drama, 1689-1761. 
 
 BEAUCHATEAU, Fr. Mat. Chastelet De, 
 a linguist and poet, remarkable for the precocious 
 development oi his talents, 1645-1660. 
 
 BEAUCHATEAU, Hippolyte, brother of the 
 preceding, disting. as a religious writer and orator. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Francis de Vendome, duke of, 
 killed at the siege of Candia, 1669. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henry, an English prelate, half- 
 brother of Henry IV., made a card. 1426, crowned 
 Henry VI. at Notre Dame, 1430, one of the judges 
 of La Pucelle, 1431, died 1447. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Louis De, an historian, d. 1795. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Marg., countess of Richmond, 
 mother of Henry VII., k. of England, 1441-1509. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Fanny, countess of, strictly, 
 Mary Anne Fanny Mouchard, a writer of some 
 theatrical pieces, and poems, &c., 1738-1813. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Francis, marquis of, a Fr. 
 rovalist, nephew of the preceding, 1756-1819. 
 
 "BEAUHARNAIS, Alexander, Viscount, br. 
 of Francis, a disting. general condemned by the rev. 
 tribunal, and executed 1794. See Josephine. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene De, son of the 
 preceding and of Josephine, born 1781; in the 
 service of Buonaparte 1804-1814; viceroy of 
 Northern Italy 1805 ; married to the daughter of 
 the king of Bavaria 1806, and made duke of 
 Leuchtenburg by his father-in-law at the restora- 
 tion, died 1824. For Hortense Eugenie, sister 
 of Eugene, and q. of Holland, see Hortensk. 
 
 BEAUJEU, Chr. De, a Fr. officer and man 
 of letters, disting. in the Spanish war, 16th cent. 
 
 BEAUJOUR, L. F. De, a diplom., 1763-1836. 
 
 BEO 
 
 BEAULIEU, Sebastian De Pontault De, a 
 celebrated military engineer, time of Louis XIV. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Peter Augustin Caron 
 De, a dramatic author and musician, 1732-1799. 
 
 BEAUMELLE, Laur., a Fr. critic, 1727-1773. 
 
 BEAUMESNIL, the pseudonyme of H. A. Vil- 
 lfjd, a Fr. actress and mus. composer, 1748-1803. 
 
 BEAUMONT, A. De, a Fr. statesman, d. 1375. 
 
 BEAUMONT, C. De, abp. of Paris, 1703-1781. 
 
 BEAUMONT, C. E. De, a F. archi., 1757-1811. 
 
 BEAUMONT, E. De, a F. advocate, 1732-1785. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, the celebrated dra- 
 matic poet and fellow-labourer with Fletcher, was 
 born in Leicestershire about 1584, and died about 
 1616. The plays of these attached friends, who 
 were singularly alike in genius and taste, are re- 
 markable for their humour and delineation of char- 
 acter, and for some time contested the palm with 
 Shakspeare, but they are disfigured by the gross 
 indecency which disgraced the court of James I. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Sir J., a judge, 1582-1628. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Joseph, author of a religious 
 allegory, professor of divinity, died 1689. 
 
 BEAUMONT, J. T. B., an accountant and 
 man of letters, disting. for his public spirit as the 
 originator of savings banks, &c, 1774-1841. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Marie Leprince De, a Fr. 
 authoress of works adapted for vouth, 1711-1780. 
 
 BEAUMONT DE PEREFIX, Hardouin, a 
 French ecclesiastic and historian, died 1670. 
 
 BEAUNE, F. De, a mathematician, died 1652. 
 
 BEAURAIN, J. De, a geogra. wr., 1697-1771. 
 
 BEAURIEN, G. G. De, a popular Fr. author 
 of a work on natural history, &c, 1728-1795. 
 
 BEAUSARD, P., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1577. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, Isaac De, a celebrated protes- 
 tant theologian, author of a defence of the re- 
 formed doctrines, &c, 1659-1738. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, C. L. De, son of the preceding, 
 also a divine and protestant writer, 1690-1753. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, L., another son, distinguished 
 as a natural philosopher and economist, 1730-1783. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, C. N., a Fr. historian, 1745-1794. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, W., a wr. on numis., 1698-1773. 
 
 BEAUVILLIERS, Francis De, duke de St. 
 Aignan, disting. as a courtier and poet, 1607-1687. 
 
 BEAUVILLIERS, Paul De, son of the preced., 
 and coadjutor of the archb. of Cambray, d. 1714. 
 
 BEAUXALMIS, Th., a Fr. theolog., 1524-1589. 
 
 BEAVER, John, a chronicler of the 14th cent. 
 
 BECCADELLI, Antig., an histo., 1374-1471. 
 
 BECCADELLI, Louis, anltal. biogra., d. 1572. 
 
 BECCARI, Augustin, an Ital. poet, d. 1520. 
 
 BECCARI, J. B., a physiolo. wr., 1682-1766. 
 
 BECCARIA, Caesar Bonesana, Marquis, 
 author of a celebrated treatise on crimes and 
 punishments, which is regarded as one of the 
 best works ever written on legislation, 1735-1794. 
 
 BECCARIA, G. B., an experi. phil., 1716-1781. 
 
 BECERRA, Gaspard, a Sp. artist, d. 1570. 
 
 BECKETT, Thomas a, the illustrious, high- 
 spirited, and ill-fated churchman canonized 
 1173 by Alexander III., was the son of a London 
 citizen, one time a crusader, and was born in Lon- 
 don on the festival of St. Thomas, 1117. He re- 
 ceived a collegiate education at Oxford, completed 
 by the study of the civil and canon law at Bologna, 
 under the patronage of Theobald, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and was early carried to preferment 
 
 71 
 
BEC 
 
 by his undoubted abilities, aided by a handsome 
 person and refined manners ; but still more by the 
 jealousy which divided the civil and ecclesiastical 
 j towers" at that time. On his return from Italy 
 Beckett was appointed archdeacon of Canterbury 
 by bis patron, and soon after the accession of 
 Henry II. in 1154, was raised to the dignity of 
 high chancellor ; doubtless by the influence of the 
 prelacy favouring his own ambition. At this 
 time, it should be remarked, the power of the 
 popes had risen to an arrogant height, and the 
 dispute about investitures, the subjection of the 
 clergy to lay jurisdiction in criminal matters, and 
 various alleged abuses on either side, were subjects 
 of continual and bitter strife between the church 
 and the crowned heads of Europe. It is not likely 
 that Beckett was ever undecided in his own views 
 on any of these subjects, or on the part he was 
 destined to play in the politics of the period ; but 
 it is easy to imagine that each party would see 
 the means of advancing its own pretensions in the 
 splendid abilities, the acknowledged purity of life, 
 and the courtly manners of the young churchman. 
 On the death of Theobald, in 1162, the king and 
 the chief prelates were equally urgent for his 
 elevation to the see of Canterbury ; but once 
 consecrated, it devolved upon him whether he 
 would serve the church or the state, and he 
 declared for the former without hesitation. 
 The king and his late minister were equally 
 matched for their inflexibility, quickness of resolu- 
 tion, undaunted courage, and statesmanlike abili- 
 ties ; and both were influenced, further than their 
 own consciousness extended, by the spirit of the 
 age. Three years of strife led to the council of 
 Clarendon, convoked by Henry in 1164, when 
 Beckett yielded to the entreaties or menaces of 
 the barons, and signed the famous 'Constitu- 
 tions,' by which the differences between the church 
 and state were regulated. These articles not only 
 rendered the state supreme in all that concerned 
 the general government of the nation, but virtu- 
 ally separated the Church of England from Rome. 
 The pope, therefore, refused to ratify them, and 
 Beckett, seeing his opportunity, and really repent- 
 ing of the compliance that had been wrung from 
 him, refused to perform his office in the church, 
 and endeavoured to leave the kingdom, in which, 
 at last, he succeeded, only to draw down the 
 vengeance of Henry upon his connections. The 
 progress of the quarrel belongs rather to the 
 history of the times than a single life. Beckett 
 remained in exile six years, and matters being in 
 some measure accommodated, returned to England 
 in 1170, shortly after the coronation of the king's 
 son, which had been designed by Henry as a 
 means of securing the succession. Beckett's refusal 
 to remove the censures with which the agents in 
 this transaction had been visited, his haughty 
 contempt of the crown, and the sentences of ex- 
 communication which he continued to fulminate 
 from the altar of Canterbury cathedral, provoked 
 anew the indignation of the king. It is idle to judge 
 the actions of men in those iron times by the formulas 
 of the present day. The question stripped of all dis- 
 guise was simply this whether Thomas a Beckett 
 or Henry Planta genet was henceforth to be king in 
 England. The Norman lords resolved the matter 
 in their own rude way, when at length four of 
 
 BEC 
 
 them leaving the king's presence in anger, aftcT 
 hearing of some fresh indignity, determined on 
 bringing the controversy to a bloody close. The 
 last scene of this tragedy is well known in all its 
 details. It is sufficient to say, that Beckett was 
 murdered during the celebration of the Vesper 
 service in Canterbury Cathedral, on the 29th of 
 December, 1170. [E.R*.] 
 
 BECKETT, W., a eel. surgeon, b. at Abingdon, 
 in Berkshire, 1684, d. 1738. Mr. Beckett wrote an 
 ' Inquiry ' into touching for the king's evil, and an 
 Essay on curing diseases by charms and amulets. 
 
 BECKFORD, William, was born in 1760. 
 Ten years afterwards, by the death of his father, 
 whose mayoralty of London was noted in the his- 
 tory of the times, he succeeded to a princely for- 
 tune. He was precocious, both in his love of litera- 
 ture and art, in his vigour of thought and expres- 
 sion, and in his retired eccentricity of disposition. 
 After having lived much in France, and visited 
 Italy and other continental countries, he married, 
 in 1783, a daughter of the earl of Aboyne, who 
 died young, leaving two daughters, one of whom 
 became duchess of Hamilton. In 1784 he pub- 
 lished in French his Eastern romance of ' Vathek,' 
 which has been admired so warmly by the literary 
 men of our time. Though he sat in more parlia- 
 ments than one, politics occupied very little of his 
 attention: he soon retired to the continent; and his 
 fondness for architectural construction and embel- 
 lishment showed itself first in a house he built at 
 Cintra, in Portugal. In the commencement of the 
 present century he began to build on bis Wiltshire 
 
 . 
 
 j^-.- 
 
 [FonthiUAobey.] 
 
 estate his magnificent mansion of Fon thill Abbey, 
 which became all the more famous for the diffi- 
 culty of satisfying curiosity in regard to it. The 
 cost exceeded a quarter of a million. The pile 
 had not long been completed and fitted up, when, 
 in 1822, it was abandoned and the estate sold. 
 Mr. Beckford spent his latest years chiefly at Bath, 
 indulging his refined taste and his turn for secluded 
 study. In 1834 he published ' Italy, with Sketches 
 of Spain and Portugal,' containing recollections of 
 his early travels, and abounding alike in eloquence 
 and satire ; and afterwards there appeared a simi- 
 lar volume, commemorating two Portuguese mon- 
 asteries. He died in 1844, in the eighty-fourth 
 year of his age. [W.S.] 
 
 BECKINuHAM, Ciias., a dram, wr., d. 17i>U. 
 
 Tl 
 
BEC 
 BECKMANN, J. A., an economist, 1739-1811. 
 BECLARD, P. A., a Fr. anatomist, 1785-1825. 
 BEDDOES, Thomas, a distinguished physi- 
 cian and chemist, cotemporary with Priestley, and 
 in intimate friendship with Dr. Darwin. He is 
 the author of numerous works, and is character- 
 ized by Sir Humphrey Davy, as ' a truly remark- 
 able man, but more admirably fitted to promote 
 inquiry than to conduct it : ' 1760-1808. 
 
 BEDE, usually named the Venerable Bede, 
 was bom about 672, at Yarrow, near the mouth of 
 the Tyne, in Northumberland. At the age of 
 seven he was sent to the neighbouring monastery 
 of St. Peter to be educated, and in a short time he 
 transferred himself to that of St. Paul, which 
 was also in the vicinity. In his nineteenth year he 
 was ordained deacon, and eleven years afterwards he 
 entered into priest's orders. His subsequent life, 
 which was spent principally in the two religious 
 houses referred to, was one of monastic punctuality 
 r.nd discipline, and of constant literary labour. Pope 
 Sergius even could not induce the English recluse 
 to visit Rome. His commentaries on the larger 
 portion of the Old and New Testament are to a 
 great extent compilations from his Greek and Latin 
 predecessors. His well-known ' Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory of the English Nation,' is replete with proofs 
 of its author's industry, honesty, and credulity, 
 and still maintains its place as a high authority. 
 Bede died about the year 735, occupying his last 
 hours with earnest devotional exercises, and 
 i.ffectionate counsels to his younger brethren. 
 His learning, which was great, was equalled by 
 his sanctity. His numerous works have been 
 often printed: the best and last edition in 
 12 volumes, octavo ; London, 1843-44. King 
 Alfred translated into Saxon Bede's 'Historia 
 Ecclcsiastica ;' a rare honour for a book of church 
 history. [JE.] 
 
 BEDFORD, Arthur, a theolo. wr., 1668-1745. 
 BEDFORD, Hilkiah, an English theologian, 
 the reputed author of a work in the Jacobin inter- 
 est, written by George Harbin, died 1724. 
 
 BEDFORD, John Plantagenet, duke of, 
 third son of Henry IV., and regent of France after 
 the death of Henry V., 1422 ; died 1435, after a 
 glorious administration of thirteen years. 
 
 BEDFORD, John Russell, sixth duke of, a 
 
 Whig nobleman and patron of letters, 1766-1839. 
 
 BEDLOE, Wm., Capt., a notorious informer, 
 
 known in the case of Sir E. Godfrey, &c, d. 1680. 
 
 BEECHEY, Sir W., R.A., a distinguished 
 
 artist, best known for his portraits, 1759-1839. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Ludwig Van, was born at 
 Bonn, on the 17th of December, 1770. His father, 
 Johann Van Beethoven, who was a tenor singer 
 in the electoral chapel of Cologne, died in 1792. 
 His grandfather, who died in 1773, was music 
 director and bass singer at Bonn, and performed 
 operas of his own composition during the life of 
 the elector Clemens Augustus. The musical edu- 
 cation of Beethoven began under his father when 
 he was only five years old. His next tutor 
 was M. Pfeiffer, for whom the great composer 
 always retained a warm regard, and to whom he 
 felt himself more indebted than all his other 
 teachers. Beethoven acquired his knowledge of 
 the organ from M. Von Der Eden, after whose 
 death the young musician studied under M. Niefe, 
 
 BEE 
 
 who made him acquainted with the works of 
 Sebastian Bach. In 1787 Beethoven met Mozart, 
 who, when he heard the youth extemporize upon 
 a theme given him, predicted his future success. 
 In the year 1792 he was sent, by the elector of 
 Cologne, to Vienna, that he might receive instruc- 
 
 [Uii ili-place of Beethoven.] 
 
 tions in the theory of music from Joseph Haydn. 
 He soon made the acquaintance of many of the 
 nobility, of the artists, and literati in Vienna. 
 Beethoven was the pupil of Haydn until the latter 
 went to London, when he then took lessons in 
 composition and harmony from Albrechtsberger. 
 At this period of his life, Beethoven was more ad- 
 mired as a performer than as a composer ; and it 
 was thought, by the best German critics, that his 
 power principally consisted in extemporary perform- 
 ance, and in the art of varying any given theme 
 without premeditation. About this time he finally 
 took up his residence at Vienna, and composed his 
 first quartettes. In 1800, Beethoven was engaged 
 in the composition of his oratorio ' Christ on the 
 Mount of Olives,' which was first performed on 
 the 5th of April, 1803. In 1804 he finished his 
 ' Sinfonia Eroica,' and in 1805 he wrote his opera 
 of ' Leonora,' known in England as 'Fidelio,' about 
 which time he was first attacked with that deafness 
 which, with other matters, made him distrust- 
 ful and taciturn, and became the master-malady 
 of his life. It began gradually, but was soon bey on d 
 the power of remedy, until at last he could only 
 communicate with the outer world by writing. 
 A decided enemy to flattery, and disdaining to 
 court the favour of any one, Beethoven lived in 
 Vienna depending solely upon the means which 
 his compositions might produce, and was fre- 
 quently reduced to straits little compatible with 
 the greatness of his genius. The taste of the 
 court had changed, and Italian music had almost 
 banished the grander music of the German mas- 
 ters. In these circumstances he, in 1809, resolved 
 to accept the office of chapel-master at the court 
 of Jerome Buonaparte, then king of Westphalia, 
 with a salary of 600 ducats; and it was only 
 after the archduke Rudolph of Austria and the 
 piincess Lobkowitz and Kinsky settled upon him 
 
 73 
 
BEG 
 
 an annuity of 4,000 florins, that he changed 
 his mind. About this time also he resolved 
 to accept an invitation from the Philharmonic 
 Society to come to England, but his almost 
 total deafness prevented him. In 1810 Beeth- 
 oven brought out his first mass. In the same 
 year he made the acquaintance of Bettino Bren- 
 tano of Frankfort, whose correspondence with 
 Goethe has made the reading world acquainted 
 with the private manners of the great composer, 
 though her narrations are sometimes less full of 
 character than of caricature. Through Bettino, 
 Beethoven was introduced to Goethe in the year 
 1812, a friendship which reflected quite as much 
 honour upon the rich and courtly poet and minis- 
 ter, as it did upon the poor, but independent and 
 high-souled musician. On the 8th, and again on 
 the 12th of December, in the year 1813, the first 
 performances of ' The Battle of Vittoria,' and his 
 symphony in A major, took place in the hall of 
 the university, for the benefit of the Austrian and 
 Bavarian soldiers disabled in the battle of Hanau. 
 In 1815 Beethoven was exclusively employed in 
 writing harmonies to Scotch songs for George 
 Thompson of Edinburgh. From this period till 
 the end of his life, Beethoven was harassed from 
 various causes, chiefly of a domestic nature, and 
 which ought never to have fallen upon him. 
 These, together with his loss of hearing, begat a 
 habit of gloomy thought, and a violent desire for 
 solitude, till, by slow degrees, his frame, which 
 was naturally robust and healthy, yielded to mal- 
 adies which were induced by the constant and 
 long-continued mental irritation to which he had 
 been subjected. Forgotten by the Viennese, hardly 
 appreciated by the rest of the world, Beethoven was 
 seized with his last sickness ; and the unnatural 
 thoughtlessness and greed of his relatives con- 
 tinued till the period of his death, which took 
 place on the 26th day of March, 1827. Beeth- 
 oven died unmarried. His portraits, of which 
 there are several, are all like him. He did not 
 receive much education in his early youth, but when 
 he became a man he read a great deal, and was 
 well acquainted with the literature of Germany, 
 and particularly admired the writings of Goethe 
 and Schiller. With Shakspeare's works he was 
 well acquainted, and admired them with the relish 
 of a true artist. He was usually reserved, but 
 when he entered into conversation he became ani- 
 mated, and original in the turn of his thoughts 
 and expression Beethoven left upwards of 120 
 works in all styles. His melodies are beautiful 
 and new; and his instrumental music bears the 
 unmistakeable evidences of the grandeur and sub- 
 limity of his unrivalled genius. In 1845 a grand 
 statue of Beethoven was erected in his native 
 town amid great rejoicings, and in presence of 
 the queen of England. [J-M-] 
 
 BEGA, Cor., a Dutch painter, 1620-16G4. 
 
 BEGEYN, Abra., a Dutch painter, 17th cent. 
 
 BEHADER-KHAN, a sul. of Persia, 1317-1835. 
 
 BEHADER-SHAH, emp. of Hind., 1707-1712. 
 
 BEHMEN. See Boxhm. 
 
 BEHAIM, or BEHEM, M., a navigator, 15th c. 
 
 BEHN, Aphra, a fugitive authoress, d. 1689. 
 
 BE H RING, Vitus, by birth a Dane, after hav- 
 ing performed several voyages to the E. and W. 
 Indies, entered the service of Russia while still 
 
 BEL 
 
 young. Having risen by the usual stops in the 
 service, he became captain-commander in 1722, 
 and was sent by the empress Catharine in charge 
 of an expedition (planned by Peter the Great be- 
 fore his death), whose object was to determine 
 whether Asia and America were united. Crossing 
 Siberia, he sailed from the river of Kamtschatka in 
 July, 1728 ; and reached lat. 67 18' N., having 
 passed through the strait since called after him, 
 without knowing it. Discovering that the land 
 trended greatly westward, he concluded that the 
 continents were not united, and returned ; without, 
 however, seeing America. In another voyage, in 
 1741, he touched upon the American coast, in lat. 
 58 28' N. ; and gave name to Mount St. Elias. 
 In returning, his ship was cast upon an island, 
 since named after him, an outlier of the Aleutian 
 group, and here himself and many of his crew 
 perished. On his discoveries is founded the claim 
 of Russia to that part of America lying west of 
 the meridian of Mount St. Elias, 141 W. [J.B.] 
 
 BEICH, J. F., a German painter, 1665-1748. 
 
 BEINASCHI, J. B., an Ital. painter, 1634-1688. 
 
 BEK, or BEAK, Anthony De, bp. of Durham, 
 one of the eel. sold, priests of the mid. ages, d. 1310. 
 
 BEK, David, a Dutch painter, 1621-1656. 
 
 BEKKER, Euz, a wr. of fiction, 1738-1804. 
 
 BEKKHER, Balthasar, a celebrated protes- 
 tant preacher, author of the ' World Bewitched,' 
 &c, for which he was suspended, 1634-1698. 
 
 BEL, Ch. And., professor of poetry, 1717-1782. 
 
 BEL, John James, an au. and compil., d. 1738, 
 
 BEL, Mathias, hist, of Hungary, 1684-1749. 
 
 BELA, the name of four kings of Hungary. The 
 first reigned 1059-1062 ; the second 1131-1141 ; 
 the third 1173-1193 ; the fourth 1235-1270. 
 
 BELESIS, a governor of ancient Babylon. 
 
 BELGRANO, Manuel, a commander in the 
 South American war of independence, died 1820. 
 
 BELIDOR, Bernard Forest De, a French 
 engineer, author of a diet, of his art, 1695-1761. 
 
 BELING, Richard, an Irish rebel, 1613-1677. 
 
 BELISARIUS. 'One of those heroic names 
 which are familiar to every age, and to every 
 nation.' Thus does Gibbon justly characterize the 
 emperor Justinian's victorious general. Belisarius 
 first distinguished himself in the wars between the 
 Byzantine empire and the kings of Persia. In 533, 
 he was placed Dy Justinian at the head of the army 
 by which that emperor sought to recover the old 
 Roman province of North Africa from the Vandals, 
 who had been in possession of it for seventy years. 
 Belisarius was completely successful in his enter- 
 prise, and led the last Vandal king, Gelimer, 
 as a captive to Constantinople. He was then sent 
 on a similar expedition to conquer Italy from the 
 Goths, who held dominion there. He thoroughly 
 effected this purpose, capturing Rome, Ravenna, 
 and other cities, inflicting severe defeats on the 
 Goths in the field, and signalizing his own courage 
 and prowess as a soldier, as well as his skill as a 
 commander. The Goths offered to make him their 
 king, but his loyalty was proof against all tempta- 
 tion, and when recalled by Justinian, he promptly 
 returned in submission to the will of a capricious 
 and thankless master. After his departure from 
 Italy, the Goths recovered the greater part of that 
 country, and Belisarius, who in the interval had 
 been defending the south-eastern frontiers of the 
 
 71 
 
BEL 
 
 empire against the Persians, was sent a second 
 time to Italy in 540. Being ill supplied with 
 money and troops, he could effect but little against 
 the numerous and well-appointed armies of the 
 Goths, and Justinian angnly deprived him of the 
 command with every mark of disgrace. The old 
 general was once more summoned into activity 
 and glory before his death, and saved Constanti- 
 nople in 559 from a host of Bulgarians, who had 
 suddenly advanced against it. When this signal ser- 
 vice was effected, Belisarius was again dismissed 
 with ignominy by his ungrateful sovereign, and ended 
 his days in poverty and neglect ; though the story of 
 his having Degged his bread in blindness and utter 
 destitution is a mere fiction of later ages. Beli- 
 sarius died in 561, a few months before the death 
 of the emperor whom he had served so well, and 
 by whom he had been so ill requited. [E.S.C.] 
 
 BELL, Andrew, Dr., the eel. projector and 
 founder of the national school system, 1753-1832. 
 
 BELL, Beaupre, an Eng. antiquarian, 18th c. 
 
 BELL, Benj., a writer on surgery, 1749-1806. 
 
 BELL, Sir Charles, an eminent physiologist, 
 born at Edinburgh, 1774, died at Edinburgh, 1842. 
 The subject of our memoir was the son of a clergy- 
 man of the Scottish Episcopal communion, in 
 Edinburgh, who had other two sons, likewise distin- 
 guished John, as a surgeon, and Geo. Joseph, 
 as a lawyer, being professor of law in the univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh. Sir Charles Bell early settled in 
 London as a lecturer and surgeon, and in the first 
 capacity proved highly successful, but his scien- 
 tific tendencies could ill brook the commercial 
 asperities often attendant on surgical prac- 
 tice, and he appears never to have attained the 
 position in his profession, lucratively speaking, 
 which his great talents and acquirements deserved. 
 He was lecturer at the Windmill-Street School, 
 afterwards at University College, and the Middle- 
 sex Hospital, and latterly in the university of 
 Edinburgh. The main labour of his life consisted 
 in perfecting his great discovery respecting the 
 nervous system, that mysterious portion of the 
 animal frame. This discovery, second perhaps 
 only to that of the circulation of the blood by Har- 
 vey, required an extensive series of experiments 
 upon firing animals, which long deterred him from 
 carrying them into execution. But ultimately, by 
 discovering humane methods of procedure, his 
 exertions were crowned with success, and demon- 
 strated that the nerves given off by the spinal 
 cord, the great nerve deposited in the backbone, 
 are destined for one of two purposes ; those which 
 leave the spinal cord in front bestow the power of 
 muscular motion, while the posterior roots supply 
 sensibility. When the anterior roots of the nerves 
 of the leg are cut, in experiment, the animal loses 
 all power over the leg, although the limb still con- 
 tinues sensible. But if, on the other hand, the pos- 
 terior roots are cut, the power of motion continues, 
 although the sensibility is destroyed. His subsequent 
 researches showed that eveiy muscle in the body 
 has two nerves appropriated to it, one for sensation, 
 and the other tor motion ; the first to carry the 
 influence of the will resident in the brain towards 
 the muscle, and the second to connect the muscle 
 with the brain. It may be truly said that such 
 men as Watt and Bell require no sepulchral monu- 
 ments, since locomotives, railways, and steam- 
 
 BEL 
 
 boats contribute an ever augmenting immortal 
 tribute to the one, and every student in medical 
 science is a hereditary guardian of the genius of 
 the other. [R.D.T.] 
 
 BELL, Henry, an ingenious engineer, the first 
 in Britain who successfully applied the steam en- 
 gine to propelling vessels, though Millar's experi- 
 ments were long prior, and Fulton had launched 
 his first steam-boat on the Hudson four or five 
 years previously to Bell's successful application 
 of steam to the purposes of navigation. In 1811 
 Bell launched his boat, called the Comet, in refer- 
 ence to the appearance of a large comet that year. 
 He constructed the steam engine himself, and in 
 January, 1812, the first trial of the Comet took 
 place on the Clyde. After various experiments 
 the Comet was at length propelled on the Clyde by 
 an engine of three horse power, which was subse- 
 quently increased to six. This engine is still in 
 the museum of Glasgow College. Thus to Henry 
 Bell is due the honour of having first done in his 
 own country, what others who had attempted it 
 the great Watt himself had failed in doing, not- 
 withstanding superior advantages of capital. Bell's 
 perseverance and skill were not rewarded with the 
 outward test of success. Had it not been for the 
 liberality of the magistrates of Glasgow, who set- 
 tled upon him a small annuity, he must have spent 
 the latter years of his life in poverty. He was 
 born in Linlithgowshire 1767, and died at Helens- 
 burgh on the Clyde in 1830. A monumental 
 stone to his memory is erected on a rock in the 
 Clyde near Bowling. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 BELL, James, a geographical writer and ga- 
 zetteer, originally a weaver, 1769-1833. 
 
 BELL, John, an em. Scotch surg., 1762-1820. 
 
 BELL, John, au. of various travels, 1691-1780. 
 
 BELL, John, an enterprising publisher, founder 
 of the 'Weekly Messenger,' 1746-1831. 
 
 BELLAMY, James, a Dutch poet, 1757-1786. 
 
 BELLANGE, Th., a Fr. paint., 16th and 17th c. 
 
 BELLARMIN, Cardinal Robert, was born 
 at Monte Pulciano in Tuscany, in 1542. Enter- 
 ing the order of the Jesuits in 1560, he was or- 
 dained priest in 1569. He filled the chair of theo- 
 logy at Louvain for seven years from that period. 
 Going to Rome in 1576, he distinguished himself 
 by shrewd, bold, and popular polemical prelec- 
 tions, and was, as the great champion of the 
 church, elevated to the rank of cardinal in 1599. 
 His latter days were spent in Rome, where he died 
 in 1621. His ' Opus Controversiarum ' fills three 
 folio volumes. He has also left a Commentary on 
 the Psalms, several smaller pieces, some of them 
 devotional, and a treatise ' De Potestate Summi 
 Pontificis.' Bellarmin was a man of no mean 
 powers and mental resources ; and unequalled as 
 a skilled controversialist among the numerous de- 
 fenders of the Church of Rome. [J.E.] 
 
 BELLAY, Joachim Du, a Fr. poet, 1524-1560. 
 
 BELLAY, John Du, a Fr. cardinal, 1492-1560. 
 
 BELLEFOREST, F. DE,aFr. hist., 1530-1583. 
 
 BELLEISLE, Ch. Louis, Count De, a French 
 marshal, time of Louis XV., 1684-1761. 
 
 BELLENDEN, William, a Latin au., 17th c. 
 
 BELLIARD, Aug. Daniel, Count, one of the 
 best of Napoleon's generals, distinguished also as 
 an ambassador, and most lately in the establish- 
 ment of the Belgian kingdom, 1773-1832, 
 
 75 
 
BEL 
 
 BELLIEVRE, Pomponius De, a Pr. diplo- 
 matist, distinguished in the reigns of Charles IX., 
 Henry III., and Henry IV., 1529-1607. 
 
 BELLINI, Gentile, an Italian painter, of the 
 same school as his brother Giovanni, 1421-1501. 
 
 BELLINI, Giovanni, a celebrated Italian 
 painter, was born at Venice about 1426. He 
 belongs to the school of painters known as the 
 quattrocento, in Italy, literally the fifteenth cen- 
 tury masters, but distinguished as much by their 
 style as their period. This style, lately here 
 designated, very inappropriately, the preraphaelite, 
 is well illustrated in Bellini's portrait of the Doge 
 Loredano, in the National Gallery hard and dry, 
 but exact in detail, and high and positive in col- 
 ouring. Giovanni Bellini was one of the first of 
 the Venetian artists to adopt the new method of 
 oil painting in lieu of the old. process with tempera 
 vehicles, that is, with saps and gums. His best 
 works are in oil ; they consist chiefly of madonnas 
 and portraits. He died at the advanced age of 
 ninety, November 29, 1516. Titian and Giorgione 
 were two of Bellini's many eminent scholars. 
 (Vasari, Lives of the Painters, &c. ; Ridolfi, 
 uJaraviffde deW Arte, &c. ; Cadorin, Tiziano 
 Vecellio.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 BELLINI, L., a celeb, anatomist, 1643-1702. 
 
 BELLINI, Vincenzio, was born at Catania in 
 Sicily, in the year 1806. Bellini received his 
 musical education from Zingarelli, in the Conser- 
 vatory of Naples, and produced, at the theatre 
 San Carlo of the same city, his opera ' Bianco e 
 Fordinando,' before he was twenty years old. In 
 1827 he composed ' II Pirata ' for the Scala at 
 Milan, and soon after ' La Straniera ' for the same 
 establishment. These operas were succeeded by 
 ' La Sonnambula ' (which has perhaps been per- 
 formed a greater number of times in Great Britain 
 than any other foreign opera,) at Naples, ' I Capu- 
 letti ed i Montecchi,' at Venice, 'Norma' at Milan, 
 1 1 Puritani,' for the Theatre Italien at Paris, &c. 
 The life of Bellini was unmarked by incidents. He 
 was pure in morals, and his manners, like his com- 
 positions, were gentle, mellifluous, and elegant. 
 Subject to pulmonic disease, he was unequal to 
 violent effort of any kind, so he never attempted the 
 lofty or sublime in music. He died of consumption 
 in 1835. A writer (L. W. Tinelli) in the ' Musical 
 World ' says of Bellini ' The enthusiasm excited 
 by this astonishing production (Norma) is beyond 
 all description. In a few months the "Norma" 
 became the favourite performance of all the Italian 
 and foreign stages, and crossed the immense dis- 
 tance of the ocean to delight the ears of the trans- 
 atlantic inhabitants. Soon after this new triumph 
 he was called to Paris, where he wrote, in his 
 greatest style, " I Puritani." It was the last song 
 of the swan ! One morning in the month of Octo- 
 ber, 1835, the inhabitants of Paris hastened to the 
 streets of that immense capital to contemplate the 
 numerous and select crowd which was following 
 a funeral procession. Some of the most celebrated 
 men were amongst the crowd. Sadness and sor- 
 row were in the countenance of every one. A 
 plaintive and moving music added to the melan- 
 choly scene. Death had reaped one of the finest 
 flowers of nature. The funeral concourse stopped 
 at the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where the coffin 
 was deposited, and, one hour after, a modest 
 
 7 
 
 BEL 
 
 cross was raised on the ground, with the following 
 inscription : " Pray for the peace of Vincent Bellini." 
 Bellini was only twcnty-nme years of age when he 
 died. His disposition was good, though exceed- 
 ingly passionate. His appearance was noble and 
 expressive. His genius was vast as creation, and 
 his soul innocent and gentle as the first sigh of 
 love.' This is the eulogium of a friend and admirer ; 
 let it live in the memory of all musicians. [J.M.] 
 
 BELLMAN, Ch. M., a Swed. poet, 1741-1795. 
 
 BELLONI, Jerome, a commercial wr., d. 1760. 
 
 BELLORI, J. P., an Ital. antiquary and con- 
 noisseur, au. of 'Lives of Modem Painters,' d. 1696. 
 
 BELLOSTE, A, a Fr. army surgeon, 1654-1730. 
 
 BELLOTI, Peter, an Ital. paint,, 1625-1700. 
 
 BELON, Peter, author of travels, 16th cent. 
 
 BELOSIELSKY, Prince, a Russian nobleman, 
 author of poems in the French tongue, died 1809. 
 
 BELSHAM, Thos., a eel. unitarian, 1749-1829. 
 
 BELSHAM, Wm., brother of Thomas, a mis- 
 cellaneous and historical writer, 1752-1827. 
 
 BELSHAZZAR, a k. of ChaldEea, abt. 560 B.C. 
 
 BELSUNCE, Henry Francis Xavier De, a 
 Fr. prelate and hist, of disting. benev., 1671-1755. 
 
 BELUS, the supposed first king of Babylon. 
 
 BELYN, a Brit, commander under Caractacus. 
 
 BELZONI, Giovanni, celebrated for his dis- 
 coveries in Egypt, was a native of Padua. His 
 early studies, which had a view to the monastic 
 life^ were prosecuted at Rome, from which his. 
 family had originally come. The French invasion 
 of 1798 caused a change in his plans ; and in 1800 
 he left Italy, and visited several parts of Europe. 
 He came to England in 1803, where he soon after 
 married. He was tall and robust in person, of 
 uncommon strength, and commanding mien; 
 qualities which, united to great intelligence and 
 sagacity, perseverance and a love of enterprise, 
 gave him immense influence among the wild people 
 with whom he so long associated. His remit- 
 tances from home were scanty ; and he seems to 
 have turned to profitable account a knowledge of 
 hydraulics which he had acquired at Rome. Often, 
 however, he was obliged to obtain a livelihood by 
 exhibiting feats of strength. Leaving England in 
 1812, he visited Spain, Portugal, and Malta, and 
 in 1815 went to Egypt, where he was for a short 
 time employed by Mehemet Ali in erecting hy- 
 draulic machinery at Cairo. Driven thence by 
 the prejudice of the natives against his improved 
 plans, he visited many parts of Egypt and Nubia, 
 and the shores of the Red Sea, discovering buried 
 cities, rock temples, &c, and displaying the great- 
 est skill in the removal and shipment of such 
 gigantic works as the bust of Memnon, and other 
 remains now in the British Museum. The pecu- 
 niary means, besides a personal remuneration, 
 were supplied chiefly by Mr. Salt, the English 
 consul, but partly also by Burckhardt the tra- 
 veller. In September, 1819, Belzoni left Egypt, 
 and on his way to England visited his native town, 
 where he was received with honour. His 'Nar- 
 rative of Operations,' &c, was published at Lon- 
 don in 1820, in a 4to vol. with atlas. In 1823, 
 accompanied by his wife, he left England for Mo- 
 rocco, with the view of penetrating to Timbuctoo. 
 He had neither commission nor assistance from 
 government, or any society, and except 200 sup- 
 plied by the Messrs. Briggs of Alexandria, depended 
 
BEM 
 
 solely on his own resources. Failing to obtain 
 
 Bermission from the emperor, he sailed to the 
 light of Benin, and was forwarded on his journey 
 try the king of that country. Not long after, how- 
 ever, he was seized with dysentery, and died at 
 Gato, in Dec., 1823. Directions concerning his 
 property, and his last regards to his wife, had been 
 the daybefore sent by letter to his friend Mr. Hodg- 
 son, then on the coast with the brig Swinger. [J.B.] 
 
 BEMBO, Ben., a Venet. ambassador, d. 1519. 
 
 BEMBO, J., a Venetian doge, died 1618. 
 
 BEMBO, Peter, a Venetian poet and histo- 
 rian, secretary to Leo X., and cardinal bishop of 
 Bergamo under Paul III., 1470-1547. 
 
 BENBOW, John, a gallant English admiral, 
 distinguished in action with the pirates of Barbary, 
 and afterwards with the French under the com- 
 mand of Du Casse, died of his wounds, 1702. 
 
 BENCIO, Francis, an Italian poet, died 1594. 
 
 BENEDETTO, C, an Ital. painter, 1616-1670. 
 
 BENEDICT, St., reputed founder of the mo- 
 nastic life in the West, which he commenced in the 
 rums of a tern, near Naples, b. at Spoleto 480, d. 543. 
 
 [Benedictine Monk.] 
 
 BENEDICT, St., an English prelate, 600-690. 
 
 BENEDICT I., pope, 574-578. Benedict II., 
 684-65. Benedict III., 855-858. Benedict IV., 
 900-904. Benedict V., 964-965. Benedict VI, 
 972-974. Benedict VII., 975-983. Benedict 
 VIII., succeeded 1012. Benedict IX., 1033-1048. 
 Benedict X., 1058-1059. Benedict XL, 1303- 
 1304. Benedict XII., 1334-1342. Benedict 
 XIIL, 1724-1750. Benedict XIV., distinguished 
 as one of the greatest popes who has governed the 
 church, 1740-1758. An anti-pope, under the 
 title of Benedict XIIL, was elected 1394. 
 
 BENEDICT, an English abbot, died 1703. 
 
 BENEVUTI, Ch., a Jesuit, 1716-1789. 
 
 BENEZET, Anth., an American au., d. 1784. 
 
 BENGENHIELM, J., Baron De, a Swed. states- 
 man, poet, and professor of history, 1629-1704. 
 
 BENGER, Elizabeth Ogilvy, a writer of 
 biographical and historical works, died 1827. 
 
 HKNHADAD, two kgs. of Syria, abt. 9th c. B.C. 
 
 BENI, Paul, an Ital. philologist, died 1627. 
 
 BENINI, Vincent, an Ital. phys., 1713-1764 
 
 BEN 
 
 BENJAMIN of Tudbla, an Eastern traveller in 
 Asia, au. of a work in Heb. on the subject, d. 1173. 
 
 BENNET, Hy., earl of Arlington, one of the 
 council of Ch. II., known as the Cabal, 1618-1685. 
 
 BENNET, Thos., a Hebrew scholar, 1673-1720. 
 
 BENNINGSEN, Levin Augustus, Baron, a 
 Russian commander, disting. in the war against 
 Poland, at the battle of Eyl'au, &c, died 1826. . 
 
 BENNITSKI, A. P., a Russian poet, 1780-1808. 
 
 BENSERADE, Isaac De, a Fr. poet, d. 1691. 
 
 BENSON, Geo., a dissent, minister, 1669-1762. 
 
 BENT, John Van Der, a painter, 1650-1690. 
 
 BENTHAM, E., au. of Sermons, &c, 1707-1776. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jas., br. of the preceding, au. of the 
 1 History and Antiq. of the Church of Ely,' d. 1794. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, bom in London in 1748, 
 where he lived during most part of his long 
 life of eighty-four years ; one of the most remark- 
 able thinkers and writers England has recently 
 produced equally estimable as a citizen and a 
 man. Bentham's labours must be divided into 
 two grand parts, the first by far the least impor- 
 tant, although the one through which he is popu- 
 larly known. As a writer on the Science of 
 Morals, properly so called, he has contributed 
 little that will be permanent in philosophy. Great 
 as a jurist and reformer, especially in our Criminal 
 Laws, he naturally sought to weigh the value of 
 actions by their external effects; and unhappily 
 he transported this conception correct in its 
 relation to Public Law into the domain of Sci- 
 entific Morals, talcing as the root of his system, 
 that good and bad, just and unjust, must be 
 synonymous with the utility or inutility of an 
 action. Reserving discussion of this peculiar theory 
 for the article Epicurus, we hasten here to the agree- 
 able task of pointing out Bentham's rare, original, 
 and incontestible merits. He may be said to have 
 been the first thinker among us who gained clear ideas 
 of the cumbrousness and iniquity of our artificial 
 English Laws ; and although questions may well 
 be started as to the practicability of his sweeping 
 codification, it cannot be doubted that from his 
 mind^ most of the statesmen who have since 
 effectively laboured to simplify these laws, drew 
 their best inspirations. On many special doc- 
 trines or theories of Law, his speculations threw 
 abundant and important light for instance, the 
 Doctrine of Punishments and the Theory of 
 Evidence. Discerning the value of Education as 
 a preventive means, he threw himself into that 
 subject with great eagerness producing his 
 curious Chrestvmathy. On kindred moral sub- 
 jects, he also wrote much, often perhaps not 
 very considerately, always with fearlessness and 
 power. His labours, in fact, attach to every great 
 question of reform which later times have cast up ; 
 and there were few men of eminence in his time 
 who did not court a friendship, ever open to the 
 deserving. Mr. Bentham's most distinguished 
 associates were probably Sir Samuel Romilly and 
 James Mill. His works were first published in a 
 collected form in the French language, under 
 the care of M. Dumont : an English edition has 
 since appeared, edited according to the philoso- 
 pher's own request, by Dr. Bowring. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BENTHAM, Thos., bp. of Lichfield, d. 1578. 
 
 BENTINCK, William, the intimate friend of 
 William III., created eurl of Portland, died 1709. 
 
 77 
 
BEN 
 
 BENTINCK, W. H. Cavendish, third duke of 
 Portland, born 1738; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 
 1782 ; chancellor of Oxford, 1792 ; home secretary, 
 1794-1801 ; first lord of the treasury, 1807; d. 1808. 
 
 BENTINCK, Lord George, a British parlia- 
 mentary leader, was bom on 27th February, 18U2. 
 He was the third son of the fourth duke of Portland, 
 and thus descended from the distinguished Dutch- 
 man who enjoyed the friendship of William III. 
 He was by his mother, a daughter of Major Scott 
 of Balcomie, connected with Canning, who mar- 
 ried her sinter, and be made such early acquain- 
 tance with political business as he possessed, in the 
 capacity of private secretary to his uncle-in-law. 
 He entered the army and rose to the rank of ma- 
 jor, but that profession in time of peace had not 
 sufficient attraction for his stirring temperament, 
 and he took with laborious ardour to field sports 
 and the turf. Though a younger son, the fortunes 
 of the family enabled him to indulge in horse rac- 
 ing without mercenary views, and yet it is gene- 
 rally said that he realized a large sum of money on 
 the turf. His success and general high character 
 in the sporting world arose from a high-handed 
 integrity, which gave him the position of a bold, 
 earnest, honest enthusiast, in occupations pursued 
 by so many through momentaiy excitement, dissi- 
 pation, or a base design to profit by the follies of 
 others. In 1826 he entered parliament as member 
 for Lynn Regis, and continued to represent that 
 constituency till his death. He was a very steady 
 attendant, almost always in his seat awake or 
 asleep. But his attendance was not of a character 
 to give him the knowledge of a statesman, since 
 the benches of the House of Commons were his 
 place of rest between unremitting labours in the 
 hunting field and other congenial arenas. Before 
 1846 he was generally set down as a moderate 
 Whig, but it is evident that his political partizan- 
 ship rested more on personal alliances than constitu- 
 tional views. When Sir Robert Peel dealt bis 
 final blow at the corn laws and commercial restric- 
 tions, the country gentlemen, who thought it was 
 not the necessary progress of sound political 
 economy, but the want of leadership and combina- 
 tion which threatened what they counted their 
 ruin, looked to Lord George as a leader, on ac- 
 count of the energy and skill he had shown in his 
 favourite pursuits. He accepted of the proposal, 
 and became the leader of the opposition, transfer- 
 ring to the interior of St. Stephen's the methods 
 which gave him success in his more congenial 
 occupations out of doors. He made it his twofold 
 occupation to hunt the enemy, and to manipulate 
 statistics into startling momentary results, as in the 
 calculations of the betting book. He knew to the 
 last little or nothing about politics, but his chival- 
 rous bearing and utter unconsciousness of defeat, 
 gave him popularity even with his opponents. The 
 energetic zeal with which he followed his new pur- 
 suits broke his constitution, and, seized with an 
 attack of the heart, he dropped suddenly dead on 
 the 28th September, 1848, and was found lying on 
 the road where he had been walking. [J.H.B.] 
 BENTIVOGLIO, one of the sovereign families 
 of Italy, among the distinguished members of 
 which are, John, lord of Bologna, killed 1402, 
 whose lineal descendants held the signory till 1506. 
 Hercules, a poet and statesman, i506-1573. 
 
 BER 
 GuiDO, cardinal legate and historian, 1579-1611 
 Hippolyte, a dramatist, died 1685. Cornelio 
 a cardinal, a poet, and a patron of the fine arts 
 1688-1732. Matilda, a poetess, died 1711. 
 
 BENTLEY, Rich., a eel. classic, 1661-1742 
 His son of the same name, a dramatist, d. 1782. 
 
 BENYOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, Count 
 a Siberian exile who effected his escape, and win 
 killed in action against the French when attempt- 
 ing to assume the sovereignty of Madagascar, 176 
 
 BENZELIUS, the name of several abps. o: 
 Upsala, distang. for their great learning. Eric. 
 1642-1709. His son of the same name, 1675-1745. 
 Jacob, br. of the last, d. 1747. Henry, 1689-1758. 
 
 BENZEL-STERNAU, aGer. states., 1738-1784. 
 
 BENZEL-STERNAU, C. Ch., Count De, a Ger- 
 man statesman, and man of letters, 1767-1832. 
 
 BERCHTOLD, Leopold, Count, a disting. 
 philanthropist of Austria, 1758-1809. 
 
 BERENGER, or BERENGARIUS, was born 
 at Tours, about the beginning of the eleventh cen- 
 tury. His earliest education was received under 
 Fulbert at Chartres, a teacher of affectionate wis- 
 dom and piety. Berenger showed from the first a 
 liberal spirit of inquiry. For some time he taught 
 in his native city, and gained there the office of 
 Scholasticus, that is, superintendent of the school 
 attached to the cathedral or monastery of St. Mar- 
 tin. Afterwards he was archdeacon at Anger. The 
 name of Berenger is associated principally with the 
 famous mediaeval controversy on the doctrine oi 
 transubstantiation. He had revived the doctrine 
 of Scotus, that the bread and wine still remain 
 symbols after the consecration, and are not 
 changed in substance ; but his doctrine was con- 
 demned by several councils, such as that of Rome 
 in 1050. The strife raged for thirty years, and 
 Berenger sometimes wavered, and even formally 
 recanted in 1079, under the terrorism of his ecclesi- 
 astical superiors. But he soon retracted, and by 
 Lanfranc and others, under Gregory VII., the con- 
 troversy was prolonged till his death in 1088. 
 The theological influence of Berenger was lost by 
 his vacillation, but he was one of the revivers of 
 metaphysical study and dialectics, and as has 
 been remarked, ' he continued Scotus Erigena, and 
 prepared the way for Abelard.' His book ' De 
 Sacra Coena,' was published at Berlin in 1834 ; the 
 manuscript of it having been found by Lessing in 
 1770 in the ducal library of Brunswick. [.I.E.] 
 
 BERENGER, Jas., a celeb, anatomist, d. 1550. 
 
 BERENGER, L. P., a Fr. poet and rhetorician, 
 author of ' Les Soirees Provencales,' &c, 1749-1822.; 
 
 BERENGER, P., a disciple of Abelard, 12th c. 
 
 BERENGER I., king of Italy 888, elected 
 emperor 916, deposed 922, assassinated 924. 
 
 BERENGER II., king 950, deposed 962, d. %6. 
 
 BERENICE, the name of several princesses of 
 Syria and Egypt, of whom the most celebrated are 
 the wife of Antiochus, strangled B.C. 248. The. 
 daughter of Ptolemy Auletus, and usurper of his 
 throne, who was deposed and killed by the Romans. 
 The daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who con- 
 secrated her hair to Venus. And the daughter of 
 Agrippa, king of Judasa, the mistress of Titus. 
 
 BERENICIUS, a Dutch adventurer, 17th cent. 
 
 BERESFORD, Rev. James, a miscellaneous: 
 writer and satirist, 1764-1840. 
 
 BERETTLNI, P., an Ital. architect, 1596-1C69.! 
 
 76 
 
BER 
 
 BERG, J. P., a German theologian, 1737-1800. 
 
 BERGEN, C. A. De, a Ger. mat.. 1704-1760. 
 
 BERGEN, Derk Van Dee, a painter, d. 1689. 
 
 BERGHEM, Nich., a Du. painter, 1624-1683. 
 
 BERGIER, N. S., a wr. against deism, d. 1790. 
 
 BERGIUS, P. J., a Swedish botanist, d. 1791. 
 
 BERGMANN, Torbern Olof, a eel. Swedish 
 chemist, to whom many and valuable discoveries 
 are attributed, besides the reconstitution of the 
 science of mineralogy, 1735-1784. 
 
 BERIGARD, C., an Ital. philosoph., 1578-1663. 
 
 BERINGER, J. B., a Germ, mineralogist, 18th c. 
 
 BERINGTON, Joseph, a Roman Catholic his- 
 torian and biographical writer, died 1827. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, earl of, author of ' His- 
 torical Applications,' and member of the privy 
 council to Charles II., died 1698. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, bishop of Cloyne, born 
 in Ireland in 1684 ; died at Oxford in 1753. The 
 interest connected with this rather remarkable 
 man is measured by that of his system of philo- 
 sophy, which we shall shortly characterize. It is 
 necessary to a right understanding of Berkeley's 
 speculations that one recall the false conceptions 
 certainly prevailing at his time regarding the mode 
 or manner in which we know ; we allude to the 
 Theory of the Idea. It was thought that the idea 
 through which we know, and the thing that we 
 know through it, are perfectly distinct. The idea 
 of an object was fancied a sort of image of the 
 object capable of being perceived by the mind : 
 just as the mind, in seeing, discerns not the object 
 but the image on the retina. Adopting this to 
 the fullest extent in respect of all that knowledge 
 which we call the knowledge of external things, 
 Berkeley yet held that knowledge of the mind itself 
 and of its operations, comes at once and without 
 the interposition of any medium through a simple 
 act of internal perception : from which foundation, 
 his strict logic led to the following singular super- 
 structure. What are termed external objects, be- 
 ing seen not in themselves but through or by ideas, 
 what right have we to imagine the existence of 
 these objects at all ? Supposing them real, they 
 are confessedly not discernible by the human mind; 
 why then assume their existence? True know- 
 ledge, on the other hand, comes to us directly 
 respecting the mind: is not mind and its pheno- 
 mena therefore spiritual entities the sole reality 
 in the universe ? Like Malebranche after him, the 
 good Bishop of Cloyne reached this singular 
 conclusion the more readily, because of the fer- 
 vency of his religious principles. 'If the prin- 
 ciples I entertain,' he alleged, 'come to be 
 admitted among men, the consequences that I 
 think will follow immediately are these atheism 
 and scepticism must utterly fall.' He assuredly 
 had weighed with little care the consequences 
 inseparable from the concession to logic of a 
 supremacy over our primary intuitions. Scarcely 
 was the ink dry with which he wrote, ere the 
 remorseless dialectic of Hume attacked with equal 
 vigour the existence of the spiritual world reduc- 
 ing all possible knowledge to the bare fact / 
 exist! It certainly appears singular that even 
 religious fervour could take so extravagant a turn 
 in so acute a man : nevertheless, the moving prin- 
 ciple of Berkeley's speculations was a spirit of 
 revolt against the materialistic philosophy that 
 
 BER 
 
 issued from Locke's 'Essay on the Human 
 Understanding,' Alciphron or the Minute Philo- 
 sopher being mainly a protest against the para- 
 dox of Mandeville, that virtue is only an artificial 
 product of policy and vanity. Berkeley's know- 
 ledge was extensive ; he was fond of physical science, 
 and he struck out a sound theory of vision. His 
 heart was a noble one, and his life pure. He was 
 valued and admired among the best writers of the 
 day, numbering among his friends Swift and 
 Stella, the Dulte of Grafton, Lord Peterborough, 
 and Pope. There is now a good edition of his 
 works in 3 vols. 8vo. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BERKELEY, Vice-Ad. Sir W., k. in ac. 1666. 
 
 BERKENHOUT, J., a miscell. wr., 1731-1791. 
 
 BERKEY, John Lefrancq Van, a Dutch 
 physician, naturalist, and poet, 1729-1812. 
 
 BERKLEY, Sir W., gov. of Virginia, d. 1677. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, Gostz De, surnamed iron- 
 hand, a German knight, distinguished in the wars 
 of Bavaria, 1480-1562. 
 
 BERNADOTTE, king of Sweden and Norway, 
 under the title of Charles John XIV., was the son 
 of a lawyer, born 1764 ; sergeant in the marines, 
 1789; colonel, 1792; general of brigade, 1793; 
 marshal of France and prince of Ponte Corvo, 
 1806 ; chosen crown prince of Sweden, 1810 ; king, 
 1818, to his death in 1844. 
 
 BERNARD, St., of Menthon, founder of the 
 hospices in the passage of the Alps, 923-1008. 
 
 BERNARD, St., founder and abbot of Clair- 
 vaux, one of the most influential and talented 
 ecclesiastics of the middle ages, 1091-1153. 
 
 BERNARD of Pavia, a jurist of the 13th ct. 
 
 BERNARD of Thurixg'ia, an enthus., 10th c. 
 
 BERNARD, Cath., a French poetess, last cent. 
 
 BERNARD, C, a benevolent priest, 1588-1641. 
 
 BERNARD, Edw., a pupil of Wallis, author 
 of a treatise on ancient measures, &c, 1638-1697. 
 
 BERNARD, James, a prot. hist., 1658-1718. 
 
 BERNARD, John, an actor, died 1828. 
 
 BERNARD, J. F., an antiquarian, last cent. 
 
 BERNARD, J. S., a medical au., 1718-1793. 
 
 BERNARD, P. J., a French poet, 1710-1775. 
 
 BERNARD, Sim., a milit. engineer, 1779-1839. 
 
 BERNARD, duke of Weimar, command, of the 
 Swed. army after the death of Gustavus, 1604-1639. 
 
 BERNARDEZ, D., a soldier and poet, d. 1596. 
 
 BERNARDI, A. F., a Germ, gram., 1768-1820. 
 
 BERNARDI, J.E., awr. on civil law,1751-1824. 
 
 BERNARDI, J., an engrv. and archit., d. 1555. 
 
 BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE, Jas. Hy., 
 the eel. author of ' Paul and Virginia,' 1737-1813. 
 \ BERNARDIN, St., vicar-general of the Fran- 
 ciscans, reformer and founder of more than 300 
 monasteries, 1380-1444. 
 
 BERNI, Fr., a burlesque poet, died 1536 ; an- 
 other Italian of the same name, disting. as a poet 
 and dramatic author, 1610-1673. 
 
 BERNIER, Fr., a eel. traveller, died 1688. 
 
 BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, disting. as a 
 painter, statuary, and architect, 1598-1680. 
 
 BERNIS, Fr. Joachin De Pierres De, a 
 cardinal and ambassador of France, distinguished 
 also as a poet, 1715-1794. 
 
 BERNOUILLI. The family name of a cluster 
 of famous mathematicians living at the period of 
 the revival of science, when Newton evolved the 
 law of the celestial motions, and he and Leib- 
 
 79 
 
BER 
 nitz invented nnd promulgated the higher calculus. 
 All distinguished by eagerness in the pursuit of 
 Analysis, and the two elder especially, by much 
 vivacity of temper they mingled earnestly in the 
 keen commerce and conflict of scientific writers, 
 which so enlivens the history of those times, and 
 renders the details of personal history part and 
 
 }Kireel of the history of the progress of know- 
 edge. Our limits confine us within a simple 
 enumeration of these distinguished men, and a 
 bare statement of their main achievements. 1. 
 JAMES Bernouilli, probably the most ori 
 ginal analyst of the group; born at Basle in 
 1654, died in 1705. He had great powers of in- 
 vention, and much taste for simplicity in method 
 and composition. He greatly extended the theory 
 of the quadrature of the parabola, and the geometry 
 of curve lines, spirals, &c. His chief contributions, 
 however, relate to the summation and doctrine of 
 infinite series; and we owe him the first syste- 
 matic work on the now very important theory of 
 chances. His writings are collected in 3 vols. 
 4to. 2. John Bernouilli, brother of James ; 
 born in 1667, died in 1748 ; also a very great analyst. 
 Besides his essays on the management of ships and 
 the elliptical figure of the planets, John Bernouilli 
 wrote on almost every branch of the existing mathe- 
 matics ; and he touched nothing he did not expand 
 and improve. The great age he attained was worthily 
 bestowed on him ; he died full of honours. His col- 
 lected writings fill four 4to volumes. 3. John Ber- 
 nouilli, sou of the preceding; professor of mathe- 
 matics in St. Petersburg, where he died in 1726 ; 
 born in 1695. 4. Nicolas Bernouilli, 
 nephew of 1 and 2, born in 1687; died in 1759; 
 professor of mathematics in Padua. 5. Daniel 
 Bernouilli, son of Nicolas, a very eminent 
 philosopher, rivalling the glory of the elder brothers 
 of the family. He was born in 1700, and died in 
 1782. His two great works are the 'Exercitationes 
 Mathematical ' and his ' Hydrodynamica :' but 
 besides writing occasional treatises and memoirs, 
 he contested, and gained or divided with the 
 greatest mathematicians in Europe, no fewer than 
 ten prizes offered by the Academy of Sciences. 
 No name of the time stands higher than that of 
 Daniel Bernouilli. 6. John Bernouilli, bro- 
 ther of Daniel, professor of mathematics at Basle, 
 born 1720, died 1770. 7. James Bernouilli, 
 nephew of the two preceding, born in Basle 1759, 
 died in 1789, too early for science. At this close 
 of the family of the Bernouillis, its former glories 
 seemed about to blaze out again. In the space of 
 about five years, the younger James presented no 
 less than eight memoirs to the Imperial Aca- 
 demy of Sciences, which have been pnnted in the 
 ' Nova Acta;' and he was a correspondent of other 
 academies besides. Everything he wrote dis- 
 played singular acuteness. It is not often that 
 the historian of Science has to record concerning 
 such a family. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BERNSTORFF, John Hartwig Ernest, 
 Count, a Danish statesman, disting. also as a pa- 
 tron of science and art, 1712-1772. His nephew, 
 And. Peter, eel. as a minister of state for the 
 enfranchisem. of the Dan. peasants, &c, 1735-1797. 
 
 BEROALDUS, Ph., a rhetorician, 1453-1505. 
 His nephew of the same name, a poet, died 1518. 
 
 BERODACH, son of Baladan, king of Babylon. 
 
 BER 
 
 BEROSSUS, a Chddean priest and hist., frag- 
 ments of whose works exist in the writings of 
 Eusebius : time of Alexander the Great. 
 
 BERRETINI, Nicil, an It. paint., 1617-1682. 
 
 BERRI, John, of France, Duke De, 1810-1116. 
 
 BERRI, Cn. Feud. De Bourbon, Duke De, 
 second son of Ch. X., and father of the duke de 
 Bordeaux, claimant of the Fr. crown, 1778-1820. 
 
 BERRIMAN, Wm., au. of Sermons, 1688-1758. 
 
 BERRUYER, Jos. Is., a religious wr., d. 1758. 
 
 BERRUYER, J. F., a Fr. general, 1737-1804. 
 
 BERRY, Rear-Admiral Sir Emv., K.C.R.. 
 distinguished at the Nile and Trafalgar, d. 1831. 
 
 BERRY, Sir John, a naval command., d. 1691. 
 
 BERRY AT, F., first edit, of a collect, of observa- 
 tions from the memoirs of learned societies, d. 1 75 1. 
 
 BERSMANN, Geo., a Ger. classic, 1538-1611. 
 
 BERTHIER. Alexander Berthier, prince 
 of Neufchatel and Wagram, was born in Paris in 
 1753, of higher parentage than that of most of 
 the military chiefs of the French revolution and 
 empire. He saw some service in Rochambeau's 
 auxiliary corps in the American war, and con- 
 tinued in the French army after the fall of the 
 monarchy. It is chiefly as Napoleon's favourite 
 chief of the staff that he acquired distinction. 
 His talents for independent command were slender, 
 but he possessed the power of rapidly comprehending 
 Napoleon's wishes and tactics, and he showed an 
 alacrity and a skill in carrying the imperial orders 
 into effect, that made him most valuable, and 
 procured him high promotion and favour. On 
 the downfall of Napoleon, in 1814, Berthier, like 
 other marshals, professed allegiance to the Bour- 
 bons, and he is said to have shown more readiness 
 and zeal in so doing, than became one who had 
 been, like Berthier, the favoured friend, as well as 
 the highly rewarded servant of the ex-emperor. 
 On Napoleon's return in 1815, Berthier quitted 
 France with the Bourbon princes ; but he suffered 
 deeply in spirits and in conscience, and at last, 
 after watching a body of Russian troops who were 
 marching through Bamberg against France, Ber- 
 thier committed suicide. [E.S.C.] 
 
 BERTHIER, J. B., an architect, &c, 1721-1804. 
 
 BERTHOLLET, P., a Fr. historian, d. 1755. 
 
 BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, born at Tal- 
 loire, near Annecy, in Savoy, 9th December, 1848, 
 died at Paris, 6th November, 1822, aged seventy- 
 four, affords one of the most illustrious examples of 
 a genius for the practical application of science" 
 among the savants of the last century. Educated 
 for the profession of medicine, in an obscure corner 
 of the country, he came to Paris destitute of friends 
 and acquaintances; but having learned that M. 
 Tronchin, a distinguished practitioner in the me- 
 tropolis, was a native of Geneva, he made bold to 
 call upon his countryman, and, fortunately for 
 science, was kindly received and patronised by 
 him ; and through his means Berthollet was made 
 physician to the duke of Orleans. _ It was through 
 this nobleman that he was placed in the position of 
 superintendent of the government dyeworks, where 
 he acquired the information contained in his valu- 
 able work on this art, and which led him to apply 
 to practice in bleaching, the important fact, dis- 
 covered by Scheele, of the decolorizing properties 
 of chlorine gas. It would be difficult to estimate, 
 in its true light, either morally or pecuniarily, the 
 
BEE 
 
 enormous benefits conferred on humanity by this 
 application alone. James Watt introduced this 
 application soon after from Paris to Glasgow. To 
 the chemist Berthollet, too, is due the salvation of 
 his country ; for, when hemmed in by Austrian and 
 Prussian troops, and the English navy, her com- 
 merce cut off, and the very instruments of self-de- 
 fence denied her, Berthollet instituted native iron and 
 saltpetre works, and supplied the cannon, swords, 
 and gunpowder to withstand the ruthless invaders. 
 Eminent for his love of art as well as of science, 
 he was chosen by the Directory, in 1786, to pro- 
 ceed in company with his friend Monge to select 
 such works as were best fitted to adorn the Louvre ; 
 and in 1798 he accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt 
 on a similar errand. By the illustrious general he 
 was courted as a friend, not only from his simple 
 and unobtrusive manners, so becoming his pro- 
 fession, but also from his force and depth of cha- 
 racter, which rendered him a valuable companion. 
 How seldom does the man of science acquire credit 
 for the benefits conferred on his fellows ? In no 
 instance is this affirmation more remarkably exem- 
 plified than in the discovery by Berthollet of the 
 chlorate of potash, a salt which not only, as an in- 
 dispensable ingredient in the lucifer match, admi- 
 nisters to the convenience of every one, but 
 enables many a poor shivering outcast to supply 
 his daily wants. Berthollet, too, was the discoverer 
 of detonating silver, the first of those compounds 
 so valuable in their application to fire-arms which 
 are thus rendered independent of the seasons. He 
 discovered, likewise, chlorocyanic, and first showed 
 that the familiar volatile gas ammonia is a com- 
 pound of 1 vol. of nitrogen and 3 vols, of hydro- 
 gen. Although the more modern views of chemical 
 combinations have set aside his views on these sub- 
 jects, it is impossible to read them without being 
 struck with the ingenuity of his arguments, and 
 the force of his reasoning powers. In one point 
 he successfully combated the opinions of the cele- 
 brated Lavoisier, who believed that oxygen was 
 the acidifying principle. Berthollet, on the other 
 hand, showed that sulphuretted hydrogen and 
 prussic acid are distinctly acid, and yet contain no 
 oxygen. Subsequent observations have only 
 strengthened the views of Berthollet. Berthollet 
 was endowed with the greatest liberality and 
 benevolence of disposition, and was destitute 
 of that narrow and contracted selfishness so often 
 complained of in these days of competition, which is 
 too apt to mar the lustre of the scientific character. 
 In his latter years he removed to the village of 
 Arcueil, three miles from Paris, near his friend La 
 Place, for whom he entertained a warm affection. 
 Here he fitted up a laboratory, and formed the So- 
 ciety of Arcueil, composed of a number of young 
 chemists and friends, whom he encouraged Dy his 
 example and kindness. Their names will show how 
 happily was his friendship bestowed La Place, Biot, 
 Gay Lussac, Thenard, Collet-Descotils, Decan- 
 dolle, Humboldt, and his son A. B. Berthollet. The 
 Bociety published three volumes of valuable me- 
 moirs. To a chemist, we know of no more sacred 
 Slace than the hamlet of Arcueil. But the last 
 ays of the good old man were dimmed by the sui- 
 cide, by means of the fumes of charcoal, of his 
 only son, in whom his affections were concentrated. 
 From this sad calamity he never recovered ; and, to 
 
 BER 
 
 complete his misfortunes, his friend, the emperor 
 having been replaced by the Bourbons, science was 
 again, as in so many other instances, sacrificed at 
 the shrine of politics, and the eminent chemist was 
 reduced from a state of affluence to comparative 
 poverty. Death, in 1822, stepped in to his release, 
 and posterity alone can yield some requital by rever- 
 ing the memory of the good Berthollet. [R.D.T.] 
 
 BERTHOLON, a French chemist, last centurv. 
 
 BERTI, Alex. P., an Ital. author, 1686-1752'., 
 
 BERTI, J. L., an It. monk and hist., 1696-1766. 
 
 BERTIE, Willoughby, earl of Abingdon, a 
 wr. of several polit. and satirical pamph., d. 1791. 
 
 BERTIER, J. S., a Fr. physician, 1710-1783. 
 
 BERTIN, Anth., a French poet, 1752-1790. 
 
 BERTIN, H. Le J. B., a French comptroller- 
 general, disting. for promoting manuf., 1719-1792. 
 
 BERTIN, J., a Fr. phy. and anatom., 1712-1781. 
 
 BERTIN, J. V., a French painter, 1775-1841. 
 
 BERTIN, St., fndr. of the monas. so called, 7th c. 
 
 BERTIN, Theod., a Fr. stenogph., 1760-1819. 
 
 BERTINAZZI, C. A., a comedian, 1713-1783. 
 
 BERTIUS, P., a Flem. geographer, 1565-1629. 
 
 BERTOLI, G. D., an antiquarian, 1676-1758. 
 
 BERTON, J. B., Baron, a French general, con- 
 demned and exec, on an accus. of conspiracy, 1822. 
 
 BERTRAM, C. B., a Heb. scholar, 1531-1594. 
 
 BERTRAND, E., a Swiss natural., 1712-1790. 
 
 BERTRAND, Henry, Count, one of Napoleon's 
 most distinguished generals, and his companion 
 in exile, 1770-1844. 
 
 BERTRAND, J. B., a Fr. phvsic, 1670-1752. 
 
 BERTRAND DE MOLLEV1LLE, Anth. F., 
 one of the royalist noblesse, min. of marine in 1791, 
 afterwards an histor. of the revolution, 1744-1817. 
 
 BERULLE, Card. Pierre De, fndr of the Car- 
 melites and congregation of the oratory, 1575-1629. 
 
 BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, mar- 
 shal of France, and natural son of James II., 
 a gallant soldier, killed at Philipsburg, 1734. 
 
 BERYLLUS, a speculative theologian, 3d cent. 
 
 BERZELIUS, John Jacob, b. 1779, d. 1848, the 
 son of a parish schoolmaster at Vafersunde, in the 
 south of Sweden, as is said. The subject of our 
 memoir possessed the opportunity of acquiring the 
 elements of a good education in a country where read- 
 ing and writing are understood to be within the grasp 
 of the poorest peasant. He was educated for the 
 medical profession at the university of Upsala, and 
 obtained his first acquaintance with chemistry from 
 Professor Afzelius, a nephew of Bergman, Ekeberg, 
 and Ghan, to whom chemists are indebted for the 
 establishment of the blowpipe as an indispensable 
 instrument in chemical research. From the period 
 of his first publication, his Animal Chemistry, in 
 1806, till his death, Berzelius's career was one of 
 the most active and industrious of any chemist 
 who ever existed. His mechanical powers of 
 manipulation were of the highest order, and he set 
 himself at an early period to make the most scru- 
 pulously accurate analyses. It was from this 
 power of minute investigation that, in company 
 with Hisinger, he was enabled to detect, at the 
 outset of his career, the new earth oxide of cerium, 
 and afterwards selenium and thorium. It was by 
 his accurate investigations that he was enabled to 
 follow up the foundation-stones of the atomic 
 theory laid by Dalton, Thomson, and Wollaston, 
 and assist in raising a valuable superstructure, and 
 
 81 
 
BER 
 
 to demonstrate, in 1815, that the mineral world, | 
 as had been enunciated by Smithson, is a naturally 
 existing exemplification of the beautiful doctrine 
 of definite proportions. It would be difficult to 
 over-estimate trie value of the contributions made 
 to the science by this indefatigable chemist, whose 
 body and mind seem to have been in incessant 
 action for the best part of half a century, whether 
 we view them in his valuable investigations of the 
 constituents of nature, in the various editions of 
 his System of Chemistry, which contained a com- 
 plete digest of the knowledge possessed by chemists 
 at the time they ajppeared, of chemical substances, 
 or in the annual reports which he published, in 
 continuation of those of Thomson, of the progress 
 of his favourite science. The part which ne took, 
 too, in modifying the system of symbols, introduced 
 into the science by Thomson, so as to suit all na- 
 tions, is highly deserving of commendation, since 
 without symbols it is difficult to understand how 
 chemical constitution could he rendered intelligible 
 in its present complicated condition. The ingenious 
 generalizations which he sometimes made, although 
 generally ultimately found to be untenable, were 
 productive of vast benefit in encouraging and sti- 
 mulating inquiry. Among these views may be 
 noticed his ideas of the compound nature of chlo- 
 rine ; his theory of electro-chemistry, of isomer- 
 ism, of catalytism, &c. It is much to be regretted 
 that the free inquiry and liberty of deduction which 
 he claimed for himself he did not always allow to 
 others, and that the closing years of his busy life 
 should have been occupied in a coarse warfare 
 with his contemporaries and the younger spirits of 
 the age, and in an attempt, which ever must prove 
 fruitless, to bind to the chariot-wheels of a past 
 time the new discoveries which uniformly refuse to 
 be attached to old-fashioned inventions. Much of 
 this asperity of literary manner may undoubtedly 
 be attributed to isolation during his earlier years, 
 from the softening influences of life, and to dete- 
 riorating habits, which it is understood were too 
 unsparingly encouraged. Berzelius contributed, 
 in a remarkable degree, in disseminating the study 
 of the science over the continent of Europe, by the 
 able pupils who were educated under his eye, and 
 who did not fail to communicate in their turn to 
 their successors the accurate lessons which they 
 themselves had so bountifully received. To have 
 communicated the elements of the science to such 
 men as Gmelin, Arfwedson, Rose, Mitscherlich, and 
 Wohler, is no small piece of good fortune. No de- 
 partment of the science has escaped the masterly 
 touch of Berzelius ; even organic chemistry, which 
 he was desirous of confining under obsolete rules, 
 was indebted to him for many early elucidations, 
 which paved the way for those who were to follow. 
 In no portion of the science were his labours of more 
 value than in that of analyses, the processes de- 
 pending on an intimate acquaintance with the 
 properties of the various kinds of matter, by which 
 the chemist is enabled to tell, to the most minute 
 fraction, how much of any element is present in a 
 compound. Berzelius was for many years profes- 
 sor of chemistry in Stockholm. During the latter 
 years of his life he retired to the country, and 
 married, and was elevated to the rank of baron. 
 But to the last he took a deep interest in his 
 science, and even when paralysis had denied to him 
 
 BEZ 
 
 the power of locomotion, he continued to dictate t 
 
 his amanuensis his annual report, striving, as i 
 
 were, to bid against nature, and to lengthen ou 
 
 the space of terrestrial mental existence. [R.D.T. 
 
 BESBORODKO, a Rus. min. of state, d. 179 
 
 BESCHI, C. J., a eel. Indian missionary, d. 1741 
 
 BESOLDE, Chr., an Austrian hist., 1577-1636 
 
 BESOZZI, Ambb., an Ital. archi., 1618-1706. 
 
 BESSARION, John, a cardinal and theol., on 
 
 of the restorers of learning in the 15th c, 1395-1472 
 
 BESSEL, Dr. F. W., a Prus. astro., 1784-1841 
 
 BESSIERES, John Baptist, duke of Istris 
 
 one of Napoleon's generals, marshal of France 
 
 born 1784, killed at Rippach 1813. 
 
 BETHLEM-GABOR, a native of Transylvania 
 
 who usurped the throne of Hungary 1618, d. 162; 
 
 BETHLEN, Wolfgang, Count De, a states 
 
 man and historian of Transylvania, massacred b 
 
 the Tartars, 1679. 
 
 BETHUNE, the ancestral name of Sully. 
 
 BETTERTON, T., a eel. tragedian, 1G35-170C 
 
 BETTINELLI, X., a eel. It. author, 1718-1806 
 
 BETUSSE, Joseph, an Ital. poet, 16th cent. 
 
 BEUERNONVILLE, Peter Riel, count ol 
 
 a statesman, diplomatist, and marshal of France 
 
 minister of war under the convention, 1752-1821 
 
 BEVERIDGE, William, bishop of St. Asaph 
 
 eminent as an Oriental scholar and theologiac 
 
 author of 'Private Thoughts on Religion,' 1638-17 
 
 BEVERLY, John of, the tutor of Bede, d. 721 
 
 BEVERNYNCK, J. Van, a Dutch statesmar 
 
 disting. also as a contributor to botany, 1614-1691. 
 
 BEVERWICK, J. De, amed. auth., 1594-1645 
 
 BEVIN, Elway, a Welsh music, time of Jas. ] 
 
 BEVIS, an English astronomer, 1695-1771. 
 
 BEWICK, John, an artist and naturalist, cele 
 
 brated in the history of wood engraving, d. 1795. 
 
 BEWICK, Thos., brother of the prec, d. 182* 
 
 BEWLY, Wm., an experi. philosopher, d. 178c 
 
 BEYER, Aug., a Germ, theologian, 1707-1741 
 
 BEYER, Dr. G. A, prof, of Gr. litera., 18th < 
 
 BEZA, or THEODORE DE BEZE, was bor 
 
 of noble parents at Vezelai in 1519. His studie 
 
 were begun at Orleans under Wolmar, a Germai 
 
 to whom may be traced his pupil's attainments i 
 
 Greek. Here he studied law, and having at th 
 
 age of twenty obtained a diploma, he spent til 
 
 next nine years in Paris ; living in the midst c 
 
 such enjoyments as an ample fortune can a 
 
 all times secure in the gay capital of Frana 
 
 Here he published his ' Juvenilia,' a collection c 
 
 poems, many of which are just in character an 
 
 gallantry, what might have been anticipated in th 
 
 circumstances. His own conscience, his secrc 
 
 marriage, and a severe illness, combined in solem 
 
 nizing his mind, so that at length he fled t 
 
 Geneva, and publicly avowed his attachment i 
 
 the protestant reformation. In a very short tim 
 
 he became professor of Greek at Lausanne, an 
 
 after ten years' labour there he returned to Geneva 
 
 From the period of his return to Geneva in 155 
 
 to his death there, October 13, 1605, Beza wa 
 
 identified with the Swiss reformation. He was th 
 
 first rector of the new academy established then 
 
 and he succeeded Calvin in the chair of theolog 
 
 in 1564. After the great Reformer's death, Bez 
 
 occupied the first place of influence and responsi 
 
 bility, not only in the church of Geneva, but i 
 
 the neighbouring cantons and in France. In 157 
 
 fc2 
 
BHA 
 
 he was moderator of the great protestant assembly 
 at Rochelle, by which the French confession Avas 
 emitted. Beza reAasited France about 1560, and 
 was introduced to, and favourably noticed by 
 Catharine de Medici and the Cardinal Lorrain, 
 iand he occasionally preached in the suburbs of 
 Paris. He was also on the battle-field with the 
 great Conde - in 1563. The Greek scholarship of 
 Beza was consummate, and one of his early works 
 at Lausanne was his famous translation of the 
 New Testament into Latin, printed by Robert 
 Stephens at Paris in 1557. In 1565 he published 
 his first edition of the Greek New Testament, 
 making use of a MS., containing the four Gospels 
 and Acts, which usually goes by his name, and 
 which in 1581 he gave to the universitv of Cam- 
 bridge. This edition, which is almost the same as 
 that of R. Stephens, was four times reprinted by 
 him, and the last edition of 1598 was taken as the 
 basis of the authorized English version of the New 
 Testament. Beza wrote many other treatises, 
 especially on the power of the magistrate in mat- 
 ters of religion. But it is as an editor, translator, 
 and commentator in connection with the New Tes- 
 tament, that all subsequent scholars hold Beza in 
 high esteem, not only for his own lofty acquire- 
 ments, but also for the impulse which he gave 
 by his example and his publications to biblical 
 studies. [J.E.] 
 
 BHARHIHARI, an Indian poet, 1st cent. b.c. 
 
 BHAVABHOUTl, one of the greatest dramatic 
 poets of India, flourished in the last century. 
 
 BHERING. SeeBEHRiNG. 
 
 BIANCHI, Ant., a Venetian poet, last cent. 
 
 BIANCHI, Fr., a composer, end of last cent. 
 
 BIANCHI, John, a eel. anatomist, 1693-1775. 
 
 BIANCHI, V., an Ital. diplomatist, d. 1738. 
 
 BIANCHINI, Fr., an Ital. savant, 1662-1729. 
 
 BIAS, one of the seven sages of Greece. 
 
 BIBARS I., Mameluke sultan, 1260. IL, 1309. 
 
 BIBIENA, Bernardo De, a cardinal of Rome 
 under Leo X., and au. of a comedy, 1470-1520. 
 
 BIBIENA, F. G., a paint, and arch., 1657-1743. 
 
 BICHAT, Marie Francis Xavier, one of 
 the most celebrated physiologists of France, au. of 
 several important medical works, 1771-1802. 
 
 BICKERSTAFF, Isaac, a dramatic au., last ct. 
 
 BICKERSTETH, Edward, a highly popular 
 writer of religious works, was born i9th March, 
 1786, at Kirby Lonsdale, in Westmoreland. After 
 receiving the rudiments of learning at the gram- 
 mar school of his native town, he obtained, at the 
 age of fourteen, a situation in the General Post 
 Office, London, and although that employment 
 put an end for a time to his classical studies, it 
 trained him to those business habits which quali- 
 fied him pre-eminently for the peculiar work 
 which Providence had in reserve for him. Dis- 
 gusted with the monotonous routine of his duties 
 in the post office, he turned his attention to the 
 study of law, and obtained admission into the 
 chambers of an eminent London attorney, to whom, 
 after two years' and a-half service, he became prin- 
 cipal clerk. At a later period he settled in Nor- 
 wich ,-is partner to Mr. Bignold, a young and 
 flourishing attorney, and connected himself still 
 more closely with that gentleman by marrying 
 Miss Bignold, his sister, on 5th May, 1812. For 
 many years previously, Mr. Bickersteth had been 
 
 83 
 
 BIE 
 
 under deep impressions of personal religion. Amid 
 all the engrossing avocations of his legal business 
 he attended to the one thing needful, never allow- 
 ing a day to pass without devoting a portion of it 
 to the regular study of the Scriptures, with private 
 devotion, and adopting various other methods for 
 promoting his personal improvement and his walk 
 with God. The principles he regarded as so vital 
 to the welfare of his own soul he longed to impart 
 to others, and mourning over the multitudes in 
 the town of his adoption who were growing up in 
 ignorance and irreligion, he commenced a Sunday- 
 school by collecting a few poor children for in- 
 struction in scriptural knowledge. This school, 
 which gradually increased till it became a large 
 and important institution, encouraged him to try 
 other means of Christian usefulness, and accor- 
 dingly he originated a benevolent visiting society, 
 a church missionary society, a society for the con- 
 version of the Jews, all of which, in spite of 
 strong opposition from several quarters at first, 
 continued to grow in numbers and influence. 
 Having published his ' Help to the Study of the 
 Scriptures/ which proved an eminently useful and 
 acceptable work, he was earnestly pressed by 
 several Christian friends to enter the ministry. 
 The advice accorded with his own ardent aspira- 
 tions, and at length a door having been opened by 
 Providence, he was ordained deacon in the Church 
 of England, and preached his first sermon in Nor- 
 wich, 10th December, 1815. In the beginning of 
 1816, Mr. Bickersteth undertook a special mission 
 for the purpose of inspecting the settlements of 
 the London Missionary Society in Africa, and after 
 having accomplished the important objects of his 
 embassy, returned to the shores of Britain in the 
 following August. For many years he acted as 
 one of the secretaries of the Missionary Society, 
 and in that capacity led a life of incessant activity, 
 journeying in all parts of the country, and address- 
 ing public meetings in behalf of the institution. 
 Resigning this laborious office, he became, in 1829, 
 sole pastor of Wheler Chapel, London ; and on 
 23d October, 1830, he undertook the charge of the 
 rural parish of Watton, Herts. After a life of 
 such indefatigable labour as he had led, this situ- 
 ation was a comparative sinecure. But by multi- 
 plying the services, both on Sabbath and week-days, 
 'he worked,' to use his own phrase, 'as busily 
 as a bee.' In all questions affecting the interests 
 of religion he took a prominent part, for he was 
 looked up to as the head of the evangelical party 
 in the Church of England, and in private he was 
 unwearied in advancing the cause of Christian 
 truth with his pen. The ' Christian Hearer,' 
 the 'Christian Student,' a treatise on 'Baptism,' 
 the ' Testimony of the Reformers,' and many other 
 works, well known in the religious world, attest 
 his piety and zeal. Mr. Bickersteth, in February, 
 1850, was seized with a paralytic stroke, which 
 soon after carried him off, in the sixty-third year 
 of his age. [R. J.] 
 
 BIDDLE, John, a eel. unitarian, 1615-1662. * 
 
 BIDERMANN, J. G., a Ger. savant, 1703-1772. 
 
 BIDLOO, Goderey, a Dutch anat., 1649-1713. 
 
 BIEL, Gab., a phil. of the Nominalists, 15th c. 
 
 BIEL, J. Ch., a learned German divine, d. 1745. 
 
 BIELFELD, J. F., Baron De, a political writer, 
 counsellor of Frederick IL, 1717-1770. 
 
BIE 
 
 BIEVRE, the Marquis De, a writer of some 
 fugitive pieces, eel. as an inveterate wit, 1747-1789. 
 BIEZ, Oudart Du, marshal of France, d. 1551. 
 BIGLAND, John, a miscel. wr. 1750-1832. 
 BIGNON, Jero., a learned Fr. wr., 1589-1656. 
 BIGNON, J. P., grandson of Jerome, a disting. 
 eccles. and member of the Fr. Academy, 1662-1743. 
 BIGNON, L. P. E., a diplomatist, and au. of a 
 'History of French Diplomacy,' written by the 
 desire of Napoleon, by whom he was frequently em- 
 ployed, and held in the highest esteem, 1771-1841. 
 BIGOT, Americ, a French classic, 1626-1689. 
 BIKAM, W., an English engraver, last cent. 
 BILDERDYK, Wm., a Dutch poet, 1756-1831. 
 BILFINGER, G. B., a Ger. savant, 1693-1750. 
 BILLAUD-VARENNES, John Nicholas, 
 was the son of an advocate, and like Fouchc4, was 
 educated by the Jesuits, but compelled to leave 
 the congregation of the oratory on account of his 
 licentiousness. He remained in obscurity until 
 the outbreak of the revolution, when the revolt 
 and fearful sacrifice of life at Nanci in the month 
 of August, 1790, gave him an opportunity of at- 
 tacking the government, especially in a work of 3 
 vols. 8vo, entitled ' Despotisme des Ministres de 
 France.' Between this period and the autumn of 
 1792 he published several political brochures, re- 
 markable, it is understood, for their brutal vehe 
 mence rather than for any originality or show of 
 argument ; and it was only on the 10th of August 
 in that year, when the death-struggle of the Swiss 
 guard, followed by the sack of the Tuileries, and 
 the imprisonment of the royal family took place, 
 that he emerged from the obscurity of the Fau- 
 bourgs as one of the hundred and forty-four who 
 turned out the old municipals, and declared them- 
 selves the magistrates of the people. In the hor- 
 rible massacres of September he was seen standing 
 in his official scarf, short brown coat, and black 
 wig, with one foot on a corpse and the other in a 
 pool of blood, urging the murderers at the Abbaye 
 to continue the work of slaughter, of which, from 
 mere physical exhaustion they were growing 
 weary. He was remarkable on all occasions for 
 his repugnance to any regular form in the admin- 
 istration of the people's wild vengeance, and had 
 a principal share in the erection of the Re- 
 volutionary Tribunal, to which Marie Antoin- 
 ette and many other victims were sent at his 
 particular instance. On the 9th Thermidor he 
 consulted his own safety by joining in the clamo- 
 rous accusation of Robespierre, and a few davs 
 after his fall, was himself excluded from the 
 committee which his cruel heart, and some- 
 times declamatory eloquence had so often served. 
 The reaction having set in, he was condemned to 
 transportation, and afterwards to death, by the 
 convention, but the sailing of the ship saved his 
 life, and he remained twenty years in Cayenne be- 
 fore he effected his escape. In 1816 he made his 
 way to St. Domingo, where the mulatto Petion 
 was in power as president of the newly-established 
 republic, by whom he was allowed a small pension. 
 On this pittance the ' resolute unrepentant man ' 
 contrived to subsist till the world was finally rid 
 of him in 1819. [E.R.] 
 
 BILLARD, Ch. M., a Fr. surgeon, 1800-1832. 
 B1LLAUT, An., a Fr. poet, time of Richelieu. 
 BILLBERG, J., a Swed. mathemat., d. 1717. 
 
 BIR 
 
 BILLING, Sigts., a Fr. patriot and soldier of 
 the revol., coadjutor of Lafayette in 1830, d. 1832. 
 
 BILLINGSLEY, Sir Hy., a mathemat., d. 1616. 
 
 BILSON, Thos., bp. of Winchester, 1536-1616. 
 
 BINGHAM, Jos., an eccles. wr., 1668-1723. 
 
 BINGHAM, Sir Geo. Ridout, an officer in 
 the Peninsular war ; afterwards accompanied Buon- 
 aparte to St. Helena, 1777-1833. 
 
 BINGLEY, Wm., a wr. on nat. hist., d. 1823. 
 
 BIOERN, the name of four kings of Sweden. 
 
 BION, a Greek poet, 3d century B.C. 
 
 BION, a Greek philosopher, 3d century B.C. 
 
 BION, Nich., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1753. 
 
 BIONDI, Sir Fr., an historian, 17th century. 
 
 BIRAGUE, Clem., a Germ, engraver, 16th ct. 
 
 BIRAGUE, Rene De, an It. cardinal, resident 
 in France, promoted the massacre of St. Bartho- 
 lomew, and was made chancellor, 1509-1583. 
 
 BIRCH, Sam., a disting. citizen of London, ma- 
 yor in 1814, promoter of the Lit. Fund, 1757-1841. 
 
 BIRCH, Thos., a Quaker historian, 1705-1766. 
 
 BIRD, Edw., R.A., a painter, 1705-1766. 
 
 BIRD, John, a math. inst. maker, d. 1766. 
 
 BIRD, or BIRDE, or BYRDE, William, the 
 admired musician, and great pupil of the cele- 
 brated Tallis, was born about the year 1540, anc 
 is supposed to have been the son of Thomas Bird, 
 one of the gentlemen of the chapel of Edward VI., 
 where Bird received his first instructions in musi< 
 as one of the singing-boys. In 1563, he was 
 made organist of Lincoln cathedral, which office 
 he retained till 1569, when he was appointee 
 gentleman of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and h 
 1575 became organist to her majesty. Up to th< 
 period of his death, which happened in 1623, hi 
 composed a great amount of vocal music, chiefh 
 sacred, and from the circumstance that the word" 
 he chose were, for the most part, portions of tb 
 Romish ritual, it is supposed that he was secretl; 
 a professor of that faith, though from the appoint 
 ments he held, he must have conformed to tb 
 reformed religion. It is impossible now to nam 
 the number of his works, if we include his instru 
 mental compositions, of which no fewer thai 
 seventy-three are to be found in Queen Elizabeth' 
 celebrated Virginal book. Bird is, however, no\ 
 chiefly known by his great canon 'Non Nobi 
 Domine.' And though some persons have sough 
 to deprive him of the fame of its authorship, an 
 have attributed it to Palestrina, nevertheless 
 those best able to judge have never hesitated t 
 regard it as the work of William Bird, and to a' 
 time it will be looked upon as a national wor 
 and an enduring monument of his greatness as 
 musician. Bird was highly esteemed, both in hi 
 private and public capacity. [J.M. 
 
 BIREN, John Ernest De, dk. of Courland, an 
 regent of Russia after the dth. of Anne, 1687-177$ 
 BIRGER DE BIELBO, Count Palatine, an 
 regent of Sweden at the death of Eric, 1210-126( 
 BIRKBECK, George, M.D., the founder < 
 mechanics' institutions, b. at Settle, 1776, d. 184] 
 BIRKBECK, M., au. of travels, &c, d. 1825. 
 BIRKENHEAD, Sir J., a pol. wr., 1615-167! 
 BIRON, Armano De Gontaut, Baron Di 
 marshal of France, slain at the siege of Eperna; 
 1524-1592. Ch. de Gontaut, son of the pn 
 ceding, b. 1561 ; admiral of France, 1592 ; marsha 
 1594; duke, 1598; beheaded, 1602. Ch. Akmam 
 84 
 
BIS 
 
 grand-nephew of the last, marshal, 1663-175G. 
 Louis Anthony, his son, marshal of France, 
 1701-1788. Armand Louis, duke of Lauzun, 
 nephew of Louis Anthony, and after his death 
 duke de Biron, celebrated as a companion in arms 
 of Lafayette in America, and afterwards as a 
 soldier of the revolution, beheaded 1793. 
 
 BISACCIONI, Count, adis. It. gen., 1582-1663. 
 
 BISCOE, Richd., an English divine, d. 1748. 
 
 BISHOP, Samuel, an English poet, 1731-1795. 
 
 BISSET, Ch., awr. on fortification, 1716-1791. 
 
 BISSET, James, a fugitive writer, died 1832. 
 
 BISI, Bonaventure, an Ital. painter, d. 1662. 
 
 BIVAR, Don Rodrigo Dias De. See Cm. 
 
 BIZOT, Pierre, a wr. on numismatics, 1636-96. 
 
 BLACAS, Due De, a French diplomatist, fa- 
 vourite of Louis XVIIL, 1770-1839. 
 
 BLACK, Joseph, born near Bourdeaux, 1728, 
 died 1790. His father, a native of Belfast, resided 
 for some years at Bourdeaux, as a wine merchant. 
 He was of Scottish origin, and had married Miss 
 Gordon, of Hillhead, in Aberdeenshire. The young 
 chemist was first at school in Belfast, and after- 
 wards at the universities of Glasgow and Edin- 
 burgh. In 1756, he was appointed lecturer on 
 chemistry and professor of anatomy, afterwards 
 of medicine, in Glasgow. Here he remained till 
 1766, when he was chosen to the chemical chair 
 in Edinburgh. During this period he made the 
 important discovery of the cause of the difier- 
 ence between limestone and quicklime, and 
 showed that quicklime is limestone deprived 
 of a portion of its weight in the form of car- 
 bonic acid. It was by this experiment, while yet 
 a student, that he drew attention to the impor- 
 tance of the use of weights, a precaution which 
 had hitherto been neglected by chemists, and from 
 which omission many erroneous theories had been 
 propagated. His second important discovery was 
 that when water changes into steam, 140 of heat 
 enter into it which are not perceptible by the 
 thermometer, and which he termed latent. It is 
 obvious that on this fact depends some of the im- 
 portant circumstances with regard to the economy 
 of the steam engine. These two capital discover- 
 ies of Black have been of greater service to science 
 than perhaps any equal number of data ever 
 pointed out by philosophers. Dr. Black was a 
 man of elegance, modesty, and indolence. His 
 active life in science terminated in his thirty-eighth 
 year, for after his removal to Edinburgh he en- 
 gaged in no inquiries, and contented himself with 
 teaching the science. He was beloved as a friend, 
 medical adviser, and teacher, and his name must 
 long occupy a niche in the scientific temple of 
 fame. [R.D.T.] 
 
 BLACKBURNE, Fr., a theologian, 1705-1787. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, Tiios., D.D., was the son of an 
 English artizan settled at Annan, in the county of 
 Dumfries, where he was born, 1721. At the age 
 of six months he lost his sight from an attack of 
 the small-pox, yet arrived at distinction as a 
 classical scholar and poet; not, indeed, to very- 
 high rank in the latter respect, but to a degree of 
 apiition exceedingly creditable to his taste and 
 intelligence under the circumstances. For the 
 early cultivation of his mind he was indebted to 
 the kind friends who read, for his behoof, the 
 works of Spenser, Milton, Prior, and Addison, and 
 
 BLA 
 
 subsequently to the friendship of Dr. Stephenson, 
 who procured his admission to the university of 
 Edinburgh. His first attempts in poesy were made 
 in his twelfth year, and a few years later gave 
 proof of his passionate love for music. In 1759 
 he was licensed to preach in the Scotch kirk, and 
 in 1762 was presented with the living of Kirk- 
 cudbright, by the earl of Selkirk ; but after two 
 years of strife, abandoned this field of labour, in 
 consequence of objections both to his preaching 
 and his blindness, urged by the parishioners. A 
 small annuity was settled upon him at this time, 
 with which he retired to Edinburgh, where he 
 passed the remainder of his life in literary pursuits, 
 partly employed as a teacher. The best of his 
 poetical pieces is ' The Graham,' an heroic ballad. 
 He married in 1762 ; and in 1767 the degree of 
 D.D. was conferred upon him by the Marischal 
 College, Aberdeen. The last edition of his works 
 was published in 1796, with a life of the author, 
 by Mr. Spense. Dr. Blacklock died at the age of 
 seventy, July 7, 1791. [E.R.] 
 
 BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, a very indiffer- 
 ent poet of the time of Dryden, in better repute 
 as an honest man and a physician, died 1721. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, Sir William, a judge and 
 celebrated commentator on the law of England, 
 was born in London on 10th July, 1723. He was 
 the posthumous child of a silk mercer, and lost 
 his mother in infancy. When about seven years 
 old he was sent to the Charter House, where he 
 was ultimately placed on the foundation. He 
 studied at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in 1743 
 was made a fellow of All Saints. In 1746 he was 
 called to the bar from the Middle Temple. He 
 had written some popular fugitive pieces, chiefly 
 poetical, one of them called ' The Lawyer's Fare- 
 well to his Muse.' His qualifications were not of 
 the kind which bring business through the usual 
 channels, and he retired on his fellowship. Finding, 
 however, that his studies took naturally the direc- 
 tion of the law and constitution of England, he 
 opened a course of lectures on the subject in 1753. 
 Mr.Viner, struck by the importance of a foundation 
 for teaching this important department of know- 
 ledge, founded the Vinerian professorship, which 
 Blackstone was the first to occupy in 1758. The 
 popularity of his lectures, and of some minor tracts 
 on jurisprudential subjects, opened the way to prac- 
 tice, and he returned to the law courts, entering 
 parliament in 1761. In 1762 he received a patent 
 as king's counsel, and the honorary office of solici- 
 tor-general to the queen. About the same time 
 he married Sarah Clithroe, by whom he was the 
 father of nine children. The first volume of the 
 celebrated ' Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- 
 land' was published in 1765. The other three 
 volumes followed in rapid succession. No English 
 law book has been at once so popular and so gravely 
 censured. Both the praise and blame were 
 elicited by the same features. In England, so 
 much weight is attributed to the sentences and 
 individual words in which the law is expressed, 
 that its interpreters generally seek safety from re- 
 sponsibility in employing the exact terms in which 
 it has been originally given forth, in statute, deci- 
 sion, or the opinion of some early sage of the law. 
 This practice gives their works a hard, disjointed, 
 piebald appearance, forbidding as a whole, how- 
 
 85 
 
BLA 
 
 ever valuable the separate parts may be. Black- 
 stone tried to convert the mass into a readable 
 well-arranged book, and succeeded. He has made 
 many people readers of the law, and more or less 
 instructed in it, who otherwise would not have ap- 
 
 J>roached the forbidding science. But on the other 
 land, the deeper practical members of the profes- 
 sion have pronounced his work unsatisfactory and 
 superficial. To make his book consistent and 
 readable, he endeavoured to give a reason for every- 
 thing, while other writers told it baldly as it stood. 
 The tendency of his commentaries was thus to make 
 wh at ever existed in the law appear to be exactly what 
 it should be. Now that many of the things which 
 he commended as the perfection of wisdom, have 
 been abolished as tyrannical and absurd, his rea- 
 soning in their support sometimes appears suffi- 
 ciently ludicrous. The disposition to justify things 
 as they were, made his writings acceptable to 
 government, and they were the more so that in ac- 
 counts of the origin of national institutions, he 
 ever kept out of sight the more violent revolution- 
 ary movements by which the constitution was 
 created. Only in his celebrated passage against the 
 game laws does he take a side contrary to what 
 may be called conservative predilections. The 
 4 Commentaries' are still in active use, and ever 
 call for the services of fresh editors. Black- 
 stone disliked political contention, and declined 
 the opening to high promotion offered to him in 
 the office of solicitor-general. He was, in 1770, 
 appointed one of the justices of the King's Bench, 
 and in a few months transferred to the Common 
 Pleas. He died on 14th February, 1780. [J.H.B.] 
 
 BLACKWALL, Ant., anEng. critic, 1674-1730. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Alex., a Scotch physician and 
 economist ; settled in Stockholm, and beheaded for 
 conspiracy, 1747. His wife, Elizabeth, disting. 
 as the authoress of a ' Herbal,' with 500 plates, 
 drawn, engraved, and coloured by herself. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, A., a Scotch au., 1539-1613. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Sib H.,anav. com., 1770-1832. 
 
 BLADEN, Mabtln, a miscel. writer, d. 1746. 
 
 BLAEUW, Wm, a Dutch geogr., 1571-1638. 
 
 B'.AINVILLE, M. De, an anatom., 1778-1850. 
 
 BLAIR, Hugh, D.D., a celebrated Scotch 
 divine, and miscellaneous writer, 1718-1800. 
 
 BLAIR, J., a chronological author, died 1782. 
 
 BLAIR. Robt., au. of ' The Grave,' 1700-1746. 
 
 BLAKE, Wm., an artist and poet of singular 
 genius and originality, remarkable also for his 
 extraordinary visions, 1759-1827. 
 
 BLAKE. In all the long list of England's 
 naval heroes, there is not a name more glorious 
 than that of Admiral Blake. Perhaps he deserves to 
 be ranked even highest of all, if we look not merely 
 to the number and brilliancy of his victories, but 
 to the originality of his genius, and to the high 
 character of the commanders and the crews whom 
 he encountered and vanquished. Blake tamed the 
 pride of the Dutch navy when it was in the per- 
 fection of equipment, discipline, spirit, and skill. 
 He triumphed over Van Tromp and De Ruyter ; 
 admirals who, until they coped with Blake, were 
 reputed invincible. Nelson himself never signalized 
 his genius and his bravery against such competi- 
 tors as these. Robert Blake was the son of a 
 merchant at Bridgewater in Somersetshire, and 
 was born there in August, 1599. He was well 
 
 BLA 
 
 educated, first at his native grammar school, and 
 then at Oxford, where he was distinguished for 
 his strictness in religion, and for his liberal poli- 
 tics. At the age of twenty-seven, in consequence 
 of his father's embarrassments and death, Blake 
 was called on, as the eldest son, to take the man- 
 agement of the wreck of the family business, and 
 to maintain his mother and several younger bro- 
 thers and sisters. He did this duty in private life 
 for many years ; but on the outbreak of the civil 
 war between Charles I. and the parliament, Blake 
 came forward on the popular side, and raised a 
 troop of dragoons, wnich he personally com- 
 manded. Blake's military career has been eclipsed 
 by the superior lustre of his naval achievements ; 
 but he was one of the ablest commanders and 
 bravest soldiers that fought for the Houses ; and 
 some of his exploits in the west of England 
 showed genius of the highest order. It would be 
 difficult to find parallels, either in ancient or 
 modern history, lor Blake's defence of Lyme 
 against Prince Maurice ; or for his daring occupa- 
 tion of Taunton and successful defence of that 
 place against Goring. When the war was over, 
 Blake was made a commissioner of the navy, and 
 placed in command of the ships that were sent 
 against Rupert's piratical squadron. Blake was 
 at this time fifty years old. He may have had 
 some acquaintance with a seafaring life when he 
 was a Bndgewater merchant, but besides his na- 
 tural courage, decision, and promptitude, he must 
 have possessed remarkable quickness of apprehen- 
 sion and fertility of genius to enable him to adapt 
 himself to his new command in naval war, and to 
 inspire those whom he led,with his own daring, alac- 
 rity, and indomitable resolution. He was equally 
 active and sagacious as a reformer of the numerous 
 abuses which he found prevalent in the admiralty, 
 and in every department of the service ; and Blake 
 did for our navy in the middle of the 17th century 
 what Earl St. Vincent did afterwards for it at the 
 close of the 18th. Blake's successes against Ru- 
 pert and other enemies of the commonwealth, 
 caused him to be raised to the chief command of 
 the English fleet when war broke out between the 
 English and Dutch republics in 1652. A series of 
 naval battles ensued, which are unequalled in 
 history for the skill and for the obstinate valour 
 displayed on both sides. Once, and once only, 
 the Dutch had the advantage, on the 29th of 
 November, 1652, when Blake was obliged with 
 less than 40 ships to fight Van Tromp with 80 in 
 the Downs. But our English admiral more than 
 redeemed his fame in the February following, 
 when he completely defeated Van Tromp in their 
 great three days' sea fight along the channel. At 
 last, when after two years of desperate warfare, 
 Blake had nearly destroyed the Dutch navy, Hol- 
 land was compelled in 1654 to sue for peace. 
 Cromwell had turned out the parliament and made 
 himself protector of England during this period, 
 but Blake declared that a sailor's duty was to serve 
 his country against the foreigner, and he continued 
 to guide our fleets wherever the honour of England 
 required. Cromwell sent him to the Mediter- 
 ranean, where he made our flag universally re- 
 spected. He compelled the Maltese knights and 
 the Tuscan government to pay for the seizure of 
 some English merchant vessels, and made the 
 
BLA 
 
 mope pay also for having allowed them to be 
 Bold in his ports. He awed the dey of Algiers into 
 [the Enrrcnder of all his English captives; and 
 rwhen the dey of Tunis refused to do the same, 
 iBlake burnt the pirate fleet under the guns of the 
 town, destroyed the forts, and compelled the 
 haughty barbarians to obey his orders. He did 
 good service in blockading the port of Cadiz, 
 when the Spanish war began ; and his last and 
 most daring enterprise was the destruction of 
 the Spanish Treasure fleet and the fortifications at 
 Santa Cruz in TenerifFe in 1657. Even the 
 royalist English called this achievement ' miracu- 
 lous.' Blake has been censured for rashness in 
 attempting it, but his last and best biographer, 
 Mr. Hepworth Dixon, has proved that the enter- 
 prise was as ably planned as it was heroically ex- 
 ecuted. This was Blake's final service to his 
 country. He sickened as his victorious fleet re- 
 turned to England, and he died during the very 
 entrance of his ship into Plymouth Sound. It 
 would be difficult to find a character more purely 
 bright than Blake's. He was sincerely religious, 
 and he was as honest and as generous as he was 
 brave. His morals were stainless. His friend- 
 ships and his domestic affections were warm ; but 
 they never betrayed him into weakness ; and he 
 sternly cashiered his own favourite brother who 
 showed want of courage in command of a ship at 
 Santa Cruz. Cromwell caused the great admiral 
 to be buried with the highest pomp at Westmin- 
 ster ; but on the restoration or the Stuarts, they 
 heaped eternal infamy on themselves by outraging 
 the mortal remains of the hero before whom they 
 and their despotic friends on the thrones of Europe 
 for so many years had trembled. The great ad- 
 miral was at the age of sixty when he died in his 
 country's service. [E.S.C.] 
 
 BLANCAS, Jer., a Spanish historian, d. 1590. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Fr., a celeb. Fr. aeronaut, d. 
 1809 ; his wife, also an aeronaut, killed 1819. 
 
 BLANCHARD, James, a Fr. paint., 1600-1638. 
 
 BLANCHARD, J. B., prof, of rhet., 1731-1797. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Laman, a disting. contributor 
 to periodical literature, committed suicide, 1845. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Wm., a eel. corned., 1769-1835. 
 
 BLANCHE, queen of Navarre, died 1441. 
 
 BLANCHE of Artois, q. of Navarre, d. 1300. 
 
 BLANCHE of Bourbon, q. of Castile, poisoned 
 by her husband, Peter the Cruel, 1361. 
 
 BLANCHE of Castile, daug. of Alph. IX., b. 
 1187, q. of Louis VIII. of France 1201, d. 1252. 
 
 BLANCHELANDE, P. F., governor of St. 
 Domingo, executed as a counter-revolutionist 1793. 
 
 BLANE, Sir G., phys. to Geo. III., 1749-1834. 
 
 BLANKEN, John, a Dutch engineer, last ct. 
 
 BLANTYRE, Lord, a Peninsu. officer, k. 1830. 
 
 BLAU, F. A., a Ger. theol. and critic, 1754-98. 
 
 BLAYNEY, Dr. Benj., a biblical wr., d. 1801. 
 
 BLEISWICK, Peter Van, a Dutch statesman, 
 author of a Latin treatise on dykes, 1724-1790. 
 
 BLESSINGTON, Marg. Power, countess of, 
 eel. for her contrib. to polite literature, 1789-1849. 
 
 BLETTEBIE, J.B.R. De La, an his., 1696-1772. 
 
 BLIGH, Geo. M.. a naval commander, d. 1835. 
 
 BL1 ZZABD, Sir W., a disting. surg., 1742-1835. 
 
 BLOCH, Marcus E., a naturalist, 1723-1799. 
 
 BLOCK, Joanna K., disting. for her imitations 
 of Landscapes, portraits. &c, in paper, 1650-1715. 
 
 BLU 
 
 BLOMEFIELD, Fr., a topograph, wr., d. 1755. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, E. V., a clas. schol., 1788-1816. 
 
 BLOND, Chr. C., a min. painter, 1670-1741. 
 
 BLONDEL, a minstrel celebrated in the history 
 of Richard I. as the discoverer of his dungeon. 
 
 BLONDEL, David, a protes. wr., 1591-1655. 
 
 BLONDEL, Fr., a wr. on architec, 1617-1680. 
 
 BLONDEL, John F., an architect, 1705-1774. 
 
 BLONDIN, J. N., a Fr. grammar., 1753-1832. 
 
 BLONDIN, P., a French botanist, 1682-1713. 
 
 BLOTELING, A. C.,aDutch engrav.,1634-1690. 
 
 BLOOD, Thomas, originally a col. in the army, 
 notorious for his attempt on the regalia, died 1080. 
 
 [Bloomtteld's Cottage ] 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an amiable man 
 and a pleasing descriptive poet, is chiefly remark- 
 able as an instance of the triumph of literary in- 
 clinations over external difficulties. He was born 
 in 1766, at a village near Bury St. Edmund's, 
 where his father, a tailor, left him an orphan in 
 infancy, and the widow taught a little school. 
 He was a journeyman shoemaker in London, when 
 he wrote his pastoral poem, k The Farmer's Boy.' 
 This, the work of his that is most likely to live, 
 was published in 1800, and attained an extraor- 
 dinary popularity, well deserved in itself, and 
 natural in the barrenness which then reigned in 
 poetry. Among his subsequent volumes were 
 ' Good Tidings, or News from the Farm,' and a 
 collection of ' Rural Tales ' and other pieces. His 
 feeble health impeded efforts made to provide for 
 him by persons of rank who took an interest in 
 the self-taught poet ; and after much distress and 
 sickness, which in the end affected the mind as 
 well as the body, he died at Sheftbrd in Bedford- 
 shire in 1823. [W.S.I 
 
 BLOUNT, Charles, earl of Devonshire, and 
 Lord Mountjoy, quelled Tyrone's rebel., 1563-1606. 
 
 BLOUNT, C, a deistical wr., com. suicide 1693. 
 
 BLOUNT, Sir H., an Eastern trav., 1602-1682. 
 
 BLOUNT, Thos., a fugitive hist., 1619-1679. 
 
 BLOUNT, Sir Th. Pope, Bart., author of a 
 catalogue of celebrated authors, &c, 1649-1697. 
 
 BLOW, John, a composer of music, d. 1708. 
 
 BLUCHER. Gebhart Lebrecht Von 
 Blucher wrs born at Rostock in Mecklenburg- 
 Sch werin in 1742. His family was ancient but poor. 
 Young Blucher enlisted in a regiment of Swedish 
 hussars at the age of fifteen, but soon afterwards 
 he entered the army of Prussia, the country which 
 
 87 
 
BLU 
 
 he was destined to serve so ably. He was present 
 in some of the battles of the seven years' war ; and 
 acquired a high reputation as a daring and. resolute 
 soldier, though his coarse and violent temper 
 brought him "into frequent difficulties, and im- 
 peded the rate of his promotion. He retired from 
 the service in 1770, in anger at a supposed slight, 
 but returned to it again in 1786, and when the 
 wars of the French revolution commenced, Blucher 
 was colonel of a regiment of Black Hussars. He 
 commanded the left wing of the duke of Bruns- 
 wick's army in 1783, with great credit for skill as 
 well as courage ; and. in 1806, in the second war 
 between France and Prussia, he was commander 
 of the Prussian cavalry. After the disasters of Jena 
 and Auerstndt, Blucher signalized himself by the 
 ability of his retreat, and "by his desperate resist- 
 ance before he capitulated to his pursuers. From 
 1806 to 1813 Blucher lived in retirement, watch- 
 ing eagerly for Prussia's opportunity for rising 
 against her French oppressors. This came after 
 Napoleon's Eussian campaign of 1812. Blucher 
 was now seventy years old, but his spirit was as 
 fiery as ever, and there was no general in the war 
 of German liberation whom his countrymen fol- 
 lowed with more enthusiasm, or who did more for 
 the rescue of the fatherland. He commanded an 
 army formed partly of Prussians and partly of 
 Russians, which was called the army of Silesia. 
 On August 26, 1812, he routed and nearly de- 
 stroyed the French army under Marshal Mac- 
 donald, at the Katzbach, a victory that redeemed 
 the reverses of Lutzen and Bautzen. Blucher 
 was by Napoleon's own confession, the keenest, 
 the most indomitable, and the most formidable 
 of the foes, who now drove the French back 
 across the Rhine. No reverses disheartened 
 him, no difficulties appalled him; and it was 
 only when held back by the more cautious policy 
 of other chiefs of the allies, that the veteran 
 was ever heard to express displeasure or anxiety 
 about the progress of the war. In 1814, when 
 the allies entered France, Blucher was again the 
 first and the fiercest among Napoleon's assail- 
 ants. He had the advantage over him at Brienne ; 
 he was surprised and severely punished by the 
 emperor at Montereau ; but he was soon pressing 
 forwards again upon Paris, fought desperately at 
 Craon, was victorious at Laon, and finally joined 
 in the attack upon Paris on the 30th March, 
 1814, which caused the surrender of the French 
 capital, and the end of the war. When Napoleon 
 returned from Elba in 1815, Blucher commanded 
 the Prussian army in Belgium, which in conjunc- 
 tion with the British army under Wellington, 
 fought the campaign of Waterloo. Blucher's army 
 was the first that the French emperor attacked ; 
 on the 16th of June the obstinate oattle of Ligny 
 took place, in which, as Blucher himself re- 
 marked, the Prussians lost the day, but not their 
 honour. Though forced to retreat in consequence 
 of this defeat, Blucher had his army rallied and 
 ready for action again before twenty-four hours 
 were over; and on the 18th he marched accord- 
 ing to promise to aid Wellington at Waterloo. 
 Blucher came on the field in force towards the 
 evening of that ever-memorable day. He led his 
 columns on Napoleon's right flank and rear, with 
 the intention ot not only succouring the English, 
 
 BLU 
 
 but of utterly crushing the French. His success 
 is well known. Often repulsed, and at last fiercely 
 charged in front by the duke's army, the French 
 were unable to hold back Blucher on their right, 
 and were swept from the field in irretrievable ruin. 
 After that decisive battle Blucher advanced into 
 France in conjunction with the duke, and a second 
 time was present at the surrender of Paris. Blu- 
 cher's fierce animosity against the French made 
 him wish to storm their capital, and he expressed 
 a purpose of shooting Napoleon himself on the 
 verv spot, in the ditch at Vincennes, where the 
 Duke D'Enghien had been murdered. He yielded, 
 however, though sullenly and reluctantly, to the 
 sage advice of his English colleague. Blucher 
 died in extreme old age at Kricblowitz, in Silesia, 
 September 12, 1819. He was almost idolized by 
 the Prussian nation, who justly looked on him as 
 the saviour of the country. Blucher knew little of 
 strategy, but he had the good sense to be aware 
 of his own deficiency, and to follow in military 
 plans and manoeuvres the able advices of General 
 Gneisenau, to whom he always frankly expressed 
 his obligation. Old 'Marshal Forwards' (as the 
 soldiers loved to call Blucher) exercised an animat- 
 ing influence over his men, which was invaluable, 
 amid the general prostration of spirit which the 
 successes of the French before 1812 had created ; 
 and except our own Wellington, no man did more 
 than Blucher towards the liberation of Europe from 
 Buonaparte's military oppression. [E.S.C.] 
 
 BLUM, J. Chr., a German lyric, 1739-1790. 
 
 BLUM, Robert, one of those active spirits 
 raised to eminence by the revolutionary events of 
 1848. He had spent his early life in so much ob- 
 scurity that little is known of him. He is s&id to 
 have been born at Cologne in 1807, to have been a 
 working jeweller travelling about after the man- 
 ner of the young German handicraftsmen, and to 
 have settled in Cologne in 1830, as box opener of 
 the theatre. Afterwards he excited attention 
 among the friends of advancement in Germany by 
 his contributions to the press, and especially by 
 his exposures of the ultramontane religious party 
 in the affair of the holy coat of Treves. When 
 the parliament of Frankfurt was embodied in 1848, 
 he represented Cologne, and became distinguished 
 as the leader of the extreme revolution party. He 
 had a rapid denunciatory eloquence, whence he 
 was called the German O'Connell. He mixed him- 
 self up with the revolutionary movements at 
 Vienna, and on their suppression was condemned 
 by a court-martial to be shot on the 9th of Novem- 
 ber, 1848. The act was significant, as the begin- 
 ning of the stern measures pursued by Austria 
 against the liberal party in Germany. 
 
 BLUMAUER, L., a Ger. sat. poet, 1755-1798. 
 
 BLUMBERG, C. G., an Orien. schol.,1664-1735. 
 
 BLUMENBACH, Jean Frederic, a cele- 
 brated comparative anatomist, physiologist, and 
 naturalist, was born at Gotha in 1752. He died 
 at Gottingen in 1840. Whilst still a child the 
 young Blumenbach exhibited a strong inclination 
 for those pursuits which in after years rendered 
 him so distinguished. He studied first at the uni- 
 versity of Jena, then at Gottingen. At this latter 
 place he succeeded in persuading the university to 
 
 Eurchase a large collection of objects of natural 
 istory, philology, and ethnology, belonging to one 
 
BLU 
 
 of the professors. He was appointed curator of 
 this museum, which he soon rendered famous by 
 the extensive additions he made to it. Shortly 
 afterwards he was elected professor of medicine in 
 the university ; an appointment which he held for 
 sixty years. During all this time he devoted himself 
 with uninterrupted assiduity to the study of com- 
 parative anatomy, physiology, and natural history, 
 especially his grand study, the natural history of 
 man. He was the first to establish the division of 
 the human race into five varieties, the Caucasian, 
 Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. But 
 the grand idea predominant in Blumenbach's mind, 
 was the subject of the unity of the human species. 
 To establish this he proved from anatomy and 
 physiology that a wide interval, without connec- 
 tion, without transition, separates man from every 
 other species of animal. He shows that not only 
 no species of animal approaches him, no genus 
 does, no family even. The human species is one, 
 and one alone. His numerous works upon this 
 subject, upon natural history, physiology, and 
 comparative anatomy, have obtained for Blumen- 
 bach a world-wide reputation. He held highly re- 
 sponsible offices connected with his university and 
 the town in which he lived. He maintained a cor- 
 respondence with the most eminent philosophers 
 of all countries ; received all scientific persons who 
 visited Gottingen, and was justly esteemed the 
 patriarch of the university. The town of Gottin- 
 gen owed most of its prosperity to him. Seventy- 
 eight learned societies reckoned him amongst their 
 members. Medals were struck in his honour. 
 Each anniversary of his professorship was cele- 
 brated by fetes, and prizes were established in his 
 name. Beloved by his pupils and townsmen, re- 
 vered by his country, he closed a calm and peace- 
 ful life at the advanced age of eighty-eight. [ W.B.] 
 
 BLUTEAU, D. R., a lexicographer, d. 1734. 
 
 BOABDIL, last Moorish k. of Granada, 1491. 
 
 BOADICEA, the celebr. British heroine, queen 
 of the Iceni, vanquished and died by poison, 61. 
 
 BOBROF, Simon S., a Russian poet, d. 1810. 
 
 BOCTHOR, Ellious, an Arab, schol., d. 1821. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, is illustrious as one 
 of the three founders of the literature which arose, 
 in the Italian language, in the course of the four- 
 teenth century. Dante's extraordinary poem led 
 the way; Boccaccio and Petrarch were the re- 
 storers of Greek learning to Italy, and thus the 
 prompters of a new literary spirit ; and, while the 
 latter of the two elaborated the beautiful language of 
 Tuscany in its metrical shape, the former was the 
 earliest writer of symmetrical and polished Italian 
 prose. Boccaccio was the natural son of a Floren- 
 tine merchant and a Frenchwoman. He was born 
 either at Florence or at Paris in 1313, was edu- 
 cated at Florence till his tenth year, and was then 
 for six years the apprentice of a merchant at Paris. 
 But his inclination, always averse to commerce, 
 and not less so to law, soon led him, in spite of 
 his father's wish, to devote himself wholly to liter- 
 ary pursuits. His authorship began at Naples, 
 when he was not far from his thirtieth year. His 
 first noted production was the ' Filocopo,' an in- 
 different prose romance, in which he celebrated, un- 
 der fictitious names, his attachment to a natural 
 daughter >f king Robert. Much more meritorious 
 wus the " Teseide,' a poem in the Italian ' Ottava 
 
 BOO 
 
 rima,' of which measure Boccaccio is commonly 
 believed to have been the inventor. In costume 
 this work is a chivalrous romance, Theseus and 
 the sons of CEdipus being invested with feudal man- 
 ners and characters, and made the heroes of adven- 
 tures wearing a romantic, not a classical air_; but in 
 regularity of design and purity of language, it was a 
 mighty step beyond the rude effusions of the medi- 
 aeval minstrelsy. It has interest for us, as having 
 probably prompted the ' Knight's Tale ' of Chaucer ; 
 while the story was also used by our poet Lidgate, 
 and in a fine drama with which Shakspeare has been 
 supposed to have had some concern. At Naples, 
 likewise, about 1350, and on the suggestion (it is 
 said) of Queen Joanna, was composed ' The De- 
 cameron,' the work on which Boccaccio's celebrity 
 is most securely founded. There was to be found 
 already, among the literary stores of the earlier 
 middle ages, a vast stock of invented stories, which 
 had arisen in northern France sooner than in any 
 other European country, but had lately begun to 
 be related in the Italian tongue. From those 
 older sources, especially the French familiar tales 
 called 'Fabliaux,' Boccaccio borrowed freely. 
 The same section of the popular literature sug- 
 gested to him the idea of connecting a number of 
 separate stories by one leading thread. He repre- 
 sents a party of gay ladies and gentlemen as re- 
 tiring from Florence to a villa in the neighbouring 
 hamlet of Fiesole, during the plague of 1348, and 
 as amusing their leisure by the recital of the stories 
 which make up the greater part of the book. It 
 derives its name from the ten days during which 
 the diversion lasted ; and, ten tales being told each 
 day, the number in all is a hundred. In point of 
 style, the ' Decameron ' is admittedly one of the 
 masterpieces of the language in which it is writ- 
 ten ; it is admirable also for its grace and liveliness 
 in narration. These qualities are, in many of the 
 tales, debased by a lamentable grossness ; but some 
 others, such as the ' Griselda,' are not only 
 morally fine and elevated, but seriously and pathe- 
 tically interesting. The story of ' Giletta of Nar- 
 bonne ' was, indirectly, the original of ' All's Well 
 that Ends Well ;' and other pieces of the collection 
 were imitated by Chaucer and by Dryden. Not 
 long after the composition of the ' Decameron,' 
 Boccaccio came into possession of a considerable 
 patrimony ; and thenceforth his favourite occupa- 
 tions were the study of the Greek tongue and its 
 literature, (then hardly known at all in Western 
 Europe,) and the collection of manuscripts of the 
 classical authors. Residing chiefly at Florence, 
 he was employed on several public missions, which 
 gave him opportunities for prosecuting those re- 
 searches ; and one of these made him acquainted 
 with Petrarch, who was ever afterwards one of his 
 dearest friends. About his forty-eighth year the 
 exhortations of a Carthusian monk, strengthened 
 by an alleged supernatural vision, inspired him 
 with thoughts so serious, that he meditated retir- 
 ing into a convent. The remonstrances of Pet- 
 rarch diverted him from this step; but the im- 
 pression which had been made produced a benefi- 
 cial amendment in his views and conduct, and awoke 
 much sorrow both for the excesses of his earlier 
 life and for the licentiousness of the 'Decameron.' 
 To those later years belong chiefly his works in 
 Latin prose, which, though they were valuable as 
 
 69 
 
BOC 
 
 aids in the infancy of classical studies, arc BOW 
 curious only as monuments of the past. Seme 
 of his smaller Italian compositions likewise are un- 
 important His last undertaking was the deliver- 
 ing of public comments on the great poem of 
 Dante, in a leetureship to whieh he was appointed 
 by the Florentine magistracy. The zeal with 
 which he prepared himself for tins task was said 
 to have hastened the decay of his health. He 
 died in Tuscany in 1375. ' [W.S.] 
 
 BOCCAGE, M. A. Le P., a poetess, 1710-1802. 
 
 BOCCALINI, T., an Ital. satirist, 1556-1613. 
 
 BOCCHERINI, Lutgi, a musician, 1740-1805. 
 
 BOCCHI, Achilles, a patron of litera., 16th c. 
 
 BOCCHORIS, an ancient king of Egypt. 
 
 BOCCHUS, k. of Numidia, vanquished 103 b.c. 
 
 BOCCOLD, John, commonly called John of 
 Leyden, the chief of a revolt in the 16th cent. 
 
 BOCCUCI, Joseph, a Sp. comedian, last cent. 
 
 BOCH, John, a Latin poet, 1555-1609. 
 
 BOCHART, Samuel, a protestant divine, eel. 
 as a biblical wr. and Oriental scholar, 1599-1667. 
 
 BOCK, a German botanist, 1498-1554. 
 
 BODARD DE TEZAZ, a French poet, last c. 
 
 BODE, Chr. Aug., a Ger. linguist, 1723-1796. 
 
 BODE, J. Ehlert, a Germ, astron., 1747-1826. 
 
 BODE, J. J. C, a bookseller and trans., d. 1793. 
 
 BODENSTEIN, the tutor of Luther, 1480-1541. 
 
 BODIN, John, a wr. on jurisprud., 1530-1596. 
 
 BODLEY, Sir T., a diplom. and man of letters, 
 founder of the Bodk-ian library, 1544-1612. 
 
 BODMER, J. Jac, a German poet, 1695-1783. 
 
 BODSON, Joseph, a French revolutionist who 
 had the care of the royal family at the Temple. 
 
 BOECE, an Italian philosopher, 470-525. 
 
 BOECE, Hector, a Scotch histor., 1465-1536. 
 
 BOECLER, J. H., a Swed. historian, 1611-1692. 
 
 BOEHM, And., a disciple of Wolff, 1720-1790. 
 
 BOEHM, W. A., a German divine, 1673-1732. 
 
 BOEHM, or BCEHMEN, Jacob, surnamed 
 'Teutonicus,' was born at Old Seidenburgh, a 
 short distance from Gorlitz in Upper Lusatia, 1575. 
 His parents being poor, he was employed in tend- 
 ing cattle from a very early age, and afterwards ap- 
 prenticed to a shoemaker, a business which he con- 
 tinued to follow after his marriage in 1594. He 
 had the good fortune, for one in his station at that 
 period, to learn reading and writing at the village 
 school, and this was all the education he received, 
 the terms from the dead languages introduced into 
 his writings, and what knowledge he had of alchy- 
 my or the other sciences, being acquired in his own 
 rude way subsequently; chiefly, perhaps, from con- 
 versation with men of learning, or a little reading 
 in the works of Paracelsus and Fludd. Whilst 
 he was a herd boy, as the legend runs, he once re- 
 tired to a little stony crag, known as the Land's 
 Crown, and there discovered an opening through 
 which he penetrated into a rocky enclosure, where 
 he saw a great wooden vessel full of money, but 
 was too much alarmed to take any of it, and when 
 he returned with his companions they sought often 
 and with much diligence, but never found the en- 
 trance again. This circumstance made a deep 
 impression on Boehmen, the rather as a stranger 
 arrived there some years later, who was skilled in 
 the finding out such magic treasures, and taking 
 it away, did indeed enrich himself, but perished by 
 an infamous death, the treasure, it is said, having 
 
 BOE 
 
 laid there under a curse to him who should ever 
 become possessed of it. Another legend, whieh 
 relates that a stranger, of a severe but friendly 
 countenance, came to his master's shop while he 
 was yet an apprentiee, and warned him of the 
 great work to whieh God should appoint him, ex- 
 hibits the singular faith of Bahmen in the Divine 
 guidance; and the religious habits in which he 
 was thus encouraged soon rendered him as con- 
 spicuous among his profane fellow-townsmen, as 
 his humility and love of peace among the arrogant 
 clergy, by whom he was afterwards persecuted. 
 His study of the Sacred Scriptures had been con- 
 stant ana profound, but more especially, if we may 
 judge from the spirit of his theological system, of 
 the Apocalypse and the writings of Paul. His letters 
 manifest the deep earnestness of his convictions, 
 and the sincerity with which he represented him- 
 self as the subject of Divine inspiration. 'Art,' 
 he says, ' hath not written here, neither was there 
 any time to consider how to set it punctually down 
 according to the right understanding of the words, 
 but all was ordered according to the direction of the 
 Spirit, which often went in haste ; so that in many 
 words letters may be wanting, and in some places 
 a capital letter for a word; for the penman's hand, 
 by reason he was not accustomed to it, did often 
 shake; and though I could have written in a 
 more accurate, fair, and plain manner, yet the 
 reason was this, that the burning fire did often 
 force forward with speed, and the hand and pen 
 must hasten directly after it, for it cometh and 
 goeth as a sudden shower.' ' I, indeed,' he con- 
 tinues, 'can write nothing of myself, but as a 
 child which neither knoweth nor understandeth 
 anything, which neither hath ever been taught, 
 but only that which the Lord vouchsafeth to know 
 in me.' The genuineness of his humility, often ex- 
 pressed in this or similar language by Jacob Boeh- 
 men, and the simplicity of his faith^cannot be doubted 
 bv those who have examined his works, any more 
 than the fine religious thoughts, and the depth of 
 mystic wisdom contained in them. The first of 
 these was called the ' Aurora,' or ' Morning Red- 
 ness,' and was written after he had been for seven 
 days together, as he expresses it, ' environed with 
 the Divine light ;' so that he discerned all things 
 in their inward essences, as explained subsequently 
 in his ' Signatura Rerum,' or corresponding forms 
 of things. Experiences of this kind, indeed, 
 were repeated over a period of twelve years, before 
 he was driven to embody his apprehensions in ex- 
 ternal writing, and w r hen he did so, his MS. was 
 handed about among those who chose to borrow it, 
 until the clergy and the towm council interfered, and 
 finally, not only proscribed his writings and pro- 
 phecies, but poor Bcehmen himself, who was con- 
 strained to depart for Dresden; a catastrophe 
 which will be better understood when it is known 
 that many passages in his writings are as red 
 thunderbolts launched against oppression and 
 sham religion. The space to which we are limited 
 renders it impossible to give even an outline of his 
 system, but we may observe generally, that it con- 
 tains the first principles of Oriental metaphysics, as 
 delivered by the ancient sages, and contained in 
 the fragments of their philosophy, and that its 
 brilliant lights and definite outlines only fade 
 away into vacuity, where they ought to be brought 
 
 90 
 
BOE 
 
 down into the physical nature of things. This 
 defect prevented him from acquiring the world- 
 wide fame of Newton, who applied the principles 
 demonstrably contained in the writings of Jacob 
 Boehmen to the planetary system ; and the same 
 deficiency has ever prevented the poor unin- 
 structed seer of Gorlitz from ranking with the 
 philosophers, or indeed with the no-philosophers 
 of whom anything intelligible can be reported, 
 down to the present time. The key to all his 
 works, perhaps, is contained in the right under- 
 standing of the seven universal properties, three of 
 which are hidden under fire and three manifested ; 
 the fire, or Spirit, being as the magnetic blaze 
 which brings the first three into the last ; next to 
 which may be the study of fire in ten forms, be- 
 ginning with the eternal liberty, or silent tranquil- 
 lity of God without nature; and after this the 
 three principles darkness, light, and generation. 
 The greatest master of Boehmen's philosophy was 
 a German named Frere, some of whose manu- 
 scripts are in the British Museum, and through 
 whom and his acquaintance with the family of Dr. 
 Francis Lee, William Law derived his knowledge, 
 as well as the diagrams by which the principles are 
 in some measure illustrated. As an apostle of reli- 
 gion he has had followers in all parts of Europe, 
 but as he never sought to establish a sect in his 
 lifetime so all efforts of this kind have failed since, 
 and we must look for the real proceeds of his in- 
 fluence in such movements as those of Primitive 
 Wesleyanisin and the Moravian Brethren ; add to 
 which the most intelligent of the later mystics, 
 followers of Law and Boehmen, accepted the 
 revelations of Swedenborg. Boehmen died happily 
 on Sunday, November 18, 1624. Early in the 
 morning he called his son and asked him if he 
 heard that excellent music, and on his replying 
 in the negative, directed him to open the door 
 that he might hear it the better. Asking after- 
 wards what the clock had struck, he was told 
 'two,' upon which he remarked that his time was 
 yet ' three hours hence.' When it was near six he 
 took leave of his wife and son, blessed them, and 
 said, 'Now I go hence into paradise!' He then 
 bade his son turn him, and with a deep peaceful 
 sigh, his spirit departed. [E.R.] 
 
 'BOEHME, J. E., a Ger. historian, 1717-1780. 
 
 BOEHMER, G. R., a eel. botanist, 1723-1803. 
 
 BOERHAAVE, Herman, physician, the pupil of 
 Pitcairn. He was the son of the parish clergyman, 
 andb. 1668, at Vorhout,near Leyden, d. 1738. Boer- 
 haave presents a striking example of the successful 
 results of the proper exercise of talent, integrity, and 
 industry. Without friends, and left an orphan when 
 a boy, he became one of the most popular physi- 
 cians and teachers in Europe, and by the soundness 
 of his views, and good sense, contributed to elevate 
 the profession to which he belonged from the 
 degraded and empirical condition in which it was 
 previously involved. Living at a time when all 
 natural studies together did not embrace so much 
 as one science in the present day, it is not to be 
 expected that any of his labours should now sur- 
 vive. But learned in the knowledge of the 
 medicine, chemistry, and botany of his time, he 
 must be viewed as one of the dispcllers of mysti- 
 cism, and founders of a great fabric which the 
 revolutions of centuries cannot even perfect, while 
 
 BOH 
 
 to his successors must be left the duty of recog- 
 nizing the efforts of such true creators of science. 
 His works were the ' Institutions of Medicine,' 
 ' Diagnostic and Curative Aphorisms,' a ' System of 
 Chemistry,' and a small work on Materia Medica. 
 His memory is still ardently cherished in the uni- 
 versity of Leyden, and in the Botanic Garden, where 
 some relics of the great physician are still extant ; 
 while a portrait of him adorns one of the halls. 
 Boerhaave was a successful practitioner, as he is 
 said to have left upwards of 200,000. [R-D.T.l 
 BOESCHENSTEIN, J., a Heb. gram., 15th ct. 
 BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquattjs 
 Severinus, was born at Rome of a rich and noble 
 family about 470. The first eighteen years of the 
 orphan were spent in diligent study at Athens, and 
 he returned to Rome a young man of unequalled 
 intellectual accomplishment. Soon after he en- 
 tered the senate as a member of the patrician 
 order, and under Theodoric, king of the Goths, 
 obtained high preferment. Boethius had been 
 consul in 487 under Odoacer, king of the Heruli, 
 and in the eighteenth year of Theodoric he was 
 elevated a second time to the same dignity. His 
 domestic life was one of undisturbed felicity, and 
 his prosperity had also been crowned by seeing 
 his two sons advanced to consular rank. But a 
 sudden and fatal reverse overtook him, and after 
 more than twenty years of faithful service, he was, 
 during the period, of his third consulship, accused 
 of treasonable correspondence, condemned and 
 banished to Pavia, where after more than a year's 
 imprisonment, he was by royal mandate beheaded 
 in prison, October 23, 526. It is said to have been 
 a vindication of the doctrine of the Trinity, that 
 stirred the Arian prejudices of Theodoric and his 
 courtiers against the orthodox philosopher and 
 patriotic statesman. His most famous work, ' De 
 Consolatione Philosophise,' was composed during 
 his last year's confinement at Pavia. It has both 
 prosaic and poetical chapters, and dialogues in its 
 five books ; and philosophy personified adduces 
 comfort to the prisoner, not from Scripture, but 
 from Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. His other works 
 are numerous, and on a vast variety of subjects. 
 He translated Plato and Euclid, his special favour- 
 ites, commented on Aristotle, Cicero, and Por- 
 phyry, published versions of Ptolemy and Archi- 
 medes, and wrote on music, rhetoric, mathe- 
 matics, metaphysics, and theology. It is hard to 
 say whether Boethius was a Christian at all in 
 the proper sense of the term. His pure theism, 
 his ideas of prayer, and his trust in a Divine Pro- 
 vidence, appear to have been borrowed from those 
 opinions with which Christianity was leavening 
 indirectly so many classes of society, who did 
 not formally enter the communion of the church. 
 His works were published with notes at Basle, 
 folio, 1570. [J.E.] 
 
 BOETTCHER, J. Fr., a Ger. alchym., d. 1719. 
 
 BOGDANOVITSCH, H. Theod., a miscella- 
 neous wr. and poet of Russia, ed. of the Peter sbur<ih 
 Courier, employ, officially by Catherine, 1743-1803. 
 
 BOGORIS, a king of Bulgaria, converted 841. 
 
 BOGUD, a king of Mauritania, 1st c. B.C. 
 
 BOGUE, David, a eel. dissenter, 1749-1825. 
 
 BOGUPHALUS, a Polish chronicler, d. 1253. 
 
 BOGUSLAWSKI, a Polish dramat., 1752-1829. 
 
 BOHEMOND, prince of Antioch, died 1111. 
 
 91 
 
BOII 
 
 BOIIN, JOHN, a German physician, 1640-1719. 
 
 BOHUN, Ed.yt., a political \vr., 17th century. 
 
 BOICHOT, Jean, a Fr. sculptor, 1738-1814. 
 
 BOIELDIEU, Adrian, a composer, 1775-1834. 
 
 BOIGNE, B. L., Count De, an adventurer in the 
 military service of the Mahrattas, died 1830. 
 
 BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicolas, born in 
 1636, was the son of an officer of the parliament 
 of Paris, and belonged by descent and connections 
 to a family of lawyers. While his two elder bro- 
 thers were precocious in youth, Nicolas was slow 
 ns well as sickly ; and he, the future satirist, was 
 described by his father as a good-natured boy, who 
 would never speak ill of any one. He was a dili- 
 gent student, but showed little either of invention 
 or of ambition ; although, mistaking his vocation 
 as others then mistook it, he wrote a boyish 
 tragedy. At the age of twenty-one he was ad- 
 mitted as an advocate; but his neglect and dis- 
 like of professional pursuits scandalized his rela- 
 tions. He was allowed for a time to contemplate 
 the clerical profession, and held for some years a 
 sinecure benefice; which, however, on determin- 
 ing not to take orders, he resigned, refunding also 
 all the profits. He now betook himself wholly to 
 letters ; and, beginning in 1666 his series of Satires 
 in verse, which at length amounted to twelve, he 
 was at once hailed as a valuable contributor to a 
 literature, in which Corneille, though in the full 
 career of his genius, was as yet appreciated but by 
 few, while Moliere was only beginning to write. 
 French versification, and French style, alike took a 
 new and finer shape in his hands. The didactic 
 kind of poetry to which he had devoted himself, 
 was cultivated with a success still more brilliant 
 in his series of Epistles. Even now, if his French 
 admirers hesitate in asserting that the Satires 
 come up to the nice perfection of their Horatian 
 models, they extol the Epistles as decidedly superior 
 to those of Horace. Boileau seemed to have deter- 
 mined on furnishing materials for completing the 
 parallel. Besides a few odes and other small 
 pieces, which are confessedly poor, he again mea- 
 sured lances with the Roman poet, by publishing 
 in 1673 his 'Art Poetique,' a poem in four cantos. 
 In the course of that year appeared the first four 
 cantos (increased afterwards by two indifferent 
 ones) of 'Le Lutrin,' a mock-heroic poem. It 
 celebrates a contest as to the placing of a pulpit, 
 which broke out among the canons of the Chapel 
 of Saint Louis, attached to the Palais de Justice. 
 He was now high in favour at court, and re- 
 ceived, with Racine, a joint appointment as his- 
 toriographer of Louis XIV. He had, long since, 
 been universally acknowledged by the public voice 
 as one of the most distinguished among those 
 men of genius whose writings adorned the Au- 
 gustan age of France. He lived in cordial inti- 
 macy with most of those literarv men who be- 
 longed to the first rank, such as Racine, Moliere, 
 and La Fontaine ; and he was really both a pru- 
 dent and modest man, and a kindly one, and even 
 exhibited frequently an honourable liberality and 
 generosity. But he had been, and was, merciless 
 to the smaller citizens of the republic of letters ; 
 and many enemies were necessarily made by a 
 man who often, by one epigrammatic couplet, was 
 able to destroy the reputation and the livelihood 
 of a poor dramatist or romance -writer. Accord- 
 
 BOL 
 
 ingly Boileau was not received into the Academy 
 till 1684 ; and then only in obedience to a significant 
 hint from the throne. The later years of his life 
 were embittered by much sickness and infirmity ; 
 and he died of dropsy in 1711, bequeathing almost 
 all his property to the poor. The principal works 
 of Boileau have already been named. They place him 
 as one of the members of a literary triumvirate, to 
 which belong, with him, Horace and Pope. While 
 none of the three is a poet of the highest class, the' 
 distinctive elements of poetry are very much more 
 scanty in the French critic and versifier than in 
 either of the others. Pope owed much to him, 
 receiving many hints, and not infrequently trans- 
 lating from him literally ; and in the art of terse 
 and striking expression, our countryman, success- 
 ful as he is, can scarcely be pronounced equal to 
 his model. Pope's juvenile 'Essay on Criticism' 
 is by no means so masterly as the 'Art Poetique;' 
 but ' The Rape of the Lock,' if it wants that air 
 of comic verisimilitude, which is so striking in 
 the ' Lutrin,' rises far above it through its super- 
 natural and other imaginative ornaments, to which 
 nothing similar is presented by the French poet, 
 or could have been invented by his timid and 
 sluggish fancy. [W.S.] 
 
 BOILEAU, Giles, a classical wr., 1631-1669. 
 
 BOILEAU, Jas., an eccles. writer, 1635-1716. 
 
 BOILEAU, John J., aFr. moralist, 1649-1735. 
 
 BOINVILLE, A. De, a Frenchman of noble 
 family, who joined the republican party, and was 
 aid-de-camp to Lafayette, 1770-1812. 
 
 BOISFREMONT, C. De, a Fr. painter, d. 1838. 
 
 BOISROBERT, Fr. Le Metel De, a wit and 
 poet, one of the fndrs. of the Fr. Acad., 1592-1662. 
 
 BOISSARD, J. J., poet and antiq., 1528-1602. 
 
 BOISSAT, P. De, a miscel. writer, 1603-1662. 
 
 BOISSY, L. De, a dramatic writer, 1694-1658. 
 
 BOISSY D'ANGLAS, Fr. Anth., eel. as a 
 member of the French convention, and after the 
 fall of Robespierre of the Comite de Salut Public, 
 and the council of 500 ; and when the government 
 of Buonaparte was established, of the French 
 senate. He has the reputation of being a sincere 
 lover of liberty, though somewhat of a changeling, 
 and has left behind him a great number of works, 
 chiefly political, which have been published to- 
 gether, under the title of ' D'Etudes d un Vieillard,' 
 (experiences of an old man,) 1756-1826. [E.R.] 
 
 BOL, Ferdinand, a Dutch painter, 1611-1681. 
 
 BOLD, Sam., a controversial divine, died 1737. 
 
 BOLDONIC, C, an Italian author, last cent. 
 
 BOLESLAUS I., king of Poland, 999-1025. 
 
 BOLESLAUS II., succeed. 1058, d. about 1083. 
 
 BOLESLAUS III., b. 1085, sue. 1102, d. 1139. 
 
 BOLESLAUS IV., sue. his br. 1146, d. 1159. 
 
 BOLESLAUS V., b. 1219, sue. 1227, d. 1279. 
 
 BOLEYN, Anne, q. of Henry VIII., 1507-1536. 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Lord, 
 an orator, statesman, and philosophical essayist, 
 was born at his father's seat at Battersea, on 1st 
 October, 1678. His family was divided between 
 the two great contending parties of the seventeenth 
 century, and it so happened that the high Tory 
 statesman and sceptical philosopher was educated 
 by a presbyterian grandmother, under the influ- 
 ence of Daniel Burgess, the dissenting divine. 
 Little is known of his early education. In 1700 he 
 married Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winch- 
 
 92 
 
BOL 
 
 comb, but there was little happiness in the match, or 
 cordiality between them, for young St. John's 
 habits called for more than the average amount of 
 marital liberality. He made himself renowned for 
 the extent of his dissipation in a very dissipated 
 age. Entering parliament in 1701, he began his 
 political career. His model was Alcibiades, and 
 he was ambitious of showing that the pursuit of 
 pleasure and of political ambition might be united 
 m the character of one possessed of his brilliant 
 attainments. In an age when statesmen were 
 liable to little responsibility, he in a great measure 
 succeeded. With his friend Harley he joined the 
 ranks of the Whigs, and changing with him be- 
 came his colleague in the celebrated Tory ministry, 
 which in 1710 owed its existence to the triumph 
 of Abigail Hill over the duchess of Marlborough. 
 His bold unscrupulous temper made him the rul- 
 ing spirit in a government now condemned by all 
 parties for its recklessness. Ere its extinction, 
 however, by the death of Queen Anne, a rivalry 
 between St. John and Harley had ripened to a 
 deadly animosity and struggle for ascendancy. In 
 1712 St. John was raised "to the peerage as Vis- 
 count Bolingbroke. It is remarkable that none of 
 the speeches delivered by him in either House have 
 been preserved. Their absence makes a gap in 
 our senatorial oratory. They are reputed to have 
 been very brilliant, and his published works have a 
 full sententiousness much better adapted to ora- 
 tory than to literature. There has always been a 
 great question whether Bolingbroke was one of 
 those who were plotting for the restoration of the 
 exiled house on the death of Queen Anne, and the 
 light which has been thrown on the mystery in 
 later times, leaves little doubt of his guilt. He 
 immediately felt, along with his colleagues, that he 
 must count on the hostility of the new government. 
 For some time he seemed to court and brave in- 
 vestigation, but on the 25th of March, 1715, fol- 
 lowing up well -laid arrangements he escaped 
 secretly to France. He v, as attainted on impeach- 
 ment, and justified the condemnation by entering 
 the service of the Pretender. He was soon dis- 
 gusted with this trifling narrow political arena, and 
 showed extreme anxiety to be reinstated at home. 
 He received permission to return, and by special 
 statute his property was restored, but Walpole 
 would not give so dangerous an enemy the means 
 of attacking him in debate, and his attainder was 
 not reversed so as to restore him to his seat in the 
 Lords. He occupied himself in writing bitter 
 pamphlets and other works against the govern- 
 ment. He had taken for a second wife the Mar- 
 quise de Vilctte, whose social and religious views 
 seem to have been adapted to his taste. He died 
 on 15th December, 1751. His works on mental 
 philosophy, and the foundations of belief, received 
 with a cry of execration, but now little read, were 
 published after his death. [J.H.B.] 
 
 BOLIVAR. Simon Bolivar was born in 
 1783 at Caraceas in Venezuela in South Amercia. 
 He was educated in Europe, and returned to 
 America in 1809 ; holding the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel in the Spanish service. When the revolu- 
 tionary movements commenced, by which the 
 Spanish provinces in America sought to establish 
 their independence, Bolivar took an active part in 
 them, and in 1813 he was at the head of the army 
 
 BON 
 
 which liberated the greater part of Venezuela from 
 the government of Spain He was driven out of 
 Venezuela in the following year by the Spanish 
 troops, but (after one unsuccessful attempt) he 
 forced his way back in 1817, at the head of a force 
 which he had collected at St. Domingo, and re- 
 commenced the war of liberation. In 1821 Vene- 
 zuela and New Granada were freed from Spain, 
 and these two provinces were united into a repub- 
 lic, called Columbia, of which Bolivar was presi- 
 dent. Bolivar next took an active part in aiding 
 in the liberation of Peru, and was made dictator 
 of that country in 1822, an office which he resigned 
 when Peru was completely liberated by the victory 
 of Ayachrcho on 9th December, 1824. The inhabi- 
 tants of Upper Peru formed their country into a 
 separate republic, which they named Bolivia in 
 honour of Bolivar. Bolivar's desire seems to have 
 been to unite all the liberated provinces of South 
 America in one federal republic, but his hitter 
 years were passed amid incessant tumults of fac- 
 tion, and frequent outbreaks of civil war, and he 
 died at last broken in health and spirits on the 
 17th December, 1830. He had previously resigned 
 his presidency of Columbia, and taken leave or the 
 inhabitants of that state in an address, in which 
 he solemnly asserted the purity of his motives 
 throughout his career, and complained bitterly of 
 calumny and ingratitude. Amid the conflicting 
 and obscure accounts of the South American wars 
 of independence, it is difficult to judge correctly on 
 many points as to which the character of Bolivar 
 has been called in question. But his bravery, his 
 energy, and the services which he rendered against 
 the Spaniards are undeniable. Nor should we 
 lightly credit charges of selfish ambition, of cruelty, 
 and perfidy against a man, who unquestionably de- 
 voted his own ample fortune, as well as his time 
 and life, to his country; who more than once 
 voluntarily laid down absolute power; who ab- 
 horred slavery, and set the example of emancipat- 
 ing the numerous slaves on his own estate ; and 
 who entertained the most liberal and enlightened 
 views as a lawgiver, and as an earnest promoter 
 of national education. [E.S.C.] 
 
 BOLLAND, Sir W., a eel. lawyer, 1773-1840. 
 
 BOLLANDUS, J., a Flem. savant, 1596-1665. 
 
 BOLOGNE, J. De, a French sculptor, 17th c. 
 
 BOLSEC, Jek., a controversial wr., d. 1582. 
 
 BOLSWERT, S., a Dutch engraver, d. 1586. 
 
 BOLTIN, Ivan, a Russian hist, critic, 1735-92. 
 
 BOLTON, Edm., an antiquary, 17th century. 
 
 BOLTON, Robt., a religious wr., 1571-1631. 
 
 BOLTON, Robt., dean of Carlisle, d. 1763. 
 
 BOMBELLI, Raphael, an algebraist, 16th c. 
 
 BOMBELLI, Seb., a painter, 1635-1685. 
 
 BOMBERG, Dan., an early printer, d. 1549. 
 
 BOMILC A R, a general and magis. of Carthage. 
 
 BOMILCAR, fav. of Jugurtha, killed 107 B.C. 
 
 BON, L. A., a soldier of the revol., 1770-1799. 
 
 BONA, Cardinal, an Ital. savant, 1609-1674, 
 
 BONA, J. De, an Italian physician, 1712-1786. 
 
 BONAC, Marq. De, a F. statesman, 1672-1738. 
 
 BONALD, L. G. Amb., Viscount De, a dis- 
 ting. Fr. wr. on religion and politics, 1753-1840. 
 
 BONAMY, Aug., J. B., a gallant Fr. general, 
 especially distinguished in the campaign of Russia. 
 
 BONAMY, P. N., a periodical wr.,1694-1770. 
 
 BONANNI, Ph., a Roman historian, d. 1725. 
 
EON 
 
 BONARELLI, G. U., an Ital. poet, 1553-1G08. 
 
 BONASONI, G., an Italian painter, 1498-1564. 
 
 BONASIA, B., an Italian carver, died 1527. 
 
 BONAVENTURE, J. F., a Rom. eccle., d. 1274. 
 
 BONAVENTURE of Padua, a cardinal, noted 
 as a friend of Petrarch, assassinated 1386. 
 
 BONCERF, P. F., a wr. on civil law, 1745-1794. 
 
 BONCHAMP, A. De, a Vendean chief, k. 1793. 
 
 BONCIARIO, M. A., an Ital. au., 1555-1616. 
 
 BOND, J., a physician and classic, 1530-1612. 
 
 BOND, Oliver, an Irish rebel,1720-1798. 
 
 BONDT, N., a Dutch historian, 1732-1792. 
 
 BONE, Hexry, an enameller, 1755-1834. 
 
 BONEFACIO, Ven., an Ital. painter, d. 1630. 
 
 BONER, Ulrich, a German fabulist, 13th ct. 
 
 BONIFACE, one of the greatest captains of the 
 5th cent., count of the Roman empire, slain 432. 
 
 BONIFACE, St., a eel. missionary, killed 754. 
 
 BONIFACE, the first, pope of Rome, 418-422 ; 
 the second, 530-532 ; the third, 606 ; the fourth, 
 <i07-614 ; the fifth, 617-625 ; the sixth, 896 ; the 
 seventh, 974-984; the ninth, 1389-1404. 
 
 BONJOUR, Wm, a Chinese missionary, d. 1714. 
 
 BONNATERE, P. J., a Fr. natural., 1747-1804. 
 
 BONNEFONS, John, a Latin poet, 1554-1614. 
 
 BONNER, Edm., the notorious bishop, d. 1569. 
 
 BONNET, Ch., an em. physiologist, 1720-93. 
 
 BONNEVAL, Cl. Alex., count of, a deserter 
 from Prince Eugene, master of the Turkish ord- 
 nance under the title of Achmet Pacha, died 1747. 
 
 BONNE VILLE, N., a journalist and poet of the 
 French revolution, the friend of Lafayette and 
 Kosciusko, au. of 'Esprit des Religions,' 1760-1828. 
 
 BONNIER, A. E., arepub. diplom., 1750-1799. 
 
 BONNIER D'ARCO, A. S., a Fr. diplo., d. 1797. 
 
 BONNINGTON, R. P., an Eng. artist, 1801-28. 
 
 BONNYCASTLE, J., an Eng. math., d. 1821. 
 
 BONOMI, J. F., legate of Gr. XIII., 1536-1589. 
 
 BONOMI, Joseph, an Ital. architect, d. 1808. 
 
 BONNOR, Honore, a Fr. historian, 14th cent. 
 
 BOOKER, Rev. Luke, LL.D., a Church of 
 Eng. clergyman, and miscellaneous wr., 1762-1835. 
 
 BOONE, Dan., an American advent., d. 1822. 
 
 BOONEN, A., a Dutch painter, 1669-1729. 
 
 BOOS, Martin, a Bavarian divine, 1762-1825. 
 
 BOOTH, Barton, an actor and an., 1681-1733. 
 
 BOOTH, Sir F., disting. for his gift of 20,000 
 to the arctic expedition of Sir John Ross, d. 1850. 
 
 BOOTH, George, a royalist, created baron 
 Delamere at the restoration, died 1684. 
 
 BOOTH, Henry, son of the preceding, created 
 earl of Warrington by William III., died 1694. 
 
 BOR, P. C, a Dutch historian, 1559-1635. 
 
 BORDA, John Ch., a Fr. mathema., 1733-99. 
 
 BORDE, J. B. De La, a miscell. wr., ex. 1794. 
 
 BORDELON, Laur., a misc. wr., 1653-1730. 
 
 BORDEU, Theop. De, a medical au., d. 1776. 
 
 BORELLI, J. A., an Ital. philoso., 1608-1679. 
 
 BORGHESE, the name of a family disting. in 
 Ital. history, one of whom married Maria Pauline 
 Buonaparte, sister of Napoleon, and was made 
 governor of the Transalpine provinces. The Prin- 
 cess Borghese, after sep. from hor husband, d. 1825. 
 
 BORGHESI, Diomed, an Ital. wr., 1540-98. 
 
 BORGHINI, V., an Ital. antiquar., 1515-1580. 
 
 BORGIA, Cjesar, son of Alexander VI., and 
 equally disting. for his wicked ambition, k. 1507. 
 
 BORGIA, Lucrece, daughter of Alexander VI. 
 
 BORGIA, Stepil, an It.' cardinal, 1731-1804. 
 
 BOS 
 
 BORLASE, W., a county historian, 1690-1772. 
 
 BORN, Bertr. De, a troubadour, 12th cent. 
 
 BORN, Baron De, a mineralogist, 1742-1791. 
 
 BORRI, J. F., a religious adventurer, d. 1682. 
 
 BORROMEO, Ch., an Ital. cardinal, disting. 
 by his virtues and literary talents, 1538-1584. 
 
 BORROMEO, F., a bshp. of Milan, 1564-1631. 
 
 BORRONIMI, Fr., an architect, 1599-1677. 
 
 BORY, Gabriel De, an astron., 1728-1801. 
 
 BOS, Lambert, a Greek scholar, 1670-1717. 
 
 BOSE, Gaspard, a German botanist, last cent. 
 
 BOSC, L. Aug. Wm., a naturalist, last cent. 
 
 BOSC, Peter Du, a celeb, preacher, d. 1692. 
 
 BOSCAWEN, Edw., a naval com., 1711-1761. 
 
 BOSCAWFN, W., a classic, schol., 1752-1811. 
 
 BOSCH, Bernard, a Dutch poet, 1746-1830. 
 
 BOSCH, Jerome, a Latin poet, 1740-1811. 
 
 BOSCH, L. A. G., a French naturalist, last c. 
 
 BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, a learned and 
 profound Jesuit ; born at Ragusa in 1711 ; died at 
 Milan in 1787. The writings of Boscovich are 
 numerous and important. His dissertations on 
 ' Vires Vivas,' on ' Light,' and on the ' Solar 
 Spots,' gave their author highest rank amongst 
 the physical philosophers and astronomers of the 
 time. He grasped the great conceptions of New- 
 ton, and did much to hasten the general accep- 
 tance of the theory of gravitation ; but his chief 
 claim on the attention of posterity, rests on the 
 speculations in his 'Theoria Philosophicae Na- 
 turalis' speculations which touch on one side, 
 the afterwards celebrated hypothesis of monads, 
 and seem to point towards a physical scheme of 
 Idealism. According to Boscovich the ultimate 
 elements of matter are atoms, or points indivisible 
 and without extension. Each atom, or point, being 
 surrounded by numerous concentric rings of 
 influence alternately of attraction and repulsion, 
 one atom may exist towards any other in various 
 relations, determined by their distance from each 
 other. For instance, the two atoms may be with- 
 in the sphere of each other's attraction then is 
 the body solid: or the two atoms may be within 
 the sphere of mutual repulsion, then is the body 
 gaseous and elastic; or two atoms may be so- 
 placed that they neither repel nor attract, being 
 on the line of indifference, then is the body 
 liquid. Gravitation, or universal attraction, is, ac- 
 cording to this view, the relation which atoms 
 bear to each other after they have passed beyond 
 the smaller or molecular distances; while the 
 phenomena of physics and chemistry depend upon 
 and arise out of their various and varying relations 
 while they are within these infinitesimal or molecular 
 distances. This singular and probably far from 
 inaccurate conception, destroys the common notion 
 that matter is brute and inert; and represents the 
 phenomena of Nature as the immediate issue of 
 Active Forces ; a view which the progress of mo- 
 dern science unquestionably favours. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BOSQUILLON,E.F.M.,aGr.schol.,1744-1816. 
 
 BOSSCHE, P. V. D., a Dut. savant, 1686-1736. 
 
 BOSSI, C. A., an Italian poet, 1758-1823. 
 
 BOSSU, Rene Le, a philos. critic, 17th cent. 
 
 BOSSUET, James Benigne, a celebrated 
 French divine, was born in 1627, at Dijon, the 
 capital of Burgundy, now in the department of 
 Cote D'Or. Having commenced his education at 
 the college of Jesuits in his native place, he re- 
 
 94 
 

 p. 
 
BOS 
 moved in 1G42 to Paris, where being destined for 
 the clerical profession, he prosecuted the requisite 
 studies at the college of Navarre. He was distin- 
 guished by his attainments in classical and patris- 
 tic lore two branches of knowledge which are 
 deemed of indispensable importance in the Roman 
 Catholic church ; but to these he added also an 
 extensive and familiar acquaintance with the 
 Sacred Writings, the perusal of which, in a stray 
 copy which chanced to fall into his possession, 
 made a deep and indelible impression on his juve- 
 nile mind. At the age of sixteen he began by 
 occasional exhibitions, to evince his extraordinary 
 powers of pulpit eloquence ; and having, on his be- 
 coming duly qualibed for the discharge of the 
 sacred functions, been appointed to the church of 
 Metz, first as canon, and successively as arch- 
 deacon and deacon, he there established his reputa- 
 tion as one of the most eminent preachers in 
 France. An invitation to Paris was ere long the 
 result of his high provincial fame ; and having by 
 his preaching before the court won the favour of 
 Louis XIV., he was intrusted with the superin- 
 tendence of the dauphin's education. It was for 
 the benefit of his royal pupil that he composed his 
 abridged view of ' Universal History,' one of the 
 most admired and valuable of his works. On 
 the completion of the prince's studies, he was re- 
 warded for his zeal and fidelity in the discharge of 
 that responsible duty, by promotion to the see of 
 Meaux, and soon after was appointed a counsellor 
 of state, and almoner to the duchess of Burgundy. 
 That elevated position he adorned by the splen- 
 dour of his talents and the extent of his learning ; 
 nor was he less distinguished by his zeal for the 
 diffusion of religion throughout his diocese, and his 
 energetic defences of the catholic church. In fact, 
 his life was divided between the performance of 
 his proper duties as a bishop, and the composition 
 of his controversial works. The strength and sin- 
 cerity of his religious convictions have never been 
 assailed, any more than his eminent talents and 
 learning have been called in question. .But the 
 violence of his temper, and the cavalier treatment 
 he gave to the amiable Fenelon, have exposed him 
 to severe and merited censure. The latter years 
 of his life were passed in retirement. He was a 
 voluminous author. Amongst the numerous works 
 he left behind him, his 'Funeral Orations' are 
 held in high admiration, although it is to be re- 
 gretted that he often prostituted his great powers of 
 oratory in eulogizing unworthy characters. His 
 efforts in the protestant controversy were met by 
 the energetic opposition of Claude and other 
 divines among the French protestants, as well as 
 of Archbishop Wake in the Church of England. 
 This great genius died at Paris on 12th April, 
 1704, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. [R. J.] 
 
 BOSSUT, C. A., a learned geom., 1730-1814. 
 
 BOSTON, John, a monastic writer, loth cent. 
 
 BOSTON, Thos., a eel. Scotch div., 1676-1732. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, well known as the friend 
 and biographer of Dr. Johnson, 1740-1795. 
 
 BOSWELL, Sir Alex., son of the preceding, 
 and a literary amateur, killed in a duel, 1822. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, a second son, editor of 
 an edition of Malone's Shakspeare, 1779-1822. 
 
 BOTELLO, Don N. A. De, a Portuguese vice- 
 roy of India, killed in action 1629. 
 
 BOU 
 
 BOTH, J. and A., Flemish paint, of the 17th ct. 
 
 BOTHWELL, Jas. Hepburn, earl of, the 
 third husband of Mary Stuart, d. in exile 1577. 
 
 BOTT, John De, a Fr. architect, 1670-1745. 
 
 BOTTARI, an Italian philosopher, 1689-1775. 
 
 BOTZARIS, Marco, a hero of mod. Gr., k. 1823., 
 
 BOUCHARDON, E., a Fr. archit., 1698-1762. 
 
 BOUCHAND, M. A., a Fr. jurist, 1719-1804. 
 
 BOUCHER, Fr., a French painter, 1704-1770. 
 
 BOUCHER, Jonathan, an English divine, 
 author of the ' Cumberland Man.' died 1804. 
 
 BOUCHER, Luke, the murd. of Ferand, 1795. 
 
 BOUCHER, P., a Jansenist writer, 1691-1768. 
 
 BOUCHOTTE, J. B. Noel, a soldier and states- 
 man in 1793, min. of war to the repub., 1754-1840. 
 
 BOUCICAULT, J. Le Maingre, lord of, a 
 French crusader and marshal, 1368-1425. 
 
 BOUDET, J. P., a Fr. chemist, 1748-1828. 
 
 BOUFFLERS, Louis Fr., Due De, disting. as 
 the defen. of Lille ag. Prince Eugene, 1644-1711. 
 
 BOUFFLERS, S., a French emigrant, d. 1815. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE, Louis Antoin De, was 
 born at Paris, 11th November, 1729, and though 
 educated for the profession of law, joined the army 
 at an early age. Soon after his enlistment, he 
 published a treatise on the Integral Calculus ; and 
 during a residence in London as secretary of 
 legation, he was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society. In the war which terminated in 1760 
 with the loss of Canada to the French, Bougain- 
 ville gained great distinction. In 1763-64 he per- 
 formed two voyages to the Falkland isles, where 
 he founded a colony, himself being the first pro- 
 jector, and a large proprietor jointly with the 
 merchants of St. Malo. In 1766 this colony was 
 given up to Spain on payment of 500,000 crowns ; 
 and Bougainville was sent out, 15th November, 
 to make the formal transfer, and with instruc- 
 tions thereafter to complete the circumnavigation 
 of the globe. He had but two ships, the Boudeuse, 
 26 guns, 214 men, and the Etoile, store ship. He 
 safely accomplished the object, visiting many 
 islands in the intertropical Pacific, some of which 
 were till then unknown, but without making any 
 remarkable discovery, and reaching St. Malo on 
 16th March, 1769. He was accompanied by 
 Prince Sieghen of Nassau, and the naturalise 
 Commercon. Bougainville published a pleasing 
 account of his voyage, which was translated by 
 Forster in 1772. He afterwards commanded one 
 of the ships of war, sent to aid the Americans 
 in their great struggle with Britain. He died at 
 the age of eighty-two, 31st August, 1811. [J.B.] 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE, Jean Pierre De, elder 
 brother of the above, was a literary man of some 
 note, and held several important offices in Paris. 
 One of his poems is said to contain the germ of 
 Pope's ' Universal Prayer.' He died in 1763, at 
 the early age of forty-one. [J.B.] 
 
 BOUGEANT, G. H., a Fr. author, 1690-1743. 
 
 BOUHIER, John, a learned wr., 1673-1746. 
 
 BOUILLARD, J., a Fr. engraver, 1744-1806. 
 
 BOUILLE, Francis Claude Amour, Mar- 
 quis De, born 1739, one of the bravest and ablest 
 generals in the interest of the crown at the period 
 of the French revolution ; joined the allies when 
 Louis foolishly allowed himself to be captured at 
 Varennes, and died in London, after writing his 
 curious and valuable memoirs, 1800. 
 
 95 
 
BOU 
 
 BOUILLY, J. N., a diplo. and hist , lfr68-1840. 
 
 BOULAGE, T. P., a Fr. jurisconsult. 1768-1820. 
 
 BOULAINVILLIERS, Henky De, comte de 
 St. Saire, a political writer and hist., 1658-1722. 
 
 BOULANGER, N. A., a Fr. engin., 1722-1759. 
 
 BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, A. C. J., 
 Comte De, distinguished as a moderate republican, 
 and also as a political writer and orator, was horn 
 1761, appointed to the civil tribunal at iSanci, 
 1793, and to the council of 500 in the year 1795. 
 He took an active part in the revolution of the 18th 
 Brumaire, and was remarkable for his fidelity to 
 Napoleon, whom he regarded as the representative 
 of national independence, and of the principles of 
 the revolution. He was proscribed by the Bourbons 
 at the second restoration, and passed some years in 
 exile, when he wrote his ' Tableau Politique des 
 regnes de Charles II. et de Jacques II.,' containing 
 his review of the causes which led to the establish- 
 ment of the English republic in 1649. Buonaparte 
 made honourable mention of him at St. Helena, as 
 a fearless and honest man. The last years of his 
 life were passed tranquilly in the midst of his 
 family. [E.R.] 
 
 BOULLIAU, Ishmael, a French astron. and 
 general scholar, au. of several works, 1605-1694. 
 
 BOULTER, Hugh, abp. of Armagh, d. 1742. 
 
 BOULTON, Matthew, an engineer of disting. 
 fame in connec. with his partner Watt, 1728-1809. 
 
 [Soho Works, near Birmingham.] 
 
 BOULTON, Rich., an English physician, last c. 
 
 BOURBON, the reigning family of France, 
 Spain, and Sicily, the princes of which trace their 
 descent from ' Robert the Strong,' killed 866. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles De Montpensier, Due 
 De, known as constable of France, 1480-1527. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis, cardinal and abp. of Toledo, 
 distinguished in the revolution of 1812, 1777-1823. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis, Hy. Jos., Due De, and 
 
 Srince de Cond, father of the ill-fated due 
 'Enghein, found hung in his bed-chamber, 1830. 
 BOURBOTTE, N., one of those remarkable 
 characters raised to an unenviable notoriety by the 
 French revolution, whose intrepid bearing might be 
 mistaken for heroism, if its fire were not darkened 
 by savage cruelty and ambition without principle. 
 Little is known of his early life, but he was about 
 twenty-seven years of age when deputed to the na- 
 tional convention, 1792. as a member of the Jacobin 
 party. He now signalized himself by voting '.'or 
 
 BOU 
 
 the d^ath of the king 'sans appel et sans snrsis 
 (without appeal and without delay), and afterwan 
 of the unhappy Marie Antoinette. Commissione 
 to La Vendee by the national convention, he gav 
 evident proofs of his military courage and adminis- 
 trative talents, but committed excesses which le 
 to his recall and accusation by the Committee < 
 Public Safety. He had the good fortune to be ac 
 quitted, and was subsequently appointed to tl 
 army of the Rhine, where he again manifested h 
 soldiev-like qualities, tarnished by the same fault; 
 In 1794 he commanded openly in the insurrectio 
 which overthrew the power of Robespierre, and WJ 
 on the high road to the dictatorship when he an 
 his colleagues were crushed by Legendre at tl: 
 head of the sectional forces. Condemned by tl: 
 revolutionary tribunal, he stabbed himself with 
 dagger, but survived to see his fellow-prisonei 
 beheaded, and to undergo the same fate. He n 
 tained his courageous self-possession to the la; 
 moment, and manifested in his dying words tr. 
 unconquerable spirit which animated him. [E.R. 
 BOURCET, P. J. De, a Fr. milit. au., d. 178< 
 BOURCHIER, J., gov. of Calais un. Henry IF 
 BOURCHIER, T., abp. of Canterbury, d. 1481 
 BOURDALOUE, L., a Fr. preacher, 1032-17^ 
 BOURDELOT, John, a classical com., d. 163* 
 BOURDELOT, P. M., anat. andphys., 1610-8; 
 BOURDELOT, P. B.,au. of Annotations, d.l70< 
 BOURDON, Leonard John Joseph, a mem 
 ber of the French convention in 1792, is chief! 
 memorable for the interest he took in nations 
 education, and for his part in the denunciation an 
 arrest of Robespierre, on which occasion he share 
 the command of the national guard with Barra; 
 He was also charged with the translation of th 
 remains of Marat to the Pantheon, and directe 
 the ceremonies of their entombment. When hi 
 party was defeated by Legendre, Bourdon was de 
 nounced as an assassin, and met the charge b 
 heading a conspiracy which broke out 1st Apri 
 1795, and led to his imprisonment at Ham. Re 
 stored to liberty by the amnesty of October in th 
 same year, he afterwards appeared in the counc 
 of 500, only to hear the same accusation repeatec 
 this time by Boissy D'Anglas. The charge wa 
 not pressed against him in legal form, and Bour 
 don was subsequently appointed agent for th 
 directory at Hamburgh. Though a violent Jacobin 
 it is by no means clear that he was the sanguinar 
 monster sometimes represented. He died a natura 
 death as master of a primary school in Paris, som 
 years after the re-establishment of authority b; 
 Buonaparte. [E.R. 
 
 BOURDON, Francis Louis, one of the mos 
 sanguinary members of the convention in 1792 
 obtained his seat by favour of Leonard Bourdon 
 who had been elected for two departments, am 
 allowed his namesake, though not related to him 
 to usurp one of them. He was notorious for th 
 atrocity of his imprecations in the convention 
 always securing his own safety by attaching him 
 self to the strongest side. He was among th 
 fifty-three deputies condemned to transportatioi 
 on the 19th Fructidor, (5th Sept., 1797), and die; 
 soon after his arrival at Cayenne. [E.R. 
 
 BOURDON, Sebastian, a Fr. painter, d. 1671 
 BOURDONNAISE, B. F. M. De La, a Frenel 
 naval officer, gov. of the Isle of France, 1699-1755 
 
 9(j 
 
fUu^p^ ^^y^- ^L 
 
 d?e/ c^/(y^/^z/zr^^ 
 
 fe/uawi 'Lafacc', 
 
 c 
 
 y ///-<' 
 
 

 
BOU 
 
 BOURGEOIS, D., a Fr. mechanic, 1698-1781. 
 
 BOURGEOIS, Sir F., a painter, 1756-1811. 
 
 BOURGET, John, a Fr. antiquary, 1724-1775. 
 
 BOURGOING, John Fr., Baron De, a French 
 nstorian, ambassador of the republic, 1748-1811. 
 
 BOURIGNON, F. M., a Fr. antiq., 1755-1796. 
 
 BOURIGNON, Antonia, born at Lille, 1616, 
 is remarkable for her claims to illumination, and 
 iier singular history, the former supported by a 
 body of followers who were once numerous in 
 France and Scotland. She was unhappy in her 
 parentage and education, her mother having con- 
 served an aversion for her, and treated her with 
 severity, from her earliest years, chiefly, it is sup- 
 posed, on account of her uncomely appearance, 
 but at last, perhaps, in revenge of the perverse tem- 
 per which she had herself excited. As the poor girl 
 advanced in years with no one to love or care for 
 her, she gave her mind to the study of mystic 
 theology, and acquired a morbid conviction or the 
 duty of self-mortification, which she carried to the 
 utmost extreme that her frame was capable of 
 sustaining ; at the same time refusing to confess 
 herself to the priests, and declaring that she was 
 guided by the immediate Spirit of God, vouchsafed 
 in answer to her prayers and sufferings. In 1653, 
 when the death of her parents had placed her in 
 possession of a handsome property, she undertook 
 the care of a female orphan asylum, which led, 
 through a series of the strangest circumstances on 
 record, to her arrest on a charge of witchcraft, of 
 nhich, however, she was acquitted. Wisely avoid- 
 ing anv further entanglement in affairs of this na- 
 ture, she now busied herself in the diffusion of her 
 principles through the press, and it may here be 
 remarked, that she wrote with great facility in the 
 French, Dutch, and German languages. The 
 opposition of the authorities exposed her to con- 
 tinual vexation and insult, so that her fife now, as 
 in childhood, was one of perpetual trial ; and still 
 more aggravated by the fatal gift of a preterna- 
 tural genius which no one knew how to compas- 
 sionate or control. In her case, as in many others 
 of a similar nature, we have to lament a nobly 
 endowed mind sacrificed in a just revolt against a 
 priest-made religion, for want of the guidance 
 which only the Word of God, accepted in sincerity 
 of heart, and consulted with the utmost simplicity 
 of purpose, can afford. Her principal works are a 
 treatise on 'The Blindness of Man, and Light 
 Born in Darkness,' ' The New Heaven,' ' The Re- 
 newal of the Evangelic Spirit,' a 'Treatise on 
 Solid Virtue,' and the 'Truth Discovered.' The 
 6iibstance of all her writings has been formed into 
 a system by the celebrated Poiret, in his work en- 
 titled 'Economie de la Nature,' contained in 
 21 vols. 8vo. She died at Franeker, East Fries- 
 land, after passing the last years of her life in min- 
 to the poor. [E.R.] 
 
 BOB KMON T, Louis Auguste Victor, Count, 
 R I ranch marshal and royalist, minister of war 
 under Charles X., and previously the chief instru- 
 ment in Ney's condemnation, 1773-1846. 
 
 BOURNE, Vincent, a Latin poet, died 1747. 
 
 BOURRIEXNE, L. A. Fauvelet De, a French 
 
 diplomatist, the schoolfellow, and afterwards the 
 
 secretary of Napoleon, an. of 'Memoirs,' 1769-1824. 
 
 B< (URSA ULT, Edw., a Fr. dramat,, 1638-1701. 
 
 BOUTEBWECK, F., a Ger. philo., 1766-1828. 
 
 BRA 
 
 BOWDICH, Dr. N., F.R.S., an American 
 philosopher, translator of La Place, &c., d. 1838. 
 
 BOWDICH, Th. Edw., an English naturalist 
 and traveller in the service of the African Com- 
 pany, 1790-1824. 
 
 BOWER, Arch., a Scotch hist., 1676-1766. 
 
 BOWLES, Wm, an Irish naturalist, 1720-1780. 
 
 BOWLES, Rev. William Lisle, a poet and 
 misc. wr., rect. of Bremhill, in Wiltshire, 1762-1850. 
 
 BOWYER, Wm., an English printer, 1699-1777. 
 
 BOXHORN, M. Z., a Latin writer, 1612-1653. 
 
 BOYCE, Wm., an English composer, 1710-1779. 
 
 BOYD, H., an English translator, last century. 
 
 BOYD, Zachary, a Scotch relig. wr., d. 1653. 
 
 BOYDELL, J., an English artist, 1719-1804. 
 
 BOYE, J., a Danish philosopher, 1756-1830. 
 
 BOYER, Abel, a Fr. grammarian, 1664-1729. 
 
 BOYER, Abel, a pharmacopolist, died 1768. 
 
 BOYER, Alexis, Baron, a Fr. surg., 1760-1833. 
 
 BOYER, Claude, a Fr. dramatist, 1618-1698. 
 
 BOYER, J. B. N., a Fr. wr. on disease, d. 1768. 
 
 BOYLE, Roc, the first em. name of this family, 
 whose ancient seat was in Hertfordshire, d. 1576. 
 
 BOYLE, Richard, son of the preceding, known 
 as the great earl of Cork, distinguished as a 
 statesman in the reign of James I., 1566-1643. 
 
 BOYLE, Roger, son of the preceding, and earl 
 of Orrery, a royalist of the restoration, 1621-1679. 
 
 BOYLE, Lord Charles, son of Roger, and 
 nephew of the preceding, a fugitive writer and 
 scholar, 1676-1731. 
 
 BOYLE, Robert, brother of Roger, and son of 
 Richard, earl of Cork, a very distinguished In- 
 quirer of the 17th century ; born at Lismore in Ire- 
 land in 1626, the year of Lord Bacon's death ; died 
 in London in 1691. Boyle was an able and 
 sedulous Investigator of Nature by Experiment ; 
 and he contributed much to many branches of 
 Physics, Optics, Pneumatics, Natural History, 
 Chemistry, and Medicine; Pneumatics probably 
 gaining most from his researches. He was one 
 of the foremost of those illustrious men who 
 founded the Royal Society in 1645, for the purpose 
 of improving experimental knowledge, on the 
 plan laid down by Bacon. Boyle's mind was 
 essentially reverential, and he wrote largely on reli- 
 gious topics. He founded a Lectureship at Oxford, 
 which has produced a number of valuable works on 
 the being and attributes of God. [J.P.N.] 
 
 BOYLE, John, earl of Cork and Orrery, son 
 of Lord Charles, and, like him, a scholar and author, 
 (Life and Writings of Swift, &c.,) 1707-1762. 
 
 BOYLE, Richard, earl of Burlington and Cork, 
 an amat archit., and patron of learning, 1695-1753. 
 
 BOYLSTON, Z., an Amer. phys., 1680-1766. 
 
 BOYS, Wm., an antiq. and naturalist, d. 1803. 
 
 BOYSE, Sam., a fugitive wr. and poet, d. 1749. 
 
 BOYSEAU, a Spanish general, 1659-1740. 
 
 BRACCIOLINI, Fr., an Ital. poet, 1566-1645. 
 
 BRACHMANN, Louisa C, a poet, and fugitive 
 wr. of Ger., who unhappily drowned herself, 1822. 
 
 BRACTON, Hy. De, a writer on law, 13th ct. 
 
 BRADFORD, J., a martyr of the refor., 1555. 
 
 BRADLEY, Jam., an Eng. astronomer, d. 1762. 
 
 BRADLEY, Rich., a wr. on botany, d. 1732. 
 
 BRADSHAW, J., a republican lawyer, presid. 
 of the court for the trial of Charles I., d. 1659. 
 
 BRADSTREET, Anne, a poetess of the 17th c. 
 
 BRADWARDIN, T., abp. of Canterb., d. 134a 
 97 H 
 
BRA 
 
 BRAHE, P., Comte De, a (listing. Swede, tutor of 
 Christina, and fndr. of many universities, d. 1680. 
 
 BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer, was 
 born on the 14th December, 1546, at Knudstorp 
 in Scania, and was the eldest son and the second 
 child of a family of five sons and five daughters. 
 Having been adopted by his uncle, George "Brahe, 
 and placed under his care, he commenced the study of 
 Latin in his seventh year; and in opposition to the 
 wishes of his father, who had destined him for the 
 military profession, he prosecuted his scholastic 
 studies for five years under private teachers. 
 About three years after his father's death in 1559, 
 he went to the university of Copenhagen, with the 
 view of preparing himself for the profession of the 
 law by tne study of rhetoric and philosophy. He 
 had spent little more than a year at college when 
 a great eclipse of the sun, on the 21st August, 
 1560, excited general interest, and made Tycho an 
 astronomer. Surprised at the close agreement be- 
 tween the calculated and observed phenomena, he 
 resolved to study a science which, in addition to 
 its power of predicting future events, was, in 
 general opinion, connected with the destinies of 
 man. While he was indulging this new passion 
 by the study of Stadius's ' Tabula; Bergenses,' he 
 was sent from Copenhagen, in February, 1562, 
 under the charge of a tutor, to study jurisprudence 
 at Leipzig. There he devoted all his leisure hours 
 to the study of astronomy, making calculations, con- 
 structing instruments, and carrying on astronomical 
 observations. In May, 1565, he left Leipzig to 
 take possession of the estate of his uncle, to which 
 he had succeeded ; but in consequence of the op- 
 position made by his parents to his astronomical 
 studies, he quitted Denmark in order to pay a visit 
 to some of the more interesting cities in Germany. 
 From Wittemberg, which he reached in 1566, he 
 went to Rostock, where in a duel with a country- 
 man of his own, he lost his nose ; which he very 
 ingeniously replaced by one of gold and silver. 
 Here he remained till 1569, when he visited Augs- 
 burg, where he made the acquaintance of John 
 and Paul Hainzel, two distinguished citizens and 
 ardent lovers of astronomy. Paul Hainzel con- 
 structed for him, at his own expense, a magnifi- 
 cent quadrant, which exhibited single minutes on 
 its graduated limb, and with which Tycho made 
 many valuable observations during his stay at 
 Augsburg. On his return to Denmark in 1571, 
 Tycho found that his reputation had preceded him. 
 The king invited him to court, and his maternal 
 uncle, Steno Bille, gave him, at the convent of 
 Herritzvold, where he resided, apartments for an 
 observatory and a laboratory. Tycho, most un- 
 fortunately, conceived a passion for alchymy, and 
 indulged in the hope of converting the baser metals 
 into gold. He was roused, however, from this 
 dream by the appearance of the neio star in Cassi- 
 opeia, which continued visible from November, 
 1572, till its disappearance in March, 1574. After 
 marrying a peasant girl in 1573, and delivering, at 
 the king's request, a course of lectures on astro- 
 nomy, he visited Hesseland, Frankfort, Basle, and 
 Venice, and returned in 1575 to Ratisbon to wit- 
 ness the coronation of the emperor Rudolph. 
 Tycho's reputation in foreign countries had now 
 begun to excite notice in his own. Frederick II. 
 sent messengers to invite him to his capital, and 
 
 BRA 
 
 Tycho willingly obeyed the royal summons. Tri 
 king received him with the most flattering after 
 tion, gave him a grant for life of the island ( 
 Huen, and offered to erect at his own expense a 
 the buildings and instruments that were necessar 
 for carrying on his astronomical and chemic; 
 studies. The celebrated observatory of Uraniburj 
 or the city of the heavens, was founded in Augus 
 1576, and supplied with instruments ; and withi 
 its walls Tycho carried on tbose observations wit 
 which his name is inseparably connected. Upo 
 the death of Frederick II., and the accession < 
 Christian III., the prospects of Tycho were great! 
 changed. Although a temporary glory was throw 
 around himself and his children by a visit from Jamc 
 VI. of Scotland, and other princes, yet his studh 
 were unwillingly tolerated by the Danish court. Tl 
 nobles grudged him his pension and the magnif 
 cent establishment at Uraniburg. The physiciai 
 envied his popularity as a medical practitione 
 and with such influential enemies, Walchendor] 
 the president, had no difficulty in indulging h 
 own personal dislike to Tycho by measures of ir 
 justice and persecution. Resolved to abandon f( 
 ever his ungrateful country, Tycho, with all h; 
 apparatus of instruments and books, his wife, fii 
 sons and four daughters, along with his pupil 
 assistants, and servants, male and female, en 
 barked at Copenhagen to seek the hospitality of 
 better country. After landing at Rostock in 159' 
 he went by invitation to the castle of Wandesber; 
 near Hamburg, the seat of Count Rantzau, whe: 
 his family remained till he was munificent 
 established at Prague, the capital of the emper< 
 Rudolph. This distinguished sovereign gave hi 
 the castle of Benach as a residence, with a pei 
 sion of 3,000 crowns. There he was visited 
 1600 by Kepler, for whom he obtained the aj- 
 pointment of imperial mathematician to the eir 
 peror, on the condition of assisting Tycho in 
 observations. Tycho did not long enjoy the libej 
 ality of Rudolph. The persecutions and sufferin j 
 to which he had been exposed, had preyed up! 
 his mind, and disturbed its tranquillity. An ex j 
 from his beloved country, and a stranger in 
 foreign land, his studies lost their power over 1 
 mind, and under the influence probably of a pai 
 ful disease with which he was affected, a tempore 
 delirium overshadowed some of his latest nou 
 From this painful condition, however, he recover* 
 and resigned himself with true piety into the har 
 of his Maker on the 24th October, 1601, in j 
 fifty-fifth year of his age. The instruments 
 Tycho were purchased from his heirs by the e:' 
 peror Rudolpn for 22,000 crowns They were si 
 up in the house of Curtius, and were regai-f 
 with such veneration, that not even Kepler v 
 allowed to examine or make use of them. Tl 
 remained in the same place till the death of 
 emperor in 1619, when they were carried oft', or i 
 stroyed, during the troubles which agitated Bohen 
 The island of Huen was, in Tycho's lifetime si 
 to a Danish nobleman. The buildings were all f 
 molished, excepting the farm-house, which belon 
 to Tycho. His dwelling-house and his observat 
 are marked by two pits and a mound of earth wl 
 enclosed the garden. A very full account of 
 life and labours of Tycho will be found in 
 David Brewster's ' Martyrs of Science.' [D. 
 
 88 
 
BEA 
 
 BRAINERD, Da v., a eel. missionary, 1717-47. 
 
 BRAMAH, J., a disting. mechanic, 1749-1814. 
 
 BRAMANTE, Donato, or Bramante Laz- 
 ?:ari, one of the great Italian architects of the 
 Renaissance, was born near Castel Durante, in the 
 iuchy of Urbino, in 1444. He followed in the great 
 path of Brunelleschi, who died almost within a year 
 from the time that Bramante was born. He was 
 originally a painter, and studied the works of Fra 
 13artolomeo, of Urbino, but first distinguished him- 
 self as an architect at the court of Ludovico il Moro, 
 it Milan. Bramante remained chiefly in Milan until 
 1499 ; he was employed on the cathedral, and on 
 the repairs of the Basilica of Sant' Ambrogio ; and 
 was much engaged in neighbouring cities. In 
 1500 he settled in Eome ; here he took advantage 
 of the opportunities afforded by the ancient ruins 
 of perfecting his knowledge of classical art, and 
 qualified himself for the high position as an archi- 
 tect which he eventually attained. His works, 
 however, are more properly termed Italian than 
 classic, as he accommodated the classic features to 
 the wants of modern society. The Cancellaria 
 Apostolica at Eome, built as the private residence 
 or the cardinal Eiario, in 1495, is a fine example, 
 and at the same time is one of the best specimens 
 of the architecture of the Eenaissance. The 
 Vatican, however, was the arena of the greatest 
 glories of Bramante ; here he earned out vast 
 works for Julius II. ; he first joined the Belvedere 
 villa to the old palace of the Vatican, and enlarged 
 and embellished this by the addition of the Court 
 of San Damaso, and the famous Loggie containing 
 the celebrated arabesques of Raphael, with many 
 other improvements. In 1506 he commenced his 
 great work, the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Julius 
 II. laid the first stone on the 18th of April of that 
 year : but Bramante did not live to execute much 
 more than the four great piers which support the 
 dome, which, however, became the key to the 
 whole. Bramante died in 1514; and the great 
 work was carried on by Eaphael, aided by Giuliano 
 da San Gallo, and Fra Giocondo, till 1518, and 
 after Raphael's death, in 1520, Baldassare Peruzzi 
 was appointed architect, and continued the work 
 until 1536. Peruzzi was succeeded by Antonio 
 da San Gallo, the nephew of Giuliano, who con- 
 siderably altered the plan. After the death of 
 Antonio, in 1546, Michelangelo Buonarroti pro- 
 secuted the work and completed the dome. After 
 the death of Michelangelo, in 1564, the work was 
 carried on by Vignola, and Pirro Ligorio, under 
 the condition that they were to adhere to the plan 
 ot Michelangelo. Ligorio was removed by Pius 
 V. fur wishing to infringe this condition. At the 
 death of Vignola, in 1573, Giacomo della Porta 
 assumed the direction, who with Domenico Fon- 
 tana at length completed the cupola, and fixed 
 the cross, during the short pontificate of Gregory 
 XIV., in 1590. After the death of Della Porta 
 in 1604, the work was carried on by Carlo Ma- 
 derno, and Giovanni Fontana; and the greatest 
 and most magnificent of Christian churches was 
 eventually consecrated by pope Urban VIII., in 
 
 Beschreibung der Stadt Rom.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 BE AM HALL, John, an em. English prelate, 
 
 BEI 
 
 born at Pontefract in 1593. He was prosecuted 
 by Cromwell, but escaped to the continent, where 
 he resided till the restoration, d. at Annagh, 1662. 
 
 BEANCAS LAUEAGUAIS, a Fr. nobleman, 
 disting. for his scientific discoveries, 1735-1824. 
 
 BRAND John, a political writer, died 1809. 
 
 BRAND, John, an antiquarian, 1743-1806. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, an electorate of the German 
 empire, from 1417 to the time of Frederick Wil- 
 liam, who succeeded as elector 1640, and created 
 the kingdom of Prussia. 
 
 BRANDEE, G., an antiq. and nat., 1720-87. 
 
 BRANDT, a Dutch alchymist, died 1692. 
 
 BRANDT, Ernevold, Count De, a Danish 
 statesman, executed for conspiracy, 1772. 
 
 BRANDT, Geo., an exp. philosopher, d. 1768. 
 
 BRANDT, Sbb., a satirical poet, 1454-1524. 
 
 BRANTOME, Peter De Bourdeilles, lord 
 of, au. of memoirs illus. life in the 16th c, 1527-1614. 
 
 BRASAVOLA, A. St, an Ital. phy., 1500-1555. 
 
 BRATHWAYTE, Rich., a poet, 1588-1673. 
 
 BRAVO, John, a Spanish physician, 16th ct. 
 
 BRAY, Sir Reg., a fav. statesman of Henry 
 VII., and architect of the famous chapel, d. 1503. 
 
 BRAY, Dr. Th., a eel. missionary, 1656-1730. 
 
 BRAY, Wm., F.S.A., a literary antiq., d. 1832. 
 
 BREDA, John Van, a painter, died 1750. 
 
 BREDERODE, a Dutch patriot, 1466-1490. 
 
 BREE, Robt., an English physician, 1759-1839. 
 
 BREENBERG, Barth., a painter, 1620-1660. 
 
 BREGUET,A. L.,a Swiss watch-ma., 1747-1823. 
 
 BREISLAK, S., an Ital. geologist, 1768-1826. 
 
 BREMER, Sir James John Gordon, disting. 
 for his share in the late war with China, 1786-1850. 
 
 BREMOND, Fr. De, a Fr. naturalist, 1713-42. 
 
 BRENNER, E., a Swedish antiquary, 1647-1707. 
 
 BRENNER, Hy., a Swedish Orientalist, d. 1732. 
 
 BRENNUS, the name given by Greek and Ro- 
 man authors to two Gaulish chieftains : the first, 
 leader of the memorable assault upon Rome, 388 
 or 389 B.C. ; the second, chief of the hordes which 
 invaded Thessaly and Greece, 278 B.C. 
 t BRENTON, Capt., E. P., a naval officer, dis- 
 ting. by his prof, inventions and liter, works, d. 1839. 
 
 BREQUIGNY, L. G., a Fr. histor., 1716-1795. 
 
 BREREWOOD, Ed., a mathemat., 1565-1613. 
 
 BRET, Anth., a Fr. poet and critic, 1717-1792. 
 
 BRETISLAS, duke of Bohemia, died 1055 ; a 
 second of the same name sue. 1093, assass. 1100. 
 
 BRETON, Nich., a poet, time of Elizabeth. 
 
 BRETON, Raymond, a missionary, d. 1679. 
 
 BREUGHEL, Peter, an em. painter, 1510- 
 1570. John, his son, also a painter, 1568-1642. 
 Peter, another son, 1567-1625. Abraham, a 
 third son, of the same profession, died 1672. 
 
 BREVAL, J. Durant De, an histor., d. 1739. 
 
 BREVES, F. S. De, aFr. diplomatist, 1560-1628. 
 
 BREWER, Ant., a dramatist, time of James L 
 
 BREYNIUS, Jas., a German botanist, d. 1697. 
 
 BRIDAINE, Jas., a trav. preacher, 1701-1767. 
 
 BRIDFERTH, a Brit, monk and math., 10th c 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, Fr. Egerton, duke of, ceL 
 for his enterprise in canal navigation, 1736-1803. 
 
 BRIDPORT, A. Hood, a Brit, adm., d. 1814. 
 
 BRIET, P., a geographical writer, 1601-1668. 
 
 BRIGGS, H., professor of geometry, 1536-1630. 
 
 BRIGGS, W., a distinguish, oculist, 1650-1704. 
 
 BRIGHT, Timothy, an English physician and 
 theologian, author of numerous works, died 1616. 
 
 90 
 
BRI 
 
 BRILL, M., i landscape painter, 1550-1584. 
 
 BRILL, Paul, a landscape painter, 1556-1626. 
 
 BRINDLEY, Jamks, the man who first devoted 
 himself to civil engineering as a profession. In 
 Great Britain engineering works were not in- 
 trusted to civilians till about the middle of the 
 18th century, when capitalists began to embark 
 their wealth in speculations that promised a pecu- 
 niary return only, without regard to their own 
 neighbourhood being the scene of the projected im- 
 provement, or facilities being afforded by it to their 
 peculiar business. The change was the forerunner 
 of increased national means, and by the enlarged 
 field of employment it opened up, gave rise to this 
 new order of professional men, pioneers of civiliza- 
 tion. Brindley was born in 1716, at Thorsett, 
 near Chapel-le-frith in Derbyshire. He followed 
 the usual labours of agriculture until his seven- 
 teenth year, without the advantages of even the 
 most ordinary education. But he was a genius 
 
 'Of mother wit, and wise without the schools.' 
 He was apprenticed to a millwright, who left him 
 often to work out what the master himself should 
 have designed and directed. Thus his inventive 
 faculties were brought into exercise, and he fre- 
 quently astonished his employer by the ingenious 
 improvements which he effected, and by the results 
 of his zeal for his master's honour. When his ap- 
 prenticeship ended he engaged in business on his 
 own accQunt. In 1752 he erected machinery for 
 draining coal pits at Clifton, in Lancashire. The 
 water wheel was 30 feet under ground, and the 
 water was supplied from the Irwell, by a tunnel 
 600 yards long. This was a work of boldness and 
 ingenuity a century ago, though we may smile at it 
 now ! In 1756 he erected a steam engine at New- 
 castle-under-Lyne, which was calculated to effect 
 a great saving in fuel over the ordinary Newcomen 
 engine. About 1757 Brindley was consulted by 
 
 [Aqueduct over the Irwell.] 
 
 the duke of Bridgewater as to the practicability of 
 constructing a canal from Worsley to Manchester. 
 Brindley's success in this undertaking was the 
 means of awakening public attention to the ad- 
 vantages of canals. Had a man of inferior genius, 
 or less dauntless courage, undertaken the works, it 
 might probably have turned out a failure, and the 
 development of our inland navigation might have 
 been deferred some years longer. When the canal 
 
 BRI 
 
 was completed as far as Barton, where the Irwe' 
 is navigable for large vessels, Brindley propose 
 to carry it over that river by an aqueduct 39 fe< 
 above the surface of the river ! This project w 
 ridiculed by the practical men of the day. On 
 much respected individual of the time would nc 
 discount the duke of Bridgewater's bill for 50( 
 and when the dimensions of the canal aquoduc 
 were communicated to him, he exclaimed: ? 
 have often heard of castles in the air, but nevt 
 was before shown where any of them was to t 
 erected.' The duke raised the money, howevei 
 and in less than one year Brindley complete 
 the aqueduct! Within forty-two years aftc 
 the duke of Bridgewater's canal was opened, ap 
 
 Jdication had been made to parliament for 165 act 
 or making canals in Great Britain at an expens 
 of 13,000,000. Brindley engineered the grea 
 undertakings which opened an internal water com 
 munication between the Thames, the Humber, th 
 Severn, and the Mersey, and united the great port 
 of London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, by canal 
 which passed through the richest and most indus 
 trial districts of England. Brindley died 1772, a 
 the age of fifty-six, the victim of intense applica 
 tion to an arduous and exciting profession. He wa 
 interred at New Chapel, in Staffordshire. Brindle 
 is reported to have answered a Committee of th 
 House of Commons, when asked for what objec 
 rivers were created: 'To feed navigable canals 
 Railway engineers of the present day conceive the 
 are turning rivers to their primitive destination} 
 for canals are being converted into railways 
 Brindley could neither read nor write until late i 
 life, and then but poorly. He had great powersof men 
 tal calculation, was of unwearying application an 
 industry, and eminently successful. [L.D.B.G. 
 BRINKLEY, Dr. J., an astronom., 1760-1835 
 BRINVILLIERS, the notor. poisoner, ex. 1676 
 BRISBANE, Admiral Sir Ch., an officer ( 
 distinguished gallantry in the late war, the com 
 panion in arms of Rodney, Hood, and Nelson, ap 
 pointed governor of St. Vincent, 1808 ; died 1829 
 BRISSEAU, Pet., a Fr. physician, 1631-171; 
 BRISSON, M. J., a Fr. naturalist, 1723-1806.1 
 BRISSOT, Peter, a medical au., 1478-1522.1 
 BRISSOT, Jean Pierre, distinguished in til 
 history of the revolution as leader of the Giii 
 ondins, was an orator and political writer of the fir? 
 ability. The commencement of his public caret 
 as a journalist was characterized by a smgulrj 
 stroke of vanity, whereby the plebeian appellatk 
 of the humble pastry-cook who begot nun, w; 
 metamorphosed into the name of his birth-plac 
 and shone with aristocratic refulgence as 'De Wa 
 ville.' In the obscurity of his early fife he seem 
 to have acquired all the experience of men ai'j 
 things necessary to a political intriguer. Restlesj 
 scheming, and ambitious, he was indefatigable I 
 his zeal for reform, especially for the ameliorathl 
 of the criminal code and the abolition of slaver > 
 It is difficult to say whether his character wj 
 spoiled, or rather made, by the philosophy | 
 Rousseau. Madame Roland, when it became h> 
 fate to meet him, was certainly disappointed I 
 his appearance, for she saw no passion in 1 
 countenance corresponding to that of his sty 
 and was rather struck by the busy mobility of 
 novice than the dignity of an apostle in his co 
 
 100 
 
 
BUI 
 
 ?rsation and manners. When the revolution first 
 iwned he was the advocate of a constitutional 
 lonarchy ; growled at by Marat for ' giving his 
 iw to Lafayette,' and again as bitterly denounced, 
 specially by Robespierre, for his imprudence in 
 lazing forth the word ' Republic ' when bis con- 
 ctions were changed. While the states-general 
 ere discussing the constitution, Brissot associ- 
 ;ed himself with Condorcet and Claviere as joint 
 roprietors of the Moniteur, and in 1791 was re- 
 irned to the first parliament. His love of occu- 
 ation, his activity as a senator, as a member of 
 le Jacobin Club, and in the coterie at Madame 
 oland's perhaps also bis extreme shiftiness in 
 rgument soon marked him out as the head of 
 ie middle class republicans, first distinguished by 
 is own name, and called 'Brissotins' by the 
 tirited Camille Desmoulins. His hour of triumph 
 as under the ministry of Roland and Claviere, 
 ith whom he, of course, fell at the period of Ma- 
 it's insurrection, 2d June, 1793, when his name 
 ppeared first of the twenty-two Girondins ordered 
 ader arrest. He endeavoured to escape disguised 
 5 a merchant travelling to Neufchatel, but was 
 iscovered en route by the Revolutionary Commit- 
 ;e of Moulins, and finally placed with his col- 
 sagues, ' all chief republicans,' ' the eloquent, the 
 oung, the beautiful, the brave,' at the bar of 
 ouquier Tinville. Brissot defended himself with 
 le courage of a patriot and the serenity of a philo- 
 )pher, and though it was not him, but his friend 
 asource who addressed the tribunal in an epigram, 
 I exactly expresses the feeling of the whole party, 
 We die on the day when the people have lost 
 heir reason, ye will die when they recover it!' 
 'he philosophical repast in prison, and the chorus 
 f the Marseillese at the scaffold on the following 
 lorning, 31st October, have been often described, 
 nd it was at the former that Brissot emphati- 
 ally said, in answer to the question whether he 
 elieved in the immortality of the soul and the 
 irovidence of God ' I do believe in them ; and it 
 } because I believe in them that I am about to 
 lie.' His history is that of his party, a well-in- 
 entioned and talented body of men, but too scru- 
 ulous of forms, too philosophical and studious of 
 heory as legislators, and in a word, hardly auda- 
 ious enough for the exigencies of the period. He 
 eft behind him many works of importance, but 
 specially on criminal jurisprudence. The chief of 
 hese are 'Th^orie des lois Criminelles,' 2 vols. 
 $vo, 1780, and ' Bibliotheque Philosophique du 
 l^gislateur, du Politique, du Jurisconsulte ; sur 
 es lois Criminelles,' 10 vols. 8vo, 1786. As to 
 >ersonal appearance, he was a man of small sta- 
 ;ure, with tnin pale features, lighted up by intel- 
 igence, and ennobled in circumstances of danger 
 >y intrepid determination. His dress and habits 
 lad been formed to the Quaker model during his 
 Residence in America, where he had taken refuge 
 Tom the terrors of a 'lettre de cachet,' before 
 ;he outbreak of the revolution. [E.R.] 
 
 BRISTOW, R., a Roman Catholic polem., 16th c. 
 
 BRITANNICUS, son of Claudius, and so named 
 rom his father's succes. in Brit., pois. by Nero, 55. 
 
 BRITTON, T., an amateur music, 1654-1714. 
 
 BROCKLESBY, R., a wr. on music, 1722-97. 
 
 BROGLIE, Victor Francis, DucDe, marshal 
 >f France, and gen. of the emigrants, 1718-1804. 
 
 101 
 
 BRO 
 
 BROIGNART, A. Louis, * Ft. ther.m\'d 'Sf&d.^ 
 
 BROKE, ReAr- Admiral* Sir Philip' Bowes 1 
 Verb, the gallant com. of the Shannon, 1776-1841. 
 
 BROME, Alex., a satirical poet, 1620-1666. 
 
 BROME, Rich., a dramatist, died 1632. 
 
 BROMFIELD, W., an Eng. med. au., 1712-1792. 
 
 BROMLEY, John, an Eng. clergyman, 17th c, 
 
 BRONDSTED, P. O., a Dan. antiq., 1780-1842. 
 
 BROOCMAN, C. U., a Sw. wr. on educ, d. 1812. 
 
 BROOKE, Frances M., a novelist, died 1789. 
 
 BROOKE, H., a novelist and mvstic, whose 
 principal work is ' The Fool of Quality,"' 1706-1783. 
 
 BROOKE, Sir R., a wr. on civil law, d. 1558. 
 
 BROOKES, J., an em. anatomist, 1763-1833. 
 
 BROOKS, J., aphy. and man of let., 1752-1825. 
 
 BROOME, Dr. W., a classical scholar, d. 1745. 
 
 BROSCHI, Car., a disting. singer, 1705-1782. 
 
 BROSSE, Guy De La, a Fr. botanist, 17th ct. 
 
 BROSSES, Ch. De, a Fr. savant, 1709-1777. 
 
 BROSSETTE, Claude, a Fr. hist., 1671-1746. 
 
 BROTHERS, R., a pretended prophet, whose 
 public hist, and publicat. date from 1793 to 1802. 
 
 BROUGHTON, H., a Heb. schol., 1549-1612. 
 
 BROUGHTON, T., a fugitive writer, d. 1774. 
 
 BROUKHUSIUS, J., a Dutch schol., d. 1707. 
 
 BROUNCKER, Wm., Lord, a philos., d. 1584. 
 
 BROUSSAIS, F. J. V., a medic, au., 1772-1838. 
 
 BROUSSONET, P. A. M., a Fr. nat., 1761-1807. 
 
 BROUWER, Adr., a Dutch painter, 1608-40. 
 
 BROWALLIUS, J., a writer on bot, 1707-1765. 
 
 BROWN, C. B., an American novelist, d. 1810. 
 
 BROWN, J., D.D., an essayist, 1715-1766. 
 
 BROWN, J., a Scotch artist, 1752-1787. 
 
 BROWN, J., a biblical expositor, 1772-1787. 
 
 BROWN, J., M.D., awr. on pathology, 1735-88. 
 
 BROWN, John, an engraver, died 1801. 
 
 BROWN, L., a landscape gardener, 1715-1782. 
 
 BROWN, R.,fn. of the independents, 1560-1630. 
 
 BROWN, Sir Samuel, Capt., R.N., inventor of 
 iron suspension bridges, 1777-1852. 
 
 BROWN, Thomas, a recent Scottish meta- 
 physician; successor of Dugald Stewart in the 
 university of Edinburgh. Born near Edinburgh 
 in 1778, he died at an early age in 1820. His 
 tastes were literary ; and he relished philosophical 
 discussion. When only eighteen years of age he 
 published a refutation of Darwin's Zoonomia; 
 the first edition of his Essay on Cause and Effect 
 appeared in 1804, on occasion of a singular but 
 unprofitable and ill-managed controversy that had 
 arisen within the Scottish Church : he afterwards 
 issued a fragment entitled Outlines of the Physi- 
 ology of the Human Mind: but his principal work 
 consists of Lectures, of which multitudes of 
 editions have been sold in Great Britain and 
 America. Brown likewise paid offerings to the 
 Muses : his poems were collected into four volumes, 
 but they are already forgotten. The metaphysical 
 system if so it may be called to which the 
 writings of this philosopher gave currency, is 
 certainly no continuation of what is termed the 
 Scottish School, but rather an effort at revolt, 
 alike against its leaders and doctrines. In the 
 first place, he makes an elaborate attempt to 
 create an impression that the supposed merits 
 of Dr. Reid in refutation of the Ideal Theory, are 
 reducible to his successful demolition of a fallacy 
 held by no important metaphysical writer, (except- 
 ing perhaps Berkeley and Malebranche) a pure ere- 
 
BRO 
 
 .it-; .n.of.IS.-uVs'OYrft foncy. .On this historical point 
 we shall remark at length urukvthe article keid; 
 suffice it to state here, that Brown has completely 
 failed, and show's besides an ignorance of the true 
 merits of the question, quite remarkable in a man 
 of undeniably quick apprehension. The subject of 
 Sensation disposed of, lie next attacks the account 
 given by his predecessor of our mental faculties 
 a word to the use of which he strongly objects ; 
 producing instead of the careful description of 
 phenomena occupying the volumes of Reid and 
 Stewart an artificial classification of specious sim- 
 plicity, but throwing no real light either on the 
 nature of the more important psychological facts, 
 or their relations. Mental phenomena, he 
 conceives, should be divided into external and 
 internal States of the thinking principle, the 
 former being our sensations, the latter the con- 
 tents of the Intelligence. Internal states, he con- 
 siders, are either the reproduction of ideas of absent 
 objects, by means of what he calls simple sugges- 
 tion, or the perception of their relations, through 
 relative suggestion. Adding our Emotions, classed 
 into immediate, retrospective, and prospective, 
 Brown conceives he has described and explained 
 all mental phenomena. It were easy to show that 
 in most of his attempts to simplify, Brown has 
 mistaken and contorted the great facts of psycho- 
 logy; his fatal error, however, is this an error 
 which may be inferred from the mere phraseology 
 of his system, he confounds the will with merely 
 passive desire, from which it had been a prime 
 aim of his predecessors clearly to distinguish it. 
 The will, he says, is simply desire, coupled with 
 the belief that the object of the desire will follow 
 as an effect. That great faculty, the coequal of 
 Sensibility and Intelligence, the source and condi- 
 tion of human liberty and dignity, is thus purely and 
 simply suppressed ; nor was it possible for Brown 
 to evade consequences which ever belong to that 
 suppression; his philosophy is on the edge of 
 those two abysses, scepticism and fatalism. It is 
 in nowise a favourable symptom either of the taste 
 or acuteness of the time, that these Lectures 
 have obtained a currency so wide. If their meta- 
 physics are bad, their style, considered as a philo- 
 sophical one, is certainly the reverse of com- 
 mendable. Diffuse and inaccurate, it is wearisome 
 and misleading. Ambitiously rhetorical, its 
 metaphors and digressions, often pleasing by 
 themselves, distract the attention of the student 
 from the thought. Brown himself seemed to 
 imagine that a philosophy might be improvised: 
 and it is to be feared that his example and writ- 
 ings have done much, to maintain the youth of our 
 time in the delusion, that acquaintance with the 
 Science of Mind may be promoted, and truth dis- 
 cerned, through glib use of the mere forms of 
 philosophical thought. There is no use in such 
 
 Sopular philosophy. If an aspect of dialectic is 
 emanded of public instructors now, the time will 
 come, when, to obtain acceptance, they must 
 exercise reflection also. [J.P.N .] 
 
 BROWNE, Anth., an English lawyer, d. 1567. 
 
 BROWNE, Geo., Count, an officer in the Rus- 
 sian service, 30 yrs. gover. of Livonia, 1698-1792. 
 
 BROWNE, Isaac Hawkins, a poet, 1706-1776. 
 
 BROWNE, Pat., M.D a naturalist, 1720-1790. 
 
 BROWNE, SmoN, acontrov. divine, 1680-1732. 
 
 BRU 
 
 BROWNE, Ulysses Maxim., an Irish ex 
 field-marshal in the service of Austria, 1705-17. 
 BROWNE, Sir W., a wr. on optics, 1692-17' 
 BROWNE, Wm., a pastoral poet, 17th centu 
 BROWNE, W. G., a disting. traveller, k. 18 
 BROWNRIGG, W., an exp. philos., 1714-18' 
 BRU, Moses V., a Spanish painter, 1682-17' 
 BRUCE, Robert, king of Scots, was born 
 the year 1274. It is unusual to call monan 
 by their family name, but Bruce has generally b( 
 made an exception, as he rather gained his kingd 
 by his services than acquired it by hereditary si 
 cession. After the death of Margaret of Norway, 1 
 daughter of Alexander III., there were seve 
 competitors for the Scottish throne, chiefly amc 
 those adventurous Norman knights who were c 
 laterally connected with the Scottish royal fami 
 Among these was a Robert of Bruce supposed 
 be a corruption of Bruix, his ancestral domain 
 Normandy whose claim was that he was the s 
 of Isabel, second daughter of David earl of Hui 
 ingdon, the brother of King William the Li 
 On hereditary principle, as we now understand 
 there was, however, a preferable claimant in Jc 
 Balliol, who was grandson of the eldest daugh 
 of the earl of Huntingdon, and there were ma 
 other claimants. The advantage which the Ei 
 lish king took of this confusion, and his atten 
 to subjugate Scotland, are well-known chapters 
 British history. Had he been less tyrannical 1 
 Scots might have submitted to his sway, but 
 brought in high Norman notions of prerogat 
 and feudal exactions, to which the Scots were x 
 accustomed. Exasperated and prepared to 
 themselves, they offered a good opportunity to a 
 daring and ambitious man who could put fort! 
 title to head them as their king. Robert, 1 
 grandson of that Bruce who had been one of 1 
 original claimants, after attending the court of E 
 ward, and for some time hesitating, was at leng 
 partly by accident, driven to take up his posil 
 as the kingly leader of the Scots. He had be 
 concocting with Cumyn, who had similar clain 
 a plan for one or other of them starting for 1 
 crown, and receiving the assistance of the oth 
 who should be largely rewarded with the privj 
 estates of both. Cumyn revealed the project, a 
 Brace, secretly warned, escaped from the Engli 
 court to Scotland. Unconscious that his treacht 
 was known, Cumyn met the fugitive in the Chur 
 of the Franciscans in Dumfries. Hot words passi 
 and Brace in his fury stabbing him, he was c 
 spatched by an attendant. The deed of sacrilegic 
 violence, while it occasioned Brace's excommuuk 
 tion by the pope, drove him in desperation to ra 
 the banner of Scottish nationality. Finding an enei 
 not only in the English invader, but in the Cel 
 
 Eotentate the lord of Lorn, his cause seemed lo 
 opeless. But oppression increased the number 
 his followers, and at last he gained such substant 
 success, that Edward resolved to go again to Sa 
 land to crash him. He died on the way, and wh 
 his strong hand was removed the Scots rallied 
 larger numbers round the liberator, and put h 
 at the head of a considerable army. Edward I 
 attempting to restore the English power by lea 
 ing into Scotland a vast army of the flower of t 
 English chivalry, only brought them to destructi 
 at the field of* Baunockburn. This conclusi 
 
 102 
 
BRU 
 I battle was fought on the 14th of June, 1314. Its 
 history shows that Bruce was a consummate gen- 
 eral according to the tactic of the day. His prin- 
 ciple of warfare was what has always proved the best 
 for a poor nation ; not to ape cavalry, but to trust 
 in highly trained foot soldiers well placed. His 
 frame was injured by the hardships of his early 
 struggles, and he died on 7th June, 1329. [J.H.B.] 
 BRUCE, James, F.R.S., the celebrated explorer 
 of Africa, was born on the 14th of December, 
 1730, at Kinnaird, an estate and mansion near 
 Larbert, in Stirlingshire, which had been in the 
 possession of the family for about 400 years. In 
 1590, Sir Alexander Bruce, of Airth, made over the 
 lands of Kinnaird to his second son, Robert, a 
 minister of Edinburgh. This Robert Bruce, who was 
 distinguished in the times of the Reformation, 
 had two grandchildren, Robert and Alexander : the 
 former died of his wounds after the battle of Wor- 
 cester, without issue ; the latter, ill requited for 
 his services in the royal cause, died in 1711, leav- 
 ing two daughters, of whom the eldest, married to 
 David Hay, of Woodcock-dale, Mid-Lothian, was 
 heiress of Kinnaird, and left the property to her 
 eldest son, David, he assuming the name and arms of 
 Bruce. David Hay Bruce was the traveller's 
 father. The Hays of "Woodcock-dale were a branch 
 of one of the oldest families in the three king- 
 doms. There is no foundation for the statement 
 that the family of Bruce is descended from King 
 Robert: that line was itself a branch, and be- 
 came extinct on the death of David II., 1371. 
 All the families who have any records, are de- 
 scended from the youngest of three sons of the 
 fourth Lord Annandale, lineally sprung from Robert 
 de Bruis, who came over from Normandy with 
 William the Conqueror. The name was variously 
 spelt, Brus, Bruis, Bruise, Bruix, and afterwards 
 Brace. The subject of this notice was educated in 
 London, Harrow-on-the-hill, and the university of 
 Edinburgh. Obliged to abandon his studies for the 
 profession of advocate on account of his health, he 
 went to London in 1753, in order to make arrange- 
 ments for settling in India in the way of trade. 
 He here changed his plans, and marrying a Miss 
 Allan, daughter of a rich wine merchant, deceased, 
 he became partner in that business. His amiable 
 wife died within a year, leaving him in the deepest 
 grief. Rallying, however, he set himself vigorously 
 to several studies, which proved of the greatest use 
 afterwards, and had meanwhile the effect of chang- 
 ing the current of his thoughts. In 1757, he went 
 on a lengthened tour to the continent, combining 
 pleasure with business connected with the firm. 
 His father's death the year following, hastened his 
 return. Though he now succeeded to the property, 
 and though his income from it began to improve 
 considerably from the year 1760 owing to the 
 establishment of the Carron iron works no change 
 took place in his designs. He was, in fact, in 
 daily expectation of an appointment from govern- 
 ment. He had made some suggestions about a 
 n the Spanish coast, which brought him 
 under the notice of Mr. Pitt and Lord Halifax; 
 and from the latter, in 17G2, he received the ap- 
 pointment of consul at Algiers, with the under- 
 standing that it was to be temporary, and was to 
 facilitate plans of discovery, which had bi en dis- 
 cussed between Lord Halifax and himself. Promises 
 
 LRU 
 of assistance in carrying out these were made only 
 to be broken; and on his being superseded, in 176o, 
 he left Algiers, and having visited many parts of 
 North Africa, and Western Asia, he reached Alex- 
 andria on the 20th June, 1768, and entered, at his 
 own cost, upon that long and perilous journey to 
 discover the sources of the Nile, for which he is 
 famous. The head waters reached by him are 
 now known not to have been those of the prin- 
 cipal stream, but of an important branch of the 
 great river, whose sources, though never yet 
 reached^ are ascertained to lie close upon the 
 equator, 800 miles south of the point reached by 
 Bruce. His singular adventures going and return- 
 ing, and during his residence in Abyssinia of two 
 years, are detailed at length in his Travels. He 
 reached Cairo, on his return, on 10th Jan., 1773 ; 
 but remaining in France and Italy for the restor- 
 ation of his health, he did not arrive in London 
 till June 1774, having been absent twelve years. 
 Returning to Scotland, he was actively engaged for 
 some time in improving his property. He married, 
 May 20, 1776, Mary, daughter of Thos. Dundas 
 of Fingask and lady Janet, daughter of Charles, 
 sixth earl Lauderdale, by whom he had two sons 
 and one daughter. Mrs. Bruce died in 1784. It 
 was not till 1790 that his Travels appeared in 5 
 vols. 4to. They excited universal interest, and 
 were translated into French and German. Many 
 of his most startling statements, which caused his 
 veracity to be seriously called in question, have been 
 since amply confirmed among others, that of the 
 horrid practice of devouring flesh cut quivering 
 from the body of a living cow ! On the evening of 
 April 26 ; 1794, when handing a lady down stairs to 
 her carnage, he fell headlong, and was taken up 
 insensible, but without apparent hurt. He ex- 
 pired next morning in the sixty-fourth year of his 
 age. He was succeeded by his second son, the 
 eldest having died an infant. His daughter mar- 
 ried John Jardine, Esq., advocate, of Edinburgh. 
 His remains were interred in the family vault at 
 Larbert. Mr. Bruce was tall of stature, being six 
 feet four inches in height, his person was large 
 and well-proportioned, and he had a commanding 
 air. He was extremely expert in the use of fire- 
 arms, and of the javelin and lance no small 
 recommendation among the rude tribes with whom 
 he sojourned. [J-B.] 
 
 BRUCE, John, a moral philosoph., 1744-1826. 
 
 BRUCE, Michael, one of the minor Scotch 
 poets, was born at Kinnesswood in the county of 
 Kinross, 27th March, 1746, and died of consump- 
 tion in the twenty-first year of his age, 6th July, 
 1767. His parents were in poor circumstances, his 
 father being a weaver ; but the merit belongs to 
 them of improving the genius which they early 
 discovered in poor Michael by a liberal education, 
 with the view of qualifying him for the ministry. 
 They even sent him to the university of Edinburgh 
 for three or four years from 1762, where he made 
 great progress in his classical and philosophical 
 studies ; but the graces of poetry ana the Belles 
 Lettres were his chosen pursuit, m which the pen- 
 sive melancholy to which men of genius are so 
 frequently subject, and the gifts of his imagination, 
 could be more freely indulged. There is little to 
 record of his innocent uneventful life. In 1765-6 
 he was teacher of a school at Gairney Bridge, near 
 
 103 
 
BRU 
 
 Kinross, and felt the heart-sickness of a disap- 
 pointed attachment for the daughter of the people 
 with whom he lodged, and who was a pupil of his. 
 Several of his poems have perpetuated the 
 memory of this circumstance, and the best of them 
 is his ' Alexis, a Pastoral,' in which the refinement 
 of the scholar is elegantly blended with the poeti- 
 cal sense of the muse, and the plaintive eloquence 
 of the lover. In 1766 he removed to a school near 
 Alloa, where he composed his ' Lochleven,' a de- 
 scriptive poem in blank verse, in which he has 
 gratefully remembered the virtues of his tried 
 friends Arnot and Henderson. All this time his 
 health was gradually sinking, and the fatigues of 
 the village school, no longer relieved and hallowed 
 to his heart by the evening instruction of his 
 1 Eumelia,' were more than he could endure. In 
 the winter of this year he abandoned whatever ex- 
 pectation he may have formed in the great busi- 
 ness of life, and returned to his parents, that the 
 loving hearts which had watched him with so 
 much solicitude in the morning of his days might 
 hush him to rest in their early evening. His last 
 words are a celebration of the return of Spring : 
 
 1 but not to me returns 
 
 The vernal joy my better years have known ; 
 Dim in my breast life's dying taper burns, 
 And all the joys of life with health are flown.' 
 
 The pathos and melody of many passages in this 
 elegy with the 'Alexis' already alluded to, and 
 his tarewell to Lochleven, in imitation of ' Lochaber 
 nae Mair,' fairly represent the natural talent of 
 Bruce for poetry. In personal character he was 
 remarkable for ingenuousness and modesty, and, 
 as a matter of course in a poet, for a feeling heart 
 and a lively imagination. Living a few short 
 years, consumed by hard study and anxiety, his 
 poems are few in number. They were published 
 in a volume, with some others added to make a 
 miscellany, but without any means of distinguish- 
 ing the authors, soon after his death, by his 
 friend and fellow-poet the Rev. John Logan, and 
 at a later period, properly discriminated, in the 
 collection of Dr. Anderson. [E.R.I 
 
 BRUCE, P. H., a Ger. officer and trav., d. 1757. 
 
 BRUCKER, John J., a Ger. critic, 1696-1770. 
 
 BRUCKNER, John, a Luther, min., 1726-1804. 
 
 BRUEYS, D. A., a Fr. dramatist, 1640-1723. 
 
 BRUEYS, F. P. De, a Fr. admiral, 1760-1798. 
 
 BRUGIERE, C. J., a Fr. dramatist, 1670-1754. 
 
 BRUGMANS, S. J., a eel. physician, 1763-1819. 
 
 BRUGNATELLI, L., an It. chemist, 1726-1818. 
 
 BRUGUIER, John, a Fr. protes. divine, d. 1684. 
 
 BRUGUIERE, A. A., a French author, d. 1823. 
 
 BRUHL, Hy., Count, Polish minister of state, 
 1700-1763. Frederick Louis, his son, a dramatic 
 writer, 1739-1793. Hans Moritz, his nephew, an 
 astronomer and political economist, d. 1809. 
 
 BRUNCK, R. F. P., a disting. critic, 1729-1803. 
 
 BRUNE, W. M. A., marshal of Fr., 1763-1815. 
 
 BRUNEAU, Mathurin, a pretender to the 
 crown of Fr. under the title of Louis XVIL, 1818. 
 
 BRUNEL, Marc Isambard, a civil engineer 
 of great fame, a consummate mechanical genius, 
 a man of rare singleness of mind and kindly 
 disposition. He was born at Hacqueville in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1769 the year that produced so many 
 notabilities. He began an education for the church 
 
 BRU 
 
 at the seminary of St. Nicain, at Rouen. His 
 genius had a different bent, however, and he so 
 distinguished himself in mathematics and physical 
 science, that the superior of the establishment re- 
 commended his adopting another profession. He 
 entered the royal navy of France constructed a 
 quadrant for himself made several voyages, and 
 returned home in 1792, during the reign of terror. 
 Being a royalist, he emigrated to the United 
 States, where necessity became the mother of his 
 wonderfully fertile invention. He surveyed for 
 canals, planned sawing mills, erected boring mills 
 for the ordnance, was architect of the first theatre 
 in New York (since burned down); and while 
 in America conceived the blockmaking machi- 
 nery, the success of which should alone give 
 him a conspicuous place in the annals of industrial 
 mechanism. With the block machinery on paper 
 he came to Britain in the year 1800. Lord Spen- 
 cer, then first lord of the admiralty, became his 
 friend and patron. From this time Brunei con- 
 tinued to reside in England, and refused to enter- 
 tain propositions made to him to settle abroad, 
 under the auspices of other governments. After 
 much delay, he was employed to make a set of 
 block machinery for Portsmouth Dockyard. With 
 happy discrimination Brunei selected the late Henry 
 Maudslay as the maker of the machines, and thus 
 was laid the foundation of one of the most extensive 
 and perfect engineering establishments in the king- 
 dom. The machines were made exactly after Brunei's 
 models. They have been for forty-seven years at 
 work, and no change or improvement in any of 
 them has since been made or suggested. This is a 
 type of all Brunei's work. His plans and drawings 
 were kept to himself till so elaborated that they 
 really contained the essence of all that could be 
 done in simplifying the means to accomplish the 
 end in view. His circular saw for cutting veneers, 
 the machine for winding cotton balls, as inven- 
 tions in pure mechanism and the Chatham Dock- 
 yard and the Thames Tunnel, amongst works of 
 civil engineering, may be cited in illustration. The 
 first steam-boat that ran en the Thames, and the 
 first double acting steam engine used for propelling 
 steam vessels, were erected under his instructions 
 in 1816. The history of the Thames Tunnel is 
 too recent and familiar to require that we should 
 repeat it here. Despite its failure, commercially 
 speaking, Brunei continued to look upon it as hi3 j 
 greatest achievement, and devoted the latter years I 
 of his valuable life in completing it. It is undoubt- 
 edly a great and marvellous triumph of skill, and ; 
 only those who know the extraordinary variety of i 
 engineering resources which it called into play, can : 
 sufficiently appreciate the talents of the engineer j 
 who planned them and superintended their execu- 
 tion. Brunei died in 1849, in his eighty-first year. 
 His son carries his father's fame in full vitality to 
 another generation. Brunei was knighted in 1842. 
 He was V.P.R.S., and corresponding member of j 
 the Institute of France. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 BRUNELLESCHI, Filippo, one of the earliest 
 and most celebrated Italian architects of the Revival, 
 was born at Florence, in 1377. He was brought i 
 up a goldsmith, but devoted himself equally to 
 sculpture and architecture. He paid, also, early ! 
 attention to perspective, and instructed Masaccio 
 in this science. Brunelleschi joined the compcti- ' 
 
 101 
 
BRU 
 
 tion, in 1401, for the bronze gates of the Baptis- 
 tery of St. John, at Florence ; bnt both he and his 
 celebrated contemporary, Donatello, admitted that 
 they were surpassed by Ghiberti, who gained the 
 commission, though then a mere youth ; the cen- 
 tre gates were not fixed up until half a century 
 after the competition, 1452. Brunelleschi visited 
 Rome, where the Pantheon seems to have made 
 a great impression on him, and to have determined 
 him to undertake his great work, the dome of 
 Santa Maria del Fiore, or cathedral of Florence, 
 which had been left unfinished by Arnolfo di Lapo. 
 He returned to Rome in 1417, and made a model 
 of the dome, but without convincing his contem- 
 poraries of the practicability of his scheme, until 
 after the great congress of architects at Florence, 
 in 1420, who then looked upon him as mad. At 
 length, however, in 1423, he was appointed sole 
 architect of the cathedral, Lorenzo Ghiberti being 
 at first joined with him; and though he did 
 not live long enough to see his great work quite 
 completed, it was sufficiently advanced to secure 
 its completion by his successors. This dome is 
 the largest in the world constructed of masonry, 
 it being some feet wider than that of St. Peter's 
 ai Rome. The angular interior diameter is 78 
 Tuscan ells, nearly 150 English feet. Brunelleschi 
 executed many other great works in Florence, and 
 elsewhere; in Florence, are worthy of mention, 
 the magnificent Pitti Palace, the residence of the 
 
 Kand dukes of Tuscany, and the church of San 
 >renzo. He died in 1446, and was buried with 
 great pomp in the cathedral. (Vasari, Vite dei 
 Pittori, &c. ; Moreni, Vite del Brunellesco, &c. 
 1812 ; Fantozzi, Guida di Firenze.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 BRUNET, Fe. F., a Fr. philos. and theological 
 writer, author of ' Parallele des Religions,' d. 1806. 
 
 BRUNNER, J. C, a Swiss physiol., 1653-1727. 
 
 BRUNO, a Roman saint, founder of the order of 
 the Carthusians, lived 1030-1101. 
 
 [Carthusian Monk ] 
 
 BRUNO, Giordano, a remarkable Italian In- 
 quirer of the 16th century, whose very daring and 
 original speculations derive fresh interest from 
 hh fate he was burnt as an Atheist by the 
 Inquisition at Rome, on 17th February, 1600. 
 
 BRU 
 
 Wearied of shackles inseparable from his first 
 position as a Dominican priest, Bruno fled to 
 Geneva in 1580, where he lived two years. The 
 rigour, the despotism, and intolerance of Calvin, 
 did not, however, suit him ; and finding no ade- 
 quate compensation in the intellectual power, logi- 
 cal acuteness, or vehement courage of that great 
 Reformer, he departed for Lyons, Toulon, and Paris. 
 For some years, indeed, Bruno was a wanderer 
 over Europe ; he lived in London at the close of 
 1583 ; but led by an unhappy fatality, or through 
 effect of that home-sickness which is part of the 
 moral being of every Italian, he weaned of free 
 and safe lands, and returned to teach in Padua, 
 The Inquisition arrested him, and retained him in 
 prison for two years vainly attempting to re- 
 duce him to recantation. On 9th of February 
 he was degraded, excommunicated, and delivered 
 to the secular magistrate, after the usual dis- 
 gusting formula ' That he be dealt with as 
 mercifully as possible, and punished without 
 effusion of blood.'' Bruno exclaimed, ' Your 
 sentence strikes more teiTor into your own hearts 
 than into mine/ and he died as a brave man 
 ought. It is far from wonderful that Bruno called 
 down ecclesiastical fury on his head. His writings 
 consist for the most part of keen and scarcely- 
 concealed satire on the Romish Church and priest- 
 hood: nor was his philosophy less unacceptable, 
 for, revolting against the despotism of that Aris- 
 totle of the middle ages, he took refuge with Plato 
 and the School of Alexandria. His errors lay not 
 in the direction of Atheism, but in that of Panthe- 
 ism : so far from bringing down the absolute and 
 ever-living Cause towards things or forms finite, he 
 rather inclined to diminish the importance of the 
 created or external universe ; nor is it precisely 
 easy to see, in what way he provided for, or saved 
 human liberty and responsibility in his really de- 
 vout and imposing scheme. We shall characterize 
 his peculiar phase of the doctrine of the ' absolute ' 
 under the article Spinoza. Bruno wrote very 
 largely. His Italian writings were collected and 
 published at Leipzig in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1830. A 
 very interesting account has recently been given 
 of his life and general philosophy by the French 
 writer Bartholmness. [J.P.N. ] 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Otho, duke of, chief of the ducal 
 house of Brunswick and Lunebura:, 1204-1252. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Ernest Aug., duke of, de- 
 scendant of the preceding, created elector of Han- 
 over, father of George I.j 1629-1698. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Ferd., diike of, one of the most 
 disting. generals in the seven yrs.' war, 1721-1792. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURGH, Ch. W. Fred., 
 duke of, neph. of the preced., noted as com. of the 
 forces intended to liberate Louis XVI., killed 1806. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL, Maxim. 
 Jul. Leop., duke of, br. of the prec, 1751-1785. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-OELS, Fred. Aug., duke of, 
 eel. as the au. of an essay on great men, 1740-1805. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-OELS, Fred. Wm., duke of, 
 brother of Queen Caroline, distinguished in the 
 peninsular war, and killed at the head of his troops 
 two days before the battle of Waterloo, 1771-1815. 
 
 BRUNTON, Mary, a novelist, 1778-1818. 
 
 BRUSCH, Gasp., a Bohem. savant, 1518-1559. 
 
 BRUSONIUS, L. D., a classic, compiler, 16th c. 
 
 BRUTI, J. M., an historical writer, 1515-1594. 
 
 103 
 
BRU 
 
 [Lucius Junius Brutus.] 
 
 BRUTUS, the surname of a Roman family, 
 several members of winch appear in history. 1. 
 Lucius Junius Brutus, was the son of Marcus 
 Junius, and of Tarquinia, sister of Tarquinius 
 Superbus (Tarquin the Proud,) the last king of 
 Rome. When still young he lost his father and 
 elder brother by the cruelty of Tarquin ; and he 
 himself escaped a similar fate by feigning idiocy; 
 which perhaps gave origin to the surname Brutus 
 or Dullard. The violence offered by Sextus, the 
 son of Tarquin, to Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, 
 called forth the true character of Brutus. Being a 
 witness along with her husband and father to her 
 injured virtue, he drew from her bosom the knife 
 with which she vindicated her innocence, and 
 bound himself by the most solemn oath to visit 
 the crime of Sextus upon Tarquin and all his 
 accursed race, and to suffer no man thereafter to 
 be king in Rome. The populace were easily ex- 
 cited, and these being readily joined by the army, 
 Tarquin and his family were banished from Rome, 
 B.C. 510. In the following year Brutus and Colla- 
 tinus, the husband of Lucretia, were elected as the 
 first consuls, and headed the army against the at- 
 tempts which were made to restore the banished 
 family. When leading the cavalry against Porsenna, 
 who had espoused the cause of the Tarquins, Brutus 
 engaged in single combat with Aruns, the son of 
 the exiled king, and both fell, pierced by each 
 other's spears. 2. Decimus Junius Brutus, 
 served under Caesar in Gaul ; and, on the breaking 
 out of the civil war, B.C. 49, actively exerted himself 
 in promoting his interests. He afterwards obtained 
 the command of Further Gaul, and performed 
 services so important, that Caesar promised him the 
 government of Cisalpine Gaul, with the prastor- 
 ship for B.C. 44, and the consulship for B.C. 42. 
 Being thus in possession of the entire confidence 
 of Cesar, his co-operation was of great value to 
 the other conspirators; and he was accordingly 
 sent by them to conduct their victim to the senate 
 house on the day of the assassination. The mo- 
 tives which induced Brutus to join the conspi- 
 racy against his friend and benefactor, are not 
 known. After the death of Caesar, B.C. 44, he 
 went to his province of Cisalpine Gaul, from which 
 he was expelled in the following year by Antony, 
 to whom the same province had been assigned by 
 the people. He now resolved to cross over into j 
 
 BRU 
 
 Macedonia to Marcus Brutus, but his soldiers de- 
 serted him on the march; and he was betrayed by 
 Camillus, a Gaulish chief, and put to death "by or- 
 der of Antony. 3. Marcus Junius Brutus, 
 son of M. Junius Brutus, by Servilia, sister of 
 Cato of Utica, was born b.c. 85. When the civil 
 war broke out between Caesar and Pompey. b.c. 
 49, Brutus, contrary to expectation, joined the 
 party of the latter, and fought under his banners 
 at the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. Having thus 
 incurred the displeasure of the predominant party, 
 he solicited and obtained the pardon of the con- 
 queror, who restored him to his confidence, and 
 generously allowed him to spend his time in his 
 favourite literary pursuits. In B.C. 46 he was 
 made governor of Cisalpine Gaul ; and in b.c. 44 
 obtained the office of city praetor ; thus not only 
 acquiescing in the usurpation of Caesar, but ac- 
 cepting favours and offices from the dictator. The 
 change of mind which at this time took place was 
 effected through the influence of Caius Cassius, by 
 whom he was persuaded to join the assassins on 
 the Ides of March. Failing to enlist the people 
 on the side of the conspirators, he retired to 
 Athens, where receiving a large sum of money, he 
 collected the scattered troops of Pompey, and" pro- 
 ceeded to take possession of Macedonia, the pro- 
 vince which Caasar had assigned to him. After 
 making himself master of Greece and Macedonia, 
 he went to Asia and joined Cassius, whose efforts 
 in raising an army had been equally successful. 
 Brutus and Cassius now returned to Macedonia, 
 and met Augustus and Antony on the plains of 
 Philippi, b.c. 42. In the first engagement the 
 army of Augustus gave way before that of Brutus, 
 while Cassius was defeated by Antony. But in a 
 second battle, fought about twenty days later, 
 Brutus was defeated, and fell upon his own 
 sword. [G.F.] 
 
 BRUYERE, Jean De La, a native of Nor- 
 mandy, was born in 1644. After having been 
 royal treasurer at Caen, he was appointed, on the 
 recommendation of Bossuet, to give instruction in 
 history to the duke of Burgundy, the grandson of 
 Louis XIV. He remained attached to the court, 
 and died in 1696. In regard to the details of his 
 life very little has been recorded ; but a prudent 
 and unobtrusive reserve seems to have accompanied 
 those habits of keen observation, on which mainly 
 his literary fame was built. His ' Characters,' pub- 
 lished in 1687, but much augmented in following 
 editions, placed him immediately in the highest rank 
 as a master of French style ; and they still entitle him 
 to be named with Rochefoucault and Montaigne, 
 among those writers whom the French regard as 
 most thoroughly acquainted with human nature. 
 The work is unlike the 'Characters' of Theophras- 
 tus, (a translation of which was prefixed to it,) in 
 substituting minutely drawn portraits, full of indivi- 
 duality, for outlines of characteristics common to 
 large classes of men; and from those sketches of a 
 similar kind which had been so frequently pro- 
 duced in England during the first half of the 17th 
 century, it differs not only in the variety and par- 
 ticularity of its scenes and figures, but also in the 
 prominence it gives to general maxims, and to re- 
 flections prompted by them. It abounds, to an 
 extraordinary degree, both in striking thoughts 
 expressed with epigrammatic force and concise- 
 
 106 
 
BRY 
 
 ness, and in fragmentary sketches of men and 
 manners, which suggest to every one parallels en- 
 countered in actual experience. The attempts 
 which were eagerly made (and which are embodied 
 in a key usually attached to the book) to identify 
 the personages described, proved at once the Pari- 
 sian love of scandal, and the general conviction 
 that the writer had drawn faithfully from the life. 
 La Bruyere's view of human nature is severe, but 
 less bitterly so than that of Rochefoucault ; and he 
 excels in a delicate and philosophical irony, which 
 he applies with especial dexterity in half-hinting his 
 real opinions on questions about which he dissented 
 from his contemporaries and countrymen. [W.S.] 
 
 BRYAN, M., a wr. on art biography, 1757-1821. 
 
 BRYAN, Sir F., a statesman and poet, 16th ct. 
 
 BRYANT, Jac, au. of an ' Analysis of Ancient 
 Mvthology,' and other works of research, 1715-1804. 
 
 BRYDGES, Sir S. Egerton, Bart., an au. of 
 extraord. fertility and range of subjects, 1762-1837. 
 
 BRYDONE, Dr. P., au. of travels, 1741-1819. 
 
 BUACHE, Ph., a Fr. geographer, 1700-1775. 
 
 BUAT-NANCAY, Louis Gabriel, Comte Du. 
 a French diplomatist and historian, 1732-1787. 
 
 BUCELIN, G., a German historian, 1599-1691. 
 
 BUCER, Martin, was born in 1491 at Schele- 
 stadt in Alsace. His early life was spent among 
 the Dominicans, who sent him to Heidelberg to 
 pursue his education, and there he had a dispute 
 with Luther on free-will. In 1521 he became a 
 convert to the Reformation. At Strasburg he was 
 both a pastor and teacher of theology for many 
 years. At the diet of Augsburg he incurred such 
 suspicion and danger by opposing the ' Interim,' 
 that he welcomed an invitation from Cranmer to 
 come and reside in England. He taught theology 
 at Cambridge with no little acceptance, and died 
 there in February, 1550. Under the intolerant 
 and fanatical reign of Mary, his ashes were dug 
 up and burnt. His works are numerous, and some 
 ol his commentaries are still held in repute. Car- 
 dinal Contarini said of him, ' That ne was able 
 to contend alone with all the doctors of the 
 Romish church.' [J.E.J 
 
 BUCHAN, Rt. Hon. Stuart Erskine, earl 
 of, founder of the Antiq. Soc. of Scotland, d. 1829. 
 
 BUCHAN, Wm., a Scotch physician, au. of the 
 well-known ' Domestic Medicine,' 1729-1805. 
 
 BUCHAN, Elizabeth, a visionary, 1758-1791. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Dr. Claudius, was a native of 
 Cambuslang, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, 
 where he was born, 12th March, 1766. His father, 
 who was parish teacher of that place, and a very 
 pious man, brought him, both by his precepts and 
 example, under the early influence of religion ; and 
 the character and pursuits of his future life took 
 their direction, in all probability, from the impres- 
 sions received under the parental roof. The family 
 having removed to Inverary, young Buchanan re- 
 ceived his education at the grammar school of that 
 town, of which his father had become master; and 
 having made great proficiency in his knowledge of 
 Latin and Greek, he obtained, while yet under four- 
 teen, the appointment of tutor to the sons of Mr. 
 Campbell of Dunstaffnage. During the two years 
 that he continued in that office, he exhibited a 
 prudence and practical knowledge above his years; 
 and what is more, he advanced in piety and strict 
 habits of devotion, in which he engaged daily in a 
 
 BUC 
 
 lonely spot on the sea shore. Repairing in 1787 
 to London, he there acquired the friendship of the 
 good John Newton, under whose ministry he sat ; 
 and having, after a ripened intimacy, communi- 
 cated to that venerable counsellor his earnest wish 
 to be employed in preaching the gospel abroad, he 
 was introduced to the notice of an eminent Chris- 
 tian philanthropist, Mr. John Thornton, who de- 
 lighted to spend his fortune in advancing the cause 
 of Christ. That gentleman, having satisfied him- 
 self as to the character and principles of the young 
 Scotchman, resolved to undertake the expense of 
 giving him a university education, and accordingly 
 Buchanan was in 1791 admitted into Queen's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. After a very distinguished career 
 at the university, Buchanan was in 1795 ordained 
 by Bishop Porteus, and in the March following sailed 
 for India as a chaplain in the East India Com- 
 pany's service. In that character he was destined 
 to render important services to the cause of Christ ; 
 and indeed the name of Claudius Buchanan stands 
 foremost in the history of the propagation of the 
 gospel in India. Amid much opposition he con- 
 tinued his evangelical labours; -and having been 
 appointed by the marquis of Wellesley, Vice-Pro- 
 vost of the College of Fort-William in Bengal, he 
 issued in 1804 the first translation ever made of 
 the gospels in Persian and Hindostanee. In 1806 
 he published proposals for a subscription to aid 
 in translating the Scriptures in fifteen Oriental 
 languages ; and through his zealous exertions the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, the universities 
 of Oxford, Cambridge, and Glasgow, were induced 
 to aid in that important undertaking. To qualify 
 himself by more familiar acquaintance with its dia- 
 lects, he devoted a year to travel through the In- 
 dian continent. On Lord Minto's appointment to 
 the gov.-generalship in 1807, Mr. Buchanan, who 
 considered the course of administration pursued 
 unfavourable to the interests of religion, published 
 his celebrated ' Memoir of the Expediency of an 
 Ecclesiastical Establishment in British India.' 
 Compelled through declining health to abandon the 
 field of his arduous labours, he left India and ar- 
 rived in England in the month of August, 1808, and 
 after having visited his friends in Scotland, he re- 
 turned to England, where he preached, and after- 
 wards published 'The Star in the East,' and 
 ' Christian Researches in Asia,' an interesting and 
 eloquent appeal on behalf of missions. He finally 
 settled as incumbent of the parish of Ouseburn, 
 Yorkshire, where he died of a paralytic shock on 
 9th February, 1815. [R.J.] 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, the celebrated Latin 
 poet and historian of Scotland, was born of an old 
 but respectable family in the parish of Killearn, 
 Stirlingshire, February, 1506, and having lost his 
 father when young, was educated by his maternal 
 uncle, James Heriot. He had been at the univer- 
 sity of Paris about two years when the latter also 
 died, and Buchanan was reduced to such indigence 
 that he enlisted as a common soldier in the duke 
 of Albany's army, but at the conclusion of the war 
 he was enabled to resume his studies, and took a 
 master's degree in 1528. Between this period and 
 1539-41 he was employed under various circum- 
 stances as a classical teacher, and was residing 
 with the earl of Cassihs in Ayrshire, when his 
 unlucky wit, and the Lutheran principles he had 
 
 107 
 
BUC 
 
 imbibed, led to his imprisonment for some satirical 
 verses written against the Franciscans. He was 
 fortunate enough to escape from St. Andrew's 
 castle, and finding his way beyond seas, lived some 
 twenty years in exile, undergoing much persecu- 
 tion, even to confinement in the prisons ot the In- 
 quisition, yet always recovering himself and living 
 by his professional avocations. About the year 
 1562 he is known to have been residing in Scot- 
 land again, and had the good fortune a few years 
 later to be intrusted with the education of the 
 young prince, (James VI.,) whom he made ' a 
 pedant ' because, as he said, ' he could make no- 
 thing better of him.' Whether at home or abroad, 
 his literary industry never flagged, and few men 
 have received more uniform praise from the 
 learned, who seem to have vied with each other in 
 celebrating the graces of his style, especially in his 
 beautiful paraphrase of the Psalms, composed in 
 the imprisonment of a monastery, and his Scotch 
 history ; at the same time that he is generally 
 blamed as an historian, for writing of things as he 
 was casually informed, and especially for his severe 
 expressions against the unhappy Mary Stuart. 
 The examples of royalty with which he had made 
 acquaintance were hardly calculated to impress 
 him with much reverence for the institution, and 
 his work ' De Jure Regni apud Scotos,' was really 
 a vindication of the democratic control of prin- 
 ces. Sir John Scot, in his short description of 
 Buchanan, quaintly observes : 'He was in so 
 great disgust with the court before he died, that 
 they caused summon him before them sitting in 
 council, for some passages of his history too plain 
 of the king's mother and grandmother; and he 
 had undoubtedly run a great hazard of his life if 
 the Lord had not freed him of the miseries of this 
 world betwixt the citation and the day of com- 
 pearance.' His life was thus curiously saved on 
 the 28th September, 1581, and as he left no pro- 
 perty, he was buried at the expense of the city of 
 Edinburgh. [E.R.] 
 
 BUCHEZ, Arnold, a Dutch hist., 1565-1641. 
 
 BUCHOZ, P. J., a naturalist, 1737-1807. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, 
 minister of Charles I., assassinated 1628. His 
 
 [Ilousfe at Portsmouth in Which Buckingham wits aasasslnated.J 
 
 BUL 
 
 profligate son, of the same name, the unprincipled 
 minister and favourite of Charles II., 1627-1688. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM AND CHANDOS, Anxk 
 Eliza, duchess of, a lady of distinguished accom- 
 plishments and benevolence, 1779-1836. 
 
 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, John Sheffield, 
 duke of, author of ' Memoirs of the Revolution of 
 1688,' in which he took a part, 1649-1720. 
 
 BUCKINK, Arnold, an engraver, 15th cent. 
 
 BUCKLER, B., an antiq. and div., 1716-1780. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER, J. S., a lrnd. div., 1784-1812. 
 
 BUDDiEUS, John Francis, author of a Ger- 
 man ' Historical Dictionary,' 1667-1729. 
 
 BUFFON, George Louis Le Cleuc, Comte 
 De, an eminent naturalist, was born at Montbard, 
 in Burgundy, in 1707. He died in 1788. Buft'on was 
 educated at the college of Dijon. When nineteen 
 years old he travelled through Italy, and it is most 
 probably owing to his having inspected in person 
 the effects of the convulsions of nature, and the 
 proofs of ancient revolutions of the globe in that 
 country, that we are indebted for the works which 
 have immortalized his name. In 1739 he was ap- 
 pointed superintendent of the Garden of Plants ; 
 and from that time he devoted his whole life to 
 the study of natural history. He was assiduous 
 in his attention to the duties of his office; and 
 under his excellent management the garden, and 
 museum of natural history attached to it, became 
 the first in Europe. For ten years he devoted him- 
 self to his grand work, his Natural History, the 
 first volume of which appeared in 1749, the remain- 
 ing following at short intervals. The object of 
 this work is to give a general theory of the globe 
 which we inhabit, the disposition, the nature, and 
 origin of the substances which it offers to our view, 
 the grand phenomena which operate at its surface or 
 in its bosom ; the history of man, and the laws which 
 preside at his formation, in his development, dur- 
 ing his life, and at his death ; the nomenclature 
 and the description of quadrupeds and birds, the 
 examination of their faculties, and the delineation 
 of their manners. This work is written with great 
 elegance of style ; and his eloquent descriptions, 
 the brilliancy of imagination which pervades them, 
 and the correct taste he exhibited in arranging his 
 subjects, soon made it the most popular book of 
 the kind ever written. An extraordinary impulse 
 was given by Buffon to the study of natural his- 
 tory in his own country ; and he has the great 
 merit besides of having spread a love for the study 
 of nature far and wide. The solid anatomical por- 
 tion contributed to the history of the quadrupeds 
 by Daubenton, added much to its value amongst 
 scientific men; and many of the best works in 
 natural history, that have been written in France 
 since his death, have been published under the 
 name of Suites a Buffon. [W.B.] 
 
 BUGEAUD, Marshal, duke of Isly, disting. 
 in the wars of Napoleon, and in Africa, 1784-1849. 
 
 BULL, John, a disting. composer, 17th cent. 
 
 BULL, George, a theological au., 1634-1709. 
 
 BULLANT, Jean, a French architect, 16th c. 
 
 BULLER, Rt. Honb. Ch., a polit., 1806-1848. 
 
 BULLIALDUS, Ismael, anastron., 1605-1694. 
 
 BULLIARD, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1742-1793. 
 
 BULLINGER, Henry, was born at Bremgar- 
 ten in 1504, studied logic and scholastic philo- 
 sophy at Cologne, was gradually weaned from 
 
 108 
 
BUL 
 
 popery, then became the confidant of Zuinglius at 
 Zurich, and at length was appointed to succeed 
 him by the suffrages of the senate and the ecclesi- 
 astical synod. For more than forty years he pre- 
 sided over the church in Zurich with singular pru- 
 dence and success. He was a bulwark and an 
 apostle of the Reformation, and he displayed great 
 hospitality to the refugees from England under 
 the persecution of Queen Mary. His works fire 
 not very numerous, nor are they of present value. 
 Died September 17, 1575. [J.E.] 
 
 BULMER, Wm., an Engl, printer, 1746-1830. 
 
 BULOW, F. W., Count Von Dennewitz, a Prus- 
 sian general in the late war, 1755-1816. 
 
 BULOW, Henry, Baron Von, a Pruss. diplom., 
 at length minister of foreign affairs, 1790-1846. 
 
 BUNYAN, John, the celebrated author of the 
 4 Pilgrim's Progress,' was bom in 1628 at Elstow, 
 in Bedfordshire. His father, though a travelling 
 tinker, had taught him to read and write; but 
 seduced by evil example, he plunged into every 
 species of vice, and acquired the character of a 
 notorious and hardened profligate. He became a 
 6oldier in the service of the parliament, and was 
 at the siege of Liecester, where having been drawn 
 on one occasion to act as sentinel, he narrowly 
 escaped the fate of his comrade, who was shot 
 by a musket ball from the royalist camp. Many 
 other remarkable deliverances are recorded in his 
 early history, clearly showing that Providence, 
 who threw over him the shield of Divine 
 protection, had some important work in reserve 
 for him. Overhearing the conversation of four 
 pious women, who were talking to each other 
 of the necessity and blessedness of a religious 
 life, and the hopeless misery of the wicked, 
 his conscience was struck ; he began to think seri- 
 ously, and his dissolute companions perceiving a 
 sudden alteration in his conduct, which all their 
 raillery could not affect, gradually abandoned his 
 society. As for Bunyan, he put himself in private 
 communication with Gifford, a dissenting minister 
 in Bedford*, whose chapel he attended, and being 
 persuaded that baptism by immersion was the only 
 Scriptural mode of receiving the ordinance, he was 
 in that manner received, in 1653, into the com- 
 munion of the church. Conceiving himself called 
 to proclaim the gospel, he perambulated the 
 country as an itinerant preacher. After the res- 
 toration, this course of life brought him within the 
 grasp of the law, which prohibited conventicles, 
 and as he could not desist from a duty to which 
 he imagined himself specially called, he was con- 
 demned to perpetual banishment. This severe 
 sentence was not carried into execution ; but he 
 was confined in Bedford jail for the long period of 
 twelve years and a-half. In that place he supported 
 himself and family by tagging laces, and although 
 cut off by his protracted confinement from all oppor- 
 tunity cf public preaching, he was, in the overrul- 
 ing providence of God, more extensively useful than 
 while in the enjoyment of unfettered liberty ; for 
 having during his leisure hours exerted the extra- 
 ordinary talents with which he was endowed, he 
 produced the ' Pilgrim's Progress,' a work which 
 has been more extensively circulated, and done more 
 
 food in the world than any other book, except the 
 >ible alone. Bunyan being at last released 
 through the kind intercession of Dr. Barlow, bishop 
 
 BUR 
 
 of London, he was chosen pastor of the baptist 
 church in Bedford. Wherever he went, he was at- 
 tended by crowded audiences, amongst whom were 
 sometimes found persons of high eminence both in 
 the church and state. He died in London, 1688, 
 in the sixtieth year of his age, and was buried in 
 Bunhill cemetery. His other works, 'The Holy 
 War,' and ' Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sin- 
 ners,' are pieces of great merit, though their fame 
 is eclipsed by his unrivalled allegory. [R.J.] 
 
 ^^Ijll 
 
 
 [Bedford Jail.] 
 
 BUONAFEDE, Appian, a phil. wr., d. 1792. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Chas., father of Napoleon, 
 born towards 1746, distinguished himself in the 
 Corsican war of independence under Paoli, d. 1785. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, J., an Ital. histor., 16th cent. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Joseph, elder brother of 
 Napoleon, born 1768 ; commissary of the army of 
 Italy, 1796 ; deputy to the council of 500, and am- 
 bassador to Rome, 1797 ; king of the two Sicilies, 
 1806-1808; king of Spain, 1808-1813 ; lieutenant- 
 general of the empire to the abdic. of Napoleon, 
 1814 ; and again in the hundred days, 1815 ; d. 1844. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Laetitia Ramolino, mother 
 of Napoleon, has no place in polit. hist., d. 1840. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Louis, third br. of Napoleon, 
 and father of the present emperor of the French, 
 born 1778 ; king of Holland 1806-1810 ; died in a 
 philosophical retirement as count of St. Leu, 1846. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Lucien, the next br. after 
 Napoleon, born 1775 ; agent of the war department 
 1793-1795 ; member of the council of 500 1797 ; 
 president and confederate of Napoleon 1799; prince 
 of Canino 1807 ; died 1840. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, N., an Italian poet, 15th cent 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Napoleon. See Napoleon. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Nap. Fr. Ch. Joseph, only 
 son of the emperor and Maria Louisa of Austria, 
 saluted king of Rome at his birth, 1811-1832. 
 
 BUONARROTI. See Michelangelo. 
 
 BUONO, Bartollomeo, an Italian architect 
 and sculptor, 15th century. An architect of this 
 name flourished also in the 12th century. 
 
 BUPALUS, a Greek sculptor, 6th century B.C. 
 
 BURBAGE, Rich., an actor, age of Elizabeth. 
 
 BURCARD, bishop of Worms, died 1026. 
 
 BURCH, Edw., an English artist, 1730-1814. 
 
 BURCHARD, J., a Roman prelate, died 1505. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, John Ludwig, was born at 
 Lausanne, in Switzerland, in the year 1784, or 
 
 109 
 
BUR 
 
 17S5. He studied at Basle, Leipzig, nnd Gottin- 
 gen, graduating at the latter, introduced by 
 Blumenbach, in 1806, to Sir Joseph Banks and 
 the African Association, he was engaged to travel 
 under their auspices in central Africa : and having 
 carefully prepared himself by various studies, he 
 received his instructions in January, 1809. These 
 bore that he was to remain two years in Syria, 
 perfecting himself in the Arabic, thence to proceed 
 to Mourzouk, in Fezzan, from which he was to 
 cross the desert to Soudan, and the sources of the 
 Niger. While in Syria, he visited most places of 
 interest. In 1812 he reached Cairo, and being 
 repeatedly disappointed in finding a caravan to 
 convey him to Mourzouk, he performed various 
 journeys in Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, on the shores 
 of the Red Sea, and through Arabia, collecting a 
 great amount of most important information. 
 When, at length, in the autumn of 1817, the long 
 expected caravan was ready to depart, Burckhardt 
 was seized with dysentery, and expired at Cairo, 
 October 15, 1817, in the thirty-third year of his 
 age. His last days were cheered by the kind 
 attentions of Mr. Salt, the English consul; and 
 his death caused lively regret in Europe. His 
 Travels occupy 4 vols. 4to, published at different 
 times between 1819 and 1830. [J.B.] 
 
 BURCKHARDT, J. C, an astron., 1773-1825. 
 
 BURDER, Geo., an evangelical minis., d. 1832. 
 
 BURDETT, Sir Francis, an eminent popu- 
 lar and parliamentary leader, was born on 25th 
 January, 1770. The younger son of a younger 
 son, it was only after a series of unexpected and 
 calamitous deaths that he succeeded to the title 
 and estates of his ancient and affluent family. 
 Before that event he had in 1793 married a daugh- 
 ter of Thomas Coutts, the banker. He began 
 his eventful parliamentary career by advocating 
 an exposure of abuses in the Coldbath Fields, and 
 other prisons. It was from the popularity thus 
 achieved that in 1802 he was started for Middle- 
 sex. After a hot contest of fifteen days he was 
 returned, but the House found the election void, 
 and imprisoned the sheriffs. The contest was still 
 carried on by him in vain at enormous expense. 
 In 1807, when disabled by a wound in a duel, he 
 was started on the memorable contest for West- 
 minster. His friends were successful, and he sat 
 nearly thirty years for that constituency. The 
 main incident in his subsequent career is that in a 
 quarrel with the House of Commons, he attempted 
 to resist the Speaker's warrant for his arrest, and 
 created a disturbance, in which lives were lost. 
 On this occasion the Serjeant at arms found him 
 affected by teaching his child magna charta. It 
 was always suspected that his politics were founded 
 more on love of popularity than conviction, and he 
 proved this by capriciously changing them in 1835, 
 and vehemently adopting the other side. When pro- 
 fessing democracy he was a thorough aristocrat in 
 personal feeling. His appearance was handsome 
 and commanding, and with his dress and deport- 
 ment made him the picture of a high bred English 
 gentleman of the old school. He died on 23d 
 January, 1844. [J.H.B.] 
 
 BURDON, Wm., a philosophical wr., d. 1818. 
 
 BURGESS, D., a popular preacher, 1645-1713. 
 
 BURGESS, Rt. Rev. Thos., bp of Salisbury, 
 dist. for his profit, and literary labours, 1756-1837. 
 
 BUR 
 
 BURGH, James, a Scotch moralist, 1714-75. 
 
 BURGH, John De, earl of Comyn, a soldier of 
 the mid. ages, descended from Charlemagne, d. 1324. 
 
 BURGKMAIR, Hans, a German painter and 
 wood engraver, was born at Augsburg in 1472. 
 Though a painter of great excellence in his time 
 and style, he is better known for his series of 
 woodcuts, chiefly illustrating the achievements 
 and life of the emperor Maximilian ; as ' Der Weiss 
 Kunig,' (the wise king), an account of the acts of 
 the emperor Maximilian I., with 237 large cuts, 
 published with the life by Treitzsauerwein, at 
 Vienna, in 1775 ; and the triumphal procession of 
 the same emperor in 135 large cuts folio, executed 
 in 1519 ; ' Le Triomphe de l'Empereur Maximilien 
 I.,' accompanied with the ancient description dic- 
 tated by the emperor himself to his secretary 
 Marc Treitzsaurwein, Vienna, 1796. There is a 
 third curious book of the ' Saints ' of the imperial 
 family, also by Burgkmair. The above works, 
 especially the ' Weiss Kunig,' are very valuable for 
 the great variety and accuracy in detail of the 
 illustrations of the manners and customs of the 
 commencement of the sixteenth century. The 
 blocks of these cuts, and many others by Burgk- 
 mair, are still preserved in the imperial library of 
 Vienna. They are only partly executed by Burgk- 
 mair, he was aided by Albrecht Durer, and several 
 other of the principal artists of his time : it is sup- 
 posed that he actually cut very few of the blocks. 
 The date of his death is uncertain, it is fixed by 
 some authorities as late as 1559. [R.N.W.] 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, a general in the first Amer. 
 war, now remembered as a dramatic au., d. 1792. 
 
 BURIDAN, John, a philosopher, 14th century. 
 
 BURIGNY, J. L. De, a Fr. author, 1691-1785. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, a celebrated orator, states- 
 man, and philosopher, was born at Dublin on 1st 
 January, 1730. It has been much questioned 
 whether he was from the beginning what is termed 
 a political adventurer without means of liveli- 
 hood to keep him independent, or entered on life 
 w ; th a considerable fortune. His family was said 
 to be high and ancient, but his enemies, who were 
 many and bitter, treated this as a common na- 
 tional boast of all Irishmen, and spoke of Burke as 
 a sort of barbarian, who had come from a wild 
 tribe to fight his way on in civilized life by the 
 fierce unscrupulous habits in which he had been 
 brought up. His early education, however, was 
 derived in the calm seclusion of a Quaker semi- 
 nary at Ballitore in Kildare, where he probably ac- 
 quired much of the solemn reflective character 
 which tempered his natural ardour. He studied, 
 but not with any known distinction, at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he took his master's degree 
 in 1751. He was destined for the bar, and en- 
 tered the Middle Temple, but legal studies seem 
 to have had no charm for him. His abilities must 
 have been seen in 1752, for it is known that there 
 was then a proposal to choose him professor of 
 logic in the university of Glasgow, though he does 
 not appear to have been, as David Hume was, an 
 avowed candidate. His first literary work, called 
 ' A Vindication of Natural Society' a close imita- 
 tion of Bolingbroke, was published in 1756. Im- 
 mediately afterwards appeared his well-known 
 essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. Its originality 
 of thought, and luxuriant flow of words and 
 
 110 
 
BUR 
 
 ideas, at once arrested attention; and whatever 
 may be thought of the leading principles, so well 
 ridiculed by Payne Knight, and others, the liter- 
 ary merits of the work entitled it to its high repu- 
 tation. In 1757 he published his account of the 
 settlements in America, and shortly afterwards 
 co-operated with Dodsley in the 'Annual Register.' 
 In 17 Go his ability as a political partizan obtained 
 for him a pension of 300 a-year on the Irish 
 establishment, and the event was rendered remark- 
 able by the indignation with which Burke repelled 
 the claims which the gentleman known 'as single 
 speech Hamilton,' made on his political allegiance, 
 on the plea of having obtained for him this pen- 
 sion. He entered political life, for which he had 
 been industriously training himself, by becoming 
 private secretary to the marquis of Rockingham, 
 when first lord of the treasury in 1765, and at 
 the same time entering parliament as representa- 
 tive of Wendover. At the conclusion of this min- 
 istry, he commenced that long opposition to its 
 successors which became memorable from the tone 
 of philosophical and constitutional wisdom with 
 which he pleaded what, after all, was in reality the 
 restoration of his own party connections to power. 
 On the re-establishment of the Rockingham ad- 
 ministration in 1783, he was made paymaster- 
 general. His subsequent career is entwined with 
 the history of the period. Its main features are 
 his share m the prosecution of Warren Hastings, 
 and that stern denunciation of the revolutionary 
 progress of France, which caused his dramatic 
 quarrel with Fox and his other old political friends. 
 He made a large contribution to the parliamentary 
 oratory of his day, and his speeches were remark- 
 able for their richness of language and abundance 
 of imagery. He died on July 8, 1797. [J.H.B.] 
 
 a "d; 
 
 3o 
 
 of 
 
 [Tomb of Burke.] 
 
 BURLEIGH, William Cecil, Lord, an 
 eminent English statesman, was born in 1520. 
 His father was master of the robes, and thus 
 naturally opened a court career to the capa- 
 cities of the son. He married in 1541 a sister of 
 Sir John Cheke, who soon dying, after she had 
 given birth to the son who became earl of Exeter, 
 united in 1546 to Mildred, daughter of 
 Sir Anthony Cook, the director of the royal 
 
 BUR 
 
 studies. He was appointed master of requests by 
 the Protector Somerset. He was ut first involved 
 with the fall of his master, but not expressing any 
 romantic fidelity to him, speedily rose again, and 
 was made secretary of state. His sagacity and 
 caution prevented him from committing himself to 
 the claims of Lady Jane Grey. Though thus 
 commended to Queen Mary, it was neither consis- 
 tent with his principles nor his caution to aid her 
 efforts for the re-establishment of the power of 
 Rome, and he kept himself apart, offering a modi- 
 fied opposition to the court. He was in the mean- 
 time in close communication with the Princess 
 Elizabeth, helped her to evade the dangers sur- 
 rounding her, and prepared her to occupy the 
 throne. On the day of her accession he took that 
 place as her principal adviser, which he retained 
 while he lived. In 1571 he was raised by the 
 queen, always sparing of her honours, to the rank 
 of baron. The history of his administration is the 
 history of England. He was essentially a states- 
 man of wise management rather than of constitu- 
 tional views. Taking the immediate results of his 
 policy, no statesman was ever more successful, but 
 looking at ultimate effects, it may be said that he 
 did more than any other man to bring England 
 near to a despotism, and thus to lay the foundation 
 of the civil wars of the ensuing century. It was 
 his principle to make himself acquainted with the 
 individual histories of men, and to dive as nearly 
 as possible to the bottom of their character and 
 intentions. Thus among his characteristic studies 
 was genealogy, and he kept up such a potent sys- 
 tem of secret inquiry as Britain never knew before, 
 and has not known since. One of the most un- 
 popular and unjustifiable of his acts was the death 
 of Mary Queen of Scots. He was affected to the 
 extent of a lively apprehension by the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew, and thought it inconsistent with 
 the safety of England and the protestant cause, 
 that the captive queen should continue to live. 
 He was in general, however, moderate and averse 
 to severity. He lived a moral, domestic life, char- 
 acterized by the grave deportment of the age. He 
 was neither malignant nor greedy, and left behind 
 him a high name for integrity. He died on the 
 4th of August, 1598. [J.H.B.] 
 
 BURMAN, Peter, a Dutch savant, 1668-1741. 
 
 BURMAN, John, an em. botanist, 1707-1779. 
 
 BURN, Richard, LL.D., a literary compiler 
 and historian, author of ' Burn's Justice,' d. 1789. 
 
 BURNABY, And., au. of ' Travels,' &c, d. 1812. 
 
 BURNES, Lieut.-Col. Sir Alex., polit. resi- 
 dent at Cabool, afterwards interpreter to the army 
 of Scinde, assass. at the age of thirty-seven, 1841. 
 
 BURNET, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, an 
 ecclesiastical historian, 1643-1715. 
 
 BURNET, Thos., an ecclesiastical wr., d. 1715. 
 
 BURNETT, G. T., F.L.S., a botan., 1800-1835. 
 
 BURNETT, Jam., Lord Monboddo, the well- 
 known speculative wr. on language, &c, 1714-1779. 
 
 BURNEY, Charles, Mus. Doc, was born at 
 Shrewsbury in 1726, and partly educated at the 
 free school there, and partly at the public school 
 in Chester. His first music master was Mr. 
 Baker, organist at Chester ; he received further in- 
 structions from James Burney, his elder half-bro- 
 ther, organist at Shrewsbury, and he was three 
 years under the tuition of Dr. Arne, In 1749 he 
 
 111 
 
BUR 
 
 was appointed organist of a church in London, 
 which year he was introduced to Mrs. Gibber, 
 through whom, besides making the personal ac- 
 quaintance of the literary and scientific men, the 
 artists, actors, and wits of the time, he was in- 
 duced to compose for Drury Lane Theatre three 
 musical dramas, 'Alfred,' 'Robin Hood,' and 
 4 Queen Mab.' After this period, being in ill 
 health, he went to Lynn Regis in Norfolk, where 
 for nine years he occupied himself in collecting 
 materials for his great ' History of Music,' at the 
 same time filling the situation of organist, with a 
 salary of 100 per annum. In 1760, recovered in 
 health, he returned to London, where he soon pro- 
 cured full employment and gained a high reputa- 
 tion in his profession, and where his eldest daugh- 
 ter, then only eight years old, attracted much at- 
 tention as a performer on the harpsichord. In 
 1766 he brought out at Drury Lane a translation 
 of Rousseau's 'Devin du Village.' In 1769 the 
 college of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary 
 degree of Doctor in Music. In the following year 
 he set out on his travels with the object of visiting 
 the great continental libraries, that he might add 
 to the stores of matter he had collected for his 
 'History of Music' In 1771 he published his 
 'Musical Tour,' a work of which his friend Dr. 
 Johnson said when he wrote his account of the 
 Hebrides, 'I had that clever dog Dr. Bumey's 
 tour in my eye.' In 1776 the first volume of the 
 ' History of Music ' was published, the second ap- 
 
 rred in 1782, and the third and fourth in 1789. 
 this year Edmund Burke procured him the 
 situation of organist at Chelsea College. In 1796 
 he published his life of Metastasio. He also con- 
 tributed the principal articles on music to Rees's 
 Encyclopedia. His other literary works were ' An 
 Essay towards a History of Comets,' 'A Plan of a 
 Public Musical School, ' An Account (written for 
 the Philosophical Transactions) of little Crotch, 
 the Infant Musician,' ' A Memoir of the Musical 
 Festival in Honour of Handel, which was held in 
 Westminster Abbey in 1785.' In the year 1806 
 Mr. Wyndham procured for him a pension from 
 government of 300, from which period he gave 
 up his intellectual labours. He died on the 15th of 
 April, 1815. Dr. Burney was twice married, and 
 left by his first wife two sons and four daughters, 
 and by his second one daughter. His eldest daugh- 
 ter, already mentioned, was celebrated as a musician. 
 His second daughter, Madame D'Arblay, is known 
 from her novels, ' Cecilia,' ' Evilina,' ' Camilla,' 
 and the ' Wanderer,' which works commenced 
 a new era in light literature. His eldest son, 
 James, sailed round the world with Captain Cook, 
 and afterwards commanded the Bristol, fifty 
 guns, in the East Indies. His second son was 
 the learned Charles Burney, LL.D. Dr. Bur- 
 ney was on terms of intimacy and friendship with 
 all the eminent men of his day. In all the rela- 
 tions of life, his character is described as exem- 
 plary, while his manners were peculiarly easy, 
 spirited, and gentlemanly. [J.M.] 
 
 BURNEY, Charles, son of the eel. composer, 
 distinguished as a Greek scholar, 1757-1817. 
 
 BURNEY, Rear-Admiral Jas., elder brother 
 of the preced., a fellow-voy. of Cook, 1759-1821. 
 
 BURNEY, William, LL.D., author of ' Lives of 
 the Naval Heroes of Great Britain,' &c, 1762-1832. 
 
 BUR 
 
 BURNS, John, M.D., an. of a work on the Evi- 
 dences and Principles of Christianity, 1780-1850. 
 
 BURNS, Robert, the great peasant-poet of 
 Scotland, lived and died within the latter half of the 
 eighteenth century. His father, William Burness, 
 according to the original spelling of the name, was 
 a native of Kincardineshire, whence he migrated. 
 first to Edinburgh, and afterwards to Ayrshire, 
 obtaining employment as he best could as a 
 working gardener. He ultimately took a lease of 
 seven acres of land, about a couple of miles from 
 the town of Ayr, in the district of Kyle, where he 
 built, by the roadside, with his own hands, a clay 
 cottage, which is still standing, an object of in- 
 terest to strangers. To this humble dwelling, con- 
 sisting merely of a but and a ben, he brought in 
 due time, a young bride, named Agnes Brown, 
 daughter of a small farmer in the neighbouring 
 district of Carrick, and the first fruit of this union 
 was Robert, born on the 25th of January, 1759. 
 The position of William Burness at that time, and 
 indeed throughout his whole life, was that of a 
 high-minded and noble-hearted man struggling 
 with adversity. Nevertheless, he contrived to 
 give his children a respectable education, Robert, 
 and his next brother, Gilbert, having been placed 
 under an excellent teacher, named Murdoch. In 
 1766, when the poet was seven years old, his father 
 removed with his family to Mount Oliphant, a farm 
 a couple of miles distant, but for some time after- 
 wards the boys continued to attend Murdoch's 
 school. If the library at Mount Oliphant was 
 small, it yet comprised several good boolvs, includ- 
 ing the ' Spectator,' Allan Ramsay's ' Poems,* 
 some plays of Shakspeare, and above all, a Col-; 
 lection or English Songs, which Burns acknow- 
 ledges to have studied with critical care. In his j 
 fifteenth year Robert was the principal labourer 
 on the farm, which was far from prosperous ; and 
 to the drudgery and affliction which he endured at 
 this period, his brother Gilbert ascribed that de- 
 pression of spirits, accompanied at times with an 
 irregular motion of the neart, to which he wasi 
 afterwards liable. From the miseries of Mount , 
 Oliphant, the Burns family fled in 1777 to the i 
 farm of Lochlea, in the parish of Tarbolton. In j 
 the midst, however, of every hardship, the young j 
 men continued to advance not only in learning,! 
 but in accomplishments. Robert, with the assist- 
 ance of his old teacher, Murdoch, had so far mas- 
 tered the French language as to be able to read it j 
 with ease. At Kirkoswald he likewise ac-j 
 quired a smattering of mensuration and land sur-j 
 veying; while at Tarbolton he cultivated his: 
 powers of oratory in a debating club. Before this, 
 time he had fallen in love with 'a bonnie, sweet,] 
 sonsie lass,' with whom he had worked at harvest,] 
 and his feelings had vented themselves in verse ofi 
 no very noticeable merit. Not long, however,! 
 after the indifferent song of ' Handsome Nell,' he] 
 
 froduced the inimitable lyric of ' My Nannie, O.' 
 n the hope, according to his brother Gilbert, of 
 being able to marry, he became a flax-dresser afc 
 Irvine ; but at this occupation he continued only 
 six months, during which time he was initiated 
 into the mysteries of freemasonry, and acquired 
 some additional knowledge of the world, together,; 
 it must be confessed, with some little laxity of 
 morals. His return to Lochlea was a return to a 
 
 112 
 
BUR 
 
 quiet and correct mode of life. About this time a 
 visitor described the Burns family at meal-time as 
 having 'books in one hand and spoons in the 
 other. Inspired by a volume in his posses- 
 sion of letters from the pens of the best English 
 authors, the poet aimed at epistolary excellence, 
 and kept copies of such of his own communications 
 to his friends as pleased him. In 1784, William 
 Burness, ' the priest-like father ' of- the ' Cottar's 
 Saturday Night,' died, leaving his family involved 
 in a ruinous litigation. With what little they 
 could rescue from the wreck at Lochlea, Robert 
 and Gilbert Burns entered upon the farm of Moss- 
 
 fiel, in the parish of Mauchline. The former, in 
 is new and responsible position, determined to 
 read agricultural books, calculate crops, and attend 
 markets. In place, however, of becoming a good 
 practical farmer, he became only a great poet! 
 It was at Mossgiel that he produced his most 
 masterlv pieces, including ' The Cottar's Saturday 
 Night,' ' Address to the Deil,' ' The Jolly Beg- 
 
 fars,' 'Halloween,' 'To a Mouse,' 'The Holy 
 'air,' ' Man was made to Mourn,' and others on 
 which his fame chiefly rests. His powerful satires 
 on the ' Unco Guid,' including the merciless and 
 somewhat profane verses entitled 'Holy Willie's 
 Prayer,' together with some transgressions against 
 the laws of morality, stirred up many enemies, 
 particularly among the ' Old Light ' clergy. 
 On the other hand, his genial, not to say convivial 
 disposition, manly independence of character, and 
 brilliant poetical parts, gained him a host of 
 friends, and his first volume, printed at Kilmar- 
 nock in 1786, was largely subscribed for, and 
 yielded _ him a _ clear profit of 20. With this 
 money it was his intention to proceed to a situa- 
 tion in Jamaica, as book-keeper on the estate of 
 a Dr. Douglas, in order to escape from the conse- 
 quences of an intrigue with Jean Armour, the 
 daughter of a master-mason in Mauchline, who 
 ultimately, however, became his wife. With his 
 attachment to 'bonnie Jean,' was mixed up a 
 romantic affection for a Highland girl, named 
 Mary Campbell, the subject of some of his most 
 beautiful and high-toned effusions. The extraor- 
 dinary favour, however, with which his poems 
 were received by the critical world, induced him to 
 proceed in 1788 to Edinburgh, with the view of 
 getting out a second edition. His reception in 
 the Scottish capital was of the most dazzling 
 kind. In the society of the earl of Glencairn, 
 Lord Monboddo, Mr. Henry Erskine, Dr. Robert- 
 son, Dr. Blair, Dr. Adam Ferguson, Dr. Black- 
 lock, Mr. Henry Mackenzie, Mr. Eraser Tytler, 
 and other celebrities, he was exhibited as a 
 'lion,' and the force, originality, and brilliancy 
 cf his conversation seem to have produced even a 
 greater impression than his poetiy. Admired and 
 marvelled at by eminent men, Burns exerted a still 
 more wonderful fascination over beautiful women. 
 Among the latter was Mrs. Jas. M'Lehose, a 
 I and deserted wife, about his own age, 
 withwhom he entered into a singularly romantic 
 and imprudent correspondence, under the Arcadian 
 names of Sylvander and Clarinda. His second 
 edition was at length published by Mr. Creech, 
 and realized for the poet a profit of 500, the list 
 of subscribers having extended to thirty-eight 
 pages. This was the culminating point in the 
 
 BUR 
 
 career of Burns. Out of the funds of which he 
 was now in possession, he lent his brother Gilbert, 
 who was still struggling with the unfortunate 
 farm of Mossgiel, the sum of 180. With the rest 
 he took various tours through Scotland, a pro- 
 fessed 'rustic bard' and man of genius, writing 
 diaries and letters, scratching impromptu verses on 
 the windows of inns and taverns, and indit- 
 ing passionate love-strains to ladies and damsels 
 of every degree, with whom he had the slightest 
 possible acquaintance. After three months' rap- 
 turous raving to Clarinda, together with sundry 
 other episodical attachments) he formally installed 
 Jean Armour as his wife ; and having leased from 
 Mr. Millar of Dalswinton the farm of Ellisland, 
 on the banks of the Nith, between five and six 
 miles from Dumfries, he once more turned his at- 
 tention to agricultural pursuits; but in reality 
 chiefly occupied himself with railing at fortune, 
 and writing the most exquisite songs in the world. 
 In August, 1789, he entered the excise with a 
 view to eke out his insufficient income. His 
 duties, however, which compelled him to ride some 
 two hundred miles in the course of every week, 
 interfered with the business of his farm, and in 
 1791 he abandoned the latter, and established Ids 
 head-quarters wholly in Dumfries as an excise- 
 man. The emoluments of his office did not exceed 
 70 a-year. Although poor, however, and often 
 pinched for money, he was never in absolute want ; 
 and it is remarkable, that although contributing 
 assiduously, first to Johnson's 'Scots Musical 
 Museum,' and afterwards to Mr. Geo. Thomson's 
 ' Melodies of Scotland,' he always seemed to resent 
 any offer of remuneration as an affront. The writ- 
 ten, collected, or altered songs contributed by Burns 
 to these two miscellanies amounted to 284 in 
 number. At Dumfries Burns lived about five 
 years, leading a somewhat irregular life, occasion- 
 ally getting into trouble on account of his caprici- 
 ous temper, or his democratic sentiments, resenting 
 fancied slights by pungent epigrams, but still re- 
 taining many warm friends, and penning lyrics 
 which were destined to five for ever. Broken at 
 length in health, owing, it is said, to his having 
 slept all night on one occasion in the open air, this 
 extraordinary man expired at his house in Dum- 
 fries, on the 21st of July, 1796, in the thirty- 
 eighth year of his age. Immediately after his 
 death all Scotland was touched with remorse at 
 having suffered her greatest son to perish in 
 poverty and neglect. Subscriptions to a large 
 amount were raised for behoof of his widow and 
 family; costly monuments were erected in vari- 
 ous quarters to his memory ; and ever since, his 
 fame has continued to increase. Although fond 
 of representing himself as 'unlettered,' and as 
 bred 'at the plough-tail,' it may be doubted 
 whether there was anything either in the posi- 
 tion, or in the training of Burns, unfavourable 
 to the full development of his genius. His 
 brightest effusions were born of his toils, aspira- 
 tions, and sufferings. In several other respects, 
 the humbleness of his station in life was an ad- 
 vantage. It heightened the surprise occasioned by 
 his writings, and procured for him an amount of 
 substantial patronage which has been too much 
 overlooked. That his career was prematurely cut 
 short must always be a matter of regret to those 
 
 113 
 
BUR 
 
 who remember that ' Tain o' Shanter,' Brace's 
 Address,' and the celebrated parting song of ' Ae 
 Fond Kiss,' were among his later productions; but 
 in his poetry and in his life, which are inseparably 
 associated, he has left a sufficiently splendid im- 
 pression. The moral failings which he himself 
 acknowledged and deplored, are more easily for- 
 given than defended. Even, however, if there is 
 something to condemn in his character, there is 
 much more to admire and honour. His poverty 
 never betrayed him into any mean or sordid action, 
 or lowered the manly integrity and sturdy inde- 
 pendence of his character. In literature his place 
 is among the great ones of the earth. Much of his 
 
 Erose composition is laboured and inflated ; and 
 is letters to Clarinda, in particular, present a 
 strange and incongruous mixture of friendship and 
 folly, religion and wild passion. But his poetry is 
 replete with fire, humour, and pathos, combined 
 with perfect simplicity and naturalness. One 
 main secret of his success was his almost always 
 writing directly from nature. His Jeans, Marys, 
 and Peggies, were creatures of veritable flesh and 
 blood. tie even seemed to be continually working 
 himself into fits of love, for the mere purpose of 
 finding subjects for his muse; while his intense 
 admiration of natural scenery, in place of venting 
 itself in cold description, was generally associated 
 with some engrossing human emotion. Hence it 
 is that he rarely fails to find his way to the hearts 
 of his readers, and that he has succeeded in be- 
 queathing to his country and the world, the most 
 admirable body of lyrical composition, whether as 
 regards force of expression or tenderness of senti- 
 ment, to be found in the literature of any age or 
 nation. [J.H.] 
 
 the Banks of Doon.] 
 
 BURROW, Reubeh, a mathematician, d. 1791. 
 
 BURROWS, Stephen, an Englishman; ac- 
 companied Chancelor in his voyage to the N.E. 
 in 1553; and sailed again in 1550 in a small 
 vessel to explore the N. coasts of Europe and Asia, 
 He was the first, at a later date, to observe the 
 gradual change in the declination of the mag- 
 
 BYL 
 
 secular variation was completely established inf 
 1625 by Gellibrand, professor of geometry in] 
 Gresham College, London. [J.B.1 
 
 BURTON, J., a classic, schol. andtheol., d. 1771. 
 
 BURTON, Robert, the celebrated author oi 
 the 'Anatomy of Melancholy,' 1576-1640. 
 
 BURY, Arthur, an English divine, 17th cent 
 
 BURY, Eliz., a distinguished au., 1664-1720. 
 
 BUSBY, Dr. Rich., a classical teacher, fifty- 
 five years master of Westminster school, 1606-1695, 
 
 BUSCHE, H. Vox Der, a Ger. schol., d. 1534. 
 
 BUSCHING, A. F., a misccl. wr., 1724-1793. 
 
 BUSHE, Rt. Hon. Sir C. Kendal, an all 
 lawyer and orator, privy councillor in 1822, d. 184:.). 
 
 BUTE, John Stuart, earl of, minister of state 
 soon after the ace. of Geo. III., 1760-1762, d. 1792. 
 
 BUTINI, J. A., a physician of Geneva, last ct. 
 
 BUTLER, Alban., a catholic biog., d. 1773. 
 
 BUTLER, C a catholic histor., &c, 1750-1832. 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph, a learned English bishop, 
 author of the eel. 'Analogy of Religion,' 1692-1752! 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, author of the exquisite 
 poetical satire, ' Hudibras,' known and quotee 
 wherever the English language is spoken, was 
 born in Worcestershire, 1612, and lived a life ol 
 drudgery and poverty till 1680. His poem was 
 published after the restoration, the first two parts 
 in 1663 and 1664, tho third in 1678, and its 
 popularity from the first was unprecedented. Twc 
 collections of the author's posthumous poems have 
 appeared in 1719 and 1759, respectively, but his 
 reputation rests exclusively on the 'Hudibras, 
 which, for its pungent wit, ludicrous casuistry, 
 and droll humour in the description of life ant 
 character, is unparalleled in the language. 
 
 BUTLER, Dr. S., a learned prelate, 1774-1840.| 
 
 BUTTON, Sir Thomas, was employed in 161i| 
 
 by the merchants of London to prosecute the dis-| 
 
 coveries of Henry Hudson on the N.E. coast o: 
 
 i North America. He was .the first who reachecfl 
 
 j the east coast through Hudson's Strait. With hisJ 
 
 | two ships, Resolution and Discovery, he passecl 
 
 j the winter at the mouth of Nelson's River, wesifl 
 
 side of Hudson's Bay, lat. 57 10', and showee.i 
 
 J extraordinary sagacity and tact in keeping up th<3 
 
 j health and spirits of his crews. In the following 
 
 summer he made some important discoveries north-j 
 
 I wards, and returned home in the autumn of 1613B 
 
 ; but was not again employed. He was first pa| 
 
 ! tronised by Prince Henry, son of James I., anefl 
 
 ! received the honour of knighthood as a reward fo.q 
 
 his services. [J-B. 
 
 BUXTON, Jedediah, a celebrated calculator! 
 about 1705-1775. 
 
 BUXTON, Sir Thos. Fowell, Bart., a distin-i 
 guished philanthropist and rei'ormer in the samiij 
 field of labour as Mrs. Frv, (his sister-in-law, ! 
 and Wilberforce, 1786-1845. 
 
 BUXTORF, John, a eel. Hebraist, 1564-16291 
 His son, of the same name, also distinguished as ;(| 
 Hebrew and classical scholar, 1599-1630. 
 
 BUZOT, Francis Leonard Nicholas, :l 
 member of the French convention, and one of thrtl 
 Girondist party proscribed by Robespierre ; b. 1760t| 
 found dead after his escape to Bourdeaux, 1793. ;| 
 
 BYLOT, Robert, a skilful and enterprisin<| 
 seaman, who made many voyages in various capa- j 
 
 netic needle ; from his observations, and those of cities with Hudson, Button, Baffin, &c, early n 
 Gunter and Mair. in 1612. the existence of this the 17th century. 
 
 114 
 
 [J.B. 
 
BYN 
 
 BYNG, the name of two English admirals: 
 
 eorge, com. in the Spanish war, 1663-1733. 
 John, his son, exec, for alleged cowardice, 1757. 
 
 BYRAM-KHAN, a Mogul chief, assassin. 1561. 
 
 BYROM, Dr. J., eel. as a poetical humourist 
 ind fugitive prose writer, 1691-1763. 
 
 BYRON, John, second son of William, Lord 
 Byron, was horn November 8, 1723. He went 
 )ut with Anson, as midshipman on board the 
 vVager, and was wrecked on the west coast of 
 South America, about lat. 47. An Indian Ca- 
 ique conveyed him and his companions, after 
 hirteen months' dreadful sufferings, to the island 
 )f Chiloe. Thence they made their way north- 
 wards, being treated by the Spaniards with the 
 itmost kindness, though the nations were at war, 
 hiefly in consequence of the fame which had 
 pread abroad regarding Anson's loftily chivalrous 
 3ehaviour towards some Spanish ladies whom he 
 lad made prisoners. ' Byron's Narrative ' of the 
 sufferings and adventures of himself and his com- 
 Danions, published in 1745, after he returned home, 
 s one of the most interesting accounts of nautical 
 idventures ever given to the world. Being con- 
 stantly employed afterwards, as well in war as 
 n peace, he performed many brilliant services, 
 f which the most worthy of mention is the de- 
 traction of a French squadron in Chaleur Bay. 
 h command of two ships he made a voyage to the 
 South Sea in 1764. In 1769 he was made gover- 
 lor of Newfoundland. In 1778 he commanded a 
 leet in the West Indies, and soon after rose to the 
 ank of Vice-admiral of the White. He is better 
 :nown, however, by the humbler title of com- 
 nodore. He had a family of two sons and 
 even daughters, by Sarah, daughter of John 
 irevanion, Esq. of Cartrays, Cornwall, whom he 
 narried in 1748. Byron died in London, April 
 .0, 1786, enjoying to the last a well-earned 
 eputation. Captain Byron, one of his sons, was 
 ather of the poet, who thus oddly alludes to his 
 tncestor's misfortunes in describing those of one 
 >f his heroes : 
 
 his sufferings were comparative 
 
 ro those related in my grand-dad's narrative.' [J.B.I 
 
 BYRON, George Gordon, Lord, was the de- 
 scendant, and became the head of an ancient and 
 loble family. Commodore Byron, the celebrated 
 voyager, was his grandfather ; and his father, Cap- 
 am Byron, a profligate and extravagant man, 
 narried Miss Gordon, an Aberdeenshire lady of 
 >ld descent. The poet was born in London, on 
 he 22d of January, 1788. Two years afterwards, 
 lis father having fled from his creditors to the 
 :ontinent, where he soon died, Mrs. Byron Gordon 
 sought at Aberdeen a residence suited to her 
 ; canty resources, which seem to have been in no 
 vay aided by the then Lord Byron, her husband's 
 incle, a retired and despondent man. In the 
 :ourse of the eight years spent in Scotland, she, a 
 riolent and misjudging woman, acted as if it had 
 >een her aim to weaken all the good tendencies in 
 ier son's fine nature, and to aggravate all the bad 
 mes. Capricious alternations of severity and in- 
 iulgence cherished his hereditary hastiness of 
 emper, and pampered his proud wilfulness into 
 selfish defiance; a constant change of teachers, 
 ind of methods of teaching, cherished habits of de- 
 iultoriness and inattention in the boy's studies. 
 
 BYR 
 
 Byron was already a spoiled child, when, about the 
 commencement of his eleventh year, his grand- 
 uncle's death made him the possessor of the family 
 title and property. His mother, left by the guard- 
 ians to take her own way, now spoiled him more 
 than ever ; while at the same time she subjected 
 him to fruitless and tormenting operations, de- 
 signed to remove the lameness which, caused at 
 his birth, she had taunted him with from child- 
 hood in her fits of anger. Improvement, both in 
 temper and in industry, began on his being placed 
 in an excellent private school at Dulwich ; but the 
 promising prospect was destroyed by his mother's 
 constant interferences; and he remained at this 
 place for no more than two years, and these bro- 
 ken by frequent and long visits to home. He was 
 next removed to Harrow, where, though somewhat 
 rebellious, and a very careless student of the 
 Classics, he was liked as a generous and spirited 
 youth, and went through a good deal of miscel- 
 laneous reading. During his school days at Har- 
 row, and before he had entered his eighteenth 
 year, he formed an attachment which, though 
 doubtless poetized and magnified in his own imagi- 
 nation afterwards, was probably more genuine and 
 ardent than any he felt in mature life. The lady 
 was Miss Chaworth, two years older than himself, 
 the heiress of estates in the neighbourhood of his 
 
 [Newstead Abbey.] 
 
 patrimonial mansion of Newstead Abbey in Not- 
 tinghamshire, and the near relative of a gentleman 
 who had been killed in a duel by the preceding- 
 Lord Byron. He has immortalized her marriage 
 and melancholy fate in ' The Dream ' and other 
 poems. Entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 in the autumn of 1805, he resided for two years. 
 His career at the university was eccentric, profuse, 
 and on the whole idle ; but he read zealously when 
 the humour seized him, acquiring a very consider- 
 able amount of stray knowledge ; and a few persons 
 of talent, with whom he had become intimate, were 
 quite aware that he was a young man of no ordi- 
 nary promise. While he was still at the univer- 
 sity, he circulated privately copies of a thin volume 
 of verses, which was prudently reserved for friend- 
 ly readers and soon suppressed. But before the 
 end of 1807., and when in his twentieth year, he was 
 rash enough to face the public with the ' Hours of 
 Idleness,' a collection of poems, from the very best 
 of which no one would have ventured to presage 
 
 115 
 
BYR 
 
 the strength he was soon to exhibit. This strength 
 was brought to a point by the anger which the 
 young poet felt at the famous criticism on his book 
 in the ' Edinburgh Review.' Studying the satiri- 
 cal poets as models, and collecting every available 
 piece of gossip that could point an ill-natured jest. 
 he at length, m 1809, poured forth his wrath, all 
 the warmer for the nursing he had given it, in his 
 poetical satire 'English Bards and Scotch Re- 
 viewers.' Scurrilousfy personal, and indiscriminat- 
 ingly contemptuous of all the literary celebrities of 
 the day, this poem showed powers which evidently 
 wanted only maturity and fit guidance to achieve 
 very great things. In the same year he embarked 
 with Mr. Hobhouse on a two years' journey on the 
 continent, in the course of which he visited the 
 Peninsula, extended his travels to Greece and 
 Turkey, and, with his poetical enthusiasm now 
 fairly awakened, composed in great part the first 
 and second cantos of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrimage.' 
 The publication of these, in the spring of 1812, 
 when he had just completed his twenty- fourth 
 year, made him at once the most popular poet of 
 the time. The few who had already learned to 
 appreciate Wordsworth and Coleridge, found, in the 
 new poet, a freedom both from the affectations of 
 the one and from the obscurities and eccentricity 
 of the other ; while there were united with these a 
 poetic elevation and richness not exceeded by 
 either. The popularity, again, which Scott had 
 won, by the ' Lay,' ' Marmion,' and the ' Lady of 
 the Lake,' was already beginning to suffer from the 
 satiety produced by bad imitations ; and the Scot- 
 tish minstrel's favour with the public waned 
 rapidly, when Byron, deserting the meditative 
 poetry of the 'Pilgrimage,' adopted, like Scott, 
 the seductive form of the metrical romance, and 
 gave it the charm of novelty by choosing Turkish 
 and Grecian stories. In 1813 appeared his wildly 
 striking fragment ' The Giaour,' and the more re- 
 gular ' Bride of Abydos.' ' The Corsair ' and its 
 sequel ' Lara,' followed in 1814, and were accom- 
 panied by the ' Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte.' In 
 the beginning of 1816, the first and most charac- 
 teristic series of Lord Byron's works was closed by 
 the appearance of 'The Siege of Corinth' and 
 ' Parisina.' While he was thus building up his 
 poetical fame, his domestic history underwent 
 several changes, to which he was no way slow in 
 inviting attention. 'Childe Harold,' the sated 
 voluptuary, seeking to refresh his sick heart 
 amidst the magnificence of nature, but contem- 
 plating all things through the medium of a cyni- 
 cal and despondent philosophy, had been avowedly 
 presented as an idealized portrait of the young 
 poet himself, bitterly convinced, by a premature 
 experience, of the hollowness of worldly pleasures, 
 yet unable to discover any higher truths, in the 
 contemplation and realization of which happiness 
 might be attained. Till the publication of the 
 earlier cantos of ' Childe Harold,' Byron's proud 
 and sensitive spirit had been tempted to_ misan- 
 thropical discontent by the equivocal position he 
 held in society, partly through accidental circum- 
 stances, partly through the reputation of his youth- 
 ful irregularities. But the stamp thus imprinted 
 on his earlier poetry was too much in accordance 
 with his natural temperament to be easily effaced. 
 The exaggerated and theatrical exhibition of his 
 
 BYR 
 
 own character, in the persons of his heroes, 4 
 repeated even in those of his tales, which w< 
 written while he was the idol of fashionable socie". 
 and enjoyed the prospect of domestic happines 
 and when misfortune and opprobrium darken 
 round him, the petulant rashness of ill-train 
 youth passed into a permanent mood of morbid a 
 haughty defiance, to which his later poems ga 
 utterance with increasing eagerness and constant 
 With as little power as any great poet ever pc 
 sessed, of observing or delineating the character a 
 passions of other men, Byron was not true to r 
 ture, unless when he drew his materials from withi 
 but his poetry, thus unreal and fantastic in all 
 representations of human life, has the singular cha; 
 which belongs to the self-drawn image of a nati 
 nobly endowed with the poetic elements of grei 
 ness, and vacillating in its moral aspect between t 
 extremes of goodness and of evil. In the autuii 
 of 1814, after having passed some years in tl 
 round of extravagant and unsatisfying dissipati! 
 into which he had been initiated even in boyhoti 
 Lord Byron married the daughter of Sir Ralj 
 Milbanke. The marriage proved unhappy : 
 both parties, through causes which have ne 1 
 been clearly explained ; pecuniary embarrassmei 
 aggravated dissension; and in the beginning 
 1816, soon after the birth of a daughter, La 
 Byron quitted her husband's house never to return.j 
 Very soon afterwards Lord Byron left England,] 
 which he never again set foot. His first placei 
 residence was in the neighbourhood of Genei 
 where the sublime scenery of Switzerland, and 1j 
 society of the poet Shelley, co-operated in awak(j 
 ing his mind to an elevation and purity of poe 
 inspiration such as he never reached before or aft! 
 Here were written ' The Prisoner of Chillon,' a 
 the third canto of ' Childe Harold.' The influence! 
 Swiss landscapes lingered fondly in his imaginatij 
 during the next stage of his travels. It gave bi:! 
 to ' Manfred,' which, with all its faults, ethical a! 
 dramatic, is perhaps richer in poetical imag<J 
 and sentiment than any of his other works. 
 the end of 1816 he took up his abode at Veni! 
 where he remained for three years, visiting Ror 
 and there gathering materials for the fourth cai; 
 of ' Childe Harold.' His residence at Venice \{ 
 disgraced by low and gross debauchery; ana 
 there was greater refinement, there was no real i 
 provement of morality, in a more lasting attat 
 ment which he next formed for the Countess Guf 
 cioli, and which is not recommended to our Eit 
 lish feelings or notions, even by the countena I 
 vouchsafed to it by the lady's father and brotb 
 In the beginning of 1820 Byron followed 
 countess and her family to Ravenna ; where, w : 
 them, he became engaged in political plots, wh 
 soon caused his Italian friends to be banished frj 
 the papal states. Pisa then became the abod(! 
 the party. Here Byron received Mr. and 
 Shelley, and afterwards Mr. Leigh Hunt, and w 
 these coadjutors attempted unsuccessfully 
 periodical called 'The Liberal.' His poetical ffl 
 however, flowed freely during his residence 
 Italy. Besides ' Manfred ' and the last cantc 
 ' Childe Harold,' and several works which are uj 
 versally admitted to be poor, he then produ. 
 'Mazeppa,' 'The Lament of Tasso,' and his H 
 matic Poems, of which, while 'Cain' abounded! 
 
 116 
 
CAA 
 
 the old leaven, the tragedies indicated, morally, 
 though not poetically, an inclination to rise into a 
 higher and purer region. Other inclinations, how- 
 ever, were betrayed by a new class of poems, in winch 
 the strength and versatility of the poet's genius were 
 strikingly displayed. They were modelled on the 
 burlesque poetry of the Italians, which had hardly 
 been emulated in the English language except by 
 Frere. Byron's first attempt in this path was 
 * Beppo ;' "and the ethical looseness of this lively 
 piece became exaggerated into open depravity, 
 while it was accompanied at first by much noble 
 poetry, and always by much stinging wit, in the 
 notorious cantos of ' Don Juan.' That Byron was 
 secretly weary of aimless profligacy, and eager for 
 opportunities' of honourable action, may be inferred 
 from his willingness to take part in the abortive 
 Italian conspiracies. A more promising field was 
 now opened to him, soon after the unfortunate death 
 of his friend Shelley. The London Committee of 
 Philhellenes requested him to take part in the 
 
 CAB 
 
 emancipation of Greece ; and he enthusiastically 
 accepted the invitation. He sailed from Genoa in 
 July, 1823, and began his philanthropic exertions 
 in the island of Cephalonia. In January, 1824, 
 he landed at Missolonghi, already labouring under 
 illness, which he had aggravated by bathing in the 
 sea in the course of his last voyage. Disappoint- 
 ments in the great object of his expedition gathered 
 round him, and were bravely borne ; but his health 
 was further injured by anxiety, and by repeated 
 exposure to bad weather in an unhealthy climate. 
 He died at Missolonghi, of rheumatic fever, or its 
 accompanying inflammation of the heart, on the 
 19th of April, 1824, soon after having celebrated, 
 in affecting verses, the completion of his thirty- 
 sixth year. [W.S.] 
 
 BYTHNER, Victorinus, an Oriental., d. 16G4. 
 
 BYWALD, Leop., an Aust. med. wr., 1731-96. 
 
 BYZANCE, L. De, an Orientalist, 1641-1722. 
 
 BZOVIUS, or BZOVSKI, Abraham, a Polish 
 scholar and ecclesiastical historian, 1567-1637. 
 
 C 
 
 CAAB, or KAAB, Ben Zohair, an Arabian] the second admits that 
 
 and afterwards as his friend and eulogist, d. 622. 
 
 CABADES, a king of Persia, 491-532. 
 
 CABADES, a Sp. theologian, close of last cent. 
 
 CABALLERO, Don Jose Antonio, Marquis 
 De, a Spanish liberal and adherent of Joseph 
 Buonaparte, bom about 1750 ; condemned to per- 
 petual exile by Ferdinand VII. in 1818 ; and re- 
 called by the constitutionalists of 1820. 
 
 CABALLERO, R. D., a Sp. hist., 1740-1820. 
 
 CABANIS, Pierre Jean Georges, a very 
 celebrated physician and philosopher, belonging 
 to a recent school ; much concerned with the 
 events which marked the close of the last and the 
 beginning of the present century in France. He 
 was born in Conac in 1757, and died in Paris in 
 1808. Cabanis was closely associated with the 
 greatest men of the revolution; it was he who 
 gave Condorcet that fatal dose of stramonium, 
 through whose energy he escaped death by the 
 guillotine; Cabanis attended and ministered to 
 Mirabeau during his last illness, and he was the 
 favourite physician of Napoleon. Considerable 
 interest still attaches to the physiological and 
 psychological speculations of Cabanis : whoever 
 desires fullest acquaintance with the best com- 
 pacted physiological theory of mind, must indeed 
 betake to this author. A thorough disciple of 
 Condillac; starting with it as an axiom that all 
 our ideas are but compositions and transformations 
 of our sensations, (see Condillac and Locke,) 
 he sprang at once to the physiological expression 
 of that theory, viz : that thought or soul is the 
 secretion of vital organs a result or phenomenon of 
 vital structure. ' If,' says he, ' Condillac had known 
 the animal economy better, he would have seen 
 that soul is a faculty, not an existence.'' Among 
 the physiological schools prevailing during the 
 times in which he lived, the position of Cabanis is 
 apparently as follows. There are three of these 
 schools ; the first discerns in the animal economy 
 nothing save peculiar physical phenomena, evolved 
 by the same laws which rule inorganic sequences ; 
 
 independently of physical 
 let of special actions, or 
 
 consists of vital properties; the third, to which 
 Cabanis belonged, and which he represents, con- 
 cedes that with material elements, some peculiar 
 vital principle has been conjoined. Although this 
 principle did not in the mind of Cabanis have any 
 relation with intelligence or reason, nevertheless 
 the concession far from insignificant in France at 
 the time seems gradually to have opened his 
 mind to those more advanced views expressed in 
 his famous letter to M. Fanriel, in which he de- 
 clares at least for the possibility of the existence 
 of the moral system governed by this principle, 
 after the dissolution of the organism. The student 
 will find enough to repay perusal in the works of 
 Cabanis. His style is literary, distinct, and strong ; 
 and he has thrown much light on the really phy- 
 siological and physical phenomena of our human 
 nature. A good edition of his collected works has 
 recently appeared in Paris. [J.P.N.] 
 
 CABARRUS, Francis, Count De, Sp. minis- 
 ter of finance under Joseph Buonaparte, 1752-1810. 
 
 CABESTAN, or CABESTAING, William De, 
 a Provencal poet, said to have been k., and his heart 
 served up to his mistress, by her husband, 13th c 
 
 CABEZA DE VACCA, a Sp. naviga., 16th c. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, was born at Bristol, about 
 the year 1477, but the precise date is uncertain. 
 His father, John Cabot, or Gabotta, was a Ven- 
 etian, who, in the pursuits of trade which occupied 
 him, had occasion to reside at intervals in England. 
 He seems to have been a man of superior intelli- 
 gence and information, interested in the progress 
 of discovery by sea, and possessed of considerable 
 wealth. He returned to his native country when 
 Sebastian was four years old, but came again to 
 England while his son was still young, and 
 hence the belief long prevailed that Sebastian was 
 a native of Venice. Having already, at the age of 
 eighteen or nineteen, acquired the knowledge 
 necessary for a coimander, imbued with his 
 father's tastes, and fired by that spirit of enter- 
 prise which the discoveries of Columbus were 
 
 117 
 
CAB 
 
 everywhere exciting, Sebastian projected an ex- 
 pedition across the N. Atlantic, ostensibly, it is 
 said, with the important practical object of dis- 
 covering a N.W. passage to Cathay, the 'Land 
 of Spice.' Henry VII. gave his countenance to 
 the scheme; ana under government auspices an 
 expedition was fitted out, and intrusted by 
 patent, dated 5th March, 1496, to John Cabot, 
 and his three sons, Louis, Sebastian, and Saucius. 
 They were authorized to occupy and possess all 
 lands in the name of the king, who reserved a fifth 
 of the profits ; but the right of traffic was to 
 bedong to the patentees exclusively. In May, 
 1497, the expedition sailed from Bristol under 
 command of Sebastian, his father and brothers 
 most probably accompanying him. On the 24th 
 June he reached the coast of Labrador, about lat. 
 56, and was thus the first to discover the conti- 
 nental land of the Western world Columbus, in 
 his third voyage, not having entered the Orinoco 
 till August, 1498. Nothing else is known of this 
 voyage; but it appears that he returned almost 
 immediately to England, and made two other 
 voyages in 1498 and 1499, the latter being to the 
 Gulf of Mexico, but no records of them have been 
 preserved. About this time, John Cabot seems 
 to have died, Louis and Saucius to have settled in 
 Italy; of Sebastian all trace is lost till 1512, when 
 he arrived in Spain, having been sent for by King 
 Ferdinand, who had formed a higher estimate of 
 his genius and merits than had been entertained 
 in his own country. He enjoyed honour and a 
 handsome emolument till the death of Ferdinand 
 in 1516. The enemies of Columbus then became 
 his, and he was obliged by the annoyances which 
 he suffered to return to England. In 1517 Henry 
 VIII. sent him, with Sir Thomas Perte, on a voy- 
 age to the N.W., during which he reached lat. 
 67;,, and entered Hudson's Bay but no details 
 are known respecting his discoveries. After this 
 voyage he visited Spain, and was reinstated in 
 honour and income by the emperor Charles V. 
 Having visited the banks of the great river, first 
 named by him the La Plata, in command of an 
 expedition intended for the Moluccas, and per- 
 formed several other voyages, he came again to 
 England in 1548 ; and soon after was granted a 
 pension of 250 merks, (166 13s. 4d.) by Edward 
 VI., and appointed grand pilot of England. By 
 his advice, the expedition of Willoughby and 
 Chancelor was sent out in 1553 ; which, though 
 failing in its primary object, the discovery of a 
 N.E. passage to Cathay, had a far more impor- 
 tant result in the establishment of trade with 
 Russia. Cabot was afterwards made governor of 
 a company of merchant traders to that country. 
 So sanguine were the promoters of this expedition, 
 that they had the ships sheathed with lead to 
 
 frotect them from the worms in the water of the 
 ndian Ocean a contrivance long practised by 
 the Spaniards, but now for the first time used in 
 England, and therefore most likely suggested by 
 Cabot. He appears also to have been the first 
 who gave steady attention to the variation of the 
 compass. The pension which Cabot enjoyed was 
 continued till 1557, four years after the king's 
 death ; it was renewed to him by Mary, jointly 
 with one William Worthington, of whom very 
 little is known. All his maps and documents 
 
 CAD 
 
 were given to this person, who either destroye 
 them, or handed them over to Mary's htubaaj 
 Philip of Spain ; no trace of them has ever bee 
 found. Cabot was now in his eightieth year ; h 
 seems to have died soon after, though nothing i 
 certainly known either of the time or place of hi 
 death. Of high genius and acquirements, steadil 
 pursuing through a long life one great objecl 
 infusing into the marine of England a spirit c 
 enterprise which has animated it ever since, an 
 opening up new sources of trade which gave a 
 impulse to her commerce, Cabot must be re 
 garded by us as one of the most illustrious c 
 navigators. The confusion and misrepresentation 
 which long prevailed regarding him were full 
 cleared up by the author of a 'Memoir of the Lif 
 of Sebastian Cabot, Illustrated by Document 
 from the Rolls,' London, 1831, who has placed th 
 events of his life in their true light. [J.B. 
 
 CABRAL, F., a Portuguese missionary, authc 
 of ' Letters from Japan and China,' 1528-1609. 
 
 CABRAL, Pedro Alvakez De, was sent ou 
 by the king of Portugal soon after the return c 
 Vasco de Gama, in command of a fleet of thirtee: 
 ships, with 1,200 fighting men, and a number c 
 Franciscan monks as missionaries, with the objec 
 of making settlements in the East Indies. H 
 was the first who had the boldness to adopt th 
 route now generally followed in order to reach th 
 Cape without incurring the delays and dangers ( 
 the coast voyage. His plan was to sail S.W. ti 
 he should gain the latitude of the Cape, and thn 
 cross the Atlantic twice. Following this rout 
 from the Cape Verde islands, he came in sight < 
 the coast of Brazil, about lat. 10 S., on 3d Ma? 
 1500. Coasting S. as far as lat. 17, he too 
 possession in name of his sovereign, and the cm 
 then erected at Porto Seguro is still preserved. I 
 ship was sent home with the news ; and althoug 
 Yanez Pinzon had visited this coast on the par 
 of Spain three months earlier, the claim them 
 derived was waived, and the sovereignty of Braz 
 secured to Portugal. In crossing to the. Cap 
 Cabral lost f <mr ships in a dreadful storm whic 
 lasted twenty days. With the rest he reache 
 India, made some settlements, and returned i 
 July, 1501, with rich cargoes. Yet he was coot 
 received by his master, ou account of the grei 
 loss of life which had been sustained, though with 
 out any fault on the part of Cabral, who wa 
 undoubtedly a navigator of high ability. [J.BJ 
 
 CACCIA, Fekd., an Ital. savant, 1689-1778. 
 
 CACCIA,GuGLiELMO,anItal.paint.,1568-162j 
 
 CACCINI, Guilio, a comp. of music, d. 161? 
 
 CACCINI, Fkanoesca, daughter of the prececj 
 ing, a poetess and musician of the 17th century. I 
 
 CADALOUS, P., bishop of Parma, electtj 
 anti-pope, under the title of Honorius II., 1061. 
 
 CADA MOSTO, Aloisio De, a Veneris; 
 gentleman sent out by Don Henry of Portugal, I 
 1444, with Vicento de Lagos, and again in 144 j 
 to examine the coast region of W. Africa. Ej 
 afterwards published a very interesting account I 
 Madeira, the Canaries, and the districts which 1: 
 visited on the mainland as far as the Gulf I 
 Guinea, by which he gained some celebrity. [J.B< 
 
 CADAMOSTO, M. A., an Ital. astron., 16th 
 
 CADE, John, the notorious rebel of the reif, 
 of Henry VL, assumed the name of Mortimer, ail 
 
 118 
 
CAD 
 
 appeared at the head of 20,000 men, levied in Kent, 
 in the beginning of June, 1450 ; entered London 
 on the loth July, and after several reverses, be- 
 came a fugitive, and was slain at Holkfield, in 
 Sussex, bv a gentleman named Alexander Iden. 
 
 CADER-BILLAH, caliph of Bagdad, 991-1032. 
 
 CADET, J. M., a Corsican geologist, last cent. 
 
 CADET DE VAUX, Anthony Alexis, a 
 French savant, known as a writer on agricultural 
 economy, &c, 1743-1828. 
 
 CADET DE GASSICOURT, Charles Louis, 
 brother of the preceding, disting. as a chemist, &c, 
 1731-1799. His son of the same name, author of a 
 'Diction, of Chemistry," Travels,' &c, 1769-1821. 
 
 CADMUS, the reputed founder of Thebes, and 
 inventor of the earliest Greek alphabet, supposed 
 to have flourished in the 16th century B.C. 
 
 CADMUS, a Greek historian, 6th century B.C. 
 
 CADOCUS, a Brit, or Welch ecclesiast., d. 550. 
 
 CADOG, a Welch bard of the 6th century. 
 
 CADOGAN, William, first earl of, distin- 
 guished as the companion in arms of the duke of 
 Marlborough, 1680-1726. 
 
 CADOGAN, Wm., M.D., a medical au., d. 1797. 
 
 CADOUDAL, George, one of the chiefs in the 
 insurrections of La Vendee, executed for a con- 
 spiracy to assassinate the first consul, 1769-1804. 
 
 CADWALADYR, Casail, a Wei. poet, 16th c. 
 
 CADWALLADER, Thos., a med. au., d. 1786. 
 
 CZECILIUS, Statius, a comic poet, 2d c. b.c. 
 
 CELIUS AURELIANUS, a Gr. phys., 2d ct. 
 
 CiESALPINUS, Andre, a celebrated botanist, 
 was born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. He died 
 at Rome in 1603. Destined for the medical pro- 
 fession, he was educated under Luke Ghines, at the 
 time director of the public gardens at Pisa. It was 
 this undoubtedly which gave him such a love for 
 that branch of study by which his name is most 
 favourably known to posterity. After teaching 
 medicine and botany at Pisa, he was invited to 
 Rome, was made physician to pope Clement VIII. , 
 and elected professor of medicine at the college of 
 Sapienza. His medical and philosophical works, of 
 which he wrote a considerable number, are seldom 
 now looked into ; and were it not for his book ' On 
 Plants,' the name of Csesalpinus would probably ere 
 this have been forgotten. Previous to his time natu- 
 ralists had studied plants more as classics and 
 physicians than as botanists. Cgesalpinus was the 
 iirst who studied them according to nature ; and 
 the publication of his system, though very imper- 
 fect, forms a decided era in the study ot botany. 
 His method was founded upon the parts of fructifi- 
 cation and the germination of the plant ; and his 
 observations upon these two subjects have laid the 
 foundation for the natural arrangement of plants 
 formed on the differences of the cotyledon, and the 
 more artificial divisions of Linnaeus drawn from their 
 sexual distinctions. Ray, Tournefort, and Linnaeus, 
 unite in giving him great credit for his botanical 
 knowledge, and are not above acknowledging the 
 assistance they derived from him in their systems 
 of botany. In his work ' De Plantis,' Cassalpinus, 
 amongst other things, shows that he had a toler- 
 ably good idea of the circulation of the blood. In- 
 deed a knowledge far beyond the age in which 
 he lived, is the grand characteristic of Caesal- 
 pinus. [W.B.] 
 
 CESAR, Aquil. J., a Gr. savant, 1720-1792. 
 
 CJES 
 
 [Julius Caesar From an Ancient Statue.'} 
 
 CiESAR, Caius Julius, the dictator, was born 
 on the 12th of July, B.C. 100. Connected by birth 
 with Marius, and afterwards by marriage with Cin- 
 na, he was naturally placed in opposition to the 
 dictator Sulla ; and the injuries and. insults which 
 he received from the dominant party led, perhaps, 
 to that settled purpose of breaking the power of 
 the aristocratical party, which he cherished from 
 his first appearance in public life. At an early age 
 he distinguished himself both in the camp and in 
 the forum ; and had he devoted his great mind to 
 the study of eloquence, he would, doubtless, have 
 been a formidable rival of his great contemporary, 
 Cicero. At the age of twenty-three, (b.c. 77,) he 
 made his first appearance in the forum as a public 
 accuser ; and though forced for some time by his 
 youth to act a subordinate part, he steadily kept 
 in view the grand object which he had proposed 
 to himself, and used every means to increase his 
 popularity. He served as quaestor in Spain, B.C. 
 68, was elected aedile for b.c. 65, and in the fol- 
 lowing year was made pontifex maximus at the 
 age of thirty-six. When praator-elect in B.C. 63, 
 during the famous Catilinarian conspiracy, his 
 avowed hostility to the aristocracy excited a sus- 
 picion that he was himself privy to it, but no proof 
 was adduced even by his enemies. In the fol- 
 lowing year he obtained the province of Further 
 Spain, and there first displayed that genius for 
 war which has entitled him to be ranked among 
 the greatest generals of the world. Returning to 
 Rome in B.C. 60, he found Pompey ready to desert 
 the aristocracy; and having succeeded in effecting a 
 reconciliation between him and Crassus, he formed 
 
 119 
 
CS 
 with them the coalition which is known in history 
 as the First Triumvirate. By the influence of his 
 new friends he was elected to the consulship for 
 B.C. 59, and, while in office, obtained the provinces 
 of Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, and Iilysicum, 
 with six legions, for five years. Having thus ob- 
 tained the command of an army, and the manage- 
 ment of an important war. he proceeded to prepare 
 himself for the struggle which he foresaw was im- 
 pending at Rome. His field of operation afforded 
 him peculiar advantages ; the Gauls were the here- 
 ditary enemies of the Romans, and the glory of 
 subduing them could not fail to increase his popu- 
 larity; while the opportunity of passing the winter 
 in the north of Italy enabled him to watch the 
 proceedings of parties in the capitol. During the 
 next nine years he was occupied in the subjugation 
 of Transalpine Gaul ; having also twice (b.c. 55 
 and 54) landed in Britain, and received the sub- 
 mission of the inhabitants of the southern portion 
 of the island. The interval of Cassar's absence 
 from Rome had produced a great change in the 
 state of parties. Pompey, jealous of the fame of 
 a man to whose elevation he had mainly contri- 
 buted, had effected a reconciliation with the aris- 
 tocratical party; and, aided by their support, 
 resolved to crush the conqueror of Gaul. Accord- 
 ingly in b.c. 49, a decree of the senate was passed, 
 4 that Ca?sar should disband his army by a certain 
 day, and that if he did not do so, he should be re- 
 garded as an enemy of the state,' the predominant 
 party relying on the influence of Pompey, to whom 
 the management of the contest had been intrusted. 
 But the feelings of the army were entirely with 
 Caesar; and he, finding that his men were ready 
 to follow him, crossed the Rubicon, which sepa- 
 rated his province from Italy, and thus commenced 
 the civil war, the issue of which invested him with 
 dictatorial power. In three months he made him- 
 self master of the whole of Italy. Proceeding next 
 to Spain, the stronghold of Pompey, he reduced it 
 to subjection ; and, after passing a short time 
 in Italy, followed his opponent into Greece, and 
 brought the contest to a final issue on the plains 
 of Pharsalia, 4th Aug., B.C. 48. The battle of 
 Pharsalia decided the fate of the Roman empire : 
 Pompey fled to Egypt, but was murdered as he 
 landed on the coast; and Caesar, who followed 
 him, speedily quashed all opposition in the eastern 
 portion of the empire. After a short residence in 
 Rome in B.C. 47, he proceeded to Africa to prosecute 
 the war against Scipio and Cato, who had there 
 collected a large army, and finally brought it to a 
 close on the 6th of April, b.c. 46, by the battle of 
 Thapsus, in which the Pompeian party were com- 
 pletely defeated. In his absence Ca?sar had been 
 elected dictator for ten years ; and his return to 
 Rome was signalized by four magnificent triumphs. 
 Devoting himself now to the duties of a legislator, 
 he corrected various abuses which had crept into 
 the state ; reformed the calendar, thereby confer- 
 ring a real benefit on the civilized world ; and ex- 
 ercised his unlimited power with a degree of mo- 
 deration which affected even his enemies with 
 surprise. But his career was destined to be short: 
 a conspiracy against his life was formed at the 
 beginning of B.C. 44 ; and on the Ides, or 15th 
 of March, he perished by the hands of assassins in 
 the senate house, in the fiftieth year of his age. 
 
 CAI 
 
 As a warrior, a statesman, and a man of letters, 
 
 Caesar was one of the most remarkabl. 
 
 any age. Qti.F.I 
 
 CjESAR, Sir Julius, a dist. lawyer, 1557-1636. 
 
 CiESARIUS, a dist. abbot of the 6th cent. 
 
 CiESARIUS, John, a German physician and 
 professional teacher of philosophv, bom at Juliers 
 1460, died at Cologne 1551. The best known oi 
 his writings are his notes on Celsus, and his edition 
 of Pliny's Natural History, but he is the author ol 
 treatises on dialectics and rhetoric, now almost for- 
 gotten. He suffered much persecution for Luther- 
 anism, but returned again to the catholic church. 
 
 CAFFA, Melchior, anltal. sculp., 1631-1687.; 
 
 CAFFARELLI DU FALGA, L. M. J. M., a re-! 
 
 Eublican general, born 1756, killed at St. Jean 
 'Acre, 1799. His brother Cut. Ambrose, a 
 philos. wr., 1758-1826 
 
 CAFFIAUX, J., awr. on music, &c., 1712-1777. 
 
 CAFFIERI, P., an ornamen. artist, 1634-1716. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Paolo, commonly called Paolcw 
 Veronese, was born at Verona in 1528. He] 
 was the pupil of his uncle Antonio Badile, and 
 having earned considerable reputation in Verona 
 and its vicinity, settled finally in Venice, where he| 
 was the rival of Titian and Tintoretto, and whei 
 he died in 1588. Paul Veronese may be account! 
 among the first of the machinist painters, many 
 his works being little more than ornamen 
 schemes, such as the celebrated 'Marriage 
 Cana' in the Louvre, containing 120 figures, o: 
 portions of figures, of the natural size. The mag- 
 nificent architectural backgrounds to some oi 
 these works are said to have been executed by hu 
 brother Benedetto Cagliari. The St. Nicholas 
 in the National Gallery, though small, is a flnei 
 example of his style : the chief attraction of hia 
 pictures is their gay and rich colouring ; they arei 
 iurther distinguished for their great freedom olj 
 execution, but are often careless in drawing, andj 
 for the most part purely capricious in costume. I 
 (Ridolfi, Maravigtie deW Arte, &c; Zanetti, 
 Delia Pittura Veneziana, &c.) [R.N.W.]) 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO, Alexander, Count, the as- 
 sumed name of Joseph Balsamo, the most noto-| 
 rious charlatan of modern times, 1743-1795. 
 
 CAGNOLA, a eel. Ital. architect, 1762-1833. 
 
 CAGNOLI, Anth., an Ital. astron., 1743-1811 
 
 CAGNOLO, Jer., an Ital. lawyer, 1492-155M 
 
 CAHER-BILLAH, Abasside caliph, 932-<>50. 
 
 CAILLAU, J. M., a medical and poetical wr., 
 au. of a great number of prof, memoirs, 1765- L89 
 
 CAILLE, Nicholas Louis De La, a French 
 mathematician and astronomer, 1713-1762. 
 
 CAILLIE, a young and enterprising Frenchman 
 who penetrated from Senegambia to Tinihuctoo.. 
 in 1827-28, among the first to visit that part oi 
 central Africa. He returned across the great] 
 desert to Marocco, but his discoveries were not; 
 important. He had not, indeed, properly qualified; 
 himself by previous training. His travels havo 
 been published. fJ.B.J 
 
 CAILLEAN, A. C, a French au., 1731-1708. 
 
 CAILLOT, a eel. French actor, 1732-lsKI. 
 
 CAILLY, J. De, a French poet, 1604-1673. 
 
 CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and Eve. 
 
 CAINAN, the son of Enos, Gen. v. 9 ; the same 
 name is given as a son of Arphaxad, Luke iii. 36. 
 
 CAIAPIIAS, high priest of the Jews, 29-37. 
 
 120 
 
CAI 
 
 CAIUS, or GAIUS, a Roman lawyer, 3d cent. 
 
 CAIUS, Mutics, a Roman architect, 100 B.C. 
 
 CAIUS, proconsul of Asia, time of Augustus. 
 
 CAIUS, an ecclesiastic of the 3d century. 
 
 CAIUS, a Roman saint, pope, 283-295. 
 
 CAJETAN, (Thos. De Vio, cardinal,) so called 
 rom his birth-place, Gaeta, in Latin Cajeta, was 
 iorn in 1469. At the age of twenty-nine he pub- 
 ished a noted book in defence of the papal prero- 
 gative as to the calling of general councils, and 
 ras in consequence raised successively to the 
 ishoprick of Gaeta and the archbishoprick of Pisa, 
 n 1515 he was created cardinal. As the papal 
 ?gate, he met Luther at Augsburg, and was sig- 
 lally outwitted by the reformer. Cajetan relied on 
 ihilosophy and Peter Lombard, but Luther ap- 
 lealed to the Bible and St. Paul. The cardinal's 
 ast years were spent in writing learned commen- 
 aries on the scholastic philosophy, and on many 
 ooks of Scripture. He died in 1534. [J.E.j 
 
 CALAMAN, the name of twoks. of Bulgaria; the 
 'rst, reign. 1242-5 ; the second, sue. and k. 1258. 
 
 CALAMUS, an Athenian sculptor, 5th cent. B.C. 
 
 CALAJIY, Edmund, a presbyterian divine, 
 lember of the Westminster Assembly, &c, 1600- 
 656. His son of the same name, minister of a 
 rivate church in Cripplegate, 1635-1685. Ben- 
 amin, son of the last named, a celebrated 
 reacher, prebend of St. Paul's, died 1686. Ed- 
 [und, nephew of Benjamin, a celebrated noncon- 
 rnnist and polemic, 1671-1732. 
 
 CALANDRINI, J. L., a Swiss phil., 1703-1758. 
 
 CALANUS, an Indian phil., time of Alexander. 
 
 CALANUS, a bishop of Hungary, 12th century. 
 
 CALAS, John, a victim of religious fanaticism, 
 xecuted for the alleged murder of his son, 1762. 
 
 CALAVIO, Marcode, aHeb. schol., 1550-1620. 
 
 CALCAGNINI, Coelio, an Italian officer, dist. 
 sa political agent and man of letters, 1479-1541. 
 
 CALCRAFT, John, M. P. from 1796 to 1831, 
 hen he gave the casting vote in favour of the Re- 
 >rm Bill, and shortly afterwards commitd. suicide. 
 
 CALDARIC, L. M. A., anltal. anat, 1725-1813. 
 
 CALDAS, F. J., a Sp. naturalist, and patriot of 
 few Granada, put to death by Murillo, 1816. 
 
 CALDERON DE LA BARCA, Pedro, the 
 hakspeare of Spanish literature, was born at 
 ladrid, of a noble family, in 1600. After having 
 ompleted his studies, lie was for some time at- 
 iched to the court; after which he served for 
 sveral campaigns in the Low Countries and in 
 taly. He had already become famous as a dra- 
 latic poet, when in 1636 he was called to Madrid 
 V Philip IV., a patron of letters, and himself a 
 lay-writer. From this time he was fixed at the 
 ourt, and produced dramas with incessant rapid- 
 y. After he had reached his fiftieth year he 
 jok holy orders, and now busied himself oftenest 
 I HHnposing dramatic pieces on sacred subjects. 
 [is life was spent in an affluence and popularity 
 ery unlike the fate of Cervantes, and did not close 
 ill he was very old. He died in 1681 at earliest, 
 nd perhaps some years later. Calderon was 
 either the founder of the Spanish drama, nor in 
 ny respect an improver of its forms or ideas. It 
 ad been completely developed before the death of 
 .ope de Vega, which happened while Calderon was 
 till young. But he brought to it both a wealth 
 I fancy, an intensity of feeling, and a fertility and 
 
 CAL 
 
 dexterity of invention, which were not paralleled 
 by any other Spanish dramatist, and hardly by 
 those of any other countiy. Full scope was given 
 for his powers by the structure of the Spanish 
 drama, in which the irregularities of the old Eng- 
 lish school were not equalled merely, but far out- 
 done. As a painter of character he has little either 
 of strength, of precision, or of accurate observation; 
 he is neither a master of human nature nor a poet 
 of the highest order, while Shakspeare was both ; 
 and, indeed, the lyrical cast of all his works gives 
 them the air of dramatic poems rather than of 
 poetic dramas. But, within his own circle of 
 thought and sentiment, he treads with a vigorous 
 and elastic step ; and there are very few poets that 
 have stronger attractions for minds keenly alive to 
 the poetical and the romantic. Calderon's dramas 
 are said to have amounted to not fewer than five 
 hundred ; a surprising number, (though not more 
 than a fourth of Lope's,) and a number which pre- 
 cluded the possibility of deliberate care in con- 
 struction. The principal of those which have been 
 preserved are distributable into three groups. The 
 first contains his comedies of familiar life, the 
 ' Comedies of Cloak and Sword,' as they were 
 called in Spain. These are equally remarkable for 
 their grace andfluencyof dialogue,andfortheir poetic 
 beauty ; for the liveliness and interest which annnate 
 the stories of the best of them, their general in- 
 genuity in situation and incident, and the equivo- 
 cal morality and singular violations of good taste 
 which prevail in them all. From among them 
 may be named, 'The Fairy Lady,' 'Welcome 
 Evil, if it Come Alone,' and 'Give Time to Time!' 
 The second division consists of the Heroic Comedies, 
 among which are to be found some of the veiy 
 finest and most dignified of his works. His master- 
 piece is usually held to be one of these, ' The Con- 
 stant Prince, which represents with profound 
 pathos the self-sacrifice of Don Fernando of Por- 
 tugal, in an unsuccessful expedition into Barbary. 
 The ' Heraclius ' became famous in France, Corneille 
 having been asserted to have imitated it. The 
 singular play, called 'Life is a Dream,' unites 
 poetical imagination with melancholy reflective- 
 ness in a way which imparts to it a charm alto- 
 gether peculiar. The third class of Calderon's 
 dramas embraces his Religious Pieces, or ' Sacra- 
 mental Acts,' (Autos Sacramentales,) composi.- 
 tions which bear a strong resemblance to our own 
 miracle-plays of the middle ages, and are, like 
 them, deformed by fantastic extravagances of reli- 
 gious opinion and feeling. Some of them, how- 
 ever, are beautifully poetical. One of the most 
 characteristic, held also by some critics to be the 
 best, is ' The Devotion of the Cross,' a strange 
 farrago of the wildest supernatural inventions, and 
 the most impractically-motived exhibitions of hu- 
 man conduct, but breathing a poetic spirit which 
 is wonderfully impressive. One of its main inci- 
 dents is the legend of one dead man shriving an- 
 other, which had been used in a narrative poem of 
 Lidgate, our old monk of Bury. [W.S.I 
 
 CALDERWOOD, David, one of the founders 
 of Presbyterianism, banished for his opposition to 
 Episcopacy, died 1651. 
 
 CALDWALL, Rich., an Eng. phy., 1513-1585. 
 
 CALEB, a patriarch of the Jews, 15th cnt. B.C. 
 
 CALENIUS, Walter, a Welch hist., 12th ct. 
 
 121 
 
CAL 
 
 CALETTI, GiusErpE, an Ital. paint., d. 1660. 
 
 CALIDASA, an Ind. dram., supposed 1st c. B.C. 
 
 CALIGNON, S. De, a political writer and his- 
 torian, chancellor of Navarre, 1550-1606. 
 
 CALIGULA, a tyrant of Rome, whose proper 
 name was Caius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was 
 the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and began 
 his reign at the age of 25, A.D. 37. After reigning 
 happily a few months, he suffered frcm a fever, 
 which' is supposed to have affected his mind. 
 Four years ot the most revolting excesses followed 
 this misfortune, when a conspiracy was formed 
 against him, and he was assassinated. 
 
 CALIPPUS, a Ger. mathematician, 4th ct. B.C. 
 
 CALIXTUS, the first pope of Rome, 219-222 ; 
 the second, 1119-1124; the third, 1455-1458. 
 
 CALIXTUS, G., chf. of a prot. sect, 1586-1656. 
 
 CALL, J. Van, a Dutch engraver, 1655-1703. 
 
 CALLCOTT, John Wall, the son of Thomas 
 Callcott, bricklayer and builder, was born at Ken- 
 sington, Gravel-pits, in the county of Middlesex, 
 on the 20th of November, 1766. At a veiy early 
 age he gave indications of that love of literature, 
 and for the acquisition of knowledge, which distin- 
 guished him in his after life. At seven years of 
 age he was sent as a day-boarder to a neighbour- 
 ing school, where he remained five years, made 
 considerable progress in the Latin language, and 
 commenced the study of Greek. He acquired the 
 first rudiments of music from Henry Whitney, 
 organist of Kensington church, to whom he was in- 
 troduced in the year 1778. In 1779 he began to prac- 
 tise upon the spinnet, with the view of becoming an 
 organist. In 1780 he learned to play upon the cla- 
 rionet, and made his first essay in musical composi- 
 tion. In the meantime he continued to improve him- 
 self in classical learning, and acquired a knowledge of 
 French, Italian, and German, and made an attempt 
 to master the Hebrew and Syriac languages, while 
 mathematics and algebra also occupied his atten- 
 tion. About the year 1782 he became intimate 
 with Drs. Arnold and Cooke, whom he always re- 
 garded as his first patrons. In 1783 he obtained 
 the situation of assistant organist at the church of 
 St. George the Martyr, which he held till 1785. 
 At this time his musical compositions were both 
 numerous and varied ; but the connections he had 
 formed induced him to make glee-writing his par- 
 ticular study. His first glee, ' O Sovereign of the 
 Willing Soul,' was written in the year 1784. In 
 1785 he obtained three medals from the Catch 
 Club, for a catch, a canon, and a glee. In the 
 same year he took his degree of Bachelor in Music, 
 and in 1786 he had two medals awarded him by 
 the Catch Club. In 1787, Dr. Arnold and Call- 
 cott established the Glee Club, which has ever 
 since continued to form one of the most attractive 
 musical societies in London. In this year he was 
 admitted among the honorary members of the 
 Catch Club, and received two medals. In 1789, 
 and every year till 1793 inclusive, he obtained all 
 the four medals by the club, and took his place as 
 the most popular glee-writer of the day. In 
 1789, as colleague with Mr. Evans, he entered upon 
 the office of organist at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, 
 which situation he held until the church was de- 
 stroyed by fire six years afterwards. In 1790 
 Haydn arrived in England, and Callcott became 
 one of Ids earliest pupils ; and in the same year he 
 
 CAL 
 
 took his degree of Doctor in Music at Oxford. I 
 1791 Callcott was married, and on that occasiclj 
 he wrote the words and music of his glee ' Triunl 
 phant Love ;' and the following year was appointcl 
 organist in the chapel of Female Orphans, wine 
 place he held till 1802, when he resigned in favoi 
 of Mr. Horsley. In 1797 he commenced to collet 
 materials for a musical dictionary, which was nev< 
 published, but which led to the publication of h 
 musical grammar, which appeared in 1805. Shortl 
 after this he was appointed to succeed Dr. Crotd 
 as lecturer at the Royal Institution, but his li1 
 of arduous and unremitted study weakened h 
 mind, which at length sank under the burdens h 
 had laid too heavily upon it. He died on the 15t 
 of May, 1821. Dr. Callcott was one of th 
 brightest ornaments of the British school 
 music, and he had the strongest claim to esteer 
 and reverence as a man. His works are we 
 known to all glee clubs, but are much too nume 
 rous to be mentioned by name here. A fine selec 
 tion of his glees, edited by his son-in-law, Willi 
 Horsley, Mus. Bac, Oxon, 
 volumes in the year 1824. 
 
 CALLCOTT, Sir A. W., 
 composer, disting. as a landscape paint 
 
 CALLCOTT, Lady Maria 
 ceding, author of several works of travel, a historj 
 of Spain, &c, 1779-1842. 
 
 CALLET, J. F., a Fr. mathemat,, 1744-1798. U 
 CALLETT, A. F., a Fr. painter, 1741-1823. 
 CALLIMACHUS, archi. of Corinth, 6th c. b.cJ 
 CALLIM ACHUS, a Gr. poet, and hist., 3d c. B.cf 
 CALLINICHUS, a Gr. rhetorician, 3d cnt. b.c.| 
 CALLINUS, a Gr. orator and poet, 8th c. b.c. I 
 CALLIPUS, a phil. of Athens, assass. 351 B.C.] 
 CALLISTHENES, a Gr. phil., the disciple anJ 
 grand-nephew of Aristotle, and one of the sovanta 
 who accompanied Alexander into Asia, 365-328 B.C.; 
 CALLISTRATUS, an Athen. orator, 4th c. B.cJ 
 CALLY, Piene, a French catholic divine, dist.l 
 for his controver. and philosoph. writings, d. 1709.] 
 CALMET, Augustine, was born in 1672, near 
 Commercy. After studying at Breuil and Port-a-j 
 Musson, he entered the order of Benedictines, as-! 
 suming the vows finally in 1689. Afterwards he' 
 was removed to Minister as sub-prior. For a short 
 time he held the priory of St. Lay, and he was 
 abbe" of St. Leopold of Nancy when he was 
 removed to Senones, where he died in 1757. 
 Calmet was a biblical scholar of no mean preten- 
 sions and acquirements, as is shown by his Com- 
 mentaire Littered, by his Dictionnuire de la Bible, 
 and by many dissertations on biblical subjects. 
 His dictionary is well known in various English 
 translations and abridgments, the most famous of 
 the former being that of C. Taylor, in 5 volumes 
 quarto. [<LE.] 
 
 CALMO, Andrea, a Venet. poet, 1510-1571. 
 CALO, John, a chief of Bulgaria, 13th cent. 
 CALOGERA, Father, a philolog., 1699-1768. 
 CALONNE, Charles Alexandre De, con- 
 troller-general (or finance minister) of the French 
 government from the fall of Necker, 1783 to 1787. 
 His name is chiefly memorable as the last of the 
 plodding, intriguing, accommodating, and unprin- 
 cipled statesmen by whom the French monarchy 
 was hurried to the declivity of the revolution ; and 
 especially for his daring experiment of assembling 
 
 122 
 
CAL 
 
 : the notables ' on the 22d of February, 1787. In- 
 stead of extricating him from his difficulties, this 
 measure really proved the signal of the revolution, 
 is it did of Calonne's disgrace and exile. He was 
 porn at Douai, 1784, and educated for the law, 
 jsvhich he dishonoured by his treacherous conduct 
 to his client La Chalatois. He is the author of 
 numerous political works and financial memoirs, 
 the best of which may be his ' Tableau de l'Europe 
 m November, 1795.' Buonaparte permitted him 
 to return to France in 1802, where he died on the 
 30th of Oct., about a month after his arrival. [E.R.] 
 
 CALPHURNIUS, J., a Greek scholar, 15th c. 
 
 CALPRENEDE, Walter De Costes, lord of 
 La, a French novelist and dramatic poet, d. 1663. 
 
 CALPUENIUS, Titus J., a Latin poet, 3d c. 
 
 CALVERT, Denis, a Dutch paint., 1565-1619. 
 
 CALVERT, Frederic, seventh Lord Baltimore, 
 author of a ' Tour to the East,' &c, d. 1771. 
 
 CALVERT, George, secretary of state to 
 James I., first Lord Baltimore and founder of 
 Maryland, died 1632. 
 
 CALVET, Esprit Cl. F., a natur., 1728-1810. 
 
 CALVI, Lazzaro, an Italian painter, d. 1606. 
 
 CALVIN, John, (Cauvin Jean), was born 
 at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. Law 
 and theology were combined in- his earliest 
 studies. He received, when he was but twelve 
 years old, a benefice in the cathedral of his native 
 town, and, at the age of seventeen, there was added 
 to this previous gift the pastoral cure of Monteville. 
 At his father's request he pursued legal studies at 
 Orleans and Bourges. His mind, however, had 
 been gradually opening to the errors of popery; 
 and, in the place last named, he openly avowed 
 himself a disciple of the reformation. In 1532 he 
 proceeded to Paris', but, having provoked the Sor- 
 bonne by his zeal for the new doctrines, he was 
 obliged, with his friend Cop, to quit the city in 
 baste. Under the anticipated patronage of the queen 
 of Navarre, he returned to the French capital in 1534, 
 but the fate of his previous visit again pursued him, 
 and he retired to Basel, then travelled into Italy, 
 visited the duchess of Ferrara, soon came back, and 
 arrived, 1536, as if by accident, at Geneva the 
 city with which his name is now immortally iden- 
 tified. His early labours and stern discipline did 
 not at first suit the Genevese, and he was banished 
 along with Farel. The reformer halted at Berne 
 for a time, and then removed to Strasburg, in one 
 if the churches of which town he laboured as pas- 
 tor with all his characteristic activity and deci- 
 sion, and not without marked success. In 1541 
 tie returned to Geneva or rather was recalled 
 and from that period till his death, his labours 
 were unremitting in the pulpit and from the press. 
 A.s a citizen, as a pastor, as an ecclesiastical ruler 
 ind reformer, and as a correspondent and counsellor 
 rf foreign churches, he was instant ' in season and 
 )ut of season.' The literary work which he exe- 
 cuted is almost incredible, especially when we 
 consider the weak and emaciated constitution in 
 which his indomitable spirit was lodged. Fre- 
 nxent headaches and frequent fastings to relieve 
 lose spasms, nocturnal study with a dim lamp 
 suspended from the canopy of his humble bed 
 watchful anxiety, and domestic bereavement 
 contributed to shorten his life, and on the 27th of 
 U~y, 1561, he died at the age of fifty-five. He 
 
 123 
 
 CAM 
 
 had previously summoned the syndics of Geneva 
 to his deathbed, and solemnly adjured them to 
 persevere in their adherence to the pure gospel of 
 Christ. The works of Calvin comprise commen- 
 taries on nearly the whole of the Bible in all of 
 which, with varying success, the mind of the 
 sacred writers is simply and forcibly expounded, 
 without the parade of erudition, but with a clear 
 perception and logical analysis of the process of 
 inspired thought and argument. His ' Institutes,' 
 published at the early age of twenty-four, are a 
 remarkable monument of precocious ability, and 
 not only speedily gained for its author a European 
 renown, but contributed in no ordinary degree to 
 strengthen, fortify, and extend, the protestant 
 reformation. The Latinity of the long dedica- 
 tion to the king of France is remarkable for its 
 elegance and purity. His numerous tracts against 
 popery have wit as well as wisdom in them 
 especially the one called the 'Inventory of Sa- 
 cred Relics.' His voluminous correspondence has 
 been partly published, but a very large collec- 
 tion of letters remain in MSS. in the library 
 of Geneva. The industry of M. Bonnet has, dur- 
 ing the last two years, discovered many others, 
 and collected them with a view to speedy publica- 
 tion. Of the system of theology named Calvin- 
 ism, espoused so extensively in France, Britain, 
 and America, this is not the place to speak. The 
 merits of Calvin have been acknowledged by men 
 of very opposite sentiments as even by Simon 
 and Bayle. No one now will justify Calvin's 
 share in the burning of Servetus. The other 
 reformers, even the gentle Melancthon, vindicated 
 the sad tragedy. It will not suffice to say that 
 Calvin was drawn into the measure, or that the 
 fate of Servetus was in accordance with the law of 
 the state, and therefore beyond the control of the 
 reformer. Calvin distinctly understood his own 
 part in the business, and felt that compassion was 
 to yield to conscience. The only apology for him 
 is, that Calvin was not, in the matter of religious 
 liberty, before his age. He was no exception 
 to the general rule. Cranmer sent Joan of 
 Kent to the stake, and himself in a few years fol- 
 lowed. Five Genevan disciples of Calvin were burnt 
 in France about the same time that Servetus was 
 committed to the flames in Geneva. John Knox 
 and Peter Dens use the very same argument and 
 imagery for the capital punishment of heretics. 
 Nay, Servetus himself admitted the legal theory 
 under which he suffered; for in his work called. 
 Restitutio, published a few months before his own 
 death, he says expressly that the crime of blasphemy 
 is worthy of death 'simpliciter' 'without dis- 
 pute.' Similar doctrines are propounded in old 
 books of Scottish theology, by Samuel Rutherford, 
 and in 'The Hind Let Loose.' It took a long 
 time to teach protestants that man is responsible 
 to God alone for his belief, and that liberty of con- 
 science is a universal birthright. [J.E.] 
 
 CALVISIUS, Sellius, a composer and writer 
 on music and various subjects of learning, 1556-1617. 
 
 CAM, or CANO, Diego, a Portuguese who 
 discovered the river Zaire or Congo, and traced 
 part of the S. Guinea coast in 1484-85. [J.B.] 
 
 CAMARAY Y MURGA, a Sp. prelate, d. 1641. 
 
 CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis De, 
 duke of Parma, prince of the empire, &c, born at 
 
CAM 
 
 Montpellicr 1753, died at Paris 1824. Though a 
 cliild of the revolution, and from the first favour- 
 able to its progress, the ambition of Cambaceres 
 waa rather constructive than otherwise, and added 
 to his education for the law, well qualified him for 
 his great share in the preparation of the civil code, 
 and the judiciary organization of France. He pos- 
 sessed the rare talent of preserving his credit for 
 patriotism, without committing himself to the 
 strife of parties, and in 1709 was associated with 
 Napoleon Buonaparte in the consulate. It does 
 not appear that the first consul had much regard 
 for him, and his conduct must be regarded as 
 equivocal, at the least, when it is considered that 
 he rose to fresh honours under the second restora- 
 tion. The real product of his political activity is 
 fairly represented by his Projet du Code Civil, et 
 Discours Preliminaire,' published 1794, and the 
 practical application of it in following years. The 
 most distinguished of his relations were his bro- 
 ther, Stephen Hubert De Cambaceres, arch- 
 bishop of Rouen, and peer of France, a most 
 esteemed prelate, 1756-1818; Baron Cajniba- 
 ceres, his nephew, and one of Napoleon's generals, 
 1778-1826 ; and his uncle, the Abbe De Camba- 
 ceres, distinguished as a religious writer and 
 preacher, 1721-1802. [E.R.] 
 
 CAMBON, Joseph, one of the more violent 
 Jacobins of the French revolution, was born at 
 Montpellier, 1754, and returned to the legislative 
 assembly, 1791. He is chiefly memorable as the 
 reporter of the finance commission, by which some 
 kind of order was eliminated from the confusion 
 left by Calonne and his predecessors, and the basis 
 laid for the subsequent financial prosperity of his 
 country. Whatever share he may have taken in 
 the agitation of the period, the merit belongs to 
 him of pursuing this one aim with steady perse- 
 verance. He was disliked by Robespierre, and 
 contributed to his fall on the 9th Thermidor, (27th 
 July, 1794,) but was shortly afterwards compelled 
 to save himself by flight. In 1815 he reappeared 
 on the public stage as a member of the representa- 
 tive assembly, and in 1816 was driven into exile 
 as a regicide. He died at Brussels in 1820. [E.R.] 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Adolphus Frederick, duke 
 of, youngest son of George III., born 1774, served 
 as volunteer with the duke of York 1793-1795, 
 viceroy of Hanover 1815-1837, d. 8th July, 1850. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, R. Owen, a miscel. wr., d. 1802. 
 
 CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, 
 Baron De, the brave commander of the old guard at 
 the battle of Waterloo, 1770-1842. 
 
 CAMBYSES, the first of this name, father of 
 Cyrus, lived about 595 B.C. ; the second, son and 
 sue. of Cyrus, began to r. 529 or 530 B.C., d. 522. 
 
 CAMDEN, Charles Pratt, Earl, a distin- 
 guished lawyer and statesman, lord chancellor in 
 1766, president of the council 1782, 1713-1794. 
 
 CAMDP]N, John Jeffreys Pratt, Marquis, 
 K.G., distinguished as a disinterested servant of 
 the state for sixty years, 1759-1840. 
 
 CAMDEN, William, the celeb, antiquarian, 
 au. of 'The Britannia,' 'Annals,' &c., 1551-1623. 
 
 CAMELLI, G. J., a mis. and botanist, 17th ct. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, Joachim, a learned German, 
 1500-74. His son of the same name, one of the 
 first physic., botan., and chem. of his age, 1534-1598. 
 
 CAMERON, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Allan, distin- 
 
 CAM 
 
 guished for enrolling the ' Cameron Highlander 
 at his own expense, in 1793, died 1828. 
 
 CAMERON, John, a Scotch theologian, profl 
 fessor of divinity at Glasgow, and afterwards a ] 
 Montauban, in trance, died 1625; 
 
 CAMILLA, a princess of the Volsci, k. in batfka 
 CAMILLA, J. A. V., an Ital. actress, 173.">-* 
 CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, a Ronai 
 general of distinguished patriotism, made dictatfl 
 b.c. 396, died B.C. 365. 
 
 CAMILO, F., a Spanish painter, 1610-1671. I 
 CAMOENS, Luis De, is the only Portuguesfl 
 poet who enjoys a European celebrity. He mm 
 of noble family, and his ancestors on the 
 side were Spanish. He was probably born at LisJ 
 bon ; and the date of his birth was 1527, or a M 
 years earlier. After having been educated jti 
 Coimbra, he passed some time in courtly soeieH 
 at Lisbon ; but an attachment to a lady of distant 
 tion brought on him a sentence of banishment tl 
 Santarem, where he composed several of bis poemslt 
 and is said to have planned or begun that whiclif 
 is the greatest of them. He then volunteered 
 into the fleet, distinguished himself against thJ 
 African Moors, and lost his right eye in an attacll 
 on Ceuta, On his return he found hiiiiM 
 neglected and poor ; and in 1553 he embarked fol 
 India, declaring a resolution of never again seeina 
 his native country. Escaping from a storm, hi 
 which the other vessels of the fleet foundered, M 
 reached the Portuguese settlement at Goa ; an 
 sixteen years passed over him in the East, amidsi 
 perilous adventures, and continual disappointment! 
 and misfortunes. He failed to obtain employment 
 in the public service, and entered as a volunteer 
 in two expeditions, the one to Cochin, (in whiclj 
 almost all the Europeans were destroyed by thl 
 climate,") the other against the pirates of the Reel 
 Sea. A versified satire on the abuses of thj 
 government, provoked the viceroy to banish th<j 
 poet to Macao, where he lived for five years! 
 glad to support himself by the fees of a smal 
 
 [Grotto of Ctimoens at Macao.] 
 
 office. In this period his great poem is believed to 
 have been completed. He saved the manuscrSj 
 with difficulty on being shipwrecked on the coast; 
 of Cambodia, when at length allowed to return tc 
 Goa. Here he was twice imprisoned, first on a; 
 groundless charge of malversation in office, an 
 again for debts which he was unable to pay. 
 
 lb 
 
 124 
 
CAM 
 
 iow took up arms again, in the service of the 
 ;overnor of a remote settlement ; and there, weary 
 nd dispirited, he was tempted to sail for Europe 
 a a homeward-bound vessel which happened to 
 iass. He returned to Lisbon in 1569, as poor and 
 ^prosperous as he had been when he departed. 
 Ie published his noble poem, but gained by it 
 either fame nor profit. The public were blind to 
 is value; and the government and court were 
 therwise occupied. It was probably about this 
 ime that Camoens would have died of hunger, 
 [ad not a black servant begged for him at night 
 a the streets. In 1578 King Sebastian, embark- 
 ag on his fatal expedition against Morocco, 
 Wished in the bloody battle of Alcazar; and, 
 rhile his mind had been diverted alike from ad- 
 ainistration and from literature by his chivalrous 
 reams, his successor, an aged churchman, was 
 ngrossed by ecclesiastical business and dismayed 
 y public calamities. The great poet of the na- 
 ion was left to his fate. He died in a public 
 ospital in the year 1579. Camoens left untried 
 ardly any department of poetry, from the tragedy 
 o the sonnet ; and high praise is given to many 
 f his smaller compositions. But his immortality 
 ras caused by the magnificent heroic poem which 
 re commonly call 'The Lusiad.' The name he 
 imself gave to it was 'Os Lusiados,' that is, 
 The Lusitanians,' or ' Portuguese.' He designed 
 a its ten books to celebrate the glory and great- 
 iess of a nation, as to which he triumphantly de- 
 lared that it was soon to surpass the fame and ma- 
 ssty of all others in the world. The main story 
 5 the voyage in which Vasco de Gama rounded 
 he Cape of Storms, and discovered the passage to 
 ndia ; but the whole history of Portugal is en- 
 rafted on this stock. Nearly a third of the poem 
 5 occupied by a narrative of the rise of the king- 
 lom, which Vasco delivers to the king of Melinda, 
 uuch in the manner of iEneas's tale to Dido ; and 
 ccasion is taken for introducing minor incidents 
 md characters in shorter episodes. A plan em- 
 racing a field so wide, could not well be executed 
 rithout making too heavy demands on the atten- 
 ion of the reader ; and undoubtedly there are few 
 rho do not feel the poem, as a whole, to be want- 
 ng in interest. Another weakness lies in the 
 rant of local truth which pervades it, and which 
 ixhibits itself both in the scenery and in the char- 
 icters. The work abounds in supernatural machi- 
 iery, which is nothing else than a repetition of the 
 leathen mythology, while it often passes into un- 
 allegory. Nor is any attempt made at 
 lescribing exactly either the landscapes or the 
 nanners of the East : all is general and unchar- 
 Lcteri.stic. But the glow of patriotic and warlike 
 inimation, the frequent pathos, (as in the story of 
 Inez de Castro,) and the constant affluence of 
 magery beautifully poetical, combine in present- 
 ng us with a series of pictures, such as is very 
 arely to be met with in poetry, and fully sufficient 
 o vindicate the place oi Camoens as one of the 
 greatest among modern poets. The diction and 
 versification, also, are pronounced by competent 
 xitics to possess the very highest merit. [W.S.I 
 
 CAMPAN, Madame De, a lady of the royal 
 lousehold, celebrated for her memoirs of Marie 
 httoinette, 1752-1822. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, Thomas, a distinguished 
 
 CAM 
 
 Spaniard of the 16th century, no less remarkable 
 from the originality of his writings, than through the 
 extraordinary reverses of his life. The contempo- 
 rary of Bacon and Des Cartes, he ranks with Gior- 
 dano Bruno and a few others, as evidence that 
 the time had come for a successful revolt against 
 the philosophy of the Peripatetics and the Church. 
 Like Bruno, his tendencies were towards Platonism ; 
 many of his views, also, were tinted with mysticism. 
 He had, however, a clear conception of the nature 
 of metaphysics ; and he has contributed one of our 
 many ' Utopias ' to political theory, in his ' Civitas 
 Solis.' Campanella found in the Spanish govern- 
 ment a mortal foe. Seven times did he undergo 
 the horrors of the question ; he passed seven years 
 in a dungeon supporting his courage and nourish- 
 ing his soul, with thought. At length he escaped 
 to France, and found a protector in Richelieu, 
 with whom the hatred borne him by Spain was 
 sufficient recommendation. Campanula's works 
 cannot be overlooked by the thorough student of 
 metaphysics : the more important of them have 
 been recently collected and published in Ger- 
 many. [J.P.N.] 
 
 CAMPANILE, an Italian satirist, 1630-1674. 
 
 CAMPANIUS, Th., a learned Swede, author 
 of a description of New Sweden, America, 1701. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Archibald, marquis of Argyle, 
 a distinguished partizan of the covenanters, be- 
 headed 1661. His son of the same name, earl of 
 Argyle, disting. as a royalist, and beheaded 1685. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Arch., bp. of Aberdeen, d. 1744. 
 
 CAMPBELL, George, D.D., a professor of 
 divinity in the presbyterian church, 1709-1796. 
 
 CAMPBELL, J., d. of Argyle and Greenwich, 
 a partizan of the house of Hanover, 1671-1743. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John, a Scotch archit., d. 1734. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John, a miscellan. au., d. 1775. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Major-Gen. Sir Neil, British 
 resident at Elba in charge of Napoleon, died 1827. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born at Glasgow 
 in July, 1777. His father, descended of a good 
 family in Argyleshire, was a Virginia merchant ; 
 but before the birth of the poet, the youngest of 
 his eleven children, he was in decayed circum- 
 stances, and subsisted on small annuities from mer- 
 cantile societies, and by receiving young men into 
 his house as boarders. Thomas, after distinguish- 
 ing himself at school, passed through the univer- 
 sity of Glasgow with high reputation, which, how- 
 ever, was gained less by steady industry or exact 
 learning, than by the precocious brilliancy of his 
 essays in prose and his versified translations from 
 the classics. Till the end of his life, Greek was 
 his favourite study ; and he was vainer of his pro- 
 ficency in it than of his poetiy or the fame it 
 brought him. His studies at college were assisted 
 by a bursary or exhibition, and by the hard-won 
 gains of private teaching; and he became suc- 
 cessively, for short periods, tutor in two fami- 
 lies in the west of Scotland. The poverty of his 
 family precluded his pursuit of the more ambitious 
 professions ; and a few months spent as a copying 
 clerk in Edinburgh, disgusted his sensitive and in- 
 dolent mind with the drudgery and captiousness 
 of the attorney's chambers. This migration intro- 
 duced him to the notice of literary men ; and to the 
 encouragement and criticism of Dr. Robert Ander- 
 son, more than to anything else, was owing his 
 
 125 
 
CAM 
 
 pretention of poetical composition. One of Lis 
 first printed efforts was 'The Wounded Hussar,' 
 winch, appeared when he was about twenty years 
 of age. About the same time, living in humble 
 lodgings in Edinburgh, and supporting himself by 
 private teaching of the classics, and by obscure 
 drudgeiy for booksellers, he was composing poetical 
 fragments, which were gradually incorporated into 
 ' The Pleasures of Hope.' This poem, published 
 in 1799, in its author's twenty-second year, be- 
 came immediately and deservedly famous; and 
 though, in spite of advice, he sold the copyright 
 absolutely for sixty pounds, the publishers, on 
 its success, were for some time very liberal to him ; 
 and the reversion of the copyright became profitable 
 in his declining years. Being now determined on 
 making literature his profession, he spent upwards 
 of a year in Germany. A great poem, 'The 
 Queen of the North,' ardently projected, was soon 
 dropped ; but he transmitted from abroad, to the 
 Morning Chronicle, several of his finest lyrics, 
 among which were, 'Ye Mariners of England,' 
 and ' The Exile of Erin.' He had intended set- 
 tling in Edinburgh, where he had long been inti- 
 mate with Jeffrey, Brown, Scott, and Stewart, 
 and most of all with Alison ; and with this design 
 he set down his parents in that city. To them, 
 indeed, to his mother after her husband's death, 
 and to his sisters always afterwards, he was 
 steadily and honourably affectionate and generous. 
 In 1803, however, he found it advisable to re- 
 move to London ; and in the same year, uncertain 
 though his prospects were, he married his cousin 
 Miss Sinclair. Next year he obtained an engage- 
 ment with the Star newspaper, from which he 
 received about four guineas a-week, chiefly earned 
 by translating foreign gazettes. About the same 
 time appeared 'The Battle of the Baltic' For 
 seventeen years from this date he inhabited a 
 house at Sydenham, near London. In 1805 his 
 circumstances were improved by a pension of two 
 hundred a-year bestowed by Fox's administration ; 
 partly, perhaps, for zealous advocacy of Whig prin- 
 ciples, but prompted also by his poetical celebrity, 
 and by the necessities of one who was always 
 thriftless, and disqualified, both by temperament 
 and by feebleness of health, for steady labour as a 
 bookseller's hack. In 1807 was published one of 
 the fruits of his taskwork, ' The Annals of Great 
 Britain,' for which he received three hundred 
 pounds from an Edinburgh bookseller. In 1809 
 appeared ' Gertrude of Wyoming,' to which, the 
 year after, ' O'Connor's Child ' was annexed. The 
 place which Campbell justly holds as one of the 
 classics of English poetry was now securely 
 gained, when he had only reached his thirty-third 
 year ; and, though his life was but half spent, it 
 may safely be said that nothing which he afterwards 
 wrote was worthy to be ranked with his earlier 
 achievements. His time, in fact, was thenceforth 
 frittered away in desultory and occasional studies, 
 and in toils which had no higher purpose than the 
 subsistence of his family ; and the exquisite deli- 
 cacy and correctness of taste, which give such a 
 charm to his finest poems, did no more than im- 
 pede him in his prose writing. The romantic 
 glow of imagery and sentiment, which had in- 
 spired, in youth, his ethical meditations, and which 
 had risen into a more manly enthusiasm in his 
 
 CAM 
 
 martial lyrics, died away amidst the hurry jvn< 
 coarseness of real life; and the poet certainh 
 wanted the leisure, and probably wanted the : 
 tive vigour of thought, which might have furnishe< 
 him with other and severer themes, and prompte< 
 a new tone of poetic inspiration. In 1812 he de- 
 livered, with great popularity, six lectures on poeti 
 at the Royai Institution : two years afterwards, 
 long visit to Paris, while the masterpieces of Gre- 
 cian sculpture and Italian painting were still un 
 removed from the Louvre, gratified his classica 
 taste, and suggested much of attractive reflection 
 Soon afterwards a legacy from a Highland coush 
 placed at his command the income of a sum, whicl 
 m the end exceeded four thousand pounds. Ii 
 1819 appeared his well-selected ' Specimens of th< 
 British Poets,' accompanied with criticisms, which 
 written with very fine judgment and fair know- 
 ledge, are the only prose compositions of Camp- 
 bell that are likely to be remembered. In 182" 
 he became editor of ' The New Monthly Magazine 
 to which he contributed a good many critica 
 essays and poems ; and the editorship, though 
 ver carefully attended to, was retained for 
 years. During these years several events occurred 
 The ill success of 'Theodric' disappointed hin 
 grievously. His surviving son, (the other havin 
 died in infancy,) was now, at the age of fourteei 
 pronounced to labour under mental aberration 
 which proved to be hopeless ; and in 1828 his do- 
 mestic calamities were completed by the loss of h 
 wife. In 1825 he was chiefly occupied in organiz 
 ing the London university, visiting Berlin to ol 
 tain information for the purpose. In November 
 1826, he was elected rector of the university i 
 Glasgow ; and, exerting himself actively in pro 
 moting and suggesting reforms, he was re-electec 
 twice afterwards. About and after the close i 
 this period, also, very much of his time was take 
 up with the affairs of the Polish refugees. Ii 
 1831, having resigned his first editorship, he for 
 short time edited the Metropolitan. Seven 
 eight months from September, 1834, were spen 
 by him in Algiers, which he seems to have ha 
 no purpose in visiting except that of making 
 book. He executed this design in his 'Letter 
 from the South.' Among several pieces of drud 
 gery which he now performed was his ' Life of Mrs 
 Siddons.' ' The Pilgrim of Glencoe,' the last of I 
 considerable poems, published in 1842, was r 
 successful even in his own estimation. His healt 
 long uncertain, was now irretrievably shattere 
 and fond of society, and often tempted to convi-v 
 excesses, he had taken but too little pains to pre- 
 serve health, especially since domestic distresses hac 
 fallen so heavily on him. His affairs too, * 
 much embarrassed ; and in July 1843, giving 
 the last of several houses he had successively < 
 cupied in London, he retired with his niece to Be 
 logne. There, after a winter of suffering, he 
 in June 1844. [\\ 
 
 CAMPE, J. H., a German author, 1746-181 
 CAMPEGGIO, Lorenzo, cardinal nuncio to 
 the court of Henry VIII., 1474-1539. 
 
 CAMPER, Pierre, a celebrated anatomist i 
 naturalist, was born at Leyden in 1722. He die 
 in 1789. He was educated as a medical man, 
 der Albinus, Gaubius, and Musschenbroek. Af 
 he had taken his degree, and paid the last dut 
 
 126 
 
CAM 
 
 I Lis parents, he visited England and Paris, 
 (here he made the acquaintance of such men as 
 I'unter, Sir Hans Sloane, Buffon, &c. He succes- 
 ively filled the chairs of philosophy, medicine, 
 jid surgery, at Franeker, Amsterdam, and Gron- 
 igen. At the latter place he spent ten years de- 
 bted to study and the duties of his professorship, 
 [id used to say these years were the happiest of 
 is life. He was twice elected deputy to the as- 
 ;mbly of the states, and was at length nominated 
 )uncillor of state. Camper possessed a singular 
 tcility for acquiring languages. He spoke fluently 
 i Latin, English, German, and French, and read 
 reek and Italian with ease. The dissertations 
 ad memoirs upon medical subjects which he pub- 
 shed, extended his fame to all parts of Europe ; 
 at it is upon his profound knowledge of compara- 
 ve anatomy applied to the study of natural his- 
 >ry, that his chief reputation depends, and it is 
 y it that his name will descend to posterity with 
 le greatest eclat. One of the great objects of 
 amper's life, was to show from anatomical de- 
 dls applied to natural history, that there is a re- 
 ular gradation in animal beings from man down- 
 ards, and a scale of proportions by which it 
 light be demonstrated how all living beings are 
 mnected one with another in the general system 
 I creation. He was one of the first to lead the 
 ay in the study of Palaeontology, and in a me- 
 ioir upon fossil bones, after examining and com- 
 aring a series of those with the skeletons of ani- 
 tals existing at the present time, he arrived at 
 le conclusion (since his time so ably carried out 
 y^Cuvier) that certain species of animals have at dif- 
 srent times been destroyed by various revolutions of 
 le globe. One of his most striking discoveries was 
 lat of the bones of birds containing air. It was 
 nown that the bones of birds were light, and pos- 
 jssed no marrow ; but it was reserved for Camper 
 ) show from anatomical demonstration that there 
 as a direct communication between the cavities of 
 ie bones and the lungs. Hunter made the same dis- 
 wery soon afterwards. Camper's memoirs upon 
 ie organs of hearing in fishes on the anatomy 
 f the orang-outang on the origin and colour of the 
 egro and on the facial line as applied to charac- 
 ;nze the different races of man, show great talent 
 lid observation ; while the zeal with which he 
 ndertook the cure and prevention, by inoculation, 
 f the terrible epizootic which raged amongst the 
 orned cattle in Holland in 17G8, proved him to 
 B a patriotic citizen, as well as an enlightened 
 natomist and phvsician. [W.B.] 
 
 CAMPHUYSEN, Dyrk, a Dutch paint., 17th c. 
 
 CAMPI, Ben., an Italian painter, 1522-1592. 
 
 CAMPI, P. E., an Ital. dramatist, 1740-1796. 
 
 CAMPIAN, Edmund, a Jesuit hist, and dram., 
 secuted for conspiracy against Elizabeth, 1581. 
 
 CAMPIGLIA, A., an Italian historian, 17th c. 
 
 CAMPIGLIA, J. D., an Ital. paint., 1692-1770. 
 
 CAMPISTRON, J. G., De, a French dramatist, 
 protege of the celebrated Racine, 1656-1723. 
 
 CAMPO-LONGO, A., a Neap, paint., d. 1580. 
 
 CAMPO-LONGO, E., an Ital. phy., 1550-1604. 
 
 CAMPO-LONGO, E., a satir. poet, 1732-1801. 
 
 CAMPOMANES, Pedro Rodriguez, Count 
 ( e, a Spanish statesman, distinguished as a poli- 
 cal economist, 1723-1789. 
 
 CAMPSON, G., sultan of Egypt, 1504-1516. 
 
 CAN 
 
 CAMUS, A. G., deputy to the states- gen oral, 
 1789 ; member of the convention, 1792 ; president 
 of the council of 500, 1796 ; distinguished as a 
 man of letters, 1740-1804. 
 
 CAMUS, E. L., a Fr. mathemati., 1690-1768. 
 
 CAMUS, John Pet., a Fr. prelate, 1582-1652. 
 
 CAMUSAT, Nich., a Fr. historian, 1575-1655. 
 
 CANALETTI, A., a Venet. paint., 1697-1768. 
 
 CANAAN, according to Gen., the son of Ham. 
 
 CANDACE, a queen of Ethiopia, Acts viii. 27. 
 
 CANANI, J. B., an Ital. anatomist, 1515-1579. 
 
 CANAO, a count of Bretagne, 547-560. 
 
 CANCLAUX, J. B. Camille, Count De, an 
 officer in the revolutionary army, afterwards a 
 member of the senate, 1740-1817. 
 
 CANDAULES, a king of Lydia, 735-718 B.C. 
 
 CANDIANO, a dis. Ven. family, 9th and 10th c 
 
 CANDIDUS, a Ger. historian of the 5th cent. 
 
 CANDIDUS, P., a protest, histor., 1540-1608. 
 
 CANDOLLE, Augustin Pyramus De, a dis- 
 tinguished botanist, was born at Geneva in 1778. 
 He died in 1841. From the age of sixteen he de- 
 voted himself to the pursuit of botany. He be- 
 took himself to Paris, where he attended the lec- 
 tures of Cuvier, Lamarck, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, 
 &c., and prosecuted his botanical studies under 
 Jussieu and Desfontaines. He adopted the na- 
 tural system, and became one of its most distin- 
 guished supporters. In 1807 he was elected pro- 
 fessor of botany at Montpellier. This chair he re- 
 signed upon the restoration of the Bourbons, at 
 which time his native city was restored to its in- 
 dependence. Hither he retired, and was appointed 
 in 1816 to the chair of natural history, which was 
 expressly instituted for him. His botanical works 
 are numerous and excellent. The 'Prodromus 
 Systematis Regni Vegetabilis,' is the most im- 
 
 Eortant, though he did not live to complete it. 
 [is incessant studies, it is to be feared, at last 
 told heavily upon his constitution. For some 
 years his health was declining, and though in 
 1840 he undertook a journey as a relaxation from 
 his labours, he did not derive any decided benefit from 
 it. M. De Candolle was distinguished, in addition to 
 his great and deserved reputation as a botanist, 
 for his activity in promoting measures of public 
 utility, such as the improvement of agriculture, 
 the cultivation of the arts, the advancement of 
 
 {)ublic instruction, and the amelioration of the 
 egislative code of his native city. [W.B.] 
 
 _ CANGE, Charles Du Fresne Du, a French 
 histor., in high repute for his learning, 1610-1688. 
 CANINI, J. A., an Ital. paint., 1617-1665. 
 
 ^ CANNEMAN, Elias, a Dutch statesman, prin- 
 cipal agent in restoring the house of Orange, 1813. 
 CANNING, George, a distinguished British 
 statesman, was born in London, on 11th April, 
 1770. He began life in circumstances little likely 
 to have fostered a statesman. His father, a man 
 of good family, suffering from the light in which 
 his connections viewed an imprudent marriage, 
 died while George was an infant. The widow was 
 subsequently twice married, tried the stage, and, 
 though there was no blot on her reputation, by 
 a wandering and rather discreditable life, justified 
 the distaste towards her of the Canning family. 
 It is, however, among the amiable features of this 
 statesman's character, that, when he was attract- 
 ing the attention of the world, and must have felt 
 
 127 
 
CAN 
 
 his mother an impediment to his prospects, he 
 treated her with uniform kindness and public 
 respect. He was educated by his maternal uncle, 
 a merchant in the city, and studied at Christ 
 Church, Oxford. He early showed the versatility 
 of his powers, by not only taking a high academi- 
 cal position, but" gaining a host of admirers among 
 his own contemporaries by his conversational 
 powers and efforts in light literature. His early 
 association with Sheridan marked him out as a 
 probable acquisition to the Whigs, and a dramatic 
 anecdote is told of Godwin having been sent to 
 offer him the championship of the friends of the 
 people an offer on which ne is said to have deli- 
 berated ere he rejected it. In 1793, however, he 
 entered parliament as a supporter of Pitt.^ His 
 opinions were naturally liberal, but his fastidious 
 taste, and somewhat scornful temper, revolted 
 against popularity, and thus it was, that, while he 
 joined the Tory party, he earned into it a decided 
 practical leaning to Whig principles. While the aris- 
 tocracy have charged him with betraying them, he 
 wrote in the ' Antijacobin,' and other quarters, some 
 of the bitterest satires against democracy that have 
 appeared since the days of Theophrastus. He took 
 office, as under-secretary of state, in 1796. In 
 1800, he married one of the daughters of General 
 Scott of Balcomie, in Fifeshire, whose large for- 
 tune rendered him no longer liable to the imputa- 
 tion of being an adventurer. On the return of the 
 Tory party to power in 1807, he was made foreign 
 secretary. In 1809, in consequence of a quarrel 
 with Castlereagh, which produced a duel, he re- 
 signed his office. He soon afterwards commenced 
 his pleadings for catholic emancipation, which 
 tended so greatly to the consummation which he 
 did not live to see. He was on the eve of his de- 
 parture to be governor-general of India when the 
 death of Castlereagh, in 1822, made him yield to 
 the urgent demands that he should strengthen the 
 ministry by taking office as foreign secretary. In 
 1825, he performed one of his favourite achieve- 
 ments in the acknowledgment of the independence 
 of the Spanish settlements in South America. In 
 February, 1827, he succeeded Lord Liverpool as 
 prime minister. The chancellor, Eldon, and some 
 other members in the government, of high Tory 
 principles, resigned office on the occasion, in a pe- 
 culiarly emphatic manner: and Canning sought 
 and to a considerable extent obtained the sup- 
 port of the Whigs. But in his short career he was 
 so severely harassed by the opposition of his for- 
 mer colleagues, that he died on 8th August, 1827, 
 exhausted both in body and mind. [J.H.B.] 
 
 CANO, Alonso, a celebrated Spanish painter 
 and sculptor, and also architect, was bora 
 at Granada in 1601. He studied at Seville, 
 sculpture with J. Montanes, and painting under 
 Pacheco and Juan de Castillo. He was ap- 
 pointed painter to Philip IV., and practised 
 some time at Madrid, but settled finally at 
 Granada, where he established a considerable 
 school; he died there in 1667. The extent and 
 versatility of his powers have procured Cano the 
 title of the ' Michelangelo of Spain ;' his pictures 
 are rich in effect, and display great vigour of exe- 
 cution; they are numerous at Seville, Madrid, 
 Toledo, and Granada, where are still preserved 
 some celebrated altar-pieces. (Can Bermudcz, 
 
 CAN 
 
 Dtccionario Ilistorico de los mas Ilustres prof 
 ores de las Bel/as Artes en Espagna^) | ft.N.1 
 CANO, James, a Portug. navigator, 15th ce 
 CANO, J. S., a Spanish navigator, died 1526 
 CANOVA, Antonio, one of the most ce 
 brated sculptors of modem times, was born in 1 
 village of Possagno, near Trevigi, in 1757. 
 was sent at an early age by the Venetian govei 
 ment to complete his stuches in Rome ; for whi 
 purpose he was granted a pension of 300 duci 
 per annum for three years. This judicious lib 
 ality of the Venetian government was the indin 
 cause of Canova's settling in Rome, and simila: 
 in a great measure contributed to the revival of t 
 arts in the nineteenth century. His first work 
 note was the group of Theseus and the Minotau 
 this was succeeded by the great monuments 
 popes Clement XIIL, and XIV., and Pius t 
 VI. , which raised the reputation of Canova abc 
 that of all his contemporaries ; the monument 
 Clement XIIL is that in St. Peter's of which t 
 celebrated reposing lions form a part. Canovi 
 works are extremely numerous, and are genera 
 beautiful, combining nature with classic beau 
 and proportion; his extraordinary ability, a 
 perhaps industry also, are well displayed iiy^; 
 noble collection of casts after his works, preserv 
 together in the academy at Venice, among whi 
 Hercules in the tunic of Deianira hurling Licb 
 into the sea from the rock, is a most imposi 
 group. Some of his best works are preserved 
 the Vatican, as the Boxers and many others ; 1 
 celebrated Venus is in the Pitti Palace at Fl 
 rence ; the three Graces are in this country. . 
 Apsley House is a colossal statue of Napolec 
 Canova died at Venice, October, 1822, and 
 magnificent design which he had made for a pub 
 monument to Titian, was with slight alteratio 
 adapted, and in 1827 executed by some of his pup 
 in commemoration of his own memory ; it is 
 the church of the Frari. Canova was in eve 
 sense a most successful artist; his reputation 
 European; he amassed great wealth, and w 
 created marquis of Ischia by the pope ; there is 
 portrait of him by Sir Thomas Lawrence. (Mi 
 sirini, Vita di Antonio Canova, 1827 ; Canovi 
 Works by Moses, &c, &c.) [R.N/W 
 
 CANOVAI, Stanislaus, a math., 1740-181 
 CANSTEIN, Ch. HlLDEBRAND, Baron, a Gc 
 man nobleman, discoverer of an art analogous 
 stereotyping, died 1719. 
 
 CANTACUZENUS, John, one of the mc 
 
 famous emperors of the East, succeeded 1341, a 
 
 dicated 13o4 ; afterwards distinguished as an I 
 
 torian and theologian, died 1410. His desccndai 
 
 have given many princes to Moldavia and Wi 
 
 lachia, and the last of the name distinguished hi 
 
 self in the cause of Greek independence, 1821. 
 
 CANTARINI, Simon, an Ital. painter, d.16] 
 
 CANTEMIR, Constants ]:, vaivodeof 31 old 
 
 via, 1630-1693. Demetrius, his son, hospn 
 
 of Moldavia, distinguished as an historian, 107 
 
 1723. Constantine Demetrius, son of the I 
 
 named, a diplomatist and man of letters, 1709-174 
 
 CANTERBURY, Cn. Manners Sutton, V 
 
 count, speaker of the H. of Commons, 1780-184 
 
 CAXTIPRATAXrs, Thos., a philos., L3tl 
 
 CANTON ; John M. A., an astron., 1718-7* 
 
 CANTON, J. G., a Germ, painter, 1710-175C: 
 
 128 
 
CAN 
 
 CANUEL, Simon, a French general, distin. as 
 i rovalist in the war of La Vendee, b. 1767. 
 
 CANUTE I., king of Denmark 863-873. Can- 
 ute II., surnamed the Great, succeeded 1014, sole 
 uaster of England, 1016, conqueror of Norway, 
 L028, died 1035. Canute III., called Hardi- 
 amute, or Canute II. of England, died 1042. Can- 
 ute IV., king of Denmark, 1080-1086. Canute 
 V., 1182-1202. Canute VI., 1182-1202. 
 
 CANUTE, a king of Sweden, 1168-1192. 
 
 'CAPEL. Arthur, Lord, a royalist, noted for 
 he defence of Colchester, bhdd. by the parlmt. 1648. 
 
 CAPEL, Arthur, earl of Essex, son of the pre- 
 :eding, charged with participating in the Rye-house 
 slot, found with his throat cut in the Tower, 1683. 
 
 CAPELL, Edward, an English critic, editor of 
 m edition of Shakspeare, 1713-1781. 
 
 CAPELLEN, G. A. P., Baron, a Dutch states- 
 nan, minister of the interior under L. Buonaparte. 
 
 CAPELLEN, T.F.,aDutchv,-adm., 1750-1824. 
 
 CAPELLO, Bianca, celebrated as the mis- 
 Tess and wife of one of the Medici, supposed to 
 lave been murdered, 1587. 
 
 CAPISTRAN, John, De, many years a papal 
 luncio, preacher of the crusades against the 
 Hussites and Mahomet II., 1385-1456. 
 
 CAPISUCCHI, Blasius, marq. of Monterio, a 
 loldier of the ch., dis. against the Huguenots, 1569. 
 
 CAPISUCCHI, P., bp. of Neocastro, d. 1539. 
 
 CAPITOLINUS, Titus, a Rom. citizen, br. of 
 Dincinnatus, six times consul from 471 to 439 B.C. 
 
 CAPO DTSTRIA, John, count of, a Greek 
 liplomatist in the service of Russia; aided the 
 use of Greek independence, and became presi- 
 lent of the Greek government in 1828 ; ass. 1831. 
 
 CAPONI, A., beheaded for conspiring with 
 Hachiaud and Bacconi against the Medici, 1513. 
 
 CAPPE, Newcome, a religious wr., d. 1791. 
 
 CAPPELLE, J. P. Van, a Dutch savant, 
 mi. of a history of the Low Countries, 1783-1829. 
 
 CAPRARA, Card., archbishop of Milan, con- 
 :luded the concordat of 1801 with Napoleon, whom 
 le crwd. k. of Italy at Milan in 1805, 1733-1810. 
 
 CAPUION, Issante De, a troubadour, 13th c. 
 
 CAPUSSO, an Ital. divine and poet, 1671-1746. 
 
 CARA-YOUSSOUF, first prince of the dynasty 
 )f the Turcomans, chief of a faction called ' black 
 sheep,' died 1420. 
 
 CARACALLA, Marcus Aurelius Anton., 
 mrp. of Rome, b. 183, sued. Severus, 211, kid. 217. 
 
 CARACCI. The name of a celebrated family 
 of painters of Bologna. Agostino Caracci, 
 was born at Bologna, where his father carried on 
 the business of a tailor, in 1559. He was placed 
 first with a jeweller, and studied painting after- 
 wards under Prospero Fontana, Domenico Tib- 
 aldi, and Cornelius Cort ; with the last he prac- 
 tised also engraving. Agostino was the most 
 active teacher in the academy opened by the Car- 
 acci in Bologna in 1589 until 1600, when he went 
 to Rome ; he was then employed by his brother 
 Annibale to aid him in the Farnese Gallery there, 
 for which he executed the ' Cephalus and Aurora,' 
 and the 'Triumph of Galatea;' the cartoons of 
 these two frescoes are in the National Gallery. 
 But the brothers disagreeing, Agostino retired to 
 Parma, where he died shortly afterwards, March 
 H L602. He was more distinguished as an en- 
 graver than painter. Annibale Caracci, 
 
 CAR 
 
 the younger, brother of Agostino, was born at 
 Bologna in 1560 ; his father intended him to be a 
 tailor, but his cousin, Ludovico Caracci, induced 
 him to follow painting, for which Annibale showed 
 decided ability, and in which his cousin gave him 
 all necessary instruction. After carrying on con- 
 jointly with his brother and cousin the celebrated 
 academy of Bologna for ten years, Annibale was 
 invited by the cardinal Farnese to Rome in 1600, 
 and he there executed the celebrated frescoes, 
 known as the ' Farnese Gallery,' for that cardinal, 
 receiving a salary of 25 a-year besides mainten- 
 ance. This great work was finished in 1604, 
 when Annibale received a further donation of 100 
 guineas. It was preferred by Poussin to all the 
 works in Rome after the frescoes of Raphael ; it 
 has been engraved by Carlo Cesio. Annibale ap- 
 pears to have been an invalid after the execution 
 of this work, for he did little more in Rome, and 
 died there 15th July, 1609 ; he was buried in the 
 Pantheon by the side of Raphael. Ludovico 
 Caracci, the founder of the eclectic school of 
 Bologna, was bom there in 1555 ; he appears to 
 have been very dull in his youth, and at the school 
 of Prospero Fontana was known as the ox, (il 
 bue.) He studied afterwards many masters in 
 various places, as Correggio, Julio Romano, Titian, 
 and others, and in endeavouring to combine their 
 several beauties led to the establishment of the prin- 
 ciple of eclecticism, and was actually the founder of 
 the academic system. He was the real head of the 
 academy of the Caracci established in 1589, and 
 after the departure of his two cousins for Rome, 
 carried on by him alone until his death in Decem- 
 ber, 1619. Domenichino, Guido, Albani, and Lan- 
 franco, were among the numerous distinguished 
 scholars of this celebrated school. Ludovico's 
 principal works were the frescoes of the convent 
 of San Michele in Bosco, near Bologna, long since 
 perished, but existing in the prints after them by 
 Giovannini. There are several excellent oil pic- 
 tures by Ludovico in the gallery of Bologna. 
 (Bellori, Vite de' Pittori Moderni, &c; Baglione, 
 Vile rfe' Pittori; Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; 
 Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of 
 the National Gallery.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CARACCIO, Ant., a tragic wr. of Ital., 17th c 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Dominique, Marq. De, an Ital. 
 minister of state, and viceroy of Sicily, 1715-1789. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Francisco, a Neapolitan ad- 
 miral, born 1748, and hanged at the mast-head of 
 his own vessel, on restoration of k. Ferdinand, 1799. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, J., a Neapolitan gentleman, fav- 
 ourite of the q. of Nap., disgraced and slain, 1432. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, J., prince of Melfi and marshal 
 of France, d. 1550. His son Anthony, bishop of 
 Troyes, conv. from the Rom. Cath.faith,andd. 1569. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, J. B., apain. of Nap., 1580-1645. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Louis Anthony, a fertile 
 writer, most celebrated for his pretended letters 
 of Ganganelli, &c, 1721-1803. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Marin, an expert political 
 agent, and governor of Milan, 1468-1538. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, an Italian bishop, d. 1495. 
 
 CARACTACUS, or CARADOG, king of the 
 Silures, a British tribe inhabiting South Wales, 
 defeated by the Romans, 75. 
 
 CARADOG, a Welch chronicler, d. 1156. 
 
 CARAFFA, A. C, a French painter, d. 1812. 
 
 129 
 
 K 
 
CAR 
 
 CABAFFA, Anthony, a statesman of Naples, 
 15th cent. A cardinal, and great scholar of the 
 same name, cousin of pope Paul IV., died 1501. 
 
 CARAFFA, J. A., put to d. by Pius IV., 1560. 
 
 CABAFFA, V.. a gen. of the Jesuits, 1583-1640. 
 
 CARDAM, a kins; of Bulgaria, 776-806. 
 
 CABAMUEL DE LOBKOWITZ, John, bishop 
 of MessL (listing, as a divine and poet, IGOC-ICS-?. 
 
 CARASCOSA, Baron, a disting. partisan of 
 the French in the Neapolitan revolution, b. 1760. 
 
 CARAUSIUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, 
 proclaimed emp. in Britain 287 ; assassinated 201. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO, Michelangelo Merigi, 
 commonly called Michelangelo da Cara- 
 vaggio, where he was born in 1560, was origi- 
 nally a mason's labourer, but while still young 
 gained so considerable a position as a portrait 
 painter at Milan, that he was induced to try his 
 fortune in Venice, where he became a student of 
 the works of Giorgione ; and he eventually estab- 
 lished himself in Rome. His poverty was a seri- 
 ous obstacle to his success in the great capital of 
 the arts, for some time, when he was obliged to 
 work for the Cavaliere d' Arpino; but his cele- 
 brated picture of the ' Card Players,' and shortly 
 afterwards a few religious pieces, of which his 
 masterpiece is the ' Deposition of Christ,' now in 
 the Vatican picture gallery, established his reputa- 
 tion as one of the principal painters of his time. 
 Caravaggio's good fortune was of short duration : 
 being of a violent temper, he killed a companion 
 in consequence of a dispute at a game of tennis. 
 He fled to Naples, thence he went to Malta, and 
 spent some time at Palermo ; but finally having 
 obtained the pope's pardon for the act of homicide, 
 he set out in 1600 in a felucca for Rome ; he was 
 arrested on his way by mistake, by a Spanish 
 coast guard, and when he gained his liberty he 
 discovered that the crew of the felucca had gone 
 off" with all his property ; he wandered despond- 
 ingly along the coast to Porto Ercole, where, 
 what with disappointment and the extreme heat 
 of the weather, ne was seized with a fever, and 
 died in a few days, at the early age of forty. 
 Caravaggio was a great colourist, but his pictures 
 are black and heavy, and so ordinary in their 
 general treatment of form and accuracy, that his 
 style was designated the naturalist, in contradis- 
 tinction to the prevailing ideal taste of the time. 
 He had many imitators, who are called naturalisti 
 and tenebrosi ; the celebrated Spagnuoletto is the 
 most distinguished of his followers. This taste 
 was much spread in Spain, and had its votaries in 
 France and the low countries. Valentine and 
 Honthorst (Gherardo, della notte) were decided 
 imitators of Caravaggio. (Bellori, Vite de 1 Pi/tori, 
 &c., Rome 1672.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CARDAN, Jerome, one of our true ' curiosities 
 of literature,' born in Pavia in 1501, said to 
 have caused his own death in 1576, that he might 
 not, by living longer, falsify his prediction of that 
 event f There are not many characters more diffi- 
 cult to delineate by a few sketches than Cardan's. 
 Of great industry, undoubted originality and 
 power, and extensive acquirements, his fame yet 
 rests for the most part on his pure charlatanerie. 
 As a moral entity, if indeed the term can with de- 
 cency be applied to him, he was also a mass of 
 contradictions , he loved knowledge, sought appar- 
 
 CAR 
 
 ently for truth, and experienced high aspirations 
 nevertheless he never shrunk from deceit and false 
 hood ; his practical life full of disorder; his scien 
 tific faith worth nothing he stole from Tartaglic 
 and published as his own the famous rule fo 
 the solution of cubic equations. He wrote oi 
 everything often advancing knowledge ; but h 
 pretended to deal with all difficulties under th 
 sun. He said that, like Socrates, he had a demon 
 like Swedenborg afterwards, he claimed superna 
 tural insight during the extasis ; it is not impro 
 bable that he was affected by that singular modifi 
 cation of vitality now known as mesmerism. I 
 were useless to recount seriously the opinions of 
 man so strange and disorderly ; nor can we un 
 dertake to reckon up even the topics on which h 
 wrote. His productions fill 10 volumes folio ; th 
 oddest of them being the treatise ' De Vita Pro 
 pria,' something of the cast of Rousseau's ' Confes 
 sions,' as full of vanity, of insincerity, of pa.-sior 
 of eloquence. Cardan's fame, while he lived, re 
 suited from his skill as a physician, and his astro 
 logy. He was doubtless helped in his profession b 
 superior acquaintance with chemistry ; to whicl 
 one may safely give the credit of his celebrate 
 cure of the archbishop of St. Andrews. As migh 
 have been expected, his private life and affah 
 were ever in confusion: one son fell under th 
 axe of the public executioner, because he had poi 
 soned his wife ; another was shut up in prison fc 
 safety's sake, at the instance of his own fathe 
 These notices may help the imaginative to cor 
 ceive something of Cardan. [J.P.N. 
 
 CARDI, Louis, an Italian painter, d. 1613. 
 
 CARDONNE, Denis Dominique De, an Eas 
 schol. and historian, professor at Paris, 1720-178 
 
 CAREL, James, a French poet, 17th century 
 
 CAREW, George, made earl of Totness 1 
 Charles I. for his military services, historian 
 the Irish wars, died 1620. 
 
 CAREW, Sir George, a courtier and fhgitrj 
 historian, knighted by Queen Elizabeth, d. 16li 
 His brother, Richard, a topographical wr., d. 1621 
 
 CAREW, Henry, earl of Monmouth, eminec 
 as a scholar and translator, d. 1661. 
 
 CAREW, Thomas, a dramatic poet, d. 1630. j 
 
 CAREY, Henry, a distinguished ballad-writj 
 and composer, died by his own hand, 174< 
 George Saville, his son, also a song-writer ai; 
 playwright, died 1807. 
 
 CAREY, Joseph, a French printer, regard^ 
 by his country, as the inv. of stereotyping, d. 1801 
 
 CAREY, William, was born on 17th Auguw 
 1761, in the village of Paulerspury, Northampton 
 shire. Although his father was clerk of the parisjj 
 he early displayed a tendency to dissent, and hal 
 ing announced his adherence to the principle 
 of the baptist persuasion, was in 1783 baptized jl 
 the river Nen, and soon after chosen pastor of j| 
 small baptist church in the neighbourhood \ 
 Northampton. While assiduous in the discharjl 
 of his official duties, he prosecuted his studies win 
 intense ardour in private, and was greatly disti 
 guislied for the extent and variety of his kno'i 
 ledge, his accomplishments embracing all t'l 
 modern European languages, and several brand' 
 of science, particularly botany and natural histo- . 
 In 1787 Carey was removed to the pastorate of 
 
 more numerous church in Leicester, where 
 
 130 
 
CAR 
 
 >ck comprising many educated members, he 
 and better scope for the exercise of his natural 
 id acquired talents. But his mind was absorbed 
 ith visions of missionary enterprise among the 
 sathen; and while on a visit to Mr. Fuller 
 
 Kettering, along with Dr. Ryland and Mr. 
 xtcliffe of Olney, he laid the foundation of a 
 iptist missionary society, of which he himself 
 came the first agent and the brightest ornament, 
 ecompanied by his wife and sister-in-law, he 
 ibarked on 13th June, 1793, for India, and after 
 periencing some very trying vicissitudes, he chose 
 udnabatty for his station ; but the Indian govern- 
 ent having refused their permission to any per- 
 anent establishment of a missionary kind, he was 
 liged to quit that place. Through the influence 
 
 the governor, who was exceedingly favourable 
 the missionary cause, Mr. Carey now established 
 5 head-quarters at the Danish settlement of Ser- 
 lpore, where, assisted by Messrs. Marshman and 
 ard, his efforts for the Christian good of a popu- 
 is and extensive province were followed by a 
 gree of success far exceeding his most sanguine 
 pectations. Carey was appointed by the mar- 
 is of Wellesley to the professorship of Bengalee 
 the College of Fort -William, and as he volun- 
 rily added to the duties of this chair instruction 
 the Sanscrit and Mahratta languages, he became 
 niliar with the leading dialects of India. Many 
 erary works connected with this department of 
 iental philology proceeded from his pen. But 
 i greatest achievements were in the province of 
 )hcal translation, having been the main instru- 
 ct in issuing new versions in upwards of forty 
 the Indian languages, and bringing the Scrip- 
 res within the reach of three hundred millions of 
 man beings. Un der these indefatigable exertions 
 b health of Dr. Carey at length sank, and he died 
 1834, in the seventy-third year of his age. [R. J.] 
 CARLETON, Sir Dudley, Lord Dorchester, a 
 itesman of arbitrary principle, au. of ' Letters ' 
 ring his embassy to Holland, 1616-1620, d. 1632. 
 CARLETON, Geo., bp. of Chichester, and au. 
 numerous works celebrated in their dav, d. 1628. 
 CARLETON, Sir Guy, created Lord Dorehes- 
 ' for his services in the American war, d. 1847. 
 CARLETTI, F., an Italian navigator, 16th c. 
 CARLETTI, N., a Neapol. archbp., 1723-1800. 
 CARLISLE, Sir Anthony, a distinguished 
 lglish surgeon, 1768-1840. 
 CARLISLE, Nich., an antiqu. wr., 1771-1847. 
 CARLISLE, Thomas Howard, earl of, uncle 
 d guardian of Lord Byron, himself a poet and 
 amatic author, and in politics a Whig, b. 1748. 
 CARLOS, Don, crown prince of Navarre, noted 
 r his frequent rebellions, 1420-1461. 
 CARLOS, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain, and 
 e hero of one of Schiller's tragedies, 1545-1567. 
 CARLOS, the Duke of San, one time English 
 lbassador from Spain, a great promoter of na- 
 nal improvements, died 1828. 
 CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, an Oriental schol. 
 d port, fellow-traveller with Lord Elgin, d. 1804. 
 CARMELI, Michelangelo, an Orient, schol., 
 . of the Gr. classics, and au. of commen., 1706-66. 
 CARMONTELLE, amiscel. Fr. wr., 1717-1806. 
 CARNARVON, Hy. Jno. George Herbert, 
 rl of, and formerly Lord Porchester, distinguished 
 a writer of his travels, 1800-1840. 
 
 CAR 
 
 CARNE, J., mi. of 'Trav. in the East,' 1789-1 84 0. 
 
 CARNEADES, a Gr. philosoph. and ambassad., 
 eel. for his eloquence as a dialectician, d. 125 B.C. 
 
 CARNOT, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, 
 characterized by Bourdon de l'Oise as ' the man 
 who had organized victory in the French armies,' 
 is one of the fairest and most steadfast characters 
 in the history of the French revolution. He was 
 distinguished in early life for his application to 
 the exact sciences, and the mathematical and 
 philosophical works which he has left behind him 
 are no mean monument of his genius and industry 
 in the pursuit of his favourite studies. But it is 
 as a military engineer and minister of war under 
 the revolutionary government and the empire that 
 the reader of history is most interested in him. 
 He was born in 1753, and was only eighteen years 
 of age when his skill in fortification and tactics 
 procured him an appointment as second lieute- 
 nant in a corps of engineers. In 1783 he received 
 the laurel crown from the academy of the ancient 
 capital of Burgundy for his eulogium of Vauban, 
 and in 1791 was sent to the legislative assembly 
 by the Pas-de-Calais. In the convention he voted 
 for the death of Louis XVI., and in the Commit- 
 tee of Public Safety was implicitly and exclusively 
 trusted with the direction of the military opera- 
 tions, a trust which he fully justified by his ad- 
 mirable conduct of affairs on the defection of Du- 
 mouriez. His influence and daring in the com- 
 mittee, where he always opposed himself to the 
 dictatorial ambition of Robespierre, Couthon, and 
 St. Just, was due to his ' cold mathematical head,' 
 which enabled him to organize so many armies 
 and send them all to combat with the prestige of 
 victory. After the revolution of the 18th Bru- 
 maire, he was some time minister of war, but 
 voted against the consulate for life and the empire, 
 and when all hope of the republic was lost, retired 
 from public life and devoted himself to literary 
 and scientific pursuits. The disasters of 1812, 
 and the dangers which threatened France, recalled 
 his public spirit, and he frankly offered his sword 
 to the emperor, who appointed him to the command 
 of Antwerp, and on his return from Elba restored 
 him to his old functions as minister of war. He 
 opposed the second abdication, but it was in vain, 
 and Napoleon manifested his esteem and regret in 
 the memorable words, ' M. Carnot, I have known 
 you too late ! ' He was proscribed at the restora- 
 tion, and died at Magdeburg in 1823. Some of 
 his brothers have also acquired a name in French 
 history, of these we may mention Joseph Fran- 
 cois Claude, a magistrate and writer on criminal 
 law, born 1752 ; and Claude Marie, a military 
 officer and minister of state, born 1755, whose 
 identity, perhaps, is sometimes confounded with 
 that of his brother Lazare. [E.R.] 
 
 CARO, Annibale, a scholar and poet of Italy, 
 engaged in public affairs as secretary to the car- 
 dinal Alexander Farnese, 1507-1566. 
 
 CAROLI, F. P., an Italian painter, 1638-1716. 
 
 CAROLINE, queen of George II., 1682-1737. 
 CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, sister of the 
 dnke of Brunswick, and wife of George IV., born 
 1768 ; married 1795 ; quitted England 1814 ; 
 returned 1820, died 1821. 
 
 CAROLINE, daughter of the emp. of Germnnv, 
 known in recent history as q. of Naples. 1752-1814. 
 
 131 
 
CAR 
 
 CAROUGE, B. A., a Fr. a5tronom., 1741-1798. 
 
 CARPACEIO, V., an Italian painter, 16th ct. 
 
 CARPENTER, Dr. Lant, an industrious theo- 
 logical writer, and unitarian minister, 1780-1840. 
 
 CARPENTER, Richakd, a theologian, 17th c. 
 
 CARPI, Ugo Da, an engraver, 16th century. 
 
 CARPINI, J., a Venetian painter, 1611-1674. 
 
 CARPOCRATES, founder of a heresy, 2d cent. 
 
 CARR, Sir John, au. of several 'Tours,' d. 1822. 
 
 CARR, W. H., a clergyman, and patron of the 
 fine arts, distinguished for a bequest of pictures to 
 the National Gallery, died 1830. 
 
 CARRA, Jean Louis, a political and historical 
 writer, condemned with the ill-fated Girondists by 
 the revolutionary tribunal, 1793, was one of the 
 earliest in the field at the outbreak of the French 
 revolution, as editor of the ' Annales Patriotiques.' 
 He was born in 1743, and though his parents were 
 in narrow circumstances, received a liberal educa- 
 tion. He was a man of adventurous spirit, and 
 astonished Mirabeau by offering to raise all Ger- 
 many against the emperor with only ' fifty thou- 
 sand men and twelve printing presses.' He is 
 worthy of remembrance'as the chief instrument in 
 exciting a vindictive feeling against the royal family, 
 and this, perhaps, may be considered his real part in 
 the revolutionary drama. His condemnation with 
 the illustrious party of the Gironde, was an honour 
 to which he was scarcely entitled, and is a sign, at 
 least, of his improved taste as he approached the end 
 of his career. Having when a young man spent 
 some time in the Danubian provinces, he published a 
 work on the history of Moldavia and Wallachia, with 
 an essay upon their actual state in 1776. [E.R.] 
 
 CARRANZA, B., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1503-1573. 
 
 CARRARA, Francis, lord of Padua, memor- 
 able for his wars with the Venetians, died 1393. 
 His son of the same name, after a long struggle 
 with them, strangled in a Venetian prison, 1406. 
 
 CARRA-SAINT-CYR, J. F., Comte De, a Fr. 
 officer distinguished in the late wars, died 1834. 
 
 CARRE, the name of several Dutch painters, 
 flourished at Amsterdam 17th and 18th centuries. 
 
 CARRE, a Fr. East Indian voyager, 1666-1671. 
 
 CARRE, Louis, a Fr. geometrician, 1663-1711. 
 
 CARRE, Remi, a writer on singing, 1706-1773. 
 
 CARRE, W. L. J., a wr. on civil law, 1777-1832. 
 
 CARREL, Nicolas Armand, one of the most 
 sincere patriots and noble-minded men of modern 
 times, chief editor of the National, and author of 
 several historical works, was born at Rouen, 1801, 
 and killed in a duel by M. Girardin, 24th July, 
 1836. He received a military education at St. 
 Cyr, and fought in the auxiliary legions of Spain 
 in the late struggle against absolutism. He took 
 the direction of the National after the revolution 
 of 1830, and distinguished himself by his fine 
 spirit and patriotic sincerity. He was extremely 
 sensitive in points of honour, and had fought 
 several duels before his last fatal rencontre with 
 his more wily opponent. He bears the reputation 
 of a good man, and was much beloved by his friends 
 in private life. His principal work is a ' History 
 of the Counter-Revolution in England.' [E.R. j 
 
 CARRERAS, Jose Miguel, a patriotic Span- 
 iard of South America, engaged with his two 
 brothers, Juan and Luis, in the revolution of Chili, 
 and executed in 1822, as the latter had been 1818. 
 
 CARRIER, Jean Baftiste, born 1756, was 
 
 CAR 
 
 an obscure attorney, brought into note by the pit 
 gress of the French revolution, and sent to the ns 
 tional convention, 1792. His memory is held i 
 execration for deeds of horror without a paralle 
 except in the similar scenes of iniquity enacted b 
 his rival in cruelty, Collot D'Herbois. He wa 
 sent to Nantes in October, 1793, to assist in r 
 pressing the civil war commenced in La Vend( 
 by the priests and royalists. He selected his com 
 mittee, to give an air of legal sanction to h: 
 atrocities, from the very refuse of the canailli 
 and at length dispensed with all form whatove: 
 and executed his prisoners era masse, no less tha 
 15,000 being disposed of by fusillades or drowr 
 ings in one month, with whose corpses the watei 
 of the Loire were literally infected and the ban! 
 strewn. The refinement of cruelty with which a 
 this was accomplished, and the obscenities wit 
 which he seasoned his repast of blood, almost sui 
 pass belief. He was at length recalled by tl 
 Committee of Public Safety, and on the fall 
 Robespierre, condemned by the revolutionary tr 
 bunal and executed. A memoir upon the life ar 
 crimes of Carrier was published by Babceuf in 179 
 Care should be taken not to confound this moi 
 ster with a professor of civil law, and author 
 various treatises on jurisprudence, born 1770, wl 
 must have felt it a misfortune to bear precise 
 the same names. [E.R 
 
 CARRIERES, L. De, a biblical com., 1662-171 
 CARRINGTON, N. T., an Eng. poet, 1777-183 
 CARRION, E. R. De, a learned Spaniard, 17th 
 CARS, Laurence, a Fr. engraver, 1703-177 
 CARST ARES, William, a Scotch divine, 
 adherent of William, prince of Orange, afterwar 
 his chaplain, 1649-1715. 
 
 CARTE, S., a wr. on chronology, died 1740. F. 
 
 son Thomas, dist. as an antiquarian and historia 
 
 noted in the polit. troubles of the period, 1686-175 
 
 CARTER, Elizaeeth, daughter of a clergyma 
 
 disting. for her extraordinary learning, 1717-18C 
 
 CARTER, John, an antiquar. wr., distinguish 
 
 also for his skill in drawing and engraving, d. 181i; 
 
 CARTERET, John, earl of Granville, an a 
 
 herent of the house of Hanover, born 1690 ; sea 
 
 tary of state 1721 ; lord-lieutenant of Ireland 1721 
 
 1726, and again 1727-1730 ; in opposition to i 
 
 R. Walpole 1730-1741 ; in office again as secrets I 
 
 of state 1742-1744 ; and as president of tjl 
 
 council from 1750 till his death, 1763. 
 
 CARTERET, Ph., a naval officer, 18th cent.' 
 CARTIER, Jacques, a native of St. Ma 
 who, in 1534, under commission from the king/? 
 France, took possession of Canada in the name;' 
 his sovereign. The next year, he returned, a 
 ascended the St. Lawrence, or Hochelaga, as 1 
 Indians called it, as far as a beautiful island cc 
 taining a picturesque and fertile hill, which 
 named Montreal, royal or king's mount, close i 
 which was an Indian village, called by him a ci 
 also named Hochelaga. Cartier wintered in i 
 river, and returned home on the breaking up ' 
 the ice. He did not effect a settlement; a. 
 not having taken home any specimen of gold i 
 silver, he did not receive much favour from I 
 master ; so that in the expedition of M. Roberv 
 sent out as viceroy in 1540, Cartier had no hfoj 
 appointment than that of pilot. [J.l 
 
 CARTOUCHE, L. D., a Fr. brigand, exec. 17 
 
 132 
 
CAR 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Dr. E., a clergyman of the 
 jhurch of England, distinguished for his dis- 
 :overies in mechanics, died 1824. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, John, one time major of the 
 Jotting, militia, a not. advoc. of reform, 1740-1824. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, T., a biblical com., 1535-1603. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, W., a royalist divine, disting. 
 ilso as a playwright and poet, 1G10-1643. 
 
 CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, emp., 276-282. 
 
 CARUSO, J. B., a Sicilian historian, 1673-1724. 
 
 CARUSO, Luigi, a composer of music, last ct. 
 
 CARY, F., a Fr. antiquarian writer, 1699-1754. 
 
 CARY, Rev. H. F., the well-known biogr. wr., 
 ranslator of Dante, and ed. of the poets, 1772-1844. 
 
 CARY, Robert, LL.D., a learned div., d. 1688. 
 
 CARYL, John, a poet and tragical writer, 
 ecretary to Mary, queen of James II. 
 
 CARYL, Jos., au. of a ' Com. on Job,' d. 1673. 
 
 CASA, John Della, an Italian orator and poet, 
 listing, as a statesman and ecclesiastic, 1503-1556. 
 
 CASALI, J. B., a Roman antiquarian, 17th ct. 
 
 CASALI, Joseph, an archaeologist, 1744-1797. 
 
 CASALINI, Lucia, a female artist, 1677-1762. 
 
 CASANOVA, Mark Ant., a Lat. poet, d. 1527. 
 
 CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, J. J., an unprin- 
 ipled adventurer and intriguer, called the Gil Bias 
 f the 18th century, remarkable for his proficiency 
 a science and literature, 1725-1803. His brother 
 Francis, a painter of landscapes and battle-pieces, 
 .727-1805. A third brother, Jean Baptiste, 
 irofessor of painting at Dresden, and fellow- 
 ibourer with Winckelmann, 1730-1798. 
 
 CASAS, Bartholomew De Las, a Spanish 
 irelate, distinguished as a missionary and his- 
 orian of South America, 1474-1566. 
 
 CASAUBON, Isaac, one of the most learned 
 chol. and penetrating critics of his age, 1559-1614. 
 
 CASAUBON, Meric, D.D., son of the preced- 
 ing, and like his father, a controv. wr., 1599-1671. 
 
 CASE, John, a scholastic philosopher, d. 1599. 
 
 CASENEUVE, P. De, a Fr. antiq., d. 1650. 
 
 CAS ELLA, P. Le, an hist, and Lat. poet, 16th c. 
 
 CASIMIRI.,thePacific,k.of Poland, 1034-1058. 
 
 CASIMIR II., the Just, dethroned and d. 1194. 
 
 CASIMIR III., the Great, born 1309 ; elected 
 :ing on the death of his father, 1333 , died 1370. 
 
 CASIMIR IV., formerly d. of Lith., 1447-1492. 
 
 CASIMIR V, born 1609 ; became a Jesuit and 
 ardinal, and was secularized when elected king, 
 i648 ; abdicated 1667, and died abb6 of St. Ger- 
 nain-des-Pres, 1672. 
 
 CASIMIR, St., son of Casimir IV., and duke 
 )f Lithuania, since his death canonized and invoked 
 is the patron of Poland, 1458-1483. 
 
 CASLON, W., an Eng. type-founder, 1692-1766. 
 
 CASSAGNES, J., a Fr. poet and preacher, 
 Tanslator of Sallust and other classics, 1636-1679. 
 
 CASSANDER, one of the generals of Alexander 
 he Great, and after his death a sharer in the 
 livided monarchy, as k. of Macedon, &c, d. 298 B.C. 
 
 CASSANDER, F., a French savant, 1620-1695. 
 
 CASSANDER, G., a Germ, savant, 1515-1566. 
 
 CASSARD, J., a eel. Fr. navigator, 1672-1740. 
 
 CASSASS, L. F., a Fr. painter and architect, au. 
 )f an Must, book of Travels in the East, 1756-1827. 
 
 CASSERIO, Guino, an Ital. anat., 1556-1616. 
 
 CASSIBELAN, or CASSIVELAUNUS, a 
 ;hief of the Britons at the time of Ca?sar's invasion. 
 
 CASSINL The family name of several dis- 
 
 CAS 
 
 tinguished observers and astronomers. 1. John 
 Dominic, born in Piedmont in 1625 : the first 
 professor in the Royal Observatory in Paris, which 
 was founded in 1670. Cassini was one of the 
 earliest to conjecture that the comets, like the 
 planets, move in regular curves; he published 
 valuable observations on Jupiter's satellites ; but 
 his fame chiefly rests on his discovery of four 
 of the satellites of Saturn. He laboured also 
 at measurement of the meridian through France. 
 He died in 1712. 2. John James, son and suc- 
 sessor of the foregoing, also enriched science with 
 valuable observations and discoveries in physics 
 as well as astronomy. Through an unfortunate mis- 
 apprehension he maintained in opposition to New- 
 ton that the figure of the earth is an oblong spheroid ; 
 and as the contest grew keen, the French sovereign 
 sent out two commissions, one to the equator, the 
 other to the polar circle, to decide it. These are the 
 famous commissions, the first under Bouguer and 
 La Condamme, the second under Maupertuis, 
 &c. Newton's view was of course confirmed. 
 Cassini died in 1756. 3. Cassini De Thury, 
 Caesar Francis, second son and successor of 
 James. Also a good and laborious observer, he 
 was chiefly occupied with the measurement of the 
 meridian in Europe. He observed also a transit 
 of Venus, and wrote much on parallax and refrac- 
 tion. He died in 1784, and was succeeded in the 
 observatory by his son, Count John Dominh', 
 with whom terminated a family illustrious in the 
 scientific annals of France. 
 
 CASSINI, A. H. G., a botanist, 1781-1832. 
 
 CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Latin 
 historian, minister and consul of Rome, 6th cent. 
 
 CASSIUS, J. L., a Latin historian, 2d c b.c. 
 
 CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, fellow-patriot 
 and conspirator with Brutus, and called by him 
 ' the last of the Romans,' supposed to have died 
 by his own hand at Philippi, B.C. 42. 
 
 CASTAGNO, A. Del, an Ital. paint., 1409-1480. 
 
 CASTALIO, or CASTELLIO, Sebastian, 
 author of a very valuable Latin and French version 
 of the Old and New Testaments, once the friend 
 of Calvin, by whom he was cruelly treated in 
 after years when living in poverty, 1515-1563. 
 
 CASTEL-CICALA, Fabi Rufo, prince of, a 
 minister and ambassador of Naples, died 1822. 
 
 CASTELL, Edmund, celebrated as author of a 
 dictionary compiled in seven languages, 1606-1685. 
 
 CASTELLAN, A. L., a pain, and eng., 1772-1838. 
 
 CASTELLI, Bern., a Genoese pain., 1557-1629. 
 
 CASTELLO,G. L., an antiq. of Sicily, 1727-1794. 
 
 CASTELLOSA, Donna, a female poet, 13th c. 
 
 CASTELNAU, M. De, a Fr. states., 1518-1592. 
 
 CASTELNAU, R. De, a troubadour, 13th cent. 
 
 CASTELVETRO, L., an Ital. critic, 1505-1571. 
 
 CASTI, J. Battista, an Ital. poet, 1721-1803. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Balth., an Italian statesman 
 and ecclesiastic, distinguished also as a poet and 
 man of letters, 1468-1529. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, G B., a landscape painter 
 of Genoa, a pupil of Vandyck, 1616-1670. 
 
 CASTILLEJO, Chr. De, a Sp. poet, d. 1596. 
 
 CASTILLO, Aug. Del, a Sp. paint., 1565-1626. 
 
 CASTILLO, Bern. Dias Del, companion in 
 arms of Cortez, andhist. of his campaign, 1519-1560. 
 
 CASTILLON, J. F. Salv. De, a phil , 1709-91. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH, Robert Stewart, mar- 
 
 133 
 
CAS 
 
 quis of Londonderry, a British statesman, 
 was born on 18th June, 1769. In the Irish 
 parliament, where he first sat, he was reputed to 
 belong to the opposition, but obtaining a scat in 
 the English Commons, he chose the ministerial 
 benches. On his accession to the title of Castle- 
 reagh, in 1797, he returned to the Irish parliament. 
 As secretary of state, he made great and success- 
 ful efforts for the achievement of the Irish Union, 
 and he was one of the statesmen most prominently 
 marked out on that occasion for the wrath of the 
 Irish people. He sat for Down in the united par- 
 liament, and in 1805 became the war and colonial 
 secretary, resuming these offices on the restoration 
 of his party in 1807. In 1809, a dispute, in the 
 unfortunate Walcheren expedition, drove him to a 
 duel with Canning, and the resignation of his 
 offices. In 1812, lie again became foreign se- 
 cretary; and in 1814 and 1815 he represented 
 Britain at the settlement of Europe by the con- 
 gress of Vienna. He was popularly charged 
 with connivance at the aims of the European 
 despots ; and yet, arbitrary as were his principles, 
 it is now understood that his liberality and firm- 
 ness did much to check the tyranny and rapacity 
 of the continental monarchs. In April, 1821, he 
 succeeded his father as marquis of Londonderry in 
 Ireland, but this did not prevent him from retain- 
 ing his seat in the House of Commons. He was a 
 man of fine person, and commanding manner, and 
 could look a proud defiance when assailed, which 
 often elicited the admiration of his many adver- 
 saries. He was a ready but bad speaker, and his 
 contorted and jumbled similes have often been 
 quoted with much ridicule. In the session of 
 1822, he seemed to be suffering severely from over- 
 exertion and excitement, and on the 12th of 
 August he deliberately terminated his days by a 
 
 slight incision in the carotid arterv. 
 
 lays by 
 [J.H.B. 
 
 CASTOLDI, Giov. Giac, a composer, 16th c. 
 
 CASTOR, the first chronological wr., 200 b.c. 
 
 CASTOR, St., founder of an abbev, 4th cent. 
 
 CASTRACANI, C, an Ital. general, afterwards 
 duke of Lucca, known also as a poet, 1281-1328. 
 
 CASl'RO, Alvar De, a Sp. general, d. 1239. 
 
 CASTRO, Don Ferd. De, favourite of Peter 
 the Cruel, died a refugee in England, 1375. 
 
 CASTRO, Gabriel Pereira De, an Epic poet, 
 complimented as the second Camoens, 1571-1632. 
 
 CASTRO, Inez De, a beautiful lady of Castile, 
 secretly married to Pedro, son of Alphonso IV., 
 and assassinated by order of the latter, 1357. 
 
 CASTRO, John De, a Portuguese commander, 
 afterwards governor of the Portuguese possessions 
 in the East Indies, 1500-1548. 
 
 CASTRUCCI, P., a eel. violinist, last centurv. 
 
 CASTRUCCIO, a chf. of the Ghibellines, d. 1328. 
 
 CATALANI, Angelica, the eel. cantatrice and 
 opera performer, born at Sinigaglia 1782, d. 1849. 
 
 CATEL, C. S., a compos, of music, 1770-1830. 
 
 CATESBY, Mark, a naturalist, 1680-1749. 
 
 CATHALINEAU, James, general-in-chief of 
 the royalist armies in La Vendee, surnamed by 
 his soldiers the 'saint of Anjou,' where he was 
 born 1759; mortally wounded in the attack on 
 Nantes, 29th June, 1793. 
 
 CATHARINE, St., of Bologna, an extatique, 
 of the order of St. Francis, canon. 1724, 1413-63. 
 
 CATHARINE, St., a virg. and martyr, 4th ct. 
 
 CAT 
 
 CATHARINE, St., of Genoa, canonized 1 737, 1 
 of a dialogue between the soul and body, 1418- 1 G l( 
 
 CATHARINE, St., of Sienna, celebrated fc 
 the political influence of her revelations in th 
 pontificate of Gregory XL, and for her extati 
 writings, 1347-1380. 
 
 CATHARINE, queen of Bosnia, died 1478. 
 
 CATHARINE of Arragon, daughter of Ferdi 
 nand and Isabella, b. 1483 ; married to Princ 
 Arthur 1501, and to her brother-in-law, afterward 
 Henry VIII., 1514 ; died 1536. 
 
 CATHARINE of Braganza, or Portuga' 
 born 1638 ; married to Charles IL, king of Englanc 
 1661 ; died 1705. 
 
 CATHARINE of France, daughter of Charle 
 VI., b. 1401 ; married to Henry V., k. of Englanc 
 1420, and after his death to Owen Tudor; d.^* 
 
 CATHARINE PARR, queen of Henry VIII 
 1543, afterw. wife of Sir Thos. Seymour, d. 154? 
 
 CATHARINE DE MEDICI, the only child I 
 Lorenzino de Medici, duke of Urbino, and Madde 
 laine de la Tour, a French princess, sister-in-la\ 
 of the duke of Albany, was born 1519, and mar 
 ried to the duke of Orleans, afterwards Henry II 
 1533. During her husband's lifetime, who wa 
 mortally wounded at a tournay, 1559, the politi 
 cal histoiy of Catharine possesses little interest fo 
 us. He was succeeded by their eldest son, Franci 
 IL, who also died the following year, 1560, whe; 
 Catharine was named regent of France during th 
 minority of her second son, Charles IX. The grea 
 events which now succeeded each other, and whie 
 belong to the early history of the reformation, wer 
 the battle of Dreux, fought between Guise and Cond 
 1562 ; the truce concluded between the rival inter 
 ests represented by these leaders, 1563 ; the leagu 
 of Bayonne formed against the protestants, and th 
 recommencement of the religious war, 1566; tbl 
 battle of St. Denis, and the death of Montmorene) 
 1567; the battle of Jarnac, and assassinatio 
 of Conde\ 1569 ; the appearance of the courageou 
 Jeanne D'Albret with her son Henry of Navarrt 
 afterwards Henry IV., in the camp of the protes 
 tants, and the battle of Mont-Contour, 1569 ; th; 
 peace of St. Germain, to which Catharine sub 
 mitted under the dictation of Coligni and the pre 
 testants, 1570 ; and the treacherous massacre t 
 St. Bartholomew, 1572. In 1574 Charles 13 
 died of the fruits of his debaucheries, and Catha 
 rine's third son, who had been elected kino; of Pc 
 land the previous year, succeeded under the titl 
 of Henry III., the virtual government of the king 
 dom still remaining with the queen-mother, wh 
 alone preserved it from total anarchy. In 157 
 Henry of Navarre was the recognized leader of th 
 protestants. In 1576 the famous catholic leagu 
 was formed, and the duke of Guise appoints 
 chief of the crusade. In the next year or two, th 
 war had been renewed from one end of France t 
 the other, and the kingdom was threatened wit) 
 entire destruction by the rival factions. In 158 
 Henry of Navarre gained the battle of Coutras 
 In 1588 the people of Paris were in insurrection 
 the states-general were assembled at Blois, amj 
 the duke of Guise was assassinated in the palace: 
 In the following year Catharine died. A bar' 
 outline of the political complications which pro: 
 duced these events would fill many paj 
 they all turn upon the struggle between the cathoi 
 
 134 
 
CAT 
 
 ic and protestant leaders which rent the kingdom 
 o pieces, and the reckless determination with 
 rhich the daughter of the Medici endeavoured to 
 naintain the royal authority. To estimate her 
 onduct with perfect fairness the character of the 
 tge must be considered, and especially the preten- 
 sions of a severe Calvinism, its vast network of af- 
 iliated societies overspreading France, and the social 
 evolution which it threatened. We have no wish 
 o apologize for the crimes of a Medici, but to un- 
 lerstand how they were possible. If a woman with- 
 )ut human sympathy occupied the throne of 
 Prance, can we contrast her cold heart and plot- 
 ling intellect with an example of Christian meek- 
 ness and womanly tenderness in the curule chair 
 jf Geneva ! As we venture to read history, the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew stamps the period, 
 rather than this single actor in it, with deserved 
 infamy, and when we have said this, enough re- 
 mains in the Machiavel-like subtilty of her policy, 
 and the dark ambition which did not scruple at 
 the debauchery of her own sons, to justify the hatred 
 of her memory. It should not be forgotten that 
 the lurid colours in which this extraordinary wo- 
 man has been painted are brightened by command- 
 ing talents, and by that taste for art, hereditary 
 In the family of the Medici, which has graced her 
 adopted country with the palace of the Tuileries, 
 and which commenced a new era in arts and 
 literature. [E.R.] 
 
 CATHARINE I., empress of Russia, as the 
 wife and successor of Peter the Great, 1689-1727. 
 CATHARINE II., one of the greatest sovereigns 
 of the Russian empire, b. 1729 ; wife of Peter III. 
 1745 ; crwnd. empress after his death 1762 ; d. 1796. 
 CATHARINE of Russia, daughter of the em- 
 peror Paul, queen of Wurtemberg, 1788-1819. 
 CATHARINUS, Amb., a catholic wr., d. 1553. 
 CATILINE, Lucius Sergius Catilina, the 
 Roman conspirator, subject of Cicero's famous 
 declamation, which precipitated the action before 
 Rome, in which he was defeated and slain, B.C. 62. 
 CATINAT, the name by which Abdias Maurel, 
 one of the most intrepid ot the Camisard chiefs, is 
 known, (the revolted protestants of Languedoc,) 
 iistinguished as a cavalry officer, burnt alive 1705. 
 CATINAT, Nich., a Fr. marshal, 1637-1712. 
 CATO, the Wise, or the Sagacious, was a name 
 Brst given to Marcus Porcius Cato the Censor. I. 
 This extraordinary man was born at Tusculum, a 
 
 CAT 
 
 began to distinguish himself in the forum, and be- 
 came a candidate for office. Passing through the 
 subordinate offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor, 
 and exhibiting in these the principles which he 
 had adopted in youth, he was elected consul in 
 B.C. 195, along with his friend and patron Flaccus. 
 In Hither Spam, which was assigned to him as his 
 province, he displayed military genius of a very 
 high order, which speedily reduced the whole coun- 
 try to subjection. In B.C. 191, he distinguished 
 himself greatly in the battle of Thermopylae, and 
 there seems to have finished his career as a soldier. 
 Cato henceforth appears as an active and leading 
 citizen, taking a conspicuous part in every public 
 measure. The great epoch in his life was his elec- 
 tion, in B.C. 184, to the censorship, the duties of 
 which he performed with the fearless strictness of 
 an ancient Roman. His unshaken firmness in 
 checking the luxurious habits of the nobles, and in 
 assailing their crimes and vices, exposed him to 
 great obloquy ; but he pursued the course which 
 he had prescribed to himself regardless of the con- 
 sequences. With all his rusticity, Cato was a friend 
 to literature, and was one of the patrons and ad- 
 mirers of the poet Ennius. He applied himself in 
 old age to the study of Greek literature, and is 
 represented by Cicero as an ardent admirer of the 
 historians, philosophers, and orators of Greece. 
 Cato died in b.c. 149, at the age of eighty-five, 
 leaving behind him 150 orations, which were ad- 
 mired for many ages ; a work on rural affairs, en- 
 titled 'De Re Rustica;' and an historical work 
 entitled ' Origines.' II. Marcus Porcius Cato, 
 surnamed Uticensis (of Utica), the great grandson 
 of Cato the Censor, was born B.C. 95. Even when 
 a boy, he is said to have given indications of sturdy 
 independence ; and as he advanced towards man- 
 hood, he displayed that decision, severity, and 
 harshness of character which marked him out 
 from his contemporaries during the remainder of 
 his life. Taking his great ancestor as his model, 
 he adopted his principles and imitated his conduct ; 
 strengthening his vigorous constitution by exposure 
 to cold and fatigue, and bearing physical infirmi- 
 ties with a degree of patience worthy of the Stoic 
 philosophy to which he had attached himself. He 
 commenced his military career in B.C. 72, as a 
 volunteer, in the servile war of Spartacus; and 
 afterwards earned a high reputation as a military 
 tribune in Macedonia. After some time spent in 
 
 municipal town of Latium, B.C. 234. At the usual | the study of his favourite philosophy, and in dili- 
 military age he commenced his career as a soldier . gent preparation for the duties of official life, he 
 in B. c. 217, the year in which Hannibal was lay- ' 
 ing waste the north of Italy; and served again 
 ander Fabius at the capture of Tarentum (b.c. 
 209), and under Claudius Nero in the memorable 
 battle on the banks of the Metaurus (b.c. 207). 
 His fame, however, does not rest on his military 
 
 ichievements alone. In the intervals of war he 
 employed himself in cultivating his hereditary 
 Farm, adopting the simple habits and manners of 
 the peasantry; and soon became conspicuous 
 among them for superior intelligence, prudence, 
 and sagacity. Having in this way attracted the 
 notice of L. Valerius Flaccus, a young nobleman 
 )f considerable influence, by whom his military 
 talents, eloquence, and integrity were duly appre- 
 nated, he was induced to remove to Rome ; and 
 there, aided by the support of his patron, soon 
 
 135 
 
 was elected quaestor for B.C. 65 ; and acting on 
 the principles which he had prescribed to himself, 
 corrected various abuses which had been sanctioned 
 by his predecessors. As the supporter of Cicero, 
 in b.c. 63 in all his measures for suppressing the 
 Catilinarian conspiracy, he decided by his speech, 
 on the 5th of December, the motion that the con- 
 spirators should be put to death. Along with the 
 senatorial party he strenuously opposed the coali- 
 tion of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in B.C. 60 ; 
 but the supporters of the triumvirate dexterously 
 removed him from the scene of action by confer- 
 ring upon him an appointment which called him 
 first to Cyprus, and afterwards to Byzantium. 
 When praetor in B.C. 54, he was exposed to the 
 outrages of the mob, in consequence of his en- 
 deavours to put a stop to the bribery and corrup- 
 
CAT 
 
 tion -winch prevailed. On the commencement of 
 the civil war in B.C. 49, Cato joined the party of 
 Pompey ; and, after the battle of Pharsalia, pro- 
 ceeded to Africa, where the hopes of the republican 
 party were finally extinguished by the battle of 
 Thapsus (6th April, b.c. 46). The town of Utica 
 alone remained in the interest of the followers of 
 Pompey ; and Cato, failing to inspire his country- 
 men who were collected there with courage to en- 
 dure a siege, resolved not to outlive the downfal of 
 the republic. After providing for the safety of his 
 friends, and instructing them as to the means of 
 effecting a reconciliation with the conqueror, he 
 spent the greater part of the night in perusing 
 Plato's Phacdo, and then inflicted on himself the 
 wound of which he died in the forty-ninth year of 
 his age. Caesar's estimate of Cato's character is 
 shown by the exclamation which he uttered when 
 he heard of his death : ' Cato, I grudge thee thy 
 death, since thou hast grudged me the glory of 
 sparing thy life !' [G.F.] 
 
 CATTENBURG, A. Van, a theolog., 1664-1737. 
 
 CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, an amatory 
 and epigrammatic poet, the rare elegance of 
 whose compositions is most unfortunately dis- 
 figured by their licentiousness, died B.C. 40. 
 
 CATZ, James Van, a statesman and poet, sur- 
 named the La Fontaine of Holland, 1577-1660. 
 
 CAUDERAS, B., a Portuguese painter, d. 1606. 
 
 CAULAINCOURT, A. G., one of the 'suspects' 
 of the revolution, liberated from prison on being 
 drawn for the republican army, attained eminence 
 under Buonaparte as a general and min. of state, and 
 died duke of Vicenza at the age of fifty-four, 1827. 
 
 CAUMARTIN, L. Da, aFr. statesm., 1552-1623. 
 
 CAUS, Solomon De, a Fr. architect, d. 1630. 
 
 CAUSSIN, Nicil, a Fr. rhetorician, d. 1651. 
 
 CAVALCANTI, G., a phil. and poet, d. 1300. 
 
 CAVALIER, John, chief of the protestants in 
 revolt agt. Louis XIV., after, a royalist, 1679-1740. 
 
 CAVALIERI, Bonaventura, a very eminent 
 Italian mathematician ; the pupil of Galileo and 
 friend of Torricelli. Cavalieri's chief work is on 
 the ' Geometry of Indivisibles,' in which he de- 
 tails an artifice by aid of which curve surfaces, 
 &c, may be quadrated. In one respect this 
 method must be reckoned the logical predecessor 
 and herald of the infinitesimal calculus. Cavalieri 
 wrote also on trigonometry, astronomy, and astro- 
 logy. He died in 1647. 
 
 CAVALLI, F., a Fr. opera composer, d. 1673. 
 
 CAVALLINI, P., a sculp, and pain., 1259-1344. 
 
 CAVALLO, Tiberius, an Italian philosopher, 
 inventor of several physical instruments, 1749-1809. 
 
 CAVANILLES, A. J., a Sp. botan., 1745-1804. 
 
 CAVE, Edw., the celeb, bookseller of St. John's 
 gate, fndr. of the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' d. 1754. 
 
 CAVE, Dr.W., alearn. andrelig. wr., 1637-1713. 
 
 CAVENDISH, the Hon. Henry, born at Nice 
 1731, died at London 1810. The father of Mr. 
 Cavendish was Lord Charles Somerset, a cadet of 
 the house of Devonshire. But unlike the class 
 to which his family belonged, the chemist had no 
 sympathies with his fellow-men, either above or 
 below him. He made important discoveries ; but 
 when we are acquainted with his history and his self- 
 seclusion, the wonder is that his researches were 
 not more abundant. Compare the millionaire 
 chiimst with the poverty-struck, but indefatigable 
 
 CAV 
 
 and noble-spirited Priestley, or with the calm anc 
 amiable Black, and we have an intellectual machin< 
 contrasted with talent accompanied by humane 
 and generous hearts. ' We start, for soul is 
 wanting there.' Mr. Cavendish was a profounc 
 mathematician, electrician, and chemist. Dr. Black 
 who had discovered carbonic acid, laid the founda- 
 tion of pneumatic chemistry. Cavendish is usualh 
 said to have discovered hydrogen (although it wa" 
 prepared by Mayow, Boyle, and Hales long ante- 
 riorly), and placed the second stone on the great su- 
 perstructure which was afterwards to be raised bj 
 Priestley and others. That common air consisted 
 of oxygen and nitrogen was known ; but Caven- 
 dish demonstrated (1783) that it consisted by t 
 volume of 20-833 oxygen and 79*166 nitrogen i 
 result which has been thoroughly confirmed bj 
 subsequent experiments. He likewise demon- 
 strated the exact constitution of water, althougl 
 it is confidently affirmed that James Watt at the 
 same time knew its composition, and that hii 
 views were known to Cavendish. Cavendish like- 
 wise showed that nitric acid is composed of nitrogei 
 and oxygen Priestley having previously founc 
 that electric sparks, when passed through air 
 turned litmus red, Cavendish added potash to tin 
 solution, evaporated, and obtained nitre. Whilt 
 there is scarcely any doubt that there has been ; 
 tendency to overrate Cavendish at the expense o 
 others, he must be always ranked as one of th< 
 first of English chemists, who has, by the accuracj 
 of his experiments, assisted in laying the sun 
 foundation of the science. [R.D.T." 
 
 CAVENDISH, Thomas, was the son of i 
 gentleman of fortune in Suffolk. Coming int( 
 possession of his father's property in 1585, he ap- 
 plied his ample means to the fitting out of a stoul 
 barque of 120 tons, and accompanied Sir Richarc 
 Grenville to the West Indies and Virginia. The object 
 is not ascertained; but of a second voyage, on which 
 he sailed in July, 1586, the purpose certainly was I 
 recruit his finances, wasted, in personal extrava-j 
 gance, by plundering on the western sea-board o: 
 S. America. England and Spain were long at open 
 war, and among men of fortune this practice wad 
 not uncommon in the days of Elizabeth, a com-] 
 mission from the queen being previously obtained. 
 He had only 123 men, and three vessels, respec- 
 tively 120, 60, and 40 tons burden, for the fitting 
 out of which he had to sell or mortgage what 
 remained of his estates; with these he circunw 
 navigated the globe in twenty-five months, mak-j 
 ing important surveys in Magellan Straits, plun- 
 dering and burning many towns of the SpanisM 
 colonies, and capturing on the coast of California tha 
 great annual galleon, 700 tons burden, laden with] 
 valuable merchandise, and 122,000 Spanish dollars. 
 He also reduced to its proper length the distance 
 between Java and the Cape, which the Portuguese] 
 had made much too great ; and reaching home id 
 safety, rich enough to purchase a fair earldom,' 
 he was knighted hy Queen Elizabeth. His ill-' 
 gotten wealth being dissipated in three years, he, 
 embarked in a joint-stock expedition of a like) 
 kind, but on a larger scale ; this proved unsuccess-j 
 ful from disagreement among elements discordant 
 from the first; and while on his return, in 1593. 
 he died at sea of vexation and fatigue, at the age, 
 of twenty-nine. He was the first to point out the 
 
 136 
 
CAV 
 nportance of St. Helena to the English govern- 
 lent. [J.B.] 
 
 CAVENDISH, Sir W., a gentleman in the 
 srvice of Cardinal Wolsey, and afterwards of 
 [enry VIII., by whom he was knighted, 1505- 
 557. His son of the same name, created duke of 
 rewcastle, distinguished in the civil wars as a 
 jyalist, 1592-1676. A descendant of the same 
 ame, third earl of Devonshire, and friend of Wil- 
 am III., 1640-1707. John, Lord Cavendish, br. 
 f the last named, and chan. of the excheq., d. 1796. 
 
 CAVOLINI, Ph., a naturalist, 1756-1810. 
 
 CAWDREY, Dan., a controversial wr., d. 1664. 
 
 CAWTON, Thos., and his son of the same name, 
 oth dist. as Oriental scholars, d. 1659 and 1677. 
 
 CAXES, Patrick, an architect of the 16th ct. 
 
 [Caxton'a Printing Office, Almonry, London.] 
 
 CAXTON, William, dist. as the introducer of 
 rinting into Eng., originally a mercer, 1410-1491. 
 
 CAYLUS, Martha Marg., marquise of, auth. 
 f 'Souvenirs,' edited by Voltaire, 1673-1729. 
 ler son, Anne Claude Philip, Count Caylus, 
 istinguished as a writer on art, 1720-1765. 
 
 CAZALES, J. A. M. De, a Fr. royal., 1757-1805. 
 
 CAZALET, J. A., a pharmacopolist, 1758-1825. 
 
 CAZES, P. J., a French painter, 1676-1754. 
 
 CAZOTTE, John, a French poet, distinguished 
 ar the humour and spirit of his compositions, 
 xecuted as a royalist, 1792. 
 
 CAZWYNY, an Arabian naturalist, 1210-1283. 
 
 CEBA, Aufaldo, a dramatic poet, died 1623. 
 
 CEBES, a pupil of Socrates, 5th century B.C. 
 
 CECCATI, D. F., a sculptor of Lombardy, 
 listing, as an artist in wood and ivory, 1642-1719. 
 
 CECCHERELLI, Al., an Italian hist, 16th ct. 
 
 CECCHI, J. M., an Italian poet, 16th century. 
 
 CECCO DE ASCOLI, an Ital. philos. and poet, 
 nrnt alive for his practice of the occ. sciences, 1327. 
 
 CECIL, Robt., earl of Salisbury, son of Lord 
 krleigh, and minister of James I., 1563-1612. 
 
 CECIL, Wm., Lord Burleigh. See Burleigh 
 
 CECILIA, St., a virg. and martyr, 4th cent. 
 
 CECROPS, the founder of Athens, 16th c. B.C. 
 
 CEDREMIS, G., a monk and historian, 11th c. 
 
 CELESTI, And., a Venetian painter, 1637-1706. 
 
 CELEST1NE, the first of this name, pope of 
 
 CER 
 
 Rome 422-432; the second, 1143-1144; the third, 
 1191-1198 ; the fourth, eighteen days onlv, 1241 ; 
 the fifth, founder of the Celestines, 1294-1296. 
 
 CELESTIUS, a heretic of the 4th century. 
 
 CELLARIUS, Cil, a Germ, savant, 1638-1707. 
 
 CELLINI. Benvenuto, a celebrated sculptor 
 and goldsmith, was born at Florence in 1500, and 
 was brought up as a musician (a flute-player) by 
 his father. He entered the service of Clement 
 VII. at Rome, at an early age, as goldsmith and 
 musician; his active services for this pope and 
 other art-patrons in Rome, especially Porzia 
 Ghigi, were altogether suspended by the sack of 
 the city in 1527, by the soldiers of the constable 
 Bourbon, whom Cellini boasts of having killed in 
 the act of scaling the walls. Cellini returned to 
 Rome a few years afterwards, and continued his 
 works for the pope. Cellini executed several de- 
 signs also in France for Francis I., for the palace 
 at Fontainebleau, but a portion only were carried 
 out. He returned to Italy in 1545 and executed 
 his celebrated bronze of Perseus with the head of 
 Medusa, now in the Loggia de' Lanzi'. Cellini 
 married at the age of sixty, and died in 1572, 
 leaving two daughters and a son. Though an able 
 sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini is more distinguished 
 as a goldsmith, or for his ornamental works ; he 
 has been long the coryphaeus of silversmiths, 
 and until quite recently, was unrivalled as a 
 metal-chaser, but he is now surpassed by several 
 of the modern artists of France, especially M. 
 Antoine Vechte. Cellini's style is that peculiarly 
 known as the Renaissance, in which scrolled 
 shields or cartouches, and strapwork perform a 
 prominent part; his works are also conspicuous 
 for a minute imitation of natural objects, as in the 
 celebrated silver hand bell made for Clement the 
 VII., formerly in the possession of Horace Wal- 
 pole. Cellini is the great model to this day of the 
 principal ornamental artists of France. (Sec 
 Cellini's Autobiography.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CELS, J. M.,"a French botanist, 1743-1806. 
 
 CELSIUS, Olaus, a Swed. naturalist, disting. 
 as the teacher and protector of Linnaeus, 1670-1756. 
 
 CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a physician 
 who flourished in the reign of Tiberius, in the first 
 century of the Christian era. He is distinguished 
 for having bequeathed to his successors in the 
 healing art his work ' De Medicina,' written in 
 elegant Latin, and familiar to every student in 
 medicine. His views are characterized by great 
 judgment and sense, especially when we recollect 
 the barbarism of science in the times in which he 
 lived. He has explained many of the opinions of 
 Hippocrates, which would be difficult of apprecia - 
 tion without his commentary. [R.D.T.] 
 
 CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher, 2a cent. 
 
 CELTES, Conrad, a Latin poet, 1459-1508. 
 
 CENCI, Beatrice, the heroine of Shelley's 
 drama, executed at Rome as a parricide, 1605. 
 
 CENSORINUS, Appius Claudius, a Roman 
 consul, elected emp., and murd. shortly after, 270. 
 
 CENSORINUS, a grammarian of the 3d cent. 
 
 CENTLIVRE, Mrs., an English dramatic 
 writer, 1667-1723. 
 
 CEOLWULF, ak. of Northumberland, 8th ct. 
 
 CERATINUS, J., a Greek scholar, died 1530. 
 
 CERCEAU, J. A. Du, a Fr. hist, of Rienzi, &c, 
 au. of Lat. poems, a mem. of the Jesuits, 1676-1730. 
 
 137 
 
CER 
 
 CERDA, J. L. De La, a Spanish critic, classi- 
 cal commen., and grammarian, Toledo, 1560-1643. 
 
 CERDA Y RICO, P., a Sp. savant, 1730-1792. 
 
 CERDIC, a Saxon king of Wessex, 519-534. 
 
 CER DON, a Syrian gnostic, 2d century. 
 
 CERE, John NlCH., a Fr. botanist, 1737-1810. 
 
 CERINTHUS, a Jew, and a noted heretic of the 
 first century, who had been taught literature and 
 philosophy at Alexandria. In the age of the 
 apostle John he propagated many absurdities about 
 the person of Christ and a sensual millennium, 
 based on Jewish dreams and Gnostic speculations. 
 His fantastic reveries need not to be repeated. Ac- 
 cording to some, the fourth gospel was written 
 specially against his tenets, but there is no solid 
 ground for such an opinion, though it has been 
 
 plausibly defended. 
 
 [J.E.] negotiations, and kd. at the battle of Varna, 1444 
 
 CERISANTES, Mark Duncan De, a Scotch 
 physician in the polit. sendee of Richelieu, k. 1618. 
 
 CERMENATI, John De, a Latin hist., 14th c. 
 
 CERQUEIRA, a Portug. mission., 1552-1614. 
 
 CERRATO, Paul, an Italian poet, 16th cent. 
 
 CERULARIUS, patriarch of Constantin., and 
 au. of the Gr. schism, cmd. Isaac Commenus 1058. 
 
 CERUTI, Fred., a classical schol., 1541-1579. 
 
 CERUTTI, J. A. J., a Jesuit and miscel. writer, 
 author of an ' Apology ' for his order, 1735-1792. 
 
 CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel De, 
 was born in 1547, at Alcala, in New Castile, of an 
 ancient but poor family. His taste for literature 
 seems to have been early developed, and to have 
 been chiefly directed towards poetry. In his 
 twenty-second year, he quitted Spain for Italy, 
 holding a place in the household of a cardinal; 
 and, volunteering in the papal army, he fought 
 bravely in 1571 against the Turks, in the battle of 
 Lepanto, receiving there a wound which lamed his 
 left hand for life. He continued to be a soldier, 
 serving under several leaders, till, in 1576, sailing 
 for the Low Countries, he was taken prisoner by 
 an Algerine corsair. His sufferings and adventures 
 during his three years of slavery in Algiers, are 
 said to be described in his novel, ' The Captive,' 
 inserted as an episode in 'Don Quixote.' On 
 being ransomed in 1580, he resumed military ser- 
 vice. In 1584 appeared his first printed work, 
 ' Galatea,' a pastoral romance, mixing prose and 
 verse after the model of Montemayor's ' Diana.' In 
 it he represented, under feigned names, himself j national convention succumbed to the dictates (| 
 and a lady whom he immediately married. He j the Committee of Public Safety, and one day re 
 afterwards wrote a considerable number of plays, I marked to his compatriots, ' There ought to I 
 which have never become famous. About this | a Cote Droit, (opposition side.) If none else wi 
 
 People say to me, you wi 
 pour turn ; first, you an 
 veyor of stores for the Indian fleet ; and he is tra- . 
 ditionally asserted to have collected tithes in La I The event proved that these apprehensions wei 
 Mancha. In 1605 he published the first part of j well founded. Chabot had married into th 
 1 Don Quixote.' The appearance of this celebrated family of an Austrian banker, and from his con 
 work of genius speedily made him famous, with- j nection with the financial speculations of his bro 
 out, however, rescuing him from poverty, although ' thers-in-law, was accused of falsifying a decree t 
 it brought him some patronage from the court, j the convention. Whether this was true or falsi 
 which drew him to Madrid for the rest of his life, it served equally well as a pretext for his execu 
 No other work came from his pen for several years. ! tion. He was conducted to the scaffold after at 
 
 CIIA 
 
 celebrity of his great romance, provoked attacks oi 
 him, of which the most bitter were introduced int 
 a spurious continuation of ' Don Quixote.' Thi 
 work was at length completed by the appearaa 
 of the second part in 1615. It is needless to com 
 mend ' Don Quixote ; ' and this is no place for en 
 deavouring to analyze its character and desigr 
 The author did not long survive its complettl 
 He died in his sixty-ninth year, on the 23d day t 
 April, 1616; and Shakspeare died on the ver 
 same day. ' Persiles and Sigismunda,' a romanc 
 which Cervantes left unpublished, is universall 
 allowed to be unworthy of the liking with wine 
 he himself regarded it. [W.$. 
 
 CERVETTO, a music, of Garrick's time, d. 1785 
 CESARINI, Jul., a cardinal employed in polil 
 
 CESARINI, Virg., a Latin poet, 1595-1624. 
 
 CESAROTTI, Melchior, professor of Gr. an 
 
 Heb., also dist. as a poet and essayist, 1730-180* 
 
 CESPEDES, A. G. De, a Sp. geog., 1560-160* 
 
 CESPEDES, P De, a Sp. painter, 1538-1606 
 
 CESTI, M. A., a composer of music, died 168* 
 
 CESTIUS, Gallius, Rom. gov. of Syria, 1st ( 
 
 CEVELLOS, the Chevalier De, a Spanis 
 
 statesman, author of the manifesto on Napoleon' 
 
 invasion, 1763-1838. 
 
 CEZELLI, Constance, a heroine of the 16th I 
 CHABERT, J. B., marquis of, a Fr. commandj 
 celeb, as a navigator and astronomer, 1724-1805. 
 CHABERT, P., a wr. on voter, surg., 1727-1814 
 CHABOT, Francis, one of those unquiet maj 
 lignant spirits raised from the deep by the Frenc 
 revolution, was a Capuchin monk, who abandone 
 his order when the door had been opened by a de 
 cree of the constituent assembly, and was depute 
 to the legislative assembly, 1791, and to the conj 
 vention, 1792. His declamatory powers and vehej 
 ment passions were directed by the most unsparinj 
 hatred of royalty, and according to his own declara 
 tion, he even offered himself for assassination thd 
 his corpse might be carried through the streeti 
 and the inhabitants of the Faubourgs excited ti 
 insurrection. He voted for the king's death with 
 out appeal to the people and without delay, anj 
 proved himself so shameless in the advocacy <] 
 violence and murder, that he has been called the tyr 
 of sansculottism. Chabot foresaw his fate when thi 
 
 time of his life his history becomes particularly I form it, I will alone. I 
 obscure. He was for some time, at Seville, a pur- all get guillotined in y 
 
 But in 1613 he published the ' Exemplary Novels, 
 a collection of twelve stories, some of which are 
 the only minor works of his that are at all worthy 
 of the author of ' Don Quixote.' Next year there 
 was printed his ' Journey to Parnassus,' critical 
 and satirical essay in verse. This piece, and the i 
 
 tempting to poison himself with corrosive sul 
 limate, 3d April, 1794. | E.R 
 
 CHABOT, G. A., a wr. on civil law, 1758-18U 
 CHABRIAS, an Athenian, general, 6th c n.c 
 CHABRY, Mark, a Fr. painter, 1660-1727. | 
 CHACON, Alph., a Sp. antiquary, 1510-159C; 
 
 138 
 
CHA 
 
 CHACON, P., a Spanish critic, 1525-1581. 
 
 CHAH-AALEM, einp. of Hindos. 1759, d. 1806. 
 
 CHAH-DJIHAU, emp. of Hindost., 1622-1656. 
 
 CHAH-ROUKH-MYRZA, son of Tamerlane, 
 Ov. of Khorassan, conq. of Persia. &c, died 1447. 
 
 CHAHYN-GUERAI, last khan of Tarty., 1783. 
 
 CHAIS, Charles, a protes. theolog., 1701-85. 
 
 CHAISE, F. De La, conf. of Louis XIV., d. 1709. 
 
 CHALCIDIUS, a Platonic philosopher, 3d ct. 
 
 CHALCONDYLES, Demetrius, a refugee 
 rom Constantinople, au. of a Gr. grammar, d. 1513. 
 
 CHALCONDYLES, N., a Greek hist., 15th ct. 
 
 CHALES, C. F. De, a Fr. mathem., died 1678. 
 
 CHALLE, C. M., a French painter, died 1778. 
 
 CHALMEL, J. L., a French hist., 1760-1828. 
 
 CHALMERS, Alex., an industrious editor and 
 ontributor to the press, in most repute for his 
 General Biographical Dictionary,' 1759-1834. 
 
 CHALMERS, Geo., a statistical wr., 1744-1825. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, D.D., L.L.D., the cele- 
 rated pulpit orator and divine, was born on 17th 
 larch, 1780, at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, of re- 
 sectable and pious, though humble, parents. After 
 sceiving the elements of knowledge at the parish 
 ihool, he was entered a student in St. Andrews 
 lollege at the early age of twelve ; and soon gave 
 idications of that strong predilection for the phy- 
 ical sciences which he retained through life. He 
 rosecuted the course of study prescribed to stu- 
 ents in divinity, and obtained license to preach in 
 nmection with the Established Church of Scot- 
 uid while only nineteen, two years under the legal 
 ge, on the express ground that he was ' a lad of 
 regnant parts.' His views towards the church, 
 owever, were at this period of his life entertained, 
 ot from any ulterior intention of giving himself 
 ) the sacred duties of the ministiy, but from the 
 elief that the character of a licentiate would ad- 
 ance him in his path to the summit of his ambition 
 -a university appointment. Accordingly, after 
 avingbeen employed about a year as assistant in 
 i of Cavers, he relinquished that situation 
 Bm ;nore congenial office of assistant teacher of 
 lathematics m the university of St. Andrews. 
 lis eminent success in that department procured 
 im a presentation to the parish of Kilmany, the 
 
 [Kilmany Church.] 
 
 atronac;e of which was vested in the college, and 
 ccordincrly he was ordained to the pastoral charge 
 f that place on 12th May, 1803. How subordi- 
 
 CHA 
 
 nate to scientific pursuits he then considered the 
 functions of the sacred office to be, appears from the 
 fact that he spent two successive winters in St. 
 Andrews in giving public lectures during the week 
 on mathematics and chemistry, while he returned 
 to his parish only on Saturdays, leaving it again 
 early on Monday morning. A great and happy 
 change, superinduced by long personal illness and 
 several domestic bereavements, took place in his 
 views of religion. From being a very secondary 
 concern with him, he was brought to regard it as 
 a subject of paramount importance. He now be- 
 came as assiduous and earnest in his attention to 
 his sacred functions, as he had been formerly negli- 
 gent of them ; and applying his great powers to 
 the illustration and enforcement of Christian truth 
 with all the enthusiasm of a new convert, his fame 
 as a zealous and eloquent preacher spread far and 
 wide. His services were now eagerly sought for 
 other and more important places, and accordingly, 
 after having resided twelve years in Kilmany, he 
 was translated in the summer of 1815 to the Tron 
 Church and Parish, Glasgow. His reputation as a 
 preacher continued rapidly to advance. His 
 church was besieged every Sabbath by crowds of 
 admiring listeners ; and a volume of sermons, en- 
 titled ' Astronomical Discourses,' enjoyed a circu- 
 lation as wide as the Tales of My Landlord,' pub- 
 lished during the same season. On several public 
 occasions he was engaged to officiate both in Edin- 
 burgh and London at this period of his ministry, 
 and the sensation universally produced by his 
 
 { reaching surpassed all that was ever known or 
 leard of m the annals of pulpit eloquence. Chal- 
 mers had long devoted his attention to the subject 
 of pauperism, on which he entertained some pecu- 
 liar views as to the superior efficacy of voluntary 
 and Christian efforts in meeting its evils. To en- 
 able him to carry his views into operation, the 
 magistrates of Glasgow erected the new parish of 
 St. John's, to which he was presented as first min- 
 ister, and in which he was allowed the fullest liberty 
 to work his parochial machinery. A number of 
 enlightened Christian laymen aided his efforts; 
 and the scheme in the hands of such an agency 
 met the highest success. But although he wrought 
 it with characteristic ardour, and developed its prin- 
 ciples at full length in his ' Christian and Civic 
 Economy of Large Towns,' it never obtained in any 
 other parish, and has long been abandoned as im- 
 practicable, even in St. John's. Aften a most active 
 and successful incumbency for eight years in Glas- 
 gow, Dr. Chalmers relinquished the exercise of 
 the ministry for the more retired, but not less use- 
 ful office of training the rising hopes of the church. 
 In 1823 he became professor of moral philosophy 
 in the university of St. Andrews ; and in 1827 he 
 was translated by the unanimous presentation of 
 the Town Council of Edinburgh, to the chair of 
 divinity in the university of that city. The splen- 
 dour of his fame attracted an unusual number of 
 professional as well as amateur students to his 
 prelections in both of these offices ; and the ability 
 as well as learning he brought to bear on the topics 
 of his chair, amply justified his elevation to the 
 highest and most responsible position in the 
 church. Dr. Chalmers now commenced a career 
 of authorship, by which he still further extended 
 his reputation as a divine. The most flattering 
 
 139 
 
CHA 
 
 honours were heaped upon him from varions quar- 
 ters ; for not only was he elected moderator of the 
 General Assembly the highest position in the 
 Church of Scotland but he was chosen president 
 of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, created Doctor 
 of Laws by the umversity of Oxford, selected by 
 the trustees of the earl of Bridgewater one of the 
 eminent writers to publish a treatise in proof of 
 the wisdom and goodness of God in Creation, and 
 appointed corresponding member of the Royal In- 
 stitute of France a compliment which no clergy- 
 man in Britain had ever previously enjoyed. Dr. 
 Chalmers, who had zealously espoused the popular 
 side in church politics, allowed nimself to De pre- 
 vailed upon, contrary to his own better judgment, 
 to propose the enactment of the veto law in 1833, 
 in the fond hope that it would produce the effect 
 of popularizing the Established Church; and there 
 can be no doubt that it was successful to an emi- 
 nent extent in realizing his fondest wishes. Never 
 was the church stronger than during its preva- 
 lence ; and it was on this auspicious period he 
 commenced and earned on his gigantic labours in 
 the cause of church extension. Adhering to the 
 veto act, after the civil courts had decided on its 
 illegality, he mingled in all the stormy controver- 
 sies which followed ; and at length finding it hope- 
 less to maintain the position he had assumed, he 
 seceded in May, 1843, with a large body of adher- 
 ents who joined him in forming the Free Church. 
 He was the first moderator; and indeed there 
 can be little doubt that his name, which was a 
 tower of strength, and his eloquence, which pos- 
 sessed resistless power over the popular mind, con- 
 tributed more perhaps than any other cause, to 
 give the new secession a local habitation in the 
 land. Dr. Chalmers's health, impaired by his ex- 
 traordinary labours, especially m organizing the 
 new church, sank rapidly, and his death, in 1847, 
 was sudden, and lamented by Christians of all de- 
 nominations. His collected works, including ser- 
 mons, theological lectures, &c, amount to 25 
 volumes. [R.J.] 
 
 CHALONER, B., a catholic prelate, 1691-1781. 
 
 CHALONER, Sir Tiios., a scholar and states- 
 man of the age of Elizabeth, 1515-1565. His son 
 of the same name, distinguished as a chemist, 
 1559-1603. Edward, son of the last, chaplain to 
 James I., died 1625. James, a second son, an ad- 
 herent of the parliament, committed suicide at the 
 restoration, 1660. Thomas, brother of the preced- 
 ing, absconded at the restoration, and died 1661. 
 
 CHALOTAIS, G. R. La, the celeb, procureur- 
 general to the parliament of Brussels, whose ex- 
 pose" of the Jesuits provoked their expulsion and 
 his own imprisonment, which produced a great 
 effect in France, 1701-1785. 
 
 CHAMBERLAINE, Robert, a poet, d. 1637. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE, Edw., LL.D., au. of the 
 Present State of England,' 1616-1703. John, las 
 son, a celeb, philologist and translator, died 1724. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Epil, the cydopaedist, d. 1740. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Sir Wm., an archit., 1725-1796. 
 
 CHAMBRAY, Roland Freard, lord of, a 
 Fr. statesman and architect, time of Louis XIII. 
 
 CHAMILLARD, M. De, aFr. states.,165 1-1721. 
 
 CHAMILLARD, Step., a Fr. antiq., 1656-1730. 
 
 CHAMISSO, Adelbert Yon, a fertile and 
 interesting wr., especially as a natur., 1781-1838. 
 
 cnA 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, Philip De, a distinguishei 
 Flemish painter, instructed by Fouquiens an 
 employed with Lebrun in the Luxembourg palae< 
 and other public buildings of Paris. His work- 
 consist of sacred subjects and portraits ; born | 
 Brussels, 1602, died 1674. His nephew, Jean Bai 
 tiste, also a painter, b. at Brussels, 1643, d. 168? 
 CHAMPEAUX, W. De, a celeb, philosoph. an 
 theolog. of the 12th c, understood to be the fin: 
 public professor of scholastic divinity, and the fin 
 of scientific realism. Abelard was one of his schol! 
 and it is by his attacks upon Chainpeaux that tl: 
 latter is best known, his works being lost, d. 112:<j 
 CHAMPIER, S., a Fr. physician, soldier, an 
 historical writer, 1472-1539. 
 
 CHAMPIONNET, J. S., a Fr. gen., 1762-180( 
 CHAMPLAIN, Samuel De, a French nav; 
 officer, an able, enterprising, and very devout mar 
 who established the first settlement in Canad; 
 by founding Quebec, in 1608. He fully ex 
 plored the banks of the St. Lawrence, and dit 
 covered the lake which still bears his name. A ( 
 extraordinary zeal for the conversion of the natfri 
 tribes was excited by him throughout the whole < 
 France, and many persons of wealth and statio; 
 devoted themselves voluntarily to the cause ; br 
 the sole direction of the plans for this purpos 
 was soon engrossed by the Jesuits, who proved froil 
 that time forward a heavy incubus upon tbj 
 advancement of the colony. [J.B.. 
 
 CHAMPMESLE, Mary Desmares De, | 
 French actress, pupil of Racine, 1644-1698. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, J. F., the celebrated Frencj 
 
 archaeol. and interpret, of hieroglyphics, 1790-18311 
 
 CHANCELOR, Richard, an Englishman 
 
 pilot-major of Sir Hugh Willoughby's fleet, ser] 
 
 out by Cabot in 1553, and commander of one <| 
 
 the ships. Landing at Archangel, he proceedef 
 
 to Moscow, and by his address and judgment it 
 
 his interviews with the Czar, laid the foundatio 
 
 of the trade to Russia. Returning from a secon 
 
 voyage in 1556, he was drowned, with most of hi 
 
 crew, in Pitsligo Bay, on the E. coast of Scotlanc 
 
 The Russian ambassador, however, who accom 
 
 panied him escaped, was conducted to Londor 
 
 and received with great distinction. [J.B. 
 
 CHANDLER, E., a wr. on prophecy, 1671-175( 
 
 CHANDLER, M., an Eng. poetess, 1687-174T 
 
 CHANDLER, R., an antiq. writer, 1738-1810., 
 
 CHANDLER, Sam., a religious au., 1693-1766 
 
 CHANDOS, John, an English general, lieut 
 
 of the French provinces for Edward III., k. 1369 
 
 CHANGEUX, P. N., a Fr. mathe., 1740-180C 
 
 CHANNING, William Ellery, an eminen' 
 
 member of the society of ' Liberal Christians,' wa 
 
 born on 7th April, 1780, at Newport, Rhode Is 
 
 land, in the United States of America. Thoug 
 
 descended on both sides of the house from purita; 
 
 families, who had emigrated from England, h 
 
 early displayed a spirit of free inquiry into th 
 
 doctrines of Christianity and with the ardour c 
 
 a young man, conscious of intellectual acumen an, 
 
 energy, he keenly discussed, till he learnt to doubt 
 
 the leading doctrines of the orthodox faith. Abov j 
 
 all, he imbibed a rooted dislike of Calvinism ; am 
 
 gradually extending his scepticism from one por ' 
 
 tion of the received creed to another, he embracei 
 
 that system of religion which is distinguished by I 
 
 rejection of all the peculiarities of Christian doc- 
 
 140 
 
. . 
 
 ' ' *: 
 
CHA 
 
 rine. He was a firm believer in the truth and 
 Divine origin of Christianity, and had carefully 
 itudied it in the inspired records ; but he regarded 
 t as nothing more than a more complete and au- 
 horitative republication of the law of Nature. 
 >uch were the religious principles which Channing 
 idopted ; and having become a preacher, his pul- 
 rit discourses were characterized by such exhibi- 
 ions of mental power and impressive eloquence, 
 leightened by rich and beautiful imagery, that he 
 vas hailed as a new star in the ecclesiastical firma- 
 nent of America. Invitations were addressed to 
 lim by two vacant congregations in Boston ; and 
 ifter due deliberation, he accepted that of ' The 
 Religious Society ' in Federal-Street, where he was 
 )rdained on 1st June, 1803. The reputation which 
 Mr. Channing had acquired by his early appear- 
 mces in the pulpit, he fully sustained by the high 
 quality of his regular ministrations. Week after 
 >veek a laige congregation of intelligent hearers 
 ittended his place of worship ; where he discoursed 
 >n such subjects as charity, war, and peace the 
 Bible Society missions, benevolent institutions, 
 ;he anti-slavery cause and all public measures 
 :hat tended to promote the advancement of liberty 
 the progress of social improvements the dis- 
 semination, and the final triumph of Christianity ; 
 and to the illustration of these themes he brought 
 ill the charms of beautiful diction and a poetical 
 imagination, which led multitudes to hang with 
 rapture on his lips. Mr. Channing was universally 
 acknowledged as the first pulpit orator in America 
 :>f his time, and accustomed as he was to en- 
 ter so largely into the discussion of public matters, 
 tie acquired a paramount influence in society. In 
 summer 1814, he married his cousin Ruth Gibbs, 
 in whose alliance he enjoyed the purest domestic 
 happiness, and whose active partnership in all his 
 plans and views of public usefulness, contributed 
 in no small degree to the success of his public life. 
 His health having shown symptoms of decline, he 
 was advised in 1821 to try the effects of a voyage ; 
 and accordingly he spent a year in travelling 
 through Europe. On his return to Boston with 
 recovered health, he resumed his labours as a 
 preacher, and the course of his life was spent in 
 undeviating devotion to the duties of the pulpit, 
 except only the keen and active part he took in 
 the unitarian controversy, which in 1815 was 
 waged with great fierceness in America. In the 
 course of that contest Dr. Channing for he had 
 received from Harvard university the title of Doc- 
 tor in Divinity gradually advanced from the 
 Arian creed he had. hitherto maintained, into the 
 adoption of pure Socinianism. Reports were 
 eagerly circulated, that on his deathbed he re- 
 nounced these principles and returned to the or- 
 thodox faith. But the rumours seem to have 
 been without foundation. He died suddenly, 
 while journeying, at an inn in Bonnington, Ver- 
 mont, on 2d October, 1842, and was buried in 
 Mount Auburn, where a monument was erected to 
 his memory by his sorrowing people. [R. J.] 
 
 CHANTAL, Jeanne Francoise, Madame 
 De, a distinguished pupil of St. Francis de Sales, 
 and grandmother of Madame de Sevigne^ was 
 born at Dijon, 1572, and married to the Baron de 
 Chantal in 1592, who died eight years afterwards, 
 leaving her with a young family, to whose instruc- 
 
 CITA 
 
 tion, and the performance of charitable offices to 
 the poor, she devoted her life. She is celebrated 
 for having founded, under the advice of De Sales, 
 the order of the Visitation at Annecy in 1610, and 
 such was her zeal and virtues, that she acquired 
 the reputation of a saint among the common peo- 
 ple, and was canonized 1767. She died 1641. 
 In 1660 a volume of ' Letters ' by her was pub- 
 lished, of which a new edition appeared with a 
 life prefixed in 1823. Her other biographers are 
 the Jesuit Fichet, Maupas de la Tour, Father 
 Beaufils, and the Abbes Marsollier and Cordier. 
 (Bioqraphie Universelle.') [E.R.] 
 
 CHANTEREAU, Louis, a Fr. antiq., d. 1658. 
 
 CHANTREAU, P. N., a Fr. gram., 1741-1808. 
 
 CHANTREY, Sir Francis, was born at Norton 
 in Derbyshire, April 7, 1781. He was bound to a 
 carver at Sheffield, but established himself as a 
 modeller in clay, first in Dublin, then in Edinburgh; 
 and finally in London, where he was aided by 
 Nollekens. Chantrey distinguished himself by his 
 sepulchral monuments, and as a sculptor of busts, 
 and experienced a uniformly successful career ; he 
 was elected a Royal Academician in 181c, and was 
 knighted by the queen in 1837. He died on the 
 25th of November, 1841. By the disposition of 
 his property, Sir Francis Chantrey has secured a 
 more prominent place in the history of art in Britain, 
 than his mere reputation as a sculptor would have 
 secured him. He left the reversion of the greater 
 portion of his property to the Royal Academy, for 
 the promotion of British fine art in painting and 
 sculpture, including an annuity of 300 for the 
 president, and 50 for the secretary, payable on 
 the 1st of January of every year. The amount 
 available will be about 2,500 per annum, which 
 after the deduction of the salaries of the president 
 and secretary, will leave upwards of 2,000 to be 
 spent annually, on the average, in the purchase of 
 paintings and sculpture executed within the shores 
 of Great Britain, towards the formation of a British 
 gallery of art. The funds cannot accumulate for 
 more than five years, and no commissions can be 
 given to any artists, all purchases must be bona 
 fide purchases of finished works. (Jones, Recol- 
 lections of Chantrey, 1849 ; Holland, Memorials of 
 Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A., 1851.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CHAO-YONG, a Chinese philosopher, d. 1077. 
 
 CHAPEAUVILLE, J., a theol. wr., 1551-1617. 
 
 CHAPELAIN, John, a Fr. poet, 1595-1674. 
 
 CHAPELAIN, C. J B. Le, a Jesuit, 1710-1779. 
 
 CHAPELLE, C. E. Luil., a poet, 1626-86. 
 
 CHAPMAN, Geo., an Engl, dram., 1557-1634. 
 
 CHAPMAN, JoiiN, an Engl, divine, 1704-1784. 
 
 CHAPONE, Hester Mulso, afterwards Mrs., 
 the celebrated authoress of 'Letters on the Im- 
 provement of the Mind,' was born in Northamp- 
 tonshire 1727, and introduced to her future hus- 
 band by Richardson the novelist. After being 
 married ten months only, she was left a widow in 
 1760, and survived her loss till 1801. A collected 
 edition of her works was published in 2 vols., with 
 a sketch of her life prefixed, in 1807. 
 
 CHAPPE DAUTEROCHE, a celeb. French 
 astronomer, 1722-1769. His nephew, Claude, 
 noted as the discov. of the telegraph, 1763-1805. 
 
 CHAPPEL, Wm., an Irish prelate, to whom 
 the authorship of ' The Whole Duty of Man ' has 
 been imputed, (first published 1657,) died 1649. 
 
 141 
 
cn.\ 
 
 CHAPPLO'W, L., an Oriental schlr., 1G83-17G8. 
 
 CHAPPUIS, Claude, a Fr. poet, d. 1572. 
 
 CHAPTAL, J. A. C, a Fr. chemist, contractor 
 for the supply of gunpowder to the revolutionary 
 government, afterwards one of Napoleon's minis- 
 ters, and count of Chanteloupe, author of works 
 on practical chemistry, 1756-1832. 
 
 CHAPUZEAU, S., a topographical wr., d. 1701. 
 
 CHARDIN, Sir J., an Eastern trav., 1G43-1713. 
 
 CHARETTE DE LA CONTRIE, Fr. Athan- 
 asius De, royalist chief in La Vendee, taken and 
 shot 1796. 
 
 CHARILLUS, a king of Sparta, 8th cent. B.C. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. This illustrious prince, 
 the restorer of order and obedience in a state of 
 society when only the most commanding talents 
 and heroic steadfastness of purpose could have 
 availed him in a struggle against anarchy and 
 ignorance in their worst forms, was the grandson 
 of Charles-Martel, king of the Franks, and lived 
 742-814, master of an empire which embraced all 
 France, a part of Spain, more than half of Italy, 
 and nearly all Germany. To feel his greatness 
 adequately it must be remembered that all the 
 ancient landmarks of social order had been over- 
 thrown with the colossal Roman power, and that 
 the whole civilized world was covered with its 
 ruins and infested with its crimes. The ancient 
 seat of empire was divided among a score of petty 
 tyrants; the Saracens had overrun Spain and 
 threatened the farther west; the northern king- 
 doms were only known as the cradle of adventur- 
 ous armies, whose leaders in after years organized 
 the feudal governments of Europe ; Russia did not 
 even exist ; and England was just emerging from 
 the confusion of the Heptarchy. Some two cen- 
 turies before, 507-511, Clovis had founded the 
 Frankish monarchy and established himself at 
 Paris, but his power was that of an absolute mili- 
 tary chief, and he was succeeded by a line of 
 phantom-kings, whose action is scarcely distin- 
 guishable from that of the barbarous fermentation 
 proceeding around them. At length Pepin-Heris- 
 tal and his son Charles-Martel, slowly paved the 
 way for a new authority, the former by familiariz- 
 ing men's minds witb justice and goodness in the 
 sovereign, and the latter by his heroic resistance 
 
 CHA 
 of the Saracens, and the promise of an 
 
 f)ower in the government. The successes of Ch 
 emagne were the natural issue of these rim 
 stances under the command of his ambition i 
 vast genius, favoured by the compliance of 
 popes; who were willing to encourage a Christ 
 protectorate in the west as a counterpoise to 
 eastern empire of Irene, and the dreaded powe 
 Haroun-al-Raschid. A catalogue of the prii 
 pal events and dates is all that we can give in 
 space to which we are limited. In 7G8 Charles s 
 ceeded to the government conjointly with his I 
 ther Carloman; and on the death of the latte: 
 771, became sole master of France by wisely 
 fusing to divide the authority with his nephe 
 In 770 he subdued the revolt of Aquitaine. 
 772 he marched against the still idolatrous Sax( 
 and commenced a conflict which he maintained 
 upwards of thirty years. In 773 he crossed 
 Alps, and was shortly crowned king of Lombai 
 and acknowledged suzerain of Italy by the pc 
 with the right of confirming the papal eleetk 
 In 778 he carried his arms into Spain, and p 
 sued his victorious career as far as the Ebro, 
 Avas surprised on his return in the pass of Ron( 
 valles, where many of his knights perished, j 
 among the rest Orlando or Roland, his neph 
 the hero of Ariosto. In 780 Louis-le-Debonna 
 his youngest son, was crowned by the pope k 
 of Aquitaine, and Pepin, his second son, kinj 
 Lombardy, both at Rome. Between 780 and ' 
 he visited a terrible retribution upon the Saxc 
 and compelled their chief to accept Christian b 
 tism. Towards 790 we find him establish 
 seminaries of learning, and doing all in his po 
 to elevate the character of the clergy, the mos 
 whom had hitherto known little but the Lo 
 prayer; besides engaging in projects for the 
 celeration of commerce, the general improvem 
 of the people, and the promotion of science, 
 fore the end of the century he had invaded P 
 nonia, and extended his dominions in this direel 
 to the mountains of Bohemia and the Raab. 
 800 he was crowned at Rome emperor of the w( 
 and in 803 was negotiating a union with Irem 
 order to consolidate the eastern and western < 
 pires, when the empress was dethroned and ex 
 by Nicephorus. From this period to his death, wl 
 took place at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the seven ty-f 
 year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his rei 
 he was engaged in fortifying the coasts of Fra 
 against the Northmen, and various matters re 
 ing to the security and the prosperity of the ( 
 pire, including the settlement of the successi 
 In person and manners Charlemagne was 
 perfection of simplicity, modesty, frugality, i 
 m a word, of true greatness ; and though he was 
 much given to the society of women, he had 
 reputation of a good father, a tender husband, j 
 a generous friend. He was indefatigable in all 
 duties of government, and whether in the camj 
 the court, had fixed hours for study, in which he t 
 care to engage his courtiers by forming them i 
 an academy. ' For shame !' he exclaimed, to 
 who came before him attired more elegantly tl 
 the occasion demanded, 'dress yourself "liki 
 man ; and if you would be distinguished, let it 
 by your merits, not by your garments.' 
 nearest friend and companion was the illustri 
 
 142 
 
CIIA 
 
 /Ucuvn, and his fame was so widely spread that 
 he only man, perhaps, of kindred genius in that 
 ge, the great caliph, Haroun-al-Raschid, courted 
 " good-will, and complimented him by an em- 
 assage bearing presents. Befoi-e his death he 
 nfirmed the succession in the person of his son 
 ,ouis, by an august ceremony. Placing the im- 
 erial crown upon the altar, he ordered Louis to 
 ke it with his own hands, that he might under- 
 tand he wore it in his own right, under no autho- 
 rity but that of God. Perhaps we cannot conclude 
 better by way of further illustrating the character 
 bf Charlemagne than -with his words of advice to 
 this prince : ' Love your people as your children,' 
 said he, ' choose your magistrates and governors 
 from those whose belief in God will preserve them 
 from corruption, and see that your own life be 
 blameless.' [E.R.] 
 
 CHARLEMONT, James Catjlfield, earl of, 
 an Irish politician, time of Burke, 1728-1799. 
 
 CHARLES L, king of England, born 1600 ; 
 succeeded his father James I. 1625 ; dissolved his 
 third parliament 1629 ; troubles in Scotland 1637 ; 
 long parliament convened 1640 ; battle of Edge- 
 Hill 1642; defeat of Marston Moor 1644; defeat 
 of Xaseby 1645 ; executed 30th January, 1649. 
 
 [Bible used by Charles I. on the scaffold.] 
 
 CHARLES II., born 1630 ; arrived in Scotland 
 1650 ; crowned at Scone and Carlisle, and after- 
 wards defeated at Worcester 1651 ; restored to the 
 throne 1660 ; war with Holland, Denm., and Fran., 
 1663; execu. of Russell and Sidney 1684; d. 1685. 
 
 CHARLES, 'the Pretender,' grandson of James 
 II., b. 1720; defeated at Culloden 1746; d. 1788. 
 
 CHARLES I., of Germany and France. See 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 CHARLES II., surnamed 'the Bold,' b. 823; 
 kg. of France 840 ; emp. of Germany 875 ; d. 877. 
 
 CHARLES III., king of Suabia 876; king of 
 Italy 879; emperor 880; king of Saxony 882; 
 king of France 884; deposed, and supposed to 
 have been assassinated 887-888. 
 
 CHA RLES IV., born count of La Marche, 1294; 
 king of France and Navarre 1322 ; died 1328. 
 
 CHARLES V., b. 1337; k. of Fr. 1364; d. 1380. 
 
 CHARLES VI., born 1368; king of France 
 1380 ; war with England 1404 ; defeated at Agin- 
 coiirt 1415; treaty with Henry V, and his mar- 
 ria<^ with the French princess 1420 ; died 1422. 
 
 CHARLES VII., born 1403; dauphin 1417; 
 
 CIIA 
 
 sustained a disastrous struggle with the English 
 from the death of his father to the appearance of 
 Jeanne d'Arc 1429 ; ent. Paris as k. 1437 ; d. 1461. 
 
 CHARLES VIIL, b. 1470, k. of Fr. 1482, d. 1498. 
 
 CHARLES IX., son of Henry II. and Catharine 
 de Medici, born 1550 ; king of France 1560 ; civil 
 wars between the catholics and protestants, leading 
 to the massacre of St. Bartholomew 1572 ; d. 1574. 
 
 CHARLES X., grandson of Louis XV., born 
 1757 ; left France soon after the taking; of the Bas- 
 tile 1789 ; succeeded Louis XVIII. 1824 ; dethd. 
 by the revolution of July 1830 ; died 1836. 
 
 CHARLES I., II., and III., of Germanv, same 
 as France. Charles IV., b. 1316, emp. 1347-1378. 
 
 CHARLES V., born 1500 ; succeeded his grand- 
 father, Ferdinand, as king of Spain 1516, and was 
 elected emperor of Germany 1519 ; presided at the 
 diet of Worms 1520 ; sustained a long war with 
 Francis L, whom he took prisoner at the battle of 
 Pavia, 1521-1525 ; abdic. in favour of his son, after 
 years of conflict with the protestant princes of Germ., 
 1556 ; died in the retirement of a convent 1558. 
 
 CHARLES VI., father of Maria Theresa, born 
 1685 ; kg. of Spain 1703 ; emperor 1711 ; d. 1740. 
 
 CHARLES VII., succeeded his father as elector 
 of Bavaria 1726 ; crowned k. of Bohemia and emp. 
 1742 ; defeated by Maria Theresa, and died 1745. 
 
 CHARLES I., king of Navarre, same as Charles 
 IV. of France, successor of his brother Philip V. 
 
 CHARLES II., born 1332, king of Navarre 
 1350 ; d., after losing a part of his kingdom, 1387. 
 
 CHARLES III., son and successor of the pre- 
 ceding, dist. by the surname of ' Noble,' 1387-1425. 
 
 CHARLES I. of Spain, same as Charles V. of 
 Germ., the great contemp. of Fran. I. andHen.VHI. 
 
 CHARLES II., son of Philip IV., born 1661; 
 king of Spain and Naples 1665 ; died 1700. 
 
 CHARLES III., son of Philip V., born 1716 ; 
 proclaimed king of Tuscany 1731, and afterwards 
 king of Naples under the title of Charles VI.; 
 succeeded as king of Spain 1759 ; died 1788. 
 
 CHARLES IV., sue. 1788 ; abdic. 1808 ; d. 1819. 
 
 CHARLES I., k. of Naples and Sicily, 1264-1285. 
 
 CHARLES II., king of Naples only, 1288-1309. 
 
 CHARLES III., succeeded Queen Joan, whom 
 he put to death 1380 ; poisoned after his election 
 to the crown of Hungary, 1386. 
 
 CHARLES I., or VII., king of Sweden, 1161- 
 1168. The six preceding of this name are not 
 known to history, but are given in the partly 
 fabulous and partly invented list of Joannes Mag- 
 nus, and the style has been too long sanctioned 
 by the usage of historians to be altered. 
 
 CHARLES VIIL, elected king 1448, d. 1470. 
 
 CHARLES IX., fourth son of Gustavus Vasa, 
 born 1550 ; king 1604 ; died 1611. 
 
 CHARLES GUSTAVUS X., sue. 1654, d. 1660. 
 
 CHARLES XL, son of the preceding, bom 
 1655, king 1679-97 ; distinguished as a successful 
 opponent of Christiern V. of Denmark, and for 
 his able administration. 
 
 CHARLES the XII. of Sweden came to the 
 throne in a.d. 1697, at the age of fifteen. The 
 rulers of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, despised 
 him as a weak boy, and formed a league for 
 humbling the power of Sweden, and appropriating 
 many of her best provinces. In this crisis the 
 young Swedish king showed a degree of energy 
 and courage that astonished both friends and foes. 
 
 143 
 
CIIA 
 
 lie put himself at the head of his army, invaded 
 Denmark, and besieged Copenhagen. This bold 
 stroke forced the Danish sovereign to beg for 
 peace, and abandon the anti-Swedish confederacy. 
 Charles then turned against his other enemies. 
 On the 30th Nov., 1701, with 8,000 Swedes, he 
 attacked and entirely routed the Russian army of 
 40,000 men at Narva. He then marched across 
 Livonia and Courland into Poland, gained repeated 
 victories over the enemies of his enemy Augustus, 
 (who was elector of Saxony as well as king of 
 Poland,) took Cracow, Warsaw, Dantzig, and 
 other important cities ; and in 1704 compelled the 
 Poles to depose Augustus, and choose Stanislaus 
 Lescinski as their king. Charles then advanced 
 into Saxony, which he occupied with his victorious 
 troops, and forced the elector to beg a peace, the 
 terms of which Charles dictated, (1707.) Charles 
 lingered for some time in Saxony at the head of 
 his army, which amounted to 50,000 veterans. 
 The eves of all Europe were now fixed on him. 
 His numerous victories, his daring and resolute 
 spirit, the bearing and discipline of his troops, filled 
 sovereigns, generals, and statesmen with admi- 
 ration and anxiety. Louis XIV. earnestly implored 
 his assistance against the arms of Marlborough and 
 Eugene; and Marlborough himself undertook a 
 special embassy to the Swedish camp in order to 
 baffle the attempts of the French to win over the 
 hero of the North to their alliance. Charles him- 
 self cherished the most ambitious projects. He 
 was bent., in the first instance, on deposing his 
 enemy, Peter, from the throne of Russia, as he had 
 deposed his other enemy, Augustus, from the 
 Polish throne. One year, he thought, would suffice 
 for the conquest of Russia. He next designed to 
 attack the pope ; and he had despatched officers 
 privately into Asia and Egypt, to survey the 
 towns and military resources of those countries, 
 with the intention of entering on a career of 
 Oriental conquest, so soon as he had subdued 
 his European foes. He marched out of Saxony in 
 the autumn of 1707, and entered the Russian ter- 
 ritory in 1708. He crossed the Berisina in June, 
 defeated a Russian army that was entrenched near 
 that river, and advanced as far as Smolensko, 
 where he gained another victory, (28th Sept., 
 1708.) Instead of marching forward against Mos- 
 cow, Charles now turned to the Ukraine, trusting 
 to the promises of the old Cossack chief Mazeppa, 
 who boasted that he would bring the whole Cos- 
 sack nation over to the cause of Charles, but who 
 was only able to persuade 7,000 men to join the 
 invaders. Charles wintered in the Ukraine ; but 
 he moved forward upon Moscow in the spring of 
 1709, and besieged the city of Pultowa, where the 
 Russians had collected large military stores. < His 
 army had been fearfully reduced by famine, fatigue, 
 and the fatal frosts of Russia, as well as by the 
 numerous skirmishes and actions in which it had 
 been engaged. He had not more than 25,000 men 
 under him at Pultowa, and at least half of them 
 were Cossack and Wallachian recruits. The 
 Russian czar, Peter the Great, advanced to relieve 
 Pultowa with a well-equipped army, 60,000 strong. 
 The decisive battle of Pultowa, fought July 8, 
 1709, between the rival sovereigns, ended in the 
 total defeat of the Swedes. Charles made his 
 escape from the held with difficulty, and sought 
 
 CITA 
 
 refuge in Turkey, where he was hospitably receive 
 and sheltered. He remained there five years 
 during which time his enemies were conquering th 
 best Swedish possessions in Germany and on the eas 
 of the Baltic. At length Charles suddenly lei 
 Turkey, and joined the scanty Swedish bands tha 
 were struggling against the forces of Russir 
 Prussia, Saxony, and Denmark. After seven 
 chequered, though generally unsuccessful cam 
 paigns, Charles met his death before the fortres 
 of Frederiekshall, in Norway, in the winter c 
 1718. He was leaning, at night, on a breast wori 
 watching the operations of the siege by moonlighl 
 under the fire of one of the enemy's batteries, whe 
 a shot struck him on the head, and he died in 
 stantly, in the thirty-seventh year of his life, an 
 the twenty-first of his reign. [E.S.C. 
 
 CHARLES XIII., son of Adolph-Fredericlj 
 bom 1758 ; regent 1792 ; king 1809 ; died 1818. 
 
 CHARLES I., duke of Savov, 1482-1481 
 Chari, II., 1489-1497. Charl. III., 1504-155?! 
 
 CHARLES EMANUEL L, duke of Savoj! 
 made count of Provence by the league, 1580-163( 
 
 CHARLES EMANUEL II., duke 1G38-1675. 
 
 CHARLES EMANUEL III., second king < 
 Sardinia of the house of Savoy, born 1701, sue 
 ceeded 1730, died 1773. 
 
 CHARLES EMANUEL IV., sue. 1796, abdi 
 in favour of his brother Victor, 1802, d. 1819. 
 
 CHARLES FELIX, k. of Sardinia, 1821-183: 
 
 CHARLES ALBERT, prince of Carignan. 
 born 1798; succeeded Charles Felix as king t 
 Sardinia 1831 ; made an attempt to libera* 
 Northern Italy from the Austrians 1848 ; and die] 
 broken-hearted after his abdic, 18th July, 1849.; 
 
 CHARLES LOUIS, count palat. of tlie Rhinj 
 mem. of the league formed agt. France, 1617-168 
 
 CHARLES THEODORE, elect, pal., 1724-177 
 
 CHARLES of France, received the duchy 
 Lorraine from the emperor Otho II., but w. 
 vanquished by Hugh Capet, and died 993. 
 
 CHARLES I., duke of Lorraine, 1371-148J 
 Charles II., called the Great, 1543-160J 
 Charles III., was despoiled of his estates If 
 Louis XIII. 1631, and recovered a part by tM 
 treaties of 1641 and 1659, died 1675. CharliJ 
 IV., a general in the service of Austria, married I 
 the sister of the emperor Leopold, died 169 
 Charles Louis, of Lorraine, arch-duke of Austrij 
 born 1771 ; companion in arms of Prince Cobou-J 
 from 1793 ; commander of the imperial armies <j 
 the Rhine 1796 ; defeated by Buonaparte ail 
 Massena in Italy ; died 1847. 
 
 CHARLETON, Lewis, bp. of Hereford, d. 163l 
 
 CHARLETON, Walter, an English physicM 
 distinguished as a writer of natural history, the! 
 logy, and natural philosophy, died 1707. 
 
 CHARLEVILLE, Charles Wm., earl <j 
 com. of cavalry during the Irish rebel., 1763-1831 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, Pkter Francis Xavier D j 
 a French Jesuit and historian, 1682-1761. 
 
 CHARLOTTE, Augusta, commonly called t'| 
 Princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV. ail 
 Queen Caroline, born 1796; married to Priii 
 Leopold, the present king of the Belgians, 181*1 
 died in childbed, 5th November, 1817. 
 
 CHARNOCK, John, a naval writ., 1756-181 
 
 CHAKNOCK, Stephen, an English 
 istic divine, distinguished for his learning, d. 16fil 
 
 144 
 
cnA 
 
 CHAROBERT, or CHARLES-ROBERT, a 
 ng of Hungary, 14th century. 
 CHARONDAS, a legislator of Gr., 5th c. B.C. 
 CHARPENTIER, Fr., a man of let., 1620-1702. 
 CHARPENTIER, F. P., an engrav., 1734-1817. 
 CHARPENTIER, J., a Fr. philos., 1524-1574. 
 CHARPENTIER, J. F. J.,amineral., 1738-1805. 
 CHARPENTIER, M.A.,a composer, 1634-1702. 
 CHARPENTIER, R., a sculptor, 1680-1723. 
 CHARRERIE, Madame De St. Hyacinthe, 
 novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1806. 
 CHARRIER, M. A., a royalist leader of the 
 surgents of Lozere, executed 1793. 
 CHARRON, Peter, a French moralist and 
 eologian, author of a book famous in its day, en- 
 vied a ' Treatise on Wisdom,' &c, 1541-1603. 
 CHARTIER, Alain, a French poet and prose 
 riter, ' the father of Fr. eloquence,' 1386-1458. 
 CHARTIER, R., a Fr. Orientalist, 1572-1654. 
 CHASLES, F. J., a French author, last cent. 
 CHASLES, Greg. De, a Fr. author, d. 1720. 
 CHASSENEUX, Barth. De, a writer on civil 
 w, eminent for his conduct as president of the 
 irliament of Provence, when it was in his power 
 delay the decree against the Vaudois, 1480-1541. 
 CHASSIGNET, J. B., a French poet, 1578-1621. 
 CHASTELARD, P. De Bocosle De, a French 
 ntleman surprised in the bed-room of Mary 
 uart, and beheaded on a charge of treason. 
 CHASTELER, J. G., marquis of, an Austrian 
 neral, finally governor of Venice, 1763-1820. 
 CHASTELET, G. E. De Bretetjil, marchion- 
 s of, translator of Leibnitz and Newton into 
 ench, 1706-1749. 
 
 CHASTELET, Paul Der Hay, lord of, a Fr. 
 St., and min. of state under Richelieu, 1593-1636. 
 CHASTELLUX, Francis John, marquis of, 
 marshal of France, and member of the French 
 cademv, dist. in Germ, and America, 1734-1788. 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Auguste, 
 icomte De, was born in Brittany, of an ancient 
 mily, in 1769. At the age of seventeen he was 
 moved from home to enter the army; but, his 
 giment revolting, he retired from the service; 
 id after several of his relations had been executed 
 the reign of terror, he emigrated, returning only 
 r a short time to serve in the invasion attempted 
 ' the emigrants under Conde\ For several years 
 : resided chiefly in England, paying, however, a 
 sit to the United States, in the course of which 
 i dreamt of discovering the North-west Passage, 
 id gathered among the red men materials for 
 lie Natchez' and 'Atala.' In this period he 
 iblished his 'Essay on Revolutions,' in which 
 ere were expressed a good many opinions speedily 
 andoned by their writer, as conceding too much 
 the spirit of the age. In 1799, when Buona- 
 trte had overthrown the directory, Chateaubriand 
 turned to France. In 1802 he became one of 
 e most celebrated authors in Europe, by the pub- 
 ation of his ' Genius of Christianity,' (' Genie du 
 iristianisme,') a work which is in every way in 
 
 cnA 
 
 taste as to be repelled by its excessive pomp of 
 ornament. It records, with seeming method, but 
 real desultoriness, and with dazzling force of re- 
 presentation, the reflections, and pictures, and 
 emotions, arising in the mind of a man who, 
 though he did not think either profoundly or ex- 
 actly, possessed a singular fulness of imagination, 
 and was animated by a fervent spirit of religious 
 reverence. Religion, however, interests Chateau- 
 briand most keenly when it is regarded in its rela- 
 tions to literature and art. He exhibits here the 
 same incapacity to apprehend practical realities, 
 which afterwards distinguished nis political writ- 
 ings, and his course of political action : and the ro- 
 mantic turn of his elaborate treatise on sacred 
 things is illustrated by the fact, that there was in- 
 troduced into it as an episode the Indian tale of 
 'Atala,' subsequently separated from it and re- 
 ceiving the tale of ' Rend as a supplement. The 
 'Genie du Christianisme,' like all the author's 
 other works, is eloquent ; but its eloquence is arti- 
 ficial, theatrical, and monstrously strained. It 
 is often pathetic ; but its pathos continually tends 
 to degenerate into mawkish sentimentality. Such 
 as it is, however, the ambitious effort displayed an 
 animation and warmth which, breaking in on the 
 recent deadness of French literature, excited uni- 
 versal attention and admiration. The views 
 which the work expressed were likewise in 
 accordance with the ecclesiastical policy of the 
 new ruler of France ; and the imposing character 
 of Napoleon made a vivid impression on Chateau- 
 briand's excitable fancy. He immediately entered 
 the service of the first consul in the diplomatic de- 
 partment. In 1803 he visited Rome as secretary to 
 Cardinal Fesch. He had very soon an opportunity 
 of exercising that courageous integrity by which 
 he was always so honourably distinguished. He 
 had just been appointed minister to the Valais, 
 when, in the spring of 1804, Napoleon sullied his 
 name by the execution of the Duke D'Enghien. 
 Chateaubriand instantly resigned his place, forfeit- 
 ing, of course, all claims to favour under the em- 
 pire. In 1806 he set out on those travels to the 
 East, which are recorded in his 'Itinerary from 
 Paris to Jerusalem.' Now likewise he added an- 
 other imaginative illustration to his 'Gdnie,' by 
 publishing ' The Martyrs,' a Christian romance of 
 the Roman empire. Afterwards, returning to 
 France, he took no part in public affairs till the 
 fall of Napoleon. In 1814, while the disposal of 
 the sovereignty of France remained doubtful, he 
 wrote his famous pamphlet, ' Of Buonaparte and 
 the Bourbons.' It is generally allowed that this 
 well-timed appeal did much in diminishing the 
 unpopularity which Louis XVIII. had incurred, 
 by using the arms of foreigners in the recovery of 
 his crown. During the Hundred Days Chateau- 
 briand attended the king at Ghent, and acted as 
 his foreign minister. After the battle of Waterloo, 
 he received a seat in the Chamber of Peers, and 
 a nominal appointment as a minister of state. 
 
 ructively characteristic both of his merits and I But he held no actual office under the ultra royalist 
 s defects. It has no value either theological or ministry, which was the first after the restoration. 
 
 iilosophical, even for those who regard Christi 
 ijty, as the writer did, from the Roman Catholic 
 lint of view. But it is a work possessing great 
 tractions for those readers who can sympathize 
 ith its tone of feeling, and who are not so severe in 
 
 He came into place with the more liberal adminis- 
 tration of Villele. In 1821 he was ambassador in 
 London. In 1822 he was one of the two plenipoten- 
 tiaries of France at the Congress of Verona ; and 
 in his History of it he claims the credit of having 
 
 115 
 
CHA 
 
 been the real instigator of the French invasion of 
 Spain. Next year he had, as minister of foreign 
 affairs, the satisfaction of directing the ill-advised 
 expedition undertaken in consequence of that reso- 
 lution of the Congress. He remained in private 
 life during the arbitrary reign of Charles X., ex- 
 cepting that, in 1828, he was appointed ambassa- 
 dor to Rome, but resigned immediately when Po- 
 lignac was placed at the head of the administra- 
 tion. On the revolution of 1830, Chateaubriand 
 delivered in the Chamber of Peers an oration, in 
 which he advocated strongly, but by no means on 
 high monarchical grounds, the claim of the Duke 
 of Bourdeaux to the throne. This was his last ap- 
 
 Pearanee in public life. On the election of Louis 
 hilippe, he refused to take the oaths, resigned 
 even his pension as a peer, and occupied himself 
 thenceforth in literary labom-s. These were now 
 necessary for his support, his whole property hav- 
 ing been spent. Most of his writings during this 
 period of declining age, such as his ' Sketches of 
 English Literature,' are of small value. His chief 
 employment was the composition or completion of 
 his voluminous ' Memoirs from Beyond the Tomb,' 
 (' Memoires d' Outre Tombe ;') and the right of 
 publishing these after his death was sold by him 
 for a large life annuity. They exhibit an amount 
 of vanity and egotism almost unparalleled; but 
 they are full of interesting details, and have very 
 much of his peculiar kind of eloquence.- Chateau- 
 briand died at Paris in the summer of 1848, when 
 he had almost completed his eightieth year. PW.S.] 
 
 [Tomb of Chateaubriand, at St. Malo.J 
 
 CHATEAUBRIANT, J. B. V. De, a dramatic 
 poet, member of the French Academy, 1686-1775. 
 
 CHATEAUNEUF-RANDON, Count De, a Fr. 
 deputy, afterw. gen. under the directory, d. 1816. 
 
 CHATEAU-REGNAUD, Fran. Louis Rous- 
 selet, count of, a French admiral, 1637-1716. 
 
 CHATEL, Fr. Du, a Flemish painter, 16th ct. 
 
 CHATEL, Peter Du, a Fr. prelate, eel. as a 
 Greek scholar and controversial writer, d. 1552. 
 
 CHATEL, Tanneguy Du, a Fr. gen., d. 1449. 
 
 CHATELAIN, J. Le, a monk, burnt alive, 1525. 
 
 CHATELLARD, J. J., a mathem., 1693-1757. 
 
 CHATHAM, William Pitt, earl of, was the 
 second son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc, in Corn- 
 wall, where he was born on 15th November, 1708. 
 His family was extensively connected with the 
 higher English country gentry, and his grandfather, 
 
 CHA 
 
 William Pitt, governor of Madras, was the owne 
 of the celebrated Pitt diamond. Young Pit 
 studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and on leaving 
 the university he obtained a cornetcy in the Blues 
 Walpole afterwards, following his relent 
 tern of party warfare, deprived him of his com- 
 mission. Perhaps this act entirely altered 
 destinies, since he possessed qualities that, had hi 
 remained long enough in the army to have felt ai 
 interest in his profession, might have developed 
 great powers of military command. He enteret 
 parliament for the family borough of Old Sarum. 
 in 1736. He immediately joined the opposition, 
 which placed the name of the Prince of Wales I 
 its head. The most eminent of his early speeches 
 were delivered in that last effective attack on Wal- 
 pole, which, in 1742, drove him from power. 
 They are said to have been brilliant and astound- 
 ing efforts of oratory, but the usual versions ol 
 them are so steeped in the antithetic mannerism 
 of Johnson, who professed to report them for th 
 ' Gentleman's Magazine,' that it is impossible tc 
 know how far they are genuine ; while other re- 
 ports, professing to be verbatim, do not justify the 
 high reputation of these earlier efforts. His oppo- 
 sition to the government did not cease with the fal] 
 of Walpole. His bold declamation, so much in con- 
 trast with the personal and narrow party discussions 
 which then occupied parliament, drew a substanJ 
 tial token of admiration from a kindred spirit, Sa-| 
 rah, duchess of Marlborough, who bequeatheci 
 him 10,000. On the other hand, the king hat 
 a thorough dislike to him, as a person whose oppo 
 sition was not of that usual kind which mereh 
 tries to remove a ministry and occupy their place 
 but which aimed at a political power independen 
 of, if not above, the throne. The Pelhams, how 
 ever, saw the great importance of adding hi 
 strength to their ministry, and in 1746 the kin; 
 unwillingly submitted to his appointment first tl 
 a subordinate place, and immediately after to th 
 lucrative office of paymaster-general. The sam 
 haughty self-reliance which he had shown i 
 opposition distinguished him in office, and it serve 
 to restrain him from drawing on those man 
 sources of irregular emolument which were the- 
 attached to official power. His marriage, in 175' 
 with the sister of George Grenville, opened to hiijj 
 a new political connection. In 1755, he was fl 
 missed, along with his brother-in-law, but in ti : 
 ensuing year it was found necessary to bring ther, 
 both back to a cabinet of which Pitt was virtual! 
 the head. In 1757, an attempt was again macH 
 to dispense with the services of the ' great con' 
 moner,' but after the country was two months ar';| 
 a-half without a government, he returned wil 
 greater power than ever. It was then that, backc 
 by national enthusiasm, he conducted the brilliai 
 operations which paralyzed France and drove h 
 fleets from almost every sea. On the accession ; 
 George IILhe was superseded by the royal favourit 
 Lord Bute. Various overtures were made to him i\ 
 join or form a ministry, and in 1766 he undcrtwr-f 
 the latter function, choosing, to the surprise fl 
 the world, a sinecure place for himself, and a se 
 in the upper house. Repeated attacks of gov| 
 from an early period of life downwards, had b^> 
 jured both his constitution and temper. I 
 resigned office in 1768. Opposed to the taxati< 
 
 146 
 
CHA 
 
 ,f America, he was, on the other hand, indignant 
 it the proposed abandonment of the colonies, ana 
 t was while exhorting the House of Lords against 
 he measure that he was seized with a fit from 
 rhich he never recovered, dying in a month after- 
 rards, on the 11th cf May, 1778. [J.H.B.] 
 
 CHA 
 
 conduct. He extorted a release from his master 
 before he had served him for three years ; and im- 
 mediately sought and found literary employment 
 in London, busying himself chiefly with political 
 and satirical writings. A very few months of toil, 
 ill remunerated, and disappointments in his ex- 
 pectation of patronage from the great, drove his 
 undisciplined mind to despair. He became indi- 
 gent to the verge of starvation, and poisoned him- 
 self in August 1770, when he wanted some weeks 
 of completing his eighteenth year. [W.S.] 
 
 [Holwood House, the residence of the Earl of Chatham.] 
 
 CHATHAM, John, earl of, eldest son of the 
 *L statesm., and brother of Wm. Pitt, 1756-1835. 
 CHATILLON, G. De, a Fr. captain, d. 1210. 
 CHATILLON,G. De, constab. of Fr., 1249-1329. 
 CHATILLON, L. De, a Fr. enam., 1639-1734. 
 CHATILLON, N. De, a Fr. arch., 1549-1616. 
 CHATRE, Claude, Baron De La, a Fr. mar- 
 hal, gov. of Berry, under Charles IX., 1526-1614. 
 CHATRE-NANCAY, the Count De La, a 
 nilitary officer of France, au. of Memoirs, d. 1645. 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas, born at Bristol in 
 752, was the son of a poor schoolmaster, who 
 ied a little before his birth. After having spent 
 years in a charity school, he was articled to 
 n attorney in his fifteenth year. He was not 
 uite sixteen when he published in a Bristol news- 
 aper the first of his extraordinary forgeries, being 
 n account of an ancient procession, which, on 
 eing questioned, he alleged to have been found in 
 charter-room of the church of St. Mary Red- 
 - i. He next exhibited specimens of old poetry, 
 /hich he asserted were written in the fifteenth cen- 
 by a priest named Thomas Rowley. At the 
 time, pieces, both in prose and verse, which were 
 edly his own, appeared in London magazines; 
 these, by their singular force and originality, 
 nowed him to be quite capable of having concocted 
 ie supposed antiques. Indeed, wonderful as was, 
 l the circumstances, the antiquarian and other 
 oowledge which he wasted on his impostures, 
 leir spuriousness was at once evident to the few 
 ho were competently familiar with the Old Eng- 
 sh language and history. The poet Gray, and his 
 iend Mason, unhesitatingly denounced the impo- 
 ii, when some of the poems were sent to them 
 Horace Walpole. The best imitation of the 
 ique, is perhaps the minstrel's song inserted in 
 e tragedy of Ella ; but eveiy where there is evi- 
 nce of genius which, if it had been guided by 
 d intention, and fostered by mature study, 
 lid certainly have given birth to poetical mas- 
 ieces. But perversity of principle was mam- 
 boy' 
 
 ilike in the unhappy boy's writings, and in his 
 
 [Charter Boom, St. Mary Bedcliffe, Bristol.] 
 
 CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father of English 
 poetry, lived in the fourteenth century, one of those 
 periods which are most important and interesting, 
 both for the history of the nation and for that of 
 our native literature. The sovereigns of England 
 in his time were Edward III. and Richard II.; 
 Wickliffe, his contemporary, to whose opinions, in re- 
 gard to ecclesiastical polity, Chaucer was inclined 
 through his connections at court, was beginning to 
 undermine the rule of the Church of Rome ; the 
 language of the people was now, for the first time, 
 so far developed as to be a fit organ for literary 
 composition, both in prose and verse ; and, while 
 the romances and other poems of France were still 
 the favourite models of poetry, higher aims and 
 greater correctness of execution were taught by 
 the Italian masterpieces of Dante, Petrarch, and 
 Boccaccio. Nothing is known as to Chaucer's 
 parentage, and hardly anything as to the events of 
 nis youth. He was born about 1328, probably in 
 London, and is said to have been educated at both 
 universities, and to have also studied law. Very 
 early he obtained public employment, attaching 
 himself to Edward s son, John of Gaunt, ' time- 
 honoured Lancaster.' The second wife of this 
 f)rince, who had already been his mistress, is be- 
 ieved to have been the sister of Chaucer's wife. 
 In 1359 the poet served, and was taken prisoner, 
 in the king's invasion of France ; and besides dis- 
 charging other foreign missions, he was sent to 
 Genoa in 1373, a journey which is supposed to 
 have given him an interview with Petrarch. 
 Among other offices which he held in the course 
 of this reign, was the comptrollership of customs in 
 the port of London ; and a pension, with a grant 
 of a daily pitcher of wine, has been erroneously 
 referred to as constituting an appointment as poet- 
 laureate. He likewise received a house in the 
 royal demesne of Woodstock ; and there most of 
 
 147 
 
CHA 
 
 his later works are traditionally said to liave been 
 composed. In the disturbances which arose after 
 1377, when the feeble Richard II. succeeded to 
 the throne, Chaucer was implicated; and he is 
 said, on doubtful authority, to have been at one 
 time a fugitive to the continent, and at another 
 a prisoner in the Tower. In 1386, however, he 
 was knight of the shire for Kent. He died in 
 London in 1400, soon after the accession of Henry 
 IV., the son of his early patron. One of his sons 
 became speaker of the House of Commons, and 
 the other married a daughter of the ducal house of 
 De La Pole. Chaucer deserves commemoration 
 as one of the very earliest of those who wrote 
 prose in a language which can properly be called 
 English. But his compositions of this sort have 
 little value for any but the philologer. His 
 minor poems, also, although they would secure his 
 name from neglect, would cause him to be remem- 
 bered only as one of those who improved most 
 actively a kind of poetry, borrowed m the main 
 from the allegoric and chivalrous fancies of the 
 French, and cultivated for several generations be- 
 fore his time. Some of his works are free transla- 
 tions, or loose abridgments. Such are the ' Ro- 
 mance of the Rose,' from the French ; the ' Troilus 
 and Cressida,' from the Italian of Boccaccio ; ' and 
 1 The Legend of Good Women,' derived from the 
 epistles of Ovid. Among his original poems, 
 1 The House of Fame,' and The Flower and the 
 Leaf,' are very fine in themselves, and have re- 
 ceived injury, not improvement, in the modernized 
 paraphrases of Pope and Dryden. Chaucer's 
 claim to immortality, as one of the greatest of 
 English poets, and as a poet essentially and strik- 
 ingly original in spite of many borrowings in de- 
 tail, rests on his ' Canterbury Tales.' These are 
 currently said to have been all written after the 
 poet's sixtieth year. But there is reason for sus- 
 pecting that many of the pieces may have been 
 composed before ; and that we are not entitled to 
 assign peremptorily to his old age anything be- 
 
 [Tomb of Chaucer ] 
 
 yond the collection of the stories into a series, and 
 the writing of that introduction to them which is 
 certainly the best part of the work. This intro- 
 duction is described as the Prologue. It relates 
 how a band of pilgrims, bound for the shrine of 
 Saint Thomas a Beckett at Canterbury, meet at 
 the inn of the Tabard in Southwark; and how 
 
 118 
 
 CHA 
 
 they agree to relieve the weariness of the way h] 
 the telling of stories. The portraits of the pil- 
 grims are among the most admirable things in tb< 
 whole range of poetry : they are equally good foi 
 their delineation of character, for their variety anc 
 depth of serious sentiment and arch humour, anc 
 for a pointed strength and aptness of languaa 
 which, antiquated though the diction is, may & 
 understood by every well-educated reader witl 
 very little study. Similar excellencies belong t< 
 the Tales which follow, and which, breaking of 
 abruptly, leave us to suppose that the design wai 
 not more than half completed. The humorous talei 
 are coarse and sometimes immoral, yet felicitously 
 humorous : some of the serious ones are in even 
 way beautiful. The ' Knight's Tale,' telling ii 
 chivalrous guise the adventures of the Greel 
 knights Palamon and Arcite, has aptly been callec 
 the Iliad of Old English literature. ' [W.S.' 
 CHAUDET, A. D., a Fr. sculptor, 1763-1810." 
 CHAUDON, L. M., a Fr. ecclesiastic, author o: 
 historical and chronological works, 1737-1817. 
 
 CHAUFFEPIE, J. G. De, a Calvinist mini* 
 ter, and historical and critical writer, 1702-1786. 
 CHAUFOURRIER, J., a Fr. paint., 1672-1757 
 CHAULIEU, W. A. De, a Fr. poet, 1639-1720 
 CHAULNES, Honore D' Albert, Duke De 
 marshal of France, and favourite of Louis XIII. 
 died 1649. His son, Louis, an ambassador, 1625! 
 1698. A later inheritor of the title, distinguishe 
 as a mathematician and naturalist, 1714-1769 ; ami 
 .his son and successor as a chemist, 1741-1793. I 
 CHAUMETTE, Pierre Gaspard, one of th 
 vilest scoundrels by whom the French peopl 
 were maddened in the period between 1789 an] 
 1794, was the son of a shoemaker, and before hi! 
 advent as a street orator and journalist, had roj 
 through a career which seems to have perfectej 
 him for every species of villany, as a cabin-boy, j 
 schoolmaster, a lawyer's clerk, and a novice in ] 
 convent. He was bom in 1765, and began h| 
 public career in one of the low clubs. In 1789 l| 
 edited a journal entitled 'Les Revolutions d<J 
 Paris.' In 1792 he was elected ' procureur-syi| 
 die,' or attorney, for the commune of Paris, c 
 which occasion he formally renounced his chrl 
 tian name, and declared that he took that of Ai 
 axagoras, ' a saint who had heen hung for his r. 
 publicanism.' He was the virtual chief of tl 
 ' He'bertists,' the inventor of the Feast of Reaso 
 and the high priest who officiated at the worsh 
 of the demoiselle Candeille in the cathedral 
 Notre Dame. His brutal character may be judg 
 from the fact that he presented the prince dauplb 
 with the model of a guillotine for a plaything, ai 
 that the revolting questions put by Hebert to i 
 queen originated in nis obscene imagination. F. 
 features were abject, yet marked by insolence ; ai 
 his style of address, to judge from the specime 
 which have been preserved, was characterized 
 the vulgarest claptrap, and insolent use of ape 
 trophe. There is reason to believe that he plotted i 
 the destruction of the entire body of the conve 
 tion along with that of the Girondins. It becai 
 his boast that ' he knew the suspect in the stre< 
 by the very face of them.' The prisons of Pa 
 were filled with his victims, and the violence a 
 immorality of his party were so extreme, that t. 
 Committee of Public Safety could not be insej? 
 
CHA 
 
 ( tlble to the danger which threatened the republic 
 i I From this quarter. Robespierre watched his op- 
 portunity, and these wretched panderers to the 
 Inirst vices of the people were sent to the guillo- 
 i' 'ine on the 24th of March, 1794. [E.R.] 
 
 i CHAUMONT, P. P., a Fr. ecclesias., d. 1697. 
 < CHAUNCEY, Ch., D.D., a relig. au., 1705-87. 
 j CHAUNCEY, Sir Hen., the well-known hist. 
 jlf Hertfordshire, knighted by Char. II., 1632-1700. 
 ' CHAUSSE, M. A. De La, a Fr. archae., d. 1724. 
 I ! CHAUSSEE, P. A. Nivelle De La, a French 
 (Iramatist and member of the academy, 1692-1754. 
 I CHAUVELIN, G. L. De, a French statesman 
 i hi the confidence of Cardinal Fleury, 1685-1762. 
 IF. Claude, his son, lieutenant-general in the 
 jirmy, and ambassador to Italy, died 1774. Ber- 
 nard Francis, son of the last named, a diplo- 
 loatist of the revolution, 1766-1832. 
 | CHEDORLAOMER, a king of the Elamites, 
 [upposed to be the ancient Persians, or a neigh- 
 pouring people, about 2000 B.C. 
 
 CHEHAB-EDDYN, an Arab, histor., 1300-67. 
 ! CHEKE, Sir John, a Greek scholar and states- 
 nan, exiled as an adherent of Lady Jane Grey, 
 llfterwards confessed Catholicism, 1514-1557. 
 if CHEMCOTTE, Alex., a Swed. Orien., d. 1835. 
 
 CHEMIR, M. J., a Fr. dramatist, died 1811. 
 j CHENIER, M. A., a French poet, 1763-1794. 
 I CHENIER, M. J., a Fr. dram, poet, 1764-1811. 
 
 CHEOPS, the remit, build, of the great pyramid. 
 
 CHE RUBIN, a Fr. astron. and math., 17th ct. 
 
 CHERUBINI, Luigi Carlo Zenobio Sal- 
 1 1'ATOR, founder of the French Conservatory and 
 : pstructor of thousands of eminent musicians, was 
 torn at Florence on the 8th of September, 1760. 
 i He commenced his musical studies at nine years of 
 Ige, first under Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, 
 father and son, and afterwards under Bizarri Cas- 
 rucci, and last under Sarti at Bologna, _ from 
 khom he derived the greatest benefit. At thirteen 
 tears of age he wrote a mass which gave ample 
 promise of his future eminence as a composer. 
 I^rom this time till 1778 he wrote a great number 
 pf works in various styles, and all successful, 
 puring the time he was a pupil at Bologna, some 
 ')f Sarti's most celebrated operas were produced, 
 ind two of these, 'Achille in Sciro,' and 'Giulio 
 pabino,' were afterwards acknowledged to have 
 |)een almost entirely from the pen of Cherubini. 
 In 1784 Cherubini came to the Italian Opera at 
 London, where he remained two years, and pro- 
 lluced his operas ' La Finta Principessa,' and a re- 
 written version of his 'Giulio Sabino,' both of 
 Which were successful. In 1786 he went to Paris, 
 Which became thereafter his adopted country. In 
 1788 he visited his native country and produced his 
 [Iphigenia in Aulida.' He never went to Italy 
 Soon after this he brought out his 'De- 
 Jnophoon' in Paris, which from various causes 
 proved a failure. In 1791 Cherubini brought out 
 lis opera of 'Lodoiska' at the Theatre Feydeau, 
 which, though it established his reputation as afirst- 
 ate composer, was, however, swamped by Kreut- 
 ser's more popular opera of the same name. In 
 L794 he brought out ' Eliza,' in 1797 ' Medea,' in 
 L798 ' T Hotellerie Portuguese,' in 1800 Les Deux 
 Journees,' in 1803 'Anacreon,' and in 1804 his 
 jallet 'Achille a. Scyros.' His fame, which had 
 low spread far and wide, led to an invitation to 
 
 149 
 
 CHE 
 
 Germany, whither he went in 1805, and produced 
 his opera ' Faniska' at the Imperial Theatre of 
 Vienna. During his sojourn all his most favourite 
 works were brought out, and became quite the 
 fashion with the German people, and tne great 
 musician of Germany, Beethoven, when he heard 
 the ' Faniska,' said Cherubini was the first dramatic 
 composer of his time, and Haydn embraced him, 
 and called him his son. In 1809, having returned 
 to Paris, he produced his opera of ' Pygmalion,' in 
 1810 ' Le Crescendo,' in 1813 ' Les Abencerrages,' 
 the promising career of which was shortened by 
 the news of Buonaparte's retreat from Moscow. In 
 1815 Cherubini was invited by the Philharmonic 
 Society to come to London, which invitation he 
 accepted, and composed an overture, a symphony, 
 and a grand concerted vocal piece, all of which 
 were performed under his own direction in the con- 
 certs of that society. On his return to Paris, the 
 dynastic and musical changes had so materially 
 affected the position and prospects of Cherubini, 
 who was of far too independent a temperament to 
 become a courtier, that he retired from some of his 
 situations in disgust. He was, however, soon re- 
 called, and was appointed composer to the king's 
 chapel and professor of composition at the L'Ecole 
 Royale, (of which institution, in 1822, he was ap- 
 pointed director,) and was elected a member of the 
 Academy of the Fine Arts. These appointments 
 were considered all the more honourable to Cheru- 
 bini, as he had never condescended to become a 
 flatterer of royalty, and as because of the indepen- 
 dence of his character he had received insults and 
 
 indignities from Napoleon. In 1833 he comj 
 his grand opera ' Ah Baba,' which was well received 
 in France, but did not long keep the stage. In 
 1835, in consequence of the ecclesiastical authori- 
 ties having forbidden the employment of female 
 voices in the service of the church, it was impos- 
 sible that Cherubini's grand requiem could be per- 
 formed at the funeral of Boildieu. He then, at 
 the advanced age of seventy-six, undertook to com- 
 
 {)ose a requiem for male voices only, which was his 
 ast composition, and was chosen as the one which 
 should be performed at his funeral obsequies. 
 Shortly before his death, he resigned the office of 
 Principal of the Conservatory of Music, of which 
 establishment he had been the head for twenty 
 years, and with which he was connected for forty- 
 eight years ; and a month before his demise, which 
 took place on the 15th of March, 1842, he was in- 
 vested with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. 
 Cherubini's fame as a composer of instrumental 
 and operatic music is world-wide, but his reputa- . 
 tion with future ages will rest chiefly on his sacred 
 compositions. Cherubini was a good man, as he 
 was a great artist. Thoroughly Independent, he 
 spoke fearlessly as he felt, and he was loved and 
 venerated by his pupils and all who belonged to the 
 large circle of his friends. [J.M.I 
 
 CHESELDEN, R., an English surgeon, d. 1831. 
 CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- 
 hope, earl of, son of the third earl, was born in 
 1694. After studying in his youth with a zeal of 
 which afterwards he thought proper to be 
 ashamed, he learned on the continent his polished 
 smoothness of manners, his love of gaming, and 
 his loose code of morality. He entered public life 
 in 1715, soon after the accession of George I. In 
 
CHE 
 
 the course of this reign he distinguished himself in 
 the House of Commons as an exceedingly skilful 
 and effective debater ; and he supported his repu- 
 tation when his father's death transferred him to 
 the House of Lords, shortly before the prince of 
 Wales, to whose party and household he had be- 
 longed, succeeded to the throne as George II. 
 From this time till 1748, when deafness and other 
 infirmities compelled him to retire from public 
 life, Lord Chesterfield took an active part in the 
 petty intrigues and party squabbles which make up 
 the parliamentary and court history of the reign. 
 His diplomatic skill was made useful in two 
 foreign embassies; and his lord-lieutenancy in 
 Ireland, beginning in 1745 and lasting only a few 
 months, has always been mentioned with distin- 
 guished praise. After a sickly and melancholy 
 period of old age, he died in 1773. The only writ- 
 ings of this accomplished person that are at all 
 remembered, are his ' Letters ' to his natural son, 
 remarkable for their ease of style and their know- 
 ledge of society, but notoriously reprehensible for the 
 principles of conduct which they inculcate. [W. S.l 
 
 CHETARDIE, Marquis De La, a French 
 diplomatist, ambassador to Russia, 1705-1758. 
 
 CHETHAM, Humphrey, the eel. fhdr. of the 
 college and public library of Manchester, d. 1653. 
 
 CHEVALIER, A. R., a Fr. Hebraist, 1507-72. 
 
 CHEVALIER, F., a Fr. historian, 1705-1808. 
 
 CHEVALIER, J., a Latin poet, 1587-1644. 
 
 CHEVILLIER, And., a French antiq., d. 1700. 
 
 CHEVREUSE, Madame De Rohan-Mont- 
 bazon, Duchess De, a court beauty, and political 
 intriguante of the time of Richelieu, 1600-1679. 
 
 CHEYNE, George, a Scotch physician, and 
 author of works on disease, diet, &c, 1661-1743. 
 
 CHEZY, A., a French engineer, 1718-1798. 
 
 CHIABRERA, Gabriel, a lyric poet and dra- 
 matist, surnamed the Italian Pindar, 1552-1637. 
 
 CHIARAMONTI, S., an Ital. hist., 1565-1652. 
 
 CHIARI, Fab., an Italian painter, 1621-1695. 
 
 CHIARI, J., a Roman painter, 1654-1727. 
 
 CHIARI, Pietro, a comic poet, 1720-1788. 
 
 CHICHELEY, Hex., an Eng. schol. and states- 
 man, at length archbp. of Canterbury, 1362-1443. 
 
 CHICOYNEAU, F., a French physician and wr. 
 on the plague of Marseilles, 1672-1752. 
 
 CHIERICATO, J. M., an It. theol., 1633-1717. 
 
 CHIESA, Silv., an Italian painter, 1623-1657. 
 
 CHILD, Sir Jos., a merchant of London, known 
 as a wr. on political economy and trade, 1630-1699. 
 
 CHILD, Wm., an English composer, 1607-1697. 
 
 CHILDEBERT, the first of this name k. of Fr., 
 511-558 ; the second 575-596 ; the third 695-711. 
 
 CHILDEBRAND, a brother of Charles Martel, 
 and his comp. in arms against the Saracens, 8th c 
 
 CHILDERIC, thejirst of this name, k. of France, 
 457-481 ; the second 656-673 ; the third 742-755. 
 
 CHILDREY, Josh., a nat. phil., 1623-1670. 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH, Wm., an Eng. theologian, 
 (listing, for his controversial ability, 1602-1644. 
 
 CHILMEAD, E., a wr. on music, 1616-1653. 
 
 CHILO, one of the seven Gr. sages, 6th c. b.c. 
 
 CHILPERIC I., prince of Soissons and Paris, 
 the youngest of the sons of Clothaire L, 561-584. 
 
 CHILPERIC II., conq. by Ch. Martel, 715-720. 
 
 CHISHULL, Edm., an Eng. antiq., 1580-1633. 
 
 CHI-TSONG, emperor of China, 1507-1566. 
 
 CHI-TSOU, otherwise Koublai-Khan, grand- 
 
 CHR 
 
 son of Gengis-Khan, a celebrated Mogul empero 
 who reunited China to his dominions, 1214-94. 
 
 CHITTY, Jos., an English lawyer, 1776-1841. 
 
 CHOISEUL, Stephen Francis, Duke De 
 minister of state to Louis XV., by whom he wa 
 dismis. under the influence of Du Barry, 1719-1785 
 
 CHOISI, Fr., Abbe De, a Fr. hist, 1644-1724 
 
 CHOPART, F., a Fr. wr. on surg., 1750-1795 
 
 CHOPIN, Fred., a Polish composer, d. 1849. 
 
 CHOPIN, R., a Flemish priest, 1537-1606. 
 
 CHORIS, Louis, a Russian painter, 1795-182? 
 
 ^ CHOSROES, or KHOSROU I., king of Persia 
 
 died in prison after ravaging Asia Minor, 531-563 
 
 CHOSROES II., grandson of the prec, 590-628 
 
 CHOUL, Wm. Du, a French antiquarian, 16th c 
 
 CHRETIEN, Florent, a Fr. poet, 1541-159( 
 
 CHRETIEN, G. L., aFr. wr. onmus., 1783-1811 
 
 CHRIST, J. F., an art-writer, 1700-1756. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, C, a gem engraver, 1695-1725. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, E., an English lawyer, d. 1823. 
 
 CHRISTIERN I., born 1425 ; succeeded as kin 
 of Denmark 1448 ; king of Norway 1450 ; king c 
 Sweden 1456 ; died 1481. 
 
 CHRISTIERN II., surnamed the Cruel, bor 
 1480 ; succeeded as king of Denmark and Norwa 
 1513 ; king of Sweden 1520 ; defeated by Gustavr 
 Vasa, and d. after many years' imprisonm., 1559 ; 
 
 CHRISTIERN III., king of Denmark only, bor 
 1503 ; succeeded his father, Frederic I., but had t 
 fight his way to the crown, 1533 ; died 1558. 
 
 CHRISTIERN IV., king of Denmark, b. 1577 
 succeeded 1588 ; chief of the protestant leagi 
 1625 ; peace with Tilly 1645 ; died 1648. 
 
 CHRISTIERN V., king of Denmark and No: 
 way, born 1646, succeeded 1670, died 1699. 
 
 CHRISTIERN VI., k. of Denmark, 1699-174 
 
 CHRISTIERN VII., king of Denmark, boi 
 1749 ; succeeded and married to Caroline Matild 
 sister of George III., 1766, died 1808. 
 
 CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, born 162(1 
 sue. her father Gustavus Adolphus 1632 ; abdi 
 in favour of Charles Gustavus 1654, died 1689. 
 
 CHRISTINA of France, daugh. of Henry F 
 and Marie de Medici, born 1606 ; married to the dul 
 of Savoy 1619 ; regent at his death 1637 ; d. 166 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, emperor of the East, 920-931 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, theirs* of this name, king 
 Denmark, 1252-1259 ; the second at the beginnirj 
 of the 14th century ; the third, king of Denma^ 
 and Sweden, celebrated as a legislator, 1440-144 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, Henry, a negro leader in tl 
 insurrection of St. Domingo, afterwards kii 
 under the title of Henry L, 1767-1820. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, d. of Wurtemburg, 1515-156 1 
 
 CHRISTOPHERSON, John, bp. of Chicheste 
 celeb, for his learning and literary talents, d. 155 
 
 CHROCUS, a king of the Vandals, died 260. 
 
 CHEYSIPPUS. a Stoic philosopher, 2d c. b.c 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, John, was born at Antio* 
 about the year 351, and was the son of Secundu 
 a military officer on the staff of the Roman gove 
 nor of Syria. While the son was yet an infant, 
 father died, but the widowed mother devoted he 
 self with intense energy to her son's education 
 Having studied under Libanius and others, with 
 view to his being placed at the bar, where he practis 
 for a short time with considerable promise, lie, 
 his twentieth year, embraced a monastic life. Soi 
 short time afterwards he was ordained deacon, a) 
 
 150 
 
CHR 
 
 -ilegan to publish. He was not ordained presbyter, 
 llnd did not preach till about his fortieth year. 
 iIany of his most famous homilies, such as those 
 jjln the ' Statutes,' were preached at Antioch, and 
 wis growing fame soon led to his translation to the 
 liSee of Constantinople in 398. His vigorous prose- 
 i ytution of radical reform among the clergy, his 
 iiapdelity in rebuking offenders of the highest class, 
 jlpven the empress, and his own sternness of resolu- 
 . Hion, made him an object of jealousy and dread, 
 ["wkn irregular council condemned him in 403 upon the 
 ij{nost flimsy grounds, and upon his refusal to sub- 
 5 nit, he was arrested and sent to Nice in Bithynia, 
 j put he had scarce arrived at his place of exile when 
 n ue was recalled, for fear of an insurrection, and his 
 'i return had all the appearance of a popular triumph. 
 the empress was again provoked, and the pa- 
 
 eiarch was again banished, first to Cucusus in the 
 ountains of Tauris, where he busied himself in 
 acting the pagan natives, and then to Pityus, 
 the bleak borders of the Black Sea. In travel- 
 to the latter place, he reached Somana, and 
 lied about the age of sixty. Thirty years after his 
 th his body was brought back to Constantinople, 
 ind his bones at length found repose beneath the 
 low of St. Peter's at Rome, where the Sistine 
 ir daily chaunts its requiem over his ashes. 
 It is not to be denied that the 'golden mouth' was 
 isionally impetuous and self-willed, but he 
 his misfortunes with manly piety and forti- 
 . The faults of his style lie upon the surface of 
 its florid exuberance and continuous accumu- 
 " Bation of metaphors. His rhetoric sometimes over- 
 his logic. Yet the effects of his eloquence 
 prodigious, his thrilling appeals went at once 
 ie heart. His conceptions are all painted 
 - start up as images, and his orations resemble 
 wded panorama. The humble conventicles of 
 Syria heard the same gospel which at length rolled 
 iwing periods beneath the great dome of St. 
 da. Splendour of intellect, mellowness of 
 , heart, and gorgeousness of fancy, characterize all 
 irlhis sermons, expositions, orations, and letters. He 
 left behind nearly a thousand homilies, ser- 
 S or expositions, still of great value to the 
 :>reter, besides some polemical writings, tracts 
 on monasticism, and a treatise ' on the priesthood.' 
 The best edition of his works is that of Montfaucon 
 
 i\ m 1718-38, and in 13 folios. 
 
 i 
 
 [J.E.] 
 
 CHTCHERBATOV, a Russian histor., d. 1790. 
 
 CHUBB, Thos., a deistical writer, 1679-1748. 
 
 CHUN-YEOU-YU, an early emp. of China. 
 
 CHUN-TCHI, emperor of China, 1644-1661. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Ciias., an English poet, eminent 
 for the keenness of his satire, and equally noted for 
 j< the laxity of his morals and love of pleasure, was 
 ordained a priest in the Church of England, but first 
 disgraced, and then contemptuously abandoned his 
 clerical character. He was horn 1731, and as early 
 as 1761 had placed himself in this equivocal position. 
 His poems were all written in the short interval 
 1760 and 1764, when he died. Though his 
 productions are highly praised for the humorous and 
 effective character of their composition, it is as im- 
 possible to regard them with unqualified approba- 
 tion, as to admire the character of the author. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Sin Winston, father of the 
 duke of Marlborough, known to history as a roy- 
 alist knighted after the restoration, and. to litera- 
 
 CIB 
 
 ture by his ' Divi Britannici,' or memoirs of 
 English sovereigns, 1620-1688. 
 
 CHURCHYARD, Th., an English poet, 17th c. 
 
 CHYR-CHAH, a king of Hindostan, d. 1545. 
 
 CIASSI, J. M., an Ital. naturalist, 1654-1679. 
 
 CIBBER, Colley. The life of this comedian has 
 been written by himself, and forms one of the live- 
 liest of autobiographies ; a work sufficient to dis- 
 prove of itself tne charge of being a dunce brought 
 against him by Pope. Mr. Colley Cibber was born, 
 according to his own account, on 6th November, 
 1671, in Southampton-Street, London. His father, 
 Caius Gabriel Cibber, was a statuary, and native of 
 Holstein, who came into England some time 
 previous to the restoration. 'The basso relievo,' 
 says his son, ' on the pedestal of the great column 
 in the city, and the two figures of the lunatics, the 
 raving and the melancholy, over the gates of 
 Bethlehem Hospital are no ill monuments of his 
 fame as an artist.' When ten years of age (1682) 
 Cibber was sent to the free school of Grantham, 
 Lincolnshire, where the boy appears to have shown 
 the same giddy negligence that marked the man ; 
 and to have unconsciously made enemies by an 
 inveterate habit of jesting, besides the envy exer- 
 cised by his literary progress. We may form some 
 idea of his provoking humour from what occurred 
 in 1730, when he had recently received the laurel, and 
 there was so much discontent expressed that it 
 should be conferred upon a comedian. The ' public 
 papers were enlivened with ingenious epigrams, and 
 satirical flirts,' on the occasion. The witty author 
 entered the lists against himself, and published a 
 doggrel copy of verses in the Whitehall Evening 
 Post, in which he lampooned himself. His vanity, 
 as well as his vivacity, had much to do with this 
 strange conduct. But the former is the actor's 
 
 foible, and must be put up with. Previous to 
 choosing the stage for a profession, Cibber had the 
 offer of several chances for the church, the court, 
 
 and the army ; but notwithstanding the prejudices 
 of his father, he preferred the boards. The famous 
 year, 1688, witnessed this important revolution in 
 the state of our author's private affairs. At the 
 time that Cibber joined Sir William Davenant's 
 company (1690), the principal performers were 
 Betterton, Montfort, Kynaston, Sandford, Nokes, 
 Underhil, Leigh, Mrs. Betterton, Mrs. Barry, Mrs. 
 Leigh, Mrs. Butler, Mrs. Montfort, and. Mrs. 
 Bracegirdle, ' all ' as Cibber calls them, ' original 
 masters in their different styles ; not mere auricular 
 imitators of one another!' At this period, it 
 was not customary to pay young actors dur- 
 ing their probation, and it was three quar- 
 ters of a year before young Cibber became 
 entitled to ten shillings a- week. By the time that 
 he received double that salary, he ventured on 
 matrimony. Necessity soon made him a poet. 
 Fortune had begun to smile on his new career. 
 By the recommendation of Mr. Congreve, he had 
 the honour of acting before Queen Mary in one of 
 Kynaston's parts. His next step was the produc- 
 tion of a prologue, which was accepted and spoken. 
 Alderman Fondlewife, in the play of 'The Old 
 Bachelor,' next afforded him an opportunity of 
 astonishing his fellow - performers, though' he 
 received small encouragement from them. The 
 expediency of writing a part for himself led to his 
 composing the comedy of ' Love's Last Shift,' which 
 
 151 
 
CIB 
 
 was produced on the boards in January, 1695, and 
 in which he acted the character of Sir Novelty. 
 Still Cibber won his way but slowly with the 
 actors ; and even up to the end of his career had 
 not secured their full faith in him. His talents 
 were at least of the versatile order, for he not only 
 performed the fops and coxcombs of comedy, but 
 lago, Wolsey, Syphax, and Richard III. in tragedy. 
 But the performance of vicious characters he seems 
 to have considered injurious to his reputation. 
 Owing to the censure of dramatic poets, by Jeremy 
 Collier, in his 'Short View of the Stage,' the 
 master of the revels became cautious in granting 
 licenses to new plays. Nevertheless, Cibber con- 
 trived to get on pretty well; his muse and his 
 spouse, to use his own words, 'being equally 
 prolific, that the one was seldom the mother of a 
 child, but in the same year the other made him 
 the father of a play.' ' I think,' he adds, ' we had 
 a dozen of eacn sort between us, of both which 
 kinds some died in their infancv, and near an equal 
 number of each were alive when we quitted the 
 theatre.' 'The Careless Husband' has always been 
 reckoned Cibber's best play. 'The Nonjuror,' 
 however, was the most popular, owing to its 
 political character. It was levelled against the 
 Jacobites, and was the reason, in fact, of Cibber's 
 being made poet-laureate in 1730, when he quitted 
 the stage. He died in 1757. His ' Apology,' from 
 which we have derived the materials for his life, is 
 an exceedingly amusing work. His works fill 5 
 vols. 12mo, published in 1760. [J.A.H.] 
 
 CIBBER, Theophilus, son of the celebrated 
 comedian, and like him an actor and play-writer, 
 was a man of profligate character, and very inferior 
 talents, 1703-1758. His second wife, Susannah 
 Maria Cibber, was a sister of Dr. Arne, and 
 often performed with Gaxrick as a tragedian; 
 1734-1766. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tuixius, was born at 
 Arpinum, an ancient city of Latium, in B.C. 106 ; 
 the same year which gave birth to Pompey. The 
 
 treat aptitude for learning which he displayed in 
 oyhood induced his father to remove to Rome, 
 where the future orator and statesman was edu- 
 cated under the best masters of the time. In b.c. 
 89 he served his first and only campaign under 
 Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey, who was 
 then engaged in the Social war. Having thus 
 complied with the custom of his age, Cicero 
 
 CIC 
 
 devoted the next six years to the studies whic 
 were necessary to raise him to distinction as 
 lawyer and an orator ; practising declamation i 
 Latin and Greek, and storing his mind with thos 
 
 f>recepts of philosophy, which, throughout his even! 
 ul life, cheered him amidst professional toils, an 
 consoled him under disappointment and persecu 
 tion. At the age of twenty-five he came forwar 
 as a pleader, and, even at the risk of incurring th 
 displeasure of Sulla, defended clients who wer 
 obnoxious to the dictator. But his health, whic 
 was naturally feeble, gave way under incessan 
 application to study ; and, for the purpose ( 
 invigorating his constitution, as well as correctin 
 certain defects in his style of oratory, he visite 
 Athens (b.c. 79,) made a tour of Asia Minoi 
 and for some time resumed his studies at Rhode) 
 under Molo, from whom he had received instruc 
 tions at Rome. After an absence of two years, h 
 returned to Rome with renewed health and en 
 larged knowledge, and speedily placed himself a 
 the head of the Roman bar. Being qualified b 
 law at the age of thirty to become candidate fc 
 the lowest of the great offices of state, he wa 
 elected quaestor in B.C. 76, and obtained each c 
 the higher offices as soon as he was permitted b 
 law to hold it, reaching the consulship in B.C. 61 
 During his consulship he was called upon t 
 grapple with the famous Catilinarian conspiracy 
 and the courage, prudence, and decision which h 
 manifested in directing the difficult and com 
 plicated investigations that led to the detectio 
 and punishment of the conspirators called fort 
 the encomiums of all classes of the citizens. Th 
 public enthusiasm heaped upon him unwonte 
 honours : in the senate and in the forum he ws 
 saluted as parens patriae (the father of hi 
 country) ; thanksgivings in his name were vote 
 to the gods; and all Italy united in testifyin 
 their admiration and gratitude. But his unes 
 ampled good fortune had excited the jealousy < : 
 many of the leading nobility, and his irrepressibli 
 vanity exposed him to the ridicule and assaults J 
 his enemies. He was accordingly destined sooj 
 to experience a reverse of fortune as remarkable 
 and more sudden than his rise. It had be 
 iudged necessary to put to death five of the rina 
 leaders in the conspiracy; and though this w 
 done in virtue of the dictatorial authority wit! 
 which the consuls were invested by the senat] 
 and with the consent and approval of that bodf 
 Cicero was indicted for having put a Roman eitj 
 zen to death untried, and forced to go into bail 
 ishment in April, b.c. 58. But private mali.' 
 soon expended itself, and public feeling, revertiij 
 to his signal services in rescuing his country froi 
 impending ruin, recalled him after an interval | 
 seventeen months. His reception at Rome cheerr 
 his dejected spirits ; but the circumstances whiJ 
 led to his banishment prevented him from ev 
 after recovering his former position. In B.C. i\ 
 he was admitted a member of the college | 
 Augurs, and towards the end of B.C. 52 lie w 
 appointed proconsul of Cilicia. He administer'! 
 the affairs of his province with the strictest ir, 
 partiality, corrected the abuses which had be, 
 introduced or sanctioned by his predecessors, ai, 
 realized in practice the precepts which in his wri 
 ings he hud inculcated. He returned to Italy 
 
 152 
 
CIO 
 
 C. 49, at the commencement of the civil war 
 stween Caesar and Pompey, and finally resolving 
 mse the cause of the latter, followed him to 
 ece. After the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48, at 
 hich he was not present, he again returned to 
 aly, and was received into favour by Caesar, 
 bparating himself now entirely from all parties 
 [the state, he arranged and published during the 
 bxt three years nearly all his most important 
 jorks on rhetoric and philosophy. But the tu- 
 jults excited by Antony after the murder of 
 pesar, b.c. 44, again drew him from his seclusion; 
 ad Augustus, knowing the value of such an ally, 
 ad carefully concealing from him his real inten- 
 pns, gladly availed himself of his services as 
 jader of the senate. Cicero's zeal, which was 
 ot always tempered with discretion, now ex- 
 ibited itself in the famous philippics against 
 .ntony, which again made him the idol of the 
 .oman people. But the formation of the second 
 iumvirate sealed the fate of the great Roman 
 ator. His name appeared in the list of the 
 oscribed, having been placed there by Antony 
 one of the conditions of the league ; and after 
 unsuccessful attempt to escape, he stretched 
 rward his head to his executioners, and called 
 n them to strike (b.c. 43). His head and hands 
 fere conveyed to Rome, and, by the orders of An- 
 pny, nailed to the Rostra. We have not space to 
 tehneate the character of Cicero, or to enumerate 
 fis works. These have been repeatedly published, 
 |oth in mass and in detached portions. [G.F.] 
 CICOGNA, Pascal, doge of Venice, 1195. 
 CICOGNARA, Leopold, a painter, 1767-1834. 
 CID, The. Don Rodrigo Layney (often called, 
 y his countrymen, by the abbreviated appellation 
 toy Diaz,) was born at the paternal castle of 
 Jivar, in Castile, about the year 1026. He was 
 f the purest Gothic blood ; but his family pos- 
 essions were small ; and he was indebted to his 
 wn valour and martial genius for the renown and 
 tnportance which he acquired. His military ca- 
 eer against the Moors of Spain was commenced 
 inder the banners of Don Ferdinand, king of 
 3astile ; and he soon became celebrated through- 
 nt Europe as the model of Christian chivalry. 
 ?ive Moorish kings, whom he defeated and took 
 aptive, and to whom he generously granted life 
 tnd liberty, bestowed on him the title of Es 
 >ayd, (i.e., my lord); whence arose the name of 
 he Cid, by which he is best known in poetry and in 
 ustory. Don Sancho, who succeeded Ferdinand 
 m the throne of Castile, made the Cid generalis- 
 imo of his armies ; whence came the title Cam- 
 >eador, by which also the hero is often named by 
 lis countrymen. Under the next sovereign, 
 Mfonso VI., the Cid was frequently the mark of 
 inmerited royal jealousy ; and he was more than 
 mce banished from Castile. On these occasions 
 ie took refuge with some of the Moorish princes 
 >f the peninsula, where he served gallantly m their 
 vars with one another. But his loyalty to Castile 
 nras unblemished ; and when recalled by the capri- 
 :ious Alfonso, the veteran Campeador combated for 
 lim as zealously as he had fought in his youth for 
 nore generous and grateful sovereigns. Among 
 nany other achievements, he is said to have wrested 
 he city and kingdom of Valencia from the Maho- 
 metans, and to have annexed it to the Castilian 
 
 CLA 
 
 dominions. The reputed year of his death is 1099. 
 His tomb is still shown at Bivar ; and his country- 
 men, after so many centuries and so many changes, 
 still speak of him with enthusiastic pride. His 
 victories and his romantic personal adventures 
 furnish the themes of many of the finest old 
 Spanish ballads ; and they are also narrated in the 
 ' Poem or Chronicle of the Cid,' the earliest great 
 
 {)oem of modern Europe, which is supposed to 
 lave been framed about fifty years after the hero's 
 death, from an original chronicle written in Arabic 
 by two Moorish pages of the Cid. [E.S.C.] 
 
 CIMA, J. B., an Italian painter, 15th cent. 
 
 CIMABUE, Giovanni, commonly called the 
 father of modem painting, was born at Florence in 
 the year 1240. The prominence given to the name 
 of Cimabue in the history of painting in Italy, is 
 due solely to the place he has in the ' Lives of the 
 Painters, &c.,' by Vasari, whose work is the great 
 text book on this subject, as far as relates to the 
 revival of painting in Italy. Cimabue possessed 
 more than ordinary merit in his time, but was little 
 if at all superior to his reputed master Giunta of 
 Pisa, whom he is supposed to have assisted in the 
 church of San Francesco at Assisi in 1253. Cima- 
 bue had several other able contemporaries, as 
 Margaritone of Arezzo, Duccio di Buoninsegna of 
 Siena, and Gaddo Gaddi of Florenee; all, including 
 Cimabue himself, strictly belonging to the Byzan- 
 tine school of painters. Many Greek artists were 
 established in Italy in the thirteenth century, 
 especially at Venice, Pisa, and Siena ; the event 
 which brought the eastern and western civilization 
 into more immediate contact at this time, was the 
 Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204. The 
 pictures of this time were executed in tempera, and 
 have generally gold grounds : there is still a large 
 picture of the Madonna, by Cimabue, preserved in 
 the church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence; 
 and there is another of the Madonna and Child in 
 the academy of Florence. Cimabue was still living 
 in the year 1302. He was the master of Giotto, 
 whose ability he discovered and cultivated. 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CIMAROSA, an opera comp. of Nap., 1754-1801. 
 
 CIMON, an Athenian gen., the son of Miltiades, 
 dist. himself against the Persians, 470 B.C., d. 449. 
 
 CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, the illus- 
 trious Roman patriot, consul about 460 b.c, and 
 twice afterwards dictator. The dates and events 
 are somewhat uncertain, but it is sufficiently 
 known that he delivered the republic from her 
 domestic and foreign enemies with the skill of a 
 statesman and soldier, and retired to his farm 
 refusing all recompense. 
 
 CINELLI, Giov., an Italian phys., 1625-1706. 
 
 CINGAROLI, M., an Ital. painter, 1667-1729. 
 
 CINNA, Cneius Cornelius, consul of Rome 4. 
 
 CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, the eel. colleague 
 and partizan of Marius, consul B.C. 87, killed 84. 
 
 CINNAMUS, John, a Gr. historian, 12th cent. 
 
 CINO DA PISTOIA, an Ital. poet, 1270-1337. 
 
 CINQ-ARBRES, J., an Orientalist, died 1587. 
 
 CINTRA, P. De, a Portuguese navig., 15th ct. 
 
 CIPRIANI, J. B., an Italian painter, 1732-85. 
 
 CIRILLO, Dom., an Ital botanist, 1734-1799. 
 
 CITTADINI, J. F., a flower paint., 1616-1681. 
 
 CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude, a French 
 mathematician of great genius, of the times ot 
 
 153 
 
CLA 
 
 Euler and D'Alembert. He was born at Paris in 
 1713, and died in 1765. Clairaut wrote on the 
 figure of the earth, and on curves of double curva- 
 ture, besides many separate memoirs and ele- 
 mentary works on algebra and geometry. In his 
 time he belonged to the ' great world ' of Paris : 
 the thorough student will read his writings still ; 
 he had much taste in composition as well as great 
 analvtic power. 
 
 CLAIRAUT, J. B., a Fr. mathem., 1680-1766. 
 
 CLAIRFAIT, Count De, an Aust. gen., d. 1798. 
 
 CLAPPERTON, Hugh, was bom in 1788, at 
 Annan, in the county of Dumfries, where his 
 father practised as a surgeon. After having 
 entered the merchant service, and made several 
 voyages to America, he was impressed on board a 
 man-of-war. By the influence of an uncle, a cap- 
 tain in the marines, young Clapperton soon 
 attained to the rank of a midshipman ; and some 
 time after, while on service in Canada, to that of 
 lieutenant. He gained, in various actions, the 
 reputation of a skilful and brave officer. Being 
 at home on half-pay for five or six years, he 
 became acquainted, at Edinburgh, with Dr. Oud- 
 ney, then engaged in plans of African discovery; 
 and was soon after associated, under the directions 
 of Earl Bathurst, with this gentleman and Major 
 Denham in an expedition to the sources of the 
 Niger. They crossed the desert from Tripoli to 
 Lake Tchad, which they were the first Europeans 
 to visit, reaching it on 5th February, 1823. Here 
 our travellers separated for a time ; and Clapper- 
 ton explored the country to the S. W. as far as 
 Sokatou, in lat. 13 N., long. 5 45' E., a dis- 
 tance of 700 miles from Lake Tchad. Dr. Oudney, 
 who accompanied him, died by the way about a 
 month after they started. Meeting in health at 
 Kouka, the capital of Bournou, where they left 
 Mr. Tyrwhit as consul, Denham and Clapperton 
 recrossed the desert to Tripoli, at which they 
 safely arrived on 25th January, 1825. Clapperton 
 was soon after raised to the rank of commander, 
 and equipped for a second expedition, intended to 
 reach the sources of the Niger by ascending the 
 stream from its mouth. This was found imprac- 
 ticable from the unhealthy nature of the delta of 
 this great river. Proceeding by land Clapperton 
 raached Sokatou from the S. W., thus connecting 
 his observations with those of his former journey. 
 Here, however, he was destined to end his active 
 and useful life ; weakened by fatigue, with feelings 
 irritated by the obstacles thrown in his way, he 
 was seized with dysentery, and after a lingering 
 illness, he expired on the 13th April, 1827. 
 Richard Lander, his faithful and attached servant, 
 was the only European who remained of the party, 
 Captain Pearce R.N., Dr. Morrison, and others, 
 having died soon after they left the coast. Full 
 accounts were published of the several journeys, 
 which added immensely to our knowledge of 
 central Africa. [J.B.] 
 
 CLARE, St., a follower of St. Francis Assise, 
 and founder of an order of nuns, 1193-1253. 
 
 CLARENCE, George, duke of, brother of 
 Edward IV., drowned in a butt of Malmsey, 1478. 
 
 CLA 
 
 came a lawyer on the death of his elder brothei 
 through which, in 1632, he succeeded to hi 
 father's property. Although he practised his pro 
 fession for a time, it does not seem to have eve 
 engaged so much of his attention as literature di 
 at first and politics afterwards. In 1640 he wa 
 elected a member of Charles I.'s Short Parliamenl 
 in whose moderate attempts at reform he bore a 
 active part ; and when the king contemplated dig 
 solving it, Hyde took advantage of an intimacy h 
 had contracted with Archbishop Laud, to offe 
 earnest remonstrances against that arbitrary an 
 imprudent step. He sat again in the Long Par 
 liament, which the king was forced to summon be 
 fore the end of the same year. He concurred i 
 some of the earliest of the strong measures noi 
 adopted by the house, such as the proceedine 
 against the judges in Hampden's case, and th 
 impeachment of Strafford ; but in no long time i 
 became startled by the lengths to which the popti 
 lar leaders were disposed to carry their oppositio 
 to the crown. The king seized the first opportu 
 nity of securing to himself so useful a servan 
 Hyde, Lord Falkland, and Colepepper, wei 
 secretly appointed to manage the interests of tfc 
 crown in parliament ; and although the cautiot 
 and reasonable counsels of the first two of the* 
 advisers were disregarded by their master, Hyc 
 continued to frame the royal messages and oth< 
 documents till the breach with tlie parliamer 
 took place. In 1643, having now attached hiiii 
 self to the king's person, he was knighted an 
 made chancellor of the exchequer ; after which I 
 was actively engaged in the king's affairs till 164' 
 when, on the irretrievable ruin of the royal caus 
 he accompanied the prince of Wales in his fliglj 
 from England. He now resided for two years I 
 Jersey, occupying himself in study and in the con< 
 position of his History; after which he joined tli 
 prince at the Hague, and continued in his serviii 
 when his father's death had made him nominal 
 king. He spent more than a year in Spain, vain 
 soliciting aid, but extending his own knowledge 
 well as writing moral and devotional treatise! 
 For several years afterwards he was Charles's chi! 
 adviser, and, in 1658, received the place of lo:> 
 chancellor, then only nominal, but soon real. I 
 returned with Charles II. to England in Maj 
 1660, and immediately began to act both J 
 speaker of the House of Lords, and as chief jud;j 
 in the Court of Chancery ; being soon also raist] 
 to the peerage. At this time his prospects we] 
 seriously endangered, by the discovery of the secrj 
 marriage of his daughter to the duke of Yor 1 
 through which he became the grandfather of til 
 queens of England. The storm passed away wit 
 out doing immediate harm. Lord Clarendon w 
 virtually the head of the administration till ne 
 the close of 1667; and, as the responsible adviser* 
 Charles II. for more than six years, he cannot b 
 have done many things which would then ha 
 been condemned by patriotic men, and many othe 
 which would now appear still more censurab 
 The sale of Dunkirk, and the promotion of t 
 king's marriage, though they were the main caus 
 
 CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, earl of, was of the unpopularity which gradually gatherj 
 
 around the chancellor, were certainly not the woii 
 of the steps which were taken, either by his advi 
 or with his sanction and assistance. He had tak ! 
 
 bora in 1608, at Hinton, in Wiltshire, the estate of 
 Henry Hyde, his father. He studied at Oxford 
 with the design of entering the church, but be- 
 
 154 
 
CLA 
 
 prominent part in the bloody vengeance which, 
 
 n the beginning of the reign, was inflicted on the 
 
 I egicides and other parliamentary leaders ; he was 
 
 j 'et more active in conducting that persecution of 
 
 he dissenters, of which the Act of Uniformity was 
 
 he consummation ; and, in conducting the secret 
 
 legotiations for a loan from France, he made the 
 
 dng of England to be independent of parliament 
 
 ,nd the pensioner of a foreign and hostile power. 
 
 r et even these acts were only such as the circum- 
 
 tances might have prompted to one who was at 
 
 ince a zealous royalist, a somewhat bigoted 
 
 Jlhnrchman, and a statesman fond of power, and 
 
 J'ictuated by considerations of expediency rather 
 
 J han by elevated principles. If such motives are 
 
 tot veiy dignified, they are at least very much 
 a ibove the level of those that prevailed among the 
 I orrupt and profligate politicians who swarmed 
 J ibout the restored king. Nor was Clarendon's 
 h all caused by any of those acts of his that were 
 
 'eally reprehensible. He became unpopular with 
 i he nation because of the disgraces incurred in a 
 n rar undertaken in spite of nis dissuasions ; he 
 <4 nade himself obnoxious to the courtiers by re- 
 t erved haughtiness of manner, and by a strictness of 
 i oivate conduct which silently rebuked their de- 
 :i lauchery ; and he lost the favour of the king be- 
 i use he connived only at royal vices instead of 
 a andering to them, and countenanced reluctantly 
 J tcts of misgovernment to which he was expected to 
 31 ;ive hearty support. After Clarendon's unpopu- 
 if arity had become general, Charles and his parlia- 
 1 Dent vied with each other in their eagerness to ruin 
 !: dm. Repeated messages from the king failed in 
 (ill (revailing on him to make a voluntary surrender 
 : f the great seal ; and after he had been displaced, 
 si nd impeached at the bar of the House of Lords, 
 
 t was only a distinct warning that his master 
 nuld not and would not save so much as his life, 
 induced him to leave the country. He fled 
 he continent in November, 1667, and would 
 returned to face his trial had not illness pre- 
 bed him. He moved from one town of France 
 other, resuming his studies and writing some 
 is works; and at length he died at Rouen 
 ''ecember, 1674. The principal writings 
 i he left were his 'History of the Rebel - 
 [ tion,' and his Account of his own Life. The 
 ter of these, with all its errors and short- 
 4 scmings, is unquestionably a valuable storehouse 
 i of historical materials ; while its comprehensive- 
 ?_ pess of views, its skill in the portraiture of char- 
 r peter, and the interest which is excited by its 
 kninutely-drawn narratives of events, combine in 
 iecuring for it a distinguished place among the 
 monuments of English literature. [W.S.J 
 
 CLARIDGE, R., a Quaker writer, 1649-1723. 
 CLARK, John, a medical author, 1744-1805. 
 CLARK, William Tierney, a civil engineer 
 of distinguished merit. He was early apprenticed 
 j to a millwright in Bristol, and worked succes- 
 sively at Colebrookdale and in London under the 
 it Rennie, with whom he remained till 1811. 
 was the engineer of the West Middlesex 
 ter Works, and to the advancement of this im- 
 portant undertaking his energies were devoted for 
 many years. Suspension bridges early excited his 
 j attention, and he has left Hammersmith, Marlow, 
 Norfolk, and Pesth suspension bridges, as monu- 
 
 CLA 
 
 ments of his taste in design, and skill in engineer- 
 ing. The suspension bridge of Pesth, while it 
 stands a monument to his genius, is the admira- 
 tion of all who have seen it. It was the last and 
 crowning act of a life devoted to a profession of 
 which he was an ornament. He died 22d Sep- 
 tember, 1852, aged sixty-nine. [L.D.B.G.] 
 CLARKE, Dr. Adam, was a native of Moy- 
 beg, in Ireland, where he was born, 1760. Like 
 many other men of eminence, he was indebted to 
 the influence of maternal counsels and example in 
 the formation of his youthful character, as well as 
 in the choice of his future course ; for while his 
 father was an episcopalian, his mother, who was 
 a Scotchwoman and a presbyterian, had, on her 
 settlement in England, warmly espoused the cause 
 of Wesleyan methodism, and used every endeavour 
 to bias the ductile mind of her son in favour of 
 that sect. Though rather dull when first 
 placed at school, his faculties rapidly developed 
 and gave strong pledges of his future eminence. 
 Having in his seventeenth year become impressed 
 with deep views of religion, he resolved to conse- 
 crate his future life to the service of God in the 
 ministry of the gospel, and through the recom- 
 mendation of Wesley, was sent to complete his 
 education at the Kingswood school. There his 
 taste for Hebrew and Biblical studies was awak- 
 ened ; and so strong a hold had a love of sacred 
 literature taken of his mind, that even amid all 
 his wanderings and harassing difficulties as a 
 Methodist preacher, he continued with unflagging 
 resolution to carry on his course of intellectual im- 
 provement. He not only occupied his leisure mo- 
 ments while stopping at inns, but even in riding 
 on horseback he generally had a book in one 
 hand ; and by this rigid economy of time, he was 
 storing his mind with useful knowledge, as well as 
 collecting materials for his future works. The cir- 
 cuit assigned him to perambulate as an itinerant 
 E readier was Wiltshire. And although, of course, 
 e had various stations in the country, he pitched 
 his residence at Trowbridge, where he formed a 
 matrimonial alliance with Miss Cooke, daughter of 
 Mr. Cooke, clothier, and a lady of great piety, 
 prudence, and amiable dispositions. Mr. Clarke's 
 fame as an Orientalist and biblical scholar hav- 
 ing spread extensively, he received the honor- 
 ary title of LL.D. from the university of St. An- 
 drews, and was enrolled a member of several 
 learned societies both in Britain and America. 
 His ardent attachment to general, and especially to 
 Oriental literature, led him to take an active part 
 in the management and secretaryship of several 
 of those societies. And the duty of maintaining 
 the various correspondence, together with the pres- 
 sure of his congregational labours, which always 
 held the first place in his regard, so greatly affected 
 his health, that his medical advisers persuaded 
 him in 1815 to resign his pastoral charge. Retir- 
 ing to a rural retreat in Lancashire, which the 
 liberality of a few friends had presented to him, 
 he lived in the enjoyment of literary leisure. His 
 Commentary on the Bible was prosecuted with 
 ardour ; but finding himself deprived of many ad- 
 vantages which to a literary man are indispensable, 
 he disposed of his farm, and after a residence in 
 Lancashire of eight years, returned to establish 
 himself at Eastcott, a small village in the vicinity 
 155 
 
CLA 
 
 of London. In Haydon Hall, an elegant mansion 
 he purchased there, he completed his Commentary, 
 an elaborate work in 8 vols. 4to, which had occu- 
 pied his attention more or less for forty-eight years, 
 and the publication of which was issued at intervals 
 from 1810 to 1826. Dr. Clarke, though uncon- 
 nected with any particular charge, had never wholly 
 discontinued the practice of preaching. An en- 
 gagement of this kind was to have been fulfilled at 
 Bayswater on the morning of the day on which he 
 died. But having been seized with a sudden at- 
 tack of Asiatic cholera, which was then commit- 
 ting dreadful ravages in London, he was cut off on 
 the 26th August, 1832, maintaining to the last, 
 amid the paroxysms and frightful bodily contor- 
 tions which that formidable pestilence produced, 
 a mind calm, collected, and firmly reposing on the 
 bosom of his Saviour. Besides his commentary, 
 Dr. Clarke was the author of several other works, 
 the chief of which are, ' The Succession of Sacred 
 Literature,' 'Memoirs of the Wesley Family,' 
 'Fleury's Manners of the Ancient Israelites,' 
 ' Shuckford's Sacred and Profane History of the 
 World,' ' Sturm's Reflections, translated from the 
 German,' and ' Harmer's Observations.' In addi- 
 tion to these he was employed several years by 
 the government in collecting materials for a new 
 edition of ' Rymer's Foedera,' which since his death 
 has been carried on by a commission under govern- 
 ment. [R.J.] 
 
 CLARKE, Alured, au. of sermons, &c, 18th c. 
 
 CLARKE, Edward Daniel, LL.D., celebrated 
 for his travels through many countries of Europe 
 and Asia, was bom at Wellingdon, in Sussex, 
 5th June, 1769. His father was a clergyman of 
 rather limited income, and died before his son's 
 education at Cambridge was completed. After 
 graduating, he obtained, between 1790 and 1798, 
 several situations as resident family tutor ; and as 
 travelling tutor and companion to gentlemen of 
 fortune, with whom he visited most parts of 
 England and Scotland. In the latter year he was 
 elected fellow of his college, (Jesus) and came to 
 reside in Cambridge. In the year following he 
 went abroad as travelling companion to Mr. 
 Cripps, and made an extended journey, occupying 
 three years and a-half, a most interesting account 
 of which, originally given in 6 vols. 4to, was his 
 principal work. In 1808, he was appointed first 
 professor of mineralogy at Cambridge, whose 
 museum and library he had greatly enriched by 
 his collections. The British Museum owes to him 
 the celebrated Sarcophagus, incorrectly called that 
 of Alexander, as well as other objects. He took or- 
 ders in 1805, and enjoyed two livings. His death oc- 
 curred at London on 9th March, 1822. He was, be- 
 sides, the auth. of many papers in Thomson's Annals 
 of Philosophy, on physics, and chemistry ; and of 
 some dissertations on antiquarian subjects. [J.B.] 
 
 CLARKE, H., LL.D., a mathemat., 1745-1818. 
 
 CLARKE, Hy. Jas. Wm, Due De Feltre, de- 
 scended from a partizan of the Stuarts settled in 
 France, min. of state under Buonaparte, 1765-1818. 
 
 CLARKE, Jas. Stanier, LL.D., brother of 
 Edward Daniel Clarke, a naval historian and 
 founder of the 'Naval Chronicle,' died 1834. 
 
 CLARKE, John, a Scotch engrav., 1650-1721. 
 
 CLARKE, John, brother of Dr. Sam. Clarke, a 
 classical scholar, author of sermons, &c, d. 1759. 
 
 CLA 
 
 CLARKE, Dr. Samuel, the celebrated meta 
 physical divine, was born at Norwich on 11th ( 
 October, 1675. His father, who had held the highes 
 offices in that city, and was in comfortable circum 
 stances, determined to afford him the advantage 
 of the most liberal education, and accordingly sei 
 him in due time to Caius College, Cambridge 
 where amid the various objects of academic m 
 terest, young Clarke evinced a decided preferenc 
 for theology. Engaging with untiring ardour i 
 the pursuit of knowledge, he acquired an extensiv 
 acquaintance with the different branches of physi 
 cal sciences, especially optics, and made his firs 
 essay before the world as an author by the trans 
 lation of Rohault's physics a work which Ion 
 continued to be regarded in this countrv as th 
 best elementary work for students. While thru 
 however, improving his mind in general knowledgi 
 his chief attention was directed to theology, an 
 desirous of drawing his information from til 
 fountain head, he gave himself to the earnest stud 
 of the Scriptures in the Hebrew and Greek origj 
 nals. By such devotion to study, Clarke earl 
 shone by his theological attainments, and almos 
 immediately after obtaining orders in 1669, he bt 
 gan his career as a theological author by publish 
 ing ' Three Practical Essays on Baptism, Confii 
 mation, and Repentance,' and shortly afterward) 
 his ' Paraphrase on the Four Gospels.' In 1704 h 
 was appointed to a lectureship on the ' Evidences 
 and it was in the course of the duty which th: 
 situation imposed on him, that he prepared thos 
 profound and elaborate works which nave raised hb 
 to the first rank of philosophical divines, viz., I 
 Lecture on the Being and Attributes of God,' an 
 a second on the 'Evidence of Natural and Re 
 vealed Religion.' These lectures were afterwarc 
 expanded into the form of treatises ; and althoug 
 a diversity of opinion prevails as to the soundnes 
 and value of the a priori argument, no different 
 has ever existed as to the force with which D 
 Clarke has discussed the subject, and the piel 
 which pervades the composition. The publicatic 
 obtained for him a European renown as a Chri% 
 tian philosopher, and a more substantial rewaij 
 followed in the preferments which were liberal^ 
 offered to him in his own church. In 1706 1. 
 was appointed rector of St. Bennett's, Paui 
 Wharf, London, and though he was the reverse 
 a popular preacher, he showed exemplary diligent 
 in the performance of his parochical duties. Am 
 his multifarious engagements his active mil' 
 found time to gratify his taste by the culture 
 physical science; and he published a translate 
 of Sir Isaac Newton's Latin treatise on Optics, f 
 which that philosopher gave him a present 
 500, with the still more valuable addition of I 
 private friendship. Dr. Clarke published a m 
 theological treatise entitled 'The Scripture Do 
 trine of the Trinity,' in which he is supposed 
 lean towards Ariamsm. He died very suddenly 
 7th May, 1729, of an inflammatory attack. [R. J 
 
 CLARKE, Lieut. William, in conjuncti 
 with Captain Lewis, led the first great natior 
 expedition sent out by the United States. It w 
 planned by President Jefferson, and had for 
 object to ascend the Missouri, cross the Roc 
 Mountains, and reach the Pacific. All this w 
 successfully accomplished between May 1804, a | 
 
 156 
 
CLA 
 
 I'ay 180G. The account is full of interesting 
 Iventure and romantic incident ; and the journey 
 ntributed greatly to the improvement of geo- 
 aphy. Such a route had been some time before 
 ojected by an enthusiastic individual named 
 wiathan Carver. [J.B.] 
 
 CLARKSON, D., a nonconfor. div., 1622-1686. 
 CLARKSON, Thomas, was born on 28th 
 arch, 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire. 
 is father, who was a clergyman of the Church of 
 ngland, taught the free grammar school of the 
 ace, and prepared his son for entering St. John's 
 ollege, Cambridge, which he did in 1783. In 
 lat college his accurate scholarship was rewarded 
 phigh honours, and the next year when the subject 
 r prize essay among the senior Bachelors of Arts 
 as announced to be, ' Anne liceat invitos in ser- 
 itutem dare is it right to make slaves against 
 leir will ? ' Clarkson entered the lists with in- 
 eased ardour. In the course of his researches 
 ito the history and practices of the slave trade, he 
 led to read ' Benezet's Historical Account of 
 ea ;' and the perusal, which had been under- 
 iken for a special and merely literary purpose, 
 reduced a harrowing impression on his feelings 
 hich time could not efface. Ease and tranquillity 
 ere entirely banished from his mind ; and the first 
 learn of inward satisfaction that shone into his 
 ;nsitive and Christian bosom after his introduction 
 ) Benezet, arose from his resolution to set about 
 )me practicable scheme for mitigating or prevent- 
 lg the hoiTors of the slave trade. The formation of 
 ich a plan was almost as difficult as its execution. 
 ut he resolved on surmounting all difficulties, 
 'he first step he took was to translate his Latin 
 rize dissertation into English, and by diffusing 
 iformation on the subject of slavery in as attrac- 
 ve a form as possible, arouse the interest and 
 Sympathies of the British public. His proceedings 
 ere viewed with earnest attention by several 
 minent philanthropists, amongst whom were Rev. 
 ames Ramsay, Lord Barham, and Granville 
 harpe, Esq. By the counsel and aid of these 
 entfemen he procured intelligence from every 
 essel lying in a British harbour that had been 
 ngaged in the African trade. In addition to 
 ral information, Mr. Clarkson endeavoured at 
 Teat labour and expense to obtain specimens of 
 be industry and manufactures of native Africans 
 or public exhibition. And last of all, he procured 
 In accurate engraving of a slave ship, with its 
 iells and gratings and barricades, for the confine- 
 ment of the poor unfortunate creatures that were 
 idnapped. The impression produced by this draw- 
 ng lent, more than anything else, a powerful im- 
 pulse to the cause in which he was engaged. Be- 
 ides all these preliminaries. Mr. Clarkson pub- 
 ished a pamphlet on the subject of the slave trade 
 very year although it was not till 1788 that his 
 ;reat work on the impolicy of that traffic was 
 pen to the world. Immediately after this pub- 
 ication he went to France for the public advocacy 
 f the cause in that country. His benevolent ex- 
 rtions met with the warmest encouragement, not 
 >nly from the French monarch and the celebrated 
 decker, who was then at the head of the govern- 
 nent, but many of the most influential members 
 >f tbe national assemblies, as well as catholic 
 relates. 
 
 CLA 
 
 host of enemies, both in Britain and on the con- 
 tinent, sprang up against him, consisting of parties 
 interested in the maintenance of the slave system, 
 and who foreseeing the hope of their gains to be 
 gone if he should be successful in his aims, used 
 every means, both fair and foul, to thwart his pur- 
 poses, and disgust him with his task. But the 
 fierce opposition of these enemies only made the 
 friends of the cause rally more closely around him ; 
 and two auspicious circumstances turned the scale 
 opportunely in his favour. The one of these was a 
 voluntary and public offer of Samuel Whitbread, 
 Esq., ' to make good all injuries which any individual 
 might suffer in their business from aiding and abet- 
 ting the movement ;' and the other was the interview 
 to which Clarkson was admitted with the emperor 
 Alexander, at the congress of Aix La Chapelle in 
 1818, and that emperor's promise to employ his 
 influence with his royal brothers of Austria and 
 Prussia to procure the abolition of the slave trade. 
 The hopes, however, excited in that quarter were 
 slow in being realized. But Mr. Clarkson enjoyed 
 the high satisfaction of witnessing the final 
 triumph of his labours in the enactment of the 
 British legislature in 1807, by which the slave 
 trade was thenceforth declared illegal. Mr. Clark- 
 son belonged to the Society of Friends, and pub- 
 lished in 1807 ' A Portrait of Quakerism,' and a 
 Life of William Penn ' in 1813 ; d. 1846. [R. J.] 
 
 CLAUBERG, J., a Calvinist philos., 1622-1665. 
 
 CLAUDE, queen of Francis I., 1499-1524. 
 
 CLAUDE, duchess of Lorraine, 1547-1575. 
 
 CLAUDE. Claude, Gelee, commonly called 
 Claude Lorrain, from the country of his birth, 
 was born at Chateau de Chamagne, near Charmes, 
 in the year 1600. He was originally placed with 
 a baker and pastry-cook, and when still young 
 went in company with some cooks of Lorraine to 
 Rome. Claude found a situation as ordinary 
 servant with Agostino Tassi, the landscape painter; 
 he both prepared his master's meals and ground 
 his colours for him. It was to this coincidence 
 that Claude seems to have owed the develop- 
 ment of his faculty of painting; he must have 
 been with Tassi towards the close of the pontifi- 
 cate of Paul V.; he became a distinguished lands- 
 cape painter as early as the time of pope Urban 
 VIII. (1623-44). Claude appeared as an engra- 
 ver as early as 1630, and his best pictures seem to 
 have been painted from that time to about 1645 or 
 50. He was extremely slow and careful in his 
 execution ; his friend Sandrart, who first taught 
 him to sketch from nature, mentions that he 
 would work a week or more at some portion of a 
 picture without showing any progress; he had 
 great difficulty in drawing the human figure or 
 animals : these were generally added by F. Lauri, 
 J. Courtois, or A. Both, and others. He died at 
 Rome in 1682. The National Gallery possesses 
 some good specimens of Claude, and there is a 
 fine collection of his drawings in the British 
 Museum. (Sandrart, V Accidentia Todesca, &c. ; 
 Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of 
 the National Gallery.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CLAUDE, J., a French protestant in the 
 highest repute as 
 
 controversialist, 1619-1687. 
 
 Isaac, his son, also a protestant min., 1653-1695. 
 
 Jean-Jacques, son of Isaac, a man of letters, 
 
 He needed all this encouragement, for a afterw. pastor of the Fr. ch. in London, 1684-1712. 
 
 157 
 
CLA 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Appius, decemvir of Rome, noted 
 in the story of Virginius, 451-449 B.C. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Appius C.ecus, a Roman censor, 
 the founder of the celeb. Appennine Way, 311 B.C. 
 
 CLAUDIUS I., by name Tiberius Drusius 
 Claudius, fourth emp. of Rome, b. B.C. 9 ; elected 
 aft. the murd. of his uncle Caligula, 41 ; poison. 54. 
 
 CLAUDIUS IL, by name Marcus Aurelius 
 Flavius Claudius, proclaimed emp. 268, d. 270. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Felix, Roman governor of Ju- 
 daja in the time of the apostle Paul, recalled 60. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Lysias, a tribune of the Roman 
 troops at Jerusalem, whose name occurs in the 
 history of Paul. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Matt., a Germ, poet, 1743-1815. 
 
 CLAUSBERG, C, a German math., 1689-1751. 
 
 CLAUSEL, Bertrand, a count and marshal 
 of France, dirt, in the wars of Napoleon, and since 
 the revol. of 1830 gov.-gen. of Algeria, 1772-1842. 
 
 CLAVEREAU, N. M., a Fr. archit., 1755-1816. 
 
 CLAVIER, Steph., a Fr. hellenist, 1762-1817. 
 
 CLA VIE RE, Stephen, born at Geneva 1735, 
 was by profession a banker, and one of the first to 
 unite with Brissot under the republican banner in 
 1789. He shared in the successes and the fall of 
 the Girondins, especially as minister of finance in 
 1792, and being arrested with the rest of his party, 
 and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, put 
 an end to his life in prison, 8th December, 1793. 
 
 CLAVIGO, Ruy Gonzales De, a distin- 
 guished Spaniard sent by Henry III. of Castile, 
 in 1403, as ambassador to the court of the great 
 Tamerlane, at Samarcand. The account which 
 he published on his return contains many impor- 
 tant observations on the countries through which 
 he passed. [J.B.] 
 
 CLAVIGERO, Francesco Saverro, a dis- 
 tinguished writer on the ancient history of Mexico, 
 its antiquities, and conquest by Spain, was bom 
 at Vera Cruz in 1720. He spent thirty-six years 
 among the Indians as Jesuit missionary, but little 
 is known of his private life. He died in Italy 
 about the end of the century. His work was pub- 
 lished in Italian in 1780-81, 4 vols. 4to, with maps 
 and plates, and is regarded as a high authority. It 
 was translated into English, London, 1787, 2 
 vols. 4to. [J.B.] 
 
 CLAYTON, Robt., bishop of Clogher, au. of an 
 ' Introduc. to the Hist, of the Jews,' &c, 1695-1758. 
 
 CLEANTHES, the pupil and successor of Zeno 
 as chief of the Stoic philosophers, 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 CLEEF, John Van, a Fl. painter, 1646-1716. 
 
 CLEAVER, Wm., bishop of St. Asaph, disting. 
 as a Greek scholar and religious writer, died 1815. 
 
 CLEGHORN, Geo., a Scotch phys., 1716-1787. 
 
 CLEIVELAND, J., a royal, and poet, 1613-59. 
 
 CLELAND, Jas., LL.D., a statis.wr., 1770-1840. 
 
 CLEMENCE of Hungary, queen of France, 
 married to Louis X. 1315, died 1328. 
 
 CLEMENT, the first of this name, bishop of 
 Rome, generally allowed to be the same that St. 
 Paul mentions as his fellow -labourer, died about 
 91. Clement IL, pope, 1046-1047. Clement 
 III., promoter of the third crusade, 1187-1191. 
 Clement IV., concluded the pragmatic sanction 
 with St. Louis, 1265-1268. Clement V., the 
 first who wore the triple mitre, and removed to 
 Avignon, under the influence of Philip the Fair, 
 1305-1314. Clement VI., noted for his political 
 
 CLE 
 activity, 1342-1352. Clement VII., under whor. 
 Rome was besieged by the Constable of France 
 and by whom Henry VIII. was excommunicated 
 1523-1534. Clement VIII., whose pontificat 
 was distinguished by the elevation of Baroiiitu 
 Bellarmine, Du Perron, and other eminent men t 
 the rank of cardinals, 1592-1605. Clement IX 
 1667-1669. Clement X., 1670-1676. Clem* 
 XL, by whom the condemnation of Jansenius wa 
 confirmed, and the bull ' Unigenitas ' promulgatec 
 1700-1721. Clement XII., 1730-1740. Cle 
 ment XIIL, noted for his political reverses, tb 
 loss of Avignon, &c, 1758-1768. Clemen 
 XIV., distinguished by his enlightened policy 
 and for his Brief suppressing the Jesuits, wb 
 afterwards poisoned him, 1769-1774. 
 
 CLEMENT, Fr., a learned Fr. monk, d. 1793 
 CLEMENT, J. M. Ber., a Fr. critic, 1742-1815 
 CLEMENT, N., a French librarian, 1647-1715 
 CLEMENT, Titus Flavius, was born towar 
 the middle of the second century. In early lifeb 
 was a pagan, and strongly addicted to philosopbij 
 cal pursuits. After travelling extensively, he btj 
 came a pupil of Pantaenus, master of a Christiaj 
 academy at Alexandria. Here he became a Chris' 
 tian and a proselyte, and ultimately rose to be th 
 head of this school of divinity, in which capacit 
 he taught with great renown during the reign <! 
 Alexander Severus. About the year 202 he retire! 
 at length to avoid persecution, and after variot 
 wanderings died about a.d. 220. Clement was aj 
 Eclectic in philosophy, but with a very decided bit] 
 to Platonism. The besetting sin of his theolog 
 is a discursive habit of speculation, withoi 
 regard to fixed principles, and the fault of hj 
 exegesis is his excessive love of allegory, which Ij 
 indulges without scruple, and on every occasio.'j 
 His books are valuable for their delineations ari 
 samples of contemporary literature and mail 
 ners. His ' Paedagogus, t in three books, contaii; 
 good instructions to a young convert, and his ' Ei, 
 hortalio ad Graecos 1 has many striking and curioij 
 thoughts in it But his best known work is h 
 ' Stromata' (patch-work) or Miscellany, which is ; 
 disorderly storehouse filled with useful and inte; 
 esting information and anecdotes. One of his traci 
 ' On the Danger of Riches' has been translated in 
 English, London, 1711. The best edition of b 
 works is that of Potter, Oxford, 1715, 2 vol 
 folio. Some of his treatises have been lost, such . 
 his ' Hypotyposes 1 or commentaries. [-LE 
 
 CLEMENTI, Muz., an Ital. pianist, 1752-183* 
 CLEMENTI, Prosp., an It. sculptor, d. 15& 
 CLEOBULUS, one of the seven Greek sage| 
 and king of Rhodes, 6th century b.c. 
 
 CLEOMBROTUS, the first of the name, kii 
 of Sparta, 480-479 B.C.; the second, 380-37;] 
 the third, dethroned by Leonidas, 259-239. 
 
 CLEOMENES, the first of the name, king 
 Sparta, 519-489 B.C.; the second, 371-309 ; til 
 third put an end to his existence in prison, 238-211 
 
 CLEOPATRA, the second wife of Philip 
 Macedon, after his death cruelly murdered, tj 
 gether with her son, by Olympias, the first wife j 
 Philip, and mother of Alexander the Great. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, the daugh. of Olympias and M 
 of Alex, the Great, q. of Epirus by her marr. wi 
 Alexander, her maternal uncle, 337 ; assass. 308 B.v] 
 CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egjfjj 
 
 158 
 
CLE 
 
 as joint successor with her brother to her father 
 
 ;olemy Auletes, 52 B.C. ; and being deprived of 
 
 share in the government, was re-established 
 Ca;sar as sole sovereign, 47. Some fourteen 
 ars later several eastern provinces were added to 
 r dominions by Anthony, and on the defeat of the 
 ;ter at the battle of Actium she put herself to 
 ath, probably by the bite of an asp, b.c; 30. 
 CLEPHIS, a king of the Lombards, 573-575. 
 CLERFAYT, Count De, a field marshal of 
 astria, dist. as com. in the Fr. war, 1733-1798. 
 CLERK, C, a fellow-voy. with Cook, 1741-79. 
 CLERK, J., a Scotch wr. on tactics, 1730-1812. 
 CLERKE, Captain Edward, commanded 
 e ship Discovery in Cook's third voyage; on 
 tiose death he succeeded to the command of the 
 tion. In attempting to carry out the inten- 
 of his late superior, he penetrated through 
 ig's Straits to lat. 70 33', when, being 
 d by a barrier of ice, he prepared to return 
 ; but died of decline on reaching the harbour 
 
 etro-paulski, in Kamtschatka. He had served 
 t under Byron. [J.B.] 
 
 CLERMONT, J. De, a Fr. commander, k. 1356. 
 CLERMONT-GALLERANDE, C. G., a mili- 
 ry officer and partizan of Louis XVIIL, author 
 'Memoirs,' 1744-1823. 
 
 CLERMONT-TONNERRE, Cardinal Anne 
 st. Jules De, a deputy to the states-general in 
 r 89, and strenuous opponent of the French min- 
 try in 1829 ; author of a ' Journal' concerning the 
 ptivity of Louis XVI. in the temple, 1749-1830. 
 CLERSELLIER, C, a Cartesian phil., 1614-84. 
 CLEVELAND, J., aroval. and pol. wr., d. 1659. 
 CLIFFORD, G., a Dutch botanist, last century. 
 CLIFFORD, George, earl of Cumberland, one 
 'Q. Elizabeth's most famous sea capt., 1558-1605. 
 CLINE, Henry, F.R.S., a surgeon, died 1827. 
 CLINTON, George, an Amer. statesman and 
 jneral during the war of independence, 1739-1812. 
 CLINTON, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of 
 le Eng. forces in America, recalled 1782, d. 1795. 
 CLl>SON, Olivier De, const, of Fr., 14th ct. 
 CLIVE, Catherine, an Irish actress, d. 1785. 
 CLIVE. Robert Clive, born 29th Sept., 1725, 
 as the son of a gentleman of good family, but 
 nail estate, near Market Drayton, in Shropshire. 
 obert was noted, in his boyhood, as a daring and 
 nmanageable spirit ; and at the age of eighteen was 
 s pnt out to Madras as a writer in the Company's 
 jrvice an appointment which was then regarded 
 i a very different light to what it is now and 
 
 CLI 
 
 which Give's friends looked on as providing for 
 them a good riddance of a wild and unpromising 
 youth. Our scanty possessions in India were then 
 menaced by the French, and their native allies ; 
 and, fortunately for Clive, he was soon called on, 
 like other merchant-clerks in India, to turn soldier 
 in self-defence. His mercantile employment had 
 been, in the last degree, distasteful to him ; and 
 he had twice in one day, at Madras, attempted 
 suicide, by snapping a loaded pistol at his own 
 head. The pistol missed fire each time. Clive 
 asked a friend, who came into the room soon after- 
 wards, to fire the pistol out of the window ; the 
 pistol then went off. Satisfied thus that the 
 weapon had been duly primed and loaded, Clive 
 sprang up, exclaiming with an oath, ' I must be 
 reserved for something great,' and gave up the 
 idea of suicide. In 1747, three years after his 
 arrival in India, he formally abandoned the mer- 
 cantile profession, and took a captain's commis- 
 sion. He then rapidly distinguished himself, not 
 only as a most daring, but as a most skilful leader; 
 and showed pre-eminently the true characteristic 
 of genius the power of inspiring all whom he 
 commanded with his own energy and resolution. 
 In 1751 the French were besieging the important 
 city of Trichinopoly ; and Clive proposed to make 
 a diversion in its favour, by an expedition from 
 Madras against Arcot. At the head of 300 
 sepoys and 200 Europeans, Clive surprised and 
 captured Arcot; and then defended that place 
 successfully against the hostile army, 10,000 
 strong, that speedily besieged him. Being joined 
 at last by a body of friendly Mahrattas, Clive 
 advanced against his enemies, completely defeated 
 them, relieved Trichinopoly, and captured several 
 places of importance, which had been in the hands 
 of the French or their allies. In 1753 the state 
 of Clive's health compelled him to return to Eng- 
 land, where he was received with great honour. 
 Both the king's ministers and the Company were 
 now eager to employ him ; and in 1755 he was 
 sent out to India as lieut.-colonel in the army, and 
 governor of St. David's. He destroyed some nests 
 of pirates on the Coromandel coast, and reached 
 Madras on the 20th June, 1756. On that very 
 day the English in Bengal experienced the heavy 
 disaster of the capture of Calcutta by Surajah 
 Dowlah, the savage who caused his prisoners to 
 perish in the hideous agonies of the Black Hole. 
 Clive sailed from Madras to the Hooghly to save 
 the English power in Bengal from being utterly 
 destroyed by Surajah and his French auxiliaries. 
 He drove the enemy out of Calcutta, and a tem- 
 porary treaty was made ; but hostilities soon re- 
 commenced, and on the 23d June, 1757, Clive, 
 with 3,000 men, only one-third of whom were 
 Europeans, encountered and utterly routed the 
 nabob's army of 50,000, in the ever-memorable 
 battle of Plassey. This decisive victory secured for 
 the English not only the mastery of Bengal, 
 but the permanent ascendancy over the East. 
 Clive gained other important military advan- 
 tages over our European rivals, as well as 
 over native enemies, and returned to England in 
 1760, loaded with wealth and glory. He was 
 enthusiastically received, and created (by an Irish 
 
 Eeerage) Lord Clive, baron of Plassey. In 1764 
 e was again sent out to India, where our affairs 
 159 
 
CLO 
 
 had fallen into confusion during his absence. 
 Olive on this occasion had no opportunity of 
 earning more military fame; but he honourably 
 distinguished himself by his exertions in the more 
 difficult and invidious duty of reforming the gross 
 abuses that abounded in our Indian administration. 
 This made him many enemies; and on his final 
 return to England, in 1767, he became the object 
 of incessant obloquy and attack in the public 
 press, in the discussions at the India House, and 
 ultimately in the House of Commons. Clive was, 
 in fact, far from a faultless man. Throughout his 
 career in the East, he had, in his negotiations and 
 diplomatic dealings, acted on the maxim, that it 
 was quite allowable to fight the cunning and 
 faithless natives with their own weapons. He 
 said, in his defence, that it was a matter of true 
 policy and justice to deceive such villains. Acts 
 of chicanery, and even of forgery, could thus be 
 truly charged against Clive, which, in the judg- 
 ment of many of the best of his countrymen, no 
 amount of success could justify. But Clive's fear- 
 less defence of himself in parliament was very 
 effective. The magnitude of his services was un- 
 deniable; and the House of Commons, after a 
 long debate on 23d May, 1773, refused to vote 
 that Lord Clive had abused his power, and came 
 to the resolution, that ' Lord Clive has rendered 
 great and meritorious services to his country.' 
 But though thus honourably acquitted in parlia- 
 ment, Clive's haughty spirit suffered deeply from 
 the attacks aimed at him; his health also was 
 impaired, and he aggravated fearfully both his 
 mental and physical prostration by the immoder- 
 ate use of opium. Robert Lord Clive, baron of 
 Plassev, died by his own hand on the 22d Novem- 
 ber, 1774. [E.S.C.] 
 
 CLODIUS, a Roman tribune, killed 51 B.C. 
 
 CLODOMIR, king of Orleans, 523, killed 524. 
 
 CLOOTS, Jean Baptiste Du Val De 
 Grace, better known as Anach arsis Cloots, the 
 classical prenom being adopted by him from 
 Greek history as a substitute for his baptismal 
 names, whicli he rejected as having a supersti- 
 tious origin, was a Prussian baron, notorious for 
 his violence in conjunction with the Chaumettes 
 and Heberts of the French revolution, and for his 
 intense hatred of any natural or revealed religion. 
 He was a political fanatic of the blackest dye, and 
 openly proclaimed himself ' the personal enemy of 
 Jesus Christ.' This sentence, from his book en- 
 titled ' De la Republiqne Universelle,' expresses at 
 once the character of the man and the tendency of 
 his doctrines : ' The people is the sovereign and 
 God of the world; France is the centre of the 
 People-God ; only fools believe in any other God 
 or Supreme Being.' His particular monomania 
 was a universal republic, of which he professed 
 himself the ambassador, with the title of ' Orator of 
 the Human Race,' and in this character he paraded 
 his followers of all nations, or vagabonds attired 
 to represent them, before the bar of the national 
 assembly. He had visited the greater part of 
 Europe, and expended a considerable fortune to 
 propagate his opinions, for which he at last 
 round a platform in the national convention, 
 where he was sent by the department of the Oise, 
 1792. He is the author of several works pub- 
 lished between 1780 and 1793, the last entitled 
 
 COB 
 
 * Base Constitntionelle de la Rdpublique du Gem 
 Humain.' He was included in the accusation < 
 St. Just, and executed with Chaumette an 
 others, 1794. [E.R. 
 
 CLOSS, J. B., a Ger. phys. and poet, 1735-87 
 
 CLOSTERMAN, John, a Ger. paint., d. 1713 
 
 CLOTAIRE, the first of this name, king ( 
 France, 497-558 ; the second, 584-628 ; the thin 
 king of Burgundy, died 670 ; the fourth, nomini 
 king under Charles Martel, 717-720. 
 
 CLOTILDA, the queen of Clovis, 493-543. 
 
 CLOUD, St., a son of Clodomir, devoted to 
 monastic life after the murder of his brother, 533 
 
 CLOVIS, the first of this name, king of Franc 
 celebrated for his conversion to Christianity an 
 his extensive conquests, born 467 ; succeeded 481 
 married Clotilda, the princess of Burgundy, 49 
 acknowledged king of his consolidated dominior 
 by the emperor of the East, and fixed his resident 
 at Paris, 510 ; died 511. 
 
 CLOVIS II., king of Neustria and Burgund 1 
 638-656 ; the third of the name, 691-695. 
 
 CLOWES, John, a clergyman of the Churc 
 of England, more than sixty years rector of S 
 John's, Manchester, distinguished as a religiot 
 writer, and translator of Swedenborg, 1743-1831 
 
 CLUGNY, F. De, an ascetic writer, 1637-169. 
 
 CLUTTERBUCK, R., an Engl, hist., 1772-183 
 
 COBB, James, an Engl, dramatist, 1756-181; 
 
 COBB, Samuel, an English poet, died 1713. 
 
 COBBET, William, a self-taught man, wl 
 obtained great celebrity and influence during tl 
 early part of the nineteenth century, by his geniu 
 energy, and waywardness, is generally said to ha- 
 been born in the year 1762. His father wasi 
 fanner, who kept a small public house in Surrej 
 William was brought up to that stolid ignoran 
 which has long been the general inheritance oft'. 
 English peasant ; but his was not a temper to e 
 dure such bondage, and from an early age 
 greedily acquired knowledge, stamping all he o 
 tained with that mark of individuality which tj 
 self-learner sets on his acquisitions. Fate ma 
 him for some time engrossing-clerk to an att( j 
 ney, a pursuit which his soul abhorred. It appe:j 
 to have been his loathing towards the drudgerf i 
 the desk that drove him to enlist in an infant! 
 regiment destined for American service. He ij 
 came a testimony to the small amount which tl 
 routine duties of a soldier can take from the avr 
 able services of an active mind, for in his leisij 
 hours he gave himself an education such as f 
 hard-working scholastically-taught men posse 
 and performed his duty so punctually and effi 
 tively that he was immediately raised over I 
 heads of many seniors to the rank of sergeant-ni 
 jor. In his service in America he met the yort 
 girl who afterwards became his wife, and his M 
 duct towards her throughout, as well as his domj 
 tic virtues generally, should be balanced agd 
 his public failings. In the year 1791 he desired I 
 discharge from the army and obtained it on I 
 ground of good conduct. He brought a charge! 
 peculation against four officers under whom he 'I 
 served, and when a large body of witnesses wi 
 in attendance, and other preparations were m J 
 for the trial, he abandoned it by suddenly (lis I 
 pearing, leaving it still a question whether! 
 acted under caprice or settled design. From 
 
 160 
 
COB 
 
 Iboriod to the day of his death, he led a restless 
 I ife as a political writer. To enumerate his works 
 Ipy their mere names, would fill more space than 
 lean be afforded here for his biography. The work 
 lor which he was chiefly noted in his day was the 
 I Weekly Register,' which kept him for thirty- three 
 ttears in the eye of the public. But his most meri- 
 torious service to literature was in his English and 
 [French Grammar; while his best gift to the humbler 
 plasses, whose cause he always professed, was his 
 Cottage Economy.' He was a signal exception to 
 I :he uneventful nature of literary lives, for his pen 
 lvas ever exciting new sources of conflict, and the 
 [prosecutions he underwent from men of all parties, 
 nake in themselves an incidental history. It may 
 >e said that he never supported an opinion which 
 le did not live to attack, or praised a man whom 
 he did not live to censure ; and in his old age he 
 peemed to be returning to those high Tory opini- 
 ons of his younger years, which he employed his 
 middle age in lashing with savage scorn. He had 
 po a wonderful degree the capacity not only of ad- 
 vocating a particular side in a question, but of 
 making whatever he took up seem vitally impor- 
 tant, while everything of a different character was 
 hildish or foolish. The reader of the greater 
 bortion of his works would pronounce his a mind 
 lapable of appreciating merely the material ele- 
 ments of existence, and entirely destitute of ideal- 
 pm, poetic dreaming, or enthusiasm. But this 
 ppearance is mainly owing to his perverse cen- 
 ures of all his fellow-workers in the intellectual 
 field. He was in reality a wayward victim to the 
 pfluence of fancy, though it took its character 
 rom his energetic nature, and there are few such 
 nstances of a perverse idolatry recorded in later 
 imes, as he committed when he brought the bones 
 f Thomas Paine to Britain to be consecrated by 
 lis homage, like the relics of a saint. He had 
 lade several attempts to enter parliament, but 
 id not succeed until after the passing of the Re- 
 nin Act, when in 1832 he was returned for Old- 
 , In the House of Commons, where only 
 wonderful eloquence covers such defects as caprice 
 nd factiousness, he found his level as a senator, 
 nd few members had less influence. To the last, 
 owever, his capacity was the object of* high ad- 
 miration. Yet he left nothing behind him indica- 
 te of a permanent influence on the opinions or 
 onduct of mankind. He died on the 18th of 
 une, 1835. [J-H.B. 
 
 COBDEN, Edward, an Engl, divine, d. 1764. 
 COBENTZEL, Charles, Count De, an Aus- 
 rian diplomatist and governor of the low countries, 
 Kinder of the Academy of Sciences at Brussels, 
 712-1770. Louis, the son and successor to the 
 itle of the preceding, a distinguished diplomatist, 
 753-1808. John-Philip, cousin of Louis, a 
 iploma. and vice-chancellor of Austria, 1741-1810. 
 COBURG, Frederick Josiah, duke of Saxe, 
 ii Austrian general in the coalition against 
 Vance, dftd. by Moreau and Jourdan, 1737-1815. 
 1 COCCEIUS, Auctus, a Rom. arch., 1st c. B.C. 
 COCCEIUS, or COOK, John, an eminent He- 
 rewprof., teacher of theolo. at Leyden, 1603-1669. 
 CO-CHEOU-KING, a Chinese astron., 13th ct. 
 COCHLjEUS, John, a famous opponent of the 
 formation, especially of Luther, 1479-1552. 
 COCHRAN, Wm., a Scotch artist, 1738-1785. 
 
 COK 
 
 COCHRANE, Sir Alex. Forester Inglis, 
 an English admiral, dist. in the wars with America 
 and France, especially for an unequal combat with 
 five French vessels in Chesapeake Bay, 1758-1832. 
 
 COCHRANE, Archibald, earl of Dundonald, 
 dis. for his useful discov. in chemistry, 1749-1831. 
 
 COCHRANE, Captain John Dundas, R.N., 
 an eccentric traveller who performed a pedestrian 
 journey through France and the peninsula; and 
 afterwards through Russia and Siberia, as far as 
 Petro-paulski, in Kamtschatka; whence, having 
 married a young lady of the countiy, he returned 
 to England. His travels were published in 1824. 
 Having engaged in mining enterprises, he went to 
 Colombia, where he d. when contemplating a journey 
 on foot through the whole of S. America. [J.B.] 
 
 COCKBURN, Catharine, formerly Miss 
 Trotter, a dram., philos., and relig. wr., 1679-1749. 
 
 COCKER, Edward, an arithmet., 1631-1715. 
 
 COCLES, Bartholomew Della Rocca, an 
 Italian physician and physiognomist, 1467-1504. 
 
 CODRIKA, Panagioti, a Greek diplomatist 
 and man of letters, born 1660, died in Paris, 1830. 
 
 CODRINGTON, Chr., distinguished for his 
 noble bequest in aid of All-Souls College, and the 
 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
 Foreign Parts, 1668-1710. 
 
 CODRUS, the lastk. of Athens, 1160-1132, b.c. 
 
 COEN, J. P., founder of Batavia, died 1629. 
 
 COEUR, James, a wealthy French merchant, 
 who distinguished himself in the political history 
 of Charles VII., 1400-1461. 
 
 COFFEY, Ch., an Irish dramatist, died 1745. 
 
 COFFINHALD, J. B., vice-president of the 
 revolutionary tribunal, shared in the fall of Robes- 
 pierre, executed 1794. 
 
 COGAN, Thomas, an English physician and 
 philosophical writer, 1736-1818, A physician and 
 medical writer of the same name died 1607. 
 
 COGGESHALLE, Ralph, an English annalist, 
 13th century. 
 
 COHORN, Menno, Baron De, a military officer 
 and engineer, called the Dutch Vauban, 1641-1704. 
 
 COIJNET, Isaac, a Fr. musician, 1736-1821. 
 
 COKAYNE, Sir Aston, a dram, poet, 17th ct. 
 
 COKE, Sir Edward, a great practical and 
 institutional lawyer, was born at Mileham in the 
 county of Norfolk, on 1st February, 1552. He 
 was called to the bar on the 20th April, 1578. 
 Next year he began his career of fame and prac- 
 tice by being appointed recorder of Lyons Inn. 
 He was apponted recorder of Norwich in 1586, 
 and of London in 1592. He had not, however, 
 held the office for a year, when he resigned it on be- 
 ing appointed solicitor-general. In 1594 he be- 
 came attorney-general. He had in such difficult 
 times much very serious and laborious business 
 to transact as a crown lawyer. He has been sub- 
 ject not unjustly to reproach for his overbearing 
 and insulting demeanour to the unfortunate vic- 
 tims of the crown prosecutions, and especially to- 
 wards Sir Walter Raleigh. He was a man of 
 haughty manners, severe spirit, and irritable 
 temper, and he had little toleration for anything 
 standing in the path of what he deemed his duty. 
 But his severity was not dictated by subserviency 
 to the court, and no influence in the corrupt reign 
 of James could prompt him to go out of the line 
 of his duty. He was made chief justice of the 
 161 M 
 
COL 
 
 Common Pleas in 1606, and of the King's Bench 
 in 1613. Here he exerted himself sternly in the 
 investigation of the horrible system of iniquity 
 which Somerset the court favourite concentrated 
 round him, and showed a determination which not 
 only overawed the parasites, but intimidated 
 James himself. In 1616 a systematic attack, in 
 which Bacon had the baseness to aid, was made 
 on the resolute chief justice, and he was dismissed. 
 He was partially restored to favour, but was again 
 subject to attacks, which very naturally disposed 
 him to put his great acquirements at the disposal 
 of the constitutional opposition, which arising in the 
 reign of James, completed its work in that of 
 
 COL 
 
 
 COLEBROOKE, H. T., an English Orientalist 
 1765-1837. 
 COLEONT, B., an Italian condotticre, d. 1475. 
 COLERIDGE, Hartley, son of Samuel Taj, 
 lor Coleridge, remarkable for his original talent* 
 as a poet and essayist, and for his unhappy habits, 
 1797-1849. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Henry Nelson, cousin of the 
 preceding, a distinguished lawyer and classical 
 scholar, died 1843. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, the youngest 
 son of the vicar of St. Mary Ottery in Dm 
 shire, was born at that place in October 1" 
 _ Left an orphan in his ninth year, he was educ 
 Charles. He owed much of his success in early i for seven years at Christ's Hospital, where C" 
 life to two marriages the one bringing fortune, | Lamb was his fellow -pupil ; and in 1791 he be 
 the other connection. After spending his old age I came a student of Jesus College, Cambridge. I 
 
 1772. 
 ,'harles 
 
 in wealthy retirement, he died on 3d September, 
 1633. His celebrated ' Institute,' which grew out 
 of a commentary on ' Littleton's Treatise on Ten- 
 ures,' has made him the great oracle of English 
 law. His expressions, however antiquated they 
 may appear, are deemed sacred, and are always 
 embodied where their substance has not been 
 superseded by changes of the law, in the works of 
 subsequent commentators. [J.H.B.] 
 
 COLARDEAN, C. P., a Fr. poet, 1732-1776. 
 
 COLBATCH, John, an English pharmacopo- 
 list, 17th century. 
 
 COLBERT, Jean Baptiste. a financial states- 
 man, was born at Rheims in 1619. His immedi- 
 ate origin was somewhat obscure. It is disputed 
 whether his father was a wine merchant or a 
 councillor of state, but he met the prejudices of 
 the noblesse against his rise to power by profes- 
 sing to belong to an ancient Scottish family. The 
 recommendation to employ him was a legacy of 
 Cardinal Mazarin to Louis XIV., and in 1661 he 
 was made comptroller-general of finances. Using 
 
 had already devoured numberless books of 
 kinds, had especially attached himself in boyh< 
 to metaphysics and theology, and had been inoc 
 lated with a love for poetry by the sonnet 
 Bowles. At the university his reading was i 
 but it was desultory and irregular, and hi 
 all directed to the sciences which led to i 
 cal distinction. In 1793, vexed by debts, he 
 to London, and enlisted in a dragoon regiii 
 from which he was released after four mon 
 and returned to Cambridge for another term or 1 
 Now, however, his theological creed had 
 unitarian ; and he at once gave up all views to? 
 academical preferment. In 1794 was publ 
 the drama called 'The Fall of Robespierre,' o 
 which the first act was Coleridge's, and the otho 
 two were Southey's ; and the two poets, then en- 
 tertaining, in common, many of those extreim 
 opinions which they afterwards abandoned a 
 thoroughly, occupied themselves at Bristol a 
 planning a new social community, which the* 
 were to found in the United States. At thi 
 
 the great power either for good or evil belonging j town and elsewhere Coleridge delivered courses q 
 to this high office, he redeemed much money to ! public lectures (some of which he published) 
 the state by mercilessly scrutinizing the proceed- j dealing both with politics and with religion ; and h, 
 ings and liabilities of the farmers-general, and : also preached in unitarian pulpits. In 17L>5 h 
 came to an adjustment with the national creditors. | married Miss Flicker, whose sister soon afterward 
 He extended the colonial power of France, canned I became Mrs. Southev. In this year also he becam 
 
 on great public works, created a navy, and fostered 
 into existence several manufactures. In this last 
 operation, as his administration was very prosper- 
 ous, he seemed to justify the system of govern- 
 ment protection and interference with trade, but 
 it was the spending of the resources which his 
 vigorous financial system put at his disposal that 
 created the appearance of prosperity, and subse- 
 quent reaction showed that successful trade could 
 not be artificially created. He founded the Aca- 
 demies of Inscriptions, of Sciences, and of Archi- 
 He died in 1683, neglected by the court 
 
 tecture. 
 
 and suspected bv the people, who charged him 
 with acquiring his great fortune by unworthy 
 
 means. [J.H.B. j I ary men. The tragedy of ' Remorse 
 
 COLCHESTER, Lord. See Abbot, Charles. J written in 1797; though being despised by Sh 
 
 acquainted with Wordsworth. In 1796 he puh 
 lished, without success of any kind, ten numbers ofj 
 political miscellany called ' The Watchman ;' ai 
 in the same year appeared his first volume 
 'Juvenile Poems,' to which, in a second editioi 
 year afterwards, other pieces were added, 
 genius, however, was not exhibited in its st 
 till the summer of 1798, when Wordsworth's 
 ous volume of 'Lyrical Ballads' appeared, 
 contained Coleridge's 'Ancient Mariner,' 'L 
 'The Nightingale,' and 'The Foster-mot- 
 Tale.' The first part of ' Christabel ' was writ 
 in 1797, the second in 1800 ; but both parts w 
 for a good many years known only to a few 
 
 COLCHEN, Victor, Count De, a French 
 diplomatist and senator, 1752-1830. 
 
 COLDEN, Cadwallader, a Scotch physician, 
 medical author, and naturalist, 1688-1776. 
 
 COLE, Sir Chr., a naval com., 1771-1836. 
 
 COLE, Sir G. L, a penins. officer, 1772-1842. 
 
 COLE, Henry, a dist. Rom. Cath. div., d. 1519. 
 
 COLE, William, an English herbalist, d. 1662. 
 
 it did not find its way either to the stage or to I 
 press. It is thus a fact, one of the many sing 
 ones in the history of this remarkable man, 
 almost all the poems on which his celebrity 
 were composed in one short period, not i 
 much in either direction beyond his tv 
 year. We of this generation, whose 
 ceived it3 poetic lessons from a school 
 
 162 
 
COL 
 
 COL 
 
 leridge is one of the masters, have difficulty in { identical with the' Natur-philosophie' of Schelling; 
 
 Krehending aright either the real importance of I although in many points of detail there is much 
 Midge's poetry, or the reasons which naturally | of originality and acuteness both of thinking and 
 x>sed it for a time to extremes of dislike or ad- of illustration. The dreamy indistinctness -which, 
 ration. It bears hardly any traces of those j now and ever after, hung about the philosophy of 
 Jtrines, in obedience to which Wordsworth j Coleridge, was owing, doubtless, in part, to "the 
 rked so doggedly : unless such doctrines die- j difficulty of the problems with which, in emula- 
 ed to him the outline of ' The Ancient Mariner.' tion of his German models, he continually ventured 
 
 leed he never, either then or afterwards, was 
 ided in poetical composition by any deliberately- 
 tceived theory. In poetry, as in philosophy, his 
 uking was fine and subtle,*but neither systematic, 
 tent, nor clear. But in imagery, as in 
 Right, his poetic originality is marvellous ; his 
 tures float in an atmosphere romantically and 
 ally beautiful ; and his tone of sentiment varies 
 m an imaginative rapture to solemn or intense 
 derness. 4 Christabel,' a poet's hazy dream of 
 eliness. suggested much both in matter and in 
 sification to Scott, who ad'miringly owned his 
 igations : it and others of his poems prompted 
 re than any other works to the later poets of the 
 le ; they were the prototypes of that visionary 
 uty which was elaborated bv Keats and Shelley; 
 ne owed more to them than Byron, who pro- 
 to despise them. Even before all these fine 
 had been written, the poet's worldly help- 
 became but too evident. Scheme after 
 failed in securing to him the means of 
 and among these was a proposal by 
 friend Mr. Poole to procure an an- 
 for his support. In 1798 the munificence 
 Wedgwood enabled him to reside for more 
 a a year in Germany ; an event which opened 
 him a new world of thought, and modified 
 jntially the whole subsequent history of his in- 
 ect On his return to England he resumed an 
 agement he had already formed for contribut- 
 political articles and poems to the Morning 
 tf newspaper, which was followed, some years 
 T, by similar employment in the Courier. But 
 withstanding the acknowledged ability of his 
 lys, he was neither practical nor industrious 
 ten to be a useful newspaper writer. He resided 
 jfly, for a considerable time, in the Lake dis- 
 t, near Southey and Wordsworth; and for 
 n months in 1804 and 1805 he made his last 
 anpt as a man of business, by acting as secre- 
 t to Sir Alexander Ball, the governor of Malta. 
 fis noble translation or paraphrase of Schiller's 
 aflenstein' appeared in 1800. In 1809 and 
 he wrote and published at Grasmere, in 27 
 ribers. the periodical called ' The Friend,' which, 
 agh undigested and ill calculated for popular- 
 (uke all his prose works), contains much both 
 laep speculation and of fine criticism. In 1813 
 morse ! was acted with much success at Drury 
 ie; and 'Christaber was published in 1816. 
 lhat year and the next appeared the two ' Lay 
 roons' ;' and 1817 produced both the dramatic 
 m 'Zapolya,' the poems entitled 'Sibylline 
 tcs,' and "the series of essays called the ' Bio- 
 [ioA Literaria.' In the last of these works he 
 e his earliest exposition of those philosophical 
 lions which he had formed since his return 
 Q the continent, deriving his groundwork 
 nly from the German thinkers who had writ- 
 smce Kant. His metaphysical system, here 
 tented in its speculative aspect, is in substance 
 
 163 
 
 to grapple. Much of it, however, arose from the 
 native character of his own mind, and from that 
 tendency towards excursive musing which had be- 
 come habitual with him. The borrowings from 
 Schelling and others which he made so freely in the 
 ' Biographia,' were repeated, Wilhelm Schlegel 
 being now the lender, in a course of Lectures on 
 Literature which he delivered in London in 1818. 
 He had lectured previously ; but this is the only 
 course which has been preserved, and even it only 
 in the shape of fragmentary notes. Some time 
 before this he had found a quiet and friendly 
 home, in which were spent the last eighteen years 
 of his life. It was in the house of Mr. Gillman, 
 surgeon at Highgate, where he died in July, 1834. 
 There both mind and body were restored, as far as 
 it was possible, from the excitement and ill health 
 which had been caused by the use of opium, re- 
 sorted to at first as a palliative of illness, but after- 
 wards taken habitually. There, also, in the close 
 vicinity of London, Coleridge, one of the most strik- 
 ing and eloquent of talkers, drew round him atten- 
 tive listeners to his meditative harangues, and had 
 his words recorded by hands as reverent as those 
 that had chronicled the sayings of Johnson. Some 
 of the fruits were published as his ' Table-Talk.' 
 The principal aim of his thoughts in those later 
 years was the construction of a Philosophy of Re- 
 ligion, bearing a spiritual and mvstical cast, and 
 quite alien from the opinions of his youth ; and to 
 this point tend, more or less directly." almost all his 
 works of that period. In 1825 appeared the ' Aids 
 to Reflection f in 1830 the work ' On the Consti- 
 tution of the Chnrch and State;' extracts from 
 his note-books, with the lectures of 1818, and a 
 good many poems, made up four volumes of his 
 ' Literary Remains,' published in 1836-39 ; and in 
 1840 was printed his short treatise on the inspira- 
 tion of the Scriptures, entitled ' Confessions of an 
 Inquiring Spirit.' [W.S.J 
 
 [Coleridge"! CotUtsre.] 
 
 COLIGSL, GAsrARD De, marshal of France. 
 
COL 
 
 commander at the battle of Marignnno, died 1522. 
 Odet, his son, cardinal archbishop of Toulouse, 
 converted to protestantism, poisoned by his valet, 
 1515-1571. Gaspard, another son, celebrated 
 as leader of the protestants and opponent of Guise, 
 and one of the first victims of St. Bartholomew, 
 1517-1572. Francois Dandelot, a younger 
 brother, also a protestant leader and general, 1511- 
 1569. Gaspard, son of Francois, marshal of 
 France, 1584-1646. Gaspard, son of the preced- 
 ing, lieutenant-general in the royal army, whose 
 son was the last of the Colignis, 1605-1639. 
 
 COLIGNI, John De, descended from another 
 branch, a lieut.-gen., author of 'Memoirs,' d. 1686. 
 
 COLIGNI, Henrietta, a Fr. poetess, d. 1673. 
 
 COLLATINUS, Lucius Tarquinius, nephew 
 of Tarquin, and husb. of Lucretia, consul 509 B.C. 
 
 COLLE, C, a French dramatic wr., 1709-1783. 
 
 COLLIER, Arthur, an original and curious 
 writer, born in 1680, died in 1732. In 1713 he 
 published his singular work ' Clavis Universalis ' 
 a book in remarkable analogy with the writings 
 of Berkeley. It is worthy of attention. 
 
 COLLIER, Jeremiah, one of the English non- 
 jurors of the revolution of 1688, celebrated for his 
 attack on the immorality of the stage, 1650-1726. 
 
 COLLIN, Henry De, a Ger. dram., 1772-1811. 
 
 COLLIN, H. J., a German med. wr., d. 1784. 
 
 COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, J. F., a French 
 comic poet and mem. of the Institute, 1755-1806. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, Cuthbert, Admiral Lord, 
 distinguished at the blockade of Toulon, the battle 
 of Cape St. Vincent, the blockade of Brest, and 
 especially at Trafalgar, where he succeeded to the 
 command on the fall of Nelson, 1748-1810. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, Ed., a naval officer, d. 1835. 
 
 COLLINO, Ignatus, an It. sculp., 1724-1793. 
 
 COLLINS, Arth., a genealog. wr., 1682-1760. 
 
 COLLINS, J., an English geometr., 1624-1683. 
 
 COLLINS, John Anthony, born 1676, died 
 in 1729 ; a daring freethinker, and a friend of 
 Locke. He attached himself to the most objec- 
 tionable part of Locke's system, denying human 
 liberty, and of course impugning immortality. 
 His writings do not contain much that can in- 
 terest the student now. He was one of the adver- 
 saries of Dr. Clarke. 
 
 COLLINS, Samuel, an English phys., 17th ct. 
 
 COLLINS, Wm., a disting. artist, 1787-1847. 
 
 COLLINS, William, the most interesting of 
 all the minor poets of England, was born at Chi- 
 chester, in 1720, and died there in the care of his 
 sister, 1756. He was the son of a respectable 
 tradesman of that city, and was educated at Win- 
 chester and Oxford. Before leaving the university 
 he published the ' Oriental Eclogues,' along with an 
 epistle to Sir Thomas Hanmer on his edition of 
 Shakspeare. In 1744 he came to London as a 
 literary adventurer, and about two years after- 
 wards published his ' Odes,' and made the acquain- 
 tance of Dr. Johnson, who held him in high 
 esteem. His life in the metropolis seems to have 
 been irregular, and until the death of an uncle 
 who left nim a legacy of 2,000, was one of con- 
 tinual hardship. His conduct to his publishers 
 on the receipt of this little fortune was most 
 honourable, his first use of it being to repay the 
 losses they had sustained by rating his genius 
 more highly than the unappreciating public. Un- 
 
 COL 
 
 happily the seeds of disease and occasional insan 
 had been too deeply sown in his former abj 
 condition to be eradicated, even by the alterat 
 of climate and the scenes of other lands, and m 
 a short sojourn in France, he passed through 
 doors of a lunatic asylum to his early home. 1 
 tribute paid to his memory by Dr. Johnson is 
 long to cite here, but some passages of it must i 
 be omitted : ' The appearance of Collins,' he sa 
 'was decent and manly, his knowledge con 
 derable, his views extensive, his conversation e 
 gant, and his disposition cheerful. He was a ir 
 of extensive literature, and of vigorous faculti 
 He was acquainted not only with the lean 
 tongues, but with the Italian, French, and Sp? 
 
 ish languages His morals were pure, a 
 
 his opinions pious : in a long continuance 
 poverty and long habits of dissipation, it cam 
 be expected that any character should be exac 
 uniform. There is a degree of want by which 1 
 freedom of agency is almost destroyed ; and k 
 association with fortuitous companions will 
 last relax the strictness of truth, and abase 1 
 fervour of sincerity. That this man, wise a 
 virtuous as he was, passed always unentang 
 through the snares of life, it would be prejud 
 and temerity to affirm ; but it may be said that 
 least he preserved the source of action unpollufc 
 that his principles were never shaken, that 
 distinctions of right and wrong were never c( 
 founded, and that his faults had nothing of mal 
 nity or design.' With regard to his poetical genii 
 there can be no hesitation in pronouncing the 0< 
 of William Collins to be unsurpassed by anythi 
 of the same species of composition in the Engl 
 language, and that to the ' Passions ' is a perf 
 masterpiece of poetical description. The Orien 
 Eclogues are exquisite portraitures of natural fe 
 ing, and, to do them full justice, perfect cabu 
 pictures of Eastern scenery. [E.I 
 
 COLLINSON, Peter, an English natural 
 and antiquarian, 1694-1768. 
 
 COLLOT D'HERBOIS, Jean Marie, kna 
 for some twenty years previous to the Frer 
 revolution as a dramatic author and actor, a 
 afterwards as a sanguinary Jacobin, was born 
 Paris 1750, and commenced his political career, 
 a club orator, and author of the famous 'J 
 manack of Father Gerard,' which raised him ij 
 such notoriety that he was sent to the natiol 
 convention by the department of the Seine 171 
 His first act was to propose a decree declaring ] 
 abolition of royalty, and ever after his vtl 
 was one of the most influential in the Jaccl 
 Club, the Committee of Public Safety, and j 
 convention, and was always raised in favouil 
 the most violent measures. He was a marl 
 drunken debauched habits, but had the advantl 
 of a fine figure and commanding voice, 
 audacity and hardness of heart pointed him oui 
 a proper agent for the punishment of I 
 nese, after the insurrection of that city anal 
 conquest by the army of the republic. His I 
 league in effecting these reprisals was the no 
 ous Fouche\ Finding the guillotine somed 
 formal and tardy in its vengeance, they collefl 
 their prisoners together and disposed of ther 
 fusillade. Collot himself admitted, and defeip 
 the act, that on one occasion sixty prisoners m 
 
 1C4 
 
COL 
 
 lied at a blow by cannonading. It would be dif- 
 iult to find a redeeming trait in his character, 
 lich may be summed up as that of a cruel unprin- 
 ded adventurer, in whose estimation the scenes in 
 lich he acted involved no higher responsibility 
 an those of his own dramas. The tragical 
 ality to him and his party were their fears of 
 Dbespierre, to whose fall Collot contributed as pre- 
 lent of the convention on the night preceding the 
 h Thermidor. He was among the sansculottes 
 oundrels transported to Cayenne in 1795, where 
 s died in horrible and most appropriate torments 
 rough drinking a bottle of brandy when suffer- 
 g from the yellow fever. [E.R.] 
 
 COLLYER, Joseph, an Engl, transl., d. 1776. 
 COLLYER, Joseph, an Engl, engrv.,1748-1827. 
 COLMAN, George, was born about 1733, at 
 lorence, where his father was then the British min- 
 ter. While a student at Oxford he began in 1754 to 
 lblish, with Bonnel Thornton, the series of peri- 
 neal essays called ' The Connoisseur.' He was 
 terwards called to the bar, but never prosecuted 
 profession, and was speedily immersed in other 
 jrsuits. In 1767 he became a joint lessee of Co- 
 snt Garden Theatre, and was for some time the 
 Jting manager ; and in 1777 he succeeded Foote 
 . the Haymarket Theatre, which he managed till 
 dsy, followed by mental imbecility, unfitted him 
 r all exertion. He died in 1794. Besides a 
 wd translation of Terence in blank verse, and 
 translation and commentary on Horace's 'Art 
 I Poetry,' he wrote several comedies and farces, 
 id altered a good many older plays for the 
 age. He is remembered as the author of two 
 ;ock comedies, 'The Jealous Wife,' and 'The 
 landestine Marriage,' the latter of which was in 
 brt written by Garrick. [W.S.] 
 
 I COLMAN, George, the Younger, the son of 
 be preceding, was born in 1762. After a some- 
 rhat shifting course of education, he commenced 
 he study of the law, which, however, he, like his 
 kther, soon abandoned. He was the manager of 
 pe Haymarket Theatre during the years of his 
 kther s illness, on whose death he received a re- 
 ewal of the patent. He was the author of a good 
 hany comedies and farces; and possession of the 
 page is still kept by some of his pieces, such as 
 John Bull,' 'The Iron Chest,' 'The Moun- 
 ters,' ' The Heir at Law,' ' The Poor Gentle- 
 pan ' Colman, not very witty in his plays, was 
 pnarkably so in his conversation; and there is 
 treat liveliness, with still greater coarseness, in his 
 jollections of comic rhymes, such as ' Broad Grins,' 
 ind ' Poetical Vagaries.' For the last few years 
 rt his life he was deputy licenser of plays, and 
 lied himself by a more than puritanical 
 leverity in the censorship of the language of the 
 Iramas he had to read. He died in 1836. [W.S.] 
 COLOCOTRONIS, Theodore, a patriot, and 
 ammander in the revolution which established 
 he independence of Greece, 1770-1843. 
 COLOMAN, a k. of Hungary, reig. 1095-1114. 
 COLOMBIERE, Cl. De La, a French Jesuit, 
 listing, for his eloquence as a preacher, died 1682. 
 COLOMBO, M. R., an Ital. physiol., d. 1577. 
 COLOMIES, Paul, a French theol., 1638-92. 
 COLONNA, Fabio, an It. botanist, 1567-1650. 
 COLONNA, Giles, a schol. phil.. 1247-1316. 
 COLONNA, Giov., legate to Palestine, d. 1245. 
 
 COL 
 
 COLONNA, Leo, an Ital. painter, 1561-1605. 
 
 COLONNA, Michelangelo, apaint., 1600-87. 
 
 COLONNA, Pbospero, one of the greatest 
 generals of Italy, died 1523. Fabricio, his 
 cousin, and like him in the military service both of 
 the French and Spaniards, died 1520. Marc' 
 Antonio, nephew of the two preceding, the de- 
 fender of Ravenna in 1512, and of Verona in 1515, 
 against the Venetians and the French ; in the ser- 
 vice of Francis I., 1517; killed at the siege of 
 Milan, 1522. Another Marc' Antonio Co- 
 lonna, distinguished against the Turks at the 
 battle of Lepanto, and honoured by a triumphal 
 entry into Rome, 1571, died 1584. 
 
 COLONNA, Vittoria, an Italian poetess, 
 dist. for her beauty, talents, and virtue, 1490-1547. 
 
 COLQUHOUN, Patrick, a statistical and 
 economical writer, celebrated for his works on the 
 police of the metropolis, the population and re- 
 sources of the British empire, &c, 1745-1820. 
 
 COLSTON, Edw., a rich English merchant, dis. 
 for his munificence and philanthropy, 1636-1721. 
 
 COLTON, Caleb C, an eccentric wr., d. 1832. 
 
 COLUMBA, St., an Irish or Scotch miss., d. 615. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Don Bartholomew, brother 
 and fellow-voyager of the great discoverer, whose 
 tutor he had been, remembered as a constructor of 
 charts and founder of St. Domingo, died 1514. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Christopher, was born in 
 Genoa, about the year 1435 or 1436. His father 
 followed the trade of a woolcomber, andhis ancestors 
 had long occupied a like humble position. The 
 name was Colombo in the Italian; the Latin form 
 was given to it by himself at an early period, in his 
 letters ; and conceiving that Colonus was the Ro- 
 man original, he changed the name to Colon 
 when he went into Spain, better to adapt the word 
 to the Castilian tongue. With the exception of 
 one year spent at Pavia, his education was con- 
 ducted in his native city, and was confined to such 
 studies as fitted him for the nautical profession, to 
 which he showed an early bent. He went to sea 
 at the age of fourteen, and though few of the 
 events which marked his life for twenty years are 
 known, it is certain that he was often engaged in 
 perilous enterprises, both as commander and serv- 
 ing in a subordinate capacity. We find him at Lisbon 
 in 1470, probably attracted by the fame of the dis- 
 coveries on the African coast, and a desire to ob- 
 tain employment iinder the Portuguese princes. He 
 was now about thirty-five years of age, tall, and well- 
 formed, of dignified carriage, and engaging manners. 
 Already his hair had become quite white, doubtless 
 in consequence of the hardships and anxieties of his 
 early days. About this time he married Felep^ 
 Monis de Palestrello, daughter of an Italian gentle- 
 man deceased, who had been a navigator under 
 Prince Henry, and had colonized, and been governor 
 of, the isle of Porto Santo. He now occupied him- 
 self in constructing maps and charts, contributing 
 of his means to the support of his aged father at 
 Genoa; he made several voyages to the coast of 
 Africa, and resided for some time at Porto Santo, 
 where his wife had a small property ; and here his 
 son Diego was born. He visited also the Canaries 
 and Azores; and, eager to pass the bounds of 
 existing knowledge, made a voyage in 1477 to the 
 northwards of Iceland. Before this date, however, 
 as early as 1474, he had conceived the design of 
 
 165 
 
COL 
 
 reaching India by a westward course. Judging 
 from the latest and best accounts, he gave by far 
 too great an extension to the east of Asia, and on 
 high authority took the size of a degree consider- 
 ably below the truth, thus greatly under-estimat- 
 ing the earth's size. It followed that the Atlantic 
 might easily be traversed. The scheme was a 
 magnificent one ; but it is difficult for us now, in 
 the advanced state of our knowledge, to look at it 
 in all its grandeur and boldness. He supported his 
 views by the authority of Aristotle and other an- 
 cient writers, who had. suggested that India might 
 be reached by going west from the Pillars of Her- 
 cules ; and by traditions and rumours concerning 
 land to the west, and objects seen floating in the 
 Atlantic, or cast ashore by westerly winds. Copious 
 memoranda of all the grounds of his persuasion 
 were found among his papers. To reach India 
 by sea was still the great Problem of geography. 
 Columbus offered to John II. of Portugal to solve it 
 by sailing westwards; and would most probably 
 have prevailed upon the king to send out an expe- 
 dition, had it not been for the secret counter- 
 plotting of some of the council, whose duplicity, 
 winked at by the monarch, so disgusted Columbus, 
 that he took his departure for Spain. This was 
 in 1484 or 1485 ; his only companion was his son 
 Diego, then about eleven years old, his wife having 
 died sometime previously. Though entering Spain 
 in great poverty, he soon made friends, and got an 
 introduction to the king and queen. They hesi- 
 tated to undertake so great an enterprise, and 
 several councils reported unfavourably, still Co- 
 lumbus persevered in new applications, and for 
 seven years was kept in a painful state of suspense. 
 At length, after a last trial, in February, 1492, 
 he left the residence of the court, and set out on his 
 way to France. Two of his friends got an imme- 
 diate interview with the queen overcame her 
 scruples and Columbus was brought back. Isa- 
 bella had offered to pledge her jewels, but the king 
 was afterwards prevailed upon to furnish the 
 greater part of the funds, Columbus himself 
 undertaking an eighth, and getting the same part 
 of the profits. He was to have one-tenth of all 
 metals, gems, and merchandise, the office of ad- 
 miral, with descent of title, and to be viceroy and 
 governor-general of the new lands. The articles 
 of agreement were signed on the 17th April, 1492. 
 On Friday, 3d August, 1492, the expedition sailed 
 from Palos, near Moguer on the Tinto ; it consisted 
 of three small vessels, two without decks, and 120 
 men, who had been procured with the utmost diffi- 
 culty, owing to the general dread of the voyage. 
 The celebrated brothers Pinzon commanded the 
 two smaller vessels, of about fifty tons each, named 
 the Pinta and Nina, the admiral the Santa Maria. 
 The only difficulty encountered was the_ mutinous 
 tendency of the crews, excited by their terrors. 
 Columbus repressed these with extraordinary tact ; 
 he was, besides, a skilful sailor, and had helps 
 which a few years before did not exist. The com- 
 pass had been receiving more attention, and the 
 astrolabe, an instrument like our sextant, had 
 been lately introduced. Sitting on the high poop 
 of his vessel, at ten o'clock on the night of the 
 11th October, 1492, gazing earnestly ahead, Co- 
 lumbus plainly saw moving lights upon some land. 
 Four hours of most exciting suspense followed. 
 
 COL 
 
 At 2 a.m., Rodrigo Triana, a sailor in the Pintt 
 which was a little in advance, saw the land itsell 
 Dawn revealed a lovely island Guanahani or Sa 
 Salvador, one of the Bahamas. He afterwards dis 
 covered Cuba and Haiti; and deeming all thes 
 portions of Asia a delusion under which he la 
 boured till his latest hour he called the inhabi 
 tants Indians; a name which became general befoi 
 the truth was known. The discovery produced a 
 extraordinary sensation in Europe ; and Columbu 
 was received by the sovereigns, and in every pai 
 of Spain, with the highest honour. On Septembe 
 25th, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz with a fleet < 
 seventeen ships and 1,500 men, and discovered th 
 Windward Isles, Jamaica, Porto Ptico, &c., an 
 founded a colony in Hispaniola. Disappointed i 
 their hopes of making rapid fortunes, many of th 
 adventurers who went out with him became dis 
 contented, and returning home spread calumnie 
 against the admiral. Leaving his brother Bai 
 tholomew governor, he returned home, was receive 
 with favour, and refuted all the charges preferred b 
 his enemies. His third voyage, entered upon 30t 
 May, 1498, was rewarded by the discovery of Tr 
 nidad, the Orinoco, and the coast of Paria. H 
 found the new colony in a disorganized state, an 
 remained sometime to restore order. Complaint 
 however, still reached Spain, and a commission* 
 named Bobadilla was sent out to institute ii 
 quiries. He exceeded his powers, and sent Colun 
 bus home in irons, with his two brother 
 Bartholomew and Diego. There was a generi 
 burst of indignation in Spain ; the king disclaims 
 complicity, and the queen bestowed her usuj 
 favour. Bobadilla was recalled, but the admiri 
 was not reinstated. This favour he long soug. 
 in vain, and till the day of his death he got i 
 redress, though there was not the semblance 
 
 Eroof against him. Columbus had served t 
 ing's purpose, who now repented that he had b 
 stowed such powers and privileges. The admii] 
 was, however, sent upon a fourth voyage, 9th Ma 
 1502, to search for a passage from the Caribbei 
 Sea into what was supposed to be the great Indi. 
 Sea, from which Vasco de Gama had recently i 
 turned laden with the richest treasure. The voya 
 was disastrous ; and the constitution of Columbi 
 on which the infirmities of age had already made i 
 roads, never recovered from the shock which it si 
 tained. In coasting central America, he got a hi) 
 which if followed up might have led to the discovt 
 of Mexico and the Pacific, and shed new lustre 
 his declining years. He returned in the end of t 
 year 1504, and renewed his appeals to the just 
 and generosity of the king. While urging thi 
 in person, or by means of his son, brother, a 
 other friends, he was seized with a violent al 
 of gout, and expired on the 20th May, 1506, 
 full possession of his faculties, and in a \ 
 pious frame of mind. In his latter days 
 connection with, and neglect of, Beatrice I 
 riquez of Seville, mother of his natural son F 
 nando, ' weighed heavily on his conscience," 
 on his deathbed he made provision for her. F 
 nando was now eighteen years of age ; he became 
 biographer of his father, by whom he had alw. 
 been treated with the same affectionate regard 
 his other son. The latter, Don Diego, renewed 
 application for redress ; and at length coinmen 
 
 ICG 
 
COL 
 
 J law process against the king before the 'high 
 
 Imncil of the Indies.' This court decided against 
 
 Ins majesty ; and about the same time a mutual 
 
 Ittachment having sprung up between the young 
 
 Admiral and the Donna Maria de Toledo, niece of 
 
 ne celebrated duke of Alva, who was cousin-ger- 
 
 lian to Ferdinand, and high in his favour, such 
 
 mfluence was brought to bear, that the king was 
 
 Ibliged to yield, though not so far as to restore 
 
 lilly the dignities and privileges at first conferred. 
 
 \s vice-queen in Hispaniola, this lady behaved 
 
 rith great dignity, propriety, and spirit, and did 
 
 xcelieiit service to her husband, who, like his 
 
 ither, was never free from the persecution of ene- 
 
 lies. Her eldest son, Don Luis, resigned all claim 
 
 o the former titles for a handsome pension, with 
 
 he titles of duke of Veragua and marquis of Ja- 
 
 laica. His eldest daughter married Don Diego, 
 
 er cousin; and they jointly enjoyed the honours 
 
 nd estates, but died without issue ; and the 
 
 gitimate male line became extinct. At length, in 
 
 508, the property and titles passed into a branch 
 
 f the house of Braganza, in the person of Don 
 
 f uno de Portugallo, who was grandson of Isabella, 
 
 hird daughter of Don Diego Columbus, by his 
 
 ice-qu^eu, Donna Maria de Toledo. [J.B.] 
 
 [House in which Columbus died at Seville.] 
 
 COLUMELLA, Lucius, an agricult. wr., 1st a 
 
 COLUTHUS, a Greek poet of the 5th century, 
 author of ' The Rape of Helen.' 
 
 COMBAULT, C. De, a French hist., 1588-1670. 
 
 COMBE, Andrew, M.D., one of the most 
 popular writers on medicine of the present day, 
 distinguished as an advocate of phrenology, but 
 fcecially for his important practical works on 
 'The Moral and Physical Management of Infancy,' 
 'The Principles of Physiology Applied to the Pre- 
 servation of Health and to Education,' and ' The 
 Physiology of Digestion.' Born at Edinburgh, 
 where he also received his medical education, 1797; 
 pub. the above works betw. 1834 and 1839 ; d. 1847. 
 
 COMBE, Ch., a classical scholar, 1743-1817. 
 j COMBE, Taylor, son of the preceding, a clas- 
 tncal scholar and antiquarian author, 1774-1826. 
 
 COMBER, Thomas, the name of three religious 
 and learned writers; the first, dean of Carlisle, 
 1663 ; the second, dean of Durham, died 1699 ; the 
 third, a rector in Huntingdonshire, died 1778. 
 
 16 
 
 CON 
 
 COMBES, F., a Span, missionary, 1613-1663. 
 
 COMENIUS, J. A., a Moravian brother and 
 gram., au. of the 'Janua Linguarum,' 1592-1671. 
 
 COMINES, Philip De, lord of Argenton, a 
 Flemish statesman in the service of France, eel. 
 for the memoirs of his own times, 1445-1509. 
 
 COMMANDINO, F., an It. mathem., 1509-75. 
 
 COMMELIN, Isaac, a Dutch historian, 1598- 
 1676. Gaspard, his son, also an historian, 1636- 
 1693. John, another son, celebrated as a botan- 
 ist, 1629-1692. Gaspard, nephew of the preced- 
 ing, a botanist, 1667-1751. 
 
 COMMERSON, P., a Fr. naturalist, 1727-73. 
 
 COMMODUS, one of the most debauched and 
 cruel of the Rom. emp., poisoned by Marcia, 180-192. 
 
 COMMENUS. For the Eastern sovereigns of 
 this name see Alexis, Andronicus, Anna, 
 David, Isaac, John, and Manuel. The last 
 descendant of this house was Demetrius Steph- 
 anopoli Constantine Commenus, born at 
 Corsica, 1749 ; captain of dragoons in the French 
 army, 1778 ; author of a history of the Commeni, 
 1781 ; afterwards pensioned by Napoleon and 
 Louis XVIIL, and died 1821. 
 
 COMPAGON, a French traveller, founder of 
 the French African Company, early last century. 
 
 COMPTE, Louis Le, a Fr. mathem., d. 1729. 
 
 COMTE, F. C. L., a polit. and moral wr., b. 1782. 
 
 COMPTON, William, Lord Compton, created 
 earl of Northampton, 1618, died 1630. Spencer 
 Compton, son and successor of the preceding, 
 one of the bravest adherents of Charles I., killed 
 at Hopton Heath, 1642. Henry, a younger 
 son of Spencer, the second earl, celebrated as 
 bishop of London, for his adherence to protestant- 
 ism, and the cause of William and Mary, d. 1713. 
 
 CONAU, the name of several counts or dukes 
 of Brittany; theirs*, 952-992; the second, 1040- 
 1066 ; the third, 1112-1148 ; the fourth, 1155-71. 
 
 CONCINA, D., a Venet. theologian, 1686-1756. 
 
 CONCINI, Concino, an Italian courtier, who 
 accompanied Mary de Medici to France, and exer- 
 cised great power during her regency ; assassi- 
 nated, and his wife burned as a sorceress by con- 
 sent of her son Louis XIIL, 1617. 
 
 CONDAMINE, Ch. Marie De La, a disting. 
 Fr. traveller and natural philosopher, 1701-1774. 
 
 CONDE, a branch of the house of Bourbon, the 
 most noted members of which are Louis, the 
 first prince, son of Charles Due de Vendome, and 
 chief of the Huguenots, slain at Jarnac, 1532- 
 1569. Henry, son of the preceding, poisoned, 
 1552-1588. Louis, son of Henry, usually called 
 the Great Conde, and Due d'Engnien, 1621-1686. 
 Louis Joseph, fourth in descent from the Great 
 Conde, distinguished in the seven years' war, chief 
 of the army of the emigrants at the revolution, 
 1736-1818. Louis Ant. Henry, grandson of 
 the preceding, known as the Due d'Enghien, born 
 1772, shot at Vincennes by order of Napoleon, on 
 the night of the 20th March, 1804. 
 
 CONDE, L. M., a Fr. naval com., 1752-1820. 
 
 CONDER, John, D.D., a religious wr., d. 1781. 
 
 CONDILLAC, Etienne Bonnet De, born at 
 Grenoble, 1715, died in 1780 ; certainly the meta- 
 physician who, until the recent revival of philo- 
 sophy, has exercised greatest sway in modern times 
 over the tone of speculation in France. It is ex- 
 plained under the article Locke, under what cir- 
 
CON 
 
 cumstances, and in what direction, the English 
 philosopher gave an impulse to the inquiry con- 
 cerning the origin of our ideas. Erroneously we 
 think, it had become, nevertheless, the ambition 
 of metaphysical inquiry to establish, as its starting 
 point, some theory which might account for the 
 generation of human thought ; and the doc- 
 trine propounded by Locke had obtained extensive 
 acceptance. Condillac at the outset acknowledged 
 the Englishman as his master ; maintaining in nis 
 earliest publication, that all knowledge is made up 
 of our sensations, and of the action of the mind in 
 reflecting upon these. Sensation and Reflection ; 
 no idea exists or can exist in the human intellect 
 which may not be tracked to one or other as its 
 source. As we have shown elsewhere (article 
 Locke) tins doctrine ignored the existence of all 
 ideas involving the characters of universality, 
 necessity, and infinity, reducing them to mere 
 negations, or averments that certain things have 
 no known limit ; nevertheless, it continued to re- 
 cognize as much activity on the part of the Mind, 
 as enabled Locke to preserve the conception of 
 human liberty ; but this too fell before the subse- 
 quent 'simplification' by Condillac. French 
 philosophy technically so called reached its cul- 
 mination in the 'Traite" des Sensations;' the 
 agency of Reflection being there dispensed with, and 
 all knowledge traced to Sensation alone. As a 
 specimen of Condillac's reasoning, take his posi- 
 tions fundamental ones regarding Attention. 
 If, he asserts, a multitude of sensations of equal 
 vivacity are experienced at the same time by any 
 mind, nothing occurs save the perception of the 
 feeling occasioned a perception which passes off 
 with the circumstances ; but if, amidst the crowd of 
 feelings, some one exists of great comparative 
 vivacity and so predominates, the mind is in- 
 stantly rivetted by this sensation in proportion to 
 its vivacity; which rivetting we call Attention. 
 Condillac overlooks, of course, the attribute which 
 chiefly characterizes every act of attention, viz.: 
 its dependence on the will ; to be impressed 
 keenly depends indeed not on us, to be atten- 
 tive to any impression, does depend on us. In a 
 way quite as faulty, Condillac, with great logical 
 parade, seeks to account for acts of memory, of 
 judgment, of reasoning, and for all our sentiments 
 and emotions. Mind with him is a mere bundle 
 of sensations now being experienced, or which 
 have been experienced ; there is nothing in it save 
 the consciousness of all the external world is doing 
 to it, or the recollection of all it has done to it. 
 It is easy to see that in such a system, no pre- 
 tence of a recognition of human Liberty could 
 find a place; nevertheless, Condillac was not a 
 materialist. He held firmly by the averment, that 
 the seat of sensation is the soul, not the organ 
 leaving it to Cabanis to take the next downward 
 step, even then not the last, for we have seen how 
 the physiologist saved himself by the fancy of a 
 super-material vital principle. The vices inhering 
 in Locke's method, but veiled so far by effect of the 
 good sense and practical sagacity of the English- 
 man, stand out as they really are, and are virtually 
 destroyed through exaggeration, in the writings of 
 Condillac. It never seems to have occurred as 
 desirable to this logician, that he should ascer- 
 tain whether the ideas he is accounting for, be 
 
 CON 
 
 really the ideas which constitute human thongbt: 
 certainly it would be reckoned strange now in 
 a physical inquirer, were he to ignore facts, or 
 rather without compunction and without shame 
 to twist facts, so that his theory be saved ! 
 Unhappily it is easy to theorize in metaphysics ; 
 it is easy to produce schemes which will account, 
 if not for actual fact, at least for something a little 
 like actual fact : the difficulty lies in the just de- 
 scription and analysis of psychological phenomena. 
 Condillac's precision and clearness suited the 
 French taste. Not given to introspection, and 
 apparently not capable of it, that accomplished 
 and interesting people have never, notwithstand- 
 ing their acuteness, succeeded in grappling with 
 mental or moral problems ; their metaphysic is like 
 their poetry purely logical and purely objective. 
 A student with much leisure may still peruse 
 Condillac with some interest; his writings 
 especially those on language contain acute re- 
 mark ; but on the whole they are very wearisome. 
 In private life Condillac is said to have been 
 estimable. He mingled with the Encyclopcedists 
 those heralds of the revolution ; but his 
 habitual reserve kept him apart from politics, and 
 from writing either on morals or religion. He was 
 brother of Abbe* Mably. [J.P.N.] 
 
 CONDORCET, Marie Jean Antonie, mar- 
 quis de Caritat ; an eloquent man, a good mathe- 
 matician, an earnest political writer, and a victim 
 of the reign of terror. Born in Picardy in 1743, 
 he poisoned himself through dislike to the guillo- 
 tine in 1794. The circumstances connected with 
 his death are even affecting. Proscribed after the 
 fall of the Girondins as an accomplice of Brissot, he 
 found an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet; 
 and there, with no aid from books, he wrote out 
 his ' Sketch of an Historical Picture of the Pro- 
 gress of the Human Mind.' Every evening he 
 gave his protectress the sheets he had written 
 during the day; and it is said he did not even 
 revise them. A new decree of the convention 
 having threatened with death any one who should 
 harbour a proscribed person, Condorcet resolved 
 to leave Madame Vernet's ; and in spite of her en- 
 treaties he did so. Half naked he wandered for 
 several days through fields; but, hunger pre- 
 vailing, he entered an auberge at Clamont and 
 was arrested. A dose of stramonium (the gift of| 
 Cabanis) concealed in his ring, set him free : it; 
 is probable that he thought the right of the con-; 
 demned Roman Noble, to choose the manner of 
 death, not extravagant or unreasonable. Likej 
 most literary men 01 that time in France, Condor- 
 cet was a materialist ; nevertheless, his higher as-j 
 pirations could not be silenced ; one sees their rig- 
 our in the very wildness of his dreams concerning 
 the perfectability of our Race. The 'Esquiaail 
 will amply repay perusal. It is an exaggeration, 
 and often false; but it abounds with penetrating' 
 appreciations of history; and the serenity which, 
 reigns through it a serenity undisturbed by word 
 of reproach or repining deeply interests one in] 
 the doomed man. Condorcet's best mathemati-j 
 cal work is on the ' Calculus of Probabilities :' hisj 
 life of 'Turgot' perhaps that of 'Voltaire' U 
 likely to last. A worthy and affectionate eloge or 
 Condorcet we owe to M. Arago. [J.P.N 
 
 CONEGLIANO, C. De, an It. painter, 15th c 
 
 1C3 
 
CON 
 
 CONESTAGGIO, J. F. De, an It. hist., d. 1635. 
 
 CONEY, John, an Engl, engraver, 1786-1833. 
 
 CONFORTI, F., a jurist and theol., 1743-1780. 
 
 CONFUCIUS, the philosophical Socrates, or 
 lather demi-god of China. He lived about 550 
 |!,'ears before Christ. His moral system seems in 
 the main a prudential one ; but its entire struc- 
 ture is scientific, and it pronounces much more de- 
 terminately than any mere chronological record 
 pould do, concerning the antiquity of civilization 
 [n China. There are great ceremonial festivals 
 In honour of Confucius, held through all China 
 in. spring and autumn. They approach as nearly 
 to hero-worship as may be possible with this 
 bingular people. A good analysis of the contribu- 
 tions of Confucius to philosophy is a desideratum ; 
 It could not fail to enable us to understand better, 
 it once the history and the character of the remote 
 East. 
 
 I CONGALL, the first of this name k. of Scotland, 
 tt70-500 ; the second, 558-568; the third, d. 814. 
 
 CONGLETON, St. B. Parnell, Lord, a late 
 member of parliament, celebrated for his know- 
 ledge of finance, 1776-1842. 
 I CONGREVE, William, the second son of a 
 Staffordshire gentleman, was born near Leeds in 
 1669. His father, who was in the army, being long 
 ptationed in Ireland, he was educated at Kilkenny, 
 and at Trinity College, Dublin. He was entered 
 pt the Middle Temple, but speedily deserted law 
 for literature, and for the pleasures of a gay life in 
 London. His first comedy, 'The Old Bachelor,' 
 which had remarkable success, was acted in 1693 ; 
 and ' The Double Dealer ' appeared the year after, 
 and was followed by ' Love for Love.' His tragedy 
 bf ' The Mourning Bride,' played in 1697, gained 
 For him a brilliant reputation as a serious drama- 
 feist ; and his writings for the stage were closed in 
 H700 by his comedy 'The Way of the World.' 
 He was perhaps lazy, perhaps disgusted by the 
 111 success of this last play, perhaps alarmed by 
 phe severe denunciations of the immorality of the 
 stage which were thundered forth by Jeremy Col- 
 tier, and for which Congreve's comedies, though 
 pot the coarsest of their day, yet furnished perhaps 
 stronger grounds than any others, through the 
 koolly systematic immorality which is the staple 
 rof them all. In skill of construction, wit of dia- 
 llogue, and liveliness in the portraiture of manners, 
 jthese pieces are very admirable. His tragedy has 
 as little real value as his other verses, though 
 these were pretty numerous. He was placed in 
 easy circumstances by places under government, 
 |be8towed by Lord Halifax; and was much 
 esteemed, both as an agreeable companion, and as 
 a friendly though prudent man. He died in Lon- 
 don in 1729. [W.S.] 
 
 CONGREVE, Sir William, an eminent milit. 
 engineer, inv. of the Congreve rockets, 1772-1828. 
 
 CONNOR, Bernard 0', an Irish physician, 
 flourished at the court of Sobieski, king of Poland, 
 author of ' Medicina Mystica,' &c, 1666-1698. 
 
 CONNOR, Rory 0', the last Irish king of the 
 Milesian dynasty, subdued by Henry II., d. 1156. 
 
 CONON, an Athenian general, killed 390 B.C. 
 
 CONON, a Gr. his. and mytholog. wr., 1st c. B.C. 
 
 CONON, a pope of Rome, 686-688. 
 
 CONRAD. The emperors of Germany of this 
 name are Conrad L, duke of Franconia, elected 
 
 CON 
 
 king of Germany 912, d. 918. Conrad II., duke 
 of Franconia, elected king of Germany 1024, 
 crowned emperor of the West at Rome 1027, d. 
 1093. Conrad III., duke of Franconia, bom 
 1093, elected emperor of Germany 1137, d. 1152. 
 Conrad IV., duke of Suabia, born 1228, elected 
 emperor 1250, d. 1254. Conrad, or Conradin, 
 the son of the last named, was left king of Sicily 
 when only two years of age, and lost the crown 
 and his life at the age of sixteen, 1268. 
 
 CONRAD, a king of Burgundy, 937-994. 
 
 CONRAD, duke of Bohemia, the first succeeded 
 1092, d. 1093 ; the second sue. 1190, d. 1191. 
 
 CONRAD D'HOCHSTADT, one of the warrior 
 priests of the middle ages, abp. of Cologne, d. 1261. 
 
 CONRAD DE LICHTENAU, a German eccle- 
 sias., suppos. au. of the 'Urspery Chronicle,' d. 1241. 
 
 CONRAD DE WURTZBOURGH, a German 
 poet and historian, 13th century. 
 
 CONRAD, F. W., a Dutch mathemat., last ct. 
 
 CONRING, Hermann, a Ger. savant, 1606-81. 
 
 CONSALVI, Hercules, a cardinal and states- 
 man of Rome, minister of war under Pius VI., 1789, 
 and many years afterwards the political minister of 
 the Roman court, 1757-1824. 
 
 CONSTABLE, Archibald, a Scotch book- 
 seller, well known for his enterprise and literary 
 taste, com. the ' Edinburgh Review,' 1775-1827. 
 
 CONSTABLE, Henry, an Eng. poet, 16th c. 
 
 CONSTABLE, John, R.A., was born at East 
 Bergholt in Suffolk in 1776, and became a student 
 of the Royal Academy in 1800, having selected 
 the department of landscape. He was elected an 
 academician in 1829. He died in London in 1837. 
 Constable's landscapes are simple in character 
 and composition, and peculiar in execution, having 
 a spottiness which appears to have arisen from a 
 habit of early sketching, when the dew was on the 
 grass, an effect he constantly represents ; his pic- 
 tures improve by time. He always strongly 
 affected originality of style ; at the very commence- 
 ment of his career, being asked by Sir George 
 Beaumont what style he proposed to adopt, he 
 replied, 'None but God Almighty's style, Sir 
 George.' The neighbourhood of Hampstead was 
 the chief arena of his labours. (Leslie, Memoirs 
 of John Constable, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CONSTABLE, Thomas Hugh Cliffort, an 
 Engl, botanist and topographical wr., 1762-1823. 
 
 CONSTANCE, queen of France, 998, d. 1032. 
 
 CONSTANCE, q. of the Two Sicilies, 1194-98. 
 
 CONSTANCE, queen of Sicily, 1261-1297. 
 
 CONSTANS, the first of this name, emp. of 
 Rome, third son of Constantine the Great, sue, 
 together with his two brothers Constantine and 
 Constantius, 337, killed 350 ; the second of the 
 name, emperor of the East, 641-668. 
 
 CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, Benjamin. 
 There are few names in the political and literary 
 history of France, since the first revolution, which 
 
 {>resent us with a more curious subject of specul- 
 ation than that of Benjamin Constant; but 
 the leading facts of his career, and a very summary 
 judgment upon them, is all that we can give in 
 the space allotted to us. He was the descendant 
 of a French family, denaturalized by the edict of 
 Nantes, and was born at Lausanne, 1767. He 
 came to Paris in the heat of the revolutionary 
 period, and his philosophical spirit led him into 
 
 169 
 
CON 
 
 alliance with the most talented men of that epoch. 
 In 1796 he brought himself into notice by a work en- 
 titled ' De la Force du Gouvernement Actuel de la 
 France etde la Neccssite de s'y Rallier,' being an ap- 
 peal in support of the directory. The year following 
 lie claimed the rights of a French citizen, and pro- 
 cured a decree which restored the descendants of 
 the religious exiles of France to their proper coun- 
 try; increasing his literary fame about the same 
 period by his treatises on political reaction, and on 
 the effects of terror. Though an influential member 
 of the political circle, M. Constant was not called 
 upon to exercise any public function until the as- 
 cendancy of Napoleon was established, when he 
 became a member of the tribunate, and aspiring to 
 lead the opposition, was ordered to quit France in 
 1802. Madame de Stael, with whom he was poli- 
 tically connected, being ordered into exile at the 
 same* time, they left the capital together, and 
 travelled over many parts of Europe, at length 
 fixing their abode in Germany, where they culti- 
 vated an acquaintance with its rising literature, 
 and enjoyed the intimacy of Schlegel. It was here 
 that Constant wrote his famous work on the reli- 
 gious spirit, and the different modes of worship ; 
 his tragedy of ' Walstein,' &c; and besides courting 
 the muses, contrived to form an alliance with the 
 daughter of the Prussian minister, Prince Har- 
 denberg. On the fall of Buonaparte in 1814 
 Constant returned to Paris, and not only ad- 
 vocated the alliance of the Bourbons, as he 
 hoped, with the institutions achieved by the 
 people, but denounced in bitter language the 
 conqueror, who was even then returning to reclaim 
 his authority. By whatever arguments he was 
 won over to the cause of Napoleon and there is 
 reason to believe they leave no stain on his patriot- 
 ism this singular politician figured as a counsellor 
 of state during the hundred days, and though he 
 quitted France at the crisis of the second restoration, 
 he appeared again as a deputy under Louis XVIII. 
 Benjamin Constant, Manuel, and Lafayette in the 
 chamber of representatives (1819), boded no good to 
 the royalists, and the murder of the Due de Berry, 
 followed by the discussion of the electoral laws, 
 was the signal for a new conflict, and for that bril- 
 liant opposition which ended in the revolution of 
 1830. During this interval M. Constant, besides 
 taking a leading part in the discussions of the 
 chambers, contributed many political and other 
 works to the literature of his country ; and was 
 also actively engaged as one of the editors of ' The 
 Minerva-' The presumed cause of his death, 
 which happened within six months after the abdi- 
 cation of Charles X., was the fatigue and exposure 
 which he underwent during the tumults of July ; 
 and it is singular to add, that he closed his career 
 by accepting favours from Louis Philippw. The 
 
 }>roblem for the biographer is to reconcile his 
 oyalty to constitutional principles, and his cosmo- 
 politan views with his versatile conduct as a poli- 
 tician. We are inclined to believe that he was 
 trustful beyond what would be esteemed political 
 propriety, and hoped, it may be, too much. Hence 
 lie was disposed to accept the /hit accompli, and 
 make the best of it, and only when his too gener- 
 ous expectations were disappointed, commenced 
 those chivalrous attacks which appear so extraor- 
 dinary in contrast with his liaisons in the camp of 
 
 CON 
 
 the enemy. His philosophical refinement, hi 
 dramatic tastes, and his high sense of honou 
 when placed on one side, in the scale of royalty 
 as it was natural they should be, weighed to< 
 much against his political sagacity on the other 
 His romance of 'Adolphe,' also, shows that h 
 thought it dangerous to resist the established opin 
 ions of the people ; but what rule had he for ascer 
 taining what should really be considered as estab 
 lished in scenes so changeful? [E.R.' 
 
 CONSTANTIA, Flavia Julia Valeria, siste: 
 of Constantine the G., and wife of Licinius, d. 329 
 CONSTANTINA, el. sister of the preced., d. 354 
 CONSTANTINE L, called the Great, born 274 
 proclaimed Augustus by the army 306, embrace* 
 Christianity 311, transferred the seat of govern' 
 ment from Rome to Bvzantium 329, d. 337. 
 
 CONSTANTINE II., reigned over the Roma 
 empire, in conjunction with his brothers Const ani 
 and Constantius, from 337 to his d. in action, 340 
 CONSTANTINE III., elected emp. 407, k. 411 
 CONSTANTINE IV., emp. of the East, 668-685 
 CONSTANTINE V., sue. as emp. 741, d. 775. 
 CONSTANTINE VI., sue. Leo II. 780, and wa 
 dethroned by his mother Irene, who had been re- 
 gent of the empire during his minority, 792. 
 CONSTANTINE VII., b. 905, s. 911, pois. 959 
 CONSTANTINE VIIL, is a title given to th. 
 son of Basil, the Macedonian, elected Augustus 
 868, and died before his father, 878. Some his- 
 torians give the title to one of the sons of Romantu 
 Lecapenus, d. 944 or 945. 
 
 CONSTANTINE IX. was associated in the em- 
 pire with his brother Basil II., by John Zimisces 
 969, and succeeded the latter 976, d. 1028. 
 CONSTANTINE X., emp. of the East, 1042-54 
 CONSTANTINE XL, succeeded 1056, d. 1067 
 CONSTANTINE XII., last emp. of the East 
 sue. 1448, and died gloriously in the defence o 
 Constantinople, then taken by the Turks, 1453. 
 CONSTANTINE I., k. of Scotland, 458, d. 479 
 CONSTANTINE II., sue. 858, k. in battle 874 
 CONSTANTINE III., sue. 903, abdicated 943 
 CONSTANTINE IV. usurped the throne, anx 
 was killed by the brother of Kenneth 1002. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, ' the African,' a Benedicts 
 monk, known as a medical author, 11th c. 
 
 CONSTANTINE DE MAGNY, C. F., a critic 
 of Savoy, au. of a commen. on Milton, 1692-1764 
 CONSTANTINE, Paulowitch, grand duke o 
 Russia and viceroy of Poland, elder br. of the emp 
 Nicholas, to whom he ceded the crown, 1779-1831 
 CONSTANTINI, an Italian actor, d. 1729. 
 CONST ANTINUS, a poet and historian, d. 1614, 
 CONSTANTIUS, the jirst of this name, emp. c 
 Rome and father of Constantine the Great, adopt 
 and named Csesar by Maximinian 292, Augusta 
 305, d. 306; the second, Flavius Julius Con 
 stantius, second son of Constantine the Great 
 born 317, made Ca;sar 323, emperor 337, d. 361. 
 CONTADES, L. H. Erasmus, Marquis De, 
 marshal of Fr., dis. in the wars of Italy, 1701-179; 
 CONTANCIN, Cyriac, a Fr. mis., 1670-173? 
 CONTARINI, an illustrious family of Venia 
 which gave seven doges to Venice from 1043 to 167( 
 and boasts of many ambassadors, cardinals, an 
 men of letters. The most celebrated is Gaspar 
 Contarini, papal legate to the diet of Ratis 
 bon, and a philosophical writer, 1483-1542. 
 
 
^-- C ' ////swvr t '/ 
 
 " ' / Y ' 
 
 /' 
 
 I / " 
 
 ,-////, 
 
 ^ 
 
 V/vv ' ,>//// v/7 
 
CON 
 
 CONTARINI, J., a Venet. painter, 1549-1605. 
 
 CONTE, N. J., a French artist, mechanician, and 
 chemist, attached to the Egypt, exp., 1755-1805. 
 
 CONTT, Louisa Marg., princess of, celeb, for 
 |her beauty and brilliant talents, born 1577, died 
 jin exile 1631. The house of Conti was a younger 
 branch of the princely house of Conde, and sprang 
 [from Armand De Bourbon, 1629-1666. The 
 line ended with Louis Francis Joseph, lieu- 
 tenant-general in the royal army, d. 1814. 
 
 CONYBEARE, John, bp. of Bristol, au. of a 
 Defence of Revld. Relig. against Tindal, 1692-1755. 
 
 CONYBEARE, John Josias, prof, of Anglo- 
 Saxon and poetry, and author of many contributions 
 tomineralogical and antiquarian science, 1779-1824. 
 
 COOK, Captain James, was born at Marton, 
 near Stockton-upon-Tees, 27th October, 1728. 
 His father, who was an agricultural labourer and 
 farm bailiff, apprenticed him at the age of thirteen 
 to a haberdasher in Staiths, near Whitby. Dislik- 
 ing this business, and having a strong inclination 
 for a sea life, he obtained a discharge, and entered 
 into new indentures with a coal company at 
 Whitby. In their employment he gained great 
 practical knowledge of sailing, and soon rose to the 
 situation of mate. Impressment for the navy was 
 actively carried on in 1755 ; being then in the 
 Thames, Cook at first hid himself to avoid the press- 
 gang ; but afterwards judged it best to offer him- 
 self as a volunteer. In 1759, by the interest of Mr. 
 Osbaldiston, M.P. for Scarborough, and Capt. Sir 
 Hugh Palisser he obtained the mastership of a 
 sloop ; and soon afterwards joined the fleet in the 
 St. Lawrence, operating against the French. His 
 judgment, bravery, and great skill in conducting 
 hydrographic surveys, gained for him the highest 
 credit, and secured his promotion. Returning 
 home in 1762, he married Miss Elizabeth Batts, by 
 whom he had a family of six children. In 1764 he 
 was appointed marine surveyor of Newfoundland 
 and Labrador ; and was chosen three years after 
 to command an expedition to the S. Pacific, sent 
 out on the recommendation of the Royal Society, 
 to observe an approaching transit of Venus over the 
 sun's disc, in order that, by a comparison with obser- 
 vations at home, data might be obtained for a more 
 accurate determination of the sun's distance. He 
 was accompanied by Mr. Green as astronomer, Dr. 
 Solander as naturalist, and a gentleman of fortune, 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir Joseph) Banks. All the pheno- 
 mena were successfully observed at Otaheite, on 
 June 3, 1769. Cook then sailed S. in quest of 
 the supposed southern continent; encountering 
 New Zealand, he circumnavigated it ; sailed up the 
 E. coast of New Holland, and determined that it 
 was not joined to New Guinea; thence he crossed 
 to Batavia. Before reaching the Cape, Mr. Green, 
 Dr. Solander, and twenty-eight other persons died. 
 On June 12, 1771, the Endeavour came to anchor in 
 the Downs; Cook's promotion to the rank of com- 
 mander followed soon after. It was proved by 
 this voyage that New Holland and New Zealand 
 were not parts of the terra australis incognita; 
 and that if such a continent did exist, it must be 
 beyond the lat. of 40 S. The object of his second 
 voyage was to circumnavigate the globe in high S. 
 latitudes, in order to settle this question. Leav- 
 ing on July 13, 1772, he was absent about three 
 years, dining which time he lost only one man by 
 
 1 
 
 COO 
 
 sickness. He sailed S.E. from the Cape, and re- 
 turned by Cape Horn; and was the first who 
 traversed the S. Pacific ; the highest lat. reached 
 was 70 10' S. The results of this voyage were 
 most important, and excited a great interest among 
 scientific men. He was now raised to the rank of 
 post-captain, and appointed one of the captains of 
 Greenwich Hospital, a situation of considerable 
 emolument. In February, 1776, he was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal Society, and soon after received 
 the Copley medal for a paper on the methods used 
 to preserve the health of his crews which was 
 thus adjudged to be the best experimental paper 
 of the year. The second voyage having proved 
 that if a terra australis existed, it was too far S. 
 to be of any use a question set at rest in 1842 by 
 Captain James Ross's discovery of Victoria Land 
 attention was once more turned to the problem of 
 a N.W. passage between the Atlantic and Pacific; 
 and the act of parliament of 1745, which had 
 offered a reward of 20,000 for the discovery, hav- 
 ing been recently altered so as to include the 
 king's ships, government proposed an expedition. 
 Cook was entitled to repose ; but having volun- 
 teered to take the command, his offer was accepted; 
 and in the ship Resolution, accompanied by the 
 Discovery, under Captain E. Clerke, Cook sailed 
 from Plymouth in July, 1776. Passing from the 
 Cape to New Zealand, and thence through the 
 Pacific, he made many important discoveries, of 
 which the chief was the Sandwich group, named 
 after his friend the first lord of the admiralty. Early 
 in the summer of 1778, he reached Behring's Strait ; 
 but was able to penetrate no farther than lat. 70 
 44'. Having carefully surveyed the Aleutian group 
 and adjoining coasts, he returned to winter in the 
 Sandwich isles. On the 13th February, 1779, at 
 Owhyhee, one of the boats was stolen by natives 
 during the night. Next day active measures 
 were taken to enforce restitution, and to prevent 
 similar occurrences. For this purpose Cook at- 
 tempted to carry the aged king on board, but on 
 reaching the boats he refused to embark, and 
 his wives set up a lamentation ; at the same time a 
 shot from one of the boats, fired to prevent a canoe 
 leaving the bay, accidentally killed a chief. The 
 crowd was roused to fury, and rushed upon Cook 
 and his men ; four of them were killed, the rest in 
 the confusion could not render assistance to their 
 commander, and he was overpowered, after a 
 desperate and prolonged resistance. His mangled 
 remains were treated with the greatest indignity, 
 and his bones only were recovered by his attached 
 and sorrowing crews. In the extent and value of 
 his discoveries, Cook surpasses every other navi- 
 gator; his surveys and determinations of lati- 
 tudes and longitudes are extremely correct; he 
 may be said, indeed, to have been the first scien- 
 tific navigator. His success in preserving the 
 health of his crews removed all dread of long 
 voyages ; and this was certainly not the least of 
 his services. A pension was bestowed upon his 
 widow. [J.B.] 
 
 COOKE, Sir A., tutor of Edw. VI., 1508-1576. 
 
 COOKE, Benjm., a comp. of music, d. 1814. 
 
 COOKE, George, anEng. engraver, 1781-1834. 
 
 COOKE, George Frederick, the great 
 tragic actor of the eighteenth century, and rival of 
 John Kemble, whose supremacy he might have 
 1 
 
coo 
 
 successfully disputed, but for Lis own fatal habits 
 of intemperance, was born in Westminster, 17th 
 April, 1756. His father was an Irish officer and 
 captain in the 4th Dragoons, but died while Cooke 
 was yet an infant. His mother, on her widow- 
 hood, went to reside at Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
 where her son received his school education. In 
 the Town Hall of this place he saw the first play 
 in his experience acted it was 'The Provoked 
 Husband' the time either 1766 or 1767; and 
 the circumstance made so strong an impression on 
 his mind, that he began to study a part for him- 
 self, that of Horatio in ' The Fair Penitent.' In 
 1769 he joined a strolling company of players in a 
 barn in the same town, and attempted Young 
 Meadows, in Love in a Village.' From this time 
 his passion for the stage increased, and at the age 
 of fifteen he got to London, notwithstanding he 
 was previously apprenticed to a printer; and 
 afterwards, probably as midshipman on board of a 
 king's ship, visited Holland. He was at all times 
 a sedulous reader of plays, and a diligent playgoer. 
 In 1774, and subsequent years, he witnessed in 
 London the best actors of the time Foote, Gar- 
 rick, Macklin and first appeared (1761) as a 
 professed actor himself at Brentford in the char- 
 acter of Dumont. Next year he visited Berwick 
 and Edinburgh, and in 1778 made his debut in 
 London ; but being neglected, retired with chagrin, 
 to return in 1800 with decided triumph. During 
 the interval he acquired those habits in the pro- 
 vinces which were the bane of his future life. 
 Cooke was eight-and-thirty before he made good 
 his position on a metropolitan stage, and this was 
 at Dublin, which place he left, and enlisted as a 
 soldier, from which Messrs. Banks and Ward, the 
 managers of the Manchester theatre, procured his 
 discharge; and after relieving the distress which 
 his follies had brought upon him, sent him to 
 Manchester. In 1796 he married a Miss Daniels 
 of the Chester theatre, which marriage was after- 
 wards declared null and void by Sir W. Scott in 
 Doctors Commons. Cooke's successful appear- 
 ance in London was in the character of ' Richard 
 III.' He was at that time in his forty-fifth year. 
 He next performed 'Shylock,' 'Sir Archy Mac- 
 Sarcasm,' and ' Sir Pertinax MacSycophant,' in all 
 of which he was unapproachably great. Cooke was 
 exceedingly fine in sarcasm, and both in town and 
 country became immensely popular, notwithstand- 
 ing his irregularities and continual disappointment 
 of his audience. In 1803 he became acquainted 
 with Mr. Cooke, an American actor, who ulti- 
 mately conceived the design of delivering Cooke 
 from his vices, by changing the scene of his asso- 
 ciations, and after much difficulty and some stra- 
 tagem, got him safely across the Atlantic. The 
 voyage, and necessary total abstinence from spiri- 
 tuous liquors, completely renovated the actor's 
 health ; and for some time he ran a triumphant 
 career in the United States. Gradually, however, 
 he relapsed into his former habits of fatal indul- 
 gence, and died at New York in 1812. Next day 
 his remains were deposited in the burying ground 
 of St. Paul's Church, where many years afterwards 
 his grave was visited by Edmund Kean, whose 
 character and genius closely assimilated, both in 
 faults and merits, those of his predecessor, and who 
 erected a tablet to his memory. [J.A.H.] 
 
 COO 
 
 COOKE, Henry, an Engl, painter, 1642-1700. 
 
 COOKE, Thomas, an Engl, poet, 1707-1750. 
 
 COOKE, Thomas, a dist. singer, 1781-1848. 
 
 COOKE, W., awr. on bankrupt law, 1757-1832. 
 
 COOKE, W., a misc. wr. and poet, 1766-1824. 
 
 COOMBE, Wm., a humorous miscellan. writer, 
 au. of ' The Tour of Doctor Syntax,' &c, 1741-1823. 
 
 COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first earl of 
 Shaftesbury, disting. as a statesman and political 
 intriguer in the time of Cromwell and Charles II., 
 born 1621, raised to the peerage 1672, d. 1683. He 
 was a talented but dissolute man, and we are in- 
 debted to his administration for the famous habeas 
 corpus act. His grandson and namesake, third 
 earl of Shaftesbury, Was the distinguished essayist 
 and moralist. See Shaftesbury. 
 
 COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, Bart., 1768- 
 1841, was the son of the Rev. Dr. Cooper, rector 
 of Yelverton and Morley, Norfolk, under whom, and 
 the village schoolmaster of Brooke, he received the 
 elements of his education. In 1784, he became a 
 pupil of his uncle, William Cooper, surgeon to 
 Guy's Hospital, and, as soon as he was qualified, 
 a lecturer at St. Thomas's on anatomy and surgery, 
 and speedily acquired great reputation as an 
 operating surgeon. In order to succeed his uncle 
 at Guy's, he found it necessary to change his poli- 
 tics, which were previously liberal ; and, very for- 
 tunately, a certain ' disagreeable sensation' about his 
 throat, which he regarded as a prelude to Iris fate, 
 added physical to his moral reasons for adopting 
 this step. His important literary labours were his 
 great work on Hernia (1807), his books on disloca- 
 tions and fractures, and on the Anatomy and Dis- 
 eases of the Breast. Sir Astley was principally 
 distinguished as a bold operator, a decided prac- 
 titioner, and as a most industrious and popular 
 teacher. Perhaps no man has ever taught any branch 
 of medicine who possessed more of this element of 
 great success. His manners were of the most en- 
 gaging kind, while his attention, urbanity, and 
 regard for his pupils, were of the most exemplary 
 character. He thus acquired a hold of the rising 
 profession, which insured him the largest consult- 
 ing practice probably ever enjoyed by any practi- 
 tioner that ever existed, his annual income having 
 been at one time 21,000. [R.D.T.] 
 
 [House of James Fenimore Cooper.] 
 
 COOPER, James Fenimore, a celebrated 
 American novelist, was the son of Jn.lge Cooper, 
 
 172 
 
coo 
 
 and born at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1789. 
 After successfully completing his studies at Yale 
 college, he entered the American navy as a mid- 
 shipman in 1805, and continued for six years. In 
 1810 he married, and quitted the navy, and com- 
 menced his brilliant career as a writer of fiction, 
 and rapidly produced ' The Spy,' ' The Pioneers,' 
 ' The Pilot,' and other novels, which excited great 
 interest. In 1826 he visited Europe, and every- 
 where met with a most cordial reception. His 
 works are throughout distinguished by purity, and 
 brilliancy of no common merit. Died at Coopers- 
 town, in the state of New York, in 1851. 
 
 COOPER, J. G., a miscel. Engl, wr., 1723-1767. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, an Engl, artist, 1609-1672. 
 
 COOPER, William, an Engl, poet, 1731-1800. 
 
 COOTE, Sir Charles, arylst. officer, d. 1661. 
 
 COOTE, Sir Eyre, adescendt. of the preceding, 
 dist. in the service of the East India Co., 1726-1783. 
 
 COOTWYCK, J., a Dutch traveller, d. 1629. 
 
 COPERNICUS, Nicolas, or ZEPERNICH, an 
 illustrious astronomer, who restored the true sys- 
 tem of the world as first proposed by Pythagoras, 
 was born at Thorn, in Prussia, on the 19th Feb., 
 1473. His father was a surgeon, and his maternal 
 uncle bishop of Ermeland. After taking his degree 
 of doctor of medicine, with the view of practising 
 the healing art, he devoted his time to the study 
 of perspective and the art of painting; but in con- 
 sequence of attending the mathematical lectures of 
 Brudzevius, he entered with great zeal upon the 
 study of astronomy. With this view he became 
 the pupil and assistant of Dominic Maria, pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Bologna, and he subse- 
 quently went to Rome, where he taught mathe- 
 matics and made astronomical observations. Upon 
 his return to his native country, he was appointed 
 to a canonry in the chapter of Frauenberg, and 
 chosen archdeacon of the parish of St. John's. 
 His chief residence, however, was at Frauenberg, 
 where he carried on his astronomical studies. In 
 order to prove the annual motion of the earth, and 
 the immobility of the sun in the centre of the 
 solar svstem, truths of which he had conceived in 
 1507, he constructed a large quadrant, by means 
 of which he made numerous observations, after- 
 wards published along with those of Tycho in 1666. 
 These observations were the basis of his new tables 
 of the planets, and enabled him to complete, in 
 1530, his great work ' On the Revolution of the 
 Celestial Bodies.' Although the doctrine of the 
 motion of the earth, and the immobility of the 
 sun, published 100 years afterwards in Galileo's 
 System of the World,' was denounced as a heresy 
 by the Church of Rome, yet these great truths, 
 when propounded by the canon of Frauenberg, 
 were not only applauded by his friends, but adopted 
 by the bishops around him. The cardinal Nico- 
 las Schonberg, bishop of Capua, and Tydeman 
 Gyse, bishop of Culm, urged Copernicus to publish 
 his work, but, dreading the prejudices of the public, 
 he resisted every application. He appears, how- 
 ever, to have taken measures for gradually bring- 
 ing his system before the world. George Rheticus, 
 professor of mathematics at Wittemberg, had re- 
 signed his chair in order to study the new system 
 under Copernicus himself, and they appear to have 
 adopted a method of communicating it to the pub- 
 lic without any shock to their religious feelings. 
 
 173 
 
 COP 
 
 In 1540 Rheticus published, without his name, an 
 account of his friend's discoveries, but in conse- 
 quence of its favourable reception by the public, 
 he published a second edition with his name in 
 1541. Other writers followed in the train of Rhe- 
 ticus, and thus encouraged by the reception which 
 his discoveries had met with, Copernicus placed 
 the MS. of his work in the hands of Rheticus, who 
 superintended the printing of it at Nuremberg, 
 where it was published in 1543, at the expense of 
 Cardinal Schonberg, bishop of Capua. Coperni- 
 cus, however, was not permitted to read his own 
 work. He received and handled a copy of it on the 
 22d May, 1543, a few hours before his death,which 
 took place at Frauenberg, in the seventy-fourth 
 year of his age, in consequence of the rupture of a 
 Wood vessel, and a paralytic affection of his 
 side. His house at Frauenberg has been lately 
 discovered and also his tomb, with spheres cut 
 out in relief, in the cathedral church of the same 
 town. ' It is impossible,' says Sir David Brew- 
 ster (' Life of Copernicus' in Edinburgh Ency- 
 clopaedia, vol. vii. p. 203, 4,) 'to survey the 
 preceding sketch of the life and discoveries of 
 Copernicus without being struck by the indiffer- 
 ence with which the Church of Rome witnessed the 
 propagation of a system so adverse to the prin- 
 ciples of its faith. More than a century after- 
 wards, when civilization and liberal sentiment had 
 made considerable progress, Galileo was persecuted 
 for holding the same opinions which Copernicus 
 had propagated with impunity. We cannot allow 
 ourselves to imagine that the church was less 
 vigilant in 153j0 than in 1634, or that the doctrine 
 of the earth's immobility was less heretical at one 
 period than at the other. We are therefore led to 
 consider the persecution of Galileo rather as the 
 consequence of his personal imprudence than of 
 his astronomical opinions, and to imagine that the 
 cardinals had seized the opportunity which the 
 publication of his dialogues presented of gratifying 
 a private resentment, which might possibly have 
 been well-founded. Upon what other supposition 
 can we account for the extreme severity of the 
 church against the Pisan philosopher, and for its 
 total indifference to the same crime in the canon 
 of Ermeland? The publication of Copernicus's 
 system gave no shock to the public mind; the 
 religious feelings of no individual, and the watch- 
 ful jealousy of no tribunal were alarmed. The 
 most distinguished members, on the contrary, 
 of the catnolic church encouraged and pro- 
 moted the propagation of the new system of the 
 world. The cardinal Nicholas Schonberg pressed 
 Copernicus to publish his discoveries. The 
 bishop of Culm employed his influence in the 
 same cause. The work was dedicated to the 
 pope himself. The king of Holland even pro- 
 posed him as a candidate for the vacant bishoprick 
 of Ermeland ; and thirty-eight years after his 
 death, Cromerus, bishop of Ermeland, erected a 
 monument to his memory. The charge of heresy 
 was never preferred against Copernicus, either 
 during his life or after his death ; and we have 
 never been able to discover that the slightest dis- 
 approbation had been either cherished or expressed 
 by the church against his system of the universe. 
 Had Galileo been canon of Ermeland, and Coper- 
 nicus professor of mathematics, at this day reli- 
 
COP 
 
 gion would never have been degraded by the 
 persecution of the philosopher, nor science 
 afflicted at the ignominious compromise by which 
 it was averted.' 'It is a singular fact,' says 
 the same writer, ' in the history of Coperni- 
 cus, that while he himself was zealously engaged 
 in establishing a system in direct opposition to the 
 faith of the catholic church, he should have viewed 
 with indifference, and even with hostility, the 
 great reformation which Luther was accomplish- 
 ing in Germany. An edict was even issued by 
 Maurice, bishop of Ermeland, in 1526, and signed 
 by Copernicus and the other canons, the first 
 article of which was directed against the exertions 
 of Luther ; and it is certainly a remarkable cir- 
 cumstance that the diocese of Ermeland, illumi- 
 nated by the wisdom of Copernicus, should have 
 preserved the catholic religion while all the sur- 
 rounding provinces had embraced the doctrines of 
 the reformation.' [D.B.] 
 
 COPLESTON, Rtght Rev. E., bishop of 
 Llandaff, disting. for his polemical wr., 1776-1849. 
 
 COPLEY, John Singleton, father of Lord 
 Lyndhurst, dist. as an historical painter, 1738-1815. 
 
 COPONIUS, a gov. of Judaea, time of Augustus. 
 
 COQUEBERT-MONTBRET, C. S., Baron De, 
 aFr. natural., phy., and wr. on statistics, 1755-1831. 
 
 COQUILLE, William, aFr. jurist, 1523-1603. 
 
 CORAY, Diamant, a Gr. patriot and scholar, 
 dist. in the revival of Gr. independence, 1748-1835. 
 
 CORBET, Richard, an Engl, prelate, better 
 known as a wr. of humorous poetry, 1582-1635. 
 
 CORBIAN, P. De, a Provencal poet, 13th c. 
 
 CORDARA, Julius Caesar, a learned Ital. Je- 
 suit, known as a literary satirist and his., 1704-1790. 
 
 CORDAY, Charlotte, properly Marianne 
 Charlotte Corday D'Armans. Charlotte 
 Corday is one of those rare characters in history 
 which it is impossible to contemplate without a 
 feeling of enthusiastic admiration, and with re- 
 spect to whom we are willing that the judgment 
 should remain in suspense rather than conclude 
 against the instincts of the heart. She was born 
 at St. Saturnin, near S6ez, in Normandy, 1768, 
 and, as her name testifies, was the daughter of a 
 family belonging to the higher classes of society. 
 She was educated in the retirement of a convent, 
 but having a fine understanding and indomitable 
 spirit, she seems to have followed the bent of her 
 own genius, and formed her mind to the classic 
 models of antiquity. In the bosom of her family 
 she pursued these studies with unabated enthu- 
 siasm, and as the progress of the revolution, and 
 the dispersion of the Girondins, made her ac- 
 quainted with a Louvet and a Barbaroux, it is not 
 surprising that her attention was excited by the 
 spectacle of the squalid, blood-thirsty Marat pre- 
 siding at the sacrifice of all that was noblest and 
 worthiest of her heart's love in her poor country. 
 It has been said that she struck the blow which 
 has rendered her name immortal in revenge of her 
 lover, M. Belsunce, one of the officers in the garri- 
 son of Caen, but this supposition is far from well- 
 founded, and we prefer tor many reasons her own 
 declaration : ' I killed one man to save a hundred 
 thousand; a villain (un sc6lerat) to save innocents; 
 a ferocious wild beast to give repose to my country ! ' 
 How she effected her purpose, and how she paid 
 the sad penalty afterwards, we are under the ne- 
 
 COR 
 
 cessity of relating in few words. Her resolve was 
 formed, as she declared at the bar of Fouquier 
 Tinville, after the proscriptions of the 31st of 
 May, 1793, which is sufficient of itself to prove 
 that she was not moved to it by the murder of M. 
 Belsunce, who was killed in 1790, though it cannot 
 be doubted that-the appalling manner of his death 
 must have affected her with a lasting horror of 
 the excesses of sanscullottism. She left home 
 secretly, and arrived at Paris on the 9th of July, 
 with an introduction to Duperret, with whom she 
 transacted some business connected with certain 
 family papers in the course of the next day or two. 
 On Saturday the 13th she purchased a large knife, 
 and at seven o'clock in the evening procured ad- 
 mittance to Marat with this weapon concealed under 
 her garments. She had obtained this interview by 
 writing to him that she was from the seat of rebel- 
 lion, and would ' put it in his power to do France 
 a great service.' Marat was in his bath, with a 
 stool by his side to write upon, and entering into 
 conversation with Charlotte, he penned with fero- 
 cious joy the fresh list of victims with which she 
 pretended to supply him. At the instant when 
 he turned aside, muttering of the chastisement 
 they should receive, Charlotte with desperate de- 
 termination, plunged her knife into his heart. Her 
 aim was so sure that the monster could only ex- 
 claim as he choked with blood, 'A moi, ma 
 chere amie je me meurs,' (Help dear, I am killed !) 
 and instantly expired. It would not be easy to 
 exaggerate the sublime attitude of this beautiful 
 young girl, with her long dark hair and flushed 
 cheek for one moment, and how submissively the 
 next she surrendered herself to the gensdarmes. 
 Her self-possession, sincerity, and maidenly mo- 
 desty at the trial, were marvellous in the midst 
 of the tumult that agitated Paris. The evidence 
 was prepared, and Tinville commenced the pro- 
 ceedings by addressing some questions of form to 
 Charlotte : ' All these details of form are need- 
 less,' she said. 'It was I who killed Marat.' 
 'What instigated you?' 'His crimes.' 'What 
 do you mean by his crimes ?' ' The ill that he 
 has done to France since the revolution, and which 
 he would yet do.' ' By whom was this assassina- 
 tion suggested to you ?' ' I alone concluded upon 
 it.' 'What are the refugee deputies doing at 
 Caen ?' 'They are waiting till the end of anarchy 
 shall enable them to return to their posts.' ' Was 
 it to a sworn or an unsworn priest that you were 
 accustomed to confess at Caen ?' 'I neither con- 
 fessed to the one nor the other.' ' What end did 
 you propose to gain by killing Marat ?' 'To put an 
 end to the troubles ot the French people.' ' How 
 long since did you form this project ?' ' Since the 
 proscription of the deputies of the people on the 31st 
 of May.' ' It is from the journals, then, that you 
 have judged Marat to be an anarchist ?' ' Yes ; I 
 knew that he had brutalized the French.' And 
 then, raising her voice to prevail over the confu- 
 sion which arose in the hall : ' J'ai tue un homme 
 pour en sauver cent mille ; un scelerat pour sau- 
 ver des innocents ; une bete feroce, pour donner 
 le repos a mon pays. I was a republican before 
 the revolution, I never wanted energy.' 'What 
 do you mean by energy?' ' I mean by energy the 
 feeling of those who are willing to forget their own 
 interests for the sake of their country.' Such an- 
 
 174 
 
COR 
 Ivers astonished her judges, and under the circum- 
 
 ances they are the signs of no ordinary under- 
 
 anding. It is not surprising that many took off 
 
 leir hats as she went to the place of execution, 
 
 othed as a murderess in a red smock, and that 
 ne young man should propose the erection of a 
 lonument to her memory, with the inscription, 
 Greater than Brutus!' She was guillotined, 
 
 th Julv, 1793. [E.R.] 
 
 CORDERIUS, the Latinized name of Mathurin 
 
 ORDier, author of ' Colloquies,' 1479-1564. 
 
 CORDERO, J. M., a Spanish gram., 1520-1584. 
 
 CORDLNER, Charles, a Scot, clergyman, anti- 
 uarian, and wr. on the picturesque, &c, 1746-1794. 
 
 CORDOVA, Alph. De, a Span, astron., 15th c. 
 
 CORDOVA, Jose M., a comp. in arms of Boli- 
 ar, from whom he revolted, and was slain 1829. 
 
 CORDOVA, P. De, a Spanish painter, 16th c. 
 
 CORDUS, EuRic,aGer. phys. and poet, d. 1538. 
 
 COREAT, F., a Spanish voyager, 1648-1708. 
 
 CORELLI, Arcangelo, called the founder of 
 tie Roman school of music, was born at Fusignano 
 l the Bolognese territory in 1653. He is said to 
 ave received his instruction in composition from 
 linconelli, and on the violin from Bassoni of Bo- 
 jgna. In 1672 he was in Paris for a short time, 
 ut made no impression. In 1680 he visited Ger- 
 nany, and was in the service of the duke of Ba- 
 aria. He returned to Rome in 1682, and between 
 bis year and 1694, when he was principal violinist 
 t Rome, he published his celebrated sonatas for 
 iolin and violoncello. From that period up till 
 Imost the present time, these sonatas have been 
 mongst the first studies which the great masters 
 f the violin have put into the hands of their pupils. 
 lis greatest works, the Twelve Concertos, were 
 ong known before they were printed. Corelli died 
 it Rome on the 18th January, 1713, and was 
 juried in the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda 
 'the ancient Pantheon), where a monument, sur- 
 nounted with a marble bust, was erected to his 
 nemory. Corelli was amiable and gentle in his 
 manners, and his feelings were as remarkably sen- 
 sitive. He received the surname of 11 Divino from 
 Ibis Italian compatriots, and was usually called 
 ! r Javioasimo proj'essore di violin.'' [J.M.] 
 
 I CORINNvE, a lyric Gr. poetess, 5th cent. b.c. 
 ' CORIO, Bernard, a Spanish hist., 1459-1519. 
 I CORIOLANUS, Caius Marcius, a Roman 
 Igeneral, so named from Corioli, the capital of the 
 Yolscians, captured by him, 5th century B.C. 
 
 CORMONTAIGNE, a Fr. milit. engin., d. 1752. 
 
 CORNARIUS, J., a phys. of Saxony, 1500-58. 
 
 CORNARO, the name of a patrician family of 
 Venice, of whom three were doges of the republic, 
 'theirs*, 1365-1368; the second, 1625-1629; the 
 \tkird, 1709-1722. Catharine, descended from 
 the first, was queen of Cyprus, d. 1510. Ludo- 
 Vico, another member of the family, is celebrated 
 for his great age, and works on regimen, 1467- 
 id Lucretia Helena, as a poetess and 
 learned writer, 1646-1684. 
 
 CORXEILLE, a pope of Rome, 251-252. 
 
 CORXEILLE, Michel, a French painter and 
 engraver, 1601-1664. His son, of the same name 
 and profession, 1642-1708. A second son, Jean 
 Baptiste, also a painter, and writer on the art of 
 painting, 1646-1695. 
 
 COR2si;iLLE, Pierre, named 'The Great' by 
 
 1 
 
 COR 
 his admiring contemporaries, was the first, in the 
 order of time, among those brilliant writers who 
 did honour to France during the reign of Louis 
 XIV. He had not been preceded by any dramatic 
 writer whose genius was powerful enough to pre- 
 serve his name in general remembrance; and, 
 himself preceding Moliere by a good many years, 
 and Racine by a whole generation, he learned but 
 in part, and obeyed with reluctance, those formal 
 rules which French critics were beginning to 
 teach, and to which the French drama was gradu- 
 ally submitting itself. His countrymen are often 
 much at a loss to reconcile their dislike to his irre- 
 gularities in form, with the pride they feel in his 
 well-won fame, and the impression which they 
 cannot help receiving from his magnificent pictures 
 of heroically idealized nature. Corneille, born at 
 Rouen in 1606, was the son of a lawyer, and him- 
 self attempted the same profession. But as early 
 as his twenty-third year, he entered on an un- 
 interrupted course of devotion to dramatic compo- 
 sition. His first attempts were six rhymed come- 
 dies, and the strong but declamatory tragedy of 
 'Medee.' These pieces were received with ap- 
 plause in a time when there was nothing better, 
 but are now admitted to have been so feeble as to 
 give but poor presage of the strength which worked 
 within him. lie was saved from prosecuting this 
 career by being imprudent enough to offend Cardi- 
 nal Richelieu, who had chosen him as one of the 
 men of genius who were to found his French 
 Academy. Retiring to Rouen, he turned his 
 thoughts to tragedy, and studied the Spanish lan- 
 guage to have at his command the dramatic stores 
 which it already possessed : an old courtier, who 
 happened to have sought repose in Normandy, is 
 said to have been his adviser on both points. The 
 fruits appeared in 1636, when he presented his 
 romantic tragedy ' The Cid.' Its success was pro- 
 digious, and was at length allowed to be deserved, 
 even by the academicians who wished to flatter 
 the resentments of Richelieu. It is the most fam- 
 ous, and perhaps the greatest, of all Corneille's 
 works. It is alike admirable for its skill of con- 
 struction, its chivalrous dignity of sentiment, and 
 the dramatic power with which it depicts the con- 
 flict of opposing passions. The poet, however, 
 was sneered at for having freely borrowed incidents 
 and ideas from a Spanish play; and he threw 
 himself boldly on his own resources in his next 
 two works, which stand, with the 'Cid,' among 
 his masterpieces. In 'Horace' he dramatized, 
 with a defective plan, but with great force of pas- 
 sion, and several very striking bursts of sentiment, 
 the Roman combat of the Horatii and Curatii; 
 and on 'Cinna,' celebrating Augustus and the Ro- 
 mans of his age, he bestowed an artful dexterity 
 of management which has recommended it, in 
 spite of its artificiality of feeling, to the especial 
 favour of the French critics. These two fine works, 
 appearing in 1639, were immediately followed by 
 a worthy successor, the ' Polyeiicte,' a tragedy of 
 Christian martyrdom. Soon afterwards came ' La 
 Mort de Pompee,' which is fine in some parts; and 
 ' Le Menteur, the only one of its author's comedies 
 that is held worthy of him, and pronounced to 
 have been the earliest comedy of intrigue and 
 character which did credit to French literature. 
 It was imitated from the Spanish, and has itself 
 5 
 
COR 
 
 been imitated in English by Steele and translated 
 by Foote. 4 Rodogune ' was thought by the poet 
 to be his best work ; and its fifth act is declared by 
 Voltaire to be the finest effort of the French drama. 
 More philosophical critics detect, in this imposing 
 tragedy, traces of that over-charged and unnatural 
 turn of thought and sentiment which began to 
 show itself more and more in Comeille's plays, 
 and which, with not unfrequent feebleness, indi- 
 cated that the rich mine was nearly wrought out. 
 The acknowledged failure of ' Pertharite ' in 1653, 
 warned him to pause ; and for six years he pro- 
 duced nothing but a versified translation of Tho- 
 mas a. Kempis. Nor did he add to his fame by 
 the few works which he produced after returning 
 to the stage in 1659. These, though not without 
 flashes of the ancient energy, are acknowledged to 
 be on the whole weak ; and they abound in those 
 argumentative and declamatory orations, the occa- 
 sional intrusion of which into his best plays is con- 
 fessed by his most favourable critics. Among the 
 critics of Corneille, he himself must be numbered 
 with honour. The remarks which he published 
 with several of his earlier pieces, contain some ad- 
 mirable criticism. In private life he was an un- 
 assuming and plain man, who was always most at 
 his ease in the bosom of his own family. He died 
 in 1684. His younger brother, Thomas, though 
 now forgotten, was in his day a very popular dra- 
 matist, and famous for his readiness of versifica- 
 tion. The two brothers, whose wives were sisters, 
 lived in the same house ; and it is said that, when 
 Pierre wanted a rhyme, he used to lift a trap-door 
 and call on Thomas for assistance. J_W.S.] 
 
 CORNELIA, a Roman lady, daughter of Scipio 
 Africanus, and mother of the Gracchi, 2d ct. B.C. 
 
 CORNELIS, C, a Dutch painter, 1562-1638. 
 
 CORNELISON, Cornelis, a Dutchman, ad- 
 miral of the fleet sent by the united provinces in 
 1534, under conduct of William Barentz. 
 
 CORNELIUS-NEPOS, a Latin hist., 1st c. b.c. 
 
 CORNETTE, Claude Melchior, a French 
 phvsician and chemist, 1744-1794. 
 
 CORNIANI, J. B., an Italian dram., 1742-1813. 
 
 CORNUTI, J. P., a French botanist, 1600-1651. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Sir Charles, an English 
 ambassador time of James I., d. 1630. His son, 
 William, author of essays published 1632. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Charles, Marquis Cornwallis, 
 was born 31st Dec, 1738. He entered the army 
 early, and obtained deserved promotion and credit 
 in the last campaign of the seven years' war. He 
 served actively and honourably as major-general 
 under Howe and Clinton in the first year of the 
 American war, and in 1780 he held an indepen- 
 dent command. He gained several victories, but 
 was at last shut up and besieged in York Town, 
 where he was obliged to surrender himself and his 
 army, after an obstinate and gallant defence, on 
 October 19, 1781. In 1786 Lord Cornwallis went 
 to India as commander-in-chief and governor- 
 general. He signalized his rule there by the mili- 
 tary advantages that he gained over Tippoo Saib, 
 and by his honesty and vigour as an administra- 
 tive reformer. After his return from India he 
 was, in 1798, made lord-lieutenant in Ireland, 
 where he put down the rebellion that he found 
 raging there. His humanity and his skill in civil 
 government did more even than his military 
 
 1; 
 
 COR 
 talents towards restoring order in that unhappy 
 country. In f805 he was a second time made 
 governor of India ; but his health was now shat- 
 tered. He was suffering severely when he landed 
 at Calcutta; but he exerted himself usefully in 
 the introduction of several salutary measures in 
 the civil department of the Indian service; and 
 then endeavoured to put himself at the head of 
 the army, which was actively engaged in the 
 upper provinces. But the old warrior's strength 
 failed him, and he died at Ghazepore, on his way 
 to head-quarters, on 5th October, 1805. [E.S.C.J 
 
 CORONA, Leo, a Venetian painter, 1561-1605. 
 
 CORONELLI, M. V., a Venet. geog., 1650-1718. 
 
 CORRADO, C, a painter of Naples, 1693-1768. 
 
 CORRADO, Quinto M., a Latin au.,1508-1575. 
 
 CORRARO, G., a Venet. moralist, 1411-1464. 
 
 CORREA, P. P., a Portuguese captain, 13th c. 
 
 CORREA, Til, a rhetoric, and poet, 1537-1595. 
 
 CORREA-DE-SAA, Salvador, a Portuguese 
 admiral, and governor of Brazil, 1594-1680. 
 
 CORREA-DA-SERRA, J. F., a distinguished 
 Portuguese botanist, and minister plenipotentiary 
 to the United States, 1750-1823. 
 
 CORREGGIO. Antonio Allegri, com- 
 monly called Correggio from his birth-place, 
 was born about 1493-4, and appears to have first 
 studied painting under Tonino Bartolotto of Cor- 
 reggio ; in 1519 he was established as a painter 
 at Parma. The celebrated cupola of Parma was 
 commenced in 1520, and in 1522 Correggio under- 
 took the great works of the dome of the cathedral; 
 in the former representing the ascension of Christ, 
 and in the latter, the assumption of the Virgin, 
 both of which series are now admirably engraved by 
 the Cav. Toschi. The frescoes of the cathedral, 
 left unfinished by Correggio, were completed by his 
 pupil Giorgio Gandini. Correggio died of a fever 
 at his native place in 1534, in his forty-first year 
 only. Correggio's great reputation rests chiefly 
 upon the above mentioned frescoes, but he had 
 executed many excellent oil pictures before he 
 proceeded to Parma in 1519. All his pictures are 
 conspicuous for a remarkable play of foreshorten- 
 ings, a powerful and delicate chiaroscuro, or light 
 and shade, and a graceful grouping of forms. 
 The ' Notte,' or night, of Correggio, m the Gallery 
 of Dresden, is a picture of the nativity of Christ, 
 in which the light proceeds from the body of the 
 infant Saviour. (Pungileoni, Memorie htoriche 
 di Antonio Allegri detto il Correggio, Parma, 
 1827-21. Sketches of the Lives of Correqgio and 
 Parmigiano, London, 1823.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 CORSINI, Edw., an Ital. savant, 1702-1765. 
 
 CORTE, J. De La, a Spanish historical pain- 
 ter, 1597-1660. His son, Gabriel, eminent as 
 a flower painter, 1648-1694. 
 
 CORTE, Barth., an Ital. med. au., 1666-1738. 
 
 CORTE, Gottlieb, a learned Ger., 1698-1731. 
 
 CORTEREAL, G., a Portug. navig., abt. 1500. 
 
 CORTEREAL, J., a Portuguese poet, d. 1593. 
 
 CORTEREAL, John Vaz Costa, a gentleman 
 of the household of Alphonso V. of Portugal ; he 
 is said to have discovered Newfoundland about the 
 year 1463. His son, Gaspar, sailed from Lisbon 
 m the year 1500, and discovered Labrador and 
 Greenland. In May, 1501, he again left Lisbon, 
 with two ships, in hopes of finding a N.W. passage 
 to India ; a storm separated the ships on the coast 
 
COR 
 
 of Greenland ; CortereaTs vessel was never heard 
 of, though the other returned in safety. His brother, 
 Michael, went in search of him the next year, with 
 three ships ; these separated in order to examine 
 the coast more closely, agreeing upon a certain 
 rendezvous. Two of them kept the appointment 5 
 Cortereal and his vessel were never heard of again. 
 Vasco, the last of the family, master of the 
 household, was anxious to go in search of his lost 
 brothers, but the king would not yield to the most 
 earnest entreaties, [J.B.] 
 
 CORTEZ. Hernando Cortez was born of an 
 ancient Spanish family in Estremadura, in 1485. 
 At the age of nineteen he left Spain, like many of the 
 adventurous youths of that period, to seek fame and 
 fortune in the new world, that had been discovered 
 beyond the Atlantic, He distinguished himself 
 under Velasquez, in the conquest of Cuba ; and 
 after passing several years in that island, where he 
 was sometimes the favourite of the viceroy, and 
 sometimes the special object of his jealousy and 
 persecution, Cortez obtained leave from Velas- 
 quez to conduct a small expedition to the newly- 
 discovered coast of Yucatan and Mexico. With 
 less than 600 soldiers, with 16 horses, 10 cannons, 
 and four falconets, Cortez sailed, in 1519, to con- 
 quer the most powerful empire in America. Cortez 
 landed on the Mexican coast on Good Friday, the 
 21st of April, in that year, on the spot where the 
 city of Vera Cruz now stands. He persuaded his 
 followers to destroy their ships, and to march in- 
 land, with no prospect but to succeed or perish. 
 The Indian republic of Tlascala lay between him and 
 the Mexican capital. Cortez defeated the Tlasca- 
 lans, when they attacked him, and then suc- 
 ceeded in winning their friendship. They acted 
 thenceforth as his zealous and faithful allies. 
 Alarmed by the reports of the prowess of the Span- 
 iards, and of the superhuman terrors of the arms 
 which they wielded, Montezuma, the Mexican em- 
 peror, sought to conciliate the Spaniards, and re- 
 ceived Cortez and his troops in the capital. Though 
 they obtained lavish presents, and courteous treat- 
 ment, the treasures which they saw around them in- 
 flamed more and more the cupidity of the invaders. 
 The sight of the idolatrous rites, and especially of 
 the human sacrifices which the Mexicans practised, 
 inflamed their religious bigotry ; the ambition of 
 Cortez thirsted after absolute conquest, and, by a 
 bold stroke of treachery, he seized, the person of 
 the Mexican emperor. Cortez, soon after this, 
 received a material increase of strength, from a 
 force which the viceroy of Cuba had sent to depose 
 him and take him prisoner, but which he partly 
 defeated, and partly persuaded to come over to him. 
 But he now found himself plunged into a most 
 desperate war with the native Mexicans, who rose 
 upon the Spaniards, and assaulted them in their 
 fortified quarters in the capital. The Mexicans' 
 strove with equal courage, and infinitely prepon- 
 derating numbers, against the superior weapons 
 and discipline of the Europeans, who throughout 
 the struggle were gallantly supported by their 
 Tlascalan confederates. Cortez was now at last 
 obliged to evacuate the city ; and on the night of 
 the 1st July, 1520 (the Noche Triste of the Span- 
 ish historians), Cortez and his shattered force, 
 with difficulty, and severe loss, made good their 
 retreat from Mexico. Encouraged with this suc- 
 
 17 
 
 COS 
 cess, the Mexicans followed the Spaniards, and 
 fought a pitched battle with them in the open field. 
 In this battle (the battle of Otumba), Cortez 
 gained a complete victory, which was mainly due 
 to his own prowess ; as in the very crisis of the 
 battle, which was turning against the Spaniards, 
 Cortez personally charged the Mexican general, 
 and slew him with his own hand. After resting 
 and reorganizing his army among the Tlasca- 
 lans, and receiving some reinforcements, Cortez 
 again advanced upon the Mexican capital. Gua- 
 temozin was now emperor of Mexico, and had 
 learnt the inability of his troops to face the Euro- 
 peans in the open field. He remained within the 
 city, _ which Cortez besieged. The geographical 
 position of the city, and the great numbers of native 
 allies who now served under him, enabled Cortez 
 to establish a strict blockade. Many assaults 
 were made, and met with various fortune. Fire 
 and the sword swept away thousands of the Mexi- 
 cans, but famine was their most fatal foe, and 
 Mexico, on the 13th August, 1521, surrendered, 
 and the whole of its vast empire became subject to 
 the crown of Spain. Cortez disgraced his triumph 
 by putting the brave Guatemozin to a cruel death, 
 an act of which he is said to have afterwards 
 deeply repented. The domestic enemies of the con- 
 queror of Mexico had been busy in their intrigues 
 against him in the Spanish court, and in 1528 
 Cortez returned to Spam to face his accusers. He 
 was coldly received, though with apparent honour; 
 and he could not prevail on Charles V. to continue 
 him in the governorship of Mexico. He returned to 
 America in 1530, a powerful and wealthy noble, 
 but without public authority. He now signalized 
 himself in the arts of peace, in the skilful culture 
 of his ample estate, in the introduction of the 
 sugar cane, and the importation of merino sheep 
 into the province. He made also several brilliant 
 and important voyages of discovery along the Cali- 
 fornian and other coasts of the Pacific. In 1540 
 he finally returned to Spain, where he was treated 
 by his sovereign with ungracious neglect. Cortez 
 died near Seville, in 1547, in the sixty-third year 
 of his age. [E.S.C.] 
 
 CORTICELLI, P. S., a Sp. gram., 1690-1758. 
 
 CORVISART, J. K, a Fr. physic, 1755-1821. 
 
 CORYATE, Th., an Eng. navigat,, 1577-1617. 
 
 COSIN, John, an Eng. theologian, 1595-1672. 
 
 COSMAS, an Egyptian monk, who, in the be- 
 ginning of the 6th century, wrote a work on the 
 ' Topography of the Christian World.' Its chief 
 object was to refute the unscriptural and impious 
 doctrine of the earth's sphericity. He argued that 
 it was a plain surrounded by an immense wall, 
 at whose north side there was a great mountain, 
 which concealed the sun every night. His work, 
 however, contains many interesting particulars, 
 especially concerning the East, in vdiich some 
 think he had extensively voyaged ; and hence he is 
 styled Indicopleustes. [J.B.] 
 
 COSMO. See Medici. 
 
 COSSALI, P., an Ital. algebraist, 1748-1^15. 
 
 COSSE-BRISSAC, one of the oldest and most 
 illustrious houses of France, the most remarkable 
 members of which are Count Charles, one of 
 the greatest captains of the mid. ages, 1505-1563. 
 Artus De Cosse, marshal under Charles IX., d. 
 1582. Timoleon, killed at the siege of Mucidan, 
 N 
 
COS 
 
 15G9. Charles, his brother, grand falconer, and 
 statesman under Henry IV., d. 1621. J. P. Tl- 
 moleon, marshal, 1698-1784. L. J. Timo- 
 leon, Due De Cosse, killed at Robbach, 1757. 
 L. Hercules Timoleon De Cosse-Brissac, 
 gov. of Paris, b. 1734, com.-gen. of the constitu- 
 tional guard of the king 1791, killed at the mas- 
 sacre of Versailles, 1792 
 
 COSTA, F. De Mendoen, a Port, lit., d. 1824. 
 
 COSTARD, George, an Engl, astr., 1710-1782. 
 
 COSTER, J. L., a Dutch printer, 1370-1439. 
 
 COSTER, Samuel, a Dutch dramatist, 17th c. 
 
 COSWAY, Richard, an Engl, art., 1731-1821. 
 
 COTES, Francis, an Engl, artist, d. 1770. 
 
 COTES, Roc, 1682-1716. Cotes was the friend 
 of Newton, who cherished high admiration for 
 him; and he wrote that excellent preface still 
 attached to the ' Principia.'_ He discovered the 
 remarkable property of the circle which passes un- 
 der the name of the Cotesian Theorem; and of 
 which much use has been subsequently made ; and 
 he contributed to several other departments of pure 
 and mixed mathematics. Had Cotes lived he would 
 have been one of the most distinguished scientific 
 men that ever adorned England. 
 
 COTIN, Chs., a Fr. poet and eccles., 1604-1682. 
 
 COTTA, J., a Latin poet, died 1511. 
 
 COTTA, J. F., a German theologian, 1701-1779. 
 
 COTTA, J. G., Baron De Cottendorf, distin. 
 for his enterprise in newsp. property, 1764-1832. 
 
 COTTA, L. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1645-1719. 
 
 COTTA, Lucius Aurelius, Rom. con., 75 b.c. 
 
 COTTA, Marcus Aurelius, Rom. con., 74 b.c. 
 
 COTTIUS, a prince of Cisalpine Gaul in the age of 
 Augustus, from whom the Cottien Alps are named. 
 
 COTTON, Chs., a burlesque Engl, poet, 17th c. 
 
 COTTON, Nath., aphys. and poet, 1707-1788. 
 
 COTTON, P., confessor of Henry IV. and Louis 
 XIIL, procured the recall of the Jesuits, 1564-1629. 
 
 COTTON, Sir R. B., an em. antiq., col. of the 
 library of that name in the Brit. Mus., 1570-1631. 
 
 COTYS, the name of several ancient kings of 
 Thrace, Cappadocia, and the Cimmerian Bosphorus. 
 
 COUDRETTE, a Fr. hist, of the Jesuits, d. 1774. 
 
 COUPLET, Cl. An., a Fr. mechan., 1642-1722. 
 
 COUPLET, Philip, a Fr. mission., 1628-1692. 
 
 COURAYER, P. F. Le, a Fr. ecclesiastic, per- 
 secuted for his opinions, d. in London, 1681-1776. 
 
 COURIER, P. L., a French classical scholar 
 and political writer, born 1772, assassinated 1825. 
 
 COURNAND, Ant. De, aFr. poet, 1747-1814. 
 
 COURT-DE-GEBELIN, Anth., a French min- 
 ister, author of ' Le Monde Primitif,' 1725-1784. 
 
 COURTILZ-DE-SANDRAS, Gatien De, a Fr. 
 bio., au. of many scandalous disclosures, 1644-1712. 
 
 COURTIVRON, Mqs. De, a math., 1715-1785. 
 
 COURTNEY, John, a polit., time of Fox, au. of 
 4 Reflections on French Revolution,' &c, d. 1816. 
 
 COURTNEY, William, abp. of Canterbury and 
 lord chancellor of England, notorious for his per- 
 secution of the Lollards, 1341-1396. 
 
 COURTOIS, James, a Fr. painter and engraver, 
 celebrated for his battle-pieces, 1621-1676. His 
 brother William, an hist, painter, 1628-1679. 
 
 COUSIN, Gilbert, a learned Fr. ecclesiastic, 
 persecuted as a heretic, and d. in prison, 1506-1567. 
 
 COUSIN, J., a Fr. painter and sculp., 1520-1590. 
 
 COUSIN, Louis, a Fr. historian, 1627-1707. 
 
 COUSTON, N., a Fr. sculp., 1658-1733. His 
 
 COV 
 brother William, also a sculp., 1678-1746. The 
 son of William, same name and prof., 1716-1777. 
 
 COUTHON, Georges, is one of those proble- 
 matical characters in the French revolution upon 
 whom it is difficult to pass judgment, though 
 nothing is easier than to call them hard names, 
 and to nold them up, in general terms, to the exe- 
 cration of mankind. He was born in 1756, and 
 was president of the tribunal at Clermont when 
 the revolution broke out; and though his lower 
 extremities were paralyzed, so that he was com- 
 pelled to speak sitting, he had been remarkable 
 for his eloquence as an advocate. His first act as 
 a member of the legislative assembly was to pro- 
 cure the abolition of the forms which distinguished 
 the king as sovereign, declaring at the ena of his 
 address that ' He would have no other majesty than 
 the Divine majesty and the majesty of the people.' As 
 a member of the convention he voted for the death 
 of the king without appeal and without delay. He 
 acted with the party of the Mountain, and was 
 mainly instrumental in the overthrow of the Giron- 
 dins, and on the 2d of June proposed the arrest of 
 the twenty-two deputies, and of the ministers Cla- 
 viere and Lebrun. His conduct on all these occa- 
 sions procured his election to the Comite de Salut 
 Public, where he acted with St. Just and Robes- 
 pierre, It was upon his proposition that the con- 
 vention declared the English government to be 
 guilty of ' lese-humanite.' and that Pitt was the 
 ' enemy of the human race.' 1 He was at the taking 
 of Lyons, and devoted many of its fine buildings 
 to destruction, for which purpose he was earned 
 from place to place in a chair, bearing a wooden 
 mallet, with which he struck the unfortunate edi- 
 fice, repeating the formula, ' La loi te frappe,' (the 
 law strikes thee,) after which the work of destruc- 
 tion might be commenced. The charge of cruelty 
 made against him is founded principally on the 
 decree, of which he was the author, for facilitating 
 arrests, and giving new vigour and facility to the 
 revolutionary tribunal, known as the decree of the 
 22d Prairial; but it is some answer to this, if 
 Robespierre's opinion of his friend is worth any- 
 thing, that when Couthon was proposed to him 
 for a new commission among the disaffected, he 
 answered contemptuously, ' Bah ! he cried like a 
 woman over the punishment of the rebellious 
 Lyonnese ! ' It is certain that the words of Cou- 
 thon may often be cited against him, as the test, 
 for example, which he gave when the Jacobins 
 were to be purged of all but the ultra democrats, 
 What hast thou done to be hanged if counter-re- 
 volution should arrive ?' but the question is, what 
 these words really implied under the circumstances, 
 and with what degree of earnestness were they 
 uttered ? Couthon was faithful to Robespierre to 
 the last ; and on the 9th Thermidor endeavoured 
 to kill himself with a poignard, but wanted nerve, 
 and was earned bleeding to the guillotine. His 
 features were mild and pleasing, and his expression 
 remarkable for good-nature. [E.R.] 
 
 COUTO, Diego De, a Portug. hist., 1542-1616. 
 
 COUTTS, Thos., a dist. Lon. banker, d. 1821. 
 
 COVELL, J., D.D., au. of a work on the Greek 
 Ch.; chapl. to the Eng. embassy in Turkev, d. 1722. 
 
 /v,riWr ._ t,__i _v_ WJ lg31# 
 
 gl. phys., 1766-1 
 COVENTRY, H., a man of letters, d. 1752. 
 
 COVENTRY, A., an Engl. 
 COVENTRY, H., a man of 
 COVENTRY, J., an Engl, mechan;, 1735-1812 
 
 178 
 
cov 
 
 COVERDALE, Miles, well kn. as one of the first 
 Eng. reformers, and transl. of the Bible, 1499-1580. 
 
 COVERTE., R,, an End. navigator, 17th cent. 
 
 COVILHAM, Pedro De, a Port, travel., thirty- 
 three years resident in Abyssinia, 16th century. 
 
 COWARD, Wm., an English physician and psy- 
 chologist, commencement of the last century. 
 
 COWLEY, Abraham, regarded by Dr. Johnson 
 as the chief of metaph. poets, and equally eel. as a 
 naturalist, b. in London 1618, buried in Westmin. 
 Abbey by the side of Chaucer and Spenser, 1667. 
 
 COWLEY, Hannah, a dram, wr., 1743-1809. 
 
 COWLEY, Henry Wellesly, Lord, b. 1773, 
 in India with his brother Lord Wellesly 1797, amb. 
 to Vienna 1823-1831, to Paris 1841, died 1847. 
 
 COWPER, Wm., a Scotch prelate, 1566-1619. 
 
 COWPER, Wm., an Engl, anatom., 1666-1709. 
 
 COWPER, Wm., Earl, a disting. lawyer and 
 statesman, reign of Queen Anne, d. 1723. 
 
 COWPER, William, was the grand-nephew 
 of the Lord Chancellor Cowper, and grandson of a 
 judge in the Court of Common Pleas. His father 
 was rector of Great Berkhamstead in Hertford- 
 shire ; and there the poet was born in 1731. 
 After having spent two years of misery in a 
 country school, he was placed at Westminster 
 School, where he remained, comfortable and lively, 
 till he was eighteen years old. He was then 
 articled to a solicitor in London, was called to the 
 bar in 1754, and resided in the Middle Temple 
 for eleven years, neglecting law, contributing a 
 few papers to ' The Connoisseur,' and gradually 
 exhausting his little patrimony. In 1763 one of 
 his powerful kinsmen appointed him to two clerk- 
 ships in the House of Lords. Doubts of his com- 
 petency, and the fear of appearance in public as- 
 semblies, developed the tendency to insanity which 
 lurked within him. He made several attempts to 
 destroy himself; and was consigned for eighteen 
 months to a lunatic asylum at St. Albans. On 
 his release in 1765, subsisting on the remnant of 
 his property, with assistance from relatives, he 
 took up his residence at Huntingdon, and became a 
 boarder in the house of Mr. Unwin, a clergyman. 
 That gentleman dying two years afterwards, the 
 widow and Cowper removed to Olney in Bucking- 
 hamshire. John Newton was curate of the place ; 
 and his religious views accorded with those which 
 had been adopted by the poet. In 1776 appeared 
 the ' Olney Hymns,' of which some of the best 
 were furnished by Cowper ; but it was only about 
 the time of their publication that the unhappy 
 poet was freed from a second confinement, which 
 had lasted for nearly four years. Mrs. Unwin, 
 anxious to engage his mind safely, urged him to 
 prosecute verse-making. 'The Progress of Error' 
 as written ; ' Truth,' Table-Talky and ' Expos- 
 
 ation,' followed it ; and these with other poems 
 
 ide up a volume, which was published in 1782, 
 
 ceiving the approbation of Johnson and other 
 
 itics, but meeting little attention from the pub- 
 jlic. The poet's fame, however, was decisively 
 established by his next volume, which, appearing 
 in 1785, contained ' The Task ' and other poems. 
 The publication of ' The Task,' indeed, was an era 
 in the history of English poetry. It was the point 
 jf transition from the eighteenth century to the 
 lineteenth. Natural language was substituted 
 or artificial: themes of universal interest were 
 
 CRA 
 handled, instead of such as told only on a few cul- 
 tivated minds ; even the seriousness and solemnity 
 of the leading tone had a striking attraction, 
 while it was relieved both by strains of pathos 
 and touches of satiric humour. More novel and 
 original than anything else were those minute and 
 faithful delineations of external scenery, to which 
 no parallel had been seen since the 'Seasons.' 
 Perhaps, also, the didactic form of Cowper's 
 poems, giving them an equivocal character which 
 hovers continually between poetry and argumen- 
 tation, was an additional recommendation to 
 readers who had long been unaccustomed to the 
 finer and higher kinds of poetical invention. 
 Cowper now spent six years on his translation of 
 Homer, which appeared in 1791. The neglect 
 which it has experienced is certainly undeserved, 
 at least by his ' Odyssey.' His mental alienation, 
 which had repeatedly threatened him with a return, 
 overcame him completely in 1794; and the last 
 six years of his life produced hardly any literary 
 fruits except the pathetic ' Castaway.' The death 
 of his dear friend Mrs. Unwin, in 1796, threw him 
 into a gloom which was hardly ever again dispel- 
 led, and he died in 1800. [W.S.] 
 
 COX, Richard, an Irish historian, 1650-1733. 
 
 COX, Richard, bishop of Ely in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, a controversial wr., 1499-1531. 
 
 COXE, Wm., an English historian, 1747-1828. 
 
 COXETER, Th., a miscell. writer, 1689-1747. 
 
 COYPEL, Noel, a Fr. hist, painter, 1638-1707. 
 Anthony, son and pupil of Noel, 1661-1722. Ch. 
 Antony, son of the latter, 1694-1752. Noel 
 Nicholas, a younger son of Noel, and br. of An- 
 thony, 1692-1734. 
 
 COYSEVOX, Anth., a Fr. sculp., 1640-1720. 
 
 COYTHIER, James, physician to Louis XL 
 
 COZENS, Alex., a Russian painter, d. 1786. 
 
 COZZA, F., a Spanish painter, 1605-1682. 
 
 COZZANDO, Leo, an Ital. histor., 1620-1702. 
 
 [ birth-place of Crabbe.J 
 
 CRABBE, George, a poet whose truth to na- 
 ture and strength of homely pathos atone for de- 
 ficiency in ideal elevation, was born in 1754, at 
 Aldborough in Suffolk, where his father was col- 
 lector of salt duties. He went through an appren- 
 ticeship to a surgeon, and for a short while at- 
 tempted practice ; but, always attached to letters 
 rather than business, he had little success, and came 
 to London in 1780 to seek his fortune. When the 
 
 179 
 
CRA 
 
 failure of Lis first poem, 'The Candidate,' had 
 reduced him to great distress, and when no atten- 
 tion had been paid to his appeals to distinguished 
 persons locally connected with his birth-place, he 
 boldly laid his case before Edmund Burke. This 
 great man read his manuscripts, received him into 
 his house at Beaconsfield, and introduced him to 
 his friends ; and the poem of ' The Library,' pub- 
 lished on his recommendation, was received with 
 great applause. His reputation was increased by 
 'The Village,' which appeared in 1783; and the 
 publication of ' The Newspaper ' in 1785, closed 
 the first series of his works. In the meantime, 
 orders having been obtained for him, he became 
 chaplain to the duke of Rutland, married happily, 
 and received in succession several moderate pre- 
 ferments. In 1807 he published ' The Parish Re- 
 gister,' to which were added ' Sir Eustace Grey,' 
 and other small poems ; and ' The Borough,' the 
 most various and energetic of his works, made its 
 appearance in 1810. In 1813, soon after the death 
 of his wife, he was presented to the living of 
 Trowbridge in Wiltshire, where he spent the re- 
 mainder of his quiet and honourable life. His 
 ' Tales of the Hall ' were published in 1819. His 
 death took place in 1832. [W.S.] 
 
 CRABBE, Geo., A.M., au. of a ' Diet, of Syno- 
 nyms,' and other works, d. Dec. 4, 1851, aged 72. 
 
 CRABETH, F., a Flemish painter, 16th cent. 
 
 CRADDOCK, S., a nonconformist divine, au- 
 thor of works on practical religion, b. 1620. His 
 brother Zachary, author of sermons, 1633-1695. 
 
 CRADDOCKE, Luke, an Eng. painter, d. 1717. 
 
 CRAIG, John, a Scotch mathem., 17th cent. 
 
 CRAIG, N., a savant of Denmark, 1549-1602. 
 
 CRAIG, Sir Th., a Scotch lawyer, 1548-1608. 
 
 CRAIG, Wm., a Scotch barrister and fugitive 
 writer, succ. Lord Hailes as judge, 1745-1813. 
 
 CRAMER, C. G., a Ger. novelist, 1758-1817. 
 
 CRAMER, Fr., a Ger. musician, 1772-1848. 
 
 CRAMER, G., a Swiss geometrician, 1704-1752. 
 
 CRAMER, J. A., a Ger. mis. writer, 1723-88. 
 
 CRAMER, J. A., a Ger. mineralogist, 1710-77. 
 
 CRAMER, J. A., dean of Carlisle, celebrated 
 as an antiquarian writer on classical subjects; 
 born in Switzerland 1793, died 1848. 
 
 CRAMOISY, S., a French printer, 17th cent. 
 
 CRANACH, Lucas, a Ger. painter, 1472-1553. 
 
 CRANMER, Thomas, was born at Aslacton in 
 the county of Nottingham on the 2d July, 1489. 
 He entered Jesus College in 1503, became a fellow 
 in 1510-11, and a doctor of divinity in 1523. His 
 opinions on the first marriage of Henry VIII. with 
 his brother's widow introduced him to the king. 
 The favourite's multifarious efforts were in vain to 
 procure a divorce from the papal authorities, but 
 as a reward for his services, though he had been 
 twice married, he was raised by royal favour to the 
 see of Canterbury. On 23d May, 1533, the arch- 
 bishop declared the king's marriage to be null and 
 void, and five days afterwards he married Henry to 
 Anne Boleyn. Cranmer now became occupied 
 with more meritorious work, the translation of the 
 Bible, and the great work of the English reforma- 
 tion. At Henry's death, he was one of the council 
 of regency to Edward VI., and a liturgy, homilies, 
 and articles were composed under royal patronage. 
 When the young monarch died, and Mary at length 
 ascended the throne, Cranmer, who had been drawn 
 
 CRI 
 
 into the plot on behalf of the Lady Jane, was sum- 
 moned before the council, then committed to the 
 Tower, and finally sent to the prison of Bocardo 
 at Oxford. He was at length, by Pope Paul 
 IV., declared guilty of heresy, &c. On the 20th 
 of March, the night before his martyrdom, he 
 was entrapped into a written recantation. On the 
 next day, in St. Mary's church, he solemnly de- 
 clared ' that his hand had offended in writing con- 
 trary to his heart.' 'My hand,' said he, 'shall 
 first be punished. For if I may come to the fire, 
 it shall first be burned.' When he was brought to 
 the stake, erected opposite Baliol College, he ful- 
 filled this resolution with a marvellous and unex- 
 pected intrepidity, still crying 'this unworthy 
 hand ! ' But there was a sad infirmity in Cranmer s 
 nature, and his great faults were an apparent vacil- 
 lation and a want of decision and firmness. Yet 
 he was honoured to do a great work in his time. 
 ' He was at once,' says Macaulay, 'a divine and a 
 courtier,' and the attempted combination of the 
 two characters created those inconsistencies which 
 soiled the purity of his life, and detracted from the 
 merit of his actions. [J.E.l 
 
 CRASHAW, Richard, an Engl, poet, d. 1650. 
 
 CRASSO, Laurence, a Neap, hist., d. 1683. 
 
 CRASSUS, Lucius L., a Ro. orator, 150-87 b.c. 
 
 CRASSUS, M. L., a Rom. triumvir, k. 53 b.c. 
 
 CRATES, a philos. of Thebes, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 CRATINUS, a Greek poet, 528-431 b.c. 
 
 CRATO DE CRAFTHEIM, a physician and 
 literary savant of Germany, 1519-1585. 
 
 CRAUFURD, Quentin, a Sco. wr., 1743-1819. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Adair, an English physician 
 and naturalist, 1749-1795. 
 
 CRAWFORD, David, a Scotch hist., d. 1726. 
 
 CRAYER, G. De, a Flem. painter, 1582-1669. 
 
 CRE BILLON, Prosper Jolyot De, a French 
 tragic poet, held in the highest respect by his coun- 
 trymen, 1674-1762. His son, Claude Prosper, 
 a novelist, of no great repute, 1707-1777. 
 
 CREIGHTON, R., D.D., an English composer, 
 au. of ' I will arise and go to my Father,' d. 173G. 
 
 CRELLIUS, J., a Ger. musician, 1590-1633. 
 
 CREMILLES, L. H. Boyer De, a French 
 officer, in the army of Flanders, 1700-1768. 
 
 CRESCENZI, J. B., an It. artist, 1595-1660. 
 
 CRESCENZI, Pietro, a wr. on agric, regarded 
 as the restorer of the science in Europe, b. 1230. 
 
 CRESCIMBENI, J. M., an Ital. poet, 1663-1728. 
 
 CRESTIN, J., a religious prot. writer, d. 1572. 
 
 CRESSEY, H. P., a Rom. Cath. wr., d. 1674. 
 
 CRESLIN, the pseudonym of William Du 
 Bois, a French poet and chronicler, d. 1525. 
 
 CRETI, Donato, a pain, of Bologna, 1671-1749. 
 
 CREUTZ, Gustav. Ph. Count De, a Swed. 
 diplom. andman of letters, chanc. of Upsalal726-85. 
 
 CREUZE-LA-TOUCHE, J. Ant., a Fr. econ- 
 omist, dep. to the assem. and conv., &c, 1749-1800. 
 
 CREVTER, J. B. L., a French hist., 1693-1765. 
 
 CRICHTON, James, a gentleman of Scotland, 
 surnamed the ' Admirable' on account of his sur- 
 passing abilities and acquirements, 15G0-1583. 
 
 CRIGHTON, R., bp. of Bath and Wells, d. 1672. 
 
 CRILLON, the name of sev. illust. Frenchmen 
 of Ital. descent. 1. Louis De Balbe De Berton 
 De Crillon, one of the most lion, and valiant 
 captains of the 16th cent,, 1541-1616. 2. Louis 
 De Berton De Balbe De Quieus Due Db 
 
 180 
 
CRI 
 
 Crillox-Mahon, dist. in the wars of Louis XV., 
 1718-1796. 3. Louis Athanasius, brother of 
 the last, an em. div. and phil., d. 1789. 4. Fel. 
 Dor. De Berton De Balbe Due De Crillon, 
 an officer in the Spanish service, deputy to the 
 states-general, and peer of France, 1748-1820. 
 
 CRISP, Tobias, a famous Antinomian, d. 1642. 
 
 CRISPUS, Flavius Julius, a son of Constan- 
 tine the Great, put to death by his orders, 336. 
 
 CRITO, a disciple and fr. of Socrates, d. 380 b!c. 
 
 CRITO, a Greek sculptor, 1st or 2d cent, b c. 
 
 CROESE, Gerard, a Dutch savant, 1642-1710. 
 
 CROESUS, the last king of Lydia, renowned for 
 his immense wealth, reigned 557-545 B.C. 
 
 CROFT, H., bp. of Hereford, author of sermons 
 und religious tracts, &c, 1603-1691. 
 
 CROFT, Sir H., a biographer, &c, d. 1816. 
 
 CROFT, Sir R., the sue. of the preceding in the 
 baronetcy, surgeon accoucheur to the Princess 
 Charlotte, whose death occas. his suicide, 1817. 
 
 CROFT, W., a comp. of sacred music, 1677-1727. 
 
 CROI, John De, a French protes. wr., d. 1659. 
 
 CROIX-DU-MAINE, F. G. De La, a French 
 savant and bibliopole, 16th century. 
 
 CROIX, Fr. Petis De La, an Orient, scholar, 
 1653-1713. His son, Alex. Louis Marie, d. 1751. 
 
 CROIX, St. L. De La, a mystic of old Castile, 
 author of Tie Night of the Soul,' 1542-1591. 
 
 CROKE, Sir A, a miscell. writer, 1800-1842. 
 
 CROKE, Dr. R., a Gr. schol. and phil., d. 1558. 
 
 CROMER, M., a Polish historian, 1512-1589. 
 
 [Mask of Cromwell, taken afrer death.] 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, the Protector, was born 
 in the town of Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 
 1599. His father was Robert Cromwell, a cadet, 
 of a family possessed of a baronetcy, and his 
 mother being a daughter of Sir Richard Stewart, 
 efforts have often been made to show that he was 
 connected with the royal family. He spent a dis- 
 solute and extravagant youth, interrupted by seri- 
 ous misgivings, which brought him at last to stern 
 pelf-condemnation. When twenty-one years old 
 he married Elizabeth, the daughter of Sir Thomas 
 Bourchier, and thus, both by descent and alliance, 
 he was a member of the higher country gentleman 
 class, or of the nobility as it would be termed in 
 other European countries. In that age, however, 
 refinement was only kept up by attendance in 
 court, and Cromwell, who lived away from town 
 and followed country pursuits, became a man of 
 
 CRO 
 
 clownish deportment. Though he had been 
 elected to the brief parliament of 1628, it was not 
 till 1640 that he was known in the House of Com- 
 mons, and Sir Philip Warwick, who observed his 
 rise, has left a curious notice of his personal ap- 
 pearance. His apparel, he said, was very ordi- 
 nary, ' for it was a plain cloth suit, which seemed 
 to have been made by an ill country tailor. His 
 linen was plain, and not very clean, and I remem- 
 ber a speck or two of blood upon his little band, 
 which was not much larger than his collar. His 
 hat was without a hat-band. His stature was of 
 good size ; his sword stuck close to his side ; his 
 countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp 
 and untunable, and his eloquence full of fervour.' 
 He had been for some years establishing an influ- 
 ence with the puritan party, who frequented his 
 house and bowed to his strong judgment. He 
 showed his great business capacities in the struggle 
 of the long parliament, but it was not until the 
 parliament raised a military force, to which he 
 brought a troop of horse, that his powers of or- 
 ganization and command were fully developed. 
 He speedily rose to authority as lieutenant-general 
 of the horse, and when he was specially exempted 
 from the self-denying ordinance, so that he could 
 both deliberate in parliament and hold command, 
 he became the most powerful man in the country. 
 He showed his eminent sagacity in reconstructing 
 the army, and infusing into it high spirit along 
 with stern discipline. At the battle of Naseby in 
 1645 it was seen in the signal destruction brought 
 on the well-officered royal army, how effectively 
 he could strike with the weapon he had con- 
 structed.' His military policy throughout was to 
 despise secondary means and ends, but to invest 
 himself with overwhelming power and crush his 
 enemy. He saw the large share which artillery 
 must bear in warfare, and anticipated modern 
 generals in fostering that destructive arm. His re- 
 
 J>eated victories over the royalists, his estab- 
 ishment of the predominance of the army over 
 parliament, and of the independents over the 
 presbyterians, his relentless exertions to bring 
 Charles I. to the block, and his dismissal of the 
 parliament, are all great events in the history of 
 the day, which cannot be narrated with sufficient 
 distinctness without much detail. In 1649 he 
 conducted an exterminating war in Ireland, insti- 
 gated by the ferocious principle that whatever hu- 
 man being opposed him should be put to death. 
 In Scotland, where he saw there were more suit- 
 able materials for the sort of government he de- 
 sired, he was rather a pacificator than an oppres- 
 sor. It was on the 16th of December, 1653, that 
 he took the title of Lord Protector, and became 
 virtually king of Britain, and a king who sub- 
 mitted to very little constitutional restraint. How 
 far he was sincere in the religious convictions by 
 which he professed to be led, has been matter of 
 endless debate, and as a secret buried with him 
 who alone possessed it, it may occupy controversy 
 to the end of time. That he was under powerful 
 religious impulses cannot be doubted the ques- 
 tion arises as to the extent to which he really be- 
 lieved that by their power alone, and by no 
 promptings of worldliness, he was driven on in his 
 ambitious career. He was an enlightened internal 
 reformer, and established many ministerial improve- 
 
 181 
 
CEO 
 
 ments which subsequent governments were com- 
 pelled unwillingly to follow. His latter days were 
 spent in anxiety and depression, if not remorse, 
 and he died on 3d September, 1659. [J.H.B.j 
 
 CROMWELL, Thos., a statesman and adhrnt. of 
 Wolsev, andafterw. of Henry VIII. , beheaded 1540. 
 
 CRONSTED, A. F., a Swed. miner., 1722-1765. 
 
 CROSS, M., an English painter, time of Ch. I. 
 
 CROWE, Wm., an English poet, 1756-1829. 
 
 CROWNE, John, a dramatic writer and poet, 
 of the reign of Charles II., by birth an American. 
 
 CKOXALL, S., a Whig wr. and divine, d. 1752. 
 
 CRUDELI, Th., a poet of Tuscany, 1703-1745. 
 
 CRUDEN, Alex., au. of the well-kn. Concor- 
 dance,' by profession a classical teacher and book- 
 seller, a native of Aberdeen, 1701-1770. 
 
 CRUIKSHANK, W., an Eng. anat., 1746-1800. 
 
 CRUSIUS, Chk., a German phil., 1712-1775. 
 
 CRUSIUS, M., a German schol., 1526-1607. 
 
 CRUSIUS, T. L., a Saxon engrav., 1730-1769. 
 
 CRYM-GUERAI, khan of Tartary, 1758-1770. 
 
 CUBA, J., a German botanist, 15th century. 
 
 CUBERO, P., a Spanish miss., 17th century. 
 
 CUDWORTH, Ralph, principal of Christ Col- 
 lege, Cambridge ; a philosopner of considerable emi- 
 nence, and prodigious learning. Born in Somer- 
 set in 1617, died in 1688. Cudworth's life was an 
 unceasing protest against Hobbes ; and the theme 
 he proposed to himself was, very suitably, a defence 
 of Human Liberty. He recognized three kinds of 
 Fatalism equally destructive of responsibility, 
 and of the foundations of Morals : first, Fatalism 
 purely materialistic, suppressing, with the notion 
 of human Liberty, the idea of God, and the reality 
 of spiritual existences explaining all phenomena, 
 mental and physical, by concourses of atoms: 
 second, that theological Fatalism, common enough 
 in all ages, which resolves good and evil, justice 
 and injustice, into the simple and arbitrary will of 
 God : third, the fatalism of the Stoics, which con- 
 founds Providence with the laws of Necessity, re- 
 garding everything as inflexibly pre-ordained. Cud- 
 worth's protest against the first description of Fa- 
 talism, or his refutation of materialistic Atheism, 
 occupies his ponderous ' Intellectual System of the 
 Universe ;' and his effort to rescue the foundations 
 of Right and Wrong from arbitrariness, constitutes 
 the 'Immutable Morality.' He did not live to 
 complete his task by a similar attack on the Stoi- 
 cal, or ultra-Calvinistic form of hostility to human 
 spontaneity. The 'Intellectual System' especially, 
 is a very storehouse of information concerning cos- 
 mogonic speculation; nor will the reader fail to 
 detect throughout, marks of independent, and 
 even original thought. It contains, for instance, 
 the germ of the modifications afterwards proposed 
 by Leibnitz, on the argument of Des Cartes, for 
 the being of a God. (See article Des Cartes.) 
 The fault of all the writings of Cudworth, is their 
 too much learning ; his positions are overlaid. His 
 works were at first published in folio : an edition 
 of the ' Intellectual System ' in 4 vols. 8vo, has 
 been recently edited by Birch. Cudworth merits 
 a high place in that class of English divines in 
 which we find the names of Gale, Thomas Burnet, 
 and Henry More. [J.P.N.] 
 
 CUFAELER, Abr., a Ger. phil., 17th century. 
 
 CUFF, Hen., an Eng. schol., execut. for alleged 
 complicity in the treason of the earl of Essex, 1601. 
 
 CUM 
 CULLEN, William, M.D., 1712-1700, wag 
 one of the most remarkable physicians which our 
 country has produced, and took a principal .share 
 in elevating the mere art of the practitioner into a 
 science. He was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, 
 where his father was chief magistrate. Serving 
 an apprenticeship with a surgeon in Glasgow, 
 after the manner of Roderick Random, young 
 Cullen made several voyages to the West Indies as 
 surgeon in a London trader ; but tiring of the 
 monotony of such employment, he settled as a 
 country practitioner at Shotts, in his native 
 county. There he made the acquaintance, and 
 entered into partnership with Dr. William Hunter, 
 who afterwards became so distinguished in Lon- 
 don, and here he likewise drew towards him the 
 attention of the duke of Hamilton, to whom he 
 was indebted for being placed in a position which 
 enabled him to exhibit his natural powers. By 
 the terms of agreement between Cullen and Hun- 
 ter, it was stipulated that each alternately should 
 be allowed to study during the winter session at 
 some college; Cullen chose Edinburgh, and Hun- 
 ter London ; an arrangement which soon termi- 
 nated their association, as the latter, having obtained 
 employment from Dr. Douglas, never returned. 
 Cullen, who had graduated, was appointed lecturer 
 on chemistry in the university of Glasgow, in 
 1746, and was afterwards placed in the chair of 
 medicine. But, if we are not mistaken, he also 
 occasionally lectured on chemistry, as we have 
 seen a letter from him to the faculty of the college 
 offering to lecture on chemistry if 30 were given 
 to pay the expenses of the course, and ill-advised 
 
 f>arsimony was not the characteristic of that 
 earned body, and Dr. Cullen, on his removal 
 thither, first occupied the chair of chemistry, and 
 subsequently that of medicine. His views of 
 medicine, his enthusiastic love of his profession, 
 his kindness of heart, and his remarkable talents, 
 soon gave an impetus to the scientific study 
 of medicine, which is still felt at the present 
 day. His students not merely respected him as a 
 man of science, but they loved him as one who saw 
 into their hearts, and who, sympathizing with their 
 defects, smoothed their path of study. The im- 
 portant works of Cullen were his ' Nosology,' and 
 his work on medicine, both of which are cha- 
 racterized by admirable arrangement, careful selec- 
 tion, and well-considered deduction truly won- 
 derful when we consider the limited field of the 
 medical sciences when Cullen wrote. [R.D.T.] 
 
 CULLUM, Sir J., an Engl, antiq., 1733-1785. 
 
 CULPEPER, Sir T., a miscel. writer, 17th ct. 
 
 CULPEPPER, Nicil, an apothecary and astrol- 
 oger, au. of the well-known 'Herbal,' 1616-1654. 
 
 CUMANUS, governor of Judaea, mid. of 1st ct. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, the name of an Engl, duke- 
 dom, reserved for the younger members of the 
 royal family. The most noted of this title is 
 William Augustus, son of George II., eel. as 
 commander at the victory of Culloden, 1721-1765. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, Richard, an Engl, prelate of 
 great learning, au. of ' De Legibus Natura?,' written 
 in opposition to Hobbes, to prove that there is a 
 natural code of morals, 1632-1718. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, Richard, was the great- 
 grandson of Bishop Cumberland, the author of the 
 treatise ' De Legibus Natura?.' His mother was a 
 
 lfc2 
 
CUN 
 
 daughter of the celebrated Richard Bentley, and 
 the heroine of Byrom's pretty pastoral, ' My time, 
 ye Muses.' His father, a respectable English 
 clergyman, was, for some years before his death, an 
 Irish bishop. Richard Cumberland was born in 
 his grandfather's house at Cambridge in 1732. 
 He was educated at that university, took his de- 
 gree as tenth wrangler, and held for some years 
 one of the two lay fellowships of Trinity College. 
 His family withdrew him from his clerical studies 
 to become private secretary to Lord Halifax, then 
 at the head of the board of trade ; and after hav- 
 ing spent a long time in official duties, he was 
 appointed secretary to the board, and held that 
 place till the abolition of the board in 1782, when 
 he retired on a pension. In 1780 he was sent on 
 a confidential mission to the court of Madrid, 
 where he spent about a year ; but the negotiations 
 having failed, and Cumberland's expenditure hav- 
 ing much exceeded the scanty advance made to 
 him by the ministry on his departure, he was left, 
 apparently with much injustice, to bear a loss of 
 four or five thousand pounds, which exhausted al- 
 most wholly his slender patrimony. During his 
 official life he had written many occasional and 
 other pieces, and had given to the stage more 
 than one successful comedy. Soon after his return 
 from Spain he settled at Tunbridge Wells, where 
 he resided for many years afterwards, occupied 
 wholly with literary pursuits, and writing with 
 indefatigable industry. He died in 1811. He 
 was an honourable and amiable man : but his liter- 
 ary vanity was excessive; and his irritable sus- 
 ceptibility to criticism, which made Garrick call 
 him 'the man without a skin,' exposed him to 
 being unmercifully caricatured by Sheridan in 
 the character of Sir Fretful Plagiary. There is 
 hardly any kind of composition, whether in prose 
 or in verse, that Cumberland did not attempt. 
 But most of his efforts were of little value ; and 
 in the best of them he was hardly more than 
 fluent and agreeable. His epic poem of ' Calvary ' 
 was an utter failure. His series of periodical 
 essays, called * The Observer,' has much merit in 
 an easy kind of criticism: the best papers are 
 those on the Greek dramatists, the erudition of 
 which he avowed having gleaned from Bentley's 
 papers, but which he embellished by spirited metrical 
 translations of his own. His dramatic pieces, em- 
 bracing everything from tragedy to opera and 
 farce, amounted to more than fifty, of which the 
 larger number were printed. Among them were 
 several comedies that are still remembered : ' The 
 Brothers,' 'The West Indian,' 'The Jew,' and 
 ' The Wheel of Fortune.' [W.S.] 
 
 CUNIBERT, a Lombard king, 687-700. 
 
 CUNINGHAM, E. F., a Sc. painter, 1742-93. 
 
 CUNINGHAM, W., a phys. and astron., 16th c. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, Alex., a Sc. hist., 1654-1737. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, Allan, a popular novelist 
 and biograph. wr., au. of a well-known memoir of 
 Burns, several lyrical poems and ballads, the novel 
 of ' Paul Jones,' ' The Lives of British Painters, 
 Sculptors, and Architects,' &c, born in Dumfries- 
 shire 1786, died in London two days after complet- 
 ing the biography of his friend Sir D. Wilkie, 1842. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, J., an Irish playwght., d. 1773. 
 
 CUNO, J. C, a Ger. poet andbot, 1708-1780. 
 
 CUPANI, F., a Sicilian botanist, 1657-1711. 
 
 CUV 
 
 CURIO, Caius, a Rom. tribune, killed 47 B.C. 
 
 CURIUS-DENTATUS, Marius, an illustrious 
 Roman general, three times consul, 3d cent. b.c. 
 
 CURRAN, John Philpot, an Irish barrister 
 and patriot, celebrated for his eloquence, wit, and 
 sarcasm, was born of humble parents in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Cork, 1750. He studied at one of 
 the Inns in London and was called to the bar in 
 1775, and in about ten years afterwards took his 
 seat in the Irish House of Commons as member for 
 Doneraile. In 1794 he acquired immense popula- 
 rity by his defence of Rowan, and for many years 
 at this epoch displayed his brilliant oratory in par- 
 liament. From 1806 to 1814 he held the office of 
 master of the rolls, on resigning which he removed 
 to London, where he died 1817. 
 
 CURRIE, Jas., an em. Scotch phys. and med. 
 wr., editor and biog. of Burns in 1800, 1756-1805. 
 
 CURTI, Jerome, an Ital. painter, 1603-1693. 
 
 CURTIS, W., an English botanist, 1746-1799. 
 
 CURTIS, Sir Wm., Bart., a well-kn. alderman 
 and representative of the city of London, d. 1829. 
 
 CURTIUS, Marcus, a Rom. patriot, 4th c. b.c. 
 
 CURTIUS, M. C, a German hist, 1724-1802. 
 
 CURTZ, A., a German astronomer, 1600-71. 
 
 CUSA, Nicholas De, properly Nicholas 
 Crebs, a dist astron. and theologian, cardinal 
 legate to Constantinople, author of a refutation 
 of the Koran, first restorer of the Pythagorean doc. 
 of the earth's motion round the sun, &c, 1401-64. 
 
 CUSH, the eldest son of Ham, Gen. x. 8, under- 
 stood to be the father of the Ethiopians. 
 
 CUSPINIEN, J., a Ger. historian, 1473-1529. 
 
 CUSSON, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1727-1783. 
 
 CUSTINE, Adam Philippe, Count De, a 
 gen. in the army of the Fr republic, exec. 1793. 
 
 CUSTIS, C. F., a Flem. historian, 1704-1752. 
 
 CUTHBERT, St., first bishop of Northumber- 
 land, fndr- of the monastery of Lmdisfarne, d. 686. 
 
 CUTLER, Sir J., a royalist of London, d. 1699. 
 
 CUTTS, John, a brave English officer, created 
 Baron Cutts of Gowran by Wm. III., known as a 
 poetical writer and friend of Steele, died 1707. 
 
 CUVIER, Georges Leopold Chretien 
 Frederic Dagobert, one of the greatest natu- 
 ralists the world has produced, was born at Mont- 
 beliard in 1769. He died in 1832. After finishing 
 his education at Stuttgard, the young Cuvier ac- 
 cepted the situation of tutor in a protestant family 
 in Normandy. Living for some years in that part 
 of France, part of the time on the sea coast, he 
 was enabled to follow up the love for natural his^ 
 tory which he had exhibited from his earliest 
 years. The Abbe" Tessier, whom the troubles of the 
 times had driven into exile from the capital, intro- 
 duced him by letter to MM. Jussieu and Geoffroy. 
 Several memoirs written about that time and 
 transmitted to the latter, established his reputa- 
 tion, and procured his admission to two or three of 
 the learned societies in Paris. In 1799 he was 
 appointed successor to Daubenton as professor of 
 natural history at the college of France, and in 
 1802 he succeeded Mertrud in the chair of com- 
 parative anatomy at the Garden of Plants. From 
 that time he devoted himself steadily to the studies 
 which have immortalized his name. His ' Lecons 
 d'Anatomie Comparee,' and the ' Regne Animal,' 
 in which the whole animal kingdom is arranged 
 according to the organization of the beings of 
 
 183 
 
CUV 
 
 which it consists, have raised him to the pinnacle 
 of scientific tame, and established him as perhaps 
 the first naturalist in the world after Lmnams. 
 His numerous memoirs and works upon these sub- 
 
 [SUtue of Cuvier.] 
 
 jects show a master mind in the study of zoology ; 
 and extending the principles laid down in nis 
 comparative anatomy to the study of paleontology, 
 he has been enabled to render immense service to 
 geology. Starting from the law that there is a 
 correlation of forms in organized beings that all the 
 parts of each individual have mutual relations with 
 each other, tending to produce one end, that of the 
 existence of the being that each living being has 
 in its nature its own proper functions, and ought 
 therefore to have forms appropriated for that func- 
 tion ; and that consequently the analogous parts of 
 all animals have received modifications of form which 
 enable them to be recognized, he was able to ascer- 
 tain from the inspection of a single fossil bone, not 
 only the family to which it ought to belong, but 
 the genus to which it must be referred. Even the 
 very species of animal was thus to be made out, 
 and the restoration of its external form as it 
 might have lived and died, became in his hands an 
 object of certainty and precision. His 'Regne 
 Animal ' has been frequently translated, and forms 
 the basis of all arrangements followed at the pre- 
 sent time. Cuvier filled many offices of great im- 
 portance in the state, particularly connected with 
 educational institutions. Napoleon treated him 
 with much consideration, Louis XVIII. and Charles 
 X. advanced him to honour, and Louis Philippe 
 raised him to the rank of a peer of the realm. [W.B.] 
 
 CUYP, Albert, a Dutch painter, 17th cent. 
 
 CUYP, J. G., a Dutch painter, 1578-1649. 
 
 CYAXARES, k. of Med. and Persia, 634-594b.c. 
 
 CYBO, Aaron, viceroy of Naples, 1377-1457. 
 
 CYPRIAN, Thascius Cecilius, Saint, one 
 of the principal fathers of the Latin church, born 
 at Carthage commencement of the 3d century, 
 electd bp. of Carthage 248, suffrd. martyrdom 258. 
 
 CYRENIUS, Rom. gov. of Syria soon after the 
 birth of our Lord, and prev. censor or procurator. 
 
 CYRIAC, St., patriarch of Constnple., 595-606. 
 
 CYRIL. There are three saints of this name 
 
 CYR 
 
 the first, a father of the Greek church, patriarch of 
 Jerusalem, 315-386 ; the second, patr. of Alexandria, 
 and au. of works agst. the Nestonans and other ene- 1 
 mies of the faith, 5th ct. ; the third, called the apostle J 
 of the Slavi, the converter of the Chasars, 9th ct. I 
 CYRIL-LUCAR, patr. of Constnple., 1572-1638. 1 
 CYRUS L, or the Elder, the founder of tho[ 
 Persian empire, was the grandson of Astyages, 
 the last king of Media. Even in the time of Hero- 
 dotus the story of Cyrus was so much mixed up 
 with fable that it was impossible to separate 
 truth from fiction. Astyages had a daughter 
 named Mandane ; and, in consequence of a dream 
 which portended that her offspring should be the 
 master of Asia, he married her to Cambyses, a 
 Persian of good family, but of a quiet and unam- 
 bitious temper. On the birth of Cyrus, Astyages 
 ordered the infant to be exposed, ind intrusted 
 the execution of his cruel order to Harpagus, one 
 of his most faithful attendants. But the herds- 
 man in whose hands the infant was placed for 
 destruction was induced by the entreaties of his 
 wife to rear it as his own son, under the name of 
 Agradates. As is usual in such fabulous narra- 
 tives, the royal youth gave evidence of his descent 
 by superior talents and noble bearing ; and being 
 brought before his grandfather at the age of ten 
 to answer for his severe treatment of the son of a 
 noble Median at play, was discovered by the king 
 to be the son of his daughter. The circumstances 
 of his preservation were then stated, and the boy 
 was sent to his real parents. Astyages forgave 
 the herdsman, but wreaked his vengeance on 
 Harpagus, by murdering his son, and causing his 
 mangled limbs to be served up to his father at a 
 banquet Harpagus submitted^ quietly to his fate ; 
 but thenceforward meditating revenge, he sue- I 
 ceeded not long after in organizing a conspiracy 
 against Astyages, and easily prevailed upon Cyrus I 
 
 to become the leader. Cyrus induced the Per 
 sians to join in the revolt ; and, after defeating 
 Astyages, took possession of his throne B.C. 559. 
 Croesus, the rich king of Lydia, and brother-in- 
 law of Astyages, was the first to endeavour to 
 check the usurper, but Cyrus anticipated his 
 design, and took possession of his capital in b.c. 
 546. The extensive dominions of Croesus, along 
 with the whole of Upper Asia, soon came under 
 
 184 
 
CYR 
 
 his sway. The most noted event connected with 
 the acquisition of this vast country was the 
 taking of Babylon, the capital of Assyria, of which 
 Labynetus, the Belshazzar of Daniel, was king. 
 Cyrus entered the city by diverting the course of 
 the Euphrates, and introducing his army along 
 the dry bed of the river B.C. 538. Cyrus next di- 
 rected his efforts against the Massageta?, a nation 
 of Northern Asia, and offered to marry Tomyris, 
 their queen, who was then a widow. His suit was 
 rejected; and in a battle which ensued he was 
 defeated and slain in B.C. 529, after a reign of 
 twenty-nine vears. Such is the narrative of 
 Herodotus. The Cyropsedia of Xenophon is an 
 historical romance. The life of Cyrus is of great 
 importance, as being the epoch which forms the 
 chronological link between sacred and profane 
 history. [G.F.] 
 
 CYEUS II., or the Younger, was the second 
 son of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, and was 
 appointed by his father satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, 
 and Cappadocia, in Asia Minor, in B.C. 407. On 
 the death of his father, B.C. 404, and the accession 
 of his elder brother Artaxerxes, Cyrus disputed 
 the right of succession, founding his claim on the 
 fact that he was the first-born after his father 
 ascended the throne. For this act of treason he 
 was condemned to death ; but his life was pre- 
 served through the intercession of his mother, 
 Parysatis, whose favourite son he was, and who 
 had secretly encouraged him in his attempt on the 
 sovereignty. On returning to his province he 
 continued to cherish his ambitious views, and 
 immediately began to make preparations for the 
 execution of his design. By various means he 
 
 DAI 
 
 succeeded in quieting the suspicions of his brother, 
 while he endeavoured to bribe the Persians who 
 passed between himself and the court, and raised 
 a body of 13,000 Greeks, on whose assistance he 
 chiefly rested his hopes of success. In the spring 
 of B.C. 401, Cyrus set out from Sardis, and, 
 marching through Asia Minor and Syria, reached 
 the plain of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. 
 Here he found Artaxerxes ready to oppose him 
 with an immense army. In the battle which took 
 place, the Greek troops routed the Asiatics who 
 were opposed to them ; and Cyrus, rushing into 
 the centre to attack his brother, was slain. The 
 king caused his head and hands to be cut off, and 
 wished it to be believed that he had fallen by his 
 hand. The retreat of the Greeks, as described 
 by Xenophon, who was himself present, forms one 
 of the most interesting chapters in the historv 
 of ancient warfare. [G.F.*] 
 
 CYRUS, Flavius, praffect of Constantinople 
 under Theodosius II., afterwards a bishop, 5th c. 
 
 CZACKI, Thaddeus, a Russian statesman, 
 distins;. as a benefactor of Poland, 1765-1813. 
 
 CZARNIECKI, Stephen, a Polish general, 
 defended Cracow agst. Gustav. Adolph., 1599-1664. 
 
 CZERNI-GEORGE, the surname of George 
 Petrovitz, a native of Servia, who maintained 
 a long struggle for his country's independence, and 
 was acknowledged by the Porte as prince of Servia 
 in 1806. Being deprived in the year following of 
 a part of his possessions, he took up arms again, 
 and retired to Russia in 1813. In 1817, having 
 returned to Turkev, he was captured and executed. 
 
 CZERWIACOWSKI, a Polish anatomist, died 
 1816. 
 
 D 
 
 DABELOW, Chr. Christian, Baron De, a 
 German jurisconsult, author of a ' Commentary on 
 the Code Napoleon,' &c, 1768-1830. 
 
 DABENTONE, Jeanne, a reputed prophetess, 
 burned at Paris in the reign of Charles v., 1372. 
 
 DACIA, P. De, a Danish astronomer, 14th ct. 
 
 DACIANO, J., an Italian physician, 1520-1576. 
 
 DACIER, Andrew, a classical com. and trans., 
 1651-1722. His wife, Anne Lefevre Dacier, 
 eel. for her translations from the Greek, 1651-1720. 
 
 DACIER, J. B., a French translator, 1742-1833. 
 
 DAEDALUS, a Ger. inven. and arch., 10th c. B.C. 
 
 DAEHNERT, J. C, a Swed. savant, 1719-1785. 
 
 DAENDELS, H. G., a Dutch gen. in the French 
 republican army, promoter of the revol. in Batavia, 
 and gov.-general of the Dutch Indies, 1762-1818. 
 
 DAGOBERT. The Frank kings of this name 
 are Dagobert I., successor of his father Clo- 
 thaire, 628, d. 638. Dagobert II., successor of 
 Childeric, reigned 674-678. Dagobert III., 
 successor of his father Childeeeet, 711-715. 
 
 DAGOBERT, L. A., a Fr. tactician, 1740-1794. 
 
 DAGUERRE, L. J. M., an eminent French 
 painter, celebrated for his discovery of the photo- 
 graphic process called 'daguerreotype,' and also 
 for the improvements he introduced in panoramic 
 painting, 1789-1851. 
 
 DA(il ES-DE-CLAIRFONTAINE, Sim. And. 
 Chs., a Fr. agri. author and compiler, 1726-1797. 
 
 D'AGUESSEAU, H. F. See Aguesseau. 
 
 DAHLBERG, Eric, Count, a Swedish marshal, 
 antiquarian author, and designer, 1625-1703. 
 
 DAIGNAN, Wm., a Fr. med. wr., 1732-1812. 
 
 DAILLE, Jean, minister of the French Re- 
 formed church at Charenton, a.d. 1639, and ono 
 of the most eloquent preachers of his age. His 
 
 Eublished works amply justify the high celebrity 
 e enjoyed. He combined the acute argumen- 
 tative powers of a logician with the exercise of 
 a lively imagination, that enabled him to draw 
 illustrations of his subject from every field of 
 nature; and to these intellectual qualities he 
 added a fervour and pathos that stirred the 
 depths of the human soul. His discourses are 
 characterized by a heart-stirring eloquence, and it 
 has been remarked of him, that he had all the 
 eloquence of Saurin, without any approach to his 
 turgid and bombastic style. The work by which 
 the name of Daille has long been honourably known 
 in this country is his treatise ' De usu Patrum,' a 
 work designed to check or moderate the excessive 
 reverence which is felt in many quarters for the 
 writers of ecclesiastical antiquity. It rendered an 
 important service to the protestant cause in his 
 own country and times, and may still be consulted 
 with advantage in exposing the semi- Popery of our 
 own day. It was published in French in 1632, in 
 Latin in 1656, and a translation of it into English 
 in 1651, under the title of 'A Treatise concerning 
 the Right Use of the Fathers in the Decision of 
 
 185 
 
DAL 
 
 Controversies that are at this Day in Religion.' 
 Daille was also the author of several expository 
 works on books of Scripture the most esteemed, if 
 not the most valuable, of which have appeared in 
 an English dress. His ' Discourses on the Epistle 
 to the Colossians' were translated in 1672, with a 
 preface by Dr. Owen, and of those on the Phil- 
 lppians a'n elegant English version was given to 
 the world in 1841, by the Rev. James Sherman, 
 minister of Surrev chapel, London. [R-J-] 
 
 DALAYR AC, N., a Fr. opera comp., 1753-1803. 
 
 DALBERG, Chahi.es Theodore Anthony 
 Marie, Baron De, prince primate of the Catholic 
 Church of Germany, president of the confederation 
 of the Rhino, and grand duke of Constance under 
 Napoleon, 1745-1817. His brother, Wolfgang 
 Heribert, a dramatic poet, 1750-1806. A third 
 brother, J. F. Hughes, a man of letters, d. 1812. 
 The nephew of these, Emeric J., Due De Dal- 
 berg, a min. of state under Napoleon, 1773-1833. 
 
 DALBERG, J. K. DE,bp. of Worms, 1445-1503. 
 
 DALBERG, Nils, a Swed. physician, 1735-1820 
 
 DALBERGO, F., an Italian hist., 1706-1768. 
 
 D'ALBRET. See Albret. 
 
 DALE, Dav., a Scotch mechanic and philanthro- 
 pist, eel. in the his. of the cotton manuf., 1739-1806. 
 
 DALE, R., an American naval com., 1756-1826. 
 
 DALECHAMPS, J., a Fr. botanist, 1513-1586. 
 
 D'ALEMBERT, Jean Le Rond, one of the 
 most celebrated mathematicians and astronomers 
 of the last century, was born at Paris on the 17th 
 November, 1717. Having been exposed by his 
 mother near the church of St. Jean Le Rond, 
 from which he derived his name, he was taken 
 care of by a glazier's wife, and afterwards provided 
 for bv his father, when he had learned the fate of 
 his child. He was educated at the Jansenist col- 
 lege of the Four Nations, and so premature was 
 his intellect, that at the age of ten he had acquired 
 all the knowledge that his masters could convey 
 to him. He was regarded by the Jansenists as a 
 second Pascal, and in order to make the compari- 
 son perfect, he was initiated into the mathemati- 
 cal sciences. With a passionate devotion to science, 
 he left the college and took up his residence in the 
 house of his nurse, where he remained for forty 
 years, concealing from her his fame, and generously 
 adding to the little comforts of her lot. Having, 
 like all other men of original genius, found himself 
 anticipated in his earliest discoveries, he despaired 
 of doing anything that had not been previously 
 done, and abandoning his mathematical studies in 
 despair, he resolved upon following one of the 
 learned professions. Ihe income of 1,200 livres 
 a-year which his father, M. Destouches, had left 
 him, being insufficient to maintain him in the 
 position which he now occupied, he pursued in 
 succession the studies of law and medicine, and so 
 ardently did he devote himself to the latter, that 
 he banished his mathematical library to the house 
 of a friend. It was in vain, however, that he 
 tried to overcome the earliest and strongest of his 
 passions. His mathematical works gradually 
 found their way back to his house, the profes- 
 sion of medicine was abandoned, and his affections 
 irrevocably fixed on the study of geometry. At 
 the early age of twenty-four D'Alembert was ad- 
 mitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, and 
 in 1741 he published his Treatise on Dynamics,' 
 
 DAL 
 
 founded on a new principle of mechanics, which 
 he applied to the resolution of several beautiful 
 problems. In his 'Reflections on the General 
 Course of Winds,' which was crowned by the 
 Academy of Berlin in 1746, he gave the first de- 
 tails of the calculus of partial differences, of which 
 he was the discoverer. In 1752 he published his 
 1 New Theory of the Action of Fluids,' and also 
 his 'Elements of the Theory and Practice of 
 Music.' About this time he undertook, in con- 
 junction with Diderot, the * Encyclopaedic,' to 
 which he communicated many articles of great 
 interest, and also the preliminary 'Discourse' 
 which was prefixed to that immortal work. These 
 writings were followed by several literary works 
 which we have not room to enumerate, and by his 
 ' Researches on Different Important Points oi the 
 System of the World,' which appeared in 1754 and 
 1756, and in which he greatly improved the solu- 
 tion of the problem of three bodies, which had 
 occupied the attention both of Euler and Clairaut. 
 In 1756 D'Alembert, who had previously received 
 a pension from the king, was made a supernu- 
 merary pensioner by the Academy of Science ; and 
 in 1759 he published his ' Elements of Philosophy,' 
 a work of distinguished merit. After the peace of 
 1763 D'Alembert was invited by Frederick the 
 Great to fill the office of president of the Academy 
 of Berlin, and the empress of Russia had also so- 
 licited him to superintend the education of her 
 family. Having refused, however, both these ap- 
 pointments, he was in 1772 nominated perpetual 
 secretary to the French Academy, a position in 
 which he wrote no fewer than seventy eloges of its 
 deceased members. Besides the works which we 
 have mentioned, D'Alembert published a treatise 
 ' On the Destruction of the Jesuits,' and a collec- 
 tion of his memoirs under the title of ' Opuscules 
 Mathematiques.' In the latter part of his life he 
 was attacked with a disease in the bladder, and he 
 died of the stone on the 29th October, 1783, in the 
 sixty-sixth year of his age. For a full account of 
 his life, and of the romantic incidents of his at- 
 tachment to Mademoiselle L'Espinasse, we must 
 refer our readers to the 'Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,' 
 vol. i., p. 400, art. Alembert. [D.B.] 
 
 DALIBARD, Th. F., a French botanist, d. 1774. 
 
 DALIN, Olaus Von, a Swedish poet and his- 
 torian of considerable eminence, successively chan- 
 cellor and councillor of state, 1708-1763. 
 
 DALLAS, A. J., an English lawyer naturalized 
 in America, and finally secretary to the treasury, 
 and secretary at war, 1759-1817. 
 
 DALLAS, C. R., an Engl, miscell. wr., best kn. 
 for his ' Recollections of Lord Byron,' 1754-1824. 
 
 DALLAS, Sir G., an Indian employee, author 
 of the first work printed at Calcutta, and subse- 
 quently lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, in 
 good repute as a political writer, 1758-1833. 
 
 DALLAS, Sir Ro., an eminent lawyer, d. 1823. 
 
 DALLAWAY, J., an English hist., 1763-1834. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Alex., hydrographer to the 
 admiralty, author of a ' Collection or Voyages in 
 the South Pacific Ocean,' &c, 1737-1808. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Sir D., a Scotch his., 1726-92. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Sir H. W., a peninsular officer, 
 commander of the army in Portugal, 1750-1830. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, James, first Viscount Stair, a 
 Scotch judge, relig. wr., andsec. of state, 1619-1695. 
 
 186 
 
DAL 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Sir J., a Sc. hist,, 1726-1810. 
 
 DALTON, Jo., an Engl. div. and poet, 1709-63. 
 
 DALTON, John, D.C.L., born 1767, at Eagles- 
 field, Cumberland ; died 1844, at Manchester. 
 Dr. Dalton laboured under great disadvantages 
 in reference to his early education, as he had 
 only the benefit of the instructions of the village 
 school till his eleventh year, and with the modi- 
 cum of knowledge there acquired he himself taught 
 the school in his twelfth and thirteenth years. 
 He was afterwards engaged in husbandry, and in 
 his fifteenth year became assistant in a school at 
 Kendal, to the rectorship of which he succeeded 
 about his nineteenth year. After remaining there 
 for eight years, he went, in 1793, to Manchester, 
 where he ever afterwards resided, and taught 
 mathematics. The unobtrusive manner of life of a 
 scientific member of the Society of Friends can 
 present few incidents of interest, and except the 
 views with which he enriched science, we shall 
 find the life of Dr. Dalton barren but these are 
 of first-rate value. His first investigations were 
 in 1801, when he sought to determine the amount 
 of increase in the bulk of gases by the application 
 of heat a subject of great importance, and which 
 led him to the conclusion that their expansion is 
 the same for equal degrees of heat. His theory of 
 mixed gases was his next publication, and soon 
 afterwards followed his meteorological views, all 
 of which have thrown much light on the subjects 
 of which he treated. But his most valuable con- 
 tribution to chemistry was the discovery of the 
 atomic theory, communicated to Dr. Thomas 
 Thomson in 1804. It is true that indications of 
 this theory are contained in Higgins's and Richter's 
 works, published several years anteriorly, but it 
 is certain that Dalton was ignorant of these che- 
 mists' views, and that no one had been able to 
 appreciate the importance of the subject from their 
 publications until after Dalton wrote ; and the 
 writer has in his possession a statement from a 
 distinguished foreign chemist, who within the last 
 thirty years had read Richter's work most care- 
 fully, but had failed to discover in it the atomic 
 theory. See Atomic Theory in Thomson's Cyclo- 
 paedia of Chemistry.' [R.D.T.] 
 
 DALTON, Michael, an Engl, lawyer, d. 1620. 
 
 DALYELL, Sir John Graham, Bart., a 
 Scottish antiquarian, died 1851. 
 
 DAM, Anth. Van, a Dutch painter, 1682-1750. 
 
 DAMASCENUS, Jo., a learned monk, known as 
 an ascetic wr. and theolo., the first who applied the 
 logic of Aristotle to theological teaching, 676-754. 
 
 DAMASCENUS, Jo., an Arabian phys., 15th c 
 
 DAMASCENUS, N., a phil. and hist.. 1st c. B.C. 
 
 DAMASCIUS, an eclectic philos. of the 6th cent. 
 
 DAMASUS. The first of this name pope of 
 Rome, distinguished against the Arians, 366-388. 
 The second, pope a few days only, 1048. 
 
 DAMER, Anne S., a female sculp., 1748-1808. 
 
 DAMIEN, P., cardinal bp. of Ostia, disting. as 
 a biographer, theologian, and politician, 988-1072. 
 
 DAMIENS, R. F., the assassin of Louis XV., kn. 
 for his crimes as Robert Le Diable, b. 1715, ex. 1757. 
 
 DAMIENS DE GAMICOURT, A. P., a French 
 au., (' L'Observateur Francais,') &c, 1723-1790. 
 
 DAM INK, P., a Venetian painter, 1592-1631. 
 
 DAMOCBITUS, a Greek statuary, 400 B.C. 
 
 DAMOCRITUS, an ancient Greek historian. 
 
 dam: 
 
 DAMON, a Greek musician, 5th century B.C. 
 
 DAMPIER, William, the son of a farmer 
 near Yeovil, was born in 1652. He went 
 early to sea, and performed many voyages. He 
 then became under-manager of a Jamaica planta- 
 tion ; made an engagement in the coasting trade, 
 and on its expiry joined a party of the freeboot- 
 ing logwood -cutters at Campeachy ; and next, 
 the_ privateers upon the coast, in an eleven months' 
 cruise. Returning to the wood-cutting, he was 
 very successful; and the year following visited 
 England. Here he married and remained six 
 months, when he returned to Jamaica, and took 
 out goods for which he knew there was a market. 
 At this time he purchased a property in Dorset- 
 shire ; but wishing to realize a little more money 
 before settling upon it, and meeting a number of 
 the leading buccaneers, who were Englishmen, 
 near Port Royal, he joined their company. Hav- 
 ing sacked Portobello, and crossed the isthmus, 
 they waged a merciless war for four years in the 
 Pacific; when disagreeing, a portion of them 
 crossed to the Atlantic again, and finally sailed 
 from Virginia on a buccaneering voyage round the 
 globe, going west, and returning through the In- 
 dian seas. At the Nicobar isles Dampier left the 
 ship and came on alone, reaching home in 1691. 
 Soon after, he published his ' New Voyage round 
 the World,' which excited great interest, being 
 well written, and full of new and interesting mat- 
 ter relating to botany and zoology, as well as to 
 geography and ethnology. Thus brought into 
 notice, he was employed (14th January, 1699) by 
 government on a voyage of discovery to New Hol- 
 land and New Guinea, in which he made many 
 important additions to geographical knowledge. 
 At Ascension, on the homeward voyage, the ship 
 ' foundered through perfect age,' as he expressed 
 it ; but though the crew and part of his collec- 
 tions were saved, and he was no way to blame, he 
 was not again employed by government ; in 1703 
 a company of merchants, however, gave him com- 
 mand of one of two ships sent out to the South 
 Seas on a privateering cruise. This proved singu- 
 larly unfortunate he took no rich prizes his 
 commission was stolen by a petty officer, and he 
 was imprisoned in India by the Dutch. We find 
 him again in England in 1708, and employed in 
 the privateer voyage of Woodes Rogers, fitted 
 out by merchants of Bristol; but on this, his 
 third circumnavigation, in the humble capacity of 
 pilot. The expedition was very successful, and re- 
 turned to the Thames 14th December, 1711 from 
 which time nothing whatever is known of Dampier. 
 His merits as a navigator, an accurate surveyor, 
 and a naturalist, are of the very highest order ; and 
 his moral character seems to have been but little 
 contaminated by the lawless company with which 
 he so long associated. [J.B.] 
 
 DAMPIERRE, A. H. M. Picot De, a French 
 general, distinguished at Valmy and Jemappes, 
 succeeded to Dumouriez, 1756-1793. 
 
 DAMPIERRE, H. Du Val, Count De, a cap- 
 tain of the 16th century, distinguished against the 
 Turks, died before Presburg, 1620. 
 
 DAMPIERRE, J., a Latin poet, died 1550. 
 
 DAMPIERRE, William De, count of Flanders 
 and father-in-law of Edward I., k. of Eng., d. 1305. 
 
 DAMPMARTIN, Anne Henri, Viscount, cap- 
 
 187 
 
DAM 
 
 tain of dragoons at the outbreak of the French revo- 
 lution, but chiefly memorable for his literary works, 
 was born at Uzes 1750, and died 1823. His early 
 education was intended to qualify him for the 
 church ; but he disappointed the expectation of his 
 friends, and, choosing the profession of arms, de- 
 voted his leisure to literary studies. He was a 
 friend of constitutional reform, and the subjects of 
 his pen demonstrate the interest that he felt in 
 education and national progress. The principal 
 event in his military career was the assistance he 
 rendered at Avignon, Nov. 1791, in suppressing 
 the brigands and murderers commanded by Jour- 
 dan Coupe-tete. In 1792 he abandoned his regi- 
 ment and retired to Holland. His work, entitled 
 ' Evenements qui se sont passes sous mes yeux 
 pendant la Revolution Francaise,' is valuable for its 
 authenticity, minuteness of detail, and simple sin- 
 cerity. It appeared at Berlin 1799, and now forms 
 the first part of a work in 2 vols., entitled ' Me- 
 moires sur les divers evenements de la revolution 
 et de l'emigration,' published at Paris 1825. [E.R.] 
 
 DAMPMARTIN, P., a biog. wr., 16th century. 
 
 DAN, the fifth son of Jacob. (Gen. xxx.,4, 5, 6.) 
 
 DANCER, Daniel, a notor. miser, 1716-1794. 
 
 DANCHET, A., a Fr. dram, author, 1671-1748. 
 
 DANCKERT, Cornelius, a Dutch art., 16th c. 
 
 DANDELOT. See Coligni. 
 
 DANDINI, Cjesar, a Florentine painter, 1595- 
 1658. Vincent, his brother and scholar, 1607- 
 1675. Pietro, the son of Caesar, 1647-1712. 
 
 DANDINI, H. F., an Italian priest, 1695-1747. 
 
 DANDINI, J., a Jesuit missionary, 1554-1624. 
 
 DANDOLO, a patrician family of Venice, the 
 most celebrated members of which are Henry, 
 elected doge 1192, leader of the first crusade 
 against Constantinople 1204, d. 1205. John, dis- 
 tinguished by a long war against the patriarch of 
 Aquilea, doge 1280-1289. Francis, surnamed 
 the Dog for basely humbling the republic to 
 Clement V., doge 1328-1339. Andre, who sus- 
 tained a long war with Hungary, and wrote 
 ' Chronicles of Venice,' doge 1342-1354. Faustin, 
 son of Andre, an ambas. and man of letters, d. 1449. 
 
 DANDOLO, A., a Ven. jurisconsult, 1431-1472. 
 
 DANDOLO, Mark, a Ven. politic, 1458-1535. 
 
 DANDOLO, Vincent, a eel. Ven. chemist, pro- 
 veditor of Dalmatia, distin. for his share in the 
 overthrow of the Ven. repub. by the Fr., 1758-1819. 
 
 DANDRE-BARDON, M. F., a French painter, 
 founder of the Academy of Marseilles, 1700-1783. 
 
 DANET, P., a French lexicographer, 1640-1709. 
 
 D'ANGHIARA, Pietro Martire, often cited 
 as Peter Martyr, a learned ecclesiastic and his- 
 torian of Italy, 1455-1526. 
 
 DANIEL, the Jewish prophet, liv. about 600 e.c. 
 
 DANIEL, Gabriel, a Fr. historian, 1649-1728. 
 
 DANIEL, P., a Fr. critic and classic, 1530-1603. 
 
 DANIEL, Samuel, poet-laureate of Elizabeth, 
 author of a history of England to the reign of Ed- 
 ward III., 1562-1617. 
 
 DANIEL, St., an ascetic who gained his repu- 
 tation by firing on the top of a column, 410-490. 
 
 DANIELI, F., an It. savant and his., 1740-1812. 
 
 DANIELL, John Frederick, born 1790, 
 died 1845. Mr. Daniell was originally intended 
 for business, and for some time devoted himself to 
 the refining of sugar ; but afterwards he became 
 engrossed with meteorological, and subsequently 
 
 DAN 
 
 with electrical science, to both of which he mado 
 some important contributions. His work on 
 meteorology was a standard work during his time ; 
 being characterized rather, however, as embodying 
 a clear statement of the views of the author, than 
 as affording a practical work for reference. His 
 constant battery was a valuable invention, which 
 contributed much to the convenience of electrical | 
 experimenters, and to the development of the 
 science, especially in the department of electro- 
 type, which may be said to have originated from 
 this invention. Mr. Daniell was a man of amiable 
 disposition, and was universally respected for his 
 social as well as scientific qualifications. [R.D.T.] 
 
 DANIELL, the name of several artists, distin- 
 guished in African and oriental scenery. Sam i/el, 
 author of drawings Must, the island of Ceylon, d. 
 1811. Thomas and his nephew William, mem- 
 bers of the Royal Academy, eel. for their large 
 work in 6 folio vols., entitled ' Oriental Scenery,' 
 &c, the former 1750-1840, the latter 1769-1837. 
 
 DANNECKER, John Henry, surnamed The 
 Mystic Sculptor of Germany,' distin. for his fe- 
 male figures, 1758-1834. 
 
 DANNEVILLE, J. E., a French hist., 17th ct. 
 
 DANTE, or DURANTE, Alighieri, born at 
 Florence in 1265, holds, in Italian literature, a 
 place corresponding to that which belongs to 
 Chaucer in our own. But his fame is wider, his 
 
 fenius more vigorous and tragic ; and his name 
 as been honoured by his countrymen in all sub- 
 sequent generations, while the father of English 
 Owas for ages neglected and forgotten, 
 lived in a time when the language of Italv 
 was beginning to be used in prose literature, and 
 had been considerably developed in metrical 
 composition ; when the classical models as yet 
 exercised but little influence, the purer Roman 
 poetry being studied very seldom, and Greek 
 literature quite unknown; and when the trou- 
 badours of Provence were still the only poets that 
 had become famous in Christian Europe. His life 
 was spent in the midst of those storms which 
 raged throughout the middle ages, and of which 
 the Italian republics were noted scenes. He 
 was born of a distinguished family, belonging to 
 the party of the Guelf's, which stood opposed to 
 the Ghibellines or Imperialists, and was oftenest 
 ranged on the side of the Popes. A youthful at- 
 tachment to Beatrice Portinari, who died when 
 the poet was in his twenty-fifth year, was ever 
 afterwards hallowed in his imagination, and was 
 not destroyed either by an unhappy marriage, or by 
 the activity with which the Florentine citizen 
 threw himself into the turmoil of political dissen- 
 sion. He served the republic as a soldier, and at 
 the age of thirty-five was one of the priors or chief 
 magistrates of Florence. A quarrel between two 
 factions into which the Guelfs were split, caused 
 him, in 1302, to be banished; and, during the re- 
 maining twenty years of his life, he wandered 
 through Italy, seeking refuge in those Ghibelline 
 states whose principles he had long combated. His 
 party in vain attempted, more than once, to recon- 
 quer Florence ; petitions for a reversal of the sen- 
 tence of banishment were equally unsuccessful; 
 the poet's stern and haughty disposition made him 
 unhappy, and probably unacceptable, at the courts 
 of the Italian princes ; and, dejected and hopeless, 
 
 188 
 
DAN 
 
 Ihe died at Ravenna in 1321. He wrote both in 
 [prose and in verse, and used both the Latin and 
 the living tongues. In the former, he left a 
 Ghibelline treatise ' De Monarchia,' and an essay 
 'De Vulgari Eloquentia,' in which he describes 
 the rise of the Italian language and some of the 
 works that had been written in it. His own great 
 poem, also, was begun to be written in Latin hexa- 
 meters. Among his Italian writings are noble 
 Sonnets and Canzoni, and a work called 'Vita 
 Nuova,' in which he connects, by a prose narra- 
 tive, verses in honour of the dead Beatrice. He is 
 immortal in virtue of the celebrated poem, which, 
 althongh narrative in form, was called, in confor- 
 mity to a common mediaeval usage, the ' Divina 
 Commedia.' The action is described as taking 
 place in the year 1300 ; so that the whole may be 
 understood to have been produced during his weary 
 years of exile. It has three parts, and a hundred 
 cantos, and describes a Vision of Hell, Purgatory, 
 and Paradise. Dante is conducted through the 
 worlds of the dead by the poet Virgil. The first 
 of the parts, containing the ' Inferno,' is by far the 
 most interesting and vigorous. It is here that we 
 encounter those terrible pictures, which make 
 Dante one of the most sublime among poets ; pic- 
 tures conceived with an irregular force of imagina- 
 tion, which is at once singularly original, and 
 strongly characteristic of the spirit of thinking and 
 action in the times in which he lived ; pictures, 
 also, which are conveyed with a pregnant brevity 
 and impressiveness of diction, easily perceptible 
 even to foreigners, and producing an extraordinary 
 effect on the poet's countrymen. The imagery of 
 Dante has peculiarities which defy analysis. It 
 unites, beyond any other, seeming clearness and 
 sensuousness, with great power of calling up sha- 
 dowy suggestions. The tone of sentiment is 
 oftenest gloomy, despondent, or savagely sarcastic : 
 and the celebrated personages of Italian history 
 are pourtrayed at once with striking verisimilitude, 
 and with malicious ingenuity of invention. Yet 
 there are many brief intervals, and some long 
 stretches, of deep and tender pathos. The har- 
 rowing scene in which the condemned spirit of 
 Count Ugolino describes the sufferings of the Tower 
 of Famine, is not more characteristic than the 
 melancholy sweetness that breathes through the 
 story of Francesca of Rimini. From the strange 
 horrors of the ' Inferno,' the poet and his guide 
 pass to the milder objects of the ' Purgatorio,' 
 which are described with much poetic richness, 
 and with a few personal and historical episodes, 
 reminding us of the awfulness with which the first 
 part had made us familiar. At the close of the 
 second part the spirit of Beatrice, descending from 
 a cloud of flowers which angels strew around her, 
 appears to conduct her lover to the bowers de 
 
 scribed in the ' Paradise' In this, the third part, 
 Dante and his sainted conductress pass from 
 planet to planet, beholding the seats of the blessed, 
 and discussing deep questions of theology. [W.S.] 
 
 DANTE DI MAJANO, an Ital. poet, 13th cen. 
 
 D'ANTINE, Francis, a Fr. scholar, editor of 
 the ' French Historians,' the Art of Verifying 
 Dates,' &c, 1688-1746. 
 
 DANTON, Georges Jacques. This man, 
 who united in his own person the contradictory 
 characters of a demagogue and a statesman, and 
 
 DAN 
 
 who controlled the movement of the French revo- 
 lution in its most stormy periods till the time of 
 Robespierre's ascendancy, was born at Arcis-sur- 
 Aube, October 28, 1759. His parents were far- 
 mers, of an ancient and respectable family, such 
 as usually prepare their children for the liberal 
 m-ofessions by a good education ; and though he 
 lost his father when young, he found a careful 
 guardian in his step-father, M. Ricordin, who was 
 the owner of a cotton mill on the banks of the 
 Aube. He was at Paris practising, or looking for 
 practice, as an advocate, when the revolution broke 
 out ; and, commencing his political career out of 
 doors, he soon acquired that prodigious ascen- 
 dancy over the population of the Faubourgs for 
 which his commanding figure, his voice of thunder, 
 his passionate temperament, his frankness, his 
 good nature, and his genius, so admirably quali- 
 fied him. In 1789, after the States-general had 
 been convoked, when blood had already been shed 
 in the streets of Paris, and the city was divided 
 into electoral districts, the young advocate, already 
 noted for his audacious oratory, obtained the 
 presidency of the Cordeliers, which soon afterwards 
 gave its name to the club founded by Danton to 
 unite those who held the same opinions, rather 
 than persons living in the same locality. These 
 clubbists were the avowed enemies of royalty, of 
 aristocratic institutions, and of the clergy, and for 
 five years afterwards acted as the advanced guard 
 in the revolutionary combats, ever giving birth 
 to fresh swarms of Marats and Heberts, until 
 Danton himself grew heart-sick of turbulence, 
 and was willing, as he said, to be guillotined 
 rather than to guillotine any longer. Danton and 
 his party were the first to perceive the utter im- 
 possibility of forming an alliance between mon- 
 archy and the new institutions, and at the same 
 time to accept the terrible consequences of their 
 foresight, and march in the straight course of the 
 revolution. His voice sent the people to combat 
 at the Bastile, and directed the attack on Ver- 
 sailles, preceded by the insurrection of women 
 when the king and the royal family were forced 
 to Paris ; and he was among the last to yield the 
 ' altar of the country ' to the Constituent Assembly 
 when the famous petition was signed in the 
 Champ de Mars, praying for the deposition of the 
 king after his arrest at Varennes. This was the 
 middle of 1791, soon after which the constitution 
 was solemnly accepted (30th September), and the 
 Legislative Assembly, or first Parliament, convened, 
 under the Roland administration. Towards the en d 
 of the year the country was threatened with the 
 invasion of the emigrant nobles; and the king's veto, 
 which brought the Assembly to a stand-still, com- 
 menced the last struggle between the people and the 
 crown. At this crisis, it is said, Danton accepted 
 presents from the court, but the writers of the 
 Bioqraphie des Contemporains deny the fact, 
 while admitting his want of integrity in after 
 years when he could supply his necessities from 
 funds placed at his disposal without bartering 
 away his country. In June, 1792, the Roland 
 ministry was dismissed by the king, and the 
 Marseilles' band invited to Paris by the patriots. 
 Danton, who had gone to his native fields to 
 snatch a short period of repose, now suddenly 
 returned, reviewed the organization of the people, 
 
 189 
 
DAN 
 
 lodged the Marseillaise, and prepared the struggle 
 of the 10th of August the day which saw the 
 throne overturned, the patriots recalled to the 
 administration, and Danton associated with them 
 as minister of justice. The duke of Brunswick 
 was known to he marching upon Paris, and the 
 civil war had commenced in La Vendue. The 
 Ministry and the Legislative Assembly were terror- 
 stricken, and proposed to retire beyond the Loire, 
 but Danton arrested them with that thrilling 
 appeal, heard above the sound of the generate, and 
 
 [Club of the Cordeliers, j 
 
 the report of the alarm-gun, which has often since 
 been quoted : ' Legislators! ' he exclaimed, ' It is 
 not the alarm-cannon that you hear, but the pas- 
 de-charge upon our enemies. To conquer them, 
 to hurl them back, what do we require? De 
 l'audace, encore de l'audace, et toujours de l'audace ! 
 (To dare, and again to dare, and without end to 
 dare!)' From this time his supremacy in the 
 commune of Paris was complete, but he purchased 
 it at the price of the September massacres, in 
 which he refused to interfere, and for which, in 
 the heat and terror of those perilous days, he 
 iniquitously thanked the assassins, ' not as minis- 
 ter of justice,' for so he expressed himself, ' but as 
 minister of the revolution ! ' The atrocious 
 casuistry of such a speech is too horrible to con- 
 template. It must be remembered, however, that 
 Marat, and a crowd of bloodhounds who followed 
 him, were proposing the most frightful resolutions 
 to be accomplished under a dictatorial power, and 
 that the preternatural excitement and suspicion of 
 the people had risen almost to insanity, and that 
 Danton himself on many occasions afterwards 
 both regretted his fearful stoicism, and justified 
 it by his position. Space will not permit us to 
 follow his career from this period to the events 
 which hastened the fall of the Girondins, and 
 were so soon followed by his own rupture with 
 Robespierre; but we may notice brieny that he 
 was anxious to save the followers of Brissot, who 
 repulsed his overtures with scorn, and finally, in 
 the person of Gaudet, declared that they preferred 
 war to any peace that he could make with them. 
 While the struggle with the deputies of the Gi- 
 ronde was pending, Danton was sent on two 
 missions to Belgium, and it is understood to be 
 proved that he supported his extravagances, 
 though he did not grow rich, at the public ex- 
 
 DAN 
 
 pense; in addition to which he had refused to 
 account for the money disbursed by him as minis- 
 ter, except in the gross. He returned from his 
 first mission in time to vote for the king's death, 
 laughing to scorn the delicacy of the Convention, 
 which hesitated about deciding the question by a 
 simple majority, though it had decided the fate of 
 an entire nation without scruple. On returning 
 from his second mission at the beginning of March, 
 1793, he found that his wife had expired two days 
 before, and was even buried, and giving way to a 
 passion as rare as it is affecting, he had the corpse 
 disinterred in the night, and snatched a last em- 
 brace from the cold body, which, it is said, he 
 held for a long time locked in his arms. The 
 time was now drawing near when the death of 
 Marat, and the condemnation of many of his 
 scoundrel imitators on the one hand, and the fall 
 of the Girondins on the other, seemed to prepare 
 the field for the last combatants ; and Danton and 
 Robespierre were every day thrown into stronger 
 relief against each other, until the former stood 
 forth as the acknowledged head of a party of 
 clemency, and the latter continued the remorseless 
 career in which they had embarked together. 
 Danton prepared his measures by procuring a 
 decree which erected the Committee of Public 
 Safety into a provisional government, and at the 
 same time refused to take any part in it, alleging 
 for reasons, his need of repose and his recent 
 marriage, but really, it is presumable, that he 
 might separate himself from the odium and re- 
 sponsibility of the rigour still necessary in the 
 opinion of Robespierre. It was so the latter 
 understood it. Tne hatred which divided these 
 men was displayed on the part of Robespierre with 
 a cool, logical propriety, which only provoked the 
 more Danton's impassioned and defiant utterance 
 of what he felt towards him. He was, like Mars, 
 entangled in the meshes of an almost invisible 
 web while in the embrace of the queen of love, 
 and, giant as he was, fell an easy prey into the 
 hands of his rival. He was informed of a secret 
 nocturnal meeting convened by Robespierre to 
 deliberate upon his death, but ne refused to fly. 
 'They will deliberate,' he said, 'a long time 
 before striking a man like me; and it is I who 
 will surprise them.' 1 The manner of his arrest, 
 the crowd of charges heaped upon him, and the 
 scene at the revolutionary tribunal, all betray the 
 dread of his accusers lest his voice should once 
 more reach the ear of the multitude. His address 
 at the bar was a lengthened defiance of his 
 enemies, and when recognized in prison he en- 
 deavoured to conceal his bitterness by a burst of 
 laughter. Danton was undeniably a man of 
 pleasure, for his whole life was a changing scene 
 of passion ; but we have the most affecting proofs 
 that the spring of the domestic virtues welled up 
 fresh in his heart, even to the last hour of his 
 stormy career. To follow him from the thunders 
 of the trihune, and the flash of the cruel weapons 
 which he wielded in the political strife, to his wife 
 and children, is like looking upon the face of a 
 smiling landscape after the storm-cloud has 
 passed over it. He was a true Frenchman, 
 capable of pouring out his whole soul, and with 
 the same deadly effect, as a lightning flash; 
 capable, too, of melting into tenderness the next 
 
 190 
 
DAN 
 
 instant, and of spreading the kindly virtues 
 jiround him as soft, as lucent, and as penetrating 
 lis the light of morning. He has been called the 
 l-olossus of the revolution, ' head of gold, bosom of 
 jiesh, loins of brass, feet of clay,' and with much 
 j:ruth. Nature seemed to pervade him in all her 
 forms, from the woman's heart sleeping in his 
 bosom, to the electric fire of genius which played 
 !ike a glory around his head, and, downwards, to 
 j:he coiTuption which made a ruin of all the vir- 
 tues belonging to him. The closing scene of his 
 life presents us with an epitome of the whole man. 
 Be was the last of his party to ascend the scaffold, 
 and stood there for a moment glancing with a 
 defiant and pitying air around him, more like a 
 monument of himself in the tribune, than a victim 
 of the executioner. The next moment the vision 
 of his family and his pleasant fields at Arcis-sur- 
 Aube completely subdued him ' Oh my wife, my 
 best beloved ! ' he murmured, ' Oh my children, 
 I shall never see you more ! ' Then suddenly 
 recollecting himself, he proudly exclaimed, ' Come, 
 Danton, no weakness ! ' and turning to the heads- 
 man uttered his last words, ' Thou wilt show my 
 head to the people, it is worth showing.' The 
 next moment his head fell, and the executioner, 
 catching it from the basket, carried it round the 
 scaffold : it was the 5th of April, 1794. Danton, 
 therefore, was in his thirty-fifth year when he 
 passed ' like a gigantic mass of valour, ostentation, 
 fury, affection, and wild revolutionary force and 
 manhood, to his unknown home.' In him the 
 revolution lost the only man, perhaps, who had 
 really mastered its principle, and taken the stain of 
 its horrors, without sacrificing his humanity ; who 
 had bowed to its Moloch throne with the enraged 
 multitude of which he was chief, and having once 
 swept by, to adopt a striking figure of the old 
 Hebrew prophet, 'with confused noise and gar- 
 ments roiled in blood,' preferred to return as the 
 victim, rather than the slave and worshipper of 
 that altar. [E.R.] 
 
 D'ANTONELLE, Pierre Antoine, Marquis, 
 one of the most sincere actors in the French revo- 
 lution, was born at Aries of an ancient and rich 
 family 1747, and having joined the army when young 
 quitted its ranks in 1782, and devoted himself to 
 the study of moral and political philosophy. The 
 year 1789 found him a worshipper of the rising 
 sun of French liberty, and the year following he was 
 named mayor of Aries. Being selected to aid in 
 the pacification of Avignon and Marseilles, he ac- 
 quired fresh popularity by the satisfactory manner 
 in which he fulfilled his commission, and was de- 
 puted to the Legislative Assembly by the department 
 of the Bouches-du-Rhone. On the establishment 
 of the republic he was sent with two colleagues to 
 announce the change to the army of Lafayette, who 
 gave orders for their arrest, and it was not until 
 the general abandoned his command that they re- 
 gained their liberty. He was a member of the 
 revolutionary tribunal when the queen was con- 
 demned, and also when the twenty-two Girondins 
 were brought up for judgment; but he pronounced 
 against his colleagues on the latter occasion, and 
 was confined in the Luxembourg till the fall of 
 Robespierre. He appears to have acted on all occa- 
 sions as a man of independent principle, and even 
 refused the editorship of the Moniteur under the 
 
 DAB 
 
 Directory that he might speak his own language in 
 the Journal des Hommes Litres. The Directory 
 endeavoured to establish a charge against him on 
 the occasion of Babeuf 's conspiracy, but they failed 
 to obtain a conviction. He was ordered to leave 
 France by the first consul, and having returned 
 when the empire was established was compelled to 
 abandon Paris for refusing to address Napoleon as 
 his sovereign. He ended his days at Aries in 1819, 
 and left behind him numerous political works, 
 which testify to his steady love of liberty through 
 the whole period of the revolution. [E.R.] 
 
 DANTZ, J. A., a Ger. Lutheran divine, d. 1727. 
 
 D'ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignox, 
 a celebrated French geographer, and member of se- 
 veral learned societies, author of more than 200 
 charts and plans and 78 treatises upon ancient and 
 modern geography, 1697-1782. 
 
 DANZ, F., a German anatomist, 1761-1793. 
 
 DANZ, Francis, a German composer, d. 1826. 
 
 DAPPER, Oliver, a Dutch phys., au. of nu- 
 merous works descrip. of foreign countries, d. 1690. 
 
 DARAN, James, a French surgeon, 1701-1784. 
 
 D'ARBLAY, Frances Burney, Madame, a 
 distinguished novelist, daughter of Dr. Burney the 
 composer, and wife of a French officer. Besides her 
 novels, which created quite a sensation in her time, 
 she has written her father's memoirs ; died 1840. 
 
 DARCET, J., a eel. French chemist, 1725-1801. 
 
 DARCY, Patrick, Count, a native of Ireland, 
 distinguished in the French army as an engineer 
 and mathematician, 1725-1779. 
 
 D'ARGENSOLA, Bartholomew, a Spanish 
 historian and poet, chaplain to Maria Theresa, 
 1566-1631. His brother Lupercio Leonardo, 
 a tragic poet, 1565-1613. 
 
 D'ARGENSON, Marquis, a French statesman, 
 the first to introduce lettres-de- cachet, 1652-1721. 
 
 D'ARGENVILLE, A. J. D., a Fr. savant,, d. 1766. 
 
 D'ARGILLATA, Peter, an Ital. phys., d. 1423. 
 
 D'ARGONNE, Noel, a French hist, of litera- 
 ture, a monk of the Carthusian order, 1634-1704. 
 
 D'ARGOTA, J. C, a Portug. antiq., 1676-1749. 
 
 DARIUS, the name of three sovereigns of Persia. 
 The first, commonly called Darius Hystaspes, 
 succeeded 522 B.C., was the conqueror of Babylon 
 and restorer of the Jews, defeated at Marathon 
 490, and died 485. The second, called Darius 
 Ochus, or Nothus, reigned 423-404 B.C. The 
 third, sometimes called Codomannus, in whose 
 defeat by Alexander the Great the Persian empire 
 was consummated, sue. 336, and was k. 330 B.C. 
 
 DARLUC, M.. a French naturalist, 1707-1783. 
 
 DARMSTADT, Wm., prince of, lieutenant of the 
 imperial armies under Prince Eugene, 1660-1705. 
 
 DARNLEY, Henry Stuart, earl of, the 
 husband of Mary, queen of Scots, perished by the 
 connivance of Bothwell, and perhaps of the queen, 
 when his house was blown up with gunpowder, 1567. 
 
 DARQUIER, A., a Fr. astronomer, 1718-1802. 
 
 DARRIGOL, the Abbe J. P., a French phil- 
 ologist, author of a prize essay on the Basque 
 language, 1790-1829. 
 
 DARU, Pierre Antoine, Noel Bruno, 
 Count, a Fr. statesman, hist., and literary savant. 
 Napoleon describes him as uniting the laborious zeal 
 of the ox with the courage of the lion, 1767-1829. 
 
 DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician, 
 known to fame as a poet and botanist, was born at 
 
 191 
 
DAS 
 
 Elton, near Newark, in 1781, and after taking his 
 degree at Edinburgh, pursued his professional 
 career at Lichfield, from whence, in 1781, he re- 
 moved to Derby, having contracted a second mar- 
 riage, and died in the latter place 1802. Dr. Dar- 
 win was an original thinker, a great adept in ana- 
 logies, and a respectable versifier. The best known 
 of his works is his ' Botanic Garden,' the first part 
 of which is entitled ' The Economy of Vegetation,' 
 and the second The Loves of the Plants.' His 
 other works are ' Zoonomia, or the laws of Organic 
 Life,' and ' Physiologia, or the Philosophy of Agri- 
 culture and Gardening,' besides which he published 
 a tract on female education, and several papers in 
 the 'Philosophical Transactions.' The personal 
 character of Darwin was amiable, and his con- 
 versation generally pleasing. His appearance was 
 athletic, he was much pitted with the small-pox, 
 and had an impediment in his speech. His son, 
 Charles Darwin, after taking a prize medal at 
 Edinburgh, and writing a pathological treatise, 
 died at the early age of twenty, 1778. [E.R.] 
 
 DASCHKOWA, Katharina Romanowna, 
 Princess, a Russian heroine, who marched with a 
 body of troops to the assistance of Catharine II. 
 when the latter deposed her husband, and as a 
 student of the sciences and Belles Lettres was one of 
 the most extraordinary women of the age, 1744-1810. 
 
 DASSIER, John, a French medallist, 1677- 
 1763. His son, Jacob Anthony, distinguished 
 in the same line of art, 1715-1759. 
 
 DASYPODIUS, P., a Swiss lexico., 16th cent. 
 
 DASYPODIUS, W., a Latin poet, 16th cent. 
 
 DATAMES, a Persian gen., k. in revolt, 361 b.c. 
 
 DATHE, J. A., a Germ. Orientalist, 1731-1791. 
 
 DATI, Augustine, an Ital. savant, author of 
 histor., philosoph., and miscell. works, 1420-1478. 
 
 DATI, C. R., an Ital. professor of the Belles Let- 
 tres, au. of ' Lives of Ancient Painters,' 1619-1675. 
 
 DATI, George, a translator of ' Tacitus,' 1563. 
 
 DATI, Gregory, an Italian hist., 1363-1436. 
 
 D'ATTAIGNANT, G. C., a Fr. poet, 1697-1779. 
 
 DAUBASSE, Amand, aGasc. poet, 1660-1720. 
 
 DAUBENTON, Louis-Jean-Marie, a cele- 
 brated anatomist and naturalist, was born at 
 Montbard, in Burgundy, 1716. He died in 1799. 
 After taking his degree in medicine, he retired to 
 his native town to practise his profession. At 
 that time Buffon, who had been a schoolfellow of 
 Daubenton's, had conceived the plan of his cele- 
 brated work, the ' Histoire Naturelle.' He felt, 
 however, that it was necessary to associate with 
 himself some one who was capable of taking the 
 labour of many of the details off his hand, and 
 such a man he found in Daubenton. In 1742 he 
 induced him to come to Paris, and obtained for 
 him the appointment of curator and demonstra- 
 tor of the cabinet of natural history at the Garden 
 of Plants. Daubenton commenced his labours 
 with zeal and enthusiasm, and soon succeeded in 
 making the collection at the museum the first in 
 Europe. While engaged in this task, he was at 
 the same time collecting materials for assisting 
 Buffon in that part of his ' Histoire Naturelle,' the 
 history of quadrupeds. To Daubenton is due the 
 merit of supplying all the anatomical details and 
 descriptions, both external and internal, which 
 rendered that part of Buffon's work so much 
 esteemed amongst the naturalists of other coun- 
 
 DAV 
 
 tries. Daubenton wrote many papers and mcmoii 
 
 on zoological subjects. He'has described sever, 
 
 animals new to science ; and was the first to app] 
 
 the study of comparative anatomy to the determ 
 
 nation of extinct animals from an examination i 
 
 their fossil remains. In vegetable physiology 1 
 
 has made some valuable additions to our knov 
 
 ledge ; and in his enlightened endeavours to in 
 
 prove the breed of sheep, and to bring nearer | 
 
 perfection the texture of their wool, he has mcrit< 
 
 the gratitude of his country. He was interred : 
 
 the Garden of Plants. [YV.B 
 
 DAUBENTON, W., a Fr. Jesuit, 1648-1723. 
 
 DAUBENY, Ch., an Engl, theolog., 1744-182 
 
 DAUBER VAL, the pseudonym of J. Bkhciie 
 
 a French ballet-master and composer, 1741-1806 
 
 D'AUBIGNE. See Aubigne. 
 
 D'AUBIGNY, Jean Louis Marie Villai: 
 
 attorney to the par. of Paris at the revo., 1750-180 
 
 D'AUBUSSON. See Aubusson. 
 
 DAUBUZ, Ch., a learned Fr. prot., 1670-174C 
 
 DAUDIN, F. M a Fr. naturalist, 1774-1804 
 
 DAULLE, J., a French engraver, 1703-1763. 
 
 DAUMESNIL, P., Baron, a gen. of the empii 
 
 especially eel. for his def. of Vincennes, 1777-183 
 
 DAUN, L. J. M., Count, an Austrian field-ma 
 
 shal under Maria Theresa, distinguished against tl 
 
 Turks, and in the seven years' war, 1705-1766. 
 
 DAUNOU, P. C. F., a statesman, historian, ai 
 
 literary savant of the period of the revol., 1761-184 
 
 DAURAT, John, a French poet, 1507-1588. 
 
 DAVAUX, J. B., an opera composer, last cer 
 
 DAVENANT, J., mem. of the Synod of Do 
 
 and bp. of Salisbury, em. as a theolo., 1576-1641 
 
 DAVENANT, Sir Wm., a celebrated dramat 
 
 writer, successor to Ben Jonson in the laureateshi 
 
 and author of several masques and other plays, mor 
 
 pieces for recitation, &c, 1606-1668. Charles, i 
 
 eldest son, author of ' Circe,' a tragedy, and a woj 
 
 in 5 vols., entitled ' Essays on Trade,' 1656-171 
 
 William, fourth son of the poet, translator of 1 
 
 Mothe Le Vayer, accidentally drowned, 1681. 
 
 DAVENPORT, Chr., an Eng. theol., 1598-168 
 
 DAVENPORTE, Richard Alfred, a mi 
 
 cellaneous English writer and editor, 1780-1852. 
 
 DAVESNE, Francois, a mystic writer, di 
 
 ciple of Simon Morin, author of ' Harmonie de 
 
 Amour et de la Justice de Dieu,' ' Tragedie Saint< 
 
 &c, died about 1652-1653. 
 
 DAVID-AB-GWILYON, a Welch poet, 14th 
 
 DAVID, an Armenian philosopher, 5th centur 
 
 DAVID, a king of Armenia, 980-1046. 
 
 DAVID, the king of the Jews, 1085-1001 b.( 
 
 DAVID, the^rs^ of the name, king of Scotlai 
 
 1124-1153 ; the second, son of Robert Bruc: 
 
 lived 1324-1371. 
 
 DAVID, C. and J., two brothers, distinguish 
 
 at Paris as portrait engravers, &c, 17th century 
 
 DAVID COHEN, a Portuguese rabbin, d. 167 
 
 DAVID-COMMENUS, the last emp. of Treb 
 
 zond, surrendered to Mahomet II. 1453, k. 1462 
 
 DAVID-DE-ST.-GEORGE, John Josep 
 
 Alexis, a French translator of Smollet, and phil< 
 
 logical savant, 1759-1809. 
 
 DAVID, F. A., a French engraver, 1741-1824 
 
 DAVID-GEORGE, J., arelig. fanat., 1501-155 
 
 DAVID, J. P., a French surgeon, 1737-1784. 
 
 DAVID, Jacques Louis, the most distil 
 
 guished painter of France of modern times, wi 
 
 192 
 
DAV 
 
 born at Paris, in 1748, and died an exile at Brus- 
 sels, December 29, 1825. David was the pupil of 
 Vien the regenerator of painting in France, who 
 revived the studv at once, both of nature and the 
 antique, in the place of the affected mannerism of 
 Vanloo and Boucher, the painters of Louis XV. 
 He accompanied Vien, in 1775, as pensioner to 
 Rome, when the latter was made director of the 
 French Academy there. David was a diligent stu- 
 dent of the antique, perhaps few artists so assi- 
 duously so. He returned to Paris in 1780, and in 
 1783 he was elected a member of the French Aca- 
 demy of Painting ; his presentation picture was 
 Andromache deploring the death of Hector. David 
 now revisited Rome, and painted his celebrated 
 picture there, 'The Oath of the Horatii.' He 
 then returned to France, and executed some great 
 works for Louis XVI. ; but this did not prevent his 
 voting for the death of the king, as a member of 
 the National Convention, in 1792. His strong 
 republican spirit was further shown in the re- 
 presentation of two exciting political subjects at 
 this time, 'The Death of Lepelletier, the De- 
 puty,' and 'The Death of Marat; 'but personal 
 dangers, and other party difficulties, finally in- 
 duced David to give up politics entirely for the 
 arts, to which, during his short political influence, 
 he had been of considerable service. He became 
 in a few years the favourite painter of the emperor 
 Napoleon, and his principal works have direct 
 reference to Napoleon's eventful career ; the pic- 
 ture of his coronation was especially agreeable to 
 Napoleon. At the restoration of the Bourbons, 
 however, in 1815, David was banished, and retired 
 to Brussels, where he survived his exile ten years. 
 David was an excellent draftsman, after the ideal 
 taste of the Greeks, but his imitation amounted to 
 the servile ; and the majority of his naked figures 
 are of such rigid uniformity of character that they 
 appear to be painted rather from ancient marbles 
 than from nature. He completed the revolution 
 in taste commenced by Vien, and antique-manner- 
 ism was carried to excess by Guerin, and some other 
 of his principal scholars. (Gabet, Dictionnaire 
 des A rtistes, tyc, au dixieme siecle. 1.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 DAVID, Luke, a Prussian histor., 1503-1583. 
 
 DAVID, L. A., an Italian painter, 17th century. 
 
 DAVID, T. B. E., a Fr. archaeologist, au. of ' In- 
 troduc.to the Study of Mythology,' &c, 1755-1839. 
 
 DAVIDSON, John, son of a tradesman in 
 Dublin, distinguished as a traveller in North and 
 South America, the countries of the East, and the 
 principal states of Europe, born 1814, murdered in 
 an attempt to reach Timbuctoo, 1836. 
 ' DAVIDSON, Lucretia Maria, a Canadian 
 girl of humble circumstances, distinguished by the 
 grace and sensibility of her poetical compositions, 
 died in her seventeenth year, 1825. 
 ^ DAVIE, W. R., an Amer. officer and diplomat., 
 dlsting. in the cause of independence, died 1820. 
 
 DAVTES, Ed., a Welch archaeologist, 1756-1831. 
 
 DAVIES, Jno., a Welch div. and scho., au. of a 
 Welch Gram., a Welch and Latin Die, &c, 17th c. 
 
 DAVIES, John, a classical editor, 1679-1732. 
 
 DAVIES, Sir J., an Engl, judge, kn. as a poet 
 and polit. wr., au. of an account of Ireland, denved 
 from his official visit to that country, 1570-1626. 
 
 DAVIES, Miles, a Welch divine and adherent 
 of George I., known by a work of research, 1715. 
 
 DAV 
 
 DAVIES, Robert, a Welch bard and literary 
 savant, author of a Welch Grammar, &c.,1770-1836. 
 
 DAVIES, Sam., an Amer. dissenter, 1724-1761. 
 
 DAVIES, Thos., an English performer, dra- 
 matic biographer, and bookseller, 1712-1785. 
 
 DAVIES, Rev. Walter, a Welch antiquarian 
 and literary savant, distin. by his numerous con- 
 tributions to the literature of his country, but more 
 particularly for his public spirit and his work on 
 the agriculture and domestic economy of North 
 and South Wales, died 1849. 
 
 DAVILA, Arrigo Cat., an Ital. hist., dis. by 
 his work on the Relig. Wars of France, 1576-1631. 
 
 DAVILA, D. P. F., a Span, natural., 1713-1785. 
 
 DAVIS, Edward, an Engl, painter, 17th cent. 
 
 DAVIS, H. E., one of Gibbon's critics, 1756-1784. 
 
 DAVIS, John, an Engl, poet, d. about 1618. 
 
 DAVIS, John, a distinguished navigator, was 
 a native of Sandridge, near Dartmouth, Devon. 
 Between the years 1585-1605, he performed three 
 voyages in search of a north-west passage, in the 
 service of some London merchants, discovering the 
 strait which bears his name, Hudson's Strait, &c, 
 and penetrating northwards as far as 72, 12'; 
 and five voyages to the East Indies in the sendee 
 of the Dutch. He published an account of one of 
 each series. He was killed in the straits of Ma- 
 lacca by some Japanese pirates in 1605. [J-B.~] 
 
 DAVIS, R. H., a merchant and banker of Bristol, 
 many years M.P. for that city, 1767-1842. 
 
 DAVIS, Rowland, an Irish contr. div., 17th c. 
 
 DAVISON, Wm., a Scotch diplomatist, secry. 
 of state to Queen Elizabeth, and the instrument of 
 the court in the condemnation of Mary Stuart, for 
 which he afterwards suffered fine and imprison- 
 ment ; date of his death unknown. 
 
 DAVOUST, Louis Nich., duke of Auerstadt, 
 prince of Eikmuhl, and marshal of France, dis. as 
 one of Napoleon's most faithful generals, 1770-1823. 
 
 DAVOUST, Louis Alex. Ed. Fr., Baron, 
 bro. of the preceding, and a Fr. officer, 1773-1823. 
 
 DAVY, Sir Humphry, Bart., born 1778, at 
 Penzance; died 1829, at Geneva. This distin- 
 guished chemical philosopher was brought up at 
 Penzance, principally under the care of his mother, 
 a woman of talent and strong moral sense. He 
 was apprenticed to a surgeon, and at the age of 
 twenty ne became assistant at the Clifton institu- 
 tion, which had been established by Dr. Beddoes 
 to determine the influence of different gases in the 
 treatment of diseases. It was here that he dis- 
 covered the remarkable action of nitrous oxide, or 
 laughing gas, on the system, and thus paved the 
 way to the application of those means now in use 
 for alleviating pain in severe operations. In 1801 
 he was appointed assistant lecturer at the Royal 
 Institution, where he speedily acquired great 
 popularity and fame. In 1806 he made the im- 
 portant discovery that the combinations and 
 decompositions by electricity are referable to the 
 law of electrical attractions and repulsions, and 
 thus demonstrated the intimate connection be- 
 tween electricity and chemistry. His most bril- 
 liant discovery was, however, that of, in 1807, 
 the composition of the alkalies, which he proved 
 to be combinations of oxvgen with metals. 
 In 1810 he found chlorine to be a simple body, in 
 accordance with the view of Scheele announced in 
 the previous century. His other discoveries were 
 
 193 
 
DAV 
 
 that of the Safety Lamp, exhibiting a fine ex- 
 ample of inductive reasoning ; and his mode of 
 preventing the corrosion of copper sheathing by 
 the protecting influence of zinc. Sir Humphry 
 Daw was distinguished by a poetical imagination, 
 which would undoubtedly have made him a poet 
 if his time had not been absorbed by science; 
 and, as evidence of his descriptive powers, he has 
 left behind him two works, ' Salmonia,' and ' The 
 Last Days of a Philosopher,' which are not sur- 
 passed in their peculiar department by any com- 
 positions in the English language. [R.D.T.] 
 
 DAVY, John, an English composer, d. 1824. 
 
 DAVY, Wm., an Engl, div., author and printer 
 of a religious work in 20 vols., limited to 14 copies, 
 which he also bound with his own hands, d. 1826. 
 
 DAWE, Geo., an English painter and academi- 
 cian, the biographer of George Morland, d. 1829. 
 
 DAWES, Manasseh, a pamphleteer, d. 1829. 
 
 DAWES, Rich., a critic and philos., 1708-1766. 
 
 DAWES, Sir Wm., abp. of York, in his time a 
 popular preacher, au. of poems and ser., 1671-1724. 
 
 DAWSON, John, a mathematician, 1734-1820. 
 
 DAY, John, an English printer, died 1584. His 
 son, of the same name, a preacher and religious 
 writer, 1566-1627. His son Richard, a printer, 
 translator, &c, middle of 16th century. 
 
 DAY, Thos., a poet and miscell. wr., an. of the 
 well-kn. story of ' Sandford and Merton,' 1748-1789. 
 
 DAZILLE, J. B., a Fr. med. wr., 1732-1812. 
 
 DEAGEANT, G., a Fr. pol. intriguer, d. 1626. 
 
 DE-ANDRADA, Alfonso, a Jesuit of Toledo, 
 au. of ' Lives of Illustrious Jesuits,' &c, 1590-1672. 
 
 DE-ANDRADA, Antonio, a Portug. mission- 
 ary, first discov. of Cathav and Thibet, 1580-1634. 
 
 DE-ANDRADA, Diego Payva, a Portuguese 
 theologian and controversialist, distinguished at the 
 Council of Trent, 1528-1575. Francisco, brother 
 of the preceding, historiographer royal under Philip 
 III. Tomas, another brother, belonging to the 
 Franciscan order of friars, died in an African 
 prison, where he wrote The Sufferings of Jesus,' 
 1582. Diego, son of Francisco, a poet, d. 1660. 
 
 DE-ANDRADA, J. F., a Latin wr., 1597-1657. 
 
 DEBAST, M. J., a Fr. antiquarian, 1753-1825. 
 
 DE-BERNARD, C, a Fr. novelist, 1803-1850. 
 
 DEBONNAIRE, L., a Jansenist wr., d. 1752. 
 
 DEBORAH, a Hebr. prophetess, about 1285 B.C. 
 
 DEBRAUX, P. E., a Fr. song-wr., 1798-1831. 
 
 DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval com- 
 mander, born 1779, killed in a duel 1820. 
 
 DECEBALUS, king of the Dacians, famous for 
 his long resistance to the Romans, defeated, and 
 died by his own hand 105. 
 
 DECEMBRIO, P. C, an Ital. savant, 1399-1447. 
 
 DECIO, Philip, an Italian jurist, 1453-1535. 
 
 DECIUS, emperor of Rome, 249-251. 
 
 DECIUS, Conrad, an Austrian transl., 1592. 
 
 DECIUS, J. L., a German hist., 15th century. 
 
 DECIUS-MUS, a Roman consul, distinguished 
 by his patriotic conduct and death in a war against 
 the Latins about 340 B.C. 
 
 DECKER, J., a Dutch poet, 1610-1666. 
 
 DECKER, P., a German architect, 1677-1713. 
 
 DECKER, Til, an Engl, dramatic wr., d. 1638. 
 
 DECLAUSTRE, A., a Fr. liter, savant, last ct. 
 
 DE-COETLOGON, C. E., an Engl. Calvinist, 
 born of Fr. parents, au. of religious works, d. 1820. 
 
 DE-COURCY, R., an Irish divine, d. 1808. 
 
 DEF 
 
 DEE, John, LL.D., an English divine an, 
 astrologer of great learning, celebrated in the his 
 tory of necromancy, chancellor of St. Paul's, am 
 warden of Manchester college in the reign of Eliza 
 beth. He is the author of several publishe* 
 works, and some unpublished, which are preservei 
 in the Cottonian library, and elsewhere ; born ia 
 London 1527, d. 1608. His eldest son, Aiiiimh 
 became physician to Charles I., and is the autho 
 of ' a faithful relation ' of what passed betweei 
 his father and some spirits, 1579-1651. 
 
 DEERING, C, a physic, and naturalist, autho 
 of the 'History of Nottinghamshire,' 1690-1749. 
 
 DEERING, J. P., R.A., the architect of Excte 
 Hall and other metropolitan buildings, 1780-1850 
 
 DEFAUCONPRET, A. J. B. De, a Frencl 
 translator, 1767-1843. 
 
 DE FOE, Daniel, the son of a butcher in Lon 
 don, was born there in 1661. Four years in ; 
 dissenting academy seem to have furnished th< 
 only regular education he received. Engaging ir 
 trade, first as a wool merchant and afterwards a: 
 a brick and tile-maker, he became bankrupt afte; 
 some years, but afterwards paid his creditors h 
 full. His attention had been diverted from busi 
 ness both by literature and by politics. He enliste( 
 under the duke of Monmouth, and narrowh 
 escaped after the rebellion was crushed ; and hi 
 published, a little earlier, a pamphlet on the wa 
 between the Turks and the Austrians. His literar 
 career, however, did not fairly begin till he wa" 
 thirty-nine years old, when he abandoned trade 
 and became an author by profession. The firs 
 period of his authorship was devoted entirely t< 
 politics, in which he was one of the ablest and mos: 
 popular among the advocates of Whiggism. H< 
 gained the notice of King William by his ' True- 
 born Englishman,' published in 1700 ; but the in- 
 fluence of Toryism in the ministries of Queen Ann* 
 exposed the coarse and energetic adversary of th< 
 Stuarts and the Church of England to an almosl 
 uninterrupted series of discouragements and per- 
 secutions. In the midst of these, however, he wrote 
 with unbroken courage and unwearied industry. Be- 
 sides publishing innumerable pamphlets, he carried 
 on a periodical paper called the Review, without 
 assistance, during the greater part of the queen's 
 reign. In 1703 an attack on the high church 
 
 garty, in his pamphlet ironically called ' the 
 hortest Way with the Dissenters,' was punished 
 by the pillory, a heavy fine, and imprisonment foi 
 more than a year. In 1706, the ministry of Go- 
 dolphin employed him as an agent for the union oi 
 Scotland with England ; and In this character he 
 resided a considerable time in Edinburgh, and 
 found materials for a ' History of the Union.' 
 Under the last administration of the reign he was 
 again committed to prison for vehemently arguing 
 in favour of the Hanoverian succession. Alter tlie 
 accession of George I. he seems to have received 
 no countenance from those whose interests he had 
 so keenly espoused ; and, abandoning politics alto- 
 gether, he devoted himself to fictitious composition. 
 This stage of his career, which gave birth to the 
 only works by which he is now remembered, did 
 not begin till he was between fifty and sixty years 
 of age, had fallen into bad health, and had even had 
 a stroke of apoplexy. These; were the circumstances 
 in which, in 1719, he published the first part of 
 
 194 
 
DEG 
 
 Robinson Crusoe,' one of the best and most popu- 
 ar of all romances. Of a similar kind, though 
 ncomparably inferior, were several subsequent tales, 
 uch as 'Colonel Jack' and 'Captain Singleton.' 
 [n his ' History of the Plague' and 'Memoirs of a 
 Davalier,' he engrafted historical facts on invented 
 ncidents and characters, with a curious force and 
 earnestness of impression. De Foe died in London 
 n 1731. [W.S.] 
 
 DEGERANDO. See Gerando, Jos. M. De. 
 
 DEHEEM, J. D., a Dutch flower p., 1604-1664. 
 
 DEJNEF, S. Ivan., a Russ. navig., 17th cent. 
 
 DEJOCES, fndr. of the Mede emp., 7th c. b.c. 
 
 DEJOTARUS, a king of Galatia, 1st cent. B.C. 
 
 DEKEN, Agatha, a Dutch poetess, 1741-1804. 
 
 DELABORDE, J. B., a Fr. composer, last ct. 
 
 DELACAPEDE, Ber. Ger. St. La., a French 
 naturalist, during the revolution secry. and presid. of 
 theassem., and sen. under Buonaparte, 1756-1825. 
 
 DELACOUR, Jas., an Irish poet, 1709-1781. 
 
 DELACROIX, J. V., a Fr. advocate, 1743-1832. 
 
 DELALAJJDE, P. A., aFr. natural., 1787-1823. 
 
 DELAMARCHE, C. F., a Fr. geog., 1740-1817. 
 
 DELAMBRE, M., born 1749, died in 1822, an 
 eminent French cultivator of Astronomy, an ex- 
 cellent observer, and a very voluminous writer. 
 Delambre drew up and published several valuable 
 Astronomical Tables ; but his chief labours related 
 to the measure of the Arc of the meridian through 
 Spain, and the History of Astronomy. The latter 
 has the accuracy which Bailey's wants ; never- 
 theless one sometimes misses the spirit of the 
 philosophic historian. He also wrote a valuable 
 treatise on Astronomy. 
 
 DELANDINE, A. F., a Fr. mis. wr., 1756-1820. 
 
 DELANO, Amaso., an Amer. navig., 1763-1817. 
 
 DELANY, Patrick, an Irish div., 1686-1786. 
 
 DELARBRE, Ant., a Fr. botanist, 1724-1807. 
 
 DE-LA-RUE, G., a Fr. liter, savant, 1748-1835. 
 
 DELATOUR, L. F., a Fr. author, 1727-1807. 
 
 DELATOUR, Maurice Quentin, a Fr. pain- 
 ter, distinguished for his portraits, 1705-1788. 
 
 DELAUDUN, P., a Fr. poet, 1575-1629. 
 
 DELAULUE, S., a French engraver, 1520-1595. 
 
 I) E LAVAL, E. H., anEng.nat.phil., 1729-1814. 
 
 DELAVIGNE, C, a French poet, 1794-1843. 
 
 DELEUZE, J. P. F., a Fr. naturalist and librar., 
 an. of a ' Hist, of Animal Magnetism,' 1743-1835. 
 
 DELEYRE, A., a French liter, savant, d. 1797. 
 
 DELFINO, the name of a patrician family of 
 Venice, the most distin. members of which are 
 John, a doge, died 1361. Joseph, captain-gen. 
 of the naval fleet, 1654. Jerome, provedi tor-gen., 
 1694-99. Peter, general of the Camaldules, 
 1441-1525. John, a cardinal, 1617-1699. 
 
 DELFIXO, F., an Ital. astronomer, 1477-1547. 
 
 DELILLE, Jacques, a French didactic poet, in 
 great repute at the end of the last century and un- 
 der the empire, mem. of the academy, 1738-1813. 
 
 DELISLE, Wm., a native of Paris, 1675-1726, 
 wrought a complete reform in geography by con- 
 structing maps from astronomical observations, to 
 which, though greatly multiplied for many years 
 before, map-makers had paid no attention. He 
 seems to have imbibed the views of Cassini, the 
 celebrated astronomer, on this subject; and his 
 father, and younger brother, Joseph Nicholas, 
 were distinguished in the same walk; the latter 
 especially, who was Astronomer Royal at St. Peters- 
 
 DEM 
 
 burgh, and the author of a history of astronomy, 
 and of many valuable memoirs read to the 
 Academy. [J.B.I 
 
 DELLSLE-DE-SALES, the name by which 
 John Baptist Isoard Delisle is known, a Fr. savant, 
 author of ' Philosophic de la Nature,' 1743-1816. 
 
 DELIUS, C. T a Ger. mineralogist, 1730-1779. 
 
 DELLA-MARIA, D., an Ital. com., 1778-1806. 
 
 DELLON, C, a Fr. phys. and trav., 17th cent. 
 
 DELMONT, Deo., a Flem. paint., 1581-1634. 
 
 DELMOTTE, H. F., a French author, d. 1836. 
 
 DELOEUVRE, S. X., aFr. corned., 1765-1807. 
 
 DELOLME, John Louis, an advocate, born 
 at Geneva about 1745, and known as a political 
 writer, published his first work in 1772, being a 
 parallel between the English government and that 
 of Sweden, which had been overthrown by Gus- 
 tavus. Shortly afterwards he published his cele- 
 brated work on 'The Constitution of England,' 
 which was written in the French tongue, but im- 
 proved and translated into English m 1775. In 
 1783 he published a ' History of the Flagellants,' 
 or Memorials of Human Superstition.' In 1787, 
 an essay on the 'Union between England and 
 Scotland,' and in the two years following, ' Obser- 
 vations on Taxes and the Regency Question.' 
 He died in Switzerland 1807. 
 
 DELONGCHAMPS, a Fr. dramatist, d. 1832. 
 
 DELORME, Ph., a French architect, d. 1577. 
 
 DELORME, J., phys. to Marie de Medici, Henry 
 IV., and Louis XIII., 1547-1637. His son Charl.. 
 physician to Gaston and Louis XIIL, 1584-1678. 
 
 DELORME, Marion, a Fr. courtezan, 1611-50. 
 
 DELPHUS, iEciDius, a Latin poet, 16th cent. 
 
 DELPON, J. A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1778-1833. 
 
 DELRIEN, E. J. B., a Fr. dram., 1761-1836. 
 
 DELRIO, M. A., a Flemish savant, 1551-1608. 
 
 DELUC, John Andrew, a Genevese physi- 
 cian, natural philosopher, and geologist, 1727-1817. 
 
 DELUC, W. A., brother of the preceding, a nat. 
 and fellow-labourer with him in geology, 1729-1812. 
 
 DELWARDE, M., a Fr. historian, 1630-1724. 
 
 DEMANDE, C. F., a Fr. median., 1728-1803. 
 
 DEMAINBRAY, S. B., an English experimen- 
 tal philosopher, 1710-1782. 
 
 DEMARATUS, king of Sparta, 529-492 b.c. 
 
 DEMETRIANUS, a Rom. architect, 2d cent. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, a Greek sculptor, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, a Greek architect, 4th cent. b.c. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, the first of this name, king of 
 Macedon, having fought his way to the throne, 
 295-287 B.C., dethroned and exiled byPyrrhus, and 
 died a simple citizen 283. The second of the name, 
 king of Macedon, 242-232 b.c. 
 
 DEMETRIUS I., kingof Syria, known as Deme- 
 trius Sotor, killed by Alex. Balas, 162-149 b.c. 
 
 DEMETRIUS II., surnamed Nicator, or the 
 Conqueror, deth. by Zabinas, and k. 144-125 B.C. 
 
 DEMETRIUS III., sue. with his br. 95, d. 87 b.c. 
 
 DEMETRIUS I., gr. duke of Rus., 1277-1294. 
 
 DEMETRIUS II., gr. duke of Rus., 1359-1362. 
 
 DEMETRIUS III., gr. duke of Rus., d. 1389. 
 
 DEMETRIUS the False, one of numerous pre- 
 tenders under this name to the throne of Russia, 
 of which he possessed himself 1604, and was assas- 
 sinated 1606. Another of these adventurers was 
 massacred after possessing himself of Moscow by 
 the aid of the Poles 1610 : the last of them perished 
 on the scaffold 1653. 
 
 195 
 
DEM 
 
 DEMETRIUS CYN0D1US, aGr. wr., 14th ct. 
 
 DEMETRIUS PEPANUS, a Gr. theo., 17th ct. 
 
 DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS, a Greek philo- 
 sopher and orator, known in history as governor 
 of the Athenian republic, 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 DEMIDOFF, the name of a Russian family, the 
 founder of which, Demidas, dist. himself under 
 Peter the Great as a cannon-founder, &c, and his 
 grandson Procopius in mining operations. The 
 nephew of the last named, Nicolas Demidoff, 
 distinguished for his philanthropy and public spirit 
 and the high perfection to which he carried the 
 working of mines, 1773-1828. 
 
 DEMOCEDES, a Gr. physician time of Darius. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, the sag! of Abdera: he lived 
 about four hundred years before Christ, at the 
 period of Socrates; 460 or 470 B.C. is reckoned 
 the date of his birth, and he is said to have sur- 
 vived a full century. Nothing of the writings of 
 Democritus remain save a few fragments ; but with 
 two exceptions, there is no great man of antiquity 
 whose renown fills a larger space, or who seems, 
 alike by his genius and his acquirements, to have 
 better deserved a hold on the world's memories. 
 Urged by thirst for knowledge, he travelled 
 during his youth and manhood through India, 
 Ethiopia, Chaldaea, and Persia; he spent several 
 years in Egypt, and seems to have visited 
 the schools of Pythagoras and Zeno. It is 
 said, also, that he heard Socrates, and com- 
 muned with Anaxagoras concerning the phe- 
 nomena of Astronomy, and the phvsical structure 
 of Nature. Cicero tells us that in style Demo- 
 critus might be the rival of Plato he wrote so 
 clearly, and so adorned what he wrote. The 
 titles of his works relate to Logic, Ethics, Phy- 
 sics, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Poetry, 
 Music, Grammar, and even Strategy. The Ab- 
 derites are recorded to have paid loftiest honours 
 to their sage. They confided to him the care of 
 the state ; and there must have been ground 
 for another pleasing tradition. It is said that 
 Democritus had spent all his substance in travel- 
 ling. But a law of Abdera refused the rights of 
 burial to any one who wasted his patrimony. To 
 escape the penalty, the philosopher read in public 
 his chief treatise, entitled ynyotc Ztxxotr/xos', and 
 charmed by his eloquence the people voted him 
 the sum of five hundred talents, or 125,000 
 sterling. It is not often that a philosophical 
 treatise reaps such a reward ! The fame of De- 
 mocritus in modern times, rests on his extraordi- 
 nary prevision of the Atomic, or modern physical 
 theory of the Universe. Rising above the con- 
 fined idea of the Ionian school, that all things 
 are modifications of one element or principle, he 
 broached the conception that bodies are made 
 up of ultimate atoms, and that in the character 
 of these atoms must be sought the explana- 
 tion of the qualities of what we call body. He 
 went off at once from all barren logomachies 
 about the plenum: and, indeed, more than any 
 other thinker of antiquity, achieved the privilege 
 of laying down the ground of just speculation in 
 physics. His doctrines prevailed widely, and were 
 afterwards enshrined in noble verse by Lucretius. 
 Democritus was certainly a materialist : the mind, 
 he thought, like fire, consisted of the finer atoms. 
 He had no notion of life apart from body: and the 
 
 DEM 
 
 gods he deemed delusion. He had grand views of 
 the universe : in the milky way, first of all, he saw j 
 the light of innumerable worlds ; but he had a cor- I 
 rcspondingly mean opinion of the nature and des- j 
 tiny of Man. Nay, he treated Man, his evanescent 
 works, and feeble struggles, so lightly, that we 
 find his effigies always with a jeer on the lip, and 
 himself with the appellation of the laughing philo- 
 sopher. Democritus is not the only thinker who, 
 in the intensity of his contemplation of material na- 
 ture, has overlooked a Force infinitely more endur- 
 ing and grand. The loss of his writings is that, per- 
 haps, among all calamities to ancient monuments,! 
 which we ought the most to deplore. [J.P.N.]! 
 
 DEMOIVRE, an English mathematician, bornl 
 in France 1667, died 1754. He contributed greatly j 
 to our knowledge of Series; he was the author of I 
 important theorems in trigonometry ; but his prin- 
 cipal labours concerned the doctrine of Chances. 
 He had considerable analytic genius. 
 
 DEMONAX, a philos."of Cyprus, 2d cent. B.C. 
 
 DEMONAX, a Gr. phil., cotemp. with Adrian. 
 
 [Demosthenes From an Ancient Lust ] 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, the greatest of the Greek 
 orators, was the son of an Athenian citizen of the 
 same name who carried on the trades of a cutler 
 and cabinetmaker, and was born about the year 
 B.C. 382. Having lost his father at the age of 
 seven, the care of his youth, as well as the man- 
 agement of his property, amounting to 15 talents, 
 devolved upon three guardians appointed by his 
 father. At the end of his minority of ten years 
 he commenced a prosecution against his guardians 
 to recover his property, which they had squan- 
 dered, and after a litigation of two years obtained 
 a verdict against one of them, who was condemned 
 to pay a fine of 10 talents. The prosecution was 
 conducted by himself; and the speeches which he 
 delivered in support of his cause excited the ad- 
 miration and applause of the judges. Encouraged 
 by this successful beginning, he ventured to speak 
 before the people, but his feeble and stammering 
 voice, his interrupted respiration, his ungraceful 
 gestures, and his ill-arranged periods, brought 
 upon him general ridicule. His failure, however, 
 only roused the energies of his unconquerable will ; 
 he resolved to correct the deficiencies of his youth, 
 and overcame them with a zeal and perseverance 
 which have passed into a proverb. After a course 
 of the most rigorous discipline, he reappeared in 
 
 ISC 
 
DEM 
 
 public (b.C. 355), and pronounced two orations 
 igainst Leptines and Androtion, the former of 
 which is considered as one of his happiest efforts. 
 His fame as an orator ' whose resistless eloquence 
 wielded at will that fierce democratic,' now secured 
 cor him the general esteem, and entitled him, as 
 me of the leading statesmen of Athens, to take 
 an active part in all public affairs. In B.C. 354 
 tie opposed, though without success, the projected 
 expedition to Eubcea, and dissuaded his countrymen 
 from undertaking a war against Persia. From 
 this time the history of his life is closely mixed up 
 with that of his country; every measure calcu- 
 lated to promote the public good received his 
 powerful support, and every encroachment on 
 public freedom found in him an uncompromising 
 jpponent. Philip, king of Macedonia, had begun 
 m B.C. 358 his encroachments on the Athenian 
 possessions in the northern part of the iEgsean 
 without meeting with any active opposition on 
 the part of the parent country; and it was to 
 rouse his countrymen against the crafty invader 
 that Demosthenes pronounced his Philippics, a 
 series of the most splendid and spirited orations. 
 rhe first was delivered in B.C. 352. Another 
 series equally celebrated (the Olynthiacs), were 
 lesigned to prevail upon the Athenians to aid the 
 nhabitants of Olynthus, a maritime town near the 
 sthmus of Palline, which had been besieged by 
 Philip, and which, notwithstanding the exertions 
 )f the orator, was taken in the spring of B.C. 347. 
 [n the following year Demosthenes, along with 
 line others, went on an embassy to Philip, and 
 succeeded in concluding a peace which continued 
 :ill B.C. 339. But he did not the less attentively 
 watch the proceedings of Philip ; and when hos- 
 ;ilities again broke out, he took part in the dis- 
 istrous battle of Chaeronea, the result of which 
 eft Philip master of the destinies of Greece, 
 rhough he fled along with many others, his grate- 
 "ul countrymen decreed to him a golden crown. 
 3n the accession of Alexander, b.c. 336, Demos- 
 ;henes still cherished the same feelings towards 
 :he Macedonians; but the sudden appearance of 
 ;he youthful conqueror overawed opposition. 
 [See Alexander.) But even his great services 
 jould not protect him against an outburst of popu- 
 lar feeling. Harpalus, one of Alexander's generals 
 whom he had left at Babylon, absconded with the 
 treasure intrusted to his care, and arriving in 
 (Vthens, purchased the protection of the city by 
 iistributing his gold among the popular leaders. 
 Demosthenes was one of the suspected recipients ; 
 wid being declared guilty, and fined in 50 talents, 
 lie retired to iEgina and Troezene, where he 
 remained till the death of Alexander, B.C. 323. 
 Ueturning to Athens for a short time, he was 
 [breed again to withdraw in B.C. 322 ; and retiring 
 to Calauria, a small island opposite to Troezene, 
 took refuge in the temple of Neptune, where he 
 suddenly died. The orations of Demosthenes, on 
 which his character as a statesman chiefly rests, 
 bave been often published both in mass and in 
 ietached portions. ' His manner,' as Hume well 
 observes, 'is rapid harmony exactly adjusted to 
 the sense : it is vehement reasoning without any 
 appearance of art : it is disdain, anger, boldness, 
 freedom, involved in a continued stream of argu- 
 ment : and, of all human productions, the orations 
 
 197 
 
 DES 
 
 of Demosthenes present to us the models which 
 
 approach the nearest to perfection.' [~G F 1 
 
 DEMOURS, P., a Fr. phys. and oculist, 1702- 
 1795. His son Anth., also an oculist, 1762-1836. 
 
 DEMOUSHER, C. A., a French poet and my- 
 cologist, 1760-1801. His son P. Anth., an archi- 
 tect, 1735-1803. 
 
 DEMPSTER, Geo., a Scotch gentleman, dis. as 
 anM.P.andasawr. on agriculture, &c, 1736-1818. 
 
 DEMPSTER, Thos., a Scotch hist, and antiq. 
 writer, professor of theology at Pisa, 1579-1625. 
 
 DENHAM, Major Dixon, born in 1786, 
 in London, accompanied Clapperton and Oudney 
 to Central Africa, 1822-25 ; and afterwards receiv- 
 ing an appointment at Sierra Leone, was carried off 
 by fever at Accra on that coast in 1828. 
 
 DENHAM, Sir J., an English writer of verse, 
 author of The Sophy,' &c, 1615-1668. 
 
 DENINA, G. C., an Italian hist., 1731-1813. 
 
 DENIS, Jacques, a Fr. comedian, 17th cent. 
 
 DENIS, J. B., a curious Fr. wr., 17th century. 
 
 DENIS, Louis, a Fr. geographer, last century. 
 
 DENIS, Michael, aFr.miscel.wr., 1729-1800. 
 
 DENIS, Nicolas, a topographical wr., 17th ct. 
 
 DENIS, St., pope of Rome, 259-269. 
 
 DENMAN, Thos., M.D., a distinguished medical 
 writer, father of the late chief justice of the Court 
 of King's Bench, 1783-1815. 
 
 DENNER, B., a Dutch painter, 1685-1747. 
 
 DENNIS, John, an English dram., 1657-1733. 
 
 DENON, Dominique- Vivant, Baron, author 
 of ' Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt during the 
 Campaign of* General Buonaparte,' and director- 
 general of the museums, and superintendent of 
 the mint under the empire, distinguished as a pro- 
 moter of art in France, 1747-1825. 
 
 DENYS, P., a eel. French carver, 17th century. 
 
 DENYS, James, a Flem. painter, 17th century. 
 _ D'EON, or EON DE BEAUMONT, the cheva- 
 lier, a Fr. adventurer and diplomatist between Louis 
 XV. and the court of London, whose name has 
 been rendered notorious by the curious doubts which 
 prevailed concerning his sex, author of ' Loisirs du 
 Chevalier D'Eon,' a work in 13 vols. 8vo, contain- 
 ing num. historical and polit. treatises, 1728-1810. 
 
 DEPARCIEUX, Anth., a Fr. writer on trigo- 
 nometry and logarithms, 1703-1768. His nephew 
 of the same name, an economist, &c, 1753-99. 
 
 DERBY, Jas. Stanley, earl of, a royalist, dis- 
 tinguished in the civil wars, beheaded after the 
 battle of Worcester, 1651. His wife Charlotte, 
 eel. for her brave defence of Latham House, d. 1664. 
 
 DERHAM, Wm., an able div. and phil., canon of 
 Windsor, and rec. of Upminster, Essex, 1657-1735. 
 
 DERHODE, N., a painter on glass, 16th cent. 
 
 DERJAVINE, G. Rom., a Rus. poet and states- 
 man, dis. as one of the first men of his age, 1743-1816. 
 
 DEROSSI, J. G., an Italian poet, 1754-1827. 
 
 DERRICK, S., an Irish playwright, 1724-1769. 
 
 DERWENTWATER, J., earl of, an adherent of 
 the Pretender, beh. after the bat. of Preston, 1716. 
 
 DESAGULIERS, J. T., an exp. phil., 1683-1743 
 
 DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, L. Ch. An., one of 
 the most celebrated generals of the French repub- 
 lic. He was appointed general of division or the 
 army of the Rhine in 1796, and accompanied 
 Napoleon in his expedition to Egypt, where he 
 behaved with so much moderation that the Mus- 
 sulmans named him the 'Just sultan.' On his 
 
DES 
 
 return to France he joined the army of Italy, and 
 was killed at Marengo, 1768-1800. 
 
 [Tomb of Desaix] 
 
 DESAUGIERS, M. A., a composer of music, 
 1742-1793. His son of the same name, a cele- 
 brated ballet composer, &c, 1772-1827. 
 
 DESCARTES, Rene, born in La Haye, Tou- 
 raine, in 1596 ; died in Stockholm in 1650 : in ele- 
 vation and amplitude, his influence approaches that 
 of Plato and Aristotle; he is the unquestioned 
 compeer of Bacon and Newton. Des Cartes fell 
 on one of those recurring periods when Philosophy 
 is in decrepitude, representing neither knowledge, 
 nor liberty, nor wisdom; and he regenerated it. 
 We can speak but briefly either of what he did or 
 what he was. 1. In an epoch of dogma and 
 ignorance and intolerance, an original Thinker ap- 
 pears, as if inevitably, to strike always into the 
 same course. Turning from the disorder of the 
 received Physical Sciences, Lord Bacon prepared 
 for his ; Instauratio,' by research concerning true 
 method in Physical Inquiry: Des Cartes, re- 
 pelled by corresponding disgust, from the moral 
 and psychological logomachies of his time, de- 
 manded what is fitting method in Speculative 
 Philosophy ; and what the basis and criterion of 
 certainty t The reply was not a new one, but 
 only a reproduction of the method of Socrates, of 
 Plato, of Aristotle, and its adjustment to the con- 
 dition and culture of his time. The primal and 
 sufficient ground of certainty in Speculative Philo- 
 sophy, is the content of our human Consciousness. 
 Cogito ergo sum is not a syllogism, but a state- 
 ment of the manner in which the fact of existence 
 becomes revealed. The phenomena of mind are not 
 proveable; they are first facts. The right 
 sifting and analysis of these primary mental phe- 
 nomena, is the sole work of Reflection the single 
 legitimate aim of Philosophy. Inquiry evolves 
 their true signification, determines their reach, 
 disengages them from foreign elements, and ascer- 
 tains their metaphysical import and value; but 
 with this, inquiry ends ; it cannot logically affect 
 one of them with doubt. Two great achieve- 
 ments were solicited in modern times, from this re- 
 assertion of the power and functions of rational 
 psychology. First, to put down all theoretic 
 scepticisms after the fashion of Bayle's. Doubt may, 
 
 DES 
 
 and ought to affect particular opinions or conclu- 
 sions, but to erect Doubt into a principle, is, ac- 
 cording to Des Cartes, a sheer paralogism. Doubt] 
 in this sense is virtually an act of Belief; it i 
 confidence in one state of mind, or one intellectual 
 process ; but why among all states of mind select 
 this one for confidence ? Pyrrhonism in every form j 
 whether as scepticism or dogmatism is irrecon- | 
 cileable with true method. Secondly, Cartesianisfl 
 refused to estimate the value or reality of our primary 
 intuitions by their accordance or non-accordance \ 
 with any system. Every logical process rests on 
 some of our intuitions ; so that here too is a 
 paralogism. One such paralogism was developed 
 in the Physiological and French Sensational i 
 schools : a form of error recently revived by M. ' 
 Comte. Another is the attempt of powerful 
 Churches to repudiate Philosophy in name of 
 Revelation. The Gallican Church in its Angus- 
 tan era, did not commit this error ; neither has 
 it ever been the position of our English Hier- 
 archy: no church so conducting itself can long 
 endure. A Religion without a Philosophy, 
 must ever evolve in the long run, dogma without 
 creed, and a clergy without a people. 2. Some- 
 thing more definite regarding the method of Des 
 Cartes may be gathered from his treatment of the 
 argument regarding the Being of a God : his proof 
 is not an a priori one ; it rests on facts, as directly 
 as the argument from external design the fact, 
 viz.: that our human consciousness reveals Ideas 
 having the attributes of Universality and Neces- 
 sity. Ideas of this kind, said Des Cartes, cannot 
 be the product or reflection of man's finite and 
 imperfect nature : therefore, a Being exists whose 
 essential character enables him to communicate to 
 us the Ideas of Infinity, Eternity, Self-existence, 
 &c. The special proof given by Anselm, also 
 occurred to Des Cartes, and was expanded by him. 
 The logic of these arguments to which, indeed, 
 all a priori proofs may be reduced is open to only 
 two exceptions. First, it may be denied that 
 Ideas exist having the characters of Universality 
 and Necessity; Secondly, it may be questioned 
 whether it is legitimate to pass from a phenomenon 
 in Psychology to a reality in Ontology ; it doe3 
 not follow, says the philosopher of Konigsberg, 
 from the existence of an Idea, that there is any 
 externality corresponding to it. As to the former 
 objection see articles Condillac, Gassendi, 
 Locke, Plato, &c: the latter is noticed at 
 length in articles Kant and Rkid. 3. The 
 student must look for no completed Psychology, 
 or even an approach to it, in the writings of Des 
 Cartes. Owing to the absence of every attempt 
 at system, the cursory reader is apt to miss those 
 traces of earnest searching insight which are 
 strewn broad-cast over his pages ; and the rapid 
 critic easily makes out a case against one of the 
 hardest and most original thinkers in Europe : 
 the extravagant misapprehension contained in 
 the first three chapters of Locke's Essay, may be 
 taken as a type of such criticisms. One fatal error 
 of the great Frenchman requires to be explained 
 because of its influence on subsequent speculation. 
 He overlooked the essential activity of the think- 
 ing principle, regarding it rather as the subject of 
 certain peculiar changes; and this led him to 
 a prolbunder misapprehension of the Idea of Sub- 
 
 198 
 
DES 
 stance. Leibnitz corrected him by restoring to 
 t, the attribute of cause or force ; but 
 lot before the error had led to the engulphing 
 atalism of Spinoza. 4. The intellectual vigour 
 )f Des Cartes left its marks on many various 
 departments of knowledge. He was fond of 
 Physiology. Kis hypothesis of Vortices prepared 
 For the mechanical theory of planetary Motions. 
 He founded Dioptrics first impressing on it a 
 geometrical character. But that by which he will 
 ongest live in Mathematics, is his most fertile 
 idea of representing the properties of curves by 
 equations. Measured by its influence this dis- 
 covery takes rank with the infinitesmal calculus; 
 nor has its empire been disputed until in the most 
 recent times by the remarkable scheme of Quater- 
 nions. 5. The life of Des Cartes was given mostly 
 to solitude and thought: nevertheless, on occasions, 
 and with characteristic ardour, he took part in 
 active pursuits. A soldier, he spent several years 
 in camps ; he travelled much, and carried on an 
 extensive correspondence. Whenever Philosophy 
 fidls off, and the throne of Truth is usurped by 
 Scepticism or Dogmatism, regeneration will in- 
 variably come in one way through restoration 
 of the method and fundamental principle of Des 
 Cartes. [J.P.N.] 
 
 [Birth-place of Pescartes ] 
 
 DESCEMET, J., a French botanist, 1732-1810. 
 
 DESCROIZILLE, F. A. H., a Fr. che., d. 1825. 
 
 DESERIZ, J. S., a savant of Hung., 1702-1765. 
 
 DESEZE, Romain, one of the three counsel 
 selected by Louis XVI. to defend him before the 
 convention, after the restoration became president 
 of the Court of Repeal, 1750-1828. 
 
 DESFONTAINES, the Abbe P. F. Guyot, a 
 miscellaneous French writer, at first a Jesuit, noted 
 for his immorality, 1685-1745. 
 
 DESFONTAINES, R. L., a Fr. hot., 1751-1833. 
 
 DHSFORGES, P. J. B. C, a French comedian 
 and dramatic author, 1746-1806. 
 
 DESHAYES, L., Baron De Courmenin, a Fr. 
 diplo., beh. for conspiring against Richelieu, 1632. 
 
 DESHAYS, J. B., a French painter, 1729-1765. 
 
 DESHOULIERES, Antoinette Du Ligier 
 De La Garde, Dame, a French poetess and dra- 
 matic writer, 1634-1694. Her daughter, An- 
 toinette Theresa, also a poetess, 1662-1718. 
 
 DESJARDINS, Martin Van Den Bogaert, 
 a Fr. sculp, and caster of stat. in bronze, 1640-1694. 
 
 DES 
 
 DESMAISE AUX, P., aFr. mis. wr., 1666-1746. 
 
 DESMARETS, C, chief of the French police 
 under the empire, auth. of ' Memoirs,' 1763-1823. 
 
 DESMARETS, H., a Fr. composer, 1662-1741. 
 
 DESMARETS, J., advocate-general of the par- 
 liament of Paris, put to death by Charles VI., 1382. 
 
 DESMARETS, N., a Fr. min. of finance, nephew 
 of Colbert, eel. for his upright adminis., lived 1721. 
 
 DESMARETS, N., a Fr. physician, director of the 
 manuf. of France, mem. of the Acad., 1725-1815. 
 
 DESMOULINS, Benedict Cashlee, born at 
 Guise in Picardy, 1762, and educated for the law 
 at the college of Louis-le-Grand, was known as a 
 wild young student of jurisprudence and Belles 
 Lettres at the commencement of the French revolu- 
 tion, and is supposed to have been early ac- 
 quainted with Robespierre, if, indeed, he was not his 
 college friend. He made the first of those stirring 
 harangues by which the people were excited to the 
 revolutionary combat, from a table on which he 
 mounted in the garden of the Palais Royal, when 
 the Swiss and German troops had been ordered 
 under arms, previous to the dismissal of Necker. 
 It was a moment of intense excitement, for the police 
 were eyeing the young orator, who with a loaded pis- 
 tol in eachhand, swore he would not be taken alive. 
 This was on Sunday the 12th of July, 1789, and two 
 days afterwards Camille fought with the future re- 
 publicans at the storming of the Bastile. Before 
 the end of the month the ' Rights of Man ' had 
 been promulgated by the Constituent Assembly, 
 and was succeeded by that flood of journalism and 
 club-eloquence on which so many obscure men were 
 suddenly borne to the height of popularity. 
 Camille made his first profession of the republican 
 faith in a work which he entitled ' La France 
 Libre,' in which he declared that a democracy was 
 the only form of government suited to a people 
 who were ' worthy of the name of men.' This was 
 followed by his ' Discours de la Lanterne aux Par- 
 isiens,' subsequently called 'Les Revolutions de 
 France et de Brabant,' a weekly paper, edited, as he 
 styled himself,' by the ' Attorney-General of the 
 Lamp-Iron.' This atrocious style was chosen by 
 Camille rather as his password to the Faubourgs 
 than the echo of his own sentiments, and he aban- 
 doned it as a jeu d'esprit, too cruel to be taken in 
 earnest. Towards the end of the year he united 
 with Danton in the establishment of the Corde- 
 liers' Club, the fiery element into which these two 
 cast themselves to work out their own destiny, 
 and to accomplish their part in the revolution. 
 About this time he married the beautiful and 
 accomplished Mademoiselle Duplessis, the devoted 
 wife who afterwards hovered about his prison, 
 and rested not till she arrived at the same cruel 
 term of her existence as him she loved. It is re- 
 lated that the cure refused to marry him because 
 he had written that there was as much evidence 
 for the religion of Mahomet as for that of Chris- 
 tianity, and the dispute between them was referred 
 to Mirabeau, who decided that a man's religion 
 could only be judged by his exterior profession. 
 Camille declared himself a good catholic, promised 
 to amend his ways, and was thereupon married, 
 the priest laughing at the idea of a Mirabeau act- 
 ing as a father of the church. It is painful to 
 read the words of the bridegroom when on his de- 
 fence five years later: 'A marked fatality has 
 
 199 
 
DES 
 
 DEV 
 
 ordained,' he said, ' that of sixty persona who I handed down to posterity. The commotion of the 
 
 signed my marriage contract, there should remain 
 to me only two living friends, Robespierre and Dan- 
 ton ! All the others have fled or are guillotined ! ' 
 After the 10th of August, 1792, when Danton 
 acquired the supremacy as minister of justice, 
 Camille Desmoulins acted as his secretary, and 
 though it is a disputed point whether he took any 
 active part in the execrable massacres of Septem- 
 ber, it cannot be supposed that the 'attorney- 
 general of the Lamp-iron ' was the man to shrink 
 from his share of the responsibility. The incident 
 which marked the return of the friends to moderate 
 counsels soon after the fall of the Girondins is 
 related by Lamartine. It was one of the last 
 evenings in the month of January, when Danton, 
 Souberbielle, one of the jury of the revolutionary 
 tribunal, and Camille Desmoulins came away 
 together from the Palais de Justice, and spoke 
 sorrowfully of the bloodshed of that day, when 
 fifteen victims had fallen on the scaffold, and 
 twenty-seven more had been condemned to suffer. 
 The friends separated at Danton's door, and next 
 day Camille Desmoulins had written the first 
 number of the 'Vieux Cordelier,' in which the 
 system of proscription was denounced, and a ' Com- 
 mittee of Clemency ' demanded as a preliminary to 
 clearing the prisons of the 'Suspect.' In the 
 daring burst of eloquence and passion which 
 marked the pages of this journal, the system of 
 Robespierre was attacked under cover of an 
 assault on the cruel atheists Hebert and Chaumette. 
 The quarrel broke out in the Convention as a 
 personal squabble, on the 8th of January, 1794 ; 
 and Danton supported his friend, thinking it high 
 time, as he expressed himself, that they should 
 make work for the guillotine of public opinion by 
 enlightening the people. Two days afterwards 
 the quarrel was resumed, and Robespierre spoke 
 of Camille as a wayward child whose person it was 
 not necessary to injure, but demanded that his 
 writings might be burned. ' To burn them,' ex- 
 claimed Camille starting up, 'is not to answer 
 them ! ' and then, reckless of consequences, he 
 complained that he had first submitted his copy 
 to Robespierre, but that he had since refused to 
 read his journal because he would not compromise 
 himself by espousing either side of the quarrel. 
 Danton acted as peace-maker on this occasion: 
 but the harvest of death was ripening for this 
 new party of mercy as for the Girondins; and 
 Danton himself, together with his friends Camille 
 Desmoulins, Philippeaux, and Lacroix, were 
 arrested on the night of the 30th March, as 
 Herault de Seychelles had been only a little earlier. 
 His wife, Lucile, addressed an affecting appeal to 
 Robespierre, which, it is believed, never reached 
 him, and Camille found the means of opening a 
 secret correspondence with her. These letters 
 have been preserved, and they are filled with ex- 
 pressions oi the most passionate attachment and 
 despair. At the bar of Tinville the prisoners were 
 asked their age, name, and residence, 'My age,' 
 said Camille, ' is that of the sansculotte Jesu I 
 am thirty-three ; an age fatal to revolutionists ! ' 
 He had prepared a written defence, but was not 
 allowed to read it, and in a fit of indignation tore 
 the paper to fragments, which, however, were 
 afterwards collected by a friend, and their contents 
 
 200 
 
 people was feared by Robespierre, and the wife of 
 Camille was arrested the following night, that her 
 beauty and the eloquence of her grief might not 
 be the means of snatching away a victory which 
 he had only obtained by surprise and subtlety. 
 She was guillotined a few days after her husband. 
 On his way to the scaffold,' Camille Desmoulins 
 forgot all his philosophy, and became almost 
 frantic, struggling with his bonds and appealing 
 
 to the people whom he had called to arms on the 
 
 14th of July t 
 
 had given the national cockade. At the guillotine 
 
 -to whom, as he reminded them, he 
 
 he recovered his sangfroid, and, looking on the axe, 
 said to the populace, ' Behold, then, the recompense 
 reserved for the first apostle of liberty!' The 
 date of his execution is the 5th of April, 1794, that 
 of his wife's the 10th. He was a man of rare 
 genius, light, sparkling, and sarcastic, but of a most 
 undecided temperament, and headlong in his im- 
 pulses. His dazzling eloquence rained words like 
 fire ; his epigrams flew like polished arrows, and, 
 careless of results, he launched them against men 
 of all parties, from Lafayette 'the liberator of 
 two. worlds,' and 'constellation of the white 
 horse,' to St. Just who 'carried his head with 
 the air of a saint-sacrament.' His ridicule of the 
 Girondists in a ' History of the BrissotinsJ pub- 
 lished 1793, contributed to bring contempt upon that 
 body by its very title ; yet it must be remembered, 
 to the honour of Camille and the Dantonists, that 
 their attempt to save their enemies from the guillo- 
 tine was the first step to their own ruin. [E.R.] 
 
 DESORGUES, Th., a French poet, 1764-1803. 
 
 DESOTEUX, F., a Fr. physician, 1724-1803. 
 
 DESPARD, Edward Marcus, an Irish officer, 
 distin. in the West Indies during the Amer. war, and 
 exec, for conspiring against the life of the king 1803. 
 
 DESPARD, John, a brave Eng. gen., 1744-1829. 
 
 DESPAZE, J., a Fr. satirical poet, 1769-1814. 
 
 DESPREAUX, J. S., a Fr. dram., 1747-1820. 
 
 DESSAIX, J. M., a general of the French 
 revolution, member of the council of 500 till the 
 18th Brumaire, 1764-1825. 
 
 DESSALINES, J. J., a slave of St. Domingo, first 
 emp.ofHayti under the title of James I., 1760-1806. 
 
 DESSOLLE, J. J. P. Augustin, a French gen- 
 eral and statesman, distinguished in the campaign 
 of Italy, Spain, and Russia, 1767-1828. 
 
 DESTOUCHES, A. C, a Fr. comp., 1672-1749. 
 
 DESTOUCHES, P. K, aFr. dram., 1680-1754. 
 
 DESTREM, H., a member of the French con- 
 vention, one of the most vigorous opponents of the 
 coup d'etat, 18th Brumaire, transported after the 
 plot of the infernal machine, 1758-1805. 
 
 DEUTSCH, N. E., a Fr. painter, 1484-1530. 
 
 DEVAUX, J., a French surgeon, 1649-1729. 
 
 DEVAUX, Gabriel, aFr. botanist, 1742-1802. 
 
 DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Essex, the re- 
 puted favourite of Queen Elizabeth, distinguished 
 as a military officer, gov. of Ireland during Tyrone's 
 rebellion, born 1567, executed 1601. His son of 
 the same name, commander for the parliament at 
 the commencement of the civil war, 1592-1645. 
 
 DEVILLIERS, C, a Fr. naturalist, 1724-1809. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE, Georgiana Cavendish, 
 duchess of, celebrated for her taste in art and the 
 Belles Lettres, and for her personal charms, authoress 
 of poems, 'Passage of St. Gothard,' &c, 1757- 
 
DEV 
 
 806. Elizabeth Hervey, the second duchess, 
 lso distinguished for her beauty, her classical taste, 
 iid her love of art, 1759-1824. 
 
 DEVUEZ, Arnold, a Fr. painter, 1642-1724. 
 
 D'EWES, Sir S., an English hist., 1602-1650. 
 
 DEWEZ, L. D. J., a Fr. historian, 1760-1834. 
 
 DE-WINT, Peter, an English artist, d. 1849. 
 
 DE-WITT, Jno., a celebrated Dutch statesman, 
 torn 1625, grand pensionary of Holland from 1652, 
 acrificed with his brother Cornelius to the ambi- 
 tion of the House of Orange, 1672. 
 
 DHAFER, Hismail, caliph of Egypt, 1149-55. 
 
 DHAHER, Ali, caliph of Egypt, 1021-1036. 
 
 DHAHER, Moham., the thirty-fifth caliph of 
 he Abasside dynasty, reigned nine months in 1225. 
 
 DHAHEZ, a sheik of Palestine, 1693-1775. 
 
 DIADUMENIANUS, Marcus Opelius Ma- 
 :rinus Antoninus, emperor of Rome 217, killed 
 y the soldiers of HeliogaDalus 218. 
 ' DIANA of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., eel. 
 or her influence and her brilliant court,1499-1566. 
 
 DIANA of France, a natural daughter of 
 lenry II., and wife of Horace Farnese and F. 
 lontmorency, 1538-1619. 
 
 DIAS, B., a Portuguese poet, 16th century. 
 
 DIAS-DE-LUGO, J. B., a Span, jurist, d. 1556. 
 
 DIAS-GOMEZ, F., a Portug. poet, 1745-1795. 
 
 DIAS, P., a Portuguese Jesuit mis., 1621-1700. 
 
 DIAZ, Bartholomew, a knight of the royal 
 ousehold, was sent by the king of Portugal in 
 Lugust I486, in quest of the dominions of the 
 naginary Christian prince, Prester John, supposed 
 b lie in India or Eastern Africa, while Covilhma 
 ad Payva went by land through Egypt. Diaz 
 ad two caravels of fifty tons each, and a small 
 tore-ship. Having touched at the African coast in 
 at. 26 S., 400 miles farther than any previous 
 tavigator had reached, he steered boldly south and 
 ast sight of land. Storms which arose soon after 
 ore him far E. of the Cape of Good Hope, which 
 ie was thus the first to double without knowing 
 t. He had advanced to the mouth of the Great 
 "ish River, making frequent inquiry after Prester 
 lohn, when the crews insisted on his return. He 
 low visited the Cape, determined its position with 
 iccuracy, and called it the Stormy Cape, a name 
 vhich for better augury the king, John II., changed 
 o the present designation. Diaz reached Lisbon 
 n 1487. He perished at sea in 1500, in one of 
 Uabral's ships commanded by him. Michael 
 Diaz of Arragon, was one of the companions of 
 Columbus. He became governor of Porto Rico, 
 ind died in 1512. [J.B.] 
 
 DIAZ, E., a Portug. Jesuit mis., 17th century. 
 
 DIAZ, F., a Spanish missionary, died 1646. 
 
 DIAZ, G., a Portuguese painter, 16th century. 
 ^ DIAZ, J., aprotestant convert of Spain, murd. by 
 lis brother, who afterwards hanged himself, 1546. 
 
 DIAZ, M., a Spanish navigator, died 1512. 
 
 DIAZ. P., a Spanish Jesuit and mis., 1546-1602. 
 
 DIBDIN, Charles, was born at Southampton 
 nthe year 1745, and was educated at Winchester. 
 Jis father, who was a silversmith, first meant that 
 us son should enter the church, but his early and 
 levoted attachment to music soon frustrated the pa- 
 ternal intentions. He received some lessons in music 
 rom Mr. Kent (whose anthems are well known), 
 ind commenced his career as poet and musician at 
 dxteen years of age, and produced at Covent Gar- 
 
 DID 
 
 den Theatre an opera named 'The Shepherd's 
 Artifice.' About this time he made his debut as 
 an actor, and was well received. In 1768 he was 
 the original Mungo in his own ' Padlock.' In 1772 
 he produced the music to ' The Deserter ;' in 1774 
 the words and music of ' The Waterman ; ' and in 
 1775 ' The Quaker.' In 1778 he became composer 
 to the Covent Garden Theatre, with a salary oi 10 
 per annum. About the year 1782 he built "the Cir- 
 cus Theatre, afterwards known as the Surrey, and 
 continued to manage it with indifferent success for 
 nearly four years. In 1778 he published his musi- 
 cal tour, and in 1789 he gave the first of his 
 entertainments, under the title of ' The Whim of 
 the Moment,' which soon became very popular. 
 These entertainments, of which he was performer, 
 poet, and musician, furnished his sole means of 
 livelihood until the year 1805, when he retired 
 from public life with a government pension of 
 200. In 1813 Dibdin was attacked with par- 
 alysis, and he died in July, 1814. Besides the 
 operas named, Dibdin wrote two novels, and a 
 few smaller literary works, and wrote and com- 
 posed the enormous number of nine hundred songs ! 
 To him is due whatever merit there is of having 
 originated that kind of musical entertainment 
 which has been followed by so many vocalists, 
 from Incledon to Wilson, Templeton, and John 
 Parry. [J.M.] 
 
 DIBDIN, Thos., eldest son of the preceding, a 
 dist. dramatic author and song-writer, 1771-1841. 
 
 DIBDIN, Thos. Frognall, D.D., a celebrated 
 bibliographer and antiquarian writer, 1775-1847. 
 
 DIBIL-AL-KHOSSAI, an Arab, poet, 765-860. 
 
 DICEARCHUS, a Greek philosopher, historian, 
 and geographer, disciple of Aristotle, 4th cent. b.c. 
 
 DICETO, Raoul De, an Engl, hist., 13th cent. 
 
 DICK, Sir Alex., a Sco. physician, remembered 
 for introducing the culture of rhubarb, 1703-1785. 
 
 DICK, Major-Gen. Sir Robert Henry, a 
 Scotch peninsular and medical officer, killed at the 
 battle of Sobraon, 1846. 
 
 DICKINSON, E., an Eng. arclneol. 1624-1707. 
 
 DICKSON, A., a Scot. wr. on agricul., d. 1776. 
 
 DICKSON, D., a Scotch divine, 1591-1664. 
 
 DICKSON, J., a Scotch botanist, died 1822. 
 
 DIDEROT, Denys, was born in 1713, at Lan- 
 gres in Champagne, where his father was a re- 
 spectable tradesman. Educated for the church, 
 but declining to take orders, he was next placed in 
 the chambers of a legal practitioner in Paris ; but, 
 in like manner, he abandoned the law. Literature 
 now became his profession ; and, after a few years 
 of obscure drudgery, he became one of the most 
 famous among those literary and scientific men, 
 whose attacks on the established order of things, 
 religious and ecclesiastical as well as political, are 
 alleged to have acted so powerfully in precipitating 
 the French revolution. It was Diderot that pro- 
 jected the huge work which, receiving the contri- 
 butions of these so-called philosophers in their 
 several departments, gave them their usual title of 
 ' Encyclopedists.' The ' Encyclopedic, ou Dic- 
 tionnaire Raisonne - des Sciences, des Arts, et des 
 Metiers,' was designed, not merely to supersede 
 the imperfect dictionaries of universal knowledge 
 that already existed, but to teach, on every occa- 
 sion which could admit the teaching, those social 
 doctrines which were held by the winters. Among 
 
 201 
 
DID 
 
 the contributors were Voltaire, Rousseau, and seve- 
 ral very eminent men of science ; the work was 
 edited at first by Diderot and D'Alembert, and 
 afterwards by the former alone ; and, among its 
 very unequal contents, his articles are distinguished 
 both for good writing and for versatile ability. 
 The publication continued, amidst many obstacles, 
 from 1751 to 1769. In the course of it, and after- 
 wards, Diderot wrote several didactic treatises, in- 
 decent and irreligious novels, and two sentimental 
 comedies ; and his published correspondence, espe- 
 cially with Voltaire and Grimm, throws much 
 light on the gloomy picture which French society 
 and morals then presented. He died at Paris in 
 1784. [W.S.] 
 
 DIDIER, St., a Christian bp. and martyr, 264. 
 
 DIDIER, last king of the Lombards, 757-773. 
 
 DIDO, a princess of Tyre, eel. as the founder and 
 queen of Carthage, supposed date about 880 B.C. 
 
 DIDOT, the name of a family distin. in the his- 
 tory of French printing, the most celebrated of 
 whom is Firmin, the inventor of stereotyping, and 
 also a classical scholar and author, 1764-1836. 
 
 DIDYM US, a Greek grammarian, 1st cent. B.C. 
 
 DIDYMUS, a divine of Alexandria, 308-395. 
 
 DIEBITSCH-ZABALKANSKI, a Russian gen- 
 eral and favourite of Alexander, and commander 
 in the war against the Poles 1830, died 1831. 
 
 DIEFFEXBACH, J. F., a German surgeon, 
 celebrated for his skill in supplying artificial noses, 
 curing strabismus or squinting, &c, 1795-1848. 
 
 DIELHELM, J. H., aGer. antiquarian, d. 1764. 
 
 DIEMEN. Anthony Van, governor-general 
 of the Dutch establishments in the East Indies, 
 was born at Kuilenberg 1595, and going to India 
 became successively accountant to the govern- 
 ment, and member of the supreme council. In 
 1631, or 1632, he returned to Holland as com- 
 mander of the India fleet, and the year following 
 was raised to the dignity which he enjoyed till his 
 death, in 1645. While holding this office, namely, 
 in 1642, he sent Tasman on a voyage to the south, 
 when that part of NewHolland was discovered which 
 has since been called Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 DIEPENBEKE, A. Van, a Fl. pain., 1607-1675. 
 
 DIEREVILLE, a French navigator, 17th cent. 
 
 DIES, Gaspard, a Portuguese painter, d. 1671. 
 
 DIETERICH, J. C, a Ger. savant, 1612-1669. 
 
 DIETRICH, C. G. E., a Ger. painter, 1712-1774. 
 
 DIETRICH, J. F., a Ger. Latin poet, 1753-1833. 
 
 DIETRICH, P. F., Baron De, a mineralogist, 
 first constitutional mayor of Strasburg, guill. 1793. 
 
 DIEU, Anthony, a French painter, 1662-1727. 
 
 DIEU, Louis De, a Dutch prot. min., eel. as a 
 biblical commentator and Orientalist, 1590-1642. 
 
 DIEU, St. Jean De, arelig. founder, 1495-1550. 
 
 DIEZ, Juan Martin, a dist. guerilla chieftain 
 of Spain, exec, for alleged conspiracy, 1755-1825. 
 
 DIGBY, Sir Everard, an English gentleman, 
 executed for his complicity in the gunpowder plot, 
 1581-1609. His son, Sir Kenelm, a naval com- 
 mander under Charles I., and philosophical writer, 
 1603-1665. John, of the same family, earl of 
 Bristol, a political negotiator and partizan of 
 Charles L, 1580-1653. George, Lord Digby, son 
 of John, a zealous royalist, 1612-1676. 
 
 DIGGES, Leonard, an English geometrician, 
 died 1574. His son Thomas, an astronomer and 
 mathematician, died 1595. Sir Dudley, son of 
 
 DIO 
 
 Thomas, a diplomatist and ambassador, author o 
 a treatise on right, 1583-1639. Drnu.v, mm 
 the last named, au. of some political tracts, d. 1642 
 
 DILLENIUS, John James, a German botanist 
 first professor of botany at Oxford, 1687-1747. 
 
 DILLON, the name of an Irish family, the firs 
 of whom mentioned by biographers is Went worth 
 earl of Roscommon, a hanger-on of the Englisl 
 court, 1633-1684. Others are mentioned in thi 
 service of France, as Arthur, lieut.-gen., distin 
 under Vendome and Villeroi, 1670-1733. Hi 
 grandson of the same name, governor of St. Kitt' 
 and Tobago, deputy to the estates-general, com- 
 mander of the army of the north, and afterward 
 in the army of Dumouriez, ex. 1794. Theobale 
 the father of the last named, massacred, and hon 
 oured with a place in the Pantheon, 1792. 
 
 DILWORTH, Thomas, author of a series o 
 useful school books, died 1670. 
 
 DIMSDALE, Th., an Engl, phys., 1712-1800. 
 
 DINO, or DINUS, a jurist of the 13th centurj 
 
 DINTER, G. F., a Germ, theologian, 1760-1831 
 
 DINTERUS, E., a French chronicler, d. 1448. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, a common soldier who becam 
 emperor of Rome, 286, eel. for the persecution corr 
 against the Christians 303, abdicated 306, died 31c 
 
 DIODATI, Dominic, an It. savant, 1736-1801 
 
 DIODATI, Giovanni, a protestant divine c 
 Geneva, kn. as a biblical annotator, 1576-1649. 
 
 DIODORUS of Sicily, a famous Greek his 
 torian, au. of a universal hist, in 40 books, of whie 
 only 15 and some fragments are extant, 1st c. B.< 
 
 DIODORUS of Tyre, a Gr. philos., 2d c. b.c 
 
 DIOGENES of Apollonia, a Greek philo 
 sopher of the Ionic or physical school of Anaxi 
 menes, 5th century B.C. 
 
 DIOGENES, the Babylonian, a Stoic philoso 
 pher, teacher of dialectic in Rome, 200 B.C. 
 
 DIOGENES, the celebrated Greek cynic, was 
 native of Sinope, in Pontus, where he was bor 
 413 b.c. He was banished from his country fo 
 coining false money, and repaired to Athens 
 where he studied philosophy under Antisthenei 
 and surpassed his master in the rudeness of hi 
 manners, and his austere views of human nature 
 He walked about the streets with a tub on hi 
 head, in which it is said he lodged at night. H 
 is the type of cynicism, and for his zeal as 
 moralist nas been called the 'Mad Socrates, 
 Being on a voyage he was taken by pirates am 
 sold into slavery at Corinth, where ne becam 
 tutor to the sons of a rich citizen, but died in th 
 greatest misery, B.C. 324. His reputation pro 
 cured him a visit from Alexander the Great, wb 
 asked Diogenes if there was anything in whid 
 he could gratify him. ' Only,' he answered, ' do no 
 stand any longer between me and the sun.' Som 
 moral ' sentences ' are extant under his name, bu 
 they are thought to be apocryphal. The inliabi 
 tants of Sinope raised statues to his memory, an< 
 the marble figure of a dog was placed on a big] 
 column erected on his tomb. 
 
 DIOGENES LAERT1US, a Greek philosopher 
 supposed to be of the Epicurean school, celebrate! 
 as an historian for his very valuable ' Lives of th 
 Philosophers,' 2d century B.C. 
 
 DIOMEDES, a Latin grammarian, 5th century 
 
 DION, a disciple of Plato, eel. for deliver. Sicil; 
 from the tyranny of Dionysius, assassin. B.C. 354 
 
DIO 
 
 DION CASSIUS, a Greek historian, 3d cent. 
 
 DION CHRYSOSTOME, a Greek orator, 1st c. 
 i DIONYSIUS, a Greek painter, 5th cent. B.C. 
 ! DIONYSIUS, the first of the name, called the 
 Efcfer, tvrant of Syracuse, 405-368 B.C. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, the second, called the Younger, 
 son and successor of the preceding, 368-356 B.C. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, a patriarch or bishop of Alexan- 
 dria, dist. in the condemnation of Sabellius, 248-265. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, an ancient geographer, surnamed 
 Periegetes, from his poem containing a description 
 of the world in Greek verse, 4th century. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, the Akeopagite, a bishop of 
 Athens, to whom certain writings containing an 
 application of Platonism to Christianity have been 
 dubiously attributed, burned alive about 95. 
 
 DIONYSIUS of Halicaknassus, author of an 
 hist, work entitled 'Roman Antiquities,' abt. 30 B.C. 
 
 DIOPHANTUS, a mathematician of Alexan- 
 dria, who flourished about the year 480 a.d. He 
 originated a peculiar department of Algebra, which 
 still bears his name. It relates to questions about 
 whole numbers, squares, cubes, primes, &c. The 
 best edition of his work is by Fermat. 
 
 DIOSCORIDES, Pedanius, a celebrated Greek 
 physician and botanist, was born at Anazarba in 
 Ciiicia. The dates of his birth and death are not 
 known ; but it is generally believed that he lived 
 in the reign of the emperor Nero. He is said to 
 have been named Phacas, from his face being 
 marked with spots like lentils. He was a soldier 
 in his youth, and it is surmised he may have been 
 attached to the army as physician. He practised 
 medicine, and he tells us himself that he travelled 
 over Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and part of ancient 
 Gaul, in quest of plants. His works contain 
 chiefly an account of the medicinal virtues of the 
 plants he describes ; and their principal value ap- 
 pears to consist in their having given rise to 
 numerous learned disquisitions, and an immense 
 deal of controversy, in after times, as to the iden- 
 tity of the species he mentions. This, no doubt, 
 contributed much to advance the knowledge of 
 botany amongst the medical men who succeeded 
 him, and who in these times were almost the only 
 persons who studied plants. The first printed 
 edition of his works appeared at Venice, in the 
 original Greek, in 1499 ; but since then many edi- 
 tions have been printed, and translations made into 
 almost every language of Europe, except English. 
 In late times Tournefort made much use of his 
 works, and still more lately they have given origin 
 to the ' Flora Groeca' of Sibthorp, which has been 
 edited by Sir James Edward Smith. A genus of 
 plants has been named after him by Plumier; the 
 dioscorea, a genus which contains the yam. [W.B.] 
 
 DIl'PEL, John Conrad, a German physician 
 and chemist, remarkable for his pretensions in 
 theology and alchymy. He is the disc, of Prussian 
 blue, and of an oil which bears his name, 1672-1734. 
 
 DISNEY, John, an English divine, distin- 
 guished for his activity and disinterestedness as a 
 magistrate, 1677-1730. A descendant of the 
 same name, chaplain to Bishop Law, and author 
 of religious biographies, 1746-1816. 
 
 D'ISRAELI, Isaac, the son of a Venetian 
 merchant, of Jewish extraction, who had settled 
 in England, was born at Enfield, near London, in 
 17G0. His education was chiefly received at Am- 
 
 DOD 
 
 sterdam and Leyden, and was completed by a tour 
 in France and Italy. Coming, at an early age, 
 into possession of an independent fortune, he was 
 able to devote the whole of his long life to literary 
 study and composition. In the first stage of his 
 authorship he contributed poems to the Gentle- 
 man's Magazine,' and other periodicals, and wrote 
 some small novels, of which the satirical piece 
 called 'Film Flams' is said to have been one. 
 But he soon began to confine himself to his favourite 
 department of Literary History ; commencing, when 
 he was twenty-five years old, those miscellaneous 
 collections and remarks, which, though pleasant and 
 gossiping rather than philosophically critical, have 
 preserved and disseminated a very large mass of cu- 
 rious and valuable knowledge. In 1791 appeared 
 the first volume of his ' Curiosities of Literature,' 
 which were extended to three volumes, gradually 
 enlarged, and followed by a second series in 1823. 
 In 1795 he published his ' Essay on the Literary 
 Character,' and, in 1796, his 'Literary Miscellanies.' 
 The most interesting of his works, ' The Calamities 
 of Authors,' and ' Quarrels of Authors,' appeared 
 in 1812, 1813, and 1814; and these were followed, 
 in 1816, by his ' Character of King James I.' A 
 subsequent work, the ' Commentaries on the Life 
 and Reign of Charles I.,' gained for him from Ox- 
 ford the honorary degree of D.C.L. In 1839 he 
 became blind, but was still able to complete his 
 ' Amenities of Literature,' which had been designed 
 to be a part in a survey of the ' Literary History 
 of England.' Mr. D'Israeli died in the beginning 
 of 1848, at his country-seat, Bradenham house, in 
 Buckinghamshire. The late chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer is his eldest son. [W.S.] 
 
 DITTON, Humph., an Eng. geomet., 1675-1715. 
 
 DJEMCHlD, an ancient king of Persia, regarded 
 as the founder of Persian civilization, abt. 800 B.C. 
 
 DLUGLOSS, J. L., a Polish hist., 1415-1480. 
 
 DOBROWSKI, J., a savant of Hung., 1753-1829. 
 
 DOBSON, M., a physician and natural philoso- 
 pher, died 1784. His wife, Susannah, a clever 
 miscellaneous writer, close of the century. 
 
 DOBSON, William, a distinguished English 
 portrait and historical painter, of the reign of 
 Charles I., was born in London in 1610, where he 
 died in 1646, at the early age of thirty-six. Dob- 
 son's education consisted chiefly in copying pic- 
 tures by Titian and Vandyck, which he met with 
 at his master's, Sir Robert Peake's. He was re- 
 commended to the king by Vandyck, and succeed- 
 ed him as Sergeant Painter to Charles I., who 
 had a high opinion of Dobson, whom he called the 
 English Tintoret. (Walpole, Anecdotes of Paint- 
 ing in England, &c.) R.N.W.] 
 
 DOD, John, a Heb. scholar and divine, called 
 by Fuller ' the last of the Puritans,' 1547-1645. 
 
 DODD, C, an English catholic historian, d. 1745. 
 
 DODD, Ralph, a civil engineer, author of 
 many works of great public utility, and a great 
 promoter of steam navigation, 1761-1822. His 
 son, George, dist. in the same prof., the projector 
 and resident engineer of Waterloo Bridge, d. 1827. 
 
 DODD, Dr. William, author of num. religious 
 and other works, b. 1729, executed for forgery 1777. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, Sir J., an Eng. jurist, 1555-1628. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., the son of an 
 oilman, was born in London on 26th June, 1702. 
 Both parents being very pious, took extraordinary 
 
 203 
 
DOD 
 
 pains to rear their numerous family in the nurture 
 and admonition of the Lord; and Philip, the 
 youngest, was introduced by his mother to a know- 
 ledge of the characters and scenes of the Old and New 
 Testament history through means of some Dutch 
 tiles that lined a corner of their sitting-room. The 
 associations of those primitive pictures, together 
 with the remembrance of the sound and pious re- 
 flections his parent founded on them, made indel- 
 ible impressions on his infant mind. In his child- 
 hood he was left an orphan ; and the little patri- 
 mony bequeathed to him having been lost through 
 the imprudent management of the trustee ap- 
 pointed by his father, young Doddridge was in- 
 debted to "the kind liberality of Mr. Samuel Clarke, 
 a dissenting minister, and. master of a private 
 school at St. Alban's, who took him into his house, 
 and educated him gratuitously. Doddridge repaid 
 the kindness of his disinterested and pious benefac- 
 tor by not only making uncommon attainments in 
 learning, but by strong and beautiful evidences of 
 
 Eersonal religion. His early wish was to devote 
 is life to the ministry, but great difficulties lay in 
 the way to the accomplishment of this object ; and 
 while he was anxiously pondering the matter in his 
 mind, he received an offer from the duchess of 
 Bedford, who lived in the neighbourhood, and had 
 heard of his character and circumstances, to send 
 him to either of the two universities, on condition 
 of his becoming a clergyman in the Church of 
 England. So tempting an offer it required strong 
 and conscientious principles to resist. But his 
 dissent being the result of enlightened and matured 
 conviction, he respectfully and gratefully declined 
 the proposal of his noble patroness. His old and 
 steady friend, Mr. Samuel Clarke, now undertook 
 to bear the expense of his education ; and Doddridge, 
 regarding this offer as indicating the leading of 
 Providence, gladly embraced it, by repairing to the 
 academy of Kilworth, in Leicestershire, where, 
 under the auspices of the learned and pious Dr. 
 Jennings, he pursued the requisite studies with 
 great ardour. On 22d July, 1722, he was licensed 
 to preach, and such was the fame of his pulpit 
 ministrations that he soon found himself settled 
 over the congregation at Kilworth, as successor to 
 Dr. Jennings. At the end of seven years he re- 
 moved to Harborough, to be assistant to the vener- 
 able Mr. Some ; but this situation, too, he ere long 
 relinquished, to take the superintendence of a dis- 
 senting academy for the training of young minis- 
 ters, an office to which his high celebnty as a 
 scholar and divine procured his unanimous appoint- 
 ment by the electors. A very pressing invitation 
 from the Independent congregation in Northamp- 
 ton, enforced by the advice of Dr. Watts and other 
 friends to accept it, led him to a new sphere of 
 labour; and from 24th December, 1729, he dis- 
 charged in that town the double duty of pastor of 
 a large congregation and tutor to the Theological 
 Seminary. Seldom has there been a more labori- 
 ous never was there a more conscientious life 
 than that of Doddridge. To serve his Divine 
 Master was the ruling principle of his heart ; and 
 to the advancement of the sacred cause he brought 
 all the energies of an active mind, and all the stores 
 of an almost boundless knowledge daily to bear. 
 Many students repaired from all parts of the king- 
 dom to enjoy the benefit of his prelections; and 
 
 DOL 
 
 amongst these not a few who afterwards rose to 
 distinction, not among the dissenters only, but in 
 the established churches of England and Scotland, 
 in America, and even in Holland. The university 
 of Aberdeen conferred on him, in 1736, the honor- 
 ary degree of Doctor in Divinity. He was a volu- 
 minous author. Amongst his works, all of which 
 have long been well known and highly valued in the 
 religious world, we may enumerate his ' Sermons 
 on Regeneration,* his ' Sermons to Young People,' 
 his ' Life of Colonel Gardner.' But the principal are 
 the ' Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul,' and 
 the ' Family Expositor.' Dr. Doddridge's frame, 
 never robust at any time, was enfeebled by his 
 incessant labours, and severe cold having settled 
 on his lungs, and been followed by symptoms of 
 consumption, he was advised to try the effects of a 
 sea voyage. On 30th September, 1751, he sailed 
 from Falmouth in a vessel bound for Lisbon, where 
 he landed on 13th October, and being completely 
 exhausted he sank in a few days, expressing to 
 Mrs. Doddridge, who accompanied him, his firm 
 faith and joyful hope in Christ. f^R. J.] 
 
 DODINGTON, George Bubb, or according to 
 his title, Lord Melcombe, an English statesman, 
 best known as author of a ' Diary,' 1691-1762. 
 
 DODONiEUS, R., a Dutch botanist, 1517-1585. 
 
 DODSLEY, Robert, the well-known booksel- 
 ler and miscellaneous writer, was born of poor 
 parents, and though he commenced life as a foot- 
 man, rose to considerable eminence as a dramatic 
 author and essayist, and acquired a handsome for- 
 tune as a publisher. His literary connections and 
 friendships include the first names of last century. 
 The most celebrated of his theatrical pieces is 
 ' Cleone,' a tragedy, and the most useful of his 
 speculations the 'Annual Register,' commenced 
 1758, in conjunction with Edmund Burke. ' He 
 bore an excellent private character, was modest in 
 his prosperity, grateful to his early friends and 
 patrons, and disposed to bestow on others the 
 same kind assistance which he himself had experi- 
 enced.' Born at Mansfield 1703, died 1764. 
 
 DODSON, M., an Engl, theol. wr., 1732-1799. 
 
 DODSWORTH, R., an Eng. antiq., 1585-1654. 
 
 DODWELL, Hen., a famous wr. on controver- 
 sial, theological, and classical subjects, 1641-1711. 
 His son, of the same name, a lawyer and sceptical 
 writer, 1742. His younger son, William, arch- 
 deacon of Berks, and an able divine, 1709-1765. 
 
 DOEDERLEIN, J. A., a Ger. hist., 1675-1745. 
 
 DOEDERLEIN, J. C, a Ger. theol., 1746-1792. 
 
 DOERFEL, G. S., a Germ, astronomer, 17th c. 
 
 DOES, Jacob Van Der, a Dutch painter, 
 1623-1673. His son, of the same name and pro- 
 fession, distinguished as 'the younger,' 1654-1693. 
 Simon, his eldest son, a pupil of his father, whose 
 style he adopted, 1653-1717. 
 
 DOGGET, Thos., an Irish playwright, d. 1721. 
 
 DOGHERTY, Thos., a writer on law, d. 1805. 
 
 DOGIEL, M., a Polish historian, 17th centurv. 
 
 DOHM, C. W. Von, a Prus. diplom., 1751-1820. 
 
 DOLABELLA, Publius Cornelius, the son- 
 in-law of Cicero, successively tribune, consul, and 
 governor of Syria ; after the death of Caesar, he 
 put an end to his life when besieged by Cassius 
 m Laodicea 43 b.c. 
 
 DOLCE, Carlo, a Floren. painter, 1616-1686. 
 Agnes, his daughter, also a painter, died 1690. 
 
 204 
 
DOL 
 
 DOLCE, Louis, a Ven. liter, savant, 1508-1568. 
 
 DOLET, Stephen, a French reformer and 
 literary savant, burned as an atheist, 1509-1546. 
 
 DOLGORUCKI, John Michalovitsch, a 
 distinguished Russian soldier and poet, 1764-1824. 
 
 DOLIVAR, J., a Spanish engraver, 1641-1710. 
 
 DOLLOND, J., an English optician, distin- 
 guished in conj. with his sons for many improve- 
 ments in optical and mathem. instru., 1706-1762. 
 
 DOLOMIEU, Deodatus, a Fr. geologist and 
 mineralogist, whose name has been conferred on a 
 calc. stone which he was first to describe, 1750-1801. 
 
 DOMAING, Mohammed, an Ar. nat., d. 1405. 
 
 DOMAT, J., a French jurist, 1625-1765. 
 
 DOMBAY, F. De, an Aus. Oriental., 1758-1810. 
 
 DOMBEY, Joseph, a Fr. phys., one of the most 
 eel. French naturalists of the last ct., 1742-1793. 
 
 DOMENICHINO, the name by which Do- 
 menico Zampieri is commonly known. He 
 was born at Bologna in 1581, and studied some 
 time under Denis Calvert, but afterwards entered 
 the school of the Caracci. Domenichino painted 
 a long time at Rome, and his picture of the Com- 
 munion of St. Jerome there, in the Gallery of the 
 Vatican, is considered one of the masterpieces of 
 Italian painting, yet the painter received only ten 
 guineas for it. Able in drawing, expression, and 
 composition, Domenichino had many enemies, by 
 whom he was much persecuted, both at Rome and 
 Naples. He died in the latter city April 15, 1641, 
 and it was supposed that he was poisoned by the 
 agency of the notorious triumvirate Spagnuolet- 
 to, Corenzio, and Giambattista Caracciolo, known 
 as the ' Cabal of Naples.' Domenichino is gene- 
 rally considered the ablest of the pupils of the 
 Caracci. (Bellori, Vile de 1 fittori, &c. ; Passeri, 
 Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 DOMETT, Sir W., an Eng. nav. offi., 1754-1828. 
 
 DOMINIC, De Guzman, generally called St. 
 Dominic, founder of the order of friars named after 
 him, and of the inquisition, noted for his cruel per- 
 secuting spirit, 1170-1221. 
 
 [Dominican Friar J 
 
 . DOMINIC LORICATUS, so named from wear- 
 in" an iron cuirass, an Italian monk, died 1060. 
 
 DOMINIS, M. A. De, a Jesuit and phys. of Dal- 
 matia, the fust to explain the rainbow, 1566-1624. 
 
 DON 
 
 DOMITIAN, or, with all his names, Titus 
 Flavius Sabinas Domitianus, one of the most 
 cruel and debauched of the Roman emperors, bora 
 51, succeeded Titus 81, assassinated 96. 
 
 DOMITIUS, procl. emp. at Alexandria, 288-290. 
 
 DOMITIUS AENOBARBUS, a Roman consul, 
 122 b.c. A praetor and consul of the same name 
 was the husband of Agrippina and father of Nero. 
 
 DON, Sir G., a British officer, 1756-1832. 
 
 DONALD I., king of Scotland, the first prince 
 of that country who embraced Christianity, d. 216. 
 
 DONALD II., slain by his successor 254. 
 
 DONALD III., succeeded 254, slain 260. 
 
 DONALD IV., distinguished for his piety and foi 
 aiding the children of Ethelred to recover Northum- 
 berland, died 647. 
 
 DONALD V., conquered by the Picts, d. 828. 
 
 DONALD VI., dis. by his victory over the Danes 
 and the friendship of Alfred the Great, 894-904. 
 
 DONALD VII., otherwise called Duncan, dis- 
 tinguished for his repulse of the Norwegians, mur- 
 dered by Macbeth, 1034-1041. 
 
 DONALD VIII., called the Bane, or Donald 
 Bane, usurped the throne 1093-1098. 
 
 DONALDSON, Jo., an artist and au., 1737-1801. 
 
 DONALDSON, Jos., a miscel. writer, d. 1830. 
 
 DONALDSON, W., aphil. writer, 17th century. 
 
 DONATELLO, an Italian sculptor, 1383-1466. 
 
 DONATI, A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1584-1640. 
 
 DONATI, V., an Italian naturalist, 1713-1763. 
 
 DONATO, F., a doge of Venice, disting. for 
 having preserved the neutrality of the state during 
 the wars between Charles V. and Henry II., and 
 for enriching it with works of art, 1545-1553. 
 
 DONATO, L., a doge of Venice, distin. for his 
 successful resistance to pope Paul V., 1606-1612. 
 
 DON AT US, an African bishop, the author of the 
 schism named after him, 4th century. 
 
 DONN, Abb., an Engl, math., 1718-1746. His 
 brother Benjamin, a math, andarith., 1729-1798. 
 
 DONNE, J., an Engl, poet and theol., 1573-1631. 
 
 DONNER, Raphael, a Ger. sculp., 1688-1740. 
 
 DONNINI, Jerome, an Ital. painter, 1681-1743. 
 
 DONNISSU, Marquis De, a Yen. gen., ex. 1793. 
 
 DONIZETTI, Gaetano, was born at Ber- 
 
 famo in the year 1798. His father destined 
 im for the law, but for which profession he him- 
 self had no liking. His first taste seems to have 
 lain towards painting, but he ultimately devoted 
 himself to the study of music, in which he 
 achieved a very high and prominent position. > His 
 first master in music was the celebrated Simon 
 Mayer, and he studied for three years at the con- 
 servatory of Bologna under Mattei. He composed 
 in all sixty-three operas, the first of which, ' Enrico 
 di Borgoyna,' was performed at Venice in 1818, in 
 which Madame Catalani sustained the principal 
 character, and in which Signor Fioravanti also 
 took a part. Up to the year 1827 he had com- 
 posed no fewer than nineteen operas, of which the 
 ' Zoraide ' was the most successful. In 1828 he 
 ceased to write in the style of Rossini ; and his 
 own great originality first developed itself in 
 'Esule di Roma,' which was performed at the San 
 Carlo at Naples, and in which Lablache sustained 
 the principal bass part. This was his earliest 
 triumph, and the new style gave ample promise of 
 the future career of 4 II Maestro.' In the 
 same year he composed other three operas. In 
 
 205 
 
DON 
 
 1^29 he produced 'II Tana' and 'II Castello di 
 Kenil worth,' at the San Carlo. In 1830 he wrote 
 tour operas for the same establishment, and an 
 Oratorio, ' II Diluvio Universale. ' For the 
 carnival of 1831 he composed his 'Anna Bolena,' 
 which established his reputation, and after which 
 every manager in Europe became desirous to have 
 a work from the great composer. His next opera 
 was ' Fausta.' In 1832 he composed ' Ugo Conte 
 di Parigi,' the ' Elisir d' Amore,' and ' Sancia di 
 Castiglia;' next year he wrote 'II Furioso,' 'Pari- 
 sina,' and 'Torquato Tasso.' 1834 gave to the 
 world his other masterpiece, ' Lucrezia Borgia,' 
 and ' Maria Stuiivda.' In the same year he com- 
 posed ' Rosmonda d' Inghilterra.' In 1835 he 
 wrote ' Gemma di Vergi, ' Marino Faliero,' which 
 was first performed in London, and the world-re- 
 nowned ' Lucia di Lammermoor,' which was 
 brought out at San Carlo. In 1836 he composed 
 ' Belisario ' for the carnival of Venice, and produced 
 ' II Campanello,' ' Betly,' and ' L'Assidio di Calais.' 
 In 1837 he wrote two operas, namely, 'Pia di 
 Tolomei' and 'Roberto Devereux.' In 1838 he 
 composed ' Maria di Rudenz ; ' in 1839 ' Gianni di 
 Parigi ; ' and in 1840 ' La Fille du Regiment ' for 
 the Opera Comique of Paris. This year he also 
 produced ' Les Martyrs ' and ' La Favorita.' In 
 1841 he composed ' Adelia,' in 1842 ' Maria Pa- 
 dilla ' and ' Linda di Chamouni.' In 1843 he pro- 
 duced his ' Don Pasquale ' for Grisi, Mario, Tam- 
 burini, and Lablache, which was brought out at the 
 Italian Opera of Paris. In the same year he com- 
 posed for Venice his lyric tragedy, 'Maria di 
 Rohan,' and for the Academie Royale of Paris his 
 ' Don Sebastian de Portugal.' At the carnival of 
 Naples in 1844, his sixty-third and last opera ' Cate- 
 rina Cornaro,' was produced, while two unfinished 
 operas were amongst his manuscripts, and he was 
 preparing another comic opera for Grisi, Mario, 
 Ronconi, and Lablache. At this time his mind, 
 which had been so severely tasked, utterly gave 
 way, and he was first taken to a Maison de Sante at 
 Vitiy, near Paris : subsequently his nephew, who 
 was then director of music to the sultan at Constan- 
 tinople, had him removed to a house at the Champs 
 Elysees. He was ultimately conveyed to Bergamo, 
 where it was thought the scenes of his early life 
 might assist his recovery ; but all was of no avail. 
 He died on the 8th of April, 1848, after five days' 
 struggle, surrounded by his early friends and ad- 
 mirers. Donizetti was married to Virginia Vas- 
 seli, the daughter of an advocate in Rome, who 
 died in Naples in 1835. Donizetti succeeded 
 Zingarelli in the direction of the conservatory at 
 Naples, and held office as chapel-master to the 
 imperial court of Vienna. He composed, besides 
 his operas, various detached vocal pieces, masses 
 and vespers, a Miserere, some quartetts, overtures, 
 variations for the piano-forte, a Monody for the 
 death of Malibran, &c. Donizetti was an excel- 
 lent poet as well as a musician, and wrote some of 
 his own libretti. In rapidity of composition he 
 rivalled Rossini, and has been known to score an 
 opera in twenty-four hours, a period barely suffi- 
 cient for the mere manual labour of writing down 
 the notes. [J.M.] 
 
 DON US, the first of the name, pope for about a 
 year, 677 ; the second, elected 974-975. 
 
 DOODY, Samuel, an Engl, botanist, d. 1706. 
 
 DOU 
 
 DOPPET, F. A., a man of letters, and gen. of the 
 Fr. rep. army, mem. of the coun. of 500, 17 
 
 DORAT, C. J., a French dram, wr., 17.> 1-17X0. 
 
 DORAT, John, or, according to the Latinized 
 form, Auratus, a Fr. scholar and poet, 1507-1588. 
 
 DORIA, the name of an illustrious family of 
 Genoa, the chief of whom are Oiucrto, dist. for 
 a naval victory over the Pisans, 1284. Zamba, 
 who defeated the Venetian admiral, Dandolo, 1298. 
 Paganino, who defeated the Venetian admiral, 
 PisanL 1352-1354. Lucikn, killed in a battle 
 with the Venetians, in which his fleet was victo- 
 rious, 1379. Pierre, who was compelled to sur- 
 render his whole fleet to Victor Pisam, 1380. A_n- 
 drea, surnamed the ' Father and Defender of his 
 Country,' dis. as the greatest commander and pa- 
 triot of which the state can boast, 1468-1560. 
 
 DORIA, P. M., a Neapolitan philos., 1675-1743. 
 
 DORIGNY, M., a French painter and engraver, 
 1617-1663. His sons Louis and Nicholas, dis- 
 tinguished in the same arts, the former 1654-1742, 
 the latter 1657-1746. 
 
 DORION, C. A., a French poet, 1770-1829. 
 
 DORISLAUS, Isaac, a Dutch civilian, lecturer 
 on history at Cambridge, and ambassador to Hol- 
 land, assassinated 1649. 
 
 DORLEANS, J., a French historian, 1644-1698. 
 
 DORLEANS, L., a French satirist, 1542-1029. 
 
 DORPIUS, M., a Dutch savant, 1460-1525. 
 
 D'ORSAY, Count, a well-known director oi 
 fashion, celebrated as a sculptor, died 1852. 
 
 DORSET, Thomas Sackville, earl of, am- 
 bassador, chancellor of Oxford, and lord treasurer, 
 distin. both as a statesman and author, 1527-1608. 
 Edward, his grandson, bearing the same title, a 
 partizan of Charles I., and regent during his absence 
 in Scotland, 1590-1652. Charles, one of th 
 cavaliers and wits of the court of Charles II., 1637- 
 1706. Lionel, lord-lieut. of Ireland, 1686-1765. 
 
 DOSA, G., a peasant of Transylvania, proclaimed 
 k. of Hungary, and met with a horr. death, 1513. 
 
 DOSITHiEUS, a Jewish priest, 2d cent. B.C. 
 
 DOSHTLEUS, a heretic of Samaria, 1st cent. 
 
 DOUCE, Francis, author of ' Illustrations of 
 Shakspeare and of Ancient Manners,' died 1834. 
 
 DOUCIN, L., a French Jesuit and historian, an 
 ardent defender of the bull ' Unigenitus,' d. 1726. 
 
 DOUGLAS, the name of an ancient and illus- 
 trious Scotch family, the earliest of whom are 
 William 'The Hardy,' died 1302. 'The good Sib 
 James,' a companion in arms of Robert Bruce, 
 killed in battle with the Moors, 1331. William, 
 a natural son of the preceding, called ' England's 
 scourge and Scotland's bulwark,' killed 1353. 
 Archibald, brother of Sir James, regent in 1333. 
 William, lord of Liddesdale, 'the flower of 
 chivalry' in the 14th century. After these the 
 following are mentioned with the title of earls : 1. 
 William, distinguished at the battle of Poictiers, 
 d. 1384. 2. James, his son,k. at the battleof Otter- 
 burn, 1388. 3. Archibald, surnamed 'The Grim,' 
 date unknown. 4. Archibald, born 137 1, cele- 
 brated for a victory over the earl of March and 
 Henry Percy 1401, killed at the battle of Verneuil 
 1425. 5. Archibald, ambassador to England 
 for the release of James I., 1437. 6. William, 
 treacherously murdered at a banquet in the castle 
 at Edinburgh the same year. 7. Unknown. 8. 
 William, the most imperious and powerful of the 
 
 206 
 
DOU 
 
 e, stabbed by James II. at Stirling, 1452. 9. 
 
 ures, brother of the preceding, and last earl of 
 
 onglas, taken prisoner after vainly attempting to 
 
 venge his brother's death, and died in a monas- 
 
 ry, 1488. A younger branch of the same family 
 distinguished as earls of A ngns. The best known 
 these are George, married to the daugh- 
 of king Robert III., 1397, and Archibald, 
 
 illed the Great Earl of Angus, distinguished at 
 
 e battle of Torwood, father of Gawin, bishop of 
 
 unkeld, and of the two Douglases killed at Flod- 
 
 jn, died 1513. The younger branch of the Angus 
 
 mily claims James Douglas, the celebrated 
 
 irl of Morton, and regent of Scotland, beheaded 
 
 r the murder of Darnley, 1581. 
 
 DOUGLAS, James, earl of Morton and Aber- 
 
 jen, fnder. of the Edin. Philos. Soc, 1707-1768. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Jas., a Scotch anato., 1675-1742. 
 
 DOUGLAS, John, a learned divine and critic, 
 lecessively bp. of Carlisle and Salisbury,1721-1807. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Sylvester, Lord Glenbervie, a 
 tember of parliament, and chief commissioner of 
 
 cods and forests, 1743-1832. His son, F. S. N. 
 
 'OUGLAs, member for Banbury, and author of a 
 Comparison between the Ancient and Modern 
 
 reeks,' died 1819. 
 
 DOUGLAS, , a Scotch botanist, 1799-1833. 
 
 DOUJAT, J., a French savant, 1606-1688. 
 
 DOUSA, John, or Van Der Does, a Dutch 
 eneral and scholar, author of 'Annals of Hol- 
 and,' 1545-1604. His eldest son, John, a Latin 
 >oet and scholar, distinguished by the friendship 
 f Scaliger, 1571-1596. His fourth son, Francis, 
 i savant, born 1577. His son Didier, 1580-1663. 
 
 DOVALLE, C, a French poet, 1807-1829. 
 
 DOVER, G. J. W. Agar Ellis, Lord, a bio- 
 Taphical and historical writer, contributor to the 
 eviews, &c, 1797-1833. 
 
 DOW, Alexander, a Scotch Orient,, d. 1799. 
 
 DOW, Gerard, a celebrated Dutch Genre 
 >aintiT, was born at Leyden in 1613 ; his father, 
 rho was a glazier, brought him up a glass-pain- 
 er, but having placed him with Rembrandt, when 
 n his sixteenth year only, the good use the young 
 winter made of his opportunity enabled him to 
 stablish himself in the more independent profes- 
 ion of a painter. Few men have ever attained 
 och wonderful mastery or delicacy of execution as 
 Jerard Dow. He died rich at Leyden in 1680. 
 Ichalken, Mieris, and Metzu, were his pupils. 
 Houln-.iken, Groote Schouburg, &c.,l.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 DOWLAND, John, a celebrated performer on 
 he lute, was born in Oxford in the year 1562, and 
 rx)k his degree of Bachelor of Music in 1588. He 
 omposed a great deal of music, all of which, saving 
 ne or two madrigals, is forgotten, and was a great 
 ayourite with the public. The ' Passionate Pil- 
 rim' ha.s devoted a sonnet to Dowland, which, 
 ven were his beautiful madrigal, ' Awake, sweet 
 iOve,' irrecoverably lost, would render his name 
 mmortal. He died, it is generally believed, in 
 tenmark in the year 1615. [J.M.] 
 
 D< IWNES, Am.w., a Greek scholar, 1550-1627. 
 
 DOWN HAM, G., an Irish theologian, d. 1634. 
 
 DOWNING, C, a puritan divine, 1606-1644. 
 
 DOWN MAX, Hugh, an Engl, poet, 1740-1809. 
 
 DRA BICIUS, N., a Ger. enthusiast, 1587-1652. 
 '. a legislator of Athens, 7th cent. B.C. 
 
 DUAGONKT IT, H., an ltd. jurist, 1738-1818. 
 
 207 
 
 DRA 
 
 DRAGUT, an Ottoman corsair, killed 156o. 
 
 DRAKE, Francis, an English antiq., d. 1770. 
 
 DRAKE. Francis Drake, the chief of the 
 English Naval Worthies of the reign of Elizabeth, 
 and the first man who circumnavigated the globe 
 in a single voyage, was born in lo46, near Tavis- 
 tock in Devonshire. His father was a poor clenjv- 
 man ; and Francis was the eldest of twelve sons, 
 nearly all of whom were bred to the sea. He was 
 apprenticed while a lad to the master of a coasting 
 bark, which sometimes made voyages to Holland 
 and France. In this humble employment Drake 
 grew up to be a thorough seaman ; and he also by 
 his steadiness and good conduct so gained the 
 esteem of his master, that when the old man died, 
 he bequeathed his bark to the diligent and skilful 
 young mariner. Drake continued his old master's 
 trade in her for some time; but his spirit of adven- 
 ture caused him at last to sell her, and employ the 
 proceeds in a trading voyage to the West Indies in 
 1565 and 1566, during which he suffered much ill 
 usage and loss from the commander of some 
 Spanish cruizers. On Drake's return he joined 
 Sir John Hawkins in an adventure to the Spanish 
 Main, which proved calamitous at the fime, but 
 which must have done much in qualifying Drake for 
 his subsequent achievements. The little squadron 
 which Hawkins and Drake commanded, was treach- 
 erously attacked by a Spanish fleet in the port of 
 St. Juan de Ulloa, and four out of the six English 
 ships were destroyed. Drake returned to Eng- 
 land with the loss of all his property ; but with the 
 gain of valuable experience, and with an increase to 
 that keen antipathy to the Spaniards, which marked 
 him throughout life, and which is best paralleled by 
 that which Nelson afterwards felt to the French. 
 In 1572 Drake succeeded in fitting out three small 
 vessels, and sailed to the Spanish Main on a voyage 
 of reprisals. He failed in an attack on the city of 
 Nombre de Dios; but he landed on the isthmus 
 of Panama, and captured a large treasure, which 
 was being conveyed on mules to Nombre de Dios 
 for exportation to Spain. It was in the course of 
 this adventure that one of the native guides who 
 led the English across part of the isthmus, showed 
 Drake a lofty tree from whose summit might be 
 discovered the Pacific ocean, along which no Euro- 
 pean flag, save that of Spain, had hitherto ever 
 floated, and the coasts of which were believed to 
 teem with treasure-cities of boundless magni- 
 ficence. Drake climbed this 'goodlie and great 
 high tree,' as he himself termed it, and gazing 
 thence on the broad Pacific, he with great solemnity 
 ' besought God to give him health and life once to 
 sail an English ship in those seas.' This was no 
 barren vow of transient enthusiasm. On his re- 
 turn to England, Drake prepared a squadron for a 
 voyage into the South Pacific through the straits 
 of Magellan. It consisted of five vessels, the 
 largest of which was only of 500 tons. Drake 
 sailed on the 13th December, 1577, and on the 
 20th May, 1578, he anchored in the port St. Julian 
 of Magellan. There one of the companions of 
 Drake, named Thomas Doughty, was tried by 
 Drake and the other officers of the fleet, and put 
 to death on a charge of mutiny and conspiracy. 
 This execution has long been made a subject of 
 heavy imputation on Drake's character, but Sir 
 John Barrow in his late work, 'The Naval 
 
DRA 
 
 Worthies of the Reign of Elizabeth,' has printed 
 some contemporaneous records of Doughty s trial, 
 which prove his sentence to have been just, and 
 his death necessary. Drake emerged into the 
 Pacific from the perilous straits of Magellan on 
 the 6th of May, but his ship, the Golden Hind, 
 struggled with difficulty through heavy gales ; and 
 all her consorts abandoned her or perished. With 
 his one vessel Drake now began his attacks upon 
 the Spanish treasure-ships that were sailing in 
 fancied security along the coast of the Pacific ; and 
 the Golden Hind was soon deeply laden with 
 Spanish gold and other valuables. Drake now 
 thought of returning home ; but an attempt to re- 
 pass "the straits would have thrown him within the 
 reach of a large force, which the enraged Spaniards 
 had collected to intercept him. He resolved, 
 therefore, to seek a passage home round the north 
 of America ; and by unrivalled boldness and skill, 
 worked his ship to a high latitude along the wes- 
 tern coast of the Atlantic. Yielding at length to 
 the increased severity of the winter season, and 
 the natural obstacles which his crazy bark and 
 worn-out crew encountered, Drake steered west- 
 ward across the Pacific for the Philippine islands, 
 and thence for the Cape of Good Hope. He 
 doubled the Cape on the 15th June, 1580 ; and on 
 the 25th September in that year, the Golden Hind 
 came safely to anchor in Plymouth harbour, having 
 been two years and ten months at sea, during 
 which time she had sailed round the whole world. 
 Drake's exploits, and the treasure which he 
 had brought home, made all England ring with 
 his renown. Queen Elizabeth knighted him, and 
 dined in state with him on board the Golden Hind. 
 The Spaniards were loud in their protestations, and 
 demanded that Drake should be given up to them 
 as a pirate. There was at this time nominal 
 peace oetween the two countries; but Spanish 
 troops had often aided the rebels against Elizabeth 
 in Ireland, and England, on the other hand, had 
 sustained by men and money the revolt of the 
 Netherlands against Spain. In the New World the 
 arrogant claims of the Spaniards to exclude all other 
 nations from the seas of Central and Southern 
 America, and the cruelties which their officers 
 practised, had created a system of reprisals ; and 
 'no peace beyond the line,' was the rough and 
 ready maxim of the English mariners. The nation 
 adopted it. Queen Elizabeth refused to give up 
 or to punish Drake ; and in the open war which 
 soon broke out between her and Spain, Drake did 
 noble service to his country and his queen. In 
 1585 he attacked and burnt the collected shipping 
 in Cadiz harbour, and thereby delayed for a year 
 the sailing of the Spanish Armada against Eng- 
 land. And when in 1588 Spain sent that huge 
 agglomeration of her fleets and armies against our 
 shores, Sir Francis Drake was the boldest and the 
 sagest among that bright band of our naval heroes 
 who baffled and beat the haughty Spaniards ; and 
 who forced the shattered remnants of their so-called 
 Invincible Armada to flee in disaster and disgrace 
 round the north of Britain and Ireland back to the 
 harbours of the peninsula, which they had quitted 
 in such confidence of vindictive success. In 1595 
 Drake sailed on his last voyage in conjunction 
 with his old comrade Sir John Hawkins, on an ex- 
 pedition against the Spanish West Indies. The 
 
 DRO 
 English were unsuccessful in this enterprise. Th< 
 suffered severely by the diseases of the climate, 
 which the brave Sir Francis fell a victim. Ai 
 miral Drake died on board his own ship off Port 
 bello, on the 28th January, 1596. [E.S.C 
 
 DRAKE, James, a political satirist, 1667-170 
 
 DRAKE, Dr. Nathan, a physician of Ha< 
 leigh in Suffolk, distinguished as an essayist < 
 English literature, and especially on periodic 
 literature from the time of Addison, 1766-1836. 
 
 DRAN, H. P. Le, a Fr. surgical wr., 1685-111 
 
 DRAPARNAUD, J. P. R., a French natural 
 1772-1805. His brother, Victor Xavier, a dr 
 matist, au. of the ' Prisoner of Newgate,' 1773-183 
 
 DRAPER, Elizabeth, the friend of Sterne ai 
 Raynal, to whom the former addressed his lettei 
 published under the name of Yorick, 1742-1775. 
 
 DRAPER, Sir William, a military office 
 known as a controversialist from his defence oft] 
 marquis of Granby, 1721-1787. 
 
 DRAYTON, Michael, one of the mo 
 esteemed of the early English poets, most admin 
 for his pastorals and chivalrous subjects, born 
 Harshull in Warwickshire, 1563, buried in Wes 
 minster Abbey, 1631. 
 
 DREBBEL, Cornelius Van, a Dutch philc 
 and chem., inv. of the thermometer, &c, 1572-163 
 
 DRELINCOURT, Charles, a French prote 
 tant, author of ' Consolations against the Fears 
 Death,' &c, 1595-1669. Laurence, his son, 
 learned divine and author, 1631-1681. Charle 
 his third son, a physician, died 1697. 
 
 DREW, Samuel, a methodist preacher, cele 
 as a metaphysician for his ' Essay on the Immi 
 teriality and Immortality of the Soul,' 1765-183 
 
 DROLLINGER, C. F., a Ger. lyric, 1688-174 
 
 DROUAIS, J. G., a French painter, 1763-178 
 
 DROUET, Jean Baptiste, master of the po 
 in the village of Sainte-Menehould, and once 
 soldier of the dragoons, has obtained a remarkab 
 name in the history of the French revolution t 
 his arrest of Louis XVI. when he attempted 1 
 fly the kingdom, 20th June, 1791. His curiosil 
 was awakened by the arrival of travellers undi 
 very unusual circumstances, curiosity ended i 
 suspicion, and his suspicions were confirmed by 
 comparison of the king's portrait, engraved on tl 
 French assignats at that time, with the pretende 
 Baron Korff in the Berline. With the zeal of 
 
 Eatriot, and the decision and boldness of a soldie: 
 e galloped by a cross road to the town of VareE 
 nes, and prepared his measures so effectuallv, nol 
 withstanding the near neighbourhood of Choiset 
 and Bouille, that the carriages were stopped, an 
 the king conducted to Pans. If Lafayette ws 
 justifiable in declaring the flight of the king ' in 
 famous,' and the country had reason to trembl 
 for its independence with Louis in the army of th 
 coalition, it is impossible to deny that Drouet' 
 arrest of the king was an act of patriotism ; and 
 viewing it in this light, the National Assembl 
 rewarded him with a gift of 30,000 francs, whil 
 the people, in 1792, returned him to the Nations 
 Convention. In the capacity of deputy he vote 
 for the most violent measures, and had the atro 
 city to propose that all the English in Franc 
 should be snot. In 1793 he accompanied th 
 army of the North as commissary, and was sbu 
 up in Manbeuge, when that place was reduced fc 
 
 208 
 
DRO 
 
 last extremity by the Austrians, and was 
 ten prisoner in a sortie which he headed. Being 
 nh'ned in the fortress of Spitzberg, situated on a 
 ;k some two hundred feet high, he attempted to 
 ;ape by means of a parachute, but falling 
 avily to the ground, was captured again. He 
 subsequently exchanged with some of his 
 nrades against the Ring's daughter, and 
 in the council of 500. He joined the con- 
 racy of Babeuf against the order established 
 er the 9th Thermidor, but was permitted to 
 ape by the Directory, and, after an adventurous 
 :eer abroad, became sub-prefect of Sainte- 
 nehould under the consulate. In 1815 he 
 peared as deputy of the Marne in the Chamber 
 Representatives during the hundred days, and 
 following year was banished from France with 
 regicides. In 1824, an old man who had been 
 lown some years past under the name of Merger, 
 d was esteemed a good Christian, died at Macon, 
 ien people were surprised to discover that he 
 is no other than the 'bold dragoon ' who arrested 
 e king at Varennes. [E.R.] 
 
 DROUET, S. F., a French savant, 1715-1779. 
 DROUOT, Gen. Count, artillery offi. under Na- 
 ileon, and one of his most faithful fob, 1774-1847. 
 DROZ, F. N. E., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1735-1805. 
 DROZ, Peter Jacquet, a Swiss mechanician, 
 r 21-1790. His son, H. L. Jacquet, distinguished 
 ice his father for his surprising skill, 1759-1791. 
 DRUMMOND, George, distinguished for his 
 lblic spirit as provost of Edinburgh, and in the 
 bellion of 1745, 1687-1766. 
 DRUMMOND, James, third earl of Perth, a 
 (scend. of Andrew, k. of Hungary, dis. as chan. 
 'Scot., and as a partizan of James II., 1638-1716. 
 DRUMMOND, Thomas, inventor of the lighlkn. 
 r his name, and under secry. for Ireland, d. 1840. 
 DRUMMOND, Wm., a Scotch poet, 1585-1649. 
 DROIMOND, Sir Wm., F.R.S., a political ne- 
 >tiator and classical and antiquarian au., d. 1828. 
 DROIMOND-DE-MELFORT, L. Hector, 
 Dtnte De, a general in the French service, distin- 
 lished as a tactician, 1726-1788. 
 DRURY, Joseph, a classical scholar and divine, 
 sad master of Harrow, acknowledged by Lord 
 vron as the ' best and worthiest friend he ever 
 issessed,' 1750-1834. 
 
 DRUSILLA, Julia, a daughter of Germanicus 
 id Agrippa, mistress of Caligula, died 38. An- 
 her Drusilla was wife of Claudius Felix. 
 DRUSIUS, John, a German critic, 1550-1616. 
 DRUSUS, a Roman consul, poisoned 23. 
 DRUSUS, Claudius Nero, a distin. Roman 
 mmander, father of Germanicus, d. 9 B.C. 
 DRUSUS, M. L., a Rom. tribune 122 B.C., consul 
 2. His son, of the same name, tribune 90-89 B.C. 
 pBYANDER, F. E., a Flem.his., 16th century. 
 DRYAXDER, Jonas, a Swed. natur., 1748-1810. 
 DRYDEN, John, born in 1631, was the grand- 
 n of Sir Erasmus Dryden, or Driden, of Canons- 
 shbv, in Northamptonshire. From his father, 
 e third son of the family, he inherited a small 
 bate, yielding fifty or sixty pounds a-year. He 
 is sent from Westminster School to Trinity Col- 
 Zp, Cambridge, where he resided till 1657. For 
 e next three years he was engaged in public 
 isiness in London, under his mother's cousin, 
 r Gilbert Pickering, a puritan, and a partizan of 
 
 DRY 
 
 Cromwell. His principal kinsmen on the father's 
 side belonged to the eame party. Thus trained 
 and thus connected, he began his literary career 
 by verses on the death of the Protector; but his 
 disinclination to the principles in which he had 
 been brought up, and the vacillation of opinions 
 by which he was distinguished through life, showed 
 themselves very speedily. The Restoration, occur- 
 ring when he was in his thirtieth year, excluded 
 him for the time from government employment 
 and patronage ; and he at once devoted himself to 
 literature as a profession. Having to rely on it 
 for support, he did not long content himself with 
 obscure drudgery in prose, or with verses, though 
 he wrote many, on public events. Yet his ' Annus 
 Mirabilis,' celebrating the eventful year 1666, pre- 
 saged his eminence as a descriptive and didactic 
 poet. But the stage, now restored, and becoming 
 the fashionable amusement, offered itself as the 
 only means through which his pen could furnish a 
 livelihood ; and, in the course of twenty-five years, 
 he wrote twenty-seven dramas. The most remark- 
 able of these were his Heroic Plays, pieces of a kind 
 which, imported from France, was the favourite 
 during the greater part of the reign of Charles II. 
 These have aptly been described by Sir Walter 
 Scott as being just metrical romances of chivalry 
 thrown into the form of dialogues. In this un- 
 natural but seductive class of compositions Dryden 
 was unsurpassed ; and, amidst all their exaggera- 
 tion and unreality, his Tragic Dramas are works of 
 great genius. His Comedies, belonging to the 
 Spanish school which had become so popular, and 
 whose chief merit was sought in complex ingenuity 
 of plot, have little literary value ; and they are 
 tainted, as deeply as any plays of their time, by the 
 moral depravity which disgraced the restored Eng- 
 lish stage till after the close of the seventeenth 
 century. Indeed, the pain which one feels in see- 
 ing the intellectual powers of Dryden wasted on his 
 serious dramas, is aggravated when we contem- 
 plate the moral degradation displayed by his comic 
 ones. Hardly less mortifying is it to know, that 
 the great poet was conscious of his own inaptitude 
 for the writing of plays; and that he panted 
 to display, on a field better adapted to his diffusive 
 genius, the pomp of imagery, the strength of pas- 
 sion, and the magnificent skill of versification, 
 which he felt to be but ill bestowed on his heroic 
 and tragic pieces of theatrical declamation. It 
 was the cherished dream of his life to give to the 
 English language a national epic, whose theme 
 would probably have been the exploits of the 
 romantic King Arthur. There are, in fact, two 
 circumstances only that can at all console us for 
 the lamentable misapplication of Dryden's labour. 
 In the first place, the writing of his heroic plays 
 served as his apprenticeship to the art of versifica- 
 tion and expression. Out of his rhymed dialogue 
 arose that mastery of the English heroic couplet 
 which he was the first to acquire, and in which no 
 succeeding poet has nearly equalled him. Secondly, 
 the prefaces, dedications, and essays, with which 
 he accompanied his dramas, exhibited him at once 
 as the earliest writer of regular and elegant Eng- 
 lish prose, and as the first who can be said to have 
 aimed in our language at anything like philoso- 
 phical criticism. Those prose fragments of his 
 are still instructive to the critic of poetry ; and 
 
 209 
 
DRY 
 
 they contain some of the most felicitous specimens 
 of style which our tongue has ever produced. 
 During the few years next after the Restoration, 
 dramatic composition was almost his only employ- 
 ment. Of his heroic plays of this period, which 
 
 [Dryden's House in Fetter Lane. 1 
 
 were written in rhyme, the finest were the two 
 parts of 'The Conquest of Granada.' He was 
 under an engagement to write plays for the 
 king's theatre, which gave him an income of 
 more than three hundred a-year : in 1665 his cir- 
 cumstances were a little improved by his uncom- 
 fortable marriage with Lady Elizabeth Howard, 
 daughter of the earl of Berkshire ; and in 1670 
 he received, with a salary (irregularly paid) of 
 two hundred a-year and the famous butt of wine, 
 the joint offices of historiographer-royal and poet- 
 laureate. In the latter part of Charles's reign the 
 fashion in dramatic matters began to change : and 
 this, with jealousies of playwrights and courtiers, 
 gave birth to the celebrated burlesque play called 
 ' The Rehearsal,' of which Dryden, under the nick- 
 name of Bayes, was the principal victim. Politics 
 now offered to the laureate a new kind of theme, 
 of which he availed himself by publishing, in 1681, 
 his ' Absalom and Ahithophel,' the best of all poet- 
 ical satires. 'The Medal' and ' Mac-Flecknoe,' 
 works of the same kind, followed immediately. 
 Now, likewise, he began to write tragedy in blank 
 verse, 'All For Love' being his most successful 
 experiment of the kind. In the ' Religio Laici,' 
 also, he presented to the public, in 1682, his first 
 elaborate attempt at didactic poetry. The tone of 
 hesitation, and the character of the arguments, 
 adopted in this defence of the Church of England, 
 betrayed a state of mind leading by an easy pro- 
 gress to the change of faith which the poet soon 
 avowed. In 1685, soon after the accession of 
 James II., Dryden was received into the Church of 
 Rome. His conversion secured him in court favour, 
 and was rewarded by an addition of a hundred 
 pounds a-year to his pension. But it was pro- 
 bably sincere ; and the new creed was unflinch- 
 ingly adhered to when it had become unprofitable 
 and dangerous. It produced rich poetical fruit in 
 
 DUB 
 
 ' The Hind and the Panther,' in which the dryne 
 of dissertation is enlivened by ingenious allegory.- 
 The Revolution, taking place m the poet's lift; 
 seventh year, deprived him of his pensions, aaffl 
 his royal and courtly patrons ; but it neither lo\ 
 ered the place which he held as the first j>oet 
 his time, nor damped the ardour of bis litera: 
 exertions. The last twelve years of his life, thai 
 spent in hard toil and under heavy discouragement 
 produced some of his best works. In 1690 he ga' 
 to the stage his tragedy of ' Don Sebastian,' tl 
 best and most interesting of his serious plays. ] 
 1697, amidst many other labours, he threw off at 
 heat his 'Alexander's Feast,' one of the most an 
 mated of all lyrical poems, though not conceivi 
 in the highest tone of lyrical inspiration. In tl 
 same year appeared his nobly spfrited translate 
 of Virgil, for which he had trained himself by pr 
 vious versions from the classics published in tl 
 volumes he called ' Miscellanies. Lastly, in t] 
 spring of 1700, were published his ' Fables,' 
 which, imitating in verse the prose of Boccacci 
 and remodelling (not always for the better) tl 
 antique poetical pictures of Chaucer, he not on 
 showed that his warm imagination burned 
 brightly as ever, but that his metrical skill hi 
 been increasing to the close of his life. That li 
 was about to end. Gout and gravel had long di 
 turbed him; and erysipelas in one of his leg 
 terminating in mortification, destroyed him < 
 May-day, 1700. He was buried in Westminst 
 Abbey, between the grave of Chaucer and that 
 Cowley. [W.S 
 
 DUBARRAN, Bakbeau, a mem. oftheFreni 
 convention and Com. of Public Safety, 1750-181 
 DUBOCAGE, G. B., a Fr. canal eng., 1626-169 
 DUBOIS, Anthony, Baron, a dist. Fr. surgeo 
 appointed accoucheur to the empress, 1756-1837 
 DUBOIS, Edward, a periodical writer ai 
 journalist, distin. in light literature, 1775-1850. 
 DUBOIS, G., a French historian, 1628-1696. 
 DUBOIS, Jr., a French sculptor, 1626-1694. 
 DUBOIS, J. B., a French essayist, 1753-1808 
 DUBOIS, P., a French savant, 1636-1703. 
 DUBOIS, P. G., a French translator, 1626-169 
 DUBOIS, William, a Fr. cardinal and state 
 man, justly branded in his. as infamous, 1656-172 
 DUBOIS-CRANCE, Edmund Louis Alexi 
 Dubois-Crance performed a part in the French n 
 volution which may be related in few words, bl 
 from which the most important consequences ha\ 
 resulted. He was the propounder of that formic 
 able military engine known as the conscription, tl 
 first idea of which he submitted to the nation! 
 convention in 1793 as reporter of the military com 
 mission. ' In a nation that would be free, whe 
 surrounded by powerful neighbours and rent b 
 faction,' he remarks, ' it behoves eveiy citizen to I 
 a soldier and every soldier to be a citizen, and 
 there is no hope of this, France is near the term < 
 
 her annihilation If you once tolerat 
 
 exemptions and substitutes, all is lost.' The advic 
 of this stern soldier and honest republican was re 
 sponded to by a decree for the levy of 300,000 mei 
 with promotion from the ranks, and shortly after 
 wards by Barrerc's famous proclamation for a lev 
 en masse. One other memorable service was per 
 formed for the republic by Dubois-Crance, in the re 
 duction of Lyons, and such was the esteem in whic 
 
 210 
 
DUB 
 
 nilitary talents were held that he was appointed, 
 799, the successor of Bernadotte as minister of 
 . He was a stout opponent of the revolution 
 vhich Napoleon attained the supreme power, 
 ever after remained in the obscurity of private 
 He is the author of several military and poli- 
 l memoirs publ. between 1789 and 1804, and 
 wo pamphlets written against Barrere 1795. 
 a at Charleville 1747, d. at Rhetel 1814. [E.R.] 
 UBOS, J. B., aFr. literary savant, 1670-1742. 
 UBOST, A., a Fr. painter, 1769-1825. 
 UBOUCHAGE, F. J. Gratet, Viscount, a 
 -ninis. of marine under the Bourbons, 1749-1821. 
 'UBOURDIEN, J. aFr. controv. wr. 1652-1720. 
 UBRAW, J. S., an hist, of Bohemia, d. 1553. 
 UBUISSON, P. U., a French dramatist, exe- 
 ;d as an accomplice of Hebert, 1748-1794. 
 'UCANGE, Victor, a Fr. novelist, 1783-1833. 
 UCAREL, A. C, a Fr. antiquar., 1713-1785. 
 'UCASSE, J. B., a celeb. Fr. admiral, d. 1715. 
 UCHAL, James, an Irish divine, 1697-1761. 
 UCHANGE, G., a Fr. engraver, 1662-1756. 
 UCHAT, J. Le, a French author, 1658-1735. 
 UCHATEL, Gaspard, a republican of the 
 ich revolution and member of convention, 
 norable for his vote against the execution of the 
 J, to register which he was carried from his sick 
 wrapped up in blankets ; born 1766, guillotined 
 i a party of the Girondins 31st October, 1793. 
 UCHER, Gilbert, a Latin poet, 16th cent % 
 UCHESNE, Andrew, a Fr. hist, and geogr!, 
 brated for the number of his works, 1584-1640. 
 UCHESNE, A. N., aFr. naturalist, 1747-1827. 
 UCHESNE, C, physician to Henry IV., and 
 lor of ' Memoirs' concerning him, date unknown, 
 ther physician of Henry IV., named Joseph 
 jhesne, dist. as a chemist and poet, 1544-1609. 
 UCHESNE, H. G., aFr. naturalist, 1739-1822. 
 UCHESNE, L., a French savant, born 1588. 
 UCHESNOIS, J. R,, a Fr. actress, 1777-1835. 
 UCIS, J. F., a French tragic poet, 1733-1816. 
 UCK, Arthur, an Engl, jurist, 1580-1649. 
 UCK, Stephen, an English poet, died 1736. 
 UCK WORTH, Sir J. T., anEng. admiral, dist. 
 lie West Indies during the late war, 1748-1817. 
 UCLERCQ, J., a curious annalist, 15th cent. 
 UCLOS, A. J., a French engraver, last cent. 
 UCLOS, C. P., a French historian, 1704-72. 
 UCOS, Jean Francois, one of the clearest 
 ted, and most honest in accepting the con- 
 lences of his convictions, of the party of Giron- 
 i, was born at Bourdeaux 1765, and was 
 rned as deputy for his native city to the Con- 
 tent Assembly in 1791, and to the National 
 vention in 1792. His name is not identified 
 i any particular measures, but his oratory was 
 iant, his advice listened to with respect, and 
 nfluence felt in the debates, in which he par- 
 : with indefatigable zeal. He was more toler- 
 than the other members of the Gironde, and 
 ured to promote a fusion of republicans of 
 y shade of opinion. He shared the fate of his 
 y, though somewhat later, through the in- 
 lce of Marat, and was guillotined at the early 
 of twontv-eight, 1st November, 1794. [E.R.] 
 UCOS, Roger, like many other actors in the 
 ich revolution, was an advocate, and embrac- 
 extmne opinions at the commencement of that 
 h, succeeded in talking his way to the Na- 
 
 211 
 
 DUG 
 
 tional Convention in 1792. He was then thirtv- 
 eight years of age, having been born in 1754. 
 There is nothing to show from the beginning to 
 the end of his career, that he had any other talents 
 than those of a respectable lawyer, or any princi- 
 ples but those which he could adopt with the 
 greatest eclat for the time being. In this spirit 
 he seems to have voted for the death of the king 
 ' without delay,' and afterwards opposed himself to 
 the Girondins. In January, 1794, he served the 
 Jacobin's Club as president, and after a few ups 
 and downs, had settled as a magistrate in a 
 country village, when Barras drew him from his 
 retirement, and he became a member of the direc- 
 tory and the council of elders. On the 18th Bru- 
 maire (9th October, 1799), he lent himself to the 
 coup d' etat of Napoleon, and was rewarded with 
 the third place in the provisional consulate, as the 
 Abbe Sieyes was with the second. On the 20th, 
 Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos, held their first 
 sitting in the Luxembourg, and on Sieyes's suggest- 
 ing that one of them should act as president, Du- 
 cos promptly replied, ' Vous voyez bien que c'est 
 le general qui preside,' (the general presides of 
 course!) Ducos seconded whatever Buonaparte 
 proposed, and though Sieyes felt that he was re- 
 duced to a mere cypher, they proceeded to frame the 
 new constitution, which was adopted by the votes 
 of the people, and Buonaparte being confirmed in 
 his office of first consul, replaced his former col- 
 leagues by Cambaceres and Lebrun. From this 
 period Ducos is known as a member of the senate, 
 and of the upper chamber during the hundred 
 days. He was proscribed by the Bourbons in 
 1816, and died the same year in consequence of 
 being thrown out of his carriage. His brother, 
 Nicolas, Baron Ducos, acquired distinction as 
 one of Napoleon's generals, and survived him 
 many vears. [E.R.] 
 
 DUDLEY, Edmund, a minister of state under 
 Henry VII., executed with Empson at the com- 
 mencement of the following reign, 1462-1510. 
 His son John, duke of Northumberland, and father 
 of Lord Guildford Dudley, whom he married to 
 Lady Jane Grey, executed for treason, 1502-1553. 
 Ambrose, another son of the duke, called the 
 Good Earl of Warwick, 1530-1589. Robert, his 
 fifth son, earl of Leicester, celebrated as the fa- 
 vourite of Elizabeth, 1532-1588. Sir Robert, 
 son of the last named, and the Lady Douglas, celeb, 
 for his skill in hydraulic engineering, 1573-1630. 
 
 DUDLEY, Sir H. B., a noted journalist, poli- 
 tician, and dramatic writer, long known as a man 
 of pleasure in London, and a magistrate, 1745-1824. 
 
 DUDLEY, The Right Hon. J. W. Ward, earl 
 of, foreign secretary under Canning, 1781-1833. 
 
 DUDLEY, Thomas, an English engra., 17th c. 
 
 DUELLI, R., a German historian, died 1740. 
 
 DUFAU, F., a French painter, died 1821. 
 
 DUFF, a king of Scotland, 968-973. 
 
 DUFFET, G., a Flemish painter, 1594-1660. 
 
 DUFOURNY, L., a Fr. architect, 1734-1818. 
 
 DUFRENOY, A. G., a Fr. poetess, 1765-1825. 
 
 DUFRESNOY, Alph., a French artist, and au- 
 thor of a poem on painting, pub. 1684, 1611-1665. 
 
 DUFRESNOY, A. I. J., a Fr. phvs., 1733-1801. 
 
 DUFRESNY, C. R.., a Fr. dram.', 1684-1724. 
 
 DUGARD, Wm., an English classic, 17th cent. 
 
 DUGDALE, Sir William, the famous herald, 
 
DUG 
 
 author of the 'Monasticon Anglicanum,' md other 
 historical and antiquarian works of groat value, 
 distin^. for his adherence to Charles I., 1605-1686. 
 
 DUGHET, Gasparh, an Ital. paint., 1613-75. 
 
 DUGOMMIER, J. F. Coquille, a French 
 general, distinguished as director of the siege of 
 Toulon, &c, bom 1786, killed 1794. 
 
 DUGUAY-TBOUIN, Rene, a Fr. naval com- 
 mander in the Sp. war of succession, &C, 1673-1736. 
 
 DUGUESCELTN, Bertrand, a French cava- 
 lier, constable of France in the time of Charles V., 
 chief agent in expelling the English, 1314-1380. 
 
 DUGUET, J. J., a Fr. relig. wr., 1649-1733. 
 
 DUHALDE, J. B., a learned French Jesuit, 
 au. of ' Descriptio de la Chine,' &c, 1674-1743. 
 
 DUHAMEL, J. B., a Fr. ecclesiastic, disting. as 
 a speculative and practical philos., 1624-1706. 
 
 DUHAMEL, J. P. F. Guillot, a Fr. mineralo., 
 inv. of new methods for joining metals, 1730-1816. 
 
 DUHAMEL-DU-MONCEAU, H. Louis, a dis. 
 contrib. to science, esp. to agriculture, 1700-1782. 
 
 DUHAUSSET, Madame, a lady attached to 
 the Marchioness Pompadour, author of ' Memoirs of 
 the Court of Louis XV.,' 1720-1780. 
 
 DUJARDIN, B., a French historian, last cent. 
 
 DUJARDIN, C, a Dutch painter, 1640-1678. 
 
 DUKE, Rich., an Engl. div. and poet, d. 1711. 
 
 DUKER, C. A., a German savant, 1670-1752. 
 
 DULAURE, J. A., a Fr. hist, and savant, mem. 
 of the convention and council of 500, 1755-1835. 
 
 DULON, Louis, a Germ, musician, 1769-1826. 
 
 DULONG, P. L., a French chemist, 1785-1838. 
 
 DUMANIANT, J. A., a Fr. dram., 1754-1828. 
 
 DUMARESQ, H., an Eng. officer, dist. in most 
 of the battles of the late war, and at Waterloo, 
 1792-1838. 
 
 DUMAREST, R., a Fr. medallist, 1750-1806. 
 
 DUMARSAIS, Cesar Chesneau, a French 
 philologist, called by D'Alembert ' The La Fon- 
 taine of Philosophers,' 1676-1756. 
 
 DUMAS, Al. Davy, a Fr. general, 1762-1806. 
 
 DUMAS, C. L., a Fr. medical wr., 1765-1813. 
 
 DUMAS, Hilary, a French savant, died 1742. 
 
 DUMAS, L., a Fr. writer on music, 1676-1744. 
 
 DUMAS, M., a Fr. gen. of division, min. of war 
 under the restoration, au. of memoirs, 1753-1837. 
 
 DUMAS, P., a French translator, 1738-1782. 
 
 DUMAS, R. F., a French advocate, president 
 of the revol. tribunal, born 1757, guillotined 1794. 
 His brother, J. F. Dumas, an author, 1754-1795. 
 
 DUMESNIL, M. F., a Fr. actress, 1713-1803. 
 
 DUMONCEAU, J. B., a Fr. general, 1760-1821. 
 
 DUMONT, F., a French sculptor, 1688-1721. 
 
 DUMONT, F., a Fr. portrait paint., 1751-1833. 
 
 DUMONT, G., a Fr. statistical writer, 1725-88. 
 
 DUMONT, G. M., an architect of the last cent. 
 
 DUMONT, H., music, to Louis XV., 1610-84. 
 
 DUMONT, John, a political and hist, writer, 
 historiographer to the emp. of Germany, 1660-1726. 
 
 DUMONT, J., a French painter, 1700-1781. 
 
 DUMONT, P. S. L., born at Geneva 1759, a 
 friend and fellow-labourer with Mirabeau, and after, 
 with Jeremy Bentham, whose works he translated 
 into French, author of ' Souvenirs sur Mirabeau,' 
 and ' I^ettres sur Bentham ;' died at Milan, 1829. 
 
 DUMONT D'URVILLE, Jules Sebastian 
 
 . a celebrated French navigator, was born 
 
 at Conde-sur-Noineau, 1791. In 1822 he went 
 
 out with M. Duperrey as second in command, and 
 
 DUM 
 
 made the tour of the world in the corvett 
 Coquille. In 1826 he was appointed eapt; 
 the Astrolabe in a second voyage to the ! 
 Seas to discover, if possible, some traces ( 
 Perouse. His voyages have enriched science 
 valuable collections of objects and discoveries 
 France owes to him the Venus of Milo, besidi 
 memoirs which illustrate his vast knowledg< 
 intrepid seamanship. He had been named 
 admiral, when he perished with his wife and 
 by the accident on the Versailles railway, 
 the carriages were burnt on the 8th of May, 
 DUMOULIN, C, a Fr. jurisconsult, 1500 
 DUMOULIN, E., a Fr. journalist, 1776-1 
 DUMOULIN, P., a Fr.prot. theol., 1568- 
 DUMOURIEZ, Anne Francois Duperi 
 a commissary in the French army, author 
 translation of ' Ricciardetto,' an It. poem, 170 
 DUMOURIEZ, Charles Francois Du 
 rier, son of the preceding, a distinguished g< 
 of the French revolution, disgraced by his ab 
 attempt to act the part of a Monk, was bo 
 Cambrai in 1739, and died in exile at Tr 
 Park, near Henley-upon-Thames, 1823. Hi 
 educated both as a man of letters and a sc 
 and at twenty-four years of age, had seen 
 campaigns, and received twenty-two woun 
 the cavalry service. Disappointed with the 
 of captain, though graced with the cross c 
 Louis, and a pension of 600 livres, he endeav 
 to open a road to fortune by combining the 
 acters of a military adventurer and a political 
 the scene of his intrigues being successive] 
 little island of Corsica, the kingdom of Fori 
 Poland, and Sweden, and his reward for th 
 of these sendees a short sojourn in the Bj 
 which favour was conferred upon him by 
 XV. On the accession of Louis XVI. he 
 the command of Cherbourg, with the title of 
 nel, but it was not until the revolution brok 
 that his ambition, his love of adventure 
 dauntless courage, and his diplomatic talents, 
 brought into full play, or his condition ele 
 above obscurity. Having attached himself 1 
 Girondins, he became in 1792, minister for fo 
 affairs, and on their dismissal by the king, res 
 his duties in the field, and at length found hi 
 in command of the army opposed to the dt 
 Brunswick. His determined stand in the wc 
 Argonne, gave the opportunity for Kellerman 
 his dragoons, and other divisions of the am 
 defeat the Prussians at Valmy (20th Septei 
 1792), after which, it appears, he negotiated 
 the king of Prussia, allowing him to witlulnv 
 defeated army on condition of being permitl 
 pursue his ambitious designs for acquiring 
 sovereignty of Belgium. On the 12th of No 
 ber he defeated the Austrians at the battle of 
 appes, took Liege, Antwerp, and shortly i 
 wanls Breda in Holland, but was beaten at 
 winden, 18th March, 1793, by Prince Cob 
 with Avhom he entered into secret negotiatio: 
 restoring the constitutional monarchy; his 
 being to march upon Paris with the Autf 
 dissolve the Convention, and proclaim the d 
 Chartres (Louis Philippe) king. Reports < 
 treasonable practices, however, had reachc 
 ear of government, and a commission arrivj 
 his quarters with power, if necessary, to orda 
 
 212 
 
DUN 
 
 [or arrest. He succeeded, by surprise, in con- 
 ung the members of this commission to an Aus- 
 n prison ; but it was too late to turn the course 
 3vents : his troops were already in revolt, and 
 nest morning (3d April, 1793) he barely 
 ceeded in escaping with his life across the bor- 
 . A reward of 300,000 francs was offered for 
 head, but he evaded pursuit, and at length 
 nd a safe asylum in England, where he enjoyed 
 friendship of the duke of Kent, Mr. Canning, 
 I many other distinguished persons. His career 
 llustrated by a great number of works from his 
 a pen, the bare titles of which would almost 
 upy the space of this notice ; his ' Memoirs of 
 Revolution ' may be mentioned as the most in- 
 serting. [E.R.] 
 )UNBAR, George, a celebrated Greek scholar 
 1 professor of Greek in the university of Edin- 
 gn, author of a Greek lexicon, 1774-1851. 
 )UNBAR, W., a Scottish poet, 1465-1535. 
 DUNCAN I., k. of Scotland. See Donald VIL 
 
 DUNCAN II., usurped the thr., andassass. 1059. 
 DUNCAN, Adam, Lord Viscount, a Scotch ad- 
 ral, dist. for his victory over De Winter, the 
 tch commander at Camperdown, 1731-1804. 
 
 DUNCAN, Andrew, a Scot, phys., 1745-1828. 
 
 DUNCAN, D., a French naturalist, 1649-1735. 
 
 DUNCAN, Mark, a Scotch phil., 17th century. 
 
 DUNCAN, Martin, a controv. div., 1505-1590. 
 
 DUNCAN, W., a Scotch logician, 1717-1760. 
 
 DUNCOMBE, W, an EngL dram., 1690-1769. 
 
 s son John, a miscel. wr. and poet, 1730-1786. 
 
 DUNDAS, Sir David, a Brit, gen., 1736-1820. 
 
 DUNDAS, H., Vise. Melville. See Melville. 
 
 DUNDAS, Robert, a Scotch judge, father of 
 
 rd Melville, 1685-1753. His elder son, of the 
 
 ne name, member for Edinburgh, and president 
 
 the Court of Session, 1713-1787. 
 
 DUNDAS, Thomas, a Brit, officer, 1750-1794. 
 
 DUNDRENNAN, Lord, Thomas Maitland, 
 
 listinguished Scotch judge, 1792-1851. 
 
 DUNGAL, an Irish philos. writer, 9th century. 
 
 DUNLOP, Wm., a Scottish divine, 1692-1720. 
 
 DUNN, S., an English mathematician, last cent. 
 
 DUNNING, John, Lord Ashburton, the cele- 
 
 *ted counsel for Wilkes, attorney-general, chan- 
 
 ilor for Lancaster, &c., 1731-1782. 
 
 DUNOD, P. J., a French antiquarian, 1657- 
 
 25. His nephew, Ignace Dunod De Char- 
 
 lgk, an historian and jurisconsult, 1679-1752. 
 
 DUNOIS, John, a nat. son of Louis d'Orleans, 
 
 i. in the expuL of the Engl. fromFr., 1407-1468. 
 
 DUNS SCOTUS, John, '-the subtle doctor,' was 
 
 rn about a.d. 1265. The place of his birth has 
 
 t been satisfactorily ascertained, Scotland, Eng- 
 
 ld, and Ireland laying claim to the honour. 
 
 me point to Dunse, in Berwickshire, as the spot 
 his nativity, and others contend for Dunstance, 
 Northumberland. The probability is that he 
 
 is of Scottish extraction. He received his ear- 
 
 st education at a Franciscan monastery in New- 
 
 stle, and afterwards studied at Merton College, 
 
 cford, in which he became professor of theology 
 1301. His prelections on the 'Sentences' of 
 
 iter Lombard are said to have been attended 
 a crowd of 30,000 students, then resident 
 
 Oxford. Though such a statement appears to 
 a romantic exaggeration, it certainly proves the 
 
 odigious fame of the lecturer. In 1307 the 
 
 DUP 
 philosopher removed to Paris, by command of the 
 general of his order. He had already gained great 
 notoriety in the French capital by a public disput- 
 ation on behalf of the immaculate conception of 
 the Virgin. Immense applause attended his lec- 
 tures in Paris, and he was styled Doctor subt'Uis. 
 In 1308 he was ordered to Cologne to found a new 
 university there, and defend the same theological 
 dogma. On arriving at that city, the inhabitants 
 met him in a body, and he was drawn into the 
 ancient town in a triumphal car. Soon after bis 
 arrival, however, he was seized with apoplexy, and 
 died in November, 1308, at the early age of forty- 
 three. Duns Scotus excelled in the knowledge of 
 canon and civil law, in philosophy, mathematics, 
 and theology. His mind was eminently fitted for 
 abstruse discussion, and subtle dialectics, and was 
 sharpened into a morbid acuteness and pertinacity 
 by continued practice. He displayed keenness and 
 versatility in detecting invisible distinctions; in 
 multiplying hypotheses which differed from each 
 other only in some verbal incidents ; in untwist- 
 ing every thought and proposition as by an intellec- 
 tual prism ; in speculating upon themes above the 
 reach of human knowledge, and in the multiplica- 
 tion of ingenious theories without proof to sustain 
 them, or utility to recommend them. Hypothesis 
 supplanted investigation, and the interpretation of 
 nature, or the question, what is ? was superseded 
 by previous conceptions of what might or should 
 be. The Franciscans gloried in Duns Scotus, as 
 their rivals the Dominicans extolled Thomas 
 Aquinas. Aquinas was the more orthodox, and Sco- 
 tus was at least semipelagian. Scotists and Tho- 
 mists divided the mediaeval schools, and the for- 
 mer as being realists, were opposed to the Occa- 
 mists who were nominalists, or held that universal 
 terms were simply names, and not the signs of ac- 
 tual existences. The ' Opera Positiva ' of Duns 
 Scotus are very numerous, and have not been 
 printed ; but his ' Opera Speculativa ' were pub- 
 lished in 12 folio volumes at Lyons in 1639, the 
 editor being an Irishman of the name of Luke 
 Wadding. Six of these tomes are filled with the 
 famed prelections on Peter Lombard, already re- 
 ferred to. The industry that could by its own 
 composition amass such a huge collection of MSS. 
 during so short a life, must certainly have been 
 equal to the genius of the great schoolman. [J.E.] 
 
 DUNSTABLE, John, an Eng. musician, 15th c. 
 
 DUNSTAN, St., an English statesman and pre- 
 late, abp. of Canterbury, and absolute master of 
 the kingdom under Edward the Martyr, 925-988. 
 
 DUNTON, J., abooksel. andmis. wr., 1659-1733. 
 
 DUPATY, F. B. Mercier, pres. of the pari, of 
 Bourdeaux, author of ' Letters on Italy,' &c, 1746- 
 1788. His son Charles, a sculptor, 1771-1825. 
 
 DUPERIER, C, a Fr. and Latin poet, 1620-92. 
 
 DUPERRON, James Davy, Cardinal, a Swiss 
 recusant from the prot. church, dist. as a contro- 
 versialist, 1556-1618. John, his brother and sue. 
 in the abprick. of Sens, author of An Apology for 
 the Jesuits,' died 1621. James, nephew ot the 
 preceding, almoner of Henrietta Maria, died 1649. 
 
 DUPIN, Baron, a statistical au., 1767-1828. 
 
 DUPIN, C, a writer on public law, 1700-1769. 
 
 DUPIN, Louis Ellis, an eccl. his., 1657-1719. 
 
 DUPIN, P., a French jurisconsult, 1681-1745. 
 
 DUPLELX, Cesar, a Fr. satirist, died 1641. 
 
 213 
 
DUP 
 
 DUPLEIX, J., Fr. gov. of Pondicherrv, d. 1703. 
 
 DUPLEIX, Scipio, a Fr. historian, 1566-1661. 
 
 DUPONT, Leo, a French sculptor, 1795-1828. 
 
 DUPONT DE LETANG, Count, lieut.-gen. in 
 the French army, minister of war, &c, 1765-1840. 
 
 DUPONT DE NEMOURS, P. S., a member of 
 the French assembly of notables, &c, a writer on 
 political economy, 1759-1817. 
 
 DUPONT, A., a French advocate, 1759-1798. 
 
 DUPORTAIL, N., a Fr. statesman, died 1802. 
 
 DUPPA, Bryan, an Eng. prelate, 1589-1662. 
 
 DUPPA, R., a miscellaneous writer, died 1831. 
 
 DUPRE, A., Fr. consul at Smyrna, died 1832. 
 
 DUPRE, C, a French savant, 16th century. 
 
 DUPUIS, Charles Francis, a celebrated 
 philosopher of the period of the French revolution, 
 whose great work, < Origine de tous les Cultes,' 
 originated the scientific exploration of Egypt in the 
 period of its occupation bv Buonaparte, 1742-1809. 
 
 DUPUIS, T. S., an Eng. musician, 1733-1796. 
 
 DUPUYTREN, William, Baron, born at 
 Pierre Buffier6, 1777 ; died at Paris 1835. One 
 of the most distinguished surgeons of modem 
 times, and an eminent example of the beneficial 
 results of the system of public competition estab- 
 lished in France. By his industry and talents he 
 became surgeon to the Hotel Dieu at twenty-six, 
 and professor of surgery at thirty- three. He visited 
 the hospital morning and evening at six o'clock, 
 and for twelve years was never once absent ; each 
 morning he attended to 300 patients, delivered a 
 clinical lecture, performed several operations, 
 gave advice to some hundreds of out-patients, and 
 then walked home to breakfast at half-past ten. 
 After this he saw his private patients, attended 
 to the examination of medical students, performed 
 his private operations, and at six in the evening 
 again went the rounds of the hospital. His princi- 
 pal work is his memoir on artificial anus, which 
 forms a happy application of the principles de- 
 veloped by John Hunter. Dupuytren possessed a 
 remarkably fine person and strong constitution, 
 so as to enable him to undergo immense bodily 
 fatigue. But he possessed an extremely irritable 
 temper, which made him insupportably capricious 
 and inconsistent, often impelled him to rash 
 and wrong acts that he would fain have recalled 
 in his cooler moments, and ultimately destroyed 
 his nervous system. He was a most successful 
 practitioner, having left 296,000 to his daughter, 
 Madame de Beaumont, besides 8,000 to endow a 
 professorship, and 12,000 for a benevolent insti- 
 tution for medical men. [R.D.T.] 
 
 DUQUESNE, A., a Fr. naval offic, 1610-1688. 
 
 DUQUESNOY, F., a Flem. sculpt., 1594-1646. 
 
 DURAND, D., a Fr. protes. histor., 1681-1763. 
 
 DURAND, F. J., a Swiss statistician, 1727-1816. 
 
 DURAND, J., a French painter, 1699-1767. 
 
 DURAND-DE-MAILLANE, Peter Totjs- 
 saint, a deputy to the constituent assembly, &c, 
 author of a history of the convention, 1729-1810. 
 
 DURANDI, J., an Italian historian, 1739-1817. 
 
 DURANTE, Fr., a Neapol. comp., 1693-1755. 
 
 DURELL, John, a learned divine, 1625-83. 
 David, a supposed descendant of the preceding, 
 distinguished as a biblical critic, 1728-1775. 
 
 DURER, Albrecht, the most celebrated Ger- 
 man painter of the sixteenth century, was born 
 at Nurnberg in 1471, and became the pupil of 
 
 214 
 
 DUR 
 
 Michael Wolgemuth, the most eminent painter j 
 engraver at Niirnberg at that time. Albert hi 
 self was not only distinguished as painter t 
 engraver, but also as sculptor. The inscription 
 his tomb claims for him an unrivalled reputat 
 in these matters 'light of the arts sun 
 artists painter, engraver, sculptor, without < 
 ample.' He died at Nurnberg'in 1528, worried 
 
 [Albert Durer's House at Nurnberg.] 
 
 death, according to Pirkheimer, by his wife's tei 
 per. _ The enlarged mind of Albert Diirer is shoi 
 in his persevering curiosity to travel into otl 
 countries, and personally ascertain what was the 
 doing, as well as in the versatility of his accoi 
 plishments as an artist. He visited Italy in t 
 year 1506, more especially Venice and Manti 
 and his opinion that Giovanni Bellini was the b( 
 
 ()ainter in Venice is preserved in one of his o^ 
 etters to his friend Pirkheimer in Niirnberg. I 
 also visited the Netherlands in the year 1521, ai 
 some interesting observations are preserved in 1 
 diary of this visit. (Reliquien von A Ibrecht Dun 
 Nurnberg, 1828.) He was the author of sever 
 works relating to his art, as, 'Instructions 
 Measuring with the Level and Circle,' &c., 152, 
 ' Some Directions with regard to the Fortificati< 
 of Cities, Castles, and Villages,' 1527; and 'Foi 
 Books on Human Proportions,' 1528 ; all of whi< 
 have been reprinted and translated. Albe 
 Durer's reputation as a painter is great in Ge 
 many, but ne is better known as an engraver ai 
 designer out of his own country. His executu 
 is exquisite as a copperplate engraver, but it 
 doubtful whether he actually executed many wooi 
 cuts; his most celebrated compositions are son 
 series of woodcuts, but he is supposed to ha' 
 drawn on the wood only. Of these remarks! 
 series of designs the most valued are the Greate 
 and Lesser, Passion ; the Revelations of John ; tl 
 Life of the Virgin ; the Triumphal Car of the En 
 peror Maximilian I; and the Triumphal Arch 
 the same emperor. The Great Passion appeared 
 twelve cuts in 1511 ; The Lesser Passion in thirt; 
 seven cuts in quarto, also in 1511; the Revelatifla 
 in sixteen cuts, folio, in 1498 ; the Life of the Virg 
 in twenty cuts, date of first edition uncertain. Tl 
 
'V^ _^^$ 
 
 ( (^CCfat&U *^/09Z& 
 
 
DUR 
 
 jlvo series relating to the emperor Maximilian 
 jbpeared the Arch in 1515, in ninety-two pieces, 
 Sid the Car in 1522, in eight pieces. The works 
 V Alhert, paintings and cuts, nave all a fine dra- 
 matic character of composition, abounding in sen- 
 Iment and the highest order of expression, and 
 Lough in form or design gothic in taste, correct 
 hd select in general proportions ; but his draperies 
 -e hard and angular, and his costume is purely 
 Lnciful. (Heller, Das leben und die Werhe Al- 
 Vecht Diirers, 1831; Nagler, Kunstkr Lexicon; 
 Lusler, Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei, 
 1837.) [R.NVV.] 
 
 DURET, C., a French naturalist, died 1611. 
 
 DURET, F., a French sculptor, 1730-1816. 
 
 DURET, L., a Fr. medical writer, 1527-1586. 
 
 D'URFEY, Th., an Engl, song-writer, d. 1723. 
 
 DURHAM, James, a Scotch divine, 1622-58. 
 
 DURHAM, John George Lambton, earl of, 
 ne of the great leaders of the movement for re- 
 irm, born 1792, member of parliament for his na- 
 ive county 1813, married to the daughter of Earl 
 irrey, 1816, distinguished as a parliamentary re- 
 >rmer, 1821, member of the cabinet under Earl 
 "rey, 1830, mission to Russia, 1833, ambassador to 
 Jussia, 1835-37, gov.-gen. of Canada, 1838, d. 1810. 
 
 DURHAM, Admiral Sir P. C. Calder- 
 vood, memorable for his escape from the Royal 
 leorge, and his services in the last war, 1777-1845. 
 
 DUROC, J. C. M., Due De Frioul, and marshal 
 f France, a distinguished officer and diplomatist 
 inder Buonaparte, whose friend and confidant he 
 emained till his death; born 1772, killed 1813. 
 
 DURUPT, C, a French painter, 1804-1839. 
 
 DURY, John, a Scotch divine, 17th century. 
 
 DUSART, C, a Dutch painter, 1665-1704. 
 
 DUSSAULT, J. J., a Fr. misc. wr., 1769-1824. 
 
 DUSSAULX, J., a French savant, 1728-1799. 
 
 DUSSEK, J. L., a German comp., 1762-1812. 
 
 DUTENS, Louis, a Fr. miscel. wr., 1729-1812. 
 
 DUTILLET, J., a French historian, died 1570. 
 
 DUVAL, Alex. V. P., a Fr. nov., 1767-1842. 
 
 DUVAL, Andrew, a literary savant of France, 
 1564-1638. His son William, a physician, and 
 classical scholar, and historian, 1570-1646. 
 
 DUVAL, Amaury, a French antiq., 1760-1837. 
 
 DUVAL-D'ESPREMENIL. See Espremenil. 
 
 DUVAL, J. B., a Fr. Orientalist, 17th century. 
 
 DUVAL, V. J., a Fr. numismatist, 1695-1775. 
 
 DUVANCEL, A., a Fr. naturalist, 1792-1824. 
 
 DUVENEDE, M. V., a Flem. paint., 1674-1729. 
 
 DUVERNEY, J. G., a Fr. anatomist, 1648-1730. 
 
 DUVERNOY, J. G., a German anatomist and 
 botanist, instructor of the illus. Haller, 1691-1759. 
 
 DUV1VIER, C. R., aFr. engineer, 1771-1821. 
 
 DUVIVIER, J., a French painter, died 1832. 
 
 DUVIVIER, P. S. B., a Fr. medallist, 1730-1819. 
 
 DUVOISIN, J. B., a Fr. theolog., 1741-1813. 
 
 D WIGHT, Timothy, S.T.D., LL.D., was bora 
 14th May, 1752, at Northampton, Massachusets, 
 tracing his descent to Puritan ancestors, who had 
 emigrated from England. His father, who was a 
 pious and intelligent merchant, maintained a strict 
 n of religion ; and his mother, who was a 
 daughter of Jonathan Edwards, whose intellectual 
 vigour and acumen she inherited, used every endea- 
 vour to impress the infant mind of her son with 
 the principles of genuine morality and true religion. 
 Timothy, in his childhood, gave evidences of extra- 
 
 DWI 
 ordinary quickness. But the judicious manage- 
 ment of his parents averted the sad consequences 
 which the early luxuriance of mental development 
 too often produces in precocious youth. He was 
 withdrawn from school, and, by the prudent direc- 
 tion of his mother, his education was conducted at 
 home in such a manner as to develop the strength, 
 and at the same time exercise the versatility, of her 
 son's opening mind. At the age of thirteen he was 
 considered fit for entering Yale College. During 
 the third year of his attendance he devoted him- 
 self with indefatigable ardour to the pursuit of his 
 studies, and his attainments in literature were as 
 diversified as they were extensive. He acquired 
 distinction especially by the well-known beauty of 
 his penmanship, and by his skill in poetry and 
 music. At the age of nineteen he was appointed 
 tutor in Yale College : and the extent of his quali- 
 fications for this academic office will appear from 
 the statement of the single circumstance, that he 
 conducted his pupils during the first session through 
 spherics and fluxions into the ' Principia of New- 
 ton.' With an ardent pursuit of the exact sciences 
 he combined the rare talent of a passionate love of 
 poetry ; and he composed at this early age an epic 
 poem on ' The Conquest of Canaan,' which is said 
 to have contained many descriptive passages of 
 great beauty. His first views were directed towards 
 the law as a profession. But changing his thoughts, 
 he determined to study for the ministry, and after 
 completing the usual curriculum he was in June, 
 1777, licensed to preach the gospel in his native 
 county of Hampshire, in the state of Massachusets. 
 Having accepted the office of chaplain to General 
 Parson's brigade, he joined the army at West Point 
 in October, and he continued in this situation till 
 his father's death obliged him to quit the army and 
 return home to the assistance of his mother. With 
 filial devotion he exerted himself to ensure the sup- 
 port and comfort of his surviving parent and her 
 young family, by accepting various civil appoint- 
 ments, to which he was prompted more by a sense 
 of duty than by any congeniality of taste or inclina- 
 tion. In the midst of these occupations, however, 
 his literary and theological pursuits were continued 
 with unabated ardour. His talents and acquire- 
 ments were widely known, and a vacancy having 
 occurred in 1795 in the Presidency of Yale College, 
 all eyes were directed towards Dwight as the best 
 qualified to superintend the interests of that great 
 literary institution. His administration ere long 
 produced a happy revolution on the character of 
 that seminary ; by his mild and judicious manage- 
 ment disorders were repressed, and the students, 
 who had been deeply tinctured with infidel princi- 
 ples, and were consequently dissolute in their con- 
 duct, became distinguished for sober-mindedness, 
 and the observances of Christian piety. Respect 
 for the talents and acquirements of the president, 
 as much perhaps as his discipline and lectures, led 
 to this auspicious change. Dr. Dwight was indeed 
 no ordinary man. He possessed a rare union of 
 intellectual qualities, an independent tone of think- 
 ing, great originality of views, a masculine under- 
 standing, a playful fancy, and rich and lively powers 
 of illustration. All these mental characteristics 
 are advantageously displayed in his 'Theology,' a 
 work which, although originally composed in the 
 form of sermons, contains a complete system of 
 
 215 
 
DYE 
 
 divinity, expounded on principles of scientific ar- 
 rangement. Two other works came from his active 
 pen, viz., 'Travels in New England,' in 4 volumes, 
 and 'Posthumous Sermons,' in 2 volumes. In his 
 sixty-third year Dr. Dwight's health began to de- 
 cline, and after a severe and lingering illness his 
 useful life was closed on 11th January, 1818. [R.J.] 
 DYER, Sir E., a pastoral poet, bora 1540. 
 
 EDG 
 DYER, Geo., a famous scholar and miseel. wr., 
 editor of Valpy's edition of the classics, 1755-1841. 
 DYER, John, an English poet, 1700-1758. 
 DYER, Sir J., an eminent lawyer, 1512-1582. : 
 DYER, Sam., a learned writer, 1725-1772. 
 DYER, William, a nonconform div., 17th cent. 
 DYKMAN, P. a Swedish antiquar., died 1718. 
 DZEHEBY, A., alearn. Mahomedan, 1274-1347. 
 
 E 
 
 EACHARD, J., an English theol., 1636-1697. 
 
 EADMER, an ecclesiastical historian, died 1124. 
 
 EANDI, J. A. F. J., a wr. on phys., 1735-1799. 
 
 EARLE, Jabez, a dissenting minis., 1676-1768. 
 
 EARLE, John, alearn. prelate and royal., au. of 
 ' Microcosmography,' bp. of Salisbury, 1620-1665. 
 
 EARLOM, R., an engrav. of London, 1740-1822. 
 
 EATON, Wm., Amer. con. at Tunis, 1764-1811. 
 
 EBALD, a king of Kent, 616-640. 
 
 EBBESEN, Niels, a Danish patriot, d. 1340. 
 
 EBED-JESU, an Assyrian poet, 14th century. 
 
 EBEL, J. G., a French geologist, 1764-1830. 
 
 EBERHARD, duke of Friuli, and father of Be- 
 renger, who became king of Italy, 846-868. 
 
 EBERHARD, C., a German mathematician in 
 the service of Russia, 1649-1730. His son John, 
 an architect and author, 1723-1795. 
 
 EBERHARD, J. A., a Ger. philo., 1739-1809. 
 
 EBERHARD, J. H., a Ger. lawyer, 1743-1772. 
 
 EBERHARD, J. P., a Ger. natur., 1727-1779. 
 
 EBERHARD of Franconia, father of Conrad 
 I., k. of Ger., slain in the contest with Otho 939. 
 
 EBERT, F. A., a German compiler, 1791-1834. 
 
 EBERT, J., a Ger. Hebraist and theol., 1549- 
 1614. His son Theodore, a Heb. scho., d. 1630. 
 
 EBERT, J. A., a German translator, 1723-1795. 
 
 EBION, supposed founder of a sect, 1st century. 
 
 ECHARD, Laurence, an English historian and 
 divine, author of a history of England which was 
 in repute until Rapin's appeared, 1671-1730. 
 
 ECHINUS. See Erizzo. 
 
 ECKARTSHAUSEN, Chas., a German mystic, 
 natural son of the Count Charles of Haineblausen, 
 and keeper of the archives of Bavaria, known in 
 all languages by his work entitled ' God is the 
 Purest Love,' which, before the close of the last 
 century, had run through sixty editions in the 
 original German, bora 1752, died, after a life 
 passed in the practice of every virtue, 1803. 
 
 ECKHARD, G. L., a German painter, 1769-1794. 
 
 ECKHARD, J. F., a German savant, 1723-1794. 
 
 ECKHARD, J. G., a German hist, 1674-1730. 
 
 ECKHARD, Tobias, a Ger. philol., 1662-1737. 
 
 ECKHEL, J. H.,anAus.numismat., 1737-1798. 
 
 ECKHOF, C, a eel. Ger. tragedian, 1722-1778. 
 
 ECKIUS, John, a polemical author, celebrated 
 for his oral and written controversies with the re- 
 formers, especially with Luther, 1483-1543. 
 
 ECKIUS, Leonard, a German lawyer, d. 1550. 
 
 ECLUSE, Charles De L', better known as 
 Clusius, a Flem. phys. and botanist, 1526-1609. 
 
 ECLUSE -DES-LOGES, Peter Mathurin 
 De L', a doctor of the Sorbonne, editor of an 
 edition of ' Sully's Memoirs,' 1715-1783. 
 
 EDDY, J. H., an Amer. geographer, 1784-1817. 
 
 EDELIXCK, Gerard, a Flem. eng., 1049-1707. 
 
 EDELMANN, J. F a Br. pianist, 1719-1794. 
 
 210 
 
 EDELMANN, J. C, a Ger. philos., 169S-1767. 
 
 EDEMA, Gerard, a Dutch paint., 1652-1700. 
 
 EDEN, Sir F. M., a statistical writer, d. 1809. 
 
 EDEN, Sir M., afterwards Lord Henley, 
 diplom. and ambass. during the late war, d. 1*02. 
 
 EDENIUS, Jordan, a Ger. contro., 16:>4-1<;0G. 
 
 EDER, G., a catholic theologian, 1524-1586. 
 
 EDGAR, a Saxon k. of Eng., reigned 95!t-<J75. 
 
 EDGAR-ATHELING, grandson of Edmund! 
 Ironside, and neph. of Ed. the Confessor, the rightm 
 heir to the crown worn by the latter and bv Harold. 
 
 EDGAR, kg. of Scotl., son of Malcolm" III. and 
 Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheline. rgnd. 1097-1107. 
 
 EDGE WORTH, Maria, was~bom in Berkshin 
 on New- Year's Day 1767. She was a daughter oi 
 the first marriage of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, o) 
 Edgeworth's-town, in the county of Longford: 
 but she never was in Ireland, unless for a few 
 months in childhood, till 1782. In that year hei 
 father, succeeding to the family estate, took m 
 his residence on it : and there his daughter's liit_ 
 was chiefly spent. Indeed, the only exceptions 
 were short visits to England, France, and Scot- 
 land, and two years passed at Clifton, on accomi; 
 of the delicate health of members of the family 
 The history both of Miss Edgeworth's authorship 
 and of her life, was closely dependent on her affec- 
 tionate and respectful association with her father 
 He was a man of much miscellaneous knowledge 
 sanguine and speculative, who possessed grea 
 mechanical ingenuity and originality, and exhibitec 
 in other pursuits a singular mixture of benevolence 
 self-esteem, and eccentricity. He sat in the IrisK 
 parliament which was elected in 1798, and advo- 
 cated the views of the partv of which Lord Charl< 
 mont was considered as the head. But his favourit 
 occupations, besides mechanical contrivances 
 experiments, were the improvement of his es 
 and of the condition of his tenantry, and the edu 
 cation of the many children who gathered rounJ 
 him in the course of four marriages. Mr. Edge ', 
 worth's experience, as a landlord and magistrate 
 placed at the disposal of his daughter that larg] 
 stock of incidents and characters which she use- 1 
 in her novels with so much shrewdness, humoui! 
 and kindly feeling ; and though these works wer! 
 written exclusively by herself', they were ahvay 
 submitted to his revisal. His zeal in the trainin 
 of his children, and his constant desire for improvl 
 ing the current methods of education, made th 
 father and daughter joint authors in works intende f 
 for the use of youth. The most ambitious of thj 
 joint productions is the series of essays entitle 
 ' Practical Education,' first published in 1798, an i 
 afterwards reprinted and altered more than onH 
 The series of story-books, however, is really mot 
 valuable as well as better known. It had bee III 
 
EDG 
 
 begun in 1778, with the first part of ' Hairy and 
 Lucy,' written by Mr. Edgeworth and his second 
 wife' Honora Sneyd ; but this story was not pub- 
 lished for many years ; while, in the meantime, it 
 suggested ' Sandford and Merton ' to Mr. Edge- 
 worth's friend Mr. Day. It was at length inserted 
 
 [Edgeworth's-l'own.J 
 
 in Miss Edgeworth's ' Early Lessons,' which after- 
 wards received a continuation from her father; 
 while her ' Parent's Assistant,' like all other parts 
 of the series that came from her pen, showed a 
 striking superiority in all respects over the portions 
 that were not hers. Another joint work was the 
 ' Essay on Irish Bulls,' published in 1803 ; and, 
 Mr. Edgeworth having died in 1817, there ap- 
 peared, in 1820, his ' Memoirs,' of which the first 
 volume was written by himself, and the second by 
 his daughter. The series of Miss Edgeworth's 
 novels began in 1801 with ' Castle Rackrent ;' which 
 was followed by the ' Moral Tales,' ' Belinda,' 
 'Leonora,' 'The Modern Griselda,' 'Popular Tales,' 
 the ' Tales of Fashionable Life,' and ' Patronage ;' 
 and ' Harrington and Ormond' appeared in 1817. 
 The venerable authoress reappeared with ' Helen ' 
 in 1834, and closed her labours more recently with 
 the child's story of ' Orlandino.' She died at 
 Edgeworth's-town in May 1849. [W.S.] 
 
 EDGEWORTH, Richard Lovell, an Irish 
 gentleman, eel. as an essayist, and for several in- 
 genious inventions. Among the latter is his claim 
 to the telegraph. His ' Memoirs ' were begun by 
 himself and continued by his daughter, 1744-1817. 
 
 ElMiEWORTH, Roger, a learned div., 16th c. 
 
 EDGEWORTH-DEFIRMONT, Henry Es- 
 sex, a Fr. abbe of Irish descent, confessor to Louis 
 XVI. at the period of his execution, 1745-1807. 
 
 EDITH, St., a natural daughter of Edgar, k. 
 of England, embraced the relig. life and died 984. 
 
 EDMONDES, Sir T., a minister of state in the 
 administr. of Sir Francis Walsingham, 1563-1639. 
 His son, Sir Clement, a class, scholar, 1566-1622. 
 
 EDMONDSON, H., an Engl, gram., 1607-1659. 
 
 EDMONDSON, J., a wr. on heraldry, d. 1786. 
 
 EDMONDSTONE, a Scot, painter, 1795-1853. 
 
 EDMUND THE MARTYR, from whom Bury 
 St. Edmund's is named, king of the East Angles, 
 tit to death by the Danes 870. 
 
 ED.M END L, sue. as k. of Engl. 941, killed 947. 
 
 EDMUND II., surnamed 'Ironside,' succeed. 
 1016, shared the crown with Canute, and m. 1037. 
 
 EDW 
 
 EDMUND DE LANGLEY, earl of Cambridge 
 and duke of York, fourth son of Edward III., 
 guardian of the kingdom during the absence of 
 Richard II., 1399, which he betrayed to the duke 
 of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., died 1402. 
 
 EDMUND PLANTAGENET, earl of Kent, 
 brother of Edward II., executed through the craft 
 of Mortimer 1330. 
 
 EDMUND, St., abp. of Canterbury, died 1242. 
 
 EDRED, a Saxon king of England, 946-955. 
 
 EDRIDGE, H., an English painter, 1768-1821. 
 
 EDRIS, founder of a Mahommedan dynasty, 
 poisoned by a slave of Haroun-al-Raschid 793. 
 
 EDRIS IL, son and sue. of the preced., 793-828. 
 
 EDRIGSI, Mohammed, a descendant of the 
 foregoing, dist. in Sicily as a geographer, 12th ct. 
 
 EDWARD. The Saxon kings of England of this 
 name are Edward the Elder, son and suc- 
 cessor of Alfred the Great, reigned 901-925. Ed- 
 ward the Martyr, son and sue. of Edgar, at 
 the age of fifteen, 975 ; mur. 978. Edward the 
 Confessor, son of Ethelred and sue. of Hardi- 
 canute, 1041, died 1066. In the Norman line 
 they are Edward I., whose son was the first 
 prince of Wales, 1272-1307. Edward IL, his 
 son and successor, deposed 1327, mm*, by the con- 
 nivance of his queen and Mortimer 1328. Ed- 
 ward III., son and successor of the preceding, dist. 
 for his heroism and successes against the Scots and 
 French, died 1377. Edward IV., son of the duke 
 of York, descended from the daughter of the duke 
 of Clarence, second son of Edward III., reigned 
 1461-1482. Edward V., son of the preceding, 
 mur. by the duke of Gloucester 1483. Edward 
 VI., son of Henry VIII. and Queen Jane Seymour, 
 reigned 1547-1553. The English princes of this 
 name are Edward the Black Prince, a i\\- 
 
 [Tomb of Edward at CanterMiry] 
 
 mous name in the French wars. He was the 
 eldest son of Edward III., and was born in 1330. 
 In 1345 he accompanied his father in his expedi- 
 tion to France, and displayed unusual heroism at 
 the battle of Crecy. In 1356 he gained the 
 battle of Poictiers, and brought the French king 
 and his son prisoners to England. He died before 
 his father, in 1376, leaving two sons, the elder of 
 whom, Richard, was the successor of Edward III. 
 His wife was Jane, daughter of Edmund, earl of 
 Kent, a princess of such beauty, that she was 
 called 'La Belle.' Edward Plantagenet, the 
 last descendant of the house of York, beheaded 
 after a long imprisonment in the Tower, 1445-1499. 
 Edward of Lancaster, prince of Wales, son 
 of Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, m. after 
 the battle of Tewkesbury. 1453-1471. 
 
 EDWARD, king of Portugal, 1433-1438. 
 
 EDWARD of Braganza, inf. of Por., d. 1649 
 
 EDWARDS, Bryan, author of a civil and com- 
 mercial history of the West Indies, 1743-1800. 
 
 EDWARDS, Edward, a mathem., 1738-1806. 
 
 217 
 
EDW 
 
 EDWARDS, George, an Engl, nat., 1G93-1773. 
 
 EDWARDS, Jon., an Engl, divine, 1629-1712. 
 
 EDWARDS, Rev. Jonathan, President of 
 New Jersey College, was born 5th October, 1703, 
 at Windsor, Connecticut. His extraordinary acute- 
 ness of intellect, which developed itself in his early 
 boyhood, was applied in his mature age chiefly to 
 the prosecution of moral and theological researches. 
 He became greatly distinguished as a metaphysical 
 and speculative divine. At the same time he pre- 
 pared himself with diligence for the active duties 
 of the ministry, in which, after a few temporary 
 engagements elsewhere, he was permanently em- 
 ployed at Northampton, Massachusets, having 
 been ordained colleague and successor to his grand- 
 father, Mr. Stoddart, loth February, 1727. His 
 ministerial labours in that place were followed by 
 remarkable results. A religious excitement, cele- 
 brated in the annals of American revivals, took 
 place in 1735 among his people. Multitudes were 
 deeply impressed, and evinced their cordial recep- 
 tion of the truth by its sanctifying effects on their 
 characters and lives. His church was greatly en- 
 larged, and his stated congregation immense. But 
 it happened in this case, as in all great and sud- 
 den movements, whether in the religious or politi- 
 cal world, that numbers who had joined him were 
 influenced by momentary feeling, rather than by 
 deep and lasting conviction; and accordingly, 
 while not a few were devotedly attached to him as 
 their spiritual father, and an eminent servant of 
 Christ, others became disgusted with his high- 
 toned purity of principles, and his impartial exer- 
 cise of discipline. So strongly did the current of 
 discontent set in, that this faithful minister seeing 
 little prospect of doing further good in the place, 
 contemplated resignation ; but he was anticipated 
 in this step by a few leaders of intemperate zeal 
 and exasperated passions, who convened the con- 
 gregation, and having secured the appointment of 
 a council obsequious to their views, determined to 
 vent their revenge on their faithful pastor by giv- 
 ing him a summary dismissal. This disgraceful 
 proceeding was earned into effect 22d June, 1750. 
 Mr. Edwards bore the trial with admirable equani- 
 mity, and evinced his Christian temper by agree- 
 ing more than once to supply the vacant pulpit 
 before his successor was appointed. This generous 
 conduct, instead of mollifying the popular feeling, 
 was requited by a vote of the inhabitants prohibit- 
 ing his return. But he was amply compensated 
 for this bitter hostility of a proud and worldly 
 community, by the expressions of Christian sym- 
 pathy that came from various parts of the church, 
 and the liberal contributions that were sent from 
 Britain, and particularly from Scotland, to re- 
 lieve his destitution. Mr. Edwards now directed 
 his energies into other channels, and afterwards 
 laboured for six years as missionary to the Hou- 
 satonic Indians at Stockbridge in Berkshire county, 
 where he employed his summers during the absence 
 of the tribes on their hunting excursions in the 
 composition of theological works, which spread his 
 fame throughout the world. In January 1758 he 
 was reluctantly prevailed on to accept the presi- 
 dency of the college of New Jersey ; but before he 
 had fully commenced his duties he was, owing to 
 the prevalence of the small-pox in that place, ad- 
 vised to undergo inoculation ; the experiment, how- 
 
 EGR 
 
 ever, at his age, being in his fifty-fourth year, 
 proved too violent for his constitution ; the remedy 
 superinduced a most malignant form of the dis- 
 ease, and he was cut off on 22d March, 1758. He 
 was a voluminous writer, his works comprising 
 eight volumes. His essay on the ' Freedom of 
 the Will,' his treatises on ' Original Sin' and on the 
 'Affections,' and his ' History of Redemption,' are 
 generally known and highly valued. l.'.l. [ 
 
 EDWARDS, R., a British dramatist, 1523-1578. 
 
 EDWARDS, Thomas, a presbyterian divine, 
 author of a fierce attack on trie ' sectaries' under 
 the title of ' Gangraena,' died 1647. His son John, 
 a deacon in the Church of England, author of an 
 answer to Locke, 1637-1716. 
 
 EDWARDS, Thos., au. of a pungent criticism 
 on Warburton's edition of Shakspeare, 1699-1757. 
 
 EDWARDS, Wm., a Welch mason, distrn. for 
 his remarkable skill in bridge-building, 1719-1789. 
 
 EDWARDS, W. F., a nat. of Jamaica, principal 
 fndr. of the ethnological society, &c, 1777-1842. 
 
 EDWIN, a k. of Northumberland, reig. 616-653. 
 
 EDWIN, John, an Engl, comedian, 1749-1794. 
 
 EDWY, a king of England, 955-959. 
 
 EGBERT, a Saxon king of Kent, 664-673. 
 
 EGBERT, king of Wessex, renowned for uniting 
 the heptarchy into one kingdom 827, died 838. 
 
 EGBERT, an Eng. ecclesiastical writer, d. 767. 
 
 EGEDE, Hans, founder of the Danish missions 
 in Greenland, and au. of the nat. his. of that coun- 
 try, 1686-1758. Paul, his son, and fellow-labourer T 
 author of a Greenland dictionary, &c, 1708-1789. 
 
 EGERTON, Daniel, an Eng. actor, 1772-1835. 
 
 EGERTON, Fran., earl of Bridgewater, dis. as 
 a Gr. scho., au. of the life of T. Egerton, 1756-1829. 
 
 EGERTON, John, bp. of Durham, 1721-1787. 
 
 EGERTON, Thomas, baron of Ellesmere and 
 Viscount Brackley, chancellor of England before 
 Lord Bacon, dist. as an upright lawyer, 1540-1617. 
 
 EGG, John Gaspar, a Swiss agriculturist, 
 founder of several industrial colonies on principles 
 similar to those of Robert Owen, born 1738. 
 
 EGGS, the name of several Germans all of 
 Rhinfeld. John Ignatius, an Asiatic missionary, 
 1618-1702. Richard, a Jesuit and Latin poet, 
 whose life was written by his father, P. L. Eggs, 
 1621-1659. Leonce, a Jesuit, Latin poet, and 
 moralist, 1666-1717. George Joseph, a learned 
 writer, 1670-1750. 
 
 EGIL, or EIGIL, a bard of Iceland, 10th cent. 
 
 EGINTON, Fr., an Eng. pain, on glass, d. 1805. 
 
 EGIZA, a k. of the Spanish Visigoths, 687-700. 
 
 EGIZIO, M., a Neapol. archaeologist, 1674-1745. 
 
 EGLANTINE. See Fabre-D'-Eglantine. 
 
 EGLOFF, Louise, a Ger. poetess, 1803-1834. 
 
 EGLY, C. P. Monthenault D', a French hist 
 and mem. of the Acad, of Inscriptions, 1696-1749. 
 
 EGMONT, a noble family of the low countries, 
 of whom the most distinguished are Ciiaklks, 
 duke of Gueldres, 1467-1538. Lamoral, count of 
 Egmont and prince of Garre, a dis. soldier and pa- 
 triot, beheaded by Alva, 1522-1568. His son 
 Philip, killed at the battle of Ivry, 1590 ; and his 
 younger son Charles, an adherent of the house 
 of Orange, died 1620. 
 
 EGNAZIO, Battista, a lear. Ital., 1478-1553. 
 
 EGREMONT, George O'Brien Wyndham, 
 earl of, distinguished for his general munificence 
 and patronage of arts and letters, 1751-1837. 
 
 
 218 
 
EIIL 
 
 EHLERS, M., a Ger. philosopher, 1732-1800. 
 
 EHRENHEIM, F. G., a Swed. baron and states- 
 man, au. of works in nat. philosophy, 1753-1828. 
 
 EHRENMALIN, Arvid, a Swed. savant, last c. 
 
 EHRENPREUS, The Count, a Swed. senator, 
 sec. to Charles XII., and after his death one of the 
 principal organizers of lear. institutions, 1692-1760. 
 
 EHRENSCHILD, C. B., a Danish statesman, 
 time of Frederick III. and Christian V., 1629-1698. 
 
 EHRENSCHCELD, N., a Swe. adm., 1674-1728. 
 
 EHRENSTEN, E., an ambas., sec. of state, and 
 chancel, of Swed. under Chas. Gustavus, 1620-1686. 
 
 EHRENSTRAHLE, D., a Swed. jur., 1693-1769. 
 
 EHRENSTRAL, D. C, a Swe. pain., 1629-1698. 
 
 EHRENSWCERD, Augustus, count of, field- 
 marshal of Sweden, distin. for his part in many 
 great works of defence, died 1773. His son Chas. 
 Frederic, born 1770, implicated in the conspi- 
 racy of Anckarstrcem and exiled, died 1826. 
 
 EHRET, G. D., a German painter, 1710-1770. 
 
 EHRHART, B., a German botanist, died 1756. 
 
 EICHHORN, J. G. C, a German entomologist, 
 and evangelical minister, 1718-1790. 
 
 EICHHORN, John Godfrey, a Ger. theolog., 
 historian, and Oriental scholar, dis. for his works 
 in biblical criticism, prof, at Gottingen, 1752-1827. 
 
 EKEBERG, G., a Swed. navigator, 1716-1784. 
 
 EKEBLAD, Claude, count of, a Swed. ambas., 
 minister of foreign affairs, mem. of the Academy of 
 Sciences at Stockholm, and chan.ot Abo, 1700-1771. 
 
 EKSTRCEM, Daniel, a Swed. mechan., distin. 
 for his improvement of mathem. inst., 1711-1755. 
 
 ELBEE, N. G. D., gen. in La Vendee, 1752-1793. 
 
 ELDON, John Scott, earl of, a distinguished 
 judge, was born at Newcastle in 1751. He was 
 the eleventh of fifteen children. His father, who 
 was a coal-fitter, and who possessed some of the 
 careful qualities of his distinguished son, gradually 
 amassed a considerable fortune, which enabled him 
 to bring up and educate his large family respectably. 
 
 [Grammar School at Newcastle.J 
 
 John became a remarkable instance of the high suc- 
 cess which may be obtained in England by the hon- 
 est devotion of talents, though not brilliant, to one 
 absorbing occupation ; for though he received an 
 Oxford education, he was totally destitute of literary 
 taste, and never could compose a good English sen- 
 tence a peculiarity in which he differed much from 
 his accomplished brother, Lord Stowell. Sir 
 Samuel Romilly mentions how painful he felt it to 
 
 ELI 
 
 be obliged to confess to the Lord Chancellor his 
 total inability to understand the meaning of some 
 clauses of a bill drawn by his Lordship, on which 
 his opinion was desired. On the 18th of Novem- 
 ber, 1772, he committed the sole rash act of his 
 life in eloping with Elizabeth, the daughter of 
 Mr. Aubone Surtees, the banker ; and the young 
 lady, contrary to the usual experience of such 
 matches, found in him a constant, kind, and affec- 
 tionate husband. He was called to the bar on 
 19th February, 1776. Some years elapsed before 
 he had an opportunity of showing his abilities. It 
 is a frequent anecdote about great barristers that 
 they have owed their success to suddenly under- 
 taking a case in which the originally retained 
 counsel is taken ill or breaks his engagement, and 
 such an incident in 1780 really was the foundation 
 of Scott's business. In June, 1788, he was made 
 solicitor-general, and in February, 1793, attorney- 
 general. He was subject to much unpopularity 
 as the adviser and conductor of the ineffective pro- 
 secutions for treason at that exciting juncture. In 
 1799 he was made chief justice of the Common 
 Pleas, and became all the more admirable a common 
 law judge that he could not give way to the doubt- 
 ing propensity which beset him on the woolsack. 
 In 1801 he became lord chancellor, and with the 
 short interval of the Fox and Grenville adminis- 
 tration, in 1806-7, he held that office until the 
 accession of Lord Lyndhurst in 1827. His hesi- 
 tation and procrastination became proverbial ; but 
 it must ever be admitted that it arose from a con- 
 scientious desire never to leave the slightest par- 
 ticular of any of the complex cases before him 
 unexamined and unweighed. He was a bigotted 
 admirer of the law, of which he was so consum- 
 mate a master. Projects of law reform cut him to 
 the soul, and he has been represented as shedding 
 tears on the abolition of the punishment of death 
 for stealing five shillings in a dwelling-house. He 
 died on 13th January, 1838. [J.H.B.] 
 
 ELEANOR of Austria, sister of Charles V., 
 q. of Portugal 1519, q. of France 1530, d. 1558. 
 
 ELEANOR of Castile, queen of Navarre, 
 as wife of Charles III., 1375-1416. 
 
 ELEANOR of Guienne, q. of Louis VII., 
 1137-1154, and afterwards of Henry II. of England, 
 by whom she became the mo. of Richard I., d. 1204. 
 
 ELEANOR of Provence, daughter of Rai- 
 mond Berenger V., and queen of Henry III. of 
 England, called Saint Eleanor, died 1292. 
 
 ELEANOR-TELLEZ, queen of Por., 1371-1405. 
 
 ELEAZAR, a German rabbin, 13th century. 
 
 ELGIN, Thomas Bruce, earl of Elgin and 
 Kincardine, eel. for his collection of Grecian anti- 
 quities, bora 1771, Turkish ambas. 1789, d. 1840. 
 
 ELI, judge and high priest of Israel, 12th c. B.C 
 
 ELIAS, or ELIJAH, the most remarkable of the 
 Jewish prophets, distin. above all the others as tho 
 forerunner of the Saviour, 10th to 9th ct. b.c. 
 
 ELIAS, Elvita, a Jewish critic, 1472-1549. 
 
 ELIAS, M., a Flemish painter, 1658-1741. 
 
 ELIO, Fr.-Xavier, a Spanish general, ex. 1822. 
 
 ELIOT, John, an Indian missionary, 1604-1689. 
 
 ELIOT, Thomas, a scholar of Cambridge, au- 
 thor of a Latin and English dictionary, died 1546. 
 
 ELIOTT, Geo. Augustus, Lord Heathfield, 
 distinguished in the late war by his gallant do- 
 fence of Gibraltar, 1718-1790. 
 
 219 
 
ELI 
 
 ELISE, an Armenian historian, died 480. 
 
 ELISEE, J. F. Copel, called 'le pere Elisp>,' 
 or Father Elishah, a eel. Fr. preacher, 1726-1788. 
 
 ELISEE, M. V. Talachax, generally called 
 Father Elisee, surg. of Louis XVIII., 1753-1817. 
 
 ELISHA, successor of Elijah in the prophetic 
 ministry, 9th century B.C. ; (2 Kings ii. 13). 
 
 ELIZABETH, the first of the name, queen con- 
 sort of England, daughter of Sir R. Woodville and 
 widow of Sir John Gray, mar. to Edward IV. 1464, 
 died 1488 ; the second'oi the name, daughter of the 
 
 E receding, wife of Henry VII., and mother of 
 [enry VIIL, 1466-1502 ; the third of the name, 
 ELIZABETH, queen of England, was born at 
 Greenwich on 7th September, 1533. She was the 
 daughter of Henry VIIL by Anne Boleyn, and her 
 position in reference to the descent of the throne 
 was peculiar, since the accession of her sister, 
 Mary, conveying the inference that Henry's mar- 
 riage to Catharine of Arragon was valid, rendered 
 the issue of the second marriage illegitimate. An 
 act had, however, been passed in Henry's reign, 
 which, fortunately perhaps, cut the knot by set- 
 tling the crown on the two princesses successively. 
 During the reign of her brother, King Edward, she 
 spent a very happy life, following her natural dis- 
 position for hard study, and not only acquiring 
 many accomplishments, but practically applying 
 them to the acquisition of a profound knowledge 
 of mankind. During the reign of her sister the 
 scene changed, and she underwent five uneasy 
 years of difficulty and danger. Her conduct was 
 marked by extreme sagacity, courage, and caution. 
 She proved that her adherence to the principles of 
 the reformation was not so much in her mind a 
 matter of essential belief as of preference between 
 a good system and a bad system, for she submitted 
 in some measure to the ritual of Rome. On the 
 other hand, when we know the extreme rigidness 
 of Mary's bigotry, it is necessary to believe that 
 nothing but a considerable amount of sisterly affec- 
 tion could have prevented her from sacrificing one 
 who was likely so far to undo all that she had her- 
 self done at the sacrifice of so many lives. Queen 
 Elizabeth's accession to the throne dates from 17th 
 November, 1558. Her glorious reign is matter of 
 history. A contrast to that which followed, it was 
 marked alike by prudence and decision. The 
 ecclesiastical revolution, which every one saw must 
 follow her accession, went on so gradually, and at 
 the same time so distinctly, that the Romish hier- 
 archy had abandoned their cause before it was 
 finally decided against them. A main character 
 of her reign is, that from the first she chose wise 
 advisers, and through all her personal caprices 
 kept them to the end. Another eminent feature 
 of her policy was to watch the growth of discon- 
 tents, and appease them ere they became dan- 
 gerous. Thus, when such complaints as shook the 
 throne in the next reign, and overturned it in that 
 of Charles, began faintly to appear, she stepped 
 forward and redressed the grievances as from ner 
 own princely beneficence to her suppliant people, 
 and hence she preserved her prerogative untar- 
 nished, while she appeased discontent. How far 
 sovereigns of such ability are advantageous to a 
 free country may be questioned. England cer- 
 tainly never came so near arbitrary power as in 
 her reign. With all her political capacity, her per- 
 
 ELI 
 
 sonal failings were signally preposterous. Her 
 desire to be considered lovely ana to be loved ap- 
 proached a monomania. She appears to have had 
 a singularly unpleasing aspect for a woman harsh 
 features, a rough yellow skin, dim eyes, an iras- 
 cible indented mouth, and sandy hair yet no one 
 could too grossly flatter her beauty, and it was 
 impossible to make a portrait with the slightest 
 degree of truth which she could tolerate. Sir 
 Walter Raleigh speaks of ' the pictures of Queen 
 Elizabeth, made by unskilful and common pain- 
 ters, which, by her own commandment, were 
 knocked in pieces and cast into the fire.' On 
 more than one occasion she was allowed, and al- 
 lowed herself, to exult in the notion that she was 
 the object of the despairing love of her servants 
 but she never permitted either vanity or affection 
 to disturb the policy of her reign. To the jealousy 
 arising out of ner peculiar weakness we may at- 
 tribute the great blot on her name her harshness 
 to Mary of Scotland. It has now been proved 
 that she distinctly indicated how good a sen-ice 
 she would count it secretly to put the captive out 
 of the way; and it is creditable to the English 
 public men of the day that none of them would 
 take her hint as a warrant ' to break into the 
 bloody house of life.' Elizabeth died on 24th 
 March, 1603. [J.H.B.] 
 
 [Tomb of Elizabeth.] 
 
 ELIZABETH, Christina, empress of Germ., 
 and grandmother of Marie Antoinette, born 1691 ; 
 married to the archduke Charles 1708 ; died 1750. 
 
 ELIZABETH of Hungary, daughter of An- 
 drew II., and wife of Louis IV., landgrave of 
 Thuringia, known as St. Elizabeth, 1207-1231. 
 
 ELIZABETH, queen of Hungary, married 
 to Charobert 1319 ; regent of Poland for her son 
 1370-1380; died 1381. Another of the name, 
 wife of Louis, and regent after his death, 1382 ; 
 murdered 1386. 
 
 ELIZABETH-PETROWNA, emp. of Russia, 
 daughter of Peter the Great, born 1709, succeeded 
 1741, died 1761. Another princess of the name, 
 known as Elizabeth-Alkxikuna, of the house 
 of Baden, was the wife of the emperor Alexander, 
 b. 1779, married to the grand duke 1793 d. 18M 
 
 220 
 
ELI 
 
 ELIZABETH, Philippine Marie Helene, 
 commonly called Madame Elizabeth, sister of 
 Louis XVI., the faithful friend and companion of 
 the royal family in their flight to Varennes, and 
 during their imprisonment, born 1764 ; executed, 
 on the pretence of corresponding with her other 
 brothers, afterwards Louis XVIII. and Charles 
 X., by the revolutionists, 10th May, 1794. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Princess Palatine, daughter of 
 Frederick V., and pupil of Des Cartes, 16i8-1680. 
 
 ELIZABETH, queen of Portugal, daughter of 
 Peter III. of Arragon, known as St. Elizabeth, 
 died 1336. 
 
 ELIZABETH, queen of Spain: the first, 
 Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II. 
 and Catherine de Medici, born 1545, married to 
 Philip II. 1559, died 1568. The second, Eliza- 
 beth of France, daughter of Henry IV. and 
 Marie de Medici, born 1602, married to Philip IV. 
 1615, died 1644. The third, Elizabeth Far- 
 nese, daughter of Edward II., prince of Parma, 
 born 1692, married to Philip V. 1714, died 1766. 
 
 ELLA, a Saxon chief who made a descent upon 
 Britain, and became king of Sussex 491, died 514. 
 
 ELLA, a king of Deira, Northumb., 559-588. 
 
 ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Lord, an 
 eminent English lawyer and judge, was born at 
 Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, about the year 
 1748. As the son of the celebrated bishop of 
 Carlisle, he began life with favourable prospects. 
 He had not become conspicuously known to the 
 public until the trial of Warren Hastings, in 1785, 
 opened up for him a very great arena of exertion. 
 His function of leading counsel for the accused in 
 a matter involving so much variety and extent 
 of new and perplexing matter was one which no 
 man could perform in a satisfactory manner with- 
 out great ability, and Law received for himself 
 the high confidence of the public and his profes- 
 sion. He was made attorney-general in 1801, 
 and lord chief justice of the King's Bench in 1802. 
 He held the office for sixteen years, which covered 
 a very trying period ; and though he was a man 
 of hasty temper, and sometimes deemed arbitrary, 
 he obtained a character for fairness and indepen- 
 dence. The last important business in which he 
 was engaged was the trial of William Hone, 
 charged with libel. The proceedings assumed an 
 almost controversial character between the accused 
 and the judge, and it was said that the mortifica- 
 tion of the latter in being defeated by the verdict 
 of a jury hastened his end. He died in December, 
 1818. [J-H.B.] 
 
 ELLERS, J., a Swedish miscel. wr., died 1790. 
 
 ELLEY, Lieutenant-General Sir John, 
 a brave horse soldier and officer, distinguished in 
 the last war, died 1839. 
 
 ELLIOT, J., an Eng. phy. and chem., 1747-87. 
 
 ELLIOT, W., a designer and engrav., 1717-66. 
 
 ELLIOTT, Ebenezer, the celebrated 'Corn 
 Law Rhymer,' was born at Masborough, near 
 Iiotherham, 1781, of humble parentage, and 
 died at his residence near Barnsley, 1819. He 
 was possessed of an athletic genius, and of that 
 love of nature which marks the genuine poet. 
 It is well known that his ' Corn Law Rhymes ' 
 assisted in exciting that revolt of the manufac- 
 turing population against a shameful impost, 
 which produced our recent commercial changes; 
 
 ELM 
 
 but the name of Elliott will be remembered as 
 the teacher and friend of the poor long after these 
 circumstances have become matter of dry his- 
 tory. His 'Village Patriarch,' ' Ribbledin,' and 
 other outpourings of his muse must always occupy 
 a distinguished place in the popular poetry of 
 England. Elliott possessed the happy talent of 
 combining business with literature, and realized a 
 competency in the iron trade 
 
 ELLIS, Clement, an Engl, divine, 1630-1700. 
 
 ELLIS, Geo., a miscellaneous auth., 1745-1815. 
 
 ELLIS, G. J. W. Agar, Baron Dover, celeb, 
 for his investigations in histor. subjects, 1797-1833. 
 
 ELLIS, H., an English navigator, died 1806. 
 
 ELLIS, John, celebrated as a naturalist, was 
 born in London about the year 1710. He died in 
 1776. Ellis was a merchant in London, but it 
 appears he was not successful in business. The 
 study of natural history, which had been an amuse- 
 ment in his earlier years, became in his distresses a 
 consolation to him, and a serious occupation ; while 
 a situation under government rendered him in the 
 latter period of his life comfortable and indepen- 
 dent. He is the author of several valuable papers 
 on subjects connected with natural history, both 
 botanical and zoological; but his chief claim to 
 the great reputation he enjoys rests upon his 
 works on corallines. A little previous to his time 
 Peyssonell had made known to the French Aca- 
 demy his discovery of the animal origin of corals 
 and madrepore, while Bernard de Jussieu had de- 
 monstrated the animal nature of several corallines. 
 Ellis, perhaps without knowing these discoveries, 
 had his attention directed to the same subject, and 
 succeeded in demonstrating clearly and satisfac- 
 torily the animality of an immense number of 
 zoophytes, which, till his time, had been always 
 classed amongst plants. His opinions were disputed, 
 and the controversies arising therefrom gave Ellis 
 further opportunities of more decidedly proving the 
 truth of his discoveries. He is thus justly entitled 
 to the credit of at least substantiating the fact 
 that corallines are animals. His ' Essay Towards 
 a Natural History of Corallines' was translated 
 almost immediately into French and German, and 
 procured for him the friendship and correspondence 
 of Linnaeus, who dedicated to him a genus of plants 
 by the name of Ellisia. [W.B.] 
 
 ELLIS, John, a fugitive wr. and versifier, an 
 intimate acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, 1698-1791. 
 
 ELLIS, W., a writer on agriculture, 17th cent. 
 
 ELLISTON, Robert William, one of the 
 most. versatile of British actors, was born in Lon- 
 don, 1774, and was educated for the church, but 
 disappointed his friends, and appeared on the 
 stage in 1796. In 1803 he was appointed acting 
 manager at the Haymarket, and his popularity was 
 so great, that the performance was removed to the 
 Opera House. His subsequent career as lessee and 
 manager of various theatres, was marked by utter 
 recklessness, not to say insanity on some occasions. 
 His greatest character was that of Duke Aranza in 
 ' The Honevmoon.' Died on the 7th July, 1831. 
 
 ELLROD, G. A., a Bohemian philol., 1709-60. 
 
 ELLWOOD, Thos., a religious writer and con- 
 troversialist of the Quaker persuasion, 1639-1713. 
 
 ELLYS, Anth., an English divine, 1693-1761. 
 
 ELLYS, Sir R., a biblical scholar, died 1742. 
 
 ELMAKYN, G., an Arab, historian, 1223-1273. 
 
 221 
 
ELM 
 
 ELMSLEY, Pet., D.D., a dist. classical schol. 
 and philologist, contrib. to the reviews, 1773-1825. 
 
 ELOY, N. F. J., a Fr. medical hist., 1714-88. 
 
 ELPHINSTON, a Scotch naval com. in the ser- 
 vice of Russia, dist. against the Turks, 1720-1775. 
 
 ELPHINSTON, Arthur, Lord Balmerino, a 
 partizan of the Pretender, executed after the 
 defeat of Culloden, 1688-1746. 
 
 ELPHINSTON, J., a native of Edinburgh, in- 
 ventor of a new orthography, 1721-1809. 
 
 ELPHINSTON,Wr, a Scotch prelate, 1431-1514. 
 
 ELPHINSTONE, George Keith, Viscount 
 Keith, a naval commander, distinguished in the 
 American war, at the siege of Toulon, and the 
 Cape of Good Hope, 1747-1828. 
 
 ELPHINSTONE, Major-Gen. George Wil- 
 liam Keith, a Waterloo officer, commander-in- 
 chief of the Bengal armv during the disasters of 
 Afghanistan, 1782-1842." 
 
 ELRINGTON, Th., an Irish mathem., d. 1835. 
 
 ELSHOLTZ, J. S., aPruss. botanist, 1623-1688. 
 
 ELSNER, Ch. J. H., a Pruss.phys., 1777-1834. 
 
 ELSNER, J., a Prussian theolog., 1692-1750. 
 
 ELSNER, J. Th., a Polish theolog., 1717-1782. 
 
 ELSTOB, W., an English antiquarian, 1673- 
 1714. His sister, Elizabeth, author of a Saxon 
 grammar, &c, 1683-1756. 
 
 ELSYNGE, H., a parliament, hist., 1598-1654. 
 
 ELVIUS, P., a Swed. astronomer, 1710-1749. 
 
 ELWES, John, a notorious miser, 1714-1789. 
 
 ELYOT, Sir Th., an English moralist, d. 1546. 
 
 ELZEVIR, a distinguished name in the history 
 of literature, borne by a family of printers, re- 
 markable for the choice and beautiful execution 
 of their works. Louis, the first of the family 
 known to biographers, was a bookseller of Leyden, 
 close of the 16th cent. M ATTHEW i hi son i born 
 1565, was a bookseller at Leyden 1618. Isaac, 
 eldest son of Matthew, and first printer of the 
 family, Leyden, 1617-1628. Bona venture and 
 Abraham, brothers of the preceding, and the 
 most famous of the familv, partners at Leyden, 
 1626-1652. John, son of Abraham, bora 1622, 
 in partnership with his cousin Daniel, 1652-1654, 
 died 1661. Daniel, the last printer of the family, 
 son of Bonaventure, bom 1617, after the death of 
 John associated with his cousin Louis, who had 
 long flourished at Amsterdam, died 1680. The 
 Elzevir edition of the classics, and other works, 
 are still held in high esteem for their correctness 
 and beauty. 
 
 ELZHEIMER, A., a Ger. painter, 1574-1620. 
 
 EMADI, a famous Persian poet, d. 1275. 
 
 EMANUEL, a Heb. poet and gram., 13th cent. 
 
 EMANUEL, surnamed the ' Great,' king of Por- 
 tugal, born 1469, succeeded 1495, died 1521. 
 
 EMANUEL, duke of Savoy. See Philibert. 
 
 EMERIC, or HENRY, k. of Hungary, 1196-1204. 
 
 EMERIJON, B. M., a Fr. jurist, 1725-1785. 
 
 EMERY, Ja. A., a Fr. theologian, 1732-1811. 
 
 EMERY, John, an English actor, 1777-1822. 
 
 EMERY, M. Particelli D', a French financier 
 under Mazarin, historian of Mantua, died 1650. 
 
 EMILIANUS,procl.emp.ofRomeandmurd.253. 
 
 EMILIUS. See .Emilius. 
 
 EMLYN,Hehry, an Eng. architect, 1729-1815. 
 
 EMLYN, Thomas, anonconf. theo., 1663-1743. 
 
 EMMERY, J. Z. Cl., Count De Grozyeulx, a 
 Fr. statesman, dep. to the states-gen., 1752-1823. 
 
 ENG 
 
 EMMETT. Robert Emmett, the son of a 
 physician at Cork, was born in 1780. While quite 
 a Tad he took an active part in the efforts made by 
 the association called the United Irishmen, to 
 separate Ireland from Great Britain, and establish 
 her as an independent republic in 1798. When 
 these attempts failed, Robert Emmett escaped to 
 France, where he remained till the winter of 1802. 
 He then returned to Dublin, and strove to reor- 
 ganize the Irish malcontents, and renew the rebel- 
 lion. On the 23d of July, 1803, a rising in Dub- 
 lin took place at Emmett's directions ; but the in- 
 surgent mob of the Irish capital proved as cowardly 
 as they were furious ; and Emmett, in disgust at 
 the outrages which they committed, and finding 
 himself utterly unable to rule the storm that lie i 
 had raised, escaped from the rabble rout and the 
 troops, who, after some strange delay, appeared, 
 and more easily put them down. Emmett re- 
 mained for a short time concealed among the 
 Wicklow mountains; but, returning to Dublin, 
 was tracked, apprehended, tried, and convicted of 
 high treason. He was executed on the 20th Sep- 
 tember, 1803. He met his fate with manly cour- 
 age and Christian resignation ; and his whole 
 demeanour, both at his trial and on the scaffold, 
 gained for him the pitying admiration of many, 
 who, while they condemned his erroneous theories, 
 and his mischievously rash enthusiasm, felt com- 
 pelled to pay homage to the purity of his motives, 
 the fervour of his eloquence, and the excellence of 
 his general character. His fate, and that of Miss 
 Curran, the lady to whom he was engaged, form 
 the subjects of two of the finest and most popular 
 of Moore's Irish melodies. [E.S.C.] 
 
 EMMETT, Th. Addis, a barrister, elder brother 
 of the Irish patriot, escaped to Amer. and d. 1827. 
 
 EMMIUS, Abbo, a German divine, 1547-1826. 
 
 EMO, Angelo, a Venetian statesman, 1731-92. 
 
 EMPECINADO, the surname of Don J. M. 
 Diez, a Spanish warrior and patriot, exec. 1825. 
 
 EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher of the 
 school of Pythagoras, the first who added to the 
 doctrine of metempsychosis the transmigration of 
 souls into vegetables, the first also to distinguish 
 love and hate as moving forces, and to describe 
 the four elements as fundamental differences of 
 matter. He was a man of distinguished patriot- 
 ism, and some curious traditions are related of 
 him. . Lived about the middle of the 5th ct. B.C. 
 
 EMPSON, Wm, F.R.S.L., prof, of law at Hayle- 
 bury college ; an able critic and scholar, d. 1852. 
 
 EMSER, Jerome, a German catholic theolo- 
 gian, dist. as an opponent of Luther, 1477-1527. 
 
 ENDEL, Manoah, a Polish rabbi, died 1585. 
 
 ENFIELD, Dr. William, author of 'The 
 Speaker,' and other works, a dissenting minister, 
 and teacher of the Belles Lettres at Warrington 
 Academy, 1741-1797. 
 
 ENGEL, John James, a German philosopher, 
 dramatic writer, and literary savant, professor of 
 morals and liter, at Berlin, 1741-1802. His brother, 
 Ch. Christian, a man of letters, 1752-1801. 
 
 ENGEL, Sam., a Swiss geographer, 1702-84. 
 
 ENGELBERT, a theologian of Styria, d. 1331. 
 
 ENGELBRECHT, John, a Gennan visionary, 
 was born at Brunswick 1599, and died in his na- 
 tive place, after wandering from city to city, in 
 1642. His father was a tailor, and John was ap- 
 
 222 
 

 ENG 
 
 prenticed to the same business, but his health 
 failed him, his malady being augmented by the 
 severity of his religious practices, and he assumed 
 the character of a prophet as early as 1622. There 
 can be no doubt about the reality of his trances, 
 and also that he possessed the extraordinary 
 faculty of going without food or drink for many 
 days together, and of sleeping for almost incredible 
 periods. The ' Works, and Divine Visions, and 
 Revelations, of John Engelbrecht.' were first pub- 
 lished in German in 1625. The 'Visions' were 
 translated into English by the learned Francis 
 Okeley in 1780. The most striking of these is a 
 vision of the three states, the ecclesiastical, the 
 civil, and the economical: besides which he de- 
 scribes a ' Vision of Heaven and Hell,' a ' Vision 
 of the New Heaven and the New Earth,' and ' Of 
 the Mountain of Salvation.' The vision of the 
 ' Three States ' is evidently symbolic, and more in- 
 dependent of Engelbrecht's idiosyncracy than the 
 others, which take their colour from his precon- 
 ceived notions. His appeals to the moral and re- 
 ligious sense of his readers are energetic, and carry 
 along with them the fullest evidence of their 
 sincerity. His grand mistake is that into which 
 Quakers and enthusiasts of all classes have be- 
 trayed themselves the supposition that their 
 glimpses of spiritual things are necessarily an in- 
 spiration of the Holy Spirit. Okeley's edition of 
 Engelbrecht contains a notice of John William 
 Francis Petersen, and his wife Joanna Eleanora 
 de Merlan, both famous visionaries, and a specifi- 
 cation of Engelbrecht's works in the complete 
 German edition of 1761. [E.R.] 
 
 ENGELBRECHT - ENGELBRECHTSON, a 
 leader of the Dalecarlians, in whose quarrel he 
 marched upon Stockholm, defeated Eric XIII., 
 and was named administrator of Sweden, together 
 with Canuteson, whom he assassinated, 1436. 
 
 ENGELGRAVE, H., a Flem. ascetic, 1610-70. 
 
 ENGELHARDT, C. A., a Ger. jurist, 1768-1834. 
 
 ENGESTROEM, J., a Swedish Orientalist, 
 1699-1777. His son Eustace, a mineralogist, 
 1738-1813. Laurence, another son, an am- 
 bassador and statesman, 1751-1826. 
 
 ENGHIEN. See Conde, Louis Ant. Henry. 
 
 ENNIUS, Quintus, a Latin poet, 239-169 b.c. 
 
 ENNODIUS, Magnus Felix, a divine of the 
 Roman church, by descent a Gaul, 473-521. 
 
 ENOCH, in Scripture a son of Cain (Gen. iv. 
 17), and a son of Jared (Gen. v. 18). 
 
 EXT, George, an English physician, noted 
 for his defence of the discov. of Harvey, 1604-1689. 
 
 EXTICK, or ENTINCK, John, a miscellane- 
 ous writer, author of a spelling dictionary, a hist. 
 of London, a Latin and Eng. diet., &c, 1713-1773. 
 
 KYI IX OPUS, the first architect and founder 
 of Venice, b. in Candia about the end of the 3d ct. 
 
 EXTUECASTEAUX, Jo. Ant. Brune, D\ 
 admiral of the French fleets in the East Indies, was 
 bom at Aix, in Provence, 1740. In 1791 he was sent 
 out by France in search of La Perouse ; and, the 
 nature of the inquiry leading him to keep near 
 shore, he ascertained with great exactness the out- 
 many coasts. New Holland, W. and S.W. 
 ! asmania, New Caledonia, &c, have been 
 accurately delineated by him. He failed in de- 
 tecting any trace of the celebrated navigator, and 
 died before returning home, in the vicinity of Java, 
 
 EPA 
 
 1793. _ Rossel, who succeeded him in command, 
 has written an account of the voyage, 2 vols. 4to, 
 1808. [J.B.] 
 
 ENZINA, a poet of Old Castile, 15th century. 
 
 ENZINAS, F. De, an Andalusian Jesuit, and 
 missionary to the Philippine Islands, 1570-1632. 
 
 EOBANUS, Helius, a German poet and pro- 
 fessor of eloquence, born in Hesse 1488, died 1540. 
 
 EOGAN, EOGHAINN, EOGHANN,or EOAN, 
 names which figure in the old Irish annals as the 
 half-fabulous stock of the houses of O'Brien, 
 MacCarthy, O'Neil. and O'Donnel, reaching as far 
 back as the 3d century b.c. The chiefs of the 
 last two were created peers of Ireland in the reign 
 of James L, the first with the title of earl of Ty- 
 rone, the second as earl of Tyrconnel. 
 
 EON, a French visionary of the 12th century, 
 who believed himself to be meant by the accusa- 
 tive in the liturgical phrase Per eum qui venturus 
 est judicare, &c, and professed to have visions 
 and perform miracles in proof of his mission. He 
 gained many proselytes, and gave them new 
 names, such as 'Wisdom,' 'Terror,' 'Judgment,' 
 and others equally striking. Eon died in prison 
 about 1148, and his followers were consigned to 
 the flames. 
 
 EON DE BEAUMONT. See D'Eon. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, the Theban statesman and 
 general, was of noble descent, but was born and 
 reared in poverty. Of*his early life little is known 
 beyond the fact that he was educated in, and 
 adopted the doctrines of Pythagoras ; his public 
 life extends from the restoration of democracy by 
 Pelopidas and the other Theban exiles in b.c. 379, 
 to the battle of Mantineia in b.c. 362. In the 
 conspiracy which restored the independence of his 
 native city he took no part, refusing to stain his 
 hands with the blood of his countrymen ; but no 
 sooner were the usurpers expelled than he became 
 the prime mover in the Theban state, and claimed 
 for Thebes the right of controlling the other cities 
 of Bceotia. Impressed with these opinions he 
 went to Sparta as ambassador in B.C. 371, to 
 negotiate peace ; and his claim being rejected by 
 the Spartans, Cleombrotus was sent to invade 
 Bceotia. The contending parties met at Leuctra, 
 b.c. 371, when the total defeat of the Spartans 
 not only established the supremacy of the Thebans, 
 but put an end to the superiority in arms which 
 had been conceded to their opponents. Having 
 thus succeeded in the first object of his ambition, 
 he next conceived the design of substituting 
 Thebes for Sparta as the ruling democratieal state 
 in Greece, and for this purpose marched an army 
 into the Peloponnesus m the winter of B.C. 369, 
 when he inflicted a serious blow on the power of 
 Sparta. A second expedition into the Pelopon- 
 nesus in B.C. 368 proving unsuccessful, Epamin- 
 ondas was disgraced ; and for some time his name 
 does not appear in connection with any public 
 measure. In a third expedition which he con- 
 ducted in B.C. 366, he greatly extended the in- 
 fluence of Thebes, gaining over to her interests, 
 without bloodshed, the whole democratic confedera- 
 tion in the Peloponnesus. Our limits prevent us 
 from entering into the reasons which led to the 
 downfall of the Theban influence. Achaia, Elis, 
 and great part of Arcadia, returned to the alliance 
 with Sparta ; and it was to check tins defection 
 
 223 
 
EPA 
 
 that Epaminondas invaded the relnponnesns ibr 
 the fourth and last time in B.C. 362. The Spar- 
 tans, along with the disaffected states, and aided by 
 the Athenians, were prepared for the contest. 
 The two armies met near M.mtineia, a city of Ar- 
 cadia; and in the battle which ensued, Epaminon- 
 das displayed with consummate skill the peculiar 
 tactics to which he owed his celebrity ; but when 
 in the full career of victory, he received a mortal 
 wound, and was carried from the field. His army 
 was thereby paralyzed, and no further attempt 
 was made to follow up the victory. His private 
 life was free from reproach ; and his public con- 
 duct was regulated by a sincere love of his country. 
 Before Epaminondas was bom, says Nepos, and 
 after his death, Thebes was always subject to 
 some foreign power; on the contrary, while he 
 presided over her councils, she was at the head of 
 Greece. [G.F.] 
 
 EPARCHUS, Anth., a Greek poet, 16th cent. 
 
 EPEE, Chas. Michel De L', a French abbe\ 
 distinguished for his benevolence as a teacher of 
 the deaf and dumb, fndr. of an asylum, 1712-1789. 
 
 EPHORUS, a Gr. orator and hist., 363-300 b.c. 
 
 EPHRAIM, the second son born to Joseph in 
 Egypt by Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah. 
 
 EPHRAIM, St., a Christian writer, 4th cent. 
 
 EPHRAIM, an Armenian patriarch, 1734-84. 
 
 EPICHARMUS, a Pythagorean philosopher and 
 poet, au. of treatises on philosophy and medicine, 
 and the sivpposed inventor of comedy, 5th ct. B.C. 
 
 EPICTETUS, lived about 90 years after Christ. 
 He is essentially the moralist or Rome a Stoic ; 
 for Stoicism is simply the Roman character and 
 genius represented in theory. The original monu- 
 ments of his doctrine have mostly perished. 
 
 EPICURUS, born at Athens 341 B.C.: he 
 flourished after the decline of Speculative Philo- 
 sophy, and when the irretrievable disruption of 
 national affairs in Greece had repressed the Heroic 
 in Action. At such a time, he taught with accep- 
 tance that pleasure is the sole good, and that 
 other aims are only the disturbances of humanity. 
 The theoretical opinions of Epicurus were identical 
 with those of all modern sensational Schools. We 
 do not refer to his physical or cosmogonic specula- 
 tions, which in the main he borrowed from Demo- 
 critus; but to his conception of the origin and 
 ground of human knowledge and thought. Hu- 
 man knowledge, he said, flows from our sensations, 
 which alone do not deceive: beyond the im- 
 mediate results of sensation, we are conscious of 
 what he termed ' anticipations,' meaning thereby 
 simple generalizations, or classifications of our 
 sensible experience: to such, add our 'passions,' 
 or desire of pleasure and aversion from pain ; and 
 the contents of the human mind are summed up. 
 From a philosophy of this character, no other sys- 
 tem of practical morals than that inculcated by 
 Epicurus ever can arise. If the existence of uni- 
 versal and necessaiy Ideas be ignored, an impera- 
 tive in morals cannot be conceived of, nor will the 
 name Duty have any meaning. Right denied, as 
 an independent reality or a Law by itself, there is 
 nothing for it as a rule of action, save the estimate 
 of consequences ; and the only criterion by which 
 we can value or measure consequences is their ten- 
 dency to produce pleasure or pain. The fundamental 
 problem in Morals thus corresponds with the specu- 
 
 EPI 
 
 lative problem whether the human mind is capable 
 of apprehending the Absolute and Imperative, or' 
 whether knowledge is simply empirical: neverthe- 1 
 less among empirical systems there is also a great 1 
 variety. Granting that pleasure is the aim of ac- 
 tion, it remains to determine wherein man's true 
 pleasure consists? The actual scheme of Epi-I 
 curus is certainly not the lowest of which we have] 
 record; but it would be wrong to pretend that 
 it is a very elevated one. His maxims may be 
 thus rendered: Accept and aim at any pleasure 
 which will not be followed by any pain. Avoid 
 pain that brings no pleasure. Avoid ever}' plea- 
 sure that would deprive you of a greater pleasure, 
 or cause a pain greater than the pleasure. Accept 
 any pain that might free you from a greater pain, 
 or that must be followed by a pleasure more in- 
 tense than the pain. The ' virtue ' par excellence 
 in such a system is prurience ; but it admits of 
 others ; and Epicurus inculcated temperance, cour- 
 age, energy to resist superstition and imaginary 
 terrors, and justice on the ground that honesty is 
 the best policy. He was himself temperate and 
 benevolent ; disinterestedness seemed one of his 
 necessities; he lived on water and crust, and in 
 the midst of a fearful famine, he divided with his 
 disciples his mite. He renounced what is ordi- 
 narily called pleasure, because its enjoyments could 
 not last ; not like Zeno, who repudiated it as evil, 
 and incompatible with the freedom of the sage. 
 We have only a few fragments of the writings of 
 Epicurus; but his system is explained by Cicero, 
 Seneca, Plutarch, and many others : Diogenes 
 Laertius discourses concerning it very copiously. 
 Like Democritus, Epicurus owes much to the im- 
 mortal song of Lucretius. [J.P.N.] 
 
 EPIMENIDES, a philosopher and poet of the 
 6th century B.C., supposed to be the first who in- 
 troduced the consecration of temples, the purifica-i 
 tion of countries, cities, and private houses, into 
 Greece, where he was held for an infallible prophet. 
 
 EPLNAY, Madame De La Live D', or by her 
 maiden name, Louise Florence Petkoxii/le, 
 a French lady, celebrated for her attachment to, 
 Rousseau, and as the authoress of ' Les Conversa- 
 tions d' Emilie,' &c, 1725-1783. 
 
 EPIPHANIUS, one of the Greek fathers, d. 403. 
 
 EPIPHANIUS, surnamed 'The Scholastic,' 
 Latin translator of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theo- 
 doret, 6th century. 
 
 EPISCOPIUS, Simon, whose surname in his 
 own tongue was Bisschop, was born at Amster- 
 dam in 1583. Sent to the university of Leyden 
 in 1600, his inquisitive and ardent mind soon in-, 
 volved him in the raging controversies of the time.' 
 Ordained a pastor at Bleswyck in 1610, he was in 
 a very short time chosen to be the advocate of the j 
 Arminian party, at a conference which was held at| 
 the Hague, and was at length raised to the chair of \ 
 theology at Leyden, on the deposition of Vorstius. ( 
 At the synod of Dort he was the accredited cham- 
 pion of the Remonstrants, or Arminians. The vic- 
 torious Calvinist, or Gomarist party, disgraced i 
 their cause by inflicting civil pains and penalties i 
 on their opponents. Episcopius was deposed and 
 banished. The exile spent a short time in France, , 
 then returning to Holland he became pastor of the 
 church of the Remonstrants at Rotterdam, and re- 
 moved finally to the rectorship of the Arunnian 
 
 224 
 
EPO 
 
 rmnasium at Amsterdam, where he died in 
 543. Episcopius was the divine of the Arminian 
 irty ; reducing to a system the scattered views 
 id unadjusted conceptions of his master Armi- 
 us. His writings display no common shrewdness, 
 irsatility, and eloquence ; the product of an ad- 
 mturous and active spirit, that had a special 
 lish in questioning ancient dogmas and unset- 
 ing common belief. His power lay, however, 
 ore in assault than defence ; he could sap and 
 ine with fully more dexterity than he could erect 
 new and symmetrical edifice. His life was writ- 
 n by Limborch, a relative, and his theological 
 orks were collected by Curcellaeus and Poellen- 
 irg, in two folios, and published at Amsterdam 
 550-65, and reprinted at London 1678. [J.E.] 
 EPO, Bcetius, a lawyer of Friesland, 1529-99. 
 EPONINA, the wife of Julius Sabinus, a noble- 
 an of Gaul, defeated in a revolt against Ves- 
 isian, celebrated for her constancy and devotion, 
 id executed with her husband 78. 
 EPREMESNIL. See Espremenil. 
 EQUICOLA, Mario, an Ital. hist., 1460-1541. 
 ERACLIUS, a Rom. artist and art-wr., 11th c. 
 ERARD, Sebastian, a native of Strasburg, 
 lebrated for his pianos and harps, 1752-1831. 
 ERASISTRATUS, a Gr. physician, 4th c. B. c. 
 ERASMUS, an illegitimate son of Gerard, a 
 azen of Tergou, was born at Rotterdam 28th Oct., 
 :67. His paternal name he changed into Desire^ 
 miable,' and afterwards prolonged into Desi- 
 rius Erasmus the first a Latin, and the second 
 Greek appellation, both with the same meaning 
 the Dutch Gerard. He usually signed himself 
 rasmus Roterodamus. He received his first edu- 
 tion at Daventer, where the future Pope Adrian 
 [. was his schoolfellow. But Erasmus was only 
 irteen years of age when both his parents died, 
 id the three guardians to whose care the orphan 
 is left, squandered his property, and to gain the 
 hole of his patrimony, as well as to conceal their 
 llany, forced him into a monastery at Balduc, in 
 rabant. Thence he was taken to another religious 
 rase near Delft, and he assumed the vows at Stein 
 1486, having entered among the regular canons, 
 lckily for the young scholar he was not buried 
 a convent, as his Latin scholarship gained him 
 e notice of Henry a Bergues, bishop of Cambray, 
 bo kept him for a time as his private secretary, 
 td then sent him to Paris to prosecute his studies, 
 i the French capital the youngliterary Dutchman 
 is in abject poverty, teaching a few pupils for 
 re, nay for years he wandered about the conti- 
 nt and in England, subsisting on the precari- 
 is bounty of admirers. He visited this country 
 r the first time in 1497, at the invitation of Lord 
 ountjoy, and won the esteem of its most illus- 
 ions men, such as Sir Thomas More, Dean Colet, 
 nacre, Grocyn, and others, and published his 
 r orice Encomium, Praise of Folly. In 1506 he 
 avelled into Italy, took a doctor's degree at 
 irin, obtained from Pope Julian II. a final release 
 wi his monastic vows, and joyfully put on the 
 ack tunic of the seculars. He spent some time 
 Bologna, and resided for a short season at Venice 
 ith the renowned printer Aldus Manutius, an d pub- 
 hed his A dagia. At the invitation of Henry VII I., 
 1510, he revisited England, and taught in Cam- 
 idge as a lecturer on Greek, and as Lady Mar- 
 
 ERA 
 
 garet professor of theology. But his itinerations 
 were not over, for in 1514 he returned to the con- 
 tinent ; and at the archducal request of him who 
 was afterwards Charles V., he repaired as counsellor 
 to Brabant. After several changes he removed to 
 Basel in 1521, the scene of his highest literary 
 labours, in conjunction with the printer Froben. 
 In 1529, when the refonnation triumphed in 
 Basel, the timid satirist of monks and popish cere- 
 monies took refuge in Freiburg ; but in 1535 he 
 returned. His health was now declining; gout and 
 gravel had for some years severely tormented him ; 
 his feeble frame was seized with dysentery, and he 
 died at Basel on the 12th of July, 1536. The 
 literary toils of Erasmus were incessant. Besides 
 his invaluble labours in connection with the revival 
 of learning, his most popular efforts were his satiri- 
 cal assaults on the monastic orders, in his famous 
 ' Colloquies,' and other productions. But his great 
 work was the publication of the Greek Testament, 
 out of various manuscripts, in 1516, folio, accom- 
 panied with a new Latin translation. The Tes- 
 tament was reprinted in 1519, 1522, 1527, and 1535. 
 In the first year mentioned he also published the 
 works of Jerome. He composed likewise a series 
 of paraphrases on the New Testament, many of 
 which display an admirable talent for exegesis. 
 In his various prefaces and dedications, he nobly, 
 eloquently, and repeatedly vindicated the open 
 circulation of the inspired volume in the vernacu- 
 lar languages of Europe. These publications raised 
 up hosts of enemies to him, who called him 
 heresiarch and forger, and he shrunk from suffering 
 on account of protestant truth and freedom. With 
 Luther, whom he at first eulogized, he maintained 
 a bitter and protracted controversy about the ' Free- 
 dom of the Will.' That his writings largely contri- 
 buted to the success of the reformation there is 
 not a doubt, though himself wanted the faith and 
 courage to be a thorough reformer. His scholarship 
 was extensive and elegant, his industry was unceas- 
 ing, his Latinity is generally pure, his wit was ever 
 sparkling in pleasant variety, his company was a 
 scene of refined enjoyment, his fund of anecdote 
 was inexhaustible, and the love of literature was 
 the passion of his nature. Latin was more fami- 
 liar to him than his mother tongue. Among his 
 works, not already referred to, are his learned disser- 
 tation, De recta Latini Grmcique Sermonis pronun- 
 tiatione, his ' Letters,' full of interesting informa- 
 tion ; his treatise, De Copia Verborum et Rerum, 
 in which he insists on diversity of illustration and 
 style ; his Ciceronianus, in which he heartily ridi- 
 cules such pedants as would not use a Latin term 
 unless it had the sanction of the great Roman 
 orator; his Christian Soldier's Manual; and his 
 EcclesiaMes, or the Art of Preaching, published not 
 long before his death. The best edition of his col- 
 lected works is in 11 volumes folio, Leyden, 1703-6. 
 The first edition, in 9 volumes, Basel, 1540, was 
 condemned to the flames by Pope Paul IV. [J.E.] 
 ERASTUS, Thomas, a physician of Baden, 
 better known in ecclesiastical history for his opin- 
 ions in theology and church government, the fun- 
 damental principle of which is, that the church 
 should exercise no coercive power except through 
 the arm of the civil magistrate. The Erastians in 
 the Long Parliament were opposed to the presby- 
 terians ; and in the Church of England, Bishop 
 
 225 
 
ERA 
 
 Parker may be considered the chief of this school. 
 Erastus was born in 1524, and d. in Basle, 1583. 
 
 ERATH, A. U. D., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1709-73. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES, an astronomer of Alexan- 
 dria ; died 194 B.C. He is distinguished in history 
 for having first conceived the plan of measuring the 
 earth. The means employed were the shadow of a 
 style at Alexandria, and the distance of Alexandria 
 from Syene, where the sun is vertical at solstice. His 
 result was surprisingly near the truth, making a 
 degree to be about 80 English miles : it is about 69. 
 
 ERBACH, Chr., a Ger. composer, 16th cent. 
 
 ERCHEMBERT, a Lombard historian, 9th c. 
 
 ERCILLA-Y-ZUNIGA, Don Aeonso De, a 
 gallant soldier in the service of Philip II., distin- 
 guished in the wars of Spanish America, where his 
 experience furnished the materials for the earliest 
 epic poem of his native country, entitled ' La 
 Araucana,' by which he is best known in France 
 and England ; born 1525, died 1595. 
 
 ERDESWICKE, T., an Engl, antiqu., d 1603. 
 
 EREM1TA, D., a Flemish savant, 1584-1613. 
 
 ERIC. The Swedish kings of this name of 
 whom anything is known are Eric Edmund- 
 son, Upsala king, died 885. Eric the Victo- 
 rious, son of the preceding, and joint successor 
 with his brother Olave ; celebrated for his victory 
 over Styrbiom, son of the latter, who claimed the 
 inheritance on his father's death; died 993, or 
 soon after. Two kings, both bearing the name of 
 Eric, contended for the throne in the civil war 
 which broke out about 1066, and in this war both 
 the kings and all the chief Swedes are said to have 
 fallen. Besides these, four other Erics must have 
 been known traditionally St. Eric, who reigned 
 1155-1160, being called Eric IX. After him comes 
 Eric Canuteson, or Eric X., grandson of the 
 preceding, called the good-harvest king, reigned 
 1210-1216. Eric Ericson, or Eric XL, a grave 
 and righteous prince, in whom the race of St. Eric 
 expired, reigned 1222-1250. Eric XIL, of the 
 house of the Folkungers, who rose to power during 
 the reign of the preceding : king during the life- 
 time of his father, Magnus Ladislas, and at length 
 poisoned by his mother, Blanche of Namur, 1350- 
 1359. Eric XIIL of Sweden, and VII. of Den- 
 mark, before his election, duke of Pomerania, 
 chosen in Sweden 1396; co-regent with Margaret 
 of Waldemar to his dethronement by Engelbrecht- 
 Engelbrechtson in 1434, and after that, having 
 been again acknowledged, dethroned in all the 
 three kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, 
 at the death of that princess, 1439. Eric XIV., 
 son of Gustavus Vasa, born 1533, succeeded 1560, 
 compelled to abdicate by his brothers 1569, poi- 
 soned in prison 1577. 
 
 ERIC. The kings of Denmark of this name are 
 nine in number two unknown in the 9th century, 
 and then Eric I., called 'the Good, 1 reigned 1095- 
 1105. Eric II., reigned 1134-1137. Eric III., 
 called 'the Lamb,' succeeded the preceding, and ab- 
 dicated 1147. Eric IV., appointed by his brother, 
 Abel, reigned 1242-1250. Eric v., succeeded 
 1259, assassinated 1286. Eric VI., reigned 1286- 
 1319. Eric VII., same as Eric XIIL of Sweden 
 
 ERIC AXELSON, adminis. of Sweden,1466-7. 
 
 ERICEIRA, Ferdinand De Menezes, Count 
 De, a soldier, statesman, and historian of Portu- 
 gal, 1614-1699. His grandson, Francis Xavler, 
 
 ERN 
 
 distinguished by his military talents and his learn- 
 ing, author of ' The Henriqueida,' a poem, 1673 
 1743. The mother of the preceding, Jane Jose- 
 phine De Menezes, distinguished for her liter 
 ary works, died 1709. 
 
 "ERIGENA, John Scotus, who seems from his 
 surname to have been a native of Ireland and not 
 of Scotland, was born about the beginning of the 
 ninth century. He is often confounded with a 
 Saxon monk whom King Alfred invited to England, 
 and placed over his college at Oxford. Erigena 
 spent the most of his time in France, and at the 
 court of Charles the Bold. About the year 850 he 
 wrote against Gottschalk on predestination ; and 
 he also published a work on the Lord's Supper, 
 de Corpora et Sanguine Domini, in which he com- 
 bated the doctrine of transubstantiation. His 
 theological writings were condemned by the coun- 
 cil of Valence in 855, and that of Tangres in 859. 
 But the great work of this schoolman is that 
 named de Divisione Naturae, &c, printed at Ox 
 ford by Thomas Gale in 1681. It is divided into 
 five books, and is composed in the form of a dia- 
 logue. This vast and amazing essay treats of 
 great variety of subjects of God,*and the know- 
 ledge of God of being, and its kinds and modes 
 of the world, of sin and its nature, &c. in which 
 abstruse and subtle discussions, a species of mys- 
 tical pantheism, may be easily discovered. Erigen 
 was well versed in Greek, and was deeply imbued 
 with Neo-platonism, with those ideas and modest 
 of thought which are associated with the names o:' 
 Plotinus and Proclus. Hebrew and Arabic he , 
 also acquired in his travels. Few, if any of 
 contemporaries, could match this remarkable man 
 either in genius or acquirements, in dialectics or 
 sentiment, in intellectual acumen or in stores of 
 erudition. His popularity was greater two centuries 
 after his death, than during his life. The pseudo- 
 Dionysian writings were translated by him, and 
 these contributed also to mould the literature ol 
 these mediaeval times. Various portions of his 
 works have been discovered and published at dif- 
 ferent times by Ducange, Mabillon, Angelo Mai! 
 and MM. Ravaison and Cousin. The influence: 
 which 'this meteor of the 9th century' exercisec 
 on his own and succeeding ages by his profound 
 and daring speculations in philosophy and theo- i 
 logy was immense. He is supposed to have diec 
 in France about the year 875. [J.E.J 
 
 ERINNA, a Greek poetess, date unknown. 
 
 ERIZZO, Sebastiano, a Venetian senator anc 
 antiq., author of a work on numismatics, 1525-611 
 
 ERMENGARDE, daughter of Louis II., kg. ol; 
 Italv, wife of Boson 1. 877, regent of Aries from 888! 
 
 ERMERIC, or HERMENRIC, k. of the Swede* 
 in Spain in the reign of Honorius, 409, died 440. 
 
 ERNEST, duke of Saxe-Gotha, distinguished 
 for his zeal in astronomy, and for his practica 
 knowledge of that science, 1741-1804. 
 
 ERNESTI, John Augustus, a celebrated Ger-j ! 
 man critic, professor of literature and theology a; 
 Leipzig, author of a great number of philological,' 
 critical, and theological writings, editor of Home, 
 and other classics, &c, 1707-1781. Augustus 
 Wieeiam, his nephew, also a distinguished xavunt 
 1733-1801. John Christopher TheophiMJI 
 another nephew, brother of the preceding, prof, o 
 philosophy, editor of Greek classics, &c, 1756-1802; 
 
 226 
 
EBN 
 
 ERNST, IT., a German savant, 1G03-16G5. 
 ERNSTING, C, a Germ, botanist, 1709-1768. 
 EROSTRATUS, the celebrated incendiary who 
 ed the temple of Diana at Ephesns, 856 B.C. 
 ERSCH, John S., a German bibl., 1766-1828. 
 ERSKINE, David, Lord Dun, an eminent 
 ottish lawyer, and mem. of parlia., 1670-1755. 
 ERSKINE, Henry, a presbyterian divine, suf- 
 ed imprisonment under the Act of Uniformity, 
 d finally minister of Chumside in Berwick, 
 24-1696. Ebenezer, his son, founder of the 
 cession Church of Scotland, 1680-1754. Ralph, 
 other son, and seceder along with his brother, 
 thor of Sermons, &c, 1685-1752. 
 ERSKINE, John, a Scottish theol., 1721-1803. 
 ERSKINE, John, baron of Dun, a descendant 
 the earls of Mar, dist. as a reformer, 1508-91. 
 ERSKINE, Thomas, Baron, a lawyer and dis- 
 iguished orator, the youngest son of David, earl 
 Buchan, was born about the year 1748. He 
 longed to a family of which some members were 
 narkable for their genius, others for their folly, 
 d he seemed in himself to be a union of these 
 alities. He studied at the High School of Edin- 
 rgh, and the University of St. Andrew's, enter- 
 l successively the navy and army, before, from 
 ne influence not explained, he began to study 
 v. In his earlier years he acquired a meteoric 
 rotation as a brilliant and fascinating master of 
 ivivial conversation. He was called to the bar 
 1778. One of his earliest cases involved an ex- 
 sure in that fertile field of political abuses, the 
 miralty, when it was shown that landsmen 
 re rated to seamen's pensions for electioneering 
 rposes. He at once rushed into full practice, 
 d was employed in every case where a brilliant 
 nunciatory oratory of which he was an unri- 
 lled master was desired. In 1783 he entered 
 3 House of Commons in Fox's interest, but the 
 rid style of his oratory so captivating to a 
 7 or on the hustings failed to please that fas- 
 iious audience. He was counsel in many his- 
 ical cases, and performed heroically that duty 
 the advocate which prompts him to shrink from 
 thing, which, however much it may compromise 
 i own taste, interest, or safety, appears likely to 
 nefit the cause intrusted to him. His eminence 
 an advocate made it necessary that he should 
 appointed Lord Chancellor in the short accession 
 1806 of the Fox and Grenville ministry. The 
 udence of the selection was much doubted ; and 
 whs not fortunate for its object, since he had ac- 
 mulated no wealth to support his position as a 
 er.^ The strange eccentricities of his latter years, 
 tering deeply into his domestic affairs, and mak- 
 J, them matter of unpleasant notoriety, would 
 ve rendered his claims embarrassing had he seen 
 ! friends again in power. He died on the 17th 
 November, 1823. [J.H.B.] 
 
 ERXLEBEN, Dorothy Christina Leporin, 
 adame, a lady who took a doctor's degree at the 
 iyersity of Halle, author of a work on the culti- 
 tion of the sciences by women, 1715-1762. Her 
 n, John Christian Polycarp Erxlerkn, 
 'ting, as a philosopher and naturalist, 1744-77. 
 ES, J. Van, a Flemish painter, 16th century. 
 ESAR-HADDON, or SARGON, a king of 
 tfyria (Isaiah xx). 
 ESAU, the eldest of Isaac, sup. date 1836 b.c. 
 
 EST 
 
 ESCHENBACH, A. C, a German philologist, 
 professor and deacon at Nuremburg, 1663-1722. 
 
 ESCHENBACH, W. D', a Ger. poet, 13th cent. 
 
 ESCHENMAYER, C. A., professor of philoso- 
 phy at Tubingen, a disciple of Schelling, and after- 
 wards the founder of a mystic doctrine, of which 
 philosophy forms an elementary part. His works 
 are, ' Philosophy in its State of Transition to No- 
 philosophy,' 1803 ; 'Psychology,' 1822; 'The 
 Philosophy of Religion,' in three parts ; ' Rational- 
 ism,' 1818 ; ' Mysticism,' 1822 ; and ' Superna- 
 turalism,' 1824. Eschenmayer died in 1822. 
 
 ESCOIQUIZ, Don Juan, a Spanish author 
 and diplomatist, 1762-1820. 
 
 ESDRAS, a eel. Jewish doctor, 5th cent. b.c. 
 
 ESDRAS, a patriarch of Armenia, died 639. 
 
 ESMENARD, J. A., a Fr. miscel. wr., 1770-1811. 
 
 ESPER, J. F., a German naturalist and astro- 
 nomer, 1732-1781. His brother, Eugene, a natu- 
 ralist, au. of ' European Butterflies,' &c, 1742-1801. 
 
 ESPERIENTE, P. C, an Ital. hist., 1437-96. 
 
 ESPERNON, J. L. De Nogaret De La Va- 
 lette, Due D', originally known as Caumont 
 when he attached himself to Henry of Navarre, 
 was one of the most important persons in the 
 reigns of Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. 
 His intrigues at court were opposed to those of 
 the Due de Guise, and afterwards of Richelieu, and 
 he was the chief instrument in investing Marie de 
 Medicis with the regency; born 1554, died 1642. 
 
 ESPREMENIL, Jean Jacques Duval D', 
 councillor of the parliament of Paris, and one of 
 the first, movers of the revolution by his opposi- 
 tion to the edicts of Lomenie Brienne; born at 
 Pondicherry, in the East Indies, 1746, guillotined 
 1794. 
 
 ESSEX. See Devereux. 
 
 ESSEX, Jas., an English architect, 1723-1784. 
 
 ESTAING, Ch. Hector, Count D', a French 
 officer dist. in India and in the American war agt. 
 the English, exe. as a counter-revolutionist, 1794. 
 
 ESTAMPES, Anne De Pisselue, Duchess 
 D', a celebrated court intriguante, mistress of 
 Francis I., 1508-1576. 
 
 ESTE, an illustrious house of Italy, from which 
 the house of Brunswick is derived, and which 
 owes its origin to the Carlovingian era, at the 
 beginning of the 9th century. The most celebrated 
 names are Albert Azzo D'Este, the first who 
 possessed the city of that name, 1020-1117. Obizzo, 
 first marquis of Este, lord of Padua in 1182, and 
 afterwards marquis of Milan and Genoa. His son, 
 Azzo V., who by his marriage acquired the sove- 
 reignty of Ferrara, and became chief of the Guelfs 
 of Venice, died 1192. Azzo VI., son of the pre- 
 ceding, lord of Ferrara and Verona, died 1264. 
 Hercules I., lord of Ferrara and Modena, whose 
 court was graced by Ariosto, Bo'iardo, the Strozzi, 
 &c, 1471-1505. His son, Alphonso, married to 
 Lucretia Borgia 1502, a party to the league of 
 Cambrai, reigned 1505-1534. Hippolytus, 
 brother of Alphonso, and cardinal of Este, a patron 
 of letters, partizan of Louis XII., and historian of 
 the war of the French against the Venetians, 
 1479-1520. Alphonso II., grandson of the first 
 of that name, duke of Ferrara and Modena, dis- 
 tinguished as a patron of arts and letters, 1533- 
 1597. Caesar, an illegitimate descendant of 
 Alphonso I., reigned at Modena 1597-1628. 
 
 227 
 
EST 
 
 Renaud, a partizan of Austria in the war of 
 succession, and duke of Modena, 1655-1737. 
 Hercules III., grandson of Renaud, and, like 
 him, duke of Modena, was the last of this house in 
 Italy, and his estates passed to Austria, by the 
 marriage of his daughter with the archduke Fer- 
 dinand, 1727-1797. 
 
 ESTERHAZY, a noble family of Hungary, the 
 best known of whom are Paul IV., Esteriiazy 
 De Galantha, a general and literary savant, 
 1635-1713. His grandson, Nicholas Joseph, 
 a great patron of arts and music, founder of the 
 school in which Haydn and Pleyel, among others, 
 were formed, 1714-1790. Nicholas, Prince 
 D'Esterhazy De Galantha, dist. as a field- 
 marshal and foreign ambassador, 1765-1833. 
 
 ESTHER, queen of Persia, 6th century B.C. 
 
 ESTIUS, W., a Dutch theologian, 1542-1613. 
 
 ESTREES, an ancient and noble house of 
 France, the best known of which are Jean 
 D'Estrees, an artillery officer distinguished at the 
 taking of Calais, 1480-1571. His son, Anthony, 
 the defender of Noyon, and governor of the Isle of 
 France, 1593. Gabrielle, the daughter of 
 Anthony, duchess of Beaufort, and mistress of 
 Henry IV., supposed to have been poisoned, 1571- 
 1599. Her brother, F. Annibal, duke and mar- 
 shal, author of the ' Memoirs of the Regency of 
 Marie De Medicis,' 1573-1670. His son, Jean, 
 vice-admiral and Comte D'Estrees, appointed 
 viceroy of America, 1624-1707. Caesar, brother 
 of Jean, a cardinal and negotiator, 1628-1714. 
 Jean, nephew of the preceding, foreign ambassa- 
 dor, 1666-1718. Victor Marie, Due D'Estrees, 
 son of the vice-admiral Jean, a distinguished 
 naval commander, 1660-1737. Louis Caesar 
 Letellier, Comte D'Estrees, a commander of 
 the German army, when he defeated Cumberland, 
 and marshal of France, 1695-1771. 
 
 ETH, a king of Scotland, deposed 875. 
 
 ETHELBALD, a k. of Mercia, reigned 716-55. 
 
 ETHELBALD, the third Saxon k. of England, 
 has the character of a profligate prince, 857-860. 
 
 ETHELBERT, a k. of Kent, reigned 560-616. 
 
 ETHELBERT, the fourth Saxon k. of England, 
 son of Ethelwolf and brother of Ethelbald, 860-866. 
 
 ETHELFLEDA, or ELFLEDA, daughter of 
 Alfred the Great, and wife of Ethelred, count of 
 Mercia, died 922. 
 
 ETHELFRID, or ADELFRID, king of Nor- 
 thumberland, killed in battle, 593-617. 
 
 ETHELRED I., fifth Saxon king of England, 
 predecessor of Alfred the Great, 866-871. 
 
 ETHELRED II., son of Edgar and Elfrida, sue. 
 Edward the Martyr as k. of England, 978, d. 1016. 
 
 ETHELWOLF, the second Saxon king of Eng- 
 land, son of Egbert, whom he succeeded in 838, 
 and father of Ethelbald, died 857. 
 
 ETHEREDGE, Sir George, an English 
 dramatist and song-writer, 17th century. 
 
 ETOILE, Pierre De L', a French chancery 
 officer, whose journal has supplied much curious 
 matter to the historian, under the reigns of Henry 
 III. and Henry IV., 1540-1611. His son, Claude, 
 a dramatic writer, 1597-1652. 
 
 ETTMULLER, Mich., a Ger. phys., 1644-83. 
 
 ETTMULLER, M. Ernest, son of the preced- 
 ing, author of various memoirs, and editor of his 
 father's writings, 1673-1732. 
 
 EUD 
 
 ETTY, William, R.A., was born at YorlcJ 
 March 10, 1787. His father was a miller. In 1798 
 he was apprenticed to a letterpress printer at 
 Hull, but having served his time, forsook thej 
 mechanical art of printing for the more exciting! 
 profession of a painter. Etty commenced thisi 
 hazardous enterprise in London, in 1805, when he 
 entered as a student of the Royal Academy, and,' 
 became also, through the liberality of an uncle, 
 a private pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence's for] 
 twelve months, but received very little attention! 
 from him. For long his pictures were rejected 
 both at the Royal Academy and the British;] 
 Gallery, but after about fifteen years' toil bis for- ] 
 tunes changed, he received gradually more of then 
 
 fublic attention, and in 1822 was enabled to visit] 
 taly, where he found in Venice the chief attrac-J 
 tions ; he returned with many studies to London !j 
 in 1824, and exhibited his picture of Pandora in j 
 1825, for which he was chosen an associate of thei 
 academy, and he was elected an academician in 
 1827. Etty died at his native place, Novemberji 
 
 13, 1849, in his sixty-third year, leaving a con- 
 siderable fortune. He was in every respect onejj 
 of the most distinguished painters of the English, 
 school, but especially excellent as a colourist;i 
 some of his pictures rival Titian's, or any of thejf 
 great Venetians, as gorgeous displays of colour| 
 His great powers were well displayed in the com- 
 prehensive exhibition of his works at the Society 
 of Arts, Adelphi, in 1849, the summer only beforc| 
 his death. In this exhibition were many 
 mirable pictures, including the nine great works, 
 the triumph of Etty's life and ambition, as ad-.] 
 mitted by himself in his autobiography, published 
 in the ' Art Journal ' of 1849. He explains these.;,' 
 pictures as follows : ' My aim in all my great pic- 
 tures has been to paint some great moral on the 
 heart.' ' The Combat,' the beauty of mercy ; tht 
 three 'Judith' pictures, patriotism, and self-i 
 devotion to country, people, and God ; ' Benaiah; 
 David's chief captain,' valour ; ' Ulysses and th( 
 Syrens,' the importance of resisting sensual delightil 
 or an Homeric paraphrase on ' The Wages o:j 
 Sin is Death ; ' the three pictures of 'Joan of Arc,; 
 religion, loyalty, and patriotism, like the modem 
 Judith. In all nine great pictures, ' As it was rm 
 desire to paint three times three.' [R.N.W. 
 
 EUBULIDES, a philosopher of Miletus, bes : , 
 known for the captions arguments and insolubk, 
 questions with which he endeavoured to embarras: 
 the empirics, but especially Aristotle ; he was tb|j 
 disciple and successor of Euclid, and is said M 
 have instructed Demosthenes; born about 360 b.c' 
 
 EUBULUS, a Greek comic poet, 370 b.c. 
 
 EUCLID, a mathemat. of Alexandria, who floor-/ 
 ished300B.c. No name of antiquity is better known 
 His digest of geometrical propositions is a schoolbool,, 
 still. His works have been often edited and repub- 
 lished. Barrow's edition is very valuable ; but thi, 
 best known in this country is that by Robert Simson 
 
 EUCLIDES, the first archon of Athens, b.c. 403 
 
 EUCLIDES, a disciple of Socrates, and i'oimde 
 of the philosophic sect of Megara, by which the 
 art of dialectic was carried to high perfection 
 was living about 390 B.C. 
 
 EUDjEMON, J. A., a learned Greek, d. 1625. 
 
 EUDES, duke of Aquitaine, reigned 688-735. 
 
 EUDES, duke of Burgundy; theirs* of th 
 
 228 
 
EUD 
 
 tme reigned 1078-1103 ; the second, 1142-1162 ; 
 e third, 1192-1218 ; the fourth, 1315-1349. 
 EUDES, or ODON, king of France, 887-898. 
 EUDES, John, a mystic writer, born 1601. 
 EUDOCIA, the name adopted on her conver- 
 >n to Christianity by Athenais, the daughter of 
 jontius, a philosopher of Athens, and wife of the 
 iperor Theodosius the younger; she was celeb. 
 r ner learning and magnificence, and was divorced 
 consequence of aspiring to the government ; died 
 religious retirement at Jerusalem about 460. 
 EUDOXIA, daughter of the preceding, and wife 
 the emperor Valentinian III., and of Maximus. 
 EUDOXIUS, an heretical writer of the 4th ct. 
 EUDOXUS, a Gr. astrono. lived abt. 370 B.C. 
 EUGENE, Francis, of Savoy-Carignan, corn- 
 only called Prince Eugene, grandson of Ch. 
 nmanuel I., duke of Savoy, and son of Eugene 
 aurice, count of Soissons, distinguished as 
 neralissimo of the imperial armies, and as a com- 
 ,nion-in-arms of Marlborough, 1663-1736. 
 EUGENIUS, a Rom. emp., elect, and slain 394. 
 EUGENIUS, St., abp. of Carthage, 481, d. 505. 
 EUGENIUS, the first of the name pope of Rome 
 4-657 ; the second, 824-827 ; the third, 1145- 
 53 ; the fourth, 1431-1447. 
 EUGENIUS, the first of the name king of Scot- 
 id, date unknown; the second, 427-449; the 
 Ird, reigned 535-557 ; the fourth, 605-620 ; the 
 "th, died 692; the sixth, reigned 692-694; the 
 venth, 704-721 ; the eighth, 761-764. 
 EUGENIUS, an astronomer and bishop of 
 >ledo, died 636 ; another of the same name, dis- 
 iguished as ' the younger,' known as a theologi- 
 1 writer and poet, and bp. of Toledo, died 660. 
 EUGENIUS BULGARIS, a Greek prelate, 
 st. for his philos. and math, writings, 1716-1806. 
 EULER, Leonard, born at Bale 1707, died at 
 . Petersburg 1783 : one of the greatest analysts 
 last century, not indeed ranking with Des Car- 
 3, Newton, or Leibnitz, but by the unbroken 
 cord of the world of science, claiming equality 
 side Daniel Bernouilli and D'Alembert. A bare 
 talogue of the immense labours and voluminous 
 itings of this illustrious person would occupy 
 1 our space: it may, indeed, be said of him, 
 hil tetigit quodnon ornavit; and his eager genius, 
 rpassing industry, and exhaustless resources, 
 1 him through all the sphere of mathematical 
 id physical science. Living immediately after the 
 scovery of the infinitesimal calculus, no man did 
 much to unfold its powers and simplify its 
 ethods ; his great works on that subject are still 
 odels of composition : and amid what sprung 
 >m his abundant, his amazing fertility, the 
 rms are found of the most important of subse- 
 icnt advances : his work on * Isoperimeters,' 
 ay be said to have provoked the calculus of 
 ariations of Lagrange. With Bernouilli, Euler 
 vided several prizes ; these two great men ran a 
 rikingly corresponding race. The work by 
 lich he is popularly known is his * Letters to a 
 :rman Princess,' a work instinct with acuteness, 
 d evincing marvellous powers of exposition, but 
 the whole, perhaps, his only failure. He 
 tries in it to break a lance with Leibnitz 
 [offering a refutation of the scheme of monads. 
 I' betrays, however, no sufficient comprehension 
 I the meaning of this chief of German thinkers ; 
 
 EUR 
 
 nor in the case of Euler did destiny add to his 
 ability as an analyst, the powers which constitute 
 the metaphysician. [J.P.N.] 
 
 EUMENES, one of Alexander's lieutenants, a 
 sharer in the divided empire after his death, con- 
 quered and put to death by Antigonus, B.C. 316. 
 
 EUMENES, the first of the name king of Per- 
 gamos, 263-241 B.C. ; the second, 198-157 B.C. ; 
 the third, an infant son of the preceding, d. 158. 
 
 EUMENES, a rhetorician of Gaul, 261-311. 
 
 EUNAPIUS, a celebrated sophist, historian, and 
 physician of Sardis, in the 4th cent., au. of ' Lives 
 of the Sophists,' and a history of his own times. 
 
 EUPHORION, a Gr. poet and hist., 3d c. b.c. 
 
 EUPHRANOR a Greek painter and sculptor, 
 4th century, b.c. 
 
 EUPHRATES, a Stoic philosopher, 2d cent. 
 
 EUPHRATES, founder of the Ophites, 2d cent. 
 
 EUPOLIO, an Athenian poet, kn. abt. 435 b.c. 
 
 EURIC or EVRIC, k. of the Visigoths, 466-84. 
 
 EURIPIDES, the last of the three great Greek 
 tragedians, was the son of Mnesarchus and Clito, 
 and was born in Salamis, whither his parents had 
 retired during the occupation of Attica by Xerxes, 
 on the very day of the glorious victory near that 
 island, B.C. 480. That his father was a man of 
 property is proved by the expensive education 
 which Euripides received ; but it appears from the 
 sarcastic insinuations of Aristophanes that his 
 mother was of humble descent. Euripides listened 
 to the lectures of the first philosophers of the day, 
 studying physics under Anaxagoras, and rhetoric 
 under Prodicus; and having on both occasions 
 Pericles as his fellow-disciple. With Socrates he 
 was on terms of the closest intimacy. Nor were 
 the ornamental parts of his education neglected ; 
 he was so well versed in gymnastic exercises that 
 he gained two victories in the Eleusinian and 
 Thesean athletic games when only seventeen years 
 old ; and seems also to have cultivated a natural 
 taste for painting. Some specimens of his skill in 
 the latter art were preserved for many years at 
 Megara. He is said to have attempted dramatic 
 composition at an early age, and brought out his 
 first tragedy in B.C. 455, when he was in his 
 twenty-fifth year. On this occasion he gained the 
 third prize ; but fourteen years after, in B.C. 441, 
 he gained the first prize, and also in B.C. 428. 
 According to Suidas ne gained five victories, one 
 of which was with a posthumous play. His reputa- 
 tion now spread far and wide ; and if the narrative 
 of Plutarch is to be trusted, some of the Athenian 
 soldiers who survived the disastrous termination 
 of the expedition against Syracuse, were treated 
 with kindness, and even set at liberty, for reciting 
 such passages from his works as they happened to 
 recollect, B.C. 413. Euripides continued to exhibit 
 plays till B.C. 408, soon after which he retired 
 into Magnesia, and thence into Macedonia, to the 
 court of Archelaus, by whom he was received with 
 distinguished honours. As in the case of jEschy- 
 lus, the reasons for this self-imposed exile are 
 obscure and uncertain. Report alleges that he 
 was unhappy in his own family ; and the envy 
 and jealousy excited by his literary reputation 
 drew upon him the taunts and sarcasms of his 
 political enemy Aristophanes. His intimacy with 
 Socrates and Alcibiades likewise contributed to- 
 wards rendering him unpopular; and it may 
 
 229 
 
EUS 
 
 therefore be inferred that prudence dictated his 
 withdrawal from a country where his avowed sen- 
 timents exposed him to danger. In Macedonia 
 he continued to write some plays, one of which he 
 inscribed with the name of his patron. Euripides 
 died B.C. 406, at the age of seventy-five, and was 
 buried at Pella. His countrymen in vain en- 
 treated Archelaus to send his remains to Athens, 
 where, however, they erected a cenotaph to his 
 memory. In the estimation of the ancients, 
 Euripides held a rank much inferior to jEschylus 
 and Sophocles. With him the dignified simplicity 
 of the ancient tragedy disappears, and its place is 
 supplied by rhetorical declamations, subtle dispu- 
 tations, and appeals to the sympathetic feelings. 
 His works were held in especial favour during the 
 middle ages ; and hence his remaining plays more 
 than outnumber the extant dramas of both ^Eschy- 
 lns and Sophocles. According to some authorities, 
 Euripides wrote 92 tragedies, according to others 
 75. Of these 19 are extant, besides numerous 
 fragments of the plays which have been lost. [G.F.] 
 
 EUSDEN, Laurence, an obscure poetical wr. 
 who in 1718 obtained the laureateship, d. 1730. 
 
 EUSEBIUS, a pope, elected and died 310. 
 
 EUSEBIUS, bishop of Dorylaeum in Phrygia, 
 celebrated for his opposition to the Eutychian 
 heresy, 5th century. 
 
 EUSEBIUS of Nicomedia, an Arian prelate, 
 and determined enemy of Athanasius, died 342. 
 
 EUSEBIUS, Pamphili (that is, the friend of 
 Pamphilus), was born at Cesarea, about the year 
 270. Pamphilus was his earliest friend in Cesarea, 
 and gave the young student access to the large library 
 which he had collected. Pamphilus was at length 
 imprisoned, and Eusebius remained his attached 
 and inseparable companion. And when the pri- 
 soner suffered martyrdom under Galerius, in 309, 
 Eusebius fled first "to Tyre, and then to Egypt. 
 On his return, about 314, he was made bishop of 
 his native city, and continued in that diocese till 
 his death. In the year 325 he attended the coun- 
 cil of Nice, and delivered a formal address to the 
 emperor. The Nicene creed which condemned 
 Arianism was in its earliest draught composed by 
 him ; but he scrupled at length to subscribe it, after 
 several important verbal alterations had been made 
 upon it. His caution and moderation afterwards 
 subjected him to the charge of that very heresy which 
 the Nicene council had been summoned to confute. 
 His views on the Trinity approached those of Ori- 
 gen, and he seems to have held a species of subor- 
 dination among the persons of the Godhead, which 
 was incompatible with a consistent belief in the 
 supreme deity of the Son. At the council of Tyre, 
 in 335, he joined in deposing Athanasius on a 
 charge of contumacy. Pnor to this period, in 330, 
 he was offered the patriarchate of Antioch, but re- 
 fused it ; and he died about the year 340. Euse- 
 bius was a divine of great learning, accomplishments, 
 and industry. Not a few of his numerous works 
 have been preserved, which have been of great ser- 
 vice to theology, especially to church history. His 
 Prceparatio Evanyelica, in fifteen books, was, as 
 its title implies, 'intended to prepare the pagan 
 mind for the reception of Christianity, by showing 
 the vast inferiority of other religions ; and his De- 
 montbratio Evangelica, in twenty books, of which 
 ten have been preserved, was meant for the Jewish 
 
 
 EVA 
 
 mind, and as a positive evidence for Christianity, 
 especially in its connection with the oracles and 
 prophecies of the Old Testament. His Ilistoria 
 Eccksiastica, in ten books, reaches from the birth 
 of Christ to the defeat of Licinius in 321. and is 
 an important and valuable record. Besides his 
 Life of Constant me, his Oration in praise of the 
 same emperor, his Onomasticon, his tract against 
 Hierocles, and his Eloge on the martyrs, we have 
 his Chronicon, a Latin version of the second part 
 of which by Jerome, has been long known. But 
 an Armenian version of the whole work was founii 
 some years ago, and published at Venice, in 1818: 
 other discoveries have been made by the famoui 
 Angelo Mai. The Theophania, another treatise o 
 Eusebius, was discovered in a Syrian version, by 
 Mr. Tattam in an Egyptian monastery, and has 
 been translated into English, and published by tin 
 late learned Professor Lee of Cambridge. [J.E." 
 EUSEBIUS of S amos ata, a recusant from th 
 party of Arms, kd. by a woman of the Arians, 379 
 E USEBIUS of Vercelli, a partizan of Athan 
 asius, and determined enemy of the Arians, d. 372 
 EUSTACHIUS, Bartholomew, a distin- 
 guished Italian anatomist who flourished in th 
 sixteenth century, but of whose personal histon 
 very little is known. Neither the date nor tht 
 place of his birth have been accurately ascertained 
 but it is generally believed that he died in 1570 
 perhaps at Rome. He was the most eminen - . 
 anatomist of his time, and Haller says of him tha' 
 he enriched the science with more discoveries thai 
 any other person whom he knew. His anatomica 
 plates, thirty-nine in number, were unpublishecj 
 at his death, and were supposed to be lost, bui 
 they were discovered at Urbino in 1712, and wen 
 published in 1714, by Lancisi, physician to Popi 
 Clement XL, and are still much esteemed. His naiw 
 is preserved in that of the Eustachian tube whicl 
 he discovered, and which runs between the inne, 
 ear and the upper part of the throat; and th< 
 Eustachian valve of the heart, which separates th< 
 right auricle from the inferior vena cava. [ J. M 'C. 
 EUSTATHIUS, a native of Constantinople! 
 distinguished for his commentaries on Homer 
 archbishop of Thessalonica, 12th century. 
 
 EUSTATHIUS, St., a bishop of Berea, distin 
 guished for his eloquence at the council of Nice 
 as the enemy of Arms, deposed about 331. 
 EUTOCIUS, a Greek mathematician, 6th cent 
 EUTROPIUS, a Latin historian, 4th century. 
 EUTYCHES, a celebrated Greek heresiarch oi 
 the 5th century, who maintained that only on| 
 nature, that of the Incarnate Word, existed rj 
 Christ; condemned at the council of Chalet 
 
 EUTYCHIUS, the name assumed by Said Be:i 
 Battrie, a learned Arabian Christian, on becomin ' 
 patriarch of Alexandria ; distinguished as a phy ' 
 sician, theologian, and historian, 876-950. 
 EUTYCHUS, a Latin grammarian, 6th cent. 
 EVAGORAS, a king of Salamis, killed B.C. 374 
 EVAGRIUS, an ecclesiastical historian, 6th n 
 EVAGRIUS, a monk and theolog. wr., 1th ct. 
 EVANGELI, Antonio, an Ital. au., 1742-180.= 
 EVANS, Abel, an Oxford schol. and wit, last I 
 EVANS, C, a baptist minister, 1737-1791. j 
 EVANS, Evan, a Welch divine, au. of v 
 the poetry and litera. of his country, 1730-1790. 
 EVANS, Jno., anonconf. preacher, 1680-17oC 
 
 230 
 
EVA 
 
 EVANS, John, author of a ' Sketch of Chris- 
 ian Denominations,' &c, a baptist minister 
 md schoolmaster of London, died 1827. 
 
 EVANS, 0., an American median., 1755-1811. 
 
 EVANS, Rice or Arise, a famous astrologer, 
 utor of Lilly in the occult sciences, 17th century. 
 
 EVANS, Thomas, a liter, bookseller, 1742-84. 
 
 EVANSON, Edward, a Church of England 
 [ivine, afterwards a unitarian writer, 1731-1805. 
 
 EVEILLON, Jas., a French ecclesiastical writer, 
 list, for his learning and benevolence, 1572-1651. 
 
 EVELYN, John, one of the finest examples 
 hat our history presents of the accomplished and 
 rell-principled English gentleman, was born in 
 .620, at his father's seat of Wotton in Surrey. 
 Lfter having been educated at Oxford, he served 
 s a volunteer in the Low Countries ; and during 
 he period of the civil wars he remained abroad, 
 tudying men and manners, statistics and science, 
 he fine arts and polite literature. In 1652 he re- 
 amed to England, and took up his residence at 
 iayes Court beside Deptford, which had recently 
 ome into his possession by marriage. His royalist 
 pinions kept him in retirement till the restora- 
 ion ; after which he took an honourable but not 
 onspicuous part in public business, returning 
 Iways to those quiet pursuits and speculations in 
 duch his happiness consisted. He died in 1706, 
 
 few years after having become owner of his 
 aternal estate by the death of his elder brother. 
 te was one of the original members of the Royal 
 ociety, and a frequent contributor to its transac- 
 ions. He wrote separate treatises on engraving, 
 rchitecture, and numismatics; but the most 
 aluable work he published was his ' Sylva, or a 
 >iscourse on Forest Trees,' in which, and in 
 nailer pieces, there is given, in an agreeable and 
 vely style, much of curious information and of 
 lgenious theory in regard to the writer's favour- 
 e pursuits, planting and gardening. His ' Diary,' 
 r hich was not published till 1818, is both interest- 
 lg as a literary performance, and exceedingly use- 
 jI for the knowledge it conveys of the times in 
 hich Evelyn lived. [W.S.] 
 
 [Wotton Church, the burial place of Evelyn.] 
 
 EVERARD, AngElo, aFlem. painter, 1647-78. 
 
 EVERARD, Nicolas, a Dutch lawyer and 
 lagistrate, president of the Supreme Council, 
 162-1532. Three of his sons are also celebrated, 
 -Nicholas Grudius, a Latin poet, councillor to 
 
 EXM 
 
 Charles V. and^ Philip II., died 1517. Adrtan 
 Marius, a Jesuit and poet, chancellor of Guelder- 
 land. died 1568. Johannes Secundus, an ele- 
 gant scholar and poet of licentious principles, 
 Latin secretary to the cardinal archbishop of 
 Toledo, and Charles V., 1511-1536. 
 
 E VERDINGEN, Aldest Van, a Flem. painter, 
 excelled in romantic landscapes, &c, 1621-1675 
 
 EVERDINGEN, C^sar Van, a Flemish 
 painter and architect, 1606-1679. 
 
 EVIL-MERODACH, k. of Babyl., 562-560 b.c. 
 
 EVREMOND, S. Charles, an amusing French 
 satirical writer, died in England 1703. 
 
 EWALD, Benj., a German med. wr., 1674-19. 
 
 EWALD, John, a Danish dramatist, 1743-81. 
 
 EWING, Greville, a Scottish dissenting min- 
 ister, known as a biblical critic, &c, 1767-1841. 
 
 EWING, John, a presbyterian divine, mathe- 
 matician, and nat. philos. of America, 1732-1802. 
 
 EXELMANS, Henry Joseph Isidore, a cele- 
 brated French marshal, born at Bar le Due, in 
 1775, was engaged in most of the campaigns of 
 Napoleon, and died in 1852. 
 
 EXIMENS, Anth., a Span. Jesuit, 1729-1808. 
 
 EXMOUTH. Edward Pellew, afterwards 
 Lord Exmouth, was born 19th April, 1757, at 
 Dover. His father was captain of the Post Office 
 Packet on that station, and died early, leaving 
 young Edward and five other children almost 
 without friends or support. Edward Pellew en- 
 tered the royal navy, and soon attracted notice by 
 his extraordinary activity and courage. He served 
 on board the Blonde off the American coast in 
 1776 and 1777, and in the last mentioned year he 
 was with a party of seamen attached to Burgoyne's 
 expedition from Lake Champlain to Saratoga. 
 Young Pellew distinguished himself amid the dis- 
 asters of this campaign by his indomitable spirit 
 and alacrity. He was promoted on his return to 
 England ; and when the war of the French revolu- 
 tion began, Captain Pellew was appointed to the - 
 Nymphe frigate. In command of this vessel he 
 captured the French frigate Cleopatra, after one 
 of the best fought actions of the war. He com- 
 manded next the Arethusa, and in her he captured 
 another French frigate, La Pomone, in 1794. He 
 continued to do good service and to rise in rank 
 during the war ; and he frequently signalized his 
 remarkable personal strength and activity in sav- 
 ing the lives of others at sea and in shipwreck. 
 In 1816 he was an admiral in command of our 
 Mediterranean squadron, and a peer by the title of 
 Lord Exmouth. In the spring of this year he was 
 ordered to repress the piracies of the Barbary states 
 of the Mediterranean, to obtain the release of the 
 numerous Christian slaves who were sold in cap- 
 tivity at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and to bind 
 these powers by express treaty to discontinue for 
 the future their practice of carrying off Christians 
 into slavery. The deys of Tunis and Tripoli con- 
 sented; but the Algennes, confident in the strength 
 of their fortification, and proud of their old piratical 
 renown, refused. Exmouth gave them a speedy 
 repetition of the lesson which Blake had given to 
 their ancestors; and it was this time still mora 
 sternly taught. On the 27th of August, 1816, 
 the English fleet of five sail of the line, five frigates, 
 four bomb vessels, and five gun brigs, anchored off 
 Algiers : aided by a Dutch squadron of five frigates 
 
 231 
 
EXP 
 
 and a corvette under Admiral Von Capelbnr, which 
 joined Lord Exmouth in the common cause of 
 civilization and humanity against barbarian vio- 
 lence and cruelty. Terms were offered to the 
 Algerian, but haughtily rejected. At half-past 
 two the Christian fleet took its station close to the 
 fortification; the batteries of the Mahometans 
 then commenced their fire, which was promptly 
 answered by the British broadsides. For upwards 
 of six hours a cannonade raged from sea to shore, 
 and from shore to sea, which for obstinacy and 
 destructiveness can hardly be paralleled in naval 
 warfare. Nearly 1,000 officers and men were 
 killed and wounded on board the English and 
 Dutch ships, and at least 7,000 of the Algerines 
 were computed to have fallen. The sea- ward 
 batteries of the town, the mole, and the harbour 
 walls, and the arsenals, were laid in ruins. Great 
 numbers of the houses were destroyed ; and nine 
 Algerine frigates, and a whole flotilla of smaller 
 piratical vessels, were burnt or sunk. On the 
 morrow Lord Exmouth prepared to renew the 
 attack, but the dey now accepted the terms which 
 he had previously scoffed at; and peace was 
 granted to Algiers on condition of her abolishing 
 for ever the enslaving of Christians, the instant 
 delivery of the slaves of all Christian nations, and 
 ample reparation and apology for the outrages and 
 insults which the dey had offered to British sub- 
 jects and the British flag. In pursuance of this 
 treaty Lord Exmouth had the truly noble happi- 
 ness of receiving on board of his fleet, three days 
 after the battle, 1,083 fellow-Christians who had 
 been groaning in slavery under Algerine masters. 
 They were safely conveyed by the British fleet to 
 their respective homes, and diffused through Chris- 
 tendom the just renown of England and her vic- 
 torious admiral. Lord Exmouth died on 23d 
 January, 1832. He was a good as well as a great 
 man ; and he gave on a deathbed of painful and 
 lingering illness, even a brighter example of Chris- 
 tian heroism than he had displayed on the quar- 
 ter-deck in the hour of his brightest earthly 
 glorv. [E.S.C.] 
 
 EXPILLY, Claude, a Fr. lawyer, 1564-1636. 
 
 EXPILLY, J. J., a Fr. statistician, 1719-1793. 
 
 EYCK, Hubert and John Van, two cele- 
 brated painters of Bruges of great importance in 
 the history of art in Europe, owing to their substi- 
 tution of varnish painting with oil, in the place of 
 the old ordinary tempera painting with water. 
 Hubert Van Eyck, so called, it has been sup- 
 posed, from Eyck (or Alden Eyck) the place of 
 his birth on the Maas, was born in 1366, and ap- 
 pears to have been the real inventor of the new 
 process of painting, which was discovered about 
 
 FAB 
 
 1410, when his brother John Van Eyck may have 
 been about fifteen or twenty years of age only ; 
 they were then settled at Bruges, and they formed 
 a great school there. The masterpiece of the Van 
 Eycks is the altar-piece of the ' Adoration of the 
 Lamb ' in the church of St. Bavon, Ghent ; this 
 celebrated picture was finished by John in 1432, 
 Hubert, who had executed the large figures of the 
 upper part, had died at Ghent six years before, on 
 18th September, 1426. On the inscription on the 
 picture the chief merit is properly given to Hubert, 
 ' the greatest in art ;' John is merely mentioned 
 as the completer of his brother's work: some por- 
 tions of the picture are in the gallery at Berlin.-*- 
 John Van Eyck was born about 1390-5, and 
 died at Bruges in July 1441, as recently ascer- 
 tained from documents by the Abbe* Carton (Le$ 
 trois Freres Van Eyck, &c, Bruges, 1848). 1420 
 is the earliest date of any of his known pictures, 
 and all the historic facts seem to show that John, 
 so far from being the founder of the school of 
 Bruges, was the pupil of his brother in common 
 with several other early Flemish masters, though 
 John's services to art were so great in many re- 
 spects that he may well be considered as the head 
 of the school. The invention of the Van Eycks is 
 commonly called oil painting, but colours were 
 mixed with oil long before this time, though pic- 
 tures were not painted in this manner, but Vasari 
 expressly explains that the Van Eyck method was 
 varnish painting-oil with other mixtures, and it 
 arose in the search for a good varnish for tempera 
 pictures. This method was carried into Italy by 
 Antonello of Messina, who having seen a picture 
 by John Van Eyck in the collection of Alphonso, 
 king of Naples, about the year 1443, set off for 
 Bruges in order to learn the new method ; though 
 he arrived some time after the death of Van Eyck, 
 he contrived to acquire the method from some of 
 his pupils, or the third brother, Lambert Van 
 Eyck, and was thus the cause of oil painting 
 gradually superseding fresco painting some years 
 afterwards in Italy, first in Venice, then in Florence. 
 Margaret Van Eyck, the sister of these three 
 brothers, likewise painted. There are two pic- 
 tures by John Van Eyck in the National Gal- 
 lery. [R.N.W.] 
 
 EYKENS, Peter, a Flemish painter, 16th cent. 
 
 EYNDEN, R. Van, a Dutchart-wr., 1748-1819. 
 
 EYRE, Francis, a Roman Cath. wr., d. 1804. 
 
 EYSEL, J. P., a Ger. medical wr., 1652-1717. 
 
 EZEKIEL, a prophet of the Jews, 6th ct. B.C. 
 
 EZEKIEL, a Jewish dramatist, 1st century 
 
 EZEKIEL, an Armenian astronomer, 673-727. 
 
 EZQUERRA, a Spanish poet, 1568-1641. 
 
 EZZ-EDDIN, an Arabian poet, 13th century. 
 
 FABBRIZI, L. C. De, a Venet. savant, 15th c. 
 
 FABELL, Peter, an Engl, alchymist, 15th ct. 
 
 FABER, Basil, a Ger. lexicographer, d. 1576. 
 
 FABER, F., a Swiss ecclesiastic of* the Domini- 
 cans, author of 'Travels to Jerusalem,' 1441-1502. 
 
 FABER, F. E., a German Hebraist, 1745-1774. 
 
 FABER, John, a Roman Catholic divine, sur- 
 named, ' The Hammer of Heretics,' from the title 
 of one of his works, a native of Suabia, died 1541. 
 
 FABER, J., a German naturalist, 1570-1640. 
 FABER, John, a Dutch painter, died 1721. 
 FABER, Samuel, a German hist., 1657-1716. 
 FABRE, or LEFEVRE, J., a jurist, died 1340. 
 FABERT, Abraham, a Fr. marshal, one of the 
 most eel. gen. of the age of Louis XIV., 1599-1662. 
 FABIAN, Robert, an Engl, annalist, 15th ct. 
 FABIAN, St., a pope of Rome, martyred 250. 
 FABIUS, the name of an illustrious Roman fa- 
 
 232 
 
FAB 
 
 lily divided into many branches, the common stock 
 f which was Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, 
 rho escaped alone from the massacre of his family 
 t Cremera, 478 B.C., and made one of the decem- 
 irate. After him are mentioned Fabius Am- 
 ustus, dictator b.c. 350. Fabius Rullianus, 
 ) whose name Maximus was added, twice dicta- 
 )r, conqueror of the Samnites and Etruscans, 328- 
 80 B.C. Fabius Gurges, son of the preceding, 
 msul of Rome. Fabius Pictor, the first writer 
 f Roman history, 3d century B.C. Fabius Maxi- 
 ms Verrucosus, considered the greatest of his 
 imily, surnamed 'Cunctator' the temporizer, 
 om his system of warfare, successfully exempli- 
 ed in the conflict which he sustained with Han- 
 ibal, died 205 b.c. Fabius Maximus Quintus, 
 >n and next in office to the preceding, afterwards 
 msul. Fabius Maximus JSmilianus, dis- 
 nguished in the war of Persia and in Spain, consul 
 17 b.c. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, pro- 
 msul for Spain, censor 126 b.c. Fabius Maxi- 
 us Allobrogicus, consul 122 b.c. 
 FABIUS, Marcellinus, a writer of the 3d ct. 
 FABIUS, Rusticus, a Roman historian, 1st ct. 
 FABIUS, W., a Flemish Greek scholar, 16th ct. 
 FABRE, F. Xavier, a Fr. painter, 1766-1837. 
 FAB RE, J., a Fr. poet and ecclesiastic, 18th ct. 
 FABRE, John, the son of a French protestant, 
 ho in 1756-1762 voluntarily suffered six years' 
 avery in the galleys in place of his father, who 
 as condemned for preaching, 1729-1797. 
 FABRE, J. C., a Fr. ecclesiast. his., 1668-1753. 
 FABRE, L., a French catalogue wr., 1710-1788. 
 FABRE, M. J. V., a French poet, 1785-1831. 
 FABRE, P., a French snrgeon, 1716-1793. 
 FABRE D'EGLANTINE, Philippe Fran- 
 ces Nazaire, the son of a burgess, born at 
 imoux, 1759, was a dramatic author and pam- 
 aleteer, and acquired a celebrated name in the 
 >urse of the French revolution as a confederate 
 ' the Jacobins. With the advantage of fine 
 dents, and a literary education received in the 
 liege of the doctrinaires, he united all the vices 
 " a young man upon town, his conversational and 
 usical abilities rendering him a highly agreeable 
 not a very edifying companion. His short 
 )litical history is soon written. On the 10th 
 ugust, 1792, his notoriety as a pamphleteer 
 voured his nomination as a member of the pro- 
 sional commune at Paris, and he was afterwards 
 )pointed secretary-general in the ministry of jus- 
 ce under Danton. He was one of the members for 
 aris in the national convention, where he voted 
 r the king's death and other extreme measures, 
 lough he had the honour at last of suffering for 
 is moderation under the ascendancy of Robes- 
 erre. He was arrested by the decree of St. Just, 
 hich included Camille Desmoulins, Herault, 
 anton, Philippeaux, and Lacroix, on a charge of 
 >mplicity with D'Orleans and Dumouriez, to 
 store the monarchy, and was executed with 
 habot and Bazire, 5th April, 1794. His real 
 ime, like that of his companions in misfortune, 
 as the desire to return to moderate counsels, for 
 lough he was weak, inconstant, and ambitious, 
 5 was neither treacherous nor cruel. Fabre 
 ''Eglantine was accomplished in nearly all the 
 ne arts, but only cultivated them for the sake of 
 lining in society. He furnished the poetical 
 
 FAB 
 
 nomenclature of the republican calendar, the 
 mathematical portion of which was contrived by 
 Romme. fE.R. I 
 
 FABRE DE L'AUDE, Jean Pierre, born 
 1755, and distinguished as an economist, was 
 acting as advocate to the parliament of Toulouse 
 when the French revolution broke out> the prin- 
 ciples of which he adopted, so far as to secure his 
 continuance in various government employs, until 
 proscribed by the reign of terror. After the fall 
 of Robespierre he was returned to the council of 
 500 (1796), and was successively a member of the 
 tribunate (1801), president of the commission of 
 finances (1804), senator (1807), and afterwards a 
 count of the empire. His political alliances were 
 purely circumstantial, for though he voted against 
 the return of Napoleon to power in 1814, he 
 appeared in the chamber of peers during the hun- 
 dred days of the year following, and at length 
 served the state under the Bourbons. He is the 
 author of some works of temporary interest, upon 
 imposts and political questions. [E.R.] 
 
 FABRE DE L'HERAULT, Denis, first an 
 advocate of Montpellier, and afterwards a mem- 
 ber of the French national convention, where he 
 was rather useful than eloquent, has acquired a 
 name in the history of the period by his career in 
 the war of the republic against Spain. He was 
 sent to the army of the eastern Pyrenees as com- 
 missary after the fall of the Girondins, and dis- 
 played great courage, but so little prudential 
 conduct that the French forces were routed in 
 action, and their discipline reduced to anarchy. 
 Fabre de L'Herault was killed in an attempt to 
 rally the troops at Port Vendres, 20th December, 
 1793, and had a place decreed to him in the pan- 
 theon of French worthies, while the generals 
 Daoust and Delatre, of the same force, were exe- 
 cuted on the imputation of treason in the same 
 series of events. [E.R.] 
 
 FABRE D'OLIVET, Ant., a Hebrew scholar, 
 au. of ' Langue H^braique Restitute,' 1768-1825. 
 
 FABRET TI, Raphael, an It. antiq., 1620-1700. 
 
 FABRI, Alexander, an Ital. author, d. 1768. 
 
 FABRI, Dominicino, an Italian Jesuit and 
 professor of Belles Letlres, 1710-1761. 
 
 FABRI, Gab., an Ital. theologian, 1666-1711. 
 
 FABRI, Honorius, a Jesuit, distinguished as 
 a naturalist and physiologist, professor of philoso- 
 phy at Lyons, said to have anticipated the dis- 
 covery of Harvey, 1607- 1688. 
 
 FABRI, J., a polit. negotiator and annal., 14th c. 
 
 FABRI, J. R., a jurisconsult of Geneva, 17th ct. 
 
 FABRICIUS, Caius, a Roman general, sur- 
 named Luscinus, disting. for his victories over the 
 Samnites and Lucanians, twice consul, d. 250 b.c. 
 
 FABRICIUS, Carretto, grand master of the 
 order of St. John of Jerusalem, fortified Rhodes, 
 and made a treaty of alliance with the Persians 
 against the Turks, died 1521. 
 
 FABRICIUS, David, a Dutch minister and 
 astronomer, a disciple of Tycho Brahe, died 1617. 
 His son John, the first to discover the sun's spots, 
 on which he wrote a work, ' De-Maculis in Sole 
 Observatis,' published 1611, died about 1625. 
 
 FABRICIUS, F., a German savant, 1524-1573. 
 
 FABRICIUS, G., a German historian and poet, 
 auth. of 4 De Veteris Roma? Situ,' &c, 1516-1571. 
 
 FABRICIUS, J., a Ger. philologist, 1644-1729. 
 
 233 
 
FAB 
 
 FABRICIUS, J. Alb., a Ger. critic, 1668-1738. 
 
 FABRICIUS, Jean Chretien, a celebrated 
 entomologist, was born at Tundern, in the duchy 
 of Sleswick, in 1742. He died in 1807. He was 
 sent to the university of Upsal, where he studied 
 under Linnaeus, and became one of his most at- 
 tached and eminent pupils. Under such a teacher 
 he obtained a very considerable knowledge in bo- 
 tany and most of the other branches of natural 
 history. Having one day dissected the organs of 
 the mouth of a cockchafer, he conceived the idea 
 of using the organs of mastication as the means of 
 producing a classification of insects. He was ap- 
 pointed soon after this professor of natural history 
 at the university of Kiel, and from that time he 
 devoted himself almost entirely to the study of 
 entomology. In 1775 he published his ' Systema 
 EntomologiaV in which he laid before the world 
 his new mode of arrangement; and for the re- 
 mainder of his life he continued in successive 
 Eublications to evolve his system with much ability, 
 [is svstematic arrangement has been followed by 
 few, but his mode of distinguishing the genera is 
 still retained by entomologists. Fabricius possessed 
 a great knowledge of languages ; and he travelled 
 over most of the countries of Europe in search of 
 new insects, and for the purpose of examining the 
 museums of the different towns he visited. He 
 made frequent journeys to England, where he made 
 the acquaintance and friendship of Banks, John 
 Hunter, Francillon, and most of the naturalists of 
 repute living at that time. He was much esteemed 
 for his amiability of disposition ; and it is said, 
 when he heard of the bombardment of Copenhagen 
 by the English fleet a profound melancholy seized 
 him, from which he never recovered. [W.B.] 
 
 FABRICIUS, Jer., an Ital. phys., 1537-1619. 
 
 FABRICIUS, L., a Ger. Hebraist, 1555-1629. 
 
 FABRICIUS, Th., a fol. of Luther, 1501-1559. 
 
 FABRICIUS DE HILDEN, W., a German sur- 
 geon, auth. of a ' Manual of Medicine,' 1560-1634. 
 
 FABRICY, Gab., a Fr. archaeologist, 1725-1800. 
 
 FABRIS, N., an Ital. mechanician, 1739-1801. 
 
 FABRONI, Angiolo, an Italian savant and 
 journalist, distinguished for his biographies of 
 'Italian literati, of the Medici, &c, 1732-1803. 
 
 FABRONI, Giovanni V. M., a natural philos. 
 and wr. on agriculture, economy, &c, 1752-1822. 
 
 FABROT, C. A., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1580-1659. 
 
 FABRY, Jean Baptiste Germain, author of 
 numerous works on history, politics, and religion, 
 beginning with the ' Spectateur Francais,' in 1805, 
 and all published anonymously; secretary to 
 Fouche in the interest of Buonaparte, and after- 
 wards a partizan of the restoration, 1780-1821. 
 
 FACCIARDI, C, an Italian ascetic, 16th cent. 
 
 FACCIOLATI, James, a celebrated Italian 
 lexicographer, author of a great Latin dictionary, 
 reprinted in 4 volumes folk/ 1839, 1682-1769. 
 
 FACINI, Peter, an Ital. painter, 1566-1602. 
 
 FACUNDUS, an African bishop, 6th century. 
 
 FADLALLA, an Oriental historian, 13th cent. 
 
 FAES, P. Van Der, aFlem. paint., 1618-1680. 
 
 FAGAN, B. C, a Fr. dramatic wr , 1702-1755. 
 
 FAGEL, the name of a Dutch family, dist. as 
 partizans of the Stadtholder system. The principal 
 members are Gaspar, an active party to the 
 peace of Nimeguen, 1678, and to the policy which 
 placed William III. on the throne of England, 
 
 FAI 
 
 1629-1718; Francis Nicholas, his nephew, a 
 dist. general, d. 1718; Henry, a statesman, dis- 
 tinguished by the treaty of peace concluded between 
 England and the Netherlands in 1814. 
 
 FAGGIUOLA, U., a Ghibelline chief, kid. 1319. 
 
 FAGIUOLI, J. B., an Italian poet, 1600-17-12. 
 
 FAGIUS, P., a Ger. prot. theologian and Heb. 
 scholar, dist. at the revival of learning, 1504-1549. 
 
 FAGON, W. C, a French botanist, 1638-1718. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, a physician 
 and philosopher of Dantzic, inv. of the theniinme- 
 ter and barometer which bear his name, 1686-1736. 
 
 FAINI, Diamante, an Italian poetess, d. 1770. 
 
 FAIPOULT, a French statesman, 1752-1817. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Edward, an English poet and 
 translator of Tasso, son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of 
 Denton in Yorkshire, and brother of Lord Fairfax, 
 the subject of the following notice, whom he assist- 
 ed in the management of his affairs. Besides his 
 ' Tasso' and his own poems, which consist of twelve 
 eclogues, he is the author of a prose treatise on 
 witchcraft, and a history of the Black Prince, but 
 the latter perished in MS. at the fire of Whitehall. 
 He died in 1632, with the reputation of a gentle- 
 man and a scholar. His son William is known 
 for his translation of ' The Lives and Opinions of 
 the most Celebrated Philosophers,' from the Greek 
 of Diogenes Laertius. [E.R.] 
 
 FAIRFAX, Ferdinand, Lord, father of the 
 celebrated general by Mary his wife, daughter of 
 the earl of Musgrave, and himself a general in the 
 parliamentary army, is memorable for his total 
 rout by the earl of Newcastle, 30th June, 1643, 
 and his subsequent successes in Yorkshire. His 
 military history is closely connected with that of 
 his son, who was for six years his companion-in- 
 arms, and who succeeded to the title and estates, 
 by the death of his father, in 1648. Lord Ferdi- 
 nand Fairfax had received his commission as ge- 
 neral of the parliamentary forces in the north, at 
 the commencement of the civil war in 1642, when 
 he found himself opposed to a confederacy of the 
 neighbouring counties, united in a league for the 
 king by the politic earl of Newcastle. " This cir- 
 cumstance must account for his early reverses, for 
 though he never acquired the same importance as 
 his son, he was a general of great valour. [E.R.] 
 
 FAIRFAX, Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord 
 Fairfax, born at Denton, near Leeds, in 1608, 
 was the son of Ferdinand Lord Fairfax. He was 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and 
 served while a very young man under Lord Vere 
 in the English auxiliary army in the Low Countries. 
 On his return to England he married, and lived 
 for some years in the country, a silent but stem 
 observer of the follies and oppressions of King 
 Charles's government. The Fairfaxes were zeal- 
 ous presbyterians ; and, when the troubles of the 
 nation broke out into civil war, they were active 
 in arming their tenantry and maintaining the 
 cause of the parliament against the royalists in 
 Yorkshire and the neighbouring counties. Lord 
 Ferdinand Fairfax was made general of the par- 
 liamentary armies in the north, and Sir Thomas 
 was general of the horse under him. The Fair- 
 faxes sustained several reverses in the beginning 
 of the war ; but Sir Thomas kept the field with in- 
 domitable spirit, and gradually raised the discipline 
 and corn-age, as well as the numbers of his troops, 
 
 234 
 
u>r-\J//?sr/r6^ t^u^yka^. Q^wmk/ //-& -& *jsfot&J0t t ? 
 
 
 sum,, y^fta & i_ya??2&j <J7tzrzi'. 
 
 <pft#sr/ki <y / rab??ya? 2i 
 
 na 
 
 ^W (T t-Jrt&K* 
 

FAI 
 
 1644 he was one of the commanders on the par- 
 mentary side in the great battle of Marston Moor, 
 ich destroyed the royalist force in the north of 
 gland. When the parliamentary army was new- 
 >delled, Fairfax was appointed generalissimo, 
 th Cromwell for his lieutenant-general. On the 
 th of June, 1645, they fought and won the de- 
 ive battle of Naseby. Fairfax then conquered 
 e king's strongholds in the west of England, and 
 fore the close of 1646 the war was ended. In 
 strange series of intrigues and coup-de-mains 
 lich now ensued, and which led to the trial 
 d execution of the king, and the elevation of 
 omwell to supreme power, Fairfax was a mere 
 strument in the hands of more subtle and reso- 
 te men. He was only fit for the field ; and the 
 adiness and steadiness for which he was pre- 
 linent as a soldier, utterly deserted him when he 
 is required to act as a statesman. Clarendon 
 ys truly of him, ' Fairfax wished for nothing 
 at Cromwell did, and yet contributed to bring it 
 to pass.' After the king's death Fairfax re- 
 ined his commission, and lived in retirement 
 tring the whole period of the commonwealth, 
 e had inherited the family property and title on 
 s father's death in 1647, and the management of 
 3 estates now became the whole employment of 
 e late renowned generalissimo of the parliament's 
 ctorious armies. Cromwell treated him with 
 ntempt. After the great protector's death in 
 >58, it became speedily manifest how unequal 
 ichard Cromwell was to the government which 
 id been bequeathed to him; and men of all 
 irties, except some of the more enthusiastic re- 
 iblicans, and a few of the army chiefs, looked to 
 le recall of the old race of kings as the only 
 leans of securing peace and order. Fairfax took 
 !i important part in bringing about the restoration, 
 Thile Monk was still in Scotland, Lord Fairfax 
 bllected forces in Yorkshire, and declared himself 
 ir a free parliament and the restoration of the 
 Lonarchy. He refused, however, to take the chief 
 bmmand of the enterprise out of Monk's hands, 
 jttd sought neither rank nor wealth for himself in 
 ting what he believed to be his duty. He was 
 he of the commissioners sent 18th May, 1660, to 
 fait upon Charles II. at Breda, and he accom- 
 lanied the restored sovereign at the ceremony of 
 Us coronation. He then retired again to his York- 
 hire estates. Lord Fairfax died on the 2d Novem- 
 Er, 1671. [E.S.C.] 
 
 FAISTENBERGER, A., a painter of Tyrol, 
 List, for his landscapes after Poussin, 1678-1722. 
 FA1THORNE, W.,an Eng. engrav., 1616-1671. 
 FAKHR-ED-DEEN, a prince of the Druzes, 
 mnquished and stranded by Amurath IV., 1635. 
 FAKHR-ED-DEEN-RAZZY, a Mussulman 
 pistorian, quoted by De Sacy and Reinaud, 13th c. 
 j FALCK, J. P., a Swedish naturalist, 18th cent. 
 | FALCONBERG, the name of an ancient Eng- 
 lish baronetage, one possessor of which distinguished 
 |rimself as a Yorkist at the defeat of Clifford, and 
 ;he succeeding battle of Touton, 1461. 
 i FALCONBERG, Mary, countess of, third 
 daughter of Oliver Cromwell, a woman of remark- 
 'ible beauty and spirit, and distinguished for her 
 political talents, aided the restoration and d. 1712. 
 FALCONE, A., a Neapolitan paint., 1600-1665 
 FALCONER, T., an Eng. chronolog., 1736-1792 
 
 FAN 
 FALCONER, W., an English physician and 
 chemist, distinguished as the discoverer of the pro- 
 perties of carbonic acid gas, 1743-1824. 
 
 FALCONER, William, a popular English poet 
 and naval writer, author of 'The Shipwreck,' born 
 1730, lost at sea with the Aurora frigate, 1769. 
 
 FALCONET, A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1611-1691. 
 His son Camille, a literary savant, 1671-1762. 
 FALCONET, S. M., a Fr. sculptor, 1716-1791. 
 FALCONETTO, Giovanni Maria, an Italian 
 architect, born at Verona 1458, died 1534. 
 
 FALCONIERI, 0., an Ital. antiq., 1646-1676. 
 FALEDRO, Vital, a Venet. doge, 1102-1117. 
 FALENS, C. Van, a Flem. painter, 1682-1733. 
 FALETTI, J., an Italian poet, 16th century. 
 FALIERI, Marino, successor of Andrea Dan- 
 dolo as doge of Venice in 1354, attempted to re- 
 volutionize the state in 1375, when he was be- 
 headed, and four hundred of his accomplices 
 hanged. He is the hero of Lord Byron. 
 
 FALK, J. D., a Ger. satiric poet, 1770-1826. 
 FALKENSTEIN, J. H., a German antiquary, 
 and compiler of historical documents, 1682-1760. 
 
 FALKLAND, Henry Cary, first Viscount, 
 was the son of Sir Edward Cary, and distin- 
 guished himself as a statesman in the reign of 
 James I., d. 1633. Lucius Cary, second Viscount 
 Falkland, son of the preceding, well known to 
 readers of history as one of the most perfect 
 characters of his age, was born about 1610, and 
 died of a wound which he received at the battle 
 of Newbery, where he fought in the interest of the 
 king, 1643. He was not only a gentleman, a 
 scholar, and a soldier, but a sincere patriot. 
 Henry Lucius Cary, third Viscount Falkland, 
 son of the preceding, died young, 1663. 
 
 FALKNER, Thomas, an English Jesuit and 
 missionary, au. of a 'Descrip. of Patagonia,' d. 1780. 
 FALLE, Philip, a divine of Jersey, 1655-1742. 
 FALLETTI, Jerome, an Italian poet, ambas- 
 sador for the princes of Este into the chief states 
 of Europe, au. of The Germ. War,' &c, 1518-1564. 
 FALLOPIUS, Gabriel, a famous Italian ana- 
 tomist, the first to give exact descriptions of the 
 organ of hearing, of the organization of the fcetus, 
 and of the tubes of the uterus, since called by his 
 name, professor at Pisa and Modena, 1523-1562. 
 FALLOWS, F., an Engl, astrono., 1789-1831. 
 FALSTAFT, J., an English captain, died 1469. 
 FANCOURT, Samuel, a dissenting minis- 
 ter and author, first projector of circulating 
 libraries, which he began about 1740, died 1768. 
 
 FANSHAWE, Sir Richard, an English poet 
 and diplomatist in the interest of the crown at the 
 period of the civil wars. He was a remarkable 
 linguist, and was distinguished for his sincerity, 
 both as a man and statesman ; he negotiated the 
 peace between Spain and Portugal in 1665, and is 
 the au. of ' Letters ' during his embassy, 1607-1666. 
 FANTIN-DESODOARTS, Antoine Etienne 
 Nicolas, a voluminous author of history and 
 jurisprudence, born in Dauphine 1738, died in 
 Paris 1820. M. Desodoarts made his debut as a 
 Jesuit, and bore the title of Vicar-General of Em- 
 brun, but appears not to have exercised its func- 
 tions. He became known at the daAvn of the re- 
 volution as an advocate of the Jacobins, and has 
 given his principles to the world, more especially, 
 in his work entitled ' Histoire Philosophique de la 
 
 235 
 
FAN 
 
 Revolution de France depuis la Convocation des 
 Notables jusque' a la Separation de la Convention.' 
 The critical account of liis works in the ' Biogra- 
 phic des Contemporains,' would lead to the conclu- 
 sion that he was an ardent imaginative writer, 
 clear and elegant in the style of his narrative, but 
 wanting in virtuous principle, and not reliable as 
 j;n authority for the tacts of contemporary history. 
 He is one of numerous examples supplied by the 
 period, demonstrating that the education of the 
 church and the bar at that time, was sufficient to 
 pervert the noblest talents, and prepare men to 
 accept the vilest expedients in politics and morals 
 in place of principle. [K-R-] 
 
 FANTONI, an Italian historian of the last cent. 
 
 FANTONI, J., an Ital. anatomist, 1675-1758. 
 
 FANTONI, J., an Italian lyric, 1755-1807. 
 
 FANUCCI, J. B., an Ital. historian, 1756-1834. 
 
 FARDELLA, M. A., a Sicil. philos., 1650-1718. 
 
 FAREL, William, a native of the French 
 Alps, and one of the earliest converts of the re- 
 formed doctrines in Paris, is known as the pioneer 
 of the reformation in Dauphine" and Switzerland. 
 He was one of the most intrepid assailants of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, and distinguished as a 
 preacher rather than a writer. When addressing 
 the agitated multitudes who listened to him, 
 neither the clash of arms, the ringing of bells, nor 
 the threats of his enemies, could stem the torrent 
 of his eloquence. He was subject to much perse- 
 cution, and escaped many dangers, dying m the 
 seventy-sixth year of his age, in 1565. 
 
 FARIA, Anth. De, a Portuguese adventurer, 
 dis. himself against the Indian corsairs, 1505-1550. 
 
 FARIA, M. De, a Portug. antiq., 1581-1655. 
 
 FARIA-Y-SOUSA, Manuel De, a Portuguese 
 historian, poet, and literary critic, secretary to the 
 Roman ambassador, died 1647. 
 
 FARIN, N., a Fr. miscellaneous writer, d. 1675. 
 
 FARINACCI, P., an Italian jurist, 1554-1618. 
 
 FARINATO, P., an Italian painter, 1525-1606. 
 
 FARINELLI, named CARLO BROSCHI, one 
 of the most extraordinary singers that ever lived, 
 was born at Naples in 1705. In 1722 he was en- 
 gaged at the Alberto Theatre of Rome, and while 
 there contended with and overcame a famous per- 
 former on the trumpet. From Rome he went to 
 Bologna, thence to Venice and Vienna, at which 
 latter place he was received with especial honour 
 by the emperor Charles VI. He came to England 
 in 1734, and the effect of his singing is described as 
 being something like enchantment. In 1737 he 
 went to Spain, where he remained for twenty years, 
 enjoying the friendship and confidence of two 
 monarchs, Philip V. and Ferdinand VI., and hav- 
 ing power almost equal to a prime minister. Dur- 
 ing his residence in Spain he had a pension for life 
 settled upon him amounting to upwards of 2,000. 
 There are many beautiful stories told of the good- 
 ness of heart and disinterestedness of Farinelli 
 which it is impossible to introduce into this brief 
 memoir. In 1759 Farinelli returned to Italy, and 
 took up his final residence at Bologna. One of 
 his biographers says, ' this extraordinary musician 
 and blameless man died in the eightieth year of 
 his age.' [J.M.] 
 
 FARISSOL, Abraham, a rabbin, 15th cent. 
 
 FARMER, Hugh, an English dissenting min- 
 ister and theologian, author of tracts on the mir- 
 
 FAU 
 
 acles, on demoniacs, on the worship of human 
 spirits by the heathen, &c, 1714-1787. 
 
 FARMER, Richard, a distinguished scholar 
 and critic, author of an 'Essay on the Learning 
 of Shakspeare,' 1735-1797. 
 
 FARNABY, T., a wr. of school classics, d. 1647. 
 
 FARNESE. The Italian house of this name has 
 furnished history with many illustrious names, the 
 principal of which are Peter, general of the 
 Florentines, d. 1363. Peter Louis, son of Paul 
 III., invested with the duchies of Parma and Pla- 
 centia, killed in a revolt, 1547. Octavius, son 
 of the preceding, and son-in-law of Charles V., d. 
 1585. Alexander, the elder brother of Octavius, 
 a distinguished negotiator and ecclesiastic, 1520- 
 1589. Alexander, son of Octavius and Mar- 
 garet of Austria, known in history as duke of 
 Parma, and distinguished as a general in the in- 
 terest of Philip of Spain, d. 1592. The last of 
 the Farnese, except Elizabeth, wife of Philip V. of 
 Spain, died in 1731, when the duchy reverted to 
 her son Don Filippo, in whose possession it was 
 confirmed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 FARNEWORTH, Ellis, rector of Carsington, 
 in Derbyshire, known as a translator, died 1763. 
 
 FAROALD, the^rs^ of the name duke of Spo- 
 leto 570-601 ; the second, afterw. a monk, 703-724. 
 
 FARQUHAR, G., an Irish comedian and dra- 
 matic writer, author of 'The Constant Couple,' 
 'The Beaux's Stratagem,' &c, 1678-1707. 
 
 FARRANT, Rich., an Eng. composer, d. 1585. 
 
 FARREN, Eliza, a celebrated actress, after- 
 wards countess of Derby, born in Cork, 1759, 
 married to the earl of Derby 1797, died 1829. 
 
 FARRILL, Don Gonzalo, a Spanish general 
 and statesman, minister of war in 1808, under 
 Ferd. VII., whose abdica. he opposed, 1757-1831. 
 
 FASOLO, J. A., an Italian painter, 1528-1572. 
 
 FASSINO, The Chev. N. H. J. De, a French 
 painter, director of the Acad, at Liege, 1728-1811. 
 
 FASSOLA-DA-PAVIA, Bernard, an Italian 
 painter of the Milanese school, 16th century. 
 
 FASTOLFF, Sir John, a brave English 
 general, distinguished in the French wars of the 
 15th century, absurdly supposed to be the original 
 of Shakspeare's Sir John FalstafF, died 1469. 
 
 FATAH, Abou-Nasr, an Arab, wr., 6th cent 
 
 FATIO DE DUILLER, N., a French mathe- 
 matician and mechanical artist, residing in Lon- 
 don, inventor of the jewelling of watches, and a 
 great contributor to astrono. science, 1664-1753. 
 
 FAU, J. N., a Latin poet of Naples, died 1665. 
 
 FAUCCI, C, a Florentine engraver, last cent. 
 
 FAUCHE-BOREL, L., a Swiss adventurer, 
 employed as a spy by the Bourbons, 1762-1829. 
 
 FAUCHER, Caesar and Constantine, twin 
 brothers and soldiers, distinguished in the wars of 
 the French revolution, born 1760, both shot 1815. 
 
 FAUCHET, Cl., a French hist., 1529-1621. 
 
 FAUCHET, Claude, a French priest, alike 
 remarkable for his physical courage, and moral 
 and intellectual intrepidity, was born at Dome, in 
 the department of the Nievre, 1744, and was suc- 
 cessively grand vicar of the archbishop of Bourges, 
 preacher to the king, and 'abbs' commandataire' 
 of Montfort, before the revolution, and afterwards 
 constitutional bishop of Calvados. He began his 
 political career as a chief of the Illuminati, and a 
 reformer of the church, on the principles of pliilo- 
 
 236 
 
FAU 
 
 pphy and national independence advocated in 
 is work ' De la Religion Nationale,' published 
 789. Rendered famous by his eloquence and his 
 -ritings, he headed the deputation to De Launay, 
 'hen the Bastile was besieged, and advanced 
 ivord in hand in front of the combatants, whom, 
 ; is said, he rallied three times to the assault, 
 t was Fauchet also who gave the sanction of a 
 sligious blessing to the national tricolor when 
 rst used, and advised the consolidation of the 
 ational guard under the command of Lafayette. 
 lS the revolution proceeded, he established a kind 
 f political reunion in the vicinity of the Palais 
 feoyal, and had Condorcet for one of his coadjutors, 
 pa a board of correspondence devoted to the 
 ropagation of the natural rights and duties of 
 Trench citizens. As a member of the first parlia- 
 ment he opened the debate on religion by a bitter 
 beech against the priesthood, and publicly stripped 
 Iff the insignia of his order. Notwithstanding his 
 hare in scenes that were worthier of the Parisian 
 emagogue than the minister of religion, he bitterly 
 unented the king's death ; and as an ally, both 
 n the score of humanity, and on philosophical 
 rinciples, with the Girondins, he shared their fate, 
 eing guillotined with the twenty-two on the 31st 
 f October, 1793. The particular accusation 
 gainst the Abbe* Fauchet was his complicity with 
 Jharlotte Corday, he having introduced her to the 
 itting of the convention, on the day of her arrival 
 a Paris, but this was only a pretence to disguise 
 he hatred of the terrorists. He is the author of 
 umerous orations published between 1774 and 
 792, the most remarkable of which is his ' Ser- 
 lon sur l'accord de la Religion et de la Liberte,' 
 791. [E.R.] 
 
 FAUJAS DE ST. FOND, Bartholomew, a 
 Yench naturalist, regarded as one of the founders 
 f geological science, 1750-1819. 
 
 FAUST, John, a German theologian, known 
 s Dr. Faustus, and regarded as a magician from 
 is being addicted to chemistry and astrology, &c. 
 'he legend of his compact with the devil, is the 
 abject of Goethe's magnificent drama, and of a 
 oem by Lessing, and other compositions of genius 
 i the German language. Dr. Faustus lived at 
 he beginning of the 15th century. 
 
 FAUST, or FUST, John, a goldsmith of May- 
 nce, to whom the invention of printing has been 
 scribed, now allowed to Guttemberg, died 1466. 
 
 FAUSTINA, the name of two Roman ladies, 
 nother and daughter, both remarkable for their 
 rofligacy. The elder was married to Antoninus 
 'ius, and died in the third year of his reign, 141 ; 
 he younger was the wife of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 FAUSTUS, an Arminian prelate and hist., 4th c. 
 
 FAVART, C. S., a Fr. comic au., 1710-1792. 
 
 FAVIER, , secretary-general of the 
 
 tates of Languedoc, author of ' Politique de tous 
 as Cabinets de 1' Europe pendant les R6gnes de 
 .ouis XV., et de Louis XVI.,' 1720-1784. 
 
 FAVIER, N., councillor of the parliament of 
 'aris, au. of histor. memoirs, published 1572, 1579. 
 
 FAVILA, king of Asturias and Leon, 737-739. 
 
 FAVORINUS, a Platonic philosopher and 
 hetorician, a native of Aries in Gaul. He was the 
 uthor of some historical and philosophical works, 
 nly fragments of which have been handed down 
 a the citations of Diogenes Laertius, died 135. 
 
 FEL 
 
 , FAVORINUS, V., an Ital. scholar, died 1527. 
 
 FAVORITI, one of seven illustrious Latin poets 
 who flourished in Italy in the 17th cent., 1624-82. 
 ^ FAVRAT, F. A., a Russian general, author of 
 historical memoirs of the Polish war in 1794-96. 
 
 FAVRAY, Anthony, a Fr. painter, last cent. 
 
 FAVRE, A., a French jurisconsult, 1557-1624. 
 
 FAVRE, P., a disciple of Loyola, 1506-1546. 
 
 FAWCETT, Benj., a dissenting minister, last c. 
 
 FAWCETT, John, an English actor, 1769-1837. 
 
 FAWCETT, Sir W., an English officer, distin. 
 in Germanv, au. of some milit. treatises, 1728-1804. 
 
 FAWKES, F., a poet andmiscel. wr., 1721-1777. 
 
 FAWKES, Guido, or Guy, a native of York, a 
 soldier in the Spanish army serving in Flanders, 
 executed with seven others in January 1606, for 
 the gunpowder plot of the preceding 5th of Nov. 
 
 FAYE, Ch., Fr. ambass. to Holland, 1577-1638. 
 
 FAYETTE. See La Fayette. 
 
 FAYEZ-BEN-NASRILLAH, tenth Fatimite 
 caliph of Damascus, reigned 1155-1160 
 
 FEARNE, C, an Eng. metaphysic, 1749-1794. 
 
 FEATLEY, Dan., a controv. divine, 1582-1644. 
 
 FECHT, John, a German divine, 1636-1716. 
 
 FECKENHAM, John De, properly John 
 Howman, of Feckenham, the last mitred abbot 
 who sat in the House of Lords, disting. for his ac- 
 tivity, and for his writings against the reformation ; 
 last abbot of Westminster, which appointment he 
 received on the accession of Queen Mary, d. 1585. 
 
 FEDER, J. G. H., a Germ, philos., 1740-1821. 
 
 FEDOR-IVANOVITCH, czar of Rus., 1557-98. 
 
 FEDOR-ALEXIEVITCH, or Fedor II., czar 
 of Russia, reigned 1657-1676. 
 
 FEITAMA, Sibrand, a Dutch poet, 1694-1758. 
 
 FEITH, Everhard, a Dutch archasol., 16th c. 
 
 FEITH, R., a Dutch dramatic wr., 1753-1824. 
 
 FELIBIEN, Andrew, a French art-writer, 
 friend of Nicholas Poussin, 1619-1695. His son 
 J. Francois, author of ' The Lives and Works of 
 Celebrated Architects,' 1657-1733. Another son, 
 Dominique Michel, an ecclesiastical historian, 
 1666-1719. His third son James, a Roman 
 Catholic divine, 1636-1716. 
 
 FELICE, F. B. De, an Ital. critic, 1723-1789. 
 
 FELICIANI, Por., an Ital. prelate, 1562-1632. 
 
 FELICIANO, G. B., a Venetian schol., 16th c. 
 
 FELIX. There are two saints of this name 
 Felix, bishop of Dunwich, a founder of churches, 
 monasteries, and schools, died 646; and Felix 
 De Valois, a French ecclesiastic, founder of the 
 order of the Redemption, 1127-1212. 
 
 FELIX, the Jirst of the name pope of Rome, 
 269-274; the second, an anti-pope elected under 
 the patronage of the emperor Constance, 355-358 ; 
 the third, 483-487 ; the fourth, elected under the 
 patronage of Theodoric, king of the Goths, 526- 
 530 ; the fifth, formerly Amadeus VIII., duke of 
 Savoy, reigned as pope 1439-1449, abdicated in 
 the last named year, and died at Genoa, 1451. 
 
 FELIX DE BEAUJOUR, L., a Fr. economist, 
 au. of Theorie des Gouvernements,' &c, 1765-1836. 
 
 FELIX DE TASSY, C. F., a Fr. surg., d. 1703. 
 
 FELL, John, a dissenting minister, disting. as 
 a religious and miscellaneous writer, 1735-1797. 
 
 FELL, Dr. John, bishop of Oxford, and son 
 of Samuel Fell, distinguished for his learning and 
 munificence to the university, author of some 
 translations from the Latin, 1625-1686. 
 
 237 
 
FEL 
 _ FELL, Samuel, dean of Christchurch, and 
 vice-chancellor of the university of* Oxford, distin- 
 guished, like his son Dr. John Fell, as a royalist. 
 He is said to have died of a broken heart on hear- 
 ing of the execution of Charles, 1594-1649. 
 
 FELLEXBERG, Philippe Emanuel De, 
 a descendant, on his mother's side, from the fa- 
 mous Dutch admiral Van Tromp, was born at 
 Berne, in Switzerland, 1771, and is celebrated as 
 an agriculturist, and founder of an institute at 
 Hoffwill for the theory and practice of agriculture, 
 including manufactories of the instruments and 
 machines, and a school of industry for the poor, 
 on the general principles of Pestalozzi. M. de 
 Fellenberg, like every other practical benefactor 
 of his fellow-creatures, had much envious and 
 ignorant opposition to overcome before he was 
 allowed to pursue his benevolent plans without 
 molestation: a government commission was named 
 to inquire into the working of his institute, the 
 result of which was his recognition as a man of 
 the highest talents and public virtue. He is the 
 author of several works on agriculture, and of 
 memoirs on the institution at Hoffwill, published 
 at the beginning of the present century. [E.R.] 
 
 FELLER, Francis Xavier, a Flemish Jesuit, 
 ftuth. of an ' Historical Dictionary,' &c, 1735-1802. 
 
 FELLER, Joachim, a German poet, professor 
 at Leipzig, killed by falling from a window in a 
 state of somnambulism, 1628-1691. His son, 
 Joachim Frederic, secretary to the duke of 
 Weimar, au. of ' Monumenta Inedita,' 1673-1726. 
 
 FELLON, T. B., a Fr. Latin poet, 1672-1759. 
 
 FELLOWES, R., LL.D., a misc. wr., 1770-1847. 
 
 FELTHAM, Owen, an Engl, moralist, 17th ct. 
 
 FELTON, H., a learned Engl, div., 1679-1740. 
 
 FELTON, Nicholas, bp. of Bristol, d. 1626. 
 
 FELTON, T. B., a French Jesuit, 1672-1759. 
 
 FENELON, Francis De Salignac De La 
 Motte, an eminent and pious Frenchman, was 
 born in 1651 at the castle of Fenelon in Perigord. 
 His studies were pursued successively at the univer- 
 sities of Cahors and Paris, and having directed his 
 views steadily toward the church, he became qualified 
 to obtain orders at the age of twenty-four. His 
 first appointment was Superior of the newly con- 
 verted female catholics, and the extraordinary 
 success with which he discharged the duties of 
 this station brought him under the notice of Louis 
 XIV., who employed him on a special mission to 
 convert the protestants of Poitou. Fenelon stipu- 
 lated that no means of conversion were to be used 
 but those of persuasion, and having obtained the 
 royal sanction to this express condition, he ac- 
 cepted the embassy. In 1689 he was intrusted 
 with a still more delicate and responsible office, 
 that of undertaking the education of the duke of 
 Burgundy and his younger brothers. It was for the 
 benefit of his royal pupils that he wrote his Telema- 
 chus, and to reward the assiduity and faithfulness 
 with which he discharged his duties as preceptor 
 to the royal children, he was elevated to the arch- 
 bishoprick of Cambray. He had not been long, 
 however, installed in that see, when espousing the 
 cause of Madame Guyon, the famous pietist, 
 whose principles were embodied in her book, the 
 'Maxims of the Saints,' he was rancorously at- 
 tacked by Bossuet, his defence; placed by the pope 
 in the list of prohibited books, and he himself 
 
 FER 
 
 summoned on pain of excommunication to re 
 nounce the heresy. He read his recantation in tin 
 pulpit of his own cathedral. But this was not tb 
 end of his trials. Bossuet, who had beco' 
 ter enemy, incensed the mind of Louis XI Y 
 him, by alleging that ' Telemachus,' which had beei 
 
 Eublisned through the perfidy of a secretary whi 
 ad been employed in transcribing it, wa 
 attack on the character of his government . 
 6onal ambition, his love of glory, and his p; 
 pursuit of war. Fenelon was in consequent 
 from the court. But a high tribute was paid to hi 
 talents and worth by the foreign invaders, who b 1 
 the express commands of the duke of Marlboroqjl 
 exempted his lands from pillage, while that 
 himself, and his allies, showed him every mark o 
 courtesy. Fenelon, though he continued withii 
 the pale of the popish church, saw through it 
 corruptions and gross superstitions. He was i 
 very pious man, and his grand habitual aim wa 
 to form his own character in conformity with tb 
 mind of Jesus Christ. He was temperate almos 
 to abstemiousness, ate little, slept httle, took m 
 recreation except a few hours daily in the exercise 
 of walking or riding, while all the rest of his timi 
 was devoted to the discharge of his duties in socia 
 intercourse with his friends, in visiting the poor 
 in admonishing, reproving, or comforting his nod 
 as circumstances demanded. The most of his re- 
 venues were devoted to benevolent purposes, U 
 help in the education of poor clergymen, to assis 
 indigent old gentlemen, and to extend the meani 
 of usefulness to the public hospitals. His death 
 which took place in the thirty-third year of his 
 age, showed, by the universal regret it produced 
 how strong a hold he had taken of the hearts of hi 
 countrymen, while his literary works have erecte( 
 a monument which will transmit his name witl 
 honour to a distant posterity. [R.J.* 
 
 FENN, John, an Engl, catholic div., d. 1615." 
 
 FENN, Sir J., an English antiq., 1739-1794. 
 
 FENNER, W., a puritan divine, 1560-1640. 
 
 FENTON, Edw., an Engl, navigator, d. 1603. 
 
 FENTON, Elijah, a poet and dramatic writer 
 chiefly celebrated for his share in Pope's transla- 
 tion of the Odyssey, 1683-1730. 
 
 FENTON, Sir G., an English transl., d. 1608. 
 
 FER, N. De, a French geographer, 1646-1720. 
 
 FERAND, J. F., a Fr. grammarian, 1725-1807 
 
 FERBER, John Jas., a Swedish mil 
 auth. of ' Mineralogy of Bohemia,' &c, 1743-1710 
 
 FERDINAND, Cil, a French poet, die 
 
 FERDINAND, John, a Sp. Jesuit, died 1595. 
 
 FERDINAND L, emperor of Germany, brothe: 
 and successor of Charles V., born 1503, king o 
 Hungary and Bohemia 1527, king of the Romans 
 1531, emperor 1538 to his death 1564; in hi. ! 
 reign the empire was separated from all depend 
 dence on the papacy. Ferdinand II., <. 
 of the preceding, born 1578, king of Bohei. 
 king ot Hungary 1618, emperor 1619 to his deatl! 
 1637. The principal events of his reign 
 revolt of Bohemia, subdued by the battle <>: 
 and the progress of the thirty years' war. J i i: 
 dinand III., son and successor of the preceding] 
 born 1608, king of Hungary 1625, king ot 1 
 1627, king of the Romans 1636, emperor 1637 t 
 his death in 1657. The great event of his reigi 
 was the peace of Westphalia. 
 
 238 
 
FER 
 
 FERDINAND, king of Bohemia, the first three 
 
 me as the preceding ; the fourth of the name, son 
 
 ( Ferdinand III., born 1634, crowned king of 
 
 tohemia 1646, king of Hungary 1647, died 1654. 
 
 'FERDINAND, king of Portugal, born 1340, 
 
 ]cceeded his father Peter I., 1367, died 1383. 
 
 j FERDINANDS, The, of Spain, are Ferdi- 
 
 ivsdL, king of Castile and Leon, reigned 1037- 
 
 165. Ferdinand II., king of Leon, and regent of 
 
 jkstile during the minority of Alfonso IX., reigned 
 
 57-1187. Ferdinand III., born 1200, king of 
 
 ptile 1217, king of Leon 1230, died 1252. 
 
 Jcrdinand IV., born 1279, king of Castile 1285, 
 
 fed 1312. Ferdinand V., born 1452, married 
 
 ibella of Castile 1469, became king of Castile 
 
 74, succeeded his father as king of Arragon 1479, 
 
 ;d, after a glorious reign, signalized by the union 
 
 the Spanish kingdoms, the subjugation of the 
 
 oors, and the discovery of America, &c, 1516. 
 
 srdinand VI., born 1713, succeeded 1746, died 
 
 59. Ferdinand VII., born 1784, named king 
 
 his father, who abdicated 1808, detained at 
 
 ilencay by Napoleon, who placed his brother 
 
 seph on the throne till 1813, after which his 
 
 ites revolutionized, 1819-20, and he died 1833. 
 
 FERDINANDS, The, of Arragon, are Ferdi- 
 
 lND L, called ' The Just,' succeeded 1412, died 
 
 16 ; and Ferdinand II., the latter being the 
 
 me as Ferdinand V. of Spain 
 
 FERDINANDS, The, of Naples and Sicily, are 
 
 ;rdinand L, notorious for his debaucheries and 
 
 lelties, reigned 1458-1494. Ferdinand II., 
 
 gned 1495-1496. Ferdinand III., same as 
 
 rdinand V. of Spain, who conquered a part of 
 
 s kingdom, and ootained its investiture from the 
 
 pe in 1510. Ferdinand IV., commonly called 
 
 :rdinand I., king of the two Sicilies, third son 
 
 Charles III., king of Spain, born 1751, suc- 
 
 sded under the regency of Tanucci 1759, died 
 
 r a troubled reign, interrupted by the usurpa- 
 
 ns of the Napoleon kings, and the insurrections 
 
 his people, 1825. 
 
 FERDINANDS, The, grand dukes of Tuscany, 
 > Ferdinand I., bora 1549, cardinal (de 
 idici) 1563, duke 1574, died 1609. Ferdi- 
 ud II., born 1610, succeeded 1621, died 1670. 
 srdinand III., born 1769, succeeded 1790, war 
 th France 1798, acceded to the confederation of 
 5 Rhine, and created prince of Wiirtsbourg by 
 noleon 1806, rest, to his duchy 1814, d. 1824. 
 FERDOUCY, FERDOUSI, or FERDUSI, 
 K>ul-Cassim-Mansour, a celebrated Persian 
 
 f, author of a history in verse, 916-1020. 
 ERG, P. F., an Austrian painter, 1689-1740. 
 ERGOLA, N., ageomet. of Naples, 1753-1824. 
 rlFERGUS, the first of the name, founder of the 
 IJottish monarchy, 4th century; the second, 
 Unied 411-429 ; the third, died 767. 
 ||FERGUSON, Adam, a Scotch philosopher, 
 ttdecessor of Dugald Stewart in the chair of 
 j pral philosophy at Edinburgh, author of ' Insti- 
 ces of Moral Philosophy,' ' Principles of Moral 
 \ n Political Science,' &c. The former of these has 
 f fen often reprinted, and translated, and adopted as a 
 Jet-book in some foreign universities : its principle 
 ^admission of a moral sense, 1710-1776. 
 1 FERGUSON, James, a self-taught experimen- 
 ! philosopher, mechanician, and astronomer of 
 btJand, 1724-1816. 
 
 FER 
 
 FERGUSON, Robt., an Engl, divine, d. 1714. 
 
 FERGUSON, Wm., a Scotch painter, d. 1690. 
 
 FERGUSON, Robert, a Scotch poet, whose 
 compositions in the lowland Scotch dialect entitle 
 him to rank with Burns in descriptive power, 
 though nothing that he has written can be com- 
 pared with the lyrics of the bard of Ayr for ten- 
 derness, and intense love of nature, was born at 
 Edinburgh, where his father was accountant to 
 the British Linen Company, 17th October, 1750. 
 His parents intended him for the ministry, but 
 he wanted the power of steady application to the 
 necessary studies, and his father dying when he 
 was seventeen years of age, he went to reside with 
 an uncle near Aberdeen, who was at length tired 
 of his poor relative, and allowed him to take the 
 situation of copying-clerk at the office of the com- 
 missary-clerk, and afterwards in that of the 
 sheriff's clerk, in his native city. His love of 
 poetry, and his conversational powers, not only 
 unfitted him for this drudgery, but the latter, by 
 a natural reaction against nis daily toils, involved 
 him in habits of dissipation, which predisposed 
 him to disease ; and it is melancholy to relate 
 that the last penalty which the violated laws of 
 nature exacted from him was nothing less than 
 his mental derangement. In 1774, when in the 
 twenty-fourth year of his age, he was sent to a 
 poor asylum for lunatics, where he was subject to 
 rules which in all human probability hastened his 
 death, which took place in about two months 
 afterwards, on the 16th of October. Burns always 
 acknowledged with affecting tenderness his obli- 
 gations to Ferguson, whom he styles his 'elder 
 brother in misfortune,' and to whose memory, in 
 the year 1789, he erected a handsome monument 
 in the Canongate churchyard, the place of his 
 interment. It is impossible to read the Scottish 
 poems of Ferguson without acknowledging how 
 closely Burns has followed his model in some of 
 his most admired descriptive pieces. We may 
 instance in particular, ' The Daft Days,' ' The 
 Rising of the Session,' ' Leith Races,' ' Elegy on 
 John Hogg,' and ' Cauler Oysters,' in which the 
 most striking parallels may be traced. Ferguson 
 could sing his native melodies with effect, and was 
 a little too fond perhaps of practical jests. It is said 
 that he never made an enemy, but it is only too likely 
 that he lost a friend in his rich uncle for lack of 
 that ordinary ' prudence ' which men of genius too 
 often pride themselves in holding cheap. [E.R.] 
 
 FERHAD-PACHA, grand vizier and minister 
 of war to Amurath III., died in disgrace, 1594. 
 
 FERISHTAH, Moh.-Cassim, a Pers. hist., an. 
 of a 'Hist, of India under the Mussulmans,' 17th c. 
 
 FERMAT, Pierre, an eminent French mathe- 
 matician, born at Toulouse in 1595, died in 1667. 
 Fermat was famed in his time as one of the most 
 remarkable analysts in Europe ; neither will any 
 historian deny his genius, or his success ; he is the 
 author of much ingenious speculation ; he dis- 
 covered curious and recondite theorems regarding 
 numbers ; and invented a remarkable method for 
 the solution of problems in maxima and minima. 
 But a factitious interest has recently attached to 
 him because of the singular claim "instituted by 
 La Place that Fermat be considered the true au- 
 thor of the Differential Calculus. It is not easy 
 to conceive a stronger illustration of the sway of 
 
 239 
 
FER 
 
 national vainglory over the judgments even of 
 great Frenchmen. The Differential Calculus, like 
 most other new principles, especially demanded 
 by the necessities of Science, was heralded by 
 many partial and imperfect anticipations : an- 
 ticipations always marked by one character- 
 istic, they effected the solution of particular 
 problems by methods akin to those of the Differ- 
 ential Calculus; but of the generality, the true 
 method of that remarkable branch of Analysis, 
 they partook nothing. Fermat merely hit upon 
 one such anticipation in his treatment of maxima 
 and minima. The claim urged by La Place has 
 led to a narrow scrutiny of the powers of this 
 Geometrician, and they have not risen thereby in 
 estimation. Many of his theorems regarding 
 numbers seem lucky guesses on curious points, 
 sought for systematically as such, rather than de- 
 ductions by scientific procedures. [J.P.N.] 
 
 FERMIN, Ph., a French naturalist, 1720-1790. 
 
 FERMOR, Count Von, a Rus. gen., 1704-1771. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Alp., a Sp. monk, 1572-1640. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Alv., a Portug. navig., 16th c. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Ant., a Port. Jesuit, 1558-1628. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, B., a Portug. Jesuit, died 1630. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Den., a Portug. navig., 15th c. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Diego, a Sp. historian, 16th c. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, John, a Portuguese navi- 
 gator, 15th century. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Juan, a Sp. navigat., d. 1576. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, L., a Spanish paint., 1594-1654. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, L., a Spanish paint., 1605-1646. 
 
 FERNE, H., an Engl, controv. divine, 1602-61. 
 
 FERNEL, J., a Fr. medical writer, 1497-1558. 
 
 FERRACINO, B., an Ital. mechanic, 1692-1777. 
 
 FERRAJUOLI, N., a Neapolit. painter, 17th c. 
 
 FERRAND, Anth., a French poet, died 1719. 
 
 FERRAND, Anth. F. Cl., Count, a French 
 statesman, histor., and literary savant, 1751-1825. 
 
 FERRAND, J. P., a French paint., 1653-1732. 
 
 FERRAND, L., a French Hebraist, 1645-1699. 
 
 FERRAND, M. L., a Fr. general, 1753-1808. 
 
 FERRANDO, G., a Spanish navigator, 15th c. 
 
 FERRANTINI, G., an Italian painter, 16th c. 
 
 FERRAR, Nich., a pious enthusiast, founder of 
 a religious house in Huntingdonshire, 1592-1637. 
 
 FERRAR, Rob., bp. of St. David's, burnt 1555. 
 
 FERRARA, Hippolytus of Este, cardinal 
 of, governor of the duchy of Parma for France for 
 the two years 1552-1554, lived 1509-1572. 
 
 FERRARA, Anne of, daughter of Hercules 
 II., and wife of the due de Guise, known as a 
 political intriguante at the Fr. court, 1531-1607. 
 
 FERRARI, a Provencal troubadour, 13th cent. 
 
 FERRARI, And., a Genoese paint., 1599-1669. 
 
 FERRARI, Ant., a Neapol. geogr., 1444-1517. 
 
 FERRARI, B., founder of a religious order, 
 Milan, 1497-1544. 
 
 FERRARI, Gaudenzio, an Italian painter, 
 assistant of Raff'aelle in the Vatican, 1484-1550. 
 
 FERRARI, Giov. And., an Italian painter, 
 pupil of Bernard Strozzi, 1599-1669. 
 
 FERRARI, Greg., an Ital. painter, 1644-1726, 
 His son Lorenzo, also a painter, died 1744. 
 
 FERRARI, J. B., an Italian Jesuit, 1580-1665. 
 
 FERRARI, L., an Italian mathematician, in- 
 ventor of a method for solving equations to the 
 fourth degree, 1522-1566. 
 
 FERRARI, Octavian, an Italian philosopher, 
 
 FEV 
 
 professor of politics and morals, 1518-1586. Fran 
 Cisco Bernardino, of the same family, an ec 
 clesiastical wr. of vast erudition, 1576-1669. Oo 
 tavio, nephew of the last named, a liter;! 
 antiquar., and historiographer of Milan, 1607-169 
 FERRARI, P., an Italian architect, 1753-1825 
 FERRARI, W., an Italian historian, 1717-1791 
 FERRARINI, M. F., an Italian antiq., d. 1492 
 FERRARIS, Joseph, Count De, an Austria! 
 gen. of artillery, dist. as a geographer, 1726-1814 
 FERRARS, Edw., an Eng. playwright, d. 1564 
 FERRARS, George, an English lawyer an< 
 poet, whose arrest for debt when member of thi 
 House of Commons, his release on their demand 
 and the punishment of the prosecutors, estaMishe 
 the privilege of mem. at that early period, 1512-79 
 FERRARS, H., an English herald, 1549-1633. 
 FERRATA, Hercules, an Ital. sculpt., 17th c 
 FERRAUD, Nicholas, born 1764, deput; 
 from the department of the Hautes-Pyren^es tl 
 the national convention of France, 1792, massacre* 
 by the populace, 20th May, 1795, when nobl; 
 resisting the invasion of the hall, and protectinj 
 the president Boissy D'Anglas from their violence 
 FERREIRA, Al., a Portug. jurist, 1644-1737 
 FERREIRA, Ant., a Portug. poet, 1528-1569 
 FERREIRA, A. F., a Portug. navig., 1600-58 
 FERRELO, B., a Spanish navigator, 16th cent 
 FERRERAS, John De, an ecclesiastic histor. 
 theologian, and literary savant of Spain, 1652-1735 
 FERRERI, Z., an Italian poet, 1479-1525. 
 FERRET, Emile, a French jurist, 1489-1552. 
 FERRI, the first of the name, duke of Lorraine 
 1205-1207; the second, died 1213; the third 
 reigned 1251-1303 ; the fourth, born 1282, suc- 
 ceeded 1312, killed at the battle of Cassel, 1328. 
 FERRI, Alph., an Ital. surgical writer, d. 1575 
 FERRI, Ciro, an Italian architect, 1634-1689- 
 FERRI-DE-ST.-CONSTANT, J. L., an Itafiai 
 writer, au. of 'London and the English,' 1755-1830 
 FERRIER, Arn. Du, a Fr. lawyer and diplo- 
 matist, chancellor of the kg. of Navarre, 1508-85 
 FERRIER, St. Vincent, an Ital. preacher ant 
 theol., opponent of pope Benedict XIII., 1357-1415 
 FERRIERE, Cl. De, a Fr. jurist, 1639-1734. 
 FERRIERES, C. Elie, Marquis De,memb. am 
 historian of the Fr. constit. assembly, 1741-1804.' 
 FERRON, Arnoul Du, a Fr. hist., 1515-1563. 
 FERSEN, Axel, Count De, a field-marshal d 
 Sweden, president of the diet of nobles, distingj 
 by his share in the condemnation of Count Brah^i 
 1756. His son, Axel, chancellor of the universit ' 
 of Upsala, born 1750, killed in an emeute, 1810. 
 FESCH, Joseph, cardinal archbishop of Lyons; 
 and brother of Lsetitia Ramolini, mother of Nnj 
 poleon, disgraced in 1810 for his opposition t\ 
 the emperor in favour of the pope, 1763-1839. 
 FESCH, Seb., a French antiquarian, 1647-1715 
 FESTUS, Portius, Rom. gov. of Judaea, 60-6i; 
 FESTUS, Sex. Pompeius, a Latin gram., 3d<| 
 FETH-ALI-SHAH, king of Persia, 1762-18&J 
 FETI, Dominico, an Ital. painter, 1589-1624] 
 FEUERBACH, P. J. Anselme De, a Germa 
 philosopher, distinguished for his adaptation of th 
 
 code of Napoleon to his native country, 177J 
 FEU1LLEE, Louis, a Fr. naturalist, d. Ii 
 
 52. 
 
 FEVRE, Anthony Le, De La Boderie, 
 
 man of letters, ambassador from Henry IV. lj 
 Brussels and London, 1555-1615. His brothe: 
 
 240 
 
FEV 
 
 Br Lefevre Sieur De La Boderie, an 
 lental scholar and poet, 1541-1598. 
 FEYRE, Cl: Le, a French painter, 1633-1675. 
 FEYRE, Jas. Le, aFr. catholic divine, d. 1716. 
 IFEVRE, James Le, a Fr. ecclesiastic of great 
 lining, distinguished by the friendship of Mar- 
 ket of Navarre, and the celebrated Erasmus, 
 ihor of ' Commentaries,' &c, 1440-1537. 
 BfEVRE, J. B. Le, a French scholar, 1732-1809. 
 FEVRE, N. Le, a French savant, 1544-1611. 
 pEVRE, Tannegui Le, or Tanaquil Faber, 
 ;7r. scholar, professor of the classics, 1615-1672. 
 'FEYRE, V. Le, a Flemish engraver, 17th cent. 
 JFEYNES, H. De, a French traveller, 17th ct. 
 nFICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, born in Upper 
 katia, 19th May, 1762; died on 21st January, 
 p.4. One of the most remarkable names in Philo- 
 bhy since the death of Kant. The character- 
 pes of his speculations are nearly the following, 
 cognizing that Kant had given a full critique of 
 b action of the Mind, on the substance of its 
 kughts, Fichte demanded a critique of the act of 
 Jnlung itself. What, he asked, is the content 
 the act of consciousness? It reveals some- 
 ng that is Me, and something which I call Not 
 e: how are these related, what is this thing 
 feeling which I call Not Me f It is a feeling, 
 d can be nothing but a. feeling : there is nothing 
 which we can be conscious except the Me, the 
 inking principle and its modifications. What, 
 L is the Not Me f Why is it thrown by us into 
 form of an external or independent existence ? 
 le Mind alone, indeed, is the sphere of the mind's 
 erations ; but to its activity there are limitations ; 
 it proceeds in the work of self-development by 
 brt ; we are finite, and struggle towards the in- 
 lite by steps or degrees. Now the consciousness 
 this effort, the feeling of limitation, seems like 
 e presence of an external obstacle ; at least we 
 ectify it, and term it the Not Me. Adequate 
 ice is not here allowed for criticism on this 
 tern ; nevertheless, two characteristics of it must 
 remarked. (See articles Hamilton, Hegel, 
 :helling.) First, as a scheme of pure idealism 
 resembles Berkeley's ; bu^-the architecture of it 
 different. Berkeley supposed that the ideas we 
 istake for the external world, are visions of 
 mething Not Us glimpses of the Divine Intel- 
 jence : Fichte, that they are nothing save the 
 ind's own efforts. Hence he spoke of our con- 
 ptions as creations; he deduced everything from 
 ie Mind's activity. Secondly, the assertion of the 
 [ind's Freedom and independent Energy, is the 
 rrner-stone of Fichte's whole system. However 
 fle his speculative philosophy, the tenacity with 
 [hich he clung to this prime element of Humanity, 
 jd to the best results in morals and politics. No 
 Ian ever wrote whose pages burn more with what- 
 ftsr can stir up the highest in all of us. He was a 
 pry apostle of the Heroic : his morals are the pur- 
 it Stoicism modified according to the acquisitions, 
 jie culture, and necessities of this Age. And he lived 
 phe preached. His theoretic philosophy has already 
 pparted; but the Man Fichte, will ever be cher- 
 hed as one of the noblest of his race. [J.P.N.J 
 PICHTEL, J. E., a Hungarian natnr., 1732-95. 
 PICIN, M., an Italian Platonist, 1433-1491. 
 PIDDES, R., an English divine, 1671-1725. 
 FIDEL1S, C, a learned Ital. lady, 1465-1558. 
 
 FIE 
 FIELD, R., an English divine, 1561-1616. 
 
 [Birth-place of Fielding.] 
 
 FIELDING, Henry, born in 1707, was the 
 third son of General Fielding, and great-grandson 
 of an earl of Denbigh. His classical education 
 was received at Eton ; and he afterwards studied 
 law at Leyden, which, however, he was obliged to 
 leave in his twentieth year, on failing to receive 
 supplies from home. His father had a large 
 family, and appears to have been neither rich nor 
 frugal. The son was fairly left to shift for him- 
 self; and, seeking his fortune in London, he found, 
 as he says himself, that his choice lay between 
 being a liackney writer and a hackney coachman. 
 Composition for the stage was his first pursuit, 
 by which he contrived to lead the life of a gay 
 young man for about nine years, from 1727 to 
 1736. During this time he wrote eighteen plays 
 of one sort or another, which, though admitted to 
 be dramatic failures, show, in passages innumer- 
 able, the same vigorous sense and shrewdness, the 
 same keenness of wit, and the same acuteness of 
 critical discernment, which afterwards character- 
 ized his novels. His translated farce of 'The 
 Miser,' and his ' Mock Doctor,' are now oftenest 
 remembered ; but neither these, nor his other 
 comedies and farces, possess nearly so much 
 originality or spirit as his burlesque parodies on 
 the tragic drama, among which ' Tom Thumb' may 
 be noted as being still by far the best thing of the 
 kind in the English language. The audacity with 
 which in his farces he satirized public characters, is 
 said to have been the main provocation which led the 
 government to establish a censorship of acted plays. 
 In 1736 he married an amiable young lady, with 
 whom he received about 1,500, succeeding, about 
 the same time, to an estate of 200 a-year, in 
 Derbyshire. He now retired to the country, 
 where he lived with hospitable and careless extrava- 
 gance, and found himself penniless in the course 
 of three years. He returned to London, resumed 
 his law studies, and was called to the bar. But 
 he had no success in the practice of his profession, 
 for which, besides other causes, he was now dis- 
 qualified by frequent attacks of gout. To the 
 anxieties and distresses of a precarious and scanty 
 livelihood, was soon added the deep grief caused 
 by the death of his wife, to whom, and to his chil- 
 dren, the good-hearted and improvident man of 
 pleasure was warmly attached. For ten years ho 
 
 241 
 
FIE 
 
 subsisted by miscellaneous literary drudgery. He 
 made new attempts at dramatic writing; he pub- 
 lished many fugitive essays and tracts, engaged in 
 political controversy as an active Whig partizan, 
 and was the conductor and chief writer of three 
 successive periodical papers aimed at the Jaco- 
 bites and their principles. About 1742 he wrote 
 'Joseph Andrews,' the first of those novels on 
 which his fame depends. Notwithstanding its 
 frequent seriousness, this piece was intended to be, 
 and in many points really is, a parody on the sen- 
 timentalism of Richardson's ' Pamela.' It was 
 followed by ' Jonathan Wild,' a singular specimen 
 of very vigorous but overdrawn irony. In 1749 he 
 received from the government a small pension, 
 and an appointment as a justice of peace for 
 Middlesex and Westminster. The office, as then 
 regarded and administered, was decidedly one 
 which a gentleman would not have accepted un- 
 less through necessity ; and it undoubtedly helped 
 to degrade both Fielding's character and his feelings. 
 Its duties, however, were discharged not only zeal- 
 ously, but with an honourable integrity and disin- 
 terestedness altogether new in the occupants of 
 such places. He published an ' Inquiry into the In- 
 crease of Thieves and Robbers,' besides other trea- 
 tises bearing on law ; he was a remarkably effi- 
 cient police magistrate ; and one of his last achieve- 
 ments was the extirpating of several gangs of ruf- 
 fians by whom London was infested. ' The His- 
 tory of Tom Jones, a Foundling,' was written very 
 soon after Fielding had been forced to embark in 
 these ungenial and harassing employments ; when 
 his health was already quite broken ; and when, 
 by his own public acknowledgment, the honesty 
 with which he filled his office left him so poor that 
 the benevolence of wealthy friends had been re- 
 quired for enabling him to subsist. It is not easy 
 to understand the grounds on which ' Tom Jones ' 
 has been defended against the charge of immor- 
 ality; but in point both of genius, and of skill in 
 art, it is the best novel ever written. It was fol- 
 lowed in 1751 by ' Amelia,' which is very much 
 inferior. The heroine is said to have been de- 
 signed as a portrait of the author's second wife. 
 In 1752 he attempted a new periodical, which 
 drew him into quarrels with Smollett and other 
 men of letters. His life was fast ebbing away: 
 dropsy had been followed by jaundice and asthma. 
 Ordered by physicians to a southern climate, he 
 sailed for Lisbon, and died there in October, 1754, 
 in the forty-eighth year of his age. He left behind 
 him, besides other works, a spiritedly written ac- 
 count of his ' Journev to Lisbon.' [W.S.] 
 
 FIENNES, William, Lord Say and Sele, 'a 
 grand rebel for twenty years' under Cromwell, 
 afterwards lord privv seal and lord chancellor to 
 Charles II., 1682-1662. His son, Nathaniel, 
 one of Cromwell's privv council, 1608-1669. 
 
 FIENNES, J. B. De, a French Orientalist and 
 negotiator, 1669-1744. His son, J. B. Helin, an 
 Orient, schol. and interpreter to the king, 1710-67. 
 
 FIESCHI, Jos. Marie, the contriver of the in- 
 fernal machine, exec, with his accomplices, 1836. 
 
 FIESCO, J. L., count of Lavagna, eel. for head- 
 ing the conspiracy against Andrew Doria in 1547. 
 
 FIESOLE, Fra Giovanni Da, commonly 
 called Fra Angelico, his family name was 
 Guido, was born at Mugello in 1387 ; his surname 
 
 FIR 
 
 of Fiesole he acquired from the order of predicant 
 
 at that place, whom he joined in 1409. He die 
 
 in 1455. Fra Angelico was distinguished for hi 
 
 pious life, and the same sentiment pervaded all hi 
 
 works : he was remarkably methodic in his habit: 
 
 he commenced every picture with prayer, and in 
 
 variably carried out the first impression, lookin 
 
 upon it as a species of inspiration. His princip: 
 
 works are some frescoes in the convent of Sa 
 
 Marco at Florence, and others in the chapel < 
 
 San Lorenzo in the Vatican. Some accurate er 
 
 gravings from these works are in course of publ : 
 
 cation by the Arundel Society; their chief mer 
 
 is their refined sentiment and high order of ej 
 
 pression, in which qualities Fra Giovanni 
 
 were, the type of his successors, the model of tl 
 
 quattrocento school of painters ; a school in son 
 
 respects supposed to be revived in the recent mil 
 
 called prerapkaelite innovation in our own schoo 
 
 but minute finish was an extremely rare characte; 
 
 istic of the genuine quattrocento masters of Ital 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W! 
 
 FIGUEIRA, L., a Portuguese Jesuit and mil 
 
 sionary to Brazil in 1606, murdered 1643. 
 
 FIGUEIRA, Wm., a French troubadour, 13th 
 
 FILMER, Sir R., a wr. on governm., d. 1647 
 
 FINCH, Anne, an English poetess, died 1720 
 
 FINCH, Heneage, first earl of Nottinghar 
 
 solicitor-general in the time of Charles II., 162! 
 
 1682. His son, Daniel, second earl of Nottin; 
 
 ham, distinguished as a statesman, 1647-173 
 
 Edward Finch, brother of the first earl, was 
 
 clergyman, and died 1642. 
 
 FINCH, R., an English antiquarian, 1783-183' 
 
 FINCK, Jasper, a German Lutheran, b. 15? 
 
 FINDEN, Wm., a eel. Eng. engrav., 1787-185 
 
 FINGAL, a chief of Morven, celebrated in tl 
 
 poem of Ossian, disting. against the Romans, 3d 
 
 FINIQUERRA, Tommaso, a goldsmith 
 
 Florence, where he was bom 1426, who by i 
 
 accident became the inventor of metal plate prin 
 
 ing. He was a niello engraver, and was in tl 
 
 habit of, says Vasari, taking sulphur impressioi 
 
 from his engravings, and printing with them < 
 
 damp paper to see the effect of the design, wh< 
 
 he discovered that though engraved he could tal 
 
 the same impressions from the metal itself. The: 
 
 is in the library at Paris a print representing tl 
 
 coronation of the Virgin, with the date 1452, < 
 
 1450 according to Gaye, from a silver Pax \ 
 
 Maso Finiquerra, still preserved in the collectic 
 
 of the grand duke of Tuscany. This is suppose 
 
 to be the oldest metal plate print extant : there a 
 
 wood block prints much older. Finiqi 
 
 already dead in 1464. (Lanzi, Storia Piltnrio 
 
 &c; Bartsch, Peintre Graveur; Gaye, CarteM 
 
 Inedito d' Artisti.) [R.N.W 
 
 FINKE, Thos., a Danish mnthemat,, 1561-165' 
 
 FINLAY, John, a Scotch poet, 1782-1810. 
 
 FIORAVANTI, Leo, an Ital. alchemist, d. Lfl 
 
 FIRENZUOLA, Ang., an Ital. poet, 1493 II I 
 
 FIRMIAN, Charles, Count De, adniiiiistr.it. 
 
 of the Austrian govern, of Lombardy, 1718-1 7m 
 
 FIRMICUS, Maternus, a Christian wr., 4th 
 
 FIRMILIAN, bishop of Caisarea, 3d centnrv. 
 
 FIRMIN, G., a nonconformist div., 1617-1697 
 
 FIRMIN, St., bp. of Amiens, martyred 287 
 
 FIRMIN, Th., an Eng. philanthropist, 1 630-f! 
 
 F1RMUS. lord of Mauritania, killed 372. 
 
 242 
 
FIR 
 
 FIRMUS, Marcus, a Roman general, pro- 
 aimed emperor in Egypt, and killed 273. 
 FISCHER, C. A., a German savant, 1771-1829. 
 FISCHER, G. A., a Germ, mathem., 1763-1832. 
 FISCHER, J. A, a Germ, physic, 1667-1729. 
 FISCHER, J. B., a Germ, natural., 1730-1793. 
 FISCHER, J. B., a Germ, architect, 1650-1724. 
 FISCHER, J. C, a Germ, mathem., 1760-1833. 
 FISCHER, J. C, a Germ, philologist, 1712-93. 
 FISCHER, J. E , a Germ, historian, 1697-1771. 
 FISCHER, J. F., a Germ, philologist, 1726-99. 
 FISHER, Edw., an English Calvinist, 17th c. 
 FISHER, John, hishop of Rochester, dis- 
 lguished for his opposition to the reformation 
 lder Henry VIII., and beheaded 1535. 
 FISHER, John, bishop of Salisbury, tutor of 
 e duke of Kent and Princess Charlotte, 1748-1825. 
 FISHER, Payne, an English poet and herald, 
 >et-laureate under Cromwell, died 1693. 
 FISHER, Th., a periodical writer, 1772-1836. 
 FITZ-GEFFREY,C, adiv. and poet, 1575-1636. 
 FITZGERALD, Edw., Lord, son of the duke 
 
 Leinster, a political partizan and rebel of Ire- 
 nd, born 1763, shot in the struggle for his arrest 
 '98. His wife, Lady Edward Fitzgerald, 
 mmonly called Pamela, was supposed to be the 
 .tighter of Madame de Genlis, by Philip Egalite, 
 ther of the late king of the French, with whom 
 e was educated at the Palais Royal. She died 
 indigent circumstances at Paris, 1831. 
 FITZGIBBON, John, a disting. lawyer, earl of 
 are, and lord chancellor of Ireland, 1749-1802. 
 FITZHERBERT, Sir A., a learned judge and 
 riter on law, author of a 'Collection of Law 
 ises,' &c, died 1538. His grandson, Nicholas, 
 pposed author of the ' Antiquity and Duration 
 
 the Roman Catholic Religion in England,' ac- 
 pentally drowned 1612. Sir W. Fitzher- 
 ert, a descendant of the same family, appointed 
 Intleman-usher to the king, 1748-1791. 
 | FITZHERBERT, Maria Anne, formerly Miss 
 nythe, married to George IV. 1787, died 1837. 
 FITZJAMES, James, duke of Berwick, son of 
 tines II. and Arabella Churchill, sister to the 
 ike of Marlborough, a distinguished commander 
 
 the French army, born 1670, killed at the 
 sge of Philipsburgh 1734. His second son, 
 and almoner of Louis XV., and bishop of Sois- 
 n8, 1709-1764. His son, Charles, a peer and 
 arehal of France, 1712-1787. His great grand- 
 n, Edward, duke of Fitzjames, an adherent 
 the French court, died 1839. 
 FITZSIMONS, H., an Irish Jesuit, 1569-1644. 
 FITZSTEPHEN, W., an Eng. historian, 12th c. 
 FITZWILLIAM, Wm., earl of Southampton, a 
 val commander, dist. against France, d. 1542. 
 FITZWILLIAM, the Right Hon. Wm.Went- 
 orth Fitz william, fourth earl, aWhigstates- 
 in of the period of the French revolution, afterw. 
 Isociated with the duke of Portland and Pitt, 
 \& after the death of the latter in 1806 president 
 1 the council in the Grenville ministry, 1748-1833. 
 FIX.MILNER, P., an Aust. astron., 1721-1791. 
 FLACCILLA, jElia, wife of Theod. the Great, 
 jid mother of Arcadius and Honorius, died 385. 
 FLACCUS, Caius V., a Roman poet, 1st cent. 
 FLACIUS, M., a Ger. protes. theol., 1520-1575. 
 FLAHERTY, R. O', an Irish histor., 1630-1718. 
 FLAMINIO, Giov. Ant., an Italian teacher of 
 
 FLA 
 
 the Belles Lettres, 1464-1536. His son, Marc 
 Antonio, a Latin poet, 1498-1550. 
 
 FLAMINIUS, Nepos, Roman consul, 222 b.c. 
 
 FLAMINIUS, Titus, Roman consul, 197 b.c. 
 
 FLAMSTEED, John, born at Denby, near 
 Derby, August 19, 1646, died in 1719. A most 
 laborious and admirable observer, the founder of 
 practical Astronomy in England : he was the first 
 Astronomer Royal. Previous to his public appoint- 
 ments, Flamsteed had shown great zeal and talent ; 
 but his repute rests on the work he achieved after 
 the establishment of the Observatory. Like his 
 great predecessor Tycho Brahe, the instruments 
 as well as the work were mainly his own ; drawn 
 however, out of the scanty funds of a poor clergy- 
 man instead of the coffers of a noble : nor was the 
 illustrious Dane ever more conscientious, or more 
 laborious ; few have excelled him in sagacity, or 
 that theoretic faculty which is one pillar of 
 strength to every first-class observer the power 
 to know what to observe to make all work 
 available for some permanent and important pur- 
 pose. The Histoma Celestis Britannica contains 
 our first trustworthy catalogue of the fixed stars 
 the first at least which is available for modern 
 objects ; and the mass of lunar observations made 
 by Flamsteed, furnished Newton the means of 
 carrying out and verifying his immortal discovery 
 of Gravitation. The life of Flamsteed contains 
 only one thing, which in one who contemplates it 
 can give rise to pain. The revelations lately made 
 by Mr. Baily, place beyond doubt the fact of the 
 very unworthy treatment of this excellent observer 
 by Newton and Halley. They outraged his feel- 
 ings and sported with his rights; nor can the 
 nature of the aim before them be at all accepted 
 as their apology. [J.P.N.] 
 
 FLATMAN, Th., an English poet, 1633-1688. 
 
 FLAVEL, J., an Eng. Calvinist. divine, d. 1691. 
 
 FLAVIEN, patriarch of Antioch, 381-404. 
 
 FLAVIEN, patriarch of Constanple., 447-449. 
 
 FLAVIUS, Caius, a Roman jedile, 305 B.C. 
 
 FLAXMAN, John. This celebrated English 
 sculptor was born at York, 6th July, 1755, but he 
 settled early in London with his father, who sold 
 plaster casts, &c. The occupation of the father gave 
 Flaxman many opportunities which he might 
 otherwise not have had, and as early as his twelfth 
 year he gained the silver pallet or the Society of 
 Arts for a model. Among his earlier efforts were 
 the various designs which ne made for Wedgwood, 
 which had a great share in elevating the general 
 taste of the country, and which now promise a 
 second time to exercise a beneficial influence upon 
 it. In 1782 Flaxman married, and in 1787 took 
 his wife with him to Italy, where he remained at 
 Rome for seven years. During this time he exe- 
 cuted his admirable designs in outline from Homer, 
 ^Eschylus, and Dante, and his great group in 
 marble, for Lord Bristol, of The Fury of Atha- 
 mas ;' and ' Cephalus and Aurora ' for Mr. Hope. 
 He returned to London in 1794, where his first 
 work was the monument to Lord Mansfield in 
 Westminster Abbey ; this was followed by several 
 others there and in St. Paul's, as that to Lord Nel- 
 son, the figure of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others. 
 He executed also many private monuments, of 
 which that to the family of Sir Francis Baring in 
 Micheldever church is one of the most celebrated.. 
 
 243 
 
FLE 
 
 ITe produced also some works of a more purely 
 poetic character, as the colossal group of Satan 
 and the archangel Michael for Lord Egremont, 
 the original model of which, with a great number 
 of others, is now placed in a permanent gallery 
 beneath the dome of University College, London, 
 the munificent gift of Miss Denman, the sculptor's 
 sister-in-law. The ' Shield of Achilles,' modelled for 
 Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, is a remarkable work 
 of another class, and completing the whole category 
 of art to which sculpture is applicable : showing 
 Flaxman working for the social refinement of the 
 potter and the silversmith, for national glory, and 
 domestic piety and affection, for the classic taste of 
 the scholar, and the excmisite sentiment of the poet ; 
 in all skilful and great. He was elected an aca- 
 demician in 1800, and professor of sculpture in 
 1810 : he died 7th December, 1826, in his seventy- 
 second year. His ' Lectures on Sculpture ' are 
 published in one volume, octavo, with fifty-two 
 plates, second edition, Bohn, 1838 ; they are 1. 
 English Sculpture; 2. Egyptian Sculpture; 3. 
 Grecian Sculpture; 4. Science; 5. Beauty; 6. 
 Composition; 7. Style; 8. Drapery; 9. Ancient 
 Art; and 10. Modern Art. These lectures, 
 though his remarks on ancient art want the exact- 
 ness and precision of modern scholarship, are com- 
 positions of great interest, and much practical in- 
 struction. [R.N.W.] 
 
 FLECHIER, Esprit, one of the most cele- 
 brated orators of the French church, born 1632, 
 d. shortly after his promotion to the see of Nismes, 
 1710 ; auth. of a ' History of Theodosius the Great.' 
 
 FLECK, J. F. F., a Prussian actor, 1757-1801. 
 
 FLECKNOE, R., an English poet, died 1678. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, Ch., a general in the interest of 
 the parliament during the civil wars, dates unknown. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, Wm., a writer on law, d. 1593. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, Wm., bishop of St. Asaph, au. 
 of ' A Plain Method of Christ. Devotion,' 1656-1723. 
 
 FLEISCHMANN, J. M., a German agricul- 
 turist, gardener to the court of Dresden, 1747-1831. 
 
 FLEMING, Abr., a miscellaneous wr., 16th ct. 
 
 FLEMING, Cal., a Socinian minis., 1698-1779. 
 
 FLEMING, Ci.., constable of Sweden, d. 1597. 
 
 FLEMING, Pat., a Roman Cath. div., b. 1599. 
 
 FLEMING, Robert, son of a Scottish divine 
 of the same name, who lived 1630-1694, is the 
 author of a remarkable ' Discourse on the Rise and 
 Fall of the Papacy,' the predictions of which have 
 received a singular fulfilment. In this sermon, 
 published 1701, Fleming ventures his opinion that 
 the French monarchy would be humbled in 1794, 
 that the period of the fifth vial extended from 
 1794 to 1848, and that in the last mentioned year 
 the papacy would receive its most signal blow, 
 and that it would be followed by the uestruction 
 of the Turk. ' An Attempt to Prove the Calcu- 
 lations of Fleming Incorrect,' was published 
 soon after the recent flight of the pope, the 
 writer arguing that the papacy had then irre- 
 trievably fallen, while Fleming had expressly 
 stated that it would continue longer! The 
 date of Fleming's birth is unknown, but he died 
 in 1716. [E.R.] 
 
 FLEMMING, Heino H., Count De, a Prus- 
 sian field-marshal and gov. of Berlin, 1632-1706. 
 
 FLEMMING, or FLEMMYNGE, Richard, 
 an Engl, prelate, fndr. of Lincoln college, d. 1430. i 
 
 FLE 
 
 FLETCHER, A., a Scotch political writer, i 
 of Sir R. Fletcher, of Saltoun, 1653-17K;. 
 FLETCHER, James, an hist, wr., 1811-182 
 FLETCHER, John, and Francis BeaumoI 
 formed one of those partnerships which, thoi 
 rare in all sections of literature except the drai 
 have in it been very common, both in Engh 
 and elsewhere. Beaumont, the younger son o 
 judge, was born at his father's seat of Graced 
 in Leicestershire, about the year 1585. By 1 
 poetry seems to have been prosecuted for 
 own sake. Fletcher, whose father died bis] 
 of London, had been born in 1579 at E 
 where his father was then clergyman; a 
 left an orphan and penniless when he waj 
 mere youth, he had to fight his way for hi 
 self, and earned his bread by writing. B 
 of the poets were academically educated, Be; 
 mont at Oxford, Fletcher at Cambridge. 
 John Beaumont, author of the poem of ' lJoswo 
 Field,' was the elder brother of the one; the r< 
 gious poets, Giles and Phineas Fletcher, were c< 
 sins of the other. About the beginning of 
 seventeenth century, the drama was by far 
 most flourishing department in the literature wl] 
 then adorned England. All the poetical minds 
 the nation turned to play-writing ; not a few s 
 of genius, who are now remembered only for tl 
 works of other kinds, Drayton and Daniel be 
 instances, owed their contemporary fame in a gr 
 degree to their plays ; and several, such as Fc 
 whom we know only as dramatists, would p 
 bably have gained higher success had they cu 
 vated other walks of poetry. The names of Be 
 mont and Fletcher appear together for the f 
 time in 1607, when the latter was in his twen 
 eighth year, and the former in his twenty-seco 
 Beaumont had already published some miscellane 
 poems : Fletcher's previous training in authors 
 cannot be traced. The English drama, wl 
 soon after 1590 had risen to its greatest gl 
 under Shakspeare, was now not far from the i 
 of its brightest period. The labom-s of its m 
 illustrious master were about to close ; and m 
 of those which were afterwards performed by 1 
 Jonson were fallings off from the vigour of 
 prime. The two new poets stood, both in time i 
 in spirit, between the era which was made glori 
 by Shakspeare, and that which terminated, in 
 middle of the century, the history of the OldE 
 lish Drama. The two are said to have lived in 
 same house in London till 1613, when Beaurn 
 married. They continued to write, sometiii 
 separately but oftener together, till 1616, w 1 
 Beaumont died, in his thirty-first year or earli 
 Fletcher survived him for nine years, writing., 
 tively the whole time ; and he died in London! 
 the plague, in 1625. Fifty-three plays are 
 eluded in the collection of works which we l 
 sess as the fruits of those nineteen years, j 
 beautiful pastoral of ' The Faithful Shepherdess 
 known to have been Fletcher's; and sevejH 
 other plays of the series were written afl 
 mont's death ; other writers, however, saoH 
 Massinger and Middleton, having perhap 
 Fletcher in some of them. As to no oi 
 other thirty-five plays can we assert at all pi 
 tively, that it was written by Beaumont 
 Fletcher alone, or by both together. We poi 
 
 244 
 
FLE 
 
 >o authentic information in regard to the circum- 
 tances in which any of these were produced ; nor 
 SB we trace anywhere internal dissimilarities, 
 jufficient to prove even plausible conjectures as to 
 fne several snares of the two dramatists. We dis- 
 cover, it is true, in the later works of Fletcher, evi- 
 |ence both of careless taste and of increasing 
 horal depravation ; but the ethical faults had he- 
 ron to show themselves in the very earliest pieces 
 f the joint series. In virtue of the works thus 
 ncertainly apportioned, Beaumont and Fletcher 
 Ire acknowledged, all but universally, to stand, 
 tnong our old dramatists, second to none but 
 jhakspeare. If their title to this honour is at all 
 fesputed, it can be in favour of Ben Jonson only, 
 [heir dramas are more truly and finely poetical 
 pan any others which their brilliant age produced, 
 pcept only the noblest masterpieces of the great 
 
 I aster ; in the pathetic and romantic they often 
 e with almost everything that even he imagined ; 
 id they abound in scattered passages of the most 
 putiful and touching poetry. They wanted, 
 jowever, not only Shakspeare's unrivalled success 
 ji conceiving a drama as a whole, but also such 
 tail and care in construction as that which is so 
 jimirable in Jonson. Those who would easily 
 prehend both the strength and the weakness of 
 ese exquisite poets, may learn both from a very 
 of the dramas which belong to the earliest 
 ars of their career. Such are Fletcher's pas- 
 ral already named; the romantically beautiful 
 ay of ' Philaster ;' the harrowing but deeply 
 oving 'Maid's Tragedy;' the spirited though re- 
 lsive King and No King ;' and the lively bur- 
 sque, ' The Knight of the Burning Pestle,' which 
 "" s at once the chivalrous romances, and the 
 r plays founded on them by Heywood and 
 More poetical, perhaps, than any of these, 
 The Two Noble Kinsmen,' the authorship of 
 ich is the most desperate of the unsolved riddles 
 ing out of these works : Fletcher is allowed to 
 ve written part of it, and many are convinced 
 at Shakspeare wrote the rest. Among the later 
 ays, belonging to Fletcher alone, were several 
 medies of Intrigue, which, partly by reason of 
 eir theatrical liveliness, partly, no doubt, because 
 their moral grossness, were the greatest favour- 
 on the corrupt stage after the Restoration, 
 le of these, ' Rule a Wife, and Have a Wife,' 
 11 keeps its place with a few necessary mutila- 
 
 [W.S.] 
 FLETCHER, Richard, bishop of London, 
 id father of the celebrated dramatic writer, 
 ed 1596. Giles, brother of bishop Fletcher, a 
 et and ambassador to Russia, died 1610. His 
 n, of the same name, author of a fine religious 
 m, 1588-1623. Phineas, brother of the last 
 Lined, author of an allegorical poem, &c, d. 1650. 
 FLEURANGES, R. De Lamark, Lord of, a 
 . marshal, dist. in the Italian wars, 1490-1557. 
 PLEUREAU, Basil, a French hist., 1620-80. 
 IFLEURIEU, C. P., Claret, Count De, a 
 rench officer and hvdrographer, minister of 
 Wine under Louis XVI., ana distinguished as 
 e inventor of the sea chronometer, 1738-1810. 
 FLEURY, A. H. De, a Fr. cardnl., 1653-1743. 
 FLEURY, Cl., a French historian, author of 
 H 'Ecclesiastical Historv,' in 20 volumes 4to, 
 Manners of the Israelites/ &c, 1640-1723. 
 
 FLO 
 
 FLEURY, W. F., Joly De, attorney-general to 
 the parliament of Paris, distinguished for his col- 
 lections of the parliament registers, &c, 1675-1756. 
 
 FLINDERS, Matthew, was born at Doning- 
 ton in Lincolnshire, about the year 1760. He ' 
 was early sent to sea in the merchant service, 
 but joined the royal navy afterwards ; and in 1795 
 went to New Holland as midshipman in the same 
 vessel in which George Bass was surgeon. His 
 adventurous voyages with Bass have been noticed 
 already. On returning to England he was pro- 
 moted; and in 1801, as captain of the Investi- 
 gator, 334 tons, sailed from England with a 
 crew of 88 men, circumnavigated New Holland, 
 and made accurate surveys in almost every part, 
 contributing more than any other discoverer to our 
 knowledge of this and the adjoining islands. He 
 was accompanied by Mr. Robert Brown, one of the 
 most distinguished naturalists of modern times, an 
 astronomer, two painters, and a miner. His own 
 ship being condemned, he left for England as passen- 
 ger in a store ship, the Porpoise, and was wrecked on 
 the N.E. coast, August 17, 1803. The Bridgewater, 
 Capt. Palmer, and Cato of London, were in company; 
 the latter also struck on the reef; but the former 
 got over safely, and her captain pursued his 
 course without rendering any assistance to the other 
 ships' companies. Flinders, by his admirable ar- 
 rangements, got the men landed upon a sandbank, 
 a little raised above high tide. On the 26th, he 
 left for Port Jackson, a distance of 750 miles, in a 
 small open boat; reached in safety September 6th ; 
 and returned October 7th to the rescue of the 
 crews, with a schooner of 29 tons, which was in very 
 bad condition, but the only vessel he could procure. 
 Two other vessels came with him, one for China, the 
 other to return to Port Jackson. A part of the 
 men sailed for England with Flinders in the small 
 vessel, which reached Mauritius in safety, but was 
 so ill conditioned as to be able to proceed no far- 
 ther. Here the French authorities seized him, and 
 detained him for six years, treating him with cruel 
 severity. His health was so much undermined when 
 he reached England in 1810, that he only survived 
 four years ; having succeeded, however, in complet- 
 ing an account of his voyages, in 2 vols, with maps. 
 He died July, 1814, on the same day on which his 
 work made its appearance. During his captivity, 
 a French expedition, under Baudin, with whom he 
 had before fallen in, had been sent out to survey 
 the coast of New Holland, and it was generally 
 believed that Flinders was kept a prisoner in or- 
 der to enable Baudin to publish before him. This 
 at least he did, and re-named all the points before 
 named by Flinders and others preceding observers 
 were ignored, and the whole put forth as of Ban- 
 din's finding, though he discovered only about 50 
 leagues instead of nearly 1,000 ; an instance of 
 dishonest meanness happily of rare occurrence in 
 any nation. [J.B.] 
 
 FLIPART, J. J., a French engraver, 1723-1782. 
 
 FLODOARD, a French annalist, 894-966. 
 
 FLOGEL, C. Fred., a German au., 1729-88. 
 
 FLOOD, Hy., an Irish orator, died 1791. 
 
 FLOREZ, H, a Spanish historian, 1701-1773. 
 
 FLORIAN, J. P. Claris De, a French fabu- 
 list and miscell. wr. of considerable note, 1755-1794. 
 
 FLORIDA - BLANCA, Fr. Ant. Monixa, 
 Count De, a Spanish statesman, 1730-1808. 
 
 245 
 
FLO 
 
 FLORIO, J., an Italian grammarian, died 1625. 
 
 FLORIS, F., a Flemish painter, 1520-1590. 
 
 FLORUS, Roman governor of Judaea, 54-67. 
 
 FLORUS, D., a Latin poet and theol., 9th cent. 
 
 FLORUS, Lucius, a Latin historian, 1st cent. 
 
 FLOTWELL, C. Chr., a Germ, theol., d. 1759. 
 
 FLOWER, Benj., an Engl, politician, d. 1829. 
 
 FLOYER, Sir J., an English medical writer, 
 au. of ' The Touchstone of Medicines,' 1649-1734. 
 
 FLUDD, Robert, an English physician and 
 Rosicrucian philosopher, was the son of Sir Thomas 
 Fludd, treasurer or war to Queen Elizabeth in 
 France and the Low Countries, and lived 1574- 
 1637. It is usual with biographers to style his 
 works a farrago of nonsense, without considering 
 that natural philosophy, as cultivated at the present 
 day, had no existence in his time Kepler and 
 Gassendi, however, thought it worth while to write 
 against him, and, what is curious, the former con- 
 demns the ' chemists, Hermetics, and Paracelsites,' 
 in one breath, complaining that they speak in 
 enigmas, and receive for philosophy the fables of 
 poets, while it is the endeavour of the mathema- 
 tician to bring things to light. It is amusing to 
 read in Fludd's ' Monochordium Mundi Symphoni- 
 acum,' or reply to Kepler, how he turns the tables 
 by proving that mathematics themselves come 
 from the soul, and are concealed under fables with 
 all the wisdom of antiquity. Fludd was a genuine 
 brother of the Rosy Cross, and a man of enthusi- 
 astic piety. The principle of his system is the re- 
 cognition of two worlds in the universe, and the 
 comprehension of all things in a grand harmony 
 like that of the soul in the body. His works in- 
 deed are not likely to be read with patience by the 
 scientific inquirers of the present day, but they 
 will always be interesting as a study in the history 
 of speculative philosophy. It is to be noted also 
 that the Theosophists kept alive the spirit of free 
 inquiry when the church and the metaphysical 
 schools were alike intolerant of it. [E.R.] 
 
 FLURY, L. Noel, a Fr. economist, 1771-1836. 
 
 FOGGINI, P. F., an Italian scholar, 1713-83. 
 
 FOGLIETTI, U., an Ital. historian, 1518-1581. 
 
 FO-HI, the first emperor of China, date unkn. 
 
 FOINARD, Fr. M., a Fr. biblical wr., d. 1743. 
 
 FOIX. The counts of Foix date from the be- 
 ginning of the 11th century; the most celebrated 
 are Raimond Roger, distinguished in the 
 wars of Simon Montfort, died 1223. Gaston 
 III., one of the heroes of Froissart, distinguished 
 in the English wars, died 1391. Gaston IV., b. 
 1423, and declared successor to the kingdom of Ar- 
 ragon in 1455, died 1472. After him the counts of 
 Foix are confounded with the kings of Navarre. 
 
 FOIX, F. De, a French prelate, 1504-1594. 
 
 FOIX, Gaston De, nepnew of Louis XII., by 
 his sister Marie, and commander of the French 
 armies in Italy, b. 1489, killed at Ravenna 1512. 
 
 FOIX, Louis De, a French architect, 16th ct. 
 
 FOIX, M. A. De, a French Jesuit, 1627-1687. 
 
 FOIX, Odel De, a French general, died 1528. 
 
 FOIX, P. De, archbishop of Toulouse, ambass, 
 
 to Scotl., Venice, England, and Rome, 1528-1584. teristic indolence showed itself from 
 
 FOIX, P. De, cardinal abp. of Aries, 1386-1464. 
 FOLARD, J. C, a Fr. mil. tactician, 1669-1752. 
 FOLCZ, John, a German poet, 15th century. 
 FOLENGO, G. B., an Italian commentator, 
 and reformer of church discipline, 1499-1559. 
 
 FON 
 
 FOLENGO, Theofilo, a burlesque poet 
 Italy, born 1491, d. in a monastery of Padua 15-1 
 
 FOLEY, Sir Thomas, an English vice-admit 
 distinguished at Cape St. Vincent, the battle 
 the Kile (where he led the British fleet into i 
 tion), at Copenhagen, and late commander-i 
 chief at Portsmouth, 1757-1833. 
 
 FOLIGNO, F. Frezzi Du, an It. poet, d. 141 
 
 FOLKES, Martin, an English antiquary a 
 philosopher, born 1690, successor of Sir Ha 
 Sloane as president of the Royal Society 17^ 
 vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries 171 
 contributor to the Philosophical Transactions, a 
 author of numismatic tables, died 1754. 
 
 FOLLETT, Sir William Webb, an emine 
 lawyer, was born at Thopsam, near Exeter, on 
 December, 1798. He exhibited an early feeblem 
 of constitution so extreme, that it is said his frier 
 could hardly anticipate the feasibility of his achi 
 ing eminence in any pursuit. As he grew t 
 however, he showed how vigorously the intellect! 
 capacities may rise and flourish in associati 
 with physical weakness. He studied at Trin 
 College, Cambridge, where he took the degree 
 M.A. in 1821. In the same year he comment 
 practice as a special pleader, and he was called 
 the bar in 1824, attaching himself to the weste 
 circuit. Severe attacks of illness rendered nec< 
 sary a careful economy of his strength, and a n 
 adjustment of the sedentary and active emplc 
 ments of the profession. His innate capacii 
 however, and careful husbanding of his resourc 
 led him by gradual and sure steps to professioi 
 leadership. He attached himself to the Consen 
 tive party, as represented by Sir Robert Peel, a 
 entered parliament as member for Exeter in 18i 
 He seldom spoke except in matters in which 
 was carefully prepared ; and it has been rare fo: 
 practising lawyer so readily to obtain the ear of 1 
 house. When Sir Robert Peel took office in 18- 
 he became solicitor-general, and in 1844 he si 
 ceeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-gener 
 The consumptive symptoms, to which he had lo 
 been liable, alarmingly increasing, he died on 2i 
 June, 1845. [J.H.I 
 
 FONBLANQUE, John, an eminent lawyer a 
 advocate of the Whigs, author of a ' Treatise 
 Equitv,' originally published in 1793, 1759-183' 
 
 FONSECA, Ant. De, a Port, theol., 1517-8 
 
 FONSECA, Eleanora, Marchioness De, 
 lady of Naples, distinguished for her beauty a 
 rare mental endowments, born 1768, executed 
 having espoused the republican cause, 1799. 
 
 FONSECA, J. R. De, a Sp. prelate, 1452-15. 
 
 FONSECA, Peter De, a Portuguese Jesij 
 professor of philosophy at Coimbra, and aftH 
 wards professor of theology at Evora, au. of ' Coi 
 upon trie Metaphysic of Aristotle,' &c, 1528-15!. 
 
 FONTAINE, C, a French poet, 1515-1589. J 
 
 FONTAINE, Jean De La, one of the class ( 
 of French literature, was born in 1621, at Cfl 
 teau-Thierry in Champagne, where his father v 
 superintendent of the royal forests. Hi 
 
 and his education was very imperfect, 
 about twenty-two years old when his liter 
 bition was awakened by the odes of M 
 from whose seriousness and dignity, how 
 was soon diverted by the more congenial i 
 
 246 
 
' 
 
 FON 
 
 it such men as Rabelais. Succeeding to his 
 Hsr's office, he married, neglected his wife and 
 |nld, and allowed his property to waste away be- 
 ne his eyes. One of Cardinal Mazarin's nieces, 
 ping banished to Chateau-Thierry, admired his 
 Erses, and carried him to Paris; and there, 
 fceedily welcomed into the best literary and aris- 
 Iicratic circles, he spent the last thirty-five years 
 W his life. The first volume of his ' Contes ap- 
 leared in 1664; a second was added in 1671. 
 Bhese tales, though full of the fine touches of his 
 j?niui, are grossly and unpardonably indecent. 
 he twelve books of his ' Fables ' were published 
 ji equil halves in 1668 and 1678. It is through 
 liem that La Fontaine is universally known. 
 I'itli no originality of invention, very little depth 
 ' reflection, and a total incapacity of consecutive 
 linking he is yet one of the most interesting and 
 ttractive of writers. He is an inimitable teller of 
 nail stories. His short flights of fancy, his 
 inut strokes of observation, his transitions from 
 ief moods of pathetic seriousness to flashes of 
 le gayest wit, are all set off by a diction the most 
 acefully and delicately refined, and breaking out 
 cessantly into felicitous turns of novel expression. 
 -La Fontaine's personal character made him at 
 ice the pet and the laughing-stock of his friends 
 id patrons. To him might be applied, with 
 tie injustice, the epithet wrongly thrown on 
 oldsmith, of 'an inspired idiot.' He was not 
 Jy absent in mind, indolent to excess, and igno- 
 nt alike of the world and of the most ordinary 
 : he displayed a want of interest in im- 
 things, and a dreamy absorption in trifles, 
 are hardly to be understood or excused, un- 
 they are accepted as tokens of strange intellec- 
 weakness. Even from literature, the only thing 
 " eh he had any knowledge, he caught no 
 leas but such as lay within his own narrow 
 [here. Reading Plato in translations, and hearing 
 wages of the philosopher read by Racine, he ad- 
 pred him enthusiastically as the most amusing 
 f all writers ; and once, while dozing in the midst 
 [ an animated theological discussion, he awoke 
 p to ask the company whether they thought 
 liint Augustine had as much wit as Rabelais. 
 per it had become clear that he was unfit to 
 Ike charge of himself or his affairs, he was re- 
 ived as an inmate, and treated like an indulged 
 ild, in the house of Madame De La Sabliere, a 
 dy of rank. His patroness spoke of her three 
 limals, the dog, the cat, and La Fontaine. After 
 is lady's death another friend cared for him in a 
 nilar fashion. In 1692, during a dangerous ill 
 !S8, his confessor prevailed on him to make a 
 iblic declaration of repentance for having pub- 
 hed the ' Contes ;' and he was also induced, 
 ough not till after long resistance, to burn a 
 medy which he had written, and as to which we 
 i not know whether it was or was not morally 
 d. After this his chief literary employment was 
 e versifying of the Latin hymns of the church. 
 b died in 1695. [W.S.] 
 
 \INE, N., a French historian, 1625-1709. 
 FONTANA, A., an Ital. gem engraver, d. 1587. 
 FONTANA, Aug., an Italian jurist, 17th cent. 
 FONTANA, C, an Italian architect, 1634-1714. 
 FONTANA, Dominico, an Italian architect 
 d engineer, 1543-1607. His two sons, Julius 
 
 FOO 
 
 and John, also dist. as architects, the latter more 
 particularly for hydraulic engineering, 1540-1614, 
 
 FONTANA, Felix, an Italian naturalist and 
 experimental philosopher, celebrated for his ana- 
 tomical figures executed in wax, &c, 1730-1805. 
 His brother, Gregory, a mathem. wr., 1735-1803. 
 
 FONTANA, Fr., a Neapol. astrono., d. 1656. 
 
 FONTANA, F. L., an It. cardinal, 1750-1822. 
 
 FONTANA, G., an Ital. astrono., 1645-1719. 
 
 FONTANA, M., an Ital. mathema., 1746-1808. 
 
 FONTANELLA, F., a Ven. Hebraist, 1768-1827. 
 
 FONTANELLE, J. G. D., aFr. an., 1737-1812. 
 
 FONTANELLI, A. V. De, an Italian states- 
 man and man of letters, member of the Junta 
 of Modena, and distinguished for his practical 
 abilities in the administration, 1706-1777. 
 
 FONTANES, L. M. De, a French orator, poet, 
 and political writer, senator under Buonaparte, 
 and privy council, under Louis XVIIL, 1761-1821. 
 
 FONTANEY, J. De, a French miss., last cent. 
 
 FONTENAI, P. Cl., a French Jesuit, au. of the 
 9th, 10th, and llth volumes of the 'History of the 
 Gallican Church,' begun by Longueval, 1683-1742. 
 
 FONTENAY, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1654-1715. 
 
 FONTENAY, L. A., De Bonafons, a French 
 Jesuit, auth. of a Diet, of Artists, &c, 1737-1806. 
 
 FONTENELLE, Bernard Le Boivier De, 
 a distinguished literary savant and mathematician, 
 called by Voltaire the most universal genius of 
 the age of Louis XIV., was born at Rouen 1657, 
 and died in 1757, on the eve of completing his 
 centenary. He is best known in this country by 
 his ' Conversations on a Plurality of Worlds,' and 
 his ' Dialogues of the Dead ; ' while in France, his 
 ' History of the Academy of Sciences ' is regarded 
 as a masterpiece. His works form 5 vols, in 8vo, 
 published 1825. The mother of Fontenelle was 
 sister of the celebrated Corneille. 
 
 FONTENU, L. F. De, a French archaeologist, 
 auth. of memoirs on numismatics, &c, 1667-1759. 
 
 FONTI, B., an Italian philologist, 1445-1513. 
 
 FOOT, Jesse, an English surgeon, author of 
 the 'Life of John Hunter,' &c, 1744-1827. 
 
 FOOTE, Sir E. J., a naval officer, 1767-1833. 
 
 FOOTE, Samuel, born about 1721 at Truro 
 in Cornwall of an ancient family, was educated at 
 Worcester College, Oxford. His father was mem- 
 ber for Tiverton, Devonshire; his mother heiress 
 of the Dinely and Goodere families. Young Foote 
 was designed for the law, and had chambers in the 
 Temple, but soon relinquished the study; married, 
 entered fashionable life, and lost his fortune by 
 gambling. Driven by necessity to the stage, he 
 ventured upon the characters of 'Othello' and 
 ' Fondle wife,' in the latter gaining some reputa- 
 tion. In 1747 he became manager of the Hay- 
 market theatre, performing there t lie joint part of 
 actor and author. The first piece he produced 
 was called ' Diversions of the Morning,' and ex- 
 hibited well-known characters in real life, of whose 
 peculiarities he proved himself to be an admirable 
 mimic. Notwithstanding legal objections to this 
 kind of stage caricature, Foote contrived to con- 
 tinue his performances for many years, and even 
 obtained, through the duke of York, a patent of 
 the theatre for life, running from the 15th May to 
 the 15th September in every year. On a party of 
 pleasure with the duke and his friends he had 
 previously the misfortune to break his leg, an acci- 
 
 247 
 
FOP 
 
 dent which necessitated its amputation. On the 
 decline of his health, he disposed of his patent to 
 Mr. Colman, on the understanding that he was to 
 receive 1,600 per annum, and a stipulated sum 
 whenever he chose to perform. A paralytic 
 stroke prevented him from availing himself of this 
 privilege more than two or three times. He after- 
 wards resided at Brighton, and died at Dover, with 
 an attack of palsy, 21st October, 1777. He wrote, 
 besides his various mimetic entertainments, twenty 
 dramas of small literary merit, but full of vivid 
 sketches of character. His style he seems to have 
 borrowed from Moliere ; but his humour was un- 
 doubtedly original, and indeed peculiar. [J.A.H.] 
 
 FOPPA, W., an Italian painter, died 1492. 
 
 FOPPENS, J. F., a Flemish critic, 1689-1761. 
 
 FORBES, Alexander, Lord Forbes of Pit- 
 sligo, the supposed prototype of Scott's baron of 
 Bradwardine in Waverley, commander of a troop of 
 horse in the rebellion of 1745, and author of 
 Moral and Philosophical Essays, 1 died 1762. 
 
 FORBES, Sir C, a Scottish Indian merchant 
 and M.P., disting. for his advocacy of 'Justice to 
 India,' and for his private benevolence, 1773-1849. 
 
 FORBES, Duncan, a Scottish judge, distin- 
 guished at the time of the rebellion, 1685-1747. 
 
 FORBES, James, au. of ' Oriental Memoirs,' and 
 fellow of the Royal and Antiq. Societies, 1749-1813. 
 
 FORBES, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, au- 
 thor of a ' Commentary on the Apocalypse,' 1564- 
 1613. John, his son, professor of divinity and 
 ecclesiastical history in King's College, 1593-1648. 
 
 FORBES, R., a burlesque poet, d. about 1783. 
 
 FORBES, Wm, first bp. of Edinb., 1585-1634. 
 
 FORBES, Sir W., author of 'The Life and 
 Writings of Dr. Beattie,' founder, in conjunction 
 with Sir J. H. Blair, of the first bank in Edin- 
 burgh, and a member of the literary club attended 
 by Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, and Garrick, born 
 at Pitsligo, 1739, died 1806. 
 
 FORCELLINI, jEgidio, an Italian lexicogra- 
 pher, the pupil and fellow-labourer of Facciolati 
 in the great Latin dictionary, 1688-1768. 
 
 FORD, John, one of the best of our old Eng- 
 lish dramatists, was a contemporary of Beaumont 
 and Fletcher, having been born in 1586. He was 
 the second son of a country gentleman in Devon- 
 shire, and became nominally a barrister. In re- 
 gard to the details of his life hardly anything cer- 
 tain has been discovered ; and as to the date of 
 his death it is only conjectured that it did not 
 happen before 1640. Ford is an exquisite master 
 of rhythmic melody, and abounds in touches of 
 sweet description. While, likewise, he has an in- 
 satiable fondness for representing incidents pro- 
 foundly terrible, his success in the filling up lies, 
 not in the strength which was required for fitly 
 embodying such scenes, but in a melancholy and 
 wailing pathos, in which he is more effective than 
 any other play- writer of his age. His genius, truly 
 poetical, is lyric rather than dramatic. His earliest 
 piece, acted in 1629, was the romantic play ' The 
 Lover's Melancholy,' which contains his famous 
 description of the nightingale. His manner, both 
 of feeling and of expression, may be well gathered 
 from that work and nis ' Broken Heart;' and some 
 of the most touching passages in our poetry may 
 be read in his revolting play, ' 'Tis Pity She's a 
 Whore.' [W.S.] 
 
 FOS 
 
 FORD, Sir J., an hydraulic engineer, 160S 
 
 FORD, Simon, a divine and poet, 1619-16)1 
 
 FORDUN, J. De, a Scotch historian, Uthcei 
 
 FORDYCE, David, a Scotch writer on ehu 
 
 tion and morals, 1711-1751. His brother, J ami 
 
 a minister, and author of poems and sermonj, & 
 
 1720-1796. His second brother, Wii.i.um, 
 
 physician, 1724-1792. George, son f t 
 
 latter, also a physician, and writer on phvaolo; 
 
 and medicine, 1736-1802. 
 
 FOREST, John, a French painter, 1636-171 
 
 FOREST, P. De La, archbp. of Rouen, 13i4-6 
 
 FOREST, P. Van, a Dutch med. wr., I 
 
 FORESTI, J. P., an Ital. annalist, 1434-1581 
 
 FORESTI, Ant., an Ital. historian, diel 169 
 
 FORESTIER, Ant., a French poet, 15fh cer 
 
 FORESTIER, H., gen. of La Vendue, 1775-18C 
 
 FORGEOT, N. J., a French dram., 1758-179 
 
 FORKEL, J. N., a German writer on the Hi 
 
 tory and Theory of Music, 1749-1818. 
 
 FORMAGE, J. C. Cesar, a French fabulL 
 and Latin poet, 1749-1808. 
 
 FORNARIS, Fabricius De, a Neapolitan di 
 matic writer and actor, 1560-1637. 
 
 FORREST, Th., an English navigator, d. 18( 
 
 FORSKAL, Peter, a Swed. natural., 1736-( 
 
 FORSTER, F., a German savant, 1709-1796. 
 
 FORSTER, George, an Eastern traveller 
 
 the service of the East India Company, died 171 
 
 FORSTER, John, a Germ, comment., d. 16] 
 
 FORSTER, John, a Germ, divine, 1495-156 
 
 FORSTER, John Reinhold, an eminent r 
 
 turalist, geographer, and philologist, born at Dii 
 
 chau in Polish Prussia, accompanied Capfe 
 
 Cook as naturalist in his second voyage, author 
 
 a ' History of Voyages and Discoveries in t 
 
 North,' &c; he was a distinguished linguist a 
 
 literary savant,, 1729-1798. His son, Joi 
 
 George Adam, of a similar genius, and author 
 
 ' A Voyage Round the World,' &c, 1754-1794. 
 
 FORSTER, N., an English divine, author 
 
 ' Reflections on the Antiquity, Government, Ar 
 
 and Sciences in Egypt,' &c, 1717-1757. 
 
 FORSTER, V., a German law-writer, 16th cf 
 
 FORSTNER, Chr., a Bav. jurist, 1598-1667 
 
 FORSYTH, Alexander John, A.M., LL.1 
 
 a Scottish clergyman and experimenter in chemist 
 
 especially in fulminating powders, which led , 
 
 his discovery of the percussion lock, 1769-1843.1 
 
 FORSYTH, Wm., a Scot, horticul., 1757-18*1 
 
 FORT, Francis Le, a native of Geneva, * 
 
 rose to be prime minister of Peter the Great, a 
 
 commander of the Russian forces, died 1699. i 
 
 FORTESCUE, Sir John. See Aland. 
 
 FORTESQUE, William, master of the roH 
 
 1741, an intimate friend of Pope, and the otlj 
 
 writers of that day. 
 
 FORTUNATUS, a French prelate, died 609.1 
 FOSBROOKE, Rev. Th. Dudley, F.S.A 
 distinguished antiquarian writer and Saxon sc't 
 lar, author of 'The Eeonomy of Mon;i 
 a poem, 1796, ' British Monachism,' 2 
 1799, ' History of Gloucestershire,' ' lli^t 
 City of Gloucester,' 'the Wye Tour,' ' Enevcloj 
 dia of Antiquities,' &c, 1770-1842. 
 
 FOSCARI, Francis, doge of Venice, 
 of treason and deposed 1423. A Venetian senit 
 and statesman of* the same name and fa 
 tinguished for his patronage of the arts, ! 
 
 248 
 
FOS 
 I, M., a Ven. historian, 1632-1692. 
 
 FOSCARINI, Mark, of the same family as the 
 ing, a savant and doge of Venice, 1695-1762. 
 
 FOSCARINI, P. A., a Venetian mathemati- 
 author of a ' Letter upon the System of Co- 
 icus,' the publication of which gave the signal 
 I ibr the persecution of Galilei, 1580-1616. 
 
 FOSCOLO, Ugo, an Italian poet, dramatic 
 Writer, and literary savant, in the latter years of his 
 life resident in England as a political exile, where he 
 jbecame a contributor to the Reviews, 1776-1827. 
 I FOSSATI, Dav. Ant., an Italian painter, 
 jborn 1708. His brother, George, an architect, 
 land writer on professional subjects, born 1710. 
 
 FOSSATI, J. F., an Italian historian, d. 1653. 
 
 FOSSE, Charles De La, a French painter, 
 (1640-1716. His nephew, Anthony, a tragic 
 Writer, 1653-1708. 
 
 FOSSE, P. Th. Du, a French histor., 1634-98. 
 
 FOSTER, H., an English navigator, 1797-1831. 
 
 FOSTER, James, D.D., a minister of the inde 
 jpendents, celebrated for his eloquence and popu 
 Parity as a preacher, and for his theological and re 
 Qigious writings, especially 
 rcion ' in answer 
 
 I FOSTER, John, a distinguished classical 
 scholar and churchman, author of an ' Essay on 
 the Nature of Accents and Quantity,' 1731-1773. 
 
 FOSTER, John, was born 17th September, 1770, 
 in the parish of Halifax, England. His father, who 
 Tented a small farm, endeavoured to add to his 
 scanty means by employing the intervals of agri- 
 cultural labour in weaving. John was early trained 
 to the same employment, and till the age of four- 
 teen he was occupied in spinning wool to a thread 
 by the hand wheel. At that period he entered into 
 
 , especially his ' Defence of Revela- 
 to Tindal, 1697-1753. 
 
 the regular service of a master manufacturer, but 
 he always entertained a strong distaste to manual 
 labour. An inveterate habit of mental abstraction 
 led him constantly to live in an ideal world of his 
 own ; and as his weaving, in consequence of his 
 mind being engrossed with a different train of 
 thoughts, was too often executed in a slovenly and 
 unworkman-like style, his employer was dissatis- 
 fied, and discharged him from the service. His 
 friends, who knew the piety, the great intellectual 
 endowments, and literary taste of the youth, urged 
 him to direct his views towards the ministry. His 
 parents, who were a very religious couple, and con- 
 nected with a small baptist church at Wainsgate, 
 had instructed him carefully in the fundamental 
 principles of the gospel as well as in the denomi- 
 national peculiarities of their own sect, and he had, 
 in accordance with his own ardent wish, been ad- 
 mitted a member of the baptist church at the age 
 of seventeen. In resolving now to devote his life 
 to ministerial work, he of course contemplated ex- 
 ercising his gifts within the pale of the baptist 
 communion, and accordingly finished his course of 
 preparatory study at the Baptist College, Bristol. 
 During the whole of his college curriculum he ex- 
 hibited the same mental qualities by which he was 
 80 much distinguished in after life an irrepres- 
 sible curiosity to examine everything, great decision 
 of character, an ambition of intellectual superiority, 
 and a morbid desire to impart an air of novelty and 
 freshness to old and familiar subjects, by striking 
 out into original paths of illustration, or clothing 
 them in the garb of an unwonted phraseology. He 
 
 249 
 
 FOU 
 commenced his career as a preacher at Newcnsfle- 
 upon-Tyne on 5th August, 1792, whence, after a 
 brief engagement of three months, he went on in- 
 vitation to undertake the pastorate of a baptist 
 meeting in Swift's Alley, Dublin. In that place 
 he continued to minister for three years, and at the 
 expiry of that term he returned to England, being 
 elected minister of the general baptist church of 
 Chichester. But, unfortunately, his style of 
 preaching, though powerful, and to an intellectual 
 audience a great treat, was little fitted to make an 
 impression on the popular mind. The congregation, 
 small at the first, gradually diminished binder his 
 superintendence, and at length became extinct. 
 Through the kindly offices of his friend Mr. Hughes, 
 secretary to the British and Foreign Bible Society, 
 Foster was employed for a while on a local mission, 
 and at length was intrusted with the board and 
 education of twenty Africans who had been brought 
 to this country to be trained as future missionaries 
 in preaching the gospel in their own benighted 
 country. This engagement having terminated; Mr. 
 Foster resumed his pastoral duties by settling in 
 1800 at Downend, a country village in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Bristol, where there was a small bap- 
 tist community, and where he was introduced to 
 Miss Maria Snooke, the ' friend ' to whom he ad- 
 dressed his ' Essays,' and who at a subsequent period 
 became his wife. At the end of five years he ac- 
 cepted an invitation from a congregation in Frome, 
 Somersetshire, the members of which, though few, 
 were for the most part educated persons, and pre- 
 pared to appreciate the talented and philosophical 
 discourses of Foster, although many of them through 
 the influence of their former pastor, had become 
 unfortunately tinged with Arian principles. It was 
 during his ministry in this place that Foster pub- 
 lished his celebrated 'Essays,' and became the prin- 
 cipal contributor to the Eclectic Review, the articles 
 for which formed his staple or rather exclusive 
 composition for thirteen years. A glandular affec- 
 tion of the neck, which increased to an enormous 
 size, obliged him to discontinue his public labours 
 in the pulpit. He thenceforth employed himself 
 chiefly in preparing works for the press, the chief 
 of which were his ' Discourse on Missions,' and 
 his 'Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance.' 
 Mr. Foster, having greatly improved in his 
 health, acceded in 1822 to the pressing invita- 
 tion of some friends to deliver a fortnightly 
 lecture at Broadmeadow chapel, Bristol, and this 
 office he performed till Mr. Hall's settlement m 
 town led to its cessation. Mr. Foster was a man 
 of rather extreme views both in civil and religious 
 politics. But he was eminently a man of God, and 
 died on the 14th October, 1839, in the peace and 
 joy of believing. [K.J.] 
 
 FOSTER, Sir M., an Engl, judge, 1689-1763. 
 
 FOSTER, Mark, a wr. on trigonometry, 17th c 
 
 FOSTER, Sam., an English mathem., d. 1652. 
 
 FOSTER, Wm., a writer on proportion, 17th ct. 
 
 FOTHERBY, M., an Engl, divine, 1559-1619. 
 
 FOTHERGILL, Geo., au. of sermons, 1705-60. 
 
 FOTHERGILL, John, a med. au., 1712-1780. 
 
 FO-THOU-TCHING, a celeb. Buddhist, d. 349. 
 
 FOUCHE, Joseph. See Otranto. 
 
 FOUCHER, P., a French archaeologist, auth. of 
 'Researches in the Persian Religion,' 1704-1778. 
 
 FOUCHIER, Bert., a Dutch paint., 1609-74. 
 
FOU 
 
 FOUGEROUX DE BONDAROY, A. P., a 
 
 French archaeologist and naturalist, 1732-1798. 
 
 FOULIS, R. and A., Scotch printers, celeb, for 
 the beauty of their classics, died 1774 and 1776. 
 
 FOULON, J. F., one of the first victims of the 
 French revolution ; he was named minister of 
 finance in place of Necker, 12th July, 1789, and 
 having fled on the taking of the Bastile, he was 
 captured and hung by the people a few days after. 
 
 FOUNTAINS, A., an Eng. numismat., d. 1753. 
 
 FOUQUET, H., a French physician, 1727-1806. 
 
 FOUQUET, J. F., a Fr. missionary, 1690-1720. 
 
 FOUQUET, N., finance minister to Louis XIV., 
 died after nineteen vears' captivity, 1615-1680. 
 
 FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, Ant. Quentin, the 
 public accuser of the revolutionary tribunal of 
 Paris, remarkable for the atrocious cruelty with 
 which he exercised the terrible power confided to 
 him against all parties, born m Picardy 1747, 
 executed after the fall of Robespierre, 1794. 
 
 FOUQUIERES, J., a Flem. painter, 1580-1659. 
 
 FOURCROY, Antoine Francois De, born 
 at Paris 1755, died 1809. The descendant of a 
 once wealthy family, Fourcroy was the son of 
 a poor apothecary, and after many vicissitudes was 
 enabled to engage in the study or the medical pro- 
 fession under the auspices of the distinguished 
 anatomist Vic. d'Azyr. Under Bucquet he studied 
 chemistry, and ultimately succeeded Macquer in 
 the chair of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, which 
 he held for twenty-five years with increasing 
 popularity. During the heat of the French revo- 
 lution, Fourcroy possessed considerable power, 
 which he exercised in promoting improvements in 
 the systems of scientific education. He took an 
 active part in the institution of the polytechnic 
 and normal schools, the museum of natural his- 
 tory, the central schools, and in the re-establish- 
 ment of the universities and colleges, which had 
 been destroyed by the convention. His most 
 
 FOX 
 
 carry no menace of revolution. We ennnol 
 describe here either the arrangements or th 
 philosophy of the Phalange; but justice demands 
 the avowal that Fourier's theoretic view 
 in conflict with our highest conceptions 
 ing the order of the Moral Universe. The Pha- 
 lanx has been put partially to proof chieflj 
 in America. The experiment has never si 
 in the fullest sense; nevertheless, its projectors 
 have read the lesson involved in the failure, and 
 resolved to try again. The Foiirierists were one ol 
 the schools in France, because of whose existence 
 the cry of Socialism was recently raised, with th< 
 aim to'overthrow the Republic: veryunwarrantablj 
 in so far as they were concerned, for thev neithei 
 desired nor threatened confusion. [J.P.N.l 
 
 FOURIER, J. B. G., a French mathematiciar 
 and physician, distinguished for his scientific me- 
 moirs and historical preface, contributed to tin 
 famous ' Description of Egypt,' where he accom- 
 panied the expedition of Napoleon, 1768-1830. 
 
 FOURIER, P., a religious reformer, 1565-1640. 
 
 FOURNEL, J. F., a French jurist, 1745-1820. 
 
 FOWLER, Chr., an Engl, puritan, 1611-1676. 
 
 FOWLER, Edw., bp. of Gloucester, 1632-1714 
 
 FOWLER, John, an English printer, d. 1578. 
 
 FOWLER, Th., a medical author, 1736-1801. 
 
 FOX, Charles, an English artist, 1749-1809. 
 
 FOX, Charles James, was born at No. 9, 
 Conduit-Street, London, on 24th January, 1749. 
 He was the third son of the Right Hon. Henry 
 Fox, created Lord Holland in 1763. Charles was 
 a frank, lively, popular child, became a family 
 oracle in his infancy, and was supremely in- 
 dulged. He obtained the rudiments of his edu- 
 cation at a preparatory school at Wandsworth, 
 kept by a Frenchman, which he entered in 1756, 
 passing to Eton two years afterwards. In 1763, 
 when he was but fourteen years old, his father 
 indulged him with a gay tour on the conti- 
 
 celebrated work was his System of Chemistry, nent, which not only interrupted his education, 
 which at one time had a great reputation, and was but is said to have fostered the dissipated habits 
 translated into English. In most of his experi- ! which stained his early career. On his return, he 
 ments he had associated with him his pupil Vauque- I studied at Hertford College, Oxford. Again he 
 lin, whom he had the merit of training and i travelled abroad; and on his return, in 1768, when 
 
 patronising. He was twice married, and left 
 son and daughter ; but he left no fortune, and his 
 two sisters were afterwards supported by the faith- 
 ful Vauquelin. [R-D.T.l 
 
 FOURCROY- DE-RAMECOURT, Charles 
 Rene De, a Fr. officer and engineer, 1718-1791. 
 
 FOURIER, Charles, born at Besancon in 1772, 
 died in Paris 1837. In recent times a new order 
 of political speculations has obtained a hearmg, 
 ana been confessed important, speculations affect- 
 ing the fundamental principles on which modern 
 societies are constructed. Struck by the evil in- 
 herent in the fact that the multitudes are mere 
 * hewers of wood and drawers of water,' St. Simon, 
 Robert Owen, and others, have sought for new 
 organizations, and declared war against the prin- 
 ciple of competition, or ' selfishness,' as the basis 
 of a right social fabric. Of these remarkable in- 
 quirers, Charles Fourier is the most original 
 and profound : practical by nature, and eminently 
 sagacious, he took a more complete view of our 
 human springs of action ; and proposed a scheme 
 that might be tried and corrected by experi- 
 ments on a scale of sufficient moderation to 
 
 ! not twenty years old, he found himself member of 
 parliament for Medhurst. In 1770 he became a 
 junior lord of the admiralty, under Lord North. 
 He remained, with an interval of two years, in 
 connection with the North ministry until 1773, 
 when he was removed somewhat contemptuously, 
 and the ground of his dismissal has been attributed 
 to rash and presumptuous ministerial acts, com- 
 mitting his colleagues to a policy the reverse of 
 what he himself afterwards held. Of course it was 
 a political necessity that he should join the opposi- 
 tion, and in the prosecution of the measures lead- 
 ing to the American war, he found a ground of 
 hostility congenial to the sentiments then ripening 
 in his mind. Following out these principles he 
 joined the Rockingham administration, but re- 
 signed when the death of its leader made way for 
 Lord Shelburne. Lord North and he finding each 
 other side by side in opposition, thought they 
 might work together in office, and in 1783 that 
 coalition was made which has given just occasion 
 for so much censure ; not because it was a coali- 
 tion, but because instead of uniting together those 
 who were near each other in sentiment by the 
 250 
 
FOX 
 
 bond of a common harmony of purpose, it was an 
 attempt to unite those who were opposite by the 
 tie of common hostility to the defeated party. 
 Fox's connection with the ministry, nominally 
 under the duke of Portland, and the defeat of his 
 (India bill, suggested by the gro wing jealousy of the 
 (prerogative of the crown, with the triumph of 
 Kat's rival, young Pitt, are conspicuous and well- 
 known historical events, which can only receive a 
 passing reference. In the regency question he was 
 evidently led by personal predilections to maintain 
 that the office belonged to the heir apparent, and 
 was not at the disposal of parliament. Since the 
 commencement of the French revolution, we must 
 date a great change in Fox's nature, arising from the 
 serious reflections produced by events so momentous- 
 He had been leading such a life of thoughtless dis- 
 sipation as generally deadens the moral qualities 
 as well as the intellectual perceptions. But he 
 was one among the few who could preserve through 
 such orgies ' the whiteness of his soul.' His 
 mind was justly characterized by Grattan's 
 reference to its 'careless grandeur,' and there 
 never lived a statesman whose character is so free 
 of sordid motives, narrow views, or paltry objects. 
 His hearty rebuff of Napoleon's insinuation that 
 his rival had countenanced assassinative plots, was 
 characteristic of his candid, honest nature. It is 
 strange that of one who was so much revered by 
 his party and his personal friends, there should be 
 no good biography, for the collection lately edited 
 by Lord John Russell, though it passed through 
 the competent hands both of Lord Holland and 
 Mr. Allen, professes only to afford materials for a 
 life of the great leader. The reason may, perhaps, 
 be, because while we know Fox to have foreseen 
 that the general good of the community, and not 
 personal aggrandizement, or the triumph of a 
 party, should be the object of a minister, yet 
 his own place in history is that of the champion 
 of a party rather than of a policy. In 1797 
 he formally seceded from parliamentary action, 
 and lived a life of literary retirement, in which he 
 wrote his historical fragment on the reign of James 
 II. He returned to public life in 1801. In 1806 
 he formed the real leader of that Whig ministry 
 nominally headed by Lord Grenville; but the 
 ministerial career, of which so many high hopes 
 were formed, was doomed to be brief, and he died 
 on the 13th of September, 1806. [J.H.B.] 
 
 FOX, Edward, a diplomatist in the service of 
 Cardinal Wolsey, made bp. of Hereford, d. 1536. 
 
 FOX, Francis, an English divine, died 1738. 
 
 FOX, George, founder of the Society of 
 Friends, first saw the light at Drayton, Leicester- 
 shire, in the year 1624. His father was a weaver, 
 who bestowed the greatest pains to instruct his 
 son in the principles of revealed truth, and to im- 
 bue his youthful mind with impressions of piety. 
 Having entered the service of a grazier, young 
 Fox was for several years employed in tending 
 sheep, an occupation which both gratified his na- 
 tural love of solitude and nursed his contemplative 
 enthusiastic turn of mind. When sixteen years of 
 age he conceived that he was honoured with a 
 special commission from heaven ; and accordingly, 
 in^ preparing for the work to which he was thus 
 miraculously called, he abandoned business for 
 foe years, lived entirely in the woods on such wild 
 
 FOX 
 
 plants and vegetables as he found there, but prac- 
 tising long and frequent fastings, with many other 
 austerities ; his days devoted to religious medita- 
 tion and his nights passed in sleepless excitement. 
 In 1648 Fox emerged from this wild and solitary 
 life to enter on the active discharge of his mission. 
 His first appearances were made in Manchester, 
 where taking his station in the public streets, he at- 
 tracted vast crowds of the people around him, and 
 was several times imprisoned as a disturber of the 
 
 fmblic peace. Most of the large towns of Eng- 
 and he visited to propagate his doctrines. Great 
 patience, self-denial, and at the same time confi- 
 dence in the truth of his principles, distinguished 
 him, for everywhere he was exposed to the rude 
 and boisterous assaults of the populace ; and in 
 London he was arrested and carried into the pre- 
 sence of Cromwell, who, however, on due exami- 
 nation dismissed him, being fully satisfied of the 
 harmless tendency of his principles and conduct. 
 Nay, the Protector frequently interposed to rescue 
 him from the county magistrates. In the course 
 of his itinerant ministry through England, he was 
 successful in gaining numbers of proselytes, par- 
 ticularly at Derby, where his followers first re- 
 ceived the name of Quakers, from the tremulous 
 tones in which they loved to speak, and from their 
 calling on all to 'tremble at the name of the 
 Lord.' After marrying the widow of Judge Fell, 
 who had hospitably entertained him during his 
 journey through Wales, Fox meditated a voyage 
 of proselytizing in America and the West Indies. 
 After two years' absence he returned to England, 
 where he was subjected to renewed trials, was im- 
 prisoned, tried by jury, and condemned for refus- 
 ing the oaths of supremacy and abjuration. His 
 sentence was indefinite imprisonment. But afti-r 
 a year's confinement he was released by the una- 
 nimous decision of the King's Bench. On recover- 
 ing his liberty he travelled through Holland and 
 various parts of Europe, diffusing his principles, 
 and at length worn out by a life of incessant toil 
 and austerities, he returned to England to spend 
 the remainder of his days in retirement. Witn all 
 his peculiarities he was a pious man, well versed 
 
 in the Scriptures, and had an extraordinary^ gift 
 iraye: 
 FOX, Hen., the first Lord Holland, and father 
 
 in prayer. He died in 1690. 
 
 frS 
 
 of the celebrated statesman, born 1705 ; member 
 of parliament for Hendon, 1735 ; secretary at war, 
 1746-1756 ; raised to the peerage 1763, d. 1774. 
 
 FOX, John, author of the ' Martyrology,' was 
 a native of Boston, Lincolnshire, where he was 
 born 1517. Early distinguished by his classical 
 acquirements, he was elected fellow of Magdalene 
 College, and directed his studies for entering the 
 church. But having evinced a predilection for 
 the reformed opinions, he was on a charge of 
 heresy being preferred against him, expelled from 
 the university, and deprived of his fellowship. 
 His character for learning, however, procured hhn 
 the patronage of several noble families, and 
 amongst others the duchess of Richmond engaged 
 him as tutor to the children of her brother, the 
 earl of Surrey, then a state prisoner in the Tower. 
 Edward VI. also befriended him, and restored 
 him to his fellowship. On the accession of Mary, 
 Fox, like a number of other reformers, sought an 
 asylum on the continent, and after many wunder- 
 
 251 
 
FOX 
 
 ings he settled at Basle, as corrector of the press 
 in an extensive printing office in that city. When 
 Elizabeth ascended the throne, Fox hastened to 
 return to his own country, and through the power- 
 ful influence of Cecil, who was his friend, he was 
 appointed to a prebend in the cathedral of Salis- 
 bury, and might have obtained preferment, but 
 for his conscientious scruples about some matters 
 of ceremony. His celebrated 'Book of Martyrs' 
 attests his hatred of popery, and his intense ad- 
 miration of the principles of the reformation. He 
 died in 1587, at the age of sixty-nine, leaving be- 
 hind lum a high reputation for piety and learn- 
 ing. [R.J.] 
 
 FOX, Luke, an English navigator, 17th cent. 
 
 FOX, Murillo, a Spanish savant, 16th cent. 
 
 FOX, Richard, a statesman and favourite of 
 Henry VII., successively bishop of Exeter, Bath 
 and Wells, Durham and Winchester, distinguished 
 in the latter vears of his life as a patron of learn- 
 ing, born about 1466, died 1528. 
 
 FOX, Stephen, a minister of state after the 
 restoration, first projector of Chelsea Hospital 
 as a home for retired soldiers, 1627-1716. 
 
 FOY, L. S. De, a learned Fr. ecclesias., d. 1788. 
 
 FOY, Maximilian Sebastian, a French 
 statesman and soldier, one of the most celebrated 
 orators of the opposition under the restoration; 
 author of MSS. from which a 'History of the 
 Peninsular War ' has been compiled, 1775-1825. 
 
 FRA-BARTOLOMEO, an It. paint., 1469-1517. 
 
 FRAC ASTOR, J., an Ital. astronom., 1483-1553. 
 
 FRA-DIAVOLO, the pseudonym of Michael 
 Pozzo, a leader of outlaws in Calabria, exec. 1806. 
 
 FRA-GIOVANNI, an Ital. painter, 1387-1455. 
 
 FRAMERY, Nich. Steph., a French comp. 
 of the operas-comiques, and dram, wr., 1746-1810. 
 
 FRANC, M. L., a French poet, died 1460. 
 
 FRANCES, St., fndr. of the Collatines, d. 1440. 
 
 FRANCE SCA, P. Dei/la, an Italian painter, 
 the supposed teacher of Bramante, 1397-1484. 
 
 FRANCHI, J., an Italian sculptor, 1730-1806. 
 
 FRANCIA. Francesco Raibolini, commonly 
 called Francia, from the name of his master, 
 was born at Bologna, about 1450. He was 
 brought up a goldsmith, and did not take up 
 painting until he was nearly forty years of age, 
 but at this time he executed some important works. 
 He carried on both professions, and made a species 
 of parade of his accomplishments by signing him- 
 self Aurifex, jeweller, on his pictures, and Pictor, 
 painter, on his jewellery. Francia was a great 
 painter, indeed a consummate master in the style 
 of art prevailing in his own day ; in that exact 
 and rigid manner in which nature is scrupulously 
 copied without any license of generalization : he is 
 perhaps the highest representative in a technical 
 view of the quattrocento school, that properly sig- 
 nified by the modern misnomer preraphaelite. 
 Francia's large picture in the National Gallery is a 
 capital example of this early style, the second or 
 Florentine manner of Raphael himself, which Fran- 
 cia had some share in forming. He died at Bologna, 
 6th January, 1518. (Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, 
 &e.; Calvi, Memorie delta Vila de di Francescoa 
 liaibolini, &c. Bologna, 1812.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 FRANCIA] Don Gaspar Rodriguez De, 
 commonly called Dr. Francia, and known as the 
 dictator of Paraguay, was born at Assomcion, in 
 
 FRA 
 
 that province, 1757, and began his career as i 
 barrister. In 1810, when the Spanish province 
 of the River Plate rebelled against the authorifr 
 of the viceroy, Francia was already known fur hi' 
 inflexible honesty and rare talents, in a countr 
 where the judges themselves were openly corrupt 
 and the policy of the Spanish government hat 
 kept the people in the grossest barbarism an< 
 political ignorance. The Buenos Ayreans havinj 
 erected a new central government (which onl; 
 declared its independence of the Spanish crown ii 
 1816), made an attack on Paraguay, and th 
 latter, repelling its invaders, proceeded to debat 
 the question of allegiance to Spain in any foro 
 whatever. The influence of Francia prevailing 
 the province declared its absolute independence 
 and appointed him secretary of a triumvirate 
 from which post, by the year 1815, he had risei 
 to the sole dictatorship, which he retained till hi 
 death in 1840. His marked policy in refusing al 
 intercourse with his neighbours during this period 
 and the complication of circumstances m th 
 River Plate, has given his name as much notoriet; 
 in Europe, as the heartless tyranny which he i 
 accused of having exercised in domestic affairs 
 In regard to the former, it would be easy to sho\ 
 that his views were dictated by sound statesman 
 ship ; for by all evidence, down to the fall of Rosas 
 a more fickle and profligate class of people doe 
 not exist than those ambitious of dominion in th 
 province of Buenos Ayres; and the dream o 
 Francia's life, a political and commercial treat 
 with England, as the preliminary of any intercourse 
 with the neighbouring states, was the only mean 
 of saving his people from the same anarchy. A 
 to the latter of these charges, Sir Woodbine Parish 
 who accuses Francia of 'systematic selfishness, 
 and declares his belief that ' a more bloody ani 
 unscrupulous tyrant never existed,' himself writes 
 ' It had been supposed that when Francia died 
 Paraguay would have again joined the confedera 
 tion of the provinces of the Rio de la Plata, but a 
 yet (1852), that is not the case; and it woul< 
 appear that there is a party there not only ambi 
 tious of maintaining their independence, but, wha 
 is still more extraordinary, disposed to continue ! 
 system of isolation and tyranny little short of tha 
 established by Francia. The fact is, with al 
 their ignorance, the Paraguayans understam 
 results, and there are circumstances in whicl 
 mercy itself must seem cruel. Francia with hi 
 own head and hands preserved order in Paraguay 
 for twenty-five years, in which period the neigh 
 bouring state of Buenos Ayres had changed it 
 government, amid scenes of turbulence and blood : 
 shed, nearly forty times ! [E.R." 
 
 FRANCIS I., emperor of Germany, born 1708 
 exchanged his own duchy of Lorraine against thai 
 of Tuscany 1735 ; manned Maria Theresa 1736 
 emperor of Germany, after a struggle of five yeari 
 with the elector of Bavaria, 1747 ; died 1765. H* 
 had six children : among these were Joseph, wh< 
 succeeded him as Joseph II., and Marie Antoinette 
 FRANCIS II., born 1768; succeeded his father 
 Leopold II., 1792; signed the treaty of Camp 
 Formio in the war of the French revolution 1797 
 recommenced hostilities 1799; treaty of Lunevilh 
 1802 ; coalition against France and battle o: 
 Austcrlitz 1805 ; compelled by Napoleon to aban 
 
 252 
 
FRA 
 
 idon the imperial dignity of Germany, and took the 
 title of Francis I., emp. of Austria, 1806 ; d. 1835. 
 
 FRANCIS I., king of France, born 1494, suc- 
 Jceeded Louis XII. after having married his 
 daughter 1515 ; won the battle of Marigdano 1515, 
 jsigned a treaty of peace in regard to Italy 1516 ; 
 advanced his pretensions to the empire at the 
 death of Maximilian 1519; met Henry the VIII. 
 bit the Field of the Cloth of Gold 1520 ; commence- 
 ment of hostilities with Charles V. 1521, and 
 Krith Henry VIII. 1522 ; lost the battle of Pavia, 
 and taken prisoner 1525 ; restored to liberty by 
 (the treaty of Madrid 1526 ; alliance with Henry 
 VIII., and their joint declaration of war against 
 jthe emperor 1527-28 ; signed the peace of Cam- 
 brai 1529 ; persecution of the Vaudois commenced 
 |1544; died 1547. Francis II., born 1544, suc- 
 ceeded his father Henry II. 1559, died 1560. 
 i FRANCIS I., duke of Lorraine, b. 1517, sue. 1544, 
 kL 1545. For Francis II., see Francis II. of Ger. 
 
 FKANCIS, k. of the two Sicilies, rgnd. 1825-30. 
 
 FRANCIS, duke of Brittany, the first of the 
 laame reigned 1442-1450 ; the second, 1458-1488. 
 i FRANCIS, duke of Modena, the first 1610-1658 ; 
 the second 1660-1694 ; the third 1698-1749. 
 
 FRANCIS, Anne, a learned Eng. lady, d. 1800. 
 
 FRANCIS, C. J., a Fr. engraver, 1717-1769. 
 
 FRANCIS, J., a French savant, 1722-1791. 
 
 FRANCIS, Philip, a classical translator, 
 tragedian, and political writer ; rector of Barrow, 
 and chaplain of Chelsea College, died 1773. His 
 son Sir Philip Francis, a political writer, dis- 
 tinguished by his opposition to Warren Hastings, 
 and his Whig principles, also as one of the reputed 
 authors of the Letters of Junius, 1740-1818. 
 
 FRANCIS, Pikebus, kg. of Navarre, 1479-83. 
 
 FRANCIS, Romain, a Flem. architect, d. 1735. 
 
 FRANCIS, Saint. The Roman Calendar con- 
 tains five saints of this name. 1. Jean Bernar- 
 don, commonly called Francis of Assise, 
 founder of the order of mendicant friars named 
 after him, was born 1182, and relinquishing the 
 commercial pursuits to which he was brought up, 
 devoted himself to poverty and self-mortification, 
 and to the preaching of the gospel. His reputa- 
 
 [ Franciscan Friar.} 
 
 FRA 
 
 tion for sanctity drew a great number of disciples 
 around him, to whom he gave the first rules of 
 their order in 1209, engaging them to vows of 
 poverty and submission. Between this period and 
 his death, which took place at Assise, in 1226, he 
 founded many monasteries on the continent, and 
 even travelled into Egypt to convert the Sultan 
 Meleddin. In consequence of his habits of abstrac- 
 tion, he had several visions of spiritual symbols. 
 He was canonized by Gregory IX. in 1230. 2. 
 The next in order of time is an illiterate ascetic 
 named Francis of Paulo, founder of the Minims, 
 or lowest religious order, born in Calabria, 1416, 
 died at the convent of Plessis-du-Parc, 1507. 
 Little is related of him except his solitary life and 
 abstinence, and if he rivalled Francis of Assise in 
 austerity, he was certainly far below him in use- 
 fulness. 3. Francis of Borgia, a Spanish 
 nobleman and courtier of the reign of Charles V., 
 turned to a religious life by the solemn circum- 
 stances attending the funeral of the Empress 
 Isabella, after which he became a disciple of 
 Ignatius Loyola, and was appointed by him to 
 preach the gospel in Spain and Portugal, and 
 finally succeeded him as chief of the Order. He 
 is the author of many ascetic writings, and con- 
 tributed much to the perfection of the organization 
 of the Jesuits. Francis of Borgia died at Rome 
 in 1572, and was canonized by Clement IX. in 
 1671. 4. Francis of Sales, bom of a noble 
 family in the neighbourhood of Geneva, 1567, and 
 first distinguished by the reclamation of the 
 protestants in the neighbouring valleys. On the 
 death of the bishop of Geneva, Francis of Sales 
 succeeded him, and redoubled his zeal for the 
 reform of the diocese and the monasteries. To 
 further his benevolent designs, he instituted, in 
 connection with Madam de Chantal, the Order of 
 the Visitation at Annecy, in 1610. He died in 
 1622, after a life devoted to works of charity, and 
 was canonized 1665. His religious works are 
 highly esteemed, especially his 'Treatise on the 
 Love of God,' and ' Introduction to a Devout Life.' 
 5. Francis Xavier, surnamed the 'Apostle 
 of the Indies,' born at the castle of Xavier, in 
 Navarre, 1506, began his mission at Goa, 1542, 
 and died in one of the Chinese islands, 1552. He 
 was the intimate friend and disciple of Loyola, and 
 was for some time professor of philosophy at the 
 college of Beauvais. He was canonized 1622, and 
 his ' Letters ' published at Paris in 1631. Each of 
 these ' Saints exhibits the spirit of enthusiasm in 
 a different form, and the most pleasing to contem- 
 plate is that of Francis of Sales. In Francis of 
 Assise it affected a species of insanity, and aimed 
 at dominion. The friars of his order were at last 
 a voluptuous and lazy body. In the disciples of 
 Loyola there was more of the spirit of worldly 
 wisdom, and the greatest of them, St. Francis Xa- 
 vier, was characterized by extreme subtlety. [E. !J.] 
 
 FRANCK, J. M., a German writer, 1717-1775. 
 
 FRANCE, Simon, a Latin poet, 1741-1772. 
 
 FRANCK, Sol., a German numismatist, 17th c. 
 
 FRANCKE, J. C, a German jurist, 17th cent. 
 
 FRANCKE, J. V., a Danish philos., d. 1830. 
 
 FRANCKLIN, Dr. Thomas, a classical trans- 
 lator and divine, author of the ' Earl of Warwick,' 
 and other dramas, a 'Dissertation on Ancient 
 Tragedy,' and some miscel. writings, 1721-1784. 
 
 253 
 
FRA 
 
 FRANC(EUR, F., a Fr. composer, 1G98-1787. 
 
 FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, N. L., a 
 French statesman and man of letters, member of 
 the directory in 1797, and for two years president 
 of the senate under Napoleon, 1750-1828. 
 
 FRANCOLIN, J. De, a French herald, 16th c. 
 
 FRANK, G., a German physician, 1643-1704. 
 His son, G. F. Frank, a physician and au., d. 1732. 
 
 FRANK, J. P., a German physician, author of 
 'Systeme de Police Medicale,' 1745-1821. 
 
 FRANKE, A. H., a Ger. philanth., 1663-1727. 
 
 FRANKLAND, Th., an Eng. hist., 1633-1690. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, born in Boston, Mas- 
 sachusets, 6th January, 1706; died on 17th April, 
 1790. The name of Dr. Franklin has long been 
 an household word in America, he was her 
 moralist, statesman, and philosopher: his disco- 
 veries in Electricity have given him a permanent 
 Elace in scientific history : and he deserves highest 
 onour from all mankind, because of his services 
 to the cause of rational Liberty and the indepen- 
 dence of Nations. We must omit all details con- 
 cerning Franklin's early life : however, if any one 
 would sustain hope amid unpromising labour 
 discern the inestimable value of small portions 
 of time economized and put scrupulously to 
 uses or learn how cheerfulness, patience, and 
 fortitude, guided by good sense and integrity, 
 must ever command success, he will find nowhere 
 better instruction than in that graphic narrative of 
 the events and struggles of his opening manhood, 
 by which Franklin has let us into the innermost 
 being of the journeyman printer of Philadelphia. 
 Distinguished no less by practical benevolence, 
 than by an almost intuitive appreciation of the 
 wants and character of early American society, 
 Franklin could not fail to rise into authority among 
 his countrymen : accordingly we find him their 
 favourite counsellor in most of the grave difficul- 
 ties belonging to that epoch of American his- 
 tory. Commencing public life in the struggle 
 between the assembly of Pennsylvania and the old 
 proprietary Governors, we again meet him propos- 
 ing to the different States a project of union, which 
 afterwards became the basis of the confederacy : 
 then, on a mission to England regarding the 
 American Stamp Act: afterwards driven from 
 his loyalty Ambassador to France on the part of 
 his countrymen ; the observed of all observers in 
 Paris, soliciting aid in arms from the court, of 
 Versailks: finally Minister to England, signing 
 the treaty by which the mother country, in 
 due humiliation, bowed her head before the 
 independence of her former Colonies. It has 
 been said that Franklin represented the practical 
 genius, the moral and political spirit of the eigh- 
 teenth century, as Voltaire represented its meta- 
 physical and religious scepticism : this, at least, is 
 certain, no man saw more clearly, or felt more 
 profoundly in his own person, the political and 
 moral ideas which necessarily bear sway in 
 a strictly industrial community like the one 
 emerging from infancy in the New World. 
 Unconnected with England by birth or close 
 association, he looked only with astonishment on 
 those pretensions to prerogative, which certainly 
 could find no natural soil, where all men were 
 socially equal: and his system of morals in- 
 cluded every sanction and precept, likely to re- 
 
 FRE 
 
 commend themselves to a people, who could ncvi 
 reach prosperity unless through patient industr 
 and the exercise of the prudential virtues. Bf 
 code was ' The Way to Wealth :' and the wii 
 dom of 'Poor Richard,' instructed every man, ho 
 by the strength of his arm, and dominion over h 
 passions, wealth might be attained and mai 
 Since Franklin's time a new element has arise 
 in America; powerful tendencies are developii 
 with higher aims than mere wealth, and wlii< 
 demand a larger code than the utilitarian. Fran] 
 lin did not recognize, or rather had not foresee! 
 the necessary advent of that speculative hab 
 now very rapidly becoming dominant ov< 
 American thought : but in his treatment of tl 
 equally powerful tendency of which he saw tl 
 influence, and whereof he himself so largely pa 
 took, his ' Poor Richard ' is complete : he thre 
 off all prerogative and tradition, and looked i 
 things as they are. Temperance, Silence, Orde 
 Resolution, Frugality, Activity, Sincerity, Justic 
 Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquillity, Chastit 
 Humility, these are his virtues; and Franklj 
 teaches how to acquire them, by precepts, whic 
 in earlier times, would have ranked as gold* 
 verses ; they are as valuable as anything that hi 
 descended from Pythagoras. It is rare that 
 single mind establishes claims so various as thoi 
 of Franklin : he ranks also among the foremoi 
 as a Physical Inquirer and Discoverer. Attracte 
 by the opening subject of Electricity, he wj 
 the first who reduced it to order : and that gran 
 step is owing to him which identified the attra< 
 tion and repulsion of rubbed glass and ambei 
 with the energy that produces lightning, an 
 causes the most imposing of meteorological phenc 
 mena. His memoirs on Electricity and other phj 
 sical subjects, still astonish one by their clearnes 
 and chastity, and the precision and elegance < 
 their method ; their style and manner are t 
 worthy of admiration as their doctrines. The 
 gained for the author immediate admission to tl 
 highest scientific societies in Europe. In his pel 
 sonal bearing Franklin was sedate and weight; 
 He had no striking eloquence ; he spoke sentent 
 ously ; but men instinctively felt his worth, an 
 submitted themselves to his wisdom. Excej 
 Washington, whom in many qualities he muc 
 resembled, the New World yet ranks amon 
 her dead, nowhere so great a Man. An editio 
 of his works in ten volumes has recently bee 
 published by Jared Sparks, the excellent Edit( 
 of the writings of Washington. [J.P.N. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Eleanor Anne, an Englis 
 poetess, best known by her maiden name of Poi 
 den, wife of Captain Franklin, the well-know 
 Arctic adventurer, 1795-1825. 
 
 FRANTZ, a French painter, 16th century. 
 FRANTZ, Wolfgang, a Ger. divine, 15(5 1-162* 
 FRANTZKE, G., a German jurist, 15'J 1-KJ59 
 FRANZ, J. G. F., a German savant, 1737-89. 
 FRANZ, J. M., a German geographer, 1700-6! 
 FRA-PAOLO. See Sarpi. 
 FRASSEN, C, a learned Frchman., 1620-171^ 
 FRAUENHOFER, Jos. Von, a dist. opticia 
 and natural philosopher of Bavaria, 1787-1826. 
 FRAUNCE, Abu., an English poet, 16th cen 
 FREDEGARIUS, a French annalist, died 660j 
 FREDEGISUS, an EngUsh poet, 9th century. 
 
 254 
 
FRE 
 
 FREDEGONDA, queen of France, 543-597. 
 
 FREDERICK I., emperor of Germany, sur- 
 amed Babarossa, bora in the duchy of Suabia, 
 121 ; accompanied his uncle, Conrad III., to the 
 oly Land 1147 ; succeeded him as emperor 1152 ; 
 owned at Rome 1155 ; crowned king of Aries 
 178; undertook a new crusade 1188; drowned in 
 yria 1190. Frederick II., born 1194, master 
 the empire after a long struggle 1208 ; engaged 
 
 a crusade 1227-1229 ; excommunicated by Pope 
 regoiy IX. 1239 ; died 1250. Frederick III., 
 )rn 1415, crowned emperor 1452 ; erected his 
 ichy of Austria into an arch-duchy 1453 ; suf- 
 red many reverses, lost his throne, and was re- 
 ored, between 1482 and 1490 ; died 1495. 
 
 FREDERICK I., king of Denmark and Nor- 
 ay, born 1471; succeeded 1523; d. 1533. Fred- 
 rick II., born 1524; succeeded 1558; died 1588. 
 rederick III., born 1609 ; succeeded his father 
 548; war with Sweden 1658-1660; died, after the 
 own had been made hereditary in his family, 1670. 
 rederick IV., born 1671 ; succeeded 1699 ; 
 with Sweden 1699-1720; died 1730. Fred- 
 
 ick V., born 1723; succeeded 1746; died 1766. 
 
 EDERICK VI., born 1768; succeeded his father 
 overning as regent 1808; war of alliance 
 bt France against Russia and Prussia 1813 ; lost 
 ay 1814 ; died 1839. 
 
 FREDERICK I., king of Sweden, born 1676, 
 'ated with his wife, Ulrica Eleonora, sister 
 
 Charles XII., as king 1720, died 1745. 
 
 FREDERICK I., king of Prussia, called, as 
 jctor of Brandenburg, Frederick III., born 1657, 
 cceeded to the electorate 1688, crowned king 
 '01, died 1713. Frederick William I., born 
 168, succeeded 1713, died 1740. Frederick 
 ., his son, called ' The Great,' (see next article). 
 rederick William II., nephew of Frederick 
 e Great, born 1744, succeeded 1786, united with 
 a and Russia in the division of Poland, and 
 the same year, 1797. Frederick William 
 son of the preceding, born 1770 ; succeeded 
 died, and succeeded by his son Frederick 
 am IV., 1840. 
 
 FREDERICK II., king of Prussia, commonly 
 [Ued Frederick the Great, was born 24th January, 
 [12, and began to reign in 1740. He found him- 
 |lf in possession of a full treasury and a powerful 
 Imy, which he soon employed in attacking Aus- 
 K and conquering from her the province of 
 Resia (1740-1742). In 1744 he engaged in a 
 pond war with Austria, which was terminated in 
 [45, and left him in possession of Silesia, but 
 fth no augmentation ot power, though his mili- 
 ty renown was raised through Europe. The 
 feat struggle of the seven years' war began in 1756. 
 pwsiawasnow attacked by the Austrians,the Rus- 
 kns, the French, the Saxons, and the Swedes, and 
 
 r destruction and dismemberment seemed inevit- 
 
 le. England was her only ally. Prussia went 
 
 ^Hltne struggle, and came out triumphant. 
 
 [hen the peace of Hubertsburg was concluded in 
 
 sia did not cede an inch of land, or pay a 
 
 liar of money ; and from that time forth she was 
 
 Agnized as one of the five great powers of Europe. 
 
 r this glorious result she was indebted to her 
 is not merely the military genius of 
 
 cilcri-k. as displayed during the sanguinary 
 
 mpaigns of the seven years' war, that demands 
 
 FRE 
 our attention, but we cannot help admiring also 
 his moral courage and his indomitable energyunder 
 reverses which would have crushed almost any other 
 spirit. Though victorious at Prague, at Rossbach, 
 and Lissa (1757), at Zorndorf "(1758), at Leig- 
 nitz and Torgau (1760), he suffered heavy defeats 
 at Collin (1757), at Hochkirk (1758), at Kunersdorff 
 (1759); and his lieutenants, with the exception of 
 Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, were generally 
 unsuccessful. But Frederick's firmness never 
 failed him, even when all hope seemed lost. In a 
 period of extreme danger, he wrote to Voltaire 
 (who had advised him to beg mercy from his ene- 
 mies), ' I am a man, and therefore born to suffer. To 
 the rigour of destiny I oppose my own constancy. 
 Menaced with shipwreck, I will bear the storm ; I 
 will be a king in spirit; and I will die, as I 
 have lived, a king.' After the conclusion of the 
 war, Frederick exerted himself earnestly in reliev- 
 ing the sufferings which so many years of carnage 
 and devastation had brought upon Prussia. In 
 1772 he deeply disgraced himself, and permanently 
 injured the cause of Order as well as the cause of 
 Freedom throughout the world, by promoting and 
 participating in the first dismemberment of Po- 
 land. Frederick died 17th August, 1786. He 
 was fond of the society of literary men, and was 
 himself an author of many works of considerable 
 merit. During his struggles against Austria and 
 France, Frederick was regarded in England 
 and America as the champion of protestantism, 
 and he was called a second Gnstavus Adolphiis. 
 He ill deserved the title. He had no religious 
 faith whatever; and there are few princes of 
 whom so many mean and selfish traits in private 
 life are recorded as of the celebrated king of 
 Prussia. [E.S.C.] 
 
 FREDERICK I., king of Sicily, was the same 
 who became Frederick II., emperor of Germany. 
 Frederick II. of Sicily reigned 1296-1337. 
 Frederick III., reigned 1355-1377. Frederick 
 IV., 1496-1504. The last three were of the house 
 of Arragon, and Frederick IV. was before count of 
 Altomaia, and d. in France after losing his crown. 
 
 FREDERICK I., elector of Saxony, reigned 
 1423-1428. Frederick II., 1428-1464. Fre- 
 derick III., 1486-1525. Frederick Augus- 
 tus, the first of the name as king, 1768-1827. 
 
 FREDERICK I., as king of Wurtemburg, or 
 Frederick II. as duke, reigned 1797-1816. 
 
 FREDERICK, son of Theodore, king of Corsica, 
 colonel in the army of the king of Wurtemburg, 
 and his polit. agent in England, au. of 'Historical Me- 
 moirs concerning Corsica,' committed suicide 1796. 
 
 FREE, J., an English divine and miscellaneous 
 writer, au. of History of Eng. Poetry,' 1711-1791. 
 
 FREEKE, Wm., an English Socinian, b. 1663. 
 
 FREELING, Sir Francis, secretary of the 
 General Post Office for nearly fifty years, 1764-1836. 
 
 FREEMAN, Wm. Peere Williams, an Engl. 
 admiral disting. in the American war, 1742-1832. 
 
 FREEMANTLE, Sir Thomas, a celebrated 
 English admiral, 1765-1820. 
 
 FREGOSO, the name of a Genoese family, of 
 whom the following were doges of Genoa : Do- 
 minique, reigned 1370-1378. Joseph, his son, 
 elected 1390. and deposed the year following, 
 Thomas, son of Joseph, reigned 1415-1421, re- 
 elected 1436, and deposed 1443. James, brother of 
 
 
 255 
 
FRE 
 
 Thorn as, reigned about a year, 1447-1448. Pierre, 
 elected 1450, yielded his seigniory to France 1458, 
 and was killed in an endeavour to reconquer it, 
 1459. An archbishop, P. Fregoso, was many 
 times doge between 1462 and 1488, and died in 
 retirement 1498. Battista, his nephew, born 
 1440, elected 1479, deposed 1483. Octavian, 
 elected 1513, yielded the sovereignty of Genoa to 
 Francis I., king of France, 1515, and was con- 
 tinued in command as governor till 1522. 
 
 FREIND, John, an Engl, physician and wr. on 
 med. science, au. of a ' Hist, of Pnvsic,' 1675-1728. 
 
 FREINSHEM, John, a German scholar, lib- 
 rarian to Queen Christina of Sweden, and professor 
 of rhetoric at the university of Upsala, 1608-1660. 
 
 FREMIN, R., a French sculptor, 1673-1743. 
 
 FREMINET, M., a French painter, 1567-1619. dition, with miners, soldiers, &c, was sent out, 3 
 
 FRE RE, G., a French officer, 1764-1826. 
 
 FRE RE, Right Hon. John Hookham, a scho- 
 lar and fugitive wr., successor of his friend Canning 
 as under secretary of state for foreign affairs, and 
 disting. in 
 
 ary o 
 ral di 
 
 FRY 
 
 FROBENIUS, John, a Gcr. print., 14C0-15 
 FROB1SHER, Sir Martin, was born of hum 
 parents at Doncaster, but the precise date is i 
 certain. He became early convinced of the pos 
 bility of a north-west passage to China , and 
 the nope of gaining undying fame by its discove 
 continued for fifteen years urging in various qu 
 ters the equipment of an expedition. Dudl 
 earl of Warwick, at length patronised him 
 1576. He left 8th June with three small vessi 
 and returned 2d October, having reached no fart 
 than Labrador and the coast of Greenland. In 
 cations of gold were discovered, which led to 1 
 despatch or a larger squadron the following ye; 
 and the quality of the ore brought home be: 
 more favourably reported upon, an important ex; 
 
 May, 1578 ; but the fleet was scattered by stor 
 on the coast of Greenland, and obliged to reti 
 home early in winter without effecting any sett 
 merit. Probisher afterwards went to the W 
 several diplomatic missions, 1769-1846. Indies with Drake, and on the defeat of the Spj 
 
 FRERES, Theod., a Dutch paint., 1643-1693 
 
 FRERET, Nich., a French savant, 1688-1749. 
 
 FRERON, Elie Catherine, a distinguished 
 French critic and original writer, 1719-1776. His 
 son, Louis Stanislaus, a member of the French 
 convention, and founder of a violent journal en- 
 titled ' L'Orateur du Peuple,' 1757-1802. 
 
 FRESCOBALDI, G., an Ital. composer, 17th c. 
 
 FRESNEL, Augustin John, an experimental 
 philosopher, and member of the Academy of 
 Sciences of France, distinguished as the discoverer 
 of the polarization of light, &c., 1788-1827. 
 
 FREYBERG, C. A., a German hist., 1684-1743. 
 
 FREYE, Ch., a German miscel. wr., 1759-1800. 
 
 FREYLINGHAWSEN, J. A., a Lutheran 
 theologian and mystic of the Pietists, 1670-1738. 
 
 FRICK, Jean, a German theologian and philo- 
 sopher, 1670-1739. Elie, his brother, a theolo- 
 gian, 1673-1711. Georges, son of Jean, author 
 of a ' Dissertation upon the Salic Law,' &c, 1703- 
 1739. Albert, younger brother of Georges, dis- 
 tinguished as a savant, 1711-1776. 
 
 FRIES, J., a Swiss savant, 1505-1565. Mi- 
 chel, his nephew, a wr. on natural history, d. 1611. 
 
 FRIES, J. C, a Swiss painter, 1623-1693. 
 
 FRIESE, Chr. Theo., a Polish hist., 1717-95. 
 
 FRIESE, Martin, a Luther, theol., 1688-1750. 
 
 FRIESS, J. De, an Aust. financier, 1722-1793. 
 
 FRISCH, John Leonard, a German minister, 
 author of works on natural history, ethnology, and 
 language, 1666-1743. His son, Joseph Leon- 
 ard, a minister and naturalist, 1714-1787. 
 
 FRISCHE, J. Du, a French classic, 1640-1693. 
 
 FRISCHLIN, N., a German savant, 1547-90. 
 
 FRISI, Paolo, an Italian philosopher, 1728-84. 
 
 FRISIUS, John, a Swiss divine and Orientalist, 
 died 1565. His son, John James, author of 
 many works on theology, philosophy, and philo- 
 logy, dates unknown. Another son, John, suc- 
 cessor of his father, as professor at Zurich, died 
 1611. Henry Frisius, a descendant of the pre- 
 ceding, a theological and philosophical wr., d. 1718. 
 
 FRISIUS, Simon, a Dutch engraver, 14th cent. 
 
 FRITH, John, an Engl, reformer, burnt 1533. 
 
 FRITSCH, A., a German savant, 1629-1701. 
 
 FRITZ, Samuel, a Ger. missionary, 1653-1728. 
 
 FR1TZE, J. T., a German med. au., 1740-1793. 
 
 ish Armada received the honour of knighthood, 
 
 acknowledgment of his services in the action. 
 
 died in the end of the year 1594, from the effe 
 
 of a carelessly dressed wound received in an atti 
 
 upon Brest. [JJ 
 
 FROILA, the name of three Spanish king! 
 
 the first, king of Oviedo, reigned 757-768 ; 
 
 second, king of Oviedo, and count of Gallicia 
 
 short time in 875 ; the third, k. of Leon, 923-9 
 
 FROISSART, John, a celebrated French p 
 
 and historian, whose Chronicles of France, Ei 
 
 land, Scotland, Spain, and Brittany, constit 
 
 one of the most precious monuments of the mid 
 
 ages. He was attached to the court of Philippe 
 
 Hainault, queen of Edward III., and mother of 
 
 Black Prince, and after her death to several ci 
 
 tinental sovereigns. He is supposed to have lr 
 
 from 1326 to 1400. The best edition of 
 
 Chronicles is that of M. Buchoz, 15 vols. 8vo, 18 
 
 There have been several English translations. 
 
 FRONTEAN, John, a Fr. controver., 1614- 
 
 FRONTIN, Claude, a French poet, 16th ce 
 
 FRONTINUS, Sextus Julius, a Ron 
 
 statesman and soldier, commander of the armies 
 
 Britain, author of a work on tactics, &c, 40-10 
 
 FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, a celebra 
 
 Roman orator and teacher of elocution, instrac 
 
 of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, consul lj 
 
 FROWDE, Philip, an English poet, died 17 
 
 FRUGONI, C. J., an Italian poet, 1692-1761 
 
 FRUITIERS, Ph., a Flemish painter, 17th <| 
 
 FRUMENTIUS, St., the apostle of EthioJ 
 
 consecrated a bishop by Athanasius 331, d. 36( 
 
 FRY, Mrs. Elizabeth, whose maiden m 
 
 was Gurney, was born in 1780 at Earlham, Kj 
 
 folk, an extensive estate which had been in j 
 
 possession of her paternal ancestry for many cj 
 
 turies. The benevolence of her disposition displa] 
 
 itself by her habit, while yet a girl, of visiting j 
 
 poor on her father's property, and forming a sell 
 
 for the education of their children. With this natl 
 
 benevolence, however, she united an ardent fonc 
 
 for the gaieties and frivolities of fashionable 
 
 till through the powerful ministrations of 
 
 Savery, an American Friend, she was brc 
 
 the knowledge and love of the truth as it ill 
 
 Jesus. Her character from that day was enti ] 
 
 256 
 
FRY 
 
 raged, and she became a genuine and consistent 
 iristian. In 1800 she was married to Joseph 
 y, Esq., of London, and consequently settled in 
 5 metropolis.. There she resumed her early- 
 bit of visiting the poor ; and although she be- 
 ne the mother of a large family, who were most 
 iderly loved and assiduously trained, she yet 
 ind leisure, by a rigid economy of time, and ar- 
 lgement of domestic duties, to render her bene- 
 ent offices to her poor and suffering fellow-crea- 
 es. Every day was she found visiting charity 
 tools, in the houses and lanes of the poor, and in 
 i wards of sick hospitals, till at length by a provi- 
 ltial train of circumstances, she was led to ex- 
 id her benevolent attentions to the inmates of a 
 ison and a lunatic asylum. The accents of 
 iristian love found entrance into the hearts of 
 wretched outcasts, and she became the hon- 
 red instrument of remodelling the discipline 
 d improving the state of our national prisons, 
 the commencement of her career there was no 
 issification of any sort, no separation between 
 ,le and female prisoners ; all criminals, parents 
 d children, men and women, those who were 
 mparatively innocent with the inveterately de- 
 aved, were indiscriminately huddled together, and 
 these circumstances many left the prison far more 
 miliar with crime than when they entered it. 
 required no small resolution and faith to enter 
 ch a den of iniquity as a British jail at that 
 riod was ; but Mrs. Fry attempted it and was 
 ccessful. Her dignity, and at the same time 
 feminine gentleness, subdued their ferocity 
 d won their attention ; she told them that vice 
 the cause of all their misery, that if they 
 ould return to virtuous habits, they might again 
 ) happy, and she proposed rules for their obser- 
 race, of which they unanimously expressed their 
 roroval. Repeating her visit after a brief inter- 
 u, and finding them equally tractable and sub- 
 issive, she proceeded with her contemplated 
 easures. She appointed a teacher to those chil- 
 en who had been committed for petty offences, 
 id many of whom were under seven years of age. 
 iven their profligate mothers took an interest in 
 lis infant school. Mrs. Fry next devised some 
 Iknployment for the women, by teaching them to 
 ibw, and supplying them with work. For the ac- 
 Ipmplishment of this arduous undertaking she 
 farmed a ladies' committee, some of whom made 
 1 a sacred duty to attend in the prison daily, so 
 pat there was not a moment when the females 
 rere not under the superintendence of some proper 
 Ind efficient guide. A matron was at length 
 bpointed to live in the prison, and take the over- 
 fent of the female prisoners. But the ladies' com- 
 bttee still continued their attendance, one giving 
 hstruction in needlework, another in knitting, 
 rhile a third read some good religious book, and 
 fooke to them about the guilt and the wages of 
 pn, the duty and superior happiness of a sober, 
 laste, and religious life. In a few weeks the most 
 shing moral revolution was effected within 
 of the prison : not only the language of 
 y, obscenity, and fiendish discord entirely 
 ed, but women of the most abandoned 
 rs were reclaimed to established habits of 
 :ety, industry, and piety. The public interest 
 greatly excited by the intelligence. Visitors 
 
 FUL 
 
 of the highest official station and noble rank 
 visited the schools, and the most undoubted testi- 
 monies were borne to the excellent principles and 
 efficient working of these benevolent schemes. 
 Mrs. Fry, while she continued her inspection of 
 the prisons, extended her benevolent regards to 
 other classes, such as making provision for 
 female convicts, both during their voyage out, and 
 at their allotted stations. She also visited all the 
 principal jails in Scotland and Ireland, France, 
 Holland, Denmark, and Prussia, and her last 
 scheme of philanthropy was begun with a view to 
 benefit British seamen, particularly to alleviate the 
 miserable state of the coast guard; forming 
 libraries and adopting means for circulating books 
 and tracts in men-of-war ships. These anxious and 
 multifarious labours made serious inroads on the 
 health of this excellent lady. After trying the 
 waters of Bath in the spring of 1844, she returned 
 home no way improved, and gradually sank till 
 she expired at Ramsgate, 11th October. Her 
 death was lamented throughout Europe as a loss 
 to humanity. She was, as she has often been 
 called, ' the female Howard,' and like her proto- 
 type, her benevolent exertions were the fruit of a 
 lively and established faith in the gospel of 
 Christ. [R.J.] 
 
 FRYE, Thomas, an Irish artist, 1710-1762. 
 
 FUCA, Juan De, a Germ, navigator, d. 1632. 
 
 FUCHS, G. F., a German composer, died 1821. 
 
 FUCHS, J. C., a German author, 1726-1795. 
 
 FUCHS, Theophilus, a Ger. poet, 1720-1810. 
 
 FUCHS, or FUCHSIUS, Leonard, a Bava- 
 rian physician and botanist, author of ' Historia 
 Plantarum,' 1501-1566. 
 
 FUCHS, or FUSCH, R., a Fr. natural., d. 1587. 
 
 FUENTE, J. L., a Spanish painter, 1600-1654. 
 
 FUENTES, Count De, a Sp. gen., 1560-1643. 
 
 FUENTE S, or FONTE, Bartholemew De, 
 a Spanish or Portuguese navigator, 17th century. 
 
 FUESSLI, Hans H., a Swiss hist., 1752-1832. 
 
 FUESSLI, J., a Swiss annalist, born 1477. His 
 son, Peter, historian of the Swiss wars, d. 1548. 
 
 FUESSLI, J. C, a German historian, 1704-75. 
 
 FUESSLI, J. M., a Swiss engraver, 1677-1736. 
 
 FUESSLI, M., a Swiss painter and engraver, 
 1598-1664. John Gaspard Fuessli, his de- 
 scendant, a distinguished artist and correspondent 
 of the German savants, 1706-1782. His son, of 
 the same name, distinguished as a naturalist, and 
 for his drawings of insects, 1745-1786. His son, 
 J. Rodolph, a designer, engraver, and painter, 
 1737-1806. His son, Henry, the distinguished 
 painter known by the name of Fuseli, which see. 
 
 FUGA, Ferd., an Italian architect, 1699-1788. 
 
 FUGER, Fred. Henry, a Flemish painter of 
 portraits, miniatures, and hist, pieces, 1751-1818. 
 
 FUGERES, A. C, a French savant, 1731-1758. 
 
 FUGGER, the name of a rich family of Augs- 
 burgh, ennobled by the emperor Maximilian, the 
 most remarkable of whom are Ulrich, a great 
 benefactor of literature, 1528-1584. Anthony 
 and Raymond, founders of two hospitals, a public 
 garden, a picture gallery, a museum of antiquities, 
 &c, in the 16th century. And Otho Henry, 
 count of Kirschberg and Weissenhorn, 1592-1644. 
 
 FULBECK, Wm., an English law wr., b. 1560. 
 
 FULBERT, an Ital. ecclesiastic, 10th century. 
 
 FULKE, Wm., an English divine, 16th century. 
 
 257 
 
FUL 
 
 FULLER, And., a baptist theolog., 1754-1815. 
 
 FULLER, Isaac, an English painter, d. 1672. 
 
 FULLER, Margaret. See Ossoli. 
 
 FULLER, Nich., a learned divine, 1557-1622. 
 
 FULLER, Dr. Thomas, an English historian 
 and divine, author of the ' Worthies of England,' 
 a ' History of the Holy War,' and many other 
 popular and learned works, 1608-1660. 
 
 FULMAN, Wm, an English antiq., 1632-1688. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, an American engineer, of 
 Irish parentage. His highest distinction is that 
 of having been the earliest to establish practically 
 the propelling of vessels by steam. Millar's ex- 
 periments, which proved the practicability of the 
 principle, were made in 1787 in Scotland, but 
 Fulton's boat, which began to navigate the Hud- 
 son in 1807, was certainly the first practical de- 
 monstration of this application of steam, being 
 five years prior to the success of Henry Bell on the 
 Clyde, and nearly ten years prior to the first at- 
 tempts on the Thames under Brunei's direction. 
 Fulton was born 1765 in Pennsylvania. He com- 
 menced life as a portrait painter in Philadelphia 
 in 1783, but in 1786 he embarked for England, 
 where he worked under his distinguished country- 
 man West, the historical painter, for several years. 
 The fine arts were destined, however, with Fulton 
 to give place to the mechanical, for in 1794 he 
 had been engaged by the duke of Bridgewater in 
 canal projects, nad adopted and patented the sys- 
 tem of inclined planes as a substitute for locks, 
 had written a treatise on canals, and styled him- 
 self civil engineer. He also invented a mill for 
 sawing marble, and patented methods of spinning 
 flax and making ropes. He had little success as 
 a civil engineer in Britain. In 1796 he went to 
 Paris at the invitation of Mr. Barlow, United 
 States minister, in whose house he resided during 
 seven years. His attention was here chiefly turned 
 to submarine boats as warlike instruments of de- 
 struction. The experiments, made first at the ex- 
 pense of the French government, and afterwards 
 tor the English government, proved failures. In 
 the course of these experiments, in the year 1803, an 
 experimental steam-boat was built and tried on the 
 Seme. The success was indifferent. But perse- 
 verance overcomes all difficulties. Mr. Livingston, 
 the American ambassador in Paris in 1806, sup- 
 plied Fulton with funds, who returned to America, 
 and in New York launched a steam-boat, which be- 
 gan to navigate the Hudson in 1807. He after- 
 wards built other steam-boats, one of them a 
 frigate, which bore his name. His reputation be- 
 came established, and his fortune was rapidly in- 
 creasing, when his patent for steam vessels was 
 disputed, and his opponents were in a considerable 
 degree successful. Though an amiable, social, 
 and liberal man, the anxiety and fretfulness occa- 
 sioned by the lawsuits about his patent rights, 
 together with his enthusiasm, which led him to ex- 
 pose himself too much while directing his work- 
 men, impaired his constitution, and he died at the 
 early age of forty-nine in 1815. His death occa- 
 sioned extraordinary demonstrations of national 
 mourning in the United States. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 FULVIUS, Marcus, a famous Roman, aedile 
 197 B.C., disting. in Spanish warfare as praetor 
 194, consul 190, censor with ./Emilius Lepidus 180. 
 
 FULVIUS, And., an ItaL antiquarian, 15th ct. 
 
 FYR 
 
 FUNCK, C. G. Ferdinand De, a licntena 
 general and historian of Brunswick, 1761-1828. 
 FUNCK, Chr. L., a Ger. theolog., 1751-182 
 FUNCK, J., a German chronologist, 1518- 
 FUNCK, J. G., a German theolog., 1680-175 
 FUNCK, J. H., a German savant, 1693-177', 
 FURETIERES, A., a French lawyer, 1628-i 
 FURGOLE, G. R., a Fr. wr. on law, 1690-17 
 FURIETTI, J. A., an It. cardinal, 1685-176 
 FURIUS, a Latin poet and annalist, 1st c. I 
 FURIUS, Frederic, a learned Span., d. 15 
 FURLONG, Th., an Irish poet, 1797-1827. 
 FURNEAUX, Ph., a nonconf. div., 1726-17 
 FURST, Walter, a Swiss patriot, coadju 
 of William Tell and Arnold, 14th century. 
 
 FURSTENAU, J. H., a German physician i 
 medical author, 1688-1756. His son, J. Fri 
 eric, same profession, 1724-1751. 
 
 FUSELI, Henry, R.A., was born at Ziiri 
 7th February, 1741, and was originally brouj 
 up for the church, and entered into holy orde 
 but for some municipal interference his fan: 
 thought it necessary for him to leave Zurich foi 
 time, and he visited this country in company w 
 Sir Andrew Mitchel in 1763. He here maintau 
 himself by literature, and finally, by the advice 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, adopted the profession o: 
 painter, and in 1770 set out for Italy : he retun 
 to London in 1779, after an absence of eight yes 
 He first attracted the public attention by liisjp 
 ture of the ' Night-mare,' painted in 1781. T 
 was a fair indication of the unusual bent 
 Fuseli's fancy, thoroughly developed in his gr 
 Milton gallery. He was elected an associate 
 the Academy in 1788, and an academician in 17! 
 In 1799 he finished his great Milton gallery 
 forty-seven large pictures., which had occup 
 him only nine years ; of these remarkable compc 
 tions, the Lazar House ; Satan Starting from 1 
 Touch of Ithuriel's Spear; Satan Calling up 
 Legions; the Lubbar Fiend; the Vision ot 1 
 Deluge ; Eve Newly Created, Led to Adam ; t 
 Sin Pursued by Death ; were striking and origii 
 works, of great power of conception and treatme 
 though deficient in all minor technicalities of e; 
 cution. Fuseli was chosen professor of painti 
 in 1801, but resigned on being appointed to 1 
 keepership in 1805 ; he was, however, re-elecl 
 in 1810, and held that office, together with 1 
 keepership, until his death, 16th April, 18! 
 He delivered in all twelve lectures in the Acaden 
 which are among the most valuable contributic 
 to English art literature. (Knowles, Life a 
 Writings of Fuseli, 3 vols. 8vo, 1831 ; Wornu 
 Lectures by the Royal Academicians. &c. Bol 
 1848.) [R.N.y 
 
 FUSS, Nicholas Von, a mathematician a 
 natural philoso., pupil of Bernouilli, 1755-1826J 
 FUST, Sir H. S., a disting. lawyer, 1778-18,1 
 FUZELIER, Louis, a Fr. drama., 1672-175; 
 FYAZ-ALI, a Mahommedan savant, d. 1781 
 FYOT-DE-LA-MARCHE, Claude, Count 
 Bosjam, a Fr. ecclesiastic and histor., 1630-172 
 
 FYROUZ, the first of the name king of Pe 
 83-107 ; the second, from about 457 to 488. 
 
 FYROUZ-SHAH, the first of the Mi 
 rulers of India bearing this name reigned 
 time in 1236; the second 1289-1296; the 
 sue. 1351, abdic. in favour of his son 1387, d. I 
 
 258 
 
GAA 
 
 G 
 
 GAL 
 
 AAL, Bernaert, a Dutch paint., died 1671. 
 
 5ABBIANI, A. D., an Ital. paint., 1652-1726. 
 
 jABELCHOVER, Oswald, a German phy- 
 
 an and historian, Tubingen, 1538-1616. 
 
 JABIA, J. B., an Ital. Orientalist, 16th cent. 
 
 5ABINIUS, Aulus, a partizan of Pompey, 
 
 )une 69 B.C., consul 58, aiterw. gov. of Syria. 
 
 jABINIUS, Quintus, tribune, 140 B.C. 
 
 JABRIEL, Severus, a Greek bishop, 16th ct. 
 
 }ABRIEL of Sion, a lrnd. Maronite, d. 1648. 
 
 ABRIELLI, Julio, an Ital. card., 1748-1822. 
 
 JABRINI, Th. M., an It. mathem., 1726-1807. 
 
 JACON, Fr., a French satiric, poet, 1667-1725. 
 
 JADBURY, John, an Engl, astrologer, 17th ct. 
 
 rADDESDEN, John of, an English ecclesi- 
 
 c and medical author, 14th century. 
 
 JADEBUSCH, F. C, a Ger. savant., 1719-88. 
 
 AELEN, Alex. Van, a Dutch painter, pupil 
 
 ohn Van Huchtenberg, 1670-1728. 
 
 .ERTNER, C. Chr., a Ger. transl., 1712-91. 
 
 AERTNER, Joseph, an eminent botanist, 
 
 i born at Calu in the duchy of Wirtemberg in 
 
 2. He died in 1791. Gaertner studied medi- 
 
 j at the university of Gottingen, and attended 
 
 lectures of the celebrated Haller. He was 
 
 ch devoted to the pursuit of natural history, 
 
 . the lessons of his illustrious teacher there, and 
 
 srwards of the able botanist Adrian Van Rogen 
 
 Leyden, confirmed him in his choice. After 
 
 ing his degree, he travelled into Italy, France, 
 
 d, and England, and published several me- 
 
 upon various subjects connected with marine 
 
 and botany. In 1768 he was instituted 
 
 r of botany and natural history at the 
 
 ity of St. Petersburg, where he formed the 
 
 his great work, upon which his eminent 
 
 on depends. His health obliged him to 
 
 his professorship at the end of two years, 
 
 ;urn to his native land. There for eight 
 
 he steadily pursued his arduous undertaking. 
 
 len revisited England and Holland, where 
 
 oseph Banks, and the equally celebrated 
 
 rg opened to him the collections which 
 
 d made, the one in the South Seas, the 
 
 in Japan. At length his excellent work was 
 
 to the world, and it will remain a monu- 
 
 to his fame as long as the science of botany 
 
 to be studied. Its object is to illustrate 
 
 its and seeds of plants, and contains the 
 
 tial generic characters and particular descrip- 
 
 I w of the fruits of 1,000 genera, illustrated by 
 
 ellent figures drawn by himself. In the defi- 
 
 '> ton and anatomical elucidation of the parts of 
 
 l is, Gaertner excels, and his work has rendered 
 
 Hit essential service to the science of botany. 
 
 wreber has named a genus of plants after him, 
 
 fetaera. [W.B.] 
 
 BAFFAREL, James, a French Orientalist, dis- 
 
 ^Hhed for his rabbinical learning, 1601-1681. 
 
 JAI 1'ARELLI, an Italian singer, 1703-1783. 
 
 BAFURIO, F., an Italian composer, 1451-1520. 
 
 ^Vffi, Thomas, an Irish missionary, d. 1655. 
 
 pAGE, Thomas, com. of the British troops in 
 
 rth America, and gov. of Massachusets, d 1787. 
 
 GAGE, Thomas, an English divine, 17th cent. 
 GAGER, Wm., an English dramatist, 16th ct. 
 
 GAGINI, Ant., a Sicilian sculptor, 1480-1571. 
 
 GAGLIARDI, P., an Ital. savant, 1695-1742. 
 
 GAGNIER, J., a French Orientalist, d. 1740. 
 
 GAGUIN, R., a French historian, died 1501. 
 
 GAILLARD, Ant., a French poet, 17th cent. 
 
 GAILLARD, Augier, a burlesque poet, 16th c. 
 
 GAILLARD-DE-LONJUMEAU, J., a Proven- 
 cal bishop, first projector of a Universal Histori- 
 cal Dictionary, for which he collected materials 
 afterwards used by Moreri, 1634-1695. 
 
 GAILLARD, G. H., a French hist., 1726-1806. 
 
 GAILLARD, John Ernest, the son of a 
 peruke maker, was born at Zell about the year 
 1666, and was instructed in the science and prac- 
 tice of music by Marichal, by Farinelli, and by 
 Steffani. At the termination of his studies he 
 was taken into the service of George, prince of 
 Denmark, and after the marriage of that prince 
 Gaillard came to England, where he remained till 
 his death, which occurred in the beginning of the 
 year 1749. He was generally esteemed as an 
 elegant and tasteful composer. His principal em- 
 ployment for several years of his life in London, 
 was composing for the stage. [J.M.] 
 
 GAINAS, a Gothic general, killed 400. 
 
 GAINSBOROUGH, Thos., R.A., was born at 
 Sudbury in Suffolk in 1727. He was the pupil of 
 Hayman, but settled in 1758 in Bath, where he 
 practised both portrait painting and landscape 
 with such success, that he was induced to try his 
 fortune in London, whither he removed in 1774 ; 
 and he was soon accounted both the rival of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds and Wilson : Sir Joshua himself 
 said of him in his ' Character of Gainsborough,' 
 ' Whether he most excelled in portraits, landscapes, 
 or fancy pictures, it is difficult to determine.' He 
 was one of the original members of the Royal 
 Academy, founded in 1768 : he died in London, 2d 
 August, 1788, and was buried in Kew churchyard. 
 (Edwards, Anecdotes of Painters, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 GAIUS, or CAIUS, a Roman lawyer, 2d cent. 
 
 GALAS, Matthew, a Ger. general, 1589-1647. 
 
 GALATEO, Ant., an It. geograp., 1444-1516. 
 
 GALBA, Servius Sulpicius, a Roman em- 
 peror, proclaimed in Spain 68, assassinated 69. 
 
 GALBA, Sergius, a Roman consul, 144 B.C. 
 
 GALE, John, a baptist divine, 1680-1721. 
 
 GALE, Theophilus, a popular dissenting min- 
 ister, and theological author, 1628-1678. 
 
 GALE, Thomas, a divine of the Church of 
 England, celebrated as a scholar and antiquary, 
 1636-1702. His son, Roger, a numismatist, 
 1672-1744. His son, Samuel, an archaeological 
 writer, histor. of Winchester cathedral, 1682-1754. 
 
 GALEANO, Joseph, an It, savant, 1605-1675. 
 
 GALEN, Chr. Bernard Van, prince-bishop 
 of Munster, born about 1607, died after a reign of 
 twenty-eight years occupied in warfare, 1678. 
 
 GALEN, J. Van, a Dutch mariner, died 1653. 
 
 GALENUS, Claudius, usually called Galen, 
 a celebrated Greek physician, who flourished in the 
 second century of our era, and whose authority 
 
 259 
 
GAL 
 
 in the schools of medicine long continued to be 
 equal to that of Aristotle in the schools of philo- 
 sophy. He was the son of Nicon, an architect and 
 geometrician, who had also cultivated with success 
 various branches of knowledge, including astro- 
 nomy, arithmetic, and grammar, and was born at 
 Pergamus, a city of Mysia in Asia Minor, in, as is 
 generally believed, a.d. 130, the fifteenth year of the 
 reign of the Roman emperor Adrian. His mother's 
 name is unknown, but she is described as a woman 
 of violent passions and of an ungovernable temper, 
 who, according to the testimony of her son, tor- 
 mented her husband 'more than Xantippe did 
 Socrates.' He received his medical education in 
 his native city, but upon the death of his father, 
 which happened in the twenty-second year of his 
 age, he visited the medical schools of Smyrna, 
 Corinth, and Alexandria, the latter of which en- 
 joyed at that time a high reputation ; and subse- 
 quently repaired to Cihcia, Phoenicia, Palestine, 
 Scyros, and Crete. Having spent nine years in 
 these travels, he returned to Pergamus, where he 
 began the practice of his art ; and having been 
 appointed by the high priest medical superinten- 
 dent of the gladiators, it is supposed that in this 
 melancholy occupation he acquired some know- 
 ledge of the nature and cure of wounds. His sub- 
 sequent history is very imperfectly known, but it 
 seems tolerably certain that he visited Rome twice 
 in the course of his life, where he acquired a high 
 character for skill, and where, though bitterly op- 
 posed, and, as some think, even persecuted by 
 the Roman physicians, he formed intimate friend- 
 ships with many of the leading men of the state, 
 including the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who in- 
 trusted to his care his son Commodus, then a child 
 of nine years of age, and in a tender state of health. 
 The place and the time of his death are equally un- 
 known. Some respectable authorities, following 
 Suidas, a Byzantine lexicographer, say that he 
 remained at Rome after his second visit, and died 
 there, a.d. 200, in the seventieth year of his age, 
 and in the reign of the emperor Severus ; but one 
 of his Arabian commentators has preserved a tradi- 
 tion that he died in the island of Sicily, at the age of 
 eighty-eight, which, as he was born in 130, would 
 give the year 218 as the year of his death. Galen 
 was a man of great talents and extensive erudition, 
 and a very voluminous writer. His native tongue 
 was Greek, and in that language he wrote, but he 
 understood the Latin, the Ethiopic, and the Persic 
 languages. His works are written for the most 
 part in the Attic dialect, but his style, though 
 eloquent, is diffuse and prolix. Suidas, who is 
 our chief authority on this subject, says that he 
 wrote no less than five hundred books on medicine, 
 and two hundred and fifty on other subjects. Of 
 these the greater part are lost. Of the former not 
 above a half remain, and of the latter only a 
 few fragments; while of his medical treatises 
 forty-five are deemed spurious, and many are con- 
 sidered of doubtful authenticity; yet notwith- 
 standing of these defections, the received works of 
 Galen, with the Latin translations, fill thirteen 
 folio volumes. The best, or at least the most 
 commodious, edition is that of Kiihn, in twenty 
 8vo volumes, begun in 1818, and finished in 
 1833. [J.M'C] 
 
 GALERIUS, a Roman emp., reigned 305-311. 
 
 GAL 
 
 GALGACUS, chief of the Caledonians, 1st d 
 GALHEGOS, M. De, a poet and dramatic wj 
 ter of Portugal, 1597-1665. 
 
 GALILEO, Galilei, a distinguished astron 
 mer, was born at Pisa on the 15th of July, 15( 
 His father, who was himself a philosopher, ha<3 
 family of three sons and three daughters, of whi 
 Galileo was the eldest. He was distinguished 
 a child by his skill in constructing toys and piec 
 of machinery. To these mechanical accomplishing 
 he added a taste for music, drawing,and painting, ai 
 so great was his passion for pictures, that he w 
 desirous of following painting as a profession. E 
 father, however, having observed very decid 
 indications of early genius, resolved to send hS 
 to the university to study medicine. He accotf 
 ingly went to Pisa, on the 9th November, 158 
 and was placed under the celebrated botani 
 Cassalpinus, who then filled the chair of medicii 
 In studying music and drawing, he found it nece 
 sary to acquire some knowledge of geometry, b 
 no sooner had he entered upon Euclid than ] 
 conceived a violent passion for mathematics, ai 
 devoted himself wholly to its study. While poi 
 dering over the treatise of Archimedes De inside 
 tibus in fluido, he wrote an essay on the hydro 
 tatic balance, which was the means, through Gui< 
 Ubaldi, of obtaining for him the appointment 
 lecturer on mathematics in the university of Pis 
 with a salary of only sixty crowns. Galileo hi 
 even in his eighteenth year exhibited a gre 
 antipathy to the philosophy of Aristotle ; bi 
 in the discharge of his new functions at Pis 
 he did not scruple to denounce his mechanic 
 doctrines, and expose their errors in the lai 
 guage even of asperity and triumph. On the sul 
 ject of falling bodies he disproved his doctru 
 by actual experiments made from the leanil 
 tower of Pisa, and so great was the prejudi 
 which was then roused against him, that he quitfr 
 Pisa in 1592, and accepted of the professorship 
 mathematics in the university of Padua. GaEI 
 was converted to the doctrines of Copernicus ' 
 the lectures of Christian Vurstisius, but even aft] 
 his conversion he taught the Ptolemaic system 
 j compliance with popular feeling. The reputati 
 of Galileo was now widely extended. Cosmo, gra 
 duke of Tuscany, invited him, in 1609, to resume li 
 original situation at Pisa. Galileo accepted oft' 
 invitation on condition that he should receive t\ 
 title of Philosopher to his Highness, as well ! 
 that of mathematician ; and while this negotiati! 
 was going on he went to pay a visit to a friend ; 
 Venice. There he learned, by common repo 
 that a Dutchman had given Prince Maurice an c 
 tical instrument which made distant objects ajM 
 near the observer. Anxious to know what t; 
 instrument was, he discovered the principle of! 
 on his return to Padua, and having plao 
 ends of a leaden tube two spectacle-glasses, tj 
 one a plano-convex, and the other a plano-concal 
 the latter being nearest the eye, he obtained! 
 telescope exactly the same as a modern opej 
 glass. This little instrument, which hai 
 nifying power of only three times, he exhibited 
 Venice to crowds of the principal citizens, and 
 presented one of them to the senate, who 
 gave him his professorship at Padua for life, ij 
 raised his salary from 520 to 1000 florins. Ai 
 
GAL 
 
 laving made other two telescopes, one magnifying 
 ight^mi the other thirty times, Galileo applied 
 hem to the heavens. With them he discovered 
 he mountains and cavities in the moon, the round 
 iiscs of the planets, and the four satellites of 
 lupiter. He counted forty stars in the Pleiades, 
 md found that many of the nebulae were clusters 
 if small stars. The satellites of Jupiter were 
 liscovered on the 7th January, 1610, and they 
 vere afterwards found by our celebrated country- 
 nan, Thomas Harriot, on the 17th October of the 
 ,ame year. In directing his telescope towards 
 Saturn, Galileo observed it to be like three o's, 
 lamely, oOo, the middle one being the largest, 
 hus approximating to the discovery of Saturn's 
 ing, afterwards made by Huygens. About the 
 ame time he discovered the crescent of Venus, 
 nd the spots on the sun, which were seen about 
 ix months later by Harriot in England. In the 
 ly part of 1611, Galileo went to Rome, and 
 k with him his best telescope. Here, princes, 
 dinals, and prelates, hastened to do him honour, 
 nd had the gratification of seeing the spots on 
 ' e sun in the Quirinal gardens. The discoveries of 
 alileo were ill received by the followers of Aris- 
 tle. Prejudice and ignorance were thus combined 
 ;ainst him, and in the controversies into which 
 s was led, he treated his opponents and their 
 unions with undue ridicule and sarcasm. The 
 osophers and freethinkers of the day, many of 
 horn had been Galileo's pupils, marshalled them- 
 lves on his side, while the Aristotelian sages 
 ere supported with all the influence of the 
 lurch. While these parties were resting on the 
 fensive, Galileo, in 1613, addressed a letter to 
 s friend, the Abbe Castelli, to prove that the 
 criptures were not intended to teach us science 
 id philosophy, and that it was equally difficult 
 reconcile the Ptolemaic and the Copernican 
 stem with expressions in the Bible. In replying 
 this letter, Caccini, a Dominican monk, made a 
 srsonal attack upon Galileo from the pulpit, ridi- 
 ling the astronomer and his followers. Roused by 
 is attack, Galileo published a long letter defending 
 b former views, which he dedicated to the grand 
 ichess of Tuscany. Its reasoning was conclusive, 
 id its influence powerful. It was felt to be hopeless 
 meet his arguments by any other weapons than 
 ose of the civil power, and with the resolution 
 crush the dangerous innovation, his enemies 
 termined upon appealing to the inquisition. A 
 Jminican monk had paved the way for such a 
 ocess by denouncing to that body Galileo's letter 
 Castelli, and Caccini was induced to settle at 
 >me, in order to embody the evidence against his 
 ponent. In the year 1617, Galileo went to 
 me, cited probably by the inquisition, and was 
 pged in the palace of the grand duke's ambas- 
 ior. When summoned before that body for his 
 jretical doctrine, he was charged with maintain- 
 j; the stability of the sun, and the motion of the 
 (rth, and of trying to reconcile this doctrine to 
 ripture; and after inquiring into the truth of 
 Jse charges on the 25th February, 1615, it was 
 ^reed that Galileo should be enjoined by Cardinal 
 llarmine to renounce the obnoxious tenets, 
 i to pledge himself, under the pain of imprison- 
 nt, neither to teach nor publish them in future. 
 i accordingly appeared before the cardinal, and 
 
 GAL 
 
 having renounced his opinions, and declared that 
 he would neither teach nor defend them, he was 
 dismissed from the bar of the inquisition. Thus 
 successful in their first attempt to put down the 
 truths of science, they conceived the bold plan of 
 condemning the whole system of Copernicus as 
 heretical. In order to frustrate this plan, Galileo 
 remained at Rome, and there is reason to believe 
 that he thus injured his cause. His letter to Cas- 
 telli, Copernicus's work On the Revolutions of the 
 Heavenly Bodies,' and ' Kepler's Epitome of the 
 Copernican System,' were all inserted among the 
 prohibited books. Notwithstanding these acts of 
 hostility, Galileo was graciously received by Pope 
 Paul V., in March, 1616, and even assured that 
 while he occupied the pope's chair, he would pro- 
 tect him against the calumnies of his enemies. 
 About this time Galileo proposed a method of 
 finding the longitude at sea by the eclipse of 
 Jupiter's satellites, and expected that Philip III. 
 of Spain would employ him to devote his time to 
 the perfection of a method so useful to commerce. 
 He failed, however, in this attempt. But the 
 mortification which it gave him was compen- 
 sated by the elevation of his friend Urban 
 VIII. to the pontificate. In October, 1623, 
 Galileo went to Rome to offer his congratula- 
 tions to his holiness. The pope loaded him with 
 presents, promised him a pension for his son, and 
 on the death of Cosmo, recommended him in a 
 special letter to the new grand duke of Tuscany. 
 The cardinals even were propitiated, and in 
 the same spirit his friend Castelli was made 
 mathematician to the pope. Notwithstanding 
 these acts of kindness, however, Galileo cher- 
 ished the deepest hostility against the church, 
 and his resolution to propagate his opinions seems 
 to have been coeval with the vow by which he 
 renounced them. He resolved to write a work in 
 which the Copernican system should be demon- 
 strated. This work, entitled ' The System of the 
 World, by Galileo Galilei,' was published in 1662, 
 and consists of four dialogues, in which he dis- 
 cusses the Ptolemaic and the Copernican systems. 
 The work is dedicated to Ferdinand, grand duke 
 of Tuscany, and contains an ironical and insulting 
 attack upon the decree of the inquisition. The 
 doctrines which it defended were so widely dis- 
 seminated, and so eagerly received, that the 
 Church of Rome felt the blow which was thus 
 given to its intellectual supremacy. Under these 
 circumstances the pope aid not hesitate in his 
 resolution to punisn its author. Galileo was 
 accordingly summoned before the inquisition. 
 Worn out with age and infirmities, he arrived in 
 Rome on the 14th February, 1633, and on the 
 advice of his friends he remained in strict seclu- 
 sion in the house of the Tuscan ambassador. 
 Early in April, when his examination in person 
 took place, he was removed to the holy office, and 
 lodged in the house of the fiscal of the inquisition, 
 his table being provided by the Tuscan ambas- 
 sador. It is stated by M. Libri, and generally 
 believed, that in his examination he was put 
 to the torture, and after this had taken place, 
 he was allowed a reasonable time for his de- 
 fence. Having duly considered his confession 
 and excuses, he was again summoned to the 
 holy office. On the 22d of June he wa3 con- 
 
 2G1 
 
GAL 
 
 ducted In a penitential dress to the convent 
 of Minerva, sentence of imprisonment during 
 the pleasure of the inquisition was pronounced 
 upon him, and he was ordered to abjure 
 and curse the heresies he had cherished. 
 4 The account of the trial and sentence of Galileo,' 
 says Sir David Brewster, 'is pregnant with the 
 deepest interest and instruction. Human nature 
 is here drawn in its darkest colouring ; and in sur- 
 veying the melancholy picture, it is difficult to de- 
 cide whether religion or philosophy has been most 
 degraded. While we witness the presumptuous 
 priest pronouncing infallible the decrees of his 
 own erring judgment, we see the high-minded 
 philosopher abjuring the eternal and immutable 
 truths which he had himself the glory of estab- 
 lishing. In the ignorance and prejudices of the 
 age; in a too literal interpretation of the lan- 
 guage of Scripture ; in a mistaken respect for errors 
 that have been venerable from their antiquity, 
 and in the peculiar position which Galileo had 
 taken among the avowed enemies of the church, 
 we may find a shadow of an apology, evanescent 
 though it be, for the conduct of the inquisition. 
 But what excuse can we devise for the humiliating 
 abjuration of Galileo ? Why did this master spirit 
 of the age this high priest of the stars this re- 
 presentative of science this hoary sage, whose 
 career of glory was near its consummation why 
 did he reject the crown of martyrdom which he 
 had himself created, and which, plaited with im- 
 mortal laurels, was about to descend upon his 
 head ? If instead of disavowing the laws of na- 
 ture, and surrendering in his own person the in- 
 tellectual dignity of his species, he had boldly as- 
 serted the truth of his opinions, and confided his 
 character to posterity, and his cause to an all-rul- 
 ing Providence, he would have strung up the hair- 
 suspended sabre, and disarmed for ever the hos- 
 tility which threatened to overwhelm him. The 
 philosopher, however, was supported only by philo- 
 sophy, and in the love of truth he found a miser- 
 able substitute for the hopes of the martyr. Ga- 
 lileo cowered under the fear of man, and his sub- 
 mission was the salvation of the church. The 
 sword of the inquisition descended on his prostrate 
 neck, and though its stroke was not physical, 
 yet it fell with a moral influence, fatal to the 
 character of its victim, and to the dignity of sci- 
 ence.' From the prison of the inquisition, where 
 he remained only four days, Galileo was allowed 
 to go to the house of the Tuscan ambassador, 
 and after six months' residence there, to pass 
 his term of imprisonment in his own house at 
 Arcetri. The happiness of rejoining his family, 
 however, was of short duration. His favourite 
 daughter was seized with an illness of which 
 she died; and having himself fallen into a 
 state of ill health, he was permitted to go 
 to Florence for its recovery in 1638. Here he 
 was debarred from all intercourse with society, 
 and it was only in the presence of an officer 
 of the inquisition that his friend Castelli was 
 permitted to visit him. During his five years' 
 (.onfinement he composed his ' Dialogues on Local 
 Motion,' and in 1636 he discovered the interesting 
 phenomena of the moon's libration. About this 
 time he lost the use of both his eyes, when he was 
 negotiating with the Dutch government respecting 
 
 GAL 
 
 his method of finding the longitude. At a soni 
 what later period almost total deafness supervene 
 and having been attacked with fever ana palpH 
 tion of the heart, he died on the 8th Januar 
 1642, in the seventy-eighth year of his ace. 1 
 was buried in the church of Sta Croce in Flored 
 and a splendid monument erected to his memoi 
 in 1737. For further information respecting Gi 
 lileo see an admirable life of him in the ' Libra 
 of Useful Knowledge ' by the late Mr. Drinkwat 
 Bethum, and another of a more popular kind : 
 Sir David Brewster's ' Martyrs of Science.' 
 complete edition of his works was published i 
 Milan in 1811, in 11 volumes, under the title < 
 ' Opere di Galileo Galilei Nobile Fiorensino.' [D.B 
 GALILEO, Vincent, an Ital. mathe., 16th o 
 GALITZIN, a Russian statesman, 1633-1713. 
 GALL, Francis Joseph, the founder of thi 
 celebrated intellectual or cerebral physiology know 
 as Phrenology : born at Tiefenbrunn, in tl 
 duchy of Baden, 9th March, 1758 ; died in Par 
 in 1828. The incidents of Gall's life were m 
 numerous, and resemble those of many other pn 
 pounders of new moral and intellectual doctnn< 
 in Germany; silenced by one government, hai 
 boured for a time by another, he became throug 
 compulsion a peripatetic. His longest resident 
 was in Paris, where, in conjunction with his dis 
 ciple Spurzheim, he published his chief works.- 
 Gall's fundamental maxims are as follows: j 
 Moral qualities and intellectual faculties are in 
 nate. 2. The exercise or manifestation of thes 
 faculties and qualities depends on our organizatioi 
 3. The brain is the organ of all our appetites, sex 
 timents, and faculties. 4. The brain is compose 
 of as many special organs as there are original an 
 independent appetites, sentiments, and faculties i 
 human nature. 5. The form of the head or skul 
 which in the main corresponds with the shape i 
 the brain, suggests the means of discovering t 
 observation what are any one's primary facultit 
 and qualities. Of these maxims the last two aloi, 
 are peculiar to Gall : they contain the germs 
 his new philosophy, and suggested his method of oli 
 servation. The philosophy, as distinguished fro] 
 all previous physiologies, represents the brain li- 
 as an organ, but an apparatus; to each convolutio 
 or independent part of which, a distinct mentj 
 function belongs : and the task of allocating o| 
 various functions is reduced to that of eliminjHI 
 by aid of multitudes of instances, that special crj 
 nial organ, which always coexists and varies with o t 
 special intellectual power or tendency. In conducj 
 ing Observation Gall rightly resorted to the m, 
 thod of extreme instances, seeking the mean 
 of an organ from the mental accompanimei^H 
 its great excess or signal defect. It is impodjH 
 in this place to criticise phrenology: its subdivisi 
 of the skull however, into a region of the appetitj 
 and sentiments, a region of the emotions a 
 moral powers, and a region of the intellect!* 
 faculties these last subdivided into powers j 
 observation and powers of combination, is j 
 striking consistency with all the dynamic pliers 
 mena of the human mind as manifested through 1) 
 tory. Gall had and still has, many fbll> 
 expositors: in Scotland the place of horn 
 questionably occupied by Mr. Combe < 
 burgh. [J.PJ 
 
 262 
 
GAL 
 
 GALL, St., bishop of Clermont, died 554. 
 
 GALLA, a doge of Venice, killed 755. 
 
 GALLACCINI, T., an Ital. savant, 1564-1641. 
 
 GALLAIS, J. P., a Fr. journalist, 1756-1820. 
 
 GALLAND, A., a Fr. Orientalist, 1646-1715. 
 
 GALLAND, A., a French historian, 16th cent. 
 
 GALLAND, And., a Venetian savant, d. 1779. 
 
 GALLETTI, J. G. A., a Ger. hist., 1750-1828. 
 
 GALLETTI, P. L., an Ital. savant, 1724-1790. 
 
 GALLI, J. A., an Ital. philosopher, 1708-1784. 
 
 GALLIANI, Ferdinand, an Italian ecclesi- 
 astic, economist, and political writer, 1728-1787. 
 
 GALLIENUS, emperor of Rome, 260-268. 
 
 GALLIMARD, J. E., a Fr. mathem., d. 1771. 
 
 GALLO, A., an Ital. agriculturist, 1499-1570. 
 
 GALLO, And., an Ital. mathem., 1732-1814. 
 
 GALLOIS, John, a French savant, 1632-1707. 
 
 GALLOIS, Julian J. C. Le, a Fr. physiologist, 
 auth. of ' Exper. on the Principle of Life,' d. 1818. 
 
 GALLONIO, Ant., an It. ecclesiastic, d. 1605. 
 
 GALLUS, jElius, a Roman general, 1st c. e.c. 
 
 GALLUS, -Slius, a Roman jurisconsult, 1st c. 
 
 GALLUS, Caius, a Roman astronomer, said to 
 lave predicted or explained an eclipse, 2d c. B.C. 
 
 GALLUS, Caius Vibius Trebonianus, era- 
 Deror of Rome, proclaimed 251, assassinated 253. 
 
 GALLUS, Cneus, or PUBLIUS CORNE- 
 LIUS, a Roman poet and general, governor of 
 Egypt, killed himself, when disgraced 69-26 b.c. 
 
 GALLUS, Flavius Constantinus, nephew 
 >f Constantine and brother of Julian, intrusted as 
 Jsesar with the gov. of the East 315, beheaded 354. 
 
 GALLUZZI, R., an Italian historian, d. 1801. 
 
 GALT, John, a Scotch miscel. wr., 1779-1839. 
 
 GALUPPI, B., an Ital. composer, 1703-1785. 
 
 GALVANI, Luigi, born at Bologna 1737, died 
 798. A distinguished physician and physiologist. 
 The name of Galvani has become a household word, 
 lis great discovery of galvanism appears to have 
 >een made about 1790. The story as told is as 
 ollows : The physician had been preparing some 
 rog-soup for his sick wife, and some of these ani- 
 nals were lying stripped of their skins. An assis- 
 ant had accidentally touched the crural nerves of 
 me of the animals with the point of a scalpel in 
 he neighbourhood of the conductor of an electrical 
 nachine, which stood on the table, when the limbs 
 rere immediately thrown into convulsions. Gal- 
 rani soon satisfied himself that this same pheno- 
 menon occurred with all animals' muscles, and thus 
 aid the basis of the great science which has been 
 toce erected. Galvani fell into a melancholy from 
 me death of his wife, and the loss of his offices 
 rom the occupation of Italy by the French, preyed 
 n his mind, although he was ultimately restored to 
 lis position a short period before his death in 1798. 
 the account of his discovery of galvanism is con- 
 pined in his treatise ' De Viribus Electricitatis in 
 
 lotu Musculari Commentarius, 1791.' [R.D.T.] 
 
 GALVER, L., a Spanish poet, 1549-1610. 
 
 GAMA, Anthony De Leon Y., a Mexican 
 
 eographer and astronomer, end of 18th century. 
 
 GAMA, J. De, a Portuguese mariner, 17th ct. 
 
 GAMA, Jeanne, a Portug. poetess, 1515-86. 
 
 GAMA, Ph. J., a Portuguese poet, 1713-1742. 
 
 GAMA, Vasco De, a Portuguese gentleman 
 
 elonging to the household of Emanuel, king of 
 
 rortugal, was a native of the small seaport 
 
 pwn of Sines in that country ; the date of his | 
 
 GAR 
 
 birth is uncertain, and little is known of the 
 events of his life till he was sent out on a voy- 
 age to India, in 1497, ten years after the prac- 
 ticability of the passage by this noted promon- 
 tory had been established by Diaz. He sailed 
 July 8, with three small vessels, carrying sixty 
 men; and, after encountering tremendous gales 
 in the neighbourhood of the Cape, which so dis- 
 couraged his men, that he had the utmost difficulty 
 in prevailing on them to persevere, he succeeded 
 in doubling this dreaded headland Nov. 19th, 
 and steered E. and then N.E. along the African 
 coast till he reached Melinda, in 1st. 2 S. Here 
 he found Christian merchants from India ; guided 
 by one of whom he crossed the Indian ocean to 
 Calicut between May 5th and 28th, 1498, being 
 the first European who navigated these seas. 
 Returning to Lisbon, September, 1499, he was 
 received with distinguished honour by his sove- 
 reign, who conferred upon him the title of admiral 
 of the Indian, Persian, and Arabian seas. The 
 expedition of Cabral followed; and in 1502 De 
 Gama was again sent out with a powerful fleet. 
 He returned in the end of the following year laden 
 with rich treasures, and was created count of Vi- 
 dequeyra. For twenty years discovery and con- 
 quest in the east had been prosecuted by others, 
 when De Gama, appointed governor of Portuguese 
 India, sailed for Cochin. He died, however, soon 
 after his arrival, December, 1525. 'Married to 
 immortal verse,' the exploits of De Gama have 
 gained a greater celebrity than sober history war- 
 rants. Diaz had already robbed the formidable 
 Cape of its terrors had determined its place with 
 accuracy ; and led the way into seas before un- 
 known. Beyond lay the richest countries of the 
 world ; their treasures were unfolded by De Gama 
 after a voyage exhibiting great skill and noble daring; 
 and the results of which are only second in impor- 
 tance to the grand discovery of Columbus. [J.B.] 
 
 GAMBA, J. F., a French voyager, 1763-1833. 
 
 GAMBARA, L., an Italian painter, 1541-1574. 
 
 GAMBARA, V., an Italian poetess, 1485-1550. 
 
 GAMBIER, Lord J., an English admiral, 
 commander at the siege of Copenhagen, 1756-1833. 
 
 GAMBOLD, John, a scholar and religious 
 writer of the sect of Moravian Brethren, d. 1771. 
 
 GAMELIN, J., a French painter, 1739-1803. 
 
 GAMURRINI, E., an Ital. historian, 17th cent. 
 
 GANDON, Jas., an Engl, architect, 1760-1824. 
 
 GANDY, James, an English painter, 1619-89. 
 
 GANILLE, C, a Germ, economist, 1758-1836. 
 
 GARAMOND, Claude, a French engraver 
 and letter-founder, eel. for his Greek type, d. 1561. 
 
 GARAMPI, J., an Italian antiquary, 1725-92. 
 
 GARASSE, Francis, a Fr. Jesuit, 1585-1631. 
 
 GARAT, Dominic Joseph, a French states- 
 man and metaphysician, ennobled by Buonaparte, 
 1749-1833. His nephew, Peter John Garat, 
 a celebrated professor of music, 1764-1823. 
 
 GARAY, John De, a Spanish officer and tra- 
 veller in South America, born 1541, killed 1592. 
 
 GARAY, Martin De, a Sp. statesm., d. 1822. 
 
 GARCIA, Manuel, a Sp. comp., 1779-1832. 
 
 GARCIA-DE-MASCARENHAS, Blaise, an 
 epic poet and general of Portugal, 1596-1656. 
 
 GARCIA- DE-PAREDES, Don Diego, a 
 famous Sp. commander in Italy, &c, 1466-1530. 
 
 GARCIA-SUELTO, a Sp. savant, 1778-1816. 
 
 263 
 
GAR 
 
 GARCILASO-DE-LA-VEGA. See Garcias. 
 
 GARCIAS, G., a Span, missionary, 1554-1627. 
 
 GARCIAS-LASSO, or GARCILASO-DE-LA- 
 VEGA, a Spanish general and poet, distinguished 
 in the wars of Charles V., 1503-1536. The same 
 name was borne by a descendant of the sovereigns 
 of Peru, called, on that account, ' The Inca,' and 
 distinguished as a writer on the history and an- 
 tiquities of his country, 1530-1616. 
 
 GARCIAS-Y-MATAMOROS, Alphonso, a 
 Spanish savant and biographical writer, 16th cent. 
 
 GARDEN, Alex., a Scotch botanist, 1730-91. 
 
 GARDEN, Francis, Lord Gardenstone, a 
 Scotch lawyer and miscellaneous wr., 1721-1793. 
 
 GARDIE, The Counts De La, distinguished 
 in Swedish history, trace their origin to Pontus 
 de la Gardie, a French adventurer, who entered 
 the service of the king of Sweden, and married 
 his natural daughter, and was accidentally 
 drowned, 1585. The most distinguished is Mag- 
 nus Gabriel, Count de la Gardie, grand chan- 
 cellor and seneschal of Sweden, and a great pa- 
 tron of arts and letters, 1622-1686. 
 
 GARDINER, James, a British officer, remark- 
 able for the incidents of his conversion to a reli- 
 gious life, as related by Dr. Doddridge, born 1688, 
 killed at the battle of Prestonpans, 1745. 
 
 GARDINER, R., an English divine, 1591-1670. 
 
 GARDINER, Stephen, bishop of Winchester, 
 distinguished for his learning, his craft as a states- 
 man, and his cruelty to the protestants, but 
 especially as the tool of Henry VIII. in the pro- 
 ceedings against Queen Catherine, 1483-1555. 
 
 GARDINER, W., an Irish engraver, 1766-1814. 
 
 GARDNER, Alan, Lord, a British admiral, 
 distinguished at the close of the last cent., d. 1809. 
 
 GARIBALDI, a Lombard king, reigned 671. 
 
 GARISSOLES, A., a Fr. protes. wr., 1587-1650. 
 
 GARNERIN, A. J., a Fr. aeronaut, 1770-1823. 
 
 GARNET, Henry, an English Jesuit, born 
 1555, author of a work on ' Christian Renovation,' 
 hanged for his part in the gunpowder plot, 1606. 
 
 GARNETT, Th., an English physician, au. of 
 works on medicine and natural history, 1766-1802. 
 
 GARNIER, Count Germain, a French econo- 
 mist, translator of ' Smith's Wealth of Nations,' 
 author of ' Histoire de la Monnaie,' 1754-1821. 
 
 GARNIER, J., a French theolog., 1612-1681. 
 
 GARNIER, J. J., a Fr. historian, 1729-1805. 
 
 GARNIER, Julius, a French savant, d. 1725. 
 
 GARNIER, R., a Fr. dramatist, 1545-1601. 
 
 GARNIER, Sebastian, a French poet, 16th c. 
 
 GARNIER-DESCHENES, E. H., a French 
 agriculturist, geographer, and mathe., 1727-1812. 
 
 GAROFALO, B., an Ital. artist, 1481-1559. 
 
 GAROFALO, B., an Ital. antiqu., 1677-1762. 
 
 GARRICK, David, the most respected actor 
 that ever trod the English boards, was born at 
 Hereford, and was baptized in the church of All- 
 Saints, in that city, 28th February, 1716. His 
 father, Captain Peter Garrick, generally resided at 
 Lichfield, but was about that time on a recruiting 
 party; his mother's maiden name was Clough, 
 daughter to one of the vicars in Lichfield cathe- 
 dral. David at ten years of age was entered of 
 the grammar school at Lichfield. At eleven he 
 formed the project of getting a play acted by 
 young gentlemen and ladies. The trial was 
 made with ' The Recruiting Officer.' One of his 
 
 GAR 
 
 sisters played the part of the chambermaid ; he 
 himself undertook Serjeant Kite. The after 
 celebrated Doctor, Samuel Johnson, his boy-friend, 
 was applied to for the prologue, which, however, 
 he neglected to write. Not long after Garrick 
 went to Lisbon, at the request of an uncle, a wine 
 merchant there, and was acquainted with the un- 
 fortunate Duke d' Aveixo. On his return to Eng- 
 land he, in 1736, became one of Johnson's scholars 
 at Lichfield ; but the latter growing tired of teach- 
 ing the classics to two or three pupils, resolved on 
 trying his fortune in London, and thither Garrick 
 accompanied him. Here the latter lost no time in 
 getting introduced to theatrical managers, and in 
 1741 obtaining an engagement at Ipswich, met 
 with much success, under the assumed name of 
 Lyddal. His first effort was in the pathetic char- 
 acter of Aboan, in ' Oroonoko ;' but he matricu- 
 lated in all kinds of stage business, condescending 
 even to harlequin. In the winter of the same 
 year Garrick ventured on the London stage. On 
 the 19th October, 1741, he made his debut in 
 Richard the Third at the playhouse in Goodman's 
 Fields, and with his novel and natural style, 
 startled the critics and the reigning actors. Quin, 
 in particular, was much annoyed, saying ' If the 
 young fellow was right, he and the rest of the 
 players had been all wrong.' Being told that 
 Goodman's Fields theatre was crowded every 
 night to see the new actor, he said ' That Gar- 
 rick was a new religion ; Whitfield was followed 
 for a time ; but they would all come to church 
 again.' Whereupon Garrick wrote this epigram : 
 'Pope Quin, who damns all churches hut his own, 
 Complains that heresy infects the town, 
 That Whitfield-Garrick has misled the age, 
 And taints the sound religion of the stage : 
 Schism, he cries, has turn'd the nation's brain; 
 But eyes will open, and to church again I 
 Thou great infallible, forbear to roar, 
 Thy bulls and errors are revered no more ; 
 When doctrines meet with gen'ral approbation, 
 It is not heresy, but reformation.' 
 After a visit to Dublin, Garrick returned to Lon- 
 don, and acted at Drury, having entered into an 
 engagement with Fleetwood, the manager, for fiv< 
 hundred pounds a-year. At this theatre he provec 
 equally great in Abel Drugger and Hamlet. Ht 
 was also wonderful in Lear. But in consequenct 
 of Fleetwood's farming the theatre to his trea 
 surer, he soon seceded from the establishment 
 On his return to the stage he was involved in 
 controversy with Macklin ; and soon after was en i 
 gaged for Covent Garden. Ultimately he wa;| 
 solicited to purchase the moiety of Drury Lan<j 
 patent, which he did for eight thousand pounds| 
 When Garrick retired from the stage in 1776, thii 
 same patent he sold for thirty-five thousanij 
 pounds ; a fact which of itself is sufficient warran 
 of his excellent management. One merit claims 
 for him is the restoration of 'Macbeth,' 
 Shaksperian dramas, with a closer adherence t 1 
 the text than was then usual. The chief oott 
 plaint against him was his conduct towards livin j 
 authors; and it must be confessed, that in bin 
 was confirmed that usurpation of the poel 
 by the actor from which the stage is hardly yc 
 emerging. Davies, his biographer, observes o 
 this point that, 'The time bestowed in rehears 
 ing the piece, and the expense of new scene: 
 
 264 
 
- 
 
 ///.//>/'"./ ( y,/r/////?/.i . 
 
GAR 
 
 resses, music, and other decorations, make it often 
 ery ineligible to a director of a theatre to accept 
 . new play ; especially when it is considered that 
 he revival of a good old play will answer his end 
 f profit, and reputation too, perhaps as well.' 
 lie actor-manager, as the representative and in- 
 leritor of the wealth of all dead poets, proves too 
 wwerful a competitor for the living dramatist. 
 n this way tragic actors find Shakspeare a tower 
 f strength, and are by his means enabled to sup- 
 iress the proofs of living genius. Garrick had 
 trong reasons for the Stratford jubilee in 1769, 
 ty which he gained increased celebrity and power. 
 fins pageant he afterwards transferred to the stage, 
 there it ran for one hundred nights. Mr. Gar- 
 ick was also the founder of the Drury Lane Fund 
 or decaved performers. A thoroughly successful 
 nan in life, he was equally prudent and benevo- 
 ent. He lived generously, kept the best society, 
 nade lavish gifts to his friends and neighbours, 
 md basked, till his death, in the sun of popular 
 fcvour. He died 20th January, 1779, and was 
 nagnificently interred in Westminster Abbey, 
 leing attended to his grave by persons illustrious 
 br their genius and rank. In the opinion of his 
 idmirers Tie was the greatest actor that ever 
 paced the stage. He was certainly the most ex- 
 anplary as a man and moralist; and preserved, 
 t be did not originate, the dignity of his profes- 
 
 some of which display considerable humour, 
 ind of many brief poems, prologues, and epilogues, 
 bounding m wit, and in allusions to the manners 
 rf his time. [J.A.H.] 
 
 GARRICK, Eva Maria, wife of the celebrated 
 ictor, originally an opera dancer, 1725-1822. 
 
 GARROS, P. De, a Saxon poet, 15th century. 
 
 GARROS, P. A., a French mechanic, d. 1823. 
 
 GARTH, Sir Samuel, an English 
 
 He was also the author of several dramatic < to simple generalizations ; and these attributes 
 
 md poet, author of ' The Dispensary,' a burlesqu 
 poem, ' Claremont,' an edition of ' Ovid's Meta 
 morphoses,' and some fugitive pieces, 1671-1718. 
 
 GARTH, Thomas, an Engl, general, 1744-1829. 
 
 GARTHSHORE, M., an English physician, fel- 
 low of the Roval and Antiq. Societies, 1732-1812. 
 
 GARVE, Chr., a Ger. metaphysician, 1742-98. 
 
 GARZI, Louis, an Italian painter, 1638-1721. 
 
 GARZONI, J., an Italian savant, 1419-1506. 
 
 GARZONI, P., a Venetian hist., d. abt. 1719. 
 
 GARZONI, Th., an Italian author, 1549-1589. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, G., an English poet, died 1577. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, W., a nat. philosopher, 1621-44. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, Sir Wm., chief iustice of Eng- 
 land in the reign of Henry IV., celebrated for the 
 
 mness, independence, and dignity with which 
 laintained his office, lived 1350-1413. He 
 
 he maintaine 
 
 ancestor of the earl of Strafford, who was 
 
 executed in the reign of Charles I. 
 
 GASMANN, F. L., a Germ, composer, 1729-74. 
 
 GASPABIN, T. A., a French republican, mem. 
 
 of the convention and Com. of Pub. Safety, d. 1793. 
 
 GASPARINI, F., an Ital. composer, 1650-1724. 
 
 GASPARINO, B., an Ital. scholar, 1370-1459. 
 
 NDI, Pierre, born 22d January, 1592, 
 
 # it Digne ; died in Paris 24th October, 1655 : 
 
 t the words of Tennemann, the most learned 
 
 mug the philosophers, and the ablest philosopher 
 
 mong the learned, of the seventeenth century. 
 
 In speculative thinking, Gassendi represented the 
 
 265 
 
 GAS 
 
 Sensational School, of which he may be considered 
 the Founder in modern times: as such, he 
 made stand against the Meditations of Des Cartes. 
 In the eager polemic between these remarkable 
 men, the critical guestion of Sensationalism, al- 
 most in the form in which it still presents itself, 
 was fairly raised : it must be conceded that the 
 temper and moderation lay with Gassendi, al- 
 though, in the estimation of the writer of this 
 notice, the weight of argument belonged to his 
 illustrious opponent. During the disputation, Gas- 
 sendi had the merit of insisting that every mental 
 conception of Principle, is necessarily preceded by 
 the fact of an Experience; an assertion by no means 
 sufficient to establish his philosophy, but remark- 
 able as having first given expression to a maxim 
 now held alike by Sensationalists and Ideal- 
 ists, that in Sensation is the beginning or the 
 occasion of all knowledge ; a maxim of which Des 
 Cartes himself, perhaps, saw enough to render un- 
 justifiable Locke's subsequent singular misrepre- 
 sentation of the doctrine of innate ideas. This 
 proposition granted, however, it in nowise fol- 
 lows, as Gassendi contended, that the content 
 of sensation is the measure of human know- 
 ledge ; or that an Absolute and Necessary Truth is 
 a mere generalization. Rational Psychology, ac- 
 cording to Des Cartes, contradicts this : the attri- 
 butes of universality and necessity cannot attach 
 
 belong to many of our ideas. It is hardly requisite 
 to say that the dispute thus raised, exists still : 
 nay, the student desirous to master it, will 
 scarcely find better instructors than Des Cartes 
 and Gassendi. Gassendi was one of our most 
 distinguished reformers, at a period when many 
 great minds pushed forward the work of reform, 
 claiming independence for thought. It may- 
 be forgiven, perhaps, that in his early work 
 against the authority of Aristotle, he was not 
 careful to separate the true doctrines of the im- 
 mortal Stagyrite, from wretched and sapless 
 formulae deduced from him by the Schoolmen ; or 
 that in his youthful zeal, he failed to approach 
 with rightful respect, that great Shade to which so 
 many ages have done willing reverence. His attack 
 on Aristotle is the weakest of his writings, and 
 cannot be acquitted of rashness : nevertheless, he 
 was not wanting in respect for antiquity, 
 witness his treatment of Epicurus. His fife of 
 this philosopher is one of the best and most 
 appreciatory memoirs, among the many that have 
 been given of him: he wrote con amore. The 
 Atomic Philosophy suited Gassendi's predilec- 
 tions ; and one respects the just ardour with 
 which he vindicates the character of his master, 
 and clears his doctrines from vulgar misap- 
 prehension. Gassendi's attachment to physical 
 inquiries was strong: although not an original 
 discoverer, the labours of no man of that day con- 
 tributed more to diffuse right principles regarding 
 the method of physical inquiry. In this depart- 
 ment, his superiority to the Cartesians cannot be 
 questioned : Des Cartes himself knew too little of 
 that sphere of pure Induction, within which what 
 we term Law or general Truths, can be nothing other 
 than generalizations. As might have been ex- 
 pected he adopted the Copernican system of the 
 Universe, cautiously but intelligently; and greatly 
 
GAS 
 
 contributed to bring about a right understanding 
 of its significance. His life of Copernicus is a 
 composition of mucb interest ; although probably 
 inferior to his life of Tycho. He was a friend 
 and correspondent of Galileo ; he avowed himself 
 the disciple of Bacon ; and unquestionably his writ- 
 ings prepared the way for those of Locke. Gas- 
 sendi's personal character was of the highest order; 
 gentle, serene, and dignified; modest, notwith- 
 standing his wide repute; impartial and for- 
 bearing. As a pious and faithful ecclesiastic he 
 achieved a place in the hearts of the mountaineers 
 amidst whom he lived, which long after years did not 
 efface : they raised a statue to his memory. The 
 works of this industrious thinker and voluminous 
 writer have appeared in various forms. The Sieur 
 de Montmort, to whom he bequeathed the duty, 
 published a complete edition of them at Lyons, in 
 6 vols, folio, in 1658 : another edition appeared at 
 Florence in 1727, edited by Averanius. [J.P.N. ] 
 
 GASSICOURT, Ch. Louis Cadet De, a 
 French writer on natural philosophy, &c, d. 1823. 
 
 GASSIES, J., a French painter, 1786-1832. 
 
 GASSION, J. De, a Fr. marshal, 1609-1647. 
 
 GAST, John, an Irish historian, 1715-1788. 
 
 GASTON DE FOIX. See Foix. 
 
 GASTRELL, Fr., bishop of Chester time of 
 Queen Anne, a wr. on the Trinity, &c, 1662-1725. 
 GASULL, A., a Spanish painter, 17th century. 
 
 GATAKER, Thomas, an English theologian 
 and biblical critic, 1574-1654. His son, Charles, 
 was distinguished as a controversial divine. 
 
 GATTEAUX, N. M., a Fr. medal., 1751-1832. 
 
 GATTERER, J. C, a Ger. savant, 1727-1789. 
 
 GATTI, Bernard, an Ital. painter, 16th cent. 
 
 GATTI, Oliver, an Italian painter, 16th cent. 
 
 GAUBIL, Anth., a Sp. Jesuit and philosopher, 
 celeb, as a missionary to the Chinese, 1689-1759. 
 
 GAUBIUS, J. D., a Ger. medical wr., 1705-80. 
 
 GAUCHER, C. S., a Fr. engraver, 1740-1804. 
 
 GAUDEN, John, an English divine, 1605-62. 
 
 GAUDENTIO, an Italian painter, 15th cent. 
 
 GAUDENTIUS, St., bishop of Brescia, au. of 
 a life of his predecessor Philaster, died about 427. 
 
 GAUDENZI, P., an Italian poet, 1749-1784. 
 
 GAUDENZIO, P., an Ital. savant, 1596-1648. 
 
 GAUDIN, L. P., a Span, painter, 1556-1621. 
 
 GAUFFIER, L., a French painter, 1761-1801. 
 
 GAUFRIDI, J. Fr. De, a Fr. hist., 1622-89. 
 
 GAUGAIN, Th., a Fr. engraver, last centurv. 
 
 GAUGHER, N., a Fr. natur. philos., 1680-1730. 
 
 GAULLI, G. B., an Italian painter, 1639-1709. 
 
 GAULMIN, G., a Fr. miscef. au., 1585-1665. 
 
 GAULT, Eustace, a French hist., 1591-1640. 
 
 GAULTHIER, W., a French jurist, died 892. 
 
 GAULTIER, Aloisius Edward Camille, a 
 French ecclesiastic of distinguished benevolence, 
 founder of schools for the poor, &c, 1745-1818. 
 
 GAULTIER of Coutances, archbishop of 
 Rouen, disting. as a political negotiator, died 1207. 
 
 GAULTIER of Terouane, a Fr. hist., 12th c. 
 
 GAUPP, John, a German mathema., d. 1738. 
 
 GAURI, a Mameluke sultan, died 1517. 
 
 GAUSSIN, J. C, a French actress, 1711-1767. 
 
 GAUTHEROT, Ch., a Fr. painter, 1769-1825. 
 
 GAUTHEROT, N., a French natural philoso- 
 pher, au. of ' Researches in Electricity,' 1753-1803. 
 
 GAUTHEY, E. M., a Fr. engineer, 1732-1806. 
 
 GAVARD, H., a French anatomist, 1753-1802. 
 
 GEB 
 
 GAVEAUX, P., a Fr. composer, 1761-1825. 
 GAVESTON, Piers, a Gascon gentleman, eel 
 as the favourite of Edward II., beheaded 1312. 
 
 GAVIROL, Soliman Ben, a Spanish rabbi 
 grammarian, philosopher, astronom., &c, d. 1070 
 GAY, John, who was born in 1688, and die* 
 in 1732, was first a silk-weaver's shopman, bu 
 became an author, and the easy dependent of ga; 
 and great people. He had much note in his owi 
 day as a pastoral and mock-heroic poet ; and hi 
 name is still preserved by his notorious ' Beggan 
 Opera,' and his fluent and agreeable ' Fables.' Per 
 haps he deserves remembrance better for his bal 
 lads, l Black-Eyed Susan,' and ' 'Twas when tb 
 Seas were Roaring.' [W.S.' 
 
 GAY, J. J. Pascal, a Fr. architect, 1775-1832 
 GAY LUSSAC, N. F., one of the most disting 
 chemists of modern times, is described by all hi 
 associates as equally characterized by the amia- 
 bility of his disposition, his kindness to the stu 
 dent, and his disinterested and generous nature 
 Brought up in the laboratory of Berthollet, hi 
 subsequently showed that he had eminently bene 
 fitted by the instructions of such a master u 
 the science. His first important discovery wa 
 that in 1808 of the union of gases by volume 
 forming an additional argument in favour of th 
 atomic theory of Dal ton in 1804, of the union o 
 bodies by definite weights in the formation o: 
 chemical compounds. He took an active part il 
 the investigation of iodine in 1813, and in 1815 h< 
 made the important discovery of cyanogen, whicl 
 although a compound gas performs all the function 
 of a simple body. Gay Lussac was possessed of grea 
 powers of practical application ; it is only nece* 
 sary to refer to his alcolometer, to his process o 
 chlorimetry, and to his very convenient method o 
 assay of silver by the wet way, which has beei 
 familiar for above twenty years to those who wen 
 fortunate enough to visit the Parisian mint, a 
 ably conducted under the auspices of the subjec 
 of our notice. His long and useful life terminate! 
 on the 9th May, 1850, after several months' illness 
 having been a member of the Academy fron 
 1806. [R.D.T.' 
 
 GAY VERNON, J., a French marshal, distin 
 guished for his gallantry as an officer, and for Ml 
 talents as a mathematical writer, 1760-1822. 
 
 GAY VERNON, Leonard, a French republi 
 can and ecclesiastic, constitutional bishop c 
 Vienne, 1748-1822. His brother, Joseph, a 1 
 officer and wr. on the art of fortifica., 1760-1822^ 
 GAYOT-DE-PITAVAL, Fr., a French writer 
 author of ' Causes CeUebres,' &c, 1673-1743. 
 GAYTON, E., an Engl, humourist, 1609-166C 1 
 GAYWOOD, R., an Engl, engraver, 17th cent' 
 GAZA, or GAZIS, Theodore, a Greek scfl 
 lar and grammarian, celebrated as one of tb 
 chief revivers of Grk. learn, in Europe, 1398-1 17; 
 GAZALI, a Mahommedan savant, 1058-1112.1 
 GAZ^EUS, an ecclesiastical hist, 1554-1 til 2. 
 GAZI-HASSAN, a Turkish statesman, <1. 179< 
 GAZZANIZA, J., an It. composer, 1748-1810 
 GEBELIN. See Court-De-Gebelin. 
 GEBER, John, an Arabian alchemist ar 
 philosopher of the 9th century. 
 
 GEBHARD, J., a Grk. philologist, 1692-1732 
 
 GEBHARDI, J. L. Levin, a German historii 
 
 au of ' Hist, and Genealogical Memoirs,' 1099-176 
 
 266 
 
GEB 
 
 GEBHARDI, L. A., a Ger. historian, d. 1802. 
 
 GEBLER, T. P., Baron De, a German diplo- 
 matist, statesman, and savant, 1726-1786. 
 
 GED, William, a Scotch goldsmith, inventor 
 of the art of stereotyping, died 1749. 
 
 GEDDES, Dr. Alex., a Scottish Roman 
 Catholic divine, dist. as a learned wr., 1737-1802. 
 
 GEDDES, James, a Scotch advocate, 1710-49. 
 
 GEDDES, Michael, an ecclesiastical his- 
 torian, chaplain at Lisbon, died 1714. 
 
 GEDIKE, F., a Prussian writer on education, 
 translator of the classics, &c, 1754-1803. 
 
 GEDOYN, N., a French savant, 1667-1744. 
 
 GEDYMIN, duke of Lithuania, reigned 1315-41. 
 
 GEER, L., a Dutch statesman, settled in Sweden 
 by Gustavus Adolphus. Charles De Geer, his 
 descendant, a dist. Swedish naturalist, 1720-1778. 
 
 GEHEMA, J. A., a Polish medical wr., 17th c. 
 
 GEHLEN, A. F., a German chemist, d. 1815. 
 
 GEHLER, J. C, a German naturalist, 1732-96. 
 
 GEHLER, J. S. Traugott, a German jurist, 
 chemist, physician, and mathematician, 1751-1795. 
 
 GEHLER, W., a German savant, 1696-1765. 
 
 GEHREN, C. Chr., a Ger. theol., 1763-1832. 
 
 GEIER, Martin, a Germ. Lutheran, 1614-81. 
 
 GEILER, John, a Swiss divine, 1445-1510. 
 
 GEILHOVEN, A., a Dutch theologian, 15th ct. 
 
 GEINOZ, F., a French antiquarian, died 1752. 
 
 GEISA, the first of the name, king of Hungary 
 reigned 1075-1077 ; the second, 1141-1161. 
 
 GELADAS, a Greek sculptor, 5th century B.C. 
 
 GELASIUS, the name of two bishops of Cassa- 
 rea, the earliest of whom, called ' The Elder,' au- 
 thor of some theological fragments, died 394; 
 the second, called Gelasius of Cyzicus, au. of 
 a history of the Council of Nice, lived about 476. 
 
 GELASIUS, bishop of Rome, 492-496 ; Gela- 
 sius, pope of Rome, 1118-1119. 
 
 GELDENHAUR, G., a German savant, com- 
 monly called ' Gerard of Nimeguen,' 1482-1542. 
 
 GELDER, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1645-1727. 
 
 GELEE. See Claude. 
 
 GELENIUS, S., a German savant, 1498-1555. 
 
 GELL, Sir William, a celebrated English 
 antiquarian and classical scholar, 1777-1836. 
 
 GELLERT, Christian Furchtegott, a po- 
 pular German poet and moralist, 1715-1769. 
 
 GELLERT, Christlieb Ehregott, elder br. 
 of the preced., celeb, as a metallurgist, 1713-1795. 
 
 GELLI, J. B., an Italian author, 1498-1563. 
 
 GELLIBRAND, H., an English astronomer, 
 author of many practical works, 1597-1636. 
 
 GELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman lawyer and lite- 
 rary savant, flourished at the beginning of the 2d 
 century, author of the ' Attic Nights,' one of the 
 most curious and valuable works of antiquity. 
 
 GELON, a k. of Syracuse, reigned 491-478 B.C. 
 
 GEMBICIUS, J., a Polish theolog., 1569-1633. 
 
 GEMIGNANO, an Italian painter, 1490-1530. 
 
 GEMINIANI, Francesco, one of the greatest 
 violinists of his age, was born at Lucca about the 
 year 1666. He received his first lessons on the 
 instrument from Carlo Ambrogio Lonati of Milan, 
 and the foundation of his musical knowledge was 
 
 ' * by Alessandro Scarlatti. His last master on 
 violin was Corelli. Geminiani composed three 
 i of concertos, a work on Harmony, two trea- 
 s on the Art of Playing the Violin, and several 
 s for the harpsichord. In the year 1714 he 
 
 GEN 
 
 came to London, and soon established his reputa- 
 tion as a great artist. Geminiani seldom played 
 in public, and the money he received for his com- 
 positions, the fees from pupils, and the presents 
 he received from the noble and the wealthy when 
 he could be prevailed upon to play at their houses, 
 were the chief means from which he derived his 
 living. Even with such sources of emoluments he 
 might have made a fortune, but he was improvi- 
 dent. Geminiani died at Dublin in 1762. [J.M.I 
 
 GEMINUS, Th., an English painter, 16th ct. 
 
 GEMISTUS, George, surnamed 'Pletho,' a 
 Greek philosopher, and writer on the wisdom of 
 antiquity, 1390-1491. 
 
 GEMMA, R., a Dutch physician, 1508-1577. 
 
 GENEBRAND, G., a Fr. Hebraist, died 1597. 
 
 GENEST, Ch. Cl., a French poet, 1639-1719. 
 
 GENET, Francis, a Fr. casuist, 1640-1702. 
 m GENEVIEVE, the patron saint of Paris, be- 
 lieved to have contributed to the conversion of 
 Clovis, born at Nanterre about 423, d. about 512. 
 
 GENGHIS KHAN, the founder of the great 
 Mogul empire, and of the dynasty now tottering 
 on the throne of China, was the son of a simple 
 chief, and was born in Tartary in 1164. He suc- 
 ceeded to his father's authority when only fourteen 
 years of age, and soon afterwards, being compelled 
 to take up arms in self-defence, struck terror into 
 his opponents by his military talents and ferocious 
 disposition. In 1205 he was crowned grand khan 
 of all the Moguls and Tartars in a ceremony of 
 great state, in the course of which he was hailed 
 lord of the four quarters of the world, in a manner 
 well calculated to excite the enthusiasm of his 
 followers. In 1213 he was master of Pekin and 
 all Northern China, and a few years subsequently 
 had subjugated Persia and the most fertile regions 
 of Asia, dying in the heat of his conquests 1227. 
 His grandson, in 1255, seized on Bagdad, and 
 completed the extirpation of Mohammedanism 
 began by his ancestor. [E.R.] 
 
 GENLIS, Stephanie, Countess De, was a na- 
 tive of Burgundy, and born in 1746. Becoming 
 well known in society after her marriage had given 
 her aristocratic rank, she was chosen as gouvernante 
 to the children of the notorious Duke of Orleans ; 
 and by him she had a daughter, who was married, 
 in 1792, to the unfortunate Lord Edward Fitz- 
 gerald. She died, after a wandering life, in 1830, 
 when her pupil, Louis Philippe, had just become 
 king of the French. Her writings were numerous 
 and miscellaneous ; the principal of them being 
 novels, which possess little merit either of style or 
 of matter, while they teach, with an affectation of 
 fine sentiment, a morality very slippery and accom- 
 modating. Her best and least exceptionable works 
 are her stories and dramas for youth ; such as 
 ' Adele and Theodore,' ' The Tales of the Castle.' 
 and The Theatre of Education.' [W.S.l 
 
 GENNADIUS, the name of two patriarchs of 
 Constantinople, theirs* of whom ruled the church, 
 458-471, and the second after the capture of the 
 city by the Turks, 1453-1460. The latter is 
 author of several theological works. 
 
 GENNADIUS, presb. of Marseilles, 5th cent. 
 
 GENNARI, Benedetto, an Italian painter, 
 one of the masters of Guercino, flourished 1633- 
 1715. His son, Barthelemi, a painter, bora 
 1594. His second son, Hercules, pupil of Guer- 
 
 267 
 
GEN 
 
 cino, 1597-1658. The eldest son of Hercules, 
 called Benedetto the Younger, a pupil of 
 Guercino, and painter to Charles II. and James 
 II. of England, 1633-1715. Caesar, the son of 
 the latter, continued the school of Guercino at Bo- 
 logna, and died there 1688. 
 
 GENNARO, Joseph Aurelius De, a Neapoli- 
 tan magistrate and jurisconsult, 1701-1762. 
 
 GENCELS, A., a Flemish painter, born 1640. 
 
 GENOVESI, Antonio, an Italian metaphysi- 
 cian and political economist, 1712-1769. 
 
 GENSERIC, king of the Vandals in Spain, 
 b. at Seville 406, succeeded his broth. 428, d. 477. 
 
 GENSONNE, Armand, a distinguished mem- 
 ber of the Girondist party of the Fr. revolution, 
 guillotined after the events of the 31st Oct., 1793. 
 
 GENSSANE, a French naturalist, died 1780. 
 
 GENT, Thomas, an English antiq., 1691-1778. 
 
 GENTIEN, B., a French historian, 15th cent. 
 
 GENTILE, L. G., a Flem. painter, 1606-1670. 
 
 GENTILIS, Alberico, an Italian jurist, 1551- 
 1611. His son, Robert, a doctor of the civil law, 
 translator, &c, born 1590. His brother, Scipio, 
 also a writer on public law, 1563-1616. 
 
 GENTILIS, J. V., a Socinian of Naples, be- 
 headed in Switzerland for heresy, 1566. 
 
 GENTIUS, G., a German Orientalist, 1618-87. 
 
 GENTLEMAN, F., an Irish dramatist, 1728-84. 
 
 GENTZ, Fred. Von, a Prussian statesman 
 and antagonist of the French revolution, author 
 of ' The State of Europe at the End of the 18th 
 Century,' &c, 1760-1832. 
 
 GEOFFREY of Monmouth, author of a fam- 
 ous chronicle or history of the first British kings, 
 often quoted by men of letters, and remarkable 
 for its curious legends. Geoffrey was successively 
 archdeacon of Monmouth, bishop of St. Asaph, 
 and abbot of Abingdon, where he died 1154. 
 
 GEOFFREY I., duke of Brittany, succeeded his 
 father 992, slain on returning from a pilgrimage 
 to Rome 1008. Geoffrey II., third son of 
 Henry II., king of England, succeeded to the 
 dukedom by marriage 1175, died 1186. 
 
 GEOFFREY I., count of Anjou, reigned 958- 
 988. Geoffrey II., reigned 1039-1060. Geof- 
 frey III., reigned conjointly with his brother 
 until the latter despoiled him of the government 
 1060-1067. Another Geoffrey, called ' Planta- 
 genet,' was duke of Normandy, and count of An- 
 jou and Maine towards the middle of the 12th ct. 
 
 GEOFFROI of Auxerre, a disciple of Abelard, 
 author of several theological works, d. after 1180. 
 
 GEOFFROI of Pruilly, a French knight, 
 distinguished as the stock of the counts of Ven- 
 dome, and the legislator of tournaments, d. 1068. 
 
 GEOFFROY, Louis Julian, a French critic, 
 celeb, for his censures on the drama, 1743-1814. 
 
 GEOFFROY, Stephen Francis, a celebrated 
 French physician and chemist, member of the 
 Academy of Sciences, professor of chemistry to 
 the Garden of Plants, and of medicine and phar- 
 macy to the College of France, 1672-1731. His 
 brother, Claude Joseph, a naturalist and physi- 
 ological author, 1685-1752. Stephen Louis, son 
 of Stephen Francis, a dist. naturalist, 1725-1810. 
 
 GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE, Etijjnne, a cele- 
 brated zoologist, was born at Etampes in 1772. 
 He died in 1844. He was a pupil of the great 
 mineralogist Haiiy, and was appointed through 
 
 GEO 
 
 his recommendation assistant-keeper and demon J 
 strator of the museum of natural history at th 
 Garden of Plants. A few months afterwards h 
 became professor of zoology there, and from tha 
 time forwards he devoted himself with great zeal t 
 that particular branch of natural history. I 
 1798 he was appointed one of the scientific com 
 mission which accompanied the French army 
 Egypt, and it is to his firmness France owes th 
 possession of the papers and drawings made i 
 that country by himself and colleagues. Upon hi 
 return from Egypt he resumed his situation at th 
 Garden of Plants ; but in 1810 he was a<:.un de 
 snatched by government on a mission to Portuga 
 Here he collected a vast quantity of minerals an! 
 animals from the museums of that country, an 
 succeeded in transporting them to Paris. Geof 
 froy is the author of many important memoirs an! 
 valuable works upon zoology. The most impoij 
 tant, perhaps, of all is his ' Philosophic Ana| 
 tomique,' the chief object of which is to demon! 
 strate throughout the animal kingdom a unifonf 
 plan of organization, recognizable by the existencij 
 not of the same organs, but of the materials of th 
 same organs in all. In connection with Cuvie. 
 Geoffroy has contributed much to the progress u 
 zoology in Europe. They created a school il 
 which the study assumed a truly scientific charatj 
 ter, and one which will long continue to exercty 
 a salutary influence over the labours of sueeeedin' 
 generations. [W.B. 
 
 [Tomb of Geoffroy St. Hilaire.J 
 
 GEORGE. The kings of England of this narj 
 are George (Lewis) I., son of Ernest A 
 elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Fro 
 eric, elector palatine, and grand-daughter of Janil 
 I., born at Osnabruck 1660 ; created duke of Call 
 bridge 1706; succeeded Queen Anne, and th 
 commenced the house of Hanover 1714 ; d. 17a 
 George (Augustus) IL, only son of the pi 
 ceding and the Princess Sophia, daughter of V 
 duke of Zell, horn 1683 ; married to the Princ 
 Caroline of Brandenburgh-Anspach 1705 ; reg< 
 1716; succeeded 1727; died after a victonc 
 career in the Spanish and German wars, and t 
 total subjugation of the Stuarts, 1760. 
 
 2<J8 
 
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 [/Jrrfw/-/^ ? 
 
 cZsLe'/l-t // (/r'/-'/".j. 
 
 
 
 r. >; .**- 
 
 
 IH 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^111*1111111 
 
 
 
 -11 .1 a.i. 1 1 . 
 
 sL^w** 
 
 . y/,>/ 
 
 '//<//'///S. ' 
 
GEO 
 
 grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, and son of Frederic Louis, prince of Wales, 
 born 1738; duke of Gloucester and prince of Wales 
 'on the death of his father 1751 ; succeeded to the 
 throne 25th October, 1760 ; married to the Princess 
 Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklenburgh Strelitz 1761 ; 
 died, after nine years of mental aberration, 1820. 
 George (Augustus Frederic) IV., eldest son 
 pf George III. and Queen Charlotte, born 1762 ; 
 breated prince of Wales and earl of Chester the 
 Isame month ; married to Mrs. Fitzherbert 1784 ; 
 jmarried to his cousin, Caroline Amelia Eliza- 
 jbeth, second daughter of the duke of Brunswick, 
 11795 ; separated from his wife, Caroline, shortly 
 iafter the birth of the Princess Charlotte 1796 ; 
 lappointed regent in consequence of his father's 
 jmental incapacity 1811 ; crowned king 1820 ; 
 Idled 26th June, 1830. 
 
 j GEORGE I., king of Georgia, reigned 1015- 
 1027. George II., 1072-1089. George III., 
 J1156-1180. George IV., surnamed 'Lascha,' 
 from about 1198-1223. George V., 1304-1306. 
 IGeorge VI., 1306-1336. George VII., 1394- 
 1407. George VIII., 1524-1534. George 
 (IX., 1600-1603. George X., 1676-1709. George 
 :XL, who was the last king of Georgia, his son, 
 David, having ceded his hereditary states to 
 Alexander, emperor of Russia, succeeded his father 
 Demetrius II. 1798, died 1800. 
 
 GEORGE, or JOURI I., grand duke of Russia, 
 land founder of Moscow, reigned 1149-1156. 
 (George II., succeeded 1212, dethroned by his 
 (brother Constantine 1217, killed in battle 1257. 
 George III., succeeded 1302, killed 1320. 
 
 GEORGE, prince of Denmark, son of Frederic 
 III., and brother of Christian V., born 1653, mar- 
 ried to the Princess Anne, daughter of James II., 
 and subsequently queen of England, 1683, ap- 
 pointed grand admiral of England on her acces- 
 sion 1702, died 1708. 
 ! GEORGE, patriarch of Alexandria, 620-630. 
 
 GEORGE II., patriarch of Armenia, 876-897. 
 
 GEORGE III., patriarch of Armenia, 1071-73. 
 
 GEORGE, surnamed 'Amira,' an Oriental 
 Bcbolar, and patriarch of the Maronites, d. 1641. 
 | GEORGE CADOUDAL. See Cadoudal. 
 
 GEORGE-LE-FOULON, 'The Cappadocian,' 
 bp. of Alexandria 356, deposed by the Arians 362. 
 
 GEORGE, Pisides, a Greek poet, 7th cent. 
 
 GEORGE, Saint, the patron of England and 
 Genoa, a supposed prince of Cappadocia, martyred 
 in the persecution under Diocletian, 3d century. 
 
 GEORGE of Trebizond, a Greek gram- 
 marian, professor of rhetoric and philosophy at 
 Vienna, and secretary to Nicholas V., died 1484. 
 
 GEORGEL, J. F., a French Jesuit, 1731-1813. 
 
 GEORGES, Chevalier De St., a French 
 riolinist, musical comp., and swordsman, d. 1801. 
 
 GEORGET, James, a French artist, celebrated 
 as a painter on Sevres porcelain, 1760-1823. 
 
 GEORGI, C. S., a German philologist, 1702-71. 
 
 GEORGI, J. G., a German naturalist and wr. 
 an the geography and ethnology of Russia, d. 1802. 
 
 GEORGIADES, a Greek author, last century. 
 
 GEORGIEWITZ, B., a Hungarian gentleman, 
 long time captive among the Turks, and author of 
 work on Turkish manners, died 1560. 
 
 GEORGII, E. F. De, a Ger. jurist, 1757-1830. 
 
 GERALDINI, A., an Ital. prelate, 1455-1525. 
 
 GER 
 
 GERAMB, Baron Ferd., a military adven., de- 
 scended from a noble Hung, family, and employed 
 in the military service of Austria and Spain, au- 
 thor of ' Letters to Earl Moira,' born 1770. 
 
 GERANDO, Marie Joseph De, born 1772, 
 died in 1842 : a French metaphysician of consider- 
 able note. He possessed a mind of much lucidity, 
 and his industry was great. He improved on the 
 system of Condillac rather returning to that 
 of Locke. He may be called a logical preacher of 
 the Scotch school. His chief work is the ' His- 
 toire Comparee des Systemes de Philosophie ;' 
 but he wrote much besides on education and 
 philanthropic institutions. His other important 
 work is entitled ' De la Bienfaisan Publique.' 
 
 GERARD, an Arabian scholar, 1114-1187. 
 
 GERARD, count of Auvergne, 839-841. 
 
 GERARD, duke of Lorraine, 1047-1070. 
 
 GERARD, a Hungarian missionary, killed 1047. 
 
 GERARD, Alexander, an eminent divine of 
 the Church of Scotland, professor of moral philo- 
 sophy and logic at Marischal College, author of 
 'An Essay on Taste,' 'An Essay on Genius,' 
 'Dissertations on the Genius and Evidences of 
 Christianity,' &c, 1728-1795. His son, Gilbert, 
 a theologian and biblical critic, died 1815. 
 
 GERARD, Balthasar, a Roman Catholicfana- 
 tic, assassin of William I., prince of Orange, 1584. 
 
 GERARD, Francois, a Fr. paint., 1770-1837. 
 
 GERARD, G. J., a Flemish antiqu., 1734-1814. 
 
 GERARD, James, an English surgeon and 
 traveller in the Himalaya mountains, died 1835. 
 
 GERARD, Louis, a Fr. botanist, 1733-1819. 
 
 GERARD, L. P., a French moralist, 1737-1813. 
 
 GERARD, Maurice Stephen, Count, a dis- 
 tinguished French marshal, 1773-1851. 
 
 GERARD op Vercel, a Fr. philol.,1480-1544. 
 
 GERARD-DE-RAYNEVAL, J. M., a French 
 diploma., and writer on public affairs, 1736-1812. 
 
 GERARD-GROOT, or The Great, a Dutch 
 theologian, and founder of a community of savants, 
 kn. as the canons regular of Windeshem, 1340-84. 
 
 GERARD-THOM, or TENQUE, the founder 
 and first grand master of the Knights Hospitallers 
 of St. John of Jerusalem, 1040-1121. 
 
 GERARDE, J., an Engl, herbalist, 1545-1607. 
 
 GERARDIN, S., a French natural., 1751-1816, 
 
 GERARDS, Mark, a Flem. paint., 1561-1635. 
 
 GERBAIN, J., a French savant, 1629-1699. 
 
 GERBER, Sir Balthasar, a Flemish painter, 
 knighted by Charles I., 1592-1667. 
 
 GERBERON, G., a French ecclesiastic, author 
 of a 'History of Jansenism,' 1628-1711. 
 
 GERBERT, M., a German savant, 1720-1793. 
 
 GERBIER, P. J. B., a French lawyer, 1725-88. 
 
 GERBILLON, J. F., a Fr. mission., 1654-1707. 
 
 GERCKER, P. G., a Prussian writer on the 
 ancient diplomacy of Brandenbourg, &c, 1722-91. 
 
 GERDES, D., a German theologian, 1698-1765. 
 
 GERDIL, Hyacinth Sigismond, an Italian 
 cardinal, theologian, and philosopher, 1718-1802. 
 
 GERHARD, E., a Germ, philoso., 1682-1718. 
 
 GERHARD, John, a German Lutheran theo- 
 logian, 1582-1637. His son, J. E. Gerhard, 
 a theologian and Oriental scholar, 1623-1668. 
 
 jGERICAULT, Jean Louis Theodore An- 
 dre, was born at Rouen in 1790. He was the pupil 
 of Guerin, and became a great historical painter, 
 and not less so for treating his subjects in a 
 
GER 
 
 familiar manner ; he was also a genre painter of 
 high class. His peculiar powers are well illus- 
 trated in the great and magnificent picture of the 
 ' Shipwreck of the Medusa/ painted in 1819, and 
 now m the Louvre at Paris : there is a very beauti- 
 ful mezzotint of this picture by S. W. Reynolds. 
 Gerieault died almost at the threshold of his pro- 
 mised great career in 1824. (Gabet, Dictionnaire 
 des Artistes, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 GERING, Ulric, a Swiss painter, died 1510. 
 
 GERLAC, P., a Dutch ascetic, 1378-1411. 
 
 GERLACH, B. T., a Germ, savant, 1698-1756. 
 
 GERLACH, Stephen, a German theologian, 
 preacher and traveller, 1546-1612. 
 
 GERMAIN, M., a Fr. antiquarian, 1645-1694. 
 
 GERMAIN, Peter, a French artist in gold 
 and silver, 1647-1682. His son, Thomas, dist. 
 as a goldsmith, sculptor, and architect, 1673-1748. 
 
 GERMAIN, Saint, bp. of Auxerre, died 448. 
 
 GERMAIN, Saint, bishop of Paris, died 576. 
 
 GERMAIN of Silesia, a German monk, au- 
 thor of an Arabain and Italian dictionary, 17th ct. 
 
 GERMAIN, Sophia, a French lady, eel. as a wr. 
 on natural philosophy and mathematics, 1776-1821. 
 
 GERMANICUS, Tiberius Drusus Cesar, 
 son of Claudius Drusus Nero and the younger An- 
 tonia, a niece of Augustus, was commander of the 
 Roman legions in Germany when Augustus died 
 in the year 14, and refused at the hands of his 
 soldiers the offer of the Roman empire. He was a 
 great and successful general, and was recalled to 
 Rome by Tiberius, of whom he was the nephew 
 and adopted heir, to enjoy the honours of a triumph, 
 from which he was sent to a command in the East. 
 He d. at Antioch, at the age of thirty-four, a.d. 19. 
 
 GERMANUS, the fast of the name, patriarch 
 of Constantinople, 715-740 ; the second, from 
 1222 to 1240, and again during the last year of his 
 life, 1254-1255 ; the third, a few months in 1267. 
 
 GERMON, B., a French Jesuit, author of ' De 
 Veteribus Regium Fr. Diplomatibus,' 1663-1718. 
 
 GERRARD of Haerlem, a Dutch painter, 
 one of the first to practise in oil, 1460-1488. 
 
 GERRARDS, G. P. Van, a Dutch painter, 
 the friend and imitator of Vandyck, 1607-1667. 
 
 GERSON, Chr., a German Talmudist, d. 1627. 
 
 GERSON, G. C. De, a Fr. divine, 1363-1421. 
 
 GERSTEN, C. L., a Germ, mathem., 1701-62. 
 
 GERSTENBERG, H. W. De, a Gennan philo- 
 sopher, dram, author, poet, and critic, 1737-1823. 
 
 GERTRUDE, the name of three Roman Catho- 
 lic saints, the fast, abbess of Nivelle, 626-659 ; the 
 second, an abbess of the order of St. Benedict, and 
 author of ' Revelations,' died 1034 ; the third, a 
 daughter of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, d. 1297. 
 
 GERVAIS, an English ecclesiastic of the middle 
 ages, author of ' Letters,' died 1228. 
 
 GERVAISE, Nicholas, a French missionary, 
 author of descriptions of Siam and Macassar, 
 killed by the Caribs, 1662-1729. Armand Fran- 
 cis, his brother, a biographical writer, died 1751. 
 
 GERVAISE of Tilbury, an English poet and 
 historian, both in the Latin tongue, died 1218. 
 
 GESENIUS, Frederic Henry William, an 
 eminent German philologist and Oriental scholar, 
 professor of Hebrew at the university of Halle, au. 
 of a well-known Hebrew Lexicon, &c, 1786-1842. 
 
 GESENIUS, W., a German phys., 1760-1801. 
 
 GESNER, Conrad, a native of Zurich, distin- 
 
 GHE 
 
 guished as an indefatigable scholar, philosophy 
 and naturalist, 1516-1561. 
 
 GESNER, J. J., a missionary of Zurich, auth 
 of 'Numismata Antiqua Populoruin et I'rbiun 
 &c, 1707-1787. His brother, John, a physicii 
 and naturalist, 1709-1787. 
 
 GESNER, J. M., a philologist and classic 
 scholar, born near Anspach, 1691-1761. His br 
 ther, Andrew Samuel, a distinguished savai 
 1690-1778. J. Albert, his younger brotht 
 distinguished as a naturalist, 1694-1760. 
 
 GESNER, Sol., a German divine, 1559-1605 
 
 [Tomb of Gesner.] 
 
 GESNER, or GESSNER, Solomon, a painfc 
 of Zurich, better known as a poet, 1730-178 
 His son, Conrad, distinguished as a painter i 
 horses and battle-pieces, died 1826. 
 
 GESTRIN, J., a Swedish mathema,, 17th cen 
 GETA, Publius Septimius, second son of tl 
 emperor Severus, brother and associate of Cars 
 calla, by whose orders he was murdered 210. 
 
 GETHIN, Lady Grace, an English lady, dii 
 
 tinguished for her literary abilities, 1676-1697. 
 
 GEULINX, A., a Flem. philosopher, 1625-69, 
 
 GEYSER, C. T., a Germ, engraver, 1742-180; 
 
 GEYSER, S. W., a German author, 1740-180: 
 
 GEZELIUS, J., a Swedish theologian and G 
 
 scholar, bishop of Abo, au. of a Greek grammar, 
 
 Hebrew grammar, &c, 1615-1690. His son, Joh: 
 
 a theologian, part author of a commentary c 
 
 the Bible, commenced by his father, 1647-1718. 
 
 GEZELIUS, George, a Swedish di\ 
 of abiog. diet, of illustrious Swedes, 1732-178% 
 GHAZAN-KHAN, sultan of Persia, di 
 GHEDINI, F. A., an Italian poet, 168 1-1 767. 
 GHERARDESCA, Ugolina, a Tuscan nobl< 
 man of the Guelph party, who was vanquished an 
 starved in prison, together with three of his sor 
 and one of his grandsons, 1288. 
 
 GHERARDI, A., an Ital. painter, 1661-1702. 
 
 GHEYN, or GHEIN, James Du, called 'Tl 
 
 Elder,' a Flemish painter and engraver, 1501 
 
 1615. ' The Younger,' of the same name, a d< 
 
 signer and engraver, born about 1610. 
 
 GHEYN, Guido, a Flemish engraver, 17th ct 
 GHEZZI, N., an Italian naturalist, 1685-1761 
 GHEZZI, Sebastiano, a scholar of I 
 distinguished as an architect, painter, and sculj 
 
 270 
 
 
GHI 
 
 died about 1650. His son, Joseph, a painter, 
 4-1720. The son of the latter, Peter Leo, a 
 nter and engraver, 1674-1755. 
 rHIBERTI, Lorenzo, a celebrated Florentine 
 lptor and goldsmith, was born in 1381. In 
 
 he left Florence for fear of the plague, but 
 lrned shortly afterwards, when he received 
 ice of the great competition that was to take 
 3e on the occasion of completing the bronze 
 es of the Baptistery of St. John. The centre 
 ss opposite to the west end of the cathedral 
 
 been already put up by Andrea Pisano, the 
 ' gates were for the two sides. The commis- 
 i for these two new gates was obtained by 
 enzo Ghiberti, then a young man only twenty- 
 years of age : the contract was given to Ghi- 
 i" and his father, and other assistants, on the 
 November, 1403, and the first gates, represent- 
 the life of Christ, were put up in the place of 
 ;e by Andrea Pisano, in April, 1424 ; and 
 third gates, commenced on 2d January, 1425, 
 
 1 the histories from the Old Testament, were 
 completed until 16th June, 1452, when they 
 3 gilded and put up in the place of Ghiberti's 
 
 gates, which were removed to the other side, 
 
 >site to those of Andrea Pisano. These great 
 
 ts, of the last of which entire casts may be 
 
 at Marlborough House, caused a new epoch 
 
 namental art, being remarkable for their bold 
 
 accurate imitation in the detail, for their skil- 
 
 modelling of the figure, and masterly sym- 
 
 ical grouping of the whole; on a scale of 
 
 nificence, and technical completeness, alto- 
 
 er unprecedented in modern art. During the 
 
 and forty years that Ghiberti and his assis- 
 
 5, of whom his own son Vittorio was one of 
 
 principal, were occupied on these complicated 
 
 s, he executed also many others, monumen- 
 
 i nd ecclesiastical, which must explain the ap- 
 
 Eptly long delay in the completion of the gates. 
 
 Ilerti died at Florence in 1455. (Vasari, Vife 
 
 vfittori, &c, Florence 1848 ; Patch, La Porta 
 
 cipale del Battiste.ro di San Giovanni, &c, 
 
 nee, 1773.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 HLINI, G., an Italian historian, 1589-1670. 
 
 IINI, Luke, an Italian botanist, 1500-1556. 
 
 IIRLANDAJO, Domenico, an Italian pain- 
 
 and goldsmith, teacher of Michelangelo, 
 
 1493. His son, Ridolfo, also a painter, 
 
 of his uncle David Curadi, 1485-1560. 
 
 GOBI, J., an Italian composer, 1575-1650. 
 
 AR, a Mahommedan savant, died 764. 
 
 AHEDH, a Mahommedan savant, died 840. 
 
 AMBERTI, F., an Ital. architect, 15th cent. 
 
 ANNONE, P., a Neapolitan hist., 1676-1748. 
 
 jNOTTI, D., a Venetian au., 1494-1563. 
 
 ARDINI, Felice, who has been called the 
 
 |l|ner, if not the founder, of the violin school in 
 
 was born at Turin in 1716, and was en- 
 
 a chorister at the Duomo in Milan, where he 
 
 sd singing, the harpsichord, and composition, 
 
 Paladini. He afterwards adopted the violin, 
 
 Jtndied under Lorenzo Somis, one of Corelli's 
 
 famous followers. After having visited the 
 
 ipal cities of Italy, he travelled over Germany, 
 
 length reached London in the year 1750, 
 
 he soon reached the top of his profession, 
 
 ?here he filled the highest professional posts 
 
 to the musical artist. It is said that 
 
 GIB 
 
 when he first appeared at the Haymarket theatre, 
 and played a solo on the violin, ' the applause was 
 long, loud, and furious, and such as nothing but that 
 which Garrick called forth had ever equalled.' In 
 the year 1756, he in company with Mignotti, be- 
 came the manager of the Italian Opera, and 
 though he composed several operas, and acquired 
 much fame, his undertaking was very unsuccessful. 
 Giardini in the year 1763 retired from the manage- 
 ment, after having lost a large sum of money. In 
 1784 Giardini went to Italy, where he remained 
 five years. In 1789 he came back to England, 
 but was not so successful as during his first resi- 
 dence. In 1793 he went to Russia. His public 
 performances at Moscow and St. Petersburg failed 
 to produce the effect of his earlier efforts. He 
 died in the latter city in poverty in the year 
 1796. [J.M.] 
 
 GIATTINI, J. B., an Italian poet, 1600-1672. 
 
 GIB, Adam, a Scotch divine, 1713-1788. 
 
 GIBBES, J. A., a French physician, 1616-77. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, was born at Putney in 
 Surrey, in 1737. He was the only child who sur- 
 vived infancy, of a gentleman well connected and 
 tolerably wealthy. Feeble health made his school 
 days to be profitable in nothing but the acquisition 
 of miscellaneous and undigested knowledge ; and, 
 being sent to Oxford too young and quite unpre- 
 pared, he spent fourteen months there in alterna- 
 tions of irregular study and extreme idleness. At 
 the end of this time, being a little more than six- 
 teen years old, he embraced the Roman Catholic 
 faith, and formally announced his conversion to his 
 father. He was immediately placed under the 
 care of a Calvinist minister at Lausanne, whose 
 instructions led him in a few months back to pro- 
 testantism. The five years he spent at Lausanne, 
 closing in 1758, when he was just of age, formed 
 the real commencement of his education ; and, at 
 their close, he was not only a ripe scholar in French 
 and Latin, but possessed or an extraordinary 
 amount of historical and other information. He 
 found leisure, however, for falling in love, unsuc- 
 cessfully, with a young lady, who afterwards be- 
 came the wife of M. Necker and the mother of 
 Madame De Stael. For several years after Gib- 
 bon's return to England, he lived chiefly at his 
 father's house in Hampshire ; and, failing in at- 
 tempts to obtain diplomatic employment, he 
 accepted a militia commission, attended zealously 
 to his duties, and rose to be lieutenant-colonel. 
 But the studious habits and literary ambition 
 which he had acquired, never flagged. In 1761, 
 he published, in French, a short essay ' On the 
 Study of Literature.' He extended his acquain- 
 tance with English authors, and, beginning to 
 leara Greek thoroughly, pursued the study zeal- 
 ously, when, in 1763, he was allowed again to visit 
 the continent. In Rome, next year, he conceived 
 the design of his great historical work. Returning 
 home in 1765, he passed some years unsatisfac- 
 torily to himself, but not without much improve- 
 ment both in knowledge and in skill of writing. In 
 1774, he entered the House of Commons, in which 
 he sat for eight sessions ; and he was rewarded for 
 his silent votes in favour of Lord North's adminis- 
 tration, by holding for three years a seat at the 
 board of trade. In 1770, he published, in answer 
 to Warburton, his spirited Dissertation on the 
 
 271 
 
GIB 
 
 GIF 
 
 Sixth Book of the iEneid. In the same year, the | cacy, are of a solid character, and very jud 
 death of his father placed him in possession of a " 
 fortune, which, though embarrassed, he was able 
 to extricate so far that it afforded a handsome com- 
 petence, and enabled him to devote himself exclu- 
 sively to study and composition. In 1776, he 
 published the first volume of ' The History of the 
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' the first 
 edition of which was sold in a few days, and was 
 rapidly followed by others. The second and third 
 volumes, appearing in 1781, brought down the 
 narrative to the Fall of the Western Empire ; and 
 for a while the author hesitated whether he should 
 not here allow the work to drop. He resumed the 
 design, however, in 1783, when ne fixed his abode at 
 Lausanne. He has recorded, in an eloquent passage 
 of his Memoirs, the mixed emotions with which, 
 in a moonlight night of June, 1787, in a summer- 
 house in his garden, he completed his great under- 
 taking. Its last three volumes were published next 
 year, the author visiting London to superintend 
 the press, but returning in a few months to Lau- 
 sanne. There he remained till, in 1793, he was 
 called to England to console his friend Lord Shef- 
 field on the death of his wife. His health was 
 now very infirm ; and he laboured under dropsy. 
 He died in London in January, 1794. The volumes 
 called his ' Miscellaneous Works,' contain, besides 
 reprints of his minor writings, and several essays 
 not previously printed, an interesting collection of 
 his letters, and an instructive autobiography. 
 Some of these pieces show all that various erudi- 
 tion, and that command of apt and powerful lan- 
 guage, of which his chief work is so remarkable a 
 monument. His exotic diction, and the pompous 
 structure of his style, are open to strong excep- 
 tions ; yet he is one of the most strikingly eloquent left a son, Christopher, who was also a musici 
 
 writers in our language. The historical value of 
 his 'Decline and Fall' is very great; and the 
 extraordinary union of excellencies, of vast variety 
 with general correctness of learning, of good 
 judgment with vigour of narrative and description, 
 deepens the regret with which we contemplate the 
 sceptical taint that is diffused so steadily through 
 the whole. [W.S.] 
 
 GIBBON, John, an ancestor of the celebrated 
 historian, known as a writer on heraldry, born 
 1629, died about 1700. 
 
 GIBBONS, Grilling, a celebrated carver in 
 wood, was born at Rotterdam, 4th April, 1648, 
 and appears to have visited this country in 1667, 
 the year after the great fire. Evelyn, who calls 
 him the incomparable Gibbons, introduced him to 
 King Charles II., and also to Sir Christopher 
 Wren, who employed him extensively in the de- 
 corations of St. Paul's. Gibbons received a place 
 in the Board of Works, and was much employed at 
 Windsor. In 1714 he was appointed master 
 carver in wood to George I., with a salary of eigh- 
 teenpence a-day. He died in London, 3d August, 
 1721. There are many fine specimens of Gibbons's 
 carvings at Hampton Court, and at Petworth, the 
 state room there being considered by some his 
 masterpiece: also at Houghton; and there are 
 some specimens still in St. James's Church, Lon- 
 don. His works are in very high relief, and the 
 details, fruit, flowers, game, &c, generally grouped 
 in great clusters or festoons, and though from the 
 proper distance they appear to be of extreme deli- 
 
 . He made a taste for carvings of 
 class fashionable, and had several skilful scho 
 and imitators, as Selden, Watson, Dievot, 
 Laurens; much work attributed to Gibbons 
 doubtless executed by some one of these mei 
 (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painters, &c, ed. Worn 
 Bohn, 1849.) [R.N. 
 
 GIBBONS, Orlando, Mus. Doc, who 
 regarded as one of the greatest English musici 
 was born at Cambridge, in 1583. He was < 
 twenty-one years of age when he was appoir 
 organist to the chapel royal, and in 1622. on 
 recommendation of the learned antiquary Cam< 
 who was his personal friend, the University 
 Oxford conferred upon him their degree of Doi 
 of Music. Some years afterwards, while he 
 at Canterbury for the purpose of conducting 
 musical performances at the marriage of Cha 
 I., he fell ill of small-pox and died He was bu 
 in the cathedral of Canterbury, where his i 
 caused a simple and elegant marble monumenl 
 be erected to his memory. His first publicati 
 were madrigals in four parts for voices and vi 
 but the best of his works are his church serv 
 and anthems, many of which are still exfo 
 ' The compositions of Gibbons are for the n 
 part,' says one of his biographers, 'truly excelli 
 and the study of them cannot be too strongly 
 commended. The characteristics of his music 
 fine harmony, unaffected simplicity, and an aln 
 unexampled grandeur.' Another writer says, 'a 
 a lapse of upwards of two hundred years, his a 
 positions seem to have lost none of their freshn 
 and are still, and likely to continue, the admiral 
 of all real iudges of what is excellent in music' 
 
 al judges i 
 i, Chrisi 
 
 but who inherited only a very meagre share of 
 
 father's genius. Orlando Gibbons was survived 
 
 two brothers, Edward, who was organist of B; 
 
 tol, and master of the celebrated Matthew Loc 
 
 and Ellis, organist of Salisbury. [J.] 
 
 GIBBONS, Richard, an English Jesuit, I 
 
 fessor of philosophy and divinity, 1549-1632. 
 
 GIBBONS, Thos., an Engl. Calvinist, 1720- 
 
 GIBBS, James, a Scotch architect, designei 
 
 the Radcliffe Library at Oxford, the church of 
 
 Martin's-in-the-Fields, &c, 1680-1754. 
 
 GIBBS, Sir V., an English judge, 1752-185 
 
 GIBERT, J. P., one of the most learned 
 
 French authors on the canon law, 1 660-1'.) 
 
 Balthasar Gibert, of the same family, a ' 
 
 ter on rhetoric, 1662-1741. John BalthasaJ! 
 
 learned historian and chronological wr., 1711-1': 
 
 GIBSON, Edmund, successively bishop of],- 
 
 coin and London, distinguished as a writer 
 
 ecclesiastical antiquities, and as a classical ecjl 
 
 and translator, 1669-1748. 
 
 GIBSON, Richard, a celebrated dwMM 
 portrait painter, time of Cromwell, 1615-lflB| 
 GIBSON, Th., a wr. of the reformation, d. n 
 GIBSON, Wm., a mathemat. teacher, 178M 
 GIFFEN, H.., a Dutch critic, 1534-1604. fl 
 GIFFORD, Andrew, a Calvinistic and 
 quarian wr., especially on numismatics, 1700- 
 GIFFORD, John, a political and historical 
 ter, whose real name was J. R. Green, 1758-3 
 GIFFORD, R., an English divine, 1725-18 
 GIFFORD, William, the son of a poor anc 
 
 272 
 
GIL 
 
 : ated tradesman, was born in Devonshire in 1756. 
 I :oming in childhood a destitute orphan, he was 
 I :cessively a cabin-boy and a shoemaker's ap- 
 Jntice: but a benevolent patron put him to 
 ijool; and, finding his way to Oxford, he there 
 I ned aristocratic patronage, and, attaching him- 
 i f to the Tory party, proved one of its most effec- 
 1(3 literary advocates. In 1798, he became editor 
 i!the Antijacobin ; and for about sixteen years 
 |U 1809, he edited the Quarterly Review. He 
 is eminently qualified for such offices, both by 
 I aptness and force of writing, his variety of in- 
 Inaation, and his readiness and unhesitating 
 lemence of satire. Not far from the close of 
 century appeared his two satirical poems, 'The 
 dad' and 'The Maeviadj' and his vigorous and 
 rited translation of Juvenal was published in 
 )2. His best services to letters were his editions 
 Did English Dramatists. His ' Massinger ' ap- 
 jed in 1808; his 'Ben Jonson,' the most 
 aable of the series, in 1816 : and his editions of 
 d and Shirley, completed by other hands, 
 -e published in 1827 and 1833. He died in the 
 I of 1826, bequeathing the bulk of his property 
 the son of his early benefactor. [W.S.J 
 
 3IL, Father, a Spanish patriot, dist. in 1808. 
 iILBERT, Davies, born at St. Erth in Corn- 
 1 1767, known as an antiquarian, and successor 
 Sir Humphry Davy as president of the Royal 
 iety, author of ' A Plain Statement of the Bul- 
 i Question,' and many scientific papers. Gil- 
 :fc was M.P. for Bodmin from 1806-32, d. 1840. 
 ILBERT, F. H., a Fr. veterinarian, 1755-1800. 
 ILBERT, Gab., a French poet, died 1680. 
 JILBERT, Sir Humphrey, half-brother of 
 Walter Raleigh, was a man of ardent tempera- 
 it and chivalrous character, who engaged in geo- 
 phical discovery from the love of fame and 
 enture. Under patent from Queen Elizabeth, 
 I sailed, in 1583, with five vessels and 260 men, 
 ake possession of the northern parts of America. 
 Newfoundland, whose fisheries were already 
 ch frequented by French, Spanish, and Portu- 
 se ships, he succeeded in establishing a colony, 
 thus secured the influence of England in 
 }e parts, the title being founded upon the 
 t discovery by Sebastian Cabot. He ventured 
 the Atlantic, on his homeward voyage, in a 
 1 of only ten tons; but after passing the 
 >res he perished during the night in a storm, 
 h all on hoard his little barque. He was seen 
 the evening before, struggling with the waves, 
 those in the Golden Hind (see Drake), which 
 accompanied him from the coast of Virginia, 
 in which he had been urged to take his passage 
 ie. He has been called ' the father of western 
 mization.' [J.B.] 
 
 IILBERT, J., an English author, 1674-1726. 
 "ILBERT, L. T., a Fr. author, 1780-1827. 
 ILBERT, L. W., a Fr. med. au., 1769-1824. 
 ILBERT, N. A., a French theolo., 1762-1821. 
 ILBERT, N. J. L., a French poet, 1751-1780. 
 ILBERT, N. P., a Fr. med. au., 1751-1814. 
 ILBERT, Saint, a French monk, died 1162. 
 ILBERT, Wm., an English divine, 1613-94. 
 ILBERT, or GILBERD, William, an Eng- 
 physician, distinguished as an experimental 
 Msopher, and especially for his researches into 
 properties of the loadstone, and for his attempt 
 
 GIO 
 
 to found a philosophical theory of the earth's 
 magnetism upon experiment. His work, entitled 
 ' De Magnete,' published 1600, is understood to 
 be the foundation of all modern improvement in 
 that branch of philosophy ; born at Colchester, 
 where his father was recorder, 1540, died 1603. 
 
 GILBERT-DE-LA-POREE, a celebrated Fr. 
 theologian and philoso. of the Realists, 1070-1154. 
 
 GILBERT DE SEMPRINGHAM, an English 
 priest, founder of a religious order, died 1180. 
 
 GILBERT DES VOISINS, a French magis- 
 trate and writer on protestant liberty, 1684-1769. 
 
 GILCHRIST, E., a Scotch med. au., 1707-74. 
 
 GILCHRIST, J. B., a Sc. Oriental, 1759-1841. 
 
 GILCHRIST, Oct., a dram, critic, 1779-1823. 
 
 GILDAS, Saint, a British ecclesiastic, 6th ct. 
 
 GILDAS, Saint, a celebrated English historian 
 and theologian, of royal extraction, died 512. 
 
 GILDAS, The Wise, a British monk, the most 
 ancient author of this country, 511-570. 
 
 GILDON, Roman governor of Africa, k. 398. 
 
 GILDON, Ch., an Engl, dramatist, 1665-1723. 
 
 GILIANEZ, a Portuguese admiral who contri- 
 buted to the African discoveries, 1443-1446. 
 
 GILII, P. L., an Ital. astronomer, 1756-1821. 
 
 GILL, Alex., an English theologian, master of 
 St. Paul's school, and teacher of Milton, 1564- 
 1635. His son and successor, of the same name, 
 distinguished also as a Latin poet, 1597-1642. 
 
 GILL, John, a baptist divine, 1697-1771. 
 
 GILLES, John, a French musician, died 1705. 
 
 GILLES, Peter, a classical trans., 1490-1555. 
 
 GILLES, Peter, a Swiss protest, div., 17th ct. 
 
 GILLESPIE, Geo., a Scotch divine, died 1648. 
 
 GILLIES, John, an eminent Greek scholar 
 and historian of Scotland, author of a ' History of 
 Ancient Greece,' &c, 1747-1836. 
 
 GILON, an Italian card, and author, died 1142. 
 
 GILPIN, Bernard, a celebrated English re- 
 former, called, on account of his pious and un- 
 wearied exertions in Durham, the Apostle of the 
 North and the Father of the Poor ; he was born in 
 1517, escaped the stake by the opportune death of 
 Queen Mary, and died 1583. His life has been 
 written by Bishop Carleton, and by his descendant 
 William Gilpin. The latter, who is the well 
 known writer on forest scenery, on the picturesque, 
 &c, was a minister of the Church of England, and 
 brother of Sawrey Gilpin the painter, 1724-1804. 
 
 GILPIN, Richard, a nonconf. divine, d. 1657. 
 
 GILPIN, Sawrey, an Engl, paint., 1733-1807. 
 
 GIL-POLO, G., a Spanish poet, 1516-1572. 
 
 GILRAY, Jas., an Engl, caricaturist, d. 1815. 
 
 GIL-VICENTE, a celebrated dramatic author, 
 called the Plautus of Portugal, 1485-1557. 
 
 GIMMA, H., an Italian naturalist, 1668-1735. 
 
 GIN, P. L. C, a Fr. miscel. wr., 1726-1807. 
 
 GINANI, G., an Italian poet, died after 1634. 
 
 GINANI, Joseph, Count, an Italian naturalist, 
 1692-1753. Francis, his nephew, a naturalist 
 and agriculturist, 1716-1766. Paul, of the same 
 family, a learned ecclesiastic, 1698-1774. 
 
 GINGUENE, P. L., a Fr. historian, 1748-1815. 
 
 GIOBERT, J. A., an Ital. chemist, 1761-1834. 
 
 GIOCONDO, Fra. Giovanni, in Latin 
 Jucundus, an Italian antiquarian and architect, 
 editor of several classics, about 1435-1514. 
 
 GIOFFREDO, P., an Italian hist., 1629-1692. 
 
 GIOIA, Flavio, an Italian navigator, 14th ct 
 
 273 
 
GIO 
 
 GIOJA, M., an Italian economist, 1767-1829. 
 
 GIORDANI, Guiseppe, sometimes called 
 Giordanello, whose songs at one time enjoyed 
 the highest popularity in Britain, was born in 
 Italy about the year 1750. He came to England 
 very young, and soon had all his time rilled up in 
 giving lessons in music. In 1779 he entered into 
 partnership with Leoni the singer, and they jointly 
 became lessees of a theatre in Dublin, Giordani as 
 composer, and his partner as singer. This specu- 
 lation proved a complete failure, and in four years 
 they were bankrupt. Giordani after this continued 
 to reside in Dublin, where he had several pupils of 
 distinction, and where he married the daughter of 
 Tate Wilkinson. He composed two operas, ' An- 
 tigone ' and ' Artaserse,' for the Italian Opera in 
 England, and one for the English stage. He died 
 in Dublin in 1789. [J.M.] 
 
 GIORDANI, V., an Italian mathe., 1633-1711. 
 
 GIORDANO, L., a Neapol. paint., 1632-1705. 
 
 GIORDANO, S., an Ital. painter, 1779-1829. 
 
 GIORGAKI, a Grk. naval commander, d. 1821. 
 
 GIORGI, A., a Venetian Jesuit, 1747-1779. 
 
 GIORGI, Ant. A., an Italian theolo., 1711-97. 
 
 GIORGI, D., an Ital. antiquarian, 1690-1747. 
 
 GIORGI, Maria, an Italian painter, 1780-1810. 
 
 GIORGI, Marino, a Venetian doge, succeeded 
 and died 1311. 
 
 GIORGIONE, the name by which Giorgio Bar- 
 barelli is commonly known. He was born near 
 Castelfranco in 1477, and was the fellow-pupil of 
 Titian with Giovanni Bellini at Venice. He became 
 a great colourist, and his pictures are further dis- 
 tinguished for objective truth of representation 
 and effective light and shade. His pictures are 
 very scarce : they consist chiefly of portraits. He 
 died at Venice in 1511, at the early age of thirty- 
 three. (Vasari, Vite <M Pittori, &c; Ridolfi, Ma- 
 raviqlie deW Arte, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 GIOSEPPINO, an Italian painter, died 1640. 
 
 GIOTTINO, Th., an Ital. painter, 1324-1356. 
 
 GIOTTO DI BONDONE was born at Vespig- 
 nano in 1276 ; he was the pupil of Cimabue, and 
 appears to have owed the development of his ex- 
 traordinary faculties almost wholly to that painter, 
 who in one of his walks near Florence, saw Giotto, 
 then a shepherd boy, sketching one of his flock on 
 the ground, and perceived so much native talent 
 in the attempt, that he persuaded the boy's 
 parents to let him take him with him to Florence, 
 and make a painter of him. Florence dates its 
 preponderance in the history of Tuscan painting 
 from the time of Giotto ; his works mark the era 
 of the first great epoch of the art in modern times : 
 the rigid traditional forms of the Byzantine school 
 were finally laid aside for nature; the beautiful 
 now supplanting the hideous as the fundamental 
 element of the canons of art. Giotto was painter, 
 sculptor, architect, and mosaic worker; he en- 
 riched many cities in Italy with his works, (chiefly 
 in fresco,) especially Florence, Rome, Naples, 
 Padua, and Assisi ; and by his introduction of in- 
 dividuality of treatment through the careful study 
 of nature, established legitimate portrait. The 
 frescoes of the Arena chapel, Padua, are in course 
 of publication by the Arundel Society. Giotto 
 was in Rome in 1298, he was at Avignon for some 
 years afterwards, between 1305 and 1314; in 
 1316 he returned to Florence, in 1327 he visited 
 
 GLA 
 
 Naples, and he died at Florence in 1336. (Vai 
 
 Vite efe' Pittori, &c, ed. Florence, 1846.) [R.N. 
 
 GIOVANETTI, F., an Italian jurist, died 1 
 
 GIOVENAZZI, V. M., an It. savant, 1727-1 
 
 GIOVENE, J. M., an Italian natu., 1753-1 
 
 GIOVINAZZO, V., an Italian poet, died IS 
 
 GIOVIO, B., an Italian savant and Latin { 
 
 1471-1544. Paul, his brother, bishop of No( 
 
 a celebrated historian, 1483-1552. Paul, 
 
 Younger, also a literary savant, 1530-1585. 
 
 GIOVIO, J. B., Count, a poet, 1738-1814. 
 
 GIRALDI, Lilio Gregorio, better know 
 
 Gyraldus, a learned Italian poet, author 
 
 history of the heathen deities, &c, 1479-1 
 
 Giovanni Battiste Giraldi Cintio, of 
 
 same family, author of the ' Gli Hecatomiti 
 
 ' Hundred Novels,' &c, 1504-1573. 
 
 GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS. See Barri 
 
 GIRARD, A., a Dutch wr. on algebra, d. 1( 
 
 GIRARD, G., a Fr. gramma, wr., 1677-174 
 
 GIRARD, J., a French theologian, 1570-16 
 
 GIRARD, J., a French jurisconsult, died 1{ 
 
 GIRARD, P. S., a Fr. engineer, 1765-1835 
 
 GIRARD, W., a French writer, died 1663. 
 
 GIRARDET, A., a Swiss engraver, 1764-1 
 
 GIRARDET, P. A., a French mythol., 1733 
 
 GIRARDON, F., a French sculpt., 1630-17 
 
 GIRDLESTONE, Th., a physician and me< 
 
 writer, author of ' Essays on the Hepatitics 
 
 Spasmodic Affections in India,' &c, 1758-182 
 
 GIREY-DUPRE, J. M., a French republi 
 
 kn. as a journalist and poet, b. 1769, exec. 17! 
 
 GIRODET-TRIOSON, Anne Louis, a Fn 
 
 painter, considered one of the greatest of 
 
 modern school, instructed by David, 1735-182 
 
 GIROUST, F., a French composer, 1730-1: 
 
 GIROUST, J., a French preacher, 1624-16) 
 
 GIRTIN, Th., an English painter, 1773-18 
 
 GISBERT, Blaise, a French Jesuit and 
 
 torician, author of various religious, critical, 
 
 philosophical writings, 1657-1731. 
 
 GISBERT, J., a Fr. theologian, 1639-1711 
 GISBORNE, Rev. Thomas, a divine of 
 Church of England, eminent as a moralist 
 miscellaneous writer, author of 'Principle 
 Moral Philosophy Investigated,' 'An Inquiry 
 the Duties of the Female Sex,' &c, 1758-1841 
 GISMONDI, C. J., an Italian mineralc 
 and mathematician, 1762-1824. 
 GIULIO-ROMANO. See Romano. 
 GIUNTINI, F., an Ital. theologian, 1522-1 
 GIUSTINIANI. See Justinian. 
 GJOERANSON, John, a Swedish ft 
 known as a writer on the antiquity of the N< 
 middle of last century. 
 
 GJOERWEL, Ch. C, a Swed. wr., 1731-1 
 
 GLABER, P., a French chronicler, 11th cei 
 
 GLADBACH, C. J., a Ger. naturalist, 1736 
 
 GLANVTL, B., a philosophical writer, 14th 
 
 GLANVIL, Sir John, a learned English '. 
 
 yer rod royalist, speaker of the House of C 
 
 mons in the reign of Charles I., died 1661. 
 
 grandson, of the same name, a lawyer and j 
 
 trans, of ' Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds,' d. 1 
 
 GLANVIL, GLANV1LL, or GLANVD 
 
 Ranulph De, an English judge and eras 
 
 accomp. Richard I., and fell at siege of Acre, 1 
 
 GLANVILL, Joskph, an English divine,. 
 
 thor of many philosophical and learned writ 
 
 274 
 
GLA 
 
 longst the more famous of which are his ' Van- 
 of Dogmatizing,' 'Some Philosophical Con- 
 [erations Touching the Being of Witches and 
 itchcraft,' ' An Inquiry into the Opinion of the 
 istern Sages Concerning the Pre-existence of 
 uls,' 'Scepsis Scientifica, or Confessed Igno- 
 ice the Way to Science,' and ' Plus Ultra, or the 
 ogress and Advancement of Science since the 
 ivs of Aristotle.' He was one of the new school 
 
 philosophical divines of which Cudworth may 
 regarded as the most illustrious example; born 
 Plymouth 1636, d. in his rectory at Bath 1680. 
 GLASER, J. F., a German chemist, 1707-1781. 
 GLASS, John, a Scottish divine, founder of 
 Glassites, since called Sandemanians, 1698- 
 13. His son, of the same name, a marine sur- 
 ra, au. of a 'Description of Teneriffe,' 1725-1765. 
 3LASSE, G. H., an English scholar, died 1809. 
 
 LASSIUS, S., a Dutch critic, 1593-1656. 
 
 LAUBEB, John, a Dutch painter, 1646-1726. 
 
 LAUBEK, John Rodolph, a German 
 
 mist, and experimenter in alchymy, the dis- 
 
 . of the sulphate of soda kn. by his name, 16th c. 
 
 iLEDITSCH, J. T., a Ger. natural., 1714-86. 
 
 JLEICHEN, C. H., a Ger. metaph., 1733-1807. 
 
 LEICHEN, F. W., anat. philos., 1717-1783. 
 LEICHMANU, J. Z., a Ger. savant, d. 1758. 
 
 JLEIM, J. W. L., a German poet, 1719-1803. 
 
 1LEN, John De, a French engraver, 16th cent. 
 
 JLEKDOWER, or GLENDWE, Owen, a 
 
 Ich chief, descended from Llewellyn, the last 
 
 ice of Wales, and distinguished for the long 
 
 test which he maintained with Henry IV., born 
 LI9, crowned by his adherents 1402, died 1415. 
 
 .LEX IE, J., an Irish mathema., 1750-1817. 
 
 fLEY, G., a French lexicographer, 1761-1830. 
 
 iLIEMANN, J. G. T., a Danish geographer, 
 I of maps of the Northern Countries, 1793-1828. 
 
 LISCENTI, F., an Italian moralist, died 1620. 
 
 (LISSON, Francis, a learned English phy- 
 \ in, a native of Dorsetshire, was born 1597, 
 died in 1677. He was for forty years profes- 
 5- of medicine in the university of Cambridge, 
 I became a member of the College of Physicians 
 t London in 1634. On the breaking out of the 
 I war he retired to Colchester, but subsequently 
 led in London, and was one of the original 
 n ibers of the Royal Society. He enjoyed a con- 
 Erable reputation in his lifetime, and wrote 
 t* ral treatises on anatomical and medical sub- 
 it >, which are respectfully spoken of by Haller, 
 V which are now neglected. fj.M'C] 
 
 r LOSKOUSKI, M., a Polish poet, 17th cent. 
 LOUCESTER, Robert of, an old English 
 ae chronicler, about the time of King John. 
 LOUCESTER, William Frederic, duke 
 ion of Prince William Henry, third son of 
 leric prince of Wales, and brother of George 
 born at Rome 1776, married to his first 
 i, the Princess Mary, fourth daughter of 
 
 Kill., 1816, died 1834. 
 V ER, Mrs., an English actress, 1780-1850. 
 LOVER, Richard, a distinguished Greek 
 lar and poet, popularly known as the author 
 
 das,' ' Hosier's Ghost,' &c, 1712-1785. 
 LOVER, Tnos., a wr. on heraldry, 1543-88. 
 K, Chkistoph, was born in Weiden- 
 in the upper Palatinate, in the year 1714, 
 his father held the situation of forester to 
 
 GLU 
 
 the Prince Lobkowitz. Early in childhood he 
 went with his family to Bohemia, where his father 
 died and left him without education, and in cir- 
 cumstances little removed from absolute penury. 
 Gluck was, however, gifted with a mind of no ordi- 
 nary power, and he soon made his proficiency in 
 music the means of placing himselt above want. 
 He went from town to town as an itinerant musi- 
 cian until he arrived at Vienna, where he met with 
 a nobleman who became his patron, and in whose 
 suite the young Gluck went to Italy, and became 
 the pupil of the renowned Padre Martini. Here 
 he was put upon the establishment of Prince 
 Melzi as composer, and before he returned to 
 Germany he produced several successful operas. 
 His fame had now spread so far beyond the city of 
 Milan, that in 1745 he was invited by the directors 
 of the king's theatre to come to London, where he 
 was to hold the situation of composer to that 
 establishment. His success in London was not 
 very decided. While in this situation he produced 
 his 'La Caduta dei Giganti,' and 'Artamene' 
 operas, and ' Piramo e lisbe' a pasticchio con- 
 sisting of selections from all his previous works. 
 After this Gluck went for a short time to Copen- 
 hagen, from whence he was invited to return to 
 Italy, where he produced his * Clemenza di Tito,' 
 ' Antigonus,' ' Clelia,' ' Baucis e Philemon,' and 
 ' Aristideo,' with varied success. He then went to 
 Vienna, where in connection with Signor Calzabigi, 
 an ingenious poet, he projected a new style of 
 operatic composition, and in 1764 produced his 
 ' Orfeo ' with the most complete success, ' Helen 
 of Paris,' and ' Alcesti,' speedily following. Gluck 
 now visited the principal cities of Italy, and when 
 at Naples was engaged to compose two operas. On 
 his return to Vienna he composed and produced 
 his ' Iphigenia in Aulide,' the libretto of which 
 was an adaptation of the text of Racine's Iphigenia. 
 The fame of this piece reached Paris, whither Gluck 
 was invited by the Academie Royale. On his ar- 
 rival at Paris, Marie Antoinette immediately be- 
 came his pupil and patron, and at her bidding the 
 Iphigenia was produced on the 19th of April, 1776, 
 under his own direction, and with the most trium- 
 
 f)hant success, notwithstanding the prejudice which 
 tad been fostered against it before its performance. 
 Immediately after this Paris was divided into two 
 bodies, Gluckistes and Piccinistes, the latter party 
 being the devoted admirers of Piccini the Italiar 
 composer, who was then rising into eminence ; but 
 though the musical war raged for a long time, 
 nevertheless, when the termination of hostilities 
 arrived the triumph of Gluck was complete. 
 Having composed two more operas, Gluck returned 
 to Vienna in 1779, and never after quitted that 
 city. In 1784 he was attacked by paralysis, under 
 which he suffered until 1787, when ne died, leaving 
 a fortune of j30,000, the fruits of his talents and 
 industry. The writer of the sketch of his life in 
 the Musical Library says ' The Chevalier Gluck 
 for he had received an order of knighthood was 
 a man of powerful mind, by means of which he 
 supplied the deficiencies of early education. He 
 reaa much, associated with literary and scientific 
 persons, and reflected deeply; hence, all his works 
 display an intellectuality not often found in the 
 productions of the lyric stage, which have preserved 
 them, and will continue to preserve them, while 
 
 275 
 
GLY 
 
 nearly all the compositions of his contemporaries 
 and rivals have sunk into oblivion.' [J.M.] 
 
 GLYCAS, Michael, a Greek historian, 12th 
 or 13th century, author of a universal history. 
 
 GLYNN, Robekt, an English poet, died 1800. 
 
 GMELIN, J. F., a German chemist, 1748-1804. 
 
 GMELIN, J. G., a German botanist, 1709-55. 
 
 GMELIN, S. T., nephew of the preceding, au- 
 thor of 'Travels through Russia,' &c, 1745-1774. 
 
 GMELIN, W. F., a Ger. engraver, 1745-1831. 
 
 GNEDITSCH, N., a Russian poet, 1784-1833. 
 
 GNEISENAU, Augustus, Count Neidhard 
 De, a Prussian officer, dist. at Waterloo, 1760-1832. 
 
 GOAD, John, a classical author, 1615-1689. 
 
 GOADBY, R., a miscellaneous writer, d. 1778. 
 
 GOAR, James, a learned Fr. monk, 1601-53. 
 
 GOB BO, Andrea, an Ital. painter, died 1527. 
 
 GOBBO, Pietro Paolo Bonzi, called II- 
 Gobbo, or Gobbo De Caracci, an Italian 
 painter, famous for his repres. of fruits, 1580-1640. 
 
 GOBEL, Jean Baptiste Joseph, a French 
 ecclesiastic, born 1727, deputy to the estates 
 general 1789, constitutional bishop of Paris, 1793, 
 executed with Anacharsis Cloots, Hebert, and 
 others, for his shameful endeavours to found the 
 social order of the republic upon atheism, 1794. 
 
 GOBELIN, Giles, an ingenious Frenchman, 
 famous as a dyer of scarlet in the reign of Francis 
 I., founder of the works where the admired Gobe- 
 lin tapestry has been produced, 17th century. 
 
 GOBERT, Napol., a French general, 1807-33. 
 
 GOBET, N., a Fr. historian, died about 1781. 
 
 GOCLENIUS, C., a German philol., 1485-1539. 
 
 GOCLENIUS, Rodolph, a German logician 
 and literary savant, 1547-1628. His son, of the 
 same name, a naturalist and writer on animal 
 magnetism, 1572-1621. 
 
 GODARD, J., a French poet, 1564-1625. 
 
 GODARD, J. B., a Fr. naturalist, 1775-1825. 
 
 GODDARD, Jon., an Eng. chemist, 1617-1674. 
 
 GODDARD, Rev.W. S., formerly master of Win- 
 chester school, of which he became a benefactor, and 
 late prebend, of St. Paul's and Salisb., 1757-1845. 
 
 GODEAU, A., a Fr. ecclesias. hist., 1605-1672. 
 
 GODEAU, M., a French religious au., d. 1736. 
 
 GODEBERT, a king of the Lombards, 661-662. 
 
 GODESCHALCUS, or GOTTESCHALCUS, 
 was by birth a Saxon, and was educated in a 
 monastery at Fulda. On arriving at manhood, he 
 struggled hard against a monastic life, but Rabanus 
 Maurus his future persecutor interfered, the influ- 
 ence of Louis the emperor was invoked against 
 him, and his early and unconscious consecration 
 as a monk by his father, was held to be an inviol- 
 able bond. On his subsequent removal to Orbais 
 in the diocese of Soissons he was ordained a pres- 
 byter, and we find him soon after travelling in 
 Italy and Dalmatia. He had already in retire- 
 ment drunk deep into the spirit of Augustine, and 
 he reproduced in a prominent form his views on 
 grace and predestination, especially in a discussion 
 before Notting, bishop of Verona. But violent 
 opposition was stirred up against him, and his 
 tenets were condemned by the Synod of Mentz in 
 a.d. 847. His fierce antagonist Rabanus Maurus 
 then sent him to Hincmar archbishop of Rheims, 
 to whose see the so-called heretic belonged. Hinc- 
 mar immediately arraigned him before the Synod 
 of Chiersey in 849, degraded him, scourged him 
 
 GOD 
 
 severely, and incarcerated him in the monastt 
 Hautevilliers in the diocese of Rheims, where 
 twenty-one years of confinement the noble cc 
 sor died. In his last illness the communioi 
 refused him, and his corpse was denied Chri 
 burial. The controversy raised by Gottescl 
 agitated the Romish Church for many ] 
 Prior to his polemical appearances, Gottesch] 
 for the brilliancy of his scholarship, had 
 named Fulgentius. That his enemies carica 
 his opinions is plain, but it is no less true tha 
 naked and extreme statements were liable to 
 conception, and unnecessarily stirred up preji 
 His long and shameful imprisonment never t 
 in the least his sincere attachment to the Av 
 tinian theology. (_. 
 
 [Armour of Godfrey of Bouillon.] 
 
 GODFREY of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain 
 first Christian king of Jerusalem, was hoi 
 Bezy, near Nivelle. He served while young 
 high distinction in the armies of the emperor 1 
 the IV. ; and, when near the close of the ete 
 century all western Europe was roused to 
 rescue of the Holy Land from the infidels, the 
 of Godfrey was high throughout Christendoi 
 piety and moral excellence, as well as for kni 
 prowess. He entered fervently into the 
 movement of his age, and was confessedly th< 
 in rank and worth among the chiefs of the 
 crusade. He not only signalized himself by y 
 among the valorous, and by enthusiasm amor 
 enthusiastic, but he showed also disinterested 
 probity, skill, and prudence, which were of all 
 and rarer order. He maintained the most_ 
 plete discipline among his division of the Chri 
 army, which he brought safely to the appc 
 muster-place beneath the walls of Constants 
 in the winter of 1096. By his sagacity and 
 ness, he prevented hostilities breaking out bel 
 the host of the crusaders and the Greek em] 
 Alexius Comnenus ; and, in the spring of 
 Godfrey led the Frankish nations into Asia ~b> 
 to the siege of the capital of the Turkish sul 1 
 Nice. This city was captured after a siefl 
 which the personal valour of Godfrey, as ti! 
 his generalship, was frequently displayed.' 
 
 276 
 
GOD 
 
 ivas tall, well-proportioned, and of such remarkable 
 trength and dexterity in the use of his weapons, 
 ihat lie is said in more than one encounter to 
 pave cloven his foe by a single sword-stroke from 
 jkull to centre. After Nice was captured, the 
 frusaders marched forward, and defeated a Turkish 
 jrmy in the great battle of Doryloeum. They 
 leached Antioch, in Syria, late in the winter of 
 )097. The city was captured after an obstinate 
 jasistance ; and the weakened army of the victors 
 iras in turn besieged in its walls by an innumerable 
 lost of the Mahommedans. After enduring much 
 [uffering and loss, Godfrey led the crusaders in a 
 Bidden sortie upon their enemies, which was com- 
 pletely victoriou s. The enthusiasm caused among the 
 Christian army by the supposed discovery of the relic 
 [f the Holy Lance, was one great cause of this suc- 
 ess. It was not till 1099 that the crusaders reached 
 erusalem; and their numbers were then reduced 
 y the sword and by disease to only 1,500 horse and 
 j0,000 foot fit for service. The Mahommedan garri- 
 pnwas far more numerous, and the city was formid- 
 ply strong. But the zeal of the crusaders was 
 |idomitable. After a siege of forty days, a suc- 
 Ijssful assault was made, and ' on a Friday, at three 
 ji the afternoon, the day and hour of the Passion, 
 odfrey of Bouillon stood victorious on the walls 
 Jerusalem ' (Gibbon). When the crusaders were 
 ited with carnage and pillage, they deliberated on 
 le important subject of choosing a ruler of their 
 inquest; and, with the universal consent of the as- 
 moly, Godfrey was hailed king of the Christian 
 ngdom of Jerusalem. He showed his humility and 
 ety by refusing to wear a golden diadem in the 
 ty where his Saviour had been crowned with 
 orns, and he desired to be called only Defender and 
 iron of the Holy Sepulchre. During his short 
 ign he gained several military advantages in the 
 !ld against the Mahommedans, especially at As- 
 lon, where he completely routed a large army 
 bich the sultan of Egypt had sent to reconquer 
 rusalem. Godfrey deserved still higher honour for 
 J exertions in establishing order and justice in his 
 minions, and in compiling a code of laws for his 
 bjects. Unhappily for the infant kingdom, he 
 3d within a year from his accession. {J^S-Cl 
 GODFREY, Sir Edmundury, an English 
 igistrate who exerted himself in the discovery of 
 e Popish Plot, and is supposed to have been 
 u-dered, being found dead 17th October, 1768. 
 GODFREY, Thomas, an American mathe- 
 itician, died 1749. His son, of the same name, 
 J earliest dramatic poet of America, 1736-1763. 
 GODFREY of Viterbo, an Italian ecclesi- 
 ;ic, author of annals entitled ' Pantheon,' 12th c. 
 GODIN, Louis, a Fr. astronomer, 1704-1760. 
 GODINOT, J., a French theologian, 1661-1749. 
 GODIVA, an English lady, wife of Leofric, earl 
 Leicester, in the reign of Edward the Confessor, 
 leb. in the legends of Coventry for riding naked 
 rough the streets to deliver the citizens from a tax. 
 GODOLPHIN, J., an English civilian, 17th ct. 
 GODOLPHIN, Sidney, earl of, lord high 
 Usurer of England under Queen Anne, d. 1712. 
 GODOLPHIN, Sydney, an Eng. poet, 1610-43. 
 
 >\TN, J., a French Hebraist, died 1700. 
 jOI)()ONOFF, Boris, czar of Moscow after 
 V murder of Demetrius, 1599, died 1605. 
 JODOY, Don Manuel, the celebrated 'Prince 
 
 GOD 
 
 of Peace,' originally a private soldier, rose to be 
 prime minister of Spain, 1764-1851. 
 
 GODWIN, earl of Kent, a powerful English 
 baron in the Saxon period, celebrated for his tur- 
 bulence and political intrigues, died 1053. 
 
 GODWIN, Mrs. See Wolstonecraft. 
 
 GODWIN, Thomas, an English prelate, suc- 
 cessively dean of Christ Church, dean of Canter- 
 bury, and bishop of Bath and Wells in the reign 
 of Elizabeth, 1517-1590. His son, Francis, suc- 
 cessively bishop of LlandafF and Hereford, and au. 
 of historical and antiquarian works, 1561-1633. 
 Morgan, son of the latter, also a churchman, 
 deprived as a royalist during the civil war, d. 1645. 
 
 GODWIN, Th., an English divine, 1587-1643. 
 
 GODWIN, William, was born in 1756, at 
 Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His father was a 
 dissenting minister ; and he himself, after having 
 completed his education in the college at Hoxton, 
 embraced the same profession, and preached for 
 some years to a congregation near London. About 
 1782 he abandoned the pulpit, his opinions having 
 undergone serious changes; and thenceforth he 
 strove to make a livelihood by authorship. In 
 1793 he became famous, or notorious, by the pub- 
 lication of his ' Inquiry concerning Political Jus- 
 tice.' This celebrated work, founded on the dream 
 of human perfectibility, is remarkable for that 
 combination of vigour with want of comprehen- 
 siveness and real profundity, which marked all its 
 author's writings. His crusade against the exist- 
 ing system of things in all its parts was next pro- 
 secuted in a more popular shape, and with singu- 
 lar force of passionate and descriptive eloquence, 
 in his novel of ' Caleb Williams.' Strongly demo- 
 cratic in political opinions, but gentle as well as 
 brave, he always protested against the bringing 
 about of social changes by force ; but, though he 
 kept sedulously aloof from the plots which, in 
 1794, exposed Home Tooke ana others of his 
 friends to prosecution for treason, he did them 
 good service by his pen. In 1797, he published 
 essays, moral and literary, under the title of ' The 
 Inquirer.' The same year he married Mary Wol- 
 stonecraft, in deference to the opinion of the world, 
 after having lived with her for some time in obedi- 
 ence to the opinion which he himself held in regard 
 to marriage, and which she had advocated in her 
 ' Vindication of the Rights of Women.' His wife 
 died in giving birth to a daughter, who became 
 Mrs. Shelley. By a subsequent marriage he had 
 a son, a young man of great promise, who died of 
 cholera in 1833. In 1799, Godwin published the 
 picturesque novel of ' Saint Leon,' his last work of 
 this kind that was worthy of his genius. ' Fleet- 
 wood,' published in 1804, and ' Mandeville,' in 
 1816, are much inferior ; and ' Cloudesley,' which 
 appeared in 1830, showed that the vein of self- 
 scrutiny on which his strength depended, had been 
 quite worked out. But, in 1803, he had entered 
 a new path in his 'Life of Chaucer,' which, though 
 wanting in unity and consecutive interest, is verj 
 instructive. For some time after this he attempted 
 business as a bookseller, and wrote a good many 
 school-books under the name of Baldwin. In 
 1815, he published his 'Lives of John and Edward 
 Phillips,' the nephews of Milton ; in 1820, he at- 
 tacked Malthus in his ' Treatise on Population ; ' 
 in 1828, he published the last of the four volumes 
 
 277 
 
GOE 
 
 of his heavy but valuable ' History of the Com- 
 monwealth ; ' in 1830, appeared his essays called 
 4 Thoughts on Man ; ' and in 1834, his ' Lives of 
 the Necromancers.' The poverty of his old age 
 was alleviated by an appointment from the minis- 
 try of Earl Grey. He died in 1836. [W.S.] 
 
 GOEBEL, G. W., a German jurist, 1683-1745. 
 
 GOEBEL, H. D., a Bavarian historian, 1717-71. 
 
 GOEBEL, J. H. E., a Prussian savant, 1732-95. 
 
 GOEBLER, J., a German historian, died 1567. 
 
 GOECKINGK, Leop. Fred. Gunther Von, 
 a Prus. poet of the school of Wieland, 1745-1828. 
 
 GOELIKE, A. 0., a Ger. med. hist., 1671-1744. 
 
 GOEREE, H. G., a Dutch theologian and phy- 
 sician, died about 1643. His son, William, au- 
 thor of a ' History of the Jewish Church,' an ' In- 
 troduction to the Art of Painting,' &c, 1635-1711. 
 John, the son of the latter, a distinguished pain- 
 ter, engraver, and poet, 1670-1711. 
 
 GOERTZ, George Henry, Baron, a German 
 statesman, minister of finance to Charles XII., 
 executed immediately after the king's death, 1719. 
 
 GOERTZ, John Eustace, Count De, a Prus- 
 sian diplomatist and political writer, 1737-1821. 
 
 GOES, H. Van Der, a Flemish painter, 15th c. 
 
 GOES, W. Van Der, a Dutch savant, 1611-86. 
 
 GOESCKEN, H., a Ger. philosopher, 1612-81. 
 
 GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang Von, is one 
 of the most celebrated names in European litera- 
 ture. It is the name of a poet who united, in an 
 extraordinary degree, power of imagination and 
 power of expression ; and who, not less remarkable 
 for versatility than for vigour, produced, by the 
 exertions of sixty years, works which exemplify, 
 in one shape or another, every possible form and 
 kind of poetry. Gothe holds, likewise, in the in- 
 tellectual history of Germany, the position of a 
 founder and inventor. His poems were almost the 
 earliest in the language that deserved wide cele- 
 brity ; they were, without exception, the first that 
 were fortunate enough to attain it. Nor have they 
 been more admired than imitated. To say nothing 
 of the influence they have exerted among ourselves 
 and elsewhere, nine-tenths of the poetry that has 
 been heard in Germany during the last seventy or 
 eighty years, have been little more than echoes 
 thrown back from that of Gothe. The fact is a 
 decisive testimony to the strength of his genius ; 
 yet it could not have occurred but for that close- 
 ness of sympathy with the spirit of his time, which 
 the poet felt in every stage of his progress. Each 
 of the most powerful impulses by which, in turn, 
 the social and intellectual life of Germany was 
 governed, found in him its earliest and also its 
 most striking representative ; and, while he inter- 
 preted the tendencies of the age with felicitous in- 
 tuition, and prefigured their results with wonder- 
 ful richness of imagination, he gained a firm hold 
 on popular feeling through that very coldness and 
 practicality of moral sentiment, which always kept 
 him, in an ethical point of view, on a level with 
 the world around him. He aimed sedulously at 
 purifying and elevating poetical art ; he never 
 aimed at making poetry the teacher of goodness. 
 If the noble-minded and impassioned Schiller often 
 embodied his lofty aspirations after truth and vir- 
 tue in a form too anxiously and openly didactic, 
 and if, even when he did not thus err, he imprinted 
 on bis pictures a character of austere melancholy 
 
 GOE 
 
 which repels the worldly and the careless ; yel 
 the other hand, Gothe assuredly violated hi 
 laws of his art, when he studiously avoided 
 indirect and suggestive teaching of goodness w 
 is the most sublime prerogative of poetry, 
 when he intrenched himself in a seeming tolen 
 which is really little else than sceptical indiffere 
 Gothe's father, a man in easy circumstai 
 was a citizen of Frankfort-on-the-Maine ; and t 
 the poet was born, on the 28th of August, 1 
 His hoyhood and youth thus fell into the pe 
 when Germany was excited by the seven y 
 war ; and when, in literature, the clear and e 
 getic Lessing was laying the foundations of p] 
 sophical criticism, inculcating intelligent res 
 and affection for the arts of design, and protes 
 against that slavish subservience to French i 
 which had long prevailed among German me 
 letters. Sickness in childhood cherished G61 
 native precocity; and his mind was devel< 
 with remarkable rapidity. Besides the com 
 branches of education, he busied himself 
 drawing, music, and natural history ; and a bo 
 poem on the scriptural history of Joseph, indie 
 at once his poetical inclinations, and the sei 
 direction which his thoughts then took. I 
 the breaking off of a youthful love affair, w 
 gave a name to the heroine of ' Faust,' and t 
 features to ' Wilhelm Meister,' he was sent tc 
 university of Leipzig to prepare himself for 
 legal profession. Law, however, was little attei 
 to ; and for speculative philosophy the young 
 contracted a disgust, which he did not seel 
 overcome in mature life, when Kant had be< 
 the guide of almost all the finer minds of his a 
 try. To classical studies, under the teachin 
 the correct and tasteful Ernesti, he paid mor< 
 tention. To his early French reading was 
 added some acquaintance with English literal 
 The discrepancies, however, between the diffe 
 poetical schools, which he was unable to reco: 
 by any critical theory that had yet been prese 
 to him, almost gave him a distaste even for po< 
 His inquisitive and doubting temper found not 
 food in the contemplation of the relations of 
 ciety, presented to him in no clearer fight 1 
 that which he derived from the French Encj 
 pedists ; and his mind had already taken its 
 liest steps in that course of thought and fee' 
 which, breaking out at first in rebellion agains 
 existing systems, led him by degrees to care 1 
 as to the truth or falsehood of any. Attei 
 were made at play-writing ; and the uneasy t 
 of mind, which he thus endeavoured to remov 
 giving vent to it, was allayed more effect nail' 
 the diversion of his thoughts to the study of 
 fine arts, in the works of Winckelmann and o 
 philosophical antiquaries. In 1768, he left Lei] 
 and resided for a while in the country, when 
 studied alchymy and chemistry, Paracelsus 
 Boerhaave, and sketched for himself a new : 
 gion, resting on a basis of mysticism or New-! 
 tonism. In Strasburg he nominally con 
 professional studies, taking his degree of do 
 in laws in 1771. The intimacy which he t 
 formed with Herder, worked beneficially hot! 
 his literary opinions and taste, and on hia vtfl 
 life. In 1773, he published ' Gotz of 
 gen with the Iron Hand,' a romantic play, wii 
 
 278 
 
GOE 
 
 ! prose, and cast in the flexible and irregular 
 bold of Shakspeare's dramatic histories. The 
 velty of the undertaking was as attractive as the 
 'ce of imagination with which it was performed; 
 Id, while every one was moved by the character 
 Id fate of the true-hearted Gotz, there was for 
 Bective minds a deep significance in the picture 
 lich was presented, (under the symbolic forms 
 feudalism,) of the destruction of the reign of 
 rce, and the rise of a new world ruled by reason 
 1 established order. Here, too, the poet, in the 
 multuous excitement of youth, poured forth his 
 lotions with an unrepressed and infectious en- 
 usiasm. Still more unreserved was the expres- 
 >n of despondent and rebellious feelings, in his 
 :nd work, ' The Sufferings of the Young Wer- 
 which appeared in 1774. In its design 
 itning more than a sentimental novel, and thus 
 fading for a popularity much wider than ' Gotz,' 
 JV'erter ' displayed domestic scenes so interesting, 
 Id described these with a pathos so profound and 
 I eloquence so flowing, that the hollowness of the 
 prality was overlooked, and the real insignificance 
 the events forgotten. The German language 
 jssessed as yet nothing comparable to either of 
 |e two works; their author himself never sur- 
 jssed the ' Gotz ; ' and, after the appearance of 
 hTerter,' Gothe was not only the most popular 
 iter of his day, but also the writer from whom 
 mpetent judges most confidently expected great 
 rformance in his maturity. His fame imme- 
 itely gained for him a position which enabled 
 n to devote his energies, without interruption or 
 piety, to literary study and invention. The 
 jportunities were used with zealous industry 
 jroughout the whole remainder of his long life ; 
 d his skill of art was developed with a success 
 wring in some degree for that narrowing of his 
 ~ ithies, which was caused by the artificial 
 phere of a petty court. The duchess of 
 xe- Weimar, left a widow in the infancy of her 
 a, the duke Karl-August, not only administered 
 sely the civil affairs of her little sovereignty, but 
 oceived the idea of making her miniature capital 
 e intellectual centre of Germany. In 1774, in 
 e course of his travels, the young duke made the 
 quaintance of Gothe; and, on his assuming 
 e government in 1775, the poet accepted the in- 
 ation he received to attach himself to the court 
 Weimar. Wieland, whose mental history was 
 some points not unlike that of Gothe, was al- 
 ftdy there, having been the prince's tutor; Herder 
 s added to the band in 1776 ; Schiller was after- 
 trds one of its members for a few years ; and 
 ber poets, and critics, and novelists, were 
 thered round these chiefs. Gothe was the 
 iding spirit of the group, even during the last 
 I of the eighteenth century, when these men 
 thers were constructing and guiding the 
 ure of all Germany ; and his supremacy be- 
 yet more absolute afterwards, when, for 
 sr generation, he stood alone, the last survivor 
 ace greater than the greatest of their suc- 
 s. He was ennobled, received honorary 
 illorships and other appointments, and had 
 wine share in the real business of the small 
 But, in the most active period of his life, 
 iost important office was that of theatrical 
 Dr. Journeying to Italy in 1786, he spent 
 
 279 
 
 GOE 
 
 two years in that country, which had much effect 
 on his opinions and sentiments. In 1792 he ac- 
 companied the duke on the campaign in France. 
 In 1806 he married. Not long afterwards he re- 
 tired from all active business; but in 1815 he was 
 obliged to take office as prime minister, which he 
 held till the death of his friend and patron the 
 grand duke in 1828. He died at Weimar on the 
 22d of March, 1833, energetic to the last, both in 
 body and in mind. For a dozen years after his 
 settlement at Weimar, he seemed to be reposing 
 on his quickly-won laurels. But he was very far 
 from being idle ; nor, in that later period in which 
 his most distinguished works successively ap- 
 
 1>eared, were these by any means the only fruits of his 
 abour. He wrote accounts of his travels in Swit- 
 zerland and Italy, and many critical and other 
 essays ; and, amidst an unceasing stream of small 
 poems few of them possessing much merit were 
 some exquisite ballads and other pieces of a lyrical 
 or reflective cast. For the stage of Weimar, like- 
 wise, he furnished many plays ; among which, as 
 having importance literary as well as theatrical, 
 may be named his prose tragedies of ' Egmont ' 
 and 4 Clavigo.' There still remain to be briefly 
 noticed the works on which his celebrity mainly rests. 
 The earliest of these were two dramas, which ap- 
 peared in 1787, and flowed from the twofold inspira- 
 tion of his residence in Italy. The ' Iphigema in 
 Tauris' is a modern echo, finely and originally 
 modulated, of the classical antique; the 'Tasso' 
 is a realization of the fluttering spirit of romance 
 which lingered in the courts and society of Italy 
 when the realities of the middle ages had passed 
 away. None of Gothe's works are so admirable 
 as these two for skill of art ; none are more exqui- 
 site in ideal beauty of imagery ; none are so cha- 
 racteristically illustrative of the desire he always 
 felt to attain, though it were by the sacrifice of 
 sternly solemn truths, a placid and meditative har- 
 mony of feeling. In 1795 appeared the first part 
 (' The Apprentice-Years ') of his novel ' Wilhehn 
 Meister.' It is one of the most poetical, and the 
 Germans hold it to be also the most philosophical, 
 of all prose romances. Its philosophy, like its 
 slippery morality, must here be left untouched. Its 
 introduction of criticisms on literature and art was 
 eagerly emulated, giving birth to those 'Art 
 Novels,' the breed of which has been propagated to 
 our own day. The poet's fame rose to its zenith 
 in 1798, on the publication of his world-renowned 
 ' Faust.' It is easy to feel, or rather it is impos- 
 sible not to feel, the singular poetic beauty of this 
 wonderful poem, its unsurpassed felicities of 
 imagery ana diction, and the impressiveness of the 
 despondent melancholy which is the ruling temper 
 of the whole. Philosophically considered, the 
 1 Faust ' is a propounding of the enigma of human 
 life, with a refusal to accept, from religion, its only 
 possible solution. In the same year, in ' Hermann 
 and Dorothea,' Gothe attempted, as others had 
 before him, at once to naturalize the classical hex- 
 ameter in his native tongue, and to give epic form 
 to a narrative of familiar life. At this point the 
 series of the poet's great works may be said to 
 close. There next occurred a long interval, marked 
 by nothing of distinguished note. The appearance, 
 in 1810, of the notorious novel of the ' Wahlver- 
 wandschaften ' (Elective Affinities), while as- 
 
GOE 
 
 suredly it denoted a falling off in creative genius, 
 betrayed as clearly a settled declension of moral 
 sentiment. The epicureanism in which the poet 
 now found repose, was worse than the sceptical 
 spirit of resistance which had disturbed his aspiring 
 youth. In 1811 he published his interesting 
 autobiography called ' Poetry and Truth,' (Dich- 
 tung und Walirheit). His countrymen place much 
 value on the collection of lyrics entitled the' West- 
 bstlicher Divan,' which appeared in 1819, but 
 seems to have been written much earlier. In 1821 
 'Wilhelm Meister' was completed by the second 
 part, the 'Years of Wandering' (Wanderjahre). 
 After this, Gothe's only sustained effort in poetry 
 was the second part of ' Faust,' which was under 
 his hands till the close of his life. None but his most 
 bigotted disciples have ventured to pronounce it in 
 any respect worthy of a great poet. During the 
 last few years of his old age, his favourite employ- 
 ments were some of the physical sciences both in 
 vegetable physiology, and in optics, he published 
 speculations whicli scientific men have thought 
 worthy of notice. [W.S.] 
 
 GOETTLING, J. F., a Ger. chemist, 1755-1809. 
 
 GOETZ or GOEZ, Andrew, a German philo- 
 logist, author of 'Introduction to Ancient Geo- 
 graphy,' ' Index of the Lat. tongue,' &c, 1698-1780. 
 
 GOETZ or GOEZ, Zacharie, a German 
 theologico-philosopher, author of 'Disputatio de 
 Hierarchiis Angelorum,' 1662-1705. 
 
 GOETZ, J. N., a German poet, 1721-1781. 
 
 GOETZE, G. H., a Ger. theologian, 1668-1728. 
 
 GOETZE, John Augustus Ephraim, a cele- 
 brated German naturalist and theologian, 1731- 
 1793. His brother, John Melchior, a protes- 
 tant controversialist, 1717-1786. 
 
 GOETZE, J. Ch., a Ger. bibliopole, 1692-1749. 
 
 GOEZ, Damien De, a Portug. wr., 1501-1560. 
 
 GOFF, Thos., au. of Sermons, &c, d. 1629. 
 
 GOGUET, Anthony Yves, a learned French 
 writer, author of a work in high repute on the 
 origin and progress of knowledge, 1716-1758. 
 
 GOHORRY, J., a French agriculturist, d. 1576. 
 
 GOIFFON, J. B., a French botanist, 1658-1730. 
 
 GOIFFON, J., a French astronomer, d. 1751. 
 
 GOLDING, Arthur, an English poet and 
 classical translator, 16th century. 
 
 GOLDMAYER, A., a Ger. astronom., 1603-64. 
 
 GOLDONI, Carlo, a dramatic writer and 
 reformer of the Italian stage, 1707-1792. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, F., a Latin translator, 17th ct. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Lewis, an English Jew, author 
 of the ' Crimes of Cabinets,' and afterwards a hire- 
 ling writer against Buonaparte, born 1763. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Oliver, the son of an Irish 
 curate, was born in the county of Longford in 
 1728. Lissoy, in his native parish of Formey, is 
 said to have been the original of his ' Sweet Au- 
 burn.' The assistance of an uncle enabled him in 
 1744 to enter at Trinity College, Dublin, where he 
 was idle and extravagant, and probably ill-used. 
 He is said to have applied unsuccessfully for ordi- 
 nation, and to have been for some time a family tu- 
 tor. He threw away in a gaming-house the money 
 which his uncle had given him to aid in his study 
 of law ; but the same kind relative enabled him to 
 become a student of medicine in Edinburgh, where 
 he spent two years from the close of 1752, after- 
 wards passing a year at Leyden. He next took a 
 
 GOL 
 
 pedestrian tour of twelve months on the i 
 tinent, travelling as far as the north of Italy ; 
 before or after this he was an usher in a scl 
 Both of these experiences he has described in 
 
 [Goldsmith' a [louse at Lissoy.] 
 
 famous novel. In 1756 he came to London, 
 attempted medical practice in a humble way, ' 
 small knowledge and no success ; and, on sub 
 ting to examination at the College of Surgeon 
 qualify him for an appointment abroad, he 
 rejected as insufficiently informed. He had 
 ready been writing for the booksellers ; and 
 thorship now became perforce his only meai 
 livelihood. He drudged for the Monthly 
 Critical Reviews, and for other periodicals; 
 compiled his well-written ' Histories of Greece 
 Rome,' and his ' History of the Earth and '. 
 mated Nature.' It was in the intervals of 
 toils that he produced those original works, w 
 made him both in prose and verse, one of 
 classics of English literature. In 1761 he w 
 while in confinement for debt, his inimii 
 'Vicar of Wakefield;' and soon afterwards 
 peared ' The Citizen of the World.' ' The ' 
 veller,' which had been partly written abi 
 and the beautiful ballad of 'The Hermit,' ' 
 published in 1765. The former of these p< 
 gave him great and deserved fame as a descri] 
 poet, which was increased in 1769 by the pub 
 tion of ' The Deserted Village.' He became 
 more popular as a play-writer. His corned 
 'The Good-Natured Man,' which was acte< 
 1768, did not succeed greatly on the stage, 
 was highly esteemed by Johnson and other cri 
 and ' She Stoops to Conquer,' appearing in 1 
 was received with universal applause. The 
 thor survived this brilliant success but a t 
 time, and profited very little by the wealth w 
 was now accruing to him. Industrious througl 
 cessity, he was indolent by temperament : he 
 careless and improvident in money matters, eqi 
 ready to squander his painfully-earned gains al 
 gaming-table, or to spend them in charity. Ge 
 amiable, and good-hearted, he was also irreso 
 vain, and capricious ; and, while Johnson anc 
 other literary friends did not estimate hi 
 enough his line genius, his conduct gave t 
 much excuse for treating him, as they did, HI 
 favourite and petted child. He died 1774. [W 
 GOLIKOFF, Iwan, a Rus. histor., 1735-1 
 
 280 
 
 ^4 
 
GOL 
 
 GOLIUS, James, a Dutch Orientalist, author 
 of an Arabic lexicon, a Persian dictionary, a his- 
 tory of the Saracens, &c.^ 1596-1667. His brother, 
 IPeter, an Oriental scholar and missionary, d. 1673. 
 : GOLIUS, Theophilus, a Gr. scholar, d. 1600. 
 I GOLTZ, Henry, a German painter, 1558-1617. 
 I GOLTZIUS, Hub., a Dutch antiq., 1526-1583. 
 I GOMAR, Francis, a protestant divine of Hol- 
 land, chief of the sect of Gomarites, or anti-remon- 
 strants, who were opposed to Arminius, 1563-1609. 
 : GOMARA, F. L. De, a Sp. eccles. hist., 16th c. 
 
 GOMERSALL, R., an English dram., 1600-46. 
 
 GONDEBAND, king of Burgundy, 491-516. 
 
 GONDEBAND, king of Austrasia, 584. 
 
 GONDEMAR, king of Burgundy, 528-532. 
 
 GONDEMAR, king of the Visigoths, 610-612. 
 
 GONDERIC, kins of the Vandals, 411-428. 
 
 GONET, J. B, a French theologian, 1616-1681. 
 
 GONGORA-Y-ARGOTE, Luis, a Spanish 
 icclesiastic and poet, whose works were imitated 
 n the earliest German romances, 1561-1627. 
 i GONSALVO, Fernando, hereditary count of 
 Castile, and a disting. warrior, flourished 924-960. 
 | GONSALVO, M., a Span, heretic, burnt 1374. 
 
 GONSALVO of Cordova, or GONZALO- 
 RERNANDEZ-Y-AGUILAR, a Spanish warrior, 
 listing, against the Moors in Spain and the Fr. in 
 Naples, and called the great captain, 1443-1515. 
 
 GONTHAN, a king of Burgundy, 561-593. 
 
 GONTHIER, a German poet, 13th century. 
 
 GONTHIER, J., a Ger. anatomist, 1487-1574. 
 
 GOOCH, B., an English wr. on surgery, last ct. 
 
 GOOD, John Mason, an English physician 
 nd author, distinguished for his skill in the an- 
 ient, Oriental, and European languages, for his 
 ranslations and original works, and his numerous 
 ontributions to magazine literature, 1764-1827. 
 
 GOODAL, W., a Scotch antiquary, 1706-1766. 
 
 GOODMAN, Christopher, a Scottish refor- 
 ler and coadjutor of John Knox, abt. 1520-1602. 
 
 GOODMAN, G., an English prelate and theol., 
 oted as a convert to the Romish Church, 1583-1655. 
 
 GOODRICH, Thomas, bishop of Ely, distin- 
 uished as a statesman and zealous promoter of 
 tie reformation, died 1554. 
 
 GOODWIN, Fr., an English architect, d. 1835. 
 
 GOODWIN, John, an English republican and 
 reacher, an. of ' Redemption Redeemed,' 1633-65. 
 
 GOODWIN, Th., a Calvinist divine, 1600-1679. 
 
 GOOGE, B., an Eng. poet and translator, 16th c. 
 
 GOOL, John Van, a Dutch paint., 1685-1757. 
 
 GORAN, a king of Scotland, reigned 501-535. 
 
 GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of 
 iree Roman emperors, the Jirst, or elder, Marcus 
 JJTonius Africanus, descended from Trajan, 
 reclaimed while proconsul in Africa, along with 
 is son, who, being of the same name, is known 
 J Gordian the Younger. The latter was killed 
 action, upon hearing of which Gordianus 
 ie Elder strangled himself. The third of the 
 ime, Marcus Antoninus Pius Gordianus, 
 as a grandson of the preceding, and was procl. 
 np. after their death, and murdered after a reign 
 
 six years, in the twentieth year of his age, 244. 
 
 GOR] >ON, Alex., a Scotch antiquarian, d. 1750. 
 I GORDON, And., a Scottish exper. philosopher, 
 pown for his discoveries in electricity, 1712-1751. 
 
 GORDON, Benj., a Fr. medical author, 13th c. 
 (GORDON, Loud George, son of Cosmo 
 
 GOU 
 
 George, duke of Gordon, distinguished as a poli- 
 tical character towards the close of the last cen- 
 tury, and noted for his arrest on a charge of high 
 treason, in consequence of the riots provoked by 
 his assemblies of the people to oppose the catholic 
 relief bill, born 1750, died in prison, 1793. 
 
 GORDON, James, a Scotch Jesuit and theo- 
 logian, distinguished for his zeal in making con- 
 verts, 1543-1620. Another of the same name, au. 
 of biblical commentaries and hist, works, 1553-1641. 
 
 GORDON, R., a Scotch geographer, died 1650. 
 
 GORDON, Th., a Scotch pamphleteer, d. 1750. 
 
 GORDON, W., an independent minister settled 
 in America, and a promoter of its independence, 
 of which he became the historian, 1729-1807. 
 
 GORDON, W., an English physician and phil- 
 anthropist, distinguished as an advocate of free 
 trade, and other popular movements, 1801-1849. 
 
 GORE, Christoph., an American diplomatist, 
 governor of the state of Massachusets, 1758-1827. 
 
 GORE, Sir J., a naval officer, died 1836. 
 
 GORE, Th., a writer on heraldry, 1631-1684. 
 
 GORGIAS, a Greek sophist, 5th century b.c. 
 
 GORI, G. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1691-1757. 
 
 GORLiEUS,A.,aFlem.numismatist,1549-1609. 
 
 GORSAS, A. J., a Fr. political wr. and member 
 of the convention, exec, with the Girondins, 1793. 
 
 GOSELINI, J., an Italian historian, 1525-1587. 
 
 GOSSEC, Fr., a French composer, 1734-1829. 
 
 GOSSELIN, Anth., a Fr. historian, 1580-1645. 
 
 GOSSELIN, J., a French astronomer, d. 1604. 
 
 GOSSELIN, P., a French mathematician, 16th c. 
 
 GOSSELIN, Pascal Fr. Joseph, a French 
 geographer, archaeologist, and statesm., 1751-1830. 
 
 GOSSELIN, W., a French arithmetician, d. 1590. 
 
 GOSSIN, P. F., a French republican, exec. 1794. 
 
 GOSSON, Stephen, a minister of the Church 
 of England, author of several dramas, 1554-1623. 
 
 GOSTLING, W., an Eng. antiquarian, 1705-77. 
 
 GOTH, Stephen, archbishop of Upsala, author 
 of a new liturgy designed to Romanize the Lu- 
 theran church of Sweden, published 1576. 
 
 GOTHOFRED, Denis, a French Huguenot 
 and jurisconsult, author of 'Corpus Juris Civilis,' 
 1549-1622. His son, Theodore, historiographer 
 royal, author of an ' Account of the Ceremonial of 
 the Kings of France,' 1580-1649. Denis, son of 
 the latter, and his successor hi office, author of 
 'Memoirs of Philip de Commines,' &c.,' 1615-81. 
 
 GOTTSCHED, J., a Ger. philosoph., 1668-1704. 
 
 GOTTSCHED, John Christopher, a Ger- 
 man dramatist and literary savant, professor of 
 logic, philosophy, and metaphysics, at Leipzig, 
 1700-1766. His wife, Louisa Maria, distin- 
 guished by her splendid literary talents, d. 1762. 
 
 GOTTWALD, Ch., a Ger. naturalist, 1636-1713. 
 
 GOUAN, Ant., a French botanist, 1733-1821. 
 
 GOUFFIER, L., a Fr. naval com., 1648-1734. 
 
 GOUFFIER, Marie Gabriel Auguste Lau- 
 rent, Count De Choiseul, a French ambassador, 
 and author of Travels in Greece, distinguished 
 for his cultivation of the fine arts, 1752-1817. 
 
 GOUGE, F. S., a French poet, born 1724. 
 
 GOUGE, J., an adventurer, who was proclaimed 
 king of France by the armed bands which he com- 
 manded on the banks of the Rhone, 1361. 
 
 GOUGE, William, an Eng. puritan, and au. of 
 biblical commentaries, 1575-1653. His son, Tho- 
 mas, also a clergyman and religious wr., 1605-81. 
 
 281 
 
GOU 
 
 GOUGES, Marie Olympe De, a French lady, 
 authoress of some dramatic pieces, executed for 
 her attacks on Marat and Robespierre 1794. 
 
 GOUGH, Richard, an eminent antiquarian, au. 
 of ' The Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain,' 
 1 Hist, of the Soc. of Antiquaries,' &c, 1735-1809. 
 
 GOUJET, Cl. P., a French savant, 1697-1767. 
 
 GOUJON, J., a French sculptor and architect, 
 killed at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. 
 
 GOUJON, J. M. C. A., a Fr. repub., 1766-1795. 
 
 GOULART, S., a French historian, 1543-1628. 
 
 GOULSTON, GOULSON, or GULSON, Th., 
 an Eng. physic, and au. of learned works, d. 1632. 
 
 GOURGAND, Gaspard, a eel. French general, 
 disting. for his devotion to Napoleon, 1783-1852. 
 
 GOUSSET, J., a French Hebraist, 1635-1704. 
 
 GOUVEA, A. De, a learned Portuguese, 14th c. 
 
 GOUVION-ST.-CYR, Laurence, a general 
 and marshal of France, distinguished in the cam- 
 
 Saign on the Rhine 1795 ; and under Moreau and 
 oubert, in the campaign of Italy. After the fall 
 of Napoleon he was made a peer of France, and 
 served as minister of war. The latter years of his 
 life were occupied in the composition of his 
 several memoirs; died 1830. 
 
 GOW, Neil, was born in Strathband, Perth- 
 shire, of humble but honest parents, in the year 
 1727. His taste for music was early decided. At 
 the age of nine he began to play, and was, it is 
 said, self-taught, till about his thirteenth year, 
 when he received some instruction from John 
 Cameron, an attendant on Sir George Stewart 
 of Grandtully. A trial of skill having been 
 proposed, Neil was persuaded to enter the lists, 
 and one of the minstrels, who was blind, being 
 made the umpire, the prize was adjudged 
 to Neil Gow, by a sentence in the justice of 
 which the other competitors cheerfully acqui- 
 esced. Having now attained the summit of his 
 profession at home, the distinguished patronage, 
 first of the Athole family, and afterwards of the 
 duchess of Gordon, soon introduced him to the no- 
 tice and admiration of the fashionable world. From 
 this period, Gow was unrivalled in his department of 
 Scotch national music. The different publications 
 which have appeared under the name of Neil Gow, 
 and which contain not only his sets of the older tunes, 
 but various occasional airs of his own composition, 
 are striking specimens of feeling and power of em- 
 bellishment. These were set and prepared for pub- 
 lication by his son Nathaniel, whose respectable 
 character and propriety of conduct secured for him 
 the esteem and favour of the public. In private 
 life, Neil Gow was distinguished by a sound vigor- 
 ous understanding, by a singularly acute penetra- 
 tion into the character of those, both in the higher 
 and lower spheres of society, with whom he had 
 intercourse, and by the conciliating and appropriate 
 accommodation of his remarks and replies, to the 
 
 Eeculiarities of their station and temper. Though 
 e had raised himself to independent and affluent 
 circumstances in his old age, he continued free from 
 every appearance of vanity and ostentation. He 
 maintained to the last the same plain unassuming 
 simplicity in his carriage, his dress, and his manners 
 which he had observed in his early and more ob- 
 scure years. He died at Inver, near Dunkeld, in 
 1807. Besides his son Nathaniel, he left another 
 (John), who long resided in London, and who in- 
 
 GRA 
 
 herited much of his father's musical taste ! 
 power of execution. Two other sons of eq 
 eminent musical talent (William and Andre- 
 died a few years before their father, but not 
 they had established their reputation as true 
 scendants of famous Neil. [J.] 
 
 GOWER, John, an English poet, died 1402, 
 GOWER, R. H., a eel. ship-builder, died 184 
 GOYEN, J. Van, a Dutch painter, 1596-16J 
 GOZZI, Gaspar, an Italian poet, 1713-17 
 His brother, Charles, a dramatic wr., 1702-18 
 GRABE, J. E., a Germ, theologian, 1660-17 
 GRABERG, Olave, a protestant theologiai 
 Sweden, au. of ' Thoughts on the Bible,' 17i6-l 
 GRACCHI. The Gracchi, so often mentioi 
 in Roman history, were the two sons of Tib. Se 
 pronius Gracchus and Cornelia, the daughter 
 Scipio Africanus, the elder. Gracchus, who 1 
 been twice consul, and had obtained two triumr. 
 died while his sons were yet young, and Conn 
 devoted herself exclusively to the charge and a 
 cation of her children. Under her maternal gu 
 ance, aided by the best Greek masters, they si 
 surpassed in accomplishments all the Ron 
 youths of the time. 1. Tib. Sempronius Grj 
 chus, the elder of the two, was born b.c. 1 
 Scipio Africanus the younger had married his o 
 sister ; and when he entered upon the commi 
 of the army against Carthage, Tiberius accc 
 panied him, and was present at the dcstructioi 
 that renowned city. Nine years after he 
 companied the consul Mancinus as quaestor 
 Spam, where, by his integrity and disinterest 
 ness, he gained the esteem of the enemy as wel 
 the affections of the Roman soldiers. When 
 Roman army under Mancinus was defeated by 
 Numantines (b.c. 137), Tiberius succeeded in effi 
 ing a treaty on reasonable terms, which, howei 
 the senate refused to ratify. Tiberius, notwi 
 standing, reaped the glory of having saved 20,1 
 men from destruction, and the people rewar 
 his services with affection and gratitude. Dur 
 the long wars in which the Romans had been i 
 gaged, many encroachments had been made 
 the public domains ; the nobles had obtained p 
 session of extensive tracts, which were cultiva 
 by foreign slaves ; and the poorer classes of 1 
 man citizens, being thus thrown out of employme 
 were reduced to a state of pauperism. Tiberi 
 sympathizing with the privations of the poor, 
 solved to revive the Licinian law, which dehi 
 the extent of public land tenable by any citiz 
 With this view he was elected tribune of the peo 
 in b.c. 133, and, in the face of unscrupulous opi 
 sition on the part of the nobility, carried a 1 
 similar to that of Licinius. Tiberius himself, 
 brother Caius, and his father-in-law, App 
 Claudius, were appointed commissioners for m 
 suring and distributing the land. At this crisis 
 affairs, Attalus, king of Pergamus, died, bequea 
 ing his kingdom and treasure to the Roman peo] 
 and Tiberius proposed to divide the treasure am< 
 the recipients of the land under the new law, 
 enable them to stock their farms. This propo 
 raised the indignation of the nobles to a 8 
 higher pitch. To prevent his law from being al 
 lished, and also to secure his person against iini 
 nent danger, he resolved to offer himself a candid 
 for the tribuneship of the following year. On 1 
 
 282 
 
GRA 
 
 iy of election, his opponents demurred to his eli- 
 bility, and night intervened before the question 
 as decided. Next morning both parties presented 
 lemselves at the capitol in readiness for acts of 
 olence; the senators were resolved to kill Tibe- 
 us, and his own partizans were prepared to de- 
 nd him. Hereupon Scipio Nasica, after in vain 
 > Idling upon the consul to defend the state, rushed 
 !om the temple of Faith, where the senate had 
 iUembled, followed by the nobility, overawed the 
 i lob, seized their weapons, and killed about three 
 fpndred, of whom Tiberius Gracchus was one, 
 *lo. 133. Thus perished one of the truest Roman 
 I atriots, whose memory has only in recent times 
 I ten freed from the odium which centuries of mis- ' 
 | {presentation had heaped upon it. 2. Caius 
 Impronius Gracchus was nine years younger 
 Tiberius; and at the time of his brother's 
 was in the army of Scipio Africanus in Spain, 
 fate of his brother seems to have deterred him 
 acting as a commissioner under the agrarian 
 or from taking any prominent part in public 
 till b.c. 123. Returning then from Sar- 
 where he had served two years as quaestor, 
 was elected tribune of the people, and com- 
 ced a career which speedily led to a fatal 
 "usion. The measures which he proposed were 
 ly vindictive and partly intended to establish 
 own popularity ; of the latter class was a poor- 
 authorizing a monthly distribution of corn to 
 le at a merely nominal price ; the effect 
 f which was to make the population of Rome 
 lupers, and to attract the poor and indolent from 
 I parts of Italy. Caius next directed his efforts 
 rainst the power of the senate, deprived them of 
 |e right of electing the judges from their own 
 kmber, transferring it to the equites, and passed 
 Jlaw enacting that the provinces of the consuls 
 id praetors should be fixed before the election of 
 jese magistrates. Being re-elected to the tribune- 
 lip of the following year, he was chiefly employed 
 I passing laws respecting the colonies, and him- 
 flf established a colony on the ruins of Carthage, 
 per the expiry of his period of office, he united 
 tth the tribune Fulvius in inciting the populace 
 I acts of violence, which led the senate to arm 
 le consul Opimius with absolute power. The 
 jnsul summoned Gracchus and Fulvius before 
 b to answer for their conduct ; and, after some 
 Itempts at negotiation, attacked and dispersed 
 e popular party. Gracchus, who had taken no 
 rt in the struggle, fled across the Tiber, and en- 
 ring a grove sacred to the Furies, ordered his 
 ve to kdl him. He thu3 perished, b.c. 121, at 
 e age of thirty-three. [G.F.] 
 
 GRACIAN, B., a Spanish author, 1584-1658. 
 GRACIAN, J., a Flemish theolog., 1545-1614. 
 GRADE NIJO, the Jurat of the name doge of Ve- 
 ce 1289-1311; the second, 1339-43; the third, 
 ho terminated the war with Genoa, 1355-1356. 
 GRADENIJO. J. A., a Venet. prelate, 1744-74. 
 GRANDENIJO, J. J., a Ven. prelate, 1708-86. 
 GRADI, J., a learned writer, 16th century. 
 GRADI, Stephen, an Ital. philologist, d. 1683. 
 ''!: : ME, John, a Scotch poet, 1748-1772. 
 ORJSTER, F. D., a Prus. savant, 1768-1830. 
 GRjEVIUS, J. G., a German critic, 1632-1703. 
 GRAFTON, R., an English annalist, 16th cent. 
 GRAFTON, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, duke 
 
 283 
 
 GRA 
 
 of, prime minister from 1765-1770, disting. also 
 as a theolog. wr. on Socinian principles, 1736-1811. 
 GRAFUNDER, D., a Pruss. Oriental., d. 1680. 
 GRAHAM, George, an ingenious watchmaker, 
 and mechanician, celebrated for the accuracy of 
 his astronomical instruments, 1675-1751. 
 
 GRAHAM, John, of Claverhouse, was horn in 
 1650. In early life he served as a soldier of fortune 
 in France and Holland, but returning to Scotland 
 in 1677, he was appointed commander of the ca- 
 valry acting against the Covenanters, in that dis- 
 turbed country ; and the energetic manner in which 
 he executed the duty has caused his name to be 
 all but execrated by the Scottish people ; yet Sir 
 Walter Scott has pourtrayed him as a thorough 
 soldier and gentleman, He was created Viscount 
 Dundee. Killed at Killiecrankie 1689. 
 
 GRAHAM, Sir John, the comp.-in-arms of Sir 
 William Wallace, k. at the battle of Falkirk 1298. 
 GRAHAM, Sir Rich., Lord Viscount Preston, 
 ambass. from Charles II. to Louis XIV., 1648-95. 
 GRAHAME, James, a religious poet of Scot- 
 land, author of 'The Sabbath,' &c, 1765-1811. 
 
 GRAINGER, James, a Scotch physician set- 
 tled in London, known as a poet, 1723-1767. 
 GRAMAYE, J. B., a Flem. historian, d. 1635. 
 GRAMBERG, A., a German poet, 1772-1816. 
 GRAMBERG, C. P. W., a German Oriental 
 scholar and literary savant, 1797-1822. 
 
 GRAMM, John, a Danish antiqu., 1685-1748. 
 GRAMMONT, A. P. De, a French officer, dis- 
 tinguished at the battle of Malplaquet 1709, and 
 after that archbishop of Besancon, 1685-1754. 
 GRAMMONT, F.J. De, abp. of Besancon,d.l715. 
 GRAMMONT, N. De, a Fr. gen., exec. 1794. 
 GRAMMONT, or GRAMOND, Gabriel De 
 Barthelemy, Seigneur De, a Fr. hist., d. 1654. 
 GRAMONT, the name of an illustrious French 
 family, the best known of whom are Gabriel, 
 a cardinal and diplomatist, time of Louis XII. 
 and Francis I., died 1534. Anthony, duke of 
 Gramont, marshal of France and viceroy of Na- 
 varre, author of 'Memoirs,' died 1678. Ar- 
 mand, son of the latter, and Count de Guiche, 
 whose ' Memoirs ' also exist, 1638-1674. Phili- 
 bert, count de Gramont, son of Anthony, known 
 by his memoirs, written by his brother-in-law, 
 Anthony, Count Hamilton, died 1720. Anthony, 
 duke de Gramont, a French marshal and ambas- 
 sador, known as count de Guiche, 1671-1725. 
 Louis, duke de Gramont, lost the battle of Det- 
 tingen, and was killed at Fontenoi 1745. The 
 last duke of Gramont, father of the duke of 
 Guiche and the countesses of Tankerville and 
 Sebastiani, died 1836. 
 GRAMONT, S. De, a Provencal poet, d. 1638. 
 GRAN, Olave S., a Swed. missionary, 17th c. 
 GRANBY, John Manners, marquis of, an 
 English general, eldest son of the duke of Rutland, 
 distinguished in the seven years' war, 1720-1770. 
 
 GRANCOLAS, J., a French savant, author of 
 many works on eccl. rites, ceremonies, and general 
 history, and a controversial wr. on Quietism, d. 1732. 
 GRANDET, J., a Fr. biographer, 1646-1724. 
 GRANDI, G., an Ital. mathemat., 1671-1742. 
 GRANDIDIER, P. A., a Fr. historian, 1732-87. 
 GRANET, Fr., a French critic, 1692-1741. 
 GRANGE, Joseph De Chancel De La, a 
 French dramatic wr. and miscel. poet, 1675-1758. 
 
GRA 
 
 GRANGENEUVE, J. A., a French republican 
 of the Girondin party, born 1750, executed 1793. 
 
 GRANGER, J., an Engl, biographi. wr., 1776. 
 
 GRANGIER, B., a French poet, 16th century. 
 
 GRANGIER, J., a French samnt, died 1643. 
 
 GRANT, Anne, formerly Miss M'Vicar, and 
 commonly called Mrs. Grant of Laggan, from a 
 farm she cultivated in that neighbourhood, dis- 
 tinguished as a miscellaneous writer, authoress of 
 ' Memoirs of an American Lady,' ' Essays on the 
 Superstitions of the Highlands,' &c, 1755-1838. 
 
 GRANT, Charles, a proprietor and director 
 of the East India Company, author of ' Observa- 
 tions on the State of Society among the Asiatic 
 Subjects of Great Britain,' 1746-1822. 
 
 GRANT, Sin C, a British officer, died 1835. 
 
 GRANT, Edwaf.d, an English writer, d. 1601. 
 
 GRANT, Francis, Lord Cullen, an eminent 
 Scottish lawyer and judge, 1660-1726. 
 
 GRANT, J., a Scot, barrister, au. of ' Thoughts 
 on the Origin of the Gael,' &c, 1743-1835. 
 
 GRANT, Patrick, a Scot, judge, 1698-1764. 
 
 GRANT, Sir Wm., an eminent equity judge, 
 master of the rolls from 1801 to 1817, 1754-1832. 
 
 GRANUELLE, Anthony Perrenot, Cardi- 
 nal De, a distinguished French statesman, and 
 viceroy of Naples, 1517-1586. 
 
 GRANVILLE, GREENVILE, or GREN- 
 VILLE, Sir Richard, a military and naval ad- 
 venturer, killed in action under Sir Thomas 
 Howard, 1591. Sir Bevil, his grandson, a 
 royalist, and commander of a troop of horse raised 
 at his own expense, killed at the battle of Lans- 
 downe, 1596-1643. George, Lord Lansdowne, 
 grandson of the latter, a poet and courtier, 1667- 
 1735. See Carteret, Grenville. 
 
 GRAPALDI, F. M., an Italian poet, 15th cent. 
 
 GRATIAN, a canonist of the 12th century. 
 
 GRATIANUS, an emperor of Rome, born 359, 
 associated in the empire with his younger brother, 
 Valentinian II., 375, assassinated 383. A private 
 soldier of this name was proclaimed emperor in 
 Britain, and put to death four months aftwd., in 407. 
 
 GRATIUS, a Roman poet, 1st century b.c. 
 
 GRATIUS, O., a controversial writer, 16th ct. 
 
 GRATTAN, Henry, an Irish statesman and 
 lawyer, was born in Dublin about the year 1750. 
 He was called to the Irish bar in 1772 ; and hav- 
 ing attached himself to Lord Charlemont, he ob- 
 tained, by the powerful influence of that aristo- 
 cratic national leader, a seat in the Irish parliament 
 in 1775. His fiery eloquence, essentially Irish in 
 its impetuosity, which yet was guided by good 
 taste and strong judgment, gave him an immediate 
 influence both with parliament and the public, and 
 his bold spirit speedily grasped at projects far beyond 
 the more hesitating policy of his leader. His great 
 object was to have a recorded declaration of the 
 legislative independence of Ireland, and by obtain- 
 ing it as he did, there is no doubt that he prepared 
 his country to receive juster terms and a higher 
 position in a legislative union with Britain tban 
 she might have otherwise obtained. Besides the 
 old assertion of the supremacy of the English 
 crown in Poyning's Act, there stood, in the British 
 statute book, so lately as the reign of George I., 
 an offensive declaration of the legislative authority 
 of the British parliament over Ireland. On the 
 16th of March, 1782, the Irish Commons, as the 
 
 GRA 
 
 result of Grattan's exertions, carried a declaral 
 of rights condemning this legislative assumpti 
 and by the cordial aid of Fox, then fortunately 
 power, the offensive act was repealed by the Brit 
 parliament. The Irish legislature resolved to si 
 their gratitude by a vote of money to Gratt 
 which, at his own desire, was reduced from j 
 100,000 originally suggested to 50,000. ] 
 popularity was subsequently occasionally shal 
 by the hostility of his great rival Flood. Unl 
 many of his coadjutors in the struggle for Ii 
 nationality, he was a warm friend of cath 
 emancipation. He strongly opposed the uni 
 and was for some time a member, but not a 
 markable one, of the united parliament. He d 
 on 14th May, 1820. [J.flj 
 
 GRATUS, Roman gov. of Judaea, about 16-1 
 
 GRAUMANN, J. P., a Prussian financier, 
 former of the monetary system of Germ., 1710- 
 
 GRAUN, Carl Hkinrich, a German musi 
 composer, chapel-master to Fr. the Gr., 1701-17 
 
 GRAUNT, Edw., an English clergyman, 
 of ' Graecum Linguae Spicilogium,' &c, died 16 
 
 GRAUNT, John, a London draper, authoi 
 ' Observations on the Bills of Mortality,' 1670- 
 
 GRAVANDER, L. F., a Swed. poet, 1778-18 
 
 GRAVELOT, H., a Fr. engraver, 1699-1773 
 
 GRAVES, Rich., an Engl, clergyman and mi 
 wr., auth. of ' The Spiritual Quixote,' 1715-18C 
 
 GRAVESANDE, William James, an emin 
 Dutch mathematician and astronomer, 1648-17 
 
 GRAVINA, Carlo Duke De, a Sp. admii 
 died of a wound received at Trafalgar, 1747-18 
 
 GRAVINA, Dominico Da, an Italian histori 
 author of a history of Naples, &c, 14th centur 
 
 GRAVINA, Gian Vincenzo, a celebra" 
 Neapolitan jurist and man of letters, 1664- 171* 
 
 GRAVINA, Pietro, a Neapolitan poet, 15tl 
 
 GRAVIUS, an annalist of Friesland, 16th ce 
 
 GRAY, E. W., an eminent naturalist, d. 180 
 _ GRAY, Stephen, an English gentleman, d 
 tinguished as an experimt. philosopher, d. 1736 
 
 GRAY, Robert, bishop of Bristol, author o 
 'Theory of Dreams,' 'Connection between 1 
 Sacred Writings and the Literature of Jewish i 
 Heathen Authors,' &c, 1762-1834. 
 
 GRAY, THOMAS,the son of a scrivener in Ix 
 don, was born there in 1716. From Eton school 
 
 !)assed to Cambridge, where he busied himself w 
 anguages and poetry, and neglected mathemat 
 and philosophy, as indeed he did ever afterwar 
 Leaving the university in 1738, without taking 
 degree in arts, he intended to study law, but in 1 
 meantime entered on a continental tour wi 
 Horace Walpole. The two indifferently assorl 
 companions travelled through France and Ital 
 but a misunderstanding taking place, Gray i 
 turned to England in 1741. His father being n< 
 dead, he seems to have been in possession of mes 
 enabling a person of moderate wishes and indole 
 habits to dispense with the labour of a profi 
 sion. He settled himself at Cambridge for t 
 remainder of his days, hardly ever leaving t 
 
 {dace, unless when he made tours to Wales, Sc< 
 and, and the lakes of Westmoreland, and wh 
 he passed three years in London, for access 
 the library of the British Museum. His 1 
 thenceforth was purely that of a scholar; a 
 it was spout in reading and desultory thinkii 
 
 284 
 
GRA 
 
 ther than in authorship. His knowledge was 
 hJtifarious and exact. That he was intellectu- 
 Hy active, in his own lazy and miscellaneous 
 fehion, is shown by his ' Letters,' published after 
 W death. These are admirable specimens of 
 bglish style ; they contain some of the most pic- 
 iresque pieces of descriptive writing in the lan- 
 lage; they are full of acute, though fastidious 
 iticism ; and they have innumerable touches of 
 uet humour. He planned editions of classical 
 ithors, and made collections for the purpose. 
 it he completed nothing except those little 
 ins, which, flowing from an intense though not 
 ""e imagination, inspired by the most delicate 
 tic feeling, and elaborated into exquisite terse- 
 of diction, are among the most splendid orna- 
 ts of English literature. His ' Ode to Eton 
 ege,' published in 1747, attracted little notice ; 
 4 Elegy in a Country Churchyard,' appearing 
 1749, became at once, as it has always continued 
 be, one of the most popular of all poems. Most 
 bis other odes were written in the course of the 
 ree years following 1753 ; and the publication of 
 e collection in 1757 established his poetical re- 
 lation with all who were competent to appreciate 
 most refined beauties of poetry. In 1768, 
 ter having been disappointed of the place when 
 was last vacant, he became professor of modern 
 story at Cambridge. He had long been distressed 
 r attacks of gout ; and one of these killed him in 
 7L [W.S.] 
 
 [Gray's House at Stoke.] 
 
 GRAZIANI, A. M., an Ital. writer, dist. for his 
 arning and the eloquence of his style, 1537-1611. 
 
 GRAZIANI, G., an Italian poet, 1604-1675. 
 
 GRAZIANI, J., an Ital. hist., abt. 1670-1730. 
 
 GRAZIANI, J. B., a Florentine sculptor, whose 
 al name was Ballanti, 1762-1835. 
 
 GRAZZINI, A. F., an Italian poet, 1503-1583. 
 iGREATOREX, Thomas, an eminent musical 
 mbrmer and composer, dist. also for his studies 
 ^ftematics, chemistry, and botany, 1758-1831. 
 JGREATRAKES, Valentine, an Irish gentle- 
 ian who became famous about the period of the 
 formation for the cure of all kinds of diseases 
 the touch. He was born in Waterford 
 >28, and having come to England, served in the 
 raamentary army from 1649 to 1656, and was 
 towards a magistrate in the county of Cork, 
 be date of his death is not known. 
 
 GRE 
 
 GREAVES, James Piekrepoint, a writer of 
 much original value on education, 1777-1842. 
 
 GREAVES, Richard, an Oriental scholar, anti- 
 quarian writer, and mathematician, 1602-1652. 
 His brother, Thomas, an Arabian scholar, author 
 of annotations on the Bible, &c, died 1676. His 
 br., Edward, a physic, and medical wr., d. 1680. 
 
 GREBAN, S., a French poet, 15th century. 
 
 GREBNER, P., a German visionary, 16th cent. 
 
 GRECOURT, Jean Baptiste Joseph Wil- 
 lart De, a French poet, born of a Scotch family, 
 author of ' Philotanus,' a satirical history of the 
 famous bull Unigenitus, 1684-1743. 
 
 GREDING, J. E., a Germ, physician, 1718-75. 
 
 GREEN, Edward Burnaby, a poet and 
 classical translator, died 1788. 
 
 GREEN, John, an English prelate, 1706-1779. 
 
 GREEN, Matthew, author of 'The Spleen,' 
 a poem in considerable repute when first published 
 for its originality and wit, b. about 1677, d. 1737. 
 
 GREEN, Th., a miscellaneous wr., 1770-1825. 
 
 GREEN, Val., an Engl, engraver, 1739-1813. 
 
 GREEN, W., an English divine, died 1794. 
 
 GREENE, Maurice, a musical composer and 
 organist, author of some much esteemed anthems, 
 &c, named Doctor of Music by the university of 
 Cambridge in 1730, and afterw. professor, d. 1755. 
 
 GREENE, Robert, an English dramatist, 
 miscel. wr., and poet, time of Elizabeth, d. 1592. 
 
 GREENE, Thomas, successively bishop of Nor- 
 wich and Ely, and vice-chancellor of Cambridge, 
 author of discourses on Death, Judgment, Heaven, 
 and Hell, &c, 1658-1738. 
 
 GREENFIELD, William, an Oriental scholar, 
 editor of the ' Comprehensive Bible,' &c, d. 1832. 
 
 GREENHAM, R., a puritan divine, died 1591. 
 
 GREENHILL, J., an English painter, 1649-76. 
 
 GREENVILLE. See Granville. 
 
 GREEVE, E. J., a Dutch Hebraist, author of a 
 'Dissertation on the Hebrew Rhythm,' 1754-1811. 
 
 GREGOIRE, Henry Count, a member of the 
 French constitutent assembly and the convention, 
 and constitutional bishop of Blois, distinguished 
 as an advocate of popular rights, for his faithful- 
 ness to the Christian religion, and for his writings 
 in fav. of the abolition of slavery, &c, 1750-1831. 
 
 GREGORAS, a Byzantine hist., abt. 1295-1360. 
 
 GREGORII, J. G., a Germ, geographer, last ct. 
 
 GREGORIO, C, an Italian designer and engra- 
 ver, 1719-1759. His son, Ferdinand, an engra- 
 ver, born about 1740. 
 
 GREGORIO, Maurice De, a learned theolo- 
 gian of Sicily, author of 'Anatomia Totius 
 Bibliae,' published 1614, died 1651. 
 
 GREGORIO, R., an Ital. antiquar., 1753-1809. 
 
 GREGORIUS, J. F., a Ger. savant, 1697-1761. 
 
 GREGORIUS, Publius, a native of Tipher- 
 num, distinguished at Venice as professor of an- 
 cient literature, died about 1469. Emmanuel 
 Frederic, his son, a theologian and philologist, 
 author of numerous works in German and in 
 Latin, 1730-1800. 
 
 GREGORY. The saints of this name are Gre- 
 gory Thuamaturgus, a convert of Origen, dis- 
 tinguished by his writings and marvellous power 
 in the conversion of the neathen, died about 270. 
 Gregory Nazianzen, for whose history see far- 
 ther on. Gregory of Nyssa, another of the 
 Greek fathers, the biographer of Gregory Thuama- 
 
 285 
 
GEE 
 
 turgus, and himself a philosophical divine of the 
 highest talents, born about 330, died 400. Gre- 
 gory of Tours, author of a ' History of France,' 
 and The Miracles of the Saints,' &c, 559-595. 
 Gregory Lousavorisch, 'The Illuminator,' 
 the apostle and first patriarch of Armenia, died 
 about 336. Gregory, bishop of Agrigentum, 
 author of Greek commentaries, died early in the 
 7th centm-y. And the first two popes of the name. 
 
 GREGORY. The popes of this name are Gre- 
 gory I., surnamed ' The Great,' and a saint in 
 the Romish calendar, author of works which have 
 often been reprinted, born about 544, raised to the 
 pontificate 590, died 604. Gregory II., also a 
 saint of Rome, succeeded 715, died 731. Gre- 
 gory III., reigned about ten years, and died 741. 
 Gregory IV., 827-844. Gregory V., born 
 972, died, after a pontificate of two years and nine 
 months, 999. Gregory VI., elected pope 1045, 
 deposed 1046. Gregory VII., elected 1073, died 
 1085. Gregory VIII., pope two months only, 
 elected and died 1187. Gregory IX., reigned 
 1227-1241. Gregory X., 1271-1276. Gre- 
 gory XI., b. 1331, reigned 1370-1378. Gregory 
 XII., born 1325, reigned 1406-1417. Gregory 
 XIII., distinguished by the reformation of the 
 calendar, and one of the ablest civilians of his age, 
 born 1502, reigned 1572-1585. Gregory XIV., 
 born 1534, succeeded 1590, died 1591. Gregory 
 XV., born 1554, succeeded 1621, distinguished as 
 the founder of the College of the Propaganda, died 
 1623. Gregory XVI., born 1765, succeeded 
 Pius VIII. 1831, died 1846. 
 
 GREGORY. The patriarchs of Constantinople 
 of this name are Gregorius, or Gregorius 
 Cyprius, died 1290 ; Gregory of Rimini, a 
 celebrated scholar, died 1357 ; and a third of the 
 name who played an important part in the divi- 
 sions which agitated the Turkish empire, and was 
 hung by the populace of Constantinople 1821. 
 
 GREGORY. The princes and patriarchs of Ar- 
 menia of this name, besides G. Lousavoritch in the 
 list of saints, are Gregory, the last prince of 
 the race of the Mamigoneans, acknowledged by the 
 caliph under the title of patriarch 659, killed in 
 battle with the Chazars 683. Gregory Magis- 
 dros, a prince of the royal race of the Arsacides 
 of Persia, distinguished as a poet and man of let- 
 ters, author of an Armenian grammar, &c, com- 
 menced his political career in the time of John, 
 king of Armenia 1030, and died 1058. Gregory 
 II., the son and successor of the preceding, go- 
 verned the patriarchate 1058-1105. Gregory III., 
 nephew or Gregory II., succeeded Basil 1113, 
 died 1166. Gregory IV., nephew of the preced- 
 ing, reigned 1173-1193. Gregory V., nephew 
 and successor of Gregory IV., imprisoned by the 
 lords and clergy of Armenia on account of his de- 
 baucheries, and perished in attempting to escape, 
 1193-1194. Gregory VI., father of Gregory V., 
 and his successor in 1193, died 1198. Gregory 
 VII., successor of Constantine I., 1294, died 1306. 
 Gregory VIII., maintained a long struggle for 
 the royal authority, and was at length killed, 
 1411-1418. Gregory IX., elected by certain of 
 the clergy 1440, and not being recognized by 
 the Eastern Armenians, submitted to Vartabied, 
 chosen by them in 1441, and confined his own au- 
 thority to Cilicia, died 1447. Gregory X., 
 
 GRE 
 
 reigned 1113-1461. Gregory XL, 1536-H 
 Gregory XII., 1569-1573. Gregory XI 
 known at first under the name of Serapion, ele( 
 after the flight of David V. and Melchised 
 1603, fell into the hands of the dispossesM'd pa 
 archs, aided by the Persians, and was cruelly i 
 tured 1605, died, probably in consequence, 160 
 GREGORY: an illustrious Scottish fan 
 name, recalling the continuous splendours of 
 Bernouillis or Cassinis : we shall give the nai 
 and little more of its most remarkable scions.? 
 Earliest and perhaps loftiest, stands James G] 
 gory, born in 1639 ; son of the progenitor of 
 family, the minister of Drumoackin Aberdeen*! 
 At the age of twenty-nine he became professo: 
 mathematics in St. Andrews ; from which he j 
 transferred to the same chair in Edinburgh, 16 
 He died at the early age of thirty-six, having gi 
 the most brilliant promise as well as great peri 
 mance. We owe him one form of the reflecting tel 
 cope ; and in analytic power he sometimes rival 
 Newton. His memoirs are very numerous, 
 bespeaking talents and originality of the first on 
 2. David Gregory, nephew of James, b 
 at Aberdeen in 1661 ; at the age of twenty-th 
 he succeeded his uncle in the metropolitan ch 
 David was an elegant mathematician and a gi 
 astronomer. He became Savilian professor at ( 
 ford ; and was one of the first who eompreheni 
 and taught the philosophy of Newton. He diet 
 1708. 3. James and Charles, brothers of 
 preceding, were also able mathematicians : Jar 
 succeeded David in Edinburgh, and Charles b 
 the chair in St. Andrews, which he transmitted 
 another mathematician, his son, David. 4. N 
 the Medical branch of this singular family. It ori 
 nated in James, son of the great James Gregc 
 and professor of medicine in King's College, Ab 
 deen. He bequeathed his abilities and chair to 
 son, Dr. James Gregory, a man of repute : 1 
 his celebrated son was, 6. John Gregory, M.l 
 born at Aberdeen in 1724. Few men have more < 
 served a high fame, than this eminent and excell* 
 person. Thoroughly educated as a physician, 
 united to that culture, great sagacity and mo: 
 excellence, as well as refined tastes tnat led h 
 into intimacy with all, the eminent men of t 
 brightest era of Scottish literature. From the ye 
 1766 he held the chair of Practice of Physic 
 the university cf Edinburgh ; and continued nil 
 his death in 1792 an acknowledged orname 
 of the metropolis. John Gregory is the auth 
 of the ' Father's Legacy to his Daughters,' ai 
 he will long be remembered professionally by 1 
 ' Elements of the Practice of Physic' The 
 is a life of him by the naturalist Smellie. 
 Dr. James Gregory, son of the preceding, su 
 ceeded to his chair, and sustained his pla 
 as a leading member of the Edinburgh .Medic 
 School. The kind of genius which most distil 
 guished this great family was not extinct ; i 
 mathematical powers again broke forth. Son 
 Dr. James, was 8. The late D. F. G nix, ok 
 of Trinity College, Cambridge, an analyst re 
 from Science at the earliest age : he would ha' 
 rivalled his greatest predecessor. It is stated th; 
 of this family no less than sixteen members ha 
 held British professorships. [d.P.N 
 
 GREGORY, archbishop of Corinth. 12th 
 
 archbishop of Corinth, 12 th cent. 
 
GRE 
 
 ! GREGORY, a king of Scotland, reign. 875-892. 
 
 j GREGORY, George, D.D., an Irish divine, 
 
 fed historical and miscellaneous wr., 1754-1808. 
 
 GREGORY of Nazianzus, commonly called 
 
 t. Gregory Nazianzen, was born at Arianzns, 
 
 village at no great distance from the town which 
 
 as given to Gregory his distinctive cognomen. 
 
 [is pious mother Nonna, devoted him when an 
 
 ifant to the service of Christ and the church. 
 
 fis education, which commenced at Cassarea in 
 
 'appadocia, was prosecuted next at Caesarea 
 
 ihihppi, and at Alexandria, and was finished at 
 
 thens, where he began a life-long intimacy with 
 
 jasil the Great. His father, of the same name, 
 
 Ll been bishop of Nazianzus for many years, and 
 
 i the course of time he was joined with his father 
 
 I the administration of the church. He had pre- 
 
 [ously refused from Basil the diocese of Sasima. 
 
 t his" father's death he retired to Seleucia the 
 
 ppital of Isauria, and spent three years in solitude 
 
 d meditation. In 379 he went by urgent re- 
 
 lest to Constantinople to preach to the remnant 
 
 ' the orthodox party who survived the Arian per- 
 
 cntions. His private chapel he named Anas- 
 
 sia, but his eloquence and popularity became so 
 
 lmense, that with the concurrence of the em- 
 
 sror Theodosius, the general council exalted him 
 
 I the patriarchate or archiepiscopal chair. But 
 
 sections were soon started to the regularity and 
 
 Uidity of his election, and he gladly resigned the 
 
 e, delivering a magnificent farewell oration in 
 
 e great church St. Sophia in June, 381. On his 
 
 farney homeward he visited Cassarea, and pro- 
 
 lunced his glowing funeral discourse on his friend 
 
 L He discharged the duties of a bishop for a 
 
 pef period at Nazianzus till his cousin Eulalius 
 
 is installed, and at once he retired to the coun- 
 
 r, where on his paternal estate at Arianzus he 
 
 ent the remainder of his life in the cultivation 
 
 his garden, and the composition of religious 
 
 etry. Gregory died about the year 389. Among 
 
 i literary remains have been preserved about 
 
 sermons, 250 epistles, and nearly 400 poems. 
 
 le life of this theologian was a species of combat 
 
 fcween the active and the contemplative pro- 
 
 asity within him. Ever seeking quiet he was 
 
 sr forced into agitation and strife. Seclusion 
 
 s earnestly coveted by him, but peculiar crises in 
 
 S church summoned him into the arena, in which 
 
 no sooner found himself, than he sighed again 
 
 his calm retreat. His style, which seems based 
 
 the model of Isocrates, is often highly eloquent, 
 
 ; is frequently disfigured by exaggeration and 
 
 srlaid with rhetorical embellishment. His poems 
 
 often distinguished by peculiar beauties, though 
 
 rred by their artificial structure and allusions. 
 
 reral editions of his works have been published, 
 
 t a good edition is still a desideratum. The 
 
 tio princeps was published at Basle in 1550, 
 
 a of the Benedictine edition only one volume 
 
 Kgeared, and that at Paris, 1778. [J.E.] 
 
 pKEGORY, Olinthus Gilbert, LL.D., an 
 
 je and industrious English mathematician and 
 
 hor. l>orn in 1774, died 1841. He wrote 
 
 tuable elementary books of science, but is best 
 
 mm bv his ' Evidences of Christianity.' 
 
 pREGORYi St. Vincent, a Flemish mathe- 
 
 i ti.ii.n. born at Bruges in 1584, died in 1667. 
 
 BBE1FF, F., a German chemist, 1601-1668. 
 
 GRE 
 
 GREIG, Sam. Carlowitz, a naval officer b. in 
 Scotland, and dist. in the Russian service, d. 1788. 
 
 GRENADE, L. De, a Spanish ascetic, 1505-88. 
 
 GRENVILLE. Several members of this family 
 are known as statesmen, the principal of whom 
 are Richard Grenville, afterwards Earl 
 Temple, and his brother George, commonly 
 called Mr. Grenville, the reputed author of the 
 American Stamp Act. Lord Temple was born 
 1711, commenced his public life as a member of 
 parliament in 1734, and died in retirement 1779. 
 Mr. George Grenville was born in 1712, and 
 served in parliament as member for Buckingham 
 from the year 1741, till his_ death in 1770. The 
 names of the brothers are mixed up with the party 
 politics of the whole of this period, sometimes as 
 warmly attached friends, and at others as political 
 enemies. Mr. Grenville was connected with the 
 administration in several subordinate offices from 
 1744 to 1762 ; the last five years of this interval, 
 as a colleague of his brother, Lord Temple. In the 
 last mentioned year he became secretary of state 
 in the ministry of Lord Bute, and from that time 
 to 1765 his brother was associated with Mr. Pitt 
 in the opposition. In 1765 Mr. Grenville, who 
 had risen to the premiership two years previously, 
 was dismissed by the king, and a breach occurring 
 at the same period between Mr. Pitt and Lord 
 Temple the brothers were reconciled. Their char- 
 acters were very different, but they were both 
 agreed on the principle of taxing America as a 
 legislative right, and Mr. Grenville had the manli- 
 ness to carry out his convictions irrespective of the 
 consequences. He was always regarded as the 
 ablest man of business then in the House of Com- 
 mons, and seems to have resembled the late Sir 
 Robert Peel in many points. Lord Temple, on the 
 other hand, was a man of factious and turbulent 
 disposition, and if his name was not before the 
 public in connection with any useful measure, it 
 was sure to be extant in some pasquinade, per- 
 haps as ' Lord Gawkey,' or ' Tiddy-doll.' He was 
 a partizan of Wilkes, and thus united the opposite 
 extremes in his political conduct. The late lib- 
 rarian of Stowe has recently edited the correspon- 
 dence of the brothers, which throws much light upon 
 the political transactions of the period. In the 
 third volume of these interesting papers he has 
 collected a mass of evidence tending to prove that 
 Lord Temple is the original of ' Junius.' [E.R.] 
 
 GRENVILLE, Right Hon. William Wynd- 
 ham, Lord Grenville, third son of Mr. George 
 Grenville, born 1759, distinguished as a member 
 of the House of Commons and a statesman from 
 1789 to 1806, when he succeeded Pitt as prime 
 minister, died 1834. 
 
 GREPPI, Carlo, an Ital. dramat., 1751-1811. 
 
 GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, founder of the Royal 
 Exchange of London, and the Gresham Lectures, 
 was the son of Sir Richard Gresham, merchant 
 and lord mayor of that city, and acquired univer- 
 sal fame as a merchant for his knovyledge, sound 
 judgment, and integrity. Besides his munificent 
 endowments in the interest of commerce and the 
 arts, he served the state as ambassador, and con- 
 tributed greatly to placing the financial affairs of 
 England upon a sound basis, being in constant in- 
 tercourse and correspondence with Sir W Cecil. 
 He was greatly honoured by Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 287 
 
GRB 
 
 He was born in London 1519, and died suddenly 
 at his house in Bishopgate-Street 1579. 
 
 GRESLON, A., a French missionary, 1618-97. 
 
 GRESSET, F., a French philologist, 1795-1831. 
 
 GRESSET, J. B. L., a Fr. dramatist, 1709-77. 
 
 GRETRY, Andre Ernest Modeste, a celeb, 
 compos, of Fr. operas, and wr. on music, 1741-1813. 
 
 GRETSER, J., a Ger. controv. wr., 1561-1625. 
 
 GREUZE, J. B., a French painter, 1726-1805. 
 
 GREVILLE, Fulke or Foulque, Lord Brook, 
 a dist. patron of letters, au. of the ' Life of Sir Ph. 
 Sydney,' and mem. of the privy council, 1554-1628. 
 "GREVIN, J., a French dramatist, 1540-1570. 
 
 GREW, Obadiah, an English divine settled at 
 Coventry, 1607-1698. His son 
 
 GREW, Nehemiah, a physician and botanist, 
 was born at Coventry about the year 1628. He 
 died in 1711. Grew was educated at a foreign 
 university, and after taking his degree, he settled 
 in his native town as a physician. Here he com- 
 menced making observations upon the physiology 
 of plants, and in 1760 he communicated to the 
 Royal Society his first thoughts upon the subject 
 in a paper entitled ' Idea of a Philosophical His- 
 tory of Plants.' His essay was so well received 
 that he was invited to come to London, which he 
 did in 1672. Upon the recommendation of Bishop 
 Wilkins he was elected a fellow, and in 1677 he 
 was appointed secretary to the Royal Society. 
 His celebrated work, ' The Anatomy of Plants,' 
 with an 'Idea of a Philosophical History of 
 Plants,' was published in 1682, illustrated by 
 many plates, and forms a perfect storehouse of 
 facts upon vegetable anatomy, which has been 
 freely made use of by succeeding botanists. His 
 remarks upon vegetable secretions and their pro- 
 perties are very ingenious his comparative ex- 
 amination of the various kinds of fruits and seeds 
 abounds in originality and he appears, from 
 several passages m his works, to have discovered 
 the doctrine of the sexes in plants, and the fecun- 
 dating properties possessed by the dust of the an- 
 thers. Linnaeus has named a genus of plants after 
 him, Grewia. [W.B.] 
 
 GREY, Charles Earl, was born on 13th 
 March, 1764. His father, Sir Charles, was en- 
 nobled for his military services in 1802, but the 
 family was one of ancient renown, connected with 
 early peerages, and there is no doubt that the 
 rank and antiquity of his house exercised consider- 
 able influence in mitigating prejudices against a 
 career so boldly and steadily directed in favour of 
 popular influence and democratic institutions as 
 that of Earl Grey. He studied at Eton and 
 Cambridge, and made the usual continental tour. 
 He entered parliament as member for Northum- 
 berland, in 1786, and two years afterwards was 
 distinguished by being named one of the managers 
 of the Hastings' impeachment. He became one of 
 those whom personal attachment and political 
 sympathy united under the standard of Fox ; but 
 as the French revolution went through its stages, 
 the bold and ardent young man was inclined to 
 follow it with a far closer sympathy than the 
 leader, now a veteran in parliamentary tactics, was 
 disposed to sanction. He was an active member 
 of the dreaded Society of the Friends of the People ; 
 and in 1793 he brought forward a motion in favour 
 of parliamentary reform, founded on a petition 
 
 GEE 
 
 from the society, boldly exposing the defec 
 the existing system. But the policy of parliai 
 tary reform had not only been deserted by 
 and his friends, but was rather discountena 
 than aided by the veteran members of the 1 
 
 5>arty, and he was left in a minority of 41 to 
 le continued to be the bold and unhesitating 
 nouncer, from time to time, of every minis! 
 act savouring of corruption, extravagance, 
 stretching of the arbitrary elements of the co 
 tution; and in the extremely critical tim 
 which he acted, there is no doubt not only 
 the zeal and firmness of the young orator 
 well tried, but that any man of less courage, i 
 and capacity would have fallen a sacrifice t( 
 zealous temerity. Holding the courtesy tit 
 Lord Howick, he became first lord of the admi 
 in the short Whig ministry of 1806. In No 1 
 ber, 1807, his father's death sent him to 
 House of Lords, where he pursued his old p 
 unaltered, save by adaptation to the new sph( 
 exertion. He was the main object of the f 
 less negotiations for a mixed ministry in 1 
 His history as the leader of the Whig minist 
 1830, which carried the reform bill, has too ] 
 and important a place in the history of the aj 
 afford materials for a satisfactory abridgn 
 It is well known that Earl Grey's courage and i 
 ness, undiminished by the years which had 
 larged his sagacity and matured his pol: 
 capacity, were greatly instrumental at that ti 
 epoch in saving the country from a civil war. 
 resigned office in July, 1834, and spent his de 
 ing years in respected retirement. He was a 
 of remarkably fine appearance and dignified i 
 ners ; and though a friend of popular institut 
 his habits were reserved, and were often chs 
 terized as haughty. He was married in 171 
 Elizabeth, the only daughter of Lord Ponsc 
 He died at Howick on 17th July, 1845. [J.E 
 GREY, Lady Jane, whose tragical fate is 
 known to readers of English history, was 
 
 fanddaughter of Mary Tudor, sister of B 
 III., and of Charles Brandon, duke of Sul 
 This alliance was brought about by singular 
 cumstances. The Princess Mary had been i 
 ried to Louis XII., king of France, in pursuan 
 a treaty of peace and confederacy, in the 
 1514, and about three months afterwards los 
 husband, who was succeeded by his cousin Fri 
 I. As the queen dowager had been of an amc 
 disposition, there were more reasons than one tc 
 the birth of a posthumous child. Francis, tl 
 fore, connived at a private marriage betweei 
 bashful widow and the duke of Suffolk, who 
 then at the French court, and probably interj 
 his good offices to reconcile Henry to the mi 
 The issue of this union was a daughter, na 
 Frances, who was married to Henry Grey, mai 
 of Dorset, and as a consequence gave but 
 Lady Jane Grey, at the family seat in Leice 
 shire, 1537. Being educated as a protest ant, 
 possessing talents which rendered her one of 
 prodigies of her sex, the duke of Northumber 
 easily prevailed on Edward VI. to name hei 
 successor, thereby excluding his sisters Mary 
 Elizabeth; the one of doubtful religion and 
 other most certainly a bigotted catholic. Ins 
 of an immediate competitor for the French en 
 
 288 
 
GRE 
 
 lierefore, the amorous embraces of Mary Tudor, 
 ded by a little management at the French court, 
 psed up one for the English in the person of 
 i?r innocent, talented, and beautiful grandchild, 
 "aving secured his purposes with the king, Nor- 
 Wmberland married his son, Lord Guildford Dud- 
 !y, to Lady Jane Grey, and they were both exe- 
 jited after a phantom royalty of nine days, on the 
 !>th of February, 1554. Lady Jane was only in 
 j>r seventeenth year, and was remarkable for her 
 lull in the classical, Oriental,and modern languages, 
 lid for the sweetness of her disposition. j[E.R.] 
 I GREY, Dr. Richard, a learned ecclesiastical 
 pd religious writer, au. of the ' State of Religion 
 [ England,' ' Engl. Eccles. Law,' &c, 1693-1771. 
 I GREY, Zachary, LL.D., a divine and miscel. 
 n\, editor of ' Hudibras,' au. of an ' Examination of 
 jeal's History of the Puritans,' &c, 1687-1766. 
 GREZIN, James, a French poet, 16th century. 
 GRIBALDI, M., an Italian jurist, died 1564. 
 GRIERSON, Constantly, an Irish lady, dis- 
 oguished for her self-acquired classical and philo- 
 phical attainments, and as a poetess, 1706-1733. 
 GRIESBACH, John James, an eminent Ger- 
 an critic, distinguished for his attainments in 
 t.eological, biblical, and ecclesiastical literature, 
 pecially for his edition of the Greek gospels, 
 fth a critical history of the printed text, and ex- 
 iaination of various readings, born in Hesse 
 prmstadt 1745, died professor of divinity at the 
 Liversity of Jena, 1812. 
 
 JGRIFFET, H., a French historian, 1698-1771. 
 GRIFFIER, John, known as 'Old Griffier,' a 
 jemish painter, 1658-1718. His son, Robert, 
 lied 'the Younger,' a landscape pain., b. abt. 1688. 
 GRIFFIN, the last king of Wales, died 1050. 
 (GRIFFITH, Eliz., a Welch novelist, d. 1793. 
 GRIFFITH, M., an ecclesiast. au., 1587-1652. 
 GRIFFITHS, R., a Welch reviewer, 1749-1803. 
 GRIFFONI, M., an Ital. historian, 1351-1426. 
 jGRIGNAN, Frances Margaret De Sevig- 
 e, Countess De, an accomplished Fr. lady, daugh- 
 Jr of the celeb. Madame de Sevigne, and au. of a 
 Resume ' of the system of Fenelon, 1648-1705. 
 GRILL, C., a Swedish economist, 1705-1767. 
 GRIMALDI, the name of an illustrious family 
 J Genoa, distinguished as partizans of the Guelphs, 
 e principal members of which are Ranieri 
 sumaldi, a naval commander, served as admiral 
 France in 1314. Antonio Grimaldi, also a 
 val commander and admiral, at length defeated 
 the combined fleets of Catalonia and Venice, 
 der Pisani, in 1353. Giovanni Grimaldi, 
 lowned for a great victory over the Venetian 
 miral, Nicolo Irevisani, in May, 1431. Do- 
 anco Grimaldi, cardinal-archbishop and vice- 
 pte of Avignon, distinguished at the battle of 
 panto 1571, d. 1592 Geronimo Grimaldi, 
 pal nuncio to Germany and France, and a 
 itinguished philanthropist, 1597-1685. 
 GRIMALDI, F., a Neap, architect, 16th cent. 
 GRIMALDI, F. M., an Italian math., 1613-63. 
 GRIMALDI, G. F., an Ital. painter, 1606-80. 
 GRIMALDI, J., an Italian savant, died 1623. 
 RIMALDI, Jos., a celeb, clown, 1779-1837. 
 OKIMALDI, Marquis, auth. of a 'Project for 
 forming the Pub. Economy of Nap.,' 1735-1805. 
 GIJIM ALDI, Wm., Marquis Grimaldi of Genoa, 
 'employe of the East India Co., 1785-1828. 
 
 GRO 
 
 GRIMAIN, Anth., doge of Venice, 1521-1523. 
 
 GRIMAIN, Domenico, son of the preceding, a 
 learned cardinal and patron of letters, 1460-1523. 
 
 GRIMAIN, H., a Dutch painter, 1599-1629. 
 
 GRIMAIN, Marl, doge of Venice, 1595-1605. 
 
 GRIMAUD, J. C. W. De, a French physi- 
 ologist and medical writer, 1750-1789. 
 
 GRIMBALD, St., a Flemish ecclesiast., 9th ct. 
 
 GRIMBOLD, GRIMBALD, or GRIMVALD, 
 Nicholas, an Engl, poet and translator, 16th ct. 
 
 GRIMM, Frederic Melchior, Baron De, 
 joint author with Diderot of a posthumous work 
 in 16 volumes, entitled ' Correspondance Litteraire 
 Philosophique et Critique,' containing the historv 
 of French literature from 1753 to 1790. Baron 
 Grimm is also the author of some smaller works 
 published in his lifetime, and was in several 
 political employs as minister and secretary. Born 
 at Ratisbon 1723, died 1807. 
 
 GRIMM, J. F. C, a Ger. physician, 1737-1821. 
 
 GRIMOARD, Count Philip De, a French 
 general, diplomatist, and man of letters, died 1815. 
 
 GRIMOUD, Alexis, a Fr. painter, 1688-1740. 
 
 GRIMSTON, Sir H., an Engl, lawyer, d. 1683. 
 
 GRINDAL, Edmund, abp. of Canterbury, con- 
 tributor to Fox's ' Acts and Monuments,' 1519-83. 
 
 GRIOLET, J. M. A., a Fr. natural., 1763-1806. 
 
 GRISAUNT, Wm., an English physician and 
 astronomer, and a supposed magician, 14th cent. 
 
 GRISCHOW, A., a German savant, 1683-1749. 
 
 GRISEL, Joseph, a Fr. ecclesiastic and mystic 
 wr., auth. of ' Chemin de l'Amour Divin,' 1703-87. 
 
 GRITTI, Andrea, doge of Venice, 1523-1538. 
 
 GROCYN, W., a learned Englishm., 1442-1519. 
 
 GROENING, a German historian, 17th century. 
 
 GROGNIER, L. F., a Fr. natural., 1775-1837. 
 
 GROHMANN, John Godfrey, a laborious 
 translator and compiler, professor of philosophy at 
 Leipzig, au. of a ' Diet, of the Arts,' 1763-1805. 
 
 GRONOV, or GRONOVIUS, the name of a 
 celebrated Dutch family of savants, the principal 
 of whom are John Frederic, professor of the 
 Belles Lettres, and editor of many classics, 1611- 
 1671. James, his son, a critical and philological 
 writer, 1645-1716. Laurence Theophilus, 
 brother of James, an antiquarian and philologist, 
 dates unknown. Abraham, eldest son of James, 
 a physician and geographical author, dates un- 
 known. John Frederic, and Laurence The- 
 odore, brothers of Abraham, distinguished as 
 naturalists, the former d. 1760, the latter 1778. 
 
 GROPP, Ignatius, a Ger. histor., 1695-1758. 
 
 GROPPER, J., a German polemic, died 1559. 
 
 GROS, Antoine Jean, Baron, a celebrated 
 French painter, a pupil of David, 1771-1835. 
 
 GROS, Nich. Le, a Fr. theologian, 1675-1751. 
 
 GROS, Peter Des, a French moralist, 15th c. 
 
 GROS, Peter Le, a Fr. sculptor, 1666-1719. 
 
 GROSE, Francis, an eminent English anti- 
 quary and heraldist, au. of ' Antiquities of Eng- 
 land and Wales,' ' A Treatise on Ancient Armour 
 and Weapons,' ' Military Antiquities,' ' A Collec- 
 tion of Proverbs,' A Classical Dictionary of the 
 Vulgar Tongue,' 'A Provincial Glossary,' 1731-91. 
 
 GROSLEY, P. J., a French essayist, 1718-85. 
 
 GROSS, J. G., a Germ, naturalist, 1581-1630. 
 
 GROSS, J. G., a Bavarian author, 1703-1768. 
 
 GROSS, David Gabriel Albert De, a Ger- 
 man writer on military tactics, 1756-1809. 
 
 289 
 
 U 
 
GRO 
 
 GROSSER, S., a German philologist, 1664-1 736. 
 
 GROSSETESTE, GROSTETE, or GROST- 
 HEAD, Robt., a lrnd. bp. of Lincoln, 1175-1253. 
 
 GROSSMANN, Gustav. Fred. Wm, a celeb. 
 German actor and dramatic writer, 17-46-1796. 
 
 GROSSON, J. B. B., a Fr. archseol., 1733-1800. 
 
 GROSVENOR, B., anEng. dissent., 1675-1758. 
 
 GROTIUS, or GROOT, Hugo, a jurist, divine, 
 historian, and general scholar, was born at Delft, 
 in Holland, on 10th April, 1583. When eleven 
 years old, he was sent to the newly-established 
 
 {irotestant university at Leyden, where he had the 
 brtune to study under Joseph Scaliger. He was 
 so precocious, not only in the acquisition of know- 
 ledge, but in the capacity of imparting his acquire- 
 ments by literature, that at the age of fifteen he 
 might be said to have a European reputation, and 
 he was then received with distinction at the court 
 of Henry the Great Nor did his boyish attain- 
 ments indicate a premature exhaustion of his 
 powers ; on the contrary, his mind seems to have 
 grown with everv year added to his age, and he 
 was ever accumulating new intellectual riches and 
 enlarging his capacities. In 1613 he obtained the 
 important office of pensionary of Rotterdam. But 
 it was unfortunate that one whose conquests in 
 important studies were so valuable, should have 
 had his time occupied, and his mind distracted by 
 the wretched polemical conflict which then shook 
 the Netherlands. He became one of the illustrious 
 victims whose sufferings are a scandal to the other- 
 wise magnanimous history of the Dutch during 
 that period. He involved himself with his friend, 
 the great pensionary Barneveldt, in the Arminian 
 controversy, and in 1619 was condemned to per- 
 petual imprisonment by the triumphant party. 
 He was one of those whose prison hours have en- 
 riched the world, and the quantity of books which 
 he kept passing to and fro m the end furnished the 
 means of his escape. It was accomplished by his 
 wife, Mary Reygensberg, a daughter of one of the 
 great Dutch aristocratic families, who managed to 
 have him removed from the prison in one of the 
 book trunks. The works which he had hitherto 
 published, scientific, critical, and poetical, are now 
 comparatively obscure, but in prison he prepared 
 his little treatise, De Veritate Religionis Chris- 
 tianae, which has been perhaps the most popular 
 4 Evidences of Christianity ' ever published, and has 
 been translated into every civilized tongue. But 
 it was when subsequently living in retirement in 
 France that he published his De Jure Belli et 
 Pads, the foundation of the international law 
 and European diplomacy of the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries. Though it consisted pro- 
 perly of speculations derived from the principles of 
 Roman jurisprudence, it was accepted as if it were 
 the authoritative enunciation of the law of nations. 
 After having, in his advanced years, visited various 
 countries, he died on the 28th of August, 
 1645. [J.H.B.] 
 
 GROTTO, Luigi, an Italian poet, 1541-1583. 
 GROUCHY, Emanuel, Count, a marshal of 
 the French empire, born at Paris 1766, and known 
 as a brave and successful soldier in the wars of 
 Napoleon, is chiefly memorable for the fatuity 
 which seemed to rule his conduct at the battle of 
 Waterloo. With thirty -five thousand men, and 
 eight hundred pieces of canuon under his orders, 
 
 GUE 
 
 he remained immoveable, either by the prayei 
 threats of the other generals, in a position w; 
 could only be justified by the strict letter of 
 instructions. It is not certain that he inter 
 to betray the cause of Napoleon, but his culp 
 indecision certainly contributed to the disa 
 which befell the French arms. He was twice af 
 wards summoned before a council of war, but 
 time escaped judgment in consequence of 
 court's declaring itself incompetent. Gron 
 was included in the special amnestv of 1819, 
 restored to his military rank on the a 
 Louis Philippe. He died in 1847. [E. 
 
 GROUCHY, N. De, a French savant, d. 15 
 GROUCHY, Sophia, sister of Marshal Gron< 
 and widow of Condorcet, known as the translal 
 Adam Smith's 4 Theory of the Moral Sentima 
 and auth. of ' Letters upon Svmpathy,' died 1J 
 GROULART, Cl., a French jurist, 1551-H 
 GROVE, Hex., a dissent, minister, an. of ' 
 Essay on the Soul's Immortalitv,' &c, 1683-1" 
 GROVE, Joseph, an English writer. 
 GRUBER, G. M., a German savant. 
 GRUBER, G. W., a Germ, composer, 1729-1 
 His son, J. Sigismuxd. a savant, 1759-18"" 
 GRUBER, J. D., a Flemish historian, 17 
 GRUEBER, J., an Italian missionary, " 
 GRUNjEUS, S., a Germ, historian, U 
 GRUNET, T. S., a Swiss naturalist, 
 GRUPERS, Ch. U., a Greek hist., 16 
 GRUTER, or GRYTERE, John, a dist. 
 and antiquarian of the Netherlands, 1560-1 
 GRYNJ1US, Simon, a German phil< 
 classical scholar, and theologian, 149 
 John James, his grandnephew, also a theolog 
 and biblical commentator, 1540-1618. 
 
 GRYPHIUS. And., a German dramatist, J 
 
 1664. His son Christian, a lrnd. wr., 164&9 
 
 GRYPHIUS, S., a German printer, 149ftfl 
 
 GUA-DE-MALYES, Jean Paul, a M 
 
 geometrician and economist, disting. in m 
 
 as the planner of the Encvclopedie, 1712-llH 
 
 GUADET, M. E., a French republican of 
 
 Girondist partv, executed at Bourdeaux, 1794 
 
 GUALANDI, J. B., an Italian transl., d. lj 
 
 GUALDO-PRIORATO, Galeazzo, an ltd 
 
 hist., an. of ' A Hist, of the Wars of Ferdinand 
 
 and Ferdinand III.,' 'Hist, of Leopold,' 1606-7 
 
 GUALTERUS, or GWALTHER, Rodolw 
 
 Swiss reformer, son-in-law of Zuinirlius. 1519- 
 
 GUALTIERI, N., an Ital. naturalist, d. Iff 
 
 GUARIN, P., a French Orientalist, 1678fl 
 
 GUARINI, C. G., an Ital. architect, 16 
 
 GUARINI, G., an Italian poet, 1537- 
 
 GUARINI, or GUARINO, a Latin I 
 
 scholar, dist. at the revival of learning, i 
 
 GUATIMOZIN, or QUAUTEMOTi 
 last king of Mexico, murdered by Cor 
 GUAY-TROUIN. See Duguay- 
 GUAZZESI, L., an Italian savant, 17 
 GUAZZO, Mark, an Italian histor' 
 GUAZZO, S., an Italian author, 15c 
 GUELDRE, Edward, first duke of 
 son of Renaud II., count of Nassau, 1?" 
 
 GUELF, or GUELPH, the name of a g 
 historical party or faction of the middle a 
 derived from the name of a familv connected * 
 the Saxon princes, and from winch the how 
 Brunswick is descended. The first of the 
 
 290 
 
GUE 
 :e of Bavaria, reigned 1071-1108. The second, 
 ) was his son and successor, died 1120. The 
 ties which divided Europe for so many ages 
 t the name of Guelphs and Ghibellines, after 
 battle of Weinberg in 1140, when the Saxon 
 iy was commanded by Welfon, or Guelph, bro- 
 r of duke Henry. The Guelphs may be regarded 
 dstory as the party of freedom and progress. 
 1UEXCE, Anth., a French author, 1717-1803. 
 WER, J. A., a miscel. French wr., 1713-1764. 
 MJERCHOIS, Mad., a relig. wr., 1679-1840. 
 ''rUERCINO. Giovanni Francesco Bar- 
 bi, commonly called Guercino from a cast in 
 eye, was born at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590 : 
 was self-taught He spent some time at Rome, 
 lived chiefly at Cento, until the death of 
 do in 1642, when he settled in Bologna, where 
 lied rich in 1666. Guercino was an imitator 
 laravaggio, and is one of the principal so-called 
 ebrosi masters, from the great depth and 
 kness of their shadows, but upon his settle- 
 t in Bologna he modified his manner, endea- 
 ring to bring it nearer to that of Guido. 
 seri, Vite d Pittori. &c; Malvasia, Felsina 
 rice.) [R.N.W.J 
 
 UERICKE, Otto Von, a German expen. 
 as., inventor of the air pump, &c, 1602-1686. 
 UERRA, J., an Italian architect, 1544-1618. 
 UERRERO, Vicente, one of the insurgent 
 fs of Spanish America, president of the Mexi- 
 repubhc in 1829, vanquished and shot by 
 ainenti in February, 1831. 
 UERRINO, T., an Italian mathemat., 17th c 
 UETTARD, J. S., a Fr. naturalist, 1715-86. 
 UEVARA, Anth., a Spanish prelate, cele- 
 ;d as an eloquent preacner, died 1544. His 
 lew, of the same name, a biblical commentator. 
 UEVARA, J. N. De, a Sp. painter. 1631-98. 
 UEVARA, Louis Velez De Las Duenas 
 Sp. novelist and dramatic author, 1574-1646. 
 UEVARA, Don Philip, a Spanish painter 
 nwriter on art, died 1563. His son Diego, a 
 inguished mathematician, died 1566. 
 JEVARA, S., a Spanish poet, 1558-1610. 
 JIBERT, a French historian, 1053-1124. 
 JIBERT, an anti-pope, elected 1080, d. 1110. 
 JIBERT, C. B., Count De, a French military 
 r, 1715-1786. His son, James Anthony 
 -olttus, a writer on tactics, 1743-1789. 
 JICCIARDINI, Francesco, an eminent 
 in historian and diplomatist, 1482-1540. 
 JICCIARDINI,LuiGi, a nephew of the illus- 
 J historian, au. of political works, 1521-1589. 
 JICHE, Armand, Count. See Gramont. 
 HCHE, Cl. De La, a Fr. prelate, d. 1555. 
 JICHE, J. F. De La, honourably known in 
 ist as the marshal de St. Geran, 1569-1632. 
 iUICHE, P. De La, a diplomatist, 1464-1544. 
 [JJICHE, Philibert De La, a distinguished 
 Kh soldier, commander of the artillery at the 
 feoflvry, 1540-1598. 
 JIDI, C. A., an Italian lyric poet, 1650-1712. 
 JIDI, L., a French theologian, 1710-1780. 
 pIDO, DAkezzo, an Ital. musician, 10th ct. 
 UIDO RENI, was born at Bologna in 1575, 
 ecame one of the most distinguished pupils 
 ) Carracci : he lived long in Rome, but settled 
 d died in his native place, 18th August, 
 
 GUI 
 
 was somewhat in the forcible manner of Caravag- 
 gio, he afterwards cultivated the ideal, and adopted 
 a rather silvery tone of colour. Guido, though in 
 the receipt of a princely income, from the enor- 
 mous and constant demand for his pictures, died 
 in debt : he was so embarrassed by his extravagant 
 habits that he used to sell his time at so much per 
 hour to the dealers, who on some occasions, it 
 seems, were so exacting as to stand by him, watch 
 in hand, to see that he performed the stipulated 
 amount of labour. There are eight pictures by 
 Guido in the National Gallery. He formed a con- 
 siderable school; the most celebrated of his 
 scholars was Simone Cantarini, called il Pesarese, 
 by whom there is a remarkable portrait of Guido 
 in the Gallery of Bologna. (Passeri, Vite de' Pit- 
 tori, &c; Malvasia, Felsina Piitrice, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 GUIDOTTI, Paolo, an Ital. paint., 1569-1629. 
 
 GUIENNE, Charles of France, duke of, br. 
 of Louis XL, and formerlv due de Berri, 1446-72. 
 
 GUIENNE, William, count of Poitiers, and 
 duke of, one of the earliest troubadours, 1071-1126. 
 
 GUIGNES, Joseph De, a Fr. Oriental scholar, 
 and historian of the Huns, Turks, &c, 1721-1800. 
 
 GUILD, William, a Scotch divine, 1586-1657. 
 
 GUILLAIN, S., a French sculptor, 1581-1658. 
 
 GUILLARD, N. F., a Fr. dramat., 1752-1814. 
 
 GUILLAMET, Ch. Axel, an archit. and man 
 of lett., b. at Stockholm of Fr. parents, 1730-1807. 
 
 GUILLAUMET, F., a surgical writer, 17th ct. 
 
 GUILLEMAIN, C. J., a Fr. dramat., 1750-99. 
 
 GUILLEMEAN, James, a celebrated French 
 writer on surgery, a pupil of Riolan, 1550-1613. 
 His son, Charles, a physician, 1588-1656. 
 
 GUILLEMINE, GUILLEMETTE, or GUIL- 
 LELMA, a female visionary, fndr. of a sect, 13th c. 
 
 GUILLEMINOT, Anne Charles, Count, a 
 native of Belgium, employed by Napoleon as am- 
 bassador, and by the due d'Angouleme, 1774-1840. 
 
 GUILLIAND, C, a French divine, 16th cent. 
 
 GUILLIM, John, an English writer on her- 
 aldry, whose great work, ' The Display of Heraldry,' 
 was really founded on a MS. presented to him by 
 Dr. Barcham, the author. Guillim was born about 
 1565, was appointed rouge-croix pursuivant of 
 arms 1617, and died 1621. 
 
 GUILLIMARM, F., a German historian and 
 savant, au. of ' De Rebus Helvetiorum,' &c, 16th c. 
 
 GUILLORE, G., a Fr. religious writer, d. 1684. 
 
 GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, a French 
 physician and deputy to the states-general, whose 
 name has been given to the instrument of death 
 which he caused to be brought into use from hu- 
 mane motives in the course of the French revolu- 
 tion, born at Saintes 1738, died 1814. 
 
 GUINET, F., a French jurisconsult, 1604-81. 
 
 GUIRAND, Cl., a French philosopher, d. 1657. 
 
 GUIRAND, G., a French antiquarian, 1600-80. 
 
 GUISARD, P., a Fr. surgical writer, 1700-46. 
 
 GUISCARD, Robert, first Norman duke of 
 Apulia and Calabria, died in Cephalonia 1085. 
 
 GUISCHARD, Ch. Gottlieb, a German 
 preacher, afterwards aid-de-camp to Frederick the 
 Great, and au. of works on milit. tactics, 1724-75. 
 
 GUISE, the name of an illustrious French 
 family, the founder of which was Claude, son of 
 Rene IL, duke of Lorraine, who obtained letters of 
 naturalization from Louis XII. 
 
 in 1506, distin- 
 He painted in various' styles, his earlier i guished himself at the battle of Marignano 1515, 
 
 291 
 
GUI 
 
 GUS 
 
 was created duke of Guise in Pieardy by Francis I. 
 in 1527, and died in 1550. The duke of Guise 
 having married into the roval family, one of his 
 daughters espoused James V. of Scotland, and be- 
 came the mother of Mary Stuart. His eldest son, 
 Francis, who succeeded to the dukedom, was 
 one of the most remarkable men of the age, and 
 was king of France in all but the name. He was 
 the chief of the catholic 'League,' opposed to 
 Conde and the Huguenots, and was assassinated 
 1563. The son and successor of the latter, 
 Henry Duke of Guise, born 1550, inherited the 
 power and ambition of his father, and was one of 
 the chief actors in the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew. He was assassinated by order of the king 
 1588. The brother of Francis, and uncle of Henry 
 duke of Guise, generally known as the Cardinal, 
 of Lorraine, was the minister of Francis II. 
 and Charles IX., and like the other members of 
 his family, a cruel bigot and persecutor of the pro- 
 testants, flourished 1525-1574. Charles, the 
 fourth duke of Guise, eldest son of Henry the 
 third duke, and Catherine of Cleves, became one of 
 
 the chiefs of the League three years after the death j resistance, and ultimately forced his enem 
 of his father, and was gov. of Provence, 1571-1640. | accede to a peace (1629), by which Sweden j 
 Henry of Lorraine, the fifth duke, who became important extension of her territory. At thi 
 generalissimo of the Neapolitan insurgents in the the emperor Ferdinand II. was engaged in 
 revolt against Spain, and afterwards grand cham- | of persecution against the protestants and tl 
 berlain of France, was born 1614, and died 1664. states of Germany. Sweden was an int 
 The sixth duke of Guise, known also as Louis 
 
 name are Gustavus (Vasa) I., born 
 elected king by the states after defeating 
 tian of Denmark 1523, abolished the I 
 Catholic religion 1529, demanded and obtain 
 succession in his family after subduing the 
 of the Dalecarlians 1555, died 1560. Gusi 
 (Adolphus) II. See next article. Guk 
 III., born 1746, succeeded 1771, shot by A 
 troem while preparing to inarch against the I 
 republic 1792. Gustavus (Adolphus) l\ 
 and successor of the latter, and like him, re 
 able for his chivalrous spirit and obstinate e 
 against the French ; deposed and banishi 
 country 1809, died in Switzerland, after wi 
 ing through the greater part of Europe undei 
 ous names, and in the most straitened ci 
 stances, 1837. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, born Decern 
 1594, succeeded his father, Charles IX., < 
 throne of Sweden, October 30, 1611. In tht 
 part of his reign, the Poles and Russians atl 
 Sweden ; but the young king, putting himt 
 the head of the Swedish army, made a 
 
 Joseph of Lorraine, and prince de Joinville, 
 a military officer under Louis XIV., flourished 
 1650-1671. The last of this house was a posthu- 
 mous son of the latter, who d. abt. four years aftw. 
 
 GUISE, Claude, a violent partizan of the 
 league, nat. son of Claude the first duke, d. 1612. 
 
 GUISE, William, an English divine, 1653-84. 
 
 GUITON, John, a patriot of Rochelle, 1626. 
 
 GUITTONE, an Italian poet, 13th century. 
 
 GUIZOT, Elizabeth Charlotte Pauline 
 de Meulan, Madame, wife of the distinguished 
 statesman, author of novels and works for youth, 
 1773-1827. Margaret Eliza Dilson, niece 
 of the preceding, and second wife of M. Guizot, 
 also an authoress, 1804-1833. 
 
 GULDENSTAEDT, John Anthony, a fam- 
 ous Russian traveller and naturalist, 1745-1781. 
 
 GULDINUS, P., a Germ, mathema., 1577-1643. 
 
 GUMILLA, P. J., a Span, missionary, last ct. 
 
 GUNDLING, J. P., a Ger. statesm., 1673-1731. 
 
 GUNDLING, N. J., a Ger. philoso., 1671-1729. 
 
 GUNDULF, a Norman ecclesiastic and archi- 
 tect, time of William the Conqueror, builder of the 
 Tower of London and Rochester castle, died 1108. 
 
 GUNNER, John Ernest, bishop of Dron- 
 theim in Norway, disting. as a botanist, 1718-73. 
 
 GUNNING, P., an English prelate, 1613-1684. 
 
 GUNST, P. Van, a Dutch engraver, last cent. 
 
 GUNTER, Edmund, an English mathematician 
 and astronomer, inventor of a famous rule of pro- 
 portion known as Gunter's scale, 1581-1626. 
 
 GUNTHER, J. C, a German poet, 1695-1723. 
 
 GUNTHER, J. C, a Ger. natural., 1769-1833. 
 
 GUNZ, J. G., a German anatomist, 1714-1754. 
 
 GURTLER, N., a Swiss protest, wr., 1654-1711. 
 
 GURWOOD, Colonel John, sec. to the duke 
 of Wellington, and editor of his despatches, d. 1845. 
 
 GUSMAN, Lewis, a Span, missionary, d. 1605. 
 
 GUSTAVUS. The kings of Sweden of this 
 
 protestant country, and could not behold wi 
 difference the rapid strides which the I 
 Catholic despot oi Austria, aided by the poj 
 the king of Spain, was making towards the 
 pation of European civil and religious li 
 Austria had given special provocation to Gtu 
 by aiding his enemies against him during the '. 
 war, and he resolved to come forward as the < 
 pion of the protestant cause against her. Gui 
 Adolphus landed in Pomerama on 24th June, 
 with only 8,000 men. He was reinforced I 
 English and Scottish regiments, under the di 
 Hamilton ; and, at the head of this little foi 
 essayed to rescue the German protestants 
 the powerful and long -victorious armies of 
 and the other imperialist generals. Gustavi 
 vanced, and was splendidly successful, thott 
 met death in less than three years from hi 
 planting his foot on German ground. Naj 
 has well said of him, that ' notwithstandiii 
 shortness of his career, it is one of great rac 
 tions, in consequence of the boldness and ra 
 of his movements, and the discipline and in 
 dity of his troops. Gustavus Adolphus wai 
 mated by the principles of Alexander, Han 
 and Caesar.' Such is his praise, merely in a 
 tary point of view his moral glory is still higl 
 Gustavus, m 1630, conquered Rugen and Pol 
 nia. In the following year he formed an al 
 with the Saxons, and completely defeated the 
 Austrian army under Tilly at Leipzig. He 
 them a second overthrow nearthe river Lech, in 
 Tilly was slain ; and all Germany was now o; 
 to the Swedish arms. The Austrian empero 
 recalled his celebrated general Wallenstem tc 
 the Roman Catholic troops ; and thi 
 fought his third great battle against the imp 
 ists under Wallenstein's command at Lutzei 
 November, 1632. Gustavus gave out Ln 
 hymn to his army before engaging ; he le 
 
 292 
 
GUT 
 
 ds himself ; and then he led his cavalry into 
 
 critical part of the fight. He was shot dead 
 y in the battle, bnt his army gained a complete 
 or y. Gustavus Adolphus was simple in his 
 its, pure and just in all his dealings, and un- 
 nedly earnest in his religion. He was inade- 
 tely praised when he was named ' one of the best 
 
 that ever wore a crown.' [E.S.C.] 
 
 UTBIEN, Giles, a German Orient., 1617-67. 
 
 UTCH, John, an Engl, antiquar., 1745-1831. 
 
 0THRIE, W., a Scotch miscel. wr., 1708-70. 
 
 UTLER, N., a German savant, 1654-1711. 
 
 UTTEMBERG, C., a Ger. engrav., 1741-90. 
 
 [Statue of Guttenberg at Mayence.] 
 
 UTTENBERG, or GUTENBERG, John, a 
 
 I re of Sulgeloch, near Mentz in Germany, was 
 
 n in 1400, and died on the 24th of February 
 
 V L He is supposed to have made his first ex- 
 
 nents in the art of printing with moveable 
 
 5 between 1434 and 1439, but it was in 1443 
 
 he turned his invention to account, and brought 
 
 ] himself the persecution of the priests and 
 
 ts. There are some points not cleared up in 
 
 i listory of this invention, but it is now gener- 
 
 igreed that the honour belongs to John Gut- 
 
 Tg, and a society named after him meets 
 
 y m his native city, where, also, a beautiful 
 
 e by Thorwalsden has been erected to his 
 
 JTZIKOW, a Russian musician, 1806-1837. 
 JY, Thomas, the founder of the hospital of 
 name, which he built and endowed at an ex- 
 of nearly a quarter of a million sterling, was 
 1644, and accumulated his immense fortune, 
 arly twice that amount, by stock-jobbing and 
 ttrchase of seamen's tickets. He was also the 
 of alms-houses and a library at Tamworth, 
 great benefactor of Christ's Hospital, and 
 of 80,000 to be divided amongst his 
 He died in 1724. 
 _ ARD, Adelaide, a Fr. pain., 1749-1803. 
 JYARD, Anth., a French monk, 1692-1770. 
 fYARD, B., a French theologian, 1601-1674. 
 fY ARD, J., a Fr. historian, died about 1600 
 WARD, L., a French sculptor, 1723-1788. 
 JYET, Ch., a learned Jesuit, 1601-1664. 
 
 GUY 
 
 GUYET, Fr., a French critic, 1575-1655. 
 
 GUYETANT, J. F., a French surgeon, known 
 as a topographical and medical writer, 1742-1816. 
 
 GUYON, Claude Marie, a French historian, 
 author of a ' History of Empires and Republics,' 
 &c, 1699-1771. 
 
 GUYON. Madame Jeanne Marie Rouviers 
 De La Mothe Guion, or Guyon, was a French 
 lady of good family, born at Montargis 1642, 
 where also she was married at the age of fifteen, 
 and in thirteen years afterwards left a widow with 
 three children. Her marriage was not a happy 
 one, in consequence of the tyranny of her husband 
 and mother-in-law, who, acting under the advice 
 of her confessors, endeavoured to withdraw her 
 from the inward prayer and retirement to which, 
 at the age of twenty, she began to addict herself. 
 On the death of her husband she sequestered the 
 greater part of her fortune as a provision for the 
 education of her children, and completely aban- 
 doned herself to the life of mystic piety, or ' per- 
 fect contemplation,' generally known as Quietism, 
 and of which we shall give an account in the ar- 
 ticle Molinos. Her experiences are related with 
 extraordinary candour and graphic simplicity in her 
 ' Autobiography,' and are further illustrated in the 
 'Torrents,' written at Annecy, and contained in the 
 2 volumes of her ' Opuscules. She was at Grenoble, 
 on her way to Paris, when she found herself ' sud- 
 denly invested,' as she expresses herself, ' with the 
 apostolic state,' and able to discern the condition 
 of those that spake with her, so that, one sending 
 another, she was occupied from six in the morning 
 till eight at night speaking of divine things. 
 ' There came,' she says, ' great numbers from all 
 parts, far and near, friars, priests, men of all sorts, 
 young women, married women, and widows ; they 
 all came one after the other, and God gave me that 
 which satisfied them in a wonderful manner, without 
 my thinking or caring at all about it. Nothing was 
 hidden from me of their inward state and condition. 
 . . . . I perceived and felt that what I spake 
 came from the fountain-head, and that I was only 
 the instrument of Him who made me speak.' On 
 reaching Paris she was thrown into prison, loaded 
 with the vilest calumnies, by the connivance of 
 her friends the priests, and endured altogether not 
 less than twenty years of persecution, confinement, 
 and exile. The great enemy of Madame Guyon 
 and the system of Quietism was Bossuet, while for 
 her champion she had the noble-hearted, eloquent, 
 and illustrious Fenelon. She was liberated from her 
 last confinement, in the Bastile, in 1702, and passed 
 the remainder of her life at Blois, where she died 
 1717. Her complete works were published by 
 Poiret in 39 vols. 8vo, and they comprise, besides 
 those mentioned above, ' The Song of Songs, Inter- 
 preted According to its Mystical Sense,' and several 
 volumes of hymns remarkable for their graceful 
 composition, and exquisite sensibility. Some of 
 these were translated by Cowper. The life of 
 Madame Guyon is not only a religious study, but a 
 psychological one of very considerable interest. It 
 is the history of a soul, humbled and polluted in its 
 own sight, journeying through the gates of the 
 mystic death, hating its own freedom and its own 
 intelligence, struggling through the unclean places 
 through which it is forced to pass, and at last arriv- 
 ing in the presence of its Divine lover stripped of 
 
 293 
 
GUY 
 
 all, even its virtues as serene, as motionless as the 
 eye of eternity. Though the system of Quietism 
 is a protest against visions, revelations, ecstacies, 
 and transports of all kinds, whether sensual or 
 spiritual, yet the experiences of Madame Guyon 
 are really a love story, and one which she pursues 
 in her writings with a fearlessness as remarkable 
 in such a woman as the purity of her imagina- 
 tion. [E.R.] 
 
 GUYON, L., a Fr. medical writer, died 1630. 
 
 GUYON, S., an ecclesiastical hist., 1595-1657. 
 
 GUYS, J. B., a French antiquarian, 1611-1693. 
 
 GUYS, Peter Augustine, a French merchant, 
 author of a ' Literary Journey into Greece,' &c, 
 1721-1799. His son, Peter Alphonso, a dip- 
 lomatist and political writer, 1755-1812. 
 
 GUYSE, James De, a French annalist and 
 antiquarian writer, died 1399. 
 
 GUYSE, John, an English Calvin., 1680-1761. 
 
 GUYTON DE MORVEAU, Louis Bernard, 
 a learned French chemist, and republican deputy 
 to the legislative assembly and the convention, 
 member of the Committee of Public Safety and the 
 council of 500, and in the time of Napoleon one of 
 the administrators-general of the mint, and direc- 
 tor of the Polytechnic School. He is the discov. of 
 the means of destroying infection by acid vapours, 
 and auth. of various' chemical writings, 1736-1816. 
 
 GUZMAN, Alfonso Perez De, a celebrated 
 Spanish captain, ancestor of the house of Medina 
 Sidona, 1258-1320. Others of the same house are 
 
 HAG 
 
 distinguished in Spanish history, the chii 
 whom are Henry, known in the war of Gre 
 1494. His son, of the same name, distingu 
 in Africa 1497, lost Gibraltar, rebelled and d 
 disgrace 1508. And the son of the latter, a 
 the same name, and successor of his comma 
 the revolt, reconciled to Ferdinand II., ki 
 Arragon, after ravaging Andalusia, 1514. 
 
 GUZMAN, Louise De, regent of Portugal 
 the death of her husband, King John, 1656-1 
 
 GWILYM, David Ap, a W bard, 1340-1 
 
 GWINNE, Matthew, author of 'Lette 
 Chemical and Magical Secrets,' died 1627. 
 
 GYGES, a king of Lydia, 718-680 B.C. 
 
 GYLIPPUS, a Greek commander, 414 b.c 
 
 GYLLENBORG, Charles, Count, a Sw 
 senator and man of letters, ambassador in Lc 
 when Charles XII. projected the invasion of 
 land, high chancellor of Sweden in 1719, 
 foreign minister in 1739, died 1746. His brol 
 John, Otho, and Frederic, are also celebi 
 the Jirst as a military officer under Charles 
 the second as a literary savant and poet, an< 
 third for his zealous promotion of useful k 
 ledge. It was in the house of Frederic Gyllei 
 that the first sittings of the Academy of Sci< 
 founded in Stockholm in 1740, were held. 
 
 GYLLENHIELM, Charles, Baron De, 
 tural son of Charles IX., and grand admu 
 Sweden, 1574-1650. 
 
 GYZEN, Peter, a Flemish painter, born 
 
 H 
 
 HAAFNER, M., a Dutch writer, author of tra- 
 vels in India and the Island of Ceylon, died 1809. 
 
 HAAK, Theodore, a Germ, savant, 1605-90. 
 
 HAAREN, W. Van., a Dutch poet and diplo- 
 matist, 1700-1763. A member of the same family, 
 named Onno Zwier Van Haaren, also a poet, 
 and author of ' Christianity in Japan,' 1713-1779. 
 
 HAAS, J. M., a Ger. geographi. wr., 1684-1742. 
 
 HAAS, William, a letter-founder and printer 
 of Basle, disting. for his improvements, 1741-1800. 
 
 HABAKKUK, a Jewish prophet, 600 B.C. 
 
 HABERKORN, P., a Ger. divine, 1604-1676. 
 
 HABERLIN, F. D., a German historian, 1720- 
 1787. His son, Ch. Frederic, a jurist, d. 1808. 
 
 HABERT, Francis, a French poet, 16th cent. 
 
 HABERT, Isaac, a Fr. controver., died 1668. 
 
 HABERT, Louis, a Jansenist wr., 1635-1718. 
 
 HABERT, Philip, a French artillery officer 
 and man of letters, 1605-1637. His brother, Ger- 
 main, an ecclesiastic and poet, 1610-1655. 
 
 HABICOT, Nich., a Fr. anatomist, 1550-1624. 
 
 HABINGTON, Thomas, a political character, 
 implicated in the conspiracy of Babington, known 
 in literature as the collector of materials for 
 Nash's history of Worcestershire, died 1647. 
 
 HABINGTON, W., an English poet, 1605-45. 
 
 HACAN, fifth caliph of Bagdad, 660-669. 
 
 HACAN, a prince of Mauritania, regn., 954-985. 
 
 HACAN-BEN-AL-HACAN. See Alhazan. 
 
 HACAN-BEN-SABBAH, the founder of a poli- 
 tical and relig. sect of Persia, whose successors are 
 kn. as the 'Old Men of the Mountain,' 1050-1124. 
 
 HACAN-BURZUK, caliph of Bagdad, d. 1356. 
 
 HACHETTE, Jane, a French heroine of 1472. 
 
 HACHETTE, J. N. P., a French math 
 
 tician, au. of ' Descriptive Geometry,' 1769-1! 
 
 HACKAERT, J., a Dutch painter, died 16 
 
 HACKERT, J. P., a German painter, 17$ 
 
 HACKET, John, bishop of Lichfield, autl 
 
 'A Century of Sermons,' 'Loyola,' &c, 1592-] 
 
 HACQUET, B., a French natural., 1740-1 
 
 HADDOCK, Sir R., a British admiral, d. 
 
 HADDON, Walter, an English lawyer, 
 
 thor of several Latin poems, &c, 1516-1572. 
 
 HADJI-KHALFA, a Turkish savant, 1601 
 
 HADLEY, John, inv. of the quadrant, <L 1 
 
 HADORPH, J., a Swed. antiquary, 1630-1 
 
 HAEBERLIN, F. D., a Germ, histor., 172l 
 
 HAEN, Anth. Van, a Dutch physic, 170' 
 
 HAENDEL, G. F., a Ger. composer, 1684-1 
 
 HAFFNER, H., an Italian painter, 1640-1 
 
 His son, Anthony, a painter, 1654-1732. 
 
 HAFIZ, Mohammed Shems-Ed-Dek 
 
 celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz at th< 
 
 ginning of the 14th century. His odes and h 
 
 compositions have been translated by Sir W. J< 
 
 Richardson, and others, and are universallj 
 
 mired. He is supposed to have died about 13 
 
 HAGEDORN, Frederic Von, a celebi 
 
 German poet, author of songs, fables, tales, 
 
 moral poems, 1708-1754. His brother, Ch 
 
 tian Louis, a writer on art, 1712-1780. 
 
 HAGEN, John Van, a Dutch painter, 171 
 
 HAGEN, J. G., a German savant, 1710-17 
 
 HAGENBACH, J. G., a Swiss antiq., 17(K 
 
 HAGER, J. Von, an Ital. Oriental., 1750-1 
 
 HAGUE, Dr. Charles, an eminent En; 
 
 composer, and professor at Cambridge, 1769-1 
 
 294 
 
HAH 
 
 HAHN, L. P., a German tragedian, 1746-1787. 
 
 HAHN, P. M., a Ger. mechanician, 1739-1790. 
 | HAHN, S. F., a German historian, 1692-1729. 
 
 HAHNEMANN, Samuel, the founder of hom- 
 bpathy, was born of poor parents at Meissen, in 
 kxony, 1755, and received his diploma as doctor 
 1 physic at Heidelberg, in 1781. The same year 
 [(pointed district physician at Gomehn, 
 
 ar Magdeburg, and continued his studies in 
 iemistry and mineralogy with all the ardour of 
 it enthusiast. In 1784, he removed to Dresden, 
 id soon afterwards abandoned the practice of 
 lysic in disgust, and confined himself to his 
 ivate researches in chemistry and literature, 
 lese studies began to acquire a fixed direction in 
 '90, and in 1796 he commenced the record of 
 eir results in the journal of his friend Hufeland, 
 
 an article entitled ' Essay on a New Principle, 
 z.' In 1805 he published his ' Medicine of 
 sperience,' and in 1810 his ' Organon of Rational 
 edicine,' in which the new doctrine was reduced 
 
 a system, and methodically illustrated. In a 
 cond edition, published 1819, the title of this 
 :>rk was abbreviated, and became the ' Organon 
 
 Medicine.' A third edition appeared in 1824, 
 d was translated into English nine years after- 
 ards. It was followed by a fourth edition in 
 S29, and a fifth in 1833 (translated by Dr. 
 tidgeon), each of which embodied fresh results, 
 id enlarged the field which this indefatigable 
 perimentalist had undertaken to cultivate. While 
 is and the other works of the author mentioned 
 :low were making their way silently over Europe, 
 ahnemann himself was experiencing the usual 
 te of the world's benefactor. In 1813 he had 
 moved from Dresden to Leipzig, where he was 
 rsecuted by the apothecaries as an empiric, and 
 is had risen to such a height by 1820, that he 
 is glad to avail himself of the protection offered 
 
 him by the duke of Anhalt Cothen. In the 
 me year he published his ' Pure Medicine ' in 6 
 k 8vo, and in 1829 his ' Theory of Chronic 
 aladies, and the Proper Medicines for them,' in 
 vols., which were enlarged to 6 vols, in a second 
 ition, 1840. In the meantime, his domestic 
 rcumstances were changed for the better by his 
 wrriage in 1835 with a French lady, in whose 
 fmpany he removed from Cothen to Paris, at the 
 p of eighty. Hahnemann remained in Paris till 
 s death in 1843, and had the satisfaction to hear 
 at homoeopathy was about to have a chair at the 
 uversity of Vienna, and that hospitals were 
 t)posed in London, in Berlin, and in many cities 
 
 Austria. The principles of his therapeutic 
 form for such it undoubtedly is may be de- 
 ribed as a recognition of derangements in the 
 tal or spiritual force of the body, whether 
 :casioned or not by material influences, as the 
 Hmary causes of disease ; the cure of which is by 
 ie reaction of the vital force against the remedy. 
 he application of this theory consists 1st, in 
 ie discovery ; and 2d, in the preparation of 
 )ecific remedies corresponding to every species of 
 morrnal action, and such remedies are found 
 )th in theory and practice to be the assimulates 
 
 the disease or medicines by which precisely 
 ie same symptoms would be produced. The 
 ^ason of the cure is difficult to express in few 
 ords, and illustrations far below the refined 
 
 HAL 
 
 philosophy on which it depends have been used by 
 professional writers. According to the terms of 
 the theory, the medicines may be considered as 
 diffusing themselves with a gentle but irresistible 
 force, like that of light, between the mortal cor- 
 ruption and the vital spirit in combat with it, and 
 being more subtle than the disease, and yet like 
 it, they engage the vital force in a quicker and 
 more decisive conflict, and then gradually yielding 
 before it, as their own virtue expires, the vital 
 force is liberated, and, as a matter of course, re- 
 sumes its normal action. This explanation, how- 
 ever, is only half the truth, for it is well known 
 that fluids "in effervescence are reduced to rest 
 by the satisfaction of what may be called the 
 hunger of one body for another, and something of 
 this kind may take place when the assimulate is 
 introduced to the disease. Be the explanation 
 what it may, the discovery of the facts by years of 
 
 Eatient and often painful experience, is the title of 
 [ahnemann to the gratitude of society. He 
 proved the virtue of an immense number of 
 assimulates by testing their effects on himself and 
 friends, and displayed equal art in the method of 
 their refinement. His ' Organon of Medicine ' not 
 only raises the art of healing to the rank of an 
 exact science, but renders it an elegant and philo- 
 sophical study ; while the facilities of its practical 
 application have been carried to such perfection, 
 especially by his followers in this country, that 
 many mothers of families have become expert 
 homoeopathic physicians, and rarely require the aid 
 of a practitioner. Besides the works mentioned, 
 Hahnemann is the author of some two hundred 
 treatises on medical and physical science. [E.R.] 
 
 HAI-GAOU, an Egyptian rabbin, died 1038. 
 
 HAILLAN, Bernard De Girard, Seigneur 
 Du, a Fr. histor., time of Charles IX., 1535-1610. 
 
 HAINES, J., an English comedian, last cent. 
 
 HAKEM-BAMFJLLAH, a Fatimite caliph of 
 Egypt, noted for his despotism, reigned 996-1021. 
 
 HAKEWILL, G., a learned divine, 1579-1649. 
 
 HAKEWILL, H. J., an Engl, sculpt., 1813-33. 
 
 HAKLUYT, R., an Eng. naval hist., 1553-1616. 
 
 HALDANE, Robert, Esq., was the eldest son 
 of James Haldane Esq., of Airthrey in Stirling, and 
 Catherine Duncan, sister of the hero of Camper- 
 down. He was born in London, 28th February, 1764. 
 Both of his parents having died at an early period, 
 he and his brotherwere placed underthe guardianship 
 of their maternal uncles at Lundie. Thence they 
 were removed to the High School, and subsequently 
 studied for a few sessions at the university of Edin- 
 burgh. Although heir to a large property, Robert's 
 active and enterprising mind pointed to the naval 
 profession, and so passionate a desire had he con- 
 ceived for a seafaring life, that his friends at length 
 gave their consent, and he entered the Monarch as 
 a midshipman under the command of his uncle. 
 Subsequently he was connected with Sir John 
 Jervis as an officer on board the Foudroyant, and 
 both from his energy of character, and his familiar 
 knowledge of the French language, was intrusted 
 with many difficult and delicate commissions during 
 the war. On the re-establishment of peace in 
 1783, Mr. Haldane transferred his services for a 
 time to a commercial company, for whom he per- 
 formed a voyage to Newfoundland, and a second 
 to Lisbon ; returning to Scotland, he relinquished 
 
 295 
 
HAL 
 
 the naval profession, and established himself at 
 Airthrey, where for a period of ten years, he fol- 
 lowed the pursuits of a country gentleman, his 
 whole time being occupied in the improvement of 
 his estate, or in the management of county and 
 parochial affairs. Like many persons of an ardent 
 temperament, he welcomed with enthusiasm the 
 outbreak of the great French revolution, and in the 
 excitement produced throughout this country by 
 that political convulsion, roused against himself, 
 by the too open avowal of his opinions, the jealousy 
 and suspicion of the ruling party. A subject of 
 infinitely higher moment than politics, however, 
 now began to engross his attention. Led to the 
 serious study of religion, he conducted his inquiries 
 with characteristic ardour and perseverance, till 
 having at length attained to enlightened and ma- 
 ture views of Scriptural truth, he appeared before 
 the world an evangelical Christian. His pursuits 
 as well as his character were entirely changed, and 
 he resolved on dedicating his future life to diffuse, 
 as a missionary in foreign lands, the gospel which 
 had imparted so much peace and joy to himself. 
 India was the chosen field of labour, and having 
 secured the promised co-operation of Messrs. Innes, 
 Ewing, and Bogue of Gosport, to whom he guaran- 
 teed adequate stipends while abroad, and the sum 
 of 3,500 if compelled by bad health or other 
 causes to return, he applied to the Indian govern- 
 ment to sanction his enterprise. Missions being 
 at that time scarcely known in the country, it 
 was suspected that some sinister object was con- 
 cealed under the name, and the com! of the East 
 India Company Directors, after much deliberation, 
 resolved that the superstitions of Hindostan should 
 not be disturbed. Disappointed in this bold and 
 original scheme of Christian benevolence, Mr. Hal- 
 dane determined to employ his resources in spread- 
 ing the gospel at home, and in conjunction with 
 Rowland Hill, Mr. Simeon of Cambridge, and 
 others, he produced an extraordinary revival of 
 religion throughout Scotland. Mr. Haldane now 
 seceded from the Established Church, and at his 
 own expense, erected places of worship under the 
 name of Tabernacles in all the large towns, and 
 educated 300 young men under Dr. Bogue and Mr. 
 Ewing, as preachers to officiate in these meeting- 
 houses. Another scheme which originated with 
 him had for its object the evangelization of Africa. 
 To commence this undertaking, he procured thirty 
 young children to be brought from Sierra Leone to 
 receive a Christian education at his expense, and 
 gave a bond for 7,000 for their board and educa- 
 tion, which, however, the friends of emancipation 
 in London undertook to defray. Many other plans 
 of Christian usefulness both at home and on the 
 continent are traceable to the untiring zeal of this 
 pious gentleman. His personal labours in awaken- 
 ing a religious spirit in the south of France, were 
 successful beyond his own most sanguine expecta- 
 tions; and both at Geneva and Montauban, he 
 sowed the seeds of truth which are bearing good 
 fruit to this day in the protestant churches of 
 France. Mr. Haldane took a prominent part in 
 the management of the Continental Society and 
 the Bible Society of Edinburgh ; and in the painful 
 controversy relative to the circulation of the Apo- 
 crypha by the British and Foreign Bible Society, 
 which led to the establishment of the latter. He was 
 
 HAL 
 
 the author of 'The Evidences of Christianity,' ' . 
 Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans,' a 
 various other religious works of minor importan 
 His character was highly esteemed during 1 
 and his name will be transmitted to posterity 
 connection with the revival of evangelical relig 
 in Scotland at the beginning of the present a 
 tury. He died 12th December, 1842. [R., 
 
 HALDANE, James Alexander, Esq., v 
 brother of the preceding. He was born at Di 
 dee, 14th July, 1768. Having imbibed the fan 
 passion for the sea, he was entered in his sevi 
 teenth year a midshipman in the Duke of Mi 
 trose, bound on a voyage to Bombay and Chi 
 He had made three other voyages to the sa 
 countries, when having proved his possess 
 of the requisite qualifications, he was appoin 
 captain of the Melville Castle. The vessel, ho 
 ever, did not sail for four months ; and during tl 
 interval, a great change took place in Capt 
 Haldane's character. He became serious t 
 thoughtful on the subject of religion ; and har 
 determined to follow the example of his brotl 
 who had already relinquished the seafaring life, 
 disposed of his command for 9,000, and his sh 
 in the property of the ship and stores for 6,( 
 more. With this fortune of 15,000 he reti 
 with his wife to Scotland in 1794, and gave hi 
 self up to those religious inquiries which now i 
 
 frossed his chief concern. Several years elap 
 efore his views were established. But at leni 
 he attained to a knowledge of the truth as well 
 peace in believing; and the cases of both 
 brothers Haldane, whose minds retained a d 
 impression of their mother's piety and prayi 
 must be added to the long list of testimonies i 
 might be adduced to show the advantages of 
 early religious education. Mr. James Halda 
 having plenty of time at command, occupied hi 
 self with many plans of Christian usefulne 
 amongst which, the opening of Sabbath scha 
 and itinerant preaching, at first in the villa 
 around Edinburgh, and afterwards in the ot 
 large towns of Scotland, were the chief. 1 
 principal coadjutor in these labours of love l 
 John Campbell, the African traveller. In co 
 pany with that zealous Christian, Mr. Hald 
 made successive tours .throughout all Scotland 
 far as Orkney ; and those who were awakened 
 their preaching, were, through the liberality of ] 
 Robert Haldane, accommodated with suita 
 places of worship. Mr. James eventually accep 
 the office of stated pastor in the Tabernacle, Le 
 Walk, Edinburgh ; and in that capacity he ex 
 cised, without any emolument, all the public i 
 private duties of a minister with unbroken fide! 
 and zeal for a period of fifty years. Although 
 vacillated on some points of church governme 
 he and his brother remained steadfast in their | 
 herence to the general principles of the Sco 
 baptists. He was the author of various fugil 
 pieces on the religious controversies of the til 
 But the memory of his name in the world, will 
 preserved chiefly by the 'living epistles,' wh 
 were the fruits of his evangelical labours, 
 died in Edinburgh, 8th February, 1851. [R. 
 HALDE, John Baptist Du. See Duhau 
 HALE, Sir Matthew, a judge and consti 
 tional lawyer, was born in Gloucestershire on 
 
 296 
 
HAL 
 
 November, 1609. Brought up among the puritans, 
 vhile receiving an Oxford education, his early life 
 eems to have vibrated between rigidity and ex- 
 ess. It was through the auspices of Serjeant 
 ilynn that his attention was turned to the bar, 
 nd he entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1629. In the 
 tormy times which followed, he held a more con- 
 picuous place than one of his neutral and studi- 
 es character generally obtains amid political con- 
 ulsions. He was a hard student, and a thorough 
 iwyer, both in the constitutional department and 
 hat of private rights and obligations. In 1653 he 
 ras made one of the judges of the Common Bench, 
 s it was termed under the Commonwealth. His 
 aund excuse for accepting this appointment, that 
 be administration of justice is an honourable and 
 seful occupation, whether the ruling power for 
 le time be valid, or not, has been often cited, 
 [is friends said less for his candour and honesty 
 hen they defended him, on the ground that he 
 lad evaded any formal announcement of allegiance 
 j) the Protectorate. He seemed to have misgiv- 
 hgs of his own, for he at one time refused to act 
 \i a criminal judge while performing his civil 
 imctions, and he would not hold office under 
 lichard Cromwell. Indeed, with all his capacity 
 nd his incorruptible honesty, a rare quality on 
 pe bench in his day, it is shown by his supersti- 
 ious cruelty on a celebrated witchcraft trial, and by 
 fher incidents, that his mind was subject to way- 
 ard caprices. He was made chief baron of the 
 cchequer at the Restoration, and chief justice of 
 le King's Bench in 1671. He d. in 1676. [J.H.B.] 
 HALEM, G. A., a Germ, publicist, 1752-1819. 
 HALES, Alexander, an English friar, dist. 
 a scholastic divine and philosopher, 13th cent. 
 HALES, John, an able scholar and divine of 
 le Church of England, remarkable for the free- 
 nn of his opinions, and for that reason classed 
 nong the latitudinarians. He was born at Bath 
 1584, and educated at Oxford, where he became 
 ofessor of Greek, and assisted Sir Henry Savile 
 editing his edition of the works of Chrysostom. 
 fter a life of considerable hardship, partly occa- 
 the civil wars, and partly by his inde- 
 ndence of thought, he died at Eton, in poor cir- 
 unstances, 1656. The writings by which he is 
 [town were published after his decease, and en- 
 tled 'Golden Remains of the Ever Memorable 
 k. John Hales of Eton College.' Among these 
 bers is an interesting account of the Synod of 
 )rt, at which Mr. Hales was present as an ob- 
 rver. At this synod the representatives of the 
 lglish Church advocated the universality of the 
 sdemption, and their arguments had the effect of 
 rning Hales from his previously rigid Calvinism. 
 here is a quaintness and vigour in his style of 
 riting which gives a somewhat fiavourish quality 
 lden Remains,' and though he has been 
 Bled a trimmer, he is often severe enough upon 
 le formalists of his day. [E.R.] 
 
 BALES, or HAYLES, John, a classical scho- 
 K translator, and government employe, d. 1572. 
 HALES, Steph., an Eng. nat. phil., 1677-1761. 
 HAL FORD, Sir Hen., Baronet, an eminent phy- 
 rian, whose paternal name was Vaughan, au. of 
 ] Tofessional works and essays, 1766-1844. 
 11 ALII ED, Nathaniel Brassey, an Oriental 
 polar, au. of a ' Bengalee Grammar,' 1751-1830. 
 
 HAL 
 
 HALI-BEIGH, a Polish captain, educated in 
 Turkey, and distinguished as a linguist, died 1675. 
 
 HALIFAX, George Saville, marquis of, a 
 celebrated English statesman, promoter of the 
 restoration, president of the council in the time of 
 James II., and lord privy seal under William and 
 Mary. He is the author of various small works, 
 'The Character of a Trimmer,' 'Advice to a 
 Daughter,' ' The Anatomy of an Equivalent,' &c. 
 Lord Halifax was also the author of ' Memoirs,' 
 which were destroyed in MS., 1630-1695. 
 
 HALKET, Lady Anne, an English lady, re- 
 markable for her studies in theology and medicine, 
 author of ' The Mother's Will,' &c, 1622-1699. 
 
 HALL, Anthony, a learned divine, 1679-1723. 
 
 HALL, Captain Basil, a well-known writer 
 of voyages and travels, descriptive of his adven- 
 tures and the places visited, chiefly in the Indian 
 seas, and the southern coasts of America. Born at 
 Edinburgh 1788, died in confinement on account 
 of insanity, 1844. 
 
 HALL, Edward, an English annalist, d. 1547. 
 
 HALL, George, son of Joseph Hall, and bishop 
 of Chester, author of sermons, &c, 1612-1668. 
 
 HALL, Henry, a learned divine, 1716-1763. 
 
 HALL, Sir James, baronet of Dunglass, an. of 
 an ' Essay on Gothic Architecture,' &c, 1760-1832. 
 
 HALL, John, an English poet, 1627-1656. 
 
 HALL, Joseph, D.D., the pious bishop of 
 Norwich, was born at Ashby-de-fa-Zouch, in the 
 county of Leicester. Directing his views towards 
 the Church of England, he was entered a student 
 of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, _ and in the 
 course of time obtained a fellowship. It was 
 during his residence in that seat of learning, he 
 published his satires and many other poetical 
 pieces, which spread his fame far and wide. But 
 ne abandoned the muses, having resolved to devote 
 his chief attention to divinity, and in due time, 
 being licensed to preach, was appointed rector of 
 Halsted in Suffolk. In that rural retreat he com- 
 posed his Contemplations,' which procured him 
 the patronage of Prince Henry, and the rectory of 
 Waltham. He was ere long called to mourn over 
 the untimely death of that excellent prince and to 
 preach his funeral sermon, which has been pre- 
 served in the collection of his published writings, 
 and abounds with passages of touching pathos and 
 fervent piety. Mr. Hall was a man of very devo- 
 tional habits, to fortify which he made a most rigid 
 distribution of his time, having set hours for 
 prayer, for reading divinity, for general literature 
 and composition ; and so intense was his ardour 
 in the pursuit of intellectual and spiritual improve- 
 ment, that for a time he observed the strictest 
 abstemiousness, taking for a while only one meal 
 a-day. In 1616, he went to Paris as chaplain to 
 the English ambassador. On his return he was 
 appointed by King James to the deanery of Wor- 
 cester, and in the following year he accompanied 
 his royal master into Scotland, when that monarch 
 made a progress into the northern part of his king- 
 dom to prosecute his imprudent scheme of erecting 
 episcopacy on the ruins of presbyterianism. None 
 of' the unpopularity, however, of that measure fell 
 upon Hall, whose pious character and temperate 
 principles secured nim the esteem and respect of 
 the most eminent Scotchmen of the day. From 
 leaving Scotland, he was commanded to go ovef 
 297 
 
EAL 
 
 into Holland to attend the S)Tiod of Dort, which 
 was held in 1618. But the protracted meetings 
 of that famous convocation made a sad inroad on 
 his health, and after an assiduous attendance of 
 two months, he returned with an impaired consti- 
 tution to England. The prominent part he had 
 taken in the councils of that body, may be judged 
 of by the fact that a medal commemorative of the 
 assembly, was by the unanimous vote of the mem- 
 bers, awarded and sent to him. He had no small 
 share in achieving by his arguments and eloquence 
 the signal discomfiture of the Arminians, and the 
 condemnation of their doctrines in that Synod. 
 Dr. Hall, for he had obtained the degree of D.D., 
 being now a leading man in the Church of Eng- 
 land, was marked out for promotion, and accord- 
 ingly he was raised first to the see of Exeter, and 
 afterwards, without any solicitation, to that of 
 Norwich. Amid all the ecclesiastical tyranny of 
 Laud, Bishop Hall preserved his moderation, and 
 the clergy of his diocese were kept from the odium 
 as well as the penalties of the Book of Sports. 
 The bishop, however, had his season of trial. When 
 the popular outcry ' No Bishops ' was raised, and 
 an armed mob marched against the House of Lords, 
 Hall with eleven of the lords spiritual joined in 
 protesting against the measures which were passed 
 in their absence ; and this document having been 
 made a ground of impeachment, he with his pro- 
 testing brethren were consigned to the Tower. On 
 his liberation, he continued for a year to exercise 
 his episcopal functions in Norwich ; but the popu- 
 lar tide again set in strongly against his order, his 
 house was attacked, his property sequestrated, 
 himself insulted, and in meek resignation he re- 
 tired into a small lonely place in Norfolk, where he 
 spent the remainder of his days in acts of piety 
 and charity, and at length died 1656, in the 
 eighty-second year of his age. [R. J.] 
 
 HALL, Richard, a Roman Cath. wr., d. 1604. 
 
 HALL, Robert, a medical author, 1763-1824. 
 
 HALL, Rev. Robert, the most eloquent 
 preacher of modern times, was born at Arnsby, a 
 village in the neighbourhood of Leicester, in 1764. 
 His father was a baptist clergyman, and both his 
 parents were distinguished for talents, prudence, 
 and piety. Robert, the youngest of fourteen chil- 
 dren, was of so feeble a constitution, that he could 
 neither speak nor walk till near three years old. 
 He learned to read by the inscriptions on the 
 grave-stones ; and he showed at a very early age 
 a passionate fondness for reading, and used to re- 
 cline for hours with a book on the grass ; a habit 
 which is thought to have produced that excruci- 
 ating pain in the back to which he was subject 
 during life. Even while yet a boy, Edwards on 
 the Will and Butler's Analogy were his favourite 
 books; and he would analyze as well as discuss 
 them with great intelligence at the age of nine. 
 His classical master dismissed him from school at 
 eleven as already beyond the range of his own ac- 
 quirements. He was in fact a young prodigy of 
 genius and knowledge, and these precocious talents 
 were combined with such genuine piety, that he 
 was placed under the care of the Rev. John Ryland, 
 tutor of the Baptist Academy, and at the age of 
 sixteen, he was ' set apart ' to the office of the 
 ministry by his father in presence of the congre- 
 gation at Arnsby. In pursuance of his ministerial 
 
 HAL 
 
 views, he went to study at the unh ersity of Abe 
 deen, where he enjoyed the prelections of Beatt: 
 Campbell, and Gerard, ana where he made i 
 
 Krivate friendship of Mr. afterwards Sir Jam 
 lackintosh. He was noted among his felloe 
 students as much for his habitual piety as for li 
 pre-eminent talents. On the completion of r. 
 college studies, Mr. Hall engaged himself as class 
 cal tutor in the Baptist Academy at Bristol, ai 
 at the same time acted as assistant to Dr. Eva 
 in Broadmeadow chapel. At the end of five yea 
 he removed to Cambridge, where he became assi 
 tant, and afterwards successor to the Rev. M 
 Robinson in the baptist church in that city. It w.j 
 by his eloquent and elaborate discourses prepared f 
 the meridian of that seat of learning, he rose 
 the foremost rank of British preachers. His pul 
 lie and occasional sermons were attended by crowti 
 of the professors and young men, many of who 
 sought and valued his friendship, dissenter thouj 
 he was, amongst whom was the celebrated D 
 Parr. In Cambridge some of his greatest worl 
 were composed and published. His ' Christianr 
 Consistent with the Love of Freedom' in 1791, h 
 ' Apology for the Freedom of the Press ' in 179 
 his far-famed sermon on 'Modem Infidelity' 
 1799, his ' Reflections on War' in 1802, and h 
 ' Sentiments Suitable to the Present Crisis ' in til 
 year following. These were politico-religious di! 
 courses, occasioned by the critical circumstances 
 the country at the beginning of this century, aij 
 they touched a chord in every patriotic heart. Bn 
 while they evince the great powers of argumeJ 
 and eloquence that so greatly distinguished M] 
 Hall, they must not be considered samples of tlj 
 food with which he fed his people. His ordinal 
 discourses, though always replete with genius aij 
 eloquence, were evangelical, calculated to edify bj 
 people both by enlarging their Scriptural knot] 
 ledge, and stimulating their faith and piety. 1| 
 1804, when he was at the very height of his repiJ 
 tation, the mind of this extraordinary man sufFeni 
 a sad eclipse, and yet at intervals during the ppj 
 gress of his distressing malady, his genius snow 
 forth by sparks of surpassing power and brillianc] 
 His congregation showed their strong attachmei] 
 and sympathy by raising an amount of .100, ai] 
 another of equal amount to be given to his famij 
 in the event of his death. Although he recovfil 
 yet partial svmptoms of the disorder discov^fcl 
 themselves, his connection with the congregBI 
 in Cambridge was dissolved, and he was placed Ij 
 his friends in the private establishment of D| 
 Arnold of Leicester, ty whose skilful and judicioi 
 treatment, his health was soon re-established, ail 
 he resumed his preaching by itinerating througj 
 the villages around Leicester. He becan: 
 pastor of a church in Leicester, the same chappl 
 which the celebrated Dr. Carey had once i 
 and there by the splendour of his public 
 tions, his fame as a public orator was 
 more widely than ever. But Mr. Hall was n>\ 
 allowed to continue in that comparatively limittj 
 sphere. On the death of Dr. Ryland, he w;l 
 urged to undertake the pastorate of the large ai 
 flourishing baptist congregation in Bristol, and j 
 that city he accordingly removed, all cla.' 
 ing his arrival with enthusiastic joy. Aft < 
 ing five years in that important sphere with ui 
 
 298 
 
HAL 
 
 vailed success, his health gave way. A spasmodic 
 Section in the chest, added to his old constitutional 
 >mplaint in the back, rendered him unfit for pub- 
 duty. The unfavourable symptoms continued 
 
 increase in spite of all the medical skill that 
 
 enlisted in his behalf, and after a brief illness 
 f ten days, this splendid orator and eminent ser- 
 ant of Christ, died in February, 1831, in the 
 xty-seventh year of his age. [R.J.] 
 
 HALL, Thomas, a learned noncf., 1610-1665. 
 
 HALLE, Claude Guy, a French painter and 
 irector of the Academy, 1652-1736. His son, 
 
 oel, a painter and superintendent of the Gobe- 
 ns, 1711-1781. The son of the latter, John 
 
 oel, a physician and medical writer, 1754-1822. 
 
 HALLE, Peter, a French savant, 1611-1689, 
 
 HALLENBERG, Jonas, a Swedish historian 
 id naturalist, au. of a hist, of Swed., 1748-1834. 
 
 HALLE R, Albert, M. D., a learned and eminent 
 latomist and physiologist of last century, was 
 orn at Berne, in Switzerland on the 18th October, 
 708. He was the son of Nicholas de Haller, 
 l advocate, and chancellor of the county of Baden, 
 id exhibited in early life very precocious powers, 
 articularly in the acquisition of languages ; hav- 
 lg at the age of nine composed for his own use a 
 haldaic Grammar, a Hebrew and Greek Lexicon, 
 od an Historical Dictionary containing upwards 
 F 2,000 articles. He was originally destined for 
 church, but subsequently turned his attention 
 ) medicine, which he studied under Camerarius 
 od Duverney at Tubingen, and afterwards at 
 .eyden under Boerhaave, where he was the asso- 
 iate of Albinus and Ruysch, and where also he 
 raduated as a doctor. After visiting England 
 nd France, he returned to Berne in 1730, and in 
 734 was appointed teacher of anatomy in that 
 ity ; but his reputation having greatly extended, 
 e was nominated Professor of Anatomy, Surgery, 
 nd Botany, in the university of Gbttingen by 
 leorge II. of England in 1736. Here he remained 
 )r_ seventeen years, and here his great work, 
 Disputationes Anatomicae Selectse,' by which 
 e is chiefly known, was composed. He refused 
 lie chair of botany in Oxford, and he declined 
 olicitations from the king of Prussia, the states of 
 lolland, and the empress of Russia. George II., 
 a consideration of his great merits, obtained for 
 mi a brevet as a noble of the empire, and he is 
 ften spoken of as Baron Haller ; but he never 
 ised this title in his native country. He left 
 Jottingen for Berne in the year 1753, and spent 
 he rest of his life in honourable but active re- 
 trement in Switzerland. He died at Berne on 
 he 12th of December, 1777, in his seventieth 
 ear. ^ [J.M'C] 
 
 HALLET, Jos., a learned dissenting minister, 
 rath, of l Discourses on the Miracles,' 1692-1744. 
 
 HALLEY, Edmund, a celebrated astronomer, 
 gas born in London on the 8th November, 1656. 
 Bis father, who was a soap-boiler, sent him to St. 
 rani's school, where he acquired such a taste for 
 Mtronoiny that before he left school he made 
 pbservations on the variation of the needle. In 
 M>73 be entered Queen's College, Oxford, 
 ind while there devoted himself almost ex- 
 plosively to mathematics and astronomy. In 
 1-676 he published his first paper in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions on the orbits of the primary 
 
 HAL 
 
 planets, and such was the reputation it acquired 
 him, that he was soon after sent by Charles II. to 
 St. Helena to make a catalogue of the stars of the 
 southern hemisphere. In the course of two years 
 he completed this arduous task, and in 1679 he 
 
 fiublished his ' Catalogue of the Southern Stars.' 
 n 1678 Halley was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and in the following year he went to 
 Dantzic to settle the controversy between Hooke 
 and Hevelius respecting the use of telescopic 
 sights in astronomical observations. After per- 
 forming the tour of Europe in 1686 with his 
 friend Mr. Nelson, the author of ' Fasts and Fes- 
 tivals,' during which he made observations on the 
 great comet in the observatory of Paris with 
 Cassini, he returned to England, and married the 
 daughter of Mr. Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, 
 with whom he lived happily for fifty-five years. In 
 the Philosophical Transactions for 1683 he published 
 his 'Theory of the Variation of the Magnetical 
 Compass,' in which he considers our terrestrial 
 globe as one great magnet, with four magnetic 
 poles near the north and south poles of the earth, 
 the needle being always governed by the nearest 
 of these poles. In consequence of the bankruptcy 
 of his father, our author's pursuits were for some 
 time interrupted ; but he soon returned to his 
 studies, and was led in 1684 to examine Kepler's 
 laws of the planetary motions, from which he drew 
 the inference that the centripetal force must vary 
 inversely as the square of the distance. Being un- 
 able to prove this geometrically, he applied to 
 Dr. Hooke and Sir Christopher Wren for assistance ; 
 but having failed to obtain it, he set out for Cam- 
 bridge in August, 1683, to consult Mr. Newton, 
 who had by this time made great progress in 
 establishing the doctrines of the Principia. Hal- 
 ley was delighted with his reception, and the good 
 news that Newton had brought the demonstration 
 of the laws of the celestial motions to perfection. 
 Newton, however, could not lay his hands upon the 
 papers, but wrought them over again, and sent 
 them in November to Halley by Mr. Paget, in the 
 form of four theorems and seven problems. Upon 
 receiving them Halley took another journey to 
 Cambridge in order to confer with their author on 
 the subject, and we find him on the 10th Decem- 
 ber giving an account to the Royal Society of the 
 curious treatise 'De Motu,' which Newton had 
 shown him, to be entered upon their register. At 
 a later period Halley prevailed upon Newton to 
 complete his ' Principia,' the first book of which was 
 exhibited to the Royal Society on the 20th April, 
 1686. It was put into the hands of Halley, then 
 clerk to the Society, to report upon it ; and at a 
 subsequent meeting on the 2d of June, Halley 
 undertook the task of correcting the press, and of 
 printing it at his own expense. In 1686 our au- 
 thor published an account of the trade winds and 
 monsoons on the seas near and between the tro- 
 pics, which was followed by several other chemico- 
 meteorological papers, in one of which, ' On the 
 Circulation of the Watery Vapours of the Sea, and 
 the Origin of Springs,' published in 1691, he 
 first pointed out that beautiful provision, in conse- 
 quence of which, a constant circulation of water is 
 kept up between the atmosphere and the ocean. 
 In 1691 he published a paper on the conjunction 
 of the superior planets, in which he showed, as 
 
 299 
 
HAL 
 
 James Gregory had done long before, the utility of 
 observing these conjunctions in order to dete r min e 
 the sun's parallax and distance from the earth. 
 In the year 1691 Halley became a candidate for 
 the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford, and 
 was opposed by David Gregory, who was the suc- 
 cessful competitor. His failure on this occasion 
 arose, according to Whiston, from his maintaining 
 infidel opinions, and being generally regarded as a 
 sceptic and a ' banterer or religion.' The same 
 charge was preferred against him by Flamsteed, 
 and Newton is said to have often reproved him for 
 his infidelity. There is reason, however, to be- 
 lieve that the charge of infidelity was founded on 
 his having persisted in maintaining, as every philo- 
 sopher and intelligent divine does now, that there 
 was a pre-adamite earth, out of the ruins of which 
 the present earth was made; and that he only 
 laboured under imputations which have been often 
 made since his day upon every distinguished indi- 
 vidual who maintains great truths that appear to 
 be inconsistent with the literal interpretation of 
 Scripture. In 1692 Halley published his Hypo- 
 thesis Relative to the Change in the Variation of 
 the Needle, in which he supposes an interior globe 
 with magnetic poles to move within our earth, and 
 to produce the variation by the change in the re- 
 lative position of the external and internal poles. 
 In order to put this theory to the test of ob- 
 servation, he conceived the design of obtaining 
 measures of the variation-of the needle in different 
 parts of the world. For this purpose King 
 William appointed him captain of the Paramour 
 Pink, in which he set sail on the 20th October, 
 1698, but after sailing along the coasts of Africa 
 and America, a spirit of mutiny arose among his 
 officers, and he returned to England in July, 1699. 
 Having resumed his voyage, and finished his ex- 
 periments, he returned on the 7th September, 
 1700, and was rewarded with the title of captain 
 of the navy, and with half-pay during life. On 
 the recommendation of Queen Anne, the emperor 
 of Germany consulted him on the formation of a 
 harbour on the coast of Dalmatia, and he went 
 twice to the Adriatic on that errand. The em- 
 peror when he saw him at Vienna presented him 
 with a rich diamond ring, taken from his finger, 
 and wrote a letter in his own hand recommending 
 him to Queen Anne. On the death of Dr. Wallis 
 in 1703, Halley was appointed Savilian professor 
 of geometry at Oxford:, and forgetting, or rather 
 perhaps having discovered the falsehood of the 
 charge of infidelity which had formerly been made 
 against him, the university conferred upon him the 
 honorary title of Doctor of Laws. In furtherance 
 of the plan recommended by Sir Henry Saville, 
 he began, in conjunction with Dr. Gregory, to 
 publish the works of the ancient geometers, and 
 several of the writings of Apollonius and Serenus, 
 translated and edited by them, appeared in 1706 
 and 1710. Upon the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 
 1713, he was elected secretary of the Royal Society, 
 and while he held this office he made a number of 
 interesting experiments on the diving bell at great 
 depths in the sea, which were described in the 
 Phil. Trans, for 1716, under the quaint title of ' The 
 Art of Living under Water.' When the important 
 office of astronomer royal became vacant in 1719, 
 by the death of Flamsteed, Halley was appointed 
 
 HAM 
 
 his successor, and though he had now reached th! 
 sixty-fourth year of his age he continued foi 
 years without the aid of an assistant to carry on thl 
 operations of the observatory with the most unre 
 mitting assiduity. In 1731 ne published his ' Pro 
 
 Bosal for Finding the Longitude at Sea within 
 egree,' a method which he had suggests: 
 as 1683, in an appendix to the second edition c 
 Street's ' Caroline Tables.' In 1725 he drew ul 
 his tables for computing the places of the planets' 
 but he delayed their publication till he was enabled 
 by new observations to make them more 
 They did not, however, appear till 1749, after hi! 
 death ; but they were long regarded as the most 
 complete and accurate till they were supersedes 
 by others founded on newer and more accurate obf 
 serrations. In 1729 Halley was elected 
 member of the Academy of Science in Paris. Ii 
 1737, when he was eighty-one years of age, he waj 
 struck with paralysis in nis right hand, but he still 
 continued to attend the Royal Society Club at it:' 
 weekly meetings. The disease now gained ground 
 upon him, and he gradually lost his strength. Htj 
 was sustained chiefly by the cordials given him bjl 
 Dr. Meed, and one day being tired of taking them'! 
 he asked for a glass of wine, and as soon as he had 
 drank it he expired in his chair without a groan, c 
 the 14th January, 1742, in the eighty-sixth year < 
 his age. He was buried in the churchyard of I 
 and as he had himself requested, in the same ! 
 with his wife, whom he had lost a few years befa 
 His eldest daughter was buried in the same place i 
 1743. Besides this daughter he had other tw< 
 and several children who died in infancy. One i 
 his sons, who lived to manhood, died long bef 
 his father. His two surviving daughters erectec 
 over his remains a handsome tomb of Portlancjj 
 stone. M. Mairan, who wrote the eloge nporl 
 Halley, which was read to the Academy of Sciences' 
 in 1742, concluded with the following just appre-i 
 ciation of the universality of his acquirements : j 
 ' While we thought the eulogium of an astronomer.ii 
 a naturalist, a scholar, and a philosopher, compre-: 
 hended our whole subject, we have been insensibly! 
 surprised with the history of an excellent mariner,' 
 an illustrious traveller, an able engineer, andj 
 almost a statesman.' Notwithstanding the copious' 
 details regarding the life of Halley given in the' 
 ' Biographia Britannica,' a good life of that distin-j 
 guished individual is greatly to be desired, and we} 
 trust that the Rev. M. Rigaud of Ipswich will find! 
 leisure to fulfil the intentions which his distin-j 
 guished father had so much at heart. [D.B.T 
 
 HALLIDAY, Sir Andrew, a physician and, 
 traveller, celeb, as a miscellaneous writer, d. 1840. J 
 
 HALLIER, F., a Fr. controver. wr., 1595-1659. ! 
 
 HALLIFAX, S., a learned prelate, 1733-1790. 
 
 HALLOIX, P., a French savant, 1572-1656. 
 
 HALLORAN, Sylvester O', an Irish anti- 
 quarian, au. of a 'Hist, of Ireland, '&c, 1728-188ft 
 
 HALMA, F., a Flemish lexicographer, 1 
 
 HALMA, N., a Fr. archaeologist, 1755-1828. 
 
 HALTAUS, C. T., a German hist, 1702-1758. 
 
 HALYBURTON, Thomas, a Scotch divine, an-' 
 thor of ' Natural Religion Insufficient,' 167 -1-171'-'. 
 
 HAMAD, fndr. of a dynasty in Algeria, d. IGHi 
 
 HAMADANI, an Arabian savant, 968-imi7. 
 
 HAMAKER, H. A., a Dutch Orient., 1789- 1 881 
 
 HAMANN, J. G., a German philoso., 1730-88. 1 
 
 300 
 
HAM 
 
 I HAMAZASB, an Armenian prince, died 658. 
 ; HAM EL, John Baptist Du. See Duhamel. 
 j HAMILCAR, a general of Carthage, k. b.c. 229. 
 
 HAMILTON, a distinguished Scotch family, the 
 principal members of which are James, first 
 iarl of Arran, d. 1519. James, the second earl of 
 i^rran, duke of Chatelherault and regent of Scot- 
 land, died 1576. Patrick, the first reformer, 
 ,iurnt alive by the bishop of St. Andrews, 1503- 
 j.527. James, first duke of Hamilton, beheaded 
 Is a royalist after the battle of Preston 1649. 
 jVilliam, duke of Hamilton, died after the battle 
 if Worcester 1652. Anthony, Count Hamilton, 
 Luthor of poetry and fairy tales, &c, 1646-1720. 
 ! HAMILTON, Alex., succes. of Washington in 
 he chief command, b. 1757, killed in a duel 1804. 
 
 HAMILTON, Charles, an East Indian officer 
 jud writer on Oriental subjects, died 1792. 
 
 HAMILTON, Elizabeth, an Irish lady of con- 
 iderable note as an essayist, 1758-1816. 
 
 HAMILTON, Gavin, a Scotch painter, d. 1796. 
 
 HAMILTON, Geo., earl of Orkney, dist. at the 
 attle of the Boyne, and in subsequent actions under 
 iVilliam III. and the duke of Marlborough, d. 1737. 
 , HAMILTON, Hugh, an Irish prelate, mathe- 
 matical writer, and prof, of nat. phil., 1729-1805. 
 
 HAMILTON, Sir John, a British officer, dist. 
 i the East Indies and the peninsula, 1755-1835. 
 j HAMILTON, R., a medical writer, 1729-1793. 
 I HAMILTON, R., a Scotch mathematician and 
 piter on public questions, 1742-1829. 
 i HAMILTON, Capt. Thomas, a miscellaneous 
 biter, author of ' Cyril Thornton,' &c, d. 1842. 
 
 HAMILTON, W., of Bangour,a Sc. poet, 1704-54. 
 j HAMILTON, W., a Scotch artist, 1751-1801. 
 i HAMILTON, Sir William, Bart., of Preston, 
 Dunty of Haddington, one of the many talented 
 cotchmen distinguished by labours in Mental 
 cience. The family of Hamilton, which he repre- 
 ssed, sprang from Sir Gilbert de Hameldon, 
 Kinder of the House of Hamilton in Scotland, a 
 launch cavalier who obtained his patent of creation 
 In 1673. _ Sir William was third Baronet in posses- 
 lion and eighth dejure. He was born in Glasgow in 
 |791, and educated at Oxford, where he obtained 
 iflrst-class honours. He was admitted a member of 
 .be Scotch bar in 1813, became a contributor to the 
 Idinburgh Review, and for the last twenty years 
 
 I his life filled with great success the chair of 
 logic and Metaphysics in the University of 
 jdinburgh. He died on the 6th May, 1856. 
 me following sketch was written during his 
 retime : It is now_ long years since Sir William 
 Lamilton had achieved a name For Encyclo- 
 jediacal Learning in everything related, however 
 tmotely, to the history and condition of Men- 
 
 II Science ; and certainly no other, in modern 
 pes, could readily be specified, with attainments 
 j this description at all equivalent to his : never- 
 
 eless at least until recently it. was known 
 Uv by the few, that to acquisitions so various 
 'Id vast, our countryman adds the power to 
 ijarshal and command them all; and that his 
 rhrning, however immense, is used by him 
 'pply as an instrument whereby to rear and 
 
 MOlidate a great and symmetrical body of 
 (bought. Rarely indeed has the thirst unquench- 
 Ir 6 *? r . w ^ a ^ m common speech is termed a 
 ' Wen'ort knowledge, been combined with so sig- 
 
 HAM 
 
 nal a development of a priori power : it seems the 
 pre-eminent charactensticof our philosopher's mind, 
 that these two factors of all Science, exist in it 
 together in full and symmetric integrity. No 
 
 5>roblem is resolved in his view, or even rightly 
 aid for explication, until, in the first place, a 
 complete scheme has been constructed of all its 
 possible solutions, and the contributions of every 
 former thinker arranged under due heads, and made 
 to bring out their partial light : a step, preliminary 
 indeed, but which can never be accomplished 
 until the problem has passed through the mind, un- 
 der the chief forms in which History presents it, and 
 its fundamental conditions in all their purity and 
 breadth been discerned. Few exercises are more 
 pleasing than to follow Hamilton, as with eager 
 and scrupulous conscientiousness he gathers to- 
 gether the scattered hints of his predecessors, 
 assigns them their place, and marks them with 
 their value : his intense Love of Truth rises into 
 the form of Justice : great popular names never 
 pass with him as badges of desert ; nor is any one 
 so obscure to whom a fragment of truth has in 
 any form ever appeared that he may not be sur- 
 rounded with his regard. A character so thorough, 
 and, in the highest sense, veracious, must have at 
 its root assuredly as its concomitant a clear 
 and energetic moral nature ; nevertheless, the 
 source of its strength, in this instance, is mani- 
 festly what we have stated an earnest and un- 
 faltering love of truth, and faculties harmonized 
 to discern it. Regarding Philosophy as man's 
 highest intellectual attainment, must not all trne 
 workers appear as one brotherhood? Believing 
 the conquest of august problems concerning 
 Knowledge and Being, to be the Olympic prize of 
 our Human Reason, shall the Runner not welcome 
 every aid to his strength, or shall he expect that 
 anything but strength can help towards the goal ? 
 Fortunate, if at a time when languor and dissolu- 
 tion threaten Philosophy once more, and reputations 
 are sought and won through picking up and vending 
 its merefiotsam and jetsam our Youth might haply 
 attain skill in Method, increase in Sincerity, and 
 learn the dignity of intellectual toil, through the 
 example of Hamilton ! Let us briefly glance at 
 the leading provinces occupied by our Philoso- 
 pher. 1. It is not unknown now important a share 
 of modern speculation has been devoted to the 
 subject of Perception, since the times of Reid. 
 Not in this country alone not even especially in 
 this country; for some critique of the Act of Know- 
 ing, is at the basis of all recent German Systems. 
 As customary with him, not confining his regard 
 to modern times, but surveying philosophical 
 history from Plato downwards, Sir William, in 
 his remarkable papers on Presentation and Repre- 
 sentation, appears for the first time to have laid 
 or constructed the full problem, and to have 
 resolved it. The solution was, amongst ourselves, 
 peculiarly opportune, arriving to discredit and 
 destroy the confusion threatened by the rash but 
 imposing ignorance of Brown ; nor was it less 
 opportune abroad, inasmuch as it once more 
 restored ' Natural Dualism ' to its sovereignty in 
 Thought, and revealed the form of the gratuitous 
 hypothesis that from earliest times had impelled 
 men in vain search of schemes of Unity and the 
 Absolute. Despotically, as the maxim of the im- 
 
 301 
 
HAM 
 
 mobility of the earth ruled in Astronomy until the 
 time of Copernicus, and equally unquestioned the 
 maxim that ' like only can know like? seems to 
 have governed all theories of perception ; exerting 
 more extensive influence than any other principle 
 in the History of Philosophy. Under its sway the 
 problem of perception became this how do Mind 
 and Matter seem to meet? Meet they cannot, 
 being unlike : is then Mind an illusion, or Matter 
 an illusion ; or is there a certain medium partaking 
 of both, through which they come together ? The 
 maxim repudiated, and replaced by the simple 
 assertion of consciousness, this immense fabric of 
 speculation fell prone and helpless : and Hamilton's 
 will ever be recognized as the hand that dealt the 
 irrecoverable blow. Vindicating it, in name of 
 Consciousness, as an undeniable fact, that the 
 Ego and Non-Ego, as two distinct objects, are at 
 the same moment, and with equal verity, 
 present to the mind, he protested against all 
 Unitarian Schemes, as insurrections, defying a 
 primal Law ; and it is not too much to say that 
 the energy and directness of his protest, upheld 
 by his searching dissection of all untrue or par- 
 tially true opposing systems, ancient and modern, 
 marks the beginning of a sounder period in Men- 
 tal Science. 2. It is needless to recall to a 
 British, or indeed to any reader, the amount of 
 attention given by our distinguished countryman 
 to the subject of Logic, or the fame that has 
 hence accrued to him. The grounds of Knowledge 
 ascertained, and the veracity of Perception vindi- 
 cated, next in order stands the Inquiry, what are 
 the primary laws of thinking, or according to what 
 forms does the mind operate on the matter of its 
 thoughts? A large, although purely notional 
 Science ; its foundation laid by Aristotle, and its 
 domain surveyed ; portions of it minutely explored 
 by Lord Bacon ; but in imminence of being all lost 
 sight of, as a Science, in this country, or absorbed 
 by its lowest and empirical part. Thoroughly has 
 Hamilton revived the Stagyrite, and interpreted 
 him to our compeers. Acknowledging to tne full 
 the merits of Lord Bacon, he has passed beyond 
 him to the higher position of the Greek; and 
 presented logic again, as it appeared to that pene- 
 trating and all-grasping intellect. Few will miss 
 remarking that the fulness of his sympathy with 
 Aristotle has its root in a corresponding univer- 
 sality of character : no form or mode of speculation 
 is foreign to Hamilton, as none were so to his 
 predecessor. Of special contributions to the doc- 
 trine of the syllogism we can say nothing here. 
 3. Logic we have termed a notional science, as it 
 exclusively is. But it is conversant with laws 
 obeyed by the Mind in thinking, and with primary 
 notions that control, and are involved in these. 
 What are these primary notions ? Our notion of 
 Causality, for instance, is it a mere notion, or 
 does it belong to Existence also? Space and Time 
 are forms, apart from which we can perceive 
 nothing, are they likewise external realities, or 
 is -uings from external realities? Questions these 
 peopling the vast and difficult heights of Meta- 
 physics ; occupying intensely the greatest Inquirers 
 of former times, and all Teutonic thinkers in our 
 own ; but, until Hamilton spoke, wholly neglected 
 in this country, where we rested content amid the 
 low levels of elementary Psychology. No more 
 
 HAM 
 
 startling proof could be given of our inertness | 
 to metaphysical research properly so called, tin 
 the criticisms on Kant, &c, one finds in M 
 Stewart's dissertations dissertations, notwitl 
 standing that Hamilton has written, still present* 
 as an adequate account of Philosophy! Wil 
 corresponding knowledge and power, our distil 
 guished Thinker has passed into this field : and h 
 speculations concerning the ' Law of the Cond 
 turned' concerning the principle of Causality- 
 his adventures into the still more rugged sphei 
 of Ontology, establish before every one who ca 
 think or judge whatever the fate of his speci; 
 conclusions that an Inquirer is amongst us, wl 
 need bow his head before no Greek or Teuton 
 them all. May health empower him to carry 01 
 his announced and cherished designs! Eveni 
 indeed, are not in the hands of man; but tl 
 ' Edition of Reid,' and the ' Discussions of Phik 
 sophy,' are possessions ; and with gratitude th 
 long Future will receive them. What, then, is tl 
 probable issue of a life and labours like these 
 Shall Hamilton succeed in reviving a taste ft 
 Metaphysics ? Is it likely that many who profef 
 to admire him will imitate his independence 
 Shall he be the founder of a new and purified, 
 profound and fearless Scottish School? If sue 
 a result were possible, Hamilton's achievement 
 and example would secure it : but for two reason; 
 its advent seems, to the writer of this notice, moi 
 than doubtful. First, There are abroad man 
 indications, that when a new School in Philosoph 
 shall be formed, its Methods must take greate 
 account than has yet been done, of the issues c 
 physiological research, and of the position of Hu 
 manity in the great Hierarchy or Organizatior 
 It is most true, as laid down by Des Cartes, thai 
 the reality of mental phenomena needs no attesta] 
 tion beyond consciousness ; but although physiologj 
 must not absorb psychology, the two ought not, an 
 ultimately will not stand apart : the methods am] 
 science of the latter will assuredly be found t 
 repose upon the former. But another cause ad 
 verse to the immediate reconstruction of anj 
 worthy and upright Mental Science, has sprunj 
 out of circumstances whose unravelling is probabl; 
 still more remote. Changes in the social an.; 
 political relations of the different classes in thi! 
 country however fertile otherwise of good fruit ! 
 have recently elevated into preponderance an<j 
 power, those unsystematic views on mind an<] 
 speculative subjects, which alone can be expecte* 
 among busy multitudes; a condition not favour] 
 able, now nor at any period, to the existence of aij 
 independent philosophic class. In a country lib 
 ours, so practical, and where men are so fond oj 
 political station, the tendency natural to such ai 
 epoch will unquestionably be, rather to desire ana 
 furnish support logical merely in form to sys- 
 tems in vogue and popular, than daringly, anc 
 with single eve, to follow out Truth. For a 
 therefore, Philosophy may descend into sul>ser- 
 vience. It remains to be ascertained by whai 
 instrumentality, in the course of Providence, suffi- 
 cient esteem and freedom shall become assured t< 
 the Truth-Seeker; the Multitudes discerning, tha- 
 in Truth alone, the prize of sternest que 
 not in heaps of Opinion, rudis inuigestaque molu\ 
 abide Safety ana Honour. 
 
 302 
 
HAM 
 
 HAMILTON, Sir William, the friend of Nel- 
 i, known as a diplomatist and connoisseur in the 
 3, and in natural history, 1730-1803. His 
 :ond wife, Emma, Lady Hamilton, married to 
 after a long course of licentiousness, in 1791, 
 a woman of extraordinary beauty, and still 
 remarkable for her powers of fascination, 
 became the mistress of Nelson, and his politi- 
 agent at the court of Naples, and died at Calais 
 the most abject distress 1816. 
 JHAMILTON, William Gerard, a Scotch 
 Wyer and statesman, remarkable for the elo- 
 Uce of the only two speeches he was known to 
 ike in the House of Commons, 1729-1796. 
 HAMMOND, A., a miscel. writer, 1668-1738. 
 HAMMOND, H., a learned divine, 1605-1660. 
 HAMMOND, J., au. of 'Love Elegies,' 1710-41. 
 HAMON, John, a French Jansenist, 1618-87. 
 HAMPDEN, John, was born at London in 
 (94. There is little to be commemorated of his life 
 te what belongs to the history of the period, 
 a all his connection with it is on the surface, for 
 [ acts were open and public, and whatever his 
 kdjutors may nave been, he was ever free of 
 [ret machinations to serve private ends. He 
 longed, like nearly all the leaders of the parlia- 
 ntary party, to one of the worshipful and ancient 
 mtry families. His was widely ramified among 
 s English gentry, and he counted Cromwell, 
 ;h other opponents of the court, among his con- 
 itions. In 1619 becoming married to Elizabeth 
 neon, to whom he was tenderly attached, he 
 the life of a country squire, amid a numerous 
 spring. He represented Grampound, and after- 
 rds Wendover, in the earlier parliaments of 
 arles I.'s reign, but he took little concern in 
 jlic business until the long parliament, when he 
 1 gradually prepared himself to suffer or to 
 ke, as occasion might require, in support of 
 at he deemed the fundamental principles of the 
 istitution. He was imprisoned in the gate- 
 lse for refusing to participate in one of the ex- 
 
 fftreat Hampden Church, the burial place of Hampden.] 
 
 fled loans, but this effort at coercion was aban- 
 jied. His resistance to the imposition of a tax 
 Ihout authority of parliament, under the obso- 
 k name of ship-money, came to its conclu- 
 y in 1637, when the question was solemnly 
 Jd in the Exchequer Chamber. The decision 
 against him, and satisfied him that armed 
 
 HAN 
 
 resistance to the prerogative was necessary. He 
 threw himself with entire devotion into the busi- 
 ness of the Long Parliament, and much of the suc- 
 cessful dexterity with which it was conducted was 
 due to his skill and courage. He commanded a 
 troop in the parliamentary army. He was mor- 
 tally wounded in an affair with Prince Rupert on 
 18th June, 1643, and thus left the struggle while 
 yet it seemed on the side of the parliament one of 
 fair defence and self-protection, and before long- 
 sustained animosity or projects of aggrandizement 
 had mixed themselves with the views and conduct 
 of the parliamentary leaders. [J.H.B.] 
 
 HAMPER, W., a miscellaneous writer, d. 1831. 
 
 HAMPTON, J., a classical translator, d. 1778. 
 
 HAMZA, the first prophet or high priest of the 
 Druses, author of 'The Book of Testimonies to the 
 Mysteries of the Unity,' 11th century. 
 
 HAMZEH, a shah of Persia, killed 1585. 
 
 HANBAL, a Mussulman sectarian, 786-855. 
 
 HANCKINS, M., a Ger. philologist, 1633-1709. 
 
 HANDEL, George Frederick, the son of an 
 eminent surgeon and physician, was born at Halle 
 in Saxony, on the 24th of February, 1684. His 
 father had designed that he should follow the pro- 
 fession of the civil law, but his love for, and early 
 progress in music, soon proved, as in many other 
 instances, that the parental plans had to be given 
 up. He was then placed under the tuition of 
 Frederick Zachau, organist of the cathedral of 
 Halle, where he made such rapid progress, that 
 at nine years old he was able to officiate on the 
 organ for his master, and had begun the study 
 of composition. When only nineteen he went 
 to Hamburgh, where he became director of the 
 operas, and such was his ability and talent, that 
 it excited the jealousy of a rival musician, John 
 Matheson. These professors had been on terms 
 of the closest intimacy and friendship for nearly 
 six years, when a quarrel arose upon a point of 
 professional etiquette which ended in a duel. They 
 fought with swords, but luckily the point of Ma- 
 theson's sword broke against a metal button on 
 Handel's coat, which put an end to the combat. 
 This encounter took place on the 5th of December, 
 1704. Matheson and Handel soon again became good 
 friends, for we are informed by Matheson, that on 
 the 30th of the same month he accompanied the 
 young composer Handel to the rehearsal of his first 
 opera ' Almeria,' and at the theatre performed the 
 principal character in it. Next year Handel brought 
 out his ' Florinda,' and in the year following 'Ne- 
 rone,' both of which were favourably received. In 
 1708, he composed his ' Dafne,' up to which time 
 he had written harpsichord pieces, songs, and can- 
 tatas innumerable. Having become possessed of 
 some wealth, he went to Italy, and he composed in 
 Florence the opera ' Rodrigo.' From Florence he 
 went to Venice, where in 1709 he produced his 
 ' Agrippina ' which was received with acclamation, 
 and in which horns and other wind instruments 
 were first used to accompany the voice in Italy. 
 Here Handel met with Dominico, Scarlatti, Gas- 
 parini, Lotti, and other great masters of musical 
 art. He next went to Rome, where he met Ales- 
 sandro Scarlatti, and had an opportunity of hearing 
 music of the highest class. Here he composed 
 ' II Trionpho del Tempo ' and gained the friendship 
 of Cardinals Ottobeni and Painfili, the latter of 
 
 303 
 
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 II,, ( :.,,ll, ,;-,,,. -n llllliy WIIH 'll 
 
 I. In Hi' I,., 1 1 ' 
 
 ||||lfttd. in. 'I lli' ' Ml .nl /ImmiIiii;: 
 
 : he wholo if lowei Italy wai theri by 
 
 , ii,, |, , r| ll mull) il, nd Hi'- Hdi III / 
 | ,,| il,.- i:,, in. in nllii ., who hud hilhw to 
 ,. : ,,ll , t r hi iviiy. Hut tin- (IiiiiiiI, 
 
 r i|, ,,| |,||i I uir.li.il'.ii, nl 
 
 lf.iMiiii.il wim oot ii''- only in my wild 
 
 il,, I, ,,l hi .,,1,1, ml ThrtV now adottted 
 
 ,lv fa II,. 
 
 ited in 
 
 n i. Hi 
 
 Rom 
 
 dele 
 
 Wl, 
 
 But 
 
 Bv-fifthyearofhisage. [O.TJ 
 
 TKO, tin' nam<- of several disting. Car 
 
 the//^, an African explorer, author of the 
 Bios of Hanno,' Oth cent. B.C.; the second. 
 Briral, defeated by the consul Lutatiue, '243 
 M the third, a general, and rival of Hamilcar 
 
 Bmnihal, died 204 n.c. 
 
 N8AUI), I.i.-kK, an .in. printer, 1752-1828. 
 NSCH, M. (}., a <; ., 1683-1762. 
 
 BB- BACHSK, a German poet, 11!)1 l.wO. 
 BIVILL, Jo i iK, a Latin poet, 12th century. 
 BfWAY, Jonah, an English merchant and 
 Heal writer, best known as a philanthropist 
 
 fend of the lower classes. He was the 
 B>al found'T of the Marine Society and the 
 
 Ben Hospital, and a great promoter of Sun- 
 Biools, 1712-1786. 
 
 l.QUIN, king of Norway, the first of the 
 Mo bom 915, reigned 931-903; the second, 
 
 II A ft 
 
 third, 1161 /..,//, 
 
 I ",. i M,, |,|,| /,///, I'/n i.o,; th< tirih, 1297 
 
 I : I ' lli< ,,. ,,th, horn I 
 
 iii.i 1846, nndei th< nam< of hi i thei. who wm 
 
 king '' 
 
 
 II,.- throw l.'iOl 
 HAKALD, king of Ni 
 
 -I,. ,i '):;:: , iIk .-,,,/ 
 
 II,-, I !)'/H | II,. third, h'.in I'll. - 
 
 .,-.-,, y 1047 and wt I I 1066 I i M/, 
 
 ;. |,m I. .i,|, i\ ..mi of Maj/rin -IN 
 
 ,il, out ll.'iO, ii.-.oi|,<-d tin- thftMii and wan 
 fjui died l,y uriol.bei preti nd-r 1 186. 
 
 ii a ija /.!>, king of i' ' I 
 
 name known < lied tlw *'<</,//,, 
 
 M.pi'd !):;0!)K0; II, i- r, ,//////, :....-.. I.. I I'lM.nr.d 
 
 died in Kngbind 1017 ; the "-"'A 
 II A I: A U), n I in." of Jutland, 91 
 HARCOUKT, ';- i Hi ri l>; 
 
 ;i I'mii'I. military ( omiriandf r, di-d 1000. 
 
 HAKCOUKT, Wii.i. (AM, earl of. r 
 
 ofli'fr, 'Ii tn..' in tbl Aio'th M 
 
 IIAIMM.I: , 
 
 IIAItl)KNJlKIU) ; Ciiaii A . ... n 
 Von, a I'm mi. miniater of state, an'! 
 
 , the political 1 1 reactions connected with 
 the recent war, 1750- 18*22. 
 
 HAKDKNHKKO, I m <> Vow. :;.., :',v,u,w. 
 
 IIAKIH, Ai.kx., a I 
 
 HAKM< 
 
 HAKDINO, J., 
 
 HAKDINO. 'In 
 
 HABDINGE, Nicholas, m English 
 
 and poet, 1700 1758. HU SOU, GKOK0K, jttfW- 
 
 HARDION J i ' historian, 1686-1766. 
 
 HAKDOUI ll i I . i 1781 1 80S. 
 
 HABDOU1H. l"ii', French Jesuit of great 
 I'-.iioin;', rtoianubl* for his op 
 
 ran ln-t.ory of antiquity, 164G-1730. 
 HARDOUIN, I .'.. 1736-1817. 
 
 HABDT, Hekma*x Vak rman 
 
 philologist and biat. of the reformation, 
 HABDT, l'/.Ani *, a Oer bibHo., 1748 1811 
 HABDW1CKE. the earls of. 8e Y n 
 HABDY, A., a French dramatl t, 1660 I 1 
 
 HABDT, Bll C, an Knglish arlmirai, I 1779. 
 
 HABDT, Vk r. AminuL Bta 'iHoMAaMAtv 
 
 ii i',u.i, captain of the Mloof 
 
 HARK, Db. FuAwcia, hp. of Chichester, dist. 
 a* a learned writer and controversialist, died 1740. 
 
 HA K I ; , Bmr, liOrd Coleraine, a dist. M 
 and collector of antiquarian subjects, 1G93-1749. 
 HARENBERO, J. C. t a Ger. hist., 1094-1774. 
 H Alii. I II I '.r.. N-H1L1ZA. an Arab. poet, t 
 HAKCKAVB, ., an Knglish jurist, 1741 
 IIAKIOT, T.i , an Kngl. algebraist, 1560-1 
 HARIRI, ABW -Moil, an Arab, au.,1064-1 \2\. 
 HAHl.l.s, 'I. Chk., 0r. mwi^ ( L7M I 
 HARLEY, Robkkt, earl of Oxford and Morti- 
 mer, disting. at a statesman in the reign of Queen 
 Anne, and in conjunction with the celeb. Uoling- 
 broke, was born 1661. He became speaker of the 
 of Commons in 1700, privy councillor and 
 secretary of state 1704, chancellor 1710, and lord 
 high treasurer, after his elevation to the peerage, 
 
 from 1711 to 1715, when he received his 
 
 I 
 
 205 
 
HAR 
 
 The principal event of his administration was the 
 : I'tiveht concluded 1713, and he took no 
 .bare in public business after his retirement. He 
 mat patron of literature, and author of 
 some political pamphlets, but deficient in nearly 
 all the qualities of statesmanship. From 1715 to 
 1717 he was confined in the Tower with an im- 
 peachment over his head, but was finally acquitted. 
 He died in 1724. [E.R ] 
 
 HARLOW, G. H., an Eng. painter, 1787-1819. 
 
 HARMAR. John, a class, trans., 1594-1670. 
 
 HABMENOPULUS, Constantink, a Germ, 
 jurisconsult, grand chancellor of Constantinople in 
 the reign of John Paheologus, 1320-1383. 
 
 BASHER, Thomas, a dissenting minister, au. 
 of ' Observations on the Scriptures,' 1715-1788. 
 
 HARO, Don Luis De, a Spanish statesman, 
 the minister and favourite of Philip IV., 1598-1661. 
 
 HAROLD, the first of the name king of Eng- 
 land, succeeded his father Canute the Great 1035, 
 died 1039; the second of the name, son of Godwin, 
 earl of Kent, usurped the throne 1066, and was 
 vanquished the same year by William the Con- 
 queror, and killed at the battle of Hastings. 
 
 HAROUN-AL-RASCHID, in English 'Aaron 
 the Just,' a renowned caliph of Bagdad, contem- 
 porary with Charlemagne and the empress Irene, 
 was born in Media 765, and succeeded his elder 
 brother as fifth caliph of the Abasside dynasty in 
 786. He had already acquired immense popu- 
 larity by his victories over the Greeks, and had 
 made Irene a tributary of the caliphate. He now 
 raised the empire of the Arabs to its highest pitch 
 of grandeur, uniting the talents of a philosopher 
 to those of a conqueror, and, like Charlemagne in 
 the West, making his court the centre of arts and 
 letters, and the refuge of men of learning from all 
 parts of the Eastern empire. The Arabs never 
 tire of their eulogisms upon the magnificence, 
 generosity, and wisdom of this prince, as all the 
 world has read in the ' Arabian Nights' Entertain- 
 ments.' His reign was the Augustan era of the 
 Arabian dominion, and his imaginative subjects 
 have celebrated it as the age of enchantment and 
 miracle. After the death of Irene, Haroun-Al- 
 Raschid humbled her successor, the Emperor Nice- 
 phorus, still more deeply, made immense conquests 
 among the Turks and other tribes of Asia, and 
 subjugated the sect of Ali in his hereditary domin- 
 ions. He died in 809, leaving his vast possessions 
 divided under his three sons, which prepared the 
 way for endless jealousies, and produced many 
 civil commotions in after years. Haroun not only 
 promoted learning and the arts in his dominions, 
 hut he was himself a poet, and was easily moved 
 to tears by the recital of poetry. Yet he was often 
 cruel, because, like a true child of the East, he 
 was impulsive, and severe because politic. [E.R.] 
 
 HARPALUS, a Greek astronomer, 5th ct. B.C. 
 
 HARPALUS, the Greek governor of Babylon, 
 appointed by Alexander the Great, killed 325 b.c. 
 
 HARPE, John Fr. De La. See Lahaiu-e. 
 
 HARPHIUS, H., a Flemish mystic, died 1478. 
 
 HARPSFELD, John, an English prelate and 
 religious wr., died 1578. His brother, Nicholas, 
 & Greek scholar and ecclesiast. historian, d. 1583. 
 
 HARRIMAN, J., an Engl, botanist, 1760-1831. 
 
 HARRINGTON, IL, a phy. and poet, 1729-1816. 
 HARRINGTON, J., a political wr., 1G11-1677. 
 
 HAR 
 
 HARRINGTON, J., a lawyer and scholar, J 
 thor of the life of Dr. Stradling, 1664-1693. 
 HARRINGTON, Sir J., an English pd 
 
 author of ' Epigrams and Letters,' 1561-1612. i 
 
 HARRINGTON, John, Lord, guardian if 
 
 Elizabeth, daugh. of James I., and the friend *il 
 
 correspondent of Henry prince of Wales, 1591-16 . 
 
 HARRIOT, Th., an astronomer, 1560-1621.; 
 
 HARRIS, G., a philological writer, died 179(j 
 
 HARRIS, General Lord George, a Britii 
 
 officer, dist. in the Amer. war and India, 1759-18'. 
 
 HARRIS, J., a Gr. scholar and philos., knoi 
 
 as a writer on art and the philosophy of langua , 
 
 1709-1780. His son, of the same name, first ear f 
 
 Malmesbury, a diplomat, and hist, wr., 1746-18 1 . 
 
 HARRIS, John, a divine and mathematics, 
 
 well kn. as the first projector and editor of a cya 
 
 psedia or dictionary of the sciences, died 1719. ! 
 
 HARRIS, Walter, a medical writer, b. W 
 
 HARRIS, W., author of sermons, died 1740. | 
 
 HARRIS, W., a biographical writer, died 17: 
 
 HARRISON, J., inventor of the sea chroi- 
 
 meter, for which he received a government t 
 
 mium of 20,000, 1693-1776. 
 
 HARRISON, John, a general of the parliam 
 
 tary army, executed after the restoration, 1670 
 
 HARRISON, T., a dist. architect, 1744-182 
 
 HARRISON, William Henry, president 
 
 the United States, 1773-1844. 
 
 HART, G. V., a British officer, 1752-1832. 
 HARTE, Walter, a poet and essayist, ant r 
 of a history of Gustavus Adolphus, died 1773. 
 
 HARTLEY, David, an English metaphysin 
 of some note ; horn 1705 at Armley in Yorksh : 
 died in Bath 1757. Hartley's well-known, r 
 rather, much-heard-of, work, entitled 'Obser- 
 tions on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and i 
 Expectations,' occupies 3 volumes 8vo. t 
 consists of three distinct parts. Adopting e 
 sensational theory of the origin of human kn - 
 ledge to its fullest extent resolving Mr. Loc s 
 ' Reflection ' into a modification of sensation,-' e 
 endeavours first to explain all sensations and id ?, 
 by material agency, viz., hypothetical vibration if 
 a hypothetical fluid, connected with the nen s 
 system. It is not improbable that Hartley esteeJd 
 this theory of vibrations, his most import t 
 speculation : happily for the permanence of is 
 repute he contributed to Psychology sometlg 
 much more valuable than one of those count * 
 fancies, bubbling up in every age, but wlb 
 attain no place in tne History of Science, 
 probably indisputable that since Aristotle's t e 
 the Law of Association, and its sway over e 
 succession of mental phenomena, had not bee 
 thoroughly studied or fully exposed as in I 
 second division of Hartley's treatise. Hobbes d 
 Locke had done little more than assert tins git 
 Law ; but Hartley unfolded it with a clear ft 
 which left little to be desired. The last portio 
 the ' Observations' is occupied with disi 
 human duty and virtue, on our relation to ( i, 
 and hopes of a future life. Carried out 
 the materialistic views of the, writer, on tl 
 mental problem as to the origin of Ideas. < 
 fail to issue in a scheme of simple negat: 
 these momentous theories: fortunately, 
 Hartley's 'instincts' prevailed over his logii 
 has bequeathed much that is excellent and true. It 
 
 306 
 
HAR 
 
 cannot be denied however, that his hook as a 
 whole is rather a set of dissertations, than a compact 
 treatise : its scientific value being confined to its illus- 
 tration of the Law already referred to. Hartley's 
 life and character were beyond reproach. He was 
 cheerful, placid, and actively benevolent. The 
 Heart is often a trusty safeguard of the Head, amid 
 the perils of Speculation. [J.P.N.] 
 
 HARTLEY, David, son of the celebrated philo- 
 sopher, dist. as a practi. man of science, 1729-1813. 
 
 HARTLEY, Thomas, rector of Winwick in 
 Northamptonshire, known as a pious and learned 
 divine, author of 'A Discourse on the Kinds of 
 Enthusiasm and Religious Experiences,' ' An Ac- 
 count of the Mystic Writers.' ' Paradise Regained,' 
 'Sermons,' &c. In the latter part of his life he 
 became the personal friend of Swedenborg, and 
 the first translator of many of his works, 1707-1784. 
 
 HARTSOEKER, Nicholas, a Dutch physi- 
 cian and experimental philosopher, 1656-1725. 
 
 HARTUNGUS, John, a Germ, transl., d. 1579. 
 
 HARTZHEIM, Jos., a Ger. savant, 1694-1763. 
 
 HARVARD, John, a nonconformist divine, and 
 founder of a college in North America, died 1688. 
 
 HARVEST, G., author of sermons, died 1776. 
 
 HARVEY, Sir Eliab, a British admiral, de- 
 scended from the illustrious Wm. Harvey, d. 1830. 
 
 HARVEY, Gabriel, a lawyer and poet, about 
 1545-1630. His brothers, John and Richard, 
 known as writers on judicial astrology, &c. 
 
 HARVEY, Gideon, a physician, died 1700. 
 
 HARVEY, William, M.D., the discoverer of 
 the circulation of the blood, was born at Folkstone, 
 Kent, a.d. 1578, and died in London, a.d. 1657, 
 aged seventy-nine years. This remarkable man, 
 whose name is indissolubly associated with one of 
 the most important discoveries ever made in phy- 
 siological science, was educated first at the gram- 
 mar school of Canterbury, and subsequently at 
 Caius College, Cambridge, where he spent five 
 years. He afterwards travelled through Germany 
 and France, and proceeding thence to Italy, he 
 fixed himself at Padua, the medical school of 
 which city had at that time a high reputation, and 
 there he became the pupil of Fabricius ab Aqua- 
 pendente, the most distinguished anatomist of his 
 [ age, from whom he acquired a knowledge of the 
 I valvular structure of the veins, which laid the 
 I foundation of his future fame. In 1602 he re- 
 | turned to England and began to practise as a 
 physician in London ; and in 1615 he was appointed 
 professor of anatomy and surgery to the Royal 
 [College of Physicians. There can be no doubt 
 that his particular opinions on the mechanism of 
 the circulation were formed long before, but they 
 were first publicly announced from the chair of 
 the college to which he was now attached in the 
 year 1616. We cannot enter into anatomical and 
 physiological details in this place, and it must 
 suffice to say, that Harvey for the first time de- 
 monstrated the double function of the heart in 
 pending out blood from the left side, through the 
 frteries, over the whole body, and in receiving it 
 pack by the veins to the right side, whence it is 
 propelled into the lungs, where it loses its impuri- 
 ties, and is again rendered fit for use. This cle- 
 jmentary truth, which is so familiar to us, was new 
 b those days, and as it was opposed to the pre- 
 vailing ideaii upon the subject, it was regarded by 
 
 HAR 
 
 his contemporaries as an audacious novelty ; and 
 for upwards of twenty years the propounder of 
 this doctrine was assailed by every species of detrac- 
 tion and calumny. He had the good fortune, 
 however, to survive these attacks, and to see his 
 views universally adopted before his death; nor 
 would it be easy to find a better instance of the 
 application of the principles of the inductive philo- 
 sophy to the investigation of natural phenomena 
 than that supplied by the use which Harvey made 
 of his knowledge of the internal structure of the 
 veins, which, even in the hands of his master Fab- 
 ricius, had been wholly unproductive. The veins 
 have a feeble and imperceptible contractile power, 
 if they have any at all, and Harvey at once saw 
 that the valves were placed in these vessels to pre- 
 vent the reflux of the blood in its progress back to 
 the heart, and out of this conclusion mainly arose 
 the discovery of the true theory of the circula- 
 tion, with all its important consequences. Of 
 this there can be no doubt, for there still exists 
 in the museum of the College of Physicians six 
 tabular views, as large as life, showing this pecu- 
 liar structure of the veins, which were executed 
 by him or to his order, and which were presented 
 to that learned body by his collateral descendant, the 
 earl of Winchelsea. His right to the merit of this 
 great discovery is incontestable, yet there have been 
 those in modern times who have disputed it, and 
 who have asserted that he was anticipated in his 
 conclusions by several of the anatomists of the an- 
 cient world, and by some of his more immediate 
 predecessors. The passages collected from the 
 writings of antiquity by the diligence of such authors 
 as Dutens go for nothing in an inquiry into the 
 existence of a great physical fact, and touch Har- 
 vey's claims to the smallest possible extent; but one 
 name deserves to be mentioned in connection with 
 this subject, to wit, that of the celebrated and unfor- 
 tunate Michael Servetus, the Spanish physician, 
 whom Calvin and his consistory tramed for heresy 
 at Geneva. In the year 1553, a quarter of a century 
 before Harvey was born, Servetus published a 
 theological treatise, in which some singular pas- 
 sages occur on the functions of the heart and lungs, 
 which, though vague, would seem to indicate that 
 he had an obscure idea of the pulmonic circulation 
 and its uses ; but such loose speculations as Ser- 
 vetus indulged in cannot for a moment be com- 
 pared to the severe methods and rigid deductions 
 of Harvey, who took nothing for granted that 
 could be experimentally proved. One of his rules 
 was, that ' Nature herself is the most faithful in- 
 terpreter of her own secrets ' (De Generatione 
 Ammalium). He consulted her oracles and disco- 
 vered the truth. Harvey was physician successively 
 to James I. and to his son, Charles I. In the train 
 of the latter he visited Scotland in 1633, and he 
 has left an account of an excursion which he made 
 on that occasion to the Bass Rock, in the Frith of 
 Forth ; and having adhered to the fortunes of his 
 patron, he was present, though not as a combatant, 
 but as the guardian of the two young princes, 
 Charles and James, at the battle of Edgehill, in 
 1642. During the fight he employed himself by 
 reading a book under a hedge, but a large cannon 
 ball grazing the ground close to him while he was 
 so occupied, he removed with his charge to a dis- 
 tance trom the scene of action. In 1651 his 
 
 807 
 
EAR 
 
 residence at Whitehall was plundered, and his 
 manuscripts destroyed, a loss which he ever after 
 deplored, as they contained the results of the ex- 
 periments of a hfe. His works are not numerous, 
 but they are valuable ; and his treatise on the 
 Generation of Animals is still a standard book. 
 He died worth 20,000, which he bequeathed to 
 his brother, Mr. Eliab Harvey, with the exception 
 of a yearly sum of 56 for the annual delivery of 
 an oration at the College of Physicians, which is 
 still known as the Harveian oration. He was 
 diminutive in stature, with a small, round, but 
 expressive black eye. His temper was naturally 
 choleric, and was rendered perhaps more so by 
 severe attacks of the gout ; and in his philosophi- 
 cal sentiments he is believed to have inclined to 
 the opinions of his friend Hobbes, to whom he 
 left a legacy of 10. There is a tradition that he 
 destroyed himself by an over-dose of opium, to 
 avoid the pain of a fit of his habitual malady ; but 
 this story is now discredited, as it has been ascer- 
 tained that he died of a slight shock of paralysis, 
 which his aged and feeble frame could not with- 
 stand. [J.M'C.] 
 HARWOOD, Sir Baswick, an English physi- 
 cian and writer on anatomy and physiology, d. 1814. 
 HARWOOD, E., a disting. divine, 1729-1794. 
 HASDRUBAL. See Asdrubal. 
 HASE, Theodore, a German theologian and 
 biblical commentator, 1689-1731. His son, James, 
 a classical writer, died 1723. 
 
 HASENMULLER, Daniel, a Ger. Orientalist, 
 author of J Janua Hebraismi Aperta,' 1651-1691. 
 HASLEWOOD, Joseph, one of the founders 
 and editors of the Roxburgh Club, and the collec- 
 tor of a large library of black letter lore and 
 Elizabethan poetry, 1769-1833. 
 
 HASSAN, a grandson of Mahomet, born 625, 
 caliph after the murder of Ali, 660, died 661. 
 
 HASSAN-PACHA, grand vizier of the Otto- 
 man emp., and a dist. military command., d. 1790. 
 HASSE, J. A., a Germ, composer, 1705-1783. 
 HASSEL, J. G. H., a Ger. geogra., 1770-1829. 
 HASSELQUIST, Frederic, a Swedish botan- 
 ist, au. of a 'Journey to the Holy Land,' 1722-52. 
 HASTED, Edw., historian of Kent, 1732-1812. 
 HASTING, a Danish adventurer, died 890. 
 HASTINGS, Lady Eliza., dau. of the earl of 
 Huntingdon, founder of schools, &c, 1682-1739. 
 
 HASTINGS, Francis Rawdon, son of the 
 earl of Moira, born 1754, distinguished as a Brit- 
 ish officer in the American war, in Holland, and 
 the East Indies, and governor-general of India 
 from 1812 to 1822, governor of Malta 1824, died 
 marquis of Hastings 1826. 
 
 HASTINGS, Warren, was born in 1733. He 
 was the son of obscure parents, but he claimed an 
 ancient and renowned descent, and from his early 
 childhood it was his ambition to win back the 
 domains of his ancestors. He was educated at 
 Westminster School, and in 1750 was appointed 
 a writer in the service of the East India Company. 
 In the emergency through which the ability and 
 valour of Clive saved the British possessions, his 
 capacity was seen while the obscure clerk carried 
 a musket as a volunteer, and he was chosen diplo- 
 matic agent at the Durbar. After having re- 
 mained fourteen years in India he returned to 
 Britain, still comparatively obscure ; but his talents 
 
 HAU 
 were remembered, and after being named second 
 in council in Madras, he was, in 1774, appointed 
 to thj newly-created dignity of governor-general 
 of Bengal. The bold measures which he took to 
 defend the British interests from Hyder Ally is 
 one of the great epochs in the history of the British 
 Eastern Empire. By its audacious and somewhat 
 unscrupulous character, his career startled and 
 alarmed British statesmen on the morality of the 
 policy which guided the British system in the 
 Eastern Peninsula, and he was recalled to meet 
 the celebrated impeachment moved by Burke on 
 4th April, 1786. The trial was begun on 13th 
 February, 1788, when, according to Mr. Macaulay, 
 | The high court of Parliament was to sit accord- 
 ing to forms handed down from the days of the 
 Plantagenets, on an Englishman accused of exer- 
 cising tyranny over the lord of the holy city of 
 Benares, and the ladies of the princely house of 
 Oude.' Political events turned public attention 
 into other channels during the impeachment, and 
 when it had been almost forgotten it ended in an 
 acquittal in April, 1795. He spent his old age in 
 retirement ; the injury which his fortunes received 
 by the expense of his defence being but partially 
 remedied by the gratitude of the East Indian 
 Company. He had a taste for letters, and wrote 
 some secondary works now forgotten. He died 
 on 22d August, 1818. [J.H.B.] 
 
 HATCHER, Thomas, an editor of the 16th ct. 
 HATFIELD, Thomas, bp. of Durham, secre- 
 tary of Edward III., and companion-in-arms of 
 Percy and Ralph Nevill, died 1381. 
 
 HATSELL, John, chief clerk of the House of 
 Commons, and a writer on parliamentary sub- 
 jects, 1733-1820. 
 
 HATTO, or ATTO-VERCELLENSIS, an Ital. 
 prelate, known as an ecclesiastical writer, 10th ct. 
 HATTON, Sir Christopher, a courtier and 
 dramatic writer, chancellor in 1587, died 1591. 
 HAUBER, E. D., a German historian, 1715-65. 
 HAU BOLD, C. C, a Germ, jurist, 1706-1824. 
 HAUFF, Wilhelm, a German mose writer, 
 author of ' The Man in the Moon,' ' Extracts from 
 the Memoirs of the Devil,' &c, 1802-1827. 
 HAUG, J. C. F., a German poet, 1761-1829. 
 HAUGWITZ, Chr. Henry Charles, count 
 of, the Prussian statesman who signed the treaty 
 of Pilnitz, born 1758, retired 1806, died 1832. 
 
 HAUKSBEE, Francis, an English philosopher, 
 
 known for his experiments in electricity, last cent. 
 
 HAULTIN, J. B., a Fr. numismatist, 1580-1640. 
 
 HAUSER, Gaspard, a mysterious being 
 
 found in Nuremberg 1828, assassinated 1832. 
 
 HAUTEFEUILLE, John De, a Fr. physician 
 and mechanic, au. of curious treatises, 1647-1724. 
 HAUTERIVE, Maurice, Count De, a French 
 diplomatist and political writer, 1754-1830. 
 
 HAUTEROUHE, Noel Le Breton De, a 
 French dramatic poet and actor, 1617-1707. 
 
 HAUY, Rene Just, a celebrated mineralogist, 
 was born at Saint Just in 1743. He died in 1822. 
 Sprung from poor parents, who were not able to 
 give him an education, his excellent behaviour 
 while a child, attracted the notice of some benevo- 
 lent individuals in his native town, who induced 
 his mother to take him to Paris. After some little 
 time his kind friends obtained him a bursary at the 
 College of Navarre. When he had completed his 
 
 208 
 
IHAIT 
 education there he became a teacher in the estab- 
 lishment, and continued in that humble capacity 
 1 1 for several years. Affection for a friend induced 
 !| him to study botany ; and accident led him to the 
 il j lecture-room of M. Daubenton, at that time pro- 
 jfl fessor of mineralogy. He was charmed with the 
 Ml lecture, and found the study of minerals more 
 j| suited to his taste than that of plants. He was 
 i now thirty-eight years of age. For some time his 
 II mind had been occupied with ideas relative to the 
 I contrast between the forms of the vegetable and 
 i ; mineral kingdoms, when one day examining a 
 fine specimen of calcareous spar crystallized in 
 prisms, he accidentally let it fall. Upon examin- 
 ing one of the broken prisms, he found that the 
 fracture showed as smooth a face as the original, 
 but that the form of the crystal was changed into 
 
 t of a rhomb. He repeated the experiment 
 f upon many other minerals, and always found the 
 same result ; the component pails of each mineral 
 were found to have the same geometrical figure, 
 and a nucleus always similar to itself; while the 
 variety of external forms which the masses assume 
 arose from the manner in which the smaller crys- 
 tals composing it are arranged. Continuing his 
 researches and experiments, he soon succeeded in 
 establishing the true law of crystallization. This 
 he has explained at full length in his ' Traite" de 
 Mineralogie,' a work which has procured for him 
 an immense reputation. In 1792 M. Haiiy was 
 imprisoned along with many other ecclesiastics. 
 By the assistance of his pupil Geoft'roy St. Hilaire, 
 he was, however, soon after released, and remained 
 for the future untouched and unmolested. In 1802 
 he was elected professor of mineralogy at the Gar- 
 den of Plants. Napoleon treated him with much 
 respect ; made him a canon of Notre Dame, and 
 an officer of the Legion of Honour; but at 
 the restoration he was treated with cruel neglect 
 by the government, and died in comparative 
 poverty. [W.B.] 
 
 HAUY, Valentine, brother of the mineralo- 
 gist, fndr. of an institut. for the blind, 1746-1822. 
 
 HAVERCAMP, S., a Germ, critic, 1683-1742. 
 
 HAVERS, C., an English anatomist, last cent. 
 
 HAVET, A. E. M., a Fr. naturalist, 1795-1820. 
 
 HAWEIS, T., a religious writer, 1734-1820. 
 
 HAWES, Stephen, an English poet, 15th c. 
 
 HAWES, William, a physician of London, 
 founder of the Humane Society, and author of 
 miscellaneous writings, 1736-1808. 
 
 HAWKE, Edward, Vice-Admiral Lord, cele- 
 brated for his victories over the French in the 
 middle of last century, died 1781. 
 
 HAWKER, Dr. Robert, a well-known evan- 
 gelical div., au. of Commentaries,' &c, 1753-1827. 
 
 HAWKESWORTH, John, LL.D., an essayist 
 and miscellaneous writer of the age of Johnson, 
 editor of ' The Adventurer,' 1715-1773. 
 
 HAWKINS, Sir John, a London magistrate, 
 known as a miscellaneous writer, 1719-1789. 
 
 HAWKINS, Sir John, a British admiral, dis- 
 tinguished against the Spaniards in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, the first to begin the slave trade, 1520- 
 1595. His son, Sir Richard, a naval com- 
 mander and writer, 1582-1G22. 
 
 HAWKSMOOR, Nicholas, the pupil and suc- 
 cessor of Sir Christopher Wren, as surveyor and 
 arcliit. of the new churches in London, 16C6-1736. 
 
 HAY 
 
 HAWKWOOD, Sir John, an English general, 
 distinguished in the wars of Edward III., d. 1393. 
 
 HAWLES, John, a writer on law, 1645-1716. 
 
 H AWLEY, Joseph, one of the ablest advocates 
 of independence in the American legis., 1724-88. 
 
 HAWORTH, A. H., an Eng. naturalist, d. 1833. 
 
 HAXO, F. B., Baron, a Fr. officer, 1774-1838. 
 
 HAY, James, the first Scotchman raised to the 
 English peerage, created by James I. Lord Hay, 
 Viscount Doncaster, and Earl Carlisle, died 1636. 
 
 HAY, William, an English essayist, d. 1755. 
 
 HAYDN, Francis Joseph, was born at 
 Rohrau, a small town about fifteen leagues from 
 Vienna, in March, 1732, of very humble parents, 
 his father being a wheelwright and parish sexton, 
 and his mother, before her marriage, having been 
 cook at the chateau of a neighbouring noble- 
 man. Haydn seems to have inherited a taste 
 for music from his father, who had a fine tenor 
 voice, and had made some progress as a performer 
 upon the organ, and could accompany himself and 
 his wife upon the harp. While yet quite a child 
 he showed an early predilection for music, and a 
 cousin of his father who was schoolmaster at Heim- 
 burgh, taught him to perform upon the violin and 
 sing with taste. This relation also taught him 
 Latin, which qualified him to sing in the choir 
 of St. Stephen's at Vienna, and where he soon 
 attracted the attention of Reuter the chapel mas- 
 ter. Haydn pursued his musical studies with 
 great earnestness, and under circumstances of great 
 privation. Such was his industry, however, that 
 while he was under Reuter, no single day passed 
 without his having devoted sixteen and sometimes 
 eighteen hours to his music lessons. Having 
 commenced to study composition, he at thir- 
 teen years old, began to write a mass. He 
 gained his livelihood from singing till the age of 
 seventeen, when his soprano voice left him. After 
 this period, being unable to pay for lessons in 
 counterpoint and harmony, he procured an old 
 work on the art, and in spite of the pedantic rules 
 of the old book he had to study from, he soon 
 became well informed in the science of music. 
 About this time he became acquainted with Por- 
 pora and Metastasio, with whom he spent some of 
 his time very agreeably, but nothing of importance 
 occurred in his life up till the year 1771, with the 
 exception of an unhappy marriage, which he con- 
 tracted with Anne Kellar, a prudish damsel, who, 
 in addition to a tiresome parade of virtue, had, as 
 his biographer informs us, a ' mania for priests 
 and monks.' In the year named above, he was 
 appointed chapel master to Prince Esterhazy, 
 which appointment put an end for ever to his 
 pecuniary embarrassments. In the service of this 
 prince in the palace at Eisenstadt, Haydn pro- 
 duced many of his great works, and under advan- 
 tages which few composers ever possessed he had 
 a full and excellent band, living under the same 
 roof with him, at his command every hour of the 
 day. Thus passed the life of Haydn till the year 
 1791, when he arrived in England to fulfil an en- 
 gagement with M. Salomons, who was then giving 
 concerts in the Hanover Square Rooms. During 
 this engagement he produced six of his 'Twelve 
 Grand Symphonies, and also published many 
 canzonets, quartetts, sonatas, &c. In 1794, h'e 
 again visitea London under an engagement to 
 
HAT 
 
 Gallini, then manager of the King's theatre, Hay- 
 market, and at which period he produced the re- 
 maining six of his ' Grand Symphonies.' While 
 in London, the greatness of his genius, and the 
 amiability of his manners, brought him many 
 friends, and rendered his success quite triumphant 
 At the close of this engagement Haydn returned 
 to Vienna, and never afterwards left it. In 1795, 
 Haydn commenced the composition of his ' Crea- 
 tion,' and was two whole years employed upon it. 
 On one occasion, when asked why the Oratorio was 
 not finished, Haydn answered with the utmost 
 tranquillity ' I am long about it, because I wish it 
 to last long.' This wish was a prophecy, his ' Crea- 
 tion ' will last for ever. The ' Creation ' was 
 brought out in 1798, and two years afterwards he 
 gave to the world his ' Seasons.' The last great 
 work upon which his genius exerted himself, was 
 two sets of quartetts. In his latter years he em- 
 ployed himself in setting accompaniments to some 
 Scotch airs for the late Mr. George Thomson of 
 Edinburgh. In 1805, he, by the advice of his 
 physician, gave up all study, and from this time 
 he never left his villa at Gumpendorff. The closing 
 scene of this great composer's life was not less re- 
 markable than his career was illustrious. The 
 last time he appeared in public was at the per- 
 formance of the ' Creation,' which was honoured 
 by the presence of more than 1,500 people, amongst 
 whom were many of the nobles and princes of Aus- 
 tria. ' Surrounded by the nobility of Vienna and his 
 friends, by artists, by lovely women, whose eyes 
 were fixed upon him, listening to the praises of 
 God, which he himself had imagined, Haydn bid 
 a glorious adieu to the world.' Soon after this, 
 war broke out between France and Austria ; this 
 intelligence vexed him and exhausted the last re- 
 mains of his strength. ' The French armies ad- 
 vanced rapidly, and on the 10th of May, 1809, 
 having reached Schonbrunn about half a league 
 distant from Haydn's villa, they fired next morning 
 hundreds of cannon shot upon Vienna, that city so 
 much beloved by him. Four bombs having fallen 
 close to his house, his two servants, with terror 
 depicted in their countenances, ran to him; the 
 old man, by an effort, rose from his arm-chair, and 
 with a dignified air, cried, 'Why such alarm! 
 know that, where Haydn is, no evil can happen.' 
 But this exertion was beyond his strength ; a con- 
 vulsive shivering prevented him adding more, and 
 he was immediately conveyed to bed. On the 
 26th of May, he was almost completely exhausted ; 
 notwithstanding, he had his piano moved towards 
 him, and sung three times with a voice as loud as 
 he could, ' God save the Emperor.' These were his 
 last words. At his piano he became insensible, 
 and he expired on the morning of the 31st. 
 Haydn was very religious. The commencement 
 of all his scores are inscribed with one of the fol- 
 lowing mottoes '/ Nomine Domini,' or i Soli Deo 
 Gliria,' 1 and at the end of them all l Laus Deo.' 
 His works are exceedingly numerous in all classes. 
 Among them are 116 symphonies, 83 violin quar- 
 tetts, 60 pianoforte sonatas, 15 masses, 4 oratorios, 
 a grand ' Te Deum,' a ' Stabat Mater,' 14 Italian 
 and German operas, 42 duets and canzonets, 
 and 200 divertimentos for particular instru- 
 ments. [J.M.] 
 HAYDON, Benjamin Robekt, was born at 
 
 HAY 
 
 Plymouth, 23d January, 1786 ; his father was a 
 bookseller, and he was educated in early youth at 
 Plympton Grammar School, where Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds had been brought up. Haydon deter- 
 mined upon becoming a painter, contrary to the 
 wishes of his parents. His father, however, assisted 
 him for several years in the metropolis : he visited 
 London in 1804, and became a pupil of the Royal 
 Academy in 1805. He had the advantage of the 
 acquaintance of Northcote, Opie, and Fuseli, as ad- 
 visers, and of Jackson and Wilkie as fellow-pupils. 
 His ambitious views of art were early developed : 
 in 1807 he exhibited a picture of the ' Flight into 
 Egypt,' purchased by Mr. Hope, which procured 
 him a commission from Lord Mulgrave for ' Den- 
 tatus,' a picture which, from the dissatisfaction lie 
 felt at its being placed in the ante-room in the 
 Royal Academy Exhibition of 1809, appears to have 
 been the first cause of most of his subsequent 
 trouble, for not imagining that others might not 
 think so highly of the picture as he did himself, he 
 made the supposed injustice a cause of quarrel 
 with the Academy, and the notion of injustice, or 
 rather owing to his inordinate vanity, a conspiracy 
 to suppress him, developed itself into a monomania, 
 and possessed his mind the whole of his life. Den- 
 tatus has been admirably engraved in wood by his 
 pupil Harvey. The encouragement, however, I 
 which Haydon got from Lord Mulgrave, both! 
 social and professional, gave a great impulse to his 1 
 exertions, and Dentatus was succeeded by a con- 
 siderable series of great works. He now, to make! 
 up some deficiencies of execution, devoted himself 
 for half a year to the practice of portrait painting i 
 at Plymouth, and after his return to London he] 
 became an enthusiastic student of the Elgin Mar- 1 
 bles, then recently brought from Greece; the excel-! 
 lence of which he professes to have been the first I 
 to point out to the British public, rather naively! 
 overlooking the claims of Lord Elgin himself, who! 
 had spent 52,000 in securing them and bringing! 
 them to England. The following are Haydon's! 
 
 frincipal works in the order of their production : I 
 n 1812 'Macbeth,' for Sir George Beaumont; in 
 1814 the 'Judgment of Solomon,' for which he; 
 was voted the freedom of his native town, and in 
 this year he visited Paris; in 1820 'Christ's Entry! 
 into Jerusalem,' (now in America,) which pro-j 
 duced him nearly 3,000 by its exhibition alone, in 
 London, Edinburgh, and Glasgow; in 1821 1 
 'Christ's Agony in the Garden,' (in this year he) 
 was married); in 1823 'The Raising of Lazarus,' i 
 (now at the Pantheon,) in this year he was ar-j 
 rested for debt, and passed through the Insolvent! 
 Court; in 1826 'Pharaoh Dismissing the Israelites,'! 
 and 'Venus and Anchises; in 1827 'Alexander 
 and Bucephalus,' for Lord Egremont, and 'Eucles;'' 
 in 1828 'The Mock Election in the King's Bench,'' 
 purchased by George IV.; in 1830 'Napoleon at] 
 St. Helena,' for Sir Robert Peel, a picture he after-) 
 wards repeated in small nearly thirty times; in' 
 1832 'Xenophon's First Sight of the Sea,' in the! 
 retreat with the 10,000; in 1834 'The Reform 1 
 Banquet,' for Lord Grey, ' Cassandra,' and ' Wait- 
 ing for the Times;' in 1835 'Achilles at the Courti 
 of Lycomedes Discovering his Sex ;' in 183(i ' Sam- 
 son and Delilah,' (this year he passed a second time 
 
 through the Insolvent Court;) in 1838 'Christ! 
 Blessing Little Children,' for Liverpool ; in lbui) 
 
 310 
 
IHAY 
 e Duke at Waterloo,' also for Liverpool; in 
 he lectured (gratis) at the Ashmolean Museum, 
 :(jford, and henceforth his time was divided be- 
 tien lecturing and painting ; he found the former 
 Itj more profitable pursuit, his lectures are pub- 
 Led: in 1841 'The Anti-Slavery Convention,' 
 jjk 'The Maid of Saragossa;' in 1842 'Curtius 
 jhping into the Gulf 5' in 1843 the cartoon of the 
 Intry of the Black Prince into London,' with 
 (ig John of France prisoner ; this was in com- 
 lition for Westminster Hall, in which Haydon 
 [led, a failure which some of his friends supposed 
 jhave been fatal to him; in 1844 'Alexander 
 lling the Lion,' and a large repetition of ' Napo- 
 n at St. Helena,' which was purchased by the 
 jig of Hanover ; in 1845 'Uriel and Satan ;' and 
 ,;tly, in 1846 the ' Banishment of Aristides,' and 
 jfero Watching the Burning of Rome,' represent- 
 [5 the evils both of democracy and of despotism : 
 ese last were two of a series of six which he had 
 signed years ago, for the illustration of the old 
 puse of Lords. These pictures Haydon exhibited 
 usual, but he was unusually unsuccessful with 
 em. He had often lost by his exhibitions, but 
 metimes had gained large sums, as in the case 
 'Christ's Entry into Jerusalem;' in this last 
 ihibition he lost 111 lis. 5d., and this loss at a 
 me when he was penniless, added to his deep 
 sappointment at not being employed in the de- 
 lation of the Houses, at last overcame his all 
 it indomitable energy, and he destroyed himself 
 the 22d of June of this year, 1846. One of the 
 itest entries in his diary is : ' Tom Thumb had 
 2,000 people last week, B. R. Haydon, 133.4 (the 
 a little girl). Exquisite taste of the English 
 eople.' It may be supposed by some that Hay- 
 on was a martyr to his love of what is termed 
 \1igh Art: the facts of his life show anything but 
 jhis. He began his career with almost unexampled 
 [ncouragement, and appears even at all times to 
 pave found friends, who gave and lent him consider- 
 able sums of money, from 50 to 1,000, and his 
 professional receipts were by no means small; 
 from the years 1831 to 1836 inclusive, he received 
 from this source alone 4,617 2s. 3d., an average 
 of 750 per annum ; yet he was always in diffi- 
 culties sufficient to have harassed most men to 
 death in as many months as Haydon endured them 
 years : his debts amounted to about 3,000 at his 
 death. The cause of common justice renders these 
 details imperative, both from the extraordinary 
 circumstances of Haydon's death, and his habitual 
 accusations against the Academy for its jealous 
 tyranny, and the people for their hopeless want of 
 taste. Haydon had no other enemy than himself; 
 he appears to have been wholly wanting in com- 
 mon sense ; his ambition was so excessive that it 
 destroyed his judgment, and his extraordinary 
 energy wanted that counterbalancing ability to 
 insure a real artistic success : he was impulsive 
 and desultory, mistook the will for the deed, and 
 neglected the commonest elements of excellence in 
 execution ; he was extremely mannered ; with the 
 exception of a large style of design (indicated, 
 not executed), and a warm and powerful 
 colouring, we miss every other requisite of a fine 
 picture: yet such was his extraordinary vanity, 
 that he identified the fate of the art of his country 
 with that of his own efforts, and assumed all pro- 
 
 HEB 
 
 gress to have proceeded from himself, while per- 
 haps no individual artist ever had less influence on 
 the taste of his time, or even that of his own 
 pupils, who do not retain a single trace of his style ; 
 indeed, Sir Charles Eastlake, Sir Edwin Land- 
 seer, and Lance, the fruit painter, Haydon's prin- 
 cipal scholars, illustrate three as opposed paths, as 
 the whole province of painting could possibly dis- 
 play. (See Memoirs of B. R. Haydon from his 
 Journals. Longman, 1853.) [R.N.W.1 
 
 HAYER, J. N. H., a Fr. relig. writer, 1718-80. 
 
 HAYES, Ch., an Eng. mathema., 1678-1760. 
 
 HAYES, W., a musical composer, 1708-1777. 
 
 HAYGARTH, J., a medical author, d. 1813. 
 
 HAYLEY, W., a poet and mis. wr., 1745-1820. 
 
 HAYM, N. F., an Ital. numismatist, 1670-1730. 
 
 HAYMAN, F., an English painter, 1708-1776. 
 
 HAYMO, a German commentator, died 853. 
 
 HAYNAU, Jules De, an Austrian general 
 noted for his cruelty to the Hungarians in 1849, 
 1786-1853. 
 
 HAYNE, F. G., a Germ, botanist, 1763-1832. 
 
 HAYNE, Isaac, a colonel in the American 
 army, executed by the English as a traitor 1781. 
 
 HAYNE, Th., a learned divine, 16th century. 
 
 HAYTON, theirs/ of the name, k. of Armenia, 
 1224-1268 ; the second, 1289-1308. 
 
 HAYTON, an Armenian historian, died 1310. 
 
 HAYWARD, Sir J., an Eng. historian, d. 1627. 
 
 HAYWOOD, Elizabeth, a miscel. writer, au- 
 thor of ' The Female Spectator,' &c, 1693-1756. 
 
 HAZAEL, a king of Syria, 9th century B.C. 
 
 HAZLITT, William, a well-known essayist 
 and critic of art and poetry, was the son of a uni- 
 tarian minister, and was born at Maidstone 1778. 
 He was in early life an artist, but not satisfied 
 with his attainments in this profession, he came to 
 London and commenced the career of an author in 
 1803, from which time till his death in 1830, he 
 was constantly before the public as a journalist and 
 miscellaneous writer. His largest work is the ' Life 
 of Napoleon,' in 4 vols., but he is most esteemed 
 for the philosophical spirit of his criticisms. His 
 literary remains, with a biographical memoir, were 
 published by his son shortly after his death. 
 
 HEADLEY, H., an English poet, 1766-1788. 
 
 HEAPY, T., a water-colour painter, 1775-1830. 
 
 HEARNE, S., an English navigator, 1735-92. 
 
 HEARNE, T., an Eng. antiquar., 1680-1735. 
 
 HEARNE, T., an archit. engraver, 1744-1817. 
 
 HEATH, Benj., a learned writer, last century. 
 
 HEATH, James, an historical writer, 1629-64. 
 
 HEATH, Jas., a dist. engraver, 1756-1834. His 
 son, Charles, also an em. engraver, 1784-1848. 
 
 HEATH, Nicholas, archbishop of York and 
 chancel, of Engld. in the reign of Q. Mary, d. 1560. 
 
 HEATHCOTE, R., a miscel. writer, 1721-1795. 
 
 HEBEL, J. P., a German poet, 1760-1818. 
 
 HEBER, or EBER, a patriarch of Syria, from 
 whom it is supposed the Hebrews derive their 
 name (Genesis x. 24). 
 
 HEBER, Reginald, a learned clergyman of 
 the Church of England, 1728-1804. His son, of 
 the same name, the well-known bishop of Calcutta, 
 distinguished as a poet and essayist, 1783-1826. 
 Richard, half-brother of Bishop Heber, known 
 as a learned editor, 1773-1833. 
 
 HEBERDEN, William, M.D., F.R.S., alearned 
 and distinguished English physician, was born at 
 
 311 
 
HEB 
 
 London in 1 710. After the usual preliminary edu- 
 cation at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, which 
 he entered at the early age of seven, and where he 
 remained till 1724, he was transferred to St. John's 
 College, Cambridge. Here he graduated as B.A. 
 in 1 7Js, and as A.M. in 1732 ; and having resolved 
 to follow medicine as a profession, he obtained 
 his degree as M.I), in that university in 1739. 
 He practised as a physician at Cambridge, giving 
 lectures on materia mcdica at the same time in 
 the university till the year 1746, when he removed 
 to London, where he speedily attained to great 
 eminence, and where he continued to reside ever 
 afterwards. He died in Pall Mall on the 17th of 
 May, 1801, in the ninety-first year of his age. Dr. 
 Heberden was one of the best classical scholars of 
 his time, and one of the most perfectly instructed 
 medical men England has ever possessed. It was 
 to a suggestion of his that the ' Medical Transac- 
 tions' owe their origin, and he contributed to the 
 first three volumes of that valuable publication 
 many important papers ; he is best known, how- 
 ever, by his ' Commentaries on the History and 
 Cure of Disease,' a posthumous work, published 
 by his son in 1802. [J.M'C] 
 
 HEBERT, a French writer, 13th century. 
 
 HE BERT, James Rene, one of the Jacobin 
 leaders of the French revolution, commonly called 
 ' Pere Duchesne,' from the name of his journal, 
 was born at Alencon towards 1755, and executed 
 with his accomplices Chaumette, Anacharsis 
 Cloots, and others, on the 24th of March, 1794. 
 He was the most brutal journalist of the period, 
 and played a leading part in every conspiracy 
 against the establishment of law and order, and in 
 the detestable massacres of September, 1792. On 
 the 10th of August preceding he had been installed 
 among the magistrates of the people at the Hotel 
 de Ville, and from this period he laboured to exalt 
 the municipal authority above that of the conven- 
 tion. The Girondins were sacrificed in the straggle 
 which ensued, but Robespierre and the Committee 
 of Public Safety only awaited a proper opportunity, 
 and arrested the party of Hebert, at the very 
 moment they were threatening a new insurrection. 
 The followers of Hubert and Chaumette, generally 
 called ' Hebertists,' were atheists, and their leaders 
 were as obscene and cruel in outward conduct as 
 they were irreligious in heart. The charge on 
 which they were executed was that of endeavour- 
 ing to destroy the republic by immorality. [E.R.] 
 
 H EC ART, G. A. J., a Fr. philologist, 1755-1838. 
 
 HECHT, Christian, a Ger. divine, 1696-1748. 
 
 HECHT, Godfrey, a learned writer, d. 1721. 
 
 HECKEL, J. F., a Ger. philologist, d. 1715. 
 
 HECQUET, P., a Fr. med. author, 1661-1737. 
 
 HEDERIC, Benjamin, a German philologist, 
 an. of a well-known Greek Lexicon, 1675-1748. 
 
 HEDIN, Sueno Andrew, a Swedish physi- 
 cian, and author of medical works, 1750-1821. 
 
 HEDGES, Sir Ch., a min. of state, d. 1714. 
 
 HEDIO, Gaspar, a Ger. reformer, 1495-1552. 
 
 HE D WIG, John, a Ger. botanist, 1730-1799. 
 
 HEDWIGA, a queen of Poland, 1371-1399. 
 
 HEDYYTGA, St., a religious founder, d. 1243. 
 
 HEEM, J. De, a Dutch painter, 1600-1674. 
 
 HEEMSKIRCK, Martin Van Veen of, a 
 Dutch painter, time of Michelangelo, 1498-1574. 
 
 HEEN, Chris., a Swiss numismatist. 1715-69. 
 
 HEG 
 HEENE, Lucas De, a Flem. paint., 1534-& 
 HEEREN, Arnold Hermann Li:i>wig, 
 learned professor and historian of Ger., 17t50-184 
 HEERKENS, G. N., a Germ, poet, 1728-180 
 HEGEL, George William Frederick, bo 
 at Stuttgardt 1770, died at Berlin, in the flush of] 
 fame, November 14, 1831. A philosopher wh< 
 power and renown remind one of traditions concer 
 ing a Pythagoras : he created a School, not or 
 numbering in its ranks his most distinguish 
 contemporaries, but exciting a whole people: t 
 influence of Hegel diffused itself through the po 
 tics and religion, as well as through all the spec 
 lation of Germany. The principles on which tl 
 remarkable thinker constructed his system are tw 
 fold. First, his discovery, or alleged discovery, 
 a universal law according to which Thought unfol 
 itself the fundamental and sole law of /Jialecti 
 Every thing or notion, says Hegel, exists to t 
 mind, because it has, or is seen to have, a contr 
 dictory : in other words, there is some other thi 
 or notion standing out right against it, and 
 opposition marking it off, or defining it. A n 
 tion and its opposite, or contradictory, are t\ 
 elements essential to every act of thinking ; and 
 soon as these are realized, a third act or moveme 
 supervenes viz., the effort to reconcile the tioo co 
 tradiclories, or to find some third, and of com 
 higher notion, in which they unite or bleu 
 Three elements, therefore, a notion, its conti 
 dictory, and the solution of the contradiction, 
 a thesis, its anti-thesis, and the syn-thesis of the ti 
 represent a complete act of logic, or one mov 
 ment of dialectic ; and on the type of this moveme 
 Hegel undertook to explain the entire course ai 
 action of Thought in its efforts to comprehend t 
 Universe. It were not easy to over-estimate t 
 surprising skill with which a task so novel and a 
 duous has been executed : in this respect indeed t 
 ' Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences' 1 will ev 
 be a marvel. Thought is presented to the asto 
 ished reader, rising up from its barest express* 
 through a gigantic scheme of ascending triple, 
 until, having comprehended every form and sphe 
 of possible knowledge, it reaches the Absolute ai 
 the Infinite. The attempt has indeed failed : i 
 failure was as necessary and has been as signal 
 that of Babel ; nevertheless, in making it, Hej 
 had successes that might have achieved station f 
 many minds instead of one : he has thrown lig 
 on the methods and relationships of several depar 
 ments of knowledge, that will abide connected wi 
 his name, as a rare and beneficent contribution 1 
 philosophy. Secondly, Hegel's next principle,- 
 yet more distinctive, is also more unusui 
 Schelling before him had spoken of the Absolute I 
 the necessarily existing Unity blending together tl 
 whole variety of thought and things ; Dut this AI 
 solute he deemed an Essence, not irreconcileable wil 
 the notion of God. Hegel resolved that nothii 
 unintelligible no obscure residuum should rema 
 in philosophy. What, he asked, is Reality ? Wh; 
 is the thing truly known, in the Cogtto of D 
 Cartes ? Is it other than Thought t I know nr 
 self or my existence, because I think myself. I 
 to the external world, as men term it, Fichte d> 
 monstrated it a mere modification of the tliinkir 
 principle; what is it too, then, save a mo<lificati< 
 of Thought t What need in such a case of Esstnc 
 
 312 
 
I 
 
 mat 
 k it 
 
 HEG 
 
 1 1 1 Substances ? Thought is at once Knoicledge and 
 
 Ij^ewce ; the Ideal is the true and only Real. 
 
 |jd so disappear for ever, unknown quantities or 
 
 Instances from philosophy ; and science at last is 
 
 uate! Singular as this principle, taken by 
 
 ', must look to the English reader, the conse- 
 
 ces of its union with Hegel's. first assumption, 
 
 still more astounding. If the knowledge of 
 
 ings can be expressed or referred to one universal 
 
 vement of dialectic, are not Things themselves 
 
 the reality we can reach simply the evolution 
 
 Thought, according to this movement ? In other 
 
 rds, does not Dialectic represent, nay create by 
 
 movements, all that we call the Universe ? At 
 
 9 point Hegel starts farthest away from Schel- 
 
 Schelling's Absolute was primary, the great 
 
 and ultimate principle necessary to harmonize 
 
 variety of existence : according to Hegel the 
 
 lute is evolved created as well as risen to, by 
 
 ght ; God, in short, is not the discovery, but 
 
 t issue of dialectic ; and exists nowhere nor in 
 
 p manner, apart from our human consciousness! 
 
 is needful in candour to warn the student, that 
 
 must not judge of the verisimilitude of a scheme 
 
 extraordinary, by this barest outline. No re- 
 
 rkable system of thought, can fairly be separated 
 
 m its details, inasmuch as these are the bridge 
 
 which alone we can pass over from ordinary 
 
 des of contemplation ; and it will not be con- 
 
 ded that the high genius of Hegel failed to 
 
 vide the strong semblance of such a bridge, 
 
 ing that multitudes of the keenest thinkers in 
 
 many not only became passionate adherents of 
 
 doctrine, but put their sincerity to the test, 
 
 accepting all its practical conclusions. It were 
 
 dently out of the question to attempt here a 
 
 mal criticism of Hegelianism : nevertheless there 
 
 a few general remarks on the whole set of these 
 
 [Hilosophies of the Absolute,' which, from our 
 
 itish point of view, it may not be unfitting to 
 
 pture, as the conclusion of this article. (See art. 
 
 welling.) 1. There is one meaning and applica- 
 
 q of the term Absolute, legitimized and accepted 
 
 I this country, which must be carefully distin- 
 
 ished from the common significance of the same 
 
 (m in Germany. Truths fundamental to, and 
 
 (eparable from our human nature, are in our 
 
 glish phraseology, absolute, to that Nature : in 
 
 ker words, we must accept these as ultimate and 
 
 Jyitable conditions of human thought expressive, 
 
 k, of the structure of that physical and 
 
 rehical fabric, which is the composite being, Man. 
 
 transcendental philosophy of the Absolute, on 
 
 s other hand, is not a philosophy aspiring to dis- 
 
 nand rest on truths of the nature of the foregoing; 
 
 t one which aims at grasping, defining, and un- 
 
 iing the absolute principle of the whole universe : 
 
 1 a reverential philosophy aspiring to discern the 
 
 stence of a Primal Cause, a substratum and 
 
 vidence ; but to apprehend the whole structure 
 
 that prime efficiency, to formalize it, and deduce 
 
 m it the necessity of all that has been, that is, 
 
 i that shall unfold. To Man, such a philosophy 
 
 simply unattainable. On the vexed question, j 
 
 ether it is possible to effect the transition from 
 
 rtaphysics to Ontology to infer from the exist- 
 
 se of necessary truths, the existence of corres- 
 
 ndin realities one may hold by the affirmative 
 
 " all tenacity, and yet repeat the assertion that 
 
 HEI 
 
 a philosophy with snch aims is utterly unattain- 
 able. From the intellectual and moral constitution 
 of Humanity it may be legitimate to conclude some- 
 thing concerning the attributes of the Primal Cause : 
 but to fathom the nature of the Cause, is beyond 
 reach of all those faculties that belong to us. Hu- 
 manity is but one force among myriads one soli- 
 tary though rich and potent Monad and it cannot 
 encircle or comprehend the Infinite. Nay, this is 
 manifested, by the very progressiveness of our own 
 nature. What is absolute to us, we reach by Intui- 
 tion ; and there is no part of humanity so educable 
 as the Intuitive faculty. In the growth of this 
 power lies the secret of the growth of civilization : 
 and evidence abounds, that what we now discern of 
 absolute or intuitive truth, is far from the measure 
 of what may one day be accessible, without any 
 transcendence of the sphere of Humanity. How 
 vain then, how vainly audacious the attempt, 
 through our present or realized insight, to reach the 
 ultimate depths of Being ! 2. To whatever extent 
 we can discern the Absolute or Infinite, it clearly 
 must be through reliance in the first place on 
 those ultimate elements or constituents of human 
 thought : and as well in logic, as in masonry, it were 
 fatal to remove the foundation scaffolding, simply 
 because we have ascended several stages above it. 
 But, these philosophies of the absolute, destroy the 
 foundation on which alone they can rest : the logi- 
 cal scheme of Hegel obliterates as entirely, human 
 liberty, human personality, human morality in 
 every one of its directest consequences, as the 
 lowest materialistic systems. It is thus a practical 
 paralogism, and issues in a defiance of that very 
 Cogito of Des Cartes, to which at the outset it pro- 
 fesses unquestioning allegiance. These irremediable 
 defects inhere in most of our recent transcendental 
 systems ; which are liable, besides, to equally fatal 
 specific objections. It is gratifying to know, that 
 in Germany itself, they seem to have run their 
 course; and that modern thinkers, with aspira- 
 tions humbler but more real, are now working out 
 the various invaluable hints which their founders 
 have thrown, on themes sufficiently promising, 
 such as the Philosophy of History. Hegel's 
 works have been collected and published in a 
 great many volumes by the most eminent of his 
 disciples. [J.P.N.] 
 
 HEGESIPPUS, an ecclesiasti. historian, 2d ct. 
 
 HEGEWISCH, T., a Germ, histor., 1760-1815. 
 
 HEIDEGGER, J. H., a Swiss theologian and 
 historian, au. of 'Historia Papatus,' &c, 1G33-98. 
 
 HEIM, Eknest, L., a German medical writer, 
 1747-1834. His brother, J. L. Hkim, a min- 
 eralogist, and writer on Thuringia, 1741-1819. 
 
 HEIN, Peter, a Dutch captain, 17th century. 
 
 HEINE, H., a German author, 1797-1847. 
 
 HEINECCIUS, John Gotlikb, a German 
 lawyer, and antiquarian writer, 1681-1741. His 
 brother, John Michael, anantiquar., 1674-1722. 
 
 HEINSE, J. J. G., a Ger. novelist, 1746-1803. 
 
 HEINSIUS, Daniel, a Dutch philologist, his- 
 torian, and Latin poet, 1580-166o. Nicholas, 
 his son, a poet and classical editor, 1620-1681. 
 Anthony, a member of the same family, grand 
 pensionary of Holland, 1641-1720. 
 
 HEINZ, J., a Swiss painter, 16th century. 
 
 HEISS, J. De, a German historian, died 1688. 
 
 HEISTER, Lawrence, a celebrated German 
 313 
 
HEL 
 
 physician and surgeon of the last century, was 
 bofn at Frankfort on the 21st of September, 1683, 
 and died at Hclmstadt on the 18th of April, 1758. 
 He was much distinguished in his day both as a 
 
 Ehysician and a surgeon, particularly as the latter, 
 aving acquired a practical knowledge of the art 
 of surgery as a surgeon of the allied army in the 
 low countries. He was successively professor of 
 anatomy and surgery at Altorf and Helmstadt. 
 His works are numerous, and embrace treatises on 
 anatomy, surgery, and medicine, but they are now 
 little consulted. [J.M'C.] 
 
 HELE, Thos., an English dramatist, d. 1780. 
 
 HELENA, St., mother of Constantine the 
 Great, and founder of a church on Calvary, 247-328. 
 
 HELIODORUS, a Greek mathematician, 2d ct. 
 
 HELIODORUS, a Gr. bishop and au., 4th ct. 
 
 HELIOGABALUS, a Roman emp., 218-222. 
 
 HELL, Maximilian, a Hungarian astronomer 
 and writer on the magnet, &c, 1720-1792. 
 
 HELLOT, J., a French chemist, 1685-1766. 
 
 HELM AN, J. S., a Fr. engraver, 1743-1797. 
 
 HELMERS, J. F., a Dutch poet, 1767-1813. 
 
 HELMICH, W., a Dutch theolog., 1551-1608. 
 
 HELMONT, Jean Baptist Van, generally 
 numbered among the alchymists, was a native of 
 Brussels, and was bom 1577. He was a public 
 lecturer on medicine when only seventeen years of 
 age, and at twenty-two received his diploma as a 
 physician. Being rendered independent by his 
 marriage with a lady of property in 1609, he dis- 
 played his benevolence by practising his profession 
 gratuitously, and devoted his leisure to the studies 
 of which his name has become such a famous re- 
 presentative. It is admitted that he was a great 
 pioneer in chemical discovery, but there is also a 
 fund of valuable truth under the obscure terms 
 which are generally regarded as the mere conceits 
 of his imagination. The archevs, for example, 
 which makes a conspicuous figure in his works, is 
 the mover of all the functions in the animal econo- 
 my, and may be regarded as the vital aura which 
 is the subject of so much popular curiosity, and 
 the ridicule of so many learned professors, at the 
 present day. It was from the archeus that Bar- 
 thez derived his idea of a vital principle, and oper- 
 ated a revolution in physiology. The same ele- 
 ment, or spiritual essence of life, is recognized by 
 nearly all the old philosophers under different 
 names, and there is now every prospect of its 
 coming within the pale of experimental philoso- 
 
 Ehy. Of course, it is not pretended to deny that 
 [elmont's works abound in crude notions, and 
 wild fantastic theories, but even in these cases the 
 imaginative may often find the road to some true, 
 and now forgotten principle, from which the au- 
 thor wandered away in the fire-mists with which 
 he surrounded himself. Apart from all this, he 
 was a perfect master of his art, and there is evi- 
 dence of the astonishing cures he performed as a 
 physician. He died in 1644, and in 1648 his col- 
 lected works were published, according to his dy- 
 ing request, by his son, Francis Mercury Van 
 Hklmoht, who was also a speculative writer, and 
 lived 1618-1699. [E.R.] 
 
 HELMONT, M. Van, a Dutch paint., d. 1726. 
 
 HELSHAM, R., a natural philosopher, d. 1738. 
 
 HKLST, B. Van Deh, a Dutch pain., 1613-70. 
 
 HELTAI, G., a prot. wr. of Hungary, 16th ct. 
 
 HEL 
 
 HELVETIUS. The physicians and philosopl 
 of this name are sprung from a family of the P 
 tinate, the first founders of which fled to Holl 
 to avoid persecution at the period of the refon 
 tion. 1. Jea^t Frederic, (Schweizer), i 
 bears the reputation of an alchymist, was 1 
 physician to the armies of the republic, and 
 several medals struck in honour of the serv 
 rendered by him, flourished 1625-1709. 2. Ji 
 Adrian, who carried the family name to Pi 
 by going there in his youth, was the son of 
 preceding, and was known in the city of his ad 
 tion as the Dutch physician. He was ennoblec 
 Louis XIV. for his services, having been suo 
 sively equerry, counsellor of the king, and insj 
 tor-general of hospitals. He is the author 
 several medical works, especially on fevers, on 
 plague, and on the extirpation of cancer, an< 
 the discoverer of the curative virtues of ipecacuhi 
 Some of his works went through several edit 
 during his lifetime and afterwards ; lived 16 
 1727. One of his sons, 3. Jean Claude i 
 rian, became councillor of state and first ph 
 cian to the queen, and was a member of mos 
 the learned societies of Europe. His works 
 ' Idee Generale de l'Economie Animale, et Ob 
 vations sur la Petite Verole,' and 'Princ 
 Physica-Medica,' in which he attributes all dise 
 to the fermentation of the blood, and its irrup 
 into the lymphatic vessels. Like the other mem 
 of his family, he was of an original and specula 
 turn, and his hypotheses generally provoked < 
 troversy. His son, the fourth and most fan 
 of the name, is the subject of the folio v 
 notice. [E 
 
 HELVETIUS, Claude Adrian, born 
 Paris 1715, died December, 1771. The celet 
 at one time enjoyed by Helvetius, rests on his y 
 De V Esprit a treatise on theoretical and pracl 
 morality. Starting from the ground that ma 
 a being simply and purely sensible, he rapidlj 
 fers that morality signifies the search after plea 
 and effort to avoid pain. Nevertheless, as remai 
 in the article Epicurus, granting the postal 
 the inquiry remains, how can one best attain p 
 sure and avoid pain? And Helvetius desirei 
 raise men to the pursuit of large objects, 
 contrasts with this view, the mean morality of 
 purely self-seeking and vulgar-minded, with 
 higher but still narrow morality of sects and c 
 ries, and this last with the generous and unfett 
 action and serene enjoyments of the man wl 
 sympathies are coextensive with his race. It 
 to be said, in justice to one whose merits ; 
 thinker are not great, but often unduly ato 
 and depreciated, that action according to his 
 cepts, would, by no means frequently, be foun 
 jar with the results of a better system. Helvt 
 was a good and keen observer : hence the mB 
 Madame du Deffand, ' C est un homme qui 
 le secret de tout le monde.' Besides his Es 
 he wrote a treatise De V Homme. They are I 
 and wearisome in the main . and before rec 
 mending their perusal even to a student 1 
 fullest leisure, it would be fair to say that ev 
 thing good in them may be obtained at a n 
 cheaper rate. [J.P 
 
 HELVETIUS, J., a Dutch poet, last centu; 
 
 HELVICUS, C, a German savant, 1581-H 1 
 
 314 
 
HEL 
 
 LWIG, Amelia Von, a German lady, dist. 
 
 oetess and for her great learning, 1776-1832. 
 
 LWIG, G. A., a Prussian nat., 1666-1748. 
 
 LWIG, John Otto, a German medical 
 
 and collector of natural curiosities, 1654-98. 
 
 rother, Christopher, a botan., 1663-1721. 
 
 LYOT, Peter, a French ecclesiastic of 
 
 extraction, author of a ' History of Monas- 
 
 ders, Religious and Military,' 1660-1716. 
 
 MANS, Felicia, the daughter of a Liver- 
 
 nerchant, was born in that town in 1794. 
 
 rowne wrote verses from her childhood, and 
 
 hcd a poetical volume in her fourteenth year. 
 
 second volume, containing poems on 'The 
 
 "c Affections,' which appeared in 1812, 
 
 her as already successful in the school of 
 
 belL In the same year she married Captain 
 
 who, after some years, went to reside on 
 
 itinent, Mrs. Hemans remaining at home, 
 
 five sons. Always devoted to study and 
 
 ition, she now became more so than ever ; 
 
 was matter of much regret, to the poetess as 
 
 to the admirers of her verses, that she felt 
 
 compelled, by the expenses attending the 
 
 n of her children, to spend her powers in 
 
 tost uninterrupted succession of small pieces, 
 
 usually made their first appearance in the 
 
 Is or the day. It is hardly, indeed, to be 
 
 that, even with more favourable oppor- 
 
 she would have succeeded much better 
 
 she did in narrative or dramatic poetry. The 
 
 icter of her genius was decidedly lyncal and 
 
 Itive. But leisurely composition would doubt- 
 
 ave checked the verbosity and mannerism 
 
 |B are the besetting faults even of her latest 
 
 jnest poems. As it is, there are not a few of 
 
 mall pieces which are alike fine in feeling and 
 
 action; and the very marked manner which 
 
 gradually formed for herself has found a host 
 
 ttitators. Her poems are admirable for purity 
 
 ntiment and gentle pathos ; and her personal 
 
 icter was amiable, modest, and exemplary. 
 
 r several changes of residence, she died in 
 
 an in 1835. [W.S.] 
 
 EMELAR, J., a Dutch antiquarian, d. 1640. 
 
 EMMELINCK, or HEMMLING, J., a painter 
 
 rages, considered one of the first masters of 
 
 flemish school, born 1450. 
 
 EMMSEN, J., a Flemish painter, 16th cent. 
 
 FMSKERCK, E., a Dutch painter, 1645-1704. 
 
 EMSKERK. See Heemskirck. 
 
 EMSTERHUYS, or HEMSTERHUSIUS, 
 
 I emus, a learned Dutch critic and Orientalist, 
 
 -1756. His son, Francis, a writer on arts 
 
 i| philosophy, and an able statesman, d. 1790. 
 
 \ G. De, a Spanish theolog., 1611-1704. 
 
 I ' LT, Charles John Francis, a cele- 
 
 jed Fr. historian and dramatic poet, 1685-1770. 
 
 ENAULT, John D', a French poet, 17th ct. 
 
 : EL, J., a Ger. mineralogist, 1679-1744. 
 
 INDERSON, A., a Scotch divine, 17th cent. 
 
 ENDERSON, John, an Oxford scholar and 
 
 ^Ke occult sciences, 1757-1788. 
 
 E USON, John, an actor who acquired 
 >reat reputation in Falstaff, in which character 
 * said never to have been equalled, was born in 
 ?don 1747, and was apprenticed to a silver- 
 Sth. He made his debut as a performer at 
 l)h; after which he appeared in Shy lock at the 
 
 HEN 
 
 Haymarket theatre. He died suddenly of a brain 
 fever in 1785. [J.A.H.] 
 
 HENGIST, the first Saxon chief who established 
 himself in England, king of Kent, 458-488. 
 
 HENICHIUS, J., a German divine, 1616-1671. 
 
 HENISCH, G., a Hungarian savant, 1549-1618. 
 
 HENKE, Henry Philip Conrad, a Ger. prof, 
 of theology, au.ofan 'Ecclesias. Hist.,' 1752-1809. 
 
 HENKEL, J. F., a Ger. chemist, 1679-1744. 
 
 HENKEL, J. F., a Ger. surgical wr., 1712-1779. 
 
 HENLEY, Anthony, a fugitive writer and 
 member of parliament, died 1711. His second son, 
 Robert, born 1708, created Lord Northington 
 1760, chancellor 1757-1766, died 1772. 
 
 HENLEY, John, a celebrated lecturer, gene- 
 rally known as ' Orator Henley,' au. of ' Esther,' a 
 poem, and editor of 'The Hyp Doctor,' 1692-1756. 
 
 HENLEY, Samuel, a divine of the Church of 
 England, known as a classical writer, died 1813. 
 
 HENNET, A. J. U., a Fr. econ., 1758-1821. 
 
 HENOUL, J. B., a Fr. historian, 1755-1821. 
 
 HENRIET, Israel, a Fr. engraver, 1608-1661. 
 
 HENRIETTA ANNE, daughter of Charles I. 
 and Henrietta Maria, 1644, married to the duke 
 of Orleans, died 1660. 
 
 HENRIETTA MARIA, daughter of Henry IV. 
 and Marie de Medicis, born 1609, married to 
 Charles I. of England, 1625, escaped with her 
 infant to France, 1644, died 1669. 
 
 HENRION, D., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1640. 
 
 HENRION, F., a Fr. antiquarian, 1663-1720. 
 
 HENRIOT, Francois. This audacious and 
 bad man, who rose to be military commander of 
 Paris during the reign of terror, was born in the 
 precincts of the capital in 1761, and was released 
 from prison, where he had been confined for theft, 
 in the midst of the anarchy of 1792. He was a 
 principal in the terrible scenes of August and 
 September in that year, and headed the armed 
 force of the sansculottes, or sections of Paris, in 
 the insurrection of May in the year following, 
 when the Girondins were overthrown. The 
 triumph of Marat raised Henriot from this position 
 to that of generalissimo of the national guard, yet 
 he was utterly destitute of the talents necessary 
 for command, as shown by his conduct on the 9tn 
 Thermidor, when Robespierre and his party were 
 arrested by Barras. On this occasion he set the 
 example of a retreat, and returning to the Hotel 
 de Ville, in a half-drunken condition, he was 
 hurled from a window, with imprecations, by one 
 of his colleagues. The fall, however, did not kill 
 him, and he was executed with Robespierre and 
 the others on the day following, 28th July, 
 1794. [E.R.] 
 
 HENRIQUEZ, H., a Portug. miss., 1520-1600. 
 
 HENRY. The kings of England of this name 
 are Henry L, third son of William the Conqueror, 
 born 1068, usurped the throne on the death of 
 William Rufus, 1100, died 1135. Henry II., son 
 of Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, by the 
 empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I., born 
 1133; earl of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine 1151; 
 married Eleanor, the queen widow of France, 
 and countess in her own right of Poitou and 
 Aquitane, 1152; succeeded Stephen as king of 
 England, 1153; died 1189. Henry III., eldest 
 son of King John and Isabella of Angouleme, 
 born 1206, succeeded 1216, died 1272. Henry 
 
 315 
 
HEN 
 TV., eldest son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- 
 caster, fourth son of Edward III., and the Lady 
 Blanche, born lf!GC>, usurped the throne 1399, died 
 1413. Hknky V., son of the preceding, and 
 Mary de Bohun, daughter of the earl of Hereford, 
 horn 1388, succeeded 1413, invaded France and 
 fought the battle of Agincourt 1415, died 1422. 
 II km: y VI., son and successor of the preceding, when 
 only ten months old, 1422, crowned at Paris 1430, 
 imprisoned by the faction of York, and killed in 
 the Tower, 1471. Henry VII., son of Edmund 
 Tudor, earl of Richmond, and Margaret, a de- 
 scendant of John of Gaunt, horn 1456, defeated 
 Richard III., and proclaimed king 1485, manned 
 to Elizabeth the heiress of the house of York, 1486, 
 died 1509. Hbnbt VIII., second son of Henry 
 VII. and Elizabeth, born 1491 ; succeeded his 
 father, and married to Catherine of Arragon 1509 ; 
 defeated the French army at the battle of Spurs, 
 and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513 ; interview with 
 Francis I. on the field of the elbth of gold, 1520 ; 
 war with France 1522 ; treaty of peace 1526 ; 
 married to Anne Boleyn 1533 ; to Jane Seymour 
 after the execution of Anne 1536; to Anne of 
 Cleves after the death of Jane Seymour, and to 
 Catherine Howard after the divorce of the latter, 
 1540 ; to Catherine Parr 1543 ; invasion of France 
 1544 ; peace with Fr. and Scotland 1546 ; d. 1547. 
 
 HENRY. The emperors of Germany of this 
 name are Henry I., son of Otho, duke of 
 Saxony and Thuringia, born 876, reigned 919-936. 
 Henry II., great grandson of the preceding, born 
 972, king of Bavaria 995, succeeded Otho III. on 
 the throne of Germany 1002, crowned emperor at 
 Rome 1014, died 1024. Henry III., brother 
 and successor of Conrad II., reigned 1039-1056. 
 Henry IV., son of Henry III., born 1050, suc- 
 ceeded his father 1056, commenced the great war 
 of investiture 1077, deposed by the diet of Mayence 
 and died miserably 1106. Henry V., son of the 
 preceding, bom 1081, reigned 1111-1125. Henry 
 VI., born 11C5, succeeded his father, Frederic 
 Barbarossa, 1190, died of poison 1197. Henry 
 VII., duke of Luxemberg, elected 1308, died 1313. 
 Another Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, was pro- 
 claimed emperor on the deposition of Frederick II. 
 1246, and died the following year. 
 
 HENRY, em. of Constantinople, reig. 1174-1216. 
 
 HENRY. The kings of France of this name 
 are Henry I., bom 1005, succeeded his father 
 Robert, 1031, died 1060. Henry II., bom 1518, 
 married to Catherine de Medicis 1533, succeeded 
 his father Francis I. 1547, died of a wound re- 
 ceived at a tournament 1559. Henry III., 
 third son of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, 
 born 1551, elected king of Poland 1573, succeeded 
 his brother Charles IX. 1574, assassinated 1589. 
 For Henry IV., called the Great,' see Navarre. 
 
 HENRY. The kings of Castile ol this name 
 are Henry I., bom 1205, reigned 1214-1217. 
 Henky II., count de Transtamare, born 1333, 
 maintained a contest for the throne, which he 
 obtained 1366-1368, died 1379. Henry III., 
 reigned 1390-1406. Henry IV., born 1423, suc- 
 ceeded his father John II. 1454, died, and was 
 succeeded by his sister, Isabella of Castile, 1474. 
 
 HENRY, count of Portugal, killed 1112. 
 
 HENRY, king of Portugal, reigned 1578-1580. 
 
 HENRY, fourth .'.on of John 1. of Portugal and 
 
 HEN 
 
 Philippine, sister of Henry IV. of England, ] 
 
 as Henry of Portugal, or the duke of Visei 
 
 disting. as a promoter of discovery, 1304-141 
 
 HENRY, king of Jerusalem, reigned 115( 
 
 HENRY, the first of the name king of C 
 
 reigned 1218-1253; the second, 1285-1324. 
 
 HENRY, prince of Prussia, third son o: 
 
 deric William I., distinguished in the seven 
 
 war, and as a diplomatist, 1726-1802. 
 
 HENRY of Beois, bp. of Winchester, n 
 of William Rufus, and Drother of king St< 
 founder of the Hospital of St. Cross, died 11 
 HENRY of Ghent, a scholastic phil., d. 
 HENRY of Hesse, a German phil., d. li 
 HENRY of Huntingdon, an ancient c 
 au. of a ' History of Engld. to a.d. 1154,' d. 
 HENRY, Chas., M.D., a chemist, 1775-: 
 HENRY, David, a Scotch printer, 1710. 
 HENRY, F., a French mathematician, 16: 
 HENRY, Matthew, the celebrated con 
 tator on the Bible, was a native of Flim 
 where he was horn at the farm-house of 
 Oak, the dwelling of his maternal grandfatl 
 1662. His parents had retired to that pi: 
 consequence of his father, Rev. Philip Henry 
 ing been ejected from his parish in the neigl 
 hood by the tyrannical act of uniformity. I 
 of a very weakly and delicate constitution 
 childhood. But his mental faculties wei 
 markable for their precocious developmei 
 vigour ; and as an evidence of this, it is sai( 
 he could read the Bible distinctly in his thirc 
 and the Greek New Testament in his ninth 
 a very early age he received deep and lastin 
 pressions of religion ; insomuch that when ] 
 moved to a public academy at Islington, 1 
 distinguished amongst his school-fellows nol 
 by the superiority of his classical and g 
 learning, than by his settled piety. In 16 
 entered Gray's Inn as a student of law, no 
 any view to the legal profession, but accord 
 the fashion of the time, which considered 
 branch of liberal education, and an exceller 
 cipline for the youthful mind. But the b 
 Henry's inclinations had been all along tc 
 the ministry, and by a prudent economy 
 time, he pursued his theological studies, 
 resident at that school of law. He began to 
 at first in a room which his father had fitt 
 for public worship, and to which the people 
 neighbourhood were in the habit of rep 
 After a few of these private trials, he went 
 visit to a friend at Nantwich, where he preachf 
 great acceptance ; and the fame of his disc] 
 having spread, he was invited to Chester, 
 he preached in the house of a merchant to a 
 audience which fomied the nucleus of his futuJ 
 gregation. Such privacy was necessary at a 
 when the law imposed great restriction on thi 
 dom of preaching. But in 1687, prudence 
 cessity led the government to adopt a more 
 policy, and license was granted to dissenl 
 preach. Mr. Henry having accepted a call 
 dertake the functions of the ministerial of 
 Chester, he was privately ordained, for the I 
 ters wisely avoided in those days all nstenl 
 display; and he had not been long settled i I 
 town, when he drew around him a larg 
 flourishing congregation. The duties of a m 
 
 316 
 
HEN 
 
 ch more onerous then than they are now ; 
 Mr. Henry found no difficulty in accom- 
 all that was required : two long services 
 ith, a discourse in the neighbouring villa- 
 st every evening in the week, besides visits 
 ck of his congregation, as well as to the 
 isoners in Chester jail. He continued 
 ive years pastor of that place, and during 
 EL lie went through the Bible more than 
 tie course of expository lectures. In 1712, 
 translated to Hackney, London, and in 
 new sphere of ministerial labour, he deter- 
 to pursue the same course of exposition he 
 .opted in Chester. At the commencement 
 ministry, therefore, he began with the first 
 of Genesis in the forenoon, and the first 
 of Matthew in the afternoon. Thus gra- 
 and steadily grew his ' Exposition ' of the 
 A large portion of it consists of his public 
 while many of the quaint sayings and 
 remarks with which it abounds, and which 
 great a charm of raciness to its pages, were 
 miliar extempore observations of his father 
 ily worship, and noted down by Matthew in 
 yhood. Worn out by his excessive labours 
 the pulpit and the study, the constitution 
 'Inry began to give way. On returning from 
 to his friends at Chester, the fatigue of tra- 
 J increased by his corpulency, brought on 
 ack of paralysis, which laid him up at Nant- 
 and in the triumphant exercise of faith and 
 this great and good man was removed from 
 ifvorld and the church below on 22d June, 
 rf in the fifty-second year of his age. [R.J.] 
 |NRY, N., a French Hebraist, 1692-1752. 
 |NRY, P. F., a Fr. historian, 1795-1833. 
 .XRY, P., a nonconformist divine, 1631-96. 
 KEY, R., a Scotch historian, 1718-1790. 
 iXRY, S. E., a Fr. pharmacop., 1769-1832. 
 SXRY, W., an English chemist, 1775-1836. 
 iNRYS, Cl., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1615-1662. 
 INRYSOX, R., a Scottish poet, 16th cent. 
 :\\SLEN, P. G., a Ger. med. wr., 1733-1805. 
 IENZI, Samuel, a Swiss poet, and hero of 
 [jf Lessing's tragedies, executed for conspiracy, 
 | His son, Rodolph, an author, 1731-1803. 
 iPBURN, J. B., an En?, linguist, 1573-1624. 
 BPBURN, R., a miscelf. writer, 1690-1712. 
 IBACLEON, a heretic of the 2d century. 
 
 LIDES, a Grk. philosopher, 4th ct. B.C. 
 ERACLITUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher 
 llihesus, lived in the 69th Olympiad, about 500 
 . The principle of his theory is the recognition 
 fire of life, and the ethereal element of wis- 
 I as the ground of all visible existences. Only 
 nents of his works have been preserved, which 
 irritten in the symbolic or transcendental man- 
 Ifthe Pythagoreans. [E.R.] 
 
 LI US, the first of the name emperor 
 t, reigned 610-611 ; the second, Her- 
 jjc-CoxsTANTiNE, son of the preceding, sur- 
 i him only three months. 
 BBACLIUS, or EREKLT, king of Georgia, 
 bded by right when an infant, on the death of 
 pther, 1648, obtained the government about 
 f years subsequently ; died 1708. Heraclius 
 W grandson, b. about 1720, began his political 
 |r 1747, and died after a long reign 1798. 
 
 LD, Diuier, a Fr. scholar, 1579-1C49. 
 
 HER 
 
 HERAULT-DE-SECHELLES, Marie Jeax, 
 
 the friend of Danton, was born at Paris, of a noble 
 family, in 1760, and when the revolution broke 
 out had arrived at the post of advocate-general 
 in the parliament of the capital. Notwithstand- 
 ing the favour he enjoyed at court, Herault de 
 Sechelles did not hesitate to join the popular 
 party in the debates preceding 1789, and was 
 present at the taking of the Bastile. In Septem- 
 ber, 1791, he was returned to the legislative 
 assembly (the first biennial parliament) by the 
 electors of Paris, and the year following repre- 
 sented the department of the Seine and Oise in 
 the national convention. In each of these bodies 
 he exercised great influence upon the direction of 
 affairs, and when the constitution was accepted, 
 he was made president of the national fete. For 
 this post he was equally fitted by his eloquence as 
 an orator, and the elegance of his person, for he 
 was considered the handsomest man in France, but 
 it was also the well-earned reward of his political 
 honesty and patriotism. As events proceeded, 
 the Committee of Public Safety was erected, and 
 Herault became a member of it, in which capacity 
 he received a letter from Lavater, who had been 
 acquainted with him, expressing the surprise of 
 the philosopher ' That a man placed so high by 
 his birth, his education, his talents, the goodness 
 of his character, and the sweetness of his manners, 
 should become the accomplice of scoundrels, so 
 gross, so ignorant, and so stupid as his colleagues.' 
 Herault de Sechelles received this letter in com- 
 mittee, and smiling as he read it, observed to one 
 of his companions, 'These people do not under- 
 stand our situation ! ' On the division of parties, 
 Herault sided with his friend Danton, with whom 
 he was guillotined, 5th April, 1794 ; his affianced 
 bride, a young lady of high birth, and remarkable 
 for her beauty, vainly endeavouring to move the 
 heart of Robespierre. On the scaffold, Herault 
 de Sechelles stept forward to embrace Danton, 
 but the executioner prevented him, which gave 
 occasion to the last words uttered by the great 
 chief: 'Miserable! tu n'empecheras pas nos tetes 
 de se baisir dans le panier ' (wretch ! you cannot 
 hinder our heads from kissing in the basket). 
 Herault de Sechelles is the author of several 
 works, among others, of the ' Theory of Ambition/ 
 published after his death, and of a work entitled 
 ' Thoughts and Anecdotes.' [E.R.] 
 
 HERBART, J. K, a Ger. philosopher, b. 1776. 
 
 HERBELOW, Bartholomew D', professor of 
 Syriac in the College of France, and author of ' Bib- 
 liotheque Orientale,' 4 vols. 4to, 1625-1695. 
 
 HERBERT, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cher- 
 bury, a distinguished writer on natural religion, 
 and the last of his age to embody the principle of 
 deism in the language of a refined philosophy, was 
 born of an ancient family at Montgomery castle in 
 Wales 1581, and died in London 1648. He was 
 cne of the most accomplished gentlemen at the 
 court of James I., and distinguished himself by his 
 romantic bravery in the service of the prince of 
 
 Orange, and at a later period in the parliamentary 
 army. His greatest work, 'De Veritate,' was 
 published at Paris, where he was resident ambas- 
 
 sador, 1624, and for a time he hesitated whether 
 to give it to the world. ' Being thus doubtful in 
 my chamber,' he writes in his ' Meinohs,' ' one fair 
 
 317 
 
HER 
 
 day in summer, my casement being opened to tlie 
 south, the sun shining clear, and no wind stirring, 
 I took my book, De Veritate, in my hand, and 
 kneeling on my knees, devoutly said these words : 
 thou Eternal God, author of the light which 
 now shines upon me, and giver of all inward illu- 
 minations, I do beseech thee, of thy infinite good- 
 ness, to pardon a greater request than a sinner 
 ought to make. I am not satisfied enough 
 whether I shall publish this book De Veritate. 
 If it be for thy glory, I beseech thee give me some 
 sign from heaven ; if not, I shall suppress it. I 
 had no sooner spoken these words, but a loud, 
 though yet gentle noise came from the heavens 
 (for it was like nothing on earth), which did so 
 comfort and cheer me, that I took my petition as 
 granted, and that I had the sign I demanded, 
 whereupon also I resolved to print my book.' 
 ' This,' he adds, how strange soever it may seem, 
 I protest, before the Eternal God, is true ; neither 
 am I in any way superstitiously deceived herein, 
 since I did not only clearly hear the noise, but in 
 the serenest sky that ever I saw, being all without 
 cloud, did, to my thinking, see the place from 
 whence it came. Some writers have accused 
 Lord Herbert of hypocrisy, and others of vanity 
 and self-delusion on this point, but, however 
 extraordinary in a writer whose work was directed 
 against belief in a revelation to a part of the 
 world only, it is, to our mind, the highest proof of 
 his sincerity. Besides this work, which was 
 replied to by Gassendi, Lord Herbert is the author 
 of Latin poems of great beauty, and of an Inquiry 
 into the Errors of Paganism 'De Religione Gen- 
 tilium, &c.' He was a general favourite, both at 
 the English and French courts, and perhaps in- 
 dulged in an execusable vanity on that account, 
 but his frankness, generosity, and bravery, besides 
 his great literary abilities, are acknowledged by all 
 parties. [E.R.] 
 
 HERBERT, George, a younger brother of the 
 preceding, is remarkable for the contrast exhibited 
 by his life and character when compared with that 
 of Lord Edward, in whose refinement of nature he 
 shared most liberally. The tastes of George in- 
 clined him to the public life of a courtier, but he 
 was educated for the church, and became rector 
 of Bemerton, near Salisbury, where he settled 
 down with a firm resolve to consecrate all his 
 learning and all his abilities to advance the 
 
 flory of that God which gave them ; ' knowing,' 
 e said, ' that I can never do too much for him 
 that hath done so much for me as to make me a 
 Christian.'' George Herbert is remembered for the 
 singular purity and beneficence of his secluded ex- 
 istence, and chiefly as the author of poems, often 
 quoted for their earnest delineations of the soul's 
 experience, and for the spirit of love and gentleness 
 breathed into them. These simple, yet beauti- 
 ful compositions are contained in his 'Remains,' 
 together with ' The Country Parson's Character,' 
 which exhibits his own rule of life, and is a pic- 
 ture of continued benevolence, and unwearied de- 
 votion to the service of others. He was bom in 
 1593, and died of consumption in 1G32. [E.B.] 
 HERBERT, William, earl of Pembroke, a 
 great patron of letters, and himself a poet, 1580- 
 1630. Sir Thomas Herbert, of the same 
 family, author of travels, and assistant of Dugdale 
 
 HER 
 
 in his antiquarian labours, born about 16( 
 1622. Mary Herbert. See Sidney. 
 HERBIN, A. F. J., a Fr. Orientalist, 178 
 HERBST, J. A., a German musician, d. 
 HERBST, J. F. A., a Ger. naturalist, 174! 
 HERBURT, J., a Polish historian, 16th 
 HERDER, Johann Gottfried Von, yt 
 in 1744, in East Prussia. Younger than I 
 and older than Gothe and Schiller, he beet 
 timately connected with all of these distinj 
 men; and he shares with them the hoi 
 having created the literature of Germany, 
 is one of the most eloquent writers of i 
 Europe ; his works have the fervour of o 
 with a brilliancy of fancy which almost b 
 poetical ; and he is one of the few men wh 
 united impressiveness and skill of comp 
 various and exact erudition, and original 
 comprehensiveness of philosophic thought 
 father, a schoolmaster, was both too poor i 
 ignorant to give facilities for the developn 
 his son's genius : his early studies were proi 
 by stealth. The kindness of a Russian e 
 carried him to Konigsberg, where he studied 
 Kant and others, and was able to obtain a 
 dinate appointment as a teacher. Abandon 
 study of medicine, he entered the church ; 
 1764, at Riga, holding an appointmeu 
 preacher, along with a mastership in the ca 
 school, he gamed celebrity by the digni 
 earnestness of his pulpit oratory. He soon 
 an author, and puolisned some of the best 
 critical treatises on literature and art. 
 making one or two changes of place, he spent 
 five years as court-preacher at Biickeburg 
 principality of Schaumburg-Lippe. This 
 produced several of his principal theological 
 In 1775, he was appointed to a theological 
 sorship at Gottingen ; but the government, 
 confirming the nomination, insisted on inv 
 tion as to the professor's orthodoxy, to wl 
 hesitated to submit. The difficulty was r< 
 by the duke of Saxe-Weimar, who, less s 
 lous in his theology than George, king of Ei 
 and aiming at gathering about him all th 
 spirits of his country, nominated him his 
 preacher and general superintendent of th< 
 siastical consistory. In 1776, Herder a 
 Weimar; and in that little capital, then ccl< 
 as the Athens of Germany, he spent the ren 
 of his life, respected as a preacher, and asar 
 promoter of education and other public in 
 ments, and labouring unweariedly in his 
 farious literary pursuits. He died in 180c 
 voluminous works fall into three sections 
 logy; philosophy and history ; and literatu 
 the fine arts. The third section is thit w 
 he displays most decisively his felicitous co 
 tion of dissimilar powers. Notice is espech 
 to his ' Spirit of Hebrew Poetry ; ' to trie ' 
 che Walder,' which is a treatise on the be 
 as exhibited in art ; and to those ballads, f 
 on the Spanish romances of 'The Cid,* 
 showed how very little was wanting to maJ 
 der an illustrious poet. 
 HERIOT, John, a miscel. writer, 1760- 
 HERISSANT, Louis Anth. ProsmI 
 geologist and naturalist, 1745-1769. Hk I 
 L. Theodore, a diplomatist and historian 
 
 318 
 
HER 
 
 J. T. Herissant Des Carrteres, of the 
 fc family, a grammarian, 1742-1820. 
 JERITIER, Charles Louis de Bruselle 
 \a eminent French botanist, au. of ' Flore de 
 ce Vendome,' b. 1745, found murdered 1801. 
 IRITIER, Nicholas L', a French translator 
 imatic wri., d. 1680. His daughter, Marie 
 te De Villandon, a novelist, 1664-1734. 
 IRLICIUS, D., a Ger. astrologer, 1557-1636. 
 IRMANN, J., a Ger. mathemat., 1678-1733. 
 IRMANN, J., a Ger. naturalist, 1738-1800. 
 JRMANN, Paul, a Ger. botanist, 1646-95. 
 IRMANT, J., a French historian, 1650-1725. 
 IRMAS, St., author of a book entitled 'The 
 r,' and supposed to be the same mentioned in 
 xvi. 14. The ' Pastor' of Hermas was highly 
 ed by many of the early fathers, and Origen 
 ises his belief that it was divinely inspired, 
 ntains an account of the visions of Hermas, 
 y seen by him in a state of ecstacy, and to be 
 srstood in a symbolic sense : to which are added 
 excellent precepts of morality and piety, and 
 Similitudes' or figures of truth. In the ninth 
 lese similitudes an ancient white stone of im- 
 ie magnitude is described, which had a new 
 opened in it ; and in the ' visions' Hermas re- 
 that he saw six young men or angels building 
 jwer of square white stones, symbolic of the 
 istian Church. This book is further interesting as 
 rding evidence that the early Christians believed 
 he ministration of angels around men. [E.R.] 
 IERMBSTjEDT, Sigismund Frederic, a 
 man writer on practical chemistry, 1760-1833. 
 [ERMELIN, Samuel Gustavus, Baron, a 
 Bdish mineralogist and statistician, 1744-1820. 
 IERMENGILDE, pr. of the Visigoths, k. 586. 
 IERMES, or MERCURIUS, Trismegistus, a 
 posed priest and philosopher of Egypt, who is 
 ationed by Sanconiatho as the secretary and 
 iser of Cronus, and as the original author of 
 'Cosmogony.' Although it creates some 
 onsistencies, he is supposed to be the same as 
 lothis, the second king of Egypt, who, Mane- 
 i says, ' Built the palaces at Memphis, and left 
 i anatomical books, for he was a physician.' 
 is supposition is founded on a passage in San- 
 liatho's 'Generations,' where we read, 'From 
 sor (Mizram) descended Taatus (or Athothis), 
 io invented tne writing of the first letters ; him 
 ) Egyptians call Thoor, the Alexandrians 
 oyth, and the Greeks Hermes.' These points 
 vj be examined in the fragments of Cory. The 
 rks extant under the name of Hermes are, 
 oemander, or the Power and Wisdom of God ; ' 
 ^sclepius, a Dialogue on the Deity, Mankind, 
 d the World,' and some others supposed to be 
 less antiquity than these, and all alike regarded 
 supposititious. Their value, however, will be 
 and very great in any attempt to determine 
 e history of philosophy. In all likelihood the 
 me belongs to two distinct persons, the later of 
 lorn was an Egyptian philosopher and legislator, 
 id the earlier a deification of all the ancient 
 ilosophy and instruction of that mysterious 
 nntry. [E.R.] 
 
 HERMES, G., a Prussian theolog., 1775-1831. 
 ERMES, J. A., a Ger. theologian, 1736-1821. 
 ERMIAS, a Christian philosopher, 2d cent. 
 HERMIAS of Alexandria, a neo-plat., 5th c. 
 
 HER 
 
 HERMILLY, V. D., a Fr. historian, 1707-78. 
 
 HERMODORUS, a Gr. philoso., 5th cent. B.C. 
 
 HERMOGENES, a Greek rhetorician, 2d cent. 
 
 HERMOGENES, a Latin jurist, 4th century. 
 
 HERNANDEZ, F., a Sp. naturalist, 17th cent. 
 
 HERO, a eel. mathematician and machinist of 
 Alexandria, 3d cent. b.c. Another of the name 
 distinguished as a military engineer about 6th ct. 
 
 HEROART, J., a Fr. medical author, d. 1627. 
 
 HEROD, surnamed ' the Great,' k. of the Jews, 
 b. b.c. 71, named king by the Roman senate b.c. 
 40, married to Mariamne 38, gained possession of 
 his kingdom 37, occupied in rebuilding the Temple 
 b.c. 17-19, died in the seventieth year of his age. 
 
 HEROD, Agrippa. See Agrippa. 
 
 HEROD, Antipas, son of the preceding, te- 
 trarch of Galilee and Peraea, executed John the 
 Baptist about a.d. 26, deposed by Caligula 39. 
 
 HERODES. See Atticus. 
 
 HERODIAN, a Greek historian, 3d century. 
 
 HERODOTUS. Very few facts connected with 
 the biography of the ' Father of History ' have come 
 down to us. With the exception of the few data inci- 
 dentally and indirectly supplied by himself, the no- 
 tices of his life rest on comparatively recent or ques- 
 tionable authority. Herodotus was a native of Hali- 
 carnassus, a Dorian city in Asia Minor, was born b.c. 
 484, and was perhaps alive in the beginning of the 
 following century. According to Suidas, his father 
 was called Lyxas, and his mother Dryo, both de- 
 scended from noble Halicarnassian families. Dis- 
 gusted with the government of Lygdamis, the 
 grandson of Artemisia, who was tyrant of his 
 native city, he retired for a time to the island of 
 Samos, whence he acquired the Ionic dialect, in 
 which he afterwards composed his history. To 
 collect the necessary materials for his great work, 
 he entered, in early manhood, upon that course of 
 patient and observant travel which was destined 
 to render his name illustrious in all future ages. 
 During his wanderings he visited almost every 
 part of Greece and its dependencies, and many 
 other countries, the affairs of which are treated in 
 his work; investigating minutely the history, 
 manners, and customs of the people. The shores 
 of the Hellespont, Scythia, and the Euxine Sea ; 
 Syria, Palestine, Colchis, the northern parts of 
 Africa, Ecbatana, and even Babylon, were the ob- 
 jects of his unwearied search. On his return 
 from his travels he took a prominent part in de- 
 livering his country from the tyranny of Lygdamis. 
 But the expulsion of the tyrant did not bring 
 tranquillity to Halicarnassus ; and Herodotus 
 having himself become an object of dislike, 
 again quitted his native city, and settled along 
 with a colony from Athens, at Thurii, in the south 
 of Italy, b.c. 443. Here he spent the remainder 
 of his life, and here he wrote the work which has 
 immortalized his name. The time and place of 
 his death are matters of dispute. According to 
 some he died at Thurii, and was buried in the 
 market-place ; while others assert that he died at 
 Pella, in Macedonia. His history consists of nfne 
 books, which bear the names of the nine Muses. 
 'Next to the Iliad and Odyssey,' says Colonel 
 Mure, ' the history of Herodotus is the greatest 
 effort of Greek literary genius. The one is the 
 perfection of epic poetry, the other the perfection 
 of epic prose. Were it not for the influence which 
 
 319 
 
HER 
 
 fhe prior existence of so noble a model, even in a 
 different branch of composition, has evidently 
 exercised on the historian, his title to the palm of 
 original invention might rival that of his poetical 
 predecessor. In the complexity of the plan (of 
 his history), as compared with the simplicity of 
 its execution ; in the multiplicity and heterogene- 
 ous nature of its materials, and ill the harmony of 
 their combination ; in the grandeur of its historical 
 masses, and the minuteness, often triviality, of its 
 illustrative details; it remains not only without 
 equal, but without rival or parallel in the litera- 
 ture of Greece or of Europe.' [G.F.] 
 
 HEROLD, J. B., a Bavarian historian, 1511-81. 
 
 HEROLD, L. J. F., a Ger. comp., 1791-1833. 
 
 HERON, Robert, a miscel. writer, died 1807. 
 
 HEROPHILUS, a Grk. phvsician, 4th ct. B.C. 
 
 HERRERA, Fr. De, a Span, lyric, 16th cent. 
 
 HERRERA, Francesco De, called 'The 
 Elder,' a Span, painter, 1576-1656. The younger 
 of the same name, a paint, and architect, 1622-85. 
 
 HERRERA, G. A., a Spanish agricult., 16th ct. 
 
 HERRERA-TORDESILLAS, Antonio De, a 
 Span, hist., au. of a ' History of India,' 1565-1625. 
 
 HERRGOTT, M., a Ger. antiquar., 1694-1762. 
 
 HERRICK, HEARICK, or HIRECK, Robert, 
 an English clergyman and poet, descended from 
 Eric, a Danish chief subdued by Alfred the Great, 
 and settled with his people in East Anglia, and 
 intermediately from a well-known family in Leices- 
 tershire, was born 24th August, 1591. His uncle, 
 Sir YV. Heyrick, undertook the charge of his 
 education at Cambridge, and having friends at 
 court, he was presented to the living of Dean Prior 
 in Devonshire, 1629. In 1648, he was deprived 
 by Cromwell, and coming to London, assumed the 
 lay habit, and in the course of the same year 
 published his poems under the title of * Hespendes, 
 or the works, both Humane and Divine, of Robert 
 Herrick, Esq.,' another collection in the same 
 volume being styled ' His Noble Numbers, or his 
 pious pieces, wherein (amongst other things), he 
 sings the Birth of his Christ ; and Sighes for his 
 Saviour's Suffering on the Crosse.' 'The poems 
 of Herrick were well received at the time, but 
 were almost forgotten again till the time of Dr. 
 Drake. They are now recognized as genuine 
 effusions of the English muse, and the best of 
 them are unsurpassed in melody, sweetness, and 
 variety of rhythm, by any similar compositions in 
 the English language. They afford admirable 
 illustrations of old English manners, English feel- 
 ings, and English scenery, and a noble strain of 
 piety breathes through the whole volume, notwith- 
 standing its frequent licentiousness. Herrick 
 himself was painfully conscious of these blemishes, 
 but the poor royalist, wanting his 'fifths,' and 
 cast upon the streets of London, should not be too 
 harshly censured for a fault to which Shakspeare 
 himself was not superior. Being a bachelor, he 
 had no home in the metropolis, and his best hours 
 were given to the wits and courtiers of the period. 
 Selden, Ben Jonson, Denham, Cotton, and Endy- 
 men Porter were among his friends. The date 
 of his death is not known, but it was probably 
 soon after 1660, when he was restored to his 
 living by Charles II. 'A Genealogical Register 
 of the name and family of Herrick,' was published 
 by Jedediah Herrick, at Bangor, U.S., in 1846, 
 
 HER 
 
 and is a curious example of the pride of birth, 
 of their English ancestry remaining with the re 
 lican descendants of this ancient family. [I 
 HERRMANN, F. A., a Fr. diploma., 1758-1 
 HERSCHEL, William, a distinguished a 
 nomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th No' 
 ber, 1738. He was the second of live i 
 who were all educated as musicians, following 
 same profession as their father. At the earh 
 of fourteen William was placed in the band of 
 Hanoverian foot guards; but seeing that there 
 little prospect of promotion in his native com 
 he resolved to try his fortune in England, ^ 
 he arrived about the end of 1757. After ex 
 encing the difficulties to which early genius is 
 quently exposed, he was engaged by the ea 
 Darlington to instruct a military band which 
 then forming in the county of Durham. Whe 
 had fulfilled this engagement he established 1 
 self as a teacher of music in the vicinity of L< 
 Pontefract, and Doncaster, and conducted the pi 
 concerts and oratorios in these towns. In '. 
 he obtained the situation of organist at Hal 
 and soon afterwards a more lucrative appointi 
 in the Octagon chapel in Bath, where he was 
 successful as a teacher of music, and a direct 
 the public concerts. During his residence at I 
 fax he acquired a considerable knowledgf 
 mathematics, and having studied astronomy in 
 popular writings of James Ferguson, he was a 
 ous to see with his own eyes the wonderful c< 
 tial phenomena disclosed by the telescope. ! 
 tunately for science he was unable to purchas 
 instrument for this purpose, and he then 
 resolved to construct one with his own ha 
 After surmounting the difficulties which at 
 the practice of grinding and polishing specula 
 completed in 1774 a five feet Newtonian reflet 
 with which he could see the satellites of Ju] 
 and the ring of Saturn. Not contented with 
 instrument he made for himself several two : 
 five feet, seven feet, eighteen feet, and twenty ! 
 Newtonian telescopes, besides Gregorian ones e 
 inches, one foot, two feet, three feet, and ten fe< 
 focal length, and in order to get a good specu 
 he ground and polished a large number upon 
 same tool, and selected the one which happene 
 have the best figure. In this way he made no fie 
 than 200 seven feet, 150 ten feet, and about 
 twenty feet telescopes. His mechanical amusemi 
 were carried on along with his optical ones, am 
 invented and executed a number of stands of dil 
 ent forms for these instruments. His first reg 
 observations with the telescope were made in 1' 
 and subsequent years. They were published in 
 Philosophical Transactions for 1780, and rel; 
 to the periodical star in the neck of the wh 
 and the height of the lunar mountains. In 1781 
 discovered what he at first thought a comet, bl 
 turned out to be a new planet, which he called 
 Georgium Sidus, but which has now recei 
 the name of Uranus, from its being next to i 
 turn. After this discovery, which extended 
 reputation over Europe, George III. munificer 
 enabled him, by the grant of a salary, to dev 
 the whole of his time to astronomy. He there! 
 took up his residence at Datchet, near Wind) 
 where ne made many discoveries on double i 
 triple stars, on the proper motion of the sun i 
 
her 
 
 jar system, the spots at the pole of Mars, 
 jd the' nebula? and cluster of stars observed by 
 fessier and Mechain. On the 11th January, 
 J87, he discovered a second and fourth satellite 
 (the Georgium Sidus, and in 1790 and 1799, 
 Jier five satellites, viz., the first, third, fifth, and 
 tth, all of which move in a retrograde direction, 
 jorbits almost perpendicular to the plane of the 
 jiptic. Thus successful as an observer, he began 
 1781 to construct a thirty feet reflector, but 
 5 mirror, which was no less than three feet 
 diameter, cracked in the cooling, and frustrated 
 i plan. This disappointment induced him to 
 sk for extraneous assistance in carrying out his 
 ws ; and on the recommendation of Sir Joseph 
 nks, George III. offered to defrav the expense 
 a forty feet telescope, with a mirror four feet 
 diameter, three and a-half inches thick, and 
 ighing 2118 pounds. With this magnificent 
 trument he discovered the sixth and seventh 
 ellites of Saturn, and also the spots, belts, 
 i flattening, at the poles of that planet. Till 
 ) year 1820 Sir William Herschel communicated 
 lost every year important papers to the Royal 
 iety on nebula?, clusters of stars, the construc- 
 of the heavens, the motion of the solar system, 
 double stars, and on the four new planets be- 
 ll Mars and Jupiter. We owe to him also the 
 very of invisible heating rays beyond the red 
 unity of the spectrum. Sir William Herschel 
 elected an honorary member of most of the 
 titic institutions in Europe and America. In 
 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of 
 j, and in 1816 he was presented with the deco- 
 ions of the Guelphic order. In 1820 he was 
 cted the first president of the Astronomical So- 
 ty, and he published in the 1st volume of its Trans- 
 aons, a paper on 145 new double stars. He had 
 w reached that age when the mind as well as the 
 ly requires a cessation from labour. His health 
 d begun to decline, and on the 25th August, 
 22, he died in the eighty-fourth year of his age. 
 the year 1788 Sir William married the widow 
 John Pitt, Esq., and left behind him only one 
 Id, the present Sir John Herschel. [D.B.] 
 
 [Uerschel'i Tomb in Upton Church.] 
 
 HEY 
 
 HERSCHEL, Cakoline Lucretia, sister of 
 the great Herschel, distinguished for the arduous 
 assistance she rendered her brother in his astro- 
 nomical pursuits, as well as for her own numerous 
 and important observations, 1750-1848. 
 
 HEKSCHELL, Dr. Solomon, a Jewish rabbi, 
 cele. for his learning and benevolence, 1760-1842. 
 
 HERSENT, G., a French divine, 1590-1660. 
 
 HERTIUS, J. N., a Germ, civilian, 1651-1710. 
 
 HERTSBERG, Ewald Frederic Von, a 
 Prussian statesman, distinguished under Frederic 
 the Great, 1725-1795. 
 
 HERVAS, L., a Spanish savant, 1735-1809. 
 
 HERVAY, Noel, a schol. philosopher, d. 1323. 
 
 HERVET, G., a French savant, 1499-1584. 
 
 HERVEY, James, a pious clergyman of the 
 Church of England, an. of ' Meditations and Con- 
 templations,' ' Theron and Aspasia,' &c, 1714-58. 
 
 HERVEY, John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, a 
 poet and political writer, author of ' Memoirs of 
 George II.,' only recently published, 1694-1743. 
 
 HERY, Thierry De, a med. author, d. 1599. 
 
 HESHUSIUS, T., a Germ, divine, 1526-1588. 
 
 HESIOD, an ancient Greek poet of uncertain 
 date, whose works are chiefly valuable so far as 
 they illustrate the Orphic philosophy and the my- 
 thology of the ancients. The ascertained fragments 
 of his writings are the Theogony ' or generation of 
 the gods, and the ' Works and Days.' The latter 
 is a kind of rude pastoral or calendar of agriculture, 
 with occasional reflections. The fragment of another 
 
 Eoem attributed to him entitled 'The Shield of 
 [ercules,' and containing an account of the most 
 celebrated heroines of antiquity, is considered 
 doubtful. [E.R.] 
 
 HESNAULT, J., a French poet, 17th century. 
 
 HESS, J. J., a Swiss theologian, 1761-1828. 
 
 HEUMAN, Chr.A., aGer.theolog., 1681-1764. 
 
 HEUSINGER, J. M., a Ger. critic and philolo- 
 gist, 1690-1751. His nephew, Jas. Frederic, a 
 philologist and classical scholar, 1718-1778. 
 
 HEVELIUS, John, a celebrated astronomer of 
 Dantzic, author of ' Machina Ccelestis,' 1611-1687. 
 
 HEVIN, P., a French jurisconsult, 1621-1692. 
 
 HEYDEN, J. Vander, a Dut. pain., 1637-1712. 
 
 HEWSON, W., a disting. physiologist, 1739-74. 
 
 HEYLIN, Peter, an Eng. historian, 1600-62. 
 
 HEYM, J., a Ger. lexicographer, 1759-1821. 
 
 HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, was born in 
 1729, at Chemnitz, in Saxony, where his father 
 was a poor linen-weaver. His education was 
 gained through struggles as severe and protracted 
 as any that have ever been undergone by men of 
 letters ; and it was in the midst of great poverty 
 that he was able, in 1755, to publish his edition of 
 ' Tibullus,' the first work that made him known 
 as a classical scholar. So obscure was his posi- 
 tion long after this, that, when he was appointed 
 to the professorship of eloquence at Gottingen 
 on the recommendation of Ruhnken, it cost 
 some trouble to discover where he was. Enter- 
 ing on his duties at Gottingen in 1763, he 
 passed nearly fifty years in that university, with 
 unwearied industry, distinguished and varied 
 usefulness, and brilliant and increasing reputa- 
 tion. In classical studies, his own peculiar de- 
 partment, he was especially noted for the fine 
 spirit which he breathed into criticism, and for the 
 richness of illustration which he threw on the 
 
 321 
 
HEY 
 
 ancient masterpieces of poetry from history and 
 topography, and from the existing monuments of 
 the fine arts. His Opuscula Academica ' contains 
 many admirable treatises ; and there is great value 
 in the critical apparatus embodied in his editions 
 of Virgil, Pindar, Homer, and Apollodorus. Heyne 
 died in 1812. [W.S.] 
 
 HEYWOOD, Eliza, a novelist, 1693-1756. 
 HEYWOOD, John, a dramatic poet of the age 
 of Henry VIII., author of an apologue in verse, en- 
 titled ' The Parable of the Spider and the Fly,' and 
 of some plays and epigrams, died 1565. 
 
 UK Y WOOD, Oliver, anoncf. div., 1629-1702. 
 HEYWOOD, Thomas, an English actor and 
 dramatist, author of ' A Woman Killed with Kind- 
 ness,' and a great number of plays, of which the 
 most part are lost, beginning of the 17th century. 
 HLERNE, Urban, a Swd. nat. phil.,1641-1724. 
 HIBBERT, George, a merchant of London, 
 distinguished for his public spirit as one of the 
 founders of the West India Docks, and as a public 
 speaker and member of parliament, 1757-1837. 
 
 HICKERINGILL, E., a military officer, afterw. 
 in holy orders, kn. as a pamphleteer, 1630-1708. 
 
 HICKES, Dr. George, a Saxon scholar and 
 antiquarian writer, 1642-1715. John, his bro- 
 ther, a nonconf. minister, exec, as a traitor 1685. 
 HICKS, Fr., a classical editor, 1566-1630. 
 HICKS, W., a fifth monarchy man, 1620-1659. 
 HIDALGO, J. G., a Spanish artist, born 1656. 
 HIDALGO Y CASTILLA, Don Miguel, a 
 priest, dist. as a patriot in Mexico, executed 1811. 
 HIEROCLES, an eclectic philosopher, 5th cent. 
 HIEROCLES, a topographical writer, 6th cent. 
 HIEROCLES, a Grk. grammarian, 7th century. 
 HIEROCLES of Bithtnia, governor of Alex- 
 andria, a writer against Christianity, and a great 
 persecutor of the Christians in the time of Diocle- 
 tian, 4th century. 
 
 HIERON, thejirst of the name king or tyrant 
 of Syracuse, 478-467 B.C.; the second, 269-215 B.C. 
 HIERONYMUS, grandson and sue. of the pre- 
 ceding, murdered after reign, ten months, 214 B.C. 
 HIERONYMUS, St. See Jerome. 
 HIFFERNAN, P., an Irish author, 1719-1777. 
 HIGDON, Ralph, an Engl, historian, d. 13G3. 
 HIGGINS, G., an antiquarian wi\, 1771-1833. 
 HIGGINS, J., an editor and divine, 16th cent. 
 HIGGONS, Sir Thomas, an English ambas- 
 sador and man of letters, 1624-1691. His younger 
 son, Bevil, a dramatist and historian, died 1735. 
 HIGGS, G., an English theologian, 1589-1659. 
 HIGHMORE, J., an Eng. painter, 1692-1780. 
 HIGHMORE, Nathaniel, a celebrated En- 
 glish anatomist and phvsiologist, 1613-1684. 
 HIGUERA, J. R., a" Span. Jesuit, 1538-1611. 
 HILARION, St., a monastic founder, 292-372. 
 HILARY, a pope of Rome, sue. 461, d. 467. 
 HILARY, St., a bishop of Aries, 401-449. 
 HILARY, St., (Hilarius Pictaviensis), was 
 bora at Poitiers in France, and became bishop of 
 his native town about the year 350. Though he 
 had been trained in paganism, and did not em- 
 brace Christianity till he had arrived at manhood, 
 yet his convictions were founded on enlarged in- 
 telligence, and his life was spent in earnest, power- 
 ful, and successful support of Trinitarian ortho- 
 doxy against the innovations of Arianism. At the 
 synod of Bessieres, 356, he so provoked the Arian 
 
 HIL 
 
 deputies, that on their application to the emp< 
 Constantius, he was banished into Phrygia. 1 
 he remained in exile about four years, and coinp 
 his principal works. But his uncompromising 
 position to Asiatic Arianism so enraged his op] 
 ents, that they petitioned for his recall, and 
 champion returned in triumph to Poitiers, w 
 he died in 367. Four years before his deaf! 
 had impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, 
 the accused unexpectedly proved his orthoc 
 face to face with his accuser before the emp 
 Valentinian, and Hilary was expelled from M 
 as an enemy to the peace of the church, 
 principal works are Twelve Books ' De Trinit 
 a ' Tract upon Synods,' and l Two Addresse 
 Constantius,' one a petition, and the other a co 
 invective. In his commentaries on the gospt 
 Matthew, and on the Psalms, the chief portk 
 taken from Origen. Jerome compares his sty: 
 the Rhone, not for its copiousness, but for 
 quickness. But it is rugged, verbose, ftl 
 rate, and occasionally obscure. The best editif 
 the Benedictine, improved by Maffei, Verona, 1 
 2 vols, folio. 
 
 HILDEBERT, an archp. of Tours, 1057-11 
 
 HILDEBRAND, the proper name of I 
 
 Gregory VII. See Gregory. 
 
 HILDEBRAND, a Lombard king, 736-744. 
 
 HILDEBRAND, G. F., a Ger phy., 1754-1 
 
 HILDEBRAND, J., a Ger. theol., 1623-162 
 
 HILDEGARDE, Saint, a German vision 
 
 ab. of St. Rupert's Mt., on the Rhine, 1098-11 
 
 HILDERIC, a king of the Vandals, 523-53 
 
 HILDERSHAM, a puritan divine, 1563-16 
 
 HILDIBALD, king of the Ostrogoths, 540 
 
 HILKIAH, a high priest of the Jews, 7th c. 
 
 HILL, Aaron, an English poet, 1685-175C| 
 
 HILL, Abraham, an Eng. scholar, 1633-1 \ 
 
 HILL, George, a Scottish divine, 1748-18' 
 
 HILL, Sir John, a miscell. writer, 1716-1 
 
 HILL, Joseph, alexicog. and antiq.,1625-1 
 
 HILL, Sir Richard, Bart., eld. bro. of the 
 
 Rowland Hill, kn. as a polemical wr., 1733-18 
 
 HILL, Robert, a self-taught Oriental scl: 
 
 and critic, author of Remarks on Berkeley's E 
 
 on Spirit,' &c, 1699-1777. 
 
 HILL, Rev. Rowland, A.M., a popular 
 pious, though eccentric minister, was born 
 Hawkstone, Shropshire, in the year 1745. 
 was the sixth son of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart 
 Hawkstone, in the parish of Hodnet. His v 
 were early directed towards the ministry in i 
 nection with the Church of England ; not, b 
 ever, as a profession, but as affording him the 
 and most influential means of communicatin. 
 others those saving truths he felt of such r 
 interest and importance to his own soul. He 
 a very pious youth ; and his strong impression 
 religion were all the more remarkable that 
 higher classes generally in England at that t 
 were either indifferent to religion, or held i 
 false and defective views as to the leading r 
 ciples of Christianity. Sir Rowland's family ' 
 distinguished for tne regard they cherished 
 exhibited for genuine piety. Richard, the el 
 son, in particular, had early received serious 
 pressions ; and it was through his influence 
 correspondence that his younger brother, 
 ; while a scholar at Eton, was brought to attet 
 322 
 
HIL 
 
 ! one thing needful. From Eton, Rowland re- 
 ved to Cambridge, and the principles which 
 d been sown in his mind at Eton, acquired 
 later power and vitality during his residence at 
 : university. He was a devoted and successful 
 dent, for his intense application to his studies 
 peared at his examination for his degree of 
 chelor of arts, and he carried off the palm over 
 his competitors by his superior acquirements in 
 ysical science, particularly in optics, mechanics, 
 d astronomy. But his mind at the same time 
 is ardently bent towards the ministry ; and he 
 ran to exercise the sacred functions during his 
 legiate career, by not only holding meetings 
 th some young friends of congenial views for 
 yer and mutual improvement, but even forming 
 ms of Christian usefulness beyond the walls of 
 6 university. They visited, exhorted, and prayed 
 various parts of the town of Cambridge, parti- 
 larly in the hovels of the poor and sick, and 
 th the prisoners in the jail. Conduct, so much 
 variance with the propriety of established aca- 
 mic rules, drew down upon him and his friends, 
 e indignation of the college authorities. Six of 
 e young preachers, amongst whom were Whit- 
 Id and Beveridge, received sentence of expulsion 
 pm the university, and Hill was saved from a simi- 
 r fate only by the weight of his family influence, 
 pwland loved to itinerate, and he retained the 
 me fondness for open-air preaching after he was 
 jdained. He was appointed to the parish of 
 insston, Somersetshire, in 1773, and there in ac- 
 rdance with his favourite habits, he was instant in 
 eaching almost every day in the week. The 
 sshness and originality of his addresses attracted 
 owds to hear him. Nor was he admired by a 
 llgar and uneducated class only. Sheridan used 
 ' say ' I often go to hear Rowland Hill, because 
 s ideas come red-hot from the heart ; ' and Dean 
 Eilner, the church historian, was so affected by 
 King one of his sermons, that he went to the 
 try <m the conclusion of the service and said, 
 Mr. Hill, I felt to-day 'tis this slapdash preach - 
 |g, say what they will, that does all the good.' 
 Ir. Hill had a country house in Wales, where he 
 rected a chapel, and was constantly engaged 
 (reaching throughout the neighbourhood during 
 fis summer residence. His wife kept a note of his 
 arious engagements ; and when announcing them 
 rom the pulpit, he used to look to her on naming 
 
 I very place to see if he was correct. And so much 
 r as he accustomed to confide in her accuracy, that 
 e used to say at the breakfast table, ' Where do I 
 jreach to-day ? ' Many persons of rank and for- 
 ione having become his stated hearers, Surrey 
 hapel was built for him in 1782, and in that chapel 
 vast congregation assembled every Sabbath His 
 ccentricities of manner, his quaintness of expres- 
 ion, his anecdotes, and even witticisms in the 
 mlpit, were quite forgotten and overlooked by the 
 legular frequenters of this place of worship in the 
 MO vein of sterling piety and spiritual instruction 
 jhat ran through the service. In 1798, Mr. Hill 
 lame to Scotland on the invitation of Robert Hal- 
 ane, and preached to crowds in Edinburgh in the 
 Circus and on the Calton Hill, as well as in various 
 arts of the country. In 1824, he made another 
 Gospel Tour,' as he called it, in Scotland, and 
 iter a brief stay, returned to his labours in Surrey 
 
 HIL 
 
 chapel. He was a truly evangelical preacher, and 
 he used to say ' Were I to live my life over again, 
 I would preach just the same.' He closed his life 
 and labours on 11th April, 1833. [R.J.] 
 
 HILL, Rowland, Lord, a British general 
 distinguished in the late war, particularly in the 
 peninsula, and at the battle of Waterloo, born 
 1772, appointed commander-in-chief 1828, created 
 a viscount, and died 1842. Lord Hill was the son 
 of Sir John Hill, who succeeded to the title of Sir 
 Richard Hill, Bart., elder brother of him and of 
 the celebrated minister of Surrey chapel. 
 
 HILL, Sir Th. Noel, a younger broth, of Lord 
 Hill, known as a peninsular officer, 1784-1832. 
 
 HILLEL, called ' the Elder' to distinguish him 
 from the subject of the following notice, is regarded 
 by Jewish writers as the most eminent among their 
 ancient rabbis. He was born at Babylon, com- 
 mencement of the 1st century B.C., and when 
 about 40 years of age removed to Jerusalem, where 
 he became chief of the Sanhedrim, and lived to the 
 extraordinary age of 120 years. He was the first 
 to classify the oral or traditional laws, subsequently 
 embodied in the Mishna, or first part of the Tal- 
 mud, and the transmission of which is verified in 
 the work itself, at the commencement of the 
 treatise Abotk or 'Ethics of the Fathers.' The 
 other portion of the Talmud, called ' The Gemara,' 
 contains expositions of the Mishna; the latter, 
 therefore, is really the text-book of rabbinical lore, 
 and hence the importance of its arrangement in 
 a comprehensive digest. Hillel is always spoken 
 of with respect for his humanity and patience, 
 as well as his profound wisdom as a moralist. 
 See Shammai. l^.R.] 
 
 HILLEL, 'the Younger,' lived in the time of 
 Origen, who is said to have been acquainted with 
 him, about the middle of the 3d century. He was 
 a great reformer of the Jewish calendar, his 
 arrangement of which was nearer by far to 
 astronomical exactness than that of Julian, which 
 remained in use among Christians until its reform 
 by Pope Gregory. Hillel has the reputation, also, 
 of reforming the equinoctial and solstitial periods, 
 and leaving behind him a correct text of the Bible, 
 which he wrote with his own hand, besides contri- 
 buting to the Talmud. He bears the title of Nasi, 
 or prince of the captivity, and there is a tradition 
 that he was privately baptized before his death by 
 the bishop of Tiberias. [E.R.J 
 
 HILLER, M., a Ger. Orientalist, 1646-1725. 
 
 HILLIARD, N., an English painter, 1547-1619. 
 
 HILPART, John, a Ger. divine, born 1627. 
 
 HILTON, Walter, an English ascetic, 15th c. 
 
 HILTON, William, R.A., an English historical 
 painter, distinguished for his refined taste in de- 
 sign, and a harmonious and rich style of colouring, 
 was born at Lincoln, 3d June, 1786, and died in 
 London 30th December, 1839. He succeeded 
 Fuseli in 1825 as keeper of the Royal Academy. 
 Owing to the too great quantity, or bad quality of 
 nis vehicle, his pictures are already going to pieces. 
 'Serena,' and 'The Red Cross Knight,' presented 
 to the National Gallery in 1841, is in too bad a 
 condition to be exhibited. The morbid search after 
 nostrums and glazing media, has been one of the 
 most fatal obstructions to the establishment of a 
 great school of painting in England. (Art Union 
 Journal, 1840.) [R.N.W.J 
 
 323 
 
IIIL 
 
 ITILTZ, John, a German architect, 15th c. 
 
 1IIMERIUS, a Greek sophist, 4th century. 
 
 HIMLY, C., a German physician, 1772-1837. 
 
 HI MM EL, F. H., a Ger. musician, 1765-1804. 
 
 HINCHCLIFFE, John, the son of a stable- 
 keeper, rose to be bishop of Peterborough, 1731-94. 
 
 HINCKLEY, John, an Engl, theol, 1617-95. 
 
 HINCMAR, archbishop of Rheims, known as a 
 controversial and learned writer, 9th eentury. 
 
 HINDMARSH, Robert, a minister and con- 
 troversial writer of the ' New Church,' author of 
 'A Seal on the Lips of Unitarians,' &c, died 1835. 
 
 HIPPARCHUS, atynt. of Athens, 528-514 B.C. 
 
 HIPPARCHUS, the greatest Astronomer of 
 Antiquity ; or rather the founder of Astrono- 
 mical Science. The dates of the birth and death 
 of Hipparchus are lost ; Ptolemy speaks of him as 
 alive between 160 and 125 B C: neither do any of 
 his writings remain, excepting the Commentary on 
 Aratus, a production of his youth. It has often 
 been asserted that he observed at Alexandria ; but 
 the careful criticism of Delambre leaves no ground 
 for such a supposi* ; on : he laboured most probably 
 in Bithynia; certainly at Rhodes. It is to Pto- 
 lemy that we owe our knowledge of Hipparchus, 
 who in the fulness of his admiration applies to 
 him the epithet cairtxn xa.) ^Xotxifim (the lover 
 of labour and truth); nor do we think that his 
 successor has ever done him injustice, or sought, 
 as Delambre would insinuate, to absorb a part of 
 his glory into his own. As a pure observer, Hip- 
 
 Earchus was probably never surpassed. Of course 
 e wrought with rude instruments, affected by 
 large errors ; but all that the Observer himself had 
 to do, was achieved with highest probity and 
 sagacity, and shaped by a rare philosophic spirit. 
 To collect and describe facts exactly, is a service 
 always valuable to Science ; more especially when 
 Inquiry is in its infancy ; but Hipparchus added 
 the loftier faculty of knowing the precise descrip- 
 tion of facts, which ought to be observed the 
 tacts pregnant with laws ; and he succeeded, there- 
 fore, in laying the sure foundation of Astronomical 
 Theory. The Ancients, it is well known, imagined 
 the Earth motionless, and that all celestial bodies 
 move uniformly in circles around it ; but, as mo- 
 tions had been detected in the sky which are not 
 uniform, it became the question, how, on the 
 ground of these suppositions, can the observed irre- 
 gularities be explained ? A very fertile idea had 
 been started by Plato and Eudoxus, that a hea- 
 venly body moving uniformly on a small circle, 
 might ba carried round the earth by a larger circle ; 
 and that apparent irregularities, would issue from 
 the combination of these uniform motions. (See 
 article Ptolemy). Hipparchus appropriated the 
 idea, and realized it; ie. he laid down the actual 
 machinery which would account for the precise 
 irregularities observed. In this way he constructed 
 a theory of the Sun and Moon ; and originated 
 that refined scheme which endured until the 
 period of Copernicus. Knowing where to stop as 
 well as how far to adventure, he only collected ma- 
 terials for the Planetary Theory, afterwards com- 
 S feted by Ptolemy. We owe besides, to this great 
 'bserver the discovery of the J 'recession of the 
 Egumoccet a first essential to a knowledge of the 
 motions of the Fixed Stars : he may be said to 
 have invented Trigonometry, plane and spherical ; 
 
 nip 
 
 and to have originated our graphical Geography.- 
 The reign of Induction in Physical Science propa 
 began with Hipparchus. [J.P.N 
 
 HIPPASUS, a Pythagorean phibs., 5th c. b. 
 HIPPIAS, an Athenian prince, killed 490 b.c 
 HIPPIAS of Elis, a sophist, 5th century b.< 
 HIPPISLEY, Sir J. C, a magistr , 17IJ5-182 
 HIPPO, a Pythagorean philoso., 5th cent, b.c 
 HIPPOCRATES, a Gr. geometrician, 500 b.c 
 HIPPOCRATES. A name common to at lea 
 four physicians of antiquity, but generally reserve 
 for Hippocrates the 2d, who was in many respec 
 the most celebrated physician of ancient or modei 
 times, and to whom the title of ' Father 
 cine' has been applied. He was the son of Hen 
 elides, a physician of Cos, in which island he wj 
 born, in the year 460 B.C. His mother's namewj 
 Phamarete, by race a Heracleid, while his fath( 
 belonged to the Asclepiada?, as the descendants < 
 Esculapius were called. His ancestors for genen 
 tions had resided in Cos, where they all seem 1 
 have practised the healing art ; but little is know 
 that can be relied upon of the incidents of his ow 
 life, and what we have to say of him must b 
 therefore scanty and unsatisfactory. Hippocrah 
 received his elementary medical education from hi 
 father, and subsequently studied under Herodicu: 
 a physician of Selymbria in Thrace, who was or 
 of the first persons to apply gymnastic exercises t 
 the cure and prevention of diseases ; and his in 
 structions in general science and philosophy froi 
 Gorgias of Leontini, in Sicily, a distinguished s( 
 phist and orator of those times, who would appe: 
 to have been the brother of Herodicus. The perio 
 at which he lived was also favourable to the dt 
 velopment of his powers, for he was the conteir 
 porary of Socrates, Plato, Pericles, Herodotus, an 
 Thucydides ; and we may perhaps attribute to th: 
 circumstance, as well as to the complete general an 
 professional education he had received, the purit 
 and elegance of his style. On the death of h: 
 father he left Cos, and travelled for twelve yeai 
 through Greece and Asia Minor, passing much ( 
 his time in Macedonia, Thrace, and Thessaly; bt 
 as dates are wholly wanting, it is impossible to sa 
 in what years of his life these travels were pei 
 formed. The same uncertainty attaches itself t 
 all the subsequent movements of his life, nor is i 
 possible to determine whether he lived permanentl 
 in Cos, the medical school of which he raised t 
 the highest pitch of eminence, or whether he st 
 lected some city of extra-Peloponnesian Greece a 
 his fixed place of abode. He died at Larissa, i 
 Thessaly, though in what year is unknown, as hi 
 age at the time of his death has been variousl 
 stated at eighty-five, ninety, one hundred and fou 
 and one hundred and nine years. He left two son: 
 Thessalus and Dracon, both of whom were media 
 men ; and a daughter whose name has not bee 
 preserved, but who married Polybus, also a medio 
 man. An account of the medical system of I lip 
 pocrates would be unsuited to a work of this kim 
 but we may state generally that he was a diliger 
 and sagacious observer of nature, and that hi 
 practice was regulated very much by the indica 
 tions which a disease presented; hence he hn 
 been considered the founder of the dogmatists, I 
 rationalists, in medicine, a sect of great antiquity 
 and which is not perhaps wholly extinct at thi 
 
 824 
 
HIP 
 
 h That the humoral pathology, which main- 
 ned its ascendancy in Europe for twenty centu- 
 s, was originally derived from his theory of the 
 ing fluids, which he divided into blood, phlegm, 
 lck bile, and yellow bile, is certain ; and there 
 jo be no doubt that many of his opinions on cli- 
 ate, diet, individual temperament, and the con- 
 jtution of the atmosphere in the four different 
 lisons of the year, influenced the belief of the 
 fedical world down even to the age of Sydenham, 
 p knew little or nothing of anatomy, and was 
 t only unacquainted with the circulation of the 
 pod, but with the distinction between arteries 
 |d veins, which he arranges in the same class 
 th nerves and tendons ; but in spite of this his 
 ne was great, and numerous stories were in- 
 pted after his death to illustrate his extraordinary 
 lebrity. Thus he was said to have stayed the 
 ligue of Athens, though Thucydides, who has 
 (scribed it, and was himself a sufferer from it, 
 ikes no mention of him whatever. It has been 
 feo recorded that he was solicited by the inhabi- 
 ts of Abdera to visit their city and to cure 
 pmocritus the philosopher of insanity, and there 
 extant a letter which is urged as a proof of this, 
 lough it be a manifest forgery ; and that nothing 
 ight be wanting to impress upon posterity a sense 
 his universal authority, it is related of him that 
 refused an invitation from Artaxerxes Longim- 
 U8, king of Persia, to visit that country, together 
 th a large sum of money, but that he declined 
 nh because Artaxerxes was the enemy of Greece. 
 pese and similar stories are now disregarded, and 
 je looked upon as the fictions of a subsequent 
 Je. Hippocrates wrote in the Ionic dialect of 
 je Greek, and is considered by modern scholars a 
 assical authority in that tongue. His works are 
 perallv published in two folio volumes with Latin 
 pnslations ; but there is considerable difference 
 opinion among critics as to what properly be- 
 pgs to him in the Hippocratic collection, and 
 lat should be assigned to others, probably mem- 
 rs of his own family. Those treatises which are 
 jeived as the genuine compositions of Hippocrates 
 i I. The 1st and 3d Books of the Epidemics ; 
 . The Prognostics; III. The Aphorisms; IV. 
 le 1st and 2d Books of the Predictions; V. The 
 eatise on Air, Water, and Places; VI. The 
 Jgimen in Acute Diseases; VII. The Treatise 
 Wounds of the Head. [J.M'C] 
 
 HIPPOLYTUS. Our space does not suffice to 
 :ount the numerous and contradictory theories 
 lich have been formed regarding this remarkable 
 in. Eusebius, Jerome, Gelasius, and Photius, 
 earlier times, have referred to him, but with an 
 distinct and inaccurate knowledge of him ; the 
 pnedictine monks could not dispel the obscurity 
 bich hung over him, and the hypotheses of Baron- 
 kTillemont, Fabricius, Le Moyne, Basnage, Cave, 
 fd others, still left the subject in mist and confusion. 
 ; very common opinion prevailed that he was a 
 jshop in the East, and specially in some part of 
 jrabia. It is now ascertained that he was a dis- 
 ple of Irenaeus, was a bishop of Portus Romanus 
 e harbour of Rome, after the reign of Trajan ; 
 (id sufTiTed martyrdom under Maximus about the 
 ar 23G. His statue was accidentally dug up in 
 j'ol, and on its sides were inscribed a list of his 
 )rks and the Paschal Cycle. All this is confirma- 
 
 HOA 
 
 tory of the description given of him by the Christian 
 poet Prudentius. His works, so called, were pub- 
 lished by Fabricius, in 2 vols, folio, and by Gal- 
 landi in the second volume of his Bibliotheca 
 Patrum. Hippolytus, as attested by all antiquity, 
 was a voluminous writer on a vast variety of sub- 
 jects, the majority of which were of a polemical 
 character. A list of his polemical, doctrinal, his- 
 torical, and exegetical works, the greater part of 
 which are lost, will be found in the first volume of 
 ' Bunsen's Hippolytus and his Age.' A MS. 
 was brought from Mount Athos in 1842, which 
 was called a treatise On all Heresies,' and was 
 deposited in the royal library in Paris. In 1846, 
 M. Millar having looked into the book, considered 
 it to be a lost work of Origen, and had it printed 
 in 1851 by the Oxford University Press, under the 
 title of ' Origen Philosophumena.' The Chevalier 
 Bunsen eagerly read the publication, and brought 
 to bear upon it the peculiar sageness and tact of 
 his critical erudition. The result is, that he has 
 proved that the treatise belonged not to Origen as 
 its author but to Hippolytus. In the course of his 
 discussions he has thrown great light on the times 
 and creed of Hippolytus, as well as upon the 
 theology and government of the Roman Church in 
 the times of Severus and Commodus. Hippolytus 
 was more a man of labour than of original thought ; 
 rather an honest and learned compiler than a wri- 
 ter of independent vigour. [J.E.] 
 
 HIPPONAX, a Greek satirist, 6th century B.C. 
 
 HIRAM, a king of Tvre, 1025-985 B.C. 
 
 HIRE, L. De La, a French painter, 1606-1656. 
 His son, Philip, eel. as an astronomer, 1640-1719. 
 Gabriel Philip, son of the latter, and successor 
 in his employments, 1677-1719. 
 
 HIRSCHING, F. C. G., a Ger. savant, au. of a 
 1 Dictionary of Celebrated Men,' &c, 1762-1800. 
 
 HIRT, Aloys, a Ger. archaeologist, born 1759. 
 
 HIRT, J. F., a German theologian, 1719-1783. 
 
 HIRZEL, H., a German author, 1766-1833. 
 
 HJELM, P. J., a Swed. mineralog., 1746-1813. 
 
 HOADLEY, Benjamin, a prelate of the En- 
 glish Church, and a chief of the partv whose 
 firinciples were brought into fashion by the revo- 
 ution of 1688, and the accession of the house of 
 Hanover, was born at Westerham, in Kent, in 
 1676, and died at his palace in Chelsea, 1761. 
 His ability as a controversialist, and his love of 
 civil and religious libertv, became conspicuous in 
 the strife of parties at the beginning of the last 
 century, when he entered the field against Bishop 
 Atterbury, and the High Church party. His 
 share in this debate, and its intimate connection 
 with the settlement of the new dynasty and the 
 liberties of the country, was recognized by the 
 House of Commons, who addressed the queen in 
 his favour, and thus paved the way for his rapid 
 promotion to the sees of Bangor, Hereford, Salis- 
 bury, and Winchester, which he held in succession. 
 In 1717, while bishop of Bangor, he preached the 
 sermon before the king which gave rise to the 
 famous Bangorian controversy, in which Hoadley 
 was assailed by the chiefs of the non-jurors, and 
 with most effect by William Law, the doughty 
 champion of authority, both in church and state. 
 This controversy was brought to a close about 
 1720, without conciliating either the high church 
 party, on the one hand, or the dissenters on the 
 
 325 
 
HOA 
 
 other, and without adding much to Hoadley's 
 character for consistency. With a fine intellect, 
 he was constitutionally compliant and easy, and 
 seems to have been wanting in fidelityto his 
 conscientious convictions. In a word, it is most 
 difficult to justify the career of such a man on 
 any other principles than those of a worldly policy, 
 and of that preference for the good and the true 
 which may often be indulged in as a kind of 
 luxury. Besides his numerous controversial pub- 
 lications, Hoadley was author of 'An Account of 
 the Life, Writings, and Character of Dr. Samuel 
 Clarke.' prefixed to the posthumous works of the 
 latter, published 1732: 'A Plain Account of the 
 Nature and End of the Sacrament of the Lord's 
 Supper,' 1735 ; and a ' Letter ' Addressed to Cle- 
 ment Chevalier, in 1756. [E.R.] 
 
 HOADLEY, Benjamin, eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding, was a physician and philosophical writer. 
 He assisted Hogarth in composing his ' Analysis 
 of Beauty,' and is well known as the auth. of a co- 
 medy entitled 'The Suspicious Husband,' 1706-1757. 
 
 HOADLEY, John, the youngest son of Bishop 
 Hoadley, was educated for the law, but finally 
 entered the church, and enjoyed several valuable 
 preferments. He is the author of several dramatic 
 works and poems, 1711-1776. 
 
 HOAI-TSONG, an emperor of China, 1627-44. 
 
 HOARE, P., F.S.A., a dram, au., 1764-1834. 
 
 HOARE, Sir R. C, a county hist., 1758-1838. 
 
 HOARE, W., an English divine, died 1657. 
 
 HOARE, W., an ingenious artist, 1707-1792. 
 
 HOBBEMA, M., a l)utch painter, 1611-1699. 
 
 HOBBES, Thomas, born at Malmesbury on the 
 5th April, 1588, died on 4th December, 1679 : 
 ' a great name in philosophy, on account both of 
 the value of what he taught and the extraordinary 
 impulse which he communicated to the spirit of 
 free inquiry in Europe.' Criticism of Hobbes's 
 speculations is here beyond our reach : the state- 
 ment of a few facts regarding him will enable the 
 student to judge whether the high eulogy just 
 quoted, probably surpasses his deserts. So soon 
 as Hobbes left Magdalen Hall, Oxford, we find 
 those connections beginning which bound him, 
 during a long life, in amity and confidence with the 
 best families of England. Tutor to Lord Caven- 
 dish heir of the princely house of Devonshire, he 
 travelled with him through France and Italy. 
 Death struck the pupil only two years after the de- 
 mise of his father the earl of Devonshire. Hobbes, 
 stung with grief, travelled again; but returned 
 in 1631, at the entreaties of the dowager countess, 
 to teach the young earl, then only thirteen. An 
 inmate of this noble house, which he virtually con- 
 tinued until his own decease, he mingled with all 
 their extensive and distinguished circle ; and lived 
 in intercourse with the most celebrated literary 
 men of his own and other nations. Kennet in his 
 ' Memoirs of the Cavendish Family' offers an inter- 
 esting glimpse of the philosopher s daily life. He 
 dedicated the morning to exercise ; the afternoon 
 to study. Having climbed a hill and breakfasted, 
 he went his rounds in the family, waiting also on dis- 
 tinguished strangers, and conversing on the themes 
 which occupied nim. At twelve o'clock he dined 
 unceremoniously alone, and then returned to his 
 study, where, with the companionship of his pipe, 
 he devoted the hours to meditation and writing. 
 
 HOB 
 
 The subjects occupying him were the most solen 
 that engage the human mind; and for the fir 
 time had they engrossed the thoughts of a gre 
 man in England. Loving truth, in the 
 coveting the grounds of itnot in that of 
 without grounds, and averring without unde 
 standing he sought in an analysis of the hunu 
 Intellect and Affections, the basis of man's dutin 
 
 fiersonal, social, and political : in other words, .] 
 onged to discern his place in the Universe as 
 reasonable being, and like a brave and conscientio 
 man to assert it. The enterprise was novel, bol 
 and hazardous : novel, for in psychology he hi 
 not one predecessor: hazardous, because no min ; 
 save one of the first order, would have pretMl 
 the necessary freedom, under pressure of the e: 
 throned and inveterate Ignorance amid which ! 
 lived, and of influences insidious and therefo 
 more alarming, springing from his social attac) 
 ments. But Hobbes surmounted all dangers. I 
 can be said of him with perfect truth, that neith 
 in his life nor writings, did he fail in integrity . 
 effect on him of circumstances we discern not! 
 trace ; he thought as a freeman, irrespective 
 seductions or frowns; nay, the chances of li 
 having given him Charles II. as a temporary puj 
 he perilled the royal favour, as if he made l 
 sacrifice ; to the honour of Charles be it recorde 
 that the philosopher's uprightness did not cost hi 
 the monarch's regard. It is easy to see that ' 
 long life of such a kind, thrown "into the mid 
 of those ages, could be no welcome apparition ; nj 
 need Cromwell himself have dreaded a more tr 
 just contemporary appreciation than Hobbes : b 
 it is our grief and shame, that contemporary slai 
 der has its voices still; that men in modern times wl 
 never read one page of this illustrious thinker, b 
 who desire their criticisms to be palatable, persi 
 in making him a bugbear. Surely something mo 
 than evil lay at the root of his extraordinary powc 
 No man ever excited a wider and more lasth 
 commotion. Clarendon, Cudworth, Bramhall, To 
 nison, Harrington, Henry More, nay, in the wor 
 of Warburton ' every young Churchman Militar. 
 would try his arms in thundering on Hobbes's ste 
 cap.' Now as then, men will repudiate many 
 his opinions : that searcher for Truth had no help 
 and he erred like others. Few thoughts are pure- 
 unaffected by much that will perish ; but benea 
 all, abides the Thinker, a veritable force of N. 
 ture, formidable, incorruptible, fresh still aft 
 all these centuries, gnarled it may be like an Enj 
 lish oak, but also with roots profound holdh 
 by the Earth, while slighter generations ft 
 and disappear. Hobbes's style is a model 
 the didactic ; clear and deep as the pen of an ei 
 graver. Hallam says truly, that one could no mo 
 change a word or expression in it, than in tl 
 exactest mathematical formula. It does its du 
 in distinctly expressing distinct thought ; and du 
 alone is its aim. No more acceptable present h 
 recently been made to the student of Engli; 
 philosophy and literature, than the superb editi< 
 of Hobbes's works in 16 volumes 8vo, which v 
 owe to Sir William Molesworth. [J.P.N 
 
 HO BE, Charlotte De, a French poetess, di 
 ting, for her sweetness and sensibility, 1 7 
 
 HOBHOUSE, Sir Benjamin, a member of ti 
 House of Commons and oi the government in tl 
 326 
 
HOB 
 
 )> of Mr. Addington, distinguished as the adver- 
 gj of Pitt, and especially of his action against 
 rtFrench republic, 1757-1831. 
 
 OBLER, Francis, the well-known clerk of 
 
 t'JMansion House, London, 1766-1844. 
 
 ! OCCLEVE, Thomas, an English poet,15th c. 
 
 OCHE. Lazare Hoche was born in 1768 
 
 a lontreuil, near Versailles, where his father was 
 
 It >er of the royal stag-hounds. Hoche entered 
 
 t army at the age of sixteen, and studied the 
 
 iences with great diligence. He was a 
 
 Jous supporter of the republican principles 
 
 vjch the French revolution called into activity, 
 
 a] he rose rapidly into distinction in the wars 
 
 (linst the allied sovereigns. He behaved with 
 
 jLliar skill and courage at the siege of Dun- 
 
 fin 1793, and materially aided General Son- 
 
 m in defending that city from the English army 
 
 tjer the duke of York. He then received the 
 
 mand of the army of the Moselle, and on the 
 
 and 27th December, 1793, gained an impor- 
 
 victory at Weissenburg. He now fell under 
 
 suspicion of Robespierre and St. Just. He 
 
 recalled from his command and sent to 
 
 ion. The overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th 
 
 jrmidor, saved Hoche from the guillotine ; and 
 
 was placed at the head of one of the armies of 
 
 Convention, that acted against the Vendeans 
 
 he sanguinary civil war by which the west of 
 
 ] nee was desolated. Hoche here displayed the 
 
 lities of a statesman, as well as those of a 
 
 eral. He reorganized his own army, which 
 
 i become under his predecessors as disorderly as 
 
 ras ferocious. He practised, and he made his 
 
 >ps practise, humanity and good faith towards 
 
 Ujeasantry. He won the confidence of the 
 ean priests; and by these means, and by 
 ing with the greatest skill and energy against 
 b royalist bands as held out against him, Hoche 
 omplished the pacification of La Vendee and 
 ttany; an achievement more difficult, and 
 re truly glorious than the most showy suc- 
 ses of the other French generals of the revolu- 
 lary wars. In 1795 Hoche defeated at Quiberon 
 attempt made by the French emigrants, with 
 aid of the English, to renew the war in Brit- 
 y; and in 1796 he was placea at the head of 
 expedition by which the French directory de- 
 led to drive the English from Ireland, and 
 [ke her a sister republic of France. Hoche 
 (led on the 15th December, 1796, from Brest 
 fleet of forty-three sail, and an army nearly 
 strong; but this noble armament was 
 by storms, and the frigate on board of 
 Hoche himself had embarked, was separated 
 the rest of the squadron, and with difficulty 
 the French coast. In 1797 Hoche re- 
 the command of the army of the Sambre 
 ie Meuse, and prepared to invade Germany, 
 to strike as deep blows against Austria in her 
 Stern provinces, as Buonaparte was then deal- 
 to her in the south. Hoche defeated the 
 trians at Heffendorf, and was on the point 
 capturing his opponent, General Kray, and the 
 lole army of the imperialists, when he was 
 ecked in the mid career of success by the news 
 the pacification which Buonaparte and the 
 chduke Charles had agreed on at Lroben. 
 che died in 1797 after a short illness, at the 
 
 HOF 
 
 early age of thirty-three. Many attributed his 
 death to poison, but there seems to have been no 
 ground for these suspicions. He was not only one 
 of the bravest soldiers and most skilful generals that 
 the French revolution brought forward, but he was 
 also an accomplished statesman, a sincere patriot, 
 and a man of honour, generosity, and integrity. 
 Napoleon, in speaking of him at St. Helena, truly 
 said, 'Had Hoche lived, I must have subdued 
 him, or he would have subdued me.' Unfortu- 
 nately for France the chance of her being saved by 
 Hoche from Napoleon's despotism, was taken 
 from her by the premature death of the best of the 
 heroes of the republic. [E.S.C.] 
 
 HODGES, Nathaniel, a med. au., 1672-1684. 
 
 HODGES, W., a landscape painter, 1744-1798. 
 
 HODGSON, James, a mathema. wr., last cent. 
 
 HODGSON, Dr. R., dean of Carlisle, a nephew 
 and biographer of Bishop Porteus, died 1844. 
 
 HODIERNA, J. B., a Sicilian astro., 1597-1660. 
 
 HODY, Humphrey, a learned divine,1659-1706. 
 
 HOEDT, Gerard, a Dutch paint., 1648-1733. 
 
 HOEL, the first of the name, duke of Brittany, 
 509-545 ; the second, killed by his brother, 547 ; 
 the third, 594-612 ; ihe fourth, 953-980 ; the fifth, 
 1066-1084; the sixth, 1148-1156. 
 
 HOESCHEL, D., a Ger. Hellenist, 1556-1617. 
 
 HOEST, G., a Danish navigator, 1734-1792. 
 
 HOFER, Andrew, was chief of the Tyrolese 
 in their heroic war against the French and Ba- 
 varians in 1809. The Tyrol had been ceded to 
 Bavaria by Austria at the peace of Presburg. 
 But the Bavarians and their French allies had 
 treated with insult and injury the ancient rights 
 and usages of the Tyrolese, which their Austrian 
 sovereign had always respected. Hence the feel- 
 ing of loyalty to the Austrian emperor was fervent 
 in the Tyrol ; and when Austria renewed war with 
 France in 1809, the Tyrolese rose almost to a man 
 in her cause. These brave mountaineers chose 
 Hofer as their generalissimo. Hofer was at this 
 time about forty-two years of age, and kept an 
 inn in the village of Passayer. He showed him- 
 self well worthy of his countrymen's confidence. 
 Under his command the Tyrolese gave the French 
 and Bavarian troops repeated and severe defeats, 
 and for a time expelled them from the whole of 
 the Tyrol. Hofer now acted as viceroy for the 
 Austrian emperor ; and throughout his career he 
 was as eminent for moderation and humanity, as 
 for intelligence and valour. When Austria capitu- 
 lated to Napoleon by the treaty of Schonbrun, in 
 October, 1809, she again ceded the Tyrol to 
 Bavaria ; and the Tyrolese were ordered to submit 
 to their beaten and bitterest enemies as their 
 lawful masters. They resisted gallantly; and it 
 was only after repeated battles that the over- 
 whelming armies of French, Saxons, and Bava- 
 rians, which were now poured into the Tyrol, 
 succeeded in quelling the brave mountaineers. 
 Hofer for some time escaped the pursuit of his 
 enemies, but he was at last captured on the 27th 
 January, 1810. He was immediately sent to 
 Mantua for trial before one of Napoleon's military 
 tribunals. He was condemned to death, and 
 ordered to be shot within twenty -four hours. He 
 met his fate as a good Christian and a brave sol- 
 dier. The spot on the bastion at Mantua, where 
 he fell, is still visited as a holy place by his 
 
 327 
 
HOF , 
 
 countrymen, who cherish with just 
 memory of their hero-martyr. 
 
 pride the 
 [E.S.C.] 
 
 [Monument to Hofer at Inspruck.J 
 
 HOFER, J. A., a Tyrolese juriscon., 1765-1820. 
 
 HOFFBAUER, J. C, a Ger. philo., 1766-1827 
 
 HOFFMAN, Daniel, a Germ, divine, d. 1611. 
 
 HOFFMAN, Frederick, a disting. German 
 physician and writer on pathology, 1663-1742. 
 
 HOFFMAN, F. B., a Fr. dramatist, long time 
 lit. critic of the 'Journal des Debate,' 1760-1828. 
 
 HOFFMAN, G., a Ger. medical au., 1572-1649. 
 
 HOFFMAN, John James, a literary savant of 
 Basle, author of a ' Universal Lexicon,' 1635-1706. 
 John Maurice, his son, a physician and professor, 
 au. of some valuable works on botany, 1653-1727. 
 
 HOFFMAN, Maurice, a Ger. physician and 
 anatomist, best kn. as a wr. on botany, 1622-1698. 
 
 HOFFMANN, C, a Ger. med. author, d. 1648. 
 
 HOFFMANN, C. G., a Germ, jurist, 1692-1735. 
 
 HOFFMANN, Chr. Louis, a German physic, 
 and prof., au. of a ' Theory of Disease,' 1721-1807. 
 
 HOFFMANN, Ernest Theodore William, 
 a Ger. dramatic writer and composer, 1776-1822. 
 
 HOFLAND, Mrs. This popular authoress was 
 the daughter of Mr. Robert Wreaks, a manufac- 
 turer of Sheffield, where she was born in 1770, 
 and where, at the age of twenty-six, she was 
 married to her first husband, Mr. Hoole. That 
 gentleman dying two years afterwards, left her in 
 embarrassed circumstances, and she published a 
 volume of poems by subscription, with the pro- 
 ceeds of which she opened a school at Harrowgate, 
 where she commenced the series of works which 
 have rendered her name so popular, and effected 
 so much good among young people. In 1808, 
 she was married to Mr. Hofland, an admired 
 landscape painter, and the year following she 
 removed to London with him. In a few years, 
 the fame of Mrs. Hofland was so well established 
 that Queen Charlotte became her unsolicited 
 patroness, and ' The Son of a Genius,' published 
 in 1813, was translated into several of the con- 
 tinental languages. The works of Mrs. Hofland 
 are chiefly in the form of novels, or of contribu- 
 tions to the magazines and annuals, but they are 
 all marked by her desire to promote the improve- 
 
 HOG 
 
 ment and elevation of character, and we have I 
 testimony of Mr. and Miss Edgeworth, that 
 other book in their time had effected so mi 
 good in Ireland, as the novel just mention 
 Mrs. Hofland died in 1844, as justly esteemed 
 her domestic virtues, her happy temper, and 
 conversational powers, as for the talents wh 
 have rendered her name familiar to the readers 
 English literature. 
 
 HOFLAND, Thomas Christopher, a d 
 tinguished landscape painter, famous for his la 
 scenery and classic subjects, 1777-1843. 
 
 HOGARTH, William, was born in Lond 
 10th December, 1697 ; he was apprenticed at 
 early age to Gamble, a silversmith, but at the t 
 piration of his term in 1718, he took to engfl 
 in copper for the booksellers. In 1730 he ml 
 the only daughter of Sir James Thornhill, agai 
 her father's consent, and set up as a portrait pai 
 ter with considerable success. He now commenc 
 his remarkable series of satirical paintings iefle< 
 ing on the social abuses of his tune : The ' Hi 
 
 [Hogarth's House.] 
 
 lot's Progress' in 1734; the ' Rake's Progress' 
 1735 ; and the ' Marriage a la Mode' in 1745, n< 
 in the National Gallery. In 1753 he appeared 
 an author in his 'Analysis of Beauty, writt 
 with a View of Fixing the Fluctuating Ideas 
 Taste.' In 1757 he was appointed serjea 
 painter to the king: he died in London, 26 
 October, 1764, and was buried at Chiswick. H 
 garth was a good painter as well as a great satiris 
 (Nichols, Biographical Anecdotes, &c, 178 
 1782 : Ireland, Hogarth Illustrated, Boyde 
 
 1791.) [r.n:w 
 
 HOGENDORP, G. C. Von, a Dutch statesma 
 who greatly promoted the return of the prince 
 Orange by the insurrection which he excited, 181 
 His brother, Thierry, a general and minister 
 war under Louis Buonaparte, 1761-1830. 
 
 HOGG, James, the Ettrick Shepherd, claim 
 erroneously it is said to have been bo 
 on the 25th of January (Burns's birth-day), 177 
 He belonged to the vale of Ettrick, in Selka 
 shire, where he followed the pastoral oceupati 
 of his ancestors. His first published song, ' Dons 
 Maedonald,' acquired extensive popularity. Afl 
 several successful literary efforts, the most co 
 siderable of which was a volume of ballads call 
 ' The Mountain Minstrel,' Hogg, who had fail 
 in sundry sheep-farming speculations, reinov 
 
 328 
 

 HOH 
 
 Edinburgh in 1810, with the view of living by 
 wits. He there published a volume of songs, 
 le Forest Minstrel,' and conducted a periodical 
 :ed ' The Spy,' which existed for about a year, 
 vas not, however, until the appearance of ' The 
 
 [Birth-place of James Hogg.] 
 
 s Wake,' in 1813, that he became greatly 
 inguished as an author. Besides 'The Pil- 
 of the Sun,' ' Queen Hynde,' and other 
 jcal works, Hogg wrote numerous tales and 
 ;ls, few of which are now much read. He 
 on terms of friendship with Scott, Wilson, 
 other literary magnates of Edinburgh, and the 
 ner in which he was made to figure in the 
 )rated 'Noctes' of Blackwood although some- 
 s complained of by himself contributed not 
 ;tle to his fame. With less masculine sense 
 Burns, and far inferior in tender and pas- 
 ate earnestness, he yet possessed a higher 
 tive fancy ; and many of his pieces, such as 
 any Kilmeny,' are marked by a certain wild 
 dreamy fascination, unlike anything else with 
 :h we are acquainted. Hogg spent his later 
 8 at Altrive, on the Yarrow, where he died on 
 Klst November, 1835. [J.H.] 
 
 lOHEXLOE, Alexander Leopold, prince 
 Wnd bishop of Sardica, celebrated for the sur- 
 ging cures effected by him, was born in the 
 Jpipality of Hohenloe 1794, and died at Gross- 
 rtcun in Hungary 1849. The mother of the 
 l\g prince was a woman of remarkable piety, 
 H| being left a widow when he was only two 
 of age, she had the entire control of his edu- 
 " e religious habits induced upon him at 
 were continued by his attachment to the 
 when he went to Rome to complete his 
 and he at length embraced the ecclesiasti- 
 ession with the enthusiasm of a saint of the 
 ages. He commenced his duties at Bam- 
 and Munich 1817, and his preaching, it is 
 drew tears from the most insensible, and 
 t the most hardened to repentance. In 1821 
 lours of his miraculous power of healing 
 to spread abroad, and it is remarkable that 
 were chiefly effected by prayer, and that 
 of them are said to have been performed 
 distance with as much effect as under his own 
 Space is not afforded us to recite particular 
 but he gave sight to the blind, hearing 
 if, speech to the dumb, and caused the 
 
 HOL 
 
 lame to walk. The derision which marks the 
 recital of these facts by biographers who cannot 
 dispute them, only proves their own want of that 
 living faith and fervid charity which was the 
 secret of the success of Prince Hohenloe. The 
 flippant explanation of such phenomena by the 
 sudden tension of the spirit, the ' force of imagina- 
 tion,' or by other . kinds of mental impressions, is 
 mere verbiage, unless it be understood that the 
 spirit is also substance, as implied by Lord Bacon, 
 who writes: 'There is the possibility of an action 
 of one person upon another by the force of the 
 imagination of one of those two persons ; because 
 as one body receives the action of another body, 
 so, one spirit is adapted to, receive the action of 
 another spirit ; ' which agrees with what Dr. Hey- 
 lin declares of touching for the scrofula, that he 
 has ' Seen children brought before the king some 
 hanging at their mothers' breasts, and others in 
 the arms of their nurses, all touched and cured.' 
 There is every reason to believe that the cures of 
 Prince Hohenloe were magnetic healings, rendered 
 doubly powerful by the religious spirit associated 
 with them ; and that the substantive operation is 
 the same in ordinary magnetism and in the cure 
 of disease by faith, with a distinction which is 
 more clearly traced in the article Mesmer. It is 
 no disparagement of the mere facts in this case, 
 that they were eagerly promulgated, and in some 
 particular instances, perhaps, exaggerated by the 
 Jesuits, whose re-establishment was greatly aided 
 by them. Whether this 'new Xavier' lost his 
 power, or chose to exercise it in private after the 
 attacks that were made upon him by the sceptics 
 is not known, but the fame of his performances 
 had died away many years before his death. 
 Prince Hohenloe is the author of several devo- 
 tional treatises published between 1820-30. [E.R.] 
 
 HOHENLOE, L. C. F. Leopold, prince of, 
 one of the most ardent enemies of the French re- 
 volution, in whose principality the emigrant nobles 
 were permitted to organize their armies, and who 
 furnished them with two auxiliary regiments, 
 1731-1799. His son, E. Aloys Joachim, distin- 
 guished in the same line of policy, and a marshal 
 of France under Louis XVIIL, died 1829. 
 
 HOHENLOE -INGELFINGEN, Frederick 
 Louis, prince of, a distinguished general in the 
 wars of the Fr. rev., and commander of the Prus- 
 sian and Saxon army defeated at Jena, 1746-1818. 
 
 HOHENLOE-KIRCHBERG,princeof,ageneral 
 of artillery in the service of Austria, died while 
 commanding the army on the Rhine, 1796. 
 
 HOLBACH, Paul Thyry, Baron D', a Germ, 
 mineralogist, and wr. on Nat. Religion, 1723-1789. 
 
 HOLBEIN, Hans, or Johannes, was born at 
 Augsburg in 1498, his father and grandfather of 
 the same name, being also natives of that city: 
 the father, however, when Hans was about seven- 
 teen or eighteen years old only, settled in Basle in 
 Switzerland, apparently in 1519. The celebrated 
 Erasmus is said to have been one of the first to 
 appreciate young Holbein, and an unauthenticated 
 story is told tnat the earl of Arundel, passing 
 through Basle, recommended him to try his fortune 
 in England. He, however, finally made the visit to 
 this country to escape the ill-temper of his wife : 
 he came to London in 1526, bringing letters from 
 Erasmus to Sir Thomas More, who ultimately 
 
 
 329 
 
iiol 
 
 introduced Holbein to Henry VIIT., and he became 
 tli.it king's favourite painter, and is not the least 
 glory of his reign. He revisited Basle in 1538, 
 and the municipalitv of the town awarded him an 
 annuity of fifty florins for two years, with the 
 hope apparently of retaining him there, but he 
 returned to London, where he died in 1554. Hol- 
 bein's gi 'nuine works are doubtless very numerous, 
 but. M Walpole says, 'as always happens to a real 
 gaunt, he has been complimented with a thousand 
 wretched performances that were unworthy of 
 him.' His stvle is manly and correct, but hard 
 and formal ; tlie character, however, and individu- 
 ality of many of his portraits, are evidently exact 
 and masterly. He painted some religious and his- 
 torical pieces; his masterpiece is perhaps the 
 'Family of the Burgomaster, Meyer/ now in the 
 Gallery of Dresden, the father and sons on one 
 side, and the mother and daughters on the other, 
 are kneeling before the Virgin, who holds a dead or 
 sick child in her arms, apparently one of the family. 
 Holbein is also the author of a very celebrated 
 series of designs, known as the 'Triumph of 
 Death,' cut in wood and first published at Lyons 
 in 1538 ; afterwards copied by Hollar and others. 
 (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c, ed. Wor- 
 num; Hegner, Hans Holbein der Jungere, Ber- 
 lin, 1827: Passavant, Kunstblatt, 1846, Nos. 
 45, 46.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 HOLBERG, Ludwig or Louis, baron of, a 
 dramatist and popular wr. of Denmark, 1684-1754. 
 
 HOLBOURNE, Sir R., a wr. on law, d. 1647. 
 
 HOLCROFT, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer 
 and translator, best known for his dramatic works 
 and translations from the French, 1744-1809. 
 
 HOLDEN, H., a Roman Cath. div., 1596-1662. 
 
 HOLDER, W., a learned divine of the Church of 
 England, known also as a writer on music, and one 
 of the teachers of Sir Christopher Wren, d. 1697. 
 
 HOLDERLIN, F., a German poet, 1770-1836. 
 
 HOLDSWORTH, E., a clas. trans., 1688-1746. 
 
 HOLDSWORTH, OLDSWORTH, or OLDIS- 
 WORTH, Richard, a learned divine, and adherent 
 of King Charles, whose execution is thought to 
 have hastened his death, 1590-1649. 
 
 HOLE, Richard, an English poet, 1802. 
 
 HOLINSHED, or HOLLYNSHED, Raphael, 
 author of the famous Chronicles known by his 
 name, which comprise a history and description of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, first published in 
 1577, and continued after his death by Stowe. 
 Very little is known of his history, but he is sup- 
 posed to have been steward to an English gentle- 
 man. He died about 1580. 
 
 HOLKAR. Three Mahratta princes of this name 
 have acquired a distinguished place in the history 
 of India. 1. Molhan Raou Holkar, distin- 
 
 fuished in Portuguese and Affghan warfare, died 
 765. 2. Takoudjy, or Tuckagee, Holkar, 
 the successor of the preceding, distinguished in 
 many wars with the English, and for the introduc- 
 tion of the European discipline into his army, 
 died 1797. 3. Djeswant Raou, or Jeswunt 
 Rao Holkar, third son of Takoudjy, who main- 
 tained a war with the Marquis Wellesley in 1804, 
 and died, after having been insane three years, in 
 181 1. The latter was succeeded by his son, Mi;l- 
 kai: Rao, and in 1818 the Mahratta power was 
 finally overthrown. 
 
 HOL 
 
 HOLE, Fr. Xavier, a Ger. canon., 1720-17! 
 
 HOLLAND, Henry, first Lord. See Fox. 
 
 HOLLAND, Henry Richard Vassal Fo 
 Lord, a British statesman, was born on 2! 
 November, 1773. His claim to remembrar 
 depends more on the respect and affection of ] 
 party and his personal friends, than on pub 
 fame. As the son of an influential statesman, a 
 the nephew of Charles Fox, he had an eai 
 opportunity of practically knowing political li 
 and mingling in public business. A consideral 
 portion of his youth was spent abroad, and acqui 
 ing a partiality for Spain, he was mainly instr 
 mental, by translations and other efforts, in exc : 
 ing a taste for Spanish literature in Britain. ] 
 took his place in the House of Lords two years b 
 fore the commencement of the present centui 
 Save for the short period of the ministry of 18' 
 
 [Holland House.} 
 
 connected with his uncle's name, he was in oppo 
 tion until the formation of the reform ministry 
 1830. He was a staunch Whig, sometimes star 
 ing almost alone, and recording frequent prote: 
 against overwhelming majorities, for the gr, 
 body of his political associates were in the Hoi 
 of Commons. He was as steady in his persoi 
 as in his political attachments, and was aim' 
 worshipped by a wide social circle of the first rr 
 of his age. In his classic mansion of Holla 
 House, his easy and munificent hospitality was 
 great moment in uniting and strengthening ' 
 
 f>arty. He joined the cabinet of 1830 as chanc 
 or of the duchy of Lancaster. He died on '2 
 October, 1840. [J.HJ 
 
 HOLLAND, Sir N., a painter, died 1811. 
 
 HOLLAND, Philemon, a classical translat 
 1551-1636. His son, Henry, a bookseller n 
 editor, date unknown. 
 
 HOLLAR, or HOLLAND, Wenceslaub, 
 Bohemian engraver, celebrated for his porta 
 of women and of animals, &c, 1607-1677. 
 
 HOLLES, Denzil, Lord, an English diplon 
 tist and member of the Long Parliament, in wb 
 he distinguished himself by his opposition to 
 arbitrary measures of the government. He i 
 one of the five demanded by the king on 
 of high treason in 1611, but was sub 
 known as a royalist, and promoted the R< 
 1597-1680. 
 
 HOLLIS, Thomas, an English gentlem 
 
 330 
 
IHOL 
 l for his republican principles, author of ' Me- 
 ' printed shortly after his death, 1720-1774. 
 LLIS, Th. Pelham, known as a statesman 
 ron Pelham and duke of Newcastle, d. 1768. 
 W LLMANN, S. C, a Ger. philos., 1696-1787. 
 LLOWAY, T., a celeb, engraver, 1748-1827. 
 fLMAN, J. G., a dramatic author, d. 1817. 
 BlMES, George, an antiquarian, 1662-1749. 
 iLMES, Nathaniel, a learned div., d. 1678. 
 iLMES, Robert, D.D., a learned divine and 
 best known for his collated edition of the 
 agint, of which 73 MS. volumes are deposited 
 i Bodleian library. He was appointed pro- 
 of poetry on the death of Warton, and 
 te dean of Winchester, 1749-1805. 
 OISTIOLD, Theodore De, a Danish phy- 
 and botanist, died 1793. 
 ILMSTROEM, Israel, a Swedish poet, 
 a also as secretary of Charles XII., d. 1708. 
 >LOFERNES, a general of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 of Assyria, killed by Judith, probably in the 
 e of the 7th century B.C. 
 )LROYD, John Baker, earl of Sheffield, 
 of the posthum. works of Gibbon, 1741-1821. 
 )LSTEIN, C., a Dutch painter, 1653-1691. 
 )LSTEIN, J. L. De, count of Lethraburg, a 
 ih statesman, one of the founders of the Aca- 
 of Sciences at Copenhagen, 1694-1763. 
 )LSTEIN GOTTORP, Charles Fred- 
 k, duke of, a nephew of Charles XII., and 
 i-law to Peter the Great, 1700-1739. 
 )LSTENIUS, L., a Ger. savant, 1596-1661 
 )LT, Francis Ludlow, a barrister and wr. 
 w, many years editor of Bell's New Weekly 
 enger, author of dramas, died 1844. 
 )LT, John, a miscellaneous wr., 1742-1801. 
 3LT, Sir John, a famous English judge, 
 rated for his patriotic opposition to the 
 ores of James II., and for his acquaintance 
 the constitutional law of England, was born 
 lame, in Oxfordshire, 1642 ; and on the king's 
 ision in 1685, had risen by his professional 
 ence as an advocate, to the office of Recorder 
 ondon. He had occupied this post about a 
 and a-half, when he was compelled to retire 
 nsequence of his opposition to the court, and 
 gh he was afterwards made serjeant at law, 
 levoted himself so entirely to the popular 
 e, that he was rewarded on the accession of 
 j William with the appointment of Lord Chief 
 ice of the King's Bench, and with a place in 
 privy council. In 1700 he declined the 
 cellorship which was offered to him on the 
 )val of Lord Somers, and remained in the 
 b of judge, which he graced with his firmness, 
 Mice, and impartiality, until his death in 1709. 
 y anecdotes are related of him, illustrating 
 rigorous opposition to the least exercise of a 
 er superior to the law. On one occasion he 
 solicited to support with his officers a party 
 lie military sent to suppress a riot occasioned 
 ;he_ practice of decoying young men for the 
 tations. ' Suppose,' said the judge to the 
 senger, 'the populace should not disperse at 
 : appearance, what are you to do then ? ' 
 ',' replied the officer, 'we have orders to fire 
 hem. ' Have you, Sir? ' said the judge ; ' then 
 i notice of this, if there be one man killed, and 
 are tried before me, I will take care that you, 
 
 HOM 
 
 and every soldier of your party shall be hanged. 
 Sir,' he added, ' go back to those who sent you, 
 and tell them that no officer of mine shall attend 
 soldiers ; and let them know at the same time that 
 the laws of this kingdom are not to be executed 
 by the sword; these matters belong to the civil 
 
 fiower, and you have nothing to do with them.' 
 t is proper to add, that when the officer had 
 retired, Sir John himself repaired to the spot with 
 a party of constables, and dispersed the mob 
 without bloodshed ; also, that this incident occurred 
 after the accession of William, which is a still 
 greater proof of Holt's inflexible integrity. His 
 professional remains consist of ' A Report of Divers 
 Cases in Pleas of the Crown in the reign of 
 Charles II.,' published 1708. [E.R.] 
 
 HOLTE, John, a Latin grammarian, 15th cent. 
 HOLTY, Louis Henry Christopher, a Ger- 
 man poet and translator of English, 1748-1776. 
 
 HOLWELL, J. Z., an employe" of the East In- 
 dia Company, author of a narrative of his own and 
 his fellow-prisoners' sufferings in the black hole of 
 Calcutta, and of Researches in the History and 
 Mythology of Hindostan, &c, 1711-1798. 
 HOLYDAY, B., a learned divine, 1593-1661. 
 HOLYOAKE, Francis, a country clergyman, 
 kn. as the author of a Latin Dictionary, died 1653. 
 His son, Thomas, a physician, author of a Dic- 
 tionary founded on that by his father, 1616-1675. 
 HOLYOKE, E. A., an American physician, 
 known as a meteorologist and natural philosopher, 
 as well as a professional writer, 1728-1829. 
 
 HOLYWOOD, John, of Halifax, (in Latin John 
 Sacrobosco,) an eminent mathematician, d. 1256. 
 HOMANN, J. B., a Ger. atlas engr., 1664-1724. 
 HOMBERG, W., a Dutch chemist, 1652-1717. 
 HOME, David, a Scottish divine, 17th cent. 
 HOME, Sir Everard, a Scotch surgeon, au. of 
 'Lectures on Compar. Anatomy,' &c, 1756-1832. 
 HOME, Henry, a Scotch judge, best known 
 as Lord Kames, and distinguished as a writer of 
 great metaphysical acumen. Besides professional 
 works, elucidating the law of Scotland, he is the 
 author of ' Essays upon British Antiquities,' ' Es- 
 says on the Principles of Morality and Natural 
 Religion,' 'Introduction to the Art of Thinking,' 
 ' Elements of Criticism,' ' Sketches of the History 
 of Man,' 'Hints upon Education,' and 'The Gen- 
 tleman Farmer,' a work addressed to the improve- 
 ment of agriculture, 1696-1782. 
 
 HOME, or HUME, John, a minister of the 
 Scotch Kirk, author of the well-known tragedy of 
 ' Douglas,' and other works, 1724-1808. 
 
 HOMER. The personal existence, the birth- 
 place, and the era of the ' Father of Song,' have 
 proved fertile subjects of discussion to literary 
 antiquaries. Some of these have maintained that 
 the Iliad and Odyssey are composed of a variety 
 of legendary ballads, commemorative of incidents 
 connected with the siege of Troy, which were the 
 production of different authors, and were revised 
 and skilfully interwoven in the age of Pisistratus ; 
 and that the name Homer was merely the imper- 
 sonation of the genius of epic poetry. Seven 
 cities at least claimed the honour of having given 
 birth to the poet ; and each of them seems to have 
 had some tradition to allege in justification of its 
 claim. The discrepancies of statement respecting 
 the date of his existence are not less remarkable. : 
 
 331 
 
HOM 
 
 for of the eight different epochs assigned to him, 
 the oldest differs from the most recent by a period 
 of 460 years. According to the theory which 
 carries along with it the greatest amount of proba- 
 bility, Homer flourished in the second century after 
 the taking of Trov, from about B.C. 1019 to B.C. 
 981. or from 166 to 200 years after the Trojan 
 era, having been born about B.C. 1044. He ap- 
 pears to have been an Asiatic Greek, and a native 
 of Smyrna, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia 
 Minor ; and from the circumstance of having been 
 brought forth on the banks of the Meles, a river 
 which ran beside the city, is said to have obtained 
 the name Melisigenes. It is impossible, however, 
 to come to any satisfactory conclusion on subjects 
 which history has given us such scanty materials 
 to determine. On one point all traditions agree, 
 that he was afflicted with blindness ; and his de- 
 scriptions of external nature warrant the conclu- 
 sion that this misfortune arose from accident or 
 disease, and not from the operation of nature at 
 his birth. The writers of antiquity unanimously 
 considered the Iliad and Odyssey as the produc- 
 tions of a certain individual called Homer; and 
 there is no evidence that the question of divided 
 authorship was ever entertained by them. The 
 existence of wandering minstrels is recognized in 
 the early literature of Greece ; and it has accord- 
 ingly been inferred that the minute and accurate 
 geographical knowledge which is displayed in his 
 works, was acquired by the poet as he wandered 
 from court to court, delighting his auditors with 
 the ' Tale of Troy Divine.' ' Homer,' says Bent- 
 ley, wrote a sequel of songs and rhapsodies, to be 
 sung by himself for small earnings and good 
 cheer, at festivals and other days ot merriment ; 
 the Iliad he made for the men, and the Odysseis 
 for the other sex.' Such, it is probable, was the 
 state of the Homeric poems till the time of Pisis- 
 tratus, who, aided by certain literary men, made a 
 collection of the poet's works, superior in extent 
 and accuracy to all that had preceded it, and thus 
 preserved to future generations the noblest monu- 
 ments of Greek genius. The poems attributed to 
 Homer are the Iliad and Odyssey, to which some 
 have added the Homeric Hymns. The Iliad stands 
 first as the oldest, and also the most complete 
 specimen of a national heroic poem. Its subject 
 is the revenge taken by Achilles on Agamemnon 
 for depriving him of his mistress, Briseis, during 
 the siege of Troy, and the evils which in conse- 
 quence befell the Greeks. The poem is divided 
 into twenty-four books, which detail the movements 
 of the besiegers during the period of Achilles' 
 wrath, and end with the death and burial of 
 Hector. The Odyssey, which is likewise divided 
 into twenty-four books, contains the adventures of 
 Ulysses when on his return from Troy to his na- 
 tive island Ithaca. The hymns, epigrams, &c, 
 which are ascribed to Homer, are of very doubtful 
 origin. ' In conception and portraiture of*charac- 
 ter,' says Colonel Mure, ' and the deeper vein of 
 tragic pathos, Homer may be equalled, if not sur- 
 passed, by Shakspeare; in moral dignity of 
 thought and expression by Milton ; in the grace 
 and delicacy of his lighter pictures by Petrarch 
 and Ariosto; and in the gloomy grandeur of his 
 supernatural imagery by jEschylus or Dante. But 
 no one of these poets has combined, in a similar 
 
 IIOO 
 
 degree, those various elements of excellence in 
 of which they may separately claim to coin 
 with him.' I (j 
 
 HOMER, H., a classical editor, 1752-1791. 
 
 HOMILIUS, G. A., a Ger. composer, 1711- 
 
 HOMMEL, C. F., a German jurist, 1722-1; 
 
 HONAIN, Arou-Yezid, an Arabian physi 
 and translator of learned works, 9th centurv. 
 
 HONDEKOETER, Giles, a Dutch lands 
 painter, born 1583. Gysbrecht, his son and 
 pil, celebrated for the representation of pou 
 born 1613. Melchior, son of Gysbrecht, 
 his superior in the same line of art, l'<;.*)i 
 
 HONDIUS, or DE HONDT, a Flemi 
 the first of whom, Jost or Jodicus, is die 
 guished as an engraver, especially of m 
 1611. His son, Henry, called the Elder, for 
 traits and landscapes, 1573-1610; the youi 
 Henry for his portraits of the reformers. 
 1588-1644. William, a son of the precedm, 
 portrait engraver, born 1601. Abraham, at 
 posed grandson of the first Hondius, distingui 
 as a painter of hunting pieces, 1638-1695. 
 
 HONE, N., an Irish enamel painter, d. 1784 
 
 HONE, William, a miscellaneous writer 
 political satirist, whose 'Every-day Book' is av 
 of acknowledged value ; though prosecuted in 
 earlier part of his career for a parody on the Li 
 gy, he latterly became sub-editor of the Pal 
 newspaper, 1780-1842. 
 
 HONORATUS. There are two saints of 
 name in the Romish calendar ; the first, bisho 
 Aries and founder of the monastery of Lerius, i 
 429. The second, bishop of Marseilles, an 
 religious writer, born about 420 or 425. 
 
 HONORE - DE - SAINTE - MARIE, Bl/ 
 Vanzelle, called the fath., a Fr. theo., 1651-1' 
 
 HONORIUS, son of Theodosius the Great, \ 
 384, became emperor of the West, and his bro 
 Arcadius emperor of the East, on the deatl 
 Theodosius 395 ; died, after being shamefully t 
 jugated by the Goths under Alanc, 423. 
 
 HONORIUS, the first of the name, pojx 
 Rome, 626-638 ; the second, 1124-1130 ; the th 
 distinguished for his political activity, and for < 
 firming the order of St. Dominic and St. Franc? 
 Assise, 1216-1227 ; the fourtk, 1285-1287. 
 
 HONORIUS of Autun, professor at that p 
 of theology and metaphvsics, died 1140. 
 
 HONTHEIM, John "Nicholas De, a Gen 
 Catholic theologian, author of works designee 
 effect a union among Christians, and opposed 
 the political system of the Vatican, 1700-1790. 
 
 HONTHORST, Gerard De, a Flemish pair 
 known in Italy as Gerardo della Notte, 1592-H 
 His brother William, also a painter, 1604-16 
 
 HOOCH, P. De, a Flemish painter, 1643-1; 
 
 HOOD, Robin, a chivalrous outlaw of the n 
 of Richard I., whose exploits in Sherwood Fo 
 are the subjects of many admired ballads. All 
 popular legends celebrate his generositv and I 
 in archery. The principal incidents of ; 
 are to be found in Stowe, and a complete co! 
 of the ancient poems, songs, and ballads rela 
 to him was published by Ritson in 17D.3. 
 
 HOOD, Samuel, Viscount, an English o 
 mander, distinguished in several actions at 
 commencement of the last war, particularly at 
 bombardment of Havre; the defeat of Adm 
 
 332 
 
noo 
 
 3rasse under Rodney ; the siege of Toulon ; 
 the capture of Corsica ; after which he was 
 d Governor of Greenwich Hospital, and pro- 
 l to the rank of admiral. Born at Farncomhe 
 vonshire, 1724, died 1816. 
 )OD, Sir Samuel, a cousin and companion- 
 ras of the preceding, died in the chief com- 
 " of the East Indian fleet, 1814. 
 )OD, Thomas, the son of a bookseller in 
 on, was born there in 1798. After receiving 
 scellaneous education, he was placed, in his 
 nth year, in the counting-house of a Russian 
 hant ; but, after an interval of repose on ac- 
 of ill-health, he learned the art of engraving. 
 $21, having already contributed fugitive papers 
 riodicals, he became sub-editor of the London 
 azine ; and for all the rest of his life he was 
 thor by profession, though he also frequently 
 ed himself and his readers by inserting in his 
 s humorous illustrations designed and etched 
 mself. His career was that of an honourable, 
 y, and industrious man, who was never able 
 lse himself above the necessity of toiling for a 
 hood ; and who, long suffering under ill health, 
 nued bravely, even on his deathbed, his efforts 
 rovide for his wife and children. Hood's 
 was of an extremely singular cast. It 
 id, in an unusual degree, intensely serious 
 on with strength of comic humour ; and per- 
 his chief defect lay in his incapacity of either 
 ling these elements harmoniously, or giving 
 e to either without the other. As a punster 
 as inimitable ; yet even here his most humor- 
 iights bear with them a burden of thoughtful 
 dng which is hurtful to their comic effect. 
 two novels, ' Tylney Hall,' and the uncom- 
 jd story called ' Our Family,' are the least 
 essful of his attempts. The chief collections 
 is witticisms are the ' Whims and Oddities,' 
 ' The Comic Annual.' In a volume contain- 
 'The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies,' and 
 r poems, he indicated the power of rising into 
 h sphere of poetry. ' Eugene Aram's Dream ' 
 ay striking ; and yet more pathetic is his well- 
 rni ' Song of the Shirt.' This wild and vigor- 
 piece was written shortly before his death, 
 !b took place in 1845. [W.S.] 
 
 00 FT, Cornelius Van, an eminent Dutch 
 ; and historian, 1581-1647. 
 OOGE, P. De, a Dutch painter, died 1708. 
 OOGE, R. De, a Dutch eng., abt. 1638-1720. 
 OOGEVEEN, H., a Dut. Hellenist, 1712-91. 
 OOGSTRAATEN, David Von, a Latin poet, 
 I of a Dutch and Latin dictionary, 1658-1724. 
 [OOGSTRAATEN, James Van, a Dutch friar, 
 I of the first opponents of the reform., d. 1527. 
 100GSTUAATEN, Thierry Van, a lands- 
 i i painter of Antwerp, 1596-1640. His son, 
 Uukl, a painter and poet, 1627-1678. 
 100K, James, a composer of operas, melo- 
 J mas and songs, distinguished for his amazing 
 iiistiv, 1746-1827. His son of the same name, 
 m of Worcester, author of some dramatic writ- 
 's, but more celebrated as a controversial divine 
 ^Btical pamphleteer, died 1828. 
 HOOK, Theodore Edward, born in London 
 1788, was the son of a musical composer. Edu- 
 jed fliinsily, he became, in his teens, a writer of 
 nis and farces (some of them successful) ; 
 
 HOO 
 
 while he was yet more famous for audacious prac- 
 tical jokes. He found his way into gay and aris- 
 tocratic society through his ready wit and inex- 
 haustible fertility of puns, his musical accomplish- 
 ments, and his extraordinary feats of extemporane- 
 ous rhyming. In 1812, the liking which the 
 Prince Regent had formed for him made him trea- 
 surer of the Mauritius, without either knowledge of 
 business or common prudence. In 1818, he was sent 
 home under a guard, being accused of peculation ; 
 and, though the criminal charge was dropped, he 
 was held a debtor of government in a very large 
 amount, which he never made any endeavours to 
 discharge. He attempted, however, not unsuccess- 
 fully, to serve the ministry of the day, by estab- 
 lishing, in 1820, the ' John Bull ' newspaper ; and 
 in it appeared his best witticisms, which indeed 
 do not rise above the level of newspaper jesting. 
 He wrote novels, the earlier of which, particularly 
 ' Sayings and Doings,' were once fashionable. But 
 for not a few years his career was both discredit- 
 able and really unhappy. He was tasking his mind 
 in authorship, while the greater part of his time 
 was engrossed by the gay society in which his wit 
 made him so acceptable ; his affairs were falling 
 into irretrievable disorder through thoughtless ex- 
 travagance ; and his health was giving way under 
 increasing habits of intoxication. He died in 
 1841. [W.S.] 
 
 HOOKE, Nathaniel, a native of Ireland, 
 known as a zealous catholic and historian of Rome, 
 and as the assistant of Sarah, duchess of Marl- 
 borough, when compiling her memoirs, died 1763. 
 
 HOOKE, Robert, a mathematician and experi- 
 mental philosopher, dist. for his numerous mecnan- 
 ical inventions and discoveries in science, 1635-1703. 
 
 HOOKER, John, a learned historian and anti- 
 quarian, born about 1524, died 1601. 
 
 HOOKER, Richard, the famous author of the 
 'Ecclesiastical Polity,' was born about 1553, at 
 the village of Heavitree, near Exeter. His own 
 parents were in narrow circumstances, but the 
 family had given several mayors to that city, and 
 Richard was nephew of John Hooker, the historian, 
 by whom he was introduced to Bishop Jewel. The 
 latter provided for his education by sending him 
 as clerk to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and 
 settling a pension upon him. In 1577 he was 
 received Master of Arts, and two years later 
 appointed professor of Hebrew. Having taken 
 holy orders in 1584, he was presented to the 
 rectory of Drayton-Beauchamp, in Buckingham- 
 shire, and about a year afterwards became master 
 of the temple in London, where, at that time, 
 Walter Travers, a zealous puritan, was afternoon 
 lecturer. The opposition between the doctrines 
 taught by Hooker, a staunch episcopalian, in the 
 morning, and those of the presbyterian in the 
 afternoon, soon grew to an open controversy. 
 Travers was at length put to silence by the court 
 of High Commission, and published his appeal to 
 the Privy Council, the answer to which by Hooker, 
 was the germ of the work on which his celebrity 
 now rehts. The extensive learning and eloquent 
 command of the resources of the English tongue 
 displayed in that work have been the admiration 
 of some of the greatest names in literature. It 
 is hardly necessary to state that its principles are 
 a defence of the English establishment, but it is 
 
 333 
 
noo 
 
 remarkable at the same time for its anticipation 
 of the political doctrines of the Whigs, deriving 
 all government from the implied consent of the 
 people, or the free choice and judgment of the 
 governed. The ' Ecclesiastical Polity ' is to this 
 day the armoury of the Anglican Church. ^ Its 
 author died in the rectory of Bishopshourne, Kent, 
 1600. His life was written by Isaac Walton, and 
 published with the second edition of Hooker's 
 works in 1666, and has since been frequently 
 reprinted with them. [E-R.] 
 
 HOOKER, Th., an English divine, 1586-1647. 
 
 HOOLE, Charles, a schoolmaster, author of 
 several introductory works in Latin, 1610-1666. 
 
 HOOLE, John, a celebrated dramatic writer, 
 translator of Ariosto and Tasso, &c, 1727-1803. 
 
 HOOPER, George, bishop of Bath and Wells, 
 distinguished as an Oriental scholar and ecclesias- 
 tical antiquarian, 1640-1727. 
 
 HOOPER, HOPER, or HOUPER, John, bishop 
 of Gloucester under Edward VI., author of many 
 pious works, burnt in the time of Qu. Mary, 1555. 
 
 HOORNBEECK, J., a Dutch divine, 1617-6G. 
 
 HOORNE, J. Van, a Dutch physician, 1621-70. 
 
 HOPE, Charles, a distingd. Scottish lawyer 
 Lord President of the Court of Session, 1763-1851. 
 
 HOPE, John, a Scotch botanist, 1725-1786. 
 
 HOPE, Thomas, celebrated for his works in 
 illustration of art, especially of ancient costume 
 and the life of the Greeks, died 1831. 
 
 HOPE, Sir Til, a Scotch lawyer, died 1646. 
 
 HOPITAL, Michael De L', a French states. 
 and diplomatist, eel. for his integrity, died 1573. 
 
 HOPITAL, Wm. Francis Anthony De L', 
 Marquis De St. Mesme, a Fr. mathem., 1661-1704. 
 
 HOPKINS, Ezekiel, a learned English prelate, 
 1633-1690. His son, Charles, a dramatist, 
 1664-1699. John, broker of the latter, author of 
 ' Amasia,' a collection of poems, born 1675. 
 
 HOPKINS, Lemuel, an American physician, 
 distinguished as a political writer, 1750-1801. 
 
 HOPKINS, Samuel, an American sectarian, 
 au. of a ' Treatise on the Millennium,' 1721-1803. 
 
 HOPKINS, Stephen, an American statesman, 
 dist. as an economist and mathematician, 1707-85. 
 
 HOPKINS, W., an English divine, 1647-1700. 
 
 HOPKINS. W., an Arian writer, 1706-1786. 
 _ HOPKINSON, Francis, a distinguished poli- 
 tical writer of America, and an active promoter of 
 American independence, 1738-1791. 
 
 HOPPERS, J., a Dutch diplomatist, 1523-76. 
 
 HOPPNER, J., a portrait painter, 1759-1810. 
 
 HOPTON, Arthur, a mathemat., 1588-1614. 
 
 HOPTON, Ralph, Lord, an Engl, general dist. 
 in the Low Countries, and as a royalist, d. 1652. 
 
 HOPTON, Susanna, areligi.wr., 1627-1709. 
 
 HORACE. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was 
 born near Venusia (now Venosa), a town on the 
 confines of Apulia and Lucania, in the south of 
 Italy, on the 8th of December, b.c. 65. The ma- 
 terials for his life are derived almost entirely from 
 his own works. His father, who was a respectable 
 freedman, exercised the profession of a collector of 
 payments at auctions ; and having, by this com- 
 paratively humble calling, realized a competency, 
 wilich he invested in the purchase of a house and 
 farm in the neighbourhood of Venusia, there set- 
 tled as a small farmer. In this house the poet was 
 born, and here he spent the years of his boyhood. 
 
 HOR 
 
 When he was about twelve years of age, his f: 
 not satisfied with the provincial school of Vei 
 had him removed to Rome, and placed unde 
 care of Orbilius, an old military man, whose 
 demy was for a long period one of the & 
 Rome. Though by no means rich, he had a 
 der regard for the feelings of his son who was 
 to mix with boys of the highest class ; and In 
 cordingly provided him with the reqoun 
 and attendance of slaves, he himself watchfll 
 his morals with gentle severity. At the sclu 
 Orbilius, Horace was instructed in grammar 
 in the Latin and Greek languages ; Livius Ai 
 nicus beino; the class-book in the former, 
 Homer in the latter. Athens was at this tim 
 garded as the university of the world ; and th 
 Horace, in accordance with the prevailing pra 
 repaired in his eighteenth year, b.c. 46, to com 
 his education by a course of philosophy and sci 
 under Greek masters. The advantages whic 
 derived from his residence there are evince 
 his familiarity with the whole range of Greek 
 try, and especially with the terse and pointed 
 guage of the Comedians. But the civil wars v 
 followed the death of Julius Caesar, b.c. 44 
 temipted him in his studious and peaceful k 
 ment. The arrival of Brutus at Athens, re 
 the patriotic feelings of the youthful Romans, 
 along with others, Horace ardently embracec 
 cause of the Republic. Though entirely | 
 perienced in war, he was promoted to the rar 
 military tribune, with the command of a le 
 and in this character shared in the defei 
 Philippi, b.c. 42. After the battle, having 
 forfeited his estate, he returned to Rome, v 
 his poverty perhaps saved him from proscrip 
 and by acting as a clerk in the quasstor's c 
 and practising the strictest economy, he cont 
 to live till he found means of making hi: 
 known to the poets Varius and Virgil, by v 
 his name was first mentioned to Maecenas, 
 first interview with his future patron and f 
 seems not to have been satisfactory ; for it wa 
 till after nine months had elapsed that Mae< 
 requested him to repeat his visit. This appar 
 unpropitious beginning, however, was soon 
 lowed by a friendship which speedily ripened 
 intimacy ; and which introduced the poet t< 
 highest and most refined society in Koine, 
 friend of the prime minister found easy acce 
 the emperor ; Horace was soon on terms of ( 
 liarity with Augustus, and enjoyed his friem ; 
 and patronage during the remainder of his 1 
 But the friendship of Maecenas brought some': 
 more substantial to Horace than the mi ivinc 
 of acquaintance in the higher circles his p. 
 made him independent for life by the gift < 
 estate in the Sabine territory, about thirty-four 
 from Rome. The estate was not large, but it' 
 prettily situated, and entirely suited to the t 
 and wants of the poet. His admiration o 
 beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood of ' 
 (Tivoli), induced him to hire or purchase a co 
 in that romantic town; and all the later yen 
 his life were passed between these two coi 
 residences and Rome. Horace died on the 11 
 November, B.C. 8, at the age of fifty-seven 
 months after the death of his friend and p. 
 Maecenas. His works consist of two boo) 
 
 334 
 
HOR 
 
 res, a book of Epodes, four books of Odes, two 
 cs of Epistles, and a treatise on the Art of 
 ;ry. "\\ ant of space prevents us from offering 
 etch of Horace's character as a man and as a 
 Though living on terms of intimacy with 
 great, he retained through life his cherished 
 pemlence, and complimented his powerful pa- 
 s without the servility of flattery. His works 
 commanded the admiration of all succeeding 
 and though deficient, perhaps, in some of 
 highest elements of poetry, will continue to be 
 and studied as models of simplicity and cul- 
 ted taste. [G.F.] 
 
 ORAPOLLO. See Orus Apollo. 
 ORBERG, M., a learned English divine, au- 
 of a ' Treatise on Hell Torments,' 1707-1773. 
 ORBERG, P., a Swedish painter, died 1814. 
 ORDT, Count De, a Swedish officer m the 
 ice of Russia, au. of ' Historic Memoirs,' d. 1785. 
 ORMAN, W., a botanical author, died 1535. 
 ORMISDAS, pope of Rome, reigned 514-523. 
 ORMISDAS, the first of the name, king of 
 da, reigned 271-272; the second, 303-311; 
 third, usurped the throne, 457-460 ; fhefourth, 
 
 d successor of the great Chosroes, 579-592. 
 ORN, the name of a distinguished family in 
 den, the best known of whom are Gustave, 
 it Horn, one of the lieutenants of Gustave 
 Iphe, and field-marshal and constable of Sweden 
 he reign of Christina, born 1592. Arvid 
 lnard, Count Horn, of the same family, prin- 
 1 instigator of the revolution of 1719, and chief 
 he English party, 1664-1742. Frederick 
 in, a general in the service of France, after- 
 A& counsellor to Adolphus Frederick and 
 tave III., 1715-1796. The son of the latter, 
 tnt Horn, a man of letters, banished for his 
 plicity with Anckserstroem, died 1823. 
 ORN, Charles Edward, a ballad and opera 
 poser, author of 'Cherry Ripe,' 'I've been 
 ming,' and similar songs, 1786-1849. 
 :ORN, F. Chr., a German critic, 1781-1837 
 [ORN, G., a Bavarian historian, 1620-1670. 
 [ORN, J. Van, a Swedish physician, 1662-1724. 
 [ORN, or HORNES, Philip De Montmo- 
 rci-NiVELLE, Count, a Spanish general of the 
 r Countries, executed for conspiring with the 
 se of Orange 1568. His son, Floris De 
 stmorenci, executed in Spain 1570. 
 [ORNE, George,' a learned English prelate, 
 [ known as the author of ' A Commentary on 
 Book of Psalms,' was born 1730, and was 
 y distinguished as a diligent Hebrew scholar, 
 a partizan of John Hutchinson. His first 
 lication was an ironical attack on Newton, in 
 1, entitled ' The Theology and Philosophy in 
 aro's Somnium Scipionis Explained; or a Brief 
 empt to Demonstrate that the Newtonian 
 tern is agreeable to the Notions of the Wisest 
 aents, and that mathematical principles are the 
 r sure ones.' This was followed by several 
 ks of a similar character in the course of the 
 t ten years, including attacks on Dr. Shuck- 
 , and Dr. Kennicott, with the latter of whom, 
 young scholar, at a later period, became 
 mately acquainted. Home took orders in 
 3, was successively president of Magdalen 
 lege 1768, chaplain to the king 1771, vice- 
 acellor of the university of Oxford 1776, dean 
 
 335 
 
 HOR 
 
 of Canterbury 1781, and bishop of Norwich 1790. 
 He died in 1792, and was buried at Elham, in 
 Kent. There can be no hesitation in pronouncing 
 that Bishop Home was a great biblical scholar, 
 but too much inclined perhaps to write on subjects 
 of which he had no true understanding. In proof 
 of this it is enough to say, that the same hand 
 which wrote in support of John Hutchinson, wrote 
 against William Law. He is the author of many 
 works besides the ' Commentary,' on which he 
 bestowed nearly twenty years' labour, and the 
 latter must always hold a distinguished place in 
 biblical literature. [E.R.] 
 
 HORNECK, A., a German divine, 1641-1696. 
 
 HORNECK, O., a Ger. poet and hist., 1250-1310. 
 
 HORNEMANN, Frederic Conrad, a celebr. 
 Ger. traveller empld. by the African Soc, 1772-97. 
 
 HORNER, Fr., a political economist, 1778-1817. 
 
 HORNIUS, Geo., a Ger. historian, 1620-1670. 
 
 HORNSBY, Th., an Eng. astronom., 1734-1810. 
 
 HORNTHORST, Gerard, a distinguished 
 Dutch painter, 1592-1660. 
 
 HORREBOW, P., a Danish astron., 1697-1764. 
 
 HORREBOW, V., a Danish navigator, 1712-60. 
 
 HORROX, Jeremiah, a distinguished disco- 
 verer in astronomy, author of a theory of lunar 
 motion, afterwards verified by Newton, 1619-1641. 
 
 HORSBURY, J., a Sc. hydrograph., 1762-1836. 
 
 HORSLEY, John, an antiq. savant, 1685-1731. 
 
 HORSLEY, Samuel, an English prelate, cele- 
 brated for his numerous works in theology, science, 
 and classical literature, 1783-1806. 
 
 HORSTIUS, James, a German phvsician, author 
 of a work on Sleep-walking, 1539-1600. His 
 nephew, Gregory, a phvsician and medical author, 
 1578-1636. The son of the latter, of the same 
 name, published his father's works in 1660, and 
 his brother, Daniel John, was a writer on ana- 
 tomy and editor of several medical works. 
 
 HORSTIUS, J. M., a Germ, editor, 1597-1644. 
 
 HORT, or HORTE, J., an Engl, div., d. 1751. 
 
 HORTA, Garcias Ab., a Portu. herbal., 16th c. 
 
 HORTENSE EUGENIE DE BEAUHAR- 
 NAIS, daughter of Josephine, the consort of 
 Napoleon Buonaparte, and of the Vicomte De 
 Beauhamais, her first husband, was bom at Paris 
 1783, and married to Louis Buonaparte, the 
 brother of Napoleon, in 1802. The match had 
 been desired by the consul for political reasons, 
 and it proved a most unhappy one. In 1806, 
 Hortense became queen consort of Holland, and 
 about a year afterwards was separated from her 
 husband after giving birth to three sons : 1. Na- 
 poleon Charles, who died in infancy, and whose 
 intended adoption by Napoleon was refused by 
 Louis. 2. Napoleon Louis, who was baptized 
 by the pope Pius VII., and instead of attaining 
 the high destiny proposed for him, was killed in 
 an insurrection at Romagna 1832 ; and 3. Louis 
 Napoleon, the present emperor of the French. 
 On the divorce of her mother, Josephine, Queen 
 Hortense joined her in her retirement at Malmaison, 
 and after her death in 1814, so soon followed by 
 the fall of Napoleon, became an unprotected and 
 calumniated wanderer, until her residence was 
 fixed at Augsburg by the king of Bavaria. She 
 died October 5th, 1837. Her disposition was 
 modest and retiring : her influence at the court of 
 Napoleon was generously exercised in favour of the 
 
HOR 
 
 distressed, and her affectionate solicitude for the 
 emperor was fully manifested after the disaster of 
 Waterloo. Hortense was duchess of St. Leu in vir- 
 tue of a settlement made by the allies betw. the first 
 fall of Napoleon and the hundred days. [E.R.] 
 
 HORTENSIUS, a German classic, 1501-1577. 
 
 HORTENSIUS, Quintus, a celebrated orator 
 and consul of Rome, died b.c. 50. 
 
 HORTON, Th., a learned divine, died 1673. 
 
 HORUS APOLLO. See Orus Apollo. 
 
 HOSEA, a prophet of Samaria, 8th cent. B.C. 
 
 HOSEA, the last king of Israel, 8th cent. b.c. 
 
 HOSKINS, John, an Engl, poet, 1566-1638. 
 
 HOSPINIAN, R., a Swiss controv., 1547-1626. 
 
 HOSPITAL, Michael De L\ See Hopital. 
 
 HOSSFIELD, J. W., a Ger. mathe., 1768-1837. 
 
 HOST, N. Th., a German botanist, 1763-1834. 
 
 HOSTE, John, a Fr. mathematician, d. 1631. 
 
 HOSTE, Paul, a French engineer, 1652-1700. 
 
 HOSTILIAN, a son of the emperor Decius, 
 reigned some months with Gallus, and died 252. 
 
 HOSTUS, M., a Germ, antiquarian, 1509-1587. 
 
 HOTHAM, H., the admiral intrusted with the 
 blockade of the western coast of France after the 
 battle of Waterloo, and who received Napoleon on 
 board the Bellerophon, 1776-1833. 
 
 HOTMAN, F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1524-1590. 
 
 HOTTINGER, John Henry, one of the most 
 learned of the Swiss reformers, especially in the 
 Oriental languages, 1620-1667. John James, 
 his son, also a classical scholar and theologian, 
 author of Theological Dissertations, and an 'Ec- 
 clesiastical History of Switzerland,' 1652-1735. 
 
 HOTZE, J. C. Van, an Austrian gen., k. 1799. 
 
 HOUARD, D., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1725-1802. 
 
 KOUBIGANT, Ch. Fr., a learned French priest, 
 au. of a Latin version of the Bible, &c, 1686-1783. 
 
 HOUCHARD, Jean Nicholas, a general of 
 the French revolution, the successor of Custine in 
 the command of the armies on the Moselle and the 
 Rhine, executed on a charge of treason, 1740-93. 
 
 HOUDON, J. A., a French sculpt., 1741-1828. 
 
 HOUDRY, Vincent, a Fr. Jesuit, 1631-1729. 
 
 HOUEL, J. P. L., a French painter, 1735-1813. 
 
 HOUGH, John, bishop of Worcester, celebrated 
 for his opposition to James II., 1651-1743. 
 
 HOUGHTON, Major, an African trav., d. 1791. 
 
 HOULAGOU, a Mogul prince, died 1265. 
 
 HOUMAIOUN, the second Mogul sultan of 
 Hindostan, born 1509. Being defeated in 1541 by 
 Chir-Khan, he reconquered his kingdom in 1555, 
 and died the following year. 
 
 HOUNG-WOU, a Chinese emperor. 1327-1398. 
 
 HOUSTON, W., a disting. botanist, died 1733. 
 
 HOUTEVILLE, C. P.. a French ecclesiastic, 
 author of La Verite" de la Religion Chrdtienne, 
 Prouve'e par les Faits,' 1688-1742. 
 
 HOUTMAN, Cornelius, founder of the first 
 Dutch factory in the East Indies, 1550-1608. His 
 brother, Frederic, governor of Amboine, and 
 author of a Malay dictionary, 1607. 
 
 HOVEDEN, Roger De, an English historian, 
 of the times succeeding the annals of Bede, namely, 
 from 731 to the third year of King John, 1202. 
 His work is held in the highest esteem by the 
 learned for its faithfulness. 
 
 HOW, William, a botanist, 1619-1656. 
 
 HOWARD. The Howards are well known as 
 one of the noblest families of England, and many 
 
 HOW 
 
 of them have arrived at distinction. The prineir 
 are Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, and thl 
 duke of Norfolk, an eminent statesman and na\ 
 and military commander, distinguished at t 
 battle of Flodden, 1488-1554. Edward, 
 vounger brother of the preceding, and admiral 
 England, killed in action with the French, 151 
 Henry, earl of Surrey, eldest son of Thomas, ; 
 accomplished chevalier, and the first polite writ 
 of love verses in the English tongue, beheaded 
 a trumpery charge of high treason, 1516-1W 
 Henry, second son of the poet, and earl of Nort 
 ampton, known as a trimmer at court and as 
 man of letters, implicated in the murder of Ove 
 bury, 1539-1614. Charles, known as Lo 
 Effingham and earl of Nottingham, and grandsi 
 of the duke of Norfolk, commander of the chanr 
 fleet on the invasion of England by the Spani 
 Armada, 1536-1624. Thomas, earl of Arund 
 and earl marshal in the reign of Charles I., knov 
 as a diplomatist and antiquarian, died 164 
 Henry, his second son, and sixth duke of Norfol 
 by whom the Arundelian marbles, collected by 1 
 father, were presented to the university of Oxfoi 
 about 1668. Charles, eleventh duke of Norfoli 
 and formerly earl of Surrey, known as a statesm;| 
 in opposition to Lord North and Pitt, 1746-181 5| 
 
 HOWARD, Catherine, daughter of Lo| 
 Edmund Howard, third son of Thomas duke j 
 Norfolk, married to Henry VIII. on his divorj 
 from Anne of Cleves, 1540, beheaded 1549. 
 
 HOWARD, Edward, a lieutenant in the royj 
 navy, author of Rattlin the Reefer,' ' Jack Aslior 
 and other marine novels, died 1842. 
 
 HOWARD, Frederic, earl of Carlisle, son j 
 Henry the fourth earl, and grandson of Williaj 
 fourth Lord Byron, known as a poet and a partizij 
 of the government, 1748-1825. 
 
 HOWARD, George Edward, a poet, arctj 
 tect, and political writer, died 1786. 
 
 HOWARD, H., a miscellaneous writer, authl 
 of ' Memorials of the Howard Family,' 1757-11 
 
 [Birth-place of Iloward, Clapton, Middlesex ] 
 
 HOWARD, John, the philanthropist, was bo 
 at Hackney, London, in 1726. His father left i 
 immense fortune, but in his will, expressly pr, 
 hibited his getting the control of it till he h 
 reached his twenty-fifth year. His 
 bound him an apprentice to a grocer. B 
 purchased his indentures, he left the business 
 
HOW 
 
 ;t, and set out on a continental tour. On his 
 i to London, he married his landlady, a widow 
 lerably older than himself, out of pure grati- 
 ?or her attentions to him during a lingering 
 m. But she dying soon after, he again re- 
 { to travel, and went to Portugal with a view 
 unine the ruins of Lisbon after the earth- 
 L The vessel in which he sailed was attacked 
 | French privateer, and all on board made 
 lers. Besides the loss of his liberty, he was 
 ;ted to various and severe privations in his 
 of confinement ; and it was the recollection 
 i personal sufferings that awakened his sym- 
 3S for the inmates of prisons. Being released 
 exchange of prisoners, he returned, and his 
 ind earnest efforts were made to bring the 
 zt before the public and the parliament of 
 in. He now married a second time, but his 
 lied in a few years after, leaving him with an 
 shild. For a time he resided on his estate at 
 ngton, Bedford, dividing his attention be- 
 ithe management of his property, and the 
 stic education of his son. But this son, be- 
 ig the subject of a hopeless derangement, was 
 a to be placed in an asylum ; and having no 
 t home, he sought occupation in the pursuit 
 favourite schemes of benevolence, the ame- 
 ion of prisons*. With this view, he visited, in 
 every prison in the United Kingdom, and pub- 
 [ the result of his inquiries. The same course 
 nations he resolved to pursue in foreign 
 ries ; and accordingly, in 1778 and the four 
 Jrmg years he inspected all the public prisons 
 lance, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland, 
 rards extending his tour into the southern 
 ries of Europe. He now entered on a new 
 ifferent course of philanthropic pursuits, an 
 y into the causes and cure of the plague. 
 n was now directed to those countries 
 | subject to the ravages of that dreaded pesti- 
 : the countries of the Levant. On his return 
 [gland, he published an account of the chief 
 i -ettos in Europe, and his object was so far 
 cd by the attention of skilful and scientific 
 t as well as the general public being power- 
 I excited by his details. Commencing a second 
 \ )f inquiry, he resolved to travel through the 
 In part of Europe with Egypt and Asia 
 ir. Leaving the shores of Britain in 1789, he 
 i?d through Holland and Germany, anxious 
 tch Petersburgh, Moscow, and the shores of 
 flack Sea in the proper season. In his pro- 
 BpCDDgh the south of Prussia he had reached 
 laon, when he was seized with malignant 
 
 which after a few days' illness, terminated 
 fctraordinary career on 20th January, 1790. 
 s buried in a spot marked by himself about 
 
 miles from Kherson, and a rude obelisk is 
 ftd over his grave, bearing the brief Latin in- 
 Jiaon, 'Vixit proper alios,' he lived for the good 
 'Jhers. His benevolence was not merely the 
 I of a warm and feeling heart, which sym- 
 Pjsed deeply with the sufferings of humanity, 
 
 ed on Christian principles, for he lived 
 Wed strong in the faith of the gospel. [R. J.] 
 WARD, Sir R., an Eng. histor., 1626-1698. 
 WARD, S., a composer of ballads, d. 1783. 
 WARD; Sir W., a distin. lawyer, 13th cent. 
 )WDEN, John Francis Cauadoc, Baron, 
 
 HUB 
 
 a native of Ireland, distinguished in the army, 
 1762-1832. 
 
 HOWE, Charles, a religious wr., 1661-1745. 
 
 HOWE, John, a noncont. divine, 1630-1705. 
 
 HOWE, John, a noted politician of the reign of 
 William III. and Queen Anne, in office under the 
 latter, and succeeded by Walpole on the accession 
 of George I., died 1721. 
 
 HOWE. Admiral Earl Howe was born in 
 1725, and was the second son of Lord Viscount 
 Howe. He entered the navy at fourteen, and dis- 
 tinguished himself for courage and seamanship as 
 he rose through the various ranks of the service to 
 that of post-captain. In 1758 he succeeded (by 
 his elder brother's death) to the family estates and 
 honours ; but he was true to the sea, and was in 
 constant active employment to the end of the 
 Seven Years' War. When France took part against 
 England in the American war, Lord Howe was 
 admiral of our fleet off the American coast, and 
 gained great credit by successfully keeping the 
 French admiral D'Estaign in check throughout 
 1778, though Howe's fleet was far inferior to that 
 of his adversary. At the end of that year Howe 
 returned to Europe, and performed the important 
 service of relieving Gibraltar. In 1788 he was 
 made an earl. _ At the commencement of the war 
 against France in 1793, Howe took the command of 
 the western channel fleet at the king's earnest and 
 personal request. In the next year he succeeded 
 in bringing the main French republican fleet to 
 action, and gained the great victory of 'The 
 Glorious First op June.' Lord Howe was now 
 seventy years of age, but he lived to do his country 
 more good service ; and it was he who won back, 
 by judicious kindness, many of our seamen to 
 their duty in the alarming mutinies at the Nore 
 and Spithead. Earl Howe died 4th August, 
 1799. [E.S.C.] 
 
 HOWE, Sir William, brother of the famous 
 
 admiral, and successor of General Gage in the 
 
 command of the British forces in America, d. 1814. 
 
 i HOWEL, Lawrence, one of the non-juring 
 
 divines, celebrated for his great learning, died 1720. 
 
 HOWEL-THE-GOOD, or HYWEL DDA, a 
 famous legislator and king of all Wales, 10th cent. 
 
 HOWELL, James, an Eng. hist., 1595-1666. 
 
 HOWELL, W., a celebrated historian, d. 1683. 
 
 HOWLEY, W., abp. of Canterbury, 1765-1848. 
 
 HOWSON, John, a learned prelate, 1556-1631. 
 
 HOYLE, E., a writer on whist, &c, 1672-1769. 
 
 HUARTE, John, a Spanish philosopher, au. of 
 a curious and valuable work, transl. into English 
 by Carew and Bellamy, and entitled 'The Trial 
 of Wits,' and first publisher of the alleged letter 
 of Lentullus concerning the Saviour, born 1520. 
 
 HUBER, Francois, an eminent naturalist, 
 was born at Geneva in 1750. He died in 1831. 
 Very early in fife Huber manifested a great love 
 for the pursuit of natural history. A cataract, 
 however, showed itself in his eyes while he was 
 still a youth, and before he arrived at manhood he 
 had become totally blind. Before his eyesight 
 failed he had had his attention drawn to the ex- 
 amination of bees. Having read the works of 
 Reaumur and Bonnet, he believed that many of 
 the statements made by those authors with regard 
 to their history, were at variance with what he 
 had himself observed ; and to ascertain the cor- 
 337 Z 
 
 i 
 
HUB 
 
 rectness of his opinion became the chief object of 
 his life. Huber was fortunate in finding an affec- 
 tionate wife and an attached servant, who devoted 
 their lives to him with the greatest tenderness and 
 assiduity. Not being able to see himself, he made 
 use of their eyes : and under his directions, and as- 
 sisted by the invention of several kinds of glass hives, 
 Madame Huber and the faithful Burnens were en- 
 abled to carry on their observations undisturbed 
 and at leisure. By these means he succeeded in 
 collecting together an immense number of facts 
 with regard to the economy of bees which were be- 
 fore that time unknown. These he published at 
 various times, and his different memoirs were col- 
 lected by him and published in 1814. This ren- 
 dered his name famous throughout Europe; a 
 fame which was increased by the knowledge of 
 the fact, that these accurate observations had been 
 made by a man totally blind from his youth. M. 
 De Candolle has named a genus of plants after 
 him, Huberia. [W.B.] 
 
 HUBER, J., father of the preceding, an. of ' Ob- 
 servations on the Flight of Birds,' 1722-1750. 
 
 HUBER, John, a native of Geneva, known as 
 an artist in paper and writer on balloons, 1722-1790. 
 
 HUBER, John James, a native of Basle, cele. 
 for his works in anatomy and botany, 1707-1778. 
 
 HUBER, John Rudolph, a distin. painter, 
 called the Tintoret of Switzerland, 1668-1748. 
 
 HUBER, Mary, a Swiss philos. wr., 1694-1759. 
 
 HUBER, Michael, a native of Bavaria, trans- 
 lator of Gellert, Gesner, and Winckelmann into 
 French, 1727-1804. Louis Ferdinand, his son, 
 a journalist, 1764-1804. Therese, a daughter 
 of Heyne, and wife of the preceding, distinguished 
 as a novelist, 1764-1829. 
 
 HUBER, Samuel, a Swiss divine, 16th cent. 
 
 HUBER, Ulric, a Dutch savant, 1636-1694. 
 His son, Zacharias, also a learned wr., 1669-1732. 
 
 HUBERT DE L'ESPINE, a French traveller in 
 Tartary, author of ' Description des admirables 
 regions de Tartarie,' published at Paris, 1558. 
 
 HUBERT, F., a French engraver, 1744-1809. 
 
 HUBERT, M., a Fr. preac. and au., 1640-1717. 
 
 HUBERT, St., the apos. of Ardennes, 7th cent. 
 
 HUBNER, John, a German geographer and 
 historian, 1668-1731. His son, of the same name 
 known as a man of letters, died 1758. 
 
 HUBNER, Martin, a Danish publicist, 1725-95. 
 
 HUDDART, J., a distin. navigator, 1741-1816. 
 
 HUDDE, John, a Dutch mathem., 1640-1704. 
 
 HUDDESFORD, G., a burlesque poet, last ct. 
 
 HUDDESFORD, W., a naturalist of last cent. 
 
 HUDDLESTONE, Robert, a Scottish anti- 
 quarian, editor of a new edition of ' Toland's His- 
 toid of the Druids,' 1776-1826. 
 
 HUDSON, Henry, an able English navigator, 
 to whom we owe many important discovenes in 
 the northern regions. Nothing is known respect- 
 ing him till 1607, when he was sent out by a com- 
 pany of London merchants to seek a passage 
 to India directly across the pole, many previous 
 expeditions having failed to discover either a north- 
 east or a north-west passage. Leaving the Thames 
 on the 1st May, in a small vessel, with only ten 
 men and a boy, he sailed for Greenland, which he 
 reached in lat. 70. Before he was stopped by 
 ice, he had succeeded in advancing alongthe E. coast 
 
 HUG 
 
 of Spitsbergen, and returned by Nova Zemblajj 
 the North Cape. He made several other vi| 
 ages in pursuit of the same object, during one; 
 winch he was in the service of the Dutch, and dj 
 covered the North American river which bears 
 name. In his last voyage, undertaken A], 
 1610, he discovered the large gulf or inland ; 
 named after him, and which, three years lat 
 was carefully examined by Sir Thomas Butt I 
 Hudson was obliged to pass the winter in 
 southern part of it, so that on the return of su| 
 mer his provisions were nearly exhausted, and 
 and his men were exposed to great hardships, 
 ing obliged to subsist upon moss and fr 
 men became mutinous, and resolved to turn 
 master and those faithful to him adrift, that 
 limited stock of provisions might last the lon< 
 The ringleader was a young man named Green | 
 respectable connections, who had been be! 
 brought out by Hudson in order to separate him fr 
 vicious companions, with whom he was leadin 
 profligate life. The conspiracy broke out on the 2 
 of June ; the captain was seized and bound, ; 
 with eight others, his staunchest friends, mostj 
 whom were sick or lame, was turned adrift ai 
 floating ice, in the strait which bears his nai 
 Some meal, and an iron pot, a fowling-piece i 
 ammunition, were the only means allowed th 
 of preserving their lives ; and there can be j 
 doubt that they soon perished miserably. Am< 
 the fourteen who remained on board were Rot! 
 Bylot and Habbakuk Pricket, to the latter! 
 whom we owe the only account there exists of 
 latter part of Hudson's voyage. The wre! 
 Green was killed soon after in an affray with j 
 natives ; Robert Ivet, the next most guilty ail 
 Green, died of starvation. Most of the rest read 
 the west coast of Ireland, after dreadful sufl 
 ings. [J.ll 
 
 HUDSON, Dr. John, a critical an., 16G2-17! 
 
 HUDSON, Th., a portrait painter, 1701-177 
 
 HUDSON, W., a distin. botanist, 1730-1793 j 
 
 HUE, Francis, a valet of Louis XVI., mt\ 
 of a narrative of his last years, 1757-1819. 
 
 HUERTA, Vicente Garcia De La, a Sp 
 1 ish tragedian, editor of a critical edition of the tj 
 , Spanish plays, 1729-1797. 
 
 HUET, Peter Daniel, a French pri 
 as a philosopher and biblical scholar, 163 
 
 HUFELAND, C. W., a Ger. phys., 1762-18! 
 
 HUFNAGEL, G., a Flemish poet and natuij 
 ist, skilled as a painter of animals, 1545-1600. j 
 
 HUGFORD, Ignazio, a painter, 1703-1778| 
 
 HUGH, or HUGUES, the name of seyi; 
 princes of the middle ages, the most distinguis 
 of whom are Hugh the Great, son and sua 
 sor of Robert as count of Paris, and father' 
 Hugh Capet, died 956. Hugh Capet, son of 
 preceding, and founder of the third dynasty of 
 kings of France, born 939, crowned at Rheh 
 987, died 996. Hugh of Provence, king 
 Italy, died 947. Hugh I., duke of Burgun 
 reigned 1075-1078, died 1093. Hugh II., reig 
 1102-1142. Hugh III., a distinguished war 
 and crusader, succeeded 1162, died in Asia 11 
 Hugh IV., a crusader and companion-in-arm!l 
 St. Louis, 1218-1272. Hugh V., the last of 
 dukes of Burgundy of this name, reigned 13ij 
 
 beyond the 80th parallel, considerably to the north 1315. Besides these, four kings of Cyprus 
 
 338 
 
HUG 
 ritioned : Hugh I., reigned 1205-1218. Hugh 
 ;;j 1253-1267. Hugh fil., called 'The Great,' 
 [17-1276. Hugh IV., king of Cyprus and 
 rksalem, sue. Henry II. 1324, abdicated 1361. 
 [UGH, Saint. The earliest saint of this 
 )!'.e is a French prelate who administered the 
 ljeses of Paris and Bayeux, died 730. Next in 
 k of time is Hugh of Cluny, abbot of the 
 artery of that name, flourished 1023-1109. 
 [I third Saint Hugh, a bishop of Grenoble, 
 [ling, for having located Bruno and his com- 
 mons in the Grande Chartreuse, lived 1053-1132. 
 
 UGH of Amiens, a native of that place, after- 
 i|ls prior of Cluny, kn. as a theologian, d. 1164. 
 I UGH of Bregi, a bard of the 13th century. 
 
 UGH of Flavigny, abbot of that place in 
 and author of the ' Chronicle of Verdun.' 
 
 UGH of Fleury, abbot of that place, and 
 De La Puissance Royale,' &c, 11th century. 
 GH of Poitiers, a chronicler, 12th cent. 
 
 UGH of St. Cher, a learned monk and 
 al, au. of a Bible Concordance, died 1263. 
 
 UGH of St. Victor, a theologian, died 1140. 
 feUGHES, John, a poet and miscellaneous 
 ter, translator of Fontenelle's ' Dialogues of the 
 to,' &c, 1677-1720. Jabez, his brother, a 
 kical translator, and miscel. writer, 1685-1731. 
 JUGHES, John, a learned editor, 1682-1710. 
 IUGHES, Griffith, a naturalist, last century. 
 IUGO, C. L., a French savant, 1667-1739. 
 
 "UGO, Herman, a Ger. Jesuit, 1588-1629. 
 
 UGONET, W., a Fr. statesman, exec. 1477. 
 
 UGTENBURGH, James Van, a Dutch lands- 
 painter, born 1639. John, his brother, dis- 
 
 uished as a painter of battle-pieces, 1646-1733. 
 
 UGUES, Victor, French governor of Guada- 
 during the first revolution, 1770-1826. 
 
 UGUET, M. A., a Fr. prelate, executed 1796. 
 HJLDBICH, John, a Swiss divine, 1683-1737. 
 lULL, Thomas, a dramatic writer and actor, 
 fhder of the Theatrical Fund, 1728-1808. 
 IULLIN DE BOISCHEVALIER, L. J., a 
 Ipch writer, author of ' Repertoire Historique de 
 Involution,' and ' De l'Empire,' 1742-1808. 
 ftULLIN, P. A., a French general, 1758-1841. 
 IULLOCK, Sir John, a disting. lawyer and 
 jb, author of the ' Law of Costs,' 1764-1829 
 ItULME, Nathaniel, a med. wr., 1732-1807. 
 IULSE, Sir S., an Eng. officer, died 1837. 
 IULSEMANN, J., a Ger. divine, 1602-1661. 
 JULSIUS, Anthony, an Oriental scholar and 
 l(jlogian of Holland, 1615-1685. Henry, his 
 I a learned divine and professor, 1654-1723. 
 IULST, P. Vander, a Dutch painter, famous 
 Bus flowers and insects, 1652-1708. 
 IULSWIT, J., a Dutch painter, 1766-1822. 
 ilUMANN, J. G., a French minister of finance, 
 tar of several cabinets, 1780-1842. 
 IUMAYUN-NESIR-ED-DEENY MOHAM- 
 li D, second Mogul emp. of Hindostan, 1508-56. 
 
 IUMBERT, the first French cardinal, 11th ct. 
 
 [UMBERT, J. A., a French general, 1767-1823. 
 
 IUMBOLDT, William Von, the brother of 
 J illustrious author of * Cosmos,' was born in 
 ' mdam 1767, when his father was chamberlain 
 'he Princess Elizabeth of Russia. In his youth 
 Ike all the young people of Germany at this 
 I he was influenced by the sentimental en- 
 
 rof which Goethe's * Werter' still remains 
 a 
 
 HUM 
 
 the literary monument ; and besides entering into 
 friendly alliances with his fellow-students, he 
 cultivated an intimacy with the most distinguished 
 women of the age. Of the latter amiable sentiment, 
 his Letters to a Female Friend' translations of 
 which have appeared in English are a pleasing 
 memorial. It is as the philosopher and statesman, 
 however, that the name of William Humboldt has 
 acquired an European reputation. The intimate 
 friend of Schiller and Goethe, his name is imper- 
 ishably associated with the revival of philosophy 
 and letters in Germany; and, as a statesman, 
 with the political history of the court of Berlin. 
 In 1800, two years after publishing his sesthetic 
 essays under the title of ' Hermann and Dorothea,' 
 he was appointed Prussian minister at Rome ; 
 and during the eight years that he resided there, 
 acquired a wide reputation as an archaeologist, 
 and a master of historical philology. On returning 
 home, he was appointed councillor of state, and 
 minister of worship and education, and at once 
 applied himself to the reform of existing institu- 
 tions, and the organization of the university of 
 Berlin, a task of no slight consequence in the 
 chaos of philosophical speculation with which he 
 found himself surrounded. The wishes of the king 
 being accomplished in this respect, Humboldt re- 
 sumed his diplomatic career as ambassador to 
 Vienna ; and from 1810 to the congress of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle in 1818, his name is associated with 
 every important transaction in the politics of Eu- 
 rope. In 1819 his connection with the court of 
 Prussia was broken off, in consequence of his at- 
 tachment to constitutional principles, and his op- 
 position to the decrees of Carlsbad, which intro- 
 duced the censorship of the press, and certain 
 measures controlling the universities. The agent 
 in these transactions was the chancellor Harden- 
 berg, who had become the tool of Metternich; 
 and Humboldt having been dismissed from the 
 ministry, henceforth devoted his whole time to 
 literature. The remainder of his days were passed 
 at his seat near Berlin, where he died on the 8th 
 of April 1835, deeply regretted by the whole Ger- 
 man nation. His works, which are of a miscel- 
 laneous character, generally bearing on history, 
 archaeology, and philology, including the remains 
 of Eastern civilization, have been published at in- 
 tervals since his death by his brother, Alexander 
 von Humboldt, who is still the honoured friend 
 and counsellor of the king of Prussia, and is re- 
 vered as the patriarch of philosophy throughout 
 Europe. William von Humboldt may justly be 
 taken as a pattern of the depth and diversity of 
 the German mind, and as the promise of a richer 
 future for the German nation. Ha stands like the 
 representative of the change from spirit to life, 
 from idea to reality, in which the German mind is 
 engaged ; for he was one of the first and ablest 
 who took this step. He adhered to the past, ad- 
 vanced boldly forward, and put his trust in hu- 
 manity and his country. (Lives of the Brothers 
 Humboldt from the German of Klenche and 
 Schlesier) [E.R.] 
 
 HUME, Sir A., a naval officer, 1748-1838. 
 
 HUME, David, born in Edinburgh, 26th April, 
 1711; died there on 25th August, 1776: unques- 
 tionably the most remarkable personage of the 
 Augustan era of Scotland. Referring for the ex- 
 
HUM 
 
 terr.al details of Hume's life to his charming 
 Autobiography, we shall require more than our 
 usual space to characterize, however succinctly, 
 the Philosopher, the Historian, and the Man. 
 I. The place and functions of the metaphysical 
 speculations of this great Thinker, are not only 
 
 ? miliar but unique in the History of Modern 
 hilosophy. At the period in question, Mental 
 Science had fallen into the lowest possible state, 
 not in Britain merely, but over Europe that, viz., 
 of a conscious inconsistency : principles were ac- 
 cepted and conclusions evaded; beliefs timidly 
 relied on, betwixt which, and all grounds of cer- 
 tainty then acknowledged, lay an impassable hiatus. 
 The sensational philosophy always agreeable to 
 the practical tendencies of the English mind, had 
 just reached its culmination under guidance of the 
 genius and earnestness of John Locke ; and we 
 were undergoing its consequences in the dwarfing 
 of systematic morals, and the gradual im- 
 poverishment of religion ; saving ourselves as to 
 the mere form of Faith, by refuge in tradition, or, 
 what is worst of all, willing subjection to gross 
 paralogisms. When Science exists only through 
 paltering with Reason, when it accepts as its 
 function, the office, not of discerning Truth, but 
 of finding excuses for Beliefs, it is Science no 
 longer, but a corruption and hypocrisy ; and how- 
 ever it may come, its destruction is a blessing. 
 Hume appeared as the Destroyer. Gifted with 
 an Intellect clear and fearless, he carried principles 
 remorselessly to their consequences; and proved 
 beyond question, that on the grounds of the exist- 
 ing philosophy, all Belief must disappear. If he 
 reached Universal Scepticism, it may be said that 
 he yet had a faith sounder than any in the Philo- 
 sophy he destroyed ; he trusted in the only ground 
 of human certainty, viz., in our Human Reason; 
 and had the rare courage to follow where it seemed 
 to lead. It is not easy to conceive the degree of 
 consternation spread through every region of 
 existing speculation, by the ' Essay on the Idea of 
 Necessary Connexion,' the 'Enquiry Concerning 
 the Principles of Morals,' the ' Natural History of 
 Religion,' and their other companions. Hume 
 had divested himself by this time of the scholastic 
 rudeness of the author of the ' Treatise on Human 
 Nature,' and become one of the most pleasing and 
 accomplished writers of any period. His blows 
 resounded accordingly through all cultivated so- 
 ciety : it was heard everywhere with amazement, 
 that by a Logic apparently invincible, the basis of 
 all certainty respecting Man, Nature, and God 
 had been destroyed, and that doubt irremediable 
 was the sole inheritance of our Race ! It is need- 
 less to say that the resting-place of Humanity 
 was saved ; but not by invalidating the reasoning 
 of the trenchant Scotchman. Hume's triumph 
 
 was complete ; only, it was the existing Philosophy 
 that he laid in ruins. His logical demolition of 
 the Idea of Cause, awoke in the spirit of the illus- 
 trious Kant that train of thought which has 
 illumined Germany until now; and Dr. Reid, 
 moved by the same influence, wrought less sys- 
 tematically, but in a corresponding direction, 
 towards the foundation of the School which has 
 played so wholesome a part in the re-edification 
 of Mental Science. In something of this light 
 will History regard the Metaphysician Hume. 
 
 HUM 
 
 II. The clearness of Intellect and pea 
 sagacity that distinguished Hume, shine out 
 where more brightly than in his political 
 historical writings; although we discern h 
 
 !>erhaps more palpably, those defects which fi 
 nm for his task as Destroyer. Eager to genera, 
 skilful as sagacious, and incapable of 
 fluenced by surrounding opinions, we fin 
 his political essays steadily surveying and defii \ 
 most of those great truths regarding 
 which Adam Smith afterwards elaborated in i 
 ' Wealth of Nations,' and which the civilized w 
 at length accepts as its guide : nor will a time J 
 come when the general reflections strewn thro 
 every page of the ' History of England ' will c< 
 to instruct and elevate the Statesman. The 
 during position of the ' History ' indeed, is 1 
 of a rich philosophical treatise ; not that o] 
 History in the true significance of that terra : 
 can anything be imagined more incongrt; 
 than its usual connection on the book-shelf, v 
 a set of continuations and chronicles, more or 
 accurate in dates, but dry in wisdom as in st 
 When Hume wrote, History as a critical scic 
 was not known as it is now ; and unfortunately i 
 had not the industry, accuracy, nor the gen I 
 impartiality of his compatriot Gibbon. i\ 
 worse, he had no sympathy with the most pov 
 ful of the springs of action moving the timed 
 depicts : had ne comprehended these, nis name w< 
 not have been known in Philosophy merely as' 
 name of a Destroyer. His narrative of the iflBI 
 the Stuarts and of the struggles which freed Engkj 
 is simply fictitious, and should be read as scj 
 try his picture of Cromwell by the documents] 
 cently brought under light of the sun by Thoj 
 Carlyle. III. The character of this distingubj 
 person has been misunderstood and misrepJB 
 alike by friends and foes. His nature was a g| 
 one, but not developed in some most vital directs 
 No man of his time had a stronger understand 
 larger intellectual capacity, finer tastes, bif 
 courage, or a more rooted love of independe 
 His temperament, too, was greatly enviable: 
 had no violent passions, so that he was tried by 
 temptations ; he was delicate, and modest ; he 
 no malignity ; he was candid and kindly. Stil 
 is impossible to concur with Adam Smith, 'tha 
 approached as nearly to the idea of a perfe 
 wise and virtuous man as perhaps the natur 
 human frailty will permit.' His fatal deficit 
 has been already adverted to, he had no s^ 
 pathy with the largest, the profoundest portion of 
 Human Nature. He treated the Puritans as he 
 not through malignity, but because, he could not 
 preciate them : he knew nothing of the value of sa 
 fice to the Unseen : the morals he understood y 
 simply calculations of visible consequences. In m 
 respects Hume was a wise man ; but we must nol 
 down his dislike of Enthusiasm to the repose 
 tranquillity of Wisdom. The highest 
 indeed, seldom enthusiastic, because it has 
 cerned the meaning of the Laio of lAi 
 that in this various and complex Universe, no p 
 ciple acts singly, or ought to enjoy absolute r 
 Hume had not this wisdom; he merely dish* 
 enthusiasm because he had no part or parcel i 
 the principle which sustained those ent! 
 with their life-blood they purchased the libertit 
 
 340 
 
HUM 
 
 'land. See Mr. Burton's excellent volumes on 
 
 xie. His philosophical works are out of print : 
 
 last and best edition, in 4 volumes, was pub- 
 
 by Mr. Black of Edinburgh. [J.P.N.] 
 
 [Tomb of Hume, Edinburgh ] 
 
 IUME, David, a nephew of the great historian, 
 j I a writer on the Scotch criminal law, 1756-1838. 
 IUME, J. D., adisting. financier, 1774-1842. 
 iUMMEL, J. N., aGer. musician, 1778-1837. 
 IUMMELIUS, J., a Ger. mathem., 1518-1562. 
 1UMPHREY, Laurence, a learned divine, 
 (hor of a ' Life of Bishop Jewel,' &c, 1527-1590. 
 HUMPHREYS, Jas., an eminent jurist, d. 1830. 
 IUMPHRY, Ozias, a painter, 1743-1810. 
 3UNAULD, F. J., a Fr. anatomist, 1701-1742. 
 HUND, W., a Bavarian historian, 1514-1588. 
 HUNERIC, a king of the Vandals, 477-485. 
 rlUXXIADES, John Corvinus, vaivode of 
 knsylvania, and general of the Hungarian armies, 
 kimmished against the Turks, died 1456. 
 IHUNNIS, W., a poet, age of Elizabeth. 
 HUNNIUS, Gills, a German divine, 1550-1603. 
 js son, Nicholas, also a dist. theolog., 1585-1643. 
 HUXNOLD, Fr., a German Jesuit, last century. 
 {HUNT, Henry, an active English politician, 
 Is bora about the year 1773. His name was 
 8 of great notoriety during the first qiarter of 
 b nineteenth century, but little will probably be 
 membered of him at its end. Yet he had some 
 (alities of a peculiarly English and sterling char- 
 ter. His name is associated with the mob and 
 Ugarity, but he had considerable ancestral claims, 
 |a one of the few of his remembered sayings is 
 b retort on Sir Robert Peel as the first of a 
 fiily of tradesmen who became a gentleman, 
 lile he himself was the first of a race of gentle- 
 pa who had become a tradesman. In early life he 
 m a high Tory, but during the greater part of his 
 eer he expressed extreme Radical doc- 
 nes. Whatever ne did, whether in selling his 
 lmparable blacking and his roasted corn, in- 
 tod as a substitute for coffee, or offering his 
 represent a county, he spread his doings 
 world with liberal profuseness, and was 
 Ptted with any kind of notoriety, provided it 
 pre abundant. In 1830 he succeeded in entering 
 
 HUN 
 
 parliament, where he remained for a short time 
 as member for Preston. If not attended to in 
 parliament, he always made himself heard. His 
 voice possessed a peculiar shrillness which made 
 it audible amidst all other ordinary sounds, and 
 it was remarked that over all the shuffling and 
 coughing of an impatient House, his speaking 
 was as clearly heard as the ringing of a factory 
 bell through the murmurs of a crowd. He died 
 in 1835. [J.H.B.] 
 
 HUNT, Jeremiah, a dissenting divine, au. of 
 'An Essay towards expl. the History and Revelations 
 of Scripture in their several Periods,' 1678-1744. 
 HUNT, Th., a learned Hebraist, 1696-1774. 
 HUNTER, Alex., a Scotch phys., 1729-1809. 
 HUNTER, Anne, wife of John Hunter the cele- 
 brated anatomist, distinguished a a writer of 
 lyrical poetry, 1742-1821. 
 
 HUNTER, Chr., an antiquarian, 1675-1757. 
 HUNTER, Henry, a Scotch divine, author of 
 'Sacred Biography,' a translation of Lavater's 
 Physiognomy, ' Lectures on the Evidences of Chris- 
 tianity,' &e., 1741-1802. 
 HUNTER, John, a Scotch classic, 1747-1837. 
 HUNTER, John, a Scotch commander and 
 vice-admiral, distin. under Lord Howe, 1738-1821. 
 HUNTER, William, a distinguished anato- 
 mist, physiologist, and physician, was born_ at 
 Long Calderwood, in the parish of East Kilbride, 
 in the county of Lanark, Scotland, on the 23d of 
 May, 1718. He was the seventh of ten children, 
 and being destined for the church was sent to the 
 University of Glasgow at the age of fourteen, 
 where he remained for five years. He now l-esolved 
 to abandon the study of theology and to apply 
 himself to medicine, and with this view became 
 the private pupil of Dr. Cullen at Hamilton, with 
 whom he remained for three years. He then pro- 
 ceeded to Edinburgh with the design of qualifying 
 himself to become the partner of Cullen ; but, in 
 1741, he repaired to London in search of fame and 
 fortune, and found both. After studying under 
 various masters of acknowledged ability he com- 
 menced as a lecturer on anatomy in 1746. In 
 1747, he became a member of the corporation of 
 surgeons ; in 1750, he graduated as a doctor of 
 medicine at the University of Glasgow; and in 
 1756, he became a licentiate of the College of Phy- 
 sicians. He was afterwards successively elected 
 physician to the Lying-in-Hospital ; fellow of the 
 Royal and Antiquarian Societies ; professor of ana- 
 tomy to the Royal Academy ; physician extraor- 
 dinary to the queen : and in 1781, president of 
 the College of Physicians. He died on the 30th of 
 March, 1783, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. In 
 the course of a long and laborious life, devoted to 
 the highest objects of science and humanity, Dr. 
 Hunter had collected a magnificent anatomical 
 museum, a valuable library of rare and curious 
 books, and a considerable number of paintings and 
 coins, all of which he bequeathed to the University 
 of Glasgow, with a sum of 8,000 to support and 
 augment the collection. This fine museum was 
 transferred to Glasgow in 1807, where a very ele- 
 gant building from a design by Stark had been 
 erected for its reception at a cost of 12,000. Dr. 
 Hunter was an active and zealous contributor to 
 the medical literature of his time, and was engaged 
 in some sharp controversies with several of his 
 
 341 
 
HUN 
 
 contemporaries on disputed points in anatomy and 
 physiology ; but the work t>y which he will be 
 chiefly remembered is, ' The Anatomy of the 
 Human Gravid Uterus,' one of the most splendid 
 publications that ever issued from the press, and 
 in collecting the materials for which he spent 
 thirty years. It consists of thirty-four plates 
 engraved by the most eminent artists of the day, 
 with explanations in English and Latin, and ap- 
 peared in 1775 ; but the treatise illustrative of it 
 oe did not live to publish. That duty was under- 
 taken by his nephew, Dr. Baillie, who published in 
 1794 An Anatomical Description of the Human 
 Gravid Uterus and its Contents,' compiled chiefly 
 from the MSS. of his uncle. [J.M'C.J 
 
 HUNTER, John, the youngest brother of Wil- 
 liam Hunter, and one of the most remarkable men 
 of his own or any other age. He was born at 
 Calderwood on the loth of February, 1728, and 
 lost his father when he was ten years of age. He 
 seems never to have exhibited any aptitude for 
 scholastic learning, and there can be no doubt that 
 his early education was greatly neglected, and that 
 much of the obscurity of his style in after life was 
 attributable to that cause. How he spent the first 
 twenty years of his life is not ascertained, but 
 there is a very general belief, amounting to some- 
 thing like a tradition, that he was apprenticed at 
 the age of seventeen to a Mr. Buchanan, a cabinet- 
 maker in Glasgow, who had married his sister 
 Janet. If so, he must have been engaged in this 
 mechanical occupation for three years, for it was 
 not till the year 1748 that his brother William, 
 now firmly established as a lecturer on anatomy, 
 sent for him to London, and placed him in his 
 anatomical theatre, where he soon became an ex- 
 pert dissector, and a complete anatomist. He 
 studied surgery under the celebrated Cheselden ; 
 in 1751 he became a pupil in St. Bartholomew's ; 
 and in 1756 he was appointed house surgeon to 
 St. George's Hospital. Notwithstanding the defects 
 of his general education he rapidly surmounted 
 all the difficulties that lay in his way, and by his 
 extraordinary genius and great assiduity had ac- 
 quired by the year 1761, a fixed position and an 
 established reputation in the anatomical and sur- 
 gical worlds. But his health began to suffer, and 
 in that year he was appointed to the medical staff 
 of thearmy, in which capacity he served for three 
 years in France and Portugal, when he returned to 
 London with renovated strength, and began that 
 series of observations and experiments on the in- 
 ferior animals, which laid the foundation of his 
 fame as a comparative anatomist. He died sud- 
 denly on the 16th of October, 1793, in one of the 
 apartments of St. George's Hospital, in the sixty- 
 fifth year of his age. Of John Hunter's contribu- 
 tions to science during the last twenty years of his 
 life it is impossible to give even an outline in this 
 place, but they were numerous and of the highest 
 value, nor is it too much to say that this remark- 
 able man, by the vigour of his own talents, laid 
 the foundation of all those improvements in sur- 
 
 fery, physiology, and comparative anatomy, which 
 ave been made since his time. After his death, 
 his museum, which had cost him 70,000, was 
 bought by the government from his widow for 
 15,000, and by it was presented to the Royal 
 College of Surgeons. John Hunter died childless, 
 
 HUR 
 
 and as his brother William never married, 
 direct race of two men possessed of the big 
 genius is extinct. [J.jj 
 
 HUNTER, Robert, author of the fan 
 Letter on Enthusiasm, which has been attrib 
 both to Swift and Shaftesbury, appointed gove 
 of Jamaica, 1728, and died 1734. 
 
 HUNTER, William, a Scotch physician, 
 wr. on subjects connected with Hindostan, d. 1 
 
 HUNTINGDON, Henry of, author c 
 General History of England from the Ear 
 Accounts to the Death of Stephen, 12th centc 
 
 HUNTINGDON, Selina, countess of, a 
 mous name in the history of Calvinistic method 
 was the second daughter of Washington, 
 Ferrers. She was born in 1707, and left a wi 
 by Theophilus Hastings, earl of Huntingdon 
 1746. Previous to her husband's death, she 
 received deep impressions of religion, and attac 
 herself to the ministry of Whitfield whom 
 appointed. The ample jointure of which 
 became possessed was almost wholly devotee 
 the cause of religion in connection with the Me: 
 dist Christians. She founded the college of 
 veeka in Wales, in which young ministers i 
 trained studded destitute localities with 
 chapels, and maintained a band of itinei 
 preachers to supply them in rotation, carrying 
 all the correspondence herself. On the inetho 
 body splitting into two, she espoused the Car 
 istic party under Whitfield. On the least 
 Treveeka expiring, she erected a more exten 
 at Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. The m 
 
 of Lady Huntingdon is inseparably identified 
 the great revival of evangelical religion in 
 country during the eighteenth century, and ij 
 scarcely possible to estimate her services I 
 highly. For although some of her peculiar o][ 
 ions may be disputed, yet her zeal and piety vli 
 unquestionable, and many parts in England! 
 this day are reaping the fruits of her Chris'}: 
 liberality and devotedness to the cause of evj 
 gelical missions. She died at the advanced ag) 
 eighty-four, at her mansion-house in Spafield, 
 her remains were deposited in the family vaj 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire. 
 
 HUNTINGDON, William, a sectarian preacji 
 of the party of Calvinistic methodists, authoij: 
 many controversial works, 1744-1813. 
 
 HUNTINGFORD, George Isaac, s 
 bishop of Gloucester and Hereford, disl 
 as a Greek scholar and theologian, 1748 
 
 HUNTINGTON, R., a learned div., 1636-171. 
 
 HUNTON, Philip, a political writer, proijl 
 of the new college erected by Cromwell, died 19 
 
 HUPAZOLI, Francis, a native of Sardii 
 remarkable for his great age, 1587-1702. 
 
 HUQUIER, J. G., a Fr. engraver, 1095-177 
 
 HURD, Richard, best known as the autho.jl 
 ' Dialogues Moral and Political,' and of ' Letl 
 on Chivalry and Romance,' which were publis | 
 in a collected edition of 3 vols. 8vo, 1765, was 
 son of a farmer, and was born at Coi 
 Staffordshire, 1720. As early as 1742, he 
 tained a fellowship in Emanuel College, andji 
 1757 was appointed rector of Thurcaston, 
 Leicestershire. After this he was su 
 preacher to the society at Lincoln's Inn, 171 
 archdeacon of Gloucester, 1767 ; bishop of III 
 
 342 
 
HUE 
 
 and Coventry, 1775 ; preceptor to the prince 
 ales and the duke of York, 1776 ; and bishop 
 Worcester, 1781. In 1783 he declined the 
 offered to him by George III., and lived 
 ted with the honours already showered upon 
 till 1808, when he expired in his sleep, after 
 r days' confinement to his bed. Hurd was a 
 satirist, and a great proficient in polite 
 itore. His Dialogues were a covert attack 
 B e ' big wigs,' and the principles of arbitrary 
 rnment; but he seems to have outlived the 
 mtented vanity, or the earnestness in the 
 e of freedom which dictated them, and to 
 m subsided into the man of learned leisure, and 
 polite scholar. He was the friend and 
 rapher of Bishop Warburton. A complete 
 on of his works which he had himself prepared 
 he press, was published in 1810, in 8 vols. 8vo. 
 h interesting information concerning the life, 
 acter, and works of Bishop Hurd will be 
 d in volume VI. of Nichol's Literary Anec- 
 
 [E.R.] 
 URDIS, James, an English poet, 1763-1801. 
 LUKE, Charles, a French theologian of the 
 lenists, au. of a ' Diet, of the Bible,' 1639-1717. 
 URET, G., a French engraver, 1610-1670. 
 [USCUSKE, E. T., a Ger. philoso., 1761-1828. 
 LUSKISSON, William, a British statesman, 
 i'i born on the 11th of March, 1770. He was 
 : son of a country gentleman, and succeeded to 
 -, e landed property. In spending a few of his 
 y years in France, he not only saw many of the 
 dng events of the revolution, such as the cap- 
 i of the Bastile, but had a personal intimacy 
 l several of the actors in them, and joined the 
 y called the ' Societe de 1789.' Though this 
 one of the clubs of the moderate party, his 
 nection with it brought on Huskisson a taunt 
 lacobinism, at a time when French principles, 
 hey were termed, were received with intense 
 ror by the upper and middle classes in Britain, 
 showed an early soundness of opinion in eco- 
 nic matters, by offering a warning against the 
 ition of fictitious paper-money by assignats. 
 returned to England in 1792, and in 1796 en- 
 id parliament as member for Morpeth. He 
 }d several subordinate ministerial appointments, 
 I made himself valuable by his sagacity and 
 iiness capacity, He was one of the first practi- 
 statesmen, since Pitt had changed his views, 
 iose conduct was influenced by the doctrines of 
 ie trade, and though his opinions are far behind 
 e which have prevailed in the legislation of the 
 sent generation, he was viewed in his own day as 
 is man, who had treacherous designs on 
 I interests of his country. In 1821 he showed 
 nself favourable to the modification of the corn 
 vs, and in 1823 he carried the relaxation of the 
 vigation act, which sanctioned reciprocity trea- 
 s. _ In 1827 he took the office of secretary to the 
 onies, and continued to hold it under the duke 
 Wellington. Having, on a point of etiquette, to 
 sr his resignation, it was so readily accepted 
 t the duke evidently desired to be rid of him. 
 the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 ilway on 15th September, 1830, he stumbled in 
 stily crossing before a train, which passed over 
 n, and so wounded him that he only survived a 
 hours. [J.H.B.] 
 
 HUS 
 
 HUSS, John, was born about 1370 at Hus- 
 sinatz, a village in Bohemia. Though sprung of 
 humble parents, he was sent to the university of 
 Prague, and on completing his studies was ad- 
 mitted to priest's orders in 1400. The opinions of 
 the English reformer Wycliffe having reached Bo- 
 hemia, Huss, on mature consideration, was led to 
 adopt them, and as a professor and preacher in 
 Prague, he exposed with vehemence the abuses 
 and vices of the Romish Church and clergy. The 
 patronage of the queen Sophia protected him for 
 a season, if not from molestation, at least from 
 personal injury. But the archbishop of Prague 
 was terribly provoked, and so were many of the 
 clergy, by the intrepidity of Huss, and by his op- 
 position in the university to Pope Gregory XII. 
 In some fierce discussions which took place as to 
 the balance of elective power among the youth of 
 various nations attending the university, Huss, 
 urged by his Realistic and national partialities, 
 took the part of the Bohemians so effectively, that 
 the German students, to the number of some thou- 
 sands, withdrew, retired to Leipzig and founded its 
 university in the year 1409. The reforming energy 
 and perseverance of Huss so enraged his ecclesias- 
 tical superiors, that the archbishop of Prague 
 ordered the Bohemian translation of the books of 
 Wycliffe to be burned, and suspended Huss, while 
 Pope John XXIII. solemnly excommunicated him. 
 But the ardent spirit of the reformer did not quail, 
 and both in his native village and at Prague he 
 continued his denunciations of purgatory, indul- 
 gences, and clerical corruptions. Having at length 
 opposed a papal bull which had been fulminated 
 against Ladislaus, king of Naples, he excited such 
 tumults that he was summoned to the famous 
 Council of Constance, and though a ' safe conduct ' 
 had been granted him by the emperor Sigismund, 
 he was nevertheless impeached, arrested, and cast 
 into prison, and on his refusal to confess his guilt 
 or retract, he was condemned as a heretic, and 
 burnt on the 6th of July, 1415. The causes of this 
 severe and unjustifiable treatment of Huss, may be 
 found in his bold and unflinching honesty of pur- 
 pose, in the sacerdotal enmity which his sermons 
 and literary labours had stirred up against him, 
 and especially in his avowed Realism, and his 
 hatred of the German Nominalists, some of 
 whom, such as Gerson, were his principal judges. 
 His labours, history, and martyrdom, were not 
 without abundant fruit in the succeeding cen- 
 tury. 
 
 rj.E.] 
 
 ral, sur- 
 
 HUSSEIN-PACHA, a Turkish admiral, sur- 
 named 'the Little,' fav. of Selim II., 1750-1803. 
 
 HUSSEIN-PACHA, the last king of Algiers, 
 born 1773, proclaimed dey 1818, dethroned by the 
 French under Marshal Bourmont, 1830. 
 
 HUSSEY, Giles, an Eng. painter, 1710-1788. 
 
 HUSSEY, Sir Richard, a British admiral 
 employed in reducing the Ionian isls., 1776-1842. 
 
 HUTCHESON, Francis, born in Ireland 
 8th August, 1694, died in Glasgow 1747. To 
 Hutcheson must be awarded the honour of reviv- 
 ing speculative philosophy in Scotland. In 1729 
 he obtained the chair of Moral Philosophy in the 
 university of Glasgow; and he certainly started that 
 line of thinking in Psychological questions which 
 Reid afterwards, with so great success, followed 
 out. Besides manuals for the use of his class, he 
 
 343 
 
HUT 
 
 published during his lifetime the ' Inquiry into the 
 Origin of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,' and 
 an essay ' On the Nature and Conduct of the Pas- 
 sions and Affections.' His ' System of Moral Philo- 
 sophy,' in 2 volumes 4to, appeared after his 
 death. He energetically asserted the existence of 
 Moral* Sense, or a power to discern good in itself, 
 and claimed for our Idea of the Beautiful, the 
 character of originality and independence. Hut- 
 cheson's intellect was vigorous, and he evinced in all 
 his writings singular freedom and freshness. There 
 is an excellent life of him by Principal Leechman. 
 
 HUTCHINS, John, an Engl, divine, au. of the 
 Hist, and Antiquities of Dorsetshire,' 1696-1773. 
 
 HUTCHINS, Thomas, a geographer and 
 general of the United States of America, author of 
 historical and topographical works, 1730-1789. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Ann, a religious enthusiast of 
 New England, banished from the colony by an 
 ecclesiastical synod, and killed, with fourteen 
 others of her family, by the Indians, 1643. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, John, was an English 
 gentleman whose name became famous as a 
 speculative philosopher and interpreter of the 
 Bible in the early part of last century, and is 
 now generally mentioned with disparagement. 
 The publication of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia 
 in 1687, in which the philosopher supposed the 
 planets to move through a vacuum, provoked 
 Mr. Hutchinson, who was a great student of 
 antiquity, and of the Hebrew Scriptures, to pub- 
 lish his work entitled ' Moses 1 Principia,' which 
 appeared in two parts, 1724 and 1727. The de- 
 sign of Mr. Hutchinson was to demonstrate that a 
 celestial matter pervades the whole creation, spiri- 
 tual and natural, whereby Jehovah is master of 
 the material worlds, whereas the theory of Sir 
 Isaac Newton supposed a universe without a God, 
 or a God who acts by arbitrary power. This 
 philosophical doctrine, which is supported by the 
 recent discovery of an interplanetary ether, was, in 
 the work of Hutchinson, a pure deduction from 
 the Scriptures, his principle being that the He- 
 brew language is perfectly formed, so as to convey 
 perfect ideas, without the redundancy or deficiency 
 of letters common to other languages ; hence, that 
 it was perfectly adapted to be the medium of a 
 revelation, and that religion and philosophy were 
 united in the system or Moses. Hutchinson at- 
 tacked Dr. Woodward, author of a ' Natural His- 
 tory of the Earth,' as well as Sir Isaac Newton. 
 He wielded his pen with the hand of a master, 
 and with little respect for the feelings of his op- 
 ponents. Among his adherents were Bishop 
 Home, Jones of Nayland, Julius Bate, Drs. Hod- 
 
 fes and Wetherall, Parkhurst, Romaine, and Dr. 
 amuel Clarke. He was born at Springthorn in 
 Yorkshire 1674, and died 1737. [E.R.] 
 
 HUTCHINSON, John Hely, an Irish lawyer 
 and statesman of distinguished talents, but remark- 
 able selfishness, 1715-1794. His son, of the same 
 name,a distinguished military officer, and successor 
 of his brother as earl of Donoughmore, 1757-1832. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Thomas, the historian of the 
 colony of Massachusets, born 1711, chief justice 
 of that province, 1760, lieutenant-governor 1758- 
 1770, governor to 1774, died 1780. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, W., a county hist., 1732-1814. 
 
 HUTTEN, Jacob, the founder of the ' Moravian 
 
 HUT 
 
 Brethren,' whose successors are supposed to h 
 been the adherents of Zinzendorf, 16th century, 
 
 HUTTEN, Ulric Von, a German poet 
 miscellaneous writer, best known as a clnunpioi 
 the reformation, 1488-1523. 
 
 HUTTER, Eeias, a German divine, author 
 Polyglott of the New Testament in twelve 1 
 guages, and of a version of the Hebrew Bible, ( 
 tinguished by many peculiarities, in which the ca 
 Psalm is given in thirty languages, 1554-1603. 
 
 HUTTER, Leonard, a German theologian ; 
 polemical writer of the reformation, 1563-1 til 6. 
 
 HUTTICH, J., a German archaeologist and i 
 mismarist, au. of ' Antiq. of Mayence,' 1 
 
 HUTTON, Charles, LL.D., a very labori. 
 cultivator of Mathematical Science, and a dese 
 ing writer ; born at Newcastle-on-Tyne 1737, d 
 1823. We owe to Dr. Hutton many valua 
 works on elementary mathematics, especially 
 ' Course designed for Cadets in the Royal Milit 
 Academy,' in 3 vols. 8vo ; but his import) 
 contributions to scientific literature are his 'D 
 tionary of Mathematics,' in two large 4to volum* 
 and in another direction, his abridgment of I 
 Philosophical Transactions in 18 vols. 4to. ] 
 Hutton seems to have been a very success 
 teacher; and accordingly he was beloved by 
 pupils. His manners were simple, his tern: 
 equable and mild, and his attachments warm a 
 unalterable. 
 
 HUTTON, Dr. James, born at Edinburghl? 
 died 1797 : one of those Inquirers of genius w 
 have power to seize the opportunity of effecting 
 revolution in Science. Hutton's mind was capa 
 of earning distinction in any department of physi 
 research; and we owe him various important hin 
 for instance, he was the founder of Psychometi 
 but it is in Geology that his name stands as 1 
 mark of an epoch. During Hutton's early care 
 geology had not shaken itself free from cosmolof 
 and existing theories regarding the formation 
 the Earth, were modelled on the ideas of his coi 
 patriot Werner; who, misled by a limited t 
 perience, considered all rocks as stratififlKj 
 produced by the subsidence of matter first diffus 
 through water. Hutton's important acl 
 consisted in the discovery, through facts, that] 
 large class of rocks are igneous ; and that t 
 existing forms of the surface of our planet res' 
 from two opposing forces constantly in pis 
 and of whose efficiency we know neither t 
 beginning nor the end. The phenomenon tr 
 established the truth of these views, was, afi 
 anxious research, discovered by Hutton in Gl; 
 Tilt viz.: a fine instance of granite branchi 
 out in veins at its junction with the sedimenta. 
 rocks ; manifesting thereby indisputable evidence 
 its igneous origin. Hutton's work on the Theo 
 of the Earth, abounds with philosophical views 
 many points of geological theory of the ki 
 entitled to the name of predictions: to hii 
 first of all, the significance became appare 
 of the previously well-known fact of unconjbrmai 
 stratification. On an occasion, which has b 
 come classical, he took his favourite pupils, Pr 
 fessor Playfair and Sir James Hall, to the cli 
 near St. Abb's Head, where the schists of t 
 Lammer muir are undermined by the 
 Playfair has left on record, how, interpreted 1 
 
 344 
 
HUT 
 
 sagacity, the simple, and till then Darren 
 ile fact of one rock lying on the edges of 
 ther, became witness to enormous intervals 
 successive epochs, until 'the mind grew 
 dy by looking so far into the abyss of time,' 
 the awed listeners became sensible 'how 
 ch farther reason may sometimes go than 
 igination can venture to follow ! ' Sustained 
 
 Shenomena at once palpable, numerous, and 
 usive, Hutton's important views rapidly made 
 v among men of science : and, notwithstanding 
 'ir novelty, and the stupendousness of the 
 they open into the past, the popular be- 
 has now accommodated itself to them, and 
 olts no more at the notion of the unfathomed 
 tiquity of the Earth, than at the august thought 
 t the myriads of lustres in the Firmament, are 
 rids. This consummation came not without a 
 iggle, but thanks to. the ' press,' which could 
 
 aid Copernicus, the struggle in this case 
 5 neither severe nor prolonged. Hutton may 
 said to have revealed the second of the 
 
 dimensions of the Material Universe the 
 lension, Time. The student who has not 
 d the affectionate biography of this philoso- 
 5T by Professor Playfair, has still a rare treat in 
 re. [J.P.N.] 
 
 3UTTON, M., an English prelate, 1529-1605. 
 3UTTON, William, a self-educated author, 
 efly of local histories and antiquities, 1723-1815. 
 BUXHAM, John, a medical writer, died 1768. 
 3UYGHENS, Christian, born at the Hague 
 ft April, 1629 ; died 8th June, 1695 : a very 
 cessf'ul and celebrated cultivator of the Mathe- 
 tical and Physical Sciences. It requires a long 
 rative to sum up Huyghen's contributions 
 i discoveries ; to appreciate them in their rela- 
 ii to history and his time, is wholly incompatible 
 ft our space. In pure geometry he gave theo- 
 (is for the quadrature of the Hyperbola, the 
 ipsis, and the Circle; in Mechanics, he laid 
 TO the theory of the Pendulum, and its appli- 
 ion to the Clock ; he discerned the synchronism 
 the Cycloid, invented the theory of Involutes 
 i E volutes of Curves, and explored the doctrine 
 Centres of Oscillation: most important of all he 
 lounced the law of the motion of bodies revolv- 
 ; in circles, thereby grazing the law of gravita- 
 a. In Astronomy, we owe him the memorable 
 covery of Saturn's ring, at that time a most 
 ;acious solution of very puzzling appearances. 
 Optics he laid the foundation of the theory of 
 durations, explaining by means of it pheno- 
 na which by the theory of Emanation Newton 
 dd not touch. Few cultivators of Abstract 
 ence had a clearer, or more correct intellect 
 ji Huyghens ; he showed this, more especially in 
 
 ready appreciation and powerful grasp of the 
 ctrine of Gravitation : he adopted the new view 
 rifice of his previous attachment to the 
 irtices of Des Cartes, and this at a period of life 
 men have rarely freshness enough to alter 
 \'vr opinions. His works are collected in four 4to 
 
 [J.P.N.] 
 KJYGHENS, C, a Latin poet, 1596-1687. 
 
 tHENS, Gomarus, a Roman Catholic 
 ologian, professor of philosophy at Louvain, and 
 r friend and defender of Quesnel, 1631-1702. 
 PIUYOT, J. N., a French architect, 1780-1840. 
 
 HYR 
 
 HUYSMANS, HUYSMAN, or HOUSEMAN, 
 Cornelius, a Flem. landscape painter, 1648-1727. 
 
 HUYSMAN, James, a Flemish painter, exe- 
 cuted the altar piece at St. James's, 1656-1696. 
 
 HUYSUM, Justus Van, called ' the Elder,' a 
 Dutch landscape painter, 1659-1716. His son, of 
 the same name, known as Young Huysum, a 
 painter of battles, 1684-1706. His son, John, 
 distinguished as a flower painter, 1682-1749. 
 
 HUZARD, J. B., a Fr. agriculturist, 1755-1839. 
 
 HVITFIELD, A., a Danish histor., 1549-1609. 
 
 HYACINTH, Saint, a German friar, celebrated 
 as apostle of Poland and Russia, 1183-1257. 
 
 HYDE, Edward. See Clarendon. 
 
 HYDE, Henry, a dramatic writer, died 1753. 
 
 HYDE, Thos., D.D., a dignitary of the Church 
 of England, kn. as an Oriental scholar and au. of 
 a ' History of the Medes and Persians,' 1636-1703. 
 . HYDER-ALI, an Indian prince of Arabian 
 origin, born in Mysore, 1718, took the field with 
 his brother, who was in alliance with France, 1751, 
 and in the interval between that period and 1780, 
 acquired for himself an independent sovereignty, 
 and nearly brought the presidency of Madras to 
 ruin. His death occurred at a critical period in 
 1782, and he was succeeded by his son, Tippoo 
 Saib, who was driven from the Carnatic in 1783. 
 
 HYGINUS, a pope of Rome, about 138-143. 
 
 HYGINUS, Caius Julius, a freedman of 
 Augustus, and keeper of the palatine library, au. 
 of an astronomical poem, and a book of fables. 
 
 HYPATIA, daughter of Theon of Alexan- 
 dria, celebrated for her beauty, illustrious in her 
 genius, and hallowed through all time by her 
 mournful death. She was torn to pieces by the mob 
 of Alexandria, in her earliest prime, in the year 415. 
 Hypatia was a neo-platonist. Charmed by the re- 
 flection therein, of the noblest intellect of Greece, 
 and attracted by its mysticism, she professed that 
 philosophy in public lectures ; and her purity and 
 elevation of soul enhanced the fame accruing from 
 her eloquence. The period of her teaching was 
 that of the first conflicts of Christianity with Pagan- 
 ism : the religion of brotherly love was then too 
 often a symbol of insurrection to the ignorant and 
 the poor, insurrection against culture as well as 
 false worship, against intelligence as well as aris- 
 tocracy and pride. Cyril, of Alexandria, a man of 
 courage, but not averse from turbulence and 
 tyranny on his own side, was Bishop : and he 
 did not enough repress passions certainly not ap- 
 proved in his Evangel. He accounted Hypatia his 
 personal foe ; and probably did not regret that with 
 the temples of her deities, a martyr fell. The 
 character of this brilliant victim is traced with 
 genuine sympathy by Mr. Kingsley in his recent 
 romance one of those fictions which are truer 
 than most histories. [J.P.N.] 
 
 HYPERIDES, an Athenian orator, andpartizan 
 of the Byzantines, killed by Antipater, 322 b.c. 
 
 HYPERIUS, G. A., a Flemish theolog., 1511-64. 
 
 HYPSICLES, a Greek mathematician, 2d cent. 
 
 HYRCANUS, John, or HYRCANUS I., suc- 
 ceeded his father, Simon Maccabeus, as high priest 
 and prince of the Jews, B.C. 135, d. B.C. 107. 
 Hyrcanus II., eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus, 
 became sovereign pontiff, B.C. 70, was dethroned by 
 his brother Aristobulus, and restored by the Romans 
 as a tributary prince 63, beheaded by Herod 29. 
 
 345 
 
IAC 
 
 IACAIA, a Turkish adventurer, 17th century. 
 
 IACOUB-TCHELEBY, a son of Amurath I., 
 strangled by order of Bajazet, 1389. 
 
 IANAKl, a Greek prince of Moldavia, 1708. 
 
 IBARKIA, Joachim, a Spanish printer, cele- 
 brated for his improvement ot the art, 1725-1785. 
 
 IBAS, a bishop of Edessa in Mesopotamia, sup- 
 posed to have favoured the doctrines of Nestorius, 
 and deposed on that account by the council of 
 Ephesus, 449. He was reinstated by the council 
 of Chalcedon 451, and died 457. 
 
 IBBETSON, Agnes, a botanist, 1757-1823. 
 
 IBBETSON, James, a divine and ecclesiastical 
 historian, 1717-1781. His son, of the same name, 
 learned in Saxon and Norman antiquities, 1755-90. 
 
 IBBETSON, J. C, a painter, died 1817. 
 
 IBBOT, Benjamin, a learned div., 1680-1725. 
 
 IBEK, an Arabian author, died 1348. 
 
 IBEK, Az-ed-deen, sultan of Egypt, 1251-57. 
 
 IBN-AL-ATSYN, surnamed Arr-eddyn, ' the 
 glory of religion,' an Arabian historian, 1160-1233. 
 
 IBN - AL - ATSYR - ABOULSAADAT - MO - 
 BAREK, an Arabian grammarian and author, lieu- 
 tenant to the king of Moussoul, 1150-1268. 
 
 IBN-AL-ATSYR-NASZ-ALLAH, an Eastern 
 vizier under the son and sue. of Saladin, author of 
 4 The art of the Writer and the Poet,' 1162-1239. 
 
 IBN-AL-COUTHYAH, author of a ' History of 
 the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs,' died 978. 
 
 IBN-AL-DJOURY, an Arab, historian, d. 1201. 
 
 IBN-AL-FARADHY, a Spanish Arab, author 
 of a ' Chronicle of Spanish Savants,' died 1012. 
 
 IBN-AL-FORAT, an Arab, historian, died 1405. 
 
 IBN-AL-KHETIB, surnamed 'the Tongue of 
 Religion,' au. of a ' History of the Kings of Gren- 
 ada,' and ' Lives of Spanish Writers,' 1313-1374. 
 
 IBN-AL-MOKAFFA, a Persian writer, d. 757. 
 
 IBN-AL-OUARDY, a geograp. writer, d. 1350. 
 
 IBN-AYYAS, an Arabian geographer and his- 
 torian, author of a history of Egypt, &c, 16th cen. 
 
 IBN-CADHY-CHOBAH, a Mussulman doctor 
 of the sect of Chafei, 1289-1386. 
 
 IBN-COTAIHAH, an Arabian historian, b. 829. 
 
 IBN-DJOLDJOL, an Arabian transla., 10th c. 
 
 IBN-DOREID, a celebrated Arabian philologist 
 and poet, author of many works, 838-933. 
 
 IBN-EL-A'LAM, an astronomer, died 985. 
 
 IBN-EL-AWAM, an agriculturist, 12th century. 
 
 IBN-FAFEDT, a mystic poet, 1181-1235. 
 
 IBN-KHALDOUN, an Arabian magistrate, 
 celebrated as an historian and jurist, author of a 
 ' History of the Arabs and Berbers,' 1332-1406. 
 
 IBN-KHILCAN, an Arabian historian, 1211-81. 
 
 IBN-WASIL, an Arabian diplomatist, historian, 
 philosopher, and jurisconsult, 1207-1268. 
 
 IBN-YOUNIS, an astronomer, 979-1008. 
 
 IBRAHIM I., governor of Africa under Haroun- 
 al-Raschid, and founder of a dynasty, died 809. 
 Another of the name in the same line of princes 
 called Ibrahim II., died 902. 
 
 IBRAHIM I., an illustrious sultan of the race 
 of the Ghaznevides, distinguished by the extension 
 of his empire into India, and by the promotion of 
 the arts and sciences in his dominions, reigned 
 
 IBR 
 
 1058-1099. Ibrahim II., or Ibrahim I., ei 
 
 peror of Hindostan, succeeded 1517, killed 152G 
 
 IBRAHIM, brother and successor of Amura 
 IV., as sultan of Turkey, in 1640, killed 1649. 
 
 IBRAHIM, a pacha of Egypt, 1585-1590. 
 
 IBRAHIM, grand vizier under Soliman I 
 exec, for treasonable correspon. with Austria, 15c 
 
 IBRAHIM, caliph of Bagdad, 744-750. 
 
 IBRAHIM-BEY, a famous Mameluke cbi 
 vanquished by Mehemet Ah in 1805, died 1816. 
 
 IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, a Turkish savant co 
 verted to Christianity, translator of the Scriptou 
 into the Arabian tongue, 1641-1697. 
 
 IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, a native of Poland, w 
 became a dignitary of the Ottoman empire, a 
 introduced pnnting in 1728. 
 
 IBRAHIM- EL - GAUHARY, a minister 
 Ibrahim and Mouradbey, sultan of Egypt, disti 
 guished as a father of the people, died 1791. 
 
 IBRAHIM-EL-HALEPY, an imaun of Co 
 stantinople, celebrated as a jurisconsult, 1456-15^ 
 
 IBRAHIM-MANSOUR-EFFENDI, a Germ, 
 adventurer, who embraced Mahommedanism, aj 
 introduced the discipline of Europe into the Turj 
 ish armies ; after serving Ali-Pasha as engine i 
 he wrote a ' Memoir of Greece and Albania' unc 
 his government; he at length shot himself 
 Paris, on account of destitution, 1826. 
 
 IBRAHIM-MOLLAH, a T. vizier, stran. 171! 
 
 IBRAHIM PASHA, the son and successor! 
 Mehemet Ali in the government of Egypt, vi\ 
 also the chief instrument in establishing nis dj 
 nasty, and deserves to rank with his father amo 
 the founders of empires. He was born at Caveli 
 in Roumelia 1789, and enjoyed his first milita] 
 triumph at Cairo in 1819, after subjugating the Wi 
 habees, and wresting from their hands the he! 
 towns of Mecca and Medina. In 1824 the suits; 
 as suzerain, demanded the aid of an Egyptian a 
 mament to suppress the Greeks, and the glory i 
 Ibrahim, whose name had become famous througj 
 out the East, and who had introduced the Europe j 
 discipline into his armies, pointed him out as tj 
 commander of the expedition. For nearly foj 
 years he overran the Morea, which became oj 
 extended field of ruin and bloodshed, but he was j 
 length compelled to retire by the victory gain! 
 at Navarino by the combined fleets of 
 France, and Russia, on the 20th of Octi 
 In 1831 he was sent by his father, at the head ! 
 24,000 infantry, four regiments of cavalry, a J 
 forty pieces of artillery, to the conquest of Syi| 
 which he effected so completely as to arrive witl 
 one hundred and fifty miles of Constantinople, 
 which juncture a Russian army marched to int< ; 
 cent him, and he concluded a treaty of peace 
 which several provinces were added to his lathe 
 government. In 1839, the Porte endeavoured 
 recover Syria, and on the 24th of June, Ibrahj 
 gained the battle of Nezib, by which the road wi 
 again opened to Constantinople ; but the combini 
 forces of England, Austria, Russia, and Pruss| 
 were drawn up between him and his prize, a 
 Acre being reduced by bombardment, the afia 
 
IBR 
 
 Egypt and the Porte were settled by their joint 
 isters. After the evacuation of Syria, Ibrahim 
 iplied himself to the arts of peace in Egypt, and 
 jien Mehemet Ali became incapable of continuing 
 jj government, he was made viceroy according 
 1 the terms of succession granted in the firman 
 I the sultan in 1841. He enjoyed this dignity 
 jly two months and ten days, and died in No- 
 nber, 1848, when he was succeeded by his 
 jphew, Abbas Pasha. Ibrahim Pasha was a man 
 debauched habits, but a great soldier and sa- 
 kious statesman. As may be supposed, in a 
 'mtry like Egypt, just emerging from the bar- 
 Irism of ages, and in a family which had fought 
 | way out of obscurity, he was quite unlettered, 
 k nevertheless, well acquainted with the cour- 
 ses of European society. [E.R.] 
 IBRAHIM-TCHAOUICHKEKHIE, a bey of 
 rypt, raised to the throne of the Mamelukes, 
 |i)0, poisoned in the attempt to deliver his 
 jintry from the usurpation of the Turks, 1760. 
 gBYCUS, an Italian lyric poet, 560 B.C. 
 ffBZAN, judge of Israel after Jephthah. 
 |DACIUS, a Spanish chronicler, 4th century. 
 IDES, EverardYsbrantz, a German traveller, 
 [of a 'Journey from Moscow to China,' 18th ct. 
 JIDMAN, N., a Swedish savant, 18th century. 
 pDRIS, Gawr, a Welch astronomer, whose 
 pe is borne by one of the highest Welch moun- 
 ns, date unknown. 
 
 IENICHEN, G. A., a Ger. savant, 1709-1759. 
 IERMAK, a Cossack chieftain, died 1583. 
 IETZELER, C, a Swiss architect, 1734-1791. 
 KEZDEDJERD, the first of the name, a Sassan- 
 fle king of Persia, reigned 399-419 ; the second, 
 lo endeavoured without success to introduce the 
 Irship of Zoroaster into his dominions, reigned 
 B-457 ; the third, last king of the Sassannide 
 pasty, succeeded 632, vanquished by the Arabs 
 16, assassinated in his retreat 650. 
 ffFFLAND, A. W., a German actor, 1759-1814. 
 ilGNARRA, N., a Neapol. antiqua., 1728-1808. 
 fGNATIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, d. 878. 
 IGNATIUS, foun. of the Jesuits. See Loyola. 
 IGNATIUS, St., surnamed Theophorus, one 
 the apostolic fathers, or first doctors of the 
 arch, bishop of Antioch in Syria about 69, suffered 
 krtyrdom 107 or 116. He is the author of 
 etters,' which are translated in Archbishop 
 ake's compilation. 
 
 IGOR, the first of the name, grand duke of 
 Usia, 913-945 ; the second, grand prince, 1146-7. 
 (IHRE, John, a Swedish philologist, professor 
 poetry and eloquence at Upsala, 1707-1780. 
 IKEN, Conrad, a Germ. Hebraist, 1689-1753. 
 ILDEFONSE, St., archb. of Toledo, 607-669. 
 ILICINO, B., an Italian poet, loth century. 
 IILIVE, Jacob, a printer and letter-cutter, re- 
 iurkable as a controversialist, and author of the 
 jeged book of Jasher, 1730-1763. 
 jILLYRICUS, Flacius, the Latinized name of 
 ^Hgfc Flacius, or Francowitz, a German theolo- 
 k 1520-1575. 
 
 IMAD-EDDALAH, a king of Persia, died 949. 
 IMAD-EDDYN, a Persian histor., 1125-1201. 
 KMBERT, B., a French poet, 1747-1790. 
 IMBERT, J. G., a French painter, 1654-1740. 
 IMBERT, W., a French author, 1743-1808. 
 IIMBONATI, C. J., an Italian Orien., d. 1687. 
 
 ING 
 
 IMHOF, G. W., Dutch gov. of India, 1705-50. 
 
 IMHOFF, John, or James William, a German 
 historian and genealogist, 1651-1728. 
 
 IMISON, an English mechanician, died 1788. 
 
 IMPERATO, F., a Neapolitan painter, died 
 1565. His son, Jerome, a painter, died 1620. 
 
 IMPERATO, F., a Neapolit. naturalist, 16th c. 
 
 IMPERIALE, F., a Genoese poet, 14th century. 
 
 IMPERIALI, G. B., an Italian physician, author 
 of some admired Latin poetry, 1588-1623. His 
 son, Giovanni, a writer of medical history and 
 biography, 1602-1670. 
 
 IMPERIALI, Giuseppe Renato, a Genoese 
 noble, cardinal, and governor of Ferrara, disting. 
 for his probity, talents, and learning, 1651-1737. 
 
 IMPERIALI, G. V., a Genoese poet, died 1645. 
 
 IMPERIALI-LERCARI, F. M., doge of Genoa 
 when it was cannonaded by Louis XIV., 1684. 
 
 INA, king of the West Saxons, 689-726. 
 
 INCHBALD, Elizabeth, the daughter of a 
 Suffolk farmer, was born in 1753. At the age of 
 sixteen, she eloped from home, with no more 
 blameable design than the foolish one of seeking 
 her fortune. Miss Simpson very soon became the 
 wife of Mr. Inchbald, a respectable London actor, 
 by whom she was brought on the stage, and played 
 for a good many years. After 1784, she wrote 
 plays, amounting to nineteen, several of which 
 were very successful: her comedy of 'Wives as 
 they Were and Maids as they Are ' is still acted. 
 She edited three collections of plays. Her best 
 literary works were her two novels : ' A Simple 
 Story/ 1791 ; and ' Nature and Art,' 1796. She 
 lived prudently and irreproachably, and accumu- 
 lated several thousand pounds, which she be- 
 queathed chiefly to the Roman Catholic poor. She 
 died at Kensington in 1821. fW.S.] 
 
 INCHOFER, Melchior, a Hungarian Jesuit, 
 jurisconsult, historian, and theologian, 1584-1648. 
 
 INCLEDON, B. C, a eel. vocalist, 1764-1826. * 
 
 INEZ DE CASTRO. See Castro. 
 
 INGE and HALSTAN, joint k. of Sw. 12th ct. 
 
 INGE, the younger, a k. of Sweden, 12th cen. 
 
 INGE, two kings of Norway, 12th and 13th ct. 
 
 INGEBURGE, queen of France, 1193-1236. 
 
 INGEGNERI, A., a Venetian poet, 16th cent. 
 
 INGENHOUSZ, John, a Dutch physician and 
 chemist, au. of ' Exp. on Vegetables, 1730-1799. 
 
 INGHEW, W. Van, a Dutch pain., 1651-1709. 
 
 INGHIRAMI, Curzio, an Italian antiquarian, 
 author of ' Etruscan Antiquities,' 1614-1655. 
 
 INGHIRAMI, Tomaso Fedra, an eminent 
 Italian poet and orator, 1470-1516. 
 
 INGIALD, a king of Sweden, 7th century. 
 
 ING LIS, Henry David, a miscellaneous 
 writer, first known under the assumed name of 
 Derwent Conway, born in Scotland 1795, d. 1835. 
 
 INGLIS, Hester, the writer of some beautiful 
 manuscripts preserved at Oxford, 16th century. 
 
 INGLIS, Sir James, a Scotch officer and parti- 
 zan of the French, author of the well-known 
 ' Complaint of Scotland,' died 1554. 
 
 INGLIS, John, D.D., a Scottish divine, author 
 of a ' Defence of Ch. Establishments,' 1796-1834. 
 
 INGOUF, F. R., a French engraver, 1747-1812. 
 His brother, P. Charles, an eng., about 1746-99. 
 
 INGRAM, Robert, a theologian, 1727-1804. 
 
 INGRASSIAS, Giovanni Filippo, a native of 
 Sicily, dist. as a physician and anatomist, 1510-80. 
 
 347 
 
IXG 
 
 INGUIMBERT, J. D., :.n Italian theologian, 
 founder of an hospital and pub. library, 1683-1757. 
 
 INGULPHUS, abbot and historian of the 
 monastery of Croyland in the time of William the 
 Conqueror, born in London about 1030, died 1109. 
 
 1NXKS, Lodis, a French priest, secretary of 
 James II., and author of his Memoirs, bom 1G50. 
 His brother, Thomas, an antiq. wr., 1662-1744. 
 
 I N N OC EXT. The popes of Rome of this name 
 are Innocent I., a saint of the Roman calendar, 
 flourished in the time of Alaric, 402-417. Inno- 
 
 cent II., pope in the age of Abelard and Arnold, 
 with whose doctrines, as well as with rival popes 
 and kings, he was kept in continual conflict, 1130- 
 1143. Innocent III., a pope of extraordinary 
 spirit and political sagacity, who arrived at despotic 
 authority over the kings of Enrope, and pursued 
 the most sanguinary measures against the Wal- 
 denses and other heretics, 1198-1216. Innocent 
 IV., pope, 1243-1254. Innocent V., one of the 
 most celebrated theologians of the age, succeeded 
 and died 1276. Innocent VI., reigned 1352- 
 1362. Innocent VII., 1404-1406. Innocent 
 VIII., who laboured to promote a union among the 
 Christian princes, in order to withstand the Turks, 
 predecessor of Alexander VI., 1484-1492. Inno- 
 cent IX., elected and died 1591. Innocent X., 
 a great enemy of the treaty of Westphalia, and the 
 doctrines of Jansenius, 1644-1655. Innocent 
 XL, distinguished for his enmity to Louis XIV., 
 for his extreme austerity, and for having proscribed 
 the teaching of Molinos, 1676-1689. Innocent 
 XII., distmg. as a good and enlightened prince, 
 1692-1700. Innocent XIIL, reigned 1721-1724. 
 
 INTERIANO DE AYALA, Juan, a Spanish 
 monk, known as a poet and wr. on art, 1656-1730. 
 
 INTIERI, B., an Italian economist, died 1757. 
 
 INTORCETTA, Prosper, a learned Sicilian 
 Jesuit and missionary to China, 1625-1696. 
 
 INVEGES, A., a Sicilian historian, 1595-1677. 
 
 IOUSAF-ABOU-'L-HAXEX, a Moorish king 
 of Grenada, began to reign 1048. 
 
 IPHICRATES, a famous general of Athens, 
 defeated the Lacedaemonians 392 B.C., and re- 
 lieved Sparta when invaded by Epaminondas 368, 
 died some time after 357 b.c. 
 
 IPHITUS, king of Elis, celebrated as the founder 
 of the Olympic games, 8th century b.c. 
 
 IRAILH, A. S., a French historian, 1719-1794. 
 
 IRBY, Fr. Paul, a naval officer, 1779-1844. 
 
 IRELAND, John, author of 'The Life of 
 Henderson,' and ' Hogarth Illustrated,' died 1789. 
 
 IRELAND, John, dean of Westminster, distin- 
 guished as a theological writer and patron of learn- 
 ing, and as a contributor to the earlier numbers of 
 the Quarterly Review, 1762-1842. 
 
 IRELAND, Samuel, a collector and publisher 
 of literary curiosities, disgraced by the publication 
 of the pretended Shakspeare MSS., which appeared 
 in 1796, and had been forged by his son, of whom 
 he was the unconscious dupe, died 1800. 
 
 IRENAEUS, St., was a native of Asia Minor, 
 and a disciple of Polycarp. He is supposed, when 
 still a young man, to have come to Gaul along 
 with Pothinus, by whose instrumentality several 
 churches were formed, the most famous of which 
 were those of Lyons and Vienne. On the death 
 of Pothinus, in a.d. 177, he succeeded him as bishop 
 of Lugdunum (Lyons). This high office he continued 
 
 348 
 
 IRE 
 
 to hold till his death about the end of the centu 
 His ministry was a series of active, zealous, a| 
 devoted personal labours, and he strug 
 for the purity and the enlargement of the chur 
 The current controversies, such as that about 1 
 proper time of keeping Easter, attracted 
 attention, and in the name of the Gallic churches, 
 resisted with vigour the incipient encroachments 
 the bishop of Rome. His great literary work! 
 his refutation of the Valentinian form of tj 
 Gnostic heresy, and is usually named Advert, 
 Haereses. The original Greek, with the excepti 
 of a few fragments preserved by succeeding w 
 ters, has been lost, and the remainder of the wc; 
 is in a barbarous Latin version. He is also so' 
 posed to have written the graphic and pafhe! 
 account of the persecution endured by the churclj 
 of Lyons and Vienne, which is still extant in t 
 form of a letter. The character of Irenaeus tJ 
 that of an honest, ardent, and amiable Christi, 
 pastor possessed of a well-instructed mind! 
 versant in the various phases of theological err 
 but often seduced into puerility by the allegoriJ 
 methods of interpretation then so prevalent a 
 bewitching. The common idea, that Irenae 
 was a martyr, rests on no good foundatic 
 None of the writers of his own age, or th 
 immediately after it, ever allude to such an evei 
 The editio princeps of his works was, under t 
 , charge of Erasmus, published at Basel, 1526, 8 
 the excellent edition of Grabe appeared 
 Oxford in 1702, folio, and in Paris in 1710, unt 
 the care of Benedictine Massuet. There are al 
 editions by Grynaeus, Basel, 1571 , Gallasiv 
 Paris, 1570; and Feuardentius, Cologne, \h ( .\ 
 But the best, and most recent edition, is in 2 vo 
 8vo, Leipzig, 1853, edited by Stieren, and suppli 
 with the prefaces of the preceding editions, a. 
 with ample notes and prologomena. [J.F 
 
 IRENE, empress or the East, like Mary que| 
 of Scots and some of the Medici, is one of the 
 marked characters in whom the reader of histo 
 
 becomes personally interested to a degree far e ( 
 ceeding his sense of justice in the case, and whe, 
 powers of fascination not unfrequently charm t 
 pen of the historian at the distance of ages. Bo 
 at Athens of a private family about 752, she w ( 
 raised to the throne of Constantine by her ms 
 riage with Leo IV.,who succeeded his father six ye<'j 
 after the celebration of their nuptials, in 775. In 7j 
 in consequence of the death of Leo, she became r< 
 gent of tne empire for her son Constantir 
 the tenth year of his age, and the court ot 
 tinople was soon a perpetual scene of intrigue u 
 counterplot, which led to the most ruthle 
 In this struggle, the uncles of the young empercj 
 fired with as much ambition, and endov 
 infinitely less personal grace and love of art ftJ 
 the beautiful Athenian, were ranged on one si , 
 with the iconoclasts, and Irene on the other suj 
 ported the worship of images, and had the addn. 
 and firmness of purpose to carry her point, whi< 
 was finally decreed in a council held at Nice, 7j 
 In the meantime, the education of her son, who 
 she never meant 'to exercise the supreme pow<; 
 was totally neglected; and when he arrived i 
 maturity, and was put in forcible possession of 1 
 father's authority by the troops, he not only Pjc-v . 
 incapable, but most unscrupulous and cruel in t 
 
IRE 
 
 cise of his authority. With a reckless and 
 
 itious woman like Irene on the watch for her 
 
 jrtunity, and his subjects alienated in disgust, 
 
 not surprising that her emissaries were at 
 
 able to seize on the person of the emperor, 
 
 having done so, they put out his eyes, and 
 
 daimed Irene the only person that had shown 
 
 capability of sustaining the weight of govern- 
 
 it. She had reigned five years sole empress, 
 
 was negotiating a marriage with Charlemagne, 
 
 ah would have united the Eastern and Western 
 
 fires, when Nicephorus, the grand treasurer, 
 
 me leader of a revolt, and having brought 
 
 some of her eunuchs to his party, succeeded 
 
 ethroning her. A few months afterwards, she 
 
 in exile at the isle of Lesbos, a.d. 803, still 
 
 the vigour of her years, and in all likelihood 
 
 cen-hearted by her fall. We ought to have 
 
 itioned that Irene obtained some advantages 
 
 r the Saracens during her regency, and concluded 
 
 treaty of peace with Haroun-al-Raschid. [E.R.] 
 
 RET ON, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, 
 
 iinguished as a parliamentary general in the 
 
 1 war, and lord deputy of Ireland after the 
 
 iblishment of the commonwealth. He was one 
 
 ihose who signed the warrant for the king's 
 
 th. Bom 1610, died at Limerick 1651. 
 
 RGENS, Olans, a Norway savant, last cent. 
 
 RICO, J. Andrew, a learned Italian, disting. 
 
 i theologian, philos., and historian, 1704-1782. 
 
 RLAND, B., a French jurisconsult, 1551-1612. 
 
 RNE RIUS,called alsoWERNERUs, Warnerus, 
 
 jUARNERtjs, a lawyer of Bologna, regarded as 
 
 restorer of the Roman law in the middle ages, 
 
 n about 1065, died after 1138. 
 
 RVING, Rev. Edward, was a native of Dum- 
 
 teshire, having been born at Annan on 15th 
 
 gust, 1792, of respectable parentage. His ec- 
 
 Itricities began to display themselves at school, 
 
 even in boyhood he was singular in his dress, 
 
 Inner, and phraseology. Of all the branches of 
 
 acation, he excelled in arithmetic and mathe- 
 
 Itics, and his superiority in these departments 
 
 beared so decidedly during his curriculum at 
 
 i college of Edinburgh, that as the foremost 
 
 jail competitors, he was appointed mathematical 
 
 icher in the burgh school of Haddington, and 
 
 b year following in the school of Kirkaldy. 
 
 e latter situation he held seven years, when 
 
 [ring become a licentiate in the Church of 
 
 atland, and going on a visit to Edinburgh, 
 
 happened to preach in St. George's church. 
 
 ie of his hearers on that occasion was Dr. 
 
 lalmers, who engaged him to be assistant- 
 
 nister in the parish of St. John's, Glasgow. 
 
 fchougk he was not esteemed there a popular 
 
 pacher, his great talents and peculiar eloquence 
 
 :re appreciated by a select, but devoted band of 
 
 mirers, who sounded his praises far and wide, 
 
 1 his fame reached London. In 1822, Mr. 
 
 tfng was invited to preach in the church of the 
 
 Httn Asylum in London, then vacant, and 
 
 HK elected minister of the chapel, Dr. Chal- 
 
 !re introducing him to his new charge in August 
 
 that year. London is so immense a field, that 
 
 preacher even of moderate talents can reckon 
 
 th certainty on obtaining an audience. 
 
 ach more a preacher like Irving, who, to high 
 
 d undoubted talent, united great eccentricity in 
 
 IRV 
 
 sentiment and manner. An eloquent speaker, he 
 yet indulged in a quaint style formed on the model 
 of the Elizabethan age ; delivered his discourses 
 with prodigious energy ; and made fearless in- 
 discriminate attacks on everything civil as well 
 as ecclesiastical he considered wrong or faulty. 
 Such a preacher was soon surrounded by multi- 
 tudes. It became ' the fashion ' to attend Mr. 
 Irving's church. People of all ranks and charac- 
 ters, literary men, philosophers, statesmen, com- 
 mons, and noblemen of the highest name and in- 
 fluence, flocked to his church. Within a year after 
 his settlement in the metropolis, he published a vol- 
 ume of discourses, which he entitled ' For the Ora- 
 cles of God, four orations ; For Judgment to Come, 
 an argument in nine parts.' So extraordinary 
 was the demand for this volume, that three large 
 editions were sold within six months. From his 
 great popularity, Mr. Irving was called frequently 
 to plead the cause of many charitable and Chris- 
 tian institutions. In 1824, he preached the annual 
 sermon for the London Missionary Society ; and on 
 that occasion, as he had acquired the habit of pro- 
 tracting the services to an unusual length, he ex- 
 hausted himself so much, that he was obliged to 
 pause twice to rest himself. The discourse was 
 afterwards published under the title : ' For Mis- 
 sionaries after the Apostolic Schools, a series of 
 orations in four parts,' and dedicated to his friend 
 Coleridge. In the following year he preached the 
 annual sermon for the Continental Society, and on 
 that occasion, too, disgusted many even of his friends 
 and admirers by extending the services to more 
 than four hours' duration. He wished to train his 
 own mind to habitual occupation with religious 
 thoughts, and as he thought others should do so 
 too, he refused to abridge his discourses. Mr. 
 Irving, through the influence of Coleridge, became 
 strongly inclined to mysticism, and, having com- 
 menced the study of unfulfilled prophecy, which 
 he preposterously held out as the key to the right 
 interpretation of the Bible, he gradually plunged 
 into a sea of the grossest absurdities. Attaching 
 himself to what was called ' The Albury School of 
 Prophets,' he not only adopted Millennarian views 
 respecting the personal reign of Christ on the 
 earth, but began to entertain some singular opinions 
 of the model Christian church. These opinions, 
 leading him to conceive that it was want of faith 
 that prevented the miraculous gifts of the primi- 
 tive age from being enjoyed by the church in mo- 
 dern times, he with his flock, being true believers, 
 laid claim to the power of working miracles, and 
 speaking with unknown tongues. These wild ex- 
 travagances, together with the sad errors in doc- 
 trine into which Mr. Irving fell, compelled the 
 courts of the Church of Scotland to interfere. He 
 was at length declared no longer belonging to her 
 communion, and he with his deluded flock, who 
 followed blindly in all his vagaries, withdrew from 
 Regent Square church to a new chapel that was 
 built for his reception. Exhausted by anxiety and 
 incessant labours, Mr. Irving's iron constitution 
 gave way, and, while on a tour through his native 
 country, undertaken for his health, he died, at Glas- 
 gow, Dec. 8, 1834, in the Cathedral of which his 
 remains were interred. The Irvingites still form 
 a considerable body, and a scheme is at present be- 
 ing carried out for building churches in all the large 
 
 349 
 
IRW 
 
 towns of the United Kingdom in connection with 
 this sect. Towards the completion of this scheme, 
 it is reported that Henry Drummond, Esq., the 
 eminent London banker, has given the munificent 
 donation of 100,000. [R.J.] 
 
 IRWIN, Kvi.i.s. an English poet, 1751-1817. 
 
 ISAAC, son of Abraham and Sarah, 2266 B.C. 
 
 ISAAC, a patriarch of Armenia, died 1440. 
 
 ISAAC, Angelus, emperor of the East, pro- 
 claimed on the day when Andronicus Commenus 
 was killed by the populace 1185, dethroned and 
 deprived of his sight by Alexis, his brother, 1195, 
 reinstated by the crusaders, and put to death the 
 same year by Alexis Ducas, 1204. 
 
 ISAAC COMMENUS, emperor of the East 
 1057, abdicated 1059, died in a monastery 1061. 
 
 ISAAC KARO, a Spanish rabbi, 15th century. 
 
 ISAAC LEVITA, a rabbin of the 16th centurv. 
 
 ISAACSON, H., an Eng. chronolo., 1581-1654. 
 
 ISABELLA of Austria, daughter of Philip 
 II., king of Spain, and of Elizabeth of France, born 
 1566, married to Albert, son of the emperor 
 Maximilian, 1598, deprived of the sovereignty of 
 the Low Countries, which she had received after 
 the death of her husband in 1621, died 1633. 
 
 ISABELLA of Bavaria, daughter of Stephen 
 II., duke of Bavaria, born 1371, married to Charles 
 VI. of France, 1385, died miserably at Paris, after 
 a reign marked by intrigues and crimes, 1435. 
 
 ISABELLA of Castile, queen of Spain, 
 daughter of John II. king of Castile, born 1450, 
 married to Ferdinand V., king of Arragon, 1469, 
 died 1504. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 is the most glorious in the Spanish annals, and 
 from the year 1492, they bore the title of ' king ' in 
 common. In her rgn. the inquisition was founded. 
 
 ISABELLA of France, daughter of Philip 
 the Fair, born 1292, married to Edward II. of 
 England 1308, dethroned her husband with the 
 aid of her paramour, Lord Mortimer, 1326, confined 
 in the castle of Risings by her son Edward III., 
 on attaining his majority, 1330, died 1358. 
 
 ISiEUS, an Athenian orator, 4th century b.c. 
 
 ISAIAH, a prophet of the Jews, son of Amos, 
 and nephew of Amaziah, k. of Judah, 7th ct. b.c. 
 
 ISCANUS, Joseph, a Latin poet, died 1224. 
 
 IS E LIN, Isaac, a Germ, philosopher, 1728-82. 
 
 ISELIN, J. C, a Germ. Orientalist, 1681-1737. 
 
 ISEMBERT of Xaintes, a French architect, 
 employed to finish Old London Bridge 1209. 
 
 ISIASLA V, the first of the name grand duke 
 of Russia, reigned 1054-1078: the second, 1146- 
 1154; the third, 1157-1161. 
 
 ISIDORE, archbishop of Thessalonica, 15th ct. 
 
 ISIDORE of Alexandria, a saint and par- 
 tizan of Athanasius, b. in Egypt abt. 318, d. 404. 
 
 ISIDORE of Charax, a Gr. geographer, 1st c. 
 
 ISIDORE of Miletus, a Greek architect, em- 
 ployed by Justinian at Constantinople, 6th cent. 
 
 ISIDORE of Pelusium, a saint, and disciple 
 of Chrysostom, author of Letters valued for their 
 remarks on Scripture passages, on theological 
 questions, and on church discipline, d. about 440. 
 
 ISIDORE of Seville, a saint, and ecclesias- 
 tical writer and historian, distinguished for his 
 piety and erudition, born about 570, died 636. A 
 collection of spurious canons intended to prove 
 that all ecclesiastical authority emanated from the 
 ee of Rome, was a long tune attributed to him, 
 
 ITU 
 
 but they have been proved to be the for^erip: 
 an ecclesiastical writer of the 8th century^ kn 
 as Isidore Mercator, or Peccator. 
 
 ISLA, J. F., a Spanish Jesuit, 1714-1783. 
 
 ISLEIF, an Icelandic historian, 11th centun 
 
 ISHMAEL, a son of Abraham and 1 1 
 the supposed father of the Arabians, 2280 b.c. 
 
 ISHMAEL, founder of the dynasty of i 
 Sophies in Persia, 1487-1524. Ishmael II., 
 grandson, succeeded 1576, poisoned 1577. 
 
 ISOCRATES, a famous Athenian orator s 
 teacher of rhetoric, was born about 436 b.c, 
 was a contemporary of Socrates. He is reckoi 
 by Cicero among the first to perfect the melody] 
 Greek prose, and was so warmly attached to \ 
 country, that he took no food after the i, 
 of Cheronea, and four days afterwards died , 
 starvation and grief in the ninety-eighth year | 
 his age. There are some discourses and <S| 
 still extant under his name ; and it is record 
 that he never, by writing or accusation, injurecj 
 single individual. 
 
 ISRAEL BEN AARON, a Prussian rabbi, a 
 thor of ' The Light of Israel,' published 1701. 
 
 ISSELT, M. D\, a German historian, d. 159',| 
 
 ISTLIVANFIUS, Nicholas, vice-palatine 
 Hungary, and historian of that country, died 16:! 
 
 ISTRIA, Vincentello D'., viceroy of Corsi.j 
 born 1380, made viceroy 1421, executed 1434. 
 
 ITALINSKI, A., a Polish diplomatist, d. 183 
 
 ITAND, J. M. G., a Fr. physician, 1775-183 
 
 ITTIGIUS, Th., a Ger. theologian, 1644-17;; 
 
 ITURBIDE, or YTURBIDE, Don August^ 
 a Mexican officer, born of a distinguish 
 in 1784, is remarkable for his sudden elevation 
 the supreme power as emperor of Mexico, and )j 
 his tragical fate after he had played his part , 
 the drama of Mexican independence. When a 
 yoke of Spain was shaken off by some of the Air 
 rican provinces in 1816, Iturbide was in comma ; 
 of the royal army of the north, occupying Gna 
 axuato and Valladolid, and a false charge of d:| 
 loyalty being preferred against him, he retir 
 from active service, in reality, as it appears, 
 watch events, and to find means in the ruin 
 the Spaniards for the gratification of his ambiticj 
 His plans being matured, and a command offer, 
 to him, he declared for the independence of t ! 
 Mexican people, and having freed his country i 
 the common enemy, he outwitted the republican 
 and was proclaimed emperor by a coup d'etat, M 
 18th, 1822. Unable to maintain his authority | 
 a state of anarchy, which only a real king of mi 
 could have controlled, he tendered his abdicate 
 in the March following, and being handsome* 
 
 frovided for, covenanted to reside in Italy. Froj 
 taly, notwithstanding, in the beginning of 182; 
 he removed to England, and encouraged by t'j 
 division of parties in Mexico, addressed a letter 
 the congress, offering his services as a privaj 
 officer, to restore order not waiting an answ(| 
 however, but embarking for the seat of empii 
 with a magnificent imperial mantle, proclamation 
 crosses, uniforms, and insignia of all kii 
 which to caparison and dazzle the poor M 
 The message of Iturbide was received and read 
 congress on the 28th of April, and its writer ul 
 stantly proclaimed an outlaw; who, ignorant 
 the fact, arrived in person on the 12th of Jul ; 
 
 350 
 
IVA 
 
 m to be shot on the 19th, and thrown into an 
 
 nionoured grave, without coffin or shroud, like a 
 
 i\ It is evident there was no national feeling 
 
 njivour of this adventurer, as was indeed hardly 
 
 pkble in such a country and under such circum- 
 
 Sces, yet the event might have been very dif- 
 
 fiiut had he returned earlier. The rich and 
 
 pjulous state of Guadalaxara, where the military 
 
 eimand was in the hands of Bustamenti, was in 
 
 fibur of Iturbide, and in revolt against the su- 
 
 p ne government, but was subjugated by con- 
 
 e s about a month before his arrival. One last 
 
 epce was thrown in his way by La Garza, under 
 
 ur of making him prisoner, but Iturbide had 
 
 her the nerve nor the address to profit by it, 
 
 the soldiers he might have commanded, had 
 
 >een a Napoleon, led him to execution. [E.R.] 
 
 VAN, the first of the name prince of Georgia, 
 
 m to reign 1057 ; the second, grandson of the 
 
 ieding, distinguished in the war with the Turks 
 
 1 123 ; the third, grandson of the latter, reigned 
 
 i at the middle of the 12th century. 
 
 VAN, an Armenian prince in the service of 
 
 kings of Georgia, died 1231. 
 
 VANOFF, a Russian dramatist, 1777-1816. 
 
 VAR WIDFAMNE, the founder of a line of 
 
 dish and Danish kings in the 7th century. 
 
 IVES, Edward, an English traveller, d. 1786. 
 
 VES, John, an Engl, antiquarian, 1751-1776. 
 
 JAC 
 
 IVETEAUX, N. V., a French poet, 1559-1649. 
 
 IVO, IVES, or YVES, bishop of Chartres, au. 
 of a collection of decrees, canons, &c, 1035-1115 
 
 IWAN. The Russian sovereigns of this name 
 are Iwan I., who succeeded his father in the 
 principalities of Vlodomir, Moscow, and Novogorod, 
 1328, and died 1340. Iwan II., his grandson, 
 reigned 1353-1358. Iwan III., the conqueror of 
 the Tartars under Achmet Khan, the first to 
 adopt the black eagle, and claim the sovereignty 
 of all the Russias, 1438-1505. Iwan IV., grand- 
 son of the preceding, and first czar of Russia, 
 surnamed ' the Terrible ' on account of his cruel- 
 ties, but a great promoter of commerce and civil- 
 ization, 1530-1584. Iwan V., who, being deaf 
 and dumb, was associated with his brother, Peter 
 I., reigned 1682-1696. Iwan VI., poisoned in 
 infancy, 1740, to make way for Elizabeth, daugh- 
 ter of Peter I. 
 
 IXNARD, M., a French architect, 1723-1795. 
 
 IXTLILXOCHITL, Ferdinand D'Alva, an. 
 of a history of the old Mexican kings, 17th cent. 
 
 IZAACKE, R., historian of Exeter,died 1700. 
 
 IZIOCALT, the fourth king of Mexico, and real 
 founder of its government, reigned 1433-1455. 
 
 IZMAILOV, a Russian journalist, 1780-1832. 
 
 IZQUIERDO, Don Eugenio, a Spanish diplo- 
 matist, signed the truce of Fontainebleau, d. 1816. 
 
 IZZEN-CHOLLACH, a French poet, last cent. 
 
 AACOB, a learned Talmudist, 16th century. 1 renown. He had spent many years in the haras- 
 AAPHAR-EBN-THOPHAIL, an Arabian I sing and inglorious conflicts with the Indians on 
 osopher, author of ' The Improvement of Hu- the frontier, when the second war with Britain 
 
 in Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yok 
 it,' a philos. romance, transl. by Ockley, d. 1198. 
 [ABALOT, F. F., an Ital. theol., 1780-1834. 
 IAB1NEAU, H., a Fr. eccles. wr., died 1792. 
 fABLONOWSKI, C. G., a Ger. nat., 1756-87. 
 rABLONOWSKI, Joseph, Count, grandfather 
 i Stanislaus, king of Poland, known as a poet 
 I translator ; died commencement of last cen- 
 y. Joseph Alexander, Prince Jablonowski, 
 the same family, founder of a literary society 
 ich bears his name, and author of a biography 
 the great Polish generals, 1712-1777. 
 ilABLONOWSKI, Uladislas, a Polish general 
 the service of Fr. at St. Domingo, 1769-1802. 
 JABLONSKI, Daniel Ernest, a Hebrew 
 idar and protestant divine of Germany, 1660- 
 11. John Theodore, his brother, a distin- 
 lished lexicographer, 1654-1731. Paul Ernest, 
 ii of Daniel, a theolo. and lear. wr., 1693-1757. 
 JACKSON, Andrew, president of the United 
 ;ates, was born in South Carolina, on the 15th 
 iMarch, 1767. His father, a settler of Scottish 
 scent, died early, leaving him, with two older 
 pthers, to the care of their widowed mother. He 
 By showed a hardy self-relying nature, and when 
 |t a boy he shouldered a musket in the war of 
 dependence. With the versatility of employment 
 jculiar to the progressive character of the new 
 publican empire, he became a lawyer as well as 
 fwldier ; and he was at the same time a judge of 
 p supreme court of Tennessee, and a major-gen- 
 d in the army of the United States. This was 
 
 called him to more distinguished services. In 1815 
 he signalized himself by the defence of New Or- 
 leans. On this occasion he showed that somewhat 
 haughty disregard of civil rights, which was a con- 
 spicuous feature of his character ; and perhaps it 
 was well for the constitution of the United States 
 that in the midst of his triumphant popularity he 
 found himself surrounded by legal difficulties and 
 dangers. He was subjected to damages for pro- 
 ceedings affecting private parties consequent on his 
 suspending the constitution, and enforcing martial 
 law at New Orleans. There has been no states- 
 man from whom, had opportunity served him, the 
 constitution of the States was likely to run so 
 much risk. He depended on his military renown 
 and democratic principles for the votes and sup- 
 port of the multitude, and might thus in a less 
 firmly settled government have been a very dan- 
 
 fjerous man. After having served in various pub- 
 ic capacities, he became, in 1824, a candidate for 
 the presidency. Though he had the largest num- 
 ber of votes, no one had a sufficient number to be 
 elected, and Adams was selected by the representa- 
 tives, according to the constitution. In 1828 Jack- 
 son was elected by a large majority. The older party 
 viewed this event as the ascendancy of principles 
 fraught with danger to the United States ; and 
 this feeling was echoed from other countries, when 
 it was seen that his policy was connected with 
 territorial aggression, and the aggrandizement of 
 the slave-holding interest. On the renewal of the 
 
 charter of the United States Bank, a main instru 
 acter in which he was to reap his great | ment of influence to the federal government, he 
 
 351 
 
JAC 
 
 boldly trusted to popular support, and used liis 
 veto against the chambers of congress. His pre- 
 sidency lasted until 1837. He died on 8th June, 
 1845. [J.H.B.] 
 
 JACKSON, Arthur, a noncf. div., 1593-1666. 
 
 JACKSON, Cyril, an eminent div., 1746-1819. 
 His brother, William, bishop of Oxford, a clas- 
 sic al translator and mathematician, 1750-1815. 
 
 JACKSON, John, a portrait pain., 1778-1831. 
 
 JACKSON, John, a famous controver. divine, 
 philosophical writer, and chronologist, 1686-1763. 
 
 JACKSON, Joseph, a letter-founder, 1733-92. 
 
 JACKSON, Robert, a physician and profes. 
 writer, especially on the fevers of Jamaica and 
 America, and the use of cold water, 1751-1827. 
 
 JACKSON, Thomas, a learned div., 1579-1640. 
 
 JACKSON, William, a musical composer and 
 writer ; distinguished also as a painter, 1730-1804. 
 
 JACKSON, William, an Irish protestant 
 clergyman, convicted of a treasonable correspon- 
 dence with France ; d. of poison at the bar, 1795. 
 
 JACOB, the patriarch of the Bible, is supposed 
 to have been born abt. 2206 B.C., and d. abt. 2061. 
 
 JACOB, a Cistercian monk, and native of 
 Hungary, killed while preaching a crusade, 12th c. 
 
 JACOB, Al Bardi, or Burad^eus, a bishop 
 and apostle of the Monophysites in the 6th century. 
 
 JACOB, Ben Hajim, a rabbi of the 16th cent. 
 
 JACOB, Ben Napthali, a learned Jew to 
 whom, in conjunction with Ben Aser, the invention 
 of the Masoretic points is ascribed, 5th century. 
 
 JACOB, Edward, an antiquar. wr., d. 1788. 
 
 JACOB, Giles, a writer of numerous works on 
 legal subjects and in polite literature; among 
 which are his ' Lives and Characters of English 
 Dramatic Poets,' ' Law Dictry.,' &c, 1690-1744. 
 
 JACOB, Henry, founder of the first congrega- 
 tional or independent church in England, and au- 
 thor of theological treatises by which that reform 
 was promoted, died about 1624. His son, of 
 the same name, a learned writer, 1606-1652. 
 
 JACOB, Jehudah Leon, a Spanish Jew, an. 
 of a ' Descrip. of the Temple of Solomon,' 17th ct. 
 
 JACOB KOLB, G., a Fr. antiq., 1775-1830. 
 
 JACOBjEUS, Oliger, a Danish antiquarian, 
 naturalist, and literary savant, 1650-1701. His 
 son, James, a learned writer, died 1738. 
 
 JACOBI, A. R., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1746-1825. 
 
 JACOBI, Frederick Henry, born at Dussel- 
 dorf, 25th January, 1743 ; died at Munich, where 
 he was President of the Academy of Sciences, 
 10th March, 1819. Jacobi, distinguished pre- 
 eminently as a writer no German in modern 
 times having attained a style of greater lucidity 
 and beauty led the reaction which followed on 
 the various scepticisms arising in the specu- 
 lations of Kant, and explained in our article on 
 that philosopher. The scepticisms chiefly related 
 to the question how far are we entitled to 
 infer the existence of an external reality, from 
 the existence of a primary conception? Ja- 
 cobi opposed to them an imperturbable dog- 
 matism, asserting with unshrinking confidence, 
 the legitimacy and sufficiency of such conclu- 
 sions as the following : ' I think, or have an 
 idea of the Supreme Being therefore he exists.' 
 It cannot be doubted that this faith-philosophy, 
 ds it was designated, had considerable, and a very 
 salutary influence in recalling to logicians the 
 
 JAC 
 
 authority of our Intuitions ; but Jacobi 1 
 a true and philosophic faith is not s\ 
 with blind confidence in whatever may 
 in the mind ; it is confidence justified by 
 and defensible on grounds capable of" I 
 and vindicated. He exceeded in this directit 
 even the excesses of the Scottish School ; althoui 
 his expositions are everywhere distinguished I 
 acuteness, and adorned by so remarkabl 
 that his disciples have named him a mod* 
 The correspondence of this celebrated writer 
 perhaps the most interesting of any recent 
 left us. Goethe declared that it represen 
 and sums up a whole century. Jacobi may 
 considered the founder of a School : and to ha 
 had no slight influence in moulding the illustrio 
 Schleiermacher. [J.P.K 
 
 JACOBI, John Geo., brother of the j 
 
 a dist. professor and wr. of polite liter., 1740-181 
 
 JACOBILLI, L., an Italian savant, 1598-16<i 
 
 JACOBS, F. C. W., a Ger. critic, b. 1764-18 
 
 JACOBS, Jurien, a Swiss painter, 1610-16( 
 
 JACOBS, Lucas, a Dutch painter, 1 
 
 JACOBS, P. F., a Flemish painter, 1780-18( 
 
 JACOBSEN, M., a Spanish commdr., by who 
 
 the Armada was saved from total ruin, d. 1633 i 
 
 JACOBSON, John Ch. Gottfried, au. o| 
 
 1 Technological Diet, of All the Arts,' &c, 1726-* 
 
 JACOPI, J., an Italian anatomist, died 1813J 
 
 JACOPONE, or JACOPO DA TODI, an Iti 
 
 monk, whose real name was Jacopo de BenI 
 
 detti, author of ascetic writings and hym! 
 
 which have given him a place among the poets 
 
 Italy. The hest known of these is the fame 
 
 1 Stabat Mater Dolorosa ; ' died 1306. 
 
 JACOTIN, Peter, a Fr. geograph., 1765-18; 
 
 JACOTOT, Jean Joseph, celeb, as the au.1 
 
 a plan of universal education, successively capti 
 
 of artillery under Napoleon, secretary to the miti 
 
 ter of war, member of the chamber of represen' 
 
 tives 1815, prof, of literature at Louvain, and diri 
 
 tor of the military school of Belgium, 17, 
 
 JACQUARD, or JACQUART, Marie Josek 
 celebrated as the inventor of a loom for the wef 
 ing of damasks, was born at Lyons 1752, and d'. 
 1834. He was the son of a common workm 
 and first exhibited his machine in 1801, siji 
 which, it has been adopted in every manufact i - 
 of Europe and America, and is admitted to m): 
 an epoch in the weaving art. He was appoint 
 by Napoleon to an employment in the ' C 
 toire des Arts et des Metiers,' and tl 
 Lyons has erected a statue to his memory. 
 JACQUELIN, J. A., aFr. poet, 1776-1827. 
 JACQUELINE, countess of Holland, 1400-:; 
 JACQUELOT, Isaac, a prot. div., 16 47-17 . 
 JACQUEMARD, S., a Fr. poet, 1772-1830.1 
 JACQUEMIN, J. B., a Fr. geomet., 172(1-17 . 
 JACQUEMONT, Victor, a celebrated Fre 
 naturalist and traveller in the East Indies, 1). 18 
 JACQUES, M. J., a Fr. theologian, 1 , 
 JACQUET, Eugene Vincent, a Fr. nm . 
 and au. of works on the East, languages, 1811!. 
 JACQUET, J. C, a Fr. pamphleteer, last O 
 JACQUET, Louis, a French Jesuit 
 of a 'Parallel between the Greek and Freii 
 tragic writers,' 1732-1794. 
 JACQUET, Peter, a Fr. jurisconsult, d. 17 : 
 JACQUIER, F., a learned mathemat., 1711- 
 
 352 
 
JAC 
 ACQIHN, A. P., a French author, 1721-1780. 
 ACQUIN, Nicolas Joseph, a Dutch botanist, 
 hor of a magnificent work entitled ' Florae Aus- 
 jcae ' with 500 coloured engravings, 1727-1817. 
 IADELOT, N., a Fr. physiologist, 1738-1793. 
 AECK, C, a German engraver, 1763-1809. 
 AECK, M., a German jurisconsult, 1783-1833. 
 JAEGER, J. W., a German divine, bora 1647. 
 AGKLLOX, a duke of Lithuania, born about 
 ji, united the kingdom of Poland to his own 
 jhis marriage with Hedriga, and reigned as 
 idislas V., 1386, died 1434. 
 AGEMANN, C. J., a German savant, d. 1804. 
 AGO, Richard, an English poet, 1715-1781. 
 AHN, John, a professor in Vienna, disting. 
 m Oriental and biblical scholar, died 1817. 
 AILLOT, Hubert Alexis, a French geo- 
 >her, born about 1640, died 1712. 
 AKOB, L. H. Von, a German economist and 
 osopher of the school of Kant, 1759-1827. 
 ALLABERT, J., a Swiss exp. phil., 1712-68. 
 AMBLICUS, a Syrian novelist, 2d century. 
 AMBLICUS, a Platonic philosopher, 4th cent. 
 AMBLICHUS, or IAMBLICHUS, the fa- 
 s Neo-platonist and pupil of Porphyry, was 
 i at Chalcis, and died about the year 333. 
 Platonism was far from pure, for it was adul- 
 ted with many orientalisms, and degraded 
 umerous superstitions. Yet his contemporaries 
 ; lavish in their praises of his genius. His 
 tise on Pythagoras contains a life of that 
 gopher, full of ridiculous puerilities and por- 
 s, and has also several chapters on ethics and 
 netry. The book ' On the Mysteries,' is an 
 upt'to prove the divine origin and perfection 
 he Egvptian worship, with its theosophic doc- 
 's and mystic ceremonies. Many of his other 
 cs, such as his Commentaries on some of 
 o's Dialogues, are lost. His treatise on the 
 teries was published by Gale, Oxford, 1678, 
 This Jamblichus is often confounded with 
 r two persons of the same name. [J.E.] 
 
 IMES. The saints of this name are 1. The 
 tie, brother of Saint John, put to death by 
 bd Agrippa 44. 2. A bishop of Jerusalem, 
 her of St. Simon and St. Jude, killed by the 
 le, G2. 3. A bishop of Mesopotamia, 4th cen. 
 IMES. The kings of Scotland of this name 
 James I., son of Robert III., born 1394; 
 ined in England by Henry IV. and Henry V., 
 W423; succeeded to the throne 1406; mur- 
 ",d 1437. James II., son of James I., born 
 1 ; succeeded 1437 ; killed at the siege of Rox- 
 ;h 14<J0. James III., son of James II., born 
 t ; succeeded 1460 ; killed near the field of 
 urn 1488. James IV., bora 1472; suc- 
 
 t'ather James III. 1488; married Mar- 
 
 hter of Henry VII. of England, 1503 ; 
 Hodden field 1513. James V., son 
 
 >or of the latter at the age of eighteen 
 
 1513 ; married Madeleine, daughter of 
 
 jcis I , lo.'JG ; (lied, when his only child, Mary, 
 
 lays old, 1542. James VI., grandson 
 me preceding by his daughter Mary, who was 
 Jnedto Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, born 1566; 
 lined at Stirling by the insurgent nobles 1567; 
 
 eth as king of England 1603 ; d. 1625. 
 - I., king of England, same as James 
 'lf Scotland. James II 
 
 JAN 
 
 ceeded his brother, Charles TL, 1685; lost his throne 
 and took refuge in France 1688 ; landed in Ireland, 
 and lost the battle of the Boyne 1690 ; died 1701. 
 
 JAMES I., king of Arragon, born 1206, sue. 
 1213 ; died 1216. James II., reigned 1285-1327. 
 
 JAMES I., king of Majorca, son of James I., 
 king of Arragon, flourished 1248-1311. James 
 II., grandson of James L, reigned 1324-1349. 
 
 JAMES of Bourbon, count of La Marche, 
 and second husband of Jeanne II., queen of Naples, 
 whom he married after the death of Beatrix of 
 Navarre, his first wife, died 1438. 
 
 JAMES of Majorca, third husband of Jeanne 
 I., queen of Naples, whom he married on being 
 delivered from his three years' imprisonment in an 
 iron cage, 1362 ; died duke of Calabria 1375. 
 
 JAMES of Vitri, a French cardinal and his- 
 torian, persecutor of the Albigenses, died 1244. 
 
 JAMES of Voragine, an Ital. prelate, d. 1298. 
 
 JAMES, John Thos., D.D., bishop of Calcutta 
 after the death of Bishop Heber, 1786-1829. 
 
 JAMES, Robert, a physician and professional 
 writer, auth. of a ' Medical Dictionary, and celeb, 
 for the preparation of a fever powder, 1703-1776. 
 
 JAMES, Thos., auth. of school-books, d. 1804. 
 
 JAMES, Thomas, a distinguished navigator 
 and discoverer, author of a curious journal, 17th c. 
 
 JAMES, Thomas, a learned divine and collec- 
 tor of curious MSS., author of a ' Treatise on the 
 Corruption of Scriptures, Councils, and Fathers,' 
 1571-1632. His nephew, Richard, a distin- 
 guished scholar, 1592-1638. 
 
 JAMES, William, a land surveyor, distin- 
 guished as the first projector of the Manchester 
 and Liverpool railway, and regarded as the father 
 of the railway system, 1771-1837. 
 
 JAMES, William, a naval historian, d. 1827. 
 
 JAMES, Sir W., an E. Indian officer, 1720-83. 
 
 JAMESON, G., a Scotch painter, 1586-1644. 
 
 JAMESON, W., an English savant, author of 
 ' Spicilegia Antiquitatum iEgyptii,' last century. 
 
 JAMET, P. C, a French author, bora 1701. 
 
 JAMI, an Oriental poet, 1414-1494. 
 
 JAMIESON, Rev. John, a Scottish seceding 
 minister, born at Glasgow 1759, ordained at For- 
 far in 1786, translated to Edinburgh 1797, author 
 of many popular professional works, but is best 
 known to the world at large by his 'Historical Ac- 
 count of the Culdees of Iona,' his 'Hermes Scythi- 
 cus,' and above all by his 'Etymological Diction, of 
 the Scottish Language.' Died at Edinburgh 1838. 
 
 JAMIN, N., an ascetic of Brittany, 1730-1782. 
 
 JAMYN, Amadis, a French poet, 1538-1585. 
 
 JANE. See Jeanne, Joan. 
 
 JANEWAY., J., a nonconform, divine, 1636-74. 
 
 JANI, Ch. D., a German philosopher, 1743-90. 
 
 JAN1CON, Francis Michael, a French pro- 
 testant, known as a political writer, 1674-1730. 
 
 JAN1N, Joseph, a French historian, 1715-94. 
 
 JANITIUS, C, a Polish historian, 1616-1643. 
 
 JANNES and JAMBRES, the name by which 
 Paul calls the magicians who resisted Moses in 
 Egypt, and supposed to be the same as Jamne 
 and Jotape mentioned by Pliny, and as the Jo- 
 hunni and Mamre of the Talmud. 
 
 JANOSKI, J. D., a Polish savant, 1720-1786. 
 
 JANSEN, H., a French translator, 1741-1812. 
 
 JANSENIUS, Cornelius, bishop of Ghent, 
 his grandson, sue- I author of a * Harmony of the Gospel,' 1510-1576. 
 353 2 A 
 
JAN 
 
 JANSENIUS, James, professor of divinity at 
 Louvain, au. of Scripture Comment., 1547-1625. 
 
 .] AN SSKX, CuKM-.iLLE, (Cornelius Jansen- 
 ns\ was born in a hamlet called Accoy, close upon 
 Leerdam, in Flanders, in a.d. 1585. In 1602 he 
 went to study at Louvain, but his severe industry 
 brought on a malady which required change of air, 
 and "the young student repaired to Paris, where he 
 formed a friendship with Jean du Verger de Hau- 
 ranne, better known as the Abbe* St.Cyran in the sub- 
 sequent history of Jansenism. The two friends re- 
 tired to Bavonne, where they spent several years 
 in earliest study and meditation. On returning to 
 Louvain, Janssen was elevated to the principality 
 of the college of St. Pulcheria, became doctor of 
 theology in 1617, and was added to the number 
 of professors in ordinary. Twice was he sent by his 
 college to Spain on business of moment. He was 
 raised to the bishoprick of Ypres in 1 635; a work writ- 
 ten by him against France for forming alliances with 
 protectant states having contributed to secure him 
 such patronage from the court of Spain. He died 
 of the plague in 1638, in the fifty-third year of 
 his age. A large part of his life at least twenty 
 years of it had been spent in studying and col- 
 lecting the works of Augustine. The result of his 
 labours his 'Augustinus,' scarcely finished at his 
 decease he submitted to the judgment of Pope 
 Urban VIII. His friends published the posthumous 
 volumes at Louvain in 1640. The Jesuits, who 
 were favourers of Pelagianism, were its bitter and 
 truculent opponents. Five propositions were se- 
 lected to be condemned, and after many scenes of 
 strife and papal anathema, the Bull Unigenitus 
 was issued by Pope Clement XL, which put under 
 ban the evangelical doctrines of Quesnel, Janssen, 
 and the whole party. Port-royal, the happy 
 abode of so many of them, had before this time 
 been razed to the ground by Jesuit malice and 
 intrigue. [J.E.] 
 
 JANSSEN, or JOHNSON, Cornel., a Dutch 
 portrait painter, disting. in England, 1590-1685. 
 
 JANSSENS, A., a Flemish painter, 1569-1631. 
 
 JANSSENS, Victor Honorius, a Flemish 
 painter, disting. in historical subjects, 1664-1739. 
 
 JANTET, A. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1747-1805. 
 
 JANUARIUS, a bishop and saint of the Romish 
 Church, beheaded in the persecu. under Diocletian. 
 
 JANVIER, Antide, a French mechanician and 
 writer on the chronometer and orrery, 1751-1835. 
 
 JANVIER, Dom Rene Ambroise, a learned 
 French monk and editor of Hebrew, 1614-1682. 
 
 JAPHETH, the third son of Noah, and the 
 Japetes of profane history, ancestor of the Greeks. 
 
 JAQUELOT, Isaac, a Fr. divine, 1647-1708. 
 
 JAQUOT, Blaise, a Fr. jurist, abt. 1580-1632. 
 
 JARCHI, Solomon Ben. See Raschi. 
 
 JARD, Francis, a Fr. preacher, 1675-1768. 
 
 JARDEL, a Fr. archaeologist, died after 1793. 
 
 JARDIN, N. H., a Fr. architect, 1720-1799. 
 
 JARDINE, G., a Scotch philosopher, 1743-1827. 
 
 JARD1NIER, C. D., a French engr., 1726-74. 
 
 JARDINS, Mary Catherine Des, a French 
 novelist, best kn. as Madame de Villedieu, d. 1683. 
 
 JARDYN, Karl Du. See Dujardin. 
 
 JARNOWICK, G. M., a eel. violinist, 1745-1804. 
 
 JAROPOL or JAROPOLK, the first of the 
 name, grand duke of Russia, reigned 973-980 ; the 
 iccond, grandson of the preceding, 1132-1138. 
 
 JEB 
 
 JAROSLAW, or JAROSLAV, George, grn 
 duke of Russia, a great patron of learn., d. 100 
 
 JARRIGE, Peter, a French Jesuit, 1605-61 
 
 JARRY, Lawrence Guilhaud Dr. 
 preacher, kn. as a poet and relig. wr., 1658-173 
 
 JARS, Francis De Rochechouak i 
 De, a French officer, disting. in the annals of t 
 Bastile for his singular courage, died 1670. 
 
 JARS, Gabriel, a Fr. mineralogist, 1732-6 
 
 JARVIS, John, an Irish artist, distinaS 
 as a painter on glass, born about 1749, died 18( 
 
 JASON, a tyrant of Thessalia, 4th cent. b.c. 
 
 JAUCOURT, Louis, Chevalier De, a Freii 
 med. wr., and contrib. to the Encyclo., 1704-17' 
 
 JAUGEON, N, a Fr. archaeologist, died 172 
 
 JAULT, Aug. Fr., a Fr. translator, 1700-17, 
 
 JAUREGUI-Y-AGUILAR, Juan De, aSp* 
 ish painter, poet, and translator, 1566-1(107. 
 
 JAUSSAUD, L. De, a Fr. Hellenist, 1580-16 1 
 
 JAUSSIN, L. Arnaud, a Fr. historn., d. 17, 
 
 JAY, John Michael Le, an Oriental schcj 
 and advocate of the parliament of Paris, d. 167J 
 
 JAY, John, an Ameri. statesman, 1745-182' 
 
 JAYADEVA, a eel. Hindu poet, 12th to 15tlj 
 
 JEACOCKE, Caleb, a tradesman of Lond| 
 celebrated as a debater; author of a ' Vindicat 
 of the Moral Character of the Apos. Paul,' d. 17 
 
 JEAN EVANGELISTE, Le Pere, was), 
 Capuchin of Louvain, who was known to be livjj 
 in 1639. He is the author of a work entitji 
 'De Regno Dei in Anima,' which is the firj: 
 introduction to the understanding of mystical n 
 jects ever written, and is the only work atjl 
 comparable to Boehmen's 'Divine Vision.' Ii 
 this eulogium we must be understood to incluci 
 second part, added to the editions of Frank;! 
 in 1690 and 1692, and entitled 'De Separate 
 Animae et Spiritus,' or ' The Separation of ! 
 Soul and the Spirit, illustrating the inw]l 
 ascent of the Bride through the degrees of Le 
 Love.' In support of his thesis concerning <e 
 soul's gathering in to herself, of her introvers,;, 
 and of her drawing near and exalting herself a 
 God, the author cites many famous name^f 
 admitted integrity. It is altogether a curious jd 
 valuable treatise on the state of ecstacy. [E ] 
 
 JEANES, Henry, an Eng. theolog., 1G11- . 
 
 JEANNE D'ALBRET. See Albret. 
 
 JEANNE, queen of Naples. See Joax. 
 
 JEANNE, Henriquez, queen of Castile d 
 Arragon, wife of John II., died 1468. 
 
 JEANNE-LA-FOLLE, queen of Castile, daitf 
 ter of Ferdinand the Catholic, wife of Phi 
 duke of Austria, and mo. of Chas. V., 1482-1 '< 
 
 JEANNE of Navarre, daughter of Henr ., 
 king of Navarre, and wife of Philip the Fair, g 
 of France, 1272-1305. 
 
 JEANNE of Valois, or St. Jeann; 
 of Louis XL, founder of a relig. order, 1464-1 a 
 
 JEANNIN, Peter, kn. as President Jeai I 
 a Fr. financier, minister of Henry IV., \h 10-1 -' 
 
 JEANROI, D., a Fr. med. writer, 17 
 
 JEANSON, B., a French architect, died U . 
 
 JEAURAT, E. S., a Fr. mathematician, foq I 
 of the observatory at the mil. school, 1724-18 1 
 
 JEBB, John, an Irish prelate, autl 
 ' Essay on Sacred Literature,' &c, 1775-18 
 
 JEBB, John, a learned divine and Oii 
 scholar, who became a physician on p 
 
 354 
 
JED 
 
 cinanism, 1786-1786. Samuel, his uncle, a 
 irned editor of the nonjuring party, afterwards 
 phvsician, died 1772. Sir Richard Jebb, 
 t., son of Sam., physicn. to Geo. III., 1729-1787. 
 JEDAAIA, H., Rabbi, surnamed Habbedrasci, 
 Jewish poet and theologian of Spain, 13th cent. 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas, an eminent American 
 itesman, was born in 1743, at Shadwell, in Vir- 
 iia. He was educated as a lawyer, and combin- 
 y with his professional training great scholarship, 
 d a capacity of expressing himself with ease and 
 ecision, he became of eminent service in drawing 
 e documents connected with the establishment 
 American independence, and otherwise aiding 
 the arrangements connected with that great 
 ent. He prepared the first draught of the De- 
 lation of Independence, which was revised by 
 anklin and Adams. In a document relating to 
 ; disposal of his estates in his old age, he gave 
 is brief and distinct account of his history : ' I 
 ne of age in 1764, and was soon put into the 
 minatfon of justices of the county in which I 
 ed, and at the first election following I became 
 e of its representatives in the legislature ; was 
 ?nce sent to the old Congress; then employed two 
 irs with Mr. Pendleton and Mr. Wythe on the re- 
 al and reduction to a single code of the whole 
 iy of the British statutes, the acts of our assem- 
 r , and certain parts of the common law ; then 
 cted governor , next to the legislature, and to 
 ngress again ; sent to Europe as minister-pleni- 
 tentiary; appointed secretary of state to the 
 a- government ; elected vice-president and pre- 
 ent ; and, lastly, a visitor and rector of the uni- 
 sity of Virginia.' His opinions were strongly 
 pressed on the principles of government and the 
 ly legislation of the United States He was a 
 trough republican, and the opponent of the 
 erative party; but it requires to be kept in 
 w that this opposition was derived from the old 
 nerican school of abstract republicanism, and 
 lality of citizenship, and had little harmony 
 :h the later anti-federalism, and its appeals to 
 ;>b influence to accomplish conventional purposes, 
 us, while he abolished primogeniture and the 
 arch establishment, he also restrained the slave 
 de, and his sentiments were in favour of the abo- 
 Son of slavery. In 1801 he succeeded the elder 
 i.ams as president, by choice of the House of Re- 
 hsentatives, who had to decide between him and 
 ' opponent, on account of an equality of votes. 
 ,ere is no doubt that this choice was eminently 
 Ipitious to the stability of the constitution, when 
 n that his rival was the unscrupulous 
 ll clever Colonel Burr. Jefferson filled the office 
 eight years, and from the year 1809 he lived 
 retirement in Virginia, until his death on the 
 i of July, 1826, the anniversary of the declara- 
 i of independence, and the day on which his 
 nd and rival, the elder Adams, died. [J.H.B.] 
 
 FFKRV, J., a div. and moralist, 1647-1720. 
 
 FFKRY, Th., a nonconfor. divine, last cen. 
 KEY, Francis, one of the most masterly 
 lira and most eloquent writers in the English 
 was a very remarkable instance ot the 
 abination of different and dissimilar faculties, as 
 II as of indefatigable energy and rapid versati- 
 ' m the employment of mental powers. During 
 i twenty-five years when his literary labours 
 
 JEF 
 
 would have seemed to be incessant, he was prac- 
 tising the legal profession with activity and in- 
 creasing success : he was the leading barrister in 
 the Scottish courts, while he continued to vindicate 
 his place as the first literary critic of his time ; and 
 in his declining years, when literature had ceased 
 to be for him anything more than an amusement, 
 he gained, by his knowledge and acuteness and 
 industry on the bench, an eminent reputation 
 among the best judges that have administered the 
 law of Scotland. He, too, the good lawyer and 
 celebrated writer, was a singularly eloquent and 
 effective speaker; fluent, refined, and masterly in 
 public oratory, and in private society one of the 
 most brilliant of talkers. In his writings, again, 
 to say nothing of the variety of information in- 
 volved in the diversified fields over which he ex- 
 Eatiated, there is an admirable union and an 
 armonious balancing of vigorous thought with 
 impressive representation: gay and graceful wit, 
 sometimes luxuriating too keenly to be good-na- 
 tured, alternates with the natural expression of 
 serious feelings which are always refined and not 
 infrequently profound ; and an imagination almost 
 fertile and original enough to have made him a 
 poet, throws over all his writings a wealth of feli- 
 citously illustrative imagery hardly ever employed 
 to garnish so much of active and sagacious think- 
 ing. Francis Jeffrey was born at Edinburgh in 
 October, 1773. His father, a lawyer by profession, 
 was one of the deputy-clerks or registrars of the 
 Court of Session, the supreme law-court of Scot- 
 land. After having passed six years at the High 
 School of Edinburgh, he studied at the university 
 of Glasgow for two sessions of six months each, and 
 afterwards, in his eighteenth year, resided for 
 a few months at Oxford. His youth was spent 
 in industrious reading, which embraced classics, 
 history, ethics, criticism, and the Belles Lettres: he 
 was indefatigable in practising composition, and 
 in early manhood wrote many verses. At the age 
 of twenty-one, he was admitted to the Scottish 
 bar, where, for not a few years, he was so little 
 employed as to have full leisure for literary pur- 
 suits. The first number of the Edinburgh Review, 
 which contained five papers of Jeffrey's, appeared in 
 October, 1802, when he was just twenty-nine years 
 old ; and he became its editor after the first two or 
 three numbers. The celebrity which the Review at 
 once attained was owing more, in an incalculable 
 degree, to him than to any other of the contribu- 
 tors : the papers which he furnished to it were for 
 many years very numerous, and were those on 
 which its critical authority rested ; and his skill and 
 industry in editing were very valuable. At first 
 considerably open in its politics, the Review soon 
 became decidedly Whiggisn ; and the Quarterly was 
 established as a rival. But, for a good many years 
 after this, its energy suffered no perceptible dimi- 
 nution ; and the exertions of its editor were unre- 
 laxed, in spite of the claims of a professional prac- 
 tice, which was now becoming very great. In the 
 meantime, in 1802, he had married a relation of 
 his own, whom he soon lost, to the deep grief of a 
 heart keenly awake to the domestic and friendly 
 affections. In 1813 he married a grand-niece of 
 John Wilkes, crossing to the United States to 
 bring her home. In 1815 he became the occupant 
 of the beautiful villa of Craigcrook, near Edin- 
 
 355 
 
JEF 
 bA which, improved by his fine taste, became 
 a DUM of meeting for many of the most distin- 
 guished persons in Europe. In 1816 Jeffrey's 
 
 [Craigcrook Castle.] 
 
 eloquence as a public speaker found for the first 
 time an adequate field ; trial by jury, which had 
 hitherto been confined in Scotland to criminal 
 causes, being then extended to civil questions. 
 From this time till he ceased to practise, he was 
 the acknowledged leader of the Scottish bar. In 
 1820, and again in 1821, he was elected Lord Rec- 
 tor of the university of Glasgow by the students, 
 an honour which has since been cordially accepted 
 by some of our most eminent literary men and 
 statesmen. In 1829 his professional brethren au- 
 thoritatively acknowledged his standing, by ap- 
 pointing him Dean or President of the Faculty of 
 Advocates. He immediately resigned the editor- 
 ship of the Review, which had long been burden- 
 some and undesirable. At this point his literary 
 life may be said to close. During the twenty- 
 seven years, he had contributed to the Review 
 about two hundred articles. A new stage in his 
 history opened with the accession of the Whigs to 
 political power. In December 1830, he was ap- 
 pointed Lord Advocate, an office which, besides 
 many other duties, involves those of a secretary of 
 state for Scotland. He necessarily entered parlia- 
 ment, but too late for eminent success, being now 
 in his fifty-eighth year, without adequate training 
 for the peculiar arena, and with a voice already 
 broken so far as to deprive him in a great measure 
 of the advantages which had belonged to his powers 
 of oratory. His chief speeches in the House of 
 Commons were made in support of those measures 
 of reform in parliamentary representation and civic 
 government, which it was his official duty to in- 
 troduce. In May, 1834, he was raised to the 
 bench as one of the judges in the Court of Session, 
 assuming, according to the Scottish fashion, the 
 honorary title of Lord Jeffrey. He delighted in 
 his judicial duties; and no man ever performed 
 them better. The remaining years of his life were 
 spent in peace and honour. Never was old age 
 more kindly or more placid ; and, when the last 
 scene arrived, the regrets of a whole community 
 were poured on his grave. In 1841, an attack of 
 bronchitis, the disease which had often distressed 
 and at length destroyed him, compelled bin to 
 seek repose for some months. In 1843 he pub- 
 
 JEL 
 lished, with unfeigned reluctance, three volum* 
 containing selections from his 'Contribution! t 
 the Edinburgh Review. 1 He died at Edinburgh o 
 the 26th of January, 1850, leaving a widow wh 
 survived him but for a very short time, and 
 daughter, whose husband, Mr. Empson (also sim: 
 dead), became the third editor of the Edmbwrg 
 Review. [W.S. 
 
 JEFFREYS, George, Lord, an English law 
 yer, whose name, though he was a man 
 derable ability, is better known by the infani 
 than the capacity of its owner, was born in th 
 year 1648. He was the sixth son of a moderate] 
 wealthy country gentleman, unable to give hir 
 more than a good education as a barrister, and h 
 had thus to fight his way in the world a functio 
 to which he brought abilities, perseverance, and a 
 utterly unscrupulous nature. Until he ! 
 tered his nerves by dissipation, he was not desti 
 tute of courage, and he first obtained notice b 
 attending an assize at Kingston during the plagu<i 
 when other members of the profession were* fright 
 ened away. He became recorder of London, an: 
 gradually rose, until, in 1683, he became chiil 
 justice of the King's Bench. In this capaefr 
 after Monmouth's rebellion, he lent himselt mo: 
 in the spirit of a savage chief than of an Englis! 
 judge to the exterminating policy of the court, ar: 
 his judicial condemnations obtained the charaij 
 teristic name of Jeffreys' campaign. He was ini 
 mediately rewarded with the office of lord bnjl 
 chancellor, when he transferred his services to 
 less sanguinary sphere. His wild recklessness 
 demeanour, his dissipated life, and his unscrapi 
 lous perversion of the judicial function in 
 matters, mixed up with an able discharge of b 
 duty in other questions, make a curious and vari> 
 narrative in the memoirs of Jeffreys by Woolric: 
 Conscious of danger, if not of guilt, at the Revohi 
 tion, he disguised himself as a sailor, and lurk 
 at Wapping to attempt an escape. A man, who 
 he had terrified from the judgment-seat, reco 
 nized his ferocious eyes glaring from a tavern wi 
 dow, and gave the alarm. He was with difficul 
 rescued from popular vengeance, and removed 
 the Tower, where he died, on the 19th Apr 
 1689. [J.H.E 
 
 JEFFREYS, Geo., an Eng. poet, 1678-1755! 
 JEFFRIES, John, an Am. physic, 1744-181: 
 JEGHEN, Chr., a Ger. engraver, 1578-1635 
 JEHAN-GHIR, Abul Muzakkf.k Nou*b 
 deen Mohammed, emperor of llindostan, si 
 and successor of Akbar, 1605, died, after a rri 
 dist. by the encouragem. of art and litera., 1627 
 JEHOAHAZ, king of Judah, about 609 B.C. 
 JEHOAHAZ, king of Israel, 848-832 B.C. 
 JEHOIACHIN, king of Judah, about 594 b.< 
 JEHOIAKIM, king of Judah, 608-597 B.tt 
 JEHORAM, a king of Judah, 888-885 r.x. 
 JEHOSHAPHAT, king of Judah, 913-888 B 
 JEHU, a prophet of Israel, about 932 B.C. 
 JEHU, a king of Israel, reigned 876-^ 
 JEKYL, or JEKYLL, Sir Joseph, s \Y) 
 lawver and statesman of the reign of George 
 1664-1738. His brother, Thomas, a < 
 and author, dates unknown. Their descends 
 Joseph, an eminent barrister, solicitor-general 
 the prince of Wales, 1752-1837. 
 JELAL ED DEEN ROUMI, a Per. poet, 18*1 
 
 356 
 
 
JEL 
 ijELGERHIUS, J., a Dutch paint., 1776-1836. 
 JE.LLINGER, C, a Germ, theolog., 17th cen. 
 JENISCH, Bernard, Baron De, a German 
 lientalist, and historian of Persia, 1734-1807. 
 IjENISCHIUS, P., a Flem. savant, 1558-1647. 
 JENTSHID, or GIARNSCHID. See Djemchid. 
 JENKIN, R., a learned divine, 1656-1727. 
 JENKIN, W., a nonconfor. divine, 1612-1685. 
 j.JENKINS, David, a famous judge and royalist, 
 ,. of ' Reports and Polit. Tracts,' &c, 1586-1667. 
 JENKINS, Henry, a native of Yorkshire, who 
 >d in poverty when 169 years of age, 1670. 
 JENKINS, Sir Leoline, a native of Glamor- 
 inshire, ambassador at the Hague in the reign of 
 carles II., and a distinguished civilian, 1623-85. 
 JENKINSON. See Liverpool. 
 JENKINSON, Anthony, an English gentleman 
 [0 was sent out (1558-1559) to inquire into the 
 nmercial resources of Central Asia. He was the 
 it Englishman who crossed the Caspian, and 
 s first person who in modern times has given an 
 :ount of that sea. He reduced its dimensions 
 longitude ; and made many other accurate deter- 
 nations of geographical positions. 
 JENKS, Benjamin, a clergyman of the Church 
 England, author of ' Prayers and Offices of 
 votion,' 1646-1724. 
 
 JENNENS, Charles, a gentleman of fortune, 
 >t suggestor of oratorios in England, died 1773. 
 TENNER, Ch., an English poet, 1737-1774. 
 JENNER, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., the dis- 
 erer of vaccination, was born at Berkeley, in 
 jucestershire, on the 17th of May, 1749. He 
 t his father, who was vicar of Berkeley, early in 
 !, and the direction of his education devolved 
 jn his brother, the Rev. Stephen Jenner. He 
 played at an early age a taste for natural his- 
 y, and being destined for the profession of medi- 
 e he was apprenticed to Mr. Ludlow of Sod- 
 ry, near Bristol, a respectable provincial prac- 
 ioner ; and subsequently removed to London in 
 70, where he became for two years a house pupil 
 the celebrated John Hunter. On the comple- 
 m of his education in London he returned to his 
 live place, where he began business as a general 
 petitioner, and soon acquired an extensive and 
 ill-deserved reputation. In 1798, he made 
 lit discovery with which his name is now per- 
 mently associated, namely, that a pustular 
 iption on the teats of cows, and supposed to be 
 ntical with the disease called the ' Grease ' in 
 : heels of horses, had such a relationship to the 
 tter of small-pox, that if inserted into the 
 man constitution it would be protected against 
 it terrible disease. This great fact was an- 
 unced publicly by Dr. Jenner in 1798, but it 
 s coldly received, and both the public and the 
 fession were extremely sceptical as to its truth, 
 is now too firmly established to be shaken, 
 j'Ugh the amount of protection is not so great as 
 at one time supposed ; still the saving of hu- 
 \n life from this discovery has been immense, 
 |1 assuredly scientific medicine has never be- 
 Iwed upon humanity a more precious gift than 
 ice of vaccination. It was proposed to 
 is distinguished physician by a grant of 
 "it the House of Commons would only 
 ), and even that with difficulty. It is 
 lancholy to be obliged to state that Jenner's 
 
 357 
 
 JER 
 
 life was embittered by the controversies to which 
 his discovery led, and that an amiable, a virtuous, 
 and an accomplished man, was disturbed by petty 
 squabbles, to which his nature was utterly ab- 
 horrent. He died on the 26th of January, 1823, in 
 the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried 
 on the 3d of February in the chancel of the parish 
 church of Berkeley. _ [J.M'C] 
 
 JENNINGS, Dr. David, a dissenting minister 
 of great learning, author of ' An Appeal to Reason 
 for the Truth of the Holy Scriptures,' and a pos- 
 thumous work on ' Jewish Antiquities,' 1691-1762. 
 
 JENNINGS, Henry Constantine, a celebra. 
 collector of antiquities and objects of vertu and 
 natural history, author of works connected with 
 religious and philosophical inquiries, 1731-1819. 
 
 JENSON, N., a French printer, 1420-1483. 
 
 JENYNS, Soame, a country gentleman, known 
 in the political world as a member of parliament, 
 and partizan of Sir Robert Walpole, and distin- 
 guished in literature as one of the most elegant 
 and ingenious writers of his age. Besides poems, 
 essays, and political tracts, he is the author of 
 ' A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of 
 Evil,' published 1757, and 4 A View of the Inter- 
 nal Evidence of the Christian Religion,' which be- 
 came the subject of a considerable controversy, 
 born in London 1704, died 1787. 
 
 JEPHSON, R., an Irish dramatist, 1736-1803. 
 
 JEPTHAH,ajudgeofthe Hebrews, 1243-37 B.C. 
 
 JEREMIAH, one of the Jewish prophets, 630b.c. 
 
 JEREMIAH, patriarch of Constantinople, 1572. 
 
 JERNINGHAM, Edward, an English poet 
 and dramatist, author of 'The Rise and Fall of 
 Scandinavian Poetry,' &c, 1727-1812. 
 
 JEROBOAM, the first of the name king of 
 Israel, 962-943 B.C. The second, 817-776 b.c. 
 
 JEROME, or according to his full Latin name, 
 
 EUSEBIUS HlERONYMUS SOPHRONIUS, was bom 
 
 of Christian parents at Stridon, a town of Dal- 
 matia, about the year 331. After enjoying high 
 educational advantages under his father, he was 
 sent to Rome to prosecute his studies. On being 
 baptized he made a tour into Gaul, and remained 
 for a few years at Treves, carrying out his likings 
 for Christian and ecclesiastical literature. On 
 leaving Gaul, the probability is that he returned 
 to Rome, and at Aquileia, in 370, he composed his 
 earliest theological essay the first-born of a 
 numerous progeny. Here also he formed his 
 intimacy with Rufinus, a friend whom afterwards 
 he so heartily abused. In 373 he carried himself, 
 his library, and some friends to the East, passed 
 through Thrace and the other provinces on his 
 line of journey, and on his arrival at Antioch one 
 companion died, and himself was visited with an 
 alarming illness. This malady seems to have 
 darkened his spirit, and deepened his resolution 
 to live in cloistered solitude. Soon after he retired 
 to a desert east of Antioch, and spent four years 
 in ascetic torture, hard literary laoour, and self- 
 education. His retreat was at length invaded 
 by controversy, for Meletius and Paulinus fought 
 for the pre-eminence in the church at Antioch, 
 and he espoused the interest of the latter. In 
 379 he returned to Antioch, and was ordained a 
 presbyter. The next year he visited Constan- 
 tinople, where for three years he enjoyed the 
 friendship and patronage of Gregory of Nazianzus. 
 
JER 
 
 Flere he translated the Chronicon of Eusebius, and 
 portions of the works of Origen. The contests at 
 Antioeh still raged, and Meletius being dead, Pope 
 Damasus summoned Paulinus and his party to 
 Rome, in order to ascertain the bearings of the 
 
 Suarrel. In the conferences held on the subject, 
 erome officiated as secretary, and the pope 
 became so interested in him, that he retained him 
 in the Western capital, and urged him especially 
 to the revisal of the Latin version of the Bible. 
 But his passion for a monastic life led him to 
 describe its virtues and glories in such impressive 
 pictures, that the ladies of Rome were filled with 
 his enthusiasm, and so much did the furor spread, 
 that husbands, brothers, and fathers denounced 
 Jerome, and the very populace insulted him. On 
 the death of Damasus, his discretion prompted him 
 to leave Rome, and he returned to the East in 385. 
 There immediately followed him two wealthy 
 devotees, the widow Paula, and her daughter 
 Eustochium. With these ladies and their female 
 attendants, Jerome travelled through the Holy 
 Land, and having visited Egypt, he finally settled 
 at Bethlehem, in 386, where Paula erected four 
 religious establishments, three for nuns, and one 
 for monks. This latter monastery Jerome go- 
 verned for many years, and spent the remainder 
 of his life in the composition of many religious 
 works. In the great controversies of the period 
 he bore no inactive share. The Pelagians, whom 
 he had so bitterly castigated, were at length 
 tempted to retaliate with secular hostility, and a 
 band of them invaded his retreat, and so endan- 
 gered his life, that he was obliged to spend two 
 years in secrecy and exile. Safety being restored, 
 he returned in 418 to his cell ; but his exhausted 
 nature at length sunk amidst unceasing labours 
 and mortifications, and he died at the age of ninety, 
 on the 30th September, 420 The life of Jerome 
 was a busy one. He wrote on almost every 
 subject. Biography, history, theology, biblical 
 translations, polemics, and commentaries on a very 
 large portion both of the Old and New Testaments, 
 kept him in incessant toil. His Latin style is pure 
 and terse on the whole. He excelled all his con- 
 temporaries in erudition. He wanted the glowing 
 fancy of Chrysostom, and the serene temper and 
 symmetrical intellect of Augustine, but he was 
 beyond them both in critical skill and taste. His 
 faults lie upon the surface ; a hot and hasty dis- 
 position, wnich so resented every opposition, and 
 magnified trifles, that in his towering passion, he 
 heaped upon opponents opprobrious epithets and 
 coarse invective. Haste, eagerness, and acerbity, 
 appear also in his letters and expositions. His 
 mode of life must have greatly aggravated this 
 touchiness and irascibility, as it deprived him of 
 the mollifying influence of society and friendship. 
 His heart was estranged from human sympathies ; 
 and save when lighted up by the ardours of his 
 indignant passion, it was like his own cell, cold, 
 gloomy, and uninviting. The works of Jerome 
 will always maintain for him the esteem of Chris- 
 tendom. There is in them a great deal that is 
 baseless, fanciful, and one-sided, but very much 
 that is useful and instructive in exegesis and theo- 
 logy. In the Vulgate, the Old Testament was 
 translated by him directly from the Hebrew, and 
 the New Testament is a re vision of previous trans- 
 
 JOA 
 
 lations. The first of those works, great 
 meritorious as it is, was received witli some i 
 picions, under which the translator was very 
 patient and fretful. The first edition of Jeroi 
 work was that of Erasmus, Basel, 9 vols, fi 
 1516. The Benedictine edition appeared in 5 ^ 
 folio, 1693-1706. The best edition is that of 1 
 larsi, in 11 vols, folio, which originally appei 
 at Verona, 1736-1742, and was reprinted 
 quarto at Venice in 1766-72, in 24 parts, usn 
 bound in 11 volumes. ("J 
 
 JEROME EMILIANI, a Venetian officer in 
 Austrian service, afterw. arel. founder, 1481-1, 
 
 JEROME of Prague, an intimate friem 
 John Huss, and like him a martyr of the tS 
 said to have copied the writings of Wickliff 
 Oxford, and to have studied at the univeflJM 
 Paris, Heidelberg, and Cologne. His career 
 reformer dates from 1400 to his death at the s 
 in 1415, and the scenes of his activity wer 
 Bohemia, Poland, and Hungarv. He was a 
 of great learning and dignity of manner, and' 
 dured his fate so courageously as to e.x< ;: 
 miration of his enemies, who have also testi 
 to the superiority of his character. 
 
 JEROME of Santa Fe, a Spanish Jew, 
 markable for his conversion to Christianity, 
 his writings against the errors of the Ji 
 
 JERUSALEM, J. Fr. William, a Gerj 
 divine, author of ' Letters on the Mosaic Reli[ 
 and Philosophy,' on ' German Literature,' 
 1709-1789. The suicide of his son, ' Young jli 
 salem,' suggested to Goethe the story of Wert 
 
 JERVAS, Charles, an Irish portrait par 
 who became fashionable as an artist. He ji, 
 lished a translation of Don Quixote; died 173 
 
 JERVIS, John. See St. Vincent. 
 
 JESSEY, Henry, an eminent clergyman i 
 suffered imprisonment at the Restoration fo i 
 nonconformity. He was a learned Ori<-. 
 lar, and distinguished for his biblical knowl * 
 Minister of St. George's, Southwark, during li 
 Commonwealth ; died 1633. 
 
 JESUA, Levita, a Spanish rabbi, 15th c(, 
 
 JEUFFROY, R, V., a French gem and r 1: 
 engraver, 1749-1826. 
 
 JEWEL, John, bishop of Salisbury i 
 of Queen Elizabeth, is distinguished as 
 ablest and most eloquent writers ag 
 Romish Church. His 'Apology for the C'liui i 
 England' is the work by which he is be 
 but he is the author of many controvert 
 equally learned and judicious, and mosl 
 are rendered agreeable reading by tin 
 and antiquarian notices dispersed throi 
 The most important of these is the co 
 with Dr. Harding, arising out of a sermon preJi* 
 by Bishop Jewel at St. Paul's Cross, and OH 
 called his ' Challenge Sermon.' The works cwl 
 eminent prelate have been recently publish!! 
 the Parker Society. 
 
 JEZZAR or DJEZZAR, a common MairM 
 who rose to be pacha of Acre and S.tida. lb el 
 the former place, under the direction of Sir 
 Smith, against the whole force of Napoleonll 
 was compelled to raise the siege 21st MftJ,H 
 Jezzar died in 1804. 
 
 JOAB, the general of King David, d. 100H 
 
 JOACHIM, a relig. founder of Spain, 1130-W| 
 
 358 
 
JOA 
 
 JOACHIM, George, a savant of the Tyrol, 
 st known as an astronomer, 1514-1596. 
 
 [House of Joan of Arc] 
 
 JOAN of Arc. The proper name of this 
 roic and pure-hearted woman was Jeanne 
 arc, and her birth-place the village of Dom- 
 mi, on the borders of Lorraine. Here she first 
 w the light in 1410, and being the child of poor 
 .rents, she was inured to servitude, and acquired 
 at extraordinary skill as an equestrian, which 
 is afterwards so valuable to her, by riding the 
 >rses to water. She was piously educated, and 
 len about thirteen years of age as appears 
 >m her own history, which is best collected from 
 e process of her trial at Rouen she began to 
 ive visions, and to be informed of her mission 
 r the deliverance of France. In 1428-9, the 
 es of all Europe were turned upon the city of 
 leans, the siege of which was closely pressed 
 the English, in alliance with the Burgundians, 
 iile Charles VII., despairing of his throne, had 
 sembled the deputies of the French towns still 
 maining under his government, at Chinon, to 
 liberate upon their approaching ruin. This was 
 e critical moment chosen by Jeanne Dare, or 
 ways pointed to, as she averred, by her celestial 
 sitants, for the deliverance of her country. She 
 esented herself to Baudricourt, the governor of 
 e neighbouring town of Vaucouleurs, and 
 manded to be conducted to the French court, 
 issnasions, and the extreme danger of the 
 umey were urged in vain, and in due course she 
 rived at Chinon, inspired the phantom of a 
 ig with a share of her own spirit, and was 
 esented to the assembly. The popular enthu- 
 ism rose to the highest pitch when Joan ap- 
 ared at the head of the troops in armour, her 
 autiful hair hanging in ringlets upon her 
 onlders, her soldier's bonnet adorned with white 
 ithers, and the sword of St. Catherine to point 
 e way to victory. In due time, on the 29th of 
 pril, 1429, La Pucelle entered the city of 
 rleatis, and finally accomplished the strange 
 of her early life by conducting the king 
 Kheims, where he was crowned in her presence 
 i the 17th of July. Here, according to all that 
 1 stated afterwards, her mission was ended, 
 it Dunois, the French commandant, commonly 
 Ued the bastard of Orleans, persuaded her to 
 main with the army, as a consequence of which, 
 
 JOA 
 
 she was taken prisoner by the English at Com- 
 peigne, after performing prodigies of valour, on 
 the 24th of May, 1430. Her trial and condemna- 
 tion on a charge of sorcery is one of the foulest 
 blots in history, and is to be attributed, not to the 
 English authorities only, but at least in as great a 
 degree to the ecclesiastical party, headed by 
 Pierre Cauchon, the bishop of Beauvais, who had 
 a quarrel with Charles VII., and chose this method 
 to revenge himself. It is pitiable to read in the 
 process of her trial the exquisite mental torture 
 to which this poor girl was subjected after being 
 bound with iron chains by a crowd of subtle 
 theologians, who had prepared their questions 
 beforehand, with a view to entrap her into con- 
 tradictions, in order to sustain the charge of 
 demoniac intercourse. Her answers, however, 
 were wonderfully consistent. She declared that 
 her mission was from God, because she had been 
 prepared for it for years past by celestial agents, 
 the chief of whom were Saint Marguerite and 
 Saint Catherine, who appeared richly clothed, and 
 crowned, and always accompanied with a brilliant 
 light. She called them her holy protectresses. 
 To the question, how they could speak, being 
 pure spirits, without members, she answered she 
 knew not, it was the will of God ; she only knew 
 that their voices were sweet, and their language 
 beautiful, their counsel holy! It was again 
 objected that they were mere appearances, with- 
 out reality: 'Whether they be apparent or real,' 
 said the heroine, 'I have proved them, and I 
 Avould rather lose my head than deny their being. 
 I am as sure of it,' she added, ' as I am of my 
 faith in Jesus Christ.' She was asked what they 
 advised her in regard to the process: she answered, 
 'To reply without fear.' 'Whether they hated 
 the English?' She said 'They desired them to 
 return to their own country.' One of her judges 
 tried the purity of her imagination, by asking her 
 if St. Michael had appeared clothed or naked. 
 'Think you,' she said, 'that God has not the 
 means of clothing his spirits ? ' Such questions 
 were multiplied and twisted into every variety of 
 form, to disconcert her if possible, but she pre- 
 served her dignity and modesty through all, and 
 ended by an admonition addressed to the infa- 
 mous Cauchon, ' Oui, je suis envoyee de Dieu 
 yes! my mission is of God! You say that you 
 are my judge. Have a care what you do, for you 
 stand in great danger!' She knew her fate, as 
 she told the earl of Warwick, who visited her in 
 prison, and she was prepared to die whenever 
 God pleased, but she would fain have returned to 
 her father and mother, and kept their flocks 
 again, and her sister and her brothers would have 
 been so glad to see her! She was burnt alive, 
 the virgin-martyr of French liberty, on the 31st 
 of May, 1431, in the twenty-first year of her age, 
 and it is remarkable that her dying predictions" in 
 regard to the final expulsion of the English were 
 literally accomplished. Jeanne Dare never shed 
 any blood with her own hand, but rode into the 
 midst of the enemy at the head of her troops, 
 who followed her with unbounded confidence in 
 her supernatural powers. [E.R.] 
 
 JOAN of Naples. This accomplished and 
 ill-fated princess was the daughter of Charles, 
 duke of Calabria, and granddaughter of Robert, 
 
 359 
 
JOA 
 
 king of Naples, to whose authority she succeeded 
 in right of her deceased father 1343. In order to 
 unite the claims of the two branches of the house 
 of Anjou, and secure the tranquillity of her reign, 
 Kin;; Robert had married her to Andrew, youngest 
 son 'of Carohert, king of Hungary, when they 
 were both children. The match was not a ' 
 
 happj 
 ts, us 
 
 one, cither for the princess or her subjects, Dy 
 whom Andrew, a man of unamiable and gross 
 disposition, was about equally beloved, and 
 a conspiracy being formed against him, he was 
 murdered in 1345. In 1347 the queen married 
 her kinsman Louis of Tarentum, who had been 
 her lover, and was the principal instigator of the 
 conspiracy ; and the circumstances led to a war in 
 which Charles III., duke of Durazzo, became a 
 principal actor, and Avignon with its territory was 
 ceded to the pope by Queen Joan. Louis survived 
 these events till 1362, when Joan was married 
 again to James of Arragon, and for a fourth time, 
 in 1376, to Otho of Brunswick. Eventually, 
 Charles of Durazzo usurped the throne of Naples, 
 and caused the queen to be suffocated in 1381. 
 The daughter of Charles, known as Joan II. of 
 Naples, who succeeded to his ill-gotten power in 
 1414, and died 1435, was married successively to 
 William, the son of Leopold of Austria (1404-6), 
 and to James, count of La Marche (1415). She 
 was a woman of profligate character, and no re- 
 deeming virtues are recorded of her. Joan L, on 
 the other hand, who possessed commanding talents, 
 and governed her dominions with great skill, has 
 had many apologists, and Laharpe has made her 
 history the subject of one of his tragedies. [E.R.] 
 JOAN, Pope, the subject of a scandalous story 
 which relates that a woman was elected to the 
 papacy under the name of John in the middle of 
 the 9th century, and that she reigned for nearly 
 two years and a-half, when she was taken with 
 labour-pains in the way to the Lateran Basilica, 
 and compelled to discover her sex. It is held by 
 some that the story has been clearly disproved, 
 but even grave historians assert that women of 
 scandalous lives had great influence over the 
 papal councils at that period, and perhaps there 
 are few historical events truer than this story if 
 it be understood by metonymy one thing being 
 
 Sut for another not altogether unlike it. Pope 
 oan is understood to have been an English 
 woman, and to have acquired her reputation by 
 teaching divinity, disguised in man's clothing. 
 The first to mention this delectable piece of scan- 
 dal was Marianus Scotus, a monk of the abbey of 
 Fnlda, who died in 1086, and a full account of her 
 life, attributed to F. Durant, was published at 
 Geneva, in 1578. Its refutation, if it may be 
 considered such, is due to the learned protestant 
 David Blondel, who displeased the protestants 
 thereby as much as he had gratified them by his 
 book 'De Episcopis et Presbyteris.' In 1785, 
 however, a work was published by Humphrey 
 Shuttleworth, entitled ' A Present for a Papist, or 
 the History of the Life of Pope Joan, proving that 
 a woman called Joan really was Pope of Rome.' 
 See John. [E.R.] 
 
 JOANES, Vicentio, a Sp. painter, 1523-1579. 
 
 JOASH, a king of Israel, 832-817 b.c. 
 
 JOASH, a king of Judah, 870-831 b c. 
 
 JOAZAR, high priest of the Jews, 614-630 B.C. 
 
 JOH 
 
 JOBELOT, J.F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 10'20-17( 
 JOBERT, Louis, a Fr. antiquarian, 1637-17] 
 JOCONDUS, John, an Ital. archit., 16th a 
 JODELLE, S., a French dramatist, I 
 JODRELLE, R. P., an En dramatist and crit 
 au. of ' Illustrations of Euripides,' 174f> 
 JOECHER, C. T , a Ger. historian, 1 
 JOECK, C, a Ger. map engraver, 17' 
 JOFFRID, an abbot ot Croyland, si, 
 be the original founder of Cambr. univer., 12th 
 JOHANNOT, C. H. A., a Ger. pain., 1 > 
 JOHN, the forerunner of the Saviour, coii 
 menced his preaching to the Jews and baptizing S 
 and was executed by Herod Antipas, 32. 
 
 JOHN, the apostle and evangelist, commene 
 preaching the gospel, shortly after the crucifixic 
 in Asia Minor and among the Parthians. He * 
 the first bishop of Ephesus, and the writer of t 
 gospel kn. by his name and of the Apocal., d. ( 
 JOHN, the first saint of the name, commor 
 called Climachus or Scholasticis, was abbot' 
 the monastery of Mount Sinai, and lived 
 to the early part of the next century. Another 9 
 John was patriarch of Alexandria, and liv 
 about 550-619. A third was a native of Provemj 
 and founder of a monastic order, 1161-1213. | 
 Jourth, surnamed ' De Dieu,' was a native 
 Portugal, and celebrated as a founder of charital] 
 institutes, 1495-1550. A fifth, commonly cal!| 
 John De Santa Crusa, or John De Yepez," knov 
 as the associate of St. Theresa in reforming t 
 Carmelites, 1542-1591. And besides these, tj 
 first pope of this name. 
 
 JOHN, the name of several ecclesiastics a! 
 prelates, the most celebrated of whom are Joi 
 Scholasticus, patriarch of Antioch, a compij 
 of canons, &c, died 578. John of Salisihk 
 bishop of Chartres in 1164, author of a life| 
 Becket, died 1182. John of Paris, a learnl 
 Dominican and theological writer, died 13(, 
 John of Ragusa, a popish prelate, known a 
 public character and disputant against the Hi 
 sites, about 1426-1443. John De Ciielin. 
 popish bishop and reformer, 16th century. A 
 John, bishop of Chiemsee in Bavaria, author 
 ' Onus Ecclesise,' same period. 
 
 JOHN I., elected pope 523, and sent ambassaci 
 to Constantinople by Theodoric, the Arian king 
 Italy, after which he was imprisoned and died 
 confinement, 526. John II., reigned 533-5i; 
 John III., 560-573. John IV., 640-642. Joi 
 V., 685-686. John VI., 701-705. John VI i 
 705-707. John VIII., author of many lett< ! 
 which are still preserved, 872-882. John Ll 
 898-900. John X., distinguished as a niiliti' 
 leader by the conquest of the Saracens in Ital 
 elected 914 or 915, imprisoned and put to dea' 
 928. John XL, elected at the age of twenty-fr, 
 931, died in prison 933. John XII., born 9c' 
 elected 956, deposed on account of his debaucher 
 963, died 964. John XIII., rei-ned 965-9*1 
 John XIV., succeeded 964, died in prison 9*| 
 John XV., elected and died 985. John XV 
 succeeded 986, and died, after a pontificate of t 
 years, disturbed by the pretensions of Cresceiitii 
 who proclaimed himself consul, 996. Joi 
 XVIL, elected and died 1003. John XVII 
 reigned, as nearly as can be ascertained, 1004-lOf 
 John XIX., 1024-1033. John XX. or XX; 
 
 360 
 
JOH 
 
 ceeded 1276, and died by an accident 1277. 
 01 XXII., author of works on medicine and 
 ivmy, reigned 1316-1334. John XXIII., 
 ted 1410, deposed 1415, died 1419. An 
 [pope, named John XVIL, was inhumanly 
 rdered, 998; and Pope Joan, whose story is 
 sidered fabulous, is sometimes called John IX. 
 OHX, king of England, youngest son of Henry 
 born 1166, succeeded his brother Richard 
 ur De Leon, and is supposed to have murdered 
 ice Arthur, 1199 ; invaded France 1214, signed 
 great charter 1215, died 1216. 
 OHN, king of France, the first of the name, 
 )sthuinous son of Louis X., born and died 1316. 
 ix II.. son of Philip V., born 1319, succeeded 
 
 0, taken prisoner by the Black Prince at the 
 ous battle of Poitiers 1356, died 1364. 
 
 OHN, king of Jerusalem, and regent em- 
 >r of Constantinople during the minority of 
 iwin II., flourished 1204-1237. 
 OHN I., emperor of the East, surnamed 
 isces, succeeded 969, poisoned 975. John 
 mmknus) II., son of Alexis Commenus, born 
 3, succeeded 1118, and died after a glorious 
 n, 1143. John (Ducas) III., surnamed Va- 
 s, born 1193, succeeded 1222, died after a 
 n of thirty-three years, distinguished, by his 
 piests and good government, 1255. John 
 See Lascaris. John V. See Cantacu- 
 us. John VI. and VII. See Pal^oi.ogus. 
 I >HN I., kino; of Castile and Leon, born 1358, 
 *eded his father Henry II. 1379, died 1390. 
 in II., born 1405, succeeded his father Henry 
 1406, died 1454. 
 
 OHN I., king of Portugal, born 1357, usurped 
 throne 1384, died 1433. John II., born 1455, 
 .eeded 1481, died 1495. John III., succeeded 
 
 1, died 1557. John IV., chief of the house 
 Jraganza, born 1604, delivered his country from 
 
 Spaniards and proclaimed king 1640, died 
 13. John V., born 1689, succeeded 1705, 
 
 1750. John VI., born 1767, became regent 
 :onsequence of the mental incapacity of his 
 her, the queen regent, 1793, returned to 
 bL and took the title of emperor on the inva- 
 
 of the French, 1808, succeeded his mother 
 5, returned to Portugal 1821, died 1826. 
 3HN I., king of Sweden, called John Sver- 
 
 son, reigned 1216-1222. John II., same as 
 l, king of Denmark. John III., born 1537, 
 
 eeded 1568, abdicated 1592. 
 
 )HN, king of Denmark, born 1455, succeeded 
 
 ather, Christian I., 1481, king of Norway 
 
 >, king of Sweden 1497, dethroned by the 
 lies 1512, died 1513. 
 
 )HN ALBERT, k. of Poland, reig. 1492-1496. 
 [)HN of Austria, a natural son of the em- 
 Y Charles V., distinguished in the service of 
 'ip II. of Spain at the bat. of Lepanto, 1546-78. 
 l)HN of Gaunt, or Ghent, du. of Lancaster, 
 4 son of Edward III., and father of Henry IV., 
 i| of England, born at Ghent 1340, died 1399 
 rince greatly distinguished himself in the 
 
 ch wars, and acquired great popularity in Eng- 
 
 as the patron of" Wickliffe. See Lancaster. 
 
 )HN HIKCANAS, son of Simon Maccabaeus, 
 
 n he succeeded as high priest and prince of 
 Uews, B.C. 135, died, after a reign of 29 years, 
 i iguishedby his victories and ref'urms, b.c. 106. 
 
 JOH 
 
 JOHN of Pisa, a dis. architect, 13th century. 
 
 JOHN of Udino, an Italian painter, d. 1564. 
 
 JOHNES, Thomas, a gentleman of Shropshire, 
 distin. as a man of taste and letters, 1748-1816. 
 
 JOHNSON, Ch., a dramatic wr., died 1748. 
 
 JOHNSON, John, one of the nonjuring divs., 
 known as a learned and religious wr., 1662-1725. 
 
 JOHNSON, M., a painter, reign of James II. 
 
 JOHNSON, M., an antiquarian, died 1755. 
 
 JOHNSON, R., a grammarian, died 1720. 
 
 [Birth-place of Samuel Johnson.] 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, the son of a bookseller, 
 was born at Lichfield in 1709. Beginning his 
 studies at Oxford in 1728, he was obliged by poverty 
 to retire after three years without taking a degree. 
 He became successively, an usher in Leicestersliire, 
 the drudge of a bookseller in Birmingham, and the 
 head of a school established with some money he 
 acquired by marrying, in 1736, a widow who was 
 much older than himself, but to whom he was 
 sincerely attached. The school speedily failed; 
 and, in 1737, removing to London, Johnson entered 
 on his long course of literary toil. His reputation 
 rose very slowly : the greater part of his time was 
 wasted, for many years, on desultory and occa- 
 sional efforts ; he had an unhealthy constitution, 
 and a strong tendency to hypochondriac melan- 
 choly. For the twenty-five years during which 
 he struggled for a livelihood, he had no leisure 
 either for systematizing his knowledge, or for con- 
 centrating his thoughts ; and when, at length, he 
 obtained a small competency, he was already fifty- 
 three years of age, with decayed strength and 
 soured temper, and with a weariness of labour 
 which made him too glad to enjoy in indolent re- 
 pose the fame he had so hardly won. The works 
 which, in these adverse circumstances, Johnson 
 
 f>roduced, were celebrated beyond measure in the 
 after half of his century ; and, though they add 
 disappointingly little to our stock either of solid 
 knowledge or of literary invention, they are extra- 
 ordinary monuments both of vigour and originality 
 in thinking, and of great though ponderous power 
 of expression. During his long period of hard 
 labour, the mere quantity of his writings was very 
 great. A large proportion of them appeared in 
 
 361 
 
jon 
 
 'The Gentleman's Magazine' or as pamphlets; 
 and most of these are quite forgotten. His two 
 
 Ewtacad satires, ' London,' and ' The Vanity of 
 uman Wishes,' are striking specimens of reflec- 
 tion and diction ; but neither they nor his tragedy 
 of Irene ' entitle him to be considered as a poet. 
 ' Rasselas,' written in a week to pay for his 
 mother's funeral, is one of the most interesting 
 and characteristic of his works. His two sets of 
 periodical essays, The Rambler ' and ' The Idler,' 
 are in no respect comparable to their models of 
 Queen Anne's time. For eight years from 1747, 
 Johnson's attention was chiefly engaged by his 
 'Dictionary of the English Language,' a work 
 highly honourable to the author in the circum- 
 stances in which it was produced, but possessing 
 little of real philological value. In 1762, after 
 having, though a devoutly religious man, refused 
 to take orders, Johnson obtained, through Lord 
 Bute, a pension of three hundred a-year. Not 
 long afterwards he was received into the house of 
 Mr. Thrale. He was thenceforth the dictator of a 
 large society of accomplished persons, and the 
 acknowledged chief of the literature of his day. 
 In 1765 appeared his edition of Shakspeare, the 
 preface to which, with all its shortcomings, is a 
 very fine and instructive contribution to the philo- 
 sophy of poetical art; his 'Journey to the 
 Hebrides,' the liveliest of his writings, was pub- 
 lished in 1775 ; and his ' Lives of the Poets,' the 
 last of his works, appearing in 1781, is remarkable 
 alike for its impressive composition, and for its mix- 
 ture of valuable truth and strong prejudice in criti- 
 cism. Johnson died in 1784, at his famous house 
 in Bolt-Court. In 1790, his reputation was re- 
 vived and extended by Boswell's ' Life.' This 
 curious collection of sayings, the most minute re- 
 cord that was ever taken down from any man's 
 lips, is now generally held to convey a more favour- 
 able impression of his real strength, both in thought 
 and in language, than anything in the works which 
 he wrote and published. [W.S.] 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, a learned divine, famous 
 for his zeal against popery, in the reign of James 
 II., for which he underwent many penalties and 
 cruel personal suffering; author of 'Julian the 
 Apostate,' &c, 1649-1703. 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, a dramatic writer and 
 actor, au. of ' All Alive and Merry,' &c, d. 1773. 
 
 JOHNSON, T., an eminent herbalist, d. 1644. 
 
 JOHNSON, T., a classical editor, last century. 
 
 JOHNSON, Sir W., an Irish officer, d. 1774. 
 
 JOHNSTON, Arthur, a Scotch physician, 
 distinguished as a Latin poet, author of ' Deliciaj 
 Poetarum Scoticorum,' &c, 1587-1641. 
 
 JOHNSTON, C, an Irish wr., au. of ' Chrysal, 
 or the Adventures of a Guinea,' died about 1800. 
 
 JOHNSTON, John, a physician of Poland, 
 distin. as a naturalist and historian, 1603-1675. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, Bryce, D.D., a Scottish divine, 
 author of a ' Commentary on the Revelation,' 
 1747-1805. His nephew, John, a Scottish min., 
 and ed. of Dr. Johnstone's Sermons, 1757-1820. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, Chevalier De, a military ad- 
 venturer in the service of Charles Edward the 
 Pretender, au. of ' Mem. of the Rebellion,' b. 1720. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, G., a member of parliament, and 
 political agent of the English government, author 
 of ' Thoughts on our E. Ind. Acquisitions,' d. 1787. 
 
 JON 
 
 JOHNSTONE, James, a Scottish physicia 
 and physiological inquirer, 1730-1802. His eoi 
 John, a med. wr., and biogr. of Dr. Parr, d. 1831 
 
 JOHNSTONE, J. II., an Ir. actor, 17 
 
 JOINVILLE, John, Sieur De, a Fr. 
 whose ' Life of St. Louis ' is one of the n 
 able documents of the middle ages, 1228-1318. 
 
 JOLIVET, Jean Baptiste Moyse, Cour 
 De, a French statistician and financier, 1754-181! 
 
 JOLLY, Alex., a Scotch prelate, 1755-1838. 
 
 JOLY, Claude, a Fr. writer, au. of ' Maxim 
 for the Education of a Prince,' 1607-1700. 
 
 JOLY, Claude, a Fr. rel. writer, 1610-1678. 
 
 JOLY, Guy, the confidential secretary and bio 
 grapher of Cardinal De Retz, 17th century. 
 
 JOLY, J., a Fr. poet and translator, d. 1840. 
 
 JOLY, J. R. t a French historian, 1715-1805. 
 
 JOLY, M. A., a Fr. comic writer, 1672-1753. 
 
 JOLY, M. E., a French actress, 1761-1798. 
 
 JOLY, Ph. L., a Fr. lexicographer, 1680-175c 
 
 JOLY-CLERC, N., a Fr. naturalist, died 1817 
 
 JOLY-DE-BEVY, Louis Ph. Joseph, a Fi 
 lawyer and theologian, author of ' Le Parlemen 
 Outrage,' 1736-1822. 
 
 JOLY-DE-FLEURY, W. F., a French juris: 
 procureur -general after D'Aguissau, 1675-1756. 
 
 JOMELLI, Nicolo, a celebrated composer an 
 musician of Naples, 1714-1774. 
 
 JON-ARESON, an Icelandic poet, 1484-1550 
 
 JON^E or JONAS, Runolph, an Iceland) 
 scholar, author of philological works, died 1654. 
 
 JONAS, a Jewish prophet, died about 761 b.< 
 
 JONAS, Arngrim, a learned historian and ar 
 tiquarian of Ireland, 1545-1640. 
 
 JONATHAN, a high priest and leader of tl 
 Jews, dist. in the war with Syria, killed 144 b.c. 
 
 JONES, David, a Welch poet, died abt. 1780 
 
 JONES, Edward, a Welch musician, d. 1821 
 
 JONES, George Matthew, a naval office! 
 au. of ' Travels in Norway, Sweden,' &c, 
 
 JONES, Griffith, a Welch minister, 
 by his zeal for religion and education, 1GS1-1761 
 
 JONES, Griffith, a miscel. writer, connect 
 with Dr. Johnson and Goldsmith, 1721-1786. 
 
 JONES, Henry, an Irish dramatist, d. 1770. 
 
 JONES, Inigo, was born in London abo- 
 1572. He was patronised in early youth 1 
 William earl of Pembroke, who is supposed 
 have sent him to Italy to study landscape paini 
 ing: he took up architecture later, about 160j 
 after his return. The little attention he paid 
 this art in his first visit to Italy is shown j 
 Crewe Hall, Cheshire, positively attributed 
 Jones, and St. John's College, Oxford, or t 
 Grotto at Wilton ; the first in what is called t 
 Elizabethan style, and the latter, abortive attemj: 
 at the classical. The Elizabethan, a modificati 
 of the Renaissance imported from the L< 
 Countries, supplanted the Tudor in England, t 
 last remains of' ecclesiastical style, which had I 
 come generally obnoxious after the persecutio 
 against all such religious expressions by the Ii 
 gent Somerset, and after the fires of Smithfiel 
 yet in the comparatively distant times of Ini 
 Jones, attempts at the Gothic were rare from i; 
 difference or neglect, rather than from any re 
 gious animosity. Jones was himself the grc, 
 pioneer to the revival of classical taste in tl 
 country, which was thoroughly established by I 
 
> /,, //// ' fyn< 
 
 'awuo' CSL4t>meZ3 
 
 

JON 
 
 |br )pher Wren, though both committed the 
 jroi it inconsistencies of style in their own re- 
 |cn ons of old buildings. Jones visited Italy a 
 w time in 1613-14, and on this occasion 
 fceif to have completely mastered the principles 
 Italian Renaissance, as exemplified in the 
 ailigs of Palladio and others, of which in White- 
 l anqueting House we have a noble monument 
 own production, but yet only a small frac- 
 ioi f the magnificent palace, which report gives 
 III js I. the credit of having wished to carry out 
 , iortunitv afforded : the whole design of this 
 ru royal palace may be seen in several sheets in 
 V bell's 'Vitruvius Britannicus ;' it was to 
 a^iad seven courts, and its extreme dimensions 
 have been 1,152 feet by 720 feet ; a scale 
 gniticence which perhaps may be termed 
 isf ary, in spite of the experience of any age 
 the time of the Roman emperors. The 
 ulng at Whitehall was executed in the reign of 
 a si., 1619-21 ; he was surveyor of works, and 
 is appointed about the same time to restore 
 h. len St. Paul's Cathedral, to which old Nor- 
 m and Gothic structure he added some years 
 ifl rards (1639) a Corinthian portico and other 
 iftssance features, the whole of which, however, 
 destroyed in consequence of the great fire of 
 A Jones was but little more fortunate in St. 
 I, s, Covent Garden; this absurdly overrated 
 I ture, little better than a barn as regards any 
 nental feature, was built for the earl of Bed- 
 in 1631, and w;.s destroyed by fire in 1794, 
 as faithfully restored by Hardwick in the 
 Anng year: it is valuable as an example of 
 sme simplicity and agreeable proportions, 
 wich Hospital is another, and one of his 
 successful works, erected by his nephew and 
 law, Webb. Jones died in London in 1652, 
 y. Webb, who married his only daugh- 
 lublished some of his designs ; and a complete 
 n of his works was published by Kent, 1770. 
 s copy of ' Palladio,' with which he travelled 
 ly, and containing his own marginal notes, is 
 preserved in Worcester College, Oxford. 
 Ipole, Anecdotes of Painters, &c, Bohn, 
 >5 [R.N.W.] 
 
 )NES, Jeremiah, a learned div., 1693-1724. 
 )NES, John, an English divine, last century. 
 )NES, John, a medical writer, 16th century. 
 "TES, John, a Hebrew scholar, 1575-1636. 
 IES, John, an American phys., 1729-1791. 
 )NES, John, LL.D., a philological writer, 
 minister of the unitarians, died 1827. 
 JONES, John Gale, a celebrated political 
 iter of the period of the French revolution, 
 tinguished as a leading member of the London 
 
 esponding Society, 1771-1838. 
 TONES, John, a Welch lawyer and man of 
 au. of a ' History of Wales,' &c, 1772-1838. 
 TONES, John, a Welch antiq., 16th and 17th c. 
 ffONES, Leslie Gkove, aid-de-camp of the 
 ike of Wellington in the peninsular war, and 
 mmandant of Brussels during the battle of 
 aterloo, afterw. kn. as a poli. writer, 1779-1839. 
 H^S, Owen, a Welch antiquary, 1740-1814. 
 [JONES, Paul, a naval commander in the 
 Iterest of the colonists during the American war 
 [independence, was born at Selkirk, in Scotland, 
 [36, and died in poverty at Paris, 1792. He 
 
 3G3 
 
 JON 
 
 was a man of dauntless courage, and great ability 
 as a sea captain, and was for a long period the 
 terror of the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 His principal action was a combat off Flamborough 
 head with the convoy of the Baltic fleet in 1779, 
 in which he proved the victor, and captured the 
 two frigates opposed to him. He was compli- 
 mented for his success on this occasion by an 
 invitation to Paris, where the cross of military 
 merit and a sword of honour were presented to 
 him by the king. The congress of the United States 
 also voted him a golden medal for his services 
 during the struggle for independence, but though 
 his valour merited such an acknowledgment, it is 
 difficult to find any trace of republican virtue in 
 his conduct, unless an intense hatred of the 
 English be esteemed such. At the conclusion of 
 the war he entered into the service of the Russians, 
 and retiring in disgust solicited a command from 
 Austria and France, which, however, he did not 
 obtain. 'Full of vanity,' says a French writer, 
 ' he believed that only a king was worthy of such 
 an admiral!' His career is at once an example 
 and a warning, for it points to the unhonoured 
 grave which awaits all those, whatever their 
 present reputation and talents, who are led by 
 their selfish passions, instead of principle, even in 
 the path of glory. Paul Jones had neither the 
 wisdom nor the ambition to adopt the country 
 that he had so well served, and instead of the 
 Washington of the seas, it is difficult to regard 
 him in any other light than that of a bold 
 buccaneer. [E.R.] 
 
 JONES, Rice, a Welch poet, 1715-1801. 
 
 JONES, Thomas, a Welch divine, 1756-1807. 
 
 JONES, William, an em. mathe., 1680-1749. 
 
 JONES, William, commonly called 'Trinity 
 Jones,' or ' Jones of Nayland,' and well known 
 for his public spirit and ability as a writer, was a 
 clergyman of the Church of England, born at 
 Lowick, in Northamptonshire, 1726, and appointed 
 perpetual curate of Nayland, in Suffolk, where he 
 went to reside about 1776. He was the intimate 
 friend and biographer of Bishop Home, to whom 
 in early fife he had presented the doctrines of 
 John Hutchinson, of which they were both dis- 
 tinguished advocates. His works are 'A Full 
 Answer to Bishop Clayton's Essay on Spirit,' 
 1753 ; ' The Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity 
 Proved from Scripture,' 1757 ; ' An Essay on the 
 First Principles of Natural Philosophy,' 1762 ; 
 'Remarks on the Confessional,' 1764; 'Physio- 
 logical Disquisitions, or Discourses concerning the 
 Natural Philosophy of the Elements,' 1781; 'A 
 Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language 
 of the Holy Scripture,' 1787 ; and, when the 
 French revolution broke out, a series of tracts 
 well known by their title of ' The Scholar Armed 
 against the Errors of the Times ; ' and ' A Letter 
 from Thomas Bull to his brother John,' written 
 in support of government. His ' Memoirs of 
 Bishop Home,' to whom he became private ch sip- 
 lain after his elevation to the see of Norwich, 
 were published in 1795, with an introductory 
 exposition of the theological and philosophical 
 doctrines of Hutchinson. Jones of Nayland was 
 the original projector of the British Critic ; and 
 besides his literary endowments was a great pro- 
 ficient in church music He died in 1800. [E.R.] 
 
JON 
 
 JONES, Sir William, whose researches in 
 Oriental literature, and his surpassing genius as a 
 translator from the Eastern languages, have ren- 
 dered his name illustrious throughout Europe, was 
 born in London, 1746, son of Mr. William Jones, 
 an eminent mathematician, and devoted himself 
 to the study of the Oriental languages while a stu- 
 dent at Oxford. When twenty-four years of age, 
 he translated the life of Nadir Shah from the Per- 
 sian into French, and, in 1771, published a gram- 
 mar of the Persian language, which still maintains 
 its ground as a work of standard value. Between 
 this period and 1783, when he received an appoint- 
 ment as judge in the supreme court of judicature 
 in Bengal, this laborious student published his 
 commentaries on Asiatic poetry, written in Latin ; 
 and we may here remark, that it is difficult to say 
 whether his fine taste for poetical composition, or 
 his extensive learning and philosophical insight, is 
 the more admirable characteristic of his genius. 
 On his arrival in India, he established an Asiatic 
 Society for the purpose of collecting materials to 
 illustrate the history, learning, and antiquities 
 of the East; and as he succeeded in rallying 
 the learned around him, the publication of their 
 transactions commenced almost immediately. He 
 died suddenly in the heat of this career, so new 
 to English learning, in 1794; and his collected 
 works, with a life by Lord Teignmouth, have since 
 been published in an edition of 13 volumes 8vo. 
 To Sir William Jones belongs the merit of a great 
 originator, as well as that of an unrivalled linguist. 
 Until his appearance, and the impetus given by 
 him to the study of Asiatic literature, the English 
 scholar might well blush for the little that had 
 beer, achieved in that direction by our own coun- 
 trymen. The encouragement, indeed, has been 
 miserably small, compared with the necessities of 
 the case ; and, at this moment, the officers of the 
 Asiatic Society can tell us what volumes of invalu- 
 able matter must remain buried in obscurity, even 
 on their'own shelves, for want of funds. We ought 
 to add, that Sir William Jones was an accomplished 
 lawyer, a warm lover of freedom, and, as an Indian 
 judge, indefatigable and irreproachable. [E.R.] 
 
 JONG, L. De, a Dutch painter, 1616-1697. 
 
 JONGE, N., a Danish geographer, born 1727. 
 
 JONIN, G., a French poet, 1596-1638. 
 
 JONSIUS, John, a German savant, 1624-1659. 
 
 JONSON, Benjamin, was born at Westminster 
 in 1573. His father, a Scotsman by descent, dying 
 in his boyhood, the widow married a bricklayer ; 
 and Ben Jonson is said to have been taken from 
 Westminster school and obliged to work at his 
 stepfather's trade. We read also of his having 
 enlisted as a soldier, and served in the Low Coun- 
 tries. On the other hand, the obscure accounts 
 we have of his youth represent him as having 
 studied both at Oxford and at Cambridge; and it 
 is certain that, in one way or another, he had ob- 
 tained a good education, and was especially a ripe 
 and exact Latin scholar. He cannot have been 
 much older than twenty, when, like so many men 
 of genius in the later part of Elizabeth's reign, he 
 attached himself to the theatres. He became an 
 actor, but was a bad one ; and his life was chiefly 
 spent in play-writing, amidst the fluctuations of 
 success incident to that pursuit, and the alterna- 
 tions of poverty with something little better, which 
 
 JOR 
 
 made up the history of almost every one of our 
 dramatists. But his fame stood very 1 
 own time. In the most brilliant perio : 
 speare's career, Ben Jonson was the 
 who contested the palm with him; . 
 whole history of the Old English drama, aqjH 
 
 [The Globe Theatre ] 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher come nearer, or so near, t 
 the excellence of the great master. Hi' 
 ous, not graceful, a skilful and reflective artist 
 rather than an impulsive or imaginative poet ; bu 
 there is great force in his comic pictures of charac 
 ter, and a striking pomp of eloquence in his tragi 
 dialogue. In 1598, he exhibited his first success 
 ful piece, the prose comedy of ' Every Man in hi 
 Humour ; ' after several other plays, his dignifie< 
 tragedy of 'Sejanus' appeared in 1603; ' Volpone 
 a comedy in blank verse, abounding both in elo 
 quence and poetry, was played in 1605 ; in 160S 
 came ' The Silent Woman,' a comedy constructed 
 with great regularity and admirable skill; and th 
 roll of his good plays was closed in 1610, by th 
 lively and energetic comedy ' The Alchemist. I; 
 1619, he was appointed poet-laureate. But hi 
 later years were spent in poverty ; and his natura 
 gloominess of temper was aggravated both by th 
 failure of his popularity and by ill-health. H 
 died in 1637, and was buried in Westminste 
 Abbey. His uncompleted ' Sad Shepherd,' a pas 
 toral drama, and many of his lyrics, show a deli 
 cacy both of poetical feeling and of diction, beyon 
 anything that appears in his other works ; and hi 
 learning, especially in philology, is proved byseve 
 ral prose dissertations. [W.S. 
 
 JORAM, a king of Israel, 887-876 B.C. 
 
 JORDjENS, J., a distin. Flemish painter, pupi 
 of Adam Van Vort and Reubens, au. of many work- 
 in the churches in the Netherlands, 1594-1678. 
 
 JORDAN, Camille, a political orator an 
 statesman of the French revolution, and member o 
 the chamber during the hundred days, 1771 -1m.' 
 
 JORDAN, C. S., a Prussian writer, 1700-1746 
 
 JORDAN, Dorothea, an eminent 
 actress, born in the neighbourhood of V 
 1762, was the daughter of Captain Bland, 
 gentleman. She adopted the stage for a 
 as the means of support for her mother. 
 Wales, with whom her father had elo] 
 first appeared at Dublin in the character 
 in ' As You Like It;' and afterwards gained con 
 
 364 
 
jor 
 
 le repute as a juvenile tragedian. Her next 
 
 lent was at the York theatre ; where she 
 
 for three years, and took the name of 
 
 fordan, though never married, by which 
 
 she was thenceforward known. Her debut 
 
 Ion was in the part of 1'eygy, in 'The 
 
 Girl ;' in which, and in Nell in The 
 
 Pay,' she proved equally successful. Her 
 
 business was now fixed ; but she also oc- 
 
 ly appeared in the pathetic characters of 
 
 Her celebrity betrayed her into an 
 
 with a royal duke, with whom she for 
 
 le resided in great splendour ; but (such 
 
 icertainty of such connections) she died at 
 
 |ud, 5th July, 1816, in poverty and obscurity, 
 
 standing a long and brilliant theatrical 
 
 The circumstances attending her seclu- 
 
 mysterious. and are not cleared up by 
 
 ideus biography, notwithstanding the 
 
 Jmeans of information possessed by hiin. 
 
 |, the impression left upon the mind by his 
 
 re is, that Mrs. Jordan did not die at the 
 
 id time stated ; but lived probably under 
 
 name in England for seven years longer ; 
 
 lich, a liquidation of her debts was pub- 
 
 ivertised. Be this as it may, her theatrical 
 
 ras one of the most illustrious; and her 
 
 that natural sort which commands the 
 
 on of the best judges. As a woman, too, 
 
 seems to have been of the kindest, and 
 
 lestic duties to have been performed with 
 
 irv attention and devotion to the best in- 
 
 of her family. [J.A.H.] 
 
 iDAN, J. C, a Bohemian scholar, d. 1740. 
 
 H DAN, Sir Joseph, an English admiral, 
 
 Md a victory over the Dutch, 1672. 
 
 DAN, T., a dramatic wr., time of Charles I. 
 JhDANO. See Giordano. 
 
 JtjDEN, E., an English chemist, 1569-1632. 
 J<' DENS, G., a Dutch jurisconsult, last cent. 
 J< NANDES, a Gothic historian, 6th cent. 
 HUN, Dr. John, flourished about the 
 mi of last century, having been born in 1698, 
 .d ied 1770. He, and his patron Arch- 
 il Herring, are fair exponents of the learning 
 wctrrae of the Church of England, and of 
 if irit by which it was animated at that 
 ! Jortin was rector of St. Dunstan's in 
 jst, and afterwards of Kensington, near 
 Hi. He is the author of ' Discourses Con- 
 Ik the Truth of the Christian Religion,' ' Re- 
 rj upon Ecclesiastical History,' ' Remarks 
 I the works of Erasmus,' ' Miscellaneous 
 rations upon Authors, Ancient and Modern,' 
 J various other criticisms and learned tracts. 
 jiyate character was most estimable; and 
 
 plic life marked in a high degree by indepen- 
 
 integrity. This is saying a good deal 
 
 llrinister of the Church of England in an age 
 
 ^promise and difficulty, and such, it is well 
 
 s the first generation or two which 
 
 revolution of 1688. [E.R.] 
 
 Kl'H,son of Jac.and Rachel, 2113-2003 B.C. 
 
 ii I., emperor of Germany, born 1676, 
 
 ngary 1689, king of the Romans 1690, 
 
 | led his father, Leopold I., as emperor, 1705, 
 
 *u711. Joseph II., son of the emperor, 
 
 Ms I., and of Maria Theresa, born 1741, king 
 
 uins 1764, emperor after the death of 
 
 JOS 
 
 his father 1765, but did not really govern until 
 the death of Maria Theresa, when lie became king 
 of Hungary and Bohemia, 1780, died 1790. 
 Joseph II. was the brother of Marie Antoinette, 
 and was remarkable for his ambition and activity 
 as a reformer and statesman. 
 
 JOSEPH, or JOSEPH EMMANUEL, king of 
 Portugal, born 1714, sue. his father, 1750, d. 1777. 
 
 JOSEPH-ALBO, a Spanish rabbi, 15th cent. 
 
 JOSEPH of Exeter, a Latin poet who ac- 
 companied Richard 1. to Palestine, au. of heroic 
 poems on the Trojan war and the crusades, 12th c. 
 
 JOSEPH, Meir, an Italian rabbi, 1496-1554. 
 
 JOSEPH of Paris, or Father Joseph, whose 
 proper name was Francis Le Clerc Du Trem- 
 blay, an agent of Cardinal Richelieu, 1577-1638. 
 
 JOSEPHINE, first wife of Napoleon Buona- 
 parte, and empress of the French, was by birth a 
 Creole, and was born at Martinique, 1763. Her 
 maiden name was Marie Joseph RoseTacher- 
 De-La-Pagerie, which she exchanged for that 
 of Madame de Beauharnais, when she married the 
 viscount of that name at the age of fourteen, for 
 which purpose she was brought to France by her 
 father, in terms of a previous betrothal. As the 
 pretended memoirs of her life cannot be trusted, 
 we omit the scandal connected with her residence 
 at the court of Marie Antoinette, and simply record 
 the fact that she became the mother of two chil- 
 dren, Eugene and Hortense the latter of whom 
 became queen of Holland. In 1787, her mother 
 then suffering from illness, she returned to Marti- 
 nique, and remained in the island till her safety 
 was threatened by the insurrection, three years 
 later, when she escaped to France, and rejoining 
 her husband, who was a chief of the constitution- 
 alists, made her house the rendezvous of the politi- 
 cians and men of letters belonging to his party. 
 The viscount de Beauharnais was executed under 
 the ascendency of Robespierre in 1794 ; and Jose- 
 phine, saved with difficulty by Tallien, met Napo- 
 leon soon afterwards at the house of Ban-as, and 
 was married to him in 1796. From that period 
 till her divorce in 1809, her history is identified 
 with the emperor's, not only personally but politi- 
 cally. Passionately devoted to him as a man, his 
 glory as a sovereign was also dearer to her than 
 her own happiness, and the unbounded influence 
 she exercised over him was never abused, as Napo- 
 leon himself acknowledged, by a word of bad counsel. 
 It had been predicted twice over, at Martinique 
 and in France, that Josephine would be queen ; 
 and as stormy scenes would sometimes occur be- 
 tween her and the emperor, she has been heard to 
 exclaim, ' They speak of your star, but it is my 
 star that rules these events ! ' And, in fact, Buona- 
 parte was greatly indebted to her political talents 
 and her fascinating manners, if not for his elevation 
 to the throne, at least for his welcome among the 
 influential circles of Parisian society. Her divoreo 
 was urged by the family of Napoleon, and by such 
 statesmen as Fouche and Talleyrand, for the sake 
 of an heir to the throne and the consolidation of 
 the new dynasty ; and, when resolved upon, Jose- 
 phine meekly retired to Malmaison, and was suc- 
 ceeded by the Austrian bride of her husband. She 
 saw the emperor for the last time in January, 1814 ; 
 on the 4th of April he abdicated, and, on the 29th 
 of the month following, Josephine breathed her last 
 
 865 
 
JOS 
 
 in the arms of her children. Like her husband, she 
 was born for empire ; and he, however blinded by 
 dynastic ambition, must have lived to feel that her 
 divorce was as mistaken in policy as it was inde- 
 fensible in principle, and cruel in the execution. 
 It is singular, and only poetical justice to add, that 
 Josephine, after all, should have given an heir to 
 Napoleon in the person of her grandson, the present 
 emperor, Louis Napoleon. LE.R.] 
 
 JOSEPHUS, Flavius, the historian of the 
 Jews, descended, on his father's side, from the high 
 priests of his nation, and, on his mother's from the 
 Asmonean princes, was born at Jerusalem in the 
 year 37. He was remarkable from boyhood for the 
 promise of those high qualities which he after- 
 wards displayed as a commander and man of let- 
 ters ; and after studying in every school of learn- 
 ing, submitting himself to the initiation of the 
 Essenes, and even mortifying his flesh in the desert, 
 he attached himself to the Pharisees, and acquired 
 a high reputation among them for his prudence 
 and wisdom. After a visit to Rome at the age of 
 twenty-six, to intercede for some of his country- 
 men who had. been condemned, by Felix, he was 
 appointed commissioner from Jerusalem to the dis- 
 turbed district of Galilee, and shortly after be- 
 came its governor Unable to prevent the internal 
 dissensions which prevailed among the Jews from 
 ripening into a revolt against the Romans, Jose- 
 phus reluctantly undertook the conduct of a war 
 of which he foresaw the issue, and for forty-seven 
 days defended Jotapata against the whole force of 
 Vespasian and Titus. After the fall of the city, 
 Josephus saved his life by a stratagem worthy of 
 Machiavel, and saluted his conquerors as the future 
 masters of the world, the issue of the war, and 
 the elevation of Vespasian and Titus, he avers, 
 having been shown to him in dreams. He accom- 
 panied Titus to the siege of Jerusalem, and endea- 
 voured to act as mediator, but was repulsed by his 
 countrymen as a traitor Finally, he lived in hon- 
 our at Rome, and is supposed to have died about 
 the year 95. The works of Josephus are his ' Jewish 
 Antiquities,' the defence of his history 4 Against 
 Appion,' ' The Martyrdom of the Maccabees,' and 
 his noble ' History of the Jewish Wars,' which is 
 that of an eye-witness of all he relates Besides 
 these, which are among the most interesting and 
 valuable remains of antiquity, he wrote his own 
 ' Life,' the public portion of which is further am- 
 plified in the ' Wars.' We learn from the former 
 that he was thrice manned, first, at the instance of 
 Vespasian, to a captive virgin, who soon afterwards 
 left him ; second, to a lady of Alexandria, whom, 
 he says, ' I forsook, because her manners pleased 
 me not, although she was the mother of my three 
 children ! ' and, thirdly, to a native of Candy, ' en- 
 dowed with as laudable manners as any other wo- 
 man whatsoever.' Opinions differ as to the reli- 
 ability of some things that Josephus relates, but 
 in matters personal, his disclosures are as candid 
 as they are edifying. The politic shrewdness of 
 Jacob, the learning of the ancient priesthood, 
 and the valour of his ancestors, the Maccabees, 
 were all united in him. It is no slight proof of 
 his worldly wisdom, that he survived the destruc- 
 tion of his people, the last unexceptionable Jew of 
 the whole race. [E.R.I 
 
 JOSEPIN, a painter of Naples, 1560-1640. 
 
 JUA 
 
 JOSHUA, the successor of Moses u mil 
 
 chief and leader of the Jews, abt. 1534-149 
 
 JOSI, Henry, a connoisseur in art, late k< 
 
 of the prints in the British Museum, 
 
 JOSIAH, a king of Judah, 639-6 
 
 JOSQUIN-DEPROZ, a Flem. musi< ian, 15 
 
 JOUBERT, Bartholomew Cathajm 
 
 general of the French republic, born 17G9, I 
 
 at the battle of Novi when fighting again* 
 
 Russians under Suwarrow, 1799. 
 
 JOUBERT, F., a learned Fr. priest, 1689-1 
 
 JOUBERT, L., a Fr. med. writer, 15299 
 
 JOUFFROY, J. De., a Fr. cardinal, d. 14! 
 
 JOUFFROY, Theodore S., a Fr. philosoi 
 
 translator of Reid and Dugald Stewart, and 
 
 thor of ' Lecons sur le Droit Naturel,' 1796-H 
 
 JOUFFROY D'ABBANS, Cl. F. I).. 
 
 De, a French mechanician and capt. of infiu 
 
 to whom the Academy of Sciences has awi 
 
 the honour of having first applied steam to i 
 
 gation, contrary to the received opinion in ] 
 
 land and America in favour of Fulton, 1751-1 
 
 JOUIN, A., a Jansenist and poet, 1081-17. 
 
 JOURDAIN, Alphonse, count of Touli 
 
 and founder of the city of Montauban, 1103-1 
 
 JOURDAIN, Amable L. M. Michel B 
 
 ellet, a French dentist, afterwards an Orii 
 
 scholar, author of * Tableau de L'Histoire 
 
 Gouvernement, de la Religion, et de la Litten 
 
 de la Perse,' 1788-1818. 
 
 JOURDAIN, F. C , a Fr. arohjeo., 1690-1! 
 
 JOURDAN, A. J. L., a Fr. jurist, 1791-H 
 
 JOURDAN, Jean Baptiste, a general ol 
 
 French revolution, born 1762, appointed go 
 
 of division 1793, general-in-chief of the am 
 
 Italy, and marshal of France, 1803-1804, los 
 
 battle of Vittoria, fought in support of Jos. Bn 
 
 parte, 1813, gov. of the 'Invalides,' 1830. d. 1 
 
 JOURDAN, Mathieu Jouve, comn 
 
 called ' Jourdan Coupe Tete,' a monster in 
 
 man shape, who became a leader of brigands 
 
 murderers during the French revolution, am 
 
 ercised supreme power at Avignon till the ai 
 
 of the republican forces under Choisi and Di 
 
 martin, 1791, executed 1794. 
 
 JOUSSE, Daniel, a Fr. lawyer and mi 
 
 matician, au. of ' Traite de la Sphere,' &c, 17(M 
 
 JOUVANCY, J , a Jesuit hist., 1643-169C 
 
 JOUVENET, J., a French painter, 1644-1 
 
 JOVELLAKOS, Gaspar Melchior D 
 
 distinguished literary savant, statesman, and 
 
 matic poet of Spain, born 1744, minister of jn 
 
 1799, killed in an insurrection, 1812. 
 
 JOVIANUS, Flavius Claudius, born 
 
 succeeded Julian the Apostate as emperor of R 
 
 and restored Christianity 363, died 364. 
 
 JOVINIAN, an Italian reformer, 4th cento) 
 
 JOVINUS, a native of Gaul, consul of I 
 
 367-370. His grandson, of the same name, 
 
 tained the title of emperor 411, killed 412. 
 
 JOVIUS, Paul, an Italian hist., 1483-15S 
 
 JOY, Rt. Hon. H., an Irish judge, 1767-1 
 
 JOY, JOYE, or GEE, John, a biblical sch 
 
 dist. as a promoter of the reformation, d. 1561 
 
 JOYCE, J., a miscel. writer, 1764-1816. 
 
 JOYNER, W., an English poet, 1622-1706 
 
 JUAN of Austria. See John of Aust 
 
 JUAN of Austria, a natural son of P 
 
 IV., king of Spain, dist. as a general, 1629-K 
 
 366 
 
JUA 
 
 MAN Y SANTACILIA, Don George, or 
 DQ JORGE JUAN, a Spanish mathematician 
 jligineer, 1712-1774. 
 
 iLfBA, the first of the name, king of Numidia, 
 gjfleded his father Hiempsel, r,.c. 50, joined 
 gjb and Cato against Caesar 49, died by his 
 dflhand when the cause was lost by the defeat 
 dttiapsus, B.C. 46. The second of the name, 
 3Jnd successor of the preceding, was led a cap- 
 ma Caesar's triumph, but afterwards made king 
 JKsoritania, and married to the daughter of 
 Jlaira and Antony. He distinguished himself 
 Jfcturalist, historian, and philoso., d. A.n. 23. 
 J?PE, Augustus, a Fr. historian, 1765-1824. 
 1|DA, Leo De, a Ger. reformer, 1482-1542. 
 "DA, Hioug, a Jewish rabbi, 11th century. 
 ijJDAH, the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, and 
 Jfather of the existing race of Jews. 
 IJJ DAH HAKKADOSH, or the holy, a learned 
 M, born in Galilee about 120, distinguished as 
 Wounder of the school of Tiberius, and as the 
 Ufler of the Mishna, died 194. 
 
 DAS LEVITA, a Spanish rabbi, 1090-1140. 
 
 JDAS MACCABiEUS, a valiant leader of the 
 
 H in the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 
 ; his father Mattathias, in the line of the 
 
 Alonean princes, B.C. 166, fell, heroically fight- 
 
 Ugunst overwhelming numbers, b.c. 160. 
 
 L'DITH, a heroine of the Jewish nation, whose 
 
 - recorded in the well-known book of that 
 
 n e, the date and the authorship of which are 
 
 bi uncertain, but which probably dates after 
 
 t] Babylonish captivity. 
 
 UEL, Nicholas, a Danish admiral, 1629-97. 
 
 UENIN, G., a French theologian, 1650-1713. 
 
 UENIN, P., a French historian, 166- -1749. 
 
 UGLARIS, A., an Italian Jesuit, died 1653. 
 
 UGLER, J. F., a Ger. philologist, 1714-1791. 
 
 UGURTHA, a king of Numidia, vanquished 
 b he Romans and starved in prison, 106 b.c. 
 i ULIA, a martyr of Carthage, killed 440. 
 
 ULIA, the only daughter of the emperor Au- 
 fltus, and wife of Marcellus and Agrippa, equally 
 cibrated for her beauty, her debaucheries, and 
 llgenius, starved to d. by order of Tiberius, 14. 
 
 ! I LI A, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina, 
 fi a victim to the intrigues of Messalina, 17-41. 
 
 ULIA, a daughter of Julius Caesar and Cor- 
 ifa, and wife of Pompey the Great, d. B.C. 53. 
 if ULIA DOMNA, second wife of the emperor 
 Jferus, and mother of Caracalla and Geta, dist. 
 jghe patroness of arts and letters, 170-217. 
 JULIAN, an Italian theologian, 5th century. 
 PULIAN, a Spanish prelate and theologian, and 
 hint of the Roman calendar, died 690. 
 
 JULIAN, Flavius Claudius, emperor of 
 '.me, nephew of Constantine the Great ; famous 
 because of his effort to re-establish the 
 : paea and worship of Paganism 5 hence named 
 ' Apostate. He was born at Constantinople in 
 1, and died at the age of thirty-two, of a wound 
 leived near Ctesiphon, in the midst ot his con- 
 t with Sapor, king of the Persians. The life of 
 a remarkable person was altogether singular, 
 laping death, always imminent during his 
 lier years, chiefly through protection of the 
 icurity to which the jealousy and avarice of his 
 isin, the possessor of the purple, had doomed 
 Q, he grew up a philosopher, first instructed by 
 
 JUL 
 
 Christian bishops, and then an attached pupil of 
 the school of Athens. The necessities of Con- 
 stantius recalled him to the capital, and procured 
 his adoption as Caesar: but, naunted by guilty 
 terrors, the Emperor virtually banished him to Gaul, 
 under guise of assigning him that exhausted and 
 perturbed region as a Province. In a position 
 thus inauspicious, the extraordinary military and 
 administrative talents of Julian first burst forth. 
 Repression had not broken the spring in him ; 
 neither had a life of study unfitted him for action. 
 He restored discipline, consolidated and inspired 
 the legions, overthrew the Germans and pacified 
 Gaul. Deprived of his government by the sleepless 
 enmity of Constantius for the hatred of the timid 
 is never asleep he was proclaimed Augustus 
 by the soldiery, and had just entered on civil war, 
 when the death of his unworthy relative opened 
 his path to the throne. Then Julian began the 
 work for which he imagined that Fate had pre- 
 pared him, a work in itself impracticable ; and 
 the attempt to perform it involved him in contro- 
 versies so bitter, and actions so questionable, that 
 it would have been vain now to attempt to disen- 
 tangle his motives, even had the history of these 
 times been much more reliable than any early 
 history is. It is alleged that he revolted from 
 the unjust repugnance of the Church to Philo- 
 sophy as such, and hated its intolerance. Unfor- 
 tunately, the early Church was intolerant, and 
 had learnt too soon the process by anathema . and 
 it is equally true, that intolerance was especially 
 foreign alike to the religion of Rome, and the 
 philosophy of Athens ; the first having ever ad- 
 mitted without scruple, new gods to seats on its 
 Olympus ; and the latter, inspired by the Alex- 
 andrines, endeavouring at that period to discern 
 the secret meaning of all forms and modes of 
 Mythology, resolving them into symbols But if 
 Julian had been moved solely by a respect for 
 liberty, he would have remained firm by his earli- 
 est measures viz., the restoration of the old gods, 
 and the equal protection of their worships. On 
 the contrary, he persecuted those he blamed as 
 persecutors, closed their schools, and launched 
 into all the excesses of reaction. The great 
 and catholic moral pointed by his history is this 
 no Power can revive in this world, that which ev-n 
 a revolution has destroyed. The destruction 
 of ancient systems, although by apparent vio- 
 lence, is never possible, unless new moral elements, 
 and forces, have been born and risen into efficiency, 
 in other words, until these systems have ceased 
 to represent the life of the world, and become 
 unfit to evolve the future. In matters of Religion 
 especially, reaction can, on this account, replace the 
 form only : the faith has gone, and the husk the 
 ceremony and the dogma can never be propped 
 up as a verisimilitude. Julian had much activity, 
 and as already stated, singular administrative 
 skill; but the weakness inherent in every Reac- 
 tionist, passed with him too, into its usual, if not- 
 unfailing issues fanaticism and frenzy. [.T.P.N.] 
 JULIANA, a woman of remarkable talents and 
 military courage, who possessed great influence at 
 the courts of the Mogul emperors of Hindostan. 
 She was the daughter of a Portuguese named 
 Augustin Dias D'Acosta, and was born in Bengal, 
 1658. Died 1733. 
 
 367 
 
JUL 
 
 JULIANA, a devotee of the reign of Edward 
 III., who immured herself in a stone cell at Nor- 
 wich, and having suffered from extreme mortifica- 
 tion, wrote a book of devotion entitled ' Sixteen 
 Revelations of the Love of God,' containing an 
 account of her visions, or the ' Showings ' by 
 which her reflections were illustrated. The MS. of 
 this work was preserved by the monks, and pub- 
 lished by a learned catholic named Cressy, in 
 1670, who could discover nothing concerning her 
 history beyond the hints which are scattered 
 through the work itself. It appears, however, 
 that she was about thirty years of age when the 
 principal of her visions occurred, in the year 1373, 
 and that she was severely tempted, and deeply 
 experienced in what the mystics regard as the 
 spiritual life. Her book was reprinted in the 
 quaint language of the period in which it was 
 written, by G. H. Parker, in 1843. The most 
 interesting of her visions is one of the Virgin 
 Mary, which Juliana has related with an artless- 
 ness and sense of wonder which it is impossible to 
 accuse either of insincerity or extravagance. [E.R.] 
 
 JULIEN, P., a French sculptor, 1731-1804. 
 
 JULIEN, S., a Swiss painter, 1736-1799. 
 
 JULIO ROMANO. See Romano. 
 
 JULIUS, the^rs^ of the name, pope of Rome, 
 a partizan of Athanasius, and a saint of the Ro- 
 man calendar, reigned 337-352. The second, one 
 of the most unscrupulous political intriguers that 
 ever occupied the papal cnair, distinguished as a 
 soldier and a magnificent patron of arts and letters, 
 born 1441, reigned 1503-1513. The third, in 
 whose time the council of Trent was re-opened, 
 reigned 1550-1555. 
 
 JULY AT, Fleury, a French poet, 16th cent. 
 
 JUMELIN, J. B., a French chemist, 1745-1807. 
 
 JUNCKER, Chr., a Ger. philolo., 1668-1714. 
 
 JUNCKER, G. H., a Ger. med. wr., 1680-1759. 
 
 JUNG STILLING. See Stilling. 
 
 JUNGE, Joachim, a native of Lubeck, eminent 
 as a math, and natural philosopher, 1587-1657. 
 
 JUNGER, J. F., a Germ, dramatist, died 1797. 
 
 JUNGERMANN, Godfrey, a Ger. translator 
 and commentator, died 1610. His brother, Louis, 
 a botanist, 1572-1653. 
 
 JUNIUS, Adrian, a Dutch savant, 1512-1575. 
 
 JUNIUS, Francis, a French scholar, professor 
 of divinity at Leyden, and fellow-labourer with 
 Tremellius upon his Latin version of the Old Tes- 
 tament, author of commentaries and theological 
 works, lf45-1602. His son, of the same name, 
 born at Heidelberg, em. as a philolo., 1589-1677. 
 
 JUNKER, G. A., a German Jesuit, 1716-1805. 
 
 JUNOT, Andoche, a marshal of the French 
 empire, and duke d'Abrantes, born 1771, entered 
 the army as a volunteer 1791, distinguished at 
 the siege of Toulon 1793, general of division in 
 Egypt 1801, governor of Paris 1804, commander 
 of the army in Portugal 1806, lost the battle of 
 Vimiera, and compelled to capitulate, 1808, after- 
 wards gov. of the Illyrian provinces, and d. 1813. 
 
 JUNOT, Laura Permon, wife of the preced- 
 ing, and duchess of Abrantes, distinguished as a 
 novelist, but chiefly by her ' Memoirs,' 1784-1838. 
 
 JURAIN, Cl., a French antiquarian, died 1618. 
 
 JURET, Fh., a French poet, 1553-1626. 
 
 JURIEU, Peter, a famous protestant theo- 
 logian, bom at Men, in the Orleannais, 1637; 
 
 JUS 
 
 died at Rotterdam, where he occupied a chn 
 theology, and was pastor of the Walloon ih 
 1713. He was a great partizan of William 
 and engaged protestants and catholics in coi 
 versy with about equal animosity. The abtl 
 his works is a ' Critical History of Doctrines 
 Modes of Worship.' 
 
 JURIN, James, an English physician, dig 
 as a mathematician and natural philos., 1684-] 
 
 JURINE, L., a Swiss naturalist, 1751-181 
 
 JUSSIEU, Antoine De, an eminent bota 
 was born at Lyons in 1686. He died in 1758. 
 possessed an extensive knowledge of botatf 
 rilled the situation of professor of that MjH 
 the Jardin du Roi at Paris. 
 
 JUSSIEU, Bernard De, a celebra 
 tanist, and a younger brother of the above, 
 also bom at Lyons, in 1699, and died in 1777, 
 derived his taste for botany from his brother, 
 through his interest was nominated, in 1722 
 tanical demonstrator at the Jardin du Roi. 1 
 XV., wishing to make an extensive botanical 
 den at Trianon, intrusted the execution and si 
 intendence of it to Bernard de Jussieu. He 
 left behind him very few writings, but he n 
 theless exercised a great influence upon the t 
 of botany in France; and his arrangement o: 
 plants cultivated in the garden of Trianoi 
 shown by his catalogues, proves that he had i 
 menced practically demonstrating the na 
 method so beautifully and fully carried out i 
 wards by his celebrated nephew. [ \\ 
 
 JUSSIEU, Antoine Laurent De, ne] 
 of the above, and upon whom his uncle's m 
 seems to have fallen, was bom at Lyons in ] 
 He died in 1836. He was appointed, in ] 
 assistant to Lemonnier, the professor of bot 
 and, in 1777, obtained the general administr 
 of the Jardin du Roi. In his lectures, and ii 
 memoir of the new arrangement of plants ii 
 royal garden, he explained for the first time cl 
 and with precision, the fundamental principl 
 the natural method of arrangement of plants, 
 in 1789, he published his ' Genera Plantarui 
 work which employed him four years in brin 
 out. In this excellent work, he has earned 
 satisfactorily the first principles of the na 
 classification of his uncle Bernard, and the 
 found and sagacious manner in which he has 
 plied these principles to the institution of 
 natural families has caused the Jussieuan m 
 to be adopted by almost all botanists throug 
 the world. In 1793, when the royal garden 
 remodelled, and became the Jardin des Pla 
 Jussieu was appointed professor of rural bot 
 and afterwards was chosen by his colleagTOj 
 director and treasurer of the museum of NJ 
 History. Like his uncle, Bernard, he had be< 
 almost totally blind for some years before 
 death. [W 
 
 JUSSOU, H. C., a Ger. architect, 1754-18 
 
 JUSTEL, Christopher, a French sa\ 
 and ecclesiastical antiquarian, whose works i 
 trate the history of France in the middle i 
 1580-1649. His son, Henry, editor of some c 
 father's MSS., 1620-1693. 
 
 JUSTI, John Henry Theophilus, a Ger 
 mineralogist, author of a 'Treatise on Money, 
 Mineralogy,' ' Chemistry,' &c, 1720-1771. 
 
JUS 
 
 STIN, surnamed ' The Martyr,' but anciently 
 Philosopher,' was born about the beginning 
 oiie second century, of pagan parents, at Flavia 
 polis (Naplous), the ancient Shechem or Sy- 
 in Samaria. He was brought up in the re- 
 lijin of his parents, and studied in succession the 
 He, Peripatetic, Pythagorean, and Platonic phi- 
 I pay. But none of them fully satisfied his 
 iJkss and inquisitive mind, though the last 
 mtHj inflated him. Meeting with an old and 
 T&able Christian in one of his solitary walks by 
 Iflsea-side, he was surprised by the conversation, 
 |rn his own ignorance of many things, and 
 d to read the Hebrew Scriptures. This in- 
 wiew led at length to his conversion., when he 
 -J still but a young man. His subsequent life 
 id spent in the earnest diffusion of the faith 
 Jch he had embraced. He visited Alexandria, 
 J was no stranger in Rome. He suffered death 
 er Marcus Antoninus, in a.d. 165 or 166 ; and 
 jisually recorded, his prime accuser was a Cynic 
 ]josopher of the name of Crescens. The mode 
 opis martyrdom is uncertain; some affirming 
 tfc he was scourged and beheaded, and others 
 u- he was put to death in secret. The best 
 ijks of Justin are in the form of apologies one, 
 dbably in a.d. 150, addressed to Antoninus 
 1b, and a second to Marcus Aurelius about the 
 jt 164. The ' Dialogue with Trypho the Jew,' 
 aract, the genuineness of which nas been un- 
 spessfully attacked, is a defence of Christianity 
 ainst Jewish assaults and prejudice, and is founded 
 rjn a personal discussion. The argument is 
 own from the types and prophecies of the Old 
 Itament, but the interpretation is often fanciful 
 a inexact. Doubts are entertained about the 
 auineness of other works ascribed to him, such 
 he ' Oration,' and ' Cohortation to the Greeks,' 
 t| famous Epistle to Diognetus, and the tract 
 Monarchy of God.' Some other spurious 
 tttises are assigned to him, and many of his 
 uips have been lost. As Justin continued to 
 Y the garb of a philosopher, so he never re- 
 
 the philosophizing spirit. His Platonic 
 lions gave peculiar colouring to his views and 
 
 f many Christian doctrines, and some of 
 
 1 arguments were not learned in the school ot 
 
 ties. His erudition, however, is always 
 
 it to Christianity; but his style is often 
 
 kei though expressive. His works in whole 
 
 N in parts have often been published. The 
 
 !P P nnce ps was published by Robert Stephens, 
 
 Iris, folio, 1551. A better editio appeared under 
 
 J care of Maranus, Paris, 1742. Thirlby pub- 
 
 ed the Dialogues, London, 1722, in a tall and 
 
 Hdsome folio, and the last and best edition, 
 
 jped by Otto, was issued from the press at Jena, 
 
 volumes 8vo, 1844. The separate pieces 
 
 been reprinted, and not a few of them 
 
 ie been translated into English. Useful informa- 
 
 on the life, times, and theology of Justin, may 
 
 W>t in Bishop Kaye's 'Writings and Opinions 
 
 ' lartyr,' Cambridge, 1829, and especially 
 Hwo German works of Semisch on the subject, 
 
 at Hamburg, 1842-1848. [J.E.] 
 
 TIN, a Roman historian, 2d century. 
 
 I., emperor of the East, born 450, 
 iceeded Anastasms 518, made Justinian his 
 eague in the empire, and died 527. 
 
 JUS 
 
 . JUSTIN II., son of Vigilantia, sister of Justi- 
 nian, sue. the latter, 565, died in retirement, 578. 
 JUSTINIAN I., emperor of Constantinople, 
 was the son of a farmer, and of the sister of Justin, 
 who from entering the army as a simple soldier, 
 had become emperor, and was succeeded by his 
 nephew, then in the forty-fifth year of his age, 
 527. Some months before the death of his uncle, 
 Justinian had persuaded him to consent to his 
 marriage with Theodora, a well-known actress 
 and courtezan, who was declared Augusta, and 
 crowned the same day as her husband. About 
 the same time, Belisarius, the friend and future 
 general of the new emperor, was married to Anton- 
 ina, a professional companion of Theodora; and 
 to the intrigues and jealousies stirred up by these 
 two women is to be attributed the principal part 
 of the untoward circumstances which have cast 
 a stain on the personal character of Justinian. The 
 political events of his reign may be summed up in 
 the wars of Belisarius and the eunuch Narses, who 
 obtained splendid successes over the Persians in 
 the East, and the Vandals and Goths in Italy, and 
 in the terrible sedition which broke out at Con- 
 stantinople in 532, and was extinguished in the 
 blood of thirty thousand persons. In the latter 
 case, Justinian would have fled from his capital, 
 and in all probability have lost his crown, but for the 
 courage and talents of Theodora, whose vices were 
 gilded by some of the rare qualities befitting an em- 
 press. The glory of his reign is the famous digest 
 of the Roman law, known generally as the Justinian 
 Code, which was compiled out of the Gregorian, 
 Theodorian, and Hermogenian codes, by ten of 
 the ablest lawyers of the empire, under the guid- 
 ing genius of the jurisconsult, Tribonian. Their 
 labours consist 1. of the ' Statute Law,' or Justi- 
 nian code, properly so called ; 2. the ' Pandects,' a 
 digest of the decisions and opinions of former ma- 
 gistrates and lawyers, these two compilations con- 
 sisted of matter that lay scattered through more 
 than two thousand volumes, now reduced to fifty ; 
 3. the ' Institutes,' an abridgment, in four books, 
 containing the substance of all the laws in an ele- 
 mentary form ; 4. the laws of modern date, includ- 
 ing Justinian's own edicts, collected into one vol- 
 ume, and called the ' New Code.' These labours, 
 which a Caesar had not been able to accomplish, 
 were completed by the year 541 ; and we can only 
 lament that Christianity was not in its prime at 
 that epoch, whereby the spirit of natural right and 
 equity had been infused into them, in place of the 
 dogmas of authority. Besides this important work 
 of imperial reform, Justinian was a great builder 
 and engineer, and works of public utility were 
 kept constantly in progress in all parts of the em- 
 pire. He was remarkable for temperance and 
 chastity, and not less so for his great learning and 
 diligent application to business ; but his religious 
 bigotry, and his weakness in the hands of Theodora, 
 marred all his good qualities. Died in the eighty- 
 third year of his age, 565. [E.R.] 
 
 JUSTINIAN II., surnamed ' Rhinotmetus,' be- 
 came emperor of the East on the death of his fa- 
 ther, Constantine, 686, when he was about sixteen 
 years of age. He was deposed and banished for 
 his cruelty, by his general, Leontius, 695 ; regained 
 his throne ten years afterwards, and, exhibiting the 
 same ferocious disposition, was assassinated, 711. 
 J 2B 
 
JUS 
 
 JUSTINIANS, The, or, GIUSTINIANI of 
 Venice, descended from the emperors of that 
 name, form a long roll of famous names. The prin- 
 cipal of these are Lorenzo, or St. Laurent, the 
 first patriarch of Venice, a man of remarkable pub- 
 lic and private virtue, author of sermons, letters, and 
 ascetic tracts, 1380-1465. Leonardo, his younger 
 brother, distinguished as an Oriental scholar and 
 poet, procurator of St. Mark, 1388-1446. Ber- 
 nardo, his son, procurator and member of the 
 council of ten, author of a life of Lorenzo Giustinian, 
 and of letters and speeches delivered by him on 
 various occasions, 1408-89. Bernardo, uncle of 
 the latter, a learned ecclesiastic and dignitary of 
 the order of St. George, author of a History of 
 the Military Orders,' published 1692. Sebastian, 
 ambassador to England in the reign of Henry VIII., 
 1515-1519. Orsatto, a Greek translator and 
 poet, 1538-1603. Pompeius, a celebrated general 
 and historian of the Flemish wars, 1569-1616. 
 Marc-Antonio, elected doge of Venice 1684, 
 died, after sustaining a war with the Turks, 1688. 
 Nic. -Antonio, a learned theologian, who became 
 bishop of Padua, and edited an edition of Athana- 
 sius, and a chronology of the bishops of his see, 
 1712-1796. Angelo, proveditor of freviso when 
 the state was invaded by Buonaparte in 1797. [E.R.] 
 
 JUSTINIANS, The, or GIUSTINIANI of 
 Genoa, assumed the name without the right of 
 descent. The principal of the family are Augus- 
 tin, bishop of Nebo, or Nebbio, and the most learned 
 man of his age, 1470-1536. Jerome, a tragic 
 writer, born about 1560. Horace, a learned car- 
 dinal, risen from a poorer branch of the family, 
 died at Rome 1649. Michel, a learned ecclesi- 
 astic, author of many works left in MS., 1612- 
 1680. Vincent, a famous connoisseur, whose 
 collection of engravings forms the ' Giustinian Gal- 
 lery,' published 1640. Fabio, a learned prelate, 
 adopted into the family when a youth, 1579-1627. 
 
 KAL 
 
 The name occurs in other parts of Italy bes 
 Venice and Genoa; of these we may men 
 Giovanni, a native of Candy, distinguished i 
 poet, died about 1556 ; and Lauren i 
 renzo, a professor at Naples, author of aijfl 
 works, &c, 1760-1825. 
 
 JUVARA, F., a Sicilian architect, 1685-fl 
 
 JUVENAL, Decius Junius, a celebrated 
 man satirist, was born at Aquinum, in Camps 
 at the beginning of the reign of Claudian. 
 first satire being directed against Paris, a favoi 
 of Domitian, Juvenal was exiled to Eg 
 pretence of an appointment, and died there a 
 advanced age, 128. Only sixteen of his MflH 
 main, most of which are considered masteM 
 of that class of writing. They have been trail 
 by Dryden, Gifford, and others. 
 
 JUVENAL, the name by which a gramma 
 named W. Jouvenneaux is known, abt. 1460-1 
 
 JUVENAL, or JOUVENAL DES URSIN 
 French statesman who owed his elevation to re 
 ing Charles VI., born about 1350, died 1431. 
 son, of the same name, archbishop of Rheims, 
 historian of Charles VI., died 1473. 
 
 JUVENCUS CAIUS VECTIUS AQUILEN 
 one of the earliest Christian poets, b. in Sp., 4 
 
 JUVENEL, F., author of a ' History of 
 Crusade under the Pontificate of Urban II 
 ' History of the Moors in Spain,' and a ' Hi* 
 of the Popes,' 17th century. 
 
 JUXON, William, successively bishop of B 
 ford, bishop of London, and archbishop of Car 
 bury, was a prelate of great learning, chief!] 
 membered for his fidelity to Charles I., whoi 
 attended at the Isle of Wight, and whose last 
 quests he received on the scaffold. He is the an 
 of a sermon, entitled 'The Subject's Sorrow 
 Lamentation on the Death of Britain's Josiah, ] 
 Charles,' published 1649, and ' Some Consider* 
 upon the Act of Uniformity,' 1662, Died 16( 
 
 K 
 
 KAAB. See Caab. 
 
 KAAS, Nicholas, the principal of the four re- 
 gents appointed to govern Denmark during the 
 minority of Christiern I., born 1535, chancellor 
 1573, regent 1588, died 1594. 
 
 KAAU-BCEBHAAVE, Abraham, a Dutch 
 anat. and phy., nephew of the illustrious Boerhaave, 
 and court physician at Petersburgh, 1713-1753. 
 
 KABBESE, J., a Dutch painter, died 1660. 
 
 KABEL, A. Vander, a D. pain., 1631-1695. 
 
 KACUFFER, C. T., a Ger. hist., 1757-1830. 
 
 KADLUBEK, or KODLUBKO, Vincent, a 
 Polish historian, and bishop of Cracow, died 1223. 
 
 KAEMPF, J., a Bavarian physician, 1733-87. 
 
 KAEMPFER, Engelbert, (1651-1716), a 
 traveller and naturalist, was a native of the princi- 
 pality of Lippe-Detmold in Germany. In the ser- 
 vice of Sweden and the Dutch he visited most 
 countries of the East ; and has recorded his many 
 curious and interesting observations in two works, 
 4 Amoenitates Exoticae,' and a ' History of Japan.' 
 In 1693 he returned to Amsterdam, and the fol- 
 lowing year took the degree of Doctor of Physic at 
 Leyden ; and settling in his native place was ap- 
 pointed physician to the prince. This brought 
 
 him into extensive practice, which he enjoy 
 his death. A genus of the ginger tribe, (S 
 mimeee,} is named after him. 
 
 KAESTNER, Abraham Gotthelf, a 
 
 mathematician and astronomer, author of'nume 
 
 works in pure and mixed math., and a ' Demon: 
 
 tion of the Immortality of the Soul,' 1719-18C 
 
 KAFOUR, a sultan of Egypt, died 968. 
 
 KAHLE, L. M., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1712-' 
 
 KAHLER, W. or J., a Ger. divine, 1649-1' 
 
 KAI-KAOUS, a king of Ivan or Persia, w 
 
 history is not well ascertained, 7th century B 
 
 KAI-KAOUS, a Turkish sultan, 1210-121 
 
 KAI-KAOUS II., a Turkish sultan, 1244-! 
 
 KAI-KHASRON, the name of three sul 
 
 theirs* of whom reigned 1192-1210; the set 
 
 1237-1244; the third, 1266-1283. 
 
 KAIN, H. L. C, a French actor, 1728-177 
 KALB, John, Baron De, a French officer- 
 became major-gen. in the American army, kill] 
 action under General Gates, 1732-1780. 
 
 KALCREUTH, Count Adolph. Fredi 
 a field-marshal of Prussia, distinguished ir 
 seven years' war under Frederick the Great] :i 
 the wars of the French revolution, 1737-181* 
 
 370 
 
ALDI, 
 
 KAL 
 
 LDI, George, a learned Jesuit of Hungary, 
 ml of theologv at Olmutz and Presburgh, d. 1634. 
 flALE, or KELF, W., a Dutch paint., 1630-93. 
 ijALKBRENNER, Christian, aPrussian Jew, 
 Urn as a musical composer and historian, 1755- 
 Jk. His son, Christian Frederick, distin- 
 jfced as a pianist, 1784-1849. 
 
 ALL, Abr , a Danish historian, 1743-1821. 
 [ALL, J. Christopher, a Prussian philo- 
 |Jt and Oriental scholar, 1714-1775. His son, 
 Wholas Christopher, the same, born 1749. 
 UVLLGREW, a Swedish dramatist, 1751-1795. 
 LALM, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, professor 
 at bo, author of ' A Naturalist's Tour in North 
 and of ' Dissertations on the Agriculture 
 JCWnmerce of Sweden,' 1715-1779. 
 JjALRAAT, Abraham Van, a Dutch painter 
 ifecalptor, 1643-1699. His brother, Bernard, 
 Mngmshed as a landscape painter, 1650-1721. 
 AMBLI, M., a Ger. sculptor, about 1717-86. 
 AMENSKI, Count, a Rus. general, last ct. 
 Uf-HI, or KHANG-HI, a Chinese emperor, 
 ce is a patron ofjarts and letters, reig. 1661-1722. 
 AMPEN, J. Tan, a Dutch painter, 17th cen. 
 AMPENHAUSEN, Baron Balthazer De, 
 I issian historian and publicist, 1772-1823. 
 AXDJATOU, a khan of the Moguls, 1291-95. 
 ANDLER, J. J., a German artist, dist. for 
 th >eauty of his figures on porcelain, 1706-1776. 
 A XXI, J. A., a Ger. Orientalist, 1773-1824. 
 \XT, Immanuel, born at Konigsberg, 21st 
 24 ; in which city he spent a long life of 
 ; rs in the tranquillity so acceptable to a 
 Sal: he died on 24th February, 1804. It has 
 iflened to two of Europe's most illustrious 
 TIkers since the revival of Philosophy, to 
 talrtake the same momentous problem regard- 
 fcjhe Grounds and Limits of Human Knowledge : 
 t*pen, almost contrasted in character, but each 
 n to his age, offering a solution so pro- 
 > i and suitable, that his works stand as an 
 which, as its commencement, a spacious 
 ra e of Metaphysical History will ever be dated : 
 jK Inquirers were Kant and John Locke. 
 Bmsted in mental character for, while Locke, 
 Jig in the peculiar genius of his country, 
 I not to adventure beyond the concrete the 
 jtfcal the objective, the intellect of Kant 
 rested an analytic power, an ability to pierce 
 abstractions and construct Systems, cer- 
 r surpassed since the days of Aristotle, 
 two great men were so placed, that in 
 U common revolt against scepticism and 
 Biatism, it fell to them as if through necessity, 
 tPpok at their common subject from those 
 Mite points of view, which in philosophy, 
 M stood for the most part also as contrasted, 
 by the dogmatism of less discreet Car- 
 Hat, who were ever inclined to arrest in- 
 Hfenient Inquiry, by interposing the obstacle 
 II so-called Innate principle or truth Locke 
 Hated our harmony with the External World, 
 hastened to vindicate for its action on Mind, 
 BJnportant part which that action plays in the 
 paction of human knowledge : Kant, on the 
 hand, lived in times when the claims on 
 Mf of Sensation instituted by Locke had 
 H riwn to excess ; when the figurative expres- 
 he Englishman, that the mind is a tabula 
 
 KAN 
 
 rasa had become accepted as a literal maxim ; and 
 the unrelenting scepticism of Hume had driven from 
 systematic philosophy all recognition of Energy 
 in Mind, Personality in Man, or of Permanence 
 Substance and Truth, in Nature or anywhere. 
 Accordingly, it was his distinctive vocation to 
 reassert the Force of the Thinking principle, to 
 re-establish it as a Power, co-ordinate, and at least 
 coequal with the External Universe: and he 
 accomplished his task so thoroughly, that the 
 despotism of mere Sensationalism can never 
 reappear in the progress of modern thought. 
 Inevitably, perhaps, from his position, Kant's 
 tendencies lean unduly towards Idealism : never- 
 theless, profiting by his long posteriority to Locke, 
 the solution offered by the profound and penetrat- 
 ing German, is assuredly the completest which our 
 human Intellect has yet elaborated ; and, however 
 surprising to the English reader, it may be also 
 asserted, that by no one, since the Stagyrite 
 wrote, has clear and definite thought been ex- 
 pressed more clearly, or more conscientiously 
 guarded from possible misapprehension. We shall 
 endeavour as distinctly as we can encumbered 
 by the necessary brevity to offer an appreciation 
 of Kant's remarkable labours. I. Two considera- 
 tions are essential to a right apprehension of the 
 achievements of the sage of Konigsberg . First ; 
 as it is necessary to repeat, his effort was to 
 establish the grounds and limits of Human Know- 
 ledge destroying scepticism on the one hand, 
 and discrediting dogmatism on the other: and 
 Secondly; He sought to accomplish this double 
 object by defining exactly the spheres of those two 
 factors of all knowledge the Mind and Nature ; 
 thus rescuing Truth from doubt, although Sensation 
 alone might not account for it, and by rigorously 
 appreciating and surveying the action of the 
 purely Mental Force, warning us not to mistake 
 for real, what is merely notional. To carry out 
 the foregoing aim was the effort of Kant's life ; 
 and his philosophy was hence rightly designated 
 the Critical Philosophy : although he has surveyed 
 many departments of Doctrine, his efforts point 
 everywhere rather to Criticism, than to Doctrine ; 
 he has shown rather how Philosophy may become 
 a Science, than filled in the matter of the 
 Science. Taking his writings as a whole even 
 allowing that the whole is a composite of 
 isolated parts they go with the strong light of 
 Criticism nearly around all possible knowledge. 
 The mind manifesting its energies mainly under three 
 Modes, usually discriminated as the Intellect, the 
 Emotions, and the Will (see article Krause), 
 Kant has tracked its corresponding laws and 
 methods of action, in his classical treatises the 
 Critique of the Pure Reason the Critique oj the 
 Judgment and the Critique of the Practical 
 Reason. To complete the two latter works, 
 several of his smaller treatises are needful as 
 a supplement ; but, with this addition, they may 
 be justly esteemed as contributions yet un- 
 surpassed, to the disentangling of difficulties in 
 theoretical and practical Morals, and to the 
 establishment of fundamental canons in ^Esthetics. 
 Both works abound in passages of noble Eloquence: 
 the Critique of the Practical Reason presents the 
 best appreciation offered by any modern Thinker, 
 of the system of Epicurus, and the morality of 
 
 371 
 
KAN 
 
 Stoicism : the Critique of the Judgment achieved 
 n influence in Germany which even the super- 
 ficial student of the literature of that country will 
 not fail to recognize ; and in the section on Tele- 
 ology, the philosophical rudiments appear, of that 
 recent method in Natural History, which will 
 constrain a reconstruction of all the Sciences of 
 Organization. It is, however, of the Critique of 
 the Pure Reason only, that, in illustration of 
 Kant's manner, we shall here give any particular 
 account. II. As the foundation of this memorable 
 Critique, Kant inquires, what characteristics 
 must attach to Knowledge drawn simply from 
 Sensation, or from Experience f Sensation, or 
 experience, can inform the mind of facts only, of 
 things that are, because they are felt ; it never can 
 show that a thing must be, or that it is universally. 
 The characteristics of necessity and universality, 
 then, cannot come from experience; the pro- 
 ducts of which must be empirical, and can never 
 rise higher than generalizations: so that whenever 
 either characteristic inheres in a notion, we are 
 obliged to infer that the said notion is, in thus far, 
 not a pure product of experience, but an experience 
 viewed and modified by some quality or energy of 
 the thinking faculty. The criterion obtained, 
 let the Intellect, or the Pure Reason be examined ; 
 and the factors of the whole separated, after a 
 full analysis of its contents. The Pure Reason, or 
 the Faculty of Knowing, operates in three dif- 
 ferent modes First, that of Sensibility, or our 
 power to construct representations of objects by 
 means of the sensations they produce: Second, 
 the Faculty which co-ordinates, unites, and dis- 
 cerns the relations of these representations, or the 
 Undekstanding: and Third, that loftier Faculty 
 which bestows on Knowledge its highest Unity- 
 passing beyond Sensibility and the Understanding, 
 and seeming to descry Ultimate and Eternal 
 Laws ; this faculty is the Reason. Of the con- 
 tents of the Sensibility then, what are the a 
 posteriori, and what the a priori elements? 
 What portion of a perception is Empirical, and 
 what Necessary and Universal? The perception 
 of a fact or thing as existing, is clearly empirical ; 
 but we cannot perceive anything without con- 
 ceiving it as necessarily existing in Space and 
 Time: these conceptions no mere apprehension 
 of empirical existence can supply ; therefore they 
 are Forms of our Sensibility, qualities or forces 
 belonging to the perceiving agent, by which a new 
 nature, so to speak, is impressed on the thing 
 perceived. With regard to the Understanding 
 again, we discern that it universally classes objects 
 under certain determinate relations, which rela- 
 tions it considers universally applicable : these 
 relations, therefore, or the Categories, are the 
 Laws, or Formal principles of the Understanding 
 its constituent elements or rather the Conditions 
 under which alone, in virtue of its structure, it can 
 work. In his determination of the Categories, Kant 
 analyses alongside of Aristotle; nor, ir the works 
 of the two great men are compared, will it appear, 
 that, to the philosopher of Konigsberg, thought 
 had advanced for so many centuries, in vain. 
 One of the Categories of the Understanding is the 
 relation of Cause and Effect: the Student will at 
 once discern how easily under this view of it, the 
 German disposed of the otherwise bewildering 
 
 KAN 
 
 speculations of Hume. Beyond Sensibility a 
 Understanding lies the Reason, governed j 
 a priori Ideas, one of which elevates us 
 conception of the Soul, or to the transcer 
 Unity of Man ; a second, the ground of all r 
 Cosmology ; and a third, that constructs t 
 tion of God. How limited the glimpse a 
 by these abrupt words, of the amplitude a 
 
 f>erb proportions of the Critical Philosophy. 
 et the Student be assured that for the fin 
 in History the problem it undertook ha 
 entirely solved: no longer does the region 
 Subjective Human Knowledge contain dar 
 visited, or unexplored corners. III. The < 
 now ventured as to the labours of Kant, is n 
 nounced in ignorance of the questionings to 
 they have given rise. Numerous the modifi 
 proposed on his table of the Categories ; as 
 exceptions to other interior peculiarities 
 system : but these whatever their plausib 
 weight little affect the merits of his gigan 
 symmetrical scheme. We have said, he 
 that its tendencies lean unduly ( towards Ide 
 and it is necessary now, to shfcw in what 
 ner the foregoing speculations open and in 
 the questio vexata of modern thought 
 supreme difficulty of existing metaphysics, 
 Critical Philosophy, has indeed saved all 
 sary Truths by referring them to Laws 
 Mind conditions under which alone the Tl 
 Organism can operate: but, what is the r 
 between these Laws subjective, and exten 
 objective Realities f Space and Time the a 
 elements of the Sensibility do they not exist 
 Universe as well as for Us? Is that represei 
 purely Ideal, by which the marvels of mate: 
 are placed before the mind, sparkling tl 
 Infinity and evolving through all Timet 
 Categories of the Understanding, again th 
 tion for instance of Cause and Effect all 
 they are necessitated through the nature of tl 
 derstanding itself, are they all purely subj< 
 Is there not a world of phenomena, regula 
 laws which are their exact counterparts, i 
 bring us into whose presence, our Intellectu 
 ture is the instrument ? So, finally of the B 
 the Idea of God is a necessity with it, 
 only a subjective necessity, does not that 
 sity conduct us towards a Real, ever-livin 
 creating, all-sustaining Omniscience ? The 
 will not learn without dismay that Kant den 
 legitimacy of every attempt to effect a transi 
 Reality, from the region of the Speculative I 
 By a process that at least is ingenious, 
 which he is supported by our own Sir V 
 Hamilton, he did effect a bridge towards \ 
 alities of Ontology ; he assumed the exist< 
 God as a consequence ot the Law of Mcj 
 nevertheless, it is his dictum, that the reprfl 
 tions of the Sensibility and the verities 
 Intellect, authorize our belief in no objective 
 terpart; and that Existence, as recognized b] 
 is a mere Noumenon a thing originating a 
 tion, but unknown as to its qualities, and tl) 
 able. Doubtless one is startled by such a con< 
 but it were folly to underrate the difficult} 
 checked the advance of Kant. Many and var ; 
 efforts to remove it; with what success, thi 
 the place to declare : with not a few Inquir 
 
 872 
 
KAN 
 
 _ j to accomplish the feat seems to have passed 
 
 | its accomplishment. Nevertheless, on the occur- 
 
 of such difficulties, even when they seem to 
 
 eh the insuperable, it is something to discern 
 their existence need not surprise us ; and that 
 their appalling magnitude is no reason for 
 
 ;e despair (article Leibnitz). The question 
 -which Inquiry is here impinging, has to do 
 th the lowest down the least accessible portion 
 lour human Nature. As we have remarked else- 
 !iere ; the faculty of Intuition, the power to look 
 heath Sensation into Realities Intueri is, 
 hough the most educable, the most difficult to 
 hrrehend, and the least educated of all the_ forms 
 I energy appertaining to Mind. It acts, indeed 
 every mind, but it acts imperfectly; rarely does 
 act through reflection, or, as yet, so that we 
 h explain its operations. Let the student turn 
 Sir William Hamilton's celebrated memoir on 
 Presentation and Representation; he will find 
 fere how sadly men have erred, and how toil- 
 mely they have laboured, before that single act 
 j Intuitive Perception could be described ! That 
 jt of Intuition, as we now understand it, is 
 mply the act constraining our acceptance of an 
 jective reality, corresponding to Kant's subjec- 
 re Laws or Forms of the Sensibility : is it not 
 fely then, that a deeper and clearer view, in the 
 to remaining and corresponding directions, shall 
 able us to assert as authoritatively, concerning 
 v& Objectivity of Laws which we apprehend in 
 e meantime, simply as regulating Forms of the 
 nderstanding and the Reason ? Between these 
 ro classes of Forms or constituent elements, and 
 je Forms of Space and Time, there is much in 
 Immon ; especially this vital characteristic no 
 eculative doubt can destroy our practical belief 
 at they have real correlatives. Nay, it may be 
 leged even as Kant rightly asserts with regard 
 the Practical Reason, or the Law of Morality 
 at without that belief, or rather that intuition, 
 k faculties would not operate. Perception indeed 
 jrolves no conscious voluntary act ; the working 
 f the Understanding and the Reason, on the other 
 ind, do involve one ; and it appears safe to aver 
 lat unless for the conviction, that we are con- 
 rned about a great and real Universe, apart 
 pm the Thinking Subject, the Human Will would 
 Use to urge the Understanding to evolve its 
 jlations, or the Reason to aspire after that 
 ighest Unity which, in obedience to its nature, it 
 ruggles to attain. It were unsuitable to close this 
 nperfect notice of the Philosophy of Kant, without 
 kord concerning the character and aspects of the 
 hilosopher. We have said that he lived in tran- 
 pillity, devoted to meditation. But it were wrong 
 1 fancy him the abstracted sage. His benevo- 
 simplicity were great ; he much relished 
 inglmg with its innocent gaieties ; and he 
 as beloved by the young. He was a man of un- 
 lpeachable probity ; and that sincerity which is 
 W right arm of Genius in its contests for Truth, 
 i inseparable from his nature. His ideas in morals 
 ive been surpassed in elevation by no writer m 
 istory; he never uttered a word or committed a 
 ratence to the world, derogatory to man's highest 
 r which the sternest virtue would recall, 
 pure lover of Truth, he proclaimed and vindi- 
 Med liberty of Thought and Speech : Philosophy, 
 
 KEA 
 
 with Kant, was no make-believe neither the for* 
 mula of a School, nor an affectation of the Salon 
 but an earnest discernment of the rights and 
 duties, the functions privileges and position of 
 Humanitv, and therefore a reverential offering 
 by our Human Reason to the august Power that 
 formed it. There are now excellent editions of 
 Kant's collected works in German, by his pupils ; 
 good French translations of several of them; 'an 
 English version of the Critique of the Pure Reason 
 by Mr. Hayward, and one of his Ethics by Mr. 
 Semple. [J.P.N.] 
 
 KAO-TSOU-OUTI, a Chinese emp., 355-422. 
 
 KAO-TSOU, the first of the name, emperor of 
 China, founder of the Tang dynasty, reigned 619- 
 626, d. 635 ; the second, founder of the Haou-Tein 
 dynasty, reigned 935-942 ; the third, founder of 
 the Haou-Han dynasty, reigned 947-951. 
 
 KAO-TSOUNG, theirs* of the name, emperor 
 of China, reigned 648-684; the second, 1127-1161. 
 
 KAPNIST, Vasili V., a Rus. poet, 1756-1813. 
 
 KARAMSIN, Nicholas Mich^elovitch, 
 historiographer-royal of the empire of Russia, 
 councillor of state in 1826, author of a History of 
 Russia, and works in polite literature, 1765-1826. 
 
 KARNKOWSKI, S., a Polish hist., died 1603. 
 
 KAROLI, J., a Hungarian divine, 16th century. 
 
 KARPIUSKI, F. ; a Polish dramatist, d. 1823. 
 
 KARSTEN, W. J. G., a German physician and 
 mathematician, 1732-1787. His brother, F. C. S. 
 Karsten, an agriculturist, 1751-1829. Their 
 nephew, Didier L. Gustave Karsten, a learned 
 mineralogist, 1768-1810. 
 
 KATE, L. T., a Dutch grammarian, last cent. 
 
 KATER, H., an Eng. mathematician, 1777-1825. 
 
 KATONA, S., a Hungarian hist., 1732-1811. 
 
 KAUFMANN, Mary Anne Angelica Cath- 
 erine, a French lady remarkable for her talents 
 in painting and music, 1741-1807 
 
 KAUNITZ-RIETBERG, Wencelaus An- 
 thony, prince of, an Austrian states., 1710-1794. 
 
 KANTZ, Constan. F., an Aus. hist., 1735-97. 
 
 KAY, or CAIUS, Thomas, head master of 
 University College, Oxford, author of a work 
 written in vindication of the superior antiquity of 
 Oxford, in a controversy with Dr John Kaye of 
 Cambridge, died 1572. 
 
 KAY, or KEY, W., a Dutch painter, 1520-1568. 
 
 KAYE, KEYE, CAY, or CAIUS, John, a 
 learned physician, founder of Caius College, Cam- 
 bridge, of which he w r as the first master, author 
 of professional works, and a Hist, of Cam., 1510-73. 
 
 KAYSSLER, A., a Ger. philosopher, d. 1822. 
 
 KAZWINI, Zachariah Ben Mohammed 
 Ben Mahmoud, an Ar. geogra. and nat., d. 1283. 
 
 KEACH, Benjamin, a baptist wr., 1640-1704. 
 
 KEAN, Edmund, one of the greatest tragic 
 actors of which England can boast, and possessed 
 of decided genius for the drama, was, on his 
 mother's side, great-grandson of Harry Carey, re- 
 puted author of ' God save the King.' The date of 
 his birth is dubious, but he is stated to have been 
 born in Castle-Street, Leicester Square, in Novem- 
 ber, 1787 ; but to have himself asserted that 17th 
 March, 1790, was his birth-day. He seems to 
 have been placed on the stage when an infant, and 
 to have thus appeared in processions and pageants 
 both at Drury Lane and the Haymarket theatres. 
 At these periods he was remarked for his shyness, 
 73 
 
KEA 
 
 but attracted the sympathy of Miss TiJswell, an 
 actress of some standing, who was able to recom- 
 mend him to a manager in Yorkshire, where he 
 acted under the name of Carey. Hamlet, Lord 
 Hastings, and Cato, were the parts which even 
 then he was capable of filling; and he showed 
 besides much elocutionary skill in recitations from 
 Hilton and Shakspeare, which attracted the at- 
 tention of Dr. Drury, who sent him to Eton school, 
 where he remained three years, and acquired con- 
 siderable knowledge of Latin. After this, he 
 played Hamlet and Shylock, first on the Birming- 
 nani stage, and afterwards at Edinburgh, Sheer- 
 ness, Sevenoaks, Tunbridge Wells, and Swansea. 
 At about the age of nineteen, we find him at 
 Wateiford, in Ireland, where he acted Douglas, 
 and obtained a wife, remaining there two years, 
 after which he visited Weymouth, Exeter, and 
 Taunton. At Dorchester, he is said to have per- 
 formed, not only in tragedy and comedy, but in 
 opera and pantomime. By the intervention of 
 Dr. Drury, he was ultimately recommended to 
 the committee of Drury Lane theatre ; at which 
 theatre he made his debut 26th January, 1814, as 
 Shylock, to a meagre house, but the few who 
 were present became convinced of his genius ; the 
 critics were in his favour, and on waking the next 
 morning the young actor found himself famous. 
 His Richard the Third, Hamlet, and Othello, con- 
 firmed the favourable impression. His career was 
 thenceforth assured, and his successes were of the 
 most brilliant description. As a contrast to the 
 classical style of the Kemble school, his acting was 
 impulsive, fiery, and startling. After several sea- 
 sons of triumph in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 he visited America, being induced to that step by 
 some private circumstances which permit not de- 
 tail. On his return to England, he became man- 
 ager of the Richmond theatre, and died in the house 
 attached thereto, 15th May, 1833. His funeral 
 was numerously attended by distinguished persons, 
 and he was interred in the cemetery belonging to 
 the old church at Richmond, near the grave of 
 Thomson and Burbage. A cenotaph has since 
 been placed on the church wall by his son, Mr. 
 Charles Kean, the present manager of the Princess's 
 theatre. Had the father been as prudent as the 
 son has proved, his life would have been happier, 
 and his ultimate triumph more decided. His 
 
 genial aptitude for acting was indisputable, and the 
 ghtning-flashes frequent during his extraordinary 
 performances, astonished the critic as much as the 
 ordinary spectator. We have certainly had no 
 performer whom the conscientious biographer can 
 cite as his superior in tragic effect and passionate 
 elocution. [J.A.H.] 
 
 KEANE, John, Lord, son of Sir John Keane ot 
 Belmont, dist. as an officer in the peninsular war, and 
 for his capture, in 1839, of Ghuznee ; 1780-1844. 
 
 KEATE, George, a poet and miscel. writer, 
 au. of an 'Account of the Pelew Islands,' 1729-97. 
 
 KEATING, G., an Irish historian, d. abt. 1625. 
 
 KEATS, John, was born in London in 1796. 
 Some years of his boyhood were spent in a school 
 at Enfield. There he received classical impressions 
 which moulded the form of his youthful fancy and 
 feelings, producing a singularly interesting, though 
 anomalous, kind of images, by their mixture with 
 the romantic ideas which modern poetry afterwards 
 
 KEL 
 
 inspired. When he was about fifteen year! ol 
 was apprenticed to a surgeon in London; 
 poetry had taken close possession of his mind 
 the art was enthusiastically practised. In 
 he published a volume of poems, which was 
 noticed. Next year appeared ' Endymion, a F 
 Romance.' This poem displayed a predomii 
 of imagination over judgment, so decided i 
 prompt a doubt whether even maturer years < 
 have qualified the writer to attain very higl 
 cellence ; but it has an affluence of imagery, i 
 ideality, and an exquisite grace of feeling, v 
 make it to poetical minds one of the most w 
 tive of all poems. It was criticised by Giffa 
 the Quarterly Review with savage severity, 
 attack affected the young poet very deeply, 
 has even been said to have caused or accele 
 the consumptive symptoms which soon sh 
 themselves. He published, however, in 181 
 new volume, containing, among other pi 
 ' Hyperion,' ' The Eve of Saint Agnes,' ' La 
 and ' Isabella.' In a paper on his former vol 
 which now appeared in the Edinburgh Rem 
 was justly said by Jeffrey, that, with all its f 
 both of matter and of diction, no book coul 
 more fitly put into the hands of a reader, as i 
 to ascertain whether he had a native relit] 
 poetry and a genuine sensibility to its inta 
 charm.' The poetry of Shelley, and that of B 
 may be pointed to as the earliest indicatio: 
 those poetical tendencies which have been fij 
 developed by Tennyson and his school. The 
 sought renovation of health in Italy, but in 
 He died at Rome in December, 1820, when hi 
 recently completed his twenty-fourth year. H 
 KEATS, Sir R. G., a naval officer, 1757- 
 KEBLE, Joseph, an Eng. lawyer, 1632-1 
 KEDER, N., a Swedish antiquarian, 1659-: 
 KEENE, Edmund, bishop of Ely, 1713-1' 
 KEILL, John, a Scotch mathematician, ] 
 1721. His brother, James, a physician 
 medical author, 1673-1719. 
 
 KEISAR, W. De, a Flem. painter, 1647-1 
 
 KEISER, R., a German musician, 1673-1; 
 
 KEITH. See Elphinstone. 
 
 KEITH, George, a Scotch sectarian, a 
 
 works for and against the Quakers, d. abt. 1. 
 
 KEITH, James, youngest son of William 1 
 
 earl marshal of Scotland, distinguished as a 
 
 marshal in the service of Prussia, 1696-1758. 
 
 KEITH, Thomas, a professional accoui 
 
 and mathematician, author of ' Introdu 
 
 Works in Geometry,' &c, 1759-1824. 
 
 KELAOUN, sultan of Egypt, 1279-1290 
 
 KELGREN, H., a Swedish poet, 1751-17S 
 
 KELLEHOUN, Moritz, a Ger. pain, andt 
 
 director of the academy at Munich, 1768-183 
 
 KELLER, J. B., a Swiss statuary, 1638-1 
 
 KELLER, G., a German historian, 1750-1 
 
 KELLER, D. L. Chr., Count, a Prussian <3 
 
 matist, kn. at the congress of Vienna, 1757-i 
 
 KELLERMANN, Francis Chuistop 
 
 duke of Valmy, a famous general of the Fj 
 
 revolution, was born at Strasburgh 1735, and, 
 
 bracing the military profession when a youth 
 
 risen to the rank of camp-marshal, besides se 
 
 in several political missions, before the comm 
 
 ment of the revolution. In 1791, he was appo 
 
 to a command in the army of the Moselle, an 
 
 374 
 
KEL 
 
 c ied himself in organizing the defence of the 
 
 iflitier against the emigrants and the duke of 
 
 /josmck. On the 19th of September, 1792, he 
 
 Beted, by forced marches, at the head of twenty- 
 
 Jtm thousand men, his famous junction with Du- 
 
 jjiiriez, and, the following day, intrenched on the 
 
 fehts of Valmy, resisted an attack of forty-five 
 
 liusand Prussians and twenty thousand Aus- 
 
 Jns. This famous victory was the first in the 
 
 : ies of successes which marked the career of the 
 
 jjublic and the empire, and was gained by the 
 
 lf ill-provided levies of the patriots over ex- 
 
 jtenced troops. On the same day the national 
 
 jlvention was assembled in Paris. On the mor- 
 
 ti, the republic was proclaimed, and the news 
 
 Jiving in the camp of Valmy after their victory, 
 
 1 4s the occasion of great rejoicings, in the midst 
 
 jjwhich the duke of Brunswick with his army 
 
 IJrossed the frontier. Escaping the denunciations 
 
 itfcustine, who sought his ruin, Kellermann was 
 
 -i minted, in 1795, commander-in-chief of the army 
 
 lithe Alps and Italy, and in a short time found 
 
 r ltwelf auxiliary to Napoleon, whose star rose 
 
 4 Ive him. His position afterwards was that of a 
 
 t iator and peer of France ; and, like many others 
 
 jhis order, he made peace with the Bourbons on 
 
 ! fall of the emperor. He died in 1820. [E.R.] 
 
 KELLEY, Edward, the seer and companion of 
 
 f Jctor Dee in his alleged intercourse with spirits, 
 
 ~* is born in Worcester 1555, and is said to have 
 
 fen educated at Oxford, but, leaving the university 
 
 "raptly, was captured in Lancashire, and for some 
 
 ; : Jme, it is supposed, lost his ears. It must have 
 
 I fen soon afterwards that he made the acquain- 
 
 | pee of Dr. Dee, who was at first persuaded that 
 
 [lley ' had been brought into unison with him by 
 
 Idiation of the angel Uriel,' for as early as 1589 
 
 ! ey had separated again. The cause of their dis- 
 
 -> reement was Kelley's indulgence in magical prac~ 
 
 \es for the sake of gain, which the Doctor could 
 
 ate ; and, left to himself, our adventurer 
 
 lived handsomely upon his profits, but 
 
 pined the honour of knighthood from the Em- 
 
 ror Rodolph. It was the popular belief that 
 
 itlived the time of his compact with the 
 
 JviL, and was carried off bodily by infernal spirits 
 
 _:ht of his wife and children but accord- 
 
 : g to unadorned history he was imprisoned for 
 
 Ties, and died of the injuries he received 
 
 nle endeavouring to escape, in 1595. He is 
 
 e author of poems on chemistry and on the philo- 
 
 I Ipher's stone, and was the penman of several 
 
 '^courses, which are printed in Casaubon's ' Rela- 
 
 t>n of What Passed for Many Years Between 
 
 Dee and Some Spirits,' published 1639. Some 
 
 rious particulars concerning him will be found in 
 
 eaver's ' Funeral Monuments ; ' and there are 
 
 me MSS., both of his and Dr. Dee's, in the 
 
 shmolean Museum at Oxford. ' [E.R.] 
 
 KELLISON, M., a catholic divine, died 1641. 
 
 KELLY, Hugh, an Irish dramatist, 1739-77. 
 
 KELLY, John, an English clergyman, author 
 
 1 A Practical Grammar of the Ancient Gaelic, 
 
 Language of the Isle of Man,' 1750-1809. 
 
 KELLY, Michael, an Irish singer, 1762-1826. 
 
 KELP, Justus J., a Ger. philologist, 1650-1720. 
 
 KEMBLE, Geo. Stephen, a popular actor and 
 
 anager, br. of the eel. J. P. Kemble, 1758-1822. 
 
 KEMBLE, John Philip, next to Garrick, the 
 
 KEM 
 
 most eminent of English actors, but in style, the 
 contrast of his great predecessor, being as reflec- 
 tive as he was impulsive. His father, Roger 
 Kemble, was theatrical manager at Prescot, in 
 Lancashire, and in that county, John Philip was 
 born, February, 1757. He was educated first at 
 the Roman Catholic Seminary of Sedgelev Park, 
 Staffordshire; and afterwards at the college of 
 Douay, being intended for one of the learned pro- 
 fessions. His own course, however, had been 
 already determined on, and he commenced active 
 life as an actor at Liverpool, after which he visited 
 York and Edinburgh. At Liverpool he acted in a 
 tragedy of his own composition, called ' Belisarius ;' 
 and soon after published a volume of Fugitive 
 Pieces,' which, however, he sought to suppress. 
 His appearance in London took place 30th Sep- 
 tember, 1783, at Drury Lane, when he performed 
 ' Hamlet,' with extraordinary applause ; though it 
 was five years before he became leading tragedian. 
 About that period, too, he succeeded to the man- 
 agement of the theatre, which he conducted till 
 1801, during which he restored some good old 
 plays, and produced some original pieces, including 
 a musical entertainment of his own, entitled 
 ' Lodoiska.' Next year, he became the manager 
 and the purchaser of a sixth share of Covent Gar- 
 den theatre, but the destruction of the edifice by 
 fire in 1809, caused him much trouble, which, after 
 its rebuilding, was increased, in consequence of the 
 prices being augmented, and the boxes arranged 
 too exclusively for the accommodation of the aris- 
 tocracy. Public disturbances, known by the name 
 of the O. P. Riots, ensued, and continued for several 
 nights. On his retirement from the stage, 23d 
 July, 1807, Mr. Kemble was complimented with 
 a public dinner, which was attended by persons 
 of rank and talent. He died at Lausanne, in 
 Switzerland, 26th February, 1823, of a paralytic 
 attack. Mr. Kemble's style of acting was emi- 
 nently regulated by art; his performances were 
 premeditated, and as little as possible was left to 
 natural impulse. This style was most suited to 
 the artificial characters of the drama, such as 
 Cato, Ccriolanus, Hamlet, King John, Jaques, 
 and Penruddock. In his different managements, 
 Mr. Kemble brought his learning to bear on the 
 business and decorations of the stage, which is, 
 accordingly, indebted for some of its earliest re- 
 forms to him. But he preferred building his re- 
 putation on the old drama, to risking it in the pro- 
 duction of novelty the ill consequences of which 
 mode of proceeding, ultimately resulted in the to- 
 tal fall of the two patent theatres, which are now 
 superseded by smaller establishments. [J.A.H.] 
 
 KEMBLE, Priscilla, widow of the preceding, 
 formerly wife of the actor Brereton, 1755-1845. 
 
 KEMENI, prince of Transylvania, 1660-1662. 
 
 KEMP, Joseph, a dist. composer, 1778-1824. 
 ' KEMP, J. T., a Dutch missionary, 1748-1811. 
 
 KEMPELLEN, Wolfgang, Baron, a Hunga- 
 rian dramatist and mechanician, inventor of the 
 famous automaton chess-player, 1734-1804. 
 
 KEMPER, J. M., a Dutch juriscon., 1776-1824. 
 
 KEMPIS, Thomas A, whose real surname was 
 Hemmerken, or Hammerlein, was born at 
 Kempen near Cologne in 1380, was educated at 
 the school founded by Gerhard Groote at De venter, 
 to which he was sent at the age of thirteen ; en- 
 
 375 
 
KEN 
 
 tered seven years afterwards the convent of St. 
 Agnes, formally assumed the monastic habit in 
 1406, and finally became the superior of the same 
 establishment His was an earnest practical piety, 
 and his writings are deeply embued with his pecu- 
 liar devotional spirit. A tinge of ascetic mystic- 
 ism is very apparent in his so-called works. The 
 work by which he is best known in this country is 
 the ' Imitation of Christ,' (De Imitatione Christi,) 
 which is but the title of the first book of a larger 
 treatise, (De Contemptu Mundi). It is, however, 
 suspected not to be of his composition, the pro- 
 bability being that the work was only translated by 
 A Kempis, but in reality composed by the Chan- 
 cellor Gerson of the university of Paris. Thomas 
 A Kempis died in 1471, aged ninety-two ; not one 
 of those Titans who win immortality by intellectual 
 prowess, but one of those humbler saints whose 
 calm and meditative piety surrounds their memory 
 with an undying fragrance. [J.E.J 
 
 KEN, Ta., bp. of Bath and Wells, and one of the 
 seven sent to the Tower by James II., 1637-1711. 
 
 KENDAL, G., a Calvinistic divine, died 1663. 
 
 KENDRICK, J., an Amcr. navigator, d. 1800. 
 
 KENICIUS, P., arbp. of Upsala, 1555-1636. 
 
 KENNAWAY, Sir J., an East Indian officer and 
 diplomatist, time of Tippoo sultan, 1758-1836. 
 
 KENNEDY, James, a relig. founder of Scot- 
 land, bishop of St. Andrews, and lord chancellor, 
 and one of the regency time of Jas. III., 1405-66. 
 
 KENNEDY, J., a chronologist, d. about 1770. 
 
 KENNEDY, J., a Scotch antiquarian, d. 1760. 
 
 KENNEDY, William, a Scottish lawyer and 
 antiq., au of the 'Annals of Aberdeen,' 1759-1836. 
 
 KENNET, White, an English prelate, dist. 
 as a political partizan in the time of Atterbury 
 and Sacheverel, author of historical and antiqua- 
 rian works, 1660-1728. His brother, Basil, a 
 learned divine and antiquarian, 1674-1714. 
 
 KENNETH, the first of the name, king of 
 Scotland, 604-606 ; the second, reigned 823-854 ; 
 the third, succeeded 978, assassinated 994. 
 
 KENNEY, J., an Irish dramatist, d. 1849. 
 
 KENNICOTT, Benjamin, an Eng. div., dist. 
 as an Orient, scholar and biblical critic, 1718-83. 
 
 KENRICK, W., a miscellaneous wr., d. 1779. 
 
 KENT, Edward Augustus, duke of, fourth 
 son of George III., and father of Queen Victoria, 
 born 1767, commander of the British forces in 
 North America 1799, governor of Gibraltar 1802, 
 married to Victoria Maria Louisa, widow of the 
 hereditarv prince of Leiningen, and youngest 
 daughter'of the d. of Saxe-Coburg, 1818, d. 1820. 
 
 KENT, James, was born at Winchester, in 
 1700, where at an early age, he was admitted 
 into the choir of the cathedral under the tuition 
 of Mr. Vaughan Richardson, then organist. He 
 afterwards became one of the children of the 
 Royal Chapel, where, under the care of Dr. Croft, 
 he laid the foundation of his future greatness. 
 The first situation which Kent obtained was 
 organist of the chapel of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge; and his next and last was organist of 
 Winchester chapel and college, where he continued 
 to his death, which occurred in 1776. As a com- 
 poser of sacred music Kent's fame stands on a 
 secure basis, and many of his anthems will take 
 rank amongst the most sublime musical works of I 
 any age or country. [J-M.] | 
 
 ' 3 
 
 KEP 
 
 KENT, William, a Eng. painter, 1685-1; 
 
 KENYON, Lloyd, Lord, chief justice oi 
 King's Bench, first distin. as counsel for 
 George Gordon along with Mr. Erskine, 1733-] 
 
 KEPLER, John, a distinguished astronc 
 was born at Wiel, in Wirtemberg, on the 
 December, 1571. His father, Henry Kepler, 
 an officer in the army w r ho had reduced lmna 
 poverty by his extravagance. His mother, C 
 erine Guldemar, gave premature birth to a 
 John Kepler, who was a sickly child. Afte 
 covering with difficulty from small-pox, he 
 sent to school in 1577. Having become bank 
 his father was obliged to keep a tavern at El] 
 dingen, and his son John was taken from si 
 to perform the functions of a servant ii 
 father's house. When he was in his fifto 
 year, he was received into the school at 
 monastery at Maulbron, established at the refo 
 tion as preparatory for the university of Tubfa 
 where he was admitted as Bachelor in 1588; 
 returning to the school to complete the i 
 course of study, he took his degree of Mas! 
 1591, holding the second place in the examini 
 While attending the mathematical lectun 
 Msestlin, a disciple of Copernicus, he adopte< 
 opinions of his teacher, and wrote an ess 
 prove that the primary motion was produce 
 the rotation of the earth. In 1594 ne wm 
 willingly made to accept the astronomical els 
 Gratz, though he knew little of the subject, 
 was thus forced to study astronomy, and in 
 he devoted all his leisure time, and all his m 
 energy to study the size and the motions o 
 planets, and their orbits. Finding no re 
 law in the planetary distances, he made num 
 attempts of the wildest and most specnl 
 character, but though he ventured to pt 
 them in 1596 in his 'Prodromus of Co 
 graphical Dissertation,' he obtained no 
 results, and was satisfied with the little repnt 
 which his ingenuity had procured for him 
 1597 he made a foolish marriage with a y 
 widow, and in addition to pecuniary difficult] 
 which this involved him, he was obliged to 
 into Hungary to escape from the persecute 
 the catholics. Though he was soon recall 
 his professorship by the states of Styria, h 
 not occupy it long. Tycho, whom he visito 
 Prague in 1600, induced" him to become his i 
 tant, but he was not fairly settled in this 
 office till he was attacked with a quartan 
 and embroiled in a quarrel with Tycho. 1 
 Kepler came to Prague in 1601, Tycho pres 
 him to the emperor, who gave him the til 
 Imperial Mathematician on the condition of a 
 ing Tycho in his calculations. Their first 
 work was the computation of the RudolphineTi 
 the expense of which was defrayed by Rud 
 Upon the death of Tycho, in 1601, Kepler 
 ceeded him as principal mathematician t< 
 emperor, with a handsome salary, partly fror 
 imperial treasury, and partly from the Stal 
 Silesia. In 1606, Kepler published a 'Sn 
 ment to Vitellio,' in which he treats of the o; 
 part of astronomy, and had very nearly stui 
 on the law of refraction, afterwards discover! 
 Snellius. In 1611, he published his Dio^ 
 an admirable work, which laid the foundati 
 
KEP 
 
 I science of optics. In this work he gives the 
 tjory of the telescope, describes the astro- 
 ioical one with two convex lenses, expounds 
 ti spherical aberration of lenses, and the law of 
 tkl reflexion at the second surfaces of bodies. 
 I work, however, on which his fame rests, is 
 i 'New Astronomy, or Commentaries on the 
 lltions of Mars,' published in 1609. In this 
 vk lie proves that Mars moves in an elliptical 
 :ie of the foci of which the sun is placed, 
 i. that the Radius Vector, or the line joining 
 ti planet and the sun describes equal areas in 
 cjai times. These two great discoveries, the first 
 ijie in physical astronomy, he extended to all 
 tfplanets in the solar system, and it was through 
 llm that Newton, Hooke, Halley, and Wren, 
 iependently arrived at the great law of the 
 iinution of gravity with the square of the 
 lance. In the midst of the studies which led 
 these fine discoveries, he was harassed 
 Jh pecuniary difficulties which were the bane of 
 ljexistence. His salary was ever in arrears, and 
 ti treasury of Rudolph was always < empty. 
 La the death of the emperor, however, in 1612, 
 bier's arrears were paid. Mathias, the brother 
 si. successor of Rudolph, re-appointed him im- 
 jjial mathematician, and he was permitted to 
 2ept of the professorship of mathematics at 
 Is, in Austria. He had lost his wife and one of 
 ]j children by small-pox in 1611, and his family 
 consisted of a daughter born in 1602, and a 
 born in 1607. He married a second time in 
 lb, and added to his family three sons and two 
 ighters, who, along with their mother, survived 
 About this time, Kepler was summoned to 
 diet at Ratisbon, to give his opinion on the 
 brmation of the calendar, a subject upon which 
 published a short essay. His pension was 
 ^Ji- arrears, and in order to support his 
 ilyhe was obliged to compose what he calls 
 .rile prophesying almanack,' which, he adds, 
 ' scarcely more reputable than begging, unless 
 in its saving the emperor's credit, who abandons 
 i| entirely, and would suffer me to perish with 
 Ipger.' In 1617, there appeared one of the 
 :ist interesting of his works, entitled ' The Har- 
 ijaies of the World.' It is dedicated to James 
 pf England, and is remarkable as containing 
 . I celebrated law that the squares of the periodic 
 he planets are as the cubes of their dis- 
 I his law occurred to him on the 8th 
 rth, 1618, but from a blunder in his calcula- 
 te he rejected it. Having discovered his error 
 'ithe loth May, he recognized with transport 
 I absolute truth of a principle which for seven- 
 s had been the object of his incessant 
 He was almost frantic with joy; 'the 
 is cast ' he exclaimed, ' the book is written to 
 read, either now or by posterity, I care not 
 {ich. It may well wait a century for a reader, 
 as waited 6,000 years for an observer.' 
 ithe same year Kepler published the three first 
 >ks of his ' Epitome of the Copernican Astro- 
 ny,' the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh appear- 
 in 1622. In 1620, Sir Henry Wotton, the 
 Iglish ambassador at Venice, visited Kepler while 
 through Germany. He urged the astro- 
 Jner to take up his residence in England, 
 luring him of a welcome and an honourable 
 
 KER 
 
 reception ; but neither the welcome nor the recep- 
 tion, which is all the encouragement he would 
 have got, would have released him from his 
 pecuniary difficulties. ' If the imperial mathema- 
 tician, therefore,' as Sir David Brewster (Martyrs 
 of Science, p. 243) has remarked, 'had no other 
 assurance of a comfortable home in England than 
 that of Sir Henry Wotton, he acted a wise part in 
 distrusting it, and we rejoice that the sacred name 
 of Kepler was thus withheld from the long list of 
 distinguished characters whom England has 
 starved and dishonoured.' Notwithstanding his 
 own pecuniary difficulties, the emperor Ferdinand, 
 in 1622, ordered the whole of Kepler's arrears to 
 be paid, including those due by Rudolph and 
 Mathias, and he supplied also the necessary funds 
 for completing the Rudolphine Tables. The wars 
 of the reformation, however, interfered with this 
 and with every peaceful pursuit. Kepler's resi- 
 dence at Linz was blockaded by the catholic 
 peasantry, and his library sealed up by the Jesuits ; 
 and it was not till 1628 that the Rudolphine 
 Tables, founded on the observations of Tycho, and 
 his own laws, appeared at Ulm in a folio volume. 
 The Grand Duke of Tuscany sent him a gold 
 chain in testimony of his approbation of this 
 great work, and Albert Wallenstein, duke of 
 Friedland, munificently invited him to reside at 
 Sagan, in Silesia. With the emperor's permission 
 he accepted this offer, took his family to Sagan in 
 1629, and by the duke's influence obtained a 
 professorship in the university of Rostock. Find- 
 ing it difficult in this remote locality to obtain 
 payment of his imperial pension, the arrears of 
 which were 8,000 crowns, he went to the imperial 
 assembly at Ratisbon, to obtain them. The 
 vexation which the failure of this attempt occa- 
 sioned, and the fatigue of his journey, threw him 
 into a catarrhal fever, which was accompanied 
 with an imposthume in his brain, the result of 
 excessive study. Medical skill failed, and he died 
 on 5th November, o. s., 1631, in the sixtieth year 
 of his age. His remains were interred in St. 
 Peter's churchyard, at Ratisbon, and on his tomb- 
 stone was placed an inscription written by himself. 
 This monument was destroyed in the wars which 
 desolated Germany, and it was not till 1803 that 
 the prince bishop of Constance erected a handsome 
 monumental temple near the place of his inter- 
 ment, surmounted by a marble bust of Kepler. 
 Between 1594 and 1630, Kepler published 33 
 separate works, and he left behind him 22 volumes 
 of MSS., four of which contained his correspon- 
 dence. The correspondence was published by 
 Hansch, in 1718, but no part of the other MSS. 
 now in the library of the Imperial Academy of 
 Sciences at St. Petersburg, have been thought 
 worthy of publication. See Mr. Drinkwater 
 Bethune's Life of Kepler, and his life in Sir David 
 Brewster's Martyrs of Science, second edit. [D.B.] 
 
 KEPPEL, Augustus, an English admiral, son 
 of William, earl of Albemarle, distinguished in ac- 
 tion with the French off Ushant, 1725-1786. 
 
 KERALIO, L. Felix Guinement De, a Fr. 
 savant, historian of the war between Russia and 
 Turkey, 1731-1793. 
 
 KERCKRING, T., a Dutch anatomist, d. 1693. 
 
 KERESSTUNG, Aloys J. De, a Hungarian 
 savant, au. of a ' Comp. of Univ. Hist.,' 1763-1825. 
 
 377 
 
KER 
 KERGUELIN-TREMAREC, Yves Joseph 
 
 De, a French navigator and naval hist., 1745-97. 
 
 KERI, F. B., a Hungarian historian, d. 1769. 
 
 KERI, J., a Hungarian philosopher, died 1685. 
 
 KERL, J. C, a German organist, 17th century. 
 
 KERN, Vise. De, a Ger. surg. wr., 1760-1829. 
 
 KERR, Robert, a surgeon of Edinburgh, dis- 
 tinguished as a naturalist and historian, died 1814. 
 
 KKRRICK, Thomas, an English divine, au. of 
 * Observations on Gothic Architecture,' d. 1828. 
 
 KERSAINT, Arm and Guy Simon, Count 
 De, a French naval officer and public writer, at- 
 tached to the Girondins, executed 1793. 
 
 KERSEY, John, an Eng. mathemat., 17th ct. 
 
 KESSEL, John Van, a Flem. pain., 1626-1690. 
 His son, Ferdinand, also a painter, 1660-1696. 
 His nephew, Nicholas, same profes., 1684-1741. 
 
 KESSEL, T. Van, a Dutch engraver, b. 1620. 
 
 KESTNER, C. W., a Ger. med. wr., 1694-1747. 
 
 KETEL, C., a Dutch painter, 1548-1602. 
 
 KETT, Henry, an English divine, 1761-1825. 
 
 KETT, William, leader of an insurrection in 
 the reign of Edward VI., defeat, by Warwick, 1549. 
 
 KETTILMUNDESON, Matts, or Mathias, 
 administrator of S wed. on the flight of Birger, 1317. 
 
 KETTLE WELL, John, a pious and learned 
 div., au. of ' Measure of Chr. Obedience,' 1653-95. 
 
 KEULEN, J. Van, a D. pain., 1580, d. 1656. 
 
 KEULEN, J. Van, a D. map engr., last cent. 
 
 KEULEN, L. Van, a D. mathemat., d. 1610. 
 
 KEYM, Paul, a mystic writer, on the prin- 
 ciples of Jacob Boehmen, one of a numerous class 
 who have treated of mystic subjects scholastically, 
 without the experience of intuition and temptation. 
 He is briefly alluded to by Poiret in his epistle, 
 De Auctoribus Mysticis, 47. [E.R.J 
 
 KEYSLER, J. J., a Ger. antiquary, 1689-1743. 
 
 KEYZER, A. and H. De, D. painters, 17th ct. 
 
 KHADIJAH, first wife of Mahomet, died 628. 
 
 KHAIN-BEG, a pacha of Egypt, died 1522. 
 
 KHAISANG, a Chinese emperor, 1281-1311. 
 
 KHALED, an Arabian general, surnamed by 
 Mahomet The Sword of God,' dist. 630-642. 
 
 KHOSROU, king of Persia. See Chosroes. 
 
 KICKX, J., a Flem. botanist, 1772-1831. 
 
 KIDD, Samuel, a divine and Oriental scholar, 
 au. of ' Illustra. of Chinese Symbols,' 1801-1843. 
 
 KIDDER, R., a learned prelate, died 1703. 
 
 KIEFFER, J. D., a Fr. Orientalist, 1767-1833. 
 
 KIEN-LONG, emperor of China in the time 
 of Lord Macartney's embassy, a poet and patron 
 of literature, born 1710, reigned 1735-1800. 
 
 KIERINGS, A., a Dutch painter, 1590-1646. 
 
 KIERMAN, G., a Swed. statesman, last cent. 
 
 KIERNANDER, John Zechariah, a Swe- 
 dish missionary to the East Indies, 1711-1799. 
 
 KIESEWETTEN, Christopher Gottfried, 
 a Ger. musician, dist. as a violin player, d. 1827. 
 
 KIESEWETTER, J. G. C. Christopher, a 
 German philologist and philosopher of the school 
 of Kant, died about the end of last century. 
 
 KILBYE, R., an English divine, died 1617. 
 
 KILLIGREW, Catherine, wife of Sir H. 
 Killigrew, an ambassador, dist. for her skill in 
 the learned languages and poetry, abt. 1530-1600. 
 
 KILLIGREW, Margaret, second wife of 
 William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, au. of the 
 life of L-r husband, and ' Miscellanies,' d. 1673. 
 
 KILLIGREW, William, a courtier and dra- 
 
 KIN 
 
 matic writer of the reign of Charles II., 160 
 His brother, Thomas, a famous humourist 
 favourite of Charles II., author of sera ] 
 and some time political resident at Vi 
 Henry, a third brother, also a v. 
 and chaplain to James, duke of York, born 
 date of nis death unknown. An \ i 
 latter, dist. for her beauty, her unhl 
 and her skill in hist, painting, au. of pi 
 
 KILMAINE, C. J., a French general. 175, 
 
 KIMBER, Isaac, a dissenting m 
 as a biographical and historical writer, 1 (J92- 
 His son, Edward, author of a ' History of 
 land,' and miscellaneous works, died 17M. 
 
 KIMCHI, David, a famous rabbi of Sp* 
 high repute among all denominations of hi 
 scholars, as a Scripture commentator and g 
 marian, was born at Narbonne, where he p 
 the greater part of his life, towards the end o 
 12th century. His father, Joseph Kimchi, 
 flourished about 1160, and his brother. Mi 
 were eminent Oriental scholars, and exposito 
 Scripture, to which character the latter added 
 of a moralist ; but neither of them acquired 
 putation comparable with that of rabbi David, 
 respect in which he is held by the Jews is gi 
 enhanced by his defence of Maimonides, as an 
 tor between the French and Spanish Jews in 
 His philological works furnished Buxtorf wit! 
 materials for his 'Thesaurus' and 'Lexicon;' 
 his commentaries have been largely incorpo 
 with the Bibles of Venice and Basle. F 
 catalogue raisonne of his writings, which in 
 a Talmudic Dictionary, see the ' Bibliotheca 
 braica' of John Ch. Wolf, published at Hamb 
 1715-1733. Kimchi died in Provence at at 
 ceeding old age, 1240. [] 
 
 KING, Edward, a youthful poet, who 
 drowned on his passage to Ireland in 1637, 
 whose fate is eel. by Milton in his poem of Ly< 
 
 KING, Edward, a biblical critic and antiq 
 author of ' Munimenta Antiqua,' ' Remarks 
 Signs of the Times,' ' Hymns,' &c, 1724-180 
 
 KING, Gregory, an engraver and ha 
 painter, author of ' Natural and Political 
 vations and Conclusions upon the State and 
 dition of England,' and distinguished for the 
 he took in state ceremonials, 1648-1712. 
 
 KING, John, D.D., a controversial dirii 
 the Church of England, 1652-1732. His so 
 the same name, a physician, 1696-1738. 
 
 KING, John, a learned prelate, distingn 
 as a preacher and speaker in the Star Chai 
 about 1559-1621. His son, Henry, chapla 
 Charles I., and dean of Rochester, author of 
 mons and Poems, 1591-1669. John, broth 
 the latter, a dignitary of the church, and at 
 of Sermons, &c, died 1639. 
 
 KING, John Glen, an eccles. antiq., d. 1 
 
 KING, Peter, nephew of the illustrious . 
 Locke, distinguished for his ecclesiastical lean 
 born 1669, lord chancellor 1725, died 1733. 
 
 KING, Peter, great grandson of the precei 
 distinguished for nis speeches and writing 
 subjects of political economy, 1775-1833. 
 
 KING, Captain Philip Parker, made 
 voyages (1817-1822) to the coast of Austr 
 and added greatly to our knowledge of the h 
 tropical portions of that continent. 
 8 
 
KIN 
 
 Richard, a polemical writer, 1749-1810. 
 
 fG, Sir Rich., a naval officer, 1771-1834. 
 
 fG, Rufus, aii Am. statesman, 1755-1827. 
 
 TG, Thomas, a eel. dramatic wr. and actor, 
 
 of Love at First Sight,' &c, 1730-1805. 
 
 TG, William, LL.D., a humorous writer 
 
 rkable fertility in the reign of Queen Anne, 
 
 for his satires on the characters and 
 
 of the day, 1663-1712. 
 
 fG, William, an elegant writer, 1685-1763. 
 
 TG, Dr. William, successively dean of St. 
 
 ' ;'s, bishop of Deny, and archbishop of Dub- 
 
 : born at Antrim in Ireland, but descended 
 
 a Scottish family, in 1650, and commenced 
 
 er, as a divine, as chaplain to the archbishop 
 
 in 1676. He died in 1729, and is now 
 
 remembered for his treatise, ' De Origine 
 
 on the origin of evil, which produced ani- 
 
 sions from Bayle and Leibnitz, which be- 
 
 | in fact, together with his ' Discourse on Fre- 
 
 tion,' &c, to a widely-extended controversy 
 
 attributes of God, continued through many 
 
 at the commencement of last century, and 
 
 Jing the names of the most eminent church- 
 
 and freethinkers of the day. Archbishop 
 
 ; did not reply to the censures of Bayle in his 
 
 " le ; but, after his death, answers were found 
 
 and were embodied in the notes upon a 
 
 I edition of the work, published by Edmund 
 
 who was opposed to him on his fundamental 
 
 >le of analogy. The endeavour of the Arch- 
 
 had been to reconcile the existence of evil 
 
 "the goodness of God, without supposing a 
 
 i of evil co-eternal with Deity ; and his me- 
 
 | of argument was to represent the divine attri- 
 
 essentially different from the moral attri- 
 
 i of the human mind, which are used as their 
 
 while the opposite writers held them to be 
 
 me, but infinitely greater. The key to this 
 
 rersy will be found in Clissold's lectures on 
 
 'Connection between Theology, Psychology, 
 
 ~bysiology.' [E-R-] 
 
 IGSBOROUGH, Edward, Viscount, a fel- 
 
 the Antiquarian Society, au. of a valuable 
 
 : on ' The Antiquities of Mexico,' 1795-1837. 
 
 "TGSMILL, Andrew, a puritan divine and 
 
 st, 1538-1569. His relation, Thomas, pro- 
 
 of Hebrew at Oxford, from 1569 to 1579. 
 
 IGSTON, Elizabeth Chudleigh, duch- 
 
 a profligate woman of the court of George 
 
 L720-1788. 
 
 IAIRD, The Hon. Douglas, known as a 
 
 lof Bvron, and a patron of letters, 1786-1830. 
 
 ISKI, F. J., an Austrian general, 1739-18U5. 
 
 ~~>ING, N. M., a Swed. trav., 1630-1667. 
 
 ING, Thomas, dean of Peterborough, a 
 
 of divinity at Cambridge, author of a 
 
 on the Thirty-nine articles, &c, d. 1822. 
 
 >ING, H., a German philologist, died 1678. 
 
 'IS, Andrew, D.D., an English Socinian 
 
 kn. as a biographical and miscellaneous 
 
 founder of the ' New Annual Register,' and 
 
 of a ' History of Knowledge, Learning, and 
 
 in Great Britain.' The best known of his 
 
 the ' Biographia Britannica,' 1725-1795. 
 
 iY, John Joshua, an artist patronised 
 
 III., author of 'The Perspective of 
 
 ture,' and father of the celebrated Mrs. 
 
 1716-1774. 
 
 KIR 
 
 KIRBY, Rev. William, an eminent entomo- 
 logist, was born in Suffolk in 1759. He died in 
 1850. He was educated at Cambridge, and in the 
 year 1782, was admitted into holy orders. In 
 1796, he became rector of Barham, having done 
 the duties of curate of that parish for fourteen 
 years. He first studied botany, and while collect- 
 ing the plants of the neighbourhood in which he 
 lived, he had his mind directed to the study of 
 entomology. A little ' lady bird ' or * lady cow ' 
 (Coccinella 22 punctata), one day attracted his 
 attention on the window, and his admiration was 
 so much excited, that he began to collect insects 
 with as much zeal as he had already done plants. 
 He has published many valuable papers and me- 
 moirs on various entomological subjects, in the 
 ' Linnajan Transactions ' and ' Zoological Journal ' 
 but his great fame as an entomologist is derived 
 from his ' Monographia Apum Angliae,' or History 
 of English Bees his ' Introduction to Entomo- 
 logy,' in conjunction with Mr. Spence, and his 
 description of the insects in the ' Fauna boreali 
 Amencana ' of Sir John Richardson. The first of 
 these works at once stamped him as one of the 
 best entomologists of the day; and had he written 
 nothing else, his fame would have been established. 
 The second has been translated into German and 
 French, and has gone through six or seven edi- 
 tions in this country, and combines the popular 
 form with great scientific merit. Mr. Kirby con- 
 scientiously performed his duties as a clergyman ; 
 he was beloved by his parishioners, and enjoyed 
 the esteem and friendship of most of the natural- 
 ists of his own country, as well as of the continent 
 of Europe and America. He was honorary presi- 
 dent of the Entomological Society of London, 
 fellow of the Royal, Linnaean, Zoological and Geo- 
 logical Societies, and honorary member of several 
 societies abroad. His life was prolonged to the 
 venerable age of ninety-one. [W.B.] 
 
 KIRCH, Gottfried, a celebrated German as- 
 tronomer, 1639-1710. His wife, Mary Margaret 
 Winckelmann, assistant of her husband, and 
 author of astronomical works, 1670-1720. Chris- 
 tian Frederic, son of the preceding, an astro- 
 nomical observer and author, 1694-1740. 
 
 KIRCHER, Athanasius, generallv called 'Fa- 
 ther Kircher.' was a Jesuit of great fearning and 
 varied abilities, born at Geysen, near Fulda, in 
 Germany, 1601 ; died at Rome, in the situation of 
 a professor of Hebrew and mathematics, 1680. 
 His accomplishments seem to have ranged from 
 the lowest to the highest point of the scale of hu- 
 man ingenuity ; including many useful discoveries 
 in his experimental philosophy, and some of the 
 most abstruse subjects of inquiry in his speculations. 
 His works, which were written in Latin, consist of 
 thirty-six volumes, twenty-two of which are in 
 folio, and nearly all the rest in 4to. In such a 
 mass of writing and learned research, it may be 
 supposed there is a good deal of trifling import ; 
 but in his case, as in others of a similar kind, the 
 extent of his labours has been the greatest obstacle 
 to the due appreciation of them. Kircher's fa- 
 vourite subject was the hieroglyphics of Egypt, 
 and the school of Champollion glory over his 
 dark guesses, as so many detected crimes against 
 their new canon of criticism. It may be said, 
 however, that he made the best he could of his 
 
 379 
 
KIR 
 
 traditional and other materials used seholastirally ; 
 collecting with much labour, and putting together 
 with marvellous ingenuity, the scattered notices 
 which he found in ancient writers, and sparing no 
 pains in making his own observations. Besides 
 his literary and professional labours, Kircher tra- 
 velled in China, He also collected a valuable 
 museum' of antiquities, which he bequeathed to 
 the college of Rome. [E.R.] 
 
 KIRCHER, Conrad, a Germ, divine, 17th ct. 
 
 KIRCHER, H., a Ger. missionary, 1608-1676. 
 
 KIRKALDY, W., a partizan of Mary Stuart, 
 queen of Scots, executed at Edinburgh 1573. 
 
 KIRKLAND, T., a medical author, 1721-1798. 
 
 KIRKPATRICK, J as., an East Indian officer, 
 known for his works in Oriental learning, d. 1812. 
 
 KIRMANI, an Arabian author, 14th century. 
 
 KIRSTEN, KIRCHSTEIN, or KIRSTENIUS, 
 G., a German physician and botanist, 1613-1660. 
 
 KIRSTEN, M., a philologist, 1620-1678. 
 
 KIRSTEN, Peter, an Arabian scholar, physi- 
 cian to Queen Christina, b. in Prussia 1577-1640. 
 
 KIRWAN, Richard, born in Galway in the 
 middle of the last century, died 1812. A dis- 
 tinguished chemist, was originally, it is said, des- 
 tined for the bar, but ultimately prosecuted chem- 
 istry and mineralogy. He published a work on 
 the ' Temperatures of Different Latitudes,' ' Ele- 
 ments of Mineralogy,' ' Essay on the Analysis of 
 Mineral Substances,' 'Essay on Phlogiston, 'Essay 
 on Geology,' ' on Manures,' &c. It was his work on 
 * Phlogiston ' which gained him most notoriety. It 
 was distinguished by the able defence which he made 
 of a bad cause ; but which was thoroughly refuted 
 by Lavoisier, who succeeded in banishing for ever 
 this myth from the field of chemistry. He was un- 
 doubtedly the first chemist who appreciated the 
 importance of inorganic substances as manures, 
 and who advocated a knowledge of the constitu- 
 tion of minerals as being the only criterion of their 
 true position in nature. [R.D.T.] 
 
 KIRWAN, W. B., an Irish divine, celebrated 
 for his pulpit oratory, dean of Killala after his 
 conversion to protestantism, 1754-1805. 
 
 KITCHENER, Wm., an eccentric physician, 
 author of ' The Cook's Oracle,' &c, 1775-1827. 
 
 KITE, Charles, a medical author, died 1811. 
 
 KLAPROTH, Heinrich Julius Von, son of 
 the famous chemist of that name, distinguished as 
 an Oriental scholar and critic, was born at Ber- 
 lin in 1783. He abandoned the pursuits of his 
 father, after making considerable progress in them, 
 for the fascinating studies connected with the his- 
 tory and antiquities of the East ; and as early as 
 1802, commenced the ' Asiatic Magazine ' at Dres- 
 den. In 1805 he accompanied a Russian embassy 
 to China ; and in the three years, 1807-1810, was 
 employed by the Academy of St. Petersburg in ex- 
 ploring the Caucasian mountains. On returning to 
 Germany in 1812, he was appointed professor of 
 the Asiatic languages at Berlin. In 1815 he visited 
 Paris with the allies, and was so charmed with its 
 attractions, that France became his adopted coun- 
 try, and the remainder of his days were devoted 
 to the propagation of Asiatic literature, including 
 the organization of the Asiatic Society, in that ca- 
 pital The works of Klaproth embrace nearly all 
 the subjects of interest connected with Eastern 
 learning, races, languages, monuments, and gene- 
 
 KLO 
 
 ral history. We may mention among tho! 
 French, a Criticism of Champollioi: 
 Chemistry translated from the Chii 
 tation on the Roots of the Semitic I 
 his editorial labours on the 'Asij I 
 Died at Paris 1835. 
 
 KLAPROTH, Martin Henry, born at W< 
 
 gerode, 1743, died 1817. A student in vai 
 
 laboratories at Quedlinburg, Hanover, B 
 
 without any very distinguished insl 
 
 roth became in his twenty-eighth ye 
 
 Valentine Rose,who,however,dyingin a fewmoi 
 
 he established a laboratory and class of his ow 
 
 Berlin, and afterwards, when a university 
 
 established, he became attached to it. Hfa 
 
 was one of incessant labour, and he left 
 
 volumes, with materials for a seventh, conn 
 
 of upwards of 200 analyses of miner 
 
 cuted with such accuracy, that his results eve 
 
 the present day, with all the ad van 1 
 
 quent improvements, are quoted as models. 
 
 was the discoverer of uranium, zirconia, titanic i 
 
 (although anticipated by Gregor) strontian I 
 
 anticipated by Crawford and Hope) tellurium 
 
 oxide of cerium, which he termed ochroita). 
 
 contributions to processes of analytic chemi 
 
 were invaluable ; probably no chemist having 
 
 developed more ot the characters of inorganic 
 
 stances. Klaproth was modest, generous, 
 
 selfish, and exhibited the benevolent tenden( 
 
 his character, by the honourable care whicl 
 
 bestowed on the education of the children of 
 
 lentine Rose. He was also distinguished by 
 
 religious principles, which directed his com 
 
 and enabled him to avoid superstition on the 
 
 side, and infidelity on the other. IRX 
 
 KLASS, Fred. Chr., a Ger. landscape pail 
 
 d. abt. 1800. His brother, Christian, d. 17 
 
 KLAUBER, J. S., a Ger. engraver, 1753-1 
 
 KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a famous gei 
 
 of the French revolution, distinguished for his 
 
 vices in Egypt, where he was assassinated 18( 
 
 KLEIN, B., a German composer, 1794-183 
 
 KLEIN, E. F., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1743-11 
 
 KLEIN, F. A, a Ger. theologian, 1793-185 
 
 KLEIN, G. M., a Ger. philosopher, died 18 
 
 KLEIN, J. T., a Ger. naturalist, 1685-175! 
 
 KLEIST, E. C. Von, a Ger. poet, 1715-17 
 
 KLEIST, H. Von, a German poet, 1776-1* 
 
 KLEIST VON NOLLENDORF, Count Fi 
 
 H. Ferdinand Emilius, a distinguished F 
 
 sian general, 1763-1823. 
 
 KLENKER, J. F., a Ger. theologian, 1749-1 
 
 KLINGEMANN, A., a Ger. dramatist, b. 1 
 
 KLINGENSTIERNA, Samuel, a Swt 
 
 philosopher and mathematician, au. of Men 
 
 upon Optics, an edition of Euclid, &c, 1689-1 
 
 KLINGER, F. M. Von, a Rus. dram., 1753-1 
 
 KLINGSTET, C. G., a Rus. pain., L657-t 
 
 KLINTBERG, C, a Swed. financier, 1767-1 
 
 KLOCKER, D., a German painter, 168*4 
 
 KLOPSTOCK, Friedrich, a German 
 
 was highly celebrated till the public taste rea 
 
 a new direction from the more brilliant ^oniut 
 
 the greater versatility and ease of (lothe. 
 
 was horn in 1724, at Quedlinburg, in Pru 
 
 Saxony. After receiving a regular (-duration. 
 
 studying theology, he abandoned all profess 
 
 views, and devoted himself entirely to litera 
 
 380 
 
KLO 
 
 his residence from place to place, re- 
 considerable time at Copenhagen, whither 
 B invited with a pension ; and the last 
 of his life were passed at Hamburg, 
 died in 1803. His greatest work, the 
 >ic called ' The Messiah,' was published 
 1748, but not completed till 1773. Its 
 dignity, its overflow of feeling, and its 
 ty of diction, have long ceased to receive 
 .tion which was once lavished on them, 
 especially those of a religious cast, are 
 valued by his countrymen, in spite of 
 Lent obscurity. He made himself known 
 ly also by philological writings. [W.S.] 
 'STOCK, Margaret, wife of the pre- 
 fc author of a tragedy entitled ' The Death 
 Hel,' and ' Letters from the Dead,' d. 1758. 
 I OSE, F. J., an English composer, d. 1830. 
 1 OTZ, C. A., a German critic, 1738-1771. 
 1 UBER, J. L., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1762-1840. 
 UGEL, G. S., a Ger. mathema., 1739-1812. 
 ,UIT, A., a Dutch historian, 1735-1807. 
 UPFEL, E., a Ger. theologian, 1733-1811. 
 "ETH, D., a Hun. astronomer, 1783-1825. 
 ]|TAPP, G. C, a Ger. theologian, 1753-1825. 
 APTON, Geo., an Eng. pain., 1698-1788. 
 JfjARSKI, S., a Polish savant, 1700-1775. 
 lEIP, Chr. H., a Germ, painter, 1748-1825. 
 KELLER, Sir Godfrey, a famous portrait 
 Her, who was born at Lubeck about 1648, and 
 Bind great distinction in England in the reigns 
 m Urles II., James II., and William III. Many 
 k portraits are at Hampton Court. He died 
 Hbnerous circumstances 1723. 
 
 RIAJENIN, J. B., a Russian poet, 1742-91. 
 
 fclBB, Rev. William, distinguished for his 
 
 ttkons in the cause of negro emancipation, was 
 
 bo in 1800. He arrived in Jamaica in 1824, to 
 
 Hr as teacher of a baptist school, and in 1829 
 
 be pastor of the mission church at Falmouth. 
 
 efforts to improve their condition secured the 
 
 n gratitude and affection of the poor negroes, 
 
 provoked the jealousy and hostility of the 
 
 Sots. After suffering many indignities in 
 
 Hp he returned to England to advocate his 
 
 ^Hto cause, and his heart-stirring appeals in 
 
 Apr of total emancipation no doubt had their 
 
 influence in inducing the British legis- 
 
 ire to pass the great measure of 1833. He 
 
 M afterwards returned to Jamaica, and died 
 
 wllow fever in 1845. 
 
 NIGHT, E., a comic actor, 1774-1826. 
 
 N'liiHT, G., a speculative philosopher, last c. 
 
 SIGHT, Henry Gally, M.P., distinguished 
 
 man of taste and letters, author of ' Ecclesi- 
 
 " Architecture of Italy,' * Architectural Tour 
 
 mdy,' and many works in classical and 
 
 literature, 1786-1846. 
 
 1GHT, Richard Payne, a gentleman of 
 distinguished for his taste, his knowledge 
 ical literature and antiquities, and as a 
 iof the arts, author of ' A Discourse on the 
 of Priapus, in Sicily,' ' An Essay on the 
 IphabeV &c., 1750-1824. 
 [GHT, S., a learned divine, died 1746. 
 [GHT, Th., a dramatic writer, died 1820. 
 [GHT, Th. And., brother of R. P. Knight, 
 veg. physiology and horticulture, 1758-1838. 
 IGHTON, Hy., an old chronicler, 15th ct. 
 
 KNO 
 
 KNIGHTON, Sir W., a physician and courtier, 
 finally private secretary to George IV., d. 1836. 
 
 KNITTEL, F. A., a Ger. minister, 1721-1792. 
 
 KNOES, O. A., a Swedish savant, died 1804. 
 
 KNOLLES, R., an English historian, d. 1610. 
 
 KNOLLES, Sir Robert, a famous warrior of 
 the reign of Edward III., called by French histo- 
 rians Canolle ; he is said to have built Rochester 
 bridge with his spoils acquired in France, 1317-1407. 
 
 KNOLLIS, Sir F., an Eng. statesman, d. 1596. 
 
 KNORR, G. W., a German engraver, 1705-61. 
 
 KNORR-A-RUSENORTH, Christian, a fa- 
 mous Oriental scholar and cabalistic wr., 1636-89. 
 
 KNOTT, Ed., a learned Jesuit, 1580-1656. 
 
 KNOWLER, W., an English divine, 1699-1767. 
 
 KNOWLES, T., a learned divine, 1723-1802. 
 
 KNOWLTON, T., an antiquarian, 1692-1782. 
 
 KNOX, John, a tradesman of London, author 
 of 'A Systematic View of Scotland,' written from 
 his own observations, which had for their object the 
 settlement of new towns in connection with a her- 
 ring fishery on the N. E. coast of Scotland, d. 1790. 
 
 KNOX, John, was born at Gifford in East 
 Lothian in 1505. In his boyhood he attended the 
 grammar school of Haddington, and in the year 
 1522 he was sent by his father to the university of 
 Glasgow, and the name of Johannes Knox stands 
 among the incorporati of that year. His precep- 
 tor was Mair, or Major, at that time professor of 
 philosophy and theology, who removed in the fol- 
 lowing year to St. Andrews, whither Knox seems 
 to have followed him, and where he taught the 
 current philosophy. Before his twenty-fifth year 
 Knox was ordained to the priesthood. But his 
 examination of popish theology as usually taught 
 did not satisfy him, and from the writings of 
 Jerome and Augustine he turned to the study of 
 the Scriptures themselves. By degrees he re- 
 nounced scholastic theology as useless and unsound ; 
 and about the year 1535, his mind began that 
 decided process of scrutiny and repudiation which 
 ended in his withdrawal from St. Andrews, and 
 the vengeful arm of Cardinal Beaton, and in his 
 formal avowal of protestantism about the year 
 1542. He soon found an asylum at Langniddrie, 
 in the house of Hugh Douglas, to whose sons he 
 acted for a short time as tutor. The principles of 
 the reformation had now been spreading for some 
 time the stake had been consuming its vic- 
 tims the murder of Cardinal Beaton had pro- 
 duced an immense excitement, the conspirators 
 still held the castle of St. Andrews, and as it was 
 reckoned a place of safety, Knox and his pupils 
 took refuge in it at Easter, in the year 1547. 
 Here he taught and exhorted, and being called to 
 the ministry, exercised also the functions of a 
 Christian pastor, and solemnly dispensed for the 
 first time in public in Scotland the ordinance of 
 the Lord's Supper, after the primitive and protes- 
 tant mode. But in the month of June, a French 
 fleet came to the assistance of the Regent Arran, 
 invested the castle, and forced it to capitulate. 
 Knox and some others were transported to Rouen, 
 confined on board the galleys, and loaded with 
 chains. After a severe and unhealthy imprison- 
 ment of nineteen months, he was liberated in 
 February, 1549, and repaired to England, was at 
 once recommended to the English council, and 
 sent by Cranmer to preach in Berwick. For two 
 
 381 
 
KNO 
 
 years he continued there, labouring with charac- 
 teristic ardour, exposing the delusions of popery 
 with no unsparing nand, and gaining hosts of con- 
 verts to the cause of the reformation. Tonstall, 
 bishop of Durham, cited him to Newcastle, 
 and the undaunted Knox delivered a public vin- 
 dication in presence of the bishop and the learned 
 priests of his cathedral, and so increased his fame, 
 that the priw council in London appointed him 
 one of King Edward's chaplains, with a salary of 
 .40 a -year. He was consulted also about some 
 chants in the Book of Common Prayer, and 
 
 fetters] form of service for the English Church, 
 [is plain speech in the north of England made 
 him many enemies, so that he was summoned to 
 appear at London, where he had already declined 
 a living, and commanded to vindicate himself; 
 and he was there in full enjoyment of the 
 roval patronage, when King Edward died, 6th 
 July, 1553. After the accession of Mary he left 
 the capital, preached in various parts of the 
 country, and was married at Berwick to Mar- 
 jory Bowes, a young lady to whom he had been 
 long and warmly attached. Finding himself in 
 increasing jeopardy, he left the kingdom and 
 landed at Dieppe, on the 20th January, 1554; 
 set out the next month and travelled through 
 France to Switzerland, was cordially received hy 
 the leading divines of the Helvetic churches, re- 
 turned to Dieppe in order to gain information from 
 his native land ; went back to Geneva and won the 
 friendship of Calvin ; was again at Dieppe to learn 
 still more of his family, and the cause of truth in 
 Scotland ; took charge for a brief time of a dis- 
 turbed church at Frankfort, revisited Geneva, 
 and recrossed the channel in 1555. After visiting 
 his wife at Berwick, he preached in Edinburgh and 
 various parts of the country, patronised by many 
 of the nobility and gentry ; dispensed the Lord s 
 
 [Knox's Pulpit at St. Andrews.] 
 
 Supper in Ayrshire, the region of the Scottish 
 Lollards ; was in consequence of his zealous 
 labours ordered to sist himself before a convention 
 of the clergy, in the church of the Blackfriars at 
 Edinburgh, but the summons was set aside, and 
 the ' diet deserted.' 
 
 Being about this time chosen 
 
 KNO 
 
 pastor of the English congregation at Gene\ 
 with his family departed for Switzerland, 
 remained in Geneva for the two following 
 The English version, usually called the G 
 Bible, was made at this time by the Ei 
 exiles, and here, too, Knox blew ' The First 
 of the Trumpet against the Monstrous iV 
 of Women.' A series of changes favotifl 
 the reformation had in the meanwhile been t 
 place in Scotland, the protestants had g 
 multiplied, the prospect of coming persec 
 had banded them together, and Knox, on 
 invitation, landed at Leith 2d May, 1559. 
 sooner was it known to the terrified pries 
 that the ardent reformer had returned, tb 
 was proclaimed an outlaw. Joining wiU 
 brethren, he repaired to Perth, and pre 
 zealously against idolatry, while the chicane 
 the Queen Regent, and the accidental folh 
 priest so enraged the mob, that they pulled 
 several religious houses and churches, over 
 the altars, and defaced the pictures and in 
 This tumult, the origin of which has been 
 misrepresented, Knox distinctly ascribes fc 
 ' rascal multitude.' The Queen Regent mtu 
 her host to quell these riots ; and the prot< 
 leaders, aware of her ultimate design, rata 
 army in self-defence, but a treaty prevente< 
 hostile engagement. The 'lords of the cong 
 tion' were now alarmed into activity. Knox 
 down to St. Andrews, and soon, as the effi 
 his instructions, the popish worship was peac 
 abolished, and the church stripped at once 
 idolatrous symbols. This example was qu 
 but not as peacefully followed in many other 
 of the kingdom ; and so there perished 
 valuable works of art, which had been deg 
 by their application to superstitious pnf] 
 When his party had obtained temporary pi 
 sion of Edinburgh, Knox was chosen mini* 
 the city, but he retired with the protestant : 
 on the approach of the regent, made an ext< 
 tour, and preached in many of the larger t 
 After being formally ordained at Edinburj 
 1560, he pursued with ceaseless zeal the 
 of reformation : a Confession had been al 
 drawn up, a Book of Discipline was added 
 the organization of the church was so far mat 
 that the first General Assembly of the Chul 
 Scotland was held at Edinburgh, on the 
 December, 1560. No sooner had Queen 
 arrived in Scotland, than she had a long int 
 with the stem reformer, after a sermon whicl 
 offended her. This was followed by 
 meetings, but to no purpose. Knox's sermo 
 this time were bold, defiant, and mightj 
 tongue was a match for Mary's sceptre, 
 was accused of high treason, but acquitt* 
 spite of all the malignant influence of < 
 and court. After being about three ye 
 widower, he married in March, 1564, Mai) 
 daughter of Lord Ochiltree, and connected 
 the roval blood of Scotland. His dispute 
 the abbot of Crossraguel about this peri 
 familiar to most readers. The reformer | 
 vered amidst growing difficulties the marrii 
 the queen with Darnley, and its melancholj 
 sequences the attempt to restore popery- 
 
 ;ual 
 
 assassination of Rizzio his own virtu 
 
 382 
 
n 
 
 KNO 
 
 >nt, and the queen's refusal of permission 
 im to return to Edinburgh. Darnley was 
 bred Mary wedded Bothvvell soon resigned 
 our of her son, appointed the earl of Murray 
 during his minority, and fled to England 
 good regent was assassinated, but Knox 
 it his post at Edinburgh. Yet the re- 
 eath, and his own multifarious anxieties 
 labours during these critical times preyed 
 his constitution, and in October, 1570, he 
 ack with apoplexy. In the course of a 
 ks he was able to preach again, but not 
 ^Jb wonted vigour. In the meantime the 
 l'g party gained strength by the weakness of 
 0X, the abilities of Maitland, and the defec- 
 of Kircaldy of Grange ; and when the civil 
 broke out he retired to St. Andrews, still 
 ing on by tongue, pen, and counsel, the great 
 to which his life had been devoted. During 
 ion of arms he returned to Edinburgh, 
 shone out in his pristine style when, on 
 ng of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, he 
 onced in glowing terms Charles IX. of France. 
 
 however, soon seized his emaciated 
 
 and after a very brief period of increasing 
 
 ,y, he died 24th November, 1572. Two 
 
 afterwards his body was interred in the 
 
 ryard of St Giles. The funeral was attended 
 
 _i immense concourse of weeping and af- 
 
 d people, as well as of the resident nobility, 
 
 the Regent Morton pronounced over him the 
 
 own eulogium, 'There lies he who never 
 
 the face of man ' Knox was of small 
 
 _ , and by no means of a robust constitution. 
 
 character has been pourtrayed very differently 
 
 " >us writers. Indiscriminate eulogy would 
 
 as much out of place as sweeping censure 
 
 be unjust. The reformer was cast upon an 
 
 of violence and change, and he needed a 
 
 ident energy. Elegance and delicacy of 
 
 were not common at the period, and 
 
 ave been crushed in the tumult. Knox 
 
 and wrote his honest thoughts in transparent 
 
 in terse and homely simplicity, and with 
 
 of uncouthness and solecism than might 
 
 ined. He was obliged to appear not like 
 
 r in the graceful folds of an academic toga, 
 
 a warrior clad in mail, and armed at all 
 
 for self-defence and aggression. It must 
 
 been a mighty mind that could leave its 
 
 i on an entire nation, and on succeeding 
 
 He was inflexible in maintaining what he 
 
 be right, and intrepid in defending it. His 
 
 was menaced several times, but he moved not 
 
 the path of duty. The genial affections of 
 
 friendship, and kindred, often stirred his 
 
 amidst all his sternness and decision. In 
 
 he resembled the hills of his native country, 
 
 ich with their tall and splintered precipices, 
 
 " shaggy sides, and wild sublimity of aspect, 
 
 often conceal in their bosom green valleys, 
 
 jar streams, and luxuriant pastures. [J.E.] 
 
 aNOX, Robert, an East Indian officer, au. of 
 
 History of the Island of Ceylon,' pub. 1681. 
 
 KNOX, Vicesimus, a clergyman of the Church 
 
 {England, distinguished as a theological writer 
 
 H essayist, was born in 1752 ; and, though edu- 
 
 ed at Oxford, received his degree of D.D. from 
 
 liladelphia. He was considered an eloquent 
 
 KOS 
 
 preacher, and much in vogue for preaching charity 
 sermons, &c. ; died 1821. His son, Rev. Thomas 
 Knox, D.D., succeeded him as master of Tunbridge 
 grammar school, and in the rectories of Rumwell, 
 and Ramsden Crays, in Essex. Died suddenly, 1843. 
 
 KNUPFER, N., a German painter, 1603-1660. 
 
 KNUTSSON, Torkel, grand marshal and 
 senator of Sweden, beheaded at Stockholm 1305. 
 
 KNUTZEN, or KNUZEN, Mathias, a German 
 fanatic and atheist, in great notoriety about 1674. 
 
 KNUTZEN, M., a Ger. philosopher, 1713-51. 
 
 KOB, J., a German philosopher, 1598-1661. 
 
 KOCH, C. W., a native of Strasburgh, distin. 
 for his researches in middle age antiquities, and 
 author of ' The Revolutions of Europe,' 1737-1813. 
 
 KOECHER, H. F., a Ger. Orient,, 1747-1792. 
 
 KOECK, P., a Flemish engraver, 1490-1550. 
 
 KOEGLER, J., a Jesuit missionary, 1680-1746. 
 
 KOEHLER, J. B., a German critic, 1742-1802. 
 
 KOEHLER, John David, a learned German, 
 author of laborious works in history and archaeo- 
 logy, 1684-1755. John Tobias, one of his fifteen 
 sons, a learned numismatist, 1720-1767. 
 
 KOENIG, E., a naturalist of Basle, 1658-1731. 
 His son, of the same name, a mathem., 1678-1752. 
 
 KOENIG, F., a Ger. mechanician, died 1833. 
 
 KOENIG, G. M., a German savant, author of a 
 Latin Biographical Dictionary, &c, 1616-1699. 
 
 KOENIG, H. G., a Ger. bibliopole, 1697-1757. 
 
 KOENIG, J. G., a dist. Ger. botanist, 1728-85. 
 
 KOENIG, S.H., a Swiss theologian, 1670-1750. 
 His son, Daniel, translator of Arbuthnot on An- 
 cient Coins, killed by a mob at the age of twenty- 
 two, 1725-1747. Samuel,, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, prof, of philosophy and ethics, 1712-57. 
 
 KOEPPER, J. H. J., a Ger. Hellenist, 1755-91. 
 
 KOERNER, Chr. Godfrey, a literary savant 
 of Saxony, kn. as a wr. on aesthetics, 1756-1831. 
 
 KOERNER, Theodore, son of the preceding, 
 celebrated as a lyrical poet and dramatic author, 
 and for his patriotism and courage as a soldier, 
 born 1788, shot on the plains of Leipzig when 
 fighting against the French, 1812. 
 
 KOES, Frederic, a Danish astr., 1684-1766. 
 
 KOETS, R., a Flemish painter, 1655-1725. 
 
 KOHL, J. P., a German historian, 1698-1778. 
 
 KOIALOWICZ, Albert, a learned Polish 
 Jesuit, au. of a ' History of Lithuania,' 1609-1674. 
 
 KOLBE, or KOLBEN, Peter, a German as- 
 tronomer, author of a ' Description of the Cape 
 of Good Hope,' 1675-1726. 
 
 KOLLER, Baron F., an Aus. gen., 1767-1826. 
 
 KOLLMAN, A. F. C, a Ger. com., 1756-1829. 
 
 KONIGSMARK, Maria Aurora, countess 
 of, celebrated for her share in the political trans- 
 actions of the period, as the mistress of Augustus 
 II., king of Poland, and mother, by the king, of 
 the famous Marshal Saxe, 1678-1768. 
 
 KORTHOLT, Christian, a Lutheran divine, 
 flourished in Germany, 1633-1694. His grandson, 
 of the same name, also a theologian, 1709-1751. 
 
 KOSCIUSKO. Thaddeus Kosciusko was 
 born in 1756, of a noble but not wealthy Lithuanian 
 family. He was educated for a military life ; and, 
 while young, he went to America with other volun- 
 teers, and served the United States in their war of 
 independence against England. He accquired 
 high credit there for skill and courage, and rose to 
 the rank of general in the American army. At 
 
 383 
 
KOS 
 
 the end of this war, Kosciusko returned to Poland. 
 When the crowned conspirators of Prussia, Russia, 
 and Austria, attacked Poland in 17'.12, 1793, and 
 effected the second partition of that 
 
 unhappj 
 at the 
 
 head of one of the national armies, until the 
 treacherous cowardice of the Polish king Stanis- 
 laus paralyzed all the efforts of the defenders of 
 the land. Kosciusko now became a refugee; but 
 when the Poles rose against their oppressors in 
 1794, Kosciusko returned to serve his country. 
 He was rapturously welcomed. The Poles made 
 him their generalissimo, and their dictator. Never 
 did a nation trust a great man more generously ; 
 and never was a trust more nobly and disinterest- 
 edly fulfilled. He maintained order ; he strove to 
 ameliorate the condition of the serfs. He sum- 
 moned an assembly of representatives of the nobles, 
 and of representatives of the cities. And he gave a 
 brilliant example of an enthusiastic lover of liberty, 
 who was stained by no deed of violence or injus- 
 tice, and who was never hurried by democratic 
 favour into forgetfulness of the shortcomings, as 
 well as of the capabilities, of the age and nation in 
 which he lived. In the field, Kosciusko struggled 
 long and gallantly against adverse fortune and 
 overwhelming numbers. Simple in his habits, un- 
 affected in his manners, amiable and mild to his 
 comrades and associates, chivalrously bold in dan- 
 ger, and sternly resolute when duty required, he 
 was the idol of his soldiers' hearts ; and he com- 
 manded esteem even from his foes. After many 
 alternations of success, Kosciusko was at last 
 wounded and taken prisoner by the Russians at 
 the fatal battle of Maciovice (1st October, 1794), 
 and the complete downfall of his country soon 
 followed. He was for some time kept in prison 
 by the Russians ; but, in 1796, the emperor Paul 
 released him, and offered him rank in the Russian 
 armies, which was declined. Kosciusko passed 
 some time in the United States and in England, 
 and he then lived in retirement near Paris. He 
 saw through the selfish ambition of Napoleon, and 
 refused to become a soldier of fortune under the 
 French Eagle. In 1814, he exerted himself to 
 obtain for Poland, from the Russian emperor Alex- 
 ander, a free constitution like the English, an am- 
 nesty for all exiles, and the institution of schools 
 for the education of the serfs. Disappointed in the 
 hopes which he formed respecting Alexander's 
 treatment of his country, Kosciusko retired in- 
 to complete privacy at Soleure in Switzerland, 
 where he closed his unstained and noble life in 
 1817. [E.S.C.] 
 
 KOSE GARTEN, B. C, a Dutch theologian, 
 1722-1803. His son, Louis Theobul, a dramatic 
 writer and translator, 1758-1818. 
 
 KOSTER, H., an English traveller, 1793-1820. 
 
 KOSTROW, E. L., a Russian poet, died 1796. 
 
 KOTTER, Chk., a German prophet, 1585-1647. 
 
 KOTZEBUE, August Von, born at Weimar 
 in 1761, became an advocate. In 1781 he received 
 the first of a series of appointments under the 
 Russian government. Public business divided his 
 time with literary composition, especially drama- 
 tic : he was for two years poet of the court 
 theatre at Vienna ; and his place of residence was 
 changed several times, partly through feuds into 
 which he became entangled with Gothe and his 
 
 KRA 
 
 adherents. In 1817, he received from the Rt 
 court an appointment more lucrative than ho 
 able, being charged with the duty of commoi 
 ing to his employers information as to the st 
 opinion in Germany. He aggravated the 
 popularity of this employment by scoffing at 1 
 and constitutional opinions in a wean 
 which he conducted; and, in 1819, Sand, ani 
 student, seeking him out in Manhcim, didwr. 
 thought to be good service to the father M 
 assassinating the Russian spy. Besides a r, 
 of other works, Kotzebue wrote nin( 
 The best of these are to be found among the < 
 dies, some of which have lively wit and exac 
 servation of manners; but he is best knoi 
 England, and not to the credit of German ] 
 ture, by some of his serious plays, such as ' Pfa 
 ' The Stranger,' and Lovers' Vows.' Hu 
 countrymen would be very unwilling to have 
 productions accepted as fair specimens of 
 dramatic poetry. I \ 
 
 KOTZEBUE, Otto Von. son of the 
 brated German dramatist, went with Kr 
 stern as midshipman in a voyage to Japan in 
 the object of which was to establish a trot 
 tween Russia and that country. In 1815 1 
 sail from Plymouth on a voyage round the i 
 as lieutenant in command of a Russian si 
 180 tons, and made some important discoveri 
 the north-west coast of America. Disabled 
 accident, he abandoned the idea of penetrati 
 the Polar Sea, and returned home in 1818. 
 captain of a ship of war in the same servii 
 made a second voyage in 1824-1826, and 
 covered some islands in the Pacific. Accoui 
 both voyages have been published ; of the 
 by himself; of the second by Escholtz, the 
 known naturalist who accompanied him. 
 KOULNEFT, J., a Russian gen., 1773-18 
 KOUMAS, C. M., a philosopher, mathemat 
 and gram., b. in Thessaly 1775, d. at Trieste 
 KOURAKIN, Boris Ivanovitch, a Rus, 
 and ambassador to Paris and London, 1677-1 
 KOURAKIN, Prince, a Rus. diplo., 1752- 
 KOUTOUSOFF* Smolenskoi, field-ma 
 of Russia, distinguished in the late war, 1745- 
 KRACHENINNIKOW, Stephen, a Ru 
 naturalist, and writer on Kamtschatka, 1712- 
 KRAFFT, J. C., an Aus. designer, 1764-1 
 KRAFFT, J. L., a Flemish engraver, last 
 KRAFT, George Wolfgang, a Ge 
 physician, distinguished as an experimental [ 
 sopher, 1701-1754. His son, W. Louis, ai 
 tronomer, 1743-1814. 
 
 KRAHE, L., a Flemish painter, died 1790, 
 
 KRANACH, Lucas Sunder of, a distingu 
 
 painter, time of Luther and Melancthon, t 
 
 portraits by him are still in existence, 1475-' 
 
 His son, of the same name, also a painter, d. 
 
 KRANTZ, A., a German historian, died li 
 
 KRANTZ, G., an eccles. historian, 1660-1' 
 
 KRASICKI, Ignatius, prince bishop of 
 
 mia, and one of the most distinguished liter 
 
 Poland, born 1735, died at Berlin 1801. 
 
 KRAUS, G. M., a Ger. painter and eng., li 
 
 KRAUS, J. Ulric, a Ger. engr., 1615-17 
 
 KRAUS, M., a Germ, philologist, 1526-16; 
 
 KRAUSE, Charles Christian Fred; 
 
 born at Eisenberg 6th May, 1781, died on 
 
 381 
 
KRA 
 
 ember, 1832. Mention of this ingenious and 
 )und metaphysician is introduced here, with 
 simple view of recommending to the English 
 ent one of the most judicious successors of 
 t. His writings are altogether fertile. In so 
 s the writer is aware, he is the first who has 
 Highly supplanted the old division of the mind 
 faculties, by proposing to examine it under its 
 i normal modes of action as it thinks, feels, 
 wills. In itself a great reform, suggested 
 aps by Kant's scheme of three Critiques; 
 Rxause has many other claims that would 
 kfully be recognized by a thoughtful English- 
 
 RAUSE, F., a German painter, 1706-1754. 
 
 RAUSE, G. F., a Prus officer, 1768-1836. 
 
 RAUSE, G. F., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1718-84. 
 
 RAUSE. J. C, a Prussian historian, 1749-99. 
 
 RAUSE, J. C. H., a Prus. savant, 1757-1808. 
 [RAUSE, J. G., a Ger. philologist, 1684-1736. 
 [RAUSE, KRAUSS, or KRAUS, J. Baptiste, 
 akrned prelate of the Benedictine order, 1700-62. 
 [RAUSE, S. A., a Dutch painter, 1760-1825. 
 IRAY, Baron De, a native of Hungary, dist. 
 aTgeneral in the Austrian service, died 1801. 
 
 [REBEL, T. F., a Ger. geographer, 1729-93. 
 [REUTZER, Rodolph, a celebrated musical 
 eJposer and performer on the violin, 1767-1831. 
 
 fREYSIG, F. L., a Ger. physician, 1770-1839. 
 
 FRUDENER, Bourcard Alex. Constance, 
 Ion De, a Russian diplomatist, 1744-1802. His 
 It, Juliette Vietinghoff, Baroness De 
 Hdener, authoress of ' Valerie,' a romance founded 
 per own life, and afterwards celebrated as a 
 nfchetess, time of Napoleon, 1766-1824. 
 
 RUMMACHER, F. A., a rel. wr., 1768-1845. 
 
 [RUNITZ, J. G., a German compiler, 1728-96. 
 
 RUSE, Ch., a German savant, 1753-1827. 
 
 RUSEMARK, Baron De, a Prussian general, 
 rwards political ambas. to France, died 1821. 
 
 BUSINSKI, J. T., a Polish mission., d. 1754. 
 
 UEHN, C. G., a Ger. med. author, 1754-1840. 
 
 DEN, M., an Austrian savant, 1709-1765. 
 
 UH, E. M , a German poet, 1731-1790. 
 
 UHL, H., a German naturalist, 1797-1821. 
 
 UIILMAN, Quirinus, a native of Prussia, 
 
 LAB 
 
 celebrated for his prophecies, for which he was 
 burned alive in Russia 1689. A list of forty-two 
 works written by him is given in Adelung's 
 ' History of Human Folly.' 
 
 KUHN, J., a Prussian savant, 1647-1693. 
 
 KULM, J. A., a German anatomist, 1680-1745. 
 His brother, John George, a physician, d. 1731. 
 
 KULM ANN, E., a Russian poetess, 1808-182,3. 
 
 KUNCKELL, J., a German chemist, 1630-1702. 
 
 KUNRATH, H., a Ger. alchymist, died 1605. 
 
 KUSTER, G. G., a Ger. historian, 1695-1776. 
 
 KUSTER, L., a German critic, 1670-1716. 
 
 KUTTNER, C. G., a German trav., 1755-1805. 
 
 KUTUSOFF. See Koutousoff. 
 
 KUYCK, J. Van, a Dutch painter on glass, 
 born 1530, suffered at the stake 1572. 
 
 KUYP, or CUYP, A., a Dutch pain., 1606-67. 
 
 KUYPERS, G., a Dutch Orientalist, last cent. 
 
 KYDERMYNSTER, or KIDDERMINSTER, 
 Richard, a learned eccles. and antiquar., d. 1531. 
 
 KYNASTON, Sir Francis, a courtier of the 
 reign of Charles L, dist. as a poet 1587-1642. 
 
 KYNASTON, John, an Eng. divine, 1728-83. 
 
 KYRLE, John, a distinguished benefactor, im- 
 mortalized in the writings of Pope as ' The Man of 
 Ross,' died at the age of ninety in 1754. 
 
 [Kyrle's Summer House.J 
 
 A AN, H. Vander, a Dutch engrav., b. 1690. 
 AAR, or LAER, Peter Van, a Dutch pain- 
 called, from his style, Bamboccio, 1613-1675. 
 ABACO. See Abaco Anthony. 
 A BAD IE, John, a French Jesuit, who became 
 kable as a preacher of new doctrines, and had 
 y followers in France and Germany, 1610-1674. 
 
 the father of Rachel and Leah, and the 
 idson of Nahor, about 1800 B.C. 
 ABARRE, S., a French architect, 1764-1824. 
 ABARTHE, P., a Fr. traveller, 1760-1824. 
 ABASTIE, Joseph Bimard, Baron De, a 
 ich archaeologist, editor of a new edition of 
 
 iencs des Medailles,' 1703-1742. 
 ABAT, John Baptist, a French missionary, 
 au. of several relations of his travels, 1663-1738. 
 ABBE, C, a French jurisconsult, 1582-1657. 
 ABBE, P., a French antiquarian, 1594-1680. 
 ABBE, Ph., a learned Fr. Jesuit, 1607-1667. 
 
 LABBEY, F., a French antiquarian, 1653-1727. 
 
 L ABE, LorsiE, surnamed ' the beautiful rope- 
 maker,' a native of Lyons, distinguished for her 
 extraordinary talents and courage in arms at the 
 siege of Perpignan; besides her poems in three 
 different languages, she is the author of a dra- 
 matic piece, entitled 'Debat de la Folie et de 
 l'Amour,' 1526-1566. 
 
 LABEDOYERE, Charles Angelique Fran- 
 cois Huchet, Count De, one of Napoleon's gen- 
 erals, shot for rejoining the emperor, 1786-1815. 
 
 LABEO, the surname of several Roman families, 
 the most celebrated members of which are Quin- 
 tus Fap.ius, consul, 197 B.C. Antistius, a sena- 
 tor and jurisconsult, died 31 b c. Caius Antis- 
 tius, son of the preceding, a jurisconsult and his- 
 torian. Antistius, a proconsul and painter, of 
 the 1st century ; and Attius, a poet, and contem- 
 porary of Nero, 1st century. 
 
 385 
 
 2C 
 
LAB 
 
 LABERIUS, a Roman dramatist, died B.C. 44. 
 
 LABEY, J. B., a French geometr., 1750-1825. 
 
 LABIENUS, TITUS, a Rom. general, k. 45 B.C. 
 
 LABORDE, A. De, a French poetess, last cen. 
 
 LABORDE, H.F.,CountDe,aFr.officer,d.l833. 
 
 LABORDE, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit, 
 and writer on the mechanism of electricity, d. 1777. 
 
 LABORDE, J kan Jose De, a gentleman of 
 fortune, who became banker to the court of France, 
 and was executed 1794. His son, F. G. Joseph. 
 a deputy to the constituent assembly, died in Eng- 
 land 180L His third son, A. L. Joseph, count 
 de la Borde, a liberal deputy of the restoration, 
 aid-de-camp to the king after 1830, author of an 
 itinerary of Spain, and of several political and 
 antiquarian works, 1774-1841. 
 
 LABORDE, John Benjamin De, first valet 
 de chambre to Louis XV., distinguished as a com- 
 poser and writer on the hist, of music, exec. 1794. 
 
 LABORIE, J. B. P., a Fr. physician, 1797-1823. 
 
 LABOULLAYE-MARILLAC, P. C. Made- 
 leine, Count De, a French chemist, 1774-1824. 
 
 LABOUREUR, J. Le, a Fr. historian, 1623-75. 
 
 LABRADOR, J., a Spanish painter, died 1G00. 
 
 LABRE, B. J., a monk of La Trappe, 1748-76. 
 
 LABROUSSE, Clotilda Susanna Courcel- 
 lks De, bom 1741, was an ascetic of the order of 
 St. Francis, who became greatly celebrated by her 
 
 frophecies at the period of the French revolution. 
 Ier impulse was to travel over the world, in order 
 to convert the whole human race by her preaching, 
 but her superiors refused their consent, and she 
 addressed a memorial on the subject, with an ac- 
 count of her life, to M. Pontard, the constitutional 
 bishop of Dordogne. This document came into the 
 hands of Dom Gerle, once a monk, who in 1759 
 entered into a correspondence with her, and in 
 1790 endeavoured to introduce her into the na- 
 tional assembly. She afterwards went to Rome, 
 preaching to the populace on her way, and propos- 
 ing to herself the conversion of the pope, but she 
 was arrested in Italy, and imprisoned in the castle 
 of St. Angelo till 1796, when the directory procured 
 her liberation. Two years later she returned to 
 Paris with the French troops, and was surrounded 
 with a circle of believers till her death in 1821. 
 The duchesse de Bourbon published some curious 
 particulars concerning her in 1791, and her works 
 were collected by Bishop Pontard in 1797. La- 
 martine has perpetuated the mistaken belief that 
 she died in the castle of St. Angelo, while the 
 chair of the illuminee was occupied by Catherine 
 Tlieos, the new flame of Dom Gerle, at Paris. [E.R.] 
 
 LABRUNE, J. De, a French historian, d. 1743. 
 
 LABRUYERE. See Bruyere. 
 
 LA-CAILLE, Nicolas Louis De. born March 
 15, 1713, died March 21, 1762 ; a celebrated 
 French astronomer ; one of the best Observers in 
 modern times. He had no superior in industry, 
 activity, and honour; and i'ew men have ever 
 handled instruments, equal to him in that envi- 
 able power, which enables the Observer to produce 
 exactness of result, even though his instrument 
 be imperfect. La-Caille was honourably connected 
 with that measurement of the degree of the meridian 
 in France, which rectified Picard's erroneous esti- 
 mate, and went to establish the true shape of the 
 Earth ; but his principal achievements lay at the 
 Cape of Good Hope, where he remained four years 
 
 LAC 
 
 surveying the southern lnavens. After fixing! 
 
 {daces of about ten thousand stars, he returned 
 'aris and published the results of his voj 
 works are numerous, the chief being the / 
 Astronomic and the Ctcltnn Australe. i 
 pal catalogue has recently been recomputed w 
 every care, and republished. No name in Obser 
 tion ranks higher than La-Caille's. [J.P.] 
 
 LACARRY, Giles, a French Jesuit, and p 
 fessor of polite literature, philosophy, and tn 
 logy, celebrated as a numismatist, 1605-1684. 
 
 LA-CATHELINIERE, Nicholas Ripai 
 De, one of the most daring of the Vendean cbi 
 born 1760, executed at Nantes 1794. 
 
 LACAZE, L. De, a Fr. medical writer, 17fl 
 
 LACEPEDE, Bernard Germain Etibb 
 
 De La Ville Sur Illon, Count De, a celebfll 
 
 French naturalist, pupil of Buffon and Daubent 
 
 author of ' Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupe 
 
 Ovipares et des Serpents,' ' Histoire Naturelle 
 
 Poissons,' ' Histoire Naturelle des Cetaces,' t 
 
 1756-1825. 
 
 LACHAN, G. De, a French antiquarian, las 
 
 LACKMAN, A. H., a Germ, philol., 1694-17 
 
 LA-CLOS, Peter Ambrose Francis Cj 
 
 derlos De, a French officer after the revolut: 
 
 editor of the 'Journal des Amis de la Constituti 
 
 and author of 'Les Liaisons Dangereuses,' 
 
 ' Poesies Fugitives,' 1741-1803. 
 
 LACOMBE, F., editor of the ' Letters of Ch 
 tina Queen of Sweden,' a ' Dictionary of 
 French,' &c, 1733-1795. 
 
 LACOMBE, J., a miscellaneous writer, aul 
 
 of a ' History of Christina, queen of Sweden,' 17 
 
 1801. His brother Honors Lacomke 
 
 Prezel, a writer on jurisprudence, born 17fl 
 
 LACOMBE-SAINT-MICHEL, Jean Pfl 
 
 a French officer, and conventionalist, 1749-18C 
 
 LA-CONDAMINE, C. M. De, a Fr. astronoi 
 
 au. of travels in the interior of America, 1701-1' 
 
 LACRAIX, S. F., a Fr. geometrician, 1765-15 
 
 LACRETELLE, P. II., a French author, 
 
 tmguished for his writings on jurisprudence, 
 
 the reform of the criminal code, 1751-1824. 
 
 LACRUZ, J. De, a Spanish painter, 16th c 
 
 LACRUZ, J. Inez De, arelig. poetess, 1614 
 
 LACRUZ, M. De, a Sp. his. painter, 1750- 
 
 LACRUZ-Y-CANO, R.. a Sp. dramat., 1728 
 
 LACTANTIUS. Lucius Caecilius Lact 
 
 tius Firmianus, was in all probability a na 
 
 of Italy, and born about the middle of the t 
 
 century. He studied rhetoric in Africa, as the p 
 
 of Arnobius. His own fame as a teacher of the 6 
 
 art^was so extensive, that Diocletian invited hii 
 
 settle at Nicomedia, and open a school of orat 
 
 But his career in this Greek city was by no m< 
 
 so successful as might have been anticipated f 
 
 imperial patronage ; and therefore he devoted 
 
 hours, not to rhetoric, but to literary composit 
 
 When an old man, he superintended the educa 
 
 of Crispus, son of Constantine, and he seemi 
 
 have died in Gaul, perhaps about 330. The p 
 
 cipal work of Lactantius is his ' Divine Institu 
 
 divided into seven books ; designed to re 
 
 paganism, and show, in various ways, the sup< 
 
 purity and lustre of the Christian faith. Lac 
 
 tius wrote also two tracts ' On the Anger of G 
 
 and ' On the Workmanship of God,' along wit 
 
 Symposium, an Itinerary, and numerous EpL 
 
r 
 
 LAC 
 
 oems. The disquisition ' On the Death of the 
 cutors,' which many critics have assigned to 
 er Caecilius, describes the miserable fate of 
 who attempted to suppress Christianity by 
 [ and fire. The style of this Father has 
 been admired, and he has been called the 
 j tian Cicero. Certainly he excels all his con- 
 raries in the classical form of his style, in 
 j Taceful and rhythmical construction of his 
 4 is, and the easy and lucid sequency of his 
 < aes. His knowledge of theology was very 
 4 ficial and inaccurate. The editio princeps of 
 1 1 orks was printed at Subiaco, in 1465, and 
 other editions have followed at various 
 and in various places. His book 'On the 
 ] Ai of the Persecutors' has been twice translated 
 j English, by Gilbert Burnet 1687, and by Sir 
 fl 1 Dalrymple 1792. [J.E.] 
 
 C T, Don St., a Spanish general, 1775-1817. 
 .CY, John, a dramatic wr. and actor, d. 1681. 
 lCYDES, a Greek philosopher, B.C. 241. 
 DERCHI, J., an Italian historian, d. 1738. 
 DERCHI, J. B., an Ital. jurist, 1538-1618. 
 DISLAUS, k. of Bohemia. See Uladislas. 
 D1SLAUS, k. of Poland. See Uladislas. 
 .DISLAUS I., king of Hungary, born 1041, 
 injeded 1079, died 1095, and was canonized for 
 wiety by Celestin III., 1198. Ladislaus II., 
 call the infant, succeeded and died the same 
 fc 1200. Ladislaus III. succeeded 1272, assas- 
 fter a life of debauchery and a disgrace- 
 Pfign, 1290. Ladislaus IV., the same as 
 Ulsfas V., king of Poland, succeeded his fa- 
 thtn the latter dignity, 1435, and was elected by 
 ihHungarians, 1440, killed in battle by the Sui- 
 te jmurath, 1444. Ladislaus V. succeeded in the 
 ifrear of his age, 1444, and died suddenly 1458. 
 LfSLAUS VI., son of Casimir IV., king of Po- 
 ia:| and called, according to the Polish form of 
 hit aine, Uladislas II., became king of Bohemia 
 14 and king of Hungary 1490, died 1516. 
 
 IDISLAUS, or LAUNCELOT, king of Naples, 
 
 1876, sue. his father Charles (Durazzo) III. 
 
 tod by Louis of Anjou 1411, died 1414. 
 
 JJVOCAT, J. B., a Fr. Hebraist, 1709-1765. 
 
 lDVOCAT, L. F., a Fr. philoso., 1644-1735. 
 
 XUS, a Rom. emp., procl. and kil. 266. 
 
 S, Caius, a Roman commander, com- 
 
 jm-in-arms of Scipio Africanus, consul B.C. 190. 
 
 Blon, of the same name, surnamed 'The Wise,' 
 
 its an oratorand man of letters, consul b.c. 140. 
 
 lENNEC, R. T. II.. a Fr. physic, 1781-1826. 
 
 lER, Peter De. See Laae. 
 
 US, Marcus Valerius, a naval com- 
 
 Wler of Rome, opposed to Philip of Macedon, 
 
 til he defeated B.C. 214, consul 210, died 205. 
 
 VI X US, Publius Valerius, con., b.c 280. 
 
 ;.\ ' X I US, Torrentinus, archbishop of Meck- 
 
 Iptraguished as a Latin poet and ed.> d. 1595. 
 
 BE, R. De, a Fr. des. and engr., 1654-84. 
 
 i E, A. De, a Swiss minister, died 1618. 
 
 E, J. Elie Laniget De, a French ma- 
 
 Utician, 1671-1748. His brother, Jean Fran- 
 
 iomatist and man of letters, 1674-1731. 
 
 |FA\ ETTE, Gilbert Motier De, a French 
 
 Mial, dist. in the wars with the Engl., b. 1428. 
 
 KITE, Louise Motier De, maid of 
 
 Nir to the queen of Louis XIIL, and founder of 
 
 invent of Chaillot, where she died, 1665. 
 
 LAF 
 
 LAFAYETTE, Marie Madeleine Pioche 
 De La Vergne, Comtess De, a eel. novl., 1632-93. 
 
 LAFAYETTE, Marie Paul Jean Roch 
 Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis De, one of the 
 most illustrious names in the annals of modern 
 history, was born at Chavaignac, in Auvergne, 
 1757, and commenced his career at the court of 
 Louis XV., at the period when hostilities were 
 commencing between Britain and her American 
 colonies. At the age of twenty he left the arms 
 of his bride, and, fitting out two vessels with arms 
 and provisions, sailed for Boston; was received by 
 Washington and his army with acclamations, and, 
 joining their ranks as a volunteer, was wounded 
 in his first action near Philadelphia, and com- 
 manded the vanguard of the patriot army at the 
 capture of New York. On returning to France, 
 when peace was concluded with the mother coun- 
 try, Lafayette found himself in possession of an 
 immense popularity, and presently took his seat 
 with the notables, convoked in 1787. The ques- 
 tions of public right in ferment at this crisis are 
 matters of history. Lafayette embraced the popu- 
 lar cause, and was the first to demand the convo- 
 cation of the estates-general. Elected deputy to 
 the latter body in 1789, he proposed the ' Declara- 
 tion of Rights,' which he had brought from the 
 free soil of America, as the preliminary of a con- 
 stitution. Proclamation of this world-renowned 
 document was made July 22, and it furnished the 
 French people with the metaphysical reasons for 
 the ' sacred right of insurrection ' a well-known 
 phrase of Lafayette's. Meanwhile the Bastile had 
 been taken July 14, the national guard organized, 
 and Lafayette appointed to the command. In this 
 capacity he rode a white charger, and shone the 
 impersonation of chivalry, and twice the royal 
 family owed their preservation to his address and 
 courage the greatest of these occasions being the 
 march on Versailles, 5th and 6th of October. Some 
 months later, 12th May, 1790, he joined Bailly in 
 forming the club of Feuillants to counteract the 
 Jacobins formerly ' the friends of the constitu- 
 tion,' to which his party had belonged before its 
 final transformation. The arrest of the king at 
 Varennes, being followed by the petition for his 
 deposition on the field of Mars, Lafayette lost 
 much of his popularity by assisting Bailly to dis- 
 perse the people, which was not accomplished with- 
 out bloodshed. In the lull of the popular enthu- 
 siasm he returned to his native fields, the national 
 guard, on his retirement, presenting him with a 
 bust of Washington, and a sword forged from the 
 bolts of the Bastile. When the coalition was 
 formed, and their armed troops threatened the 
 frontier, he was appointed general of one of the 
 armies opposed to them. While in this command, 
 the progress of the Jacobins, and the outrages 
 committed upon the royal family, provoked him to 
 address letters of remonstrance to Paris, and these 
 not producing any eifect, be was chivalrous enough 
 to leave his troops and appear at the bar of the 
 assembly. Before leaving the capital on this oc- 
 casion, he had arranged with the king for a review 
 of the national guard, when the ' constitution' was 
 to be saved by a coup de main ; but the review was 
 countermanded in the night, Lafayette rejoined his 
 army, was burnt in effigy by the sansculottes of 
 Paris, and, at length, endeavouring to escape from 
 
 387 
 
LAF 
 
 Frinee, was captured bv the Austrians and im- 
 prisoned at Olinutz. fie was confined from the 
 failure of the constitution to the assumption of 
 power by Buonaparte, and released in 1797. La- 
 favctte had no share in any of the events connected 
 with the death of the king and the reign of terror, 
 ami, in the years following, rejected every overture 
 of the consul and emperor. His first movement 
 in public was made after the battle of Waterloo, 
 when he endeavoured to preserve the chamber of 
 representatives in being, on the principle that it 
 derived its authority from the electors not from 
 Buonaparte, by whom it was convoked and with 
 the view of restoring the public liberties. These 
 arguments were urged upon Blucher and Welling- 
 ton without effect, and Lafayette returned to pri- 
 vate life. In the year 1818, he became a member 
 of the chamber of deputies, and, resuming his 
 career as an advocate of constitutional principles, 
 had the satisfaction of seeing the dream of his life 
 realized in 1830. It was to Lafayette, intrusted 
 with the power of a dictator, in his original char- 
 acter of commander of the national guard, that 
 Louis Philippe owed his elevation to the throne. 
 Time, wiser or more capricious than he, allowed 
 him to see the stone hurled at the feet of his idol, 
 and he carried this saddest of all lessons with him 
 into eternitv, 1834. [E.R.] 
 
 LA-FERTE-IMBAULT, Maria Theresa 
 G i.( >ffrin, Marchioness De, celebrated for her lite- 
 rary abilities, 1715-1791. 
 
 LAFFITTE, James, the principal of a famous 
 banking establishment at Paris, distinguished in 
 political history as an Orleanist, 1767-1844. 
 
 LAFFON-LADEBAT, a political writer of the 
 legisl. assembly and council of elders, 1746-1829. 
 
 LAFITAU, J. F., a French Jesuit, distinguished 
 by his accounts of the North American Indians, 
 and the discoveries of the Portuguese, died 1740. 
 His brother, Peter Francis, a French prelate 
 and ecclesiastical historian, 1685-1764. 
 
 LAFITE, Ma. Eliz. De, a Fr. writer, 1750-94. 
 
 LAFOND, C. Ph., a Fr. violinist, 1776-1842. 
 
 LAFONT, Joseph De, a dramatist, 1686-1725. 
 
 LAFONTAINE, Augustus Henry Julius, a 
 celebrated German romance writer, 1756-1831. 
 
 LAFONTAINE, John De. See Fontaine. 
 
 LAFOREY, Sin F., a Brit, admiral, 1767-1835. 
 
 LAFORGE, J. De, a French poet, 17th centurv. 
 
 LAFOSSE, C. De, a French painter, 1640-171(3. 
 His nephew, Anthony, a drama, poet, 1653-1708. 
 
 LAFOSSE, J. B. J. De, a Fr. engrav., b. 1721. 
 
 LAFOSSE, J. F., a Fr. preacher, 1734-1813. 
 
 LAFOSSE, Stephen W., and his son, Philip 
 Stephen, dist. as veterinary surgeons, last cent. 
 
 LAGARAYE, Claude Tous. Marot, Count 
 De, dist. as the founder of schools for the young, 
 and hospitals for the aged and sick, 1675-1755. 
 
 LAGARDE, Anthony Escalin Des Aimars, 
 Baron De, a eel. naval tactician and diplom., d. 1578. 
 
 LAGARDE, Philip Bidard De, a French 
 dramatic writer and man of letters, 1710-1767. 
 
 LAGARDIE. See Gardie. 
 
 LAGERBRING, S., a Swed. historian, 1707-88. 
 
 LAGERLOEF, Peter, professor of eloquence 
 at Upsala, and historian of N. Europe, 1648-1699. 
 
 LAGERSTROEM, Magnus Von, a Swedish 
 tavant, translator, and natural philos., 1696-1759. 
 
 LAGNY, T. F. De, aFr. mathema., 1660-1734. 
 
 LAG 
 
 LAGOMARSINI, J., an Ttal. tnvcmt, 1698-1 
 LAGRANGE, a Fr. classical transla., 1738- 
 LAGRANGE, Joseph De Chancel De,i 
 dramatist, eel. for his precocious talents, 1675-1 
 LAGRANGE, Joseph Louis, born at Ti 
 25th January, 1736, died at Paris, 10th A 
 1813; a man prevented only by the ri 
 Laplace, from being held, by common com 
 the most illustrious geometer of modi 
 The honourable rivalry of these great men wai 
 most life-long ; nor could it be easily declifl 
 any special date which was foremost in the i 
 Living at a time when the exigencies of H 
 demanded, and its possessions pointed to new 
 thods and great conquests, their united lab 
 constitute its Modem Epoch: now to one, 
 then to the other, the glory of the last adv 
 was due. Speaking of the sum of their achi 
 ments, this perhaps may, without injustice 
 said, if Laplace, to some extent, surpassed 
 compeer in the range of his view, and manifle 
 more of an encyclopaedic force, that high n 
 which belongs to intensity in the power of 
 neralizing, and therefore to taste and lucidit 
 composition, must be awarded to Lagrange. 
 Analyst ever possessed a finer appreciation of 
 thod, than tne illustrious Piedmontese ; w 
 name accordingly is inscribed among the Fat 
 every department of Inquiry Avhich arrested 
 notice. This especial characteristic of his genitK 
 best appear through a brief synopsis of his i 
 achievements. I. In reference to the effort 
 Lagrange to bestow on the Infinitesimal Calc 
 a logical place in pure Analysis, it cannot per! 
 be asserted that success was complete ; nefl 
 less his positive success has been underval 
 Previous to his time, that Calculus had beencl 
 regarded as a powerful Instrument towards 
 portant positive results. Indeed, if one ej 
 that ever-memorable section of the Principi 
 could not be said that attention had been pai 
 its philosophical basis, so much as to the effi 
 of its methods ; nor had the expositions eitbi 
 Leibnitz or D'Alembert rendered farther rest 
 unnecessary to the solidity and symmetry o 
 Transcendental Analysis. Desirous to estabfifl 
 symmetry, Lagrange proposed to discard consi 
 ation alike of Infinitesimals and Limits; an 
 attach the new Power to the old Foundation! 
 presenting differentials as co-efficients of the 
 cessive terms of the Infinite Series represei 
 a Function in which the variable has receive* 
 increment. The validity of his proof that e 
 function thus modified, must be representei 
 the series known as Taylors Theorem, has 
 strongly contested : but apart from such critic 
 it is very certain that by resting the d 
 the Calculus, on the doctrine of Infinite Series 
 do not get rid of the Idea of a Limit: 
 we can attach no notion to an Equation, one si 
 which is an Infinite Series, except that the c 
 and apparently definite side expresses the 1 
 of that Series : and besides, in every a] 
 the Calculus of Functions thus based- 
 Geometrical or Dynamical Problems 
 ter was reduced to the necessity of again din 
 employing the logic and phraseology of Lii 
 Unless however, as vitiated by this logical an< 
 most technical defect at the threshold, the su< 
 
 388 
 
LAG 
 
 e Theorie des Fonctinns cannot be questioned. 
 
 ^ 'ange has not succeeded in discarding the 
 
 deration of Limits, he has presented Analysis 
 
 greater dependence upon it, than are other 
 
 hes of Science. After the publication of that 
 
 able work, it could nowhere be said that 
 
 aneous element inhered in the Method of 
 
 t, but only that it belonged to the nature 
 
 thing treated: and as a necessary and im- 
 
 ate effect of this disentangling every pure and 
 
 ii live Method in Analysis assumed its proper ge- 
 
 Sty, and put forth its natural^ power. The 
 
 ;nt who would appreciate the gain thus accru- 
 
 prom the Theorie des Fonctions, may refer to 
 
 ; it accomplished in the treatment of Series; 
 
 hat is yet more special, to its exposition of 
 
 lature and treatment of Contacts. 11. The 
 
 achievement of Lagrange in pure Analysis, 
 
 equally illustrative of the peculiar character 
 
 sp-asp of his genius, we mean the discovery 
 
 ie Method of Variations. Almost from the 
 
 f Geometrical Science, problems of maxima 
 
 ninima, had been a favourite and at the same 
 
 a difficult exercise with Inquirers : separate 
 
 ons varying in ingenuity had througn the 
 
 st of wits, been attained for specific problems, 
 
 ; was reserved for the differential calculus to 
 
 ice that general method foreshadowed by 
 
 which diminished the intellectual in- 
 
 of such problems, by rendering them all 
 
 ' resolvable. But as this difficulty disap- 
 
 d, a new class of problems, related to the 
 
 4ous class but much less manageable, gra- 
 
 i y absorbed attention ; and singularly enough 
 
 30 became the chosen battle-ground on which 
 
 lest spirits of Europe contested for superiority. 
 
 bistory of the problem of the solid of least re- 
 
 <ce is well known ; but it was only one inci- 
 
 the rivalry of mathematical genius. Now 
 
 on between the new class of problems 
 
 of Isoperimeters as they were termed 
 
 old maxima and minima, is the following : 
 
 em regarding a maximum or minimum is 
 
 fnd those values of certain unknown quan- 
 
 which constitute a certain specified function 
 
 - l ination of these quantities, a maximum or 
 
 : an Isoperimetrical problem on the other 
 
 is this, to determine a function or combi- 
 
 of certain unknown quantities, so that some 
 
 cified and determinate function of that 
 
 shall be a maximum or minimum. The 
 
 access of difficulty and complicacy here, is 
 
 ; and to these new problems Lagrange 
 
 a new method, as grasping, as exhaustive 
 
 method of the Differential Calculus in the 
 
 ise. And not only did his Calculus of 
 
 put an end to all efforts after special 
 
 s; but it became, like the simpler calculus, 
 
 method of immense comprehensiveness 
 
 rer: even now, its resources and applica- 
 
 |are not more perhaps than generally sketched 
 
 -III. Next in order of complicacy, if not of 
 
 are the achievements of Lagrange in 
 
 bods of Rational Mechanics. This great 
 
 of Mathematical Science, also consisted, 
 
 to the publication of the Mecanique An- 
 
 of separate analytic artifices, whose au- 
 
 rested on a number of separate general 
 
 Lagrange combined the whole: or rather 
 
 LAG 
 
 he rose above those separate and special principles; 
 producing a method of contemplating mechanics, 
 and a course of procedure, that involved and con- 
 nected them all. The Principle of Virtual Veloci- 
 ties became in his hands the foundation and sum- 
 ming up of all Statics ; and by a dexterous use 
 of D'Alembert's theorem in Dynamics, he suc- 
 ceeded in reducing all Dynamical investigations 
 under the category of strict Statics. His new 
 calculus of Variations was indispensable as an in- 
 strument ; and it enabled him to realize to the ut- 
 most, the grand necessity of his intellect, viz. i to 
 co-ordinate, what he found separate; and so 
 to establish the fixed and final Method 
 of the Science. It is rare that a work like 
 the Mecanique Analytique comes to be valued 
 at once; nor has this work been so : nevertheless, 
 it has been of greater service to Dynamical 
 Theory than the achievements of any man since 
 the times of Galileo. Through some strange 
 caprice, Lagrange, after concluding his imper- 
 ishable volumes, conceived a strong distaste alike 
 at the subject and his own labours. He did not 
 open the printed volume for a long time ; and his 
 thoughts found refuge in meditation on the 
 History of Religion and Medicine. His friends 
 have said, that what the Analyst thought, on 
 these apparently incongruous subjects, would have 
 made the fortune of several ordinary writers. 
 IV. What we have said of Lagrange refers mainly 
 to his remarkable influence on Method in Analysis. 
 His specific discoveries are as remarkable, although 
 unsuited even an enumeration of them to a 
 work like this. It were wrong, however, to omit 
 his crowning achievement in reference to the 
 mechanism of our Solar System ; especially char- 
 acteristic as it is, of the commanding genius of 
 the man. He and his compeer had worked 
 elaborately at the problem of perturbations that 
 problem which Newton bequeathed to after time. 
 That the several bodies of the Solar System im- 
 portantly influence each other, and so affect the 
 arrangements of the system, was a consequence 
 of the Law of Gravitation ; but the result, or the 
 harmony of those perturbations had yet to be 
 discerned. Drawing his conclusion from a large 
 induction, Laplace had asserted the invariability 
 of major axes of the Planetary Orbits, and of 
 course, the Stability of the System as a fact: 
 Lagrange, from a higher flight, showed the 
 necessity of that Invariability, and therefore of 
 the permanency of the Planetary Mechanism. 
 It was indeed a great discovery: he proved that 
 because of the dispositions of the Planets, their 
 arrangement nearly in one plane, the uniformity 
 of the directions of their motions, and the proximity 
 of their orbits to the circular form, this stability 
 must exist: so that, if present arrangements 
 come to an end, it will be through no imperfec- 
 tion ; but because, that gorgeous though they are 
 they are somehow subject to the doom of all finite 
 things, and notwithstanding their augustness 
 only part of some development yet more gigan- 
 tic, beats of the pulse of a still grander life. It is 
 not easy to estimate the amount of this advance 
 beyond the position of Newton, who thought that 
 our system contained the seeds of dissolution, 
 and that, in the words of Leibnitz, a time would 
 come, when Deity, would require to interfere and 
 
LAG 
 
 re-adjust bis worn-out mechanism ! The life of 
 Lagrange had some anxieties, but it was crowded 
 with honours. Called to Berlin by the great 
 Frederick, he early obtained the position due to 
 him. Afterwards, for many years, he resided in 
 l'aiis, in command of the first employments. _ By 
 rare fortune he escaped the fate of Lavoisier 
 when ' in a moment a head fell which the world 
 might not replace in a century : ' and with Laplace 
 he shared the early labours and glories of the 
 Ecole Normcde. Take him as a whole, abstract 
 science has in modern times possessed no other 
 servant so great. [J.P.N.l 
 
 LAG KEN EE, Louis John Francis, a French 
 historical painter, 1724-1804. His brother, John 
 JAMBS, called the younger, 1740-1821. The 
 nephew of the latter, Anselm Louis, 1775-1882. 
 
 LAGUERRE, L., a French painter, 1663-1721. 
 
 LAGUERRE, M. J., a eel. cantatrice, 1755-83. 
 
 LAGUILLE, L., historian of Alsace, 1658-1742. 
 
 LAHARPE, A. E., a Fr. general, 1754-1796. 
 
 LAHARPE, F. C, a Swiss republ., 1754-1838. 
 
 LAHARPE, Jean Francois De, born at 
 Paris in 1739, was the son of an artillery captain 
 of Swiss extraction. In early manhood he became 
 an author by profession. His strength lay in lite- 
 rary criticism, which at length became his chief 
 employment. He is a useful and judicious critic, 
 though not a profound one; and his analyses of 
 celebrated works are especially instructive. Much 
 may be learned as to modern literature, and a fittle 
 as to that of Greece and Rome, from his volu- 
 minous ' Lycee, ou Cours de la Litt^rature,' which 
 cod tains lectures he delivered in Paris from 1786. 
 He died there in 1803. [W.S.] 
 
 LAHIRE, Philip De, a French mathematician 
 and astronomer, 1640-1719. His son, Gabriel 
 Philip, a geometrician, 1677-1719. Jean Nicho- 
 las, brother of the latter, a botanist, 1685-1717. 
 
 LAHIRE, S. V. See Vignoles. 
 
 LA-HUERTA, G., a Span, painter, 1645-1714. 
 
 LAHYRE, L. De, a French painter, 1606-1656. 
 
 LAINEZ, Alex., a French poet, 1650-1710. 
 
 LAINEZ, or LAYNEZ, James, a Sp. Jesuit, 
 general of the order after Loyola, 1512-1565. 
 
 LAINEZ, S., a French opera singer, died 1822. 
 
 LAING, Alexander, a Scotch antiquarian and 
 miscellaneous writer, editor of the ' Eccentric Ma- 
 gazine,' 1778-1838. 
 
 LAING, Alex. Gordon, an African explorer, 
 born at Edinburgh, 1794, murdered on the route 
 from Timbuctoo, 1826. 
 
 LAING, Malcolm, a Scotch hist., 1762-1819. 
 
 LAING, W., a Scotch bookseller, 1764-1832. 
 
 LAIRE, Francis Xavier, a French Hbrarian, 
 au. of a ' Catalogue of Printed Books from the Inven- 
 tion of the Art to the year 1500,' &c, 1738-1801. 
 
 LAIRESSE, G., a Flemish painter, 1640-1711. 
 
 LAIS, a Sicilian courtezan, assassina. B.C. 350. 
 
 LAISNE, Anthony, a Fr. archaeologist, 17th c. 
 
 LAJARD, P. A., a Fr. statesman, 1757-1808. 
 
 LAKE, Arthur, a dignitary of the Church of 
 England, known as a religious writer, died 1626. 
 
 LAKE, Gerard, first Viscount Lake, an 
 English general, distinguished in Germany during 
 the seven years' war, and as commander-in-chief 
 in India. 1744-1808. 
 
 LA LA, a female painter, 1st century B.C. 
 
 LALAMANT, John, a dialing, sacant, 17th c. 
 
 LAL 
 
 LALANDE, J De, a Fr. lawyer, 1622-17( 
 LALANDE, Joseph Jeromb Le Fraj 
 
 De, born July 11, 1732, died in Paris 1th j 
 
 1807 ; an observer of much industry, and a 
 
 minous writer, who contributed something to th 
 
 vance of astronomy, and much to a i 
 
 knowledge of it. He was one of the group o 
 
 vans whom Frederick the Great gathered ar 
 
 him ; and he conducted the observafo 
 
 by that eccentric monarch at Berlin. On hi 
 
 turn to Paris he pursued his researches ; often i 
 
 municating memoirs to the Acadeii 
 
 He assisted Clairaut with materials for his < 
 
 fmtation of the return of Halley's comet ; 
 ished an account of the transit of Venus ; coinj 
 his great work on astronomy, which cxtenc 
 four 4to volumes ; and drew up his 
 eight thousand stars. He also edited and \ 
 many elementary treatises. The catalogue oi 
 lande has been recently published i i 
 and is of considerable value. His systematic 
 historical works have given place to others: 
 though the ' Traite" ' may still be consulted 
 advantage by the student. We owe . 
 the completion of Montucla's valuable Histo 
 Mathematics. [J.I 
 
 LALANDE, M. Richard De, a French 
 poser, celebrated for his ballet music, 1G57-17 
 LALANE, P., a French poet, died 1661. 
 LALAUNE, Noel De, a Fr. divine, 1618-1 
 LALLEMAND, Baron, a Fr. gen., 1774-] 
 LALLEMAND, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1710-1 
 LALLEMANDET, J., a Fr. theol., 1595-1 
 LALLEMANT, J. P., a learned Jesuit, ki 
 as a great adversary of the Jansenists, 1660-1 
 LALLEMANT, L., a learned Jesuit, 1578-1 
 LALLEMANT, P., an ascetic writer, 1622 
 LALLEMANT, Richard Couteray, a Fi 
 printer and editor, known for his fine edirioi 
 the classics, 1726-1807. His brother, Nichc 
 was associated with him in these works, and 
 ther brother, Richard Xavier Felix La 
 mant De Maupas, was vicar-general of Avran 
 and president of the Academy of Rouen, died! 
 LALLEMENT, W., a journalist, 1782-182 
 LALLI, Giov. B., an Italian poet, 1572-K 
 LALLOUETTE, A., a Fr. author, 1653-1; 
 LALLOUETTE, F. P., a theologian, died 1 
 LALLOUETTE, J. F., aFr. compos., 1653-1 
 LALLOUETTE, P., a Fr. physician, 171 
 LALLY, Thomas Arthur, Count De, h 
 of Tullendally, or Tollsndal, in Ireland, was 
 scended from one of those devoted adlieren 
 the Stuarts who became naturalized in France 
 who there acquired distinction in the servi 
 the crown. He was born in Dauphinfe, 1702 
 began his military career in an Irish regit 
 commanded by his uncle, General Dillon, 
 greatly distinguishing himself at the sieges of 
 Menin, Ypres, and Furnes, and particularly i 
 battle of Fontenoy (dating from 1733 to 174i| 
 was appointed ("1756) commandant 
 French, possessions in the East Indies. Oj 
 arrival tnere, at the end of April, 1758, waj 
 declared with the English, over whom he obt 
 a series of successes, but was at length def| 
 before Madras, and then besieged in 1'ondiclj 
 upon which he had been compelled to fall j 
 Here, with less than a thousand men, he rei 
 
LAL 
 
 LAM 
 
 hole English army for several months, and ! Like many other naturalists, Lamarck's first study 
 
 urrendered when reduced to the last extremity 
 iry 16, 1761. He now became the prisoner 
 e English, but was soon liberated, and, re- 
 to France, was arrested on a charge of 
 in. All the perils and toils he had under- 
 were rewarded by the corrupt administration 
 | |at expiring monarchy by his judicial murder, 
 e vain effort to hide from the public eye their 
 factious dishonesty. He was dragged to the 
 with a gag in his mouth to prevent him 
 addressing the people, and was executed 
 ,1766. " [E.R.] 
 
 LLLY-TOLLENDAL, Trophimus Gerard, 
 De, son of the preceding, was born at 
 i 1751, and though he was ignorant of his 
 I itage until the eve of his father's execution, he 
 himself to obtain the re- establishment of 
 feood name. His filial efforts were virtually 
 with success in 1778, though the last 
 r ial form was never completed in consequence 
 i le troubles of the period, and in 1783 he 
 ned possession of his estates. In 1789 he 
 i ne a deputy of the noblesse to the estates- 
 " and was one of the most popular mem- 
 of that body when it changed its name to the 
 nal assembly, and commenced the erection of 
 nstitution. In the fruitless labours directed 
 is end he was a warm supporter of Lafayette ; 
 lespairing of the monarchy and the constitu- 
 he retired with Necker, in September, 1790, 
 published an address to the French people. 
 ^Tfce 10th of August, 1792, he was arrested 
 jke Jacobins, but escaped the massacres of Sep- 
 l *r, and arrived safely in England ; where, as 
 palist, and a writer in the interest of the emi- 
 he enjoyed a small pension from the go- 
 He was authorized to return to France 
 e first consul in 1801, but took no part in 
 affairs till the restoration, when he became 
 r of the privy council, and, in that capa- 
 accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent during 
 ~ dred days of 1815. After the second re- 
 he was made a peer of France ; and, 
 g true to his principles, resisted the at- 
 of the Bourbons to resume their arbitrary 
 He died a few weeks before the revolution 
 , 1830, and has left a name in consider- 
 repute both as an historico-political writer and 
 et. [E.R.] 
 
 VLOXDE, F. R., aFr. antiquarian, 1685-1765. 
 ^LUZERNE, Caesar Henry, a nephew of 
 sherbes, min. of foreign affairs under Necker. 
 ^LUZERNE, Cesar William Cardinal 
 of the clerical deputies to the estates- 
 and the first to propose the establishment 
 representative system in France, author of se- 
 [ theological and political works, 1738-1822. 
 ", J. B., a paint, and architect of Naples, abt. 
 579. Another of the same name, b. 1660. 
 Julia, a Venetian painter, last century. 
 ANNA, J., a Sicilian poet, 1580-1640. 
 AMANON, R. P., a Fr. naturalist, 1752-1787. 
 AMARCK, or as his real name is, Jean Bap- 
 Pierre Antoine De Monet, an eminent 
 jjt was born at Bazantine in Picardy in 
 He died in 1829. A soldier in his youth, 
 already begun to distinguish himself, when 
 t compelled him to relinquish the army. 
 
 was botany. The first work he published was the 
 'Flore Francaise,' which, appearing at a time 
 when Rousseau had made botany fashionable, met 
 with an astonishing degree of success. Other 
 botanical works soon followed, and for some time 
 Lamarck seemed completely occupied with these, 
 and works of a more speculative kind, which do 
 not now add much to his reputation. In 1793 he 
 was appointed to a chair attached to the museum 
 of natural history at the Garden of Plants, which 
 had for its object the history of insects and the 
 lower animals, which Linnaeus had arranged under 
 the general name of worms. At this time he was 
 fifty years of age, and the study of zoology was 
 nearly new to him. Such, however, were his zeal 
 and assiduity in preparing himself for the duties 
 of his chair, that m a few years he had made him- 
 self thoroughly master of the subject; and his 
 great and excellent work, the ' Histoire des Ani- 
 maux sans Vertebres,' will ever entitle him to 
 take his place in the very first rank of zoologists. 
 Asa conchologist, Lamarck's name stands pre- 
 eminent, and the Lamarckian arrangement of shells 
 is still that of the present day. A sad affliction 
 overtook him in his latter days. He gradually 
 lost his sight, and for some years before his death 
 he was totally blind, while an injudicious invest- 
 ment of his money in some swindling schemes, 
 reduced him in his old age to comparative 
 poverty. [W.B.] 
 
 LAMARQUE, F., aFr. conventiona., 1755-1839. 
 
 LAMARQUE, Max., a Fr. general, 1770-1832. 
 
 LAMB, Lady Caroline, daughter of the earl 
 of Besborough, and wife of the Hon. William Lamb, 
 afterwards Lord Melbourne, distinguished as a 
 novelist and fugitive writer, 1786-1828. 
 
 [House of Charles Lamb] 
 
 LAMB, Charles, the son of a barrister's clerk, 
 was born in London in 1775. He was educated at 
 Christ's Hospital; and, being disqualified by stam- 
 mering from being sent to college on the foundation, 
 he became, in 1792, a clerk in the India House. 
 He retained this place for thirty-three years, living 
 with a sister, to whom he devoted himself in circum- 
 stances of melancholy interest, and indulging those 
 literary tastes which constituted his happiness. 
 
 391 
 
LAM 
 
 lie died in 1834. From the days of Lis schoolboy 
 friendship with Coleridge, he always continued to 
 associate with men of Tetters ; no one could have 
 been more admired or liked than he was by his 
 friends ; and during the last period of his lite his 
 name was one of the most famous of the day, 
 though few of those who knew it were really fami- 
 liar with his works. lie was a man of unquestion- 
 able though eccentric genius. His sphere of thinking 
 was very confined, but he moved in it with great 
 independence ; his fancy was lively and origi- 
 nal, but very irregular; he had great power both 
 of pathos and of quiet humour, and oscillated cap- 
 riciously between the two extremes ; and his taste, 
 keenly alive to the beautiful, was gratified not less 
 by the oddest puns which his teeming fantasy 
 suggested to him. His style is characterized by a 
 singular engrafting of modern peculiarities on the 
 diction of our Old English writers ; and hetook equal 
 delight in rapturously expatiating on the beauties of 
 Elizabethan literature, and in observing and chro- 
 nicling the oddities of contemporary life in the 
 aspect in which it presented itself to him. His 
 tragedy of 'John Woodvil,' published in 1801, is a 
 disjointed series of beautiful imitations of the old 
 dramatists: some of his smaller poems are 
 strangely touching. He criticised with intuitive 
 fineness of feeling in his ' Specimens of the English 
 Dramatic Poets ' (1808) ; and there are suggestive 
 criticisms, especially on the drama and the stage, 
 in others of his productions, The most notable of 
 these are the fantastically beautiful ' Essays of 
 Elia.' [W.S.] 
 
 LAMB, George, younger brother of Lord Mel- 
 bourne, a reviewer and sec. of state, 1784-1834. 
 
 LAMB, Sir James Bland Burges, Baronet, 
 only son of George Burges, Esq., known as a jour- 
 nalist and miscellaneous writer, 1752-1825. 
 
 LAMBALLE. The Princess Lamballe, whose 
 fate is one of the most piteous stories of the French 
 revolution, was a descendant of the house of Savoy- 
 Carignan, and was bom at Turin, 1749. In 1767 
 she married the Prince de Lamballe, son of the 
 Due de Penthievre, and the year following was 
 left a widow at the age of eighteen. Her subse- 
 quent history is closely connected with that of 
 Marie Antoinette, who made her the superinten- 
 dent of her household, and the agent of her bounty. 
 The queen and the princess were passionately at- 
 tached to each other ; and the latter, who had 
 escaped to England at the commencement of the 
 horrors of 1792, hastened back again when she 
 heard that the queen was in prison, and with 
 heroic fortitude asked, and obtained permission to 
 share her misfortunes in the Temple. This indul- 
 gence was thought too merciful hy the commune 
 of Paris, who ordered her, at the end of August, 
 to be imprisoned separately in La Force. Im- 
 mense sums of money, and many agents among 
 the dangerous party were set in motion to save 
 her, but even ! Hubert and Lhuilier could not 
 conduct her in safety through the ranks of the 
 assassins at the outside of the prison, on the fatal 
 3d September. The circumstances of her murder 
 f.re too horrible to repeat. Her head was after- 
 wards paraded at the top of a pike before the 
 wh.dows of the Temple, and conveyed in the same 
 in the midst of a drunken saturnalia, to 
 the Palais Royal. The Due D'Orlcans, who was 
 
 LAM 
 
 dining within, went to the window, and, as 
 writer is assured by a connection of one who 
 in the room at the time, said to his compan 
 ' It is only Lamballe; I know her by her l>eai 
 hair ! ' Writers of all parties a 
 Princess de Lamballe was as goo 
 beautiful. Lamartine has given 
 Marie Antoinette, which was found in the hi 
 the princess after her assassination, 
 to provide for her own safetv by remaining 
 the old Due de Penthievre. This I 
 unknown, is a touching proof of the frienc 
 which united the unhappy princesses. [1 
 
 LAMBARDE, W., an emin. lawyer and ai 
 auth. of a Treatise on the Saxon La 
 LAMBECIUS, P., a Dutch histo 
 LAMBERT, a king of Italy, reigned 892-8 
 LAMBERT, brother and successor of Guy, i 
 of Spoleto in 917, duke of Tuscany also 929 
 posed and deprived of his sight by his brotbu 
 LAMBERT, a Benedictine chronicler, 11th 
 LAMBERT, a bishop of Arras, died 1115. 
 LAMBERT, Anne Therese, Marquise 
 a lady distinguished for her literary talents, 
 
 fmtronage of learning, authoress of writings 
 ished after her decease in 1733. 
 LAMBERT, A. B., an Eng. botan., 1761-1 
 LAMBERT, C. F., a laborious French writ 
 historical and archaeological subjects, died 17( 
 LAMBERT, F., a protestant theol., 1487-1 
 LAMBERT, G., an English painter, 1710-1 
 LAMBERT, John, a general of the pj 
 mentary forces during the civil war, cbienj 
 markable for his opposition to the protecto 
 especially of Richard Cromwell. In the ye; 
 the counter-revolution he was preparing i 
 contest with Monk, as the chief of the ext 
 republicans, but was arrested, and after the r 
 ration banished to Guernsey. His taste foi 
 arts of peace was shown in retirement bj 
 devotion to horticulture and flower painting, 
 was bom about 1620, and educated for the 
 He became a Roman Catholic, and died 1692. 
 LAMBERT, John Henry, a German mi 
 matician and philosopher of Fr. descent, rei 
 the ablest geometrician of the 18th cent., 1721 
 LAMBERT, Jos., a Fr. religious wr., 1 654-] 
 LAMBERT, Mich., a Fr. musician, 1610-1 
 LAMBERT, S., a Fr. Jesuit and poet, & 1 
 LAMBERTI, A., a Neapolitan mission., M 
 LAMBERTI, B., an Italian painter, 1652-1 
 LAMBERTI, L., an Ital. Hellenist, 1758-1 
 LAMBERTY, W. De, a Fr. politi., 1660-1 
 LAMBESE, Charles Eugene, of Lorr 
 colonel of the royal allemands under Louis 3 
 and a noted enemy of the revolution, 1751-18! 
 LAMBIN, Dionysius, or Denis, prof 
 of eloquence and of Greek and Latin literatu 
 the college of France, author of valuable comi 
 taries and translations, 1516-1572. 
 
 LAMBINET, P., a Fr. bibliopolist. 1712-1: 
 LAMBRECHTS, C. J. M., a jurisconsult 
 political character of Belgium, 1753-1823. 
 
 LAMBRUN, Margaret, the widow of aS< 
 
 adherent of Mary Stuart, remarkable for hei 
 
 tempt to assassinate Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 LAMBTON, John George. S 
 
 LAMBTON, William, an English officer. 
 
 ductor of a great trigone, survey of India, d. 1 
 
LAM 
 
 LAN 
 
 SENGERE, P. De, a Fr. an., 1761-1831. : him into a certain sympathy with resisiants, irre- 
 ET, Adrian Augustine De Bussy De, spective of any critical appreciation of their worth, 
 of the Sorbonne, dist. as a casuist, d. 1691 But for writers and thinkers of the La-Mettrie 
 ,TH. Three brothers of this name became class, there is neither apology nor palliation. Op- 
 characters in the events of the French ' posing what they term bigotry, they are them- 
 
 >n, and all had previously distinguished 
 ves in the cause of American independence, 
 ng in the wake of Lafayette. 1. Alexan- 
 " e most noted of them, born 1760, distin- 
 himself in the estates-general by his pro- 
 organizing the army, which was instantly 
 He served in the army of the north under 
 and Lafayette, and, sharing in the flight 
 latter, was captured by the Prussians, and 
 at Magdeburgh during the three years 
 Being set at liberty, he next entered 
 ercial pursuits at Hamburgh, and re- 
 to France under the consulate, obtained a 
 In this capacity he served the state 
 usly to the first restoration, but lost fa- 
 accepting office under Napoleon during 
 red days. In 1821 he was returned to 
 ber of deputies, and was an active mem- 
 the opposition till his death, in 1829. He 
 a ' History of the Constituent Assembly,' 
 is valuable as the work of an eye-witness. 
 ,es, the next in importance, born 1757, 
 of the first among the noblesse to go over 
 third estate in the estates-general, when 
 ed themselves into a national assembly. 
 at first devoted to the people, and was dan- 
 wounded in a duel with Lautrec, fought 
 interest. At a later period he shrank 
 e gulf that was opening under his feet, and 
 more decidedly a constitutionalist. He 
 in the army of the north as general of 
 under Lafayette, and fled with the rest of 
 in August, 1792. Returning to France 
 he accepted military service under Napo- 
 e was elected to the chamber of deputies 
 and died a partizan of Louis Philippe 1832. 
 dore, a constitutionalist like his brothers, 
 member of the legislative assembly, fled to 
 d during the reign of terror, 1793, and 
 y known subsequently as a representative 
 the hundred days. Died, aged 81, 1837. 
 t Lameths possessed military skill and per- 
 courage ; but they were drawn into the po- 
 cause by vanity and the example of others, 
 ^oon lost heart in the movement. [E.R.l 
 
 iMETHEBIE, Jean Claude De, a French 
 ician, dist. as a natur. and phil., 1743-1817. 
 t-lIETTRIE, Julian Offroy De; born 
 do 1709, died at Berlin 1751 : one of 
 group of eccentric, and in the main not 
 reputable persons, whom, under the name 
 hilosophers, Frederick the Great collected 
 It were needless to enumerate, and an 
 waste of time, to criticise the works published 
 Mettrie, on what he called philosophy : the 
 ad neither heart nor head ; dissolute, foolish, 
 lous, he obtained his degree of repute and 
 through a certain reckless insolence and 
 gaiety. He belonged to the set which 
 that stupidest and dullest of works the 
 de la Nature. For Frederick, some apology 
 be conceived : he brought great men around 
 as well as persons like La-Mettrie ; and his 
 a of resistance and contest, induced 
 
 selves the most inveterate bigots ; attributing re- 
 ceived opinions to ignorance, they have never un- 
 dergone the labour of acquiring any knowledge; 
 without morals, they undertake to "dogmatize on 
 morality ; incapable of earnest thought, they ven- 
 ture to propagate systems of philosophy ! [J.P.N.] 
 
 LAME Y, Andrew, a Ger. historian, 1726-1802. 
 
 LAMI, Bernard, a Fr. ecclesiastic, dist. as a 
 mathematician and religious writer, 1645-1715. 
 
 LAMI, F., a French philosopher, 1636-1711. 
 
 LAMI, J., an Italian archaeologian, 1697-1770. 
 
 LAMIA, governor of Syria, 1st century B.C. 
 
 LAMIO, L. M., a Fr. missionary, 1765-1831. 
 
 LAMIRAL, Dominique Harcourt, a French 
 traveller and writer on Africa, 1750-1795. 
 
 LAMMA, Augustine, a Venetian pain.. 16th c. 
 
 LAMONNjE, B. De, a Fr. savant, 1641-1728. 
 
 LAMOTHE-LE-VAYER, P. De, a French sa- 
 vant, member of the academy, and preceptor in th 
 royal family, author of works which afford valuable 
 illustrations of the remains of antiquity, 1588-1672. 
 
 LA-MOTTE, Anthony Houdart De, a Fr. 
 poet, dramatic author, and critic, 1672-1731. 
 
 LA-MOTTE, F., an Austrn. musician, 1751-81. 
 
 LA-MOTTE, Jeanne De Valois, Countess 
 De, an infamous woman connected with the court 
 of France, implicated with the pretended Count 
 Cagliostro and the Cardinal de Rohan in the fraud 
 of the diamond necklace, by which undeserved dis- 
 grace was entailed upon the Queen Marie Antoin- 
 ette ; born of poor parents at Fontette, in Charn- 
 
 igne, 1757, died in London 1791. 
 
 LA-fl " 
 
 A-MOTTE-FOUQUE, Frederick Hein- 
 rich Karl, Baron De, a German poet and novelist, 
 descended from an ancient Norman family, best 
 known as the author of ' Undine ' and for his war 
 songs, 1777-1843. His wife, Caroline, also a 
 novelist, died 1831. 
 
 LA-MOTTE-PIQUET, Toussaint Wit, Count 
 De, a eel. naval commander of France, 1720-1791. 
 
 LAMOURETTE, Adrian, a philosophical di- 
 vine and constitutional prelate of France, connected 
 with Mirabeau in the revolution, 1742-1794. 
 
 LAMOUREUX, a French sculptor, born 1674. 
 
 LAMOUROUX, John Vincent Felix, a 
 French naturalist, professor at Caen, 1770- 1825. 
 
 LAMPE, F. A., a Fr. protes. theol., 1683-1729. 
 
 LAMPILLAS, F. X., a Span. Jesuit, 1739-98. 
 
 LAMPLUGH, T., an English prelate, 1615-91. 
 
 LAMPREDI, U., a Neapol. savant, 1761-1836. 
 
 LAMPRIDIO, B., an Italian poet, 16th cent. 
 
 LAMPRIDIUS, Aelius, a Latin histor., 4th c. 
 
 LANA, F. De, an Italian mathem., 1637-1700. 
 
 LANA, Ludov., an Italian painter, 1597-1646. 
 
 LANA-PERZI, F., an Italian Jesuit, 1631-87. 
 
 LANCAROT, , a Portuguese navig., 15th c. 
 
 LANCASTER. The royal house of Lancaster 
 flourished in two lines. The first commences with 
 Edmond, son of Henry III. and Eleonora of Pro- 
 vence, and brother of Edward I., employed by the 
 latter as ambassador to Philip of France, and 
 afterwards as commander in the expedition for the 
 recovery of Guienne. Born in London, 1245; 
 died at Bayonne, 1296. Thomas, his son and 
 
 393 
 
LAN 
 
 successor in the earldom, cousin-merman to Ed- 
 ward II., headed the confederacy of barons 
 against Piers Gavaston, and, finally, shared the 
 responsibility of his death with Hereford and 
 Arundel. He was at length taken in arms against 
 the sovereign, and beheaded at Pomfret, 1322. 
 lli.NKY (previously earl of Leicester), brother and 
 heir of Thomas, joined the conspiracy of Isabella 
 and Mortimer against Edward II., and received 
 the king into his custody at Kenilworth. He was 
 freed from this charge on account of his too great 
 humanity; and, when fortune changed, was ap- 
 pointed guardian and protector of the person of his 
 son, Edward III. He died 1345. Henry, his 
 son, (previously earl of Derby,) after vainly endea- 
 vouring to make peace with John, king of France, 
 under the mediation of the pope at Avignon, was 
 sent with an army into Normandy, and took part 
 in the victory of Poictiers and the subsequent 
 French wars. About this time his title was 
 changed to duke of Lancaster, this degree of no- 
 bility being then newly introduced into England. 
 He died 1362. The next duke of Lancaster com- 
 mences a new lineage, that of the princes opposed 
 to the house of York. The first in the line was 
 John of Gaunt, or Ghent, third son of Edward 
 III., born 1339. He was married successively to 
 the daughter of Henry, the last duke, who died 
 without male issue, and to the daughter of Peter, 
 king of Castile. His name is one of the most cele- 
 brated in English history, and in the chivalry of 
 the middle ages. Died 1399. Henry of Here- 
 ford, the successor of John of Gaunt in the duke- 
 dom, was son to him by his first wife. He claimed 
 the crown by descent,'by the mother's side, from 
 Fdmond the first earl, who was popularly supposed 
 to be the elder brother of Edward I., and to have 
 been deprived of the succession by his father for 
 
 Personal reasons. He became king by deposing 
 lichard II., 1399, and was a prince of great ability 
 and valour. He reigned till his death in 1422, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son 
 of the latter also inherited the crown as Henry 
 VI., and in his reign the feuds of York and Lan- 
 caster broke out, which ended in the union of the 
 two houses in the person of Henry VII. See 
 York. [E.R.] 
 
 LANCASTER, Captain, afterwards Sir 
 James, had command of one of three ships fitted 
 out in 1591 for the first English expedition to In- 
 dia by the Cape. The object was less to establish 
 trade than to harass the Portuguese; but the result 
 was unfortunate. One of the ships was sent home 
 from the Cape with the sick, another was wrecked 
 on the coast east of the Cape ; Lancaster's ship 
 only reached India. On her return, however, 
 she was driven by storms to the West Indies and 
 lost, Lancaster and seven men escaping and re- 
 turning to England in a French vessel. In 1594 
 he made a predatory voyage to Brazil against the 
 Portuguese. His most important services, how- 
 ever, were rendered in his conduct of the expedi- 
 tion sent out to India by the East India Company 
 in May, 1601, soon after their charter was obtained.. 
 In compliment to his zeal in promoting the dis- 
 covery of a north-west passage, the existence of 
 which he firmly held, Baffin named after him the 
 sound leading from Baffin's Bay (Sea?) to the Arc- 
 tic Ocean. His death occurred in 1G20. [J.B.] 
 
 LAN 
 
 LANCASTER, Joseph, well known ass 
 mulgator of the system of national cdiuatioi 
 troduced by Dr. Bell, was born in London o: 
 scure parents, of the Quaker persuasion, in ] 
 He commenced his career by openi 
 poor children in St. George's Fields, and was 
 publicly known for his enthusiasm in the cam 
 had adopted. He died at New York in ind 
 circumstances, 1838. 
 
 LANCELLOTI, or LANCILLOTI. Sr.ro 
 
 a learned Italian writer, historian of 
 
 gation of Mount Olivet,' to which he 1 H 
 
 and author of 'Impostures of Ancient Hist 
 
 &c, flourished about 1575-1643. 
 
 LANCELLOTTI, G., an It. jur., aht. 15K 
 
 LANCELOT, A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1G75-] 
 
 LANCELOT, Cl., a Fr. grammarian, 161f 
 
 LANCHARES, A., a Sp. painter, 158641 
 
 LANCILOTTI, F., an Ital. paint 
 
 LANCILOTTI, J., an Italian painter, 150< 
 
 LANCISI, Giammaria, or Joa 
 
 an Italian physician, eminent as an anatomist 
 
 physiologist, was born at Rome in 1654, and 
 
 after an undisturbed professional career, in ] 
 
 He surpassed the anatomists of his day in g 
 
 ralizing on form; and while demonstrating 
 
 fundamental structure of the arterial coats, 
 
 the joint action of the nerves and the blood ii 
 
 motion of the heart, he drew the attention oi 
 
 students to more remote causes of structure 
 
 motion, and recommended the study of analo 
 
 Having discovered the lost copper plates of 
 
 tachius, he edited a set of tables from them; 
 
 besides the value of his own writings to the 
 
 fession, bequeathed a magnificent library of 2C 
 
 volumes to the Hospital of the Holy Ghost 
 
 was physician and chamberlain to several p 
 
 between 1688 and his death in 1720, and a n 
 
 ber of many learned societies, as well as a m: 
 
 of polite literature. 
 
 LANCJEAN, Remi, a Flem. painter, died! 
 
 LANCON, N. F. ? a Fr. jurisconsult, 1694-1 
 
 LANCRE, Peter De, a provincial councilh 
 
 France, whose name is celebrated in many trial 
 
 witchcraft, and as a writer on demonoL >gy, d. 1 
 
 LANCRET, N., a French painter, 16U0-17- 
 
 LANCRINCK, Prosper Henry, a painfa 
 
 German extraction, employed by Sir Peter Le 
 
 painting the grounds, landscapes, flowers, o 
 
 ments, and sometimes the draperies of his pr 
 
 pal pictures, born about 1628, died 1G'J2. 
 
 LANDAIS, or LANDOIS, Peter, a favoi 
 minister of Francis II., duke of Brittany, fora 
 his tailor, executed by conspirators, I486. 
 LANDEN, J., an Eng. mathematician, 171 
 LANDENOLFE, the first of the name, pi 
 of Capua, 884-887 ; the second, prince of Benev 
 and Capua, succeeded 982, assassinated 993. 
 
 LANDER, Richard and John, who ( 
 pleted the solution of the great problem of Aft 
 geography left half-finished by Mungo Park, 
 born in Cornwall Richard in 1804, his you 
 brother two years later. The former abandonee 
 trade of a printer, to which botli were brought 
 in order to accompany Captain Clapperton oi 
 second journey to Africa, in the capacity of at 
 dant. On the death of Clapperton at Soccs 
 13th September, 1827, he proceedi 
 to Funda, intending thence to trace the oun 
 
 394 
 
LAN 
 
 jer to its embouchure ; but meeting with 
 natives, and being without a companion to 
 id cheer him, he was obliged to make for 
 \ on the bight of Benin, by the nearest 
 'He reached it in safety on the 21st No- 
 r, two years two months and fourteen days 
 ' departure from it with Clapperton ; and 
 2r took ship to England. Having sub- 
 to government a plan for exploring the 
 of the Niger, which was approved of, and 
 ice being reposed in him, from the intel- 
 address, and bravery he had already 
 ed, Lander was commissioned, by instruc- 
 | dated 31st December, 1829, to trace the 
 river from Katunga, to the sea, to Lake 
 or wherever its stream should carry him. 
 )ther,' says Lander in his account of the 
 r , ' eagerly volunteered to accompany me, 
 i the government refused to allow him a 
 or make him even the promise of a 
 ' John's name is mentioned in the in- 
 ns ; and to him was assigned the duty of 
 inquiries, as far up as Boussa and Yaoori, 
 the books and papers that belonged to 
 Park, believed to be in possession of the 
 of that country. Richard himself was 
 I all the articles that he asked for his per- 
 convenience during his journey, together 
 [200 dollars in coin, and leave to draw for 
 we at Badagry if required ; his wife was to 
 100 during the ensuing year, and on his 
 a gratuity of 100 was to be paid to him- 
 On such slender means, and such slight 
 ations, did these two enterprising and high- 
 young men undertake one of the most 
 missions, and accomplish one of the most 
 ag and important discoveries of modern 
 'Science,' says Lieutenant Becher, 'was 
 of the question ; and all depended on that 
 ij quality of mind, determination of purpose, 
 iing feature in the character of our country- 
 without which science itself is of little avail.' 
 Production to Journal in Family Library.) 
 [Landers left England on the 9th January, 
 and departing from Badagry on the 31st 
 , with a small escort, crossed the country 
 to Katunga, following Clapperton's route in 
 icond journey. Thence they turned north- 
 | to Boussa without separating, as originally 
 aplated, visited the scene of Park's lamented 
 and discovered some portions of his pro- 
 r, but not his journal, or any papers of value. 
 Yaoori, on the 2d August, they began the 
 of the river, and without serious molesta- 
 reached as far as Kirree. Here they were 
 led and made prisoners, and taken down the 
 to Eboe, within the delta. At this place, by 
 lise of a considerable ransom, for which a 
 promise was given to a friendly chief, King 
 ley were delivered from the imminent dan- 
 I being sold as slaves, and they pursued their 
 rard course. On the 18th November, 1830, 
 venturous travellers reached the sea by the 
 ^Nun (Brass river of the English), one of the 
 'branches of the Niger, which has its mouth 
 bight of Benin, and thus set for ever at 
 the long-disputed question of the course of 
 great river. The feelings of satisfaction and 
 which now filled their minds at the suc- 
 
 LAN 
 
 cess of their mission, and their deliverance from so 
 many dangers, were speedily changed to those of 
 bitter regret and disappointment, by the disgrace- 
 ful conduct of a countryman. Captain Lake, of the 
 English brig Thomas, on board of which they were 
 taken at the mouth of the river, peremptorily re- 
 fused to honour their draft for goods and arms in 
 favour of King Boy ; and the kind-hearted chief 
 was driven from the ship with terrible threats. 
 On their return home, however, orders were sent 
 out to pay the proper demand. The Landers 
 found their way home from Fernando Po by Rio 
 de Janeiro, and reached Portsmouth on the 10th 
 June, 1831. On their voyage to Rio, they learned 
 that Lake and his crew met a violent death at the 
 hands of pirates. By the kindness of Lord Gode- 
 rich, then colonial secretary, Richard Lander was 
 placed in circumstances of 'honourable compe- 
 tence,' and a government appointment promised to 
 his brother. To Richard also was awarded the 
 first prize given by the Royal Geographical So- 
 ciety, value fifty guineas ; and at the same meet- 
 ing at which it was presented, the African Asso- 
 ciation, which had accomplished so much for dis- 
 covery on that continent, was incorporated with 
 the Geographical Society, and thus no longer 
 maintained a separate existence. In the following 
 year, the Landers returned to Africa with the 
 expedition projected by Mr. M'Gregor Laird and 
 other gentlemen of Liverpool, for the purpose of 
 establishing a settlement on the Upper Niger, and 
 opening trade with the interior. From causes, 
 however, which might have been avoided, and 
 could again be foreseen and met, this expedition 
 proved a total failure. Among the great number 
 who perished were the two Landers ; Richard, 
 from wounds received in an affray with the na- 
 tives, and John, from the effects of the climate. 
 An interesting account of their discoveries, their 
 joint production, published before leaving Eng- 
 land, forms three volumes of Murray's Familv 
 Library. [J.B/j 
 
 LANDI, Chev. G., an Ital. painter, 1756-1830. 
 
 LANDI, Cos., an Ital. numismatist, 1521-64. 
 
 LANDI, Count J., an Ital. moralist, 16th cen. 
 
 LANDI, Ortensio, an Ital. wr., d. abt. 1560. 
 
 LANDI, Vergusio, a military chief, 14th cen. 
 
 LANDINO, C, an Italian classic, 1425-1504. 
 
 LANDO, a pope, who reigned six months in 913. 
 
 LANDO, a prince of Capua, reigned 842-862. 
 
 LANDO, Conrad and Lucius, the chiefs of 
 one of the troops of mercenaries that overran Italy 
 in the 14th century. 
 
 LANDO, M., gonfalonier of Florence in 1378. 
 
 LANDO, P., doge of Venice after Gritti, 1539-45. 
 
 LANDON, C. P., a French painter, 1760-1826. 
 
 LANDON, Letitia Elizabeth, the daughter 
 of an army agent resident in London, became fa- 
 vourably known to poetical readers while she was 
 hardly beyond the years of childhood, by many 
 pieces of verse published in the Literary Gazette. 
 In 1824, while she was still very young, appeared, 
 with her early signature of L.E.L., the first of her 
 volumes which attracted general notice. It con- 
 tained, with smaller pieces, ' The Improvisatrice.' 
 Other poems of considerable extent showed her to 
 possess much affluence of fancy, and excellent 
 power of expressing romantic emotion. Her 
 strength, however, was wasted, like that of Mrs. 
 
 395 
 
LAN 
 
 Hemans, in a constant succession of small pieces 
 contributed to magazines and annuals ; nor did she 
 ever fulfil the promise of high genius held out by 
 her youthful effusions. She was the authoress, 
 also, of three sentimental novels, In 1837 she 
 married Mr. Maclean, the governor of the settle- 
 ment at Cape Coast ; and, accompanying her 
 husband to Africa, she died there in 1838, in 
 consequence of having taken an over-dose of medi- 
 cine. [W.S.] 
 
 LANDUS, an Ital. physician, assassinated 1562. 
 
 LANE, Sir Richard, a statesman of the reign 
 of Charles I., who made him lord chief baron of the 
 exchequer, and one of the privy council. He is the 
 author of ' Reports ' in the court of exchequer in 
 the reign of King James, and in 1640 was counsel 
 for the earl of Strafford. Died in 1650 or 1651. 
 
 LANFRANC, archbishop of Canterbury, was 
 born at Pavia in 1005. When but a young man, 
 and after having studied at Bologna, he travelled 
 into France, stayed for a time at Avranches, and en- 
 tered the monastery of Bee, of which he ultimately 
 became the prior. His teaching here attracted 
 immense crowds of students from all the countries 
 of Europe. William, duke of Normandy, appointed 
 him in 1062 abbot of the monastery of St. Stephen 
 at Caen. He refused the archbishoprick of Rouen, 
 but as counsellor to the Conqueror he came over 
 to England, and was by his influence elected to the 
 see of Canterbury in 1070, and he remained in this 
 high office till he died, May, 1089. Lanfranc was 
 a man of independent spirit, and was no vulgar 
 flatterer of popish pretensions, while he stoutly 
 contested the pre-eminence with Thomas, the arch- 
 bishop of York. He was also a politician of no 
 mean order, and took an active share in all the 
 business of church and state. He was besides one 
 of the early founders and expositors of the schol- 
 astic philosophy. He has left commentaries on 
 the Epistles of Paul, a tract on transubstantia- 
 tion, and some letters. His works were published 
 bv Luc D'Achery, in one volume folio, at Paris, 
 1648; and in England by Dr. Giles, Oxford, 1844, 
 in two volumes, 8vo. [J.E.] 
 
 LANFRANC, an Ital. wr. on surgery, 13tn cen. 
 
 LANFRANC, or LANFRANCO, Giovanni, an 
 Italian painter, pupil of A. Caracci, 1581-1647. 
 
 LANFREDINI, J., an Ital. cardinal, 1680-1741. 
 
 LANG, Ch. N., a Swiss naturalist, 1670-1741. 
 
 LANG, or LANGE, John Michael, a German 
 divine and Oriental scholar, 1664-1731. 
 
 LANGALLERIE, Philip De Gentil, Mar- 
 quis De, a military officer who served thirty-two 
 campaigns in the French army, and, in consequence 
 of a quarrel with his superiors, entered into the 
 service of Austria, and was subsequently known 
 at the courts of Poland and the Hague. He was 
 imprisoned by the Austrians on a charge of in- 
 triguing with the Turks, and died at Raab, 1717. 
 
 LANGARA, Don J., a Sp. admiral. 1730-1800. 
 
 LANGBAINE, Gerard, an English divine, 
 author of several learned works in history and theo- 
 logy, 1608-1658. His son, of the same name, au- 
 thor of 'English Dramatic Poets,' &c, born 1656. 
 
 LANGBEIN, A. F., a Ger. writer, 1737-1835. 
 
 LANGDALE, Lord, Henry Bickersteth, a cele- 
 brated English lawyer, 1783-1851. 
 
 LANGDALE, Sir Marmaduke, an English 
 officer, dist. in the civil wars as a royalist, d. 1061. 
 
 LAN 
 
 LANGE, Anne Frances Elizareth, a 
 
 actress, born at Genoa of Fr. parents, 1772- 
 
 LANGE, C, a German philologist, died h 
 
 LANGE, F., a French painter, 1676-lfl| 
 
 LANGE, F., a French writer on I 
 
 LANGE, J., a Prussian physician, 1485-1 
 
 LANGE, J., a German jurisconsult, lfiffl 
 
 LANGE, J., a German philologisl 
 
 LANGE, J. R., a Flemish painter, died 16 
 
 LANGE, Laurence, a Swedish 
 
 ployed as ambassador to China by Peter the ( 
 
 and appointed governor of Irkoutsk on reto 
 
 from his third mission in 1737. He publU 
 
 narrative of his travels, which contains mm 
 
 teresting information on China and the Chm 
 
 LANGE, Rodolph, provost of Munster 
 
 tinguished for his learning, and for 
 
 revival of polite literature in Germany. 1 140- 
 
 LANGE, W., a Danish savant, 1G22-1C82. 
 
 LANGEBECK, James, a learned writa 
 
 philologist of Jutland, author of works illn 
 
 ing Danish history and antiquities, 1710-177 
 
 LANGELAND. See Longland. 
 
 LANGENDYK, P., a Dutch poet, 1762-11 
 
 LANGERON, Count Andrault De, aF 
 
 officer in the service of Russia, 1763-1831. 
 
 LANGES, N. De, a Fr. antiquarian, 1525- 
 
 LANGETTI, J. B., an Ital. painter, 1635- 
 
 LANGHAM, Simon De, an English monk 
 
 rose to be abbot of St. Peter's, Westminster 
 
 finally, archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal 
 
 name occupies a considerable place in the h 
 
 of the reign of Edward III., who seized the t 
 
 ralities of his see, and was a long while at a 
 
 with him and his party. He died at Avi 
 
 1376, but his body was solemnly removed i 
 
 Benet's chapel in Westminster Abbey, whe 
 
 tomb still exists. 
 
 LANGHORNE, Daniel, an English divin 
 
 as a writer on British history and antiq., d. 1 
 
 LANGHORNE, John, known as a miscella 
 
 writer and poet, was born at Kirkby Stephe 
 
 Westmoreland, 1735, and lived by his professi 
 
 a tutor and curate in the Church of England 
 
 was the author of many fugitive pieces, pub) 
 
 from about 1759 to 1765, when he became a 
 
 tributor to the ' Monthly Review,' and, fron 
 
 period to his death, in 1779, enjoyed considi 
 
 repute in the literary world such as it then 
 
 In 1804, his son published an edition of his r, 
 
 with a life of the author; and his brother, 
 
 liam, who died before him in 1772, had some l 
 
 cal skill, and assisted Langhorne in a trans] 
 
 of Plutarch. 
 
 LANGLE, H. M., a Fr. composer, 1741-1* 
 
 LANGLE, J. M., a French divine, 1590- 
 
 His son, Samuel, author of a ' Letter on the 
 
 ferences between the Church of England an< 
 
 Dissenters,' died 1699. 
 
 LANGLES, L. M., aFr. Orientalist, 1763- 
 
 LANGLEY, B., an English architect, died: 
 
 LANGLOIS, Eustace Htacinthe, a Fi 
 
 designer, engraver, and antiquarian, 1777-18! 
 
 LANGLOIS, J., a French journalist, 1770- 
 
 LANGLOIS, J. B., a French Jesuit, 1G63-: 
 
 LANGLOIS, M., a Latin poet of the 15th 
 
 LANGRISII, B., an Eng. med. writer, d. I 
 
 LANGTOFT, P., an Eng. chronicler. 1 Ith 
 
 LANGTON, Stephen, an English ecclesi 
 
 396 
 
LAN 
 
 ed in France, and appointed to the see of 
 
 rbmy by Innocent III., in the reign of King 
 
 The quarrel on this occasion, between the 
 
 land the crown, brought the kingdom under 
 
 [terdict, and the king was compelled to yield 
 
 tesion of the diocese, upon which Langton en- 
 
 [in 1213. Langton was a learned man, and 
 
 commentaries on tbe Scriptures. He also 
 
 a strenuous advocate of the independence 
 
 English Church, and manfully resisted the 
 
 of the pope. Died 1228. [E.R.] 
 
 JGUET, Hubert, a French diplomatist and 
 
 ] writer, who, being a protestant, narrowly 
 
 I the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and died 
 
 i service of the prince of Orange, 1518-1581. 
 
 KGUET DE GERGY, Jean Baptists 
 
 PH, a doctor of the Sorbonne, distinguished 
 
 " itable founder, 1675-1753. His brother, 
 
 Joseph, a member of the French Academy, 
 
 hbishop of Sens, also distinguished for his 
 
 ence, 1677-1753. 
 
 rGUSCO, Philip, Count De, a Guelph 
 
 r, who held the supreme power at Pavia from 
 
 I to 1313, died a prisoner at Milan 1315. 
 
 1ERE, N., an Italian musician, 1568-1646. 
 
 [INO, B., a Lombard painter, died 1558. 
 
 IJUINAIS, Joseph, a French ecclesiastic, 
 
 " to protestantism, and an associate of the 
 
 jaedists, died about 1808. 
 
 JINAIS, Jean Denis, nephew of the 
 
 distinguished as a great Oriental scholar 
 
 ryer, but more especially for his consistent 
 
 cy of constitutional principles, under every 
 
 i of the French government, from the assem- 
 
 : the states-general to the restoration. He is 
 
 'hor of many political and learned works, 
 
 a considerable contributor to the reviews 
 
 lals. Born at Rennes 1753, died 1827. 
 
 I AY, Ch. De, an able general of Brabant, 
 
 I the service of Charles V., about 1470-1527. 
 
 TAY, J. C, a Dutch poet, 1738-82. 
 
 IEAU, Peter Anthony Victor 
 
 De, a French grammarian and ecclesi- 
 
 1758-1830. 
 
 IES, Jean, Due De Montebello, one of 
 
 >n's marshals, was born at Guienne 1769, 
 
 prenticed to a dyer. In 1792, he entered 
 
 or as a volunteer, and distinguished himself 
 
 first campaign of Italy, and afterwards in 
 
 rincipal actions which have shed such a lustre 
 
 French arms. He was mortally wounded 
 
 battle of Essling, in 1809 ; and Napoleon 
 
 the remarkable eulogium upon him, that he 
 
 icome greater by every day's experience. At 
 
 I he said, Lannes had more valour than genius 
 
 't), but his spirit was continually mounting 
 
 i level of his courage ; and he, whom he had 
 
 pigmy, he lost a giant ! [E.R.J 
 
 BUE, Denis De, a Fr. printer, died 1650. 
 
 IOUE, Francis De, one of the most cele- 
 
 Calvinist captains of the 16th century, 
 
 'shed in the principal actions fought with 
 
 ,Tie, and killed at the siege of Lamballe, 
 
 1591. He is the author of 'Military and 
 
 Dissertations.' His son, Odet, a man of 
 
 Ili a also in the military service of Henry 
 
 and Stanislaus Louis De La Noue, of 
 
 :ie family, served in the French armies in 
 
 paign of 1741 and 1756, and was killed in 
 
 397 
 
 LAP 
 
 the affair of Saxenhausen, 1760. He is the author 
 of ' New Military Constitutions.' His life was 
 written by Toustain. 
 
 LANOUE, J. S. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1701-61. 
 
 LANSBERG, J., a Bavarian ascetic, died 1539. 
 
 LANSBERGHE, P., aFlem. astron., 1561-1632. 
 
 LANSSELUIS, P., a Sp. Hebraist, 1580-1632. 
 
 LANTARA, S. M., a French painter, 1745-78. 
 
 LANTIEN, S. F. De, a Fr. author, 1736-1826. 
 
 LANZANI, A, a Lomb. painter, 1645-1712. 
 
 LANZI, Luigi, an Italian antiquarian and phi- 
 lologist, and writer on the fine arts, 1732-1810. 
 
 LANZONI, J., an Italian savant, 1663-1730. 
 
 LAO-TSEE, LAO-TSEU, or LAA-KIUN, a 
 Chinese philos., who is regarded as the reformer of 
 the sect of Tao-Tsee, flourished in the 6th c. b.c. 
 
 LAPARA, L., a French engineer, 1651-1706. 
 
 LAPEROUSE, Jean Francois Galaup De, 
 was born at Alby, dep. of Tarn, 1741. At the 
 age of fifteen he was appointed a midshipman in 
 the French navy, and served with great distinc- 
 tion at home, in the East Indies, and in Canada, 
 up till the peace of 1783. Soon after, he was put 
 in command of an expedition destined to explore 
 the Pacific, with instructions admirably laid down, 
 but embracing a range of discovery much too 
 wide for one expedition to overtake in a reasonable 
 time. The French government had been excited 
 by the example of England, and longed to reap 
 such a harvest of glory as had been recently 
 gained for her by her most accomplished and 
 successful navigator. La Perouse was to deter- 
 mine everything left incomplete by Cook, to fill up 
 every gap in the maritime geography of the globe. 
 Verification of Cook was not contemplated ; for 
 the French authorities had full confidence in his 
 accuracy, and La Perouse regarded his memory 
 with 'unbounded veneration/ The expedition 
 consisted of two fine frigates, the Boussole and 
 Astrolabe, fitted out in the most complete man- 
 ner, and with such a staff of scientific men as had 
 never before been sent afloat. Yet there is hardly 
 an expedition on record which ended so disas- 
 trously, and to which a like melancholy interest 
 has so long attached. On the 1st August, 1785, 
 the expedition sailed from Brest, and proceeded 
 westwards by the straits of Magellan ; and after 
 visiting several islands in the Pacific, hastened to 
 fulfil instructions by making the American coast in 
 lat. 59 N., and exploring it southwards from the 
 point where Cook had begun his examination, 
 going north. But as La Perouse found it im- 
 possible to reach this latitude earlier than June 
 (1786), and as his instructions obliged him to 
 be in China by February, too little time remained 
 for a satisfactory survey of this broken coast. He 
 arrived at Monterey in September, repaired the 
 ships there, and crossing the Pacific westwards, 
 fixed the position of the Ladrone and Bashee 
 islands, and on 2d January, 1787, cast anchor at 
 Macao. The work appointed for the succeeding 
 summer was an investigation of the coast of 
 Tartary from Corea towards the N.E. This La 
 Perouse successfully accomplished, and was the 
 first to give an accurate coast outline of those 
 regions. From Kamtschatka, with the permission 
 of the Russian governor, he sent M. de Lesseps 
 home to France, overland, with his journals and 
 despatches ; a duty which this enterprising young 
 
LAP 
 
 mnn safely fulfilled, and was thus the first who 
 crossed through the whole length of the old world. 
 The expedition now sailed south to the Navigator's 
 islands, where twelve persons belonging to the 
 ships, among whom was ML de Langle, captain of 
 the Astrolabe, were killed in an unexpected attack 
 by the natives. La Perouse soon after reached 
 Botany Bay, where he refitted for his third voyage. 
 Before proceeding upon this, however, he fortu- 
 nately sent home by some English ships the 
 journals and charts of his various discoveries from 
 the time M. de Lesseps had left. His plan of 
 operations for the future was laid down in a 
 despatch, dated 7th February, 1788; this proved 
 to be the last communication ever made by him. 
 He sailed from Botany Bay in the same month, 
 and from that date till" the year 1826, all trace of 
 the expedition was lost its fate was involved in 
 complete mystery. In 1791, an expedition was 
 sent out under D'Entrecasteaux (q. t\), in search 
 of the lost navigators ; but no intelligence was 
 obtained. No further effort was made by the 
 French : but the fate of La Perouse was a constant 
 subject of inquiry to the voyagers of other nations. 
 At length, in May, 1826, Captain Dillon, in the 
 ship St. Patrick, returning from Valparaiso to 
 Pondicherry, and calling at the island of Tucopia, 
 in the northern part of the New Hebrides group, 
 to learn the fortunes of some persons landed there 
 in 1813, from the ship Hunter, Captain Robson, on 
 board of which Dillon had been at the time, found 
 in possession of one of those persons who was a 
 Lascar, a silver sword guard, on which he thought 
 he could trace the initials of La Perouse's name. 
 His cunosity was strongly excited, and he at once 
 instituted inquiries among the natives. From some 
 of them who had visited the adjoining isles, he 
 found that two ships had been many years before 
 wrecked on one to the N.W. called Vanikoro, or 
 Recherche isle ; and that several articles of French 
 manufacture were in possession of the islanders. 
 With this intelligence he returned to India ; and 
 in January, 1827, was sent out in command of a 
 ship, the Research, to make a full investigation of 
 the facts. He returned to Calcutta in April ; and 
 in February, 1828, reached Paris with many relics 
 of Perouse's ships, collected at the island of Vani- 
 koro. Several brass guns were raised from a 
 coral reef; and many articles were purchased 
 from the natives as fragments of a theodolite, 
 barometer tubes, iron bolts and bars, pieces of 
 china, the backboard of a ship with the fleur-de-lis 
 carved upon it, a silver candlestick, a ship's bell 
 with the inscription ' Bazin m' a fait,' millstones, 
 &c. Count Lesseps, who was still living, believed 
 the backboard to be that of the Boussole, that 
 the guns and millstones were the same as he had 
 seen in the ships ; and Sir William Bctham deter- 
 mined certain armorial bearings on the bottom of 
 the candlestick to belong to the family of Colignon, 
 the name of the botanist who was on board the 
 Boussole. The natives asserted to Captain Dillon 
 that one of the ships had struck, and then gone 
 down in deep water, at a place pointed out by 
 them ; and that the other ran on a coral reef, and 
 kept together till the crew had landed upon the 
 island, where they remained five months, and then 
 sailed away in a small vessel of their own con- 
 struction. It appears clear, therefore, that it was 
 
 LAP 
 
 the Boussole which stuck upon the reef, nnd 
 Astrolabe that went down. Whether La Pen 
 was among those who left the island, and v 
 was the fate of those who thus braved t 
 of the sea, must ever remain an ini 
 mystery. Captain Dillon was received with g 
 favour by Charles X., and rewarded with a i 
 sion of 4,000 francs. In the following 
 French navigator Dumont D'Urville c<u: 
 observations of Captain Dillon, and brought li 
 additional relics, raised from the reef on w 
 the Boussole went to pieces. [J 
 
 LAPIS, G^tano, an Ital. painter, 1704-17 
 LAPLACE, Peter De, a French magisti 
 killed at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, an 
 of 'Commentaries on the State of Reli^H 
 the Commonwealth,' ' The Use of Moral Phil 
 
 f)hv,' and ' The Excellence of the Christian 
 igion,' 1526-1572. 
 
 LAPLACE, Peter Anthony De, a mil 
 laneous writer, and translator of many Em 
 works into French, including a wretched vei 
 of Shakspeare and Otway, 1707-1793. 
 
 LAPLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis De, 1 
 at Beaumont-en-Auge, near Honfleur, in Ma 
 1749, died in Paris on 5th May, 1827. It i 
 vain indeed to propose to present within 
 rigorous limits of our volume, either the chars 
 or the achievements of this titanic Geomi 
 The works of his illustrious compeer La Gn 
 are also, in their detail, utterly remote from 
 preciation, unless by masters in mathema 
 science ; but then, through the exquisite tasi 
 that great man, his perfect conception of met 
 and his eminent possession of that blending 
 fusing imagination, which on whatever it i 
 cerns itself withal demands, as a necessity, 
 imposition of unity and symmetry, the eye i 
 of the ordinary onlooker, cannot rest on 
 achievement of his, without discerning somet 
 of its import and beauty, and of its value in 
 tending or rearranging some large domaii 
 Analysis. That La Place had nothing of 
 ^Esthetic Faculty, it would require indeed sc 
 thing beyond hardihood to assert, seeing thi 
 the Systeme du Monde he has left a resum 
 all Modem Astronomy, unsurpassed, for pei 
 cuity and elegance, in any Scientific Literature; 
 a verdict scarcely less favourable must be 
 nounced on parts of the Essai I'hilosophique 
 les Prohabihtes and those exquisite, but too 
 and brief sketches of Mathematical History. N 
 theless, it is unfortunately true, that in his i 
 massive works especially in that one whic 
 his imperishable monument, the Hfecan 
 Celeste he has shown so great a negligenc 
 disdain of art in composition, that to this 
 and chiefly through this defect, it is, to the i 
 instructed, a heaviest labour to peruse it. Th 
 ing apparently always of results, and rare) 
 ever of methods, he starts from one mode of 
 position to another, with perplexing rapidit 
 not caring apparently, provided he can co-ordi 
 or rather present in successive order the truth 
 has to expose, from what source his powe. 
 exhibit them comes, or whether or not they 
 set down as flowing easily and naturally ou 
 each other. Something of this apparent!* 
 gence ought undoubtedly -to be kid to the gig; 
 
 3<J8 
 
LAP 
 
 of his enterprise one that could have 
 led in its vastness at no former time, 
 ch no one has ventured to undertake 
 it was not like that which fell to the lot of 
 viz. : the privilege to explain and 
 for ever a grand Law of Nature, but 
 it of that Law through all the intricacies 
 actual Universe, the tracking of it as 
 by conditions and circumstances, and 
 evaluation of its effects. Still further ; 
 by no means unlikely, that this over- 
 to speak of his subject-matter, al- 
 to permit himself that supreme indif- 
 which has so often induced reprehension, 
 the claims and discoveries of his prede- 
 and rivals. Lagrange's name, for instance, 
 mentions; one of the finest analytic disco- 
 that Geometer he simply calls ' the formula 
 21 of the second book of the Mecanique Ce- 
 treats more summarily still, the remark- 
 of our own Brook Taylor ; nor indeed 
 y one go to his volumes for information 
 unless he is first in possession of 
 intive merits of all our Analysts. If 
 , or any feeling akin to it, gave rise to 
 'ar reticence, the jealousy must indeed 
 morbid; for, irrespective of the debt 
 him for his immense compositions, La- 
 achieved enough, of distinct and posi- 
 very, to secure as enduring a fame as 
 to anv man, since the lifetime of Newton, 
 ikes, it is true, are apart and rugged ; but 
 both wide and deep. With an infelicity 
 le in him, Napoleon is said to have 
 uously designated Laplace the Hnfini- 
 philosopher? Infelicitously ; inasmuch 
 sly any epithet could have been selected 
 j)licable: there is no modern mathema- 
 Twhose power of generalizing was more 
 _, or in whose mind it more preponderated, 
 "almost at any page, for instance, of the 
 "lary Theorie des I'robabilites: from the 
 ; chapter which unfolds the yet unfathomed 
 of Generating Functions, down to the 
 are sown through it, as if broadcast, 
 H fresh methods such as that with regard 
 integrals and of wholly unsuspected 
 It is the same with all writings of his, 
 on the metaphysics of his subject ; ever 
 we find the largest views indicated in a 
 or unpretending phrase; and in still 
 pable illustration it may be permitted us 
 that far-famed 'Nebular Hypothesis,' 
 be it exactly accurate or not, leads the 
 imagination searching a solution of 
 amental constitution of our planetary 
 jack into the depths of ages, when 
 orbs were not, or existed only in the 
 of the Generic Powers, that were then 
 their birth ! From a mind of such a 
 and indeed from no other, could have 
 |g his specific and lustrous contributions to 
 jnomy, for instance the discovery of the 
 dity of Jupiter and Saturn the settle- 
 |af the old puzzle regarding the acceleration 
 mean motion of the Moon the theory of 
 Satellites or that earliest indication of 
 of stability within our system. Beyond 
 all, however, the crowning glory of the 
 
 LAP 
 
 'infinitesimal philosopher' is unquestionably the 
 power that conceived, and the corresponding forti- 
 tude that executed the Mecanique Celeste. This 
 book, as we have said, had no predecessor ; and a 
 second Laplace must arise, ere it shall be threa- 
 tened by a rival. Extending to five quarto vols, 
 of investigation generally abrupt through its over- 
 condensation, it is divided into the sixteen books 
 whose general titles we subjoin. 1. The General 
 Laws of Equilibrium and Motion. 2. The Law 
 of Universal Gravitation, and the Motion of 
 the Centres of Gravity of the Celestial Bodies. 
 3. The Figure of the Celestial Bodies. 4. The 
 Oscillation of the Sea and the Atmosphere. 5. 
 The Rotation of the Celestial Bodies. 6. Par- 
 ticular Theories of the Planets. 7. Theory of the 
 Moon. 8. Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter, 
 Saturn, and Uranus. 9. Theory of Comets. 10. 
 Miscellanea, Refraction, &c. 11. Figure and Ro- 
 tation of the Earth. 12. Attraction and Repul- 
 sion of Spheres, and the Statics and Dynamics of 
 Elastic Fluids. 13. Oscillation of Fluids covering 
 Planets. 14. Precession, Libration, and the Ring 
 of Saturn. 15. Supplement to Book II. 16. 
 Further views concerning the Satellites. Within 
 this immense programme placed as if paren- 
 thetically one finds the most striking notices on 
 almost every important problem of mechanical 
 physics; any one of which, would have made the 
 tortune of an ordinary mathematician. The Stu- 
 dent, betaking himself to Laplace, must not go, 
 however, under any delusion. To the best in- 
 formed we have said, the perusal of this stupen- 
 dous work is no holiday task: nor should that 
 valuable assistance be declined, afforded by the an- 
 notated translation of the Mecanique, munificently 
 presented to the world by the excellent American 
 Dr. Bowditch. In an unhappy hour for the com- 
 pleteness of his fame, Laplace went aside from 
 the field of pure science to become a politician. 
 The cause of Napoleon's displeasure with him is 
 unknown ; certainly the Emperor himself gave no 
 correct account of it. For many reasons, indeed, we 
 should consider Laplace quite unlikely to take suc- 
 cessful part in that great game, in which Empires 
 were the stakes; but that had signified less, if he 
 had preserved an ordinary constancy. To the First 
 Consul, he had dedicated the First Edition of the 
 Mecanique, not living to publish a second. But 
 from the Second Edition of the Theorie des Proba- 
 bilites published after the Restoration he meanly 
 struck out the former dedication to Napoleon 
 Empereur. One has required so often to lament 
 political degeneracy among Scientific men in 
 France, and their proneness to bend the knee be- 
 fore existing power, that it is refreshing to turn 
 to the unsullied integrity of our late illustrious 
 Arago. Another charge, commonly brought in 
 this country against our mathematician, we are 
 constrained in all honesty to repudiate ; at the very 
 least, we demand the verdict of Not Proven. Origi- 
 nating, we believe, in Professor Robison's feverish 
 book on continental Free Masonry, and further sus- 
 tained by mistaken views as to the relations of the 
 ' Nebular Hypothesis,' the rumour has gone wide 
 abroad, among the religious public of Great Britain, 
 that this great Geometer professed himself, or was 
 an Atheist. It is scarcely necessary to say that 
 Laplace never wrote on Ontology : but we deem it 
 
LAP 
 
 incumbent to add, that after a careful review of his 
 written works, with reference to this interesting 
 point, we are prepared to disallow the title of any- 
 one to repeat such an assertion. In the present 
 state of thought and language on such matters, 
 there is no rule which ought to be more sacred 
 than this, Sentiments ought never to be imputed; 
 nor that right tampered with, which belongs to 
 every man the right to define and designate his 
 own' Concerning those loftier verities of Ontologv, 
 vision, alas ! does not come equally clearly to all ! 
 But one's apprehension of Realities so aweple, must 
 not be measured by his degree of glibness in 
 speech, or that often irreverent aptness in the re- 
 petition of words and formulas, which in itself, ar- 
 gues, after all, nothing superior to the parrot's 
 faculty. To the failings of this great French Geo- 
 meter^ the splendour even of Ml achievements, 
 ought, indeed, in nowise to blind us : in regard to 
 the relations of his inner soul to the Infinite, if we 
 cannot rest without curiosity, at least let us judge 
 justly, in charity, and with hope recalling, in all 
 humility, his own last words on Earth Ce que 
 twits connaissons est pen de chose; ce que nous 
 vjnorons est immense ! [J.P.N.] 
 
 LAPO, James, or Jacopo, of which it is the 
 diminutive, a distinguished Florentine artist, died 
 1262. His son, Arnolpho, an architect and 
 sculptor, died 1300. Another Lapo, or Jacopo, 
 distinguished as a canonist, died 1381 ; and Ric- 
 no Di Lapo, a painter of Florence, and grand- 
 father of Giottino, was born 1330. 
 
 LAPPOLI, Matthew, an Italian painter, died 
 1504. His son, J. Anthony, a painter, 1492-1552. 
 
 LARA, a celebrated Spanish family, the foun- 
 der of which was Ferdinand Gonzalez, count of 
 Castile and Lara, died 970. In 1130, the family 
 was divided into two branches, the first with 
 Manrique De Lara, who took the title of vis- 
 count of Narbonne, for its stock ; and the second 
 deriving from Ordogno Perez, and preserving 
 the title of count of Lara, until it became extinct 
 in the latter half of the 14th century. The mem- 
 bers of this family played an important part in the 
 civil wars of Castfle, under Alphonso X., Sancho 
 IV., Ferdinand IV., and Alphonso XL, with whom 
 they often disputed the crown. 
 
 LARCHER, P. H., an eminent French critic 
 and Hellenist, author of remarks on Voltaire's phi- 
 losophy of history, under the title of a ' Supple- 
 ment,' &c, 1726-1812. 
 
 LARDIZABAL, Don Manuel De, minister 
 of Ferdinand VII., 1750-1823. 
 
 LARDNER, Dr. Nathaniel, a learned dis- 
 senting minister, author of Credibility of the Gos- 
 pel History,' ' Letter on the Logos,' 'A Vindication 
 of Three of our Saviour's Miracles,' 'The Testi- 
 monies of the Ancient Jews and Pagans in favour 
 of Christianity,' a ' History of Heretics,' &c. Dr. 
 Lardner was educated among the presbyterians, 
 and, in 1729, became assistant minister at Crutched 
 Friars, 1684-1768. 
 
 LAREVEILLERE-LEPEAUX,LouisMarie, 
 described by Napoleon as a hot and sincere patriot, 
 and a fanatic by temperament, was born 1753, and 
 became a member of the constituent assembly, the 
 convention, the council of elders, and the directory. 
 Ho had a considerable share in the direction of 
 affairs, and was chief of the sect of Theophilanthro- 
 
 LAS 
 
 pists. His peculiar talents led him 
 
 tention to the details of business, while he le 
 
 Ban-as the exercise of authority. Died 1824. 
 
 LARGILLIERE, N., a Fr. painter, 1656-1 
 
 LARIVE, J. M. De, a Fr. tragedian, 1744-1 
 
 LARIVEY, P. De, a Fr. dramatist, died II 
 
 LARIVIERE, P.J. H., a member of the Fr 
 
 assembly and convention, dist. among the Gi 
 
 dists, whose fate he escaped by flight, 1760-11 
 
 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD. See Rochei 
 
 CAULD. 
 
 LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN. SeeRocHEjA< 
 
 LEIN. 
 
 LA ROMANA, Marquis De, a Spanish wn 
 
 dist. against the French in the late war, died 1 
 
 LAROON, M., a Dutch painter, 1653-1705 
 
 LARREY, Dominique Jean, Baron, a < 
 
 brated military surgeon, and devoted followi 
 
 Napoleon Buonaparte, who pronounced him 
 
 most virtuous man that he had known, 17C6-1 
 
 LARREY, Isaac De, a French historian o: 
 
 reformed religion, who fled to Holland on the i 
 
 cation of the edict of Nantes, au. of a ' Histoi 
 
 England,' a ' Hist, of Louis XIV.,' &c, 1638-1 
 
 LARRIVEE, H., a French actor, 1733-180 
 
 LARROQUE, Matthew De, a French pr 
 
 tant and controversial divine, 1619-lO.s-i. His 
 
 Daniel, a protestant minister, and author of 
 
 V^ritables Motifs de la Conversion de 1' Abt 
 
 la Trappe,' 1660-1731. 
 
 LARRUYA, E., a Span, statistician, died 1 
 LARUE, Gervais De, a French ecclesi 
 and antiquarian savant, author of ' Histoire 
 Trouveres,' &c, 1751-1835. 
 
 LARUE, J. S. De, a Fr. historian, 1765-18 
 
 LARUETTE, J. L., a French actor, 1731-1 
 
 LA SALLE, Ant. C. L. Collinet, Count \ 
 
 general of cavalrv, killed at Wagram, 1775-18 
 
 LA SALLE, H., a French author, 1765-18! 
 
 LASCA, the assumed name of A. F. Grazj 
 
 a burlesque poet and novelist of Florence, b. 1 
 
 LASCARIS. Two learned Greeks of this i 
 
 were among the fugitives who quitted Consti 
 
 nople in 1454. The first, Constantine Lasc/i 
 
 died at Messina 1493. He is the author of 
 
 first book printed in the Greek character. 
 
 second, Andrew John Lascaris, of the t 
 
 family, distinguished as a scholar and ambassi 
 
 was patronised by Leo X., and became princip 
 
 the Greek college founded at his own insfe 
 
 Died at Rome 1535. Constantine Lascaris is 
 
 erally called Byzantinus, and John, or Am 
 
 John, Rhyndacenus. 
 
 LASCARIS, A., an Ital. economist, 1776-1 
 LASCARIS, P., grand mas. of Malta, 1560-1 
 LASCARIS, Theodore, a Greek prince, kr 
 as Theodore I., son-in-law of Alexis Ang 
 emperor of Constantinople. After the takh 
 that city by the crusaders in 1203, Lascaris 
 sessed himself of Bithynia, Lydia, the coas< 
 the Archipelago, and of a part of Phrygia, w 
 he formed into a kingdom, with Nica 
 tal, and reigned over it from 1206 to his d. 
 1222. The second of the same name, born 1 
 succeeded his father, John Ducas, as einpen 
 Nicasa 1255, and died 1259. The son of the I 
 named John Lascaris, succeeded him whei 
 years of age, and died the same year. His su> 
 sor was Michiel Palaeologus. 
 
 400 
 
LAS 
 
 VSES. The count of this name, Marin 
 Emmanuel Auguste Dieudonne, was 
 nan of patrician origin, whose history is 
 to of a chivalrous devotion to Napoleon Buona- 
 I i e was born at the chateau of Las Cases, 
 -He department of the Haute- Garonne, in 1766, 
 3 acquired distinction in several actions as a 
 ll officer: among these, was the storming of 
 Saltar by the combined fleets of France and 
 Un. At the outbreak of the French revolution, 
 tinned the emigrants at Coblentz, and after 
 tang in the fruitless efforts of the Vendean war 
 aijthe expedition to Quiberon, settled in Eng- 
 laj. He was among the first of the emigrants 
 wturn to France on the invitation of Napoleon ; 
 M having engaged himself as a volunteer under 
 .'liadotte, when the English attacked Flushing 
 iij809, he became known to the emperor, and 
 Mually rose high in his confidence. His loyalty 
 tiiapoleon shone the brighter for his reverses in 
 lit and the year following, when he accompanied 
 hato St Helena, and remained in the closest inti- 
 iw with him for eighteen months. At the close 
 &ch day, Las Cases noted all that transpired, 
 . thought expressed by the emperor, in a 
 jonal, which has since been published as a ' Me- 
 nnal of Sainte Helene ;' and in the perusal of 
 must be remembered, that it came under 
 of Napoleon, leaf by leaf, as it was writ- 
 is modern Bayard was at length sent a 
 to England, and treated with every indig- 
 to say petty spite, by the government of 
 under Lord" Castlereagh. The Emperor 
 Flcis at last interfered in his favour, and he was 
 aired to pass the remainder of his days in peace 
 ne vicinity of Paris. Died 1842. ' [E.R.] 
 ^SCO, or LASKI, John A, a Polish theolo- 
 gi kn. as a promoter of the reformation, d. 1560, 
 ISCY, or LACY, Peter, Count De, an Irish 
 ho entered into foreign service after the 
 of Ireland by William III., and became a 
 fi^marshal of Russia, and governor of Lithuania, 
 U -1751. His son, Joseph Francis Maurice, 
 C it De Lascy, born at St. Petersburg 1725, be- 
 m a marshal in the service of Austria, d. 1801, 
 ASERNA SANTANDER, Ch. An., a learned 
 B ivan, au. of ' Diet. Bibliographique,' d. 1813, 
 1SIUS, L. 0., a Ger. philologist, 1675-1750. 
 ASNE, M., a French engraver, 1596-1667. 
 ASSALA, M., a Spanish poet, 1729-1798. 
 . LLE, A. De, a Fr. metaph., 1754-1829. 
 LS, Richard, an Oxford scholar, who 
 Wme a convert to Romanism, and wrote 'Travels 
 My,' born 1603, died at Montpellier 16G8. 
 
 '. Orlando Di, an eminent musician of 
 
 Bjiria, author of a great number of sacred com- 
 
 1520-1596. His works were published 
 
 w* sons, Rudolph and Ferdinand, both of 
 
 tine, themselves in the same profession. 
 
 <\'E, J. M. F., a Fr. physician, 1717-88. 
 
 IBS, a Greek poet, about 500 B.C. 
 
 S, P., a French pathologist, 1741-1807. 
 SIO, Noel, an Ital. savant, 1707-1792. 
 AN, I'eter, a Dutch painter, 1581-1649. 
 Nicholas, a painter and engr., b. 1619. 
 i K. V. De Paule, a French botanist, 
 rf Hortus Burdigalensis,' 1739-1823. 
 
 LAT 
 
 General Synopsis of Birds,' in 6 vols. 4to; an 
 ' Index Ornithologicus ;' and ' A General History 
 of Birds.' The latter is contained in 10 vols. 4to, 
 and is esteemed his greatest work. Born at Eltham 
 in Kent 1740, died 1837. 
 
 LATHAM, John, a physician of London, author 
 of several contributions to the Medical Transac- 
 tions, and of a work on ' Diabetes,' 1761-1843. 
 
 LATIL, J. B. M. A. Anthony De, cardinal and 
 archb. of Rheims, conf. of Charles X., 1761-1839. 
 
 M.John, an English physician, eminent 
 m ornithologist and antiquarian, author of ' A 
 
 401 
 
 [Birth-place of Latimer.] 
 
 LATIMER, Hugh, one of the early English re- 
 formers, was born at Thurcaston, near Mount Sorrel, 
 in Leicestershire, about 1472. After taking his de- 
 gree at Cambridge, he entered into holy orders, and 
 was quite a zealot on behalf of popery. The influ- 
 ence of Thomas Bilney induced him to scan the sub- 
 ject more thoroughly, and to study the Bible. His 
 eyes were gradually opened, and at the age of 
 fifty-three he renounced Romanism. His bold opi- 
 nions against many Romish errors soon made him 
 notorious in his own university and elsewhere. He 
 even ventured to remonstrate with Henry VIII. 
 on the sin and danger of prohibiting the Bible in 
 English. Through the patronage of Thomas Crom- 
 well he was appointed to a living in West Kintoa, 
 Wiltshire, where he preached with great earnest- 
 ness and fervour the evangelical truths of the refor- 
 mation ; and he first became chaplain to Ann Bo- 
 leyn and then bishop of Worcester in 1535. When 
 the act of the six articles was passed, he dissented, 
 and proved his sincerity by resigning his bishoprick. 
 For his disinterestedness and firmness he was com- 
 mitted to the Tower, where he lay a prisoner for 
 six years ; and though the accession of Edward 
 led to his liberation, he would on no account re- 
 sume the government of his see. No sooner had 
 Mary ascended the throne, than Latimer, as might 
 be anticipated, became a marked object of papal ven- 
 geance. He refused to fly from the royal citation, 
 conscious that his hour was come. After a manly 
 vindication of his opinions, he was, along with Rid- 
 ley, condemned to the flames. On the day of his 
 martyrdom at Oxford, 16th October, 1555, he ap- 
 peared in a shroud, was, with his fellow-sufferer, 
 bound by an iron chain to the stake, and five bags 
 of gunpowder were fastened round his body. Tliw 
 faggots were kindled, and Latimer, turning to Rid- 
 ley, cried with prophetic voice, ' Be of good comfort, 
 master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this 
 2D 
 
LAT 
 
 day light such a candle, by God's grace, in Eng- 
 land, as, I trust, shall never be pot out.' Latimer's 
 sermons, which were collected and published, 
 London, 1826) in two octavos, are distinguished 
 by quaint and homely sense, and pointed and 
 vigorous admonition, the offspring of a playful 
 temper, a happy disposition, and a sincere and 
 noble heart. [J.E.] 
 
 LATIMER, W. f a dist. scholar of the 16th cent. 
 
 LATINI, Brunetto, a literary savant, and 
 partisan of the Guelfs, author of ' Tresor de Toutes 
 Chows,' a species of encyclopaedia, written in 
 French, and inventor of the Terza Rima. He was 
 one of the first teachers of Dante, 1220-1294. 
 
 LATINI, Latino, an Italian critic, 1513-1593. 
 
 LATOMUS, J., an adv. of Luther, died 1544. 
 
 LA TOUCHE-TREVILLE, Louis Rene Ma- 
 delaine Lavassor De, vice-admiral of France, 
 and deputy of the noblesse, 1745-1804. 
 
 LATOUR, Theodore, a general and count of 
 the Austrian empire, born 1780, appointed minister 
 of war, and barbarously murd. by the popul. 1848. 
 
 LATOUR-MAUBOURG, Marie Victor Fay, 
 Marquis De, a royalist general, minister of war in 
 1820, afterw. gov. of the 'Invalides,' 1756-1831. 
 
 LATOUR. See De Latour, Tour. 
 
 LATREILLE, Peter Andrew, one of the 
 greatest entomologists of France, member of the 
 Academy of Sciences, and professor at the Museum 
 of Natural History, 1762-1833. 
 
 LATROBE, B. H., an Eng. architect, d. 1820. 
 
 L'ATTAIGNANT, Gabriel Charles De, a 
 French ecclesiastic, known as a popular poet and 
 gallant, 1697-1779. 
 
 LATUDE, Henry Mazers De, a French cour- 
 tier, who was liberated from the Bastile in 1784, 
 after an imprisonment of thirty-five years, occa- 
 sioned by his intrigues against Madame Pompa- 
 dour. He is the author of ' Memoirs,' which have 
 made his name eel. throughout Europe, 1724-1804. 
 
 LAUD, William, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and favourite minister of Charles L, was a prelate of 
 great learning, and in all probability of sincere in- 
 tentions, but he was carried away by the high sa- 
 cerdotal and regal doctrines which prevailed under 
 the Stuarts. He was bora at Reading 1573, be- 
 came fellow of St. John's College 1593, obtained 
 a living in the Church of England 1607, and 
 was appointed chaplain to James I. in 1611. 
 With Laud's abilities and doctrines, promotion 
 followed as a matter of course, and it became the 
 aim of his life to unite the three kingdoms in one 
 profession of religion. The power of the Star 
 Chamber, courts of high commission, fines, pen- 
 ances, and all the means he could command, were 
 strained to this purpose. Since the Union, the 
 Scotch presbyterians had infused much of their 
 own spirit into the English puritans, and when 
 Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton, came bleeding from 
 the scaffold, such a spirit was aroused as only the 
 blood of those who had provoked it could allay in 
 the minds of the people. It was in 1628 that 
 Laud succeeded the duke of Buckingham as prime 
 minister; in 1630 he became chancellor of Oxford; 
 in 1633, archbishop of Canterbury, and chancellor 
 of the university of Dublin : and in 1637, he pro- 
 cured that decree of the Star Chamber which de- 
 etroved the liberty of the press, and made him the 
 universal censor and demi-gorgon of opinion in 
 
 402 
 
 LAU 
 
 England. With full allowance for all that c 
 urged in favour of his zeal for reli 
 cause of learning, it is neither surpri 
 regretted that he shared the fate 
 Pity for an infirm old man, and the well-k 
 bigotry of his enemies, would persu 
 wise. The historian, however, is bound to 
 choice between these emotions and the demor 
 tion of a nation, to be followed eventually by 
 horrors as those of the French revolution, 
 was declared guiltv of treason by a bill of al 
 der, and executed on Tower Hill, Januar 
 1645. 
 
 LAUDER, Sir Til Dick, Baronet, a fs 
 novelist and miscellaneous writer, known as a 
 tributor to Blackwood's and Tait's Magazines 
 for his works descriptive of Scottish scenery, 
 at Edinburgh 1784, died 1848. 
 
 LAUDER, W., a Scotch writer, known f 
 false accusations of plagiary agt. Milton, d. ] 
 LAUDERDALE, Duke of, an English si 
 man, minister of Charles II. from 1G7U to It 
 LAUDERDALE, James Maitland, ea 
 a statesman of the party of Fox, born 1759 
 ceeded his father as a Scotch peer 1789, tot 
 seat in the House of Lords as one of the repi 
 tative peers of Scotland 1790, created a peer< 
 United Kingdom, and became chancellor of 
 land 1806, died 1840. The earl of Lauderdal 
 author of ' Letters to the Peers of Scotland,' 
 lished 1794, and devoted the last ten years < 
 fife to agricultural pursuits. 
 
 LAUDIVIO, L., an Italian poet, 15th cen 
 LAUDON, Gideon Ernest, Baron Von, a 
 brated Austrian gen. of Scotch descent, 1716- 
 LAUDOUNIERE, Rene De, a French g 
 man, distinguished in an attempt to co! 
 Florida, when nearly all his companions 
 massacred by the Spaniards, author of ' Hi 
 Notable de la Floride,' published 1586, twenty 
 after his adventure. 
 LAUGIER, A., a French chemist, 1770-1: 
 LAUGIER, M. A., a miscel. writer, 1713- 
 LAUGIER DE TASSY, a Fr. hist., last i 
 LAUJOU, P., a French dramatist, 1727-1 
 LAUNAY, or LAUNEY, Bernard i 
 Joukdan, Marquis De, governor of the Basi 
 the commencement of the French revolutior 
 born in that fortress, of which his father ws 
 veraor before him, in 1740. The circumstan 
 which he was placed by the attack of the po) 
 were so unprecedented, that it, is not surpj 
 the most contradictory charges have been brj 
 against him. Early in July, 1789, he was I 
 by three strangers above the common rank) 
 asked him what he intended to do if the fti 
 should be attacked? 'My conduct,' he rij 
 ' is regulated by my duty : I shall defend it.' I 
 afterwards, he caused an immense quantity oil, 
 der to be transferred from the arsenal to th'i 
 tile, and, on the 14th of the month, the form 
 besieged and taken. Rather than yield, De Lj 
 had seized a cannoneer's match to blow il 
 place, but he was turned back from the ma j 
 by two of his own officers with fixed bay 
 After the capitulation of the garrison 
 murdered, and his head paraded through the 
 with six others, elevated on pikes, 
 of his body is not known. The Bastile ff| 
 
II 
 
 LAU 
 
 In 1383, and when it was destroyed only 
 jrisoners were found in it. It was levelled 
 ground as the monument of an arbitrary 
 jrtiich had endured for ages ; and the Me- 
 >f Latude, who had issued from its gloomy 
 in 1784, after a confinement of thirty-five 
 irere in all probability a great provocative 
 estruction. [E.R.] 
 
 [Siege of the Bastiie.] 
 
 iUNEY, J. B. De, a Fr. deputy, 1752-1831. 
 lUNOY, J. Dk, a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 kr ti as a theologian and critic. 1603-1678. 
 lURA, or LAURI, F., an Ital. paint., 1623-94. 
 kURAGUAIS, Louis Le Felicite, Due De 
 :ps, and Count De, a French dramatist and 
 illaneous writer, 1733-1823. 
 LURATI, P., an Italian painter, 1282-1340. 
 NUREMBERG, W., a Ger. physician, 1547- 
 il His son, John, a mathematician, d. 1658. 
 LURENBERG,, P., a physician, naturalist, 
 iLtronomer, 1585*1639. His brother, John, a 
 ik and Latin poet, hist., and math., 1590-1658. 
 LURENCE, French, professor of civil law at 
 ird, known as a miscellaneous writer, died 
 if His brother, Richard, professor of Heb- 
 i archbishop of Cashel, and a distinguished 
 ibrian, 1760-1839. 
 
 LlJRENS, Andrew Du, a French physician 
 Unatomist, died 1609. His brother, Honorius, 
 &ishop of Embrun, under Henry IV., d. 1612. 
 LURENS, Henry, an American statesman 
 ambassador, 1724-1792. His son, John, a 
 Wficer and friend of Washington, killed towards 
 jlose of the war at the age of twenty-six. 
 URENS, L. Des, a Fr. theologian, died 1671. 
 LURENT, J. A., a Fr. painter, 1763-1833. 
 HJRENT, P., a French engraver, 1739-1809. 
 HJBENT, Peter Joseph, a mechanic of 
 Iters, celebrated as an hydraulic engineer, and 
 p construction of artificial limbs, 1715-1773. 
 fURIERE, E. J. De, a Fr. jurist, 1659-1728. 
 (.URISTON, James Alexander Bernard 
 larquis of, a diplomatist and marshal of 
 grandson of Law, the financial projector, 
 1768. He was distinguished in the wars 
 empire, and became ambassador to England 
 bearer of the propositions of peace, or 
 of preliminaries of peace between Great 
 and France in 1802. He was promoted to 
 rank under Louis XVIIL, and d. 1828. 
 
 LAV 
 
 LAUTREC, Odet De Foix, Seigneur De, one 
 of the bravest captains of France in the 16th cen- 
 tury, died at the siege of Naples 1528. 
 
 LAUWERS, N., a Flemish designer, bom 1620. 
 
 LATJZUN. The Duke deLauzun, formerly Count 
 Antonine Nompar de Caumont, is the hero of an 
 intrigue with Mademoiselle de Montpensier, the 
 granddaughter of Henry IV., to whom, it was al- 
 leged, he was secretly married. Died, after a 
 long imprisonment and exile, 1723. 
 
 LAVALETTE, Anth. De, a eel. Jesuit, whose 
 shameful practices in the middle of last cent, con- 
 tributed to the expulsion of his order from France. 
 
 LAVALETTE, Marie Chamans, Count De, 
 a distinguished soldier of the French revolution, 
 who was born 1769, and, becoming a favourite of 
 Buonaparte, was appointed director-general of the 
 post office, and counsellor of state under the em- 
 pire. He shared the misfortunes of the emperor 
 in 1814, but resumed his functions and promoted 
 the cause of Napoleon during the hundred days, 
 for which, after the restoration, he was condemned 
 to death. By the aid of his wife, and three Eng- 
 lish gentlemen at that time in Paris, he had the 
 good fortune to escape from prison. Died 1830. 
 
 LAVALETTE, Emilie Louise De Beau- 
 harnais, countess of, and wife of the preceding, 
 deserves a separate notice for her conjugal fidelity 
 and courage. Being a niece of the empress Jose- 
 phine, she was manned to Lavalette at the instance 
 of Napoleon towards the close of the last century, 
 and after the condemnation of her husband in 1815, 
 whose execution was fixed for the 21st of Decem- 
 ber, she exchanged clothes with him in prison, and 
 thus enabled him to escape. For her conduct on 
 this occasion she was accused, along with her ac- 
 complices, of a conspiracy against the state ; and 
 though the charge could not be supported, the 
 anxiety she had undergone, and the loss of her 
 husband, ended in insanity. 
 
 LAVALLEE, John, Marquis De, a Fr. drama, 
 and miscellan. writer in the magazines, 1747-1815. 
 
 LAVATER, H., a Swiss physician, 1560-1623. 
 
 LAVATER, John Gaspar, the famous writer 
 on physiognomy, was born at Zurich 1741, and 
 died in 1801 of the wounds which he received 
 when his native town was taken by the French, 
 under Massena., when he was busy in the streets 
 animating the defenders and aiding the sufferers. 
 He was pastor of the principal church in his na- 
 tive place, and has left a high character for moral 
 purity and benevolence of disposition. His ' Phy- 
 siognomy,' consisting indeed only of fragments, or 
 materials, towards a system, was published in 4 
 volumes 4to, 1775, illustrated with numerous en- 
 gravings. The popularity it immediately acquired 
 was due, in some measure, to the fact that many 
 of the heads were portraits, and his descriptions 
 often a good-humoured satire upon well-known 
 characters. Some of his hints are very valuable, 
 and his inductions sufficiently supported by facts ; 
 but there are many crude observations, and proofs 
 of hasty generalization, which have done much per- 
 haps to prevent physiognomy from making any 
 considerable progress. Besides this popular work, 
 Lavater wrote 'Aphorisms on Man,' 'Jesus the 
 Messiah,' ' Swiss Lays,' ' Spiritual Hymns,' ' A 
 Look into Eternity,' and ' The Secret History of 
 a Self-Observer.' He is unjustly ridiculed for hia 
 
 403 
 
LAV 
 
 belief in spirits, and their agency in Iranian affairs, 
 which is nevertheless a characteristic common to 
 the greatest names in literature and histOTf. His 
 real fault is want of method, without which the 
 greatest philosophical insight must fail to create a 
 system. It cannot be denied, however, that he 
 II a moralist, and the more, perhaps, for 
 this very deficiency. As an art-writer he may he 
 more open to criticism, yet his work contains many 
 valuable precepts. [E.R.J 
 
 LAVATER, L., a Swiss theologian, 1527-1586. 
 
 LAVAUR, W. I)e, a French author, 1653-1730. 
 
 LAVAUX, C, a French advocate, 1747-1836. 
 
 LAVAUX, J. C. T., a Ger. lexicog., 1749-1827. 
 
 LAVICOMTERIE DE ST. SAMPSON, Louis, 
 a political writer, and partizan of the French revo- 
 lution, au. of 'Crimes des Rois de France,' d. 1809. 
 
 LAVINGHAM, R., a prior of Bristol, au. of an 
 abridgment of Bede's History, close of 14th cent. 
 
 LAVINGTON, George, bishop of Exeter, 
 chiefly known for his Enthusiasm of the Metho- 
 dists and Papists Compared,' was born 1683, and 
 died 1762. This work, possessing singular hu- 
 mour, and marked by much learning, is utterly 
 deficient in a true appreciation of the facts con- 
 tained in the Diary of Wesley. As the raillery of 
 a gentleman and a scholar, the book may be un- 
 exceptionable, but it is a singular production for a 
 prelate of the church, and can only be excused by 
 the extravagances it was intended to correct, and 
 the ignorance of its author. Besides this amusing 
 work, and its continuation applied to the Mora- 
 vians, Bishop Lavington published some occasional 
 sermons. [E.R.] 
 
 LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, horn in 
 Paris 1743, guillotined 1794. With the advan- 
 tages of birth and station, Lavoisier acquired an 
 excellent education, distinguishing himself at an 
 early period by the precocity of his talents. Al- 
 though Lavoisier might probably have gained 
 celebrity by the discovery and determination of the 
 characters of new bodies, he chose a more impor- 
 tant field, viz. that of generalization, and of thus 
 explaining the bearings of what appeared to others 
 isolated facts of comparatively httle import. It 
 was by making use of the discovery of oxygen by 
 Priestley that lie was enabled to supply a theory of 
 oxidation and combustion, which has stood the 
 test of three quarters of a century, although he 
 has laid himself open to the charge of at least 
 want of candour in appearing to deprive Priestley 
 and Rutherford of the credit of their discoveries of 
 oxygen and nitrogen. By this theory he extin- 
 guished the idea of phlogiston which had only 
 served to obscure all new discoveries. Another 
 valuable contribution to the science by Lavoisier, 
 was the chemical nomenclature which he is under- 
 stood to have invented, and which is still retained, 
 having served as the basis of all subsequent im- 
 provements in this important branch of the litera- 
 ture of the science. Occupied in his researches on 
 respiration, and in the discharge of his government 
 duties, he was suddenly deprived of life during 
 the horrors of the French revolution. [R.D.T.] 
 
 LAW, Edmund, bishop of Carlisle, was born at 
 Cartmel, in Lancashire, and lived 1703-1787. He 
 was the author of an ' Inquiry into the Ideas of 
 Space, Time,' &c, published 1734 or 1735, in a 
 controversy with Dr. Clark, arising out of a prcvi- 
 
 LAW 
 
 ous translation by Law of Archbishop King's 
 upon the Origin of Evil. His other work 
 1 Considerations on the Theory of 1. 
 flections on the Life and Character 
 the works of Locke, with a life ami 
 to these his sermons and lesser tr 
 physical and theological subjects. Law wa 
 posed to the doctrine of analogy assumed by . 
 bishop King and Bishop Brown, and held 
 the moral attributes of the human mind we: 
 same as those of the divine, only that the 
 greater in the latter case. See King. 
 LAW, Edward. See EllenboroucjB 
 LAW, John, the celebrated financial proj 
 was born at Edinburgh, son of a banking 
 smith there, about 1670; and being 
 thematician and accountant, was en 
 government to bring the accounts ot the re 
 into order. Thus initiated into the knowlei 
 finances and of public business, and posseat 
 restless, scheming disposition, it ap] 
 that the industry of the country was langui 
 for want of money to employ it. This led 
 famous project for a Land Bank. A vicious 
 mercial theory prevailed at that time, which 
 its rise from the recent introduction of bank 
 and the supposition that a large currency c 
 tutes the wealth of a country without regard 
 commercial wants. The Bank of England 
 the British banks generally, had acted upo 
 mistaken notion, and created great disap] 
 ments and irritation, by suddenly limiting 
 loans when they discovered the drain of gold 
 it created. It was at this juncture that Law 
 forward with his scheme for issuing paper i 
 equal to the value of all the lands in the king 
 and on his proposal being rejected by the p 
 ment of Scotland, earned it to the continen 
 finally procured its adoption by the duke o 
 leans, regent for Louis XV., then in his 
 rity. Hitherto bank notes had not been st 
 France. Mr. Law commenced his operatic 
 1717, and between that period and 1720, wh( 
 bubble burst, France was converted into on 
 stock exchange, and at last covered with 
 Our limits do not admit of particulars in m 
 so difficult of explanation as financial opera 
 but the basis or Law's project was the ide: 
 paper money may be multiplied to any e 
 provided there be security in fixed stock; 
 the truth is, if the bulk of a currency is inc 
 beyond the actual wants of commerce, all its 
 or separate coins and notes, must depreci! 
 proportion. In the working out oi I 
 a trading company was created which hat; 
 veyed to it the whole province of I 
 the possessions of France on the bai 
 sissippi, which, besides, obtained by purchaj 
 charters and property of the Senegal Compaij 
 India Company, and the China Company, a, 
 came the sole public creditor by fanning the! 
 of the taxes and revenues of the kingdom ,' 
 ruin of this vast machinery at that particnll 
 ment, and with the suddenness that it ocj 
 was produced by an edict of the regent, M 
 1720, reducing the value of the note.-, in 01 
 of Mr. Law's protestations, to an equality wijl 
 of the French coinage, which, in foi 
 frequently been altered by the govej 
 
 404 
 
LAW 
 
 Bonvenience. This breach of faith instantly 
 
 = 
 
 _ their circulation, the deplorable results of 
 went nigh to produce an insurrection of 
 e. Law became an exile, and after wan- 
 in England, Holland, and Germany, at last 
 i Venice, fully convinced of the solidity of 
 m, 1729. See Lauriston. [E.R.] 
 
 W, William, one of the most powerful and 
 " 'of English writers in the interest of reli- 
 was born at KingselifFe, in Northampton- 
 1686, and educated for the Church of Eng- 
 at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he 
 degree of M.A., and obtained a fellowship 
 11. On the death of Queen Anne, 1714, he 
 J to take the necessary oaths of allegiance to 
 r dynasty, and thus cut himself off from 
 ope of preferment in the church. In 1717, 
 irian controversy was commenced by the 
 ot Hoadley on the" principles and practices 
 e nonjurors, and Law defended his cause in 
 Letters,' remarkable for their logical com- 
 bss and command of language. In 1721 and 
 he made a further exhibition of his principles 
 temarks on the Fable of the Bees,' and ' The 
 wfulness of Stage Entertainments.' In the 
 year he also published his ' Christian Perfec- 
 " in 1729 his ' Serious Call to a Devout and 
 This work is universally acknowledged 
 most stirring appeal to the practical, 
 sense of mankind, in behalf of religion, 
 ritten, and its 'characters' are not inferior 
 and conception to those of La Bruyere. 
 only work by which Law is known to the 
 at the present day. Our author had now 
 > domesticated in the family of Gibbon, as 
 to the historian's father, with whose sister, 
 Hester Gibbon, and her friend, Mrs. Hxitche- 
 aftenvards established himself at Kingscliffe 
 capacity of chaplain and almoner. After 
 Serious Call,' he published one of the most 
 of his logical works, entitled 'The Case 
 answer to Tindal's ' Christianity as 
 the Creation ;' and this, excepting such cor- 
 ce as he carried on in which he was a 
 master was the last production of his pen 
 his adoption of the principles of Jacob 
 len. His acquaintance with those works may 
 to the years between 1733-1736. In 
 
 year 
 
 1 
 
 T 
 he sprang like the eagle from fresh fast- 
 ed published his book of the ' Sacrament' 
 srer to Hoadley, which unfolds his new philo- 
 al divinity in the happiest manner. In 
 appeared his ' Christian Regeneration,' which 
 mj another ' Serious Call,' written from 
 x ground, followed by his ' Earnest and Seri- 
 nswer to Dr. Trapp,' who had attacked his 
 Perfection' and ' Serious Call.' In 1740 
 Appeal' was given to the public, the aim of 
 i is to confute Arianism and Deism from the 
 lature of things; and, in the same year, a 
 der to his opponent, entitled, with a fine 
 of the humorous, ' Dr. Trapp Vindicated 
 the Imputation of being a Christian.' In 
 his ' Way to Divine Knowledge' opened the 
 dsof a positive religion, founded on the prin- 
 contained in the writings of his master. It 
 
 ed by the ' Spirit of Prayer,' introduc- 
 the ' Spirit of Love,' published 1752, which 
 ssterly demonstration that the wrath to be 
 
 LAW 
 
 quenched is not in God, but the creature, who can 
 possess no goodness by birth of his natural parents. 
 Law died in 1761, immediately after completing 
 the most eloquent and perfect of all his works| 
 ' An Humble, Earnest, and Affectionate Address 
 to the Clergy. '_ It is not easy to do justice to his 
 character and influence in few words ; but he was 
 the first teacher of Wesley, who afterwards quar- 
 relled with him ; and England owes him a great 
 debt in the revival of evangelical religion, and the 
 reaction against the worldliness of the church estab- 
 lishment, which characterized the commencement 
 of last century. However mistaken in the foun- 
 dations of his mvstical system, he was always 
 guided by high principle, even to the matter of his 
 bachelorship, which he maintained to the end of 
 his days. Besides the works we have mentioned, 
 he edited an edition of Bcehmen, in 4 volumes 
 4to, which are embellished with drawings, made 
 by a German named Frere. There are likewise 
 some minor tracts from his pen, not included in 
 our enumeration, and among these is a dialogue 
 on 'Justification,' between a churchman and a 
 Calvinistic methodist, published 1759, in answer 
 to Beveridge. All the memoirs of Law are miser- 
 ably deficient in appreciation of his genius and 
 consistency. [E.R.] 
 
 LAWES, Henry, the court musician of Charles 
 L, and the composer of Milton's 'Comus,' &c, 
 1600-1662. His brother, William, also a musical 
 composer, the subject of the next notice. 
 
 LAWES, William, a celebrated composer, 
 was the son of Thomas Lawes, vicar-choral of 
 Salisbury, of which city he was a native. In his 
 early life he was a member of the choir of Chi- 
 chester, from which place he was called to become 
 one of the gentlemen of the chapel royal in 1602, 
 and afterwards one of the church musicians to 
 King Charles I. He lost his life at the siege of 
 Chester, in the year 1645. [J.M.] 
 
 LAWLESS, John, an Irish agitator, 1772-1837. 
 
 LAWRENCE, French. See Laurence. 
 
 LAWRENCE, J., an Eng. agricul., 1756-1836. 
 
 LAWRENCE, S., an E. Indian gen., 1697-1775. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Thos., an English physician and 
 medical wr., au. of the life of Harvey, 1711-1783. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, P.R.A., was born 
 at Bristol, 4th May, 1769. He obtained an early 
 reputation at Bath as a portrait painter in crayons, 
 and as early as 1787 established himself as a por- 
 trait painter in oils in London, where four years 
 afterwards, 1791, he was elected an associate of 
 the Royal Academy, and in 1795 an academician ; 
 he had previously succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds 
 as painter to the king. He was knighted by the 
 prince regent in 1815, and in 1820 succeeded 
 West as president of the Royal Academy. He 
 died in London, 7th January, 1830. Sir Thomas 
 had perhaps, since the days of Vandyck, an unri- 
 valled career as a portrait painter; he, however, 
 owed his chief success to the skilful flattery of his 
 female portraits, the complexions of which left 
 nothing to be desired : his male pictures, as a rule, 
 bear no comparison with his female ; besides being 
 ill-proportioned, they are wanting in manly char- 
 acter; still his portraits of the emperor Francis, 
 of Pius VII., and of the Cardinal Gonsalvi, in 
 the Waterloo Gallery at Windsor, are among 
 the greatest masterpieces of the art extant. 
 
 405 
 
LAW 
 
 (Williams, The Life and Con-eepondence of Sir 
 Thomas Laiorence, 1831.) [K.N.W.] 
 
 LAWSON, Sir John, a naval commander and 
 rovalist, killed in action with the Dutch, 1665. 
 
 J, AX, Rkv. W., an eminent astronomer, d. 1836. 
 
 LAYA, J. L., a French dramatist, 1761-1833. 
 
 LA YARD, C. P., a divine and scholar, d. 1803. 
 
 LAZARUS, prince of Servia, 1386. 
 
 LAZERI, P., an Italian theologian, 1710-1789. 
 
 LAZIUS, Wolfgang, a learned physician, and 
 writer on history and antiquities, 1514-1565. 
 
 LAZOWSKI,' a Polish refugee, distinguished as 
 an active agent in the Fr. revolution, died 1793. 
 
 LAZZARA, N., an Ital. archaeologist, 1744-1833. 
 
 LEACH, Wm. Elford, an eminent naturalist, 
 and curator in the British Museum, 1790-1836. 
 
 LEAD, Jane, was a mystical writer, whose 
 works date from 1683, or thereabouts, to the close 
 of the century, and who died in 1704. She wrote 
 from her own experience of the spiritual life, and 
 the state of departed spirits, but qualified by 
 a previous acquaintance with the system of 
 Boehmen. Her works are a ' Revelation of Reve- 
 lations,' explaining a portion of the Apocalypse, 
 1 The Laws of Paradise given forth by Wisdom to 
 a Translated Spirit,' ' The Wonders of God's Crea- 
 tion Manifested in the Variety of Eight Worlds,' 
 &c. This woman, of singular learning and expe- 
 rience, belonged to a society of ' illuminati,' pre- 
 sided over by Dr. Pordage, and, at a later period, 
 to the ' Philadelphians,' among whom Dr. Francis 
 Lee was eminent. The latter has written the life 
 of Jane Lead, and some prefaces to her works. 
 She lived at a period when some great develop- 
 ment from the spiritual world was universally ex- 
 pected, but especially in Germany. See Swe- 
 
 DEXBORG. j^E.R.] 
 
 LEAH, the wife of Jacob, and mother ot Reu- 
 ben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and 
 Dinah, dates uncertain. 
 
 LEAKE, John, a phys. and medi. wr., d. 1792. 
 
 LEAKE, Richard, one of the bravest officers that 
 ever served in the English navy, created master- 
 gunner of all England, and celebrated for his skill 
 in pyrotechnics, 1629-1696. His son, Sir John, 
 admiral of England, celebrated for the relief of Gib- 
 raltar, &c.,1656-1720. Stephen Martyn Leake, 
 nephew and biographer of Sir John, distinguished 
 in heraldry and numismatics, 1702-1773. 
 
 LEANDER, a French ecclesiastic, died 1667. 
 
 LEANDER, a youth of Abydos, who was accus- 
 tomed to swim across the Hellespont in order to 
 visit his mistress on the opposite snore, and was at 
 last drowned in a tempest, date unknown. 
 
 LEANDER, St., archbishop of Seville, 6th cen. 
 
 LEAPOR, Mary, the daughter of a poor gar- 
 dener, authoress of original poems of great merit, 
 and 'The Unhappy Father,' a tragedy, 1711-1735. 
 
 LEARCHUS, a Greek sculptor, B.C. 700. 
 
 LEBAILLY, A. F., a Fr. author, 1756-1832. 
 
 LEBAS, J. P., a French designer, 1707-1784. 
 
 LEBAS, P. F. J., a member of the French con- 
 vention and Committee of Public Safety, killed 
 himself when arrested with Robespierre, 1765-94. 
 
 LEBAUD, P., a French historian, 16th century. 
 
 LE BEUF, John, a Fr. historian, 1687-1760. 
 
 LEBID, Ben Rabiat, an Arab, poet, died 673. 
 
 LEBLANC, Claude, b. 1669, secretary of war 
 to Louis XV. during the years 1713-1726, d. 1728. 
 
 LEC 
 
 LEBLANC, F., a Fr. numismatist, did I 
 
 LEBLANC, H.. a painter of Lyons, 17th < 
 
 LEBLANC, J., a French poet, died about 
 
 LEBLANC, J. B., a French author, 1707- 
 
 LEBLANC, Marcel, a Jesuit mission. to( 
 
 au. of a 'Hist, of the Revol. of Siam,' 1653-] 
 
 LEBLANC, R., a French classic, about 151 
 
 LEBLANC, T., a Fr. commentator, 1599- 
 
 LEBLANC, V., a Fr. traveller, abt. 1554- 
 
 LEBLANC, W., bishop of Toulon 
 
 as a philologist and Latin poet, 1520-1588. 
 
 nephew, of the same name, also a prelat* 
 
 Latin poet, 1561-1601. 
 
 LEBLANC DE GUILLET, Anthony Bi 
 
 called, a dramatic author, 1730-1799. 
 
 LEBLOND, G. M., a Fr. numisma., 1738- 
 
 LEBLOND, J. B., a Fr. naturalist, 1747- 
 
 LEBLOND, W., a Fr. mathematician, 1704- 
 
 LEBON, Jos., a mem. of the conv., 1765- 
 
 LEBRET, H., a Fr. historian, died about 
 
 LEBRUN, A. L., a French author, 1680-1 
 
 LEBRUN, C, acele. French painter, 1618- 
 
 LEBRUN, C. F., duke of Placentia, (list. 
 
 statesman and scholar, time of Napo., 1739-1 
 
 LEBRUN, D., a French jurisconsult, died 
 
 LEBRUN, J. B. P., a French painter, 1748- 
 
 LEBRUN, L., a Jesuit and poet, 1607-lfil 
 
 LEBRUN, Pierre, a French theologian, ; 
 
 'Histoiredes Pratiques Superstitieuses,'1661- 
 
 LEBRUN, Pigault, a Fr. novelist, 1742- 
 
 LEBRUN, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, c 
 
 the most celebrated of French lyric poets, flooi 
 
 at Paris, 1729-1807. 
 
 LEBRUN-DESMARETTES, J. B., a Jam 
 
 writer, au of a ' Life of St. Paul,' &c, 1650- 
 
 LECAT, C. N., a surgeon of Picardv, 1700- 
 
 LECCHI, G. A., an Ital. mathema., 1702- 
 
 LECENE, C, a Calvinist minister, 1647-1 
 
 LECERF, P., an ecclesiastical wr., 1677-1 
 
 LECERF DE LA VIEVILLE, J. H., chs 
 
 lor of Normandy, and a wr. on music, 1674- 
 
 LECLERC, David, professor of Hebre 
 
 Geneva, 1591-1665. His brother, Stephi 
 
 physician and scholar, died 1676. 
 
 LECLERC, John, nephew of the precedi 
 
 laborious theological writer and critic, whose \ 
 
 are well known, and frequently quoted, b] 
 
 learned. The most famous of his wri 
 
 biblical history, and consist of commentaries, 
 
 written in Latin, lived 1657-1736. I lis brc 
 
 Daniel, celebrated as a medical writer and 
 
 tomist, 1652- 1728. Laurent Josse Le Ci 
 
 son of John, also a learned writer, died 1736. 
 
 LECLERC, John, a French painter, 1587- 
 
 LECLERC, J. B., a member of the French 
 
 vention, and writer on music, 1755-1826. 
 
 LECLERC, M., a dramatic writer, 1622-1 
 
 LECLERC, N. G., a French physician, a 
 
 of ' Histoire Physique, Morale, Civile, et Pol: 
 
 de la Russie,' 1726-1798. 
 
 LECLERC, P., a famous Jansenist, 1706- : 
 
 LECLERC, S., a cele. Fr. engraver, 1637- 
 
 LECLERC, Victor Emanuel, a French 
 
 ral, who distinguished himself in Italy, anc| 
 
 married to Pauline, the sister of IS 
 
 afterwards became the wife of Prince Cainille I 
 
 hese. Leclerc, who entered the republican ani 
 
 a volunteer, was born in 1772, and died of th j 
 
 low fever on an expedition to St. Domingo, 1 
 
 40G 
 
LEC 
 
 CLEECQ, C, a French missionary, 17th ct. 
 I COAT, Yves Maria Gabriel P., a French 
 mJHlL, appointed by Buonaparte military chief 
 H port of Boulogne, 1757-1826. 
 jIlCOCQ, R., a politician of the 14th cent. 
 IbCOINTRE, Louis, called ' Lecointre of Ver- 
 In,' a deputy to the legislative assembly and 
 Drench convention, and a bitter enemy of the 
 Gildists, born 1750, died unnoticed 1805. 
 
 iTE, F., a French sculptor, 1737-1817. 
 
 ; TE, J., a Latin poet, died 1707. 
 
 iCOMTE, L., a Jesuit and astronomer, author 
 
 Memoirs on the State of China,' died 1729. 
 
 MTE, L., a French sculptor, 1643-1695. 
 
 "ITE, M., a female engraver, born 1719. 
 
 IICONTE, A., a French jurisconsult, d. 1586. 
 
 llCONTE, L. J. F., a French author, d. 1740. 
 
 1E-CONTEUR, John, a native of Jersey, dist. 
 
 M officer of the British army in India, where he 
 
 Use the prisoner of Tippoo Sultan, 1761-1835. 
 
 IfCT, James, a lawyer of Geneva, 1560-1614. 
 
 fDERLIN, J. H., a Ger. philolog., 1672-1737. 
 
 iDERMUTTER, M. F., a physician of Nurem- 
 
 f a work on the microscope, 1719-1760. 
 
 IfDESMA, A. De, a Spanish poet, 1552-1623. 
 
 IX, C, a French architect, 1736-1806. 
 llDRU, A. P., a French botanist, 1761-1831. 
 
 EDRU, N. P., a French physician, 1731-1807. 
 
 ".DUTCH, E., an Irish antiquary, 1739-1823. 
 
 EDYARD, John, a famous American travel- 
 blom at Groton, in Connecticut, 1751. After 
 
 e among the Indians he came to Eng- 
 k and sailed with Captain Cook on his second 
 Up, the narrative of which he published. His 
 (enterprise was a pedestrian tour round the 
 U; but being prevented from continuing his 
 ley by the Russian government, he returned 
 ndon, and was employed by the African Asso- 
 Bsn. He had proceeded as far as Grand Cairo, 
 iesign of penetrating the interior of that 
 Heating country, when he died of a virulent 
 ^Ise, 1788. 
 
 '. XNE, sometimes considered the founder 
 Hie Shaking Quakers, was born at Manchester, 
 L and after becoming the mother of several 
 tren, whom she lost at an early age, gave 
 Wflf up to religious contemplation, with the 
 ttiction that the union of the sexes was the 
 sin. The society to which she attached 
 been founded by three prophets from 
 nes, who came to London in 1705, and 
 tly advanced by a person named James 
 , in 1747. Anne Lee, having become the 
 edium of a spiritual manifestation, was 
 as their spiritual head, or ' mother in 
 rist,' in 1771. In 1774, she accom-* 
 some of her people to America, in order 
 >e persecution, and after travelling through 
 ngland, fixed her abode in the neighbour- 
 All. any, where she died, or, in the language 
 tes, 'withdrew from their bodily 
 1784. Her case is a very remarkable 
 Bang other statements, she declared that 
 had entered into heaven until the year 
 fhich marked the commencement of a new 
 ation ; and she claimed for herself to be 
 d as the ' Bride of the Lamb,' mentioned in 
 h chapter of the Apocalypse. Her followers 
 Bd to a considerable number after her death, 
 
 LEE 
 
 and, for a short time at least, established a com- 
 munity of goods. [E.R.] 
 
 LEE, Charles, a British officer, who engaged 
 in the service of General Washington in the Ameri- 
 can war of independence, died 1782. 
 
 LEE, Edward, archbishop of York in the reign 
 of Henry VIII., and a zealous opposer of Luther, 
 1482-1544. 
 
 LEE, Francis, a learned writer on philosophi- 
 cal, scriptural, and mystical subjects, was a physi- 
 cian, descended, by his mother, from the Percies of 
 Northumberland, and by his father from the same 
 family as the earls of Lichfield He was born in 1660, 
 and being left an orphan when between four and five 
 years of age, was educated under the care of his 
 aunt, Mrs. Elizabeth Jenkins. On receiving a fel- 
 lowship at Oxford, he became tutor to Sir W. Dawes, 
 afterwards archbishop of York, and at a later 
 period to the son of Lord Stawell, with whose fa- 
 mily he remained on terms of intimacy many years 
 after. From 1691 to 1694 he travelled in Italy, 
 and practised as a physician for some time at Venice. 
 In 1708 he was in London. In 1719 he went to 
 France, and died on his journey at Gravelines. It is 
 a curious circumstance that he was known to Peter 
 the Great, and, at his request, drew up proposals 
 for the advancement of his kingdom, the spirit of 
 which, if not the form, has continued to guide the 
 czars of Russia. His works are very numerous, 
 but they were all published anonymously, or in the 
 names of others. Some of them were collected in 
 two volumes octavo, and published for the benefit 
 of his wife and daughter, but these were by no 
 means his most important labours among which 
 may be reckoned his ' History of the Montanists.' 
 His mystic poems are among the highest of that 
 class, and his scriptural commentaries, though false 
 in essential principles, exceedingly ingenious. [E.R.] 
 
 LEE, Henry, an American general, who com- 
 menced his career in the army of independence, and 
 was afterwards governor of Virginia, 1756-1818. 
 
 LEE, Nathaniel, an English dramatic writer, 
 author of the 'Rival Queens,' &c. Having at- 
 tempted the stage as an actor without success, 
 he directed his powers to dramatic composition, 
 and produced a number of tragedies. He lat- 
 terly became insane, and was two years an inmate 
 of Bedlam, died 1692. 
 
 LEE, Rachel Fanny Antonina, a lady of 
 fortune, au. of an ' Essay on Government,' d. 1829. 
 LEE, Samuel, a nonconf. divine, 1625-1691. 
 
 LEE, Rev. Samuel, D.D., late regius professor of 
 Hebrew in the university of Cambridge, and a great 
 master of biblical and Oriental literature, wasori- 
 
 finally a poor carpenter, and was born in the neigh- 
 ourhood of Shrewsbury, 1783. He is one of the 
 most remarkable instances on record of persever- 
 ance in self-education under the most embarrassing 
 circumstances, rewarded at last by the highest suc- 
 cess in the honourable career he had chosen. His 
 principal works are a Hebrew Grammar, a Hebrew 
 Lexicon, and a new translation of Job. He was 
 editor of the Scriptures in the Arabic, Persian, and 
 Malay languages. Died 1852. 
 
 LEE, Sophia, a novelist and dramatic writer, 
 
 author of ' The Chapter of Accidents,' and of three 
 
 stories in the ' Canterbury Tales' of her sister, 
 
 Miss Harriet Lee, born in London 1750, died 1824. 
 
 LEECHMAN, W., a Scottish divine, 1706-1785. 
 
 407 
 
LEE 
 
 LEEM, Canute, Rsavant of Norwav, 1 697-1 774. 
 
 LEEPE, J. A. Van., Dut. painter, 166 1-1 ! 20, 
 
 LEEUW, G. Vamm:k, a Dutch paint., 1643-8& 
 His br., Peter, of the same profession, 1644-1705. 
 
 LEEUWEN, S., a Dutch jurist, 1625-1682. 
 
 LEE YES, Wii.n.ui, a country clergyman, and 
 composer of sacred music, author of the air of ' Auld 
 J.'uhin Cray,' 1749-1 
 
 LEFEBRE, V., a Flemish engraver, born 1642. 
 
 LEFEBURE, S., a French engineer, died 1770. 
 
 LEFEBURE, L. H., a Fr. botanist, 1754-1839. 
 
 LEFEBVRE, A. B., a Fr. engineer, 1734-1807. 
 
 LEFEBVBE, Francis Joseph, duke of Dant- 
 zic, a marshal and peer of France, commander of 
 the imperial guard at the battle of Jena, 1755-1820. 
 
 LEFEBVRE, P., a French author, 1705-1784. 
 
 LEFERON, J., a Fr. \vr. on heraldry, 16th cent. 
 
 LEFEVRE, A. M., a Fr. antiquarian, last cent. 
 
 LEFEVRE, Cl., a French painter, 1633-1675. 
 
 LEFEVRE, F. A., a Jesuit and poet, 1670-1737. 
 
 LEFEVRE, J., a French astronomer, d. 1706. 
 
 LEFEVRE, J., an old chronicler, died 1390. 
 
 LEFEVRE, N., a French philologist, 1544-1612. 
 
 LEFEVRE, N., a French chemist, died 1674. 
 
 LEFEVRE, P. F. A., a drama, an., 1741-1813. 
 
 LEFEVRE, R,, a cele. portrait painter, d. 1677. 
 
 LEFEVRE, T., a French savant, 1615-1G72. 
 
 LEFEVRE DE BEAUVRAY, Peter, au. of a 
 Diet, of Hist, and Philosophical Research,' b. 1724. 
 
 LEFEVRE DE LA BODERIE, William, a 
 learned Orientalist, part editor of the Polyglott 
 Bible of Antwerp, 1541-1598. His brother, An- 
 thony, an able negotiator, and the discoverer of 
 tlie treason of Biron, author of an account of his 
 embassies to England, died 1615. 
 
 LEFEVRE-G1NEAU, Louis, professor of na- 
 tural philosophy and mechanics in the college of 
 France, distinguished also as a politician, and for 
 his share in the introduction of the new system of 
 weights and measures, 1751-1829. 
 
 LEFORT, Francis James, a native of Geneva, 
 who became the favourite of Peter the Great, and 
 the founder of the Russian army, 1656-1699. 
 
 LEFREN, Laurence Olaveson, a Swedish 
 savant, author of ' Discourses in Philosophy and 
 Theology,' 1722-1803. 
 
 LEFRERE, J., a French historian, died 1583. 
 
 LEGALLOIS, Julian J. C., apbys. of Brittany, 
 au. of ' Exp. on the Principle of Life,' 1775-1814. 
 
 LEGAUFFRE, A., a French jurist, 1568-1635. 
 
 LEGAY, Louis P. P., a Fr. author, 1744-1826. 
 
 LEGENDRE, Adrian Marie, born in Paris 
 1751, died there on the 16th January, 1833. A 
 mathematician who would have been at the head 
 of the most illustrious School in modern Europe, 
 had he not possessed as compeers Lagrange and 
 Laplace. The contributions of Legendre to 
 Analysis, were numerous and important, but it is 
 less easy to give an account of them, as they con- 
 sist rather of individual achievements in various 
 departments of Science, than in the completion 
 and co-ordination of comprehensive theories. But 
 it may be said of him with perfect justice, that he 
 rarely touched a subject without advancing our 
 knowledge of it, and connecting his name perma- 
 nently with its progress : we owe him, for instance, 
 the celebrated proposition regarding the spherical 
 excess in Trigonometry ; and in his memoir on 
 the Orbits of Comets, is the earliest proposal to 
 
 LEG 
 
 employ the fertile method of tlw 
 Legendre's chief works are his I 
 ail Integral, in which he first ski 
 mination and development of Elli 
 a subject afterwards treated by hi 
 the Traite des Fonctions EUipiiqucs, 
 Theorie des Nombres; and his E'emens 
 metrie, a work of high elegance. A ti 
 of this work into English with important 
 by Legendre himself, was edited by B 
 Brewster, and is well known in this con 
 attracted, at the time of its publieatio 
 derable notice, by the fresh im] 
 discussions on the vexed question' 
 a subject which at different pe 
 had much occupied M. Legendre. 1 ; : 
 not true that the effort of the French Ge< 
 surmount the difficulty by aid of the mere j 
 of Functions, met with any success ; nev 
 his process, and the criticisms to whic 
 subjected, seem to lead pretty nearly 1 
 seat of that difficulty. If a proposition 
 demonstrated, or is "made to lean on 
 or paralogisms, there is no doubt that ir 
 exists where there ought to be none, 
 imperfection must be either a flaw in the d 
 tive process, or an inadequate statement of 
 damental principles, the axiomata not 
 sufficient to sustain the whole science. lb 
 certainly no flaw in the logic of Geometry: i 
 therefore must exist in the list of axioms, 
 indeed appears the opinion of all Geometere 
 most have fallen into the error of s 
 the defect necessarily relates, to 
 that specific proposition, where difficulty 
 appears. This is in nowise a le, 
 ence: and nothing but failure could atten 
 effort to supply the deficiency by new post 
 or axioms regarding parallel lines. The h 
 faculties can lay down no axioms regardir 
 finity, and are not entitled to the conceaa 
 any postulate. Infinity, in our hi: 
 expression of it, is simply the negation of fin 
 and no qualities can be predicat 
 it, unless they be negations, or the limit to 
 which the qualities or a series of finite form 
 be shown to tend. The imperfection of Elem< 
 Geometry cannot, accordingly, have anythin 
 mediately to do with the theory of parallel 
 it merely happens that in our usual system 
 existence of some fundamental detect first aj 
 when that theory is treated of. The defect 
 seems to lie in Euclid's inadequate coi 
 necessarily distinctive nature of two defitM 
 butes of geometrical quantity -form and magn 
 The Greek Geometer did not trace out the m 
 in which we acquire our notions of these attri! 
 and he did not therefore recognize it as an a 
 that the attribute of form has no dependeri 
 the attribute of magnitude. The phenome 
 Universal Belief, indeed, amply sustain the t 
 sition ' If any figure exists or is 
 must exist or be conceivable with the same, 
 whatever its magnitude;' or any other 
 ment, involving the truth, that in our Perc 
 of the Geometrical qualities of an Object, 
 alone is definite ; Magnitude being inde 
 and an analysis of the process of Perc 
 reveals the root of that belief; the notij 
 
 408 
 
LEG 
 
 ihule involving an estimate of the dis- 
 of the object, while the notion of Form is, at 
 urce, independent of every variable quan- 
 Now, the foregoing axiom, or some one 
 to it, is involved in Legendre's raise en equa- 
 ls well as in the subsequent processes of 
 d himself; and that step justified Le- 
 's process is correct. It does not, however, 
 aid from the notation or procedures of 
 ions, to remove the long known imperfection 
 metry : a judicious use of the principle now 
 to, being quite adequate, without our 
 ng from ordinary methods. Legendre's life 
 spent in privacy and strenuous labour in the 
 :ce of Science. He was not a favourite with 
 of the governments of France; but felt satisfied 
 the moderate competency that accrued from 
 pplication of his attainments. [J.P.N.] 
 
 GENDRE, Gilbert Charles, marquis of 
 lubin Snr Loire, an antiquarian and historical 
 er, 1688-1746. 
 
 XDRE, Louis, one of the principal actors 
 French revolution, was born at Paris, 1756, 
 commenced life as a sailor. The year 1789 
 d him occupied as a butcher, and well prepared 
 le roughness of his two professions to take apart 
 opular tumults. He was soon recognized as 
 of the people in his own quarter, and greatly 
 ished himself at the storming of the Bas- 
 influence now became very considerable, 
 he took an active part in the insurrectionary 
 _ .ents of the 5th and 6th of October, 1789, 
 
 tthe people marched upon Versailles of the 
 of June, 1792, when they invaded the Tuil- 
 -and of the 10th of August following, when 
 rd were massacred, and the royal family 
 isoned. He acted between Danton and the 
 classes of the people as founder of the Cor- 
 's Club in October, 1789 ; and it is a singular 
 of the savage sincerity which existed between 
 men, that they covenanted whichever of the 
 should detect the other in any defection from 
 popular cause should poinard him. Legendre 
 id his way from the convention into the Com- 
 of Public Safety, and he was the principal 
 r in favour of Danton, when accused by Ro- 
 The latter easily talked him down, and 
 Danton was executed, Legendre fawned upon 
 destroyer until the 9th Thermidor, when he 
 piged his friend by joining the reaction. He was 
 chief instrument of the convention in defeating 
 subsequent attempt of the Jacobins, and finally 
 ime a sober member of the council of 500. 
 died in 1797, and by bequeathing his own 
 j for dissection, made it appear somewhat less 
 iderful that he should have proposed to cut up 
 t of Louis XVI. among the eighty-six depart- 
 ite of France. [E.R.] 
 
 DRE, L., a French historian, 1655-1733. 
 Anthony, a learned protestant divine 
 it, 1594-1661. His nephew, John, also 
 arned divine, pastor of the Walloon church of 
 den, and author of a history of the Vaudoise 
 
 1615-1670. 
 JJGER, Francis Barry Boyle St., a bar- 
 er-at-law, known as a fugitive wr., 1799-1829. 
 iEGER, F. P. A., a Fr. dramatist, 1765-1823. 
 ', St., bishop of Antrim, and one of the 
 st important personages of the 7th century. 
 
 409 
 
 LEI 
 
 LEGGE, George, baron of Dartmouth, com- 
 mander of the fleet in the interest of James II., 
 died while imprisoned in the Tower, 1647-1691. 
 
 LEGGIER, P., a French dramatist, 1734-1791. 
 
 LEGNANO, Stefano Maria, commonly called 
 ' II Leganino,' an Italian hist, painter, 1660-1715. 
 
 LEGOBIEN, C, a French historian, 1653-1708. 
 
 LEGONIDEC, J. F. Ma-Mau. Agatho, a na- 
 tive of Brittany, dist. as a Celtic scholar, 1775-1838. 
 
 LEGOTE, P., a Spanish painter, died 1662. 
 
 LEGOUVE, J. B., a French gentleman, distin- 
 guished as a man of letters, 1730-1782. His son, 
 Gar. Ma. Jean Baptiste, a dramatist, 1764-1813. 
 
 LEGRAIN, J., a French historian, 1565-1642. 
 
 LEG RAND, Albert, a Dominican preacher, 
 au. bf the ' Lives of the Saints of Brittany,' d. 1640. 
 
 LE GRAND, Anthony, a French ecclesiastic and 
 theologian, the first to reduce the philosophy of 
 Descartes to the scholastic method, 17th century. 
 
 LEGRAND, J., a French moralist, 1350-1422. 
 
 LEGRAND, J., a French historian, 1653-1733. 
 
 LEGRAND, James William, a famous archi- 
 tect, and writer on the edifices of Paris, 1743-1807. 
 
 LEGRAND, L., a French theologian, 1711-1780. 
 
 LEGRAND, L., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1588-1664. 
 
 LEGRAND, M. A., a French actor, 1673-1728. 
 
 LEGRAND, Peter, a celebrated buccaneer, dist. 
 against the Spaniards time of Louis XIV., d. 1670. 
 
 LEGRAND, S. A. M., a Fr. Orient., 1724-1784. 
 
 LEGRAND D'AUSSAY, Pierre Jean Bap- 
 tiste, a learned Fr. Jesuit and fabulist, 1737-1800. 
 
 LEGRAS, J., a French singer, 1739-1794. 
 
 LEGRAS, N., a French Hebraist, 1675-1751. 
 
 LEGRAS, P., a French sculptor, 1656-1719. 
 
 LEGUANO, S. M., an Ital. painter, 1660-1715. 
 
 LEGUAT, F., a French traveller, died 1735. 
 
 LEHMANN, C. G., a German savant, author of 
 a ' Precis of the Natural Hist, of Man,' 1765-1823. 
 
 LEHMANN, J. G., a Ger. mineralogist., d. 1767. 
 
 LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William; bom at 
 Leipzig, 3d July, 1646; died at Hanover, 14th 
 November, 1716: his tomb may be seen at 
 the extremity of the Grand Alley near the gates ; 
 it is a small temple, with the inscription Ossa 
 Leibnitzii. There has been but one man in mo- 
 dern Europe who, in the attributes either of uni- 
 versality or intensity of genius, can be named as 
 compeer to the marvellous intellect we are now to 
 contemplate his compatriot, Goethe. The 
 sphere of the latter, indeed, lay chiefly within the 
 domain of our human sentiments, and the strifes, 
 the defeats, and victories of Practical Life ; never- 
 theless, across this fundamental diversity, it is 
 easy to recognize a co-ordinate catholicity and 
 force, raising both to conscious and serene supre- 
 macy, and stamping them as law-givers. With- 
 in the vast regions of speculative Thought, there 
 was no department unvisited by the ever-living 
 activity of Leibnitz, or unillumed by his bril- 
 liancy: nor in consequence of the very pro- 
 
 foundly of his conceptions is there any writer, 
 whose speculations it is more easy to divest of their 
 relation to occasion and time, and present as a 
 contribution to all ages. Jurisconsult, historian, 
 theologian, naturalist, mathematician, metaphy- 
 sician of the highest order Leibnitz has left 
 everywhere the firm impress of his all-piercing In- 
 tellect, and sleepless industry; there being not 
 more than one of those large ranges of thought, 
 
LEI 
 
 t'v.t e.in well be described :md presented now, apart 
 from commemoration of his achievements. A Juris- 
 OOOODlt by early profession and predilection, be 
 descended, like a Hash, towards tbe necessary 
 principles of all Law and alone in bis time, recog- 
 nized tbe pre-eminent grasp and philosophy of the 
 Jurisprudence of Bow A philosophical Jurist, 
 it is the fashion with men of practice and detail, 
 to scorn as no lawyer, but rather as the jurist of the 
 closet or the drawing-room : the industry and ac- 
 curacy of Leibnitz however, might well affright the 
 most plodding practitioner ; and he showed that the 
 philosopher alone, can attain the faculty to track 
 and interpret those practical labyrinths. We ap- 
 peal to his Essay, Nova Methodus Discendce Docen- 
 dceque Jurisprudentice, to the Traile Sur le Droit 
 th Sourcrainete it d'Embassade, or to the elaborate 
 ( odex Juris Gentium Diplomat icus. Solicited by 
 the elector of Brandenburg to prepare a memoir of 
 that rising House how untiring the energy he 
 displayed ! Throwing off in the way of bye-play 
 such "treatises as the Disquisitio de Origine 
 Frnaicorum, the Accessiones Historical in two 
 vols. 4to, and various pieces in the Collectanea 
 Ftymologica, he prepared for the House of 
 Brandenburg, a history from the era of its 
 birth, such as the greatest of European States 
 might not unjustly envy; the results of which 
 immense and conscientious labours, are now 
 republishing by M. Pertz. Again, as Naturalist, 
 with foresight like Goethe, and a superior me- 
 thod let his wonderful Pkotocea speak for 
 him ! Catching apparently, at a glance of the 
 phenomena unanalyzed as all these then were 
 the main force or their indications, he seizes 
 firmly the ttvo grand originators of present in- 
 organic forms, viz.: the aqueous and the igneous: 
 and the honour fell to him, first among Euro- 
 peans, to repudiate the common opinion that 
 petrifactions are mere freaks of Nature, but 
 instead, relics of her history. The Protogam, 
 indeed, is rather a sketch than a finished work, 
 a mode of composing not unusual with Leib- 
 n.tz; for, although no man was less of a vision- 
 ary, his conceptions of the attainable, extended 
 far beyond what even an age could accomplish. 
 In the Protogcea, and wherever he has left his 
 track, his power to discern the extent of any 
 sphere of Thought, and to lay down its grander 
 outlines, seems even more vigorous than his 
 power to fill in details : without such a faculty, 
 indeed, he could not have been the Lawgiver: 
 over the unparalleled diversity of Ideas, which 
 our modem world owes to his genius, no intellec- 
 tual Force could have held sway, unless its in- 
 stinct of Unity, or its faculty of Generalizing, had 
 
 pure. 
 Name 
 
 With the exception, perhaps, of the great 
 already mentioned, modern Literary History 
 exhibits a grander spectacle nowhere, than the In- 
 tellect of tins Hanoverian, moving with so supreme 
 a power, through so wide a diversity of regions, and, 
 in its own sovereign fashion, subjecting all to itself. 
 But we must speak much more in detail, of the 
 Metaphysical, Religious, and Mathematical Specu- 
 lations of this illustrious Man. I. The writings and 
 achievements of Leibnitz in Mental Philosophy are 
 great and various. One important work, is purely 
 . leal Nuuveaux Essuis sur I' 'Eutcudement 
 
 LEI 
 
 nunmin. It is avowedly a critique on Locke's E 
 on the Understanding: and notwithstanding 
 Reid, Stewart, and Cousin, have since written 
 not overstepping justice to term it th> 
 able criticism to which that Essay has ever yet I 
 subjected. None of Locke's mistakes regar'dinj 
 doctrines of Des Cartes, escapes the eye 
 man Philosopher; and very few of the consd 
 which the general views of the Englb 
 since received, are not initiated in that ren^fl 
 work. Had Mr. Stewart and his immedi 
 cessors in this country, been earlier acquainted \ 
 these Essays which are not in the edition of. 
 tens much of their own exposition would 1 
 taken on a mere scientific form. But the d 
 achievements of Leibnitz in this field, transc 
 the sphere of mere psychology. They are t 
 fold, and as follows; First: Starting f 
 the true Cartesian foundation avowing that 
 Human Mind can obtain no conception of ] 
 Existence, save through its Intuitions Spik< 
 had recently asked with clear and resolute sp 
 what ultimate information reaches us ttytt 
 these intuitions, what mean we by the Nfll 
 Substance, which is the basis of all our idea 
 Externa] or Independent Being? Following, 
 fortunately, not only the method, but also 
 specific psychology of Des Cartes, that emir 
 Thinker described our primary Idea of Snkfl 
 as characterized in the main by the attribut 
 Extension; and in stem logical deduction fi 
 this fallacy, he reared his huge, but symmetr 
 Scheme of Pantheism. Logical to theutterm 
 his views took fast hold on Philosophy ; nor was 
 gloomy despotism challenged, until it snrrende 
 and fell at the command of Leibnitz. What, 
 greater Thinker inquired afresh, what realh 
 our primary Idea of Substance f What truly is" 
 Notion, which in virtue of the necessities of 
 Being we accept as the foundation of our Idea 
 External Existence V Is it, that such existenc 
 mere extension an inert mass, on which chan 
 are impressed, or within which, as mere modifi 
 tions, they proceed? Or, on the contrary, is 
 the conception of active force, inwoven v 
 it? Can we form a rational conception of i 
 external Substance, unless as an Lxl 
 erg)', which, by its inherent Activities. 
 self known to us? Leibnitz, by simp] 
 the foregoing question, succeeded in luncefu 
 associating the Idea of Cause, indissolubly w 
 the Idea of Substance: he broke down, a; 
 for ever, Spinozistic Pantheism ; and 
 the ground of his own scheme of Mona i 
 wrong, perhaps, to speak of the celebrat 
 of Monads as a System properly so called : at 
 events, it is by our accepting it as an VluMrnh 
 that it most readily becomes intelligible to the E. 
 lish Mind. What know we then of Exi 
 cent that it is a Force ? What for instance the Cr 
 tat that ' Geometer of inanimate Nature ' tin! 
 an Energy or simple Power, having tin i 
 assimilate what is external, and therewith build 
 a fabric in accordance with definite laws ? 
 Animal, if not an Energy alike primal and indi 
 sible, unfolding its Nature and attributes, thrui 
 the forms into which it constrains whatever it N 
 milates ? What is Man save aloftier M on as, or 
 ating sovereignly on what is around it, ckalleng 
 
 410 
 
LEI 
 
 r sphere, and, so to speak, establishing its 
 dyntuty ? Stretch higher still ; what else 
 orlds, those vast globes swimming in Ether, 
 tentates or Primal Faculties ; or what those 
 er and unseen Intelligences among whom as 
 :rs, the Eternal has apportioned his offices ? 
 for a moment under the Idea of the Exter- 
 iverse, according to this conception of it, 
 if an illustration could be found, more apt 
 ressive ? No dead Extension, of which the 
 frame no conception ; but, around and 
 beneath our feet in the dust, and aloft 
 h the great vault of Heaven Energy and 
 Existence synonymous with Force; the 
 and forms of Things, but indices of Powers 
 ! That primary notion of Substance 
 ge across which we pass to our conception 
 ities, analyze it profoundly as you will, 
 u find it represented best by the scheme of 
 -Oftener than once it has been asserted 
 more one gets rid of the mere terms 
 rms of modern Speculation, tbe more 
 conscious of rising into unexpected har- 
 with Leibnitz. A truth still more deeply 
 one analyses his Second great metaphysi- 
 oception Ms notion, viz.: of Pre-Estab- 
 Harmony. This very remarkable scheme 
 iturally out of that of Monads. If Ex- 
 as we apprehend it, is the development 
 dent individual Energies, how comes it 
 Energy does not distract or possibly anni- 
 another, but rather assists it ? How are 
 ion, intercourse, progress, possible ? Is it 
 ly because the sphere) the necessities, the 
 of each Monas, are primarily, by sovereign 
 ipremest Wisdom, adjusted to all that en- 
 it? To appreciate these questions aright, 
 ect on Man. The utmost we can predi- 
 Man is this, he is a primal Force, building 
 onderful scheme of nerves, and by that in- 
 ntality, holding intercourse with everything 
 tl. But how is that intercourse realized? 
 eceives through these nerves nothing but 
 ins. No image or direct picture of any- 
 rithout, is ever substantially presented to 
 how then, on being aroused by a simple 
 Mi, does the Monas read its cause, or touch 
 Universe that hems it in ? This ques- 
 aches the mystery of our Intuitions, or that 
 : te and inexplicable Faculty, by which we 
 from what is felt to what is : and by 
 of speech can the nature or affluence of 
 ty be better indicated, than by the term 
 hshed Harmony. We spring towards 
 of sensation, simply because the Soul, 
 | Monas is by pre-adjustment, in per- 
 ony with all things ; and because in the 
 stage of self-consciousness, that Harmony 
 w. In ourselves in fact, we possess the 
 I all things : the Soul is a glorious micro- 
 ti n which every phenomenon and law, 
 form and energy, has its correspondent and 
 rpart : so that, the stroke of an undulation 
 t he stroke of another on the eye, reveal, 
 doubt or illusion, that wonderful Universe 
 
 LEI 
 
 Understanding, and those more spiritual Ideas of 
 the Reason, are known to be counterparts of mate- 
 rial systems wherein these relations are realized, 
 and of farther off and as yet scarcely descried, pure 
 but real Intelligences. Go to the roots of the 
 mysterious subject, and in something of this sort, 
 all theories of perception and all such philosophies 
 must end. And if this, or aught like it be tree, 
 no marvel that the theory of our Intuitions ex- 
 amined apart should have been found so fraught 
 with difficulty and fertile of doubt. Self-con- 
 sciousness being the highest and last attainable 
 knowledge ; that which lies at the root of our be- 
 ing, is not likely to be discerned, or reduced within 
 logical theme, while culture is only painfully un- 
 folding. To have defined the strict but exten- 
 sive domain of Intuition, is, we believe, one 
 of the main glories of Kant : not only, however, 
 need it cause little uneasiness that he accounted 
 so many of those laws and Ideas, subjective 
 only ; but, it may be asserted, that as Humanity 
 advances, others now but dimly recognized as 
 dreams, will advance through clearer Subjective 
 reality, into fullest Objective distinctness. II. A 
 very large amount of meditation and personal ex- 
 ertion were given by Leibnitz not only to the sub- 
 ject-matter of Religion, but also to the affairs 
 of the Church. We can refer in this place, only 
 to the leading results of his Thoughts, and the 
 spirit in which he approached such themes. 
 Recognizing through a high metaphysic, the 
 necessary existence of God in his fullest person- 
 ality, he bows before him as Creator of the sub- 
 lunary Machine, and as Ruler of Spirits. Be- 
 cause He is a Being of perfect Wisdom, no work of 
 His can be other than perfect; hence, says Leibnitz, 
 the condition of things around us, is the ' best pos- 
 sible ;' an Optimism with which he endeavours 
 to reconcile the mystery of Physical and Moral 
 Evil, in his TheodicU. Evil, he conceives the sign 
 and consequence of limitation; and that each 
 Monas inferior to the Supreme, must experience 
 limitations, simply because it is Finite. Whether, 
 by this striking and ingenious scheme, Leibnita 
 has succeeded better than others, in reconciling 
 with Man's Intellect and Heart, that painful mys- 
 tery of Evil that painfullest mystery of Sin it 
 were beside our purpose at present to inquire. 
 But it is necessary to remark that the optimism 
 of the Hanoverian differs toto ca;lo, from that 
 of Pope and Bolingbroke. According to the 
 ' Essay on Man ' the maxim ' whaieier is, is best,' 
 simply represents an imaginary co-existence of all 
 forms and grades of Being, from zero up to 
 Deity; while Leibnitz strove to demonstrate, that 
 the Universe is a compact Harmony, in which 
 each Being has indeed an independent place, but 
 an independence insured by the necessity of its 
 Existence to the Existence and Life of all others. 
 The two views stand in utter contrast: the one 
 deducing harmony^ from activity and duty; the 
 other, identifying independence with simple isola- 
 tion. More important, however, than any attain- 
 able positive result on matters so mysterious, ap- 
 pear to us, the Spirit and Method moving these 
 
 and sounds ; so that, at the stroke of Inquiries. Satisfied that no Faith could be real, 
 
 sensation, Space, Time, Extension, Form, 
 f all spring up as by miracle ; and so 
 sulj -ctive relations or Categories of the 
 
 or even intelligible, unless its foundations were df 
 
 tected in the Human Reason, Leibnitz, in this 
 
 sense, was a nationalist. Attached to the Church, 
 
 411 
 
LEI 
 
 he ret Bought incessantly for the ground of its 
 
 relief's: and on no occasion did he falter in his 
 adhesion to that law of Human Lil>crtv, which is 
 the source of Toleration. It is needful to keep the 
 ; truth in view, to interpret aright the 
 position of Leibnitz with regard to the affairs 
 of the Clntvch. Attracted, like every great Mind 
 and Statesman of that time, by the" influence of 
 Church questions on the peace and destinies^ of 
 Europe he conceived the project of reconciling 
 differences; and he conducted a remarkable cor- 
 respondence with Bossuet and Pelisson, with the 
 view to discern a basis of reconcilement. For 
 ibuitz's practical sagacity was in fault: 
 Boon informed him. that truth belonged 
 to the Church alone ; that the only possible aim of 
 dealing with the Protestants of Augsburg, was that 
 they might recant and re-enter the Church. Bos- 
 suet had not reached the position of Leibnitz: nor 
 diil he care, in political transactions, to acknowledge 
 what he well knew viz.: that although Keligion, 
 like every Transcendental subject, must rest, on 
 what ' passes all Understanding,' even the great- 
 est of its verities can have no hold or standing place, 
 if dissevered from relationship with the Reason of 
 Man. An external Rule in Morality grows into a 
 Principle, only when it has become harmonized 
 with the Moral Nature of the Agent: and so, 
 Transcendental Propositions, are Dogmas only and 
 not Beliefs, until they have possessed themselves 
 of what is universal and inherent in the Reason, 
 which avows adhesion. But between the Mind 
 and all transcendental Truth, there is this 
 natural Harmony ; and on such conviction Leib- 
 nitz grounded his hopes. The age of the Revo- 
 cation of the Edict of Nantes however, was not 
 any more than those recent ones through which, 
 the world has rolled an age for 'Religious Union.' 
 To this phase of our Philosopher's activity be- 
 longs the work recently published in this country 
 under the title 'A System of Theology, by G. 
 W. Von Leibnitz.' His recent Editor Guhrauer, 
 has quite traced the origin of this treatise. Its 
 real title is 'An Exposition by a Protestant, of the 
 Doctrine of the Catholic Church, made with a view 
 to re-establish Unity.' Leibnitz simply desired to 
 express, with that specific aim, the most catholic 
 views then held by the Church. III. Pass now, 
 however, into an nndebateable land. Not one, in 
 which the vast powers of our remarkable Thinker 
 are most conspicuously shown; but where neither 
 they nor his achievements can be subject of dispute. 
 The epoch we write of, was one of great Mathema- 
 ticians: but, on the continent, Leibnitz was Primus 
 inter Primos; and this, although he was not a pro- 
 fessional mathematician. He did not attain this 
 place, through mere ingenuity or success in the 
 solution of problems ; although in neither, when he 
 pleased, was he ever second: but through that 
 rooted attachment to Method, which characterized 
 all his intellectual nature. In Dynamics and Ma- 
 thematics, his achievements uniformly tended to- 
 wards the generalization and perfecting of the fore- 
 most conceptions floating in his time ; and he cared 
 little for distinction of any other kind. That me- 
 morable success of his, which will ever retain his 
 name in the foremost rank of scientific Discoverers, 
 was of this class. We allude, of course, to the 
 Infinitesimal Calculus; the honour of which, it is a 
 
 LEI 
 
 signal national misfortune, that our English ma 
 maticians endeavoured so vainly to wrench i 
 him. That Newton also discovered that po 1 
 ful method, no Historian of Scien 
 the regret is, that in course of the associl 
 of these Kings and Peers, tv, 
 could have induced our Countryman, to q 
 tion the pretensions of his rival, liis Rffl 
 have said: did rivalry really exist V 
 true sense. Not in their respective functi 
 not in the nature of their respective faculties; 
 these were incommensurable. It 
 habit, with writers English and Foi 
 pare these two vast Intelligences : 
 f red, as intense and limited pov, er 
 the gl ice of an Eagle surveying 1 1 
 a Universe. Which Potentate; was 
 accordingly not easy to decide. V 
 bend before the Image of the immorta 
 piercing to the depths of one univer 
 terial Nature : is the spectacle less admirable, 
 Mind, contained by no limits, and, u] 
 pathies large and various as the boi 
 intelligence" with matter, penetrating everywl 
 and if not always discerning Laws, approac 
 more nearly to their discovery than any, eve 
 its greatest predecessors? Dugald Stewart n 
 well and unhesitatingly declare that I.itera 
 and Science, in their widest significance, gi 
 more by the universality of Leibnitz, than 
 special subject could have lost through the d 
 sion of his powers. The private habits of 
 illustrious Inquirer, were those of a seder 
 student. He mingled freely personally as 
 as by correspondence with all the remarl 
 men of bis time; but his hours were chiefly s 
 in his chair. He was of small stature, shj 
 bent : his head very large, and with small 
 piercing eyes. So long as Germany values 
 supremacy in the Empire of Thought a n 
 macy that has raised her above both Greek 
 Roman fame she will cherish as one of her : 
 precious monuments, that little temple which 
 tects the Ossa Leibnitzii. [J.F 
 
 LEICESTER. See Dudley. 
 
 LEICESTER, Thomas William, earl of, 
 Viscount Coke, distinguished for his munif 
 encouragement of agriculture; born 17;V2, r; 
 to the peerage, after sitting in parliament n 
 years as a partizan of the Whigs, 1837, died 1 
 
 LEICH, J. H., a German philologist, 1720- 
 
 LEIGH, Charles, a physician and medical 
 au. of a ' Natural History of Lancashire,' 17tl 
 
 LEIGH, Sir Edward, a theologian, histo 
 and critic, distinguished in public lire 
 of parliament, a member of the assembly of div 
 and a colonel in the parliamentary : 
 an author, by his ' Critica Sacra, 1603-1671. 
 
 LEIGHTON, Alexander, a Scottish d 
 and physician, professor of moral philos< 
 at Edinburgh, and author of ' Zion's Plea,' 
 ' The Looking-glass of the Holy War. 1 1 
 works being reputed as seditious, 
 
 I>rosecuted by the Star Chamber, and 
 ated. He is said to have died insai 
 prisonment of eleven years, 1568-10 II. 
 
 LEIGHTON, Robert, son of the ptfefl 
 became an episcopalian, and is known I 
 able theologian and eloquent preacher, 1613- lj 
 
 412 
 
LEI 
 
 EISMAN, J. A., a German painter, 1604-1698. 
 EISSEGUES, Corentin Urbain James 
 
 SI strand De, vice-admiral of France, disting. 
 j the capture of Guadaloupe, &c, 1758-1832. 
 JSJAY, C, an ecclesiast. wr. of Geneva, d. 1552. 
 r ,EJAY, Gab. F., a Fr. philologist, died 1734. 
 
 iEJAY, Guy Michel, an advocate of the par- 
 ]nent of Paris, distinguished by publishing a 
 Jyglott Bible, 1588-1674. 
 MjEUNE, J., a French priest, 1592-1672. 
 
 ,EJEUNE, P., a French missionary, 1592-1664. 
 
 .EKAIN, H. L., a French actor, 1728-1778. 
 
 ELM, Cl. M., a French poet, 1745-1791. 
 
 .ELAND or LAYLONDE, John, a famous an- 
 iiarian, born in London at the commencement of 
 J16th century. He was educated for the church, 
 : I after taking holy orders became chaplain and 
 J-arian to Henry VIII., who, in 1533, appointed 
 h his ' Antiquary,' with a commission to mvesti- 
 je ' England's antiquities, and peruse the libra- 
 Is of all cathedrals, abbeys, priories, colleges, and 
 
 ces where any records, writings, or secrets of 
 tiquity were deposited.' He executed this com- 
 tsion'with the most unwearied diligence, and 
 jd in 1552, after suffering two years from mental 
 jangement. Twelve volumes of his MSS. were 
 jerwards deposited in the Bodleian library, and 
 | remaining portion in the Cottonian collection 
 the British Museum. They have been greatly 
 Jorted to by antiquarian and historical writers, 
 p some portion of them published. 
 LELAND, John, a learned presbyterian minis- 
 
 , located in Dublin, and dist. by his analysis 
 
 1 refutation of deistical writings, 1691-1766. . 
 LELAND, Thos., a divine and classical scholar, 
 p in Dublin 1722, author of a ' History of Ire- 
 Id,' a ' Life of Philip of Macedon,' &c, d. 1785. 
 jLELIE, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1755-1820. 
 LELLI, Hercules, an Italian painter, architect, 
 Uptor, and engraver, Bologna, about 1700-1706. 
 LELLI, J. A., an Italian painter, 1591-1640. 
 1LELONG, Jas., a priest of the oratory at Paris, 
 ft. as an historian and bibliographer, 1665-1721. 
 HiELY, Sir Peter, a famous portrait painter of 
 p restoration, whose family name was Vander 
 Les. He was born in Westphalia, 1617, and re- 
 
 ved the honour of knighthood from Charles II. 
 ted 1680. 
 
 LEMAIRE, J., a Dutch navigator, died 1616. 
 
 1EMAIRE, Jean, a French historian and poet, 
 
 w flourished about 1473-1547. 
 
 LE MAIRE, M. E., a French classic, 1767-1832. 
 
 LEMAN, Thomas, a Church of England clergy- 
 
 in, distinguished by his researches in Roman and 
 
 .itish antiquities, 1751-1827. 
 
 LEMARE, P. A., a Fr. grammarian, 1766-1835. 
 
 LE.MAURE, C. N., a Fr. cantatrice, 1704-1783. 
 
 LEMENE, F., an Italian poet, 1634-1704. 
 
 LEMENS, B. Van, aFlem. painter, 1637-1704. 
 
 LEMERY, L. R. J. C, a Fr. astron., 1728-1802. 
 
 LEMERY, N., a French chemist, 1645-1715. 
 
 LEMLTTAY, P. G, a Fr. painter, 1726-1760. 
 
 LEMIKRRE, A. M., a Fr. dramat., 1723-1793. 
 
 LEMIRE, A., a Brabant historian, 1573-1640. 
 
 LEMIRE, N., a French engraver, 1724-1801. 
 
 LEMOINE, F., a French painter, 1688-1737. 
 
 LEMl )INE, J., a French cardinal, died 1313. 
 
 LEMOINE, P., a French poet, 1602-1672. 
 
 LEMOINE, S., a protestant divine, 1624-1689. 
 
 LEN 
 
 LEMON, G. W., an Eng. etymologist, 1726-97. 
 LEMONNIER, Anicet C. Gabriel, a French 
 hist, painter, and pupil of Vien; Rouen, 1743-1824. 
 LEMONNIER, Nicholas, a French professor, 
 author of ' Cursus Philosophias,' 1675-1757. His 
 eldest son, Peter Charles, a learned astronomer, 
 first teacher of Lalande, 1715-1791). His second 
 son, Louis William, distinguished as a physician 
 and experimental philosopher, and a contributor to 
 the Encyclopaedia, 1717-1779. 
 
 LEMONNIER,, P. R., a dramatic wr., 1731-96. 
 LEMONNIER, W. A., a class, transl., 1721-97. 
 LEMONTEY, Peter Edward, a member of 
 the French assembly, distinguished as a poet and 
 historian, by his History of the Regency,' his re- 
 markable work entitled, 'An Essay upon the Mo- 
 narchic Establishment of Louis XIV.,' and various 
 dramas and poems, 1762-1826. 
 
 LEMOS, P. J., Count De, a Spanish statesman, 
 born about 1560, president of the council of the 
 Indies 1609, viceroy of Naples 1611, died 1634. 
 
 LEMOS, Thos., a learned Spanish monk of the 
 Dominicans, au. of ' Panoplia Gratia?,' 1550-1629. 
 LEMOT, F. F., a French sculptor, 1773-1827. 
 LEMOYNE, Jean Baptiste, or, more cor- 
 rectly, Mayne, a French opera compos., 1751-96. 
 LEMOYNE, J. L., a French sculptor, 1665- 
 1755. His son, J. Baptiste, same prof., 1704-78. 
 LEMOYNE, P., a French Jesuit, 1602-1671. 
 LEMPRIERE, John, best known as the author 
 of a ' Classical Dictionary,' first published in 1788, 
 was an English scholar and divine, born at Jersey 
 about 1775, appointed to the rectory of Meeth in 
 Devonshire, 1811, died 1824. 
 LEMUET, P., a French architect, 1591-1669. 
 LEMUET, R., a Fr. mathematician, died 1739. 
 LENCLOS, Anne, or Ninon, De, a woman 
 of pleasure, remarkable for her personal charms, 
 and her influence over the men of learning, of the 
 17th century, born at Paris 1616, died 1706. 
 
 LENFANT, A. C. Anne, a French Jesuit and 
 preacher, born 1726, massacred in Sept., 1792. 
 LENFANT, J., a French painter, 1615-1674. 
 LENFANT, James, a protestant minister and 
 controversialist, author of a history of the ' Coun- 
 cil of Constance,' ' History of Pisa,' ' History of 
 the Wars of the Hussites,' &c, 1661-1728. 
 
 LENG, John, bishop of Norwich, disting. as a 
 classical translator and commentator, 1665-1727. 
 
 LENGLET-DUFRESNOY, Nicholas, a Fr. 
 ecclesiastic, who was five times committed to the 
 Bastile for his writings and independent conduct, 
 author of a ' Method for Studying History,' ' His- 
 tory of the Hermetic Philosophy,' &c, 1674-1755. 
 LENGUICH, Godfrey, an historian and pub- 
 licist of Dantzic, 1690-1744. Charles Benja- 
 min, of the same family, a numismatist, 1742-1795. 
 LENNARD, Sampson, a companion-in-arms of 
 Sir Ph. Sidney, disting. as a translator, died 1633. 
 LENNEPH, J. D. Van, a D. Orient., 1714-71. 
 LENNOX, Charlotte, of whose personal his- 
 tory little is known, save that she was the daugh- 
 ter of Colonel James Ramsay, lieutenant-governor 
 of New York, and a youthful widow, distinguished 
 herself as a novelist and dramatic writer and trans- 
 lator, in the time of Dr. Johnson. She was highly 
 esteemed by her personal friends, Johnson and 
 Richardson, but outlived them, and died in penury 
 in the eighty-fourth year of her age, 1804. 
 
 413 
 
LEN 
 
 LENOIR, A., a French arclueologist, 1762-1839. 
 
 LENOIR, J. C. P., a Er. magistrate, 1732-1807. 
 
 LENOIR, N., a French architect, 1726-1810. 
 
 LENOIR, Stephen, a celebrated maker of ma- 
 thematical instruments, 1744-1832. His son, P. 
 8. M. Lenoir, accompanied the savants in Na- 
 poleon's expedition to Egypt, 1776-1827. 
 
 LENOTRE, A., a famous gardener, 1613-1700. 
 
 LENS, A. C, a Flemish painter, 1739-1822. 
 
 LENS, Bernard, a designer and engraver, 
 flourished in London 1659-1725. His son, of the 
 same name, an engraver and painter of London, 
 horn 1680. Another Bernard Lens, also an en- 
 graver, was bom at Brussels about 1730. 
 
 LENTHAL, William, speaker of the House of 
 Commons in the parliament of Charles I., from 
 which oiHce he was dismissed by Cromwell in 1653, 
 but re-elected in the following year, and also in 
 the rump parliament. Born 1591, died after the 
 restoration, when he was pardoned by the king, 1663. 
 
 LENTULUS, the surname of a branch of the 
 famous Cornelian family of Rome, the principal of 
 whom are Publius Cornelius Lentulus, an 
 accomplice of Catiline, consul 71 B.C., strangled 
 in prison 66. Lentulus Spintiierus, a friend 
 of Cicero, and a partizan of Pompey. Cneius 
 Cornelius Lentulus ; surnamed Gaetulicus, con- 
 sul a.d. 26. Lucius, son of the latter, put to 
 death for conspiracy in the reign of Caligula, 
 
 LENTULUS, a supposed proconsul of Judasa, 
 to whom a letter, describing the Saviour, has been 
 attributed, but which is pronounced a fabrication. 
 
 LENTULUS, a mimic, or comedian, 1st century. 
 
 LENTULUS, C, a German savant, 17th cent. 
 
 LENTULUS, Cesar J., a Swiss officer in the 
 service of Austria, 1683-1744. His son, R. Scipio 
 Lentulus, dist. in the seven years' war, 1714-86. 
 
 LENZ, C. G., a German savant, 1763-1809. 
 
 LEO, a disciple of Plato, killed 350 B.C. 
 
 LEO, archbishop of Thessalonica, 9th century. 
 
 LEO, an ecclesiastic and hist, of Ionia, 10th cen. 
 
 LEO, ' the grammarian,' one of the authors of 
 the Byzantine History, begun by Theophanes, 
 wrote his part about the year 1013. 
 
 LEO L, pope of Rome in the age of Attila, and 
 a saint of the Roman calendar, author of letters, 
 sermons, &c, and distinguished by the surname of 
 ' Great,' reigned 440-461. Leo IL, who intro- 
 duced the custom of sprinkling with holy water, 
 and is also acknowledged a saint, reigned 682-G83. 
 Leo III., re-established, after a conspiracy, by 
 Charlemagne, whom he crowned emperor, 795-816. 
 Leo IV., who was principally engaged in restoring 
 the city, and securing it against the Saracens, 
 847-855. Leo V., elected, and deposed, and died 
 in prison, within a few weeks, in 903. Leo VI., 
 who is also behoved to have died in prison, after 
 reigning about six months, in 928. Leo VII., 
 famous as a disciplinarian, and an advocate for 
 the marriage of priests, 936-939. Leo VIIL, 
 whose reign was one long scene of political dis- 
 turbance, 963-965. Leo IX., a saint of the Ro- 
 man calendar, distinguished by his efforts to reform 
 the clergy, and for his capture by the Normans, 
 who defeated him near Beneventum, born 1002, 
 reigned 1049-1054. Leo X.; see next article. 
 Leo XL. a pope of the Medici family, like Leo X., 
 succeeded and died a month after his election in 
 1605. Leo XII., whose reign was disturbed by 
 
 LEO 
 
 the Carbonari and other secret societies, am 
 was chiefly occupied with the internal police 
 states, and in political negotiations, Dorn 
 reigned 1823-1829. An anti-pope, named 
 contested the papacy with Benedict VIIL, i 
 the name of Gregory VI., in 1012. 
 
 LEO X., Pope. Giovanni De Medic* I 
 son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was boi 
 Florence on the first day of December, 1475. 
 was early destined to the church, reoefl 
 tonsure when but a boy seven years old, at 
 year following got several ecclesiastical p 
 ments. At the age of eleven he was m 
 cardinal by the title of S. Maria in Dom 
 Three years afterwards he took up his reifl 
 Rome as one of the princes of the church, b 
 the election of Alexander VI. he was oblig 
 retire to Florence. After some turns of foi 
 in consequence of the broils among the r, 
 states of Italy and France, he was raised i 
 popedom in 1513, under the name of Leo X 
 crowned with unusual pomp and ceremony i 
 successor of the Galilean fisherman. Seven 
 of political generosity graced the commena 
 of nis reign. His great desire was to re-est 
 the peace of Europe, and he entered into I 
 with Louis XII. He also renewed the sittu 
 the famous Lateran council, and brought th 
 a conclusion in 1517. Afterwards he ioiiM 
 league against Francis I., but ultimately ei 
 into a concordat with him. As the tide of 
 ebbed and flowed, he made occasional att< 
 to rouse the Swiss against the French 
 leagued himself with Maximilian and Henry 
 of England, and at a future period, and fo 
 same purpose, with Charles V. in 1521. A fo 
 able conspiracy on the part of some of the < 
 nals against him was discovered in 1516 
 Cardinal Petrucci, who was at the head of i1 
 condemned and strangled in prison. In se 
 fence Leo created at this period in one day ti 
 one new cardinals. He canned the glory ( 
 Roman see to a pitch of unparalleled splei 
 and the grateful citizens of las capital ere< 
 statue in his honour. His heart was set 
 the defeat of the Turks, and he endeavoui 
 combine the princes of Europe against 
 The project which seems always to hav 
 cupied his mind, was the expulsion of the F 
 power from Italy, but in the midst of his triti 
 at Milan and Parma, he suddenly died, 1st Di 
 ber, 1521, not without great suspicion of 1 
 been poisoned. The completion of the chur< 
 Peter was another of his cherished plans, ai 
 papal indulgences issued to raise the nec< 
 funds, created or fostered that discontent th 
 in a short time to the reformation in Gen 
 Leo was at first wishful of gentle measun 
 ward Luther, but ultimately published the f; 
 bull which Luther so publicly and contempt! 
 burnt before the gate of Wittemberg. TJ 
 the brief pontificate of Leo was so unsuecc 
 his patronage of literature and the arts was 
 ficent, as was exhibited in his restoration < 
 Roman academy, his founding of the Greek 
 tute and the establishment in Rome of a 
 press, his encouragement of search alter E. 
 manuscripts, his handsome treatment of n 
 letters, such as Musurus, Ariosto, and Vid 1 
 
 414 
 
LEO 
 
 entntion of the library of the Vatican, and 
 pitious employment of Raffaelle the painter 
 ariety of immortal works. As the head of 
 Ian ducal house, Leo would have eclipsed all 
 mpeers. Though his character and actions 
 t in all respects comport with the idea of his 
 visible head of the church, yet he is better 
 very many of his predecessors. His talents 
 good, though his erudition was not profound, 
 tes were fine in the arts, but his politics 
 crooked, and his diplomatic schemes had more 
 than wisdom about them. In all his 
 or the popedom, he never forgot the ad- 
 ent of the house of the Medici. Apart 
 his ecclesiastical status, he must be regarded 
 e of the zealous and successful co-operators in 
 ival of letters. [J.E.] 
 
 SO L, emperor of the East, surnamed ' the 
 and ' the Great,' was a Thracian of obscure 
 and succeeded to the throne of Constanti- 
 457. After restoring peace to the empire, 
 had been rent by religious quarrels, and de- 
 ited by the barbarians, he died 474. Lko II., 
 amed "' the Younger,' grandson of the preced- 
 gucceeded him, and is supposed to have been 
 Bed ten months afterwards, 474. Lko III., 
 the Isaurian,' distinguished by his suc- 
 s against the Saracens, reigned 717-741. Leo 
 grandson of the latter, and husband of the 
 Irene, reigned 775-780. Leo V., sur- 
 d 'the Armenian,' dethroned Nicephorus, and 
 led for seven years, disturbed by the inroads 
 
 fi Bulgarians, and the religious struggles of the 
 j-worshippers, 813-820. Leo VI., surnamed 
 Philosopher,' distinguished himself by the de- 
 of the Hungarians ; but sustained a disastrous 
 with the Saracens, who at last defeated him, 
 (. He was succeeded by his brother, Alex- 
 and his son, Constantine VI., and is the 
 of an esteemed work on Tactics. 
 I., prince or king of the Armenians, esta- 
 in Cilicia, began to reign 1123, was taken 
 by John Commenus in 1137, and died in 
 1141. Leo II., called ' the Great,' grand- 
 of the preceding, obtained the permission of 
 emperor, Henry VI., and the pope, Celestine 
 to take the title of king, and reigned 1185- 
 Leo III., who greatly aggrandized his 
 , reigned 1269-1289. Leo IV, succeeded 
 and was dethroned and slain by a Mongul 
 " 1308. Leo V., who saw his kingdom de- 
 by civil wars, and the invasion of the 
 ukes and Turcomans, reigned 1320h*2. Leo 
 burned king 1361, was chased from his 
 by the sultan of Egypt 1375, and, retir- 
 France, died there 1393. 
 the Hebrew, a cabalist of the 15th cen. 
 I John, surnamed ' Africanus,' a traveller 
 grapher, born of Moorish parents, who was 
 ' to Christianity by Leo X., and, becom- 
 Italian scholar, translated into that lan- 
 his ' Description of Africa,' originally writ- 
 Arabic, died about 1526. 
 
 Leonardo, an eminent musician, re- 
 one of the greatest opera composers of 
 694-1745. 
 
 f Marsi, a chronicler of the 12th cent. 
 OF Modena, a learned rabbi, died 1654. 
 of Orvieto, an ItaL chronicler, 12th c. 
 
 LEO 
 
 LEO, Pilatus, first professor of Greek at Flo- 
 rence, who lectured there about 1360. 
 
 LEON, Diego, a Spanish general and partizan 
 of Espartero, bom 1804, executed 1840. 
 
 LEON, F. L. De, a Spanish poet, 1527-1591. 
 
 LEON, P. L. De, a Spanish historian, 16th c. 
 
 LEONARD, N. G., a French poet, 1744-1793. 
 
 LEONARD, St., an anchoret of Limousin, 
 founder of a monastery near Limoges, died 559. 
 
 LEONARDI, F., a Venetian painter, 1654-1711. 
 
 LEONARDI, J., a religious founder, 1540-1609. 
 
 LEONARDO, A., a Span, painter, 1580-1640. 
 
 LEONARDO, J., a Span, painter, 1616-1658. 
 
 LEONE-Y-GAMA, Antonio, cele. for his ex- 
 tensive knowledge of Mexican antiquities, d. 1802. 
 
 LE ONI DAS, the first of the name, king of 
 Sparta, immortalized by his glorious defence of the 
 pass of Thermopylae against Xerxes, reigned 491- 
 480 B.C. The second of the name, began to reign 
 B.C. 257, was banished, and replaced by Cleom- 
 brotus, 254, recovered his throne 239, died 238. 
 
 LEON-LEAL, F. De, a Span, painter, 1610-87. 
 
 LEONTIUS, an ecclesiastical historian, 6th cen. 
 
 LEOPARDI, A., a Venetian architect, d. 1510. 
 
 LEOPARDI, J., an Italian poet, 1798-1837. 
 
 LEOPOLD, duke of Lorraine, father of Francis 
 L, emperor of Germany, was the son of Charles 
 IV, and was born 1679. He was restored to his 
 dukedom, of which Louis XIV. had despoiled him 
 by the peace of Ryswick, 1697, and was married to 
 Elizabeth of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., d. 1729. 
 
 LEOPOLD of Austria, elected duke of Ba- 
 varia, after the death of Henry the Proud, 1138-42. 
 
 LEOPOLD, margrave of Austria, and a saint of 
 the Roman calendar, succeeded 1096, married 
 Agnes, sister of the emperor Henry V., and died 
 1139. He was canonized 1485. Leopold I. or II., 
 surnamed ' the Glorious,' third son of Albert I; r 
 succeeded as duke of Austria 1308, and compelled 
 Louis of Bavaria to divide the empire with his 
 brother T Frederick; died 1313. Leopold II. or 
 III., surnamed ' the Courageous,' born about 1350,, 
 took a part in the Italian wars, and was slain in a 
 battle with the Swiss. 1386. 
 
 LEOPOLD I., emperor of Austria, born 1640, 
 succeeded his father, Frederick III., 1658, died 
 1705. Having defeated the Turks in 1664, the 
 commencement of his reign was signalized by a 
 truce of twenty years which he concluded with 
 them. From 1672 to 1679, he sustained a dis- 
 astrous war with Louis XIV., which was then 
 concluded by the peace of Nimeguen. A truce of 
 twenty years with Louis XIV. did not prevent a 
 renewal of hostilities in 1 688, which were termi- 
 nated by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. During 
 this latter interval, the Hungarians, headed by 
 Tekeli, and supported by the Turks, rose in arms 
 1677, and even besieged Vienna, which was re- 
 lieved by Sobieski and the Poles 1683. The other 
 principal events of his reign were the elevation of 
 Hanover into an electorate 1692, of Brandenburg 
 into a kingdom 1702, and a new war with the 
 Turks, who were conq. by Prince Eugene 1697. 
 
 LEOPOLD II., emperor of Germany, second son 
 of Francis I. and of Maria Theresa, was born 1747, 
 and succeeded his brother, Joseph II., 1790. The 
 events of his reign were some successes obtained 
 over the Turks, a quarrel with Prussia, terminated 
 by the treaty of Sistow 1791, the troubles in Bel- 
 
 415 
 
LEO 
 gium 1790, and the famous declaration of Pilnitz 
 against &* French revolution. He died March 2, 
 1798, and was succeeded by his son, Francis IT. 
 
 LEOPOLD, A. D., a Germ, author, 1691-1753. 
 
 LEOPOLD, C. G. De, a Svved. poet, 1756-1829. 
 
 LEOPOLD, G. A. S., a Germ, wr., 1755-1827. 
 
 LEOWTTZ, C, a Buhem. astrologer, died 1574. 
 
 LEPAUTRE, Anthony, a French architect, 
 1614-1691. His brother, John, a designer and 
 engraver, 1617-1682. Peter, son of Anthony, a 
 sculptor, 1659-1744. 
 
 LEPAYS, R., a French poet, died 1690. 
 
 LEPEKHIN, J. I., a learn. Russian, 1739-1802. 
 
 LEPELLETIER, C., a Fr. theologian, d. 1743. 
 
 LEPELLETIER, C., a Fr. financier, 1683-1689. 
 
 LEPELLETIER, J., a French savant, distin- 
 guished in art, languages, mathematics, medicine, 
 and alchymv, 1633-1711. 
 
 LEPELLETIER - DE - SAINT - FARGEAU, 
 Louis Michael, one of the old French noblesse, 
 and a deputy of his order to the estates-general in 
 1789, was born in Paris 1760, and inherited a large 
 fortune from his parents. On the 4th of August 
 of the year first mentioned, he voted for the aboli- 
 tion of feudal privileges, and, what is more, car- 
 ried the decree into full effect in his own person. 
 When the estates -general resolved itself into a 
 constituent assembly, St. Fargeau joined the pa- 
 triots of the left, and was returned again to the 
 national convention in 1792. His votes in the 
 process against the king had great influence over 
 the court^.and led immediately to his own death. 
 On the eve of the king's execution, and before the 
 votes were summed up, St. Fargeau had stepped 
 out for refreshment, and was in the act of paying 
 the restaurateur, when a stranger, who proved to 
 be one of the Icing's body guard, suddenly ap- 
 proached and asked him if he were not Lepelletier 
 who had voted for the king's death V he replied 
 'yes,' and added that he had voted as his con- 
 science had dictated. 'Sc61erat,' exclaimed his 
 inteirogator, ' voila ta recompense !' and instantly 
 run him through with a sword which he had con- 
 cealed under his cloak. Lepelletier St. Fargeau 
 was the author of several works on law and poli- 
 tics, and of a life of Epaminondas. [E.R.] 
 
 LEPIDUS, Marcus ^Emilius, the Roman tri- 
 umvir, had been sedile B.C. 52, prastor 49, and 
 consul with Caesar 46. The latter, when he be- 
 came dictator, made Lepidus general of the cavalry, 
 and, on Caesar's death, he divided the empire with 
 Octavius and Mark Antony. At first he had the 
 whole of Spain and Gallia Narbonensis, but on the 
 defeat of Brutus and Cassius, he was compelled 
 to exchange those provinces for Africa, which left 
 him without any real authority in the state. He 
 was included in the triumvirate of B.C. 37, but was 
 deserted by his troops, and banished to Circeii by 
 Augustus. Died 12 or 13 b.c. 
 
 LEPRINCE, A. X., a Fr. painter, 1799-1826. 
 
 LEPRINCE, J., a French painter, 1733-1781. 
 His sister, Marie Leprince De Beaumont, a 
 writer of works for young people, 1711-1780. 
 
 LEROUX. J. J., a Fr. med. writer, 1749-1832. 
 
 LERY, J. D., a French navigator, 1534-1611. 
 
 LE SAGE, Alain, bom in 1668, was the son of 
 
 a lawyer in Brittany, and, being left an orphan in 
 
 childhood, lost his patrimony through the careless- 
 
 bifl guardian. In 1692, after having studied 
 
 LES 
 
 at the Jesuit college of Yanr.es, he i 
 where he was admitted as an advo 
 betook himself exclusively to literal 
 was for many years very obscure ; tew of his 
 were successful, and he long wrote for the 
 theatres only. Whatever the reason may 
 been, he received no share of the pal 
 the government lavished on many nun who 
 much inferior to him ; but he was well rccei 
 good society. Entering on the stud 
 literature, and using the comedies of that Ian 
 with ability, but with little success, in his 
 he turned the Spanish models to a ri 
 use in his comic novels. Some of t'. 
 the liveliest and wittiest of their el- 
 able as cool and observant dissect i 
 weaknesses. The earliest of them. 
 1707, was ' The Devil on Two Sticks ' (Le ] 
 Boiteux), avowedly a continuation of a S] 
 story. His most celebrated work, ' Gil 
 though it has been charged with plagia 
 seems to have really been as much his own 
 sign as it certainly was in those details, whic 
 stituted its eminent merit. In ' The Advei 
 of Guzman D'Alfarache,' he confessedly bor 
 largely from a Spanish original. Le Sage d 
 Boulogne in 1747. 
 
 LES AGE, G. L., a learned physician, 1724 
 
 LESCAILLE, James, a Dutch printer 
 
 dist. himself as a poet, 1610-1677. His dau 
 
 Catherine, a poetess and dramat. wr., 1649- 
 
 LESCAN, J. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1749-: 
 
 LESCURE, L. M., a French royalist, 176 
 
 LESKO, the names of several dukes of P 
 
 the best known of whom are Lesko IV., reignc 
 
 913. Lesko V., 1194-1202. Lesko VL,12 
 
 LESLEY, A., a Scottish antiquary, 1694 
 
 LESLEY, John, bishop of Ross, in Set 
 
 celebrated as the advocate and ambassador oi 
 
 Stuart, in whose defence he wrote several els 
 
 works, born 1527, retired to the continent in 
 
 became bishop of Constance 1593, died i 
 
 monastery of Guirtenberg, near Brussels, 15 
 
 LESLIE, John, a native of Scotland, wl 
 
 successively bishop of the Orkneys and of I 
 
 and Clogher in Ireland, and is distinguish* 
 
 linguist ; he died more than a hundred yea 
 
 1671. His son, Charles, author of the i 
 
 books, entitled ' The Snake in the Grass,' ai 
 
 Short and Easy Method with the Deists ;' 
 
 guished also by his adherence to the Preten 
 
 consequence of which he lost all hope of 
 
 ment in the church, was born in Ireland 
 
 1650, and died 1732. 
 
 LESLIE, Sir John, born at Largo, ir 
 shire, 16th April, 1766, died 3d November 
 at his seat at Coates. Leslie's life was an 
 one, and he rose to a considerable place in s 
 He succeeded Professor Playfair in the cl 
 mathematics in the university of Edinburgl 
 on the death of that eminent man, he agai 
 ceeded him in the chair of natural pi 
 contributions of Sir John Leslie to British 
 w r ere various : he occupied himself with the 
 rimental theory of Heat, and produced, as h 
 several delicate instruments, such as the 
 ential thermometer., his claim to the inv 
 however, has been strongly contested. It w 
 easy to challenge for him very sound judge 
 416 
 
LES 
 
 jch impartiality in his philosophical estimate of 
 
 :. < er Inquirers ; nor was his style of exposition, 
 
 i tten or oral, remarkably well suited to a philo- 
 
 i hical subject. Still, he had the faculty of in- 
 
 ' tion, and a dash of what, in one sense, may be 
 
 I ned genius. His knowledge was extensive ; 
 
 ] reading having been vast, and his memory 
 
 i larkably tenacious. Leslie at one time ob- 
 
 led a singular popular repute, from the effort of 
 
 ; Church, to hinder his induction as pro- 
 
 I ior of mathematics. The hostile charge was 
 
 I 1 c of some form of infidelity, based on his espousal 
 
 < lume's views as to the Idea of Necessary Con- 
 
 I] lion. The interference failed, and certainly was 
 
 tdj idicious. It is not often that inferences as to 
 
 I life or religious sentiment, based on spe- 
 
 fctive views, have been approved by succeeding 
 
 'iles. If Leslie's doctrine was incorrect under 
 
 ijii point of view, that of his opponents was quite 
 
 Blmtenable, viewed from another. The contro- 
 
 MfJ, however, gave rise to many ingenious pamph- 
 
 w L among which was the Essay on Cause and 
 
 I feet, of the late Dr. Thomas Brown. [J.P.N.] 
 
 .ESSER, Augustin Creuse, Baron De, a 
 
 I Jmatic author and man of letters, 1771-1839. 
 
 KR, F. C, a Germ, naturalist, 1692-1754. 
 
 .KSSING, Gotthold Ephraim, the son of a 
 
 ' iheran pastor, was born, in 1729, at Kamenz, 
 
 *jUpper Lusatia. In 1746 he entered the Univer- 
 
 I ot Leipzig, where he continued to prosecute 
 
 -v studies with extraordinary activity, and 
 
 many directions, but showed a strong disinclin- 
 
 ittach himself to any professional pursuit. 
 
 b dissatisfaction of his father, who was both a 
 
 ir man and severely orthodox, was increased by 
 
 ij intimacy which the youth contracted with 
 
 tnd by his writing one or two little thea- 
 
 fad pieces. After being recalled home, and 
 ' tting Berlin, he completed his academical course 
 ' Wittemberg. In 1753 he cast himself fairly on 
 
 I I world as a man of letters, taking up his abode 
 . I Berlin, where he remained for seven years. 
 
 jen in this opening stage of his career, he firmly 
 I W)lished his position as the earliest and most 
 
 rrgetic of the pioneers who prepared the way 
 
 I I an original development of German literature. 
 
 js chief friends and coadjutors at this time were 
 
 ! philosophical Jew, Moses Mendelssohn, and 
 
 solai, the author and bookseller. With these he 
 
 operated in laying the foundation of criticism 
 
 Germany, by the ' Bibliothek der Schonen Wis- 
 
 wchaften,' and the ' Literatur-Briefe.' His stu- 
 
 Italian, Spanish, and German, directed 
 
 / to the drama, furnished him with abun- 
 
 4 nt materials for his denunciation of the dryness 
 
 ility of the French taste, which then 
 
 pailed among^ his countrymen. His own imi- 
 
 WD of the English drama, having no higher 
 
 iMel than Lillo, produced at first nothing better 
 
 |n his domestic tragedy in prose called 'Miss 
 
 ipson.' About this time, however, he 
 
 Irtly composed, also in prose, his vigorous and 
 
 essive tragedy of ' Emilia Galotti,' a modern 
 
 jiptation of the story of Virginia. To this period 
 
 ewise belong his ' Fables,' which, both the me- 
 
 W and the prose ones, are very striking pieces 
 
 reflection, and, like all his other writings, mo- 
 
 ^^Hku- and symmetrical style. For five years, 
 
 ki 1760, he lived at Breslau, as secretary to the 
 
 417 
 
 LES 
 
 commandant. Here he seems to have been less stea- 
 dily industrious than before, mixing a good deal in 
 society, and having for a time a strange fondness 
 for the hazard-table. But, at Breslau, among his 
 military acquaintances, he planned or composed 
 his spirited drama, ' Minna von Barnhelm.' Here 
 also the study of the arts of design, to which, 
 as exhibited in the master-pieces of Greece, Win- 
 ckelmann was now inviting attention, led him to 
 begin the composition of that which is the most 
 valuable of all his works, ' Laocoon,' or an ' Essay 
 on the Limits of Poetry and Painting,' which was 
 published in 1766. The title of this admirable 
 work indicates but imperfectly its commanding 
 scope. The comparison instituted is between Poetry 
 on the one hand, and the Arts of Design on the 
 other ; and between the several Fine Arts (Poetry 
 included), as contrasted with each other. The 
 purpose of all these arts being assumed to be sub- 
 stantially the same, those differences of process 
 are indicated, which arise between the arts by 
 reason of the differences in their instruments. This, 
 like all Lessing's other philosophical speculations, 
 is merely a fragment, a collection of hints, not the 
 exposition of a system; but the principles which 
 he ha3 here established go farther towards found- 
 ing a just theory of literature and art, than any 
 other assthetical work that could be named. 
 For some years after leaving Breslau, Lessing led 
 a shifting and uncomfortable life His longest 
 residence was at Hamburg, where he became, by 
 necessity, not from choice, director of a theatre 
 set on foot by some sanguine lovers of the drama. 
 One satisfactory fruit of this abortive undertaking, 
 was the series of masterly criticisms on celebrated 
 plays, which he called the ' Hamburgische Drama- 
 turgic.' In 1770, after marrying the widow of a 
 Hamburgh merchant, he removed to Wolfenbuttel, 
 being appointed keeper of the library. Here he 
 spent the last eleven years of his troubled life, but 
 not in peace. He was, indeed, meritoriously ac- 
 tive and useful in discharging the duties of his 
 office ; but he became entangled more hotly than 
 ever in those theological controversies, which he 
 seems to have entered at first only as the cham- 
 pion of literature and the drama, but in which he 
 now became the assailant in his turn. His devia- 
 tions from orthodox belief were denounced loudly 
 on his publishing a piece called ' Fragments of an 
 Anonymous Writer, which he asserted to have 
 been discovered in manuscript in the library, but 
 which was confidently alleged to have been com- 
 posed by himself. His dramatic poem, also, ' Na- 
 than the Wise,' published in 1780, while it is fine 
 and interesting as a series of epic pictures and 
 solemn thoughts, is at least equivocal in its reli- 
 gious aspect." Lessing's last work was his short 
 treatise on ' The Education of the Human Race.' A 
 voluminous correspondence, and many critical pa- 
 pers and notes, are brought together in the collected 
 editions of his works. After much sickness and 
 vexation, he died at Wolfenbuttel in 1781. [W.S.] 
 At the date of Lessing's birth, it could hardly be 
 said that a national German Literature existed, nor 
 had those peculiar philosophic and critical move- 
 ments begun which have now long inspired its pe- 
 culiar life. But the period was auspicious for a re- 
 vival. Frederick the Great had just Durst the limits 
 that restrained the political influence of Northern 
 2E 
 
LES 
 
 Germany, and by a series of exploits unparalleled 
 in modern warfare, was evoking the heroic in 
 Teutonic genius, and teaching his people self-respect 
 and self-dependence, by bis vigorous compulsion 
 of Europe to recognize Phuna as one of her 
 integrant nations. Lessing was the Frederick of 
 Thought. By nature wholly Teutonic, he too, 
 sounded a trumpet call ; and with a restless 
 energy in nowise inferior to Frederick's, an ac- 
 tivity and plenitude of resources that overlooked 
 no opportunity, he dashed, now into this region of 
 dormant literature, now into that unpenetrated 
 department of philosophy, until he had laid the 
 foundation of almost every conquest that has 
 illustrated the recent ever-memorable career of 
 his kindred. The earliest efforts of this remark- 
 able person lay in that direction in which he 
 accomplished one of bis latest and greatest 
 triumphs, viz.: literary Criticism and ./Esthetics. 
 His History of the Theatre; on Letters on Litera- 
 ture; his Life of Sophocles; his Dramaturgy; his 
 Fables perhaps, and bis Theory of the Apologue, 
 belonged to a career which culminated in the 
 Laocoon, that great classic treatise on the respec- 
 tive limits and characteristics of Painting and 
 Poetry. Without forgetting the immense debt 
 that must ever be held due to Winckleman, it 
 may be averred with justice, that in Lessing's 
 Laocoon, all those rich thoughts and aspirations 
 concerning Art, which so enrich modern Teutonic 
 speculation, find their natural root. Striking at 
 once at the principle of distinction, he establishes, 
 that as the arts of Design labour for the gratifica- 
 tion of the outward sense, their proper sphere is 
 within the Beautiful; whereas Poetry and written 
 thought, appeal to the Imagination, which can 
 reconcile itself even to deformity. 'The conse- 
 quences,' says Goethe, ' of this splendid thought 
 were illumined to us as by a lightning flash ; all 
 the criticism that had hitherto passed sentence 
 was thrown away like a worn-out garment ; we 
 thought ourselves redeemed from all evil, and 
 fancied that we might venture to look down with 
 some compassion upon the otherwise so splendid 
 sixteenth century, when, in German sculptures and 
 poems, they knew bow to represent Life only un- 
 der the form of a well-bedizened fool, Death under 
 the misformed shape of a rattling skeleton, and 
 the necessary and accredited evils of the world un- 
 der the image of a Devil in Caricature.' Lessing, 
 however, did not confine himself to precepts, he 
 led the way by his own admirable dramas, to the 
 practical revival of that highest and profoundest 
 Art. Beginning with a drama of common life, 
 Miss Sarah Sampson, he entered a vigorous pro- 
 test against the frivolities of the super-classic 
 school, and asserted the true function of the 
 Drama, Next and far more perfect, Minna Von 
 Baritlitlm ; then his still greater work, Emilia 
 Galolti; and he crowned his triumph by the incom- 
 parable Nathan the Wise. Incapable of their 
 reach of imagination, and by no means gifted 
 with the amazing penetrating power of a Shak- 
 speare or a Goethe, nevertheless, Lessing has been 
 surpassed by few in that species of Drama, 
 named the moral Drama rather one, which, in 
 th<- largest sense, aims at manifesting systemati- 
 cally, through the Dramatic form, the sphere and 
 aspects of some great principle. His anuly tic faculty 
 
 LES 
 
 was of the first order; his conceptions ra 
 equalled in deiiniteness ; and bis mode of exp 
 sion especially excelled in chastity energy and 
 cision. Who has read Nathan, and can again 
 sight of him ? Few creations surpass this Hen 
 the qualities of repose and elevation ; nor do 8 
 of the inferior characters fail to attract coi 
 ponding admiration. It was Lessing's last g 
 work the song of the Swan: but its accents I 
 provoked more than an empty and dying e< 
 they have raised many hearts "to the highest! 
 ception we can form of the virtues of Cfl 
 and Tolerance. The intellect and influence of 1 
 sing extended far beyond the range of vEflfl 
 and the Drama : nor perhaps, has bis sway i 
 Germany, or rather his profound appreciation o 
 tendencies, and foresight of their effects, morel 
 ing illustration and record, than in the celebn 
 Wolfenbuttel Fragments. The work of Reims 
 although shaped and annotated by Lessing, tl 
 remarkable writings first stirred that spirit, wl 
 issued in the memorable critical and rationalsch 
 of Germany. In these Fragments appear the : 
 formal attack on the then unquestioned tene 
 Protestant Churches the absolute authority of 
 Scriptures. These writings are declared to be n 
 Historical documents, which, like all other i 
 documents, must be subjected to the test of c 
 cism : it is asserted that the foundations of CI 
 tianity are not solely in the gospels which i 
 be modified by Inquiry, their text altered, 
 much of it repudiated as spurious: ChrisjB 
 all the while not losing its truest foundat 
 which is in the heart and the reason of Man. 
 were, of course, quite out of place to cntieise h 
 favourably or unfavourably, these Wolfenbuttel] 
 positions : the important point is, that under 
 conduct of Lessing, they foreshadowed, for goo 
 for evil, so much of the future of German thouj 
 how new they were at the time, appears in 
 reclamations of Pastor Goeze of Hamburg, 
 dealt with them after the manner of Anal 
 ma. Lessing followed up with bis tract on 
 Education of the Human Race, in which he 
 tempts to shadow out more definitely, the probi 
 future relation of Humanity to the Christian 
 velation. It is more difficult to state with pr 
 sion the attitude of Lessing towards 
 philosophy properly so called. Practical as he 
 and earnest, he thought and speculated chiefl; 
 reference to practical problems and interests; nei 
 theless, the speculative schemes of his great { 
 decessors could not be indifferent to him. Jut 
 after Lessing's death, disclosed in certain letter 
 Mendelssohn, the particulars of a privati 
 tion, tending to establish that bis friend had 
 into the pantheism of Spinoza. The reporting 
 such conversation must ever be proteste 
 as breach of confidence; and it is almost a; 
 a source of misrepresentation ; what thinker t 
 not, in the frankness and confidence of in 1 
 course, give utterance at times to momentary 
 pressions, as if they were his abiding ones ? 1 
 much is unquestionable Lessing has not writ 
 one solitary word inconsistent with a firmi 
 sion in the Personality of Man. This great wri 
 indeed, belongs to a class of minds \ 
 misapprehended minds, which none bul 
 so far akin to them, car. rightly uj 
 
 418 
 
r 
 
 LES 
 
 ftenest in antagonism, or in a critical attitude, 
 inkers like Lessing do not generally express 
 eir whole thought ; they dwell only on the part 
 the common thought, from which they dissent. 
 > far, however, from heing ruled by mere nega- 
 ms, it is certainly more probable that their dis- 
 nt arises from a completer view and possession of 
 ]th; and that their effort is confined, to the desire 
 separate truth from error, or, at all events, from 
 la-essentials. Be that as it may, the writer 
 I whom we speak, stands fitly as the herald of 
 |g modem era in his native land : he polished 
 i; mother tongue and made it classical ; and as 
 [ have seen, he initiated several of the more re- 
 krkable movements for which our Teutonic 
 pthren are now famous. His life was that of a 
 tve unbending literary man. Not exempt from 
 fe disasters of such a life, he was not exempt 
 [m all its errors : but even amidst error he pos- 
 hed himself, lie did not resign the freedom, or 
 Epromise the dignity of the Thinker. [J.P.N.J 
 LESSIUS, Leonard, a learned Jesuit, suc- 
 Jsively professor of philosophy and divinity at 
 iivain, 1554-1623. 
 
 LESTANG, Anthony De, a French savant, 
 jnor of a ' History of the Gauls,' d. 1613 or 1617. 
 LESTERPT-BEAUVAIS, B., a partizan of the 
 fcndists in the convention, executed 1793. 
 LESTRA, F., a French traveller, 17th century. 
 .KSi RANGE, or LETRANGE, Rene D'Hau- 
 efort, Viscount De, gov. of Puy in the interest 
 ihe Leaguers, seneschal 1595, died about 1621. 
 /ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a partizan of 
 irles I., famous as a political writer, and trans- 
 it from the learned languages, 1616-1704. 
 
 . UR, Eustace, one of the greatest pain- 
 
 tl of France, called the French Raphael, 1^617-55. 
 
 ESUEUR, J., a French historian, died 1681. 
 
 UR, J. F., a Fr. composer, 1763-1837. 
 
 ESUEUR, Peter, a French wood engraver, 
 
 1B-1716. His son, of the same name, who died 
 
 IB, and his son, Vincent, died 1743, followed 
 
 t same art. Their nephew, Nicholas, d. 1764. 
 
 ffiSUEUR, Th., a famous mathematician, au. 
 
 Principles of Natural Philosophy,' &c, 1703-70. 
 
 ESUIRE, R. M., a French author, 1737-1815. 
 
 ETHIEULLIER, Smart, a native of Essex, 
 
 ing. as a naturalist and antiquarian, died 1760. 
 
 ETI, Gregorio, author of an immense num- 
 
 of works on history, which are generally re- 
 
 ied as more entertaining than trustworthy, was 
 
 i at Milan in 1630, and died 1701. Among his 
 
 is are a ' History of Sixtus Quintus,' three 
 
 ^nes, 1669 ; a 4 History of Philip II.,' 1679 ; 
 
 distory of England,' 1682 ; 4 The Cardinalism 
 
 je Roman Church ;' ' Life of Queen Elizabeth ;' 
 
 b Nepotism of Rome,' &c. 
 
 SNE, W. F., a Fr. economist, 1728-1780. 
 ETTICE, John, an English clergyman, known 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, 1737-1832. 
 
 M, John Coakley, a native of the 
 t Indies, distinguished in London as a phy- 
 la, author of professional works and writings 
 jatural history, 1744-1815. 
 EU, J. J., a Swiss author, 1689-1768. 
 EU, Ph. De, a French engraver, born 1570. 
 EUCHT, C. L., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1645-1716. 
 EUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, who lived 
 Men the 4th and 5th centuries b.c, and to whom 
 
 LEV 
 
 the first idea of the atomic system is attributed, 
 which was afterwards perfected by his disciple 
 Democritus. Kepler and Descartes were much 
 indebted to the ancient doctrines of these masters 
 for the explanation of the planetary vortices. Ba- 
 con remarks that Democritus and Leucippus were 
 so much taken up with the particles of things as to 
 neglect their structure. 
 
 LEUCKFELD, J. G. ; a Ger. savant, 1668-1726. 
 
 LEUSDEN, J., a Dutch Hebraist, 1624-1699. 
 
 LEUTINGET, N., a Ger. historian, 1547-1612. 
 
 LEUWENHOECK, Antoine, a celebrated na- 
 turalist, was born at Delft in 1632. He died in 
 1723. His first title to distinction was derived 
 from the superior skill he manifested in cutting 
 glasses for microscopes and spectacles. He after- 
 wards became more famous for the use he applied 
 the microscope to. His whole life, which was a 
 long one, was devoted to making anatomical obser- 
 vations and experiments, and researches in natural 
 history ; and his numerous papers in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions of London show his industry 
 and perseverance. His observations upon the con- 
 tinuous nature of arteries and veins ; upon the 
 composition of the blood; upon the structure of 
 the crystalline lens of the eye; upon the spermatic 
 animalcules ; and the history of some of the more 
 minute animals as observed by the microscope, 
 have established his reputation as an accurate obser- 
 ver, and diligent inquirer into the secrets of nature. 
 His fame during his lifetime had spead far and 
 wide ; and when Peter the Great of Russia passed 
 in 1698 by Delft, Leuwenhoeck was expressly in- 
 vited to an interview with his majesty, and de- 
 lighted him by exhibiting through his microscope 
 the circulation of the blood going on in the tail of 
 an eel. [W.B.] 
 
 LEVACHER, G., a French surgeon, 1693-1760. 
 
 LEVAILLANT, Francis, a native of Guiana, 
 dist. as an African trav. and naturalist, 1754-1824. 
 
 LEVASSOR, M., a French historian, 17th cent. 
 
 LEVE, Ant. De, a cele. Span, general, d. 1536. 
 
 LEVEQUE, P., a French historian, 1713-1781. 
 
 LEVER, Sir Ashton, a gentleman of fortune, 
 who impoverished himself by collecting a museum 
 of natural history, which was exhibited in Leices- 
 ter Square from 1775 to 1785. Died 1788. 
 
 LEVER, Thomas, an eloquent minister of the 
 reign of Edward VI., au. of sermons, &c, d. 1577. 
 
 LEVERIDGE, R., a famous singer, 1670-1758. 
 
 LEVESQUE, L. C, a Fr. authoress, 1703-1745. 
 
 LEVESQUE, P. C., a learn, histor., 1736-1812. 
 
 LEVESQUE-DE-CARAVALIERE, P. A., the 
 author of ' Poesies de Roi du Navarre,' 1697-1762. 
 
 LEVESQUE-DE-POUILLY, L. J., a French 
 magistrate and political writer, 1691-1750. His 
 son, J. Simon, also an author, and member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions, 1734-1820. 
 
 LEVI, the third son of Jacob and Leah. 
 
 LEVI, David, a tradesman of London, remark- 
 able for his self-acquired learning, author of 
 ' Letters to Dr. Priestley, in answer to his Letters 
 addressed to the Jews,' a ' Hebrew-English Dic- 
 tionary,' a ' Hebrew Grammar,' ' The Rites and 
 Ceremonies of the Jews,' &c, 1740-1799. 
 
 LEVI-BEN-GERSHOM, a learned rabbi and 
 disciple of Aristotle, born in Provence, 1290-1370. 
 
 LEVIEUX, R., a Fr. painter, time of Louis XV. 
 
 LEVINGSTON, James, a Scottish royalist, 
 
 419 
 
LEV 
 
 created by diaries I. Lord Leviiigston of Almont 
 and earl of Calleudar, died 1672. 
 
 LEVIS, Fkanc 'i.n, Duke He, a French marshal, 
 distinguished in Canada, 1720-1787. His son, 
 riKi:i:iA Maria Gaston, Due De Levis, a mem- 
 ber of the constituent assembly, known as a politi- 
 cal writer ami moralist after the restor., 1764-1830. 
 
 LEVIZAC, John Pons Victor Lecoutz De, 
 au. of several works on French literature, d. 1813. 
 
 LEWELLIN. See Llywelyn. 
 
 LEWENHAUPT, A. L. Count De, a Swedish 
 general, who died in Russia after a captivity of ten 
 years, 1710 ; author of ' Memoirs,' published 1757. 
 
 LEWENHAUPT, C. E., of the same family as 
 the preceding, sent to Finland against the Russians 
 in 1742, and, failing of success, beheaded in 1743. 
 
 LEWIS, John, a Church ot England divine, 
 dist. for his antiquarian learning, au. of a ' History 
 of John Wickliffe,' ' History and Antiquities of 
 the Abbey Church of Faversham,' &c, 1675-1746. 
 
 LEWIS, Matthew Gregory, a popular no- 
 velist, author of 'The Monk,' &c, 1773-1818. 
 
 LEWIS, Captain Meriwether, had the 
 joint conduct with Lieutenant Clarke (q.v.) of the 
 first expedition across the Rocky Mountains un- 
 dertaken by the United States government. 
 
 LEY, or LEIGH, Sir J., an em. lawyer, created 
 Baron Ley and earl of Marlborough, 1552-1628. 
 
 LEY, John, a controversial divine, 1583-1662. 
 
 LEYBOURN, W., a mathemat., d. about 1690. 
 
 LEYDECKER, Melchior, a Dutch theologian, 
 au. of ' The Rep. of the Hebrews,' &c, 1652-1721. 
 
 LEYDEN, John, a Scotch physician, eminent 
 as a linguist, antiquary, and poet, 1775-1811. 
 
 LEYDEN, John of, a famous leader of the 
 anabaptists, was a tailor's apprentice at the Hague 
 at the close of the 15th century, and his proper 
 name was John Boccold, or Bockels. The events 
 which have handed his name down to posterity 
 form a bloody episode in the history of the Refor- 
 mation. The movements of Luther had been pre- 
 ceded by political and social commotions in Ger- 
 many, and as it gained strength, the spiritual 
 freedom which it promised was carried down into 
 these disaffected elements. Political sects every- 
 where sprang up, who grounded their dogmas in 
 the religious principles of the reformers, and raised 
 the cry of equality against the princes and nobles 
 who had so long oppressed them. The ignorant, 
 the poor, the hopeless, the turbulent, swelled these 
 dangerous bodies to scores of thousands, and they 
 were only vanquished in one principality to rise 
 with fresh vigour in another, and hegin a new 
 reign of terror under other and more daring leaders. 
 One such was John of Leyden, who began to ac- 
 quire influence among them in 1533, about which 
 time he associated himself with the anabaptist 
 Mathison. The name of the party was derived 
 from the alleged necessity of rebaptism into the 
 church, (that of infants being held invalid,) and 
 as the church with them was also the state, this 
 baptism became as the oriflamme of an armed 
 propaganda which threatened every form of exist- 
 ing order. In 1534, the city of Munster was di- 
 vided into two hostile camps, the anabaptists having 
 become so numerous as to proclaim a new religious 
 and political constitution. The prince-bishop was 
 soon deprived of all authority, and collecting his 
 adherent* around him, aud adding to their number 
 
 LIB 
 
 troops of mercenaries, he laid regular siege t( 
 1 New Israel.' Meanwhile, John of Leyden am 
 wife had been proclaimed king and queen, an 
 more than six months their devoted follower 
 fended the city. At length, in June, 1535, 
 troops were admitted by treason in the still 
 of night, but not to an easy conquest. Posse 
 was disputed street by street, and the greater i 
 ber of the anabaptists perished in the combat- 
 city afterwards being delivered up to pillagt 
 eight days. John of Leyden, and some two a 
 accomplices, were taken alive, and executed hv 
 uary, 1536, with the cruelty usual at that pe 
 The anabaptists accepted the free principles o: 
 Reformation without the Bible, in place of n 
 they laid claim to particular inspiration. Lib 
 Quakers, their more peaceful successors, they 
 the subjects of preternatural convulsions 
 visionary hallucinations, which often ended in fir 
 and demoniac possession. See Storch, K 
 
 CER. [ 1 
 
 LEYDEN, J. G. Van, a D. chronicler, d. 1 
 
 LEYDEN, Lucas Van. See Jacobs. 
 
 LEYSER, A., a Prussian jurist, 1663-1752 
 
 LEYSER, Polycarp, a theologian of the 
 
 fession of Augsburg, 1552-1601. His gr 
 
 nephew, of the same name, a literary savant, 1 
 
 1728. John, of the same family, author of 
 
 merous works in favour of polygamy, 1631-K 
 
 LEYSSENS, N., a Flemish painter, 1661-] 
 
 LETO, A., a Spanish painter, 17th century 
 
 LEYVA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1580-1 
 
 LEZARDIERE, Marie Pauline De, 
 
 of Theorie de la Politique de la Monarchic I 
 
 caise,' 1754-1835. 
 
 LEZAY - MARNESIA, Claude Fra 
 
 Adrian, Marquis De, a man of letters, knoi 
 
 a deputy to the estates-general, and for hi 
 
 tempts in 1790 to form a colony in North Arm 
 
 1735-1800. His son, Adrian, Count De I 
 
 Marnesia, a political wr. and diplom., 1770-11 
 
 LHOMOND, C. F., a Fr. grammar., 1727-1 
 
 L'HOPITAL. See Hopital. 
 
 L'HOSE, Nestor, a Fr. Orientalist, 1804-1 
 
 LHUYD, Edward, a Welch antiquarian, at 
 
 of an 'Irish-English Dictionary,' 'Archfto 
 
 Britannica,' &c, 1670-1709. 
 
 LHUYD, LHWYD, or LHOYD, H., a lea 
 
 antiq., au. of a ' History of Cambria.' &c, d. 1 
 
 LIANS, T. P. De, a Span, painter, 1575-1 
 
 LIARD, Joseph, a Fr. engineer, 1747-188 
 
 LIBANIUS, a famous rhetorician, born at 
 
 tioch, and educated at Athens, author of nnm< 
 
 oratorical and moral treatises, most of whid 
 
 still extant, flourished in the time of the em] 
 
 Julian, about 314-390. Libanius was the tet 
 
 of St. Basil and John Chrysostom. 
 
 LIBANIUS, G., a German savant, 16th cei 
 
 LIBARID, a Georgian general, wbo made 
 
 self independent in 1045, and was assassin. V 
 
 LIBARIUS, A., a German physician, di 
 
 guished as the first to speak of the transfusw 
 
 blood from one living being to another, died 1 
 
 LIBERALE, G., an Italian painter, 16th 
 
 LIBERALE, V., an Italian painter, 1451-1 
 
 LIBERATUS, an eccles. writer of the 16tt 
 
 LIBERGE, M., a Fr. jurisconsult 
 
 LIBERI, C. P., an Italian paint' 
 
 LIBERIUS. the successor of Julius as po] 
 
 420 
 
r 
 
 LIB 
 
 lome, 352. At first the friend of Afhanasins, ho 
 fas exiled on his account by the emperor Con- 
 Itantius, but afterwards most weakly and wickedly 
 Inscribed to the Arian tenets. Liberius, how- 
 jver, at last died a good catholic in 366. 
 I LIBIGKI, J., a Polish poet of the 17th century. 
 j LIBURNIO, N., a Venetian savant, 1474-1557. 
 ! LICETI, F., an Italian philosopher, 1577-1657. 
 i LICHERIE, L., a French painter, died 1687. 
 LICHTENAU, Wilhelmina Euke-Rietz, 
 fountess Von, a favourite of Frederick-William 
 fne of Prussia, author of ' Memoirs,' 1754-1820. 
 I LICHTENBERG, George Christopher, a 
 fetural philosopher and moralist, author of many 
 jieces of wit and humour, including a satire on 
 he system of Lavater, entitled ' The Physiognomy 
 f Tails,' and really distinguished for his contri- 
 jitions to the physical sciences, 1742-1799. 
 [LICHTENSTEIN, Joseph Wenceslaus, 
 tince Von, an Austrian field-marshal, 1696-1772. 
 (LICHTENSTEIN, John Joseph, Prince Von, 
 Ji Austrian general and diplomatist, time of Na- 
 pleon, 1760-1833. His cousin, Aloys Gon- 
 kque, distinguished himself at Leipzig 1813, and 
 
 impaigns of 1814-1815. 
 LICHTNER, M. G., a Ger. fabulist, 1719-83. 
 j LICINIUS, Caius, a Roman poet, 1st c. B.C. 
 j LICINIUS, Caius Flavius, a native of Dacia, 
 obscure origin, who was born about 263, and 
 came emperor of Rome in 312. He was de- 
 ated by Constantine 323, and put to death the 
 ar following. His son, Flavius Valerius, 
 ho had been declared Csesar in 317, was put to 
 iath at Constantinople in 326. 
 LICINIUS-STOLO, a Roman plebeian, who he- 
 me tribune B.C. 375, and consul 363 and 360. 
 LICINIUS-TEGULA, a Roman poet, 200 B.C. 
 LIDDEL, Duncan, a Scotch physician and ma- 
 ematician, founder of a professorship, 1561-1613. 
 LIDEN, J. H., a Swedish writer, author of a 
 listory of the Poets of Sweden,' mid. of last cen. 
 LIDNER, B., a Swedish poet, 1759-1793. 
 LIEBE, Ch. S., a Gr. numismatist, 1687-1736. 
 LIEBLE, Ph. L., a French ecclesiastic, au. of 
 'he Limits of Charlemagne's Empire,' 1734-1813. 
 LIEMAKER, N., a Flemish painter, 1575-1647. 
 LIERRE, J. Van, a Flem. painter, abt. 1530-83. 
 LIEUTAUD, J., a Fr. astronomer, 1660-1733. 
 LIEUTAUD, J., a Fr. anatomist, 1703-1780. 
 LIEVEN, Count Von, a Swedish general and 
 nator, dist. at Narva and Pultowa, 1670-1733. 
 UEVENS, J., a Flemish Hellenist, 1546-1599. 
 LIEVENS, J., a Dutch painter, 1607-1663. 
 LIGARIO, P., an Italian painter, 1686-1752. 
 LIGHTFOOT, Dr. John, a Hebrew scholar 
 d divine of the period of the parliamentary wars, 
 rn in Staffordshire 1602, died, vice-chancellor 
 Cambridge, 1675. He was a great master of 
 ibbinical learning, and was much admired for his 
 mper and disinterested conduct in the difficult 
 ne8 through which he had to pass. The Polyglott 
 ble, and Poole's Synopsis Criticonim, are among 
 e great works promoted by him. His own works 
 Te published m 2 vols, folio, 1684, a second 
 ition in 1686, and one of three vols, in 1699. 
 i octavo vol. of his ' Remains,' with some notices 
 bis life, was published by Strvpe. 
 UGHTFOOT, John, a Church of England 
 uister, who dist. himself as a botanist, 1735-88. 
 
 LIL 
 
 LIGNAC, Joseph Adrian Le Large De, a 
 
 priest of the oratory at Paris, distinguished as the 
 author of several curious works in natural history 
 and theology, died 1762. 
 
 LIGNE, Charles Joseph, Prince De, was 
 born of an ancient family at Brussels in 1735, and 
 distinguished himself as a general in the Austrian 
 service from the period of the seven years' war to 
 the congress of Vienna, during the session of which 
 he died, in 1814. He is author of several political 
 works, and of ' Memoirs ' of great interest. His 
 works were collected in 6 volumes 8vo, 1817. 
 
 LIGONIER, John, earl of, a companion-in- 
 arms of Marlborough, bom 1678, commander-in- 
 chief 1757, died 1770. 
 
 LIGORIO, Piero, an architect and antiquary 
 of Naples, who shared the direction of the works 
 at the Vatican with Michelangelo, and that of the 
 erection of St. Peter's with Vignola. He died in 
 1583, and his MSS. and designs collected from the 
 antique, form thirty folio volumes. 
 
 LIGOZZI, J., an Italian painter, 1543-1627. 
 
 LIGUORI, A. M. De, an ascetic wr., 1696-1787. 
 
 LILBURNE, John, a famous English republi- 
 can, whose merits far surpass the reputation in 
 which he has been held, was born of an old family 
 in the county of Durham, 1613, and, after receiv- 
 ing a common education, became a clothier in Lon- 
 don. He was thoroughly imbued with the temper 
 of the times, and was first known to the public 
 through a prosecution of the Star Chamber for com- 
 plicity with Bastwick. His intrepid defence of his 
 rights as a free-born Englishman, before that 
 dreaded bar of the high church party, gained for 
 him the familiar appellation of ' free-born John.' 
 He was condemned to receive 500 lashes at the 
 cart tail, and to stand in the pillory ; but his spirit 
 was only aroused by this disgraceful punishment, 
 his name became the watchword of a large and 
 tumultuous party, and the House of Commons voted 
 the sentence ' barbarous and illegal.' Such a man 
 was not likely to be 'slow' when active measures 
 were resorted to by the parliament. He fought 
 bravely at Edge Hill and Marston Moor, and be- 
 came lieutenant-colonel under the earl of Manches- 
 ter ; for an assault upon whose character he suffered 
 imprisonment, and underwent many hardships 
 His chief fault was the want of a more statesman- 
 like spirit, so that he was continually sinking from 
 the leading position he might have held, in virtue 
 of his integrity and intrepidity, to that of a dema- 
 gogue. He boldly accused Cromwell and Ireton of 
 treason, and the former tried, in vain, to make him 
 comprehend the real situation of affairs, and seems 
 at last to have given him up in despair, and to 
 have prosecuted him from necessity, while he val- 
 ued his steady qualities and incorruptible nature. 
 Reduced to quiescence under the iron hand of the 
 Protector, his political enthusiasm subsided into 
 the religious, and the famous John Lilburne became 
 a preacher among the Quakers. Died 1657. [E.R.] 
 
 LILIEBLAD, G., a learned Swede, 1651-1710. 
 
 LILIECRANTZ, J., a Sw. statesm., 1730-1815. 
 
 LILIENBERG, J. G., chancellor of Sweden, and 
 president of the council of mines, in the reign of 
 Frederick I., died at the end of the last century. 
 His brother, Eric Gustavus, served in France 
 under Marshal Saxe 1740, and died 1770. 
 
 LILIENTHAL, M., a Germ, divine, 1686-1750 
 
 421 
 
LIL 
 
 LILIO, Luigi, in Latin, Ltt.ius, an Italian ma- 
 thematician, author of the plan for reforming the 
 calendar effected by Gregory XIII., died 1579. 
 
 LILLO, George, an English dramatic writer, 
 famous in the delineation of domestic tragedy, 
 author of 'George Barnwell,' 'Fatal Curiosity,' 
 'Arden of Faversham,' and other pieces. Lillo 
 carried on the business of a jeweller, and was a 
 man of unblemished character, 1693-1739. 
 
 LILLY, John, a dramatic writer, author of 
 'Endymion' and 'Midas,' acted before Queen 
 Elizabeth, and of a famous pamphlet, entitled 
 Martin Mar-Prelate,' about 1553-1600. 
 
 LILLY, William, whose reputation as an as- 
 trologer raised him to considerable importance at 
 the time of the parliamentary wars, was born in 
 Leicestershire, 1602, and was "in service in London 
 as a bookkeeper, when his master died, and gave 
 him the opportunity of marrying his widow. This 
 lady possessed a small fortune of about 1,000, 
 and dying six years afterwards left him master of 
 considerable leisure, and of the art of invoking 
 spirits, which he had derived from the instruction 
 of Evans, a Welch clergyman, and from the study 
 of Cornelius Agrippa. The first public trial of his 
 art, however, was an attempt to discover a buried 
 treasure in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey with 
 the use of the divining rod, the chief movers in 
 which were Ramsay and Scot. The actors in this 
 scene were terrified from their purpose by a storm 
 which threatened to bury them beneath the ruins 
 of the abbey, and Lilly, who claims the merit of 
 having 'laid the spirits' by which it was raised, 
 attributed their failure to the want of faith and 
 better knowledge in his companions. In 1634 
 Lilly ventured on a second marriage, which proved 
 unfortunate as a commercial speculation, for though 
 the bride possessed a dowry of 500, she spent 
 more than she brought. In 1644 he published the 
 first of his almanacks, which he continued during 
 the remaining thirty-six years of his lifetime, under 
 the title of ' Merlinus Anglicus.' The predictions 
 contained in this ephemeris, and his interpretation 
 of the three suns which appeared in the heavens that 
 year, on the birth-day of Prince Charles, brought 
 our astrologer a valuable reputation, and he was 
 soon consulted by both the political parties who 
 divided the kingdom. There can be no doubt that 
 his advice was often well-founded, and his predic- 
 tions frequently verified by the events ; but it is 
 just as certain that he was a man of no character. 
 He was a double-dealer and a liar by his own show- 
 ing, but as staunch a believer in his own honesty 
 as in the truth of his art, and perhaps as decent a 
 man as a trading prophet could well be under any 
 circumstances. It is some excuse that he was 
 courted by noble and crowned heads at home and 
 abroad, and richly rewarded by them. In 1648 
 the parliament of England gave him an annual 
 pension of 100, which he threw up in disgust two 
 years afterwards on receiving some affront ; yet he 
 was able to lay out large sums in the purchase of 
 landed property. He died in 1681, leaving works 
 of great interest in the history of astrology, and of 
 some importance as characterizing the times in 
 which he lived, and the historical persons with 
 whom he was associated. [E.K.] 
 
 LILY, William, first master of St. Paul's 
 school, author of a well-kuown Latin grammar, 
 
 LIN 
 
 1468-1522. His son, George, a dignitary of 
 church, and writer of history, died 1559. Pkt 
 brother of George, and his son of the same na 
 were also distinguished in the church, and the 
 ter, who died in 1614, is author of ' Sermons.' 
 LIMBORCH, H. Van, a D. painter, 1680-1; 
 LIMBORCH, Philip, pastor of a congrega 
 of Dutch Remonstrants, and professor of divin 
 was born at Amsterdam 1633, and died in pos: 
 sion of a high personal character and reputat 
 1712. He was nephew, by the mother's side 
 Episcopius, and edited some of his papers in c 
 junction with Hartsoeker. His own works 
 ' Theologia Christiana,' a defence of Arminian pi 
 ciples ; a ' History of the Inquisition,' a ' Comm 
 tary on the Apostolic Writings,' &c. 
 
 LIMIERS, H. Ph. De, born of French pan 
 
 in Holland, cele. as a critic and historian, d. 17 
 
 LIMN MUS, J., a German publicist, 1592-K 
 
 LINACRE, Thomas, a physician and scho 
 
 greatly distinguished in the reigns of Henry A 
 
 and Henry VI II., 1460-1524. 
 
 LINCK, J. H., a German naturalist, 1674-17 
 
 LIND, James, an English physician, died 17 
 
 LINDANUS, W. D., a native of Uort, disl 
 
 guished as a controversial divine, and theoloj 
 
 of the Roman Catholic Church, 1525-1588. 
 
 LINDBLOM, A , a Swedish prelate, 1747-1$ 
 
 LINDEN, J. A. VANDER,a D. phys., 1609- 
 
 LINDERN, F. B. Von, a Ger. botan., 1682-17 
 
 LINDET, A. T., a French priest, and meir 
 
 of the convention, 1743-1823. His brother, J. 
 
 Robert Lindet, a member of the Committe< 
 
 Public Safety, died 1825. 
 
 LINDSAY, Sir David. See Lyndsay. 
 
 LINDSAY, J., a nonjuring minister of Lone 
 
 au. of a ' History of the Regal Succession,' d. 17 
 
 LINDSAY, R.. a Scottish historian, 16th ce 
 
 LINDSEY, Theophilus, a Church of Engl 
 
 divine, afterwards known as a preacher and wr 
 
 on Socinianism, 1723-1808. 
 
 LINDWOOD, W., an English divine, died 14 
 
 LINGARD, Dr. John, the Roman Cath 
 
 historian of England, was born in Winches 
 
 1771, and made his first appearance as an aut 
 
 in 1805, when he wrote a series of letters in 
 
 Newcastle Courant, entitled ' Catholic Loyi 
 
 Vindicated.' To Dr. Lingard belongs the i 
 
 honour of refusing a cardinal's hat. He died, a 
 
 a life of ' illustrious obscurity,' 1851. 
 
 LINGLOIS, P. F., a French jurist, 1580-16! 
 
 LINGUET, Simon Nicholas Henry, a a 
 
 brated political writer and historian, bom 17 
 
 executed after taking an active part in the Fre: 
 
 revolution, 1794. 
 
 LINIERE, F. P. De, a French poet, 1628-17 
 LINIERS-BREMONT, Don Santiago, 
 Spanish commander, who defended Buenos A\ 
 against the English in 1806-7, and having trea 
 with Buonaparte, was shot by a party of revc 
 tionists, 26th August, 1809. 
 
 LINLEY, Thomas, a distinguished vocal cc 
 poser, received his first instructions in music ft 
 Thomas Chillcott, and afterwards from the a 
 brated Paradies. Linley was for many years c 
 ductor of the oratorios and concerts at 15; 
 and has been called the restorer of the music 
 Handel, in the same sense as Garrick was of 
 plays of Shakspeare. Linley went to Lon 
 
 422 
 
LIN 
 
 ind became joint patentee of Drrny Lane theatre 
 ,ith his son-in-law, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, 
 i which establishment he, for many years, con- 
 tacted the musical department of the entertain- 
 ments. He composed music for the following 
 'ieces, namely 'The Duenna,' 'The Carnival of 
 i'enice,' ' Selima and the Royal Merchant,' ' The 
 tamp,' 'The Spanish Maid,' 'The Stranger at 
 ifome]' 'Love m the East,' and many other 
 jieces. His madrigal for four voices, 
 
 I Let me, careless and until ouglitful lying, 
 Hear the soft winds above me flying,' 
 
 j considered equal in all respects, and superior to 
 bry many of the most celebrated compositions of 
 he same class. Linley died in London in 1795, 
 id was buried in Wells cathedral, in the same 
 mlt with his daughters, Mrs. Sheridan and Mrs. 
 ickell. [J.M.] 
 
 LINLEY, Thomas, a son of the preceding, cele- 
 ated as a violinist, drowned at the age of twenty- 
 /o, 1778. His younger son, William, a writer 
 id composer of songs, born about 1767. 
 LINN, William, a minister and protestant 
 dter of New York, 1752-1808. His son, John 
 [.air Linn, a distinguished poet, 1777-1804. 
 LINNiEUS, Charles, or Cakl Von Linne, 
 e of the greatest systematic botanists and na- 
 ralists the world has ever seen, was born in 
 reden in 1707. He died in 1778. Sweden is 
 stly proud of having given birth to Linnaeus, 
 s father was a poor clergyman in a rural dis- 
 ct, who could scarce afford to give his son an 
 ncation for a profession, and was at one time 
 ;irly apprenticing him to a shoemaker ; and yet 
 see this son in after years, by dint of his own 
 nius and talents, rising to the rank of a noble- 
 in, and exercising; even while alive, a most ex- 
 ordinary and universal influence over the whole 
 ence of natural history. During the earlier years 
 his life he endured many privations and much 
 verty ; but his extensive acquirements procured 
 n numerous friends, and in 1741, at the age of 
 rty-four, he succeeded in being appointed to the 
 ifessorship ot medicine at the university of Up- 
 a, where he had studied in his youth ; Rosen 
 s professor of botany, a chair which Linnaeus 
 old have preferred, but by an amicable arrange- 
 nt the former lectured on medical subjects, 
 lile the latter taught natural history. Previous 
 his appointment to this chair Linnaeus had tra- 
 led through Lapland, where he had been sent 
 ithe Academy of Sciences for the purpose of ex- 
 jring the natural history of that arctic region ; 
 
 Ihad visited and examined the great mines' of 
 eden, where he acquired a good knowledge of 
 leralogy ; he had explored the natural history 
 ilia, for which purpose he had been sent 
 Jthe governor of that province ; he had visited 
 . Germany, Holland, and England, and 
 IH thus laid up a vast store of knowledge in all 
 kingdoms of nature. The extent of this 
 Jwledge may be judged of from his ' Sy sterna 
 wWBj a work which has now been before the 
 Id for more than a century ; and which, not- 
 Mbstanding that our acquaintance with the 
 nature has increased a hundred-fold since 
 I time, is almost indispensable to every na- 
 tjdist even at the present day His acquire- 
 
 LIS 
 
 ments in natural history were universal ; still it is 
 in botany that he has obtained most success and 
 his greatest glory. His arrangement of plants by 
 the sexual system, or by the number, disposition, 
 &c, of the stamina and pistils, maintained the 
 pre-eminence over all rival systems till very lately, 
 and even now, though superseded in a great mea- 
 sure by the natural method of Jussieu, retains a 
 most useful place in the study of botany. The 
 binomial nomenclature which he introduced into 
 botany and zoology, or the use of trivial or specific 
 names appended to the generic, to distinguish the 
 different species of animals and plants, is one of 
 the most important helps to the advancement of 
 the study of natural history that has ever been 
 discovered, and which alone would have immor- 
 talized the name of Linnaeus. In 1747 Linnaeus 
 was appointed physician to the king ; in 1753 he 
 was created a knight of the Polar Star ; and in 
 1757 he was raised to the rank of nobility. [W.B.J 
 
 LINT, Peter Van, a Flemish historical and 
 portrait painter, 1609-1668. His brother, Hen- 
 drick, a painter and engraver, end of the cent. 
 
 LINTHOCST, J., a Dutch painter, 1755-1815. 
 
 LINUS, a supposed bishop of Rome, 1st cent. 
 
 LINWOOD, Miss, famous for her exhibition of 
 needle-work pictures in Leicester Square, was born 
 in Birmingham, 1755, and died 1845. Her copies 
 of pictures from the old masters possessed extra- 
 ordinary merit; and forone of them, which she be- 
 queathed to the queen, she is said to have refused 
 an offer of three thousand guineas. The collection 
 met the usual fate of such things after her death, 
 and was dispersed by auction. 
 
 LIONEL, lord of Ferraro and Modena, 1441-50. 
 
 LIOTARD, John Stephen, a famous enamel 
 painter, who was called 'the Turk' on account 
 of adopting the Turkish costume, born at Geneva 
 1702, died about 1776. His brother, John 
 Michael, distinguished in Paris as an engraver, 
 died after 1760. 
 
 LIOTARD, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1729-1796. 
 
 LIPENIUS, M., a German divine, 1630-1692. 
 
 LIPPERT, P. S., a German artist, 1703-1785. 
 
 LIPPI, Francesco Filippo, a painter of Flo- 
 rence, born about 1412, died 1469. His son, 
 Philippino, also distin. as a painter, 1460-1505. 
 
 LIPPI, Lorenzo, a famous painter of altar 
 pieces, known also as a burlesque poet, 1606-1664. 
 
 LIPPO, a Florentine painter, assassinated 1347. 
 
 LIPSIUS, J. G., a Ger. numismatist, died 1820. 
 
 LIPSIUS, Justus, a celebrated philologist, 
 critic, and antiquary, and prof, at Leyden and Lou- 
 vain, born at Isch, near Brussels, 1547, died 1606. 
 
 LIRELLI, S.,an Italian astronomer, 1751-1811. 
 
 LIRIS, Leo Du, an astronomer. 17th century. 
 
 LIRON, J., a learned ecclesiastic, 1665-1748. 
 
 LIS, or LYS, John Vander, a Dutch painter, 
 1570-1629 ; another of the same name, 1600-1657. 
 
 LISCOV, Chr. L., a German poet, died 1760. 
 
 LISLE, Claude De, a French geographer, 
 historian, and genealogist, 1644-1720. His son, 
 Louis, a physician and wr. on astronomy, d. 1741. 
 
 LISLE, Sir G., a royalist officer, famous for his 
 defence of Colchester, snot by the republicans 1648. 
 
 LISLE, J. Troins De, a Provencal adventurer 
 and alchymist, b. abt. 1662, d. in the Bastile 1712. 
 
 LISLE, W., an English antiquary, died 1637. 
 
 LISLE. See Delisle, Delisle-De Sales. 
 
 423 
 
LIS 
 
 LIST, Frederic, a political economist and 
 member of the parliament of Wurtemberg, founder 
 of the Zollverein or customs union, 1789-1846. 
 
 LISTER, M., an English naturalist, died 1712. 
 
 LISTER, T. H., a miscellaneous writer, 1801-42. 
 
 LISTON, John, was born in Norris Street, 
 FTaymarket, in 1776, and was educated at Dr. 
 Barrow's, Soho school. In 1795 he became him- 
 self second master at the Grammar, or Library 
 school, Castle Street, Leicester Square, under 
 Archdeacon Tennyson, and was all his life long a 
 great reader. From this school he was, however, 
 expelled for acting plays with the big boys, and 
 went into an office as a clerk. The first time he 
 performed in London, was at the Haymarket, on a 
 benefit night, as Rawbold, in The Iron Chest.' 
 Alter this, obtaining 40 from a friend for the 
 purpose, he resolved to adopt the stage as a pro- 
 roawon, and spent the money in the purchase of 
 theatrical properties. He then acted at Taunton, 
 Exeter, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. His first 
 comic part was Diggory in ' She Stoops to Con- 
 quer,' and he raised the character at once into im- 
 portance. On the 10th June, 1806, Mr. Liston 
 appeared again at the Havmarket, as a debutant, 
 in Sheepface, in 'The Village Lawyer.' Miss 
 Tyrer (afterwards his wife) made her first appear- 
 ance there also on the same night, as Agnes in 
 4 The Mountaineers.' His next character was Zekiel 
 Homespun. But it was not until the following 
 October, and at Covent Garden theatre, that he 
 secured extraordinary attention, by the part of 
 Jacob Gawkey, in ' The Chapter of Accidents.' 
 The reputation thus acquired he quite established 
 by his Lord Grizle in ' Tom Thumb,' in which he 
 had to sing ' the dancing song ' three times. His 
 elegant and symmetrical form was exhibited in 
 this feat, and undoubtedly contributed to his re- 
 markable success. His wife also produced a simi- 
 lar sensation in Queen Dolabella Notwithstand- 
 ing his^ success in these comic and burlesque parts, 
 Mr. Liston thought himself a tragic actor, and 
 17th May, 1809, attempted Ocfavian. His Domi- 
 nie Sampson, indeed, and Adam Brock evinced 
 touches of genuine pathos. In 1823, Mr. Liston 
 had an engagement at Drury Lane of 50 a-week, 
 which he commenced with Tony Lumpkin. His 
 Maworm next year was applauded by George 
 IV r . himself, who encored the celebrated sermon ; 
 and the public nightly afterwards imitated the 
 royal example. In 1825, he appeared in his 
 famous character of Paul Pry; this was the climax 
 of Mr. Liston's popularity. The furor for the 
 play was immense. Mr. Liston was henceforth to 
 be seen moulded in all conceivable materials 
 plaster, clay, china, butter; he gave signs to pub- 
 lic houses, names to coaches, and portraits to 
 Socket-handkerchiefs. In 1831, Mr. Liston joined 
 radame Vestris at the Olympic, where he enjoyed 
 an income of 60 a-week, and appeared as Domi- 
 nique, in a new piece, by Mr. Charles Dance, called 
 4 Talk of the Devil.' At this theatre, Mr. Liston 
 continued until 1837. The last night he performed 
 was at the Lyceum, for the benefit of Mr. James 
 Vining but he never took a formal farewell of 
 the stage. His death took place on the 22d 
 March, 1846, from apoplexy. The attributes of j 
 
 Mr. Liston's acting were nature, thought, and a dist. judge of the state of New York, 1 
 
 LIVIUS ANDRONICL'S ' 
 
 fcludy ; his conduct in private life was exempl 
 
 ary, 
 
 LIV 
 
 and he was remarkable for attention to his r 
 gious duties. [J.A.] 
 
 LISTON, R., a famous surgeon, 1794-1847 
 LITHGOW, W., a Scotch traveller, d 
 L1THOV, Gust., a Swedish poet, bo 
 LITTA, Pompeo, Count, an Italiai 
 antiquarian, died 1852. 
 LITTLE, W., an English historian, born 113 
 LITTLEBURY, J., an English divine, 
 LITTLETON, Adam, a divine of the Cliurcl 
 England, celebrated for his skill in t: 
 languages, au. of a Latin dictionary, &c, 
 LITTLETON, Edw., a divine and poet, .1. 17 
 LITTLETON, or LYTTLETON, Thom1 
 famous authority in matters of law, wa- 
 in the reign of Edward IV., and author ol 
 on 'Tenures,' which is the text-book of Cok 
 Commentaries, died 1481. Judge Littleton i 
 three sons William, ancestor of the Lords I 
 tleton of Worcestershire ; Richard, a lawyer 
 the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII.; t 
 Thomas, knighted by Henry VII. for the capt 
 of Lambert Simnel. A John Littleton i 
 scendedfrom William, was a partizan of the ear 
 Essex in the reign of Elizabeth, and died in pri 
 1600. Edward Littleton, descended fr 
 Thomas, was lord-keeper in the reign of Charles 
 and created baron of Mounslow in . v 
 flourished in 1589-1645. Another descendant 
 Thomas, was a Sir Thomas Littletos 
 of the H. of Commons in the reign of AY 
 LITTRE, Alexis, a Fr anatomist, 1 1 
 LITTROW, J. J., a Ger. astronomer, died 18| 
 LIVERPOOL, Charles Jexkinson, earl 
 a member of parliament and statesman, who oo 
 pied various offices from 1761 to 1784, and d 
 at the age of eighty-one, 1808. His son, Robe 
 Banks Jenkinson, earl of Liverpool, born 17 
 was the famous statesman who held the premi 
 ship from 1812 till 1827. Died 1828. 
 
 LIVIA-DRUSILLA, a Roman empress of t 
 Claudian family, who was first married to Til 
 Claudius Nero, and forcibly taken from him 
 Augustus, who divorced his own wife in order 
 marry her. Having no children by the empei 1 
 he adopted her sons by her first husband, onti 
 whom, Tiberius, became his successor. Li 
 died in the eighty-sixth year of her age. 29. 
 
 LIVIA-LIVILLA, granddaughter of the p 
 ceding by her other son, Drusus Germanicus, m i 
 ried her cousin, Drusus, son of Tiberius, and M 
 ing poisoned her husband in concert with Sejanj 
 died in a dungeon 35. 
 LIVINEIUS, J., a Flemish divine, died 159:' 
 LIVINGSTON, Edward, an American law; 
 and statesman, au. of a new criminal code. d. IK 
 
 LIVINGSTON, John, minister of I 
 church at Rotterdam, auth. of ' Letters ' 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Robt., a distinguished Ame| 
 can statesman and diplomatist. He was one; 
 the committee who drew up the declaration 
 independence; in 1780 was secretary for fore) 
 affairs; and after filling the office of chancellor 
 the state of New York was appointed minister; 
 France in the time of Buonaparte ; 1746-1818. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, William, an Ai. 
 and statesman, 1723-90. His son, Broc 
 
 See And 
 
 424 
 
LIV 
 [VY. Titus Lrvius Patavinus, the only 
 trious Roman historian of the Augustan age, 
 bom at Patavium (now Padua), a town of 
 Lombardo- Venetian kingdom in Italy, B.C. 59, 
 he consulship of Caesar and Bibulus. The 
 ame, Patavinus, seems to fix the place of his 
 ,' but, according to some authorities, he was 
 
 [Livy From an Antique Bus/.] 
 
 at a village six miles to the south of Pata- 
 , The records of his life, like those of many 
 atl s of the literaiy men of antiquity, are meagre 
 unsatisfactory the materials necessary to 
 fa a connected narrative having been supplied 
 e imaginations of some of his biographers, 
 sing the early portion of his life, perhaps 
 itive town, he appears to have gone to 
 iring the reign of Augustus, where his 
 dents soon obtained for him the favour 
 amatronage of the emperor. As an admirer of 
 th ancient institutions of his country, Livy 
 atihed himself in opinion to the party of Pom- 
 pe and considered him as the greatest of Roman 
 Semen and heroes; but Augustus, entertaining 
 there regard for the historian, did not allow 
 ship and patronage to be affected by 
 po|cal opinions, though they seemed to call in 
 emion the right by which he ruled the destinies 
 Hmm. Having spent the greater part of his 
 Ha the metropolis, he returned in old age to 
 of his birth, and there died a.d. 18, in 
 ry-seventh year of his age. He left a 
 also a daughter, who married L. Magius, 
 of rhetoric, a man of moderate talents, 
 I his subsequent success principally to his 
 >n with the historian. The preceding 
 ment contains all the authentic facts 
 win have descended to us in connection with 
 personal history of Livy. Many other par- 
 are related by wnters who profess to 
 mil the life of the Roman historian ; but these 
 Hither altogether illusory, or rest upon evidence 
 wl i will not bear examination. Thus he is said 
 tope commenced his career as a rhetorician, 
 ealo have written a work on that science ; to 
 haibeen twice married, and to have left two sons 
 d daughters; to have been in the habit. 
 I, Horace, and other wits of the day, of 
 much of his time at Naples; and to have 
 ted the notice of Augustus by present- 
 ujjb him some dialogues on philosophy. He is 
 
 LLO 
 
 also said to have been the tutor of Claudius, 
 afterwards emperor, and to have recommended to 
 his pupil, in early life, to attempt historical com- 
 position. Livy has erected for himself an enduring 
 monument in 'his History of Rome. This great 
 work, which he modestly designated Annates 
 (Annals), contained the history of the Roman 
 state from the earliest period till the death of 
 Drusus B.C. 9, and originally consisted of 142 
 books. Only 35 of these have descended to us; 
 of the others, with the exception of two, we 
 possess Epitomes, or short summaries, but the 
 books themselves have been entirely lost. The 
 existing books were brought to light at various 
 times ; some of them towards the middle of the 
 sixteenth century, and a fragment of the ninety- 
 first book appeared for the first time in 1772. 
 The hope so long entertained by the learned, that 
 the lost b~oks would yet be recovered seems now 
 to have yielded to despair. From internal evidence 
 there appears to be reason for believing that the 
 history was divided by the author into decades, or 
 portions each containing ten books. The first 
 decade, which embraces the history till b.c. 294, 
 is entire ; the second is lost ; the third, fourth, and 
 the first five books of the fifth, containing the 
 history from B.C. 219 to B.C. 167, also remain to 
 us. Of the other books nothing has been pre- 
 served except some inconsiderable fragments. It 
 is impossible to ascertain the time during which 
 the historian was occupied with his great work. 
 Nicbuhr fixes the commencement of it in b.c. 9, 
 when he was fifty years old, and believes that he 
 had not fully accomplished his design at the close 
 of his life. In forming an estimate of Livy as an 
 historian, it is necessary to bear in mind the 
 object which he seems to have proposed to himself. 
 As a Roman and a patriot, his grand purpose was 
 to celebrate the glories of his native country, and 
 the disinterested patriotism which raised it to 
 universal supremacy. He adopted the early his- 
 tory as he found it, exhibiting the legends in 
 attractive language, without inquiring into their 
 authenticity. He makes no pretensions to the 
 character of a critical historian, and thus, 
 in some degree, escapes from the charge which 
 may fairly be alleged against him, of not consult- 
 ing the public records. ' His style may be pro- 
 nounced almost faultless ; and a great proof of its 
 excellence is, that the charms with which it is in- 
 vested are so little salient, and so equally diffused, 
 that no one feature can be selected for special 
 eulogy, but the whole unite to produce a form of 
 singular beauty and grace. The narrative flows on 
 in a calm, but strong current, clear and sparkling, 
 but deep and unbroken ; the diction displays rich- 
 ness without heaviness, and simplicity without 
 tameness. Nor is his art as a painter less wonder- 
 ful. There is a distinctness in the outline and a 
 warmth of colouring in all his delineations, whether 
 of living men in action, or of things inanimate, 
 which never fail to call up the whole scene, with 
 all its adjuncts, before our eyes.' [C.F.J 
 
 LLORENTE, Don Juan Antonio, a Spanish 
 historian and chancellor of Toledo, 1756-1823. 
 
 LLOYD, Charles, bishop of Oxford, and for 
 some time a teacher of Sir Robert Peel, 1784-1829. 
 
 LLOYD, David, a Welch biographer and his- 
 torian, reader to the Charter-house in London, and 
 
 425 
 
LLO 
 
 LOC 
 
 raShflt of a ' Life of General Monk,' ' Memoirs of ( main points which constitute it a landmark 
 Persons who Suffered for Loyalty,' &c, 1G25-91. the circumstances in which it arose and 
 
 LLOYD, EDWARD, a Welch antia., 1660-1709, 
 LLOYD, Henry, a Welch officer m the sen-ice 
 of the kins; of Prussia and the empress of Russia, 
 author of works on tactics, and of a ' History of 
 the Seven Years' War,' 1729-1783. 
 LLOYD, Nicil, a learned writer, 16.14-1680. 
 LLOYD, Roeert, an English poet, 1733-1764. 
 LLOYD, William, a dignitary of the Church 
 of England, distinguished for his writings relating 
 to history and divinity, and his share in the poli- 
 tical transactions of his time, born in Berkshire 
 I87. chaplain to Charles II. 1666, bishop of St. 
 Asaph 1680, bishop of Lichfield 1692, bishop of 
 Lichfield 1699, died 1717. Bishop Lloyd was one 
 of the prelates who joined Sancroft in protesting 
 against the toleratiou act of James II. 
 
 LLYWELYN, the name of three Welch princes 
 the Jirsl reigned over South Wales, and fell 
 while defending his country from the Scotch in- 
 vader, Aulaff, 998-1021 ; the second, king of North 
 Wales, married to the daughter of John, king of 
 England, died, after reigning forty- six years, in 
 1 240 ; the third and last sovereign of Wales, fell in 
 battle against Edward I., after a reign of twenty- 
 eight vears, 1282. 
 
 LLYWELYN, the name of two Welch bards, 
 the earlier of whom lived between 1130 and 1180, 
 the later, a native of Glamorganshire, died 1616. 
 LLYWELYN, Th., a Welch divine, died 1796. 
 LOBAU, George Mouton, Count De, a 
 general of the French empire, distinguished for his 
 gallantry and his adherence to Napoleon, who 
 called him ' the best colonel that ever commanded 
 a French regiment,' was born 1770, and, being 
 wounded at Waterloo, was sent prisoner to Eng- 
 land, where he remained till 1818. Having re- 
 turned to France, he took part in the revolution of 
 1830, and was the successor of Lafayette as com- 
 mander of the national guard. He was made a 
 peer and marshal of France 1831. Died 1839. 
 LOBB, Theophilus, a medical wr., 1678-1763. 
 LOBEIRA, Vasco, a Portuguese writer, author 
 of the romance of ' Amadis de Gaul,' died 1403. 
 LOBEL, M. De, a Flem. botanist, 1538-1616. 
 LOBINEAU, G. A., a learned wr., 1666-1727. 
 LOBKOWIZ, G. C, Prince Von, an Austrian 
 general, 1702-1753. His son, Joseph, a famous 
 military officer and ambassador, 1725-1802. 
 LOBO, Gerard, a Span, poet, d. about 1668. 
 LOBO, Jerome, aPortug. mission., 1593-1678. 
 LOBSTEIN, J. F., a Ger. anatom., 1736-1784. 
 LOCATELLI, L., an Ital. chemist, died 1637. 
 LOCCENIUS, J., a Swedish hist., 1599-1677. 
 LOCHNER, J. J., a Ger. numismat., 1600-1669. 
 LOCHNER, M. F., a Ger. naturalist, 1662-1720. 
 LOCK, Mat., an Eng. composer, abt. 1635-77. 
 LOCKART, Alex., a Scot, lawyer, 1675-1732. 
 LOCKE, John, born at Wrington, near Bris- 
 tol, on 29th August, 1632; died at Oates, in 
 Essex, on 28th October, 1704. A name than 
 which there is none higher in English philosophical 
 literature ; the name of a Man, surpassed by no 
 one, in that worth which constitutes the dignity of 
 an independent English gentleman. It is notour 
 intention to offer in this place an analysis of the 
 celebrated Essay Concerning the Human Under- 
 standing;' suffice it to touch rapidly on those 
 
 peculiarities that gave 
 
 [Birth place of John Locke.] 
 
 Falling, like Kant after him, on a period of o 
 sidedness or dogmatism when statements ac 
 rate in the main, had, through their imperfect 
 as representatives of the whole truth, been twis 
 into assertions of error Locke found the freedon 
 the Human Understanding attacked by the C; 
 tesians, with the weapon named by them 'Inn 
 Ideas.'' Inquiry he found fearless and ratio 
 stopped at both its termini : truths eki 
 within its reach were repudiated because 
 pretended conflict with so-called Innate Lie 
 and regions apparently beyond the sphere of i 
 faculties, were on the same authority sketel 
 out and described, with the pedantry of a n 
 chanical Surveyor. To determine the length ofi 
 tine, was therefore Locke's first resolve ; nor c 
 it be asserted that his preliminary war with 1 
 nate Ideas, is in the sense in which he looked 
 the subject wholly unsuccessful. Rightly int 
 preted, his theory is this no authoritative be! 
 can be found in the Mind, which has not 
 origin in Experience ; and the most extensive 
 nearly universal Beliefs existing, are shaped a 
 coloured by the varying experience of the in 
 and nations entertaining them. The thesis, 
 stated, cannot be impugned; neither the valne 
 its assertion at the epoch of Locke: but c 
 philosopher fails in establishing the propositi 
 which he supposed to be his thesis, viz., tt 
 there are no Beliefs in the mind of man, wbk 
 although suggested by, and in their forn 
 dependent on Experience, cannot yet be e 
 plained unless we attribute to the Thinki 
 Faculty, a proper and independent 
 Force. Des Cartes himself did not 
 Locke imagined he thought: and, to tl 
 trious Man the first three chapters of ; 
 have therefore no true reference. Following o 
 his partial, because controversial first \; 
 proceeds to unfold in what manner eve 
 nized or defensible notion, belonging to tin 
 Understanding may grow up in it. An imperfe 
 first view we have said for while looking 
 the error, he misses the truth of the Ca 
 he never even proposed to establish bj 
 minary and rigorous analysis, what those cha 
 
 426 
 
i 
 
 mm 
 
 mmmm 
 
 s 
 
 wSMm 
 
 
 fflBKm 
 
 //,' //'// . .^/. "//,/. 
 
 </x/s 'S/sr//^nr / ' 
 

LOG 
 
 ristics of otir various classes of Ideas are, 
 which every just philosophy must give an 
 )unt. Missing therefore, not unnaturally, 
 of their main characteristics ; confounding 
 ssity and infinity, with the simple attributes 
 generality, and immensity, he proceeds to de- 
 all the forms and results of the Understand- 
 from our pure Sensations, and the operation 
 ;hese of what he terms Reflection. Closely 
 tinized, Locke's Reflection amounts to nothing 
 e than the exercise of Memory, Compar- 
 and, the processes known as Association. 
 exercise of the Mind as a voluntary Agency 
 ed seems to remain ; but as Leibnitz soon 
 ted out, and as subsequent History showed, 
 descent from this Scheme was easy, towards 
 undisguised Sensationalism of Condillac and 
 French School of the close of last century, 
 harge John Locke as sound and practical a 
 ier as ever lived with the extravagances of 
 hypothetic schemes, were the worst injustice ; 
 rtbeless, there is no precaution against the 
 at excesses of sensational philosophy, in his 
 of presenting the genesis of human thought ; 
 it cannot be gainsayed, that the ' Essay ' in 
 important directions, has been the parent 
 
 Iig ourselves of as much mischief as could well 
 3ace amidst the realities of the English mind. 
 Hy antagonistic to absolutism in thought or life, 
 i less repellant of the doctrines of Sir Robert 
 er, than of all theocratic dogmatism, this re- 
 able work seemed, however, to harmonize with 
 otions of rational liberty ; and it became the 
 rite text-book of our best men during the dif- 
 periods when Locke wrote. Himself practically 
 sd with the sense of personality and inde- 
 :e in all things, our Philosopher stood by 
 tional Liberty, suffered with it, and shared 
 iumphs. Menaced by the Court party as 
 )t a court as the sun ever shone on, then 
 d in England he withdrew to Holland, and 
 time found shelter. During this voluntary 
 his name was erased from the roll of the 
 of Christ Church Oxford, in conse- 
 of a Royal Mandate ; and the spirit of 
 itition went so far as to demand the rendi- 
 our philosopher from the States-General, 
 times, however, were dawning on England. 
 Revolution in 1688, Locke returned in the 
 that brought home our future queen, the 
 of Orange ; and henceforward his career 
 perous. His residence in Holland, how- 
 Ms not without avail to him. Associating 
 with dissentient protestants, he acquired 
 notion of that cardinal principle, on the 
 l of which alone, Protestantism can live ; 
 showed this in his Letters, on Tolera- 
 as well as in the just freedom of his 
 It is seldom that a personal History 
 ich delights one, as that of John Locke. 
 ily can no one discern a stain on the nature 
 of the great Englishman , but his 
 3al career, is everywhere in strictest accor- 
 with the principles he laboured to establish, 
 attached to the cause of Toleration, civil or 
 he scrupled not to suffer for either, nor 
 s opposition to any faction ever drive him 
 noderation and justice, disincline him to 
 his opponents aright, or to conceal the 
 
 427 
 
 LOK 
 
 excesses of the party, whose fortunes he mainly 
 espoused. He accepted Human Liberty as a 
 basis of his philosophy; and practically stood by 
 that. Few writers, before or since, in England, 
 have had a finer sense of the respect owing to the 
 determinations of the personal Conscience. The 
 student is specially recommended to the admirable 
 life of John Locke by Lord King. f J.P.N.] 
 
 LOCKMAN, J., a miscellaneous wr., 1698-1771. 
 
 LOCKYER, N., a nonconf. divine, 1612-1684. 
 
 LOCRE-DE-BOISSY, J. W., a German of 
 French descent, distinguished as a writer on com- 
 mercial law, 1758-1840. 
 
 LODGE, Edmund, clarencieux-king-at-arms, 
 well known for his ' Portraits of Illustrious Per- 
 sonages of Great Britain,' besides which he wrote 
 ' Illustrations of British History,' and other works 
 of great learning and research, 1756-1839. 
 
 LODGE. Thomas, an English poet, died 1625. 
 
 LODGE, William, an engraver 1649-1689. 
 
 LOEFLING, P., a Swed. botanist, 1729-1756. 
 
 LOESEL, J., a German botanist, 1607-1656. 
 
 LOFTE, Capel, well known as a miscellaneous 
 writer and contributor to magazine literature, was 
 a gentleman of property, who was educated for 
 the law, and became one of the magistrates of 
 Suffolk, born in London 1751, died 1824. 
 
 LOFTUS, Dudley, an Orient, scholar, 1612-95. 
 
 LOGAN, John, a pleasing versifier and poet, 
 was born in the county of Edinburgh in 1748. 
 When a very young man he edited the poems of 
 the deceased Michael Brace, and involved himself 
 in controversy by printing in the volume pieces 
 which he claimed, probably with justice, as his 
 own. In 1770 he became minister of the parish of 
 South Leith ; and his two volumes of Sermons, 
 published after his death, show him to have pos- 
 sessed a singularly fine flow of animated elo- 
 quence. He was also one of the most active 
 and valuable of the contributors to the collection 
 of metrical ' Translations and Paraphrases,' used 
 in the public worship of the Church of Scot- 
 land. He delivered Lectures on History, a sy- 
 nopsis of which he published, and aspired un- 
 successfully to a professorship. A volume of 
 f)oems, appearing in 1781, was extremely popular ; 
 iterary avocations engrossed his attention more 
 and more ; and he soon came decidedly into colli- 
 sion with the opinion of the public in Scotland as 
 to the proprieties of the clerical profession, by pub- 
 lishing and bringing on the stage his tragedy of 
 ' Runymede.' His spirits sank, and his habits be- 
 came irregular. He retired from his pastoral 
 charge, spent about two years in London as a re- 
 viewer and pamphleteer, and died there in the end 
 of 1788. [W.S.] 
 
 LOGAU, Frederick, Baron De, a German 
 poet, whose epigrams and other pieces have been 
 edited by Lessmg, 1604-1655. 
 
 LOGGAN, David, an engr. of Dantzic, d. 1700. 
 
 LOHAIA, Ib., an Arabian savant, 8th century. 
 
 LOIR, Nicholas P., a Fr. painter, 1624-1670. 
 
 LOISEAU, J. F., a Fr. republican, died 1822. 
 
 LOISEAU, J. S., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1536-1617. 
 
 LOISEL, A., a French jurisconsult, died 1822. 
 
 LOKMAN, an ancient Arabian philosopher and 
 fabulist, surnamed Alhakim, or the Wise. He is 
 supposed to have been contemporary with King 
 David, and even to have lived under his patronage 
 
LOL 
 
 and died in Jerusalem, but his history is involved 
 in great obscuritv. The fables which bear his name 
 were first published in 1636, and his name is given 
 to a chapter in the Koran. 
 
 LOLI, Laurent, an Ital. painter, 1612-1691. 
 
 LOLLARD, or LOLLHARI), Walter, burnt 
 for supposed heresy at Cologne in 1322. There is 
 little reason to suppose that lie was the namefather 
 of the sect of the Lollards, or Lollhards. The pro- 
 bability is, that the term is an old German one, of 
 the same root as our word lull, in the phrase, lull 
 to sleep ; and that it was given to those sects in 
 whose religion psalm-singing in a low tone formed 
 a distinguished part. It was thus applied by 
 popish ecclesiastics to a great variety of religious 
 parties on the continent as a term of reproach, and 
 in England, was appropriated to the followers of 
 Wycliffe. [J.E.] 
 
 LOLLI, or LOLLY, Antonio, a celebrated 
 violinist, was born at Bergama in 1723. From 
 1762 to 1773 he was concert-master to the duke 
 of Wurtemburg. He afterwards went to Russia, 
 where he became a great favourite with Catherine 
 II. He died, after a lingering illness, at Naples 
 in 1802. [J.M.] 
 
 LOLLIANUS, a Roman emperor, killed 267. 
 
 LOLLIUS, Marius, a Roman consul, 21 B.C. 
 
 LOM, Josse Van, a Dut. physician, 1500-1562. 
 
 LOMAZZO, J. P., an Ital. painter, abt. 1538-92. 
 
 LOMBARD, C. L., a Fr. surgeon, 1741-1811. 
 
 LOMBARD, J. G., a Prus. statesm., 1767-1812. 
 
 LOMBARD, J. L., a wr. on tactics, 1723-1794. 
 
 LOMBARD, L., a Flemish painter. 1482-1565. 
 
 LOMBARD, Peter, best known as the author 
 of a book of ' Sentences ' collected from the fathers 
 of the church, whose contradictions he en- 
 deavoured to reconcile, was a native of Novara, 
 in Lombardy, and died soon after his election to 
 the archbishopric of Paris, 1160. His work 
 acquired a high degree of celebrity in the middle 
 ages, and gave rise to many glosses and exposi- 
 tions by theologians of all classes, which are now 
 out of date. He was also author of some Scrip- 
 ture commentaries. 
 
 LOMBARDI, A., an Ital. sculptor, 1487-1536. 
 
 LOMBARDO, J., an Ital. sculptor, b. abt. 1510. 
 
 LOMBARDO, Pietro, a Venetian architect and 
 sculptor, who flourished with his sons, Anthony 
 and Tulxjo, in the 15th century. The nephew 
 and pupil of the latter, Santo Lombardo, dis- 
 tinguished as an architect, 1504-1560. 
 
 LOMBART, P., a French engraver, 1612-1682. 
 
 LOMBERT, P., a Fr. translator, died abt. 1710 
 
 LOMEIER, J., a Dutch philologist, 1636-1699. 
 
 LOMEIR, J., a Dutch prot. divine, 1636-1699. 
 
 LOMENIE, Anthony De, secretary of state, 
 and ambassador of Henry IV. to London, died 
 1638. His son, Henry Augustus Lomenie, 
 Count De Brienne, minister of state, and author 
 of ' Memoirs,' died 1666. The son of the latter, 
 Louis Henry, Count De Brienne, secretary of 
 state under Louis XIV., died insane, 1635-1698. 
 
 LOMENIE - DE - BRIENNE, Athanasius 
 Louis Marie, brother of the eel. finance minister, 
 sec. at war in 1787, perished on the scaffold 1794. 
 
 LOMENIE -DE-BRIENNE, Stephen Chas. 
 Dk, finance minister of Louis XVI., was born at- 
 Paris, 1727, and being educated for the church, 
 was first known as au enemy of the protestants. 
 
 428 
 
 LON 
 
 In 1763 he became archbishop of Toulouse, 
 would seem, from the first, to have aspired t> 
 part of a Mazarin, or a Richelieu in 1 1 
 out possessing either the ability or the unserupi 
 daring necessary to it. In 1797, after figrmi 
 a commission for the reform of the clergy 
 coquetting with the philosophy of 
 and the encyclopaedists, he became a memlx 
 the assembly of notables ; and having heade< 
 party by whom the administration i 
 overthrown, he succeeded that unfortunate as 
 ister, adopted his plans, and proved himself 
 as incapable of executing them. 1 
 however, in quietly dismissing tin 
 then attempted a bold stroke by 
 parliament of Paris to Troyes, but v. 
 after was compelled to recall it, ai 
 compromise. In the spring of 1788. 
 famous edict for altering the constitution of 
 parliament, and establishing the 'grand baillia 
 and the 'plenary court,' to do the work w 
 that body had refused, namely, the registrati* 
 the king's edicts; and in the execution of 
 measure was reduced to the necessity of dismit 
 the parliament with the aid of military f 
 For about two months he tried to bring nis 
 machinery of government into working order 
 parliaments of the provinces everywhere ra 
 their hydra heads to carry on the battle begt 
 Paris. About this time" he was promoted U 
 rich archbishopric of Sens, and received a 
 dmal's hat from Rome, which he returnei 
 1791, and gained thereby a little fresh populsj 
 At the end of his two months' despair, July, lj 
 he was compelled to announce the convocatkj 
 the estates-general for the month < 
 ing._ On the 24th of August he retired froroj 
 ministry, and was succeeded by Necker, hi : 
 by this time raked together the elements of! 
 wildest conflagration the world ever saw. H(i 
 arrested in February, 1794, and died of aporj 
 the same night. 
 
 LOMONOSSOFF, M. Wassiliewitch; 
 famous poet and historian, regarded as the fi! 
 of Russian literature, 1711-1764. 
 
 LONDONDERRY. See Castlereagh. j 
 
 LONG, Edward, a West Indian judge, fa] 
 as a political wr. and hist, of Jamaica, 1734-1 
 
 LONG, J., an English traveller, last centu' 
 
 LONG, Roger, a divine of the Church of 
 land, eminent as a mathem. and ast 
 
 LONG, St. John, a native of Lin 
 came known in London about the y 
 medical practitioner, and acquired great celei 
 by his specific for consumption and for < 
 diseases generally considered incurable by tht 
 culty. Not being educated for the profession 
 was twice put on his trial for the death o' 
 patients, and on one of these occasions no less \ 
 sixty-three persons of the higher classes appj 
 in his favour. He accumulated a large tort 
 and died at the early age of thirl 
 Three years previously he published ' Disco\ 
 in the Art of Healing.' 
 
 LONG, Thomas, one of the nonjiiring divj 
 author of several learned works conn 
 cause to which he belonged, 1621-1700. 
 
 LONGBEARD, W., a famous demagogue o 
 reign of Richard I., cruelly executed 111)6. 
 
m 
 
 LON 
 
 VN'GEPIERRE, Hilary Bernard De, a 
 
 if Hellenist, classical critic, and poet, 1659-1721. 
 
 (NGINUS, Cassius, a Greek philosopher and 
 
 ^Jns rhetorician, born about a.d. 210, put to death 
 
 Wnrelian at Palmyra in 273 a.d. Longinus seems 
 
 tolre been a prolific writer, but no work of his 
 
 Jeached us, except the Treatise on the Sublime. 
 
 authorship of this remarkable treatise has 
 
 rmtested ; but there is not much doubt that 
 
 ought not to be deprived of the merit 
 
 nerally attached to his name : it is a treatise 
 
 him among the most eminent critics 
 
 tiquity. Longinus was the friend and teacher 
 
 e Heroic Zenobia : he fell with her fortunes ; 
 
 is fate will go down through all history as a 
 
 tain on her imperial conqueror. One of the 
 
 recent and best editions of his celebrated 
 
 se, is by M, Egger, Paris, 1837. The other 
 
 tents attributed to the Greek philosopher, are 
 
 [J.P.N.] 
 
 )NG1NUS, Flav., exarch of Italy, 568-584. 
 NGLAND, or LANGLAND, John, a learned 
 te, confessor to Henry VIII., 1473-1547. 
 >NGLAND, or LANGELAND, Robert, a 
 Wickliffe, regarded as the oldest poet in 
 _h language, author of The Visions of 
 wman,' a satire upon the Roman clergy, 
 The Plowman's Crede,' written in 1369. 
 NGMAN, Thomas Norton, many years 
 of the well-known publishing firm of Messrs. 
 
 & Co., b. 1770, d. of an accident 1842. 
 (NGOBARDI, N., a Sicilian Jesuit and mis- 
 &k ry, auth. of ' Letters from China,' 1565-1655. 
 iNGOMONTANUS, Christian, a Danish 
 sal lomer, assistant of Tycho Brahe, and profes- 
 KBt mathematics at Copenhagen, 1562-1647. 
 ^.INGUERUE. Louis Dufour, Abbe De, a 
 muaat, reputed the greatest scholar of hisage, au. 
 of intiquities of the Chaldeans and Egyptians,' 
 'Lorical and Geographical Description of France,' 
 'T Annals of the Arsacides,' &c, 1652-1733. 
 
 i>NGUEVAL, James, a French Jesuit, and 
 bi-ian of the Gallican church, 1680-1735. 
 
 j'NGUEVILLE, the name of a noble French 
 
 Hjf, the principal of whom are Francis 
 
 Nlkans, son of the celebrated Dunois, died 
 
 H His son, of the same name, at whose in- 
 
 Hl in 1505, the county of Longueville was 
 
 *d into a dukedom by Louis XII., died 1512. 
 
 Htrother, Louis, a combatant at the battle of 
 
 gp and at Marignano, died 1516. Claude, 
 
 Bj at the siege of Pavia 1525. Leonard, at 
 
 Wk instance the dukes of Longueville were al- 
 
 title of princes of the blood royal by 
 
 HMes IX., died 1571. Henry, who. commanded 
 
 M the Leaguers, and in 1589 won the battle 
 
 nlis, died 1595. His son, of the same name, 
 
 ider Louis the XIII., and was afterwards 
 
 used with Conde and Conti, as partizans of 
 
 jfronde, died 1663. The wife of the latter, 
 
 * Genevieve, sister of the great Conde, dis- 
 
 Mshed for her part in the wars of the Fronde, 
 
 pn a religious retirement. The last of the 
 
 Bf were two son s of Henry and Anne, the 
 
 H of whom died in a convent, 1694; and the 
 
 op, C. Paris, was killed at the Rhine, 1672. 
 
 jNGUS, a Gr. romance writer, 4th or 5th c. 
 
 ERUS, John, a learned German editor, 
 
 i. His son, Adam, a physician and na- 
 
 LOR 
 
 turalist, 1528-1586. His grandson, John Adam, 
 a physician and man of letters, born 1557. 
 
 LOON, Theod. Van, a Flem. painter, 17th c. 
 
 LOOS, Cornelius, a D. theologian, died 1595. 
 
 LOOS, 0. H. De, a wr. on alchymy, 1725-85. 
 
 LOOS, P., one of the encyclopaedists, died 1819. 
 
 LOOSJES, Adrian, a Dutch novelist, last c. 
 
 LOPE-DE-RUEDA, a Sp. dramatist, d. 1564. 
 
 LOPE DE VEGA, whose full name was Lope 
 Felix de Vega Carpio, was bom at Madrid in 
 1562, and died there in 1635. Lope, a man of 
 adventurous disposition, led a very active life till 
 he had attained middle age. After having been 
 secretary to the duke of Alva, he was obliged to 
 conceal himself for a time in consequence of a 
 duel; he served as a soldier, and narrowly escaped 
 shipwreck in the Armada. On the death of his 
 second wife, he took holy orders ; but this step, 
 though it removed him from business, did not 
 slacken his literary activity. He was one of the 
 most prolific of all authors, composing with a ra- 
 pidity which, while it implied extraordinary talents, 
 made it impossible that his works should possess 
 high merit, either in design or in execution. Be- 
 sides writing epics and many other kinds of poems, 
 he produced a number of dramas, so great as to be 
 almost incredible. He himself states it at up- 
 wards of fifteen hundred; and more than five hun- 
 dred plays attributed to him are actually in print. 
 They embrace all the varieties of kind which are 
 to be found among the works of his successor Cal- 
 deron ; and they abound both in snatches of wit 
 and poetical fancy, and in ingenuity of dramatic 
 invention. Though Lope was not the founder of 
 the Spanish Drama, he was the first who made its 
 romantic irregularities attractive through force and 
 originality of genius. While Cervantes, who was 
 fifteen years his senior, was neglected and starving, 
 the writings of Lope procured for him overflowing 
 wealth, and a popularity such as hardly ever was 
 gained by any other living poet. [W.S.] 
 
 LOPES, F., a Portuguese historian, 14th cent. 
 
 LOPEZ, Alonzo, a Spanish critic, 16th cent. 
 
 LOPEZ, Edward, a Spanish navigator, 1578. 
 
 LOPEZ, Narciso, a general in the Spanish 
 army, commander of the late expedition to Cuba, 
 was born in Venezuela 1799, and was first known 
 in the troubles of 1814, as a liberal. He after- 
 wards enlisted in the royalist army, and at the close 
 of the civil war had attained the rank of colonel, 
 being then only twenty-three years of age. Some 
 years subsequently he was in various official em- 
 ploys at Cuba, and in 1849 commenced his revo- 
 lutionary attempts in the United States. He was 
 garotted at Havannah, 1st September, 1851. 
 
 LORCH, Melchior, a Ger. paint., 1527-1586. 
 
 LOREDANO, Leonardo, doge of Venico 
 during the trying period of the league of Cambray, 
 founder of the famous Council of Ten, reigned 
 1503-1521. P. Loredano, reigned doge 1507- 
 1570. F. Loredano, 1752-1762. 
 
 LOREDANO, J. F., a Venetian poet, called 'the 
 Elder,' died 1590. ' The Younger,' of the same 
 name, flourished 1606-1661. 
 
 LORENZ, J. M., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1723-1801. 
 
 LORENZI, B., an Italian poet, 1732-1822. 
 
 LORENZI, J. B., an Ital. sculptor, 1528-1594. 
 
 LORENZINI, A., an Ital. painter, 1665-1740. 
 
 LORENZIKI, L., an Ital. mathema.. 1652-1721. 
 
 429 
 
LOR 
 
 LORENZINI, or LAURENTINI, Francesco 
 Maria, an Italian priest and Jesuit, 1680-1743. 
 
 LORET, J., a French poet, died 1665. 
 
 LORGNA, A. ML an Ital. geometr., died 1796. 
 
 LORIA, or LAURIA, Roger De, a famous 
 admiral, bom at Loria in Naples in the middle of 
 the 13th century, died 1305. 
 
 LORIOT, A." J., a Fr. mechanician, 1716-1782. 
 
 LORM E, P. Dk, a French architect, died 1577. 
 
 LORRAIN, Claude, thepainter. See Claude. 
 
 LORRAIN, Robt. Le, a Fr. sculp., 1666-1743. 
 
 LORRAINE, Cil, cardinal of. See Guise. 
 
 LORRAINE, C. De, an ecclesiast. wr., d. 1631. 
 
 LORRAINE, the Chevalier De, a descen- 
 dant of the Guises, dist. as a courtier and favourite 
 of the due D'Orleans, br. of Louis XIV., d. 1702. 
 
 LORRAINE, Francis De. See Guise. 
 
 LORRIS, W. De, a French poet, 12th century. 
 
 LORRY, Paul Charles, a French jurisconsult 
 and canonist, 1719-1766. His brother, Anne 
 Charles, a physician and learned wr., 1726-1783. 
 
 LORT, Michael, an Eng. divine, 1725-1790. 
 
 LOSANA, M., an Italian naturalist, 1758-1833. 
 
 LOT, the son of Haran, and nephew of the pa- 
 triarch Abraham, with whom he travelled to Egypt, 
 and afterwards settled in Canaan ; supposed date 
 about 1900 B.C. 
 
 LOTEN, John, a Swiss painter, died 1681. 
 
 LOTHAIRE. The sovereigns of this name are 
 two emperors Lothaire I., son of Louis le Dd- 
 bonnaire, and third successor of Charlemagne, born 
 about 795, associated with his father 817, crowned 
 king of Lombardy 820, emperor 840, abdicated, 
 and died soon afterwards, 855. Lothaire EL, 
 born 1075, elected emperor on the demise of Henry 
 V., 1127, convoked the famous diet of Magde- 
 burg 1135, died 1137. Two kings of France 
 Lothaire I., same as the emperor of that name, 
 vanquished by his brothers, Louis and Charles, at 
 the battle of Fontenai, and forced to abandon his 
 pretensions by the treaty of Verdun, 843. Lo- 
 thaire II., born 941, succeeded 954, died 986. 
 A king of Lorraine, second son of the emperor 
 Lothaire I., who raised him to that dignity 855, 
 died 869. A king of Italy, son of Hugues of Pro- 
 vence, poisoned by Berenger 950. A king of Kent, 
 brother and sue. of Egbert, 673, kd. in battle 685. 
 
 LOTI, Carlo, a painter of Munich, 1632-1698. 
 
 LOTICH, Peter, a distinguished apostle of 
 Lutheranism, in the county of Hanau, died 1567. 
 His nephew, of the same name, known in Latin as 
 Lotichius, surnamed Secundus, one of the greatest 
 Latin poets of Germany, 1528-1560. Christian, 
 brother of the latter, an elegant scholar and poet, 
 died 1568. John Peter, grandson of Christian, 
 a critic, historian, and Latin poet, died 1669. 
 
 LOUDON, John Claudius, a native of Lan- 
 arkshire, educated as a landscape gardener, was 
 born 1783, and died 1843. He is author of many 
 valuable and popular works on gardening, agricul- 
 ture, and architecture, the principal of which are 
 'Observations on Laying out Public Squares,' 
 4 On Plantations,' On Country Residences,' ' On 
 the Formation of Gardens,' and ' Hothouses,' 
 ' Encyclopaedias of Gardening and Agriculture,' 
 'The Gardener's Magazine,' and 'The Magazine of 
 Natural History,' both of which were the first 
 periodicals devoted exclusively to these subjects, 
 4 Encyclopxdia of Plants,' 'Hoitus Britannicus,' 
 
 LOU 
 
 'Arboretum Britannicum,' &c. Mr. Loudoi 
 first cousin to Dr. Claudius Buchanan. 
 LOUET, G., a French jurisconsult, died 1 
 LOUIS. The German sovereigns of this 
 are Louis Le Debonnaire L, 
 West and king of France, son of Ch 
 his second wire, Hildegarde, born 77 
 of Aquitaine by his father 781, and 
 as king and emperor 814, died 840. Louis 
 Young) II., son of Lothaire I., born about 
 king of Italy 844, associated with his father i 
 empire 849, emperor 855, died 875. Louti 
 Blind) III., grandson of Louis II., bomj 
 succeeded his father in the kingdom 
 crowned emperor at Rome the year ai 
 ing Berenger 900, deposed and blinded by B<] 
 
 fer 903, died 923. Louis (the Infant) 
 orn 893, king of Germany 899, sui 
 father, Arnulf, as emperor 908, died 912. L 
 V., son of Louis, duke of Bavaria, and Mat 
 daughter of the emperor Rodolph I., born ] 
 chosen emperor by a part of the electors, whil 
 others adhered to Frederick, son of Albert,! 
 peror and duke of Austria, 1314 ; defeated tht 
 ter, who then renounced his pretensions, 1 
 died 1347. Besides these in the line of Gei 
 emperors, history mentions Louis the Gerila 
 a third son of Louis le Debonnaire, who rev 
 against his father 817, beat Lothaire at Foirj 
 841, and had a considerable kingdom beyond] 
 Rhine secured to him by the treaty ot Vej 
 843 ; d. 876. His son and successor was Louis 
 Saxon, killed in battle with the Normans 88: 
 LOUIS. The kings of France of this nami 
 Louis I., same as the emperor Debonn 
 Louis II., born 846, named king of Aquill 
 by his father, Charles the Bald, 867, king of Fr! 
 877, died 879. Louis III., eldest son and 
 cessor of the preceding, died 882. Louis 
 born 920, reigned 936-954. Louis V., the 
 of the Carlovingian kings, born 967, succeedei 
 father, Lothaire, 986, and was poisoned, it is i 
 at the instigation of Hugh Capet, by his 
 Blanche, 987. Louis VI., son of Philip I. 
 Bertha, born 1078, associated in the governi 
 with his father 1100, king 1108, died li37. U 
 VII., son of the preceding, born 1120, succe 
 his father 1137, engaged in a crusade 1147 
 vorced his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, who soor 
 terwards married Henry II. of England, 1149, i 
 ried Constance of Castile 1154, engaged in a 
 with England 1167-1176, died 1180. Louis V 
 son of Philip Augustus and Elizabeth of Hain; 
 born 1187, succeeded his father 1223, died 1 
 Louis IX., eldest son of the preceding and Blai 
 of Castile, famous in French history by the n 
 of Saint Louis, born 1215, succeeded his fa 
 under the regency of Blanche 1226, embarked 
 the Holy Land at the head of an army of 50 
 men 1248, returned to France after the deat 
 his mother 1254, undertook a second crusade, 
 died of the pestilence while besieging Tunis 1 
 Louis X., son of Philip the Fair and Jean of 
 varre, born 1289, king of Navarre 1304, kin, 
 France 1314, died 1316. Louis XL, son of Cht 
 VII. and Marie of Anjou, born 1423, marrie 
 Margaret of Scotland 1436, became leader of a 
 volt against his father 1440-14 12 and 1455 ; l 
 ceeded to the throne 1461, died 1483. Li 
 
 430 
 
LOU 
 n of Charles, duke of Orleans, and Mary 
 es, born 1462, succeeded to the throne 
 _ivaded the Milanese in alliance with the 
 Jtians 1499, divided Naples with Ferdinand of 
 1 1501, joined the league of Cambray against 
 r enetians 1509, died 1515. This prince was 
 in 1473 to Jeanne, daughter of Louis XL, 
 he repudiated, on his accession, in order to 
 Anne of Brittany, the widow of his prede- 
 Charles VIII. The latter dying in 1514, 
 ed in the year following, some three 
 , before his death, the Princess Mary, sis- 
 Henry VIII. Louis XIIL, son of Henry 
 1 Marie de Medici, bom 1601, succeeded his 
 under the regency of the queen-mother 1610, 
 sd of age, and convoked the estates-general 
 last time before the French revolution, 1614 ; 
 d to Anne of Austria 1615, took the famous 
 ieu into his counsel 1624. For the events 
 wlicy of his reign see Richelieu. Louis 
 see next article. Louis XV., son of Louis 
 f Burgundy, and of Marie Adelaide of Savoy, 
 710, succeeded his great-grandfather, Louis 
 under the regency of the duke of Orleans, 
 married to Maria Leczinski, daughter of 
 laus, nominal king of Poland, 1725, war 
 iermany in the interest of the latter 1733, 
 defeated at Dettingen in the war occasioned 
 chery to Maria Theresa 1743, peace of 
 hapelle 1748, war with England concern- 
 colonies 1755-1763, died 1774. See Law, 
 r. Louis XVL, see article below. Louis 
 , son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, 
 785, supposed to have died in the Temple 
 15. Louis XVIIL, brother of Louis 
 /bora 1755, married to Louisa of Savoy 1771, 
 8C d to Coblentz when the king was arrested 
 ft pennes 1791, assumed the title of king of 
 n and Navarre 1795, restored on the fall of 
 Bod 1814, retired to Ghent during the hun- 
 Hbnrs, and replaced on the throne after the 
 of Waterloo 1815, died 1824. 
 
 IlJIS XIV., the most magnificent of the Bour- 
 Hngs, and one of those great spirits by whom 
 Mm are moved, and the polity of states corn- 
 ill changed, was the son of Louis XIIL and 
 Bnf Austria, and was born after his mother 
 Hnented her sterility for twenty-three years, 
 Jptember, 1638. He succeeded to the throne 
 jjthe regency of the queen-mother, guided by 
 Mazarin, 1643, but did not commence 
 " government till the death of the latter, 
 ar after the treaty of the Pyrenees and 
 with Maria Theresa, which had been 
 the articles. The events of this long 
 to call it, are briefly related under the 
 akin ; in this place, therefore, we shall 
 Ives to a summary of the succeeding 
 The external political events of his 
 lenced with the exaction of a proper re- 
 his government from the court of Rome, 
 The next event was a brief war with 
 terminated by the peace of Breda, 
 6 his father-in-law, Philip IV., being 
 claimed Flanders and Franche-Comte 
 d having won them in two campaigns, 
 ' the former was secured to him by the 
 ix, 1668. Soon afterwards, a quarrel 
 d, and the terror inspired by his suc- 
 
 LOU 
 
 cesses, provoked a general alliance against him, 
 headed by the prince of Orange, and Louis himself 
 took the field, with the great Conde" and Turenne 
 under his orders, 1672. The war continued till 
 1678, when it was terminated by the treaty of 
 Nimeguen, which, with its almost immediate re- 
 sults, secured great advantages to the French 
 crown. In 1687 Louis was compelled to defend him- 
 self against a still more formidable league, occa- 
 sioned by his revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 and a long catalogue of wars was concluded by the 
 peace of Ryswick, 1697. During this period he 
 supported the Stuarts, and was obliged by the 
 treaty just mentioned, to acknowledge the prince 
 of Orange as king of Great Britain, under the title 
 of William III. In 1701 the succession of his 
 grandson to the Spanish crown was disputed by 
 the rest of Europe, and a long succession of wars, 
 in which the military genius of Marlborough de- 
 veloped itself, was terminated by the peace of 
 Utrecht, 1713. Louis, though aged and reduced 
 to stand at bay, still retaining vigour enough to 
 save France from the dismemberment threatened 
 by the allies, and to leave to his successor his most 
 valuable conquests. II. The internal administra- 
 tion of his government in this long period had been 
 marked by the highest magnificence, and con- 
 ducted to the most splendid results. The favourite 
 motto of Louis, ' L'Etat, c'est Moi,' was quite as 
 much the expression of a principle as of personal 
 pride, and it meant the extension and consolida- 
 tion of the state from its own centre, in place of 
 the distraction of government occasioned by the 
 feudal system. He carried this principle into 
 effect immediately after the death of Mazarin, by 
 dispensing with any future prime minister; and 
 the issue of it (besides its results in his political 
 wars) was to humble the noblesse, and raise the 
 talent of the middle classes to places of trust as 
 in the person of Colbert. His great fault politi- 
 cal as well as moral was the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes, 1685, by which Henry IV. had 
 secured the liberties of his protestant subjects. It 
 was the fruits of his religious bigotry excited by 
 prelates who divided the nation between the ob- 
 scure disputes of the Jansenists and Molinists, and 
 who persuaded Louis that his glory was interested 
 in the preservation of the ancient religion the more 
 easily that Jansenism opened the door and prepared 
 the way, as became evident even then, for the 
 philosophy of the Revolution. III. The domestic 
 history of Louis, for the greater part of his life, is 
 far more open to censure than any part of his pub- 
 lic conduct. His succession of mistresses, De La 
 Valliere, Montespan, Fontange,and some less known 
 perhaps, exhibits him in the character of a sensu- 
 alist, and we can only say that he was not an unre- 
 pentant one, for, at least, the last twenty years of 
 his life. To Madame de Maintenon, aided by the oc- 
 casional eloquence of Bossuet, belongs the credit of 
 reforming him in this particular, and the most scep- 
 tical of historians have not been able to show that 
 Madame owed her influence to any sacrifice of hon- 
 our, or that she was not really married to him in 
 1684, about a year after the death of his queen, 
 Maria Theresa. Apart from all this, Louis XIV. 
 was distinguished by high qualities of heart and 
 mind, and his self-command and moderation in all 
 that pertains to his sovereign character, cannot be 
 
 431 
 
LOU 
 doubted. He most completely realized the idea of 
 a monarchy at a period when the habits of thought, 
 and the manners of a people, naturally fickle, and 
 tired of his long reign, were taking a new direc- 
 tion ; and if he loved warlike enterprise too much, 
 as indeed he deplored on his death-bed, he also 
 loved France, ana did all in his power to develop 
 the resources of commerce, industry, literature, 
 and art, and to discover the efficient' instruments 
 of a wise administration. Died 1715. [E.R.] 
 
 LOUIS XVI., king of France, was the second 
 son of the prince dauphin, son of Louis XV., and 
 of Maria Josepha of Saxony, daughter of Frederick 
 Augustus, king of Poland. He was born at Ver- 
 sailles, and named Due de Berri 1754, became 
 dauphin by the death of his father 1765, and was 
 married to Marie Antoinette of Austria 1770. 
 Amiable, irresolute, and timid, he succeeded to the 
 stained and tottering throne of his grandfather 
 when twenty years of age, 1774, and was crowned 
 at Rheims, amidst the enthusiastic applause of his 
 people, June 11, 1775. Apparently, no sovereign 
 ever ascended the throne under happier auspices, 
 but really no European throne ever stood on the 
 verge of a more terrible abyss ; the incapacity and 
 corruption of the governing body being already 
 confronted with the philosophic pride and wild 
 vigour of the governed just awakening to a sens3 
 of the ' rights of man.' He commenced his reign 
 happily by promoting many useful reforms, and 
 calling the most upright men to his ministry 
 among others, Turgot and Malesherbes, but it was 
 soon evident that the resources of the state were 
 utterly disproportionate to its expenditure, ami 
 discoveries were continually made which brought 
 the court and the government into contempt. As 
 usual in such cases, one palliative succeeded ano- 
 ther, while the root of the evil remained untouched ; 
 and when the distresses of the people were ex- 
 pressed in open disaffection, the ancient machinery 
 of government was found insufficient, either as a 
 means of effectuating the will of the people, or of 
 controlling their blind impulses by the imposition 
 of a more enlightened authority. The issue of this 
 was the convocation of the 'notables,' who met 
 twice, under the ministries ot Calonne and Lomenie 
 Brienne, 1787 and 1788, and of the ' estates- 
 general,' which assembled at the beginning of 
 May, 1789. This body declared for a constitu- 
 tion' as the first necessity of France, and took a 
 solemn and united oath not to separate until they 
 had made it. The real conflict between the people 
 and the court was commenced by this act; the 
 disposition to insurrection acquired a form of legal- 
 ity, and the passions of those who might be cap- 
 able of leading the populace were fairly unloosed. 
 Mirabeau, Lafayette, Danton, Camille Desmoulins, 
 Robespierre, and Marat, are among the names of 
 such, and may be consulted in this volume. As a 
 first step, the 'third estate,' or plebeians in the 
 ' estates-general,' refused to acknowledge the clergy 
 and the noblesse as separate bodies, and many of 
 these joining them, they assumed the name of a 
 ' national assembly.' Against this body the guards 
 refused to act, and the people, soon enrolled in clubs 
 and in a national militia, surprised the govern- 
 ment by storming the Bastile, July 14, and commit- 
 ting some deplorable excesses. The national assem- 
 bly, presuming on its actual power under these 
 
 LOU 
 
 circumstances to make the constitution, ca 
 self ' the constituent assembly,' and promi 
 the ' rights of man' as a basis. To the exci 
 of these occurrences was added the mad 
 effects of a famine in the succeeding autumi 
 the worst forms of clubbism commenced, a 
 Marats, Carriers, Henriots, and Tinvillei 
 into note. In June, 1790, the king attem] 
 fly, and was arrested at Varennes, the 
 meeting to petition for his deposition beh 
 persed by musketry on his return. On the i 
 September following he accepted the consti 
 and on the 1st of October the first biennial 
 ment, or legislative assembly, met for the tr 
 tion of business. The power of ' veto ' havia 
 granted to the king, by this new compact, ] 
 unhappy enough to use it against every imp 
 measure proposed by the parliament. In the 
 of another year his deposition was again ag 
 tumultuous processions took place, the palac 
 was invaded, and the king compelled to we 
 red bonnet, or cap of liberty. As time wc 
 the republicans became thoroughly organize 
 in August, 1792, the Marsellaise were qua 
 in Paris, the Tuileries besieged, the Swiss 
 massacred, and the royal family imprisoned 
 Temple. The party of Danton now occupi 
 foreground of events, and prepared to assei 
 'national convention,' and resist the thre 
 invasion of the emigrants and the Germans 
 the duke of Brunswick. The first act of thic 
 which met towards the end of September, i 
 pronounce on the fate of Louis XVI., wl 
 declared guilty of a conspiracy against the g 
 safety of the state, by 693 votes out of 729, j 
 be worthy of death by a majority of 433 a 
 288. Danton uttered what the national a 
 tion felt under these circumstances : ' the coa 
 kings threaten us ; we hurl at their feet, ai 
 
 [The Temple Prison.] 
 
 of battle, the head of a king.' For no crime 
 own, Louis was guillotined, in pursuance ( 
 judgment, January 21, 1793, displaying to tl 
 moment the same singular equanimity of t< 
 not to say insensibility, that had marked his 
 career. In private character he was a man 
 
 432 
 
LOU 
 
 eeptionable virtue a good husband, and a good 
 ister, but, as a king, deficient in every neces- 
 y quality except that of well-meaning. [E.R.] 
 [LOUIS PHILIPPE, late king of the French, 
 (s the eldest son of the duke of Orleans, brother 
 JLouis XVI., and of Marie, daughter of the duke 
 Penthievre. He was born at Paris 1773, and 
 J1791 was commander of a troop of dragoons un- 
 r Kellermann, in which capacity he distinguished 
 jnself at Valmy and Jemappes. After the exe- 
 lion of his father, (see Orleans), Louis Philippe 
 ped to Switzerland, and commenced those ro- 
 Intic wanderings through Europe and America, 
 !h which the public mind has been rendered 
 jiiliar. In 1800 he settled at Twickenham, near 
 jidon. In 1807 he visited Naples, and two 
 jrs later was married to Amelia, second daugh- 
 iof the king, after which he settled at Palermo, 
 restoration of the Bourbons to 1830, he 
 1 in France, and in that eventful year 
 
 I placed on the throne as constitutional king, 
 inly by the influence of Lafayette, who declared 
 accession 'the best of republics.' Often his 
 E swayed beneath him, but he preserved his 
 Brace, with singular astuteness, till 1848, when the 
 Biblican party suddenly recovered the victoiy of 
 4ch they had been defrauded eighteen years before, 
 M Louis Philippe became an exile m England. 
 jse events are so recent, and the causes of them 
 aso universally known that we think it unneces- 
 n to enter into details. Perhaps the history of 
 
 i king will read nobler in the light of an- 
 r age, but for the present we can only regard 
 
 II as the victim of his own cleverness and his 
 Mn ambition. He descended to the grave with 
 Mrespect than his very misfortunes demanded, 
 eke 2Cth of August, 1850. [E.R.] 
 
 [Tomb of Louis Philippe] 
 
 son of Ferdinand, duke of Parma, born 
 received the crown of Etruriafrom Buonaparte 
 ^-Tige for his duchy in 1801, died 1803. 
 " , k. of Spain, reigned eight months, 1721. 
 , king of Hungary, called ' the Great,' 
 3, succeeded 1342, elected king of Poland 
 d 1382. The second of the name, born 
 succeeded his father Ladislas, as king of 
 
 LOU 
 
 Hungary and Bohemia 1516, drowned himself, 
 after being defeated by the Turks, 1526. 
 
 LOUIS, duke of Savoy, reigned 1451-1465. 
 
 LOUIS, duke of Anjou, the first of the name, 
 son of John II., king of France, born 1339, main- 
 tained a struggle with Charles of Durazzo for the 
 throne of Naples 1380-1382, died 1384. The 
 second of the name, son and successor of the pre- 
 
 ceding, born 1377, was crowned king of Naples by 
 Clement VII. 1390, and died, after a long struggle 
 with Ladislas, without conquering his kingdom, 
 
 1417. The third of the name, son and successor 
 of the preceding, born 1403, died 1434, after a 
 fruitless struggle for the kingdom of Naples with 
 Alphonso, king of Arragon. 
 
 LOUIS of Arragon, succeeded his father, 
 Peter II., as king of Sicily, 1342; died 1355. 
 
 LOUIS of Tarentum, second husband of his 
 cousin, Joan of Naples, was married to that prin- 
 cess in 1347, driven from the kingdom by Louis I. 
 of Hungary, they were recalled by the Neapolitans 
 in 1352, died 1362. 
 
 LOUISA, Augusta Wilhelmina Amelia, 
 queen of Prussia, bom 1776, queen 1793, d. 1810. 
 
 LOUISA of Lorraine, queen of France, born 
 1554, married to Henry III. 1575, died 1601. 
 
 LOUISA MARIE of France, the last of the 
 daughters of Louis XV., 1737-1787. 
 
 LOUISA of Savoy, duchesse d'Angouleme, 
 daughter of Philip, duke of Savoy, born 1476, mar- 
 ried to Louis d'Orleans, count of Angouleme, by 
 whom she became mother of Francis I., 1488. 
 Being appointed regent during the expedition of 
 her son to the Milanese, and during his capti- 
 vity, 1515 and subsequent years, she governed the 
 kingdom with great wisdom, and was respected by 
 all the princes of Europe ; died 1532. 
 
 LOUISA-ULRICA, queen of Sweden, sister cf 
 Frederick II., king of Prussia, born 1720, married 
 to the prince Gustavus Adolphus 1744, became 
 queen mother 1751, died 1782. 
 
 LOUREIRO, J. De, a Portu. botanist, d. 1796. 
 
 LOUTH-ALY-KHAN, seventh regent of Persia, 
 and the last of the Zand dynasty, born 1768, de- 
 feated and put to death by Aga-Mohammed 1794. 
 
 LOUTHERBOURG, Ph. J. De, a painter of 
 Strasburg, distinguished for his battles and hunt- 
 ing pieces, 1740-1812. 
 
 LOUVEL, Louis Peter, a saddler by trade, 
 who conceived such an intense hatred for the Bour- 
 bons that it became a monomania, and caused him 
 to assassinate the due de Berri, February 13, 1820. 
 This event led to political consequences of great 
 moment ; but Louvel declared to the last that he 
 had no accomplices. He was executed the same 
 year, at the age of 37. 
 
 LOUVET, Peter, the name of two French 
 historians, the first of whom flourished 1569-1646 ; 
 the second 1617-1680. 
 
 LOUVET-DE-COUVRAY, Jean Baptiste, 
 a Fr. novelist, and mem. of the conven., 1760-97. 
 
 LOUVIERS, Ch. James De, a famous defen- 
 der of the liberties of the Gallican church, coun- 
 cillor of state to Charles V., king of France, 1376. 
 
 LOUVILLE, C. A. D'Allonville, Marquis 
 De, a French diplomatist, time of Philip V., 1668- 
 1731. His brother, James Eugene, Chevalier de 
 Louville, author of a number of curious treatises 
 on physical and astronomical subjects, 1671-1732, 
 
 433 
 
 2F 
 
LOU 
 
 LOUVOIS. See Tellier. 
 
 LOUYS, E., an ecclesiastical writer, died 1682. 
 
 LOVAT, Simon Fraser, Lord, a Scotch noble- 
 man, and partizan of Charles Stuart, b. 1657, and 
 educated in France among the Jesuits. He entered 
 the English army and obtained a captaincy. He 
 ioined the stronger party at the period of the rebel- 
 lion, but concurred secretly in the enterprizes of 
 1745. He was found guilty and executed, 1747. 
 
 LOVE, Christopher, a presbyterian minister, 
 and member of the Assembly of Divines, beheaded 
 for conspiring against the republic, 1618-1651. 
 
 LOVE, James, son of Mr. Dance, the architect 
 of the Mansion House, known as an actor, d. 1774. 
 
 LOVEIRA, Vasco, a Portug. writer, d. 1325. 
 
 LOVELACE, Richard, a poet and dramatic 
 writer, son of Sir William Lovelace of Norwich, 
 where he was born 1618. He was distinguished 
 by his fidelity to Charles L, in whose interest he 
 expended his whole fortune, and died in poverty, 
 1658. His poems were published in 2 vols. 8vo, 
 under the title of ' Lucasta.' His plays are ' The 
 Scholar,' a comedy, and ' The Soldier,' a tragedy. 
 
 LOVIBOND, Edward, an English poet, author 
 of ' The Tears of Old May Day,' and an admirable 
 portraiture of Johnson and Garrick in ' The Mul- 
 berry Tree,' died on his estate at Hampton 1775. 
 
 LOW, G., a Scotch div. and naturalist, 1746-95. 
 
 LOWE, Lieut. - General Sir Hudson, 
 K.C.B., guardian of Napoleon at St. Helena, was 
 the son of an officer in the British army, and was 
 born in Galway while his father's regiment was 
 quartered there, 1769. He was brought up to the 
 military profession, and performed his first impor- 
 tant services in Corsica at the period of the French 
 revolution, after which, in 1800-1801, he went to 
 Egypt, and fought at the battle of Alexandria. 
 In 1803 he was despatched on a secret mission to 
 Portugal, and subsequently served against the 
 French in Naples, and, when Murat became king, 
 in several important islands of the Mediterranean ; 
 the principal of these operations being his defence 
 of Capri, which, however, he was compelled to 
 evacuate. In 1813 he was sent to northern Ger- 
 many, and, joining the allied Russian and Prussian 
 armies, served under Blucher during the whole of 
 the campaign, and was with him in every action 
 till the surrender of Paris, when he was despatched 
 to England with the news of Napoleon's abdication, 
 and was knighted by the regent. On the return 
 of Napoleon from Elba, Sir Hudson Lowe was 
 attached to the duke of Wellington's armv as 
 quarter-master-general, but left it early in June 
 to take the command of the troops at Genoa, des- 
 tined to act against Marseilles and Toulon. It was 
 during his occupation of the last mentioned place, 
 on the 1st of August, 1815, that he received orders 
 to return home to take charge of the captive em- 
 peror ; an office which an angel from heaven, as 
 Montholon confessed, could not have fulfilled to 
 the satisfaction of the French. It is a little 
 curious, however, that the complaints of that sen- 
 sitive people met with a ready sympathy in Eng- 
 land, and some of our foremost writers, as Sir 
 Walter Scott, Sir Archibald Alison, and Lord 
 Campbell have echoed their sentiments. On the 
 other hand, the editor of the recently published 
 papers of Sir Hudson Lowe, professes to have 
 established, from a judicial review of the mass 
 
 LOW 
 
 of documents confided to him, that no blan 
 attach either to the British governmei 
 home, or to the governor of St. Helena, as I 
 the treatment of Napoleon. At leasi 
 case stated for the first time as it 
 eye of an impartial lawyer, and the actua 
 terials to decide upon. We are much mis! 
 however, if the legal tribunal can be ailmitti 
 final one in such a cause. Sir Hudson Low 
 at an advanced age, 1844. 
 
 LOWE, Peter, a Scotch surgeon, died 1( 
 
 LOWENDAHL,ULRicFr<i,i>KKirWAi.m 
 Marshal De, a native of Hamburgh, desc 
 from a natural son of Frederick III., king of 
 mark, and distinguished as a commander i 
 service of Austria, France, Poland, and fi 
 He acquired immense repute by his share i 
 battle of Fontenoy, and the sieges of Fl 
 towns, flourished 1700-1755. 
 
 LOWER, Richard, an eminent physicia 
 anatomist, author of a tractate on the hear 
 the motion and heat of the blood, in whic 
 transfusion of the living fluid from the vesi 
 one animal to those of another is treated of. 
 about 1631, died 1691. His relative, Sib 
 liam Lower, was a courtier and dramatist 
 reign of Charles I., and died 1662. 
 
 LOWICZ, Jeanne, Princess De, wife < 
 grand duke Constantine of Russia, died 1831 
 
 LOWITZ, George Maurice, a German 
 nomer, born 1722, murdered by the bands of 
 atchef, at the capture of Dmetriefsk, 1774. 
 son, Tobias, a chemist and naturalist, 1757- 
 
 LOWRY, Wilson, an engraver, 1762-182 
 
 LOWTH, Robert, D.D., a celebrated 1 
 in the Church of England, was born at Bn 
 27th November, 1710. From Winchester i 
 he went to Oxford, and having distingt 
 himself by his literary attainments, was, in 
 chosen professor of poetry in that university 
 1744 he was appointed rector of Ovingtc 
 Hampshire. Resigning that situation, he ] 
 several years on the continent, and on his i 
 was appointed archdeacon of Winchester 
 rector of East Woodhay. He was well knoi 
 a scholar ; but it was not till the 
 his lectures ' On the Sacred Poetry of the Heb 
 in 1753, that he became known as one of th 
 biblical critics of his age. That work pr< 
 him a high reputation both at home and a 
 and it still maintains a distinguishes 
 works on the literature of the Scriptures. 
 ferments flowed rapidly upon him, for hebi 
 successively bishop of Limerick ; and leavin 
 land he was ma'de prebend of Durham ; bis)} 
 St. David's in 1766 ; and bishop of Lomj 
 1777. While he discharged with exerj 
 diligence the duties of that important see, hi 
 tinued with the greatest ardour to prosed! 
 biblical studies, and as the fruit of his asm 
 industry, 'Isaiah, a New Translate 
 liminary Dissertation and Notes,' contribul 
 extend his fame. The beauty an 
 this translation have been long and univ* 
 admitted. Bishop Lowth was the author of if 
 minor works, the chief of which are, '1!)' 
 of William of Wykeham,' and 'The 
 duction to English Grammar.' He i 
 palace in 1787, at the age of seventy-six. V 
 
 434 
 
LOW 
 iLOWTH, Sim., an English divine, an. of ' Stric- 
 |es on Dr. Gilbert Burnet's Works,' &c, d. 1720. 
 iLOWTH, William, father of Bishop Lowth, 
 4 subject of a preceding notice, and himself a 
 jrned divine, author of numerous practical and 
 lological works, born in London 1661, d. 1732. 
 
 .OYER, G., a Dominican missionary, d. 1715. 
 SjOYER, Peter Le, Sieur De La Brosse, a 
 ]jnch writer of great learning, author of a curi- 
 i! work on Spectres, and one of still greater sin- 
 entitled ' Edom, or the Iduma?an Colonies 
 i Europe and Asia,' 1550-1634. 
 
 LOYKO, Felix, a Polish hist., abt. 1750-1800. 
 
 OYOLA, Ignatius, or Don Inigo Lopez 
 1 Recalde, the founder of the order of Jesuits, 
 * the youngest son of Don Bertram, and was born 
 i 491, at the castle of Loyola, in the district of 
 t puzcoa in Biscay. He was attached in his 
 
 J\ ;h as a page to the court of Ferdinand and 
 ella, and trained up in all the vices and fri- 
 culiar to his position. When still a 
 man he entered the army, and during his 
 of Pampeluna in 1521 against the French, 
 severely wounded, and a long and tedious 
 ent was the result. The invalid, however, 
 himself with the Spanish legends of the 
 and other works of a kindred character, 
 was seized, and in a fit of mystical de- 
 e renounced the world, made a formal 
 to the shrine of the Virgin at Montserrat, and 
 24th day of March, 1522, laid his arms on 
 , and vowed himself her knight. Arrayed 
 garb of a pilgrim he then went to Manresa, 
 ted himself to deeds of benevolence, which 
 t renown. His next resolution was 
 to the Holy Land, and after ten months' 
 at Manresa, he travelled to Barcelona, a 
 "ng, sincere, and resolute ascetic, sailed 
 or Rome, received the blessing of Pope 
 ., and at length reached Jerusalem in 
 1523. After staying but a brief period 
 led by Venice and Genoa to Barcelona, 
 I he began in earnest to study Latin at the 
 f three-and- thirty. At the end of two years, 
 in 1526, he removed to Alcala in order to 
 j himself master of philosophy. His retreat 
 ;lona was hastened by the danger he 
 " in exposing and attempting to remedy 
 int disorders in a convent of nuns. His 
 ties of thought and address made him sus- 
 at Alcala, and the inquisition charged him 
 *' 'icraft, warned, threatened, imprisoned, 
 Uy dismissed him. The indomitable stu- 
 not to be crushed, but repaired at once 
 ica, where he met with a similar treat - 
 Little did those inquisitors dream of the 
 that slumbered in the strange and self- 
 recluse. Leaving Spain, which could not 
 te his motives, or divine his character, he 
 Paris in February, 1528, where he studied 
 [lowest classes of the university with un- 
 humility, begged for his daily sustenance, 
 " lionally startled his friends by religious 
 Several young men admired his un- 
 zeal and drew around him, and of the two 
 domiciled with him, one was the famous 
 avier, afterwards known as the apostle 
 Their hearts were on fire for the con- 
 the world, and they took solemn vows 
 
 LUB 
 
 of chastity, poverty, and entire consecration to 
 the church, in the subterranean chapel of the 
 Abbey of Montmartre. At length, these compan- 
 ions, ten in number, agreed to leave Paris and meet 
 in Venice in January, 1537. As they resolved to 
 go to Jerusalem, they went to Rome to receive the 
 papal blessing and came back to Venice in order 
 to embark. But a war with the Turks frustrated 
 their intentions, and their enthusiasm was in the 
 meantime expended in various forms of effort. 
 Rome naturally became their head-quarters, and 
 Loyola conceived the idea of founding an order to 
 be devoted to the very work in which he and his 
 fellows were so ardently engaged. The nature 
 and plans of the new institution were sketched, 
 and submitted to the pontiff Paul III., who, under 
 certain limitations, confirmed it on 27th Septem- 
 ber, 1540 ; but three years afterwards those limi- 
 tations were withdrawn. Loyola was president of 
 the order, and remained in Rome in order to 
 direct and stimulate its movements. Thus sprung 
 up the order of the Jesuits the mightiest by far 
 of the kindred institutions of the Church of Rome, 
 and which has more than once shaken the nations 
 of Europe. The order increased with great rapid- 
 ity; it nad a romantic origin and a definite aim. 
 Loyola founded at Rome an asylum for converted 
 Jews, and a penitentiary for reclaimed females. 
 Julius III. in 1550 confirmed the order, and 
 Loyola remained its general till his death on 31st 
 July, 1556. At his death the society consisted of 
 more than 1,000 persons possessing 100 religious 
 houses, and divided for the prosecution of its la- 
 bours into twelve provinces, reaching from Spain to 
 India and Brazil. Loyola was beatified by Paul 
 V. in 1609, and canonized by Gregory XV. in 
 1622. His famous 'Spiritual Exercises' were 
 published at Rome in 1548. Many even in his 
 own church deny that he had enough of learning 
 to write this book, or even enough of ingenuity to 
 construct the rules of the order of Jesus, affirming 
 that he was in both respects the instrument of 
 minds more refined and subtile than his own. 
 His was a self-sacrificing fanaticism. His life was 
 a spiritual knighthood undaunted in the cause 
 which he had espoused. His labours were soon 
 appreciated by the church, and the society of 
 Jesus became a mighty engine before which popes 
 themselves have trembled. Its secrecy has defied 
 investigation, and its unscrupulous means are only 
 surpassed by the devoted spirit of its combined 
 phalanx of agents and associates. Luther and 
 Loyola represent progress and check, march and 
 counter-march, action and reaction in the same 
 epoch of the ecclesiastical world. [J-E.J 
 
 LOYSEAU, C, a Fr. jurisconsult. 1566-1627. 
 
 LOYSEAU, J. S., a Fr. jurisconsult, d. 1822. 
 
 LOYSON, C, a French publicist, 1791-1820. 
 
 LUBBERT, Sibrand, a learned Dutch divine, 
 and deputy to the synod of Dort, 1556-1620. 
 
 LUBERSAE, Abbe De, a French antiquarian, 
 1730-1804. His nephew, J. B. Joseph, bishop of 
 Chartres, and dep. to the est.-general, 1740-1822. 
 
 LUBIENECKI, Theodore, a Polish artist, 
 1653-1720. His brother, Christopher, a pain- 
 ter, born 1659. 
 
 LUBIENIETZKI, Stanislaus, in Latin, Lh- 
 bieneccius, a famous Socinian of Poland, and his- 
 torian of the reformation in that country, 1623-75. 
 
 435 
 
LUB 
 LUBIN, Aug., a Fr. geographer, 1624-1695. 
 LUBIN, Eilhard, a Ger. philolog., 1565-1621. 
 LUCA, G. B. De, a Neapol. cardinal, d. 1683. 
 LUCA, Ignatius De, an Aust. geogr., 1746-98. 
 LUCAE, S. 0., a Ger. physician, 1787-1821. 
 
 [Lucan From an Ancient Medal.'] 
 
 LUCAN, the commonly received name of Mar- 
 cus Ann.<eus Lucanus, was born at Cordova 
 (then Corduba) in Spain, 38, son of a Roman 
 knight, who was youngest brother of the famous 
 Seneca. It was his misfortune to find a rival 
 poet in the emperor Nero, and to receive the prize 
 in a public competition with the sovereign, who 
 then forbade him to recite his verses in public. 
 This circumstance, perhaps, added to the general 
 hatred of his crimes, induced Lucan to join a con- 
 spiracy formed against him, and the plot being 
 discovered, he is believed to have accused his own 
 mother, in the hope of pardon. If so, Lucan could 
 only have repented of his weakness, when, not- 
 withstanding, he was condemned to die. He chose 
 to have his veins opened and then bled to death, 
 in the twenty-seventh year of his age, 65. The 
 only portion of his compositions that has descended 
 to the present age, is his Pharsalia,' an unfinished 
 description of the civil war between Caesar and 
 Pompey. It has been translated into English by 
 May and Rowe, and is much esteemed for the 
 spirit of freedom and morality which it breathes, 
 in numbers of genuine poetry. 
 
 LUCAS, Charles, an Irish physician, and 
 member of parliament, distinguished in the oppo- 
 sition to government, 1713-1771. 
 
 LUCAS, Francis, a Flem. divine, died 1619. 
 
 LUCAS, J. A. H., a Fr. naturalist, 1780-1825. 
 
 LUCAS, J. J. S., a Fr. commander, 1764-1829. 
 
 LUCAS, Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, a 
 poetical and miscellaneous writer, abt. 1625-1673. 
 
 LUCAS, Paul, a French traveller and antiqua- 
 rian, auth. of many descriptive works, 1664-1737. 
 
 LUCAS, Peter, a French sculptor, 1691-1752. 
 His two sons Francis, a sculptor, flourished 
 1736-1813 ; Jean Paul, a painter, died 1808. 
 
 LUCAS, Van Leyden. See Jacobs. 
 
 LUCCA, B. La, an Ital. historian, 1236-1327. 
 
 LUCCHESINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, a Jesuit, 
 and ecclesiastical writer in Lucca, about 1638-1710. 
 
 LUCCHESINI, Giovanni Vincenzo, alearned 
 wr., sec. of briefs under Clement XIL, 1660-1744. 
 
 LUCCHESINI, Girolamo, Marquis De, a na- 
 tive of Lucca, disting. as a man of letters, and 
 
 436 
 
 LUC 
 
 Prussian minister under Frederick II.. 17.V2-1 
 His brother, Cesar, a philologist, 1755-lfi 
 LUCENA, J. De, a Portug. Jesuit, 1550-1 
 LUCHI, M. A., an Italian cardinal and I 
 logist, 1744-1802. His uncle, Bon 
 theologian, 1700-1785. His brother, Lou 
 learned ecclesiastic and antiquary, 1703-178 
 
 LUC1AN, the most brilliant and . 
 writer of the second century ; born 
 in Assyria, on the banks of the Euphrates 
 lived between A.u. 120 and 200, under Tr 
 Hadrian, and the Antonines. His life 
 extremely varied : he had followed many pri 
 sions; and mingled with all classes of men, 
 various nations. In his youth a sculptor; we 
 him soon a lawyer the profession of his pred 
 tion practising at the bar in Syria and Gr 
 Next a teacher of rhetoric, settled in Gaul, w 
 he collected a large school, and an 
 siderable fortune. Withdrawing from professi 
 life, he sprung up into the Lucian of History, wr 
 incessantly, but at the same time always tn 
 ling; he visited Macedonia, Cappadocia, Paj 
 gonia, and Bithynia, resting for any long 
 terval only in Athens ; and he died in Ej 
 administering a lucrative office which he < 
 to the emperor Commodus. A life so var 
 would have endowed a mind, even of ordi 
 quickness, with much practical knowledgi 
 mankind, and given an insight into the a< 
 condition of society : so that with Luc 
 exquisite command of Greek, and his unex 
 tionable taste, he could in nowise have faile 
 rise into one of the best and most entertai 
 writers of the time. Nevertheless, if the p. 
 bestowed on him be nothing more than is at 
 excellences like these, we shall ill appreciate 
 character and influence of one of the most 
 midable pens ever wielded in Antiquity In k 
 ness of wit, not very unequal to Aristophanes j 
 self, whose talents for popular but signifi 
 burlesque he also inherited Lucian was g 
 besides with that boldness, that sense, and j 
 sincerity which is insight, belonging only tcj 
 greatest minds ; and he brought the whole of lj 
 rare advantages to the execution of a task, i 
 which none is more arduous, and only one noblJ 
 the waging of an unrelenting war with every 
 and colour of charlutanerie in his time Descer 
 among the details of life, he holds up to ridl 
 and scorn, although mainly to ridicule, the pil 
 lent follies and vices of society in those cent) 
 the parasite, the waylayer of legacies, the so( 
 ing but vacant bell, the vender of morality: tl 
 it seems, and multitudes like them. 
 early days, appeared. But Lucian 
 and displays greatest courage, in his 
 the widest spread the most general torn 
 iniquity. The ancient religions were then tdj 
 ing; and ancient wisdom had shrunk into a wit * 
 sham and formality. The vulgar ha 
 into the spiritual sense of the my: 
 took the stories of the gods in I 
 way, believing them without evidence, nwi' 
 historical, descrying nothing of their pocti|< 
 beauty, but dogmatizing well ! 1 
 superstition a large proportion of tin 
 addressed; and truly they helped to shatter it ! 
 our author wrote yet more earnestly, and devep 
 
LUC 
 
 ighest power, when his turn with the philoso- 
 
 s had come. It is grievous to think of it, 
 
 ntly so it was, that wisdom and morals 
 
 professed by men who knew no wisdom, 
 
 n| understood nothing of morals : the dialectic 
 
 nttlden-mouthed Plato had passed into sheerest 
 
 try, and the virtues of the Stoics were to 
 
 d at so much per head. Could a Society 
 
 such men for its wise men, endure long 
 
 the Earth? If pen could have shamed it, 
 
 pen had been Lucian's. But no such salva- 
 
 was in store : emptiness having once seized 
 
 philosophy, as pharisaism on a religion 
 
 is neither hope nor help for it under the sun ! 
 
 Lucian's best dialogue, in scourge of the 
 
 sophers, is ' The Angler.' A function of this 
 
 assumed and unflinchingly carried out, 
 
 ted boldness indeed ; but, sad for the cotem- 
 
 reputation of the Scorner of Samosata! 
 
 t, tT^aXXe, xpotn*i?*Xki t no quarter to him 
 
 hom quarter was never given ! But at this 
 
 extremity of a long interval of time, and in 
 
 re like ours, we may descry the sense, believe 
 
 patriotism, and even doubt the ' infidelity ' 
 
 aan. The vices he warred with, are none of 
 
 so that we can afford to be temperate, and 
 
 hope to be impartial. The experience of 
 
 centuries having discredited superstition, 
 
 xtinguished insincerity men may now enjoy 
 
 it, and admire the polish, for surely they 
 
 it be offended by the satire of the Dialogues 
 
 Dead. [J.P.N.] 
 
 CIAN, St., a presbyter of Antioch, who suf- 
 
 raartyrdom under Diocletian in 312. 
 
 CIFER, the schismatic bp. of Cagliari, the 
 
 p. of Sardinia, and a saint of Rome, d. 370. 
 
 CILIUS, a Roman satirist, 149-103 B.C. 
 
 CINI, A. F., an Italian designer, 17th cent. 
 
 HCIUS, a Greek writer of the second century. 
 
 H&US, the Jirst of the name, pope and saint 
 
 a {me, was elected 252, and the next year suf- 
 
 H martyrdom. The second, succeeded 1144, 
 
 rilled by a blow from a stone in a popular 
 
 W145. The third outlived several popular com- 
 
 WJis, and reigned 1181-1185. 
 
 HCIUS, J., historian of Dalmatia, died 1G84. 
 
 1ICKNER, N., a marshal of France, 1722-94. 
 
 BjCRETIA, one of the noblest names in Ro- 
 
 jlistory, was the wife of Colktinus, a near 
 
 in of Tarquin the Proud, king of Rome. 
 
 lory, as related by Livy, is to the effect that 
 
 Hb Tarquinius, the king's eldest son, was in- 
 
 U With a passion for her, moved by her ex- 
 
 Hbeauty ; and becoming a guest at her house 
 
 M the absence of Collatmus, succeeded in dis- 
 
 Hing her person. Entering her chamber in 
 
 Hfht with a drawn sword, and finding himself 
 
 Hfely repulsed, he threatened to slay her, and 
 
 Hue body of a slave in her bed, to make it 
 
 M that he had killed them both in the act of 
 
 ty. The dread of being thought so infamous 
 
 1 Lucretia to yield, but with a resolve that 
 
 Httdr of her husband and her own innocence 
 
 *t| be avenged. She summoned her father 
 
 Blr husband from the camp, who came ac- 
 
 Bfied by their kinsmen, Valerius Publicola 
 
 rutus, and having recounted the events of 
 
 B*it,she suddenly stabbed herself to the heart 
 
 Haoncealed dagger. The bloody poniard was 
 
 LUD 
 
 snatched from the wound by Brutus, and the wit- 
 nesses of this sad tragedy swore by the ' once pure 
 blood ' of Lucretia, not to rest till they had ex- 
 pelled the Tarquins from Rome. This event, 
 which occurred B.C. 509, was the signal of Roman 
 freedom, the kingly government being abolished, 
 and a republic established by the conspirators, of 
 whom Junius Brutus became chief. Poets and 
 artists have vied with each other in celebrating the 
 heroism of Lucretia, and her name, like that of 
 Penelope, has furnished the most significant ex- 
 pression for all that is noble and chaste in the 
 female character. [E.R.J 
 
 [Lucretius From an Antique Gem.] 
 
 LUCRETIUS, the commonly received name of 
 Titus Lucretius Carus, an eminent philoso- 
 pher and poet, born at Rome about 96 B.C., and 
 said to have died by his own hand in the forty- 
 fourth year of his age, about 52. He is admitted 
 to be one of the greatest of Roman poets for de- 
 scriptive beauty and elevated sentiment, while his 
 philosophy is subject to the errors inevitable to the 
 state oi science at that time. His poem, which is 
 entitled ' De Rerum Natura,' embodies accurately 
 the Epicurean doctrine on the nature of things, 
 and was first published in 1486. It has been 
 translated into English by Creech and Mason Good. 
 
 LUCULLUS, Lucius Licinius, a naval and 
 military commander of Rome, born about b.c. 115, 
 and distinguished in the war with Mithridates from 
 the time of Sylla to B.C. 66, when he was sup- 
 planted by Pompey. He lived about twenty years 
 longer, in an elegant retirement on the coast of 
 Campania, and his costly habits have rendered his 
 name a bye-word for all that is luxurious and ex- 
 travagantly refined in taste. He was at the same 
 time a great master of literature, and his house 
 was ennched with a valuable library and works of 
 art, which were opened to the curious and the 
 learned, among whom was his friend Cicero. 
 
 LUDEKE, C. W., a Prussian savant, 1737-1805. 
 
 LUDEWIG, J P. De, a Ger. jurist, 1668-1743. 
 
 LUDICAN, a king of Mercia, 823-825. 
 
 LUDIUS, a Roman painter, age of Augustus. 
 
 LUDLOW, Edmund, one of the principal chiefs 
 of the republican party in England during the civil 
 war, born about 1620, distinguished at the battle 
 of Edgehill 1642, successor of Ireton in the go- 
 vernment of Ireland 1650, died in exile 1693. Lud- 
 
 437 
 
LXTD 
 
 low is the author of curious and valuable ' Me- 
 moirs,' published 1698. 
 
 LUDOLPH, Job, a German Orientalist, distin- 
 guished for his researches in Ethiopian history 
 and the Ethiopic dialects, 1624-1704. His two 
 nephews Henry William, distinguished as a 
 Greek and Russian scholar, 1655-1710 ; and Job, 
 as a mathematician, 1649-1711. The son of the 
 latter, Jerome Ludolph, a physician, 1677-1728. 
 
 LUDOLPH, an ascetic writer, about 1300-1370. 
 
 LUDOVICUS, or LUDWIG, Godfrey, a phil- 
 ologist and literary savant of Prussia, 1670-1724. 
 
 LUDOVICUS, C. Gunther, a professor of 
 Leipzig, author of a ' Plan for a History of the 
 Philosophy of Wolf,' and ' of Leibnitz,' 1707-1778. 
 
 LUDWIG, C. F., a phys. of Leipzig, 1757-1823. 
 
 LUDWIG, C. T., a Germ, botanist, 1709-1773. 
 
 LUGO, John De, a Spanish cardinal and theo- 
 logian, 1583-1660. His brother, Francis, a Jesuit 
 and theologian, 1580-1652. 
 
 LUINI, Bernardin, an Ital. painter, 16th ct. 
 
 LUKE, the evangelist, said to have been a Jewish 
 proselyte, converted by the preaching of Paul, and 
 a physician by profession, was a native of Antioch, 
 and probably wrote his gospel, as well as the Acts 
 of the Apostles, while a prisoner in Rome a.d. 63. 
 He was a companion of Paul in many of his jour- 
 neys, and is understood to have been acquainted 
 with the family of Mary, and even to have seen 
 the Saviour in his youth. He died at the age of 
 eighty-four, and was never married. 
 
 LULLI, Anthony, a Fr. grammarian, d. 1582. 
 
 LULLY, Jean Baptiste, born at Florence in 
 1634, showed such a remarkable taste for music 
 that a cordelier, from no other consideration than 
 the hope of his some time becoming eminent in 
 art, undertook to teach him the guitar. While 
 under the care of his kind guitar master he at- 
 tracted the attention of the Chevalier Guise, a 
 French gentleman, who took him at ten years of 
 age to Paris, to be page to the Mdle. de Montpen- 
 sier, niece of Louis XIV. While in this menial 
 capacity he used to spend his leisure time in prac- 
 tising upon an old violin, and his taste in music 
 having reached the ear of the princess, she imme- 
 diately procured a master to teach him the violin, 
 and in the course of a few months he was elevated 
 to the rank of a court musician, and afterwards 
 admitted into the king's band, which was styled 
 the ' Les Petits Violons,' of which corps he 
 soon afterwards became the head. From this 
 time Lully's fame as a performer and composer 
 was fully established and recognized. At this 
 time one who could read music at sight was 
 esteemed as a great musician, and not one-half 
 of those then living in France were so far accom- 
 plished as to be able to play an accompaniment 
 on the harpsichord or theorbo to the exercises of 
 the scholars. Lully in this respect contributed 
 greatly to the progress of musical science, and in 
 his compositions introduced many of the improve- 
 ments which have since become inseparable from 
 compositions of the slightest kind. In the year 
 1686 the king having recovered from a serious 
 indisposition which threatened his life, Lully was 
 required to compose a Te Deum. Accordingly he 
 wrote one, which was as remarkable for its excel- 
 lence as it was for an unhappy accident which be- 
 i'el the composer during its performance, which he 
 
 LUL 
 
 conducted. In the midst of one of the moven 
 of this work, Lully struck his foot with the 
 with which he was beating time. This ci 
 considerable inflammation, and the injury wi 
 untraetable that his physician advised him to 
 his little toe cut off; and, after a delay of 
 days his foot ; and at length the whole limb. 
 this juncture an empiric offered to effect a 
 without amputation. Two thousand pistoles 
 to be his guerdon if he succeeded ; but, as n 
 have been expected, Lully became one more ri 
 to the popular faith in quackery. He die 
 1687, and was interred in tne church of the D 
 lent Augustines, at Paris, where an elegant ] 
 solemn was erected to his memory. Lully's 
 now chiefly rests on his overtures, a spee* 
 composition of which he is said to have oe 
 inventor. He wrote several operas, motet* 
 other compositions for the church, besides a l 
 ber of symphonies in three parts for violins, 
 had two sons, Lottis and Jean, also musie 
 They in conjunction composed the musio t 
 opera named ' Zephire et Flore,' which waJ 
 formed at the Acadernie Roy ale in 1688. [J 
 LULLY, Raymond, a great theurgist 
 philosopher of the middle ages, was of Catak 
 descent, and was born at Palma, the capit 
 Majorca, 1235. He commenced life as a cot 
 and man of pleasure, but was converted j 
 about thirty years of age to the religious 
 chiefly by the exhortations of a married lad 
 whom he had professed the most ardent devo 
 For about ten years, 1265-1275, he lived mo 
 less in a solitary place, and became the subjt 
 remarkable ecstacies and visions the end b 
 that his prayers for wisdom to convert the hei 
 were answered, he says, by a singular illumini 
 of his mind, in which the principles of tl 
 became manifest to him. In this light, witl 
 aid of his investigations in Arabian philosc 
 he conceived a new system of dialectic, which 
 be consulted in his 'Ars Generalis Ultima/ 
 published 1480 ; the 'Ars Brevis,' published 1 
 and the 'Arbor Scientiae,' 1482. The ft* 
 these (of which the second is an abridged met 
 proposes a universal art, or science of scienct 
 the principles of which all others are suppoa 
 be comprehended, and by the aid of which 1 
 maintained they could all be demonstrated. 
 ' Arbor Scientiae,' or tree of knowledge, cont 
 a demonstration of the love of God and the ne 
 bour, traced from its root to its fruit. It if 
 possible to enumerate all his works, btlt 
 
 general object is to demonstrate by an i 
 ble method, all the primary truths of religior 
 eluding the existence and life of Christ , and 
 embrace in their scope, the physical and meta 
 sical sciences ; and, as a necessary consequence 
 doctrines of the alchymists, who claim Rayr 
 Lully as one of their greatest masters. His ] 
 tical means to attain the end of his life we; 
 large in their scope as his system of logic; anj 
 embodied them in three proposals, which M u| 
 upon the pope and Philip the Fair, making r.j 
 journeys to effect his purpose. These won 1. 1 
 all the existing military orders should be foi 
 into one body. 2. That the works 
 the philosopher Averrhoes, should bo absol 
 suppressed. 3. That monasteries should be | 
 
 438 
 
LUM 
 
 Jl parts of the world, to instruct in strange 
 
 yes and in the new dialectic, such as 
 
 d^enter into vows for the conversion of infi- 
 
 It must be admitted that this was a magni- 
 
 t political design, and there is nothing in nis- 
 
 * to compare with it, except the achievements 
 
 Raymond Lully, disappointed, after 
 
 indefatigable efforts to procure the adop- 
 
 t of his system, embarked for Turin, to com- 
 
 rjice his apostleship single-handed, and there, it 
 
 i elieved, he found the death of a martyr, 1315. 
 
 s acquired great celebrity, and were often 
 
 in the 16 th century. The best of his 
 
 is the French priest Ant. Perroquet. 
 
 licules his pretensions, and calls him an 
 
 | rant friar, but without exhibiting any appre- 
 
 ll don of what he really teaches. [K-K-] 
 
 f] [JMAGNE, Marie De, religious founder of 
 
 Ibrder of ' Filles de la Providence,' 1599-1657. 
 
 - 1 >EN, A., a Scotch antiquar., 1720-1801. 
 
 MS DEN, M., a Scotch Oriental., 1777-1835. 
 
 I^HDI, V., an Italian aeronaut, 1759-1799. 
 
 JND, L., a Swedish jurisconsult, 1638-1715. 
 
 JNEAU DE BOISJERMAIN, Peter Jos. 
 
 itrcis, a miscellaneous writer, author of a 
 
 *mentary on Racine,' a ' Course of History 
 
 lEereraphy,' &c, 1732-1801. 
 
 ;. J. C, a German compiler, 1662-1740. 
 r, Th., an English scholar and transla- 
 te; ec. to Richard Pace, when ambas., 1498-1532. 
 IPTON, D., an Eng. biographer, 17th cent. 
 
 >N, W., an English divine, d. abt. 1726. 
 BPUS, or WOLFIUS, Christian, a monk of 
 Sthugustin, known as a canonist and theolo- 
 Jl612-1681. 
 
 PUS, Servatus, a Fr. theologian, 9th cent. 
 RBE, G. De, a French antiquarian, d. 1613. 
 SHINGTON, W., an Eng. statesman, d. 1813. 
 SIGNAN, G. De, a Fr. crusader, died 1194. 
 SSAN, Margaret De, a French novelist 
 asiderable genius, author of a great number 
 torical romances, 1682-1758. 
 THER, the great German reformer, was 
 at Eisleben, 10th November, 1483. As he 
 pro on St. Martin's Eve, and baptized the 
 y, he received his Christian name of Mar- 
 father, who was a poor miner, left Eisle- 
 Mansfeld, when the infant Martin was 
 six months old. Here the hardy labourer 
 d, as to have at length two blast-fur- 
 his own, and to be thus enabled by a be- 
 Providence, to give his son a good edu- 
 After getting such tuition as the place of 
 residence could afford, Martin was sent at 
 of fourteen to school at Magdeburg, where 
 forced him, with other boys, to tra- 
 rieighbouring villages and to sing hymns 
 is of procuring a supply of victuals. Re- 
 next year to Isenach, he was pressed by 
 difficulties, and compelled to a similar 
 of relief, till a benevolent family took him 
 roof. His father was anxious that his 
 study law, and Martin entered the uni- 
 of Erfurt in 1501. The fashionable schol- 
 hilosophy occupied him here for a series of 
 and 'the whole university admired his 
 During the second year of his studies at 
 being a laborious reader, and in the habit 
 " " ig the college library and devouring its 
 
 LUT 
 
 volumes, he found a copy of the Latin Biblo, 
 a book he had never seen before, and which on his 
 reading it, stirred up strange and rapturous sensa- 
 tions within him. Not long afterwards his severe 
 studies produced an alarming illness, which 
 brought him face to face with death, and created 
 serious and permanent religious impressions, which 
 were so deepened by the death of a very intimate 
 friend and fellow-student by a stroke of lightning, 
 that he at once resolved to become a monk, and 
 leaving all his property behind him, but a Virgil 
 and Plautus, and giving his astonished friends a 
 hearty farewell banquet, he entered the monastery 
 of the hermits of St. Augustine. Here the ambi- 
 tious scholar soon felt the crushing despotism of 
 those monkish brothers, for he was forced to do 
 the most menial and disgusting offices, and the 
 master of arts was made a servant of all work- 
 sweeper, porter, and beggar, for the lazy drones 
 who buzzed in the convent. Still, he did not ne- 
 glect his studies, and he strove earnestly all the 
 while to obtain that spiritual peace and sanctity 
 which he had imagined must be easily found in a 
 religious establishment. Alas ! he watched, fasted, 
 prayed, read, and did penance on himself in vain. 
 His melancholy could not be relieved by such 
 ghostly mechanism. His was not a mind to be 
 cheated into quiet by monastic routine, or degraded 
 and hushed by morbid asceticism. But the conver- 
 sations of Staupitz, his vicar-general, at length led 
 the young Augustinian to feel the freedom and peace 
 of the gospel, and he was ordained to the priesthood, 
 and celebrated his first mass, in his twenty-fourth 
 year. By the influence of Staupitz, Luther was 
 m 1508 called by Frederick, elector of Saxony, 
 to be a professor of philosophy in the university of 
 Wittemberg. Here in a short time he taught also 
 biblical theology, and obtained more internal 
 serenity, and a deeper view of the Divine plan of 
 redemption. He began to preach too with that 
 vigour, impetuosity, and eloquence which soon at- 
 tracted immense crowds. About 1510 he was 
 sent to Rome on ecclesiastical business, and his 
 mind received a terrible shock by what he wit- 
 nessed of the idleness, profanity, and sensuality of 
 the Romish clergy and laity, and the grief and in- 
 dignation he experienced during this visit to the city 
 of the pope, caused the veil to fall from his eyes. 
 On returning from the Italian metropolis, he was, 
 in 1512, made doctor of divinity, and he continued 
 to preach boldly, attacking the scholastic philo- 
 sophy, and basing his arguments more and more 
 on the Holy Scriptures. The court of Rome, to 
 supply its luxuries, and aid in building St. Peter's, 
 had commissioned indulgences to be sold in Ger- 
 many. The traffic was carried on with the utmost 
 effrontery, and under a regular tariff, and Tetzel 
 was a fit instrument for the nefarious commerce 
 in the souls of men. Some of the people of Wit- 
 temberg, who had confessed to Luther, refused to 
 abandon their sins, and pleaded the indulgences 
 which they had bought. The spirit of Luther was 
 fired the spark was laid to the train which ended 
 in so mighty an explosion. He preached and re- 
 monstrated, and on the 31st October, 1517, nailed 
 to the door of the castle church his ninety-five 
 theses, and sent a copy of them to the archbishop 
 of Magdeburg. The consequent discussions with 
 Tetzel at Wittemberg, and his debates upon the 
 
LUT 
 
 same subject at Heidelberg, only increased and 
 deepened the agitation, and added to Luther's po- 
 pularity. By and bye he was summoned to ap- 
 {>ear and answer at Augsburg before the papal 
 egate, Cardinal Cajetan. At the several interviews 
 he stood firm and resolved, and the friar Martin 
 returned in triumph to his cell and his lecture- 
 room. The excitement was now so prodigious that 
 the courteous Elector wished him to leave the city 
 the idea of a capital penalty for him was loudly 
 talked of, and the unquailing Luther at last ap- 
 pealed from the pope to a general council. But 
 Militz, another legate, was appointed, and at a meet- 
 ing which took place at Altenburg in 1519, Luther 
 was so far cajoled as to write an humble and apo- 
 logetic letter to Leo. The letter was unheeded 
 the reformer became more and more alive to the 
 errors of the church the disputation with Eckius 
 still forced him onwards, and, being too honest to 
 conceal his convictions, he took advantage of the 
 press, and his works found a wondrous and 
 immediate circulation. Rome became seriously 
 alarmed, and Leo at length issued a bull of excom- 
 munication, which Luther publicly and contemp- 
 tuously burnt before an immense assembly at 
 Wittemberg. The German mind was thoroughly 
 roused, and prepared to throw oft' the yoke of Rome. 
 Luther's separation from Rome was now complete. 
 Leo urged the new emperor, Charles V., to appre- 
 hend and punish the turbulent and daring heretic, 
 but by the influence of the elector of Saxony, the 
 reformer's cause was tried at Worms. On his 
 way to Worms, Spalatin, apprehensive for his 
 safety, despatched a messenger to forewarn and dis- 
 suade him from continuing his journey, but the 
 magnanimous champion replied, ' Go tell your mas- 
 ter, that though there were as many devils in 
 Worms as tiles upon the house-tops, I will enter it.' 
 On the 16th of April he reached this city, attired 
 in his friar's cowl ; multitudes met him, and he 
 entered it attended by 2,000 persons. Before his 
 204 august judges, the emperor and his nobility, 
 his courage did not fail, for clearly and fully did 
 he vindicate his past procedure, and he steadily 
 appealed to the authority of Scripture. The re- 
 sult was, that Charles issued a rescript ' against 
 the evil fiend in human form,' 'the fool,' and 
 the blasphemer,' and put him under the ban of 
 the empire. Luther had already left the town, 
 pursuing the road that took him to Mora, that 
 he might see his aged grandmother. He resumed 
 his journey the next day, but as be passed through 
 the depths of the Thuringian forest he was roughly 
 seized by five horsemen, and canned to the castle 
 of Wartburg, and a whole year he lay there in 
 solitude, while his friends mourned his absence or 
 death. But his powerful patrons had in this way 
 provided for his safety. This period of forced re- 
 tirement was not mis-spent, and though he had to 
 wrestle with morbid and nervous sensations, pro- 
 duced by his confinement and sedentary life, he 
 translated the New Testament into German, which 
 was published in 1522. Leaving his Patmos, and 
 returning to Wittemberg, his undaunted energy 
 earned all before it, the reformation was ushered in, 
 and in 1524 Luther abandoned the monastic dress 
 the last symbol of his connection with Rome. 
 hed his fanatical opponents, who did more 
 injury to his cause than his papal adversaries, 
 
 LUT 
 
 gallantly entered the lists with Henry VI] 
 England, and fought stoutly with Erasmus o 
 Freedom of the Will. In 1525. he was marri 
 Pomeranus, to Catherine von Bora, who hai 
 her convent about two years before, and ' hit 
 
 [Luther'i 
 
 and lovely Ketha' proved a kind and affect 
 wife to him. The labours of Luther were al 
 period incessant, for the care of all the chu 
 was upon him, and many of the states of 
 many embraced his doctrines. From 1517 to I 
 every year saw him publish a book or books ag 
 some form of papal error. The anabaptists 
 a sad thorn in nis side, and by their wretchei 
 cesses brought great scandal upon his works, 
 translation of the Bible occupied a large porta 
 his time, for it was the mainstay of the refo 
 tion ; and commentaries on almost all the 1 
 of the Bible proceeded from his unwearied 
 Councils were in those days reckoned a grand 
 cific for healing ecclesiastical discord, and 
 were not a few in the life of Luther : Won 
 1521, Nuremberg in 1522-23, when the Ge 
 princes presented a list of ' a hundred grievar 
 another at the same place in the following 
 at which the members resolved to work out t 
 as possible the decisions of that of Worms, 
 that of Augsburg in 1525, adjourned to Spir 
 1526, at which a general council was dema 
 Another diet was convoked to meet in Febr 
 1529, and the imperial and popish party bavin 
 mastery, decreed to suppress the reformatio; 
 force. Against this bloody decree the dej 
 solemnly protested, and the reforming bam' 
 ceived from this circumstance the appro; 
 name of Protestants. Luther and ZwingliJ 
 quarrelled about the nature of the Lord's Sir 
 and maintained a worse than idle contest,] 
 met personally for disputation at Marburg. 
 diet of Augsburg met in 1530, the conf 
 prepared by Melanchthon was submitted to il 
 protestantism, in spite of all obstacles, was i 
 established among the German nations. 
 many interruptions and incessant labours, I 
 continued at Wittemberg during his rem: 
 years. In his sixty-second year his health 
 to give way the strong man was 
 After an altercation with the law) 
 destine marriages and certain female fashw 
 dress, he indignantly left Wittemberg for EiH 
 410 
 
I! 
 
 c>.an 
 
 t han 
 
 LUT 
 
 ie month of January, 1546. The river Issel 
 g swollen, he was five days upon the road. On 
 17th of February he complained of oppressive 
 in his chest. Momentary relief from it was 
 obtained ; but he was again attacked in the 
 ;, and after brief but earnest religious exer- 
 and thrice repeating the inspired words, 'Into 
 ands I commit my spirit God of truth thou 
 redeemed me,' he expired between two and 
 o'clock in the morning. His disease is sup- 
 to have been angina pectoris, but some say, 
 the stomach. On the 19th his body was 
 in a leaden coffin and carried into the 
 ere it was removed for burial, and on the 
 the hearse arrived at Wittemberg, where the 
 city stood around the gates in deepest sor- 
 and lamentation. Luther was buried in the 
 kirche, and many a traveller has read the 
 inscription that still stands over his tomb. 
 one will deny that Luther was one of the 
 He had an earnest and honest nature 
 ger alike to cowardice and dissimulation, 
 he did, he did with his might. That he 
 ies spoke roughly and wrote harshly, no 
 w better than himself ' I was born,' said 
 fight with devils and storms, and hence it is 
 writings are so boisterous and stormy.' It 
 a leonine temperament to do the work of 
 Luther. Yet he was a man of a loving 
 us heart playful and happy with ltis 
 family or friends. He liked hilarity, and 
 mind rejoiced to unbend. Intellect and 
 were alike powerful within him, for with 
 clearness of reason and conscientious deci- 
 was often swayed by impulse. In those 
 he uttered or wrote those expressions, 
 ,ve so often the semblance of inconsistent 
 So much was he formed to lead opin- 
 he could not easily bear contradiction, 
 was incredible, as his remaining works 
 Luther had great natural capabilities for 
 and he had sedulously studied its theory, 
 very many hymns and set them to music, 
 he published his first hymn with music in 
 sheet ; the next year he wrote seventeen 
 similar accompaniment, and in other subse- 
 his muse was not idle. Forty-two 
 tunes were composed by himself and his 
 But amidst all his literary labours, his 
 of the Scriptures stands pre-eminent, 
 iware of the difficult and responsible task, 
 assistance in every form and from every 
 quarter. When the Hebrew terms be- 
 to botany and zoology perplexed him, he 
 d the physician Sturciad, and he also ob- 
 oseful information from his friend Spalatin, 
 only instructed him in natural history, 
 him specimens from the superb collection 
 which belonged to the elector of Saxony, 
 even employed butchers to dissect animals 
 nee, that he might be able to discrimi- 
 render accurately the various sacrificial 
 the Levitical code. But especially did he 
 erudite and skilled professors of theology 
 aid. They met from time to time, each 
 repared himself for the interview by a 
 elaboration of the literary materials be- 
 to his department of investigation. At 
 epeated and prolonged consultations, Luther 
 
 LUZ 
 
 invariably presided, and he had always spread out 
 before him, his own manuscript, the ink of which 
 was scarcely dry, the Hebrew Bible, and the Latin 
 Vulgate. On his one hand sat Melanchthon, with the 
 Greek Scriptures before him, and on his other was 
 placed Casper Cruciger, with his notes made from 
 the Chaldee Targums. Bugenhagen, usually called 
 Pomeranus, from the country of his birth, was 
 also by their side, ready with his suggestions from 
 the rabbinical writings and the old Greek versions. 
 These scholars did their work with marvellous pre- 
 cision and fidelity, for they sometimes returned four- 
 teen successive days to the reconsideration of a doubt- 
 ful clause or word. In short, Martin Luther was one 
 of the few men whom Providence occasionally en- 
 dows, prepares, and raises up for gigantic enterprise. 
 He lived to see his work of religious emancipation 
 immoveably rooted among the German nations 
 the work of one man and one age. He sowed the 
 seed in tears, but he saw the harvest gathered 
 with joy. Luther was a man of a compact physi- 
 cal frame, with broad shoulders, a large and mas- 
 sive brow, and a firm set mouth. His works have 
 been often reprinted. The best edition of his cor- 
 respondence is that of De Wette, Berlin, 1825-28, 
 5 vols. 8vo. His Table Talk, all of which is not 
 authentic, is one of the foundations of his Me- 
 moires by Michelet, Paris, 1837. A good edition 
 of his works was published at Halle, in 24 
 volumes, 1737-53, and another edition, in 12mo, is 
 in course of publication at Erlangen, 1826-53; 51 
 volumes have already appeared, and the whole is 
 to occupy 60 volumes. There are many separate 
 lives of the reformer, among which may be enu- 
 merated those of Pfizer, Meurer, Jiirgen, Konig, 
 Weydmann, and Wildenhahn. I J.E.J 
 
 LUTI, or LUTTI, B., a Ital. artist, 1666-1724. 
 
 LUTMA, J., a Dutch engraver, 1609-1685. 
 
 LUTTERELL, H., an Irish engraver, b. 1650. 
 
 LUXDORF, B. W., a Danish savant, 1716-88. 
 
 LUXEMBOURG, Francis Henry De Mont- 
 morenci Bouteville, Due De, one of the greatest 
 generals of the age of Louis XIV., was a posthu- 
 mous son of the count de Bouteville, and a pupil 
 in war of the great Conde. He was constantly 
 opposed to William III., and was successful against 
 him in the battle of Nerwinde 1695, when 20,000 
 men were left on the field. Born 1628, commander- 
 in-chief in Holland 1672, marshal 1675, died 1695. 
 One of his sons, Christian Louis, served in the 
 Austrian war of succession, 1675-1746. The ne- 
 phew of the latter. C. F. Frederic, was also a 
 French marshal, 1702-1764. His wife, Made- 
 leine, widow of the duke de Boufflers, was cele- 
 brated at the court of Louis XV., 1707-1787. 
 
 LUYKEN, John, a Dutch engraver, 1649-1712. 
 His son and pupil, N. Gaspard, d. before him, 1660. 
 
 LUYNES, Charles D'Albert, Due De, de- 
 scended from a noble Florentine family named 
 Alberti, who established themselves in France in 
 1413, was born at Pont St. Esprit 1578, and was 
 godson of Henry IV. In the reign of Louis XIII. 
 he became prime minister, and at length constable 
 of France ; died 1621. His son, Louis Charles, 
 an ascetic writer, and one of the Port-Royal sa- 
 vants, author of many works published under the 
 name of ' Laval,' flourished 1620-1690. 
 
 LUZAN, Ignatius, a Spanish poet, 1695-1754. 
 
 LUZZATTO, S., a Venetian rabbi. 17th cent. 
 
 441 
 
LYC 
 I.YOON, a Greek philosopher, 4th cent. r>.c. 
 LYOOPHRON, a Greek poet, 2d century B.C. 
 
 [Lycurgus /Vow an Ancient Statue j 
 
 LYCURGUS, the great legislator of the _ Lace- 
 daemonians, was the son of Eunomus, king of 
 Sparta. His history commences with the year 
 898 b.c, when he might have usurped the throne 
 on the death of his brother, but preferring to guard 
 the kingdom for the unborn child of the latter, he 
 devoted himself to the study of legislation. On his 
 nephew becoming of age, Lycurgus travelled into 
 Crete, Egypt, and Asia, and thus prepared himself 
 to give Sparta the laws which have rendered his 
 name immortal. His object was to regulate the 
 manners as well as the government, and to form a 
 warrior nation, in which no private interest should 
 prevail over the public good. It is said that Ly- 
 curgus persuaded the Spartans to swear that they 
 would observe these laws till his return from an- 
 other journey, and that he then departed, and they 
 never heard of him more. One account states 
 that he starved himself to death, but it is more 
 probable that he retired to private life, and died 
 naturally, as Lucian records, at the age of eighty- 
 five. [E.R.] 
 
 LYCURGUS, an Athenian orator and political 
 functionary, about 408-325 B.C. 
 
 LYDGATE, John, an old English poet, who 
 flourished soon after the time of Chaucer, and is 
 known to have been living in the middle of the 
 15th century. His history is very obscure, but he 
 was a monk of Bury St. Edmunds, and was or- 
 dained a priest 1397. His principal works are 
 ' The Siege of Troy,' ' Story of Thebes,' and The 
 Fall of Princes.' 
 
 LYDIAT, Thomas, an English divine, distin- 
 guished as a chronologist and mathem., 1572-1649. 
 
 LYDIUS, B. L., a German protestant divine, 
 established at Dort as a refugee in 1603, died 1629. 
 His son, James, a divine and critic, was also 
 a minister at Dort, dates unknown. 
 
 LYE, Edward, an antiquarian savant, au. of 
 an ' Anglo-Saxon and Gothic Diet.,' &c, 1704-69. 
 
 LYELL, Charles, father of the well-known 
 geologist, a Scotchman, disting. as a discoverer 
 in botany, and translator of Dante, 1767-1849. 
 
 LYFORD, William, a wr. of practical divinity, 
 rector of Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, 1598-1653. 
 
 LYS 
 
 LYNAR, Roch Frederic, Count De, a Di 
 statesman and scholar, author of political v 
 and travels, 1708-1781. His son, ('. <;<>tt 
 disting. as a publicist and ascetic writer, 174J 
 
 LYNCH, J., an Irish polemic, died about 1 
 
 LYNDE, Sir Humphrey, an English m 
 trate, known as a writer in favour of protes! 
 ism, 1579-1636. 
 
 LYNDSAY, Sir David, one of the mo* 
 mous of the old Scottish poets, was probably 
 in or soon after the year 1490. He is ua 
 described as ' of the Mount,' which was bis f 
 nal estate in Fifeshire. He received instnictu 
 the university of St. Andrews ; and, in 1512, i 
 he may have been a little above twenty yean 
 was placed about the person of the new- 
 
 {)rince, who afterwards became James V. of I 
 and. He first appeared, both as a public ser 
 and as an author, in 1528, when the young 
 threw off his subjection to the Douglases, h 
 next year he was appointed Lyon-khiir-at-ar 
 and he was employed afterwards on 
 other charges, both before and after 
 his royal patron. He sided with the Refon 
 to the extent, at any rate, of desiring and proi 
 ing purification of ecclesiastical polity and dii 
 line ; but he never figured very prominently ii 
 fierce quarrels of his time, and spent hi I 
 years so quietly that it is not known wba 
 died. He can be traced positively till 1553. 
 poetical works have nothing of high or fine pot 
 inspiration; but they abound in practical 
 sense and sagacity, show great observation oi 
 ciety and manners, and are written with rem 
 able force of language, and tremendous strengi 
 sarcastic and satirical invective. The most i 
 resting of them is his ' Satire of the Three Esti 
 a huge dramatic piece, hovering between the 
 goric moralities, and those more modern plaj 
 which individual personages were introduced. 
 ' Monarchy, a Dialogue between Experience ai 
 Courtier,' is his largest composition, bnt 
 heavy ; and his ' Squire Meldrum' is an indifft 
 attempt at poetizing the adventures of a n 
 contemporary. The most successful of his 
 tempts, besides many passages of his play, an 
 small pieces of satire on the court, on politic! 
 and on churchmen ; and chief of these are 
 early productions, 'The Dream,' and the 'C 
 plaint of the Papingo.' 
 
 LYNDWODE\ or LINDWOOD, William 
 ecclesiastical lawyer and statesman, in the r 
 of Henry VI., and bishop of St. David's, d. 14 
 
 LYNEDOCH, Thomas Graham, Lord, a 
 tive of Perthshire, who greatly distinguished 1 
 self as an officer of the British army during 
 late wars, born 1750, died, governor of Dum 
 ton castle, 1843. 
 
 LYON, George Francis, a famons Aft 
 traveller, and advent, in the arctic seas, 1795-li 
 
 LYON, J., an English physician, 17:5 4-181/ 
 
 LYONNET, P., a Ger. naturalist, 1707-17? 
 
 LYONNET, R., a medical writer, 17th cent 
 
 LYONS, Israel, son of a Polish Jew, dia 
 guished as an astronomer, mathematician, 
 botanist, 1739-1775. 
 
 LYRA, Nicholas Dk, in Latin Lyranu 
 Scripture commentator of Normandy, died 13-1 
 
 LYS, tha name of several painters 1. J( 
 
 442 
 
LYS 
 
 >ek Lys, a Dutch genre painter, born at 
 
 1600. 2. John Lys, flourished at Olden- 
 
 1570-1629. 3. Du Lys, ot the family of 
 
 j Dare, called Nicoletto by the Italians, died 
 
 1732. 
 SANDER, a Lacedaemonian general, who put 
 
 to the Peloponnesian war by his victory 
 lie Athenians 405 B.C. He established the 
 
 tyrants' at Athens, and was killed in a 
 'with the Thebans 395. 
 
 5HANDER, or LYSCANDER, John, a 
 
 antiquarian, died 1582. His brother, Cl. 
 
 )PHErson, an historian, 1557-1623. 
 JERUS, Polycarp, a Lutheran divine of 
 1552-1601. John, of the same family, 
 
 on polygamy died 1684. 
 >IAS, a famous orator of Athens, 4th c. B.C. 
 HAS, a general of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 f Syria, vanquished by Judas Maccabaeus. 
 JIMACHUS, one of Alexander's lieutenants, 
 
 ime master of Thrace on the division of 
 juests, and was killed B.C. 282. 
 
 'PUS, a Greek sculptor, lived B.C. 350. 
 
 5, a Pythagorean philosopher, B.C. 388. 
 
 STRATUS, a Greek sculptor, 4th c. B.C. 
 
 )NS, Daniel, an English physician and 
 
 writer, died 1800. His son, Samuel, a 
 I on topography and the Roman antiquities 
 
 Britain, appointed keeper of the records 
 ITower, 1763-1819. 
 
 Henry, an English botanist, 1529-1607. 
 
 ,ETON, George Lord, an author and 
 
 was born in January, 1709, at Hagley, 
 
 stershire, the seat of his father, to whose 
 | and baronetcy he was heir. He showed 
 
 life the same qualities which he afterwards 
 
 j fluency of diction, and justness of 
 
 He never rose above an easy mediocrity 
 
 MAC 
 
 either in literature or statesmanship, but his popu- 
 lar amiable manners, his thorough chivalrous 
 liberality of sentiment, and his good moral prin- 
 ciples, justly made him an object of affectionate 
 admiration among the men of genius of the age, 
 and he thus occupies a more conspicuous position 
 than his talents alone could have achieved. He is 
 ranked among the converts from infidelity, but his 
 religion did not become fanatical, and it may be 
 questioned if it displaced anything beyond a dis- 
 satisfied partial scepticism. He was twice mar- 
 ried, and the object of his earlier choice, from the 
 deep affection with which he regarded her when 
 alive, and his grief for her death, made the con- 
 trast with her successor, from whom Lyttleton 
 found it necessary to separate, a matter of much 
 sad remark among his contemporaries. Though 
 
 his father was in office, he joined the young ' Pa- 
 triots ' who drove Walpole from power. He 1 
 
 held 
 
 several secondary offices, and preceded Mr. Legge 
 as Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was created 
 a baron in 1757, and died in 1773. His miscel- 
 lanies, in prose and verse, are now forgotten, and 
 
 his laborious but feeble history of Henry IL, is 
 
 only known to historical inquirers. [J.H.B.] 
 
 LYTTLETON, Charles, younger brother of 
 
 the preceding, born in 1714, became bishop of 
 Carlisle in 1762, and was distinguished for his 
 antiquarian learning ; died 1768. Thomas Lyt- 
 tleton, the son of Lord George, and his succes- 
 sor in the peerage, was a young nobleman of dis- 
 sipated manners, who possessed, however, much 
 of his father's genius. He is the subject of a 
 well-authenticated ghost story, which relates that 
 he was warned of his death three days before it 
 happened, in 1779, when he was in good health, 
 and only thirty-five years of age. See (for other 
 members of this family) Littleton. 
 
 M 
 
 John, a doct. of the Sorbonne, 17th c. 
 the name of several Dutch painters 
 a pupil of the younger Teniers, 1620- 
 Nicholas, famous for his portraits, 1632- 
 Dirk, or Theodore, or Thierny, great 
 '-pieces and cavalcades, 1656-1715. God- 
 ious for his altar-pieces, 1660-1722. 
 J. G. E., a Prussian philos., 1766-1823. 
 P. L., an Italian savant^ 1752-1836. 
 iLON, John, a learned monk and his* 
 I the Benedictines, celebrated for his know- 
 ' ecclesiastical antiquities, and his skill as a 
 an and controversial writer, born in the 
 | of Rheims, 1632, died 1707. 
 
 LY, Gabriel Bonnot, Abbe* De, a bro- 
 I Condillac, eminent as a political and mis- 
 writer of great learning, 1709-1785. 
 )UL, J., a French prelate, died 1723. 
 JUSE, Jan De, one of the most celebrated 
 of the old Flemish school of Bruges, is the 
 I master of any consideration who practised 
 in this country. His family name appears 
 [been Gossaert, but he signed himself Joan- 
 'ius, that is, of M abuse, his birth-place, 
 was born about 1470 ; he studied in Italy, 
 ' 1499 visited this country, where he was 
 by Henry VII. ; there is a picture of this 
 
 king's family, by him, at Hampton Court : he died 
 at Antwerp in 1532. Mabuse was a painter of ex- 
 traordinary ability : his best works are generally 
 brilliantly coloured, well drawn, and finished with 
 extreme delicacy , his masterpiece is also in this 
 country the adoration of the kings, at Castle 
 Howard, originally painted as an altar-piece for 
 the abbey of Grammont, it afterwards fell into the 
 possession of Prince Charles of Lorraine, from 
 whose collection it was brought into England. 
 (Van Mander, Leven der Schilders, &c. ; Walpole, 
 Anecdotes of Painting, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 MACABER, an old German poet, author of the 
 1 Dance of Death,' painted by Holbein. 
 
 M'ADAM, or MACADAM, John Loudon, a 
 magistrate and trustee of roads in Ayrshire, fa- 
 mous for introducing the improved system of road- 
 making which bears his name, born 1756, died, 
 after declining the honour of knighthood, which 
 was conferred on his son, Sir James Nichol 
 Macadam, 1836. Mr. Macadam was substan- 
 tially rewarded for this important national service 
 by a grant of 10,000 from the government. Sir 
 James Nichol Macadam died in 1852. 
 
 MACARDELL, J., an Eng. engraver, d. 1765. 
 
 MACARIUS, the name of two saints, the first 
 or elder, a native of Alexandria, originally a baker, 
 
 443 
 
MAC 
 
 who became a disciple of St. Anthony, and passed 
 the last sixty years of his life as a hermit, 301-391. 
 The second, a contemporary of the preceding, 
 who was persecuted for his zeal against the Arians, 
 and is said to have had 5,000 monks under his 
 direction, died 395. 
 
 MACARIUS, a primate of Russia, died 1563. 
 
 MACARTHY, Sir Charles, an Irish officer, 
 killed in African warfare by the Ashantees, 1824. 
 
 MACARTNEY, George, earl of, best known 
 for his embassage to China, was a native of An- 
 trim in Ireland, where he was bom 1737. He be- 
 gan his career after taking his degree at Dublin in 
 1759, as tutor to the sons of Lord Holland. In 
 1764 he went as envoy extraordinary to Russia ; 
 in 1769 was appointed secretary to Lord Towns- 
 bend, lord-lieutenant of Ireland; in 1775, governor 
 of Grenada and Tobago ; and in 1792-1795 was 
 engaged in his famous mission with Sir George 
 Staunton as secretary, who has published an ac- 
 count of the embassy : died 1806. 
 
 MACAULAY, Catherine, a famous historian 
 and political writer of the last century, was the 
 daughter of John Sawbridge, Esq., of Ollantigh in 
 Kent, where she was born 1734. She commenced 
 her literary career soon after marrying Dr. George 
 Macaulav, a physician of London, and acquired 
 great celebrity on account of the republican prin- 
 ciples which gave the tone to her works. She 
 was married a second time, in 1778, to a Mr. 
 Graham, and died 1791. 
 
 MACAULAY, Elizabeth Wright, an Eng- 
 lish actress, who afterwards became famous as a 
 country preacher, 1785- 1837. 
 
 _ MACAULAY, Zachary, father of the popular 
 historian Thos. B. Macaulay, dist. for his philan- 
 thropic co-operation with Wilberforce, 1768-1838. 
 
 MACBETH, the hero of Shakspeare's tragedy 
 of that name, was a Scottish chief related to the 
 reigning King Duncan, whom he assassinated in 
 order to usurp his power 1040. He fell in battle 
 by the hand of Macduff, 1057. 
 
 MACBRIDE, D., an Irish physician, 1727-1778. 
 
 MACCABEUS. See Judas. 
 
 MACCHIETTI, J., an Italian painter, b. 1541. 
 
 MACCORMICK, Ch., an Irish student of law, 
 known as an historian and miscel. wr., 1744-1807. 
 
 MACCRIE, Thomas, a Scottish divine, au. of 
 a 'Life of Knox,' and a ' History of the Attempted 
 Reformation in Italy in the 16th Cent.,' 1772-1835. 
 
 MACCULLOCH, John, a physician who was 
 born at Guernsey in 1773, and took his diploma at 
 Edinburgh at the early age of eighteen. He was 
 remarkable for the versatility of his powers, was 
 employed by government in a mineralogical and 
 
 feological survey of Scotland, and by the East 
 ndia Company as lecturer on chemistry in their 
 establishment at Addiscombe. Died, in conse- 
 quence of an accident, 1835. 
 
 MACCURTIN, H. an Irish lexicograp., 18th ct. 
 
 MACDIARMID, J., a Scotch wr., 1779-1808. 
 
 MACDIARMID, John, the well-known editor 
 of the Dumfries Courier, died 1852. 
 
 MACDONALD, A., a Scotch writer, 1757-90. 
 
 MACDONALD, John, only son of Flora Mac- 
 donald, who assisted the Pretender to escape in 
 1746, known as a writer on tactics and the tele- 
 graph, &c., 1759-1831. 
 
 MACDONALD, Stephen James Joseph 
 
 MAC 
 
 Alexander, duke of Tarentum, and mars! 
 France, distinguished in the wars of the F 
 empire, was descended from a Scot 
 took refuge in France in the time of 
 Napoleon spoke of him as the noblest of ehanu 
 ana regretted much that he had not knowi 
 better when in active service. Born at I 
 1765, died 1840. 
 
 MACDOWALL, Sir A., an East Indian o 
 distinguished in the Madras army, 1762-ltS 
 
 MACE, F., a Fr. ecclesiastical wr. 
 
 MACE, J., a French theologian, ! 
 
 MACE, R., a chronicler in the tin. 
 
 MACE, Th., an English musician, died U 
 
 MACEDO, Francis De, a learne 
 wards a cordelier of Portugal, author of num 
 works, born 1596, died in prison 1681. 
 
 MACEDO, J. A. De, a Portug. poet, d. II 
 
 MACEDONIUS, the first of the n 
 patriarch of Constantinople by the A 
 posed 360 ; the second, elected 494, died 516, 
 
 MACER, jEmilius, a Latin poet, about 24 
 
 MACERATA, G. Da, an Ital. painter, b. I 
 
 MACFARLANE, Henry, a native of I 
 land, known as a political and miscellai 
 writer, was in early life a schoolmaster, pi 
 mentary reporter, and newspaper editor. ] 
 said to have assisted Macpherson in editinj 
 poems of Ossian; he also translated som 
 Buchanan's pieces ; 1734-1804. 
 
 MACGILLIVRAY, William, M.D., LLi 
 distinguished Scottish naturalist, died 1852. 
 
 MACGREGOR, R., an E. Indian officer, d. ! 
 
 MACHAM, Robert, the discoverer of the i 
 of Madeira, was an English gentleman, wh( 
 driven out of his course by contrary winds ' 
 eloping with his mistress, m the age of Ed 
 III., 1344. The story relates, that the lovers 
 and were buried in the island by their crew, 
 afterwards escaped to the coast of Africa, anc 
 came slaves in Morocco. Their adventures, 
 ten in Portuguese by Alcaforado, have been t 
 lated into French; and the Rev. W. L. B< 
 has made them the subject of one of his poeir 
 
 MACHAU, W. De, a French po< ; 
 
 MACHAULT, John De, a learned Fi 
 Jesuit ; 1561-1629. John Baptist De J 
 hault, another Jesuit writer, 1591-1640. Ja 
 a third of the name, author of ' Missions to I 
 guay,' &c, 1600-1680. 
 
 MACHIAVELLI, Nicolo, whose name 
 well known by the English abbreviai 
 was bom at Florence in the year 1469. ^ 
 seems to be known of his education than migi 
 expected from the interest created by his <b 
 guished place among political philosophers, 
 the age of thirty, he is found deep in the perpl 
 Italian politics of the period, having been seen 
 of the board of ' The Ten.' In whatever ligh 
 works may be dealt with critically, there 
 doubt that they were founded upon the cl 
 practical observation of political movement 
 well as on a scholarly acquaintanceship with 
 tory. But it must also be remembered, that 
 ever deeply he was engaged in Italian conflict 
 diplomacy, and however the Peninsula, wit 
 multitudes of republican, monarchical, and ai 
 eratic states, along with the hierarchy rulir 
 large a portion of it, may have furnished an 
 
 441 
 
MAC 
 
 the politics of the world, yet, as in other 
 merits of inquiry, the narrowness of the field 
 be considered in estimating the conclusions 
 inquirer. It is true, however, that one 
 sed of his acuteness would add to his Ital- 
 perience a consciousness of the machina- 
 1 France and the German empire, along 
 ,e rising Spanish kingdom, to get pos- 
 of Italy. The events of his life would 
 fully told without a narrative of the very 
 ted history of Italy during his active 
 He had to conduct some extremely criti- 
 rotiations for the Florentine republic with 
 rfidious and rapacious Csesar Borgia, and 
 raght has perhaps been often repeated, that 
 could there have been more ferocity and 
 ondensed within the compass of two human 
 than when Borgia and Machiavelli met 
 same cabinet. The political and critical 
 about Machiavelli have centred round 
 
 E! or discourse on the prince, intended not 
 cation, but for the private instruction of 
 ang princes of the Medici family. It has 
 "ntained that he wrote to caricature the 
 les he professes, but this is an unnecessary 
 It is easy to see that he meant what he 
 d his opinions are not wonderful, consider- 
 school in which he was taught. He wrote 
 and more extensive works, one on the 
 books of the first decade of Livy's history 
 5r, a curious dialogue on the art of war. 
 on the 22d of June, 1527. [J.H.B.] 
 
 3HIN, J., an English astronomer, 18th ct. 
 Chart.es, Baron Von, an Austrian 
 who rose to distinction during the wars of 
 :h revolution, and was at the head of the 
 Naples opposed to the French in Italy, 
 The most remarkable incident in his career, 
 surrender with 28,000 Austrian troops to 
 tarte, for which he was tried by court- 
 at Vienna. Born in Franconia 1752 ; died, 
 and disgraced, 1828. 
 
 KAY, And., a dist. mathemat., died 1809. 
 KENZIE, Sir Alex., was a native of In- 
 and at an early period of his life settled in 
 After having Deen eight years in the 
 of the North-west Fur Company, he was 
 Fort Chipewyan 3d June, 1789, on an 
 expedition towards the north, in which 
 the great river named after him, and 
 e Arctic Ocean in lat. 69. Some time 
 (1771) this great barrier had been first 
 at the mouth of the Coppermine River, by 
 Hearne, an agent of the Hudson's Bay 
 f. On another expedition, undertaken 
 fcober, 1792, Mackenzie was the first to 
 i Rocky Mountains and reach the Pacific. 
 >lished an account of his travels, London, 
 id soon after had the honour of knight- 
 Ferred upon him. [J.B.] 
 
 NZIE, George, a physician of Edin- 
 or of a biography of eminent Scotch- 
 hed 1708-1722. 
 
 NZIE, Sir George, a Scotch lawyer 
 
 scellaneous writer, whose judicial career in 
 
 of the covenanters procured him the ap- 
 
 of ' the blood-thirstv advocate ;' born at 
 
 L636, died 1691. His relative, George 
 
 izie, Viscount Tarbat, and first earl of 
 
 MAC 
 
 Cromarty, secretary of state in the reign of Queen 
 Anne, and a writer on prophecy, &c, 1626-1714. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Henry, born in 1745, survived 
 till 1831. Though the writings which made his 
 name popular were of a highly romantic and senti- 
 mental cast, his life was one of steady routine. 
 He was the son of a physician in Edinburgh; and 
 there was obtained for him, very early, an appoint- 
 ment as one of the attorneys in the Scottish Court 
 of Exchequer ; a respectable, easy, and well-paid 
 place. He held it till 1804, when the interest of his 
 friends, and the value attached to pamphlets he 
 had written in support of the government, gained 
 for him the very lucrative office of comptroller of 
 taxes for Scotland. His earliest novel, which was 
 also his best, was 'The Man of Feeling,' published 
 in 1771. 'The Man of the World' appeared in 
 1783, and was succeeded by ' Julia de Roubigne.' 
 He edited the periodical called ' The Mirror,' in 
 1779 and 1780; and 'The Lounger' in 1785 and 
 1786. He furnished to each of these a large num- 
 ber of papers, among which were some pleasing 
 stories ; and he wrote also plays, translations from 
 the German, and critical and other essays. [W.S.] 
 MACKENZIE, J., a medical writer, died 1761. 
 MACKENZIE, Sir Kenneth Douglas, a 
 British officer, who was in active service from 
 1781 to 1815, died 1833. 
 
 MACKESON, Colonel, an East Indian offi- 
 cer and political agent of the British government, 
 distinguished during the last twenty years in all 
 the important transactions connected with our 
 policy and military operations in the Punjaub, 
 including the late war with Afghanistan. Died 
 in the prime of life, 1853. 
 
 MACKIE, John, a Scotch physician, 1748-1831. 
 
 MACKINNON, Daniel, lieutenant-colonel of 
 
 the Coldstream Guards, famous for the occupation 
 
 and defence of Hougumont at Waterloo; born 1791, 
 
 died, after writing a history of his corps, 1836. 
 
 MACKINNON, Henry, a general in the pen- 
 insular war, uncle to the preceding, born 1773, 
 killed at the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo 1812. 
 
 MACKINTOSH, Sir James, was born near 
 Inverness, in 1765. From his father he inherited 
 a small estate, the sale of which brought him 
 several thousand pounds ; but in the early part of 
 his fife he had to seek for maintenance by profes- 
 sional labour. Medicine was his first pursuit, 
 which he studied in Edinburgh, after having gone 
 through the academical course of arts at Aberdeen. 
 Going to London in 1788, he occupied himself 
 much with literature, wrote for the press, and, in 
 1791, published the ' Vindicise Gallicse,' a vigor- 
 ous but over-sanguine reply to the attacks of 
 Burke on the French Revolution. Mackintosh had 
 now turned to legal studies, and delivered with 
 great approbation Lectures on the Law of Nature 
 and Nations. In 1803, he distinguished himself 
 by his defence of Peltier, a French emigrant, 
 charged with a libel on Napoleon. In 1804, after 
 having been knighted, he went to India as Recorder 
 of Bombay. Having entitled himself, by seven 
 years' service, to a retiring allowance of twelve 
 hundred a-year, he returned to England. He sat 
 in the House of Commons from 1813, acting on 
 the Whig side, and making some impressive 
 speeches, especially on reforms in the criminal 
 law; but he was both too philosophical and too 
 445 
 
MAC 
 indolent to be a great parliamentary orator or 
 debater. His power of conversation was highly 
 celebrated ; and he was not less esteemed for his 
 candour and amiability, than for his clearness and 
 comprehensiveness of "thinking and the great di- 
 versity of his knowledge. His writings, though 
 valuable, scarcely came up to the expectations 
 that were entertained of him. The best of them 
 is his tine Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical 
 Philosophy,' contributed to the Encyclopaedia Bri- 
 tannica, and since edited separately by Whewell. 
 He wrote likewise a good many articles for the 
 Edinburgh Review, ana an able but not animated 
 4 History of England' for Lardner's Cabinet Cyclo- 
 paedia. His ' History of the Revolution ' of 1668, 
 which was to have been his masterpiece, was de- 
 layed by his indolence and fastidiousness, and left 
 unfinished at his death in 1832. [W.S.] 
 
 MACKLIN, Charles, an eminent actor and 
 dramatist, in the opinion of some the first, in order 
 of time, of stage-artists. He was born at West- 
 meath, in Ireland, 11th May, 1690, and was for 
 some time employed at Trinity College, Dublin, as 
 a badgeman. He came to England in 1711, and 
 attempted the stage, but returned to his old occu- 
 pation until 1716, when he again became a candidate 
 for histrionic honours, as an actor in the London 
 theatre, Lincolns-Inn-Fields. He continued on the 
 stage until 1789 Shylock being the part in which 
 he was most distinguished, and to which he first 
 gave the tragic reading which has been ever since 
 retained. He was a man of great determination 
 of character, and stood up for the professional 
 rights of his brother actors, frequently to his own 
 detriment. But his vigorous intellect at last gave 
 way, his understanding being impaired before his 
 death, 11th July, 1797. Considering his great 
 age, 107, this, however, was not remarkable. 
 What his mind had been remains proved by his 
 works, yet popular, ' The Man of the World,' and 
 his Love a la Mode,' two comedies of great 
 merit. [J.A.H.] 
 
 MACKNIGHT, James, a Scottish divine, author 
 of a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' &c, 1721-1800. 
 
 MACLAINE, A., an Irish divine, 1722-1804. 
 
 MACLAURIN, Colin, a very eminent Scottish 
 mathematician, born at Kilmodan, Argyllshire, 
 in February, 1698 ; died at Edinburgh, 14th June, 
 1746. Distinguished for mathematical talent at 
 a very early age having, it is said, discovered 
 many of the propositions of his Geomelrie Or- 
 ganica, when only sixteen he gained, after a 
 competition of ten days, the chair of mathematics 
 at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in his nineteenth 
 year ; and in 1725, he was appointed to assist and 
 succeed James Gregory in the same chair at Edin- 
 burgh. Maclaurin's separate works are these: 
 1st, Geometrie Organica, a work on the description 
 of Curves by the intersection of moving straight 
 lines: 2d, A Treatise of Fluxions, in 2 vols. 4to, 
 of which it may be safely said, that it is the best 
 ever produced, with the view of expounding lo- 
 gically the principles of Fluxions. It is prolix, 
 although full of interesting matter: its value 
 now is simply historical : 3d, A Treatise on 
 Algebra; and 4th, The posthumous work An 
 Account of Sir I$aac Newton's Discoveries, a 
 model of a popular exposition. Maclaurin wrote 
 many separate memoirs, and he had the honour of 
 
 MAC 
 
 dividing the prize of the Academy of S< 
 
 for an essay on the Tides with Daniel Her 
 
 Euler, and Cavalieri. During th 
 
 this mathematician in Edinburgh, the irrur 
 
 the Highland Clans under Prince Charles I 
 
 occurred. Maclaurin planned and supcn 
 
 the works thrown up tor the defence of tl 
 
 and exerted himself in every possible way 
 
 side of the Government. He was obliged 
 
 account to take refuge in England for t 
 
 hut he returned with Law and Order. Hii 
 
 tical ability showed itself also in efforts to oi 
 
 several public societies in Edinburgh. Th 
 
 few scientific names that ought, in Scotlanc 
 
 held more in honour. [ .1 
 
 MACLAURIN, J., son of the preceding, wj 
 
 cated for the bar, and in 1787 became a judgi 
 
 the title of Lord Dreghorn. He is au. of ' 
 
 ments and Decisions in Remarkable Cases;' d 
 
 MACLEAN, Mrs., L. E. L. See Land 
 
 MACLEOD, John, a Scotch physiciai 
 
 accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to 
 
 author of ' The Voyage of the Alceste,' 1785 
 
 MACLEOD, Sir J., a Brit, general, 1755 
 
 MACLIAU, a duke of Brittanv, 560-577 
 
 MACLOU, or MALO, a Welch saint, di 
 
 MACMICILEL, W., an Eng. phy., au. of a 
 
 ney from Moscow to Constantinople,' 1784- 
 
 M ACNALLY, L., an Irish dramatist, 1765 
 
 MACNICOL, Rev. Dr. Donald, a 
 
 minister, and master of Gaelic literature a 
 
 tiquities, 1735-1802. 
 
 MACNISH, Robert, a physician of 61 
 known as a contributor to magazine lite 
 under the appellation of 'the Modern Pj 
 rean,' author of ' The Anatomy of Drunk* 
 4 The Philosophy of Sleep,' &c, 1802-1837. 
 MACPHERSON, James, was born in 
 ness-shire in 1738, and received an aca< 
 education at Aberdeen. At the age of t 
 while he was a country schoolmaster, he pu 
 an indifferent heroic poem, 'The Highlander, 
 afterwards, having gone southward as a 
 tutor, he excited the interest of the poet 
 Blair, and Adam Ferguson, by exhibiting 
 
 furporting to be translations of old Celtic 
 n 1760 he published a few specimens of 
 entitled ' Fragments of Ancient Poetry, tra 
 from the Gaefic or Erse Language.' After 
 cursion which he made to the Highlands to 
 other metrical relics, there appeared the 
 poems which, ascribed by Macpherson to I 
 have raised so much controversy as to their ge 
 ness ; and which, through their strange ui 
 genius and defect, have divided the critics 
 as much in regard to their literary merit 
 epic poem of ' Fingal,' with smaller piece 
 published in 1762 ; the epic of ' Temora,' i 
 panied by other poems, in 1763. The tra 
 and poet now turned to business, and ol 
 official appointments in Florida and the W( 
 dies. After this he resumed literary emplo, 
 chiefly historical, and was, in pamphlets and 
 papers, an active and efficient partisan 
 ministry. His political services procured f 
 the lucrative place of agent for the nabob of 
 and he sat in parliament for several years fron 
 He died in 1796, at an estate which he ha 
 chased in his native district of Strathspey. I 
 
 446 
 
MAC 
 
 ACPHERSON, Sir John, an employe* of the 
 India Company, whose judicious manage- 
 of affairs in the time of Hyder Ali and the 
 war, saved the presidency of Madras 
 ruin, 1767-1821. 
 
 ACQUARIE, governor of New South Wales, 
 $-1824. 
 
 lACQUART, J- H.. a French physician, and 
 J)r of the ' Journal des Savants' after Barthez, 
 Kl768. His son, L. C. Henry, a physician 
 ^mineralogist, 1745-1808. 
 BaCQUER, Peter Joseph, a French chemist 
 Hootch descent, known as a writer on natural 
 ttsophy in the 'Journal des Savants,' 1718-84. 
 fllbr., Philip, an advocate and hist., 1720-70. 
 BLCQUIN, A. D., a French poet, 1756-1823. 
 IpCRET, C. F. A., a Fr. engraver, 1750-1783. 
 IJ/LCRIANUS, Marcus Fulvius, an Egyptian 
 Hal, proclaimed emperor 260, k. in action 261. 
 UlCRINO D'ALBA, an Ital. paint., 1460-1520. 
 IfeCRINUS, M. O., a Roman emp., 217-218. 
 IfcCRINUS, Salmoneus, the literary name 
 Hhh Salmon, a French poet, 1490-1557. His 
 Her, Charles, also a Latin poet, killed in the 
 Here of St. Bartholomew, 1572. 
 ttCROBIUS, Ambrosius Aurelius Theo- 
 Ura, a Latin grammarian, author of the ' Sa- 
 Uha,' &c, 5th centurv. 
 HdALINSKI, A, a Polish general, 1739-1804. 
 SnDAN, Martin, an English divine, who be- 
 ia highly popular preacher at the Lock Hos- 
 H author of several theological works, and of a 
 Hbr polygamy in his book entitled ' Thelyph- 
 li' 1726-1813. His brother, Dr. Spencer 
 Ls, bp. of Bristol and Peterborough, d. 1813. 
 HIDDEN, Samuel, an Irish clergyman, whose 
 I is held in honourable remembrance as the 
 Hntor of premiums for encouraging the useful 
 me arts, from which the society for the en- 
 Heement of arts and sciences in London took 
 He. Dr. Madden, besides his poems, and a 
 HI entitled ' Themistocles, or the Lover of his 
 try,' published a singular volume of ' Letters 
 Biographical Memoirs,' relating to events and 
 Hie of the twentieth century, nearly the whole 
 Hp of which was bought up and destroyed as 
 Hk it appeared. This disting. benefactor of his 
 Hi was of French descent; lived 1687-1765. 
 RlDDOX, Isaac, successively bishop of St. 
 pl and Worcester, au. of a 4 Vindication of the 
 Wb of England in Answer to Neal,' 1697-1759. 
 HDELEINE of France, queen of Navarre, 
 Hi for the defence of her state against the 
 Hris es of Ferdinand, k. of Arragon, 1443-1495. 
 HDELENET, G., a Latin poet, 1587-1661. 
 
 ijDER, J., a German philologist, 1626-1680. 
 HPERNO, C, an Italian architect, 1556-1629. 
 JERNO, S., an Italian sculptor, 1576-1636. 
 H)ISON, James, fourth president of the 
 W States, was born in Virginia 1758, and, 
 educated for the bar, became a member of 
 ~~ia convention in 1776. In 1784, he op- 
 bill for a national system of worship ; 
 preparing the constitution, and, in 
 e a member of the first congress. His 
 president dates from the retirement of 
 >n, 1809 to 1817, and is marked by the 
 Great Britain 1812-1814, at the conclu- 
 which the northern limits of the United 
 
 MAG 
 
 States were fixed at Lake Hudson and Lake Su- 
 perior. Mr. Madison died in 1836. His works 
 have been published in 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 MADOC, or MADOG, a Welch prince, said to 
 have discovered the American continent, and 
 settled a colony there in 1170. A tribe of white 
 Indians, inhabiting the country about the northern 
 branches of the Mississippi, and speaking the Welch 
 language, are supposed to be his descendants. 
 Some account of him will be found in Owen's Bri- 
 tish Remains, and Powell's History of Wales. 
 
 MADOX, Thomas, a famous master of legal 
 antiquities, author of numerous published works, 
 and of a mass of MSS. in the Brit. Museum, last c. 
 
 MADRID, J. F. De, an American statesman, 
 born 1789, president of Colombia 1816, died 1830. 
 
 MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, whose name is 
 imperishably associated with the Augustan litera- 
 ture of Rome, was descended from the ancient 
 kings of Etruria, and flourished in the 1st century 
 B.C. He was the companion of Augustus in 
 nearly all his campaigns, and his most trustworthy 
 counsellor in political matters. For the three 
 years 18 15 b.c, he was invested with the 
 government of Italy, and he was always sent to 
 Rome on any emergency, either with the senate 
 or the people, in case he was absent with Au- 
 gustus. His great glory, however, was the happy 
 influence that he exercised over the emperor as a 
 patron of learning, and his own munificence and 
 taste in the same direction. Virgil, Horace, and 
 Propertius, are best known to us as the guests of 
 his nospitable mansion on the Esquiline hill, but 
 many others enjoyed his protection and friendship. 
 Some poetical fragments of his remain to this 
 day. Died B.C. 8. 
 
 MAES, or MAAS. See Maas. 
 
 MiESTLINAS, Michael, a German astrono- 
 mer, 1542-1590. 
 
 MAFFEI, or MAFFjEUS, the name of several 
 noted Italians: 1. Vegio, a native of Lodi, dis- 
 tinguished as a scholar and poet, 1407-1459. 2. 
 Raphael, a savant of Tuscany, died 1506. 3. 
 Benardin, a learned cardinal and antiquarian, 
 1513-1553. 4. Giovanni Piero, a learned Jesuit 
 of Bergamo, author of a ' Life of Loyola,' &c, 1535- 
 1603. 5. Francesco, a painter of Vicenza, in the 
 manner of Paolo Veronese, died 1660. 6. James, 
 a painter and musician of Venice, known to be 
 living in 1663. 7. The Marquis Alberto, a field- 
 marshal of Bavaria, distinguished against the 
 Turks before Belgrade, author of ' Memoirs,' 1662- 
 1730. 8. Francesco Scipione, brother and 
 companion-in-arms of the latter, but more distin- 
 guished as an antiquarian and dramatic author, 
 1675-1755. To him a statue has been erected in 
 the principal square of Verona, in testimony of the 
 honour that his genius has conferred upon the city. 
 
 MAFFIOLI, J. P., a Swiss jurist, 1752-1833. 
 
 MAGALHAENS, Fernando, to whose bold- 
 ness, sagacity, and skill, we owe the first circum- 
 navigation of the globe, was born in the province 
 of AJemtejo in Portugal about the year 1470. 
 Having entered the Portuguese navy, and served 
 with distinction in the East, he was so dissatisfied 
 at his merits being overlooked, that on his return 
 home he sought employment (1517) in the service 
 of Spain. These two nations were now engrossing 
 maritime discovery, England having scarcely en- 
 
 447 
 
MAG 
 tered the field ; and so numerous and active were 
 the navigates of the respective Services, that the 
 claim of priority was often difficult to settle. An 
 amicable arrangement had hence been come to in 
 1494, whereby all the new lands west of a meri- 
 dian passing down the Atlantic, 370 leagues west 
 of the Azores, were to belong to Spain, and those 
 to the east of it to Portugal. The length of a de- 
 gree had not yet been correctly measured, and con- 
 sequently the' dimensions of the earth were imper- 
 fectly known. (See Columbus.) It was thus uncer- 
 tain how far 180, measured*either way from the 
 upper, pr Atlantic, semi-meridian, would reach 
 upon the Asiatic lands : in other words, what part 
 ot those lands would be intersected by the lower 
 semi-meridian. Now the Moluccas, or Spice is- 
 lands, had been lately discovered ; and great value 
 was set upon them by both nations. Some 
 held that they should belong to Portugal. Magal- 
 haens maintained the opposite view, that they 
 could most easily be reached by sailing west, and 
 should, therefore, be the property of Spain ; and he 
 even offered to conduct a fleet thither by a western 
 route, so fully was his mind occupied with the 
 bold conception of passing round to the south of 
 the American continent into the great ocean, lav- 
 ing its western shores, which in common with Co- 
 lumbus, he regarded as the Indian or Eastern 
 Ocean. To the practicability of such a pas- 
 sage many late discoveries were pointing; there 
 was the analogy of Africa, whose southern cape 
 had been doubled by Diaz in 1486 ; a council of 
 able navigators, assembled under royal authority 
 in 1507, had recommended the south American 
 shores as the most promising field of discovery, 
 and seem even to have pointed to the accessibility 
 of India by that way : and in 1509 two members 
 of this very council, Pinzon and Solis, had acted 
 so vigorously on the recommendation, as to push 
 discovery to the lat. of 40 south on the Brazilian 
 coast; mutual misunderstandings alone having pre- 
 vented them from gaining perhaps Cape Horn 
 itself. Besides, the stirring intelligence had re- 
 cently arrived that Nunez De Balboa had dis- 
 covered the great southern ocean, the existence of 
 which had been so nearly made out by Columbus 
 himself. Already correct charts were numerous ; 
 and doubtless, though here authority is wanting, a 
 comparison of the Brazilian coast, rapidly trending 
 to the south-west, with the tapering form of Africa, 
 would suggest a like speedy termination of the 
 land southwards, although the western coast was 
 entirely unknown. But even with these sugges- 
 tive circumstances thus known to him, the enter- 
 prise of Magalhaens must ever be regarded as one 
 of surprising boldness, and second only to the 
 grand conception of the discoverer of the New 
 World. Magellan, as he is generally called, was 
 put in command of a fleet of nvc ships, two of 120 
 tons, two of 90, and one of 60 ; and the crews in all 
 amounted to 236 men. He sailed 20th September, 
 1519, from San Lucar de Barrameda in the south 
 of Spain, and reached a safe harbour in lat. 50 on 
 the American coast, to which he gave the name of 
 Port St. Julian, in the following April. This was 
 the beginning of winter, which lasts with great 
 severity till October, and he determined, therefore, 
 to remain inactive during this period. His hands, 
 however, were soon full enough ; discomforts pro- 
 
 MAG 
 
 duccd by the limited supply of provisions, a 
 rigours of the climate, ripened into loud] 
 pressed discontent, and a demand for an in 
 ate return home; and at length broke oi 
 open mutiny, headed by the officers of the 
 ships, and in a great measure indeed eonfi 
 thein. The ringleader, Luis de Mendoza, c 
 of the Vittoria, naving granted a conferen< 
 messenger sent by Magellan, w: 
 stabbed by him, according to the instn 
 which he had received. Resistance 
 and next day another captain was 
 a third put ashore upon the inln 
 Magellan pursued his course in ( I 
 the end of the month had entered t ; 
 bears his name. He cleared it on 1 1 
 ber, and flushed with the feelings of triun 
 success, stood boldly out into the unexplor 
 panse of the vast Pacific. He had now bul 
 ships ; one had been wrecked before enterii 
 strait ; the other had parted company in the 
 and returned home. On the 16th" March, 
 Magellan reached the Philippine isles, havir 
 len in with only two islands, which probabl; 
 not been since visited. He enjoyed such coi 
 fair weather, and favouring winds, that he 
 to the ocean the name which it still bears, 
 king of Zebu, one of the islands, was easily ir 
 by a promise of assistance against his enem 
 embrace Christianity, and, with a great nun 
 his people, to receive baptism. Magellai 
 soon called upon to fulfil his rash promis 
 undertake an expedition against a hostile chi 
 king of the island of Mattan. Here he ai 
 men were bravely opposed by the natives 
 Magellan, after a protracted struggle, fell ; 
 contest. Towards the close of the day, wh 
 Spaniards were giving way, he was felled 
 stone ; a second broke his thigh bone, and 1 
 speedily pierced by many lances. The ba 
 king immediately forgot his vows, and p 
 death all the Spaniards who were on shore. 
 who remained on board were too few in m 
 to manage three ships; one accordingly was 
 and in the other two, the Trinidad and Vii 
 they pursued their voyage in search of th< 
 luccas. At these they safely arrived, and 
 kindly received by the king of Tidor. The 
 dad remained to repair, and afterwards str> 
 reach America by crossing the Pacific; bn 
 driven back, and her crew made prisoners 
 Portuguese. The other ship, the Vittoria, 
 the command of Sebastian del Cano, wh' 
 come out in the Conception as lieutenar 
 turned home by the Cape of G< 
 reached San Lucar 6th Septeml 
 completing the first circumnavigation of the 
 The good ship was drawn ashore, and low 
 served as a monument of this mo 
 voyage. The day on which Sebastian arrive! 
 according to his reckoning, the 5th S 
 having been lost in consequence of the we: 
 motion of the vessel, that is, the tin 
 in longer days. There had not, of i 
 previous opportunity of noticing such a cj 
 stance, and as it does not seem to have oc 
 to any one that such an effect woul 1 be pro! 
 no little difficulty was felt at the time in offij 
 satisfactory explanation. It is easy to &c\ 
 
 448 
 
MAG 
 
 time was reckoned in longer days than those 
 
 San Lucar ; and, therefore, there were fewer in 
 
 criven time. If a ship had arrived the same day, 
 
 ing circumnavigated the globe by sailing eas't- 
 
 d, her captain would have called it the 7th 
 
 September ; and the reckonings would have dif- 
 
 Jd from one another by two days. [J.B.] 
 
 JAGALLON, C, a Fr. diplomatist, 1741-1820. 
 
 [AGALLON, F. L., a Fr. comman., 1754-1825. 
 
 IAGALOTTI, Lorenzo, Count, an Italian 
 
 alist and philosopher, who cultivated poetry 
 
 he Belles Lettres under the name of Lmdoro 
 
 he was a great experimental philosopher, 
 
 as eminent for his pietv and munificence as for 
 
 ve of literature, 1637-1712. 
 
 AGANZA, the name of three Italian painters: 
 
 IOVANNI Babtista, whom the Italians call 
 
 agnano, from the title under which he ex- 
 
 himself as a poet, 1509-1589. 2. Aless- 
 
 :0, his son, a pupil of Fasolo, 1556-1630. 
 
 iovaxni Babtista, ' the younger,' son of* 
 
 itter. 
 
 LGATI, C, a writer on surgery, 1579-1647. 
 LGEE, William, a dignitary of the Irish 
 au. of ' Discourses on the Scriptural Doc- 
 of the Atonement and Sacrifice,' 1765-1831. 
 IAGELLAN. See Magalhaens. 
 jAGENS, J., a Danish philologist, died 1783. 
 JAGEOGHEGAN, James, an Irish ecclesias- 
 nthor of an ' Ancient and Modern History of 
 td,' 1702-1764. 
 
 &GGIO, F. M., an Ital. Orientalist, 1612-86. 
 KGINI, G. A., an Ital. astrono., 1555-1617. 
 K.GINN, William, was born in 1794, at 
 [L where his father had an academy. He was 
 w half through his teens when he completed 
 ipademical course at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 he afterwards received the degree of LL.D. 
 j soon took his father's place as head of the 
 which he continued to conduct for several 
 embarking, however, in the meantime, in 
 ' writing. From November, 1819, he was 
 t contributor to Blackwood's Magazine, 
 he invented and usually sustained the 
 of Morgan O'Doherty, and wrote some 
 i most spirited and audacious of the papers 
 red in it. His prose was masterly in 
 and in verse he was equally happy in Eng- 
 ""odies and in Latin macaronics. In 1823 
 up his school and threw himself on the 
 London. His union of various scholar- 
 remarkable talent for popular writing, 
 2" in satire, speedily procured him employ- 
 e was much trusted by Murray the book- 
 and for a while he was joint editor of the 
 \rd newspaper. But he had an unlucky 
 [of getting into misunderstandings with his 
 ' he was, indeed, the most capricious 
 iy of writers, as well as one of the most 
 and unthrifty of literary men ; and 
 i for society soon degenerated into la- 
 isottishness. In 1830, he was the founder, 
 some years continued to be the cleverest 
 f Eraser's Magazine. But his irregular 
 rapidly increasing, and pecuniary 
 ies gathering about him. He sank to ac- 
 1 engagements with such newspapers as the 
 J jBl the beginning of 1842, he was thrown 
 "" et prison for debt. He speedily ob- 
 
 MAH 
 
 taincd his release by passing through the Insol- 
 vent Debtor's Court ; but he died of consumption, 
 at Walton-on-the-Thames, in August of the same 
 year. He was then in absolute beggary, from 
 which the munificence of Sir Kobert Peel, exer- 
 cised as soon as he was made aware of the case, 
 came too late to relieve him. He dictated for 
 Blackwood on his death-bed the close of the last 
 of his ' Homeric Hymns,' the most ambitious of 
 his serious efforts in verse. [W.S.] 
 
 MAGISTBIS, Hyacinth De, an Italian Jesuit 
 and missionary, 16(55-1668. 
 
 MAGISTRIS, Simon De, an Italian Jesuit and 
 Orientalist, 1728-1802. 
 
 MAGLIABECCHI, Antonio, an Italian, ori- 
 ginally a poor shop-boy, whose prodigious know- 
 ledge of books made him the wonder of his age, 
 and to whom the learned in his time were indebted 
 for much valuable information. His literary re- 
 mains, however, are of little value. Born at Flo- 
 rence 1633, died 1714. 
 
 MAGNAN, D., a French antiquarian, 1731-96. 
 
 MAGNANI, C, an Italian painter, about 1580. 
 
 MAGNENTIUS, Flavius, a native of Ger- 
 many, who was born about 303, and from a sim- 
 ple soldier in the Roman army, became emperor 
 349 or 350, killed by Constans II. 353. 
 
 MAGNIERE, L., a French sculptor, 1618-1700. 
 
 MAGNOL, P., a French botanist, 1638-1715. 
 
 MAGNUS L, king of Sweden, b. 1240, reigned 
 1279-90. Magnus II., b. 1316, reigned 1320-74. 
 
 MAGNUS I., succeeded his father as king of 
 Norway 1034, and succeeded Canute II. as king of 
 Denmark 1042, died 1048. Magnus II., king of 
 Norway, reigned 1066-1069. Magnus III., 1087- 
 1103. Magnus IV., 1130-1139. Magnus V., 
 reigned a short time only in 1142. Magnus VI., 
 1184. Magnus VII., 1262-1280. An English 
 prince, named Magnus, son of Christian III., 
 king of Denmark, was proclaimed king by the 
 Livonians 1570, died 1583. 
 
 MAGNUS, duke of Saxony, reigned 1073-1106. 
 
 MAGNUS, John, archbishop of Upsala, a 
 famous Swedish historian, and opponent of the 
 reformation, 1488-1544. His brother, Olave, also 
 an historian, was named archbishop, but being a 
 catholic, lived at Rome, died 1568. 
 
 MAGNUS, Jonas, bishop of Skara, 1583-1651. 
 
 MAHMOUD, the first of the name, sultan of 
 the Turks, born 1696, reigned 1730-1750. The 
 second, father of the present sultan, born 1785, 
 was placed on the throne by the janizaries after 
 the murder of his predecessor 1808, sustained a 
 war with Russia, which cost him Bessarabia, and 
 the provinces of Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia, 
 as settled by the treaty of Bucharest, from 1809 to 
 1812 ; the war of Greek independence, which ended 
 in the separation of that country, and the annihi- 
 lation of the Turkish fleet at the battle of Nava- 
 rino, 1820-1828 ; exterminated the janizaries 1826; 
 treaty of Adrianople with the Russians, who were 
 on the point of entering Constantinople, 1829 ; 
 independence of Egypt under Mehemet Ali, and 
 the new treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi with the Rus- 
 sians, 1832-1833; defeated at Nezib by Ibrahim 
 Pasha, and died the same year, 1839. 
 
 MAHMOUDY, sultan of Egypt, 1412-1421. 
 
 MAHOMET. Under this name we have to 
 compress within a few lines the history of a man, 
 
 449 
 
 2G 
 
MAH 
 
 who, by the mere force of his genius and his con- j 
 victions, subdued to his religion, his laws, and his j 
 sceptre, whole nations; and whose authority, after 
 the lapse of twelve centuries, is acknowledged by 
 nearly two hundred millions of souls. We shall 
 endeavour to perform this task conscientiously, 
 stating only what we really believe to be the 
 significance of the facts, however widely we may 
 differ from writers of acknowledged repute from 
 a Carlyle, on the one hand, who can see but little 
 difference between Mahommedanism and Chris- 
 tianity; and from Schlegel, on the other, who 
 only discerns in it a ' Dead Theism, which begun 
 and terminated in the most unbounded sensuality.' 
 MAHOMET, or Mohammed, as the Arabians 
 call him, was a child of the Koreish, the tribe 
 which had been intrusted for five generations with 
 the care of the sacred temple of Mecca, containing 
 the black stone, and which claimed a lineal 
 descent from Ishmael. He was born in 570, or 
 according to other accounts, in the spring of 571, 
 and was only two months old when he lost his 
 father, Abdallah. In the sixth year of his age 
 his mother died, and the care of the orphan 
 devolved on his paternal grandfather, at that time 
 chief priest, and he also dying two years after- 
 wards, on his son and successor Abou Taleb, with 
 whom Mahomet, while a youth, was engaged in 
 several commercial adventures, and made many 
 journeys. These excursions afforded the oppor- 
 tunity for developing his military talents and his 
 superior address ; and the esteem procured for him 
 by such qualities was greatly heightened by the 
 sincerity of his words and actions, the regularity 
 of his life, and the precision of his judgment. 
 When twenty-five years of age, he married a rich 
 widow named Khadijah, whose commercial affairs 
 he had previously managed, and during the whole 
 of her lifetime, a period of twenty-five years, he 
 is admitted to have been faithful to her. When 
 about forty years of age, say in the year 610, 
 Mahomet began to announce his apostleship to his 
 own family, having previously passed much of his 
 time in a solitary cave near Mecca, exercising 
 himself in prayers, fastings, and pious meditations. 
 At this period, the Arabs roved over their native 
 deserts in a state of barbarian independence, 
 neither the Assyrians, the Persians, the Mace- 
 donians, nor the Romans, having been able to bring 
 them under their yoke ; and the only common 
 object which united them was the pursuit of gain 
 in some pillaging excursion, or the annual pil- 
 grimage to their idolized black stone. They were 
 equally destitute of fixed principles and laws, 
 licentious in their manners, and gross in their 
 religious sentiments ; they possessed, however, the 
 wild virtues of clansmen, they were generous and 
 imaginative, full of rude moral strength, and over- 
 flowing with animal energy. For four years 
 Mahomet limited his communications to his own 
 immediate relatives. In the fifth he invited them 
 to a banquet, announced his determination to 
 assume the office of a prophet and lawgiver by 
 command of God, and demanded which of them 
 would be his first minister. His cousin, Ali, 
 accepted this office with enthusiasm the people 
 of Mecca began to speak of Mahomet as a new pro- 
 phet many reviled him as an impostor, others 
 opposed liiin for political reasons and the most 
 
 MAH 
 
 part demanded miracles of him in proof i 
 mission. Mahomet answered them by prod 
 his ' Koran,' leaf by leaf, as occasion dejS 
 and by the emphatic declaration that his ir 
 was to restore truth and virtue by the sword 
 reasoned with his objectors, preached to th 
 grims flocking to Mecca, and as years j 
 away, his fame became widely spread, an 
 proselytes might be numbered in all the tril 
 Arabia. In the tenth or eleventh j 
 Taleb, Mahomet's uncle and pro; 
 the enmity of the tribe began to manifest 
 more openly. In the same year he 
 Khadijah. In the twelfth year i< 
 to him that he could only defend himse 
 force of arms, there being at Mecca one ma 
 of every tribe sworn to take his life. This 
 of things ended in a civil commotion, from v 
 on the 16th of July, 622, Mahomet fled to M< 
 then called Yathreb, a journey for his life, 
 the sands and rocks of the desert some 200 i 
 All the Mahommedan nations date their 
 from this epoch, which is called the year c 
 ' Hegira,' the prophet's triumphant recepti 
 Medina fairly marking the commencement < 
 conquests. On arriving in this city, he ass 
 the regal and priestly office which had belong 
 his family at Mecca, and his proselytes flo 
 to him from all parts, he was soon in a com 
 to take the field against the Koreish, though 
 greatly inferior numbers. He gained his 
 battle on the 14th of March, 624 ; and ii 
 course of seven years more had become mas 
 all Arabia, and was at the head of an an 
 30,000 men who idolized him. The parti* 
 of his lightning-like progress and victories i: 
 brief period must be passed over, it being 
 important to state by what attractions h< 
 united these scattered bands into one phi 
 We read of the ' Sensual Eudaimonism to 1 
 his creed opens so free a scope, both in this 
 and the next,' yet, the fact is, compared wit 
 previous practices of the Eastern nations 
 supposed indulgences of Mahomet are rij 
 itself. Frequent prayers, ceremonies of pui 
 tion, alms-giving, the prohibition of wine and 
 games of chance, are marks of an austere sys 
 and though he defined the extent of their t 
 indulgences, and gave them within certain 
 a religious sanction, the existence of such! 
 is no more chargeable on Mahomet thai 
 Arabian complexion. His religion 
 ritual, but it was consistent and pi 
 was laid down like a firm liighwa j 
 quagmire of superstition and gnosticism, \vl 
 the Christian name was profaned, and tin 
 rality of nature put to the blush. Ma 
 succeeded, not because his theory of n 
 possesses anything in common with the the 
 Christianity, but because it was well calookl 
 deliver the Eastern nations from the hybrid t 
 trosities, both of faith and pracl 
 between a corrupt Christianity and 1 1 
 pantheism. It was simply the first initiat) 
 those nations into the design of provhiemr 
 the Koran was neither an inspiration 131 
 Bible, nor an imposition. Its mel 
 exactly suited to its practical bu 
 unknown and unknowable, and his d 
 
 450 
 
MAH 
 
 stern as fate. Such a creed could become 
 
 rbol of unity among the Eastern nations, 
 very reason that it reposed in a depth 
 ad the subtlety of their intellects, and as- 
 >d no intelligible form till it reached the 
 of their fiery passions. It was 'Islam,' 
 ition, to those whose imaginations had defiled 
 they had apprehended. We require space 
 more particular, and will therefore only add, 
 Mahomet expired in the arms of his favourite 
 Ayesha, on the 8fch of June, 632. The scat- 
 fragments of the Koran were collected two 
 afterwards by his father-in-law, Abubeker, 
 ded to bis authority, and took the title 
 [E.E.] 
 
 [The Ka<iba at Mecca] 
 
 MET I., emperor of the Ottoman Turks, 
 >, reigned 1413-1421, in which period he 
 I Servia and Bosnia. Mahomet II., 
 0, began to reign 1451, subdued Thrace 
 edonia, and took Constantinople 1453 : 
 at the siege of Belgrade 1456, conquered 
 Ireece 1458, put an end to the empire of 
 I 1461, gained Lesbos 1462, Wallachia 
 ia 1463, Caramania and /Egropont 1464, 
 the Persians who had invaded Cappa- 
 2, subdued Georgia, Circassia, Moldavia, 
 and the isles of the Adriatic, 1475, died 
 [ahomet III., bora 1568, reigned during 
 'ed period of 1595-1603. Mahomet IV., 
 began to reign 1649, deposed after a 
 reign 1687, died 1691. 
 )N, P. A. 0., a Fr. medical wr., 1752-1801. 
 'DEL, N., a Fr. antiquarian, 1673-1747. 
 JO, Julien La, an Italian architect, 
 His brother, Benedetto, a sculptor 
 :, 1424-1498. 
 Mich.ee, a Gr. alchvmist, 1568-1622. 
 " E., a Fr. philosopher, 1601-1676. 
 
 >. I., a Russian poet, 1725-1778. 
 
 ,or MAILLAC, Joseph Anne Marie 
 
 tc De, a celebrated French Jesuit and 
 
 to China, where he resided forty-five 
 
 translated the annals of the empire into 
 
 579-1748. 
 
 D, J., a chief of the royalist party at 
 
 MAI 
 
 Paris during the captivity of King John, and the 
 supposed assassin of Marcel in 1356. 
 
 MAILLARD, Oeivieo, an eccentric preacher 
 of the reign of Louis XL, famous for his daring 
 reproofs of the vices of the court, 1440-1502. 
 
 MAILLARD, S., an Austr. general, 1746-1822. 
 
 MAILLARD, Stanislas, generally called Huis- 
 sier or Usher Maillard, was a person of considerable 
 notoriety in the French revolution, who commenced 
 life as the lacquey of a nobleman, and was after- 
 wards a soldier. His first appearance was at the 
 storming of the Bastile 1789, when he crossed the 
 moat on a plank to receive the written terms of 
 the besieged in the midst of the combat. His next 
 feat was to head the insurrection of women, whom 
 he conducted by beat of drum to Versailles, and 
 preserved in some kind of order ; preventing them, 
 in fact, from committing many excesses, when La- 
 fayette and the authorities were really powerless. 
 He was an active party in the movements of the 
 Champ de Mars when the national petition was 
 signed for the king's deposition. In September, 
 1792, he acted as president of the fearful tribunal 
 at the Abbaye prison, and, during the reign of 
 terror, was an agent of the Committee of Public 
 Safety. After the fall of Robespierre he is sup- 
 posed to have changed his name, and the date of 
 his death is unknown. To a ruthless disposition 
 he added singular presence of mind and fertility of 
 resources among the savage bands, whose excesses 
 he at once shared and moderated. He is one of 
 those warning instances with which the revolution 
 abounds, of a certain talent and courage among 
 the lowest classes of the people, which may easily 
 degenerate to ferocity when not directed by educa- 
 tion and religion. [E.R. ] 
 
 MAILLE, Marshal. See Mailly D'Hau- 
 
 COURT. 
 
 MAILLE, Duchess of, a lady attendant on 
 Marie Antoinette, who escaped the guillotine by 
 two singular delays, followed by the fall of Robes- 
 pierre, 1794. 
 
 MAILLET, Benedict De, a Fr. consul, an. of 
 a singular system of speculative philos., 1656-1738. 
 
 MAILLY, Chevalier Db, a godson of Louis 
 XIV., famous as a writer of scandal, died 1724. 
 
 MAILLY, F. De, archbp. of Rheims, 1658-1721. 
 
 MAILLY, J. B., a French historian, 1744-1796. 
 
 MAILLY -D'HAUCOURT, Joseph Augus- 
 tine De, camp-marshal of France, and one of the 
 four supreme generals appointed by Louis XVI., 
 with the sanction of the French assembly, to pre- 
 serve order in 1790. His colleagues were Bouille", 
 Rochambeau, and Luckner. He perished on the 
 scaffold as a royalist at the age of eighty- six, on 
 the 25th March, 1794. Louise Julie de Nesle, 
 countess de Mailly, and her three sisters, who were 
 all mistresses of Louis XV., belonged to the same 
 family. [E.R.] 
 
 MAIMBOURG, Louis, a French Jesuit, author 
 of a ' History of Arianism,' ' History of the Ico- 
 noclasts,' History of the Crusades,' and ' His- 
 tory of Calvinism,' &c, 1610-1686. 
 
 MAIMON, S., a Jewish philosopher, 1753-1800. 
 
 MAIMONIDES, the name by which Rabbi 
 Moses Ben Maimon is generally known, was a 
 Spanish Jew bora at Cordova, most probably in 
 1139. He is regarded by the Jews as the prince 
 of their philosophers and theologians, and his 
 
 Ml 
 
MAT 
 
 treatise ' Month Nebochim,' which illustrates some 
 of the most difficult words and things in the 
 sacred writings, is greatly valued among Chris- 
 tians. When the work was translated it created 
 a violent controversy, and divided the Jews into 
 two parties, between whom the celebrated David 
 Kimchi was appointed arbiter. Maiinonides died 
 in Egypt, 1209. 
 
 MAINARDI, Andrkw, an Italian painter, 
 whose works date from 1590 to 1613. Mainardi, 
 Lactantius, a youthful painter known at Rome 
 in the time of Sextus Quintus.' 
 
 MAINARDI, P. A., an Ital. mission., 1713-1767. 
 
 MAINE, L. Aug., Due Du. See Montespan. 
 
 MAINE DE BIRAN, Ma. F. P. Gouthier, 
 a French philosopher and statesman, whose philo- 
 sophical works were published hi 18-11 by M. Cou- 
 sin, flourished 1766-1824. 
 
 MAINO, Giasone, an Italian jurist, 1435-1519. 
 
 MAINS, or MAY, J. H., a Ger. divine, 1653-1719. 
 
 MAINTENON, Madame de, was the grand- 
 daughter of Henry the Fourth's friend Theodore 
 Agnppa D'Aubigne\ She was born in 1635, in 
 the prison of Niort in Poitou, where her father, a 
 profligate adventurer, was then confined. Left 
 quite destitute on his death in her tenth year, 
 Mademoiselle D'Aubigne spent her youth in de- 
 pendence on her rich relatives, one of whom edu- 
 cated her as a Calvinist, while another afterwards 
 persuaded or compelled her to become a Catholic. 
 Her harassing position made her glad to contract 
 a nominal marriage with the famous wit Scarron, 
 a deformed, old, and infirm man. Her beauty, 
 liveliness, and propriety of conduct, gained for her 
 
 Eowerful friends among those who frequented her 
 usband's house ; and, on being left in poverty on 
 Scarron's death, she was intrusted with the charge 
 of the children born to Louis XIV. by Madame de 
 Montespan. She assumed this office in 1669, and 
 attended her pupils to court as they grew up ; and, 
 though the king was at first prejudiced against 
 her as a learned lady, the royal debauchee began 
 by-and-by to be wearied of sensual amours and 
 quarrelling mistresses, and to respect and esteem 
 the prudent and well-informed governess of his 
 children. She played her cards dexterously, and 
 was zealously seconded by the clerical directors of 
 his Majesty. The king married her privately, pro- 
 bably in 1685, when her age was fifty, and his own 
 forty-seven. For the remaining thirty years of 
 his life she was his most confidential adviser, and 
 shared in the obloquy of some of his worst acts, 
 such as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
 She was a virtuous woman, and a devout and 
 bigotted Catholic, ambitious and resolute, but dis- 
 interested and charitable. Her published letters 
 give her a creditable place in French literature. 
 She died in 1719, at the nunnery or school of Saint 
 Cyr, which she herself had founded. [W.S.] 
 
 MAINVIELLE, P., a member of the Fr. con- 
 vention, execut. for his atrocities in October, 1793. 
 
 MAIRAN, John James Dortoas De, a Fr. 
 physic, au. of works in natural philos., 1678-1771. 
 
 MAIRET, J., a French dramatist, 1604-1686. 
 
 MAISON, N. J., a French marshal, 1770-1840. 
 
 MAISTRE, Anthony Le, a French advocate 
 and savant of Port-Royal, author of the lives of 
 beveral catholic saints, &c, 1608-1658. 
 
 MAISTRE. Count Joseph De : born at Cham- 
 
 MAI 
 
 bery, 1st April, 1753; died at his seat in 
 mont, 26th February, 1821. De Maistre, 
 passed through the overthrow of Europe, at 
 his native State the subject of most oppos: 
 tunes, had his mind naturally turned to 
 affairs; and, as he was a man of unquest 
 energy and superior genius, and gifted at th 
 time with unusual powers of written expi 
 we are not surprised to find him one of t 
 tinguished literateurs of that strange but e 
 period : he was the main stay, if not the i 
 of a peculiar but influential" school. Ass 
 in purpose, with De Bonald, D'E< 
 lanche, and at first with La Menu 
 Maistre may be held the most powerful ac 
 and representative of a system, to which t 
 tory of the Revolution and Empire, as well as 
 in France still more recent, have given mu 
 thority and colourable support : it is the I 
 that societies and the world must be gover 
 absolute and unquestioned power, founded, 
 case on the theological tenet that terror, 
 confessed and principal arm of the Supreme 
 nor. The logical foundations of a schen 
 from wanting in partizans, may be seen best 
 Soirees de St. fetersbourq, a work displaj 
 the best advantage De Maistre's remarkable 
 and executed, while, at the northern capita 
 the austerity and dignity of a Stoic, he repre 
 the court of Piedmont reduced to that, 
 poor isle of Sardinia. The Soirees de St. i 
 oourg, are volumes, which it is salutary t( 
 They carry out without hesitation or shri 
 even to their utmost consequences, doctrini 
 partially influence a large number even of nol 
 fleeting minds: 'Sovereignty and chastise 
 he says, ' are the two methods by which God 
 reveals himself to mankind :' he tells us tl 
 hangman is only a delegate of Providenc 
 that the way to Order, is, force and absolutisi 
 and simple: it is very painful to add, th 
 God he worships, or rather the Idea on wl 
 has bestowed apotheosis, is a being under the 
 less dominion of irritation and vengeance, an 
 no relations to that august Spirit, whose rei 
 imprinted on the abstract forms of our hum 
 telligence, and the Instincts of the human He 
 well as bodied forth by that Religion in the 
 ment of which we live. It were very unjust 
 tribute these revolting practical dogmas, t 
 sonal hardness in De Maistre; neither is 
 origin wholly, in the disgust and appre^ 
 caused by the excesses and confusion of wl 
 had been a deploring witness. Much more, 
 in the present case, they sprung from that; 
 tience as to the existence of evil, which in j 
 of a certain order, takes the place of imp 
 with evil itself, and inclines them, alike l 
 politics and theology, to cherish what *PH 
 strongest and speediest means no matt-j 
 impracticable for its eradication. With rej 
 in the first place to secular politics, no doij 
 method of authority has the merit of siml 
 but the gist of the question is, where is tbj 
 ficent authority? De Maistre in 
 plies The Pope! a solution not likelf 
 accepted in this country. Neither, in thoiji 
 of History, in which we have 6een gre] 
 spring up, and suddenly possess 
 
 452 
 
MAI 
 
 wer, is the example germane ; for in by far the ma- 
 ity of instances nay, in every instance in which 
 'ir functions were beneficent with Caesar, with 
 omwell, with Napoleon, these men were power> 
 not because they wore the diadem, but because 
 j at once led and obeyed: their Genius grasped 
 tendencies and comprehended the necessities of 
 Age, and so could give utterance to the will of 
 
 i People. We protest, equally, against all such 
 elusions, in their bearing on the providence of 
 d. The mystery of the existence of evil we 
 [not fathom; we venture on no Theodicee: but 
 is not true that the Almighty Sovereign rules 
 BTerror, or that man's salvation can come other- 
 through the depths of his Love. Like 
 is of one idea, the writers of whom we 
 dogmatists : to which, they owe no slight 
 jtion of their influence and apparent force. But 
 ftongh a cause of momentary success, energy of 
 kind involves no enduring power: the world 
 Bs on more than one idea, and as it rolls, makes 
 iJhavoc with the pedantries of Dutch gardening. 
 Mwo volumes of De Maistre's letters, chiefly from 
 a Petersburg have been published since his 
 (Bh. They are worth more than all his philoso- 
 I They aie instinct with acuteness, and offer 
 Sfcpinions of a keen observer, on the men and 
 that great period of history : his relations 
 M Napoleon, are especially interesting. They 
 i, the private character of De Maistre; and 
 rigidity and gloom of the Creed utterly 
 fin to obliterate the soft affections of the 
 1!!. [J.F.N.] 
 
 LUSTRE, Lcuis Isaac Le. See Saci. 
 UlTLAND, Sir Frederick Lewis, rear- 
 Ural, commander of the Bellerophon, sent to 
 Bk the French coast, and prevent the escape of 
 llleon after the battle of Waterloo, was born 
 H and greatly distinguished himself in the 
 Mtian expedition under Sir Ralph Abercromby. 
 jived Napoleon on board the Bellerophon, 
 Jrefusing ail conditions, on the 15th of July, 
 Died, commander-in-chief in the East 
 L on board his flag-ship, the Wellesley, 1839. 
 ~" VND. The noble Scotch family of this 
 | boasts of several celebrated persons : 1. Sir 
 Maitland, a poet, and keeper of the 
 seal in the reign of Queen Mary, Known as 
 the extraordinary lords of Session by the 
 ' Lord Lethington, 1496-1586. 2. Sir Wil- 
 Maitland, his eldest son, secretary to 
 Mary. 3. John Maitland, lord of Thirl- 
 second son of Sir Richard, secretary to 
 VI., and chancellor of Scotland, known 
 i a writer of Scottish and Latin poetry, bom 
 11537, died 1595. 4. John, grandson of the 
 [ duke of Lauderdale, a partizan of Charles 
 jpointed secretary of state and high commis- 
 of Scotland after the restoration, 1616-1682. 
 earl of Lauderdale, eldest son of James, 
 th earl. See Lauderdale. 
 
 LND, W., a Scotch antiqu., 1693-1757. 
 TAIRE, M., a French savant, 1668-1747. 
 5ROY, Paul Gideon Joly De, a gal- 
 officer, kn. as a wr. on tactics, 1719-1780. 
 [ZIERKS, Ph. De, aFr. knight, who became 
 Nor to Peter L, king of Cyprus, 1312-1405. 
 |K), Francesco, or Ciccio Di, an Italian 
 ' of operas and sacred music, 1740-1773. 
 
 453 
 
 MAL 
 
 MAJOR, or MEIER, G., a German theologian, 
 auth. of commentaries on the evangelists, 1502-74. 
 
 MAJOR, Isaac, a German painter, 1576-1630. 
 
 MAJOR, or MAIR, John, a Scottish divine, 
 author of a ' History of Scotland,' &c, 1469-1547. 
 
 MAJOR, J. IX, a Ger. antiquarian, 1634-1693. 
 
 MAJORIAMOS, Flavius Julius Valerius, 
 a Roman officer, proclaimed emperor at Ravenna 
 457, compelled to abdicate, and died 461. 
 
 MAKAROF, a Russian author, 1775-1804. 
 
 MAKKARY, Ahmed Ben Al, an Arabian 
 historian of the Mahommedans in Spain, 1585-1631. 
 
 MAKO, Paul, a Hungarian philos., 1723-1793. 
 
 MAKOUSI, J., a Polish divine, 1588-1644. 
 
 MAKRIZI, an Egyptian historian, 1360-1442. 
 
 MALACHI, the last of the prophets, 408 b.c. 
 
 MALACHI. St., archbp. of Armagh, 1094-1148. 
 
 MALACHOWSKI, Stanislaus, a Polish 
 statesman, and fellow patriot of Kosciusko, born 
 1735, president of the diet 1788-1792, president ot 
 the senate after the peace of Tilsit 1807, died 1809. 
 His brother, Hyacinth, a partizan of Russia, 
 disting. in promoting the ruin of Poland 1793. 
 
 MALAGRIDA, Gabriel, an Italian Jesuit and 
 missionary to Brazil, who was accused of conspir- 
 ing against the king of Portugal, and, finally, con- 
 demned by the inquisition as a heretic, and burnt 
 alive in 1761. Malagrida laid 1 claim to visions, 
 and published ' The Life of St. Anne, composed 
 (as the title reads) with the assistance of the 
 Blessed Virgin and her Most Holy Son ;' 1689-1761. 
 
 MALALA, J., a Greek historian, 6th centurv. 
 
 MALAPERT, C, a learned Jesuit, chiefly dist. 
 by his mathematical writings, 1581-1630. 
 
 MALAVAL, F., a French violinist, 1627-1719. 
 
 MALAVAL, J., a French surgeon, 1669-1758. 
 
 MALCOLM, the first of the name, king of Scot- 
 land, succeeded 943, and was killed in an insur- 
 rection 958. The secon d reigned about 1003-1033. 
 The third, called St. Malcolm, son of Duncan who 
 was murdered by Macbeth, recovered his throne 
 1057, and was killed in battle with the English 
 1093. The fourth reigned 1153-1165. 
 
 MALCOLM, James Peller, an engraver and 
 antiquarian, born in America, and brought to Lon- 
 don in the eighth year of his age, where he died 
 1815. He is known for his works descriptive of 
 the ancient state of the metropolis, &c. 
 
 MALCOLM, Sir John, an East Indian officer 
 and diplomatist, distinguished as the founder of 
 our political relations with the court of Persia, 
 governor of Bombay from 1827 to 1831, author of a 
 'History of Persia,' 'A Sketch of theSikhs,' and 
 other works relating to Indian affairs, 1769-1833. 
 
 MALDEGHEM,P.De, a Flem. poet, 1540-1611. 
 
 MALDONAT, J., a Spanish Jesuit, 1534-1583. 
 
 MALEBRANCHE, Nicolas, born in Paris, 
 1638, died 13th October, 1715: author of Medi- 
 tations, and the Recherche de la Ve'rite : through 
 the clearness and surpassing beauty of his style, 
 and the originality of his conceptions, deservedly 
 ranking among the foremost literati of France*: 
 one of the most famous, and at the same time 
 among the least sound metaphysicians of that 
 country; _ Starting from that fundamental mis- 
 take, which misled a far greater man Spinoza, 
 viz.: the error of Des Cartes regarding the idea 
 of Substance, (article Leibnitz"), he fell into a 
 scheme quite as fantastic as Spinoza's, although 
 
MAL 
 
 wholly idealistic*, and likewise altogether fatal to 
 the personality, liberty, and responsibility of Man. 
 Defining Body, by the qualities of extension jmd 
 mobility, and Spirit, by those of understanding 
 and will; conceiving them equally incapable of in- 
 dependent action, the Frenchman was forced to 
 the conclusion, that in neither body nor spirit 
 could changes occur unless through immediate 
 operation by the First Cause. No action of Mat- 
 ter on Mind being possible, how can we recognize 
 an External Universe ? Only, says Malebranche, 
 because the Ideas of the Divine Mind act upon us; 
 we see everything in God, who is thus our only 
 intelligible world. The idealism of Malebranche 
 approaches nearest to Berkeley's : it is wholly 
 opposed to that Ficiite, who makes the Ego the 
 cause and creator of every idea. 'The writings of 
 this philosopher are interesting, from their acute- 
 ness, and the amount of truth incidentally brought 
 out ; but unless as illustrative of one phase of the 
 Cartesian error, they are valueless to History; 
 they produced no school, and scarcely had appre- 
 ciable consequence. [J.r.N.] 
 
 MALEC-BEN-ANAS, chief of one of the four 
 orthodox sects of Mussulmans, flourished 713-795. 
 
 MALERML or MALERBI, Nicolo, an Italian 
 monk, remembered as the first translator of the 
 Bible into Italian, and author of 'Lives of the 
 Saints,' born 1430. Date of his death unknown. 
 
 MALESHERBES, Chretien Guillatjme 
 De Lamoignon, was born at Paris on the 16th 
 December, 1721. He belonged to the class 
 called the noblesse of the robe, his father being 
 chancellor of Paris. He passed through several 
 grades of office, and was in 1750 made president 
 of the Court of Aids. His functions were sus- 
 pended by the temporary abolition of the parlia- 
 ment in the reign of Louis XV., and were restored 
 with its revival under Louis XVI 
 al. 
 
 He held office 
 ig with Turgot, and resigned on his retirement. 
 He belonged to the same school as his colleague 
 a school between the wild scepticism of the philo- 
 sophers, and the bigotted, or selfish pertinacity of 
 the priests and nobles. Had it been strong enough, 
 the Turgot and Malesherbes party might have 
 saved France, but it was obliged to give way before 
 the pressure of the established interests, until both 
 parties were swept away by the hurricane of the 
 revolution. Malesherbes wrote in favour of the 
 liberty of the press, and in his own practice in 
 office he was charged with giving it a dangerous 
 license. He is the author of some miscellaneous 
 works, but his name is now solely remembered for 
 the genuine devotion with which he sacrificed him- 
 self to protect a king to whose defects he was suf- 
 ficiently alive. Aided by Tronchet and Deseze 
 he acted as leading counsel for Louis XVI. Acts 
 of loyalty far less decided were in that day the sure 
 road to destruction. He was condemned to death, 
 and guillotined on 22d April, 1794. [J.H.B.] 
 
 MALET, Clacde Francois, General De, is 
 the name of a French officer, memorable for one 
 of the most daring and well-managed attempts to 
 overthrow a powerful government recorded in his- 
 tory. He was born in Franche-Comt^, 1754 ; and, 
 in 1812, at the period of Napoleon's absence in 
 
 Russia, was living at Paris under the surveillance I like a coward, had left Mallet to pull the t 
 of the police, after a long imprisonment occasioned | His ballad of 'William and Margaret^ ha 
 by his republican principles. On the night of the i much admired, but he is now only kept in r 
 
 4,54. 
 
 MAL 
 
 22d of October, having prepared the ne< 
 documents, and put on the habit of a c 
 officer, he went to the quarters of severa' 
 n tent s, accompanied by a single individual 
 as his aide-de-camp, announced that Napole< 
 dead, that the senate was assembled, and 
 provisional government was declared. His r 
 appearance and firm address imposed on tl 
 cers, woke up in the dead of the night to i 
 this startling intelligence, and in a short h 
 two he had a large military force actually r 
 ing under his orders to occupy the severa 
 that he had assigned to them. At this ( 
 moment, the incredulity and firmness of om 
 General Hullin, the military commandant of 
 saved the empire. Unable to reply to his ii 
 gations, Malet discharged his pistol in his face 
 real situation was instantly suspected by twe 
 officers present, who threw themselves upon 
 and toolc him prisoner. He was condemn! 
 shot a week afterwards, October 29, 1812. [ 
 MALET, Sir Charles Warre, an Easl 
 diplomatist, provisional governor of Bombayii 
 and author of an account of the temples of 1 
 published in the 'Asiatic Researches/ 1752- 
 MALEZIEU, N. De, a Fr. teacher, 1650 
 MALHERBE, Francois De, whose 
 according to La Harpe, marks an epoch 
 French language, was born at Caen, 155. 
 died 1628. He was the prof eye of Henr 
 and is admitted to be the father of Frencl 
 poetry. His ruling passion was purity of d 
 and many anecdotes are recorded in illustra 
 his nicety in this respect. His eulogy wa; 
 written by Boileau : 
 
 " Enfin Malherbe vint, et le premier en Fran 
 Fit sentir dans les vers une juste cadence." 
 
 MALHERBE, J. F. R., aFr. savant, 1733 
 MALIBRAN, Maria Felicia, one of thi 
 highly gifted vocal performers of modern 
 was the eldest daughter of Manuel Garcia, i 
 nish tenor singer, and was born in Paris 
 She made her debut in 1825 at the opera in 
 don, and the following year went to New 
 where she married M. Malibran, a French b 
 from whom she was divorced by the French 
 in 1836, and shortly afterwards married the 
 brated violinist, M. de Beriot. She died thi 
 year, during her engagement at the musical f 
 in Manchester, regretted by all classes both : 
 fine endowments and her generous dispositk 
 MALINGNE, C, a French historian, 1580| 
 MALLET, David, whose proper iamih 
 was Malloch, known as a poet and 
 writer, was born in Perthshire abor,: 
 coming the friend of Pope and Bolingbrok 
 brought under the notice of Frederick pri 
 Wales, who kept a rival court at that tin 
 made him his under- secretary. He was oci 
 ally employed as a public writer by the g 
 ment, and Bolingbroke made him a 
 works in MS., which he published in 17;'i 
 was Johnson, we believe, wno said of thi 
 tion, that ' the scoundrel, Bolingbroke 
 his blunderbuss against the peace of 
 
MAL 
 e as one of the fossils of literary history. It 
 be worth mentioning, that Gibbon's father 
 ed one of Mallet's relatives when the his- 
 i was about ten years old; d. 1765. [E.R.] 
 ilXET, Edmund, a French divine, and 
 of the Belles Lettres, translator of Davila's 
 ry of the Civil Wars, and a writer in the 
 3opa?(h'a, 1713-1755. 
 
 kLLET, F., a Swedish mathematician and 
 
 omer, b. of a family of Fr. refugees, 1720-80. 
 
 "LET, J. A., a Swiss astronomer, 1740-90. 
 
 LET, J. R., a French economist, died 173G. 
 
 _LET, P., a French military engineer, known 
 
 author of a new orthography, bom 1630. 
 
 ~.LET, Paul. Henry, a famous antiquarian 
 
 and historian, first professor of history in 
 
 ive city of Geneva, afterwards professor of 
 
 jlles Lettres at Copenhagen, &c, author of 
 
 lorthern Antiquities,' translated by Bishop 
 
 I, and several histories of the northern king- 
 
 1730-1807. His son, H. Mallet-Pre- 
 
 a geographer, 1727-1811. 
 
 LLET-DUPAN, J., a native of Geneva, 
 
 i as a royalist and political writer at the period 
 
 [French revolution, when he was part conduc- 
 
 the ' Mercure de France.' On seeking an 
 
 i in London, he edited an anti-Gallican paper, 
 
 the ' Mercure Britannique,' published in 
 
 " 1799. He is the author of works also in 
 
 ' and polite literature. He died at the house 
 
 riend, Lally-Tollendal, at Richmond, in 1800. 
 
 "EVILLE, Claude De, a French poet, 
 
 iber of the Academy, 1597-1647. 
 
 LMESBURY, James Harris, earl of, son 
 
 Harris, the author of ' Hermes,' known 
 
 rant of the English court from 1767 to the 
 
 the century. He is author of ' Diaries 
 
 espondence,' published in 1844. Born 
 
 1746, died 1820. 
 ISBURY, William of, a famous Eng- 
 orian of the 12th century, was born in So- 
 lire about 1096, and is known to have been 
 the year 1143. He held the office of lib- 
 Hid precentor in the monastery of Malms- 
 " which he had become an inmate. His 
 I are a general history of England from the 
 of the Saxons to 1126, a church history, 
 luities of Glastonbury,' &c, which are all 
 [esteemed as trustworthy chronicles 
 0, Vincent, an Ital. painter, 1625-1670. 
 )MBRA, P., a Venet. painter, 1556-1618. 
 )NE, Edmund, the well-known editor of 
 re, was the son of an Irish judge, and 
 at Dublin, 1741. He was called to the 
 11767, but possessing an ample fortune gave 
 "ition to literature. He was the coadjutor 
 in an edition of Shakspeare, but hav- 
 rrelled with him, published an edition of 
 in 11 vols. 8vo, 1790. Died 1812. 
 1UET, P. V., a Fr. statesman, 1740-1814. 
 )UIN, P. J., a Fr. chemist, 1701-1778. 
 *IGHI, Marcello, an eminent anatomist 
 ologist, more especially distinguished for 
 ches in vegetable physiology, was born 
 _ia in 1628. He died in 1694. He 
 J medicine at Bologna, took his degree there, 
 11656 was appointed professor of physic in 
 rsity. He afterwards successively filled 
 of medicine at Pisa and Messina, and 
 
 MAL 
 
 ultimately was called to Rome by Pope Innocent 
 XII., and was made his physician and chancellor. 
 Malpighi lived at a time when physiological in- 
 quiries were prosecuted earnestly and with success; 
 when nature had begun to be studied instead of 
 books ; and when the dreams of the schools were 
 giving place to practical inquiries and observations. 
 He had early in life learned the necessity of mak- 
 ing experiment the foundation of true philosophy, 
 and was the first to use the microscope in anatomi- 
 cal observations. While prosecuting his anatomi- 
 cal inquiries connected with the animal kingdom, 
 he was led to pay attention to the anatomy and 
 physiology of vegetables. The structure and 
 physiology of plants had hitherto been but little 
 attended to. On these subjects, however, Malpighi 
 has shown himself an original as well as a pro- 
 found observer; and his excellent work on the 
 Anatomy of Plants proves him to be possessed of 
 merit of the highest kind. Succeeding botanists 
 have not failed to draw largely upon his rich store 
 of facts and observations, for his illustrations of 
 the anatomy and external configuration of plants 
 were found to be no less faithful than original. 
 Plumier has named a genus of plants after him, 
 Malpighia. [W.B.] 
 
 MALTE-BRUN, Conrad, or Malte-Con- 
 rad Brun, one of the most distinguished geo- 
 graphers of modern times, and almost equally 
 famous as a writer in favour of free institutions, 
 was born in Jutland 1775, and died in Paris, a 
 political exile from his country, 1826. Besides his 
 important geographical works, and contributions 
 to the ' Biographie Universelle,' he edited the fo- 
 reign politics of the 'Journal des Debats,' and 
 acquired some reputation as a poet. 
 
 MALTHUS, Thomas Robert, was horn at the 
 Rookery near Guildford in 1766. He studied at 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took a mas- 
 ter's degree in 1797. He took orders soon after- 
 wards, and held a small living in Surrey. He mar- 
 ried in 1805, and was soon afterwards appointed 
 professor of history and political economy in 
 the East India College at Haileybury, an office 
 which he held till his death. Few men have lived 
 a more calm and quiet personal life, and few have 
 created a greater storm of conflicting opinion in 
 the world without. It was in the year 1798 that 
 he first published the views with which his name 
 is ever associated, in his ' Essay on the principle of 
 Population, as it affects the future improvement of 
 Society.' He improved and matured the work in 
 subsequent editions, and interwove its special opin- 
 ions with a general view of political economy. 
 Now that the controversial storm has passed away, 
 his doctrines may be dispassionately appreciated. 
 No one doubts his fundamental principle that the 
 amount of the human race must be in a proportion 
 to the amount of food which can be procured for 
 their support. But instead of drawing from this 
 an injunction to mankind to throw their energies 
 into productiveness, and prepare for an increasing 
 population an increased and sufficient provision, 
 the tone of his argument seemed to tend to the 
 necessity of preventing increase, from the dread 
 that it might outdo the production of food. In 
 truth, though a very sagacious writer in general, 
 he omitted the influence of free trade, which puts 
 all the world at the command of an increasing and 
 
 455 
 
MAL 
 
 producing people Maltlms published several 
 pamphlets, and other works of temporary interest. 
 He died on 29th December, 1834. [J.H.B.1 
 
 MALTON, THOMAS, an English artist and 
 writer on geometry and perspective, author of 'A 
 Picturesque Tour through London and Westmin- 
 ster,' &c, 1726-1801. 
 
 MALUS, STEPHEN Louis, a French physician 
 and natural philosopher, celebrated as the dis- 
 coverer of the polarization of light, 1775-1812. 
 
 MALVASIA, C. C, an Ital. art-writer, 1616-93. 
 
 MALVEUDA, T., a Span. Hebraist, 1566-1628. 
 
 MALVEZZI, Virgilio, marquis of, a Spanish 
 statesman, and comment, on Tacitus, 1599-1654. 
 
 MAMBRUN, Peter, a learned French Jesuit, 
 known as a Latin poet and critic, 1600-1661. 
 
 MAMMEA, Julia, empress of Rome, and 
 mother of Alexander Severus, murdered 235. 
 
 MAN, C. De, a Dutch painter, 1621-1706. 
 
 MAN, James, a learned schoolmaster of Aber- 
 deen, editor of an edition of the works of George 
 Buchanan, and party to a controversy with Ruddi- 
 man, another editor of the poet, died 1761. 
 
 MANAHAM, a Galilean adventurer, killed 66. 
 
 MANAHEM, a famous disciple of the Essenes, 
 who predicted the reicn of Herod the Great. 
 
 MANAHEN, or MANAHEM, the sixteenth 
 kino; of Israel, reigned ten years, 11th century b.c. 
 
 MANARD, P.. an Italian poet, 1714-1800. 
 
 MANARDI, G., an Ital. physician, 1462-1536. 
 
 MANASSEH, the eldest son of Joseph, and 
 father of one of the tribes, about 1714 b.c. 
 
 MANASSEH, a Icing of Judah, 968-913 B.C. 
 
 MAN 
 
 Brissot. In 1793 he was appointed Comm 
 to the executive power. He survived th 
 public, but refused to accept any place und< 
 imperial government. The fame of his wri 
 and his political independence induced the < 
 ror Alexander to procure an interview with 1 
 1814, and observing Mandar's short statu 
 could not avoid expressing his Burprisa. ' 
 replied this republican fire-eater, ' II n'y ar 
 si petit que l'etincelle.' (There is nothing si 
 than a spark.') He is author of many pol 
 historical, and miscellaneous works, and of 
 poems, evincing great genius and streng 
 expression. Died 1823. 
 
 M ANDER, C. Van, apoet and paint., 1548- 
 MANDEVILLE, Bernard De, born at 
 in Holland, about 1670, was a physician b; 
 fession, who came to England and acquired 
 notoriety bv his work entitled 'Th 
 Bees, or Private Vices made Public Bei 
 This book created quite a sensation by its in 
 tendency, and was replied to by several en 
 writers, among others, by Bishop Berkelej 
 Hutcheson, and William Law. The dates 
 works published on either side ran^e from 
 to 1732. Mandeville died 1733. 
 
 MANDEVILLE, Sir John De, was b 
 St. Albans about the year 1300. II is fami' 
 of considerable note, and his education libe 
 the times. He seems to have practised thel 
 art as a profession, till in 1327 he left Ei 
 and entered upon his travels. These, he te 
 extended through thirty-four years, and to 
 
 MANASSEH, the high priest of the Jews, who I country of the East ; but the account wh 
 
 went over to his father-in-law, Sanballat, and 
 built the rival temple at mount Gerizim, 6th c. B.C. 
 
 MANASSEH-BEN-ISRAEL. See Menasseh. 
 
 MANASSES, a Greek writer of the 12th cent. 
 
 MANBY, Peter, an Irish catholic wr., d. 1697. 
 
 MANCHESTER, Earl of. See Montagu. 
 
 MANCO CAPAC, the founder and legislator 
 of the Peruvian empire, supposed to have flourished 
 in the 12th century. Another inca of Peru, named 
 Manco, succeeded his brother, who was put to 
 death by Pizarro 1533, and after some years of war- 
 fare was killed by the Spaniards. 
 
 MANDAR, Jean Francois, a French priest 
 of the Oratory, author of several pleasing poems 
 in Latin and French, and distinguished for his 
 virtues and talents as a pastor, 1732-1803. 
 
 MANDAR, Michel Phillipe, generally called 
 4 Theophilus,' was nephew to the preceding, and is 
 worthy of honourable mention beyond many of the 
 most noted characters of the French Revolution. 
 He was born in 1759, and acquired great influence 
 among the popular societies, by devoting his 
 powerful oratory to the cause of progress. During 
 the massacres of September, 1792, he was vice- 
 president of the section of the Temple, and did all 
 in his power to prevent the effusion of blood. He 
 went to Danton's house on the evening of the 3d, 
 and, nearly all the leading men being assembled 
 there, including Petion, Robespierre, Manuel, 
 Fabre D'E^lantine, and Camille Desmoulins, he 
 rnd upon them the immediate creation of a 
 Dictature, and offered to take the risk of the 
 proposal on himself. Jealousy of one another 
 pi-evented the adoption of this suggestion, and 
 Mandar reproached Robespierre with his hatred of 
 
 456 
 
 given contains so many inaccuracies, 
 dictions, and childish absurdities, that dii 
 attaches to the whole, and it is now gei 
 held as of no value. His descriptions, flo 
 like those of Marco Polo, had a powerful toJ 
 on the mind of Columbus. 
 MANES. See Manichaeus. 
 MANESSE, J., a French naturalist, 1743 
 MANETHO, an Egyptian historian, wl 
 high priest of Heliopolis, in the reign of Pi 
 Philadelphus, about 304 B.C. Only fragm< 
 his work, as cited by Josephus in his book a 
 Appion, are now extant. These are colleci 
 Cory, and they consist of an account of the 
 sion and expulsion of a body of foreigner 
 were called Hycsos, or shepherd I 
 to be Jews, besides several tables of ancient 
 MANETTI, G., an Italian historian, 1356 
 MANETTI, R., an Italian painter. 1571- 
 MANETTI, X., an Italian naturalist, 17 
 MANFREDI, B., an Italian painter, 1572 
 MANFREDI, Eustachio, an Italian j 
 trician, astronomer, and literary savant, lWa 
 His brother, Gabriel, a mathemat., 168K 
 MANFREDI, or MAINFROY, king of 
 and Sicily, was a natural son of the ei 
 Frederic II., who usurped the kingdom of 
 he had been appointed regent in 
 killed, fighting against his rival, 1266. 
 MANGE ART, T.,aFr. numismatist, lf.9.5 
 MANGENOT, L., an ecclesiast. v 
 MANGET, J. J.,a medical historian, ISM 
 MANGE Y, T., an English divim 
 MANGIN, C, a French architect, 17-M- 
 MAXGIN, Cl., a French politician, 178(< 
 
 J 
 
MAN 
 
 LlANGOU-KHAN, emperor of the Moguls, 
 
 ceeded 1250, killed in China 1259. 
 
 llANICHAEUS, MANES, or MANI, was a 
 
 Jsian of the third century, and educated in the 
 
 ion of Zoroaster. Some affirm that he derived 
 
 germs of his doctrine from a Saracen mer- 
 
 at named Scythianus. His object was to in- 
 
 horate Zoroastrian dualism with Christianity. 
 
 the fervour of his fanaticism he gave himself 
 
 | to be the Paraclete promised in the gospel of 
 
 ^Tp y which he understood, not the Holy 
 
 1st, as many have erroneously imagined, but a 
 
 mer commissioned to diffuse and perfect Chris- 
 
 [ity, and free it from the vile corruptions of the 
 
 genius Ahriman. This dualism, common 
 
 tie East, was a mystic attempt to account for 
 
 I origin and perpetuation of moral evil. (See 
 
 ion). Manes appeared as a religious teacher 
 
 Sapor I. As a man of multifarious accom- 
 
 (lment he attracted great attention; but the 
 
 Ity of the magi forced him to a speedy exile. 
 
 wdered into distant countries still pursuing 
 
 |mission, and in the East his contact with 
 
 sm gave new shape and tinge to his eclectic 
 
 On his return to Persia with a collection 
 
 iinted Oriental symbols, Hormisdas received 
 
 land his theosophic pictures with welcome, but 
 
 his successor Varanes, Manes was appre- 
 
 and according to an Oriental form of 
 
 lent, flayed alive, while his skin was stuffed 
 
 lining up before the gate of the city. His 
 
 spread over various portions of the church, 
 
 Lngustin was for a season fascinated by its 
 
 itions. [J.E.] 
 
 IILIUS, Caius, a Roman tribune, b.c. 68. 
 
 riLIUS, Marcus, a Rom. poet, 1st c. b.c. 
 
 ILEY-DE-LA-RIVIERE. The authoress 
 
 I name was a daughter of Sir Roger Manley, 
 
 jrated author of ' The Turkish Spy,' and was 
 
 at Guernsey, of which her father was gover- 
 
 Besides her dramatic writings and romances, 
 
 libels she penned in that form, she was em- 
 
 l as a political writer by the ministry of the 
 
 land continued the 'Examiner' when it was 
 
 Dished by Swift. Died, after a life of in- 
 
 and plea'sure, 1724. 
 
 ILIUS. Four illustrious Romans of this 
 I are mentioned : 1. Marcus Manlius Ca- 
 ius, a patrician general, who saved the capi- 
 surprised by the Gauls about 390 or 392 
 id was thrown from the Tarpeian Rock 370 
 2. Lucius Manlius Imperiosus, named 
 and compelled to abdicate for his despot- 
 ic. 363. 3. Titus Manlius Torquatus, 
 the preceding, famous for his magnanimity 
 age, was appointed military tribune B.C. 
 . dictator 352, and again 348, without pass- 
 ugh the inferior dignity of consul. The 
 office, however, he filled in 347, 344, and 
 finally lost his popularity by the rigour of 
 listration. 4. A second Titus Manlius 
 Iuatus, who was appointed consul B.C. 235 
 ' i and, in the latter period, closed the temple 
 after subjugating Sardinia. He refused 
 insulate in 212, but was censor in 209. 
 " A. T., a Flem. antiquarian, 1740-1810. 
 IERS, John, marquis of Granby, a Bri- 
 t, who distinguished himself in Germany 
 Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, and was 
 
 451 
 
 MAN 
 
 afterwards a member of the government, and com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army, 1721-1770. 
 
 MANNERT, C, a Bavar. historian, 1756-1834. 
 
 MANNI, D. M., an Ital. antiquar., 1690-1788. 
 
 MANNING, O., an Eng. antiquar., 1721-1801. 
 
 MANNING, T., a disting. linguist, 1774-1840. 
 
 MANNOZZI, G., an Ital. painter, 1590-1636. 
 
 MANRIQUE, A., a Span, prelate, 1577-1649. 
 
 MANRIQUE, S , a Span, mission., 17th cent. 
 
 MANSART, Francis, a celebrated French 
 architect of Italian origin, 1598-1666. His nephew 
 and pupil, Jules Hardouin, called Mansart, 
 architect of Versailles, &c, 1645-1708. 
 
 MANSFELD, Peter Ernest, count of, an 
 Austrian statesman and soldier, governor of the 
 Low Countries after the death of the duke of Par- 
 ma, 1517-1604. His natural son, Ernest, also 
 count of Mansfeld, and an enemy of the Austrian 
 empire, called the Attila of Christendom, 1585-1626. 
 
 MANSFIELD, William Murray, earl of, 
 was born in Perthshire on the 2d of March, i705. 
 He was the fourth son of Viscount Stormont, and 
 the vehement jacobitism of his family, some mem- 
 bers of it being deeply involved in the rebellion of 
 1745, not only cast difficulties in the way of his 
 early career, but was often successfully employed 
 in debate by Chatham and his other opponents. 
 He studied at Westminster and Christ's Church, 
 Oxford. He was called to the bar in 1731. He 
 wrote in his youth some poetry justly forgotten, 
 but perhaps common tastes and pursuits may have 
 been the foundation of that intimacy with Pope, 
 which seems to have had a material influence on 
 his prospects. Though no poet, he was essentially 
 a man of genius. He cast entirely away the con- 
 ventionalities of a Scottish Jacobite, and entered 
 the arena of English politics and professional am- 
 bition, with a talent and energy which gave him 
 the full advantage of his aristocratic rank and sig- 
 nal personal graces. A new class of business 
 that of appeals from the Court of Session in Scot- 
 land, to the House of Lords, fell largely into his 
 hands ; and Pope has noticed him in a line more 
 distinct than poetic, as ' so known, so honoured, 
 in the House of Lords.' He became Solicitor- 
 General in 1743, but it was not until 1754 that 
 he took the next step in promotion as Attorney- 
 General. In 1756, he was made Chief-Justice of 
 the King's Bench. He clung tenaciously to this 
 office, and would not take the risks and responsi- 
 bilities of the Chancellorship at the demand of 
 public or party spirit. His name has not been 
 popular as a judge, and he has generally been 
 contrasted with Camden as one who inherited the 
 despotic spirit of the Stuart dynasty. The pre- 
 judice was confirmed by his courageous conduct in 
 the Wilkes' outrages and furnished a text for the 
 savage attacks of Junius, who spoke of him as a 
 fitting Pretor for Justinian. But, however narrow 
 some of his opinions may have been, others par- 
 took of a large liberality, and in the anti-catholic 
 fervour connected with the outbreak known as 
 Lord George Gordon's riots, he showed a humane, 
 generous, and courageous toleration. He was a 
 very great lawyer, not merely in a technical sense, 
 but as one who could direct the practice of the 
 courts towards broad principles of jurisprudence. 
 Many departments in the mercantile law of Eng- 
 land and Scotland were created by him, andamoiig 
 
MAN 
 
 others the law of marine insurance was made and 
 systematized by his decisions. He retired from 
 office in 1788, and died in 1793. [J.H.B.] 
 
 MANSI, J. D , an Italian savant, 1692-1769. 
 
 MANSION, Colard, a writer and printer, cele- 
 brated for introducing the art into Bruges, d. 1484. 
 
 MANSTEIN, Chius. Hkrman De, a Russian 
 general, au. of a 'Memoir' on Russia, 1711-1757. 
 
 MANT, Richard, a famous Irish prelate, was 
 born at Southampton, where bis father held a living 
 in the church, 177G, and began his ecclesiastical 
 career as vicar of Coggeshall, in Essex, in 1810. 
 In 1820 he became bishop of Killaloe; in 1823 
 bishop of Down and Connor; and in 1842 was 
 translated to the see of Dromore. He died in 
 1848. The works of Dr. Mant consist of a vast 
 number of sermons and tracts, but his celebrity 
 rests on an edition of the Bible, which he prepared 
 in conjunction with Dr. D'Oyley. 
 
 MANTEGNA, Andrea, an eminent painter of 
 Mantua, whose two sons, one of whom was named 
 Francesco, and his father, Carlo, were also 
 artists, and fellow-workers with him, 1430-1505. 
 
 MANTICA, F., an Italian cardinal, 1534-1614. 
 
 MANTON, T., a nonconformist divine, 1620-77. 
 
 MANTOVANO, Battista Spagnuoli, an ele- 
 gant Latin poet, better kn. as Battista, 1448-1516. 
 
 MANU, the supposed author of the Mdnava 
 Sdstra, one of the sacred books of the Hindoos, 
 containing a code of laws, is supposed by Sir 
 William Jones to be the same as Minos in the 
 Grecian mythology. There are fourteen Menus, 
 of whom this one is the seventh. The name 
 belongs to mythology rather than biography. 
 
 MANUEL COMMENUS, fourth son of John 
 Commenus, born 1120, succeeded his father as em- 
 peror of the East 1143, d. 1180. See Commenus. 
 
 MANUEL PALjEOLOGUS, born 1349, suc- 
 ceeded his father, John Palasologus, as emperor of 
 the East 1391, died 1425. 
 
 MANUEL, F., a Portugese poet, 1734-1819. 
 
 MANUEL, James Anthony, a famous leader 
 of the opposition in the French chamber after the 
 restoration, was born in Provence 1755, and after 
 serving with distinction in the republican armies 
 raised by the levy en masse, adopted the profession 
 of the bar. He was a member of the chamber con- 
 voked by Napoleon during the hundred days, 1815, 
 and with all nis eloquence and power resisted the 
 re-establishment of the Bourbons by the allied 
 armies. Returned to the chamber in 1818, his 
 patriotic fervour in the tribune, his high spirit, 
 and his brilliant oratory, marked him out as the 
 champion of French liberty, and kept the party of 
 the ministers in continual terror His first speech 
 in the session of 1823 was on the iniquity of the 
 Spanish war, in which he reminded the crown that 
 when the French territory was invaded under 
 similar circumstances, the country had defended 
 itself by the adoption of new forms and another 
 energy ! This allusion to the destruction of royalty 
 in 1793, exploded the mine which had long been 
 prepared for his expulsion from the chamber, and, 
 on refusing to depart, he was led out into the 
 6treet by the military. His walk home, followed 
 by the whole of his party, was a popular triumph ; 
 and though he returned, with the simplicity and 
 dignity of a Cincinnatus, to his own occupations, 
 he was elected again in 1824. Manuel died three 
 
 MAR 
 
 vears before the triumph of his cause in the 
 Charles X., 1827. [ 
 
 MANUEL, Louis Peter, born 1711, aei 
 attorney-general to the commune of Paris 
 revolution, and was executed November 14, 
 MANUEL, N., a Swiss fresco painter ai 
 tiric and dramatic poet. 1484-1530. 
 
 MANUTIUS, or MANUZIO, is the name 
 
 Italian family famous in the history of pri 
 
 for their beautiful editions of learned work 
 
 the invention of the Italic or Alrfine letter, I 
 
 have been formed in imitation of the handv 
 
 of Petrarch. Aldo Pio Manuzio, the 
 
 flourished at Venice, 1447-1515. Paolo, I 
 
 distinguished like his father both as a cli 
 
 scholar and printer, 151 2-1574. Ai.i>o,theyoi 
 
 son of Paolo, distinguished like his progei 
 
 and greatly favoured by the pope, Sextus Qi 
 
 who gave him apartments in the Vatican 
 
 born at Venice 1547, and died childless 1597 
 
 MANVEL, Francis. See Manuel. 
 
 MANWOOD, Sir Roger, an English ju 
 
 this name flourished in the reign of Elizabet 
 
 is said by Fuller to have written a book o 
 
 forest laws. He died 1593. Such a bool 
 
 first published in 1598 by John Manwooi 
 
 is supposed to be the son of Sir Roger. 
 
 MANYOKI, A. De, a Hung, painter, 17tl 
 
 MANZI, W., an Italian savant, 1784-182: 
 
 MANZOLI, P. A., a Latin poet, 16th cen 
 
 MANZUOLI, T., an Italian painter, 1536- 
 
 MAPES, Walter, an English poet, 12th 
 
 MAPLET, John, a learned naturalist, 161 
 
 MAPLETOFT, J., a medical wr., 1631-1; 
 
 MAPLETOFT, R., a learned divine, 1610 
 
 MAPP, M., a French botanist, 1632-1701 
 
 MARA, Elizabeth, a fam. singer, 1750- 
 
 MARA, W. De, a Latin poet, 1470-1530. 
 
 MARACCI, J., an Italian painter, 1637-1 
 
 MARACCI, L., an Ital. Orientalist, 1612- 
 
 MARAIS, H., a French engraver, 1764-li 
 
 MARAIS, M., a French composer, 1656-1 
 
 MARALDI, J. P., an Italian matheraat 
 
 astronomer, and natural philosopher, 1665- 
 
 His nephew, Giovanni Domenico, also d 
 
 guished as an astronomer, 1709-1788. 
 
 MARAN, P., a French theologian, 1683-1 
 
 MARANA, J. P., an Italian historian, 164 
 
 MARANGONI, J., an Ital. antiquar., 1673- 
 
 MARANTA, B., an Italian botanist, 16th 
 
 MARAT, Jean Paul, was born of pa 
 
 unknown to history, at a place called Band 
 
 Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1746. Before his sii 
 
 energies were directed to political ends, he 
 
 been ambitious of rising by his talents, 
 
 travelled a good deal in England, Scotland, 
 
 land, and France, and published several wor 
 
 experimental science and philosophy. Son 
 
 these had brought his name into repute, and 
 
 subjected him to the sarcasms of Voltaire, 
 
 took the pains to analyze his philosophical tn 
 
 on man a work in which Marat had endeav< 
 
 to illustrate the principles and laws of the i 
 
 influence on the body, and those of the bo< 
 
 the soul. The year 1789 found him in the 
 
 tion of veterinary physician to the Count D'A 
 
 thoroughly disgusted with his failure to rii 
 
 society, and witn the ' quacks,' as he called t 
 
 ' of the corps scientifique.' He began his pol 
 
 458 
 
MAR 
 
 r bv the composition of his Offrande a. la 
 e,' followed by the issue of his journal ' Le 
 liciste Parisien,' two months after the promul- 
 ion of the ' Eights of Man ' by the constituent 
 mbly. The club agitation was just commenc- 
 and Marat joined the cordeliers, formed in 
 ober, 1789, the most reputable members of 
 ch were Danton, and Camille Desmoulins. 
 thirst for glory, if it were only in the excess 
 lis hatreds and crimes, provoked him to 
 and proposals, which it was physically 
 ossible any of his rivals could surpass in 
 city, and gave to his denunciations a kind of 
 )anc magnificence. Such was his proposal ' to 
 the 800 deputies on 800 trees of the Tuil- 
 -Mirabeau on the first of them,' for which 
 s denounced by Malouet. From this period 
 he 10th of August, 1792, he was hunted by 
 users from one wretched abode to another 
 ays contriving to issue his journal, the title 
 hich was presently changed to ' Friend of the 
 )le.' On the date just mentioned, the Tuil- 
 was besieged, the royal family imprisoned, 
 he new ' commune,' or municipality, formed 
 republicans ; Marat also emerged from his 
 ty, and filled the prisons with the ' suspect,' 
 were disposed of by the massacres of Septem- 
 On the evening of the 3d the famous cir- 
 was issued, calling upon the departments to 
 the example of the Parisians ; it was signed 
 arat, the chief promoter of these horrors, 
 his colleagues, ten in all, members of the 
 de Surveillance, afterwards the Committee 
 lie Safety. The convention being elected, 
 became a deputy, and his appearance in 
 issembly was the signal for Vergniaud and 
 u to denounce his atrocities, and they read 
 the tribune his demand for 270,000 heads as 
 s of appeasing the country. The turbu- 
 of such a sitting may easily be imagined, 
 made no attempt to deny the charge. 
 is Aw opinion, the result of the most rigid 
 tion he could make, and he was willing 
 a few drops of guilty blood to save millions 
 innocent ! After the execution of the king, 
 tie of Nerwinden was lost by Dumouriez, 
 arch, 1793, and Marat, always gigantic in 
 oceptions, accused all the generals of the 
 of treason, and sought to bring them to trial 
 Meantime his struggle with the Giron- 
 had increased in virulence, and they suc- 
 at last in summoning their terrible adver- 
 before the revolutionary tribunal. This 
 was one of the instruments set in action by 
 party on the 10th of August : Marat 
 to his trial attended by vast crowds of the 
 and his acquittal followed as a matter 
 not only so, but the people carried him 
 i the convention in triumph, elevated on a 
 'rude palanquin, and covered with garlands 
 proceeded on his way. He now assumed 
 tatorship, that he had always advocated, 
 he still resided in his squalid apartment 
 | the wife of his printer, who had been 
 by him, and who seems really to have 
 On the 31st of May, 1793, he sounded 
 bell, and with the aid of his seditious 
 arrested the Girondin deputies, whose 
 avenged on the 13th of July following, by 
 
 459 
 
 MAR 
 
 the hand of Charlotte Corday. (See Brissot, 
 CoBDAT.) The death of Marat Mas only has- 
 tened a few days by his assassination, for he was 
 already consumed by a disgusting malady : and it 
 is melancholy to add, that he was almost adored 
 after his decease ; his remains being deposited in 
 the Pantheon with national honours, and an altar 
 erected to his memory in the club of the cordeliers: 
 these fanatics also claimed his heart, and pre- 
 served it in a golden urn. Our sketch would be 
 essentially incomplete if we did not add that 
 Marat was perfectly sincere, and, in fact, that he 
 made his convictions his sole religion. He sold 
 his bed to bring out the first numbers of his 
 journal, and lived in poverty at a time when he 
 could have amassed wealth by merely selling his 
 silence. Such a life is far more instructive, even 
 as an example of depravity, when facts like this 
 are properly understood. There is such a thing 
 as consistency, and a kind of devilish virtue, in 
 guilt, which is as rare as heroism in well-doing, 
 and history might be ransacked for a more striking 
 instance of it than the brief political career of 
 Marat. [E.R.] 
 
 MARATTI, Carlo, an Ital. painter, 1625-1713. 
 
 MARBACH, J. R., a Ger. actress, 1805-1837. 
 
 MARBECK, John, organist of St. George's 
 Chapel, Windsor, and the first composer of the 
 cathedral service of the Church of England. He was 
 au. also of a Scripture Concordance, for which he 
 narrowly escaped the stake, time of Henry VIII. 
 
 MARCA, the name of two Italian painters, the 
 earliest, J. B. Lombardelli Della Marca, 
 flourished 1532-1587. The later, Lactantius 
 Della Marca, born about 1553. 
 
 MARCA, Pet. De, a Fr. historian, 1594-1662. 
 
 MARCANTONIO, the most renowned of the 
 Italian engravers, was born about 1480, at Bologna, 
 and was the pupil of the celebrated painter and 
 goldsmith Francia ; his family name was Raimondi. 
 Some of Marcantonio's earliest efforts were made 
 at Venice, where he copied Albert Diirer's prints 
 of The Life of the Virgin,' and of the ' Passion ;' 
 for up to this time no Italian engraver was to be 
 compared with Durer, whose prints became known 
 in Italy after 1500. From Venice Marcantonio 
 went to Rome, where he attracted the notice of 
 Raphael, who largely employed him in the engraving 
 of his designs : it is to his prints after Raphael that 
 Marcantonio owes his present great reputation. 
 There is a very fine collection of them in the British 
 Museum. After the death of Raphael in 1520, 
 Marcantonio was employed by Guilio Romano, and 
 it was for engraving some lascivious designs by this 
 painter that he was imprisoned by Clement VII. 
 After the sack of Rome in 1527 he returned to 
 Bologna, where he is supposed to have died about 
 1539, that being the last date on any of his prints ; 
 but the dates both of his birth and death are quite 
 uncertain. Marcantonio's prints are distinguished 
 for their delicate outlines and execution, and gene- 
 rally fine drawing ; some of the original impressions, 
 before the plates came into the hands of Barlachi 
 and Salamanca, have realized enormous prices, 
 those with the names of these dealers are also val- 
 uable, the later are retouches and inferior. The 
 1 Murder of the Innocents', after Raphael, is per- 
 haps the most celebrated of his plates, more than 
 half of them are anonymous, but many are marked. 
 
MAR 
 M. or M.A., and M.A.F., joined as a cipher. 
 Bartsch, in his IWutrt Crareur, describes 383 
 prints by this engraver, but several of them are 
 doubtless by his distinguished pupils, Agostino 
 Yenoziano, and Marco da Ravenna. Nagler, in 
 his K Hustler Lexicon, describes 395 prints. The 
 original account of Marcantonio, of whom we know 
 so little, is in Vasari's Lives, &c. ; nothing bio- 
 graphical concerning this great engraver has been 
 ascertained since Vasari. [R.N.W.] 
 
 MARCEAU, Francis Severin Desgra- 
 viers, a celebrated republican general, whose 
 military talents were only equalled by his gene- 
 rosity and humanity in the Vendean war; born at 
 Chartres 1769, fell in action with the Austr. 1796. 
 
 MARCEL, N., a German painter, 1628-1683. 
 
 MARCEL, Stephen, the patriotic defender of 
 Paris after the battle of Poitiers 1356, assass. 1358. 
 
 MARCEL, St., a bishop of Paris, died 440. 
 
 MARCEL, W., a Fr. chronologist, 1647-1708. 
 
 MARCELLINUS, a Greek chronicler, 6th cent. 
 
 MARCELLINUS, a pope and saint of Rome, 
 6uffered martyrdom time of Diocletian, 296-304. 
 
 MARCELLIS, 0., a Dutch painter, 1613-1673. 
 
 MARCELLO, Benedetto, was born of noble 
 parents at Venice in 1686. His father, Agostino 
 Marcello, was a Venetian senator, and his mother, 
 Paolina, was of the honourable family of Capello. 
 Benedetto, having in early life received a thorough 
 classical education, was committed to the care of 
 his elder brother, Alessandro, who was a student of 
 the mathematical sciences, natural philosophy, 
 and music. Under this brother, the young Bene- 
 detto applied himself to music and poetry, and 
 soon made such progress that he was placed under 
 Francesco Gasparini, to receive instructions in the 
 principles of musical science. In 1716 the first son 
 of the emperor Charles VI. was born, and at the 
 celebration of the event, which took place at 
 Vienna, a grand serenata, composed by Marcello, 
 was performed with great applause. After this 
 he composed a mass, which was first performed in 
 the church of Santa Maria della Calestia, on the 
 occasion of his brother's daughter taking the veil. 
 He composed many other sacred works for the 
 church of Santa Sophia, and was at the pains of 
 instructing the clergy in the manner in which they 
 were to be performed. In 1724, and the three 
 following years, he wrote music for one, two, and 
 three voices, for a paraphrase of the first seventy- 
 five psalms, which are still remarkable for the 
 scientific knowledge shown in their construction. 
 Marcello was for many years a judge in the Council 
 of Forty, and was for some years chamberlain and 
 treasurer to the city of Brescia, where he died in 
 the year 1739. He was buried with great pomp 
 in the church of the fathers Minor Observants of 
 St. Joseph of Brescia. [J.M.] 
 
 MARCELLO, N., a Venetian doge, 1473-1474. 
 
 MARCELLUS, the first of the name pope of 
 Rome, 308-310 ; the second, a few weeks only, 1555. 
 
 MARCELLUS, the name of several noble Ro- 
 mans: 1. Marcus Claudius Marcellus, fa- 
 mous for his victories over Hannibal and the Gauls, 
 slain in battle against the former 208 B.C. 2. 
 Marcus Claudius Marcellus, of the same 
 family, an opponent of Cajsar in the senate, consul 
 B.C. 51, assassinated 46. 3. Marcus Claudius 
 Marcellus, called the younger, son of Caius 
 
 MAR 
 
 I Marcellus and Octavia, the sister of Aus 
 
 ; He was adopted by the latter and married 
 
 i daughter, Julia, but died aged eighteen, 23 
 
 MARCET, Alex., a physician of Geriji 
 
 turalized in England, and known as an ( 
 
 mental philosopher, 1770-1822. 
 
 MARCH, Ausias, a Provencal poet, 15tl 
 
 MARCH, S., a Spanish painter, died 166 
 
 MARCH AND, L., a Fr. composer, 1669- 
 
 MARCHAND, P., a Fr. bibliopole, 1675- 
 
 MARCHAND, S., a Fr. navigator, 1755- 
 
 MARCIANUS, emperor of the East, 391 
 
 MARCILIUS, T., a German critic, 154] 
 
 MARCILLA, W. Da, a Fr. painter, 1475 
 
 MARCION, was born at Sinope in Pontus 
 
 the middle of the second century. His lath 
 
 cording to some reports, not, however, wt 
 
 thenticated, was a bishop of the church i 
 
 place. His belief in Oriental and dualistic \ 
 
 encrusted with other and similar specul 
 
 was deemed by him compatible with be 
 
 Christianity, and he attempted to form a ] 
 
 geneous theology out of both materials. 
 
 assumed as articles of his creed, the eten 
 
 matter the existence of a benign and holy 
 
 and of a Demiurgus little less than C 
 
 might, but dark and malignant, and ] 
 
 his appropriate sphere in an attempted dol 
 
 over matter, for he created man, was the 
 
 God of the Jewish race, and was to be 
 
 overcome by the Messiah. Jesus, accord 
 
 Marcion, had not, and could not have a re 
 
 manity, for all matter is essentially sinful. 
 
 notions are the crude effects of an earnest 
 
 mind to resolve inscrutable mysteries by the ci 
 
 of figments not only incomprehensible, but 
 
 sistent and baseless. Marcion received as < 
 
 ical only the writings of the apostle Paul, 1 
 
 he had a gospel which appears to have b 
 
 interpolated copy of that of" Luke. To this 
 
 was joined an austere and vigorous asccticii 
 
 which victory over appetite was to be 
 
 secured. 
 
 MARCK, J. De, a Ger. protestant, 1655- 
 
 MARCUZZI, S., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1725 
 
 MARDONIUS, a general in the army of 3 
 
 and son-in-law of Darius, k. at Plata>a B.C. 
 
 MARE, Nicholas De La, a French co: 
 
 sioner of police, distinguished as a wril 
 
 police economy 1639-1723. 
 
 MARE, Ph. De La, a Fr. historian, 1615 
 MARE, P. B. La, a Fr. diplomatist, 1753 
 MARECHAL, B., an eccles. savant, 1705 
 MARECHAL, G., a Fr. surgeon, 1658-17 
 MARECHAL, P. S., a Fr. writer, 17fiW 
 MARELIUS, Nils, a Swed. geo<^r.. 1706 
 MARET, Hugh Bernard. See BAafl 
 MARETS, Roland Des, a Fr. crit i< , 1 Bfl 
 MARETS, Samuel Des, a learned Frenc 
 testant, famous for his controversies with th 
 man Catholics, 1591-1663. 
 
 MARGARET. The queens and princes 
 Great Britain of this name are 1. St. Marc;. 
 queen of Scotland, sister of Edgar Atluling, 
 ried to Malcolm 1070, died 1093. 2. Marc, 
 of York, sister of Edward IV., married I 
 duke of Burgundy. 8. Margaret of A 
 daughter of Rene, titular king of Sicily, S 
 and Jerusalem, born 1425, married to Hen: 
 
MAR 
 
 died, after a life of extraordinary vicissitude 
 uent on the wars of York and Lancaster, 
 4. Margaret of Scotland, daughter of 
 es I., born 1425, died, after an unhappy mar- 
 re with Louis XL of France, 1444. 5. Mar- 
 ket Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry VII. 
 . Elizabeth of York, and sister to Henry VTIL, 
 born at Westminster 1489. This princess 
 betrothed in her infancy to James IV. of 
 tland, then of adult age, and married to him in 
 ^K l 1506 she gave birth to a son, after- 
 ils James V., and became regent of Scotland 
 the death of her husband at the battle of 
 iden, 1513. In 1514 she married Archibald, 
 ^WAngus, of the family of Douglas. This 
 ch surrounded her with strife and trouble for 
 rest of her days, the first outburst of which 
 the arrival of the duke of Albany, supported 
 the French king in 1515, soon after which 
 garet took refuge in England. She died in 
 1. Her life has been recently published by 
 s Strickland. 
 
 !ARG ARET. The saints of this name are the 
 m of Scotland, and a virgin martyr of Antioch, 
 
 M the patroness of Cremona, 3d century. 
 ARGARET. The queens and princesses of 
 are 1. Margaret, daughter of Raymond 
 mger, count of Provence, born 1219, married 
 uis IX. 1234, died, after acquiring a famous 
 by the defence of Damietta, 1285. 2. Mar- 
 OF Burgundy, married to Louis X., king 
 ice, 1305, strangled for adultery 1315. 3. 
 aret of Valois, sister of Francis L, born 
 married in 1509 to the duke of Alencon, and 
 j two years after the death of her first bus- 
 to the king of Navarre, by whom she had 
 D'Albret, mother of Henry IV., died 1530. 
 garet of France, daughter of Henry II., 
 1552, married to the prince of Beam, after- 
 Henry IV., 1572, divorced for her licentious- 
 1599, died 1615. 5. Margaret of France, 
 fss of Savoy, daughter of Francis I., born 1523, 
 ed to Emmanuel Philibert 1559, died 1574. 
 UJGARET, queen of Norway, Denmark, and 
 pn, who is often called ' the Semiramis of the 
 >,' was the daughter of Waldemar III., king of 
 rk, and was born at Copenhagen, 1353. 
 i(53 she was married toHaco,lring of Norway, 
 gest son of Magnus Ericson, in whose person 
 overnments of Sweden, Norway, and Scania, 
 been invested many years before. The mar- 
 of Huco with Margaret took place under cir- 
 tances of great political difficulty, and it 
 ioned the banishment of twenty-four of the 
 powerful of the Swedish barons, by whom 
 ras and his son were afterwards deposed, and 
 rt of Mecklenburgh placed on the throne, 
 e the country was suffering from the oppres- 
 of this foreign government, Margaret lost, in 
 , her father, Waldemar ; in 1380, her husband, 
 ' ; and in 1387 her son, Olave events which 
 Mr queen regnant in Norway, regent in Den- 
 , and in a situation to receive overtures from 
 B* With a spirit and ambition natural 
 t at once furnished her adherents 
 tnd supplies of war, and the victory 
 Hjfngi won by the high marshal of Sweden, 
 Kielizou, Sept. 21, 1389, threw open the 
 lom to her. The union of the three kingdoms 
 
 MAR 
 
 was concluded by the treaty of Calmar, where tne 
 spiritual and temporal barons assembled for that 
 purpose, on the 20th of July, 1397 ; Eric of 
 Pomerania, the grand-nephew of Margaret, being 
 elected her successor as the future sovereign of 
 Sweden. She died in the port of Flensburgh, on 
 board a vessel in which she had embarked for Den- 
 mark, Oct. 28, 1412. Her memory has been exe- 
 crated in Sweden, where the union was never 
 popular, in about the same measure that her politi- 
 cal virtues have been extolled in Denmark. The 
 words of Geijer, the great Swedish historian, are 
 sufficiently remarkable to be quoted on this point : 
 ' The fate of the throne and the country was decided 
 by the holders of power, from the casual motives 
 of temporary interests, and by such was the famous 
 union of the three northern kingdoms produced 
 a mere incident, which bears some resemblance to 
 a design ; but of a consciousness of what such a 
 union was, or of what it might become, no glimpse 
 is to be perceived, either among its founders or in 
 any other quarter.' [E.R.] 
 
 MARGARET of Austria, daughter of the 
 emperor Maximilian I., born 1480, married suc- 
 cessively to the Infant of Spain 1491-1497, and 
 to Philibert, duke of Savoy, 1501-1506, became 
 ruler of the Netherlands 1506, died 1531. 
 
 MARGARET of Constantinople, daughter 
 of Baldwin IX., became countess of Flanders 
 and Hainault 1221, died 1279. 
 
 MARGARET of Parma, a natural daughter 
 of Charles V., married successively to Alexander 
 de Medicis and Octavian Farnese. The latter 
 event took place in 1540. From 1559 to 1568 she 
 was ruler of the Low Countries, and was succeeded 
 by Alva. She then retired into Italy, and d. 1586. 
 
 MARGARET of Richmond. See Beaufort. 
 
 MARGARITONE, an Ital. painter, 1212-1289. 
 
 MARGERET, a Fr. adventurer, 16th century. 
 
 MARGGRAFF, A. S., a Ger. chemist, 1709-82. 
 
 MARGGRAFF, G., a Ger. naturalist, 1610-44. 
 
 MARGON, W. De, a French author, died 1760. 
 
 MARGUERIE, J. J. De, a French officer and 
 mathematician, 1742-1779. 
 
 MARGUERIT, J., a Spanish historian, cardi- 
 nal, and chancellor of Arragon, died 1484. His 
 grandson, Joseph De Marguerit De Bivre, 
 a general in the service of Louis XIII., died 1654. 
 
 MARGUERITE, Joseph Marie Solar De 
 La, a statesman, soldier, and historian, noted for 
 the defence of Turin against the French in 1706. 
 
 MARGUNIO, M., an Ital. scholar, 1530-1602. 
 
 MARIA, F. Di, an Italian painter, 1623-1690. 
 
 MARIA, H., a painter of Bologna, 17th cent. 
 
 MARIA, John, an Italian architect, 1458-1534. 
 His br., James, a famous painter, dates unknown. 
 
 MARIA. See Marie, Mary. 
 
 MARIA. The queens of Spain of this name 
 are Maria De Molina, queen of Castile and 
 Leon, married to Sancho IV. 1282, regent of Cas- 
 tile 1295 and 1312, died 1322. Maria Louisa, 
 daughter of the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis 
 XIV., and of Henrietta of England, married to 
 Charles II., king of Spain, 1662-1689. Maria 
 Louisa, daughter of Victor Amadeus II., duke of 
 Savoy, and wife of Philip V., 1688-1714. Maria 
 Louisa, wife of Charles IV., and mother of Fer- 
 dinand VII., 1754-1819. 
 
 MARIA, empress of Germany, called Marie 
 
 461 
 
MAR 
 
 Roi, first wife of the emperor Sigismimd, and 
 daughter of Louis L, kinu; of Hungary, born 1370, 
 began to reign 1382, died 1395. 
 
 MARIA CAROLINE, queen of Naples. See 
 Caroline. 
 
 MARIA FRANCES ELIZABETH, queen of 
 Portugal, born 1734, became mistress of the king- 
 dom at the death of her husband, Peter III., 1786, 
 suffered by mental aberration 1790, died 1816. 
 
 MAR I A LOUISA, second wife of Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, daughter of Francis I., emperor of 
 Austria, ami Maria Theresa of Naples, was born 
 1791. In 1810 she was married to the emperor; 
 in 1811 she presented him with an heir, who was 
 hailed king of Rome; on his fall, in 1814, she de- 
 serted him for the company of her chamberlain, 
 Count Neipperg, and became duchess of Parma 
 and Placentia ; died 1847. 
 
 MARIA THERESA, bora in 1717, was the 
 eldest daughter of Charles VI. of Austria, who 
 died in 1740. The succession of Maria Theresa to 
 the hereditary dominion of the House of Hapsburg 
 had been guaranteed by the principal states of 
 Europe ; but, on her father's death, she found her- 
 self assailed by the kings of Prussia, France, Spain, 
 and Sardinia, and the electors of Bavaria and 
 Saxony. Each of these princes laid claim to some 
 part of the Austrian territory ; and Maria Theresa, 
 at the age of 23, was called on to make head 
 against the armies of all her neighbours, except the 
 Turkish sultan, who alone acted towards her with 
 fairness and good faith. Maria Theresa had been 
 married in 1736, to Francis of Louvain, grand duke 
 of Tuscany, but he was a prince of little intellect 
 or energy ; and it was to the spirit of Maria Ther- 
 esa herself, and the loyalty of her Hungarian 
 subjects, that Austria owned its rescue from de- 
 struction. When driven from her capital by her 
 enemies, Maria Theresa repaired to Presburg, and 
 summoned the Hungarian Diet. She appeared in 
 the midst of the martial assembly with her infant 
 son in her arms. She addressed them earnestly 
 and eloquently in Latin, (a language long currently 
 used in Hungary) ; and when she came to the 
 words, ' The kingdom of Hungary, our persons, our 
 children, our crown, are at stake, forsaken by all, 
 we seek shelter only in the fidelity, the arms, the 
 hereditary valour of the renowned Hungarian no- 
 bility,' the Hungarian nobles and all present, with 
 one unanimous burst of chivalrous loyalty, drew 
 their swords, and shouted, ' Let us die for our King 
 Maria Theresa,' [Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria 
 Theresa.] This was no transient demonstration 
 of zeal. The whole military force of Hungary was 
 soon in the field : the current of invasion was 
 checked, and by degrees the foes of Maria Theresa 
 made peace with her, and ceased to reckon on their 
 shares in the dismemberment of Austria. She was 
 obliged to cede Silesia to Frederick of Prussia; 
 but with this exception she was left in full posses- 
 sion of her dominions, when the war of the Austrian 
 succession was closed by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle in 1758. The loss of Silesia was a deep 
 mortification to Maria Theresa, and the hope of 
 recovering that province made her take an active 
 part in the seven years' war against Frederick of 
 Prussia. That contest, however, closed in 1763, 
 leaving Prussia in possession of Silesia, and with 
 no gain l* either side to Maria Theresa or Frederick. 
 
 MAR 
 
 Maria Theresa's husband had been elected em 
 of Germany in 1745, and on his death in 1765, 
 son Joseph was chosen to succeed him. But I 
 Theresa retained in her own hands, throughot 
 life, the administration of her vast domii 
 which were generally governed by her in a 
 and enlightened spirit. Her private characte 
 irreproachable, and the morals and manners c 
 court formed a bright exception to the gross 
 fligacy by which the courts of nearly all the 
 sovereigns of the age were disgraced. She 
 sincerely pious, and Botta, the Italian histx 
 passes on ner the high eulogy, that ' during a 
 years' reign she always showed a love of h 
 and truth.' Her share in the first partitu 
 Poland is the great stain on the character of 1 
 Theresa. But she came unwillingly into this 
 which was urged on her by the sovereigi 
 Prussia and Russia, and by her son the em 
 Joseph. She is said to have left a writtei 
 cord that she consented to this measure o 
 deference to the opinions of others, and tha 
 foreboded evil consequences to Europe from 
 act of injustice to one of its states. Maria Th 
 died in 1780. [E.l 
 
 MARIAMNE, an unfortunate Jewish prii 
 grand-daughter of Aristobulus, and of Hyn 
 the high priest, and wife of Herod the Great, 
 history is related by Josephus in his Antkra 
 commencing at book xv., from which it ap] 
 that Herod was excessively fond of her. Sl 
 condemned to death, by the machinations of Sal 
 her husband's sister, on a false charge of adul 
 B.C. 28. She met her fate with an air of grai 
 and intrepidity worthy of her noble ancestry, am 
 bitterly lamented by the king after her dec 
 Another Mariamne, wife of Herod, was the da 
 ter of Simon, the high priest, and mother of H< 
 Philip, who married Herodias. 
 
 MARIANA, Juan, a Span, histor., 1557-1 
 
 MARIANI, C, an Italian painter, 1565-lt 
 
 MARIANUS SCOTUS, born in Scotland 1 
 known as the author of a Chronicle from 
 beginning of the Christian era to 1083, which 
 continued by Dodechinus to 1200. He was o 
 ecclesiastical profession, and died at Mayence ] 
 
 MARIBAS CATHINA, the most ancient 
 torian of Armenia, 2d century B.C. 
 
 MARIE. The queens of France of this i 
 are 1. Marie De Brabant, married to P 
 1274, died 1321. 2. Marie D'Anglete 
 daughter of Henry VII., who became the 
 wife of Louis XII. 1214, died 1534. See G 
 Lady Jane. 3. Marie Stuart. See M. 
 4. Marie De Medicis. See article next pag 
 Marie Therese, daughter of Philip IV., kr 
 Spain, married to Louis XIV. 16G0, died ] 
 6. Marie Lkczinska, daughter of Stanislas, 
 of Poland, bora 1703, married to Louis XV. ] 
 died 1768. 7. Marie Antoinette. See fo 
 ing article. 8. Marie Louise, wife of Nape 
 See Marta Louisa. 
 
 MARIE-ANTOINETTE, the unhappy que 
 Louis XVI.,was the daughter of Francis f., an 
 empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and was 
 at Vienna, 1755. Though only fifteen years o 
 when she married the Dauphin, she was ac 
 plished in the French, Italian, and Latin langu 
 besides her native German; and was also a 
 
 462 
 
MAR 
 
 it in music and drawing. The goodness of her 
 
 her noble carriage, and the sweet expression 
 
 er countenance, easily won the hearts of a peo- 
 
 whom enthusiasm is as natural as the air 
 
 | breathe. Marie- Antoinette, becoming queen in 
 
 was applauded to the skies whenever she 
 
 3d in public, and often had to stand on the 
 
 of her carriage to show herself to the people. 
 
 popularity was greatly augmented when she 
 
 le the mother of a family, and especially when, 
 
 T85, she presented the nation with an heir to 
 
 throne. Soon, however, the expensive luxury 
 
 le court, the exhaustion of the public finances, 
 
 phe distresses of the people, had prepared the 
 
 or scenes far different from these popular ova- 
 
 j and the first shock was given to her popularity 
 
 [transaction involving both money and charac- 
 
 It had become known to the countess de la 
 
 that the queen's jeweller had offered her a 
 
 |ond necklace, which she declined on account 
 
 ; enormous price, no less than 1,800,000 livres. 
 
 stain possession of this treasure, the countess 
 
 led she was authorized to negotiate for the 
 
 l, and not only concluded the bargain, but 
 
 the cardinal de Rohan a party to it, who was 
 
 led that Marie-Antoinette had given him a 
 
 a;ht meeting in the park of Versailles. The 
 
 ."was not discovered till the first payment was 
 
 ided, and though the countess, in May, 1786, 
 
 idemned to be whipped and branded for her 
 
 kous conduct, the queen never recovered the 
 
 {opinion of her subjects ; add to which, there 
 
 i certain levity in her conduct which continu- 
 
 sd her to scandal, though no one now 
 
 that she was guilty of the crimes laid to 
 
 rge. When the Revolution broke out in 
 
 [she became an object of the popular suspicion 
 
 chiefly on accouut of her Austrian 
 
 ans ; but, in a great degree, also, by reason 
 
 high spirit and superior capability of resis- 
 
 I and action when compared with her husband, 
 
 XVI. It would be inconsistent with our 
 
 to describe the incidents which marked the 
 
 of this hatred on the one side, and of 
 
 defiance on the other. Marie- Antoinette 
 
 nprisoned in the Temple after the triumph of 
 
 "lace, on the 10th of August, 1792 ; and there 
 
 to believe that the willingness of the royal 
 
 'to submit themselves to their jailors, was 
 
 [ to the persuasion that they had secured the 
 
 of Danton, and that they were really 
 
 dng the means provided for their safety. The 
 
 ~~n of the populace, excited by Marat and 
 
 lidons, and the coalition formed against 
 
 i by the neighbouring powers, rendered such 
 
 omise, if it existed, of no effect. The king 
 
 ited on the 21st of January, 1793, and the 
 
 Capet,' as Marie was called in the indict - 
 
 tried by the revolutionary tribunal in 
 
 lg October. She was only thirty-seven 
 
 'age, but her hair had turned white during 
 
 '~ onment, and her only articles of dress 
 
 J damp and ragged in the cell she occupied. 
 
 ght was injured, and her beauty marred 
 
 ! and long suffering. Her trial was only a 
 
 nd mockery, but one of heartless brutality, 
 
 it is impossible to read without a feeling of 
 
 "I disgust and indignation. Her hours of suf- 
 
 leveloped the best traits of her character 
 
 MAR 
 
 and Marie- Antoinette, on her way to the scaffold, 
 commands the respect which might be challenged 
 for her in vain, as the adviser of the feeble king, 
 whose counsels she swayed, often but too fatally, 
 yet always courageously. She was guillotined 
 Oct, 16, 1793. [E.R.] 
 
 [The Concierge- the Prima of Mane Antoinette.] 
 
 MARIE DE MEDICIS, queen of France, was 
 the daughter of Francis II., grand duke of Tuscany, 
 and of Joan, archduchess of Austria. She was born 
 at Florence in 1573. In 1600 she was married to 
 Henry IV., and the yearfollowing gave birth to a son, 
 who became Louis XIII., and whose dephprable 
 weakness was the principal cause of her misfortunes. 
 The amours of her husband rendered her life a most 
 wretched one, and being of violent temper, she would 
 frequently have struck him, had not the great Sully 
 interposed between them. Her anxieties as a wife, 
 and the absolute temper of Henry, prevented her 
 from taking any part in state affairs during his life- 
 time, and when, towards 1610, he contemplated 
 taking the field against the house of Austria, and 
 proposed making her regent in his absence, she 
 manifested the greatest repugnance to the subject, 
 always saying that it foreboded some great misfor- 
 tune. In the year just mentioned, Marie agreed to the 
 regency, on condition of being formally crowned ; 
 a ceremony which the king had always deferred ; 
 and this being done, the latter was stabbed on the 
 day following, by Ravaillac, when preparing for 
 the queen's entry into Paris (article Navarrk). 
 The queen regent had lately acted under the advice 
 of Concini, an Italian favourite, whom she presently 
 created a marshal of France, and honoured with 
 the marquisate of d'Ancre ; and she also retained 
 among her advisers the duke d'Epemon, who was 
 suspected of being privy to the assassination. Her 
 apathy in regard to the investigation of this deed 
 of blood, has stained her memory with the suspi- 
 cion of being implicated in it, but there is really no 
 other ground for supporting such a charge, and the 
 hatred of the French would seem to have magnified 
 all her faults. From 1610 to 1614 the court was 
 a focus of intrigue and anarchy, which the queen 
 had too little statesmanship, and too much of pas- 
 sion to rule; and parties were arraying themselves 
 
 463 
 
MAR 
 
 for the struggle winch all foresaw in the estates- 
 general. That body assembled in October, of the 
 last mentioned year, and now the afterwards famous 
 Richelieu placed himself at the head of the clergy, 
 and began to feel his way to power. The boy king, 
 this vear, was declared of age, and the factious 
 nobles, who surrounded him, rilled his ears with 
 rumours of Italian treachery, the issue of which 
 was, that the queen relied entirely on Concini, who 
 raised troops for her defence, and created a natural 
 jealousy ot Italian domination in France. Thus 
 strengthened, in 1616, Marie de Medicis imprisoned 
 Conde, the most turbulent and daring of her 
 enemies, in the Bastile, and hurled defiance at the 
 nobles in full assembly. In 1617, Concini was 
 assassinated, and soon afterwards the queen was 
 compelled to retire to Blois, where the wily Richelieu 
 joined her as a pretended friend, and, in 1620, ef- 
 fected an accommodation which enabled her to return 
 to court. The cardinal found the queen a good 
 trump card in the game he was playing for absolute 
 power, and even when she became aware of his 
 treachery, her hot Italian blood was no match for 
 his cool sagacity. Eleven years of struggle ended 
 in the triumph "of Richelieu, and, in 1631, the poor 
 queen became, first a prisoner at Compiegne, and 
 then a wanderer in foreign lands. The close of her 
 life is the saddest part of her story. Abandoned 
 by all her family, and her own son on the proudest 
 throne of Europe, the widow of Henry of Navarre 
 died in want of the commonest necessaries. She 
 breathed her last in a poor apartment at Cologne, 
 the furniture of which she had disposed of for the 
 means of supporting life, in 1642. To the faults 
 of her Italian character, she joined the refined taste 
 of her house for arts and letters, and France is 
 indebted to her for the Luxembourg palace. Her 
 excess of passion over judgment, and the anarchy 
 around her make a sad contrast with the wisely 
 regulated and prosperous ambition of great sove- 
 reigns. In her best moments Marie de Medicis 
 was only the mistress of a faction. [E.R.] 
 
 MARIE, J. F., a French savunt, 1738-1801. 
 
 MARIESCHI, an Italian painter, 1697-1744. 
 
 MARIETTE, Jean, a French designer and en- 
 graver, 1654-1742. His son, Peter Jean, an 
 engraver and archaeologist, 1694-1774. 
 
 MARIGNANO, Gian Giacomo Medichino, 
 Marchese Di, a cele. Ital. commander, 1497-1555. 
 
 MARILLAC, C. De, a French diplomatist, 1510- 
 1560. His nephew, Michel, keeper of the seals, 
 and a partizan of Marie de Medicis, 1563-1632. 
 Louis, a marshal of France, brother and fellow- 
 conspirator with the latter, b. 1572, executed 1632. 
 
 MARILLIER, Cl. P., a Fr. engraver, 1740-1808. 
 
 MARIN, J. C, a French sculptor, 1773-1812. 
 
 MARIN, M. A., a French ascetic, 1697-1767. 
 
 MARINA, a beautiful and accomplished Mexi- 
 can, who became the mistress of Cortes, and ren- 
 dered the Spaniards great service, 16th century. 
 
 MAIMNALI, H., an Ital. sculptor, 1643-1720. 
 
 MARINARI, H., an Ital. painter, 1627-1715. 
 
 MARINAS, H., a Spanish painter, 1620-1680. 
 
 MARINELLI, L., aVenet. poetess, 1571-1653. 
 
 MARINEO, L., a Sicilian historian, born 1460. 
 
 MARINI, B., an Italian painter, 17th century. 
 
 MARINI, F. L. Claude, called Marin, editor 
 of the 'Gazette de France,' 1721-1809. 
 
 MARINI, G., an Ital. antiquarian, 1742-1815. 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARINI, J. A., an Italian novelist, died 
 
 MARINI, John Baptist, a famous po 
 
 Naples, known as ' the Cavalier Marin,' 1569- 
 
 MARINI, Marc, an Ital. Hebraist, 1541- 
 
 MARINI, P. Ph., an Ital. missionary, 17tl 
 
 MARINO, Saint, a native of 1) almatia, 
 
 was originally employed as a stone-mason oi 
 
 bridge of Rimini ; but, becoming a hermit, mil 
 
 were said to be wrought at his tomb ; and th 
 
 commodation necessary for the pilj 
 
 sorted there, gave rise to the city and the n 
 
 ture republic of San Marino; 4th century, 
 
 MARINONI, J. J., an Italian mathemat: 
 architect, and astronomer, 1676-1755. 
 MARINUS, a centurion, procl. en 
 MARINUS, a Platonic philosoph. 
 MARINUS, J., a Flemish engra 
 MARIOTTE, E., a Fr. expen. plains., 162 
 MARITI, J., an Italian traveller, died 179 
 MARIUS, Caius, one of the greatest sol 
 and dictators of the Roman republic, was bo 
 parents in humble circumstances, probably at 
 retinum, about 157 B.C. Having entered 
 army he became known to Scipio Africanua 
 acquired so much repute that he was electee 
 bune b.c. 119 or 120, praetor 116, and govern 
 Spain 115. In 109 he joined Metellus as oi 
 his lieutenants in the Jugurthine Avar, and 
 years afterwards supplanted him in the comi 
 of the army. He brought the war to a do 
 
 106, when Jugurtha, the king of Numidia, 
 treacherously delivered into his hands by his 
 Bocchus. Marius remained in Africa a year lo: 
 and was then recalled to take the field against 
 Cimbri and Teutones, at that time 
 Roman empire. These barbarians numl 
 300,000 men in arms, and had defeated the c< 
 Manilius, and the proconsul Caapio, at a coi 
 the Romans of 80,000 soldiers, and 40,000 < 
 followers. Marius had been appointed cortsi 
 
 107, when the conduct of the Jugurthine war 
 intrusted to him, and in sight of this new da 
 he was not only re-elected, but continued in 
 consulate four successive years, though conl 
 to law, b.c. 104-100. In 102 he 
 combined forces of the Ambrones and Teut 
 near Aix; and in 101, having joined his f 
 with those of Catulus, he obtained an eq' 
 decisive victory over the Cimbri, in the m 
 bourhood of Vereellee. He was now hailed ' 
 Third Founder of Rome,' and rewarded wi 
 fifth consulate, followed by a sixth, which, 
 said, was gained by corrupt practi* 
 session of power had become too sweet to he i 
 laid down. Perhaps another and n 
 reason also influenced him. Marius v> 
 
 chief of the plebeians the natural 
 
 the Gracchi, who had shed their blood tha; 
 
 rights of Roman citizens might be extended tj 
 
 rest of Italy. In B.C. 90 this social war broki 
 
 afresh, provoked by the murder oi 
 
 renewed the proposal, and Marius 
 
 came the respective chiefs of the plebeuai 
 
 patricians. The latter, flushed with his recent, 
 
 cess against the army of Mithridal 
 
 yield the command to Marius, but m 
 
 nis party in the capital, and disp 
 
 street by street. Marius was defeat* 
 
 lodged in prison, where a Cimbrian soldier vrm 
 
 464 
 
MAR 
 
 behead him, bnt let the sword fall from his hand 
 meeting the stern glance of the captive, who de- 
 nded of him how he dared to kill Caius Marius! 
 e magistrates of Mintuma?, where this occurred, 
 pressed by the strange circumstance, favoured the 
 ;ht of Marius, and he sought refuge in Africa, 
 ni whence, in 87 B.C., he was recalled by Cinna, 
 that time consul, to take arms against his old 
 rersary. The combined forces of Marius, 
 ma. SertorhiS; and Carbo, soon entered Rome, 
 1 the bloody proscriptions which have con- 
 iaed the name of Marius to infamy now took 
 ce, exceeding all that was previously recorded 
 Roman history. Caius Marius now served as 
 tsul for the seventh time, with his new ally, 
 I the same year, B.C. 86, on hearing that Sylla 
 | i approaching, he endeavoured to drown care 
 wine, and is supposed to have killed himself 
 i h excess. His character marks him out as the 
 1 e of the class for whom he acted as the armed 
 if in the social war, as that of Sylla places him 
 i he foremost rank of the patricians. They were 
 i ally relentless and guilty of blood. [E.R.] 
 
 [ASIUS, Caius, the younger, son of the pre- 
 < ng by adoption, served in the army of his 
 1 er, and became consul with Carbo, 82 b.c. 
 I was defeated by Sylla, and caused himself to 
 t illed bv one of his officers. 
 
 ARIUS, Leonard, a Dutch divine, d. 1628. 
 
 ARIUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Gaulonite em- 
 p r of Rome, who was originally a smith and 
 raon soldier, assassinated 267. 
 
 ARIUS, Sim., a Ger. astronomer, 1570-1624. 
 
 ARIVAUX, Pet. Carlet De Chamblain 
 I a Fr. dramatic writer and novelist, 1688-1763. 
 
 ARIVETZ, S. C. De, a French physician, and 
 w m interior navigation, b. 1728, executed 1794. 
 
 ARK, one of the four evangelists, and com- 
 pJon of Saint Peter, said to have founded the 
 Mdi of Alexandria, put to death 68. 
 
 LARK, a pope and saint of Rome, 336. 
 
 LARK, a heretic of the Eastern church, 2d cen. 
 
 LARKHAM, Gervase, a soldier and scholar 
 Hue reign of James I. and Charles I., author of 
 pi works on husbandry and horsemanship, 
 Hrod and Antipater,' a tragedy, ' The Poem of 
 .P<fls,' and other fugitive works, died 1650. 
 
 ARKLAND, A., a divine and poet, 1645-1720. 
 
 ARKLAND, Jeremiah, a classical scholar 
 Mzritic, son of the vicar of Childwall, in Lanca- 
 tM, born 1693, died, after a life of learned re- 
 ftttnt, 1776. 
 
 S'.OROUGH. John Churchill, after- 
 
 rjs duke of Marlborough, the greatest general 
 
 JM England produced before the duke of Wel- 
 
 Pjm, and one of the greatest of modern Europe, 
 
 wjborn at Ashton, in Devonshire, on July 5, 
 
 |M. His father was a gallant cavalier, who had 
 
 In the sword in behalf of Charles I. ; by his 
 
 Mer's side he inherited, by collateral descent, the 
 
 1 which had flowed in the veins of Sir 
 
 pis Drake. In early youth, when at school in 
 
 Hhlbire, he evinced a decided turn for warlike 
 
 Hits, and was often found studying Vegetius on 
 VJ affairs. At sixteen he received a commis- 
 jpla the Guards, chiefly owing to the influence 
 aater, Sarah, who was the favourite of the 
 of York ; brother to Charles II. She trans- 
 Hi the military genius of the family to her off- 
 
 MAR 
 
 spring, for her son, by the duke, who entered into 
 the French service, afterwards became duke of 
 Berwick, and by his great abilities, in command of 
 the French armies in the Peninsula, counterbalanced 
 the victories of his uncle, the duke of Marlborough, 
 when in command of the armies of the allies in the 
 wars of the succession. Thus the same English 
 family furnished, at the same time, the deadliest 
 enemy and the acknowledged saviour of the French 
 monarchy. During his early life in the Guards, 
 young Churchill, who was uncommonly handsome 
 in person, as well as fascinating in manners, was 
 involved in the usual dissipations of the court of 
 Charles II. ; and even inspired a passion in the 
 breast of one of the royal mistresses, the countess 
 of Castlemaine, who presented him, as a token of 
 her regard, with 5,000, which formed the com- 
 mencement of his fortune. Soon after he was sent 
 to the coast of Africa, and made his first essay in 
 arms in warfare with the Moors ; and on his re- 
 turn from thence, he was despatched with the Eng- 
 lish auxiliary force in 1672 to co-operate with the 
 French army in Flanders, in their campaigns 
 against the Dutch. He there distinguished him- 
 self so much, that he was publicly thanked by 
 Louis XIV. at the head of his army ; and Marshal 
 Turenne, who commanded it, prophesied that ' the 
 handsome Englishman,' as he was termed, ' would 
 one day make a great general.' He made four 
 campaigns under Turenne; and it was there, as 
 he ever after admitted, that he first learned tho 
 art of war. Thus, by another of the strange revo- 
 lutions of fortune in this extraordinary man, it was 
 under a French marshal that he was taught the 
 art which, matured by his genius, all but brought 
 the French monarchy to destruction. When the 
 war in Flanders was over he returned to London, 
 furnished with the strongest possible recommenda- 
 tion from Louis XIV. and Turenne to the king 
 of England. In consequence of this support, and 
 the increasing suavity and fascination of his man- 
 ner, he rapidly rose in the Guards, and ere long 
 was promoted to the command of a regiment in 
 them ; while there his charms of manner and per- 
 sonal beauty won the heart of Sarah Jennings, one 
 of the maids of honour to the Princess Anne, who 
 afterwards became queen, whom he married in 
 1678, and who exercised an important influence 
 on his life and fortunes. Beautiful, high spirited, 
 and ambitious, with great talents as well for con- 
 versation as intrigue, she was unhappily, at the 
 same time, arrogant, overbearing, and irascible ; 
 so that it was hard to say whether she aided her 
 husband's fortunes in after life most by her in- 
 fluence at court, or marred them by the supercili- 
 ous demeanour which involved her in continual 
 quarrels, and at length entirely alienated the affec- 
 tions of his sovereign. Though a courtier, and in- 
 debted for his first rise to the favour of the duke 
 of York, who continued his kindness to him when 
 he became king on the demise of Charles II. in 
 1685, Churchill was a staunch protestant, and saw 
 as clearly as any one the inevitable result of the 
 headlong course which James II. pursued soon 
 after his accession to the throne, in order to re- 
 establish the Romish faith in his dominions. He 
 did his utmost to dissuade him from the insane 
 attempt, but in vain. The result was, that when 
 the nation was driven to desperation, and forced to 
 
 465 
 
 2H 
 
MAR 
 
 invite William prince of Orange over in 1688 to 
 change the sovereign on the throne, Churchill felt 
 himself constrained to espouse the side opposite to 
 that of the reigning sovereign. He did this in a 
 way which forma the only, but is, in truth, an in- 
 delible blot on his memory. He did not resign his 
 appointment under the sovereign whom he felt 
 himself constrained to desert, and then appear in 
 arms against him ; he retained his commission of 
 the regiment of Guards, and exerted his influence 
 to induce them to pass over to the enemy ; he did 
 what Marshal Ney afterwards did to Louis XVIII., 
 and honour can plead no apology for either. After 
 the dethronement of James II., Churchill, who of 
 course was immediately taken into favour with 
 William III. who succeeded him, was employed in 
 the south of Ireland in command of the royal 
 forces, and there he rendered good service to the 
 cause he espoused, by the reduction of Cork, Ban- 
 don, Kinsaie, and other strongholds in the south 
 of Ireland. He soon found, however, that it is an 
 easier thing to dispossess a sovereign than render 
 his successor acceptable to the nation. He was 
 disgusted with the preference shown to the Dutch 
 troops, and the insensibility of William to the real 
 national concerns of England. These feelings were 
 too warm to be concealed, and the result was that 
 he fell into a correspondence with some of the 
 Jacobites abroad, which led to his being arrested 
 in 1691 on a charge of high treason, and deprived 
 of his honours and employments. He was soon 
 after liberated, as no evidence was found sufficient 
 to authorise his detention, far less bring him to 
 trial ; but he laboured for long under the suspicion 
 of the court, and it was not till 1698 that he was 
 restored to his rank as a privy councillor, and ap- 
 pointed to the important situation of preceptor to 
 the duke of Gloucester, the heir apparent to the 
 monarchy. ' Make him like yourself,' said William 
 III., in conferring on him the appointment, ' and 
 you will leave me nothing further to desire.' The 
 death of the king of Spain, who, being childless, 
 had bequeathed his immense dominions to the 
 duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., having 
 involved Europe in a general war, Churchill, who 
 by this time had been created earl of Marlborough, 
 was called to act on a greater theatre, on which he 
 acquired immortal renown. Even before the death 
 of William III., he had been appointed to the im- 
 portant situation of plenipotentiary at the Hague, 
 where the negotiations were carried on ; and when 
 the decease of that monarch led to the accession 
 of his early and steady friend, the Princess Anne, to 
 the throne, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the allied armies. War having been declared in 
 May, 1702, he repaired to the camp near Nime- 
 guen, where the allied army, 60,000 strong, was 
 retiring before the superior armies of Louis XIV. 
 The arrival of Marlborough, however, soon altered 
 the state of affairs. Pointing to the dense French 
 battalions, he said, ' These men will soon be our 
 prisoners;' and he was as good as his word. He in- 
 *>tantly took the initiative, threw the enemy into 
 retreat, and followed up his successes by the cap- 
 ture of four of their most important strongholds 
 before the campaign was over, in the very teeth of 
 their superior forces. Such was the vigour of his 
 measures, and the skill with which they were 
 taken, that he succeeded in capturing the strong 
 
 MAR 
 
 fortresses of Rusomonde, Liege, and Maest 
 in a few months ; the last of which being sit 
 on the river Meuse, which is navigable up 
 gave him the entire command of that rivei 
 the inestimable advantage of a water comrmi 
 tion into the very heart of Flanders. The 
 paign of 1703 was not equally prolific of 
 events; chiefly from the 'Dutch deputies,' 
 were invested with a negative on all measn 
 the English general, absolutely refusing theii 
 sent, now that the danger was removed truin 
 doors, to any measures which seemed in the 
 hazardous. One incident, however, of great in 
 with reference to future events did take 
 The French had with vast labour 
 set of lines, covering the approach to Brussels 
 the side of Maestncht, from whence it waa 
 threatened by Lord Marlborough. He cott 
 by a sudden nocturnal attack, however, in f( 
 these celebrated lines, and this brought him I 
 field of Waterloo, in the exact reverse posit 
 that occupied by Napoleon and Wellington 
 hundred and eleven years afterwards. The Fi 
 thrown back on the forest of Soignies, had 
 backs to Brussels and their faces towards I 
 the allies stood on the ground occupied by Bl 
 and Napoleon, and threatened the French 
 from the wood of Ohain. The fairest opporl 
 of finishing the war at a blow was prevente 
 Marlborough had got between the French 
 Paris, and defeat to them was ruin. He ean 
 besought the Dutch deputies to take advanti 
 it, but they would not. Such was his vexati 
 this crossing, that next day he said, ' To-day 
 ten years older than I was yesterday.' The a: 
 tions of the English hero were amply gratif 
 the following ye&r. Louis XIV. had deten 
 to stand on the defensive in Flanders, and m 
 great effort in Germany with a view to intim 
 Austria, and from it to conclude a separate j 
 His efforts were well nigh attended with ( 
 success. Supported by Bavaria, with whom 
 were in close alliance, the French armies, 8 
 strong, poured down the valley of the Da 
 Munich was passed, Vienna threatened 
 cabinet of Vienna menaced with an Hung 
 insurrection in rear, was in an agony of appr 
 sion. But the hour of deliverance 
 Putting himself at the head of 30,* 
 troops, Marlborough, who had previ' 
 solid footing on the Rhine by the reduction < 
 strong and important city of Bonn, crossed ov 
 to Germany, stormed the intrenched cfl^^H 
 lomburg with the loss to the enemv 
 and defeated them at Blenheim witli the I 
 15,000 prisoners, 80 guns, and 100 stanJ 
 Marshal Tallard, the French gem 
 chief officers were made prisoners, 
 recrossed the Rhine, the French were weakeif 
 40,000 men. Germany was delivered. 
 and France threatened, by a single victory; I 
 annals of Napoleon have no more d< 
 to exhibit; and the result was, that tlie If 
 armies, refluent on all sides, were driven bacl 
 and reduced to the defence of their territory, f 
 campaign of 1705 was not productive of ani 
 morable events, from the Dutch deputies |i 
 interposing and preventing all the <1 
 projected by the English general. But he rep 
 
 466 
 
MAR 
 
 triumphant career in 1706. Assailing the 
 rich army, G(),000 strong, at Ramilt.ies, he 
 lly defeated them, after a hard struggle, with 
 loss of 15,000 men in killed, wounded, and 
 ners. The effect of this great victory was the 
 ate capture of Brussels and liberation of 
 Austrian Flanders. Antwerp, Oudenarde, 
 t, Bruges, and many of its chief towns de- 
 " for the allies ; others, such as Menin, Ath, 
 ond, and Ostend, were reduced after bloody 
 by force of arms. Before the campaign 
 ., the whole of Austrian Flanders, bristling 
 strong fortresses, was recovered ; the Dutch 
 obtained the barrier for which they had so 
 ionately longed ; and the French armies, which 
 recently threatened Vienna, were everywhere 
 i back on their own frontier. Early in the 
 {wing year, the allied arms sustained a serious 
 se, by the surprise of Ghent and Bruges, 
 h was effected by Prince Vendome, the French 
 who was at the head of 100,000 men. 
 if the treachery of these towns had induced 
 , the vigour of Marlborough soon restored 
 Suddenly wheeling round, when in the 
 of retreat towards Brussels, he attacked 
 y defeated the French at Oudenarde, 
 ;he loss of 9,000 prisoners and 11,000 killed 
 ded. Boldly then resuming the offen- 
 he carried his victorious arms into France, 
 and took Lille, though garrisoned by 
 Boufflers with 15,000 men of the best 
 in France ; in the face of Vendome, at the 
 100,000 men, relieved Brussels, which had 
 atened in the interim, and concluded his 
 t career by the recovery of Ghent and 
 the former garrisoned by 1,800 men. The 
 of war can afford no parallel of the skill 
 ilution of that immortal campaign, which, 
 end of the world, will be the subject of study 
 tion of military men. The last of Marl- 
 's great victories was that of Malpla- 
 1709, which was by far the most bloody 
 i fought, and was only gained after pro- 
 of valour had been performed on both sides. 
 ' resources of France had been brought forth, 
 000 brave men, intrenched to the teeth, 
 receive the assault of an equal number of 
 under Marlborough and his noble rival, 
 Eugene. But nothing could withstand the 
 " their attacks, and the heroic courage they 
 into their troops. The whole French 
 ere at length carried, though at a cost of 
 nen to the victors, and the important for- 
 Mons, commanding the high road to Paris, 
 reward of the victory. This was the last 
 t victories of Marlborough; for thence- 
 
 MAR 
 
 took Bethune, Aisne, and other places of strength 
 on the French frontier, and he was making prepa- 
 rations for the siege of Arras, the last strong- 
 hold on the road to Paris, when he was, by do- 
 mestic faction, interrupted in the career of victory, 
 by being deprived of the command of the army, 
 and even threatened with a parliamentary im- 
 peachment for alleged and wholly fabricated mal- 
 versations when in command. The consequences 
 were soon apparent. The allies deprived of his 
 military arm, and of the aid of the English con- 
 tingents, were defeated at Denain, and the dis- 
 graceful treaty of Utrecht was concluded, which 
 left the crown of Spain in possession of the house 
 of Bourbon, and deprived the nation of the whole 
 fruits of Marlborough's victories. A more deplor- 
 able instance of the triumph of faction over patriot- 
 ism, of envy over generosity, of jealousy over 
 heroism, is not recorded in history. Before this 
 disgraceful coalition against him took effect, Marl- 
 borough had obtained princely rewards from the 
 nation.^ He was made a duke after the battle of 
 Blenheim, and a sum voted to build the palace of 
 the same name on the demesne of Woodstock, 
 
 [Palnce of Blrthe 
 
 which had been bestowed on him by Queen Anne. 
 After his fall, the usual annual grants from the 
 treasury were stopped by the malignity of the Tory 
 ministry, and the magnificent pile was only finished 
 by 60,000 which had been advanced from the 
 private fortune of the duke. Marlborough re- 
 mained in privacy, but firm in his principles, till 
 the accession of the Hanoverian family in 1713, 
 when he was made commander-in-chief; and by 
 his admirable measures, contributed much to the 
 almost bloodless suppression of the rebellion in 
 
 he ceased to be a free agent. The Tory Scotland in 1715. This was his last public ser- 
 
 ;home, who were jealous of his fame and en 
 fhis power, never ceased their efforts to effect 
 
 vice. He was soon after struck with a stroke of 
 palsy, from which he only recovered to drag on a 
 precarious and enfeebled existence, which was ter- 
 
 .1 ; and at length, through the agency of E 
 
 m, a dependent and niece of the duchess minated in serenity and hope, on 6th August, 1722, 
 >ugh, who supplanted her mistress and | in the seventy-second year of his age. Napoleon 
 in the royal favour, they effected it. had the very highest opinion of Marlborough 
 
 ;h's proposed measures were all examined 
 cabinet, and the requisite supplies re- 
 
 lm. Still he worked on with patriotic 
 a noble spirit, against all his difficul- 
 
 in, by an unparalleled exertion of mili- 
 passed the French lines ; besieged and 
 
 467 
 
 whom he always spoke of as one of the first cap- 
 tains of any age or country. His career was in- 
 deed astonishing, and may well have excited the 
 admiration of his immortal successor. He never 
 besieged a town he did not take, and he never 
 fought a battle he did not gain. Never superior, 
 
MAR 
 
 generally inferior to his opponents ; at the head of 
 a multifarious army of six nations, he commu- 
 nicated an united spirit to the whole mass, and 
 rendered them invincible. Had he not been 
 thwarted at home he would have taken Paris, and 
 terminated, in his next campaign, the rivalry of 
 torn- centuries. Humane, benciicent, and generous; 
 in private life he dignified his warlike virtues by 
 the graces and charities of peace. Factions assailed 
 him violently during his life, as it in general does 
 all who rise to extraordinary power and influence ; 
 but history has revised its verdict, and pronounced 
 him, but for the desertion of James II., as per- 
 fect a character as the frailty of humanity will 
 permit. [A.A.] 
 
 MARLIANI, B., an Ital. antiquarian, b. 1650. 
 
 M ARLORAT, AUGUSTUS, a French protestant 
 divine, executed by order of Montmorency, 1506-62. 
 
 MARLOT, D. W., a French savant, 1596-1667. 
 
 MARLOWE, Christopher, was by far the 
 most distinguished, and may indeed be said to 
 have been the only man of great and original 
 genius, among the English dramatists who imme- 
 diately preceded Shakspeare. As to the events of 
 his short life, we know hardly anything beyond the 
 fact that it was as irregular and unhappy as that 
 of most play-writers of his time. The date of his 
 birth is not certain; but he was perhaps about 
 thirty years old in 1596, when he was killed at 
 Deptford in a discreditable brawl. Several of the 
 plays which pass under his name were probably 
 not his. But we are at least safe in attributing 
 to him three of the most striking dramas in our 
 language : the energetic and harrowing ' Jew of 
 Malta ;' ' Edward II.,' a worthy precursor of 
 Shakspeare's dramatic histories ; and the magni- 
 ficently imaginative and finely thoughtful tragedy 
 of ' Faustus.' Marlowe's versified translations, or 
 rather paraphrases, from Ovid, Lucan, and the 
 pseudo-Musaeus, are likewise very beautiful, both 
 in imagery, in diction, and for their rhythmical 
 sweetness. [W.S.] 
 
 MARMION, S., an Eng. dramatist, died 1639. 
 
 MARMONT, Augustus Frederick Louis 
 Viepe De, due de Ragusa, the last survivor of 
 Napoleon's marshals, was born of noble parents 
 1774, and commenced his military services in the 
 army of the monarchy. He attracted the atten- 
 tion of Napoleon by his excellence as an artillery 
 officer, and greatly distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Marengo. He fought in all the cam- 
 paigns from 1805 to 1807, and was created mar- 
 shal of France after the battle of Wagram. He 
 shared the fate of all Napoleon's generals opposed 
 to Wellington in Spain, his crowning defeat being 
 at Salamanca. He surrendered Paris to the allies 
 in 1814, and afterwards became a steady adherent 
 of the Bourbons. After the revolution of 1830 he 
 was struck from the list of the army. Died at 
 Venice 1852. 
 
 MARMONTEL, Jean, was born of poor parents, 
 at Bort, in the Limousin, in 1723. Educated 
 chiefly in Jesuit schools, and at first intending to 
 enter the order, he was able, when no more than 
 eighteen years old, to teach philosophy at Tou- 
 louse, with such success as enabled him to contri- 
 bute_ to the support of his father and mother. In 
 1745, having come into correspondence with Vol- 
 taire, and abandoned the idea of being a priest, he 
 
 MAR 
 
 sought his fortune in Paris. He (list in 
 
 himself by poems and plays, winch are loi 
 
 forgotten ; and he enjoyed reputation al 
 
 critic, contributing to the ' Encyclopedia 
 
 articles, which he collected under the 
 
 ' Elements of Literature.' His best work 
 
 ever, were those easy and graceful sketclie 
 
 and manners, which he was pleased to call 
 
 Tales.' The morality of the most serious < 
 
 is equivocal ; that of others is positively ba 
 
 longer novels, 'Belisaire' and 'Les Incajfl 
 
 a literary point of view, much inferior to h 
 
 stories. Several appointments which he 
 
 sively received, made his circumstances eas] 
 
 outbreak of the Revolution. He died in th< 
 
 bourhood of Evreux on the last day of 1799. 
 
 MARNE, J. B. De, a Fr. historian, 169 
 
 MARNE, Louis Anthony De, a Frenc 
 
 tect, author of ' Histoire Sacree,' 1673-17J 
 
 MARNIX, Philip De, baron of Sain 
 
 gonde, a famous Calvinist and enemy of 
 
 quisition, the defender of Antwerp in 1584 
 
 Alexander Famese, au. of ' Controversial ' 
 
 a translation of the Psalms into Dutch vers 
 
 Beehive of the Romish Church,' &c, 1538- 
 
 MAROLI, D., an Italian painter, 1612- 
 
 MAROLLES, M. De, a Fr. translator, 1 
 
 MAROT, Francis, a Fr. painter, 1667- 
 
 MAROT, Jean, secretary and poet of [ 
 
 Brittany, flourished 1463-1523. Cleme 
 
 son, valet of Francis I., distinguished for hi 
 
 ful poetry, 1495-1544. 
 
 MAROT, Jean, a French architect and 
 sional writer, 1630-1695. His son, Dai 
 refugee in England, and architect to the p 
 Orange, born 1660. 
 MAROUTHA, a Syrian prelate and wr., 
 MAROZIA, a patrician lady of Rome, 
 beauty and intriguing disposition, aided 
 great wealth, gave her immense influeno 
 the close of the 9th century. She was : 
 successively to Alberic, marquis of Camerii 
 was killed 925 ; to Guy, or Guido, duke - 
 cany, who died 929 ; and to Hugh of Pi 
 whom she and her last husband had made 
 Italy, in 932. She placed four popes on the 
 Sergius III., one of her lovers, by whom 
 a son, in 904; Anastasius III. in 911; I. 
 913 ; and her son, John XL, then in his i 
 first year, in 931. Marozia had a sisteu 
 dora, and a mother of the same name, one u 
 was mistress of the pope John X. Loth tie 
 were partakers in her licentiousness and ill 
 as they were in her beauty and add 
 virtual sovereign of Italy, and ma; 
 pope or queen as the reader pleast 
 Pope.) About 928-9, her soldii 
 
 Salace of the Lateran, slew the brother I 
 [., and took the pope prisoner, who d I 
 afterwards. After her third marri 
 struck one of her sons, who stonm 
 guard with a party of young Roma] 
 offender from the city, and finally impr 
 mother in a monastery, or perhaps in the] 
 St. Angelo, where she ended her < i . 
 MARPURG, F. W., a Ger. musician, 
 MARQUET, F. M., a Fr. botanist, Iff 
 MARQUETTE, J., a Fr. mission: 
 MARQUEZ, S., a Spanish painte 
 
 i 
 
 L6i 
 
 4C8 
 

 MAR 
 
 'ARQUIS, A. L., a Fr. botanist, 1777-1828. 
 ARKACCI, Hippolyte, a learned Italian 
 ographer, author of ' Bibliothasca Mariana,' 
 15. His brother, Luigi, a famous Arabian 
 s lar and editor, 1612-1700. 
 ARRE, J. De., a Dut. dramatist, 169G-1763. 
 ARRIER, M., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1572-1644. 
 ARRON, P, H., president of the reformed 
 ch of Paris, and a partizan of the Girondins, 
 
 at Leyden of French refugees, 1754, d. 1832. 
 ARRYAT, Frederick, the son of a West 
 i merchant, -was born in 1792, and died in 
 ;. Entering the navy in his fourteenth year, 
 ervcd with distinction during the war, and 
 wards in the Burmese campaign ; and he be- 
 s a benefactor to the naval profession by the 
 prion of his well-known Code of Signals. He 
 to be a post-captain and C.B. In the latter 
 pf his lite he was active as an author and as a 
 kzine editor. His ' Diary in America' was the 
 don of much acrimonious discussion. Of his 
 V naval stories, whose dashing liveliness and 
 p vigour made them so popular, the earliest 
 
 Frank Mildmay;' and among the rest it is 
 gh to name ' Peter Simple ' and ' Mr. Mid- 
 ban Easy.' [W.S.] 
 kRRYAT, Joseph, son of Dr. Thomas Mar- 
 I a merchant and M.P., known as a speaker 
 rest Indian affairs, and on insurance, bank- 
 Lnd similar topics, 1757-1824. 
 KfiS, A. J., a French jurisconsult, 1777-1824. 
 KfiS, Mdlle., a Fr. comedian, 1779-1847. 
 kRSAIS, Cesar Chesneau Du. See Du- 
 
 kRSAND, A., a Venetian savant, 1765-1842. 
 1RSAY, a French mystic writer, author of a 
 entitled ' Le Temoignage d'un Enfant de la 
 IB,' publ. anonymously in 9 vols. 12mo, 18th c. 
 1RSDEN, William, an eminent Oriental 
 ir, son of a merchant of Dublin, born 1754, 
 jpted in 1795 secretary to the admiralty, died 
 n He is author of a grammar and dictionary 
 1 Malay language ; of a description of Eastern 
 i| under the title of ' Numismata Orientalia ;' 
 pssay on the East Insular Languages ; a trans- 
 f the ' Travels of Marco Polo,' &c. In 
 voluntarily relinquished his retiring pen- 
 ' 1,500 per annum, and, in 1834, presented 
 iental coins to the British Museum, and his 
 (and Oriental MSS. to King's College. 
 "3H, Right Rev. Hereert, D.D., suc- 
 bishop of Llandaff and Peterborough, 
 I the translator of Michadis, and author of 
 tic Theology, was born 1758. He finished 
 t ition in Germany, and while resident there 
 litted some valuable information to the Bri- 
 iment, for which he was rewarded with 
 j: died 1838. 
 
 IRSH, Narcissus, successively bishop of 
 jin and Ferns, Cashel, Dublin, and Armagh, 
 )f Institutiones Logica?,' 1638-1703. 
 ^ [AL, A., a Scotch anatomist, 1742-1813. 
 5HAL, W., a nonconformist divine, au- 
 l The Gospel Mystery of Sanctification,' a 
 ommended by Hervey ; died 1690. 
 5HALL, Nathaniel, a learned minister 
 Church of England, author of an edition of 
 ~ ian, &c, last century. 
 SHALL, S., a presbyterian divine, d. 1655. 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARSHALL, Thomas, a learned divine of the 
 Church of England, known as a Saxon and Orien- 
 tal scholar, 1621-1685. 
 
 MARSHALL, W., an agricult. wr., 1745-1818. 
 
 MARSHAM, Sir John, a learned writer on 
 Egyptian history and antiquities, known in the 
 17th century as a royalist and M.P., 1602-1685. 
 
 MARSHMAN, Jas., a baptist missionary, who 
 became a proficient in the Eastern languages, and 
 translated a part of the Scriptures into Chinese. 
 He produced also an English version of the works 
 of Confucius, and a ' Dissertation on the Characters 
 and Sounds of the Chinese Language,' 1799-1837. 
 
 MARSTON, John, a dramatic writer and sa- 
 tirist of the age of Elizabeth and James I. The 
 dates are uncertain, but he can be traced to 1633. 
 
 MARSY, Balthason and Gaspard, brothers, 
 natives of Cambray, both excellent sculptors ; 
 the former lived 1624-1674, the latter 1628-1681. 
 
 MARSY, C. S. De, a French author, 1740-1815. 
 
 MARSY, F. Ma. De, a Fr. historian, 1714-1763. 
 
 MARSYLI, Liugi Ferdinando, count of, a 
 learned geographer and naturalist, distinguished 
 in the service of Austria 1658-1730. 
 
 MARTEL, F., a writer on surgery in 1601. 
 
 MARTEL, S. A., a Fr. architect, 1569-1641. 
 
 MARTELLI, Ludovico and Vicenzo, Italian 
 brothers and poets, the former 1499-1527 ; the 
 latter died 1556. 
 
 MARTELLO, P. J., an Ital. dram., 1665-1727. 
 
 MARTELLY, R., a French actor, 1751-1817. 
 
 MARTENE, E., a learned ecclesias., 1654-1739. 
 
 MARTENS, F., a German traveller, 17th cent. 
 
 MARTENS, or MERTENS, Thierry, sur- 
 named ' the Aldus of the Low Countries,' divides 
 the honour with some others of introducing print- 
 ing into the Netherlands. He is celebrated for his 
 fine editions of the Greek authors, and was highly 
 esteemed by the learned men of his age ; among 
 others, Erasmus, who lodged with him, 1450-1534. 
 
 MARTENS, William Frederic Von, a na- 
 tive of Hamburgh, dist. as a diplomat., 1756-1821. 
 
 MARTHA. See Sainte-Marthe. 
 
 MARTHA, Sister, a benevolent female of Be- 
 sancon, whose real name was Anne Biget, and 
 whose virtues and humanity place her among the 
 most distinguished women of our epoch, was born 
 in 1748, and was in early life the inmate of a con- 
 vent. She devoted herself from her youth up- 
 wards, to the relief of the poor and afflicted ; and 
 though she was nearly seventy years of age, in the 
 campaign of 1814, she made almost incredible 
 efforts to relieve the wounded. Every mark of 
 honour was shown her by the allied sovereigns, 
 and she had previously been presented with a 
 medal by her country, inscribed ' Homage to Vir- 
 tue.' She died in 1824. 
 
 MARTI, Emmanuel, a Span, poet, 1663-1737. 
 
 MARTIALIS, Marcus Valerius, a well- 
 known Latin epigrammatist, generally called Mar- 
 tial, born about 40, at the present Arragon in 
 Spain. His poems, which consist of some 1,500 
 pieces, are interesting for their allusions to the 
 persons and manners of the times, but abound 
 with indelicacies. In the Delphin edition of 1680, 
 these were omitted from the body of the work, and 
 published all together at the end. Martial went 
 to Rome when about twenty years of age, and ob- 
 tained the favour of Domitian. Died 104. 
 
MAR 
 
 MARTIANAY, J., aFr. ecclesiastic, 1017-1717. 
 
 MARTI ANO, P., au Ital. physician, 1567-1622. 
 
 MARTIGNAC, Jean Baptiste Silveke Al- 
 gay, Vicomte De, minister of Charles X., author 
 of an essay upon the Spanish revolution and the 
 intervention of 1823, 1776-1832. 
 
 MARTIGNAC, Stephen Aegay De, a French 
 scholar, horn at Brives la Gaillarde 1620 or 1628, 
 died 1698, author of ' Memoirs of Gaston,' &C. 
 
 MARTILIERE, Count De La, a dist. French 
 artillery officer, made a peer in 1814, died 1819. 
 
 MARTIN, the name of several Saints: 1. A 
 bishop of Tours, born in Pannonia, now Hungary, 
 316, died 397. He is considered the apostle of the 
 Gauls. 2. An archbishop of Braga, in Portugal, 
 an Hungarian by birth, known as an ecclesiastical 
 writer, and a great preacher in Galicia, died 580. 
 3. Maktin-De-Verton, or Martinus Verta- 
 vensis, founder and abbot of the monastery of 
 Verton, born of noble parentage at Nantes 527, 
 died 601. 4. The first pope of the name. 
 
 MARTIN, the first of the name, pope and saint 
 of Rome, whose memory is also honoured in the 
 Greek church, reigned 649-655. The second, called 
 also Martinus I., in whose time Photius was con- 
 demned, 882-884. The third, called by some 
 Martinus II., 942-946. The fourth, in whose 
 time the Sicilian A r espers date, who supported 
 Charles of Sicily against Peter of Arragon, and 
 excommunicated Michael Palseologus, 1281-1285. 
 The fifth, who put an end to the schism of the West, 
 presided at the council of Constance, and laid his 
 ban on the partizans of John Huss, 1418-1431. 
 
 MARTIN, a king of Sicily, died 1409. 
 
 MARTIN, , a French botanist, bora 1729. 
 
 MARTIN, Aime, a French scholar and miscel- 
 laneous writer, the pupil and friend of Bernard 
 St. Pierre, whose widow he married. Born at 
 Lyons 1786, died 1847. 
 
 MARTIN, Andrew, a Fr. Cartesian, 1621-95. 
 
 MARTIN, Benjamin, a famous optician and 
 mathematical writer, who was originally a plough- 
 boy in Surrey, and, contriving to educate himself, 
 gave lectures on experimental philosophy, and car- 
 ried on the business of an optician and globe maker 
 in London, 1704-1782. 
 
 MARTIN, Bernard, a Fr. classic, 1574-1639. 
 
 MARTIN, Bernard, a Fr. chemist, b. 1629. 
 
 MARTIN, C, an East India officer, 1732-1800. 
 
 MARTIN, David, a Fr. protestant, 1639-1721. 
 
 MARTIN, David, a Scotch artist, died 1797. 
 
 MARTIN, Dom Cl., a Fr. ecclesiast., 1619-96. 
 
 MARTIN, E., a French jurisconsult, 1714-93. 
 
 MARTIN, F., a French navigator in 1601. 
 
 MARTIN, F., a French governor of Pondi- 
 cherry, last century. 
 
 MARTIN, G., a Fr. bibliographer, 1679-1761. 
 
 MARTIN, G., a French theologian, last century. 
 
 MARTIN, J., a French savant, 1684-1751. 
 
 MARTIN, J., a Fr. medical writer, 17th cent. 
 
 MARTIN, J. B., a French painter, 1659-1735. 
 
 MARTIN, J. B., a French singer, 1767-1837. 
 
 MARTIN, M. J. D., a Fr. author, 1756-1797. 
 
 MARTIN, Peter, a Fr. admiral, 1752-1820. 
 
 MARTIN, R., a Spanish monk, died 1286. 
 
 MARTIN, R., a Fr. mathematician, died 1811. 
 
 MARTIN, Sarah, distinguished by her philan- 
 thropical eiforts for the reform of criminals, and 
 the education of the poor, was born in the neigh- 
 
 MAR 
 
 bourhood of Yarmouth, 1791, and supporter 
 self by dressmaking. She began her e;ir< 
 requesting permission to read the Scripfl 
 prisoners, and became at last a great moralt 
 prison reformer. She died in 1843. A 
 volume of poems, written by her, lias since 
 published. 
 
 MARTIN, Thomas, an antiquarian, bo 
 Thetford, of which place he wrote a history, 
 died 1771. 
 
 MARTIN, Thomas, a Roman Catholic 
 tary, one of the six commissioners appoinl 
 conduct the process against Cranmer, died 1 
 MARTIN, Thomas Ignatius, a Frew 
 bourer, remarkable for his visions concerning 
 XVIIL, to whom he communicated on the 
 ject in 1816. Died suddenly, 1834. 
 
 MARTIN, V., an Italian composer, 1754- 
 
 MARTIN, W., an Eng. naturalist, 1767-1 
 
 MARTLNE, George, a Scotch physio] 
 
 of medical and philosophical works, 1702-17 
 
 MARTINEZ, G., a Spanish painter, 16th 
 
 MARTINEZ, H., a Mexican mathema., 1 
 
 MARTINEZ, J. L., a Span, painter, 1612- 
 
 MARTINEZ, S., a Spanish painter, 1602- 
 
 MARTINEZ, T., a Spanish painter, died 1 
 
 MARTINEZ, Pasqualis, the founder ( 
 
 theosophical sect of Martinists, and presuu 
 
 be a Portuguese Jew. He commenced his in 
 
 tion in the masonic lodges of France, 1754 
 
 died at St. Domingo, 1779. Saint-Martin, 
 
 confounded with him, was his disciple. 
 
 Saint Martin. 
 
 MARTINI, F. H. W., a Ger. naturalist, 172 
 
 MARTINI, G. H., a Sax. numismat., 172! 
 
 MARTINI, Guiseppe San, an admirable 
 
 poser and hautboy player, was born at Milan. 
 
 came to England in 1723, and even at the time 
 
 the works of Handel, Corelli, and Geminiani 
 
 all the fashion, the compositions of Martini 
 
 a remarkable degree ot popularity. He ws 
 
 pointed director of the chamber music to Fred 
 
 prince of Wales, in which situation he cont 
 
 till about the year 1740, when he died. 
 
 MARTINI, J. P. E , a Rhen. music., 1741- 
 
 MARTINI, M., a Ger. theologian, 1572-1<J 
 
 MARTINI, M., a Chinese missionary, 161j 
 
 MARTINI, Padre Giambattis 
 
 musician and composer, was born at BojM 
 
 1706. He was much celebrated as 
 
 ing his life. His chief compositions were 1 
 
 service of the church. His fame, however, u 
 
 pally rests on his works on the theory and f 
 
 tice of music. He died of dropsy in the ell 
 
 1784. 
 MARTINI, S., an Italian painter, 12 
 MARTINIERE, Anthony Arors 
 zen De La, a French writer and comp 
 tary to the king of Naples, and au. of l 
 phical, Histor., and Critical Dictionary,' 1 
 MART1NOZ, H., a Fr. clockmaker, 1 
 MARTOS, Ivan Petrovitch, a fame 
 sculptor, counsellor of state, and 
 Academy at St. Petersburg, 1755-1835. 
 MARTYN, Henry, a celebrated missi 
 bora at Truro, in Cornwall, 18th February, 
 His father, though a miner, was a very si_ 
 
 Serson distinguished by his piety and intelu" 
 fenry was educated at the grammar school 
 
 
 470 
 
MAR 
 
 e town, and surpassed all his school-fellows 
 I assical acquirements. At the age of fourteen 
 e a candidate for a scholarship in Corpus 
 i College, Oxford, but failed. Having re- 
 to continue a year longer at school, he after- 
 became a student in St. John's College, 
 bridge, to which be was led, chiefly to enjoy 
 ciety of an intimate and valued friend, whose 
 character and conversation produced a corn- 
 revolution in the views of Martyn in regard 
 ion. But his conversion, so far from inter- 
 with his preparations at the university, 
 to increase his ardour in literary pursuits, 
 g him to regard time as a talent, for the 
 improvement of which he was accountable. 
 Jated to diligence by this high motive, he be- 
 an indefatigable student, and his industry was 
 d by the highest academical honours being 
 " to him, for he was declared ' Senior Wran- 
 m Jan., 1801, before he had completed his 
 k year. He now engaged in superintending 
 .dies of some pupils, while, at the same time, 
 assiduously preparing for the election in 
 1802, when he was chosen Fellow of St. 
 jsj and almost immediately after earned off" the 
 prize for Latin prose composition which the 
 ty had to bestow. Unseduced, however, by 
 dour of these academical successes, Mr. Mar- 
 res strongly ran in a totally different direc- 
 he resolved on dedicating his life and ener- 
 the service of God in the missionary cause. He 
 a communication with the Church Mission- 
 ty. This part of his plan, however, hav- 
 ahandoned, in consequence of some family 
 which made his sister dependent on him for 
 his friends applied, and at length sue- 
 in obtaining for him a chaplaincy in the East 
 ~)mpany's service. Shortly after his arrival 
 .tta, where he was to wait for his appoint- 
 be was overtaken by fever, which nearly 
 his life ; but the long interval of leisure 
 him, before he was completely convalescent, 
 ustriously improved in acquiring a know- 
 Hindostanee,andmakinghimself acquainted 
 state and feelings of the English residents 
 After a lapse of five months, he received 
 ntment to Dinapore, and his duty there 
 read prayers to the soldiery at the barracks 
 y sen ice he was allowed to perform for 
 was no accommodation for their sitting, a 
 was dispensed with. But not content with 
 idgement of his work, he extended his 
 by commencing to preach to the natives in 
 ular language of India, and to this, at 
 novel service, a great crowd chiefly of 
 repaired. This service he continued, at the 
 superintending five schools which lie had 
 at Dinapore, visiting hospitals, and affbrd- 
 jious instruction to all who came to him. 
 tion to these public labours, he was privately 
 \ in revising the sheets of the Hindostanee 
 of the New Testament which he had exe- 
 ntending the Persian translation which 
 committed to the care of Sabot, and 
 [ting the study of Arabic, in which language 
 y meditated another translation. In the 
 1809 he removed to Cawnpore, where he 
 under many disadvantages, being without 
 , and having to preach in the open air, ex- 
 
 MAB 
 
 to the violence of the heat. Towards the 
 end of that year, he began his ministrations to the 
 heathen. ' A crowd of mendicants, whom, to pre- 
 vent perpetual interruptions, he had appointed to 
 meet on a stated day for the distribution of alms, 
 frequently assembled before his house in immense 
 numbers, presenting an affecting spectacle of ex- 
 treme wretchedness. To this congregation he deter- 
 mined to preach the Word of Life. The following 
 Sunday he preached again to the beggars, in number 
 about five hundred, and on the last day of the year 
 he again addressed them to the amount of nearly 
 six hundred. Afterwards Martyn, having become 
 proficient in the knowledge and use of the Persic, 
 resolved to extend his missionary labours to Persia. 
 He accordingly established himself at Shiraz, with 
 the immediate view of revising his Persian and 
 Arabic translations of the New testament with the 
 aid of some learned natives. In that place he 
 remained ten months, improving the time that was 
 not occupied on his version in religious discussions 
 with the Moolahs and Soofis. In crowded assem- 
 blies of those literary Persians, he appeared the 
 single unassisted advocate of the Christian faith, 
 and yet by his zeal, tempered by judgment, he ex- 
 cited great stir and interest in religious inquiries. 
 In that place besides the complete version of his 
 New Testament, he completed, also, a Persian trans- 
 lation of the Psalms, ' a sweet employment,' as he 
 says, ' which caused six weary moons that waxed 
 and waned since its commencement to pass un- 
 noticed.' He had contemplated the presentation 
 of his New Testament translation to the Shah in 
 person, and for this purpose he went to Tabriz, 
 where the king was sojourning in his summer camp. 
 But the British Ambassador being absent, an intro- 
 duction could not be obtained, and for want of 
 that indispensable formality, admission was denied. 
 At Tabriz he was seized with malignant fever, on 
 the abatement of which, it was judged essential for 
 the preservation of his life, that he should immedi- 
 ately remove beyond the enervating influences of 
 an Eastern climate. By hurried movements he 
 endeavoured to reach Constantinople ; but at Tocat 
 his sickness assumed an alarming appearance, 
 and in that place, on the 16th October, 1812, this 
 pious, devoted, and learned man 'fell asleep in 
 Jesus, having earned a reputation which placed 
 him in the foremost ranks of modern mission- 
 aries. [R.J.] 
 
 MARTYN, John, F.R.S., professor of botany at 
 Cambridge, author of a ' History of Rare Plants,' 
 ' The Grub Street Journal,' an edition of 'Virgil's 
 Georgics,' &c, 1699-1768. 
 
 MARTYN, Thomas, F.R.S., son of the preced- 
 ing, dist. as a botanical and antiquar au., 1736-1825. 
 
 MARTYR, Peter, one of the early protestant 
 reformers, was born in 1500 at Florence. At first 
 an Augustine monk, and even priest of a convent, 
 he was so shaken in his religious views by studying 
 the writings of Luther and Zwingli, that he aban- 
 doned Romanism, and was obliged for this honest 
 change of opinion to seek personal safety in exile. 
 On the invitation of Edward VI. he came over to 
 England, and occupied a chair of divinity at Ox- 
 ford. In the reign of Mary he quitted England, 
 and took up his abode in Zurich, where he died in 
 1562. He has written a number of theological 
 treatises, among which his 'Loci Communes,' 
 
 471 
 
MAR 
 
 and some of his Commentaries, are best known at 
 the present day. As a proof of the bigotry of the 
 age it may be added, that the remains of his wife, 
 who had died and been buried at Oxford, were 
 dug up in the reign of Mary, and ignominiously 
 thrust beneath a dunghill. [JE.J 
 
 MARUCELLI, G. S., anltal. paint., 1586-1646. 
 
 MABVELL. AVDBEW, a statesman and poet, 
 was born at Hull on the 15th of November, 1620. 
 Little is known of his education and early history, 
 and in after life he was more distinguished by his 
 firmness and honest adherence to constitutional 
 principle, than either by his genius as a poet or 
 his eminence as a statesman. He began his par- 
 liamentary career in 1660, as representative of his 
 native town. He was deeply imbued with the 
 spirit of the long parliament, and brought its con- 
 stitutional principles, and wonderful aptness for the 
 transaction of collective business, into the parlia- 
 ments of the restoration, in a great measure consist- 
 ing of men of a totally different stamp. He was the 
 first great practical advocate of the important prin- 
 ciple that the constituency should know the con- 
 duct of its representative, and that although he need 
 not be a delegate merely to do what they require, 
 yet he must be so far responsible that he is to be 
 removed when he ceases to represent their senti- 
 ments. He wrote a series of letters to his consti- 
 tuents, describing the proceedings of parliament, 
 and accounting for his own conduct ; and the 
 electors on their part adhered to him with zealous 
 steadiness. There is a well-known anecdote of 
 his declining a bribe from the lord treasurer be- 
 cause he had enough for a frugal dinner. Some of 
 his pamphlets on the affairs of the day are valu- 
 able for their clearness and correctness ; but his 
 poetry is seldom read. The only office ever held 
 by him was that of secretary of an embassy to 
 the northern powers. He died on the 16th of 
 August, 1678. [J.H.B.] 
 
 House of Marvell, Highgate, London.] 
 
 MARX, Jacob, a Germ, physician, 1745-1789. 
 
 MARY, queen regnant of England, daughter of 
 Henry VIII. and Catherine of Arragon, was born 
 at the commencement of 1516, and succeeded her 
 brother, Edward VI., in 1553. Her adherence 
 to the Church of Rome gave occasion to the pro- 
 clamation of her cousin, Lady Jane Grey, who was 
 bnortly afterwards beheaded, and the party who 
 
 MAR. 
 
 had elevated her to the throne completely sub 
 In 1554, Mary was married to Philip of 
 Devoting herself to the restoration of the R 
 Catholic religion, nearly 300 persons suffer 
 the stake as heretics in the short spa 
 four years. Happily for the nation, she died 
 after the loss of Calais, November 17, 156f 
 was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth! 
 
 MARY, companion of William III. oi 
 throne of England, was the eldest daught 
 James II. by Ann Hyde, daughter of the lord 
 cellor Clarendon. She was born 1662, marr 
 William, prince of Orange, in 1677, and cai 
 the throne in the interest of the protestfl 
 gion after the Revolution of 1688. She di 
 the thirty- third year of her age, 1694. 
 
 MARY BEATRIX of Este, queen com 
 James II., was married to him in 1673. Sh< 
 birth to a son in 1688, who was acknowledg 
 James III., by Louis XIV. Died 1708. 
 
 MARY of Lorraine, queen consort of 
 land, and mother of Mary Stuart, was the dat 
 of Claude, duke of Guise. She was marri 
 Louis II. of Orleans in 1534, and to Janw 
 king of Scotland, in 1538. In 1542 she WJ 
 a widow, and became regent for her infant d 
 ter. Died 1560. 
 
 MARY, queen of Scotland, was born i 
 year 1542. The day of her birth, like the 
 important events of her history, has been I 
 of controversy, but it takes no wider range 
 between the 8th and the 12th of December, 
 father, James V., who died on the 13th, just 
 of her birth ere he expired. The time 
 gloomy and critical one for royalty in Sco 
 but the frail infant survived contests and c< 
 sions, in which one strong enough to take n 
 them might have been sacrificed. While st 
 yet in infancy, it was part of the policy of 
 VIII. to unite the kingdoms by marrying '. 
 his son Edward. He set about the accorc 
 ment of this scheme with a characteristic 
 haste, which roused the spirits of the Scots a 
 it. The young queen's mother, M ary of Loi 
 strengthened that alliance with the French 
 which political events had created in Scotlar 
 the Scottish statesmen settled the difficult 
 England by sending the child to France 
 sixth year. Her education was essentially t 
 the French court, and it affords a general s< 
 of some of the moral difficulties connecte 
 her career, to collect from the sad history 
 times the principles which she must hav 
 imbibed. She was early affianced to the Da: 
 and as he became King Francis II. in 15i' 
 then was queen of France and Scotland. 
 ground of Elizabeth's illegitimacy, the I 
 party claimed for Mary the sovereignty of E 
 as a descendant of the sister of He 
 the union of the French and Scotti>h croi 
 her person, made the claim formidable.] 
 death of Francis, however, after reij 
 months, broke the main element of 
 pretensions. She was now only Q 
 land, a country poor and turbulent. I 
 with bitter regret the brilliant com 
 1562, she was received with a rude joy 
 calculated to reconcile her to the change 
 sordid and dreary chambers of Holyrood 
 472 
 
MAS 
 
 ,n were important national affairs in a condition 
 tjrratify her, for in the previous year protestan- 
 \p having been established, her religion had been 
 iijpressed, and its profession rendered a crime. 
 jihad many contests with Knox and ' the lords 
 ihe congregation,' in which earnestness, zeal, 
 m rugged determination on the one side, were 
 J by feminine Avit and the overawing influence 
 loyal rank on the other. It was on the 29th of 
 h', 1565, that she celebrated her unhappy mar- 
 lie with her worthless connection, Henry, Lord 
 Holey. The next great event in her strange 
 fler, was the murder in her presence of her humble 
 id David Rizzio, the musician, her husband 
 Bng on the assassins. It was on the 10th of 
 fraary, 1567, that Darnley himself was mur- 
 Hd, and the house in which he lived blown up 
 lr the deed was accomplished. Many volumes 
 H been written, and many are evidently in pre- 
 lltion on the question of Mary's accession to the 
 II, and it would be useless to attempt its dis- 
 Hxm within such limits as the present. On the 
 I of May, in the same year, occurred Mary's 
 Ifiage to Bothwell the chief assassin, afact, round 
 
 tthe main circumstances adduced by her op- 
 ts cluster. On the 17th of June, she was 
 to a retirement, which was virtually an im- 
 nment, in Lochleven Castle. She escaped on 
 ay, 1568, and, defeated on the field of Lang- 
 sought refuge in England. She was received 
 risoner by the jealous queen to whose throne 
 iad asserted pretensions, and lived nineteen 
 a captive. If Elizabeth is to be vindicated for 
 iarshness by the recurrence of efforts to as- 
 lary's right to the English throne, yet it is 
 lined that the English queen threw out in- 
 which tending towards secret assassi- 
 admit of no vindication. After a trial 
 the treason law of England, she was be- 
 at Fotheringay Castle on the 8th of Feb- 
 1587. [J.H.B.] 
 
 LCCIO, the name by which ToMMASO 
 commonly known, Masaccio being a nick- 
 i short for Tommasaccio, slovenly Thomas, 
 
 MAS 
 
 was born at San Giovanni in the Valdarno, in 
 1402. His earliest performances were in the 
 Brancacci chapel, in the church del Carmine, at 
 Florence, where he assisted his master Masolino da 
 Panicale at a very early age, and after Masolino's 
 death, continued the series left incomplete by him. 
 The frescoes of Masaccio in this chapel, which con- 
 tains also his most celebrated works, were executed 
 apparently at two distinct periods, before 1430 and 
 after 1434, when the Medici returned to Florence, 
 and during this interval Masaccio may have visited 
 Rome. He was admitted into the company of St. 
 Luke in 1423, and the earlier or more conventional 
 works may have been executed about 1425, com- 
 prising ' The Expulsion from Paradise, ' 4 The 
 Tribute Money,' and perhaps ' Peter Baptizing ;' 
 the others probably ten years later, supposing they 
 were not all completed before 1430, which is quite 
 possible. These works show the state of painting 
 as compared with that of sculpture, exemplified in 
 the gates by Lorenzo Ghiberti, executed at the 
 same time, 1425 being the mean date of the two 
 gates. Masaccio was not behind Ghiberti, but 
 may have owed much to his example, as also to 
 the example of Donatello and Brunelleschi, with 
 the last of whom he studied perspective. The as- 
 sociation of so many men of remarkable ability is 
 perhaps the chief cause of the great advance evident 
 in all the arts in the early part of the 15th cen- 
 tury ; their intercourse developed criticism, the soul 
 of art. Vasari gives us a good .example : when 
 Donatello exhibited his Crucifixion (now in the 
 church of Santa Croce), Brunelleschi remarked that 
 he had attempted the impersonation of the Son of 
 God, while he had made only a vulgar peasant. 
 The works of the Brancacci chapel mark the era of 
 the second epoch of Italian painting, and as the 
 whole, or at least the greater portion, of these 
 frescoes were till lately assumed to be the work of 
 Masaccio, his reputation was second only to that 
 of Raphael for developing the progress of art ; but 
 modern criticism appears to have rectified a com- 
 mon misunderstanding of the text of Vasari, 
 certainly through Vasari's want of precision. The 
 chapel was commenced by Masolino da Panicale, 
 continued by Masaccio, and completed by Filippino 
 Lippi, the son of Masaccio's pupil, Fra Fihppo Lippi ; 
 and it appears that Vasari's original account in 
 the first edition of his Lives was correct, (the 
 statement was left out in the second,) that besides 
 other portions ' Paul Visiting Peter in Prison, ' 
 and ' Peter and Paul before the Proconsul,' the two 
 most lauded compositions of the whole chapel, 
 were the work of Filippino, and executed about 
 forty years after the death of Masaccio. The chief 
 argument is founded on the fact of there being 
 several portraits of men in these frescoes which 
 can only have been executed at the later period ; 
 still, the authenticity of these very portraits seems 
 to rest solely upon the fact of their being published 
 as such by Vasari, and until their authenticity is 
 thoroughly established, the subject is not indisput- 
 ably settled. It is a very difficult and interesting 
 question, very important if true, and we owe its 
 revival to a German and a Dane, Rumohr and 
 Gaye ; but the editors of the new Florentine Vasari 
 (1848) have taken up the argument on the same 
 side with great intelligence : still the main point 
 to be decided is the authenticity of the portraits. 
 
 473 
 
MAS 
 The Brancaeci chapel now contains fifteen distinct 
 subjects, eight of which only are attributed by 
 Gave to Masaccio. The completion of the chapel 
 by Filippino raises another question, the date of 
 Masaccio' s death. Vasari and Baldinucci state that 
 he died in 1443, not without suspicion of poison ; 
 at the same time it was currently reported, and it 
 is repeated by Vasari and others, tliat Masaccio 
 died in his 26th year. This, as we know for cer- 
 tain that he was" born 1402, would place his death 
 in 1428, before the death of Masolino, whom he 
 succeeded, and it interferes with other statements, 
 though it is well reconcileable with the incom- 
 plete state of the frescoes of the chapel at his 
 death, which is generally admitted to nave been 
 sudden and early : supposing he died in 1443, as 
 Vasari and Baldinucci state, the incompletion of the 
 chapel is not so well accounted for. Rumohr gives 
 an extract from the cathedral accounts of Florence, 
 which seems to show that Masaccio was living 
 in 1446. The works of Masaccio are of a high 
 order as regards general technical qualities, well 
 drawn, of a fine general character, and dramatic in 
 composition ; and his figures are conspicuous for a 
 simple and grand treatment of drapery, similar in 
 character to those of the now familiar cartoons of 
 Raphael. The difference between these celebrated 
 cartoons and the fresco of Peter and Paul before 
 the Proconsul, by Filippino, is not so much in 
 style, as the great name of Raphael and the inter- 
 vening forty years would lead one to suppose ; but 
 this chapel was notoriously the principal school of 
 Raphael, and nearly every other great painter at 
 the commencement of the sixteenth century. But 
 of course such glory as accrues to Filippino from 
 his restored position is detracted from the reputa- 
 tion of Masaccio. The celebrated figure of Paul 
 in the cartoon of Paul Preaching, is taken from 
 the figure of Paul in the fresco Visiting Peter in 
 Prison, in this chapel, by Filippino, as is now 
 generally assumed ; Rosini, however, in his History 
 of Italian Painting, adheres to the old traditions. 
 (Vasari, Vite, &c, ed Flor. 1846, Seqq ; Rumohr. 
 Italienische Forschungen ; Gave, Cartegyio Inedito 
 d' Artisti; Rosini, Utoria della Vittura Italiano, 
 Pisa, 1848.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 MASANIELLO, the commonly received name 
 of Tomaso Aniello, a fisherman of Kaples, who 
 headed the populace in their revolt against the 
 Spanish viceroy, 1647, when only twenty-five 
 years of age. "His career lasted but nine days, in 
 which time he had 150,000 men under his orders, 
 and was elevated to sovereign authority. He was 
 murdered by four assassins, armed with arquebuses, 
 and as the resistance he commenced never ceased 
 till the Spanish yoke was broken, he has since 
 been venerated as the liberator of his countrv. 
 
 MASCAGNI, D., an Ital. painter, W7S-1636. 
 
 MASCAGNI, P., an Ital. anatomist, 1752-1815. 
 
 MASCARDI, Joseph, an Italian jurisconsult, 
 born in the republic of Genoa, died 1630. Aug us- 
 tin, his nephew, an historian and professor of 
 rhetoric, 1591-1640. 
 
 MASCH, A. T., a Ger. theologian, 1724-1807. 
 
 MASCLEF, F., a Fr. Orientalist, 1663-172S. 
 
 MASCOU, J. J., a Germ, historian, 1689-1762. 
 
 MASCRIER, J. B. De, a Fr. eccles., 1697-1760. 
 
 MASDEN, Don J. P., a Sp. histo., 1740-1817. 
 
 MASENIUS, or MASEN, James, a German 
 
 MAS 
 
 Jesuit, known as a Latin poet, thcologiai 
 critic, 1606-1681. 
 
 MASERES, Francis, Baron, an eminen 
 thematician, grandson of a French refugee, 
 in London, 1731, died 1824. 
 
 MASETTI, A., an Italian engineer, 1757- 
 
 MASHAM, Abigail, a cousin of Sarah, di 
 of Marlborough, and fav. of Queen Anne, <L 
 
 MASHAM, Lady Damaris, daughter c 
 Ralph Cudworth, and wife of Sir Francis Ma 
 father-in-law of the preceding, remarkable f 
 skill in arithmetic, geography, chronology, hi 
 philosophy, and divinity, author of moral am 
 gious discourses, 1658-1708. 
 
 MASINISSA, an African pi-ince, died b.c 
 
 MASIUS, or MAES, A., a Belgian Orient 
 and theological writer, 1527-1573. 
 
 MASKELYNE, Nevil, LL.D., born in 
 don, 1732; died February, 1811, aged set 
 nine: a very eminent British astronomer 
 mathematician : he filled the important 
 of Astronomer Royal with the highest cred 
 forty-six years. To Maskelyne are owing 
 important improvements in practical astroun 
 especially in its application to Navigation : h 
 ertions brought into general use the meth 
 lunar distances. Maskelyne was unfortui 
 obstructed by cloudy weather, in his attempt 1 
 serve the transit of Venus over the sun's di 
 6th June, 1761, for which purpose he had 
 St. Helena. We owe him, however, the pla 
 and successful carrying out of the effort to < 
 mine the mean density of the Earth, b; 
 observed deflection of the plummet at the n 
 tain mass Schehallion. There have been 
 few British practical astronomers who are en 
 to rank with Maskelyne. [J.! 
 
 MASON, Charles, assistant astronom 
 Greenwich Observatory, d. in Pennsylvania 1 
 
 MASON, F., a learned divine, about 1566- 
 
 MASON, John, a nonconformist minister, 
 at Dunmow, in Essex, 1706, died 1763, k 
 as a moralist and miscellaneous writer b] 
 works, entitled ' Self Knowledge,' which has 
 frequently republished, ' Practical Discou 
 ' Christian Morals,' ' Essay on Elocution,' 4 ] 
 on the Power of Numbers, and the Princip 
 Harmony in Poetical Compositions,' ' Essa 
 the Power and Harmony of Prosaic Numbers, 
 A Life of the author, by his relative, John ft 
 Good, was prefixed to an edition of the 
 Knowledge,' published in 1811. 
 
 MASON, Sir John, a famous statesman i; 
 reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, 
 Elizabeth, died 1566. 
 
 MASON, William, was born in 1725, and 
 cated at Cambridge. Entering the church 
 father's profession, he held several preterm 
 and was a canon of York long before his d 
 which occurred in 1797. He is now rememl 
 chiefly for having been the editor and biogrs 
 of the poet Gray. In his life-time, however, ht 
 not only esteemed for his accomplishments, | 
 cially in music and painting, but likewise fa 1 
 in no smll degree as a poet. His 'En 
 Garden,' amidst much dulness, contains 
 pleasing bits of scenery ; and he showed j 
 courage, not unsupported by power of tag 
 and passion, in the attempt he made to natui 
 
 474 
 
MAS 
 
 Greek chorus in the modern drama. His first 
 Elfrida,' is inferior to his second, ' Carac- 
 on which his contemporary fame mainly 
 
 [w.s.] 
 
 ASOTTI, D., an Ital. lithotomist, 1698-1779. 
 ASQUE DE FER. See Saint Mars. 
 ASSA, N., a Venetian medical wr., d. 1563. 
 A.SSANEILLO. See Masanieleo. 
 ASSARD, J., a French engraver, 1740-1822. 
 WSSARI, L., an Italian painter, 1569-1633. 
 dSSARIA, A., an Italian physician, 1510-98. 
 \SSE, J. B., a French painter, 1687-1767. 
 i\SSENA. Andre Massena was born of 
 le parentage at Nice in 1758. He entered 
 rench army as a common soldier, and rose to 
 :e of Rivoli, prince of Esslingen, and marshal 
 mce. He highly distinguished himself in the 
 Italian campaigns of Napoleon; and in 1799 he 
 mmander-m-chief in Switzerland. He saved 
 by the victory of Zurich, which he gained 
 he Austrians and Russians in the autumn of 
 ear. In 1800 he defended Genoa with re- 
 le obstinacy and skill against the Austrians, 
 ultimately starved into capitulation. In 
 Massena commanded in Italy, and defeated 
 hduke Charles at Caldiero. In 1809 he 
 zed himself greatly at the battle of Esslin- 
 r Aspern) in Germany, and by his firmness 
 the French imperial army from utter de- 
 on. In 1810 Napoleon sent Massena with 
 rful force to conquer Portugal, and ' to 
 he English and their Sepoy general into the 
 But the genius and firmness of Wellington 
 too much for the ' Spoiled child of Victory,' 
 na was called in the French armies. The 
 Torres Vedras were a barrier that the 
 marshal dared not assail, and he retired 
 ortugal in 1811, showing consummate mili- 
 """ in the conduct of his retreat, and equal 
 in his treatment of the unhappy country 
 was the scene of the war. Massena was in 
 d at Toulon at the time of Napoleon's first 
 m in 1814. He promptly acknowledged 
 III. ; but joined Napoleon in the next year 
 return from Elba. He commanded the na- 
 rd of Paris during the hundred days. 
 Massena died in 1817. [E.S.C.] 
 
 IEU, J. B., a French prelate, 1743-1818. 
 IEU, W., a Fr. archaeologist, 1665-1722. 
 SILLON, Jean Baptiste, the most cele- 
 pulpit orator of France, was the son of a 
 public, and born in 1663, at Hieres, in Pro- 
 When only nineteen, he entered into the 
 *ion of the Oratory, and immediately at- 
 notice by the elegance of his manner and 
 1 style of his elocution. The first public 
 of his eloquence were made at Vienne, 
 performed the duties of Theological Tutor, 
 grand occasion on which his powers of ora- 
 strongly enlisted, was on the death of 
 Villars, archbishop of that place. The 
 ce of his funeral oration called forth uni- 
 iration, and his fame being widely ex- 
 he was invited to one of the principal 
 in Paris. Although several preachers of 
 were already stationed in that capital, 
 determined to reach the summit of fame 
 into a new path by himself, and he ac- 
 his design ; for his pulpit addresses 
 
 475 
 
 MAS 
 were in so novel a style, and so irresistibly attrac- 
 tive, so plain and level to every understanding, yet 
 so replete with pathos, and so distinguished for 
 profound and accurate knowledge of human nature, 
 his language was so copious, and his mastery over 
 the passions so consummate, that he was acknow- 
 ledged, with universal consent, to surpass all his 
 contemporaries. Having frequent opportunities of 
 preaching before the Court, he on one occasion had 
 the finest compliment paid him that a preacher ever 
 received. ' Father,' said the Monarch, ' when I 
 hear other preachers, I go away much pleased with 
 them, but when I hear you, I go away much dis- 
 pleased with myself.' One sermon, described by 
 Voltaire in the Encyclopedic, produced an extra- 
 ordinary impression. The subject was ' The small 
 number of the elect,' and so overpowering was the 
 picture he drew of the scenes of the last judgment, 
 ' that the hearers involuntarily started from their 
 seats, and such a general murmur of surprise and 
 acclamation arose as disconcerted the preacher him- 
 self.' But the effect was in consequence greatly 
 increased, and the excitement of the audience was 
 carried to the highest pitch of intensity. The 
 celebrated actor Barron, having gone to hear him, 
 shortly after his settlement in Paris, waited on him 
 in the vestry, and told him to continue as he had 
 begun ; and, at another time, said to a brother 
 actor, who accompanied him, ' my friend, that is 
 the true orator, we are mere players.' Massillou 
 was raised to the see of Clermont, in 1717 a pro- 
 motion for which he was indebted to the Regent, 
 who, after attending a course of sermons, was im- 
 pressed with the highest ideas' of the preacher's 
 merits. The publication of his famous sermons, 
 entitled, ' Petit-careme,' two years after, procured 
 him an honour of a different kind, the highest liter- 
 ary honour that is known in France, that of being 
 elected a member of the Academy. Massillon now- 
 resided wholly and in complete retirement, devoting 
 himself to the duties of his diocese, and being held 
 in high and universal estimation, not only for the 
 splendour of his eloquence and the greatness of his 
 talents, but for his moral and religious worth ; he 
 was a lively companion, a faithful friend, a kind 
 and condescending master, and full of benevolence 
 and charity to the poor. His death took place afc 
 Clermont, in Sept., 1742, when he had nearly 
 completed his seventy-fifth year. His published 
 discourses occupy 14 volumes. [R.J.] 
 
 MASSINGER, Philip, was born in 1584, at 
 Salisbury, or perhaps at Wilton, the seat of the 
 earl of Pembroke, in whose household his father 
 held some office. He was sent to Oxford in his 
 eighteenth year, probably with a view to his enter- 
 ing the church. He left the university without 
 taking a degree, and, for reasons which are not 
 known, was thrown on the world penniless and 
 unpatronised : his best editor, Giffbrd, infers from 
 
 Eassages in his works that he had become a Catho- 
 c. In 1606 he came to London ; and he was al- 
 ways afterwards a play-writer, conferring on our 
 language some of its dramatic masterpieces, but 
 bearing even more than his share in the poverty 
 which was suffered by almost all the dramatists of 
 that brilliant and singular era. The particulars 
 of his history are very obscure. We know, how- 
 ever, that he wrote jointly with others, especially 
 Fletcher, Middleton, and Rowley. A melancholy 
 
MAS 
 
 MAT 
 
 letter, written about 1613 to Henslowe the fheat- ! writer, who is said to have assisted Lord Tie 
 ri'.al manager, shows him to have been then in ! of Cherbury in his life of Henry VIII., died ^ 
 
 great pecuniary distress ; lie himself, in a dediea- MASUCCI, A. 
 
 lion, dated 1632, thankfully acknowledges that the 
 
 bounty of one or two men of rank had kept him 
 
 alive ; and the obscurity of his sad career, at its 
 
 close, is proved by the register of St. Saviours' 
 
 in Southwark. which, in 1640, notes the burial of j who took orders at Oxford, but was Buspenjfl 
 
 'Philip Massingor, a stranger.' The famous col- nonconformity in 1633, and afterwards settle 
 
 lection of manuscript plays, which the cook of the 
 
 herald Warbnrton used for covering pies, contained 
 
 twelve attributed to Massinger. Giftbrd 
 
 an Italian painter, 1691-jH 
 MASUCCIO, a famous architect and scu 
 of Naples, flourished 1230-1305. 
 
 MATANI, A., an Ital. mathematician, 173( 
 MATHER. Richard, a native of Land 
 
 names 
 thirty-seven plays as being his in whole or in part, 
 and prints eighteen of these. Some critics insist 
 on placing Massinger next after Shakspeare; and 
 it is at least indisputable that he is one of the very 
 best of the Old English dramatists. He wants 
 comic humour, but nas prodigious vigour, more, 
 Indeed, than almost any of his contemporaries, in 
 the conception and delineation of character; his 
 representations of society abound in traits of keen 
 observation, and boldly independent thinking ; his 
 situations and incidents are devised with great 
 originality and force; and his serious passages, 
 though often wanting in natural pathos, have a 
 lofty melancholy both of imagery and feeling, and 
 a peculiar grace and melody of expression. He is 
 known to play-goers by ' A New Way to Pay Old 
 Debts;' his 'Maid of Honour' also has been re- 
 stored to the stage ; and Rowe's ' Fair Penitent ' 
 is a plagiarism from his ' Fatal Dowry.' Among 
 his other works may be named especially the 
 gloomy tragedy of ''The Unnatural Combat,' and 
 ' The City Madam,' an extraordinarily spirited pic- 
 ture of actual life, idealized into a semi-comic 
 strain of poetry. [W.S.] 
 
 MASSINGHERD, Sir Oswald, of Lincoln- 
 shire, distinguished as a knight of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, last prior of that order in Ireland, and 
 last Turcopolier of Malta, born 1490 ; installed 
 prior at the instance of Cardinal Pole in the 
 reign of Queen Mary, 1550. 
 
 MASSON, A., a French ecclesiastic, 1620-1700. 
 
 MASSON, A., a French painter, 1636-1702. 
 
 MASSON, C. F. P., a Fr. author, 1762-1807. 
 
 MASSON, Francis, a Fr. sculptor, 1745-1807. 
 
 MASSON, Francis, a Scot, botan., 1741-1805. 
 
 MASSON, Innocent C, a general of the Car- 
 thusian order of monks and learned wr., 1628-1703. 
 
 MASSON, Jean, a French protestant, who took 
 refuge in England on the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, became tutor in the family of Bishop 
 Burnet, and wrote some theological and critical 
 works, flourished about 1680-1750. His brother, 
 Samuel, part conductor with Jean of a ' Criti- 
 cal Journal,' and pastor of the English church at 
 Dort ; dates unknown. 
 
 MASSON, Jean Papire, a French historian 
 and geographical writer, author of ' Annals of 
 France,' &c, 1554-1611. His brother, Jean, 
 historian of Jeanne Dare, died 1630. 
 
 MASSUET, the name of two learned Benedic- 
 tines, the earliest of whom, Rene, was author of 
 the ' Annals ' of his order, ' Lives of the Saints,' 
 and an edition of ' Irenacus,' 1666-1716. The 
 later, named Peter, became a protestant, and 
 wrote several poor histories, 1699-1734. 
 
 MASTERS, R., an antiquarian writer, 1713-98 
 
 MASTERS, Thomas, a schol 
 
 New England. Died there 1669. Samuel 
 eldest son, born in Lancashire 1626, accompi 
 his father to America 1635, but returning to i 
 land in 1650, was actively employed as a mix 
 in various parts of the three kingdoms, and 
 1671. Increase, youngest son of 
 in New England 1635, took his degree of B.j 
 Harvard college 1656, and joined his broth 
 Ireland 1657. He was afterwards known 
 deputy to the English government in the can 
 colonial freedom, and takes rank in literature 
 religious essayist and historian, died 1723. < 
 ton-Mather, D.D., son of the preceding, am 
 most eminent of the family, was born at B( 
 1663, died 1728. His works are very nume: 
 but the principal of them are ' An Ecclesiat 
 History of New England,' 'The Christian Phi 
 pher,' ' Psalterium Americanum,' and ' The \ 
 ders of the Invisible World,' which is an ace 
 of the trials of witches, with observations or 
 operation of spirits in association with men. 
 
 MATHIAS. See Matthias. 
 
 MATHIAS, an emper. of Germanv, 1557-1 
 
 MATHIAS, C, a German savant,' 1584-16; 
 
 MATHIAS-CORVINUS, one of the gre 
 kings of Hungary, was son of John Hunnh 
 born in Transylvania 1443, succeeded Ladislat 
 1458, crowned in 1464, after he had adva 
 nearly to the walls of Vienna, and compellec 
 emperor to recognize him, became king of B 
 mia 1469, conquered Austria 1485, died 1490. 
 
 MATHIAS, Thomas James, a writer in 
 department of polite literature and criticism, 
 became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridg 
 1776, and died at Naples 1835. Besides ' 
 Pursuits of Literature,' and other publication 
 English, he is the author of several works in | 
 ian, which he wrote with great facilitv. 
 
 MATHILDA, MATHILDE. Scc'Matiu 
 
 MATHON-DE-LA-COUR, James, a Fr 
 mathematician and experimental philosoi 
 1712-1790. His son, Charles Joseph, a sclj 
 and miscellan. wr., b. 1738, exec, at Lyons 17; 
 
 MATIGNON, James Goyon De, a marsh 
 France, distinguished at the battles of J! 
 Rocheabeille, and Montcontour. 1! 
 the first to recognize Henry of Nai 
 death of Henry III., and officiated as constat! 
 his coronation, 1525-1597. 
 
 MATILDA. The queens and princesses ol 
 name are 1. Saint Matilda, wife of HenrJ 
 Fowler, and queen of Germany, died 9<j8| 
 Matilda, countess of Tuscany, boi 
 ceeded her father, Boniface ill., 1054, ma 
 successively Godfrey Le Bossa, son of the dnfi 
 Lorraine, and Guelph, son of the duke of Ba;l 
 died 1115. This princess is remarkable in hi) 
 for her devotion to the papacy, whii 
 with vast possessions, and thereby laid 
 and poetical ! tion of long-continued wars between tin 
 476 
 
w 
 
 MAT 
 
 je emperors. 3. Matilda, wife of William the 
 pnqueror, daughter of Baldwin V., count of 
 landers, and of Adela, princess of France, married 
 I the duke of Normandy 1054, crowned queen of 
 hgland 1068, died 1083. She had eleven chil- 
 !<?n, the hest known of whom are Robert, 
 jilliam Rufus, and Henry Beaufort. 4. Saint 
 Jatilda, daughter of Malcolm king of Scotland, 
 id queen consort of Henry I. of England, to 
 nom she was married in 1100, died 1118. 5. 
 Utilda, or Maud, daughter of the latter, born 
 (00, was married to Henry V., emperor of Ger- 
 jiny, 1111, Henry dying in 1125, she was united 
 Ho years afterwards to Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
 *1 of Anjou, and in 1135 succeeded to the 
 rone of England by the death of her father. 
 je was crowned, after vanquishing her rival 
 kphen, 1141, but afterwards suffered a reverse, 
 if took refuge in France, where she died 1167. 
 ier the death of Stephen, her son by Geoffrey 
 jintagenet, succeeded as Henry II. 6. Ma- 
 Ida, countess of Angouleme and la Marche, 
 jtrished 1179-1233. 7. Matilda Caroline, 
 lighter of Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, 
 jnddaughter of the princess Sophia of Zell, and 
 i er of George III., bora 1751, married to Chris- 
 !p VII., and became queen of Denmark in the 
 rir of his succession 1766, divorced upon a 
 flrge of adultery with Count Struensee, 1772, 
 (|1, after much suffering, in the twenty-fourth 
 jr of her age, 1775. 
 
 IATSKO, J. M., a Hungarian astron., 1721-96. 
 
 IATSYS, or MESSIS, Quintin, a Flemish 
 titer, known as 'the blacksmith of Antwerp,' 
 fling been originally a blacksmith or farrier, was 
 In in 1460. He is the subject of an interesting 
 U story which relates that he fell in love with 
 'tjdaughter of an artist, whose hand was only to 
 tpbtained by a master of the same profession ; 
 H 1529. He had a son, named John, who 
 Jpted in the same style. 
 
 ATTATHIAS. See Maccabeus. 
 
 ATTEI, L., an Italian poet, 1622-1705. 
 
 ATTEIS, P. De, a pain, of Naples, 1662-1728. 
 
 ATTHiEI, C. F., a Pruss. savant, 1744-1811. 
 
 ATTH^US, A., a Dutch jurisct, 1635-1710. 
 
 ATTHESON, J., a Dutch music, 1681-1764. 
 
 ATTHEW, the writer of the gospel so called, 
 
 a publican or collector of the taxes imposed 
 
 he Romans, who became one of the twelve 
 Rties. He wrote his gospel from 30 to 40 years 
 Christ, some writers say in the Hebrew or 
 Ppc. The probability is, that one was written 
 ebrew, a.d. 37 or 38, and another in Greek 
 Bhe Gentiles 61. Tradition states that he died 
 ttjthiopia. He is sometimes called Levi. 
 
 ATTHEW, the first of the name, duke of 
 IJaine, and a companion-in-arms of Frederick 
 Urossa, reigned 1139-1176. The second, 
 m 122( 1-1251. 
 
 lATl'HEW, Tobtas, successively bishop of 
 Miam, and archbishop of York, distinguished for 
 Homing and virtues, was born in Bristol 1546, 
 H1628. His son, of the same name, was a cour- 
 II accomplished as an artist and man of letters, 
 B tcte d the part of a Jesuit spy, 1578-1655. 
 
 l\TTHE W of Westminster, one of the most 
 Table, and most scrupulously accurate fathers 
 Higlish history, was a Benedictine monk of the 
 
 MAU 
 
 Abbey of Westminster, and lived at an uncertain 
 period in the 14th century. His history modelled 
 on the style of Matthew Paris, extended to 1307, 
 and was continued seventy years later by an- 
 other hand. 
 
 MATHEWS, Charles, an English comedian, 
 with powers of mimicry never excelled, was born 
 in 1776. His talents were various, and he had 
 the rare capacity of creating characters out of 
 slender materials given by the writers of his en- 
 tertainments, which he denominated ' Mathews 
 at Home.' To these monologues the comedian 
 resorted, in the first instance, to occupy the inter- 
 vals that occurred between his stage-engagements ; 
 but they proved so successful as to command ulti- 
 mately his undivided attention. He died in 
 1837. [J.A.H.] 
 
 MATTHEWS, T., an English admiral, d. 1751. 
 
 MATTHIAS, supposed to have been one of the 
 seventy disciples, and the one chosen by lot to fill 
 the plase of Judas as an apostle, is said to have 
 
 E reached in Cappadocia, and to have died there. 
 [is history is uncertain. 
 
 MATTHIAS, the name of several high priests 
 of the Jews, commencement of the Christian era. 
 
 MATTHIEU, P., a French histor., 1563-1621. 
 
 MATTHISSON, Frederic Von, a lyric poet 
 of Saxony, author of the ' Adelaide,' the music to 
 which was composed by Beethoven, 1761-1831. 
 
 MATTIOLI, L., an "Italian painter, 1662-1741. 
 
 MATTIOLI, P. A., an Ital. naturalist, 1500-77. 
 
 MATTOCKS, Isabella, an actress, 1746-1826. 
 
 MATURIN, Charles Robert, descended 
 from a French family, who fled their country on 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes, was bora 
 in Dublin, 1782. He was educated for the church, 
 in which he became a curate, and wrote some dis- 
 courses directed against the errors of Rome. He 
 acquired somewhat more celebrity, however, as a 
 novelist and writer for the stage, and is said to 
 have been an eloquent preacher, died 1825. 
 
 MATURIN, Henry, an Irish clergyman, author 
 of several tragedies and novels, 1772-1842. 
 
 MATURIN O, an Italian painter, died 1527. 
 
 MATY, Matthew, a Dutch physician, settled 
 in England, known as a miscellaneous writer and 
 librarian to the British Museum, born about 1718, 
 died 1776. His son, Paul Henry, one of the 
 librarians of the British Museum, and secretary to 
 the Royal Society, 1745-1787. 
 
 MAUBURNE, J., a Flem. ascetic, 1460-1502. 
 
 MAUCROIX,'F. De, a Fr. transla., 1619-1708. 
 
 MAUDUIT, A. R,, a Fr. mathema., 1731-1815. 
 
 MAUDUIT, Israel, son of a dissenting min- 
 ister, known as a political wr., London, 1708-87. 
 
 MAUDUIT, M., a Fr. theologian, 1644-1709. 
 
 MAUGARD, A., a French author, 1739-1817. 
 
 MAULEON, A. De, a Fr. historian, died 1653. 
 
 MAUNDREL, H., a eel. traveller, date 1697. 
 
 MAUNOIR, P. J., a French theolog., 1606-83. 
 
 MAUPEOU, Rene Charles De, born in 
 Paris 1688, became vice-chancellor in 1763, d. 1775. 
 
 MAUPEOU, Rene Nicolas Charles Au- 
 gustin De, son of the preceding, was born 1714, 
 and became chancellor of France 1768. His char- 
 acter was that of a low and corrupt intriguer, and 
 he preserved his influence with Louis XV., by pay- 
 ing the most servile court to the king's mistress, 
 Dubarry. In 1771 he banished the parliament of 
 
 477 
 
MAU 
 
 Paris, and substituted a royal council for it, called 
 in derision 'the Maupeou parliament.' He was 
 exiled to his own estates on the recall of the 
 parliament by Louis XVI., 1774, and died peace- 
 ably in 1792. His last act was a gift of 800,000 
 francs to the nation. [E.R.] 
 
 MAUPERCHE, II., a French painter, 1606-86. 
 
 MAUPERTIUS, P. L, Moreau De, one of the 
 most celebrated mathematicians and astronomers 
 of France, 1698-1759. 
 
 MAUR, St., a French Benedictine of the 6th 
 cmturv, whose name was adopted by_ a congrega- 
 tion of religious persons in the period between 
 1618 and 1627. This order soon acquired author- 
 ity over more than a hundred religious houses, and 
 is famous for the number of learned men it has 
 produced. 
 
 MAURAND, Peter, a leader of the Albi- 
 genses in the 13th century, born 1199. 
 
 MAUREPAS, Jean Frederic Philippeaux, 
 Count De, a French statesman, born 1701, flour- 
 ished at the court of Louis XIV., from 1715 to 
 1749, when he was banished by the intrigues of 
 Madame de Pompadour. He was recalled to the 
 ministry by Louis XVI., in 1774, and it was by 
 his advice that the French government aided the 
 Americans in their war of independence ; d. 1781. 
 
 MAURICE, elector of Saxony, celebrated as 
 the founder of German protestantism, born 1521 ; 
 killed in battle 1553. 
 
 MAURICE, A., a Swiss minister, 17th century. 
 
 MAURICE, F. W., a Swiss agricul., 1750-1826. 
 
 MAURICE of Nassau, prince of Orange, one 
 of the founders of the Dutcb republic, was the son 
 of William I., prince of Orange, and was about 
 eighteen years of age when the latter was assas- 
 einated in 1584. It is explained in the article 
 William how the revolt of the Netherlands 
 against Spain was occasioned by the resolve of 
 Philip to domineer over the protestant freedom of 
 the country by the introduction of the inquisition. 
 It is sufficient to add here, that the death of the 
 stadtholder was followed by the re-annexation of 
 the southern provinces to the Spanish crown, 
 while the northern raised Maurice to the stadthol- 
 dership, and refused the treacherous peace that was 
 offered to them by the duke of Parma. From his 
 accession to power in 1584 till 1609, Maurice 
 continued the war of independence, the comman- 
 ders opposed to him being Count Mansfeldt, the 
 duke of Parma, the archduke Albert, or, strictly 
 speaking, Albert's wife, Isabella, (* the only man 
 in her family'), and last of all Spinola. After the 
 capture of Ostend on the one side, and the strong 
 fortress of Slnyfs on the other, and repeated proofs 
 that, in the persons of Maurice and Spinola, two 
 of the greatest masters of war were opposed to 
 each other, Spain offered to treat with the united 
 provinces on the basis of their independence, and 
 in 1609 a truce of twelve years was agreed upon. 
 In this interval the Dutch republic made immense 
 progress, but all the fruits of liberty were distaste- 
 ful to Maurice, whose tendencies were to absolute 
 authority, supported by his religious zeal for the 
 strictest form of Calvinism. Accordingly, in the 
 Arminian controversy it suited his purpose to 
 favour Gomarus, and in 1618, the synod of Dort 
 being convened, which determined in favour of 
 1 Predestination,' he arrested the chiefs of the op- 
 
 MAX 
 
 posite party, and sent Barneveklt, the p< 
 statesman, to the block, while Ledenberg es 
 the rack by stabbing himself, and the 1< 
 Grotius was consigned to perpetual imprison 
 The remainder of Maurice's life was such 
 Neophyte of blood deserved. The two s< 
 Barneveldt stirred up popular commotions 
 venge the death of their aged father, and fol 
 him to the scaffold in 1623. In 1621, ala 
 truce with Spain had expired, and Spinola rei 
 the war with such superior strength, that he 
 pelled Maurice, weakened by intestine divj 
 to act on the defensive. He now sunk und 
 mortifications, and died at the Hague, while 
 was invested by the enemy, in 1625, leavin 
 conduct of the war to his" brother and succ 
 Frederick, whom he advised with his last I 
 to recall the Arminians. 
 
 MAURICE, Thomas, an Oriental schola 
 historian, was descended from a respectable 1 
 family, and was born at Hertford, 1753. H 
 a minister of the Church of England, and 
 tant- librarian at the British Museum, wh 
 died 1824. His principal works relate b 
 history and antiquities of Hindostan. 
 
 MAURISIO, G., an Italian chronicler, 131 
 
 MAURUS, H., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1632- 
 
 MAURUS, T., a Roman poet, 1st century 
 
 MAURY, Jean Siffrein, a French car 
 political orator and literateur, was born of i 
 family in 1746, and was distinguished for hi 
 quence as a preacher and eulogist before the 
 lution. In 1789 he was sent to the esi 
 general as deputy for the clergy of Peronn< 
 took part with the noblesse and the Ga 
 church against Mirabeau. In 1791 he retu 
 Rome, and in 1794 was made a cardinal. In 
 he returned to Paris, and having tendered hie 
 mission to Napoleon, became, four years 
 wards, archbishop of Paris. He again & 
 safety in Rome on the fall of the emperor in 
 and died there 1817. 
 
 MAUSSAC, P, J. De, a French hel 
 and classical critic, 1590-1650. 
 
 MAUVILLON, Eleazar, an Italian hisb 
 secretary to Frederick Augustus, king of Pt 
 1712-1779. His son, James, an historical ^ 
 and friend of Mirabeau, 1743-1794. 
 
 MAVOR, William Fordyce, a Se 
 clergyman of the Church of England, auth 
 many works, the subjects of which are addi 
 to the education of youth, 1758-1838. 
 
 MAWE, Joseph, a master of the scienc 
 mineralogy and conchology, author of a 'Tr 
 on Diamonds and Precious Stones,' 'Familial 
 sons on Mineralogy and Geology,' ' The Lin 
 System of Conchology,' &c, b. abt. 1755, d. 
 
 MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Va 
 ius, one of six contemporary emperors of I 
 reigned 306-312. 
 
 MAXIMIANUS, Galerius Valeriu 
 shepherd of Dacia, who became emperor o 
 East, 305-311. 
 
 MAXIMIANUS, Marcus Auremis Va 
 ius Herculius, a Roman soldier, who be 
 colleague of Diocletian in the empire 286. 
 endeavoured to murder his rival Constantir 
 whom he had given his daughter Faustina in 
 riage, and being frustrated by the fidelity o 
 
 478 
 
MAX 
 
 r, strangled himself 310. He was the father 
 contemporary of Maxentius. 
 AXIMILIAN, a saint, martyred 295. 
 AXIMILIAN I., emperor of Germany, son of 
 emperor Frederic III., and of Eleonora of 
 agal was born 1459. He first became an 
 indent prince by his marriage with Mary of 
 undy, the daughter of Charles Le Temeraire 
 'killed 1477. This match involved him 
 jar with Louis XI., king of France, in which 
 as successful, though he was defeated at a 
 period by the Milanese. In 1486 Maximilian 
 ilected king of the Romans, in 1493 emperor. 
 '.ed in 1516, and was succeeded by his grand- 
 harles V. Maximilian II., son of Ferdi- 
 I., was born at Vienna 1527, elected king of 
 tomans 1562, and succeeded his father as 
 of Hungary and Bohemia, and emperor of 
 1564. Died 1576. 
 IMILIAN, a duke of Milan, 16th cent. 
 IMILIAN, the name of three sovereign 
 of Bavaria. 1. Emmanuel Maximilian, 
 d elector, known to history from 1685 to 
 h in 1726. 2. Leopold Maximilian, 
 and elector, succeeded 1746, died 1777. 3. 
 lian Joseph, king of Bavaria, born 
 crowned 1799, married his daughter to 
 Beauharnais, son of Josephine, and had his 
 raised to a kingdom 1806, joined the league 
 France 1813. Died 1825. 
 IMINUS, Caius Julius Verus, a herds- 
 Thrace, born of Gothic parents, who became 
 of Rome 235, killed by his troops 238. 
 MINUS, Caius Galerius Valerius, 
 ian peasant, known by the name of Daia, 
 who was named Caesar by the influence 
 wicle Galerius 305, and proclaimed emperor 
 five others had already assumed the purple 
 ned himself after his deft, by Licinius 313. 
 US, Clodius Pupienus, a Roman 
 proclaimed emperor by the senate along 
 cimus Cselius Balbinus, in opposition to 
 us, 237, killed along with Balbinus 238. 
 MUS, Magnus, a Roman soldier, pro- 
 emperor in Britain, and afterwards ac- 
 d in Gaul and all the West 383, k. 388. 
 IUS, Petronius, a noble Roman who 
 emperor under peculiar and tragical cir- 
 in 455, after he had been three times 
 prsefect of Italy, and twice consul, 
 year mentioned, Valentinian III. having 
 " * an outrage upon the wife of Maximus, 
 sinated at his instigation, and the latter 
 his successor by the unanimous voice of 
 in people. In less than three months 
 he was murdered in the streets for 
 lg to fly on the appearance of the fleet 
 ic, king of the Vandals. [E.R.] 
 
 IMUS, St., the first of the name, an 
 i of Lombard, and bishop of Turin, 5th cen- 
 [The second, a theological writer, died 662. 
 IUS the Cynic, a pagan theurgist, 
 Int of the emperor Julian, 4th century. 
 ""IUS the Greek, an ecclesiastical $a- 
 at Moscow 15th century. 
 IIS of Turin, a bp. of that see, 5th c. 
 IMUS of Tyre, a Phoenician philosopher, 
 ished at Athens in the 2d century. 
 fELL, Sir M., a naval comman., d. 1831. 
 
 MAZ 
 
 MAXvVELL, Robert, Lord, one of the lords 
 of the regency for James V. of Scotland, d. 1546. 
 
 MAXWELL, W. H., a lively English novelist, 
 author of ' Wild Sports of the West,' &c, d. 1851. 
 
 MAY, Louis Du, a French historian, 17th ct. 
 
 MAY, Thomas, a republican poet and historian 
 of the parliament of England, 1594-1650. 
 
 MAYENNE, Charles of Lorraine, duke 
 of, son of Francis, duke of Guise, a famous French 
 commander in the interest of the catholics, 1554- 
 1611. His son, Henry, chamberlain of France, 
 and governor of Guienne, born 1578, killed at the 
 siege of Montauban, 1621. 
 
 MAYER, Andrew, a Germ, astron., 1716-82. 
 
 MAYER, C, a Jesuit and astronomer, 1719-83. 
 
 MAYER, J. C. A., a Prussian anat., 1747-1801. 
 
 MAYER, J. F., a German theolog., 1650-1712. 
 
 MAYER, Tobias, a German astron., 1723-62. 
 
 MAYET, S., a German writer, 1751-1825. 
 
 MAYNARD, F., a French poet, 1582-1646. 
 
 MAYNARD, Sir John, a lawyer and member 
 of parliament, one of the managers of the trials of 
 the earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud, 1602-90. 
 
 MAYNE, Jasper, an eminent clergyman, who 
 amused himself as a wit and plavwright, d. 1672. 
 
 MAYNE, John, a Scotch poet, died 1836. 
 
 MAYNO, J. B., a Spanisli artist, 1594-1654. 
 
 MAYNWARING, Arthur, a political and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, time of William III., 1668-1712. 
 
 MAYO, Herbert, M.D., an English physio- 
 logist, died 1852. 
 
 MAYOR, Thomas, a Spanish friar, 17th cent. 
 
 MAYOW, John, a physician and physiological 
 writer, author of works on respiration and the 
 muscular motion of animal bodies, 1645-1679. 
 
 MAYR, G., a German Hebraist, 1565-1623. 
 
 MAYR, J. De, a German adventurer, 1716-59. 
 
 MAYRE, J., a Jesuit and poet, 1628-1694. 
 
 MAZARIN, Julius, an ecclesiastic and states- 
 man, was born at Piscina, in the Abruzzi, in the 
 year 1602. He was educated for the church, and 
 in 1641 received a cardinal's hat. His name is 
 conspicuous in the history of Europe as prime 
 minister of France in the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. But he merely occupied a place created 
 by the powerful genius of Richelieu, who in crush- 
 ing the aristocracy, left to whoever should be 
 prime minister of France during the minority of 
 Louis XIV., one of the most important positions 
 in Europe. Mazarin had to support the crown 
 and the cause of Anne of Austria, during the 
 miserable war of the Fronde, and he was at one 
 juncture obliged to flee for personal safety. Had 
 he been even as able a man as his predecessor, it 
 could not have been expected that he should go- 
 vern as a native Frenchman could, and perhaps 
 nothing better proves how effectively Richelieu had 
 subdued the discordant elements in France, than 
 that an Italian should be able to govern the 
 country. Mazarin died on the 9th of March, 
 1661. [J.H.B.] 
 
 MAZ DAK, a Persian communist, who com- 
 menced his agitation about 501, and was put to 
 death after making a convert of the king Khobad. 
 
 MAZEAS, J. M., a Fr. mathemat., 1716-1801. 
 
 MAZELINE, P., a French sculptor, 1632-1708. 
 
 MAZEPPA, John, the f;imous hetman of the 
 Cossacks, whose name has been rendered familiar 
 as one of Byron's heroes, was a native of the pala- 
 
 479 
 
MAZ 
 
 tinate of Podolia, and for some time a page at the 
 court of John Casimir. Being discovered m an in- 
 trigue with the wife of a Polish gentleman, the latter 
 hound him on the back of one of the wild horses of 
 the Ukraine, which carried him to the country of 
 the Cossacks, with whom he remained, and in 
 1687 became their chief commander. He was a 
 favourite of Peter the Great, who gave him the 
 title of prince, but growing tired of the Russian 
 yoke. Mazeppa allied himself with Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, ana advised him to fight the disastrous 
 battle of Pultowa. After his defeat he retired to 
 Wallachia, and thence to Bender, where he d. 1709. 
 
 MAZET, Andrew, a Fr. physician, 1793-1821. 
 
 MAZO-MARTINEZ, J. B. Del, paint, to Philip 
 IV. of Spain, and pupil of Velasquez, died 1G87. 
 
 MAZOIS. F., a French architect, 1783-1827. 
 
 MAZURE, F. A. J., a Fr. histor., 1776-1828. 
 
 MAZZA, Andrew, an Ital. savant, 1724-1797. 
 
 MAZZA, Angelo, an Italian poet, 1741-1817. 
 
 MAZZHINGI, Joseph, Count, an eminent 
 opera composer, descended from a family of Tus- 
 cany, but born of an English mother in England, 
 1765, died at Bath 1844. 
 
 MAZZOCCHI, A. S., an It. antiq., 1684-1771. 
 
 MAZZUCCHELLI, The Count Giammaria, 
 an Italian librarian, known as a literary bio- 
 grapher and writer on antiquity, 1707-1765. 
 
 MAZZUCCHELLI, The Abbe P., a philologist 
 and antiquarian of Milan, flourished 1762-1829. 
 
 MAZZUCCHELLI, The Chevalier Pier 
 Francesco, called II Morazzone, an Italian pain- 
 ter in the style of Tintoretto, 1571-1626. 
 
 MAZZUOLI, Francesco, a celebrated Italian 
 painter, called Parmiziano, or the Parmesian, 
 from his native city, 1503-1540. His cousin and 
 scholar, Girolamo, died about 1590. 
 
 MAZZUOLI, J., a painter of Ferrara, d. 1589. 
 
 MEAD, Richard, physician to George II., 
 known as a professional writer, 1673-1754. 
 
 MEADOWCOURT, Richard, a divine and 
 critic, author of Notes on Milton, 1697-1769. 
 
 MEARA. See O'Meara. 
 
 MEARES, J., an English navigator in 1788-89. 
 
 MECHAIN, Pierre Francis Andre, a dist. 
 French astronomer and mathematician, 1774-1805. 
 
 MEDARD, St., a Fr. prelate, flour. 457-545. 
 
 MEDE, Joseph, a English divine, 1586-1638. 
 
 MEDER, P. J., a Russian mineralog., 1763-1826. 
 
 MEDICI. The illustrious Florentine family of 
 this name begins with Salvestro, who enjoyed 
 the rank of gonfalonier from 1378 to his banish- 
 ment in 1381. John, his son and successor, dis- 
 tinguished for his commercial enterprise, and for 
 promoting the interests of the republic, flourished 
 1360-1428. Cosmo, one of the sons of the latter, 
 born in 1389, and known as 'the father of his 
 country,' acquired immense wealth and influence, 
 and laid, the foundation of his reputation by the 
 munificent patronage of letters, and the conjunc- 
 tion of consummate statesmanship with his com- 
 mercial enterprise. Many of the first Tuscan 
 families combined against him, but he overcame 
 all rivalry, and was for thirty-four years the sole 
 arbitrator of the republic, and the adviser of the 
 sovereign houses of Italy ; died 1464. Peter I., 
 his son and successor, was born 1414, and became 
 the victim of a revolt in 1469. Lorenzo the 
 Magnificent, son and successor of Peter, was 
 
 MED 
 
 born 1448, and governed the state in con 
 with his brother Julian, till the latter wai 
 sinated by the Pazzi in 1478. Escapii 
 this massacre he sustained a war with Ft 
 of Naples, with whom he signed a detinitn 
 in 1480. He then devoted himself to t 
 secution of plans for the advancement of 
 and the arts, revived the Academy of Pisa, 
 another at Florence, collected a vast tre 
 literature, and founded a gallery of art, i: 
 the taste of Michelangelo was formed tu 
 patronage. He died universally beloved a 
 oured, in the zenith of his renown 1492. 
 has been written by Roscoe. He had tin 
 John, who became pope, (see Leo X.), 
 and Peter. The latter, Peter II., succee( 
 enzo, and was deprived of his estates w 
 French invaded Italy in 1494. He finis 
 career in the service of France, and was i 
 1504, leaving two sons, Lorenzo and Cosm 
 lian II., brother and successor of Peter, a 
 in favour of Lorenzo 1513, and became dtu 
 mours by his marriage with the aunt of Fi 
 He died 1516. Lorenzo II., eldest son < 
 II., came to power by the abdication of hi 
 and governed under the influence of Leo 
 invested him with the duchy of Urbino. 
 1519, leaving an only daughter. (See Mil 
 Medicis). After some reverses we find th 
 re-established in the sovereignty of Florenc 
 the influence of Charles V., with the title ( 
 The first was Alexander, proclaimed du 
 stabbed by his relative Lorenzino, after p 
 his cousin Hippolytus 1537. Lorknzin 
 derer of Alexander, was assassinated at V 
 order of Cosmo I., 1548. (See Catheb 
 Medici). Cosmo I., called ' The Great,' 
 Florence, and grand duke of Tuscany, was 
 of John the Invincible, descended from ] 
 and was born 1519. He was raised to p 
 the influence of Charles V., and abdicate 
 vour of his son 1564. In 1569 he becair 
 duke of Tuscany, and died 1574. I 
 Maria, son and successor of Cosmo, ft 
 1541-1587. Ferdinand I., brother and 
 sor of the latter, was also cardinal and gra 
 of Tuscany, 1551-1609. Cosmo II., son i 
 cessor of Ferdinand, 1590-1621. Ferdhtj 
 son and successor of Cosmo II., 161 
 Cosmo III., son and successor of IVnlii 
 1642-1723. John Gaston, son a 
 the latter, was the last of the Medici who 
 over Tuscany, being compelled to abdic 
 make way for Francis II., duke of Lorrain 
 
 freat powers. He flourished 1G7 1-173 
 aughter, Anne, wife of John "William, 
 Palatine, was the last of the famil 
 
 MEDICI, The Chevalier Don Luid 
 statesman of Naples, was born 1751, and 
 became director of the police. From this) 
 made his way to the ministry, and in tin 
 Joseph Buonaparte, followed the fortund 
 Bourbons. The arrest of Murat, the pu 
 of Naples, and the struggles with the Cj 
 were among the circumstances in whiclj 
 came a distinguished actor. In 1818 hi 
 a fugitive at Rome, but was in power 
 1824, and assisted in delivering the kingd 
 the Austrian occupation. Died 1830. 
 
 480 
 
MED 
 IMEDICUS, F. C, aBavar. botanist, 1736-1808. 
 iMEDINA, G. B., a Flemish painter, 1660-1711. 
 iMEDINA, J. De., a Span, ecclesiastic, d. 1556. 
 iMEDINA, Sir J., a portrait painter, 1659-1711. 
 'MEDINA, M. De, a Spanish friar, 16th cent. 
 MEDINA, P. De, a Span, mathemat, 16th ct. 
 'MEDINA, S. J. P. De, a Span, poet, 17th cent. 
 JMEDINA-SIDONIA, Gaspard Alonzo Pe- 
 \z De Guzman, duke of, governor of Anda- 
 jia in the reign of Philip IV., noted for his at- 
 hpt to render himself independent in 1640. For 
 tiers of the family, see Guzman. 
 .IEDYN, Abon, an Arabian savant, died 1193. 
 j,IEEL, J., a Flemish painter, 1599-1644. 
 IEEN, H., a divine and class, scholar, 1745-1817. 
 ilEEREN, or MEER, John Van De, called 
 lie Old,' a Dutch painter of sea-pieces, land- 
 Kes, and battles, 1627-1691. Another painter 
 She same names, called ' the Younger,' and fa- 
 wifi for his pastoral scenes. 1665-1698. 
 [EGASTHENES, a Gr. historian, 3d cent. e.c. 
 IfEGERLIN, D. F., a Ger. theologian, d. 1778. 
 ItEGISER, J., a Germ, philologist, 1555-1616. 
 llEHEGAN, William Alexander De, de- 
 luded from an Irish family who went into France 
 It James II., distinguished as an elegant mis- 
 Uneous writer, 1721-1766. 
 IJEHEMET ALI, born in 1765 at Cavalla, in 
 11 part of European Turkey which was for- 
 Macedonia, He entered the Turkish army, 
 red in Egypt against the French. He rose 
 ;es in military rank and political impor- 
 that country ; and at length in 1806 he 
 __jd the post of pacha of Egypt from the 
 i'g government. He finally broke the power 
 i Mamelukes ; and by treacherously inviting 
 | to a festival as friends, he obtained an oppor- 
 j, of which he mercilessly availed himself, to 
 re the last of these formidable cavaliers in 
 He carried on by his sons several cam- 
 in behalf of the sultan against the Waha- 
 " els in Arabia ; and he afterwards sent 
 under his son, Ibrahim Pacha, to the 
 who gave important aid to the Turks in 
 eek war of independence. In 1830 he ob- 
 from the sultan the government of the 
 I of Candia; and he next endeavoured to make 
 master of Syria, which Sultan Mahomed 
 him. He sent a large army to that 
 nt province, and he was thereupon declared 
 bv the Porte, and the Turkish armies were 
 unst him. Mehemet Ali's troops had been 
 ly trained by European officers, and they 
 sultan's in every encounter. Peace was 
 tween the powerful viceroy of Egypt and 
 liated sovereign in 1833, by the interven- 
 the chief states of Europe. Hostilities 
 |out again between them in 1839 ; and, as 
 the Egyptian forces were uniformly vie- 
 over the Turkish. The armed interposi- 
 the English, and the capture of Acre and 
 fortresses on the Syrian coast by our 
 the guidance of Admiral Napier, com- 
 leheiuct AH to come to terms again with 
 , He was obliged to give up Syria ; but 
 [itarv pashalic of Egypt was secured to 
 his children. Mehemet Ali was free from 
 he was an earnest admirer of European 
 and he strove to introduce it among 
 
 MEL 
 
 his Egyptian subjects. He showed a rare degree 
 of higli-mindedness and generosity in 1840, by 
 allowing the English mails and travellers to and 
 from India, to pass unmolested as usual through 
 his dominions, at the very time our fleet were 
 blockading his capital, Alexandria, and were de- 
 stroying his fortresses and garrisons in Syria. Me- 
 hemet Ali died in 1848. [E.S.C.] 
 
 MEHEMET-EFFENDI, a Turkish statesman, 
 known as plenipotentiary of the Sublime Porte at 
 the treaty of Passarovitz 1718, and ambassador to 
 France 1720. He was exiled after the deposition 
 of Achmet III., 1730. His son, Said, ambassa- 
 dor to France in 1742, introduced the printing 
 press, which he established at Scutari. 
 
 MEHUL, S. H., a Fr. composer, 1763-1817. 
 
 MEHUS, L., an Italian philologist, died 1791. 
 
 MEIBOM, or MEIBOMIUS, the name of several 
 learned Germans : 1. John Henry, a publicist 
 and annalist, 1555-1625. 2. His son, of the same 
 names, a physician and professional writer, 1590- 
 1655. 3. Henry, son of the latter, a physician 
 and historian, 1638-1700. 4. Mark, a relative of 
 the preceding, an antiquar. and Hebraist, 1630-1711. 
 
 MEIER, J., a Prussian philologist, 1661-1732. 
 
 MEIGRET, L., a Fr. grammarian, born 1510. 
 
 MEINER, J. W., a Bavar. philologist, 1723-89. 
 
 MEINERS, C., a Germ, historian, 1747-1810. 
 
 MEINTEL, J. G., a Ger. theologian, 1695-1775. 
 
 MEISNER, B., a German divine, 1587-1626. 
 
 MEISSNER, A. T., a Ger. novelist, 1753-1807. 
 
 MELA, Pomponius, a Roman geographer, 1st c. 
 
 MELANCHTHON, Philip, was born at Bre- 
 theim, in the lower Palatinate, in 1497. His father 
 was an armourer, and his original German name was 
 Schwartzerd, which, in imitation of Reuchlin and 
 other learned men, he Grecized into Melanchthon, 
 or as he used, especially in his latter days, to spell 
 it, Melanthon. Both names denote ' black earth.' 
 After having studied at Pfortzheim for two years, 
 Philip removed to Heidelberg, where he became 
 bachelor of arts ; and on being refused a master- 
 ship, on account of his youth, he repaired to 
 Tubingen, where he became a lecturer. In 1518 he 
 received the high encomium of Erasmus, and, at 
 the instigation of Luther and Reuchlin, he was the 
 same year invited by Frederick, elector of Saxony, 
 to fill the chair of Greek in the recently founded 
 University of Wittemberg. At this seat of learning 
 he was at once under the mighty spirit and influ- 
 ence of his intrepid colleague Luther. His agency 
 in the great Reformation has been overshadowed 
 by that of Luther, but he was ever active and 
 industrious in his own humble and unosten- 
 tatious mode. In 1519 he accompanied Luther 
 to Leipzig, in order to dispute with Eckius, and 
 in 1521 he published his famous Loci Com- 
 munes, a treatise which in his own lifetime went 
 through sixty editions. In 1520 he married the 
 daughter of one of the burgomasters of Wittem- 
 berg, and by her had two sons and two daughters. 
 During the progress of the Reformation he visited 
 many cities, and was active in patronising semi- 
 naries of learning. Nor was his pen idle in the 
 cause ; and though his compositions had not the 
 overwhelming torrent of Luther's rhetoric, yet their 
 quiet, elegant, and self-possessed tone were not the 
 less useful in aiding the emancipation and progress 
 of Germany. He was as earnest as Luther to free 
 
 481 
 
 21 
 
MEL 
 
 theology from scholastic subtleties. There is no 
 doubt that many of the plans carried out by the 
 Reformers were the result of Melanchthon's wise 
 suggestions. His Greek scholarship was also of 
 continued and inestimable advantage to Luther in 
 his work of translating the Bible. His own com- 
 mentaries also show how his erudition qualified him 
 to be a lucid, accurate, and elegant expositor. In 
 1530 Melanchthon was appointed to draw up the 
 general Confession which was presented to the em- 
 peror at Augsburg, and he also wrote the Apology for 
 it. He was invited to dispute with the Sorbonne in 
 1535, but refused this invitation, as well as a similar 
 and subsequent one from England. After Luther's 
 death, Melanchthon was often sadly perplexed and 
 harassed. The famous measure of the Interim did 
 not find him disinclined to look upon it with a 
 kindly eye. Men of bolder character rallied him 
 on his irresoluteness, and pointed to his failures at 
 Worms, Ratisbon, and Bonn. His orthodoxy was 
 suspected, and he was blamed for the approxima- 
 tion of his views on the Lord's Supper to those of the 
 Swiss Reformers. These rough and unceremonious 
 assaults often plunged him into grief. Melanch- 
 thon died at Wittemberg, 19th April, 1568, aged 
 sixty-three. The amiability, gentleness, and be- 
 nignant purity of Melanchthon ; his zeal, learning, 
 and ingenuity, have placed him next to Luther as 
 an agent in the work of the Reformation. He 
 sometimes fretted at Luther's overbearing vehe- 
 mence, but he venerated its grounds ; and Luther, 
 though he might doubt the propriety of Philip's 
 procedure in some cases, and stigmatize it as mere 
 expediency, was won by his gentle demeanour and 
 unquestioned sincerity. These qualities, like the 
 4 still small voice,' often commended the new doc- 
 trine where the whirlwind and thunder had only 
 produced terror and revulsion. Melanchthon wrote 
 on many topics besides theology, such as commen- 
 
 [House of Melanchthon ] 
 
 MEL 
 
 edition printed at Basel in 1541. A new e 
 has been in course of preparation and publi< 
 for many years under the editorial care of Bn 
 neider ana Bindseil. The general title is C 
 L'eformatorum, and eighteen quarto volumes 
 alreadv appeared. 
 
 MELANDERHIELM, Daniel, a Swedisl 
 metrician and astronomer, 172(5-1810. 
 MELANTHUS, a Greek painter, 4th cent 
 MELBOURNE, William Lamp., Vise 
 the Whig statesman whose name and careei 
 familiar to the present generation, was bo: 
 1779, and commenced his political life in p 
 ment in 1805. The same year he marriei 
 Lady Caroline Ponsonby, known to literati 
 Lady Caroline Lamb, whose tastes were 
 genial with his own, and who shared with 
 the classical studies in which they were. 
 
 froficient. In 1827 he became "secretar 
 reland, and the next year, succeeding i 
 father's title, entered the House of Lords. 
 1830 he joined the administration of Earl 
 as home secretary, and in March, 1834, 
 ceeded him as premier. From the autumn o 
 same year to the spring of 1835, he was 
 planted by the duke of Wellington and Sir R 
 Peel, but at the latter period returned to p 
 and retained the premiership, with the exce 
 of a brief retirement in 1839, till the close t 
 public life in 1841. Great difference of op 
 prevails as to the statesmanship of Lord 
 bourne, but he held office during that most t 
 period when the Reform Bill was in agitation 
 it required no mean talents, however well 
 ported by party, to compete with such a state 
 as Sir Robert Peel during subsequent years, 
 was an accomplished gentleman, an a 
 panion, and a finished speaker Di< 
 MELCHTHAL, Arnold of. See Wixci 
 
 RIED. 
 
 MELDOLA, Dr. Raphael, principal ol 
 Jewish rabbis in England, celebrated as a th 
 gian and philosopher, died 1828. 
 MELEAGER, a Gr. epigrammatist, 1st c : 
 MELEAGP^R, one of the generals of Alexai 
 who obtained Lydia on the division of the em 
 slain by order of Perdicas, b.c. 323. 
 
 MELENDEZ-VALDEZ, Jean Antonio, 
 of the most celeb, lyric poets of Spain, 1754-1 
 MELETIUS, an Egyptian prelate, 4th ceir 
 MELETIUS, a Greek geographer, 1661-17 
 MELFORT, Duke De. See Di; 
 ME LI, Giovanni, a Sicilian poet, 1 7 1 - 1 - 
 MELISSINO, a Russian officer, 1730-1( 
 MELISSUS, an Eleatic philosop! 
 MELISSUS, Paul, a German pa 
 MELITO, St., a bishop of Sardia, 
 MELITUS, a Greek orator and poet, wh<J! 
 one of the principal accusers of Socrates. 
 MELIUS, Srurius, a Rom. knight, k. b cJ 
 MELLAN, C, a French designer, 1598-16] 
 MELLO, P. De, a Portug. states) 
 MELLON, Harriet, 
 
 country a 
 was introduced on the London stage 
 tanes on various Greek and Latin classics, and Brinsley Sheridan, and became celebr 
 some historical and philosophical treatises. His 1 marriage in 1814 with Thomas Coutts, 
 works were published at Wittemberg in 4 vols. 
 folio, in 1562 and subsequent years, and were re- 
 printed several times. There had been a previous 
 
 482 
 
 wealthy banker, and in 1827 with the duke cp 
 Albans. She died in 1837, leaving the bulk M 
 immense property to the granddaughter of hen 
 
MEL 
 
 hand, and youngest daughter of Sir Francis 
 rdett, now known as Miss Burdett Coutts. 
 IELMOTH, William, a learned bencher of 
 | coin's Inn, chiefly remembered as the author of 
 I digions work entitled ' The Great Importance 
 :i Religious Life,' 1666-1743. His son, of the 
 j e name, a classical transl. and poet, 1710-99. 
 IELOZZO, F., an Italian painter, loth cent. 
 lELVIL, Sir James, a Scottish statesman 
 I historian, attached to the person of Mary 
 irt. an. of ' Memoirs,' pub. in 1683, 1530-1606. 
 ffiLVILLE, Andrew, was the youngest of 
 i sons of Richard Melville of Baldovy, near 
 litrose, and was born on the 1st August, 1545. 
 in only two years old he lost his father, who 
 1 killed' at the battle of Pinkie, but his eldest 
 er took an affectionate charge of him. Placed 
 at the grammar school of Montrose, where 
 e great progress, especially in Latin, he en- 
 St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, in 1559, in 
 rteenth year. Having finished the usual 
 of study, he left the university in 1564, 
 distinguished reputation, departed to the 
 t, attended for two years the university of 
 and was then appointed a regent in the col- 
 f St. Marceon, when he was only twenty-one 
 age. Leaving the place after a siege, he 
 to Switzerland in a state of great fatigue 
 itution, and on arriving at Geneva, ob- 
 the chair of humanity in its academy. On 
 to Scotland in July, 1574, he was im- 
 chosen principal of Glasgow college by 
 al Assembly. His zeal, assiduity, and 
 this high position,were of vast profit to the 
 ed seminary. In 1580, he was translated 
 incipality of St. Mary's College, St. An- 
 where his labours were very abundant in 
 >rm of academic training and discipline, 
 attention was also, and chiefly, devoted to 
 1 affairs, and he heartily and vigorously 
 his convictions. On the subject of 
 government his views were strictly presby- 
 and the establishment of this form of co- 
 administration in Scotland was mainly 
 to his exertions and influence. Being 
 of the General Assembly, which met at 
 in 1582, he proceeded with an act of 
 in defiance of a royal message to desist. 
 ; at the next meeting of Assembly, he in- 
 severely against the tyrannous measures of 
 * and against those who had brought into 
 the ' bludie gullie ' of absolute power, 
 i charge led to a citation before the 
 1 for high treason, and though the 
 not proved, he was sentenced to im- 
 , Apprehensive that his life was really 
 he set out for London, and did not re- 
 north till the faction of Arran had been 
 At length he took his former place in 
 , and continued in hearty warfare for 
 of the church. For his share in the 
 son, the king dismissed him from 
 ty, and charged him to confine him- 
 the Water of Tay. The suspension, 
 only brief. On the arrival of James 
 from Denmark, Melville pronounced, 
 rds published, a Latin poem of high 
 d 4 Stephaniskion.' In 1590 Melville 
 rector of the university. In 1594 he 
 
 MEN 
 
 was again moderator of the General Assembly. 
 There was evidently after this time a strong desire 
 on the part of the king to make the kirk a mere 
 tool of political power, or to restore episcopacy. 
 Melville strenuously resisted every such attempt, 
 whether made in an open or clandestine form. A 
 tumult in Edinburgh was taken advantage of, 
 its ministers were severely dealt with, and by and 
 by Melville was prohibited from attending church 
 courts, and soon after confined within the precincts 
 of his college. After King James's accession to 
 the throne of England, Melville was summoned to 
 London, with several of his brethren, and severely 
 catechised and reprimanded by the royal pedant. 
 Melville enraged the king by some verses he 
 happened to write on the furniture of the royal 
 altar, was found guilty of scandalum magnafum, 
 finally imprisoned in the Tower, and deprived 
 of his principality. At length, after four years' 
 confinement, he was liberated, principally at the 
 request of the duke of Bouillon, who wished him 
 to occupy a chair in the university of Sedan. 
 Melville arrived there in 1611, entered on his 
 work with zeal, boldly refuted the Arminian- 
 ism of one of his colleagues, and in his seventy- 
 fourth year wrote a beautiful Epithalamium on 
 occasion of the marriage of a daughter of the ducal 
 house. Episcopal government had now been re- 
 stored in Scotland ; but the old man was still such 
 an object of terror that he was not recalled from 
 exile. In 1620 his health, which had been seri- 
 ously impaired during his incarceration in the 
 Tower, failed him, and he died at Sedan in 1622, 
 at the age of seventy-seven. Melville's Latin 
 poems, such as his ' Carmen Mosis,' and those men- 
 tioned already in this article, are classical produc- 
 tions of a high order. He was a scholar ana divine 
 also of no common attainments. He was active, 
 cheerful, bold, candid and devout, and his im- 
 petuosity often arose to sublimity, when he ap- 
 peared in excited vindication of his church and 
 country. Dr. M'Crie concludes his two interest- 
 ing volumes of Melville's life with the declaration : 
 ' I know of no individual, after her Reformer, 
 from whom Scotland has received greater benefits, 
 and to whom she owes a deeper debt of gratitude 
 and respect, than Andrew Melville.' [J.E.] 
 
 MELVILLE, Henry Dundas, Lord Viscount, 
 son of Robert Dundas, Lord Arniston, was born in 
 1740, and joined the administration of Mr. Pitt 
 when he obtained the reins of government, after 
 the death of the marquis of Rockingham. Lord 
 Melville followed the fortunes of his leader^ in or 
 out of office, as home secretary, secretary of war, 
 and first lord of the admiralty. He was impeached 
 for neglect of duty in the latter capacity at the in- 
 stance of Mr. Whitbread in 1805, but acquitted of 
 the charges by his peers. He retired from office, 
 however, and died in privacy 1811. 
 
 MELVILLE, R., a Scotch officer, 1723-1809. 
 
 MEMMI, S., an Italian painter, 1285-1345. 
 
 MEMMO, Marc-Ant., a Ven. doge, 1612-15. 
 
 MEMMO, Tribuno, a Venetian doge, 979-991. 
 
 MEMNON, a king of ^Ethiopia, age of Troy. 
 
 MEMNON, a Persian general, died 333 b.c. 
 
 MEMNON, a Greek historian, 1st or 2d cent. 
 
 MENA, J. De, a Spanish poet, 1412-1456. 
 
 MENA, P. Dk, a Spanish sculptor, 1620-1693. 
 
 MENA, P. G. De, a Spanish painter, 1600-74. 
 
 483 
 
MEN 
 MENAGE, Gili.es, a French ecclesiastic, cele- 
 brated for his learning and bel-esprit, and called by 
 Bayle ' The Varron of the 17th century,' was born 
 at Angers, 1613, and died at Paris 1692. He was 
 the protege of Cardinal de Retz, and the companion 
 of the finest spirits of his age. He is the author 
 of classical and philosophical works, poems, &c. 
 
 MENAGE, Mat., a'Fr. ecclesiastic, 1388-1446. 
 
 MENANDER, a celebrated Athenian poet, au- 
 thor of a great number of dramatic works, of which 
 only a few fragments remain extant, 342-299 B.C. 
 
 MENARD, Cl., a French historian, 1580-1652. 
 
 MENARD, F., a Fr. canonical wr., 1570-1623. 
 
 MENARD, Leon, a Fr. antiquary, 1706-1767. 
 
 MENARD, N. H., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1585-1644. 
 
 MENASSEH, Bex Israel, a learned rabbin 
 of Spain, author of ' The Conciliator,' in which 
 many apparent contradictions in the Sacred Scrip- 
 tures are harmonised, 1604-1659. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN, Dr. Felix Bartholdy, 
 was born at Hamburg, on the 3d of February, 1809. 
 His father, who was an eminent merchant, is re- 
 ported to have said that he was nothing more than 
 the son of one great man and father of another. 
 And this was in a great measure true. The grand- 
 father of the musician was Moses Mendelssohn, 
 who passed the greater part of his early life in 
 making copies of the Bible. The poor copyist, by 
 means of his talent, his indomitable perseverance, 
 and his incredible energy, soon became one of the 
 most illustrious philosophers in Germany. His 
 works, which were devoured with eagerness, soon 
 procured him a large fortune, which, bequeathed 
 to his family, insured them all the luxuries of life, 
 but did not corrupt their native goodness. Before 
 young Felix, the subject of this memoir, was six 
 years old, he gave extraordinary indications of a 
 genius for music, lie astonished all Berlin by his 
 precocious intellect, his docility, his obedience, and 
 his eagerness for the acquisition of knowledge of 
 all kinds, but more especially of that art in which he 
 afterwards made himself so consummate a master. 
 At eight years old he became a pupil of Berger on 
 the piano, and of Zelter for composition and har- 
 mony. Even at this early age, he read at first 
 sight the most difficult works of Handel, Sebastian 
 Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. He after- 
 wards studied the piano under Klein, Hummel, and 
 Moschelles. And he subsequently studied counter- 
 point under Cherubini, who augured the greatest 
 things of his pupil. Before he was nine years old, 
 his performance on the piano-forte was so aston- 
 ishing that his friends advised him to play in pub- 
 lic; and, in consequence, he made his debut at 
 Berlin hi 1819, where his success was most trium- 
 phant. At ten years of age he knew all the great 
 works of the masters named above ; and at twelve 
 he improvised upon a given theme in a style so 
 masterly, that old Goethe, the poet, shed tears and 
 embraced the young artist. In 1824 he first pub- 
 lished his compositions, which were four quartetts 
 and a sonata. In 1827, his opera, Die Hochzeit de 
 Camacho, was performed at Berlin, from which 
 period, up to the day of his death, he produced all 
 sorts of compositions with the most wonderful 
 rapidity, and all perfect in their kind, from the 
 ' Songs without Words,' to duets, songs, piano-forte 
 
 works, and up to the Oratorio. But all this while ! October (1847). It was an attack of an a] } 
 Mendelssohn did not devote his time exclusively nature. From that day until the 28th lie fj 
 
 484 
 
 MEN 
 
 to the study of music. He was well acqi 
 with natural philosophy, was an able draugli 
 and a proficient in almost all modern lan< 
 With English he was intimately acquaints 
 like all well-informed Germans, he was passii 
 fond of the works of Shakspeare. And thii 
 tion and profound knowledge of the grea 
 were reflected in the supplemental music M 
 composed for the ' Midsummer Night's Dre 
 which it is not too much to say that it is 
 respects worthy to be wedded to the in; 
 poetry which inspired it. This work was pei 
 in London, in 1830, when Mendelssohn coi 
 the orchestra. It caused an immense ser 
 In 1833, Mendelssohn was appointed musi 
 rector at Dusseldorf, which place he held 1 
 years, when he resigned and accepted the 
 director of the Gewanhouse concerts at I 
 At the musical festival at Dusseldorf, on i 
 of May, 1836, his grand Oratorio, St. Pa 
 first produced, which marked a new era 
 history of music. In 1835 he was in I 
 when he, at the Philharmonic Society, cob 
 the performance of his Symphony in A 
 During one of his visits to Britain, he made 
 to the West Highlands of Scotland, and i 
 talized his impressions of those wild and ro 
 islands, lochs, and mountains, by his overi 
 ' The Isles of Fingal.' His last and greatesl 
 ' Elijah,' was first produced in this country, 
 been performed at the Birmingham Music 
 tival, in August, 1846. It was subsequent 
 formed at Exeter Hall, London, in April, lb 
 afterwards at Gloucester Musical Festival 
 same year. While in England, he had the 
 of an invitation to visit the queen, op 
 occasion he received the most marked 
 of the esteem in which he was held by h 
 jesty and her royal Consort. It was at tl 
 gestion of the queen, who furnished hit 
 the theme, that Mendelssohn composed hi 
 tish Overture. Soon after this he went to S 
 land, to repose from the fatigues of stud 
 while there he heard of the death of a dea 
 loved sister, which event preyed hard upon hi 
 and was the beginning of those ailments 
 finally brought him to an early grave, 
 languishing in grief in Switzerland, he wr< 
 first act of an opera, 'Lorelei,' which, wit! 
 other posthumous works, has been publishe 
 his demise. During this period he was adv 
 his medical attendants to abstain from all 
 labour. He had been afflicted with two str 
 paralysis, and his physician feared that 
 would prove fatal, but he could not pause. 
 was with him a law of his being. Mend 
 could not five and be idle, and there is ] 
 doubt that the labour he imposed upon hi 
 had a large share in the cause of his deatl 
 Moschelles published in the Morning 
 Thursday, November 12, the following nit 
 account of the last moments of Mend' 
 which will appropriately close this brief! 
 of the life of one of the greatest and m| 
 ginal musicians that ever lived : 
 felt the first approach of the nialady| 
 ultimately terminated his life on the j 
 
MEN 
 
 red moments of ease and relapses. During this 
 iod he felt sufficiently well to take several car- 
 tee airings. On the 28th, when in full convales- 
 ce, a second attack occurred, but this was of 
 M duration. He promptly recovered his senses, 
 | his strength returned. Notwithstanding this, 
 pelt severe attacks of headache, and could not 
 Ip for three or four days. During the nights of 
 H 2d and 3d of November his sleep returned, and 
 slept seven hours consecutively. Upon his 
 iking on the morning of the 3d, he felt quite 
 E and his family had sanguine hopes of his re- 
 c ry. He remained thus during the forenoon ; 
 I at two o'clock he had a relapse, and a third 
 pervened more violent and more prolonged 
 tn any of the former ones. He recovered con- 
 iflasness but slowly, after bleeding, application of 
 fees, and vigorous friction. He was attended 
 vbr. Clarus and Dr. Hammer of Leipzig. Mes- 
 wers had been sent for Dr. Schbnbeinof Berlin, 
 Use arrival was waited for with intense anxiety, 
 "he did not come. The night passed in alterna- 
 of agitation and tranquillity. Mendelssohn 
 . all persons present, but spoke little. On 
 ig of the 4th his state caused the most 
 inquietude. The directors of the ' Gewan- 
 ' decided on putting off the concert which 
 Ito have taken place that evening. At the se- 
 hour the sufferer became insensible, and gave 
 signs of life than a strong and equal re- 
 All the efforts of the medical men to 
 sight and hearing were useless. From six 
 it o'clock blisters and violent frictions were 
 ited, but without success. In the meantime 
 ires changed with frightful rapidity. At 
 eight his respiration became feebler it 
 lent that his end was near. At last, at 
 'clock on the 4th, alengthened sigh announced 
 lendelssohn had rendered up his soul to his 
 . Near his bed were his wife, his brother, 
 ro doctors, Mr. Schleinitz, Mr. David, and 
 All Leipzig is in mourning.' On the after- 
 of the 7th of November, 1847, his funeral 
 lies were performed with great pomp in the 
 l's church at Leipzig, preparatory to the 
 1 of his remains to their last resting-place at 
 The works of Mendelssohn, which were 
 previous to his death, were one opera, 
 ?s, two symphonies, three quartetts, 
 atettes, two sonatas, a concerto for the 
 a psalm, ' Non nobis,' an Ave Maria' 
 lit voices, six books of songs without 
 i two phantasias, three chorales, and number- 
 hried themes, songs, duets, capriccios, &c, 
 je piano-forte, and his two imperishable orato- 
 jSt. Paul' and 'Elijah.'^ Among his MSS., 
 | of which have been published since his death, 
 m overture and symphony, several chorales, 
 falpurgis Night,' cantatas, an operatta, 'The 
 1 Stranger,' some sacred pieces, and music 
 to 'Antigone,' and the '(Edipus Colon- 
 Mendelssohn left behind him a wife and 
 in. His loss was mourned wherever 
 as studied, and wherever his works were 
 And every hour since his death his great- 
 becoming more and more appreciated, and 
 rks bid fair to become what they ought to 
 most prized and popular of all the classical 
 Jof the great masters. [J.M.] 
 
 MEN 
 
 MENDELSSOHN, Moses, a Jewish philoso- 
 pher and moralist, who holds high rank among the 
 literati of Germany, and has been dignified with 
 the title of the Jewish Socrates, 1729-1786. 
 
 MENDEZ, Moses, an English poet, died 1758. 
 
 MENDEZ-PINTO, Ferdinand, a Portuguese, 
 who sailed for the Indies in 1537, and being taken by 
 the Moors did not return to his country until 1558. 
 The relation of his adventures is as curious and ex- 
 travagant as that of the Englishman, Mandeville. 
 
 MENDOZA, Antonio Hurtado De, a Por- 
 tuguese poet, statesman, and member of the inqui- 
 sition, died 1631. Andreo, a member of the same 
 familv, distinguished as a general, 1579-1606. 
 
 MfiNDOZA, B. De, a Span, historian, 16th c 
 
 MENDOZA, Diego Hurtado De, a Spanish 
 diplomatist, historian, and man of letters, 1503-75. 
 
 MENDOZA, Inigo Lopez De, first Marquis 
 de Santillana, a dist. poet of Castile, 1398-1458. 
 
 MENDOZA, J. G., a Spanish divine, auth. of a 
 Hist, of China, where he was ambassador in 1584. 
 
 MENDOZA, P. G. De, cardinal of Sp., 1428-95. 
 
 MENEDEMAS, an eleatic philos., 4th cen. B.C. 
 
 MENELAUS, a geometr. of Alexandria, 1st c. 
 
 MENENIUS-AGRIPPA, See Agrippa. 
 
 MENGOLI, P., an Ital. geometrician, 1625-86. 
 
 MENGOTTI, F., an Italian engineer, last cent. 
 
 MENGOZZI, B., an Ital. composer, 1758-1800. 
 
 MENGS, Antony Raphael, an eminent 
 Bohemian painter, born at Aussig 1728, became 
 painter to the king 1746, professor 1754, painter 
 to the king of Spain 1761, and principal of the 
 Academy of St. Luke in Florence 1769. Besides 
 works of art, consisting both of easel pictures and 
 frescoes, he is author of valuable treatises on sub- 
 jects connected with the principles of painting, 
 and the characters of the great masters. He was 
 an intimate friend of Winckelmann. Died 1779. 
 
 MENG-TSEU, a Chinese philosopher, 4th c. b.c. 
 
 MENINSKI, Fr. Mesgnien, anOrientalscholar, 
 in the service of the Polish and Austrian govern- 
 ments, 1623-1698. 
 
 MENIPPUS, a Phoenician cynic, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 MENIUS, F., a learned Swede, died 1659. 
 
 MENJOT, Ant., a Fr. physician, 1615-1696. 
 
 MENLOES, D., a Swed. nat. philos., 17th cent. 
 
 MENNANDER, C. F., a Swed. prelate, last c. 
 
 MENNES, orMENNIS, Sir John, a military 
 and naval commander, and member of the govern- 
 ment after the restoration, kn. as a poet, 1598-1671. 
 
 MENNO, called Simonis, or Simonson, from 
 his parentage, a famous anabaptist, founder of the 
 Mennonites, in the Low Countries, 1496-1561. 
 
 MENOCHIUS, or MENOCHIO, James, an 
 Italian jurisconsult, 1531-1607. His son, John 
 Stephen, a learned Jesuit, author of a Scripture 
 Commentary, &c, 1576-1655. 
 
 MENODORUS, an Athenian sculptor, 1st cent. 
 
 MENOU, James Francis, Baron De, a French 
 general and deputy of the noblesse to the states- 
 general, 1750-1810. 
 
 MENSCHIKOFF, Alexander, the son of a 
 Russian peasant, who rose to be a distinguished 
 general and statesman, 1674-1729. 
 
 MENTEL, John, the oldest printer of Stras- 
 burg, originally a writer and illuminator of MSS., 
 for whom the invention of printing was claimed by 
 his descendant, James Mentel, flourished 1410- 
 1478. The latter, a learned physician, 1597-1671. 
 
 485 
 
MEN 
 
 MENTZEL, C, a German botanist, 1622-1701. 
 
 MENZ, Fred., a Ger. antiquarian, 1680-1749. 
 
 MENZEL, Fred. William, a traitor to the 
 court of Saxonv, where he acted as cabinet secre- 
 tary, 1726-171)6. 
 
 MENZINI, B., an Italian poet, 1646-1704. 
 
 MENZOCEHI, F., an Ital. painter, 16th cent. 
 
 MERANO, F., a Genoese painter, 1620-1657. 
 
 MERAT, L. G., a French botanist, 1712-1790. 
 
 MERCATI, J. B., an Ital. engraver, 17th cent. 
 
 MERCATI, M., an Ital. naturalist, 1541-lf>93. 
 
 MERCATOR, Gerakd, a native of Flanders, 
 distinguished as a mathematician and geographer, 
 especially for the method of laying down charts 
 and maps which goes by his name. This plan, 
 useful in navigation, represents the surface of the 
 earth projected on a plane, so that all the meri- 
 dians and parallels are straight lines, 1512-1594. 
 
 MERCATOR, Marius, a friend of St. Augus- 
 tine, known as a controversial writer, 5th century. 
 
 MERCATOR, N., a Ger. mathema., died 1687. 
 
 MERCIER, Bartholomew, known in France 
 as the abbe* de St. Leger, a miscel. writ., 1734-99. 
 
 MERCIER, C, an ascetic writer, died 1680. 
 
 MERCIER, C. F. X., a French wr., 1763-1800. 
 
 MERCIER, John, a French Hebraist and com- 
 mentator, died 1572. His son, Josias, a learned 
 critic, died 1626. 
 
 MERCIER, L. S., a Fr. politician, 1740-1814. 
 
 MERCIER, N., a French grammarian, d. 1657. 
 
 MERCIER, of La Vendee, a royalist chief, and 
 camp marshal under the duke d'Artois, 1778-1800. 
 
 MERCOEUR, Eliza, a Fr. poetess, 1809-1835. 
 
 MERDDIN, a Welch poet, 6th century. 
 
 MERGEY, J. De, a Fr. commander, 1536-1615. 
 
 MERIAN, the name of a family of artists who 
 flourished in Basle, 17th and 18th centuries. Mat- 
 thew, an engraver, 1593-1651. His son, of the 
 same name, also an engraver, 1621-1687. Maria 
 Sibylla, sister of the latter, a painter and na- 
 turalist, celebrated for her work on flowers and 
 insects, 1647-1717. This accomplished lady was 
 married to Andrew Graaf, a painter and architect 
 of Nuremberg, by whom she had two daughters, 
 both skilled in drawing, and one of them in the 
 Hebrew language. Another member of the family, 
 John Matthew Merian, was distinguished as a 
 painter, and died 1716. 
 
 MERIAN, J. B., a German philos., 1723-1807. 
 
 MERIGHI, R., an Italian poet, 1658-1737. 
 
 MERLE, M. De, a Fr. commander, 1548-1589. 
 
 MERLIN, Ambrose, who has the reputation 
 of an enchanter in the romance of Chivalry, was a 
 British writer, who flourished towards the latter 
 end of the 5th century. He is said to have lived 
 in the court of King Arthur. The work attributed 
 to him is a book of prophecies, which have been 
 illustrated and compared with the English annals 
 by T. Heywood, 1641. 
 
 MERLIN, James, a French priest, died 1541. 
 
 MERLIN, John Joseph, an ingenious fo- 
 reigner, who long resided in London, and invented 
 several pieces of curious mechanism ; among these 
 was an automaton conjuror, the principal object 
 in his exhibition at Clerkenwell, which he en- 
 titled ' Merlin's Cave.' Died 1803. 
 
 MERLIN, P. A., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1754-1838. 
 
 MERLIN-OF-THIONVILLE, A. C, a member 
 of ths Fr. assembly and convention, 1762-1833. 
 
 MES 
 
 MERMET, C, a French poet, 1550-1602 
 MERMET, L. F. E., a Fr. author, 1763-' 
 MERODACH, a king of Babvlon, 8th cen 
 MEROVEUS, a king of the Franks, 448- 
 MERRET, Christopher, a native of Gl 
 tershire, known in London as a physician ar 
 turalist, 1614-1695. 
 
 MERRICK, James, a clergyman of the C 
 of England, chiefly known as a poet, and 
 by Bishop Lowth ' one of the best of me 
 most eminent of scholars,' 1720-1769. 
 MERRY, Robert, a poet and dramat., 17J 
 MERSCH, Van Der, a Flemish officer i 
 service of France, who became leader of th< 
 riots of Brabant in 1789. He afterwards i 
 in the interest of the Austrians, and died 17! 
 MERSENNE,or MERSENNUS, Mab 
 French ecclesiastic, celebrated as a mathemi 
 and philosopher, 1588-1648. 
 MERULA, G., an Italian savant, 1424-14 
 MERULA, P., a Dutch historian, 1558-11 
 MERY, F., a French ecclesiastic, died 172 
 MERY, J., a French anatomist, 1645-172 
 MERY, L., a controversial writer, 1727-1' 
 MERZ, James, a Swiss painter, 1783-180 
 MERZ, Ph. P., a German theologian, b. 1 
 MESCHINOT, J., a French poet, 1430-li 
 MESMER, Frederick Anthony, the 
 great promoter of animal magnetism, was a 
 man physician, born at Mersburg in Suabia, 
 His name belongs to that select class of 'CI 
 tans,' so called, who have the misfortune 1 
 nounce principles which they do not really u 
 stand themselves, but which are yet found i 
 ture, and who get abused beyond measure, be 
 they point out more than they can either e; 
 or support to the satisfaction of science. 
 career of Mesmer is soon related. In 1773- 
 attention as a physician was called to the co 
 sive movements by which a young lady i 
 Oesterline was periodically affected, and in 
 he published the theory, first suggested bi 
 case, in a treatise entitled ' De Planetarum Ini 
 A slight verbal inaccuracy in the statement o 
 theory may easily make it appear, at first viei 
 travagant, but fairly stated it is this : Th< 
 venly bodies, but especially the sun and moo: 
 upon all the elastic elements; thus, as is 
 known, they cause and direct the flux and i 
 of the sea and the atmosphere. The whoh 
 verse, however, is pervaded by an element 
 subtle than the air, which penetrates all b 
 to which the nervous systems of all animi 
 naturally respond as the eye to light, and h 
 periodical sway of which, the body is neces: 
 affected. Mesmer seems to have considered 
 subtle medium to be one and the same wit 
 magnetic element, and consequently to be ca 
 of concentration, transmission, and directioi 
 cording to the established laws of the magnet 
 he soon found in practice that he could magi 
 animal bodies as well as inert matter, by em 
 ing the same agencies. At this time one F 
 Hell was professor of astronomy at Vienna. 
 Mesmer employed his workmen, and pro 
 consulted the astronomer himself, to procui 
 most suitable magnets for his experiments. ^ 
 ever their respective shares may have been ii 
 matter, they were shortly at issue before the 
 
 486 
 
MES 
 
 lell claiming the discovery as his own. This 
 jMesmer to take higher ground, declaring that 
 magnets were not at all necessary to the 
 hut that they resulted from an action that 
 jper to animal bodies themselves. Disen- 
 . from his adversary by this step in advance, 
 "iscoverer memorialised the Academy of 
 es at Paris, the Royal Society of London, 
 the Academy of Berlin : the two former did 
 radescend to reply, and the latter in their an- 
 treated him as a visionary. About this time, 
 it was alleged that he had performed a 
 almost amounting to the miraculous, upon a 
 loiselle Paradis, who was suffering from 
 serena and convulsive movements of the 
 -the case, however, has been disputed, it 
 known that the lady was quite blind in 
 ; the probability is, that the effects were 
 sroduced, but were not permanent. Disre- 
 by the learned bodies to whom he had ad- 
 " himself, and treated as a juggling impostor 
 professional brethren, Mesmer removed 
 [Vienna to Paris in 1778, and soon acquired a 
 "dus popularity by his marvellous cures, and 
 large sums of money subscribed by his 
 It must be supposed that his deter- 
 was to rise by his discovery, and to estab- 
 elf in a position which he" might be able 
 as the master of a school devoted to the 
 and to effect this he allowed it to be un- 
 that there was an esoteric doctrine of 
 magnetism, with which even his most ar- 
 iples, Bergasse and Deslon, were not ac- 
 In the same spirit, and partly, we 
 add, to produce a crisis favourable to his 
 ion upon a great number of persons to- 
 I Mesmer established the bayuet, a kind of 
 "ic battery, around which his patients as- 
 and when the crisis took place, (mani- 
 in a great variety of startling effects), the 
 agician appeared, to moderate and direct 
 an in each case. The scenes at these re- 
 drew the attention of the French govern- 
 Mesmer's proceedings, and in 1784 a com- 
 of savants was appointed, with instruc- 
 i examine the means employed by Mesmer 
 (results obtained. The members of this com- 
 consisted of four physicians, one of whom 
 Guillotin, and five members of the Acade- 
 " lin, Leroi, Bailly, De Bory, and Lavoi- 
 result of their inquiry was announced in 
 drawn up by Bailly, and is well known to 
 unfavourable not only to the truth of 
 magnetism, but to its morality. Though 
 and his disciples endeavoured to keep 
 md, and succeeded in establishing many 
 of magnetizers, and though, soon after- 
 clairvoyance became popular, and was in- 
 ~i as a new degree in freemasonry, the dis- 
 found it necessary to quit France, and 
 ; to England, resided here some time under 
 * name. Mesmer passed the remainder of 
 comparative obscurity, and died in his 
 ice 1815, doubtless much happier in 
 that his doctrine had been accepted by 
 ~ed, and had found such advocates as 
 id Puysegur, than in coquetting with 
 its, and aggrandizing his name with a 
 popularity. In regard to his supposed 
 
 MES 
 
 secret, and his refusal of any intelligible explanation 
 of his process, we may repeat here what he himself 
 urges in his ' Memoire sur la De'couverte du Magne- 
 tisme Animal,' namely, that no reasoning can clear 
 up the difficulties of such a subject, but only ex- 
 perience. There is also another consideration. Pub- 
 lic opinion in the time of Mesmer was influenced 
 widely and deeply by the philosophy of the ency- 
 clopedists, and any explanation that involved the 
 recognition of spiritual laws would be received as 
 empirical. At the present day the acknowledged head 
 of curative Mesmerism in this country, prefers total 
 ignorance on the part of his operators, and to treat 
 animal magnetism as a material force only. That 
 it is force operating between substance and sub- 
 stance there can be no question, but then, is mat- 
 ter anything more than one form or condition of 
 substance ? If not, how are healings by prayer, 
 and when the operator is far distant from his 
 patient, to be accounted for? The truth is, neither 
 Mesmer himself, nor any of his disciples down to 
 the present hour, have been able to demonstrate 
 the principles of the art, so as to include all its 
 phenomena, because they cease to follow nature, 
 and bow down before those false idols of the mind, 
 against which they have been warned by Bacon, as 
 soon as another condition of being is indicated. 
 The Saviour himself generally healed by the touch, 
 yet always from the spirit of love, and if the for- 
 mer is found successful when the latter is not re- 
 cognized, and if these touchings can be traced to 
 their connection with material forces, it is only a 
 proof that the material world is clothed over the 
 spiritual, and that magnetism, gravitation, or any 
 other term by which we designate jorce, is nothing 
 but the manifested law of the Supreme Will, acting 
 through the least things and the greatest, with or 
 without a thankful recognition, in this condition 
 of being, which we choose to call material. Cer- 
 tain we are, that this whole subject is treated 
 most unphilosophically, both by its friends and 
 enemies, and that we must in this, as in all other 
 cases, court and encourage nature to discover her- 
 self if we would have her secret. The system of 
 Mesmer was published in German at Berlin by 
 the famous Nicolai, under the title of ' Mesmer- 
 ismus, &c.,' 1815. [E.R.] 
 
 MESSALA, a Roman general and orator, who 
 commanded a legion under Brutus and Cassius at 
 Philippi, died about the year 11, aged seventy-two. 
 
 MESSALINA, Statilia, a Roman lady, who 
 had for her fifth husband the emperor Nero, who 
 had murdered her fourth husband, Atticus Visti- 
 mus. After the death of the emperor in the year 
 68, she devoted herself to literary pursuits. 
 
 MESSALINA, Valeiua, daughter of Valerius 
 Messalinus Barbatus, was a Roman lady, who 
 became the wife of Claudius, and shared with him 
 the imperial throne. Her licentious conduct is un- 
 
 Earalleled in history, for she not only made her 
 usband's palace the scene of her debaucheries, 
 but often quitted it at night, and acted as a com- 
 mon prostitute. When summoned by the enraged 
 emperor, after some fresh extravagance in the year 
 48, she attempted to kill herself, but wanted cour- 
 age, and her enemy Narcissus, who dreaded the 
 result of the interview, caused her to be despatched 
 by a soldier. 
 
 MESSENIUS, John, a Swedish savant, author 
 
 487 
 
MES 
 
 of ' Scandia Illustrata,' 1584-1637. His son, Ar- 
 nold, historian of the Swedish nobilitv, ex. 1648. 
 
 MESSIER, Cn., a Fr. astronomer, 1730-1817. 
 
 MESSIS, Quentin, a Flem. painter, 1450-1529. 
 
 MESTON, W., a Scottish poet, 1688-1745. 
 
 ME TASTASIO, Pietro, the son of a pastry- 
 cook named Trapassi, was born at Rome in 1698. 
 When he was no more than ten years old, his talent 
 for extemporaneous versification attracted the no- 
 tice of the accomplished lawyer, Gravina, who 
 adopted and educated him, and, with a whim 
 savouring of the taste of the Italian academies, 
 made him exchange his family name for its Hel- 
 lenic synonyme Metastasio. The youth became 
 celebrated as an improvisatore before completing 
 his eighteenth year. Soon afterwards he inherited 
 from his benefactor a considerable fortune ; but he 
 spent it in no long time, chiefly through kindly 
 but careless benevolence. He now began to write 
 for the stage, gained in this field great fame but 
 little profit at Naples and Rome, and, in 1729, 
 was appointed Imperial Laureate at Vienna, His 
 duties consisted in writing the Italian text for 
 operas ; and this continued to be his occupation 
 for the remainder of his life, except during the 
 closing of the theatre at Vienna on the breaking 
 out of the first war between Austria and Prussia 
 in 1741. He died at Vienna in 1782. The 
 'libretto' of the operas, usually quite worthless, 
 and treated merely as an adjunct to the music, be- 
 came, in the hands of Metastasio, genuinely and 
 beautifully poetical. The lyrical turn of his genius 
 fitted him admirably for giving expression in words 
 to the sentiment of the airs interspersed through 
 the recitative of the dialogue ; and many of the 
 songs in his operas, with some separate composi- 
 tions of the sort (such as ' La Partenza'), are ex- 
 quisite for the delicacy and fanciful charm both of 
 their feeling and of their diction. He gave simi- 
 lar excellences, in a wonderful degree, to the 
 conception and design of his dramas, and to many 
 passages of the dialogue. His works have a mo- 
 notonous sweetness, an utter want of characteriza- 
 tion, and a great deficiency in reality and practical 
 interest. But the best of them, such as ' L'Olim- 
 piade,' breathe a romantic air which is very de- 
 lightful. [W.S.] 
 
 METCALFE, Charles Theophilus, Lord, 
 an East Indian officer and diplomatist, who was 
 appointed governor of Jamaica after the emanci- 
 pation of the negroes, and subsequently governor 
 of Canada, 1785-1846. 
 
 METELLI, Agustino, an Ital. artist, 1607-60. 
 
 METELLTJS, the name of several illustrious 
 Romans : 1. Caius C^ecilius, the conqueror of 
 Macedonia and proconsul of Spain, known from 
 148 to 141 b.c. 2. Quintus CLecilius, his son, 
 conqueror of Jugurtha in Numidia, exiled B.C. 
 100 by the influence of Marius and Saturninns. 
 3. Quintus Cecilius, son of the latter, and a 
 partizan of Sylla against Marius, distinguished in 
 the Spanish war, died b.c. 63. 4. Quintus Ce- 
 cilius, son of the last named, distinguished in the 
 war against Caesar, killed himself after the defeat 
 of Thapsus, b.c. 46. 
 
 METELLUS, H., a Latin poet, 1080-1157. 
 
 METEREN, E. Van, a Flem. hist., 1516-1612. 
 
 METHODIUS, the name of three personages in 
 ecclesiastical history: 1. Saint Methodius, 
 
 MEY 
 
 author of a poem written against Porphyr 
 
 some theological treatises, only fragments "of 1 
 
 remain ; supposed to have died a martyr abo 
 
 or 312. He was successively bishop of 01; 
 
 and Tyre. 2. Methodius, surnamed 'tht 
 
 fessor, patriarch of Constantinople in 842. ] 
 
 as a partizan of the image-worshippers, die 
 
 3. A Methodius, who is remembered alonj 
 
 his brother, Cyrillus, as the first preacl 
 
 Christianity among the Sclavonians, 9th cen 
 
 METIUS, Adrian, a Dutch mathema 
 
 son of an engineer, of the same names, 1571 
 
 His brother, James, said to have invented 
 
 copes, died 1636. 
 
 METKERKE, A., a Flem. scholar, 1528- 
 
 METOCHITA, T., a Gr. historian, died 1 
 
 METON, an Athenian astronomer, 5th ct 
 
 METTRIE, J. Offray De La, a pupil of 
 
 haave, kn. as a physician and philosopher, 17 
 
 METZGER, J. D., a Fr. physician, 1739 
 
 METZU, Gabriel, a Dutch painter, 161 
 
 MEUNG, J. De, a French poet, 1200-13! 
 
 MEUNIER, H. H. J., a Fr. general, 1758 
 
 MEUNIER, J. A., a French writer, 1707 
 
 MEURISSE, M., a Fr. theologian, died 1 
 
 MEURSIUS, John, a famous Dutch 
 
 philologist, and historian, professor of Gn 
 
 Levden, 1579-1639. His son, John, an arc! 
 
 gist, 1613-1653. 
 
 MEUSCHEN, J. G., a German theologia 
 
 philologist, 1680-1743. His son, Fredi 
 
 Christian, a writer on conchology, born 1' 
 
 MEUTEW, Anthony Francis Vand 
 
 Flemish painter, cele. for his battle-pieces, 16 
 
 MEXIA, Pedro, a Span, historian, died 
 
 MEYER, Conrad, a Swiss painter, 1695 
 
 MEYER, Felix, a Swiss painter, 1653-1 
 
 MEYER, J., a Flemish historian, 1491-li 
 
 MEYER, Jer., a German painter, 1735-: 
 
 MEYER, J. D., a Dutch jurist, 1780-183 
 
 MEYER, Phii ippe, was born at Strasbi 
 
 Alsatia, in the year 1737. At an early s 
 
 went to college to study for the protestant cl 
 
 but the love of music interfered greatly wi 
 
 theological studies. At twenty years of age 
 
 accident became possessed of an old harp 
 
 having made some proficiency upon this n 
 
 ment, he forthwith devoted himself exclusiv 
 
 the study of music. Some time after tl 
 
 studied the science of music under Miithel, a 
 
 of the great Bach, and here Meyer's style ir 
 
 said to have been formed. He soon after tbii 
 
 to Paris, and thence to London, where be r< 
 
 for several years. Having returned to Fran 
 
 was induced to compose for the opera, whe 
 
 style procured for him the sobriquet of the J 
 
 Gluck. Several circumstances tended soon 
 
 this to render Meyer unpopular; he return 
 
 London about the year 1784, wbere be gave 
 
 pretensions as a performer, and lived upon 1 
 
 putation as a composer. He died in 1819, It 
 
 two sons musicians and composers, viz., Phi 
 
 jun., and Frederick Charles. 
 
 MEYER, Theodore, a painter and en$ 
 
 of Zurich, 1572-1658. His son, RoDOl* 
 
 engraver, died 1638. His second son, Ceo 
 
 a painter and engraver, 1618-16^9. 
 
 MEYNIER, C, a French painter 
 
 MEYNIER, II., a French historian, lCth 
 
 488 
 
MEY 
 
 MEYRAUX, P. S., a Swiss naturalist, d. 1832. 
 MEYRICK, Sir S. R., a lawyer of the ecclesi- 
 
 ical court, author of a ' Critical Inquiry into 
 iicicnt Armour,' on which subject he is consi- 
 fed an authority, 1783-1848. 
 
 MEYSSENS, John, a Flemish painter, born 
 
 12. His son, Cornelius, an engraver, b. 1646. 
 
 MEYTENS, M. De, an Austr. pain., 1695-1779. 
 
 MEZERAI, Francis Eudes De, one of the 
 Jst celebrated of French historians, who flourished 
 qthe time of Richelieu and Colbert, was born in 
 jfO, and commenced his career as a political writer. 
 I was some time attached to the army as com- 
 but more lately received a pension from 
 ij court as a man of letters, which he lost ' for 
 mting what he thought to be the truth,' d. 1683. 
 IEZERAY, J., a French actress, 1772-1823. 
 
 jIEZIRIAC, Claude Gaspard Bachet De, 
 
 ilr. archaeologist and mathematician, 1581-1638. 
 
 jIICAH, the name of two Jewish prophets, the 
 lifer of whom fl. in the 9th cent. B.C. ; the latter, 
 Jifcor of the book of that name, in the 8th c. B.C. 
 UIICILEL I., emperor of the East, successor 
 |icephorus, 811, abdicated on occasion of a mili- 
 !tf sedition, in favour of Leo the Armenian, 813, 
 11846. Michael II., succeeded Leo the Arme- 
 M 820, died 829. Michael III., succeeded in 
 lltbird year of his age, 842, under the guardian- 
 WL of his mother, Theodora. In 859 he was per- 
 illed by his uncle, Bardas, to assume the power 
 pelf, and his mother shortly after died or grief 
 
 a convent. In 866 he put Bardas to death, and 
 
 me Basil, the Macedonian, his associate in the 
 lire, who killed him, 867. Michael IV., was 
 
 rs|>d to the throne by Zoe, after she had poisoned 
 Hrasband, Romanus Argyrus, 1034 ; died 1041. 
 WHiEL V., nephew of the preceding, occupied 
 throne a few months after his death, and was 
 jroned by Zoe and Theodora, 1042. Michael 
 Hracceeded Theodora 1056, and was dethroned 
 
 Mis officers, who elevated Isaac Commenus to 
 Hjmperial dignity, 1057. Michael VII., son 
 Hmstantine Ducas and Eudoxia, succeeded his 
 tttr 1067 ; and, being dethroned by Nicephorus 
 Mniates in 1078, retired to a monastery, and 
 
 pi archbishop of Ephesus. Michael (Palaeo- 
 
 wf) VIII., Decame regent for John Lascaris 
 HL and emperor in 1261, after deposing and 
 Hpg out the eves of his protege ; died, after a 
 
 Hied reign, 1282. 
 
 HCILEL, patriarch of Constantinople, 1043-57. 
 UCH^EL, vaivode of Wallachia, 1595. 
 ICILEL, king of the Bulgarians, 1245-1258. 
 [CH/EL, the 'first of the name, grand duke of 
 
 Ka. reigned 1175. The second, grand duke of 
 Wj killed by the Tartars 1245. The third (or 
 
 Bfccond), grand duke of Russia, succeeded 1304, 
 
 Ho death by the Tartars 1317. The fourth, 
 
 Epar of Russia, of the house of Romanof, called 
 
 Bjbl Feodorwitch, born 1598, elected 1613, 
 4645. He was succeeded by his son, Alexis. 
 
 HOILEL, king of Poland, elected 1669, d. 1673. 
 
 HCfiL ANGELO DA CARAVAGGIO. 
 
 A i:\VAGGIO. 
 
 /JCH;EL ANGELO DELLA BATTAGLIE, 
 Pf proper name was M. A. Cerquozzi, a Roman 
 Hr, 1GOO-1660. 
 
 jjCHAELIS, J. B., a German poet, 1746-72. 
 
 CHAELIS, John David, a famous Orien- 
 
 MIC 
 
 talist and biblical critic, was born at Halle, 1717, 
 where his father, Christian Benedict Michaelis, 
 was professor of divinity and the Oriental lan- 
 guages. He entered the university in 1733, and 
 was admitted master of philosophy, and became 
 assistant lecturer under his father in 1739. In 
 1746, he was appointed extraordinary professor 
 of philosophy in the university of Gottingen, hav- 
 ing previously visited England, and officiated as 
 preacher at the German chapel, St. James's 
 palace. During the remainder of his life he was 
 associated with the principal learned societies of 
 Europe, and was raised, in 1786., to the rank of 
 Aulic Counsellor in Hanover, besides being em- 
 ployed in many affairs of moment requiring the 
 exercise of his statesmanship. His religious 
 opinions were unsettled, but the strictest integrity 
 formed the basis of his conduct. Died 1791. 
 
 MICHAELIS, John Henry, great uncle of 
 the preceding, born 1668, was a teacher of the 
 Oriental languages at the university of Halle, and 
 in 1699 became professor of Greek in the same in- 
 stitution; in 1707 keeper of the university library; 
 and in 1732 senior of the faculty of divinity, and 
 inspector of the theological seminary. Died 1738. 
 
 MICHAUD, C. I. F., a Fr. general, 1753-1835. 
 
 MICHAUD, J., a French historian, 1767-1839. 
 
 MICHAULT, J. B., a Fr. philologist, 1707-70. 
 
 MICHAULT, P., a French poet, died 1467. 
 
 MICHAUX, Andre, a French traveller, and 
 writer on the botany of foreign parts, born at Ver- 
 sailles 1746, died at Madagascar 1802. His son, 
 Francis Andre, a writer on the forest trees of 
 North America, &c, 1746-1802. 
 
 MICHEL, C. L. S., a Fr. statesman, 1754-1814. 
 
 MICHEL, J., a Gascon poet, died about 1700. 
 
 MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI, was born 
 at Castel Caprese in the diocese of Arezzo in 
 Tuscany, 6th March, 1475. He was apprenticed 
 for three years to Domenico Ghirlandajo on 1st 
 April, 1488. His earlier studies were made in the 
 so-called academy of Lorenzo de Medici, a garden 
 containing sculptures near the church of St. Mark, 
 and he was early patronised by that prince, after 
 whose death in 1492, Michelangelo removed to 
 Bologna; he returned to Florence in 1494, and 
 now attained, by a statue of the ' Sleeping Cupid,' 
 a great reputation. This statue was sold as an 
 antique at Rome, which led Michelangelo to try 
 his fortunes there, and he then executed his cele- 
 brated Field, now in St. Peter's. He returned 
 to Florence at the commencement of the six- 
 teenth century, and further distinguished himself 
 by his colossal David, now on the Piazza Gran- 
 duca, and appeared for the first time in the char- 
 acter of a painter; being commissioned by the 
 Gonfaloniere Soderiui to paint one end of the 
 Council Hall, the other end being awarded to Leo- 
 nardo Da Vinci. Though Michelangelo made his 
 cartoon known as the world-celebrated ' Cartoon of 
 Pisa,' he never commenced the painting; the cartoon 
 was exhibited in 1506, and created a great sensa- 
 tion among the artists of Florence; it became, says 
 Benvennto Cellini, ' The School of the World.' 
 Michelangelo had visited Rome a second time dur- 
 ing its progress by the invitation of Julius II., and 
 at Bologna in 1507 he made the famous colossal 
 statue of that pontiff, which was afterwards con- 
 verted into a cannon and used against the pope by 
 
 489 
 
MIC 
 
 the Bolognese. In 1508 commences the groat 
 career of Michelangelo as a painter ; he then visited 
 Home for the third time, and was commissioned 
 bv Julius II. to paint the ceiling of the Sistine 
 chapel ; Raphael was ordered at the same time to 
 decorate the Stanze, or dwelling rooms of the 
 Vatican palace. The ceiling was finished on All- 
 Saints 1 Day, 1st November, 1512, the actual 
 painting of the frescoes having occupied only 
 twenty months, the cartoons occupying the 
 greater portion of the interval. These frescoes 
 represent the creation of the world, and of man ; 
 his fall ; and the early history of the world with 
 reference to man's final redemption and salvation : 
 they are the grandest productions of modern art, 
 greatly superior to the ' Last Judgment ' executed 
 on the altar wall upwards of twenty years after- 
 wards. Michelangelo was occupied also during the 
 progress of this ceiling with the monument of Julius, 
 which was, however, finally suspended by the death 
 of the pope in 1513; what was done of the monu- 
 ment was arranged and put up in the church of San 
 Pietro in Montorio ; the celebrated statue of Moses 
 was one of the sculptures for the intended mauso- 
 leum. Michelangelo was now for twenty years kept 
 from the carrying out of his great design of the 
 history of man in the Sistine chapel. Leo X. oc- 
 cupied him for nine years in selecting marble in 
 the quarries of Pietra Santa for the facade of the 
 church of San Lorenzo at Florence, and he was 
 employed in the Medici chapel of the same church 
 during the pontificate of Adrian VI., and part of 
 that of Clement VII., but finally in the tenth year 
 of this pope, 1533, he was ordered to go on with 
 the frescoes of the Sistine, and he completed 
 the 'Last Judgment' in 1541, in the pontificate 
 of Paul III. His last works in painting were the 
 frescoes of the Capella Paolina, executed for Paul 
 III., finished in 1549; he is said never to have 
 
 Eainted in oil-colours. This extraordinary man 
 ad appeared in a third character when seventy 
 years of age, he was then, 1546, appointed to suc- 
 ceed Antonio da San Gallo as architect of St. 
 Peter's, and he continued architect during five 
 pontificates, carrying the building out to the base 
 of the cupola. (See Bramante.) This great 
 artist was also a poet : he was never married. 
 Michelangelo died 17th February, 1564, having 
 very nearly completed his eighty-ninth year ; his 
 body was carried to Florence and deposited in a 
 vault in the church of Santa Croce. There is 
 little space in a limited work of this character to 
 enter upon any details of the extraordinary works 
 of Michelangelo, spreading as they do, over four 
 provinces of the fine arts ; most opinions concern- 
 ing him are uniform in their expressions of praise : 
 his name was the last word pronounced oy Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds in the Royal Academy, and even 
 his great rival, Raphael, is said to have exclaimed 
 that he thanked God he was born in the days of 
 Michelangelo. His most extraordinary achieve- 
 ment is doubtless the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ; 
 the Prophets and Sibyls of this great work are, for 
 sublimity and grandeur, indisputably the triumphs 
 of modern art. The element of his style, whether 
 in painting or in sculpture, is an abstract imper- 
 sonation of dignity, which sentiment prevails un- 
 der whatever emotion the subject may be repre- 
 sented. A similar uniformity of style in design, 
 
 MID 
 
 is of such constancy as to amount to mnnnei 
 
 this mannerism of form is the chief defect 
 
 the works of this great artist; but one overch 
 
 muscular standard of form is evident for man 
 
 man, or child, of every age and of every degi 
 
 (Condivi, Vita di Michelangelo, &c. ; Y'asari, 
 
 &c, ed. Flor. 1846 Seqq ; Duppa, Life of M\ 
 
 angelo, &c; Taylor, Michelangelo Consider^ 
 
 Philosophic Poet, &c; Wornum, Epochs of I 
 
 ing Characterized.') U.N 
 
 MICHELET, S., a French poet, 17^7-1*1 
 
 MIC HE LI, the name of three V- 
 
 the first, Vital Micheli, successor of 
 
 Faledro, 1096, died 1102. The second, 1). Mici 
 
 reigned 1116-1130. The third, Vital Mio 
 
 II., succeeded in 1156, killed in a sedition II 
 
 MICHELI, Jamks Bartholomkw, a { 
 
 astronomer and mathematician, 1692-1766. 
 
 MICHELI, P. A., an Ital. naturalist. 1679-! 
 
 MICHELOZZI, Michelazzo, a Flore 
 
 sculptor and architect, pupil of Donatello, j 
 
 1402-1470. 
 
 MICHIEL, J. L., an Italian savant, 1754-] 
 
 MICHOVIUS, M., a Polish annalist, d. U 
 
 MICHU, B., a Fr. painter on glass, died 1 
 
 MICHU, L., an opera performer, 1754-18C 
 
 MICIPSA, a king of Numidia, 148-118 b. 
 
 MICKLE, William Julius, a Scottish 
 
 and scholar, employed as corrector of the 
 
 rendon Press at Oxford, translator of the Li 
 
 of Camcens, and author of some of the ' Old 
 
 lads,' published by Evans, the bookseller. Bo 
 
 Dumfries 1734, died 1788. 
 
 MICRELIUS, J., a Lutheran divine, 1597-1 
 
 MIDDLETON, Conyers, well known as i 
 
 lemical writer and critic, was the son of WI 
 
 Middleton, a Yorkshire clergyman, and was 
 
 at York 1683. In 1717 he was created a doct 
 
 divinity by the mandamus of George L, on his 
 
 to Cambridge, and his refusal to pay the fee 
 
 manded by Bentley, the regius professor of divi 
 
 involved him in a lawsuit, and, finally, in ar 
 
 tion for libel brought against him by that ge 
 
 man. The enmity thus established between t 
 
 issued in a literary and critical controversy, * 
 
 was interrupted by Middleton's going to Ita 
 
 1724, for the benefit of his health. In 1729, 
 
 a controversy with Dr. Mead, concerning the 
 
 dition of the medical men of ancient Ronn 
 
 published his ' Letter from Rome,' showing 
 
 similarity between the Roman Catholic religior 
 
 the pagan rituals of antiquity. This work a 
 
 a great popularity, but it laid its author ope 
 
 ucion of being at 
 and, two years later, his animadversions o: 
 
 the suspicion 
 
 at heart an unbelU 
 
 Waterland, who had written against Tindal, ch 
 such a feeling against him that he had nearly 
 deprived of his degrees. The line of argni 
 adopted by Middleton, who professed to she 
 better method of dealing with the (Vccthinl 
 will speak for itself; and it is stated thus 
 cinctly in Tayler's ' Retrospect,' ' lb' shows 1 
 history the inadequacy of the simple rrligio 
 reason to the necessities of the multitude. 
 that, in every civilized community, there has ah 
 been a traditional system of faith and wor 
 adapted to them, distinct from thi 
 of philosophical minds ; that where surh a 
 tem was already established, though mixed 
 
 490 
 
MID 
 
 iehr superstition and folly, it would be wrong to 
 
 smpt its overthrow, without being prepared to 
 
 something better fitted for tbe purpose in its 
 
 i ; that Socrates, and the wisest of the heathen, 
 
 ays acted on this principle ; and that, conse- 
 
 ltly, it must, a fortiori, be much more absurd 
 
 mischievous to endeavour to substitute the 
 
 [pie inferences of reason for a belief in Christi- 
 
 r, which is the best of all traditional religions, 
 
 st contrived to promote peace and the good 
 
 jiety, and acknowledged by deists themselves 
 
 $ the nearest of all others to their perfect law 
 
 m and nature.' Such a book of course ex- 
 
 Middleton to a fresh controversy, in the 
 
 of which, 1731, he was appointed to the 
 
 srship of mineralogy, then recently founded 
 
 foodward. In 1734 he abandoned this uncon- 
 
 appointment for that of librarian to the 
 
 sity. In 1735 he wrote, controversially as 
 
 concerning the origin of printing in Eng- 
 
 In 1741 he published his greatest work, 
 
 History of Cicero,' in 2 vols. 4to, which was 
 
 I signal for a scholastic controversy on the au- 
 
 " ity of certain documents adopted by him. 
 
 749, having thrown out an Introductory 
 
 on the same subject two years previ- 
 
 he gave to the astonished quidnuncs of the 
 
 his ' Free Inquiry into the Miraculous 
 
 which are supposed to have subsisted in 
 
 istian Church from the earliest ages.' For 
 
 replies to this work, Dodwell and Church ob- 
 
 the degree of D.D. from the University of 
 
 Middleton, however, published his ' Vin- 
 
 i,' and, the year following, made an attack 
 
 Sherlock, endeavouring to show that there 
 
 uniform chain of prophecy pointing to the 
 
 With such views as we have indicated, 
 
 |singular divine could vet accept the living 
 
 )mb, in Surrey, which he held at his death 
 
 U. The only excuse we could imagine for 
 
 a career as Middleton's, must be found in 
 
 sttled state of the Church of England at 
 
 lmencement of last century in all the cir- 
 
 ices, to speak briefly, by_ which we should 
 
 it for the rise of Wesleyanism, and the vari- 
 
 ovements of dissent and free inquiry, which 
 
 Med the period. [E.R.] 
 
 DDLETON, Erasmus, a methodist scholar 
 
 I, author of a ' Dictionary of Arts and 
 
 tk ces,' last century. 
 
 DDLETON, Sir Hugh, a citizen and gold- 
 rt of London, celebrated for bringing a supply 
 tf liter to the metropolis, was son of Richard 
 Mitteton, Esq., governor of Denbigh castle. The 
 Mof his birth, and the early events of his life, 
 Rnknown, with the exception of the fact that 
 kd been engaged in mining adventures in 
 Wk. This costly enterprise for supplying Lon- 
 Byith the fresh streams of Hertfordshire, dates 
 1608 to Michaelmas-day 1613, when the 
 H was admitted into the reservoir at Penton- 
 plat a cost of nearly half-a-million sterling. 
 Reton was subsequently reduced to the neces- 
 n occupying himself as an engineer. He was 
 Hd a baronet in 1G22, and died 1631. 
 >DLETON, R., a learned theologian, d. 1 304. 
 l; JDDLETON, T., a dramatic writer, d. 1627. 
 DDLETON, Thomas Fanshawk, the first 
 i.^hop of Calcutta, was born at Redleston, 
 
 491 
 
 MIL 
 
 in Derbyshire, where his father was rector, in 
 1769, and consecrated at Lambeth in 1814. He 
 departed for the East the same year, and in 1820 
 founded a college at Calcutta for the education of 
 clergymen and missionaries devoted to our Eastern 
 possessions. His principal work is an erudite dis- 
 sertation on the Greek article, which has given 
 rise to some controversy. Died 1822. 
 
 MIDDLETON, W., a Welch poet, 16th century. 
 
 MIEL, Edmund F. A. L., a Fr. au., 1775-1842. 
 
 MIEL, Jan, a Flemish painter, 1599-1664. 
 
 MIERIS, Francis, a Dutch painter, pupil of 
 Gerard Dow, 1635-1681. His son, John, a pain- 
 ter, 1660-1690. His younger son, William, 
 equally celebrated as a landscape and history pain- 
 ter, 1662-1747. Francis, son of the latter, prin- 
 cipally known as an historian, 1689-1763. 
 
 MIFFLIN, T., gov. of Pennsylvania, 1744-1809. 
 
 MIGNARD, Nicholas, of Avignon, a French 
 painter and engraver, born at Troyes 1608, died 
 1668. His brother, Peter, ' the Roman,' an emi- 
 nent painter, 1610-1695. Peter, son of Nicholas, 
 an architect, 1640-1725. 
 
 MIGNAULT, C, a Fr. jurisconsult, 1536-1606. 
 
 MIGNON, Abraham, a celebrated flower pain- 
 ter of Frankfort, teacher of Maria Sibylla Merian, 
 and of his two daughters, who distinguished them- 
 selves in the same Tine of art, 1639-1679. 
 
 MIGNOT, C. F., usually called Marie, a beau- 
 tiful peasant of Dauphin, who in 1672 became 
 the wife of John Casimir, king of Poland, d. 1711. 
 
 MIGNOT, J., a Fr. architect, end of 14th cent. 
 
 MIGNOT, S., a doctor of the Sorbonne, dist. 
 as an archaeologist and canonist, 1698-1771. 
 
 MIGNOT, Vincent, the nephew of Voltaire, 
 author of an Ottoman History, 1730-1790. 
 
 MILBERT, J. G., a Fr. naturalist, 1766-1840. 
 
 MELBOURNE, Luke, a Church of England 
 minister, known as a poet and critical wr., d. 1720. 
 
 MILDENHALL, J., a diplomatist of the age 
 of Elizabeth, celeb, for his treaty of alliance with 
 Persia, concluded in defiance of the Jesuits in 1606. 
 
 MILDMAY, Sir Walter, a statesman of the 
 age of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, disting. as the 
 founder of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, d. 1589. 
 
 MILE, Francis, a Flemish painter, 1644-1680. 
 
 MILHOUSE, Robert, a poetical writer in the 
 humble occupation of a weaver, author of ' Sher- 
 wood Forest,' 'Vicissitude/ 'The Destinies of 
 Man,' died 1839. 
 
 MILIZIA, F., an Italian architect, 1725-1798. 
 
 MILL, James, born in Kincardineshire on 6th 
 April, 1773 ; died at Kensington 23d June, 1836 : 
 one of the three or four remarkable minds which, 
 in the generation just past, have vindicated the 
 title of Scotland to a place of high glory in the 
 annals of Inquiry and Thought. Mr. Mill was 
 originally designed for the Scottish Church; but 
 reflection inclined him to abandon a purpose of 
 Life, which, however honourable, was not suited to 
 his peculiar intellectual tendencies: and after 
 some intermediate passages, he settled in London 
 as a literary man in 1800, where he resided ever 
 afterwards, and gained his very distinguished 
 name. The work hy which Mill earliest rose into 
 notice is the History of British India, one that 
 through the profoundly of its general views, and 
 its liberal spirit, will remain a classic among our 
 English Histories. It is not, in merely literary 
 
,.-. Mi -v MMfefcfc '- v > - v 
 
r 
 
 Mi 
 
 | M '.'-. '. ' :;: ..-.'_ y.v - 4 MHl \ttKKt$ 
 
 
 to. 177*. Vltt 
 
 rfbrflfc " GWk 
 
 : "l: 
 
 I 
 
 H5. Hi ::' ft| M| 
 
 -_.. 
 
MIL 
 have crashed the unwieldy host between them. 
 More than 6,000 Peruana wen left dead on the 
 field, with a loss to the Grecians of less than 200 
 men, the rest were scattered or escaped in their 
 ships, and Athens had obtained a victory, which 
 not only liberated Greece, but raised the city to 
 great importance. Immediately after the victory 
 of Marathon, Miltiades was sent in command of 
 an expedition to the jFgean sea, to reclaim the 
 island conquests of the Persians, and was wounded 
 while laying siege to Paros. The approach of the 
 Persian fleet and other sufficient reasons caused 
 him to raise the siege and return home, when he 
 was condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents, and 
 imprisoned in default. Miltiades died in confine- 
 ment, as much hurt by the ingratitude of his 
 countrymen as by the wounds, under which he 
 sunk, only a year after his great victory, B.C. 489. 
 The first historian of these events was Herodotus, 
 who wrote about seventy years after the battle of 
 Marathon, and derived his materials from the 
 heroic poem of Choerilus. [E.R.] 
 
 MILTIADES, a pope and saint of Rome, 31 1-314. 
 
 MILTOM, John, was born in London on the 
 9th of December, 1608. His father, a man of good 
 family in Oxfordshire, had been educated at the 
 university, and disinherited for embracing protes- 
 tantism ; on which he became a scrivener, and ac- 
 quired a competent fortune. Milton's education 
 was begun under a private tutor of puritanical 
 opinions, and continued from his fifteenth year at 
 St. Paul's School. He has himself related tnat his 
 love of letters was deeply rooted before he was 
 twelve years old, and was sedulously indulged in 
 spite of headaches and weak eyes : he studied 
 languages, both ancient and modern, delighted 
 especially in poetical reading, and cultivated the 
 musical taste which he inherited from his father. 
 In 1623 he wrote his translations of the 114th 
 and 136th Psalms. In February 1625, when he 
 was a little above sixteen, he was admitted a pen- 
 sioner at Christ's College, Cambridge. In the 
 same year was written his ode ' On the Death of 
 a Fair Infant ;' and in his nineteenth year he pro- 
 duced the verses ' At a Vacation Exercise in Col- 
 lege.' In the interval were composed several of 
 those elegies, and other poems, which have gained 
 for him the reputation of being one of the best 
 among modern writers of Latin verse. But there 
 is evidence yet more brilliant of the poetic ripeness 
 of his youth. The ' Ode on the Nativity,' one of 
 the noblest of all his works, and perhaps the finest 
 lyric in the English language, was composed about 
 December 1629, when the poet was twenty-one 
 years old. The particulars of his life at the uni- 
 versity are imperfectly known. The tradition of 
 his having been whipped is ill-vouched and im- 
 probable ; but the fact would not have been irre- 
 concilable with the ideas of academical discipline 
 which were then prevalent. He does appear to have 
 at first excited the displeasure of the authorities, 
 probably for too free expression of opinions, and 
 certainly for no serious moral offence ; but he took 
 his degrees of bachelor and master in the regular 
 course, and was pressed by the fellows of his college 
 to remain at Cambridge. He could not resolve to 
 comply with the wish of his parents that he should 
 enter the church ; and he declined also the profes- 
 sion of the law, for which, indeed, he had always a 
 
 MIL 
 
 great contempt. In 1632, leaving the nnivei 
 he went to the house of his father, who had 
 chased an estate at Horton in Buckingham! 
 In this retreat he lived from his twenty-fc 
 year to his twenty-ninth ; a period which was 
 only very important in the development o] 
 mind, but very fertile in the fruits of his ge 
 He read the Greek and Roman classics, besto 
 particular attention on the historians ; and, 
 his study of Spenser and Shakspeare, and 
 contemporaries, had probably begun in boyl 
 there is, in his own poems of this stage, muc 
 prove that he now became exactly as well as 
 miringly familiar with Italian poetry. Not 
 after his retirement to the country, must have 
 produced the verses which he contributed U 
 masque of 'Arcades;' his exquisite masque of 
 mus,' one of the masterpieces of English poetry, 
 acted in Ludlow Castle at Michaelmas 1634 ; 
 in 1638 was printed the monody of ' Lycida 
 refined embodiment of classical fancies in "the ii 
 woven melodies of the Italian lyrists. ' L'Alle 
 and ' II Penseroso,' likewise, the most beau 
 of all descriptive poems, had their birth all 
 certainly in those few years of ' a calm and p! 
 ing solitariness, fed with cheerful and conn* 
 thoughts.' Milton, in short, had already achi 
 immortal fame. The mantle of the Elizabe 
 poets had fallen on him : and, though his bi 
 career had now been aire ted, he would have 
 illustrious as the last survivor, and one of the ] 
 highly gifted, of that energetic and fruitful 
 Nor is it uninteresting to note how the dran 
 turn, which had been taken by poetry in the li 
 part of Elizabeth's reign, still affected one w 
 greatness was to reach its climax in works modi 
 in another form, and breathing ideas of anc 
 cast. The most poetical kind of the old drs 
 was adopted and ennobled by him in the earlie 
 his sustained efforts; there is extant, in his 
 hand- writing, a memorandum of a hundred sto 
 from Scriptural and British history, which 
 presented themselves to him as fit themes for 
 gedies, and the treatment of which, in sei 
 instances, he lays down in outline ; and the 5 
 
 J taper contains a plan, the most elaborate of 
 or working up, into a tragedy or mystery, the i 
 dents which, in the end, took an epic shape in 4 ] 
 adise Lost.' In 1638, Milton's father furnished 
 with the means of visiting the continent, w 
 he remained fifteen months. He first spei 
 few days in Paris, and there made the acquf 
 ance of Grotius. He then passed two montl 
 Florence, finding his way readily into lite 
 society, to which, indeed, he recommended hir 
 by the remarkable skill with which he comp 
 Italian verses; and at Arcetri, near that beau 
 city, he waited on the illustrious Galileo, 
 months more were spent in Rome ; and, both t 
 and in Tuscany, his classical predilections, am 
 sense of beauty in form, were richly nourishe 
 the ruins and the scenery, the Greek sculptures 
 the masterpieces of Italian painting. In I 
 verses, addressed to Manso, trie patron of T 
 he hints at a design of celebrating, in an epic O 
 Arthur, the mythical hero of early British his 
 Naples, where Milton became acquainted with 
 accomplished person, was the farthest point o 
 travels. He had intended to visit Sicily and Gr 
 
 494 
 
QJtpfm 
 
 Uc&m. 
 
 Ci^&Z/ <L^//lf??l<&rJ C ///'/ 
 
 
MIL 
 
 b the news reached him of the outbreak of dis- 
 tianees in England; and his zeal on public 
 . (which had shown itself in Rome by 
 : rash talk on matters of religion,) made 
 M immediately resolve to retrace his steps. 
 g to Rome, and crossing the Apennines to 
 B&na and Ferrara, he passed along Lombardy 
 ir Venice to Milan, and thence crossed the Alps 
 a, where he remained a considerable time. 
 reached England about August, 1639, and 
 is residence in London. The next twenty 
 the times of the Civil War, the Com- 
 jlrealth, and the Protectorate. Luring this 
 d severe period the poet's lyre was'mute. 
 il questions his views passed rapidly into 
 ism: and his ecclesiastical opinions, 
 Mne to episcopacy from his youth, were matured 
 lie conflict around him, till he attached himself 
 title Independents. Always deeply impressed 
 tnthe importance of the great controversies of 
 Bane, and naturally far from being disinclined 
 to plemies, he threw himself promptly and 
 into the vortex of the struggle. For a 
 after his return from the Continent, he 
 :;imself quietly in teaching his nephews 
 : Edward Phillips, and other boys whom 
 he peived into his house. Very soon, however, 
 that career as a controversialist, which, 
 is exposed him to much obloquy from 
 i dissent from his opinions, has enrolled 
 among the noblest and most eloquent of 
 IheHters of Old English prose. His polemical 
 re keen and sometimes abusive ; but they 
 larly able. His first work of this sort 
 ua treatise ' Of Reformation,' published in 
 i 1 the attack then made on the bishops. 
 gaged in the famous controversy, in which 
 iters on the puritanical side wrote under 
 tae pgrammatic name of Smectymnuus : to it he 
 I four successive treatises, measuring 
 h bishops Hall and Usher. It is inter- 
 see the poet, in the heat of this fiery 
 king back with regret on the time when 
 1 lived ' in the still and quiet air of delight- 
 J kdies,' and avowing his design of still exe- 
 ^Hfeis own proper sphere, some work worthy 
 lity, some work nourished by observation 
 nd ftding, and by ' devout prayer to that Eter- 
 w ho can enrich with all utterance and 
 edge.' At Whitsuntide in 1643, being 
 thirty-fifth year, Milton married Mary 
 r l the daughter of an Oxfordshire gentleman, 
 to arty of the cavaliers. The courtship seems to 
 wn short ; and we know little as to the circum- 
 h, a few weeks after the marriage, ledhis 
 ^^H her father's house, and to refuse to re- 
 isband was vehemently indignant, pub- 
 I ipwned her, and proceeded to justify the step 
 pt of four Treatises, in which he maintains 
 Lfulness of divorce for disobedience and other 
 t of matrimonial unfaithfulness. The 
 "ition of these works was decidedly the most 
 \*> lar as well as the most objectionable step 
 a controversial career. Before the last 
 red, he gave forth, in 1644, his treatise 
 non,' expressing views which, though 
 |>ianism, are very elevated, and are 
 H in a strain of finely ornate eloquence. 
 - year gave to the public the grandest of 
 
 MIL 
 
 his prose works, an appeal, against all parties, 
 in behalf of the freedom of the press. It was en- 
 titled ' Areopagitica : a Speech for the Liberty of 
 Unlicensed Printing: to the Parliament of Eng- 
 land.' Soon after this his wife, contriving to 
 obtain an interview with him by surprise, and en- 
 treating his pardon, a reconciliation ensued: she 
 lived with him without further separation; and 
 his three daughters were hers. Her parents, also, 
 being dispossessed of their house by the parlia- 
 mentarians, were sheltered by Milton ; and his in- 
 terest with the ruling party was actively exerted 
 to procure for his father-in-law a favourable com- 
 position with the commissioners of the sequestrated 
 estates. It is worth notice, also, that the poet's bro- 
 ther, afterwards a catholic and judge under James 
 1 1., was one of the sequestrated royalists. In 164.3 
 Milton superintended a collected edition of his 
 poems, Latin and English, some of which indeed, 
 Lycidas being one, had not till now been acknow- 
 ledged. Before this publication, Milton's sight 
 had begun to fail. His left eye was almost blind 
 in 1644, or very soon after. His strong feelings, 
 however, made him, instead of sparing himself, 
 enlarge his field of battle : he passed from ecclesi- 
 astical to political questions. In February 1649, a 
 few weeks after the death of Charles L, he pub- 
 lished a treatise, defending his deposition and 
 execution, and entitled ' The Tenure of Kings and 
 Magistrates.' In March he accepted an appoint- 
 ment as ' Secretary for Foreign Tongues ' to the 
 Council of State. The extant order-book of the 
 Council, and many letters also preserved, give 
 evidence of his activity and usefulness in his office. 
 By the desire of the Council, too, though without 
 receiving any payment beyond his salary, he com- 
 posed his ' Eikonoclastes, ' an answer to the 
 ' Eikon Basilike,' which had been published as a 
 work of the unfortunate king. This was followed 
 by two books, written in Latin, being designed for 
 circulation abroad : the ' Defence of the People of 
 England ;' and the ' Second Defence.' In 1652, 
 before the latter of these works was composed, he 
 had become totally blind: and soon afterwards 
 another Latin secretary was appointed to act along 
 with him ; Andrew Marvel holding that place for 
 a while. About this time his first wife died in 
 childbed ; and the same fate befell his second wife, 
 Catherine Woodcock, within a year of her marriage, 
 which took place in 1656. It was to her memory 
 that he dedicated his fine sonnet. His blindness, 
 though it made him inapt for regular official busi- 
 ness, left him able to perform important public 
 duties. In 1655 he drew up the Protector's Mani- 
 festo in justification of the war with Spain : and 
 several controversial treatises came from his pen 
 in the last years of the Protectorate. To his liter- 
 ary employments he now returned with redoubled 
 ardour. Some progress was probably made with 
 his History of England, of which four books had 
 been written before his appointment to the secre- 
 taryship : he collected large materials (which were 
 used by the Cambridge scholars in 1693,) for a 
 Latin Dictionary, in amendment of the Thesaurus 
 of Stephens : and there is good reason for believing 
 that, during this period of honoured repose, he pro- 
 ceeded a considerable way in the composition ot 
 his great epic. The Restoration of 1660 con- 
 signed Milton, for the last fourteen years of Ids 
 
 495 
 
MIL 
 
 life, to an obscurity winch, wearing no terrors for 
 his firm soul, gave him full leisure to execute the 
 mighty poetical task he had undertaken. At first 
 he thought it necessary to conceal himself: his 
 friends are said to have made a mock funeral for 
 him : and a proclamation was actually issued for 
 the apprehension of him and Goodwin the theo- 
 logian. But, though the most offensive of his 
 books were burned by the hangman, he was in- 
 cluded in the act of indemnity ; and it is even 
 asserted that his former office was offered to him, 
 but of course refused. He had in the end inherited 
 but little from his father, had failed in getting 
 payment of the portion of his first wife, had lost 
 money lent, and had had his house accidentally 
 burnt. Accordingly, his circumstances were now 
 indifferent, yet not very low for a man so moderate 
 in his habits. He published, in 1G61, a Latin 
 grammar in English. In 1664 he married his 
 third wife, Elizabeth Minshul, of a good Cheshire 
 family. In 1665, being in his fifty-seventh year, 
 he completed ' Paradise Lost ;' and it was pub- 
 lished in 1667. It was sold for five pounds to a 
 bookseller, who engaged to pay a like sum for 
 each fifteen hundred copies that should be sold 
 from each of three editions of two thousand each. 
 In two years the first of these additional payments 
 was due and made ; a second edition was pub- 
 lished in 1674, and a third in 1678. This was a 
 large sale for a serious poem in an age like that of 
 the Restoration ; and, though it could not meet with 
 applause from the fashionable debauchees of the 
 court, the hearty and respectful admiration of Dry- 
 den was not the only tribute that was immediately 
 paid, by competent judges, to the extraordinary 
 merit of the only great epic in the English lan- 
 guage. The poet next published his ' History of 
 England,' down to the Norman Conquest ; and in 
 1671 appeared the ' Paradise Regained,' to which 
 was subjoined ' Samson Agonistes.' His second 
 epic was written with great quickness, perhaps 
 altogether during a retirement of several months 
 which he made to Chalfont in Buckinghamshire, 
 on the breaking out of the plague in London in 
 1665. John Milton, one of the greatest of poets, 
 and the very greatest of all poets who have con- 
 secrated their genius to the service of Christianity, 
 had now, amidst evil men and evil days, discharged 
 the debt which, many years before, he had proudly 
 said that he held himself to owe to posterity. He 
 had enriched the world of poetry with a host of 
 the noblest images and sentiments, and in his 
 sacred epic had given to English diction and 
 rhythm new and original developments. His 
 literary labours closed with a Treatise on Logic, 
 very ably written in Latin ; a new treatise in con- 
 troversial theology, 'Of True Religion,' directed 
 against popery ; and a Latin collection, published 
 in 1674, or his private letters and academical ex- 
 ercises. To the latest years of his life may have 
 belonged the completion of his Latin treatise ' Of 
 Christian Doctrine,' which, left unpublished till it 
 was disinterred from the State Paper Office in 
 1823, showed him to have become decidedly an 
 Arian. In July, 1674, having long been distressed 
 by gout, and thinking himself near death, he gave 
 his brother directions as to the disposal of his pro- 
 perty. These throw some light on his domestic 
 position. The facts exhibit traces of those infir- 
 
 MIR 
 
 mities of temper with which the great poet is 
 
 ditionally charged. The current account, > 
 
 represents his daughters as having been tr 
 
 to read and write for him, appears to be true 
 
 as to Deborah, the youngest ; and all of then 
 
 lived uncomfortably with him and his third 
 
 and had left his house some years before his d 
 
 He was chiefly served in his studies and in 
 
 position by Elwood the Quaker, by other v 
 
 men who were attracted by his genius, and by 
 
 whom he hired. He now intimated his inte 
 
 (which his widow unsuccessfully attempte 
 
 establish as a completed will") of bequeathing a 
 
 property to his wife, leaving to his daug 
 
 only, besides what he ' had done for them,' a i 
 
 on their mother's family for her portion still 
 
 paid. He spoke of them as his 'unkind 
 
 dren,' and said they had been ' very undutif 
 
 him.' He died, so easily that the moment wa 
 
 perceived, on Sunday the 8th of November, ] 
 
 and was buried beside his father, in the chani 
 
 St. Giles in Cripplegate. [\ 
 
 MIMAUT, J. F., a Fr. historian, 1775-18; 
 
 MIMNERMUS, a Greek poet, 6th century 
 
 MINA, Don Francisco Espoz y, a Sp 
 
 general and statesman, born in Navarre 1781, 
 
 of the guerillas when Spain was invaded b 
 
 French 1809, defender of the constitution in | 
 
 and again in 1820. He became an exile on 
 
 occasions, but returned on the death of Ferdii 
 
 and took an active part against Carlos, 1834, d. 
 
 MIND, Godfrey, a Swiss painter, 1768- 
 
 MINGARELLI. F., an Ital. theolog., 1724 
 
 MINIANA, J. E., an Ital. historian, 1671- 
 
 MINOT, G. R., an Amer. historian, 1758- 
 
 MINOT, Laurence, an Eng. poet, 14th < 
 
 MINTO, Gilbert Elliot, Lord, born 
 
 commenced his political career in the Hoi 
 
 Commons 1794, and was governor-general of 
 
 gal 1807-1812 ; died 1814. 
 
 MINUCCIO, M., an Ital. prelate, 1551-K 
 
 MINUTIUS-FELIX, Marcus, a Roman 
 
 cate, author of the ' Octavius,' a Latin dial 
 
 written in defence of Christianity, and for 
 
 attributed to Arnobius, 3d century. 
 
 MIOLLIS, A. F., a French general, 1759- 
 MIONNET, T. E., a Fr. numismat., 1770- 
 MIRABAUD, Jean Baptiste, a French 
 first known as a translator of Tasso and Ar 
 and afterwards for his free inquiries into the 
 quities of religion, was born at Paris 1765. b 
 teacher in the family of the duches.se d'Or 
 and died 1760. The ' System of Nature,' 
 lished under his name, was written by the 1 
 de Holbach, with the assistance of Diderot. 
 
 MIRABEAU, Boniface Riquetti. Vis 
 De, known as ' Barrel-Mirabeau,' was brotl 
 the great tribune, and appeared in the es 
 general as his adversary, being deputy fn 
 noblesse of Limousin, lie was burn ia 175:' 
 having emigrated to Germany in 1790, he 
 there two years afterwards, commander of a 
 which he had raised for the service of tlie 
 and with which he joined the army 
 
 MIRABEAU, Victor Riquetti, Marqu 
 father of the preceding, was born in Provence 
 and died 1789. He was a great _ political i 
 mist, and was called ' the friend of men,' fro 
 title of one of his works. His principles 
 
 496 
 
MIR 
 
 of Du Quesnay, and he suffered an imprison- 
 
 for them in the Bastile. 
 
 RABEAU, Honore Gabriel, Riquetti, 
 
 De, one of the greatest orators of France, 
 
 i first leader of the revolution, was son of 
 
 Riquetti Marquis de Mirabeau, and was 
 
 Bignon, near Nemours, 1749. Though 
 
 ily was established in Provence, it was of 
 
 origin, and Mirabeau derived from his an- 
 
 all the genius and passion which mark the 
 
 At the age of seventeen, his father endea- 
 
 curb his spirit and reform his manners, 
 
 years' imprisonment in the Isle of Rh, 
 
 i to the fortress there, under the autho- 
 
 a Lettre de Cachet. On being liberated he 
 
 a regiment of dragoons, and after serving a 
 
 n Corsica, returned to Provence involved in 
 
 difficulties, as a means of extrication 
 
 h, he married the heiress of the Marig- 
 
 | family. This lady was already engaged to 
 
 and the attempt to gain her hand was be- 
 
 difficulties, all which were overcome by 
 
 ]g spirit and intriguing policy of Mirabeau, 
 
 the most cruel means to accomplish his 
 
 His extravagance, and his old debts still 
 
 upon him, and his life was so scandalous, 
 
 became the terror of the peasantry around 
 
 id is said to have treated his wife with 
 
 itality. An apportunity being afforded 
 
 Mirabeau, he contrived in 1774 to place 
 
 ice more under arrest, first in the castle 
 
 Jotuated on a rock in the gulf or Marseilles, 
 
 rards in a fortress of the Jura mountains. 
 
 named place Mirabeau seduced the 
 
 lan it contained, the sutler's wife, and in 
 
 carried off Sophia de Ruffey, wife of the 
 
 le Monnier, the only being ne ever really 
 
 1 whose loss embittered all his after life, 
 
 not fire his genius, and render him the 
 
 man known to history. The lovers took 
 
 in Holland, where Mirabeau commenced 
 
 for the booksellers as a means of subsis- 
 
 and while thus engaged they were both 
 
 y a stratagem, Madame de Monnier being 
 
 in a convent, and Mirabeau conducted to 
 
 ', 
 
 *&K 
 
 [Castle of Vincennes.] 
 
 the castle of Vincennes, where he re- 
 liree years and seven months. Previous 
 est he had been condemned by the parlia- 
 
 MIR 
 
 ment of Dijon, par contumace, and beheaded in 
 effigy ; and all his endeavours to obtain a trial 
 during this long imprisonment were in vain ; as 
 were his efforts, pleading with surprising eloquence 
 in his own cause, to recover his wife by law, who 
 procured a divorce from him. The works which 
 he had written up to this period were chiefly licen- 
 tious productions, but he used the interval of his 
 freedom in 1776 to publish an Essay on Despot- 
 ism,' the fruit of which he had so bitterly tasted. 
 Between the recovery of his liberty and the convo- 
 cation of the 'Estates-General' in 1789, Mira- 
 beau occupied himself as a political and historical 
 writer, and becoming known to Calonne the fin- 
 ance minister, went to Berlin on some secret mis- 
 sion. His ambition, at the commencement of the 
 national troubles, was to be returned to the 
 estates-general as a deputy for the noblesse ; but 
 being rejected by his own order, he threw himself 
 into the arms of the popular party, and was the 
 first in the assembly to defy the royal authority. 
 The occasion was the famous sitting of June 23d, 
 1789, when the deputies were charged to separate 
 by the king, to the end that each of the three 
 orders might meet in its own separate place on the 
 morrow. The noblesse and the majority of the 
 clergy departed after the king and his retinue, but 
 the commons still lingered in uncertainty, and 
 Mirabeau began to address them on the mission 
 with which they were intrusted by the nation. 
 He was interrupted by the marquis de Br6ze, mas- 
 ter of the ceremonies, who reminded them of the 
 king's orders. The orator, flushed with anger, 
 turned upon him with the glare of a lion ' Go, 
 tell your master that we are here by the will of 
 the people, and no power but the force of bayonets 
 shall send us hence! ' The commons rallied to his 
 voice as to the call of -a trumpet, and instantly de- 
 creed the inviolability of the people's representa- 
 tives, and being joined by some of the noblesse and 
 the clergy, formed themselves into the national 
 assembly, of which body, in January 1791, Mira- 
 beau became president, only two months before his 
 death. We have not space to follow his career in the 
 assembly, and the great questions decided by the 
 magic of his eloquence. His characteristic was irre- 
 sistible power, not only expressed in the deep bass of 
 his voice, but represented in his defiant looks, his 
 large head, his massy black hair, which he shook 
 from his brow like the mane of a lion when he as- 
 cended the tribune, and his tall thick-set frame. 
 'His gestures were commands; his movements 
 coups d' etat,' ' his sonorous phrases became the 
 proverbs of the revolution.' He compared himself 
 to Marius, 'less great for having exterminated the 
 Cimbri than for having prostrated the Roman 
 aristocracy.' The most graphic writers of every 
 shade of opinion have exhausted their skill in 
 words to reproduce him as the people's tribune, 
 'In fiery rough figure, with black Samson-locks 
 under the slouch-hat, he steps along there,' writes 
 Carlyle in The Procession, ' roughest lion's whelp 
 ever littered of that rough breed !' After the first 
 burst of passion as the orator, Mirabeau devised 
 rationally, and intended honestly as the statesman. 
 In less than two years from the commencement of 
 his political career, it was terminated by his death, 
 and it cannot be doubted that he foresaw clearly, 
 and was prepared to resist strenuously, the evil 
 
 497 
 
 2K 
 
MIR 
 
 designs of those who involved France in such cala- 
 mities afterwards. It is difficult to believe that a 
 man could be devoid both of shame and virtue in 
 private life, and at the same time act sincerely as 
 a politician, and yet it is highly probable that such 
 was the case with Mirabeau. A man of wild un- 
 governable passions, he had only just discovered 
 the arena in which he could devote them to one 
 sufficient end, and therein lies the whole secret. 
 Like Danton, he took money from the court to 
 support his extravagances, and still pursued his 
 own purposes. When cut off by a sudden illness, 
 2d April, 1791, he was in all likelihood preparing 
 to dissolve the national assembly, and to under- 
 take the guidance of the nation as minister. He 
 was honoured with a magnificent public funeral, 
 and his remains deposited in the pantheon, from 
 which, two years afterwards, they were removed 
 and replaced by those of Marat. [E-R-] 
 
 MIRAMION, M. Bonneau De, a French lady, 
 celebrated as founder of a house of refuge for pros- 
 titutes, and of the Miramionites, or restored order 
 of the daughters of Saint Genevieve, 1629-1696. 
 
 MIRANDA, Don Francisco, one of the ear- 
 liest patriots of South America, was born about 
 the middle of last century, and commenced his 
 career as a soldier in the Spanish army. In 1783 
 he visited the United States and the principal 
 countries of Europe, with a view to the indepen- 
 dence of his country, and, in 1790, joined the 
 French army under Dumouriez. Sharing in the 
 unpopularity of that general, he was tried at the 
 revolutionary tribunal and acquitted, but was 
 banished by the directory, and at a later period by 
 Buonaparte. From 1806 to 1810 he was engaged, 
 with varied success, in the struggles of his country- 
 men for freedom. He was at length captured by 
 the Spaniards, and died in prison at Cadiz, where 
 he had been confined four years, 1816. 
 
 MIRANDA, R. De, a Spanish painter, last cen. 
 
 MIRANDOLA, the name of a distinguished fa- 
 mily in Italy, was first borne by Francesco Pico 
 Della Mirandola, a chief of the Ghibellines, 
 and prince of Modena, 1312-1321. The next, and 
 most illustrious of the family, mentioned by bio- 
 graphers, was Giovanni Pico Della Miran- 
 dola, one of the greatest lights of his age (next 
 article). After him are mentioned, Giovanni 
 Francesco, his nephew, a great theological and 
 philosophical writer, massacred, with his son, by 
 Galeotto, 1533. Galeotto, the nephew and mur- 
 derer of the preceding, succeeded to the principa- 
 lity, and died 1551. Louis, son and successor of 
 the latter, died 1574. Marie, the last of the 
 dukes of Mirandola, was born 1688, and despoiled 
 of his estates by the emperor Joseph I., in the 
 Spanish war of succession. He retired with his 
 family, who established themselves in France. 
 
 MIRANDOLA, John Pico Della, was born 
 in 1463. The precocious prince of Mirandola and 
 Concordia showed great accomplishments in his 
 youth, and challenged disputation on abstruse 
 subjects in many of the most famous univer- 
 sities. He had few matches in that age as a 
 finished scholar and acute philosopher, a subtle 
 debater and a polished gentleman, nay, he was 
 deep in theology, and devout in his life. But his 
 sun went down at mid-day, and he died at the age 
 of thirty-two at Florence in 1494. His fond 
 
 MIT 
 
 pursuit was an endeavour to harmonize the ] 
 sophy of Aristotle and Plato. His wurlcs 
 published at Basel, folio, 1601, and consi 
 letters, a treatise on the Lord's Prayer, the ] 
 dom of Christ, the 15th Psalm, and Pft 
 for a Holy Life, &c. 
 
 MIRE VELT, M. J., a Dutch painter, 1568- 
 
 MIRTCHOND, M., a Persian hist., 1433-1 
 
 MISSON, Maximilian, a Fr. writer, d. 1 
 
 MITAN, J., an engraver of London, 1776- 
 
 MITCHELL, Andrew, a Scotch admiral, 
 
 1757, captured the Dutch fleet 1799, died 18 
 
 MITCHELL, Sir Andrew, English ami 
 
 dor to Berlin, time of Frederick II., died 177 
 
 MITCHELL, Sir David, a naval commi 
 
 and ambassador, time of William III., died 1 
 
 MITCHELL, J., a Scottish dramat., 1684- 
 
 MITCHELL, Thos., a classical translatai 
 
 contributor to the ' Quarterly Review,' 1783- 
 
 MITELLI, A., an Italian painter, 1597-K 
 
 MITFORD, George, a country gentlemai 
 
 magistrate, father of Miss Mitford, the well-k 
 
 novelist, 1760-1842. 
 
 MITFORD, John, a miscellaneous wr., d. 
 
 MITFORD, John Freeman, Baron Reda 
 
 an eminent chancery lawyer, member of p 
 
 ment, and speaker of the House of Commc 
 
 1801, subsequently lord chancellor of Ireland 
 
 one of the privy council, died 1830. 
 
 MITFORD, William, professoi of histo 
 the Royal Academy, was Dorn in London 
 and educated for the law, but entered partial 
 and obtained a commission in the Harm; 
 militia. His principal works are a 'Histo 
 Greece,' an ' Essay on the Harmony of Langi 
 ' Observations on the History of Christianity, 
 some military treatises. Died 1827, 
 
 MITHRIDATES, the first of the name, 
 of Pontus, reigned 402-363 B.C. The se 
 336-302 B.C. The third, 302-2G5 B.C. The/a 
 266-222 B.C. The fifth, son and successor o 
 preceding, chiefly known by his war witb 
 inhabitants of Sinope, ended his reign abou 
 B.C.. The sixth, who was the first of the kin 
 Pontus to form an alliance with the Boo 
 ascended the throne about 157, and was a 
 sinated B.C. 124. The seventh, or the sixth 
 cording to some accounts in which our Jij 
 omitted, is the subject of the following notice 
 MITHRIDATES, surnamed ' the Great,' 
 of Pontus, and greatest enemy of the R< 
 power, was son of Mithridates v., whom he 
 ceeded at the age of eleven, b.c. 123. Soon 
 attaining his majority, he commenced his can 
 intrigue and conquest by attacking the Colch 
 the empire of the Bosphorus, and, by the yeai 
 90, had openly broken with the Romans, the 
 of whose power he had often before c 
 To explain how, in a few years, he became si 
 midable to the rulers of the world, we oog' 
 mention that the rapacity and corruption oj 
 Roman proconsuls had excited a spirit of hi 
 and revolt in nearly all their provin* 
 fact, the declining age of the patrician rep' 
 when a social war was created by t! 
 the privileged classes to withhold the rigntil 
 the very name of Roman citizens fi 
 of their subjects. Spartacus in Ital 
 the head of all Spain in revolt, and the nanf 
 
 498 
 
MIT 
 
 hrins and Sylla sufficiently characterize the na- 
 j-e of those critical times. Mithridates found the 
 bple of the East ripe for change, and he was 
 kfed as their deliverer by whole populations 
 erever his standard appeared. In the first flush 
 [his success, the inhabitants of Asia Minor rose 
 lunst the Roman citizens dwelling among them, 
 k it is estimated at the lowest computation that 
 ; 000 persons, of all ages and of both sexes, were 
 I to death, whether by order of Mithridates, or 
 la spontaneous act of vengeance, can never be 
 (lermined. Quick and indefatigable in his move- 
 nts, Mithridates was soon master of nearly all 
 ^|a Minor, besides Greece taken by Archelaus, his 
 1 (tenant; and so surprising was his talent for 
 tj acquisition of languages, that he was able to 
 erse with the natives of twenty-two different 
 ons subject to him. The fortunes of Eome at 
 crisis, b.c. 87, were intrusted to Sylla, who 
 is army through Greece ; and, by the capture 
 lithens and the victories of Chseronea and Or- 
 llnenea, restored the Roman power in that coun- 
 ti For four years Mithridates disputed posses- 
 fi of Asia, but was at last compelled to succumb, 
 p the loss of more than 200,000 men, and to 
 {( ne himself to his hereditary dominions, not, 
 hi iver, without more fighting during the execu- 
 > treaty, which is sometimes regarded as 
 i and war between him and the Romans. After 
 tilieath of Sylla, which occurred in B.C. 78, 
 M ridates levied another army, numbering about 
 l<] )00 men, with a determination to expel the 
 m ms from Asia. With this force he awaited 
 hi: )portunity, and when the kingdom of Bithynia 
 educed to a Roman province, which happened 
 m e death of Nicomedia, he invaded the coun- 
 m md, having beaten the army of Cotta, laid 
 B to Cyzicum. Obliged to retreat by Lucullus, 
 B was appointed consul B.C. 74, he was fol- 
 B by the victorious Romans into his own states, 
 B riven to seek a refuge in Armenia, then ruled 
 B granes, who refused to deliver him up. Here, 
 B t, with the facility of a Buonaparte, Mithri- 
 fel raised a third great army, and, in B.C. 67, 
 B Wely defeated the Romans under Triarius, the 
 lieipant of Lucullus, who had been recalled; 
 MKpllowing up his success, rapidly recovered the 
 m part of his dominions. The Romans, whose 
 - at this time trembling in the balance, 
 Mednced to invest Pompey with absolute power 
 nt| East, and by him, in B.C. 76, the forces of 
 Bgdates were completely routed in a night at- 
 Hjttff the Euphrates. Far from giving up a 
 Bjje which had lasted nearly torty years, this 
 Hrdinary man, after remaining some time in 
 Hhnent, suddenly appeared at the head of 
 Mr army, with the vast design of marching 
 Hdy ; where he had reason to hope his forces 
 Br 6 joined by the Gauls. This gigantic enter- 
 BJroduced a revolt amongst his troops, headed 
 'j son, Pharnaces, whom they proclaimed 
 Bj and Mithridates, after a single attempt to 
 it at the head of his guards, endeavoured 
 I poison and afterwards to stab himself; and 
 Bj ttempts failing, caused one of his Gaulish 
 W aries to put an end. to his existence. Thus 
 Bid, in b.c. 64, the most formidable enemy 
 B ome had ever encountered, and, in many 
 & S one of the most remarkable men of 
 
 MOI 
 
 those ages. He was honoured with a magnificent 
 funeral by Pompey, and Rome breathed again on 
 hearing of his unexpected and unhappy end. In 
 regard to the charges of cruelty brought against 
 him, it ought to be remembered, as pointed out by 
 a recent historian of the Roman emperors, that the 
 materials for the history of Mithridates are fur- 
 nished by his enemies, the chief source of them 
 being the memoirs of Sylla. [E.R.] 
 
 MITHRIDATES, the first of the name, king of 
 Parthia, surnamed ' the Great,' succeeded B.C. 164, 
 died, after conquering Media, Persia, Babylonia, 
 and Mesopotamia, 139. The second, reigned 126- 
 86 b.c. The third, 61-53 B.C. 
 
 MITTIE, J. S., a Polish physician, 1727-1795. 
 
 MITZLER, Laurence Charles De Kolof, a 
 German composer, settled at Warsaw, 1711-1778. 
 
 MIZAULD, A., a Fr. astrologer, 1520-1578. 
 
 MOAWIAH, first Ommiade caliph, 661-680. 
 
 MOAWIAH II., third Ommiade caliph, 683-704. 
 
 MOCHI, F., an Italian sculptor, 1580-1646. 
 
 MODEER, A., a Swed. naturalist, 1738-1799. 
 
 MODIUS, F., a Flemish critic, 1546-1597. 
 
 MOEHLER, John Adam, professor of Romish 
 theology at Tubingen, and author of many learned 
 works in theology and church history, 1796-1836. 
 
 MOEHSEN, John Ch. William, a learned 
 physician of Germany, author of works on the his- 
 tory of medicine, 1722-1795. 
 
 MOELLENDORF, Richd. Joachim Henry, 
 Count De, commander of the Prussian army dur- 
 ing the dismemberment of Poland, and the suc- 
 cessor of Brunswick on the Rhine, 1724-1816. 
 
 MOESER, J., a German author, 1720-1794. 
 
 MOESTLIN, M., a Lutheran divine, died 1650. 
 
 MOET, J. P., a French author, 1721-1806. 
 
 MOFFAN, N. De, a Fr. historian, 16th cent. 
 
 MOHLER. See Moehler. 
 
 MOHNIKE, T. C. F., a Ger. savant, 1781-1841. 
 
 MOHSIN, Fani, a Persian poet, died 1670. 
 
 MOINE, P. C. Le, a French savant, 1723-1780. 
 
 MOIRA, F. Rayvdon, earl of, a general and 
 statesman of the period of Fox and Pitt, distin- 
 guished in the American war, and more lately in 
 La Vendee, born 1754, died governor-general of the 
 East Indies, 1829. 
 
 MOIR, David Macbeth, born in 1798, at 
 Musselburgh, in the county of Edinburgh, settled 
 as a medical practitioner in his native town, and 
 till his death practised his profession there with 
 eminent ability and success. He became known in 
 literature by poetical contributions to Blackwood's 
 Magazine, which, beginning about 1817, were 
 soon marked by the writer's signature of ' Delta,' 
 and continued to be furnished very frequently dur- 
 ing the remainder of his life. Some of these were 
 collected in two separate volumes : ' The Legend 
 of Genevieve, with other Tales and Poems,' pub- 
 lished in 1825 ; and ' Domestic Verses,' (several of 
 which are very beautiful,) in 1843. Destitute of 
 strong invention and original imagination, the 
 poetry of Delta is yet extremely pleasing, through 
 its refinement of sentiment, its frequent flow of 
 sweetly natural pathos, and its grace and delicacy 
 both of diction and of imagery. He was still more 
 successful in a very different walk, that of familiar 
 comic portraiture in prose. His compositions of 
 this kind, contributed to Blackwood at intervals 
 during several years from 1824, were collected and 
 
MOI 
 
 published separately, as ' The Life of Mansie 
 Wauch.' This autobiography of a country tailor, 
 though clearly suggested ny Gait's Scottish da- 
 guerreotypes, has great humour and originality of its 
 own. Dr. Moir was likewise the author of ' Out- 
 lines of the Ancient History of Medicine,' and of a 
 volume of Critical Remarks on Recent English 
 Poetry, which had been delivered as lectures not 
 long before his death. He died in July, 1851, re- 
 gretted as one whose amiability and uprightness 
 were quite worthy of his fine taste and various 
 accomplishments. [W.S.] 
 
 MOIVRE. See De Moivre. 
 
 MOJON, J., an Italian chemist, 1776-1837. 
 
 MOLA, P. P., an Italian painter, 1609-1665. 
 
 MOLAI, James De, last grand master of the 
 Templars, was born of a noble family in Burgundy, 
 and entered the order about the year 1265. He 
 was elected grand master, though absent from the 
 East, on the death of William de Beaujeu, and 
 was present at the recovery of Jerusalem by the 
 Christians in 1299. After fresh reverses suffered 
 in Palestine, Molai found himself in Cyprus, and 
 was mustering his forces for renewing the conflict, 
 when a summons from the pope obliged him to re- 
 turn to France in 1305. The avowed object of his 
 recall was to take measures for uniting the Tem- 
 plar and Knights Hospitalers in one body. The 
 want of union among the different military orders 
 having occasioned much scandal and provoked 
 many hazards in Jerusalem. Our knowledge of 
 the facts is very obscure, but it is certain that the 
 great wealth of the Templars had excited the 
 avarice of Philip the Fair, and this, conjoined with 
 political and religious reasons, produced an under- 
 standing between him and the pontiff for their 
 destruction. On the 30th of October, 1307, all 
 the Templars throughout France were arrested by 
 surprise, and their property seized, while the in- 
 quisitors proceeded to examine them by torture 
 and parole evidence on various charges of heresy, 
 immorality, and unnatural crimes. As usual m 
 such cases, many confessions were made to escape 
 the agony of the rack, many died under the in- 
 fliction, many recanted afterwards, and were burnt 
 alive at the stake, and nearly all who suffered, ex- 
 hibited the devotion and constancy of martyrs. 
 James de Molai, and others of the order, appealed 
 to the judgment of the pope, who held an oecu- 
 menical council on the subject in 1311, and in May, 
 1312, published a bull abolishing the order. The 
 grand master, after a long imprisonment, was 
 cruelly burnt alive by a slow fire, on the 18th of 
 March, 1314, at Paris. An apology for the 
 Templars was published by Father Lejeune, Paris, 
 1789, and a history of their condemnation, written 
 by Pierre Dupuy, appeared at Brussels, probably 
 a reprint, 1751. This illustrious order took its 
 name from the temple of Solomon, and inherited 
 the traditions and spiritual symbols connected 
 with its foundation the same, perhaps, that are 
 faintly recognized in freemasonry. While it can- 
 not be doubted that many such wandering knights 
 were of licentious lives, and that their esoteric doc- 
 trines were inconsistent with the papal dominion, 
 it is absurd to suppose that the crimes committed 
 by individuals were the laws of their order. They 
 were just a more chivalrous kind of Illuminati 
 than those of the last century, possessed higher 
 
 500 
 
 MOL 
 
 traditions, a more earnest purpose, and 
 great temptation to their destruction, im 
 wealth. 
 MOLARD, F. E., a Fr. engineer, 1774-11 
 MOLE, Edward, a French magistrate, t 
 Henry IV., 1558-1614. Hisson, Matthew, 
 cellor during the war of the Fronde, 1584-11 
 MOLE, F. R., a French comedian, 1734-: 
 MOLE, John, an English algebraist, d. ] 
 MOLESWORTH, Robert, Viscount, am 
 dor to Copenhagen in the reigu of Williau 
 author of an ' Account of Denmark,' 1656-1 
 MOLEVILLE, A. F. B. See Bkrtraxi 
 MOLIERE is the name which Jean Bai 
 Poquelin assumed on becoming a player, t 
 which he is celebrated as the best comic wi 
 France. He was born in 1622, in Paris, wh 
 father was a ' tapissier,' or upholsterer, holdii 
 an appointment in the royal household. Th< 
 designed for his father's trade, was poorly edi 
 till he was fourteen years old ; after which, 1 
 been inspired by his grandfather with a lov 
 for reading and for plays, he obtained fro 
 parents, with difficulty, the means of study 
 the College de Clermont; and there, I 
 making other acquaintances that gained pab 
 for him, he attracted the notice and appro 
 of the philosopher Gassendi. In his nme 
 year, having been appointed to fill his fi 
 place as ' valet-de-chambre tapissier ' to the 
 he began to attend at court : his taste for the 
 was now confirmed by the fashion which hai 
 set by Cardinal Richelieu ; and he put himi 
 the head of a few young persons who, playi 
 first as amateurs, soon became actors by t 
 sion. From about 1645, Moliere's history i 
 amidst the wars of the Fronde : but he appt 
 have wandered in the provinces with his 
 and to have composed slight pieces for the 
 1653, when his first regular comedy, ' L'Eti 
 was played at Lyons with great success. In 
 guedoc, next year, he produced ' Le Depit A 
 eux,' and, bent on his favourite pursuits, r 
 to become the secretary of his old school-f 
 the Prince de Conti. In 1658, Moliereai 
 company, finding their way to Paris, receive 
 patronage of the court : he was by this tii 
 excellent actor; and he immediately showed 
 he possessed both a power of observation a 
 original invention, and a skill in dramatic com 
 tion, much exceeding anything that had apt 
 in his two earlier pieces. His clever sati 
 literary and accomplished ladies, called ' Les 
 cieuses Ridicules,' was followed by his huir 
 farce, ' Le Cocu Imaginaire : ' ' L'Ecole des Ji 
 and ' Les Facheux,' made him still more ft; 
 as a witty and correct painter of life and mar 
 and the series of his plays continued to be r. 
 increased till 1673, when it was ended with h 
 by ' Le Malade Imaginaire.' Some of his 
 dies, such as that last named, ' Le M6decin J 
 Lui,' ' Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme,' and ' ( 
 Dandin,' are chargeable, notwithsl 
 liveliness, with degenerating into bro 
 several of his comedies, though they 
 support his fame at the extravagant heiu 
 which his countrymen raise it, are 
 dent to justify his rank as at once o 
 brilliant' and skilful of all comic dramatists, 1 
 
MOL 
 
 f very best of those that have written comedies 
 qthe formal French model. Such praise belongs 
 icially to 'L'Ecole des Femmes' (1662), m 
 ilch is" his famous character of Agnes; ' Le Mis- 
 irope' (1666), of which Wycherly's 'Plain- 
 1'iler ' is an imitation, with improvement in man- 
 Jaient and degradation in morality; 'Le Tar- 
 t s ' 667), so deservedly celebrated for its power- 
 flpicture of hypocrisy in the person of the hero ; 
 iT 4 Les Femmes Savantes ' (1672), in which 
 Mindless pretensions are ridiculed with great 
 lb of humour. In 1662, being forty years old, he 
 feed an actress of seventeen, whose light-minded 
 ttetry embittered his comfort. He is described 
 Shaving been a thoughtful, generous, and good- 
 Bted man, and more popular with his players 
 m managers are wont to be. He prided himself 
 mis skill in playing low comedy, as much at 
 Ik as on the fame he won as a dramatic poet. 
 H he all but died on the stage. In acting 
 Kan' on one of the earliest appearances of his 
 last comedy, he was seized with convulsions, 
 
 n suffocated by blood from the chest. His 
 refused admission to consecrated ground, 
 
 king prevailed on the archbishop of Paris 
 a. private funeral. [W.S.] 
 
 [Tomb of Moliere.] 
 
 JDLIERE, F. De, a French novelist, d. 1623. 
 ipLIERES, Joseph Privat De, a French 
 irian, known as a philosophical and mathe- 
 tal writer, 1677-1742. 
 
 1HJ.N, or DUMOULIN, James, a French 
 Bun, understood to be the original of the 
 lifado of Le Sage, 1666-1755. 
 
 I LINA, A. De, a Span, philolog., 1496-1584. 
 MJLINA, J. I., a Mexican natural., 1740-1829. 
 ptLINA, L., a Spanish Jesuit, author of a 
 Ppn Free Will, which divided the theologians 
 
 II day into two parties, called Jansenists and 
 faU, 1535-1601. 
 
 * LINERI, J. A., an Ital. painter, 1577-1640. 
 
 JLINET, J., a French poet, died 1507. 
 
 HlNIER, W., a French troubadour, 14th c. 
 JNOS, Michael, was born in the neigh- 
 Mod of Saragossa in 1627, but was chiefly re- 
 Win Rome. In 1670 he published in Spanish 
 Ijknous book, 'The Spiritual Guide,' which 
 Hnslated into Italian, and published at Rome 
 ML The object of the treatise was to teach 
 Iflhe pious mind must possess quietude in 
 its spiritual progress, that for this purpose 
 
 
 MON 
 
 it must be abstracted from visible objects, that 
 thus drawn within himself, it becomes susceptible 
 of heavenly influence, and that the special func- 
 tions of intellect and will are merged wholly in 
 God. This species of mysticism was named Quiet- 
 ism. As it was in antagonism with the emphasis 
 laid by the Church of Rome on external cere- 
 monies, it brought down upon its author the hos- 
 tility of the Jesuits and the higher powers. Mo- 
 linos was thrown into prison in 1685, and though 
 he recanted his errors, yet was he in 1687 con- 
 demned to perpetual imprisonment, and he died 
 unreleased in 1696. This system was espoused in 
 France by Madame Guyon, and the good and great 
 Fenelon, bishop of Cambray. [J.E.] 
 
 MOLLER, Daniel William, a learned Hun- 
 garian 1642-1712. 
 
 MOLLER, H., a Lutheran divine, 1530-1589. 
 
 MOLLER, J., a German philologist, 1661-1725. 
 
 MOLLERUS, J. H., a Dutch statesman, 
 minister of war in 1814, 1753-1830. 
 
 MOLNAR, A., a Hungarian philologist, b. 1574. 
 
 MOLLOY, Charles, a political and dramatic 
 writer, educated for the law, b. in Dublin ; d. 1767. 
 
 MOLYN, Peter De, called 'the Elder,' a 
 Dutch landscape painter and etcher, born about 
 1600. His son of the same name, called ' Cava- 
 liere Tempestu,' and 'Pietro de Mulceribus, 
 famous for his storm pieces, 1637-1701. 
 
 MOLYNEUX, William, an Irish mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, author of a treatise on 
 ' Dioptrics,' &c, 1656-1698. His son, Samuel, 
 an astronomer and optician, was born 1689. Sir 
 Thomas, brother ot the latter, a physician and 
 philosophical writer, died 1733. 
 
 MOLYNEUX, Sir Wm., a brave officer, dist. 
 at the battle of Flodden, reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 MOLZA, Francesco Maria, a licentious 
 Italian, distinguished for his versatile skill in 
 poetry, 1489-1544. His grand-daughter, Tar- 
 quinia, remarkable for her extensive learning 
 and poetical talents, 1542-1617. 
 
 MONACI, L. De, a Venetian annalist, d. 1429. 
 
 MONALDESCHI, Marquis De, a nobleman 
 attendant on Christina, queen of Sweden, whom she 
 caused to be assassinated at Fontainbleau, 1657. 
 
 MONARDES, N., a Spanish naturalist, d. 1578. 
 
 MONBEILLARD. See Montbeillard. 
 
 MONBODDO, Lord. See Burnett. 
 
 MONCE, F. De La, a painter of Munich, d. 1753. 
 
 MONCEY, R. Adrian Jeannot, Duke de 
 Conegliano, a French marshal, distinguished in 
 the wars of Napoleon, and governor of the ' Inva- 
 lides ' when the ashes of the emperor were brought 
 from St. Helena, 1754-1842. 
 
 MONCIEL, T. De, a Fr. statesman, 1790-1831. 
 
 MONCONYS, B. De, a wr. of travels, 1611-65. 
 
 MONCRIF, Francis Augustin Paradis De, 
 a French poet and literateur, 1687-1770. 
 
 MONET, Philibert, a Fr. savant, 1566-1643. 
 
 MONETI, F., an Italian satirist, 1635-1712. 
 
 MONGAULT, N. H., a Fr. writer, 1674-1746. 
 
 MONGE, Gaspard, born at Beaune in 1746; 
 died at Paris, 28th July, 1818 : one of the very 
 greatest of those illustrious scientific men who 
 graced and exalted the Republic, the Consulate, and 
 the Empire. Educated as a military engineer at 
 the college at Mezieres, he was transferred to the 
 school of the Louvre in 1780, and thus was on the 
 501 
 
MON 
 
 spot, prepared to sustain his part in those subse- 
 
 Juent stupendous events which stunned Europe, 
 t must not be supposed that in the Revolution 
 Monge figured as a politician ; neither at any period 
 of his life did he evince sympathy with the mere 
 struggles of Party ; but among the foremost, he 
 came, with all the energy of genius, in aid of the 
 Convention, when France first stood at bay, and 
 then single-handed beat back the Coalition and 
 shivered their Empires. That was indeed a time ! 
 The super-human gallantry of the nation, and the 
 prodigious force with which it rose in defiant vin- 
 dication of its existence and rights, so strike one 
 with amazement, and even at this late day so stir 
 the blood, that, for the moment, one inclines to 
 forget its crimes. It must be recollected, that not 
 only was the enemy on the frontier, but the sup- 
 ply was stopped of all those substances, even to 
 the raw material, which had to be wrought into 
 weapons of defence ; the means of procuring iron, 
 steel, saltpetre, gunpowder, and many articles of 
 prime necessity ' were,' says Biot, ' created during 
 the reign of Terror.' The superintendence, or in 
 terms more appropriate, the creation of the Engin- 
 eering, fell in large part to Monge ; and it was out 
 of his herculean exertions to man the fortresses and 
 instruct the new army, that those world-famous 
 schools the Ecoles Normale and Polytechnique 
 at that time sprung up. Nor were the ties ever 
 severed that bound him to the fortunes of France. 
 Side by side with their young Buonaparte during 
 the ever-memorable campaigns of Italy, he after- 
 wards formed one of tie expedition to Egypt, 
 whose records his pen has so largely enriched: 
 and he kept the warm friendship of the Emperor, 
 to the close of Napoleon's own career. It will be 
 remembered as one of the earliest and meanest 
 acts of the Restoration that purging of the Insti- 
 tute, which got rid, by expulsion, of several 
 associates to whom it then owed great part of its 
 splendour : surely it is brighter honour to Monge 
 that he shared the fate of Carnot, than if he had 
 preferred to repent and be rewarded with La- 
 place ! Monge's achievements, however, were not 
 merely those of Action. He contributed in many 
 ways to improve analysis, and made important 
 steps in the application of analysis to Geometry : 
 but that which makes his name imperishable, is 
 a stroke of pure genius, constituting an epoch 
 in the Science it advanced. While yet a young 
 officer in the engineers, the happy thought 
 occurred to Monge, that by a new and peculiar 
 method of projection, every solid figure might be 
 represented on plane canvas, so accurately that the 
 relations of its various points might be determined 
 by rule and compass. Applying his idea in the 
 first place to the solid works of fortification, 
 &c, he soon discerned that he held in his hand 
 the principles of a Geometry altogether new, and 
 of exhaustless capacity ; and that remarkable 
 method was elaborated accordingly, which is now 
 known as ' Descriptive Geometry.' A new Geo- 
 metry, by every right, the Method of Monge has 
 already conferred the highest benefits on all de- 
 partments of practical science ; and it has opened 
 to pure Geometry long courses of investigation, to 
 which analysis alone had previously the key. No 
 work yet exists exposing the foundation and na- 
 ture of Descriptive Geometry as well as Monge's 
 
 MON 
 
 own : through its perspicuity, its taste, its 
 prehensiveness, it ranks as a classic in n 
 matics. It is said that the oral expositions < 
 remarkable person were as fascinating as hisl 
 His pupils considered him the ideal of a 
 sophic teacher ; and a few who still survive 
 tinue to speak of his lessons as among theii 
 delightful recollections. [J. 
 
 MONGELLAZ, Madame, a French i 
 author of ' The Influence of Women upon 
 ners,' 1798-1830. 
 
 MONGEZ, John Andrew, a French phj 
 and naturalist, 1751-1788. His brother, Anti 
 author of several historical works, 1747-183. 
 
 MONGITORE, A., a Fr. antiquar., 1663- 
 
 MONK. George Monk, general und 
 commonwealth, and duke of Albemarle aft 
 restoration, was born in Devonshire in 1608 
 devoted himself early to a military life, an 
 acquired some experience in the wars on th 
 tinent, when the civil war broke out in El 
 between Charles and his parliament. Mo 
 first served on the king's side ; but he was 
 prisoner in 1645, and after lying two years i 
 son, he consented to take a commission 
 parliamentarian army. He commanded fir 
 his new masters in Ireland, where he distin^ 
 himself greatly. He afterwards acted as hi 
 ant-general under Cromwell in Scotland, 
 he aided much in gaining the victory of Di 
 Cromwell left him with 5,000 men to coi 
 the subjugation of Scotland, a work which 
 effectually performed. He was next emplo; 
 an admiral of the commonwealth's fleet, a 
 shared in the perils and the glories of th 
 perate struggle with the Dutch navy, 
 Blake so successfully conducted. He was 
 soon back to command in Scotland ; and fi 
 years he kept that kingdom in helpless subn 
 to Cromwell, and in unprecedented order and 
 quillity. On the first protector's death, 
 proclaimed Richard Cromwell as Oliver's s 
 sor ; but he soon discovered the weakness 
 new ruler, and determined to follow that pol 
 which he would both connect himself wil 
 strongest party, and also lay that under the 
 est possible obligation to him. He temp 
 for some months ; listening to the advarn 
 all sides, and saying little in return. He bi 
 his army from Scotland to London, and con 
 to dupe the parliamentarians and republic! 
 the very last. He had made up his mind th 
 royalist cause was the strongest, and he c 
 on negociations with the Stuart princes, by I 
 he secured high rewards for himself as Die 
 of conducting their restoration. In Febi 
 1660, Monk threw off the mask altogether, 
 manded the dissolution of the remnant o 
 long parliament, and ordered a free one to bt 
 vened. He introduced a messenger from the k 
 the new parliament; and on the 3d <>t .May, 
 received Charles II. on the beach at Dover, 
 was rewarded by the dukedom of Albeinarl- 
 large grants of offices and money. He wij 
 sea again in 1666, against his old enemw 
 Dutch, and maintained his reputation for cc 
 and conduct. He died in 1670. Monk 
 strong nerves, strong common sens. 
 an accommodating conscience, a careful t< 
 
 502 
 
MON 
 
 j unchanging countenance, and an imperturb- 
 le temper. He showed considerable skill in civil 
 Jremment as well as in military affairs. He had 
 i-ewdness enough to see what was best for the na- 
 il's interest; and, if it also promoted his own, he 
 I ability and vigour enough to bring it to pass, 
 j was never unsettled by enthusiasm in deter- 
 itiing his ends, and he was never checked by 
 |iciple in choosing his means. [E.S C] 
 
 i-IONK, Mary, a poetical writer, died 1715. 
 BONK, Nicholas, brother of the famous duke 
 (iilbemarle, became bishop of Hereford, d. 1661. 
 10XMOUTH, James, duke of, whose at- 
 [ilace the crown of England on his head 
 fjns an interesting and bloody chapter in our 
 lory, was a natural son of Charles II., by Lucy 
 Iters, and was born at Rotterdam, in 1619. 
 was brought up in France as a catholic, and 
 iflthe restoration of Charles, was treated with 
 Iffy mark of affection by him, and acquired im- 
 Iftse popularity by the possession of qualities 
 wh are always dear to the people generosity 
 M courage, united to a handsome person and 
 M)le manners. It was reported that the king 
 U been privately married to Lucy Walters, and 
 Hpopular dislike of the duke of York, after- 
 Uts James II., gave occasion to hopes that her 
 Mmight succeed to the crown hopes which were 
 rwripening into plots under the guidance of such 
 mj as Shaftesbury when the king was pre- 
 iad upon by his brother to declare in council 
 thi the duke of Monmouth had no claims to 
 fcimacy. In 1679, Monmouth was intrusted 
 ri a command in Scotland, and defeated the 
 ,Wianters at the battle of Bothwell Bridge, 
 HJune, but was soon afterwards sent beyond 
 *. at the instigation of his uncle. A few 
 4hs afterwards he returned without leave, and 
 Ike the centre of the popular movements 
 Mked by the arbitrary conduct of Charles, and 
 Blread of the succession in the person of the 
 M of York the same struggle in which the 
 M of Lord William Russel, and Algernon 
 ft? w ^re sacrificed. The result to Monmouth 
 is exile in Holland, where he resided with 
 refugees until the accession of James 
 him with the long desired opportunity 
 the issue with his sword. It is one of 
 )lems of history how far the prince of 
 favoured this enterprise. The duke 
 in the neighbourhood of Lyme, in June, 
 [with only 80 followers, and within twenty- 
 i was at the head of 1,500 men, while 
 troops were mustering to oppose him, 
 the command of Churchill, afterwards the 
 duke of Marlborough, and hundreds of 
 were arrested for alleged complicity. 
 the action took place which tenninated this 
 )rise, Monmouth was proclaimed king 
 >n, and had mustered nearly 6,000 men, 
 and rustics none of the Whig aris- 
 the regular army joining him, as he 
 led to hope. The hostile forces met at 
 >r, in Somersetshire, and more than a 
 of the undisciplined followers of Mon- 
 were killed before they yielded the field, 
 was captured in a miserable condition, 
 igwood, in the New Forest, and was 
 on Tower Hill, on the 15th of July. 
 
 MON 
 The executioner was John Ketch, who had also 
 beheaded Russel. Monmouth was the idol of the 
 people, who refused for a long time to believe that 
 he was really executed ; and it is curious to specu- 
 late on what might have been the issue of his 
 enterprise had he deferred it a year or two longer, 
 when the undisguised tyranny of James, and the 
 hopes of the catholics were prostrated by the 
 glorious revolution of 1688. [E.R.] 
 
 MONNET, A. G., a French chemist, 1734-1817. 
 
 MONNET, J., a French writer, died 1785. 
 
 MONNIER, L. G., a Fr. engraver, 1733-1804. 
 
 MONNIER, P. Le, a Fr. philoso., 1575-1657. 
 
 MONNIER, Sophie De Ruffy, Marquise De, 
 a French lady of great personal and mental accom- 
 plishments, who became the mistress of Mirabeau, 
 and committed suicide after the death of one of 
 her subsequent lovers, 1789. 
 
 MONNOT, A, a French anatomist, 1765-1820. 
 
 MONNOT, P. T., a Fr. sculptor, 1658-1733. 
 
 MONNOYE, B. De La, a Fr. poet, 1641-1727. 
 
 MONOD, H., a Swiss statesman, 1753-1833. 
 
 MONOD, P., a Jesuit of Savoy, 1586-1644. 
 
 MONO YE R, F. B., a Flemish painter, 1635-99. 
 
 MONPON, H., a French composer, 1804-1841. 
 
 MONRO, Alexander, the famous professor of 
 anatomy, and one of the first founders of the repu- 
 tation borne by the medical school of Edinburgh, 
 was born in London, 1697, and finished his studies 
 at Paris, under the eye of Boerhaave. He was 
 appointed professor at Edinburgh, where he had 
 first studied, in 1719 ; and published his first work, 
 ' The Anatomy of the Bones,' 1726. He contri- 
 buted many papers on anatomical, physiological, 
 and practical subjects to the transactions of a 
 society which he originated in Edinburgh, and of 
 which he was secretary ; these were afterwards 
 published in eight volumes. Died 1767. 
 
 MONRO, Alexander, eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding. See Munro, Alexander. 
 
 MONRO, Donald, second son of Alexander, 
 author of a 'Treatise on Medical and Pharma- 
 ceutical Chemistry,' 1731-1802. 
 
 MONRO, John, a wr. on insanity, 1715-1791. 
 
 MONROE, James, fifth president of the United 
 States of America, elected 1817 and 1821, d. 1831. 
 
 MONS, J. H. Von, a Belg. chemist, 1765-1842. 
 
 MONSIAU, N. A, a Fr. painter, 1754-1837. 
 
 MONSYING, P. A., aFr. composer, 1729-1817. 
 
 MONSON, Sir William, a writer on naval 
 tactics, disting. against th.3 Dutch, 1569-1643. 
 
 MONSTIER, A. Du, a Fr. historian, d. 1662. 
 
 MONSTRELET, Enguerrand De, a provost 
 of Cambray, author of annals, 1390-1453. 
 
 MONTAGU, the name of a noble family, de- 
 scended from one of the Norman barons who ac- 
 companied William the Conqueror to England. 
 The most noted in English history are Edward, 
 who contributed to the overthrow of the duke of 
 Somerset, in the reign of Edward VI., died 1556. 
 Edward, earl of Sandwich, a general, admiral, 
 and statesman, who served the commonwealth in 
 company with Blake, and became a royalist of the 
 restoration, born 1625, killed in combat with the 
 Dutch 1672. Charles, earl of Halifax, a states- 
 man of the reign of William III., 1661-1715. 
 John, fourth earl of Sandwich, a diplomatist and 
 statesman, author of a voyage round the Mediter- 
 ranean, 1718-1792. George, an admiral, 1750- 
 
 503 
 
MON 
 
 1829. And besides these, three celebrated names 
 in the literary history of England mentioned below. 
 
 MONTAGU, Elizabeth, formerly Miss Ro- 
 binson, and wife of Edward Montagu, Esq., grand- 
 son of the first earl of Sandwich, a lady of great 
 literary ability, author of an Essay on the Writ- 
 ings and Genius of Shakspeare,' 1720-1800. 
 
 MONTAGU, G., a naturalist, died 1815. 
 
 MONTAGU, Lady Mary Wortley, whose 
 family name was Pierrepoint, was the daughter of 
 the earl (afterwards duke) of Kingston. She was 
 born in 1690, received a solid and somewhat mas- 
 culine education, and when she was twenty years 
 old translated, from the Latin, not the Greek, the 
 Encheiridion of Epictetus. Marrying, in 1712, 
 Mr. Edward Wortley Montagu, she became, 
 through her beauty and wit, at once a chief orna- 
 ment of fashionable society, and a flattered friend 
 of Addison, Pope, and other men of letters. In 
 1716 she went abroad with her husband, then 
 appointed ambassador to Constantinople. Her 
 residence of two years in the East produced her 
 celebrated ' Letters,' pieces abounding both in live- 
 liness and in observation, and altogether reckoned 
 deservedly among the very best things of their 
 kind. On her return home she was able, not 
 without much opposition, to introduce in England 
 the practice of inoculation for small-pox, to which, 
 seeing it in Turkey, she had submitted her own 
 son. She wrote verses freely for many years, and 
 continued to keep up her intimacy with literary 
 men ; but she quarrelled with Pope, and was pil- 
 loried by him in some of his bitterest verses. She 
 spent several years on the continent, chiefly resid- 
 ing near Venice ; and, coming again to England, 
 died in 1762. Her daughter married George III.'s 
 favourite minister, the earl of Bute. [W.S.] 
 
 MONTAGU, Edward Wortley, son of the 
 preceding, and au. of ' Reflections on the Rise and 
 Fall of the Ancient Republics.' He exhibited traits 
 of a most abandoned character from his school-boy 
 days to the last hour of his life, 1713-1776. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, Michel, Seigneur De, was 
 born in 1533, in the French province of Perigord, on 
 the small estate from which his noble and ancient 
 family took their name. The course of his boyish 
 education was very eccentric : among other pecu- 
 liarities of it, he was taught Latin by speaking it 
 in childhood, to the exclusion of French, which he 
 learned afterwards as a foreign tongue. When we 
 remember that Montaigne was a Gascon by birth 
 and breeding, this fact may account for the com- 
 parative purity of his style. He was sent to the 
 college of Guienne at Bourdeaux, at a very early 
 age, before George Buchanan had ceased to be a 
 teacher there. Being a younger son, he studied law, 
 and was for some years a counsellor in the parlia- 
 ment of Bourdeaux : but, succeeding early to his 
 father's moderate property, he was for the remain- 
 der of his life a country gentleman. He resided 
 almost constantly at his own chateau, making, how- 
 ever, tours in France, visiting Paris, (where he had 
 an honorary post in the royal household,) and jour- 
 neying through Italy for his health in his later years. 
 Living in the troubled time of the League, he was, 
 though attached to the royal party, disgusted by 
 many things done on both sides : and, obstinately 
 remaining inactive, and distrusted by both factions, 
 he was once driven from his house, and had his 
 
 MON 
 
 estate ravaged. About 1572, when he was 
 horror at the massacre of St. Bartholonu 
 began to record the fruits of his desultory r 
 and musings. His ' Essays ' first appeared in 
 but were repeatedly altered, and very much en] 
 till they reached their complete shape in 
 They show much of historical and other kno* 
 with a great amount of shrewd and origii 
 rambling thought. They are made rema 
 amusing and interesting by the garrulous ei 
 with which the writer keeps himself conti 
 before us ; parading, without reserve, all tl 
 tures of his character, his generous good-he 
 ness, his love of ease, his triumphant vanit 
 his singular and touching combination of < 
 feeling with sceptical doubts, on points ol 
 gion as well as of philosbphy. He died in 
 in the sixtieth year of his age. His observi 
 embracing the whole circle of human life 
 been a rich storehouse of ideas for suco 
 authors; and, not long ago, the autogra 
 Shakspeare was found on a copy of the e 
 Englisn translation of the 'Essays'.' 
 
 [Tomb of Montaigne.] 
 
 MONTALBANI, Count J. B., an Italian 
 in the Venetian service, author of a work < 
 manners of the Turks, 1596-1646. His son, "h 
 Antonio, a naturalist, 1630-1695. Ol 
 brother of Count Montalbani, a naturalis 
 philosopher, 1601-1671. 
 MONTALDI, P. J., an Ital. Hebraist, 1 730- 
 MONTALEMBERT, Adrian De, a m 
 engineer distinguished as a general in the 
 years' war, and at the period of the revolut 
 the adviser of Carnot, 1714-1800. 
 
 MONTALEMBERT, Mark Rene Anhi 
 ria, Count De, a French general and diplon 
 who became an exile at the period of the r 
 tion and served in the English army ti! 
 restoration, 1777-1831. 
 
 MONTALTO, the name of two doges of C 
 1. Leo, reigned 1383-1384. 2. Ant 
 elected 1393, deposed and re-elected 1394, de 
 again 1411. 
 
 MONTANO, or DA MONTI, John Bai 
 
 an Italian physician, and translator of some 
 
 Latin classics, 1488-1551. 
 
 MONTANO, J. B., an Ital. architect, d. 1 
 
 MONTANO, R. G., a Span, protectant, 1 
 
 MONTANUS, the founder of a famous I 
 
 in the second century, lived in the village ofj 
 
 aban, on the confines of Phrygia. 
 
 remarks, 'the Phrygian temperament' is 
 
 504 
 
MON 
 
 tjt form of nature-worship, filled with magic and 
 mass for which the province was already famous. 
 1 special supernatural element of Christianity 
 j i;k with amazement such a people its miracles, 
 md early gifts of knowledge and pro- 
 ,3tic rhapsody. The object of Montanus was to 
 >rdinate everything else in the church to those 
 jrhuman and brilliant endowments, and to cast 
 the shade its ordinary teaching and govern- 
 Thus he maintained that he was the pro- 
 Paraclete not the Divine Spirit, indeed, 
 the predicted enlivener, purifier, and Comfor- 
 He threw himself into states of transport, 
 raved with fluent sublimity. A new church 
 founded at Pepuza, their New Jerusalem, and 
 tongues, and nervous spasms, were a daily 
 
 r;le. The follower* of Montanus, among 
 were two ladies, caught the infection, and 
 contagious mesmerism quickly spread. It 
 thougnt that the apostolic age was revived, 
 that the phenomena of Pentecost were to be 
 ? ed in augmented and interminable splen- 
 , A transcendental code of morality was 
 laimed, and in which fasts, penances, and 
 | held a prominent place. Tertullian was 
 by the delusion, and became the most 
 and eloquent advocate of the system. 
 im, in the essence of it, has not been 
 to Phrygia, for it has been often 
 in Europe, and has even crossed the 
 [J.E.] 
 NTANUS, Ben. Arias, a Spanish Orien- 
 and antiquarian, 1527-1598. 
 NTAUSIER,Charles De S ainte Maure, 
 a French statesman, distinguished for his 
 conduct during the civil wars of the 
 1610-1690. 
 NTBEILLARD, Philibert Gueneau, a 
 naturalist, and assistant of Buflbn in the 
 tion of his great work, 1720-1785. 
 NTBELIARD, Leop. Eberhart, Prince 
 officer in the service of Austria, 1670-1725. 
 NTBRUN, C. Dupay, Seigneur De, a pro- 
 commander disting. at Jarnac and Mont- 
 in the civil wars of France, 1530-1574. 
 CALM DE ST. VERAN, Louis Joseph, 
 De, a French commander, killed at the 
 of Quebec, 1712-1759. 
 ~^CHAL, C. De, a Fr. prelate, 1589-1651. 
 CHRESTIEN, Anthony, a French play- 
 and writer on political economy, d. 1621. 
 TEBELLO, Due De. See Lannes. 
 
 ECORVINO, J. De, a French miner, 
 as a missionary to Tartary, 1247-1330. 
 ""ECUCULLI, Raimondo, Count Di, an 
 
 feneral and writer on tactics, 1608-1681. 
 ICUCULLI, Sebastiano Di, a gentle- 
 Ferrara, put to death on the allegation of 
 caused the death of the son of Francis I., 
 to have been poisoned in 1536. 
 EGRE, A. F. Jenin De, a French phy- 
 " wr. on animal magnetism, 1779-1808. 
 EMAYOR, G. De, a Sp. poet, 1520-62. 
 EMERLO, J. S., an Italian poet, 1515- 
 son, Nicholas, histor. of Tortona, 1618. 
 "NAULT, C. P., a Fr. writer, died 1749. 
 ERCHI, J., an Ital. antiquarian, 17th c. 
 EREAU, P. De, a Fr. architect, d. 1266. 
 EREUL, or MONTEREUIL, Beknar- 
 
 MON 
 
 din De, a French Jesuit, known as an ecclesias- 
 tical historian, &c, 1596-1646. 
 
 MONTESPAN, Frances Athenais, Mar- 
 chioness De, one of the mistresses of Louis XIV., 
 was born 1641, married to the marquis de Montes- 
 pan in 1663, and supplanted the duchess de la 
 Valliere in the affections of the king, 1668. She 
 maintained her influence over Louis several years, 
 and had three children by him, but was compelled 
 to give way on his marriage with Madame de 
 Maintenon. Died 1717. 
 
 [Birth-place of Montesquieu.] 
 
 MONTESQUIEU, 6ari, De Secondat, 
 Baron De, was born on the 18th January, 1689, 
 at the castle of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, whence 
 he held another title of nobility. He was a very 
 hard student in his youth. He seems at first to 
 have devoted himself to physical science, but he 
 turned his more mature attention to law, the here- 
 ditary profession of his family. In the year 1717 
 he succeeded both to the family estate and to the 
 perpetual presidency of the parliament of Bour- 
 deaux. While he occupied that high judicial office 
 he laboriously performed its functions. His con- 
 science would not permit him to sacrifice the pub- 
 lic business to his literary and philosophical tastes, 
 and he resigned his chair in 1726. He had five 
 years earlier printed the most popular, but not the 
 most important of his works, the ' Lettres Persan- 
 nes.' A violent literary dispute has arisen from 
 the question whether he withdrew or disavowed 
 some of the religious opinions in this work, with 
 the view of removing tne king's opposition to his 
 being a member of the Academy at all events he 
 succeeded in gaining his object. In 1748 he pub- 
 lished his ' Esprit des Lois,' one of the most la- 
 borious books ever written. It had an immense 
 influence on the literature of the age, and founded 
 that method of philosophising and finding out facts 
 to justify opinion, which characterized his fol- 
 lowers of the French school, and entered in a great 
 measure into the spirit of the Scottish school of 
 philosophy. Like most original minded men he 
 brought to his work a degree of genius and know- 
 ledge which his imitators could not cope with, 
 and which concealed, in his hands, the defects of 
 the system. His life is the history of his works, 
 and the even tenor of his days was little disturbed 
 by external events. Little is known of his per- 
 sonal character and habits, and it is hence in- 
 
 506 
 
HON 
 
 teresting to find a curious notice of him in the 
 memoirs of Lord Charlemont He, when a young 
 man, visited Montesquieu. They set off" together on 
 a ramble, when, as the narrator says, 'we soon 
 arrived at the skirts of a beautiful wood, cut into 
 walks, and paled round, the entrance to which was 
 barricaded oy a moveable bar, about three feet 
 high, fastened with a padlock " Come," said he, 
 searching in his pocket, " it is not worth our while 
 to wait for the key ; you, I am sure, can leap as 
 well as I can, and this bar shall not stop me." So 
 saying he ran at the bar and fairly jumped over it, 
 while we followed him with amazement, but not 
 without delight to see the philosopher likely to be- 
 come our play-fellow. This behaviour had exactly 
 the effect which he meant it should have. He had 
 observed our awkward timidity, and was determined 
 to rid us of it.' (Memoirs, 33). Montesquieu 
 died in February, 1755. [J.H.B.] 
 
 MONTET, J., a French chemist, 1722-1782. 
 
 MONTETH, or MONTEITH, Robert, names 
 common to two Scottish writers, one on historical 
 subjects, and the other a collector of all the epi- 
 taphs of Scotland ; last century. 
 
 MONTEZUMA, the first of the name, king of 
 
 Mexico, reigned 1455-1483. The second, Mexican 
 emperor at the time of the Spanish invasion, suc- 
 ceeded 1502, and died of a wound from a stone 
 while in the hands of the Spaniards 1520. One 
 of his children, baptized by the Spaniards, became 
 the stock of the counts of Montezuma and Tula. 
 
 MONTFAUCON, Bernard De, a French 
 Benedictine, distinguished as a critical and anti- 
 quarian writer, 1655-1741. 
 
 MONTFORT, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1532-83. ! soned in the Bastile, and then exiled, 1686-1 
 
 MONTFORT, L. M. Grignon De, a Fr. Jesuit I MONTGLOT, Marquis De, a French 
 and missionary, kn. as a relig. founder, 1673-1716. rian, camp-marshal time of Louis XIII. and 
 
 MONTFORT, Simon De. 1. This name, fam- XIV., 1610-1675. 
 ous in the middle age history of France and Eng- I MONTGOLFIER, the name of two bro 
 land, was first borne by a knight crusader, de- j natives of France, celebrated in the history o 
 scended from the lords of Montfort, near Paris, balloons, and in the manufacture of paper. 
 His career dates from 1199, when he went to the elder, Joseph, lived 1740-1810. The yoi 
 
 MON 
 
 first incident in it being Montfort's recall frc 
 government. In 1258 Henry had convol 
 parliament, to procure supplies for the coi 
 of Sicily. The occasion was seized by Mo 
 and the barons, to make an armed protest aj 
 his government, the end of which was th 
 
 S ointment of twenty-four of their number, 
 lontfort as president, to administer the affa 
 the kingdom. Such a truce could not in th< 
 nature of things be of long duration. 
 king and his son, Prince Edward, endej 
 ing to reconquer the royal authority b| fo: 
 arms, were defeated at the battle ol 
 an event which transferred the governme 
 reality, to Simon de Montfort, though he acl 
 ledged the bishop of Chichester and the < 
 Gloucester as his associtf es. In the year folic 
 January, 1265, De Montfort convened a j 
 ment, in which representatives were sent fro 
 boroughs for the first time on record, and 
 originated the House of Commons. He wa 
 the leader of the popular party, and was o 
 to take the field by the disaffection of the < 
 Gloucester, who soon after, with many other 
 barons, joined Prince Edward, previously a 
 tive with his father in the camp of Montfort 
 battle of Evesham, 5th August, 1265, decidi 
 contest. Simon de Montfort, overpowered by 
 bers, fell in the midst of his friends, and the I 
 his family succeeded as a matter of course. [ 
 MONTGERNON, Louis Basil Carre 1 
 counsellor of the parliament of Paris, famo 
 his vindication of the miracles wrought a 
 tomb of the Abbe Paris, for which he was i 
 
 Holy Land, companion-in-arms of Thibault, count 
 of Champagne, out it becomes of more historical 
 importance in 1208, when he was appointed chief 
 of the barbarous crusade against the Albigenses, 
 then protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse. 
 In 1213 he obtained a great victory at Muret over 
 the confederated armies of that pnnce, of his bro- 
 ther-in-law, Peter, king of Arragon, and the nobles 
 who had united with them, and was then appointed 
 by the pope sovereign of all the countries con- 
 quered from the alleged heretics. He was killed 
 while besieging Toulouse, 1218. 2. The Simon 
 De Montfort of English history, was a younger 
 son of the preceding, who quitted France either in 
 1231 or 1236, in consequence of a dispute with 
 Queen Blanche, mother of Saint Louis. He was 
 the heir of estates in this country, which had been 
 held by his family in the reign of King John, and 
 on coming to settle here, received possession of 
 them with the title of earl of Leicester. Henry 
 III., in fact, received him into great favour, per- 
 mitted him to marry his sister, the countess dowa- 
 ger of Pembroke, and appointed him lieutenant- 
 general, or seneschal, of Gascony. From this time 
 the interest of English history turns on the dis- 
 putes between this turbulent subject at the head 
 of a confederacy of the barons and the crown, the 
 
 James Stephen, born 1745, commenced his 
 riments 1782, died 1799. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, the name of a noble fi 
 sprung from Roger de Montgomery, a 
 panion-in-arms of William the Conqueror.^ 
 son of Roger was banished the kingdom i 
 reign of Henry I., and one of his descendanl 
 created earl of Eglinton by James IV., 1502. 
 briel Montgomery, a member of this fi 
 had the misfortune to wound Henry II. in a 
 nament, of which the king died, 1559. He 
 wards distinguished himself in the religious 
 of France, and was beheaded by order c 
 catholic queen, Catherine de Medici, 1576. 
 
 MONTGOMMERY, Richard, an Irish ge 
 dist. as a partizan of the Americans, 1 737-E 
 
 MONTI, J., an Italian botanist, 1082-176 
 
 MONTI, P. M., an Italian cardinal, 1675- 
 
 MONTI, Vincenzo, an Italian poet ad 
 matist, kn. also as a versatile politician, 1733- 
 
 MONTJOIE, F. C. Galart De, a F 
 royalist and man of letters, author of ' Prin 
 of the French Monarchy,' and of a ' Histc 
 Robespierre's Conspiracy,' 1756-1816. 
 
 MONTMORENCY, the name of a noble F 
 family, the first of whom was Bouchabi*, ; 
 the great feudatories of the 10th century. 
 
 506 
 
MON 
 
 nguished in succeeding ages are, Matthew, 
 ^"constable 1130, regent during the crusade 
 died 1160. Matthew, grandson of the 
 r, called the great constable, served in the 
 ie against the Albigenses, and under the re- 
 of Blanche, during the minority of her son, 
 IX., died 1230. Charles, marshal and 
 nor of Normandy, died 1381. Anne, con- 
 of France, born 1493, companion-in-arms 
 captivity of Francis I., 1525-26, gained the 
 ofDreux against the Calvinists 1562, and 
 | of St. Denis, where he fell gloriously, covered 
 wounds, 1567. Henry I., second son of 
 born 1544, fought with his father, and was 
 ' marshal in Piedmont 1566. He was one 
 first to recognize Henry IV., who made him 
 ble 1593; died 161*4. Henry II., son of 
 r, born 1595, was named admiral by Louis 
 as early as 1612, and greatly distinguished 
 hlf against the Calvinists. He was beheaded, 
 [vainly opposing himself to the ambition of 
 "bo, 1632. He was the last of the first 
 branch of this house. His sister, Char- 
 Margaret, became wife of the second 
 prince of Conde, and mother of the great 
 ; died 1650. 
 fNTMORT, Peter Raymond De, a French 
 rician, the disciple and friend of Male- 
 1678-1719. 
 
 [NTPENSIER, Anne Maria Louisa D'Or- 
 known as Mademoiselle, Duchess De, was 
 iter of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of 
 and of Marie de Bourbon. She is dist. 
 part in the wars of the Fronde, and is au. 
 loirs' and some romances, 1627-1693. 
 
 >ENSIER, Anthony Philip D'Or- 
 J Due De, younger brother of Louis Philippe, 
 officer under Dumouriez, 1775-1807. 
 TPENSIER, Catherine Maria of 
 Duchesse De, daughter of the duke of 
 land wife of the second Louis, due de Mont- 
 r, noted for her hatred against Henry III., 
 I the wars of the league, 1552-1596. 
 "TPENSIER, Charles. See Bourbon. 
 "'ENSIER, Francis De Bourbon, 
 known as the prince dauphin, distin- 
 1 in the religious wars, and one of the first 
 wledge Henry IV., 1539-1592. 
 "7ROSE, James Graham, marquis of, b. 
 lin early life attached to the covenanters, 
 cards entered the service of Charles L, 
 he gained several advantages. After 
 of Charles I. he retired to France, and 
 Germany, and took part in the last cam- 
 |of the seven years' war. He next made 
 it on Scotland in favour of Charles II., but, 
 by his troops, he was delivered to the 
 it, and executed at Edinburgh 1650. 
 "JCCI, A., an It. philologist, 1762-1829. 
 [JCLA, J. S., a Fr. mathem., 1725-99. 
 "HL, J. M. Boutet De, a French dra- 
 Iriter and actor, 1745-1811. 
 |R, Karel De, a Dutch paint., 1656-1738. 
 1CROFT, William, a writer of travels 
 hnalayan parts of Hindostan, died 1823. 
 IE, Edward, son of a nonconformist 
 of Abingdon, distinguished as a poet and 
 l dus writer, 1712-1757. 
 
 F., an African traveller, last century. 
 
 507 
 
 MOO 
 
 MOORE, John, an eminent prelnte and pro- 
 moter of letters in the reign of William and Mary, 
 born 1662, died bishop of Ely, 1714. 
 
 MOORE, John, archbishop of Canterbury, was 
 b. in Gloucestershire, where his father was a gra- 
 zier, 1733 ; promoted to the primacy 1783 ; d. 1805. 
 
 MOORE, John, a physician and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at Stirling 1729, where his 
 father, the Rev. Charles Moore, was minister of 
 the Episcopal church. In 1772, he set out on his 
 travels as the medical attendant and tutor of the 
 voung duke of Hamilton, returning home in 1778. 
 "The observations made in the course of their ex- 
 tended tour over Europe, furnished the materials 
 of his most interesting works. Died 1802. 
 
 MOORE. Sir John Moore was born at Glas- 
 gow in 1761. He was the son of Dr. John Moore, 
 the well-known physician and author. He entered 
 the army young, and soon rose to rank and distinc- 
 tion. He served in Corsica in 1785, and afterwards 
 in the West Indies, in Holland, and Egypt. In 
 1802 he did permanent benefit to our army by dis- 
 ciplining several regiments as light infantry in a 
 camp of instruction in Kent. He then introduced 
 several tactical improvements, which have since 
 been generally adopted in our service. After tak- 
 ing part in two expeditions to Sicily and Swe- 
 den, Moore received his most important command 
 in 1808. He was then placed at the head of the 
 British army, which was to co-operate with the 
 patriots in Spain and Portugal, against the French 
 invaders of the Peninsula. Moore advanced 
 through the north of Spain to Salamanca ; but the 
 Spanish armies with which he was to co-operate 
 were routed by the French ; Madrid, which he was 
 to protect, surrendered while Moore was on his 
 march ; the reports and promises of the Spanish 
 juntas and their agents proved to be mere bombast 
 and lies ; and Moore found that the whole of the 
 vast French armies of the Peninsula were gather- 
 ing round him to overwhelm the small force that 
 he commanded. A rapid retreat to the northern 
 coast of Spain was the only chance of saving the 
 English troops from destruction or surrender. 
 This retreat was made in the midst of the severe 
 winter of 1808-9, through the rugged country of 
 Galicia; and it is almost unparalleled in military his- 
 tory for the sufferings of the retiring army. Moore 
 at last reached Corunna, closely pursued by supe- 
 rior forces under Soult. Transports lay in the 
 harbour to receive the British troops; but Soult 
 pressed hastily forward, so that it was impossible 
 to effect the embarkation without either checking 
 the enemy by a battle, or entering into a conven- 
 tion. Moore indignantly spurned the dishonouring 
 proposal of a convention, and on the 16th January, 
 1809, drew his men out, though exhausted and 
 shattered by the horrors of their retreat, to face the 
 advancing French before Corunna. The troops 
 did their duty, and repulsed Soult's columns on 
 every point with severe loss ; but the victory was 
 dearly purchased by the death of General Moore, 
 who was struck down by a cannon shot, just as he 
 had called on the 42d Highlanders to ' Remember 
 Egypt ' and reminded them that ' though powder 
 was short they had their bayonets.' Moore's 
 wound was mortal : but he survived long enough to 
 know that the enemy were beaten, and to remind 
 his surviving friends that ' he had always wished to 
 
MOO 
 
 die in that way.' His last words were a hope that 
 4 the people of England would be satisfied, tnat his 
 country would do him Justice.' He was buried 
 that very night, ' with his martial cloak around 
 him,' in a grave hastily dug on the ramparts of 
 Corunna. The glorious stanzas of Wolfe have en- 
 nobled that burial ; but it ought to be mentioned 
 to the honour of the French as well as of the 
 English general, that Soult, when he entered Cor- 
 unna after the embarkation and departure of the 
 British, ordered a fitting monument to be erected 
 to Sir John Moore. Moore's only fault was an 
 excessive sensibility to popular opinion, which im- 
 paired that political courage, which (as Nelson has 
 truly said) is essential to a great commander. But 
 a braver soldier, a more humane and excellent man, 
 never stepped on a battle-field, than he who died 
 the death of fame in command of the British army 
 at Corunna, [E.S.C.] 
 
 [Tomb of Sir John Moore.] 
 
 MOORE, Sir Jonas, a mathemat. 1617-1681. 
 
 MOORE, Philip, a minister resident in the 
 Isle of Man, known as a Manx scholar, died 1783. 
 
 MOORE, Thomas, was born in 1780, in Dub- 
 lin, where his father carried on business with no 
 great success as a wine merchant. He showed 
 from boyhood an imaginative and musical turn ; and 
 various circumstances concurred in impressing him 
 early with that indignant and melancholy sense of 
 the wrongs and sufferings of Ireland, to which his 
 poetry owes so many of its most powerful touches. 
 His family professed the Roman Catholic creed, as 
 he himself* always continued to do; and among 
 his father's friends were several of the United 
 Irishmen, with others who were ardently bent on 
 extorting redress from the government. The poli- 
 tical disturbances broke out into rebellion while 
 Moore was a student at Trinity College ; he wrote 
 anonymously for a seditious newspaper, and was 
 only saved from implicating himself deeply by 
 faithfully keeping a promise which his mother 
 prevailed on him to give. He took his degree in 
 1798, and went to London to keep his terms for 
 the bar. Poetry, however, had taken possession of 
 his mind ; and the amatory cast which always 
 prevailed in his poems, was allowed in some of the 
 
 MOO 
 
 earliest of them to degenerate into repreh( 
 looseness. His gay translation of Anacreon 
 lished in 1800, was followed by the not 
 ' Poems of Thomas Little ;' and the just se 
 with which these and another miscellaneous? 
 of his were treated in the Edinburgh Revieu 
 duced the abortive duel between Moore and J 
 At this period the poet's means were very si 
 and his prospects discouragingly uncertain, 
 his rising reputation as a song-writer, his n 
 accomplishments, and his pleasing manners, 
 tated nis introduction into aristocratic societ 
 1804, having obtained a registrarship in Ber 
 through the patronage of Lord Moira, lie we 
 to discharge the duties of the office. It pro 
 be much less lucrative than he had expected 
 in a very few months he returned home, 
 allowed to leave a deputv, whose defalcation 
 plunged Moore into embarrassments from 
 he was long in being able to extricate himsel 
 refused all aid from his friends, Jeffrey, nowca 
 intimate with him, offering generous help. 
 end, the claims being favourably adjustea, hi 
 the whole sum from his literary earnings, wl 
 continued to contribute liberally to the coin 
 his parents. From the time of his return to 
 land his course of life was very uneventful 
 was thenceforth wholly the man of letters, 
 porting himself by his pen, and courted in si 
 especially that of the higher Whig circles of 
 don. In 1811 he married Miss Dyke, wh 
 been for a short time on the Dublin stage, ai 
 able, attractive, and domestic lady. Soon 
 wards he took up his residence in a cottag 
 Ashbourne in Derbyshire, whence he remoi 
 Sloperton, near Devizes. There he contim 
 
 [Moore's Cottage at Sloperton.] 
 
 live ever afterwards, visiting London howeve 
 quently, and making other excursions, and 
 obliged soon after his removal to the place U 
 refuge on the continent from his Bermuda 
 tors. In 1835 he received from Lord Melboi 
 government a pension of three hundred a- 
 and in 1850, when his health wascompletelybi 
 and all his four children were dead, Mrs. Mom 
 tained a pension of a hundred pounds. _ Hi 
 in the beginning of 1852. Moore's writing 
 into three groups: the serious poems; the 
 and satiric rhymes; and the biographies and 
 works in prose. In the first of these c 
 the compositions that support his fame a) 
 
 508 
 
MOO 
 
 jh Melodies' (the series of which began in 
 l) and other lyrics. Many of these are exquisite 
 of diction, for beauty, not without same- 
 of imagery, and for a refined and ideal kind 
 They are poems for the drawing-room, 
 [admirable as such. In ' Lalla Rookh,' pub- 
 in 1817, the poet tried a more ambitions 
 ; ; and, while there is here very great skill and 
 | of execution, with a marvellous richness of 
 and singular correctness of costume, it can- 
 said that he has vindicated his claim to be 
 , with Scott or Byron, among the great pain- 
 romantic narrative. The second group of 
 e's works, perhaps, shows his genius in a 
 brilliant light than any of the others. Un- 
 dgly severe in his attacks on those public per- 
 Iwho were obnoxious to the Whig party, he 
 le satire as gaily witty, and as irresistibly 
 ig, as it ever can be. Kis chief political 
 besides many fugitive contributions to 
 ;rs, were 'The Twopenny Post Bag,' 
 "Crib's Memorial to Congress,' and the 
 for the Holy Alliance.' A lighter vein 
 ned in 'The Fudge Family in Paris.' 
 1*8 prose works were really tasks performed 
 sake of the gain they brought ; and the 
 them can only be asserted to be performed 
 taste and "care. If any of them was a 
 | of love it was the gorgeous romance of ' The 
 which appeared in 1827. The only 
 that require to be named are the ' Life of 
 ' (1825) ; and the ' Notices of the Life of 
 on,' (1830). [W.SJ 
 
 )RSON, Sir R., a naval officer, 1760-1835. 
 |RALES, A., a Span, historian, 1513-1590. 
 [RALES, C, a Spanish singer, 16th century. 
 [RALES, J. B., a Spanish missionary, 
 1664. 
 
 |RALES, L., a Spanish painter, 1509-1586. 
 ~TD, John, a French surgeon, 1658-1726. 
 sur Francois, his son, greatly distinguished 
 ical writer, 1697-1773. John Francis 
 son of the latter, an anatomist and 
 
 lr.jri 
 
 st, 1726-1784. 
 ND, J. A., a Fr. architect, 1727-1794. 
 
 TD, Louis Charles Ant. Alexis, 
 a French general, disting. at the period 
 solution and the empire, 1770-1835. 
 fD, P. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1701-1737. 
 TDE, C. Thevenot De, a French jour- 
 wthor of ' Memoirs of Madame du Barry,' 
 lotes of the Court of France,' 1748-92. 
 IT, Philip, the historian of Colchester 
 born in Jersey, 1700, died 1770. 
 LTA, Olympia Fulvia, an Italian lady 
 int principles, distinguished as the most 
 _ woman of her age, 1526-1555. 
 ' VTIN, Nicholas Fernandez De, a 
 dramatic author of Spain, 1737-1780. 
 Leandro Fernandez, appointed royal 
 under Joseph Buonaparte, and considered 
 ^s superior as a dramatic poet, was bom 
 was a great student of Shakspeare and 
 ,but especially the latter, d. at Paris 1828. 
 VTO, Flavio Pellegrino, an Italian 
 | father of Olympia Morata, died 1547. 
 JELLI, S. Antonio, an Italian Jesuit 
 )lo<:ist, born 1737. 
 LUNT, Charles, earl of Peterborough 
 
 MOR 
 and Monmouth, a naval and military commander, 
 time of William and Mary, 1658-1735. 
 
 MORE, Alexander, a French protestant minis- 
 ter, appointed professor of divinity, and pastor of 
 the church at Middleberg in Zealand, author of 
 theological works, 1616-1670. 
 
 MORE, Antonio, a Dutch painter, 1519-1575. 
 
 MORE, Francis, a famous lawyer, 1558-1621. 
 
 MORE, Hannah, the greatest name in the 
 list of female writers on moral and religious sub- 
 jects in the last century, was born at Stapleton, 
 Gloucestershire, in 1744. Her father, who had 
 taken orders in the Church of England, was mas- 
 ter of a foundation school, in that town, and gave 
 his four daughters a liberal edncation. They were 
 all highly accomplished, but Hannah was distin- 
 guished above the rest of her sisters, both by her 
 natural talents and her extraordinary thirst for 
 knowledge. The Misses More, resolved on render- 
 ing themselves independent, opened a boarding 
 school for young ladies in the village, and soon 
 after, on the advic of friends, transferred their 
 seminary to Bristol. In that town, they met with 
 signal success. Their school grew in reputation, 
 and every year added to its numbers, till it out- 
 stripped all other institutions of a similar kind, in 
 the south and west of England. Hannah had early 
 tried her powers in original composition, and at the 
 age of seventeen, wrote her pastoral drama ' The 
 Search after Happiness.' Having obtained the 
 friendship of Garrick, she prepared several pieces 
 for the stage, ' The Fatal Falsehood,' ' Percy,' ' The 
 Inflexible Captive.' On attaining higher views of 
 the character and duties of a Christian, she relin- 
 quished all thoughts of writing for the stage. But 
 although she renounced the theatre, she still retained 
 her respect and friendship for Garrick, with whom, 
 as literary friends, she conjoined Johnson, Burke, 
 Reynolds, and their learned associates. The death 
 of Garrick produced a great change on her charac- 
 ter. Reading and reflection made her a Christian ; 
 and she thenceforth dedicated her time and energies 
 to works of piety and benevolence. She fixed "her 
 
 [Hannah More's Cottage.] 
 
 house at Cowslip Green, a beautiful residence in 
 the neighbourhood of Bristol, and there devoted her 
 time to literary pursuits. Having projected a series 
 of didactic works, she published, m 1786, a little 
 volume entitled, ' Thoughts on the Manners of the 
 Great,' 'An Estimate of the Religion of the 
 
 509 
 
MOR 
 
 Fashionable World.' To counteract the principles 
 of the French Revolution, she published ' Village 
 Politics,' by Will Chip; and, next, a periodical 
 work, 'The Cheap Repository Tracts,' including 
 1 The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain.' Resuming her 
 didactic series, she published 'Strictures on the 
 Modem System of Female Education,' which ob- 
 tained the high approval of Bishop Porteus, who 
 recommended the writer for the office of gover- 
 ness to the Princess Charlotte. This was followed 
 in rapid succession by ' Hints towards Forming the 
 Character of a Young Princess,' ' Ceelebs in Search 
 of a Wife,' and ' Practical Piety,' ' An Essay on the 
 Character and Writings of St. Paul,' ' Christian 
 Morals,' and ' The Spirit of Prayer.' By her vari- 
 ous writings she amassed upwards of 30,000. Her 
 sisters and she now relinquished public teaching, 
 and devoted all their energies to the erection of 
 schools, where there were no resident clergymen, 
 and in which no less than twelve hundred children 
 received, through their instrumentality, the benefits 
 of a moral and religious education. In short, 
 they produced, by their benevolent and Christian 
 labours, so great a change on the aspect of society, 
 that what had been a moral desert had produced in 
 rich abundance, the excellent fruits of wide-spread 
 intelligence, of elevated morality, and religious 
 excellence. Miss More died in Sept., 1833. [R.J.] 
 
 MORE, Henry, a dissenting minister, d. 1802. 
 
 MORE, Henry, one of that profoundly learned 
 and influential class of philosophical divines who 
 arose in the 17th century to exorcise the spirit of 
 Calvinism from the English universities. Born in 
 1614, and educated at Cambridge, he took his de- 
 gree of B.A. in 1635, when he had already run 
 through the scholastic philosophy, and rejected it 
 with disgust for the warmer light and richer fancies 
 of Platonism. The ' Germany Theology ' of Taulerus 
 soon after rivetted his attention as the summit of 
 the mystic divinity which he had pursued through 
 the writings of the Platonists and the school of 
 Mercurius Trismegistus. In the works of Tauler 
 the mystic divinity was Christianized, and written 
 from a certain depth of experience, and from the 
 age of Luther to the close of the 17th century, he 
 exercised a vast influence upon the class of minds 
 that revolted from the dogmatism of Geneva. In 
 this class Henry More holds a distinguished place 
 with Cudworth, Glanville, Whichcote, and others 
 of less note, and while he is on a level with the 
 best of them as a prose writer and philosopher, he 
 has the merit of being their representative among 
 the poets. In 1640, after being admitted M.A., he 
 published his ' Psychozoia,' or first part of the ' Song 
 of the Soul,' containing ' A Christiano-Platonical 
 Display of Life,' in passages which may be pro- 
 nounced rich and beautiful in their very obscurity. 
 His most popular work, however, is the ' Divine 
 Dialogues,' and while the erudition and beauty of 
 such productions are admitted, it is curious to read 
 the exception taken by biographers against the 
 author's consciousness of their origin, in thoughts, 
 full of spiritual wonder, communicated to his 
 spirit. Henry More refused the highest ecclesias- 
 tical preferments, and chose a life of learned re- 
 tirement and undisturbed contemplation, chiefly 
 passed at the seat of Lord Conway. He died uni- 
 versally beloved 1687. His works were published 
 in 8 vols, folio, 1679. [E.R.] 
 
 MOR 
 MORE, Sir Thomas, was born in Milk- 
 London, in the year 1480. His father, Sii 
 was one of the justices of the king's bend 
 was, according to the practice of the day, pi 
 the household of Morton, the cardinal arcl 
 of Canterbury, where the boy obtained a pre 
 reputation for ready wit and subtlety of r 
 which excited high expectations of future em 
 After having studied at Oxford, he ente 
 chancery practice at the New Inn, then tl 
 of the other inns of court, but now almost 
 ten. He entered parliament when he was 
 twenty-second year, and immediately mi 
 himself a place in history by standing forth 
 privileges of the House of Commons to ti 
 questions of supply as their own exclusive to 
 Through his influence the aid deman< 
 Henry VII. for the marriage of his daughter 
 king of Scots was refused. It was not to 
 pected that after a victory of this kind, More 
 rise in the court of Henry VII. He lived f< 
 time in retirement under the shadow of th 
 displeasure, and it was then that without abs 
 neglecting professional advancement he a 
 his mind with the treasures of learning, whit 
 him so illustrious among the statesmen of 1 
 A great portion of his studies lay in divinil 
 he delivered lectures on St. Augustine's ta 
 on the City of God. On the accession of 
 VIII. he was soon put on the path of proi 
 In 1521 he was knighted and made treas 
 the exchequer. He appears to have ere th 
 considerably enriched himself by practice, ar 
 his wife, a daughter of Mr. Colt of New] 
 Essex, he kept up a noble hospitality. 
 VIIL, who knew and appreciated genius, 1 
 he as little permitted it as he did feminine 
 and worth to stand in the way of his fei 
 passions, used to be a frequent guest at 
 table, where he enjoyed the intellectual : 
 According to the account of Erasmus the 
 there collected must have been one of th 
 brilliant and engaging that the world ha 
 seen, and it was adorned by virtues, which ti 
 associations, high in intellect, have ofter 
 wanting. In 1523 he became speaker of the 
 of Commons, and in 1529 succeeded Wolsey 
 perilous eminence of the woolsack. He had 
 meantime published, among other works, 1 
 rious history of Richard III., and his I 
 which, derived from the Greek for happy lai 
 become the source of a proverbial expression 
 language. That he meant this imaginary re 
 seriously to embody his notions of a sound t 
 of government can scarcely be believed by a 
 who reads it, and remembers that the ei 
 fanciful and abstract existence there de 
 was the dream of one who thoroughly 
 man in all his complicated relations, am 
 deeply conversant in practical govern 
 When Henry began those attacks on the 
 supremacy, which, however sad his motive 
 be, were instrumental in procuring the ref 
 tion, More at once took up the position whi 
 conscience dictated to him as a supporter 
 old system. Henry marked him out for venj 
 as an opponent of his matrimonial views. 
 endeavoured to shield himself by an early 
 ment from office. He was requested to U 
 
 510 
 
MOR 
 
 to maintain the lawfulness of the marriage 
 Anne Boleyn. Though it was known that 
 uld be the last man to disturb the succession, 
 used to take the oath. This refusal was in- 
 ted into high treason, under the statute, 
 is condemned to death, and beheaded on the 
 July, 1535. [J.H.B.] 
 
 BEAU, H., a French poet, 1810-1838. 
 BEAU, Jacob Nicholas, a French his- 
 
 iples of Morality and Polity, and of Public 
 
 B* (written for the use of the dauphin, after- 
 Louis XVI.,) and of a political journal writ- 
 ainst England, 1717-1803. 
 EAU, Jean, a French historian, 16th cent. 
 EAU, J. L., a physician, better known 
 au de la Sarthe,' author of a work entitled 
 Naturelle de la Femme,' 1771-1826. 
 EAU, J. M., an emi. designer, 1741-1814. 
 EAU. Jean Victor Moreau, was born 
 e, in 1763. He was educated for the 
 e enlisted when he was seventeen years 
 thenceforth devoted himself to a military 
 He was rapidly promoted during the first 
 of the wars of the French revolution, 
 796 he was commander of one of the two 
 armies that invaded Germany. The other 
 which was under General Jourdain, was 
 ly defeated by the Austrians, who then 
 their whole force to bear upon Moreau. 
 emergency Moreau extricated himself by a 
 through the Black Forest, which is con- 
 a masterpiece of military skill. Napoleon, 
 gave Moreau the command of the armies of 
 be and the Rhine ; and in the winter of 
 Moreau gained the great victory of Ho- 
 the most splendid of his achievements, 
 was afterwards suspected of plotting 
 Napoleon's government, and was banished 
 ranee. He lived in retirement in America 
 813, when he returned to Europe and 
 ' ie armies of the allied sovereigns against 
 He was killed at the battle of Dres- 
 tyear. [E.S.C.] 
 
 AU, R., a French physician, 1587-1656. 
 " U-SAINT-MERY, M. L. E., a deputy 
 ituent assembly, and known as a wri- 
 French colonies of America, 1750-1819. 
 LSE, N., a Dutch painter, 1571-1638. 
 A., a Swiss antiquarian, 1646-1703. 
 L, J. A., a Fr. wr. on music, 1775-1825. 
 L, R., a Fr. devotional writer, 1653-1731. 
 LL, Thomas, a classical scholar and doc- 
 ity, famous for his editions of Ains- 
 d Hederick's lexicons, 1703-1784. 
 ' LET, A., a French critic, 1727-1819. 
 LLI, J., an Italian critic, 1745-1819. 
 LOS, J. M., a priest and general in the 
 war of independence, shot 1815. 
 T, Louis, a French ecclesiastic, dis- 
 as the first compiler of the great 4 His- 
 ionary ' which bears his name, 1643-80. 
 , Edw. Rowe, author of the ' History 
 ities of Tunstal, in Kent,' was b. there, 
 being rector of the parish, 1730. He 
 ~nator of the Equitable Society for As- 
 : .ves, and a wr. on that subject, d. 1778. 
 
 MOR 
 
 MORET, J., a French historian, 1615-1705. 
 
 MORETO-Y- CABANA, Don Augustin, a 
 Span, dramatist of the reign of Philip IV., 17th ct. 
 
 MORGAGNI, John Baptist, M.D., F.R.S., 
 an eminent Italian anatomist and physician, was 
 born at Fork" in Italy, 1682 ; and died at Padua 
 1771. Morgagni was a rather voluminous writer, 
 but the work by which he is best known is that 
 entitled 'De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per 
 Anatome indagatis.' [J.M'C.] 
 
 MORGAN, G. C, an exp. philosopher, d. 1798. 
 
 MORGAN, Sir Henry, a famous buccaneer, 
 appointed governor of Jamaica, by Charles II. 
 
 MORGAN, W., a Welch prelate, died 1604. 
 
 MORGAN, W., a famous mathematician, and 
 writer on annuities and assurances, died 1833. 
 
 MORGHEN, Raphael, a celebrated Neapol- 
 itan engraver, 1758-1833. 
 
 MORHOF, D. G., a German writer, 1639-1691. 
 
 MORICE, Sir William, a relative of General 
 Monk, raised by his influence to the office of sec- 
 retary of state, author of a treatise on the Com- 
 munion, died 1676. 
 
 MORICE DE BEAUBOIS, Don P. Hya- 
 cinth, an ecclesiastic and antiqunvy of Brittany, 
 editor of Lobineau's History, &c, 1693-1750. 
 
 MORIER, James, an English writer of Eastern 
 travels, and novelist, 1780-1848. 
 
 MORILLO, G., a Spanish poet, 16th century. 
 
 MORILLO, P., a Spanish general, 1777-1837. 
 
 MORIN, B., a French lexicographer, 1746-1817. 
 
 MORIN, J., a French mathematician, 1705-64. 
 
 MORIN, J., a French Orientalist, 1591-1659. 
 
 MORIN, John Baptist, a French physician 
 and professor of mathematics, best known as an 
 astrologer and adviser of Richelieu, 1583-1656. 
 
 MORIN, Louis, a famous botanist, 1635-1715. 
 
 MORIN, P., a French critic, 1531-1608. 
 
 MORIN, S., a Fr. visionary, burnt alive 1663. 
 
 MORIN, Stephen, a French protestant, pro 
 fessor of Oriental languages at Amsterdam, and a 
 philological writer, 1625-1700. 
 
 MORISON, J., a Scottish writer, 1762-1809. 
 
 MORISON, Robert a native of Aberdeen, 
 famous for his skill and writings in botanv, ap- 
 pointed prof, at Oxford by Charles II., 1620-1683. 
 
 MORISOT, C. B., a French writer, 1592-1661. 
 
 MORISOT, J. M. R M a Fr. architect, 1767-1821. 
 
 MORITZ, C. P., a German writer, 1757-1793. 
 
 MORLA, Th., a Spanish general, died 1820. 
 
 MORLAND, George, an English painter, 
 famous for his landscape and interiors, embodying 
 scenes in humble life, was born in London 1764, 
 and was at his meridian about 1790. He became 
 the victim of his low tastes and drunken habits, 
 and died under arrest for debt in 1804. His his- 
 tory is one of the most melancholy in the long list 
 of those who have wasted then- talents, and mis- 
 spent their time. His genius, his moral character, 
 and the circumstances under which he produced hid 
 works many of them to discharge an ale score 
 entitle him to be regarded as the Sheridan of 
 artists. His talent was most^ surprising in the de- 
 lineation of pigs, introduced into his rustic scenes 
 these animals being his favourite subjects. 
 
 MORLAND, Henry Robert, a portrait pain- 
 ter, son of a London artist, and father of the pre- 
 ceding George Morland, died 1797. 
 
 MORLAND, Sir Samuel, a diplomatist in the 
 
 511 
 
OR 
 
 service of Cromwell, afterwards an adherent of 
 Charles II., distinguished for his mechanical inven- 
 tions, among which are mentioned the speaking 
 trumpet, an arithmetical machine, the fire engine, 
 the steam engine, improved pumps, &c, d. 1695. 
 
 MORLEY, George, an adherent of Charles 
 II., appointed by him bp. of Winchester, 1597-1684. 
 MORLEY, Thomas, a pupil of the celebrated 
 Rynlo, and one of the gentlemen of Queen Eliza- 
 beth's chapel, acquired much fame for his work, 
 entitled ' A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Prac- 
 tical Musicke.' He composed many songs, ballads, 
 canzonets, and madrigals. A burial service of his 
 composition still continues to be performed on 
 solemn occasions in Westminster Abbey. It is 
 supposed that he died about the year 1604. [J.M.] 
 MORLIN, J., a German divine, 1514-1571. 
 MORNAY, Philip De, Sieur du Plessis-Marly, 
 an illustrious leader of the French protestants, 
 and for more than thirty years in the service of 
 Henry IV., who was greatly indebted to him for 
 the success of his arms and negotiations. Born 
 1549, died some years after retiring from the court, 
 during which he distinguished himself as a writer 
 in the interest of protestantism, 1623. 
 
 MORNINGTON, Garrett Wellesley, earl 
 of, father of the duke of Wellington, acquired 
 considerable celebrity for his musical compositions. 
 He showed an early liking for music, and became, 
 for an amateur, a very tolerable violinist. ' Here 
 in Cool Grot,' is the most admired of his vocal 
 works. The university of Dublin conferred upon 
 him their degree of Doctor in Music. He was 
 bora in Meath about the year 1720, and died in 
 1781. [J.M.] 
 
 MORO, or MOORE, Antony, a Dutch painter, 
 favourite of Charles V. and Philip II., 1512-1568. 
 MORO, Christopher, aVenet. doge, 1462-71. 
 MOROSI, J., an Ital mechanician, 1772-1840. 
 MOROSINI, the name of several famous Vene- 
 tians, 1. Dominichino, doge from 1148 to 1156. 
 2. Michael, succeeded as doge, and died the same 
 year, 1382. 3. Paul, ambassador to the emperor, 
 and to the kings of Poland, Bohemia, and Naples, 
 1406-1483. 4^ Andrea, a senator and historian 
 of the republic, 1558-1618. 5. Francesco, bom 
 1618, distinguished in the wars with the Turks 
 as generalissimo of the Venetian troops, afterwards 
 procurator of St. Mark, and successor of Giusti- 
 nian as doge 1688, died 1694. 
 
 MORRELL, B., an Amer. navigator, 1795-1839. 
 MORRIS, C, an Eng. song-writer, 1739-1832. 
 MORRIS, L., a Welch antiquary, 1702-1765. 
 MORRISON, Robert, the famous Chinese 
 scholar and missionary, was born of humble pa- 
 rents at Morpeth, in Northumberland, 1782, and 
 was sent to Canton by the London Missionary 
 Society in 1807. From this period to 1824 he was 
 resident in China, and translated into that lan- 
 guage the four Gospels, and the greater part of 
 the Epistles. He wrote also numerous important 
 works to facilitate the study of the Chinese tongue, 
 the principal of which is his Dictionary, printed by 
 the East India Company at a cost of 15,000. 
 In 1824 Dr. Morrison visited England. In 1826 
 he returned to Canton, and died there 1834. 
 MORSE, J., an American geographer, d. 1826. 
 MORSER, A., a Swiss mechanician, 1771-1840. 
 MORTIER. Edmund Adolphe Casimir 
 
 MOS 
 
 Joseph Mortier, marshal of France a 
 of Treviso, was born at Chateau-Caml 
 1768. He joined a regiment of volunteei 
 beginning of the revolutionary war, am 
 under Kleber. Marceau, Pichegru, and M 
 the early campaigns of that contest. In 
 had reached tne rank of general of divis 
 commanded the right wing of Massena's 
 the battle of Zurich. Napoleon made hi: 
 his marshals in 1804; and he was highl 
 guished in the campaigns of the next yea 
 the Austrians and Russians. In 1806 
 possession of Hanover and Hamburg, a 
 with singular moderation to the inhabitai 
 signalized himself at the battle of Frie 
 1807 ; and was then employed by the en 
 Spain, where he won the battle of Ocana, 
 he served in Russia, and took an active pa 
 military operations of that year, and in 
 1813 and 1814. In conjunction with 
 Marmont, Mortier defended Paris against 
 lies, and fought the final battle of Montma 
 was obliged to capitulate. Marshal Morti 
 character for integrity, and his administra 
 lity caused him to be much trusted and e 
 by the Bourbons after their restoration. 
 Philippe placed equal confidence in him; 
 was riding by his side at a review of the 
 guard of Pans, 28th July, 1835, when the 
 machine, which Fieschi had prepared aga 
 king, exploded, and killed, among many o 
 veteran marshal. 
 
 MORTIMER, John, an English ge 
 known as a writer on husbandly, died 17 
 son, Thomas, vice-consul in the Austrian 
 lands, known as a writer on commercial i 
 cellaneous subjects, 1730-1809. 
 
 MORTIMER, J. H., an English artist, 
 
 MORTIMER, Roger, earl of, the j 
 
 of Queen Isabella, b. in Wales 1287, execu 
 
 MORTON, C, a learned antiquarian, ] 
 
 MORTON, James, earl of. See Dou< 
 
 MORTON, John, archbishop of Cai 
 
 and cardinal, distinguished as a statesi 
 
 partizan of the house of Lancaster, waa 
 
 1410. He rose in dignity through several 
 
 ing reigns, from that of Henry VI. to Hei 
 
 having escaped the hands of Richard, ho 1 
 
 this interval, and fled to the continent, 
 
 joined the earl of Richmond. Died 1500. 
 
 MORTON, R., a medical writer, died 1 
 
 MORTON, Thomas, a learned prelaj 
 
 same family as the fam. Card. Morton, 15 
 
 MORTON, Thomas, a drama, wr., 17 
 
 MORUS, S. F.N., a German theolog., 
 
 MORVAN, a king of Brittany, 818. 
 
 MORVEAU. See Guyton De Mom 
 
 MORVILLE, Ch. John Bait. Fl 
 
 Count De, a Fr. ambass. and minister, 16 
 
 MOSCATI, P., a French politician, 174 
 
 MOSCHENI, M. C, an It. poet 
 
 MOSCHUS, a Greek poet, about 200 l 
 
 MOSCHUS, D., a Gk. poet and refuge* 
 
 MOSCHUS, J., a Greek monk, 
 
 of the Saints he had known in his 
 
 MOSELEY, Benjamin, an English p 
 experienced in the West Indies, author < 
 fessional work on Dysentery, and of two 
 on Coffee and Sugar, died 1819 
 
 612 
 
MOS 
 
 MOSER, G. M., a Swiss artist, 1705-1783. 
 MOSER, John James, a German writer on 
 blic law, author of a great number of important 
 rks, 1701-1785. His son, Frederic Charles, 
 tatesman and writer, 1731-1798. 
 IOSER, W. G., a writer on forests, 1729-1793. 
 OSES, the leader and legislator of the He- 
 ws on their departure from Egypt, supposed 
 
 1725-1605 b.c. 
 
 HOSES ALSCHECH, a Syrian rabbin, 16th c. 
 
 tfOSES BEN-NOCHMANN, a Spanish rabbi, 
 
 hor of 'Wars of the Lord,' &c., 1194-1300. 
 
 rfOSES, C, an Armenian prelate, 5th century. 
 
 rfOSHEIM, John Laurence Von, was born 
 
 a noted family at Lubec, 9th October, 1694. 
 
 was educated at the university of Kiel, where, 
 
 a very young man, he became professor of 
 
 losophy. "He was especially distinguished as a 
 
 acher. He framed his discourses on the best 
 
 nch and English models, and published some 
 
 imes of sermons. Such was his popularity, 
 
 the king of Denmark invited him to a chair 
 
 e university of Copenhagen. In 1725 he was 
 
 sa sd by the duke of Brunswick to the professor- 
 
 of theology at Helmstadt, a sphere which he 
 
 thily occupied for twenty-two years. In 1747 
 
 as appointed by George II. of Britain to the 
 
 ity chair, and to the chancellorship of the 
 
 ersity of Gottingen. In this responsible posi- 
 
 he remained eight years, when he died, 9th 
 
 ber, 1755. The works of Mosheim are 
 
 nsive, consisting of numerous translations, 
 
 fcises, sermons, and letters. He is chiefly known 
 
 ittig us as a church historian, by his ' Com- 
 
 JSaries,' and by his ' Institutes,' both written 
 
 atin. The Institutes, which are a brief and 
 
 compound, have been translated into German 
 
 on Einem and Schlegel, and into English in 
 
 ^ by Maclaine, minister at the Hague, and 
 
 ifly by Dr. Murdoch of America, a third 
 
 of whose admirable translation appeared in 
 
 The last translation is incomparably the 
 
 and must remove some prejudices against 
 
 eirn which Maclaine's dry and unfaithful 
 
 may have originated. Mosheim's Latin 
 
 is too succinct to be either classical or 
 
 t. His endeavour in recording the history 
 aruggles of various religious parties was to 
 -, e a dignified neutrality, which has been 
 to such an extent, that to many it has 
 ired to wear the aspect of complete indif- 
 Such a view, however, would be very 
 for those who read his sermons, and other 
 ses, will discover in them a decided, intel- 
 and ardent piety. [J.E.] 
 
 )SNERON, J., a French writer, 1738-1830. 
 >SS ; Robert, chaplain to William III., and 
 ter in the Bangorian controversy, 1666-1729. 
 phew, Charles, successively bishop of St. 
 s and of Bath and Wells, d. 1802. Charles, 
 the latter, bishop of Oxford, died 1811. 
 ~SOM, Robert, an Irish prelate, d. 1679. 
 SSOP, Henry, an Irish actor, 1729-1773. 
 ""AERT, John, a D. painter, 1499-1555. 
 TOWSKI, Count Thaddeus, one of the 
 geous defenders of the independence of 
 1766-1842. 
 
 HE-LE-VAYER. See Lamothe. 
 THERBY, G., an Eng. physician, 1731-93. 
 
 MOZ 
 
 MOTHERWELL, W., a Scotch poet, 1798-1835. 
 MOTTE. See La-Motte. 
 MOTTEUX, P. A., a French poet, 1660-1717. 
 MOTTEVILLE, Francoise Bertaud, Dame 
 De, the favourite and biographer of Anne of Aus- 
 tria, time of Richelieu, 1621-1689. 
 
 MOTTLEY, John, son of Colonel Mottley, an 
 adherent of James II., known as the biographer of 
 Peter the Great and Catharine of Russia, and the 
 alleged author of ' Joe Miller's Jests,' 1692-1750. 
 
 MOTTRAYE, A. De La, a French traveller 
 and historical critic, 1674-1743. 
 
 MOUCHON, Peter, a Genevese ecclesiastic, 
 and friend of Rousseau, author of a ' Table Analy- 
 tique et Raisonn6e de l'Encvclopedie,' 1733-1797. 
 
 MOUFET, or MUFFET, Thomas, a physician 
 of London, distinguished as a professional writer 
 and naturalist, died about 1604. 
 
 MOUGIN, P. A., a Fr. astronomer, 1735-1816. 
 
 MOULIN. See Dumoulin. 
 
 MOULIN, J. F. A., a Fr. general, 1752-1810. 
 
 MOUNIER, John Joseph, a political writer 
 and orator, distinguished in the estates-general of 
 France, 1758-1806. His son, Cl. Philippe, a 
 statesman, 1784-1843. 
 
 MOUNTAGUE, or MONTAGUE, Richard, 
 a learned prelate, distinguished for his knowledge 
 of ecclesiastical antiquities, and known to history 
 as the personal friend and associate in principle of 
 Archbishop Laud, 1578-1641. 
 
 MOUNTFORT, William, a dramatic writer 
 and actor, assassinated by his rival in love, Capt. 
 Hill, after marrying Mrs. Bracegirdle, 1659-1692. 
 
 MOURAD-BEY, chief of the Mamelukes, and 
 companion-in-arms of Ibrahim Bey, was born in 
 Circassia 1750. On the invasion of Egypt bv 
 Buonaparte, he won the admiration of the French 
 by his gallant resistance, but was forced to submit 
 to Kleoer, who left him the government of Upper 
 Egypt, under the French protectorate. Died 1801. 
 
 MOURADGEA-D'OHSSON, Ignacius, a 
 Swedish historian of Armenian descent, born at 
 Constantinople 1740. While residing in the East 
 as Swedish minister, he collected the materials of 
 his ' General View of the Ottoman Empire,' pub- 
 lished 1787-1790. Died 1807. 
 
 MOURAVIEF, M. Nikitisch, a Russian poet, 
 philosopher, and historian, tutor in the family of 
 Catherine II., 1757-1807. 
 
 MOURET, J. J., a Fr. composer, 1682-1738. 
 
 MOURGUES, Michael, a French Jesuit and 
 mathematician, author of 'Traite - de la Po^sie 
 Francaise,' &c, 1642-1713. 
 
 MOUSKES, Philip, a Fr. historian, d. 1282. 
 
 MOUTON, G., a French astronomer, 1618-94. 
 
 MOUTON, J. B., Sylvain, a Fr. Jansenist, one 
 of the last refugees living in Holland, 1740-1803. 
 
 MOXON, Joseph, a map maker and writer on 
 navigation, mathemat., astrono., &c, 1627-1700. 
 
 MOYLE, Walter, a classical scholar, member 
 of parlia., and wr. on politi. economy, 1672-1721. 
 
 MOYSART, F., a French writer, 1735-1813. 
 
 MOYSES, David, page to King James, and au- 
 thor of a diary, published as ' Memoirs ' of Scot- 
 tish History, 1573-1630. 
 
 MOZART, Johann Chrysostomus Wolf- 
 gang Gottlieb, born in Salzburg, on the 25th 
 of January, 1756, was the son of Leopold Mozart, 
 a bookbinder of Augsburg, who studied music at 
 
 513 
 
 2L 
 
MOZ 
 
 Salzburg, and was in 1762 admitted as one of the 
 musicians of the prince-archbishop of that town. 
 The young Mozart, born amidst music, soon 
 evinced a most remarkable musical precocity. At 
 tli roe years old he first began to show signs of that 
 astonishing ability which afterwards made him one 
 of the greatest amongst many great musicians. 
 At four years old, almost without a lesson, he was 
 able to play upon the harpsichord several minuets 
 and other pieces of music. At five he made his 
 first essays as a composer. In all the other studies 
 proper to his age, as letters and arithmetic, he 
 showed a marvellous aptitude, and very rapidly 
 became a proficient in his juvenile tasks. Music, 
 however, was always his favourite study, and his 
 principal amusement. At six years of age, Mozart's 
 father removed with all his family to Munich, 
 where he, with his sister Mary-Anne, had the 
 honour of performing before the elector, who re- 
 ceived the infant artists with the most marked 
 condescension. About this time he began privately 
 to study the violin, and before his father, or any 
 one else, was aware of his proficiency upon this 
 instrument, he was able to acquit himself like a 
 master in the second part of some most difficult 
 concertos. Amid all the wonder and admiration 
 which his great talents caused, Mozart never ceased 
 to be a simple, good-natured, and unassuming 
 child, and his instant obedience to the slightest 
 request of his parents was one of his distinguishing 
 traits. In 1763, when only seven years old, his 
 family left Germany, and after having visited and 
 performed in the principal cities of his fatherland, 
 he in November arrived in Paris, and was intro- 
 duced to play upon the organ at Versailles in pre- 
 sence of the whole court. Here he published his 
 two first compositions, and the wonderful powers 
 of Mozart created quite an excitement amongst all 
 classes of people. In 1764 he came to England, 
 where he received the most unbounded applause, 
 both from the court and the nobility before whom 
 he performed. During his residence in England, 
 he composed and printed six sonatas, which were 
 by request dedicated to the Queen. He returned 
 to France in 1765, and from thence went to Hol- 
 land, and at the Hague, when not more than eight 
 years old, composed a symphony for a full orches- 
 tra, on occasion of the installation of the prince of 
 Orange. They then returned to Paris, where they 
 resided for two months, and where the young artist 
 and his gifted sister were feted and caressed by 
 all manner of people. They then turned their 
 course toward Germany, and from this time for- 
 ward Mozart devoted himself with increased ardour 
 to the study of his art. In 1768 the two children 
 performed before the emperor Joseph II. at Vienna, 
 who ordered young Wolfgang to compose music 
 to the opera buffo, La Finta Seinplice, which, 
 though never performed, was approved of by all 
 the masters and cognoscenti or the period. In 
 1769 young Mozart was nominated concert master 
 to the archbishop of Salzburg. In the same year 
 he went to Italy, where he was most rapturously 
 welcomed. His first performance in Italy was 
 given at Milan, where he was engaged to return 
 and compose the first opera for the carnival of 
 1 771. At Bologna and Florence the reception 
 he met with was equally flattering to the young 
 musician. At the latter city he made the acquaint- 
 
 MOZ 
 
 ance of Thomas Linley, who, about his age, 
 then a pupil under Martini, the celebrated vio! 
 Mozart arrived at Rome in Passion Week, ai 
 Wednesday went to the Sistine chapel, whe 
 heard for "the first time the celebrated Misx 
 which was prohibited to be copied, or in any 
 ner published, on pain of excommunication. 
 Good Friday the same Miserere was agiin 
 formed, when Mozart was present with the 
 copy he had made from memory concealed i 
 hat, that he might have an opportunity of m 
 corrections. This circumstance created at 
 mense excitement at Rome, because the peer 
 ties of the Miserere were thought impossible 
 expressed by musical notation, and when I 
 Mozart, in presence of some Sistine chorl 
 sang the composition in the very manner in 
 it was sung by those who had acquired it 
 after long practice, the professional singen 
 pressed their astonishment in terms of unmea 
 admiration. The fame of Mozart after this 
 was spread far and wide. His wonderful m 
 talents and power of performing on the organ 
 attributed to a charm which it was suppo 
 carried in his ring. When the pope first 
 him perform, he conferred upon him the ord 
 the Golden Spur, and at Bologna he was elec 
 member of the Philharmonic" Society, which 
 at that time an honour rarely conferred even 
 the greatest musicians. On the 26th of D 
 ber, 1770, he produced at Milan his ' Mithrid 
 which had a successful run of twenty night! 
 caused him to be engaged to compose the 
 opera for the year 1773. This opera was'! 
 Silla,' which was performed twenty-six nigl 
 succession. In the interval between the 
 named above, he went to Venice and V* 
 where he received the highest musical hoi 
 At Milan, he, in 1771, composed an opera, ai 
 
 ! 
 
 ifiif 
 inn 
 
 [House of Mozart.] 
 
 Salzburg in 1772 he composed another, foi 
 election of the new archbishop. In 1775 his 
 was so completely established, and so w 
 known, that he could have made choice of enj 
 ments in all the capitals of Europe. His fi 
 
 E referred Paris, and therefore, in 1777, he, 
 is mother, commenced his second journey toil 
 
 514 
 
MOZ 
 
 (hat city. The death of his mother made Paris 
 insupportable, and he returned to his father at the 
 jeginning of the year 1779. Some time after this 
 I Mozart went to Munich, whence he went to 
 : henna, and entered the service of the emperor, 
 [ J) whom he remained attached during the rest of 
 lis life, though tempted to leave him oy many ad- 
 I Untageous offers. His principal works, composed 
 | |>out and after this time, were ' Cosi Fan Tutti,' 
 |Idomeneo,' ' L'Enlevement du Serail,' ' Nozze de 
 lUgaro,' ' Don Giovanni,' ' ZauberfloteV ' Clemenza 
 |T Tito,' 'Masses,' and his world-renowned 'Re- 
 iBiiem.' During the time he was engaged in the 
 jlmposition of the ' Zauberflote ' he began to be 
 jbject to fainting fits, which recurred at short 
 Jlnods till the close of his life, which took place 
 . j the 5th of December, 1792, when he had not 
 lftained to his thirty-sixth year. He left a widow 
 lid two sons. His works, which are too numerous 
 |lmention by name, were in all styles of his art, 
 l' Id all great. He is one of the greatest masters of 
 , jisic, and his works will live to all time. [J.M.] 
 1JMOZZI, L., a controversial writer, 1746-1813. 
 
 SOZZI, M. A., an Italian historian, 1678-1736. 
 
 llpIUDGE, Z achary, a dissenting minister, who 
 
 ljerwards entered the Church of England, author 
 
 ISSermons, &c, died 1769. Thomas, his son, 
 
 languished for his improvement of the chrono- 
 
 |4er, 1715-1794. John, brother of the latter, 
 
 lihysician and professional writer, most distin- 
 
 Ifched for his improvement of the reflecting 
 
 scope, died 1793. William, son of John, an 
 
 ffer m the army, and an employe in the trig- 
 
 i; ifcnetrical survey, 1762-1820. 
 
 JlUDIE, Robert, a famous writer on natural 
 
 hpry, and contributor to magazine literature, 
 
 wi in Forfarshire 1777, died in indigent circum- 
 
 llces 1842. 
 
 IlUGGLETON', Lodowicke, the principal of 
 H enthusiasts, (his companion being John 
 (Jt'e), who in the year 1651, announced them- 
 Mis as the two last witnesses, and went from 
 wb to place, denouncing with great violence all 
 in they regarded as false professors of religion, 
 , Meven magistrates and persons in authority. 
 jr principal attacks were directed against the 
 jBKers and Ranters, some of whom replied to 
 in writing. The first publication of Muggle- 
 entitled ' A Remonstrance from the Eternal 
 declaring several Spiritual Transactions unto 
 'arliament and Commonwealth of England, 
 Excellency the Lord General Cromwell, 
 icil of State, the Council of War, and to 
 love the second appearing of the Lord 
 the only wise God and everlasting Father, 
 for ever.' This pamphlet was first printed 
 and was republished in 1710, with a por- 
 the author, the subscription to which gives 
 date of his life' Dyed the 14th of March, 
 then aged eighty-eight years, seven months, 
 sn days.' Muggleton is depicted with 
 hair, low forehead, protruding brow, 
 jh cheek bones, and what physiognomists 
 I the aggressive nose. The exposition of 
 les is given in his work called ' The 
 Looking-Glass,' published 1656, and his 
 formed a sect which has survived to the 
 times. His fanaticism was perfectly sin- 
 he more than once suffered imprisonment | 
 
 MUL 
 
 for the vigorous manner in which he prosecuted 
 his ' Commission.' [E.R.] 
 
 MUIS, S. M. De, a Fr. Hebraist, 1587-1644. 
 
 MULLER, Andrew, a German divine and 
 Oriental scholar, especially dist. for his labours in 
 illustration of the Chinese language, 1630-1694. 
 
 MULLER, Carl Ottfried, professor of 
 archaeology at Gottingen, distinguished for his 
 skill in mythology, 1797-1840. 
 
 MULLER, Henry, a Ger. divine, 1631-1675. 
 
 MULLER, Gerard Frederic, a German tra- 
 veller and writer, skilled in the Russian language, 
 and a long time resident in that country as histo- 
 riographer of the empire. He is considered the 
 father of Russian history, and is author of numer- 
 ous valuable works in tl i at branch of inquiry. Born 
 in Westphalia 1705 ; died in Moscow, where he 
 had been appointed keeper of the archives, 1783. 
 
 MULLER, J., a Dutch engraver, b. about 1570. 
 
 MULLER, John, a Swiss historian, auth. of a 
 ' Hist, of the Helvetic Confederation,' 1752-1809. 
 
 MULLER, John, called ' Regiomontanus,' from 
 his birthplace, distinguished as a Greek scholar, 
 astronomer, and mathematical writer, 1436-1476. 
 
 MULLER, J. S., a Germ, engraver, 1715-1782. 
 
 MULLER, L., a military engineer of Prussia, au. 
 of ' The Wars of Frederick the Great,' 1734-1804. 
 
 MULLER, Othon Frederic, an eminent na- 
 turalist, was born at Copenhagen in 1730. He died in 
 1784. He was born of parents in a humble sphere of 
 life, and was destined for the church. Recommended 
 by his learning and regularity of manners to the 
 situation of tutor to the young Count Schulin, he 
 travelled into various countries with him ; and was 
 induced by his pupil's mother, a woman of excel- 
 lent understanding, to engage in the study of na- 
 tural history. Marrying advantageously, he aban- 
 doned his intention of going into the church, and 
 was enabled to devote himself exclusively to scien- 
 tific occupations. As a naturalist he acquired a 
 high reputation both at home and abroad, and was 
 honoured by his sovereign, who conferred upon 
 him various marks of high distinction. His first 
 works were the Entomology and Botany of the 
 part of his native country where he was born and 
 resided, which was followed by a continuation of 
 the great work begun by Oeder, the Flora of Den- 
 mark. Zoology, however, soon superseded botany ; 
 and we know no naturalist who has more ably 
 illustrated the fauna of his native country than 
 Muller has done his. Selecting chiefly those por- 
 tions of the animal kingdom, which from their 
 diminutive proportions, had till then been but 
 little attended to, he struck out an original path, 
 and clothing his descriptions of the little animals 
 of his studies in elegant Latin, he has rendered his 
 works accessible to, and made them the delight of 
 all succeeding zoologists. His histories, or mono- 
 graphs of the infusoria, the hydrachnae or water 
 spiders, and the entomostraca of Denmark and 
 Norway, are models of composition and monu- 
 ments of prodigious patience; while his great 
 work, which, however, he did not live to finish, 
 the Zoologia Danica, is one of amazing accuracy, 
 both in the descriptions and in the figures of the 
 animals described, and is indispensable to every 
 naturalist even of the present "day. The younger 
 Linnaeus has named a genus of plants after him, 
 Mullera. [W.B.] 
 
 515 
 
MUL 
 
 MULLER, W., a German writer, 179-1-1827. 
 
 MUMMIUS, L., a consul of Rome, b.c. 146. 
 
 MUNCER, MUNTZER, or MUNZER, Thos., 
 a chief of the German anabaptists, executed 1525. 
 
 MUNCHAUSEN, Gkklaoh Adolphus, 
 Baron Von, Hanoverian prime minister, and foun- 
 der of the universitv of Gottingen, 1688-1770. 
 
 MUNCHHAUSEN, Jerome Ch. Frederic 
 Von, a German officer, whose wonderful relations 
 of his adventures in the service of Russia, sug- 
 gested the story of Burger, remarkable for its 
 humour and extravagance ; died 1797. 
 
 MUNCK, J., a Danish navigator, died 1628. 
 
 MUNDAY, A., a dramatic writer, died 1633. 
 
 MUNDEN, Joseph Saunders, a comic actor, 
 distinguished for humour, born in London, 1758. 
 He was intended by his parents for the medical 
 profession ; but, disliking it, he was next appren- 
 ticed to a law-stationer. Here having learned to 
 copy, he was originally engaged to write out the 
 parts for the performers, and thus introduced to 
 the histrionic profession, was sometimes permitted 
 to tread the stage as mute, and at length joined a 
 strolling company at Rochdale, Lancashire. In 
 1780, he was engaged as low comedian at the 
 Canterbury theatre. It was not, however, until 
 1790 that he made his debut in London, when he 
 appeared at Covent Garden, as Sir Francis Gripe, 
 in ' The Busy Body,' and Jemmy Jumps, in ' The 
 Farmer.' Transferred in 1813 to Drury Lane, he 
 continued there till 31st May, 1824, when he re- 
 tired. Old Dornton in ' The Road to Ruin,' was 
 one of his most successful characters. Munden 
 indulged in broad grimace, but added to his 
 humour a pathos which was sometimes irresistibly 
 touching. Unlike most actors, he was distinguished 
 in private life by his economical habits, and ac- 
 cumulated a large fortune. He died 6th February, 
 1832, in Bernard Street, Russell Square, where he 
 had long resided. [J.A.H.] 
 
 MUNNICH, Burchard Christopher, Count 
 Von, a German officer in the sendee of Russia, 
 who was exiled to Siberia. On being restored to 
 favour, he appeared at court in the sheep-skin 
 dress worn during his captivity ; 1683-1767. 
 
 MUNOZ, J. B., a Spanish historian, 1745-1799. 
 
 MUNOZ, S., a Spanish painter, 1745-1799. 
 
 MUNOZ, T., a Spanish engineer, 1743-1823. 
 
 MUNRO, Alexander, M.D., the son of Dr. 
 Alexander Monro, professor of anatomy in the 
 university of Edinburgh, was born at Edinburgh 
 on the 20th of May, 1733, and after having been 
 carefully educated as an anatomist, he was associ- 
 ated with his father in the chair of anatomy in the 
 year 1755, and ultimately succeeded him in that 
 charge. This chair he held for the remainder of 
 his life, which was terminated on the 2d of Octo- 
 ber, 1817, when he had attained to the eighty-fifth 
 year of his age. He is generally known in medi- 
 cal biography as Munro Secundus, and, with his 
 father, contributed largely to the establishment of 
 the fame of the Edinburgh school of medicine; 
 but though a skilful anatomist and physiologist, 
 he could lay no claim to the possession of the in- 
 ventive powers and the original genius of the Hun- 
 ters, with both of whom he was contemporary, 
 and with the elder of whom he maintained a bit- 
 ter, but now forgotten, controversy on the origin 
 of the lymphatics. [J.M'C.] 
 
 MUR 
 
 MUNRO, Sir T., gover. of Madras, 1760-1 
 MUNSTER, Count, a statesman of Han 
 known at the congress of Vienna 1814, died 1 
 MUNSTER, George FiT/.d.AKKNd.;, eU 
 eldest son of the duke of Clarence and Mrs. 
 dan, born 1794, shot himself, after acquiring 
 tinction as a valiant soldier in India, 1842. 
 
 MUNSTER, Sebastian, professor of He 
 at Basle, one of the most learned men of his | 
 author of numerous works, 1489-1552. 
 
 MUNTER, B., a German divine, 1735-179 
 MUNTER, F., a Ger. Orientalist, 1760-181 
 MUNTING, Abraham, father and son, 
 tinguished as physicians and botanists, the fo 
 died 1628, the latter 1626-1683. 
 MURA, F. De, a painter of Naples, died 1 
 MURAND, E., a Dutch pointer, 1622-170 
 MURAT. Joachim Murat, le beau sabre 
 the imperial armies, was bom in 1767, near 
 gord. His father was a country innkeeper. Y 
 Murat was distinguished, even in boyhood, ft 
 courage, and for his horsemanship. He wa 
 tended for the church ; but he entered the an 
 the age of 20, and soon became notorious ft 
 duels, and for the fervour of his democratic opir 
 In 1795, when Buonaparte put down the nsi 
 the Sections of Paris, Murat was an officer ii 
 of the regiments of cavalry in the capital ; ai 
 was of the greatest service to his future mast 
 securing for him the possession of the park of 
 lery, which was employed by Buonaparte so > 
 tively against the insurgents. When Napoleoi 
 made general of the army of Italy, he placed i 
 on his personal staff: and he afterwards took 
 with him to Egypt. Both against the Austrian 
 Piedmontese in Italy, and against the Mame 
 and Turks in Egypt, Murat proved his brilliani 
 our, and his ability as a leader of horse. He reti 
 from Egypt with Napoleon, and throughou 
 consular and early imperial campaigns in Gerfi 
 he increased his martial renown. His heig 
 stature, his handsome features, his showy cosl 
 and the unrivalled skill and grace of his norse 
 ship, all combined to increase the effect whk 
 daring courage and personal prowess pro( 
 both on friends and foes. His white plume 
 that of Henri Quatre, was the standard whk 
 men followed best through the thick of every: 
 He had little strategic ability. Napoleon, wl 
 Elba, described him truly in these words ' Mil 
 a good soldier one of the most brilliant n 
 ever saw on the field of battle. Of no sui 
 talents ; without much moral courage ; tiraio 
 in forming his plan of operations : but the nM 
 he saw the enemy, all that vanished his eyj 
 the most sure, and the most rapid his co 
 truly chivalrous. Moreover, he is a fine man! 
 and well-dressed, though at times rather fan! 
 cally. It was really a magnificent sight to se 
 in battle heading the cavalry.' Murat m 
 Caroline Buonaparte, Napoleon's youngest 
 He was made a marshal of France, when tl 
 pire was established, and in 1806 Napoleor 
 him the grand duchy of Berg and Clevis. Ii 
 Murat received from his imperial patron the J 
 of Naples, and reigned over that beautiful c4 
 for seven years. Botta, the Italian bistorijtf 
 of him, 'He was courteous and affable to ;| 
 was no lover of rapine, still less of cruelty : 
 516 
 
MUR 
 
 I only was necessary to his happiness.' Such was 
 ; Murals general character, both before and dur- 
 i nghis royalty: but his implicit devotion to Na- 
 i poleon made nim on several occasions become the 
 Instrument, if not the cause, of act6 of great 
 ! barbarity and injustice. In 1812 he joined Na- 
 poleon in the great expedition against Russia, 
 . ind was general of the whole cavalry of the 
 brand Army. After the disasters of that cam- 
 paign, Murat continued to serve under Napoleon 
 Wgainst the Allies in Germany, till the great defeat 
 f the emperor at Leipzig in the autumn of 1813, 
 ;g jemed to render his cause desperate. Murat then 
 J )Ught to secure his own possession of the Neapo- 
 tan tin-one. He basely betrayed his benefactor ; 
 ;; ; I ad, joining himself to the Allied Sovereigns against 
 I ranee, he attacked Napoleon's forces in Italy. 
 A j this treachery he preserved himself as king of 
 J aples during 1814 ; but he found that the Allied 
 1 ,1 overeigns, though they suffered him to reign, re- 
 <J irded nim with suspicion and ill-will. On learn- 
 i'J g Napoleon's escape from Elba in 1815, Murat 
 ;-;j stemmed to change sides again ; and he attacked 
 ij e Austrians in Italy. He was speedily defeated, 
 -J id obliged to take refuge in France, before the 
 aliening of the campaign in Belgium between 
 Japoleon and the Allies, by which the war was 
 cided. So deep was the abhorrence among the 
 ench soldiery of Murat for his treachery in the 
 eceding year,' that Napoleon did not dare bring 
 n to the French army ; though the emperor 
 ew well Murat's value in the day of battle, 
 terwards, at St. Helena, Napoleon referred to 
 5 subject, and said, that perhaps Murat, had he 
 in at Waterloo, might have changed the fate of 
 battle, and of the world. ' There were mo- 
 during the battle,' said the emperor, ' when 
 breaking of a single English square might have 
 us the victory; and if ever there was the 
 officer who could have done it, Murat was 
 .' After the second fall of Napoleon, Murat 
 ered about for some months in the south of 
 ce and in Corsica : and finally, on the 7th 
 ber, 1815, he landed with a small band of armed 
 ers on the Calabrian coast,, in the chimerical 
 of reconquering his kingdom of Naples. He 
 speedily overpowered and taken prisoner. The 
 rbon Neapolitan court showed him no mercy, 
 sent before a military commission, tried, 
 id, and shot within half-an-hour after 
 ce. He met his fate with the chivalric 
 that had ever distinguished him ; and his 
 letter to his wife, written by him while the 
 tions were making for his court-martial, is 
 of the most pathetic and heroic that history 
 preserved. When he confronted the soldiers 
 were to shoot him, he refused to have his eyes 
 and bade them 'spare the face, and 
 straight to the heart.' Then he pointed to 
 ~ \ with his right hand ; and held m the left 
 lion picture of his wife and children, on 
 he was gazing when the soldiers fired, and 
 stretched a corpse at the instant, still hold- 
 medallion to the very last. [E.S.C.] 
 TORI, D., an Ital. painter, born 1661. 
 .TORI, Lodovico Antonio, an Italian 
 logist and historian, author of many valu- 
 Works, successively librarian at Milan, and 
 ' archivist and librarian at Modena, 1672-1750. 
 
 MUR 
 
 MURDOC, a king of Scotland, 715-730. 
 
 MURE, Sir W., a Scotch poet, died 1657. 
 
 MURENA, C, an Italian architect, 1715-1764. 
 
 MURET, J. L., a Swiss economist, 1715-1796. 
 
 MURET, M. A. F., an Ital. savant, 1526-1585. 
 
 MURILLO, Bartholome Esteban, was born 
 at Seville 1st January, 1618. He was the pupil 
 of his relative Juan del Castillo. In 1642 ne 
 visited Madrid, and was aided by Velazquez, then 
 painter to the king, who procured him permission 
 to copy in the Royal Galleries. Murillo returned 
 to Seville in 1645, where he commenced that great 
 series of works which have now made his name so 
 glorious. He married a lady of fortune in 1648, 
 which much aided his personal influence, and he 
 succeeded in establishing an academy of the arts at 
 Seville in 1660, and acted as president the first 
 year. He died at Seville, 3d April, 1682, in con- 
 sequence of a fall from a scaffolding at Cadiz, 
 where he was engaged in the church of the Capu- 
 chins, painting a large altar piece of St. Catherine. 
 Murillo's principal works are eight large pictures 
 which he painted for the hospital of St. George, 
 called La Caridad, finished in 1674, but which 
 were dispersed during the peninsular war: three 
 are in this country ' The Return of the Prodigal 
 Son,' and ' Abraham Visited by the Angels,' in the 
 possession of the duke of Sutherland ; and ' Christ 
 Healing the Sick of the Palsy,' called ' The Pool 
 of Bethesda,' in the possession of Mr. George Tom- 
 line, London, ' Our Lady of the Immaculate Con- 
 ception,' painted in 1678, and lately purchased by 
 the French government, for the enormous sum of 
 23,600 sterling, and the picture of the 'Holy 
 Family,' or ' Trinity,' in the British National Gal- 
 lery, are fine examples of Murillo's later style. In 
 the later part of his life Murillo changed both his 
 style and his subjects ; his earlier pictures, chiefly 
 fancy subjects, and illustrative of humble life, are 
 painted in a forcible manner, with predominant 
 dark shadows; his latter works are of equal truth 
 of character, but in a more elevated and chaste 
 style, and are almost exclusively of religious sub- 
 jects. (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico de 
 los mas IUustres Profesores de las Belas Artes en 
 Espana, Madrid, 1806; Stirling, Annals of the 
 Artists of Spain.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 MURNER, Th., a French poet, 1465-1533. ' 
 
 MURPHY, Arthur, an Irish dramatic and 
 miscellaneous writer, author of ' The Grecian 
 Daughter' and other plays, highly popular in their 
 time. Having supported the government, he was 
 appointed one of the commissioners of bankruptcy. 
 Born at Cork 1727, died 1805. 
 
 MURPHY, James Cavanagh, an Irish archi- 
 tect and antiq., au. of works on Portugal, d. 1816. 
 
 MURR, Chr. Theophilus Von, bora at Nu- 
 remberg 1735, distinguished as a literary savant, 
 Orientalist, and bibliopole, died 1811. 
 
 MURRAY, Alexander, a poor self-educated 
 Scotchman, distinguished for his researches into 
 the nature and origin of languages; bora 1775, 
 professor at Edinburgh 1812, died 1813. 
 
 MURRAY, Charles, a successful dramatic 
 wr. and performer, born at Cheshunt 1754, d. 1821. 
 # MURRAY, Daniel, late Roman Catholic arch- 
 bishop of Dublin, was bora in 1768, and educated 
 at Salamanca, where he was consecrated priest 
 in 1790. He succeeded to the arcHbishopric in 
 
 517 
 
MUR 
 
 1S23, and during the agitation for catholic eman- ' 
 citation supported that measure by his influence, 
 after which lie took no part in political questions. 
 In 1831, he was joined with Archbishop Whately 
 and others in the commission for Irish education, 
 and sanctioned the institution of the Queen's 
 Colleges ; he withdrew, however, on knowing the 
 contrary pleasure of the pope. Died 1852. 
 
 MURRAY, Sir George, a British general, 
 born in Perthshire 1772, entered the army in 1789, 
 and greatly distinguished himself in the late wars. 
 In 1812 he was appointed governor of Canada ; 
 and, returning to England on the escape of Napo- 
 leon from Elba, became, after the peace, governor 
 of Edinburgh castle. He held several other offices, 
 and in 1828 was secretary of state for the colonies. 
 The principal event of his political life was his de- 
 feat at the Westminster election 1837. In 1841 
 he became master-general of the ordnance under 
 Sir Robert Peel ; died 1846. 
 
 MURRAY, Hugh, a Scottish geographer, his- 
 torian, and miscellaneous wr., au. of many volumes 
 in the ' Edinburgh Cabinet Library,' 1779-1846. 
 MURRAY, James, a Scotch divine, 1702-1758. 
 MURRAY, James, a dissenting divine, d. 1782. 
 MURRAY, James, an East Indian officer, who 
 commenced his career in the service in the Maha- 
 rattas 1790, died 1807. 
 
 MURRAY, James Stuart, earl of, a natural 
 son of James V., king of Scotland, was born 1531, 
 and educated in France with his sister, Mary, but 
 joined the reformers soon after her marriage with 
 the dauphin. His political history is connected 
 with the fortunes of the queen, after whose im- 
 prisonment hi Lochleven castle, 1567, he was pro- 
 claimed Regent, and defeated her troops at the 
 battle of Langside. He was shot by James Hamil- 
 ton, whose wife he had seduced, 1570. 
 
 MURRAY, John, a Scotch physician and 
 chemist, author of works on the Materia Medica 
 Pharmacy, ' Elements of Chemistry,' &c, d. 1820. 
 MURRAY, John, the eminent "publisher whose 
 name is associated with the works of Byron, dist. for 
 his literary acquirements and liberality, 1778-1843. 
 MURRAY, John And., a Swedish naturalist, 
 1740-1791. His brother, Adolphus, professor of 
 anatomy, 1750-1803. A third brother, J. Philip, 
 distinguished as a man of letters, 1726-1776. 
 
 MURRAY, Lindley, born of Quaker parents 
 in Pennsylvania 1745, was educated for the mer- 
 cantile profession, and practised some time as a 
 barrister. He afterwards realized a competency in 
 his earlier pursuits, and acquired the leisure which 
 he devoted to literary studies. He wrote, besides 
 his well-known English Grammar and Spelling- 
 book, several works on education and morals, d. 1826. 
 MURRAY, Patrick, fifth Lord Elibank, a 
 writer on the currency and public credit, 1707-78. 
 MURRAY, William. See Mansfield. 
 MURRAY, W. H., a Scotch actor, 36 years man- 
 ager of the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, 1791-1852. 
 MURRAY, Wm. Vans, an American diplo- 
 matist, chiefly dist. for his services at the Hague, 
 and at a later period at the French court, d. 1803. 
 MUSA, Antonius, a Roman physician, cele- 
 brated for his skilful cure of Augustus. 
 
 MUSA, Ibn N., an Arabian general, 640-717. 
 MUSA, Abu Abddallah Mahammed Ben, 
 the earhest'Aiabian writer on algebra. 
 
 MYR 
 
 MUSiEUS, an ancient philosopher and p< 
 who flourished at an unknown date at Athens. 
 MUSJEUS, a Greek poet of the 4th centa 
 author of the ' Loves of Hero and Leander.' 
 
 MUSiEUS, John Charles Augustus, a p 
 
 ular German writer and satirist, 1735-1787. 
 
 MUSCALUS, A., a German divine, died 15! 
 
 MUSCHER, M. Van, a Dutch pain., 1645-U 
 
 MUSCULUS, Wolfgang, a German Hebr 
 
 and divine, who distinguished himself among 
 
 early reformers, 1497-1563. 
 
 MUSGRAVE, Sir Richard, a member 
 parliament, and collector of the excise at Dub 
 author of ' Memoirs of the Rebellion in Iielai 
 born about 1758, died 1818. 
 
 MUSGRAVE, Samuel, a physician of Exei 
 
 known as a classical scholar and critic, died 171 
 
 MUSGRAVE, William, grandfather of 
 
 preceding, known as a medical writer and ai 
 
 quarian, 1657-1721. 
 
 MUSONIUS, a Stoic philosopher, 15th centi 
 
 MUSS, Charles, an enamel painter, d. 18! 
 
 MUSSATO, A., an Ital. historian, 1261-131 
 
 MUSSCHENBROEK, Peter Von, a Dt 
 
 physician, celebrated as a natural philosopher 
 
 mathematician, 1692-1761. 
 
 MUSSO, C, an Italian prelate, 1511-1574. 
 MUSURUS, M., a Greek savant, 1470-151' 
 MUTIS, Don Giuseppe Celestino, aleai 
 physician of Spain, dist. as a botanist, 1733-11 
 MUTIUS C^LIUS. See Sc.evola. 
 MUZIANO, Girolamo, one of the most c 
 brated Italian painters, at whose instance 
 Academy of St. Luke was founded, 1528-1590 
 MUZIO, G., an Italian writer, 1496-1576. 
 MYCONIUS, F., a German divine, 1491-li 
 MYCONIUS, O., a Swiss reformer, 1488-11 
 MYDORGE, C, a Fr. mathemat., 1585-16" 
 MYLE, A. Vander, a D. philolog., 1558-11 
 MYLIUS, J. C, a Ger. bibliographer, 1710 
 MYLNE, Robert, the architect of Blackfri 
 bridge, London, afterwards surveyor of St. Pj 
 Cathedral, and engineer to the New River C 
 pany, born at Edinburgh 1734, died 1811. 
 MYN, H. Vander, a D. painter, 1684-174 
 MYRO, a Greek poetess, 3d century b.c. 
 MYRON, one of the most celebrated artisi 
 antiquity, was born at Eleutherae in B<> 
 432 B.C. He was the pupil of Agelada.-. 
 temporary with Phidias and PoTycletus : he 
 established at Athens. Myron is remark 
 among Greek sculptors for the comparative 
 turalism of his forms as contrasted with the i 
 style of Phidias and other great Greeks : he re 
 sented man and animal with equal - 
 almost, says Petronius, gave the souls of men 
 animals to brass. ' He was,' says Pliny, ' cur 
 in all corporeal detail, but paid little 
 expression,' this is not a bad description of wbi 
 now termed naturalism. The works of Myroi 
 which very many are recorded, were mostf; 
 bronze, of Delos ; but he was also a sculpt< 
 marble, a carver in wood, and an e 
 metals. The celebrated Townley Dis< 
 quoit-thrower, found in the villa of II 
 Tivoli, in 1791, is the work of Myron. I 
 posed to be a marble copy of the original; i 
 amongst all his great works, the mo>t 
 was u bronze cow suckling a calf, set up in a pi 
 518 
 
MYR 
 
 at Athens: there are thirty-six epigrams 
 this work in the Greek anthology. So extra- 
 inary a popularity can he owing only to life- 
 imitation, which must have been a compara- 
 novelty. No quality in art is so popular, it is 
 t the most vulgar and least informed can un- 
 stand. The following will serve as a specimen 
 ;he high reputation ot this remarkable work : it 
 from an old Greek epigram in Curl's Anac- 
 
 'Tliis heifer is not cast, but rolling years 
 Hardened the life to what it now appears: 
 Myron unjustly would the honour claim, 
 But nature has prevented him in fame.' 
 
 cow was, in the time of Procopius, the sixth 
 
 NAP 
 
 century, in the temple of Peace at Rome. See a 
 full account of Myron and his works, by the writer, 
 in the Supple, to the Penny Cyclopcedia. [R.N.W.] 
 
 MYRTIS, a poetess of Bceotia, 5th cent. B.C. 
 
 MYRTIUS, Cherubin, a local historian, bom 
 near Treves, and settled in an Italian monastery 
 in 1592 ; date of his death unknown. 
 
 MYTENS, A., a Flemish painter, 1541-1 G02. 
 
 MYTENS, Daniel, the name of two Dutch 
 painters, father and son, the elder, known to have 
 been living in 1656, the younger, 1636-1688. 
 
 MYTENS, M., a Swed. painter, famous for his 
 imitations of the antique, born at Stockholm, 1695; 
 d. at Vienna, where he was paint, to the court, 1755. 
 
 MYTZES, a king of the Bulgarians, 1258. 
 
 N 
 
 IABEGA, an Arabian poet, 6th century. 
 [ABI-EFFENDI, a Turkish poet, 17th cent. 
 J ABIS, a general and tyrant of Sparta, who 
 4d a considerable part in the affairs of Greece 
 fiji 205 to 192 B.C., at the time his country was 
 Miflict with the Roman power. He was killed 
 wis pretended ally, Alexamenes, after being re- 
 nedly defeated by the army of the Achasan league. 
 'JABONASSAR, a k. of Babylonia, whose name 
 Iks an era commencing 26th Feb., 747 B.C. 
 [|ABOPOLASSAR. See Nebuchadnezzar. 
 jlADAB, a king of Israel, 343-341 b.c. 
 ||ADAL, A., a French miscel. wr., 1659-1741. 
 H&DASTI, or DE NADAZD, Thomas, a 
 Hgarian nobleman distinguished in the wars of 
 lunand of Austria against Solyman II., and in 
 tit of Charles V., 16th century. His grandson, 
 Fixers, Count de Forgatsch, a patriot and his- 
 toln, executed 1671. 
 
 [\DAUD, Jos., a French ecclesiastic, d. 1792. 
 
 kDAULT, J., a French naturalist, 1701-1782. 
 I R.DIR SHAH, otherwise Thamasp Kouli 
 mix, a famous military adventurer, who was 
 Win Khorassan, 1688; and by 1736 had raised 
 lilelf by a series of crimes and conquests to the 
 ftie of Persia. He then invaded the empire of 
 thpogul, and after carrying fire and sword 
 thigh some of its richest provinces, enriched 
 Hlf and his officers with nearly a hundred 
 Bipns sterling in money, jewels, and effects. He 
 Bpespatched in his tent, after a fierce personal 
 Mgle with the conspirators, 19th June, 1747. 
 
 EVIUS, C, a Roman dramatist, d. B.C. 203. 
 
 JEVIUS, J., a Saxon physician, 1499-1574. 
 
 iGOD, F. C, a French ascetic, 1734-1816. 
 
 A.HL, J. A., a Prussian sculptor, 1710-1795. 
 
 LHUM. one of the Jewish prophets, 7th c. B.C. 
 llGEON, J., a French painter, 1757-1S32. 
 RIGEON, J. A., a French atheist, 1738-1810. 
 
 fllVEN, M., a Dutch painter, 1570-1651. 
 
 JKHIMOV, a Russian poet, 1782-1814. 
 
 ! LDI, NALDO, an Italian wr., d. about 1470. 
 
 LDI, S., an Italian singer, killed 1819. 
 HLSON, John, a Church of England min- 
 ^^Hhor of historical works elucidating the 
 !rf Charles I., 1638-1686. 
 WON, V., a Ch. of Engl, divine, 1641-1724. 
 HKGIS, W. De, a French historian, 14th ct. 
 HNI, Giovanni Batista Felice Gas- 
 *U a diplomatist and hist, of Venice, 1616-78. 
 
 NANNI, Giovanni, an Ital. painter, called from 
 his birth-place, Giovanni di Udine, 1494-1564. 
 
 NANNINI, A., an Italian writer, 15th century. 
 
 NANNIUS, Pet., the Latinized name of Peter 
 Nanni, or Nanning, a Dutch philologist, 1500-57. 
 
 NANNONI, A., an Italian surgeon, 1715-1790. 
 
 NANTEUIL, P., a French dramatist, d. 1681. 
 
 NANTEUIL, R., a French engraver, 1630-78. 
 
 NANTIGNI, L. C, a Fr. genealogist, 1692-1755. 
 
 NAPIER, Lieutenant-Gen. Sir Charles 
 James, who combined the talents of a great 
 administrator with those of a conqueror, and was 
 in many respects one of the most remarkable men 
 of the present age, was born in 1782, and began 
 his military career in Ireland at the period of the 
 rebellion. He won his first laurels in the peninsu- 
 lar war, where he fought desperately under Sir 
 John Moore, and became the prisoner of Ney, 
 dreadfully lacerated by the wounds he had received 
 during the retreat on Corunna. Being permitted 
 to return to England on parole, he filled up a 
 period of military inaction by writing several works 
 on colonization, the state of Ireland, military law, 
 and engineering. In 1811 he joined Wellington 
 as a volunteer, and was present at some of his 
 hardest fought actions in the peninsula, including 
 Fuentes d'Onore and Badajoz. It was his fate to 
 be absent on a cruising expedition when Europe 
 was surprised by the sudden return of Napoleon, 
 but he reached the army three days after the 
 battle of Waterloo, assisted in what fighting there 
 remained to do, and accompanied it to Pans. He 
 was then some years governor of Cephalonia, and 
 drew up a plan, in conjunction with Lord Byron, 
 for achieving the independence of Greece, won the 
 lasting gratitude of the Cephalonians, who call 
 him the father of their country, and was ultimately 
 recalled. In 1841, during the administration of 
 Lord Auckland in India, he was appointed com- 
 mander of the Bombay army, and commenced that 
 reform of abuses which rendered his name a hate- 
 ful one to the magnates of Leadenhall-Street, and 
 the authorities under their influence. On the ap- 
 pointment of Lord Ellenborough, his plan for a 
 campaign in Afghanistan found support in a kin- 
 dred spirit, and taking the field with only 2,000 
 men, he found himself face to face with an army 
 of 30,000 whom he defeated with dreadful slaugh- 
 ter at the famous battle of Meeanee, 17th Febru- 
 ary, 1843. His forces were afterwards Augmented 
 
 519 
 
NAP 
 
 to 5,000, and with these he completed the con- 
 quest of Scinde, by the defeat of Shere Mahomed 
 at the head of 25,000 men in a pitched battle at 
 Hydrabad. Lord Ellenborough appointed him 
 governor of the conquered territory, and it was 
 now that his brilliant talents as a ruler found the 
 scope necessary for their development. Troops of 
 bandits had to be put down, sutteeship abolished, 
 a general survey of the country taken, roads made, 
 the laws revised, the whole of the administration 
 reorganized ; yet in addition to all this. Sir Charles 
 Napier added to his labours the social improve- 
 ment and education of the people ; besides writing 
 and arguing against the opposition of the civil au- 
 thorities of India. In the midst of these toils the 
 battles of Ferozeshah and Sobraon finished the 
 scheme of conquest while he was speculating 
 on its enlargement, and in 1847 he was in- 
 duced by the declining health of Lady Napier 
 to return to England. In 1849 another Sikh 
 war had broken out, and the anxious eyes of the 
 country were fixed on Sir Charles Napier, who, 
 conscious that his only friends were in the army 
 and the people of England, for some time declined 
 going. He vielded at last to the duke of Welling- 
 ton, whose last words were, ' If you don't go, I 
 must,' and forty- three days after he was in Bom- 
 bay, where he learned that the war had been con- 
 cluded. The manner of his reception by Lord 
 Dalhousie completely realized his misgivings. ' In 
 ten minutes,' (says Sir Charles) 'he told me in 
 substance, nay, the words were, That in letters 
 from England he had been warned against my en- 
 deavouring to encroach upon his power, and had 
 
 answered he would take d dgood care I should 
 
 notV On such terms it is rather surprising that 
 Napier remained commander of the army two 
 years than that he tendered his resignation at the 
 end of that period and returned home not, how- 
 ever, until he had effected further reforms in all 
 that came under his authority. He died at Oak- 
 lands, near Portsmouth, 29th August, 1853, leav- 
 ing a name that will long be honoured among the 
 worthies of England a great soldier, a great ruler, 
 and a fearless exposer of all manner of abuses. 
 His last appearance in public was at the funeral 
 of the duke of Wellington, when his usual gro- 
 tesque appearance on horseback was rendered pain- 
 ful by his too evident infirmity. The vanity so 
 conspicuous in his writings, is rendered less objec- 
 tionable than it might otherwise be, by his soldier- 
 like frankness, and graphic skill in circumstantial 
 description. The last from his pen is entitled 
 ' Defects, Civil and Military, in the Indian Govern- 
 ment,' lately edited by his brother, Sir W. F. P. 
 Napier; the most interesting is his account of 
 Scinde as he found it and as he left it. [E.R.] 
 NAPIER, John, Baron of Merchiston, the 
 illustrious inventor of logarithms, was the eldest 
 son of Archibald Napier, of Edinbellie and Mer- 
 chiston, master of the mint in Scotland. He 
 was born at Merchiston castle, near Edinburgh, in 
 1550. After going through the usual course of 
 study at St. Andrews, he is said to have applied 
 himself to mathematics, during a tour to the 
 Netherlands, France, and Italy. Upon his return 
 to Scotland, he declined all civil employment in 
 order that he might devote himself entirely to 
 literary and scientific pursuits. The principal 
 
 NAP 
 
 subjects of his study were mathematics a 
 sacred writings, and he began his career as 
 thor by the publication of his comments; 
 the apocalypse, under the title of ' A Plai 
 co very of the Revelation of St. John.' Thl 
 was translated into French, and published, 
 vised by himself, at Rochelle in 1602, and 
 wards in 1605 and 1607. It was highly 
 by the protestants of France, owing to tl 
 and learning with which he endeavoured t 
 that the pope was the antichrist of Scriptur 
 he was more successful in this discussion 1 
 others, in which he vainly attempted to ; 
 future events from the revelations at Pati 
 The attention of Napier was at this time d 
 to other subjects than theology, though m 
 feeling was the motive which impelled him 
 task. In 1596 he addressed a letter to A 
 Bacon, (the original of which is in the Are 
 copal Library of' Lambeth), entitled ' Sea 
 ventions Necessary in these Days for the I 
 of this Island, and Withstanding Stn 
 Enemies to God's Truth and Religion.' Tl 
 of these inventions, is a burning mirror for di 
 ing the enemy's ships at any distance, by i 
 ing to a focus the beams of the sun ; and the 
 another mirror for effecting the same obj 
 reflecting ' the beams of any material fire or 
 It does not appear that Napier made any < 
 ments with these mirrors, or placed his inv< 
 
 in the hands of those who alone could apply 
 When, a short time before his death, a par 
 friend implored him not to bury in the gra? 
 himself such excellent inventions, he replk 
 there was already too many devices for tl 
 and overthrow of man ; and that as the mi 
 the human heart would not allow mank 
 diminish the number of them, ' they should 
 be increased by any new conceit of his.' T 
 reason to believe that Napier had previous to 
 begun those investigations which led h 
 the invention of logarithms. We are infon 
 Wood in his ' Athenae Oxoniensis,' that Dr. 
 a Scotchman, who had come from Denmarl 
 Napier that Longomontanus had invented an 
 'of saving the tedious multiplications and di] 
 in astronomical calculations,' and that thi 
 done by ' proportionable numbers,' ' whicl 
 Napier taking, he desired him upon his ret 
 call upon him again. Craig, after some 
 had passed, did so, and Napier then showed 
 rude draught of what he called Canon Mi 
 Logarithmorum; which draught, with some* 
 tions, he printed in 1614.' Wood adds, '1 
 came into the hands of our author Briggs, i 
 William Oughtres, from whom the relation ( 
 matter came.' It is quite possible that Longi 
 tanus may have been occupied with the atter 
 abridge astronomical calculations, but if h 
 made the slightest progress in such an inve 
 tion, his friend Kepler would not have fai 
 give him the credit which he may have des 
 Whereas, in a letter to Cruger, he distinctly 
 that 'nothing can surpass the method of > 
 (Nepereanam rationeiri). The work in 
 Napier gave his great invention to the worL 
 published at Edinburgh in 1614, with the l 
 ' Mirifici Logarithmorum Canon 
 When the invention of logarithms was first 
 523 
 
r 
 
 NAP 
 
 NAP 
 
 to Mr. Henry Briggs, Reader in astronomy j usually considered as the period of his nativity ; 
 
 Gresham college, and the improver of logar- 
 ns, he was so surprised with admiration that he 
 Id not rest till he saw the inventor. When 
 heard of this he invited Briggs to Scotland, 
 en they met, 'about one quarter of an hour 
 spent each beholding the other with admira- 
 before one word was spoken.' The Baron 
 ertained his guest most nobly, and Briggs 
 ted Merchiston castle every summer during 
 life of his friend. Baron Napier improved 
 tmometry by the invention of his universal 
 which he calls the first circular parts, for 
 mg all the cases of right-angled spherical 
 es, and which was published in his pos- 
 ous work, ' Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis 
 structio,' which appeared in 1619. The last 
 taction of our noble author was his ' Rab- 
 gia seu numerations per virgolas,' published in 
 r, and reprinted at Lyons in 1618, and 1620. 
 instrument here described is known by the 
 e of ' Napier's Rods or Bones,' an account of 
 ' will be found in our various encyclopaedias, 
 was the last work written by Napier. He 
 at Merchiston castle, on the 4th April, o.s., 
 in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and was 
 in the church of St. Giles, Edinburgh, where 
 tablet, with a Latin inscription, points out 
 ial place of the Napiers. Baron Napier 
 ice married, and has left behind him a race 
 shed by their talents, by their writings, 
 y their military and naval services. So 
 was Napier's reputation, that the illustrious 
 " dedicated to him his 'Ephemerides,' which 
 in 1617 ; but the greatest compliment that 
 paid to his memory was that of Laplace, 
 speaking of the value of logarithms in astro- 
 : ' This admirable invention,' he says, 
 to the ingenious algorithm of the Indians, 
 ucing to a few days the labour of several 
 doubles, if we may so speak, the life of 
 ers, and spares them the errors and dis- 
 parable from long calculations ; an inven- 
 which is the more satisfying to the hu- 
 d, from its having been entirely deduced 
 own resources. In the arts man makes 
 the materials and the forms of nature to in- 
 his powers, but in this case, it is all his 
 k,' (' Systeme du Monde,' Liv. v., chap. iv. 
 o, p. 326). See the ' Account of the Life, 
 and Inventions of John Napier of Mer- 
 by the earl of Buchan, Perth, 1787; 
 life of him by one of his descendants, 
 Napier, Esq., Edinburgh, 1834. [D.B.] 
 
 ~TER, Macvey, a Scottish lawyer and 
 savant, successor of Jeffrey as editor of 
 inburgh Review' in 1829, and editor of 
 edition of the ' Enc. Britannica,' d. 1847. 
 KB, William John, Lord, a dist. naval 
 born at Kinsale, 1787, appointed superin- 
 of the trade and interests of the British 
 in China 1833, died at Macao 1834. 
 IONE, C. A. Galeani, an Ital. officer and 
 gist, died 1814. His brother, J. Gale- 
 nt de Napione, dist. as a dramatic writer. 
 LEON BUONAPARTE, was born at 
 in Corsica, on the 5th February, 1768. 
 ards gave out that he was bornon 15th 
 1769, bein^ his saint's day, and that is 
 
 but that the former is the real date is proved in the 
 most authentic way by the attestation of himself, 
 
 [View of Ajaccio.] 
 
 his brother Joseph, and the principal members of 
 his family, on occasion of his marriage with Joseph- 
 ine, in 1795, which still exists in the parish re- 
 gister, in Paris, where the marriage was solemnized. 
 He had no interest at that time, and on that oc- 
 casion, to make himself older than he really was, 
 though he had a decided interest afterwards to make 
 himself younger, as in the interval between Feb., 
 1768, and Aug., 1769, Corsica was annexed to 
 France, so that he could not be a French citizen by 
 nativity, without understating his birth. His family 
 was respectable but not illustrious, and he always 
 disdained to take advantage of the adventitious 
 lustre of events. When some Italian genealogists, 
 in the days of his greatness, tried to flatter him by 
 tracing back his pedigree to the dukes of Treviso, 
 he cut them short bv saying that his patent of 
 nobility dated from tne battle of Montenotte, his 
 first victory over the Austrians, in Italy. His 
 mother was a woman of great beauty, courage, and 
 ability, a peculiarity generally observed with those 
 destined for future greatness; and having been 
 taken with her pains in church, she was brought 
 home, and Napoleon was brought into the world 
 on a couch representing the heroes of the Iliad. 
 He received the rudiments of his education at 
 Ajaccio, in Corsica, where, by a curious coincidence, 
 Count Pozzo de Borgo, afterwards his persevering 
 and bitter opponent through life, was also instructed. 
 Having early evinced a decided taste for military 
 life, he was, at the age of eleven, sent to the mili- 
 tary school, at Brienne, in Champagne, where he 
 remained till he obtained his commission in the 
 artillerv. Pichegru, afterwards so famous, and 
 whom Napoleon in the end destroyed, left the aca- 
 demy soon after the young Napoleon. At this 
 academy, where he remained several years, his 
 talents, especially for mathematics and the exact 
 sciences, attracted the attention of his preceptors, 
 who reported in the highest terms on his capacity 
 to the government at Paris, and one of their 
 memorandum books had this entry : ' Keep an eye 
 on young Buonaparte, and promote him as fast as 
 possible, for if you do not he will make his way for 
 himself.' While at school, in a severe winter, the 
 boys made bastions and ravelins of snow, and 
 
 521 
 
NAP 
 
 Napoleon distinguished himself at the head of the 
 storming party. He received his first commission 
 in tlie artillery at the age of sixteen. His figure 
 was then diminutive and so thin that when he 
 first appeared with his uniform on, and the huge 
 part of it on his legs, he looked so ridiculous that 
 Madle. Permon, afterwards duchess of Abrantes, 
 with whom he was in love, burst into an immo- 
 derate fit of laughter, which gave no small offence 
 to the young soldier. His first employment in real 
 service was at the siege of Toulon, in 1794, when 
 it was observed ' that a young lieutenant of artillery 
 was very busy about a gun.' Even in that subor- 
 dinate situation, however, his talents made them- 
 selves felt, and it was by his advice that the opera- 
 tions were directed against an outwork on the 
 Mount Taron, which, when taken, by commanding 
 the ships in the harbour, rendered the place no 
 longer tenable. When dictating a despatch there on 
 the head of a drum to an unknown sergeant of ar- 
 tillery, a cannon ball fell close to them and threw a 
 quantity of dust on the paper. 'That is lucky,' ex- 
 claimed the sergeant, ' we shall not require sand for 
 this paper.' ' What can I do for you,' said Napo- 
 leon, ' to evince my regard ?' ' Everything,' said the 
 sergeant, ' you can convert my worsted shoulder- 
 knot into an epaulette.' Napoleon recommended 
 him for promotion, and he got his commission. 
 His name was Junot, and he became duke of 
 Abrantes, and one of the most distinguished mar- 
 shals of France. After the fall of Toulon, Napoleon 
 was for some time out of employment. He was 
 suspected, not without reason, of being implicated 
 with the government of Robespierre ; and he shared 
 in the disgrace of its fall. He remained in conse- 
 quence about five months at Paris without any oc- 
 cupation, and in a state of extreme poverty. So 
 low indeed were the fortunes of the future emperor 
 fallen at this period, that, as he himself said, he 
 never got his boots blackened, and never wore 
 gloves, for they were a useless expense. His ima- 
 gination, however, abated nothing of its vigour by 
 the decline of his fortunes, and despairing of effect- 
 ing anything in Europe he dreamed of the East, 
 and entertained serious thoughts of offering his 
 services to the grand seignor, with a view to push- 
 ing his fortunes in Asia. ' Asia,' said he, ' contains 
 six hundred millions of men, it is there alone that 
 anything is to be done ! Europe is worn out, there 
 is nothing practicable here.' He was ere long, how- 
 ever, called to active and important duties in his 
 own country. Though suspected and therefore 
 unemployed by the government of the Directory, 
 his abilities were well known ; and when the di- 
 rectors were reduced to extremities by the insurrec- 
 tion of the sections in October, 1795, the first 
 great reaction against the crown and honour of 
 the revolution, they cast their eyes upon him as the 
 only man who could resuscitate their tottering 
 fortunes. The first day's conflict, in which Gen. 
 Menou commanded, turned out entirely to the 
 advantage of the insurgents, who were 30,000 
 strong, all national guards, and comprised the 
 whole flower and educated classes of Paris. In 
 great agitation the directors sent for Napoleon in 
 the evening, and gave him the command of their 
 forces, which were only 5,000, shut up in the squares 
 of the Carousel and the Louvre. Napoleon instantly 
 took his line. In the night he despatched an officer, 
 
 NAP 
 
 destined for future greatness, Murat, to Sa 
 a village in the neighbourhood of Paris, wl 
 park of fifty pieces of artillery was placed, 
 the chiefs of the national* guard with inconcei 
 infatuation had neglected to seize Mun 
 possession of the guns and brought them 
 fuileries. This decided the affair. Next di 
 insurgents commenced their attack from the c 
 of St. Roch, in the Rue d'Honore, and at tb 
 time from the opposite side of the river. Bu 
 were received with so terrible a discharge of 
 shot that after standing several rounds they 
 and fled, leaving the victory to the regular 
 and the government of the Directory iirmly 
 fished. Napoleon was rewarded, as well he i 
 for this important victory, by the command 
 army of Italy. The favour of Barras as 1< 
 member of the Directory, contributed also 1 
 elevation, as he had recently married Josei 
 Beauharnais, his future empress, who ha< 
 intimate with that profligate director, 
 young Napoleon took the command of the ai 
 Italy he was only 27 years of age, and whol 
 accustomed to high command. He four 
 troops in the most miserable condition, percl 
 the shining summits of the maritime Alps,n 
 they had been driven by the united arms 
 Austrians and the Piedmontese, in the prw 
 campaign, and in want of everything. Fron 
 long sufferings he predicted a speedy chai 
 their fortunes. ' Famine, cold, and misery,' s: 
 in his flrst proclamation, ' are the school oi 
 soldiers. Here on the plains of Italy ya 
 conquer them, and then you will find comfoi 
 riches and glory.' He was as good as his 
 Descending like a torrent from the summit 
 Alps he soon carried everything before him. 
 ing defeated the combined, armies in several b 
 he appeared before the walls of Turin and 
 the Piedmontese government to conclude a sej 
 peace with France, the condition of which w 
 cession of all their fortresses to the conqueri] 
 public, which at once gave him a solid footi 
 Italy, and secure basis for ulterior oper 
 against the Austrians. He was not long of 
 ing this basis to the best account. Having refi 
 his troops with a fortnight's rest and his pri 
 with ample contributions he advanced to ] 
 where he was received by the revolutionary 
 with transports, which were soon cooled by tl 
 position of a contribution of 800,000 on its ii 
 tants, suppressed with dreadful severity an I 
 rection in Pavia, and forced the ' terrible brii 
 Lodi,' as he himself called it, though defend 
 25,000 Austrians. It was then, as he hai 
 us in his memoirs, that high ambition took p 
 sion of his soul ; he became impressed wit 
 idea he was destined to do great things. F( 
 ing up his career of success he defeated the 
 trians in several encounters and compelled 
 commanders to shut themselves up in Man 
 strong fortress in the centre of the plain of 
 bardy. Impressed with the importance _ ol 
 stronghold, the bulwark of their possessions in 
 the Austrian government made the 
 for its relief. They successively collected 
 powerful armies to relieve it ; one of which, 
 a series of desperate actions, succeeded undi 
 veteran Marshal Wurmser in penetrating t 
 
 522 
 
NAP 
 
 ess and reinforcing the garrison. But this 
 ntage was gained only by incurring defeats in 
 quarters ; for Napoleon raising the siege con- 
 ated his forces and severely defeated the Aus- 
 s, who were incautiously advancing in two 
 tins separated from each other by the lake of 
 da. The blockade of Mantua, encumbered 
 10,000 additional mouths, was now resumed, 
 he Austrians assembled a second army for its 
 but it was defeated by Napoleon with despe- 
 oss on the dykes of Arcota. A third collected 
 toI, composed of the best troops in the mon- 
 , and shared the same fate on the Plateau of 
 , on the banks of the Adige, between Verona 
 rent. Despairing now of being relieved, and 
 g exhausted all his means of subsistence, 
 Qserwas obliged to capitulate. Napoleon, re- 
 ng his age and valour, granted him honourable 
 , and this campaign closed with the French 
 ying on Mantua and the whole fortresses of the 
 i, the barrier in that quarter of the Austrian 
 rchy. Seriously alarmed now for the very 
 nee of the monarchy, the cabinet of Vienna 
 rewthe archduke Charles, who in the preced- 
 paign had gained successes nearly as great 
 iany, as Napoleon had in Italy, to oppose 
 outable conqueror in the Venetian plains, 
 ught with him 30,000 of his best troops, 
 with victory on the Bavarian plains, and 
 o youthful conquerors were arrayed against 
 er on the banks of the Tagliamonto. But 
 of Napoleon prevailed. With equal skill 
 ig he forced the passage of the Tagliamonto, 
 ve the archduke out of the Venetian plains 
 ie passes of the Alps, and following him up 
 he drove him from one pass and one position 
 " er, till he had placed his standards on the 
 g, the last ridge of the Alps, before they 
 ay into the valley of the Danube, and from 
 the steeples of Vienna are visible. Driven 
 their last shifts, the Austrians sued for peace, 
 Napoleon willingly accorded, for in truth his 
 , how brilliant soever, was full of peril from 
 far advanced, with only 35,000 men, into 
 an dominions. On this occasion Aus- 
 France adjusted their differences without 
 for in return for large concessions to the 
 g republic, the French handed over to 
 e whole dominions of the republic of Venice, 
 which at first had been neutral, and had, in 
 of the contest, effected a revolution in 
 Of France ; one of the blackest instances of 
 ingratitude recorded in history. After 
 Napoleon remained inactive for about a 
 object of the utmost jealousy and terror to 
 h government, to whom his unbending 
 , his ambition, and fame rendered him 
 )f the utmost apprehension. To get rid 
 idable a rival, they fell upon the experi- 
 offering him the command of a great ex- 
 they were preparing against Egypt, and 
 promised to bring Napoleon into the theatre 
 ly and favourite dreams of ambition, and 
 ived matters were not ripe for the revolu- 
 he meditated in Europe, he acceded to 
 The expedition, the greatest that ever 
 modern times from the shores of Europe, 
 'sailed, having 35,000 soldiers on board, 
 y fourteen ships of the line and above 
 
 NAP 
 
 300 transports. Though Nelson was in the Medi- 
 terranean straining every nerve to intercept the 
 expedition, it arrived in safety before Malta, which 
 at once capitulated to the French arms, and then 
 steering for Alexandria, disembarked the whole 
 troops there in safety in June, 1798. Napoleon, 
 overjoyed with his good fortune in having escaped 
 the English fleet, pursued his advantage with the 
 utmost alacrity. Advancing from Alexandria 
 towards Cairo, his army, after undergoing incredible 
 hardships in the desert, arrived in sight of the Pyra- 
 mids, where they beheld the Turkish army 30,000 
 strong, of which 15,000 were splendid Mame- 
 luke horse, ready to receive them. Impressed 
 but not daunted by the noble spectacle, Napoleon 
 said to his men, ' From the summit of these monu- 
 ments forty centuries are gazing upon you.' They 
 were not unworthy of their mission. Drawn up in 
 squares, a deadly rolling fire as from so many flam- 
 ing citadels issued from their ranks, a charge of 
 cavalry completed the rout of the Turks,Cajro opened 
 its gates and the French dominion was established 
 over the whole of Egypt. Meanwhile, a dreadful 
 reverse, apparently fatal to Napoleon's prospects in 
 Europe, had occurred at sea. Nelson having at 
 length discovered where the French fleet was, had 
 stood into the bay of Aboukir, where they lay 
 moored under protection of the land batteries, and 
 totally destroyed it, one only sail having escaped to 
 carry the mournful tidings to France. This catas- 
 trophe seemed fatal to the French army, for it cut 
 them off from any communication with their country. 
 Napoleon, however, was not discouraged. 'We must 
 remain here,' said he, ' or emerge from it great like 
 the ancients ;' and he immediately set about pre- 
 paring an expedition into Syria. His plan was to 
 rouse the Christian population of Lebanon and Asia 
 Minor, and reinforcing by their aid his French 
 troops, to approach Constantinople from the Asiatic 
 side, and place himself on the throne of the East. 
 Surprising success in the first instance attended his 
 efforts. He crossed the desert which separates Asia 
 and Africa ; stormed Jaffa, and cruelly massacred 
 4,000 prisoners taken in cold blood, laid siege to Acre, 
 pushed on to Nazareth, the early dwelling-place of 
 our Saviour, and defeated 40,000 Ottomans with 
 great slaughter, at Mount Thabor. But this was 
 the summit of his success. Sir Sidney Smith 
 landed with a party of marines from the British 
 ships at Acre, placed himself with his brave fol- 
 lowers in the breach, when the place was on the 
 point of falling, and infused such vigour into the 
 defences that all the assaults of the French were 
 repulsed, and Napoleon, abandoning all his ideas of 
 Oriental conquest, was obliged to wend his way back 
 with disgrace to Egypt. During the retreat, he 
 poisoned several hundreds of his wounded soldiers, 
 to prevent them from falling into the hands of the 
 Turks, by whom they would have been barbarously 
 massacred, and soon after was consoled for his re- 
 verses by a victory over 20,000 Janissaries, whom the 
 English landed in the bay of Aboukir. Yet though 
 so great a career awaited him in Europe, Napoleon 
 never ceased lamenting his check at Acre, and re- 
 
 fieatedly said, especially when revolving his event- 
 ul career in the solitude of St. Helena, when 
 speaking of Sir Sidney Smith, 'That man made me 
 miss my destiny.' But another fate awaited the 
 young general. France speedily felt the want of 
 
 523 
 
NAP 
 
 his tutelary arm when it was withdrawn. ' The 
 sun of Buonaparte,' as Mr. Pitt expressed it, ' was 
 falling before the rising star of Suwarrow.' That 
 daring and celebrated general, at the head of a 
 combined Austrian and Russian army, had defeated 
 the French in several pifcehed battles on the plains 
 of Lombardy, regained all the fortresses, sur- 
 mounted the maritime Alps, and appeared on the 
 shores of the Var, on the frontiers of Provence. 
 The republicans had been entirely driven out of 
 Germany, and Massena, shut up in France with 
 50,000 men, with difficulty maintained himself 
 against the superior army of the archduke Charles 
 and Korsakow. In these circumstances all eyes 
 were turned to Napoleon, as the only man capable 
 of saving the country. He now felt, in his own 
 words, that ' the pear was ripe,' and he resolved 
 to return to Europe. His usual good fortune did 
 not desert him on this occasion. Setting sail in a 
 single frigate from Alexandria, he eluded the 
 English cruisers who were anxiously looking out to 
 intercept his return, and landed safe at Cannes, in 
 Proven9e, in October, 1799. From thence he pro- 
 ceeded to Paris, where finding the government of 
 the Directory utterly discredited, and in the last 
 stage of decrepitude, he ventured on the bold stroke 
 of a coup d'etat, expelled the Legislatives from their 
 halls by means of fixed bayonets, and under the name 
 of ' first consul ' seated himself on the throne of 
 France. His first care after this great success, was 
 to expel the Austrians from Italy, the scene of his 
 earliest triumphs and of such obstinate conflicts 
 between them and the French. His plan for this 
 purpose was laid with equal skill and secrecy. 
 Assembling an army, styled ' the army of reserve,' 
 at Dijon, in the heart of France, he suddenly led 
 them across the St. Bernard, a pass 8,000 feet high, 
 deemed impassable for artillery or carriages, over- 
 came the resistance of the Fort of Bard, in the 
 southern declivity of the mountain, entered Milan 
 in triumph, defeated the Austrian advanced guard, 
 10,000 strong, at Stradilla, and encountered their 
 main body, 30,000 strong, returning from the Var, 
 at Marengo. After an obstinate conflict, in which 
 he was on the point of being destroyed, he defeated 
 them with great slaughter. The peculiar position 
 of the two armies rendered this victory decisive, 
 and demonstrated the strategetical skill with which 
 Napoleon's plan of the campaign and march 
 across the St. Bernard had been laid. The Aus- 
 trians, returning from the Var, fought with their 
 faces towards Vienna and their backs towards the 
 maritime Alps and the bay of Genoa. Defeat in 
 such circumstances was ruin ; antl Melas, the Aus- 
 trian commander, was too happy to conclude a con- 
 vention, in virtue of which, he was allowed to 
 retire to Mantua after delivering up the whole 
 fortresses of Piedmont to the victonous French. 
 Securely seated by this great triumph on the Con- 
 sular throne, Napoleon ere long forced the Aus- 
 trians to make peace at Luneville, and thereby 
 pacified the whole continent. He underwent a 
 deep mortification, however, soon after by the suc- 
 cessful result of the English expedition, under Sir 
 Ralph Abercrombie, to Egypt, and the wresting 
 from his grasp of his whole conquests on the banks 
 of the Nile. His projects for the destruction of this 
 country, also the great object of his life, were 
 blasted about the same time by Nelson's victory at 
 
 NAP 
 
 Copenhagen, which destroyed the northen 
 tion, and the death of the emperor Paul 
 withdrew Russia from that formidable s 
 England and France now had no longer th< 
 of fighting. They could not reach each ot 
 they were both victorious on their respect 
 ments, and like monsters of the land and de 
 hostility could not be exerted against cad: 
 Sensible of this they concluded peace in Jun 
 which put the first period to the dreadful he 
 of the revolutionary war. The peace, h 
 proved only an armed truce. Both parti 
 only gaining breath for a renewal of tb 
 Napoleon did great things during its conti 
 He reformed the whole civil administratis 
 country, and commenced the code Napoleoi 
 has survived his fall, and forms the most 
 monument to his memory. He was indef 
 during the interval of hostilities in increas 
 navy ; and as the English government, in ol 
 to the usual infatuated demand of the court 
 reduction of the national armaments on the t 
 peace, had seriously diminished the British ; 
 were all but overmatched on our own elemea 
 hostilities broke out again in 1803. Enc 
 by this hopeful state of affairs, Napoleon 
 a gigantic fleet for our subjugation, whi 
 very near proving successful. Having su 
 in forcing Spain into his alliance, he had a 
 for assembling 70 sail of the line in the C 
 who were to transport 130,000 men into E 
 and 30,000 into Ireland, on board of 2,04 
 boats, which he had prepared at Boulogne i 
 conveyance across the Channel. Vast as t 
 was, it was on the very verge of proving i 
 ful. The Toulon fleet set sail from Cad 
 decoyed Nelson into the West Indies ; spec 
 turning it encountered Sir R. Calder off Fu 
 who, with 15 sail of the line, defeated theii 
 took two sail of the line. This action pro\ 
 to the whole design. Vellineuve, who com 
 the combined squadron, retreated to Terro) 
 instead of proceeding to Brest, where 
 Gantheaume was ready with 21 sail of th 
 join him, he went to Cadiz, where he w 
 blockaded, by Nelson, and totally defeated 
 with the loss of 20 sail of the line, on 21st ( 
 1805. Thenceforward the maritime war wi 
 end, and Napoleon had to trust solely to com 
 victories for our destruction. Instantly tal 
 line he extracted out of his maritime def 
 means of achieving his greatest land tri 
 Russia had joined Austria, and the army of 
 ter, 80,000 strong, had advanced to Uhn, in I 
 Crossing France and the north of Gaini 
 incredible rapidity, Napoleon def 
 trians in several actions, and at 
 30,000 in Ulm, where they were forced fo- 
 late the very day before the battle of Tr 
 Advancing then, at the head of 180,000 mei 
 the valley of the Danube he captured Vien 
 totally defeated the combined Austrian and ! 
 armies, under the emperor Alexander in pei 
 Dec. 2. This catastrophe dro\' 
 separate peace, which she only pur 
 cessions of territory ; and the Kus 
 by the loss of 30,000 men, wended their WI 
 in mourning to their own dominions. Ne: 
 the Prussians with infatuated hardihood 
 
 524 
 
NAP 
 
 e field. Napoleon encountered them at Jena 
 uerstadt, and defeated them with such loss 
 1 a few weeks 100,000 men had disappeared 
 " 120,000, with which they had commenced 
 nflict. Prussia was speedily overrun, Berlin 
 and the remnant of their armies driven back 
 Vistula, where they were supported by the 
 who now came up in great strength. 
 1 bloody actions took place during the depth 
 ;er, in which the French discovered the sturdy 
 of the new antagonists with which they had 
 , and in a pitched battle fought at Eylau, on 
 1807, the French emperor was defeated 
 e loss of 30,000 men. But ere long he had 
 enge. Having gathered up all his reserves, 
 lected 150,000 men round his standard, he 
 sd the Russians, in June, 1807, and after 
 bloody actions, defeated them in a pitched 
 t Friedland, on July 14. The result of this 
 h was the treaty of Tilsit, which virtually 
 ing all lesser powers, in effect divided the 
 jontinent of Europe between Napoleon and 
 der. Insatiable in ambition, Napoleon had 
 aer achieved that great victory over his 
 enemies then he turned his eyes to the 
 Peninsula, seized on Portugal, without a 
 of a pretext, and decoyed the king, queen, 
 ' apparent of Spain to Bayorme, where 
 tween threats, treachery, and cajolery he 
 in extracting from them all a renuncia- 
 the throne of Spain, upon which he im- 
 y placed his own brother, Joseph, and at 
 time gave the throne of Naples to his 
 in-law, Murat. About the same time he 
 force the famous Berlin and Milan decree, 
 to exclude the English permanently from 
 le trade of continental Europe. His abo- 
 treachery to the Spanish royal family 
 p a frightful war in the Peninsula, which 
 was attended with surprising success, 
 surrendered with 25,000 men to Castanos, 
 usia. Portugal was recovered by Welling- 
 the French were obliged to retire behind 
 But Napoleon was at hand to repair the 
 Directing his whole reserves from Ger- 
 Spain, he entered Navarre at the head of 
 men, defeated the Spaniards in several 
 retook Madrid, and pursued the English 
 John Moore into Galicia, where, though 
 ' at the eleventh hour a glorious victory 
 over Sonlt and Ney, they were forced 
 and return to England, weakened by a 
 their numbers, and having lost the whole 
 of the campaign. Austria deemed the 
 favourable when the chief forces of Na- 
 immersed in the Peninsula to endea- 
 regain some of her lost provinces. She 
 war accordingly in May, 1809, and advanced 
 \000 men into Bavaria, when the archduke 
 at first gained considerable success. But 
 fled to the spot, defeated the Austrians 
 pitched battles, and treacherously gaining 
 of the bridge of Vienna, made himself 
 that capital. He sustained, however, a 
 soon after from the archduke Charles 
 of Aspern, who defeated him with the 
 men, and brought him to the very 
 He recovered himself, however, and 
 
 NAP 
 
 six bridges in one night over the Danube, and de- 
 feated the Austrians in a pitched battle which lasted 
 two days, on the field of Wagram. This triumph 
 won for France the peace of Presburg, which de- 
 prived Austria of a fourth of her dominions, and 
 for Napoleon the hand of the archduchess Maria 
 Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. He 
 had previously been declared emperor of France in 
 1804, and divorced Josephine in order to make way 
 for this splendid alliance, and as he was now re- 
 cognized emperor by all the states in Europe except 
 England, and admitted to a matrimonial connec- 
 tion with the highest and proudest of them, he 
 seemed to have arrived at the utmost limits of 
 earthly grandeur and felicity. Nevertheless, it 
 turned out otherwise, and his marriage proved not 
 only the limit of his good fortune but the com- 
 mencement of his decline. The emperor Alexander 
 was personally hurt by the Austrian marriage, for 
 Napoleon had been on terms of proposal for his own 
 sister, and he never forgave the affront. This, 
 coupled with the rapid strides of the French em- 
 peror in northern Europe, who had halved Prussia, 
 and incorporated Holland, the Hanse Towns, and 
 nearly the whole of northern Germany with his 
 dominions, led to a rupture with Russia in 1812. 
 The whole of 1810 and 1811 was spent by both 
 parties in preparing for this contest, which every 
 one saw was approaching; and at length his pre- 
 parations being complete, Napoleon crossed the 
 Niemen, and mvaded Russia in May, 1812, at 
 the head of 500,000 men, the greatest military 
 armament of real soldiers ever seen since the be- 
 ginning of the world. The Russians had not half 
 the force to resist this crusade, and the consequence 
 was they were driven back into the very heart of 
 their territories. Smolensko was stormed by Na- 
 poleon in person, and in a desperate battle fought 
 at Borodino, on Sept. 6, when 30,000 men fell on 
 both sides, the Russians were so far wasted that 
 they were obliged to abandon Moscow to the con- 
 queror. But this was the extreme point of the 
 French emperor's success. The Russians burned 
 their ancient capital to prevent it from affording 
 shelter to the enemy ; the French reduced now by 
 the sword, fatigue, and sickness to 100,000 men, 
 were obliged to retreat on the wasted line of their 
 former advance ; and the cold having set in with 
 great severity they were attacked by the Russians 
 on several occasions, with such success that not 
 20,000 escaped across the Niemen, nearly all in the 
 last stage of exhaustion and misery. Napoleon him- 
 self abandoned his troops in the middle of their suf- 
 ferings, and made his escape to Paris on a sledge 
 accompanied only by a single attendant. This ter- 
 rible and unexampled reverse, coupled with the 
 victorious career of Wellington in the same year 
 in Spain, who had defeated the French in a pitched 
 battle at Salamanca, recovered Madrid, and liber- 
 ated all the southern provinces of Spain from their 
 oppressors, produced a general insurrection in 
 Europe. Prussia took up arms ; desperate battles 
 were fought at Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, and other 
 places ; and at length Napoleon having made a last 
 stand at Leipzig, the battle of Giants began on 
 18th Oct., 1813. 300,000 Germans and Russians 
 commenced the attack, which 200,000 French re- 
 sisted. 2,500 pieces of cannon spread destruction 
 
 ted 150,000 men in Vienna, threw i around, and after a bloody conflict of two days' 
 525 
 
NAP 
 
 duration, Napoleon was totally defeated with the 
 loss of 40,000 men and 250 guns, and with difficulty 
 brought back 60,000 of his vast army behind the 
 Rhine. At the same time Wellington, who had 
 totally defeated king Joseph in person at Vittoria, 
 had crossed the Pyrenees and was threatening Ba- 
 yonne, so that the French empire on all sides was 
 crumbling into ruins. Early in the following 
 spring, the allies invaded France along the whole 
 course of the Rhine, while Wellington pursued his 
 career of success in the south of France. Driven toex- 
 tremities, Napoleon exerted himself to the utmost, 
 and exhibited the most splendid military abilities. 
 But, although he gained with forces greatly inferior 
 several important victories over the allies, he was 
 at length overpowered. Paris was taken by the 
 emperor of Russia and king of Prussia in person, 
 at the head of 200,000 men. Napoleon was 
 dethroned, and the Bourbons restored to the French 
 throne, and he himself banished to the Isle of Elba, 
 where a mimic sovereignty was permitted him to 
 console his mind after sucn a dreadful series of re- 
 verses. But the restless mind and ambitious spirit 
 of Napoleon could not long rest in this state of 
 forced seclusion. Having ascertained that discon- 
 tent was universal in the French army, the natural 
 result of their misfortunes, he set out from Elba 
 accompanied only by 600 of the old guard who had 
 shared his exile, and landing at Cannes, marched 
 to Paris without opposition, dethroned Louis XVIII., 
 and re-established himself on the throne of France. 
 He was then immediately denounced by the allied 
 sovereigns, who set about collecting forces on his 
 frontiers ; and despairing of averting a war by 
 negotiation, he resolved, with his usual vigour and 
 decision, to anticipate the allies and strike the first 
 blow. He all but succeeded. Crossing the fron- 
 tier of Flanders, on the morning of the 15th June, 
 1815, he attacked and defeated the Prussians, 80,000 
 strong, under Blucher, at Ligny, and the same 
 day sustained a bloody conflict with Wellington's 
 advanced guard, in which he was at length routed 
 at Quatre Bras. But two days after he met the 
 stroke of fate. Wellington retired to and stood 
 firm at Waterloo, where, on the 18th, he gave battle 
 to the French, with an army nearly equal in num- 
 erical amount, but greatly inferior in artillery and 
 the quality of part of his troops, being not more 
 than a-half of them English. A desperate battle 
 ensued, in which both parties displayed prodigies of 
 valour, and victory seemed long doubtful. At 
 length the Prussians came up late in the evening, 
 and Napoleon was by the united allied force totally 
 defeated with the loss of 40,000 men and 150 pieces 
 of cannon. This victory was decisive : Napoleon 
 fled to Paris, where he was soon after forced to 
 abdicate the throne and surrender to the English 
 cruisers. St. Helena was assigned as the future 
 residence of the fallen conqueror, where he was 
 guarded with the most vigilant care by the English 
 troops and vessels, to whom the custody of the 
 illustrious state prisoner was committed. He 
 remained there fretting in inaction and loudly com- 
 plaining of trifling indignities till the period of his 
 death, which occurred on May 5, 1821. His con- 
 duct there exhibited alternately the grandeur of a 
 noble and the littleness of a despicable man. He 
 \viyta several most able and interesting works, 
 chl-ay relating to his eventful biography, and which, 
 
 NAP 
 
 not less than his long series of victories, ha 
 tributed to his colossal fame; but at th 
 time he fretted beyond measure at being dei 
 title of emperor, and attended even at a ( 
 by English sentinels in his rides. He was 
 ficently treated by the English governmei 
 expended 12,000 a-year on his private esi 
 ment, and 400,000 yearly on the island ; 
 ardent spirit could not brook even si 
 indignity and real inaction. His imaginary 
 ances, coupled with a hereditary malady, 
 in the stomach, of which his father had died, 1 
 on a mortal distemper, of which he died 
 May, 1821. He quitted this life during a 
 storm of wind and rain, which recalled to h 
 the roar of battle. His last words wen 
 d'armee ' (head of the army). He was into 
 
 
 .' ^"W 7 * 
 
 [Tomb of Napoleon at St. Helena.] 
 
 Slain's valley, in the island of St. Helen* 
 whence his remains were, in December, 184 
 the consent of the English government, tra 
 to Paris, where on the 15th of that moni 
 were interred in a mausoleum under the dom 
 Invalides, and now repose beside the bones 
 renne andVauban, the paladins of France. 
 
 '.''".: ' '.'" 
 
NAP 
 
 APPER-TANDY. See Tandy. 
 AKBONNE, the viscounts of, distinguished 
 particular merits are, Aymeri, "died in 
 yLand beginning of the 12th century. Ay- 
 II., perished in Arragon, on his way to join 
 onso against the Moors, 1134. Ermen- 
 e, famous for the wise administration of her 
 rnment, abdicated in favour of her nephew- 
 died 1197. Pierre de Lara, nephew and 
 issor of the preceding, abdicated in favour of 
 1194, died 1202. Aymeri III., son and 
 ssor of the preceding, subdued by Simon de 
 fort, who took the title of duke of Narbonne, 
 1239. Aymeri IV., or Amelric I., son 
 uccessor of the latter, died 1270. Aymeri 
 m and successor of the preceding, and his 
 in the government, 1270, died 1298. 
 ibi VI., or Amelric II., son and successor 
 preceding, commander of the troops of Flo- 
 for Charles II., king of Sicily, died 1328. 
 Kl VII., his son, who succeeded him, died 
 Amelric III., son and successor of the 
 ling, died 1341. Aymeri VIII., brother 
 uccessor of the latter, named admiral of 
 s hy Charles V., 1369, died 1388. 
 BONNE-LARA, Louis, Count De, min- 
 war under Louis XVI., and lieutenant- 
 and ambassador to Vienna under the 
 , born at Parma 1755, died 1813. 
 JBONNE-PELET-FRITZLAR, J. F., 
 De, a French officer, died 1784. 
 tBOROUGH, Sir John, an English naval 
 dist. against the Dutch and Algerines, d.1688. 
 k CISSUS, the freedman and favourite of 
 memorable for his part in the fall of 
 being afterwards exiled by the influ- 
 ina, he died by his own hand 54. 
 SSUS, St., patriarch of Jerusalem, 
 t 216. 
 DI, Jacopo, an Italian histor., 1476-1555. 
 IN, Th., a French merchant, 1540-1616. 
 DINI, P., an Italian violinist, 1725-1796. 
 G, G. De, an Armenian ascetic, 951-1003. 
 S, James, an eminent English composer 
 of music, successor ot Dr. Green as 
 and composer to the king, author of a 
 on Singing,' &c, 1715-1783. His son, 
 ', assistant librarian at the British Museum, 
 " as a theologian and critic, died 1829. 
 nephew of James, a clergyman of the 
 England, 1762-1841. 
 J. M. De, a Capuchin preach., 17th c. 
 ES, the companion-in-arms of Belisarius, 
 of the most successful generals of the 
 Justinian, was an Asiatic slave and 
 whom the latter had taken into favour 
 ted to a command in 538. Between 
 and 552, he put an end to the domin- 
 Goths in Italy, and in 553 was himself 
 ch, and fixed his court at Ravenna, 
 sed under the emperor Justinus II. 
 at Rome 568. 
 ZEWIEZ, Adam Stanislaus, a lyri- 
 * historian of Poland, 1733-1796. 
 
 Z, Pamphila De, one of the Spanish 
 of America, killed in Florida, 1526. 
 rnelius, a catholic div., 1660-1738. 
 , F., an Italian painter, died 1630. 
 John, a distinguished architect of the 
 
 NAV 
 
 metropolis, originally a miniature painter, designer 
 of Buckingham palace, the Brighton pavilion, 
 the Haymarket theatre, the Regent-Street im- 
 provements, &c, 1752-1835. 
 
 NASH, Richard, a man of taste and pleasure, 
 commonly called Beau Nash, and the King of 
 Bath, in which city he was for more than fifty 
 vears the arbiter of fashion. Born at Swansea 
 in Glamorganshire 1674, died 1761. 
 
 NASH, Thomas, a dramatic writer and satirist, 
 known as the literary antagonist of the puritan 
 writer Marprelate, flourished about 1558-1601. 
 
 NASH, T. R., a divine and antiq., 1724-1811. 
 
 NASINI, J. N., an Italian painter, 1650-1736. 
 
 NASMITH, J., a divine and antiq., 1740-1808. 
 
 NASMYTH, A., a Scotch painter, 1757-1840. 
 
 NASMYTH, P., a Scotch painter, 1786-1831. 
 
 NASSIR, Eddin, a Persian astrono., 1201-74. 
 
 NATALE, J., a Span. Jesuit, who co-operated 
 with Loyola, and became vicar-general, died. 1580. 
 
 NATALI, P.. a Venetian hagiographer, 14th ct. 
 
 NATALIS, M., a French engraver, died 1670. 
 
 NATHAN, a Jewish prophet, 10th cent. b.c. 
 
 NATHAN-BEN-JECHIEL, a learned rabbin, 
 president of the synagogue at Rome, died 1106. 
 
 NATHAN, Isaac, a rabbi of the 15th century, 
 who was the first Jew to write a Concordance. 
 
 NATHAN, Nata-Spira, a rabbi of the 17th c. 
 
 NATTIER, J. M., a French painter, 1685-1766. 
 
 NATTIER, L., a medal engraver, died 1763. 
 
 NAU, M., a Fr. Jesuit missionary, 1631-1683. 
 
 NAUBERT, B., a German novelist, 1755-1819. 
 
 NAUDE, Gabriel, a French physician, author 
 of an ' Apology for Great Men Accused of Magic,' 
 the principal argument of which is his scepticism 
 concerning the existence of spirits, 1600-1653. 
 
 NAUDE, Philip, a Fr. mathema., 1654-1729. 
 
 NAUDET, T. C, a French painter, 1774-1810. 
 
 NAUMANN, Johann Gottlieb, master of the 
 electoral chapel at Dresden, and one of the first 
 German composers, was born of very poor parents, 
 in a small village near Dresden, in 1741. He re- 
 ceived his principal instructions in music from a 
 Swedish master, named Van Weestrom, who took 
 him to Italy and used him in a severe and nig- 
 gardly manner. Though Naumann had to struggle 
 on amidst poverty and hardships his industry 
 never relaxed. He pursued his studies until he 
 made himself one of the first musicians of his age. 
 His compositions, which were very numerous, in- 
 clude works of every kind, operas, oratorios, songs, 
 cantatas, odes, compositions for the piano-forte, 
 symphonies, &c. For the last years of his life, he 
 devoted himself to the composition of sacred music, 
 and left many valuable works in the library of the 
 chapel of Dresden. He died of apoplexy, in the 
 year 1801. LJ.M.j 
 
 NAUNTON, Sir Robert, secretary ot state 
 to James I., author of historical notices of Queen 
 Elizabeth and others, died 1635. 
 
 NAUSEA, F., a Ger. prelate, about 1480-1552. 
 
 NAVAGERO, Andrea, in Latin, Nauger- 
 ices, a Venetian noble, distinguished as a poet 
 and orator, 1483-1529. 
 
 NAVAGERO, B., a Venetian cardinal, 1507-65. 
 
 NAVARETTA, Domingo Fernandez, a 
 Spanish friar and missionary to China, died 1689. 
 
 NAVARETTE, J. F., a Spanish painter, called 
 ' El Mudo,' being deaf and dumb, 1526-1579. 
 
 527 
 
NAV 
 
 NAVARRE, Henry of, the popular designa- 
 tion of Henry IV., king of France, was the son of 
 Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, descended 
 in the direct male line from Robert of Clermont, 
 fifth son of Saint Louis. He is sometimes called 
 Henry of Beam, from his birth-place, where he 
 first saw the light in 1553. His mother, Jeanne 
 D'Albret, educated him as a Calvinist, and though 
 she imparted to him the full measure of her own 
 intrepidity and intellectual superiority, it was un- 
 accompanied with either her constancy of purpose 
 or her domestic virtues. In 1569 she presented 
 the young prince to the protestant camp at Ro- 
 chelle, where he was hailed chief of the party its 
 leaders at that time being the famous Conde' and 
 Coligni. A few weeks afterwards, the battle of 
 Montcontour deprived the Calvinists (or Hugue- 
 nots as they were called) of 16,000 brave soldiers 
 left on the field or taken prisoners, and on the 11th 
 of August, 1570, the civil wars were hushed for 
 the time by the peace of St. Germains. This was 
 followed by a negotiation for the marriage of 
 Henry with the Princess Margaret, daughter of 
 Catherine de Medici, and sister of the reigning king, 
 Charles IX., the catholic party, however, darkly 
 plotting the massacre of St. Bartholomew, which, 
 in August, 1572, drowned the marriage festival in 
 blood. Henry, who was in the power of the king, 
 saved his life by embracing Catholicism ; and re- 
 maining at the French court till 1576, was imbued 
 with its licentiousness and intriguing policy. 
 Meanwhile the succession of Henry III., brother 
 of Charles IX., in 1574, tended to a breach of the 
 truce with the Huguenots, in consequence of the 
 ambitious designs and religious hatred of the 
 Guises, chiefs of the catholic league, and in 1576 
 Henry of Navarre made his escape from Paris, 
 and rejoined the protestants, once more in arms. 
 He now displayed all the qualities of a great com- 
 mander, and some years following were occupied 
 with military operations and negotiations for peace, 
 in which the reigning king accumulated defeat and 
 shame upon himself, under the dictation of the 
 duke of Guise ; and the name of Henry of Navarre 
 became identified with the protestant cause and 
 the liberties of France. In 1585 he was excom- 
 municated by Sixtus Quintus, and in October, 
 1587, obtained a splendid victory over the duke of 
 Joyeuse at Coutras. The year 1588 was signalized 
 by the attempt of the reigning king to liberate 
 himself from the dictation of Guise, whom in De- 
 cember of that year he caused to be assassinated. 
 He then made overtures to Henry of Navarre, who 
 joined him with his troops, and took the field 
 against the league their reconciliation leading to 
 his acknowledgment as the rightful successor by 
 Henry III., who was assassinated in August, 1589. 
 Henry of Navarre, at the head of his protestant 
 subjects, had now to conquer his kingdom, his 
 opponents being the duke of Mayenne, appointed 
 lieutenant-general by the parliament of Paris, and 
 in alliance with him the old catholic league, the 
 house of Savoy, the forces of Spain, and the Cardi- 
 nal de Bourbon, whom Mayenne acknowledged 
 king. Henry repulsed Mayenne at Arques in 
 
 1589, and gained the great battle of Yvry in March, 
 
 1590, but was compelled to desist from the siege 
 of Paris, and more lately from the siege of Rouen, 
 both these cities being relieved by his active enemy 
 
 NEA 
 
 the duke of Parma. The forces of the two 
 were capable of carrying on the war for a 
 finite period, but neither of them could 1 
 obtain the superiority. So at least it se< 
 their leaders, and as a consequence, in Jub 
 Henry purchased the crown by his apostii 
 catholics on their part agreeing to the to 
 of the Huguenots. In 1594 he entered Pa 
 principal cities of the kingdom soon snbni 
 him, and in the same year tbe Jesuits we 
 demned to exile in consequence of an atte 
 the king's life by the fanatic John Chatel. 
 enne held out in Burgundy till 1596, a 
 Spaniards till 1598, when the war was co 
 by the treaty of Vervins. By the edict of 
 dated this year, Henry secured to his pit 
 subjects the freedom of worship and edi 
 and they were even allowed to occupy 
 fortified cities as a guarantee of its ful 
 The remaining political events of this re 
 summed up in our account of Sully, th 
 minister, whose designs were often cro 
 Henry's intrigues with his mistresses. Thj 
 Marie De Medici may also be consult* 
 princess having been married to him on the 
 of Margaret in 1601. Henry of Navarre 
 the dagger of Ravaillac, 14th May, 1611 
 preparing for a political war with the h 
 Austria, and was succeeded by his son, 
 XIII. He was the most popular monan 
 ever reigned over France, and was certai 
 possessor of many high and kinglike qi 
 The questionable point in his career is the c 
 mise of his faith by the public profession of 
 licism as a means of peace. Granting the si 
 of his motives, there is the question wh 
 ever could have had the faith of a protes 
 the principles of the Bible, or the trust o 
 vout man in the final triumph of God's 
 On the other hand, the character of the 
 nation must be considered, and the adapt) 
 Calvinism and Catholicism, respectively, 
 outward habits of a people in many respect* 
 ourselves. 
 
 NAVARRE, M., a Spanish theolog., 149! 
 
 NAVARRE, P., a native of Biscay, knov 
 military adventurer and engineer, died 152t 
 
 NAYLOR, James, a well-known ent 
 among the Quakers, was a native of Yd 
 born 1616. Converted by the preach 
 George Fox, after serving in the 
 army 1651, he was punished with the sev< 
 the age for his extravagance, and died lti6U 
 
 NEAL, Daniel, a dissenting n 
 of a 'History of the Puritans,' 'History o 
 England,' and other works, 1678-1743. 
 
 NEAL, or NELE, T., a catholic divine, b 
 
 NEANDER, C. F., a German poet, 1724 
 
 NEANDER, Johann August, the celc 
 Church Historian, was of Jewish descent, ai 
 at Gottingen, 13th January, 1789. Havin 
 placed in Hamburgh to attend the classical j 
 of that town, he was introduced, during hi 
 dence, to the acquaintance of several CI 
 families, by whose conversation, as well 
 religious works put in his way, he early ren 
 Judaism, and embraced the Christian fait 
 token of the sincerity and strength of his fi 
 was publicly baptized, and, farther, 
 
 528 
 
NEA 
 
 me ' Neander,' from two Greek words signify- 
 a new man. Having resolved to dedicate his 
 to the pursuits of Theology, he repaired in 
 106-12, to study successively at the Universities 
 Halle, Gottingen, and Heidelberg, and at the 
 of that period, the extraordinary extent of his 
 quirements raised him at once to the status of 
 ofessor Extraordinarius of Theology. Thence, 
 wide-spread fame procured his removal in a 
 years to the Metropolitan University of Berlin, 
 scene of his public labours and honours, and 
 e he spent a life of intense devotedness to the 
 dy of Ecclesiastical History and Literature, 
 was a very pious as well as learned man. In 
 his pursuits, his animating principle was the 
 s of Christ, and the advancement of the Re- 
 's Kingdom : and accordingly he was a warm 
 K>rter of Bible and Missionary Societies, to the 
 Is of which, as well as to the cause of general 
 ty, he frequently contributed the whole pro- 
 Is of his publications. He took the greatest 
 rest in his students, was always ready to assist 
 and meritorious young men with his counsel 
 his purse, and was in the habit of inviting a 
 them every Saturday evening to his house, 
 he held a familiar and literary conversazione. 
 was an interesting and most instructive 
 His classes were always crowded, and the 
 s of ministers, protestant, catholic, as well 
 minor denominations, scattered throughout 
 who attended his prelections, show the 
 his reputation, and the value of his liter- 
 ces. From his extreme short-sightedness, 
 as his fits of mental abstraction, he was 
 eccentric in some of his habits. He was 
 never trusted to walk alone in the streets ; 
 t or his sister generally accompanying him 
 house to the lecture-room, and waiting at 
 to conduct him home again. He was a 
 warm affections, of amiable manners, and 
 onded charity. Many a poor student was 
 ~ to him, not for gratuitous attendance on 
 es only, but for maintenance at the uni- 
 and not seldom has he been known to 
 the money he had about him away, the mo- 
 il appeal was made to his benevolence. The 
 er, as well as the writings of Neander, has 
 an extensive and beneficial influence on 
 Jous sentiments and state of Germany, 
 found in him a stern and uncompromising, 
 (the same time, a calm and judicious opponent ; 
 "ips none, in the modern school of Evan- 
 I divines, not even excepting Schleihermacher 
 tenberg, have rendered such essential 
 in restoring his countrymen to soundness in 
 Neander having been seized with sud- 
 during the delivery of his lecture, was 
 lty conveyed home, where he lingered 
 sufferings till the 14th July, 1850, when 
 ly fell asleep. His funeral "was attended 
 concourse of citizens, many of them in 
 rank in Berlin. A funeral discourse 
 lounced, in German fashion, first in his 
 [another address being delivered, by Dr. 
 W, at the grave. Neander's works, 
 held in high estimation in England 
 as well as in his own country, 
 several volumes. The chief of them are 
 Christ,' in refutation of Strauss, his 
 
 NEC 
 
 General History of the Church,' and his ' Historv 
 of the Apostolic Church.' [R.J.] 
 
 NEANDER, M., a Germ, philologist, 1525-95. 
 
 NEANDER, M., a German physician, 1529-81. 
 
 NEARCHUS, a Greek navigator, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR, whose name is other- 
 wise written Nebuchadrezzar, Nabuchodonosor, 
 &c, was a king of Assyria, who is supposed to 
 have reigned from 669 to 648 b.c. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR, otherwise Nabopolas- 
 sar, was a king of Babylonia, who united with As- 
 tyages in the conquest of Syria, and founded the 
 second Assyrio-Babylonian empire, 626-605 b.c. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 'the Great,' who is 
 the king of that name so much spoken of in Scrip- 
 ture, was the son and successor of the preceding. 
 He died, after a reign of 43 years, B.C. 562. 
 
 NECHAM, NECKHAM, or NEQUAM, Alex- 
 ander, an English monk, who became abbot of 
 Cirencester, and died 1217. He is author of a 
 great variety of works remaining in MS. 
 
 NECK, John Van, a Dut. painter, 1635-1714. 
 
 NECKER, James, the famous minister at the 
 commencement of the French revolution, was 
 descended from a family originally German, and 
 was born at Geneva, where his father was in 
 practice as an advocate, 1732. Having in a few 
 years made a handsome fortune as a banker, he 
 became, in 1764, syndic of the French India 
 Company, which was dissolved by the govern- 
 ment in 1770. Necker, ambitious of rising in the 
 public service, now made himself known as an 
 economist by publishing, in 1773, his 'Eulogium 
 of Colbert,' the beginning of his controversy with 
 the economists of the school of Quesnay. His 
 next step was to forward a Memoir upon the 
 French Finances to Maurepas, president of the 
 Council of Finances, who persuaded Louis XVI. 
 to appoint him to the treasury, the direction of 
 which he retained during the five years 1776-1781. 
 In May of the last mentioned year he resigned, in 
 consequence of being refused a seat in the council 
 the fact being that his suppression of abuses 
 had created him many enemies at court. < He then 
 published his famous ' Cornpte Rendu,' in which 
 he furnished the public with a clear statement of 
 the condition in which he had found things, of 
 what he had done, and what he had intended to 
 do. The effect of this document was quite start- 
 lingit was translated into all the languages of 
 Europe ; and when the successors of Necker, 
 Calonne and Lomenie Brienne, were compelled to 
 retire by the disastrous state of the finances, the 
 honest minister was recalled, and public credit 
 begun to revive again. This was on the 24th of 
 August, 1788. On the 6th of November he 
 summoned the old notables, who had met under 
 Lomenie Brienne in 1787, and they remained in 
 session till 12th December. In January of the 
 following year the states-general were convoked, 
 in fulfilment of the previous pledges of the govern- 
 ment, and in May they were assembled for busi- 
 ness. The constitution of this body was ruled by 
 the advice of Necker, to whom therefore it was 
 owing that the members of the ' Tiers Etat ' were 
 equal in number to the nobles and the clergy united. 
 This circumstance occasioned a 'dead lock,' dis- 
 agreement arising on matters of form necessary to 
 constitute the assembly, and after three weeks 
 
 529 
 
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NEL 
 
 5 frigates tinder Nelson. On the 21st of October, 
 lie attacked them off Cape Trafalgar. Forming 
 his fleet into two columns, one of which he led him- 
 self in the Victory, while Collingwood led the other 
 in the Royal Sovereign, Nelson burst through the 
 double line of the French and Spaniards, and 
 brought on the close and general action, for which he 
 had long ardently prayed. In four hours 20 of the 
 enemy had struck ; others were flying in despair ; 
 and the marine on which Napoleon had relied for 
 the invasion of England was annihilated. But 
 the victory was bought at the expense of the chief 
 victor's life. About a quarter past one, in the heat 
 of the battle, Nelson was shot through the back by 
 a musket ball. He survived long enough to know 
 that the victory was complete ; and his last words 
 were, 'Thank God I have done my duty.' His 
 ever-memorable signal to his fleet, immediately 
 before the battle commenced, had been ' England 
 expects every man to do his duty,' and, if ever a 
 man lived and died in earnest, fearless, unselfish 
 discharge of his duty to his country, it was Admiral 
 Nelson, victor of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Tra- 
 falgar. [E.S.C.] 
 
 NELSON, Robert, a minister of the Church 
 of England, known as the author of several devout 
 and learned works, the principal of which is his 
 well-known ' Festivals and Fasts.' For the sub- 
 stance of this work, there is reason to believe, he 
 was greatly indebted to Dr. Francis Lee. He is 
 generally called ' the pious Nelson,' and was much 
 esteemed by Archbishop Tillotson, who died in his 
 arms. Born in London 1656, died 1715. 
 
 NELSON, Samuel, an Irish patriot, and editor 
 of the ' Northern Star,' in the rebellion of 1790. 
 
 NEMESIUS, a Christian philosopher, 4th cent. 
 
 NEMOURS, a titular name borne by several 
 persons distinguished in French history, among 
 whom are James D'Armagnac, Due De Nem- 
 ours, cousin by marriage to Louis XL, who caused 
 him to be beheaded 1477. Louis, his son and 
 successor in the duchy, viceroy of Naples for 
 Charles VIIL, killed at the battle of Cerignola 
 1503. Gaston De Foix, son of Mary, sister of 
 Louis XII., killed at the battle of Ravenna 1512. 
 Philip of Savoy, uncle to Francis I., who in- 
 vested him with the duchy 1528. James of Sa- 
 voy, a distinguished commander, 1531-1585. 
 Henry, second son and successor of James, con- 
 nected with the league, and afterwards with 
 Henry IV., 1571-1632. Henry II., second son 
 and successor of Henry I., born 1625, appointed 
 archbishop of Rheims 1651, abandoned the church 
 on the death of his elder brother, and married 
 Mary D'Orleans, daughter of the due de Longue- 
 ville, 1657, died 1659. This lady survived her 
 husband many years, and, in 1694, was recognized 
 sovereign of Neufchatel. She died in 1707, leav- 
 ing valuable ' Memoirs' of the minority of Louis 
 XIV. and the wars of the Fronde. The title was 
 borne again by the second son of Louis Philippe, 
 late king of the French. 
 
 NENNIUS, a British historian, 7th century. 
 
 NENY, P. Mac, a Belgian statesman, 1712-84. 
 > NEPOS, Cornelius, a Roman historian of the 
 time of Julius Caesar and the first six years of 
 Augustus. The only remains of his works are 
 some short biographies of twenty Greek generals, 
 and of Hamilcar and Hannibal. 
 
 )!). 
 
 -1 
 
 NES 
 
 NEPOS, Flavius Julius, emperor of the 
 
 predecessor of Augustulus, 47o-475. 
 
 NEPBEU, F., an ascetic writer, 1639-1 
 
 NERI, PoMPEO, an Ital. economist, 1707 
 
 NERI, Saint Philip De, founder of tl 
 
 grcgation of the Oratory in Italy, 1515-1 
 
 NERLI, FlLIPPO, an Ital. historian, 1481 
 
 NERO, emperor of Rome, whose full name 
 
 Lucius Domitius Nero Claudius C.inak. 
 
 the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus and of 
 
 pina, daughter of Germanicus. He was born 
 
 at Antium, and after the marriage of his mo 
 
 in third nuptials, with her uncle, the 
 
 Claudius, was adopted by that prince, and ma 
 
 to his daughter Octavia. When Nero was 
 
 seventeen years of age his abandoned 
 
 Eoisoned her husband, Claudius, and by mea 
 er criminal favours succeeded in raising her 
 the throne, over whom she expected to e 
 the most absolute control. Nero became em 
 in 54, and the year following disposed of the 
 ful heir, Britannicus, by poison. For the fire 
 years his public conduct, under the control of 
 rhus and Seneca, was unexceptionable: in pr 
 however, he disgraced himself by the most 
 vices, and his mother endeavoured to retai 
 influence by shamefully complying with his in- 
 tions. In 59 Nero caused this detestable w 
 to be murdered, and then, fearing no rival in 
 gave full scope to the darkest traits of his c 
 iter. In 62 he repudiated his wife Octavia 
 64 the burning of Rome occurred, which has 
 charged, with great probability, upon Nero hi 
 who, however, accused the Christians of th 
 and made it the occasion of the most 
 cruelties towards them. His debaucherie 
 cruelties occasioned an almost general coi 
 against him, known as that of Piso, in 65, 
 covery of which led to more tortures and blow 
 The revolt of Vindex was also suppressed, 
 of Galba in 68 succeeded, and Nero escaped 
 by stabbing himself, being then in the thirt;, 
 year of his age, and the fourteenth of his 
 He was a lover of arts and letters, and ]_ 
 much taste as a poet and histrionic perfonne 
 was the remark of Nero's father, Ahenob 
 that 'nothing but what w'as hateful and I 
 to mankind, could ever come from Agrippir. 
 himself.' Yet, the story of a strange ha 
 strewed flowers upon the tomb of this tyi 
 well known. 
 
 NERVA, Marcus Cocceius, emperor of 
 was born 27, and was twice consul, v ' 
 pasian in 71, and with Domitian in 90. 
 ceeded to the sovereign power on the as 
 of the latter 96 ; died 98. Trajan succ 
 
 NESBIT, or NISBET, Alexander, a 
 antiquarian and writer on heraldry, 1672-17 
 NESMOND, T. De, a French prelate, <lie< 
 NESSE, C, a nonconformist divine, 16:21 
 NESSEL, D. De, a Ger. bibliographer, 16 
 NESSON, P. De, a French poet, 15th i 
 NESTOR, a monk of Kieff, whose ar 
 the sources of Slavonic history, 1056-1116. 
 NESTOR, D., a classical writer, 15th i 
 NESTORIUS, a patriarch of Constant: 
 the 5th century, author of the Nestoriani 
 which is represented to this day by a 
 body of Christians in Mesopotamia, The pi 
 
 532 
 
NET 
 
 his doctrine was that of Anastasius, who held 
 
 it it was the human person, and not the divine, 
 
 rc suffered in Jesus. Nestorius was deposed by 
 
 )uncil assembled at Ephesus 431. 
 
 [ETSCIiER, the name of three Dutch painters 
 
 rASPAR, the father, celebrated for his domestic 
 
 s and portraits, 1639-1684. Theodore, his 
 
 st son, a good painter of female portraits, 1661- 
 
 2. Constantine, younger brother of the 
 
 r, dist. for his portraits and groups, 1670-1722. 
 
 ETTELBLADT, Christian, Baron De, a 
 
 dish jurist, histor., and antiquary, 1696-1776. 
 
 ETTELBLADT, Daniel, a learned German 
 
 er, 1719-1791. His brother, Henry, histo- 
 
 of Mecklenburg, died 1761. 
 
 ETTER, Thomas, an English monk, pro- 
 
 r of philosophy and divinity, and privy coun- 
 
 to Henry V., died 1430. 
 
 JTTLETON, Thomas, a physician of Hali- 
 
 tnown as a miscellaneous writer, 1683-1742. 
 
 SUBECK, V. W., a German poet, born 1765. 
 
 5UHOF, Theodore Stephen, Baron Von, 
 
 rman adventurer, born of a noble family at 
 
 z in 1690, and proclaimed king of Corsica 
 
 died in London 1755. 
 
 :UKIRCH, B., a German poet, 1665-1729. 
 ;UMAXN, G., a Germ. Hebraist, 1648-1715. 
 UMANN, G., a German chemist, 1683-1737. 
 UMAXN, J. G., a Lutheran div., 1661-1709. 
 USER, A., a Germ, theologian, died 1576. 
 VE, Timothy, a dignitary of the Church of 
 id, and professor of divinity, son of a divine 
 same names, author of ' Sermons,' ' Notes 
 nal Pole,' &c, 1724-1798. 
 LE, or NEVYLE, Alexander, secre- 
 Archbishop Parker, known as a scholar 
 t, 1544-1614. 
 ILE, or NEVILLE, Henry, a republican 
 d writer, member of the council, 1620-94. 
 ILE, or NEVIL, Thomas, brother of Alex- 
 'evile, the dean of Canterbury, known as an 
 benefactor of Trinity College, died 1615. 
 ZAN, J., an Ital. jurisconsult, died 1549. 
 BOROUGH, or NEWBURGH, William 
 ionly known as Gulielmus Newbrigensis, 
 c historian of the period, 1066-1197. 
 CASTLE. See Cavendish and Hollis. 
 COMBE, Thomas, chaplain to the second 
 Richmond, known as a miscellaneous 
 1671-1766. 
 
 COMBE, W., archbishop of Armagh, born 
 "ormist parents, in Bedfordshire, 1728, 
 a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' and an 
 for a revision of the Bible, died 1799. 
 COMEN, M., a nonconf. divine, d. 1666. 
 COMMKN, Thomas, a country lock- 
 projector of the means of creating a 
 beneath the piston of the steam engine, 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEWTON, G. S., a disting. painter, 1794-1835. 
 
 [COURT, R., an ecclesiast. lawyer, d. 1716. 
 HGATE, Sir. Roger, an elegant scholar 
 r of Oxford, which he represented in 
 1719-1806. 
 
 ID, John, an English abbot, employed 
 tist by Henry VIIL, died 1515. 
 ID, P., a Dutch savant, 1764-1794. 
 Sir Adam, a Scottish protestant 
 |>lar, tutor to Prince Henry, son of James 
 
 533 
 
 [Birth-place of Newton.] 
 
 NEWTON, Isaac, a celebrated mathematician 
 and natural philosopher, was born at Woolsthorpe, 
 near Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, on the 25th De- 
 cember, 1642, o.s. His father, Isaac Newton, 
 was proprietor and farmer of the manor, and died 
 a few months after his marriage to Hannah 
 Ayscough, so that young Newton was a posthu- 
 mous child. He was so small at his birth that 
 ' they might have put him into a quart mug,' but 
 he gradually attained size and strength, destined to 
 enjoy a vigorous manhood, and to survive even the 
 average term of life. The estate of Woolsthorpe, 
 worth only about 30 per annum, had been in the 
 family upwards of one hundred years. The origin 
 of the family is still in obscurity. Newton him- 
 self, according to the usual forms, gave in his pedi- 
 gree on oath to the Herald's Office in 1705, stating 
 that he had reason to believe (from tradition), 
 that his great grandfather's father was John New- 
 ton of Wesby, in Lincolnshire ; but it is certain, 
 that twenty years after this Newton told Professor 
 James Gregory, that his grandfather was a gentle- 
 man of East Lothian, and it is equally certain that 
 Newton corresponded on the subject with the last 
 baronet of the family, Sir Richard Newton of New- 
 ton, and that this family considered Newton to be 
 a distant relation of theirs. For three years Mrs. 
 Newton watched over her only child with mater- 
 nal anxiety till her marriage with the Rev*. Barna- 
 bas Smith, of North Witham, by whom she had 
 one son and three daughters. In consequence of 
 this marriage Newton was left under the care of 
 his grandmother, and was sent at the usual age to 
 the day school at Skillington and Stoke. At the 
 age of twelve he went to the public school of 
 Grantham, where he was boarded with Mr. Clark 
 the apothecary. Here he was very inattentive to 
 his studies, and was low in the school till a quar- 
 rel with a boy above him in the class, who had 
 used him ill, induced him to apply diligently to 
 his lessons till he rose above his rival, and reached 
 the head of the class. During his leisure hours he 
 occupied himself with all sorts of mechanical con- 
 trivances, windmills, water-clccks, carnages, and 
 paper kites ; and among his early tastes may be 
 mentioned his love for drawing and writing verses, 
 in neither of which he was destined to excel. On 
 
NEW 
 
 the death of his father-in-law in 1656, his mother 
 came to reside at Woolsthorpe with her three chil- 
 dren and Isaac, who was now in his fifteenth year. 
 He was recalled from school, to assist in the 
 management of the farm; hut while he was occu- 
 pied with books, models, water wheels, and dials, 
 the business of the farm was neglected, and the 
 cattle were luxuriating among the corn. Thus 
 found to be unfit for the profession of a farmer, he 
 was sent back to Grantham school, and in due 
 time to Trinity College, Cambridge, with recom- 
 mendations from his uncle, the Rev. W. Ayscough. 
 On the 5th of June, 1661, when nineteen 
 years old, he was admitted sub-sizar in Trinity 
 College, very ill prepared for its course of instruc- 
 tion by his preliminary mathematical studies. He 
 had been disposed to undervalue the ancient geo- 
 metry, and he afterwards confessed to Dr. Pemberton 
 that he had applied himself to the works of Des- 
 cartes and others before he had sufficiently con- 
 sidered the Elements of Euclid. On the 28th April, 
 1664, he was elected scholar. He took his degree 
 of B.A. in January, 1665. He was elected Major 
 Fellow in March, 1668, and he took his degree of 
 M.A. on the 7th July. On the 20th May, 1665, he 
 committed to writing his first ideas on fluxions. In 
 1666, having procured a prism, he discovered the un- 
 equal refrangibility of light, and the true doctrine of 
 colours, and having drawn the erroneous conclu- 
 sion that the improvement of the refracting teles- 
 cope was impossible, he set himself to the construc- 
 tion of a reflecting telescope. While thus occupied 
 he was driven from Cambndge by the plague in 1666, 
 and went to Woolsthorpe, where the idea of gravi- 
 tation first presented itself to him, from observing 
 the fall of an apple in his garden. Here he con- 
 tinued his inquiries into the application of fluxions, 
 and after his return to Cambridge in 1668, he 
 made a very small reflecting telescope, which he 
 described to a friend. On the 29th October, 1669, 
 Newton was appointed to the Lucasian chair of 
 mathematics on the resignation of Dr. Barrow, and 
 from this time we may date the commencement 
 of his great discoveries. His first communication 
 to the Royal Society was a description of a second 
 reflecting telescope, which excited great interest in 
 England and abroad. The telescope itself was 
 sent to the Society in December, 1671, 'for his 
 majesty's perusal.' On the 18th September, 1672, 
 he announced to the secretary, Mr. Oldenburg, a 
 philosophical discovery which he considered the 
 oddest, if not the most considerable detection 
 hitherto made in the operations of nature. This 
 was the discovery of the composition of light, 
 which was read to the Society on the 8th Febru- 
 ary, 1672, and which led him into interminable 
 controversies with Hook, Hnygens, and several 
 eminent foreigners. These controversies embittered 
 his peace, and made him resolve to have nothing 
 more to do with that litigious lady philosophy. 
 On the 11th January, 1671, Newton was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. In 1673 he was dis- 
 appointed in a competition for the law fellowship, 
 then vacant ; a disappointment increased by the 
 fact that he was about this time in such circum- 
 stances as to be unable to afford the weekly pay- 
 ment to the Royal Society, who ' excused him.' 
 Very soon afterwards, however, when his fellow- 
 ship was about to expire, he obtained permission 
 
 NEW 
 
 from the crown to hold the Lucasian chair 
 with a fellowship, without being obliged to * 
 orders. On the 9th December, 1675, N< 
 communicated to the Royal Society a discoui 
 colours. This interesting paper contained 
 details on the composition and decompositi 
 white light, and anew hypothesis concern mgco 
 with some propositions explaining the colo 
 thin transparent plates, and their relation ' 
 colours of natural bodies. This discourse 
 brought Newton into a controversy with 
 but notwithstanding this interruption, he wai 
 occupied with those profound studies, the res 1 
 which were afterwards consigned in his imi 
 work the ' Principia.' He had long ago dt 
 from the laws of Kepler the important la\ 
 gravity decreased with the square of the dis 
 a law to which Sir Christopher Wren, Halle; 
 Hook, had all been led by independent study 
 demonstration of it, however, had been give) 
 no proof obtained that the same power 
 made the apple to fall, was that which re 
 the moon and the other planets in their 
 Adopting the ordinary measure of the 
 radius, he had been lea to the conclusion th 
 force which kept the moon in her orbit, if the 
 as gravity, was one-sixth greater than that w 
 actually observed, a result which perplexed hi 
 prevented him from communicating to his 
 the great speculation in which he was engage 
 June, 1682, however, he had heard of I 
 
 more accurate measure of the earth's 
 and repeating with this measure his former 
 lations, he found to his extreme delight 
 force of gravity, by which bodies fall at the 
 surface, 4,000 miles from the earth's 
 diminished as the square of 240,000 
 moon's distance, was almost exactly equal 
 which kept the moon in her orbit. Hence, it f< 
 that the same power retained all the other si 
 round their primaries and all the primaries ro 1 
 sun. In August, 1684, when Dr. Halley 
 Newton at Cambridge, he learned from I ' 
 had surmounted the difficulties of th 
 motion, and promised him a copy of 
 he had written on the subject. This 
 Mota Corporum,' was after 
 pleted, and presented to the Royal 
 the 28th April, 1686, being the first t 
 ' Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Ma 
 The second book was sent to the So< 
 1st March, 1687, the third on the 
 and the whole work published at the 
 Dr. Halley about midsummer of that m 
 have already seen that Newton discovered 1 
 trine of fluxions in 1666, the principle and ; 
 tion of which he explained in his treatise ^i 
 per Equationes numero terminorum 
 which he communicated to Dr. Barrow i 
 1667. Although this treatise was nc 
 till 1711, its contents were circulated 
 Europe by letters between 1669 and 
 principle of the new calculus war "' 
 Principia in 1687, and the Algo 
 cated to Dr. Wallis in 1692. Tl 
 of fluxions was also made by Leibnitz 
 troversy arose on the subject of priorit 
 continued for nearly two centuries * 
 mathematical world. The violent " 
 534 
 
 nit /.. id I 
 3 V.: tfj t D 
 
 lri,'U>ls * u 
 
NEW 
 
 -ty falsely charged their principals with plagiar- 
 i, and thus embittered a controversy carried on 
 ;h all the violence of politics or theology. There 
 , be no doubt that Newton fast invented flux- 
 s, and that Leibnitz was an independent inven- 
 of them before Newton had published his 
 thod. In the year 1692 a rumour prevailed 
 oad that Newton had become insane, either 
 intense mental application, or from the loss 
 valuable MSS. by fire. It is quite true that 
 Eton's health had at this time suffered from in- 
 Ity to sleep, and that he had exhibited symp- 
 is of a nervous indisposition in some of his let- 
 to his friends ; but his mind had never given 
 , and it was during this period that he wrote 
 four celebrated letters to Dr. Bentley, and was 
 lpied with the profound subject of the Lunar 
 ry. Newton had now brought to a close the 
 ,t investigations which had occupied the early 
 the middle portion of his life. He was in the 
 -third year of his age, and no mark of na- 
 il gratitude had been conferred upon him, 
 ough he was counted the pride of England, and 
 ornament of his species. In this position a 
 sphere of usefulness was unveiled to him, and 
 tfi and honours awaited his acceptance. 
 Montague, a fellow of Trinity College, 
 jh twenty years younger than Newton, 
 d his friendship at Cambridge. They had 
 )gether in the convention parliament of 1688, 
 had entertained the same liberal opinions in 
 'cs. In 1694 Montague was appointed chan- 
 of the exchequer, and after consulting New- 
 Locke, and H alley, he resolved to restore to 
 trinsic value the adulterated coin of the 
 With this view Newton was appointed 
 of the mint in 1695, with a salary of about 
 I and in 1699 he succeeded to the mastership, 
 best office in the establishment, which was 
 1,200 or 1,500 per annum. In the 
 year he was elected one of the eight associate 
 of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 
 In 1701 he was re-elected one of the mem- 
 the university of Cambridge. In 1703 he 
 losen president of the Royal Society, an 
 which he held till his death, and on the 16th 
 1705, the honour of knighthood was con- 
 upon him by Queen Anne in Trinity Lodge, 
 s. When George I. ascended the throne 
 i, Newton, then in his seventy-second year, 
 favourite at court. His character, his re- 
 and his piety, had gained him the favour 
 i princess of Wales, afterwards queen consort 
 forge II., who took great pleasure in his con- 
 'jn. She corresponded also with Leibnitz, 
 as to have availed himself of this privilege 
 i the character of Newton, by representing 
 [ewtonian philosophy as false and hostile to 
 Locke was involved in the same charge, 
 _the king's desire an answer was prepared 
 and Dr. Clarke, which seems to have 
 the royal scruples. At the princess's re- 
 [Sir Isaac gave her a MS., which he calls a 
 pological Index.' The Abbe Conti having got 
 | of it, published it in Paris without the leave 
 I author, and thus involved him in a disagree- 
 oversy. He was in this way induced 
 for the press his posthumous work, en- 
 l The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms,' 
 
 NEW 
 
 which appeared in 1728. In the year 1722, when 
 in his eightieth year, Newton was attacked with 
 a complaint in the urinary organs, which continued 
 to afflict him till the time of his death, but though 
 he suffered also from an affection of the lungs and 
 gout, he was able on the 28th February 2 1727, to 
 preside at a meeting of the Royal Society. He 
 suffered, however, from the exertion which he 
 made on this occasion, and as the master disease 
 under which he suffered was found to be stone, no 
 hope was entertained of his recovery. He pre- 
 served his faculties entire till two days before his 
 death, when he became insensible, and expired on 
 Monday, the 20th March, 1727, between one and 
 two o'clock in the morning, in the eighty-fifth year 
 of his age. His body was removed from Kensing- 
 ton to London on the 28th March. It lay in state in 
 the Jerusalem Chamber, and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey, in a conspicuous part of which a 
 monument was erected to his memory in 1731 by 
 his relatives. Newton left about 32,000, which 
 was divided among his four nephews and four 
 nieces of the half blood, the grandchildren of his 
 mother: one of them the beautiful and accom- 
 plished Miss Catherine Barton, was married to 
 Mr. Conduit, in Newton's lifetime, and they lived 
 together. Mr. Conduit left an only child, a daugh- 
 ter, who married Mr. Wallop, the eldest son of 
 Lord Lymington. and from this cause all Newton's 
 papers came into the hands of the Portsmouth 
 family. The most important of Newton's philoso- 
 phical works are his ' Principia,' already men- 
 tioned, his ' Arithmetica Universalis,' his ' Geomet- 
 ria Analytica,' his 'Treatise on Optics,' published in 
 1705, his ' Lectiones Opticas,' published after his 
 death, and others which have been collected by 
 Bishop Horsley, and published in 5 vols. 4to, under 
 the title of 'Newtom Opera quae Extant Omnia,' 
 London, 1779 and 1782. His literary and theologi- 
 cal works, included in the same collection, are his 
 ' Chronology,' his ' Observations on the Prophecies 
 of Holy Writ,' viz., Daniel and the Apocalypse, and 
 his ' Historical Account of two Notable Corrup- 
 tions of Scripture.' For further information re- 
 specting Sir Isaac Newton, see ' Life of Sir Isaac 
 Newton,' by Sir David Brewster, London, 1831 ; a 
 very brief but excellent Memoir of Newton by 
 Professor De Morgan, in ' Knight's Cabinet His- 
 torical Gallery,' vol. XL, p. 78-118; and 'Memoirs 
 of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac 
 Newton,' by Sir ^ David Brewster, in 2 vols. 8vo, 
 (from the Family Papers), now in the press. [D.B.] 
 
 NEWTON, John, a mathematician, 1622-78. 
 
 NEWTON, John, a Calvinistic clergyman of 
 the Church of England, author of a ' Review of 
 Ecclesiastical History,' ' The Messiah,' a series of 
 sermons on the well-known oratorio, a ' Narrative 
 of his Life,' &c, 1725-1807. Newton was a friend 
 of Cowper the poet, and his life has been written 
 by the Rev. R. Cecil. 
 
 NEWTON, R., a learned divine, 1676-1753. 
 
 NEWTON, Thomas, a clergyman of the Church 
 of England, originally a schoolmaster and phy- 
 sician, author of a ' History of the Saracens,' ' The 
 Herbal to the Bible,' &c, 16th century. 
 
 NEWTON, Thomas, an English prelate, well 
 known as the author of ' Dissertations on the Pro- 
 phecies,' born at Lichfield, where his father was a 
 wine and spirit merchant, 1704 ; appointed rector 
 
 535 
 
NEY 
 
 of St. Mary-le-Bow 1744, king's chaplain 1756, 
 and bishop of Bristol 1761 ; died 1782. 
 
 NEY. Michel Ney, marshal of the French 
 empire, duke of Elchingen, prince of the Moskwa, 
 an<l ' The Bravest of the Brave ' in Napoleon's 
 armies, was the son of a cooper at Sarre-Louis. He 
 was born in 1769. He entered the army very 
 young ; and was a subaltern in a hussar regiment 
 at the commencement of the wars of the revolu- 
 tion. Ney soon attracted the notice of his com- 
 manders, especially of Kleber and Hoche, by his 
 valour and skill in the campaigns against the 
 Austrian armies ; and in 1798 he had attained the 
 rank of general of division. In 1799 he shared in 
 the glories of Massena's campaign in Switzerland ; 
 and in 1800 he aided, under Moreau, in gaining 
 the victories of Moeskirch and Hohenlinden. 
 Napoleon afterwards employed him as minister 
 plenipotentiary to complete the submission of the 
 Swiss to French ascendancy a task which Ney 
 performed with success and thereafter stood high 
 in Napoleon's favour. He was made marshal of 
 the new French empire in 1804 ; and in the cam- 
 
 faign of 1805 against Austria, he commanded the 
 'rench at the victory of Elchingen, whence the 
 dukedom which the emperor conferred upon him 
 was named. Ney contributed greatly to the over- 
 throw of the Prussians at Jena, and to the defeat 
 of the Russians at Friedland. In 1807 he was 
 sent to the peninsula, and for some time com- 
 manded iu Galicia, and on the northern frontier 
 of Portugal. In 1810 he acted under Massena in 
 the invasion of Portugal, which was baffled by the 
 
 fenius of Wellington, and the lines of Torres 
 edras. During that invasion, and during the 
 retreat of the French army, which was its result, 
 Ney displayed ' A happy mixture of courage and 
 skill,' to adopt the words in which the English 
 historian, Napier, has justly described his conduct. 
 But the altercations between him and Massena 
 were frequent and violent, and at last Massena 
 deprived Ney of his command. Napier says that 
 Massena's general views were as superior to Ney's, 
 as the latter's readiness and genius for handling 
 troops in action were superior to Massena's. In 
 1812 Ney served again under Napoleon, and took 
 part in the invasion of Russia. He commanded 
 the French centre at the battle of the Moskwa, 
 and gained from that victory his princely title. 
 His heroic bravery was still more signally dis- 
 played in the dreadful retreat from Moscow. His 
 honourable task was to protect tiie French rear. 
 On leaving Smolensko, Ney, at the head of about 
 7,000 men, found his path barred near the river 
 Losmina by a large Russian army under Milara- 
 drovich. Ney was summoned to surrender 'A 
 marshal of France never surrenders' was his 
 answer, and he led his men on with the bayonet 
 against the Russian batteries. Driven back 
 repeatedly with frightful carnage, Ney counter- 
 marched the remnant of his column, and wheeling 
 to the left under shelter of the night, he eluded 
 the Russian pursuit. He reached the bank of the 
 Dnieper at a spot where the river was frozen 
 over, but so thinly, that the ice bent beneath the 
 soldier's tread. He effected the perilous passage, 
 and in a succession of desperate contests with 
 other Russian forces that strove to intercept him, 
 Ney fought his way with 1,500 of Ids men to 
 
 NEY 
 Orcha, where Napoleon was with the 
 the main army. Napoleon's joy was almost rj. 
 turous when Ney rejoined him, for all bad belieH 
 that the intrepid marshal must have been sl v 
 or captive. The emperor hailed Ney as '' 
 bravest of the brave,' which thenceforth beciB 
 his undisputed title. After Napoleon left I 
 army, Ney still continued to fight in the ifl 
 against the advancing Muscovites. Thrice did 
 rear guard which he commanded melt away bencl 
 him Dy death, captivity, or flight ; and aa^H 
 was it reorganized by the indomitable m^H 
 At last, Ney, with only thirty men under tM 
 defended the gate of Kowno, the last place in > 
 Russian dominions through which the Frej 
 retreated against the pursuing enemies, wfl 
 his comrades escaped at tne other end of I 
 He was himself the very last man to retire. M 
 fired with his own hand the last shot a 
 foes, threw the musket into the river N^H 
 plunged into the neighbouring forests to bai^H 
 enemies who held him in chase ; and after J^M 
 of almost incredible personal adventures, rj^| 
 his comrades in the Prussian territory.-^^H 
 campaign of 1814 Ney was present at the 
 of Lutzen and Bautzen, but he was del'.' 
 great loss by the crown prince of Swej^H 
 Dennewitz. He fell in consequence undfl^fl 
 poleon's displeasure, and was little eri^H 
 during the rest of the struggle against ^^^H 
 which ended in Napoleon's first abdication, l 
 the first return of the Bourbons, Ney | 
 and probably felt great willingness to ser^^H 
 loyally; and when, in 1815, the newa^^H 
 Paris of Napoleon's escape from Elba, 
 the command of the army which was sera 
 oppose him. Ney expressed the utmost dj^H 
 to the royal cause, and promised Louis j^H 
 that he would bring Buonaparte to Paris 'Life! I 
 wild beast in a cage.' There seems no reasoi i 
 doubt Ney's sincerity in this unhappy cri 
 career. He was an impulsive, rather tha> 
 reflective man ; and prone botli to speak and : 
 with more enthusiasm than consistency. 
 he advanced against the emperor, he r 
 letter from Napoleon, who summoned him by I 
 magic name of ' The bravest of the bra\ 
 his old master beneath the old banner, 
 army which Ney was leading, showed, both offi I 
 and soldiers, their fixed resolve to fighl 
 and not against Buonaparte. Ney c; 
 contagion. He became Napoleonist wil 
 mence equal to that which he had dis] 
 few days before in the Bourbon cause, an 
 over with all his troops to the enn 
 received him with expressions of the 
 passion and welcome. But, though Key 1 
 deeply committed himself against the I 
 Napoleon seems to have mistrusted hi' 
 have long hesitated as to employing I 
 campaign of 1815. It was only on the nigh 
 the 11th of June that Ney received at 
 order to join the French army in Belgium. I 
 rying forward to the frontier, Ney met 
 on the 15th at Charleroi, after active 
 had commenced. Napoleon gave him t 
 mand of the left wing, and sent him to 
 post of Quatre Bras, and oppose the I 
 Those who censure Ney's supposed v 
 
 53G 
 
NET 
 
 romptness in this eventful campaign, should 
 
 member that the marshal had been so suddenly 
 
 ^pointed to his command, that he did not know 
 
 le strength of the regiments placed under him, 
 
 even the names of their commanding officers. 
 
 n the 16th, Ney attacked the allies at Quatre 
 
 ras, but after many hours' hard fighting was 
 
 pulsed ; though he succeeded in preventing the 
 
 ndish from marching to the help of the Prus- 
 
 ins, who were being defeated by the emperor at 
 
 gny. On the 18th, Ney acted as the emperor's 
 
 atenant at Waterloo. He led in person several 
 
 the fiercest assaults upon various parts of the 
 
 itish line, and especially the final charge of the 
 
 1 guard. Never was his valour more nobly 
 
 Bugh unsuccessfully displayed. His horse was 
 
 led under him in the last great attack, and he 
 
 s seen, both by friends and foes, on foot, his 
 
 thes torn with bullets, his face blackened with 
 
 der, striving, sword in hand, first to urge his 
 
 n forward, and at last to check their flight. 
 
 the second restoration of the Bourbons, Ney 
 
 brought to trial by them for treason. He 
 
 condemned by the Chamber of Peers on the 
 
 December, 1815 ; and was shot, in pursuance 
 
 bis sentence, on the morning of the next day. 
 
 met death with the same firmness with which 
 
 had braved it on the battle-field for five and 
 
 rcnty years. Ney was an erring, but a noble- 
 
 Irted man. He was honourably free from the 
 
 iburities and vices that tarnish the fame of many 
 
 fliis brethren-in-arms ; and, take him for all in 
 
 llhe was a man in whom even deplorable faults 
 
 suld have been forgiven. [E.S.C.] 
 
 1EYN, P. De, a Dutch painter, 1596-1639. 
 
 ', IICAISE, C, a French antiquarian, 1623-1701. 
 
 lICAISE, St., a martyr of the 3d century, said 
 
 Me the first bishop of Rome. Another martyr 
 
 al saint of the name was bishop of Rheims, 5th c. 
 
 s'OR, commander of the Syrian army for 
 
 Jfcochus Epiphanes, slain by Judas Maccabaaus 
 
 lethoron B.C. 161. 
 
 ICANOR. or N1CATOR. See Demetrius. 
 
 |lCCOLAi, A., an Italian Jesuit, 1706-1784. 
 
 SCCOLAI, J. B., an Ital. mathemat., 1726-93. 
 CCOLI, N, an Italian writer, 1363-1437. 
 CEPHORUS, the name of two saints the 
 f\ a martyr of Antioch about 260 ; the second, 
 I reek historian and patriarch of Constantinople, 
 750, died 828. 
 ICEPHORUS I., emperor of the East, formerly 
 
 ?i d treasurer and chancellor of the empire under 
 r !, was proclaimed on the fall of the latter 802, 
 fc 1 in war with the Bulgarians 811. Nice- 
 Piiu:s II., born 912, succeeded 963, assassinated 
 &5inisces, one of his generals, who sue. him 969. 
 RU8 III., commander of the Asiatic forces, 
 pH 1078, deposed by Alexius Commenus 1081. 
 ilORUS, a Greek theologian, and me- 
 of Kief, in Russia, 12th century. 
 I'HOKUS-IiLE.MMIDAS.alearned Greek 
 ^BAbot of a monastery at Miathos, 13th cent. 
 CEPHORUS-BRYNNE, a Byzantine gene- 
 k'came emperor of the East, and was 
 'JJfished by Nicephorus (Botoniates) III. 1078. 
 N ICEPHORUS, married to Anna, daughter 
 i menus, kn. as an historian, d. 1137. 
 <U;rilORUS-CALLISTUS, a monk of Con- 
 *t* nople, au. of an ' Ecclesiastical Hist.,' 14th c. 
 
 537 
 
 NIC 
 
 NICEPHORUS-GREGORAS. See Gregoras. 
 
 NICERON, J. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1613-1646. 
 
 NICERON, J. P., a Fr. historian, 1685-1738. 
 
 NICETAS, the name of several Greek writers 
 David, author of a Life of St. Ignatius, 9th century. 
 Aohominatus, or Choniates, author of An- 
 nals, died about 1216. Serron, author of several 
 panegyrics and Commentaries, 11th century. Eu- 
 genianus, a novelist, 12th century. 
 
 NICETAS, St., abbot of Mount Olympus, d. 824. 
 
 NICETIUS, Flavius, a Gaulonite jurist, 5th c. 
 
 NICETIUS, St., a bishop of Treves, appointed 
 527, died 566. Another of the name, bishop of 
 Besancon, died about 612. 
 
 NICHOLAS I., pope of Rome, in whose reign 
 the schism between the Greek and Latin churches 
 commenced, 858-867. Nicholas II., reigned 
 1058-1061. Nicholas III., 1277-1280. Nicho- 
 las IV., author of Commentaries, 1288-1292. 
 Nicholas V., a great patron of learning, founder 
 of the Vatican library, &c, 1447-1455. An anti- 
 pope (P. de Corbiere) assumed the title of Nicholas 
 V., and died in prison about 1338. 
 
 NICHOLAS, an emperor of the East, deposed 
 after a few days' reign bv Alexis Ducas, 1204. 
 
 NICHOLAS, a king of Denmark, 1104-1134. 
 
 NICHOLAS, two dukes of Lorraine the first, 
 born 1448, succeeded John 1470, died 1473. The 
 second, succeeded his brother, Charles IV., who 
 abdicated 1634, died 1670. 
 
 NICHOLAS, three lords of Ferrara, Modena, 
 and Reggio the first reigned 1317-1346 ; the 
 second, 1361-1388; the third, 1393-1422. This 
 last, in his nineteenth year, was commander of the 
 papal army directed against Milan, 1403. He 
 caused his second wife, Parasina de Malatesta, to 
 be put to death, together with his natural son, 
 Hugues, for adultery ; a circumstance which has 
 furnished Byron with the subject of one of his poems. 
 
 NICHOLAS, patriarch of C'tinople., died 1111. 
 
 NICHOLAS, a monk of Clairvaux, 12th cent. 
 
 NICHOLAS, Eymericus, inquisitor-general of 
 Spain, au. of ' Directorum Inquisitorum,' d. 1393. 
 
 NICHOLAS of Munster, founder of a Ger- 
 man sect in the sixteenth century, whose followers 
 called themselves the family or house of Love. 
 He published the ' Evangel of the Kingdom,' and 
 other mystic works. 
 
 NICHOLLS, F., an Eng. physiolog., 1699-1779. 
 
 NICHOLS, John, a well-known name in litera- 
 ture, was the apprentice and successor of Bowyer, 
 an eminent and learned printer. He was born at 
 Islington 1744, became the partner of his master 
 in 1766, and died 1828. His works are ' Literary 
 Anecdotes of the 18th Century,' 13 vols. 8vo, 
 ' Illustrations of the Literature of the 18th Cen- 
 tury,' 3 vols. 8vo, ' The History and Antiquities of 
 Leicestershire,' 6 vols, folio, &c. 
 
 NICHOLS, R., a poetical writer, born 1584. 
 
 NICHOLS, W., a learned divine, 1664-1712. 
 
 NICHOLSON, W., awr. onchemis., 1758-1815. 
 
 NICIAS, an Athenian painter, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 NICIAS, an Athenian general, companion-in- 
 arms of Alcibiades and Lamachus, put to death 
 after the ill success of his expedi. to Sicily, b.c. 413. 
 
 NICOLAI, a Dutch painter, born 1766. 
 
 NICOLAI, Ch. Frederic, a famous bookseller 
 and miscellaneous writer of Berlin, where he w;!9 
 born, 1733. He exercised great influence over the 
 
NIC 
 
 direction of the new literature in Germany, both 
 by his enterprise and his own writings nd is 
 generally mentioned with the literati of the revo- 
 lutionary philosophy. Died 1811. 
 
 NICOLAI, E., a* Swedish theologian, d. 1580. 
 
 NICOLAI, J., a Saxon philologist, died 1708. 
 
 NICOLAI. N. A., a Ger. pathologist, 1722-1802. 
 
 NICOLAI, M. M n an Italian writer, 1756-1833. 
 
 NICOLAI, W\, a French writer, 1716-1788. 
 
 NICOLAS, A., a French historian, 1622-1695. 
 
 NICOLAS, Armelle, generally called the 
 good Armelle,' was a French servant girl, remark- 
 able for her charity and pious devotion, 1606-1671. 
 LTer life was published in 1676, entitled ' The 
 Triumph of Divine Love in the Life of a great 
 servant of God.' 
 
 NICOLAS, Sir Nicholas Harris, a naval 
 officer who afterwards became a barrister, and 
 devoting himself to literary pursuits acquired a 
 distinguished name as a genealogical and his- 
 torical critic. He is generally known by the 
 shorter designation of Sir Harris Nicolas. His 
 principal works are a ' Chronology of History,' 
 ' Despatches of Lord Nelson,' ' Life of Hatton,' 
 ' History of the Battle of Agincourt,' &c. He 
 was engaged at his death on a ' History of the 
 Navy,' and the Papers of Sir Hudson Lowe, the 
 latter of which have since been edited by Forsyth. 
 Born in Cornwall 1799, died 1848. 
 
 NICOLAS, P., a Fr. mathemat., d. about 1720. 
 
 NICOLAUS-DAMASCENUS, a poet and his- 
 torian of Damascus, who lived in the 1st ct. B.C. 
 
 NICOLAUS-MYNEPSUS, a med. wr., 13th c. 
 
 NICOLAUS-PE.EPOSiTUS,amed.wr.,12thc. 
 
 NICOLAY, L. H., a German poet, 1737-1820. 
 
 NICOLAY, N., a French traveller, 1517-1583. 
 
 NICOLE, Claude, a French poet, 1611-1686. 
 
 NICOLE, F., a French geometrician, 1683-1758. 
 
 NICOLE, N., a French architect, 1701-1784. 
 
 NICOLE, Peter, nephew of Claude Nicole 
 the poet, and one of the most celeb, of the Port 
 Roval auth. as a moralist and theologian, 1625-95. 
 
 NICOLEF, N. P., a Russian dram., 1758-1816. 
 
 NICOLINO, G., an Ital. singer, eel. 1697-1717. 
 
 NICOLLE, G. H., a Fr. journalist, 1767-1828. 
 
 NICOLO DEL ABBATE. See Abate 
 
 NICOLO-ISOUARD, generally called Nicolo, 
 a famous theatrical composer, born at Malta of 
 French origin, and distin. at Paris, 1777-1818. 
 
 NICOLSON, William, a learned prelate and 
 antiquary, author of three valuable works entitled 
 respectively the English, Irish, and Scotch His- 
 torical Library, b. in Cumberland 1655, d. 1727. 
 
 NICOMEDES, a Ger. geometrician, 1st c. B.C. 
 
 NICOMEDES. the frst of the name, king of 
 Bithvnia, B.C. 278-250; the second, 148-L3; the 
 tJnrd, time of Mithridates, 89-75. 
 
 NICOT, John, a French statesman, 1530-1600. 
 
 NICUESSA, D., a Span, navigator, 16th cent. 
 
 NIEBUHR, Carstex, a celebrated Danish tra- 
 veller, was born in the duchy of Lauenburgb, 1733, 
 and having raised himself from the condition of a 
 peasant to that of a land surveyor, was sent on a 
 scientific expedition to Arabia in 1758. The object 
 of this mission was to collect materials for illustra- 
 ting the Bible, as suggested to the Danish govern- 
 ment by Michaelis, and it occupied six years, from 
 1761 to 1767, in travelling through the East. 
 Niebuhr published his ' Description of Arabia,' in 
 
 NIE 
 
 1772 : his ' Travels in Arabia and cireumjact 
 Countries,' in 2 volumes, 177 1-8, to whi 
 volume was added in 1837. He was a; 
 an office under the civil administration ot Hoist 
 1778. Died 1815. 
 NIEBUHR, Barthold George, son of 
 
 J (receding, was born at Copenhagen,'*1776. 
 amous as an historian, diplomatist, and philolo 
 holding, in fact, such high rank in the fi 
 these characters, that he has originated i 
 school of historical criticism, and our own A 
 may be numbered among his followers, 
 father's stories of the East, and the new Gr 
 literature ushered in by such writers as Klopst 
 Lessing, and Goethe, fixed his attention when c 
 a boy ; and the Turkish war of 1778, the 
 Revolution soon afterwards, and other great i 
 ments of that age, deeply interested him ' 
 fortunes of states. His memory and capai 
 methodising knowledge were at the same time 
 
 freat. By his eighteenth year he had acquire 
 ome and at school, ten languages, to whicl 
 a few years afterwards, he added as many n 
 and there were few facts in the compass of hi 
 to which he was not able to speak accura 
 out the aid of books. In 1794 he was 
 pursue his sudies at Kiel. In 1796 he 
 Copenhagen as private secretary to the 
 minister of finance, Count Schimmelman, 
 1797, exchanged this office for an appoinl 
 the Royal Library. From 1798 to 1800 
 cupied with a literary visit to England 
 land ; and in the last named year he m 
 first wife, Amelia Behrens, and took up 
 in Copenhagen as secretary to the Afn 
 late. In 1804, he became first director 
 and of the East India department of the 
 Trade, besides being promoted to the 
 for the affairs of Barbary, of which he ' 
 been secretary. From 18C6 till 1810 he 
 Prussian civil service, part of the time 
 at the court of Holland, and, at Berlin, 
 the department for managing the 
 In 1810, Hardenberg having returned 
 Niebuhr resigned, and became professor 
 at the new university of Berlin till li" 4 
 1813 to 1816 he was engaged in affi 
 connected with the administration of 
 countries re-conquered from Napoleon, 
 negotiations of the court of Berlin with 
 and Holland ; besides instructing the 
 in finance. In 1816 he went on a missioi 
 and this occupied him till 1823. His obj 
 procure a frank understanding and 
 the new development of religion in G 
 this, however, he was disappointed, and 
 shrewdly observed that he might have 
 position much easier there had he only 
 Atheist ! He turned his lengthened 
 account, however, in making those 
 observations, which enter so largely in 
 tories. At the close of this mission he 
 the most important period of his life, as 
 of history at the university of Bonn, 
 there 1831. The great work of his li 
 Roman history, to which must now be a 
 series of posthumous works in c 
 tion among others his ' And 
 and Geography.' The novelty and value 
 
 538 
 

 
 tfc . //, , '' '. 
 
 m m i 
 
 
 
 /4 ! 
 
 L^WM y/-_ ^V, 
 
 
NIE 
 
 ronsist in their minute reproduction of the very 
 ?ircumstances, in the midst of which the events of 
 history occurred, and the faculty of the author for 
 'judging of similar occurrences from the conflicts of 
 his own times. In politics, he was the friend of 
 institutional freedom, with guarantees for a na- 
 tional education and religion, and perhaps no 
 rreater instance could be found of a statesman 
 vhose life and manners so completely represented 
 lis convictions. The men of the hour found it 
 difficult to agree with him, simply because he had 
 ;onvictions and acted up to them. [E.R.] 
 
 NIEL, L., a French composer, died about 1760. 
 NIELD, James, a goldsmith of London, who 
 evoted himself, on retiring from business, to the 
 jisitation and improvement of prisons, and pro- 
 moted the Society for the Relief of Prisoners Con- 
 Ined for Small Debts, 1744-1814. 
 XIEMEYER, A. H., a German wr., 1754-1828. 
 NIENEMBERG, John Eusebius De, a learned 
 ianish Jesuit, distinguished as a writer and na- 
 u-alist, 1590-1658. 
 
 NIEPPERG, Count, an Austrian general, 
 ho was a principal agent in the coalition against 
 uonaparte, and afterwards lived with the em- 
 ress Maria Louisa. 1771-1828. 
 NIETO, David, a Venetian rabbi, 1654-1728. 
 NIEUHOFF, John De, an agent of the Dutch 
 last India Company, who wrote interesting nar- 
 I fives of his embassies to China, &c, 17th cent. 
 NIEULANT. A., a Dutch painter, died 1601. 
 NIEULANT, W., a Dutch painter, 1584-1635. 
 NIEUPOORT, W. H., a learned Dutch philo- 
 tfst, professor at Utrecht, about 1670-1730. 
 NIEUPORT, Charles Fred. Ant. Florent. 
 e Prud'homme D'Hailly, Viscount De, a Fr. 
 ;<lomatist and mathematical savant, 1746-1827. 
 NIEUWELANDT, William, Van Den, a 
 Jtch dramatic author and painter, 1584-1635. 
 NIEUWENTYT, Bernard, a Dutch physician, 
 le. as a philosopher and mathemat., 1654-1730. 
 NIEUWLAND, Peter, a classical scholar, pro- 
 sor of mathematics and physics, 1764-1794. 
 NIFO, Algustin, an Ital. philosopher, d. 1538. 
 NIGHTINGALE, Joseph, successively a me- 
 odist and unitarian minister, author of ' Beau- 
 ts of England and Wales,' and some religious 
 !<rks, 1775-1824. 
 
 INIGIDIUS-FIGULUS, Publius, a learned 
 'man and Pythagorean philosopher, to whose 
 distance Cicero was much indebted in the defeat 
 Catiline's conspiracy. Being banished by Caesar 
 a partizan of Pompey, he died in exile B.C. 45. 
 NIHUSIUS, B., a Ger. controv. wr., 1584-1657. 
 SIMMO, A., a Scottish engineer, 1783-1832. 
 SITHARD, a grandson of Charlemagne, known 
 a French historian, 790-859. 
 STTSCH, P. F. A., a German savant, 1753-94. 
 sIVELLE, G. N., a Fr. theologian, died 1761. 
 sTVELLE, J. De, a Flemish lord, known as an 
 lerent of the duke of Burgundy, 15th century, 
 ng dispossessed by his father, his estates passed 
 iiis third brother, William, who was father 
 "the constable, Anne de Montmorency. See 
 '!rn, Montmorency. 
 \ I V 1 ; LLE CHAUSSEE. See Chaussee. 
 UVERNAIS, Louis Julius Baubon Mar- 
 1 i Mazakini, Due De, a French ambassador 
 * political writer, 1716-1798. 
 
 NOE 
 
 NIVERS, G., a Fr. musical writer, died 1707. 
 
 NTZAM-EL-MOLOUK, Koadjah Hassan, 
 vizier to the Persian sultan, Alp Arslan, a great 
 statesman, historian, andpatr. of learning, 1017-92. 
 
 NIZAM-EL-MOLOUK, or AL-MOULK, vice- 
 roy of the Deccan under Mohammed Shah, the Mo- 
 gul emperor, to whose dethronement, by Nadir 
 Shah, he was an active party; died 1748. 
 
 NIZAMI, a Persian poet, died 1180. 
 
 NIZZOLI, M., a Italian scholar, 1498-1575. 
 
 NOAILLES, a noble French family, many mem- 
 bers of which are distinguished in history. The 
 principal are Anthony, admiral of France under 
 Henry II., 1504-1562. Francis, brother of An- 
 thony, ambassador to Venice, Constantinople, and 
 London, 1519-1585. Louis Anthony, second 
 son of Anne, first duke of Noailles, cardinal and 
 archbishop of Paris, noted for his vacillation in 
 the religious quarrels of the age, first against the 
 Jansenists, and afterwards against the Bull Uni- 
 genitus, 1651-1729. Anne Julius, brother of 
 the latter, a marshal of France, 1650-1708. Ad- 
 rian Maurice, son of Anne Julius, duke and 
 marshal, distinguished in the Spanish war of suc- 
 cession, afterwards commander in the wars of 
 1733-5 and 1743, when he lost the battle of Det- 
 tingen. He was subsequently known as a states- 
 man, and is the author of Political and Military 
 Memoirs, 1678-1766. Louis, eldest son of the 
 latter, duke and marshal, perished on the scaffold, 
 1713-1793. Philip, his second son, known as 
 the marshal and duke de Mouchy, perished on the 
 scaffold, 1715-1794. Jean Paul Francis, eldest 
 son of Louis just mentioned, 1739-1824. Emma- 
 nuel Marie Louis, marquis de Noailles, brother 
 of the latter, 1743-1822. Philip Louis Mark 
 Antony, prince de Poix, eldest son of Philip, 
 the before-mentioned marshal de Mouchy, com- 
 mander of a regiment of dragoons that had been 
 raised by his grandfather in the war of succession, 
 and a partizan of the Bourbons, 1752-1819. 
 Charles, his son and successor in the command 
 and the dukedom, 1771-1834. Louis Mark An- 
 tony, viscount de Noailles, second son of the 
 marshal de Mouchy, and uncle of the last men- 
 tioned, born 1753. He was one of the first among 
 the noblesse to join the commons in the estates- 
 general 1789, and was killed at the Havannah 
 1804. Alexis, count de Noailles, son of the pre- 
 ceding, a diplomatist of the restoration, 1783-1835. 
 Alfred, brother of - the latter, bom 1786, killed 
 in the retreat from Russia 1812. 
 
 NOBILI, R., a Roman Jesuit, 1606-1656. 
 
 NOBLE, Mark, a clergyman of the Church of 
 England, author of historical and biographical 
 writings, died 1827. 
 
 NOBLE, Samuel, a learned minister of one of 
 the congregations formed by the receivers of the 
 writings of Swedenborg, author of an ' Appeal ' on 
 behalf of those doctrines, and of ' The Plenary In- 
 spiration of the Scriptures,' designed to enforce and 
 illustrate the internal sense of the Word ; d. 1853. 
 
 NOCETI, C, an Ital. savant, about 1695-1759. 
 
 NOEHDEN, George Henry, a learned Ger- 
 man, successively librarian and superintendent of 
 the numismatic dep. in the Br. Museum, 1770-1826. 
 
 NOEL, F., a Germ. Jesuit, known as a Chinese 
 scholar and missionary, born about 1640, d. 1715. 
 
 NOEL, F. J., a French scholar who fulfilled 
 
 539 
 
NOE 
 
 many administrative and diplomatic functions, and 
 wrote many useful works of research, the principal 
 of which is his 'Dictionnairede la Fable,' 1755-1841. 
 
 NOEL, P., a Flemish painter, died 1823. 
 
 NOETUS, an Asiatic theologian, supposed to 
 have flourished about the middle of the 3d cen- 
 tury. The Noetian Creed, attributed to him, is an 
 endeavour to state the doctrine of Christ's divinity, 
 without supposing a trinity of separate persons. 
 
 NOGAROLA, Isotta, a lady of Verona, re- 
 markable for her beauty, her learning, and her 
 talents for poetry, 1428-1466. A brother of hers, 
 named Leonardo, is also kn. as a theological wr. 
 
 NOGAROLA, L., an Italian savant, 16th cent, 
 
 NOGAROLA, T., an Ital. theologian, 18th cent. 
 
 NOIROT, Claude, a Fr. writer on the origin 
 of Masks, Mummings, &c, bom 1570, publ. 1609. 
 
 NOLAN, M., an Irish lawyer, died 1827. 
 
 NOLDIUS, Christian, a learned Danish min- 
 ister and professor of divinity, 1626-1683. 
 
 NOLLE KENS, Joseph Francis, an English 
 painter, son of a Fleming, long resident in this 
 country, 1706-1748. His son, Joseph, a cele. 
 sculptor, and favourite of George III., 1737-1823. 
 
 NOLLET, D., a Flemish painter, 1640-1736. 
 
 NOLLET, J. A., a Fr. natural philos., 1700-70. 
 
 NOMSZ, Jan, a Dutch poet, 1738-1803. 
 
 NONIUS, Maroellus, a philosopher, 4th cent. 
 
 NONIUS, or NONNIUS, the Latinized name 
 of Pedro Nunez, a Portug. mathemat., 1492-1577. 
 
 NONIUS, NONNIUS, or NUNNEZ, Lewis, a 
 Spanish physician and philologist, b. about 1560. 
 
 NOODT, Gerard, a Dutch jurist, 1647-1725. 
 
 NORBERG, or NORDBERG, Dr. George, a 
 Swedish historian, chaplain and biographer of 
 Charles XII., 1677-1744. 
 
 NORBERG, Matthias, a Swedish Orientalist, 
 prof, of Greek and theology at Upsala, 1747-1826. 
 
 NORBY, S., a Danish admiral, killed 1530. 
 
 NORDEN, Fred. Louis, a Danish traveller, 
 author of ' Memoirs upon the Ruins and Colossal 
 Statues of Thebes,' and of ' Travels in Egypt and 
 Nubia,' both illustrated, 1708-1742. 
 
 NORDEN, John, a scholar and surveyor of the 
 crown lands, author of several religious quaint 
 works, died about 1625. 
 
 NORDENANKER, J. De, a Swedish naval 
 commander, author of several memoirs, last cent. 
 
 NORDEN-FLEICHT, Hedwige Charlotte 
 De, a lady of Stockholm, known in Sweden as a 
 poetess, 1719-1763. 
 
 NORDENHEIM, J. Christopher, a Swedish 
 physician, and wr. on Hereditary Diseases, d. 1719. 
 
 NORDENSCHOLD, a Swedish governor of Fin- 
 land, disting. as a political economist, died 1764. 
 
 NORDENSKJOLD, Augustus, a Swedish tra- 
 veller, and one of several followers of Swedenborg 
 who interested themselves in African enterprise, 
 close of last centuiy. 
 
 NORDIN, Charles Gustavus, a Swedish 
 savant and statesman, author of ' Materials for 
 Swedish History,' 1749-1812. 
 
 NORFOLK, Roger Bigod, earl of, one of the 
 barons who compelled Henry III. to confirm Magna 
 Charta, died 1270. His nephew, of the same 
 names, distinguished in the reign of Edward I., 
 about 1301. See Howard. 
 
 NORGATE, Edward, an Eng. artist, 17th cen. 
 
 NOBIS, Henry, a learned Italian cardinal of 
 
 NOR 
 Irish descent, author of a ' History of ! 
 ism,' and chief librarian of the Vatican, 1 1 
 
 NORIS, M., a Venetian dramatist, 1640-1710 
 
 NORMAND, Cl. J., a Fr. antiquary, 1704-6'! 
 
 NORMANN-EHRENFELS, Chas.'Fkkd. L 
 BRECHT, Count De, a Ger. officer, who organized .' 
 armed band at Corinth, and was mortally wound I 
 in the cause of Greek independence, 1784-1822. 
 
 NORRIS, John, founder of a professorship aij 
 prize essay at Cambridge university, 1731-1777. 
 
 NORRIS, John, second son of Henry, first Lo ; 
 Norris, distinguished in the military service 
 France during the civil wars of that country. lj 
 went to Ireland with the earl of Essex, and aftc 
 wards served in Flanders under the archduke \ 
 Austria, the duke of Lorraine, and William ; 
 Nassau. In 1585 he was commander of the Engli 
 troops sent to the aid of Antwerp. In 1588 he w 
 intrusted with the power of the crown in Irela: 
 by Queen Elizabeth, and in 1591 commanded t 
 troops sent in aid of Henry of Navarre against t 
 leaguers. He returned to his Irish government 
 1594, and died a few years after. [E.li 
 
 NORRIS, John, whose name ranks among t 
 principal of our philosophical divines, was born 
 Collingbourne Kingston, in Wiltshire, of whi 
 place his father was rector, 1657. He took 1 
 bachelor's degree at Oxford in 1680, and was a 
 mitted M.A. 1684. In 1689 he became rector 
 Newton Sodoc in Somersetshire ; in 1091 w 
 promoted to the richer living of Bemerton ne 
 Salisbury; and died there in 1711 after a life 
 hard study, which probably hastened his enj 
 Norris, at college, was an ardent student d 
 admirer of Plato, and when, a few years afterwan 
 the tendency of Locke's philosophy to one extm 
 of belief, provoked a controversy which travell 
 the length and breadth of Europe, he was fou; 
 with the opposite party followers of Cartesi 
 and Malebranche. He published his principal wo 
 in 1701, entitled 'An Essay towards a Theory 
 the Ideal orlntellectual World,' written, professed; 
 in support of Malebranche the theory that 
 perceive all things in God, whose thoughts, to n 
 such a term, are our ideal forms. Norris, in sho; 
 was an idealist, to the extent of declaring that aft 
 all that had been argued from the time of Descart 
 to his own, the existence of external objects 
 sensation is only probable but by no means certat 
 His other works, which rank in the Platonic cla 
 of divinity with those of Henry More, his contcr 
 
 forary and correspondent, are ' The Picture of Lo 
 Jnveiled,' translated from Waryng, 'An Ideal 
 Happiness,' 'Theory and Regulation of Loy 
 ' Reason and Religion,' ' The Natural Immortali 
 of the Soul,' together with poems and < 
 on a variety of subjects. 
 
 NORRIS, Sir John, a naval officer, (list, in tl 
 Mediterranean under SirCloudeslevSJn^' 
 
 NORRIS, Robert, a native" of I 
 famous for his sojourn of eighteen years on tl 
 coast of Guinea. He wrote ' Memoirs of 1 1 
 of Bossa Ahadee, king of Dahomey, an inlai 
 country of Guinea, to which is added the authoi 
 journey to Abomey the capital,' published in Loi 
 don, 1789. 
 
 NORRIS, S., a theological writer, died 1G3 
 
 NORRMAN, L., a Swed. Orient 
 
 NORRY, C, a French architect, author 
 
 510 
 
NOR 
 
 NOV 
 
 Jemoir of the Expedition to Egypt, -which he painter and writer on art, was born at Plymouth, 
 ccompanied, 1756-1832. j where his father was a coachmaker, 1746. His 
 
 NORTH, the name of a distinguished family, of j best works are 'Hubert and Arthur,' and 'The 
 horn we may mention Sir Edward, an emi- Murder of the Two Princes in the Tower.' He 
 nt lawyer, created Baron North, of Catlidge, in is author of Fables illustrated with his own de- 
 ambridgeshire, by Queen Mary. Dudley, Lord signs, of 'Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds,' and 
 orth, his great grandson, born 1581, distinguished ' a Life of Titian.' Died 1831. 
 
 a partizan of the parliament, and appointed by 
 em to the admiralty, died 1666. Dudley, son and 
 iccessor of the latter, distinguished in parliament, 
 id author of the ' Life of Edward, Lord North,' 
 3 assages Relating to the Long Parliament,' 
 jght in the Way to Paradise,' &c, died 1677. 
 >ur sons of the last named Francis, Baron 
 lildford, lord-keeper of the great seal in the reigns 
 Charles II. and James if., author of Political 
 says and Narratives, and a Philosophical Essay 
 Music, about 1640-1685. Sir Dudley, a great 
 rkey merchant, author of ' Observations on the 
 knners, Customs, and Jurisprudence of the 
 rks,' died 1691. John, bom 1645, elected pro- 
 sor of Greek at Cambridge 1672, and created 
 D. the following year on the visit of Charles II., 
 jd 1683. Roger, attorney-general to James II., 
 bwn as an historical critic and miscellaneous 
 Iter, died 1733. To the same family belongs the 
 ilject of the following article. 
 KORTH, Frederick, earl of Guildford, gener- 
 il' called Lord North, belongs to English 
 Itory as chief of the administration during the 
 jlerican war of independence. He was appointed 
 (pmissioner of the Treasury 1759 ; and resigned 
 m his leader in July, 1765, when he joined the 
 opsition to the Rockingham ministry. He came 
 id office again with the Grafton ministry, 1766 ; 
 ii 767 became chancellor of the exchequer; and 
 ii 770 succeeded the duke of Grafton as minister, 
 w q he brought in a bill for the repeal of all the 
 (1 es lately imposed upon the American colonists, 
 n the exception of that upon tea, and this ex- 
 ct ion, in 1773, led to disturbances, which in 1775 
 i actual hostilities, and to the declara- 
 k'pendeiice, 4th July, 1776. The struggle 
 la d during the whole of Lord North's adminis- 
 ti on, but was virtually ended by the surren- 
 A f Lord Cornwallis, at York Town, 19th Oct., 
 L . Lord North resigned on the 20th of March, 
 L . He became earl of Guildford by the death 
 Hither in 1790, and died 1792, after being 
 tilted several years with blindness ; 1732-1792. 
 RTH, G., an Engl, numismatist, 1710-1772. 
 JRTHAMPTON, Earl of. See Howard. 
 HAMPTON, Spencer Josh. Alwyne 
 C'troN, marquis of, well known for his love of 
 and literature, was born 1790, and suc- 
 <*ld to the title of his father in 1828. He was 
 kuln in the House of Lords as an advocate of 
 measures; but the arena in which he 
 t inguished himself was that already in- 
 Iroin 1838 till 1849 he held the presi- 
 of the Royal Society, and during this period 
 'on was the scene of frequent and 
 reunions of the most distinguished men 
 by, art, and literature. The marquis 
 pton was also one of the presidents of 
 Association, and he filled the same 
 the Royal Society of Literature at the 
 ' death, 1851. 
 COTE, James, an eminent historical 
 
 NORTON, Lady F., a religious wr., died 1720. 
 
 NORTON, John, a wr. on orthography, 17th c. 
 
 NORTON, Thomas, a barrister-at-law, known 
 as a zealous Calvinist, and translator of the fam- 
 ous ' Institutes.' He assisted Sternhold and Hop- 
 kins in a metrical version of the Psalms, and is 
 supposed to have died about 1584. 
 
 NORWOOD, Richard, an English geometer, 
 one of the first to measure a degree of the meri- 
 dian, 1635. 
 
 NORZI, Solomon, an Italian rabbin, 17th cen. 
 
 NOSTRADAMUS, Michael, a physician of 
 Provence, known as an astrologer in the time of 
 Catherine de Medici. He composed ' Seven Cen- 
 turies of Prophecies' in enigmatical rhymes, some 
 of which are admitted to have been most exactly 
 fulfilled; among others his prophecy, a hundred 
 years before its occurrence, of the execution of 
 Charles I., and still more surprising, of the exact 
 date of the French Republic, 1792. He died in 
 1566. His brother, John, known as an historical 
 writer, died 1590. Bis son, Cesar, a poet and 
 historian, flourished 1555-1629. Michael, another 
 son, known as an astrologer and prophet like his 
 father, died 1574. 
 
 NOTARAS, C, apatriarch of Jerusalem, d. 1733. 
 
 NOTT, John, a surgeon in the employ of the 
 East India Company, dist. as an Oriental scholar 
 and poetical and miscellaneous writer, 1751-1826. 
 
 NOTT, Major-Gen eral Sir William, an 
 officer in the East Indian service, greatly distin- 
 guished in the late Aftghan war, born at Caermar- 
 then 1782, died 1845. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM. See Finch, Howard. 
 
 NOUE. See Lanoue. 
 
 NOUET, James, a French ascetic, 1605-1680. 
 
 NOUET, N. A., a French astronomer, d. 1811. 
 
 NOUGURET, P. J. B., aFr. novelist, 1742-1823. 
 
 NOULLEAU, J. B., a Fr. theolog., 1604-1672. 
 
 NOUR-DJIHAN, wife of the Mogul emperor, 
 Djihan-Guir, famous for the happy influence which 
 she exercised over him, and said to be the disco- 
 verer of the essence of roses, reigned 1611-1645. 
 
 NOUR-ED-DEEN-ALI, suit, of Egypt,1257-59, 
 
 NOUR-ED-DEEN-MAHMOUD, Melek-el- 
 adel, commonly called Nouradin, or Nour-ed- 
 deen, a celebrated Moslem ruler of Syria and 
 Egypt, born 1117, succeeded his father in Syria 
 1145, commenced the conquest of Egypt after the 
 death of Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, 1162, 
 died when he was preparing to march against his 
 ambitious lieutenant, Saladin, 1174. 
 
 NOUWAYRI, Shehab-ed-deen Ahmed, an 
 Arabian historian and encyclopaedist, 1283-1331. 
 
 NOVA, J. Da, a Spanish navigator, 16th cent. 
 
 NOVALIS, the literary cognomen of Fred- 
 erick Von Hardenberg, a German literateur 
 and poet, born at Mansfield near Eisleben, 1772, 
 died 1801. His works were published by Tieck 
 and Schlegel in 1814 the principal of them being 
 lyrical poems and the philosophical romance 
 1 Heinrich Von Ofterdiugen.' 
 
 641 
 
NOV 
 
 NOVATUS, a presbyter of the church of Car- 
 thage in the time of Cyprian, who procured his 
 excommunication for heresy, and gave him occa- 
 sion to form a new church. After this, in 251, 
 Novatus went to Rome and became a partizan of 
 his namesake, the subject of the following article. 
 
 NOVATUS, NOVATIAN, or NOVATIAN US, 
 supposed to be a native of Phrygia, and to have i Aper, who was stabbed witbout trial by Di 
 
 NUMITOR, said to be the son of Pj 
 
 NYS 
 
 by order of the senate, when accidentally discover! 
 four hundred years after bis time. 
 
 NUMENIUS, a Christian Platonist, 2d centm- 
 NUMERIANUS, Marcus An;i:i.n 
 of Rome, succeeded his father, Cams, 2fc 
 and is supposed to have been murdere 
 months afterwards by his father-in-law, Arri 
 
 been educated as a Stoic philosopher, was a pres- 
 byter of the Roman Church, distinguished for his 
 learning and eloquence. He is called the first anti- 
 pope, from being chosen bishop of Rome by a min- 
 ority of the clergy at the same time as Cornelius, 
 whose election was confirmed by a council in 251. 
 The party of Novatian was distinguished by their 
 refusal to re-admit apostates to the communion of 
 the church. This, with some other points of dis- 
 cipline, gained for them the appellation of Cathari, 
 or Puritans. The time of his death is uncertain. 
 NOVERRE, J. G., a Fr. ballet comp., 1727-1810. 
 NOVIKOFF, N. I., a Russian au., 1744-1818. 
 NOWELL, Alexander, a dignitary of the 
 Church of England, and the last surviving father 
 of the reformation in this country, was born at 
 Whalley, in Lancashire, 1507 or 1508. He was 
 first employed as second master of Westminster 
 school, and, in 1551, became one of the preben- 
 daries of Westminster. He was among the exiles 
 at Strasburg in the reign of Queen Mary, and, 
 returning on the accession of Elizabeth, he became 
 dean of St. Paul's in 1560. He is the author of 
 the Church of England Catechism, and the founder 
 of a free grammar school in his native county, 
 and of thirteen Oxford scholarships. Died 1602. 
 
 NOWELL, Laurence, younger brother of the 
 preceding, became dean of Lichfield, and is known 
 as the author of a Saxon Dictionary, now in the 
 Bodleian library ; died 1576. 
 
 NOY, William, attorney-general in the reign 
 of Charles I., and author oi the ill-advised project 
 for raising supplies without the consent of parlia- 
 ment, 1577-1634. 
 
 NUCK, A., a German anatomist, 1660-1692. 
 NUGENT, George Grenville, Lord, known 
 when a young man as Lord George Grenville, was 
 the second son of the marquis of Buckingham, and 
 brother of the late duke. He was born in 1789, and 
 sat in tour parliaments, as member for Aylesbury, 
 previous to the passing of the reform bill. In 1830 
 he became connected with the Whigs in the govern- 
 ment ; and from 1832 to 1835 was lord high com- 
 missioner of the Ionian Islands. He had no seat 
 in the house from this period till 1847, when he 
 appeared for his old constituency. Died 1850. 
 Lord Nugent wrote ' Memorials ot Hampden and 
 his Times,' and ' Lands, Classical and Sacred.' 
 His name was generally a popular one. 
 
 NUGENT, Robert Craggs, Earl, a descen- 
 dant of the Nugeuts of Westmeath, known as a 
 poet, died 1788. 
 
 NUGENT, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer and 
 translator, au. of a French Dictionary, died 1772. 
 NUMA POMPILIUS, said to be the successor 
 of Romulus as king of Rome, and distinguished as 
 a philosopher and legislator, was of Sabine origin, 
 and died after a reign of forty-three years, B.C. 
 672. ^ He was the founder of the most important 
 religious institutions of the Romans, and left writ- 
 ings explanatory of his system, which were burnt 
 
 of Alba, and grandfather of Romulus. 
 _ NUNEZ, or NUNNEZ, the name of several c 
 tinguished Portuguese and Spaniards Aiqfl 
 a physician and professor at Salamanca, died 16 
 Ferdinand, a learned philologist and class 
 editor, about 1473-1553. Juan and Pedro, ( 
 tinguished painters ; the former in the 16th o 
 tury, the latter about 1614-1654. Matthi 
 Nunez de Supe/veda, fresco painter to Philip ] 
 in 1640, and Nunez de Villavicencio, a pupil 
 Murillo, 1635-1700. 
 
 NUNEZ DE BALBOA, a Spaniard, goven 
 of the small colony of Darien, guided 1 
 of the Indians, that a great sea existed a fe^B 
 journey to the south, undertook a most diffic 
 and hazardous journey across the marshy tract! 
 the isthmus in September, 1513, in th* I^H 
 discovering the ocean so long the object to Coin 
 bus of a fruitless search. Nearing at length 
 watershed, his impatience became uncontrollal 
 and he ran forward in advance of his men to 
 eminence in sight. Having reached this, t 
 mounted into a tree, his delighted eve fl^H 
 the vast expanse of the boundless Pacific. 
 now hurried forward, and plunging into the wa\ 
 claimed the sovereignty of the ' Great South Si 
 for the crown of Spain. From the natives of 1 
 coast he received the most wonderful accounts 
 the power and wealth of the nations occupying 1 
 lands to the far south, which they affirmed tohi 
 no end. Thirteen years after, the former statemi 
 was fully confirmed by Pizarro ; six years af 
 Magellan disproved the latter. Messengers 
 immediately sent to Spain with the import, 
 tidings; but instead of a reward, or import: 
 appointment arriving for De Balboa, he was i: 
 short time superseded in his government by Dav 
 a mean, envious, and cruel man, who, four ye 
 after, on some trifling accusation, had the hei 
 discoverer of the Pacific put publicly to an igi 
 minious death. 
 NUNNING, J. H., a Ger. antiquary, 1675-17 
 NUVOLONE, the name of three painters 
 Lombardy Pamfilo, the father, born about 16" 
 died 1651. Carlo Francesco, his eldest s 
 sumamed the Guido of Lombardy, 1608-18 
 Guisei-pe, younger brother of the latter, callet 
 Pamfilo, a great painter of altar-pieces, 1619-17 
 NUZZI, Mario, an Italian painter, 1' 
 NYE, Philip, a minister of the Chun ', 
 land, who became a nonconformist, and 
 have been a time-server and demagogue, 1 ' 
 NYERUP, Erasmus, a Danish hisl 
 NYMANN, G., a Germ, anatomist, 1594-t* 
 m NYSTEN, Pierre Hubert, a Frew* } 
 sician, distinguished for his researches in eleel 
 physiology, author of a Dictionary 
 Pathological Chemistry, and Experiments upon 
 Muscular Organs of IVIan, and of the Red-lloo 
 Animals, 1771-1818. 
 
 542 
 
OAT 
 
 {DATES, Titus, well known to English history 
 
 ;a political intriguer in the reign of Charles II., 
 
 l the son of an anabaptist preacher, and was 
 
 in about 1619. He was educated for the Church 
 
 England, and became chaplain in one of the 
 
 g's ships, but was dismissed in disgrace, and 
 
 ed the Jesuits. In September, 1678, having 
 
 >ined the Church of England, he made a dis- 
 
 ure of a pretended popish plot, which caused 
 
 execution and imprisonment of many eminent 
 
 ; and for which he received a handsome pen- 
 
 and a residence at Whitehall, till the end of 
 
 irles II.'s reign. On the accession of James, 
 
 *as convicted of perjury and publicly whipped, 
 
 recovered his liberty, and was pensioned again 
 
 William III. Died 1705. 
 
 BEID-ALLAK, a famous Arabian commander, 
 
 ssively governor of Khorassan, Basrah, and 
 
 fah ; killed 685. 
 
 BEID-ALLAH, Abu Mohummed, the first 
 
 >h of the Fatimite dynasty, reigned 910-933. 
 
 BEiRNE, Thomas Lewis, an Irish prelate 
 
 ra as a political and miscell. wr., 1748-1823. 
 
 BEREIT, J. H., a Swiss alchymist, 1725-98, 
 
 BERKAMP, F. J., a Ger. physician, 1710-176* 
 
 F. Philip, prof, of anatomy, died 1793. 
 
 ERKAMPF, C. Philip, the originator of 
 
 ch manufac. of printed cotton, 1738-1815. 
 
 RLIN, John Frederic, pastor of Wald- 
 
 was born at Strasburg, on 1st August, 1740. 
 
 father .held office in the Gymnasium of that 
 
 and being a man of great vivacity, as well 
 
 " "uous devotedness to his duties, was in the 
 
 of taking his children on holidays to a small 
 
 nial farm he possessed a few miles out of 
 
 There entering into all the feelings and 
 
 of boyhood, he joined in every active and 
 
 y amusement, and especially, as playing ' at 
 
 " was a favourite pastime, the father in- 
 
 y acted the part or drummer and major. 
 
 her, a woman of great talents, energy, 
 
 imbued her family not only with her 
 
 spirit and sound principles of religion, but 
 
 her own passionate fondness for sacred 
 
 and never did the children separate at night 
 
 her leading the juvenile circle in chanting 
 
 Luther's beautiful hymns. Dr. Lorentz, 
 
 heal minister of high popular gifts, was 
 
 ourite preacher, and as young Frederic fre- 
 
 accompanied her to the Lutheran chapel, 
 
 manner, as well as strains of the Doc- 
 
 hing made such an impression on the 
 
 and pious heart of the bov, that he 
 
 shed the desire of devoting his future 
 
 e service of God and the good of his fel- 
 
 . Having completed his studies, and acted 
 
 s as tutor in the family of an eminent sur- 
 
 >?in Strasburg, Oberlin entered on the duties of 
 
 ouUcred profession, by engaging to act in the 
 
 'lBty of chaplain to a French regiment which 
 
 * uartered in the city. During the four years 
 
 "* led that situation he prosecuted his private 
 
 ')* with great ardour, and at the expiry of 
 
 
 
 OBE 
 
 mountainous district in Alsace. It was an exten- 
 sive valley lying in a state of wild uncultivated na- 
 ture, divided into two parishes, of which the Wald- 
 bach was one, and comprising from eighty to a hun- 
 dred families. These people, whose sequestered 
 condition had hitherto placed them almost beyond 
 
 [View ot tue Ban de la Roche.] 
 
 the pale of civilization, were in a state of rude 
 simplicity or rather barbarism, indolent and fil- 
 thy because almost entire strangers to all the 
 useful arts of lite ; and their state as to religion 
 may be imagined from the fact, that they knew 
 nothing of the Bible, except that it was a large 
 book, said to have come from God. The idea of 
 undertaking the pastoral duties of such a wild and 
 neglected people, was a prospect from which most 
 persons would have shrunk. But Oberlin was 
 known to possess the self- denying spirit, the en- 
 ergetic fortitude, and the enterprising genius suited 
 to the exigencies of the place; and accordingly 
 being urged by those who were interested in the 
 regeneration of that people, he at length accepted 
 the onerous charge. Oberlin was precisely of the 
 cast of mind adapted for the Waldbach. A person 
 of literary attainments or studious habits would 
 have been perfectly useless in such a parish. The 
 
 Eastor who aimed at doing any good required 
 odily activity far more than study, and was under 
 a necessity of combining physical and social with 
 spiritual improvement. Wedded to habits of here- 
 ditary indolence, the people made open resistance 
 to Oberlin's first attempts at innovation; and 
 although his experimental measures were of an ob- 
 viously useful and practical character, they excused 
 themselves in the usual spirit of the sluggard, on the 
 plea that what had done for their fathers might 
 well satisfy them. The resolute minister, no way 
 discouraged, proceeded to the execution of his pro- 
 jected schemes; and the first attempt he made 
 was to form roads. Throughout the whole parish 
 there was nothing but foot tracks, which were im- 
 passable during the greater part of the year, and 
 the Bruche, a stream that bounded it in the direc- 
 , he resigned the office on obtaining a j tion of Strasburg was crossed only by a series of 
 the Ban de la Roche, or Steinthal, a , stepping-stones, which, when the nvcr was swollen 
 
 543 
 
OBE 
 
 OCC 
 
 by the winter rains, were submerged, so that for I who had entered with intelligent and 
 nearly nine months the inhabitants were com- j activity into all his undertakings, her plr 
 
 ':.] 
 
 pletely secluded from all intercourse with the 
 world. Oberlin proposed to throw a wooden 
 bridge over this stream, and by excavating the 
 mounds or blasting the rocks, construct a road to 
 the city. Having assembled his parishioners in a 
 field, be explained his design, and finishing his ad- 
 dress with the words " Whoever is persuaded of the 
 benefits of the bridge, let them follow me," he 
 shouldered a pick-axe, and accompanied by his 
 servant, commenced the work of excavation. The 
 effect of his words and his example was electric. 
 "When the first surprise was over, all classes old 
 and young, otfered their assistance, and from morn- 
 ing to night continued to labour for six months at 
 their pastor's side with unabated assiduity till the 
 bridge was erected. When opened, it received the 
 name of Lepont de charite. The obvious advan- 
 tages of this bridge disposed the parishioners to 
 listen the more readily to other undertakings which 
 their public-spirited pastor contemplated for their 
 benefit. He opened roads to the neighbouring 
 towns introduced the use of agricultural imple- 
 ments sent the more promising boys, some to the 
 nearest counties to learn farming, and others to Stras- 
 burg to be taught the knowledge of different trades 
 erected neat cottages instead of the wretched 
 cabins of turf in which the inhabitants dwelt intro- 
 duced the culture of the potato instead of the wild 
 apples and pears which had hitherto formed their 
 staple subsistence showed them the use of many 
 common plants for food and physic instructed 
 them in every useful art that tended to the comfort 
 and advancement of social life, and made so many 
 improvements in the villages, houses, fields, and 
 gardens of the Steinthal, that the parish which 
 at his entrance was a neglected waste, a dreary 
 desert, began to blossom as the rose. These im- 
 provements on the domestic, social, and agricultural 
 economy of the Steinthal were only preparatory to 
 other and higher reformations he contemplated on 
 the moral state and religious character of the in- 
 habitants. The confidence he had gained by his 
 benevolent exertions for their temporal good he 
 employed for promoting their spiritual welfare by 
 establishing weekly prayer-meetings, introducing 
 infant schools, as well as seminaries of a higher 
 character, in which, besides the common branches 
 of education, astronomy, agriculture, and various 
 mechanical arts, such as plaiting straw, knitting, 
 cotton-spinning by the hand, and the manufac- 
 ture of silk ribbons were taught by masters and 
 mistresses properly qualified for the office. He 
 himself superintended the religious instruction of 
 the children, teaching them not only to read and 
 understand the history and principles of the Bible, 
 but instructing them in a knowledge of sacred 
 music by chanting the hymns sung in the church, 
 and also of several branches of natural history, 
 with a view of illustrating the perfections of God. 
 By means of a printing press he had in his own 
 house, he prepared religious tracts for distribution, 
 and established itinerant libraries which, after 
 being devoted to one village for three months, were 
 then removed for the use of another. The expense 
 of all these various schemes he was enabled to meet 
 by the liberality of some Christian friends in Stras- 
 burg. Oberlin having been deprived of his wife, 
 
 care of his house as well as in the domes 
 of the parish was supplied by a pious ai 
 young woman, Louisa Schelper, who had long I 
 resident in his family. There was need of so ea 
 mical and prudent a manager; for during the 
 orders consequent on the great French revolut 
 Oberlin no longer enjoyed his scanty stipend, 
 his maintenance was derived wholly from the i 
 tributions of his parishioners. During the rn 
 terror, however, when all worship elsewhere 
 proscribed, he was allowed to minister to his fl 
 an immunity for which he was indebted part 
 the poor and isolated position of his parish, ! 
 partly to the excellence of his own character, j 
 at once the result and the evidence of the { 
 improvements he had made, the populal 
 Steinthal during his incumbency rose from iH 
 or a hundred, to three thousand. Oberlin fl 
 simple, earnest, evangelical preacher, and one c 
 acteristic of his discourses was the numerous t\ 
 dotes he introduced of persons eminent for p 
 known to him by reading or intercourse. The p 
 lation of his parish being of a mixed charactel 
 preached on Sabbaths in French, and on F: 
 evenings in German. Other meetings he hell 
 reading to the people, and as he studied all 
 to improve every moment of time, he causecl 
 women to knit stockings; and when he had] 
 or spoken long, he used to scop and say, 
 are you tired yet?' or, 'you have had enough I 
 night.' He was decorated by Louis XVIILj 
 the legion of honour. Oberlin died in 1826, | 
 age of eighty- six, having earned the ch 
 being one of the most useful men that hav 
 peared in any country in modern times. 
 
 OBERLIN, Jeremiah James, elder br^ 
 the preceding, distinguished as an antiquaria 
 philological writer, b. at Strasburg 1735, d. ' 
 OBICINI-OBIZZING, Thomas, a catho" 
 sionary, afterwards professor of Oriental 1 
 died 1636. 
 
 OBRECHT, Uletc, a Fr. juriscon., 1646-1 
 OBSEQUENS, Julius, a Latin wr., " 
 OBSOPGEUS. See Opsop;gus. 
 OCAMPO, F. D., a Span, historian, 16th I 
 OCARIZ, or OCARITZ, Don Joseph, P 
 lier D', a Spanish diplomatist, who held tl 
 of charge ct affaires at Paris in 1792, and d ] 
 guished himself by endeavouring to save 
 XVL, born about 1750, died 1805. 
 
 OCCAM, or OCKHAM. William of:; 
 at Ockham in the county of Surrey about f 
 of the thirteenth century; taught with 
 success in Paris, in the early part of the ion 
 a Franciscan, like his master, Duns Scotiuj 
 greatest of the later Schoolmen by title f 
 vincible Doctor;' the philosopher who gav 
 final blow to the fantastic Realism of the 
 ages, and perhaps the first effective blow 
 authority of the Pope ; the predecessor of ' 
 and Gerson, and, not remotely, the pr 
 of Luther. It cannot be expected th 
 work like this, any extensive appreciation 
 given of a subject so thorny and strange 
 Scholastic Philosophy ; nevertheless, oc 
 be taken of our mention of Occam, to wa 
 Student against hastily adopting those < 
 
 514 
 
occ 
 
 mmon views of its deserts, and its place in the 
 story of Thought. Difficult to peruse, as most of 
 e writings of these singular disputants unqes- 
 jnably are, and in great part from the apparent 
 irbarism of their language, it must not be over- 
 Dked that this difficulty and uncouthness he- 
 dged almost necessarily to the excessive subtlety 
 id sagacity with which they attacked the highest 
 oblenis that can engage the Human Intellect. 
 falls to every new metaphysical school, or rather 
 every great school in a new epoch, to invent in 
 far its own language : take for example the 
 itings of the Philosopher of Konigsberg, who, 
 angely enough, was long reputed obscure 
 1 even unintelligible, because of the very pains 
 took to render his expression of profoundest 
 ought, about the clearest and most precise, of 
 ich any language contains a record : nor is the 
 lark of Mr. Hallam to be doubted, that as 
 rds are meant to express precise ideas, ' it was 
 mpossible,' in the times of which we speak, 'to 
 te metaphysics in good Latin, as modern na- 
 ilists have found it to describe plants and ani- 
 s.' Besides the strangeness of terminology 
 we must keep in mind that every age has a 
 tion peculiar to itself, around which, as a centre, 
 battle of Thought is contested; and it is 
 by taking account of this specialty, and 
 rating from it the tactics and efforts of the 
 ending Parties, that one can come to recognize 
 dentity in all ages, of these Parties and Tactics 
 at one can discern in the East, in Greece 
 and late, in those Middle Ages, and in mo- 
 Europe, the representatives and movements 
 orces, whose antagonism is perpetual, and 
 whose conflicts we live. The form in which 
 Schoolmen placed the great question they 
 led, was mainly a grammatical one; but, 
 ieath that form, those precise problems were 
 3 which divided the followers of Aristotle 
 Xo, which sever Descartes and Hobbes, 
 and Kant. If sometimes subtle to a fault, 
 ute apparently to painful affectation an 
 into which the grammatical form of their 
 " ns inevitably led them Aquinas, Sco- 
 hn, Abelard, and Occam, were neither 
 nor sciolists, but brave divers into the 
 of human thought: men who struggled 
 1 with the difficulties, the doubts, and 
 the Soul : and, by their energy of purpose, 
 ce in speech, and the firmness of the grasp 
 hich they held the tendencies of their time, 
 'n emancipated the World. Let us note in 
 on, and in general and catholic terms, the 
 which engaged Occam. It is universally 
 that Schoolmen became finally divided 
 great sects Realists and Nominalists, 
 -.er, whose leaders were Aquinas and Duns 
 had a subdivision into Thomists and Sco- 
 latter including the Conceptualists 
 the great names of lioscelin, Abelard, 
 The following were the positions 
 by Occam. In those days as now, the first 
 ' dispute was the Theory of Perception, 
 we perceive ? How do Mind and Matter 
 Occiim maintains that we know only two 
 the existence of an object, and the exis- 
 menlal impression. The notion of 
 transmitted, he declares a pure fantasy. 
 
 645 
 
 OCC 
 
 Certain senses, he says, receive an image of ex- 
 ternal objects, (sight, for instance), but this recep- 
 tion accompanies the act of perceiving, and does 
 not constitute it. There are but two partial causes 
 of sensation the Subject which feels; and the 
 Object, that is perceived: further, we know 
 nothing and need not inquire. And so of objects 
 remembered: he rejects with equal decision the 
 theory then in vogue, that we perceive or image 
 what is past, through effect of Resemblances of 
 objects continuing, as essences or shadows in the 
 Mind : he says that Recollection is a power of the 
 mind, and that we cannot define it more minutely. 
 So also with regard to general terms or notions. 
 They result from the action of the Intellect, on 
 things perceived. Intelligible Species or Entities, 
 representing general ideas, he utterly repudiates. 
 The Mind, which has the faculty to perceive objects, 
 has also a power to abstract, to compare, to differ- 
 entiate, to combine. And so, it forms conceptions 
 corresponding to these operations, and expresses 
 their results. There was a prevalent belief or posi- 
 tion connected with this subject, in reference to 
 the Divine mind. His attributes of Justice, Good- 
 ness, Wisdom, &c, were imagined separate Enti- 
 ties, with which he held council, on proceeding 
 to act. No! said Occam, these are modes or 
 forms of the Supreme Reason ; they are At- 
 tributes, and not Entities. The Nominalism of 
 Occam as thus expressed, certainly does not reach 
 that of Hobbes and Locke ; nor indeed can we 
 easily distinguish it from views that would not be 
 termed Nominalist, in these our modern times. But 
 is it not easy to recognize, in the basis of such dis- 
 putations, the most important difficulties of Philo- 
 sophy those very problems that agitate ns still? 
 One thing at least is clear ; questions of such sort 
 regarding all things Human and Divine, clothed in 
 any garb even in the grammatical could not be 
 
 {>resented with the ardour of an Abelard, or the 
 ogic of Occam, without stirring men's souls to an 
 extent, so that no dogma of Popish Infallibility, 
 could lay the tumult again. Occam, as we, have 
 said, was therefore a legitimate progenitor of 
 Luther: but another point of most anxious interest 
 is inseparable from the subject we contemplate, 
 we mean the singular influence on the fates of the 
 World, of the genius of the French or Gallic race. 
 It may be taken now almost as an historic maxim, 
 that the Teuton originates Thought, France dif- 
 fuses it, and the Anglo-Saxon realizes it, and 
 gathers its good fruits. How strange in the 
 providence of God, that Paris, even under its 
 most absolute Monarchs, should have been the 
 source moral as well as material of mightiest 
 Revolutions ! Is it that the peculiar genius of the 
 Gallic Race, endows it with the gift to foresee, as 
 well as the facility to be dazzled, by new Ideas? 
 Paris when most Catholic, was, par excellence, 
 the seat of those intellectual strifes which ulti- 
 mately destroyed the Pope : Paris when most 
 absolute, was, through the popularity of the 
 Encyclopaedists, the centre of those influences 
 which first introduced the wildest Republicanism 
 into Europe: Paris under a profound despotism, 
 ploughed up the roots of every despotism in the 
 old Continent : Paris, now, in its fresh anomalous 
 condition, has, we doubt not, a similar and sin- 
 gular Destiny to fulfil. [J.P.N.] 
 2N 
 
occ 
 
 OCCHIALI, the common appellation of Kilig- 
 Ali, captain pacha under Selim II., distinguished 
 at the battle of Lepanto 1572, died about 1577. 
 
 OCCO, AuoLrnus, a Ger. numism., 1524-1605. 
 
 OCELLUS-LUCANUS, a Pythagorean philo- 
 sopher, supposed author of a work ' On the Uni- 
 verse,' B.C. 500. 
 
 OCHINUS, B., an Italian polemic, 1487-1564. 
 
 OCHS, Peter, a doctor of law, dist. at Basle 
 for his part in the Helvetic revolution, 1749-1821. 
 
 OCHTERLONY, Sir David, an officer in the 
 service of the East India Company, disting. in the 
 Nepaulese war, b. in New England, 1758, d. 1825. 
 
 OCKLEY, Simon, distinguished for his Orien- 
 tal learning, and his zeal in promoting the culture 
 of the Arabian language, of which he was professor 
 at Cambridge, was born at Exeter 1678, and died, 
 prematurely, 1720. His principal works are a 
 ' History of the Saracens,' a ' Life of Mahomet,' 
 a ' History of the Present Jews,' from the Italian 
 of Leo Modena, ' An Introduction to the Oriental 
 Languages,' and 'The Improvement of Human 
 Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yok- 
 dhan,' translated from the Arabic 
 
 O'CONNELL, Daniel, was born near Cahir 
 Siveen in the county of Kerry, on the 6th of Au- 
 gust, 1775. In his youth, and subsequently as 
 the hospitable lord of Derrynane Abbey, he lived 
 
 [Derryiiane Abbey.] 
 
 much amid the wild scenery, and as wild popula- 
 tion of his native district. It is still a scarcely 
 accessible territory, with but scanty road com- 
 munication through the narrow gaps in the moun- 
 tain ranges, and so sterile, as to present even a 
 part of Ireland thinly peopled. It is impossible 
 to look at O'Connell's career and character with- 
 out believing that the spot with which his career 
 was so closely connected, had a characteristic in- 
 fluence on his mind. His father was a petty 
 landowner. Whether O'Connell was of high or 
 humble birth, has been a matter ever disputed. 
 He claimed high descent, and it was conceded to 
 him by his Irish followers ; but this is one of the 
 characteristics without which that singular people 
 would never acknowledge leadership. It was 
 necessary as a point of policy that he should be 
 reported to come of the true old blood, and when 
 he swept through the crowd in his great family 
 coach, broadly emblazoned with a quartered shield 
 
 OCO 
 
 and conspicuous supporters, it was evident tl 
 the large-built, handsome, rather highly dreta 
 man, who looked around with the air of an Earn 
 prince, was by no means the democratic Icadej 
 a republican people. He had an uncle who nj 
 high in the military service of France, of whonl 
 used to speak as ashamed to own that his neplj 
 occupied the humble position of an avocat. 
 was educated at St. Owen and Douay, and at )j 
 destined for the church, but the relaxation wll 
 admitted Roman Catholics to the bar, opened! 
 him a more brilliant career. He kept his term! 
 the Middle Temple, and was admitted to the 
 bar in Easter term, 1798. He was a very II 
 student, and is described by Sir Jonah Barnnjl 
 as having ' bottled ' a quantity of legal knowhf 
 for subsequent use. His great characteristic] 
 deed, as a daring leader of the people agains 
 existing order of things, was the wonderful s ] 
 city with which he could march along the b<| 
 dary line of strict legal action without crossii 
 or committing either himself or his followers, 
 the Irish bar he was beyond all question the I 
 advocate of his day, whether for oratory or a r j 
 adaptation of the law. And thus, wl 
 known that he collected large subsidies froi 
 fellow-countrymen in the form of what was [ 
 the patriotic rent, it must at the same til 
 remembered that he gave up a practice as hi 
 the as the Irish bar could afford. His later < 
 is intimately connected with the recollectioij 
 all who have paid attention to the passing 
 of the day. It may be mentioned, howeve 
 chronologically fixing the commencement 
 historical career, that it was in the year 180 
 he first came forth as a champion of the 
 Roman Catholics, by boldly proposing, in a 
 meeting of the body in William- Street, Di 
 the establishment of a general committee.] 
 1815 he made himself unpleasantly notor" 
 killing in a duel Mr. D'Esterre, who cha 
 him for calling the corporation of Dublin be 
 When the ' Catholic Association,' aff 
 formed by him, was denounced by the lav 
 found means of evading the penalties, and r 
 structing the association on a tinner basis. 
 he proceeded systematically to obtain ele 
 persons who could not take the oaths, st 
 saw the necessity of concession, and the 
 Catholic Emancipation Act was passed, 
 the Reform Bill he became conspicuous 
 head of a parliamentary body, who, acknowl 
 his leadership, and voting together, were 
 ' O'Connell's Tail.' About the year 1840 hei 
 out the agitation for the repeal of the 
 which became a failure in his hands. In i 
 1844 the government of Sir Robert Peel 
 to grapple with him and the repeal agit 
 gan criminal proceedings, and obtained 
 tion, followed by a sentence of imprison 
 it was reversed in the House of Lords, 
 nell, however, was now an old man- 
 shook his nerves and his position. It was 1 
 by the miseries of the potato blight, i 
 15th of May, 1847, he died during a 
 Italy, which was called a pilgrimage, a 
 posed to partake of a penitential or religld 
 acter. 
 O'CONNOR, General Arthur, uncle 
 
 546 
 
oco 
 
 ntorions Feargus O'Connor, and one of the prin- 
 pal actors in the Irish rebellion of 1798, was 
 riginally a barrister, and having the good fortune 
 ) escape punishment, after that event went to 
 ranee/ where the first Consul appointed him 
 eneral of division. In 1809 he married the 
 aughter of the famous Condorcet, niece on her 
 lother's side to Marshal Grouchy, and in 1834 
 urchased the chateau of Bignon from the heirs of 
 [irabeau, where he died 1852. 
 j O'CONNOR, Chakles, a catholic clergyman, 
 ithor of works elucidating Irish history, d. 1828. 
 O'CONNOR, Roderick, king of Connaught, 
 the time of the conquest of Ireland by Henry II. 
 O'CONNOR, Turlogh, called 'the Great,' a 
 jng of Connaught, who aimed at the entire sove- 
 featr of the country, 1088-1156. 
 CTAVTA, the sister of Augustus, illustrious 
 her virtues, her beauty, and her accomplish- 
 nts, was the widow of Claudius Marcellus, by 
 ^jbe had a son and two daughters, when she 
 s married, at the instance of her brother, to the 
 wnvir, Mark Antony. The latter neglected her 
 Cleopatra, queen of Egypt ; notwithstanding 
 ich, Octavia displayed the most noble fidelity to 
 and fortunes, and devoted herself to the 
 ication of all his children. She died of the de- 
 into which she was thrown by the loss of 
 i by Marcellus, who was the intended heir 
 Augustus, and who was idolized by the people 
 iome, B.C. 11. [E.R.] 
 
 )CTAVIA, a daughter of the emperor Claudius 
 "essalina. She was the sister of Britannicus, 
 at the age of sixteen, became the wife of 
 The latter divorced her and married Pop- 
 at whose instance she was put to death in 
 twentieth year of her age, a.d. 62. 
 DARPJ, G., an Italian painter, 1663-1731. 
 ENATUS, Septimius, son of an Arabian 
 who allied himself with the Romans against 
 , king of Persia, and, after defeating the 
 was associated with Gallienus in the em- 
 He was married to Zenobia, who remained qu. 
 myra after his death. Assassinated 267. 
 ERICO-DE-PORTENAU, a cele. Francis- 
 
 ionary, author of his travels, 1286-1331. 
 ERICO, G. L., an Italian numismatist, 
 1803. 
 
 pESCALCHI, the name of two noble philan- 
 "ts of Rome the first of whom, Mark An- 
 w, was cousin to Innocent XL, and founder 
 . hospital for the destitute, died 1670. The 
 id, Thomas, almoner to the same pope, foun- 
 Fan institution for the education and employ- 
 I of poor children, died 1692. 
 MER, Lewis, a physician of Geneva, who 
 ~"ished himself by the introduction of vac- 
 the continent, author of a 'Manual of 
 Medicine,' 1748-1817. 
 !R, P. A., a Fr. administrator, 1774-1825. 
 X)N, St., a famous abbot of Clugny, dis- 
 edas a Latin poet and theologian, 962-1048. 
 JGTON, Walter, commonly called ' Wal- 
 JSvesham,' being abbot of that monastery, 
 " in music and astronomy, 13th cent. 
 . a Romish saint, and abbot of Clugny, 
 for his reforms in monastic discip., 879-943. 
 1 OF Kent, a Iiencdictine monk, who be- 
 iccessively prior of St. Saviour's and abbot 
 
 OER 
 
 of Battle Abbey. He is the author of some learned 
 writings, and was a friend of Becket, died 1200. 
 
 OECOLAMPADIUS, John, was born at 
 Weinsperg in Franconia in the year 1482. He was 
 educated at Heilbrun, and afterwards at Heidelberg. 
 At Stutgard he met with the famous Rcuchlin, 
 under whom he studied Greek so ardently as in a 
 short time to compose and publish a Greek gram- 
 mar. In 1515 he began to preach, and he cor- 
 dially assisted Erasmus at Basle in publishing his 
 Annotations on the New Testament. After this 
 he entered the monastery of St. Bridget at Augs- 
 burg, but after two years left it for more active 
 labours. In 1521 the protestant light began to 
 dawn upon him, and he soon came to the assist- 
 ance of Zwingli, thte Swiss Reformer, and con- 
 curred with him in his views of the sacrament of 
 the Lord's Supper in opposition to Luther. He 
 was mingled up for many years in those discus- 
 sions, and in the conventions held to secure agree- 
 ment. He disputed with Dr. Eck at Baden, and 
 the debate lasted eighteen days. Basle was his 
 head-quarters, and the scene of his earnest and 
 multiplied pastoral labours. In 1531 he was 
 seized with severe and sudden sickness, and he died 
 in December of that year, in the forty-ninth year 
 of his age. He has left behind him several works, 
 but his special memory lies in his living diligence, 
 meekness, prudence, self-denial, and success in 
 carrying on the Swiss reformation from Popery. 
 His original name was Hausschein, House-lamp, 
 which he, according to a prevalent custom, 
 changed into the Greek surname Oecolampadius, 
 of similar meaning. TJ.E.] 
 
 OECUMENIUS, a Gr. commentator, 10th cent. 
 
 OEDER, G. C, a German botanist, 1728-1791. 
 
 OEFELS, A. F. D', a Ger. savant, 1706-1780. 
 
 OEHLENSCHL^EGER, Adam, the greatest 
 dramatic poet of the Scandinavian North, was b. 
 1777. He commenced his career on the stage, but 
 abandoned the profession for literature, and finally 
 became professor of Esthetics in his native city. 
 Among his greatest works may be mentioned 
 1. 'The Death of Balder;' 2. 'The Gods of the 
 North;' 3. 'Aladdin;' 4. ' Staerkodder ;' 5. 'Ha- 
 kem-Jarl;' 6. 'Palnatoke;' 7. 'Axel and Val- 
 borg ;' 8. ' The Admiral Fordens Kjold,' and many 
 others. Died 28th January, 1850. 
 
 OEHLMULAR, D. J., a Ger. archit,, 1791-1823. 
 
 OELRICHS, G., a Germ, antiquarian, 1727-89. 
 
 OELRICHS, J. C. C, a Genu, bist,, 1722-98. 
 
 OELRICHS, J. G. A., a Ger. savant, 1767-91. 
 
 OENOMAUS, a Greek philosopher, 2d century. 
 
 OENOPIDES of Chio, a Pythagorean philo- 
 sopher, 5th century B.C. 
 
 OERN, N., a traveller and wr. on Lapland, 1707. 
 
 OERNHEIM, or ORNSJOELMS, Claudius, 
 called in Latin Aorhenius, a Swed. hist., 1625-95. 
 
 OERNSCHOELD, P. Abraham, Baron De, 
 founder of the manufacture of linens and prints in 
 Sweden, died 1770. 
 
 OERSTED, Hans Christian, professor of 
 physics at the university of Copenhagen, and 
 secretary of the Academy of Sciences in that city, 
 was born 1777. He is the author of numerous 
 works in physics more especially in magnetism 
 and chemistry, most of which are written in Latin. 
 His last production, in Danish, entitled 'Aanden 
 a, Naturen,' caused a great sensation. Died 1851. 
 
 547 
 
OES 
 
 OESER, A. F., a painter and engraver of Pres- 
 burg, 1717-1799. His son, Frederic, died 1792. 
 
 OETINGER, Fred. Christopher, a learned 
 philologist and mystic divine of Gennanv, who 
 finally became prelate of Murhard, in Wurtem- 
 berg, and died at the age of eighty, 1782. His 
 principal work is the ' Earthly and Heavenly Phi- 
 losophy of Swedenbor^ and Others,' which included 
 notices of Bcehmen, Malebranche, Newton, Clu- 
 vers, Wolffe, Plouquet, Bagliv, and Fricker. This 
 publication involved him in considerable trouble 
 with the Consistory; and in a controversy with 
 Faber. Oetinger, however, was protected by the duke 
 of Wurtemberg, as Dr. Tafel has been in the same 
 cause by the present king. The son of Oetinger 
 published a work, entitled ' Metaphysica et Che- 
 mica,' his father at the time being interdicted from 
 writing. This prelate was a great master of the 
 philosophy of Leibnitz. [E.R.] 
 
 OETTER, S. W., a German historian, 1720-92. 
 
 OEXMELIN, A. 0., a Flem. buccaneer, au. of a 
 History of the Adventures to India,' publ. 1686. 
 
 O'FARRIL, G., a Spanish general, 1784-1831. 
 
 OFFA, the successor of his uncle, Ethelbald, as 
 king of Mercia, was placed on the throne after a 
 successful insurrection in 757. He greatly ex- 
 tended his kingdom, and added that of the East 
 Angles to it by treacherously murdering Ethelbert. 
 In nis latter years, he made peace with his con- 
 science by the foundation of St. Alban's Abbey, 
 and an annual payment to the pope, known in 
 after ages as Peter's pence. Died 796. 
 
 OGDEN, Samuel, a learned minister of the 
 Church of England, born at Manchester 1716, 
 master of Halifax school 1744-1753, and, finally, 
 rector of Lawford and Stansfield ; died 1778. He 
 is the author of some popular ' Sermons.' 
 
 OGE, a Creole of the French colony of St. Do- 
 mingo, who distinguished himself at the period of 
 the revolution, as leader of an insurrection. Being 
 overpowered by the troops, he and his lieutenant, 
 Chavannes, were broken on the wheel. 
 
 OGEE, J., a French geographer, 1728-1789. 
 
 OGIER, C, a French writer of his travels and 
 residence in the North of Europe, 1595-1654. 
 
 OGILBY, John, an ingenious Scotchman, dist. 
 as a literary speculator and author, 1600-1676. 
 
 OGILVIE, John, a Scottish divine and poet, 
 author of ' Philosophical and Critical Observations 
 on Composition,' ' Evidence of Prophecy,' and 
 an epic poem entitled ' Britannia,' 1733-1814. 
 
 OGINSKI, Count, a Polish patriot, 1731-1803. 
 
 OGLETHORPE, James Edward, an English 
 officer, who distinguished himself in the German 
 wars under Prince Eugene, and afterwards as chief 
 founder of the colony of Georgia. Being sent in 
 pursuit of the rebels in 1745, and not overtaking 
 them, he was tried by court-martial, and honour- 
 ably acquitted. Born in Surrey 1698, died 1785. 
 
 O'HALLORAN, Sylvester, an Irish antiqua- 
 rian, author of an Introduction to Irish History,' 
 a 'General History of Ireland,' &c, 1728-1807. 
 
 O'HARA, Kane, an Irish dramatist, died 1782. 
 
 OIPENART, A., a Spanish historian, 16th cen. 
 
 OISEL, or OUZEL, J., a Ger. civilian, 1631-86. 
 
 OISEL, or OUSEL, P., a Ger. Hebr., 1671-1724. 
 
 OISELAY, J. D', a French poet, 15th century. 
 
 O'KEEFE, J., an Irish comedian, 1746-1833. 
 
 OKOLSKI, F. S., a Polish historian, 17th cent. 
 
 OLE 
 
 OLAFSEN, the name of several distingaial 
 Icelanders Magnus, a clergyman, and La 
 translator of the Edda, 1573-1636. Stephi 
 translator of the Edda and Voluspa, died 16* 
 Eggert, a minister, distinguished as a naturali 
 1721-1776. His brother, John, an antiquaru 
 1731-1801. A third brother, Magnus, an adu 
 nistrator and writer, 1728-1800. 
 
 OLAHUS, Nicholas, a Hungarian prelate a 
 statesman, au. of a ' History of Attila,' 1493-16< 
 OLAUS, or OLOF, the first of the Swedi 
 chiefs who received the title of king, born 98 
 received at his baptism the English name of Su 
 fried 1008, died 1026. 
 
 OLAUS, the name of two Danish kings i\ 
 first of whom reigned in Jutland onlv, and n 
 killed 814. The second, reigned 1086-1095. 
 
 OLAUS, the first of the name, king of Nonr; 
 reigned 994- 1000. The second, 1014-1 1 
 third, shared the throne with Magnus II., 10< 
 1096, and reigned alone 1069-1093. ThejH 
 reigned, with his two brothers, 1103-1116. II 
 fifth, born 1370, became king of Denmark ail 
 Waldemar, 1376, and king of Norway on the del 
 of his father, 1380 ; died 1387. 
 
 OLAUS, P., a Danish chronicler, 16th cental 
 OLAVIDES, Pablo Antonio Josef, Col 
 De Pilos, a Spanish statesman, distinguished al 
 promoter of agricultural industry in the Sie' 
 Morena, and author of a religious work, entit 
 'The Triumph of the Gospel,' 1725-1803. 
 OLBERS, H. W. M., a Ger. astron., 1758-18 
 OLDCASTLE, Sir John, commonly called 
 ' good Lord Cobham,' was a domestic of the ecl 
 of Henry V., and is both the first author and \\ 
 martyr of our nobility. Becoming a disciple,' 
 Wickliffe, he devoted Ins wealth and ene^H 
 the propagation of the reformed doctrines, I 
 which he was hung in chains and then burnt all 
 1417. His life has been written by Gilpin. 
 
 OLDENBURG, Henry, a physician, bong 
 the duchy of Bremen 1626, who became on^H 
 first members, and the colleague of Dr. MM 
 in the secretaryship of the Royal Society. ' 
 published the ' Philosophical Transactions ' f 
 1665-1677, and died 1678. 
 OLDERMAN, J., a learned German, 1 
 OLDFIELD, Anne, an Eng. actress. 1 1 
 OLDHAM, Hugh, an English prelate, 
 to have been born at Oldham, near M; 
 founder of the grammar school in the la 
 town, and a great benefactor of Corpu- 
 Oxford; died 1519. 
 OLDHAM, John, a satiric poet, 16"; 
 OLDISWORTH, W., a miscel. writer, d. Vt 
 OLDMIXON, J., an historical wr., 1 1 
 OLDOINI, A., an Italian savant, 1(51 
 OLDSWORTH, E., an Eng. writer, 1 
 OLDYS, William, distinguished as 
 
 {)hical writer, and for his great knowleiU 
 ish books, was the natural son of Dr. \ 
 chancellor of Lincoln, and was born 1 
 was almost constantly employed by the bookselij 
 and died 1761. His principal works are a ' 
 of Sir Walter Raleigh,' 'The British Librana* 
 translation of Camden's 'Britannia,' and 
 signed G. in the ' Biographia Britannica.' 
 
 OLEARIUS, the name by which Adam CJff 
 scHLiEGER is generally known, a famou.- 
 
 548 
 
 
OLE 
 
 Teller and mathematician, author of Stories 
 
 m the Persian, a Voyage to the Indies, a Chro- 
 
 le of Holstein, &c., 1599-1671. 
 
 3LEARIUS, Godfrey, a German divine, author 
 
 biblical translations, &c, 1604-1685. John, 
 
 son, author of ' Sacred Hermeneutics,' and vari- 
 
 i theological works, 1639-1713. John God- 
 
 ey, elder brother of the latter, an ecclesiastical 
 
 grapher, 1635-1710. Godfrey, son of John, 
 
 of historical and theological works, 1672-1715. 
 
 3'LEARY, Arthur, an Irish priest, distin- 
 
 shed for his loyalty to the English government, 
 
 hor of ' Addresses,' and of ' A Defence of his 
 
 nduct and Writings,' 1729-1802. 
 
 3LEASHER, J., a Portuguese divine, d. 1663. 
 
 UENSCHLjEGER, J. D., called ' Olearius,' a 
 
 rman publicist and historical writer, 1711-1778. 
 
 RLESNIKI, S., a Polish cardinal, died 1455. 
 
 bLEY, Barnabas, a learned divine, who be- 
 
 le archdeacon of Ely after the restoration, and 
 
 I 1686. He published the works of Dr. Jack- 
 
 and Herbert's ' Country Parson.' 
 
 LGA, a woman of obscure birth, who became 
 
 wife of Igor, grand duke of Russia ; and after 
 
 death of her husband, in 945, governed the 
 
 try for ten years as regent. Having become 
 
 ristian, and contributed to the spread of the 
 
 , she is regarded as a saint in the Greek 
 
 " ; died 968. 
 
 GIERD, grand duke of Lithuania, 1330-81. 
 
 IER, J. J., a French ascetic writer, 1608-57. 
 
 UNA, J. P., an Italian naturalist, 16th cent. 
 
 uIVA, Alessandro, a Ital. cardinal, 1408-63. 
 
 LIVA, F. P. D', a Span, wr., abt. 1497-1533. 
 
 LlVA, John, an Italian antiquary, author of 
 
 Progress and Decay of Roman Learning,' 
 
 689-1757. ^ * 
 
 AREZ, Gasper Guzman, Count Duke 
 
 Spanish statesman, devoted to the house of 
 
 descended from the Guzmans of Castile, 
 
 Rome, during his father's embassage to 
 
 Quintus, about 1587, minister for twenty- 
 
 during the reign of Philip IV. and his 
 
 enemy, Richelieu, died a few months after 
 
 " 1643. 
 ECRANTZ, John Paulin, a Swedish 
 , and master of polite literat., 1633-1707. 
 R, Isaac, an English miniature painter, 
 7. His son, Peter, same profession, 
 John, supposed to be his nephew, a 
 on glass, 1616-1700. 
 R, W., a physician of Bath, died 1764. 
 T, Joseph Toulier D', a Fr. Jesuit, 
 an elegant writer and classic, 1682-1768. 
 TAN, Peter Robert, a relative and 
 of Calvin, said to have been poisoned at 
 1536, and, by other accounts, to have 
 Ferrara 1538. He was one of the first re- 
 and published a French version of the 
 s, which became the foundation of the 
 Bible. 
 
 RA, Francis Xavier De, a Portu- 
 , who was connected with several em- 
 becoming a protestant, took up his 
 England, 1702-1783. 
 RA, S., a Portuguese rabbin, d. 1708. 
 R, C. M., a French critic, 1701-1736. 
 F., chancellor of France, 1497-1560. 
 James, a president of the parlia- 
 
 ONK 
 
 ment of Paris, born about 1460, died 1519. His 
 son, John, a poet, and grand almoner, afterwards 
 bishop of Angers, died 1540. 
 
 OLIVIER, S., prof, of canon law, 1538-1609. 
 
 OLIVIER, W. A., a Fr. naturalist, 1756-1814. 
 
 OLIVIERI, A. C, an Ital. antiquary, 1708-89. 
 
 OLIVIERI, D., an Italian painter, 1679-1755. 
 
 OLLIVIER, R., a French writer, 1727-1814. 
 
 OLMOS, F. A., a Span, missionary, died 1571. 
 
 OLYBRIUS, Flavius Anicius, emperor of 
 the West, died after a three months' reign, 472. 
 
 OLYMPIAS, daughter of Pyrrhus, and wife of 
 Alexander, king of Epirus, died about 240 B.C. 
 
 OLYMPIAS, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of 
 Epirus, wife of Philip, king of Macedon, and mo- 
 ther of Alexander the Great. Having been re- 
 pudiated by Philip, shortly before his assassi- 
 nation, b.c. 336, she is supposed to have instigated 
 that crime, and was guilty of great atrocities dur- 
 ing the minority of her son. Put to death b.c. 317. 
 
 OLYMPIODORUS, a Platonic philosopher of 
 Alexandria, commencement of the 6th century. 
 Another philosopher of the same name and place, 
 author of a commentary on Aristotle, about the 
 end of the 6th century. A third savant of this 
 name was deacon of Alexandria about the end of 
 the 7th century, and wrote Commentaries. 
 
 OLZOFFSKI, Andrew, a Polish statesman 
 and prelate, distinguished for his wisdom and pa- 
 triotism, born 1678. 
 
 OMAR, the first caliph of the name, and father- 
 in-law of Mahomet, succeeded Aboubeker 634, 
 conquered Jerusalem 637, and Alexandria 640. 
 It was on this occasion that the great library of 
 the Ptolemies was destroyed, and in the reign of 
 Omar that the institutions of the Mahommedans 
 began to assume their proper form. He was assassi- 
 nated by a Persian slave 644. The second Omar 
 succeeded 717, and was assassinated 720. 
 
 OMAR, the fourth and last Arabian king of 
 Badajoz, sue. his brother 1082, and was k. 1090. 
 
 OMAR, a eel. Mussulman doctor, abt. 1068-1142. 
 
 OMAR-PACHA, dey of Algiers, 1815-1817. 
 
 OMAYAH, or OMMIAH, a prince who ruled 
 the Arabian tribe of Khoreish, the same to which 
 Mahomet belonged, before the advent of the latter 
 at the commencement of the 7th century. He was 
 the stock of the Ommiade caliphs. 
 
 O'MEARA, Barry Edward, a surgeon in the 
 British navy, whose medical skill and knowledge 
 of Italian induced the emperor Napoleon to invite 
 him to St. Helena, in the capacity of his medical 
 attendant. He remained with the emperor till 
 1818, when a rupture occurred between him and 
 Sir Hudson Lowe, whose conduct he deemed op- 
 pressive, and he returned to England. He became 
 a partizan of O'Connell in his later years, and 
 died 1836, at the age of sixty-six. He wrote ' A 
 Voice from St. Helena,' and several other works 
 on the same subject. 
 
 OMMEGANCK, B. B., a Fie. painter, 1775-1826. 
 
 ONESICRITUS, a Gr. historian, 4th cent. b.c. 
 
 ONIAS, the name of several high priests of the 
 Jews the first of whom governed the Hebrew re- 
 public, 322-302 B.C. The second, 233-219 B.C. 
 The third, who is much spoken of in the book of 
 the Maccabees, 199-170 B.C. The fourth, called 
 also Menelaus, reigned 172-162 B.C. 
 
 ONKELOS, a celebrated rabbin, supposed to 
 
 549 
 
ONO 
 
 have been a native of Babylon, and to have flour- 
 ished about the time of our Lord. He wrote tbe 
 Cbaldee Targum, or paraphrase on the Pentateuch, 
 which is remarkable for the purity of its language, 
 and conformity with the Hebrew text. 
 
 OXOMACRILUS, a Greek poet, 6th cent. B.C. 
 
 ONOSANDER, a Greek Platonist, whose only 
 remaining work is a discourse on the duties and 
 virtues of the general of an army, 1st century. 
 
 OORT, Lambrecht Van, a Flemish historical 
 painter, born in 1520. Adam, his son, 1557-1641. 
 
 OOST, Jacob Van, the elder, a Flemish painter, 
 greatly distinguished for his numerous altar-pieces, 
 born about 1600, died 1671. His son, of the same 
 names, called the Younger, a portrait and his- 
 torical painter, 1637-1713. 
 
 OOSTERWICK, Maria Van, a pupil of J. De 
 Heam, celebrated for her exquisite fruit and flower 
 painting, 1630-1693. 
 
 OPIE, Amelia, was the daughter of the late 
 distinguished physician, Dr. Alderson, of Norwich, 
 and the sister of Mr. Baron Alderson. She was 
 married to John Opie, the eminent historical pain- 
 ter, in 1784, and survived him nearly half a century. 
 From an early period she devoted herself to literary 
 pursuits, principally in the composition of works 
 of fiction and moral tales. These have been chiefly 
 admired for their simplicity and genial feeling. 
 Her public literary career extended from 1805, 
 when she published her ' Adeline Mowbray,' down 
 to 1834, when her ' Lays for the Dead' issued from 
 the press. Besides these she is the author of 
 'Detraction Displayed,' 'Father and Daughter,' 
 ' Madeline,' ' Temper,' ' Valentine's Eve,' &c. But 
 her happiest effort is considered to be the ' Illus- 
 trations of Lying.' For the last twenty-five years 
 of her life she was a member of the Society of 
 Friends, and lived in the strictest retirement at 
 Norwich, where in 1853 she died, aged 84. 
 
 OPIE, John, the famous historical painter, 
 was son of a carpenter, and was born in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Truro, Cornwall, 1761. Having 
 shown many proofs of his genius, he commenced 
 painting under the advice of Dr. Wolcott, and at 
 the age of twenty was introduced to Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, in London. He succeeded Fuseli as 
 professor or painting at the Royal Academy, and 
 was a lecturer at the Royal Institution. He wrote 
 ' An Inquiry into the Requisite Cultivation of the 
 Arts of Design in England.' Died 1807. 
 
 OPINEER, P., a Dutch annalist, 1526-1595. 
 
 OPITZ, or OPITIUS, Henry, a German divine 
 and Orientalist, whose singular opinions as the 
 pupil of Matthias Wasmuth, subjected him to much 
 enmity ampng the learned, 1642-1712. 
 
 OPITZ, or OPITIUS, Martin, regarded as 
 the father of modern German poetry, 1597-1639. 
 
 OPPIAN, a Gr. poet and grammarian. 3d cent. 
 
 OPPIUS CAIUS, the name of two Romans 
 the first, a tribune of the people, B.C. 215. The 
 second, one of Caesar's lieutenants, 50 B.C. 
 
 OPSOP.EUS, J., a German critic, 1556-1596. 
 
 OPSOPiEUS, V., a Ger. philologist, died 1540. 
 
 OPSTRAET, J., a Fr. Jansenist, 1651-1720. 
 
 ORCAGNA, A., an Italian painter, 1320-1389. 
 
 ORDERIC, Vitalis, an English monk of French 
 . kn. as an ecclesiastical historian, 12th cen. 
 
 ORDINAIRE, C. N., a Fr. naturalist, 1736-1809. 
 
 OREGGIO, A., an Ital. theologian, 1577-1635. 
 
 ORI 
 
 O'REILLY, Alexanijer, Count, an Irish m 
 ral, disting. in the service of Spain, 1735-179-1 
 O'REILLY, Andrew, Count, a native of L 
 land, who became a general of cavalry in the! 
 vice of Austria, and was governor of Vienna < 
 it capitulated, 1741-1832. 
 
 ORELLANA, Francisco, a Span, advent 
 regarded as the discoverer of the Amazons, U 
 ORESME, N., an eminent Fr. prelate, d. ' 
 ORFANEL, Hyacinth, a Spanish missic 
 and hist, of Japan, where he was burnt alive, ', 
 ORFILA, M., a physician, celebrated fo: 
 contributions to toxicological chemistry, bo 
 Port Mahon in 1783, died in Paris 1853. 
 ORGAGNA, A., an Italian painter, 1329- 
 ORIANI, B., an Italian astronomer, 1753- : 
 ORIBASIUS, a Greek physician, 4th cent 
 ORIENT, J., a Hungarian painter, died 1' 
 ORIENTIUS, St., bishop of Auch, d. abt 
 ORIGEN, sumamed Adamantius, was 
 at Alexandria about the year a.d. 186. 
 father, Leonides, an intelligent and edu 
 Christian, was martyred in the year 
 Origen, his mother, and six younger sons, 
 left in great destitution. The fatherless 
 studied under Clemens Alexandrihus and 
 monius Saccas, and made so great proficiency 
 in his eighteenth year Demetrius the bishop ' 
 him to the office of catechist. In this positit 
 success in teaching Christianity was so great 
 his life was threatened by his pagan ad\ 
 During this period he practised peculiar auste 
 and subjected himself to a strange 
 agreeably to what he deemed the correct x 
 of the statement in Matthew xix. 12. He | 
 library of secular books for a perpetual i 
 four oboli a-day, went without shoes, and sit 
 the ground. About the year 212 he made i 
 visit to Rome. On his return to Alexancb 
 devoted himself more exclusively and 
 to biblical studies. Among the persons i 
 from error by him, was a man of 
 Ambrose, who gratefully supplied his 
 seven amanuenses and as many copyists, 
 ger in which persecution placed him, obi: 
 leave Alexandria in 215, and he tooi 
 Caesarea. Here, though invested with 
 astical office, he publicly expounded the 1 
 In the year following he was recalled 
 dria, and still pursued his Scripture stn 
 mediately afterwards he journeyed into 
 his way through Palestine he was 
 presbyter, and at Antioch had an inte 
 earnest request, with Mammaea, mot 
 emperor Alexander Severus. Tin 
 trius, who had been for some tiii 
 growing fame of Origen, now openly atts 
 on his return. In an assembly of ; 
 nounced sentence of exile upon Origen, ai 
 in another degraded him from tin 
 sent a circular to all the bishops 
 concurrence in the judgment. In 
 ever, Origen was protected ; he lived, stn 
 preached in Caesarea. Persecution broke ' 
 under Decius, and he was imprisoi 
 lie showed himself prepared for 
 was at length released. His si; 
 shortened his life, and he died at 
 253, about his sixty- ninth year. The pi 
 
 560 
 
ORI 
 
 id character of Origen were marked by great piety, 
 oderation, meekness, humility, and industry, 
 nder trying provocation he maintained an un- 
 ified temper, and in times of danger he was never 
 inerved. His orthodoxy was impeached during 
 s lifetime, and Origenism became in succeeding 
 nturies an interminable theme of wrangling and 
 cusation. The fancy of Origen did lead him 
 ten astray into wild and extravagant specula- 
 ns, such as the dream of an ante-natal exis- 
 lce, the pre-existence of Christ's human soul, 
 d the final restoration of men and fallen spirits, 
 s grammatical knowledge did not preserve him 
 m the common and enticing error of spiritual- 
 g, or allegorizing Scripture. As a defender of 
 faith, Origen was far before any of his contem- 
 ies, as may be seen in his book ' against Celsus,' 
 I the remains of the Philocalia, which was 
 apiled out of his writings by Basil and Gregory 
 Nazianzus, and principally from this clever 
 nee. In the shape or commentary, scholia, 
 homilies, he published on nearly the whole of 
 ipture, though only a few portions of these 
 iminous works have been preserved. His trea- 
 De Principiis ' is extant in the Latin version 
 lufinus. Others of his numerous works exist 
 in scanty fragments. The ' Exhortation to 
 tyrdom,' and the book * On Prayer,' have come 
 to us. Eusebius speaks of having collected 
 dred of his letters. But one chief province 
 n's literary labours was upon the text of 
 ture. His famous Hexapla, the best known 
 s editions, presents, in successive columns the 
 Hebrew in Greek characters, and the 
 versions of Aquila, Symmachus, the 
 ty, and Theodotion; other Greek versions 
 occasionally added in additional columns. 
 was a critical attempt to amend the text of 
 " tuagint. The surviving remains of this 
 and costly polyglot were published by Mont- 
 in 2 folio volumes, Paris, 1714. The 
 editions of Origen's works were chiefly in 
 versions, such as those of Merlin, Erasmus, 
 , and Genebrard. Huet published the exegeti- 
 " in 2 folios, Rouen, 1688 ; but the Edi- 
 ps is the Benedictine one, of De La Rue, 
 1733-59, 4 vols., folio, reprinted in fifteen 
 by Oberthiir, Wurzburg, 1785. A later 
 by Lommatzsch in twenty -five 12mo 
 was printed at Berlin, 1832-48, and a 
 was published by Redepenning in two 
 i at Bonn, 1846. With all his skilled dili- 
 lin biblical literature, Origen was not a safe 
 J in theology. There is at the same time no 
 that many of his works were interpolated, 
 lis plain that he was prone to theorize, and 
 "iund hypotheses which could not be sus- 
 His hints were by and by broadened by 
 into assertions, and his conjectures changed 
 pve affirmations. We cannot but admire 
 and erudition, though we smile at his 
 _/, and refuse to admit the truth of many 
 | dogmas with which his name has been so 
 ^ected. [J.E.] 
 
 JEN, the disciple and friend of Porphyry, 
 ' the same time as the preceding, and was 
 >r of Plotinus in the chair of philosophy 
 mdria. 
 DDL Cl., an Ital. architect, 1694-1775. 
 
 ORL 
 
 ORLANDT, P. A., an Ital. art-writer, 1660-1727. 
 
 ORLANDINI, N., an Italian Jesuit, known as 
 the first historian of his order, 1554-1606. 
 
 ORLAY, B. Van, a Flem. painter, b, abt. 1490. 
 
 ORLAY, J. Van, a Flem. painter, b. abt. 1656. 
 
 ORLEANS, an ancient dukedom, and titular 
 name borne by the princes of the blood royal in 
 France, of which there are two lines : 1. The first 
 line has given the following names to history : 
 Louis I. of France, duke d'Orleans, second son of 
 Charles V., born 1371, became regent in conse- 
 quence of the mental incapacity of his brother, 
 Charles VI., 1393, and was murdered by his cousin, 
 the duke of Burgundy, 1407. This event was the 
 source of the bloody feuds between the houses of 
 Orleans and Burgundy. Charles, son of the pre- 
 ceding, duke of Angouleme in his father's lifetime, 
 taken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, died 
 while attempting the conquest of the Milanese, 
 which he claimed in right of his mother, 1465. He 
 left a son, Louis II. of Orleans, who, in 1498, 
 succeeded to the crown as Louis XII. Between 
 the first and second houses we find John Bap- 
 tist Gaston, third son of Henry IV. and Mary 
 de Medici, born ^608, created duke of Orleans 
 1626, and noted for his intrigues during the reign 
 of his brother, Louis XIII. He was banished to 
 Blois by Mazarin in 1652, and died there 1660. 
 2. The second house of Orleans commences with 
 Philip I., second son of Louis XIII. and Anne of 
 Austria, born 1640, received the title of Orleans on 
 the death of his uncle, Gaston, 1660, and the next 
 year was married to his cousin, Henrietta Anne, 
 daughter of Charles I. of England. He is sus- 
 pected of having poisoned this princess, and, in 
 1671, was married to Elizabeth of Bavaria, of 
 whom his successor was born ; died 1701. Philip 
 II., born 1674, succeeded to the title of the pre- 
 ceding 1701, and became the celebrated regent Or- 
 leans after the death of Louis XIV. He was edu- 
 cated in profligacy by the abbe Dubois, and brought 
 the kingdom to the verge of an insurrection (see 
 Law); died suddenly 1723. Louis, son and 
 successor of the latter, born 1703, was distin- 
 guished for his accomplishments as a universal 
 scholar and linguist. He died, after passing his 
 life in a literary and religious retirement, 1752. 
 Louis Philip, son and successor of Louis the 
 preceding, born 1725, was lieutenant-general in 
 the Flemish wars and governor of Dauphine. He 
 was a man of taste and a lover of literature, and 
 died generally regretted 1785. Louis Joseph 
 Philip, son of the last named, see article below. 
 Louis Philip, his son and successor, same as the 
 late king of French. See Louis Philippe. Fer- 
 dinand Philip Louis Charles Henry, eldest 
 son of the late king of the French, was born 1810 
 at Palermo, and distinguished himself in 1831 at 
 the siege of Antwerp, and more recently in the 
 African campaigns. He was killed by a fall from 
 his carriage, near Neuilly, 13th July, 1842. His 
 sons are the present Count de Paris, born 1838, 
 and the due de Chartres, born 1840. His sister, 
 Marie, princess of Orleans, born at Palermo 1813, 
 was greatly distinguished for her love of art, and 
 especially for her skill in sculpture. She was mar- 
 ried to the duke of Wurtemberg in 1837, and died 
 of consumption 1839. Her greatest work is the 
 statue of Joan of Arc, in the museum of Versailles. 
 
 551 
 
ORL 
 
 ORLEANS, Louis Philippe Joseph, Due D', 
 
 father of the late king of the French, and cousin 
 of Louis XVI., was horn at St. Cloud, with the 
 title of Due de Montpensier, 1747, became due 
 de Chartres 1752, and succeeded to the title and 
 estates of his father in 1787. In 1769 he mar- 
 ried the daughter of the due de Penthievre, and 
 enjoyed some measure of the popularity that 
 belonged to her as member of a family beloved by 
 the people. In the conflict between the court and 
 the parliaments, which preceded the revolution, 
 Louis d'Orleans fully justified this preference by 
 opposing the former, and, as a natural conse- 
 quence, was received coldly by the royal family, 
 and exposed to many mortifications at court ; one 
 considerable instance of which was the refusal of 
 the king to appoint him grand admiral of France 
 a dignity that had fairly reverted to the due 
 d'Orleans by ordinary custom. His predilection 
 for the popular cause was accompanied by a 
 private character undeniably bad. It may be 
 enough to say on this point, that, as he frequently 
 visited England, he was the boon companion of 
 the prince of Wales, and shared in all those 
 nameless crimes against morality that we com- 
 monly understand by ' blackguardism.' The scene 
 of his orgies in France was the Palais Royal. 
 ' He changed the noble and spacious gardens of 
 his palace into a market of luxury, devoted by 
 day to traffic (as a means of repairing his shat- 
 tered fortunes), and by night to play and de- 
 bauchery a complete sink of iniquities, built in 
 the heart of the capital a work of cupidity which 
 antique manners never could forgive this prince ; 
 and which, being gradually adopted as their forum 
 by the indolence of the Parisian population, was 
 destined to become the cradle of the revolution.' 
 The due d'Orleans, in fact, and the Palais Royal, 
 became the centre of the great conspiracy that 
 was striding onwards to overthrow all that should 
 have been dear to the descendant of a line of 
 kings. Honour, decency, the privacy of the do- 
 mestic life of royalty, and the fair name of his 
 cousin Marie Antoinette, were all sacrificed by the 
 man whose natural place at such a crisis was 
 among the chief defenders of the throne. In 1792 
 Louis d'Orleans took his seat with the republicans 
 in the National Convention, and adopted for him- 
 self and his heirs the name of Egaltie even 
 voting for the king's death, ' simply occupied with 
 his duty,' as he expressed himself, ' and convinced 
 that the enemies of public liberty deserved to die.' 
 It has been affirmed that he went to see Louis 
 executed, but this is by no means certain ; for his 
 position, especially after the king's death, as first 
 
 Erince of the blood, was such as to bring upon 
 im the hatred and suspicion of all parties. He 
 was accused, at last, of plotting to re-establish 
 the monarchy, either in his own person, or in his 
 family, and the Jacobins were resolved to rid 
 themselves of the embarrassment of his presence. 
 A revulsion of feeling seems to have taken place 
 after his arrest, and he conducted himself with 
 unexpected courage, propriety, and self-possession 
 on the day of his trial and execution which took 
 
 Slace, after several months' imprisonment, on 6th 
 lovember, 1793. On being asked 'Whether he 
 had not voted the death of the tyrant with the 
 ambitious premeditation of succeeding him ? ' 
 
 ORO 
 
 'No,' he replied, 'I obeyed my heart anc 
 science.' ' Since you were determined t( 
 demn me,' he added, 'you should have fount 
 specious pretexts, for you will never pc 
 one that you believed me really guilty of 
 treason you charge me with.' Louis d'Orlean< 
 truth, understood the temper of the people 
 well to think of aspiring to the crown, and 
 made himself too familiar with them to dreai 
 any respect in such a character. The republi 
 sacrificed him for future security, as they w 
 have done every member of the royal family 
 had been possible to secure their persons. 
 
 ORLEANS-DE-LA-MOTTE, Louis Fra 
 Gabriel D', born 1683, became bishop of An 
 1733, and died 1774. He is regarded as the i 
 of a Christian minister, and is author of ' Spir 
 Letters,' published 1777. His life, by Pro 
 was published 1788. 
 
 ORLEY, B. Van, a Flemish painter, 1490-1 
 
 ORLEY, Richard Van, and his son, 
 distinguished at Brussels as miniature painter 
 engravers; the former 1652-1732. 
 
 ORLOFF, Gregory, a Russian general 
 political intriguer, who greatly promoted 
 vation of his mistress, Catharine II., to the I 
 Being disappointed in his hope of sharing 
 crown with her, and declining a private : 
 he was supplanted by a new favourite, and 
 insane 1783. He had one son by the e 
 named Bobrinkski. Alexis, his brother i 
 low-conspirator, was a man of gigantic 
 and strength, and is said to have strangle! 
 emperor Peter with his own hands. He was 
 vourite of Catharine, and was married 1 
 princess Taranoff, daughter of the empress 
 beth ; died 1808. Gregory Vladimirow 
 nobleman of the same family, bearing the 
 Count Orloff, was distinguished for his] 
 age and culture of letters. He is author < 
 torical, Political, and Literary Memoirs of ] 
 a ' History of the Aits in Italy,' flour. 1778-1 
 
 ORME, Robert, son of Dr. Alexander ( 
 a physician and surgeon, employed by the 
 India Company, distinguished for his hi"' 1 '' 
 works on British India, 1728-1801. 
 
 ORMEROD, Oliver, a Church of I 
 minister and polemical writer of the time oi 
 I., author of ' The Picture of a Puritan,' an 
 Picture of a Papist,' died 1626. 
 
 ORMOND, James Butler, duke of, 
 mander in the army of Charles I., and a sti 
 adherent of his son Charles II., whose resl 
 he laboured to promote, 1610-1688. B 
 Thomas, earl of Ossory, distinguished as 
 and military commander, 1634-1680. His 
 son, James, second duke of Ormond, a par 
 the prince of Orange, and afterwards of tl 
 tender, 1665-1747. 
 
 OROBIO, Balthasar, called by some 
 
 J hers Isaac De Castro Orobio, was a 
 ew, who professed the Roman Catholic ( 
 his native country, where he was a physid 
 professor of metaphysics. He was tortur 
 imprisoned by the inquisition on 
 real character, and afterwards on going to A 
 dam, was circumcised and became a Jt 
 wardly, on which occasion he took tl 
 He wrote a philosophical book agaii 
 
 '?, 
 
 552 
 
ORO 
 OROSIUS, P., a Spanish ecclesiastic, 4th cent. 
 ORRENTE, P., a Spanish painter, died 1642. 
 ORSATO, J. B., an Italian antiq., 1673-1720. 
 ORSATO, Sertorio, an Italian antiquarian 
 nd historian, usually called Ursatus, 1617-1678. 
 ORSI, J. A., an Italian historian, 1692-1761. 
 ORSINI, a noble Italian family, the most cele- 
 rated of whom are Nicholas, count of Pitig- 
 ano, a Venetian general, time of the league of 
 Jambray, 1412-1510. His cousin, Lorenzo, or 
 Ienzo de Ceri, conquered the duchy of Urbino, 
 the interest of Leo X., and defended Rome 
 gainst the constable Bourbon, died 1536. Ful- 
 io, in the Latinized form, Fulvius Ursinus, a 
 istinguished scholar and antiquarian writer, 1529- 
 JOO. The popes, Nicholas III. and Benedict 
 III., were of this family, and a branch of the 
 mily entered the Neapolitan service, and became 
 e counts of Nola and dukes of Gradina. Fran- 
 3CO and Paolo, of this branch, were strangled 
 Sinegaglia by Caesar Borgia, and the cardinal 
 rsmi was poisoned by Caesar's father, the pope 
 lexander VI. See also Ursins. 
 ORTE, or ORTHES, H. D'Aspremont, Vis- 
 nnt D', governor of Bayonne at the period of 
 e massacre of St. Bartholomew, in which, to his 
 nour, he refused to participate. 
 ' RTEGA, C. G. De, a Span, botanist, 1730-1810. 
 RTELIUS, A., a Flem. geographer, 1527-1598. 
 RTON, Job, an Eng. dis. minister, 1717-1783. 
 RUS APOLLO, otherwise HORUS APOLLO, 
 i HO R APOLLO, the supposed author of two 
 ' ~.t books concerning the Hieroglyphics of the 
 ns, first published by Aldus in 1505, was 
 e of Egypt, and first taught as a gram- 
 at Alexandria, and then at Constantinople, 
 the reign of Theodosius, about 380. The 
 sting fragment known by his name is sup- 
 to be, substantially, of much older date, and 
 ive been written in the Egyptian tongue, the 
 ks we now have (according to this hypothesis) 
 g a reproduction or abridged version in Greek, 
 explanations of Orus Apollo have exercised a 
 . deal the curiositv of the learned, and some 
 signs are admitted to have the value he 
 to them. The book has often been repub- 
 ance the time of Aldus, and several times 
 a Latin version, the latest being that of 
 ans, Amsterdam, 1834. The following will 
 some idea of the meanings of Orus Apollo : 
 scarabaeus virility, paternity, strength ; the 
 fate and providence ; the dew, or soft rain 
 nne ; fire and water, as emblems of lustration 
 expiation puritv; the ox temperance and 
 ngtn ; the crocodile insane fury, rapacity, 
 fjndity; the frog an imperfect or unformed 
 nk; the lion's head watchfulness; the anterior 
 Rubers of the lion power ; the lamp burning 
 l the eye God ; the face without eyes, or two 
 f\ represented over a mask the manes, or 
 nrnal gods; the black dove constancy in 
 jbwhood. It is quite clear that this interesting 
 "pent of antiquity contains the remnant of 
 Xp traditions of remote times, mingled with 
 inventions or guesses. Orus Apollo gives the 
 frping of the cross as future life or salvation, 
 ^confesses that he cannot explain why. This 
 Je crux ansata, erroneously regarded as the key 
 W NUe, and usually held by Osiris. [E.R.J 
 
 OST 
 
 ORVILLE, J. P. D', a Dutch critic, 169G-1751. 
 
 ORY, F., a French jurisconsult, died 1657. 
 
 ORZECHOWSKI, Stanislaus, in Latin, Ori- 
 chovius, a Polish orator and historian, 16th cent. 
 
 OS, J. Van, a Dutch flower painter, 1744-1808. 
 His son, T. William, a landsc. painter, b. 1776. 
 
 OSBECK, P., a Swedish navigator, died 1805. 
 
 OSBORNE, Francis, a parliamentary and re- 
 publican statesman, formerly master of the horse 
 to the celebrated earl of Pembroke, known as an 
 historical and political writer, b. abt. 1588, d. 1658. 
 
 OSIANDER, Andrew, a celebrated protestant 
 theologian, who joined the party of Luther when 
 he declared against indulgences, and took part in 
 all the discussions when the confession of faith was 
 formed at Augsburgh. Born at Guntzenhausen, 
 in Franconia, 1498, died 1552. His son, Luke, 
 called the elder, a. famous controversialist, 1534- 
 1604. Luke, son of the latter, chancellor of the 
 university of Tubingen, 1570-1638. Andrew, 
 another son of the elder Luke, well known as a 
 theologian and commentator, 1562-1617. 
 
 OSIANDER, John Adam, a theologian and 
 philologist, professor at Tubingen, 1622-1697. His 
 son, of the same names, a physician, 1659-1708. 
 The son of the latter, who also bore the same 
 names, 1701-1756. John, son of the first John 
 Adam, distinguished as a philologist, 1657-1724. 
 
 OSIO, F., an Italian historical critic, 1587-1631. 
 
 OSIUS, a Spanish theologian, bishop of Cordova 
 at the period of the council of Nice, 256-358. 
 
 OSMAN, son of Ibrahim, emperor of the Turks, 
 who was taken captive when a child by certain 
 Maltese adventurers, and, being educated as a 
 Christian, became vicar-general of the Dominicans 
 at Malta : died 1676. 
 
 OSMAN-BEY, Nemsey, a Hungarian officer 
 in the service of Austria, who was born about 
 1740, and, when disgraced in his regiment, retired 
 to Constantinople and became a Moslem. He was 
 distinguished for his skill in archaeology and nu- 
 mismatics, and was murdered by his servants, 1785. 
 
 OSMOND, J. B. L., a Fr. wr. on books, d. 1775. 
 
 OSMUND, St., a bishop of Salisbury, 11th cent. 
 
 OSORIO, J., a Portuguese prelate, 1506-1580. 
 
 OSSENBEECK, J. Van, a D. painter, 1627-78. 
 
 OSSIAN, a Gaelic bard, who is supposed to have 
 lived in the 3d century, and is represented as the 
 son of Fingal, king of Morven. See Macpherson. 
 
 OSSOLI, the Countess, better known as Mar- 
 garet Fuller, was born in Massachusets, U.S., 
 1810, and when quite a girl was remarkable for 
 the avidity with which she applied herself to 
 classical and literary studies. She became mis- 
 tress of a brilliant reputation in Boston and New 
 York, chiefly founded on her conversational 
 powers, and the leading part she took in the 
 friendly conversazioni made up at her friends' 
 houses, and in a less degree on the genius and 
 sensibility displayed in her writings. In 1847, 
 while on a tour in Italy, she became the wife of 
 the marquis Ossoli, and on returning to America 
 in 1850, they both perished by shipwreck on the 
 beach of Fire Island. With her perished the MS. 
 of a work on Italy, containing the last and ripest 
 fruits of her genius. 
 
 OSSORY, Thomas, count of. See Ormond. 
 
 OSTADE, Adrian Van, a Dutch painter, 1610- 
 1685. His brother and pupil, Isaac, 1617-1671. 
 
 553 
 
OST 
 
 OSTERVALD, J. Frederic, a Swiss divine, 
 author of a Catechism and a History of the Bible, 
 1699-1747. 
 
 OSTERWICK, Maria Van, celebrated as a 
 tlower painter, born near Delft 1630, died 1693. 
 
 OSTIUS, a Latin poet, 1st centurv. 
 
 OSTROJSKI, vaivode of Kieff, died 1608. 
 
 OSTROWSKI, a Polish general, 16th century. 
 
 OSTROWSKI, Th. Adrian Rawicz, a Polish 
 statesman and friend of the constitution, 1739-1817. 
 
 OSWALD, a saint and king of Northumberland, 
 converted, and killed in battle 642. Another St. 
 Oswald, bishop of Worcester and York, died 922. 
 
 OSWALD, E., an Austrian savant, 1511-1579. 
 
 OSWALD, J., a Scottish philosopher, last cent. 
 
 OSYMANDIAS, a king of Thebes, who built 
 the Memnonium, b.c. 2000. 
 
 OTFRID, a German poet and divine, 9th cent. 
 
 OTHER, OHTHER, or OTTAR, a Norwegian 
 traveller of the age of Alfred the Great. 
 
 OTHMAN, or OSMAN, the founder of the Otto- 
 man empire and the dynasty of the Osmanlis, was 
 a Turkish chief who made himself master of Bithy- 
 nia, flourished 1259-1326. A second, of the same 
 name, w r as the sixteenth Ottoman sultan, reigned 
 1618-1622. A third, who was the twenty-fifth 
 sultan, reigned 1754-1774. 
 
 OTHMAN AL RHADY, Aboue Said, a king 
 of Fez and Morocco, reigned 1310-1331. 
 
 OTHMAN-IBN-AFFAN, son-in-law of Maho- 
 met, succeeded to Omar as third caliph 644. He 
 was murdered by Mohammed, son of Abubekr, 656. 
 
 OTHO, emperor of Rome, reigned 32-69. 
 
 OTHO L, emperor of Germany, distinguished as 
 the Great, was the eldest son of Henry the Fowler, 
 duke of Saxony. He was born 912, elected king 
 of Germany 936, and crowned emperor 962, after 
 subduing Bohemia and Italy, besides waging a suc- 
 cessful warfare with Nicephorus, emperor of the 
 East. Died 973. Otho II., son of the preceding, 
 was born 955, consecrated king of Lombardy 962, 
 and reigned as emperor after his father 973-983. 
 Otho III., son and successor of the latter, was a 
 boy when his father died, and died when only thirty 
 years of age, probably of poison; 1002. Otho IV., 
 son of Henry, the lion duke of Saxony, was born 
 about 1175, and succeeded 1197. He was not re- 
 cognized over all Germany till 1208, nor conse- 
 crated till 1209. In 1214 he was totally defeated 
 by Philip Augustus. Died 1218. 
 
 OTHO, duke of Saxony, was the first hereditary 
 lord of that country, and reigned from 880 to 912. 
 Otho II., same as the first emperor of that name. 
 
 OTHO, a duke of Burgundy, 956-965. 
 
 OTHO, the first of the name, count of Bur- 
 gundy, third son of the emperor Frederick I., suc- 
 ceede'd him in the county 1190, died 1200. The 
 second of the name succeeded the preceding by 
 marrying his widow, Beatrice, 1200, and died 1234. 
 The third, son of the preceding, died 1248. The 
 fourth, eldest son and sue. of Alix, 1279, d. 1302. 
 
 OTHO of Bavaria, elected king of Hungary 
 1305, was compelled to abdicate 1307. Otho, duke 
 of Suabia, obtained the duchy of Bavaria in 976, 
 and was killed the same year. The second Otho 
 of Bavaria received the duchy from Agnes, mother 
 of Henry IV., in 1061, and was slain after many 
 reverses in 1083. The third, called ' the Great,' 
 was nominated by Frederic Barbarossa, and reigned 
 
 OTR 
 
 1180-11S3. The fourth, called the Illustrious, I 
 
 ceeded his father, Louis I., 1231, died 1253. j 
 
 OTHO of Brunswick. See Bnuxswicfl 
 
 OTHO, Henry, Count Palatine, reig. 155(Wl 
 
 OTHO, St., the apostle of Pomerania, 1060-lB 
 
 OTHO, or OTTO, bishop of Freysingen, sol 
 
 Leopold, margrave of Austria, and Agnes, daug { 
 
 of the emperor Henry IV., celebrated as a cl 
 
 nicler ; died 1158. 
 
 OTHO, OTHON, or OTTON, George, a I 
 Orientalist and rabbinical philosopher, 1634-lB 
 OTRANTO, Joseph Fouche, duke of, ml 
 ter of police under Buonaparte, was born at Naif 
 in 1763. When the revolution broke out he r ( 
 himself conspicuous by the extravagance of his B 
 angues in the patriot club of that city, and in } 
 was sent to the convention. His career as a teacbM 
 philosophy before the revolution was probaj^H 
 reason of his appointment, in convention, onH 
 Committee of Public Instruction. This ^^H 
 however, presented little scope for his amli^^^H 
 he soon worked himself into the Committea^^H 
 ance. In this capacity he displayed his abi^^H 
 realizing a good deal of confiscated proper: 
 use of government ; and his public spirit waS 
 highly approved that he was next sent ^^^| 
 battalion of troops in the city of Troyes. T^H 
 of Louis XVI. was now approaching, and -^^H 
 who had identified himself with the party O^^H 
 voted for the instant execution of the king. ^^H 
 tember, 1793, he was sent to the deparl 
 the Nievre, to see the decrees of the co^^H 
 executed ; and besides suppressing public ^^H 
 he loaded himself with the spoil of the c^^H 
 This mission being satisfactorily execute 
 associated with that of Collot D'Herbois to LjLl 
 and there the most horrible atrocities WQ^H 
 mitted. His maxim was, that nothing O^H 
 arrest the will of the people, ' the explosio^^H 
 mine, the devouring activity of the flame, sh 1 1 
 express their power . . . their determinant r 
 like that of the tyrant, should be felt as a thun { 
 clap.' Such was the language of the day to wAI 
 Fouch6 lent himself with Jesuitical cunning; jl 
 for him there is no apology, as for a Marat, ir. 
 sincerity. ' Brought up in a cloister, F< 
 learnt that monkish humility which stoops on! > 
 rise the higher; and he devoted himsel 
 tyranny of the people, until he became tl 
 ment of a new Caesar. More of an actor ' 
 than Collot was by profession, he played t 
 a Brutus with the soul of Sejanus.' 1 1 e w 
 then, in his real element ; the overthrow 
 the disgrace of the cross and the Bible, 
 caused to be dragged through the street 
 tail of an ass, the plunder of mansions i 
 churches, and the wholesale butcheries of tl 
 of Lyons, were coolly calculated 
 for popular influence. After the 
 pierre accusations were heard against him 
 sides, and in June, 1795, he was driven out 
 convention. Enabled to return by the M 
 October, Fouche remained quiet for aboul 
 years, and then, under the Directory, becai 
 succession ambassador to Milan, 
 Holland, and minister of police. This latti 
 the very function for which nature had orgj 
 Fouche', and for which his career had thoro 
 prepared him. He was to the political Jesu 
 
 enes or tne r 
 the price \i 
 fall of Roll- 
 
 tinst him orjl 
 
 554 
 
OTB 
 
 Hhat Buonaparte became to the army ; in him the 
 jative cunning of the born conspirator and the 
 [jnished spy arrayed itself against the daring of 
 jhe soldier, and the genius of the statesman. He 
 ras wise enough to be aware that power like his 
 auld only be exercised in secret, and hence his 
 illingness to contribute to the establishment of 
 apoleon as consul ; the successful soldier, on the 
 ther hand, seems to have been always conscious 
 the meanness and danger of employing such an 
 strument ; but in this he had no choice, for un- 
 he would have assassinated Fouche\ the only 
 eans of keeping such a man harmless, was to 
 nploy him in his own interest. Fouche had 
 ixed with men of all parties, was thoroughly 
 nversant with their projects, and held the 
 reads of a thousand conspiracies in his hands, 
 poleon finding such a man in authority, and his 
 stem of espionage in full action, continued him 
 office till the peace of Amiens in 1802, when his 
 actions were united to those of the minister of 
 stice, M. Regnier, and Fouche was sent to Aix 
 the dignity of senator. In 1806, after Napo- 
 >n had become emperor, a new coalition was 
 gainst him, and to meet certain of its 
 lergencies, Fouche resumed his post as minister of 
 lice ; his evening parties from this time becom- 
 more brilliant than ever, for he was now created 
 of Otranto, and opened his drawing-room to 
 old French nobility, many of whom acted as 
 spies. Napoleon in the midst of his brilliant 
 s, was restive under the general persuasion 
 lurope that his throne was dependent on such 
 I yet he retained the minister till his 
 je with the Austrian princess, when he 
 supposed that his dynasty was established, 
 ing that event in 1809, Fouche had made 
 ng exhibition of his power. During Na- 
 ,'s absence in the campaign concluded by the 
 of Schonbrunn, the English made a descent 
 Belgium. Fouche* at this time was minister 
 interior as well as minister of police, and 
 .t consulting the emperor, he organized an 
 of the National Guard with astonishing 
 dity, and having put Bemadotte at its head, 
 was not in favour with Napoleon, sent him 
 pel the enemy ; about the same time he had, 
 ally, his own private agent at the court of St. 
 ?s's in the person of M. Ouvrard. The com- 
 mons arising out of these circumstances de- 
 ined the emperor's course, and after his 
 id marriage Fouche* was appointed governor 
 iome, the duke of Rovigo becoming minister of 
 interior. It was well understood that this 
 nge was equivalent to his disgrace, and Fouche* 
 ained in a splendid retirement till the disas- 
 I is campaign of Russia in 1812, when the em- 
 ' >r, sensible of the mischief he might now do, ap- 
 ited him governor of the Illyrian provinces, and 
 the loss of Germany, still to keep him at a 
 dpnce, governor of Naples. The services of 
 ^Bwere not enlisted by the provisional govern- 
 ttt of 1814, and there is a question how far he 
 Ha party in any way to Napoleon's return from 
 ft. He resumed his old function, however, 
 ifiinister of police during the hundred days, and 
 W the battle of Waterloo, advised the emperor 
 abdicate, at the same time making his own 
 He with the Bourbons at Ghent. The cervices 
 
 OUD 
 
 of Fouch6 were retained some time by Louis 
 XVIII., but he soon found his position untenable, 
 and thought it convenient to make good his retreat 
 by going as ambassador to Dresden. The law of 
 1816, passed generally against all the regicides, 
 deprived him of this last political refuge, and after 
 travelling some time in Germany, he settled at 
 Trieste. Fouche* died in 1820, leaving a fortune 
 estimated at half- a-million sterling. [E.R.] 
 
 OTT, John Henry, a Swiss divine, 1617-1682. 
 His son, J. Baptist, eel. as an Orientalist, b. 1661. 
 
 OTT, Pet. Chari.es, Baron, an Austrian field, 
 marshal, disting. against the Turks, and more re- 
 cently in the wars of Italy against France, d. 1800. 
 
 OTTER, John, a Swedish Orientalist, 1707-48. 
 
 OTTH, Adolphus, a Swiss physician, 1803-39. 
 
 OTTINI, Pascal, an Italian painter, d. 1630. 
 
 OTTLEY, William Young, late keeper of the 
 prints in the British Museum, author of works con - 
 nected with the fine arts, including a critical cata- 
 logue of the National Gallery, ' The Italian School 
 of Design,' ' The Origin and Early History of En- 
 graving,' &c, 1772-1836. 
 
 OTTO. See Guericke. 
 
 OTTO, Everhard, a Ger.juriscon., 1685-1756. 
 
 OTTO, Louis William, Count De Moslay, a 
 French diplomatist, who negotiated the marriage 
 of Napoleon with Marie Louise, 1754-1817. 
 
 OTTO, ViENius, an Italian painter, 1556-1634. 
 
 OTWAY, Thomas, was born in 1651, at his 
 father's parsonage in Sussex. From Winchester 
 school he was sent to Oxford, but left the univer- 
 sity for London in his twenty-first year, without a 
 degree. Going on the stage, he failed completely, 
 and began to write plays in 1675. His tragedy 
 of ' Don Carlos ' was extremely popular ; two or 
 three comic pieces, though very indifferent, were 
 licentious enough to please the debauched patrons 
 of the theatres : the author was likewise a jovial 
 companion ; and one of Charles IL's natural sons 
 procured for him, in 1677, a commission in the 
 army then serving in Flanders. Very soon, how- 
 ever, he retired from service, returned to London 
 in great poverty, and recommenced authorship. He 
 now wrote some translations, and many occasional 
 and miscellaneous poems, and produced a new 
 series of plays. Among these were the two 
 tragedies through which his name is remembered : 
 'The Orphan ' appeared in 1680, and 'Venice Pre- 
 served' m 1682. Both of these, especially the 
 latter, abound in that deep pathos which was so 
 cordially admired by Dryden, and which attracted 
 the sympathy of the poetic and imaginative Collins. 
 Otway continued to be poor ; and his unfortunate 
 life came to a close in his thirty -fourth year. He 
 died, 1685, in a house in Tower-Hill, where he was 
 hiding from his creditors ; and it is asserted that, 
 suffering from hunger, he eagerly swallowed a 
 crust of bread, and was choked hy it. [W.S.1 
 
 OUDENARDE. See Audenaerd. 
 
 OUDENDORP, F. D', aD. philolog., 1696-1761. 
 
 OUDET, Ja. Joseph, a French officer, born 
 about 1773, killed at Wagram, 1809. 
 
 OUDIN, Casimer, a French monk, author of 
 ' Commentaries on the Ancient Writings of the 
 Church,' 1638-1717. 
 
 OUDIN, Cvesar, a French interpreter and diplo- 
 matist, time of Henry IV., author of a translation 
 of Don Quixote, died 1625. His son, Anthony- 
 
 555 
 
OUD 
 
 of the same profession, and author of a history of 
 the Flemish wars, died 1653. 
 
 OUDIN, C. F., a French writer, 17th century. 
 
 OUDIN, F., a Jesuit and Latin poet, 1673-1752. 
 
 OUDINET, M. A., a Fr. medallist, 1643-1712. 
 
 OUDINOT, Charles Nicholas, duke of Reg- 
 gio, and marshal of France, was the son of a mer- 
 chant, and was born at Bar-Sur-Ornain 1767. He 
 entered the army when nineteen years of age, 
 and when the revolution broke out held the rank 
 of captain. He embraced the popular cause, and 
 rising to the rank of general, accompanied Massena 
 into Italy as one of his staff-officers in 1799. His 
 fortunes from this time were linked with those of 
 Napoleon till the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 
 1814, when he became a Bourbonist. In that 
 character he headed the army that invaded Spain 
 in 1823, and was resident at Madrid some months 
 as governor. In 1830, true to his principles, he 
 adhered to the new dynasty. He succeeded Mar- 
 shal Moncey as governor of the Invalides 1842, 
 and died 1847. 
 
 OUDRY, J. B., a French painter, 1686-1755. 
 
 OUGHTRED, Wm., a minister of the Church 
 of England, dist. as a mathematician, 1574-1660. 
 
 OULOUGH-BEYG. See Ulugh-Betgh. 
 
 OULTNEMAN, Henry D', a Flemish historian, 
 1546-1605. His br., Philip, an ascetic, died 1652. 
 
 OUSEL. See Oisel. 
 
 OUSELEY, Sir William, an Oriental scholar 
 and wr. on Persian history and literat., 1771-1842. 
 
 OUTHIER, R., a Fr. astronomer, 1694-1774. 
 
 OUTRAM, or OWTRAM, William, a Church 
 of England minister, celebrated for his learning as 
 a theologian, 1625-1679. 
 
 OUVILLE, Antoine Le Metel D', a French 
 dramatist and translator, died about 1656. 
 
 OU VRARD, Julian, a French grocer who be- 
 came contractor to the army, and ultimately a 
 political employe, died in England 1847. 
 
 OUVRARD, Rene, a French ecclesiastic," (lis- 
 ting, as a writer on music and polemics, died 1694. 
 
 OUWATER, A. Van, a D. painter, 14th cent. 
 
 OUWATER, J., a Dutch painter, 1747-1793. 
 
 OVENS, Jurien, a Dutch painter, 1620-1668. 
 
 OVERALL, John, a learned prelate, author of 
 a work entitled ' The Convocation Book,' written 
 in opposition to Parsons, to advocate the divine 
 right of government. He had a share also in the 
 translation of the Bible and the Church Catechism. 
 Born 1559, died bishop of Norwich 1619. 
 
 OVERBECK, Bonaventure Van, a Dutch 
 historical painter and designer, 1660-1706. 
 
 OVERBURY, Sir Thomas, known as an ele- 
 gant miscellaneous writer, but more especially for 
 his tragical death at the instance of the carl of 
 Rochester and the countess of Essex, was bom in 
 Warwickshire about 1581. He contracted an in- 
 timacy with the earl, then Robert Carr, at the 
 court of James I., and provoked the anger of the 
 countess by endeavouring to dissuade his friend 
 from marrying her; the fact being that he was 
 privy to their intrigues, and well acquainted with 
 the infamous character of the lady. Rochester 
 had the address to procure the imprisonment of 
 his friend in the Tower of London, by creating a 
 cause of offence between him and the king, and, 
 some months later, caused him to be poisoned there, 
 September 15, 1613. Though suspicions were en- 
 
 OVI 
 
 tertained at the time, it was not till 1616 that II 
 deed of darkness was discovered, when the infe: J 
 agents were all apprehended, tried, and executj 
 Rochester, now eari of Somerset, and the counbf 
 were also tried and condemned, but they were b[ 
 pardoned by the king, for private reasons, 
 nephew of Sir Thomas Overbury, who bore ( 
 same names, and inherited his estates, was^H 
 of some curious tracts, published 1676-1677. J 
 OVID. Publius Ovidius Naso, the lh 
 poet of the Romans, was born at Sulmo, (now 5! 
 mone,) a town in the country of the Peligni, ab 
 ninety miles south-east from Rome, on the 2if 
 of March, b.c. 43, the year which witnesi^H 
 fall of the Roman consuls under the walls of jjc 
 dena, the formation of the second triumvirate, if 
 the cruel murder of Cicero. The leading eve' 
 of his life have been transmitted to us co^H 
 his own writings. His father belonged to an 
 equestrian family, and the future poet was : 
 second son, his elder brother being exactly twe 
 months his senior. At an early age he was brouj 
 to Rome along with his brother, and tbe^H 
 cated under the most distinguished masten^^H 
 the usual period arrived he repaired to Athens 
 the purpose of completing his studies; and, befj 
 returning to Rome, visited, along with the jp 
 Macer, the magnificent cities of Asia Minor. (5 
 had manifested even in boyhood a decided taste 
 poetical composition; but his father, believing tlj 
 poetry did not necessarily lead to wealth or pot 
 cal distinction, endeavoured to check the youth; 
 aspirations of his son, and urged him to adopt l! 
 profession of law, as that which opened up to h' 
 the highest offices of the state. Parental n 
 thority for a time prevailed, and his poeti] 
 studies gave place to attendance in the foru 
 On attaining the legal age, he performed succ- 
 sively the duties of several of the minor offices 
 state; but his bodily health and his mental cti 
 stitution alike disqualified him for active or pub' 
 life. Poetry was his delight ; and, therefb j 
 notwithstanding the remonstrances of his fath 
 he resolved to abandon the forum, and to dev(, 
 himself exclusively to the cultivation of the mus 
 He now courted the society of the most emint 
 poets of the day; and the admiration which 
 cherished for them is pleasingly evinced by 1 
 statement, that, when they were assembled, : 
 regarded them as so many divinities. Among )\ 
 most intimate friends were Macer, Property 
 Ponticus, and Bassus. Ovid was married thi,' 
 times. His first wife, to whom he was unit 1 
 when scarcely beyond boyhood, was, he tells t. 
 unworthy of his affection, so that the union wj 
 of short duration ; the second, though of Warn 
 less character, was also soon discarded, witho 
 any serious charge being alleged against her. t 
 third wife, who belonged to the Fabian 
 appears to have been every way worthy of t 
 sincere affection which the poet entertained 1 
 her till the day of his death. By her he had 
 daughter, Perilla, who was twice married, at 
 had a child by each husband. Till the end of 1 
 fiftieth year, Ovid had spent a life of unint* 
 rupted prosperity and enjoyment. His fortui 
 though moderate, placed within his i 
 luxuries of refined life, and his fame as a pc 
 collected around him a large circle ol 
 
 556 
 
OVI 
 
 livers. The favour and patronage of Augustus 
 the imperial family were also extended to him. 
 ; a reverse of fortune, as sudden as it was 
 xpecfed, was destined to overtake him. At 
 close of the year a.d. 8. he was ordered by 
 imperial edict to transport himself to Tomi, a 
 >ny in the country of the Getse, on the shore 
 he Enxine, a little to the south of the mouths 
 the Danube. Eesistance was vain. Over- 
 limed with grief he tore himself from the arms 
 is afflicted wife, and set out in the month of 
 ;mber for the place of his destination, which 
 eached the following spring. The cause of 
 banishment is a question which has long 
 cised the ingenuitv of scholars; and though 
 >us solutions of it have been proposed, it still 
 inues to be a subject of discussion. The 
 isible reason was the immoral tendency of 
 Art of Love, which had been published for 
 y two years, and to this Ovid frequently 
 es ; but there is no room for doubt that the 
 \l of the emperor had been excited by some 
 aid more grave offence. The poet himself 
 res that his offence was an inadvertence, 
 r than a crime ; but his expressions, when 
 ng to it, are ambiguous, and even incon- 
 t This sudden transition from the luxury 
 efinement of Rome to the inhospitable soil 
 ' 'te barbarism of Moesia, would have tested 
 y even the sternest philosophy ; and it 
 be admitted that Ovid did not display great 
 in submitting to his fate. He died at 
 a.d. 18, in the sixtieth year of his age, and 
 nth of his banishment. Ovid was born a 
 he 'lisped in numbers, for the numbers 
 ' and that he possessed high poetical 
 is unquestionable. His judgment and 
 however, are sometimes at fault, and the 
 fancy and warmth of colouring displayed 
 parts of his works are required to counter- 
 the false taste and frigid conceit which 
 themselves in others. At the same time, 
 be granted that no poet, either ancient or 
 has expressed beautiful thoughts in more 
 ppjiriate language. The works of Ovid con- 
 the A mores, or Loves, in three books ; 
 roides, or Heroical Epistles, twenty-one in 
 r; the Ars Amatoria, or Art of Love; the 
 ia Amoris ; the Metamorphoses, in fifteen 
 M the Fasti, in six books; the Tristia, in 
 poks ; the Epistles from Pontus, in four 
 li besides some minor poems. [G.F-] 
 
 EDO, A. De, a Spanish prelate, died 1577. 
 OEDO, Gonzalo Fernandes De, a Spanish 
 iftWho became director of the gold and silver 
 Wf Hayti, and is known as one of the earliest 
 id jst historians of the New World. He was 
 Mverer of the curative virtues of guaiacum. 
 nt Madrid abt. 1478, date of his death unkn. 
 O^IX, a famous British or Welch name borne 
 ' n of Mexen Wledig, who was elected king 
 ftjime of the Romans, and is numbered with 
 its. Another wain was prince of 
 AllO-1114, when he was killed by Gerald, 
 We of Pembroke, whose wife he had seduced. 
 W Owain Civeilog, known as a warrior 
 , died about 1197. 
 OJIlN-ULANDWR. See Glendower. 
 OV IN, or OWEN TUDOR, the grandfather 
 
 
 OWE 
 
 of Henry VII., was lord of Pennrynydd, in Angle- 
 sea. In 1426 he married Catharine", the widow of 
 Henry V., and had three sons by her. The eldest 
 became a monk. The second was Edmund, earl 
 of Richmond, father of Henry VII., and the third, 
 Jasper, earl of Pembroke. 
 
 OWEN, George, an English physician, d. 1558. 
 
 OWEN, Henry, a learned divine of the Church 
 of England, born in Merionethshire 1716, died in 
 London 1795. He is author of ' Observations on 
 the Four Gospels,' ' The Intent and Propriety of 
 the Scripture Miracles,' ' An Inquiry into the Pre- 
 sent State of the Septuagint Version of the Old 
 Testament,' an ' Introduction to Hebrew Criti- 
 cism,' a ' Treatise on Trigonometry,' &c. 
 
 OWEN, John, D.D., a scion of an ancient 
 Welch family, was born in 1616 at Stadham, Ox- 
 fordshire. His precocious talents and acquire- 
 ments procured him admission into Queen's Col- 
 lege at the age of twelve, and he was made Mas- 
 ter of Arts at nineteen. Devoted to his studies at 
 that age, he spent only four hours in bed, but at 
 the same time was fond of all manly and athletic 
 sports, which tended greatly to give vigour and 
 stamina to his constitution. When only twenty- 
 one, he headed the students in a determined resis- 
 tance to some superstitious rites which the then 
 chancellor of Oxford, Archbishop Laud, designed to 
 impose: and though successful in putting down 
 the innovation, Owen paid dearly for the part he 
 acted, for he was obliged to leave the university. 
 He immediately took orders, although he entered 
 into no pastoral duties owing to the state of his 
 bodily as well as mental health, for he became 
 subject for a time to a deep and desponding anxiety 
 about his spiritual interests. Owen's prospects in 
 life were greatly affected by the part ne acted on 
 the outbreak of the civil war. Having zealously 
 espoused the parliamentary cause, an incensed 
 uncle, who had promised to make him heir to his 
 large estate, expunged his name from his will ; and 
 he was left accordingly to his own resources. He 
 went an entire stranger to London, and there com- 
 menced his career of authorship by publishing his 
 1 Display of Arminianism,' a work suitedto the 
 times. The society for purging the church of here- 
 sies rewarded him through their Chairman with the 
 living of Frodham in Essex, and during the year 
 and a-half he resided in that parish, his popularity 
 as a preacher was so great, that crowds flocked to 
 hear him from all the surrounding districts. He 
 resigned this living for a charge at Coggeshall, a 
 market town about five miles distant, where he 
 changed from the presbyterian form of church 
 government to the congregational, as being more 
 accordant with the primitive church of the New 
 Testament. His name and character had risen so 
 high, that he was invited to preach before the par- 
 liament on 20th April, 1646, and on several occa- 
 sions afterwards he performed the same duty, being 
 selected particularly from his energy as well as his 
 full approval of the proceeding to preach before 
 that body on the day after the execution of Charles 
 I. He became a favourite with Cromwell, who 
 took him as his chaplain first to Ireland, and at 
 a later period into Scotland. On returning home, 
 his design was to resume his pastoral labours 
 at Coggeshall. But the parliament having no- 
 minated him dean of the university of Oxford, he 
 
 557 
 
OWE 
 
 removed thither in 1651, and was soon after chosen 
 vice-chancellor. Daring his administration of the 
 chancellorship, which he held for five years, he ren- 
 dered important services, and by his moderation, 
 jimid the sectarian contests that were then bitterly 
 carried on, secured the love and respect of all par- 
 ties. His duties as chancellor, though onerous, were 
 not allowed to interfere either with his labour in 
 preaching, or his pursuit in literature. He preached 
 every Sabbath at St. Mary's, and he published seve- 
 ral of his best works, such as ' The Perseverance of 
 the Saints,' in 1(354, ' The Vindiciae Evengelicae, or 
 the Mystery of the Gospel Vindicated,' and 'Com- 
 munion with God,' which has been valued by many 
 as one of his greatest performances. The restora- 
 tion of the Stuart dynasty led, amongst other 
 changes of government, to Owen's ejection from his 
 university offices: and, having gone to reside at 
 Stadham, a small estate he possessed, lived there 
 in retirement, till, things having become settled 
 and tranquil, he ventured to return to London, and 
 take a public share in works connected with the in- 
 terests of religion and learning. The rancour of the 
 royalist and High Church party raged so violently 
 against dissenters generally, and Owen in particular, 
 that he contemplated seriously two successive offers 
 made him of important offices in American colleges. 
 His personal safety was sometimes endangered, for on 
 one occasion, his mansion at Stadham was beset 
 by troopers, and he narrowly escaped being made 
 prisoner, by flight through a postern door. He was, 
 even when invested with power and the chief 
 direction of affairs, an enlightened and consistent 
 advocate of the right of private judgment and re- 
 ligious toleration. A brief period of respite was 
 f ranted to the nonconformists, during Bucking- 
 am's administration which commenced in 1667, 
 and Owen undertook the charge of a numerous 
 and influential congregation in Leadenhall-Street. 
 But this interval of indulgence was of short dura- 
 tion. A bill against conventicles was passed into 
 a law in 1670, and by the fines and imprisonments 
 it imposed, gave a heavy blow and great discour- 
 agement to the cause of dissent. Owen about 
 this time began to decline in health. His great 
 and long-continued labours had made serious in- 
 roads on a frame naturally robust and athletic, and 
 having retired to a house at Ealing, occupied him- 
 self in preparing his last work, 'The Glory of 
 Christ,' for the press. He expired on 24th August, 
 1683, and was interred in the cemetery of Bunhill 
 Fields. Owen has been often styled ' The Prince 
 of Divines,' and his works, though marked by the 
 tedious prolixity of the age, are a storehouse of 
 valuable matter. [R.J.] 
 
 OWEN, John, a Welch epigrammatist, d. 1622. 
 
 OWEN, John, a minister of the Church of Eng- 
 land, born about 1765, known as the secretary and 
 historian of the Bible Society. He wrote also, 
 | Pieflections on the State of Religion and Politics 
 in France and Great Britain,' and ' The Christian 
 Monitor for the Last Days.' Died 1822. 
 
 OWEN, Lewis, a Welch Jesuit, horn 1572. 
 
 OWEN, Thomas, a learned judge, died 1598. 
 
 OWEN, William, one of the ablest English 
 portrait painters, was born at Ludlow in Shropshire 
 in 1769. He came to London, by the advice of 
 Payne Knight, at the early age of seventeen, and 
 became the pupil of Catton the Royal Academician. 
 
 OXE 
 
 He attracted also the notice of Sir Joshua Rej 
 nolds by a copy he made of the ' Perdita ' of tbJ 
 painter. Owen first exhibited at the Royal Act! 
 demy in 1792 ; his connections increased soruH 
 that in the following year he exhibited seven po:i 
 traits. He frequently very much enhanced tl< 
 value of his portraits by making them general, 
 interesting as fancy pictures, such as 'Venni; 
 ' The Bacchante' 'Cottage Child from Natur, 
 'The Children in the Wood,' &c. Hissucce! 
 was certainly very great; notwithstanding tlj 
 rivalry of Lawrence, Beechey, and Hoppner; ], 
 had painted the Lord Chancellor and William Pij 
 before his thirtieth year ; and the list of Owerj 
 portraits comprises a very large proportion of tj 
 men of rank and talent of the early part of tlj 
 century. He was superior to Lawrence in maj 
 heads : they were void of the simpering prcttim, 
 and delicacy of complexion which injure many 
 Lawrence's heads: the sitting full length 
 William Scott, Lord Stowell, in his robes, is wort ' 
 of Vandyck. He was elected a member of t 
 Royal Academy in 1806 ; in 1810 he was maj 
 principal portrait painter to the Prince Regeij 
 and in 1813 he declined the honour of knighthoci 
 He died 11th February, 1825, in his fifty-six 
 year, after a lingering illness, though the'imnj 
 diate cause of death was his taking opium inste 
 of an aperient draught, owing to the mistake 
 the druggist, who had misplaced the Ij^^H 
 (Cunningham, Lives of the Most Eminen 
 Painters, &c.) [R.N.V 
 
 OWTRAM. See Outram. 
 
 OXBERRY, W. H., a popular Englis] 
 dian, 1808-1851. 
 
 OXENBRIDGE, J., an Eng. theolog., l^H 
 
 OXENSTIERNA, Axel, Count, one of I 
 greatest statesmen that Sweden ever produc 
 was born at Fano in Upland, 1583, and educa 
 in several of the German universities. He mi 
 his first appearance at court in the reign 
 Charles IX., father of Gustavus Adolphus, : 
 was employed in an important diploma; ii 
 as earlv as 1606. Gustavus and Oxenstierna w 
 great friends, and when the former succeeded i 
 the crown in the eighteenth year of his age, 
 latter, only ten years older, stood by his sid 
 high chancellor. From that time, 1611, to 
 majority of Christina, 1644, the name of Ox 
 stierna occupies a large space in Swedish hist* 
 indeed in the history of Europe, as the politi 
 antagonist of Richelieu. Gustavus re] 
 most unlimited confidence in his he; 
 statesmanship, and we shall seeimmcii; 
 Christina, though far from feeling the sail 
 ship for him as her father, was compelled to do h( 
 age to his true worth and ability. We ca 1 1 
 a few principal dates to mark his career. In 1 ; 
 he negotiated the peace between Sweden 
 mark. In 1617 he concluded the peaci 
 bova, which followed the Russian cam] 
 in 1630, when Gustavus took the field aj 
 imperialists, he was invested with full 
 in all civil and military affairs on the K 
 the fall of the Swedish hero at Lutzen, 163! 
 devolved on the chancellor to take me 
 the security of the kingdom, and i ; 
 
 trusted him with full powers, so that, in fac 
 became virtual king during the minority of C 
 
 558 
 
OXE 
 
 a. The burden of the war and the administra- 
 n both rested on his shoulders, and he -was not 
 : man to shrink from the responsibility of either. 
 October, 1633, he presented his memorial to 
 council, which embraced a complete plan of 
 jlic defence and finance, provided for the im- 
 vement of towns, the abolition of burdens on 
 ie, and the security of civil freedom. He was 
 essarily intrusted with great power, and it is a 
 of of his greatness that he retained it without 
 ng his popularity; and though it was a period 
 eform and reorganization, he consolidated the 
 e, and placed the daughter of his friend on an 
 npaired throne. In 1642 Christina began to 
 ide at the council ; in 1644 she assumed the 
 >rnment, and in the month of August, 1645, 
 nstierna concluded the peace of Denmark, on 
 ;h occasion she created him count of Soder- 
 le. He was, of course, a principal party to the 
 lusion of the thirty years' war, Dy the peace of 
 Itphalia, 1648, and sent his son, John Oxen- 
 ins, as plenipotentiary to the convention of the 
 |M its on that occasion : it was in answer to his 
 a essions of diffidence that the chancellor used 
 lb rords which have become proverbial, ' You do 
 ow, my son, with how little wisdom men 
 erned!' Oxenstiema vainly opposed the 
 tion of the queen to abdicate, and he died a 
 ths afterwards in the same year, 1654. 
 the daughter of Gustavus writes of him : 
 great man had large attainments, having 
 much in his youth. He contrived to read 
 midst of his great occupations. He had a 
 capacity and knowledge of the affairs and 
 of the world. He knew the strong and 
 reak points of all the states of our Europe. 
 
 PAD 
 
 He had consummate wisdom and prudence, a vast 
 capacity, a great heart. He was indefatigable. 
 He had an assiduity and application to business 
 incomparable. He made it his pleasure and his 
 only occupation ; and when he took relaxation his 
 diversion was business. He was sober, as much 
 as one could be in an age and country where that 
 virtue was unknown. He was a full sleeper, and 
 said that no affair had ever hindered him from 
 sleeping in his life except twice : the first was the 
 death of the late king, the other the loss of the 
 battle of Nordlingen. He has often told me that 
 when he went to rest he stript off his cares with 
 his clothes, and let them repose till the next day. 
 For the rest, he was ambitious but faithful, incor- 
 ruptible, a little too slow and phlegmatic' [E.R.] 
 
 OZANAM, J., a Fr. mathematician, 1640-1717. 
 
 OZAROUSKI, Peter, hetman or grand-general 
 of the crown of Poland, hung by the people of War- 
 saw as a partizan of the Russians, 1794. 
 
 OZELL, John, an English writer of great learn- 
 ing and industry, whose principal works are trans- 
 lations from the French, Italian, and Spanish. 
 Among these are Don Quixote, Fenelon on Learn- 
 ing, Rabelais, a complete version of Moliere, and 
 some of the dramas of Corneille and Racine. He 
 is introduced into the Dunciad by Pope, whose 
 rival he was. He d. in the office of auditor for St. 
 Paul's Cathedral and St. Thomas's Hospital, 1743. 
 
 OZERETZKOVSKI, Nikolai Yakowle- 
 witsch, a Russian naturalist, 1750-1827. 
 
 OZEROFF, Wladislav Alexandrovitsch, 
 a Russian officer, dist. as a dramatic wr., 1770-1816. 
 
 OZI, Stephen, a French composer, 1754-1805. 
 
 OZIAS, the chief of Bethulia, when it was be- 
 sieged by Holofernes. See Holofernes, Judith. 
 
 ; AW, Peter, a Dutch botanist, 1564-1617. 
 (CATIANUS, Titus Claudius Marcius, 
 usurper, killed by Decius about 249. 
 JATUS, Latinus Drepanius, a poet and 
 of the time of Theodosius the Great, 4th c, 
 JDCA, Bartolomeo, Cardinal, born at Bene- 
 1756, was raised to that dignity by Pius 
 a 1801, and distinguished himself in the 
 i of the succeeding period as the enemy of 
 who twice imprisoned him. He retired 
 affairs in 1824, and has since published 
 oirs.' Died 1844. 
 
 IONI, A., an Ital. anatom., 1664-1726. 
 
 OLI, L\, an Ital. mathematician, 16th a 
 
 )RI, A., an ascetic writer, 1649-1730. 
 
 or PACIO, an Ital. juriscon., 1550-1635. 
 
 or PAICE, Richard, one of the most 
 
 diplomatists and men of learning in the 
 
 ry, was born in Hampshire about 1482, 
 
 eu at the university of Padua. He com- 
 
 his public life in the service of Cardinal 
 
 e, or Bainbridge, whom he accompanied 
 
 and was afterwards often employed in 
 
 by Wolsey. Having fallen under the 
 
 of that haughty prelate, he was impri- 
 
 r o years in the Tower; and his mind was 
 
 affected that, in the later years of his life, 
 
 only in the possession of his faculties at 
 
 He wrote several learned pieces, and 
 
 was highly esteemed by his friends, Sir Thomas 
 More and Erasmus. Died 1532. 
 
 PACHECO, Francesco, a Spanish painter and 
 art-writer, taught by the same master as Velas- 
 quez, 1571-1654. 
 
 PACHECO, Donna Maria. See Padilla. 
 
 PACHYMERA, G., a Gr. historian, 13th cent. 
 
 PACIAN, St., a Spanish prelate, 4th century. 
 
 PACIANDI, Paola Maria, an Italian eccle- 
 siastic, distinguished as an antiquarian and his- 
 torian, 1710-1785. 
 
 PACIFICUS, an Italian mechanician, 776-844. 
 
 PACIFICUS, M., a Latin poet, 15th century. 
 
 PACIO, Giulio, an Italian savant, 1550-1635. 
 
 PACK, R., a miscellaneous writer, died 1728. 
 
 PACUVIUS, M., a Roman poet, 2d cent. B.C. 
 
 PADILLA, Don Juan De, a Spanish noble, 
 who distinguished himself as leader of the popular 
 party in a revolt against Charles V., during the 
 period 1620-1622. He organized a general conven- 
 tion of the malcontents under the title of a junta, 
 by which body he was appointed chief commander 
 of a force of 20,000 men, but not until the cause 
 had been greatly endangered by an unskilful leader. 
 He was taken prisoner at the rout of Villatar, 
 April 23, 1622, and shot the following day. His 
 wife, Donna Maria de Pacheco, exhibited the 
 same heroic spirit as her husband, and, after his 
 death, defended the city of Toledo till reduced to 
 
 659 
 
PAD 
 
 the last extremity. She then made her escape to 
 Portugal, where she died in poverty. 
 
 PADILLA, Lorenzo De, a Spanish antiqua- 
 rian and historical writer, died about 1540. Hi6 
 nephew, Francis, author of an ecclesiastical his- 
 tory of Spain, 1527-1607. 
 PAER, F., an Italian composer, 1774-1839. 
 PAEZ, F. A., a Portuguese divine, died 1532. 
 PAEZ, Pedro, a famous Spanish Jesuit and 
 missionary, author of a Description of Abyssinia, 
 where he introduced the Roman Catholic faith, 
 1564-1622. Another of the name, Gaspard 
 Paez, also distinguished in Abyssinia, 1582-1635. 
 PAGAN, a king of Bulgaria, reigned 764-771. 
 PAGAN, Blaise Francois, Count De, a fa- 
 mous marshal in the French wars, founder of the 
 French school of fortifying, 1604-1665. 
 PAGANACCI, J., a French writer, 1729-1797. 
 PAGANEL, P., a French politician, 1745-1826. 
 PAGANI, the name of several Italian painters : 
 Vicenzo, died towards the end of the 15th cen- 
 tury. Lattanzio, his son and scholar, known as 
 a painter till 1553, when he abandoned the art. 
 Francesco, flourished at Florence, 1531-1561. 
 Gregorio, son of Francesco, 1558-1605. Paolo, 
 distinguished at Venice and Milan, 1661-1716. 
 
 PAGANINI, Nicolo, one of the greatest vio- 
 linists that ever lived, was bom at Genoa in 1784. 
 His first lessons in music were imparted to him by 
 his father, who seems to have discovered in the 
 early infancy of the young Nicolo germs of that 
 marvellous genius, which afterwards struck the 
 musical world with wonder. At eight years old 
 the boy was so far advanced that he took a pro- 
 minent violion part in public saloons, as well as in 
 the orchestra of the church. After having studied 
 under Costa, Rolla, Ghiretti, and Paer, he was ap- 
 pointed director of the orchestra to the court at 
 Lucca. In 1828, after having performed in vari- 
 ous cities in Italy, he visited Vienna, when a charge 
 of having murdered his wife was brought against 
 him. He was able, however, to successfully refute 
 the ill-founded charge. In 1831, Paganini went 
 to Paris, were he created an immense sensation. 
 After this he went to Brussels, where his wonderful 
 slight of hand on the violin created only laughter. 
 In the year last named the ' Wizard of the Bow,' 
 as he was called, came to England, where he met 
 with astonishing success, and where he received 
 larger sums for his public performances then ever 
 had even been dreamed of before his advent. 
 Paganini' died at Nice, in 1840, from a disease of 
 the larynx, leaving an immense fortune. It has 
 been said that though this great and original artist 
 and inventor of difficulties and novel effects on 
 the violin, was inordinately fond of money, he 
 frequently ventured large sums at play in the 
 
 faming houses at Paris and other capital cities. 
 [is reputation is tarnished from the fact that he 
 often condescended to mean tricks that he might 
 secure the worthless applause of the crowds of 
 'pretended amateurs,' who flocked to his exhibi- 
 tions. In person Paganini was tall and thin, with 
 emaciated features, an acquiline nose, and long 
 black elf locks, which personal peculiarities added 
 greatly in the eyes of the unskilled, to enhance the 
 merit of his performances. [J.M.I 
 
 PAGE, William, a divine of the Church of 
 England, au. of ' The Peace-Maker,' &c, 1590-1663. 
 
 PAI 
 
 PAGEAU, M., a French poet, 16th century. 
 PAGES, F. X., a French novelist, 17 I 
 PAGES, Garnier, a French politician, d. 18 
 PAGES, Pierre Marie Francois, Viscera 
 De, a Fr. navigator, k. at St. Domingo, 1748-171 
 PAGET, Eusebius, a puritan divine, 15 
 1617. His son, Ephraim, a divine, 1575-164J 
 PAGET, Lord William, a statesman and a 
 bassador, reign of Henry VIII. and Edward u 
 died 1564. 
 
 PAGI, Anthony, a learned ecclesiastic of I 
 order of cordeliers, author of Annotations on 
 Annals of Baronius, 1624-1690. His nephl 
 Francis, a cordelier and historian of the pon 
 1654-1721. A nephew of the latter, called I 
 Abbe Pagi, author of a history of the N|H 
 lands, about 1690-1740. 
 
 PAGNEST, A. H. C, a Fr. painter, 1 7 
 PAGNINO, S., an Ital. Orientalist, 1470-161 
 PAINE, Thomas, born at Thetford, in Norfiji 
 on the 29th of January, 1737. He was of hunjl 
 origin, and conducted in early life his father's bi 
 ness of a staymaker. He was destined 
 to a vast notoriety which might have proved! 
 enduring reputation if he had well applied i 
 great talents with which he was endowed. I 
 history may be cited as an unhappy illustration 
 the defectiveness of any social system which ( 
 not supply a legitimate place for the aQ^H 
 longings of men of humble rank, by supphi 
 them with education and the means of fl^H 
 ment. In other conditions, Paine might have l!i 
 a great popular preacher, a distinguished sta 
 man, or an eminent lawyer. He went to Amaj 
 at the outbreak of the war of independence, I 
 there enlisted himself against the claims and* 
 terests of his own country, by writing the pacl 
 let called ' Common Sense.' He led a restless I 
 passing from one employment to another. 1 
 generally said that he was repeatedly disnj^H 
 misconduct. But the prejudices against his ?fl 
 ings were so deep that all statements al^H 
 personal conduct should be taken with^H 
 In 1790, he published the first part of hi 
 of Man,' a controversial attack on Burke's v I 
 on the French Revolution. The second pai^H 
 was a mere palpable attack on the constitinBB 
 government of Britain, procured a verdictf^H 
 againsti ts author in the King's Bench, flfl 
 no doubt that this work, not undeservedly, lasi 
 many abuses, but it, at the same time, sho^H 
 so much a desire for reform as a reckless nflfl 
 against every class and person wielding ] 
 influence in society. The clear ten den i 
 style and the appliance of his illustratioMj 
 made many readers regret their defects, W 9H 
 came still more flagrant in his subsequei i 
 Reason.' He acted as a citizen of Frai 
 for all his sympathy with the republic, he narofl 
 escaped being guillotined by Robespien < 
 died at Baltimore on the 8th of June, 1801V 
 PAINTER, W., an English writer, 16th cenlh 
 PAISIELLO, Giovanni, was born al 
 in 1741. Having been placed at the J 
 lege, in his native city, Paisiello soon distingiu P 
 himself amongst his fellow-pupils when 
 according to the rule of the college, to joi 
 ing the hymn to the Virgin. His father 
 induced to send him to Naples, that he mi 
 
 560 
 
PAI 
 
 msic, where lie was placed under the tuition of 
 
 urante, a celebrated master of the period ; and, 
 
 :ter five years' study, he became first master 
 
 ong the pupils of the Conservatoire. His first 
 
 ra was brought out at the theatre of Bologna, 
 
 1763. The reputation of Paisiello rose so 
 
 h, that he had engagements to compose operas 
 
 all the principal states of Europe, and in the 
 
 osecution of his artistic career he visited Ger- 
 
 any, Austria, Russia, and France. Paisiello, 
 
 lose compositions were the most popular of the 
 
 composed about sixty operas, besides masses, 
 
 itatas, concertos, songs, &c. He was named 
 
 anber of many learned societies in Italy, and was 
 
 cted an associate of the French Institute, on the 
 
 ,h of December, 1809. He died in Naples in the 
 
 1818, when his remains received a public 
 
 eral, attended with all the pomp which the 
 
 holic church knows so well to employ on 
 
 nd occasions. On the evening of his funeral 
 
 1 Nina' was performed, when the king of Naples 
 
 the whole court attended. [J.M.] 
 
 AITONI, J. M., a Venetian writer, died 1774. 
 
 AJOL, P., a French general, 1772-1844. 
 
 .AJON, C, a Fr. protestant writer, 1626-1685. 
 
 iPAJOU, H., a French author, died 1776. 
 
 tAJOU, A., a French sculptor, 1730-1809. 
 
 [AKENHAM, Sir Thomas, a famous naval 
 
 klmander in the last general war, 1758-1836. 
 
 :_|AKINGTON, Dorothy, Lady, supposed by 
 
 jflHickesto be the authoress of the ' Whole Duty 
 
 Wan,' died 1679. 
 
 nALADINI, Filippo, a painter of the Floren- 
 iil school, 1544-1614. His daughter, Arch- 
 Ajela. a painter, poet, and musician, 1599-1622. 
 JAIuOION, a Latin grammarian, 1st century. 
 
 IALJlFATUS, an ancient Greek philosopher. 
 : kLOLOGUS, the surname of several em- 
 f*s of the East : 1. Andronicus II. and An- 
 Msicus III., which see. 2. John VI., born at 
 *4tantinople 1332, succeeded his father, Andro- 
 w, 1341, shared his power with Cantacuzenus 
 M.355, died, after a debauched life and many 
 pes, 1391. He was succeeded by his son, 
 John VII., grandson of John VI., 
 1390, associated with his uncle, Manuel, 
 succeeded him 1425, died 1439. 
 
 OX-Y-MELZI, Don Joseph, the brave 
 of Saragossa, was a Spanish officer de- 
 from an old family of Arragon. He was 
 privacy at Alfranca, near Saragossa, when 
 was menaced by the French armies in 
 and was proclaimed governor by the people, 
 only twenty-nine years of age, and without 
 ence, on the 25th of May in that year. Such 
 J*|he heroism of the people of Saragossa, headed 
 byplafox, that the French were compelled to 
 after a murderous siege and bombardment 
 -one days. They returned, however, in 
 reater force, under Marshals Moncey and 
 in the month of November, and the for- 
 few weeks later, was succeeded by Lannes. 
 held out till the 20th of February men, 
 and children fighting in its defence till it 
 a heap of ruins, and suffering dreadfully 
 epidemic fever. Palafox himself being 
 by the disease, and, hopeless of success, 
 ed the command to St. Marc, and the 
 the city capitulated. 
 
 PAL 
 
 a prisoner at Vincennes till the restoration of Fer- 
 dinand, who, in June, 1814, appointed him captain- 
 general of Arragon. Died 1847. [E.R.1 
 
 PALAFOX- Y-MENDOZA, Juan De, a Spanish' 
 statesman and prelate, best known by his ' History 
 of the Siege of Fontarabia,' and his ' History of 
 the Conquest of China by the Tartars,' 1600-1659. 
 
 PALAPRAT, J. B. De, aFr. dramat., 1650-1721. 
 
 PALAZZI, J., a Venetian historian, 1640-1713. 
 
 PALEARIUS, A., an Italian scholar and theo- 
 logian, executed at Rome for heresy, 1570. 
 
 PALENCIA, A. De, a Span, historian, 15th c. 
 
 PALEOTTI, G., an Italian cardinal, 1522-1597. 
 
 PALESTRINA, Giovanni Pietre, Aloisia 
 Da, sometimes, also, called Pierluigi, was born 
 at Palestrina, the ancient Prasneste, near Rome, 
 about the year 1524. It is believed that his first 
 instructor in music was Claude Goudimel, a Hugue- 
 not, native of Besancon, who was murdered at Lyons 
 in 1572, on the fatal day of the St. Bartholomew. 
 Having distinguished himself as a composer he was 
 about the year 1551, admitted into the pope's cha- 
 pel at Rome, where he was soon afterwards ap- 
 pointed master by Pope Julius III. In 1555, it 
 having been discovered that Palestrina had quitted 
 the state of celibacy, Pope Paul IV. abruptly dis- 
 missed him from his post, to which he was after- 
 wards restored in 1571. He having brought church 
 harmony to a degree of perfection that had never 
 before been attempted and never since excelled, 
 departed this life on the 2d of February, 1594. 
 In the course of this master's life, the council of 
 Trent having, amongst other matters, taken the 
 state of church music into consideration, appointed 
 two cardinals to superintend the reform, which 
 they had resolved upon. Immediately, by their 
 direction, Palestrina set about the duty, and pro- 
 duced his celebrated work, known as ' The Mass 
 of Pope Marcellus.' Such was the effect this 
 work produced, that, when it was first performed, 
 every person was enraptured, and the pope com- 
 pared it to the heavenly melodies which the apostle 
 John heard in his visions. The following account 
 of Palestrina's death was entered in the register 
 of the Pontifical chapel : ' February 2, 1594, this 
 morning died the most excellent musician, Signor 
 Giovanni Palestrina, our dear companion, and 
 maestro de capello of St. Peter's church, whither his 
 funeral was attended, not only by all the musicians 
 of Rome, but by an infinite concourse of people, 
 when "Libera me, Domine" (as composed by 
 himself) was sung by the whole college.' Upon 
 his coffin was inscribed ' Joannes Petrus Aloysuis 
 Prcenestinus Musicce PrincepsJ' His works, which 
 were very numerous, were chiefly ecclesiastical. 
 Several of his motets and sacred songs are in use 
 in England at the present day. [J.M.I 
 
 PALETTA, J. B., an Ital. anatomist, 1747-1832! 
 
 PALEY, William, D.D., a celebrated divine of 
 the Church of England, was bom in 1743 at Peter- 
 borough, Northamptonshire. At the age of sixteen 
 he entered Christ's College, Cambridge. But unhap- 
 pily, seduced by the influence of a few gay and dis- 
 solute companions, the first two years of his uni- 
 versity residence were entirely lost or misspent. 
 Having had the wisdom and fortitude, however, to 
 disentangle himself from this disgraceful connec- 
 tion, he resolved on a course of devoted study ; and 
 Its defender became such rapid progress did he make that, in 1768, he 
 561 2 
 
PAL 
 
 became a fellow of the college, and soon after col- 
 league to Dr. Law in his public lectures on Moral 
 and Political philosophy, as' well as on the New 
 Testament. This early occupation directed the 
 mind of Paley to those subjects, which, when more 
 maturely studied, he gave to the public in works 
 which have obtained him extensive fame as an 
 author. Both as a college lecturer and a preacher. 
 lie was greatly admired for his sound sense and 
 discretion, especially for his extraordinary skill in 
 simplifying the most abstruse and difficult subjects, 
 and bringing them down to the level of the hum- 
 blest capacity. His early patron, Law, who had 
 become bishop of Carlisle, and who was well aware 
 of Paley's merits, promoted his views in the church 
 by presenting him first to the vicarage of Dalston, 
 Cumberland, then to Appleby, in Westmoreland, 
 till in the course of years, he rose to be archdeacon 
 of Carlisle. It was not till 1785, that his ' Ele- 
 ments of Moral and Political Philosophy' appeared. 
 It was almost immediately adopted as a text-book 
 in Cambridge ; and although its leading principle, 
 that of expediency, has often drawn down upon the 
 moral system of which it is the foundation, the 
 weight of severe censure, the work from the sound 
 sense that pervades it, as well as from the clearness 
 and force of its arguments, still maintains its ground. 
 Not long after, Paley again came before the world 
 as an author by the publication of Horse Paulina?, 
 or ' The Truth of the Scripture History ' proved 
 from undesigned coincidences in the epistles of Paul. 
 More than any other of Paley's works, this treatise 
 displays the characteristic qualities of the author's 
 mind, and it formed a most important contribution 
 to sacred literature, not only from the intrinsic 
 value of the work, but from its opening up a new 
 line of argument in illustration of the evidences. 
 Paley did not take any open or prominent part in 
 the discussion of public or political questions. But 
 his hostility to the slave trade roused all his ener- 
 gies ; and having drawn up an answer to the claims 
 of the slave dealers, sent it to the parliamentary 
 committee immediately previous to the discussion 
 of the subject in the House of Lords. It produced 
 a deep impression, and the author was rewarded 
 not only by seeing the adoption of his views, but 
 by promotion to the rectory of Bishop- Wearmouth, 
 one of the most lucrative situations in the Church 
 of England. It was there he composed and pub- 
 lished his ' Natural Theology,' amid the paroxysms 
 of a painful disease which brought him gradually 
 to the grave. Dr. Paley was suspected of hetero- 
 doxy, having discovered a strong inclination to 
 Arian sentiments. In other respects, he was a 
 genial, warm-hearted, benevolent man, distin- 
 guished for shrewdness and strong good sense; and 
 those mental qualities which he possessed in so emi- 
 nent a degree were brought to bear predominantly 
 on the subjects of religion. Died 1805. [R.J.] 
 
 PALFIN, J., a Flemish anatomist, 1649-1730. 
 
 PALISOT-DE-BEAUVOIS, Ambr. Marie 
 Fr. Joseph, a (list. French naturalist, 1752-1820. 
 
 PALISSOT-DE-MONTENOY, Charles, a 
 Fr. dramatic writer and literary critic, 1730-1814. 
 
 PALISSY, Bernard De, one of the greatest 
 geniuses produced by the French nation, painter, 
 physician, chemist, naturalist, and economist, born 
 about 1500, died in the Bastile, where he was im- 
 prisoned by Henry III. as a Calvinist, 1589. 
 
 PAL 
 
 PALLADINO, Giacomo, or James, an It all 
 prelate and theologian, generally called Giacc 
 de Teramo, author of ' Consolatio Peceatorum 
 religious romance, 15th century. 
 
 PALLADIO, Andrea, a famous Italian an 
 
 K 
 
 tect, to whose skill Italy is indebted for matt; 
 her most beautiful edifices, born at Vicenza 
 author of a Treatise on Architecture,' first 
 fished at Venice 1570, died 1580. 
 
 PALLAD1US, the name of several ancient 
 vants: 1. A bishop of Helcnopolis, in Bithy 
 author of a ' History of the Hermits of the Dea 
 and friend of Chrysostom, born about 368. %*, 
 author of a ' Dialogue of the Life of Chrysosto 
 written at Rome 408. It is a question among 
 learned whether or not he is the same as the 
 ceding. 3. A Roman writer on agriculture, so 
 a Gaulish praefect, bom about 405. 4. A Rot 
 prelate, mentioned as ' the first apostle of the f 
 died about 450. 5. A physician of Alexandria, 
 named Sophista, or Satrosophista, author of 
 dical works in Greek, 6th century. 
 
 PALLAS, the freedman and confidant of 
 emperor Claudius, who, at his instance, )fl 
 Agrippina. He was put to death by Nero. 
 PALLAS, Peter Simon, a German tr 
 and naturalist, author of works on the hist 
 topography, and natural history of various par 
 the Russian dominions, 1741-1811. 
 
 PALLAVICINI, or PELAVICINO, the 
 
 quis Oberto, a chief of the Ghibellines, died 15 
 
 PALLAVICINO, Ferrante, a satirical 
 
 and man of letters, born 1618, beheaded 1644 
 
 PALLAVICINO, Sforza, an Italian card 
 
 au. of a ' History of the Co. of Trent,' 1607-1 
 
 PALLIERE, V. L., a Fr. painter, 17e7-l 
 
 PALLIOT, P., a French genealogist, 
 
 PALLISER, Sir Hugh, a British admiral 
 
 was born 1721, and after distinguishing hi 
 
 several occasions, including the taking of 
 
 was second in command to Admiral Keppelfr 
 
 famous action off Ushant, 1778. On this oo 
 
 a misunderstanding arose between the two of 
 
 who preferred charges against each other, 
 
 ended in the censure of Palliser. He becam* 
 
 vernor of Greenwich Hospital, and died there ] 
 
 PALLUEL, F. C. De, a Fr. agricult., 174 
 
 PALM, J. G., a German divine, 1697-M 
 
 PALM, J. P., a German patriot, shot 180 
 
 PALMA, Jacob, the name of two Italian ; 
 
 ters, the elder of whom was born at Bergamo ; 
 
 and died at Venice 1574. The younger, bis 
 
 nephew, flourished at Venice, 1544-16*28. 
 
 PALMELLA, Don Pedro De Suza 
 stein, duke of, a distinguished Portugue 
 man, was born at Turin 1781 ; and after i 
 tion in Portugal, followed by the custon 
 pean travels of a nobleman, took a leadir 
 the political troubles of his country, and 1 
 in opposing the succession of Don Miguel : 
 PALMER, IL, a learned divine, 1601- 
 PALMER, John, an English actor, 
 in London about 1742, and commenced 
 as an actor in inferior parts at the Ha\ 
 Drury Lane theatres. Gradually increasing ' 
 putation, he was at length appointed ma 
 a new theatre proposed to be built in the I 
 London, but not being able to procure a pat' 
 returned to Drury, under circumstances of.] 
 
 562 
 
PAL 
 
 rcibarrassment, which ultimately induced him 
 solve to emigrate to America, which country, 
 ;ver, he never visited. His death was ra- 
 table. It took place on the stage of the Liver- 
 theatre, while performing the character of 
 Stranger, and uttering the exclamation 
 ;re is another and a better world.' This event 
 rred 2d August, 1798. Mr. Palmer was one 
 lose actors who are made by time and prac- 
 He was a modest and punctilious man, 
 i respected, with, it would seem, a dash of 
 rstition in his character; and, according to 
 en T seems to have had a presentiment of his 
 i. [J.A.H.] 
 
 LMER, John, held in remembrance as the 
 projector of mail coaches, was a native of 
 where he followed the trade of a brewer. 
 the adoption of his scheme, he became comp- 
 general of the post office, from which office 
 is removed in 1792, died 1818. 
 LMER, S., an historian of printing, d. 1732. 
 LMIERI, M., an Italian annalist, 1405-1475. 
 LMIERI, V., an Ital. theologian, 1753-1820. 
 LMQUIST, Magnus, Baron De, a Swedish 
 anatician, and president of the Company of 
 8, 1660-1729. 
 
 .MSCHOELD, Elias, a Swedish historical 
 n employed at Stockholm, died 1719. 
 MINO-Y-VELASCO, A. Antonio, a 
 inter and biographer of artists, 1653-1726. 
 RAVE, John, a polite wr., died 1554. 
 ELE, J. De, a Fr. theologian, 1536-1587. 
 PHILIUS, a Greek painter, 4th cent. 
 "HILIUS, St., a presbyter of Csesarea, in 
 le, who suffered martyrdom in the perse- 
 under Maximinius, 309. 
 ARD, C. F., a Fr. poet, about 1691-1764. 
 ' SIUS, a Stoic philosopher, 2d cent. B.C. 
 CIROLI, G., an Italian jurist, 1523-1582. 
 "KOUCKE, Andrew Joseph, a Flemish 
 and literateur, 1700-1753. His son, 
 Joseph, distinguished as a journalist at 
 der of the ' Moniteur,' &c, 1736-1798. 
 A. X., a Fr. numismatist, 1699-1777. 
 AROLA, F., an Italian prelate, 1548-94. 
 Nikita Joanovitch, Count De, a 
 statesman, who rose to distinction in the 
 of Peter the Great, and became prime 
 to Catharine ; b. at Lucca 1718, d. 1783. 
 INI, Gian Paolo, an Italian architect 
 painter, 1691-1764. His son, Fran- 
 in the same line of art, dates unknown. 
 ONINO, J., a Hungarian poet, 1434-72. 
 jENUS, a Christian philosopher, 2d cent. 
 ALEON, H., a Fr. historian, 1522-1595. 
 INIO, O., an Ital. historian, 1529-1568. 
 IS, a Greek poet, 5th century B.C. 
 ETIA, Maria Helena, an Italian 
 j as an historical painter, 1668-1709. 
 , G. W. F., a Ger. bibliog., 1729-1805. 
 M.I, D. S., an Italian literateur, 1684-1751. 
 BiL Hyacinth, or Giacinto, a native of 
 ^distinguished for his part in liberating his 
 e Genoese, 1729. He became one 
 Jstrates of the country, and acted 
 Mutenant of the king elected by the patriots. 
 Wd to Naples on the invasion of the French, 
 Mthere about 1755. His son, Pascal, is 
 pPHct of the following article. An elder son, 
 
 563 
 
 PAR 
 
 Clement, also a distinguished patriot, died in 
 Italy, and with him, as he left only daughters, the 
 name of Paoli became extinct. 
 
 PAOLI, Pascal, was born in Corsica in 1726. 
 His native island had long been under the oppres- 
 sive domination of the Genoese, which the Corsi- 
 cans made repeated efforts to shake off. Paoli was 
 raised to the headship of the liberating party in 
 1755. He organized a regular civil and military 
 government, and for thirteen years carried on the 
 war of independence against the Genoese with un- 
 varying spirit, and with general success. _ In 1768, 
 the Genoese sold their right of sovereignty over 
 Corsica to France. The French endeavoured to 
 induce Paoli to recognize their dominion and adopt 
 their interests, by lavish offers of rank and money. 
 But Paoli rejected all their bribes, and made a gal- 
 lant though unsuccessful resistance to the troops 
 which they poured into Corsica. After the French 
 conquest was completed, Paoli took refuge in Eng- 
 land, were he was received with merited respect. 
 The British government settled a pension on him, 
 and he passed many years in honoured friendship 
 with Burke, Johnson, and other distinguished 
 Englishmen of the age. When the war of the 
 French Revolution commenced, Paoli headed an 
 expedition to Corsica, by which it was sought to 
 detach that island from France, and unite it to the 
 British dominion. This attempt, after some tem- 
 porary successes, ultimately failed. Paoli returned 
 to England, where he passed the remainder of his 
 life in tranquillity. He died in 1807. He deserved the 
 eulogium which the English historian Lord Mahon 
 has pronounced on him, of being 'a brave and skil- 
 ful soldier, and an upright and disinterested states- 
 man.' He was also a warm and sincere friend; 
 his literary acquirements were considerable ; and 
 he was a man of spotless integrity and pure morals 
 in private life. [E.S.C.] 
 
 PAOLINI, P., an Italian dramatist, 1663-1726. 
 
 PAPA, J. Del, an Ital. physician, 1649-1753. 
 
 PAPIAS, a grammarian of the 11th century. 
 
 PAPIAS, St., a bishop of Hierapolis, 2d cent. 
 
 PAPILLON, A., a French poet, 1487-1559. 
 
 P APILLON, John, two French wood engravers, 
 father and son the former, 1639-1710 ; the latter, 
 1661-1710. A younger son, Nicholas, same pro- 
 fession, 1663-1714. A grandson of the elder John, 
 named John Baptist, noted for his foliage and 
 flowers, 1698-1776. A brother of the latter, J. 
 B. Michel, 1720-1746. 
 
 PAPILLON, P., a French canonist, 1666-1738. 
 
 PAPILLON, T., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1514-1596. 
 
 PAPIN, Denis, an ingenious Frenchman, who 
 assisted Boyle in many of his experiments, and in- 
 vented the digester known by his name, died 1710. 
 
 PAPIN, Isaac, a French divine, 1657-1709. 
 
 PAPINIAN, a celebrated Roman jurist, 175-212. 
 
 PAPON, J., a French Hellenist, 1505-1590. 
 
 PAPON, J. P., a French historian, 1734-1805. 
 
 PAPPENHEIM, Count, one of the most illus- 
 trious generals of Austria during the thirty years' 
 war, 1594-1632. 
 
 PAPPONI, J., an Italian jurist, died 1605. 
 
 PAPPUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, 4th c 
 
 PAPPUS, J., a German divine, 1549-1610. 
 
 PAQUOT, J. N., an Austrian hist., 1722-1803. 
 
 PARABOSCO, G., an Italian poet, 16th cent, 
 
 PARACELSUS. Philippus Aureolus 
 
PAR 
 
 TlIEOPHRASTUS PAKACELSUS BOMBAST, AB 
 
 Hohenheim, was born about the year 1493, near 
 Zurich. Although he has left no discovery 
 behind him, he is highly distinguished as the 
 founder of the modern science of medicine. He 
 instituted an immense number of experiments on 
 the influence of chemical remedies in disease, and 
 acquired much fame by the successful result of his 
 treatment. He travelled extensively throughout 
 Europe for the purpose of adding to his stock 
 of knowledge, and of studying nature in her 
 varied departments. He was professor of physic 
 and surgery at Basle, from 1526 to 1527, when 
 he abdicated his office and afterwards became 
 a wanderer through various parts of Germany, 
 Colmar, Moravia, Vienna, Hungary, and finally 
 Salzburg, where he died in 1541, in his forty- 
 eighth year. Paracelsus was a man of most 
 dissolute habits and unprincipled character; and 
 his works (Opera) are filled with the highest 
 flights of unintelligible bombastic jargon, un- 
 worthy of perusal, but are such as might be ex- 
 pected from one who united in his person the 
 qualities of a fanatic and a drunkard. [R.D.T.] 
 
 PARADIN, William, a French historian, 1510- 
 1590. His brother, Claude, a writer on gene- 
 alogy, &c, about the same period. John, cousin 
 of the preceding, dist. as a poet, about 1508-1588. 
 
 PARADIS, Paul, a Jewish convert, first pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Paris, died 1559. 
 
 PARADIS DE RAYMONDIS, John Zacha- 
 riah, a Fr. moralist and agriculturist, 1746-1800. 
 
 PARADISI, Count Agostino, an Italian poet, 
 professor of civil economy and the Belles Lettres 
 at Modena, born at Vignola, Reggio, 1736, d. 1783. 
 
 PARADISI, Count John, son of the preced- 
 ing, born about 1760, became director of the Cis- 
 alpine republic in 1797, and, at a later period, pre- 
 sident of Napoleon's Italian senate. He died 1826, 
 distinguished as a philosopher and man of letters. 
 
 PARASINA MALATESTA. See Nicholas. 
 
 PARCK, Thomas, an engraver, 1759-1834. 
 
 PARCELLES, John, a Dutch painter, noted 
 for his storm-pieces, 1597-1641. His son, Julius, 
 born about 1628, painted in the same style. 
 
 PARCIEUX. See Deparcieux. 
 
 PARDIES, J. G., a French savant, 1636-1673. 
 
 PARDOUX, B., a French physician, 1545-1611. 
 
 PARE, Ambrose, one of the greatest surgeons 
 of modern times, called the father of French sur- 
 gery, was born in 1509, and was professional ad- 
 viser of four French sovereigns. Though a Hugue- 
 not, he was in the fullest confidence of Charles IX., 
 and by his favour escaped the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew ; died 1590. 
 
 PAREJA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1606-1670. 
 
 PARENT, A., a Fr. mathematician, 1666-1716. 
 
 PAREUS, the name of three distinguished theo- 
 logians and philologists of Germany: David 
 Woengler, author of many commentaries, 1548- 
 1622. Philip, his son, about 1576-1650. Daniel, 
 son of the latter, 1605-1635. 
 
 PARFAIET, F., a Fr. dramatist, 1698-1753. 
 
 PARIJI, J., an Italian architect, died 1635. 
 
 PARINI, J., an Italian poet, 1729-1799. 
 
 PARIS, A., a French ecclesiastic, 1631-1683. 
 
 PARIS, F., a notary of Paris, known at the 
 period of the revolution as a friend of Danton. 
 
 PARIS, F., a French religious writer, d. 1718. 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARIS, Francis, commonly called the 
 Paris, was a French ecclesiastic, born 
 He died after a life of religious mortificatio 
 charity 1727, and was buried in the cemet- 
 Saint -Medard. Here the most extraon 
 scenes took place, occasioned by the allege 
 racles wrought at his tomb, where persons 
 into convulsions and transports of prophet 
 lirium. An account of these occurrence 
 written by the magistrate Montqueron, an( 
 only ceased when the government took 
 measures, prosecuted some of the parties 
 walled up the ground. 
 
 PARIS, J. B. F., a French general, 
 1748-1820. 
 PARIS, Jean J., a political writer, died 
 PARIS, L. M., a writer on grammar. 174( 
 PARIS, Matthew, one of our earliest 
 historians, was a Benedictine monk of St. 
 and is known from 1245, to the year of his 
 1259. He was a man of the highest chf 
 and distinguished as a musician, poet, orato: 
 logian, painter, and architect. His practical 
 were turned to the reformation of monas> 
 cipline, on which account he was sent to 
 by the pope. His principal work, first pq 
 in 1571, extends over English history from tl 
 of William the Conqueror to his own tin 
 earlier portion being lost. Other works 
 exist only in MS. 
 
 PARIS, M. A., a French general, killed 
 PARIS, P. A., a French architect, 1747- 
 PARIS, P. L., an actor of the French ren 
 originally a priest of the oratory, executed 1 
 PARISAN, P. G., a French dramatist, 1 
 PARK, Sir J. A., a disting. lawyer, die 
 PARK, Mungo, was born at the : 
 Fowlshiels, near Selkirk, on the 10th Set 
 1771. An aptness for learning which I 
 showed, and a reserved and thoughtful ' 
 and grave deportment, which were nat 
 him, and distinguished him through life, J 
 his parents to select him as the moslJ 
 of their sons for the ministry of the Cl] 
 Scotland. His education was directed 
 ingly ; but his own tastes and aspiration.] 
 different turn, and choosing the medical] 
 sion, he was apprenticed, at the age of M 
 Mr. Anderson, a surgeon in Selkirk, 
 remained three years, and then went to 
 Edinburgh college, where his attends 
 usual course was continued for three St, 
 sessions, the term necessary for graduatj 
 surgeon. A taste for botany acquired j 
 period, and freely indulged in during his 
 rambles, was of the greatest use to him aft] 
 and may be said to have in a great 
 determined his future career. A young n 
 James Dickson, afterwards his brother-in-' 
 to London to seek employment as a ga 
 engaged by a nurseryman at Hammers! 
 whose gardens Sir Joseph Banks was a f 
 visitor. Dickson's superior intelligence 
 Sir Joseph's notice; and when some yea j 
 wards he began business on his own acccj 
 seedsman, and waited upon Sir Joseph J 
 most kindly received by him, and offei 
 use of his library. Dickson gladly availe j 
 of the advantages thus presented to 1 
 
 564 
 
PAR 
 
 me afterwards a distinguished botanist, author 
 work on cryptogamic plants, and of many 
 able papers in the Linns3an transactions. He 
 Park with him on a botanical tour in the 
 llands while he was a student ; and when Park 
 wards went to London, on the completion of 
 ourse, he introduced him to Sir Joseph Banks, 
 igh wbose influence the situation of assistant 
 >on in the Worcester East Indiaman was soon 
 ued. Park sailed in February, 1792, and re- 
 ;d the following year. He brought home 
 interesting plants, and contributed to the 
 scan Society a paper on eight new fishes from 
 itra. He now remained for some time inac- 
 enjoying intercourse with scientific men, to 
 1 he was introduced by Sir Joseph Banks, 
 president of the Royal Society, whose warm 
 Iship towards him knew no interruption dur- 
 is entire career. Sir Joseph was an active 
 er of the African Association, formed in 
 for the exploration of the central portions 
 t continent ; and Park's attention must, of 
 have been much drawn to the subject. Hav- 
 ardour in the pursuit of his profession, and 
 ly even no fondness for it, while he had 
 herished a strong desire for foreign travel, 
 natural that Park should offer himself to 
 ssociation when they were looking out for 
 r to Major Houghton, who had perished 
 te attempt to reach the Niger from the west 
 Park's knowledge of natural histoiy and 
 e, his age the full vigour of youth his 
 experience of a hot climate, his enthu- 
 and a reputation for courage and address, 
 d, it would seem, rather upon an observa- 
 his personal qualities and general bearing, 
 upon anything which he had yet done, 
 recommendations of so strong a nature 
 e Association accepted his offer. After due 
 "on he left England on the 22d May, 
 and on the 5th July reached Pisania, a 
 factory 200 miles up the river Gambia, 
 he remained some time with Dr. Laidley, 
 ' "ent agent. Beginning his journey on the 
 ber, he first crossed the country E.N.E. 
 and then turning S.E. traversed the 
 of Leedamar and Bambarra, till he 
 sight of the Niger near Sego : ' I saw with 
 pleasure the great object of my mission, 
 g sought-for majestic "Niger, glittering to 
 rning sun, as broad as the Thames at 
 ster, and flowing slowly to the eastvmrd. 
 ' to the brink, and having drunk of the 
 d up my fervent thanks in prayer to 
 Ruler of all things, for having thus far 
 my endeavours witn success.' Thus, the 
 was gained in the solution of a most dif- 
 blem, deemed by his country of great inl- 
 and which had already baffled the skill 
 us enterprising travellers, and the efforts 
 " states. Park was determined to work 
 l fully out, by tracing the mysterious 
 this great river. He found it impossible, 
 ', to proceed farther down than Silla, near 
 " on the 30th July he began his homeward 
 ards the Gambia. Following the Niger 
 as Bammakoo, and there turning to the 
 crossed the country watered by the 
 of the Senegal, by a route more southerly 
 
 PAR 
 
 than his former track, and at length reached Pisa- 
 nia on the 10th June, 1797 ; having thus accom- 
 plished a journey whose hardship and suffering 
 are, perhaps, without a parallel in the history of 
 inland discovery. Soon after he returned home ; 
 and residing mostly at his native place, occupied 
 himself in preparing an account of his travels. In 
 August, 1799, being then in his twenty-eighth year, 
 he married the daughter of his former master, Mr. 
 Anderson, and, in October 1801, settled in the 
 town of Peebles for the practice of his profession. 
 During the few years which he spent here, he en- 
 joyed much domestic happiness, and the privilege 
 of associating with Sir Walter Scott, Dr. Adam 
 Ferguson, the historian, and other persons of note. 
 His mind was, however, kept in an -unsettled state 
 up till the end of 1804, by several proposals from 
 government for new schemes of discovery. One for 
 a new expedition to Central Africa was at length 
 matured, and Park was requested to take the com- 
 mand. ' Park,' says his biographer, ' was so much 
 afraid of encountering the distress of his family, that 
 he proceeded directly to London from Edinburgh 
 without returning to bid them a formal adieu.' 
 Towards other friends he practised the same con- 
 straint upon his feelings. He sailed from Ports- 
 mouth January 30th, 1805. Pisania was again 
 fixed on as the point of departure. His companions 
 on his former journey were two negroes, and even 
 these had accompanied him no farther than Yarra, 
 so that for more than three-fourths of his journey 
 he was quite alone. On the second journey he had 
 stipulated for a good escort ; and the presence of 
 two friends, Mr. Anderson, his wife's brother, as sur- 
 geon, and Mr. Scott, a young neighbour, as artist. 
 With these two friends, five artificers from the royal 
 dock-yards, Lieutenant Martyn, thirty-five privates 
 from the garrison at Goree, and Isaaco, a Mandingo, 
 a priest and trader, as guide and interpreter, and 
 forty asses with baggage, Park left Pisania on the 
 4th of May, 1805. He chose the route by which he 
 had returned on his first journey ; but the time of 
 starting was most unfortunate and ill-chosen, less 
 by any fault of his, than the delay of the govern- 
 ment in despatching the ships from England. On 
 the 8th June the rainy season set in, and the mis- 
 fortunes of the expedition began. On the 19th 
 August, Park reached the summit of the mountain 
 ridge, dividing the river basins of the Senegal and 
 Niger, and came once more in sight of the latter, 
 ' rolling its immense stream along the plain,' and, 
 on the evening of the same dav, pitched his tent on 
 the banks of the Niger at Bammakoo, where he 
 had struck off from the river on his homeward 
 route. Only seven men now remained; most of 
 the rest had died of fever or dysentery by the way, 
 among whom was Mr. Scott the artist; a few had 
 been left sick in charge of friendly natives, but 
 were not afterwards heard of. Nearly a month be- 
 fore, the last of the forty asses had died. The ex- 
 pedition now descended the river in two canoes to 
 Sansanding, between Sego and Silla, where his 
 brother-in-law, Mr. Anderson, and two of the 
 men, fell victims to the dreadful climate. Lieu- 
 tenant Martyn and three soldiers were all who now 
 survived. With their aid, Park constructed a 
 vessel, which was named the schooner Joliba, 40 
 feet long by 6 broad, and drawing, when loaded, 
 only one foot water ; and having engaged a guide 
 
 5G5 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 and interpreter, named Amadi Fatouma, instead of j elevated to the primacy on the accession of 
 Isaaio, who was sent back to the Gambia with his beth. He was among the first selected to pr 
 
 journal and letters, purchased three slaves, and laid 
 in a stock of provisions, he set sail down the river 
 on the 17th ISovember, in the hope of tracing the 
 remaining course of this famed stream, the lower 
 part of which, according to the theory which he 
 had formed, was identical with the Congo, or 
 Zaire, entering the Atlantic in lat. 15 S. This, 
 however, it was destined that the intrepid and en- 
 thusiastic traveller was not to accomplish. His 
 despatches, forwarded by Isaaco, contained the last 
 intelligence ever received from him, and for many 
 
 {rears his fate was involved in mystery. It was at 
 ength distinctly made out by information gleaned 
 from various quarters, that, about the beginning of 
 June 1806, he had descended the river as far as 
 Boussa, 650 miles below Timbnctoo ; that here his 
 interpreter, whose engagement now terminated, 
 was sent on shore with a present for the king of 
 Yaouri ; that this was withheld by the Dooty, or 
 chief, to whom it was given, and the king was told 
 the white men had gone to return no more ; that 
 the king hereupon imprisoned the interpreter, and 
 sent a band of armed men to intercept Park's pas- 
 sage at rocky narrows near Boussa ; and that here, 
 after a vain struggle against superior numbers, 
 Park and all his companions, except one of the 
 negroes, leaped into the river to attempt their 
 escape by swimming, and were drowned. Fatouma 
 was afterwards released, and met with this negro. 
 Their narratives, and Park's journal, with an intro- 
 ductory sketch of his life and labours, were pub- 
 lished together in 1815. Government paid to 
 his widow, according to stipulation before he left 
 home, the sum of 4000. His family consisted 
 of three sons and one daughter ; the latter, mar- 
 ried to H. W. Meredith, Esq., of Pentry-Bichen, 
 Denbighshire, and his youngest son, Archi- 
 bald, an officer in the East India Company's ser- 
 vice, are still alive. All his brothers and sisters 
 had families, many of whom are still living ; and 
 several of his relatives occupy stations of high re- 
 spectability in Glasgow. In person, Mungo Park was 
 tall and muscular, and possessed an extraordinary- 
 power of enduring fatigue ; and by his many noble, 
 mental, and moral qualities, was no less fitted for 
 the right conduct of the important enterprises in 
 which he was engaged. [J.B.] 
 
 PARK, T., a bibliographical writer, 1759-1834. 
 
 PARKE, J., a famous musician, 1745-1829. 
 
 PARKER, George, earl of Macclesfield, son of 
 the first earl, who was lord chancellor of England, 
 distinguished as a mathematician, died 1766. 
 
 PARKER, Henry, Lord Morley, one of the 
 barons who threatened Clement VII. with the loss 
 of his supremacy if he refused his consent to the 
 divorce of Henry VIII. He bears the reputation 
 of a man of letters, and some of his works exist in 
 MS., 1476-1556. 
 
 PARKER, Matthew, the second protestant 
 archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Norwich 
 1504, and was early distinguished by his progress 
 in every branch of knowledge connected with the 
 study of divinity. In 1533 he became chaplain to 
 Queen Anne Boleyn, and was charged by her with 
 the care of her daughter Elizabeth. He remained 
 in concealment during the reign of Mary, though 
 search was several times made for him, and was 
 
 the Reformed Liturgy; and the ' Bishops'" E 
 which remained in use till the present trans! 
 was effected, was printed under his inspe< 
 Archbishop Parker was also a great antiqus 
 and had some share, either as patron or e 
 in the work ' De Antiquitate Britannica; Eccl 
 besides being the founder of the first Socie 
 Antiquaries. He died 1575. 
 
 PARKER, Richard, appointed admiral o 
 fleet by the mutineers during the revolt a 
 Nore, was a disgraced midshipman, who was 
 ing at that juncture as a common sailor, 
 a man of enterprise and address, and acquire 
 mense influence over the men. On the redl 
 of the mutiny by Lord Howe, he was hang 
 board the Sandwich, June 30, 1797. 
 
 PARKER, Robert, a puritan writer on. 
 logical subjects, known from 1583 to 1607. 
 son, Thomas, a theological and religious 
 took refuge in America 1634, died there 167' 
 
 PARKER, Samuel, a prelate of the rei 
 James II., who at that period joined the p? 
 He is author of a history of his own times ana 
 other works, in particular ' A Discourse of [ 
 siastical Polity,' written against the dissei 
 born at Northampton 1640, died 1687. 
 
 PARKES, Samuel, a practical chemist 
 known as the author of many useful elen 
 works, 1759-1825. 
 
 PARKHURST, John, bishop of Norwich 
 reign of Elizabeth, and previously the teacl 
 Bishop Jewel, at Merton college. He 
 late or eminent learning and piety ; 1.011-15i 
 
 PARKHURST, John, author of the w 
 Hebrew and Greek lexicons, was born in 1 
 amptonshire 1728, and educated at Clare 
 Cambridge. He entered into orders, but h 
 preferments in the church, and, possessing 
 derable property, devoted himself to literar 
 suits. He was a man of high principle, 
 receiver of the philosophy of John Hu 
 Died at Epsom 1797. 
 
 PARKINS, J., a writer on law, 16th cei 
 
 PARKINSON, J., a writer on botanv, d 
 
 PARKINSON, T., a mathemat., 1745-1 
 
 PARMENIDES, of Elea, in Magna G| 
 born about 536 B.C.; one of the chief 
 Eleatic school. That great search cor 
 substance of things occupied Parmer 
 instead of finding Unity in Nature, 1 
 it in Mind alone. It is the Reason 
 ceives and bestows Unity on Pluralit 
 true Reality is Subjective. The schen 
 menides is a pure Idealism, and open 
 objections to which one-sided schemes an 
 He exercised, however, much influence 
 speculations of Plato. 
 
 PARMENIO, a Macedonian gen., d. B.< 
 
 PARMENTIER, Anthony A., a fa 
 agricultural writer and philanthropist, 
 
 PARMENTIER, J., a Fr. painter, It 
 
 PARMENTIER, J., a French naviga 
 also as a versifier and translator, 16th i 
 
 PARMIZIANO. See Mazzuoli. 
 
 PARNELL, Thomas, born at Dublin in 
 took orders, and became archdeacon of Cll 
 He received, also, other preferments 
 566 
 
PAR 
 
 Iterest of Swift, when he deserted the Whig 
 ,rty on their fall in the latter part of the reign of 
 leen Anne. He was a contributor to the Spec- 
 _tor and Guardian, and, after flying to London 
 his Irish parsonage, became intimate with the 
 ding men of letters. His poetry comes nearer 
 Pope's, in sweetness of versification, than do 
 y other verses of the time : and he has not only 
 leh felicity of diction, but also a very pleasing 
 of sentiment, shown in such pieces as 
 popular allegory 'The Hermit.' His death, 
 ich occurred in 1718, is said to have been 
 itened by intemperate habits, and these have 
 attributed to the grief lie felt for the loss of 
 wife. [W.S.] 
 
 ARODI, Filippo, a Genoese sculptor, born 
 >ut 1640, died 1708. Domenico, his son, an 
 jorical painter, 1668-1740. Battista, brother 
 Domenico, 1674-1730. Pellegrino, son of 
 menico, a portrait painter, died after 1741. 
 ^AROLETTI, Victor Modeste, an Italian 
 sician, dist. as a philos. and natural., 1765-1884. 
 ^ARR. See Catharine Parr. 
 ARR, Richard, an Irish divine, au. of Ser- 
 is and a ' Life of Archbishop Usher,' 1617-91. 
 ARR, Samuel, an eminent classical scholar 
 critic, was the son of an apothecary of Harrow- 
 he-Hill, in Middlesex, and was born there 
 He obtained a living in the Church of Eng- 
 in the gift of Sir Francis Burdett, and wrote 
 " works of temporary interest ; died 1825. 
 ARR, Thomas, noticed here as an extraordi- 
 instance of longevity, was a native of Shrop- 
 He was born" in 1483, and laboured in hus- 
 Iry till after he was one hundred and thirty 
 old. He died in 1635, when nearly one hun- 
 and fifty-three years of age ; and even then, 
 Jarvey, who opened his body, found no internal 
 of decay. His grandson died at the age of 
 indred and twenty. 
 ARR, W., a partizan of Mary Stuart, ex. 1584. 
 &RRENNIN, D., a Fr. mission., 1665-1741. 
 \RRHASIUS, a Greek painter, 5th cent. b.c. 
 IRRHASIUS, Aulus James, an Italian 
 imarian and classical editor, 1470-1534. 
 LRROCEL, Bartholomew, a French pain- 
 " 1660. His son, Joseph, a great painter 
 ittles, 1648-1704. Charles, son and pupil 
 osenh, 1688-1752. Ignatius, nephew and 
 . of Joseph, died 1722. Pierre, younger 
 of the latter, also a pupil of his uncle 
 about 1720-1765. Ignatius, son of 
 re, and last painter of the family, d. abt. 1774. 
 lRRY, Caleb Hillier, father of the well- 
 arctic navigator, distinguished as a phy- 
 and naturalist, and more than forty years 
 at the Bath hospital, was born in 1756. 
 cipal work is entitled ' The Elements of 
 " died 1822. 
 BEY, R., bishop of St. Asaph, died 1620. 
 RRY, R., a divine and theologian, 1722-1780. 
 RRY, W., an English painter, 1742-1791. 
 BSIN, J., a Dutch engraver, 16th century. 
 BSONS, A., an English traveller, died 1785. 
 RSOXS, James, a physician, anatomist, and 
 arian, au. of several curious works, 1705-70. 
 RSOXS, John, an anatomist, 1742-1785. 
 |RSONS, Philip, a minister of the Church 
 Wand, kn. as a miscellaneous wr., 1729-1812. 
 
 PAS 
 
 PARSONS, Robert, whose name is sometimes 
 written Persons, an English Jesuit, famous for 
 his intermeddling in affairs of state, 1547-1610. 
 
 PARUTA, Paul, a Venetian diplomatist, and 
 historiographer to the state, 1540-1598. 
 
 PARUTA, Philip, au antiquarian, died 1629. 
 
 PAS, Anth. De, a French general, 1641-1711. 
 
 PAS, or PAAS, Crispin De, a Dutch designer 
 and engraver, born about 1536, had three sons in 
 the same profession : Crispin, the eldest, born 
 1570; William, the second, dates unknown; 
 Simon, the third, a portrait engraver, born 1574. 
 His daughter, Madeleine, also distinguished 
 herself in the art, born 1576. 
 
 PASCAL, the frst of the name pope, 817-824. 
 The second, 1099-1113. The third, an antipope, 
 elected in opposition to Alexander III., and sup- 
 ported by the emperor Frederick, 1164-1168. Ano- 
 ther antipope, of the name, headed a faction some 
 time in 687. 
 
 PASCAL, Blaise, was a native of Clermont in 
 Auvergne, where he was born 19th June, 1623. 
 His ancestors had, for several generations, held 
 high offices in the French government, and his 
 father was a provincial judge in his native county. 
 Even in boyhood, the extraordinary power and 
 acuteness of Blaise Pascal displayed" itself. His 
 father, who was an eminent mathematician, under- 
 took the sole management of his son's education, 
 and for that purpose removed to Paris. The bias 
 of young Pascal's mind being strongly inclined to- 
 wards mathematical science, the prudent father, 
 afraid lest the favourite subject might engross his 
 mind to the neglect of other necessary branches, 
 took care to give him little or no access to his 
 library. He confined his son's attention, as much 
 as possible, to the study of language's. But nature 
 could not be repressed, and the daily pastime of 
 the boy was to draw mathematical diagrams, with 
 charcoal, on the floor. In this stolen enjoyment, 
 his father surprised him, and the figure that was 
 then absorbing his thoughts was the 32d proposi- 
 tion of Euclid ; showing that he had already mas- 
 tered all the previous elements that enter into that 
 demonstration. His father thenceforth set him to 
 the regular study of Euclid ; and so great was his 
 proficiency in the science, that, before completing 
 his sixteenth year, he had composed a treatise on 
 conic sections, invented an arithmetical machine, 
 for which, in 1649, he obtained a patent ; and at the 
 age of twenty-three had finished those important 
 experiments, in pneumatics and hydrostatics, which 
 have so honourably connected his name with the 
 progress of natural philosophy, and raised him to 
 the same rank with Torricelli and Boyle. A serious 
 illness, brought on by intense application to study, 
 obliged him, for a long time, to suspend his fa- 
 vourite pursuits, and on his recovery, circumstances 
 occurred that powerfully diverted his thoughts 
 into a different channel. During his protracted 
 sickness, he had received deep impressions of reli- 
 gion, so that under an overwhelming sense of its 
 importance he resolved to renounce all the scientific 
 and secular pursuits, to which his taste and genius 
 so strongly directed him, and to apply his mind 
 exclusively to the study of theology, and the means 
 by which he might promote the best interests of 
 his fellow-men. Through the loopholes of his pious 
 retreat, however, he took an occasional glance at 
 
 5G7 
 
PAS 
 
 what was passing in the world, and on the out- 
 break of the fierce contests that were waged be- 
 tween the Jansenists and the Jesuits, Pascal 
 showed himself a keen and powerful advocate of 
 the former. It was in connection with the contro- 
 versy respecting Arnauld, that he wrote his famous 
 ' Letters of a Provincial to one of his Friends,' 
 which first appeared in the year 1656, under the 
 fictitious authorship of Louis de Montalte. They 
 contain a most withering exposure of the false 
 morality of the Jesuits, and the sentiments are ex- 
 pressed iu a style of elegance, accompanied with 
 the most sparkling wit and bitter sarcasms, which, 
 although enlisted in a foreign and bygone contro- 
 versy, have secured to the work a lasting fame. 
 Pascal meditated a work of high importance, 
 viz., an inquiry into the character and evidences of 
 Christianity, and in the hands of so original, pro- 
 found, and independent a thinker, there was reason 
 to expect a production which would interest and 
 instruct the whole Christian world. But his 
 Pensees, or ' Thoughts on Religion,' a posthumous 
 volume of loose and desultory fragments, which 
 were meant to be woven into a regular composition, 
 is all that was accomplished of this grand design, 
 for he was arrested in the midst of his work by 
 death in 1662, which happened so suddenly and 
 in such suspicious circumstances, as gave some 
 colour to the charge of his being earned off by 
 poison. [R-J-] 
 
 [House in which Pascal died.] 
 
 PASCH, G., a German philologist, 1661-1707. 
 
 PASCH, J., a professor of philosophy, d. 1709. 
 
 PASCH, Jean, a Swedish landscape and marine 
 painter, 1706-1769. Laurence, of the same 
 family name, is known as a portrait painter ; and his 
 daughter, Ulrica Fredkkica, was a member of 
 the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, 1735-96. 
 
 PASCHAL. See Pascal. 
 
 PASCHAL, C, a Fr. antiquarian, died 1625. 
 
 PASCHAL, F., a Fr. dramatist, 17th century. 
 
 PASCHIUS, G., a Ger. philologist, 1661-1707. 
 
 PASCOLI, A., an Ital. anatomist, 1669-1767. 
 
 PASCOLI, L., an Ital art- writer, 1674-1744. 
 
 PASINELLI, L., an Ital. painter, 1629-1700. 
 
 PASQUALIS. See Martinez. 
 
 PAT 
 
 \ PASQUIER, Stephen, an eminent Fre 
 civilian, and enemy of the Jesuits, 1529-1615. 
 PASS, PASSE, or PAAS. See Pas. 
 PASSAROTTI, Bartalomeo, an Italian pi 
 ter and engraver, died 1592. He had two si 
 also disting. in art : Tiburzio, died 1612; 
 Aurelio, who died between 1592 and 1605. 
 PASSEMANT, C. S., aFr. astronomer, 1702 
 PASSE RAT, J., a French poet, 1534-1602. 
 PASSERI, Giambattista, an Italian a 
 quarian and naturalist, 1694-1780. 
 
 PASSERI, Giambattista, an Italian pai 
 and poet, 1610-1679. His nephew, Guiski 
 also a painter, 1654-1714. 
 PASSEROTTI. See Passarctti. 
 PASSIGNANO, Dominico Cresti Da, a 
 ting, painter of the Florentine school, 1568-161 
 PASSIONEI, Domenico, a learned Ita 
 cardinal, and promoter of literature, 1682-176 
 PASSWAN-OGLOU, Osman, a pacha of 
 din , in Bulgaria, who revolted against the porte, t 
 his father had been put to death ; and, after [ 
 struggle, compelled the sultan to confirm hii 
 the government. He was afterwards faithfh 
 the Turks in a war with the Russians, 1758-1 
 PASTEUR, J. D., a Dut. naturalist, 1763-1 
 PASTORIUS, J., a Ger. historian, 1610-16! 
 PATARASI, L., an Ital. naturalist, 1674-1 
 PATEL, Peter, a French landscape pah- 
 killed in a duel, 1654-1703. His son, of the s 
 names, painted several emblematic subjects; d 
 unknown. 
 
 PATER, Paul, a Hungarian savant, 1656-1 
 
 PATERCULUS, a Roman historian, d. lfl 
 
 PATERSON, C. W., a Brit, admiral, 1756-1 
 
 PATERSON, S., a bibliographer, 1728-180 
 
 PATICIII, A., an Italian painter, 1762-ll 
 
 PATIN, Guy, a French physician, distingui.' 
 
 in the disputes which divided" the profession 
 
 cerning chemical remedies, as the determ: 
 
 enemy of antimonial and similar preparati 
 
 1601-1672. His letters, which have beesq 
 
 lished since his death, are curious and int 
 
 Charles, his second son, distinguished as a 
 
 sician and numismatist, 1633-1693. TheM 
 
 the latter, and their two daughters, Chaklo 
 
 and Gabrielle, were women of remari 
 
 learning, and have left some writings 
 
 PATISSON, M., a Fr. Hellenist, diedab 
 
 PATKUL, John Reginald De, a _ 
 
 of Poland, who distinguished himself b 
 
 deavours to shake off the Swedish vol 
 
 reigns of Charles XL and Charles XII. 
 
 treacherously given up to the latter by 
 
 and broken on the wheel 1707. 
 
 PATON, R., an English painter, last cen: 
 PATOUILLET, L., a Fr. Jesuit and cm 
 sialist, an. of 'Apology for Cartouche,' 1' 
 PATRAT, J., a French playwright, 1 
 PATRICK, A., a Polish prelate; 16th 
 PATRICK, Peter, one of Justinian 
 sadors, and finally master of the palace, 
 tive of Thessalonica. Very little is known 
 ing his history; and of his work, 'The 9 
 Ambassadors,' written in Greek, only some 
 ments remain. 
 
 PATRICK, St., the patron of Ireland, , w 
 first to corvert the pagan Irish I 
 and is supposed to have commenced his 
 
 568 
 
PAT 
 
 re in 433. According to his own account he 
 s born at Kilpatrick, between Dumbarton and 
 isgow, but other accounts represent him as a 
 ;ive of Pembrokeshire and of Brittany. Nen- 
 is, who wrote in the 7th century, states that 
 original name was Maur, and that the name 
 tricius was given to him when consecrated by 
 pe Celestine. He fixed his residence at Armagh, 
 ich is become the metropolitan see, and is sup- 
 ed to have continued his missions about forty 
 rs. Usher, however, places his death as late 
 t93. 
 
 'ATRICK, Samuel, a divine and classical 
 ic, editor of an edition of Hederick's Greek 
 icon, died 1748. 
 
 ATRICK, Simon, a learned prelate, horn at 
 lsborough 1626, died bishop of Ely 1707. His 
 is are ' Heart's Ease, or a Remedy against all 
 lbles,' 4 Jewish Hypocrisy,' ' A Convert to the 
 lent Generation,' ' Parable of the Pilgrim,' 
 position of the Commandments,' a ' Debate be- 
 n a Conformist and Nonconformist,' ' Treatise 
 le Holy Communion,' ' The Devout Christian,' 
 us and the Resurrection Justified by Witnesses 
 eaven and Earth,' ' A History of the Church of 
 rborough ' (of which he was dean), various para- 
 and commentaries on the Prophets, and a 
 r of occasional sermons. When rector of St. 
 s, Covent Garden, he greatly endeared him- 
 his parishioners by remaining with them 
 g the wnole time of the plague in 1665. 
 lTRIN, E. L. M., a Fr. geologist, 1742-1815. 
 TRIX, P., a French poet, 1585-1672. 
 TRIZI, A., an Italian historian, died 1496. 
 TRIZI, F., an Italian Platonist, 1529-1597. 
 .TTE, P., a French architect, 1723-1814. 
 TTEN, T., an English theologian, 1754-90. 
 TTISON, James, well known as member of 
 t for London, and governor of the Bank 
 igland, was born 1786. He was the repre- 
 *ve of an old commercial family. His par- 
 tary career began in 1835. In 1841 he was 
 fill, but was returned on the death of Sh- 
 in 1843, and again at the general elec- 
 L847. Died 1849. 
 
 ON, William, a native of Sussex, who 
 hed himself as a poet, and died in his 
 -first year, after a miserable life, 1706-1727. 
 " "ZZI, J. V., an Ital. theologian, 1700-69. 
 CTON, M. J. P., a Fr. mathemat., 1736-98. 
 ITZ, C, a German painter, 17th century. 
 L, or SAUL, (Acts xiii. 9,) was a native 
 in Cilicia, and inherited the privileges 
 an citizen. (Acts xxii. 28, 29.) His 
 and education were wholly Jewish, and 
 was of the highest order. Under the 
 of Gamaliel, a distinguished Jewish 
 Jerusalem, (Acts v. 34,) he became mas- 
 Jewish law. (Acts xxii. 3 ; Gal. i. 14.) 
 been also taught a useful mechanical trade, 
 to the custom of the nation, for the Tal- 
 he that does not train his son to some 
 occupation is as bad as if he taught him 
 The handicraft to which Saul was trained 
 of a 'tent-maker.' Tent-making is a corn- 
 popular branch of business in the East, 
 light and portable edifices are in so 
 constant requisition. Cilicia, Saul's na- 
 ce, was famed for a certain species of 
 
 PAU 
 
 goat's hair, which was woven into haircloth. This 
 form of industry may have been Saul's early em- 
 ployment, and as such tent-cloth was largely used 
 m the army, this manufacture may have suggested 
 to the apostle's mind the many military figures and 
 illusions which are scattered through his writings. 
 (Acts xviii. 3.) His residence at Jerusalem com- 
 menced at an early period, (Acts xxvi. 4,) and he 
 was probably from twenty-two to twenty-five years 
 old when Christ commenced his public ministry. 
 He belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, as did 
 also his father. (Acts xxiii. 6.) The preaching 
 of the gospel by the apostles, and especially the 
 fact of Christ's resurrection from the dead, on 
 which they placed their chief stress, excited, of 
 course, a violent opposition among the Jews, which, 
 before long, broke out in open violence. Stephen, 
 an eloquent and powerful advocate of the new re- 
 ligion, was seized and stoned to death. Among 
 the spectators, and perhaps promoters, of this 
 bloody deed, was Paul; who, we may suppose, 
 from the manner in which he was regarded by the 
 murderers, and, indeed, from his own confession, 
 was fully with them in the act. (Acts vii. 58. 
 Comp. xxii. 20.) His temperament, talents, and 
 education fitted him to become a leader in the per- 
 secution of the apostles and their adherents ; and 
 he commenced his career with a degree of zeal 
 bordering on madness. He ' breathed out threaten- 
 ings and slaughter.' His whole spirit was excited, 
 against the new religion, and he even sought for 
 authority to go to Damascus, whither many of the 
 disciples had fled after the murder of Stephen, and 
 bind and drag to Jerusalem, without distinction of 
 age or sex, all the followers of Christ whom he 
 could find. Just before he reached Damascus, 
 however, he was arrested by a miraculous light, so 
 intense as to deprive him of vision. He fell to the 
 earth in helpless prostration and terror. (Acts xxii. 
 11.) At the same time Christ revealed himself as 
 the real object of his persecution. (Acts xxvi. 15. 
 Comp. 1 Cor. xv. 8.) Paul on being converted did 
 not wait very long in Damascus ; and we are not 
 to infer from the narrative of Luke that imme- 
 diately on leaving Damascus he went to Jerusalem. 
 The time which he spent in Arabia may be esti- 
 mated at from one year and a-half to two years ; 
 for immediately after his conversion, he must have 
 spent at least some months at Damascus, before, 
 as an apostle, he gave himself to his missionary 
 journeyings, and such was his journey into Ara- 
 bia, When now he had returned to Damascus, he 
 commenced making known, unreservedly and ener- 
 getically, the gospel of Christ in the synagogues 
 of the Jews, in the same manner that he did in his 
 first abode in that city. The following chronolo- 
 gical arrangement will enable the reader to con- 
 nect the principal events in the life of Paul : 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Paul's conversion. (Actsix.,) 21 st year of Tiberius, 3G 
 
 He goes into Arabia, and returns to Damascus; 
 (Gal. i. 17;) at the end of three years in all, he 
 escapes from Damascus and goes to Jerusalem, 
 (Acts ix. 23, <fec.,) 39 
 
 From Jerusalem Paul goes to Cilicia and Syria. 
 (Acts ix. 30 ; Gal. i. 21.) From Antioch he is sent 
 with Barnabas to Jerusalem to carry alms, (Acts 
 xi. 30.) 48 
 
 The first missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas 
 from Antioch, continued about two years, (Acts 
 xiii., xiv.,) commencing, 45 
 
PAU 
 
 After spending several years in Antioch, (Acts xiv. 
 '2$,) Paul and Barnabas are sent a second time to 
 Jerusalem, to consult the apostles respecting cir- 
 cumcision, tec, (Acts xv. 2,) 52 
 
 The Jews expelled from Rome, a.d 52-54; Paul, 
 on his second missionary journey, (Acts xv. 40,) 
 after passing through Asia Minor to Europe, finds 
 Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth, (Acts xviii. 2,).. 54 
 
 Paul remains eighteen months in Corinth. (Acts 
 xviii. 11.) Atter being brought before Gallio, he 
 departs for Jerusalem the fourth time, and then 
 goea to Antioch, (Acts xviii. 22,) 56 
 
 The apostle winters at Nicopolis, (Tit. iii. 12,) and 
 then goes to Ephesus, (Acts xix. 1,) 57 
 
 After a residence of two years or more at Ephesus, 
 Paul departs for Macedonia, (Acts xx 1,) 59 
 
 After wintering in Achaia, Paul goes the fifth time 
 to Jerusalem, where he is imprisoned, (Acts xxi. ; 
 xxiiL,) 60 
 
 The apostle remains two years in prison at Cesarea, 
 and is then sent to Rome, where he arrives in the 
 spring, after wintering in Malta, (Acts xxiv. 27; 
 xxv., xxviii.,) 63 
 
 The history in Acts concludes, and Paul is supposed 
 by some to have been set at liberty, 65 
 
 Probable martyrdom, 66 
 
 [J.E.] 
 
 PAUL, the name of two saints besides the 
 .tpostle, the earlier a hermit of the Thebaid, about 
 229-341. The later, a patriarch of Constantinople, 
 elected 340, put to death 350 or 351. 
 
 PAUL, theirs? of the name, pope, reigned 757- 
 767. The second, 1464-1471. The third, of the 
 Farnese family, succeeded Clement VIL, 1534, 
 excommunicated Henry VIII. 1535, concluded a 
 league with the Venetians and Charles V. against 
 the Turks 1538, concurred in the foundation of the 
 Jesuits 1540, convoked the council of Trent 1542, 
 died 1549. The fourth, reigned 1555-1559. The 
 fifth, of the Borghese family, succeeded Leo XL 
 1605, sustained a quarrel with Venice, which was 
 terminated by Henry IV. 1605-1607, died 1621. 
 
 PAUL I., emperor of Russia, son of Catharine 
 the Great and Peter III., was bom 1754, and suc- 
 ceeded on the death of his mother 1796. He was 
 assassinated 1800, and sue. by his son, Alexander. 
 
 PAUL, an exarch of Ravenna, killed 728. 
 
 PAUL of Burgos. See Paul of S. Maria. 
 
 PAUL the Deacon, a monkish histor., d. 743. 
 
 PAUL-DE-LA-CROIX, an Italian founder of a 
 religious congregation, 1720, died 1775. 
 
 PAUL of Samosata, bishop of that place, on 
 the Euphrates, and patriarch of Antioch, flourished 
 from 260 to 273. He was deposed for heresy 270, 
 but could not be expelled from his dignities till 
 after the fall of Zenobia. The sect of I'aulbins, 
 or Paidianists, was named after him, and con- 
 demned by the council of Nice. Their doctrines 
 were a form of Socinianism. 
 
 PAUL of Sancta Maria, a converted Jew, 
 born at Burgos in 1353, died a dignitary of the 
 church 1435. His three sons, Alphonso, Gon- 
 salvo, and Aloares, also rose in the church, 
 the elder of them becoming bishop of Burgos. He 
 is the author of an abridgment of Spanish history. 
 
 PAUL the Silentiary, a Christian poet, chief 
 of the officers who had charge of Justinian's palace. 
 
 PAUL De Vincent, one of the most revered 
 saints of the Roman calendar, founder of the con- 
 gregation of ' Priests of the Missions,' was born in 
 humble life 1576 ; and in all the offices which he 
 held, was renowned for his warm zeal and exten- 
 sive charity ; died 16C0. 
 
 PAU 
 PAUL, A. L., a French ecclesiastic, 1740-11 
 PAULA, a sainted lady of Rome, died 404.1 
 PALLET, .1. J., a Fr. medical wr., 1740-1;| 
 PAULET, W., an English courtier, 1475-lfc 
 PAULI. SeePAULLi. 
 PAU LI AN S, Aime Henri, a learned Fr. Jefc 
 author of several philosophical works, 1722-1 i 
 PAULIN -DE- SAINT - BARTHELEMY.l 
 nameby which John Philip Werdin, an Aus E 
 Carmelite and missionary, is generally known, 
 principal scene of his labours was in the 
 Indies, and he has left some valuable Ori 
 works, 1748-1806. 
 
 PAULINUS, the name of three saints i- 
 bishop of Treves, elected 349, deposed 35:;, di 
 exile 359. 2. A famous ecclesiastical writer, 
 in Gaul 353, died bishop of Nola 431. 3. A i 
 arch of Aquileia, 726-804. 
 
 PAULLI, Simon, a Danish physician tt| 
 tnralist, 1603-1680. His son, of the same 
 settled at Strasburg as a painter 1661, auth 
 miscellaneous publications, 1664. Another 
 James Henry, was professor of anatomy i 
 history at Copenhagen, and was employed in i 
 of state by Christiem V. A third son, Oli 
 born at Copenhagen 1644, became secretary f 
 India Company, and acquired a large fortui 
 commerce. He then suddenly announced hi 
 as the subject of certain visions, in obeyinj 
 mandates of which he lost his property, an 
 deavoured to engage the Christian powers 
 crusade against the Turks, for the purpo 
 restoring Israel. He published numerous n 
 in Flemish and German, and suffered imp.' 
 ment in pursuit of this object, and at last 
 in obscurity, 1715. 
 
 PAULINI, C. F., a Ger. naturalist, 1643- 
 PAULMIER DE GRENTEMESNIL, Ji! 
 Le, a French physician, who witnessed the 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew, and wrote on su 
 1520-1588. His son, James, a learned ant 
 rian and philologist, 1587-1670. 
 
 PAU LMY, Anthony Rkne DeVoyer] 
 genson, Marquis De, a Fr. literateur, 1722-' 
 PAULUS of iEdNA, a medical wr.,7th i 
 PAULUS, .Emilius Lucius. See Mmv 
 PAULUS, Julius, a Roman lawyer, 8ff 
 PAULUS, Peter, a statesman of Dutch 
 ders, author of a ' Commentary on the Tw 
 Utrecht,' and other works, 1754-1796. 
 PAUSAN1US, a Greek geographer, 2dce 
 PAUSANIAS, a general of Cleombrot 
 of Sparta, who distinguished himself at the 
 of Plataea, and was afterwards detected in a 
 sonable attempt to deliver his country to the 
 sians. Having fled to a temple of Minerv 
 sanctity of which secured him from violenc 
 Greeks surrounded the building with 
 stones, and thus starved him to death, B.C. I 
 PAUSIAS, a Greek painter, 4th century : 
 PAUSON, a Greek painter, 5th cent, n.c 
 PAUW, C. De, a Dutch savant, 1739-17? 
 PAUW, J. C, a Dutch classic, 17th ceM 
 PAUW, Reignier, a Dutch magistral 
 diplomatist, 1564-1636. Adrian, his i 
 pensionary of Holland, 1631, plenipotentiary 
 peace of Munster, 1648, died 105:;. 
 brother of the latter, a statesman, 1 
 
 PAUWS, P., Dutch physician, 1504-1617 
 70 
 
PAU 
 
 PAUWELS, J., a Belgian composer, 1771-1804. 
 PAVILLON, John Francis Du Chevron 
 Du, a French naval commander, 1730-1782. 
 
 PAVILLON, Nicholas, a famous preacher, 
 born at Paris 1597, died bishop of Aleth 1677! 
 Stephen, his son, a man of letters, 1632-1705. 
 PAYNE, J., an English engraver, 1608-1648. 
 PAYS, Rene Le, a French poet, 1636-1690. 
 PAZ, J. A. De, a Spanish Jesuit, 1560-1620. 
 PAZZI, Jacopo, chief of the Italian faction op- 
 posed to the Medici, put to death 1478. 
 
 PEACHAM, Henry, an accomplished gentle- 
 man, who is supposed to have been tutor in the 
 :arl of Arundel's family, and who wrote many 
 vorks known to the readers of polite literature : 
 ,mong these are some complimentary poems, 
 The Gentleman's Exercise,' intended as a treatise 
 n art ; ' Minerva Britannica,' a collection of em- 
 lems in verse, illustrated with plates ; and ' The 
 lomplete Gentleman.' This latter work is the one 
 >r which he was most celebrated, and it has been 
 equently reprinted. Died about 1640. 
 PEACOCK, R., a learned prelate, 1390-1460. 
 PEARCE, Nathaniel, a sailor famous for his 
 ng residence in Abyssinia, 1780-1820. 
 PEARCE, Zachary, successively bishop of 
 igor and Rochester, distinguished as a classical 
 lolar, and author of a ' Commentary on the 
 mgelists,' 1690-1774. 
 
 >EARSALL, R., a nonconf. divine, 1698-1762. 
 IPEARSON, Edward, a learned minister of the 
 lurch of England, author of a Norrisian prize 
 ay on the 'Goodness of God, as Manifested in 
 Mission of Jesus Christ,' a ' Collection of 
 ayers,' and Tracts against the theory of Paley 
 |moral obligation, 1756-1811. 
 'EARSON, George, a physician of London, 
 1 writer on analytical chemistry, died 1828. 
 'EARSON, John a learned English prelate, 
 born in Norfolk, where his father was rector 
 ike and Snoring, 1612, and died, bishop of 
 Br, 1686. He is regarded as the greatest 
 of his age, and is best known by his ' Ex- 
 ^tion of the Creed,' published while he was 
 of St. Clement's Eastcheap, 1650. The 
 i\ of his other works is a ' Defence of the 
 les ' of St. Ignatius. 
 LRSON, Margaret Egeinton, disting. 
 skill in the art of painting on glass, d. 1823. 
 3CHIO, G., an Italian economist, 1785-1835. 
 "EI, J. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1693-1768. 
 SCHANTRE, N. De, a Fr. dram., 1638-1709. 
 pHMEJA, J., a Fr. literateur, 1741-1785. 
 SCK, Francis, a dignitary of the Church of 
 fid, known as an antiquarian and historian, 
 "incipal works relate to English history, and 
 tiqmties of Stamford, 1692-1743. 
 KHAM, J., archb. of Canterbury, d. 1292. 
 KWELL, H., a Calvinist divine, 1737-87. 
 """JUET, Anthony, grand master of the 
 i and forests of Rouen, known as a writer on 
 st laws and general politics, 1704-1762. 
 QUET, J., a French anatomist, 1622-1674. 
 JjAZI, P., an Ital. antiquarian, 1644-1720. 
 CDRO, emperor of Brazil, was eldest son of 
 J VI., king of Portugal, eldest brother of Don 
 and nephew to Ferdinand VII., king of 
 He was born in 1798, and was married in 
 Leopoldine, archduchess of Austria, daugh- 
 
 C\ 
 
 PEE 
 
 ter of Francis I., emperor; and in 1829, when 
 that princess had been dead three years, to Amelia, 
 princess of Leuchtenberg, daughter of Eugene 
 Beauharnais. In 1831 he abdicated the throne of 
 Brazil in favour of his son, Pedro II., and came 
 to England ; his object being to solicit aid against 
 his brother, Miguel, who had usurped the throne 
 of Portugal. The defeat of Miguel's fleet in 1832, 
 by Admiral Napier, decided the war, which had 
 been marked by some sharp engagements on land. 
 Pedro died in 1834, and his daughter by his first 
 wife, Leopoldine, ascended the throne. She was 
 the late Queen Donna Maria. 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert, father of the celebrated 
 statesman, was the third son of Mr. Peel, of Peel 
 Cross, Lancashire. He was born in 1750, and 
 amassed great wealth in the cotton trade, became 
 a member of parliament, and in 1801 was created 
 a baronet. Died at Dravton Manor, 1830. 
 
 [Birth place of Sir lJobert Peel.] 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert, was born on 5th Febru- 
 ary, 1788. His father was a celebrated manufac- 
 turer, whose successful career was intimately con- 
 nected with the development of the industrial 
 energies of Britain during the great European 
 war. The elder Peel left a princely fortune to be 
 inherited by his distinguished son, and there is no 
 doubt that the peculiar position in which he was 
 placed had much influence on the mind of the 
 statesman. In wealth and rank he was nominally 
 among the aristocracy, and his own character was 
 reserved and somewhat haughty. In the external 
 movements of society he would feel his place a 
 high one, and the proudest aristocracy were na- 
 turally ever willing to acknowledge a considerable 
 position to the clever, rich, and highly educated 
 cotton-spinner's son. Yet he would have oppor- 
 tunities of being conscious that he was not ad- 
 mitted within the sacred arena of the old feudal 
 aristocratic families, whose generations had been 
 intermarrying for centuries. His was a nature to 
 see and feel this, while the history of his father's 
 rise, and all the antecedents of his own greatness, 
 would concur to throw his sympathies into the 
 cause of progress and energy. He studied at 
 Harrow and Oxford, where he early distinguished 
 himself among the most brilliant men of his day. 
 When just twenty-one years of age he entered 
 
 571 
 
PEE 
 
 parliament as member for Cashel, and thenceforth 
 the sphere of his exertions and triumphs was the 
 House of Commons, in the history ot which his 
 career will form a large feature. He was no ora- 
 tor, nor was he properly speaking a natural and 
 simple debater. His manner was the artificial 
 one of thorough training, but for an artificial man- 
 ner it was a good one, and the house from his 
 practice got to like it, though to a stranger 
 it was generally unpleasant. He could state 
 his case clearly and forcibly, but he seldom liked 
 to abandon a subject until he had discussed it at 
 great length. He avoided in a marked manner the 
 statement of general principles, as if he feared that 
 he might afterwards nave to say or do something 
 inconsistent with them, and he generally made out 
 his case on the details of the matter, rather than 
 on any wide rule or principle of political opinion. At 
 the beginning of his parliamentary career he was ap- 
 pointed to serve on Horner's bullion committee, and 
 the peculiarities of his mind were then distinctly 
 remarked. It was seen that he went into the in- 
 quiry with opinions totally unformed that he pro- 
 ceeded with the examination systematically and 
 calmly, as if it had related to some philosophical 
 question about the composition of metals, but that 
 after having formed his opinions, he deemed it his 
 function and duty to carry them resolutely into 
 practice. In 1811 he was made under secretary 
 tor the colonies, and in 1812, while only twenty- 
 four, he received the very responsible appointment 
 of chief secretary for Ireland. After carrying his 
 celebrated currency measure of 1819, he became in 
 1822 home secretary. Refusing to take office un- 
 der Canning, he joined the ministry of the duke of 
 Wellington in 1828. Here by conceding catholic 
 emancipation, against which he had previously 
 protested, he did one of those acts which have 
 been called tergiversation by some, and the result 
 of honest conviction, rising above original pre- 
 possession by others. He still, however, professed 
 to belong to the Conservative party, and he be- 
 came a strenuous opponent of Earl Grey's ministry 
 and the Reibrm Bill. When a Conservative govern- 
 ment was, from mere accidental and personal 
 causes not well explained, established in 1834, he 
 gallantly undertook the attempt to work it, 
 though conscious that the task was hopeless. He 
 became prime minister in 1841 with better pros- 
 pects. The position in which he was placed was 
 that of the head of a protectionist government, 
 established to defeat and suppress the free trade 
 party. As circumstances developed themselves in 
 the few critical years from 1841 to 1846, some in- 
 dications of opinion created alarm among the 
 thorough protectionists, and it was seen that the 
 prime minister becoming convinced of the truth of 
 free trade, was determined to carry its principles 
 into practice. After a repeal of the corn laws and 
 other measures in the same spirit, he resigned 
 office to the party to whom his later opinions legi- 
 timately belonged, in the summer of 1846. He 
 died on the 2d of July, 1850, of internal in juries 
 caused by a fall from a horse. [J.H.B.] 
 
 PEELE, George, a dramatic, writer and poet 
 of the age of Elizabeth, was a native of Devon- 
 shire, and died some time before 1598. He took 
 the degree of M.A. at Oxford in 1579, after which 
 he removed to London, and is supposed to have 
 
 57 
 
 PEL 
 
 had the ordering of the city pageants. Five of hi: 
 plavs are still extant. 
 
 PEGEL, M., a German savant, died 1610. 
 
 PEGGE, Samuel, father and son, both of th 
 same name, distinguished as antiquarian writers 
 the former, a minister of the Church of England 
 flourished 1704-1796 ; the latter, a barrister, 1731 
 1800. Sir Christopher, son of the younge 
 Samuel, was regius professor of medicine at Ox 
 ford, and died 1825. 
 
 PEINS, G., a German painter, 1500-1556. 
 
 PEIRCE, J., a noncontorm. divine, 1673-1726 
 
 PEIRESC, Nicholas Cl. Fabri De, a gentk 
 man of Florence, descended from the Fabri of Piai 
 dist. as an antiquarian, Oriental scholar, astronc 
 mer, and naturalist, and equally famous for h 
 protection of the learned, born 1580, expired in tt 
 arms of his friend and biographer, Gassendi, 163' 
 
 PEIROUSE, Philip Picot, Baron De La, 
 distinguished French naturalist, 1744-1818. 
 
 PELAGIUS, sometimes surnamed Brito, 
 usually supposed to have been a native of tl 
 country, his Greek name being a translation of b 
 Celtic one, Morgan. The opinions which ] 
 afterwards advocated were probably the grow 
 of many years, for at first during his residence 
 Rome, whither he came in the year 400, he w 
 noted only for his earnest zeal and austere a 
 tivities. He had even the address to hold inte 
 course with Augustine, when he visited Afri( 
 and also with Jerome, without his being suspect 
 of heresy. At length the agitation commence 
 Pelagius, who had meanwhile gone to the East, w 
 accused before John of Jerusalem and the synod 
 Diospolis, but acquitted, though he was forma 
 anathematized by Pope Innocentius, in ad. 41 
 Other sentences were passed upon the heresian 
 and his subsequent history is unknown. His d< 
 trines were a denial of the distinctive truths of scri 
 ture and evangelical theology, such as origh 
 sin and depravity, moral inability, and the ne 
 divine grace to renovate. In fact, the 
 ascribed to Pelagius, ignore the guilt of man, and 
 but make him his own deliverer. In attempt!,' 
 to denude redemption of mystery, he robbe^H 
 reality. His opponents, however, complained of 
 lubricity, and perhaps his own views are nc' 
 judged of by the extreme sentiments of his 
 Several of the works of Pelagius have de 
 to us, such as his ' Commentaries on Paul's 
 ties,' and his ' Confession of Faith.' 
 
 PELAGIUS, a king of the Austurias, 
 
 PELAGIUS, the first of the name, poj 
 reign of Justinian, 555-559 ; the second, 57 
 
 PELAGIUS, Magloire, a man of cole 
 became a general in the French army, died 
 
 PELAGIUS, St., a convert of Antioch, 
 
 PELETIER, Claude Le, one of the ; 
 tinguished members of the ancient French ] 
 trature, provost of merchants, and builder 
 quay which bears his name at Paris, 163'* 
 His brother, Michael, a learned man an 
 cillor of state, died 1725. 
 
 PELETIER, James, a French mathc 
 and man of letters, 1517-1582. Jonx, his I 
 a theologian, died 1583. James, their 
 an ecclesiastic, executed in effigy for bis 
 share in the death of the president Brisson 
 
 PELL, John, a learned divine and ma 
 2 
 
PEL 
 
 tician, who settled at Breda as professor of philo- 
 sophy and mathematics, and was a great corres- 
 Eondent of Cavendish. Besides the works pub- 
 shed by him, his MSS. and letters., in the British 
 Museum, occupy nearly forty folio volumes. Born 
 at tiouthwick, in Sussex, 1610., died 1685. 
 
 PELLEGRIN, Simon Joseph, a French eccle- 
 siastic, kn. as a dramatic wt. and poet, 1663-1745. 
 PELLEPRAT, P., a Fr. missionary, 1606-1667. 
 PELLERIN, J., a Fr. numismatist, 1684-1782. 
 PELLETIER. See Lepelletier. 
 PELLETIER, B., a pharmacopolist, 1761-97. 
 PELLEW, Edward See Exmouth. 
 PELLICAN, C, a Germ. Hebraist, 1478-1536. 
 PELLICER, J. A., a Span, savant, 1740-1806. 
 PELLICO, Silvio, was born at Saluzza, in 
 Piedmont, 1789. He was known in early life as a 
 >oet and dramatic writer, especially by his fine 
 ragedy ' Francesca da Rimini.' In 1819, he started 
 he ' Conciliator,' a literary and scientific journal, 
 fhich brought him under the Austrian censorship, 
 nd in 1821, he was arrested and condemned to 
 eath with Count Gonfalonieri and others; all 
 harged with conspiracy as members of the Car- 
 onari societies. This punishment was commuted 
 n the scaffold, and the patriots consigned to a hor- 
 ble imprisonment ; that of Silvio Pellico, chiefly 
 assed in the fortress of Spielberg, lasting till the 
 eneral amnesty of 1830. The pathetic account of 
 sufferings, ' Le Mie Prigiom,' produced an im- 
 lse effect, and the name of Pellico, connected 
 ith those of Gioberti and Balbo, has kept alive 
 ^e purest flame of patriotism that has yet burned 
 their unhappy country. He died in the house of 
 e Marchesa Barolo, in February, 1854. [E.R.] 
 PELLIEUX, J. N., a Fr. antiquary, 1749-1832. 
 PELLISSON-FONTANIER, Paul, an emi- 
 snt historian and member of the French Aca- 
 my, who was educated for the law, and at the 
 ;e of twenty-one published a ' Commentary on 
 e Institutes of Justinian.' He is famed also for 
 e courage with which he defended his old pro- 
 itor, Fouquet, on whose disgrace he was con- 
 ; ned to a five years' imprisonment in the Bastile. 
 8 works are a ' History of the French Academy,' 
 [istory of Louis XIV., ' History of the Conquest 
 Franche-Comte,' and 'Reflections upon Religious 
 fferences.' Born at Beziers 1624, died 1693. 
 k ELLOUTIER, Simon, a German of French 
 t, au. of a ' History of the Celts,' 1694-1757. 
 LOPIDAS, a famous Theban general, com- 
 n-in-arms of Epaminondas, died B.C. 364. 
 ELS, A., a Dutch miscellaneous wr., d. 1681. 
 ELTAN, T. A., a Germ, theologian, 1552-84. 
 ELTIER, J. G., a Fr. journalist, died 1825. 
 EMBERTON, Henry, professor of medicine 
 rresham College, and a member of the Royal 
 ety, bears a distinguished name as a mathe- 
 ician and natural philosopher. He was the 
 lemporary and friend of Sir Isaac Newton. 
 a in London 1694, died 1771. 
 EMBLE, W., a learned divine, 1591-1623. 
 EMBROKE, Mary Herbert, wife of Henry, 
 of, a poetical writer, died 1821. 
 EMBROKE, T., a painter, about 1700-1728. 
 ENA, John, a Fr. mathematician, 1530-1560. 
 ENA, John Nunez De La, a Spanish histo- 
 of the Canary Islands, 1676. 
 ENA, Peter, a French botanist, 16th century. 
 
 PEN 
 
 PENINGTON, Isaac, son of an alderman and 
 mayor of London, famous as a writer among the 
 Quakers, was born about 1617, joined that reli- 
 gious body 1658, and died 1679. A daughter of 
 his wife, by her former husband, was married to 
 the celebrated William Penn. 
 
 PENN, Sir William, a brave and patriotic 
 admiral, dist. in the war against the Dutch under 
 the duke of York, born at Bristol 1621, died 1670. 
 
 PENN, William, was born in Windsor, on the 
 14th of October, 1644. His father was Sir Wil- 
 liam Penn, a distinguished admiral, who boasted 
 a high and ancient lineage. While the young man 
 studied at Oxford, the great feud between the 
 Puritan and Carabic party then raging was inter- 
 rupted by the appearance of a new claimant to 
 their allegiances, in a representative of the start- 
 ling opinions of George Fox. From their boldness 
 and originality, and their rejection of the authorita- 
 tive restraints laid on both the other factions, this 
 had a charm for one of young Penn's bold and 
 original nature, and he joined the new sect resolv- 
 ing to brave all the consequences. A far more 
 painful portion of them, even than his expulsion 
 from college, encountered him in the domestic circle, 
 where the feelings of the proud old admiral were 
 deeply wounded by finding his son a schismatic. 
 It was one of the veteran's maxims, however, that 
 conscience and honour were before all things, and 
 the spirit and manliness with which his son car- 
 ried out the principles he adopted seem to have 
 appeased his indignation. In 1668, Penn published 
 the first of his voluminous works ' Truth Exalted,' 
 and two years afterwards he was imprisoned, 
 under the conventicle act, for seditious preaching. 
 In 1G77, he travelled on the continent with his 
 celebrated brethren, Robert Barclay and George 
 Fox. It was in the year 1681 that, in compensa- 
 tion for a debt to his father by the crown, he 
 received a grant of the province on the Delaware, 
 called the New Netherlands. It was a signally 
 fortunate incident that in the reckless disposal of 
 such gifts at that time, one should have fallen 
 into hands like his. Such was the foundation of the 
 colony of Pennsylvania, now an empire. It was 
 commenced in a spirit of magnanimous justice, 
 incomprehensible to that age, in an agreement 
 with the natives, and the admission that they had 
 claims to be considered before the colonists took 
 absolute possession. W T hen the relaxations with 
 which James II. wished to purchase the assent of 
 the dissenters to his Romish projects began, the 
 conduct of Penn created suspicions and accusations 
 which have clouded his fame. His position 
 was peculiar, since it was not easy to find among 
 the dissenting bodies any other man whose rank 
 and importance made him so likely a medium of 
 communication with the court, and, at the same 
 time, the Quakers not having much harmony with 
 the others, and being little liked by them, were 
 more apt to accede to measures not generally ac- 
 ceptable to dissenters at large. Thus Penn had 
 friendly communications with, the court, and gave 
 his support to its measures. Whether he dis- 
 honourably implicated himself, is matter of too 
 extensive controversy to be here entered on, and 
 reference must be made to the vindication in Mr. 
 Hepsworth Dixon's Memoirs, published in 1851. 
 One charge against him is that when in Mon- 
 573 
 
PEN 
 
 month's rebellion, some young girls of Taunton 
 were tiireatened with the punishment of death for 
 having worked standards for Monmouth, Perm be- 
 came the looker for their pardon, as a pecuniary 
 consideration in favour of the maids or honour. 
 Mr. Dixon has given reason to suppose that the 
 negotiator was a different person, named George 
 Penne, After the Revolution, Penn lived under 
 the suspicion of favouring the Jacobite cause, and 
 his latter davs were clouded. The death of his 
 first wife in 1698, was followed by that of his eldest 
 son. He married a second time in 1696. He was 
 afterwards encumbered with debt, and died on the 
 30th of July, 1718. [J.H.B.] 
 
 [Grave of Penn.] 
 
 PENN A, L., an Italian composer, died 1693. 
 
 PENNANT, Thos., a celebrated naturalist, was 
 born in 1726. He died in 1798. His father was the 
 proprietor of an estate in Flintshire, north Wales, to 
 which he succeeded at the age of thirty-seven. He 
 devoted almost all his spare time to travelling and 
 the study of natural history and antiquities. He 
 is the author of many works, some of which retain 
 a considerable reputation. His ' British Zoology' is 
 a work of much excellence, and his ' Tour in Scot- 
 land' obtained for him a high character as an ac- 
 curate observer. He made that country much 
 better known to the English than it had hitherto 
 been, and he assisted Lightfoot materially in his 
 excellent work ' The Flora Scotica.' Amongst his 
 other works we may more particularly mention his 
 ' Synopsis of Quadrupeds,' and the 'Arctic Zoology ;' 
 his ' Tour through Wales,' and the ' Antiquities of 
 London.' He was a fellow of the Royal and Anti- 
 quarian Societies, and many others, both at home 
 and abroad, and corresponded with Linnaeus, Buf- 
 fon, Haller, and many of the distinguished men of 
 the day. Foster has named a genus of plants after 
 him, Pennantia. [W.B.] 
 
 PENNI, G. P., a Florentine painter, 1488-1528. 
 His brother, Lucas, born about 1500. 
 
 PENNICUIK, A., a Scot, physician, 1652-1722. 
 
 PENNY, Edward, a painter, 1714-1791. 
 
 PENNY, Thomas, an Engl, naturalist, 16th c. 
 
 PENROSE, Thomas, a poetical wr., 1743-79. 
 
 PENRY, or AP HENRY, John, the author of 
 the famous tract which gave him the name by 
 which he is generally known, Martin Mar-Prelate, 
 was born in Wales 1559 ; and after taking his de- 
 
 PEP 
 
 gree at Oxford became an anabaptist, Brownist, m 
 puritan, as he is variously called. He 
 cuted for his opposition to the church, 1593. 
 
 PENTHIEVRE, L.J. M. De Bourbon, Dtt, 
 De, regarded as one of the most upright sttM 
 men or France in the last centurv, 1725-1793. 
 PENTZ, G., a German engraver, 1500-1550. | 
 PENZEL, A. J., a Ger. philologist, 1749-lM 
 PEPIN of Heristal, called also Pepin Li 
 Gros, was the stock of the second dynaa^H 
 Carlovingian line of French kings. He was g^H 
 son by the mother's side to Pepin de Landen, wkt 
 governed Austrasia in the reign of Dagobert, ant 
 stood in the same relation by his father to til 
 famous Arnaud, archbishop of Metz, who com! 
 bined in his own person the characters of a warrior 
 statesman, diplomatist, and prince of the churebj 
 Pepin of Heristal took his surname from his seatM 
 the Meuse, near Liege, while the Christian preftj 
 derived from his maternal grandfather may bar! 
 been chosen as a recommendation to the people o| 
 Austrasia. The Austrasians, in fact, when Eoroini 
 mayor of the palace of Neustria, became their MH 
 governor by the death of Dagobert II. hl^H 
 preferred the hazard of a contest in favour o| 
 Pepin, to the yoke of the well-known tyrantJH 
 a struggle was then begun which produced^ 
 assassination of the latter, and made Pepin o' 
 Heristal the virtual master of the Frank mona^H 
 It is an historical question how far Clothaire flj 
 and the Dagoberts contributed to the elevatim' 
 of this family, who at length overthrew tberj 
 dynasty, but there can be no doubt aboaJ^H 
 facts, 1, that it was the period of a str^H 
 between the local and the national powers, sfl^H 
 we often recognize at a later age in the hj^H 
 of feudalism ; and 2, that the Merovingian, or firs') 
 line of kings, descended from Clovis, had beconi't 
 a feeble, cruel, and debauched race. Thierry, whil 
 reigned nominally during this struggle, was | 
 exception to the rule in point of feebleness; am 
 when Ebroin was vanquished, who had tyrannize* 
 over him as well as the people, he refused frj 
 make the amende honorable to those who h*< 
 been injured. It was the disaffection thus pro 
 duced that armed the followers of Pepin again* 
 their common sovereign, and the king being 
 feated, found that he had exchanged a 
 hated by all his subjects for one whom t: 
 garded as their saviour. Pepin, however, 
 tented himself with the old title, 'Mayor 
 Palace,' and not only propped up Thierry 
 but crowned three of his descendants afl 
 who are called in French history, Les Rois Ft 
 ' Do-nothing kings.' The real power was 
 grasped in the hands of Pepin Heristal, w[ 
 dued the tributary princes by continual vi 
 and consolidated the order of the state 
 daring to assume the pageantry of it. He 
 714, leaving his natural son, Charles M 
 take the next step in advance, which con 
 administering the kingdom, not with 
 of king indeed, but with the throne al 
 vacant. 
 
 PEPIN LE BREF, son of Charles MS 
 grandson of the preceding, is the first 
 France of the Carlovingian dynasty. He 
 ceeded to his father's authority conjointly wit 
 brother Carloman, in 741, and by falling 
 
 574 
 
PEP 
 
 ne with Childeric, a foolish prince of the 
 mngian line, surnamed l the idiot,' acquired 
 sanction necessary to support the continued 
 mption of power by bis own family. While 
 deric acted the part of the roi faineant, Pepin 
 ref, so named from his short stature, was 
 ing glory in the field, and in 746 was left 
 rat a competitor by the retirement of Carlo- 
 to a monastery. The clergy and the pope 
 easily conciliated in favour of a power which 
 ised to preserve the church from the surround- 
 aarchy, and stop the progress of the Saracens, 
 spread as far as the south of France. In 750, 
 ? ore, Pepin le Bref dethroned Childeric, and 
 g shaved off his long hair, which was an 
 ;ial character of royalty with the Merovingian 
 confined him in a monastery. In 752 he 
 1 himself to be consecrated at Soissons, and 
 : received the pope himself (Stephen II.) as 
 tioner for intervention in Italy. This was 
 ginning of the Frankish empire, successor of 
 Id Roman, which had ended in universal 
 ly. Pepin and his queen Bertha were 
 * in the church of St. Denis by the pope, 
 king then accompanied him into Italy at 
 of an army, besieged Astolphus, king of 
 wnbards, in Pavia, and compelled him to 
 his pretensions to the sovereignty of 
 jpd the exarchate of Ravenna. Another 
 tion was rendered necessary by the revolt of 
 hus, who was again subdued by the 
 ion of the church, who also obtained a signil 
 over the Saracens, reunited Aquitaine to 
 Tdom, and waged successful war against the 
 a princes. Pepin le Bref died in the seven- 
 year of his reign, 768, and was succeeded 
 rlemagne. It is admitted by late historians 
 is change of dynasty was coincident with 
 "on of the eastern Franks, whose fresher 
 guided by the chiefs of the Pepin family, 
 them to push upwards to the seat of 
 ient, and take the place of their feebler 
 [E.R.] 
 the second son of Charlemagne, born 
 e king of Italy 781, died 810. 
 [N, the first of the name, king of Aqui- 
 the son of Louis le Debonnaire, and was 
 Aquitaine was apportioned to him in 
 B38. The second of the name was son 
 ;ding, died in a monastery 864. 
 IN, M., a Flemish painter, born 1578. 
 1LI, a rich Italian family who aimed at 
 sign power in Bologna, 14th century. 
 LI, A. H., an Italian poet, 1757-1796. 
 JSCH, John Christopher, one of the 
 Itheoretical musicians of modern times, was 
 I Berlin, about 1667. He came to London 
 and was engaged as musician at Drury 
 ltre, where it is believed he assisted in 
 the operas which were performed there. 
 j the university of Oxford admitted him to 
 : of Doctor in Music, At the instance of 
 Rich he undertook to compose and adapt 
 for the ' Beggar's Opera.' Having writ- 
 on the ancient genera, which was read 
 Royal Society, and published in the 
 *1 Transactions, in the year 1746; he 
 ranis was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 He died in 1752. [J.M.] 
 
 5; 
 
 PER 
 
 PEPYS, Samuel, born in 1632, was the son of 
 a tailor in London, but related to persons of dis- 
 tinction, whose patronage procured him public 
 offices, and introduced him into aristocratic society. 
 After having served with much ability as a clerk 
 in the Navy Board, he became secretary of the 
 Admiralty under Charles II., and held the place 
 till the Revolution. He died in 1703. Pepys was 
 one of the strangest of mortals : with great talents 
 and activity in business he united a considerable 
 knowledge of several of the fine arts, and a suf- 
 ficient turn for science to make him no unworthy 
 president of the Royal Society : he was a man of 
 much shrewd observation on the follies of others 
 and the habits of his time, and yet himself a fop 
 and an egotist, vain to the extreme of the ridicul- 
 ous, and delighting in trifling and gossipping as 
 much as in his more serious occupations. His 
 own character is most amusingly shown, and that 
 of his profligate age most instructively painted, 
 in his ' Memoirs' and correspondence. A collec- 
 tion of books and manuscripts which he bequeathed 
 to Magdalen College, Oxford, contained 2,000 old 
 English ballads, which were among the chief 
 authorities of Percy in the compilation of his 
 ' Reliques.' [W.S.] 
 
 PERANDA, S., a Venetian painter, 1566-1638. 
 
 PERAU, Gabriel, Louis Calabre, a French 
 writer, author of the ' Secrets of the Freemasons,' 
 a continuation of the ' Lives of Illustrious Men of 
 France,' and editor of editions of Rabelais, Boileau, 
 and Bossuet, 1700-1767. 
 
 PERAULT, W., a Dominican writer, died 1275. 
 
 PERCEVAL, John, fifth baronet of the family, 
 and first earl of Egmont, was born at Barton, m 
 Yorkshire, 1683, and died 1748. He was one of 
 the founders of the colony of Georgia, and wrote 
 several works of temporary interest. His son, of 
 the same name, second earl of Egmont, was a 
 member of parliament, and one of the privy council 
 on the accession of George III. He was raised to 
 the peerage by the title of Lord Lovel and Holland, 
 and wrote some political tracts. Born at West- 
 minster 1711, died 1770. His second son is the 
 subject of the following notice. 
 
 PERCEVAL, Spencer, a lawyer and states- 
 man, the second son of John Lord Egmont, was 
 born in the year 1762. His education appears to 
 have been private until he entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. He was called to the bar from Lin- 
 coln's Inn, in 1786. This connection was of a 
 sort which, at that time, secured immediate success 
 even to ordinary abilities. He was made a king's 
 counsel in 1796, when he entered parliament. He 
 attracted the notice of Pitt by a constitutional 
 pamphlet, and soon found himself in the path to 
 political or professional advancement as he might 
 incline. In 1801 he was made solicitor, and in 
 1802, attorney-general. When the Grenville minis- 
 try was overturned in 1807, he led the new minis- 
 try as chancellor of the exchequer. This appoint- 
 ment marked the decided opposition of the new 
 government to the tolerant views which had de- 
 stroyed its predecessors. Perceval is one of the few 
 men in the rank of statesmen, in this country, 
 whose names are associated with rancour or intole- 
 rant religious views, and they seem in him to have 
 sprung less from a desire to oppress than from a 
 cold ungenial nature. One of Lis rivals said that 
 
PER 
 
 lie was like a fish, and the comparison seems to 
 have been accepted by those who knew him. On 
 the 11th of May, 1812, he was shot while passing 
 through the lobby of the House of Commons by a 
 man named Bellingham. Great alarm was, of 
 course, felt that the maniac represented some poli- 
 tical or religions combination, but it was soon 
 discovered that his enmity was entirely on personal 
 grounds. [J.H.B.] 
 
 PERCIVAL, Thomas, a physician, who prac- 
 tised his profession at Manchester, and was dist. 
 as an ethical and miscellaneous writer, 1740-1804. 
 
 PERCLIGIA, a Turkish visionary, who excited 
 a commotion in Natolia, and was put to death, 
 declaring himself an apostle of God, in 1418. 
 
 PERCY, the family name of a follower of Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, from whom sprang the lords 
 of Alnwick, in Northumberland. The members of 
 this family best known to history are William 
 De Percy, whose grand-daughters were married 
 to the earl of Warwick, and to the brother-in-law 
 of Henry I. After him a Henry De Percy, 
 reign of Edward I. A second Henry was mar- 
 ried to the Princess Mary of Lancaster, in the reign 
 of Edward III., and it was his sons whom Richard 
 II. created respectively earl of Northumberland 
 and earl of Worcester. The latter was beheaded 
 after the victory of Henry IV., near Shrewsbury, 
 while the son of the former, Henry Percy, called 
 ' Hotspur,' fell gallantly in the battle ; and his 
 father, Northumberland, was killed in Yorkshire 
 1408. The son of Hotspur was restored by Henry 
 V. to the title of earl of Northumberland, and was 
 killed in the battle of St. Albans 1455. 
 
 PERCY, Peter Francis, Baron, a French 
 army surgeon, time of Napoleon, famous for his 
 professional skill and devoted zeal, and the con- 
 triver of perambulating hospitals, which he orga- 
 nized for the army of the Rhine, 1754-1825. 
 
 PERCY, Thomas, the well-known editor of 
 ' Ancient English Poetry,' was the son of a grocer 
 of Shropshire, who was educated at Oxford, and 
 became a minister, and finally a prelate, in the 
 Church of England. He was born 1729, obtained 
 a vicarage in Northamptonshire 1756, and com- 
 menced his literary career by publishing a Chinese 
 romance in 1761. The fame of his first-named 
 publication procured him an introduction to the 
 Percies of Northumberland, and he became, in 
 1765, chaplain to the duke. In 1770 he published 
 the 'Hermit of Warkworth,' and his translation 
 of Mallet's ' Northern Antiquities ' Died at his 
 episcopal palace of Dromore 1811. 
 
 PERD1CCAS, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, killed while aiming at the sovereignty 
 after the death of Alexander, 322 B.C. 
 
 PEREDA, A., a Spanish painter, 1599-1669. 
 
 PEREFIXE, Hardouin De Beaugmont De, 
 a French prelate and historian, 1605-1670. 
 
 PEREGRINUS, a Cynic philosopher, 2d cent. 
 
 PEREIRA, D. Nunez Alvarez, a Portuguese 
 statesman and commander, 1360-1431. 
 
 PEREIRA-DE-FIGUEIREDO, Antonio, a 
 Portuguese ecclesiastic, theologian, and ecclesias- 
 tical historian, 1725-1797. 
 
 PEREIRA, G., a Spanish physician, 16th cent. 
 
 PEREIRA, Jonathan, late physician to the 
 London Hospital, distinguished for his knowledge 
 of pharmacy and general science, author of ' Ele- 
 
 PER 
 
 mentt of Materia Mediea.' Born of hum 
 tage at Shoreditch 1804, died 1853. 
 
 PEREIRE, Jacob Rodrijuez, a Portugal 
 famous as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, l^H 
 PEREYRA, D., aPortog. painter, 15 
 PEREYRA, M., a Poring, sculptor, 1614-16 
 PEREYRA, V., a Spanish painter, di. 
 PEREZ, A., a Spanish painter, 1660-1727. 
 PEREZ, A., a Spanish jurisconsult, 1585-16 
 PEREZ, David, who was born of Spanish 
 rents at Naples, in the year 1711, received 
 musical education from Antonio Galli, and Fr.; 
 cisco Mancini. He early showed an u 
 genius for music, and his progress in 1 1 
 remarkably rapid. After having brought out owl 
 at Palermo and in Naples, he was invitee 
 where he soon became extremely popular. 
 1752, Joseph, king of Portugal, offeree! bin 
 ation of chapel-master at Lisbon, which o^H 
 accepted, and where his talents were as m 
 prized as they had been in Sicily and Ital 
 died in the service of the king of Port: 
 sixty-seven years, after having resided at Lisb 
 much admired and respected, during a perioc, 
 twenty-seven years. Though wanting in grace, L 
 compositions were valuable from the genii 
 and power displayed in them. Like Han 
 was blind during the latter years of his life, f ' 
 when labouring under this severe deprivation, 
 confined to his bed, he frequently, witbo^^H 
 of any instrument, dictated compositions if^H 
 parts. Besides twelve operas, he l^^H 
 sacred music, which possesses almost uneqna 
 beauty. 
 
 PEREZ, Don Antonio, a Spanish statesn 
 celebrated by the unhappy story of his love tor 
 Princess d'Eboli. mistress of Philip II., and 
 persecution it brought upon him. He 
 also as an historian. Died in poverty at I ' 
 PEREZ, J., a Spanish writer, 1512-15 
 PERGOLA, Angelo De La, one of the i 
 able Ghibeline commanders of Italy, died 1427 
 PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista, was 1 
 near Naples, about the year 1704, and was 
 under Gaetano Greco, and Durante. H 
 covered that music, previous to his own I 
 too much loaded with mere scientific embellisher 
 he determined to leave the style in which he 
 been taught, and to adopt the more meloi 
 simple one of Vinci and Hasse. He composed 
 eral operas, which did not meet with much sue 
 His sacred compositions, however, were 
 predated, and upon these his fame now 
 died of consumption in 1737, and no sooner 
 his death made public, than all the cities 
 that had paid no attention to his works *'N , | 
 was alive, strove which should do most justl ' 
 them when he was dead ; and even , 
 anxious to possess even the most trifling o, 
 compositions. 
 PERI, J. D., an Italian poet, 17th cenl 
 PERIANDER, who is one of the seven re] 
 sages of Greece, was a tyrant of Corinth, who * 
 ceeded his father, Cypselus, B.C. 63.'i, and die 
 the reputation of an able ruler B.C. 51 
 man of licentious manners, and, in the latter 
 of his reign, became a cruel ruler. 
 
 PERICLES, the greatest of Atheni 
 was the son of Xanthippus, the conqueror oi 
 
 576 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 I Agarista, niece of the famous Cleisthenes. I absolute. But the boundless influence which he 
 i date of his birth is unknown, but as he first had thus acquired was not debased by the promo- 
 It a share in public business in B.C. 469, we may I tion of selfish objects. Averse to the further ex- 
 tension by conquest of the Athenian dominions, he 
 employed himself chiefly in consolidating the empire 
 already acquired, in establishing the surplus popula- 
 tion as additional colonies, and proving, when 
 necessary, by military achievements, which place 
 him high as a commander, that the resources at 
 his disposal were sufficient to maintain the posij 
 which lie claimed for his country. Believing r 
 the supremacy of Athens rested on her maritl 
 superiority, he bestowed especial care on the navy, 
 and maintained a well-trained fleet in constant 
 readiness for action. But Pericles found a more 
 congenial occupation in cultivating the arts of 
 peace. The public funds, which had been greatly 
 increased by his management, were expended in 
 the erection of those magnificent temples and 
 public buildings which rendered Athens the wonder 
 and admiration of Greece. Architecture and sculp- 
 ture attained to a degree of perfection which 
 modern ages have in vain endeavoured to rival, 
 poetry started into full maturity, and the drama, 
 in the hands of Sophocles, reached the highest 
 excellence. From these peaceful pursuits Pericles 
 was withdrawn by the Peloponnesian war (b.o. 431), 
 which he lived to conduct for the first two years. 
 At the conclusion of the first campaign he delivered 
 the funeral oration in honour of those who had 
 fallen, a speech which, as reported by Thucydides, 
 is one of the most remarkable of all the composi- 
 tions of antiquity. During the following year 
 Athens was visited by the plague, which earned 
 off his two sons, his sister, ana most of his intimate 
 friends. In the middle of the succeeding year 
 (b.c. 429) Pericles died of a lingering illness, 
 which was perhaps connected with the epidemic, 
 though not attended by any of its violent svmp- 
 toms. [G.F.] 
 
 PERIER, Casimir, a statesman of the reign of 
 Louis Philippe, was born at Grenoble 1777, and 
 from 1798 to 1800, or shortly after, served in the 
 French army. In 1802 he commenced those com- 
 mercial and manufacturing speculations, by which 
 he acquired an immense fortune; in 1816 brought 
 himself into notice by a financial pamphlet, and in 
 1817 was elected one of the deputies for the Seine. 
 From that period till 1830 he opposed the minis- 
 try, and on the 30th July became minister of the 
 interior. He succeeded Lafitte as head of the 
 government, in March, 1831. Died 1832. 
 
 PERIER, James Constantine, associated 
 with his brother, Charles, in the famous cannon 
 foundries of Chaillot and Liege, and more lately 
 in the manufacture of steam engines, was born at 
 Paris 1742, and died 1818. He is author of an 
 ' Essay on Steam Engines,' the construction of 
 which he had studied in England. 
 
 PERIERS, B. De, a French writer, died 1514. 
 
 PERIGNON, Dominique Catherine, Mar- 
 quis De, a peer and marshal of France, was born 
 1754, became a deputy to the legislative assembly 
 1791, succeeded Dugommier, and distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Escola 1794, ambassador 
 to Madrid 1796, marshal 1804, governor of Parma 
 and Placenza 1806, and successor of Jourdan at 
 Naples 1808, joined the Bourbons, and became a 
 peer after the fall of Napoleon ; died 1818. 
 
 [Pericles From, on Ancient Btist^ 
 
 lately infer that he was bom soon after the 
 ing of the fifth century B.C. He early gave 
 ions of a mind capable of great achievements, 
 Allowing his natural inclinations, spent his 
 in retirement, devoting himself to those 
 | which he felt to be best calculated for fit- 
 to enter upon political life. His rank and 
 opened to him the schools of the most 
 it teachers of their respective arts and 
 He was taught the higher music by 
 rho contributed mainly to train him for 
 ical career; was initiated into the subtleties 
 lEleatic school under Zeno, and especially 
 by the philosophical teaching of Anaxa- 
 rith whom he was long united in intimate 
 lip. By his intercourse with the last named 
 jher, his habits of thought, and also the 
 tone of his eloquence, were believed to 
 formed ; and an abiding effect on his 
 was produced by the sublime specula- 
 | which he listened. No specimens of his 
 lain to us ; but by the unanimous testi- 
 ancient authors it is admitted to have 
 le highest kind. In the year B.C. 469, 
 after the ostracism of Themistocles, and 
 time of the death of Aristides, Pericles 
 engage in the political movements of the 
 hereditary prepossessions led him to 
 I cause of the people, and his pre-eminent 
 nbined with untiring assiduity in public 
 >n placed him at the head of the demo- 
 arty, and in opposition to Cimon, who 
 acknowledged leader of the aristocracy, 
 period till his death, the biography of 
 the history of his country. He aimed 
 >w at the aristocracy through the coun- 
 Araeopagus, which, notwithstanding the 
 | opposition of Cimon, he succeeded in 
 of its judicial power, except in incon- 
 is. This triumph was soon followed 
 cism of Cimon, an event which for 
 left him without a formidable rival. 
 444 the power of Pericles was nearly 
 
 577 
 
 2P 
 
PER 
 
 PERINGSKIOELD, John, professor at Up- 
 sala, and secretary and antiquary to the king of 
 Sweden, 1654-1720. 
 
 PERKINS, Elisha, and his son, Benjamin 
 Douglas, American physicians, known as advo- 
 cates of metallic tractors as a means of healing, 
 once famous by the name of Perkinism ; the lat- 
 ter died 1799. 
 
 PERKINS, William, a minister of the Church 
 of Em;., kn. as a Calvinistic theologian, 1558-1602. 
 
 PERNETTI, Dom Anthony Joseph, a learned 
 French ecclesiastic of the Benedictine order, author 
 of a curious Historical Journal of a voyage to the 
 Falkland Isles, where he accompanied Bougain- 
 ville ; a Dictionary of Painting, Sculpture, and En- 
 graving, a Dictionary of Hermetic. Philosophy and 
 Mythology, and several works on physiognomy and 
 ethnology. He also published a translation of 
 Columella, of Wolff's Mathematics, and of some 
 of Swedenborg's works, 1716-1801. His brother, 
 James, a priest, and historiographer to the city 
 of Lyons, 1696-1777. 
 
 PERON, F., a French naturalist, 1775-1810. 
 
 PERONI, J., an Italian sculptor, 1627-1663. 
 
 PEROTTI, N., a Italian grammarian, 1430-80. 
 
 PEROUSE. See Laperouse. 
 
 PERPENNA, a Roman general, and partizan 
 of Marius, put to death by Pompey b.c. 74. 
 
 PERPINIAN, P. J., a Spanish painter and theo- 
 logian, one of the best modern Latinists, d. 1566. 
 
 PERRAULT, Charles, a French barrister, 
 who became comptroller-general of the royal build- 
 ings, and a member of the Academy, and acquired 
 great celebrity as a literateur and a poet, was born 
 at Paris 1628. He commenced that famous con- 
 troversy concerning the comparative merits of the 
 ancients and moderns, in which Boileau advocated 
 the former and Perrault the latter. His principal 
 work is The Age of Louis XIV. Died 1703. 
 Claude, brother of the preceding, celebrated as an 
 architect, mechanician, and naturalist, flourished 
 1613-1688. Among his artistic productions are the 
 colonnade of the Louvre, and most of the vases 
 which ornament the gardens of Versailles. The ! and even commenced preaching, but 
 
 PES 
 
 Magazine, and finally became sole editor a 
 prietor of the Momtng Chronicle. It wai 
 suggestion that the modern plan of report 
 adopted, by employing a succession of 1 
 instead of a single one. Died 1821. 
 
 PEEEY, John, an English engineer and 
 ler, an. of 'The Present State of Russia ;' i 
 
 PERSEUS, or PERSES, the last king o 
 don, was a natural son of Philip V., whom 
 ceeded B.C. 179. He was vanquished by 1 
 mans B.C. 167, and died in prison at Rome 
 
 PERSEUS, Aulus Flaccus, a Roman 
 who directed his shafts against the gene 
 ruption of the times, and died young, 62. 
 
 PERSEUS, a Roman orator, 2d century 
 
 PERTI, J. A., an Italian composer, 165 
 
 PERTINAX, Publius Helvius, the si 
 of Commodus as emperor of Rome, was tin 
 a charcoal burner, and was born 126, in tl 
 of Adrian. He was assas. by the pnetoriaa 
 three months of his elevation to the throne 
 
 PERUGIUS, Pietro, whose family nai 
 Vanucci, is most celebrated as the ma 
 Raphael. He was born at Citta Delia Piei 
 Perugia, 1446 ; and first distinguished bin 
 a ' Descent from the Cross,' painted for the 
 of Saint Chiara, at Florence, 1485. One 
 best pictures is said to be an Infant Christ 
 Albani Palace, at Rome. Died 1524. 
 
 PERUSE, J. De La, a French poet, 161 
 
 PERUZZI, B., an Italian painter, 1481- 
 
 PESARESE, the surname of Simon ( 
 rini, an Italian painter and engraver, 1611 
 
 PESCATORE, Giambattista, an Itali 
 and senator of Ravenna, died 1558. 
 ^ PESCENNIUS NIGER, Caius, a gova 
 Syria, proclaimed emperor of Rome at Ant 
 the death of Pertinax 193, slain 195. 
 
 PESSELIER, Charles Stephen, a 
 dramatic author and poet, 1712-17(Jo. 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Henry, descended J 
 family of Italian origin, was born at Zuricl 
 Januarv, 1745. He was educated for the ( 
 
 principal of his writings are a Translation of V 
 truvius, Memoirs of the Natural History of 
 Animals, and Medical Essays. Peter, a third 
 brother, wrote on fountains, 1674. Nicholas, a 
 fourth brother, died young in 1661, and left a 
 treatise entitled ' La Morale des Jesuits,' which 
 was published in 1667. 
 
 PERREAU, J. A., a French writer, 1749-1813. 
 
 PERREIN, J., a French naturalist, 1750-1805. 
 
 PERIER. See Duperier. 
 
 PERRIER, F., a French painter, 1590-1650 
 
 PERRIER, F., a French jurist, 1645-1700. 
 
 PERRIN, A. S., a Fr-nch painter, 1761-1832. 
 
 PERRON. SeeDirpKRRON. 
 
 PERRONNET, John Rodolph, a celebrated 
 French engineer and bridge builder, 1708-1794 
 
 PERRO'T, Sir J., a naval officer, died 1592. 
 
 PERROT D'ABLANCOURT, Nicholas, a Fr. 
 wr., au. of several classical translations, 1606-64. 
 
 reason abandoned this occupation when 
 twenty-eight years of age. He then stud 
 the law, wrote an essay on the ( 
 Sparta, and on discovering the int 
 of the profession, bound himself a] 
 farmer. With the experience thus acqui 
 spent the remainder of his property in the pi 
 and cultivation of a piece of land, and f 
 sake of employing the poor becaim 
 cotton mill ; it is probable that he was mo 
 both these enterprises by the 'iEmiiius' of 
 seau, which afforded him a view of I 
 and the only one which he could rci 
 benevolent feelings. He began hi 
 educator on his farm of Neuhof, by adn 
 orphan children into his own house, whom! 
 vided with food, clothing, and 
 Helvetic government refusing to tj^^^H 
 ance of his projects. This was in 1 i 
 however, some time after publish! - - 
 
 PERRY, James, known as a miscellaneous 
 writer and journalist, was son of a man of business | romance, entitled 'Leonard and Getl 
 at Aberdeen, where he was born 1756. He came I lie partly developed his ideas, 1 
 to London 1777, and was employed as a reporter by the Swiss Directory to the cl 
 on the General Advertiser and the Evening Post, number of children who had In 
 In 1782 he projected and edited the European the French wars. He was allowed the 
 
 578 
 
PES 
 
 essed convent at Stantz, the capital of Under- 
 
 sn, and being compelled to abandon this by 
 
 pproach of the French army, was transferred 
 
 te canton of Berne, where the chateau of 
 
 dorf, with its surrounding domain, was placed 
 
 i disposal. Pestalozzi availed himself of this 
 
 -tnnity to enlarge his plans, pupils flocked to 
 
 who paid for their instruction, and he was 
 
 o engage assistants. In 1804, after a tem- 
 
 y removal elsewhere, he established himself 
 
 i castle of Yverdun, in the canton of Vaud, 
 
 , with its surrounding estate, was generously 
 
 to him by that government. This change 
 
 sen rendered necessary by the increase of his 
 
 and Yverdun became a normal school. 
 
 young men of all nations surrounded the 
 
 ble philanthropist, and were instructed in 
 
 system of education. The fame of Pesta- 
 
 9 widely spread, and his name ever)' where 
 
 ed. The canton of Zurich nominated him 
 
 ir of the Helvetic Consulta, convened by 
 
 parte, and the emperor of Russia gracea 
 
 bh the order of St. Wladimir. He continued 
 
 dun till 1825, when he retired to Neuhof, 
 
 18*26 was named president of the Helvetic 
 
 of Olten. Meantime, indeed, for some 
 
 >ast, the institution of Yverdun had been 
 
 ruin, and soon after the retirement of 
 
 zi, his successor, M. Schmidt, was ordered 
 
 the country. The works of this great 
 
 or are ' Leonard and Gertrude,' already 
 
 ed, ' How Gertrude Instructs her Children,' 
 
 hes on the Course of Nature in the Edu- 
 
 the Human Race,' ' Elementary Educa- 
 
 d several others, developing his plan of 
 
 on by objects, the essential principle of 
 
 the drawing forth of the internal faculties. 
 
 maybe thought of his system as a whole, 
 
 t generation is deeply indebted to Pesta- 
 
 the fresher thoughts and experiments 
 
 plans suggested. It is his grand dis- 
 
 to be among the first benefactors of the 
 
 first to claim for their squalid children 
 
 Ivantage of all that is impressive in art 
 
 iful in nature the first to share his 
 
 them, and to dwell amongst them, as a 
 
 himself, in order, as he expresses it, that 
 
 ' Teach those harassed with poverty to 
 
 [E.R.] 
 
 PET 
 
 _ PESTALOZZI, J. J., a physician and profes- 
 sional writer at Lyons, 1674-1742. Anthony 
 Joseph, probablv his son, a phvsieian, 1703-1779. 
 
 PESTEL, F. W., a German jurist, 1724-1805. 
 
 PETAN, Paul, a chronologist and antiquarian, 
 flourished at Orleans, 1568-1614. His great- 
 nephew, Denis, commonly called I'etavins, one of 
 the most learned chronologists of his age, 1583-1652. 
 
 PETAVIUS, Dionysius. See Petan. 
 
 PETER, the Apostle, whose name was ori- 
 ginally Simon, was born at Bethsaida, in Galilee, 
 and was about forty years of age when he became 
 a follower of our Lord. He is supposed to have 
 suffered martyrdom at Rome, along with Paul, 65. 
 
 PETER, the name of five saints of Rome : 
 1. A bishop of Alexandria, martyred 311 under 
 Maximinus. 2. Peter, surnamed Chrysohgus, 
 an Italian prelate, author of Sermons and Homilies, 
 died 452. 3. An archbishop of Tarentaise, died 
 1174. 4. Peter Nolasque, founder of the order 
 for the redemption of Christian slaves from the 
 infidels, entitled ' The Confraternity of Mercy,' 
 died 1256. 5. Peter of Alcantara, a Fran- 
 ciscan friar, 1499-1562. 
 
 PETER I., emperor of Russia (next article.) 
 Peter II., son of Alexis Petrowitz and the Prin- 
 cess Charlotte of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel, born 
 1715, succeeded Catharine I. 1727, died 1730. 
 Peter III., son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter 
 I. and of Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein Got- 
 torp, born 1728, was created grand duke by his 
 sister. Elizabeth, 1742, and succeeded her 1762. 
 He was put to death the same year by his wife, 
 Catharine, who succeeded him as Catharine II. 
 
 PETER THE FIRST, czar of Russia, was born 
 May 30, 1672. He is usually called Peter the 
 Great, nor can the epithet be justly denied to the 
 man who gave his country sea ports, commerce, 
 fleets, and manufactures, arts, and educational insti- 
 tutions ; and who changed the despised and barba- 
 rous Muscovy, which our ancestors spoke of as we 
 now speak of Timbuctoo, into the Russia whose am- 
 bitious schemes and preponderating force all the 
 world now anxiously watches. Moreover, the exploits 
 which Peter achieved, were mainly due to his own 
 innate strength of character, and not to the fa- 
 vourable coincidence of circumstances. If it be true 
 that the secret of greatness lies in energy of the 
 will, in resolute endurance, and in self-sacrifice, 
 there are few historical personages in whom its 
 elements have been more strongly developed than 
 in the imperial organizer of the Russian power. 
 Peter succeeded to the crown of Russia at the age 
 often; but his half-sister Sophia, who held the 
 regency, strove not only to keep him as long as 
 possible from the exercise of power, but to render 
 him unfit for it, by giving him a purposely defec- 
 tive education, and by placing in his way, as he 
 grew up, every temptation to idleness and sensu- 
 ality. Much of the coarseness, the vice, and the 
 savage violence which deformed Peter's career in 
 after life, may be traced to the taints thus early 
 given to his moral system ; the spirit must have 
 been surpassingly strong and self-reiving that 
 could rise to any greatness in manhood, after a boy- 
 hood and early youth of such neglect and corrup- 
 tion. In 1689 Peter emancipated himself from the 
 regent's domination, and took the reins of govern- 
 ment into his own hands. He strove hard to repair 
 
 679 
 
PET 
 
 the defects of his education ; he acquired, almost 
 entirely by self-teaching, a knowledge of several 
 foreign languages; he studied earnestly the me- 
 chanical arts, especially such as related to ship- 
 building; his darling object being to give Russia 
 ships and commerce, though, when he began his 
 reign, she possessed no sea- port except that of 
 Archangel in the northern sea. He endeavoured 
 also to form a body of troops on the model of the 
 armies of the civilized nations of western Europe. 
 He exercised them in hostilities against the Turks 
 and Tartars on his south-eastern frontier, during 
 which he gained the important city of Azoph. In 
 1697, having provided tor the safety of his empire, 
 and left troops under the command of the best of 
 the foreign officers who had aided him in his re- 
 forms, so as to curb any reactionary movements of 
 the discontented part ot his subjects, Peter travelled 
 as a private person through Germany, Holland, 
 and England. He laboured hard to improve his 
 knowledge of ship-building, and other useful parts 
 of practical knowledge. To do this the more effectu- 
 ally he worked with his own hands as a common 
 shipwright in the dockyard at Amsterdam, and 
 
 [House in which Peter lived at Zaandam.] 
 
 afterwards in the English yard at Deptford. Dur- 
 ing his absence from Russia the Streutzes (the old 
 Muscovite soldiers) mutinied, but were put down 
 by General Gordon, whom Peter had left in command 
 of his new troops. Peter hurried back to Russia, 
 and punished the mutineers with frightful cruelty. 
 He now proceeded with renewed vehemence in 
 the changes of manners and dress, as well as the 
 introduction of useful arts, which he forced upon 
 his barbarous subjects. In his zeal to do good he 
 was too frequently injudicious in choosing times 
 and seasons for trie work ; and the least show of 
 opposition irritated him into ferocity, which was 
 fearfully aggravated by the habit of drunkenness, 
 which he had acquired during his neglected youth, 
 and from which he never set himself free. In 1700 
 the war between him and Charles XII. of Sweden 
 commenced. At first the Swedes always defeated 
 the Russians ; but Peter was not disheartened. He 
 recruited his armies; improved their discipline, 
 and foretold that in the long run the Swedes 
 would teach them how to win. Charles XII. ne- 
 glected the coast of the Baltic ; and Peter took 
 advantage of this to pour troops into Ingria, Care- 
 lia, Livonia, and Esthonia. In 1702 he laid 
 
 PET 
 
 the foundation of St. Petersburg on the N 
 Not less than 100,000 lives are said to have I 
 sacrificed in raising the future capital of Rv. 
 among the swamps, where Peter ordered its f 
 tion, and where, with characteristic pertinacit 
 purpose and indifference to human suffering 
 urged on the completion of the work, though t 
 aware of its perils and difficulties. In 170' 
 defeated Charles XII. in the decisive batti 
 Pultowa ; and when the war between Sweden 
 Russia was ended, by the peace of Nystadt in 1 
 Russia gained as part of her dominions, In 
 Esthonia, and Livonia. Her empire was now fi 
 planted along the coast of the Baltic ; and hi 
 fluence upon Poland, and other eastern countr 
 Europe, Christendom, was developing itself 
 paramount ascendancy. Peter was less forti 
 in his wars against the Turks. In his cam] 
 on the Pruth in 1711, his army was surround' 
 the enemy ; and he was only saved by the der 
 of his empress, Catharine, who was with him 
 who succeeded in either bribing or persuadhw 
 Grand Vizier of the Turks into a negotiafw 
 which the Russian army was permitted to i 
 and peace was restored, though at the price ( 
 restoration of Azoph. In his family Petl 
 perienced heavy sorrows. His first marriagi 
 duced mutual unhappiness; and his eldesf 
 Alexis, thwarted all his projects, and conr 
 himself with the disaffected party, who wist 
 abolish all Peter's reforms and restore th 
 Muscovite fashions. Peter compelled his t 
 renounce all claim to the succession; and 
 him before a high court, which condemned 11 
 death. Two days after this, Alexis died in pi 
 It was said that he sickened when sentencM 
 that his illness was natural ; but the true ml 
 of his death is a mystery. Peters secoM 
 favourite wife, Catharine, was a Livonian pu 
 girl, who married a Swedish soldier, and becj 
 prisoner of war to Peter's favourite generalj 
 zikoff. Menzikoff made her his mistreaj 
 Peter saw her and fell in love with her, ; 
 her as his own. Seven years afterwards (m| 
 he married her ; and she ruled Russia as < 
 after his death. Peter died in 1725. It is 
 collect anecdotes of coarse debauchery, of 
 frantic cruelty, and injudicious obstinacy fi 
 acts of his long reign. But, to estimate hill 
 he and his deeds must be taken for all in J 
 their grand result upon his country's fortun' 
 be considered. Nor must the debasing dis 
 tages of his early education be ever t'urgol 
 those who sit in judgment on his characl 
 ruler and a man. His last words were, ' 
 that in respect of the good I have striven tc 
 people, God will pardon my sins.' 
 
 PETER, king of Castile, surnamed the 
 born 1334, succeeded his father, 
 1350, assassinated, after a cruel reign, by 
 his natural brother, 1309. 
 
 PETER I., king of Arragon, 
 King of Navarre, reigned 1094-11' 
 succeeded his father, Alphonso II., 1196; 
 put himself at the head of the Alhi 
 defeated and killed at the battle of .Murct. 
 by Simon de Montfort, 1212. Pi 
 1239, succeeded his father, James I., 1873 
 inherited the kingdom of Sicily by his mf 
 
 580 
 
PET 
 
 Constance, daughter of Manfred. He took 
 
 ctive part in the expulsion of the French, and 
 
 crowned in Sicily, after the massacre of the 
 
 ian vespers, 1282 ; died 1285, after sustaining, 
 
 ously, a war with Charles of Anjou and Philip 
 
 ranee. Peter IV., born 1319, succeeded his 
 
 , Alphonso IV., 1836, died, after a fruitless 
 
 for the sovereignty of Castile, 1387. 
 
 ETER I., king of Sicily, same as Peter III. of 
 
 gon. Peter II., son of Frederick I., was 
 
 ned 1821. during the lifetime of his father, 
 
 ucceeded him 1337, died 1342. 
 
 TER I., king of Portugal, born 1320, suc- 
 
 id his father, Alphonso IV., 1357 ; died, after 
 
 eficent reign, 1367. This prince was secretly 
 
 ed to Inez de Castro, who was murdered by 
 
 of his father 1339. Peter II., second son 
 
 hn IV, born 1648, became regent after the 
 
 his brother, Alphonso VI., 1667, compelled 
 
 to recognize the independence of Portugal 
 
 On the death of Alphonso, 1683, he re- 
 
 the title of king ; died, while effecting the 
 
 est of Estramadura, 1706. 
 
 TER, king of Hungary, reigned 1038-1047. 
 
 TER I., king of the Bulgarians, succeeded 
 
 her 927. His reign was troubled with in- 
 
 dissensions, and wars with the Russians 
 
 seks ; died 970. Peter II., obtained the 
 
 wer, in association with his brother, Asan, 
 
 and they were both slain about 1195. 
 
 ~ER I., king of Cyprus and Jerusalem, 
 
 ed his father, Hugh IV., 1861, and was 
 
 ted 1367. Peter II., son and successor 
 
 receding, died 1382. 
 
 PET 
 
 became a professor of religion, and devoted his 
 days to solitude and austere practices. About 
 1095 he was led by the prevalent feeling of 
 the age to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, then 
 in possession of the Turks, and was deeply im- 
 pressed by the profanation of the holy places, the 
 indignities suffered by the pilgrims, and the 
 general oppression to which the Christian inhabi- 
 tants of the East were then subject. The same 
 feeling was universal throughout Christendom, and 
 the popes had long cherished the design of an ex- 
 pedition against the Mahommedans, which it only 
 required the enthusiasm of a man like Peter the 
 Hermit to render practicable. Urban II. received 
 him as a prophet, and authorized his mission. 
 He now traversed the greater part of continental 
 Europe, riding on an ass, his head and feet bare, 
 his body clothed with the coarse garment of 
 a hermit, girded round the waist with a rope, and 
 bearing a neavy crucifix in his hand. To under- 
 stand his success, we must take into account the 
 poverty^ of the masses, and the alluring prospect 
 of a residence in Eastern lands, the scenes of which 
 were painted in glowing colours by the apostle of 
 the holy war. Thousands of outcasts had always 
 been ready to follow the princes in their maraud- 
 ing expeditions or political wars, and how much 
 more in a war which enlisted the highest sym- 
 pathies of their nature in its behalf, which re- 
 ceived the sanction of the ministers of religion, 
 and was regarded as the will of God ! The pope 
 summoned a council, which met at Placenza and 
 
 Clermont, and making an eloquent appeal to the 
 assembly, was frequently interrupted V their ac- 
 ER I., duke of Brittany, succeeded by his clamations. He was acknowledged chief of the 
 with Alix, daughter of Guy, 1212, and, crusade, and ordered that every one engaged in it 
 death in 1221, became chief of the league should wear a cross of red stuff. Peter, mean- 
 great vassals against Blanche of Castile, while, collected a vast body of adventurers, esti- 
 it to Palestine 1240, accompanied Louis mated at a hundred thousand souls, from the 
 Egypt 1248, and died on the voyage home, borders of France and Lorraine, and while God- 
 II., second son of John VI., succeeded his frey of Bouillon mustered those of higher rank in 
 ', Francis I., 1450, died 1457. j a more soldierlike and deliberate manner, pro- 
 
 ER, count of Savoy, suraamed ' the Little ' ceeded with this fanatic crowd, by way of the 
 gne,' succeeded his father, 1263, d. 1268. Rhine and Danube to the East. Ignorant of the 
 
 route, and without the means of subsistence, it is 
 fearful to contemplate the disorders and sufferings 
 of such a march. About a third part reached the 
 mountains of Thrace, and Peter himself took 
 refuge in Constantinople, where he awaited the 
 coming of Godfrey of Bouillon. At the same 
 time he induced the emperor Alexis to send troops 
 in aid of his followers, about three or four thousand 
 of whom were rescued. Peter accompanied the 
 army of Godfrey, and was present at the storm- 
 ing of Antioch, and before the capture of Jerusa- 
 lem addressed the crusaders on the Mount of 
 Olives. He then acted a short time as vicar- 
 
 feneral for the patriarch of the holy city the 
 esuit Outreman says, as viceroy. The latter part 
 of his life, like the commencement, is wrapt in ob- 
 scurity. It is not known when he returned to 
 Europe, but he died in a monastery he had founded 
 in the diocese of Liege, 1115. The movement he 
 had commenced continued to agitate Europe for 
 nearly two centuries, and its general effect upon the 
 march of civilization may be pronounced almost 
 incalculable. [E.R.j 
 
 PETER of St. Louis, a French ecclesiastic of 
 the Carmelite order, kn. as a poet, about 1626-84. 
 
 JR of Alcantara. See above (Saints.) 
 !R of St. Andrew, a theologian, philo- 
 and hist, of the Carmelite order, 1624-71. 
 of Blois, an ecclesiastic who settled 
 id in the reign of Henry II., and is 
 one of the most learned men of his age, 
 it 1200. 
 
 5R CHRYSOLOGUS. See above (Saints.) 
 OF Clugny, an abbot of that monas- 
 also Peter the Venerable, and by 
 name Peter Maurice, a distinguished 
 and Latin poet. He was born 1092 or 
 le abbot after Hugh II. in 1122 or 
 . in 1140 gave shelter to the unfortunate 
 and interceded for him at Rome. Died 
 i works were published in 1522. 
 OF Cottona, a name by which the 
 iter, F. Berettini, is known. 1596-1669. 
 THE HERMIT, preacher and leader 
 crusade, was born in the eleventh 
 and was first known as an officer in the 
 the counts of Boulogne, serving in 
 about the year 1071. After this he 
 le years in the quiet of domestic life, 
 1 children, and on the death of his wife 
 581 
 
PET 
 
 PETER MAURICE. See Peter of Clugny. 
 
 PETER NOLASQUE. See above (Saints.) 
 
 PETER of Sicily, a political negotiator in 
 the service of the emperor Basil in 870. He wrote 
 a. History of the Manichseans, published 1604. 
 
 PETER the Venerable. See P. of Clugny. 
 
 PETERBOROUGH, earl of. See Mordaunt. 
 
 PETERKIN, Alexander, son of a Scottish 
 minister, and known of late years as a miscellane- 
 ous writer, was born in 1781. He was educated 
 as a solicitor, and, in 1843, was engaged pro- 
 fessionally for the Strathbogie clergymen in the 
 struggle which led to the disruption in the Scot- 
 tish national church. Died 1S6. 
 
 PETERS, Bonaventura, a Flemish painter, 
 famous for his storms and shipping, 1611-1615. 
 John, his brother and pupil, 1625-1677. 
 
 PETERS, C, a German painter, 1808-1830. 
 
 PETERS, C, a learned Eng. divine, died 1777. 
 
 PETERS, F. L., a Flemish painter, 1606-1654. 
 
 PETERS, G., a Dutch painter, born 1580. 
 
 PETERS, Hugh, an English Jesuit, known as 
 the counsellor and confessor of James II. 
 
 PETERS, Hugh, a disreputable character who 
 connected himself with the English republican 
 
 Sirty as a pamphleteer and pulpit demagogue, 
 e was born in Cornwall 1599, educated at Cam- 
 bridge, and figured successively as an actor, a 
 minister in the Church of England, and a preacher 
 among the independents. Executed 1660. 
 
 PETERS, William, a minister of the Church 
 of England, best known as an artist, died 1814. 
 
 PETERSEN, H., a Swiss minister, died 1820. 
 
 PETERSEN, John William, bora at Osna- 
 burg 1649, and pastor at Hanover, became cele- 
 brated about 1692 for his prophetic announcements. 
 He was then deposed, and died in obscurity. His 
 wife, Jeanne Eleanora de Merlan, partook 
 in his enthusiasm, and published his life. 
 
 PETERSEN, P. N., a Ger. musician, 1761-1830. 
 
 PETHION DE VILLENEUVE, Jerome, a 
 Girondist leader of the French revolution, was the 
 son of an attorney at Chartres, and was himself 
 an advocate when chosen deputy to the Tiers Etat 
 of the Estates-General. His character placed him 
 in a political situation between the Girondists and 
 Jacobins, but his political and philosophical creed 
 was the same as Brissot's, and he held it sincerely 
 and implacably. He was one of the most zealous 
 parties to the propagation of the ' Rights of Man ' 
 as the basis of a constitution, and it was at his 
 instance that the Jacobin Club was reorganized 
 which led to the foundation of the Cordeliers, and 
 the separation of the more violent members. 
 The nation at this time was with the moderate 
 party, and the influence of Lafayette was only 
 just on the wane. Pethion profited by it, as one 
 of the most practical men in his party, and was 
 successively president of the National Assembly, 
 president of the Criminal Tribunal, and mayor 
 of Paris. In the latter function he succeeded 
 Bailly, November, 1791, and polled twice as 
 many votes as Lafayette. On the famous 20th of 
 June, 1792, when the mob of Paris compelled the 
 king to put on the red cap, Pethion and Louis 
 exchanged angry words ; the next day, however, 
 the mayor addressed a proclamation to the people 
 calling upon them to defend the constitution and 
 the king, and to respect his person. He maiu- 
 
 PET 
 
 tained his position as mayor of Paris, 
 victory of the Marseillaise on the 10th 
 and the dreadful massacres of Septt 
 found it impossible to prevent the ea 
 that occasion. Returned to the National 
 tion, he was unanimously elected its 
 dent, and voted for the king's death, 
 nounced in favour of delay. From thig^M 
 was identified with the Girondists by the follo\ 
 of Robespierre, and included in the proi^H 
 of that body on the 31st of May, I 
 was among the few who escaped the gtt^^H 
 meet a more miserable fate. Having fled wUj^H 
 and Salles to the department of Calv, 
 made a fruitless attempt to raise the ]^^H 
 and were obliged to hide in the woods. qBJ 
 they put an end to their own existence, e^H 
 starved to death, is not known, but the i^H 
 of Buzot and Pethion were found by the f^k 
 in a corn-field gnawed by wolves. 
 
 PETION, Alexander Salies, pree^H 
 the republic of Hayti, was a man of col^^H 
 free at Port-au-Prince, 1770, and educate^H 
 military school of Paris. He served with W^k 
 tion in the French army, and after the ejH 
 of the English, was an active party in toe>! 
 wars of the island. In 1804 Dessalines bet 
 chief of the infant republic, and having n 
 self emperor, was killed in October, H^^H 
 successor was Christophe, who also ass^^H 
 kingly title, and it was against this h^^H 
 Petion obtained his most signal victory et^H 
 of January, 1808, a year after his owne^^H 
 president. This success fully established 
 authority as chief of the republic, and ht^H 
 the presidency till his death in 1818, wh^^H 
 succeeded by his friend General Boyer. 
 
 PETIS, Francis, a learned French Oj^H 
 and historian, 1622-1695. His son, ]^H 
 Petis De La Croix, like him, a grea^^H 
 scholar, but also a traveller in the Efljl 
 successor as royal interpreter, 1653-1713. I 
 Marie, son of the latter, professor of Arabin 
 the Royal College, 1698-175*1. 
 
 PETIT, A., a French medical writer, 1718 
 PETIT, A. T., a French physician ai 
 on experimental philosophy, 1791-1820. 
 PETIT, F. P. Du, a Fr. naturalist, 1664-1 I 
 PETIT, Jean Louis, a celebrated French 
 geon, born at Paris on the 13th of Ma 
 and died in that city on the 20th of A\ 
 aged 76. Petit enjoyed a deserved I 
 tion during his lifetime, and was ui 
 of the founders of modern French surgery, 
 was remarkable for his professional i nthaMM 
 industry; and his writings are still ' 
 timation. The first edition of his work on theB. 
 was published at Paris, in 12ino, in 
 1758, it w r as enlarged to two volumes. His tot 
 Surgical Diseases was a posthumous work, anc 
 published by his pupil, Dr. Lesne, in 177 
 four years after the author's death. 
 
 PETIT, M., an advent, traveller, died 1 
 PETIT, M. A., a French surgeon, 17' 
 PETIT, P., a physician, distinguished 
 on physiology, and Latin poet, 1617-1687. | 
 PETIT, P., a dist. mathematici: 
 
 PETIT, S., aphilologist and theolog.,1" 
 PETIT-DID1ER, Matthew, a learne 
 
 582 
 
name, a doctor of the Sorbonne, and 
 minous wr. in favour of Jansenism, 16G5 
 
 PET 
 
 late, a great friend and advocate of ultramon- 
 sm, and author of critical, historical, and 
 mological dissertations on the Scriptures, 
 9-1728. His brother, John Joseph, a Jesuit 
 theologian, 1664-1756. 
 
 ETTT-THOUARS, Albert Du, a French 
 mist, author of ' Botanic Miscellanies,' d. 1831. 
 ETITOT, Cl. B., director-general of the Paris 
 "ity, author of several tragedies and trans- 
 its, 1772-1825. 
 
 ETITOT, John, a famous enameller and 
 iature painter, bora at Geneva 1607, died 1691. 
 ETIT-PIED, Nicholas, a learned French 
 nist, about 1630-1705. His nephew, of the 
 1 a very 
 5-1747. 
 
 STiT-RADEL, L. F., a distinguished French 
 tect, 1740-1818. His brother, Philip, a 
 son and Hellenist, 1749-1815. A third bro- 
 L. C. Francis, an archaeologist, 1756-1836. 
 STITZ, J. Raimond De, author of a Lib- 
 of Amateur Artists,' about 1715-1780. 
 STIVER, Jas., surgeon to the Charter House, 
 on, distinguished as a botanical wr., d. 1718. 
 CTR.EUS, T., a Danish Orientalist, d. 1673. 
 5TRARCA, Francesco, was bom at Arezzo 
 'uscany in 1304. His father, a Florentine 
 j, had been exiled two years before, in the 
 disturbance which drove out the poet Dante ; 
 e soon left Italy for Avignon, where the papal 
 then resided. The son was educated there and 
 tpellier, and then sent to study law at Bo- 
 Though Petrarch certainly loved the JEneid 
 an the Pandects, and copied ancient manu- 
 more willingly than law papers, yet the sub- 
 t course of his public life proves that he did 
 ;lect professional pursuits, and that he pre- 
 imself for being a useful man of business, 
 to Avignon soon after he became of age, 
 himself in possession of a small inhent- 
 id indulged for some years in an altema- 
 classicaf studies and political composition, 
 gaiety (sombre, perhaps, but not the 
 on that account) as the clerical court 
 In the year 1327 he conceived an attach- 
 to an Avignonese lady, young but already 
 His attentions to her were treated much 
 matter of course; the admirer was cer- 
 never admitted even to the most innocent 
 modern cicisbeism : there appears to have 
 no time much intercourse between the 
 ; and we do not know with certainty so 
 as the lady's real name. She became fa- 
 her lifetime, and is still celebrated, as 
 of the verses in which Petrarch sang 
 s: but his passion does seem to have 
 le more than a flight of imaginative 
 remarkable only for the length of its 
 and for the genius of the person by 
 was entertained. About. 1338 he retired 
 or three years to dwell in the beautiful 
 [of Vauclu.se, near Avignon. He himselt 
 his withdrawal to the retreat which he 
 lized, was caused by no reason more senti- 
 r poetic than his disgust with the licen- 
 ot the papal court, and the disappoint- 
 the hopes of preferment which the pope 
 out to him. Long before this time his 
 ad accomplishments had procured for him 
 
 PET 
 
 not only distinguished patronage, but frequent 
 and active employment. He now speedilv quitted 
 Vaucluse for Italy, where he became the confi- 
 dential friend and diplomatic agent of several 
 sovereigns, and skilfully executed missions not 
 only in Italy, but in France and Germany. 
 Though he never took orders, his employers re- 
 warded him by ecclesiastical benefices in the north 
 of Italy ; and his longest residences were at Parma, 
 Milan, Padua, and Venice. In 1370, when his 
 health was already failing, through attacks of pal- 
 pitation and epilepsy, he left Padua for the neigh- 
 bouring village of Arqua, seated among the lovely 
 Euganean Hills. There he built a house, still 
 preserved, but was hardly ever free from illness 
 till his death in 1374. Petrarch, whose life was 
 thus active, is immortal in the history of literature 
 in virtue of more claims than one. He is placed 
 as one of the most celebrated of poets in right of 
 his ' Rime,' that is, verses in the modern Italian 
 tongue, of which he was one of the earliest culti- 
 vators and refiners. Celebrating in these his 
 visionary love, he modelled the Italian sonnet, and 
 gave to it, and to other forms of lyrical poetry, not 
 only an admirable polish of diction and melody, 
 but a delicacy of poetic feeling which has hardly 
 ever been equalled, and a play of rich fancy which, 
 if it often degenerates into false wit, is as often 
 delightfully and purely beautiful. But, though 
 Petrarch's Sonnets, and Canzoni, and ' Triumphs,' 
 could all be forgotten, he would still be honoured 
 as one of the benefactors of European civilization. 
 No one but Boccaccio shares with him the glory of 
 having been the chief restorer of classical learning. 
 He was himself a voluminous Latin writer, both 
 in prose and verse ; and his fame as a poet in his 
 own day, and his coronation in the Roman capitol 
 in 1341, rested on his celebration of the second 
 Punic war in his epic poem 'Africa.' But his 
 greatest merit lay in his having recalled attention 
 to the higher and more correct classical authors ; 
 
 [Tomb ot IV tnuch.] 
 
 in his having been an enthusiastic and successful 
 agent in reviving the study of the Greek tongue ; 
 and in his having been, in his travels and other- 
 wise, an indefatigable collector and preserver of 
 
 583 
 
PET 
 
 ancient manuscripts. To his care we owe copies 
 of several classical works, which, but for him, 
 would, in all likelihood, have perished. [W.S.] 
 
 PETRE, Sir William, a chancery clerk, em- 
 ployed in the visitation of the monasteries by 
 Henry VIII., for which he received a grant of 
 abbey lands and knighthood, died 1572. 
 
 PETRI, B., a professor of Brabant, died 1630. 
 
 PETRI, C, a Danish divine, 16th century. 
 
 PETRI, Suffrid, historiographer of the states 
 of Fricsland, secretary to Cardinal Granvella, 
 (see William 1. of Nassau), and professor of 
 law at Cologne, author of historical and. philologi- 
 cal works, died 1597. 
 
 PETRI, or PETERSON, Laurence, one of 
 the three principal Swedish reformers, first pro- 
 testant bishop of Upsala, and a theological writer, 
 1499-1573. His brother, Olave, also a reformer, 
 whose vehement addresses almost produced a civil 
 war, author of ' Memoirs,' 1497-1562. A third 
 of the name, Jo*tas Petri, bishop of Linkoping 
 in the 17th century, was author of a Latin and 
 Swedish dictionary, published 1640. 
 
 PPjTROF, Wassilj Petrowitsch, a famous 
 Russian poet and philologist, appointed her reader 
 and councillor of state by Catharine, 1736-1799. 
 
 PETRONI, R., an Italian cardinal, died 1314. 
 
 PETRONIUS, Titus, called 'Petronius Arbi- 
 ter,' a favourite of Nero, and supposed author of a 
 fragment entitled ' Satiricon,' died 66. 
 
 PETEUCCI, Pandolph, a citizen of Sienna 
 who obtained the sovereign power, and died 1512. 
 
 PETTUS, Sir John, a member of parliament, 
 and deputy-governor of the royal mines, author of 
 some professional and other works, died abt. 1690. 
 
 PETTY, Sir William, son of a clothier in 
 Hampshire, and founder of the Lansdowme family, 
 was born 1623, and being educated as a physician, 
 became, in 1650, professor of anatomy at Oxford. 
 His talents, however, were of the most versatile 
 description, and he had the happy gift of turning 
 them to some practical account in every way that 
 promised to be a source of emolument ; not satis- 
 fied with teaching anatomy and chemistry, he 
 became Gresham professor of music ; and as to in- 
 ventions, a copying machine to write two letters 
 at once, and a double-bottomed ship to sail against 
 wind and tide, show what he was capable of. In 
 1652 he was appointed physician to the army in 
 Ireland, to which he added the office of contractor 
 for surveying the forfeited lands, one of the com- 
 missioners for their division, clerk to the council, 
 and secretary to the lord-lieutenant, Henry Crom- 
 well. With the wealth thus amassed, he became 
 a member of parliament in the time of Richard 
 Cromwell; and as he succeeded in making his 
 peace at the restoration, his lands were confirmed 
 to him, with the honour of knighthood in addition, 
 and the office of surveyor-general of Ireland. Even 
 the fire of London., which destroyed the fortunes of so 
 many, only provoked Sir W. Petty to fresh specu- 
 lations, by which he recovered "his losses. He 
 died 1687, leaving great wealth to his successors, 
 and numerous tracts^ on economy, especially ' Poli- 
 tical Arithmetic,' ' Taxes and Contributions,' and 
 otber subjects growing out of his knowledge of 
 Ireland. For his descendant, the celebrated 
 statesman, see Shelih:hne. 
 
 PETTYT, or PETYT, William, keeper of the 
 
 PFI 
 
 Tower records, author of writings on the Anci 
 Constitution of Parliament, 1636-1707. 
 
 PEUCER, G., a Ger. mathematician, 1525-16 
 
 PEUERBACH, G., an Austr. astron., 1423- 
 
 PEUTEMAN, P., a Dutch painter, 1608-161 
 
 PEUTINGER, C, a Gr. antiquar., 1405-15^ 
 
 PEYER, J. C, a Germ, anatomist, 1659-17" 
 
 PEYMANN, Henry Ernest De, a Dan 
 general, commander of Copenhagen during 
 bombardment by the English in 1807. He ^ 
 tried by his countrymen for signing the capitulati 
 and condemned to death, a punishment wh 
 was commuted to a long imprisonment ; died 18 
 
 PEYRARD, F., a Fr. mathematic, 1760-JI 
 
 PEYRE, Marie Joseph, a French archito 
 1730-1785. His brother, Antoine Francob 
 painter and architect, 1739-1823. 
 
 PEYRERE, Isaac De La, a French protests 
 the protege and librarian of the prince of Con 
 author of a curious work on the ' Preadamit 
 and the ' Restoration of the Jews,' 1594-16 
 His brother, Abraham, a jurisconsult, died 17 
 
 PEYRON, Jean Fr. Pierre, an histori 
 painter, and director of the Gobelins manufacti 
 1744-1815. His brother, J. Francois, known 
 an author. 1748-1784. 
 
 PEYRONIE, F. De La, a Fr. surg., 1678-17 
 
 PEYROUSE. See Laperouse. 
 
 PEYSSONNEL, Charles De, a French ai 
 quary and consul of Smyrna, author of Memt 
 of the Kings of the Bosphorus, &c, 1700-17 
 His son, who succeeded him as consul, was t 
 distinguished historical and antiquarian writer 
 the same countries, 1727-1790. His brotl 
 John Anthony, was appointed physician .* 
 naturalist to the island of Guadaloupe in 17 
 and was the first to write on the prodnJ^^T 
 coral according to the received theory. 
 
 PEZ, Bernard, a learned Benedictine of AJ 
 tria, 1683-1735. His br., Jerome, 1685-^M 
 
 PEZAY, A. F. J. Masson, Marquis Del 
 French historical writer, 1741-1777. 
 
 PEZENAS, Esprit, a French Jesuit, kn 
 as a mathematician and astronomer, 1G92-173BB 
 
 PEZRON, Paul, a monk of Brittany, knot 
 as a chronologist, philolog., and antiq., 163JM 
 
 PFAFF, J. C, a Lutheran theologian of W 
 temburg, 1631-1720. His son, Chi:istoph| 
 Matthew, a voluminous protest, wr., 1G-S6-17 i 
 
 PFAFFRAD, G., a Germ, philosopher, d. 16 
 
 PFANNER, T., a Germ, archivist, 1041-171! 
 
 PFEFFEL, J. Conrad, a native of fl| 
 distinguished as a jurisconsult and diplosMll 
 1684-1738. Chr. Frederic, his eldest 
 learned writer on public law, 1726-1807. Tfflf 
 philus Conrad, young brother of the hfl 
 dramatic writer, poet, and literateur, 1736-181 
 
 PFEFFERCORN, John, a converted Jew,*! 
 endeavoured to persuade the emperor Maximilj 
 to burn all the Hebrew books except the oH 
 containing the principles of magic and i 
 gerous matter, died after 1517. 
 
 PFEIFFER, A, a Germ. Orientalist, I tiM 
 
 PFE1FFER, J. F., a Germ, economist 
 
 PFENNINGER, M., a Swiss 
 graver, 1739-1810. Henry, of the sai 
 a painter and engraver, who executed . 
 for Lavater, born 1749. 
 
 PFIFFER, or PFYFFER, L, a Swiss 
 
 584 
 
PFI 
 
 service of France, 1530-1594. Francis Louis, 
 officer probably of the same family, retired from 
 French army after fifty years' service, and 
 cuted a beautiful plan of Switzerland in relief, 
 existing in his native Lucerne, 1716-1802. 
 FISTER, A., a German printer, died 1462. 
 FLUG, Julius, an Italian prelate, died 1564. 
 FN1TSING, M., a poet of Nuremberg, 1481- 
 5. 
 
 FUGUER, M. A. D., a Swiss poet, 1777-1824. 
 ILEDON, a Greek philosopher, who studied 
 ;r Socrates, and subsequently founded a school 
 hilosophv at Elis, since known as the Eleatic. 
 o gave his name to one of his Dialogues. 
 LEDKUS, Lucius, a Roman slave freed by 
 astus, and known as the author of Fables, 
 discovered to modem literature in 1596 at 
 ns. In the reign of Tiberius he suffered from 
 yranny of Lejamus. His fables are written 
 mbic verse with remarkable purity. 
 IAER, Thomas, a Welch poet, died 1560. 
 [ALARIS, a cruel tyrant of Agregentum, in 
 , who acquired his power about 572 B.C., and 
 ^nt to death by one of his own horrible de- 
 that of the brazen bull, 556 B.C. 
 ARAMOND, a half-fabulous personage, sup- 
 to have been the first king of France, and to 
 " ned about 418 or 420. The Salic law is 
 i to him. He was probably a chief of 
 nks. 
 
 RNACES, the first of the name, king of 
 
 succeeded his father, Mithridates the Great, 
 
 i85 B.C., died 157. The second, born 97 
 
 me king of Bosphorus 64, and, after 
 
 ng Pontus, was killed in battle 47. 
 
 VORINUS. See Favorinus. 
 
 LIPEAUX, John, a French theologian 
 
 ian of Quietism, died 1708. 
 LIPPEAUX, A. Le Picard De, a Ven- 
 eer of artillery, born 1768, joined the army 
 e with the emigrants 1791, died in the 
 service after the siege of Acre, 1799. 
 "PPEAUX, J., a Jesuit, 1577-1643. 
 YPEAUX, Raimond Balthasar, Mar- 
 French governor of Canada, died 1713. 
 BORATES, a Greek poet, 5th cent. b.c. 
 CYDES, a Greek philosopher, from 
 Pythagoras is said to nave acquired his 
 of the Metempsvchosis, 6th century b.c. 
 RECYDES, a Greek historian, 5th c. b.c. 
 "IAS, a Greek sculptor and the most cele- 
 ist of antiquity, was the son of Charmidas, 
 pupil of Ageladas of Athens, where Phi- 
 born, about 490 B.C., or even a year or 
 , for according to this supposition he must 
 'y reached the mature age of fifty before 
 ion of any of his most celebrated works, 
 inerva and other sculptures of the Par- 
 and the Olympian Jupiter. Phidias was 
 t ornament of the age of Pericles, and 
 nent at Athens about 450 B.C. ; the lat- 
 of the period of Pericles, however, 444 to 
 , probably in the best manner, the exact 
 Piiidias, for his greatest triumphs were 
 during the administration of the affairs 
 by Pericles. Great patrons have generally 
 at instruments to carry out their schemes, 
 atron is himself developed by the oppor- 
 in some respects both positions are true, 
 
 PHI 
 
 but the former is the more easily explained : the 
 magnitude of an undertaking regulates and deve- 
 lopes accordingly the faculties of "those who under- 
 take. Thus Pericles, Julius II., and Ludwig I. of 
 Bavaria, all found artists of the highest genius 
 ready to accomplish all their desires. Pericles ap- 
 pointed Phidias superintendent of public works. 
 The Parthenon was completed 438 b.c, the year 
 also in which Phidias dedicated his colossal statue 
 of Minerva in ivory and gold, placed in the temple; 
 the architecture was the work of Ictinus. In 
 the following year he commenced, aided by Colotes 
 of Paros, the great sitting colossus of Jupiter at 
 Olympia, in Ehs, also of ivory and gold ; this was 
 completed in the year 433, and was considered one 
 of the seven wonders of the ancient world. (See 
 Quaktremere de Quincy, Le Jupiter Olympien, &c.) 
 The great chryselephantine works, that is of ivory 
 and gold, are the most remarkable monuments of 
 which the ancient records give us any account; 
 there seems to have been no limit to the magnifi- 
 cence or art-glory to which the anthropomorphistic 
 worship of the Greeks might not lead them. These 
 gigantic images, from 40 to 60 feet in height, ap- 
 parently of solid ivory draped in gold, with all 
 necessary enrichments in colour, must have more 
 than realized the grandest notion of a human god 
 that any of the Greek devotees can have brought 
 to their shrines. The unparalleled height to which 
 statuary has attained among the ancient Greeks 
 is, therefore, to be attributed as much to the utili- 
 tarian end, the honour of religion and the stability 
 of the priesthood, as to any aesthetic refinement, 
 though this too did exist among the Greeks per- 
 haps in a higher degree than any other people. 
 The chryselephantine sculpture was the natural 
 result of the Greek polychromy ; once established 
 the system of colouring images, the costliness must 
 necessarily enter into the material as well as the 
 external decoration of the image; thus we find 
 these great images gradually progressing from rude 
 wood and stone, to marble, and to bronze, and 
 finally (ostensibly) to ivory. The ivory was, how- 
 ever, only a coating, the core of the statue was 
 wood, the gold was real. Phidias executed six of 
 these great works, but this of Elis cost him his life, 
 for he was accused of having embezzled the gold 
 given by the Elians for the draperies, &c. of the 
 statue, and upon this accusation cast into prison, 
 where he died within the year, 432 b.c. The ac- 
 cusation appears to have been found to be quite 
 groundless ; and in honour of the memory of the 
 great statuary, the charge of the image was granted 
 as an heir-loom to the family of Phidias, and when 
 Pausanias visited Elis, 600 years afterwards, the 
 descendants of Phidias still had the care of it. 
 Another account states that it was in Athens, after 
 his return from Elis, that he died, and that the 
 charge in question related to the gold of the Min- 
 erva, which Pericles himself had taken off, and or- 
 dered to be weighed, and found exact ; that he was 
 finally committed on a charge of impiety for car- 
 ving his own portrait on the shield of Minerva, and 
 that he died during imprisonment for this offence. 
 The Olympian Jupiter adorned Elis for about eight 
 centuries, it was then removed to Constantinople, 
 by the emperor Theodosius, and was either lost at 
 sea, or destroyed in the fire of the Lauseion, 475 
 a.d. In carrying out so many and extensive works, 
 
 585 
 
PHI 
 
 Phidias must necessarily have had many assistants. 
 His principal scholars were Agoracritus, Alcamenes, 
 and Colotes. Such were his assistants probahly in 
 the extensive sculptures of the Parthenon, now in 
 this country, and known as the Elgin marbles ; 
 brought from Athens by Lord Elgin in 1803, and 
 
 Eurchased by the British government in 1816. We 
 ave in these wonderful works adequate testimony 
 of the deserved reputation of Phidias, and quite 
 sufficient to show that the arts of Greece, at least 
 of the time of Pericles, cannot be too highly 
 esteemed. AVe have in these marbles the best expo- 
 sition of the ideal, and a perfect illustration of the 
 assthetic element of style as distinct from mere 
 representation or imitation. The so-called Theseus, 
 thellissus, the Metopes, and the Panathenaic frieze 
 all exhibit the most perfect ideality of form, at the 
 same time of a grand generic character. The 
 ideal or generic development of these sculptures 
 ran only have resulted from the long experience of 
 centuries, or from extraordinary circumstances, but 
 partly from the combination of both. All healthy 
 bodies, subject to similar exercise, would most pro- 
 bably assume much the same character: the atnle- 
 tic games of the Greeks, common and popular, gave 
 their artists such opportunities of viewing the naked 
 form in all its perfection, that the general excel- 
 lence of their sculpture is not surprising. In the 
 Elgin marbles we have doubtless all the several 
 beauties of the athlete combined in the individual, 
 yet so modified as altogether to obviate the sense 
 of any special individuality, leaving only the im- 
 pression of the perfect human form, illustrating its 
 general attributes themselves in all their wonder- 
 ful versatility and perfection, without suggesting 
 for a moment the notion of a limited individual 
 fitness or quality; always excepting when such 
 special limit or quality is not the specific object of 
 the individual representation, as m the Farnese 
 Hercules, the type of muscular strength. This is 
 the ideal in its" general and special development, 
 and which we find invariably well illustrated in 
 Greek sculpture, but nowhere with more refined 
 grandeur than in the works of Phidias, as exempli- 
 fied in the invaluable Elgin marbles. -(Miiller, Life 
 and Works of Phidias -de Phidice vita et operibus 
 &c, Gottingen, 1827. A very full account of Phi- 
 dias and his works may be found in the Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Biography, edited bv Dr. 
 Smith.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 PHILASTER, an Italian prelate, 4th century. 
 PHILES, Manuel, a Greek poet, 14th centiirv. 
 PHILELPHUS, Francis, a celebrated Italian 
 philologist and state secretaiy, 1398-1481. 
 PHILEMON, a Greek poet, 4th century B.C. 
 PHILEMON, a Greek grammarian, 12th cent. 
 PHILIBERT, the^ra! of the name, duke of 
 Savoy, succeeded, his father, Amacleus IX., 1472, 
 died 1482. The second, succeeded his father, 
 Philip II., 1497, died 1504. 
 
 PHILIBERT-EMANUEL, son of Charles Ema- 
 nuel, duke of Savoy, grand prior of Castile and 
 Leon, and grand admiral of Spain, died 1624. 
 
 PHILIDOR, Andre, born at Dreux in 1726, 
 was the son of a musician, whose real name was 
 Michel Danican, but who, for the excellence of 
 his performances upon the hautboy was named 
 Phihdor by the king of France. The young Andre, 
 in childhood, entered as page in the band of the 
 
 PHI 
 
 king of France, then under the direct! 
 chapel-master Campra. After having left the jritfi 
 ation of page, Phihdor settled in Paris, where ! 
 supported himself from his income as t 
 copier of music. Besides his musical talent, i 
 had gained such a reputation as a chess plav: 
 that he was induced to travel; according! 
 the year 1745, he left Paris for Holland., Germail 
 England, &c. During his travels lie flHI 
 improved his musical taste. In 1753 he w| 
 England, when he set Dryden's Ode to St. Oea 
 to music. He had while here devoted h^^H 
 tion principally to chess; and he gained CO^H 
 fame from having published his analysi 
 game, which is still referred to as an autfl| 
 On his return to France, in 1754, he again Nflfl 
 his musical studies, and produced music to adl 
 matic piece, which was performed with grttjH| 
 cess in 1759. This work laid the foundation of * 
 musical reputation. Philidor, along with Dunii; 
 
 Monsigny, is regarded as one of the founde 
 modern French comic opera. After havin 
 duced about twenty operas at the Opera Cfl 
 he came to London in the year 1779, where 1 
 duced the music to Horace's 'Carmen Sei 
 which is esteemed as his best work. He * 
 London in 1795. 
 
 PHILIP, the name of three saints: 
 apostle, who is supposed to have preaol 
 Phrygia, and died at an advanced age. 
 deacon chosen by the apostles who preac 
 Ca^sarea, where he received Saint Paul 58, d 
 3. Philip of Neri, an Italian ecclesiastic 
 der of the oratory, &c, 1515-1595. 
 
 PHILIP, son of Herod the Great and of 
 man named Cleopatra, obtained from Afl 
 the rank of tetrarch, and governed his stato 
 great wisdom from B.C. 4 to a.d. 33. Af 
 death his states were reunited to Syria. 
 
 PHILIP, king of Syria, son of Antiochua 
 dethroned by Tigranes B.C. 80, died 57. j 
 
 PHILIP L, king of Maccdon, reigned i 
 obscure period of its history when it was rej 
 as a barbarian territory by the Greek states, 
 B.C. 400. Nothing worthy of notice is re 
 of him. Philip II., see next article. I 
 III., a natural son of Philip II., reigned 
 years after the death of Alexander the Gr 
 was killed by order of Olympias 316 h.c. 
 called Philip Arrhidseus. Philip IV., sue 
 his hither Cassander on the throne of Ml 
 b.c. 296, and died 295. Philip V.. son ( 
 metrius III., succeeded at the age 
 B.C. 233, his uncle, Antigonus 
 guardian. After the battle of Cannae he e 
 into a treaty with Hannibal, and thus broug 
 Romans upon the stage of Grecia 
 was totally defeated 197, and thou 
 reasonable terms, left the struggle to his soi 
 seus. Died B.C. 179. 
 
 PHILIP II., by whose valour and genii 
 little state of Macedon was raised to the supr 
 over all Greece, was the third son of Al^ 
 and was born in 3S3 or 382 B.C. He so* 
 his elder brother, Perdiccas, in the first ph 
 guardian of his infant son, but soon W 
 sovereign, in the twenty-third year 
 360; the existence of rival claimant! 
 and the exterior evils with which the stl 
 
 Ml 
 
PHI 
 reatened, rendering his usurpation, if it may he 
 lied so, acceptable to the whole people. Philip 
 d been detained at Thebes as a hostage from his 
 teenth to his eighteenth year, and was thoroughly 
 rsed in the tactics of Epaminondas, with whose 
 ,her he had lodged ; besides which, his brother, 
 rdiccas, had intrusted him with a government in 
 icedonia, and had allowed him to organize 
 ops. His chief military arm was the after- 
 rds famous Macedonian phalanx, a force or- 
 lized by himself the materials he drew upon 
 ng a mountain peasantry accustomed to poverty 
 I toil, without cities or even fixed habitations to 
 der peace more desirable than war to them, 
 lens and Thebes had reached their highest vigour 
 B Philip came to the throne, but the latter 
 . lost her presiding genius in Epaminondas, and 
 former was seriously weakened by the ' social 
 ' which now broke out, and which raged 
 a 358 to 355 B.C. Philip took advantage of 
 troubled period to possess himself of Amphi- 
 3, which gave him access to the gold mines of 
 int Pangams, soon a source of immense revenue 
 " n, and the reason of his founding the new 
 of Philippi. The 'sacred war' earned on by 
 Amphictyonic council against the Phocians, 
 the Macedonians another great opportunity 
 epping in as armed arbitrators, and with the 
 ly purpose in view of humbling the power of 
 and Athens. After the capture of Methone 
 last possession of the Athenians on the 
 sdonian coast between 354 and 352, Philip 
 hed into Thessaly at the head of 20,000 men, 
 himself out as the champion of Delphi, and 
 ed his soldiers with laurel, which they 
 :ed in the vale of Tempe. He was now joined 
 e famous Thessalian cavalry, and having 
 e master of Thessaly in 352, he endeavoured 
 * the pass of Thermopylae, but was repulsed 
 e Athenians ; Philip, however, compensated 
 If by equipping a navy to harass the Athenian 
 erce. From 349 to 347 he became victor in 
 lynthian war, which made him complete 
 of the Chalcidian peninsula and doubled 
 wer. The terror of his name provoked the 
 ppics ' of Demosthenes, who endeavoured to 
 the people of Athens to form a general 
 against him instead of which, each party 
 sacred or Phocian war was anxious to ob- 
 :S succour against the others. This state of 
 led to embassages, the members of which, 
 ie exception of Demosthenes, were cajoled or 
 by Philip into a shameful peace, which in 
 him master of the Phocian cities, of the 
 of Thermopylae, and in the position of 
 1 to the Ainphictyon council. In the latter 
 ty he was really the crowned protector of the 
 faith, and in the spirit proper to his office 
 | once marched into Greece, but instead of 
 against the profane Locians, he seized the 
 Elatea, and began to fortify it. Demos- 
 Inow exerted all his eloquence and states- 
 Tip to raise the ancient spirit of Grecian al- 
 ienee, and a powerful army was soon in the 
 it being without able or patriotic com- 
 was defeated at the decisive battle of 
 in August, 338 B.C. After this last 
 freedom, Philip was acknowledged chief 
 )le Hellenic world by all the states except 
 
 PHI 
 
 Sparta, and in 337 he summoned a congress at 
 Corinth to organize an expedition against" Persia. 
 While preparing for this enterprise he repudiated 
 his wife, Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, 
 and the same year espoused Cleopatra, niece of 
 Attains, who bore him a son, looked upon as the 
 rival of Alexander in the succession. These cir- 
 cumstances led to dissensions at court, and in the 
 year 336 b c. to the death of Philip, who was 
 murdered at the instigation of Olympias while 
 engaged in a religious festival. He had several 
 other wives or mistresses, and was addicted to 
 intemperance; but as a king, for political and 
 military genius, for persuasive eloquence, the gen- 
 eral spirit of humanity, and for courage in the 
 field, the name of Philip of Macedon may vie with 
 any in history. At the time of his death the 
 first division of his army had passed into Asia, 
 under the conduct of Attalus, and the young 
 Alexander had already distinguished himself as 
 commander of one wing of his army at the battle 
 of Cha?roneia. [E.R.] 
 
 PHILIP, emperor of Rome, was born in Arabia 
 about 204, and having entered into the military 
 service of the Romans, became praetorian prefect 
 243. The emperor Gordian was compelled to re- 
 ceive him as a colleague on the throne by the 
 army which had conquered Sapor, king of Persia ; 
 and'in the following year, 244, Philip assumed the 
 whole authority by putting his rival to death. He 
 was killed in battle by the soldiers of Decius 249. 
 
 PHILIP, emperor of Germany, was the second 
 son of Frederick Barbarossa. He was bom 1178, 
 became king of Suabia and Tuscany after the 
 death of his father 1190, and emperor after the 
 death of his brother, Henry VI., 1198. He was 
 assassinated 1208, and succeeded by Otho IV. 
 
 PHILIP I., king of France, son of Henry I. and 
 Anne of Russia, was born 1052, and succeeded to 
 the throne under the guardianship of Baldwin V., 
 count of Flanders, 1060, died, after a troubled 
 reign, mixed up with the affairs of William the 
 Conqueror, 1108. Philip II., surnamed Augus- 
 tus, son of Louis VII. and of Alix, daughter of 
 Thibault, count of Champagne, was born 1165, suc- 
 ceeded his father 1180, accompanied Richard Cceur 
 de Lion to the Holy Land 1190, invaded Nor- 
 mandy during Richard's captivity 1193, confiscated 
 the possessions of King John in France, after the 
 supposed murder of Arthur, 1203, prepared to in- 
 vade England at the instance of the pope 1213, 
 turned his arms against Flanders and gained the 
 celebrated battle of Bouvines 1214, died 1223. 
 Philip Augustus was one of the ablest princes that 
 ever reigned in France, both as a commander and 
 an administrator. Philip III., called the Hardy, 
 was the son of Louis IX. and Margaret of Provence. 
 He was born 1245, and succeeded his father 1270. 
 In 1271 he possessed himself of Toulouse on the 
 death of his uncle, Alphonso; in 1272 he repressed 
 the revolt of Roger, count of Foix, and in 1276 
 sustained a war against Alphonso X., king of Cas- 
 tile. The invasion of Sicily by Peter of Arragon, 
 and the massacre of the French, known as 4 the 
 Sicilian vespers,' caused him to make war against 
 that prince, in the course of which he died, 1285. 
 Philip IV., called the Fair, or Handsome, son of 
 
 the preceding by his first wife, Isabella of Arragon, 
 washorn 1268, and succeeded his father 1285. H< 
 
 He 
 
 587 
 
PHI 
 
 was engaged in wars with the English and Flemings ; 
 and in a quarrel with the pope, in the course of which 
 he was excommunicated. Jnl303 the estates-general 
 were first assembled. In 1312 he suppressed the 
 Templars (see Molai) ; died 1314. He was an al >le 
 but most despotic sovereign. Philip V., called 
 the Long, second son of the preceding, was born 
 about 1293, and succeeded to the throne in virtue 
 of the Salic law, which excluded the daughter of 
 his brother, Louis X., who died 1316. In his reign 
 a cruel persecution began against the Jews, in the 
 midst of which he died, 1322. Philip VI., called 
 De Valois, was son of Charles, count of Valois, 
 a younger son of Philip the Hardy. He was born 
 1293, and succeeded Charles le Bel 1328. In his 
 reign occurred the wars with Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, who claimed the French crown as grandson, 
 by his mother, of Philip the Fair. Philip lost the 
 battle of Cressy in 1346, when 30,000 men, and 
 the chief of his nobility, were slain. He died dur- 
 ing a truce with the English, 1350. 
 
 "PHILIP I., among the Spanish kings, was the 
 son of Maximilian I., emperor of Germany, by 
 Mary of Burgundy. He was born 1478, and on 
 the death of his mother, 1482, became sovereign 
 of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, 
 the right of which he transmitted to his posterity 
 of the house of Austria. In 1496 he married 
 Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and 
 in 1502 the young couple were acknowledged law- 
 ful successors to the crown of Spain. In 1506 
 they were declared joint king and queen of Castile, 
 and Philip died the same year. He was the father 
 of Charles V. Philip II., (next article). Philip 
 III., son of Philip II. and Anne of Austria, bom 
 1578, succeeded his father 1598, died 1621. Philip 
 IV., son of Philip III. and Margaret of Austria, 
 was bom 1605, and succeeded his father 1621. 
 Besides a war with the Dutch, he had to contend 
 against the league formed against the house of 
 Austria by Richelieu, by which he lost many pro- 
 vinces. In 1640 the duke of Braganza made him- 
 self king of Portugal, in 1647 Massaniello led the 
 revolt in Naples, and in 1648 Philip was compelled 
 to renounce all claims upon the United Provinces 
 by the treaty of Westphalia (see article Maurice 
 of Nassau). In 1659, after the junction of 
 Cromwell with France, and the victories of Blake, 
 Philip concluded the treaty of the Pyrenees. In 
 1665 his forces were totally defeated by the Por- 
 tuguese, and he died the same year. Philip V., 
 second son of Louis the dauphin of France, great- 
 
 fandson of the preceding, and grandson of Louis 
 IV., w^as bom 1683. He succeeded to the throne 
 of Spain by the testament of Charles II., and was 
 proclaimed at Madrid 1700. The succession was 
 disputed, and a league formed against it between 
 England, Holland, Russia, Savoy, and Portugal, 
 which led to a twelve years' war, concluded by the 
 treaty of Utrecht 1713. By this treaty the Eng- 
 lish obtained Gibraltar and Minorca ; Naples, Sar- 
 dinia, the Milanese, and the coasts of Tuscany, 
 were relinquished to the archduke Charles, who 
 had been the rival of Philip, and was now be- 
 come emperor ; and the duke of Savoy possessed 
 Sicily. Philip now married Elizabeth Famese, 
 princess of Mantua, and the notorious Alberoni 
 became his minister, whom he was obliged to dis- 
 miss, in 1720, by a fresh combination. He then 
 
 PHI 
 
 fell into a state of melancholy, abdicated in favour! 
 of his son, Louis, and was obliged to resume the! 
 crown in consequence of his death, 1724 ; died 1746,' 
 PHILIP II., king of Spain, who projected^M 
 conquest of England by the famous ' Armada,! 
 was the son of Charles V., emperor, and of Isabella 
 of Portugal. He was born at Valladolid in 1527,1! 
 eight years after his father's accession to th^^H 
 pire, and was married in succession to the Princes! 
 Mary of Portugal, 1543, and to Mary, queen o.f 
 England, in the month of July, 1554, the saimi 
 year in which he became king of Naples and Sicihj 
 by the abdication of his father. The most jealoui) 
 precautions were taken on this occasion to pr uJM 
 his assumption of any real power in this couidBi 
 and the temper of the people, and the quee^^f 
 self, were so little to his taste, that in the cofl 
 of 1555 (August) he retired to Flanders. Ttfi 
 was a political reason for this journey, how^H 
 Charles V. was preparing to resign the empire le] 
 first investing his son with his hereditary do^^H 
 ions, and in the succeeding October he solemnly re! 
 nounced the sovereignty of the Low Countries i; 
 his favour, at an assembly of the states-general if 
 Brussels. About a month after, Philip receive 
 the sceptre of Spain and the Indies by the sam - 
 self-abnegation of his father, and his first act waf 
 to propose a truce with France, which was broke 
 almost as soon as concluded upon. Till Septeml : 
 ber, 1556, he lived rather a debauched life, ij 
 would appear, in his Flemish dominions, and the! 
 came to England, where he had the mortifij^H 
 to be refused the ceremony of a coronation, an! 
 the troops he demanded in aid of his war wit) 
 France. These, however, were at length concede! 
 to him by Mary, in violation of her marriag! : 
 articles, and the levy, joined to the army <( 
 Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, and Cour 
 Egmont, assisted to gain the battle of St. Quintii 
 10th August, 1557. On the death of Mary in 155li 
 Philip, who was still prosecuting the war, mac' 
 proposals of marriage to her successor, EliznW fi 
 and was refused; his military operations l^Hf 1 
 while greatly retarding the Reformation in th; 
 country. In 1559 the French were reduced JM *t 
 for peace, and the policy and the arms of Phili] 
 though he was no soldier himself, were i 
 by the peace of Chateau-Cambresis on 
 or April in that year ; one condition of it bei 
 the marriage of Philip to the prim 
 beth of France, daughter of Henry II. Fre' 
 from this political war, Philip now applied 
 to the subjugation of the Moriscoes the 
 dants of the Mahommedan conquerors ofSf | I 
 and commenced that intestine struggle WD 4^H tE 
 not terminated till the reign of his succesa^^HEi 
 the course of the year (1559) he returned 
 ladolid, having appointed his half-si 
 sovereign of the Low Countries ; his 
 that city was to send thirty-three 
 the stake, of whose torments he went to 
 witness. About the same time he 
 seat of government to Madrid. In 15iii 
 of the Netherlands commenced, which < 
 separation of the seven northern provinces^ 
 the crown of Spain, and their formation 
 Dutch republic. This struggle lasted abo 
 years till the close of Philip's reign ; the 
 incidents are noted in other articles, (\r*n 
 
PHI 
 
 of Nassau; Maurice of Nassau). The 
 
 ents of this protracted struggle were varied in 
 
 67 bv a domestic tragedy the rebellion, arrest, 
 
 id suspicious death of Don Carlos, the son of 
 
 liiip and his first wife Mary of Portugal. Shortly 
 
 towards he lost the queen Elizabeth, his third 
 
 fe, and about the same time the Moors of 
 
 anada revolted, whose subjugation was effected 
 
 1570. In 1571 the archduchess Anne of Aus- 
 
 a became his fourth wife, and the same year his 
 
 tural brother, Don John of Austria, obtained 
 
 great naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks. 
 
 1580 his troops under Alva subdued Portu- 
 
 , of which, and all its dependencies, Philip 
 
 became sovereign. By this time the protes- 
 
 t power and its policy had become centred in 
 
 gland under Elizabeth, who at length openly 
 
 ;aged herself in behalf of the Netherlands, and 
 
 rywhere threatened the security of Philip ; the 
 
 at that time being ruled by our great Admiral 
 
 ike. In 1586 the pope, Sixtus Quintus, offered 
 
 support to Philip, and the Invincible Armada 
 
 prepared for the invasion of England. It was 
 
 manded by the duke of Medina Sidonia, and 
 
 Jly defeated by the combined Dutch and Eng- 
 
 fleets, aided by a great storm in the British 
 
 nel, 1588. The remainder of Philip's reign 
 
 occupied with his French wars as a party to 
 
 league, in pursuance of the same dark policy 
 
 Henry IV. This struggle was concluded 
 
 he peace of Vervins, 1597. (See Navarre). 
 
 ip died at Madrid, 13th September, 1598; 
 
 g earned for himself the character of a cruel 
 
 and made the most desperate efforts to sus- 
 
 the preponderance of Spain in Europe, and 
 
 'umph of the papacy. No European sovereign 
 
 en able to resume the struggle on the same 
 
 of magnificence to this day. [E.R.] 
 
 TLIP I., count of Savov, succeeded his 
 
 sr, Peter, 1268, died 1285. Philip II., 
 
 of Savoy, succeeded Charles II., 1496, died 
 
 Another Philip, born 1278, was prince of 
 
 ia and the Morea. He began to reign over 
 
 j at the death of Count Philip 1285, but 
 
 deus V., his uncle, took the sovereignty, and 
 
 hilip that of Piedmont ; died 1338. 
 
 IILIP, the first of the name, count of Bur- 
 
 jr, succeeded his mother, Jeanne of Valois, as 
 
 ; of Artois 1335, and obtained the county of 
 
 dy from his brother 1338 ; died 1346. The 
 
 a son of the preceding, succeeded to the 
 
 nties of Burgundy, Auvergne, Boulogne, 
 
 )is, at the age of eighteen months, and 
 
 361. The third, Philip the Hardy, born 
 
 received the duchy of Burgundy from his 
 
 King John, 1364, and, by his marriage 
 
 argaret of Flanders, became count of Flan- 
 
 ' Artois, of Rethel, and of Nevers. He was 
 
 the princes appointed to administer the 
 
 ent of France during the incapacity of 
 
 VI., and whose rivalry with the duke of 
 
 created great troubles; died 1404. The 
 
 ndson of the preceding by his son John, 
 
 aret of Bavaria, was born 1396, and 
 
 his father 1419; died 1467. He was 
 
 Charolois, afterwards Charles the Bold. 
 
 P, duke of Brabant, reigned 1427-1430. 
 
 P, count of Flanders, called Philip of 
 
 sue. his father, Thierry, 1169, died 1191. 
 
 PHI 
 
 PHILIP, elector palatine, born 1448, succeeded 
 his uncle, Frederick, 1476, died 1508. A second 
 of the name, Philip William of Neubourg, 
 born 1615, succeeded the elector Charles 1686, 
 died 1690. 
 
 PHILIP, duke of Parma, born 1720, was son of 
 Philip V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese, and 
 son-in-law of Louis XV. He became duke of 
 Parma, Placenza, and Guastalla, by the treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 ; died 1759. 
 
 PHILIP, duke of Suabia. See Philip, Emp. 
 
 PHILIP of Alsace. See Philip, Count of 
 Flanders. 
 
 PHILIP of Orleans. See Orleans. 
 
 PHILIP the Solitary, a Gr. monk, 12th ct. 
 
 PHILIP of Thessalonica, a Greek epigram- 
 matist, supposed no later than the age of Augustin. 
 
 PHILIP of the Most Holy Trinity, a fam- 
 ous missionary to Persia and the Indies, born at 
 Avignon 1603, died 1671. 
 
 PHILIP of Valois. See Ph. VI. of France. 
 
 PHILIPPE, C. A., a Fr. magistrate, 1614-98. 
 
 PHILIPPE, Louis. See Louis Philippic. 
 
 PHILIPPI, H., a learned Jesuit, 1575-1636. 
 
 PHILIPPICUS-BARDANES, emperor of the 
 East, proclaimed, after causing the assassination 
 of Justinian II., 711, dethroned by the people 713. 
 
 PHILIPPIDES, an Athenian poet, B.C. 335. 
 
 PHILIPPON, Baron, the French general who 
 defended Badajoz in 1811 ; 1760-1836. 
 
 PHILIPPUS of Acarnana, the friend and 
 physician of Alexander the Great, whose life he 
 saved, B.C. 333. 
 
 PHILIPPUS, the name assumed by the im- 
 postor, Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of 
 Perseus, and became king of Macedonia. 
 
 PHILIPS, Ambrose, descended from an ancient 
 family of Leicestershire, known as a poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer. He was the associate of Steele, 
 Addison, and the wits of that period , born about 
 1671, died 1749. 
 
 PHILIPS, Catharine, an accomplished lady, 
 authoress of Translations from Corneille, 1631-64. 
 
 PHILIPS, Fabian, a lawyer and royalist, au- 
 thor of several political pamphlets, and of books re- 
 lating to ancient customs and privileges in Eng- 
 land, 1601-1690. 
 
 PHILIPS, John, a poetical writer, 1676-1708. 
 
 PHILIPS, Richard, F.R.S., F.G.S., an Eng- 
 lish chemist, died 1851. 
 
 PHILIPS, Thomas, a Roman Catholic minister 
 and theologian, author of the ' Study of Sacred 
 Literature,' ' Life of Cardinal Pole,' &c, d. 1774. 
 
 PHILISTUS, an ancient historian, supposed to 
 be a native of Syracuse, about 431-356 B.C. 
 
 PHILLIP, Arthur, an English naval officer, 
 first governor of Botany Bay, 1738-1814. 
 
 PHILLIPS, Edward, son of Anne, the sister 
 of Milton, and of Edward Phillips, secondary in 
 the crown office, was born 1630. He was educated 
 by his illustrious uncle, of whom he wrote a life. 
 The best known of his works is a complete collec- 
 tion of the Poets, with observations upon them, 
 in which it is supposed Milton assisted him. His 
 brother, John, at first a political adherent of his 
 uncle, afterwards wrote in favour of the restora- 
 tion. Dates unknown. 
 
 PHILLIPS, Morgan, or Philip Morgan, a 
 Roman Catholic controversial writer, 16th century. 
 
 589 
 
rin 
 
 PHILLIPS, Thomas, E.A., a distinguished por- 
 trait painter and writer on art, bom at Dudley, 
 Warwickshire, 1770, died, after co-operating in 
 tlie foundation of the Artists' General Benevolent 
 Institution, 1815. 
 
 PH1LO of Biblos. a Greek liistorian, chiefly 
 know! as translator of Sanconiatho from the Phoe- 
 nician into the Greek language, fragments of which 
 have been preserved in the works of Eusebius. He 
 flourished m the reign of Nex - o. 
 
 PHILO of Byzantius, a Greek architect, au. 
 of a Treatise on Machines of Wat abt. 3d ct. b.c. 
 
 PHILO, Junius, was born of Jewish parents 
 at Alexandria, not long before the commencement 
 of the Christian era. He was a devotee of the 
 Platonic philosophy, and it tinges all his inter- 
 pretations of the sacred books, in a.d. 41, he was 
 sent as chief deputy from the Jews in Alexandria 
 to the emperor Caligula, in order to defend them 
 against Apion, who had charged them with the 
 crime of disloyalty. Again did he go to Rome in 
 the reign of Claudius. Several of the writings of 
 Pljilo have escaped the wreck of time, such as his 
 treatise De Mundi Opificio; his 'Allegories of the 
 Law/ full of strange fancy and wild interpretations, 
 his book 'On Dreams,' and numerous tracts on 
 biblical subjects, filled with Platonism and alle- 
 gory. His works have been edited by Turnebus, 
 toL, Paris, 1552 ; by Mangey in 2 vols, fob, 1742 ; 
 reprinted under the care of'Ffeiffer, at Erlangen, 
 in 1820, and by Eickter in 8 octavo vols., Leipzig, 
 1828-30. [J.E.] 
 
 PHILO of Larissa, a philosopher of Athens, 
 who quitted that city on the success of the arms 
 of Mithridates and "went to Rome, where he had 
 Cicero for a disciple. 
 
 PHILODEMUS, an Epicurean philos., B.C. 100. 
 
 PHILOLAUS : a later Pythagorean : born at 
 Crotona, or Tarentum, towards "the close of the 
 fifth century before Christ. Aresas, a probable 
 disciple of Pythagoras, was his master ; so that 
 we receive the doctrine from Philolaus, only as it 
 appeared to the third generation. (Article Py- 
 thagoras). It has been repeated once and again 
 that Philolaus, divined the true theory of the Uni- 
 verse, and was the virtual predecessor of Coperni- 
 cus. Nothing can be more false. In his scheme 
 indeed, not the Earth, but Fire is placed in the 
 centre of the Universe : that Fire, however, is not 
 the Sun, which, on the contrary, he makes revolve 
 around the central *v$. The scheme, in so far as 
 it can be understood, is altogether fantastic, based 
 on no observation or comparison of phenomena, 
 but on vague and now unintelligible metaphysical 
 considerations. The only predecessor of Coperni- 
 cus in Antiquity, was Aristarchus of Samos, whose 
 remarkable conjectures appeared first, in the Editio 
 Princeps of Archimedes published after Coperni- 
 cus wrote. [J.P.N.] 
 
 PHILOPOEMEN, called the lost of the Greeks, 
 was really their last great commander. He was 
 born in Arcadia B.C. 253, became in 210 generalis- 
 simo of the Achaaan League, and conquered the 
 Spartans at which time he abolished the laws of 
 Lycurgus. The greatest of his victories in this 
 long struggle was the battle of Mantinea. He was 
 put to death by poison when a prisoner of the 
 Messenians b.c. 183, the same year that proved 
 fatal to Hannibal and Scipio. 
 
 PHO 
 
 PHILOSTRATUS, Flavius, a Greek rhetor 
 cian, author of ' Lives of the Sophists,' 'Commii( 
 on the Heroes of Homer,' and a descriptive 
 on art, entitled ' Ieones,' known about 193. iH 
 ther Philostratus, his nephew, wrote a war 
 similar to the ' Ieones,' and bearing the same till 
 He was known about 217. 
 
 PHILOTHEUS, a patriarch of Constantino!* 
 author of several learned works, died about 13/1. 
 
 PHILOXENUS, the name of three Greeks, tl 
 most ancient a didactic, and burlesque poet, 444 
 380 b.c. The second, a painter, was conM 
 porary with Apellcs, and is known to have exi 
 cuted a battle-piece, B.C. 31(5. The third, calk 
 also Xenaias, was a bishop of Heliopolis, and' 
 writer in favour of the Svrian Jacobites, <T 
 a.d. 518. 
 
 PHILPOT, John, son of Sir Peter Philpot,! 
 sheriff of Hampshire, known as a learned Calviai 
 writer and minister of the Church of EngH 
 burnt in Smithfield in the reign of Mary, 15flH^ 
 
 PHILPOT, or PHILIPOT, John, a hfl 
 and antiquarian, assistant of Camden, and edit 
 of his Remains, time of James I. ; died 164 
 Thomas, his son, wrote a History of Heraldry. 
 
 PHLEGON, a Greek historian, 2d century. 
 
 PHOCAS, emperor of the East, 602-610. I 
 
 PHOCION, a famous Athenian general, stf| 
 man, orator, and diplomatist, chief of the 
 cratic party at Athens, and a great oppoi 
 Philip and Alexander. He was put to de 
 poison B.C. 317, and afterwards honoured 
 regrets of his countrymen. 
 
 PHOCYLIDES, a Greek poet, 4th cent. 
 
 PHOTIUS, one of the most illustrious 
 his age, was born of noble parents in the < 
 of the ninth century. He was also conne 
 the marriage of his brother with the royal 
 He held various secular offices under the 
 such as that of protoa-secretis, or chief, 
 and the captaincy of the royal life gua 
 literary attainments were of a very high 
 result of diligent and continued study, 
 rose suddenly and unexpectedly to the su 
 ecclesiastical dignity. The patriarch Ignat 
 been deposed and banished, and Photius, tfl| 
 a lavman, was elected in his room. In less thai | 
 week he summarily passed through all the inferi) 
 grades of office, was in as many successive dr j 
 monk, reader, sub-deacon, deacon, presbyter, a) 
 finally patriarch. This questionable procedure* 
 confirmed by two councils, one in 853, and ti 
 other in 859. But, in 862 Pope Nicolaus, in-CBjj 
 sequence of a dispute about jurisdiction, dt^H 
 the election void, and excommunicated Phofl^H 
 his adherents. Photius, however, rot 
 place, but a schism was produced between tj 
 Eastern and Western churches. The ef^H 
 Michael III. was assassinated in a.d. 867, and H 
 murderer and successor, Basil L, exiled ABB 
 brought back Ignatius his predecessor, &*4| 
 general council held at Constantinople, in 869, t 
 transaction was solemnly ratified. Whj^^H 
 tius died, in 877, Photius was elevate 
 former position, and his restoration was salflB 
 by the head of the Western churches. Fl^H 
 immediately laboured by the machiner]^^^B 
 councils, to have all the previous j 
 against himself declared null and oid, and on t 
 
 690 
 
PHR 
 
 punt, he incurred again the anathema of the 
 e. Ecclesiastical intrigue and manoeuvre, and 
 truth aud right in those days determined the 
 ory. Leo VI. succeeded Basil in 886, and he 
 lediately, but probably on unjust grounds, 
 ished the restless patriarch to Armenia, where 
 remained in exile till his death. The date of 
 leath is unknown, but some place it in a.d. 891. 
 tins was a scheming diplomatist, keenly alive to 
 own interests, but not without a happy mixture 
 enignity and decision. His weapons of self- 
 nce and self-aggrandizement where those of the 
 in which he lived, suppleness and chicaneiy, 
 alous watch over all rivals, and the unscru- 
 us use of every means to enjoy, retain, and 
 e the most of the imperial favour and patron- 
 Photius had been a voracious reader, and was 
 an accomplished critic. His Myriobiblon or 
 otheca is a review and epitome of ancient 
 k literature in 280 divisions, and contains 
 s of many rare and valuable works which 
 selves have been lost. The best edition is that 
 ekker, Berlin, 1824, 2 vols. 8vo. Numerous 
 works were composed in the long life of this 
 rious prelate and statesman, and many of his 
 s have been collected. We have his Com- 
 um, his Amphilochia, a theological treatise 
 form of question and answer his collection 
 nons, Homilies, a tract on the Procession of 
 oly Spirit, one against the Manichseans, Com- 
 es on St. Paul's Epistles, and a Catena on 
 'salms, &c, but many of these still slumber in 
 No collected edition of his works has ap- 
 Had Photius been a professional writer 
 rrupted leisure, he could scarcely have writ- 
 e, and when we reflect on his long and 
 g life, on his chequered and absorbing 
 as courtier and patriarch, polemic and exile, 
 and preacher, we cannot surely with- 
 admiration of his industry and erudi- 
 [J.E.] 
 HATACES, a king of Parthia, succeeded 
 Phrahates IV., and killed in the year 9. 
 HATES I., king of Parthia, succeeded 
 her, Priapatius, 178 B.C., and, dying soon 
 '" his kingdom to his brother, Mithridates. 
 tes II., son of Mithridates I., reigned about 
 b.o. Phrahates III., about 70-58 b.c. 
 tes IV., obtained the crown by killing his 
 Orodes, 37 B.C., and was killed in turn by 
 Phrahataces, a.d. 9. Phrahates V., 
 preceding, was absent at Rome when his 
 usurped the throne, and was invested with 
 Ity by Tiberius. He departed for Syria to 
 his kingdom while Abraham III. reigned 
 and died on his journey 35. 
 " ~~ZA, G., a Greek historian, loth cent. 
 GIO, F. C, a German divine, died 1543. 
 "ICUS, three distinguished Greeks : 
 t, an Athenian writer of tragedy, con- 
 with jEschylus, 5th century B.C. The 
 & comic poet of Athens, known B.C. 430. 
 J surnamed Arrhabius, a sophist and 
 of Bithynia, 2d century. 
 IS, a Greek musician, 5th century B.C. 
 ilip N., a French chemist, 1721-1799. 
 TI, D. G., an Ital. antiqu., 1684-1754. 
 an Ottoman admiral, 16th century. 
 JZA, C, an Italian painter, 16th century. 
 
 PIC 
 
 PIAZZA, Jer. Bartholomew, an Italian con- 
 vert to the Church of England, formerly a judge 
 of the inquisition, author of an historical account 
 of the inquisition and its proceedings, d. abt. 1745. 
 
 PIAZZA, P., an Italian painter, 1547-1621. 
 
 PIAZZI, J., an Italian astronomer, 1746-1826. 
 
 PICARD, J., a French astronomer, 1629-1682. 
 
 PICARD, L. B., a Fr. dramatist, 1769-1828. 
 
 PICARD, M., a German savant, 1574-1620. 
 
 PICART, Stephen, a French engraver, 1631- 
 1721. His son, Bernard, a designer and en- 
 graver, author of 'Illustrations of the Religious 
 Ceremonies of all Nations,' 1663-1733. 
 
 PICCADONI, J. B., snperior-general of the order 
 of Minors, a theologian and philoso., 1766-1829. 
 
 PICCART, M., a Germ, philologist, 1574-1620. 
 
 PICCINI, Nicolai, was bom at Bari in Naples 
 in 1728. This composer has been regarded as the 
 most fertile and original that the school of Naples 
 ever produced. Like many other musicians, he was 
 first meant to be brought up to the church, but the 
 ruling passion frustrated all parental intentions. 
 He studied in the conservatory of San Onofrio 
 under Leo and Durante. In 1758 he was invited to 
 Rome, where he brought out several operas. In Dec. 
 1776, he arrived at Paris, where he, in the course 
 of a year afterwards, found himself opposed to 
 Gluck, who about this time effected a revolution in 
 French music. For some time the musical feuds of 
 the admirers of the Italian and the German kept 
 Paris in a ferment. Gluck was, however, at the 
 termination of the war, pronounced victor. At the 
 breaking out of the French Revolution, he returned 
 to Naples, but the ministry there having forbid- 
 den him to appear in public, he remained almost a 
 close prisoner m his own apartments. In 1799 he 
 returned to Paris, when the Emperor Napoleon 
 appointed him inspector in the National Conser- 
 vatory of Music, which situation he held till the 
 time of his death, which took place in 1801. [J.M.] 
 
 PICCINI, Joseph, eldest son of the preceding", 
 known as a dramatic writer, 1758-1826. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI. See Pius II. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI, Cardinal, the name by which 
 James Ammanati is best known, a famous name 
 in the history of Italy, 1422-1479. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI, Alessakdro, archbishop ot 
 Patras and coadjutor of Sienna, known as a philo- 
 logist, 1508-1578. Francesco, a relation of the 
 preceding, known as a learned writer, 1520-1604. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI, Alphonso, duke de Monte- 
 mariano, an Italian adventurer who ravaged the 
 states of the church, and was hung 1591. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI, Octavia, an Austrian general 
 of the same family as the preceding, 1599-1656. 
 
 PICHAT, M., a French dramatist, 1786-1828. 
 
 PICHEGRU, Charles, was born in 1761, of 
 
 Barents in a humble rank of life, in Franche Comle. 
 [e was educated for the army at the Military 
 College of Brienne, where he was monitor to Na- 
 poleon Buonaparte. The Revolution found him in 
 the rank of adjutant ; and he rose rapidly during 
 the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. At the end of 
 that year he obtained the chief command of the 
 army of the Rhine, which was then disorganized by 
 a series of reverses. Pichegru restored discipline 
 and spirit ; gained the victory of Haguenau, Dec. 
 23, 1793, and drove the allies before him into the, 
 Dutch territory. The severity of that winter made 
 
 59J 
 
pic 
 
 the passage of the frozen rivers practicable, and in 
 January, 1794, Pichegru invaded and conquered 
 Holland. He captured not only towns and for- 
 tresses, but also some of the Dutch fleet, which 
 was frozen up in the Texel. Pichegru sent his 
 cavalry over the ice; and the strange spectacle was 
 
 E resented of ships being attacked and taken by 
 orse soldiers. Pichegru was favourable to the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, and entered into a 
 secret negotiation with their emissaries for this pur- 
 pose. The French Directory suspected him, and 
 recalled him from his command. He took part in 
 the unsuccessful attempts at reaction in Paris in 
 1797, and was exiled to Guiana. He escaped 
 thence to England, where he was well received. In 
 1804 he came secretly to Paris with other royalists; 
 but he was arrested by Buonaparte's police and 
 thrown into prison. He was found dead, in his 
 bed there, on the morning of the 6th April, 1805. 
 The Imperialists said that he had committed sui- 
 cide ; the Royalists, that he had been murdered. 
 There may be too much cause to suspect that 
 Pichegru came foully by his death ; but we be- 
 lieve Napoleon's assertion at St. Helena, that he, 
 at least, was personally free from guilt in the mat- 
 ter. [E.S.C.] 
 
 PICHLER, Caroline, one of the most prolific 
 novelists and dramatic wrs. of Germany, 1769-1843. 
 
 PICHLER, G., a Germ, theologian, died 1736. 
 
 PICHON, J., a French missionary 1683-1751. 
 
 PICHON, T., a French writer, 1700-1781. 
 
 PICHON, T. J., a Fr. theologian, 1731-1812. 
 
 PICKEN, Andrew, a Scottish novelist and 
 miscellaneous wr., born at Paisley 1788, died 1833. 
 
 PICPAPE, N. J. P. De, a Fr. Jesuit, 1731-93. 
 
 PICTET, Benedict, professor of theology at 
 Geneva, author of a History of the Twelfth and 
 Thirteenth Centuries, 1655-1724. His relation, 
 John Louis, an astronomer, 1739-1781. 
 
 PICTET, Mark Augustus, a naturalist and 
 philosopher, president of the Society for the Ad- 
 vancement of the Arts, at Geneva, 1752-1825. His 
 brother, Charles Pictet De Rochemont, a 
 political negotiator, agriculturist, and miscellane- 
 ous writer, 1755-1824. 
 
 PICTON, Sir Thomas, a gallant officer, de- 
 scended from an old family of Pembrokeshire, 
 entered the army as ensign in 1771, and, after 
 serving in the West Indies, rose to the rank of 
 colonel, and became governor of Trinidad in 1797. 
 His next services were at the capture of Flushing, 
 of which also he was appointed governor in 1809. 
 He afterwards distinguished himself in the Penin- 
 sular war, at Badajoz, Vittoria, Ciudad Rodrigo, 
 and other great actions. Killed at Waterloo 1815. 
 
 PICUS, Mirandulus. See Mirandola. 
 
 PIDOUX, J., physician of Henry III., d. 1610. 
 
 PIERCE, Edward, a famous painter of altar- 
 pieces, ceilings, and architecture, died about 1715. 
 
 PIERQUIN, J., a French priest, died 1742. 
 
 PIERRE, Cornelius De Lapide, a learned 
 Jesuit, au. of commentaries on the Bible, d. 1637. 
 
 PIERRE, J. B., a French painter, 1714-1789. 
 
 PIERRES, P. D., a French printer, 1741-1808. 
 
 PIKRSON, C, a Dutch painter, 1631-1714. 
 
 PIERSON, J., a philologist, 1731-1759. 
 
 PIETERS, B., a Flemish marine painter, 1614- 
 1652. John, his brother, same profes., b. 1625. 
 
 PIETERS, G., a Dutch painter, born 1580. 
 
 PIN 
 
 PIETRE, S., a French pbvsician, died 1616.1 
 PIETRI, P. Da., an Italian painter. 1 i 
 PIETRO, M. Di, an Ital. cardinal, 1747-185; 
 PIGALLE, J. B., an Italian sculptor, 1714-1 
 PIGANIOL-DE-LA-FORCE, J. AimarI 
 French literateur and geographer, 1675-1753. I 
 PIGAULT-LEBRUN, G. C. Antoine, a fl 
 tile novelist and dramatic writer, 1753-1835.^1 
 PIGHIUS, Albert, a Dutch mathematicfi 
 and Roman Catholic controversialist, ho 
 1490, died 1542. His nephew, Stephen VisAit 
 a learned antiquarian, 1520-1604. 
 
 PIGNA, Giameattista, a learned Italiafll 
 torian of the house of Este, 1529-1575. 
 
 PIGNATELLI, F., a Neapolitan statesujflB 
 1732, capt.-general of the Two Sicilies 1 ; 
 general of the kingdom of Naples 1806, diedlSM 
 PIGNONE, S., an Italian painter, 1612-l^B 
 PIGNOPJA, L., an Ital. antiquary, 1571^B 
 PIGNOTTI, Lorenzo, professor of .nil 
 philosophy at Pisa, distinguished as an his^Hj 
 and the most celebr. of Ital. fabulists, 173^^H 
 PIGRAY, Peter, a French surgeon, died^H 
 PILATUS, Leontius, a monk of Calabria, im> 
 at the revival of letters in Europe, 14th centunl 
 PILES, Roger De, a Fr. art-writer, 16^^H 
 PILKINGTON, James, a learned Engl 
 late, created bishop of Durham by Elizabeth, ttt 
 the Marian persecution, 1520-1575. 
 
 PILKINGTON, Letitia, a lady of Dutch : 
 traction, born in Dublin 1712, and married to \; 
 Rev. Samuel Pilkington. She wrote several JJ 
 some poems, and her own ' Memoirs.' She d 
 separated from her husband in consequ^^H 
 irregular conduct, and was supported sometime' 
 contributions obtained for her through the inteil :. 
 ot'Cibber. Died 1750. 
 PILLET, C. M., a Fr. biographer, died 1826| 
 PILON, F., an Irish actor, 1750-1788. 
 PILON, G., a French sculptor, died 159<8l 
 PILPAY, an Indian fabulist, Bramin, and coi 
 cillor of state to one of the rajahs, said to h j 
 lived 2,000 years B.C. His fables were translaj 
 into French by Galland in 1704, and by the A 
 Dubois in 1826. 
 PIMENOFF, a Russian sculptor, died 1833. 
 PINA, Ruy De, a Portug. historian, died 15 
 PINART, M., a' French Orientalist, 16 
 PINAS, J., a Dutch painter, 1597-1660. 
 PINDAR, the greatest of the Greek lyric po<| : 
 was born, according to the best authorities, 
 Cynocephala?, a village of Boeotia, betwi 
 and Thespia, B.C. 518, and died b.c. 439, f 
 completing his eightieth year. As is the case* 
 most of the celebrated authors of anti 
 few particulars respecting his life have i 
 nutted to us, and even these arc derived I 
 ancient biographies of uncertain authority 
 value. According to one of these, he v 
 of Daiphantus and Cleidice, and was b 
 the time of the celebration of the Pyt 
 (August or September), the latter fact being 
 rived from one of his own fragments. He se 
 to have been twice married, and to have had 
 son and two daughters. His family, whirl 
 descent from Cadmus., ranked among ' 
 in Thebes, and enjoyed a hereditar 
 skill in music, especially for fiute-pIayM^^B 
 fession which, at that time, was held in h 
 
 592 
 
PIN 
 
 ion in the Boeotian capital. The youthful poet, 
 whom the family talent had descended, at first 
 jlied himself to that branch of poetry which 
 s best adapted to the accompaniment of the 
 ie ; and his father, who had observed in him the 
 ications of poetical genius, sent him to Athens, 
 ere, under the tuition of Lasus of Hermione, 
 founder of the Athenian school of dithyram- 
 poetry, he received that instruction in the art 
 ch was necessary to enable him to attain dis- 
 ition. While at Athens, he likewise availed 
 self of the instructions of Agathocles and Apol- 
 rus. Returning to Thebes in his twentieth 
 , he further profited by the instructions and 
 ce of Myrtis and Corinna of Tanagra, two 
 esses who at that time enjoyed great celebrity 
 'hebes, and with both of whom he afterwards 
 ended unsuccessfully for the musical prize, 
 ar commenced his career as a composer of 
 al odes at the early age of twenty, and his re- 
 tion soon extended to all parts of the Hellenic 
 i The productions of his muse were eagerly 
 ted by different states and princes to com- 
 orate remarkable events; the tyrants and 
 lymen of Greece paid homage to his superior 
 ; and the free states vied with each other in 
 ing him as the great lyric poet of his age. 
 , iEgina, and Opus conferred upon him the 
 of electing him a public guest ; the inhabi- 
 of Ceos employed him to compose for them a 
 isional song, to the exclusion or two celebrated 
 of their own ; and by the order of the priestess 
 ' hi, he received a portion of the banquet of 
 xenia. Pindar manifests in his works a 
 religious feeling, and entertaining a pro- 
 reverence for the gods, rejects those forms of 
 ient legends which ascribes to them the 
 and immorality of mortals. He dedicated 
 to the Great Mother near his own house 
 ; and erected statues to Jupiter- Ammon, 
 ;ury in the market-place. Extraordinary 
 were paid to him after his death. The 
 s erected to him a statue of brass, repre- 
 him with a diadem and a lyre, and a book 
 on his knees; while the Lacedaemonians, 
 they took Thebes, spared his house and 
 and the same mark of veneration was 
 shown to his memory by Alexander, 
 small portion of his works have come down 
 ie, and these, with a single exception, all 
 to one class, the Epinician or triumphal 
 celebrating respectively the victories 
 in the four national games of Greece, the 
 , Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Be- 
 ne wrote dithyrambs, hymns to the 
 s, dirges, drinking songs, mimic dancing 
 gs of maidens, and panegyrics on princes, 
 which we possess numerous fragments, 
 late of Pindar as a poet must be formed 
 Epinician odes alone, though it is evident 
 testimony of the ancient writers, and par- 
 of Horace, that he was equally celebrated 
 departments of poetry. The subjects 
 selected for his muse do not appear, at 
 to be well fitted for sublime poetry; 
 ius of the poet, summoning to its aid 
 d mythology of the oldest times, and 
 exploits of the heroes and demigods, 
 object of his panegyric with a fascina- 
 
 PIN 
 
 tion which seems really genuine. ' He is chiefly 
 remarkable for the gigantic boldness of his con- 
 ceptions and the daring sublimity of his metaphors, 
 which stamp him the Jlschylus of lyric poetry. The 
 flights of his imagination are not, however, like 
 those of the great tragedian, mingled with the in- 
 tensity of human passion, which, while they carry 
 us beyond ourselves, still come home to the heart. 
 He has the light without the heat, his splendours 
 dazzle, but do not warm us. There is little of 
 human feeling in his works.' [G.F.] 
 
 P1NDEMONTE, Ippolito, Count, an Italian 
 poet, biographer, and miscellan. wr., 1753-1828. 
 
 PINE, John, a highly talented English en- 
 graver, appointed Blue Mantle in Heralds College, 
 andengraver of the royal signets, 1690-1756. His 
 son, Robert Edge Pine, a portrait and histori- 
 cal painter, died 1790. 
 
 PINEAU, G. Du, a French lawyer, 1573-1644. 
 
 PINEAU, S., a French surgeon, 1550-1619. 
 
 PINEDA, J. De, a Sp. theologian, 1557-1637. 
 
 PINEL, Le P., a French priest of the oratory, 
 known as a controversial writer, and for his vision- 
 ary enthusiasm, died before 1777. 
 
 PINEL, Philip, a celebrated physician of Paris, 
 distinguished for his treatment of the insane, and 
 his valuable works on the subject, 1742-1826. 
 
 PINELLI, Gianvincenzo, a great collector of 
 books and manuscripts, and patron of literature, 
 born at Naples, of Genoese descent, 1535; died 
 1601. _ Maffeo, sometimes confounded with the 
 preceding, also a learned bibliopole, and friend of 
 Morelli, flourished at Venice, 1736-1785. 
 
 PINELO, Antonio De Leon, a laborious 
 writer on Spanish America, born in Peru 17th ct. 
 
 PINET, Antohny Du, lord of Noroy, a mis- 
 cell, writer and defender of protestantism', 16th ct. 
 
 PINGERON, J. C, a French writer, died 1795. 
 
 PINGRE, A. G., a Fr. astronomer, 1711-1796. 
 
 PINI, E., an Italian naturalist, died 1825. 
 
 PINKERTON, John, a native of Edinburgh, 
 dist. as a poet, antiquarian, and geogr., 1758-1826. 
 
 PINKNEY, William, an eloquent lawyer and 
 statesman of America, distinguished as a political 
 negotiator for the state of Maryland, and as a 
 member of the senate, 1765-1822. His son, Ed- 
 ward Coate, a naval officer, known to litera- 
 ture as a poet, 1802-1828. 
 
 PINSON, , a French surgeon, famous as a 
 
 modeller of anatomical subjects in wax, 1745-1828. 
 
 PINSON, or PYNSON, Richard, an early 
 English printer, who was originally servant to 
 Caxton, and introduced the Roman letter into 
 this country, died about 1530. 
 
 PINSSON, F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1612-1691. 
 
 PINTO, F. M., a Portuguese traveller, 16th ct, 
 
 PINTO, H., a Portuguese divine, died 1584. 
 
 PINTO, Isaac, a Portug. economist, died 1787. 
 
 PINTURRICHIO, Bernardino, a famous Ita- 
 lian painter, scholar of Perugius, and associate in 
 the labours of Raphael, 1454-1513. 
 
 PINZI; J. A., an Ital. numismatist, 1713-1769. 
 
 PINZON, Alonzo, Vincent Yanez, and 
 Martin, three brothers, Spaniards, who had 
 commands in Columbus' first voyage, and by 
 whose exertions mainly it was that a sufficient 
 number of men were induced to risk their lives on 
 the perilous enterprise. Vincent Yanez was the 
 most distinguished of the brothers ; he made 
 
 593 
 
 2Q 
 
PIO 
 
 several voyages, on the most important of which 
 he sailed in December 1499, and discovered Brazil, 
 and the river Amazon, three months hefore Cabral 
 took possession of South America for the crown 
 of Portugal. [J.B.] 
 
 PIOMBO. See Sebastiano. 
 
 PIOZZI, Esther Lynch, a distinguished name 
 in the literary circle of Dr. Johnson, was the 
 daughter of John Salusbury, Esq., of Bodvel in 
 Carnarvonshire, where she was born 1739. In 
 1763 she married Mr. Thrale, a brewer, and mem- 
 ber of parliament for Southwark, and this gentle- 
 man having made the acquaintance of Dr. John- 
 son, the latter became a constant visitor at their 
 house, at Streatham, in Surrey. In 1784 Mrs. 
 Thrale, after a three years' widowhood, married 
 Gabriel Piozzi, an Italian music-master, with 
 whom she went abroad ; this match cost her the 
 friendship of the great moralist, who had been 
 greatly opposed to it. In 1786 she published 
 'Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson during the Last 
 Twenty Years of his Life,' and in 1788 her corres- 
 pondence with him. Her other literary produc- 
 tions consist of poems and fugitive pieces or a mis- 
 cellaneous description ; the chief of them is her 
 poetical story, entitled 'The Three Warnings.' 
 She returned to England after the death of Piozzi, 
 and died at Clifton, near Bristol, 1821. 
 
 PIPELET, F., a French surgeon, 1722-1792. 
 
 PIPER, Charles, Count, councillor of state, 
 and minister to Chas. XII. of Sweden, 1646-1716. 
 
 PIPER, Francis Le, an English painter, of 
 Walloon descent, died about 1740. 
 
 PIPPI. See Romano. 
 
 PIPPING, H., a Germ, theologian, 1670-1722. 
 
 PIRANESI, Giambattista, Cavaliere, was 
 born at Rome in 1707 ; he studied some time in 
 Venice as an architect, but settled in Rome, and 
 henceforth devoted himself to archaeology, and 
 etching the various ruins and monuments of Rome, 
 in which he was assisted by his son, the Cav. 
 Francesco Piranesi ; and together they have 
 produced the most extraordinary and interesting 
 work, as a whole, that we possess on the magnifi- 
 cence of the ancient Romans. Yet it must always 
 be borne in mind that the archaeological was 
 secondary to the artistic element in their admirable 
 etchings, and much is supplied by enthusiasm and 
 imagination, as well as what has been afforded by 
 the actual monument; but the existing ruins as 
 they were, are powerfully and faithfully given, and 
 even the ornamental fragments have their pictorial 
 truth, if not their exact proportions or details. 
 The elder Piranesi died at Rome in 1778 ; the son 
 at Paris in 1810, he was born at Rome in 1750. 
 The son completed what the father commenced : 
 the early editions are the most valued ; a complete 
 collection is very rare, as all the monuments or 
 series were published separately, and was worth, 
 before the publication of the new Paris reprint, be- 
 tween three and four hundred pounds. The new 
 edition in 29 volumes, atlas folio, published at 
 Paris, 1835-37, is worth about 70; it contains 
 plates by some other artists besides the Piranesi, 
 and some modern as well as ancient monu- 
 ments. [R.N.W.] 
 
 PIRES, Thomas, a Portuguese ambassador to 
 rhina, the first European who ever went there in 
 that capacity ; the date of his mission ^517. 
 
 PIS 
 PIRINGER, B., a Germ, engraver, 177G-182J 
 PIRON, Aime, a French apothecary, dillfl 
 as a poet, 1640-1727. His son, Alexis, a pol 
 dramatic author, and man of wit, 1689-1773. I 
 PIROT, E., a French theologian, 1631-1713.'] 
 PIRRO, R., a Sicilian historian, 1577-1651. I 
 PISAN, C. De, an Italian poetess, died 14M 
 PISANI, N., a Venetian admiral, distinguisll 
 in the third war between the Venetians ; 
 Genoese, from 1350 to 1354, when he was tal 
 captive with all his fleet by Paganino Doria. He* 
 released at the conclusion of peace 1355, and d 
 in obscurity. Victor, son or nephew of the p 
 ceding, obtained a victory over the Genoese 
 Antium in 1378, and was beaten by Lucien Do 
 1379. After three months' imprisonment at Ver 
 he was restored to his command, and captu 
 whole Genoese fleet at Chioggia. Died 13 
 PISANO, the surname of several distil 
 artists of Pisa, very important in the ea 
 of art in Italy. Giunta Pisano, or Gil. 
 Giustino of Pisa, is the earliest known 
 painter, and a crucifixion painted by him 
 church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, at Assisi, i 
 the year 1236, is still preserved ; it is a ' 
 in impasto and absolutely great as a wor 
 compared with anything we know of 
 period in Italy. Giunta was anterior to 
 This shows how little reliance is to be 
 local and partial histories, especially whe 
 duals are made heroes of. This picture, 
 a fac-simile has been published by the D 
 painter, Ramboux, in his ' Outlines from ' 
 illustrating the Old Christian Art in Italy,' 
 that so far from Cimabue being the father d^H 
 painting, he was scarcely equal to Giunta, ^^M 
 inferior in style of drawing. If an individ^H 
 have the credit of reviving painting in Itah^H 
 belong to Giunta Pisano, for anything we I^H 
 yet, to the contrary; he is said to have won 
 with the Greeks about 1210. There was BON 
 ously an influx of Greek artists into Italy, after! 
 Venetian capture of Constantinople in 1204, ! 
 we know of no Greek works equal to this <. 
 by Giunta. There are several other works of 
 preserved, and the progress of the art was evide 
 very slow, even down to the time of Masaccio, : j 
 withstanding the great impulse given to it by ^ 
 works of Giotto. Giunta was not notici 
 sari. Niccola Pisano was equally distn^H 
 as sculptor and architect, and must hold I^H 
 rank in the former art that Giunta does in 
 He distinguished himself as early as VI- 
 logua, were he executed the celebrated tai^H 
 Domenico. Niccola was also a great archr' 
 he executed the church of the Fran at V 
 was the pioneer of the Renaissance in 
 sculpture and in architecture. He died ia 1] 
 Giovanni Pisano, the son and ass: 
 cola, and likewise one of the greatest oi 
 sculptors and architects of Italy, died at Pi 
 1320, and was placed in the same tomb with 
 father in the Campo Santo. Andrea 
 was another early artist of Pisa, but net; 
 tury later than Giunta ; he was a scOv^H 
 architect, and the friend of Giotto, a 
 senior. Andrea was born about 12fi 
 works still extant by Andrea ' the bronze | 
 of the Baptistery of St. John (see Gum' 
 
 594 
 
PIS 
 
 le most important. These two gates are still per- 
 jct ; the exact date of their execution is disputed, 
 hether they were finished in 1330, or only com- 
 lenced in that year. The reliefs are from the life 
 : John the Baptist, and the general design of the 
 ite is said to have been made by Giotto ; but 
 iotto's share, if any, must have been more that of 
 architect than the sculptor, though even defin- 
 w the panels and indicating the subjects ; he can 
 arcely have had more to do with the design than 
 is, or his name would have been more intimately 
 sociated with them. The work appears to have 
 a modelled by Andrea and his son Nino, and 
 castings commenced by some Venetian artists 
 1330, and the complete gates to have been 
 ished and gilded in 1339, with the exception of 
 decorations of the architrave, which were 
 led many years afterwards by Vittorio, the son 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti, in order to make them har- 
 with the other two sets of gates executed 
 his father. The gates of Andrea were originally 
 the centre of the Baptistery, opposite to the 
 hedral, but were afterwards removed to the side, 
 jive place to the more beautiful work of Ghiberti, 
 the year 1424. Andrea was made citizen of 
 rence, and died there in 1345 ; he was buried 
 ;he cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore. All three 
 of gates have been well engraved in outline by 
 *o, Le tre Porte dot Battisterio di Firenze. 
 ce, 1823. (Vasari, Vite de Pittori, &c. 
 Flor., 1846, seq. ; Cicognara, Storia delta 
 Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen ; 
 i, Storia delta Pittura Italiana.) [R.N.W.j 
 ISANSKI, G. C, a Ger. philologist, 1725-90. 
 SISTRATUS, a citizen of Athens who raised 
 to the sovereign authority in the time of 
 to whom he was related, B.C. 560. Com- 
 to retire from the city by the conspiracy of 
 and Lycurgus, he returned soon after by 
 a compromise, but was obliged to retire 
 and suiFer an exile of eleven years, which 
 nt in making preparations to recover his 
 ty. In the eleventh year he reappeared at 
 of an army and regained his power, which 
 ed till his death, B.C. 527. He was a 
 nt ruler, and did much to promote the rise 
 literature. We owe to him the poems of 
 their present form, Pisistratus having col- 
 them, as they were scattered in detached parts 
 " iout Greece, and digested them into order. 
 AREF, A., a Russian poet, 1801-1828. 
 ELEU, Anne De. See Estampes. 
 ORIUS, John, a Ger. controversialist, son 
 theran divine of the same name, 1546-1608. 
 AIRNE, Archibald, an eminent phy- 
 born and educated at Edinburgh, and even- 
 settled there after holding a professorship 
 3 i. ,He founded his medical system upon 
 ledge of mathematics, and wrote several 
 works in support of it. Among his more 
 writings may be mentioned a vindication 
 claims of Harvey, 1652-1713. 
 
 OIS, C., a French writer, died 1676. 
 HON, Peter, a French magistrate, pro- 
 y learned as a jurisconsult and philologist, 
 le first to publish the laws of the Visigoths. 
 represented by De Thou as one of the first 
 , as well for probity, candour, and 
 iety, as lor the extent of his learning, the 
 
 PIT 
 
 soundness of his judgment, and his political wis- 
 dom ; born at Troyes 1539, died 1596. His brother, 
 Francis, also a jurisconsult, 1543-1621. 
 
 PITISCUS, Bartholomew, a German mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, 1561-1613. His nephew, 
 Samuel, a learned philologist, 1637-1717. 
 
 PITOT, Henry, a French mathematician, tac- 
 tician, and engineer, especially of canals, 1695-1771. 
 
 PITROU, R., a French engineer, 1684-1750. 
 
 PITS, John, a native of Southampton, who 
 went to France, and becoming a catholic was pro- 
 tected by the cardinal of Lorraine, known as a 
 theologian and biographer, died 1616. 
 
 PITT, Christopher, an English clergyman, 
 author of miscellaneous poems, and a translation 
 of Virgil, Vida's Art of Poetry, &c, 1699-1748. 
 
 PITT, Thomas, the founder of the family of 
 the great earl of Chatham, was born in Dorset- 
 shire 1653, and towards the end of the century be- 
 came governor of Fort St. George, in the East 
 Indies. He made a large fortune, chiefly owing to 
 his possession of a diamond, by which he cleared 
 considerably more than 100,000. In 1716 he 
 was appointed governor of Jamaica. He sat in 
 four parliaments for Old Sarum and Thirsk, and 
 died 1726. His eldest son, Robert Pitt, father of 
 William, earl of Chatham, d. 1727. See Chatham. 
 
 PITT, William, the second son of the great 
 Lord Chatham, was born at Hayes in Kent, on 
 the 28th of May, in the year 1759. He was edu- 
 cated at home under private tuition until at the age 
 of fourteen he entered at Cambridge. His biogra- 
 phers are profuse in their testimonies to his preco- 
 cious capacity and readiness in acquiring know- 
 ledge. He was indeed saturated with tuition of 
 all kinds, and taught from his earliest youth by 
 his haughty father to consider himself the hope of 
 the country. He thus acquired at the age when 
 young men are just ridding themselves of boyish 
 shyness an austere self-possession, which im- 
 parted to everything he did an air of wisdom and 
 authority. He never knew the nature of diffi- 
 dence, and the easy assurance with which he took 
 whatever duty or office presented itself, is sup- 
 posed, not without good reason, to have deceived 
 the world as to the extent of his capacity. In 
 January, 1781, he was returned to parliament for 
 Appleby, and at once threw himself into the busi- 
 ness of the session with the confidence of an old 
 debater. He boldly adopted the projects of reform, 
 then rising into shape in Britain side by side with 
 the discontents in France, and in 1782 brought on 
 his motion for a reform in the representation of the 
 people. On the accession of Lord Shelburne's admin- 
 istration in July, he was made chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer, and this invitation to retire from the party 
 who were deemed Utopian theorists, showed that a 
 well-founded reliance was placed in his ambition, 
 overcoming his reforming propensities. It was in 
 the December of 1783 that King George dismissed 
 the coalition ministry, and placing young Pitt at 
 the head of the cabinet, conducted with his able 
 championship that battle in which the crown de- 
 feated the political aristocracy. Among the states- 
 men of the day, Dundas, afterwards his right 
 hand man, had the sagacity to see beforehand that 
 he would be victorious, and to sacrifice other pros- 
 pects for a participation in his fortune. Once 
 established in power, he ruled through seventeen 
 
 595 
 
PIT 
 
 PIU 
 
 of the most eventful years of European history. ! was born at Cesena 1717, and succeeded Clemetj 
 When his reign began he had not quite abandoned XIV., better known as Ganganelli, loth Februarl 
 
 his old reforming views, and being well versed in 
 the newly promulgated philosophy of Adam Smith, 
 lie was partial to "the principle of free trade. But 
 the French revolution drove him back from all 
 progressive projects, and the frightened country 
 submitted to a sort of ministerial and parliamen- 
 tary despotism. The great conflict in which the 
 young minister of a constitutional country mea- 
 sured his strength with the young military despot 
 of France, is matter of history familiar to all. 
 That Pitt, although perhaps his powers have been 
 somewhat exaggerated by panegyrists, showed 
 great resources cannot be denied. His readiness 
 in debate and promptness in comprehending busi- 
 ness have seldom been equalled. What chiefly 
 surprises people of the present day in the history 
 of his career, is the vast amount of dissipation, 
 and especially of drinking, with which his great 
 labours were diversified ; but perhaps his frailties 
 have, like his abilities, been exaggerated. It was 
 said of him that he never was truly young, that 
 he never had the freshness, naturalness, and open- 
 ness of youth ; it is certain that he grew old be- 
 fore his time, and he died of a broken and ex- 
 hausted constitution, on the 23d of January, 
 1806. [J.H.B.] 
 
 PITTACUS, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 was a native of Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, 
 where he was born about B.C. 650. He was in- 
 vested with the sovereign power by the people of 
 Athens, and voluntarily abdicated after re-establish- 
 ing the authority of the laws. Died abt. 570 B.C. 
 
 PITTEBI, J. M., a Venetian engraver, 1703-87. 
 
 PITTIS, T., an English divine, died 1687. 
 
 PITTON, J. S., a Fr. historian, about 1620-90. 
 
 PITTONI, J. B., a Venet. painter, 1687-1767. 
 
 PITTS, William, an English artist, 1790-1840. 
 
 PIUS I., pope and saint of Eome, is supposed 
 to have commenced his pontificate, or rather 
 bishoprick, about 152 or 153, and to have died 157. 
 The date of his reign, however, as given by other 
 authorities, is from 127 to 142. He was succeeded 
 by Anicetus. Pius II. (jEneas Sylvius Picco- 
 lomini), born 1405, succeeded Calixtus III. 1458, 
 died 1464. He was a great theologian, diploma- 
 tist, canonist, historian, orator, and, in fact, a 
 pontiff" univerally accomplished. He made great 
 efforts to organize a crusade against the Ottomans. 
 Pius III. (Antonio Todeschini), enjoyed a 
 pontificate of twenty-five days, 1503. Pius IV. 
 (Giov. Angelo Medici, or Medichino, of 
 Milan), succeeded Paul IV. 1559, died 1565. In 
 his reign the council of Trent finished its sittings, 
 which lasted from 1545 to 1563. Pius V. (Mi- 
 chele Ghisleri), born of an obscure family in 
 Piedmont 1504, succeeded the preceding 1566, he 
 died 1572. In his reign, the bull In Ccena Domini 
 was published, which claims privileges for the 
 clergy irreconcilable with the civil authority ; he 
 was succeeded by Gregory XIII., and canonized by 
 Clement XL in 1713. Pius VI. and Pius VII. 
 (following articles.) Pius VIII. (Francesco 
 Xaverio Castiglioni), born near Ancona 1761, 
 buc. Leo XII. 1829, and d. after reigning twenty 
 months 1830. His successor was Gregory XVI. 
 
 PIUS VI., pope of Rome, by name Giovanni 
 Angelo Braschi, descended from a noble family, 
 
 1775. The first five years of his reign wereol 
 cupied with public works and economical projecj 
 among others the draining of the Pontiij 
 marshes, which helped to embarrass his financJ 
 and impoverish the state. In 17H0 his politics 
 troubles commenced by the accession of Joseph I 
 the power of the empress Queen Maria The9| 
 the new emperor being bent on separating til 
 church from the papal jurisdiction. This he dl 
 by suppressing a great number of monasterie s^! 
 bidding any intercourse between the remaindl 
 and Rome, and taking upon himself the nominal 
 of bishops even of those in Italy. The "gitl^H 
 intrigues, and social troubles consequent on th{| 
 proceedings, kept the pope fully occupied till tL 
 French revolution ; and then, the invasion of Italy i i 
 the French occasioned him still greater difficult^. 
 In 1791 Avignon was united to France, the pop 
 pretended to a neutrality which he did not obserw ; 
 heavy contributions were imposed on him, a) 
 Ferrara, Romagna, and the Bolognese, were incci 
 porated with the newly-formed Cisalpine republic 
 the price of peace, in fine, was the revocation of t / 
 papal edicts launched against the Jansenists, ai| 
 the acknowledgment of the civil constitution [ ; 
 the French clergy Some disorders in Rome 1| 
 tween the French and Italians, in course <^^H 
 the French general Duphot was shot, led to tk 
 expedition of Berthier, who arrived in Rome i 
 the 10th of February, 1798, and on the loth pi 
 claimed it a republic. The Vatican was now oj 
 cupied by the French troops, the apartment i 
 which the pope sat plundered before his eyes, a j 
 even the ring stolen from his finger. He was th, 
 taken prisoner., and being carried to France, di| 
 there in August, 1799. 
 
 PIUS VII., successor of the preceding, by nai ( 
 Gregorio Luigi Barnaba Chiaramontl. a i 
 of noble descent, and a native of Cesena, was be j 
 1740. He became a cardinal in 1785, and in tl 
 character propitiated the favour of the French 
 the period of his predecessor's humiliation. <j \ 
 the fall of Pius VI. the papacy was taken unc | 
 the protection of the coalesced powers, and jcj 
 about the time of his death the combined trocj 
 of Austria, Russia, and Naples, had succeeded j 
 extinguishing the Roman republic. Cardii 
 Chiaramonti was elected pope, and took I 
 of Pius VII., at Venice, on the 13th of jH 
 1800 ; at the same time he appointed Cardinal G< j 
 salvi his secretary. The power of the French 
 volution was now grasped by the hands of am^ 
 ter spirit, and instead of destroying the jj^H 
 Napoleon was resolved on moulding it t. 
 poses by whatever force might be necessii; 
 great man knew that a nation could iii>: 
 without a religion, and that the geni 
 French demanded it rather as an instil 
 an internal life. By the concordat of 1801 
 restored Catholicism in France, and bo 
 VII. to recognize the independence of t 
 church. In 1804 the pope was induced 
 the emperor at Paris, hoping, perhaps, 
 him from his purpose of extending 
 ciples of independence to Germany and 1 
 this effort Pius VII. had the mortification t< 
 as he still resisted the policy of the eiuj 
 
 596 
 
PIV 
 
 tter, in 1808 and 1809, united all the states of 
 e church to the French empire, and on being 
 communicated, arrested the pope himself, and 
 ally carried him prisoner to Fontainbleau. 
 ;re, on the 25th of January, 1813, the pope 
 ;ned a concordat granting all that Napoleon 
 manded, but retracted again, when the trench 
 >n after were expelled from Germany. He now 
 nporized and awaited the issue of events, and 
 s restored to his capital on the 24th of May, 
 14, by the coalition of the protestant states, 
 h the house of Austria, against Buonaparte, 
 nsalvi now resumed his functions as papal secre- 
 y, with a people reduced to servitude under 
 aces who were the mere tools of Austria, and a 
 atical conclave at Rome, who governed by a 
 tern of mere terror and corruption and with- 
 the slightest regard for the privileges and pros- 
 ity of the papal subjects. In 1817 Pius VII. 
 >ked the concordat of 1801, and concluded a 
 ' one with the French crown, one effect of 
 ch was the restoration of Avignon. This year, 
 , he commenced the persecution of the secret 
 Jties of patriots, known as the Carbonari, but 
 a little deterred by the revolutions of 1820 and 
 ' in Spain, Naples, aud Piedmont; the patriots 
 e same time being soothed by the friendly 
 "tion of Gonsalvi. Affairs were in this fever- 
 ite when the aged pope died, as the result of 
 ident, on the 20th of August, 1823. His 
 sr was Leo XII. [E.R.] 
 
 [ATI, G. F., an Italian savant, 1689-1764. 
 Mary, an Eng. dramatist, d. about 1720. 
 [ODATUS, a king of Caria, in Asia Minor, 
 I known as the father of Mausoleus and Arti- 
 whose names are familiar to history. He 
 "led in the 4th century B.C. 
 1RRO, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, 
 illegitimate son of a Spanish colonel of in- 
 and a peasant girl of Estremadura, He was 
 | at Truxillo about 1571. Neglected by his 
 he was suffered to grow up in ignorance 
 ness. But he had a strong frame and a 
 Ispirit ; and, stirred by the marvellous tales 
 J which Spain was filled about the newly-dis- 
 world beyond the Atlantic, Pizarro left 
 for Hispaniola, and served for many years 
 i perilous and painful expeditions which 
 Balboa, Pedrarias, and others, led into the 
 and to the western coast of the American 
 it. Pizarro was fifty years old before he 
 the means of undertaking his great enter- 
 *ainst the Peruvian empire, the wealth and 
 rar of which had long been rumoured among 
 lish settlements on the isthmus of Darien, 
 liich no European had previously dared to 
 ;; so formidable were the reports of its power, 
 " terrific were the hardships of the voyage 
 " march, which were to be overcome before 
 tier of Peru could be reached. Pizarro's 
 ite in his enterprise was Diego Almagro, 
 of fortune like himself. The first attempt 
 Peru was made in 1524, but produced 
 beyond the discovery of some islands and 
 the coast of the Pacific, though the suf- 
 " the adventurers were extreme. Pizarro 
 in for Panama in 1526 ; and succeeded 
 ring part of the Peruvian territory, and 
 the wealthy city of Tumbez. Nothing 
 
 PIZ 
 
 but the most heroic constancy on the part of 
 Pizarro could have overcome the toils and suffer- 
 ings which he and his little band experienced. On 
 one occasion he and a few followers were detained 
 for several months on an almost barren island. 
 Worn down with famine, cold, and disease, many 
 of the Spaniards wished to abandon the disastrous 
 enterprise and return to Panama. Pizarro as- 
 sembled them, and traced with his sword a line on 
 the sand from east to west ; then turning towards the 
 south, he said, ' Comrades, on that side are toil, 
 hunger, nakedness, the drenching storm, battle, 
 and death. On this side are ease and safety; 
 but on that side lies Peru with its wealth ; on this 
 side is Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, 
 what best becomes a brave Castilian. For my 
 part, I go to the south.' Saying this, Pizarro 
 stepped across the fine, and thirteen of his band 
 followed. At the head of this scanty but deter- 
 mined remnant, Pizarro persevered ; and the arri- 
 val of succour soon enabled him to leave the scene 
 of suffering and trial, and to gain ocular proof of 
 the value of the great prize which he aimed at. In 
 1528, Pizarro sailed to Spain, and there sought 
 and obtained from Charles V. ample authority and 
 rank for conducting the conquest of the great South 
 American empire, the existence and results of 
 which he was now able to demonstrate. But it 
 was left to the adventurers themselves to provide 
 the means of conquest ; and when Pizarro, in Janu- 
 ary, 1531, sailed from Panama, on his third and 
 last expedition, he had only 180 men under his 
 command, 27 of whom had horses. Some rein- 
 forcements reached him after he had landed on the 
 coast near Peru ; but the whole force, with which 
 he ultimately advanced into the heart of that em- 
 pire, did not exceed 110 foot soldiers, 67 cavalry, 
 and two small pieces of artillery called falconets. 
 With this force (aided, however, largely by fraud) 
 Pizarro overthrew the dominion of the Peruvian 
 Incas, which extended over 35 degrees of latitude, 
 over many millions of an orderly, industrious, 
 civilized, and wealthy population, and which 
 was supported by large armies of well disci- 
 plined and veteran soldiers. Pizarro, after a march 
 of great difficulty across the mountain chain of the 
 Andes, reached the city of Caxamalca, near which 
 the Peruvian Inca, or sovereign, Atahualpa, was 
 encamped with numerous forces. Pizarro per- 
 suaded Atahualpa to visit the Spanish camp, and 
 then suddenly attacked the Peruvians who attended 
 their monarch, and after a frightful massacre suc- 
 ceeded in making the Inca his prisoner. The sub- 
 mission of part of the empire was now easily 
 effected, as the Peruvians obeyed implicitly the 
 commands which their captive monarch issued at 
 the Spaniards' dictation. After immense quantities 
 of gold had been extorted from the natives as a 
 ransom for their sovereign, Pizarro brought him to 
 trial under a charge of exciting insurrection against 
 the Spaniards, and put him to death. Pizarro 
 then set up another member of the Peruvian family 
 as Inca, and inarched upon Cuzco, the capital of 
 the empire. The Spaniards now encountered fre- 
 quent and obstinate resistance from the natives ; 
 but the terror of the European fire-arms, and of 
 the cavalry, told strongly in favour of the invaders ; 
 though consummate generalship and indomitable 
 bravery were also required. Pizarro's skill was 
 
 597 
 
PIZ 
 
 ever ready in each emergency, and liis courage was 
 a quality in which the Spanish soldier was never 
 deficient. Unhappily, he was equally signa- 
 lized by insatiable avarice, remorseless cruelty, 
 and habits of brutal license and outrage. Cuzco 
 was taken by the Spaniards; and a desperate 
 attempt, which the Indians made a few years after- 
 wards to recapture it, was ultimately repulsed, 
 though not till after the European power in Peru 
 had been brought to the very brink of destruction. 
 Feuds and civil war soon broke out among the 
 conquerors : and Almagro, Pizarro's old comrade, 
 was put to death, after being defeated in a pitched 
 battle which he and his partizans fought against 
 Pizarro's adherents. Pizarro, who now bore the 
 title of marquess, ruled Peru for some time with 
 almost royal power. He had founded the city of 
 Lima as the new capital of Peru, and he devoted 
 himself to its adornment, to planting European 
 settlements in various parts of the provinces, to 
 sending out expeditions of discovery beyond the 
 frontier, and to working the mines, with which the 
 conquered regions abounded. The lot of the na- 
 tives under him was miserable; and though he 
 lavished wealth and land on his own favourite fol- 
 lowers, he treated the other Spaniards, especially 
 those who had followed Almagro, with harshness and 
 contempt. A conspiracy was at last formed against 
 him by some of the surviving friends of that chief. 
 They suddenly attacked Pizarro in his palace on 
 the 26th June, 1541, and killed him after a des- 
 perate resistance. [E.S.C/j 
 
 PIZZI, J., an Italian writer, 1719-1790. 
 
 PLAAT, Andr. H. J. Vander, a famous Dutch 
 engineer and hydraulic mechanician, 1761-1819. 
 
 PLACE, Ol. De La, a French priest, 17th ct. 
 
 PLACE, Francis, a native of Durham, dist. 
 for his etchings of landscapes, &c, died 1728. 
 
 PLACE, Francis, well known as a politician, 
 was born in humble circumstances 1772, and began 
 his public career as secretary to the Constitutional 
 Association, which numbered Hardy and Home 
 Tooke among its members. He afterwards partici- 
 pated in the" agitation for every great measure of 
 reform, and especially in that for the abolition of 
 the corn laws. He was also a great promoter of 
 inventions and the industrial arts. Died 1854. 
 
 PLACE, J. De La, a Fr. protestant, 1596-1665. 
 
 PLACE, Peter De La, in Latin Platianus, or 
 Plutea, a French jurisconsult, historian, and ma- 
 gistrate, born about 1520, killed at the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew 1572. 
 
 PLACE, P. A. De La, a French novelist and dra- 
 matic writ., once editor of the Mercury, 1707-93. 
 
 PLACENTINUS, or PLACENTIUS, Peter, 
 author of a Latin poem, entitled ' Pugna Porco- 
 rum,' in 360 verses, every word of which begins 
 with a P, died about 1548. 
 
 PLACETTE, J. De La, a Fr.protes., 1639-1718. 
 
 PLACIDIA, daughter of Theodosius the Great, 
 born at Constantinople about 388, became, in 
 second nuptials, the wife of Constantius, a general 
 of Honorius. Her son by him became emperor of 
 the West under the title of Valentinian III., but 
 the government was really administered by the 
 empress-mother Placidia. Died at Rome 450. 
 
 PLANCHE, R. De La, a Fr. historian, 16th ct. 
 
 PLANCHER, Urbain, a learned Benedictine 
 of St. Maur, au. of a history of Burgundy, d. 1750. 
 
 PLA 
 
 PLANCIUS, P., a Flem. protestant, 1552-162 
 PLANCUS, Lucius, a Roman tribune ai 
 
 consul, supposed founder of Lvons, died about 1 
 PLANCY, W., a French Hellenist, died 1568, 
 PLANER, J. J., a German botanist, 1745-178 
 PLANK, T. J., a German historian, 1751-183 
 PLANQUE, F., a French phvsician, 1696-176 
 PLANT, J. T., a German writer, 1758-1794. 
 PLANTA, Joseph, minister of the German R 
 
 formed church in London, librarian of the Briti; 
 
 Museum, and historian of the Helvetic Coni 
 
 deracy, 1744-1827. 
 PLARTIN, C, a French printer, 1514-1589. 
 PLATEN, D. F. De, a Pruss. general, 1714-S 
 PLATER, F., a physician of Basle, 1536-161 
 PLATIERE, Imbert De La, a French geueR 
 
 known as the marshal de Bourdillon, died 1567, 
 PLATINA, the commonly received name of Ba 
 
 tolomeo De Sacchi, an Ital. historian, 1421-i 
 PLATNER, John Zachary, an eminent em 
 
 gical writer and professor at Leipzig, 1694-174 
 
 His son, Ernest, a physician, moralist, and 
 
 physician, 1744-1818. 
 
 [Plato From an Ancient Gem.] 
 
 PLATO, born at Athens or Egina about i\ 
 B.C.; died in his eightieth year. There is no otb 
 name in Speculative Philosophy like Plato's. 1 
 stands to the whole world of Thought, as Sh 
 spere in Modern Times; not unapproachab 
 neither unapproached, but possessing an unchii 
 lengeable and scarcely explicable supremacy. _ | 
 is very wonderful the catholic power and insig 
 of this illustrious man, the entireness of his kno' 
 ledge and sympathy, and of course the reach j 
 his intuitions. M. Cousin has recently claim j 
 him as an Eclectic; falsely, if by the epithet, 
 would indicate a philosopher who select 
 roaming through all by-gone speculal 
 found a piece here and a piece there, 
 fused them cunningly, so that neither 
 solitary Thinker might feel that he or it b 
 no part in him: but, with truth in the higluj 
 degree, if he desired to claim for the mind j 
 Plato a range so vast, a power to adventure 
 deep and soar so high, that, what all sci. 
 existent, and that have flourished since. 
 partially, he saw completely, and so coi 
 off their contentions, and adjust their c 
 deuces into one grand Orb. The first ai 
 
PLA 
 
 leral view we can take of him, tends directly tc~ 
 rds such an estimate. Greece and the preced- 
 and subsequent World as well was divided be- 
 jen two opposing inclinations, that evolved two 
 tile camps; the one searching after Unity 
 le, the other finding in Phenomena the secret 
 Things. Plato, grasped both, with all the 
 or his powerful and perfectly balanced 
 1: he comprehended both sides of the medal of 
 e. Athirst, at every moment of his life, and 
 svery movement of his mind, for intercourse 
 that Absolute Good, which is the Universal 
 giver, and for whose sake all things are, he 
 yet sympathy as thorough, with every discur- 
 tendency of the Intellect, rejoicing in its 
 dties and distinctions, loving Art and Politics, 
 Human Interests and Laws, no less than the 
 i mundane philosopher of them all. Turn 
 phase of the Mind of Plato towards Modern 
 >pe, there is no feature of our ever shifting 
 lognomy not an event amid the buzz, and 
 ling around us on which he would not have 
 some welcome light: carry him to Egypt 
 e land of Menu there too, he would have felt 
 ye, only aloft, because nearer the centre of 
 real Life, than those already absorbed, emo- 
 Eremites. Notice his Theodicee. On the one 
 Matter, the slave of Necessity, and itself 
 Order; on the other, God, Intelligence, 
 Freedom, transforming and organizing for 
 this rude Substance incited by his Eternal 
 the Idea of Good labouring ever more 
 through multiplying forms into clearer 
 rer expression : hence that march ever on- 
 hence, also, the possibility of Wisdom and 
 hy. From the extreme beginnings of 
 ;, what School wbich has ascended among 
 ysteries, ever elaborated a fairer Synthesis? 
 not merely the profoundity, but this very 
 sness of Plato, which renders the due com- 
 ion of him, arduous. A System, one can at 
 ie survey: but a noble and a full grown 
 in variety as well as reach, a type of the 
 ihensible Universe: didactic Thinkers, 
 great as Aristotle, may by dint of ear- 
 be gone round and round ; "but what for- 
 adequate for a Shakspere, or a Goethe? 
 Genius, instinct with Poetry as with Know- 
 with which Science is not higher than Art, 
 L * h permits no single Faculty to be exclu- 
 be defined only by its unexhausted In- 
 over the unfolding of the World, and there- 
 ongs essentially to the category of the In- 
 ible. Nevertheless the student must be 
 ly warned against those ordinary com- 
 of ordinary interpreters of Plato. No man 
 more clearly The Truths he utters, are 
 to realize ; but the Expression is trans- 
 a mountain brook: no marvel though 
 been held in this country obscure, see- 
 a similar charge is laid, and moder- 
 oved, against a writer of a much more 
 order, but in distinctness and precision not 
 to old Euclid himself, Immanuel Kant! 
 too, that Plato is a Mystic, and veils, or 
 Truth, through the excesses of his 
 Plato is as real as his immortal 
 is not a Mystic, unless Socrates was 
 nomination, he has to overflowing. Beauty 
 
 PLA 
 
 hovers ever over him, and immortal fragrance is 
 shed on the fluttering of her wings. The music 
 of his periods reminds one of the murmuring of 
 the Bees on Hymmetusi But Plato's sense 
 of Beauty, only led him nearer to the Centre and 
 Cause of Existence; and his Imagination unlike 
 fashionable freaks of Fancy was the purest and 
 loftiest phase of the Reason : it helped him to the 
 discernment of pure Truth, because liker than any 
 other Faculty in the Finite Mind, to the Creative 
 Thought which preluded the birth of these my- 
 riads of gorgeous Worlds. In proceeding to 
 
 give an account of Plato's writings, we desire to 
 acknowledge our obligations to the sketch by 
 Mr. Maurice. Unless, in one or two point.;, 
 at which we may detect the presence of the 
 general Theory of the accomplished Writer, that 
 sketch quite surpasses in its method and sym- 
 pathy every other known to us:* on behalf of 
 Schleiermacher, an exception might in- 
 deed be entered; but we cannot be detained by 
 Ast or Socher. Taught by Socrates, it could 
 in no wise fail, that Plato, snould discern, equally 
 with his Master, that the first step in Philosophy, 
 is to persuade men to ascertain that they know 
 what they talk of that they really comprehend 
 the significance of the propositions on whose be- 
 half they are prepared to contend. No form or 
 vehicle for teaching could so well subserve this 
 purpose as the Dialogue : it was the written re- 
 presentative of the unforgotten way-side interro- 
 gatories of Socrates ; and in the hands of Plato 
 who, as we have said, held Reality as firmly as he 
 held Speculation the Dialogue was no fiction, 
 but an actual ascent, through the obstructions of 
 Individual Character and Virtues, up towards un- 
 seen and manifold Truths, lying as a substratum 
 underneath the most vague and confused Opinion. 
 How superbly, in this respect, each dialogue un- 
 winds ! Never to discourage, far less to counte- 
 nance the faintest element of Doubt, but to awaken 
 the Conscience, and show Mankind that, superior 
 to shadow-land, there is Reality and Light ; for 
 this, and no lesser purpose, Plato followed 
 his immortal Master, and constructed and exem- 
 plified that unrivalled Dialectic. In the first 
 (speaking according to Method, not to Time) class 
 of the Platonic Dialogues, we find accordingly, an 
 earnest effort to establish the cardinal Truth, that 
 even beneath Fantasy there is Substance ; that be- 
 neath whatever end, has been seriously pursued as 
 a true end by Humanity, there is something, 
 which if disentangled from the adventitious, 
 would appear adequate as a purpose to arrest the 
 attention of a healthful mind. While fusing in this 
 way the Cyrenaic, Cynic, and Mec/aric Schools, 
 i.e. divesting them of their speciality and exag- 
 geration, Plato, once and again, demonstrates that 
 the main error betokened by incomplete systems, is 
 not the mere incompleteness of such assertions 
 as ' Pleasure is the Good ' ' Self-denial is the 
 Good ' ' Being is the Good ;' but that it lies in 
 the carelessness, often amounting to moral in- 
 aptitude for all Inquiry, which hinders men from 
 distinguishing between the reality inhering in the 
 proposition they maintain, and its simple acci- 
 dents. And his invariable inference is, that the 
 mental condition adequate to Inquiry, is indeed a 
 high moral attainment; for that he only who 
 
 599 
 
PLA 
 
 PLA 
 
 governs himself, who has subjected himself to | enumerations ; neither was he arrested lik 
 
 continuous discipline, and can restrain his lower 
 Nature, will ever be capable of that highest exer- 
 cise of the Faculties which conducts to Truth. It 
 may be asserted with all justice that, which, ages 
 afterwards, Bacon accomplished for Physical In- 
 vestigations, by his masterly exposition of the 
 misleading Idolce, Plato in the course of his Dia- 
 logues has thoroughly accomplished, in a way not 
 less masterly, for the wider and more arduous 
 sphere of Moral and Social Inquiry. Men have 
 long practically acknowledged the authority of the 
 dicta of Bacon : unhappily they are as yet little 
 skilled in the precepts of the more ancient Orga- 
 non. In the second class of the Platonic Dialogues, 
 we are led to a more difficult order of contem- 
 plations ; our Inquirer now passing to the Ante- 
 Socratic Philosophers, and discoursing of Xeno- 
 phanes, Purmenides, Htraclitus. It is singular 
 that extremes almost always meet : Xenophanes 
 and Ileraclitus, or still farther down Prota- 
 goras, no sympathy can bind them, and yet we 
 can trace a closest resemblance. Did not Xeno- 
 phanes simply inculcate, that, of Being however 
 real, Man can know nothing? And Protagoras, 
 holding by the flux of Heraclitus, only went to 
 say, that, immersed amid notions, and subject to 
 temperament and circumstance, each Man is re- 
 duced to frame a Universe for himself. Plato 
 confronted, while, in one sense, accepting both; 
 and during the polemic that ensues, we find 
 gradually coming out into prominent relief, that 
 chief peculiarity of what we may term his Meta- 
 physics, viz.: the Doctrine of Ideas. Most 
 true, with Xenophanes, that Being, or the Par- 
 menidean One, is not representible or expressible, 
 by the floating confused notions which occupy the 
 sensual understanding, nevertheless, is not the 
 existence of these very- notions these efforts, 
 however imperfect, of the Understanding, to ex- 
 press it, proof that there is in Being a reality to 
 be expressed ; nay that attributes belong to it, in 
 so far answering to these notions ? So also with 
 Protagoras; it is verv certain that men practi- 
 cally differ as to the Actions and Forms, entitled 
 to rank under the Categories of Justice, Goodness, 
 and Beauty . but is there not inherent in all men, 
 conviction of the existence of a very Just, a very 
 Good, a very Beautiful, else, whence sprung those 
 imperfect notions, and what upholds them ? Thus 
 far, it is evident that Plato merely asserts the reality 
 of what in modern nomenclature we term Absolute 
 Truths; but thereupon the question arises, what 
 are these, and whence come they ? How does the 
 Mind reach them ? Can knowledge reposing on 
 mere Negations, or on the Contingent, ever take on 
 the character of the Absolute? Many of our 
 Modern Philosophies have remained satisfied with 
 asserting the existence of Absolute Truths, and 
 offering an enumeration of them. Kant, it will 
 be recollected, went farther he found the Origin 
 of the characteristics of Universality and Necessity, 
 in Laws or Conditions of the Thinking Organism : 
 that element of our Judgments, he said, is abso- 
 lute, which irrespective of their subject-matter 
 depends on the mind's own essential structure : 
 absolutism, with him has thus a purely sub- 
 jective origin. The immortal Greek adventured 
 beyond both. Too scientific to remain with mere 
 
 at the boundary of mere subjective knowk 
 considered that Absolute Truths or Ide 
 duct us towards the mist-enshrouded coast of 
 to logy directly connecting the Finite 1 
 with the Infinite. The general cast of hi 
 markable conception, is the following. Oi 
 things that exist, there are pure forms or ai 
 types, imperfectly discerned by our senses 
 sensual understanding; but in the cognitio 
 which alone, Knowledge, as distinguished 
 Opinion, consists. This Form, or Archetyj, 
 Idea, is a Thing's very Essence: it is the 
 reality belonging to it. Far from being a n< 
 or conclusion framed by the Mind, it is wholl; 
 dependent of the perceiving mind; and is felt f 
 so, whenever time Knowledge is attained. ! 
 therefore, is not a system-builder; his lol 
 attainment reaches no higher than this, thn 
 endeavour, through discipline, through virtu 
 may see what is. Neither, however, are 
 substantial archetypal Forms, in themselves i 
 pendent. Every Idea depends on some one 8 
 rior to it, and the root, consummation, and 
 mony of all, is in the Idea of that Supreme 
 Perfect Being, to whom, as Thoughts, thoj 
 long; and in whose proper Eternity alone," 
 can be thought of as Eternal. Assuredly we 
 not to defend this Platonic system here ; scar 
 we fear, have the few words permitted us, av 
 to offer more than a vague hint of it. Le 
 student, however, ponder well, on what R 
 ledge must have meant, as conceived by Pg 
 how lofty the aim of his Dialectic how 
 objects, and how worthy the energies of, perhag 
 most gifted speculative Genius who has 
 impress upon the Earth! Nay, much low< 
 our reader has made himself acquainted, thr 
 History, with its various proposals regarding 
 thorny problem as to Knowledge, let him re 
 on what these have offered, in relation to that % 
 our Human Spirit demands and say whic^H 
 all, has recognized the conditions of that prob 
 or down even to this later day succ 
 satisfying these, better than Plato's? Of I 
 chief class of the Dialogues, we have no 
 say anything adequate. Having establi 
 nature of Knowledge and the way to 
 Plato proceeds to search after Unity 
 sphere of Inquiry in reference to Mc 
 and Nature. Of Plato's Physics as 
 that puzzling and wonderful Timaws, 
 to speak : let us just glance at his me 
 results in social speculation, as set for 
 Republic ; earnestly recommending to 1" 
 reader, the study of the work itself, by 
 recent translation by Messrs. Vaughan 
 of Cambridge. The dialogue opens, 
 dramatically. But as soon as the cha 
 defined, the question is mooted whether . 
 something eternal, or the mere Creature i 
 that is, whether Society has a basis 
 principle of Unity, independent of shiftr 
 What then is Justice in a State f As 
 the first two books, there cannot be two 
 Justice a private Justice and a state 
 the bond which unites man to his fellow, 
 other, is the bond which bestows on every l 
 its proper degree of coherence. In illustra 
 
 GOO 
 
PLA 
 
 kke up the picture of an actual Society, and critise 
 ^arrangements. Nowhere is Plato less a mere 
 Jjeculator than in this part of the Republic. So 
 Lr from being an Utopian, he starts with the pre- 
 ise that every selfishness exists, and every evil re- 
 lit of it: and his practical question is, under what 
 editions Society may nevertheless cohere ? Would 
 J at the ensuing discussion had been accepted as a 
 Lson, by all Time ! Not concerning himself with 
 uicard or police regulations for the repression of 
 il, Plato inquires, what are the Principles of 
 !He in any possible Society, and how they may 
 st be developed ? And his extensive treatment 
 this momentous subject has caused the Repub- 
 sometimes to be accounted a formal Essay on 
 ucation. Classes are named as essential to all 
 ing Societies the Magistracy representing the 
 a of Wisdom Guardians representing the idea 
 Fortitude and the Masses, subsisting through 
 uperance of desire, self-restraining and sub- 
 mg. Underneath all which, lies the funda- 
 tal conception of Justice, that, by the asser- 
 of whose Supremacy, he preluded the whole, 
 re are parts of this superb dialogue so far 
 ching, that the conflicts and consequent morals 
 Modern Civilization can hardly as yet find 
 ireciation for them. We refer especially 
 what has been termed Plato's Communism 
 his views of the ultimate relation of the 
 ~*j. Concerning Problems, whose practical 
 ition lies in the Future, it is wisest not to pro- 
 b over absolutely: suffice it to refer only 
 indignation to the uses made of his doc- 
 here, to disparage his great name. Again 
 rring to the Dialogue itself, we must close this 
 f notice. The wisdom of Plato has taught and 
 rished the most learned and the greatest of past 
 s: there is no healthier exercise for the earnest 
 now, than the study of his works. Nay there 
 errors all around us errors in practical and 
 
 Kive Politics, errors in speculative Religion 
 * their roots deep in the imperfect portions 
 lodern Civilization, which can find nowhere 
 corrective. The best edition of the works 
 immortal Greek, is the recent one by 
 [J.P.N.] 
 TO, a Greek poet, 5th century B.C. 
 TOFF, or PLATOW, Count, a famous 
 of the Cossacks, distinguished against the 
 in Moldavia, and during the French inva- 
 of 1812, born about 1763, died 1818. 
 ' "TON, Beffschin, a Russian prelate, and 
 "shed theological writer, 1737-1812. 
 UTUS, Titus Maccius, regarded as the 
 of Latin comedy, is supposed to have been 
 d parentage, and was born in Umbria about 
 224 b.c. About twenty-one of his plays 
 ' extant, the vast number attributed to him 
 been reduced within that limit by the critic 
 These have been frequently translated 
 Italian, French, German, and English, and 
 " 1 has devoted an essay to the life and writ- 
 Plautus. Died b.c. 184. 
 YFAIR, John, Professor, first of Mathe- 
 and then of Natural Philosophy in the 
 ' x y of Edinburgh; born 10th March, 1749, 
 of Benvie, Forfarshire; died at Edin- 
 th July, 1819. Mr. Plavfair, the son of a 
 clergyman, was destined for the Church; 
 
 PLA 
 
 and indeed he occupied the living of Liff and Ben- 
 vie, for a few years after the death of his father in 
 1773; but his scientific and literary tastes, and 
 the power he could bring to the illustration of 
 whatever scientific subject arrested his attention, 
 quickly embarked him on a different and very dis- 
 tinguished career. His bent towards Science, 
 manifested itself quite early in life ; for, previous 
 to the date just mentioned, he had stood, although 
 a young man, competitor for several Chairs in our 
 Scottish Universities : in his earliest attempt in 
 Marischal College Aberdeen, he was defeated only 
 by the veterans Trail and Hamilton. From the 
 manse of Benvie, he passed, after a short interval of 
 connection with Mr. Ferguson of Raith, to the 
 joint professorship (in company with Dr. Adam 
 Ferguson) of Mathematics in Edinburgh; and 
 from that year 1785 he devoted himself, with 
 remarkable success, to the advancement and adorn- 
 ment of all leading Inquiries concerning the Laws 
 of Nature. Were proof needed of Playfair's un- 
 resting activity in the path of his affections, surely 
 that is ample which the pages of the Edinburgh 
 Review and of the Edinburgh Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, will, to posterity, always afford. But ac- 
 tivity was not his chief characteristic. With the 
 instinct of a Mind placed above the Inquiry of its 
 time, and therefore descrying its headlands, or the 
 points at which it was passing farthest into the 
 unknown, he seldom thought or wrote, unless on 
 those questions on whose solution in either way, 
 depended the shape and course of some opening 
 and future science. To Playfair, Scotland owes 
 its introduction to the arduous works of Laplace ; 
 it was he who first publicly explained the value 
 and criticised the methods of great National Sur- 
 veys; he was the exponent of the labours of 
 Maskelyne, in determining the density of our 
 globe ; earliest he broke ground on the subject of 
 Imaginary quantities, and renewed discussion on 
 Porisms ; he led the way in Modern Geology by 
 his masterly Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory 
 of the Earth ; and he left as a model for Scientific 
 Histories, that exquisite, although unfinished 
 'Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical 
 and Physical Science,' which prefaces the recent 
 Flditions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Play- 
 fair was distinguished by yet higher attributes. 
 No man ever excelled him in the power of effective 
 exposition ; and this is equivalent to asserting that 
 he had that appreciation of Method, which apper- 
 tains only to minds of the highest order, for it in- 
 volves an almost instinctive power of separating 
 between the important and the unimportant, and 
 seizing the features of that Harmony, which un- 
 derlies all phenomena. An intuition, we say ; for 
 the gift seems inexplicable, unless as an expression 
 more or less distinct, of that correlation between 
 Mind and the external Universe, which Leibnitz 
 designated as a Pre-established Harmony. But 
 even these excellencies, great and rare as they are, 
 do not in our estimation equal another viz.: 
 the exquisite temper and wholeness of the Man. 
 The memory of Playfair has yet scarcely faded 
 amid the best circles of Edinburgh ; and affection 
 for him, is, with many, as an heir-loom or favourite 
 tradition that will descend. He was an example, 
 in all things, of what culture apart from mere 
 attainment can make a Man. The finest pas- 
 
 601 
 
PLA 
 
 6.ige of the Roman Orator in his Archias, or the 
 well-known lines of Ovid : 
 
 iiigenuas didicissefideliter artes, 
 
 Emollit mores, nee sinit esse/eros; 
 
 when laid beside practical life and actual character, 
 seem oftener a satire than a laudation ; but Play- 
 fair might have recited them and never blushed. 
 Mild and manly, liberal generous and sedafe, the 
 best of the rising minds of bis time thronged 
 around him, and drew strength and fair resolve 
 from the symmetrical nature they contemplated. 
 It is a good thing to advance science by original 
 discovery; but infinitely greater that scientific 
 thought should advance and emancipate the Man. 
 Our Scottish Metropolis was at that period rarely 
 fortunate. Beside Playfair, Dugald Stewart 
 taught, a man of corresponding equality and com- 
 mand of temper, of singular openness and moral 
 reach. Others resembled them ; for, in virtue of 
 their power of assimilation, two Minds so distin- 
 guished, could not stand alone. Nor must we omit 
 from the list, Professor John Millar of Glasgow 
 author of the Historical View of the English 
 Government. It is not too much, to say that by 
 giving tone and expansion to the hearts and intel- 
 lects around them, and growing up under their 
 care, these remarkable persons have exercised 
 most important influence on the recent progress of 
 Britain, and thus on the destinies of the world. 
 May Scotland never present herself under another 
 garb ! We have certainly no ambition to ejaculate, 
 Roma! Roma! Roma! 
 Non e piu come era prima! [ J.P.N.l 
 
 PLAYFAIR, William, brother of the preced- 
 ing, an ingenious inventor and author, 1759-1823. 
 
 PLAYFORD, J., a writer on music, 1613-1693. 
 
 PLEE, A., a French botanist, died 1825. 
 
 PEYEL. J., an Austrian pianist, 1757-1833. 
 
 PLINY, the Elder, (Caius Plinius Secundus,) a 
 distinguished writer on natural history and botany, 
 was born a.d. 23, most probably at Novocomum, 
 the modern Como (though Verona disputes with it 
 the honour of being his birth-place). He died in 
 a.d. 79. Inferior in grasp of intellect, but ranking 
 only second to Aristotle as a natural historian, the 
 name of Pliny shines out through the mist of an- 
 tiquity with particular lustre. In his youth he 
 served in the army, and in his move mature years 
 held some important appointments in the state. 
 Possessing an extraordinary aptitude for collecting 
 information, and endowed with an amazing love 
 for study, his whole life was devoted to the prosecu- 
 tion of scientific pursuits. Rising before day-break, 
 the early part of the morning was employed by him 
 as his time for transacting business. The rest of 
 the day was spent in study, and even during his 
 meals, while taking his bath, or while on a journey, 
 he had a reader attending him, to read from some 
 favourite author. He took notes from every work 
 he read, for he used to say, ' There was no book so 
 bad but what might afford something valuable to 
 be derived from it.' His writings were numerous, 
 but the only one that has reached our times is his 
 famous ' Natural History.' This great work is a 
 perfect mine of observations ; though unfortunately 
 the true and the fabulous are mixed up in nearly 
 equal proportions. It contains, he says himself, 
 extracts from no fewer than 2,000 volumes, from 
 
 PLO 
 
 authors of all kinds, travellers, historians, geqL 
 phers, philosophers, and physicians. He lie 
 part of it to the natural history of animals, ai 
 the four books which treat of them, he has ami 
 an immense number of facts, such as they 
 known and believed at that time. The onl; 
 rangement he adopts is according to their sis 
 importance. The part which treats of bol 
 occupies a much larger space ; ten books con 
 ing the history of plants, and five, the rem 
 derived from them. It is unfortunately impos 
 now to recognize many of the plants he na 
 scribed ; but his merits as a botanist or zoologu 
 not to be judged of by comparing his knowl 
 with ours, but by recollecting the age in whi< 
 lived, and the effects which his works have h; 
 keeping alive the knowledge of nature during 
 dark ages which succeeded him. His death 
 remarkable. During a tremendous eruntio 
 Mount Vesuvius, Pliny, who had then tli 
 mand of the fleet, wishing to save the poor in] 
 tants of the country, in the neighbourhood o: 
 volcano, and, at the same time, anxious to exa 
 in person the awful phenomenon, sailed to the i 
 of terror, and was unfortunately suffocated b; 
 noxious fumes. It is generally believed that 
 was the same eruption of Vesuvius that desti 
 Herculaneum. [\^ 
 
 [Pliny the Younger From an Ancient ust.] 
 
 PLINY, the Younger, a nephew and ^H 
 son of the preceding, distinguished as a^^H 
 historian, and statesman, was born at Col^^H 
 or 62. His mother, Plinia, was a sister of J fl 
 the Elder, and he remained under the cfl^^| 
 latter till his eighteenth year, when the 
 of Vesuvius took place, which proved fal 
 protector. He began his career as a 1.' 
 vocate the year following, and in the n 
 jan held a government in Bithynia. Tfl^^J 
 his death is uncertain. 
 
 PLOT, Bobert, a native of Kent, 
 'The Natural History of Oxford and StalW 
 shires,' 1640-1696. 
 
 PLOTINUS, the most famous teach^^H 
 new Platonic school, was born at Ly 
 
 602 
 
PLO 
 
 tfvpt about a.d. 204. The original bent of his 
 
 Ed was to speculation, and he had prosecuted 
 
 ch studies under Ammonius Saccas, at Alexan- 
 
 , la, for eleven years, when, in his thirty-ninth 
 
 Lr, he joined the expedition of Gordian against 
 
 > Parthians, as a means of enabling him to study 
 
 , p philosophy of the East. At the emperor's death 
 
 ifound his way back to Antioch, and afterwards 
 
 jnt to Rome, where he taught for six-and-twenty 
 
 .. jrs with great popularity, and where he gradually 
 
 eloped nis system and composed many books, 
 
 ch were corrected and arranged by his pupil 
 
 phyry. He died in Campania in a.d. 274. 
 
 phyry divided his master's 54 books into six 
 
 neads, or sections of nine. The metaphysics of 
 
 inus are obscure in their subtlety, though Plato 
 
 his acknowledged guide and pattern. He held 
 
 in order to perfect knowledge, the subject and 
 
 set must be united, that the intelligent agent 
 
 the tiling understood the apprehending and 
 
 apprehended, must not be in separation ; the 
 
 it naving everything spiritual within itself. 
 
 it stress was laid by him upon pure intuition, as 
 
 ime one of its gleams even the absolute and un- 
 
 litioned might be discovered. Out of the spirit 
 
 iveloped the soul, which is brought into contact 
 
 i the sensuous world. Plotinus had learned 
 
 scticism from Ammonius, but he added to 
 
 mysticism peculiar to himself, while he at- 
 
 )ted to clothe Paganism in the garb of a philo- 
 
 theism. Probably towards the end of his 
 
 transcendental visions and extacies were 
 
 result of a diseased organization, which had 
 
 reduced and emaciated by continued absti- 
 
 . His system acquired great popularity in sub- 
 
 Dt years, and sometimes opposed Christianity 
 
 ften modified it. Creuzer's edition of Plo- 
 
 in 3 vols. 4to was printed at the Oxford 
 
 " f press in 1835, and the iEnneads ap- 
 
 a Latin translation by Marsilius Ficinus, 
 
 1492. [J.E.] 
 
 X)UCQUET, G., a Ger. metaphys., 1716-90. 
 
 -OWDEN, C, an English Jesuit, 1743-1821. 
 
 iOWDEN, Edmund, a Catholic lawyer, au- 
 
 " ' Commentaries and Reports,' 1517-1584. 
 
 WDEN, Francis, an Irish barrister, known 
 
 historian and miscellaneous writer, d. 1829. 
 
 .UCHE, Noel A., a professor of rhetoric at 
 
 , distinguished as a naturalist and man of 
 
 and for his opposition to the bull ' Uni- 
 
 ' He is author of ' Spectacle de la Nature,' 
 
 Histoire du Ciel, Id^es des Poetes, des 
 
 es et de Moise,' 2 vols., ' La M6canique 
 
 es,' and some lesser works, 1688-1761. 
 
 1NET, L., an Eng. botanist, 1642-1710. 
 
 MTER, C, a French botanist, 1646-1706. 
 
 REE, James, a Church of England 
 
 | known as a miscellaneous wr., 1770-1832. 
 
 "KET, Oliver, a Roman Catholic pre- 
 
 inted on a false charge of treason, 1681. 
 
 NKET, William Conyngham, Lord, was 
 
 of the Rev. Thomas Plunket, pastor of a 
 
 rian congregation, Enniskillen, Ireland. 
 
 born there in 1761 ; and after practising 
 
 as a barrister, became a member of 
 
 parliament, under the patronage of Lord 
 
 >nt. He soon distinguished himself in op- 
 
 to the government, and especially in re- 
 
 the legislative union, notwithstanding which 
 
 JO) 
 
 PLU 
 
 he appeared for the crown on the prosecution of 
 the patriot, Emmett, and addressed the jury with 
 inhuman earnestness, in order to dissociate him- 
 self, it is said, from the failing fortunes of those 
 who were once his friends. Promotion followed as 
 a matter of course. In 1803 he became solicitor- 
 general for Ireland, and two years later attorney- 
 general, from which time his rising fortunes were 
 associated with those of Grenville and Fox in the 
 government. In 1806-7 he was a member of the 
 Whig cabinet with Lord Grenville and the late 
 Earl Grey, and for many years afterwards was 
 attached to the political interests of the former. 
 The discontent which pervaded the country at the 
 period of the Manchester massacre, and, in fact, 
 to the end of the Castlereagh government in 1822, 
 found no sympathy in the bosom of Lord Plunket, 
 who earned the gratitude of the Tories by his ora- 
 torical services in the extenuation of their errors, 
 and the defence of their policy. As the first law 
 officer of the Irish government during the vice- 
 royalty of Lord Wellesley, in the time of Canning, 
 he shared in their general unpopularity, but some- 
 what later he acquired great credit by promoting 
 the act of catholic emancipation. In 1827 he was 
 raised to the peerage, and from that time to 1830 
 was chief justice of the Common Pleas in Ireland. 
 After the retirement of Wellington, Lord Plunket 
 had no further share in the legislation of the 
 country, but remained chancellor of Ireland under 
 the Whigs for many subsequent years, being suc- 
 ceeded in that office by Lord Campbell. His pub- 
 lic life ended in 1841, and he died at the advanced 
 age of eighty-nine in January, 1854. [E.R.] 
 
 PLUQUET, Francis Andrew Adrian, a 
 learned French abbe\ author of a Dictionary of 
 Heresies,' ' Essay on Luxury,' and ' The Classical 
 Books of the Chinese,' 1716-1790. 
 
 [Plutarch From an Ancient Gtm] 
 
 PLUTARCH (Plutarchus\ was a native of 
 Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia. Tne time of his birth 
 is uncertain. From the few facts which he has 
 recorded of himself, we learn that he was studying 
 philosophy under Ammonius, at Delphi, when 
 the Emperor Nero made his progress through 
 Greece in the twelfth year of his reign, a.d. 66. 
 His family was one of some importance in Chaer- 
 onea, and members of it had held the highest civic 
 offices in their native city. Of the events of hia 
 
POC 
 
 life very little is known. It appears from his 
 writings that he visited Italy and Rome, perhaps 
 more than once ; and that he delivered lectures in 
 his vernacular language on philosophy, in the 
 imperial city, during the reign of Domitian, which 
 were attended by most of those who pretended to 
 be employed in the study of philosophy. It is 
 probable that the substance of these lectures was 
 afterwards embodied in his moral writings. At 
 a late period in life he began to read the Latin 
 authors, having, as he states, during his residence 
 in Italy, been prevented from acquiring a know- 
 ledge of the language by the circumstance of 
 'having so many commissions to execute, and 
 so many people coming to him to receive his 
 instructions in philosophy.' The latter part of 
 his life was spent in honour and comfort in his 
 native city, where he passed through various magis- 
 terial offices, and enjoyed the honour and emolu- 
 ments of a priesthood. He had four sons and 
 a daughter. The time and circumstances of 
 his death are unknown ; but his intellectual 
 attainments and character have been transmitted 
 to us in his works. The great work, which has 
 immortalized the name of Plutarch, is his ' Parallel 
 Lives,' which contains the biography of forty-six 
 distinguished Greeks and Romans. The Lives are 
 arranged in pairs, each pair containing the life of 
 a Greek and a Roman, followed by a comparative 
 estimate of the two. In a few cases the compara- 
 tive estimate is omitted or lost. Besides these 
 there are four other biographies which were writ- 
 ten by Plutarch, and a life of Homer, which is 
 sometimes attributed to him. Fifteen other bio- 
 graphies have been lost. Few of the ancient 
 writers have attained so extensive celebrity as 
 Plutarch. His 'Parallel Lives' have delighted 
 and instructed every successive generation since 
 they were given to the world; and are equally 
 acceptable to people of every age and class. As 
 materials for history they have been found not 
 altogether trustworthy ; but the chief object of the 
 author was to delineate character as exhibited by 
 the events of a man's life, whether these were 
 important or trifling, and without a strict 
 regard to the order in which they occurred. His 
 other writings, which amount to upwards of sixty, 
 are comprehended under the title of 'Moralia,' or 
 ' Ethical Works ;' though some of these are of an 
 historical or anecdotical character. In all his writ- 
 ings a moral end is apparent. ' A kind, humane 
 disposition, and a love of everything that is en- 
 nobling and excellent, pervade his writings, and 
 give the reader the same kind of pleasure that he 
 has in the company of an esteemed friend, whose 
 singleness of heart appears in everything that he 
 Bays or does.' [G.F.] 
 
 POCHARD, J., a French theologian, 1715-1786. 
 
 POCOCK, Edward, son of a minister of the 
 Church of England, bearing the same name, was 
 bora at Oxford 1604, died 1691. He is greatly 
 distinguished as an Oriental scholar, and for his 
 learning as a theologian. His eldest son, Edward, 
 published, in 1671, the ' Life of Hai Ebn Yokdan,' 
 translated into English by Ockley ; and his son, 
 Thomas, a translation from Menasseh Ben Israel 
 1 On the Term of Life,' 1699. 
 
 POCOCK, Sir G., a brave admiral, 1706-1762. 
 
 POCOCK, Isaac, a native of Bristol, first 
 
 POI 
 
 known as an historical painter, and afterwarc ; 
 a prolific writer for the stage, 1782-1835. 
 
 POCOCKE, Richard, a native of Souths 
 
 ton, who became bishop of Ossory and Meath. 
 
 is known as the writer of travels, 1704-1765. 
 
 PODESTA, J. B., an Italian Orientalist, 17 
 
 POELENBURG, Cornelius, a Dutch 
 
 scape painter, employed by Charles I., 1586- 
 
 POERNER, C. G., a Ger. chemist, 1732-1' 
 
 POGGI, S. M., an Ital. dramatist, 1685-17 
 
 POGGIANI, J., an Italian writer, 1522-15 
 
 POGGIO-BRACCIOLINI, a philologist 
 
 historian, one of the first promoters ot It 
 
 literature, 1380-1459. 
 
 POHL, J. C, a German physician and f 
 on vampyres, 1706-1780. J. Emmanuel, hit 
 a physician and botanist, 1746-1800. 
 POHL, J. E., an Austrian botanist, 1784-'. 
 POILLY, Francis, a French engraver, 1 
 1693. Nicholas, his brother and pupil, 
 1696. J. Baptist, son of Nicholas, died 
 Francois, brother of J. Baptist, died 1723. 
 POINSINET, A., a French dramatist, 173 
 POINSINET-DE-SIRRY, Louis, a F 
 dramatic wr., translator, and antiquar., 1733- 
 POINTER, J., an English historian, last c 
 POIRET, Peter, one of the greatest my 
 writers produced in the protestant church, iS 
 at Mentz, where his father was a sword-mak 
 1646, and became pastor of Amveil, in the c 
 of Deux-Ponts, 1672. He was a master o 
 Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, but h 
 no taste for a merely scholastic divinity, he st 
 the philosophy of Descartes, and during the 
 years that he retained his pastoral charge, 
 lished a work on Cartesian principleau^H 
 ' Cogitationes Rationalia de Deo, Anima, et 1 
 which produced a considerable sensation, 
 attacked by Bayle. In 1676, the conqn 
 Louis XIV. occasioned Poiret's retreat to 
 burgh, where he became acquainted with Ma 
 Bourignon, and through her experienca^B 
 first place, with the grounds of the my- 
 sophy, the further study of which led hn^H 
 out the defects of the philosophy of 
 whose admirers have applied to his crit 
 fable of the viper and the file. He publi 
 digest of the mystic philosophy, including 
 perience of Madame Bouricnon, wrought 
 system, under the title of ' De jEconomi" ] 
 or universal system of nature. The prir 
 is abstraction, or the preference of a 
 illumination to reason ; the same in esse 
 quietism of Molinos, the annihilation oft 
 philosophy, and the divine vision of Boel 
 all these cases we are presented with a 
 sure of experience, demonstrating the es 
 a super-sensual wisdom, as manifested to 1 
 sent sceptical age in some rare examples 
 voyance, the physical preparation being i 
 same, though' produced by different means. 
 Hamburgh Poiret removed to Rheinsburg, i 
 neighbourhood of Leyden, where he died in 
 A complete list of his works would be 
 without a description of them, for which we j 
 not space. The curious may consult the l 
 raisonne, in the Memoirs of J. P. Nic 
 lished at Paris 1727-1745. 
 
 POIREY, F., a French theologian, 1584-1 
 
 604 
 
POI 
 
 I POIKIER, G., a learned ecclesiastic, 1724-1803. 
 POIRSON, J. B., a Fr. geogrn|her, 1761-1831. 
 POISSON, N. J., a Fr. theologian, died 1710. 
 POISSON. See Pompadour. 
 JPOISSON, Raimond, a French actor and dra- 
 ktic author, died 1690. His son, Paul, an ex- 
 jjent comic actor, 1658-1735. Philip, son of 
 Jul, an actor and dramatic author, 1682-1743. 
 Irnoi'lt, br. of Philip, a comic actor, d. 1753. 
 OISSON, D. S., a French analyst, 1781-1840. 
 ISSONNIER, Peter Isaac, a physician 
 chemist, one of the first to read chemical lec- 
 at Paris, and to devise the means of procur- 
 fresh water from the sea, 1720-1798. 
 
 ITEVIN, J., a Fr. astronomer, 1742-1807. 
 OITIERS, Diana of. See Diana. 
 j>OITIERS, P. De, a Fr. theologian, died 1205. 
 POIVRE, N., a French naturalist, 1719-1786. 
 POIVRE, Peter, a French ecclesiastic, known 
 li traveller and philosophical observer, 1715. 
 j'OIX, L. De, a French Orientalist, 1714-1782. 
 'OLANEO, C., a Spanish painter, 17th cent. 
 lOLANO, P., a doge of Venice, 1130-1148. 
 jOLE, Reginald, the famous cardinal and 
 p|d legate in the reign of Queen Mary, was a 
 iger son of Lord Montacute, cousin of Henry 
 He was born at Stourton castle, in Stafford- 
 1500, and after completing his studies in 
 Inglish and Italian universities, appeared at 
 wurt of Henry VIII. in 1525. In 1529 he 
 to Paris to avoid any share in the discussion 
 king's divorce, but when Henry had resolved 
 't the question to the foreign universities, 
 unlucky step caused his selection of Pole to 
 sent him in that city. Instead of yielding, 
 honestly returned home, and in 1531 refused 
 * bishopric of York, which was offered him 
 tion of compliance. The king having dis- 
 him in anger, he consulted his safety by 
 the kingdom, and rejoined the company of 
 ' guished men he had known at Padua and 
 The literary circle in which he moved was 
 by Caraffa, Sadolet, Gilberto, Fregoso, arch- 
 of Salerno, Bembo, and Contarini. These 
 embraced the doctrine of Justification, 
 their social meetings discussed the means 
 ling the papacy their great principle 
 to preserve the unity of the church under 
 * government. In Italy, during the reign 
 VIII., Reginald Pole rose to great dis- 
 and, on the accession of Paul III. in 
 raised to the cardinalate, as were his 
 just mentioned. On the death of Paul, in 
 lit was almost determined to put the triple 
 ' on his head. His place in English history 
 i under the date 1553, that of the acces- 
 Queen Mary, who at once invited him to 
 and gave him the place of Cranmer, 
 deposed, as archbishop of Canterbury, 
 in London, dignified as papal legate, in 
 1554, and was received by Mary in 
 of her husband, Philip II. of Spain, at 
 l ; s cross. On this occasion, as we read in 
 indence of Bullinger, he addressed the 
 the salutation of the Virgin ' Hail 
 > of grace,' &c. He advocated moderate 
 in the council, as may be supposed from 
 tie disposition and his inclination to pro- 
 opinions. After his death, we find Paul 
 
 POL 
 
 IV. complaining that England might have been 
 retained with ease had Cardinal Pole been sup- 
 ported in his measures. In 1556, Pole was created 
 chancellor of both universities, Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, having previously been ordained priest, and 
 inaugurated into his archbishopric the latter 
 after the burning of Cranmer, which took place in 
 March of that year. It is curious that Cardinal 
 Pole survived the queen only a few hours. The 
 circumstance is thus satirically alluded to in a 
 letter addressed to Bullinger by E. Sandys, ' We 
 yesterday received a letter from England, in which 
 the death of Mary, the accession of Elizabeth, and 
 the decease of Cardinal Pole is confirmed. That 
 good cardinal, that he might not raise any disturb- 
 ance, or impede the progress of the gospel, departed 
 this life the day after his friend, Queen Mary, 
 (17th November, 1558.) Such was the love and 
 harmony between them, that not even death itself 
 could separate them. We have nothing, therefore, 
 to fear from Pole, for dead men do not bite.' 
 (Letters from the archives of Zurich, published 
 by the Parker Society.') Some allowance must be 
 made for the asperity of party, for no one can 
 doubt the sincerity, humanity, and learning of 
 Cardinal Pole. Ranke shows that he injured him- 
 self in Italy by boldly stating the doctrines of the 
 Gospel at the council of Trent in 1545. [E.R.] 
 
 POLEMBERG. See Poelenburg. 
 
 POLEMO, three distinguished Greeks : 1. A 
 philosophical teacher, who had for his disciples 
 Zeno and Arcesilas, and who differed but little 
 from Aristotle, died B.C. 270. 2. A geographical 
 and historical writer, surnamed Periegetes, about 
 200 B.C. 3. A native of Laodicea, one of the most 
 celeb, rhetoricians at the beginning of the 2d cent. 
 
 POLEMO, the first of the name king of Pontus, 
 under the triumvirate of Mark Antony, died 1. 
 The second, his son and successor, was recognized 
 king by Caligula 39, and deposed bv Nero 65. 
 
 POLENI, J., a Venetian antiqua'r., 1683-1761. 
 
 POLHEM, Christopher, Count, a Swedish 
 engineer, member of the Academy at Stockholm, 
 and contributor to its transactions on subjects of 
 commercial economy and mechanics. The great 
 works over which he presided are the docks at 
 Carlscrona and the Trolhetta canal. The cele- 
 brated Swedenborg was his coadjutor, 1661-1751. 
 
 POLI, G. S., an Italian physiologist, 1746-1825. 
 
 POLI, M., an Italian chemist, 1662-1714. 
 
 POLIER, A. L. H. De, a Fr. Orient., 1741-95. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Jules, Prince De, whose name, as 
 the minister of Charles X., king of France, has 
 acquired an European interest from the revolution 
 of 1830, was descended from an ancient family, 
 which suffered with the other noblesse of France 
 by the establishment of the Republic in 1792. He 
 became known to the political world as a party to 
 George's conspiracy against Napoleon in 1804, and 
 was rewarded with the title of prince by the pope 
 of Rome for his devotion to the church after the 
 restoration of Louis XVIII. From 1823 to 1829 
 he resided in London as ambassador, and then re- 
 turned to head the administration which provoked 
 the revolution of July. After a short imprison- 
 ment and exile, he was allowed to reside in France. 
 Died in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 1847. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Melchior De, archbishop of 
 Auch, and cardinal, was born at Languedoc 1661. 
 
 C05 
 
POL 
 
 He received the purple on going to Rome as a 
 diplomatist. Died 1741. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Yolande Martine Gabrielle 
 De Polastron, Duchesse De, a favourite of the 
 queen Marie Antoinette, and gouvernante of the 
 royal children, 1749-1793. 
 
 POLITIAN, or POLIZIANO, Angelo, an 
 Italian scholar who became tutor to the children 
 of Lorenzo de Medici, and was appointed by him 
 canon of Florence. He wrote a ' History of the 
 Conspiracy of the Pazzi,' and edited a collection of 
 Greek epigrams, 1454-1494. 
 
 POLK, J., an American lawyer and statesman, b. 
 1795, elected president of the U.S. in 1844, d. 1849. 
 
 POLLAJUOLO, Antonio, a painter, sculptor, 
 engraver, and goldsmith of Florence, 1426-1498. 
 
 POLLEXFEN, Sir Henry, an eminent law- 
 yer and member of parliament, acted as counsel 
 for the seven bishops in 1688, and was knighted 
 alter the revolution, and appointed chief justice 
 of the Common Pleas : died 1692. 
 
 POLLICH, J. A., a Ger. naturalist, 1740-1780. 
 
 POLLINI, C, an Italian botanist, 1783-1833. 
 
 POLLINI, J., an Italian historian, 16th cent. 
 
 POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a Roman consul, and 
 friend of Augustus, most celebrated as the patrou 
 of letters, and for the protection he afforded to 
 Virgil and Horace ; died in the year 3, aged eighty. 
 
 POLLIO, Trebellius, a wr. of Roman history, 
 only fragments of whose works remain, about 300. 
 
 [Birth-place of Robert Pollok] 
 
 POLLOK, Robert, was born in 1798, in Ren- 
 frewshire, where his father was a small farmer. 
 After having worked for some years on the farm, 
 he determined on becoming a preacher ; and, adding 
 a little Latin to the elementary education he had pre- 
 viously received, he entered, at the age of nineteen, 
 on a nve years' course of study in the university of 
 Glasgow. Afterwards, while he was a student of 
 theology, he published two or three little prose 
 tales oi a religious cast; and then, also, he was 
 working up many of his poetical fragments into his 
 ' Course of Time.' This energetic and ambitions 
 poem appeared in the spring of 1827, and speedily 
 obtained a popularity which it is not likely soon to 
 lose. Its deeply religious character recommended 
 it to serious persons; and it was admired by critics 
 for the many flashes of original genius, which light 
 up the crude and unwieldy design, and atone for 
 
 606 
 
 POL 
 
 the narrow range of thought and knowledgi 
 well as for the stiff pomposity that pervadjB 
 diction. There are in it a few passages whicl 
 strikingly and most poetically imaginative, 
 some which are beautifully touching. The 
 did not long survive to enjoy his fame, or to p; 
 cute his profession, to which he was admitted, 
 preacher in the United Secession Church- 
 soon after the publication of his poem. 9 
 already shown symptoms of consumption, which 
 became more decided ; friends, gained for him b 
 
 fenius, furnished him with assistance for goii 
 taly ; but he was able to travel no farther 
 Southampton, where he died in September, 1 
 before completing his twenty-ninth year. [V 
 POLLUX, Julius, two Greek writers, 8 
 times confounded together, the earlier, a g 
 marian and sophist, born in Egypt about 180 : 
 the later, an historian of the 4th century. 
 
 POLO, Marco, was the son of a Ven 
 merchant, Niccolo Polo, and was born abou 
 year 1250. Some months before his birth 
 father Niccolo, and uncle Maffio, resolved to 
 the experiment of opening a trade with the 1 
 princes who had lately established themselv 
 the East of Europe. For this purpose 
 sailed for Constantinople with a valuable eai 
 goods, which they disposed of to great advan 
 and investing the proceeds in rich jewels, 
 crossed the Black Sea, and travelling to B 
 on the Volga, placed these at the service < * 
 tar prince there. He rewarded them y ' 
 the value of the jewels; and as they 
 satisfied with their gains they now 
 return home. This they could not 
 consequence of the breaking out of a ^ 
 two princes whose territories lay on 
 They accordingly travelled round the i 
 the Caspian, and reached Bokhara 
 Here they remained three years ; and 
 induced to accompany a Persian eml 
 Grand Khan, Kublai, who then held 
 ficent court at Kemenfu, in Chinese Ta 
 received them into favour, and promot 
 honour. This wise prince, like others I 
 held the liberal maxim, which has rece 
 own day much favour among statesme , 
 forms of faith which are professed by great 
 bers of persons should have encouragS^H 
 support. Accordingly, in prosecution 
 pose he commissioned one of his grandees.) 
 the two Poli, on an embassy to the lord o p 
 Christians, requesting his holiness to sendf 
 wise men to instruct his people in the religio 1 i 
 arts of the Western world. The Tartar 
 died by the way; but the Poli pursued > 
 journey in safety, exhibiting the Khan's 
 seal upon a golden tablet, which he had f 
 them as a passport. In 1269, having 1 
 years by the way, they reached Aciv. 
 after arrived in Venice. Marco was 
 proaching manhood, and his mother having 
 in giving him birth, his father's ties to his_i 
 city were less binding. Accordingly, in 12/ 
 two brothers started on their retur 
 of Kublai, taking young Marco with them 
 bearing letters from Pope Greg< 
 reached Tai-yuen-foo in safety, where the I" 
 was then residing. Young Marco was retp* 
 
POL 
 
 > the highest favour, and was employed on 
 
 iv important missions both in China proper, 
 
 tary, and the adjoining countries. lie held 
 
 three years the high office of governor of the 
 
 of Yau-tchoo-foo, in S.E. China. He thus 
 
 >yed opportunities which no European has ever 
 
 ;essed, of becoming acquainted with the 
 
 ltry and its institutions. Polo's travels were 
 
 jne time regarded as of no value, but his 
 
 uracy in relating what he himself saw, has 
 
 i from time to time in later years confirmed in 
 
 markable manner. The best edition of his 
 
 els is said to be that by Count Baldelli, 4 vols. 
 
 Florence, 1827. It contains a map of Africa, 
 
 rn in 1351, and another with the routes f'ol- 
 
 d by the Poli in Asia marked upon it. The 
 
 )ian and Chinese maps which Polo brought 
 
 5 are thought to have suggested to the Portu- 
 
 s the passage by the Cape. The three Poli 
 
 ined seventeen years in China; Kublai re- 
 
 . to let them depart, till at length his grand- 
 
 bw, reigning in Persia, sent ambassadors to 
 
 ourt to ask in marriage a young princess of 
 
 Hlood royal. It was found impossible for her 
 
 d by land, and Marco having just returned 
 
 a voyage to India, and represented the safety 
 
 passage, the Khan reluctantly consented to 
 
 uest of the ambassador, to let the Poli con- 
 
 iem by sea to Persia, with the young prin- 
 
 ' ed to be their master's bride. A fleet of 
 
 ps was prepared, the Poli were loaded with 
 
 empowered to act as the Khan's am- 
 
 rs at the European courts, and entreated 
 
 after they had visited their friends. 
 
 t reached Ormuz in eighteen months and 
 
 Venetians arrived in their native city in 
 
 an absence of 24 years. They found 
 
 ves forgotten of all their old friends and 
 
 but a display of their enormous 
 
 at a great feast which they gave, speedily 
 
 a greater accession of new friends than 
 
 id to be quite convenient. Marco was 
 
 his return taken prisoner in a sea-fight 
 
 Genoese, in which he commanded a 
 
 He was carried to Genoa, and detained 
 
 but treated with great kindness so 
 
 his history became known. He sent to 
 
 for his papers, and employed his leisure in 
 
 his notes into shape. On his return, he 
 
 led a settled and respectable life, and died 
 
 ' old age. His father lived till 1316, and 
 
 d family by a young wife. ^0 
 
 ELE, Richard, a minister of Truro, 
 
 known as an antiquarian, biographer, 
 
 and poet. His Histories of Devon and 
 
 are highly esteemed ; 1759-1838. 
 
 JENUS, a Greek author, 2d century. 
 
 1US, a celebrated Greek historian, who 
 
 istinguished himself in public affairs dur- 
 
 wars of the Achaean league, bom about 
 
 died 122. 
 
 BIUS of Cos, a medical writer, pupil and 
 
 of Hippocrates, 5th century B.C. 
 
 CARP, St., one of the most illustrious 
 
 t of the Christian fathers, burnt alive 
 
 ution under Marcus Aurelius, 167. 
 
 CLES, a Greek sculptor, 4th century b.c 
 
 sculptor of the name, flour, abt. 170 B.C. 
 
 JfCLETUS, a Greek sculptor. 5th ct B.C. 
 
 607 
 
 POL 
 
 POLYCRATES, a tyrant of Samos, put to death 
 by Orontes, time of Cambyses, 6th century B.C. 
 
 POLYCRATES, bishop of Ephesus, 2d century. 
 
 POLYDORUS, Virgilius, an Italian histori- 
 cal writer, who was sent to England by Alexander 
 VI., to collect the tax called Peter's pence, and 
 obtnined a living in the Church of England. His 
 works are a ' Collection of Proverbs,' a Treatise 
 on Prodigies, and particularly a History of Eng- 
 land. He was a friend of Erasmus, and flourished 
 about 1470-1555. 
 
 POLYGNOTUS of THAsos,the earliest recorded 
 painter of Greece, who has attained great fame, 
 appears to have been settled at Athens about 463 
 B.C., whither he had accompanied Cimon after his 
 conquest of Thasos. With Polygnotus painting was 
 fully developed in all the essential principles of art, 
 though his style might still want the delicacies of 
 execution which distinguised the period of refinement 
 about the time of Alexander the Great. The first 
 portrait on record is the picture of Elpinice, the 
 sister of Cimon, and his own mistress, which Poly- 
 gnotus introduced in the ' Rape of Cassandra,' 
 painted by him, in the ' Poecile' at Athens, a cele- 
 brated portico illustrated with the history of the 
 Athenians, and where the philosophers and others 
 used to meet and gossip. Polygnotus seems to have 
 been a complete painter, though established quite 
 a generation before the execution of the Elgin mar- 
 bles; his style was, however, doubtless, somewhat 
 similar to the style of those great works, ideal or 
 generic. There is a memorable passage in the 
 Poetics of Aristotle, speaking in the very highest 
 terms of this great painter. Aristotle says, com- 
 paring him with two of his contemporaries : 
 ' Dionysius paints men as they are, Pauson worse, 
 and Polygnotus better than they are.' Many other 
 Greek writers speak of him in the highest terms. 
 Lucian enumerates him among the four greatest 
 colourists of the Greeks, these being Polygnotus, 
 Euphranor, Apelles, and Aetion. The greatest 
 works of Polygnotus were the two extensive series 
 of pictures (tempera paintings) executed on the two 
 principal sides of the Lesche, or public hall at Del- 
 phi, attached to the Temple of Apollo, as a con- 
 venient place of meeting for the various Greeks 
 from every part, who were in the habit of visiting 
 Delphi, for the sake of consulting the oracle there, 
 which was the most famous of all the Greek oracles. 
 These pictures, executed most probably on panels 
 of larch, and inserted into the walls, represented 
 on one side, the war of Troy, and, on the other, 
 the Descent of Ulysses into Hades to consult the 
 Soul of Tiresias. Popular and general subjects 
 which were necessarily interesting to Greeks of 
 every race, and thus the most appropriate subjects 
 for the decoration of so purely a national building. 
 They were known as the 'Iliad' and ' Odyssey' of 
 Polygnotus, though he had consulted all other 
 traditions, as well as Homer, in their composition. 
 The popularity of these works was. so great that 
 the Amphictyonic Council (the deputies from the 
 Greek cities who met every spring at Delphi) voted 
 Polygnotus public hospitality throughout Greece, 
 that is, including all cities in league, and in these 
 towns, should the business of Polygnotus ever call 
 him, he was entitled to be maintained at the expense 
 of the municipality. So great an honour has 
 been conferred apparently only on one man since, 
 
POL 
 
 Apollodorus, the grammarian. Some similar at- 
 tention, though in this case doubtless purely per- 
 sonal, seems to have been paid to Albrecht Diirer, 
 in his journey in the Netherlands, in 1520-21; he 
 speaks in every case of being entertained by the 
 Nurn berg Consul in the several great towns he 
 visited. Great as the art of Polygnotus was, it does 
 not seem to have approached that dramatic truth 
 of representation winch distinguishes the works of 
 Raphael, or many less considerable of the moderns. 
 His art was representative almost as much as imi- 
 tative , its object seems to have been chiefly ethic ; 
 objects and events are indicated rather than abso- 
 lutely presented, but, of course, this is more strictly 
 true of the accessories ; a house for instance, or a 
 wall, represented a city ; a man throwing down 
 the stones of the wall, the destruction of the city ; 
 a tent, an encampment; the striking or taking 
 down a tent, a departure ; a ship, a fleet ; a few 
 captives, a conquest ; a few warriors, an army ; 
 and a few dead bodies, a victory. The ultimate 
 value of works of this class depends upon the merit 
 of the execution; perfectly treated they may be 
 made perhaps more impressive than an actual dra- 
 matic representation, as the very nature of the treat- 
 ment compels the mind to reflection, one of the 
 highest objects of all high art. (Bottiger, / deen 
 zur Archaeologie der Mablerei; Wornum, Epochs 
 of Painting Characterized.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 POLYHISTOR. See Alexander, Solinus. 
 
 POMBAL, Sebastian Joseph Carvalho- 
 Melho, Marquis De, an arbitrary Portuguese 
 statesman, 1699-1782. 
 
 POMERIUS, J., a moralist, 5th century. 
 
 POMET, Peter, a French chemist, 1658-1699. 
 
 POMEY, Francis, a French Jesuit, 1618-1673. 
 
 POMFRET, John, whose poetical works are 
 now seldom read, was bora in Bedfordshire 1667, 
 and became rector of Maiden, in that county. He 
 published a volume of poems in 1699, the most 
 
 Eopular of them being his ' Choice,' a picture of 
 appiness founded on affluence and tranquillity. 
 Some additional compositions were published after 
 his death. That event was the consequence of an 
 attack of small-pox, while awaiting in London his 
 institution to a richer living in 1703. 
 
 POMIS, D. De, a Jewish writer, 1525-1587. 
 
 POMPADOUR, Jeanne Antoinette Pois- 
 son, Marquise De, a mistress of Louis XV., in 
 whose favour she succeeded Madame de Chateau- 
 roux, 1744. She was then twenty-two years of 
 age, and was created Marchioness the year follow- 
 ing, with a pension of 240,000 francs. She was a 
 woman of boundless extravagance, but gave great 
 encouragement to arts and literature, did much to 
 promote the establishment of the porcelain manu- 
 facture, and the military school, and aided power- 
 fully in the suppression of the Jesuits, died 1764. 
 
 POMPEI, G., an Italian poet, 1731-1788. 
 
 POMPEY, Cneius, surnamed ' The Great,' son 
 of Pompeius Strabo, a Roman general, was born 
 106 b.c. He distinguished himself against the 
 enemies of the Roman senate, both within the 
 state and without, and at last fell in the struggle 
 against Caesar for absolute power. The events 
 which mark his career are briefly these. Like his 
 father, under whom he commenced his military 
 career, serving against Marius, Pompey ranged 
 himself with the aristocratic party of the republic. 
 
 POM 
 
 He was in his twenty-third year only wheij 
 raised three complete legions, 60,000 men, a 
 own expense, and took the field in behalf of f 
 at that juncture returning from his exped 
 against Mithridates. By his twenty-sixth 
 Pompey had defeated the remains of the M; 
 party in Cisalpine Gaul, Sicily, and Africa, at 
 his return to Rome, B.C. 83, was hailed Magn 
 the great by Sylla; his audacious persevo 
 also procuring for him the honours of a triu; 
 On the death of Sylla in b.c. 78, Pompey we: 
 proconsul to Spain, where the plebeian war 
 continued by Sertorius, and after a four 
 arduous struggle, he remained master of the" 
 his opponent having been betrayed and ass 
 nated. He returned to Italy in time to giv( 
 finishing blow to the similar victories of Cra 
 and in b.c. 70 Pompey and Crassus were el 
 consuls. In possession of this office he res 
 the tribunitial power, and afterwards dism 
 his army, remaining at Rome as a private cit 
 In the beginning of the year B.C. 67, he wa 
 trusted with extraordinary powers, in order U 
 stroy the lawless bands and the piratical ac 
 turers who infested the coasts of the Mediterrai 
 and having effected this, he was made abs 
 dictator in the East, and superseded Lucull 
 the command against Mithridates. The latb 
 completely routed in b.c. 66, and soon afte 
 coming master of Asia Minor, pursued his 
 quests through Syria and Palestine as far a 
 Red Sea. For these services he obtained a- 
 magnificent triumph at Rome, and in b.c. 60 j 
 Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate, the I 
 of whom gave him his daughter Julia in man 
 Succeeding events caused Pompey to draw 
 the senatorial party, and with him, as the repres 
 tiveof the patrician republic, went Cato, thek 
 enemy of the ambition of Caesar. In B.C. 6ij| 
 died, in the year following Crassus was sla 
 Asia, and now the hostility between Cassari 
 Pompey rapidly developed itself. The former^ 
 ing applied for the consulship refused to prj 
 himself in Rome as a private citizen, and ad 
 of the senate declared him a public enemy u: 
 he resigned his command. Instead of 
 Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his troops 
 49, and Pompey, accompanied by Catqfl 
 and the other nobles of Rome, fell back! 
 Greece, where the great battle of Phar 
 cided his fate. Pompey was advised to a 
 asylum in Egypt, then ruled by a sovereign ] 
 protected, Ptolemy XII. He was received 
 pretended friendship, but treacherously] 
 as soon as he had stepped ashore, B.C. 4$ 
 head being cut off, it was sent to Caesar^ 
 turned away from it and could not res: 
 tears. Pompey fell, and with him the repulj 
 Rome, for want of the art of government 
 brilliance of his early victories carried hi 
 power, but the remembrance of his greatnt 
 the field was a poor compensation for the an 
 that prevailed at Rome. 
 
 POMPEY, Cneius, son of the prec 
 deavoured to carry on the war against 
 He was defeated at Munda, and soon after! 
 B.C. 45. 
 
 POMPEY, Sextus, younger son of Po 
 the Great, continued the war after the def 
 
POM 
 
 is brother, and the subjugation of Spain by Caesar, 
 e made himself master of Corsica, Sicily, Sar- 
 nia, and Achaia, and rendered himself formidable 
 i a naval commander against the second triumvir- 
 >. Being at length defeated and taken prisoner, 
 was k. at Miletus, by order of Antony, B.C. 35. 
 POMPIGNAN, John James Le Franc, Mar- 
 is De, a French scholar and poet, whose works 
 of dramas, moral discourses, odes in imita- 
 of Virgil, and many pieces opposed to the new 
 ilosophy, 1709-1784. His br., J. Georges, a 
 late and writer on incredulity, 1715-1790. 
 POMPONAZZI, Pietro, a famous Italian 
 opher, who argued that the immortality of 
 soul cannot be proved by any natural reasons, 
 ; depends solely on revelation, 1462-1524. 
 ^OMPONIUS-L^TUS, Julius, the Latinized 
 ne of a learned Italian antiquary, 1425-1497. 
 'OMPONIUS Sextus, a Roman jurist, 2d ct. 
 OMPONIUS. See Bellievre. 
 >OMPONNE or POMPONE, Simon Arnauld, 
 uise De, a Fr. statesman and diplo., 1618-99. 
 NA, Francesco, an Italian writer, 17th ct. 
 ND, John, an astronomer, born about 1767, 
 Maskelyne as astronomer-royal, 1831, 
 1836. 
 
 NIATOWSKI, Prince Joseph, nephew of 
 
 t Stanislaus, born 1763, distinguished himself 
 
 s under Kosciusko, the Polish patriot, be- 
 
 minister of war to the provincial govern- 
 
 established at Warsaw in 1806. In 1809 he 
 
 ided the grand duchy against the army of 
 
 nd. In 1813 he was named marshal of 
 
 - during the battle of Leipzig, and displayed 
 
 skill and gallantry in covering the retreat of 
 
 ch. He was drowned in the Elster while 
 
 Touring to efFect his own escape two days 
 
 ards, 19th October. 
 
 NIATOWSKI, Stanislaus, Count De, 
 of Stanislaus Augustus, king of Poland, 
 of Cracovia, and a companion-in-arms 
 les XIL, flourished 1678-1762. 
 
 TOWSKI, Stanislaus Augustus, 
 
 the preceding. See Stanislaus Augustus. 
 
 (NIATOWSKI, Prince Stanislaus, a 
 
 " nephew of Count Stanislaus, distinguished 
 
 of arts and letters, of which he was 
 
 us protector; born at Warsaw, 1754, 
 
 Florence, 1832. 
 
 SKI, A. L., a Polish poet, died 1742. 
 NS, a count of Toulouse, reigned 1037-1060. 
 INS, a count of Tripoli, reigned 1112-1137. 
 MS, J. F. De, a Fr. literateur, 1683-1733. 
 S, J. L., a Fr. astronomer, 1761-1835. 
 JSOXBY, Sir Frederick Cavendish, 
 wr of the earl of Besborough, and distin- 
 iid as a cavalry officer, was born 1783. He 
 Ud the army as cornet in 1800, and became 
 (cable for his gallant bearing in the penin- 
 Wrar. He was present at the battles of Tala- 
 RtJarossa, Vimiera, Salamanca, and Vittoria, 
 dominated his brilliant career on the field of 
 Moo, died 1837. 
 
 PKSONBY, George, younger son of John 
 >iby, speaker of the Irish House of Commons, 
 8. as a lawyer and statesman, 1755-1817. 
 PfcSOXBY, Sir William, a British cavalry 
 M born 1772, killed at Waterloo after a bril- 
 Rbd successful charge against the Fr., 1815. 
 
 POP 
 
 PONTANUS, J., a Bohem. savant, 1542-1626. 
 PONTANUS, J. Isaac, a Danish philologist 
 and histor. of the city of Amsterdam, 1571-1639. 
 
 PONTANUS, the common name of J. Jovien 
 Pontano, one of the most elegant and fertile 
 Latin writers of the 15th century, distinguished 
 as a poet and historian, 1426-1503. 
 
 PONTAS, J., a French casuist, 1638-1728. 
 
 PONTE, L. De, a Spanish ascetic writer, 
 known to Fr. literature as Dupont, 1554-1624. 
 
 PONTIANUS, a pope of Rome, 230-235. 
 
 PONTIUS, an ecclesiastical writer, 3d century. 
 
 PONTIUS, the Latinized form of Paul Du- 
 pont, an engraver of Antwerp, born 1596. 
 
 PONTIUS, Constantine, a learned Spanish 
 divine, died in prison while awaiting his execution 
 as a protestant, 1559. 
 
 PONTOPPIDDAN, Eric Ericson, a Dan- 
 ish prelate, known as a theologian and Latin poet, 
 1616-1678. Eric, his grandnephew, a prelate 
 and antiquary, 1698-1764. J. Louis, brother of 
 the latter, a theologian, died 1799. 
 
 PONTORNO, Jacopo, whose proper name was 
 Carrucci, an eminent Ital. painter, 1493-1558. 
 
 PONTOUX, C. De, a Fr. writer, 1530-1579. 
 
 PONZ, Anthony, a Span, painter, 1725-1792. 
 
 PONZIO, Paul, an Italian sculptor, 16th cent. 
 
 POOL, H., a Dutch poet, 1689-1733. 
 
 POOL, J. Van, a Dutch portrait painter, 1666- 
 1745. His wife, Rachel, daughter of Ruysch 
 the anatomist, also a painter, 1664-1750. 
 
 POOL, M., a Dutch engraver, born 1670. 
 
 POOL, or POOLE, Matthew, author of a 
 work highly valued by theological students, en- 
 titled 'Synopsis Criticorum,' was a presbyterian 
 divine, born at York 1624. He was ejected from 
 his living when the act of uniformity was enforced 
 in 1662, and in 1666 made himself obnoxious to 
 another large party by attacking the Roman 
 Church. After this occurrence he retired to Am- 
 sterdam, where he died 1679. 
 
 POPE, Alexander, was born in May, 1688, in 
 London. His father was a linen-draper in Lom- 
 bard Street, and, having spent his youth at Lisbon, 
 had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, which his 
 son, in an easy way, retained as it was taught to 
 him. Pope inherited bodily feebleness from both 
 parents : nis father was deformed, and his mother 
 gave him his headaches and his Jacobitism. He 
 was a very sickly child, and hardly less so in man- 
 hood : he never grew to be taller than about four 
 feet ; and his deformity and weakness of limbs were 
 so great that, for many years before his death, he 
 could not dress or undress himself. In these cir- 
 cumstances Pope gathered his scanty education, 
 and wrote poems which placed his name first in the 
 brilliant literature of his time ; nor was he pre- 
 vented by Ms infirmities from taking, in aristocratic 
 society, the place which, in that age of patronage, 
 was won by his literary celebrity and secured by 
 the agreeableness of manner he had when his tem- 
 per was not chafed. The poetic endowments of 
 Pope were very fine ; and there occur in his works 
 short passages that are among the gems of our 
 poetry, and felicitous images and turns of expres- 
 sion that have become household words. In fact 
 no poet furnishes so many brief quotations as he 
 does ; a distinction which he owes in part to the 
 epigrammatic pointedness of his diction, and to th 
 > 2R 
 
POP 
 
 singular skill of his versification. But many of the 
 striking lines and phrases which thus come into 
 the mouths of every one, are either cold in feeling 
 or positively unpoetical in matter : they are apt 
 expressions of worldly shrewdness, not effusions of 
 imaginative susceptibility. His rhythm, too, which 
 in its way is perfect, has a mannerism and a mono- 
 tonous smoothness, which make it more than doubt- 
 ful whether, even in his favourite ten-syllable 
 rhymes, he deserves to be held as having really 
 improved on the manly and varied melodies of 
 Dryden. The steadiness, likewise, with which he 
 adhered to the themes and forms that had become 
 fashionable under the guidance of that celebrated 
 poet, made it impossible for Pope's real and unques- 
 tionable genuis to develop itself freely ; and his prin- 
 cipal poems are, both by the nature of their subjects 
 and by the cautious and dissertative character of 
 their tone, so very uncongenial to the poetical taste 
 of our century, that it is not wonderful his writings 
 should now be neglected and his place in the file of 
 our poets degraded below his due. Yet, though the 
 fact is little noticed, it was not without efforts in 
 another direction, that Pope resolved to write for 
 the drawing-room instead of the world ; it was not 
 till he had exercised his youthful fancy on higher 
 topics and in worthier forms, that he contented 
 himself with gaining celebrity as an admirable 
 writer of didactic and familiar verse, and as one 
 of the very best of all poetical satirists. His edu- 
 cation, ill begun at home by a Jesuit, was con- 
 tinued with Tittle more success at school ; where, 
 till the age of twelve, he learned hardly more than 
 to admire Ogilby's clumsy translation of the Hiad, 
 and Sandys' polished version of Ovid. The re- 
 mainder of his youth was spent at Benfield, in 
 Windsor Forest, where his father, having retired 
 from business, had purchased a house and a few 
 acres of land. Here the young poet was left to 
 educate himself. He never became an accurate 
 scholar, even in Greek, Latin, or French, which 
 were his only studies beyond English literature ; 
 but the sickly boy devoured books eagerly, acquired 
 much literary knowledge, and wrote verses which 
 his father encouraged and corrected. The ' Ode to 
 Solitude,' printed among his works, dates from his 
 twelfth year; before he was fifteen he had, likewise, 
 made his translations of the first book of Stathls, 
 and of Ovid's Epistle of Sappho ; and at this 
 time, also, by producing his ' Imitations of English 
 Poets,' he showed some love for those old masters 
 whom afterwards he so unwisely neglected. Now, 
 likewise, he wrote a comedy, of which we know 
 nothing; a tragedy on the "story of Saint Gene- 
 vieve; and an epic poem called 'Alexander,' which 
 is described as having been an imitation of the 
 Odyssey, and was preserved by him till, in the 
 height of his fame, his friend Atterbury made him 
 burn it. An inclination to linger in the purer fields 
 of poetry was indicated also, though accompanied 
 by little originality of invention or strength of 
 poetic feeling, in the works by which he first intro- 
 duced himself to the public. These were the ' Pas- 
 torals,' printed in 1709, (when the writer was in his 
 twenty-first year), but written a good while before, 
 and already admired in manuscript by persons of 
 rank to whom he had become known. They were 
 received with great applause. In the Essay on 
 Criticism,' which appeared in 1711, he stepped at 
 
 POP 
 
 once into that dissertative school of pcetry, I 
 which his chief efforts were always afterwail 
 made. The ' Essay,' with all its weakness of prl 
 ciples and barrenness of poetical elements, is il 
 only a wonderful production for a boy, but real 
 equal, in many points, to anything he subsequen I 
 wrote. His celebrity was effectually and ml 
 deservedly secured in 1712, by the first edition 
 his ' Rape of the Lock.' When, in his twen 
 sixth year, he republished this poetic iinmortali: 
 tion of fashionable trifles, with the addition of 
 supernatural machinery, he had given to our li 
 guage a mock-heroic poem, superior to Doilea 
 
 [The residence of Pope.] 
 
 ' Lutrin' and to everything else of the soi 
 interval between these two versions of t; 
 appeared ' The Messiah,' ' The Temple <4^H 
 (founded on Chaucer), the 'Ode on St. (^H 
 Day,' and 'Windsor Forest,' (probably writt^^B 
 earlier). The poems which nave now beel^H 
 have more of the essence of poetry tha^^H 
 Pope's later works. During a second pa^H 
 tending through more than a dozen years, hisc | 
 employments were prompted by the necessitl 
 securing a livelihood. His father, affected 1 
 political panic, had refused to invest his s^^H 
 any way, and had lived on the capital, which 
 already nearly exhausted ; and all Pope's writ 
 had as yet gained him scarcely 150. He now 
 dertook his Translation of the Iliad, which occu | 
 him for more than five years, and, publishei 
 subscription (from 1715 to 1720), produced tow 
 author more than 5,000. It was recqj^H 
 an admiration which will readily be yield^^H 
 readers who can forget the original. I 
 duced a quarrel witl^Addison, from who 
 Pope, closely allied both by opinion and^^fl 
 ship with Swift and the Tories, always stood at i 
 distance. Pope's poor edition of Shakspe; i r 
 lished in 1725 ; and his Odyssey, of whi 
 books were translated by himself, appeal 
 year and the next, adding considerably to 
 fortune he had made by its predecessor. 
 now hotlv engaged in those squabbles with 
 small authors of his day, which einbittere 
 rest of his life. In 1727, in three V^^H 
 ' Miscellanies,' partly written by Swift ai 
 he declared open war on his enemies 
 'On the Art of Sinking in Poetry. 1 
 himself took the crowning step 
 
 H'trv. 
 of his 
 
 C10 
 
POP 
 
 728, by issuing his tremendous satire ' The Dun- 
 iad.' In 1715, when the Iliad had secured for him 
 lie prospect of independence, he became the pos- 
 ;ssor of the villa at Twickenham, which became 
 unous as his residence for the last thirty years of 
 is life. Here his father died soon, and his mother 
 nne years afterwards. Both were keenly regretted 
 j their son, whose affection for his family and for 
 few friends was as strong as the jealousy and 
 ritability which continually entangled him in 
 larrels out of doors. From this pleasant retreat, 
 ter the publication of the Dunciad, he tired off a 
 " many squibs on his critics ; and, among other 
 sks, he altered his great satire, dethroning its 
 iginal hero, Theobald, (who had edited Shaks- 
 are better than he had), and putting Colley Cib- 
 in his place. But the principal employment of 
 5e years was the composition of a new series of 
 rks, in which he emulated the half-prosaic 
 try of Horace's epistles with great success ; 
 ile he took a more ambitious flight in ethical 
 ditations, for which he was philosophically very 
 ly qualified, though he gave much grace and 
 stness to the expression of his crude opinions, 
 poems of this group embrace, besides some 
 lor pieces, the ' Essay on Man,' setting forth, 
 Bolingbroke, a theory of optimism, the con- 
 aences of which he certainly did not understand ; 
 Epistle on Taste,' which landed him, for the 
 time, in squabbles with the great ; the 'Imita- 
 of Horace,' with translations from the same 
 and the 'Universal Prayer,' published in 
 In 1737 he published selections from his 
 pondence,' containing letters, many of which 
 elegant but very artificial pieces of prose 
 He was engaged to the last in his war 
 e dunces ; for he contributed to Arbuthnot's 
 " "ly witty Memoirs of Martinus Scrib- 
 which appeared in 1741. His frail body, 
 had held out longer than might have been 
 d, was quite unable to support him into old 
 Asthma and the beginnings of dropsy warned 
 several months, that the end was at hand, 
 himself to meet the catastrophe with calm 
 jusness, and died in May, 1744, some days after 
 ilng completed his fifty-sixth year. [W.S.] 
 
 _J)PE, Sir Thomas, a Roman Catholic states- 
 id and friend of Sir Thomas More, born in Ox- 
 idhire 1508, fnd. Trinity College 1554, d. 1558. 
 : j)PE, Walter, an English physician, known 
 sjnovelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1714. 
 tl'HAM, Sir Home Riggs, a naval officer, 
 bo Jin Ireland 1762, most celebrated for his ex- 
 |*on against Buenos Avres, for which he was 
 Wlnanded after a trial, tne charge being that he 
 toileted without sufficient authority. He was 
 ftjvards commander-in-chief on the Jamaica 
 iWn, and died 1820. 
 JPHAM, Sir J., an Eng. judge, 1531-1607. 
 IPPiEA, a Roman empress, wife of Nero, 
 whfook her from her second husband, Otho, 62. 
 Kit by a kick from Nero when pregnant, 65. 
 
 iRliUS, Peter, a Dutch painter, born about 
 151 died 1583. His son, Francis, a portrait 
 Njir of rare excellence, 1540-1580. Francis, 
 "lounger,' son of the latter, and possessor of his 
 
 HBCARI, Stkfano, a gentleman of Rome, 
 iMied for conspiracy against Nicholas V., 1 153. 
 
 POR 
 
 PORCQ, J. C, a French theologian, 1636-1722. 
 
 PORDENONE, the common name, taken from 
 his birth-place, of Giov. Antonio Licinio Re- 
 gillo, a Venetian painter, 1483-1540. Bernar- 
 dino, who bears the same surname, a relation and 
 pupil of the preceding, 16th century. Giulio, one 
 of his nephews, also a scholar of his, 1500-1561. 
 J. Antonio, brother of the latter, died 1576. 
 
 POREE, Charles, a French Jesuit and rheto- 
 rician, 1675-1741. His brother, C. Gabriel, a 
 canonist, 1685-1770. 
 
 PORLIER, Juan Diaz, surnamed II Mar- 
 quesito, a Spanish general, born at Carthagena, in 
 South America, about 1775, hung for conspiring 
 against Ferdinand VII., after attempting to restore 
 the constitution, 1815. 
 
 PORPHYRY, one of the Neoplatonists, and early 
 opponents of Christianity, was born a.d. 233, pro- 
 bably in a Tyrian colony, settled in Batanea. His 
 original name was Malchus, the Shemitic term for 
 a king, but Longinus, his master, gave him the 
 appellation of Porphyry, in allusion to the purple 
 vestments of royal persons. He studied under 
 Origen and under Longinus in his youth, but at 
 thirty years of age attached himself, at Rome, to 
 Plotinus, whose works he arranged and corrected. 
 Leaving Rome, where his thoughts had often re- 
 verted to suicide as the speediest means of freeing 
 his spirit from its present prison-house, he went to 
 Sicily, where he wrote his attack on Christianity. 
 He seems to have returned to Rome, and he died 
 about the year 304. Porphyry was a man of great 
 abilities and erudition, and his elegant style con- 
 tributed in no small degree to the popularity of the 
 Plotinian philosophy (Plotinus). His asceticism 
 may be found in his treatise ' On Abstinence,' and 
 the strange but not uncommon union of superstition 
 and scepticism may be seen in his doctrine of demons, 
 in his ascription of the power of miracles to Plo- 
 tinus, and in his record of a special extacy enjoyed 
 by him in his sixty-eighth year, in which he was 
 privileged to gaze upon the unveiled Divinity. 
 He laboured to find discrepancies in the Scriptures, 
 and he made a special assault upon the authenticity 
 of the book of Daniel. The history of the gospels 
 was also subjected to similar treatment. His 15 
 books against Christianity were ordered to be 
 destroyed by the emperor Theodosus, so that we are 
 only acquainted with their nature and contents 
 through the replies made to them by such writers 
 as Eusebius and Jerome. Besides his philosophical 
 and antichristian works, Porphyry wrote commen- 
 taries on Homer, and treatises on a great variety 
 of miscellaneous subjects. [J-E.] 
 
 PORPORA, Nicolo, born at Naples in 1689, 
 was the celebrated pupil of the no less celebrated 
 Alessandro Scarlatti. In early life he left home 
 and composed and brought out operas with great 
 success in Vienna, Venice, Dresden, and several 
 other continental cities. In 1773 Porpora was en- 
 gaged as composer and director of the operas 
 established in opposition to Handel, but in spite of 
 all the science, talent, and industry which he brought 
 to the task he had undertaken, the London public 
 heard his compositions with an indifference which, 
 it is said, ' amounted almost to contempt.' Por- 
 pora, therefore, quitted England in disgust and 
 returned to Italy, where he became one of the prin- 
 cipal masters in the Conservatory at Venice. He 
 
 611 
 
POR 
 
 late in life retired to Naples, where he died in great 
 poverty at the age of 82. Porpora was particularly- 
 fortunate as a singiug master, and amongst his 
 most celebrated pupils were Farinelli, Mingotte, 
 and Caffarelli, besides many other dramatic voca- 
 lists. [J.M.I 
 PORPORATI, A., an Ital. engraver, 1741-1816. 
 PORQUET, P. C. F., a French poet, 1728-1796. 
 PORSENNA, a king of Etruria, 6th cent. B.C. 
 PORSON, Richard, an eminent scholar and 
 critic, professor of Greek in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, was born at East Raston, in Norfolk, 
 where his father was parish clerk, 1759. He be- 
 came professor in 1793, and two years later com- 
 menced the Greek editions on which his reputation 
 rests, by the publication of Euripides. Died in the 
 office of librarian to the London Institution, 1808. 
 PORTA, Baccio Della, better known as Fra 
 Bartholomeo di San Marco, an Italian painter, 
 friend and scholar of Raphael, 1469-1517. 
 
 PORTA, Giambattista, an Italian of noble 
 family, dist. as a natural philosopher, 1540-1615. 
 
 PORTA, James Della, an Italian sculptor 
 and architect, died about the end of the 16th cen- 
 tury. His nephew, William, a sculptor, same 
 age. J. Baptiste, his relation and pupil, 1542- 
 1597. Thomas, br. of the latter, dates unknown. 
 PORTA, Joseph, called Porta del Salvati, a 
 painter of the Florentine school, about 1520-1570. 
 PORTA, or PORTIUS, Simon, an Italian philo- 
 sopher, pupil of Pomponazzi, 1496-1554. Ano- 
 ther Simon Portius, published Greek lexicons, 
 17th century. 
 
 PORTAL, A., a French physician, 1742-1832. 
 PORTAL, P., a French accoucheur, died 1703. 
 PORTALIS, Jean E. Marie, councillor of state 
 and minister of religion under Napoleon, 1746-1807. 
 PORTE, Abbe J. De La, a French compiler, 
 author of 'Esprit de l'Encyclopedie,' 1713-1779. 
 His nephew, Sebastian, deputy to the assembly, 
 the convention, and the council of 500, died 1823. 
 PORTE, A. De La, a Fr. statesman, 1737-92. 
 PORTE, M. De La, a French writer, 1530-71. 
 PORTE, P. De La, a valet in the service of 
 Anne of Austria and Louis XIV., author of 
 1 Memoirs of the Reigns of Louis XIII. and Louis 
 XIV.,' 1603-1680. 
 
 PORTE-DU-THEIL,Francis John Gabriel 
 De La, an antiquarian and Hellenist, 1742-1815. 
 PORTER, Anna Maria, a popular novelist, 
 was the daughter of a military officer, who died 
 soon after her birth. She resided in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London with her mother and sister, 
 and died at Bristol while making a tour for the 
 re-establishment of her health in 1832. Her 
 works are ' Artless Tales,' written before she was 
 twelve years old, 1793-1795, 'Walsh Colville,' 
 1797, ' Octavia,' 1798, ' The Lake of Killarney,' 
 
 1804, 'A Sailor's Friendship and a Soldier's Love,' 
 
 1805, ' The Hungarian Brothers,' 1807, ' Don Se- 
 bastian,' 1809, ' Ballads and Poems,' 1811, ' Re- 
 cluse of Norway,' 1814, ' The Village of Marien- 
 dorpt,' 'The Fall of St. Magdalen,' 'Tales of 
 Piety,' ' The Knight of St. John,' ' Tales Round 
 a Winter's Hearth,' and some others. 
 
 PORTER, Jane, elder sister of the preceding, 
 was born 1776, and commenced her literary career 
 in 1803, by publishing her first novel, ' Thaddeus of 
 Warsaw/ 
 
 POS 
 
 popular, and Miss Porter ever after retained t 
 celebrity it brought her. The principal of her otl 
 works are 'The Scottish Chiefs,' 'The Pastor's FL 
 side,' ' Duke Christian of Luneberg,' ' Tales Rou 
 a Winter's Hearth,' (to which the sisters contribul 
 in common), ' The Field of Forty Footsteps,' 
 ' Sir Seaward's Diary.' She went to Petersbi 
 with her brother, Sir R. K. Porter, and after ^ 
 was left companionless by his death in 1842, resic 
 generally at Bristol. Died 1850. 
 
 PORTER, Sir Robert Kerr, brother of 1 
 popular novelists, and himself distinguished as 
 artist, author, and diplomatist, was bom at Di 
 ham in 1780. After exhibiting some historical p 
 tures in London he went to Russia as painter to \ 
 emperor, and while there married a daughter 
 Prince Scherbatoff. On leaving Russia he job 
 the army, and was with Sir John Moore at 
 battle of Corunna, receiving the honour of knig 
 hood in 1813. From 1817 to 1820 he was trav 
 ling in the East, and in 1826 was appointed con 
 at Venezuela, where he resided till 1841. He tl 
 obtained leave of absence with the intention 
 visiting St. Petersburg and London, and died 
 the former city, of apoplexy, 1842. His works 
 'Travelling Sketches in Russia and Swedi 
 ' Letters from Portugal and Spain,' ' A Narral 
 of the Russian Campagin,' and his travels 
 Georgia, Persia, Armenia, and ancient Babylor 
 PORTER, F., an Irish theologian, died 1705 
 PORTER, George Richardson, an Eng 
 economist, 1793-1852. 
 
 PORTES, P. Des, a French poet, 1546-160' 
 PORTEUS, Beilbey, successively bishop 
 Chester and London, was born at York in Y, 
 and raised to those sees respectively in 1776 
 1787. He was a man of great literary abi 
 His principal work is a ' Life of Arehbis 
 Staker,' an edition of which, with the other ] 
 ductions of his pen, was edited by his nephetjl 
 late Dr. Hodgson, dean of Carlisle and recto 
 St. George's, Hanover Square. Died 1808. 
 
 PORTUS, Francis, an eminent Italian sch ' 
 and classical critic, 1511-1581. His son, Armil , 
 a distinguished Hellenist, died 1610. 
 
 PORY, John, an English traveller and trs 
 
 lator of Leo Africanus, sec. to the colony of Vi 
 
 nia from 1619 to 1621 ; time of his death unknc 
 
 PORZIO, L. A., an Ital. physician, 10.39-17 
 
 POSADAS, F., a Span, theologian, 1644-17 
 
 POSIDONIUS, a Stoic philosopher, who tai 
 
 at Rhodes in the time of Mithridates, 1st ceir j 
 
 B.C., and to whom Plutarch was indebted for j 
 
 materials of some of his Lives, especially tiu J 
 
 Marius, with whom Posidonius was acquaiw 
 
 Another Posidonius flourished at Alexin 
 
 about 260 B.C. He was a famous astronomer, f 
 
 well versed in the physical sciences. 
 
 POSSELT, E. H., a Ger. historian, 1763-U 
 POSSEVIN, Anthony, a learned Italian J' 
 and diplomatist, 1534-1611. His broth 
 tist, a man of letters, 1520-1549. 
 their nephew, a physician and Latin poet, 171 
 POSSIDIUS, St., an African prelate, 4th ' 
 POSSIDONIUS. See Posidonius. 
 POST, F., a Dutch painter, about 16: 
 POSTEL, William, a remarkable visio 
 acknowledged to be one of the most learne 
 
 This interesting fiction became highly ! his age, was born in Normandy 1510. x 
 612 
 
 kM 
 
POS 
 
 ,J?nt to the East to collect curious MSS. by Francis 
 |, and on his return was appointed professor of 
 mathematics and languages. He was banished 
 |om France through the influence of the queen of 
 iavarre, and died in a monastery 1581. 
 ff POSTHUMUS, Aulus, a "Roman dictator, 
 bnsul with Virginius, B.C. 496. See Postumus. 
 | POSTLETHWAYT, Malachi, a member of 
 lie Antiquarian Society, and writer on commercial 
 jibjects, died 1767. 
 
 [j POSTUMUS, Marcus Cassianus Latinius, 
 Gaulish general and governor of that province, 
 |Jho was proclaimed emper. in 257, massacred 267. 
 9 POTAMO, a Platonic philosopher, 3d century. 
 TEMKIN, Gregory Alexandrovitsch, 
 iRussian prince and field-marshal, was born at 
 wlensko of a noble family in 1736. He entered 
 army when young, and possessing great per- 
 ~ advantages attracted the notice of the em- 
 Catharine, with whom he became a special 
 rourite. He greatly distinguished himself by 
 victories over the Turks, especially by his con- 
 of the Crimea, 1783, and of the cities of 
 r, Otchakow, and Kilianova, 1787-1790. 
 successes, and the favour of the empress, 
 rested him with despotic authority in the Rus- 
 empire. He died of an epidemic distemper 
 ring the conquest of Jassy, 1791. 
 IPOTENGER, or POTTINGER, John, a bar- 
 r, poet, and miscellaneous writer, 1647-1733. 
 IPOTENZANO, F., an Italian poet, died 1599. 
 1POTERAT, Marquis De, one of the secret 
 its of French diplomacy during the revolution, 
 b. in 1740, and was one of the state prisoners 
 
 ;d from the Bastile in 1789. Died 1808. 
 'OTHIER, R. J., a French jurist, 1699-1772. 
 TIER, C, a French comedian, 1775-1838. 
 ITOCKI, Claudia, wife of Count Bernard 
 jki, remarkable for her personal sacrifices in 
 exercise of benevolence, especially during the 
 [fish struggle of 1830-3; born in Posen 1802, 
 " in exile at Geneva, worn out with grief, 1836. 
 OTOCKI, Count Ignatius, grand marshal 
 [Lithuania before the destruction of Poland, and 
 Tow-patriot of Kosciusko, was born 1751. In 
 H he took refuge in Saxony, and published a 
 " ical tract upon the establishment and fall of 
 constitution, returning, however, to share in 
 last struggle for independence. He then passed 
 time in the prisons of St. Petersburg and 
 iw, and died at Vienna 1809. 
 >TOCKI, Count John, a Polish ambassador 
 A Ithe interest of Russia, author of a ' History of 
 fe Primitive Russians,' &c, 1769-1815. 
 rOTOCKI, Count Stanislaus, minister of 
 Irehip and public instruction for the grand duchy 
 IWarsaw, known as a publicist, 1757-1821. 
 rOTOCKI, Count Stanislaus Felicie. a 
 lish nobleman, in the Russian service, 1750-1805. 
 POTOCKI, V., a Polish poet, 17th century. 
 POTT, J., a German chemist, 1692-1777. 
 POTT, Percival, a surgeon of London, author 
 many valuable professional works, 1713-1788. 
 POTTER, Barnabas, an English prelate, born 
 Kendal about 1579, died 1642. Christopher, 
 nephew, an eminent divine and partizan of 
 arles L, born about 1591, died 1646. 
 POTTER, F., a learned divine, 1594-1678. 
 POTTER, John, author of the well-known 
 
 POU 
 
 ' Antiquities of Greece,' was a son of Thomas Pot- 
 ter, a linen-draper of Wakefield, where he was 
 born about 1674. He died archbishop of Canter- 
 bury 1747. He published the first volume of his 
 ' Antiquitates,' and a beautiful edition of Lyco- 
 phronis Alexandra, before reaching his twenty- 
 fourth year, in 1697. His theological works were 
 published in 3 vols, at Oxford 1753. 
 
 POTTER, Paul, a Dutch painter, 1625-1654. 
 
 POTTER, Robert, a famous Greek scholar and 
 translator of the Church of England, 1721-1804. 
 
 POUCHET, F. A., a Fr. theologian, 1666-1723. 
 
 POUCHET, L. E., a Fr. economist, 1748-1809. 
 
 POUGENS, Marie Chapler Joseph De, a 
 distinguished painter, and philological and archae- 
 ological savant, 1755-1833. 
 
 POUGET, B., an Italian cardinal, 1280-1351. 
 
 POULAT, J. B., a French poet, died 1705. 
 
 POULLE, Louis, a Fr. preacher, 1702-1781. 
 
 POUPART, Fr., a Fr. anatomist, 1661-1709. 
 
 POUPET, C. De, a Fr. statesman, 1470-1529. 
 
 POUQUEVILLE, F. C. H. L., a celebrated 
 French traveller and historian, 1770-1838. 
 
 POURCHOT, E., a Fr. philosopher, 1651-1734. 
 
 POUSCHKINE, Alex., a popular novelist, 
 poet, and historian of Russia, born at St. Peters- 
 burg 1799, killed in a duel 1837 
 
 POUSSIN, Nicolas, was born at Andelys in 
 Normandy, about June 19, 1594, of a noble family 
 of Soissons. He learnt painting under Quintin 
 Variu of his native place ; then, when only 
 eighteen years old, tried his fortune in Paris, and in 
 1624, in his thirtieth year, settled in Rome, where, 
 with the exception of a visit paid to France in 
 1640-2, he dwelt the remainder of his life. He 
 died there, Nov. 19, 1665. Poussin, though by 
 birth a Frenchman, must almost be accounted 
 among the painters of Italy ; his style is peculiar, 
 1 no works of any modern,' says Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, ' have so much of the air of antique painting 
 as those of Poussin.' His pictures have been com- 
 pared with coloured bas-reliefs, a term not inexpres- 
 sive of his style. His peculiar leaning to this 
 sculpturesque treatment may in some measure be 
 explained by his close intimacy with his friend Du 
 Quesnoy, the sculptor, known as Fiammingo ; they 
 lived in the same house together at Rome. His 
 colouring, compared with his drawing, is inferior and 
 mannered, which is somewhat remarkable, consi- 
 dering that he studied in the school of Domenichino 
 at Rome, whom he considered to be the best pain- 
 ter of his time. ' The Seven Sacraments,' painted 
 twice by Poussin, are among his most celebrated 
 works, and both sets are now in England, one at 
 Belvoir Castle, the other in the Bridgewater Gal- 
 lery, London. His works are very numerous ; the 
 prints that have been engraved after his principal 
 pictures only, amount to upwards of two nundred. 
 Some of his best works are in the British National 
 Gallery, as the ' Bacchanalian Festival,' No. 42, 
 finely engraved by Doo, which constitutes an ex- 
 cellent exponent of his style, with all his merits 
 and peculiarities in perfection. He was a skilful 
 landscape painter also, indeed one of the ablest of 
 the landscape painters of Italy, though the greater 
 fame in this department of his younger brother-in- 
 law, GasparDughet, who took the name of Pous- 
 sin, has eclipsed the reputation of Nicolas. Gas- 
 par Poussin was born of French parents in Rome, 
 
 C13 
 
 . 
 
POU 
 
 PRA 
 
 in 1613, and died there in 1675 ; like Claude he ! Drary, Covent Garden, and the Haymarket. 
 
 was exclusively an Italian painter. The National 
 Gallery possesses also some of the finest works of 
 this artist. The sombre character of his landscapes 
 is in some measure due to the dark grounds on 
 which he painted. (Bellori, Vita di Nicolo Pus- 
 sino, &c, Rome, 1672. Wornum, Descriptive and 
 Historical Catalogue of the National Gallery, 
 &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 POUTEAU, Cl., a French surgeon, 1725-1775. 
 
 POWELL, David, a famous Welch antiquarian 
 and minister of the church, about 1552-1590. His 
 son, Gabriel, eel. as a controversialist, 1575-1611. 
 
 POWELL, E., a popish divine, executed 1540. 
 
 POWELL, G., an English actor, died 1714. 
 
 POWELL, G., a Welch scholar, 1561-1620. 
 
 POWELL, Sik John, an eminent lawyer and 
 judge, dist. at the trial of the seven bishops, d. 1696. 
 
 POWELL, W., an English actor, died 1769. 
 
 POWELL, W. S., a learned divine, 1717-1775. 
 
 POWER, Tyrone, was the son of an Irish 
 
 fentleman, of the county of Waterford, and was 
 orn 1795. His mother was left a widow in his 
 infancy, and removed to Glamorganshire in South 
 Wales, near the town of Cardiff, where there was 
 a theatre. Here Power first appeared as Borneo ; 
 the next notice we have of him is his attempting 
 Orlando at Monmouth, after which he returned to 
 the maternal retreat. On his return, some time 
 after, to the stage, he began to discover his unsuit- 
 ability for tragedy, and went into the comic line, 
 and tried his juvenile strength in Mercutio, Bene- 
 dict, Charles Surface, and Belcover ; occasionally, 
 however, we find him doing pathetic parts, such 
 as Alonzo, at Newport in the Isle of Wight. At 
 Margate also he served alternately under both 
 muses ; but, on the Kentish circuit generally, ap- 
 pears principally to have adhered to Thalia, though 
 at Newcastle-upon-Tyne we find Melpomene again 
 in the ascendant ; and at Dublin he actually made 
 his debut as Borneo, to which he added Jeremy 
 Diddier. In 1818 Mr. Power retired from the 
 stage, probably disgusted with its difficulties ; but 
 in 1821 we find him making a new essay at the 
 Olympic and Astley's theatres, which latter he 
 quitted for the Lyceum, where he appeared on 2d 
 July, 1822, as Bobert Haythorn, in 'The Turn- 
 pike Gate.' In 1823 he was appointed manager of 
 the Olympic, and soon after was granted an ap- 
 pearance at Drury Lane, but produced no effect. 
 Next year, at the Adelphi theatre, Mr. Power was 
 enabled to make a stand in a new part called Val- 
 mondi, and to achieve a triumph as Paddy CHal- 
 loran, in a neglected Irish farce. It was with 
 great unwillingness that he undertook the part, 
 which, nevertheless, proved the stepping-stone to 
 his fortune. He soon found it to his advantage to 
 devote his abilities exclusively to the delineation of 
 Irish characters. As an Hibernian representative 
 Mr. Power enjoyed a rich brogue, a smart and viva- 
 cious air, a whimsical leer that lighted up the jokes 
 that came trippingly from his tongue, and a voice 
 for singing in which he could indulge in the 
 broadest patois. These qualities he exhibited in 
 'The Irish Tutor,' in Murtoch Delany, Phelim 
 0' ' Flanningan, Bory CMore, Pierce O'llara, 
 CPlenipo, and a host of other characters, written 
 expressly for him. His triumphs were witnessed 
 within the walls of the three London theatres, Old 
 
 614 
 
 1840 Mr. Power migrated for America, whence 
 never returned. After a most profitable caret 
 notwithstanding ill health, he embarked in i 
 steam-ship 'The President,' which sailed fro 
 New York 11th March, 1841. It had 123 sot 
 on board. On the 12th a great storm oceurre 
 which raged for two days and three nighl 
 Whether, as suspected, the vessel foundered wh 
 beating between Nantucket shoals and Georgi 
 Bank, remains unknown. Nothing more w 
 ever heard of that fatal bark and its nuinero 
 tenants : 
 
 'There is no ray 
 By which her doom we may explore; 
 
 We only know she sailed away, 
 Was seen, hut never heard of more.' [J.A.B 
 
 POWNALL, Thomas, a distinguished antiqn 
 rian, and statesman, 1722-1805. 
 
 POYET, B., a French architect, 1742-1824. 
 POYET, W., chancellor of France, 1474-154* 
 POYNET, or PONET, John, successive 
 bishop of Rochester and Winchester, 1516-1566. 
 POYNINGS, Sir Edward, a statesman oft 
 reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. 
 
 POYNTER, W., a theological writer, died 18S| 
 POZZETT, P., an Italian savant, 1769-1816.1 
 POZZI, J. B., an Italian painter, 16th centijrl 
 POZZI, J. H., an Italian poet, 1697-1752. 
 POZZI, Stefano, a clever Italian painteiyl70j 
 1768. His brother, Joseph, a painter, died 17 
 
 POZZO, Andrea, an Italian Jesuit, dist I 
 a painter, architect, and writer on art, 1642-17C1 
 POZZO, C. Del, an archasologist, died 1657. > 
 POZZO, Count J. Del, an architect, b. 171; j 
 POZZO -DI-BORGO, Charles AndrejJ 
 Count, a native of Corsica, distinguished as! 
 statesman in the interest of the 'Holy Alliancj 
 was born in Corsica, 1764, and first became coj 
 spicuous as a parfcizan of the English in the til] 
 of Paoli. When Corsica was incorporated wi i 
 France, Pozzo-di-Borgo became a political eii 
 ploye of other governments, and contributed li 
 services especially as a general and ambassadj 
 in the Russian service to the overthrow of N 
 poleon. He was a man of great political abili 
 and foresight. After the fall of Napoleon, fro 
 1814 to 1830, he acted as Russian ambassador j 
 Paris, and since then he was living about tf i 
 years ambassador in London. Died in Paris, 184 j 
 PRADES, J. M. De, a Fr. theologian, 1720-8 j 
 PRADIER, James, a distinguished Freni) 
 sculptor, 1792-1852. 
 PRADO, B. De, a Spanish painter, died 1593| 
 PRADO, J., a Spanish commentator, 1547-9 
 PRADON, N., a French poet, 1632-1698. > 
 PRADT, Abbe Dominique De, distinguish 
 as a political writer and diplomatist, was born 
 Auvergne 1759, became a deputy of the ecclesia 
 tical order to the estates-general 1789, having pr 
 viously published the first of his political pamphlet 
 entitled ' Antidote to the Congress of Radstad j 
 After urging a coalition of Europe against ti. 
 French republic he became a Buonapartist, ai 
 assisted at Napoleon's coronation as king of Ital | 
 After the fall of Napoleon be became an 
 of the Bourbons. Died 1837. 
 
 PRAM, C, a Danish poet, 1756-1821. 
 PRASLIN, Cesar Gabriel De Cu 
 
PEA 
 
 I De, a statesman and peer of France, cousin 
 ie Due de Choiseul, 1712-1785. 
 RAT, A. Du, a French cardinal, 1465-1535. 
 RAT1LLI, F. M., an Ital. antiquarv, d. 1770. 
 RATO, J. De, an Ital. philologist, died 1782. 
 RATT, Charles, earl of Camden, chancellor 
 ;rthe Rockingham administration, 1714-1794. 
 KATT, Sir C., a peninsular officer, 1771-1839. 
 SATT, S. J., a novelist, 1749-1814. 
 RAXILLA, a Greek poetess, 5th century B.C. 
 8AXITELES, a famous Grecian sculptor, au- 
 of works in bronze and marble, 4th cent. B.C. 
 RAXITELES, a disting. carver, 1st cent. b.c. 
 JAY, G., an historian of Hunejarv, 1723-1801. 
 JEISSNITZ, Vincent, a celebrated Prus- 
 discoverer of the water cure, 1799-1851. 
 JEMONTVAL, Peter Le Gtjay De, a 
 ch writer and mathematician, 1716-1767. 
 JESTET, J., a Fr. mathematician, died 1690. 
 JESTON, John, a learned puritan of the 
 ch of England, author of a ' Treatise on the 
 nant,' 1587-1628. 
 
 5ESTON, T., a dramatic writer, died 1598. 
 tESTOX, W., a Scotch writer, 1742-1818. 
 SETT, M., an Italian painter, 1613-1699. 
 EVOST, Cl , a Fr. theologian, 1693-1752. 
 llEVOST, I. B., a Genev. natural, 1755-1819. 
 EVOST, P., a French painter, 1764-1823. 
 EVOST, P., a French literateur, 1751-1839. 
 lEVOST D'EXILES, Anthony Francis, 
 llaneous writer and novelist, translator of 
 Harlowe and Sir C. Grandison, 1697-1763. 
 iVOST D'EXMES, Francis Le, a French 
 
 and dramatic author, 1729-1793. 
 VOST DE LAJANNES, M., a French 
 ,te and prof, of jurisprudence, 1696-1749. 
 VOST-SAINT-LUCIEN, R. H., a French 
 on public law, 1740-1808. 
 CE, John, a native of London, who went 
 nee and became superintendent of the 
 to the grand duke, and professor of Greek 
 author of Scripture and Classical Com- 
 , 1600-1676. 
 CE, Sir John, an eminent antiquarian, 
 of a Defence of British History in answer 
 "orus, died about 1553. 
 CE, Dr. Richard, a native of Glamorgan- 
 ho attained eminence as a dissenting mmis- 
 financial and political writer, 1723-1791. 
 CHARD, James Cawles, well known for 
 arches into the Physical History of Man- 
 was born in Herefordshire, 1786. From 
 1845 he was in practice at Bristol as a 
 , and then removed to London on receiv- 
 appointment as commissioner on lunacy. 
 
 HARD, R., a Welch divine, died 1644. 
 EAUX, John, D.D., bishop of Worcester, 
 i at Stoward, Devonshire, 17th September, 
 His father not being in circumstances to 
 the advantages of a liberal education, he 
 ted to the liberality of a Christian lady in 
 ;h, who sent him to a grammar school, 
 he acquired an elementary knowledge of the 
 * Greek languages. Having an unquench- 
 for learning, ne travelled on foot to Ox- 
 supported himself by some menial services 
 college, his time being divided between the 
 offices of the kitchen, and the study of ele- 
 
 615 
 
 PRI 
 
 gant literature. A person of such energy and de- 
 votion to the pursuit of knowledge could not but 
 rise to distinction, and accordingly his great 
 eminence procured his election as a member, till in 
 due course he became rector, of the college. In 
 1615, he was appointed regius professor of divinity, 
 with which office was then associated that of canon 
 of Christ church, and afterwards he filled the high 
 and more influential station of vice-chancellor for a 
 series of years. His last and highest step in the 
 ladder of preferment was his consecration to the 
 see of Worcester in December, 1641. Amid all this 
 dignity of station, however, he was not exempt 
 from trouble, for his devoted loyalty to the cause 
 of Charles I. exposed him to many hardships, and 
 ultimately reduced him to such poverty that he was 
 obliged to sell his library for the maintenance of 
 himself and family. He was a man of mild, amiable, 
 and unassuming manners, of great piety and such 
 profound and extensive learning, that he was called 
 by his contemporaries 'the Pillar of orthodoxy.' 
 But he was withal the merest child as to know- 
 ledge of the world, and so regardless of pecuniary 
 matters, that he involved his family in great difficul- 
 ties by his imprudence or carelessness about money. 
 He died at Biedon in Worcestershire, 30th July, 
 1650, leaving to his children no legacy but ' God's 
 blessing and a father's prayers,' as he expressed it 
 in his will. [R.J.] 
 
 PRIDEAUX, Humphrey, D.D., a divine of as 
 great celebrity as the preceding, was born at Pad- 
 stow in Cornwall in 1648. He began his education 
 at Westminster school, from which he was sent to 
 Oxford. He distinguished himself at that univer- 
 sity by his scholastic acquirements; and it was 
 during his residence there that he became author, 
 by the publication of the ' Marmora Oxoniensa,' or 
 the ancient inscriptions from the Arundelian mar- 
 bles, a work which procured him the patronage of the 
 lord chancellor Finch, afterwards earl of Notting- 
 ham, through whom he was appointed a prebend, 
 and afterwards dean of Norwich cathedral. Hav- 
 ing become disabled through constitutional infir- 
 mity from discharging the public duties of the 
 ministry, he was obliged, under a conscientious 
 sense of duty, to resign his offices in the church, 
 and devote himself entirely to the cultivation of 
 sacred literature. His ' Connection of the Old 
 and New Testament with the History of the Jews 
 and Neighbouring Nations,' and his ' Life of Ma- 
 homet,' have long been held in high repute, and 
 obtained an extensive circulation. He died No- 
 vember, 1724. [R.J.] 
 
 PRIESTLEY,. Joseph, was born at Fieldhead, 
 near Leeds, in 1733, where his father was a wool- 
 len cloth manufacturer. From the poverty of his 
 parents he obtained only a medium education ; but 
 he became a dissenting preacher, and continued in 
 this vocation with various degrees of success till 
 1767, when he settled in a chapel at Leeds, and 
 commenced his great literary and chemical career. 
 In perusing the works of this remarkable man it 
 is impossible to fail being struck with his intense 
 love of truth. In his scientific note-books he re- 
 gisters every fact as it appeared to his senses ; in 
 his political and theological writings he fearlessly 
 states his opinions as they are brought out by his 
 cross-examination of his own thoughts and medi- 
 tations, and that liberty of independent thought 
 
PRI 
 
 which he claims for himself, he determinedly de- 
 mands for others. In his scientific career his 
 object was uniformly to question nature by every 
 possible experimental investigation, and to state 
 liis results as he obtained them. He laid the 
 basis of the chemistry of the gases, and of those 
 modes of investigation in the pneumatic branch of 
 the science which are still pursued. He dis- 
 covered a great variety of facts in this department 
 of the science. To him we are indebted for the 
 knowledge of oxygen, binoxide of nitrogen, sul- 
 phurous acid, fluosilicic acid, muriatic acid, am- 
 monia, carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide. 
 England has produced few men endowed with 
 greater versatility of talent than Priestley. 
 Whether we view him as a pneumatic chemist, a 
 theologian, an electrician, a historian, a politician, 
 his writings bear the impress of an original mind, 
 uncontrolled by any tendency to follow in beaten 
 tracks, but constantly panting for new fields of in- 
 vestigation. It will ever remain a stain upon the 
 name of England that this noble-minded man, this 
 honour to humanity, should have been compelled 
 by persecution, on account of his religion and 
 politics, to flee his native country. He died in 
 America in the year 1804. [R.D.T.] 
 
 PRIEZAC, D. De, a Fr. juriscons., 1590-1662. 
 
 PRILESZKY, J. B., a learned Hungarian Jesuit 
 and hagiographer, born 1709. 
 
 PRIMATICIO, or LE PRIMATICE, F., an 
 Italian architect and painter, 1490-1570. 
 
 PRIMEROSE, Gilbert, a Scottish divine, 
 chaplain to James I., and minister of the French 
 church in London, author of ' Jacob's Vow,' and 
 other theological works, died 1642. His son, 
 James, a physician and medical wr., d. abt. 1660. 
 
 PRINCE, J., a biographical writer, 1643-1723. 
 
 PRINCE DE BEAUMONT, Madame Le, a 
 French lady, settled as a teacher in England, au- 
 thor of several works, died 1780. Her brother, 
 John Baptist Le Prince, a painter, 1733-1781. 
 
 PRINGLE, Sir John, a Scottish physician, 
 eminent as a natural philosopher and professional 
 writer, born 1707, president of the Royal Society 
 1772, died 1782. 
 
 PRINGLE, Thomas, a Scottish poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born at Blacklaw, Teviot- 
 dale, 1789. He began life as a clerk,, and having 
 attracted the notice of Scott as a magazine writer, 
 soon after adopted literature as a profession, and 
 endeavoured to establish a newspaper at Edin- 
 burgh. Failing in this, he emigrated to the Cape 
 of Good Hope, and, returning to England in 1826, 
 became secretary to the An ti- Slavery Society. He 
 was afterwards known as editor of the popular 
 annual, ' Friendship's Offering,' and in 1834 pub- 
 lished his ' African Sketches,' followed by his ' Nar- 
 rative of a Residence in South Africa.' Died 1834. 
 
 PRINSEP, James, an Asiatic antiquarian, sec- 
 retary to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, 1800-40. 
 
 PRIOLO, B., a French historian, 1602-1667. 
 
 PRIOR, Matthew, whose period of authorship 
 was contemporary with the last years of Dryden 
 and the earliest stage of Pope, was a pleasing poet, 
 possessing little vigour or originality, but remark- 
 able for his skill in versification, and his gay and easy 
 grace of imagery and diction. His occasional epi- 
 grams and his lively but indecent tales, are his best 
 productions; though there is merit, also, in his 
 
 PRO 
 
 semi-metaphysical poem ' Alma, or the Progree 
 the Soul,' and in his attempt at religious poefl 
 ' Solomon.' His poems were only the recrefl 
 of a man actively engaged in public life. Bon 
 1664, he was the son ot a joiner in London. , 
 cident having directed the attention of Lord Do 
 to the boy's studious habits, education was proct 
 for him ; and, on leaving Oxford, he distinguij 
 himself, under the government of King Williair 
 a dexterous diplomatist in several foreign missi 
 Deserting his political party, like so many met 
 higher rank in that slippery time, he shared, in 
 latter part of his life, trie vicissitudes and dan 
 of the Tories. He lived till 1721. [W 
 
 PRIOR, T., an Irish economist, 1679-1751. 
 
 PRISCIAN, a famous Roman grammar 
 master of a school at Constantinople, 4th cent 
 
 PRISCILLIAN, a Spanish heresiarch of 
 fourth century. The errors which misled him 
 been imported by one Marcus from Egypt. I 
 cillian had both wealth and influence, so thai 
 conversion gave eclat to the novel heresy, 
 not a few were seduced by his eloquence and 
 ample. After long contests, the matter was 1 
 for judgment before a council at Sarago 
 380, and the mostprominent of the sect were 
 communicated. That Priscillian might ha* 
 sacred shield thrown over him, he was made bi 
 sect bishop of Avila. By a rescript of Grai 
 the party was condemned and banished, thoofl 
 decree was afterwards recalled. _ Under GH 
 successor, Maximus, the Priscillianist leaders 
 bishops were summoned to Bourdeaux for t 
 Priscillian himself appealed to the emperor, : 
 business was committed to Evodius, a min' 
 state. The spiritual offence was brought 1 
 civil tribunal, and at Treves, in 385, Priscillian 
 put to the rack, and induced to make sad i 
 fessions, not only of error, but of hideous impuri 
 At length he was executed, and the sword of 
 sedition fell upon his adherents, who flourished ' 
 a season in spite of the cruelties to which 1 1 
 were subjected. The heresy of Priscillian w. 
 strange mixture of Gnostic and Manichaean j 
 surdities, combined with allegorical interpretat 
 and mystical rhapsodies. Sabellianism, or ' 
 denial of a personal distinction in the Godhead, 
 a further characteristic of the system. The 
 were also severe ascetics, and necessarily so i 
 their opinions of the origin and essence of ^H 
 and, therefore, the accusation of their indulgin 
 lasciviousness and unnatural lusts seems f^^H 
 tion of their opponents. But they held a 1 k 
 morality in reference to the obligation of ijflfl 
 truth, and resorted to dissimulation in the JBB 
 and defence of their dogmas. 
 
 PRITCHARD, H., an English actress, 1711 
 
 PRITZ, J. G., a German divine, 1662-l^H 
 
 PROBUS, Marcus Aurelius Vai 
 native of Pannonia, who served in tl 
 army, and became emperor after the deal i 
 tus 276. He distinguished himself by sc\ 
 tories over the barbarians in Gaul, and *|^^H 
 by his mutinous soldiers 282. 
 
 PROBUS, M. V., a Latin grammar^ ; 
 
 PROCACCINI, Andrea, a pupil of < 
 ratti, painter to the king of Spain, 166 < 
 
 PROCACCINI, Ercole, an historical 
 of Bologna, born 1520, died about 1591. J 
 
 C1G 
 
PRO 
 
 Lns were his pupils : Camillo, one of the first 
 htists of that age, 1546-1626. Giulio Cesare, 
 fine imitator of Correggio, 1548-1626. Carlo 
 prroxio, celebrated for his landscapes, fruits, 
 td flowers, dates unknown. The son of the latter, 
 Uled Ercole the Younger, studied under his 
 kcle, Giulio Cesare, and painted flowers with 
 feat skill, 1596-1676. 
 
 JPROCIDA, Giovanni Di, a native of Palermo, 
 lief of the conspiracy against the French known 
 [the Sicilian Vespers,' about 1225-1302. 
 jPROCLUS, born at Byzantium 412 a.c. ; died 
 I Athens 485. Esteemed by some the most 
 ijwerful thinker of the Alexandrian School 
 I opinion in which we cannot concur. His works, 
 rever, are very numerous : an excellent edition 
 
 ly of them, we owe to M. Cousin. 
 'ROCLUS, patriarch of Constantinople, d. 447. 
 'ROCOPE-COUTEAU, the received name of 
 Coltelli, a French physician and dramatic 
 |ter, 1684-1753. 
 
 'ROCOPIUS, a martyr and saint, 4th century. 
 >ROCOPIUS, a Greek theologian, 5th century. 
 pROCOPIUS, a Greek historian, 6th century. 
 [ROCOPIUS, Demetrius, a Greek writer, 
 ar of an account of the learned Greeks of 
 at times, last century. 
 fROCOPOWITSCH, 'Feophan, called the 
 i Chrysostom, an archbishop of Novogorod, 
 -1736. 
 IRODICUS of Ceos, afterwards settled in 
 is; where, in the times of Socrates, he pro- 
 Wisdom, and taught like the other Sophists. 
 ;ss, in one sense, was great ; for he accu- 
 a large fortune having adapted his 
 to all classes of purchasers ; the poor man 
 his lesson for one drachma, while the rich 
 charged fifty drachmas a-head. Prodicus 
 fell under the lash of Aristophanes ; and it is 
 sd that, for the crime of Atheism, he was 
 aed to the fate of Socrates ; most strange 
 ion ! Respecting Prodicus himself, there 
 rtain dispute : the general rumour from An- 
 being, that his life was not a pure one, and 
 the money acquired by the teaching of Vir- 
 |was dissipated by Pleasure. Mr. Grote, the 
 nplished historian, has recently questioned 
 grounds, some of which appear of weight, 
 not, as a whole, carry full conviction. To 
 us, it is true, we owe that famous apologue 
 Choice of Hercules. It is not safe, however, 
 from any abstract teaching concerning 
 the character of the Teacher : it is rather 
 :ter of the Teacher that gives value to 
 teaching; insomuch, that even an imperfect 
 'ag, provided it presents the sincerity of its 
 , will ever contain more to instruct and 
 \ than extremest purism, which is only 
 ds or prudery. Neither must the incul- 
 of abstention from what is called worldly 
 re, or of asceticism, in any form, be con- 
 d with the Teaching of Virtue. True vir- 
 asists in the influence of habits on the Soul ; 
 a chief characteristic is, the purpose for 
 either knowledge or habits are striven for. 
 lebrated sneer of Gibbon That the virtues 
 clergy are more dangerous to society than 
 ices strikes deeper perhaps than that acute 
 >pher thought. Certainly the Asceticism 
 
 PRO 
 
 in his eye, was the efficient cloak of all practical 
 vice : but who can misinterpret even the sincere 
 asceticism, and almost unparalleled devotion of the 
 Jesuit ; or discern in it, aught other than the sacri- 
 fice of his own being just as he would sacrifice the 
 whole world to an immoral and most hazardous 
 lust of Dominion ? The question now started is 
 vastly more important, than in its bearing on the 
 personal character of Prodicus. It involves, 
 the entire problem regarding the position of 
 the ' Sophists ; ' a class of Teachers in Athens, 
 of which Prodicus may be taken as a supreme 
 instance. That these Teachers formed no School 
 is unquestionable; and it was only the sheerest 
 folly, and a gross libel on the Athenian people, 
 through which, they were ever imagined, banded, 
 by malice prepense, to unfold and make popular an 
 1 Art of Lying.' The persons so called, had little 
 connection with each other, taught varying and 
 often opposing doctrines, and assuredly they be- 
 lieved in a sense what they taught. Let us 
 look more minutely at the phenomenon. And 
 first, as to the so-called ' Art of Lying.' On 
 nothing does greater confusion of thought exist in 
 society, than with respect to the import of the 
 phrase 'Speaking Truth.'' It is the meanest 
 who in any age choose to distribute what they 
 know to be false ; even although it has become 
 a question of strange casuistry, how far the false 
 in Fact, may be Iruth in principle and reality. 
 Truth-speaking is not synonymous with the 
 utterance of our existing convictions : it involves in- 
 extricably, the far profounder question, with what 
 impartiality, under what solicitudes of conscience, 
 have these convictions been acquired ? And this 
 again touches on the still deeper Inquiry In 
 what spirit, and for what purpose may the Soul of 
 Man present itself as a recipient before the great 
 Universe ? Suppose, for instance, that Truth or 
 Knowledge is sought, merely as an arm whereby to 
 accomplish some specific external purpose, is there 
 much reason to believe that either will be attained in 
 their purity ? If Virtue is sought, so that it subserve 
 Power ; and Knowledge, so that it enable its pos- 
 sessor to acquire social or professional standing, is 
 it likely that the quest for either will be successful? 
 Are the conditions of any actual country or phase of 
 civilization, so full and absolute, that the Mind in 
 its search for Truth, may safely say, that it desires, 
 and will receive nothing except what can be turned 
 to account, under these conditions ? Now the so- 
 called Sophists or public Teachers of Athens, pub- 
 licly avowed the purpose of enabling young men 
 to obtain power in the State. This, was the 
 coveted prize the profession prepared for ; and 
 in subservience to this end, and to no other, they 
 taught. One thing only, could follow : the effort 
 after knowledge became a struggle for effect ; 
 the pursuit of truth, the culture of Rhetoric ; con- 
 tests of words, obscured the importance of things : 
 and Conscience is like the unsunned snow ; let a 
 breath touch it, and its virgin whiteness disappears. 
 But, if this state of things was fatal to the dis- 
 cernment of Truth, much more certainly, did it 
 render growth in Wisdom, impossible. Wisdom 
 is the property of harmony and nobility of Soul ; 
 and no more the result of Knowledge per se, 
 than of the exercise of the meanest mechanical 
 employment. The assertion may seem harsh, if 
 
 617 
 
PRO 
 
 not paradoxical ; but ask History nay, circum- 
 spice. Does knowledge emancipate ? Are special 
 acquirements, coveted for special ends, the very 
 slightest guarantee against a poorness of sentiment 
 and heart, of which one finds the exact congener 
 among the rudest and most illiterate ? In this 
 direction, it would appear, lay the error of the 
 popular Teachers of Athens ; and with what- 
 ever individual exceptions where have ever 
 lived any extensive class of Teachers, who, at 
 these Sophists are entitled to cast a stone ? The 
 pure and large Mind of Socrates perceived the 
 destructive error; and against it, his life was a pro- 
 test. 'Make vourself virtuous and noble,' was 
 his cry, 'and your uses will come'! A message so 
 terrible and overturning, that it has never been 
 delivered in any age even in part, without ruin to 
 the Prophet. In Athens it led to Death: but 
 in Athens it was heard, and permitted to ini- 
 tiate a Revolution. In that great Democracy, the 
 Prophet had to contend with Men, but not with 
 Institutions ; therefore, although he fell, he suc- 
 ceeded. (Article Socrates). [J.P.N.] 
 
 PRODICUS, a heretic of the 2d century. 
 
 PROKOPHIEV, Ivan Prokophievitsch, a 
 famous Russian sculptor, 1758-1828. 
 
 PRONY, Gaspard C. F. Marie, Baron De, a 
 learned engineer, physician, and mathematician, 
 professor at the polytechnic school, 1755-1839. 
 
 PROPERTIES, Sextus Aurelius, a Latin 
 poet, of the age of Ovid and Virgil, who shared 
 with them the friendship of Maecenas, d. about 12. 
 
 PROSPER, St., a learned theologian and his- 
 torian of the 5th century, known for his opposition 
 to the Pelagians. He was a native of Aquitaine, 
 and survived Augustine, to whom he wrote in 427. 
 Another Prosper, who lived about the same time, 
 was a native of Africa, and wrote on the call of 
 the Gentiles. A third, called Prosper Pito, was 
 a poet and chronicler, and lived in Gaul towards 
 the end of the 4th century. His works are often 
 confounded with those of St. Prosper. 
 
 PROTAGORAS ; one of the most celebrated of 
 those Teachers of Athens, called Sophists. We 
 have spoken of them under the article Prodicus. 
 In its chief features, the philosophy of Protagoras, 
 resembled that of Locke. He denied the Absolute ; 
 and his maxim was that Man, or each Man, is the 
 measure of all Truth. 
 
 PROTOGENES, a Greek painter, 836 b.c. 
 
 PROUDHON, J. B. V., a Fr. jurist, 1758-1838. 
 
 PROVENZALE, Marcello, an artist in 
 mosaic, eel. for his portrait of Paul V., 1575-1639. 
 
 PROYART, L. B., a Fr. histor., abt. 1743-1808. 
 
 PRUDENTIUS, Aurelius, a Christian, and 
 native of Spain, author of valuable poems, b. 348. 
 
 PRUDHOMME, L., a Fr. journalist, au. of 'The 
 Errors and Crimes of the Revolution,' 1752-1830. 
 
 PRUDHON, P. P., a Fr. painter, 1760-1823. 
 
 PRYCE, William, a physician and mineralo- 
 gist, author of a Cornish Vocabula'y and Gram- 
 mar, last century. 
 
 PRYNNE, William, famous in the history of 
 English puritanism, was born of a good family at 
 Swanswick, in Somersetshire, 1600, and became a 
 barrister at law, and member of Lincoln's Inn at 
 the time when Dr. Preston, a celebrated puritan 
 divine, was lecturer there. It was the period when 
 the illegal operations of the Star Chamber, and 
 
 PRY 
 
 the courts of high commission had reduced Engl 
 to a despotism equal to that of France, while 
 manners of the age were a scandal to religion 
 good morals. Marshall, Manton, Calamy, Bur 
 and other preachers in London, kept alive 
 spirit of earnest piety and love of freedom, wl 
 soon after produced the commonwealth w 
 the mere sight of Burton, as Neale remarks, w; 
 sermon against oppression. Prynne, who w* 
 person of sour temper and austere practices, 
 markable for his indefatigable application to sti 
 begun to write in 1627, and in 1632 he published 
 ' Histriomastixf a tedious work of more tha 
 thousand pages, full of learning and curious qui 
 tions, and written against plays, masks, danc 
 and especially against women-actors. Some ] 
 sages in this work were supposed to be leve 
 against the queen, who had acted in a past 
 performed at Somerset House ; and the langr 
 of the book was certainly, like most others of' 
 age, anything but refined and compliment 
 The real cause of offence in the eyes of Archbia 
 Laud, who originated the prosecution aga 
 Prynne, was, of course, far other than this libel 
 matter, namely, the opposition of Prynne and 
 entire party to the Arminian system and the k 
 diction of the bishops. The information inch; 
 both the aspersions of the author against 
 queen and the lords of the council, for their si 
 in the diversions of the age, and his commenda 
 of ' factious persons.' The cause was tried be 
 the Star Chamber, and the condemnatioi 
 Prynne was a matter of course. After a full h< 
 ing he was sentenced to have his book bun 
 the common hangman, to be degraded frdfl 
 bar, and turned out of the society of Lincoln^ 
 to be degraded at Oxford, to stand twice in 
 pillory, at Westminster and CheapsiJe, and 
 lose one of his ears at each place, to pay a fini 
 5,000, and then to be imprisoned for life. 1 
 must have been a moderate sentence in thfli 
 of some of the lords of the council, for the 
 Dorset addressed their prisoner in these wo 
 ' Mr. Prynne, I declare you to be a schism- 
 in the church, a sedition-sower m the col 
 wealth, a wolf in sheep's clothing ; in a 
 omnium malorum nequissimus. I shall fii 
 10,000, which is more than he is 
 yet less than he deserves. I will not 81 
 at liberty, no more than a plagued man or 
 dog, who, though he can't bite will foam ; b 
 far from being a social soul that he is nol 
 tional soul. He is fit to live in dens witl 
 beasts of prey as wolves and tigers like hi 
 therefore, I condemn him to perpetual imt 
 ment ; and for corporal punishment I wool 
 him branded in the forehead, slit in the nos 
 have his ears chopped off.' The sentence wa 
 cuted, and the general raid against nonconfa 
 caused many to seek refuge in Holland. Ii 
 Prynne, though in prison, wrote another 
 entitled 'News from Ipswich' against the s 
 of Laud, (see Laud), and being condemned 
 to another fine of 5,000, and to lose the re 
 der of his ears, had the very stumps hack 
 and was branded on both cheeks in the pn 
 of indignant thousands, on the 30th of June, 
 In this last sentence Burton the famous pre 
 and Bastwickthe physician, were included wit 
 
 CIS 
 
PEZ 
 
 the former was accompanied on his road to 
 on by a vast concourse of the populace. In 1640 
 ane was chosen member of the long parliament 
 ilewport, and was then released by order of the 
 ise of Commons, together with his fellow-suf- 
 s, and they entered London in the midst of a 
 nphant procession which met them some miles 
 i town. The House of Commons likewise voted 
 1 money in compensation, which they never got, 
 msequence of the disturbed state of the times, 
 cruel punishment these men had undergone ex- 
 the spirit of the nation, and prepared it for the 
 ge of government, yet Prynne was no party 
 lose measures, and when Colonel Pride took 
 sssion of the house, he was among the ex- 
 id members ; he also published a ' Memento ' 
 ist the trial of the king, for which he was im- 
 ned by the parliament. His subsequent his- 
 is that of an enemy of Cromwell, and having 
 1 in the restoration of Charles II., he was ap- 
 id chief keeper of the records in the Tower, 
 ied in that office at his chambers in Lincoln's 
 669. Wood calculates that he wrote a sheet 
 . for every day of his lifetime after reaching 
 estate. His custom was, when he studied, 
 on a long quilted cap, which came an inch 
 is eyes, serving as an umbrella to defend 
 from too much light ; and seldom eating a 
 would every three hours or more be munch- 
 11 of bread, and now and then refresh his 
 ted spirits with ale. To this (says the 
 of Neale) Butler seems to allude in his 
 to his muse : 
 
 hou that with ale or viler liquors 
 )idst inspire Withers, Prynne, or Vicars, 
 ' id teach them, though it were in spite 
 
 'nature and their stars, to write.' 
 
 forks amount to forty volumes, folio and 
 
 The most valuable, and a very useful 
 
 ice, is his ' Collection of Records ' in four 
 
 )lumes. [E.R.] 
 
 JMYSLAS, a king of Poland, who seized 
 
 on the death of Lesko VI. 1295, and 
 
 sinated 1296. 
 
 'COVIUS, Samuel, a Polish statesman 
 Jot of the Socinians, b. abt. 1592, d. 1670. 
 "jMANAZAR, George, generally regarded 
 assumed name of a singular character, 
 to the literary world in the time of Dr. 
 who at one period associated with him. 
 
 S posed to have been born in France about 
 e was the principal author of the ' Uni- 
 "' tory,' and wrote a volume of Scriptural 
 la version of the Psalms, and his own Me- 
 Died 1763. 
 [ENITUS, the last Egyptian king named 
 )tus, sue. his father, Amasis, B.C. 525, 
 by Cambyses after a reign of six months. 
 Jf MIS, a king of Egypt, 599-594 B.C. 
 'IMETICHUS,akingofEgypt,whoreigned 
 years, during fifteen of which he was 
 ' to divide his power with eleven other 
 He reigned alone from 652 to 614 
 was succeeded by his son, Necho. Ano- 
 imetichus reigned 400-397 B.C. A 
 Corinth, of the same name, reigned 585- 
 after whose time the republican form of 
 lent was established. 
 [MUS, a king of Egypt, 819-810 B.C. 
 
 PTO 
 
 PSAMMUTHIS, a king of Egypt, 380-379 b.c. 
 
 PSAUME, N., a French theologian, 1518-1575. 
 
 PSELLUS, Michael Constamtine, a Greek 
 physician, known as a classical commentator and 
 mathematician, about 1105. Another Psellus, 
 called Michael the Elder, wrote a work, ' De 
 Operatione Daemonum,' in the 9th century. 
 
 PSINACHES, a king of Egypt, who is said to 
 have reigned from 1021 to 1013 B.C. 
 
 PSUSENNES, the first of the name, king of 
 Egypt, 1077-1037 B.C. The second, 1013-979 B.C. 
 
 PSYCHRISTUS, a physician of the 5th cent. 
 
 PTOLEMY (Soter) L, king of Egypt, natural 
 son of Philip of Macedon, and an officer of Alex- 
 ander the Great, succeeded to the government of 
 Egypt on the death of the latter b.c. 324. He 
 took the title of king 307, and raised the new 
 capital of Egypt to the highest importance as the 
 centre of commerce and learning. The museum 
 and library founded by him gave birth to the fam- 
 ous Alexandrian school Died B.C. 283. Ptolemy 
 (Philadelphia) II., eldest son of the preceding 
 by Berenice, began to reign in conjunction with 
 his father 285, and became sole king 283. His 
 reign fully sustained the reputation of the former, 
 especially by his generous patronage of letters, one 
 example of which is the Septuagint version of the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, which he caused to be exe- 
 cuted. Died b.c. 247. Ptolemy (Euergetes) 
 III., son and successor of the preceding, continued 
 his policy, and carried his victorious arms into 
 Syria, Cilicia, and the whole country to the shore 
 of the Euphrates. He restored the idols and much 
 of the wealth ravished by Cambyses, and died, 
 after a short reign, b.c. 222 or 221. Ptolemy 
 (Philopator) IV., son and successor of the pro- 
 ceding, whom he was suspected of having mur- 
 dered, was a cruel and debauched character. He 
 was named Philopator (lover of his father), ironi- 
 cally. He caused his wife, Arsinoe, who was 
 also his sister, to be put to death, and sustained a 
 furious war with Antiochus the Great, whom he 
 defeated near Gaza. Died B.C. 205. Ptolemy 
 (Epiphanes) V., son of the preceding, was born 
 b.c. 210, became king 205, and was poisoned by 
 his courtiers 180. He brought the Romans into 
 Egypt by appealing to them for protection against 
 Antiochus the Great. He left three children 
 Ptolemy Philometor, Ptolemy Physcon, and Cleo- 
 patra, who was successively the wife of her two 
 brothers. Ptolemy (Philometor) VI., son of 
 the preceding and Cleopatra of Syria, was born 
 b.c. 186, commenced his reign at the age of five 
 years 181, protected by his mother. He was de- 
 feated by Antiochus, and compelled to admit his 
 brother to a share in the government 171. Died 
 of his wounds, fighting against Alexander Balas in 
 Syria, 146. Ptolemy (Euergetes) VII., brother 
 of Philometor, became guardian of the young king, 
 Ptolemy Eupator, and the year after superseded 
 him on the throne by espousing the queen mother, 
 Cleopatra, 145. He then killed Eupator, and con- 
 tinued his reign, stained with debaucheries and 
 cruelty, till 117 or 116 b.c. Ptolemy (Soter) 
 VIIL, son of the preceding and Cleopatra, suc- 
 ceeded 116, and sustained a war against nis mother, 
 who preferred her other son, Ptolemy IX., till 
 106. After the death of Cleopatra and the expul- 
 sion of Ptolemy IX., who haa usurped the throne 
 
 619 
 
PTO 
 
 in 88, he assumed the sovereign authority, and 
 died 81 b.c. He left the crown to his daughter, 
 Berenice, called also Cleopatra. Ptolemy (Alex- 
 ander) IX., second son of Ptolemy VII. and 
 Cleopatra, usurped the kingdom a short time dur- 
 ing the reign of the preceding, and was dethroned, 
 after murdering his "mother Cleopatra, 88. Pto- 
 lemy (Alexander) X., son of the preceding, 
 succeeded Ptolemy VIII. 81, under the patronage 
 of the Romans in the time of Sylla, He married 
 Berenice Cleopatra, whom he caused to be assassi- 
 nated, for which he was himself massacred after a 
 reign of nineteen days. Ptolemy (Auletes) 
 XL, a natural son of Ptolemy VIII., was the only 
 descendant of this line of princes after the tragedy 
 just mentioned. He assumed the royal authority 
 81 B.C., but was not acknowledged king till 59. 
 In 58 he was obliged to fly from Alexandria, and 
 was in Rome, soliciting assistance to re-establish 
 himself, till 55. He was then restored by Gabinius, 
 the governor of Syria and lieutenant-general of 
 Pompey, and died 52. Ptolemy (Dionysius) 
 XII., eldest son of the preceding, succeeded to the 
 throne conjointly with his sister, Cleopatra, under 
 the protection of Pompey, 52. He became a parti- 
 zan of Csesar in the civil wars, and after the battle 
 of Pharsalia caused Pompey to be assassinated, 
 who sought refuge in his states, 48. Aspiring to 
 be sole King, he then took arms against Caesar, 
 who had decided that Cleopatra should continue 
 to reign with him, and was drowned in the Nile 
 while flying from the field of battle, B.C. 47. 
 Ptolemy XIII., younger brother of the preceding, 
 was eleven years of age when Cleopatra was left 
 sole mistress of Egypt by his death. She was 
 compelled to marry hiim by Caesar, and he reigned 
 with her till his death, 44 or 43 B.C. Ptolemy 
 (C^esarion) XIV., an illegitimate son of Csesar 
 and Cleopatra, obtained the title of king from the 
 Roman triumvirs, B.C. 42. He was killed by order 
 of Augustus at the age of eighteen, B.C. 30. 
 
 PTOLEMY, two kings of Macedonia : theirs*, 
 surnamed A lorites, a natural son of Amnyntas II., 
 usurped the throne to the prejudice of his brother, 
 Perdiccas, B.C. 371, and was dethroned by Pelo- 
 pidas 368. The second, surnamed Craunus, eldest 
 son of Ptolemy Soter and Euridice, succeeded B.C. 
 284, and was killed in battle with the Gauls 280. 
 
 PTOLEMY APION, king of Cyrene, and all 
 the Libyan dependencies of Egypt, was a son of 
 Ptolemy VII. and his mistress Irene, and suc- 
 ceeded 117 or 116 B.C. by the will of his father. 
 He died b.c. 96, and bequeathed his estates to the 
 Romans, who declined the bargain for a time, and 
 gave the people their liberty. 
 
 PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA, a son of An- 
 tony and Cleopatra, was made king of Syria, 
 Phoenicia, and Cilicia, by his father B.C. 32. He 
 never reigned, however, but lived at the court of 
 Juba, king of Numidia, having first graced the 
 triumph of Augustus together with his brother, 
 Alexander, and his sister Cleopatra. 
 
 PTOLEMY, king of Cyprus, a natural son of 
 Ptolemy VIII., succeeded to the sovereignty of that 
 island at the death of his father b.c. 81. The 
 Romans having resolved to reduce his kingdom to 
 a province, he was poisoned B.C. 58. 
 
 PTOLEMY, king of Mauritania, son of Juba 
 II. and Cleopatra, daughter of Mark Antony and 
 
 PUF 
 
 of the last Cleopatra of Egypt, began to reigj 
 or 20 b.c. Killed by order of Caligula a.d. 4 
 
 PTOLEMY, one of the petty sovereigns 
 reigned in Syria after the fall of the Seleueides, 
 ceeded his father, Menneus, probably as g. 
 priest, 86 B.C. After the conquest of Mithnc 
 the Great, he was protected by Pompey, and 
 about 21 b.c. He was succeeded by his 
 Lysanias, at whose death the Lebanon soverei 
 was given to Cleopatra. 
 
 PIOLEMY, an Egyptian priest and histc 
 flourished in the reign of Augustus. 
 
 PTOLEMY, Claudius, one of the most | 
 tinguished men of Science of Antiquity : he 
 dunng the first half of the second century;! 
 his works on Astronomy and Geography 
 tinued authorities and text-books for foui 
 hundred years. In consequence of the close i 
 nection between Ptolemy and Hipparchus, *i 
 discoveries he reported, and whose labours hej 
 tinued, it is difficult to detect Ptolemy's p 
 deservings: but Delambre has evidently don| 
 injustice from a desire to exalt Hipparchus. 
 larger portion of the Planetary theory, as thai 
 represented by the scheme of Epicycles, is un 
 tionably due to him; and his great work- 
 Almagest, or Syntax, is the only complete si 
 matic work on Astronomy which the ancient' 
 produced. As a geographer, Ptolemy is dj 
 guished from Strabo: the work of the Ian 
 confined to descriptive geography; while til 
 Ptolemy is mathematical. A very 
 edition of it has recently appeared m Gen| 
 The Astronomical and Chronological wot 
 Ptolemy, along with the Commentaries of 1] 
 were edited and published along with a i 
 translation, in six handsome quarto volume] 
 the Abbe Halma. [J. 
 
 PTOLEMY of Lucca, the ecclesiastical \ 
 assumed by Bartolomeo Fiadoni, an hisl] 
 14th century. 
 
 PUBITSKA, F., a Bohemian hist., 172* 
 
 PUBLICOLA, Publius Valerius, su( 
 of Collatinus as consul and founder of the 1 
 republic, 509 B.C., died 501. 
 
 PUBLIUS SYRIUS, a Latin poet or draril 
 of whose writings some fragments, or mo| 
 fences, are preserved in the works of Sene 
 was a native of Syria, and went to Rome 
 condition of a slave about 50 B.C. 
 
 PUCCI, F., an Italian theologian, died 1 j 
 
 PUCELLE, R., a French lawyer, 16554' 
 
 PUCELLE. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 PUFFENDORF, Samuel, a historian, 
 and naturalist, was born at Chemnitz in j 
 in the year 1632. He was educated at if 
 for the protestant ministry, but the bent i 
 mind was in another direction. Through 1 
 strumentality of his elder brother he 
 diplomatic service of Sweden. In the 
 his duty he was detained at Copenhagen d 
 rupture between Sweden and Denmark, 
 said to have been during this period of 
 leisure that he turned from the practice I 
 theory of diplomacy and international re] 
 In the year 1660 he published his we 
 ' Elementa Jurisprudential Uni 
 twelve years afterwards, the still better 
 'De Jure Natura? et Gentium.' He 
 
 620 
 
PUG 
 
 orical works, chiefly directed to gratify his 
 Tned employes, which have only heen known 
 e they were written by the author of the 
 e on the law of nature and nations. This 
 owed its existence in a great measure to 
 original labours of Grotius. Puffendorf had a 
 r and systematic mind, and a great capacity 
 jeeing and developing views which were rational 
 plausible, if not profound. In this he re- 
 bled the Scottish school of philosophers with 
 m his works, and especially a small ethical 
 arise ' De Officio Hominis et Civis,' were 
 ned of great authority. His views on the 
 nalous position of the German empire created 
 ast controversy, and such political influence 
 t has been rare for theoretical writers to 
 te. He died at Berlin, where he had been 
 led by the elector of Brandenburgh, in 
 [J.H.B.] 
 GATSCHEFF, Jemeljan or Yemelka, a 
 k general, who obtained military rank in 
 ssian and Austrian armies, and afterwards 
 ed himself off as Peter III., emperor of Russia, 
 k the field in 1773, and, soon at the head 
 6,000 men, he was marching on Moscow, 
 he was betrayed and executed 1775. 
 GET, L. De, a French naturalist, 1629-1709. 
 GET, Peter, one of the greatest artists 
 by France, distinguished as a sculptor, 
 tect, painter, and ship-builder, 1622-1694. 
 n, Francis, an architect and painter, d. 1707. 
 GHE, William Owen, a Welch literateur, 
 
 of a Lexicon and other works, 1760-1835. 
 GIN, A., a French designer, died 1832. 
 GIN, Augustus Northmore Welby, was 
 of a French gentleman who fled to England 
 period of the revolution. He was born in 
 and commenced his professional career as a 
 painter and decorator at the Theatre Royal, 
 it Garden : he published his first work, on 
 ic Furniture,' in 1835, and ' The Glossary of 
 ' stical Ornament ' in 1844. Died 1852. 
 AYE, Count Joseph De, a French officer 
 family, who sat as a deputy in the states- 
 , and, being proscribed by the republic, in- 
 the English government to undertake the 
 ition to Quiberon ; died in England 1827. 
 
 SANT, L., a Fr. geometrician, 1769-1843. 
 JOL, A., a Fr. medical writer, 1739-1804. 
 JOULX, J. B., a dramatist, 1762-1821. 
 
 HERIA, jElia, saint and empress of the 
 was daughter of Arcadius and Eudoxia. She 
 rn at Constantinople 399, and governed the 
 under the name of her brother, Theodosius, 
 age of fifteen to the year 447, when she was 
 After the death of Theodosius in 450, she 
 imed empress, and ruled with Marcianus, 
 she married, till her death in 453. She was 
 of exemplary conduct, and has the credit 
 bling the council of Chalcedon in 451. 
 T, Luizr, an Italian poet, 1431-1487. 
 AR, F. De, a Spanish historian, 1436-86. 
 GO, D., an Italian painter, 1475-1527. 
 '.US, or PULLER, R., anEnglish cardinal, 
 d the university of Oxford, 12th cent. 
 NEY, R., a dist. botanist, 1730-1801. 
 TENEY, William, earl of Bath, descended 
 n old family of Leicestershire, was born 
 and commenced his career in parliament in 
 
 PUR 
 
 1705. He became a privy councillor and secre- 
 tary of war at the accession of George I., being 
 then a friend and partizan of Walpole. He after- 
 wards became the enemy of that minister, and was 
 associated with Bolingbroke as editor of the Crafts- 
 man. Died 1764. 
 
 PULZONE, S., an Italian painter, 1550-1588. 
 
 PUNT, J., a Dutch painter, 1711-1779. 
 
 PUPIENUS. See Maximus Clodius. 
 
 PURCELL, Henry, the greatest of English 
 musicians, was born in 1658, as it is believed, in 
 Westminster. His father and uncle were both 
 musicians, and gentlemen of the Chapel Royal at 
 the Restoration. It is known that Purcell's father 
 died in 1664, so that the young musician could not 
 have received much benefit from his instructions. 
 It is not a little to be wondered at that there is no 
 account of from whom he received his first lessons 
 in musical art, though from the circumstance that 
 he was entered as one of the children of the chapel 
 when Cook was master, it is inferred that he had 
 under him commenced his education. He is sup- 
 
 S)sed, also, to have received lessons from Pelham 
 umphreys, and afterwards from Dr. Blow, on 
 whose tombstone was inscribed that he had been 
 ' master to the famous Mr. Henry Purcell.' While 
 still a boy, Purcell composed several Anthems that 
 were thought worthy of being performed, and some 
 of these juvenile essays in composition are in use 
 in the English cathedrals to the present time. At 
 eighteen years of age he was appointed organist at 
 Westminster Abbey; and at twenty-four he was 
 promoted to one of the three places of organist to 
 the Chapel Royal. After this his fame was spread 
 far and wide, and his sacred compositions were 
 sought after with greediness and listened to with a 
 feeling akin to religious rapture. From this period 
 until thirty years after his death, his songs took 
 precedence of all others, and only at length gave 
 way before the fashionable operatic songs of the 
 greater Handel. The works of Purcell embrace 
 every species of composition then known, and all 
 were far beyond those of his contemporaries. Pur- 
 cell's first dramatic writings were to the songs in 
 Nahum Tate's ' Dido and iEneas.' He afterwards 
 composed music for Nat Lee's 'Theodosius, or the 
 Force of Love,' which was performed at the Duke's 
 theatre in 1690. In the same year he composed 
 music for the 'Tempest.' In 1691 he set the 
 songs of Dryden's, ' King Arthur' to original music. 
 In 1692 ' The Indian Queen,' by Sir R. Howard 
 and Dryden was brought out with music by Purcell. 
 He next wrote music for D'Urfey's 'Don Quixote.' 
 In D'Urfey's ' Pills to Purge Melancholy' several 
 of his songs are published, as also in Playford's 
 ' Singing Master.' In 1695 he composed music for 
 'Boadicea.' He also wrote airs, overtures, and 
 interludes for many dramas. He composed three 
 cantatas, two of which ' Mad Bess ' and ' From 
 Rosy Bowers,' are still ranked as unrivalled works 
 of their kind. After his death, which happened in 
 November, 1695, his widow collected and published 
 his works in 2 volumes folio, under the title of 
 ' Orpheus Britannicus.' It is said of Purcell 'that 
 his anthems far exceed in number those of any 
 other composer, and would alone have furnished 
 sufficient employment for a moderately active mind, 
 and a life of average duration.' Purcell's remains 
 were deposited in Westminster Abbey, where a 
 621 
 
PUR 
 
 tablet to his memory maybe seen, with the follow- 
 ing inscription, said to be from the pen of Dry- 
 den : ' Here lies Henry Purcell, Esq., who left 
 this life, and is gone to that blessed place, where 
 only his own harmony can be exceeded. Obiit. 
 21mo die Novembris, Anno setatis suae 37mo 
 Annoq. Domini 1695.' [J.M.] 
 
 PURCHAS, Samuel, a native of Essex, editor 
 of a collection of voyages andtravels, abt. 1577-1628. 
 
 PURE, M. De, a French writer, 1634-1680. 
 
 PURI, D., a Swiss philanthropist, 1709-1786. 
 
 PURI, J. P., a Swiss traveller, last century. 
 
 PURVER, Anthony, a poor rustic of Hamp- 
 shire, who mastered the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin 
 languages, and executed an English version of the 
 Scriptures, which was printed at the cost of Dr. 
 Fothergill. While engaged in these studies he 
 settled at Andover as a schoolmaster, and finally 
 became a preacher among the quakers. Born 
 about 1702, died 1777. 
 
 PUSCHKIN, A. S.. a Russian poet, 1799-1837. 
 
 PUSSORT, H., a French jurist, 1615-1697. 
 
 PUTTEN, Henry Van Der, called in Latin 
 Fyicirus Puteanus, and in French Dupuy, a learned 
 Dutch writer and poet, 1574-1646. 
 
 PUTTENHAM, George, an Oxford scholar, 
 kn. as a poet in the age of Elizabeth, d. abt. 1600. 
 
 PUTTER, J. S., a Germ, publicist, 1725-1807. 
 
 PUY, A. J. Du, a Fr. statesman, 1753-1832. 
 
 PUY, H. Du. See Putten. 
 
 PUY, Louis Du, a Fr. literateur, 1709-1795. 
 
 PUY, Pierre, Du, a learned French antiqua- 
 rian, historian, and theologian, 1582-1651. 
 
 PUY-SEGUR, James De Chastenet, Vis- 
 count De, a French officer, who was at thirty 
 battles and a hundred and twenty sieges without 
 ever receiving a wound. He was born in 1600, and 
 is author of Memoirs relating to the period, 1617 
 to 1658 ; died 1682. His son, James Francis, 
 commander-in-chief in the French Netherlands 
 and marshal of France, author of 'The Art of 
 War,' 1655-1743. The son of the latter, Francis 
 Maximus De Chastenet, Marquis de Puysegur, 
 a lieutenant-general, and writer on church pro- 
 perty and the military art in China, 1716-1782. 
 His second son, Anthony Hyacinthe Anne De 
 Chastenet De Puysegur, better known as the 
 Count de Chastenet, a navigator and archaeologist, 
 1752-1802. P. L. De Chastenet, Comte De 
 Puysegur, son of the marshal, an officer and 
 minister of war, 1727-1807. J. Augustus, brother 
 of the latter, a distinguished prelate and deputy 
 of the estates - general, 1740-1803. Armand 
 Marie James, son of the minister of war, camp- 
 marshal and physician, famous for his zeal in the 
 propagation of animal magnetism, 1782-1825. 
 
 PUZOS, N, a French accoucheur, 1686-1753. 
 
 PUY, or PYE, H. J., a native of London, suc- 
 cessor of Wharton as poet-laureate, 1745-1813. 
 
 PYLE, Thomas, a minister of the Church of 
 England, known as a Scripture commentator, and 
 partizan of Hoadley in the Bangorian contro- 
 versy, 1674-1756. 
 
 PYM, John, member for Tavistock in all the 
 parliaments of Charles I., and leader of the House 
 of Commons during the struggle preceding the 
 parliamentary wars, was born in Somersetshire, 
 1584, and educated at Oxford. He was the orator 
 of the day, and such was his popularity, that he 
 
 PYM 
 
 was called ' King Pym.' The events which 
 his career fill a considerable space in English 
 tory. In 1626-1628 he was among those 
 managed the impeachment of the duke of B' 
 ingham and Dr. Manwaring the latter for his 
 mon on the regal prerogative, in which he ar : 
 that the consent of parliament was not neces 
 for the levying of taxes, and that the Divine 
 require implicit obedience to the king. In 
 Pym and his party came into close relation 
 with the Scotch Covenanters. When the 
 parliament met, 3d November, 1640, he haran 
 them on the grievances of the nation, which 
 immediately took into consideration instead o 
 king's speech ; thus he was the Mirabeau oi 
 English Tennis Court. About a week aftero 
 he made a more studied and more impetuous 
 course on grievances, and impeached the ea 
 Strafford not only of crimes against the state 
 of immoralities ; he was also one of the mam 
 of his trial, as, in short, he was always at the 
 of the public business, and knew more of p; 
 mentary matters than any man living. In F< 
 ary, 1641, he spoke against Archbishop Lau 
 occasion of his impeachment, and after the e: 
 tion of that prelate he became chairman o 
 committee appointed by the House of Com 
 during the recess, which lasted from 9th Septe 
 to 20th October, by which committee the sove 
 authority was in some measure exercised, 
 next great event, beginning of 1642, was tin 
 peachment of the five members, Hollis, Ha* 
 Hampden, Pym, and Strode, who were denu 
 by the king for treasonable practices, and 
 tected by the city ; on this occasion the km 
 London, apprehensive of his personal a 
 Pym, therefore, saw the commencement o. 
 final struggle between Charles I. and his p 
 ment, but he died before any decisive adv* 
 had been obtained, on the 8th of December,] 
 about a month after he had been appoint 
 tenant of the ordnance. It was reported a j 
 the royalists that the cause of his death wa 
 bus pedicuhsus ; and in order to dispro? 
 calumny his body was exposed for several dil 
 the public gaze ; afterwards, it was attended < 
 grave in Westminster Abbey by most of 
 and commons in parliament. Shortly ' 
 death Pym published a ' Vindication ' 
 duct. After alluding to the divisions 
 by the bishops, and their encouragemen 
 malignants, he adds : ' For these reasons 
 my opinion for abolishing their functions, 
 conceive may as well be done as the dissoli 
 monasteries, monks, and friars, was in Kinjj 
 the Eighth's time : ' he concludes with 
 that he was not the author of the present i 
 tions ; with acknowledging the king for his 
 sovereign; and with the honest convictitf 
 when he was persecuted as a traitor merely) 
 service of his country, no man could blame I 
 taking care of his own safety by flying 
 to the protection of parliament, who were ] 
 to make his cause their own. The purit* 
 shall attended Pym's deathbed, and in the f 
 sermon which he preached before ] arli: " 
 passed the highest eulogium on the strict no 
 piety, and serenity of the depart- 
 statesman. It is admitted that Pym was on 
 
 022 
 

PYN 
 
 [ret to urge the necessity of appealing to the 
 
 |vord. On the restoration of Charles II., Pytn's 
 
 ody was dug up in Henry the Seventh's chapel, 
 
 lth those of about twenty others, including the 
 
 iillant Admiral Blake, the mother of Cromwell, 
 
 iid his daughter Mrs. Claypole, andtransferred to 
 
 e neighbouring churchyard. He is said to have 
 
 ft several children, and his lady, who died in 
 
 20, is reported to have been a highly accom- 
 
 ished woman. [E.R.] 
 
 'PYNAKKER, A., a Dutch painter, 1621-1673. 
 
 PYNSON, Richard. See Pinson. 
 
 PYRA, J. E., a German poet, 1715-1744. 
 
 PYRRHO, born at Elis, where he lived about 
 
 > rear 340 B.C. Plato was then dead : disputa- 
 
 'ns had arisen in the Academy, which bad not 
 
 a the fortune to obtain a second master : Aris- 
 
 itle attacked it on all sides ; and philosophy 
 
 s in confusion. In the midst of these quarrels, 
 
 I remarkable person we have named arose, and 
 ^claimed as the dogma of his Philosophy and 
 
 II rule of Life ' I know nothing about it and 
 i tain.' Of a man who wrote nothing, and 
 lose character must be gathered from scraps 
 served by auditors, it is impossible to speak 
 in decision ; but to his power over his contem- 
 daries, and, therefore, to his genius, the singular 
 tbahnment of his name bears ample testimony. 
 ( at mistakes have prevailed regarding the doc- 
 ties of Pyrrho : notable Greeks had never so 
 lie common sense, as a personage like what he 
 i rulgarly imagined to have been : the stories 
 a nt his doubting the evidence of his senses, and 
 v ully butting against any post or rock in his 
 
 simply absurd even more so than 
 
 nilar myths, once prevalent regarding 
 
 u shrewd and sagacious compatriot David 
 
 We shall learn the nature of Pyrrho's 
 
 n, through reflection on his position. The 
 
 Kjme he propounded, or rather the resource to 
 
 lied, was simply a tertium quid, in refer- 
 
 I to Affirmative and Negative systems, 
 
 y in his time. Now what were these? 
 
 but the very conflict waging in philoso- 
 
 ud ourselves the conflict, viz., between 
 
 Iilism and Sensualism between doctrines of 
 
 lute, and of the dependence of the Mind 
 
 s functions, on the shows and events of ex- 
 
 Ntture. There are two Schools, said 
 
 whose systems, viewed from their differ- 
 
 ^Hte of sight, appear equally probable ; and 
 
 IHfcion of the strength of the arguments 
 
 8U lining them seems to be par. Is it not 
 
 y then, that the problem sought to be 
 
 is really insoluble by the human facul- 
 
 therefore, that the true position, of the 
 
 > : ie of Indifference ? In the principle of a 
 
 u of this sort, there is certainly nothing 
 
 : it involves little more than we find in 
 
 >mies of Kant: assuredly it has firmer 
 
 than thousands of popular dogmatisms on 
 
 HHe. There is no reason whatever to suppose 
 
 'ho's doctrines went beyond this: he 
 
 i^d subjective certainty, or sought to 
 
 HV&the evidence of consciousness. One cau- 
 
 Ethe student may be repeated : he ought 
 
 to credit the follies, attributed to these 
 
 ve Greeks ; for, if eminently speculative, 
 
 re, in their quality of natural Artists, 
 
 PYT 
 
 eminently clear and practical also. There is a 
 maxim of Coleridge's, which should, in no attempt 
 at interpretation, be at any time lost sight of: 
 ' Never suppose that you understand a man's 
 Ignorance, until you are sure that you are not 
 ignorant of his Understanding.'' [J.P.N.] 
 
 [Pyrrhus From an Antique Bust.] 
 
 PYRRHUS, son of iEcides, and king of Epirus, 
 one of the most illustrious generals of antiquity, 
 was born about 318 B.C., and was left an orphan 
 in childhood under the protection of Glaucias, 
 king of Illyria. He was placed on the throne of 
 his ancestors by force of arms when about twelve 
 years of age, and reigned peacefully five years, 
 when advantage was taken of his absence to 
 transfer the crown to his great uncle, Neoptolemus. 
 After serving in the army of Alexander the Great, 
 and greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of 
 Ipsus, B.C. 301, Pyrrhus recovered his domin- 
 ions, which he shared with his rival, and then 
 caused the latter to be put to death. He next 
 contended with the Romans for possession of the 
 dominions of Alexander the Great, and became 
 master of Macedon. Among his principal battles 
 was that of 279 b.c. against the Roman consuls 
 Sulpicius and Decius. He was killed, gallantly 
 fighting, at the siege of Argos, B.C. 272. The life 
 of Pyrrhus is one of the most interesting written 
 by Plutarch. [ E -R-] 
 
 PYTHAGORAS lived, according to the chron- 
 ology of Clinton, about 570 b.c. Cicero tells 
 us, he settled in Magna Graecia, in the fourth year 
 of Tarquinius Superbtjs, or when Rome had 
 begun to rise between 520 and 530 B.C. : One 
 of the most august Forms of which we can descry 
 any outline, through these long twenty-four cen- 
 turies ; nor, if we reflect, how thickly the mists 
 have settled around all acts and Actors of that far 
 past, can it be wonderful, that, as if his Shadow 
 only, is now to be discerned. Before attempting 
 to lay down on a modern canvas, even a space 
 for that Shadow, we must consent to a few princi- 
 ples of applicable historic criticism. And, foremost 
 of all, it is imperative that we disconnect not only 
 with Reality or Fact, but also with the pretensions, 
 and therefore with the reputation of this memor- 
 able Teacher, every shred of the marvellous thrtt 
 so soon got fastened to his name. Not merely the 
 
 
 623 
 
PYT 
 
 story of the golden thigh a myth of the vulgarest 
 kind, and valuable only as evidence that such 
 myths spring up and endure, but also those 
 manifold traditions concerning his supernatural 
 instruction ; for assuredly in the tales of his initia- 
 tion in the cave of the Cretan Jupiter, or that his 
 system of morals flowed direct from inspired lips 
 at Delphi, there is nothing beyond incidents of 
 travel occurring to one who thirsted for all know- 
 ledge ; and disfigured through the slavish venera- 
 tion of disciples, who, instead of being fed by his 
 genius, succumbed to his authority, and slid insen- 
 sibly into such modes as those, of rendering reason 
 for their ultimate formula and final appeal the 
 ewrot i$n. Next, and with equal decision, we re- 
 ject as binding on Pythagoras, the logical schemes 
 constructed by his followers, even so early as the 
 times of Philolaus. The schools founded on the 
 name of an illustrious Master, never retain his 
 genius ; and as in default of power of Insight, and 
 the difficult power of Thought, there remains the 
 easy exercise of Logic, it uniformly befals as 
 already we have required to assert that the letter 
 of the original teaching becomes substituted for 
 its spirit ; symbols and figures of speech at first 
 simple and catholic, are adduced in defence of 
 mere dogmas and phantasms ; and worst of all 
 effective and living Morals, touching on the prac- 
 tical relations of Man with Society and God, are 
 displaced by arid Theory. This is the process by 
 which, in the words of a remarkable writer of our 
 own day, Wisdom, is dried for sale and exporta- 
 tion ; and has not its pestilence followed the steps 
 of all mighty Instructors, whose feet have ever 
 touched the soil of our World ? Let us not charge 
 to Pythagoras, that doctrine which defines the 
 Physical World by the number Jive, the Veget- 
 able by the number six, the Animal by seven, 
 Human Life by eight, Ultramundane Life by 
 nine, and the Divine Life by the As*o, or Ten ! 
 The Mind that has left so great a remembrance, 
 and which fills that imposing portion of the sphere 
 of Antiquity, did not gain its influence over the 
 working Manhood by its time, through the concoc- 
 tion or preaching of enigmas like these ! 
 Lastly: we must not approach these ancient philo- 
 sophies, or undertake their interpretation, as if 
 they were inherently mysterious, or different in 
 kind, from the aspirations of great and sincere 
 Thinkers of our own day : The concealed lore of 
 Egyptian priests, the secrets at Eleusis or Samo- 
 thrace, were neither knowledge nor philosophies, 
 but presumption and pretence, founded on the 
 abuse of both. Greatness in Antiquity, is like 
 Greatness now, its foremost affection being for 
 the simplicity of Truth ; and to the right appre- 
 hension of what that Greatness was, there is no 
 path save one. The Ingenuous alone can under- 
 stand the Ingenuous: The worthy Seeker, will 
 ever carry along with him, faith in Greatness and 
 reverence for it ; but this conviction, also, that, 
 to whatever extent careful criticism of the influ- 
 ences and circumstances, within which an Ancient 
 Teacher lived, does not enable us to trans- 
 late his thoughts into the universal language 
 of the Heart and Reason of Humanity, to that 
 same extent must he be held as severed from 
 the Present, and therefore effaced from its 
 Past. Under such dim but guiding lights, let us, 
 
 PYT 
 
 as best we may, and with rapid crayon, proceed t i 
 sketch the features of the Crotonian 
 sage. And first, as to the positi 
 which Pythagoras started. He could have n] 
 starting point except the fundamental ldi 
 Ionian School, which, in an enlarged sen 
 fundamental Idea of all Greek philoso]/ 
 beneath the endless forms and singular cl 
 outward things, there is some great I 
 Principle, just as the unfathomed and de< 
 ing ocean, rests underneath the billows 1 1 
 each other across its surface, and die in ri 
 the shore. Now the Ionians, or tihephysit 
 sought this principle in a common physical e&i 
 ment; and, on the ground of imperfect obs 
 or ruder experiments, one imagined I 
 forms of substance could be traced to trai 
 tions of Water; another to modifications of Am 
 and a third laid it down that Fire is the i 
 substance or Force. This form of the ge 
 conception, must be taken as our first systemat ' 
 statement of that problem, which still j^^H 
 Chemical Analysts: it is the glory of Pyt 
 that he struck out a new mode of tfa^| 
 grand search, and laid the foundation of thai 
 Physical Sciences, which look not for elements, btj 
 relations, and, through these, for ultimate Lavs-\ 
 indicating primal Forces. The most cons^H 
 and inventive Mathematician of that epocb- 
 found in Numbers, the expression of thi 
 of Quantity, and in Geometry, an or 
 could evolve the relations of Form. It v, 
 foolish to pretend, that he proceeded far, 
 reduction of phenomena within such ra^H 
 but the idea of a possible science in this 
 took strong hold of his masculine intt ' 
 Greek imagination; and he embodied the 
 tion, in the dogma of his School. These c o i 
 were deepened, and his conception of the char* I 
 ter of the Universe vastly enlarged, by what * i 
 must consider either a most fortunate g 
 a capital discovery. Struck, as could not fid! 
 a Samian, by that unsurpassed music, which h; 
 floated around him from infancy, in the 
 Lyrics, and great Epics of Troy, he seems to ha- 
 discerned that Harmony was representible 1 
 Number ; and hence the second fundamental b> i 
 lief of his Philosophy, that Harmony too is 
 and one of the first principles of Things. It m 
 not be said, that in the expression of truths 
 deep, an Inquirer, even sagacious as V) I 
 must always have avoided fantastic 63^^| 
 and mystical forms; but then his notions we 
 correct at their root, and his faith a living 
 practical one : he looked at the scheme 
 around him, no longer as perplexing, but a 
 mighty order and a solemn music, and I 
 wonder and adoration ! Should the stud 
 a tangible and veritable Image of such a phiT 
 sophy, he must not go to Philolaus, or Aj 
 Critics, but to the writings of John Kepi 
 too, spoke strangely in his youth ; but those drea 
 about relation and harmony, conducted him in 
 end to a xr*iux, it etui to Laws which produc 
 the epoch of Newton, and raised him inl i 
 lasting Name. The sage and Lawgiver of Crot 
 stands, however, towards the ancient and mode 
 world alike, in a second aspect one that sh 
 him on a platform quite above any which belon 
 
 C24 
 
PYX 
 
 i mere Speculative Physics. First, or at least 
 bst clearly in the Greek world, he felt and as- 
 ; -ted the indestructible personality of the Human 
 ifuh and that the ground of its Existence, is its 
 .;)ral State. Children laugh at the doctrine of 
 fe Metempsychosis; but observe what it really 
 (mines, and the august verities it includes. It is 
 i averment, in the first place, of the indepen- 
 I ice of the Ego, or of the Soul, not merely of 
 I rounding and changing accidents, but of its 
 sent and apparent Life, an idea, which, in its 
 jestic proportions can take possession of no 
 id, without making it great. Pythagoras, 
 sed none of these proportions. The soul is 
 isured by its moral conditions, and its fates 
 forms correspond with these. If it has done 
 I its duty in its existing state, if it has been 
 jht and elevated by experience, Death is the 
 5 towards some loftier form and more ex- 
 ded sphere : if, on the contrary, in the conflict 
 ight and wrong, it has done the wrong, and 
 ped to be a slave of passion, what fate is pos- 
 but descent, and the shape of grovelling 
 es ? Be it remembered, this metempsychosis 
 earliest practical representation of the no- 
 of Immortality ; nor is there a truer account 
 here, at so primal an age, of Man's Moral re- 
 with the Gods. The history of the Soul, 
 is supposed confined to this Earth ; and 
 ore, the modes of Terrestrial Life, are taken 
 ly presenting that History. No sublime 
 lation announcing a purely spiritual Exis- 
 had descended to illumine Pythagoras : and 
 ds beyond this, were not then imagined ; he 
 not that the lights of the midnight Vault 
 hty Orbs, stretching upward and upward, 
 rough serene Ether, and through every 
 of circumstance and condition merg- 
 to the Infinite. Surely it is no slight 
 , and was enough to uphold his con- 
 that knowledge came to him from a 
 Source, that the mind of that illustrious 
 reached so deep an insight, and could sus- 
 large a belief. Realize now and combine 
 o foregoing conditions, those warm and 
 speculations concerning the Harmony of the 
 and that profound conviction of Man's 
 
 QUE 
 
 large destinies, and the paramount import of his 
 Moral Nature ; could a great Soul possessed by 
 both, remain in inaction, or be satisfied with mere 
 speculative teaching? Pythagoras, appears to 
 have added that highest attribute of Humanity 
 Wisdom, or the power practically to understand 
 Mankind, and therefore to influence our Human 
 Fates. Hence, his memorable effort in Magna 
 Graecia to found a new Moral Commonwealth 
 the first and the best Utopia, of which we have 
 any record ; the excellence of its aim flowing from 
 the character and principles of its Founder, and 
 its sagacity demonstrated by its great success. 
 Ignorance and external circumstance eventually 
 prevailed to crash it ; but many ages elapsed, ere 
 the fame of the great confederacy of Crotona, faded 
 in Greece. We know little that is certain, of the 
 positive laws of that Confederacy ; but its founda- 
 tion was this, as Harmony is the rale of Uni- 
 versal Nature, and the cause of its Stability, so 
 must it be the rule of all Human Societies, which 
 fulfil their object and may reach permanence. It 
 is not easy to refuse assent to such a conceptions 
 neither can one overlook that while it involve; 
 the germ of all Utopias, framed from that time 
 until now it expresses also, that which, as it 
 becomes realized, constitutes the history of Civili- 
 zation. It is probable that Pythagoras, like his 
 successors, hoped too much from mere laws and 
 external conditions of Order, and trusted too little 
 to that inner and unseen order, which ordains that 
 the ultimate sum of the World, shall be worked 
 out by the efforts, and even through the imperfec- 
 tions of the Individual ; nevertheless, his august 
 Name must stand far up in that bright roll of 
 Worthies, who have practically held by Reason, 
 and not despaired of Humanity. Let the great 
 Shade, have all honour. [J.P.N.] 
 
 PYTHEAS, a celebrated mathematician, astro- 
 nomer, and geographer, born in the Greek colony 
 of Marseilles, then called Massillia, in the time of 
 Alexander the Great. He is famous for his voyages 
 of discovery, which are said to have extended as 
 
 PYTHODORIS, a queen of Pontus, wife of Pole- 
 mon I., and queen regent during the minority of her 
 son, Polemon II., beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Q 
 
 FADE, M. F., a Prus. philologist, 1682-1757. 
 
 [ADRATUS, a bishop of Athens, known as 
 the early apologists for Christianity, 2d ct. 
 
 JADRIO, Francis Xavier, a learned Italian 
 author of a History of Poetry,' 1695-1756. 
 lGLIATI, Paolo, the earliest dramatist 
 troduced music on the stage at Rome, 1606. 
 iGLIO, G., an Italian painter, eel. abt. 1693. 
 lGLIO, Lorenzo, a native of Italy, who 
 anied his father to Vienna, and was edu- 
 uad practised there as an architect, 1730- 
 His son, Giovanni Maria, and his ne- 
 Guilio and Guiseppe, were distinguished 
 e painters, and flourished from about 1750- 
 ). Dominico, the son of Guiseppe, called 
 ualetto of Germany, 1786-1837. 
 lINI, Francisco, an Ital. painter, 1611- 
 8 son, Luigi, a pupil of Guercino, 1643-1717. 
 
 QUANZ, J. J., a Germ, musician, 1697-1773. 
 
 QUARENGHI, G., an Ital. painter, 1744-1817. 
 
 QUARIN, J., an Austrian physician, 1733-1814. 
 
 QUARLES, Fran., an Engl, poet, 1592-1614. 
 
 QUARREY, J. H., an ascetic writer, 1580-1656. 
 
 QUATREMAIRE, J. R., a Benedictine of the 
 congregation of St. Maur, kn. as a critic, 1611-71. 
 
 QUATROMANNI, Sertorius, a miscellaneous 
 Italian writer and classical translator, 1551-1606. 
 
 QUELLINUS, E., an em. Flem. painter, 1607- 
 78. John Erasmus, his son and pupil, 1630-1715. 
 
 QUENSEL, Conrad, a Swedish mathema- 
 tician, 1676-1732. A relation of his, of the same 
 names, author of ' The Swedish Flora,' 1768-1806. 
 
 QUERENGHI, Antonio, a learned Italian, 
 author of Italian and Latin poems, 1546-1633. 
 
 QUERINI, Angelo Maria, a famous Italian 
 cardinal and man of letters, 1680-1759. 
 
 625 
 
 2S 
 
QUE 
 
 QUERLON, Anne Gabriel Mkusnifr Pf, a 
 Frencli scholar, editor, and journalist, 1702-1780. 
 
 QUERNO, C, a Neapolitan poet, died 1528. 
 
 QUERSTEDT, J. A., a Ger. divine, 1617-1688. 
 
 QUER Y MARTINEZ, Joseph, a Spanish 
 physician, au. of ' The Flora of Spain,' 1695-1764. 
 
 GjUESADA, Don, a Spanish general and royalist, 
 murdered by the populace in 1836. 
 
 QUESNAY, Francois, sometimes called the 
 father of* the school of French economists, was 
 born in the village of Ecquevilli in 1694. He was 
 of peasant origin, and raised himself to notice by 
 his acquirements as a physician. He was attracted 
 from his obscure retreat to Paris, where he came 
 under the notice of the potent Pompadour, whose 
 patronage of the philosophical physician was one 
 of the best acts of her life. He published some 
 professional works, but his book on the most ad- 
 vantageous method of governing mankind, pub- 
 lished in 1768, is the achievement with which his 
 name has been chiefly connected. At the root of 
 his opinions lay a view long influential from its 
 plausibility, that as the means of human subsis- 
 tence, clothing, and generally the necessaries of 
 life come from the earth, agriculture must be con- 
 sidered the only productive kind of industry, all 
 others being secondary, as they merely modify 
 what it brings into existence. He inferred from 
 this that the peasantry class ought to be encour- 
 aged, to the neglect, or even the prejudice of others. 
 His works have strikingly illustrated the view, 
 that in such matters good is done by earnestly 
 pushing opinions, however extravagant, since it 
 was from Quesnay's teaching that the internal free 
 trade in agricultural produce promoted by Turgot, 
 and the abolition of the feudal exactions, were de- 
 rived. He died in December, 1774. [J.H.B.] 
 
 QUESNEL, Abbe, a Fr. controversialist, lastc. 
 
 QUESNEL, Baron, one of Napoleon's generals, 
 born 1775, found drowned in the Seine 1815. 
 
 QUESNEL, Pasquier, a famous theologian of 
 the Jansenist party, born at Paris 1634, died at 
 Amsterdam, where he had taken refuge, 1719. 
 
 QUESNOI, F. Du, a Flem. sculptor, 1592-1646. 
 
 QUETIF, J., a French bibliographer, 1618-98. 
 
 QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS, Francisco Go- 
 mez De, a Spanish politician, best known as a 
 poet and satirist, born at Madrid 1580, died 1645. 
 
 QUEVEDO, P., a Spanish prelate, died 1818. 
 
 QUICK, John, an Eng. comedian, 1748-1831. 
 
 QUICK, John, a nonconf. divine, 1636-1706. 
 
 QUIEN DE LA NEUFVILLE, James Le, a 
 French historian of Portugal, appointed director of 
 the posts in French Flanders, 1647-1728. 
 
 QUIGNONEZ, Francisco De, an eminent 
 Spanish cardinal and liturgical writer, died 1540. 
 
 QUILLET, C, a French poet, 1602-1661. 
 
 QUILLOT, C, a French quietist. 17th century. 
 
 QUIN, James, a celebrated actor, was the son 
 of an Irish barrister. He was born in London 
 1693, but educated in Dublin. His mother, un- 
 fortunately, turning out to be a bigamist, poor 
 Quin was treated as illegitimate, and inherited 
 nothing of his father's fortune. In 1715, with his 
 prospects thus blighted, and his education unfin- 
 ished, he sought and obtained an engagement at 
 Drury Lane, which he quitted in 1717 for the 
 theatre in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, acquiring there 
 great reputation in the stately characters of tra- 
 
 QUI 
 
 gedy ; such as Cato, Coriotanus, and Znnffcr, 
 the stronger parts in comedy, among which wi 
 Sir John Brute, Volpone, FaUtaff. Siv 
 acting at Covent Garden, and in 1735 at Dn 
 Lane, under Fleetwood, he received higher ter 
 than any actor had previously commanded, 
 pre-eminence he retained until the appearance 
 Garrick, of whom he could not conceal his env 
 and though he consented to act with the new p 
 former in 1747 at Covent Garden, yet the res 
 was so little favourable to his own position, t 
 it is evident he gradually prepared for his final 
 tirement. Quin was one of the admirers 
 patrons of Thomson, the poet of 'The Seaso 
 and, while unknown to him, spontaneously r 
 sented him with one hundred pounds to deu 
 him from an arrest ; and after the poet's death 
 peared in his tragedy of ' Coriolanus,' and spofc 
 prologue written by Lord Lyttelton, on wl 
 occasion the actor is said to nave displayed 
 common sensibility. He closed his career in IV 
 in the character of Fahtaff, which he perfon 
 for the benefit of his friend Ryan. His celeb 
 in this part was very great, and there can be 
 doubt from the accounts we have of it, that it ' 
 a masterly and intellectual performance. He i 
 at Bath, where he had resided for many yean 
 1766. His monument in Bath cathedral bean 
 epitaph written by Garrick, in a spirit of appre 
 tion highly honourable to both actors. [J. A 
 
 QUINAULT, Philip, a celebrated lyric ] 
 and opera writer, 1635-1688. 
 
 QUINAULT-DUFRESNE,AbrahamAle: 
 a celebrated French actor, 1G95-1767. His : 
 Jeanne Francoise, an actress and literary fri 
 of Voltaire, died 1783. Jean Baptist, bro' 
 of both the preceding, and an actor, died V. 
 Some others of the family were also distiiiguu 
 on the stage. 
 
 QUINCY, C. Sevin, Marquis De, a Fk 
 officer and historian, flourished about 1660-M 
 
 QUINCY, John, an English physician 
 medical writer, died in London 1723. 
 
 QUINETTE, M., a Fr. politician, died 1821 
 
 QUINQUARBOREUS. See Cinq-AbM 
 
 QUINTILLIANUS, Marcus Fabius, a fan 
 teacher of eloquence in the reign of Galba^H 
 successors, was born about 42, probably ofj'^H 
 ish family settled in Rome. The younger PtiTJ| 
 one of his pupils, and in the reign of Doinitia: 
 was intrusted with the education of two of J 
 emperor's grand-nephews. His work ' De lH 
 tione Oratoria,' is one of the most valuable^H 
 antiquity. It has been translated into En^H 
 Guthrie and Patsall. Date of his death iti^H 
 
 QUINTILLUS, Marcus AureliusClMjB 
 a Roman emp., who reigned seventeen day^H 
 
 QUINTINIE, John De La, a celebral 
 on horticulture, and director-general to th# r l j 
 gardens at Versailles, 1626-1688. 
 
 QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS, a I 
 torian, supposed to have flourished in tin 
 
 QUINTUS SMYRNiEUS, called also < 
 Calaber, a Greek poet of the 5tli ecu! 
 
 QUINZANO, or QUINTIANUS, I 
 m only received name of J. F. Conti, 
 Stoa, an Italian poet and philologist, 1 -i - 
 
 QUIR1NI, A. M., an Ital. cardinal, K^H 
 
 QUIRINO, P., a Venetian traveller, 15th 
 
 626 
 
 
QUI 
 
 QUIROGA, J., a Spanish Jesuit, 1707-1784. 
 QUIROS, A., a Spanish missionary, died 1622. 
 QUIROS, H. B., a Spanish canonist, last cent. 
 QUIROS, H. B., Pedro Fernandez De, a 
 lebrated Spanish navigator, d. at Panama 1614. 
 QUIROS, T., a Spanish missionary, 1599-1662. 
 
 RAC 
 
 QUISTORP, John, a German minister and 
 Lutheran professor of divinity, 1584-1648. His 
 son, of the same name, also a divine and profes- 
 sor, 1624-1669. 
 
 QUITA, Domingos Das Reis, a Portuguese 
 poet, cele. for his elegies and pastorals, 1728-1770. 
 
 R 
 
 RABANUS MAURUS, was born of French 
 
 rents at Mayence in a.d. 776. On the complet- 
 
 r of his early studies at Fulda in Hesse, he was 
 
 ?re made a deacon in 801, and he betook himself 
 
 Tour the following year to enjoy the tuition of 
 
 s famous Alcuin. It is also apparent from his 
 
 itings that he had in his youth made a pilgrim- 
 
 ! toTPalestine. In his twenty-fifth year he be- 
 
 le head of the convent school at Fulda, where his 
 
 cessful teaching drew around him many pupils, 
 
 . not a few of the nobility intrusted him with 
 
 education of their sons. In 822 he was conse- 
 
 d abbot, but he still directed the seminary, 
 
 ch supplied many able teachers for the Frankish 
 
 German churches. On a complaint of the 
 
 iks that his absorption in literary pursuits 
 
 lered the discharge of his more active conven- 
 
 dnties, he retired in 842, after a presidency of 
 
 ty years. He was, however, drawn out of 
 
 voluntary seclusion in 847, on being made 
 
 bishop of Mayence. In this situation he was 
 
 poser and persecutor of Gottschalk, in con- 
 
 ce of his doctrine of predestination. Ra- 
 
 died in a.d. 856. His influence was great 
 
 g the churches in the diffusion of practical 
 
 , and he had several illustrious disciples. His 
 
 tion and general attainments were respectable 
 
 " e age in which he lived, and as a lecturer, 
 
 cted his scholars in general literature 
 
 ience as well as theology. He wrote com- 
 
 ies on all the canonical books and many of 
 
 yphal ones, and left behind him numerous 
 
 sermons, and letters. A collected edi- 
 
 the most of his works was published at 
 
 1627, in 6 folios. [J.E.] 
 
 AUT, Peter, a French protestant minister, 
 
 1795. His son, John Paul, a protestant 
 
 and deputy to the constituent assembly 
 
 convention, author of numerous political 
 
 1743-1793. James Anthony, brother of 
 
 , also a minister and deputy, 1744-1808. 
 
 brother, Rabaut Dupuis, known only 
 
 ician, died 1808. 
 
 BE, Alphonso, a French journalist, his- 
 
 and biographical writer, 1786-1830. 
 
 ELAIS, Francois, is, of all humourists, the 
 
 lously original, and the most remarkable 
 
 g wit and humour ; but he is also the 
 
 pulously audacious, and for many 
 
 by far the most difficult to be understood. 
 
 traditionally attributed to him many 
 
 most of which are nothing more than 
 
 cal jokes, or sayings profane or licen- 
 
 wed from his writings. The facts which 
 
 regard to his life, few as they are, suf- 
 
 :e us wonder how it was, that he not 
 
 the stake and the scaffold, but was a 
 
 t to the hour of his death. He was 
 
 &T poor parents, about 1483, at Chinon in 
 
 Touraine ; and the time he spent in a conventual 
 school at Angers, is said to have been put to pro- 
 fit in no way, unless by making him intimate with 
 his school-fellow Du Bellay, who was afterwards a 
 cardinal, and his zealous patron and protector. 
 He next became a friar in a convent of the Corde- 
 liers ; and there he was a hard student, but is said 
 to have been both dissolute and satirical. At all 
 events, he eloped, studied medicine at Montpellier, 
 took a doctor's degree, practised as a physician, 
 lectured with success, and published, besides other 
 works, translations from Hippocrates and Galen. 
 While he was going through this stage in his his- 
 tory, the patrons he had gained obtained permis- 
 sion for him to transfer himself to the order of the 
 Benedictines. He attended Cardinal Du Bellay 
 when he was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1536; 
 and on his return to France his patron procured 
 for him a prebend, and the curacy of the village of 
 Meu^.o^near Pari* He is believed to have died 
 in 1553, and to nave then been about seventy 
 years old. His famous romance appeared in suc- 
 cessive fragments : it is a characteristic specimen 
 of his oddities, that the second book, being pub- 
 lished in 1533, preceded the first by two years ; and 
 the third book was printed in 1546. When it had 
 proceeded thus far, remonstrances from the clergy 
 induced Francis I. to have it read to him : he pro- 
 nounced it harmless ; and the author continued to 
 be protected by Henry II. The fourth book, in 
 which the attacks on the church, and sneers at re- 
 ligion itself, became yet bolder, appeared only in 
 1552 ; and it was not till 1564 that the publica- 
 tion was completed by the whole of the fifth book. 
 The romance commonly goes by the name of its 
 earliest parts : 'The Inestimable Life of the Great 
 Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel, a Book Full of 
 Pantagruelism.' Gargantua is a royal giant : the 
 heroes of most of the adventures are Pantagruel, 
 his son and successor, a good easy king ; and his 
 favourite Panurge, the quintessence of buffoonery, 
 sarcasm, and knavery. It is not easy to discover 
 anything which Rabelais either believed or re- 
 spected ; and his satire, with all its enigmatical cover- 
 ings, tells terribly both on civil and on ecclesias- 
 tical governments. But there is in it a large fund 
 of good sense ; and the humour and fun, with all 
 then- depravity, are often irresistibly comic. [W.S.] 
 
 RABENER, T. W., a Ger. moralist, 1714-1771. 
 
 RABUS, Peter, a Dutch critic, 1660-1702. 
 
 RABUTIN, Roger, Count De Bussy, a French 
 wit and satirist, time of Louis XIV., 1618-1693. 
 
 RACAN, Honorat De Bueil, Marquis, a 
 disting. poet and disciple of Malherbe, 1589-1670. 
 
 RACHEL, the younger daughter of Laban, and 
 wife of Jacob. She was the mother of Joseph and 
 Benjamin, and died at the birth of the latter. 
 
 RACINE, Bonaventure, a learned French 
 priest and ecclesiastical historian, 1708-1755. 
 
 627 
 
RAC 
 
 RACINE, Jean, contests with his immediate 
 predecessor, Corneille, the glory of being the 
 greatest among the French Tragic Dramatists. 
 Submitting implicitly to the code of laws laid 
 down by the critics of his time, he did much to- 
 wards making the Regular or Classical School of 
 the Drama acceptable and permanent, by imparting 
 to his tragedies all the perfection which it is possible 
 to conceive genius as giving to works constructed 
 on so narrow a model. His grace and melody of 
 diction are exquisite; and his refined tenderness 
 of feeling, often melting into profound pathos, 
 breaks out through all the barriers imposed by the 
 unities, and the simple plots, and the monotony of 
 the rhymed Alexandrine verses. Racine was born 
 in 1639, at La Fert6-Milon, in Picardy, where his 
 father was a tax-collector. The most important 
 part of his education was received in the school of 
 the Port-Royalists, whose earnest piety and severe 
 morality received no discredit either from the writ- 
 ings or from the conduct of their pupil. In his 
 twenty-first year he celebrated the marriage of 
 Louis XIV., in a poem which gained him the 
 favour of the king, exhibited not long afterwards 
 by a pension, and followed by many other bene- 
 factions. He began his dramatic career in 1663 ; 
 but his first two tragedies, though not unsuccess- 
 ful, really deserved the poor opinion expressed of 
 them by Corneille, of whom they were little more 
 than imitations. Racine's tine genius shone out 
 with all its brightness in 1667, when ' Andromaque' 
 was played ; and for ten years more he continued 
 to produce, almost annually, plays, constituting a 
 series of masterpieces, and exhibiting so little ine- 
 quality that critical opinions are still divided as to 
 their comparative merit. The first of these was 
 the highly-finished comedy, ' Les Plaideurs ; ' but 
 the success of this piece did not tempt the poet to 
 diverge again from the tragic drama. ' Britannicus ' 
 appeared in 1669, and was followed by ' Berenice ' 
 (m which Racine measured lances with Corneille), 
 ' Bajazet,' ' Mithridates,' the very skilfully con- 
 structed 'Iphigenie,' and 'Phedre,' the work in 
 which the dramatist's power in painting the ten- 
 derness and fire of love is most strikingly displayed. 
 In 1677, when the ' Phedre' came on the stage, Ra- 
 cine and Boileau received honorary appointments 
 as historiographers royal. The dramatist seems 
 to have meditated making the office real ; and he 
 is said to have been deterred from publishing his- 
 tories by a rebuke, which some of his memoranda 
 drew on him when they were communicated by 
 his patroness, Madame de Maintenon, to the king. 
 At all events he ceased, for twelve years, to write 
 dramas, and never again wrote for the public stage. 
 Some would have it that he was disgusted by the 
 critical warfare which had been kindled by his 
 latest plays ; others assert him to have been influ- 
 enced by the religious impressions which, beyond 
 doubt, now acted on him more and more strongly 
 He made a happy marriage, superintended carefully 
 the instruction of his children, and was much en- 
 gaged in serious studies. He wrote a short ' His- 
 tory of Port-Royal.' In 1689 ' Esther,' the first, 
 and much the weaker, of his two sacred dramas, 
 was played by the young ladies of St. Cyr. In 
 1699, the clencal directors of that school having 
 prohibited stage-playing to the pupils, he sent 
 'Athalie' to the press, and had the mortification 
 
 RAF 
 
 to find that it was too devout and earnest for 
 taste of the public. If no works had ever bt 
 written except plays, and if there were no pU 
 writers but those of France, the assertion would 
 true which Voltaire makes as to this noble drar 
 that it comes nearer to perfection than any ot 
 literary work which ever issued from the hand: 
 man. It was the last effort of its admirable autl 
 He died from abscess of the liver, in great p? 
 but with placid resignation, in 1699. [W. 
 
 RACINE, Louis, son of the preceding, (list 
 guished as a poet and miscellaneous wr., 1692-17 
 RACLE, L, a French engineer, 1736-1791. 
 RADAGAISUS, leader of one of the Gerr 
 hosts by which Italy was invaded at the beipnn 
 of the 5th cent. Beheaded by Stilico 404 or 4> 
 RADCLIFFE, Ann, a once popular novel 
 whose maiden name was Ward, was born in L 
 don, 1764, and at the age of twenty-three man 
 to William Radcliffe, a graduate of Oxford, af 
 wards proprietor and editor of the English CI 
 nicle. The fashion of her romances was sot 
 seded by that of the new school, headed by Sir V 
 ter Scott, but they must always be esteemed 
 principal of their class. Her great forte was the 
 scription of scenes of terror, the surprise of sue 
 or unseen danger, and the excitement of suspt 
 Her first performance was ' The Castle of Athhn 
 Dumblaine,' followed by ' The Sicilian Romtt 
 ' The Romance of the Forest,' ' The Mysterie 
 Udolpho,' and ' The Italian.' She also publi 
 'Travels through Holland and along the . 
 in 1793. Died 1823. 
 
 RADCLIFFE, John, founder of the j 
 library of medical and philosophical sciajff 
 Oxford, was an English physician, born at W 
 field 1650. He took his diploma in 1682,1 
 having settled in London, became, in 1686,w 
 cian to the princess Anne of Denmark. He' 
 also occasionally employed by William IIL,' 
 by Anne when she succeeded him as queen, 
 was not in great favour with either of thenuj 
 died in 1714, leaving 40,000 for the purpose? 
 mentioned. 
 
 RADEGONDA, a princess of the Franks, 
 
 became the wife of Clothaire, and died i> 
 
 monastery of St. Croix, founded by her, 587. 
 
 RADEMAKER, two Dutch painters Gi 
 
 flourished 1672-1711. Abraham, 1675-174*1 
 
 RADER, M., a Jesuit of Tyrol, 1561-16844 
 
 RADET, Stephen, one of Napoleon's genj 
 
 by whom Pius VII. was escorted from Romrt 
 
 prisoner in 1809, 1762-1825. 
 
 RAEBURN, Sir Henry, a Scottish i 
 esteemed second only to Sir Thomas I. a wren 
 a portrait painter, was born at Stockbridge. j 
 Edinburgh, 1756. He became president oi 
 Edinburgh Academy of Painting, and when G >! 
 IV. visited his northern capital in 1822, raj 
 the honour of knighthood, and soon after tl I 
 pointinent of first portrait painter to thekl 
 Scotland. Died 1823. 
 R^MOND, F. De, a Fr. historian, 1540- I 
 RAFFAELLE. See Raphael. 
 RAFFENEL, C. D., a French wr., 1797- f 
 RAFFLES, Sir Thomas Stamford* (J 
 guished as an administrator, travi 
 turalist, was the son of Benjamin Raffles, c 1 
 in the West India trade, and wa3 born at i P 
 
 628 
 
RAG 
 
 Jamaica, 1781. He gradually rose from the posi- 
 lon of a clerk in the India House to that of lieu- 
 fcnant-governor, first of Java, and afterwards of 
 ort Marlborough in Sumatra. In 1819 he estab- 
 khed the British settlement and free port of 
 Ingapore, and founded a college there for the en- 
 fcuragement of Anglo-Chinese and Malay litera- 
 ire. His principal work is a ' History of Java,' 
 ht he sent home to England valuable collections 
 J objects in natural history, and on his return 
 [landed the Zoological Society, of which he was 
 fst president. Died 1826. 
 RAGGI, A., an Italian sculptor, 1624-1686. 
 k RAGHIB PACHA, Mohammed, grand vizier 
 [jthe Ottomans, a diplomatist and writer, 1702-67. 
 [jRAGOTZKI, the name of several princes of 
 ||ansylvania: 1. George, whose name is some- 
 I pes spelt Racoczi, an ally of the Swedes during 
 Ik thirty years' war, 1630-1648. 2. George the 
 tiunger, joined the Swedes against Poland 1659, 
 lid fighting against the Turks 1669. 3. Francis, 
 llthor of a liturgy used throughout Hungary, died 
 1176. 4. Francis Leopold, the most famous of 
 
 * family, conspired with Louis XIV. to deliver 
 
 * Hungarians from the yoke of Austria, and was 
 flared protector of Hungary in 1704. Being 
 lUeated by the peace of 1713, he renounced his 
 ilia estates, and retired to Turkey ; 1676-1735. 
 IRAGUENET, Francis, a French writer on 
 ipicellaneous subjects, au. of a ' History of Oliver 
 Mmwell,' and a ' Life of Turenne,' 1660-1722. 
 fJRAGUET, G. B., a French writer, 1668-1748. 
 HtAGUSA, J., a Sicilian Jesuit, born 1665. 
 
 /[ KAHX, John Henry, a name common to three 
 loves of Zurich : 1. A voluminous writer of 
 IHss history, 1646-1708. 2. A physician, 1709- 
 .H6. 3. A physician, 1749-1782. 
 rtAHN, J. H. G., a Prussian jurist, 1766-1807. 
 BAIEVSKI, A., a Russian historian, 1813. 
 4 IAIKES, RoBERT,the founder of Sunday schools 
 4itngland, was a native of Gloucester, where he 
 n born in 1735. He succeeded his father as 
 *U)rietor of the Gloucester Journal, a paper in 
 )*insive circulation. He was a man of great 
 .ply, and, besides attendance on the ordinary 
 op of public worship, was long in the habit of 
 tenting early morning prayers every week-day 
 Cathedral. As mignt be expected from a 
 of such devout and eminently Christian 
 sr, he was distinguished for his benevolent 
 of every scheme and institution which was 
 to ameliorate the condition or advance the 
 of humanity. To him belongs pre- 
 itly the high distinction of originating Sun- 
 schools ; and the idea of those institutions 
 suggested to his mind by witnessing the 
 spectacle of youthful profligacy and dissipa- 
 which the streets of Gloucester as well as other 
 towns in England, exhibited on the Lord's 
 At that time, it had long been a subject of 
 " it among farmers and others that they suf- 
 more from the depredations of juvenile delin- 
 on that day, than on all the other days of 
 together. The lower classes universally 
 their children to roam at large on the 
 and the fields, where they came in such 
 that the country people were obliged to 
 at home to watch their property. Mr. 
 himself was unexpectedly led to witness a 
 
 RAI 
 
 similar scene, for having occasion, early one morn- 
 ing, to go to a plebeian part of the town of Glou- 
 cester, where was a large pin manufactory, he was 
 greatly shocked by multitudes of poor children run- 
 ning wild and riotous in the streets, and swearing 
 such horrid oaths, as afforded sad evidence of the 
 ignorance and depravity that prevailed amongst the 
 class to which they belonged. He resolved on 
 making some attempt to reclaim them from this 
 state of moral degradation, which seemed so ex- 
 tensively prevalent, and to give those wretched 
 little creatures the benefits of, not only a secular, 
 but a moral and religious education. After revolv- 
 ing the subject long and anxiously in his mind, he 
 at length prepared to reduce his scheme to practice. 
 Having engaged the services of four women, ac- 
 customed to teach poor children, at the rate of one 
 shilling a- day, and who were to receive and instruct 
 as many as he should bring every Sunday, he be- 
 gan the operations of his school. But there were 
 more difficulties lying in the way than he imagined, 
 chiefly from the backwardness of the poor, and their 
 indifference to send their children. A beginning, 
 however, was made with a few, others soon fol- 
 lowed, and the schools began to prosper. Read- 
 ing, being marched to church under the care of 
 their teachers, and after church, the repetition of 
 the catechism for an hour, constituted the regular 
 routine he established. ' With regard to the rules 
 to be observed, all the children were required to 
 come to school as clean as possible. Many were at 
 first deterred, because they wanted decent clothing, 
 but this was not to be supplied. Although without 
 shoes or in a ragged coat, all were welcome, the 
 only condition being clean hands, a clean face, and 
 the hair combed.' Numbers pressed to the schools, 
 the children varying from six years old to twelve 
 or fourteen. Little rewards were distributed 
 amongst the younger, and good places were pro- 
 cured for the older children, and both of these 
 produced the effect of exciting emulation. Such 
 was the scheme which this Christian philanthropist 
 devised for the moral and religious improvement 
 of the poor ; and it soon drew general attention in 
 England, from the beneficial results it produced. 
 Similar institutions were ere long commenced in 
 most of the large towns of England. A Sunday 
 School Association was formed for the benefit of 
 the poor children in the metropolis, and Mr. Raikes 
 in consequence of his zeal and merits, was enrolled 
 an honorary member. A far higher honour awaited 
 this benevolent gentleman, in its being publicly 
 certified after a long series of years, that not one 
 of the scholars at his institution in Gloucester, had 
 ever been either in the city or the county prisons. 
 Mr. Raikes died in 1811. [R.J.] 
 
 RAIMBACH, Abraham, a native of London, 
 celebrated for his line engravings of Sir David 
 Wilkie's pictures, 1776-1843. 
 
 RAIMOND, J. H., a Fr. architect, 1742-1811. 
 
 RAIMOND, St., the third general of the Domi- 
 nicans, known as an ascetic writer, 1175-1275. 
 
 RAIMONDI, Giambattista, a great Oriental 
 scholar, born at Cremona, in Italy, 1540. He 
 founded an Oriental press, under the patronage of 
 the cardinal Medici, at Florence, and put all the 
 Oriental books in order at Rome. From these 
 circumstances, the college of the Propaganda took 
 its rise. His Arabian Grammar was pub. in 1610. 
 
 629 
 
RAI 
 
 EAIMONDI, Marc A., a friend of Raphael, 
 and fndr. of the It. school of engrav., 1488-1546. 
 
 RAINBOW, E., an English prelate, 1608-1684. 
 
 RAINE, If., a distinguished scholar, 1760-1810. 
 
 RAINOLDS. J., a learned Eng. div., 1549-1607. 
 
 RAITCH, J., a Servian historian, 1726-1801. 
 
 RAJALIN, T., a Finnish admiral, 1673-1741. 
 
 RAKOUBAH, or RAGUBAH, peischwah or 
 prince regent of the Mahrattas, distinguished in 
 the events which agitated the Mahratta kingdom 
 in 1772 and 1782. Died in ohscurity. 
 
 RALEGH, Carew, son of the great historical 
 character noticed helow, was born in the Tower of 
 London 1604, and made several fruitless efforts 
 to regain the forfeited estates of his father. He 
 received a pension of 400 a-year, however, and 
 in 1659 became governor of Jersey, by favour of 
 General Monk. He wrote a vindication of his 
 father. Died 1666. His cousin, Walter Ralegh, 
 became chaplain to Charles I., and was stabbed by 
 his gaoler 1646. 
 
 [Birth-place of Ralegh.] 
 
 RALEGH, Sir Walter, born a.d. 1552, was 
 the most remarkable man of that remarkable 
 period, which is commonly called the Elizabethan 
 age. He was of an ancient Devonshire family, and 
 was educated at Oxford and the Temple. He then 
 served for some years as a volunteer under Coligni 
 and Conde, in France, and afterwards under the 
 prince of Orange in the Netherlands. In 1579 he 
 first displayed that zeal for maritime discovery and 
 colonization, which is the most brilliant feature in 
 his character. He joined an expedition to Ame- 
 rica, which was designed to found a colony in New- 
 foundland, but was beaten back by a superior Span- 
 ish force. He then served in Ireland, and highly 
 distinguished himself against the Irish rebels and 
 their Spanish auxiliaries. In 1582 he appeared at 
 Elizabeth's court, and was very graciously received. 
 His reputation for soldiership, his learning, which 
 was varied and profound, his eloquence and ready 
 wit, and the personal advantages and accomplish- 
 ments, in which he was pre-eminent, all combined 
 in raising him high in his sovereign's favour. In 
 1583 he accompanied his half-brother, Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert, in another voyage to North America, 
 which proved most calamitous, and in which Gilbert 
 perished. Ralegh still persevered in his schemes 
 for extending England's dominions beyond the At- 
 
 RAL 
 
 lantic, and in 1585 he sent out another expedite 
 which discovered Virginia. He was one of 
 most trusted and most trustworthy of the nn 
 heroes of England, who defended her in 1{ 
 against the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he ser 
 in the expedition against Portugal under Dn 
 and Norris. The youngr earl of Essex was 
 with the troops employed on this occasion, anc 
 was in a quarrel between him and Ralegh as 
 the operations of the forces, that the unhaj 
 jealousy between those two originated. A si 
 time afterwards Ralegh fell under Queen Eli 
 beth's displeasure on account of certain lo 
 passages between him and Miss Throgmorl 
 whom he subsequently married. He was 
 prisoned for a time, but was soon released, 
 gradually recovered the queen's favour. In 1 
 he organized and led an expedition to Cen 
 and South America, in the hope of discovei 
 Eldorado, the golden land, in the existence 
 which all of that age firmly believed; nor 
 we who have witnessed the discoveries of go! 
 California, deride that belief as visionary 
 wholly unfounded. Ralegh sailed to Guiana^, 
 the neighbouring districts ; he explored the rivet! 
 noco for 400 miles from its mouth ; and he 
 an account of his voyage and the new counl 
 explored by him, which is remarkable for the 
 quence and graphic beauty of style which it 
 plays. During the latter years of ElizabetM 
 Ralegh joined Cecil in intriguing against Esf 
 and he had the evil gratification of witness 
 rival's ruin and death, little thinking that he 
 himself to experience the retribution of a sill 
 fate. James I. on his accession, at first tre^ 
 Ralegh with favour ; but Cecil, who had in 
 late queen's reign overthrown Essex by Ralf 
 aid, was now determined to put down Rail 
 and the king's mind was soon poisoned agains"! 
 Walter. Deprived of his dignities and lucn 
 appointments, Ralegh seems to have listene 
 the schemes of other disaffected men for alte 
 the line of succession to the crown ; but the 
 on which he was tried and convicted in 16C' 
 being a traitor in the pay of Spain, was iinprj 
 and unfounded. He was sentenced to death, 1 
 his property was confiscated ; but James kepti 
 close prisoner in the Tower for twelve years, I 
 ing which time he wrote his great work, the '- 
 tory of the World.' In 1615 James releasfff 
 and permitted him to sail on an expedia| 
 Guiana. This enterprise proved disastrous, an 
 Ralegh's return home he was arrested, and J: 
 resolved to put him to death under the old sex ' 
 of treason that had been passed on him in 
 There can be no doubt that James was mdfl 
 to commit this disgraceful act by his desire tc 
 the favour of the Spanish court, which nev&| 
 forgotten the services that Ralegh had don 
 England against Spain, and now clamoured It 1 
 for the blood of the English hero. Sir W 
 was beheaded on the 28th October, 1618, it 
 sixty-sixth vear of his age. The versatility c 
 genius of tiiis great man is almost uiiparal. 
 He was an excellent classical scholar, and 
 read in metaphysics and divinity, 
 generally conversant with the literature O' 
 own and other modern countries. His 
 writings are eloquent and vigorous; and he 
 
 bSO 
 
RAL 
 
 he author of several poems, small in length, hut 
 reat in beauty. He was eminent in the mechan- 
 al arts ; and was the originator of many impor- 
 t improvements in ship-building. He was a 
 iring navigator and explorer of new countries; 
 d he was unwearied in his zeal for extending 
 e commerce, and for creating the colonial power 
 England. He was a sage, as well as a bold 
 iptain by sea and by land ; he was a skilful 
 hough not always a successful) politician ; and 
 was pre-eminent in all personal accomplish- 
 ents and courtly graces. He was also a liberal 
 omoter of intellectual energy and eminence in 
 hers ; and he was the patron and personal 
 end of many of the most distinguished writers 
 lo adorned that bright epoch of English liter- 
 
 JE.S.C.] 
 ALFH, James, a native of Philadelphia, known 
 a political and historical writer and poet, came 
 this country in 1725, died at Chiswick 1762. 
 "AZZINI, Bernardo, an Italian physician, 
 as a poet and professional writer, 1633-1714. 
 AMBERG, J. H., an engraver, last century. 
 MBOUILLET, a branch of the Angennes 
 y, distinguished by the names of James, a 
 trite statesman of Francis I., died 1562. 
 rles, son of James, better known as the 
 nal de Rambouillet, author of Memoirs, 1530- 
 '. Charles, grandson of James, and Mar- 
 de Rambouillet, camp-marshal and ambas- 
 I 1577-1652. 
 
 MBURES, David De, commander-in-chief 
 he French archery, distinguished by his military 
 ices, and killed at the battle of Agin court, 1415. 
 MEAU, Jean Philippe, was born at 
 in 1683. After having become acquainted 
 the rudiments of music, he composed a musi- 
 entertainment, which was received with great 
 use when it was performed at Avignon. He 
 received the situation of organist of the 
 1 church of Clermont in Auvergne, where 
 mmenced his investigations into the principles 
 isic. His fame as a theorist chiefly depends 
 his work ' Demonstrations of the Principles 
 ony,' which was published at Paris in 
 From the principles enunciated in this 
 his countrymen style Rameau 'The Newton 
 rmony.' About this period he was called to 
 where he was appointed director of the opera, 
 king of France conferred upon this eminent 
 " t the ribbon of the order ot St. Michel, and 
 him to the rank of nobility. Rameau died 
 year 1764. Besides his very numerous theo- 
 works he composed many operas, ballets, 
 is, concertos, songs, &c, &c. t^'^0 
 
 EL, Peter, a member of the French 
 bly, and general of brigade, killed at the age 
 in the campaign of the Rhine, 1761. His 
 John Peter, a distinguished general of 
 pire, was born in 1770, and assassinated 
 the second restoration in 1815. 
 MELLI, A., a French engineer, 1531-1590. 
 "ESSES, or RAMSES, a name common to 
 gyptian kings, who reigned from the 17th 
 13th century B.C. Ramesses V. is sup- 
 to be the same as Sesostris. 
 MUEY, C, a French sculptor, 1754-1838. 
 
 It, C. W., a German poet, 1725-1798. 
 tolMOHUN ROY, Rajah, a philosopher 
 
 RAM 
 
 and reformer of British India, was born at Bor- 
 douan in the province of Bengal, 1774, or be- 
 tween that and 1780. He belonged to the Brah- 
 min caste, of the class esteemed for their learning 
 and purity of blood, and seems to have devoted 
 himself when quite young to the study of the 
 sacred literature of the Hindoos. His endeavour 
 was to discover the pure theism of the primitive 
 revelation, and to separate it from the corruptions 
 of the priesthood, and though great hopes were 
 entertained of him by Christian missionaries, there 
 can be no doubt that he regarded some parts of 
 their system as equally idolatrous with the changes 
 that had taken place in the religion of the Hin- 
 doos. He adopted the philosophy and the pure 
 morality of the precepts of the Saviour, but accept- 
 ing no system of faith that was proffered to him, 
 he applied himself to the study of the Hebrew 
 Scriptures in the same independent spirit that he 
 had examined the Vedas of his own country. 
 Rammohun Roy, however, was not a speculative 
 believer, but a practical reformer, and in political 
 sentiments a republican. He had risen from the 
 position of clerk in the office of the tax-collector 
 of Rungpore to that of dewan, or chief native 
 superintendent of the revenue, the highest office 
 that a Hindoo could hold under the British govern- 
 ment. In this official situation he acquired such 
 a fortune as enabled him to rank with the zem- 
 indars, or proprietors, and applying himself to 
 administrative as well as religious reform, he 
 eventually effected a change in the English jurispru- 
 dence of Bengal. Circumstances led to his resi- 
 dence at Calcutta, where he became a political 
 writer and journalist in his native language, and . 
 boldly adopted revolutionary principles, at the same 
 time not forgetting the reserve of a statesman. In 
 1830 he was created rajah by the great Mogul, and 
 sent on a mission to England for the settlement 
 of his claims against the East India Company. He 
 effected this object with great diplomatic skill, and 
 while here he took an enthusiastic interest in the 
 progress of the reform agitation, and the hopes it 
 held out for the better government of India. He 
 was claimed at this time as a convert to Christi- 
 anity, and though generally considered a Unitar- 
 ian, he usually attended the services of the Estab- 
 lished Church. His Christianity, it should be re- 
 membered, was based on a profound acquaintance 
 with the metaphysics of the Hindoos, and on his 
 researches into the primitive theism ; and though 
 an ingenious countryman of our own, Thomas 
 Maurice, had long since endeavoured to show the 
 similarity between the Christian Trinity and the 
 triad of Brahma, Vislmou, and Shiva, there are 
 few orthodox Calvinists who would be disposed to 
 agree with him. Rammohun Roy did not survive 
 his acquaintance with European manners long 
 enough to master the whole of this problem, but 
 being attacked by sudden illness at Bristol, expired 
 there on the 27tu of September, 1833. As his bio- 
 grapher in the Gentleman's Magazine observes : 
 ' When it is considered that Rammohun Roy was 
 in a great degree self-taught, the extent of his 
 acquirements must be admitted to have been re- 
 markable. He was a thorough master of the Sans- 
 crit language and of the Arabic ; he was an exceed- 
 ingly good Persian scholar, and quoted the Persian 
 ill 
 
 631 
 
 poets liberally, appropriately, and gracefully; and 
 
RAM 
 
 of course, he well understood the Hindoo and Ben- 
 gali tongues. He had read a great deal of English 
 literature, chiefly historical ; and he wrote in our 
 language with grammatical accuracy and ability. 
 .... He was a quick and keen observer of 
 character, and in the ordinary course of life dis- 
 creet and prudent.' It may be added that his 
 superiority to the native Hindoos generally, his 
 vast knowledge, his independence of habit, and his 
 well-known patriotism, gained for him the highest 
 consideration in his own country. [E.R.] 
 
 RAMOND DE CARBONNIERES, Louis 
 Francis Elizabeth, a Fr. naturalist, 1755-1827. 
 
 RAMOS, H., a Sp. mathematician, 1738-1801. 
 
 RAMSAY, Allan, with the exception of Burns, 
 the most thoroughly national of the Scottish poets, 
 was born in 1685, at Leadhills in Lanarkshire. 
 His father was in the employment of Lord Hope- 
 toun at the lead mines, and is said to have been 
 descended from a branch of the family of the earls 
 of Dalhousie, a circumstance of which the poet was 
 naturally vain, and which shines out in his works 
 in the form of respect and attachment to the 
 claims of ' gude bluid,' and gentle ancestry. His 
 father died early, and his mother marrying again, 
 he was sent to Edinburgh, and bound apprentice to 
 a wigmaker, then a profession of a higher grade 
 than in our times. Ramsay continued to pursue 
 this humble avocation for several years after his 
 apprenticeship was finished. In 1712, his first 
 poetical production appeared, being an address 
 ' To the most happy Members of the Easy Club,' 
 Auld Reekie being then and long after, noted for 
 its commercial clubs and associations. In 1716, 
 he published an edition of James the First's poem 
 of ' Christ's Kirk on the Green,' having added a 
 second canto himself, and in two years after, a 
 third. He now abandoned his original profession, 
 and commenced business as a bookseller in Edin- 
 burgh, a more congenial and fitting occupation for 
 the poet and literary man. In 1720, he published 
 himself, a collection of his poems, by subscription, 
 and by which he is said to nave realized four hun- 
 dred guineas, a very large sum considering the 
 times, and which establishes the early and wide 
 popularity which he had acquired. The most of 
 the pieces in this collection had been issued by 
 Ramsay as they were written, in sheets at a penny 
 a-piece, and the good folks of Edinburgh had come 
 to look upon them as a luxury, quite as necessary 
 as ' caller haddies' or strong ale. Allan issued the 
 first volume of his well-known ' Tea Table Miscel- 
 lany' in 1724, and three more volumes at short 
 intervals afterwards ; about the same time he pub- 
 lished ' The Evergreen, a collection of Scots poems, 
 wrote by the Ingenious before 1600.' The mag- 
 num opus of this ancient writer made its appear- 
 ance in 1725, ' The Gentle Shepherd,' the finest 
 dramatic pastoral ever published. In a soft and 
 gentle sweetness of expression, and in a rich ex- 
 hibition of old Scottish manners and habits, 
 interspersed with dramatic touches of nature and 
 character, no Scottish poem has maintained a more 
 permanent or a higher place in the national mind 
 and affections. Some of the higher class poems of 
 Burns can alone compete with it in this respect. 
 In 1730 he published his ' Thirty Fables,' in which 
 the story of ' The Monk and the Miller's Wife,' 
 though somewhat broad in style, and previously 
 
 RAN 
 
 told by Dunbar, greatly increased his reputation 
 a poet and painter of national manners. He 
 appears to have withdrawn from the labours 
 composition, and to have given himself up 
 enjoyment of the select literary society of tri 
 eminent men of his time and country, by whom 
 conversation and talents were highly appreeiat 
 He erected a house for himself on the north sid 
 the Castle Hill, which is still we believe in ej 
 tence, and where he died in 1758, at the advan 
 age of seventy-two, full of years and honour. [T.. 
 
 RAMSAY, Allan, son of the preceding, 
 tinguished as a painter and writer on art, 1709- 
 
 RAMSAY, Andrew Michael, better knc 
 as the Chevalier Ramsay, was born at Ayr If 
 and educated at Edinburgh. He was converts 
 the Roman Catholic faith by Fenelon in 1710, 
 rose to distinction under his patronage as govei 
 to the duke of Chateau Thierry, and the prino 
 Turenne. After this he went to Rome as precej 
 to the children of the Pretender, called there Ja 
 III., and, returning to Scotland, was admil 
 into the family of the duke of Argyll. He diet 
 St. Germain-En-Loire, the retreat of the ex 
 Stuarts, 1743. His principal works are a ' Lif 
 Fenelon,' ' The Voyages of Cyrus,' ' Discoi 
 upon Epic Poetry,' a ' History of Marshal Turen 
 and a ' Discourse on Freemasonry,' of which or 
 in France, he was grand chancellor. He wrofc 
 the French language with remarkable purity 
 
 RAMSAY, David, an American physician 
 member of congress, distinguished as an histoi 
 born 1749, shot by a maniac 1815. 
 
 RAMSAY, J., a Scottish divine, 1733-1789. 
 
 RAMSDEN, Jesse, a native of Yorkshire, 
 as an optician and instrument maker, 1735-18 
 
 RAMUS, or LA RAMEE, Peter, a celebr 
 French philosopher, mathematician, gramraai 
 and philologist, k. on St. Bartholomew's day, 1 
 
 RAMUSIO, or RAMNUSIO, G. B., a Ve 
 traveller, geographer, and historian, 1485-155; 
 
 RANCE, Armand John Le BouthilieM_ 
 an ascetic writer, most celebrated as the refoi 
 of the monks of La Trappe, 1626-1700. 
 
 RANCHIN, F., a French physician, 1560-1 
 
 RANCHIN, Henry, author of a metrical 
 sion of the Psalms in French, published 1697. j 
 
 RANCK, , a Spanish painter, last cffl 
 
 RANCONET, Aimer De, a famous antr" 
 rian, and master of Roman jurisprudence, d. 1" 
 
 RANCONNIER, J., a French missionary 
 Paraguay, author of Letters, published 1636. 
 
 RANDALL, J., an English divine, died 16 
 
 RANDOLPH, Thomas, an English 
 poet, au. of the ' Muses' Looking-Glass,' 1605- 
 
 RANDOLPH, Thomas, a minister t\ 
 Church of England, born at Canterbury, 
 his father was recorder, 1701, vice-chancell^B 
 1759, archdeacon of Oxford 1707, Margaret 
 fessor of divinity 1768, died 1783. He 
 several theological works. His son, John, 
 1749, was successively bishop of Oxford, 
 and London, and a dist. Greek scholar ; died '. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Sir Thomas, born in Kent 1 
 distinguished as ambassador to France, 
 and Scotland, in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 author of Letters, which have appeared in rm 
 collections, and of an account of his EmbasB 
 Russia, inserted in Hakluyt's Voyages. Di^| 
 
 632 
 
RAN 
 RANFAING, Marie Elizabeth De, a reli- 
 ous founder, better known as the venerable 
 other Elizabeth, 1592-1649. 
 RANNEQUIN, RENNEQUIN, or SWALM 
 SNKIN, inventor of a famous hydraulic engine, 
 town as the machine of Marly, 1644-1708. 
 RANTZAU, Josias, Count De, a French mar- 
 al, distinguished in the German and Flemish wars, 
 d as the chief instrument by whom the pro- 
 itant religion was established in Denmark. Died 
 the Bastile, where he had been confined by 
 izarin, 1650. Henry, of the same family, an 
 rologer, 1526-1598. 
 
 SAOUL, or RODOLPH, son of Richard, duke 
 Eurgundv, succeeded Robert, duke of France, 
 ;h the title of king, 923 ; died 936. 
 IAOUL, a duke of Lorraine, 1328-1346. 
 IAOUL, archdeacon of Poitiers, 12th century. 
 ?AOUL of Caen, a French historian, 11th "ct. 
 tAOUL-GLABER, a Fr. chronicler, 11th cent. 
 IAOUL. See Rollo. 
 tAOUX, J., a French painter, 1667-1734. 
 IAPHAEL, Santi or Sanzio, was born at 
 >ino, in the Contrada del Monte, April 6, 1483. 
 father, Giovanni Santi, gave him his first 
 ructions in his art, and after the death of his 
 ;nts, he was placed by his uncles, in 1494, with 
 a-o Perugino, the most celebrated painter of the 
 brian school, and then engaged on some frescoes 
 ;he Sala del Cambio at Perugia. In October, 
 I, Raphael removed to Florence, and appears to 
 made this city his head-quarters until he 
 called to Rome in 1508 ; with the exception 
 few months passed at Perugia, in 1505, and a 
 interval at Bologna the following year, he 
 ied constantly at Florence. The works exe- 
 d by him during this period are said to be in 
 Florentine manner, those executed previously, 
 '} first or Perugino manner, of which the 
 nation of the Virgin,' now in the Vatican, 
 the ' Spozalizio,' or ' Marriage of the Virgin,' 
 " e Brera at Milan, are fine examples ; of his 
 d or Florentine manner, ' The Entombment,' 
 B Borghese Gallery at Rome, is the best ex- 
 The ' St. Catherine ' in the National Gallery 
 le same manner. During his stay in Flo- 
 Raphael made the acquaintance of Fra Bar- 
 neo, and that of Francia at Bologna, from 
 of whom he had every opportunity of improv- 
 ]f, independent of the enlarged views he 
 have gained by moving from a provincial 
 to so important a city as Florence, then 
 even to Rome as a school of painting. 
 Brancacci chapel alone was a school of art, 
 1506 Raphael had with other masters the 
 inity of studying the world-renowned car- 
 of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, in 
 "on for the Council Hall. With such op- 
 he could not but enlarge his manner, 
 accordingly soon find in Rome a very much 
 treatment of form, than even in the best of 
 ntine works, though the first of his great 
 in the Vatican is in his Florentine style. 
 was invited to Rome by Julius II. through 
 tryman Bramante, and he was already 
 there in the beginning of September, 1508 ; 
 gelo paid his third visit to Rome in the 
 year, a coincidence which was doubtless of con- 
 le advantage to Raphael, the younger man 
 
 RAP 
 
 the rivalry of Michelangelo being an invaluable 
 stimulus to him. The first fresco of the Vatican 
 stanze or dwelling rooms, was the Theology or 
 'Dispute on the Sacrament' as it is called: "this 
 was completed in 1509. In the same room called 
 the Stanza della Segnatura, are the frescoes of 
 ' Poetry,' ' Philosophy,' the celebrated ' School of 
 Athens,' and 'Jurisprudence,' all completed in 
 1511 ; his third or Roman style commences with 
 the ' School of Athens.' In the second chamber, 
 known as the Stanza delV Ellodoro, are, the ' Ex- 
 pulsion of Heliodorus from the temple of Jeru- 
 salem,' his grandest work, the ' Mass of Bolsena,' 
 the ' Attila,' and ' St. Peter delivered from Prison,' 
 all finished in 1514, the two former in 1512 during 
 the pontificate of Julius. The third chamber, 
 finished in 1517, called the Stanza delV Incendio, 
 was painted almost wholly by Raphael's scholars ; 
 the great works of the Vatican stanze, for which 
 those chambers are so renowned, are comprised in 
 those of the first two chambers mentioned. The 
 fourth, really the first on entering, called the 
 Stanza di Costantino, was nearly entirely executed 
 under the direction of Giulio Romano after Raphael's 
 death. It is worthy of remark, that the ceiling of 
 the Sistine chapel by Michelangelo and the most 
 celebrated frescoes of the Stanze, those painted by 
 Raphael himself, were executed simultaneously 
 between 1508 and 1512, and during the pontificate 
 of Julius, no real lover of art himself, and who 
 little suspected the almost inexhaustible source of 
 
 [Residence of Raphael.] 
 
 wealth which his simple undertakings were destined 
 to prove to his country in after generations. The 
 slow progress of the Vatican frescoes after the 
 painting of the second chamber, was owing to the 
 numerous commissions Raphael received from Leo 
 X., who succeeded Julius, besides many from other 
 art patrons in Rome and elsewhere. Raphael 
 executed, between 1512 and 1520, besides numer- 
 ous Madonnas, holv families, portraits, &c, the 
 following great works and masterpieces ; the St. 
 Cecilia, at Bologna ; the Madonna di San Sisto, at 
 Dresden ; the Spasimo, at Madrid ; the Cartoons, 
 at Hampton Court (1515-16) ; the frescoes of the 
 Farnesina (1518), and his last and most cele- 
 brated oil picture ' The Transfiguration.' In addi- 
 tion to these labours, from 1515 he had the chief 
 charge of the building of the new Basilica of St. 
 Peter ; he was appointed capoarchitetto on the 
 1st of August of that year, by Leo X. This unri- 
 
 G33 
 
RAP 
 
 vailed painter died at Rome on his birth-day, April 
 6, 1520, aged exactly thirty-seven years ; and after 
 lving in state, with his own picture of the Trans- 
 figuration at his head, he was buried with great 
 pomp in the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, 
 the ancient Pantheon, commonly called in Rome 
 the Rotonda. The inscription on his tomb, written 
 by his friend the Cardinal Bembo, and, therefore, 
 deserving of all reliance, concludes with the follow- 
 ing lines : 
 
 Vixit An. xxxvii., Integer Integros. 
 
 Quo die natus est, eo esse Desiit 
 
 VuL Id. Aprilis, MDXX. 
 He lived exactly thirty-seven years: he died on the 
 same day of the year that he was born, April 6, 
 which in 1520 happening to fall on Good Friday, 
 led to tlie popular error that Raphael was born also 
 on Good Friday, 1483, which fell in that year on 
 the 28th of March ; should such have actually been 
 the case,'and the inscription of the cardinal be wrong, 
 the 28th March must be substituted for April 6, 
 mentioned above as his birth-day. Raphael is said 
 to have left property to the amount of about 16,000 
 ducats, a very large sum in those days when money 
 had nearly ten times its present value. He be- 
 queathed his painting materials, works of art, &c, 
 to his two favourite pupils, Gianfrancesco Penni, 
 and Giulio Romano, on condition that they should 
 complete his unfinished works. Raphael was never 
 married, but is said to have been engaged to Maria 
 Bibiena, the niece of the Cardinal Bibiena, who, 
 however, died before him. He was of a slight 
 build, sallow in complexion, with brown eyes, and 
 about five feet eight inches high. His tomb was 
 opened in 1833 and the skeleton found entire with 
 all the teeth perfect ; a mould was taken from his 
 skull. His numerous school was completely dis- 
 persed after the sack of Rome in 1527, but Giulio 
 Romano revived it in some measure at Mantua. 
 Besides the above mentioned painters, Pierino del 
 Vaga, Polidoro da Caravaggio, and Benvenuto 
 Tisio, commonly called Garofalo, were among his 
 most distinguished scholars ; the last has been not 
 inappropriately styled the miniature Raphael. It 
 is matter of common regret that Raphael was 
 removed so prematurely, as is assumed, from the 
 world, many concluding that it is beyond our power 
 to realize the perfection to which he might have 
 carried his art had he been longer spared to prose- 
 cute it ; this is, however, less than doubtful. 
 Raphael if not too successful to improve, was far too 
 much occupied ever to have had the remotest chance 
 of surpassing his previous great works ; the later 
 frescoes of the Vatican were neglected, and besides 
 the important charge of St. Peter's from 1515, he 
 was appointed at the close of the following year 
 superintendent of antiquities, and of the excava- 
 tions of Rome. He trusted almost entirely to 
 assistants in his latter paintings : the cartoons at 
 Hampton Court are perfect exponents of his later 
 executions, and it would have been impossible for 
 him to have returned to a more elaborate style : 
 neither was it desirable. The rivalry of Sebastiano 
 del Piombo, ardently encouraged by Michelangelo, 
 appears to have given a transitory impulse to re- 
 newed efforts at executory skill, but with no real 
 advantage to his own characteristic style. Though 
 more elaborate in composition and more highly 
 finished, the 'Transfiguration' is not equal for 
 
 RAP 
 
 simple sublimity and grandeur to the ' Madonn 
 San Sisto,' executed some years before. Baa] 
 did not escape the pernicious any more than 
 good influence of Michelangelo, whose style 
 admirably adapted to his own character and i 
 jects, but very inappropriate to Raphael's ; the i 
 sequences were injurious. In the Stanza deW 
 cendio we already find a loose slovenly Btyl 
 design, heavy and vulgar, exhibiting mere phyt 
 ethics, sentiment being sacrificed to limb. G 
 art, to approach Raphael's, must consist of so 
 thing more than vigorous limbs. Raphael's grea 
 works are unrivalled, but it is not probable, 
 sidering all the circumstances, that he would 
 have equalled them again in his days of grand 
 much less have surpassed them. As it is, his g 
 soars above that of all his competitors, not exc 
 ing Michelangelo himself; and nothwithstam 
 that in individual qualities he was surpassed 
 several, he is universally acclaimed the princ 
 painters, and chiefly for those lofty sentime 
 qualities of his works which all can feel but 
 describe. In all his works the treatment is 
 ordinate to the conception. He has scarcely i 
 approached in propriety of invention, composii 
 or expression ; and is almost without an equs 
 the natural simplicity and grandeur of his for 
 for moral force in allegory and history unriva 
 for fidelity in portrait unsurpassed, and for i 
 limity and grandeur of conception inferior 
 Michelangelo alone. The prints after Raph 
 works, including drawings amounting altogethi 
 nearly 900, are extremely numerous and 
 known : from Marc Antonio downwards, no pa"; 
 has perhaps been better rendered. His biograp 
 are likewise many and voluminous, in Ita 
 French, German, and in English : one of the 1 i 
 the great work of Passavant, Rafael von Ui 
 und sein Vater Giovanni Sand, Leipzig, 181 
 the largest and most complete in every res*- 
 There are besides : Vasari, Vite de 1 Piltorii 
 in which the notice of the Florentine edition o 
 Raccolta Artistica, 1852, is very complete ; fur 
 Vita inedita di Raffaello da Urbino illustrate 
 note daAngelo Comolli, Rome, 1790; Notizieh 
 no Raffaello Sanzio aus Urbino, by Don Carlo 
 Rome 1822; Rehberg, Rafael Sanzio aus Ut 
 Miinchen, 1824 ; Quantremcre de Quincy, His, 
 de la vie et des Ouvrages de Raphael, Paris, 1 
 Longhena, Istoria del/a vita e delle opere di Raj) 
 Sanzio, &c, del Sig. Quartremere de QuimM 
 Milan, 1829 ; Pungileoni, Elogio Storico di 
 faello Santi da Urbino, Urbino, 1829-31 ; Dii 
 yers, Appendice a Vouvrage intitule Histoir 
 la vie et Des ouvrages de Raphael, &c, 
 1853 ; and in English Duppa, Life of ' 
 Sanzio, London, 1816. Raphael is scar 
 sentedin the National Gallery, notwithst 
 have a specimen of each of his three 
 The Vision of a Knight, St. Catherine, 
 portrait of Julius II. The fragment of 
 belonging to a second and inferior series on i\ 
 by Francis I., is not by the hand of Raphael. ' 
 the magnificent cartoons at Hampton Con 
 these cannot be too highly valued, do not [ 
 adequate idea of the exquisite sentiment 
 pervades the majority or his greater 
 pieces. The cartoons, however, at Hampton < 
 are of such commanding grandeur of stj^Bi 
 
 634 
 
RAP 
 
 ley have been almost intuitively admitted now for 
 [ree centuries as the inalienable type for apostolic 
 presentation. [R.N.W.] 
 
 TRAPHELENG, or REPHELENGIUS, the com- 
 'jonly received name of Francis Rantenghien, 
 'jlearned Orientalist of French Flanders, 1539- 
 '97. His son, Francis, author of Latin poems 
 ! jjd notes upon Seneca, published 1587. 
 EAPIN, N., a French poet, died 1608. 
 4RAPIN, R., a learned Jesuit, 1621-1687. 
 MBAPIX-THOYRAS, Paul De, best known as 
 3 author of an English history, was a nephew of 
 celebrated Pelisson, and son of James Rapin 
 ur de Thoyras, descended from a noble family 
 Savoy. He was born in 1661, and came to 
 'land on the revocation of the edict of Nantes 
 685. He subsequently entered into the sen-ice 
 the prince of Orange, and was with him in the 
 ;h wars. On the death of that prince he retired 
 Wesel, in the duchy of Cleves, where he corn- 
 ed his history. He is considered an impartial 
 I well-informed historian. Died 1725. 
 {APP, John, a general and peer of France, 
 born at Colmar, in Alsace, 1772 ; and was 
 gsively aide-de-camp to Desaix and Buona- 
 te during the consulate. He was employed by 
 latter in the subjugation of Switzerland, and 
 tly distinguished himself at the battle of Aus- 
 itz, and the defence of Dantzic. He finally 
 hed himself to the Bourbons, and died 1821. 
 ASCAS, P. A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1567-1620. 
 ASCHE, J. C, a Ger. numismatist, 1733-1805. 
 ASCHI. By this name is known Solomon 
 Jarchi, one of the most learned rabbins of 
 Israelitish wanderers, who is said to have been 
 at Troyes in Champagne, 1040, and to have 
 there 1105. Other places have claimed the 
 aur of his birth, and his surname is variously 
 t, as Isaaki, Isarchi, Jarhi, Racca, Raschi, 
 Raski. He was remarkable for the precocity 
 is talents and the largeness of his mind : this, 
 Tell as his adventurous disposition, may be 
 ised from the fact that he commenced, when 
 it thirty years of age, the extensive programme 
 travels, intended to embrace every known 
 / in the world, in order to collect materials 
 ie history of his scattered people. In pursuit 
 object he visited his brethren in Italy, 
 Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Armenia, 
 Tartary, Muscovy, and Germany ; he was 
 ed from using his materials, however, by 
 nides, who considered the design impolitic 
 time. He settled at Troyes, therefore, and 
 his acquirements to biblical commentaries 
 binical learning. Dr. Clarke says, Raschi 
 a commentary on the whole Bible so com- 
 obscure in many places, as to require a 
 ge comment to make it intelligible.' On 
 her band, it must be admitted that the 
 physics and philosophy of the rabbis is little 
 d, and though much obscurity may be 
 in a mass of writing on traditional and 
 ive knowledge, it is undeniable that the 
 learning abounds in marks of genius and 
 bundly philosophical reflections. Raschi 
 buried at Troyes, but when the Jews were 
 out of France they carried his remains with 
 and rcinterred them at Prague. [E.R.] 
 
 U>(JlilD. See Haroun-Al-Basciiid. 
 
 RAV 
 
 > RASCHID-EDDIN, a Persian historian, physi- 
 cian, and vizier to the sultan Ghazan-Khan, 13th c 
 
 RASES, an Arabian historian of Spain, 9th ct. 
 
 RASORI, J., an Italian physician, 1766-1837. 
 
 RASPE, R. E., a Ger. antiquarian, 1737-1794. 
 
 RASTALL, John, an early English printer, 
 author of several curious and learned works, and 
 brother-in-law of Sir Thomas More, died 1536. 
 His son, William, a judge, died 1565. 
 
 RATCLIFF, R., an English dramatist, d. 1553. 
 
 RATCLIFFE, Thomas, earl of Sussex, known 
 as a statesman and ambassador, died 1583. 
 
 RATRAMN, a French theologian, 9th centurv. 
 
 RATSCHKY, J. F., a German poet, 1757-1810. 
 
 RATTE, S. H. De, a Fr. astronom., 1722-1805. 
 
 RAU, Christian, otherwise Ravis, Ravias, or 
 Rave, a Prussian Orientalist, 1603-1677. 
 
 RAU, J. E., a Prussian theologian, 1695-1770. 
 
 RAU, J. J., a German Hebraist, died 1745. 
 
 RAU, J. J., a German anatomist, 1668-1719. 
 
 RAU, Sebald, professor of Oriental languages 
 at Utrecht, 1724-1818. Sebald Foulques 
 Jean, his son, a poet and Orientalist, 1765-1807. 
 
 RAULIN, J., a French preacher, 1443-1514. 
 
 RAULIN, J., a French physician, 1708-1784. 
 
 RAUWOLF, L., a German botanist, died 1596. 
 
 RAUZZINI, Venauzio, an excellent musician, 
 and esteemed the greatest pianist of his time, was 
 a native of Rome. In early life he went to Vienna, 
 and afterwards to Munich, were he resided for 
 several years. In 1774 he was engaged as one of 
 the principal singers at the opera in London. After 
 some time he retired to Bath, where he for many 
 years managed the concerts. He composed several 
 operas and a great variety of detached composi- 
 tions, which were highly popular. He was long 
 classed amongst the first scientific musicians who 
 had made this country their home. Amongst his 
 pupils may be mentioned Madame Mara, Mrs. Bil- 
 lington, and Messrs. Braham and Incledon. Rauz- 
 zini, who was universally esteemed and beloved in 
 private life, died in 1810, aged 62 years. [J.M.] 
 
 RAVAILLAC, Francis, the assassin of Henry 
 IV. of France, was a Roman Catholic fanatic of 
 singular character, born at Angouleme 1578, or 
 1579. His naturally gloomy temperament was 
 deepened by a lawsuit, followed by an imprison- 
 ment for debt, in the course of which he is said to 
 have been haunted by visions, and acquired such a 
 morbid nervousness, that the very name of a 
 Huguenot would excite him to fury. It is not 
 without a certain risk that one expresses any be- 
 lief in reports of this nature except as symp- 
 toms of disease, but it is impossible to overlook 
 the historical evidence bearing on the circum- 
 stances alluded to. The king himself also had a pre- 
 sentiment of his fate, and repeatedly gave expres- 
 sion to it ; even the courtiers for some time before 
 the event were in a state of preternatural excite- 
 ment. The design of Ravaillac, meantime, was the 
 secret of his own bosom, and he took advantage of 
 the queen's coronation, on the 14th of May, 1610, 
 to put it in execution. Henry IV. was proceeding 
 in nis carriage along the Rue de la Ferronerie when 
 some obstruction occurred, and Ravaillac stepping 
 on the wheel, struck his noble victim through the 
 window ; he stabbed the king twice through the 
 heart, and death was instantaneous. The assassin 
 made no attempt to escape, but stood still with 
 
 Gob 
 
RAV 
 
 the bloody knife in his hand, and would have been 
 cnt down by one of the gentlemen, but the duke 
 d'Epernon interposed, and he was arrested. Ap- 
 plication of torture failed to wring any confession 
 from him implicating others, and he was torn to 
 pieces by horses in the Place de Greve, on the 
 27th of the same month. The moral complicity 
 of the catholic league in this tragedy cannot be 
 doubted ; the fanaticism of the enemies of Henry 
 IV. put the knife in Ravaillac's hand by a much 
 surer method than that of bargain and sale. The 
 death of Henry was followed by the regency of 
 Marie de Medici. [E.R.] 
 
 RAVENET, Simon Francis, a French en- 
 graver, 1706-1774. His son, Simon, an engraver, 
 born about 1755. 
 
 RAVENNA, M. Da, an Ital. engraver, 16th ct. 
 
 RAVENNE, J. De, a scholar of Petrarch, and 
 one of the restorers of letters in Italy, 1350-1420. 
 
 RAVENSCROFT, Thomas, a composer and 
 publisher of music, famous for his Psalm tunes 
 and works known to musical antiquaries, 17th ct. 
 
 RAVESTEYN, John Van, a Dutch portrait 
 painter, born about 1580. His son, Arnold, born 
 at the Hague in 1615, was also a portrait painter, 
 and in 1661 was chosen chief of the Society of Arts 
 in his native place. Nicholas, of the same 
 family, a painter of history, 1661-1750. 
 
 RAVIS, or RAVIUS. See Rau. 
 
 RAVISIUS-TEXTOR, whose proper name was 
 J. Tixier De Ravisi, professor of rhetoric at the 
 college of Navarre, 1480-1524. 
 
 RAWENDY, Ahmed, an Arabian savant, author 
 of a new doctrine of metempsychosis, died 905. 
 
 RAWLET, J., an English painter, 1642-1686. 
 
 RAWLEY, W., an English divine, who acted as 
 chaplain and secretary to Lord Bacon, 1588-1667. 
 
 RAWLINSON, Christopher, a famous mas- 
 ter of Saxon and northern literature, 1677-1733. 
 
 RAWLINSON, Sir Thomas, mayor of London 
 in 1706, when he repaired and beautified Guildhall, 
 1647-1724. His eldest son, Thomas, a remark- 
 able collector of books and MSS., the supposed 
 original of Addison's Tom Folio, died 1725. Rich- 
 ard, a fourth son of Sir Thomas, an eminent anti- 
 quarian, died at Islington 1755. 
 
 RAWSON, Sir W., an English oculist, d. 1829. 
 
 RAY, Rev. John, a very celebrated botanist and 
 zoologist, was born at Black Hetley, in Essex, in 
 1628. He died in 1705. Few events in Ray's life 
 were striking or remarkable. His father filled the 
 humble station of a blacksmith, but was able to give 
 his son a good classical education. At the age of 
 sixteen he went to the university of Cambridge, 
 and in 1660 was ordained both deacon and priest 
 at the same time. He held a fellowship in Trinity 
 College for a number of years; but, in 1662, he 
 was deprived of this by his scruples in conforming 
 to the celebrated Bartholomew Act. During his 
 residence at Cambridge, he had acted as tutor to 
 many gentlemen of high rank, amongst whom 
 especially was the son of Sir Francis Willoughby. 
 Upon his being forced to leave the university, he 
 travelled with his pupil through various parts of 
 England, and on the continent, and on his return 
 took up his abode for the most part at his friend's 
 house, Middleton Hall, in Warwickshire. Mr. 
 Willoughby was an ardent student of natural his- 
 tory, and Ray, whose name had already become 
 
 RAY 
 
 famous as a botanist, assisted him in his stud, 
 His kind patron and friend died in 1672, in 
 prime of life, leaving two infant sons whom 
 confided to the care of Ray, appointing him on 
 his executors, and leaving him an annuity of . 
 a-year. He soon afterwards married, and fin 
 settled in his native village. The books which . 
 published on botany are numerous ; and his sec 
 edition of the ' Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Brif 
 nicorum,' has been said by an eminent botanist f 
 be of all the systematical and practical floras of 
 country, the most perfect that ever came undei 
 observation. His method of classifying plants I 
 a natural one, distributing them according tc I 
 number of their cotyledons, and has formed 
 basis of that system, which is now, under the r | 
 of Jussieuan, universally received by botanisl 
 the present day. He is termed by Haller, 
 greatest botanist in the memory of man ;' an 
 Sir James Edward Smith, he is said to be 
 most accurate in observation, the most philosop j 
 in contemplation, and the most faithful in des I 
 tion, amongst all the botanists of our own, or 
 haps any other time.' As a zoologist, Ray r J 
 also very high. Up to his time naturalists 
 satisfied with Aristotle's classification of the ar j 
 kingdom. Ray, however, conscious of its del 
 and daring to think for himself, invented anc j 
 founded on the structure of the Heart. C 
 declares Ray to be the first true systematist c 
 animal kingdom, and both he and Linnaeuaj 
 themselves deeply indebted to his labours, in i 
 succeeding systematic arrangements. We; 
 conclude this brief notice of this justly celeb j 
 man in the words of a learned botanist : ' We rf j 
 acknowledge we are proud of being able to calj 
 our countryman, for ne was in all respects a 
 as he was great.' Plumier dedicated a gei 
 
 Slants to the memory of John Ray, under tne 
 . an-Raia. Linnaeus changed it to Ra-januM 
 Sir J. E. Smith has more lately with better 
 adopted the name Raiania. 
 
 RAY-DE-ST.-GEINEZ, James Mj * 
 French tactician, author of a military hist< I 
 Louis XIV, 1712-1777. 
 
 RAYMOND, several counts of Toulouse: * 
 mond I., reigned 852-865. Raymond II., re j 
 918-923. Raymond III., son and success 
 the preceding, created duke of Aquitaine and I 
 of Auvergne by Raoul, king of France, 92m 
 Raymond IV., born 1042, succeeded his bra 
 William IV, in 1088, as count of Toulous 
 of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence ; in 
 he went to Jerusalem with the first cru 
 refused the crown proffered to him after 
 ture of the city; died in Syria 1105. Rat.] 
 V., born 1134, succeeded his father 1148, died| 
 Raymond VI., son of the preceding, born [ 
 succeeded 1194, and, being a friend of the 
 genses, was twice excommunicated 1208 and 
 and despoiled of his estates by Simon de Md 
 1218, died 1222. Raymond VII., son of 
 mond VL, and last count of Toulouse, 
 1197, and after struggling with his father f j 
 recovery of his possessions, vanquished Sii 
 Montfort in 1224. He was so enfeebled " 
 continual wars, however, that he submitt 
 humiliating peace with the pope and the 
 Fran- 3 in 1229. He died 1242, leaving his J 
 
 636 
 
RAY 
 
 his only daughter, Jeanne, -who had married 
 phonso, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX. 
 RAYMOND, J. M., a Fr. general, dist. in the 
 vice of the native princes of India, 1755-1798. 
 RAYMOND, J. M., a Fr. chemist, 1756-1817. 
 RAYMOND, Robert, Lord, solicitor-general 
 the reign of Anne, and successively attomey- 
 aeral and chief justice of the King's Bench in 
 b reign of George I. ; died 1732. 
 RAYMONDI. See Raimondi. 
 RAYXAL, James, a French historian of Tou- 
 [se, 1723-1807. His brother, Francis, a Greek 
 [olar, 1726-1810. 
 
 RAYNAL, William Thomas Francis, a 
 bnch historian and political writer, was born at 
 Geniez, in the Rouergue, 1711, and acquired 
 European reputation by his ' Philosophical His- 
 of the Two Indies.' He was a great partizan 
 the encyclopedists, and a man of remarkable 
 evolence. His other historical works are of 
 note. Died 1796. 
 
 tAYNAUD, T., a Fr. theologian, 1583-1663. 
 IAYNOUARD, Francois Juste Marie, a 
 nch dramatic writer and philologist, 1761-1836. 
 IAZI, a celebrated Arabian physician, died 923. 
 tAZOUX, J., a French physician, 1723-1798. 
 5AZZI, G. A., an Italian painter, 1479-1554. 
 JE, Philip, an Italian agriculturist, 1763-1817. 
 EADING, an English divine, 1588-1667. 
 tEAL. See Saint Real. 
 !EAL, Andrew, a Fr. politician, 1765-1832. 
 EAL-DE-CURBON, Gaspard De, a French 
 er 'On the Science of Government,' 1682- 
 !. His nephew, Balthazar, an ecclesiastic 
 learned writer, 1701-1774. 
 ,EAL, Philip Francis, Count, an ally of 
 iton during the French revolution, 1765-1834. 
 EALINO, B., an Italian Jesuit, 1530-1616. 
 EAUMUR, Rene Antoine Ferchault De, 
 iebrated French physician and naturalist, was 
 . at Rochelle, 1683, and died 1757. He has 
 merit of reducing thermometers to a common 
 dard, and the thermometer of 80 degrees, in- 
 d by him in 1731, still bears his name. He was 
 *ssful in several new applications of chemistry 
 liferent branches of manufacture, especially 
 le of porcelain and steel. His principal works 
 'Memoirs of his Discoveries,' 'The History of 
 ' and a ' History of the Auriferous Rivers 
 ice.' He was also the discoverer of the 
 ise mines in Languedoc. 
 BENTISCH, J. Frederick, a German 
 disting. as a wr. on botany in 1804-1805. 
 OLLEDO, Bernardino, Count Di, a 
 soldier, poet, and diplomatist, 1597-1677. 
 UFFI, P., a French jurist, 1487-1557. 
 HI, N. A., a botanist of Naples, 16th ct. 
 ENBERG, Adam, a learned theologian 
 hflologist of Leipzig, 1642-1721. 
 ^HTERS, T., a Dutch painter, 1700-1768. 
 
 ~RDE, Robert, a native of Pembroke- 
 
 and one of the first mathematicians in this 
 
 to adopt the system of Copernicus, d. 1558. 
 
 ENTRIELM, or REENTRIELM, James, 
 
 Ish antiquarian, b. at Upsala 1644, d. 1691. 
 
 ESDALE, John Freeman Mitford, 
 
 a distinguished lawyer and statesman, who 
 
 at the trial of Hardy and Home Tooke, 
 
 "y became lord chancellor, 1748-1830. 
 
 REG 
 
 REDI, Francesco, an eminent natural philoso- 
 pher, poet, and philologian of Italy, 1626-1697. 
 
 REDI, J., an Italian painter, 1665-1726. 
 
 REDING, Aloys, Baron Von, landemann and 
 general of the Swiss at the period of the French 
 invasion, born 1755, repulsed the French on the 
 plains of Morgarten, 1798, became chief of the 
 central government, 1801, died 1818. 
 
 REDMAN, or REDMAYNE, John, a digni- 
 tary and theol. of the English Church, 1499-1551. 
 
 REDOUTE, P. J., a Flemish pain., 1759-1840. 
 
 REED, Isaac, a miscellaneous writer and dra- 
 matic critic, born in London 1742, died 1807. 
 
 REED, J., a dramatic writer, 1723-1787. 
 
 REES, Abraham, D.D., whose encyclopedia 
 is well known, was born in Montgomeryshire, 
 1743, and educated as a dissenting minister in the 
 academy of Hoxton. He was teacher of mathe- 
 matics at that institution from 1762 till its disso- 
 lution in 1784, and soon after taught philosophy 
 and theology in the new college at Hackney. He 
 was employed as editor of Chamber's Cyclopaedia 
 in the period 1776 to 1786, and some years later 
 edited the great work known by his name in 45 
 volumes 4to. Dr. Rees died in 1825, having at 
 that time been minister of the chapel in Old Jewry 
 about forty years. Rees's Cyclopaedia is still 
 valuable as representing the state of knowledge 
 just at the commencement of modern progress. 
 
 REEVE, Clara, daughter of a clergyman of 
 Ipswich, distinguished as a novelist, 1723-1808. 
 
 REEVE, John, one of the most popular actors 
 on the London stage, famous for his representation 
 of burlesque character, was born in London, 1799, 
 and made his first appearance at Drury Lane, in 
 the character of ' Sylvester Daggerwood,' in 1819. 
 The principal scene of his later performances was 
 the Adelphi theatre in the Strand. Died 1838. 
 
 REEVES, John, successively a barrister and 
 magistrate, author of ' Thoughts on the English 
 Government,' and of a ' History of the Law of 
 Shipping and Navigation,' 1752-1829. 
 
 REEVES, W., an English divine, 1668-1726. 
 
 REGA, H. J., a French physician, 1690-1754. 
 
 REGGIO, F., an Italian astronomer, 1743-1804. 
 
 REGILLIANUS, Quintus Nonius, a Roman 
 emperor, elected 261, killed 263. 
 
 REGINALDUS, Valerius, otherwise Renaud 
 orREGNAULD, aFr. Jesuit and casuist, 1540-1623. 
 
 REGIOMONTANUS. See Muller. 
 
 REGIS, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit and 
 missionary to China, in the period 1708-1715. He 
 is author of a Latin translation of the Y-King, 
 and of a map of the country. His nephew, Joseph 
 Charles, known as a man of letters, 1718-1777. 
 
 REGIS, J. F., a French preacher, 1597-1640. 
 
 REGIS, P., a French physician, 1656-1726. 
 
 REGIS, Pierre Sylvan, whose proper name 
 was Leroy, a Cartesian philosopher, 1632-1707. 
 
 REGIUS, H. Leroy, or Duroy, a physician 
 and Cartesian philosopher of Utrecht, 1598-1679. 
 
 REGIUS, Urbain, or Le Roy, a learned re- 
 former, poet, and professor of rhetoric, died 1541. 
 
 REGNARD, Jean Francois, a comic poet, 
 who ranks next to Moliere in French literature, and 
 is remarkable for his adventurous life, 1647-1709. 
 
 REGNAULD, Michael Louis Stephen, called 
 1 Regnault of Saint Jean D'Angely,' a Fr. magistrate 
 and member of the estates-general, 1760-1819. 
 
 637 
 
KEG 
 
 REGNAULDIN, Thomas, a French sculptor, 
 and member of the Academy, died 1706. 
 
 REGNAULT, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1754-1829. 
 
 REGNAULT, N., a Fr. physician, 1683-17G2. 
 
 REGNIER, Claude Ambrose, duke of Mass*, 
 a French statesman at the period of the revolution 
 and the empire, 1746-1814. 
 
 REGNIER, E., a Fr. mechanician, 1757-1825. 
 
 REGNIER, a French Latin poet, 1589-1663. 
 
 REGNIER, M., a French satirist, 1573-1613. 
 
 REGNIER -DESMARAIS, Francis Sera- 
 phin, a French writer, author of poems in his own 
 language and in Latin and Italian, secretary to 
 the Academy, and one of the most active editors of 
 the dictionary, 1632-1713. 
 
 REGNIER-DESTOURBET, H. F., a French 
 writer and advocate of the Jesuits, 1804-1831. 
 
 REGULUS, Marcus Attilius, a Roman 
 general, consul B.C. 256, killed at Carthage 251. 
 
 REGULUS - SERRANUS, Caius Atilius, 
 consul of Rome B.C. 257, obtained the naval vic- 
 tory of Lipari in the war with the Carthaginians. 
 
 REHFELD, C. F., a Germ, physician, 1735-94. 
 
 REHNSCHOLD, Charles Gustavus, a dis- 
 tinguished senator and field-marshal of Sweden, 
 1651-1722. 
 
 REICHA, Antoine Joseph, a celebrated musi- 
 cal composer and theorist, was bora at Prague in 
 1770, and received his education at the university 
 of Bonn. Between the years 1794 and 1807 he 
 lived at Hamburg, at Paris, and at Vienna, where 
 he produced several works which were eminently 
 successful. In 1808 he revisited Paris, when he 
 gave a course of lectures on composition, which 
 were well attended. His career as an operatic 
 composer then commenced. After the death of 
 Mehul he was appointed professor of the Conser- 
 vatoire de Musique, where he instituted a new and 
 greatly improved method of tuition, which has had 
 great effect over all Europe in improving the study 
 and advancing the knowledge of music. In May, 
 1835, he was admitted a member of the National 
 Institute, and he died in May, 1836. [J.M.] 
 
 REICHARD, H. A. Ottocar, a statesman 
 and literateur, dukedom of Gotha, 1751-18 '8. 
 
 REICHARD, H. G., a German philologist, 
 1742-1801. 
 
 REICHARDT, Christian, author of 'The 
 Science of Agriculture and Gardening,' 1685-1775. 
 
 REICHARDT, Johann Friedrich, was born 
 at Konigsberg in Prussia, in the year 1752. This 
 composer, whose talents developed themselves in a 
 remarkable degree even in early infancy, studied 
 for two years at the university of Konigsberg, un- 
 der the great philosopher Emanuel Kant, and after- 
 wards two years at the university of Leipzig. He 
 then travelled through Germany, and on his return 
 to Prussia he was appointed Director of Salt-works 
 under government. Reichardt was chapel-master 
 under three kings of Prussia, namely, Frederick the 
 Great, and Frederick William II., and III. He 
 was also manager of the French and German 
 theatres, and conductor of the orchestra to the 
 king of Westphalia, and member and correspondent 
 of several learned societies. He composed an im- 
 mense number of literary and musical works, the 
 list of which is much too long to be given here. His 
 musical works embrace all classes of compositions, 
 operas, sonatas, and concertos for the harpsichord, 
 
 REI 
 
 concertos for the violin and violoncello, clioru 
 songs, odes, overtures, and church music. He I 
 in the year 1814. [J. 
 
 REICHENBACH, George of, a distin. ms 
 of optical instruments and telescopes, 1772-18; 
 
 REICHSTADT, Napoleon Fran. Char 
 JOSEPH Buonaparte, Due De, only son of 
 poleon and his Austrian bride, Maria Louisa, 
 born at Paris, 20th March, 1811. His birth 
 an event of great political importance, and Nj 
 leon himself announced it to the crowds 
 thronged the Tuileries with the ambitious woi 
 ' C'est un roi de Rome ! ' Napoleon, at this t 
 at the height of his power, was preparing for 
 struggle which every one foresaw must take p 
 with the might of Russia, and as usual with 1 
 he anticipated the coalition by a sudden inva 
 of the North. The young king of Rome had 
 completed his third year when the disaster* 
 Moscow and Leipzig opened the gates of Pari 
 the allied armies, and was with his mothei 
 Blois when the capital capitulated, 30th Ma: 
 1814. The emperor was exiled to Elba, and 
 wife and son conveyed to Vienna, where 
 young prince received the title of Due de Rei 
 stadt, a petty principality of Bohemia, and : 
 confided to the care of "the count Dietrichst 
 His father made vain attempts to recover post 
 sion of the child, for whose existence he had t 
 a heavy price in the divorce of Josephine, ana 
 his second abdication in 1815, he endcavourec 
 secure his succession as Napoleon II. The M 
 bons, however, were restored by the allied k 
 reigns, Maria Louisa became duchess of P^ 
 and mistress of Count Neipperg, and her son 
 consigned to oblivion at the court of his gra 
 father. The eyes of Europe were often tur 
 upon the young Napoleon as he grew to manhc 
 and displayed some of the rare qualities posse 
 by his father; the governments of Louis XV 1 
 and Charles X. also may be supposed to have 
 that his existence at the court of Vienna; 
 perpetual menace. Whatever hopes or 
 may have excited were set at rest by his j 
 1832, when a rapid decline terminated " 
 the early age of twenty-one. The due 
 stadt bore a strong resemblance to Napol 
 finely chiselled mouth and chin, the ma 
 head, and the deep brilliancy of his eyes, 
 markably alike ; the same may be said of ] 
 city for the penetration of character, 
 general temperament. He applied hi 
 tensely to military and historical stud 
 especially to all that concerned the car 
 father, but he had no real freedom at 
 His portrait was almost the last object 
 exile of St. Helena gazed upon, whose " 
 ment is an evidence how much he still 
 the child of his ambition : ' I recomme 
 never to forget that he was born a Frenc 
 and never to permit himself to become an i 
 ment in the hands of the sovereigns who 
 the peoples of Europe. He must never f 
 in the ranks of those who combat with 
 in any manner annoy her. Let him 
 motto, " All for the trench people." ' 
 
 REID, Thomas, born at Strachan in 
 dineshire, 26th April, 1710 ; died in Glas 
 October, 1795 : the illustrious founder 
 
 C38 
 
REI 
 
 ottish School ' in Philosophy. The events 
 Reid's Life were few, but most honourable to 
 i; and the entire tenor of his Life, that which 
 tted an unobtrusive, but earnest, and successful 
 uirer into Truth. Under the influence of early 
 nections, his thoughts naturally turned towards 
 losophy, and the profession of the Church; 
 he completed the studies needful to that end 
 darischal College, Aberdeen. But about this 
 od, Hume's Treatise on Human Nature aston- 
 d and troubled Philosophy. Until then, Reid 
 accepted Locke, and even the startling deduc- 
 s of Berkeley did not alarm him. But Hume 
 much farther. Along with the Material 
 Id, he had banished those Spiritual conceptions 
 ;h Reid held in greatest account; he denied, 
 Personality, and therefore the Liberty and Re- 
 sibility of Man. The sincere Scottish Clergy- 
 , felt and knew, that, in a Philosophy whose 
 iusions were so false, the most serious error 
 inhere ; and that, as its Logic showed no flaw, 
 "ault must He in the foundations. Soon after, 
 763, his great work appeared the ' Inquiry 
 he Human, Mind on the Principles of Common 
 -that vigorous protest on behalf of our 
 Consciousness, which determined the long 
 uent course of Scottish Philosophy. Pre- 
 to the publication of this work, Reid had left 
 " (in 1752) for the Chair of Moral Philo- 
 in his Alma Mater; but the reputation 
 " ed by the ' Inquiry,' procured his transla- 
 te a more important sphere ; he was chosen 
 "64 to succeed Adam Smith in the corres- 
 w Chair in the University of Glasgow. In 
 and 1788, he published his Essays on the In- 
 ' Faculties, and the A ctive Powers. Philo- 
 has recently obtained the classic edition 
 Sir William Hamilton. We shall 
 succinctly as possible the characteristics 
 i Reform. The first fallacy in the system 
 and his successors, at which he struck, 
 doctrine of Perception. The problem, 
 way does the Mind reach the external 
 | had always been held fundamental in 
 hy. And a favourite mode of conceiving 
 is certain Images or Ideas, intermediate 
 mind and matter representing the latter, 
 hensible by the former constitute the 
 # tween these two contrasted substances 
 being the case, said Berkeley, we do not 
 Matter or the External World at all ; and, 
 Hume, we perceive and can know nothing 
 The various forms and modifications 
 cumbrous and purely fantastic conception 
 tly been scientifically arranged and ex- 
 by Sir William Hamilton ; who has 
 afresh that Reid's solution of the vexed 
 is the only tenable one. Perception, said 
 not a representation, but a presentation. 
 not reach it, from Sensation, through any 
 , the world the cause of the sensation 
 in the mind along with the sensation 
 and with the same evidence. The root or 
 of all our knowledge is thus essentially 
 the Intuition is as immediate as the 
 that gives rise to it. (Article Leibntiz). 
 this simple solution, which is but the as- 
 of a fact attested to be such by Consci- 
 Beid dispersed the perplexities of preced- 
 
 REI 
 
 ing Thinkers, and ought to have prevented the 
 rise of many of the ambitious and baseless 
 schemes in which Germany has since then been 
 unhappily so fertile. Reids next point, touched 
 the rationale of our Judgments. According 
 to Locke, a Judgment is the mere comparison of 
 terms or ideas furnished by simpte apprehension : 
 we receive ideas, said that Philosopher, alto- 
 gether from Sensation ; the Mind compares these 
 Ideas ; and, from this comparison, results^ know- 
 ledge or judgments. Reid overthrew this doc- 
 trine also. Judgments, he said, are not mere 
 abstract terms; neither mere statements of the 
 identity or discordance of abstract terms. They 
 come from analyses of concrete notions by the 
 Mind, acting according to its own inherent Lau-s, 
 and under the sjoay of principles, belonging to 
 its constitution, and of which none of its opera- 
 tions are independent. This doctrine of Judg- 
 ment, led our Inquirer, ineyitablv, to a farther 
 and yet higher question, viz.: What are those 
 Laws? What those Fundamental Principles of 
 the Reason ? Reid replies, by a summary of First 
 Truths, or Truths of Common Sense; and next by 
 an analysis of the Faculties. Very few persons 
 will now be disposed to say, that in the details or 
 phraseology of these replies, Reid's system is un- 
 impeachable. The name Faculty, was perhaps 
 unfortunate, and no scientific, precise, or exhaus- 
 tive method, guided his research after First 
 Truths ; he merely enumerates a few principles, 
 which he says are evident to Common Sense. 
 Nevertheless, the solution offered is correct in the 
 main ; and it is not an exaggeration, that it over- 
 turned Sensationalism in this country. He car- 
 ried with him the same method into Moral Inves- 
 tigations, re-establishing on surest foundations, 
 the Personality and Liberty of Man. It is of mo- 
 ment that a correct apprehension be obtained of 
 the exact place occupied by Reid and the Scottish 
 School generally, in the history of later Mental 
 Philosophy. That he stands among the foremost 
 of that class of Thinkers who have contended with 
 Scepticism in all its forms, and Sensationalism 
 under whatever modification, does not require to be 
 reasserted : the really important question is, what 
 is the relationship of Reid's system to those of 
 other Modern Leaders, who, in so far as his main 
 object is concerned, have made common cause 
 with him ? Among the great men, whose general 
 aim was identical with Reid's, we easily distin- 
 guish two Des Cartes and Kant : let us fix, 
 then, the relations between Cartesianism, our 
 Scottish Reform, and the Critical Philosophy. 
 Now, it is not to be doubted that the foundation 
 the starting point of unquestionable certainty 
 is in all these systems the same : neither is the 
 
 flory of having first descried that Common Sense 
 'oundation, to be withheld from the illustrious 
 Frenchman. Previous to the labours of Des 
 Cartes, the metaphysicians of Modern Europe, 
 had discerned no absolute starting point; their 
 schemes usually reposed on some abstract and 
 often fanciful postulate; nor can more forcible 
 illustration be given of the merit of Des Cartes' 
 achievement, than the subsequent aberrations of 
 Spinoza. The foundation, whose claims and 
 sufficiency are so fully vindicated in the Treatise 
 on Method and the Meditations, is simply this : 
 
 639 
 
REI 
 
 it is a First Truth possessed of an Absolute Cer- 
 tainty, from which the certainty belonging to all 
 other Truth is derived that 7, a Thinking Sicb- 
 f'ect, exist. This Ego, then, being our first or pri- 
 mary sphere of observation and scrutiny ; what find 
 we there? And in establishing this foundation 
 and putting this question, Des Cartes spread out 
 the entire domain of Psychology. Sciences are 
 built up slowly ; and psychological observation is 
 peculiarly difficult: Des Cartes did not advance 
 far with the superstructure ; he left hints merely 
 and separate truths; and he often erred. The 
 earliest subsequent progress may most justly be 
 attributed to Reid, for Locke, with all his acute- 
 ness, was not a sound Psychologist, he started 
 from a Theory regarding the Origin of our Ideas. 
 Consciousness, said Reid, which assures us of the 
 existence and personality of the Thinking Subject, 
 declares in a manner equally imperative, the phe- 
 nomena and attributes of that Subject. It tells in 
 the first place, of certain Faculties, or modes of 
 action demanding faith for the operations of these 
 Faculties. And it declares secondly, the existence 
 of certain absolute principles or beliefs, from 
 which in none of its actions, the Ego can shake 
 itself free : principles which, when mixed up with 
 the subject-matter of sensations, give rise to equally 
 imperative contingent truths. As already indi- 
 cated, Reid was rather a sound Thinker than pos- 
 sessed of the Scientific Spirit. Although there- 
 fore he discovered the foregoing Truths, and fully 
 appreciated and unfolded their importance, he 
 penetrated no farther. He descried fundamental 
 facts in Psychology, but he never entertained an 
 idea that Psychology any more than any other 
 branch of Inquiry cannot be elevated into a Sci- 
 ence, if attention be confined to examination of its 
 separate fundamental Facts. That loftier ques- 
 tion was beyond him What is the Organic Struc- 
 ture of the Intellect of which these facts are pro- 
 ducts or phenomena ? In other words, In what 
 way are principles possible, which are not evolved 
 by our faculties, but rather govern them, seeing 
 that no faculty can construct any notion which 
 does not pre-suppose these principles? And 
 again, How comes it, that knowledge relative to 
 the nature and action of the Faculties of an 
 Individual Mind, can ever assume to be Absolute? 
 It is into this arduous Sphere of pure Science 
 that Kant boldly entered, and where his triumphs 
 have been won. His arrangement or classifica- 
 tion of the Mind's Modes of Energy (Faculties) 
 is simpler and better discriminated than Reid's; 
 he has traced the absolutism of First Truths to 
 the fact, that d priori or constitutent Laws, 
 
 fovern the Mind's action in every Mode of its 
 Inergy; and he has exhausted the list of such 
 Truths, by detecting these d priori Laws. 
 Such, the relationship among these remarkable 
 Thinkers. It has been signally unfortunate for 
 the progress of Philosophy in Scotland, that we 
 have not been disposed to regard our country- 
 man as a contributor merely. Not satisfied with 
 recognizing his immense merits, we have sup- 
 
 })osed that he sounded all the depths of Psycho- 
 ogic knowledge; thus wilfully shutting up our 
 sympathies from the memorable advances" achieved 
 since his time. Of late years, indeed, we have 
 been growing sensible of our mistake. [J.P.N.] 
 
 REM 
 
 REIFESTEIN, John Frederick, a Prusf 
 cameo painter and improver of the art, 1719-17 
 
 REIFFENBERG, Francis De, a Fre 
 Jesuit, historian, theol., and Latin poet, 1719-" 
 
 REIGNY, L. A. B., a French writer, 1757-li 
 
 REIL, J. C, a Germ, phvsiologist, 1759-18: 
 
 REIMAR,or REIMARIUS, Herman Samu 
 a philologist and naturalist, professor of phil< 
 phy at Hamburg, 1694-1748. His son, 
 Henry, a physician and naturalist, 1729-1801 
 
 REIMMANN, James Frederick, a Gen 
 savant, author of a ' History of Logic,' 16G8-1' 
 
 REINA, F., a French writer, 1770-1825. 
 
 REINBECK, J. G., a German theologian 
 philosophical disciple of Wolf, 1682-1741. 
 
 REINECCIUS, O, a theologian and Hebr 
 editor of a Bible in four languages, 1668-1752 
 
 REINECCIUS, Reinier, an antiquarian 
 disciple of Melanchthon, one of the restore! 
 historical studies in Germany, 1541-1595. 
 
 REINEGGS, J., a German traveller, 1744 
 
 REINER, W. L., a German painter, 1686-1 
 
 REINESIUS, Thomas, a learned phyi 
 and archaeologist of Gotha, 1587-1667. 
 
 REINHARD, F.Volkmar, aprotestantth) 
 gian and moralist of Sulzbach, 1753-1812 
 
 REINHART, C. F., Count, a diplomatist, n 
 ber of the Institute, and peer of France, 1751-J 
 
 REINHOLD, C. Leo, a Ger. philos., one* 
 first to enforce the doctrines of Kant, 17584 
 
 REINHOLD, Erasmus, a German astron 
 and professor of mathematics, 1511-1553.1 
 son, of the same name, who was a phys 
 wrote on geometry, and on a new star whick 
 peared in Cassiopeia, 1575. 
 
 REISER, A., a German theologian, 1628-1 
 
 REISKE, John James, an eminent philol 
 and Arabic scholar of Saxony, 1716-1774.J 
 wife, Ernestina Christina, was a Latin 
 Greek scholar, and aided her husband in a 
 labours, 1735-1798. 
 
 REITZ, Frederick Wolfgang, a Ge 
 philologist and editor of some classics, 1733-s 
 
 REITZ, John Frederick, a learned pi 
 gist, 1695-1778. His brother, G. Otho, a 
 editor, 1702-1769, 
 
 RELAND, A., a Dutch Orientalist, 167*1 
 
 RELTAN, Richard, a Church of EnglaM 
 ister, naturalist, and classical editor, 1755-lf 
 
 REMARD, O, a French bibliopole, 1766-/ 
 
 REMBERSUS, one of the first promot 
 Christianity in Denmark, d. abp. of Hamburg . 
 
 REMBRANDT, Gerritz, commonly called^ 
 brandt Van Rhyn, was born in his father 
 on the banks of the Rhine between Leyerdoi 
 Kowkerk, near Leyden, June 15, 1606. Heb, 
 the pupil of Jacob Van Swanenburg, with 
 he remained three years; he studied also > 
 Pieter Lastman at Amsterdam, and Jacob Pi 
 Haarlem. He settled at Amsterdam in 163 
 appears to have died there, according to 1mm 
 July 19, 1664, but no register of his bori 
 been yet discovered. Rembrandt was equal 
 tinguished as an etcher and a painter ; his 
 ings amount to nearly 400 : they are date* 
 1628 to 1661. The chief characteristic of hi* 
 is forcible light and shade. He is well repn 
 in the National Gallery; and his influen 
 been more direct upon the British school oi 
 
 040 
 
REM 
 
 *s than that of any other master. (Immerzeel, 
 mteekeningen op de Lofredd op Rembrandt, 
 De Levens en Werken der Hollandsche en 
 'aanmsche Kunstschilders, &c, 1843 ; Bartsch, 
 Peinter graveur; Burnet, Rembrandt and his 
 fo, 1848.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 tEMER, J. A., a Germ, historian, 1736-1804. 
 {EMI, or REMIGIUS, the name of two saints 
 the Roman calendar : 1. An apostle of the 
 inks who baptized Clovis, and became arch- 
 hop of Rheims, died 533. 2. An archbishop of 
 ons, who was of Gaulish origin, and wrote 
 nst Godeschalcus, presided at the council of 
 ence 855, died 875. A third of the name, 
 ed Remi, or Remigius of Auxerre, was a 
 ledictine monk and commentator, died 980. 
 {EMI, A., a French poet, 1600-1646. 
 EMI, J. H., a French jurist, 1738-1782. 
 EMONDI, Balthasar M., a Venetian bishop 
 lante, disting. as an Orientalist, 1698-1777. 
 EMUSAT, Claire Elizabeth Jeanne, 
 ntess De, lady of the palace to the empress 
 jphine, authoress of an Essay on Female Edu- 
 
 n,1780-1821. 
 
 EMUSAT, Jean Pierre Abel, professor of 
 Chinese and Tartar languages at the college of 
 ice, author of a Chinese Grammar, and some 
 ble translations, 1788-1832. 
 EMUSAT, P. F. De, a Fr. writer. 1755-1803. 
 ENANUS. See Rhenanus. 
 ENARD, J. A., a French architect, 1744-73. 
 ENAU D'ELISAGARAY, Bernard, a fa- 
 naval engineer and architect, an. of ' Theorie 
 , Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux,' 1652-1719. 
 NAUD, the first of the name, count of Bur- 
 y, reigned 1027-1057; the second, succeeded 
 I, died in the Holy Land, 1097; the third, 
 ' ded 1126, died, and was succeeded by his 
 ter, Beatrix, 1148. 
 
 NAUD, the first of the name, count of Bar, 
 " 1105-1149, and sustained a long struggle 
 e emperor Henry V. The second, succeeded 
 her, Hugh, 1155, died 1170. 
 AUD, L., a French preacher, 1690-1771. 
 AUD,orREGNAULD. See Reginaldus. 
 AUDIE, Godfrey De Bapay, Seigneur 
 . a party to the conspiracy of Amboise, 1560. 
 NAUDOT, Theophrastus, a physician and 
 roher, founder of the ' Gazette de France,' 
 1653. The 'Gazette' was continued by his 
 :, Isaac and Eusebius. Eusebius, his 
 is a learned Orientalist and ecclesi- 
 historian, 1656-1720. 
 
 'AULT, A. C, a young woman, executed at 
 
 for attempting the life of Robespierre, 1794. 
 
 "AZZI, P. M., an Italian jurist, 1747-1808. 
 
 E of Anjou, the last of his dynasty who 
 
 the throne of Naples, and the father of 
 
 t of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., king of 
 
 was born at the castle of Angers in 1409, 
 
 eded his brother as duke of Anjou and 
 
 of Provence, 1434. He had previously be- 
 
 doke of Lorraine by his marriage with Isa- 
 
 *"e heiress of that state, and had suffered a 
 
 tivity, and been deprived of the succession 
 
 competitor, Anthony, count of Vaudemont. 
 
 B still the prisoner of that polite gentleman 
 
 he succeeded to the duchies of Anjou and 
 
 in 1434, and when the death of Joan II. 
 
 REN 
 of Naples in 1435, gave him a claim to the Two 
 Sicilies. These events, and the warlike employ- 
 ment they promised to Rend, were a sufficient in- 
 ducement for Anthony to rid his hands of him, 
 and the heir of Naples and Sicily was permitted 
 to fight his way to the throne. The succession 
 was disputed by Alfonso of Arragon, who took 
 Naples in 1442, and chased Rene back to Provence. 
 But the conquests of the English had also de- 
 prived him of his whole heritage in France, and 
 Rene found himself a titular king of some of the 
 fairest portions of the earth, and duke of Anjou, 
 Maine, and Bar, without a province under his own 
 command. Such was his position when the duke 
 of Suffolk negotiated the marriage of Renews 
 daughter with Henry VI., and it is thus alluded 
 to in the taunts put in the mouth of York by 
 Shakspeare : 
 
 Thy father bears the type of king of Naples, 
 Of both the Sicils and Jerusalem ; 
 Yet not so wealthy as an English yeoman. 
 Hath that poor monarch taught thee to insult ?' 
 
 Margaret, however, if poor, was a finely accom- 
 plished woman, and possessed the heroic spirit of 
 many others of hei sex in that age ; her father, 
 Ren6, also was distinguished by many of the quali- 
 ties of a good and wise king, whose lot was cast in 
 evil times; and he was called 'the good King 
 Rene' by his subjects of Provence. Anjou and 
 Maine were restored to him by the treaty with 
 Henry VI., but Louis XL, in 1473, deprived him 
 of the former, and attached it definitively to the 
 French crown. It was according to the necessity 
 and the spirit of the times, for the European 
 monarchies were then absorbing the old feudal lord- 
 ships and petty sovereignties into themselves, and 
 forming the national monarchies, such as France 
 became in the next century under Louis XIV. 
 Rene - died at Aix in Provence, 1470, and so lately 
 as 1823 a marble statue was erected to him in 
 that city. He was the last count of Provence, 
 that portion of his hereditary dominions having 
 been annexed to France at his death. [E.R.] 
 
 RENE II., duke of Lorraine, born 1451, suc- 
 ceeded to the duchy in right of his mother, daughter 
 of Rend of Anjou, 1493, died 1508. 
 
 RENEE of France, duchess of Ferrara, second 
 daughter of Louis XII., was born 1510. In 1528 
 she married Hercules II., duke of Ferrara, and was 
 distinguished for her love of letters, and her friend- 
 ship for Calvin and the protestants. Died 1575. 
 
 RENNEL, Major, an East Indian officer, and 
 distinguished geographical writer, 1742-1830. 
 
 RENNELL, Thomas, dean of Winchester, and 
 son-in-law of Sir William Blackstone, regarded as 
 one of the most accomplished men of his age, 
 author of Sermons, 1753-1840. His son, of trie 
 same name, born at Winchester 1787, became in 
 1811 editor of the ' British Critic,' and published 
 about the same time his ' Animadversions on the 
 Unitarian Version of the New Testament ;' d. 1824. 
 
 RENNEVILLE, Constantine De, author of 
 a ' History of the Bastile,' in which he had been 
 confined on a charge of treason ; born at Caen 
 1650, died in England 1724. 
 
 RENNEVILLE, Sophie, a French lady, author 
 of works on education, 1771-1822, 
 
 RENNIE, John, a distinguished civil engineer, 
 and the first perhaps who in the execution of 
 
 641 
 
 2T 
 
REN 
 
 machinery carefully distributed and accurately 
 calculated the strains of the different parts, so that 
 these were justly proportioned, a feature which up 
 to a very recent period was a peculiar characteristic 
 of British machinery. He was born at Phantassie 
 in Haddingtonshire, 7th June, 1761. His father 
 was a farmer, celebrated for his skill and desire to 
 improve agriculture. As early as 1780, on being 
 asked at what season he began ploughing, answered 
 that he ploughed at all seasons ! John Rennie 
 acquired the rudiments of education at the school 
 of JPhantassie and afterwards at Dunbar, where, 
 on the promotion of the master, he, for a short 
 time, conducted the school. He early displayed a 
 love of nature, and an aptitude for mechanical 
 contrivance, and the use of tools. He worked as 
 a mechanic for some years under Andrew Meikle, 
 a millwright of the district, under whose superin- 
 tendence he assisted in the erection of some mills 
 in Haddingtonshire, and went as far as Dundee to 
 erect one on his own account. The opportunity 
 presented itself, and Rennie took advantage of it, 
 to attend the courses of lectures on mechanical 
 philosophy and chemistry, by Robison and Black, 
 in Edinburgh college. Prepared thus with what 
 books and professors could teach, he entered the 
 world ; and it may be said, that during all the 
 course of his useful life, he was adding to his stock 
 of knowledge, or seeking the means of improving 
 his practice by observing the operations and effects 
 of his own works, as well as of those which had 
 been executed by other engineers. About 1781, or 
 when in his twenty-first year, feeling himself 
 qualified to practise the profession of civil engineer- 
 ing on a greater scale than Scotland then afforded 
 field for, he set out for London. On his way he spent 
 some months with Watt at Soho. Soon after he 
 was established in London, Bolton and Watt em- 
 ployed Rennie in the construction of two steam 
 engines, and the machinery connected with them, 
 at the Albion Flour Mills. All the wheel work was 
 of cast iron instead of wood, which had been always 
 previously used in such machinery. The works 
 were finished in 1789, and obtained Watt's highest 
 commendation. Rennie continued to the last to be 
 employed in the construction of steam engines and 
 other machinery, and, at the same time, he was 
 almost constantly engaged in designing or superin- 
 tending those public works which have given him 
 so just a claim to celebrity. Rennie designed and 
 executed innumerable bridges, but his masterpieces 
 are Waterloo bridge, the Southwark cast iron 
 bridge, and New London bridge, the execution of 
 which latter was left to his sons to complete. His 
 great engineering genius was displayed besides in 
 numerous canals for navigation successfully carried 
 out under his direction ; in the extensive drainage 
 schemes for the Lincolnshire fens, which he planned 
 and executed ; in the magnificent London, and East 
 and West India docks ; the Hull docks, where he 
 constructed the first dredging machine used in this 
 country. But the catalogue of his works cannot 
 be recited here. He was indefatigable in business, 
 and personally directed minutest details. He was 
 a man of noble presence, of somewhat austere tem- 
 per, and not very social habits. Chantrey, who 
 made a bust of him, said of it that it was his 
 (Ohantrey's) Jupiter. Until within a few years of 
 his death he enjoyed excellent health. He died Oc- 
 
 RET 
 
 tober 16, 1821, at the early age of sixty-one, leavii 
 many magnificent designs to be executed by h 
 two elder sons, George and John, the latt 
 now Sir John Rennie ; he was buried in St. Paxil 
 Cathedral. [L.D.B.G 
 
 RENNIGER, or RHANGER,Micilki., a n.iti 
 of Hampshire, chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, ai 
 author of Latin poems, 1529-1609. 
 
 RENDU, A., a French painter, 1731-1806. I 
 
 RENTI, Gaston Jean Baptiste, a Freni 
 nobleman, remarkable for his ascetic devotion 
 religion, and for his charities, 1611-1649. 
 
 RENZI, A, an Italian writer, 1780-182.1 
 
 REPNIN, Nicholas Wasiuewitsch, Prin< 
 a celebrated Russian diplomatist, 1731-1801. 
 
 REPTON, Humphrey, a private gentlenu 
 dist. as a wr. on landscape gardening, 1752-181 
 
 REQUENO Y VIVES, Vincent, a Span 
 Jesuit, numismatist, and archajologist, 1743-18' 
 
 REQUIER, J. B., a French writer, 1715-17$ 
 
 RESENIUS, John Paul, a learned divine, i 
 of a Lutheran clergyman of Denmark, 1561-16 
 His grandson, Peter John, professsr of mc 
 philosophy and jurisprud. at Copenhagen, 1625- 
 
 RESTAUT, P., a Fr. grammarian, 1696-176 
 
 RESTIF-DE-LA-BRETONNE, N. E., a fer 
 and cynical French novelist, 1731-1806. 
 
 RESTOUT, John, a French painter, directot 
 the Academy, 1692-1768. His son, J. Berna: 
 a painter and member of the Academy, died 17 
 
 RESTY, J. A., a Latin poet, 1755-1814. 
 
 RETZ, Gilles De Saval, Seigneur Del 
 French marshal, born 1396, distinguished him: 
 in the wars with the English, and acquired a * 
 graceful celebrity by his cruelties and infair 
 debaucheries : hung and burnt 1440. 
 
 RETZ, or RAIZ, Albert De Gondi, Mar 
 De, a native of Florence, who came to France \ 
 Catharine de Medici, and was rewarded with 
 barony of Retz and a marshal's baton, 1522-1 
 His brother, Pierre, Cardinal De Retz, advai 
 by favour of Catharine, 1533-1616. Their gn 
 nephew is the subject of the following articlw_ 
 
 RETZ, Jean Francois Paul De Goi; 
 Cardinal De, the hero of the civil wars oii 
 Fronde in the minority of Louis XIV., *^ 
 son of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, general of: 
 French Galleys, and was born at MontmiraiLM 
 He was educated by St. Vincent de Paul | 
 destined for the church, but turned out a D 
 tious and turbulent character in his youth, 
 preferred entering into the intrigues oi thej 
 and heading the popular party opposed to 
 and Conde. Tne only sincere parties in 
 cabal, for it hardly possesses the dignity of r 
 war, though it was marked by all the suffei 
 one, was the distressed people, who be 
 mere tools of ambition and faction. The 
 manifestations provoked by De Retz were" 
 to those which marked the commencements 
 French revolution; and the year 1649 was] 
 lized by the resort to arms and the er 
 barricades. The court was obliged to lea\ 
 till De Retz was purchased by a cardie 
 which he was nominated by the king in 16 
 was then arrested, during the lull which ft 
 by Mazarin, and remained a prisoner from | 
 1654, when he escaped to Spain, and goii 
 that country to Rome, engaged in the int" 
 
 642 
 
RET 
 
 Ihe papal court. In 1661, the death of Mazarin 
 jnabled him to return to France and make his 
 eace with the king; he resigned, however, the 
 tular archbishopric which he had held since the 
 eath of his uncle, and received the abbey of St. 
 enis in lieu of it. The remainder of his life 
 resents a singular contrast with the part we have 
 cetched; he abandoned his magnificent manner 
 living, and sequestered the greater part of his 
 come to the payment of his debts, amounting to 
 re than a million and a-half sterling ; twice it 
 aid, he wished to renounce the purple, which 
 confessed to have purchased too dearly. He 
 1 at Paris, universally esteemed, in 1679, 
 iving 'Memoirs' which are highly valued for 
 eir impartiality, and for the sketches of charac- 
 with which they are replete. [E.R.] 
 
 RETZIUS, A. J., a Swed. botanist, 1747-1821. 
 REUCHLIN, John, one of the most eminent 
 ;rman scholars, prof, of Greek and Hebrew at Wit- 
 nberg, and teacher of Melanchthon, 1455-1522. 
 REUILLY, J. De, a Fr. traveller, 1780-1810. 
 REUSCH, J. P., a Ger. philologist, 1691-1754. 
 EUSNER, N., a German jurisconsult and 
 tesman, author of some compilations and Latin 
 1545-1602. His brother, Elias, an anti- 
 and historian, 1555-1612. 
 USS, J. D., a Germ, philologist, 1750-1837. 
 UTH, B., a Russian historian, last centnry. 
 EUVEN, P., a Dutch painter, 1650-1718. 
 EUVENS, John Everhard, one of the 
 learned jurisconsults ever produced in Hol- 
 was born at Haarlem, 1763, and perished at 
 sels, the victim of a conspiracy in 1816. He 
 one of the authors of the new criminal code 
 he Low Countries. 
 VEL, J., a French painter, 1684-1751. 
 VELEY, Wili-ey, a pupil of Sir W. Cham- 
 list, as an architect and antiquary, d. 1799. 
 VELLIERE - LEPAUX, Louis Marie, 
 sively member of the constituent assembly, 
 nvention. and the directory, 1753-1824. 
 VER, 11. F. G., a Fr. antiquary, 1753-1828. 
 VIUS, J., a Dutch savant, 1586-1658. 
 WBELL, Jean Baptiste, successively de- 
 to the estates-general, the convention, and 
 irectory of the French republic, in which 
 he was replaced by Sieyes, 1746-1816. 
 Y, J., a French chemist, died 1645. 
 EY, Jean Baptiste, an eminent musical 
 , several years director of the orchestra 
 chapel of Napoleon, 1734-1810. 
 'HER, S., a German savant, 1635-1714. 
 , J. De, a Flemish painter, died 1678. 
 A, C. De, a Spanish Hebraist, 16th cent. 
 YNEAU, C. R., a Fr. geometr., 1656-1728. 
 YNER, E., a nonconf. div., abt. 1600-1670. 
 YNIER, John Louis Ebenezer, a French 
 il and statesman, 1771-1814. His brother, 
 Anthony, an economist, 1762-1814. 
 YNOLDS, E., an Engl, prelate, 1595-1676. 
 YNOLDS, Sir Joshua, considered the 
 ler of the English school of painting as regards 
 ial characteristics, was born at Plympton 
 nshire, where his father was rector, July 
 723. He was intended for the medical pro- 
 but was induced by the perusal of Richard- 
 Issays on Painting, &c, to take up painting 
 profession. A handsome edition of these 
 
 RHI 
 
 essays was in 1773 dedicated to Sir Joshua by 
 Richardson's son, comprising The Theory of 
 Painting, Essay on the Art of Criticism, and The 
 Science of a Connoisseur. Reynolds' first master 
 was Hudson the portrait painter, with whom he was 
 placed in 174.1. He first set up as a portrait pain- 
 ter at Devonport, but in 1746 settled in London in 
 St. Martin's Lane. In 1749 he accompanied Com- 
 modore Keppel in the Centurion to the Mediter- 
 ranean, and remained altogether about three years 
 in Italy. He commenced business again in Lon- 
 don in 1752, and soon became the most prominent 
 painter of the capital. In 1768, when the Royal 
 Academy was established, Reynolds was unani- 
 mously elected president at the first meeting of the 
 members, December 14, of that year, and he was 
 knighted by George III. in consequence. In 1784 
 he succeeded Allan Ramsay as principal painter in 
 ordinary to the king; and after an unrivalled 
 career as a portrait painter, died at his house in 
 Leicester Square, February 23, 1792. He was 
 buried with great pomp in St. Paul's Cathedral, 
 where a fine statue by Flaxman is placed immedi- 
 ately below the dome, in honour of his memory. 
 His large fortune, about 80,000, was inherited by 
 his niece, Miss Palmer, who became afterwards 
 marchioness of Thomond. His collection of works 
 of art sold for nearly 17,000. Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, notwithstanding his careless and feeble 
 drawing, was indisputably a great painter ; some of 
 his portraits are among the first masterpieces of 
 the art, whether as simple portraits, or as fancy 
 pieces, as for instance, ' Lord Heathfield ' in the 
 National Gallery, of the former class, and ' Mrs. 
 Siddons as the Tragic Muse,' at Dulwich, of the 
 latter. His pictures are necessarily very numerous, 
 their chief excellence is their natural grace, ful- 
 ness of expression, substantial character, and fre- 
 quently a charming richness of colour and light 
 and shade. His eulogium cannot be better ex- 
 pressed than in the words of Burke : ' He was 
 the first Englishman who added the praise of the 
 elegant arts to the other glories of his country ;' 
 ' The loss of no man of his time can be felt with 
 more sincere, general, and unmixed sorrow.' Sir 
 Joshua has bequeathed to posterity besides his 
 paintings, fifteen elegant and valuable ' Discourses,' 
 of which a magnificent edition edited by John 
 Burnet, was published bv James Carpenter in 
 1842. There is a full life "of Reynolds by North- 
 cote, two vols. 8vo, London, 1819. [R.N.W.] 
 
 REYRAC, Francis Philip Delaurens De, 
 a French ecclesiastic and poet, 1734-1782. 
 
 REYS, Anthony Das, a Portuguese divine, 
 known as a poet and biographer, 1690-1738. 
 
 REZZANO, F., an Italian poet, 1731-1780. 
 
 REZZONICO, Anthony Joseph, Count Delia 
 Torre, an Ital. critic, and gov. of Parma, 1709-85. 
 
 RHAY, T., a French controversialist, 1603-71. 
 
 RHAZES, an Arabian physician, died 932. 
 
 RHEINEK, C, a German composer, 1748-96. 
 
 RHENANUS, Beatus, a learned critic, and one 
 of the restorers of letters in Germany, 1485-1547. 
 
 RHENFERD, J., a Ger. Orientalist, 1654-1712. 
 
 RHESE, J. D., a Welch philologist, 1534-1609. 
 
 RHETICUS, G. J., a Swiss astron., 1514-1576. 
 
 RHIANUS, a Greek grammarian, B.C. 200. 
 
 RHIGAS, a modern Greek poet, and martyr of 
 patriotism, was born in Thessaly about 1753. 
 
 II 
 
 613 
 
RHO 
 
 Having organized a secret society to achieve the 
 independence of Greece, he \v;is "arrested by the 
 Austrian government, and, a rescue being feared, 
 was drowned in the Danube, May, 17'J8. His 
 poems are said to be full of inspiration, besides 
 which he commenced a Greek journal, and trans- 
 lated several French works. 
 
 RHO, J., an Italian ascetic, 1590-1662. 
 
 RHODE, J. G., a Germ. Orientalist, died 1827. 
 
 RHODES, Alexander De, a Fr. Jesuit, dist. 
 as a missionary to the East, from 1618 to 1660. 
 
 RHODES, J., a Danish savant, 1587-1659. 
 
 RHODIGINUS, Coslius, a learned Italian, 
 called by Scaliger, who was a pupil of his, the 
 Varro of his age. His proper name was Lodo- 
 vico Celio Riccheei, 1450-1525. 
 
 RHODOMAN, L., a Germ, savant, 1546-1606. 
 
 RHUNKEN, or RUHNEKEN, David, an 
 eminent critic and professor at Leyden, 1723-98. 
 
 RHYNE, W. F., a Dutch naturalist, 17th cent. 
 
 RHYZELIUS, Andrew, a Swedish antiqua- 
 rian, chaplain to Charles XII., bp. of Lincoping, 
 and member of the Upsala Academy, 1677-1755. 
 
 RIBALTA, Franciso, a Spanish painter, 1551- 
 1628. Juan, his son and pupil, 1597-1628. 
 
 RIBAS, Joseph De, a Neapolitan general, em- 
 ployed in the service of Russia, and one of the nego- 
 tiators of the peace of Jassi; born about 1735. 
 
 RIBAS-Y-CARASQUILLAS, F. De, a Spanish 
 Dominican, and adversary of the Jesuits, 1612-87. 
 
 RIBERA, Anastasius Pantaleon De, a 
 Span, poet and wit, time of Philip IV., 1580-1629. 
 
 RIBERA. See Spagnoletto. 
 
 RIBES, Anne Arnaud De, a French colonel 
 of engineers, distinguished in Spain in the wars of 
 the French republic and of the empire, 1731-1811. 
 
 RIBIER, W., a French historian and deputy to 
 the estates-general, 1575-1663. 
 
 RIBIT, J., a French Hellenist, 16th centurv. 
 
 RIBOUTTE, F. L., a Fr. dramat., 1770-1834. 
 
 RICARD, D., a French translator, 1741-1803. 
 
 RICARDO, David, a merchant of London, of 
 Dutch descent, famous for his writings on finance 
 and the statistics of public economy, was born 
 1772, and first appeared as an author during the 
 discussion connected with the Bullion Committee 
 in 1810. His great work 'On the Principles of 
 Political Economy and Taxation,' was published 
 in 1817. In 1819, he became member of parlia- 
 ment for Portarlington. Died 1823. 
 
 RICART, or RYCAUT, Sir Paul, an English 
 traveller, historian, and diplomatist, died 1700. 
 
 RICCATI, Vincent De, an Italian mathema- 
 tician and engineer, 1707-1775. His brother, 
 Jourdain, a musician, 1709-1790. 
 
 RICCHERI. See Rhodiginus. 
 
 RICCI, Antonio, an Italian painter, surnamed 
 Barbalunga, taught by Domenicnino, 1600-1649. 
 
 RICCI, C, an Italian painter, 1580-1620. 
 
 RICCI, J. B., an Italian painter, 1545-1620. 
 
 RICCI, Lorenzo, the last general of the 
 Jesuits, born at Florence, 1703, died in the castle 
 of St. Angelo, 1775. His nephew, Scipio, an 
 Italian prelate, imprisoned for his attachment to 
 the protestant doctrines, 1741-1810. 
 
 RICCI, M., a Romish missionary, 1552-1610. 
 
 RICCI, M. A., an Italian cardinal, 1619-1682. 
 
 RICCI, Sebastiano, an Italian painter, who 
 executed in this country the staircase at Montague 
 
 RIC 
 
 House, 1660-1734. Marco, his nephew 
 pupil, born 1676, died at Venice 1730. 
 
 KICCIARELLI. See Voi.tkkka. 
 
 RICCIO, B., an Italian painter. 16th century 
 
 RICCIO, Domenico, generally called Jirm 
 sorci, an Italian painter, 1494-1567. His 
 Felix, called Brusasorci the Younger, 1 550-1 Gf 
 Baptista, the brother of the latter, and Cecil 
 his sister, were also painters. 
 
 RICCIOLI,Giovani Batista, a lea 
 Jesuit and astronomer, 1578-l(ul. 
 
 RICCOBONI, Luigi, called Lelio, an emim 
 Italian dramatist and comic actor, born at Modi 
 about 1674, died 1753. His first wife, Hele 
 Virginia Baletti, was also an actress 
 authoress, 1686-1771. Their son, Antonio Fr/ 
 CESCO, was an actor, dramatic writer, and alci 
 mist, 1707-1772. The wife of the latter, Mai 
 Jeanne Laboras De Mezieres, a French la 
 was disting. as an actress and novelist, 1713-92 
 
 RICH, Claudius James, the distinguis 
 traveller and Orientalist, was born in 1787, 1 
 Dijon, in Burgundy, and was brought to Engl 
 in his infancy, and educated at Bristol. He becj 
 so remarkable for his skill in the Eastern langux 
 that he obtained an appointment in the East In 
 Company's service as early as 1803, when in - 
 seventeenth year. In 1807 he resided with 
 James Macintosh, at Bombay, and married 
 daughter. His researches in Babylonia date f 
 1811 to 1820, and he died prematurely at Shi 
 in 1821. His Oriental antiquities and MSS. 
 purchased by parliament for the British Muse' 
 His memoirs were published by his widow, 
 went through a second edition in 1839. 
 
 RICH, Penelope Devereux, Lady of 1 
 Robert Rich, was a daughter of the old eai 
 Essex, and the affianced bride of Sir Philip Sid 
 She is the Stella of his exquisitely beautiful 
 verses, and is admitted to have been the fi 
 woman of her age. The love story of ' Astrop . 
 and ' Stella,' is one of the most painful 
 of real life. It has been illustrated by the grai 
 pen of Mrs. Jameson among others. 
 
 RICHARD I., king of England, 
 Cceur de Lion, the ' Lion-hearted,' was the 
 son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Guienne^ 
 had been divorced by Louis VII. of Franca^ 
 was born at Oxford in 1157, and succeeded 
 throne by the death of his father in 1189 ; 
 previously displayed so haughty and rebelHl 
 spirit, that it had contributed to lay the agedf 
 in his grave. Remorse for his past mis 
 was instantly followed by preparations $ 
 crusade in Palestine, which had oeen resoll 
 during Henry's lifetime, in consequence ol 1 
 progress in arms of the renowned Saladin. 
 the 1st of July, 1190, Richard met Philif 
 gustus of France in the plain of Vezel 
 agreed upon the terms of a mutual exp 
 he was then accompanied from Marseilles 
 English barons, ana the kings rejoined 
 at Messina, the appointed rendezvous of 
 armies. Here the romantic episode of ' 
 expedition against Cyprus, and his mar 
 Berengaria took place. In the middle 
 these interesting proceedings ended in the 
 of the armament before St. Jean d'Acre, th 
 for two years past besieged by the 
 
 644 
 
RIC 
 
 wder the emperor Frederic. The English monarch 
 
 Immediately became popular among the knights, 
 
 Lnd took a leading part in the operations oi' the 
 
 liege. The fortress sun-en rlered, notwithstanding 
 
 the efforts of Saladin to raise the siege on the 12th 
 
 Sf July, and soon afterwards Philip Augustus 
 
 ,,'leparted for France, pretending sickness, but really 
 
 *[isgusted with the supremacy of Richard, and far 
 
 ,. jutshone by him in feats of arms. Richard now 
 
 harched from St. Jean D'Acre at the head of 
 
 00,000 men, and defeated Saladin in a general 
 
 ngagement on the road towards Ascalon. This 
 
 ctory put the crusaders in possession of the prin- 
 
 pal towns along the sea-coast, and furnished 
 
 ich a basis of operations that Richard was enabled 
 
 press forward to the capture of Jerusalem. 
 
 isaffection among the Christian forces prevented 
 
 e accomplishment of this design, and Richard, 
 
 taring of the perfidy of his brother, John, and 
 
 p of France, concluded a truce with Saladin, 
 
 d embarked for Europe on the 9th of October, 
 
 92. His fame had already been spread far and 
 
 ide by the songs of the troubadours, and the 
 
 ports of the pilgrims. Armed with a heavy 
 
 ittle-axe, he never hesitated to rush single- 
 
 mded into the midst of the enemy, and such 
 
 teds are recorded of him as would be incredible 
 
 they were not well attested by eye-witnesses. 
 
 i the passage home he was shipwrecked near 
 
 "** ;i iei, on the coast of Italy, and, disguising 
 
 ilf as a pilgrim, he endeavoured to reach Eng- 
 
 id by way of Germany. When near Vienna, his 
 
 " ' d character was discovered, and Leopold, duke 
 
 '' Austria, caused him to be arrested both in 
 
 renge of his brother-in-law, the king of Cyprus, 
 
 d of the contempt that Richard had shown for 
 
 flag at Acre. On his captivity becoming known, 
 
 [Castle of Tiornsteigen, the prison of Richard.] 
 
 was concealed as long as possible, Richard 
 ransomed by his subjects at the price of 
 marks, and arrived in London on the 20th 
 " ,1194. His contemptible brother, John, 
 in connivance with Philip to usurp the 
 and that monarch advised him of Rich- 
 return, with the laconic warning to ' take 
 f himself, for the devil had broke loose.' 
 however, generously forgave him, and 
 en crowned again at Winchester, crossed 
 ' to France to chastise Philip. Hostilities were 
 
 645 
 
 RIC 
 
 interrupted by a truce, and being resumed again a 
 second truce was agreed upon, both which events 
 occurred within the three years, 1196-1199. In 
 the last-mentioned year Richard was preparing to 
 return to England, when Vidomar, the count of 
 Limoges, discovered a treasure, part of which he 
 sent to Richard as his feudal superior. The lat- 
 ter claimed the whole. Avariciousness could be 
 no part of such a character, but it should be con- 
 sidered that he had been at great costs in his 
 recent wars, and his conscience may have told 
 him that his subjects had paid a far higher ransom 
 for him than he was worth as their sovereign. 
 Provoked at the refusal of the Limousan, Coeur de 
 Lion invested the castle of Chaluz, and haughtily 
 refusing all overtures, threatened to hang the whole 
 garrison as soon as he had taken the place. While 
 reconnoitering this stronghold, he was shot in the 
 shoulder with an arrow by a cross-bow-man, named 
 Bertrand de Gourdon. The wound proved mortal, 
 and Richard expired in the tenth year of his reign, 
 on the 16th April, 1199. The garrison in the 
 meanwhile had been defeated, and the king dis- 
 played his usual magnanimity by ordering that 
 Gourdon should be set at liberty. On the con- 
 trary, the hapless man was flayed alive and then 
 hung, by order of Marchadee, the leader of the 
 Brabantine soldiers in Richard's army. The fame 
 of Richard Cceur de Lion has been no less widely 
 spread in the East than in his own country, and 
 his daring passed into a proverb among the Sara- 
 cens. He had qualities also that must have made 
 him a great king, in every sense of the word, had 
 he outlived his martial enthusiasm, or had war 
 been pursued for political ends in those times as 
 in later ages. [E.R.] 
 
 RICHARD II., eldest son of Edward the black 
 prince, and of Jane, daughter of Edmund, earl of 
 Kent, was born at Bourdeaux 1366, and succeeded 
 his grandfather, Edward III., 1377. He was called 
 to govern in difficult times, when the nobles were 
 turbulent and powerful, and the commons were 
 just acquiring a knowledge of the power they 
 might possibly exercise : his minority also was 
 disturbed by the continuance of the French wars 
 of his grandfather. At that time the modem 
 principles of taxation were not understood, and 
 disaffection was provoked by the exactions neces- 
 sary for the public service. A priest, named John 
 Ball, became the orator of the multitude, and the 
 people rushed to arms under Wat Tyler, a poor 
 man, whose daughter had been outraged by the 
 indecent conduct of the collector of the poll-tax. 
 This was in 1381, when the king was only fifteen 
 years of age. Tvler, who lived at Dartford, in 
 Kent, collected a body of 100,000 insurgents under 
 his banner, and having pitched his camp at Black- 
 heath r made a disastrous descent upon the metro- 
 polis. The promises of the government caused 
 the greater part of this force to disband, and their 
 leader was stabbed in Smithfield while conferring 
 with the king, by Walworth, mayor of London. 
 Assassination under such circumstances was a 
 dangerous experiment, but Richard at this critical 
 moment, with great presence of mind, rode up to 
 the insurgents, and declaring he would redress 
 their grievances, finally persuaded them to dis- 
 perse to their homes. By similar means the insur- 
 rection, which had spread from county to county, 
 
RIC 
 
 was everywhere suppressed in detail ; and when all 
 was supposed to he over the concessions were 
 withdrawn, and commissioners being sent to all 
 parts, supported by a large army, 1,500 of the 
 insurgents were executed. The display of spirit 
 by Richard on this, and a few other occasions sub- 
 sequently, was mere impulse or empty vanity, un- 
 supported by any steadfast resolve or sense of 
 justice ; and the remainder of his reign would be 
 wholly comprehended in the history of his fall, 
 and the assumption of power by a man of stronger 
 will and more politic judgment, in the person of 
 his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster. 
 It is the history of favouritism and weakness on 
 the one hand, giving abundant scope to ambition 
 and strength of resolve on the other. Richard, 
 become the prisoner of Henry, was solemnly de- 
 posed on the 29th of September, 1399, and was 
 either killed or starved to death in Pontefract 
 castle at the beginning of 1400. The usurpation 
 of the duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV., com- 
 menced the civil wars of England between the red 
 and white roses. [E.R.] 
 
 RICHARD III., the most execrated of all Eng- 
 lish princes, was the youngest son of Richard 
 duke of York, and was born at Fotheringay 
 castle in Northamptonshire, 1452. He was 
 created duke of Gloucester in 1461, on the acces- 
 sion of his brother, Edward IV., who claimed the 
 throne as a descendant of Philippa, only daughter 
 of the duke of Clarence, who was the second son 
 of Edward III. In 1472 Richard married Ann, 
 widow of the Lancastrian prince of Wales, and 
 daughter of the great Warwick ; the sister of that 
 lady having previously wedded his brother Clar- 
 ence. The latter prince being his elder brother, 
 stood in the way of Richard's ambition, who 
 fomented the intrigues which proved fatal to him ; 
 so that on the death of Edward in 1483, Richard 
 became the natural guardian of his nephews, and 
 was appointed legal protector of the kingdom. 
 The elder of the boys was immediately proclaimed 
 king as Edward V., the other was duke of York. 
 The history of the times is only obscurely known, 
 but the tradition of the murder of these princes in 
 the Tower by order of Richard, is in all human 
 probability substantially true, and a darker deed 
 of treachery is not on record in any language. 
 This event took place about the middle of 1483, 
 and in January, 1484, the succession of Richard 
 was confirmed by a servile parliament, his other 
 rivals, the children of Clarence, having been de- 
 clared illegitimate by defamation of the usurper's 
 own mother. In about three months afterwards 
 Richard lost his son, the prince of Wales, and 
 within another year the daughter of Warwick fol- 
 lowed her child to the tomb. Richard, thus made 
 a widower, proposed to marry the Princess Eliza- 
 beth, eldest daughter of his brother Edward, who 
 was destined for the earl of Richmond, the heir of 
 the house of Lancaster. The latter was abroad at 
 the time, but now hastened the preparations for 
 his intended return to deliver England from 
 Richard's tyranny, and in fine, landed at Milford 
 Haven on the 7th of August, 1485. Richard took 
 the field at the head of 15,000 men, and met 
 Richmond at the head of 10,000, with the assur- 
 ance, however, of aid from Lord Stanley, who 
 commanded another body of 7,000. The encounter 
 
 I. 
 
 RIC 
 
 took place at Bosworth field, near Leicester, 
 the 21st of August, and Stanley keeping his 
 mise at the critical moment, secured the vict 
 to Richmond. Richard III. was as brave as 
 was cruel and politic. As the action grew des 
 rate he fought with the courage of a hero, 
 making a last determined rush at his opponent, 
 fell under the number of assailants tnat clc 
 around him. Richmond then became king ur 
 the title of Henry VII., and having married EJ: 
 beth, united thereby the houses of York and ~ 
 caster, and thus terminated the civil wars, 
 short a time, passed in expectation of his 
 struggle, Richard can hardly be said to 
 reigned, yet he distinguished himself by acts wl 
 mark the statesman. Such acts, however, 
 never be admitted to cancel crime ; the first 
 act is to avoid evil ; the first possible right, 
 independence of all wrong. [E 
 
 RICHARD, two dukes of Noivnandy : Ri 
 ard I., son and successor of William Long-Sw 
 reigned 993-996. Richard II., son and sue 
 sor of the preceding, 996-1027. A duke of 
 gundy, reigned 877-921. A count of Evreux, 
 accompanied William the Bastard in his exj 
 tion against England, reigned 1037-1067. 
 princes of Capua : Richard I., succeeded 
 father as count of Aversa 1059, and was invt 
 with the principality of Capua by the pope, Ni 
 las II., 1062 ; died 1078. Richard II. succe 
 1091, and, being deposed by his subjects, wa 
 established by Roger, duke of Apulia, 1098, 
 1105. Lastly, a count of Rhodes, who died 
 a long reign about 1135. 
 
 RICHARD, bishop of Chichester, died 125 
 
 RICHARD, archbishop of Armagh, sum 
 
 Armachanus, said to have translated the 
 
 into Irish, and a reformer of the friars, died 1 
 
 RICHARD of Bury, a learned state 
 
 and patron of learning, was bora at Bur 
 
 Edmunds 1287. He commenced his care 
 
 tutor of Prince Edward, afterwards Edward 
 
 became bishop of Durham in 1333, and chan 
 
 and high treasurer of England in 1334 ; died 
 
 RICHARD of Cirencester, a Bened 
 
 monk of Westminster, author of works on ! 
 
 and British history, died 1401 or 1402. 
 
 RICHARD of Cornwall, an uncrownw 
 peror of Germany, son of John, king of 1^^^ 
 was born 1209, and first distinguished hinu 
 Palestine. He was crowned king of Germi 
 Aix-la-Chapelle to the prejudice of Conrad in 
 and was remarkable for the wisdom of his at* 
 tration ; died 1272. 
 
 RICHARD of St. Victor, a Scottish 
 and Scripture commentator of the 12th centi 
 RICHARD, C, a Fr. mathematician, 15894 
 RICHARD, C. L., a political and eccl 
 writer, author of ' Dictionnaire des Sciences 
 siastiques,' b. in Lorraine 1711, shot at M 
 
 RICHARD, Claude Louis, an excel! 
 tanist, was born in 1754. He died in 182! 
 grandfather was one of Bernard de Jussieu' 
 deners at the Jardin du Roi at Paris, and 
 had the superintendence of Louis XVth's _ 
 Auteuil. Inheriting thus a love for botany, 
 sion for the study was carried to the ex' 
 parents wished him to study theology, as 
 good prospects for him in the church, but 
 
 646 
 
RIC 
 
 ars, entreaties, nor threats, could prevail upon him 
 i follow the line of life chalked out for him, and 
 is father at last turned him out of doors at the age 
 F fourteen, with a miserable pittance to support 
 im. Nothing daunted by this rigorous treat- 
 ent, the young enthusiast made his way to Paris, 
 [ jhere he studied botany under Bernard de Jussieu, 
 '*nd in a few years afterwards received an appoint- 
 ment to proceed as botanist to Cayenne and the other 
 rench colonies in America, fie remained there 
 r eight years, and during that time made exten- 
 re collections both in botany and zoology. Arriv- 
 g in France in 1789, he found the men in power 
 
 much absorbed in their own struggles for exis- 
 nce to attend to scientific pursuits. He had 
 as the mortification to find the little money he 
 d previously accumulated gone, his health in- 
 red and himself cruelly neglected. Unfortunately 
 science these disappointments and blighted 
 pes rendered him misanthropical and churlish. 
 
 ) shut himself up from the scientific world, and 
 
 iceforth studied for himself alone. The fine 
 
 lections he made, thus became of no avail to his 
 
 uitrymen, and he was exceedingly chary even in 
 
 nmunicating to any one the results of his re- 
 
 rches. In 1795 he was appointed professor of 
 
 :ii any at the Ecole de Meaecine. His lectures 
 
 El -e excellent and well attended ; and fortunately 
 
 'H ortion of them has been published by one of his 
 
 1(1 )ils from notes taken at the time. This work 
 
 11 I a few memoirs which he published in some of 
 
 4 scientific journals show that he possessed ori- 
 
 - 'lal views in botany, and could express them with 
 
 at conciseness and accuracy. He had in view 
 
 intention of producing a new philosophy of 
 
 ' any in the style of Linnaeus, as also a new 
 
 : : ninology of the science, but he did not five to 
 
 M lg them to maturity. [W.B.] 
 
 tlCHARD G., a French missionary, 1764-1832. 
 
 k UCHARD J., an ecclesiastical wr., 1639-1719. 
 
 a UCHARD, J. P., a Fr. preacher, 1743-1820. 
 
 in 1CHARDSON, J., an African traveller, d. 1851. 
 
 14 ICHARDSON, John, a leamed Irish prelate, 
 
 1 of Observations on the Old Testament,' d. 1654. 
 Ba ICHARDSON, Jonathan, a distinguished 
 an trait painter and writer on art, about 1665- 
 
 5. His son and literary assistant, died 1771. 
 ro*i ICHARDSON, Joseph, a poet, died 1803. 
 ICHARDSON, Samuel, the son of a joiner, 
 born in Derbyshire in 1689. After passing 
 ugh a village school, he was bound to a printer 
 .ondon, and, after having been a few years fore - 
 to his master, set up in business for himself, 
 prospered as rapidly as his good conduct and 
 istry deserved, was appointed printer of the 
 nals of the House of Commons, and enjoyed 
 estic happiness in two successive marriages, 
 always fond of reading, was a voluminous 
 r-writer, especially to ladies, and furnished 
 to the booksellers. But his authorship 
 
 j no farther than this, till he had completed 
 iftieth year. He then agreed, on the request 
 wo publishers, to compose a series of familiar 
 instructive letters ; and, when he had worked 
 tree months at his task, what he produced 
 his novel of * Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded.' 
 M published in 1740. It was the first novel 
 mertic life which had broke in on the unna- 
 1 romances, (for Defoe had barred himself from 
 
 RIC 
 
 polite patronage by his unlucky choice of subjects); 
 and it had therefore novelty, besides its great 
 merit in natural and minute description, to recom- 
 mend it to the extraordinaiy popularity which it 
 immediately attained. In 1749 it was followed 
 by ' The History of Clarissa Harlowe,' a novel 
 whose pathos is so profound as to be positively 
 painful. In ' The History of Sir Charles Grandi- 
 son,' published in 1753, the author aspired some- 
 what above the sphere of manners which he was 
 best qualified to describe; but, in spite of this, 
 and of the wearisome prolixity which reigns here 
 yet more than in his other novels, this is really a 
 fine picture of the ideal gentleman. It is to the 
 immortal honour of Richardson that he, the earliest 
 of our modern novelists, (unless Defce should be 
 ranked among them,) produced works untainted 
 by the immorality which disgraced Fielding and 
 his other successors. He passed his old age in 
 comfort and fame, being only a good deal spoiled by 
 the homage of his admirers, particularly the ladies 
 who flocked about him. He died in 1761. [W.S.] 
 
 RICHARDSON, W., son of a Scottish minister, 
 known as a miscellaneous writer and poet, d. 1814. 
 
 RICHARDSON, W., a learned antiquarian and 
 minister of the Church of England, 1698-1775. 
 
 RICHE, Claude Anthony Gaspard, a Fr. 
 physician, distinguished as a naturalist, 1762-1797. 
 
 RICHELET, Cesar Peter, a Fr. writer, an. of 
 several Dictionaries and translations, 1631-1691. 
 
 RICHELIEU, Armand Jean Du Plessis, 
 Cardinal, was born at Paris on the 5th of Septem- 
 ber, 1585. The family name was Plessis, but 
 many members of it became distinguished in con- 
 nection with the territorial title of Richelieu. Ar- 
 mand was a younger son, and was consecrated 
 bishop of Lucon in 1607. It was a period when 
 the possession of the great ecclesiastical dignities 
 was not supposed in France to turn the habits of 
 a young man of noble family from the usual licen- 
 tious pursuits of his rank, but Richelieu was 
 fonder of power than of pleasure, and he soon ac- 
 quired it by ably and rigidly performing the func- 
 tions of his high office. His court success is said 
 to have commenced with a harangue which it fell to 
 him to deliver to the young monarch, Louis XIIL, 
 and which secured the attention and approval of 
 the queen mother, Mary of Medicis. He received 
 his cardinal's hat in 1622, and two years afterwards 
 became chief minister of the crown. His ministry 
 was remarkable for the development of great 
 systems, and the chief of them was the breaking 
 down the territorial power of the nobility, and con- 
 firming the influence of the crown, which had long 
 before brought the commons under subjection to a 
 perfect despotism. His career was distinguished 
 at once by daring and success. All who resisted 
 him, including the highest princes of the blood, 
 were remorselessly executed as common criminals, 
 and thinking it necessary to his purpose, he drove 
 his old patroness the queen dowager into exile. 
 He broke the power of the Calvinists by besieging 
 and taking their stronghold Rochelle. But his 
 antipathy to them seems to have originated less 
 in religious intolerance than in a desire to uproot 
 those singular secular privileges which made them 
 supreme even over the royal prerogative in the 
 districts assigned to them. In counteracting the 
 power of Austria, which was the second main 
 
 
 647 
 
RIC 
 
 principle of his ministry, he used for his purpose 
 the Calvinists of the north, and the Mahommedans 
 of the south, with thorough impartiality. He 
 combined with his courage and great talent many 
 ludicrous weaknesses. He died on the 4th of 
 December, 1642. [J.H.B.] 
 
 RICHELIEU, Alphonso Louis Du Plessis 
 De, eldest brother of the statesman, known as the 
 cardinal of Lyons, and distinguished for his charities ; 
 1582-1653. L. F. Armand, his grand-nephew, a 
 marshal of France, and member of the Academy, 
 was born at Paris in 1696 ; at the age of fourteen 
 he was married and commenced life at court, died 
 1788. Armand Emmanuel, grandson of the 
 latter, was born in 1766, and at the period of the 
 emigration, 1789, took service under Suwarrow. 
 In 1815 he returned to France, and became 
 foreign minister. Died 1822. 
 
 RICHER, Adrian, a distinguished French his- 
 torian, 1720-1798. His brother, Francis, a juris- 
 consult and writer on mythology, &c, 1718-1790. 
 
 RICHER, E., a learned French divine, author 
 of a work on ecclesiastical and political power, 
 which gave rise to much controversy, 1560-1631. 
 
 RICHER, E., an elegant and learned French 
 writer, author of ' La Nouvelle Jerusalem,' d. 1835. 
 
 RICHER, H., a dramatic writer, 1685-1748. 
 
 RICHER, J., a French astronomer, died 1696. 
 
 RICHERAND, Barno, a celebrated French 
 surgeon and writer on physiology, died 1840. 
 
 RICHMAN, G. W., a native of Livonia, prof, 
 of natural philosophy at Petersburg, 1711-1753. 
 
 RICHMOND, Charles Lennox, duke of, 
 secretary of state and grand master of artillery, 
 1735-1806. His nephew, and heir of the same 
 name, governor of Plymouth, lord-lieutenant of 
 Sussex and governor of Canada, 1764-1812. 
 
 RICHMOND, Legh, a minister of the Church 
 of England, editor of a ' Selection from the Fathers 
 of the Church,' and author of 'Annals of the 
 Poor,' 1772-1827. 
 
 RICHTER, A. G., a Ger. surgeon, 1742-1812. 
 
 RICHTER, Jean Paul Friedrich, was born 
 in 1763, in the principality of Baireuth, in Fran- 
 conia. His father, a Lutheran village pastor, was 
 so poor that his son's education was carried on 
 with much difficulty; and, dying before Jean Paul 
 reached the university, he left his family in great 
 distress. The youth, bent on attaining scholar- 
 ship, and intending at first to be a clergyman, 
 struggled on for a while at Leipzig, often wanting 
 bread ; and in 1783 he found his way to the press 
 with a work (the ' Gronlandische Prozessen,') 
 which showed him to have already opened his 
 peculiar vein. Another of his strange sketches, 
 ' An Extract from the Devil's Papers,' lay unpub- 
 lished for several years, during which Jean Paul 
 remained in the depths of penury. In 1793 
 he opened a school in the little town of Schwar- 
 zenbach, in his native province ; and then also he 
 attracted public applause for the first time, by the 
 publication of ' The Invisible Lodge.' Thus en- 
 couraged, he devoted himself entirely to author- 
 ship, poured forth his works with rapidity, and 
 became one of the most celebrated among the Ger- 
 man writers of his time. He shifted his residence 
 often till 1803, and then settled at Baireuth for 
 the remainder of his life, which closed in 1825. 
 J can Paul wrote philosophical treatises, such as his 
 
 RID 
 
 'Levana, or the Theory of Education,' and the 'I 
 traduction to jEsthetics ' (Vorschule der A 
 But his fame rests on a kind of compositi 
 are almost, yet not quite, novels or r 
 They unite narrative, description, and : 
 they pass from the wildest flights of grotesque a 
 original humour to the depths of pathetic t< 
 derness; they contain as much of striking thou| 
 as ever was embodied in any work of fiction, 
 as much of poetic imagination as ever was 
 pressed in prose. His thinking is un system* 
 but often wonderfully suggestive as well as acu 
 and his style is entirely his own, and so eccenb 
 that his books are not less difficult for Germ; 
 than for foreigners. Among the works which 
 his sixty volumes a few may be named : 
 perns,' ' Quintus Fixlein,' ' Biographical Dh 
 sions under the Skull of a Giantess,' ' Flower, Fr 
 and Thorn-Pieces,' ' The Journey of the Regimei 
 Chaplain Schmelzle,' ' Titan,' ' The Life of Fil 
 ' The Comet, or Nicolaus Markgraf.' [W. 
 
 RICHTER, Otto Frederick Von, 
 
 sian traveller and Oriental scholar, 1792-1816. 
 
 RICIMER, a Roman patrician and general 
 
 Swedish origin, regarded as the ablest commai 
 
 of the age. From the period of his first great I 
 
 cess against the enemies of Rome in 456, he< 
 
 posed and created the emperors at his will. 
 
 472 he stormed Rome, and gave it up to the 
 
 lage and cruelty of his soldiers. He d. soon m 
 
 RI.CIUS, P., a learned German, 16th centtu 
 
 RICKMAN, John a distinguished statistic 
 
 many years assistant clerk in the House of C 
 
 mons, 1771-1841. 
 
 RIDER, John, an Irish prelate, 1562-1633: 
 RIDER, William, master of St. Paul'sp 
 author of a ' History of England,' &c, died 17 
 RIDGLEY, T., a nonconf. divine, 1G67-M1 
 RIDINGER, J. E., a Germ, painter, 1695j 
 RIDLEY, Glcster, an English diviqfl 
 theologian, best known as a dramatic writer : 
 poet, 1702-1774. His son, James, a chaplai 
 the army, author of ' Tales of the Genii,' d. 11 
 RIDLEY, Nicholas, a martyr of the Enj 
 Church during the Marian persecution, wafri 
 in Northumberland, and educated at Newcajtf 
 Tyne, at the commencement of the sixteentiU 
 tury. He was soon known for his high at 
 ments in theological learning, and his Pl9 
 commenced by Ins appointment as chaphyM 
 archbishop of Canterbury (Cranmer) in 15^H 
 the accession of Edward VI. in 1547, he k 
 come a popular preacher of the doctrin^H 
 reformation; in September of that year he 
 appointed bishop of Rochester, and in "1549, o 
 deprivation of Bonner, bishop of London. I] 
 and Cranmer worked heartily together durin 
 reign of Edward VI., but with this diffeij 
 that Cranmer was more willing to trim his ssj 
 the current winds, and Ridley stood tinner ljj 
 individual convictions. It was a long time 1 
 he gave up the doctrine of the corporal pf 
 the eucharist, and he never abandoned his | 
 ence for episcopalian distinctions, the use 
 ments, and the priestly manner of admi 
 the Lord's supper. Ridley tried in vain to I 
 cile Hooker, the bishop elect of Gh 
 retention of these 'rags of superstition,' an 
 latter underwent a long imprisonment 
 
 6,48 
 
EID 
 
 Ikbmitted to wear them. It is to Ridley, in short, 
 llore than to any other prelate, that we are in- 
 febted for the English liturgy as it exists at pre- 
 I fnt ; and no one acquainted with the history of 
 jf Idward the Sixth's reign will require to be told 
 Ipder what difficulties it was formed. When the 
 llalth of Edward was declining in 1553, he in- 
 lced that prince to endow the public charities 
 hich bear his name ; viz., Christ's Hospital, St. 
 artholomew's, St. Thomas's, and Bridewell ; and 
 the king's death joined the party who endea- 
 ured to place the crown on the head of Lady 
 ne Grey. Though he submitted himself to 
 ary, he was committed to the Tower in July, 
 53, and in March, 1554, was conveyed to Ox- 
 together with Latimer and Cranmer, to be 
 for heresy. He walked to the place of exe- 
 tion in his episcopal robes, a striking proof of 
 } regard for those distinctions, and was burnt 
 th Latimer on the 16th of October, 1555, in 
 rat of Balliol college. He endured the torments 
 the stake with great courage, and as the flames 
 1 not reach the vital parts so soon in his case, 
 itimer expired before him. His works have 
 en republished by the Parker Society. [E.R.] 
 RIDLEY, Sir Thomas, of the same family as 
 martyr, distinguished as a civilian, died 1629. 
 RIDOLFI, C, an Italian painter, 1570-1644. 
 RIDOLFI, C, a painter and historian, 1602-60. 
 RIEBOV, G. H., a Germ, theologian, 1708-74. 
 RIEDESEL, J. H., a Germ, diploma., 1740-85. 
 BIEDINGEB, John Elias, a native of Ulm 
 Suabia, dist. as a painter of animals, 1695-1757. 
 RIEGGER, J. A. G., a Ger. canonist, d. 1795. 
 BIEGO-Y-NUNEZ, Rafael Del, a Spanish 
 and patriot of the revolution of 1820, born 
 85, executed after the restoration of Ferdinand 
 
 ., November, 1823. 
 RIEM, J., a German agriculturist, 1739-1807. 
 RIENZI, or RIENZO. Cola, or Nicola Gab- 
 De Rienzo, famous in Roman history for hi3 
 mption of the dictatorship in that capital, 
 born of humble parents about 1310, and was 
 vn in 1340 as a friend of Petrarch, and like the 
 et, was distinguished by his love of the ancient 
 mblican institutions of Rome, and by his pro- 
 . knowledge of antiquity. He was also a 
 orator, and was in the habit of addressing 
 B people on their political degradation and the 
 "lion of the nobles. His most frequent 
 was the destruction of the noble monuments 
 ancient Rome, the conversion of palaces and 
 lbs into fortresses by the rival factions, and the 
 al abandonment of the city by the popes, who 
 sn resided at Avignon. His eloquent appeals bor- 
 ed force from the ruins, in the midst of which 
 addressed the people, and it was always easy 
 give that political meaning to his harangues 
 it the anarchy of the times dictated. The 
 pal authority favoured a movement which held 
 t some prospect of depressing the factions, and 
 the 20th of May, 1347, Rienzo was accompanied 
 the capitol, at the head of an immense multi- 
 le, by the bishop of Orvieto, the pope's vicar, 
 iwas then appointed the people's tribune with 
 i sanction. In this character Rienzo, surrounded 
 th a regular militia, re-established the adminis- 
 ition of justice, sent ambassadors to other states, 
 d was courted, as the mediator between them 
 
 RIN 
 
 and the pope, by some of the principal sovereigns of 
 Europe. His power lasted no longer than the 
 December of the same year, when a reaction took 
 place, headed by the great families he had de- 
 pressed, and Rienzo, abandoned by the people, 
 sought refuge in Bohemia. In 1352 he was con- 
 veyed a prisoner to Avignon, and would have been 
 executed, but his own eloquence, the intercession 
 of his friend Petrarch, and the death of Clement 
 VI., saved him. Innocent VI., who succeeded 
 Clement, found it politic to restore Rienzo to his 
 dictatorship, but he was now hampered with re- 
 strictions, and with the necessity of raising sup- 
 plies of money for the pope. These circumstances, 
 and the severities he found it necessary to exercise, 
 alienated the city, and a popular tumult being 
 excited, Rienzo was massacred on the 8th of Octo- 
 ber, 1354. The popes continued to reside at 
 Avignon till 1376, a period, in the whole of seventy 
 years, bewailed by Petrarch as a time of barbaric 
 devastation. [E.R.] 
 
 RIES, Ferdinand, a celebrated musician, was 
 born at Bonn in Germany, in the year 1784. His 
 father and grandfather were both musicians, the 
 one having been first violinist, and the other leader 
 of the orchestra, at Cologne. The young Ferdi- 
 nand received his musical education from Bemhard 
 Romberg, and from Albrechtsberger. In 1801 he 
 removed to Munich, and afterwards to Vienna, 
 where he became the first acknowledged pupil of 
 Beethoven, and where he laid the foundation of his 
 future fame as a composer. In 1805 he was drawn 
 as a conscript for the French army, but having in 
 early life lost the sight of one eye from small-pox 
 he was dismissed as being disqualified to serve as 
 a soldier. He afterwards visited Russia, where he 
 remained till 1813, when he arrived in England and 
 was admitted a member of the Philharmonic So- 
 ciety, where several of his compositions were per- 
 formed with great applause, and where he was 
 much admired as a piano-forte player. Having 
 acquired a well-merited independence he returned 
 to his native town, when he produced two German 
 operas and an oratorio ' David.' He died at Frank- 
 fort in 1838. [J.M.] 
 
 RIETER, H., a Swiss painter, 1751-1818. 
 
 RIGAUD, Hyacinth, a celebrated painter, 
 called the Vandyke of France, 1659-1743. 
 
 RIGAUD, Stephen Peter, professor of astro- 
 nomy at Oxford, born at Richmond, 1775, d. 1839. 
 
 RIGAULT, N., a Fr. philologist, 1577-1654. 
 
 RIGHINI, V., an Italian composer, 1758-1812. 
 
 RIGHTWISE, or RITWYSE, John, a classical 
 scholar, and master of St. Paul's school, d. 1532. 
 
 RIGORD, RIGORDUS, RIGOTTUS, or RI- 
 GOTUS, a French ecclesiastic and historian of 
 Philip- Augustus of France, died about 1207. 
 
 RIGORD, J. P., a French antiq., 1656-1727. 
 
 RILEY, John, an English painter, 1646-1691. 
 
 RINALDI, Odesico, a learned ecclesiastical 
 historian, born at Treviso, 1595, died 1671. 
 
 RINCON, A. De, a Span, painter, 1446-1500. 
 
 RING, John, a pupil of the two Hunters, dis- 
 tinguished as a surgical writer, 1751-1821. 
 
 RINGELBERG1US, Joachim Fortius, Ger- 
 man Sherck, a disting. Flemish philos., 16th ct. 
 
 RINGGLI, G., a Swiss painter, 1575-1635. 
 
 RINK, F. T., a German Orientalist, died 1811. 
 
 R1NNANN, S., a Swiss mineralogist, 1720-92. 
 
 649 
 
RIN 
 
 RINUCCINI, Ottavio, a Florentine poet, said 
 to be the inventor of the opera, died 1621. 
 
 RIO J A, P. Dk, a Spanish poet, 1590-1658. 
 
 RIOLAN, Jean, a French physician of consi- 
 derable celebrity, born at Paris in 1580, and died there 
 in 1657, aged seventy-seven. He was a vigorous con- 
 troversialist, and his somewhat numerous treatises 
 were collected into 1 volume folio, in 1650. In 
 conjunction with La Brosse he was the founder of 
 the Royal Botanic Garden at Paris, to establish 
 which he had obtained permission from Mary de 
 Medicis, the mother of Louis XIII. [J.M'C] 
 
 RIPAULT, L. M., a French savant, 1775-1823. 
 
 RIPLEY, George, or Gregory, an English 
 alchymist and poet, time of Henry VII., d. 1490. 
 
 RIPPERDA, John William, Baron De, a 
 military and political adventurer, who rose to great 
 distinction in the empire of Morocco, born at Gro- 
 ningen, in Flanders, 1680, died at Tetuan 1737. 
 
 RIQUET, Peter Paul De, the engineer of the 
 noble canal of Languedoc, to the execution of 
 which he devoted the whole of his fortune, 1604- 
 1 680. This canal unites the Mediterranean with 
 the Bay of Biscay, and the works were completed 
 bv Riquet's two sons. 
 "RISBECK, G., a Dutch historian, 1750-1786. 
 
 RISDON, Tristram, a native of Devonshire, 
 author of a ' Survey' of that county, 1580-1640. 
 
 KISLEY, T., a puritan divine, 1630-1716. 
 
 RITCHIE, Joseph, one of the victims of Afri- 
 can discovery, was employed in an exploring expe- 
 dition with Captain Lyon, and d. in Fezzan 1819. 
 
 RITSON, Isaac, a medical pupil, distinguished 
 as a professional and miscellaneous wr., 1761-89. 
 
 RITSON, Joseph, an English lawyer, disting. 
 as a literary antiquarian and editor, 1752-1803. 
 
 RITTANGELIUS, or RITHANGEL, John 
 Stephen, professor of Oriental languages at 
 Konigsberg, author of several books founded on 
 his Judaical learning, died about 1652. 
 
 RITTENHOUSE, David, a celebrated Ameri- 
 can astronomer and mathematician, 1732-1796. 
 
 RITTER, J. B., a German chemist, 1762-1807. 
 
 RITTER, J. W., a Ger. philosopher, 1776-1810. 
 
 RITTERSHUYS, Conrad, a native of Bruns- 
 wick, dist. as a civilian and philologist, 1560-1618. 
 His son, Nicholas, a genealogist, 1597-1670. 
 
 RITWYSE. See Rightwise. 
 
 RIVARD, D. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1697-1778. 
 
 RIVAROL, Anthony, Count De, a French 
 
 Eolitical writer, celebrated for his bons mots and 
 is satirical spirit, b. in Languedoc 1754, d. 1801. 
 
 RIVAROLA, A., an Italian painter, 1607-1640. 
 
 RIVAULT, D., a French tactician, died 1616. 
 
 RIVAUTELLA, Antonio, a native of Pied- 
 mont, dist. as an archaeologist and bibliop., 1708-53. 
 
 RIVAZ, P. J. De, a Fr. chronologist, 1711-72. 
 
 RIVE, John Joseph, a French ecclesiastic and 
 writer on literary history, who was remarkable for 
 his turbulence during the revolution, 1730-1792. 
 
 RIVET, A., a French Calvinist, 1572-1651. 
 
 RIVET DE LA GRANGE, Anthony, a 
 learned Benedictine, author of a ' Literary History 
 of France,' 1683-1740. 
 
 RIVIERE, C. F., Due De, an emigrant noble 
 and officer in the army of Conde\ who was gover- 
 nor of the young due de Bourdeaux ; born 1765, 
 condemned to death as a spy of the Bourbons, but 
 saved by Josephine, 1804, died 1828. 
 
 ROB 
 
 RIVIERE, L., a French phvsician, 15? 
 
 RIVIERE, Mercier De La, a distingufl 
 political economist, author of ' The Order, Natffl 
 and Essential, of Political Societies,' born abc, 
 1720, died 1793, or 1794. 
 
 RIVIERE, P. J. H. La. See LarivierbM 
 
 RIVIERE, Roch Lebaillif, Sieur De La.| 
 eel. empirical physician and astrologer, died lwf 
 
 RIVINUS, the Latinized name of AndH 
 Bachman, a Ger. phys. and philologist, 160(91 
 
 RIVINUS, Augustus Quirinus, but whtl 
 family name was Bachmann, an excellent botafll 
 was born at Leipzig in 1652. He died in lH 
 The son of a learned father, he soon became ecflfll 
 distinguished himself; and filled the chair ofpHI 
 ology and botany at the university of his nifll 
 town. He was a correspondent of John Ray'sjBI 
 published a classification of plants about the sal 
 time as he did. His system was founded o nMl 
 flower, on the number, regularity and irregula^H 
 of the petals. He was the first to abandooBJ 
 division of plants into trees, shrubs, and bdH 
 ceous plants, an arrangement which was still elm 
 to by Tournefort and Ray. His controversy ^H 
 the latter upon this subject, is the chief thing *! 
 has made Rivinus known to the botanists o^H 
 country ; though the value of his works and bis gra! 
 merits as a botanist, entitled him to higher jSI 
 sideration than he has hitherto received at the! 
 hands. Plumier has named a genus of plants^B 
 him, Rivina. [W.B, 
 
 RIZI, J., a Spanish painter and art-write} 1 
 1595-1675. His brother, Francis, a painter an ' 
 architect, 1608-1685. 
 
 RIZZIO, or RICCIO, David, an Italian musii 
 cian and linguist, who became private secret^H 
 Mary queen of Scots, and was murdered at Hfl 
 rood House by Lord Ruthven, and the other accom 
 plices of Darnley, 1566. It was pretended b^H 
 enemies of the queen that an improper intimac ' 
 existed between her and Rizzio, but all the pro' 
 babilities are opposed to such a belief. The mat 1 
 recent work which throws any light on this subjae; 
 is that of Miss Strickland. 
 
 ROA, M. De, a Spanish historian, died 1637. ' 
 
 ROBBIA, L. Della, an Ital. sculptor, 15th ct 1 
 
 ROBERT, earl of Annandale, father of Rober 
 Bruce, who became king of Scotland, was relate 
 to the blood royal by his mother, Isabella of Scot- 1 
 land. He was the competitor of Baliol for tfo 
 crown on the death of Alexander III. in lM3| 
 Died soon after the battle of Falkirk, which waf 
 fought 22d July, 1298. 
 
 ROBERT I., king of Scotland. See Bnuci. 
 
 ROBERT II. and III. See Stuart. 
 
 ROBERT, surnamed 'The Strong,' regarded u\ 
 the stock of the Capet dynasty, died 866. 
 
 ROBERT, king of France, son of the preceding, 
 received the crown at Soissons from the lords op- 
 posed to Charles the Simple 922, killed 923. 
 
 ROBERT, called ' The Devout,' king of France, 
 shared the throne with his father, Hugh Capet, 
 988, succeeded him as sole king 996, died 1031. 
 
 ROBERT, emperor of Constantinople, 1219-28. 
 
 ROBERT, emperor of Germany, 1400-1410. 
 
 ROBERT, first of the name, duke of Normandy, 
 called 'Le Magnifique,' and 'Le Diable,' succeeded 
 his brother, Richard III., in 1027, or 1028 
 ing gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he 
 
 C50 
 
ROB 
 
 poisoned at Nicaea in Bithynia, 1035. His 
 rural son, William the Conqueror, suc- 
 ded him. Robert II., surnamed 'Short 
 anks,' son of the latter, obtained the duchy of 
 rmandy after his father's death, 1087, died, the 
 soner of his bro. Henrv, at Cardiff castle, 1134. 
 20BERT, called 'The Old,' duke of Burgundy, 
 rd son of King Robert, was invested with the 
 by by his brother, Henry I., 1032, and died 
 5. Robert II., succeeded his father, Hughes 
 before his death 1272, and was married to 
 s, daughter of St. Louis, died 1305. 
 JOBERT, count of Burgundy, reigned 1303-15. 
 tOBERT, duke of Bar, reigned 1351-1411. 
 :OBERT, count of Evreux, reigned 989-1037. 
 ROBERT, the first of the name, count of Flan- 
 second son of Baldwin V., succeeded his 
 hew, Arnoul, 1072, died in Palestine 1093. 
 bert II., son and successor of the preceding, 
 itly distinguished by his exploits at Jerusalem, 
 crown of which was offered to him ; died 1111. 
 bert III., reigned 1305-1322. 
 IOBERT I., count of Artois, third son of Louis 
 , and brother of St. Louis. Having accom- 
 ied the latter into Egypt, he was killed at the 
 tie of Mansourah 1250. Robert II., a posthu- 
 is son of the preceding, was distinguished in 
 second crusade, and was killed in a battle with 
 Flemings near Coutrai 1302. Robert III., 
 dson of Robert II., born 1287, was mortally 
 nded in a battle with the French, and died in 
 don 1343. 
 
 OBERT of Anjou, king of Naples, distin- 
 hed in the struggle of the middle ages between 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines, was the third son of 
 les II., and succeeded that sovereign by a 
 sion of the pope in 1309. It is not easy to 
 ess the real principles at issue between those 
 ies, but, in general terms, the Ghibellines were 
 friends of the ascendancy of imperial govern- 
 1 and the Guelphs were identified with the 
 ite nationalities under the ascendancy of the 
 h of Rome. Hence, the Guelph sovereigns 
 often on the side of the popes, and were 
 s opposed to the emperors of Germany and 
 allies. With the crown of Naples conferred 
 him to the prejudice of his nephew, Carobert, 
 of Anjou received the remission of all the 
 of his father to the papal see, and, besides 
 , the lordship of several cities in Piedmont, 
 the alliance of the Guelph cities of Tuscany : 
 advantages which he offered in return being 
 combined resistance of Italy to the pretensions 
 'enry VII. The policy of Robert was to tem- 
 and hold his power in reserve rather than 
 'd a battle ; and he was known to say that he 
 er gloried in the title of poet and philosopher 
 hich he had some claim) than in that of king, 
 championship of the church lasted from 1310 
 324, when the Neapolitan and Roman armies 
 beaten, and Raimond of Cordova, who com- 
 them, taken prisoner. Robert, however, 
 interval, had acquired Genoa, and defended 
 uisition with some show of military talent 
 the Ghibellines of Lombardy, in 1318. In 
 other projects he was disappointed. Two 
 ts to conquer Sicily failed, and his only 
 arles, after being defeated in his attempts 
 on the war, died in Tuscany 1328. Robert 
 
 ROB 
 
 endeavoured to sustain the fortunes of his house, 
 by marrying his daughter, Joan, to Prince Andrew, 
 son of his nephew, Carobert, who had become 
 king of Hungary, with what result may be seen 
 in another article (Joan of Naples.) He died, 
 esteemed by his own subjects, 1343. [E.R.] 
 
 ROBERT of Auxerre, a French monk, author 
 of a Chronicle of that place, died 1212. 
 
 ROBERT of Geneva, an antipope, elected 
 under the name of Clement VII., in opposition to 
 Urban VI., 1378, died 1394. It was this election 
 which commenced the famous schism of the West. 
 
 ROBERT of Gloucester, an old annalist, 
 supposed to have been a monk, reign of Edward IV. 
 
 ROBERT of Lincoln, bishop of that see, and 
 one of the most learned men of his age, died 1253. 
 
 ROBERT of Vaugondy, Giles, geographer 
 to Louis XV., 1688-1766. Didier, his son and 
 successor, 1723-1786. 
 
 ROBERT, F,, a French geographer, 1737-1819. 
 
 ROBERT, the name of several French painters : 
 Nicholas, famous for his miniature animals 
 and plants, 1610-1684. Hubert, a painter of 
 architecture and landscape, 1733-1808. Leopold, 
 a pupil of David, dist. for his groups, 1794-1835. 
 
 ROBERTI, Giovanni Batista, Count, an 
 Italian professor and philosopher, author of metu- 
 phvsical and literary works, 1719-1786. 
 
 ROBERTI, J., a learned Jesuit, 1569-1651. 
 
 ROBERTIS, Denis De, an Italian ecclesiastic, 
 professor of philosophy and theology at Paris, dist. 
 as an orator, poet, and astrologer, died 1342. 
 
 ROBERTS, B. C, an antiquar. wr., 1789-1810. 
 
 ROBERTS, Emma, an accomplished lady, 
 known as the friend of Miss Landon, and authoress 
 of 'Historical and Biographical Memoirs of the 
 Rival Houses of York and Lancaster,' ' Oriental 
 Scenes,' &c, died at Poonah, in India, 1840. 
 
 ROBERTS, F., a puritan divine, 1609-1675. 
 
 ROBERTS, P., a Welch divine, died 1819. 
 
 ROBERTSON, Joseph, a minister of the Church 
 of England, author of an 'Introduction to the 
 Study of Polite Literature,' an ' Essay on Female 
 Education,' and other works, 1726-1802. 
 
 ROBERTSON, S. G., a Fr. aeronaut, died 1837. 
 
 ROBERTSON, Thomas, a dignitary in the 
 church in the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, au- 
 thor of some grammatical tracts in Latin, 16th ct. 
 
 ROBERTSON, Dr. William, was born in 
 1721, at Borthwick, in Mid-Lothian, where his 
 father was then the parish minister. He went 
 through the usual education for the Church of 
 Scotland, and in his twenty-second year became 
 minister of the rural parish of Gladsmuir, in Had- 
 dingtonshire. He speedily displayed, in the eccle- 
 siastical courts, that ability as a debater and orator, 
 which afterwards, assisted by the weight of his 
 literary reputation and his exemplary character, 
 made him the leader of one of the two great parties 
 in the church. In his retired manse he busied 
 himself also with literature, associated with the 
 men of letters who were then gathered in the 
 Scottish capital, and in 1755-6 co-operated with 
 Blair and Adam Smith in their attempt to establish 
 an ' Edinburgh Review.' There, too, he wrote his 
 first historical work, 'The History of Scotland 
 during the Reigns of Mary and of James VI.' It 
 was received with great favour, and appreciated 
 by none more highly than by David Hume, 
 
 651 
 
ROB 
 
 between whom and Robertson there was a cordial 
 good-will, in spite of literary rivalship and serious 
 differences of opinion. Both in this and in his other 
 works, Robertson shows himself an admirable 
 story-teller, writing with remarkable animation, and 
 in a style wbich, though not possessing Hume's 
 ease, is wonderfully correct; and he was also a 
 conscientious and successful investigator of origi- 
 nal authorities. In the year of his first publica- 
 tion he removed to Edinburgh, being appointed to 
 one of the city churches ; and in 1762 he became 
 also Principal of the University. About this time 
 he refused a proposal from the government to take 
 orders in England, with a view to his being made 
 a bishop ; and in 1764 he was named historiogra- 
 pher-royal for Scotland. His literary industry was 
 not checked, either by his success, or by his multi- 
 farious occupations and his close attention to his 
 pastoral duties. In 1769 he published his most 
 masterly work, ' The History of Charles V. : ' and 
 two other productions less valuable followed ; the 
 'History of America' in 1777, and 'An Histo- 
 rical Disquisition concerning Ancient India' in 
 1791. Of his pulpit eloquence, to which a warm 
 tribute is paid by Dr. Erskine, his friendly col- 
 league, though his opponent in the church courts, 
 no specimen has been printed except one sermon. 
 His death took place in 1793. [W.S.] 
 
 ROBERTSON, William, an Irish divine, au- 
 thor of ' An Attempt to Explain the words Rea- 
 son, Substance, Person, Creeds, Orthodoxy, Catho- 
 lic Church, Subscription, and Index Expurga- 
 torius.' For this publication he was rewarded by 
 the university of Glasgow with the degree of D.D., 
 and was afterwards master of the Wolverhampton 
 grammar school, 1705-1783. 
 
 ROBERTSON, W., a grammarian, 1650-1686. 
 
 ROBERVAL, Giles Person De, an eminent 
 
 Swmeter, professor of mathematics in the College 
 oyal of France, author of numerous memoirs, and 
 party to a controversy with Descartes, 1602-1675. 
 ROBESPIERRE, Francois Joseph Maxi- 
 milien Isidore, the chief actor in the French 
 revolution, was born at Arras in 1759. His father 
 was of English origin, by profession an advocate, 
 and though not rich, as few could be at a provin- 
 cial bar, he was sufficiently well off to pay for the 
 education of his children. Maximilien, therefore, 
 was sent to Paris, and educated for the same pro- 
 fession, at the college of Louis le Grand, where 
 Camille Desmoulins was his fellow- student. At 
 the outbreak of the revolution he was but thirty 
 years of age, yet he had already acquired a liter- 
 ary and professional celebrity in his native pro- 
 vince, and possessed so much of the public con- 
 fidence that he was sent as a deputy to the 
 estates-general. Like many others in that assem- 
 bly whose names, in the course of the next five 
 years, filled every mouth in Europe, Robespierre 
 was unknown and unmarked as a man of any like- 
 lihood, and was destined to remain so until the 
 popular applause had been exhausted by a Necker, 
 a Lafayette, and a Mirabeau. Of all those assem- 
 bled, however, he was the only man who went 
 with a predetermined conviction, with a design as 
 complete as his own devotion to it proved to be 
 constant, and with a nature so impassible that his 
 heart would never prevent him from adopting 
 whatever means might recommend themselves to 
 
 ROB 
 
 his conscience as necessary. His characte 
 that of a man formed by study, whose seutime 
 were fashioned as of cold, polished steel, ; 
 whose sense of justice, if it came warm from 
 heart in early youth, had hardened into marble, 1 
 man in its proportions, incorruptible in its nati 
 but statue-like in its frigid insensibility. Si 
 was Robespierre as he played his part on the st 
 of public events, yet this man apparently so 
 sensible, had a brother whom he loved, and \ 
 in return almost idolized him ; a sister to wh 
 he had given up the little independence he had 
 herited from his father ; and all those cherisl 
 memories of a first love, to which the heart 
 secret clings but the more fondly, as the outw 
 features are moulded into indifference by disappoi 
 ment. To state the whole truth, the friends 
 Robespierre, and his political colleagues, exhibi 
 the utmost devotion for his person, and the ob 
 of a later attachment, on his part, could nt 
 comprehend the maledictions heaped upon 
 memory ; he was so pure, so virtuous, so genth 
 she remembered him ! These facts may be inct 
 prehensible, but they are such as we find on reo 
 and no public life can be understood if the prn 
 character and the circumstances created by it 
 insufficiently known. Robespierre's sense of u 
 tice, and his indifference to the means of acci 
 plishing it, may account for his public influe: 
 but they would leave the devoted friendship ( 
 Lebas, a St. Just, and of a brother well acquani 
 with his private life inexplicable unless there r 
 some chord in his heart that responded to it. 
 secret of that devotion must be sought in V 
 knowledge of his character, and their admira 
 of the perfect command that Robespierre posse* 
 over his sensibilities, and the subjugation ofi 
 whole nature to a stern logic, working by mat 
 matical rule, and resolved to extract the synv 
 trical order of his dreams out of the elem 
 around him, regardless of all human feeling. J?j 
 a long time this disposition remained unkno; 
 and few could have supposed that his stwi 
 manners and his sickly countenance concealedi 
 real hero of the revolution. Such, however, 
 the fact. Robespierre was deeply read in the 
 torv of the Grecian and Roman republics, andi 
 to his admiration for the examples set by tl| 
 states and heroes of antiquity, may be mentiond 
 Contrat Social of Rousseau. These were the 
 dels according to which he had formed his : 
 a state, and whether a Mirabeau declaime 
 tribune, or a Necker and a Roland contriv 
 cabinet, he advanced stealthily, but with 
 certainty, towards his object. During 
 sittings of the estates-general, he was 
 observer of those who represented public 
 in that body, but said little himself; but v 
 discussion of the constitution came on, he fn 
 occupied the tribune, and grew bolder in 
 pression of his republican sentiments 
 them acceptable to the people. Trial by 
 enfranchisement of the slaves, the liber 
 press, the abolition of capital punishmc 
 among the special subjects advocated by ' 
 was on a question of very different impor 
 ever, that he was first recognized as the m? 
 
 : people. We must here briefly review eve 
 May, 1789, the states-general had asse 
 
 652 
 
ROB 
 
 fersailles. In June, the third estate or commons 
 irtually rebelled against the crown, and being 
 by some of the clergy and nobility, had 
 ed'the title of a national assembly, against 
 the guards had refused to act. In July the 
 e was destroyed, the national guard enrolled 
 Lafayette, and the ' Rights of Man ' promul- 
 as the basis of a constitution ; the national 
 bly then changed its title to that of consti- 
 assembly. In the course of the next three 
 ths the revolutionary journalism commenced, 
 the creation of clubs ; the first of these was 
 s Committee, which changed its name 
 jcessively to French Revolution Club, Club of 
 
 [Hall of the Jacobins. J 
 
 Friends of the Constitution, and Jacobin's Club, 
 jailed from its meeting in the hall of a Jacobite 
 vent ; it was definitively formed on the 6th of 
 ober, 1789. Soon after it the Cordeliers, a 
 more violent body, agitated by Danton and 
 Desmoulins, was formed ; and, in May, 
 ', the Club of Feuillants, which was intended 
 ally the constitutionalists against the Jacobins, 
 me or other of these clubs all the characters 
 > figured in the reign of terror rose to note, and 
 t of the orators in the constituent assembly 
 * alliance with them. Chief of these was 
 who died suddenly in March, 1791, and 
 him expired the hopes of the court ever to 
 to an understanding with the people. Shortly 
 , therefore, in the month of June, the king 
 the royal family attempted to fly, and being 
 " at Varennes, were brought back to Paris. 
 . was Robespierre's opportunity. The people 
 lost their idol in Mirabeau, and. were now in a 
 of the highest excitement and exasperation, 
 rator addressed the assembly in the dispas- 
 and well-studied periods customary with 
 and demonstrated by arguments drawn from 
 Lttity,and by quotations from the Contrat Social, 
 the king was responsible to the people as their 
 magistrate, intrusted with certain executive 
 8, but himself forming no part of the 
 representation. From this moment Robes- 
 took the place up to which he had steadily 
 ' from the beginning, as chief of the revolu- 
 movement, and he now began to hint that 
 tution was only a first step in the end to 
 ved. Soon after, in September, 1791, 
 
 ROB 
 
 that document was completed and formally ac- 
 cepted by the king ; and, the day following, the 
 first biennial parliament, or legislative assembly, 
 met for business ; this body was composed wholly 
 of new members by the advice of Robespierre, who 
 was crowned with oak leaves, and being placed in 
 a carriage, from which the horses had been 
 detached, was drawn through the streets by the 
 enthusiastic people, who proclaimed him the ' real 
 defender of their rights.' In the June previous 
 Robespierre had been appointed public accuser at 
 the criminal tribunal of Paris, and he retained this 
 function till April, 1792, when he resigned it in 
 order to devote himself to the popular cause in the 
 Jacobin's Club. He studiously preserved himself 
 free from all taint of violence or inconsistency, and 
 yet acquired such influence in this body that he 
 was named one of the new municipality after the 
 insurrection of August, and in this capacity had to 
 bewail the prison massacres ; on this occasion he 
 betrayed more sensibility than on any other in the 
 course of his history. The convention met in Sept., 
 and Robespierre, supported by an immense popu- 
 larity, became one of its members, and entered 
 upon the last eventful stages of his political jour- 
 ney. The first event was an accusation commenced 
 against him by Barbaroux, who accused Robespierre 
 of' an attempt to concentrate the public authority 
 under his own hands in the Paris municipality; 
 this, however, ended in words. The fate of the 
 king was then decided on by the majority of all 
 parties. Robespierre said little, but his words 
 were, as usual, cold and decisive ; there was no 
 rational doubt that the king must die, though he 
 said it with regret, in order that the republic might 
 live. The temper and policy of Robespierre was 
 that of reason incarnate, and the lives of men, or 
 thousands of men, were admitted into his balance 
 of probabilities, as so many figures in a mathema- 
 tical problem. The fate of" the king and the other 
 members of the royal family hardly required the 
 acceleration given to it by his hand; the real struggle 
 for him, as he felt conscious, was with the two 
 great parties who would resist the dictatorship at 
 which he was determined to arrive ; these were the 
 Girondins and the Montagnards, the former in- 
 cluding nearly all the respectability, talent, and 
 eloquence of France ; and the latter, the atheism 
 and immorality. Robespierre's calculation of means 
 was admirably ingenious, but it was still such as 
 the circumstances dictated. The most scrupulous 
 were to be sacrificed first, by aid of those less so ; 
 the effect of which would be to throw all the odium 
 of the terror upon the last and worst class, whom 
 the dictator would then, in the face of the admiring 
 world, vanquish himself; thus Robespierre the 
 Apollo, born of France" the Latona in the midst of 
 her terrors, was to vanquish the dreaded sea mons- 
 ter, and institute the new Pythian games. This 
 programme was exactly followed. The struggle 
 with the Girondins was terminated by the proscrip- 
 tions of the 31st May and 2d of June, 1793 ; 
 the Dantonists, who stood next on the roster, fell 
 with their chief on the 5th of April, 1794; and 
 there now remained the vile faction of Hebert and 
 Chaumete. Perhaps Robespierre had not calculated 
 on the remains of the vanquished parties forming 
 a coalition with these scoundrels against him ; 
 such, however, was the case when he commenced 
 
 653 
 
ROB 
 
 the last struggle, by calling the Jacobin leaders 
 and proconsuls to account for their atrocities. 
 The critical hour was the 27th of July, 1794, 
 called, according to the Republican calendar, the 
 9th Thermider. A month previous Robespierre 
 had withdrawn from the Committee of Public 
 Safety, and completely isolated himself from the 
 men he had doomed to destruction ; in this inter- 
 val the committees of death (those of Public Safety 
 and General Surety) had grown more insatiate of 
 blood daily. In a speech of remarkable daring 
 Robespierre apostrophized the men of violence, and, 
 as he well knew, staked his life upon the issue of 
 it in the convention. The conspiracy against him 
 in that body instantly betrayed itself, and he pro- 
 ceeded to the club of Jacobins ; their enthusiasm 
 was immense, and they urged him to arrest the 
 two committees, and march upon the convention. 
 This he absolutely refused to do, as an act that 
 would brand him with the name of tyrant, and the 
 next day, repeating his visit to the national repre- 
 sentatives, was arrested by that body in the midst 
 of a tumultuous scene ; the younger Robespierre, 
 Lebas, St. Just, and Couthon, stood by him nobly, 
 and became his fellow-prisoners. There might 
 now have been a fierce struggle, but Henriot, mad 
 with drunkenness, who should have headed the 
 troops of the municipality, was arrested by the 
 officers of the convention at the very moment when 
 the prisoners were released and conveyed to the 
 Hotel de Ville by Fleuriot, Pagan, and CofHnhal. 
 Robespierre remained passive, and refusing to lend 
 his sanction by word or gesture to any illegal act 
 against the convention, was seized again by the 
 soldiers of B arras, a small party of whom, con- 
 ducted by Leonard Bourdon, forced their way into 
 the Salle de VEgalite. Here, it has been repeatedly 
 said, Robespierre attempted to destroy himself, and 
 was found with his jaw shot through ; it is now 
 proved, however, that it was the cowardly act of 
 his enemies as they entered the room. He spoke 
 no word and betrayed no emotion after his arrest, 
 though he was subjected to every conceivable in- 
 dignity and insult. The formalities at the bar of 
 Fouquier Tinville soon gone through, Robespierre 
 and his party were conveyed to the scaffold. His 
 end is thus recorded : ' Before the knife was loosened 
 the executioners pulled off the bandage which 
 enveloped his face, in order to prevent the linen 
 from deadening the blow of the axe. The agony 
 occasioned by this drew from the wretched suf- 
 ferer a cry of anguish that was heard to the op- 
 posite side of the Place de la Revolution ; then 
 followed a silence like that of the grave, interrupted, 
 at intervals, by a dull sullen noise ; the guillotine 
 fell, and the head of Robespierre rolled into the 
 basket. The crowd held their breath for some 
 seconds, then burst into a loud and unanimous 
 cheering.' It was the second day only after 
 Robespierre had made his last desperate effort for 
 the Republic in the National Convention, July 
 28th, 1794. [E.R.] 
 
 ROBESPIERRE, Augustin Bon Joseph, 
 called the Younger, brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Arras 1764, and became a deputy to the 
 convention 1792. He was the devoted friend of 
 his brother, and came forward to share his fate in 
 the convention on the 8th Thermidor: the pre- 
 vious year he had opposed himself with great 
 
 ROB 
 
 courage to the sanguinary proceedings of the r. 
 consuls. When his brother was arrested, 
 Lebas had shot himself dead, Augustin threw h 
 self from a window of the Hotel de Ville, wh: 
 however, only broke his leg. He was execu 
 with the elder Robespierre and his colleagues 
 following dav. 
 
 ROBESPIERRE, Charlotte, sister of 
 preceding, took up her abode at Paris when t 
 became members of the convention, and had 
 her admirer Fouche, who was no favourite of 
 dictator. She was arrested on the 9th Thermic 
 but soon after set at liberty and pensioned. 
 ' Memoirs ' contain some interesting particul 
 Died at Paris 1834. 
 
 ROBILANT, Esprit Bex Nicolas De, ag 
 dinian officer, engineer, and mineralog., 1724-18 
 
 ROBIN, Jean, a French botanist, keeper 
 the Garden of Plants, 1550-1597. His accoun 
 the king's garden was published 1601. Ves: 
 sian, a brother of Jean, was also a botanist. 
 
 ROBINET, J. B. R., a Fr. writer, 1735-182 
 
 ROBINS, Benjamin, an eminent mathei 
 tician and engineer of artillery, employed by 
 East India Company. He wrote several work 
 gunnery and mathematics, and is said to I 
 written the narrative of Anson's voyage, 1707 
 
 ROBINS, J., an astronomer, died 1558. 
 
 ROBINSON, Anastasia, daughter of a ] 
 trait painter, and pupil of Dr. Crofts in mt 
 distinguished as a vocalist and opera actor, 
 quitted the stage on account of her marriage to 
 earl of Peterborough ; died 1750. 
 
 ROBINSON, Mary, a woman of great bea 
 known as an actress and miscellaneous writer, 
 born at Bristol 1758. She was married w 
 quite a girl to an attorney, and commenced! 
 career on the stage under the patronage of ( 
 rick, at Drurv Lane theatre. She attracted 
 attention of the prince of Wales in the chara 
 of Perdita, in the ' Winter's Tale,' and becanrtj 
 mistress for a short time. Her chief meat* 
 support in after vears was the produce of her j 
 as a novelist. Died 1800. 
 
 ROBINSON, Richard, archbishop of Arm 
 and Lord of Rokeby, b. in Yorkshire 1709, d. 1! j 
 
 ROBINSON, Robert, a nonconformist mi 
 ter, born at Swaffham in Norfolk 1735, die 
 convert to Socinianism 1790. He wrote on 
 question which has again become the su^H 
 public discussion, concerning marriage witl J 
 deceased wife's sister, a ' History of Baptism,' ] 
 
 ROBINSON, Thomas, a minister of j 
 Church of England, author of ' Scripture Cha j 
 ters,' &c, bom 1749. 
 
 ROBINSON, Thomas, rector of Ousley, in Ci 
 berland, au. of works in natural history, died 1' 
 
 ROBISON, John, professor of natural phil j 
 phy at Edinburgh, was born at Boghall, in Stirl 
 shire, 1739, and died in 1805. He is chiefly 
 markable as the author of a book which attraj 
 considerable attention at the close of the cent j 
 entitled ' Proof's of a Conspiracy against all ] 
 Religions and Governments of Europe, < 
 in the Secret Meetings of Free Masons, Illumii 
 and Reading Societies.' This work ran thro i 
 four editions in the course of a few months, bi 
 now only creates a smile. It contains son 
 particulars, however, bearing on the French n 
 
 654 
 
ROB 
 
 Ition. Mr. Robison, when a youth, was attached 
 
 [ the royal navy, and was in the boat with General 
 
 [olfe when he landed on the heights of Abraham 
 
 'fore the taking of Quebec. He is known as a 
 
 iter in natural philosophy, and as a contributor 
 
 the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' [E.R.] 
 
 ROBORT ELLO, Francesco, an Italian philo- 
 
 i Inst, and editor of Greek classics, 1516-1567. 
 
 , ROB-ROY, or Robert the Red, the popular 
 
 Jsignation of a Highland freebooter, whose real 
 
 me was Robert Macgregor. He was born 
 
 out 1660, and was a dealer in cattle till the 
 
 >ellion of 1715, when he joined the army of the 
 
 etender. Having lost his estates in this quarrel, 
 
 became an outlaw, and his daring adventures 
 
 I somewhat chivalrous character, have made 
 
 a one of the heroes of Scottish romance. He 
 
 d at an advanced age, probably soon after 1733. 
 
 took the name of Campbell in consequence 
 
 the Macgregors having been outlawed m the 
 
 vious century. 
 
 JOBSON, G". F., a native of Durham, dist. as a 
 ter-colour painter and draughtsman, died 1833. 
 JOBY, John, a banker of Rochdale, known to 
 rature by his collections of the Traditions of 
 icashire, perish, in the 'Orion' steam-boat 1850. 
 tOCABERTI DI PERELADA, Juan Tomaso, 
 leral of the Dominicans, distinguished as a writer 
 avour of the papacy, b. in Spain 1624, d. 1699. 
 IOCCA, A., an Italian ecclesiastic, 1545-1620. 
 tOCHAMBEAU, Jean Baptists Donatien 
 Vimeur, Count De, a French marshal, com- 
 lder of the French forces sent in aid of the 
 ericans, author of ' Memoirs,' 1725-1807. His 
 j| , Donatien Marie Joseph, born 1750, killed 
 
 I he battle of Leipzig 1813, 
 ; IOCHE, E. De La, a Fr. mathemat., 16th cent. 
 tOCHE, J. De., a French commander, of Swiss 
 sent, famous for his defence of the castle of 
 "lemont against the due de Rohan in 1621. It 
 Memarkable that his portrait, still in possession 
 ahe family, bears a striking resemblance to that 
 oDliver Cromwell. 
 IKOCHE, J. B. L. De La, a doctor of the Sor- 
 . ope, au. of a panegyric ot St. Genevieve, d. 1780. 
 KOCHE, P. L. Lefebvre De La, a French 
 ligTman and learned writer, about 1740-1806. 
 |K)CHE, Regina Maria, an English novelist, 
 *>f ' The Children of the Abbey,' &c, 1765-1845. 
 IOCHE, Sophie De La, a Ger. novelist, daugh- 
 tlof a physician named Guttermann, 1750-1807. 
 tOCHE-AYMOR, Charles Antoine De La, 
 I elinal and archbishop of Rheims, 1692-1777. 
 OCHECOTTE, F. Guyon, Count De, a 
 r dist general, b. 1769, shot as a conspirator 1798. 
 OCHE-FLAVIN, Bernard De La, a French 
 J lit and historian of the parliaments, 1552-1627. 
 OCHEFORT, W. De, a Fr. writer, 1731-88. 
 OCHEFOUCAULD, F. De La, bishop of 
 I 8 lis, cardinal and Rom. ambassador, 1558-1645. 
 IEFOUCAULD. Francis, Due De La, 
 Wee of Marsillae, a famous name in French 
 Jptare, and in the troubles of the Fronde, 1613- 
 lj). Several others of the name have been dis- 
 til m8hed at later periods of French history, and 
 tl last duke of this house was massacred at the 
 flaye prison, in September 1792. 
 OCHEJAQUELEIN, Henri De La, a fam- 
 : of La Vendue, who became generalissimo 
 
 ROD 
 
 at the age of twenty-two, and sustained a straggle 
 with the republican troops for ten months with 
 great skill and intrepidity, born 1773, killed at 
 Nouaille 1794. 
 
 ROCHELLE, B. La, a Fr. actor, 1748-1807. 
 
 ROCHESTER, John Wilmot, earl of, a pro- 
 fligate favourite and wit of the court of Charles II., 
 bom 1648, died prematurely, worn out with his 
 debaucheries, 1680. 
 
 ROCHON, A. M. De, a Fr. astron., 1741-1817. 
 
 ROCHON DE CHABANNES, Marc Antony 
 James, a French dramatic writer, 1730-1800. 
 
 ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson Went- 
 worth, second marquis of, leader of a section of 
 the Whig party, and prime minister, was born in 
 1730, and succeeded to the estates and dignities of 
 his father in 1750. On the accession of George 
 III. party feeling ran high, and was greatly aggra- 
 vated by the intrigues of the sovereign with his 
 favourite, Lord Bute. These circumstances ren- 
 dered it difficult to keep a ministry together, and 
 recourse was frequently had to politicians of very 
 middling qualifications. Such was Lord Rocking- 
 ham, a man of unostentatious integrity and sound 
 constitutional feeling, but on the other hand, 
 neither a great orator, nor a statesman of very 
 brilliant parts. He became minister in July, 1765, 
 when the Grenville ministry was turned out, dur- 
 ing the debates on the regency bill, which had 
 become necessary in consequence of the mental 
 afflictions of the king. The first measure of the 
 marquis of Rockingham was the repeal of the 
 American stamp act, which had received the royal 
 assent in the March previous, but he reserved to 
 parliament the right of taxing the colonies, and 
 proceeded quietly with some constitutional reforms, 
 such as the prohibition of general warrants. He 
 also encouraged trade, in the way of protection 
 from competition, then, and till lately, the political 
 fashion. The weakness of this ministry yielded 
 place to that of Pitt, afterwards eaid of Chatham, 
 in June, 1766, and when the latter was succeeded 
 by the administration of Lord North, the marquis 
 of Rockingham went into opposition with the Whig 
 chief. He became minister again after the fall of 
 Lord North in March, 1782, but retired from office 
 and from the world on the succeeding 1st of July. 
 In this latter period Lord Rockingham appears to 
 have been willing to sanction some measure of 
 parliamentary reform, but it would be difficult to 
 believe he was equal to any great emergency. A 
 jeu d'esprit of the times runs thus : 
 'Truth to tell, if one may without shocking 'em, 
 The nation's asleep, and the minister Rockingham !' 
 
 [E.R.] 
 
 ROCOCLES, J. B., a Fr. historian, died 1696. 
 
 RODE, Chr. Bernard, a German painter and 
 engraver, 1725-1797. His brother, J. Henry, 
 an engraver, 1727-1759. 
 
 RODE, P., a French violinist, 1774-1833. 
 
 RODELLA, J. B., an Italian writer, 1724-94. 
 
 RODERIC, or RODERIQUE, last king of the 
 Visigoths of Spain, killed in battle 711. 
 
 RODNEY, George Brydges, Lord, a famous 
 British admiral, was son of a captain in the navy, 
 and was born at Walton-on-Thames 1718. His 
 principal services were the defeat of L'Etendiere's 
 squadron, 1747 ; the bombardment of Havre, and 
 the destruction of the stores intended for the 
 
 655 
 
ROD 
 
 invasion of England, 1759 ; tlie capture of several 
 islands in the West Indies, 1761 ; the defeat of a 
 Spanish fleet under Langara, near Cape St. 
 Vincent, and of the French near Martinique, 
 1780 ; and the victory over De Grasse, the hest 
 remembered of his achievements, 1782. For his 
 long continued services to the nation, Rodney was 
 rewarded with a baronetcy, and a pension, in the 
 whole, of 4,000 per annum. Died 1792. 
 
 RODOLPH of Hapsburgh, first emperor of 
 Germany of this name, was born 1218, and suc- 
 ceeded his father, Albert the Wise, as count of 
 Hapsburgh 1210. In 1273 he was elected king of 
 the Romans. In 1278 he defeated Ottocar, king 
 of Bohemia, which enabled him to confer Austria, 
 Styria, and Carniola on his son, Albert ; died 1291. 
 Rodolph II., born at Vienna 1552, was crowned 
 king of Hungary 1572, king of Bohemia and king 
 of the Romans 1575, and emperor on the death of 
 his father, Maximilian II., 1576. He lost the 
 kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia by the revolt 
 of his brother, Mathias, and died 1612. 
 
 RODOLPH I., king of Burgundy, shared the 
 throne with his father, Conrad II., count of Aux- 
 erre 886, took the title of king 888, died 912. 
 Rodolph II., his son and successor, made him- 
 self king of Italy 922, and, on renouncing this 
 enterprise, founded the kingdom of Aries and 
 Burgundy 933 ; died 937. Rodolph III., called 
 the Devout, and the Do-nothing, grandson of the 
 preceding, born 993, succeeded his father, Conrad, 
 994, died 1032. 
 
 RODOLPH, three dukes of Saxony : Rodolph 
 I., son and successor of Albert IL, reigned 1298- 
 1356. Rodolph IL, son and sue. of Rodolph I., 
 1356-1370. Rodolph III., nephew of the latter, 
 succeeded 1388, died a prisoner in Bohemia 1418. 
 
 RODOLPH, the first of the name, count pala- 
 tine, succeeded his father, Louis IL, 1294, declared 
 against Albert, duke of Austria, in favour of Adol- 
 phus of Nassau 1300, died in England 1319. The 
 second of the name, son of the preceding, succeeded 
 his brother, Adolphus, 1327, concluded a peace 
 with the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, 1329, d. 1353. 
 
 RODOLPH, count of Rheinfelden and duke of 
 Suabia, elected king of Germany 1077, killed 1080. 
 
 RODON, or DE RODON, David, a French 
 professor of philosophy and reformer, died 1664. 
 
 RODRIGUEZ, Alphonso, a Jesuit of Valla- 
 dolid, whose work on Christian Perfection ranks 
 high in mystic divinity, and has been translated 
 into all the European languages, 1526-1616. 
 
 RODRIGUEZ, A. J., a theologian, 1705-1781. 
 
 RODRIGUEZ, J., a Portug. missy., 1559-1633. 
 
 RODRIGUEZ, V., a Sp. architect, 1717-1785. 
 
 RODWELL, George Herbert, an English 
 composer and writer, died 1851. 
 
 ROE, Sir Thomas, a native of Essex, distin- 
 guished as a traveller and diplomatist, was born 
 at Low-Layton about 1580, and was knighted by 
 James I. in 1604, soon after which he was sent by 
 Prince Henry to make discoveries in America. 
 His public life commences in 1614, when he was 
 sent ambassador to the Great Mogul, at whose 
 court he continued till 1618. The remainder of 
 his life was fully occupied with political embassies, 
 and his parliamentary duties as member for Ciren- 
 cester and for the university of Oxford ; died 1644. 
 
 ROEBUCK, John, a physician and experi- 
 
 656 
 
 ROH 
 
 mental chemist, born at Sheffield 1718, died, 
 raining himself by his projects, 1794. 
 
 ROEDERER, Count, a French states?! 
 
 professor of moral science and politics, 17." 1-1: 
 
 ROEHL, L. H., a Ger. astronomer, died 17 
 
 ROEL, Hermann Alexander, a protes 
 
 German divine and Cartesian philosopher, d. 1' 
 
 ROELAS, J. De Las, a Sp. painter, died 1 
 
 ROELAS, P. De Las, a Spanish painter, tai 
 
 by Titian, and regarded as the rival of Mm 
 
 1560-1620. 
 
 ROEMER, O., a Danish astronomer, 1014-1 
 
 ROENER, J. J., a Swiss botanist, 1761-18 
 
 ROEPEL, C, a Dutch painter, 1679-1748. 
 
 ROESEL, A. J., a German painter, 1705-1 
 
 ROESTRAETEN, P., a Dutch portrait paii 
 
 who distinguished himself in England, 1627-1 
 
 ROGER, the name of several European prir 
 
 Roger I., count of Sicily, is known to his 
 
 from 1058 to his death in 1101. Roger IL, 
 
 of the preceding, became Icing of Sicily 1130, 
 
 died 1154. A cousin of the latter, Robert, c 
 
 of Apulia, succeeded his father, Robert Guis< 
 
 1085, died 1111. Roger I., count ofCarcassc 
 
 reigned 1130-1150. Roger IL, whose reign 
 
 greatly disturbed by quarrels with Raymonc 
 
 count of Toulouse, 1167-1194. Roger of M< 
 
 gomery, count of A lenqon, nephew of Wil 
 
 the Conqueror, succeeded 1070, and, having ac( 
 
 panied William to England, commanded his 
 
 vanced guard at the battle of Hastings, and 
 
 created earl of Shrewsbury, died 1094. 
 
 ROGER, or RICHARD, of Hexham, a n 
 
 of that abbey, known as an historian, 12tli cenl 
 
 ROGER of Hoveden. See Hoveden. 
 
 ROGER, A., a Dutch protestant, 17th cent 
 
 ROGER, E., a French missionary, 17th cenl 
 
 ROGER, F., a French author, 1776-1842. 
 
 ROGER-MARTIN, a French mathematician 
 
 phvsician, mem. of the council of 500, 1741- 
 
 ROGERS, B., an English composer, 17th 
 
 ROGERS, C, an antiquarian, 1711-1784. 
 
 ROGERS, D., a statesman, about 1540-15! 
 
 ROGERS, G., an episco. clergyman, 1741-1' 
 
 ROGP^RS, John, the first martyr of the i 
 
 of Queen Mary, was first known as chaplal 
 
 Antwerp, and afterwards as collaborateur of 
 
 dale and Coverdale in effecting a translation oi 
 
 Bible. He preached against popery at St. Pj 
 
 Cross immediately after the accession of Mary,] 
 
 was burnt at Smithfield, February 4, 1555. 
 
 ROGERS, John, rector of St. Giles's, Crir 
 
 gate, and a writer against Hoadley, 1679-172 '\ 
 
 ROGERS, Thomas, chaplain to Bancroft, bi< 
 
 of London, author of several works, 1568-161' 
 
 ROGERS, Thomas, an episcopal clergyi 
 
 author of 'Providence Displayed in the Cor 
 
 tion of King William and Queen Mary,' 1660- 
 
 ROGERS, Woods, a famous naval comma; 
 
 and circumnavigator of the globe, died 1732.J 
 
 ROHAN, a noble French family, numbering 
 
 following eminent churchmen : Armand' 1 
 
 ton, cardinal and bishop of Strasburg, 1674-1 
 
 Armand, called the cardinal of Soubisse, gr. 
 
 nephew of the preceding, and holder of the i 
 
 dignities, 1717-1756. Armand Jule, his coi 
 
 cardinal and archbishop of Rheims, 1695-1 
 
 Louis Constantine, brother of the latter, 
 
 dinal and bishop of Strasburg, 1697-1779. h 
 
ROH 
 
 ?ene Edward, Prince De Rohan, ambassador to 
 fienna, bishop of Strasburg, cardinal and grand- 
 lmoner of France, best known by the affair of the 
 iamond necklace, 1734-1803. J. H. Meriadec, 
 'rince De Rohan-Gumene, elder brother of the 
 2 eckli'ce cardinal, born 1726, rendered himself 
 i; otorious by his prodigalities, and by his failure for 
 II lore than a million sterling in 1783. Louis 
 t at rancis Augustus, Due De Rohan-Chabot, and 
 in entenant-general in the French army, born 1733, 
 as massacred at the Abbaye prison 1794. Louis 
 Lj rancis Augustus, Due De Rohan-Chabot, 
 \i rince of Leon, and cardinal, a descendant of the 
 i bntmorencies by his mother, 1788-1833. Be- 
 _'j ies these, are the names distinguished in the 
 3j ligious wars, as follows: 
 .] ROHAN, Henry, Due De, and prince of Leon, 
 i e of the most distinguished characters of his 
 'dj e, was born in Brittany 1579, and first acquired 
 I] stinction at the siege of Amiens under Henry 
 nj r ., when in the sixteenth year of his age. He 
 i',| came chief of the Calvinist party on the acces- 
 '1 n of Louis XIIL, and acted a principal part in 
 ,l b insurrection of 1620, and all the ensuing wars. 
 : ij 5 was a great political writer, and has left me- 
 yjj rirs which are highly valued by historians. Died 
 ,'y his wounds, received at the battle of Rheinfeld 
 Vj 38. His wife, Margaret De Bethune, 
 . , lighter of Sully, famous for her heroic defence 
 ij Castres against the Marechal de Themines in 
 jj 25, died 1660. His sister, Anne, distinguished 
 her courage at the siege of Rochelle, and for 
 ,j great learning and capacity, 1584-1646. His 
 Ijjj ther, Benjamin De Rohan, lord of Soubisse, 
 lj s also a Calvinist leader, and died in England, 
 pi ere he had taken refuge, 1630. Tancred, a 
 jjl sumed son of Duke 'Henry, was killed during 
 m i troubles of the Fronde, in the nineteenth year 
 ti^s age, 1649. 
 
 ft 
 
 IOHAN, Louis, Prince De, or Chevalier de 
 kan, b. abt. 1635, executed for conspiracy, 1674. 
 
 JOHAULT, J. a Cartesian philos., 1620-1675. 
 ...jgOHDICH, F. W., a Prussian general, 1719-96. 
 .01, Gilbert, a French jurisconsult, 16th cent. 
 ,. >OKES, H., a Dutch painter, 1621-1682. 
 y POLAND, the supposed nephew of Charlemagne, 
 ; ] opular hero of the romance of chivalry, killed 
 ;he battle of Roncevaux 778. 
 
 JOLAND, count of Savoy, died 1263. 
 vii POLAND, P. L., a French sculptor, 1746-1816. 
 POLAND DE LA PLATIERE ; Jean Marie, 
 at Villefranche, in the neighbourhood of 
 1732, was Inspector General of manu- 
 and commerce in that city when the 
 ch revolution commenced, and having em- 
 popular principles, became, in 1790, mem- 
 of the Lyons municipality. In February, 
 1, he was sent to Paris as deputy extraordinary, 
 d the commercial interests of Lyons in the 
 ttees of the Constituent Assembly, and 
 ied there seven months, accompanied by his 
 hearted wife, who is the subject of the fol- 
 notice. This period dates from the con- 
 ted flight of the king, iust before the death 
 rabe;m. to the dispersion of the assembly 
 the acceptance of the new constitution, and 
 the Rolands acquainted with the rising 
 ty of Robespierre and the Girondins, who 
 not yet divided into distinct parties. They 
 
 ROL 
 
 now returned home to La Platifere for a short 
 period, but in December returned to Paris: the 
 office of inspector having been abolished, Roland 
 had to claim a retiring pension ; but he was also 
 invited back by the patriots to take a part in the 
 movement, for at this juncture the invasion of the 
 emigrants was impending, and the veto of the 
 king had brought the parliament to a stand-still. 
 The practical philosophy, commercial knowledge, 
 and strict simplicity of Roland, recommended him 
 to men of all parties, and when the patriot min- 
 istry was formed in March, 1792, he was made 
 minister of the interior. He kept his position till 
 13th June, when the royal veto upon the proposal 
 to form a patriot camp around Paris, and upon the 
 decree against the priests, provoked his celebrated 
 letter to the king, written, however, by Madame 
 Roland, and, as a consequence, his almost instant 
 dismissal. This event was followed by the ar- 
 rival of the Marseillaise in Paris, and the conflict 
 at the Tuileries, on the 10th of August, when 
 Roland was recalled, and Danton became minister 
 of justice. The struggle between the Girondists 
 and the municipality under the guidance of Robes- 
 pierre filled up the period till the 31st May; the 
 former party were then vanquished, and Roland 
 was among the number who saved their lives by 
 flight. He found an asylum with his friends at 
 Rouen, but deliberately killed himself with his 
 cane-sword on hearing of the execution of his 
 wife, 15th November, 1793. His body was found 
 by the road-side, and a paper in his pocket con- 
 tained his last words, among which were these : 
 ' Whoever thou art that findest these remains, 
 respect them, as those of a man who consecrated 
 his life to usefulness, and who dies as he has 
 
 lived, virtuous and honest On hearing of 
 
 my wife's death I would not remain another dav 
 upon this earth so stained with crimes.' [E.R.] 
 ROLAND, Manon Jeanne Philippon, Ma- 
 dame, wife of the preceding, and herself the spirit 
 of the Girondin party, was the daughter of a Paris 
 engraver, and was born in that city 1754. She 
 was the only child of nine left to the care of her 
 father, who provided her with masters regardless of 
 expense, and gave her a brilliant education ; the 
 best ground for which existed in her native talents, 
 her firm spirit, her personal beauty, and her un- 
 doubted virtues. Antiquities, heraldry, philosophy, 
 and, among other books, the Bible, made up her 
 earliest studies ; her favourite authors, however, 
 were Plutarch, Tacitus, Montaigne, and Rousseau. 
 She became the wife of Roland in 1779, and as her 
 love for him was founded on his antique virtues 
 and his philosophic spirit, she has been called 
 'The Heloise of the eighteenth century:' he was 
 also twenty years her senior. She became the 
 sharer in all his studies, aided him in editing his 
 works, and during his two ministries acted as his 
 secretary, and entered into all the intrigues of his 
 party without debasing herself by their meanness. 
 She was the angel of the cause she espoused, the 
 soul of honour and the conscience of all who 
 embraced it ; while her boldness, her political 
 sagacity, and her sarcastic eloquence were equally 
 dreaded by their adversaries. After the flight of 
 her husband, Madame Roland was arrested by order 
 of the Paris commune, under the dictation of 
 Marat and Robespierre, and consigned to the 
 
 657 
 
 2U 
 
ROL 
 
 Abbaye prison, from which, on the 31st of October, 
 she was removed to a more wretched abode in the 
 Conciergerie. When sentenced, at the bar of 
 Fouquier Tinville, she was eager to embrace her 
 fate, and rode to the guillotine clad in white, her 
 glossy black hair hanging down to her girdle. She 
 declared her conviction that her husband would 
 not survive her. On the scaffold, this noblest 
 victim of the cause in which she suffered, apostro- 
 phized the statue of liberty, and bowing her head 
 before it exclaimed ' Ah Liberty ! what crimes are 
 committed in thy name !' The moment before, she 
 had asked for pen and paper ' to write the strange 
 thoughts that were rising in her,' a request which 
 was refused. She was executed on the 8th of 
 November, 1793. Besides her miscellaneous works, 
 Madame Roland left Memoirs composed during 
 her captivity, and a last affecting composition in 
 the Counsels of a Letter, addressed to her little girl ; 
 the former, it is suspected, have been since tam- 
 pered with. [E.R.] 
 
 ROLANDER, Daniel,, a Swedish naturalist 
 and traveller, flourished about 1720-1776. 
 
 ROLANDINO, an Ital. chronicler, 1200-1276. 
 
 ROLANDO, L., an Ital. anatomist, 1775-1831. 
 
 ROLDAN, Peter, a Span, sculptor, 1624-1700. 
 Louisa, his daughter and assistant, 1654-1704 
 
 ROLLA, A., a French violinist, 1757-1837. 
 
 ROLLE, H., an English lawyer, 1589-1656. 
 
 ROLLE, M., a Fr. mathematician, 1652-1719. 
 
 ROLLI, P. A., an Italian poet, 1687-1767. 
 
 ROLLIN, Charles, a celebrated popular writer, 
 historian, and Latin poet, b. at Paris 1661, d. 1741. 
 
 ROLLO, the leader of an adventurous band of 
 Normans, who conquered the French province 
 named after them in the 9th century, was the son 
 of a Norwegian earl, named Ragnvald, whose 
 father, again, was one of the petty chiefs or kings 
 of Drontheim. This is the highest point to which 
 his ancestry can be traced, notwithstanding the 
 mistaken zeal of genealogists in honour of the 
 English sovereigns descended from William the 
 Conqueror. The circumstances which produced 
 the expedition of Rollo, were briefly these. Harold 
 Harfagra having, from 870 to 880, made himself 
 master of all Norway, which had previously been 
 divided into several petty states, caused many 
 Norwegian chieftains to emigrate, who sought 
 fresh homes in Iceland, the Orkneys, and the isles 
 of Faro and Shetland, and infested the northern 
 seas with their piratical excursions. One such 
 was this Rolf, or Rollo, who, prohibited from ever 
 returning to Norway by Harold, retired to the 
 Hebrides, where many of the Norwegian nobility 
 had taken refuge. His first attempts at the head 
 of these adventurers were against England, but 
 the order established by Alfred rendered his 
 efforts fruitless. He then tried the security of the 
 coast of France, and venturing up the Seine took 
 Rouen, at that time called Neustria, from whence 
 he proceeded to the siege of Paris. Charles the 
 Simple, king of the Franks, was glad to pur- 
 chase a peace by ceding the territory already 
 conquered by Rollo, and which is supposed to 
 have comprised that part of the ancient Neus- 
 tria which corresponds to the department of the 
 Seine, Jnferieure, and a portion of the depart- 
 ment of the Eaire. He also gave him his daugliter, 
 Giselle, in marriage. The bargain was concluded 
 
 ani'u 
 in tb 
 
 ROM 
 
 at St. Clair in the year 912, soon after wliicl 
 Rollo, or Raoul I., as he was afterwards called 
 was baptized by the archbishop of Rouen, in 
 cathedral of that city. He is said to have i 
 bited all the virtues of a religious, 
 liberal prince ; he was also intrepid as a warrior 
 and of such a noble stature that no horse cop ' 
 carry him. Rollo died in 917, or, according 
 other accounts, in 932, and was succeeded by hi 
 son, William, surnamed Long-Sword. [E.R. 
 
 ROLLOCK, R., a Scottish divine, 1555-1598. 
 
 ROLT, Richard, supposed to have 1 
 at Shrewsbury 1724 or 1725, a miscellaneous writ< 
 and historian, time of Johnson, died 1770. 
 
 ROMAGNOSI, Gian Domenico, a distil 
 political economist, b. at Piacenza, 1761, d. 183; 
 
 ROMAINE, William, born at Hartlepool ' 
 the county of Durham, 1714; distinguished as 
 religious writer and divine of Calvinistic principle 
 After several curacies he was successively chapla 
 to the Lord Mayor, 1741 ; lecturer to the unib 
 parishes of St. George's, Botolph Lane, and 
 Botolph's, Billingsgate, 1748; lecturer to 
 Dunstan's-in-the-West, 1749; assistant mornh 
 preacher at St. George's, Hanover Square, 175 
 and rector of St. Anne's, Blacktriar's, 17 
 About 1752, he was also appointed professor 
 astronomy in Gresham College, but is said to ha 
 resigned in consequence of his zeal for the dc 
 trines of Hutchinson. His principal works f 
 ' Discourses upon the Law and Gospel,' ' The L 
 of Faith,' ' The Walk of Faith,' ' The Triumph 
 Faith,' ' Doctrine of the Sacrament,' and 
 enlarged edition of Calasio's Hebrew Concordat; 
 and Lexicon. He acquired considerable pop 
 larity by writing against the naturalization of i 
 Jews, a measure then under discussion in pari 
 ment. Died 1795. 
 
 ROMAN, John Helmich, a Swedish musici 
 time of Ulrica Eleonora, 1694-1758. 
 
 ROMAN, J. J. T., a French writer, 1726-17 
 
 ROMANA, Don Peter Cara YSureda,! 
 quis De La, a Spanish general, 1761-1811. 
 
 ROMANELLI, Abbe D., an antiquary 
 topographer of Naples, 1756-1819. 
 
 ROMANELLI, Giovan Francesco, an Ifea 
 painter, 1617-1662. His son, Urbain, 1638-i 
 
 ROMANINE, G., an Italian painter, famous 
 an imitator of Titian, 16th century. 
 
 ROMANO, Eccelino, or Ezzelino, Da,i 
 Italian warrior, distinguished in the second crurij 
 under Conrad III. 1147, died soon after 1175^ 
 son, of the same name, succeeded to his fai$| 
 lordship, and became a distinguished Ghil 
 chief, died after 1235. The son of the lattaj 
 of the same name, born 1194, was invested 
 father, in 1215, with the principality of Ba 
 and greatly increased his power. Such 
 tyranny that Alexander IV., in 1256, proc 
 a crusade against him, and he fell at Ca 
 September 16, 1259. His brother, Albeb^ 
 ruled at Treviso, was hunted down and B 
 together with all his family, by the GuelphJ 
 
 ROMANO, Giulio, the name by whiebfl 
 Pippi, or rather De - Giannuzzi, is commonly kno 
 was born at Rome in 1499, and early distinjH 
 himself as one of the ablest and favourite pqfl 
 Raphael. He completed with Penni (see RaphA' 
 the frescoes of the Stanza di Costantino in 
 
 658 
 
id 
 
 ROM 
 
 Vatican after the death of Raphael, in 1523, and 
 a the following year entered the service of the 
 uke Federigo Gonzaga at Mantua, where he suc- 
 eeded in establishing a considerable school ; the 
 elebrated Primaticcio who carried the Italian 
 rinciples of painting into France was one of his 
 upils. Giulio died at Mantua, November 1, 1546, 
 xed only forty-seven, leaving extensive works in 
 esco and many admirable oil paintings to justify 
 s fame as the principal of all Raphael's scholars. 
 e was also a distinguished architect, and may be 
 nsidered perhaps the ablest of the Italian oma- 
 ental decorators. His principal frescoes are 
 The Fall of the Giants,' and the ' Story of Cupid 
 Psyche,' in the Palazzo del Te at Mantua, 
 specimen of his fresco painting has been recently 
 esented to the National Gallery by Lord Over- 
 rae ; as regards oil painting, he is supposed to 
 ve had a great share in at least the under paint- 
 of the principal of the later pictures of that 
 iss by Raphael. (Vasari, vite de Pittori, &c., Ed. 
 ., 1846, seqq. : Gaye, Carteggio lnedito <f 
 fof.) [E.N.W.] 
 
 OMANOFF. See Michel. 
 OMANUS, a pope of Rome, 897-898. 
 OMANUS I., emperor of the East, surnamed 
 ms, was an Armenian soldier, who became 
 associate of Constantine X., in 919 ; he was de- 
 led by his sons, Stephen and Constantine, in 
 and died in a monastery, 948. Romanus II., 
 The Younger, succeeded his father, son of 
 ntine X., 959, and died of intemperance, 
 Romanus III., called Argyrus, became em- 
 by marrying the princess Zoe, 1028 ; he was 
 red by his wife and her paramour, Michael, 
 I IV.), 1034. Romanus IV., surnamed 
 *, was a condemned conspirator, who was 
 ed by Eudoxia, the widow of Constantine 
 and associated with her on the throne, 
 Died, after being deposed and mutilated 
 chael (Michael VII.), 1171. 
 MANZOFF, Peter Alexandrovitch, 
 ,t, a Russian general, born about 1730, suc- 
 Prince Galitzin as commander-in-chief 
 the Turks, 1770. He obtained many ad- 
 is, and concluded the treaty of Kainardji, 
 Named general of the second army directed 
 ; the Turks, he threw up his command in 
 in consequence of his disgust with Potemkin. 
 1796. His son and successor in the title, 
 OLA8, distinguished as a diplomatist, and for 
 "Totion of his wealth to patriotic and bene- 
 objects, flourished 1753-1826. Michael 
 brother and heir of the latter, died 1838. 
 MBERG, A., a German violinist, 1767-1821. 
 MBOUTS, T., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. 
 ME DE LTSLE, Jean Baptiste Louis, 
 nch physician and mineralogist, 1736-1790. 
 MILLY, John, a watchmaker, born at 
 1714, who wrote on horological subjects 
 Encyclopedie, and in 1777 established the 
 1 de Paris,' died 1796. His son, John 
 a Calvinist minister, and writer in the 
 p<*die, 1739-1770. 
 MILLY, Sir Samuel, was born in London 
 March, 1757. His father traded as a retail 
 but was descended from a French refugee 
 of consideration, and Romilly when subse- 
 taunted in parliament about the obscurity 
 
 ROO 
 
 of his origin, could smile at the allusion as pecu- 
 liarly inapplicable to him, were it even of impor- 
 tance. His education was versatile and undecided, 
 and it was long ere it took its final professional 
 direction, for it was first intended that he should 
 follow his father's trade, and when this view was 
 abandoned he was articled to an attorney. He 
 was called to the bar in 1783. By that time he 
 had deeply studied his profession. He was at the 
 same time master of a vast quantity of miscellane- 
 ous knowledge which, however vaguely and irre- 
 gularly acquired, was subject to the mellowing in- 
 fluence of his own inquiring and deeply reflective 
 mind. From early youth he was grave, earnest, 
 and sensitive. He perhaps never in any of his 
 sayings or writings approached nearer to wit or 
 fancy than an occasional dry causticity bred of 
 contempt, as when speaking of some complaints 
 that a bill proposed by a very formal lawyer was 
 not drawn like an act of parliament, he said 
 that the writer had certainly defects of style, but 
 that of being unlike an act of parliament was not 
 one of them. He early and almost insensibly ob- 
 tained a great share of chancery practice. Ever 
 favourable to the progress of constitutional free- 
 dom, he naturally took a deep interest in the great 
 questions arising in the land of his fathers. Com- 
 ing in contact with Mirabeau and other celebrated 
 men of the revolution, they in their turn brought 
 him in alliance with Lord Lansdowne and the 
 heads of the British Whig party. He declined a 
 seat in parliament until he was made solicitor- 
 general by the Whig ministry of 1806. The disso- 
 lution of that ministry in a few months concluded 
 his tenure of office, but he cut out a career to 
 himself by remaining in parliament as a law re- 
 former. The main objects for which he fought 
 were the removal of irregularities in the bank- 
 ruptcy law, the subjection of land like other pro- 
 perty to the attachment of creditors, and the insti- 
 tution of moderate and certain for sanguinary and 
 uncertain punishments in the penal law He was 
 thus the practical experimenter in parliament of 
 the jurisprudential views of Bentham, and the best 
 testimony to their soundness is that they have now 
 been the accepted law of the land for many years. 
 He had married in 1798 a young lady whom he 
 met at Bowood. His affection for her, originally 
 very strong, deepened with advancing years, and 
 her death in the autumn of 1818, so affected his 
 then weakened nerves, that on the 2d of November 
 he put an end to his own existence. [J.H.B.] 
 
 ROMNEY, G., an English painter, 1734-1802. 
 
 ROMULUS, the supposed founder and first 
 king of Rome, 8th century B.C. 
 
 RONALDS, H., an agriculturalist, 1759-1833. 
 
 RONCAGLIA, Constantine, a learned theo- 
 logian of the duchy of Lucca, 1677-1737. 
 
 RONCALLI, Caval. Cristoforo, an Italian 
 painter, b. at Pomarance in Volterra, 1552-1626. 
 
 RONDANI, F. M., an Italian painter, 15th ct. 
 
 RONDELET, F., a Fr. architect, 1743-1829. 
 
 RONDELET, W., a Fr. naturalist, 1507-1566. 
 
 RONSARD, P. De, a French poet, 1524-1586. 
 
 RONSIN, C. P., a Fr. dramatist, 1752-1794. 
 
 ROOKE, Sir George, a famous British ad- 
 miral, was born at his father's seat, near Canter- 
 bury, 1650, and was first employed as commodore 
 on the accession of William III. in 1689. In 1692 
 
 659 
 
ROO 
 
 he was vice-admiral of the blue, and greatly distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Cape la Hogue, on 
 which occasion he was knighted, appointed vice- 
 admiral of the red, and received a pension of 1,000 
 a-year. In 1702 he destroyed the French and Span- 
 ish fleets in Vigo Bay, and on the 22d of July, 1704, 
 assisted at the capture of Gibraltar. Died 1709. 
 
 ROOKE, Laurence, prof, of anatomy at Gres- 
 ham College, and mem. of the Roval Soc, 1G23-62. 
 
 ROOKER, M. A., a landsc. painter, 1743-1801. 
 
 ROOS, a family of German painters: John 
 Henry, a pupil of Adrian de Bie, 1631-1685. 
 Theodore, his brother, 1638-1698. Philip, 
 second son of John Henry, commonly called Rosa 
 da Tivoli, from his long residence there, a great 
 painter of animals and landscapes, 1655-1705. 
 John Melchior, brother of the latter, 1659-1731. 
 Joseph, grandson of Philip, a painter and en- 
 graver, about 1728-1790. 
 
 ROOSE, Nicholas, whose proper name was 
 Liemacker, a painter of Ghent, 1575-1646. 
 
 ROOSE, T. G. A., a Ger. anatomist, 1771-1803. 
 
 ROPER, John, professor of philosophy, and one 
 of the most learned theologians of Oxford, d. 1534. 
 
 ROPER, William, attorney-general in the 
 reign of Henry VIII., and son-in-law of Sir Thomas 
 More. A Life of More, written by him, was pub- 
 lished in 1712. His daughter, Margaret, was a 
 lady of great accomplishments, and translated 
 Eusebius into English. 
 
 ROQUE, G. A. De La, a learned heraldist and 
 genealogical writer of Normandy, 1597-1686. 
 
 ROQUE, John De La, a French writer of his 
 voyages and travels in the East, 1661-1745. His 
 brother, Anthony, a journalist, 1672-1744. 
 
 ROQUES, Peter, a French divine, 1685-1748. 
 
 [House of Salvator Rosa.] 
 
 ROSA, Salvator, was born near Naples, July 
 21, 1615. In 1635 he visited Rome and met with 
 much success, and finally settled there, where he 
 died, March 15, 1673. His favourite subjects were 
 landscapes, chiefly of wild and romantic scenery, 
 and these works he executed with consummate 
 mastery. Many of his best pictures are in this 
 country. (Passeri, Vile de 1 Pittori, &c. the life of 
 Salvator by Lady Morgan is a romance.) [R-N.W.] 
 
 ROSALBA CARRIERA, Madame, a famous 
 Venetian portrait painter, 1675-1757. 
 
 ROSAMOND, commonly called 'Fair Rosa- 
 mond,' a famous name in our legendary history, 
 
 ROS 
 
 was a daughter of Walter Clifford, baron of Here; 
 ford, and mistress of Henry II. One of her sor 
 by him became archbishop of York. The facts I 
 her history are not well ascertained, but she 
 said to have perished, a victim of the jealousy i 
 Queen Eleanor, about 1173. 
 
 ROSAPINA, Francesco, an Ital. engraver, ce 
 
 for his pictures from the old mastery, 1762-18411 
 
 ROSCELLINUS, RUZELIN, or RUCELB 
 
 an ecclesiastic and scholastic philosopher of Bri 
 
 tany, 11th century. 
 
 ROSCHID IBX. SeeAvERROES. 
 ROSCIUS, Quintus, a celebrated Roman act( 
 and friend of Cicero, to whom he gave lessi 
 declamation, lived about 129-62 B.C. Anoth 
 Roscius, proscribed by Sylla, and accused of ! 
 ing slain his father, was like the former a client 
 Cicero, but little is known of him. 
 
 ROSCOE, William, was born in 1753, 
 became an attorney in Liverpool. It was in 
 little leisure left by active business that he acquu 
 his fine and tasteful scholarship, and distinguisr. 
 himself as one of the most accomplished and ei 
 gant writers of his time. He wrote pamphlets 
 the slave trade and in defence of the French Re' 
 lution ; and in 1796 his literary celebrity was est: 
 lished by his first and best historical work, 
 Life of Lorenzo de Medici.' In 1805 appea 
 'The Life and Pontificate of Leo X. ;' and n 
 year Roscoe, who had now become a partner 
 Liverpool banking-house, was elected to repres 
 the borough in parliament. He produced sevt 
 minor works, both in prose and in verse, 
 and translated, and edited the works of Pope. 
 1816 the warm sympathy of his fellow-citi; 
 was excited towards this excellent and philant 
 T)ic man, by the failure of his firm. He die. 
 1831. [ W 
 
 ROSCOE, Henry, youngest son of the pre 
 ing, was born in 1800, and called to the ba 
 1826. He wrote the Lives of Eminent Br 
 Lawyers in Lardner's Cyclopaedia, a Life of 
 father, and edited North's Lives ; died 1836. 
 
 ROSCOE, W. S., eldest son of the histos 
 author of miscellaneous poems, and a transit 
 of Klopstock's Messiah, left in xM.S., 1782-1&- 
 ROSCOMMON. See Dillon. 
 ROSE, George, a statesman and poll 
 writer, was the son of an episcopal clergyma- 
 Brechin, in Angus-shire, where he was bor 
 1744. He was brought up by an uncle who, 
 a school in London ; and after serving as puri 
 the navy, became keeper of the Exchequer re<* 
 through the interest of the earl of Marchn 
 While in this office he superintended the pub 
 tion of the Domesday Book, and completec 
 Journals of the Lords, in 31 vols, folio, r 
 the ministry of Mr. Pitt he became presidfi 
 the board of trade, and, with the exception J 
 retirement during the Grenville administnj 
 retained this post till his death, in 1818. 
 wrote several valuable works on subjects conn 
 with the revenue. 
 
 ROSE, J. B., a French divine, 1716-1805. 
 ROSE, H. J., a minister of the Ch. of lB^ 
 dist. for his learning as a theologian, 1795-11 
 ROSE, Samuel, a lawyer, 1767-1804. ' 
 ROSE, William, a French prelate, and v 
 partizan of the catholic league, died 1602. 
 
 I 
 
 G50 
 
ROS 
 
 i BOSEL, J. A., a German painter, 1705-1759. 
 
 I BOSELL, A. G., a Sp. mathematician, 1731-94. 
 
 ROSELLI, A., an Ital. jurisconsult, 1380-1466. 
 
 ROSELLINI, Ippolito, professor of Oriental 
 
 uiguages at Bologna, and a great master of 
 
 ]gyptian antiquities of the school of Champollion, 
 
 room he accompanied to Egypt. After the death 
 
 f the latter, he was intrusted with the publication 
 
 f the great work resulting from their joint labours, 
 
 ititled' Monuments of Egypt and Arabia,' 1800-43. 
 
 ROSEN, Frederick Augustus, an eminent 
 
 riental scholar, was born at Hanover, 1805, and 
 
 scame professor of Oriental languages in the 
 
 liversity of London. Died prematurely, after he 
 
 id written or edited several important works, 1837. 
 
 ROSEN, Gregory, Baron, a Russian officer, 
 
 stinguished in the wars of Napoleon, 1789-1832. 
 
 ROSEN DE ROSENSTEIN, Nicholas, com- 
 
 nly called Dr. Rosen, a physician and pro- 
 
 isional writer, 1706-1773. 
 
 ROSENHANE, Shering, Baron De, a Swedish 
 
 ator, diplomatist, and governor of Ostrogothia, 
 
 09-1603. His descendant of the same name 
 
 d title, secretary of state, and commander of the 
 
 ,er of the Polar Star, author of Memoirs, &c, 
 
 54-1812. Gustave, of the same family, a 
 
 eteer, date 1680-1681. 
 
 OSEXMULLER, John George, a German 
 , and professor of theology, 1736-1815. His 
 Ernest Frederick Charles, a distin- 
 hed Arabic scholar, 1768-1835. John Chris- 
 , another son, professor of anatomy and sur- 
 author of professional works, 1771-1820. 
 SIN, or ROSINUS, in German Roszfeld, 
 i'uii hn, a learned antiquarian, about 1550-1626. 
 { JOSINI, C. M., a Ital. archaeologist, 1749-1837. 
 I tOSNY, A. J. N. De, a Fr. novelist, 1771-1814. 
 if IOSS, Alexander, a Scotch poet, 1699-1784. 
 je i JOSS, Alexander, a Scottish divine, who be- 
 lt! le chaplain to Charles I. and master of the free 
 ifei ool at Southampton, 1590-1654. Ross was a 
 83i l of considerable attainments in classical learn- 
 hisa and philosophy, and made great pretensions to 
 id Bowledge of the secrets of antiquity. Butler 
 $24 s alludes to him : 
 
 . i ' There was an ancient sage philosopher, 
 That hath read Alexander Ross over.' 
 
 ' View of All Religions ' is the work by which 
 best known. 
 
 )SS, D., an English actor, died 1790. 
 V 1S, John, a learned prelate, died 1792. 
 )SS, or ROUSE, John, canon of Osney, an 
 it writer on the civil and ecclesiastical anti- 
 of Warwickshire, died at Guy's Cliff 1491. 
 5SELLI, Annibal, a friar of Calabria, 
 of a ' Commentary' upon Pimander, 1578. 
 )SSELLI, Como, a Florentine painter, 1416- 
 PlEBO De Cosimo, a pupil of Como Ros- 
 1441-1484. Matthew, a pupil of Pagani 
 |Passegnano, 1578-1650. 
 OSSELLI, Como, a Florentine preacher, and 
 on the art of memory, died 1578. Stephen, 
 'ation, an historian, 1598-1664. 
 1ET, F. De, a Provencal poet, born 1570, 
 1630. Joseph, a sculptor, 1706-1786. 
 II, the name of several Italians distin- 
 in art : Antonio, a painter of the 
 school, master of Titian, 14th century. 
 
 ROS 
 
 Antonio, a Bolognese painter, 1700-1753. An- 
 gelo, a Genoese sculptor, 1671-1715. J. Anto- 
 nio, an architect of Rome, 1616-1695. Mathias, 
 a Roman architect, 1637-1695. Murio, a painter 
 of Naples, taught by Stanzioni and Guido, 1626- 
 1651. Paqualino, a painter of Vicenzo, b. 1641. 
 Properzia, a female sculptor of Bologna, b. 1495. 
 
 ROSSI, Adelaide Helen Josephlse Char- 
 lotte, Countess De, Madame Cellier, a French 
 lady, author of numerous works connected with 
 education, 1778-1822. 
 
 ROSSI, B. De, an Italian critic, 16th century. 
 
 ROSSI, D. J. B., an Ital. Orientalist, 1742-1831. 
 
 ROSSI, Ignatius De, a Heb. scholar,1740-1824. 
 
 ROSSI, Giovanni V., in Latin Janus Nidus 
 Erythrceus, a philologist and biographer, 1577-1647. 
 
 ROSSI, Girolamo, in Latin Rubens, a physi- 
 cian and historian of Ravenna, 1539-1607. 
 
 ROSSI, N., an Italian bibliopole, 1711-1785. 
 
 ROSSI, O., an Italian archaeologist, 1570-1630. 
 
 ROSSI, Pellegrino, Count, a noble victim of 
 the popular cause in Italy, was born at Carrara, 
 in 1787, and being admitted to the profession of an 
 advocate at Bologna, was practising at the bar in 
 that city from 1809 till 1814. In the latter year 
 he was obliged to fly the country, through his com- 
 plicity with the false movement excited by Murat, 
 who had deluded the patriots of Italy with a pros- 
 pect of their independence, which it was out of 
 his power to realize. Rossi, after the fall of 
 Murat, escaped to Geneva, and there rose to such 
 professional eminence that we find him, in 1819, 
 professor of law ; in 1820, a member of the coun- 
 cil ; and shortly after, a deputy to the diet, and an 
 active party to the revision of the federal constitu- 
 tion. In 1833 he was induced to take up his 
 residence in Paris, and, being naturalized, was 
 appointed, in 1845, ambassador from the French 
 court to Rome. Two series of circumstances would 
 here require consideration in a more extended 
 notice ; the first, strictly biographical, exhibiting 
 the formation of Rossi's political convictions in the 
 atmosphere of the doctrinaires of the French cham- 
 ber; and, the second, the state to which the 
 abominable government of Gregory XVI. and the 
 several factions of Italy had reduced that unhappy 
 country. The brief facts are, that the Papal court 
 had maintained an unremitting war against every 
 shade of liberal opinion ; the administration was 
 wretchedly bad ; no equality existed in the eye of the 
 law ; there was no statistics ; an enormous public 
 debt; education and religious instruction utterly 
 inadequate to the needs of the people, and a censor- 
 ship of the press as dark as the Inquisition of the 
 middle ages : add to this, the rancorous opposition 
 of the political sects, the constantly increasing 
 persecution to which they were all alike subject, 
 and the general perversion of the moral sense and 
 political conscience resulting from these causes, and 
 we have a faint outline of the state of Italy at the 
 period of Count Rossi's mission. In the following 
 year, 1846, Gregory XVI. died, and Pius IX. 
 succeeded him with a disposition to grapple with 
 the difficulties of the country, supported as he was 
 by the French influence represented by Rossi, and 
 with the countenance of England exhibited in the 
 mission of Lord Minto and the famous letter of 
 Palmerston. A general amnesty, and the progress 
 of administrative reform, were suddenly enliv cued 
 
 661 
 
ROS 
 
 by the revolution of Naples and Paris in February, 
 1848, and the impetus given in Italy drove two 
 distinct political movements to a sudden head; 
 that of Giovine Italia, which had been fostered by 
 Mazzini ever since the revolution of 1831, and 
 that which the writings of Gioberti and Balbo 
 had ripened under the sun of Carlo Alberto in 
 northern Italy. The latter came to issue first. 
 Carlo Alberto, with the chivalrous blood of the 
 house of Savoy in his veins, proclaimed the inde- 
 pendence of Italy under one native sovereign at 
 4 Glorious Milan,' and Rossi warned the pope that 
 if he did not grasp this sword, it would be turned 
 against him ; the weak old man, however, proffered 
 his services to Austria and Charles Albert as a 
 mediator for peace, and the latter was the sacrifice. 
 This hope being disappointed, the next effort of 
 Rossi, who had been deprived of his employments 
 by the French republic and become prime minister 
 in Rome, was to form a league of the separate con- 
 stitutional states, with deputies from each sitting 
 in parliament ; and as this scheme acquired form 
 and stability it became more and more distasteful 
 to the republican party of Mazzini, by which, also, 
 the efforts of Carlo Alberto had been paralyzed. 
 All through these transactions there had been great 
 tumults and some bloodshed apart from that of the 
 war in Sardinia, and the demand which Mazzini 
 and Giovine Italia opposed to the plan of Rossi, 
 was that for a national convention. In fine the 
 deputies were appointed to meet on the 15th of 
 November, 1848, and Rossi himself represented 
 Bologna. Precautions had been taken against an 
 outbreak, and the carriages of the deputies went 
 through masses of people into the court yard of the 
 Vatican. As that of Rossi stopped at the portico, 
 there was a cry for help, close at hand, and in the 
 confusion created by it, the bystanders closed 
 round the statesman, there was a momentary 
 scuffle, and the quick flash of a dagger was seen ; 
 for a while it was hardly known what had occurred, 
 but it was only the corpse of Rossi that the doors 
 were closed upon. The flight of the pope, and the 
 establishment of the Roman republic, afterwards 
 put down by French bayonets, wnich are still held 
 at her throat, are matters of history, and too recent, 
 perhaps, to be righteously judged. There is a 
 serious question also, whether Rome, considering 
 the geography of Italy and the requirements of 
 commerce, can ever be the seat of government for 
 a united Italy ; whether the dominion, whatever its 
 form, of that beautiful but hapless country must 
 , not occupy two seats Milan perhaps in the north, 
 and Naples in the south. [E.R.] 
 
 ROSSI, Piero De, a celebrated general of the 
 14th cent., chief of the Guelphs in Parma, d. 1357. 
 
 ROSSI, Quirico, an Italian poet, 1696-1760. 
 
 ROSSIGNOL, J. A., a republican general, com- 
 mander in La Vended, 1759-1802. 
 
 ROSSIGNOLI, Bernardino, an Italian Jesuit, 
 who first produced the MS. of the ' Imitation,' 
 bearing the name of J. Gersen, died 1613. 
 
 ROSSLYN, Alexander Wedderburne, 
 earl of, a Scottish lawyer and statesman, was born 
 1733, and first distinguished himself in parliament 
 in opposition to the Grenville administration. He 
 was successively solicitor-general 1771, attorney- 
 general 1778, and chief justice of the Common 
 Pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough, 1780. 
 
 ROU 
 
 From 1793 to 1801 he served with Pitt as cha 
 cellor, and then retired with the title of earl 
 Rosslyn. Died 1805. 
 
 ROSSLYN, James St. Clair Erskine, e 
 of, nephew of the preceding, and heir of .' 
 peerage, was a distinguished peninsular offic 
 and one of the most intimate friends of the dv 
 of Wellington. Before succeeding to the peen 
 in 1805, he was many years in the House of Co 
 mons. In 1829 he became a member of pr 
 council, and was its president under Sir Rol 
 Peel in 1834. Died 1837. 
 
 ROSSO, Del, called by the French MailreRo 
 a distinguished Florentine painter, died 1541. 
 
 ROSSO, J. Del, an Ital. architect, 1760-18; 
 
 ROSTAN, C, a French botanist, 1774-1833 
 
 ROSTGAARD, Frederick De, archivist 
 the k. of Denmark, and a great scholar, 1671- 
 
 ROSTOPCHIN, Feodor, Count, a Rus 
 statesman and general, commander at Moscow 
 the period of the French invasion 1812, 1763-' 
 
 ROSWEIDE, Heribert, a learned and 
 minous wr. in ecclesiastical antiquities, 1569- 
 
 ROTA, B., a Neapolitan poet, 1509-1575. 
 
 ROTA, J. B., an Italian historian, died 178 
 
 ROTA, M., an Italian designer, 16th centir. 
 
 ROTA, M. A., a Venetian physician, 1589-^ 
 
 ROTA, V, an Italian dramatist, 1703- 178i 
 
 ROTARI, Piero, Count, painter to the 
 of St. Petersburg, born at Verona 1707, died 
 
 ROTGANS, ., a Dutch poet, 1645-1710. 
 
 ROTHARIS, king of the Lombards, 636-6 
 
 ROTHELIN, C. D'Orleans De, a Fr. 
 and man of letters, m. of the Academy, 1691- 
 
 ROTHENBOURG, Fr. Rodolph, Count 
 a Prussian general and diplomatist, 1710-17f 
 
 ROTHENHAMER, or ROTTENHAMEJ 
 a painter of Munich, style of Tintoret, 1564- 
 
 ROTHERAM, John, rector of Houghfo; 
 Spring, author of an ' Apology for the Athar^ 
 Creed,' and of a much valued treatise on the 
 trine of Justification by Faith,' died 1788. 
 
 ROTHERAM, John, an English phw 
 and writer on ' The Properties of Water,' d. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD, Mayer Anselm, fount* 
 the house by which the financial operatic* 
 Europe have been controlled since the corona 
 ment of the present century, was a nat; 
 Frankfort. He was educated for the priest 
 but preferring the profession of a banker, ac 
 great credit and wealth at the period of Nap 
 occupation in Germany. Died 1812. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD, Nathan Mayer, son 
 preceding, and agent for his father in Li 
 came to this country in 1800, and by the ex 
 his loan operations acquired immense influfr 
 a contractor in that branch of public credi 
 died in 1836, and was succeeded by his elde 
 the present Baron Rothschild. 
 
 ROTROU, J. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1609-^ 
 
 ROTTENHAMER. See Rothenhami 
 
 ROTTECT, Charles Von, a native of 
 successively professor of history, and prof 
 politics and jurisprudence, in the universit 
 native city, author of numerous works 
 disting. his name throughout Europe, 17751 
 
 ROU BANE, B. G., a Russian author, 173 
 
 ROUBAUD, Peter Joseph Andi 
 French economist and grammarian, 1730- 
 
 -1 
 
 062 
 
ROU 
 ROUBILIAC, L. F., a French sculptor, known 
 by several of his works in this country, 1725-1762. 
 ROUBIN, Giles De, a French poet, died 1712. 
 ROUCHER, J. A., a French poet, 1745-1794. 
 ROUELLE, Wm. Francis, professor of chem- 
 stry to the Garden of Plants at Paris, 1703-1770. 
 brother, H. Marian us, a chemist, 1718-79. 
 ROUGEMONT, F., a native of Maestricht, kn. 
 s a Chinese missionary and scholar, 1624-1676. 
 ROUGET DE LISLE, Joseph, the writer and 
 mposer of the Marseillaise, was a French officer 
 f artillery, born at Lons-le-Saunier, among the 
 lura mountains, 1760. In the winter of 1791- 
 [792 he was in garrison at Strasburg, and is 
 aid to have passed most of his leisure at the house 
 f the mayor of that city, where his skill on 
 he clavicord and his social qualities made him a 
 relcome visitor. It was here the Republican 
 lymn was first composed and sung, at that parti- 
 alar juncture when the king's veto had stultified 
 very act of the first constitutional parliament, and 
 le country was threatened with the invasion of the 
 migrants and their German allies. The re- 
 blance between this marching song and Burns's 
 -cots wha hae wi' Wallace bled,' is most striking, 
 d it would be difficult to believe that the one had 
 suggested the other if Lamartine had not given 
 somewhat romantic account of the manner of its 
 position, which precludes the idea. The song 
 just become known when the departments 
 preparing to obey the call of Paris for a body 
 j 20,000 patriot troops, and the band from Mar- 
 f^ illes were the first to chant its threatening 
 ,i, easures as they traversed France ; it afterwards 
 b ;J; ade the round of Europe, and the footfall of 
 " apoleon's troops as they scaled the Alps kept 
 'j ne to its wild notes. Rouget de Lisle's kind 
 l!,i st was accompanied to the scaffold by this song, 
 , d the composer himself only escaped by the fall 
 Robespierre. He found no favour with succeed- 
 f I governments, but carried his republican prin- 
 J )les into private life and pursued the career of a 
 u \ 1 ical composer and author. Died 1836. [E.R.] 
 f ROUGNON, N. F., a Fr. physician, 1727-1790. 
 r < -1 ROUILLE, P. J., a French Jesuit, 1681-1740. 
 ROUS, or ROUSE, Francis, a native of Corn- 
 rS ill, distinguished for his zeal as a republican and 
 c :> ;mber of Cromwell's privy council, 1579-1659. 
 - r r ROUSE, or ROSS, John. See Ross. 
 T A ROUSSEAU, J., a French painter, 1630-1693. 
 M ROUSSEAU, Jean Baptiste, a dramatic 
 M thor, and the most eminent of the lyric poets, 
 ra at Paris of humble parentage 1670, died 1741. 
 * ROUSSEAU, Jean Francois Xavier, of the 
 tit' ne family as the celebrated philosopher (follow- 
 tb' ; article), a man of letters, and consul in Persia, 
 in* 18-1808. His son, J. B. L. Xavier, consul at 
 <* ?ppo, Bagdad, and Tripoli, 1781-1831. 
 i 5 4PW)USSEAU, Jean Jacques, son of a watch- 
 
 ker at Geneva, was born there on the 28th of 
 e, 1712. The first half of the extraordinary 
 of this extraordinary man, occupying thirty- 
 itivei ee years, was spent in a succession of adven- 
 8, making the most painfully interesting part of 
 record he has himself bequeathed to us, a re- 
 exhibiting a hardy daring of self-inquisition, 
 i (as he justly says) no other man ever ven- 
 to communicate to the world. The history of 
 period in Rousseau's career was not only quite 
 
 ROU 
 
 unproductive of literary promise, but would have 
 appeared to forebode little or nothing either of moral 
 worth or of intellectual achievement in any path. 
 After learning something in a village school, he 
 began life as the apprentice of an engraver ; and, on 
 being harshly treated, he became addicted to idle- 
 ness, lying, and stealing. At length he ran away 
 into Savoy, and, giving hopes of his conversion to 
 Catholicism, was received into an ecclesiastical 
 school at Turin, where he read his recantation, 
 but refused to prosecute his education for the 
 priesthood. Being dismissed, he became a do- 
 mestic servant: in one of his places he com- 
 mitted a theft, and charged a waiting-maid with 
 it ; from another he was dismissed for insolent in- 
 subordination. Now, when he was in his eighteenth 
 year, he was received by Madame De VVarens, 
 a Swiss lady, residing at Annecy, and after- 
 wards at Chambery. His patroness sheltered 
 him in her house for ten years, pardoned him for 
 two elopements, induced him to study French wri- 
 ters, and supported him even when he disdained 
 to retain employments which she more than once 
 procured for him. The shameful issue is too well 
 known. In 1741 he walked to Paris, having in 
 his pocket fifteen louis, and a new scheme of musi- 
 cal notation, which was at once condemned by the 
 musicians. He found his way, it is not clear how, 
 into the society of men of science and letters, such 
 as Marivaux, Fontenelle, and Diderot ; and in 
 1743 friends obtained a place for him as a kind of 
 secretary or clerk to the French ambassador at 
 Venice. There he spent nearly two years, with no ap- 
 parent improvement of morality, and with as little 
 evidence of devotion to anv pursuit either profit- 
 able or honourable. His dismissal by his master, 
 and his return to France, closed his long period of 
 aimless wandering. Rousseau came to Paris in 
 1745. Hiring a room in an obscure lodging-house, 
 the strange man conceived a liking for the ser- 
 vant-maid, The"rese Levasseur, a vulgar, unattrac- 
 tive, and dull young woman of twenty-four. He 
 took her to live with him as his mistress, and 
 married her twenty years afterwards ; the attach- 
 ment of the fantastic dreamer to her was only 
 strengthened by time; and TheYese and her mother 
 not only preyed on his narrow means, but aggra- 
 vated his suspicious temper, and were continual 
 mischief-makers between his friends and him. 
 Five children born to the pair were coolly de- 
 posited in the Foundling Hospital; and their 
 father appeared to receive with profound indiffer- 
 ence the failure of an attempt which some of his 
 patrons made to identify and recover them. In 
 the year of his arrival in Paris, after an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt at the composition of operatic music, 
 Rousseau found a place as a clerk in the employ- 
 ment of a farmer-general, whose wife had laughed 
 at him for making love to her some years before. 
 About 1748 Diderot and D'Alembert engaged him 
 to write musical articles for the Encyclopedic, 
 which, as he said himself, he executed very quickly 
 and very ill. He had great musical genius, but is 
 pronounced to have never acquired more than a 
 very middling knowledge of the science. Soon 
 afterwards, being thirty-seven years old. he made 
 the first attempt in authorship that indicated any 
 true vocation for the pursuit. He read in a news- 
 paper a prize-question proposed by the Academy 
 
 CC3 
 
ROU 
 of Dijon : ' Has the progress of the sciences and 
 arts contributed to the corruption or to the purifi- 
 cation of morals ? ' It seemed to him as if a new 
 world of thought had revealed itself to his mind ; 
 he dashed off a vehement denunciation of civilized 
 life, sent it in, and obtained the prize. His in- 
 distinct visions soon began to assume shape and 
 colour. He was, it is true, little qualified, either by 
 knowledge of history, or by exact philosophical 
 habits, for working out true results in the problem of 
 social progress : but his meditations brooded eagerly 
 over the task ; his impregnable self-confidence 
 satisfied him that he was able to perform it, and the 
 power of passionate eloquence which lurked within, 
 soon enabled him to impress the world marvel- 
 lously with the representation he gave of his irregu- 
 lar conceptions. Rousseau was not great, either 
 as a poet or as a philosopher ; but he possessed, 
 in an extraordinary degree, and with a felicitous 
 proportion of the elements, that union of the two 
 characters, which seems to be more powerful than 
 anything else in commanding the sympathy and 
 guiding the opinions of the world. In the works 
 which he composed after the date now in question, 
 he exercised this power with a success which no 
 writer has ever surpassed. Meanwhile, however, he 
 saw his way but dimly. His musical reputation 
 was raised by the success of his opera, ' Le Devin du 
 Village ;' and he wrote also a tragedy and three 
 comedies, all of little worth. A second, but less 
 successful prize-essay, ' On the Origin of Inequal- 
 ity among Mankind, developed further his politi- 
 cal speculations. He dedicated it to the magis- 
 trates of his native town, visited Geneva, was full 
 of republican enthusiasm, and professed himself 
 again a Calvinist. And here it is worth while to 
 notice, that, so far as any fixed opinions can be 
 attributed to such a mind, Rousseau was never 
 either atheist or deist: he was a desponding sceptic, 
 who felt himself compelled to reverence the mor- 
 ality of Scripture, little as he obeyed it in his life. 
 He had now given up his clerkship for a govern- 
 ment appointment, which he immediately resigned 
 in a panic ; and henceforth, for a long time, his 
 very narrow income was chiefly made up by copy- 
 ing music, in which his friends employed him as a 
 delicate way of giving aid to a proud man. In 
 1756 he accepted the invitation of Madame D'Epi- 
 nay to take up his residence on her estate, in the 
 valley of Montmorenci, at the retired country house 
 called L'Hermitage. There he composed some of 
 his most brilliantly eloquent writings. His touch- 
 ing but veiy equivocal novel, ' La Nouvelle Eloise,' 
 appeared in 1759 ; ' Emile,' an acute but chimeri- 
 cal treatise on education, published in 1762, was 
 condemned with reason, both by the archbishop 
 and the parliament of Paris. Immediately after- 
 wards, the ' Contrat Social,' the most systematic 
 exposition of his dream of social equality, was re- 
 ceived with still more serious disapprobation by 
 the government, and Rousseau found it wise to 
 take refuge in Switzerland. Thence, passing 
 secretly through Paris, he departed for England in 
 January, 1766, on the kindly invitation, and in the 
 company, of David Hume, who found a friendly 
 home for him at Wootton, in Derbyshire. There 
 he wrote the first six books of his extraordinary 
 4 Confessions,' published after his death. If Rous- 
 seau was sane before, he certainly was not so now : 
 
 ROV 
 
 his zealous and suspicious temper had becoi 
 aggravated into a monomania ; he treated be 
 Hume and his Derbyshire host with ungrate 
 abuse, and quitted England in May, 1767. Afl 
 a time of wandering through France, he w 
 allowed to return to Paris in 1770, with a cauti 
 to shun publicity, which he took a pride in setti 
 at defiance His literary activity had now ceast 
 He mixed much in society, though he had forme: 
 been shy to excess. But his rudeness of manne 
 and suspicious testiness, were worse than ev( 
 and his despondency seemed often to pass h 
 despair. His health was failing, and his pove: 
 becoming severe. The marquis De Girardin offei 
 him, as his residence, a pavilion in the beauti 
 grounds of his chateau of Ermenonville, n 
 Chantilly. There, after inhabiting it for a i 
 weeks, he died on the 3d of July, 1778. [W. 
 
 [Tomb oi J.J. Rousseau j 
 
 ROUSSEAU, J. L. C, a Ger. chemist, 172 
 ROUSSEAU, P., a French writer, 1725-1; 
 ROUSSEAU, S., an Orientalist, died 1820 
 ROUSSEAU-DE-RIMOGNE, Jean Loi 
 Flemish mineralogist, 1720-1788. 
 
 ROUSSEL, P., a Fr. physician, au. of Sys 
 Physique et Morale de la Femme,' 1742-1802 
 ROUSSEL, P. J. A, a Fr. writer, 1750-11 
 ROUSSEL, W., a French savant, 1658-17! 
 ROUSTAN, A. J., a theologian and contn 
 sial writer of Geneva, 1734-1808. 
 
 ROUTH, B., an Irish Jesuit, confessor t 
 Princess Charlotte of Lorraine, 1695-1768. 
 ROUX, A., a French physician, 1726-177* 
 ROUYER, C. M., a French jurist, 1745-lt 
 ROVERE, Della, a noble family of Sa 
 in the state of Genoa, two of whom were 
 (Julius II. and Sixtus IV.) The other prm 
 members are John, nephew of Sixtus IV. I 
 brother of Julius II., prsefect of Rome 1475. F l 
 cesco Makia, son of John, duke of Urbin< 
 general of Julius II., in whose interest heJ 
 quered Romagna and Ferrara. He was den 
 of his estates by Leo X. 1516, and recovered 1 
 on the death of that pontiff 1522, died of i jj 
 1538. Guido, his son and successor, a debal 
 and cruel character, died 1574. Fran* < 
 Maria, last duke of Urbino, an accompJ 
 writer and patron of letters, 1551-1631 B 
 Ubaldo, son of the latter, was a dissolutel 
 racter, and died 1623. 
 
 664 
 
CM 
 

 J 
 
 ^Jyrrd' /A'6a#y?n^ 
 
 _ -^ _'/ 
 
ROV 
 
 ROVE RE, J. S., a character of the French 
 volution, who acted as lieutenant of the infamous 
 Jourdan Coupe Tete,' 1748-1798. 
 ROVIGO. See Savary. 
 ROVIRA DE BROCANDEL, Hippolytus, a 
 panish painter, taught by E. Munoz, 1593-1675. 
 ROWE, Elizabeth, known as a moralist and 
 ligious writer, was the daughter of a dissenting 
 inister named Singer, and was born at Uchester, 
 Somersetshire, 1674. In 1709 she became the 
 ife of Thomas Rowe, who died in 1715. He 
 rote some poetical pieces, and a supplement to 
 utarch's Lives. Mrs. Rowe then distinguished 
 rself by publishing, in 1728, ' Friendship in 
 jath, in Twenty Letters from the Dead to the 
 ving,' and soon afterwards ' Letters, Moral and 
 itertaining, in Prose and Verse,' and ' The His- 
 y of Joseph,' a poem. She died in 1737, and 
 p years later Dr. Watts published her ' Devout 
 ;erases of the Heart.' 
 
 ROWE, Nicholas, a poet and dramatic writer 
 considerable eminence, was born at Little Brook- 
 d in Bedfordshire, in 1 673. His father, descended 
 im an ancient family of that county, was serjeant- 
 hw, and having educated his son for the same 
 rfession, the latter was called to the bar ; he paid 
 tie attention to the law, however, after the death 
 his father, but rather devoted himself to the culti- 
 fcion of polite literature. He published his first 
 gedy ' The Ambitious Stepmother,' at the age of 
 enty-four ; it was followed by ' Tamerlane,' in- 
 lded as a compliment to King William ; ' The Fair 
 nitent ;' ' The Biker ;' ' Ulysses ;' ' The Royal 
 nvent ;' ' Jane Shore ;' and ' Lady Jane Grey.' 
 } original poems consist of some pathetic ballads: 
 '. version of Lucan's 'Pharsalia' is esteemed a 
 : sterpiece, but it is not his only classical produc- 
 I n, as he also translated ' The Golden Verses of 
 j thagoras,' and the first book of ' Quillet's Cal- 
 Jedia.' He also wrote a Life of Shakspeare. 
 iwe became under secretary to the duke of 
 eensbery, when the latter was secretary of state, 
 j 1 on the accession of George I. he was appointed 
 ] it-laureate. Died 1718. 
 'OWE, Thomas, a nonconformist minister, 
 s ;hor of ' The Christian's Work,' died about 
 " .5. See Elizabeth Rowe (above). 
 ROWLANDS, H., a Welch antiquary, d. 1722. 
 *OWLANDSON, Thomas, a famous carica- 
 1 ist of London, well known by his ' Illustrations 
 lhe Tour of Dr. Syntax,' the ' Dance of Death,' 
 L the ' Dance of Life,' 1756-1827. 
 
 JO W LEY. See Chatterton. 
 
 IOWLEY, William, a dramatic writer and 
 
 w, of the age of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 IOWLEY, W., an Eng. physician, 1743-1806. 
 
 OWNING, J., an Eng. divine, au. of ' A Com- 
 Udious System of Natural Philos.,' 1699-1771. 
 
 IOXANA, a Persian lady of great beauty, who 
 1 ame the wife of Alexander the Great, and was 
 j to death by Cassandra, B.C. 311. 
 
 ROXBURGH, William, a Scottish physician 
 1 botanist, superintendent of the botanic garden 
 Calcutta, autlior of a valuable work descriptive 
 the flora of India, and a great promoter of 
 1 lian agriculture, 1759-1815. 
 
 JOY, Count, a French statesman, 1764-1847. 
 
 iOY, Julian David Le, son of a celebrated 
 Comaker, distinguished as an architect and 
 
 RUB 
 
 antiquarian, 1724-1803. Peter, his brother, a 
 watch and chronometer maker, and writer on those 
 subjects, died 1785. , 
 
 ROY, P. C, a French satiric poet, 1683-1764. 
 
 ROYE, F. De, a French jurist, died 1686. 
 
 ROYE, Guy De, archbishop of Rheims, and 
 partizan of the popes of Avignon, killed 1409. 
 
 ROYEN, A. Van, a Dutch botanist, 1705-79. 
 
 ROYER, J. N. P., a Fr. musician, 1705-1755. 
 
 ROYER-COLLARD, Ant. Athanasius, prof, 
 of medicine to the faculty of Paris, 1768-1825. 
 
 ROYER-COLLARD, Pierre Paul, one of the 
 select class of philosophical thinkers produced by 
 France since the era of the Revolution, was born 
 at Sompuis, near Vitry-le-Francais, 1763, and in 
 1789, when the Revolution commenced, was only 
 obscurely known as an advocate of the parliament 
 of Paris. In political sentiments he was a royalist 
 and a friend of popular freedom ; in philosophy 
 he became a disciple of Reid, and one of the first 
 to lead the reaction against the mere sensationalism 
 of Cabanis and Condillac. From the end of the 
 Terror till 1810, however, Royer-Collard was more 
 active as a politician ; especially as a member of the 
 council established in France by Louis XVIII. , 
 consisting of himself, and Clermont Gallerande, 
 the Abbe de Montesquiou, Becquey, Cuvier, and 
 others. Most of this period he was, according to 
 the prevailing fashion, a sensualist, but the works 
 of Reid were destined to enlighten him ; and, from 
 1811, when he was appointed professor of modern 
 philosophy and history, he commenced reforming 
 his opinions, and as he possessed great power as a 
 logician and an orator, he soon began to be looked 
 upon as the founder of a new school. On the 
 restoration of the royal family, in 1815, Royer- 
 Collard returned to political life, and his famous 
 scholar, Victor Cousin, succeeded him as professor 
 at the Sorbonne : he now joined the parliamentary 
 opposition, and such was the reputation he enjoyed 
 that, at the general election of 1827, he was 
 returned for seven different places at the same 
 time. The party in the chamber of representa- 
 tives of which he was considered chief, is known 
 to European fame as that of the doctrinaires, and 
 its birth dates from the session of 1817 ; its history 
 is marked by much philosophical pedantry, and its 
 deficiency in momentum was shown by the helpless 
 situation in which Guizot found himself at the 
 revolution of 1848. What is the value, read by 
 this light, of such namby-pamby dilletanteism in 
 philosophy and politics as eclecticism signifies? 
 Royer-Collard had the happiness to die, without 
 reading that severe lesson, m 1845. [E.R.] 
 
 ROYOU, T. M., a French ecclesiastic and jour- 
 nalist, founder of the ' Ami du Roi ' in 1790, 1741- 
 1792. His brother, J. Corentin, a royalist, his- 
 torian, and publicist, 1745-1828. 
 
 ROZCE, Mademoiselle, a Dutch lady, re- 
 markable for her skill in copying historical pic- 
 tures solely with silk floss, 1632-1682. 
 
 ROZIER, J., a French agriculturist, 1734-1793. 
 RUAR, M., a German Socinian, 1588-1657. 
 RUAULT, J., a French savant, 1580-1636. 
 RUBBI, A., a Venetian poet, 1739-1810. 
 RUBENS, Albert, son of the great painter, 
 disting. as a savant and numismatist, 1614-1657. 
 RUBENS, Peter Paul, was born at Cologne, 
 June 29, 1577, where he remained with his parents, 
 
RUB 
 
 natives of Antwerp, until his father's death in 1587, 
 when he removed with his mother to Antwerp. 
 After receiving some preliminary instruction from 
 two other masters Rubens was finally placed with 
 Otto Venius, the most celebrated master of his 
 time at Antwerp ; he remained with Venius for 
 four years, until 1600, when he went to Italy and 
 entered the service of Vincenzio Gonzaga, as gen- 
 tleman of the chamber, and copied several pictures 
 for that duke, both at Rome and Venice. In 1605 
 he was sent by the duke on a mission to Philip III. 
 of Spain, and while at Madrid, as previously at 
 Rome, he was much occupied in portrait painting, 
 but it is remarkable what a contrast the delicate 
 and elaborately finished portraits of this early 
 period, present, when compared with the bold 
 masterpieces of his later years. This travelling, 
 however, from one country to another, and thus 
 early making himself acquainted with the various 
 schools, was evidently of infinite advantage to 
 him ; the glorious works of the Venetians seem to 
 have made the most lasting impression on him. 
 His return home was hastened by the illness of his 
 
 [House of Rubens.] 
 
 mother in 1608, but he did not arrive at Antwerp 
 until after her death. The appointment of court 
 painter to Albert and Isabella, in the following year, 
 induced Rubens to give up his intention of return- 
 ing to Mantua, and he decided upon settling at 
 Antwerp. In 1610 he was married to his first 
 wife, Isabella Brants, who died in 1626. In 1620 
 he visited Paris, by the invitation of Marie de 
 Medici, and made there the sketches for his cele- 
 brated Luxembourg series of painting in honour 
 of that princess, and her marriage with Henry IV., 
 now in the Louvre. In 1628 he was sent by the 
 Infanta Isabella a second time to Spain, on a 
 diplomatic mission to Philip IV., and in the fol- 
 lowing year on a similar mission to Charles I. of 
 England, who knighted Rubens in 1630, who 
 appears to have presented the king with the picture 
 of Peace and War, now in the National Gallery, on 
 the occasion of this mission, when also Charles 
 gave him the commission to decorate the ceiling of 
 Whitehall palace, the pictures for which were after- 
 wards executed in Antwerp. In 1630, also, he 
 
 RUP 
 
 married his second wife, Helena Forment, a beanti 
 ful girl, in her nineteenth year only. Rubena^M 
 at Antwerp, May 30, 1640, possessed of flH 
 wealth, ana after one of the most remarkm 
 careers recorded in the history of art. His sucMil 
 was, however, only commensurate with his abilit ' 
 'He was perhaps the greatest master,' sayjM 
 Joshua Reynolds, 'in the mechanical part of the a | 
 the best workman with his tools, that ever exercB I 
 a pencil.' His works are extremely numerotuwl 
 prints alone after him amount to about 1,200 ; b I 
 the majority of his pictures were chiefly execfll 
 in large from his own sketches, and finished only! I 
 himself; it is a physical impossibility that he a I 
 have executed entirely all the pictures that II 
 accredited to him. His pupils were able 
 numerous, the principal were A. Vandyck, A. ml 
 Diepenbeck, J. Van Hoeck, F. Van Thulden, 1 
 Sogers, Jordaens, Snyders, and Erasmus Quelfil 
 He is still seen to the utmost advantage &^^| 
 werp, but he is also gloriously represented in t 
 Picture Gallery at Munich. His masterpiece I 
 generally considered the Descent from the Cr^H 
 the cathedral at Antwerp, but now sadly obscjfll 
 there is, however, a fine old print of it by Lu< ' 
 Vorsterman. (Grimbergen, Historische ^fjj^H 
 schryving van P. P. Rubens, 1774-1840 ; n^H 
 Peter Paul Rubens, his Life and Genius, tra^H 
 R. R. Nael, edited by Mrs. Jameson, Le^H 
 1840.) ! II.X.V 
 
 RUBENS. See Rossi, Girolamo. 
 
 RUBINI, P., an Italian physician, 1760-181!: 
 
 RUBYS, C. De, a French historian, 1533-16: 
 
 RUCELLAI, Bernardo, in Latin Orice/laril 
 a Florentine historian and diplomatist, 1449-15! 
 His son, Giovanni, a poet and ambas., 1475-15! ' 
 
 RUCHAT, A., a French theologian, 1680-17H 
 
 RUDBECK, John, a Swedish prelate, chapl; ; 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, and promoter of the pt ' 
 lication of the Bible, called by his name, |W| 
 1636. Olof, his son, a learned physician, boi 
 nist, and mechanician, 1630-1702. Olof, son , 
 the latter, a botanist and philologist, 1660-^H 
 
 RUDBORNE, Thomas, warden and archit \ 
 of Merton College, Oxford, died about 1442. . 
 
 RUDDIMAN, Thomas, a Scottish grammar 
 and critic, editor of a complete and valuable edit 
 of the works of Buchanan, 1674-1757. 
 
 RUDENSCHOELD, Count, a Swedish ? 
 man, who negotiated the marriage of the prb i 
 royal of Sweden with the sister of the king ; 
 Prussia in 1739, and was afterwards minister 
 foreign affairs and chancellor, 1698-1783. 
 
 RUDING, Rogers, an English divine, authoi i ] 
 ' Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain,' 1 751-18 1 1 
 
 RUDOLPH, C. A., a Swed. natural., 1771-18 
 
 RUE, Charles De La, a learned Frem 
 poet, and classical editor, 1643-1725. 
 
 RUE, Charles De La, a learned Benedict] 
 of the congregation of St. Maur, editor of an ey 
 tion of Origen, which was finished by his n^H 
 1684-1739. The latter, Vincent De I 
 also a learned Benedictine, died 1762. 
 
 RUE, P. De La, a Dutch poet, 17th cent** 
 
 RUFFHEAD, Owen, a miscellaneoi 
 author of a ' Life of Pope,' &c, 1723-1769. 
 
 RUFFI, Anthony De, a Frencli 1 
 historian, 1607-1089. His son. L. A: 
 known as a man of letters, 1657-1724. 
 
 666 
 
RUF 
 
 RUFFINI, P., an Ital. mathemat., 1765-1822. 
 RUFFO, D. F., a cardinal of Naples, 1744-1827. 
 RUFINUS, or RUFFINAS, sometimes called 
 the surname Toranius, a celebrated Italian 
 jlesiastic and Scripture commentator, born at 
 juileia about the middle of the 4th century. He 
 braced the monastic life about 371, and accom- 
 nied St. Jerome to the East; that father, how- 
 r, afterwards wrote against him on account of 
 apology for Origen. In 410 he was condemned 
 a heretic by Anastasius, and soon after was 
 ven to take refuge in Sicily by an irruption of 
 Visigoths, where he died either that year or 
 following. Besides his original works, he 
 nslated from the Greek into Latin the works of 
 jephus, Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, the 
 ignitions of St. Clement, and the works of 
 sil and Gregory Nazianzen. 
 UFUS, surnamed ' the Ephesian/ a Greek 
 rsician and poet of the 1st century B.C. 
 iUFUS, Caius Musonius, a Stoic philosopher, 
 nguished at Rome in the age of Tiberius. 
 iUFUS, Publius Rutilius, consul and tri- 
 
 of Rome, time of Sylla. 
 IUGENDAS, G. P., a Ger. painter, 1666-1742. 
 WGGIERI, C, an Ital. astrologer, 16th cent. 
 UGGIERI, C., an Ital. philologist, 1714-1766. 
 UGGLE, G., an Eng. dramatist, 1575-1622. 
 UHL, Philip James, a member of the French 
 rention, killed himself 1795. 
 UHNKEN, D., a Greek critic, 1723-1798. 
 fcfcUHS, F., a Gorman historian, 1780-1820. 
 [tUINART THIERRY, a Benedictine of St. 
 ilpr, distinguished as an ecclesiastical antiquar- 
 H1657-1709. 
 
 (ifUISDAEL, Jacob. This celebrated Dutch 
 filter was born at Haarlem about 1635, and died 
 111, and was originally educated for the medical 
 jitession. With whom he studied painting is not 
 xrwn. His landscapes are numerous, and are all 
 Wlnguished for a simple natural treatment, and 
 secluded, rugged scenery ; generally of a cold 
 * sombre character, but executed with great 
 Juracy and selected with a true appreciation of 
 picturesque, of that character generally desig- 
 d the romantic; they are further distinguished 
 fffheir ordinary daylight, in contradistinction to 
 kanny effects of Cuyp or Berghem. Ruisdael's 
 gfe has much of the character of the works of 
 flper Poussin and Salvator Rosa in colour and 
 Krai effect, but is distinguished from the works 
 nese great painters by a much more elaborate 
 bjtment of detail, and the chief portion of the 
 aire by the special prominence of the fore- 
 jflnds generally with RuisdaeL The peculiar 
 ileryhe represents rocky, and yet on a small 
 to i, reminds much more of the neighbourhood of 
 tl Ardennes, than of Italy or Switzerland, both 
 ol hich countries he is supposed to have visited, 
 jTery improbably ; his favourite subjects are 
 iApdes. He sometimes painted marine pieces, 
 wwith great success ; figures he never painted, 
 9b we find in his landscapes were introduced 
 fp by Ostade, Wouverman, A. Vandevelde, or 
 tthem. His brother, Solomon Ruisdael, was 
 M a good landscape painter, and being many 
 Wb older than Jacob, was probably his instructor 
 lie art; some of the pictures attributed to 
 J#b may belong to Solomon, as considering his 
 
 RUP 
 
 moderately short life, the pictures of Ruisdael are 
 very numerous ; he also etched a few plates. 
 (Houbraken, Groote Schonburgh der Nederlantsche 
 Konstschilders, &c. Amsterdam, 1721.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 RUIS-GONZALEZ, a Sp. painter, 1633-1709. 
 
 RULHIERE, Claude Carloman De, a French 
 historian, who acted as confidential secretary to 
 the baron de Bretuil, and accompanied him in his 
 embassage to Russia, author of historical works 
 concerning the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
 the Revolution in Russia 1762, and the Assembly 
 of Poland, 1735-1791. 
 
 RULMAN, Anne, a French jurist, 1583-1639. 
 
 RUMFORD. Benjamin Thompson, commonly 
 called Count Rumford, one of those practical 
 geniuses and indefatigable workers in the cause of 
 humanity by whom society will be carried to a far 
 higher perfection than we know at present, was 
 born at Rumford in New Hampshire, now Con- 
 cord, 1753. He was married to a rich widow at 
 nineteen, and had risen to some consequence when 
 the American revolution broke out, but being a 
 royalist was obliged to fly, and his wife soon after 
 died in childbed. In 1776 he brought the news of 
 Washington's success to the English court, and 
 for his services to the crown received an appoint- 
 ment in the foreign office ; this, however, he aban- 
 doned in 1782 to take up arms in the colony, 
 where he organized a troop of dragoons, and com- 
 manded them himself with the rank of colonel. At 
 the peace in 1784 Colonel Thompson received the 
 king's permission to enter into the service of the 
 king of Bavaria, and not only so, but was knighted 
 on the occasion, and had half his military pay 
 secured to him. In this service he rose step by 
 step till the administration of the kingdom was 
 in his hands, and he made such use of his power 
 and influence that the face of things was entirely 
 changed, and the country rescued from the abyss 
 of squalid poverty into which it was sinking. It 
 was for these services that he received among 
 other honours the title of count taken from his 
 native place. In 1802 he married the widow of 
 Lavoisier, and afterwards lived at Auteiul, near 
 Paris, devoted to researches in natural philosophy. 
 Died 1814. [E.R.] 
 
 RUMPH, G. E., a German botanist, 1626-1693. 
 
 RUNCIMAN, Alexander, a Scottish painter 
 of subjects from Ossian, 1736-1785. 
 
 RUNEBERG, Ephraim Otto, a Swedish sur- 
 veyor, mapmaker, and engineer, 1722-1770. 
 
 RUNG, P., an English biographer, 1750-1823. 
 
 RUNIUS, J., a Swedish poet, 1679-1713. 
 
 RUNJEET-SING. See Singh. 
 
 RUNNINGTON, Charles, an industrious 
 writer on law, editor of several standard works, 
 born in Hertfordshire 1751, died 1821. 
 
 RUPERT, a Flemish abbot, 1091-1135. 
 
 RUPERT, Prince, otherwise Prince Robert of 
 Bavaria, a distinguished name in the history of 
 Charles I., was the third son of Frederic V., elector 
 palatine of the Rhine, by the princess Elizabeth, 
 eldest daughter of James I., king of England. 
 He was born in 1619, and though hardly of age at 
 the commencement of the parliamentary wars, he 
 offered his services to his uncle, who naturalized 
 him, and advanced him to the dignity of a peer of 
 England, and knight of the Garter. He exhibited 
 littte prudence in his conduct of military opera- 
 
 C67 
 
RUP 
 
 tions, but was remarkable for his impetuous gal- 
 lantry and chivalrous bearing. He was in all the 
 principal actions with the parliamentary forces, 
 and led the charge at the battle of Naseoy : soon 
 after which he surrendered Bristol to General 
 Fairfax, with little show of defence. For this 
 luckless step the king hastily dismissed him his 
 service, and ordered him beyond seas, and Rupert 
 had no further share in events till the disaffection 
 of part of the English navy in 1648, of which he 
 took the command in the interest of Charles II. 
 With these ships he harassed the English trade, 
 until Admiral Blake compelled him to retire from 
 the English seas, and he lost many of them by 
 shipwreck. He was subsequently at the French 
 
 court with Charles II., and after the restoration 
 distinguisbed himself as naval commander in the 
 Dutch war against De Ruyter and Van Tromp 
 His successes again were rather the reward of his 
 daring courage than good management. They 
 were such, however, as fully sustained the repu- 
 tation won by the British navy under the great 
 admiral whose outraged ashes were now reposing 
 in St. Margaret's churchyard. Prince Rupert 
 retired from warlike enterprise after the second 
 Dutch war, 1672-4, and devoted his time to scien- 
 tific pursuits, which had always indeed occupied 
 his leisure. Chemistry and the arts were his 
 favourite studies, and the composition of the well- 
 known ' prince's metal,' is said to have been dis- 
 covered by him. Died 1682. [E.R.J 
 
 RUPPRECHT, F. C, a painter, engraver, and 
 architect of Bavaria, 1779-1831. 
 
 RUSBROCK, or RUYSBROECK, Jean, a cele- 
 brated mystic writer, founder and reformer of the 
 monastery of Groendal, au. of De Nuptiis, or Spiri- 
 tual Marriage, and several other works, 1294-1381. 
 
 RUSCA, E., an Italian physician, 1801-1834. 
 
 RUSCA, F. D., a French general, 1761-1813. 
 
 RUSCELLI, J., an Italian savant, died 1566. 
 
 RUSH, Benjamin, an American physician and 
 writer on the yellow fever, 1745-1813. 
 
 RUSHTON, E., a catholic writer, 1572-1586. 
 
 RUSHWORTH, John, secretary of Fairfax, 
 general of the parliamentary forces, distinguished 
 for his valuable historical compilations connected 
 with the period, 1607-1690. 
 
 RUSSEL, A., a Scotch physician, 1726-1805. 
 
 RUSSEL, G., a divine and poet, 1728-1767. 
 
 RUSSEL, W., a miscellaneous and historical 
 writer, born in Mid-Lothian 1746, died 1793. 
 
 RUSSELL, a noble family which has given 
 several illustrious names to English history. The 
 first of any note is Sir John Russell, "speaker 
 of the House of Commons in the reign of Henry 
 VI., and companion-in-arms of Henry VIII. in his 
 French wars. He was created earl of Bedford, and 
 enriched with the lands of the abbey of Tavistock 
 and the monastery of Wobum ; died 1555. Wil- 
 liam, fourth earl, and first duke of Bedford, was 
 made a knight of the Bath at the coronation of 
 Charles L, and became a member of the ' long 
 parliament ' which met in November, 1640. At the 
 battle of Edgehill 1642, he was general of horse 
 for the parliament, but soon after that event he 
 retired to private life, and appeared again at the 
 restoration, when Charles II. created him a knight 
 of the Garter. He survived to be present at the 
 coronation of William and Mary, who created him 
 
 RUT 
 
 (1694) marquis of Tavistock and duke of Bedfifl[ 
 died 1700. Lord William Russi;LL,secondaoi] 
 of the preceding (next article.) Edward, cot|] 
 of duke William, and earl of Orford, an ada^E 
 distinguished at Cape la Hogue, 1651-B^B 
 John, duke of Bedford, lord-lieutenant of IreuH 
 ambassador to France 1762-3, died 1771. Fbai 
 cis, son of the latter, and his successor in S] 
 dukedom, chiefly distinguished as a patron of agri 
 culture, 1765-1802. 
 
 RUSSELL, Lord William, second son of th 
 fourth earl of Bedford, was, according to the III 
 graphy written by his descendant, born on ttj^H 
 of September, 1639. His wife, the worthy parti^H 
 tor in his fame, to whom he was married in 1661 (j 
 was a daughter of the earl of Southampton, an 1 
 the widow of Lord Vaughan. He was not a m3| 
 brilliant qualifications, his temper and habits MM 
 to have been adapted more to domestic repose tjfci 
 public life, and a strong sense of duty appears jH 
 to have caused his memorable connection with tl I 
 history of the reign of Charles II. He was set! 
 ously listened to in the House of Comma^^H 
 he acquired as much influence there as it waa^H 
 haps possible for one independent man to ha^H 
 an assembly so little influenced as it then was 1 1 
 the spirit which has usually guided the parliament t] 
 England. It is a question in historical critical j 
 whether reliance ougnt to be placed on the documec |1 
 which show that many distinguished mei 
 the opposition were bribed by the king of Frant I 
 but it is worthy of remark that Russell's nail 
 does not appear in the list. The explosion of t II 
 Ryehouse plot, his trial and fate, are important nu 1 1 
 
 [The Rye House.] 
 
 ters of history. Contemporary with the pi 
 for rescuing the constitution, there was an SH 
 plot for the assassination of the king and his I 
 ther, with which certainly Russell was not c j 
 cerned, though he had some intercourse 
 contrivers. Yet it can hardly be said that | 
 not intend to take up arms against the 
 power, and that his fate, presuming that po? 
 be a legitimate one, was a stretch of the law. 
 merit, in fact, consisted in, after serious and i 
 consideration, resorting to resistance as better t 
 
 668 
 
RUS 
 
 [bmission to a government which had invaded the 
 institution. And though he himself bore the pen- 
 ty of the unsuccessful revolter, the country reaped 
 [e fruits of his martyrdom in the revolution. He 
 ks beheaded on the 21st July, 1683. [J.H.B.] 
 IRUSSELL, Lady Rachel, distinguished by 
 jr magnanimity at the trial of Lord William 
 hssell, became his wife in 1667, and survived 
 pi forty years. She is known to literature by 
 jr mucli-admired ' Letters.' Died 1723. 
 IRUSSELL, Michael, bishop of Glasgow and 
 klloway, author of 'The Connection of Sacred 
 Id Profane Histories,' and a contributor to the 
 hcyclopajdia Metropolitana, 1781-1848. 
 RUSSELL, William. See Russel. 
 [RUST, George, a learned prelate, died 1670. 
 KUSTICI, J. F., an Italian sculptor, died 1540. 
 [RUTGERS, John, a Dutch critic, 1589-1625. 
 IRUTHARD, C, a Dutch painter, 17th century. 
 RUTHERFORD, Daniel, a Scottish physician 
 jd professor of botany, Edinburgh, 1749-1819. 
 KUTHERFORD, J., a Sc. physician, 1695-1779. 
 RUTHERFORD, Sam., a dist. Scotch divine of 
 A 17th ct., professor of divinity in New College, 
 I Andrews, auth. of several controversial works. 
 JRUTHERFORTH, Thomas, professor of divi- 
 m at Cambridge, author of a ' System of Natural 
 Klosophy,' a ' Discourse on Miracles,' and other 
 Hcs, 1712-1771. 
 
 IpUTHVEN, William, earl of Gowrie, a Scot- 
 m nobleman, whose name is famous in history as 
 fqef of the conspiracy formed in the reign of 
 Ikes VI., with the view of compelling that 
 march to expel the duke of Lennox and the earl 
 l&rran from the kingdom. He perished on the 
 Fold in 1584. His sons, John and Alexan- 
 jk, were massacred by the armed followers of 
 Jaes VI., under circumstances which have never 
 Hi satisfactorily cleared up, in 1600. 
 I kUTILIUS LUPUS, a rhetorician, 1st century. 
 HJTILIUS NUMATIANUS, Claudius, a 
 rave of Gaul, known as a Latin poet, and prae- 
 |ft of Rome under Honorius, 5th century. 
 
 KUTLEDGE, James, an English writer, who 
 Hit to Paris and died there in prison, 1796. 
 j KUTLEDGE, J., governor of South Carolina, 
 Hi promoter of American independence, d. 1800. 
 IKUTTZ, J., an Irish physician, 1698-1775. 
 kUVIGNY, H. De, a Fr. general, 1647-1720. 
 
 kUYSCH, Frederic, M.D., F.R.S., a famous 
 |Itch anatomist, born at the Hague, 23d March, 
 n|8, and died in 1731 at the great age of ninety- 
 frtke. He was an ingenious and indefatigable anato- 
 Mt, and having discovered a method of arresting 
 mdecay of animal bodies by the use of a peculiar 
 tt of injection, he collected a museum which for 
 Mbeauty of the preparations was one of the won- 
 3 of the world. It was sold, in 1698, to the czar 
 and was transported to St. Petersburgh. 
 i age of eighty, Ruysch collected and arranged 
 but the secret which he possessed died 
 i him, and is no longer known ; though it is now 
 that the antiseptic element employed by 
 ras arsenic [J.M'C.J 
 
 HER. Michael, a famous Dutch admiral 
 period of the English commonwealth, was 
 at Flushing in 1607, and having entered the 
 in boyhood, became captain of a vessel as 
 ~ 16155. His first laurels were won in the 
 
 RUY 
 
 West Indian seas, where he was sent to co-operato 
 with the Portuguese hi opposition to the Spaniards, 
 with whom the rising Dutch republic was now 
 fighting the battle of their independence. These 
 achievements, and his operations on the coast of 
 Barbary, date from 1641 to about 1650, and such 
 was the courage of Ruyter that, on one occasion, 
 he entered the roadstead of Sall6e in a single ship, 
 when the passage was disputed by five Algerine 
 corsairs of large size. The action was witnessed 
 by the inhabitants of the city, who placed Ruyter 
 on a finely caparisoned horse, and conducted him 
 in triumph through the streets, with the com- 
 manders he had defeated led in sullen captivity. 
 In 1652, when the war broke out between the 
 English, and Dutch republic, Ruyter was appointed 
 to the command of a squadron, ordered to convoy 
 home a rich fleet of merchantmen, and he suc- 
 ceeded in his mission, notwithstanding two days' 
 hard fighting with Sir George Ayscough off Ply- 
 mouth. In October of the same year he was 
 joined by De Witte, and the two commanders con- 
 tended with Blake and Ayscough on the Flemish 
 coast. During the remainder of the war he fought 
 under Van Tromp, and it is difficult to say whether 
 the English or the Dutch most distinguished them- 
 selves in the series of battles fought in the Eng- 
 lish channel : in the action off Folkestone, Ruyter 
 compelled Blake to fly for safety to the Thames. 
 The war lasted two years, and in the final action, 
 near Scheveling, Ruyter and Van Tromp were 
 opposed to the Enghs'h under Monk and Lawson : 
 success declared for the English, and Van Tromp 
 being killed, Ruyter withdrew the wreck of the 
 Dutch navy to the Meuse. The Dutch republic 
 was now reduced to sue for peace; but Ruyter 
 found immediate employment as commander of an 
 expedition to Barbary, and in the recapture of 
 the Dutch establishments on the coast of Africa ; 
 besides which, in 1659, he was sent to aid the 
 king of Denmark, and obtained two victories over 
 the Swedish fleets. In 1665 the commercial rivalry 
 of the two nations induced the English govern- 
 ment, under Charles II., to declare a fresh war 
 with Holland, and Ruyter was matched with varv- 
 ing success against Monk duke of Albemarle, 
 Prince Rupert, Sir G. Ayscough, duke of York, 
 and the earl of Sandwich. In the course of two 
 years several great actions were fought, and then 
 negotiations for peace were entered upon. The 
 preliminaries, however, were foolishly and insin- 
 cerely protracted, and Ruyter taking advantage of 
 the opportunity, sailed up the Thames as far as 
 the Medway, and not only destroyed much ship- 
 ping, but spread consternation as far as London. 
 The peace of Breda, which immediately followed, 
 lasted from 1667 to 1672, when Charles II. wan- 
 tonly provoked fresh hostilities in gratification of 
 the French alliance ; that court having been at 
 war with Holland, and Ruyter actively engaged in 
 it, since 1671. The first great action, between an 
 armament of about 150 vessels on both sides, the 
 Dutch fleet commanded by Ruyter, was fought 
 off Solebay, on the coast of Holland, and again, 
 the English and Dutch seamen dealt terrible de- 
 struction against each other without either side 
 obtaining a decided advantage. Peace was con- 
 cluded between England and Holland in Febru- 
 ary, 1674, and Ruyter was despatched to the 
 
RUY 
 
 Mediterranean to carry on the war with the! 
 French. One object was to relieve Messina, 
 which was occupied by French troops, and 
 guarded by a fleet of thirty sail, under the Ad- 
 miral Duquesne ; the squadron of Ruyter numbered 
 twenty-four sail, but it was reinforced previous 
 to action by four Spanish vessels. These arma- 
 ments encountered each other in desperate conflict 
 off the eastern coast of Sicily, and Ruyter, almost 
 at the beginning of the action, had both his legs 
 shattered; he continued, nevertheless, to direct 
 the battle, till there was no longer any probability 
 of success, and then ordered a retreat into the 
 port of Syracuse, where he died of his wounds on 
 the 26th of April, 1676. [E. R.] 
 
 RUYVEN, Peter Van, a Dutch painter of 
 history, taught by Jordaens, and occupies high rank 
 among the artists of his country. Many of his his- 
 torical tableaux are in the chateau of St. Loo ; he 
 was employed on the embellishments at the Hague 
 when it was visited by William III., 1650-1718. 
 
 RUZZINf, a doge of Venice, 1732-1735. 
 
 RYCKAERT, Martin, a Flemish landscape 
 painter, 1591-1636. David, his son and pupil, 
 famous for his skill in the grotesque, was born 
 1615, and became director of the academy at Ant- 
 werp 1667, date of his death unknown. 
 
 RYCKE, J., a Flemish writer, 1587-1627. 
 
 RYCKEH, T., a Dutch philologist, 1640-1690. 
 
 RYDELIUS, Andreis, a Swedish theologian 
 and philosopher, 1671-1738. His brother, Mag- 
 nus, professor of history and theology, 1676-1712. 
 
 SAB 
 
 RYDER, Sir Dudley, a native of Yorkshire,! 
 born 1691, attorney-general 1736 to 1754, d. 1756., 
 
 RYFF, James, a Swiss surgeon, 16th century. I 
 
 RYLAND, J., a baptist minister, died 1792. 
 
 RYLAND, W. Wynne, an engraver of London, 1 
 born 1732, executed for forgery 1783. 
 
 RYMER, Thomas, historiographer royal, and' 
 collector of a vast mass of public documents rela- 
 tive to the history of England and its conne^K 
 with other states, was born in Yorkshire 1638 oi ' 
 1639, and received his appointment 1692. Thj 
 publication of his collections was commenced ii< 
 1704, but the greater part remains in MS. at th(! 
 British Museum. Died 1713. 
 
 RYSBRACH, RYSBRAECH, or RYS -I 
 BRECHTS, John Michael, an eminent l^^H 
 sculptor, 1694-1770. His brother, Peter, A 
 painter, 1657 1716. 
 
 RYVES, Bruno, a dignitary of the Church o! 
 England, born in Dorsetshire, distinguished as a: 
 historical writer and annalist of the civil wan' 
 died 1677. His relation, Sir Thomas Ryvbs, 
 distmg. civilian, advocate to Charles I., died 1651 
 
 RZEWUSKI, Wenceslas, a Polish noblemai 
 and general, who underwent a long imprisonment 
 in Russia for his opposition to the pretensions (I 
 that country. He was remarkable also for his ex 
 tensive knowledge of literature, philosophy, an | 
 the arts, and distinguished himself as a dramati ' 
 author and poet, 1705-1779. His son, Severn I 
 born 1745, has the reputation of being a trait; j 
 to his country, and was hung in effigy 1794, 
 
 S 
 
 SAA, Emanuel, a Portug. Jesuit, 1530-1596. 
 
 SAA DE MIRANDA, Francesco, a Portug. 
 poet, who ranks next to Camoens, 1495-1558. 
 
 SAAD ED DEEN MOHAMMED, called 
 Khodjah Effendi, a Turkish historian, died 1600. 
 
 SAADI, a distinguished Persian poet, whose 
 entire works were published in the original Per- 
 sian and Arabic at, Calcutta, 1791. His Gulistan 
 (Garden of Roses) was .translated into English by 
 Gladwin and Ross, and into French by Duryer, 
 D'Aligre, and Gaudin; flourished 1195-1296. 
 
 SAADIAS GAON, a celebrated rabbin, 892-941. 
 
 SAARSFIELD, a Spanish general, 1795-1837. 
 
 SAAS, John, a French bibliographer, 1703-74. 
 
 SAAVEDRA FAXADRO, Diego De, a Span, 
 histor. and diplomat., b. in Murcia 1584, d. 1648. 
 
 SABACON, an Ethiopian conqueror, who 
 founded a new dynasty in Egypt, 8th cent. B.C. 
 
 SABAS, a sectarian of the 3d centurv. 
 
 SABATEI SEVI, a pretended Messiah of the 
 Jews, born at Smyrna 1625, died in prison 1676. 
 
 SABATIER, A. H., a Fr. writer, 1726-1806. 
 
 SABATIER, Antoine, called Sabatier de Cas- 
 tres, from his birth-place, a French writer of 
 the school of Helvetius, author of a Dictionary of 
 Pagan Antiquity, Dictionary of Virtues and Vices, 
 the Three Ages of Fr. Literature, &c, 1742-1817. 
 
 SABATIER, Peter, otherwise Sabathier, 
 and Sabbathier, author of an edition of all the 
 Latin versions of the Bible, 1682-1742. 
 
 SABATIER, R. B., a Fr. surgeon, 1732-1811. 
 
 SABBAGH, Michel, an Orientalist and poet, b. 
 of catholic parents at St. Jean D'Acre, 1784-1816. 
 
 SABATHIER. See Sabatier. 
 SABBATHIER, F., a Fr. compiler, 1732-180' 
 SAB B ATI, L., an Italian botanist, last cent, j 
 SABBATINI, two Italian painters : Andre 
 Da Salerno, a pupil of Raphael, 1480-154.1 
 Lorenzino Da Bologna, died 1577. 
 
 SABBATINI, L. A., an ltal. composer, d. 180' 
 SABELLICUS, M. A., an ltal. hist., 1436-150 i 
 m SABELLIUS, was: a presbyter of Ptoleraais, 
 city in Pentapolis a province of Lybia Cyrenaic 
 and lived about the middle of the third centur , 
 Amidst the metaphysical attempts to explain tl I 
 relation of the Persons in the Trinity, he stnu 
 out a peculiar system. In opposition to the pr 
 valent Alexandrian theology, which taught t! 
 doctrine of subordination, he held that the thr 
 names in the Trinity not only referred to relatioi 
 wholly co-ordinate, but that the epithets Fatln 
 Word, and Spirit, were but the designations I 
 three separate phases or aspects of operations | 
 which the one Divine Essence had chosen to e 
 hibit itself. He thus denied all immanent d:J 
 tinctions in the Godhead. The human and p( j 
 sonal element in Christ was, according to hi , 
 only the fleeting form of a Divine mani; 
 and the Holy Ghost was merely a Divine ener 
 in the hearts of believers. In fact, in his 
 doctrine of personality there is an app 
 Pantheism, and the Arian heresy was its 
 istic product. The heresy of Sabellius was 
 opposed by Dionysius of Alexandria, an 
 ism laid hold of several of the orthodox bisho : 
 extreme expressions. 
 
 670 
 
SAB 
 
 j SABIN, a king of the Bulgarians, 763. 
 
 I SABINA, Julia, wife of Adrian, by whom she 
 
 Us compelled to take poison, and died 138. 
 
 ! SABIN IANUS, pope of Rome, 604-606. 
 SABINUS, Aulus, a Roman poet, 1st century. 
 SABINUS, George, whose proper German 
 
 kme was Schelten, a Latin poet, 1508-1560. 
 SABINUS, Julius, a Gaulish nobleman, who 
 sumed the title of Caesar during the contest be- 
 een Vespasian and Vitellius, and was executed 
 the year 70. His two children, and his wife, 
 jonina, who had displayed the most unbounded 
 yotion for him, were also put to death. 
 SABLIERE, Antoine Rambouillet De La, 
 IFrench author, died 1680. His wife, Made- 
 biselle Hessein, better known as Madame De 
 L Sabliere, is distinguished by her love for 
 b serious studies and the friendship of La Fon- 
 tae. She died 1693. 
 
 SABLIERE, C., a Fr. philologist, 1693-1786. 
 5ABOLI, N., a Provencal poet, 1660-1724. 
 5ABUNDE, R., a Spanish philosopher, d. 1432. 
 8ACCHETTI, F., an Ital. novelist, 1335-1410. 
 5ACCHETTI, G., an Ital. architect, died 1764. 
 JACCHI, three Italian artists : Andrea, a 
 j anguished portrait painter of Rome, 1600-1661. 
 Wrlo, a painter and engraver of Pavia, 1616- 
 lp. Piero Francesco, renowned for his per- 
 
 be, flourished at Pavia about 1460-1526. 
 
 tACCHI, J., an Italian musician, 1726-1789. 
 
 ACCHINI, F., an Italian Jesuit, who con- 
 
 t ted Orlandino's History of his Order, 1570-1625. 
 
 ACCHINI, A. M. G., a composer, 1735-1786. 
 
 ACHEVERELL, Henry, a notorious high 
 
 c rchman and demagogue of the reign of Queen 
 
 iie, was born about 1672, at Marlborough, 
 
 Ire his father was a poor clergyman; and in 
 
 1 ) became preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, 
 
 a le same time that he held the living of Can- 
 
 nc, in Staffordshire. The Toleration Act of 
 
 1' ) had secured the free exercise of their religion 
 
 tche protestant dissenters, then known under 
 
 tflthree denominations of Presbyterians, Inde- 
 
 Ments, and Baptists, but its operation was 
 
 - ly resisted by such men as Sancroft the 
 
 pikate, and other conscientious non-jurors, in- 
 
 flpng the mystic divine William Law, and 
 
 the ecclesiastical historian. These were 
 
 m of high principle, who held themselves aloof 
 
 fr the government they supposed were ruining 
 
 HH| being content to sacrifice their every 
 preferment in the cause. On the con- 
 < heverell and his party made political 
 tk of the general alarm, and were continually 
 pithing abusive sermons against the Whig 
 gornment and the dissenters. Sacheverell was 
 
 |^ph brought to trial for two such discourses, 
 
 IHp he had abused Lord Godolphin, then 
 H treasurer, under the scurrilous name of 
 
 IHp* We live in times when the miserable 
 Bi of a Sacheverell would only create an hour 
 *Wo's amusement, but it was far otherwise 
 JM; he was seriously impeached, and being 
 iht to trial before the peers, on the 27th of 
 . 1710, he occupied that high court 
 *w a month, and was then condemned to 
 Mnsion for three years, and to have his ser- 
 i burnt by the hangman. The whole country 
 **how inflamed with resentment; Sacheverell 
 
 SAD 
 
 was escorted about by processions of horse and 
 foot, the queen was everywhere followed by shouts 
 for Sacheverell, and the dwelling-houses of emi- 
 nent dissenters were shamefully plundered, and 
 no one friendly to them could appear without 
 being abused ; in fine, the general election of the 
 ensuing autumn was so much influenced by this 
 movement, that the Godolphin ministry was 
 overthrown. On the expiration of his sentence, 
 Sacheverell recommenced his incendiary harangues, 
 chiefly, perhaps, to save appearances, and he was 
 presented by the queen, now under Tory influence, 
 and always zealously attached to the Church of 
 England, to the rich living of St. Andrew's, Hol- 
 born. He died in obscure retirement 1724, the 
 last thing recorded of him being a bequest of 500 
 to Bishop Atterbury, his friend and representative 
 among the prelates. [E.R.] 
 
 SACHS, Hans, a German poet, 1494-1578. 
 
 SACI, Louis Isaac De, whose proper name 
 was Lemaistre, a learned Jansenist, 1612-1684. 
 
 SACKEN, Baron, a Russ. general, 1770-1837. 
 
 SACKVILLE, George, Viscount, third son of 
 the first duke of Dorset, was born 1716, and was 
 commander of the English and Hanoverian cavalry 
 at the battle of Minden, 1759. Instead of bringing 
 his troops into action when ordered, he was panic- 
 stricken, and his pale looks and want of self-pos- 
 session were marked by the other officers. He was 
 tried by court-martial on the charge of cowardice, 
 and not only dismissed the service, but had his 
 name erased from the list of privy councillors. 
 This man, however, became colonial secretary in 
 the factious times of Lord North from 1775 to 
 1782, the period of the American war of indepen- 
 dence. Died 1785. The affair of Minden is very 
 fully discussed in the valuable history, now in 
 course of publication, by Lord Mahon. [E.R.J 
 
 SACROBOSCO. See Holywood. 
 
 SACROVIRUS, Julius, the principal author 
 and chief of the revolt of the Gauls under Tiberius, 
 defeated at Autun by Silius, and slew himself, 21. 
 
 SACY. See Saci. 
 
 SACY, Antoine Isaac Silvestre, Baron De, 
 one of the most universal scholars of our age, and 
 particularly renowned for his Oriental learning, 
 was born at Paris 1758, and occupied the first 
 rank as professor under every form of government 
 in France, from 1795 to the reign of Louis Philippe. 
 He is author of several original works, and of 
 many highly valued translations from the Oriental 
 languages. Died 1838. 
 
 SACY, Louis De, a Fr. advocate. 1654-1724. 
 
 SADE, an illustrious Provencal family, one of 
 whose lords is supposed to have been the husband 
 of Petrarch's Laura. This family has given several 
 statesmen and prelates to France since the 14th 
 century. In recent times, two names distinguished 
 in literature : James Francis Paul Alphonso, 
 Marquis De Sade, author of Remarks on the 
 Troubadours, and editor of an edition of Petrarch, 
 1705-1778. Donatian Alphonso Francis, his 
 nephew, a licentious novelist, 1740-1814. 
 
 SADEEL, A., a French Huguenot, 1534-1591. 
 
 SADELER, John, a Flem. engrav., 1550-1610. 
 Raphael, his brother and pupil, 1555-1616. 
 Giles, nephew and pupil of John, 1570-1629. 
 
 SADI. See Saadi. 
 
 SADLER, A., chaplain to Charles II., d. 1680. 
 
 671 
 
SAD 
 
 SADLER, J., a political writer, 1615-1674. 
 
 SADLER, Micilel Thomas, a philanthropist 
 and member of parliament, distinguished by his 
 exertions in favour of the poor factory children, 
 author of Ireland, its Evils, and their Remedies,' 
 and of a work against the Malthusian doctrine, 
 entitled The Law of Population,' 1780-1835. 
 
 SADLER, Sir Ralph, a reformer and states- 
 man, who acted as the principal agent of Queen 
 Elizabeth in Scotland, and as gaoler of Mary 
 Stuart, 1507-1587. 
 
 SADLER, W. W., a dist. aeronaut, 1796-1824. 
 
 SADOC, a learned Jew, principal founder of the 
 sect of Sadducees, 3d century B.C. 
 
 SADOLETO, Jacopo, an Italian cardinal, 
 famous as a philosopher and man of letters, at the 
 period of the attempted reformation in Italy (see 
 Pole), 1477-1547. His cousin, Paolo, a Lathi 
 poet, 1508-1572. 
 
 SAEMUND, Sigfusson, an Icelandic priest 
 and historian, by whom the poems of the Edda 
 were collected, died 1135." 
 
 SAGE. See Le Sage. 
 
 SAGE, B. G., a French chemist, 1740-1824. 
 
 SAGE, John, a Scottish prelate, 1652-1711. 
 
 SAGITTARIUS, Gaspae, whose proper name 
 was Schutze, a Saxon archaeologist, 1633-1694. 
 
 SAGREDO, Giovanni, a Venetian historian, 
 who was elected doge in 1675. He resigned his 
 office because not agreeable to the people. 
 
 SAHED-IBN-ABAD, a celebrated Persian 
 vizier, historian, and literaiy savant, 940-995. 
 
 SAINCTES, Claude" De, a French catholic 
 theologian, and partizan of the league, 1525-1591. 
 
 SAINT- AIGNAN, Francois De Beauvil- 
 liers, successively Count and Duke De, a French 
 commander and statesman, remembered as a 
 patron of learning, 1610-1687. Paul, his son 
 and successor in the dukedom, one of the most 
 virtuous statesmen of the court of Louis XIV., 
 governor of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri, and a 
 friend of Fenelon, 1648-1714. Paul Hippolite, 
 brother and successor of the latter, a diplomatist 
 and member of the Academy, 1684-1776. 
 
 SAINT-ALBAN. See Saint-Giles. 
 
 SAINT-ALBAN, Richard De Burgh De, 
 earl of Clanricarde, an Irish nobleman, who aided 
 in extinguishing the rebellion of 1600, 1565-1635. 
 
 SAINT- AMAND, J., a French critic, d. 1754. 
 
 SAINT-AMANS, J. Florimond Boudon De, 
 a French agriculturist and botanist, 1748-1831. 
 
 SAINT-AMANT, Mark Antony Gerard, 
 Sieur De, a French poet, 1594-1660. 
 
 SAINT-AMOUR, William De, a doctor of 
 the Sorbonne, who wrote against the friars, d. 1272. 
 
 SAINT-ANDRE, J. B., a protestant minister 
 and member of the French convention, 1749-1813. 
 
 SAINT- ANDRE, J. D'Albon, Marechal De, a 
 famous commander of the catholic league, col- 
 league of Guise and Montmorency, killed at the 
 battle of Dreux, 1561. 
 
 SAINT- ANDRE, Nathaniel, an anatomist, 
 whose singularities of character are recorded by 
 Nichols in his Anecdotes of Hogarth, died 1776. 
 
 SAINT-ANGE, Ange Francois Fariau De, 
 a French poet and classical translator. 1747-1810. 
 
 SAINT-AUBIN, A., a Fr. engraver, 1736-1807. 
 
 SAINT-AUBIN, Aug. Alexander D'Her- 
 Ber, called, a French singer and actor, 1754-1818. 
 
 SAI 
 
 SAINT-AUBIN, C, a publicist. 1755-1820. 
 
 SAINT-AUBIN, G. C. See Legendre. 
 
 SAINT-AULAIRE, Francois Joseph 1 
 Beaupoil, Marquis De, a Fr. poet, 1643-1742 
 
 SAINT-CHAMOND, Claire Marie Maz 
 relli, Dame De, a learned Fr. writer, 1731-17; 
 
 SAINT-CLOST, Perros De, or Pierre ', 
 Saint Cloud, writer of a satirical allego 
 called the Romance of Reynard, which consi 
 of 2,000 verses, and has been translated into 
 European languages, 13th century. 
 
 SAINT- CONTEST.Dominique Claude Bi 
 beri,e De, a French statesman and diplomat 
 1668-1730. His son,' F. Dominique, minister 
 state for foreign affairs in 1751, under the influe 
 of Madame de Pompadour, 1701-1754. 
 
 SA1NT-CYR, Odet Joseph De Vaux 
 Giry, Abb6 De, a Greek scholar, preceptor of 
 dauphin, son of Louis XV., died 1761. 
 
 SAINT-CYRAN, Jean Duvergier De Ej 
 ranne, Abbe De, a Jansenist theolog., 1581-K 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, Jacques De, a writer 
 Grace and Predestination, 1613-1677. 
 
 SAINTE-CROIX, Guillaume Emmani 
 Joseph, Baron De, a learned French histor 
 author of ' Researches into the Mysteries 
 Paganism,' ' Critical Examination of the Hi 
 of Alexander the Great,' and other works of 1 
 value, 1746-1809. 
 
 SAINTE-CROIX, or SANTA CROCE, Pi 
 per De, cardinal and papal nuncio, 1513-158 
 
 SAINT-EVREMOND, C. Marguerite 
 St. Denis, Seigneur De, a royalist and protty 
 Mazarin during the troubles of the Fronde, cut 
 guished as an elegant writer, 1613-1703. 
 
 SAINT-FAL, S. M., a French actor, 1760-1 
 
 SAINT-FLORENTIN, L. Phelypeaux,0 
 De, son of Phelipeaux de la Vrilliere, ministc 
 various functions for more than fifty years to I 
 XV., and a debauched character, 1*705-1777. 
 
 SAINTE-FOIX, Germain Francois Poui 
 De, a French writer and antiquarian, 1698-17 
 
 SAINT-GALL, the Monk of, an anonyr 
 Latin writer of the 9th century. 
 
 SAINT-GELAIS, Octavius De, a poett 
 bishop of Angouleme, and biographer of Louis 2 
 1466-1502. Mellin, his natural son, an eot 
 astic, and au. of Latin and French poems, d. 1 
 
 SAINT-GENIES, J. De, a Fr. poet, 16074 
 
 SAINT-GENIS, A. N., a Fr. lawyer, 1741-1 
 
 SAINT-GEORGE, Chevalier De, a mul 
 born of a negress at Guadaloupe, greatly di 
 guished by his accomplishments at the Fi 
 court, and especially for his skill as a swords 
 He commanded a troop of horse at the begil 
 of the revolution, 1745-1801. 
 
 SAINT-GERAN. See Guiche. 
 
 SAINT-GERMAIN, Count De, art 
 character, some way connected with the Mm) 
 of last century, and equally remarkable ftn 
 extent of his knowledge and his communion] 
 with the French court, especially with Louis 
 and Madame de Pompadour. He is said to J 
 died at Schleswig in 1784. The curious | 
 compare with his pretensions the traditions oj 
 Wandering Jew. which are collected toge '" 
 the Chronicles of Cartophilus (so called), 
 published by David Hoffman. 
 
 SAINT-GERMAIN, Robert, Count 
 
 672 
 
SAI 
 
 ;suit and statesman, minister of war to Louis 
 VI., author of Memoirs, 1708-1778. 
 SAINT-GERMAN, or SEINT-GERMAN, 
 hkistopher, an Erg. lawyer of the 16th cent. 
 SAINT-GILES, otherwise Joannes Anglicus, 
 Jean de St. A Ibain, a learned theologian, and 
 ctor of medicine to Philip Augustus, king of 
 ance, died about 1255. 
 SAINT-HILAIRE. See Geoffroy. 
 SAINTE-HUBERTI, Antoinette Cecilia 
 jivel, a French opera singer, 1756-1821. 
 SAINT-HURUGE, Marquis De, a character 
 the French revolution, about 1750-1810. 
 SAINT-HYACINTHE, Hyacinthe Cordon- 
 ek, better known as Themiseuil de Saint Hya- 
 ithe, an ingenious French critic, 1684-1714. 
 SAINTE-HYACINTHE. See Charrerie. 
 SAINT-JOHN. See Bolingbroke. 
 3AINT-JORRI, Pierre Dufaur De, in Latin 
 trus Faber, a learned French Jesuit, 1540-1600. 
 5AINT-JOSEPH, Isidore, a theologian and 
 torian of the Carmelites of Italy, died 1666. 
 >AINT-JOSEPH, Pierre Mathiew De, 
 erwise Pierre Foglia, an Asiatic missionary 
 I botanist, born in Naples 1617, died 1691. 
 IAINT-JULIEN, L. G. Baillet, Baron De, 
 liscellaneous writer, 1720-1780. 
 IAINT-JULIEN, Pierre De, a partizan of 
 league, and historian of Burgundy, 1520-1593. 
 AINT-JURE, J. B. De, an ascetic, 1588-1657. 
 AINT-JUST, Antoine, one of the most re- 
 kable characters, all things considered, produced 
 he revolutionary epoch of France, was born at 
 ise in the Nivernais 1768, and was only twenty- 
 years of age when the revolution had grown to 
 bite heat in 1792-3. He was the son of a 
 t of St. Louis, descended from a distinguished 
 y, and had passed through a brilliant career 
 student, when he became adjutant-major in a 
 of the national guard ; and in this position 
 the acquaintance of Robespierre. The 
 ce of these two men is one of the most in- 
 ig studies presented by the history of those 
 The intelligence of St. Just was as cold, 
 |r, and glassy as that of Robespierre, his character 
 stere, his ambition as great, his personal 
 moral and physical, unsurpassed by any 
 er known to history, and his enthusiasm dis- 
 j tut generis, for we are not only unacquainted 
 anything resembling it, but it appears as we 
 it, to contradict the word itself. Light, 
 ing, and dauntless, in Camille Desmoulins, 
 laracter of mind strikes us as one common to 
 : and to every cause ; in St. Just, on the con- 
 F, heated to the highest pitch, and star-like in 
 'a;htness, it is yet fixed in preternatural 
 aon, or if it ever stir, seems only to string 
 nerves as by a magnetic tension to make 
 the stronger and more resonant organ of the 
 ite spirit. In cold impassive reason, the two 
 | St. Just and Robespierre, resemble each other, 
 the strict purity of their lives, but in this 
 there is no comparison, and to explain St. 
 |we must suppose the wildest enthusiasm in 
 itward nature transfixed and bound down to 
 purposes by the gleam of the frigid intel- 
 in the inner. His almost feminine coun- 
 and his perfect devotion to Robespierre, 
 for St. Just this striking but profane 
 
 SAI 
 
 appellation : the Saint John of the Messiah of the 
 People. He surpassed his master in impassibility 
 as the terrible events of the revolution swept by, 
 and on the night of the September massacres slept 
 soundly in the same chamber where Robespierre 
 paced up and down watching, as he expressed it, 
 1 like remorse or crime.' At this time, the name 
 of St. Just was almost unknown to the people, but 
 he took his place in the National Convention, which 
 met soon afterwards, with the air of one accustomed 
 to be heard and obeyed as an oracle. He was the 
 mask of the spirit of Robespierre, and so perfectly 
 devoted to him, that the ideas of the one were 
 uttered by the voice of the other, not in slavish 
 subjection^ but with more axiomatic and un- 
 answerable simplicity, and with a more daring 
 application to emergencies ; it was, as if the soul of 
 Robespierre had two bodies, the one more plausible 
 in utterance, the other sharper and more remorse- 
 less. This devotion of St. Just was entirely due 
 to the acquiescence of his reason in the sentiments 
 of Robespierre, and to his solemn conviction that 
 the republic could only triumph by those ideas : he 
 was strictly the minister of Robespierre the dictator, 
 and he embodied the conceptions of his master 
 in those practical measures which could alone carry 
 him to power. .The overthrow of the Gironde and 
 the Dantonists was only a step towards the con- 
 centration of every power of the state in the 
 committees of the convention, formed to work 
 under one head ; the struggle which he directed, in 
 fact, was that of a republic one and indivisible, 
 opposed to the idea of a confederation which it 
 was impossible to form in imitation of the United 
 States that had been the natural growth of time and 
 circumstances. After the fall of the Girondins, the 
 triumvirate of Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, 
 was formed definitely in the committee of Salut 
 Public, and under the dictation of this body, 
 at the time when France was menaced with 
 destruction, no right, whether of life or property, 
 was allowed to be pleaded in preference to the 
 supreme right of the nation to save itself. The 
 inexorable logic of this argument, put in force, 
 became the terror, and they who look upon a 
 Robespierre and a St. Just as mere spirits of 
 darkness, and agents of iniquity, should consider 
 well the sorrowful nights and days which this 
 young man of twenty-five or six must have passed 
 when he wrote in his diary: 'It is but a small 
 matter to quit a life like this, a state of being so 
 miserable that the only choice left us, is to become 
 the accomplice of crime or the helpless witness of 
 it.' The most striking proof of his heroism was 
 given when the Austrians, reunited to the armv of 
 Cc ' 
 
 onde, had forced the lines of Weissembourg, and 
 were advancing upon Strasburg. Sent there with 
 Lebas, in the character of a proconsul, St. Just 
 charged at the head of the Alsatian peasantry, 
 hastily armed, and, with an intrepidity tnat aston- 
 ished the soldiers, rolled back the invaders, and 
 saved his country. In this character he was the 
 legal autocrat of the entire district, and in the 
 emergency the lives and properties of all were at 
 his disposal; was he therefore merciful or cruel 
 when he saved ' thousands of heads,' as it is con- 
 fessed, by sending one scoundrel to the guillotine ? 
 In short, there is only one honest way of judging 
 these men, and that is by the exceptional character 
 673 2X 
 
SAI 
 
 of the times, and not as Christians, for such they 
 were not, but as the heathen avengers of the 
 crimes and errors of many generations of pretended 
 Christians. St. Just, true to the last, accompanied 
 Robespierre to the scaffold, and regarded with a 
 disdainful air the crowd vociferating around him. 
 He was executed on the 27th of July, 1794, or ac- 
 cording to the republican style, on the 9 th Thermi- 
 dor, year 2. His poems and political writings bear 
 witness to his literary talents. [E.R.] 
 
 SAINT-JUST, Godard D'Aucourt De, a 
 dramatic and miscellaneous writer, 1770-1826. 
 
 SAINT-LAMBERT, Charles Francis, Mar- 
 quis De, a fabulist and philosopher, 1717-1803. 
 
 SAINT-LAURENT, Baron De, a French 
 artillery officer in the wars of Napoleon, 1763-1832. 
 
 SAINT-LEU. See Hortense. 
 
 SAINT-LO, A. De, a Fr. missionary, d. 1638. 
 
 SAINT-LOUIS. See Louis (IX.) 
 
 SAINT-LOUIS, See Peter of St. Louis. 
 
 SAINT-LUC, Francois D'Espinay De, a 
 French commander, who distinguished himself 
 against the Calvinists, and became a master of 
 artillery under Henry IV., killed 1597. His son, 
 Timoleon, ambassador to England and marshal 
 of France, 1580-1644. 
 
 SAINT-MARC, C. H. Lefebvre, an editor, 
 historian, and chronologist, 1698-1769. 
 
 SAINT-MARC, J. P. Andrew Des Rosins, 
 Marquis De, a poet and dramatist, 1728-1813. 
 
 SAINT-MARCELLIN, a natural son of the 
 celebrated Fontanes, distinguished by his valour 
 at the battle of Borodino, in the Russian campaign 
 of 1812, and as an opera writer, 1791-1819. 
 
 SAINT-MARS, a French officer of quality, 
 whose name has been preserved in history in 
 connection with that most perplexing of all secrets, 
 1 The Man in the Iron Mask.' Vague rumours of 
 such a prisoner were all that existed till the pub- 
 lication of Voltaire's Louis XIV., when for the first 
 time they assumed due consistency. After all that 
 has been written on the subject, it cannot be said 
 that more is known at this hour than had been re- 
 lated by Voltaire, except some confirmations of the 
 substantial accuracy of his account, and some 
 additional traits of character, which may help to 
 solve the riddle, if ever fresh light should be 
 thrown upon it by the publication of hitherto 
 unedited state documents. Briefly, the story 
 is as follows : Towards 1662, a state prisoner of 
 noble stature, and the most accomplished de- 
 meanour, wearing a mask of black velvet, was 
 consigned to the custody of Saint-Mars, at that 
 time governor of the castle of Pignerol. In 1686, 
 Saint-Mars was transferred to the Isle of Saint- 
 Marguerite, in the sea of Provence, and he took 
 his prisoner with him : he did the same when he 
 became governor of the Bastile in 1690. This 
 mysterious person was uniformly treated with the 
 highest respect by the governor, who himself 
 waited upon him, and the same deference was 
 shown by the marquis of Louvois on occasion of a 
 visit previous to his removal from St. Marguerite : 
 his mask was so constructed with steel springs 
 that he had perfect liberty to eat and drink ; he 
 was served in the richest manner, and was accus- 
 tomed to entertain himself with books and music. 
 Before his transference to the Bastile, he seized 
 an opportunity to scratch some intelligence on a 
 
 SAI 
 
 silver plate, which he threw out near a fishiu 
 boat that he perceived moored to the shore; tl 
 fisherman, however, was unable to read 
 carried the plate to Saint-Mars, who would nl 
 allow him to depart until perfectly sat i 
 no discovery had been made. In the end tl 
 prisoner died in the Bastile, and was buried 
 the parish cemetery of Saint Paul, by midniffl 
 November, 1703, under the evidently feigfl 
 name of Marchiali : the furniture of his room, t" 
 window casements, and every possible thing 
 which he could have left any record, were th 
 carefully burnt ; the ceiling was pulled down ai 
 reduced to powder; finally, the Bastile recorc 
 since perused, were found to contain only t 
 obscurest allusions to him. The last statesra 
 who possessed this secret was Chamillac, who, 
 his deathbed refused to make a discovery of 
 though entreated by his son-in-law, the seco 
 marquis de Feuillade, he said he had been bou 
 by an oath. The medical attendant of 
 prisoner had never seen his face, but says that 
 informed him a few days before his death that 
 believed he was near sixty years of age; 
 registry of the burial, on the other hand, gr 
 forty-five as the age of the pretended Marcni 
 but this again may have been designed to baffle 
 vestigation. This strange history, it will 
 served, commences about the period of Mazari 
 death, and it covers the greater part of the reigi 
 Louis XIV. It would be inconsistent with 
 limits to discuss the conjectures to which it' 
 given rise some of them sufficiently roman 
 What surprises us is, that historians do not obse 
 how little reason would be left for the careful j 
 servation of the secret beyond the lifetime of 
 prisoner, if it could be proved he was any one 
 the persons hitherto supposed. [E. 
 
 SAINTE-MARTHE, Charles Francis, M 
 quis De, a French fabulist and poet, 1717-1801 
 
 SAINT-MARTIN, J. Antoine De, eel. for 
 researches into the history of Armenia, 1791-1^ 
 
 SAINT-MARTIN, J. Didier De, a Ctair 
 missionary and writer in Chinese, 1743-180ll 
 
 SAINT-MARTIN, Louis Claude De, ca 
 by himself le Philosophe inconnu (which weni 
 philosopher of the unknown), was born at Amk 
 of a noble French family, 1743, and is said to if 
 commenced his metaphysical studies updH 
 'Art of Knowing One's Self,' written by^H 
 Abbadie, a French protestant theologian"! Hj 
 sometimes confounded with Martinez P4jH 
 lis, who was the real founder of the sect of A j 
 tinists, and the first teacher, but by no mej^| 
 master, of Saint-Martin. The period when tj 
 two philosophical inquirers became acq^H 
 was marked by a reaction against the s^H 
 philosophy of the encyclopedists, against V 
 Saint-Martin launched the first and mostvaj 
 of his writings, entitled Des Erreurs et dela Vd 
 published at Lyons 1775, between which j> 
 and 1778 the operations of the genuine Ma(p 
 in France had become extinct. The name, f~ 
 still remained. The Chevaliers Bienfaisa 
 formed under the name of Philalethes, and i 
 have embraced the doctrines of Saint-Ma 
 Swedenborg, invited the former to take the ] 
 dent's chair in 1784, but he refused the 
 as to Swedenborg, the writer has before 
 
 674 
 
SAI 
 
 iginal letter, written by a French disciple of his 
 1785, utterly disavowing the connection, and 
 arging these very Martinists, so called, with 
 e pursuit of magic : so much for the right of 
 ch societies to assume names, and for the sar- 
 of Lamartine (' Girondins,' vol. i. p. 188), 
 at 'The theosophists, disciples of the sublime 
 obscure Swedenborg, the Saint-Martin of 
 rmany, pretended to complete the gospel, and 
 nsfonn humanity,' &c. It is a point of some 
 ;erest in the history of those times, for not only 
 the occult societies of Germany and France 
 luential among the people, but the most dis- 
 guished princes were enrolled amongst them, 
 may be read in the article Weishaupt. 
 int-Martin was neither faithful to one system 
 another, but coquetted with them all, Martinez 
 squalis, Alchymy, Animal Magnetism, Sweden- 
 g, and Jacob Boehmen, until he was cast 
 tore in the midst of the French revolution, and 
 ame, as he regarded himself, 'the Robinson 
 isoe of spiritualism.' He possessed vast ori- 
 al genius and metaphysical insight, and as a 
 nker he digested and assimilated whatever he 
 nd to his taste ; we should not be far from the 
 th, perhaps, in pronouncing that the principles 
 Boehmen had taken the deepest hold of his 
 igination and reason^ and that much in his 
 sr writings may be regarded as a modern re- 
 duction of them, tinctured, however, by what 
 had acquired from Swedenborg, and by his 
 erience in animal magnetism. The first of 
 works is mentioned above. It was followed 
 'Tableau Naturel des Rapports entre Dieu, 
 >mme, et l'Univers,' 1782, the principle of 
 ch is the explanation of things by man, and 
 of man by things. In 1790 he published 
 omme du Desir.' In 1792 the ' Ecce Homo,' 
 nded to correct the rage at that time for mag- 
 c prodigies, and to elevate the soul to sub- 
 mysteries. In 1796 appeared 'Le Nouvel 
 none.' In 1800, 'De l'Esprit des choses, ou 
 d'ceil Philosophique sur la Nature des Etres 
 r TObjet de leur Existence,' a work which 
 have seen denounced as ' a tissue of foolish 
 tions,' on the strength of an extract, 
 is, notwithstanding, of great philosophic 
 In 1802 he ushered to the light of day ' Le 
 re de l'Homme Esprit,' with these remark- 
 words : ' Although the subject of this work 
 greater clearness than my others, it is 
 remote from ordinary ideas to let me hopo 
 uch success. I have often felt while writing 
 the result would be much as if I had played 
 ion of waltzes and contre-dances on my 
 in the cemetery of Mont-Martre, where 
 be fine to do with my bow, but really the 
 i lying there would neither understand my 
 nor dance to it !' Besides these and other 
 of his own, Saint-Martin translated into 
 the ' Three Principles,' and the ' Aurora,' 
 b Boehmen. The Russian statesman, Prince 
 , is said to have been his convert, but we 
 aware whether any connection exists be- 
 this fact and the rise of the Martinists in 
 of Moscow ; a very insufficient account of 
 will be found in Pinkerton's translation of 
 concerning the state of the Greek church, 
 the Scalvonic of Platon. Saint-Martin, like 
 
 SAI 
 
 so many others of the noblesse of France, suffered 
 by the French revolution, and being implicated 
 in a conspiracy, owed his life to the revolution of 
 Thermidor. Died 1803. [E.R.1 
 
 SAINT-MARTIN, Michel De, a religious 
 founder and writer, 1614-1687. 
 
 SAINT-MAURICE, Alex. Ma. Eleonor, 
 Prince De Montbarey, minister of war to Louis 
 XVI. from 1776 to 1780, au. of Memoirs, 1732-96. 
 SAINT-MAURIS, J. De, a French juriscon- 
 sult, statesman, and diplomatist, died 1555. 
 
 SAINT-MAURIS, Prudent De, a juriscon- 
 sult and ambassador, of another family, d. 1584. 
 
 SAINT-MEARD, Francois Jourgniac De, 
 a journalist and chevalier of the order of Saint 
 Louis, born at Bourdeaux 1745, and known at the 
 period of the revolution as the editor of a royalist 
 paper, entitled ' Journal de la Cour et de la Ville.' 
 After the installation of the revolutionary leaders 
 in the Paris Commune, by the insuiTection of 
 August 10, 1792, Saint-Meard was arrested and 
 imprisoned in the ' Abbaye,' where he became an 
 eye-witness of the September massacres. He has 
 related his terrible experience in a brochure 
 entitled, 'My Thirty-six Hours' Agony,' the 
 thrilling interest of which carried it through above 
 a hundred editions. After the 'terror' Saint- 
 Meard continued to frequent the literary salons of 
 Paris, and received the humorous title of ' Presi- 
 dent and General-in-chief of the Universal Society 
 of Gobe-mouches.' Died 1827. [E.R.J 
 
 SAINT-MICHEL, A. De, a Fr. wr., 1795-1827. 
 SAINT-MORYS, Et. Bourgevin-Vialart, 
 Count De, a French general, known as a naturalist 
 and miscellaneous writer, 1772-1817. 
 
 SAINT-NON, Jean Claude Richard, Abbe" 
 De, a celebrated amateur in the arts, 1727-1791. 
 
 SAINTE-PALAYE, J. B. De La Curne De, 
 the historian of French chivalry, 1697-1781. 
 
 SAINT-PARD, otherwise P. N. Van Blotaqtie, 
 a French Jesuit and religious writer, 1734-1824. 
 
 SAINT-PAVIN, Denis Sanguin De, a French 
 poet and ecclesiastic, 1600-1670. 
 
 SAINT-PERAVI, J. N. M. Guerineau De, 
 a political writer and poet, 1732-1789. 
 SAINT-PHILIP. See Baccalar Y Sanna. 
 SAINT-PIERRE, Charles Irenee Castel, 
 Abbe* De, a political writer and philanthropist, 
 who was educated as an ecclesiastic, and devoted 
 himself theoretically and practically to the public 
 good. Among his works is a ' Project for a Per- 
 petual Peace,' conceived at the congress of Utrecht 
 (1713), and pronounced by the cardinal Dubois 
 'the dream of a good man.'' He was far in ad- 
 vance of his age; and being excluded from the 
 French Academy for the courageous expression of 
 his opinions concerning the government of Louis 
 XIV., that body took more than half a century to 
 revise their judgment of him ; at length, in 1775, 
 his eulogium was pronounced by D'Alembert. 
 The French are indebted to him not only for his 
 philosophical ' dreams,' but for that expressive 
 word bienjaisance, which he introduced into the 
 language. [E.R.] 
 
 ST. PIERRE, Eustace De, a patriotic citizen 
 of Calais, who distinguished himself when Edward 
 III. of England besieged that place in 1347. 
 
 SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. Bernardin De, a 
 celebrated French writer, well known in this i 
 
 675 
 
SAI 
 
 try by his beautiful romance of ' Paul and Virginia,' 
 was born at Havre 1737, and passed some time in 
 the Isle of France, where the scene of his stoiy is 
 laid, as an engineer. He was a friend of Rousseau, 
 and author of works making altogether twelve 
 volumes, recommending a higher virtue than that 
 exhibited in his own life. Died 1814. 
 
 SAINT-PRIEST, F. E. Guignard, Count De, 
 an ambassador andpartizan of the Bourbons, 1735- 
 1821. His son, G. Emmanuel, a general who 
 served against France, 1776-1814. 
 
 SAINT-PRIEST, or SAINT-PRET, Jean 
 Yves, an archivist and historian, died 1720. 
 
 SAINT-RAMBERT, Gabriel De, a Cartesian 
 philosopher and friend of Rousseau, died 1720. 
 
 SAINT- REAL, Cesar Vichard, Abbe - De, a 
 controversialist and historian, 1639-1692. 
 
 SAINT-REMY, Pierre Surirey De, a French 
 officer and writer on artillery, died 1716. 
 
 SAINT-SAPHORIN, A. F. L. De Mkstral 
 De, a diplomatist employed by the Danish court, 
 a great connoisseur in art, 1738-1805. 
 
 SAINT-SILVESTRE, J. L. Du Faure, Mar- 
 quis De, a commander under Turenne, 1627-1719. 
 C. F. Du Faure, of the same family and title, an 
 historical writer, 1752-1818. N. H. Maurice 
 Du Faure, called president St. Silvestre, a magis- 
 trate and political writer, died 1811. 
 
 SAINT-SIMON, C. F. De Rouvroy Sandri- 
 court, a learned French prelate, and collector of 
 a valuable library, 1727-1794. His brother, Louis 
 De Rouvroy, Due De Saint-Simon, a statesman 
 and diplomatist during the regency of the duke 
 of Orleans, author of Memoirs of the highest value 
 towards the history of his times, 1675-1755. 
 
 SAINT-SIMON, Claude Henri, Count De, 
 founder of a school of social science and rational 
 doctrine named after him, was born at Paris 1760. 
 Member of an illustrious family which traced its 
 origin, through the counts of Vermandois, to 
 Charlemagne, he had the best education that his 
 country could then afford, and one of his teachers 
 was the great encyclopedist D'Alembert. He 
 entered the army, according to the prevailing 
 fashion with the young nobles, in 1777, and though 
 he hated war, he embarked, two years later, for 
 America, and served under Washington, thinking 
 only of some vast social design that would be pro- 
 moted by the emancipation of America. In 1783 
 he returned to France, and quitting the military 
 career, he was known at the period of the revolu- 
 tion as a speculator, conjointly with a count de 
 Redern, in the national domains : his object was to 
 acquire property as a means of realizing his ideas, 
 and he regarded the convulsions which then 
 agitated society as nothing more than the pre- 
 paratory destruction of the old order of things. 
 During the Terror, St. Simon was arrested in 
 mistake for another of the same name, and only 
 recovered his liberty after the revolution of 
 Thermidor, 27th July, 1794. His time and for- 
 tune were now devoted with apostolic enthusiasm, 
 to what he considered his mission, and, in 1807, 
 he gave his ideas to the world in his ' Introduction 
 to the Scientific Labours of the Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury.' This work was intended as a supplement to 
 the reports demanded by Napoleon on the progress 
 of science since 1789, and in connection witn Saint- 
 Simon's other works, may be said to contain the 
 
 SAI 
 
 germ of all that is valuable in Comte's posit 
 philosophy. It declares the time arrived 
 generalize the whole body of science with a \ 
 to social progress, and lays down the principle tl' 
 useful labour is the proper destiny of all men. 
 was followed in 1808 by Letters addressed to 
 Institute; in 1810, by a 'Prospectus of a N 
 Encyclopaedia;' in 1814 by the ' Re-organizatior 
 European Society ;' and nearly every year, in she 
 by some fresh development of his philosophi 
 speculations. The sum of his meaning may 
 expressed somewhat in these terms : as Newton f 
 reduced astronomy to a positive law when he 
 covered gravitation, so may all the sciences 
 speculations of men be brought, practically, t 
 positive doctrine ; chemistry and the other branc 
 of experimental philosophy come first ; me 
 physical and theological knowledge follow in 
 order of their remoteness from demonstration ; 
 social science as the most complex of all complt 
 the encyclopaedia of human knowledge and 
 perience. Newton, it is argued, laid the foundat 
 of this temple of science by demonstrating the 
 of gravitation ; and Locke proved that it coulc" 
 carried to completion by demonstrating the i 
 fectibility of the human spirit. This, we saj 
 the fundamental conception of Saint-Simon's, s 
 has become more recently of Comte's, philosop 
 it is to be regretted that, in the carrying ou' 
 this idea, they are both deficient in the sense o: 
 that constitutes religion, and in any true, or t 
 tolerable recognition, of revealed truth ; the chi 
 and its doctrines are at best a kind of spiri 
 police force, easy to be dispensed with when 
 positive theism is reached. These works, howe 
 are valuable political studies, they point to vo\ 
 results at which society must arrive, and \ 
 suggest a valuable method of reviewing his 
 and philosophy: to be safely used they mus 
 treated like crude ore, from which the time sj 
 is only to be extracted by a severe process. 
 Simon exhausted his resources to such a de 
 that he passed a severe winter without fuel 
 almost without food. He once attempted suiti 
 but the pistol-shot only deprived him of the e 
 of one eye. He died at Paris May 19, 1825, " 
 these last words on his lips ' L'Avenir est a n> 
 (the future is ours). He left a small, but dev 
 body of disciples at his death, who had for t 
 organ a periodical entitled 'Le Producteurfl' 
 then leader died of a broken heart, and his J 
 being scattered by the interference of governn 
 his successor, M. Enfantin, became an active 
 moter of railways and other objects of immei 
 utilitv. [E 
 
 SAINT-SIMON, Maximilian H. Db 
 botanist, tactician, and historian, 1720-1799JJ" 
 
 SAINT-URSIN, M. De, a medical wii 
 physician in the French army, 1763-1818. I 
 
 SAINT VINCENT. John Jervis, earfj 
 Vincent, and admiral of the British fleet, was bo 
 1734, at Meaford in Staffordshire. He enteret i 
 navy at the age of ten, under Admiral Rodnejiii 
 served in 1759 in the expedition against ( J 
 and had risen to the rank of post-captain wH 
 American war broke out. He distinguished . 
 self greatly in the course of this war, and. 
 knighted ; and early in the next great war ag 
 revolutionary France he was made an adn 
 
 676 
 
SAI 
 
 1 1797 he had the command of the Mediterranean 
 
 ;et, and was specially employed in watching the 
 
 :ets of Spain, which country was in alliance with 
 
 ranee against England. The Spanish admiral 
 
 last put to sea with 27 large ships of the line, 
 
 d was brought to action by Sir John Jervis, who 
 
 d only 15 ships of much inferior size and weight 
 
 metal. This glorious battle was fought oiFCape 
 
 , Vincent, 14th February, 1797, and ended in the 
 
 nplete defeat of the Spaniards and the capture 
 
 four of their ships. The English admiral was 
 
 sed to the peerage for this victory by the title of 
 
 rl St. Vincent, and received a pension of 3,000 
 
 r ear. In 1800, Lord St. Vincent was placed in 
 
 imand of the channel fleet, and in 1801 he was 
 
 de first lord of the admiralty, from which station 
 
 was removed when Pitt returned to power in 
 
 4. Lord St. Vincent was a stem reformer of 
 
 ses, having no respect to persons, and visiting 
 
 misdeeds of men in rank and authority as 
 
 erely as he dealt with the faults of the humblest 
 
 man in the fleet, or the meanest artizan in the 
 
 kyard. England is indebted to him not only for 
 
 splendid sendees in action against the enemy, but 
 
 the improved discipline and spirit, which he in- 
 
 uced into every department of" our navy, among 
 
 as well as men, and for the noble example 
 
 votion to duty which he always set in his own 
 
 .. He saw and brought forward into notice 
 
 abilities of Nelson, Duckworth, Strachan, 
 
 bridge, Parker, and many more of our best 
 
 during the war ; and he was as firm a friend 
 
 nour and merit, as he was an unflinching foe 
 
 ishonesty and incompetency. Earl St. Vin- 
 
 died 15th March, 1823. [E.S.C.] 
 
 T-VINCENT, Gregory De, a French 
 
 atician and writer on comets, 1584-1667. 
 
 T-VINCENT, Paul De. See Paul. 
 
 INT-YVES, C, an oculist, 1667-1733. 
 
 ITER, D., an Austrian painter, 1674-1705. 
 
 LA, Angelo, an Italian physician and her- 
 
 chemist, died 1639. 
 
 LA, N., an Italian composer, 1710-1800. 
 LA. V., an Italian painter, 1803-1835. 
 LADIN, otherwise* SALAH - ED - DEEN, 
 l of Egypt and Syria, one of the most en- 
 ned and chivalrous of Saracen princes, was 
 at the castle of Tecrit, on the Tigris, of which 
 *her was governor in 1137. His family had 
 many warriors to the princes of Mesopotamia 
 leppo, and Saladin was about thirty years of 
 hen he accompanied his uncle, Shiracoh, in 
 pedition to Egypt ; on whose death, in 1168, 
 scame commander of the forces. Like Me- 
 Ali in recent times, he possessed power and 
 sufficient to render himself independent ; 
 omit details of his wars, we find him master 
 ia and Egypt in 1183, so far at least as to be 
 dread of opposition from the native princes. 
 *" istian knights, however, had carried their 
 the East, and Saladin had been defeated 
 before by Reginald De Chatillon, grand- 
 of the Templars, who was now in posses- 
 Jerusalem, and in the habit of committing 
 ;es upon the Saracens. Saladin wisely 
 his own anthority before attacking 
 ers ; and among his national improve- 
 ly be mentioned the foundation of colleges 
 ipitals, and the fortification of his cities, 
 
 SAL 
 
 especially of Cairo. In 1187 he gave battle to the 
 Christian army of 80,000 men on the plain of 
 Hittin, or Tiberias, and having completely van- 
 quished them, he slew Chatillon with his own 
 hand, and took Guy of Lusignan, the Christian 
 king of Jerusalem, prisoner : soon afterwards he 
 captured the Holy City, and though he put the 
 templars and knights hospitallers to the sword, 
 the other Franks had the alternative of becoming 
 slaves or paying ransom. News of these disasters 
 arriving in Europe, produced the second crusade, 
 in which Richard Coeur de Lion took part in alliance 
 with Philip Augustus of France ; preceded a year 
 or two by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who 
 died before their arrival, and an immense host of 
 combatants. The key of Syria, then, as it is now, 
 was the fortress of St. Jean D'Acre, and the siege 
 endured two years, 1189-1191, in which interval 
 prodigies of valour were performed on both sides ; 
 the fortress at length surrendered, and the crusade 
 was concluded by another year's truce between Sala- 
 din and Richard, after which the latter embarked for 
 England. Neither of these remarkable characters 
 were destined to survive their acquaintance with 
 each other very long. Saladin was seized with a 
 bilious fever at Damascus, and died there at the 
 moment he was contemplating an extensive pro- 
 gramme of conquests, in 1193. Christians and 
 Saracens have vied with each other in writing 
 panegyrics on the justice, valour, generosity, and 
 political wisdom, of this prince, who possessed 
 the art, not simply of acquiring power, but of 
 devoting it to the good of his subjects. Seventeen 
 sons and a brother survived him to share his 
 power, and his conquests were presently divided 
 into several states. " [E.R.] 
 
 SALADIN II., great-grandson of the preceding, 
 assassinated after a vain attempt to recover the 
 dominion of Egypt, 1229-1261. 
 
 SALADIN, J. B. M., a Fr. politician, d. 1810. 
 
 SALARIO, A., a painter of Milan, died 1559. 
 
 SALAZAR Y MARDONES, P. De, a Spanish 
 historian of the emperor Charles V., died 1570. 
 
 SALAZAR Y MENDOZA, P. De, a Spanish 
 historian of that monarchy, 17th century. 
 
 SALDEN, W., a Dutch divine, died 1694. 
 
 SALE, A. De La, a French writer, 1398-1462. 
 
 SALE, George, an Oriental scholar, best 
 known by his translation of the Koran, was born 
 in 1680, and died in 1736. But little is known of 
 his personal history. He contributed the cosmo- 
 gony, and a small portion of the other matter to 
 the 'Universal History,' and his MSS. in the 
 Radcliffe Library, comprise some valuable articles 
 from Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature. 
 
 SALE, Sir Robert Henry, an illustrious 
 name in the annals of Anglo-Indian warfare, was 
 born in 1782, and entered the army as ensign in 
 the 36th Foot 1795. He was just in time to take 
 a subordinate part in the achievements at the close 
 of last century, which secured that magnificent 
 country to the British crown ; his name was more 
 distinctly marked, however, in the Burmese war of 
 1824-6, in the course of which he was commis- 
 sioned as lieutenant-colonel. From that period 
 till the commencement of our enterprises in Af- 
 ghanistan, there was little opportunity for reaping 
 other laurels ; but events were ripening, which 
 soon demanded the soldier's prowess, and were 
 7 
 
SAL 
 
 destined to tax the utmost resources of our com- 
 manders. These circumstances date from 1835, 
 commencing with the mission of Alexander Burnes, 
 the envoy of Lord Auckland, whose object was 
 to negotiate for consolidating the government of 
 Dost Mahomed, as a bulwark against the designs of 
 Russia and Persia. There appears to have been 
 much insincerity, and certainly a good deal of pro- 
 crastination and timidity in these overtures, so 
 that eventually Dost Mahomed, instead of becoming 
 our ally threw himself into the arms of our enemies. 
 In 1838 Sale was appointed to the command of the 
 1st Bengal brigade in the impending war, and his 
 troops formed the advance throughout the whole 
 Affghanistan campaign; finally, in September, 
 1840, he defeated Dost Mahomed at Purwan- 
 Dutrah, and compelled him to surrender to Sir 
 William M'Naghten. In 1841 the war was re- 
 newed, and Sale commanded the brigade which 
 stormed the Khoord Cabul Pass, but was com- 
 pelled to retreat upon Jellalabad, followed by the 
 army of Akhbar Khan. Shut up in this place, 
 Sale and his gallant troops were closely besieged 
 from the 12th of November, 1841, to the 7th of 
 April, 1842, on which day he made a grand attack 
 upon the besieging army, and so completely routed 
 it, that he captured the guns, the ammunition, and 
 the camp. In 1845 the Sikh army, commanded by 
 Sirdar lej Singh, crossed the Sutlej, and Sale was 
 now with the British forces under Sir Hugh Gough, 
 as quartermaster-general ; the two armies met in 
 deadly conflict at the battle of Moodkee, Dec. 18, 
 and victory being declared for the British, Gough 
 pushed on, and, four days later, fought the decisive 
 battle of Ferozeshah. In the first action Sir 
 Robert Sale had his left thigh shattered by a grape 
 shot, which proved mortal to him ; he was then in 
 the sixty-fifth year of his age. The principal works 
 illustrating this series of events are a ' Narrative 
 of the War in Affghanistan in 1838-9/ by Capt. H. 
 Havelock, 2 vols., 1840 ; ' A Memoir of India and 
 Affghanistan,' by J. Harlan, 1842, and ' The His- 
 tory of the War in Affghanistan,' by J. W. Kaye, 
 2 vols., 1851. A curious little work was also pub- 
 lished, by H. T. Prinsep, in 1844, entitled 'Note 
 on the Historical Results deducible from Recent 
 Discoveries in Affghanistan.' We may add that 
 our Sikh enemies are the representatives of a 
 religious reformation preached in India by a con- 
 temporary of Luther. [E.R.] 
 
 SALERNE, F., a French naturalist, died 1760. 
 
 SALES, St. Francis De. See Francis. 
 
 SALES, Louis, Count De, brother of St. Fran- 
 cis, a soldier and diplomatist, famous for his de- 
 fence of Savoy against the Spaniards, and of the 
 city of Annecy against Louis XIIL; he also nego- 
 tiated the treaty of Dole, 1577-1654. Charles, 
 his son, governor of St. Christopher, 1625-1666. 
 
 SALFI, F., a French dramatist, 1759-1832. 
 
 SALGAR, a Turcoman chief, founder of the 
 dvnasty named after him, died 1171. 
 
 SALIAN, J., a French Jesuit, 1557-1640. 
 
 SALICETI, G., an Italian physician, died 1250. 
 
 SALICETTI, Christopher, a native of Cor- 
 sica, who promoted the union of that country 
 to France, and was successively deputy to the 
 constituent assembly, member of the convention, 
 and the council of 500, and finally minister of war 
 at Naples under Joseph and Murat, 1757-1809. 
 
 SAL 
 
 SALIEVI, A., an Italian composer, 1750-18 
 
 SAL1MBEIN, Cavaliere Ventura, 
 Italian painter of sacred subjects, 1557-1613. 
 
 SALINAS, Francis De, a Spanish schol 
 and writer on musical theory, 1513-1590. 
 
 SALIUS, Hugues De, a French phvsician j 
 antiquary, 1632-1710. His brother, Jean B. 
 tiste, a writer on the wines of Burgundy, 17& 
 
 SALISBURY. See Cecil, John. 
 
 SALISBURY, W., a Welch lawyer, first tra 
 lator of the liturgy into that language, died U 
 
 SALLE, J. A., a French Jesuit, 1712-1778. 
 
 SALLE, J. B. De La, a French priest 
 founder of a religious order, 1631-1719. 
 
 SALLRE, P. De La, a designer, 1723-1804 
 
 SALLENGRE, A. H. De, a Dutch wti 
 counsellor to the prince of Orange, 1694-1723. 
 
 SALLO, Denis De, a French writer, the fc 
 der of modern periodical criticism, 1626-1669. 
 
 [Sallust From an Antique Butt] 
 
 SALLUST, (Caius Saleustius Crispu;j 
 Roman historian, was born at Amiternund, a 
 of the Salimes, to the north-east of Rome, B. 
 Though a member of a plebeian family li 
 educated for the service of the state, and ee 
 upon public life during the struggle betwaj 
 aristocracy and the democracy which ended 
 subversion of Roman liberty. About the ! 
 twenty-seven he obtained the quaestorship ; 
 tribune of the people in B.C. 52, he took an < 
 part in connection with the outrages which ttf 
 in the murder of Claudius and the banishmf 
 Milo, identifying himself with the popular i 
 and thereby incurring the deadly hatred 
 nobility. Two years after the expiry of 1] 
 buneship he was expelled from the senates 
 accusers on the ground of immoral condttd 
 it is quite possible that his greatest offence \i 
 attachment to the cause of the people, wl 
 judges belonged to the opposite faction. Al 
 degradation, he seems to nave repaired to ( 
 camp in Gaul, and to have accompanied hi| 
 ing his invasion of Italy. By Cajsar's inte] 
 was restored to his seat in the senate, and 
 to the office of prsetor B.C. 47, in which ftj 
 he accompanied his patron to Africa, and, J 
 conclusion of the war, was left as gov 
 Numidia. While invested with this 
 
 678 
 
SAL 
 
 just he is said to have enriched himself by plun- 
 >ring the country placed under his charge ; and 
 e allegation is to some extent confirmed by the 
 ct of the immense wealth which he afterwards 
 issessed, and which he profusely expended in 
 rming splendid gardens on the Quirinal hill. On 
 3 return from Africa Sallust withdrew from pub- 
 affairs, and spent the remainder of his life in his 
 surious retreat, engaged in the composition of 
 e historical works which he left behind him. 
 s death took place B.C. 34. His historical works 
 asisted of 1. The CalUina, or History of the 
 nspiracy of Catiline in B.C. 63, of the events of 
 lich he was a spectator. 2. The Jugurtha, or His- 
 y of the War maintained by the Romans against 
 gurtha, king of Numidia, from B.C. Ill to 106, 
 s materials for which he had probably collec- 
 . during his residence in that country ; and 3. 
 e Historice, or histories, in five books, which are 
 i to have comprised the period from the death 
 Sulla, B.C. 78 to B.C. G6. The first two works 
 re conu down to us entire, of the last we have 
 y fragments ; and the loss of it is the more to 
 (gretted, as it must have contained an account 
 Dne of the most important periods of Roman 
 x>ry, respecting which our information is very 
 igre and unsatisfactory. Of Sallust's character, 
 politician and historian, very contradictory 
 lions have been expressed both by the ancients 
 the moderns. As a devoted partizan of Caesar, 
 r as exposed to the censure of the party of Pom- 
 ; and it is therefore probable that the charge 
 mmorality, though not unfounded, was some- 
 t exaggerated by party malevolence. The 
 Ration of extortion in his province appears to 
 on a firmer foundation. His philosophical in- 
 actions have been blamed as misplaced, and 
 ntaining opinions with which the writer did 
 sympathize, charges which must perhaps be 
 ome extent admitted. His two works, how- 
 , must be judged as historical essays, illustra- 
 of great political facts, and thus admitting a 
 ter degree of latitude on the part of the 
 r, than would be admissible in continuous 
 itive. His style, though elaborate and arti- 
 1, is generally concise and perspicuous, but is 
 "onally marred by the use of archaic words, 
 by a love of brevity which is obviously the 
 t of imitation. He is, however, entitled to the 
 t of being the first Roman who wrote what is 
 regarded as history. [G F.] 
 
 LLLUSTIUS, a Platonist of the 4th century. 
 LLMANAZAR, a king of Nineveh, 8th c. b.c. 
 LLMASIUS. See Saumaise. 
 lLMERON, A., a Span, theologian, 1515-85. 
 iLMON, E. G., a Spanish statesman, d. 1832. 
 lLMON, F., a French priest, 1667-1736. 
 LMON, J., otherwise Maigret or Macrinus, 
 tin poet, teacher of the children of Rene of 
 1490-1517. His son, Charles, a Latin 
 massacred on Bartholomew's day, 1572. 
 ILMON, Nathanael, a non-juring divine, 
 n as an antiquary and extensive writer of 
 r history, died 1742. Thomas, his brother, 
 nologist and historian, died about 1750. 
 iLMON, R. f an Eng. mechanician, 1763-1821. 
 LMON, U. P., a Fr. mineralogist, 1767-1805. 
 LMON, W., a miscellaneous wr., d. abt. 1700. 
 LOME, a Jewish princess, died 72. 
 
 I 
 
 SAN 
 
 SALOMON, J: P., a Ger. musician, 1745-1815. 
 
 SALONIUS, a French prelate, 5th century. 
 
 SALT, Henry, a traveller and philologist, 
 author of an ' Essay upon Hieroglyphics,' d. 1827. 
 
 SALTER, S., a learned divine, died 1773. 
 
 SALTMARSH, John, an Antinomian minister, 
 chaplain in the army under Fairfax, died 1647. 
 
 SALUTATO, L. Coluccio Pierio, a Latin 
 poet and chancellor of Florence, 1330-1400. 
 
 SALVA, F., a Spanish physician, 1747-1808. 
 
 SALVATOR ROSA. See Rosa. 
 
 SALVERTE, Anne Joseph Eusebius Bacon- 
 niere, a member of the French chamber of depu- 
 ties, to which he was first returned in 1828. He 
 was a liberal in politics, and wrote an ' Historical 
 Essay upon the Names of Men and Places,' and a 
 work on the ' Occult Sciences.' In the latter he 
 ascribes all the mysteries of antiquity to the know- 
 ledge possessed by the priests in natural philo- 
 sophy, and, that failing them, to trickery and im- 
 posture, 1771-1839. 
 
 SALVI, N., an Italian architect, 1699-1751. 
 
 SALVI, Tarquinio, an Italian painter, 16th 
 cent. Giambatista, his son and pupil, 1605-85. 
 
 SALVIANI, H., an icthyologist, 1514-1572. 
 
 SALVIATI, F. Rossi De, an Italian painter, 
 1510-1563. ForSalviati 'the Younger,' seeroRTA. 
 
 SALVIATI, Giovanni, an Ital. cardinal, dist. 
 as a great protector of arts and letters, 1490-1553. 
 
 SALVINI, A. M., a learned Italian, 1653-1729. 
 
 SAMBUCUS, John, a learned Hungarian phy- 
 sician, antiquary, and historian, 1531-1584. 
 
 SAMERIUS, H., a German Jesuit, 1540-1610. 
 
 SAMMES, A., an English antiquary, died 1679. 
 
 SAMPSON, H., a nonconf. divine, died 1705. 
 
 SAMPSON, Thomas, an eminent reformer 
 and companion of the refugees at Geneva, nephew 
 by marriage to Latimer, 1517-1589. 
 
 SAMSON, Ole Johan, a Danish dramatist 
 and author of Scandinavian Tales, 1759-1796. 
 
 SAMSON, a judge of Israel, 12th century B.C. 
 
 SAMUEL, the last judge of Israel, and one of 
 their prophets, supposed date 1132-1043 B.C. 
 
 SAMUEL, a king of Bulgaria, 971-1014. 
 
 SAMWELL, David, surgeon of the Discovery 
 when Captain Cook was murdered, died 1799. 
 
 SANADON, N. S., a French Jesuit, 1676-1733. 
 
 SANCERRE, L. De, constable of France, dis- 
 tinguished in arms against the English, 1342-1402. 
 
 SANCHES, Ant. Nunez Ribeiro, a Portu- 
 guese physician in the Russian army, 1699-1783. 
 
 SANCHEZ, F., a Portug. philoso., 1562-1632. 
 
 SANCHEZ, Francisco, in Latin Sanctius 
 Brocensis, a Spanish grammarian, 1523-1601. 
 
 SANCHEZ, G., a Spanish Jesuit, died 1628. 
 
 SANCHEZ, Peter Anthony, a learned Span- 
 ish ecclesiastic and philanthropist, 1740-1806. 
 
 SANCHEZ, T., a Spanish casuist, 1550-1610. 
 
 SANCHEZ, T. A., a bibliographer, 1732-1798. 
 
 SANCHO, Ignatius, a negro slave, remark- 
 able for his attainments in polite literature, author 
 of a ' Theory of Music,' ' Letters,' &c, 1729-1780. 
 
 SANCHONIATHON, a Phoenician historian, 
 regarded as the most ancient writer of the heathen 
 world, is supposed to have been a native of Berytus, 
 but as the age to which he is referred is beyond the 
 historical epoch, nothing certain can be related of 
 him. Even the authenticity of the fragments 
 attributed to him has been disputed, but it only 
 
 679 
 
SAN 
 
 requires an ordinary acquaintance with the under- 
 standing of those remote ages to be convinced that 
 they are genuine remains of a very high antiquity, 
 whether written by Sanchoniathon or any other. 
 The histoiy attributed to him was composed in the 
 Phoenician language, and its materials collected 
 from the archives of the Phoenician cities, and from 
 the registers preserved in the Phoenician and 
 Egyptian temples. It was translated into Greek 
 by Philo Byblius, in the reign of Hadrian, and the 
 existing fragments of it preserved by Eusebius 
 amongst the citations of his 4 Evangelical Prepara- 
 tion.' One fragment is called ' The Cosmogony,' 
 professedly derived from Tautus, Thoth, Athothis, 
 or Hermes. Another, and by far the larger, is 
 called the ' Generations ;' it presents many interest- 
 ing points of comparison with the Mosaic Scrip- 
 tures, and professes to be the real history of those 
 times stripped of allegory. ' All these things, the 
 son of Thaoion, the first Hierophant of all among 
 the Phoenicians, allegorized and mixed up with the 
 occurrences and accidents of nature and the world, 
 and delivered to the priests and prophets, the 
 superintendents of the mysteries, and they, per- 
 ceiving the rage for these allegories increase, 
 delivered them to their successors and to foreigners ; 
 of whom one was Isiris, the inventor of the three 
 letters, the brother of Chna, who is called ' the first 
 Phoenician.' The third and last fragment is a few 
 lines preserved from Sanchoniathon's history of the 
 Serpent. The whole will be found in Cory, who 
 suggests that Sanchoniathon's omission of any 
 direct notice of the flood, in which he differs from 
 all other ancient writers, may be accounted for 
 by his determination to reject whatever was alle- 
 gorical. [E.R.] 
 
 SANCROFT, William, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, one of the prelates sent to the Tower by 
 James II. in 1688, for refusing to order the public 
 reading of the king's declaration of indulgence 
 in favour of the Catholics, 1616-1693. 
 
 SANCTIUS. See Sanchez. 
 
 SANCTORIUS, Sauctorius, whose true name 
 was San tori Sautorio, an Italian physician of con- 
 siderable distinction, was born at Capo DTstria, in 
 1561, and died at Venice in 1636, aged seventy-five. 
 He was the founder of what is called the Statical 
 School in Medicine, and in 1612 published a treatise 
 entitled, Ars de Medic'ma Statica, in which he 
 endeavoured to estimate the loss of weight that the 
 body undergoes by the various excretions, particu- 
 larly by insensible transpiration, to which he at- 
 tached much importance. [J.M'C] 
 
 SAND, Christopher Van Den, m Latin 
 Sandius, a German Socinian, 1644-1680. 
 
 SAND, C. L., a German student, member of a 
 secret society, and assass. of Kotzebue, 1795-1818. 
 
 SANDBY, P., an English artist, 1732-1809. 
 
 SANDE, John Van Deh, a Dutch jurisconsult 
 and historian, died 1638. 
 
 SANDEMAN, Robert, founder of the sect 
 who took from him the denomination of Sande- 
 manians, was a native of Perth, in Scotland, where 
 he was born 1723. He was educated at the 
 university of Edinburgh, and having married a 
 daughter of the Rev. John Glass, became a fol- 
 lower of his opinions and an elder in one of his 
 churches. The subject of controversy which led to 
 the formation of this party, was a particular view 
 
 SAN 
 of the nature of justifying faith, but they diflf 
 also, from other communions in the matter 
 discipline and church fellowship, especially in t 
 administration of the sacrament of the Holy Sr 
 per. Their fundamental tenets are Calvinis' 
 Sandeman died at Danbury, aged forty- eig 
 1771. 
 
 SANDEN, H. De, a Ger. physician, 1672-17 
 
 SANDER, Anthony, in Latin Sanderus 
 Flemish topographer and antiquary, 1586-1664 
 
 SANDERS, Nicholas, a Roman Cath 
 theologian and controversial writer, 1527-1580. 
 
 SANDERS, R., a miscellaneous wr., 1727-17 
 
 SANDERSON, Robert, an English antiq 
 rian, historian of Henry V., &c, 1660-1741. 
 
 SANDERSON, Robert, bishop of Lincoln, 
 tinguished for his extensive antiquarian, scholar 
 and historical information, known as a casuist 
 polemical writer. 1587-1663. 
 
 SANDERUS. See Sander. 
 
 SANDES. See Sandys. 
 
 SANDFORD, Sir Daniel Kbyte, profe 
 of Greek at Glasgow, son of Dr. Sandford, a 
 late of the Scottish Episcopal Church, died 18 
 
 SANDFORD F., a heraldist, 1630-1693. 
 
 SANDINI, A., an Italian historian, 1692- 
 
 SANDIUS. See Sand. 
 
 SANDOVAL, F. P. De, a Sp.histor., 1560-1 
 
 SANDRART, Joachim Von, a native of Fr; 
 fort, disting. as a painter and art-writer, 160( 
 
 SANDWICH. See Montagu. 
 
 SANDYS, or SANDES, Edwin, a dignita 
 the church, who was vice-chancellor of Cambi 
 on the accession of Queen Mary, and suffered d 
 sition and imprisonment as a partizan of ' 
 Jane Grey. In the reign of Elizabeth he wasi 
 cessively bishop of Worcester and London^ 
 archbishop of York, and had a share in the t) 
 lation known as the Bishops' Bible, 1519-! 
 Sir Edwin, his second son, a traveller and d 
 matist, to whom some sacred poems have i 
 attributed, 1561-1629. George, brother o 
 latter, and seventh son of the archbishop, a 
 veller and classical translator, 1577-1643. 
 declared that English poetry owed much t, 
 beauty to the translations of' George Sandys, i 
 was highly esteemed by his contemporaries f< 
 learning and virtues. 
 
 SANE, A. M., a French writer, 1773-181*. 
 
 SANGALLO, Giuliano Giamberti, c 
 an Italian artist and architect, son of Frau. 
 Giamberti, 1443-1517. Antonio, his bri 
 employed by Alexander VI. to convert Hadq 
 mausoleum into a fortress, now the castle i 
 Angelo, died 1534. Antonio, nephew of th< j 
 ceding, and the most distinguished architect* 
 family, a pupil of Bramante, 1482-1546. A\ 
 nio Baptista Gobbo, brother of the lat 
 translator of Vitruvius. His nephew, BasM 
 a painter, decorator, and architect, 1481-1553 
 
 SAN-GIORGIO, Benvenuto Da, an I J 
 historian and diplomatist, 1450-1525. 
 
 SANMICHELLI, Miciiele, an Ital an 
 friend of Bramante and Michelangelo, 1484-! j 
 
 SANNAZARO, J., an Italian poet, 1458H 
 
 SAN-SEVERO, Raymond De Sa:J 
 prince of, a Neapolitan, eminent for his me 
 inventions and as an amateur of the arts, IT. 
 
 SANSON, Nicholas, a French geog 
 
SAN 
 
 Eminent for the accuracy and number of his maps, 
 l *l600-1667. His three sons, Nicholas, William, 
 \{lnd Adrian, were remarkable in the same art. 
 J 'tis cousin, James, a genealogist and ecclesiastical 
 1 historian of Abbeville, 1596-1665. 
 m SANSOVINO, Jacopo Tatti, called, an Ital- 
 , Ban sculptor and architect, 1479-1570. Fran- 
 cesco, his son, a grammarian, 1521-1586. 
 > SANTA-CRUZ, Alvarez De Bassano, Mar- 
 ' iluis De, a Spanish admiral, died 1587. 
 
 SANTA-CRUZ DE MARZENADO, Alvar, 
 farquis De, a Spanish general, diplomatist, and 
 actician, b. 1687, k. by the Moors at Oran, 1732. 
 SANTEN, L. Van, a Dutch poet, 1746-1798. 
 SANTERRE, Antoine Joseph, an actor in 
 he French revolution, a brewer, of Flemish descent, 
 ras born at Paris 1752. He was by no means the 
 ode character sometimes represented, but well 
 ducated, and the possessor of a large fortune, 
 cquired in trade. His familiarity with the work- 
 len in his employ, and his extreme generosity 
 for in famine time, he gave away nearly 12,000 
 rorth of meat and rice) made him popular in St. 
 jitoine, and he became commander of the battalion 
 f that quarter. He displayed great courage and 
 resence of mind at the storming of the Bastile, 
 nd would deserve remembrance if it were only for 
 ae other act about the same time, that of saving 
 le invaluable Bibliotheque du Roi from destruc- 
 on by the mob. In May, 1792, he became com- 
 lander of the national guard, and on the 20th of 
 one, when the Marseillaise had arrived, and the 
 alace was invaded by the populace, he thrust his 
 dlow patriots out of the queen's chamber and 
 rotected Marie Antoinette and her children from 
 urther outrage ; it is said that from this time may 
 b dated the secret understanding that the queen 
 ad with the agitators of the faubourgs. Many 
 ther instances of the good nature of this Ajax of 
 je Parisian populace might be mentioned, as that 
 F causing the drums to cease beating for a few 
 wments when Louis was on the scaffold; this 
 ave the king the opportunity of addressing a few 
 r ords to the people, and so provoked the Mar- 
 allaise that they would have commenced firing 
 ad not the drums instantly struck up again by 
 rder of another general. Santerre possessing 
 ttle talent, but a vast deal of courage, often run 
 nmense risk to save life and property, and there 
 i no wonder that he miscarried, when despatched 
 La Vendee, in command of an army, to oppose 
 lossignol. For this mischance, however, he was 
 irown into prison, and did not recover his liberty 
 ptil after the fall of Robespierre. His good- 
 atured, and useful, though not very brilliant part 
 ithis strange drama of history was now at an end, 
 d he died in obscurity 1809. [E.R.] 
 
 SANTERRE, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1651-1717. 
 SANTEUIL, or SANTEUL, John De, in 
 itin Saniolius, a French ecclesiastic and Latin 
 ct, 1630-1697. 
 
 SANTORIO. See Sanctorius. 
 SANTOS, J. Dos, a Portug. mission., d. 1622. 
 SANUDO, Marco, a Venetian general who 
 palized himself in the army of crusaders who 
 erthrew the Greek empire, 1153-1220. An- 
 elo, son of the preceding, and his successor as 
 ike of the Archipelago, 1195-1254. Marco, 
 u of Angelo and third duke, died 12G3. Guli- 
 
 SAR 
 
 elmo, son and successor of Marco, 1284. Nicolo, 
 son and successor of the latter, distinguished 
 against the Genoese and the Turks. Giovanni, 
 brother of Nicolo, sixth and last duke, married his 
 daughter to the prince of Negropont, who became 
 prince of Naxos. 
 
 SANUTO, Livio,a Venetian noble, distinguished 
 as a poet, historian, and geographer, 1530-1586. 
 
 SANUTO, Marino, a Venetian traveller in the 
 East, author of a curious work, 14th century. His 
 relative, of the same name, historiographer to the 
 state of Venice, au. of valuable Diaries, 1466-1531. 
 
 SANZIO, J. De, an Italian painter, 15th cent. 
 
 SAPOR I., king of Persia of the Sassanide 
 dynasty, succeeded his father, Artaxerxes, 240. 
 He invaded Mesopotamia 242, and having con- 
 quered Armenia, Syria, and Cilicia, he put to 
 death the emperor Valerius with great cruelty. 
 He was defeated by Odenatus 269, and died 271. 
 Sapor II., a posthumous son of Hormisdas II., 
 was proclaimed 310, before his birth. He became 
 an active and warlike prince in conflict with the 
 Romans, and was a great enemy to Christianity, 
 died 380. Sapor IIL, succeeded Artaxerxes II., 
 384, he kept peace with the Romans, died 389. 
 
 SAPOR, a king of Armenia, 420. 
 
 SAPPHO, a lyric poetess of old Greece, born at 
 Lesbos, and supposed to have flourished about 610 
 B.C. Nothing certain is known of her life, but 
 she is represented as a woman of dissolute morals, 
 and is said to have drowned herself in consequence 
 of the neglect of a youth with whom she had become 
 enamoured. The invention of the Sapphic verse 
 is attributed to her, but there only remains of her 
 writings a ' Hymn to Venus,' and an ' Ode to a 
 Young Female,' which have been rendered into 
 English by Ambrose Philips. The contradictory 
 traditions concerning her lite have led to the sup- 
 position that other celebrated women of the same 
 name must have lived at different epochs. 
 
 SARABIA, J. De, a Span, painter, 1608-1669. 
 
 SARAVIA, H. A., of Spanish origin, but 
 reckoned among English divines, was a professor 
 of divinity and friend of Hooker, 1531-1613. 
 
 SARAZIN, J., a French sculptor, 1590-1660. 
 
 SARAZNO, J., a French marshal, 1770-1824. 
 
 SARBIEWSKI, Matthias Casimir, in Latin 
 Sarbievius, a Polish lyric poet, 1595-1640. 
 
 SARCHIANI, Guiseppe, an Italian economist, 
 archivist of Tuscany during the revol., 1746-1821. 
 
 SARCMASIUS. See Schurtzfleisch. 
 
 SARDANAPALUS, the name of several princes 
 of Assyria, the most celebrated of whom was the 
 last sovereign of the first Assyrian empire. His 
 reign dates from 836 to 817 B.C., when he was 
 dethroned by Arbaces and Belesis, at the head of 
 a revolt of the Medes, Persians, and Babylonians. 
 In the last extremity, Sardanapalus, who had 
 withstood a siege for three years in Nineveh, placed 
 himself, his treasures, his wives, and his eunuchs 
 on a funeral pile, which he fired with his own 
 hand. He had ceased to exist when the city was 
 taken, and that event was followed by the dis- 
 memberment of the Assyrian empire. The above 
 date is only an approximation to the true one, as 
 authorities vary. [E-R-3 
 
 SARPI, Pietro, called Fra Paolo, a Venetian 
 historian, and defender of the republic against 
 the pope, Paul V., 1552-1623. 
 
 C81 
 
SAR 
 
 SARRABAT, N., a French botanist, 1698-1737. 
 
 SARRASIN, J. A., a Fr. phvsician, 16th cent. 
 
 SARRASIN, J. F., a French' poet, 1603-1654 
 
 SARRASIN, M., a naturalist, 1659-1736. 
 
 SARTI, G., an Italian composer, 1730-1802. 
 
 SARTO, Andrea Vannucchi, called Del, the 
 most dist. painter of the Tuscan school, 1488-1530. 
 
 SASSI. SeeSAXi. 
 
 SAUL, the first kins: of the Israelites, perished 
 in combat with the Philistines B.C. 1040. 
 
 SAULI, the apostle of Corsica, 1535-1592. 
 
 SAUMAISE, Claude, in Latin Salmnsius, a 
 native of Burgundy, eminent for his learning as a 
 critic, commentator, Orientalist, and archaeologist. 
 He was born in 1588, and having retired to Hol- 
 land on account of his protestantism, succeeded 
 Scaliger as professor of history at Leyden in 1631. 
 In 1649 he wrote a Latin memorial m defence of 
 Charles I., which was answered by Milton for the 
 parliament. In 1650 he visited the court of Sweden 
 by invitation from Queen Christina, and is said to 
 have suffered from the climate, so that he never 
 recovered, but died in 1658. His father. Benigne 
 De Saumaise, was a Greek scholar, and counsellor 
 to the parliament of Burgundy, 1560-1640. 
 
 SAUMAREZ, James, Lord De, a British ad- 
 miral, who was born in Guernsey 1757, and first 
 signalized himself in the naval service during the 
 American war. In 1797 he was in the action off 
 Cape St. Vincent, and was second in command to 
 Nelson at the battle of the Nile, fought soon after. 
 In 1801 he was named rear-admiral of the blue, 
 and appointed to the command of the squadron off 
 Cadiz. With this little fleet he won a signal vic- 
 tory, for which he received the thanks of both 
 houses of parliament, and a pension of 1,200. He 
 became vice-admiral in 1831, died 1836. 
 
 SAUNDERS, Sir E., an Engl, judge, d. 1683. 
 
 SAUNDERS, J. C, a dist. oculist, 1773-1810. 
 
 SAUNDERS, W., a medical writer, 1743-1819. 
 
 SAUNDERSON, Nicholas, a native of Thur- 
 leston, in Yorkshire, who distinguished himself as 
 a mathematician, though he was deprived of his 
 sight by small-pox when only twelve months old. 
 He was born in 1682, and succeeded Whiston as 
 professor of mathematics at Cambridge university 
 in 1711. The account of Saunderson's experience, 
 the quickness to which his senses of hearing 
 and feeling were heightened, and his surprising 
 acquisitions, is one of the most interesting in bio- 
 graphical literature. Died 1739. 
 
 SAURIN, Elie, a French protestant minister, 
 1639-1703. Joseph, his brother, a natural philo- 
 sopher and mathematician, remarkable for his 
 independent spirit, and for his controversies with 
 Rolle, Huyghens, and Rousseau ; he also abjured 
 Calvinism, 1659-1737. Bernard Joskph, son 
 of the latter, a dramatic writer, 1706-1791. 
 
 SAURIN, James, one of the most eminent 
 
 Erotestant ministers of France, was the son of a 
 iwyer at Nismes, and became pastor of the Wal- 
 loon church in London, and afterwards to the 
 protestant nobles who had sought refuge at the 
 Hague. He is the author of some theological and 
 critical works, 1677-1730. 
 
 SAURIN, Right Hon. William, an Irish 
 lawyer, and attorney-general, 1767-1840. 
 
 SAUSSAY, A. Du, a Fr. theolog., 1589-1675. 
 
 SAUSSURE, H. B., a Swiss natural, and philo- 
 
 SAV 
 
 sopher, disting. for his valuable observations mad 
 while exploring the glaciers of the Alps, and ft 
 improvements in scientific instruments, 1740-99. 
 
 SAUSSURE, Nicholas Theodore De, bor 
 at Geneva, October, 1767 ; died April, 1845 ; son < 
 the preceding. He accompanied his father in h 
 travels, and assisted him in many of his researche 
 He afterwards devoted himself to physiologies 
 chemistry, and contributed many important papei 
 to this department of science. Priestley ha 
 shown that plants absorbed carbonic acid ; Sans 
 sure confirmed this observation, and proved thi 
 a small proportion of this gas in the atmosphei 
 favours vegetation, but that a larger ainoui 
 asphyxiates plants. He likewise devoted muc 
 time to a siibject originally broached by Kirws 
 viz., the connection between the inorganic coi 
 stituents of plants and the soils on which tht 
 grow, and established Kirwan's view that in organ 
 food is necessary for vegetation. He lilcewi; 
 made numerous researches on the composition 
 the air, at Geneva, particularly on the proportic 
 of carbonic acid which is present in different coi 
 ditions of the atmosphere; and obtained resul 
 which have been confirmed by the experiments 
 more modern chemists with all the delicate appl 
 ances of recent discovery. He was one of the fir 
 persons to point out the identity of sugar of start 
 and of grapes; and to invent modes of analyzh 
 organic substances so early as the beginning 
 the present century. [R.D.T 
 
 SAUVAGE, D., a French historian, 1520-158 
 
 SAUVAGES, F. Boissier De, a French botai 
 ist, 1706-1767. His brother, P Augustin, 
 philologist, 1716-1795. 
 
 SAUVAL, H., a French historian, 1620-1670 
 
 SAUVEUR, Joseph, a French physician ai 
 mathematician, who created the science of musics 
 acoustics, 1653-1716. 
 
 SAVAGE, Henry, chaplain to Charles II., ai 
 historian of Balliol college, 1604-1672. 
 
 SAVAGE, John, a facetious divine, suppo 
 author of a ' Collection of Letters,' &c, died 174' 
 
 SAVAGE, Richard, has very little claim 
 remembrance as a poet. Yet he threw oil* son 
 happy lines and phrases, and, among others, t!' 
 often-quoted verse, 'The tenth transmitter of 
 foolish face.' His best poems, too, ' The Wandere 
 and ' The Bastard,' have, especially the latter, ti- 
 interest which belongs to strong feeling vented 
 real facts. The history of this unfortunate mri 
 was a tragic romance ; and it has preserved h 
 name by having been related in one of the mo 
 impressive of narratives. His biographer, Sanroi 
 Johnson, who became acquainted with him wh1 
 the two were alike destitute and hopeless, spe^ 
 of him with an affection which, amidst all ti j 
 unlucky man's faults, must have been justified' t 
 some good points in his character From Job 
 son's 'Life of Savage' the facts may be be 
 learned. He was born 1698, the illegitimate cW 
 of two persons of rank, was persecuted by If 
 mother, narrowly escaped execution for murde 
 and, after a miserable life of forty-five years, die- 
 a prisoner for debt, in 1743. [W.S 
 
 SAVARON, J.,' a French writer, 1550-1622. 
 
 SAVART, F., a French physician, 1791-1841? 
 
 SAVARY, A. C, a French physician and puj 
 of the physiologist Bichat, 1776-1814. 
 
 C82 
 
SAV 
 
 SAVARY, James, fanner of the revenues of 
 
 the French crown, and a writer on commercial 
 
 law, 1622-1690. His two sons, James and 
 JPhilemon, compiled ' The Universal Dictionary 
 J of Commerce,' published 1723. 
 
 I SAVARY, Nicholas, a French traveller and 
 
 Orientalist, 1750-1788. Julian, his brother, 
 historian of the wars of La Vendee, 1824. 
 
 SAVARY, Rene, a distinguished French general. 
 He was a native of Ardennes, and was appointed 
 colonel of gend'armes by the first consul for his 
 bravery, but perhaps more for his ready obedience 
 in executing the sentence against the unfortunate 
 Duke D'Enghien. He was created Duke of 
 Roviga for his services in Prussia, and com- 
 manded the army in Spain until the arrival of 
 Joseph; he succeeded the duke of Otranto as 
 minister-general of police. After the restoration 
 he lived in retirement; but at the revolution in 
 July, 1831, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 Df the African army, 1774-1833. 
 SAVERIEN, Alexander, a French mathe- 
 atician and writer on naval tactics, 1720-1805. 
 SAVIGNY, C. De, a French writer, born 1540. 
 SAVILLE, Sir Henry, a native of Yorkshire, 
 Jistinguished as an elegant Greek scholar, mathe- 
 natician, and patron of learning, founder of two 
 )rofessorships at Oxford, 1549-1622. 
 SAVILLE, George. See Halifax. 
 SAVIOLI, L. V., an Italian poet, 1729-1804. 
 SAVOLDO, G., an Italian painter, 16th cent. 
 SAVONAROLA, J. M., a physician of Padua, 
 1384-1462. His grandson, Girolamo, next ar- 
 icle. Raphael, of the same family, a compiler, 
 .646-1730. Innocent Raphael, nephew of the 
 atter, and an author, 1680-1748. 
 
 SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO, or JEROME, 
 iras born at Ferrara, 12th October, 1452. He 
 snjoyed a religious education, and was in some 
 espects a precocious youth. Though originally 
 ntended for his father's profession, as a physician, 
 ie secretly became a Dominican monk in 1474. 
 Miter teaching philosophy for a season, he devoted 
 lis whole attention to preaching, and produced a 
 ;reat sensation by the pointedness and vehemence 
 " his pulpit oratory. In 1489 he removed to Flo- 
 unce, lived in the convent of St. Marco, and de- 
 ilaimed with extraordinary freedom and daring, 
 nd with unusual success, against every form of 
 lypocrisy, vice, and unbelief. His unbounded in- 
 raence and constitutional ardour, seem to have 
 teated his imagination, and he ventured on occa- 
 ional predictions, at once novel and startling, 
 md published them in the form of authentic 
 eacles, and under the impression that they were 
 [enuine revelations to himself from heaven. With 
 aracteristic boldness and energy, he interfered 
 nth the politics of Florence, inculcated demo- 
 racy, and opposed the ascendancy of the Medici, 
 " that when they were expelled, he became a 
 Bader of the triumphant party. These victors 
 bnned a vast deliberative council, and discussed 
 rith great pomp the affairs of state, while Savo- 
 larola was exalted by them into a kind of prophetic 
 nd judicial president of the republic. His enemies, 
 l the meantime, accused him to the pope, Alexan- 
 tar VI., as an impostor and a heretic. His holiness 
 ummoned him to Rome, but the reformer refused 
 o obey the citation. On this refusal he was ex- 
 
 
 SAX 
 
 communicated and forbidden to preach. But this 
 sentence only excited him to more terrible denun- 
 ciations, in which the pope himself was styled a 
 usurper. A Franciscan inquisitor was sent to 
 challenge and confront Savonarola, but the citizens 
 interfered and sheltered him. The popular tide 
 at length turned, when he shrank, after some 
 vacillations, from subjecting his cause to an 
 ordeal by fire. His antagonists entered the con- 
 vent, dragged him out, placed him on the rack, 
 and extorted some ejaculations from the unhappy 
 victim, which their malignity easily construed into 
 confessions of guilt. On being ultimately con- 
 demned to death with two of his associates, he 
 was first strangled, then his body was tossed into 
 the flames, and his ashes were thrown into the 
 river, 23d May, 1498. The most of Savonarola's 
 writings were in Italian, and only a few in Latin. 
 He left behind him about 300 sermons and 50 
 tracts. His 'Triumphus Crucis,' is a work of 
 some power, but his genius is principally seen in 
 those sermons in which the errors of Romanism 
 are unsparingly condemned, and many evangelical 
 truths illustrated and enforced, and which are also 
 distinguished and filled with peculiar unction and 
 piety. The opinions of Roman Catholic writers 
 vary widely as to the character of this hevo- 
 martyr, some holding him to be a saint, and others 
 branding him as a heretic. Burned by one pope, 
 he was tacitly canonized by another. Over the 
 room he inhabited in the convent of St. Mark, 
 still stands an inscription with the epithet ' Vir 
 Apostolicvs.'' Savonarola was in many things in 
 advance of his age, and was a reformer before the 
 reformation. Eloquent, sincere, and devout, he 
 laboured with heart and soul for his church and 
 country, and met with that fate which the patriot 
 and apostle have so often received from a fickle 
 people, and an alarmed and vindictive despot- 
 ism. [J.E.] 
 
 SAVOT, L-, a French numismatist, 1579-1640. 
 
 SAWYER, Sir Robert, one of the chief coun- 
 sel for the seven bps., reign of James II., d. 1692. 
 
 SAXE, Christopher, in Latin Saxius, a Ger- 
 man philologist and literary historian, 1714-1806. 
 
 SAXE. Count Maurice of Saxony, better 
 known in history as Marshal Saxe, was the natural 
 son of Augustus II., king of Poland, and elector of 
 Saxony. Maurice was a soldier, and saw actual 
 service at the siege of Lisle, when he was only 12 
 years old. He was at Malplaquet in 1709 ; and 
 he afterwards served under Prince Eugene against 
 the Turks. In 1720 he was introdueed to the Re- 
 
 fent Orleans, who persuaded him to enter into the 
 'rench service, and gave him the rank of marshal. 
 Though a married man, he was as notorious for the 
 frequencv of his love adventures, as for his mili- 
 tary abilities. He obtained the Duchy of Cour- 
 land in 1726, through the fondness of the Duchess 
 Anna for him, but he soon lost his new principality. 
 He alienated the duchess by his inconstancy, and 
 thus lost also the chance of becoming emperor of 
 Russia, when Anna succeeded to the throne of the 
 czars in 1730. When the war broke out between 
 France and Austria in 1733, Marshal Saxe solicited 
 and obtained employment in the French armies. 
 He distinguished himself greatly at the siege of 
 Philipsburg ; and when peace was made in 1736 
 he devoted some time to the study of the art of 
 
 683 
 
SAX 
 
 war, and to the composition of a treatise on that 
 subject, which is still cited by military writers. 
 It was in the general European war, which began 
 in 1740, that he gained the triumphs by which he 
 is best known. He commanded the French army 
 at Fontenoy in 1745, and won a memorable victory 
 over the English and their allies, which was fol- 
 lowed by the conquest of all Belgium. At the 
 commencement of the campaign of that year, Mar- 
 shal Saxe was lying ill at Pans, with his constitu- 
 tion utterly rained by the dissolute life which he 
 had long led, and suffering under a severe attack 
 of dropsy. His physicians told him that if he left 
 Paris for the army they could not answer for his 
 life. His answer was, ' The question now is not 
 how I am to live, but how I am to go,' and he 
 went and conquered accordingly. He was obliged 
 to be tapped only five days before the battle was 
 fought ; and he was carried about in a litter dur- 
 ing the engagement. The victory of the French 
 was due mainly to his skill and energy, and to 
 the valour of the Irish brigade in the French ser- 
 vice. In 1747 he gained a second victory over the 
 English and their allies at Laffelt. He survived 
 the conclusion of the war about two years, and 
 died in 1750, loaded with honours by the French, 
 who were indebted to him for the two chief of the 
 very few successes which they have ever had in 
 fair pitched battles against the English. [E.S.C.] 
 
 SAXE-COBOURG. See Coburg. 
 
 SAXE-GOTHA, Ernest, duke of, a comman- 
 der in the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 1C01-1675. Ernest II., a great patron of the 
 sciences and letters, 1745-1804. 
 
 SAXE-GOTHA and ALTENBERG, E. Leo- 
 pold, duke of, distinguished as a poet and musi- 
 cian, 1772-1822. 
 
 SAXE-TESCHEN, Albert, duke of, son of 
 Augustus II., king of Poland, and brother of the 
 dauphiness, mother of Louis XVI., known as an 
 enemy of the French republic, 1738-1822. 
 
 SAXE-WEIMAR, Bernard, duke of, one of 
 the most celebrated generals of the protestants 
 during the thirty years' war, 1600-1639. 
 
 SAXI, or SASSI, Giuseppe Antonio, an 
 ecclesiastical historian of Milan, 1675-1751. 
 
 SAXO, called Grammaticus, on account of his 
 learning, a Danish historian, 12th century. 
 
 SAY, J. B., a French economist, 1767-1832. 
 
 SAY, Samuel, a dissenting minister, known as 
 a poet and essayist, died 1743. 
 
 SCACCHI, F., an Italian savant, 1573-1643. 
 
 SCACCIA, J., an Italian engineer, 1778-1833. 
 
 SCiEVOLA, Mutius, one of the heroes of Ro- 
 man story, said to have conspired with 300 others 
 against Porsenna. He saved his life by an act of 
 heroism, of which the record will be found in Livy. 
 
 SCALA, Bartolommeo, gonfalonier of Flo- 
 rence, and the historian of his state, 1430-1495. 
 His daughter, Alessandra, wife of the poet 
 Marullus, celeb, for her great learning, died 1506. 
 
 SCALA, Deli a, a famous Ghibelline family of 
 Ferrara, principal of whom are Mastino, elected 
 podesta about 1260, assassinated by the Guelphs 
 1277. Albert, his brother, who avenged his 
 death and governed after him from 1277 to 1300. 
 Can Francesco, called ' The Great,' the most 
 illustrious of the familv, grandson of Mastino, 
 podesta from 1312 to his death in 1329. Dante, 
 
 SCA 
 
 who found a refuge at his court, has immortalizec 
 him in verse. A second Mastino, nephew of th( 
 latter, reigned 1329-1351. He was followed b] 
 Can II. and Can HI., both his sons, the latter o: 
 whom died 1375. Antonio, a natural son 
 Can III., reigned with his brother, Bartolommeo 
 and had him put to death 1381. He afterward) 
 lost his estates, and died 1388. 
 
 SCALA, D. De La, a physician, 1632-16/ 
 SCALIGER, Julius Cesar, called the' Elder, 
 a famous classical scholar and commentator, wa 
 born at Padua or Verona in 1484, and beinj 
 naturalized in France, died at Agen in 1558. Hi 
 history is disputed, as he is not believed to be th 
 person he represented himself, but rather a Guilu 
 Bordone, son of Benedetto Bordone, a Paduan 
 who followed the profession of an illuminator a 
 Vienna. His inordinate vanity is supposed ti 
 have prompted him to pretend to a relationshi] 
 with the Scalas of Verona. He acquired grea 
 reputation in France by his skill in polemics. 
 
 SCALIGER, Joseph Justus, son of the pre 
 ceding, and the creator of the chronological science 
 was born at Agar in 1540, and in 1593 becam 
 professor of polite literature at Leyden. He fa 
 surpassed his father in learning, and drew large! 
 upon his stock of words in all languages to abus 
 his learned contemporaries, with many of whom 
 like his father, he entered into angry controversies 
 The merit belongs to him of inventing the Julia:, 
 period. Died 1609. 
 
 SCAMOZZI, V., an Ital. architect, 1552-16U 
 SCANDERBEG, or BEY ALEXANDER, 
 celebrated Albanian chief, whose proper name wa 
 George Castriotto. His father, Prince John c 
 Albania, gave him in hostage to Amurath I 
 The sultan had him educated in the Mahommeda 
 faith, and at the age of eighteen gave him th 
 command of a body of 5,000 troops, which he le 
 against the Servians. His father dying in 1435 
 he resolved to acquire possession of his hereditar 
 principality. Being a man of great prowess ssoA 
 energy of character, he soon effected his purpose^ 
 having previously renounced the Mahommedai 
 faith and allegiance to the sultan, by deserting i 
 the Christians and joining Hunniades, general < 
 the Hungarian army. Becoming chief of th 
 Albanians, a protracted and harassing war fo 
 lowed, with various fortune, until, by repeated 
 successes, he completely consolidated his powe 
 and preserved the independence of his countr 
 He was a great terror to the Turks, who style 
 him the ' White Devil of Wallachia,' and the Ai 
 banians still celebrate him in their national son^ 
 After his death, however, his country soon agai 
 submitted to Mussulman rule, 1404-1467. 
 
 SCANDIANESE, whose proper name -* 
 Titus Ganzarini, an Italian dramatist, 1518-8IJ 
 SCAPULA, J., a Germ, lexicographer, 16th <r 
 SCARAMUCCIA, L. Pellegrini, a Milana 
 painter and engraver, 1616-1680. 
 
 SCARBOROUGH, Sir Charles, physician 
 Charles II., known as a mathematician, 1616-91 
 SCARDONA, J. F., an It. physic, 1718-180C 
 SCARLATTI, Alessandro, the founder of tl 
 Neapolitan school of music, 1650-1725. His soi 
 Domenico, a composer and harpist, 1683-175' 
 Giuseppe, son of the latter, an opera compose 
 1718-1776. 
 
 684 
 
SCA 
 
 SCARPA, A., an Italian anatomist, 1747-1832. 
 SCARRON, Paul, famous in French literature 
 lbs a burlesque writer and comic poet, was born 
 ht Paris in 1610. Having wasted his fortune 
 I In debauchery, he commenced writing for the 
 ; theatres, and received a pension from Anne of 
 I Austria, which was withdrawn on the appearance 
 lj>f his ' Mazarinade.' In 1652 he persuaded the 
 Mademoiselle D'Abigne, afterwards the famous 
 tfadame de Maintenon, to marry him, and for- 
 unately for her, departed this life in 1660. The 
 est of his works is the ' Roman Comique,' trans- 
 ited by Goldsmith. 
 SCARSELLA, Sigismund, 6urnamed Modino, 
 n Italian painter, 1530-1614. His son, Ippouto, 
 arnamed Scarlepino, a painter, 1551-1621. 
 SCARSGILL, W. P., an English wr., d. 1836. 
 SCAVINI, J. M., an Ital. physic, 1770-1825. 
 SCHAAF, C, a Germ. Orientalist, 1646-1719. 
 SCHAARSCHMIDT, Antony and Samuel, 
 istinguished surgeons and anatomists, the former 
 720-1791, the latter 1709-1747. 
 SCHABOL, J. R., a Fr. agricultur., 1690-1768. 
 SCHADOW, Z. R., an Ital. sculp., 1786-1822. 
 SCHADOW, J. G., a Germ, sculp., 1764-1850. 
 SCHFFER,G.H., a Ger. Hellenist, 1764-1840. 
 SCHjEFFER, J. C., a German naturalist, 
 18-1790. His brother, J. Gottlieb, a phy- 
 
 1720-1795. 
 
 SCHALKEN, G., a Dutch painter, 1643-1706. 
 
 SCHALL, J. A., a Ger. missionary, 1591-1659. 
 
 SCHANK, John, a native of Fifeshire, distin- 
 
 " bed as a naval officer and engineer, 1740-1823. 
 
 "HANNAT, J. F., a Ger. historian, 1683-1739. 
 
 HARD, S., a German compiler, 1535-1573. 
 
 HARFENBERG, G. L., a German entomolo- 
 
 duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 1746-1810. 
 
 SCHARROK, R., an English philosopher of the 
 
 100I of Hobbes, 17th century. 
 
 SCHATTEN, N., histor. of Westphalia, 1608-76. 
 
 SCHATZ, G., a German poet, 1763-1795. 
 
 SCHAUFELEIN, J., a Dutch painter and en- 
 
 iver, taught by Albert Durer, 1487-1550. 
 
 SCHEDE, P., a German poet, 1539-1600. 
 
 SCHEDE, E., a Germ, antiquarian, 1615-1641. 
 
 SCHEDONE, or SCHIDONE, Bartolomeo, 
 
 Italian painter, style of Correggio, 1570-1615. 
 
 SCHEELE, Charles William, a native of 
 
 eden, born 19th December, 1742, at Stral- 
 
 ld, Sweden ; died 21st May, 1786, at Koping 
 
 Lake Moeler. This distinguished Swedish 
 
 jmist, the son of a tradesman, was educated at 
 
 jrivate academy in his native town, and after- 
 
 rds at a public school, and then served his ap- 
 
 nticeship as an apothecary at Gotheborg. He 
 
 I sequently acted as assistant to apothecaries at 
 
 :1 Imo, Stockholm, and Upsala. There his genius 
 
 i racted the attention or the professors at this 
 
 '. < ibrated university, who encouraged him in his 
 
 : ] suits ; but it is remarkable that the Swedish 
 
 I ernment, although aware of his talents, 
 
 M, perhaps the ablest man which that 
 
 ij has produced, ultimately to end his days 
 
 humble apothecary in a village on the banks 
 
 Moeler. To him we owe the discovery of 
 
 chlorine, and of molybdic, tungstic, 
 
 lactic, gallic, tartaric, oxalic, citric, malic, 
 
 c, and saclactic acids, glycerine and oxy- 
 
 He ascertained the nature and the consti- 
 
 scn 
 
 tuents of ammonia and prussic acid, the charac- 
 ters of barytes and manganese, and the elements 
 of the atmosphere. Few men of his century, with 
 the exception of Priestley, can be compared with 
 him as a discoverer. The last act of his life exhi- 
 bits his character in a highly honourable phase. 
 When in 1777 he bought the apothecaries' shop at 
 Koping, he formed the intention of marrying the 
 widow of his predecessor, and only delayed for the 
 purpose of saving so much property as to make 
 such an alliance desirable on her part. While 
 labouring under a mortal rheumatic affection he 
 declared his intention of marrying her in March, 
 1786 ; but his disease increasing rapidly, it was 
 not till the 19th May that the ceremony was per- 
 formed. On the 21st he left her all his property, 
 and on the same day he breathed his last. [B.D.T.J 
 
 SCHEELS, R. H., a Dutch savant, 1622-1664. 
 
 SCHEFFEL, C. S., a Ger. physic, 1693-1763. 
 
 SCHEFFER, John, a German archaeologist 
 and literary savant, professor at Upsala, 1621-1679. 
 His grandson, Henry Theophilus, a Swedish 
 chemist and botanist, 1710-1759. 
 
 SCHEIBE, J. A., a Ger. composer, 1708-1776. 
 
 SCHEID, E., a Dutch Orientalist, 1742-1795. 
 
 SCHEIDT, Balthazar, a German theologian 
 and Orientalist, 1624-1670. His son, Valentine, 
 a physician, 1651-1731. 
 
 SCHEIDT, Chr. L., a legist and historiogra- 
 pher to the king of Denmark, 1709-1761. 
 
 SCHEINER, C, a Ger. astronomer, 1575-1650. 
 
 SCHELHAMMER, Christopher, a Dutch 
 botanist, 1620-1652. His son, Gonthier Chris- 
 topher, a physician and botanist, 1649-1716. 
 
 SCHELLER, E. J. G., a German lexico- 
 grapher and philologist, 1735-1803. 
 
 SCHELLING, Frederick William Joseph; 
 born at Leonberg in Wirtemberg, 27th January, 
 1775 : his philosophical career seems closed, but 
 Schelling still lives in honoured retirement near 
 Berlin. We shall certainly not attempt to give a 
 critical account of the speculations of this remark- 
 able man. It must suffice if we can point out his 
 place, in the history of recent German philosophy, 
 and define his practical influence over his contem- 
 poraries: nor do we undertake even this, unless 
 under concession of the license to employ such 
 general language as alone may convey to the 
 reader of notices like these, some distinct concep- 
 tion of the character of an obscure and difficult 
 theme. The order of recent German speculation, 
 as marked by its authors, is the following Kant, 
 Fichte, Schelling, Hegel. In the article de- 
 voted to him, we have explained pretty fully the 
 peculiar achievements of Kant, which were briefly 
 these ; living in an age when the pure sensational 
 philosophy had arrived at its lowest stage, deny- 
 ing activity and even personality to Mind, he re- 
 established by irresistible criticism, that Mind is 
 an essential Energy and Force; and farther un- 
 folded the specific Laws according to which that 
 Force acts. He showed that whatever the exter- 
 nal Universe on which the Mental Force acts, our 
 Substantive Knowledge depends, for its form and 
 nature, wholly on these Mental Laws. Nay 
 overlooking to a large extent the possible power of 
 Intuition properly so-called (article Leibnitz) 
 he went so far as to say that, of the External 
 Universe itself, we can know nothing save that it 
 
 685 
 
SCH 
 
 exists, or rather that an obscure something called 
 the Noumenon exists. It is evident wherein 
 Kant's merit lies; he established the prime Re- 
 ality of Subjective or Mental Laws. Next, came 
 Fichte. Can it be alleged, said he, that Philo- 
 sophy is complete, so long as it recognizes, on the 
 one hand, a Subjective Force, and opposite to it 
 that hidden and impenetrable Externality called 
 the Noumenon ? Let us look deeper into things ! 
 What necessity for this Noumenon? Do we 
 in reality know anything except the move- 
 ments of Mind itself'; and is not the thing we 
 term Externality, only our sense of obstacles in the 
 way of the Mind's efforts to develop itself? 
 Hence his pure Subjective Idealism: he re- 
 jected the existence of everything except his Ego ; 
 and it cannot be denied that he had several logical 
 advantages over Kant. When Fichte's philoso- 
 phy sustained by his wonderful ardour and elo- 
 quence promised to become supreme, Schelling 
 arose, and ventured a loftier flight. On first 
 entering the philosophic arena, he was quite 
 young; and a Temperament essentially poetic, 
 warm with the Enthusiasm of early years, possessed 
 as its companion and fellow-worker, an Intellect, 
 which whatever its degree of incompleteness 
 must, by all the world, be confessed to have been 
 endowed with extraordinary powers. With Fichte, 
 Schelling rejected Kant's dualism the first and 
 fatal step of both, (article Hamilton). The 
 ultimate principle of Philosophy, he said, must 
 be One, or the Absolute. Now this Absolute can- 
 not be in the Object or in Externality ; for that is 
 not perceived or known to exist unless by a Mental 
 Force distinct from itself; neither in the Mental 
 Force of Kant, which needs a Noumenon to stir it 
 to action ; nor in the Ego of Fichte, which only 
 develops itself under the experience of obstacles. 
 What then, is that, which all Philosophy seeks 
 the One of Parmenides, the Substance of Spin- 
 oza, that Absolute and Transcendent Reality, 
 which is the foundation at once of all existence 
 and all knowledge ; and, for Itself, has no founda- 
 tion except Itself? It will be observed how 
 nearly this Inquiry touches on the thought of all 
 Religious Philosophy, so near is it, that the so- 
 lution might appear contained in the Idea of a 
 Supreme Mind, in whom we live, move, and 
 have our Being. And Schelling actually finds it, 
 in an Idea closely analogous the Idea of an A bso- 
 late Subject of an Ego, not special like Fichte's, 
 but Absolute and Transcendent, characterized by 
 perfect unity, by liberty, reality, absolute substan- 
 tiality, cause imminent, infinite, indivisible, im- 
 mutable. The correspondence, however, is not 
 more than apparent : at least, there is soon a 
 widest divergence. From this Absolute, according 
 to Schelling, all things flow, or rather they are only 
 its developments : Material Creation is an expres- 
 sion of its Infinite Reality, its positive manifesta- 
 tion within the limits of the Finite ; and Mind is the 
 act of its Self consciousness, it is the act or power 
 by which its Laws and Ideas are directly seen and 
 felt. No use then, he exclaims, of a Pre-estab- 
 lished Harmony between the realms of Thought 
 and Existence; for they are the same: the actual 
 World is only the representation of Ideas, and 
 Mind is the type of the Universe. The Subject 
 and Object, are thus not only, mere harmonious 
 
 SCH 
 
 Opposites : they are Identical. There are tw 
 distinct aspects under which this extraordinar 
 and daring Philosophy of Identity, must be 
 garded : a few remarks on each will enable us 
 comprehend the nature and limits of Schelling 
 influence. I. And, jirst, on that point of loft 
 est moment as to the character of any Philost 
 phy the place it assigns to the Mature an 
 Duties of Man. Now, it cannot be doubted, tha 
 whatever the glowing and gorgeous account it ca 
 give of the attributes and dignity of the Reason- 
 attaining in its high Inspirations, identity wil 
 the Absolute itself Schelhng's philosophy is op< 
 to that fatal objection already alluded to und 
 article Hegel it builds upon Ideas obtain* 
 through our human Consciousness, and finally d 
 monstrates that these Ideas are untrue ! V 
 should despair of success in an attempt to cou 
 municate here, anything of a distinct account 
 the conceptions of this remarkable German, as 
 the position of the individual Ego ; but it is plai 
 that there is no room among them either for o 
 Human Personality, or our Human Liberty, 
 writings, indeed, are full of impressive rei'erenc 
 to Moral Liberty ; but he tells us, when na 
 rowly questioned, that Liberty, as a power of i 
 dependent action, is incompatible with the idea 
 the Absolute. Neither on Schelling's system q 
 personality of any kind inhere in the individj 
 Mind. If we understand him aright, the soul 
 nothing more than an Idea of the soul of G( 
 Its Individuality perishes with the body of whi 
 it is the living principle ; although, as an Idea, 
 must live for ever, within the Thought of J 
 Absolute, to which it returns. If, as has be 
 alleged, this Pantheism is the most gorgeous of 
 similar schemes that Philosophy, ancient or n 
 dern, has evolved ; certainly it is also one of i 
 least disguised. It was understood that af 
 silence during those twenty years, within wh. 
 the system of Hegel rose, flourished, and $ 
 Schelling had undertaken to state his Philosoj 
 anew, and to supplement it, so that Human Di 
 and Responsibility should be saved. For this t> 
 in 1841, he reappeared, in possession of the Of 
 at Berlin; but after occupying that distinguisl 
 place for three years, he has finally retired, 
 out affording the world assurance of his success i 
 Turning from the views of Schelling regard; 
 Man, to those which inspire his conceptions of | 
 External Universe, we pass from durknes*;! 
 light. Considering this vast scheme of Mate 
 Nature, not as a mere collection of dead jfl 
 held together by external relationship; but a 
 development now and for ever a developing! 
 cessantly unfolding, of the attributes o^^ 
 Supreme Intelligence how profound, 
 impressive the Thought ! It is no exagga 
 that this exalted and most true Idea, has in 
 alike into the Science, Art, and Literature of 
 many, the greater portion of that loftiness ai 
 hering life, which nas stamped it with the in 
 of Immortality. The Universe, said Schelli 
 not merely an existence, it is a becomfy 
 about-to-be. It is not a mechanism, but a gb 
 organism: and on this ground Okl:n and] 
 of his compeers wrought out those wonderful 
 prophetic views, which even now to elat 
 and discern in their details, is perhaps the lq 
 
SCH 
 
 SCH 
 
 [lory of our own illustrious Owen. II. We must His range of thought is incomparably narrower; 
 
 1 his imagery not only wants the inexhaustible 
 variety of Goethe's, but also fails in reaching his 
 romantic cast of refined ideality ; and his tone of 
 feeling is less purely and abstractedly poetical. 
 But his poetry, while its richness of imagination 
 within its own sphere is magnificent, and while it 
 is ruled by a very high sense of art, glows with a 
 flame of intense and elevated moral emotion, which 
 is irresistibly and delightfully impressive. It com- 
 municates the spirit which prompted it, and which 
 governed the character of the warm-hearted and 
 conscientious poet, the spirit of love and reve- 
 rence, of love for mankind, and reverence for all 
 that is truly great and noble. It was accident 
 and emulation, rather than innate aptitude, that 
 led him to put forth his strength most frequently 
 on the drama; and his greatest works are less 
 excellent in their portraiture of character (which 
 is monotonous and often unreal), than in their 
 deep passion, their moral purity and dignity, and 
 their beautiful array of imaginative adornment. 
 Many of his smaller poems, his odes and ballads, 
 are as tine as those of Goethe; and he was not 
 only an animated and eloquent historian, but also 
 an acute expounder of the laws of philosophical 
 criticism. The short life of Schiller, beginning at 
 a time whose literary character for Germany has 
 been noted in the memoir of Goethe, is distributed, 
 by his biographer Carlyle, into three periods. The 
 first of these reaches from his birth, on the 10th 
 of November 1759, to 1783, when he was in his 
 twenty-fourth year. This was the time of his 
 irregular youthful aspirations, a stage in his 
 history which was in some points like the youth 
 of Goethe. His father, a retired army surgeon, 
 was still in the service of the duke of Wurtemberg; 
 and the poet was born at Marbach, in that duchy. 
 After shifting from school to school, he was, in 
 1783, by the command of the duke, placed for six 
 years in a college recently founded at Stuttgard, 
 and administered with a military formality of dis- 
 cipline, which proved highly irksome to the pupil. 
 He had contemplated being a clergyman. He was 
 now compelled to study law ; and it was only as 
 a change of evils that he accepted, after two years, 
 the permission to betake himself to medicine. His 
 favourite books were the critical and philosophical 
 works of Lessing ; the ' Goetz,' lately published by 
 Goethe, which prompted a juvenile tragedy ; and, 
 among other poems, the 'Messias' of Klopstock, 
 which tempted bim to an imitation in his four- 
 teenth year. In bis nineteenth year he began to 
 write 'The Robbers,' an irregularly impressive 
 monument of youthful fantasy, an exaggerated 
 picture of human passion and error, drawn by one 
 who, in his own words, had ' presumed to delineate 
 men two years before he had met one.' In 1780, 
 having been appointed a regimental surgeon, he 
 was able to print his tragedy : it caused universal 
 excitement and much alarm, and brought on the 
 author a ducal censure. In October, 1782, he 
 absconded from Stuttgard to seek freedom and 
 fame. In 1783 he published two other prose tra- 
 gedies, 'Fiesco' and 'Cabal and Love.' Both 
 
 | are remarkable works, and the latter is deeply in- 
 
 j teresting ; but neither is worthy to have been any- 
 thing more than a youthful ess:iy-piece of Schiller. 
 
 I The second period of liis life opens here. Becom- 
 
 asten, however, with a few and brief remarks, on 
 e second main feature of this singular Scheme. 
 " tiling's philosophy is a Philosophy of Iden- 
 . He does not deny either Mind or Matter 
 either the Ego or the non-Ego ; but he de- 
 ares them variations in form only, and that they 
 the same. The Mind is in one sense a mirror 
 the external universe ; the Ideas of the former, 
 the Laws of the latter: hence, every true 
 osophy of Nature must aim at discerning the 
 entity of these Laws with these Ideas ; for the 
 scovery of such Identity is its ultimate triumph. 
 Likewise from this essential aspect of Schelling's 
 stem, much error, and much of highest value 
 ive flowed. His own systematic ' Natur Philo- 
 phiej is certainly very strange ; and no one in 
 is country can recognize any accuracy in its 
 thod. Undervaluing the guidance of Induction, 
 institutes a description of d priori inquiry, 
 urting from the Mental Pole ; and, laying down 
 lat he finds there, as a sort of a priori schema, 
 sets about constructing Laws of Nature, in cor- 
 pondence with it. Nothing can well be con- 
 ved farther from truth than his actual results ; 
 hough even amid that extraordinary medley 
 my curious germs and indications, lie hid 
 shings of unquestionable genius. But the 
 leral Idea has not been unproductive. It has 
 pired many of the noblest productions of 
 ethe ; and we can trace its influence through 
 German poetry since Schelling first wrote, 
 greatest achievements, however, lie in the 
 ilosophy of Art. It has raised Art, from being 
 lere imitation or copy of Nature, to a high re- 
 rch after Archetypal Ideas, a research 
 ducted in the main by that mysterious and 
 Roundest Faculty belonging to our Human 
 rit the Faculty of Imagination. The 
 glish reader will find many conceptions drawn 
 n Schelling, scattered through the prose writ- 
 of Coleridge, whose remarkable mind 
 a philosophy was especially calculated to 
 anate. Of his successor Hegel, we have 
 sady endeavoured to speak. See also article 
 noza. [J.P.N.] 
 
 1CHELLINGS, William, a Dutch painter of 
 and history, 1631-1678. Daniel, his 
 and pupil, 1633-1701. 
 CHERMER, L., a Dutch painter, 1688-1710. 
 iCHERZ, J. G., a Ger. antiquarian, 16.8-1754. 
 CHEUCHZER, John James, a Swiss phvsi- 
 i and naturalist, 1672-1733. His brother, 
 r, a botanist, 1684-1738. His son, John 
 par, a naturalist, 1702-1729. 
 CHEYB, F. C. De, a Germ, poet, 1704-1777. 
 CHI AMINOSSI, Raphael, an Italian painter 
 engraver, born at Borgo-San-Sepolcro, 1580. 
 3HIAVONE, Andrew, whose proper name 
 Medula, a painter of Dalmatia, 1522-1582. 
 CHIDONE. See Schedone. 
 CHIEFERDECKER, John David, a German 
 dogian and Orientalist, 1672-1721. 
 CHIERSCIIMIDT, J. J., a German juriscon- 
 and partizan of the doctrines of Wolfe, d. 1778. 
 CHILL, Ferdinand Von, a Prussian officer, 
 ing. in the war against the French, 1773-1809. 
 CHILLER, Friedrich, is the only German 
 who can contest the supremacy of Goethe. 
 
 687 
 
son 
 
 ing, for subsistence, poet ' to the theatre at Man- 
 heim, he produced, besides small poems, the ' Phi- 
 losophical Letters,' which show the continuance of 
 his chaotic and unsettled state of mind ; and, in 
 the ' Thalia,' a periodical devoted to criticism, and 
 chiefly written by himself, he printed, in 1784, the 
 first three acts of the noble ' Don Carlos,' his 
 earliest dramatic piece in verse. In the spring of 
 1785 he gave up his place in the theatre, and went 
 to live in the pretty village of Gohlis, in the wood- 
 land meadows near Leipzig. There he wrote, in a 
 more cheerful vein than hitherto, his beautiful 
 ' Song to Joy.' ' Don Carlos,' completed in 1786, 
 made him celebrated as one of the first of all Ger- 
 man poets ; but he was weary of dramatic writing, 
 and occupied himself much with lyrical and nar- 
 rative ballads, like The Song of the Bell,' ' The 
 Walk to the Forge,' ' Knight Toggenburg,' and ' The 
 Cranes of Ibycus.' About this time also, he printed 
 his extraordinary prose romance (never finished) 
 called 'The Ghost-Seer.' He was next busied 
 much with historical studies, and printed in part a 
 1 History of Remarkable Conspiracies and Revolu- 
 tions.' Soon afterwards he visited Weimar, where 
 he became acquainted with Herder and Wieland, 
 and afterwards with Goethe, between whom and 
 him there was at first much dryness, giving place 
 by degrees to cordial esteem. In 1788 appeared 
 the first volume of his admirable ' History of the 
 Revolt of the Netherlands,' which procured for him 
 what he had long panted for, a quiet and indepen- 
 dent social position. His attainment of this object 
 begins the third and last period of his fife. In 
 1789, being in his thirtieth year, he was appointed 
 to the professorship of history at Jena, a few miles 
 from Weimar ; and in the beginning of the next 
 year he married happily. He retained his pro- 
 fessorship for ten years, removing, in 1799, to 
 Weimar, where he lived on a pension from the 
 duke, and on the fruits of such literary labour as 
 he was able to undertake. He had been threatened 
 with a disease of the chest as early as the time of 
 his settlement at Jena ; and the air of that place 
 was pronounced too keen for him. The physicians 
 indeed ordered, without effect, a total abstinence 
 from intellectual exertion. Among the earliest 
 fruits of this period were 'The History of the 
 Thirty Years' War ' (1791), regarded as his best 
 work of this kind; and several treatises on the 
 Philosophy of History, taken from or prompted by 
 his lectures. Afterwards, studying the philosophy 
 of Kant, he endeavoured to apply its principles to 
 Literary Criticism in several singularly interesting 
 essays, among which may be noted the ' Letters 
 on the jEsthetical Education of Mankind' (1795). 
 A good many critical and other papers were fur- 
 nished to periodicals; and large additions were 
 made to the stock of his minor poems. But, amidst 
 all these exertions, and with a disease which he 
 knew to be killing him, Schiller composed also the 
 last and finest series of his long Poems. He con- 
 templated writing an historical epic : but the design 
 was never executed, and he fell back on the drama. 
 His last historical work suggested the idea of 
 4 Wallenstein ;' and this fine play, or series of plays, 
 which has with justice been declared to be ' the 
 greatest dramatic work of the eighteeenth century,' 
 appeared in 1799. The tragedy of ' Maria Stuart' 
 was published in 1800 ; the admirable ' Maid of 
 
 SCH 
 
 Orleans' in 1801; in 1803, in the beautiful but u 
 perfect tragedy of ' The Bride of Messina,' Schif 
 tried how far the forms of the Greek drama coi 
 be accommodated to modern ideas ; and, in 18( 
 the career of an illustrious poet was worth 
 closed by the animated and poetical drama, 'W 
 helm Tell.' That year, at Berlin, where he si 
 his last play acted, Schiller's disease brought h 
 to the brink of the grave. He recovered sutlicicn 
 to return to Weimar, and died there on the 9th 
 Mav, 1805. [W. 
 
 S'CHILLER, J. G., father of the great po 
 known as an agriculturist, 1723-1796. 
 
 SCHILLING, F. A., a Ger. novelist, 1766-18.' 
 
 SCHILTER, J., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1632-17 
 
 SCHIM, H., a Dutch poet, 1695-1742. 
 
 SCHIMMELMANN, Ernest Henry, Cot 
 Von, a statesman and patron of letters, died 18i 
 
 SCHIMMELMANN, Henry Charles, Coi 
 Von, a Danish minister of finance, 1724-1782. 
 
 SCHIMMELPENNINCK, Rutger John, 
 Dutch statesman and revolutionist, 1761-1825. 
 
 SCHINNER, or SKINNER, Matthew, kno 
 in history as the Cardinal of Sim, legate of 
 pope Julius II., and chief of the intrigues oppoi 
 to the pretensions of the French, died 1521. 
 
 SCHINDLER, V., a learned German, d. 161 
 
 SCHLEGEL, John Elias, a German poet 
 dramatic writer, some of whose plays are 8 
 acted in his native country, ancestor of the 
 tinguished brothers of that name, 1718-17 
 John Henry, his brother, professor of hist* 
 1724-1780. John Adolphus, a third brotl 
 distinguished for his literary talents as a theolog 
 and poet, and particularly for his eloquence s 
 minister of the Lutheran church, 1721-17 
 Charles Augustus, eldest son of the latter, 
 officer in the service of the English East Id? 
 Company, and a student of Sanscrit literature, c 
 young. His other two sons are the subjects of 
 following articles. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, August Wilhelm Von, 
 son of a Lutheran clergyman, was born at Hanc; 
 in 1767. At Gottingen, where he was first e j 
 cated for the church, he passed to philosophy 
 studies, and distinguished himself by contribul 
 both prose and verse to the leading periodic. 
 In 1797 he began to publish his excellent transit 
 of Shakspeare, which, after some years, he left t< 
 completed and improved by Tieck. In the sn 
 year he obtained a professorship at Jena. He ir 
 ried a daughter of Michaelis; but, soon separat 
 from her, and resigning his office, he spent sev 
 years at Berlin. He there published the firsi 
 two volumes of poems, which, with his class 
 tragedy ' Ion,' were for a time highly estimat 
 and he also translated Calderon. But his c 
 occupation was the contribution of critical 
 other papers to periodicals, in which, with- 
 brother Frederick and Ludwig Tieck, he air 
 at inculcating those views of literature w\) 
 make up the system, called by the Germans l 
 Romantic. In 1805 he became acquainted 
 Madame de Stael, whom he taught pretty ne 
 all she ever learned of German literature, 
 attended during her travels for several years.^ ' 
 eloquent and striking ' Lectures on DramaA 
 and Literature,' which have made his nanw 
 popular in England, were delivered at Vienn 
 
SCH 
 
 and printed the year after. On the fall of 
 
 apoleon he went to Coppet, and resided there till 
 
 [adame de Stael's death in 1818. Next year he 
 
 as appointed professor of history at Bonn, an 
 
 See which he held till his death. Here he mar- 
 
 ed a daughter of the theologian, Paulus; and this 
 
 arriage, like the other, soon ended in a separa- 
 
 jn. His ambition now, besides some minor objects, 
 
 med mainly at skill and fame as an Orientalist ; 
 
 id by his essays, translations, and teaching, he 
 
 d very much for the study of the Sanscrit lan- 
 
 lage. He died in 1845. [W.S.] 
 
 SCHLEGEL, Friedrich Von, the younger 
 
 other of Wilhelm, possessed both greater exact- 
 
 ss of knowledge, and greater power of philo- 
 
 jMcal thought : but he was obscure and mys- 
 
 al, and carried completely away by that 
 
 am of reverence for the middle ages, which 
 
 his brother, Tieck, Novalis, and others, laid 
 
 the foundation of their so-called Romanti- 
 
 m. He was born at Hanover in 1772, and died 
 
 1829. Classical literature was the theme 
 
 his earliest works. In 1796 he and his bro- 
 
 t set on foot the ' Athenseum,' the first organ 
 
 their peculiar critical opinions. His history 
 
 erwards exhibits a constant changing of place, 
 
 I an industrious and versatile series of literary 
 
 rks ; while his pursuits were further varied by 
 
 itical and official employment. The serious- 
 
 i and consistency with which he carried out 
 
 admiration of the mediaeval period showed 
 
 mselves, in him as in some of the poets and 
 
 sts, by a change of religion : he and his wife, a 
 
 fhter of Moses Mendelssohn, became Roman 
 olics in 1801. The same turn of mind made 
 act, with sincerity but much unpopularity, 
 zealous abettor of the political system of the 
 itrian government. The works of his which 
 best known in this country are the ' Lectures 
 the History of Ancient and Modern Litera- 
 ,' (1815), and the 'Philosophy of Historv,' 
 59). [W.S.] 
 
 CHLEGEL, T., a Ger. philologist, 1739-1810. 
 CHLEGEL, T. A., a Ger. physician, 1727-72. 
 CHLEIERMACHER, Frederic Daniel 
 test, an eminent German divine, was a native 
 .reslau, where he was born in 1768. His 
 :ation was obtained in the Moravian institu- 
 at Niesky, and on leaving that academy in 
 ' to pursue the study of theology, to whicn he 
 resolved on dedicating his future life, he re- 
 to the university of Halle. Having received 
 he was in 1794 appointed assistant preacher 
 ndsberg, on the Warte; and afterwards 
 r of the charite, a large hospital in Berlin, 
 it situation he continued six years, and dur- 
 b incumbency published a variety of little 
 , such as a German translation of Fawcett's 
 the Monologues, Letters of a Minister out 
 lin, and various contributions to religious 
 literary periodicals. His translation of Plato 
 gun at an early period ; and as that was a 
 undertaking, comprising several large volumes, 
 ublication extended over a series of years. 
 g been appointed to a situation at Stolpe, he 
 Berlin, in 1802, and settled in that curacy, 
 he published a volume of sermons. He had 
 wever, been a year resident at Stolpe, when 
 chosen professor extraordinarius of divinity 
 
 SCH 
 
 at Halle and preacher to the university. On the 
 separation of Halle from Prussia, in 1807, he 
 returned to Berlin as a public lecturer, and in two 
 years after was appointed first minister of Trinity 
 church, and afterwards professor ordinarius of the 
 new university in that city. At this period he 
 published his celebrated ' Study of Theology,' and 
 in consequence several literary honours were con- 
 ferred on him, for he was elected a member of the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences, and secretary to the 
 Philosophical Society. It must be acknowledged, 
 that, however eminent his literary and philosophical 
 acquirements, he brought at this part of his career 
 a spirit of rash theoretical speculation to the dis- 
 cussion of theological subjects, that was deeply 
 deplored by all simple hearted believers in the 
 Gospel. Among his productions of this character 
 must be ranked his ' Essay on the Gospel of Luke,' 
 which was published in 1817 ; his ' Body of 
 Divinity' (Christiche Glaube) was given to the 
 world in 1822. This remarkable work, it is diffi- 
 cult to describe, for its plan is altogether unique, 
 consisting of a regular consecutive series of philo- 
 sophical propositions, the elucidation of which by 
 turns astonishes the reader with its profundity, 
 perplexes him with its intricacy, and delights him 
 with the ardent piety that pervades it. In 1828, 
 Schleiermacher accepted an invitation to come to 
 London, to preach on the re-opening of Dr. Stein- 
 kopff's German church of the Evangelical Lutheran 
 School. His text on that occasion was taken from 
 Ephes. iv. 23, and the sermon, amid much that 
 was of an eminently devotional and impressive 
 strain, produced a great sensation by its novel and 
 startling peculiarities. He was the author of 
 several volumes of sermons, besides his last work 
 on ' The Doctrine of the Christian Faith.' He 
 died 12th February, 1834, in the full enjoyment of 
 the comforts of the gospel. A posthumous 
 portrait of him soon after his death was published, 
 accompanied by an admirable hymn of Claus 
 Harms, or ' Heaven as the Christian's Fatherland,' 
 and under the picture the following inscription, 
 ' Happy end of a celebrated Divine.' The early 
 writings of this eminent man abounded in a strain 
 of sentiment, that led to his being extensively 
 classed with the Neologian divines of Germany. 
 Nay, the bold and startling opinions he announced 
 in his larger works gave rise to impressions still 
 more unfavourable to his theological soundness, 
 for he has been characterized by various writers as 
 aSabellian, Hegelian, Fatalist, and even a Pantheist. 
 Those who are most intimately conversant with his 
 works, regard all such epithets as entirely unwar- 
 ranted at any period of his life. There can be no 
 doubt, however, that as he advanced in life his 
 views became more scriptural and orthodox, and 
 he must be considered as the great leader in that 
 happy movement, which broke up the old school 
 of German theology, as occupying a midway place 
 between a Hegel and a Hengstenberg, between a 
 dead Rationalism and a living Evangelism. He was 
 a person of the most active habits. He preached 
 every Sabbath, without notes, to a crowded audience, 
 and his lectures at the university during the week 
 attracted as great a crowd of admirers as his ser- 
 mons in the church. He exercised an immense 
 influence over the intellectual, and especially the 
 religious character of his countrymen. [R.J.J 
 9 2Y 
 
SCH 
 
 SCHLICHTEGROLL, A. H. Frederic Von, 
 a German biographer and numismatist, 1764-1822. 
 
 SCHLICHTINGIUS, Jonas De Buccowiec, 
 a Socinian writer of Poland, 1596-1664. 
 
 SCHLOEZER, or SCHLOETZER, A. L., a 
 German historian and Orientalist, 1737-1809. 
 
 SCHLUTER, A., a Dutch sculptor, 1662-1713. 
 
 SCHMAUSS, John James, professor of public 
 law and history at Gottingen, author of a ' Precis 
 of the History of the Empire,' 1690-1747. 
 
 SCHMIDT, B., a German jurist, 1726-1778. 
 
 SCHMIDT, Christopher, a writer of Rus- 
 sian history, Hanover, 1740-1801. His son, 
 Conrad Frederic, a theologian and philoso- 
 pher, 1770-1832. 
 
 SCHMIDT, E.. a Germ, philologist, 1560-1637. 
 
 SCHMIDT, F.'W., a German botanist, d. 1796. 
 
 SCHMIDT, G. F., a Germ, engraver, 1712-75. 
 
 SCHMIDT, J. A., a Lutheran div., 1652-1726. 
 
 SCHMIDT, M. I., a Germ, historian, 1736-94. 
 
 SCHMIDT, S., a German Orientalist, d. 1697. 
 
 SCHMITH, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit and 
 historian of Hungary, died 1767. 
 
 SCHMITZ, H. N., a Dutch engraver, 1758-90. 
 
 SCHMUCK, E. J., a Germ, physician, the first 
 to write on magnetism in that country, died 1792. 
 
 SCHNEIDER, C. V., a Ger. anatom., 1610-80. 
 
 SCHNEIDER, E., or J. G., a German Hellen- 
 ist, and actor in the French revolution, 1756-1794. 
 
 SCHNEIDER, John Gottlieb, a German 
 lexicographer, and naturalist, 1750-1822. 
 
 SCHNURRER, C. F., a German theologian 
 and Orientalist, 1742-1822. 
 
 SCHOBER, G., a Germ, physician, 1670-1739. 
 
 SCHOEFFER, Peter, one of the inventors of 
 printing, was a native of Gernsheim in Darmstadt, 
 and in early life followed the trade of a copyist at 
 Paris. He was connected with Guttemberg and 
 Faust from about the year 1450, and the daughter 
 of the latter became his wife. He is supposed to 
 have died in 1502. 
 
 SCHOEPF, J. D., a Ger. naturalist, 1752-1800. 
 
 SCHOEPFLIN, J. D., a German historian 
 and publicist, professor at Strasburg, 1694-1771. 
 
 SCHOLARIUS, a patriarch of Constantinople, 
 who was secretary to John Palasologus, and 
 changed his name to Gennadius, died 1460. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, A. C, a divine, 1756-1792. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Armand Frederic De, de- 
 scended from a German family, was born of an 
 English mother of the house of Dudley in 1619, 
 and began his military career in the army of Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus. From 1661 to 1685 he was in 
 the service of France, and became marshal, but in 
 the last mentioned year he retired to Brandenburg 
 in consequence of the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, and became Prussian commander-in-chief 
 and prime minister. In 1688 he joined the prince 
 of Orange, and was shot at the battle of the 
 Boyne, 15th July, 1690. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Henry, Count De, and marshal 
 of France, distinguished as a statesman, ambassa- 
 dor, and commander, was born of an ancient family 
 of Misnia, established at Paris, 1583, died 1632. 
 His son, Charles, a marshal of France, and 
 governor of Languedoc, 1601-1656. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Isaac and Ralph, two sons of 
 a Jewish physician of Cologne, who died in Lon- 
 don 1761. Isaac was a graduate of Leyden and 
 
 SCH 
 
 Cambridge, but was refused a fellowship in t 
 College of Physicians, and died 1780. Rali 
 practised as a physician at Yarmouth and Bal 
 defrauded a public charity, and published a stol 
 Life of Meeamas as his own, died 1792. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Isaac, a naval commander a 
 
 historian, who distinguished himself in the fleet 
 
 Rodnev, and in the victory of Howe 1794, d. 181 
 
 SCHONER, J., a Ger. mathemat., 1477-155: 
 
 SCHOOCKINS, M., a Dutch critic, 1614-16( 
 
 SCHOORL, SCHOREL, orSCHOREEL, Job 
 
 a Dutch painter of the Italian school, 1495-156!, 
 
 SCHOOTEN, F., a Dut. mathemat., 17th ee 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, Johanna, a popular G 
 
 man authoress, who lived at Weimar, and enjc 
 
 the friendship of Goethe, 1770-1838. ' 
 
 SCHOPP, Caspar, in Latin Scioppius, a lean 
 
 German, called the ' Grammatical Cur,' 1576-16 
 
 SCHOTANUS, C, a Dutch historian, 1603- 
 
 SCHOTT, And., a learned Flemish Jesuit, 15 
 
 1629. Francis, his br., an author, 1548-162S 
 
 SCHOTT, Gaspard, the pupil and friend 
 
 Father Kische, famous for his discoveries in nati 
 
 and experimental philosophy, 1608-1660. 
 
 SCHOTTE, J. P., a Ger. physician, 1744 
 
 SCHRADER, J., a Dutch savant, 1721-178 
 
 SCHREIBER, J. F., a surgeon, mathematic 
 
 and prof, of anatomv at St. Petersburg, 1705 
 
 SCHREVELIUS, Cornelius, a labor 
 
 Dutch critic and lexicographer, Haarlem, 1615 
 
 SCHROECH, L., a Ger. physician, 1646-17 
 
 SCHROECKH, J. M., a native of Vienna, an 
 
 of a History of the Church, 1733-1803. 
 
 SCHROEDER, C, an Austr. general, d. 1? 
 SCHROEDER, John Joachim, a Ger 
 Orientalist, 1680-1756. His son, Philip Geor 
 a physician and medical writer, 1729-1772. 
 SCHUBART, C. F. D., a Germ, poet, 173< 
 SCHUBERT, F., an Aust. musician, 1795-1 
 SCHRYVER, Peter. See Scriverius. 
 SCHULEMBOURG, J. Mathias, Count 
 a companion-in-arms of Prince Eugene, 1661-] 
 SCHULTENS, Albert, a German Orien- 
 and biblical commentator, 1686-1750. His 
 John James, an Orientalist, and successor o 
 father as professor at Leyden, 1716-1778. Hi 
 Albert, son and successor of the latter, 174 
 SCHULTET, Abraham, in Latin Scultett 
 eminent protestant divine of Germany, 1566- 
 SCHULTING, A., a German jurist, 1659 
 SCHULTING, C, a D. theologian, 1540- 
 SCHULTZ, Bartholomew, in Latin Scut 
 a Ger. mathematician, who was employed by 
 gory XIII. in reforming the calendar, 1540-1 
 SCHULTZE, E. C. F., a Ger. poet, 1789- 
 SCHULZE, Benjamin, an Orientalist s<i 
 and Lutheran missionary to India, died 176C 
 SCHULZE, G. E., a Ger. philosopher, aufc 
 a work opposed to Kant and Reinhold. 1761- 
 SCHULZE, J., a German philosopher, p* 
 of the doctrines of Kant, 1739-1805. 
 SCHULZE, P. H., a Ger. physician, 168' 
 SCHUMACHER, Heinrich Christi 
 distinguished professor of astronomy, born a' 
 stein 1780, died 1850. 
 
 SCHURER, J. L., a Ger. physician, 1734 
 SCHURMANN, Anna Maria De, a nat 
 Cologne, remarkable for the extent of her ' 
 ledge in the arts and sciences, 1607-1678. 
 
 690 
 
SCH 
 
 i SCHURTZFLEISCH, Conrad Samuel, in 
 Latin Sarcmasius, a German savant, 1641-1708. 
 f SCHUSTER, G., a Ger. physician, 1701-1785. 
 SCHUTZ, C. G., a Ger. philologist, 1747-1832. 
 SCHWAB, J. C, a German mathematician and 
 liilosopher, opposed to Kant, 1743-1821. 
 J SCHWANTHALER, an eminent German 
 -julptor, 1802-1848. 
 
 ii SCHWARTZ, Berthold, otherwise Con- 
 
 wantine Aucklitzen, a German monk, to 
 
 jjhom the invention of gunpowder has been attri- 
 
 jjited. He was preceded, however, by Roger 
 
 icon, who died 1292. Cannon were first used 
 
 the Venetians in 1300, and were employed by 
 
 fle English at the battle of Cressy 1346. 
 
 S SCHWARTZ, C, a Germ, painter, 1550-1594. 
 
 ^SCHWARTZ, C. T., a Ger. savant, 1675-1751. 
 
 JSCHWARTZENBURG, Charles Philip, 
 
 ince Von, an Austrian field-marshal and diplo- 
 
 itist, born at Vienna 1771. He negotiated the 
 
 uriage between Napoleon and Maria Louisa in 
 
 09, commanded the Austrian contingent in the 
 
 npaign of Russia 1812, and was general of the 
 
 ops which entered Paris after its capitulation 
 
 1 L4; died 1819. 
 
 1? SCHWARZENBERG, Prince, the celebrated 
 tf) strian statesman, succeeded Metternich as prime 
 J> oister in November, 1848, when the Austrian 
 ire was almost in ruins ; 1800-1852. 
 CHWEDIAUR, or SWEDIAUR, F. X., a 
 nch physician and naturalist, 1748-1824. 
 CHWERIN, Curt Christopher, Count Von, 
 -marshal in the service of Prussia, companion- 
 of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, born 
 killed at the battle of Prague 1757. 
 IAVONI. M., an Italian painter, 1522-1582. 
 2. tCILLA, Aug., an Italian painter, 1639-1700. 
 13 iCINA, D., an Italian physician, 1765-1837. 
 M iCIOPPIUS. See Schopp. 
 IB 1CIPIO, the name of several illustrious Romans: 
 rait . Publius Cornelius, general of cavalry and 
 vllisul, 393 b.c. 2. Lucius Cornelius, sur- 
 jtial led Barbatus, consul 297 b.c. 3. Lucius 
 His einelius, consul 259 and censor 258 B.c. The 
 sson ription on his tomb, discovered in 1780, is one 
 i, H ;he oldest monuments of the Latin tongue. 
 ,1'-. jNeius Cornelius, surnamed Asina, twice 
 C!i!!<( ml, 260 and 254 b.c. ; he distinguished him- 
 lo*l against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 5. Pub- 
 liiiWB Cornelius, consul 218 B.C., in which year 
 lo^lost the battle of Picinus, which left Hannibal 
 in Salter of northern Italy ; he went as proconsul to 
 red If in, and was killed there in the contest with 
 1540-1 rubal 212. 6. Cneius Cornelius, surnamed 
 1$ nis, brother of the preceding, filled the same 
 alisti es, and reaped his laurels and his death in 
 iillS n about the same time. 7. Publius Corne- 
 er ,a l, surnamed Africanus the Elder, son of Pub- 
 [0 Cornelius and nephew of the preceding (next 
 ^r.ji le). 8. Cneius Cornelius and Lucius (or 
 1 lius) Cornelius, sons of Scipio Africanus, 
 $} i little place in history; the latter, however, 
 ijjpjsjj emorable as an historical writer, and for his 
 \0 1 tion of the second Africanus. 9. Luci us Cor- 
 I [us, surnamed the Asiatic, son of the Publius 
 r was killed in Spain, and companion-in-arms 
 )E ' j j t brother, Africanus. He was consul 189 B.C., 
 jjjlmefeated Antiochus. king of Syria, but after- 
 - died in obscurity. 10. Publius Corne- 
 
 SCI 
 
 lius, surnamed Nasica, son of the Cneius Corne- 
 lius killed in Spain ; he is remembered as a man 
 of the rarest public virtue, distinguished him- 
 self as a jurisconsult, defeated the Lusitanians, 
 and was consul 200 b.c. 11. Publius Cornelius 
 Scipio Nasica, surnamed Corculum, son of the 
 preceding, consul 162 b.c. 12. Publius Corne- 
 lius, surnamed Serapion, son of the preceding, 
 was consul 138 b.c, and became sovereign pontiff 
 by the choice of his fellow-citizens, without pre- 
 senting himself at the election. He suppressed 
 the sedition of Tiberius Gracchus, his cousin, at 
 the cost of three hundred lives, B.C. 133, and was 
 then sent on a mission to Asia, where he died 131. 
 13. His son, Publius Cornelius, was consul 
 112 b.c, and died the same year. 14. Scipio 
 Nasica, son of the latter, known, in consequence 
 of his adoption, as Metellus Scipio, and the 
 enemy of Caesar, exercised great influence at the 
 declining period of the republic; he killed him- 
 self after the defeat of Thapsus b.c 46. 15. His 
 son, Publius Cornelius, was consul in the reign 
 of Augustus b.c 15, and was exiled for his inces- 
 tuous intercourse with Julia. 16. The last of the 
 Scipios known to history, grandson of the preced- 
 ing, was a vile character of the reigns of Tiberius, 
 Claudius, and Nero. He distinguished himself, 
 however, as a soldier. 
 
 SCIPIO AFRICANUS the ELDER (Pub- 
 lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major), the 
 greatest man of his age, was born b.c 234. He 
 was the son of P. Cornelius Scipio who encountered 
 Hannibal on the banks of the Ticino (b.c 218) ; 
 and perished in Spain B.C. 211. When only seven- 
 teen years old, Scipio saved the life of his father in 
 the battle of the Ticino ; two years after (b.c 216) 
 he fought at Cannae as a military tribune ; and, 
 being one of the few officers who survived that 
 fatal carnage, was principally instrumental in pre- 
 venting the Roman nobility from leaving Italy in 
 despair. The distinction which he had thus ac- 
 quired secured his unanimous election to the aedile- 
 snip in b.c 212 ; and in B.C. 210 he was sent as 
 proconsul to Spain, nearly the whole of which 
 country had reverted to the possession of the Car- 
 thaginians. Here his remarkable talents first dis- 
 played themselves ; his military skill defeated the 
 enemy in the field of battle, while his personal influ- 
 ence, his humanity and courtesy, gained for him 
 the affections of the inhabitants of the country. 
 Returning to Rome in b.c 206, he was unanimously 
 elected consul for the following year, and obtained 
 the province of Sicily, with power to cross over 
 into Africa, if he should deem it necessary for the 
 interest of the state. The senate resolutely refused 
 him an army, thus rendering his command worth- 
 less; but the celebrity of his name soon attracted 
 volunteers from all the towns of Italy ; and having 
 obtained a prolongation of his command, he pro- 
 ceeded as proconsul to Africa (b.c 204), where, 
 in conjunction with Masinissa, king of the Numi- 
 dians, he obtained some advantages over the enemy. 
 The Carthaginians in the meantime had collected 
 a powerful army under the command of Hasdrubal, 
 the son of Gisco, and were aided by Syphax, a 
 Numidian prince, who brought with him a numer- 
 ous force. In the early part of B.C. 203, Scipio 
 made an unexpected attack upon the two encamp- 
 ments, burnt them to the ground, and destroyed 
 
 691 
 
SCI 
 
 nearly the whole army. The two generals, who 
 escaped, soon returned with a fresh force, but were 
 again defeated with great slaughter. The Cartha- 
 ginians now becoming alarmed by these repeated 
 disasters, resolved to recall Hannibal from Italy ; 
 and at the same time opened negotiations for peace, 
 during which they obtained a truce for forty- five 
 days. Before the specified time expired, the Car- 
 thaginian populace, who had never been desirous of 
 peace, plundered some Roman ships which were 
 bringing provisions for Scipio's army, and insulted 
 the Roman envoys who were sent to demand re- 
 paration. Hostilities were resumed on the arrival 
 of Hannibal, who soon collected an army far 
 superior in number to that of Scipio. Hannibal, 
 however, foreseeing that the loss ot a battle would 
 be ruinous to Cartilage, was anxious before it was 
 too late, to conclude a peace ; and Scipio, fearing 
 lest his enemies at Rome might succeed in sup- 
 planting him in the command, was not unwilling 
 to put an end to the war ; but the terms which he 
 offered were such as the enemy could not, without 
 entire submission, accept, and Hannibal was thus 
 forced to continue to act on the defensive. Scipio 
 now resolved to hazard a decisive battle, which his 
 opponent cautiously avoided, till on the Roman 
 army feigning a retreat, Hannibal followed with 
 his cavalry, and was defeated in the neighbourhood 
 of Zama. The decisive battle was at last fought 
 on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, not far from the 
 city of Zama. Scipio's victory was complete ; 
 20,000 of the Carthaginians were slain, and an 
 equal number taken prisoners. The negotiations 
 which ensued were concluded during the following 
 year, when Scipio returned to Rome, and was 
 received with the greatest enthusiasm. He entered 
 the city in triumph, and obtained, in honour of his 
 victories, the surname of Africanus. The rest of 
 his life was passed in comparative quiet. He was 
 censor in B.C. 199, and consul a second time in 
 B.C. 194. He served as a legate in Greece under 
 his brother, Lucius, who was consul b.c. 190 ; and 
 having on his return been accused of receiving 
 bribes from Antiochus, king of Syria, he quitted 
 Rome and retired to his country seat at Liternum, 
 where he spent the remainder of his days in the 
 cultivation of his estate. He is believed to have 
 died B.C. 183, leaving two sons and two daughters, 
 the younger of whom was the mother of the 
 Gracchi. Scipio, as a general, was second to none 
 but his great opponent Hannibal ; as a Roman 
 citizen he does not deserve equal praise ; he dis- 
 regarded the laws of the constitution whenever 
 these stood in the way of his own views and pas- 
 sions. [C.F.] 
 SCIPIO AFRICANUS the YOUNGER, 
 (Publius C(nweKu8 Scipio JEmilianus Africanus 
 Minor) was the younger son of Lucius jEmilius 
 Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia, and the 
 adopted son of Publius Scipio, the elder of the sons 
 of the great Africanus. Scipio must have been 
 born B.C. 185, as he took an active part, at the 
 age of seventeen, in the battle of Pydna (b.c. 168), 
 in which his father defeated Perseus, king of Mace- 
 donia. From his earliest years he appears to have 
 devoted himself to the study of literature; and 
 even his arduous duties as a military commander 
 did not prevent him from embracing every oppor- 
 tunity of extending his knowledge of Greek letters 
 
 SCI 
 
 and philosophy. The historian Polybius 
 whom he probably became acquainted in Gree 
 was his intimate friend, and accompanied him 
 nearly all his campaigns ; and the poets Lucil 
 and Terence, at a later period of his life, enjo; 
 his friendship and patronage. His fondness' 
 Greek literature and refinement excited feeling 
 uneasiness in the minds of his friends ; but to t 
 Scipio added the virtues and patriotism of a genu 
 Roman. He first attracted notice in B.C. 
 when, in consequence of the disasters which 
 befallen the Romans in Spain, great difficulty 
 experienced in raising troops, which he at once 
 moved by offering his services. As military i 
 bune in the army of Lucullus he distinguis 
 himself by personal courage, while his disintem 
 integrity gained the affections of the barbarian' 
 well as his own countrymen. On the breaking 
 of the third Punic war in b.c. 149 he went to Afr 
 still holding the rank of military tribune, and a< 
 distinguished himself so much by his courage, t 
 dence, and justice, as to gain the unlimited c 
 fidence of all with whom he came in contact. 
 b.c. 148 he returned to Rome, accompanied by 
 wishes of all the soldiers that he might soor 
 sent back as their commander ; and such was 
 impression produced by his character and achii 
 ments that, when he offered himself a candii 
 for the aedileship for B.C. 147, he was elected i 
 sul, though he had not attained the legal age, 
 had Africa assigned to him as his province, 
 his arrival in the Roman camp he speedily rest< 
 discipline, and commenced a series of operat 
 which ultimately confined the Carthaginians 
 their capital. In the spring of the following ; 
 he attacked the devoted city, which was defer 
 from street to street, and from house to house, i 
 after a struggle of three days, razed it to the groi 
 When the arrangements necessary for redu 
 Africa to the form of a province were compk- 
 Scipio returned to Rome, where he obtain* 
 splendid triumph, and also the surname of 1 
 canus. He was censor in B.C. 142. Meanw 
 the war continued to rage in Spain, the inhabit 
 of Numantia still continuing to refuse to ^ 
 knowledge the supremacy of Rome. Scipio 
 accordingly appointed consul a second time 
 134, and succeeded in reducing them to submit 
 (b.c. 133) after they had suffered the most dr , 
 ful extremities of hunger. For this victor' 
 received the surname of Numantinus. During 
 command in Spain, Tiberius Gracchus, to whose i 
 ter, Sempronia, he was married, had fallen a vi 
 to his efforts in favour of an Agrarian law ; | 
 the conqueror of Numantia, on his return to I 
 in b.c. 132, became the leader of the aristoc 
 in preventing the law from being carried intoei 
 He thus sacrificed the favour ot the people. 
 making a violent speech in the Forum, in w 
 he a second time publicly avowed his approv 
 the death of Tiberius Gracchus, he went horn 
 the evening, accompanied by the senate and aj 
 number of the allies, and retired to his bed-J 
 with the intention of preparing a speech fori 
 following day. Next morning he was found 
 in his bed-room ; and a general opinion prev 
 that he had been murdered. Suspicion fell ' 
 various persons ; and among others, upon his 
 Sempronia, and her mother, Cornelia. {jfl 
 
SCL 
 
 SCLATER, W., an English divine, died 1647. 
 
 SCOPAS, a Greek sculptor, 4th century B.C. 
 
 SCOPOLI, Giovanni Antonio, a naturalist 
 
 id mineralogist of Tyrol, 1723-1787. 
 
 SCORZA, S., a Genevese painter, 1589-1631. 
 
 SCOTT, a family of dissenting ministers, the 
 ^incipal of whom was Daniel, a writer of much 
 .'' irning on the Trinity, died 1759. Thomas, his 
 
 * If-brother, author of Sermons, died 1746. The 
 : a of the latter, of the same name, published a 
 V J rsion of the book of Job in 1774 ; and his second 
 
 a, Joseph Nichol, both a minister and physi- 
 _ in, died about 1774. 
 
 .3 SCOTT, David, a Scottish historian, and par- 
 ,J an of the Stuarts, 1675-1742. 
 
 '. SCOTT, David, was born at Edinburgh in the 
 J mth of October, 1806. His father, Robert Scott, 
 
 | raght him up to his own profession, that of an en- 
 j ( iver, but this pursuit being extremely distasteful 
 
 i the younger Scott, he eventually took to paint- 
 ;'l r in 1827, after the expiration of his apprentice- 
 ;;' p. Having made several preliminary studies 
 
 ; i efforts in Edinburgh, and attended the ana- 
 '.' nical lectures of Dr. Monro, he considered him- 
 ; ' f sufficiently prepared for an Italian tour. He 
 ;'. rted in the autumn of 1832, and spent the 
 
 j later portion of 1833 in Rome, where he painted 
 '"} large unintelligible picture, which he called 
 ;'' iscord,' or ' Household Gods Destroyed ;' a com- 
 -' ation recalling Flaxman's Prometheus Chained, 
 ;" ; in this case absurdly applied ; it suggests, if 
 
 rthing, Samson awaking after the treachery of 
 . lilah. He returned to England in the spring of 
 ^ following year, to find ' the colouring of Eng- 
 J i pictures of the day, white and vermilion, 
 ' e ' lsy, raw, unnatural, and sketchy,' in common 
 ] ; doubt with many other travellers on the con- 
 '?, snt some years back. David Scott came home 
 
 . levoted victim to the grand style, as fore- 
 
 T dowed in his 'Discord,' but to the poetic or 
 
 j ic, rather than the religious ; like Michelangelo, 
 
 was a lover of the abstract, but wanting the 
 
 pious devotion which certainly pervaded the 
 
 d conceptions of that extraordinary man. 
 
 now exhibited a long succession of pictures 
 
 Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was 
 
 ber, of varied merit, but all of an unusual 
 
 cter and subject, classic and other history, 
 
 ever, gradually asserting its claim to share 
 
 ntion with abstract aesthetics, generally too 
 
 to be felt at all by Scott's public ; but in 
 
 H ie instances the work was a compromise be- 
 
 H en the two, as in his ' Paracelsus,' or ' Alchy- 
 
 1 t,' and in his truly magnificent work, indeed 
 
 *? masterpiece, ' Vasco de Gama encountering the 
 
 ; it of the Cape,' now placed in the Trinity House 
 
 ^eith. His perseverance in this unbeaten path 
 
 ; spite of an almost constant succession of dis- 
 
 'i 1 ointments as regards the more substantial 
 
 a f srds of art, gradually undermined his consti- 
 
 : on, and he sunk at last into a premature grave 
 
 ch 5, 1849, in his forty-third year. With aU 
 :; Jl-timed abstractions, and moral peculiarities, 
 
 they are abundantly shown in the very inter- 
 
 5 lg memoir of him by his brother, Scott was 
 
 ,B H nestionably a very superior artist, and may 
 
 n the martyr's branch with far more justice 
 
 Haydon. Most of his works show a high 
 
 uality, and many as pictures are vigorously 
 
 SCO 
 
 drawn and even gorgeously coloured, as for instance 
 his admirable 'Triumph of Love,' in the possession 
 of his brother, a subject offering a delightful spot 
 of sunshine among the usually prevailing gloomy 
 abstractions of his pessimist philosophy. Among 
 his unquestionably good works, also, either for 
 sentiment of execution or both, are : Queen 
 Elizabeth in the Globe Theatre ; Peter the Her- 
 mit , Jane Shore ; Richard III. ; Achilles address- 
 ing the Manes of Patroclus. To these must be 
 added some series of designs, as those illustrating 
 the Pilgrim's Progress ; and his very remarkable 
 and admirable series on ' The Ancient Mariner,' 
 fully worthy of that extraordinary poem. For 
 further details the reader may consult the Memoir 
 of David Scott, B.S.A., containing his journal in 
 Italy, notes on art and other papers, with seven 
 illustrations, by William B. Scott, an ably planned 
 work, and calculated to afford, if anything can, an 
 invaluable lesson to all inordinately ambitious 
 young artists, suffering under an impatient morbid 
 hankering after the praise of those collectively, 
 whose judgments individually they invariably 
 profess to despise when unfavourable to them- 
 selves. TR.N.W.T 
 
 SCOTT, G. L., a mathematician, died 1780. 
 
 SCOTT, Helenas, the son of a Scottish minis- 
 ter, practised as a physician at Bombay, and wrote 
 'The Adventures of a Rupee,' died 1821. 
 
 SCOTT, James, an episcopal divine, celebrated 
 as a preacher and political writer, 1733-1814. 
 
 SCOTT, John. See Eldon. 
 
 SCOTT, John, a Quaker poet, 1739-1783. 
 
 SCOTT, John, a miscellaneous writer, who 
 commenced the publication of the ' London Maga- 
 zine' in 1820, and was killed in a duel arising out 
 of a literary quarrel 1821. His works are 'A 
 Visit to Paris in 1814,' and ' Paris Revisited in 
 1815 by Way of Brussels, including a Walk over 
 the Field of Waterloo.' 
 
 SCOTT, John, a learned minister of the Church 
 of England, author of 'The Christian Life from 
 its Beginning to its Consummation in Glory,' and 
 of some critical and casuistical works, 1638-1694. 
 
 SCOTT, Sir Michael, generally reputed a 
 magician, was a native of Scotland, remarkable 
 for his learning and skill in the occult sciences. 
 His works are ' The Secrets of Nature,' ' The Sun 
 and Moon,' 'Mensa Philosophica,' an edition of 
 Aristotle, and a translation of Avicenna's History 
 of Animals from the Arabic into Latin ; died 1293. 
 
 SCOTT, Michael, a Scottish merchant, author 
 of the well-known sketches entitled ' Tom Cringle's 
 Log,' which first appeared in ' Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine.' Bora in Glasgow 1789, died 1835. 
 
 SCOTT, Reynold or Reginald, a gentleman 
 of Kent, remarkable for his work written against 
 the common belief in witchcraft, which was replied 
 to by Casaubon, Glanvil, and James I. ; d. 1599. 
 
 SCOTT, Samuel, an English painter, d. 1772. 
 
 SCOTT, Thomas, rector of Aston Sandf'ord, 
 author of a 'Defence of Calvinism,' 1747-1821. 
 
 SCOTT, Thomas, otherwise Rotheram, from 
 his birth-place in Yorkshire, a prelate and states- 
 man, died 1500. 
 
 SCOTT, Sir Walter, had a pedigree, his sensu 
 of which affected materially both the spirit of his 
 writings and the events of his life. From the 
 great border-family, now represented by the 
 
SCO 
 dukes of Buccleuch, there came in the fourteenth 
 century, as an offshoot, the family of Harden, 
 the heads of which are barons of Polwarth. 
 The poet's great grandfather was a younger 
 son oi Scott of Harden ; his grandfather, poorly 
 provided for, became a farmer in Roxburgh- 
 shire ; and his father, Walter Scott, was a writer 
 to the signet or attorney in Edinburgh, and mar- 
 ried the daughter of a medical professor in the 
 university. Walter, the fourth child of this couple, 
 was born in the Old Town of Edinburgh, on the 
 loth of August, 1771. He was a sickly infant, 
 and became incurably lame in his second year ; and, 
 after this, till he was about eight years of age, his 
 childhood was principally spent at his grandfather's 
 farm-house of Sandyknowe, where he became 
 lovingly familiar with the scenery and tradi- 
 tions and ballads of the border. In this stage he 
 was fond of reading ; but, on being placed at the 
 High School of Edinburgh, towards the end of 
 1779, he failed to distinguish himself in the regular 
 studies of the class. He was, however, eminent 
 for his historical and miscellaneous knowledge, for 
 his skill in story- telling, and for his personal courage. 
 In his twelfth year his love of ballad-poetry was 
 ineradicably established, by the delight with which 
 he perused Percy's ' Reliques.' In the winter of 
 1783 he entered the university of his native city, 
 attending only one session, with little or no appar- 
 ent profit. He never understood Greek beyond the 
 elements, and had but a loose scholarship in Latin ; 
 and the acquaintance, which he obtained in early 
 manhood, with French, Italian, Spanish, and Ger- 
 man, was very superficial. In May, 1786, when 
 he was nearly fifteen years old, he was articled to 
 his father, and attended regularly in chambers for 
 about four years. For literary avocations he was 
 making, undesignedly, full preparation, by devour- 
 ing romances, novels, histories, and old plays; 
 while he continued to distinguish himself by tell- 
 ing and inventing stories. His father's intention, 
 as well as his own, was, that he should come to 
 the bar ; and his attendance in the debating-club, 
 called the Speculative Society, was one of his steps 
 of training, while it gave occasion for his writing 
 of essays, exhibiting his turn for antiquarian and 
 poetical studies. In 1792 he was admitted as a 
 member of the Scottish Faculty of Advocates. In 
 1796 he published translations, in verse, of Bur- 
 ger's German ballads, Lenora, and the Wild Hunts- 
 man ; and he contributed to Lewis's Tales of Won- 
 der. In 1798 appeared his translation of Goethe's 
 prose drama, ' Goetz Von Berlichingen ; ' and in 
 1799 he wrote, and made known to his friends, the 
 earliest of his considerable efforts in original poetry, 
 the ballads of ' Glenfinlas,' 'The Eve of St. John,' 
 and ' The Grey Brother.' Still he had gained no 
 high literary reputation; nor was literary com- 
 position more than an occasional employment for 
 him. He paid an average amount or attention to 
 his profession, and was desirous to secure an inde- 
 
 Eendent livelihood from some source other than 
 terature. In the end of 1797 he married Miss 
 Carpenter, the daughter of a French emigrant, whose 
 small fortune added something to his income : his 
 father's death next gave him a moderate patri- 
 mony ; and, in 1799, the patronage of the duke of 
 Buccleuch and Lord Melville, to whose politics he 
 steadily and warmly adhered, bestowed on him the 
 
 SCO 
 
 sheriffship of Selkirkshire, an easy office, wit! 
 salary of three hundred pounds. In the same yt 
 his poetical taste, both in rhyme and in diction, 
 not in more important matters,) received a n 
 impulse and direction from hearing unpublisl 
 poems of Wordsworth and Coleridge, espech 
 ' Christabel.' Now, likewise, easy in circnmstan 
 and occupying a good position in society, Scott i 
 sufficiently independent of professional labour 
 devote himself more and more to less uncongei 
 pursuits; and he gradually made authorship 
 main business of his life. The brilliant peno< 
 Scott's literary career extends from 1802, when 
 was in his thirty-first year, to 1825, when he 
 in his fifty-fourth. In the first of those yean 
 published the first and second volumes, and in 
 next year the third volume, of ' The Minstrels; 
 the Scottish Border.' This publication gave ' 
 at once a distinguished reputation. The old 1 
 lads were excellently edited ; the annotati 
 showed great sagacity, good sense, and vari 
 knowledge ; and there was undeniable promise 
 the few ballads of his own that were inserted f 
 collection. In 1802, likewise, he had begvu 
 write what he called, in a letter to Ellis, ' a kin 
 romance of border-chivalry, in a light-horsei 
 sort of stanza.' This piece, insensibly swellin 
 dimensions, soon became too bulky for the ' J 
 strelsy,' and was reserved to be the foundat 
 stone of Scott's celebrity as an original poet, 
 was circulated among his friends, and warmly 
 proved by Jeffrey, Wordsworth, and others ; ^ 
 the author was editing the ancient romance of 
 Tristrem.' It appeared at length, in 1805, u: 
 the title of ' The Lay of the Last Ministrel.' 
 success was immediate and unexampled, 
 prise, doubtless, aided the result : the poem 
 peared when genuine poetry had long been unh 
 by the public, unless in the earliest volume 
 Crabbe and Campbell; and it was also the 
 vigorous poetical narrative that had been prod 
 in England for more than a century. But, fun 
 it was the earliest poem which was inspired b) 
 animation and eagerness of the age that ga 
 birth. The ' Lay' was not, anymore than its 
 cessors, the effort of a poet aiming at the hi| 
 effects of his art : but it was a work of 
 genius and originality ; and, if inferior to sor 
 Scott's later poems m mechanism, and less 
 in strikingly poetical passages, it was more f 
 fill than any of them to his design, of re-const 
 ing the chivalrous romance in a shape accon 
 dated to modern sympathies. ' Marmion,' con 
 ing, in its description of the battle, one of the 
 spirited passages in the whole range of our pc 
 appeared in 1808 ; the beautiful metrical ron 
 of The Lady of the Lake' in 1810 ; in 1811 r 
 the ' Vision of Don Roderick,' indicating a deal 
 of strength, which showed itself next year &j 
 'Rokeby;' in 1815 was published 'The Lo. 
 the Isles ; ' and the list of the metrical rom 
 closes with 'The Bridal of Triermain,' and 'H 
 the Dauntless,' published respectively in 181< 
 1817, and both of them anonymously, hi 
 course of this period, also, the poet editetj 
 works of Dryden and Swift, contributed for 
 to the Edinburgh Review, and in 1808 as 
 zealously in establishing its formidable riwj 
 Quarterly. He wrote also biographical andi 
 
 694 
 
SCO 
 !/ 1 prefaces, and performed much of other miscel- 
 ineous labour. To such work he was led by those 
 /j )mmercial engagements which he now formed, 
 m ad which exercised in the end so disastrous an 
 ^ ifluence on his fortune. His school-fellow, James 
 ; allantyne, having been the editor and printer of 
 f newspaper in Roxburghshire, was assisted by Scott 
 
 i setting up a printing-house in Edinburgh ; and 
 te poet, after having lent money to the firm, 
 ' came really a partner of it in 1805. Not long 
 f ; | forwards, his connection with trade became yet 
 oser. He quarrelled with his bookseller, Con- 
 ; :et able ; he desired to obtain facilities for giving to 
 
 1 ie world literature of a higher stamp than that on 
 ^ nich publishers are likely to venture ; and, not 
 j ry consistently with his desire, he entertained 
 
 I nguine hopes of profit from a publishing busi- 
 ly ss guided by a man of knowledge and influence 
 ; J :e himself. Accordingly, in 1808, John Ballan- 
 
 i ne, a brother of James, was placed at the head 
 I a new publishing firm ; but here, as in the 
 f rmer case, Scott was a partner to the extent of a 
 
 * ird. All these arrangements were kept pro- 
 
 ? indly secret ; in the eyes of the public, and even 
 1 bis most intimate associates, Scott was merely 
 ]t * b patron and friend of the Messrs. Ballantyne. 
 !l ' few years after the formation of these partnerships, 
 \' ott entered on the second stage of his literary 
 T )gress. He was one of the first to discover the 
 
 ming popularity of his poetry ; and he cheerfully 
 himself at work to regain his laurels on a new 
 
 Id. He wished for fame: he wished also for 
 He had long cherished the ambition of ter- 
 '' ? orial possession ; and this ambition he could not 
 
 [>e to gratify speedily from his ordinary means, 
 
 >ugh his appointment as one of the principal 
 ' rks of the Court of Session in Scotland (an hon- 
 I "able and very easy post), added, from about 1812, 
 rteen hundred a-year to his income. From this 
 ssion arose many of the rash adventures which 
 P illy ruined the publishing firm ; hence also, in 
 ^ small degree, arose the eager industry with 
 "' ich, when his prose works proved so profitable, 
 1 f poured forth volume after volume. In 1805, 
 rh . Lie he was engaged on Marmion, he had begun 
 ae : write a novel: in three weeks during the sum- 
 01 r of 1814 he added two volumes to it ; and it was 
 '\ l )lished anonymously in July of that year, bear- 
 * the name of ' Waverley, or, 'Tis Sixty Years 
 ml ce.' For a dozen years afterwards, the Waverley 
 {)S3 yels, popular beyond example, admired by critics 
 f" Irell as devoured by the public, were showered 
 V* in ceaseless succession ; and, although a few of 
 ** earliest are decidedly the most vigorous and 
 (Ml -like, it was not till towards the close of the 
 ^ es that the falling off was steady or remarkable. 
 lw s dates are, in themselves, enough to prove inar- 
 ga* bos activity and fertility, and indomitable steadi - 
 reari 5 f working. From 'Waverley' in 1815 to the 
 I*' des of the Crusaders' in 1825, eighteen novels 
 il & eared within eleven years. This was the last 
 ;r- r of Scott's prosperity, or rather the last year 
 ioti ing which the world was allowed to believe him 
 J. sperous. The extraordinary success of the 
 Ml '618 had enabled him to assume, more rapidly 
 dh n he could have hoped, that place among the 
 $ f ded gentry, which it was his fatal weakness to 
 jlei rvalue so immensely. Purchasing, in 1811, a 
 
 on the banks of the Tweed, naming it Ab- 
 
 SCO 
 botsford, and building a cottage on it, he acquired 
 land around it till he possessed a considerable 
 estate. He erected the baronial castle which we now 
 behold, filled it with antiquarian nick-nacks and 
 ornaments, planted and improved his grounds, and 
 dispensed hospitalities which the most distinguished 
 men in Europe were proud to partake. In 1820 
 he received a baronetcy ; and in the following year 
 he figured as the director of the whimsical pagean- 
 try which celebrated the visit of George IV. to 
 Scotland. Even before this time both firms of 
 Ballantynes were tottering ; and they were brought 
 to the ground in the beginning of 1826, by the 
 failure of Constable's house, with which they were 
 deeply involved. The mortifying disclosure of Sir 
 Walter's concealed partnership followed of course ; 
 and his liabilities were found to amount to a sum 
 not much short of 150,000. He acted like a man 
 of courage and a high-minded gentleman. He 
 refused to offer to the creditors any composition, 
 or to accept from them any discharge ; he pledged 
 himself to devote the whole labour of his subse- 
 quent life to the payment of the debt ; he fulfilled 
 the pledge, and died before his time through the 
 toil which it cost him. A great part of the debt 
 was satisfied during his lifetime ; and the balance 
 of the principal was paid by his executors. One 
 main aid in effecting the result was the collected 
 edition of his works, with the personal notes which 
 he condescended to furnish to it. But he produced 
 likewise a new series of writings, which, although 
 the later are distressingly indicative of decay, and the 
 best of them are not of a very high order, must be 
 looked on with the respect due to the motive which 
 prompted them. In 1826 he published his novel 
 of ' Woodstock,' written while his pecuniary anxie- 
 ties and humiliation were at their height ; after- 
 wards appeared the 'Life of Napoleon,' (partly 
 written before the bankruptcy), the 'Tales of a 
 Grandfather,' the first and second series of the 
 ' Chronicles of the Canongate,' ' Anne of Geierstein/ 
 a ' History of Scotland ' for Lardner's Cyclopaedia, 
 two Dramas, and 'Letters on Demonology.' In 
 1831 the failure of the active intellect was shown 
 
 [Dryturgh Abbey.] 
 
 unequivocally by 'Count Robert of Paris,' and 
 ' Castle Dangerous.' In 1830 Sir Walter had been 
 attacked by paralysis, which recurred acutely more 
 than once : and, prevailed on at last to pause from 
 labour, he set out, in September, 1831, for the 
 
 VJo 
 
SCO 
 
 continent, of which, in his better days, he had 
 seen very little. Naples was the farthest point he 
 reached; the mind gave way completely; he was 
 hurried home, and reached Abbotsford in July, 
 1882. There, after some days of unconsciousness, 
 he died on the 21st of September. He was buried 
 in Drvburgh Abbey. [W.S.] 
 
 SCOTT, William. See Stowell. 
 
 SCOTTI, C. G., an Ital. dramatist, 1759-1821. 
 
 SCOTTI, J. C, an Italian Jesuit, 1602-1669. 
 
 SCOTTI, Marcello, a learned ecclesiastic, 
 born at Naples 1714, member of the legislative 
 commission of the Neapolitan republic 1799, exe- 
 cuted by the counter-revolutionists 1800. 
 
 SCOUGAL, H., a Scottish divine, 1650-1678. 
 
 SCRIBANI, O, a Flemish Jesuit, one of the 
 twelve apostles commissioned by that body in 
 Flanders, known as a controversial wr., 1561-1629. 
 
 SCRIBONIANUS, a Soman commander, pro- 
 claimed emperor in Dalmatia, and assassinated 42. 
 
 SCRIBONIUS, a Roman physician, 1st cent. 
 
 SCRIVERIUS, the Latinized name of Peter 
 Schryver, a Dutch philologist and historian, 
 1576-1660. 
 
 SCRIMZEOR, H., a Scotch writer, 1506-1571. 
 
 SCROGGS, Sir W., an English judge, 1623-83. 
 
 SCROPE, William, a writer on sporting sub- 
 jects, 1772-1852. 
 
 SCUDDER, H., a presbyterian writer, 17th cen. 
 
 SCUDERI, George De, a French poet, novelist, 
 and dramatic writer, 1601-1667. His wife was 
 equally celebrated in epistolary composition. His 
 sister, Madeleine, eminent for her wit and writ- 
 ings as a novelist, 1607-1701. 
 
 SCULTETUS. See Schultet, Schultz. 
 
 SCULTETUS, or SCULTZ, John, a writer on 
 surgery, born at Ulm 1595, died 1645. 
 
 SCUPOLI, L., an Italian ascetic, 1530-1610. 
 
 SCYLITZES, J., a Greek historian, 11th cent. 
 
 SEAMAN, L., an English divine, died 1675. 
 
 SEARCH, Edward. See Tucker. 
 
 SEBA, Albert, a Dutch naturalist and phar- 
 macopolist, Amsterdam, 1665-1736. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, king of Portugal, son of the 
 Infant John by Joanna, daughter of the emperor 
 Charles V., was born 1554, and succeeded his 
 
 frandfather, John III., 1557. In 1578 he led the 
 ower of his nobility into Africa on a wild expedi- 
 tion against the Moors, and perished in battle with 
 nearly all his followers. Sebastian's fate being 
 long uncertain, and having no issue to succeed 
 him, gave occasion to many impostors to assume 
 his name and title, and eventually to the annexa- 
 tion of Portugal to Spain. 
 
 SEBASTIANI, Francis Horace De, a cele- 
 brated French marshal, distinguished during the 
 republic, empire, and the monarchy, 1772-1851. 
 
 SEBASTIANO, Del Piombo, the name by 
 which Sebastiano Luciani is commonly known, 
 from his office of the pope's keeper of the leaden 
 seals. He was born at Venice in 1485, and was 
 one of the pupils of Giovanni Bellini. He went to 
 Rome about 1512, by the invitation of Agostino 
 Ghigi, and soon contracted a friendship with Michel- 
 angelo, by whom, as an oil painter, he was pitted 
 against Raphael. The large picture of the Raising 
 of Lazarus, in the National Gallery, was painted 
 by Sebastiano, in which he is said to have been 
 assisted by Michelangelo, in rivalry with the Trans- 
 
 SEG 
 
 figuration of Raphael. They were both painted 
 Giulio de Medici, the bishop of Narbonne, 
 were exhibited together in Rome, and are not 
 unequal as to make the choice a matter of cou 
 Sebastiano found his advocates. Sebastiano 
 created Frate del Piombo by Clement VII. I ! 
 the duty of this officer to fix the leaden seal to 
 bulls, &c. A salary is attached to it, and 
 Sebastiano del Piombo was no longer the pan 
 Sebastiano Luciani had been : his ease made 
 lazy, Michelangelo reproved him for idleness 
 was a great portrait painter. He died at Rom 
 1547. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N 
 
 SEBER, W., a German philologist, 1573-16 
 
 SECHELLES, J. Moreau De, a French sta 
 man and financial administrator, 1690-1760. 
 
 SECKENDORF, Guy Louis Von, a Gen 
 statesman, divine, and ecclesiastical historian, 1( 
 1692. His nephew, Frederick Henon, Cc 
 Von Seckendorf, a field-marshal and diplom 
 in the interest, successively, of Prussia, Pol 
 and Austria, 1673-1763. Leon, Baron De 
 kendorf, a poet, of the same family, 1773-1805 
 
 SECKER, Thomas, archbishop of Canterb 
 a great promoter of religion and ecclesias 
 learning, author of Sermons, 1693-1768. 
 
 SECOUSSE, D. F., a Fr. historian, 1691-1 
 
 SECUNDUS. SeeEvERARD. 
 
 SEDAINE, M. J., a Fr. dramatist, 1719-1 
 
 SEDANO, John Joseph Lopez De, a lea 
 Spanish writer and numismatist, 1729-1801 
 
 SEDGWICK, three puritan divines : Obad: 
 preacher of St. Paul's, Co vent Garden, &c., ir 
 her of the Westminster Assembly, 1600-1 
 William, called the apostle of Ely, dates unkn 
 Doomsday Sedgwick, so called from preac 
 the approaching end of the world, died about 1 
 
 SEDILLOT, J. J. Emmanuel, a French 
 entalist and astronomer, 1777-1832. 
 
 SEDLEY, Sir Charles, a dramatic wi 
 courtier, and wit of the court of Charles II., 
 afterwards promoted the revolution of 1688, 
 at Aylesford, in Kent, about 1639, died 1701. 
 
 SEDULIUS, Celius or C^ecilius, an IriH 
 Scotch priest, known as a Latin poet, 5th cen 
 
 SEED, Jeremiah, a learned divine, died]* 
 
 SEEGERS, or SEGHERS, Gerard, a Fief 
 painter of altar-pieces, 1589-1651. His brof 
 Daniel, a flower painter, 1590-1660. 
 
 SEELEN, J. H. De, a German philolci 
 1687-1762. 
 
 SEEMILLER, Sebastian, a Bavarian O 
 talist and bibliographical writer, 1752-1798. 
 
 SEETZER, Ulric Jasper, a Dutch tad 
 in the East, supposed to have perished 1811. 
 
 SEGAR, Sir William, garter-king-at- ; 
 author of ' Honour, Civil and Military,' died J 
 
 SEGAUD, W. De, a French Jesuit, 1674-] 
 
 SEGHERS. See Seegers.^ 
 
 SEGNER, J. A., a Hungarian mathemat* 
 and philosopher, 1704-1777. 
 
 SEGNERI, Paolo, an Italian Jesuit, di 
 as a preacher and theologian, 1624-1694g 
 nephew, Paolo, a Jesuit and preacher, 1678*1 
 
 SEGNI, B., an Italian historian, died 1559' 
 
 SEGRAIS, J. R. De, a French poet, 1G24-J 
 
 SEGUIER, J. F., a learned botanist and M 
 matist, allied to the noble family of that n 
 whose names occur in the next article, 170S 
 
 CfJfi 
 
SEG 
 
 ei SEGUIER, Peter, a French diplomatist, whose 
 e, i alents were opposed to the policy of Pope Julius 
 Dot I., 1504-1580. His son, Anthony, a lawyer and 
 on! mbassador, 1552-1626. Peter, grandson of the 
 oi rst of that name, chancellor of France, and one 
 II f the founders of the French Academy, 1588- 
 to 672. Anthony Louis, of the same family, a 
 1 ; >yalist at the period of the revolution, 1726-1791. 
 i SEGUR, a noble family of Guienne, principal of 
 * 1 horn are Henry Francis, Count De Segur, and 
 :a- sutenant-general, 1689-1751. Philip Henry, 
 !il s son, Marquis, a marshal of France, minister of 
 li ar in 1780 before Brienne, 1724-1801. Louis 
 16 hilip, son of the latter, companion-in-arms of 
 tai sfayette in America, known also as a diplomatist 
 , id historian, 1753-1832. Joseph Alexander, 
 ten cond son of Philip Henry, a dramatic and mis- 
 It llaneous writer, 1756-1805. 
 .C, SEILER, G. F., a Ger. philosopher, 1733 1807. 
 r ffl SEISSEL, or SEYSSEL, Claude De, a French 
 ioli storian and political writer, translator of Euse- 
 D>j is, and historian of Louis XIL, 1450-1520. 
 li SEJAN, N., a French composer, 1745-1819. 
 rt SEJAN US, Lucius iEnus, a prastorian general 
 sia Rome, a favourite of the emperor Tiberius, put 
 
 death for aiming at the supreme authority 31. 
 314 SELDEN, John, a famous scholar, antiquarian, 
 d political character, time of Charles I. He was 
 J4; ra at Salvington, in Sussex, and educated for the 
 )l a r. He entered the House of Commons in 1624, 
 d, d in 1640 represented Oxford in the long par- 
 Bi[ tnent. He afterwards became archivist of the 
 : m | wer and a commissioner of the admiralty. His 
 4 iole life was devoted to learning, and he bears 
 inh $ cliaracter of a sincere Christian and a true 
 M riot; 1584-1654. 
 
 out! SELEUCUS, surnamed Nicator, .founder of the 
 
 .- .; le of Syrian princes called Seleucidce, was one of 
 
 > generals of Alexander the Great, and, on the 
 
 it 4 tth of that prince, was governor of Media and 
 
 jjr bylonia. He extended the dominion of his arms 
 
 $1 1 policy as far as the Indus, and in 280 B.C. was 
 
 i; i mowledged king of Macedon, Thrace, and Asia 
 
 r[- nor. He reigned only a few months, and was 
 
 h M assinated by Ceraunus 279 B.C. Seleucus II., 
 
 y nanied Callinicus, succeeded Antiochus II. 247 
 
 a fl :., and after losing many of his provinces by the 
 
 asion of Ptolemy III. 242, was taken prisoner 
 
 the Parthians. He died in captivity B.C. 225. 
 
 leucus III., surnamed Ceraunus, son and suc- 
 
 sor of the preceding, was assassinated B.C. 222. 
 
 Utucus IV., surnamed Philopator, was son of 
 
 tiochus the Great, to whom he succeeded B.C. 
 
 poisoned by his minister, Heliodorus, 174. 
 
 leucus V. was son of Demetrius II., and was 
 
 claimed king with Antiochus Grypus b.c. 125. 
 
 was killed by order of his mother, Cleopatra, 
 
 2. Seleucus VI., son of Antiochus Grypus, 
 
 ame king over a part of Syria in 97 B.C., and 
 
 ^Jfc remainder from his uncle, Antiochus 
 
 ricus, 94. He was killed the year following in 
 
 contest which ensued with the son of the latter. 
 
 ELIM, three emperors of the Turks: Selim 
 
 >n of Bajazet II., born 1467, dethroned his 
 
 and killed his two brothers 1512, defeated 
 
 shah of Persia 1514, conquered Syria and 
 
 rpt 1516-1517, died 1520. Selim II., suc- 
 
 < Jed his father, Soliman II., in 1566, took 
 
 ?rus from the Venetians 1570, and Tr.iis from 
 
 SEN 
 
 the Spaniards in 1571. In the same year he lost 
 the great naval battle of Lepanto ; died 1574. 
 Selim III., son of Mustapha III., was born 1761, 
 succeeded his uncle, Abdoul Hamid, 1789, sus- 
 tained a disastrous war against Russia and Eng- 
 land, which was terminated by the peace of Jassi 
 in 1792. He was afterwards the ally of England 
 against France at the period of the expedition to 
 Egypt, and signalized his reign at the conclusion 
 of hostilities, by introducing our European civiliza- 
 tion into his states. He was dethroned in 1807, 
 and strangled the following year by order of Mus- 
 tapha IV., who succeeded him. 
 
 SELIS, N. J., a French writer, 1737-1802. 
 
 SELKIRK, Alexander, upon whose adven- 
 ture the story of Robinson Crusoe was founded by 
 Daniel Defoe, was a native of Largo, in Fifeshire, 
 where he was born about 1680. He was left on 
 the island of Juan Fernandez in 1704 by a Captain 
 Stradling, to whom he had given some cause of 
 offence. He was rescued by Captain Wood Rogers 
 in 1709, and is said to have related his adventures 
 to Defoe, with a view to their publication. 
 
 SELLE, C. T., a German physician, 1748-1800. 
 
 SELLER, A., an English divine, 1647-1720. 
 
 SELLIUS, Adam Buckhardt, a Russian 
 monk and writer, originally of Denmark, d. 1746. 
 
 SELLIUS, Godfrey, a native of Dantzic, 
 known as a naturalist and historian, died 1767. 
 
 SELLON, Baker John, known for many years 
 as a police magistrate, author of a standard law- 
 book, entitled 'Analysis of the Practice of the 
 Court of King's Bench and Common Pleas,' born 
 in London 1762, died 1835. 
 
 SELVES, J. B., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1757-1823. 
 
 SEMERY, A., a French theologian, 1630-1717. 
 
 SEMIRAMIS, a queen of Assyria, of whom we 
 have little certain historical knowledge. She is 
 generally regarded as the wife of Ninus, and is said 
 to have put him to death. The traditions agree 
 that she reigned forty-two years after Ninus : she 
 was called Rea on account of her atrocities. 
 
 SEMLER, J. S., a German divine, 1725-1791. 
 
 SEMPRONIA, two Roman ladies : 1. The wife 
 of Scipio iEmilianus, a sister of the Gracchi, who 
 is accused of having contributed to the death of 
 her husband. 2. A lady concerned in the con- 
 spiracy of Catiline. 
 
 SEMPRONIUS, a name of frequent occurrence 
 in Roman history. The principal who have borne 
 it were the Gracchi (see that article); besides 
 these may be mentioned Sempronius Asellio, 
 a military tribune of Rome, distinguished in Spain 
 B.C. 137. Sempronius Longus, consul of Rome 
 B.C. 217, distinguished in the field against Han- 
 nibal. Sempronius Tuditanus, a Roman tri- 
 bune and commander, who was consul b.c. 203, 
 and defeated Hannibal at Crotona. The others 
 of the name are of less mark. 
 
 SENAULT, J. F., a Flem. ecclesias., 1599-1672. 
 
 SENDIVOG, M., a Polish alchymist, 1566-1646. 
 
 SENEBIER, John, a protestant minister of 
 Geneva, known as a natural philosopher and his- 
 torian, 1742-1809. 
 
 SENECA, Lucius Annaeus ; born at Cordova 
 in the second year of our era; put to death at 
 Rome by order of Nero in the sixty-sixth. A 
 literateur, rhetorician, and philosopher, whose 
 practical life is marked by all the singular contra- 
 
 G97 
 
SEN 
 
 dictions that abound in his writings. At first a stern 
 self-denying Stoic; then the ambitious politician 
 intriguing with ladies at the court. Banished at 
 the instance of Messalina, he writes his famous 
 work on Consolations ; the next production of his 
 
 [Seneca From an Antique Bust.] 
 
 restless pen being a new Consolation, addressed to 
 Polybius, a freedman a mean and miserable flat- 
 tery intended for the ear of Claudius. Recalled 
 by Agrippina, we find him installed, in company 
 with Burrhus, as preceptor and guardian of Nero ; 
 labouring avowedly during a few years, along with 
 his firmer colleague, to restrain the passions of that 
 disgrace of humanity ; boldly defending Burrhus 
 in defiance of Nero, winking, meanwhile, at his 
 pupil's worst excesses ; even prompting to evil, for 
 if we can credit antiquity, Seneca suggested that 
 revolting and most monstrous parricide all the 
 while preaching the austerities of Stoicism : lastly, 
 rising into the vigour of his best days, and, if with 
 some ostentation, still meeting death as becomes a 
 brave man ! Seneca, is perhaps the type and ideal, 
 alike in action and thinking, of that large class 
 of minds, possessed by a lively and restless fancy, 
 and of remarkable qmckness in appreciating, who 
 have yet no steadiness either of heart or intellect, 
 and are totally deficient in that invaluable power 
 the Faculty of Belief. High and low, large and 
 small, in all grades of society and manners of life, 
 we meet with such persons ; and although never 
 consistent, they are yet in one sense always sin- 
 cere i.e., they are ruled by the plan or opinion 
 which is authoritative for the hour. Having no 
 real Originality that which cannot be divorced 
 from ability to penetrate towards Truth Seneca's 
 literary writings are worthless: nor are his moral 
 speculations stamped with the Tower-mark. In 
 theory he is a copyist, and a bad one, for he sel- 
 dom reaches the positive ground of any theory : and 
 although in his practical writings he always dis- 
 plays great acuteness, and expresses himself 
 clearly and pleasantly qualities much increased 
 by his large acquaintance with the surface of the 
 world, even the best of his maxims are tarnished 
 by the vice of exaggeration. Generally, the colour 
 is of Gold, but the ring of the true metal is awant- 
 "fr [J.P.N.] 
 
 SER 
 
 SENECAI, SENECA Y, or SENECE, Antoi 
 Bauderon De, a French poet, 1643-1737. 
 
 SENEFELDER, Aloys, a native of Mum 
 inventor of the art of lithography, 1771-1834. 
 
 SENKENBERG, H. C, Baron De, a juriscc 
 
 suit, and aulic counsellor of the emperor, 170 
 
 1768. His brother, J. Christian, a physic 
 
 and founder of an hospital at Frankfort, 17( 
 
 1772. R. Charles, son of the first named. 
 
 jurisconsult and German and Latin poet, d. 175 
 
 SENNACHERIB, king of Assyria, B.C. 712-7 
 
 SENNERT, Daniel, physician to the dec 
 
 of Saxony, 1572-1637. His son, Andrew, 
 
 Oriental scholar, 1606-1689. 
 
 SEPTIMIUS. See Severus. 
 
 SEPULVEDA, Juan Gines De, a lean 
 
 Spaniard, who was historiographer to the empe 
 
 Charles V., and wrote his Life, 1490-1573, 
 
 SERAIN, P E., a Fr. agriculturist, 1738-11 
 
 SERAO, F., an ltal. archaeologist, 1702-179, 
 
 SERAPION, a physician of Alexandria, m 
 
 posed to have written against Hippocrates, 3d e 
 
 tury B.C. A second of the name was a Syr 
 
 physician, author of two works still existing, 
 
 or 9th century. A third, called Serapion J uni< 
 
 was an Arabian physician and medical writer 
 
 the 11th century. 
 
 SERARIUS, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit, ca] 
 
 ' the luminary of the German church,' 1555-16 
 
 SERASSI, P. A., an ltal. biographer, 1721 
 
 SERENUS, A. L., a Roman poet, 1st centra 
 
 SERGARDI, L., an Italian satirist, 1660-17 
 
 SERGEL, J. T., a Swedish sculptor, 1740-18 
 
 SERGIUS, the first of the name, pope of 
 
 time of Justinian II., 687-701. The * 
 
 whose pontificate Italy was invaded by the 
 
 cens, and Louis II. was consecrated king of 
 
 844-847. The third, one of Marozia's lovers, J 
 
 father by her of John X., 904-911. The fm 
 
 said to be the first who changed his name on asst 
 
 ing the tiara, 1009-1012. 
 
 SERGIUS, a patriarch of C'stantinople, 61(1 
 SERIEYS, A., a French compiler, 1755-181! s 
 SERIMAN, Z., a Venetian writer, 1708-178* 
 SERLIO, S., an Italian architect, 1475-155SP 
 SEROUX D'AGINCOURT, John Bapt. Lev 
 George, a Fr. historian and antiquar., 1730-18 
 SERPILIUS, G., a Hungarian ecclesiastic, f 
 troversial writer and poet, 1668-1723. 
 SERRA, A., an Italian economist, 16th cdl 
 SERRA, M., an Italian painter, 1658-172J 
 SERRANO, T., an Italian Jesuit, 1715-178 
 SERRAO, J. A., an Italian prelate, 1731-M 
 SERRE, Hercules, Count De, a French sW 
 man attached to the party of Richelieu, 1777-lf 
 SERRE S, John De, in Latin Serratm 
 learned French Calvinist and historiographer, lfi 
 1598. His br., Olivier, an agricuit., 1539-lt 
 SERRES, Olive, a lady who claimed to 
 princess of Cumberland, as the legitimate daurf 
 of Henry Frederick, duke of Cumberland, O t 
 sister of the Rev. Dr. Wilmot ; she was bjfl 
 Warwick in 1772, and made a fruitless efiH 
 obtain the recognition of her claims on the de 
 of George III., previous to which she had b 
 married to Mr. Serres, the king's marine p4| 
 Died 1834. 
 SERRONI, H., an ltal. theologian, 1517-fl 
 SERRY, J. H., a French theologian, 1659-17 
 
 CDS 
 
SER 
 
 SERTORIUS, Quintus, a partizan of Marius 
 the civil war between the plebeians and the sena- 
 rial oligarchy, headed by Sylla, was born in Italy 
 lout 121 b.c. He reaped his earliest laurels in 
 e war against the Cimbri and Teutones, on the 
 uilish frontier, and there also became acquainted 
 th the chief of the people. When Sylla triumphed 
 Italy, Sertorius retired to his prsetorial govern- 
 nt in Spain ; and though he was continually 
 rassed by Metellus, he virtually rendered that 
 untry independent under his command, and 
 deavoured to give it the benefits of a pater- 
 1 government. He was assassinated at a ban- 
 et to which he had been invited by the Roman 
 leral Perpenna B.C. 72. [E.R.] 
 
 SERVETUS, or SERVEDE, Michael, was 
 n at Villa Nuova in Arragon, a.d. 1509. From 
 birth-place he assumed ^the cognomen of Vil- 
 lovanus ; and the surname Reves, which he put 
 the title-page of his books, appears to be a 
 aint transposition of the first two syllables of 
 rvetus. His father was a lawyer, and wishing 
 son to study for his own profession, sent him 
 that purpose to Toulouse. But literature and 
 lology occupied his attention and engrossed his 
 rare. On returning to Spain he attached him- 
 E" to Quintana, confessor to the emperor Charles 
 and accompanied him first into Italy and then 
 Germany. In the year 1550 he took up his re- 
 jnce at Basle, and often conferred witn Oeco- 
 ipadius on matters of theology. His mind now 
 an to evolve its peculiar speculations, all in 
 agonism to the current beliefs. In 1531 ap- 
 red his first work at Hagenau, ' De Trinitatis 
 oribus,' in which the notion of a Trinity was 
 only discussed, but caricatured. The emperor 
 ered the book to be suppressed, and the year 
 awing Servetus published apologetic dialogues, 
 demning the juvenility of the work, but still 
 ntaining the same doctrines. In 1533 he 
 it to France, studied at Paris, afterwards re- 
 red to Orleans, and resided for two years as 
 tor of the press at Lyons, busying him- 
 with the study of medicine. In 1537 he re- 
 ed Paris, and took the degrees of master of 
 and doctor of medicine. Leaving Paris, after 
 accusation by the Sorbonne, he settled ulti- 
 ily at Vienne, and for a series of years prac- 
 medicine. He had been a considerable time 
 ing a book on Theology, and under the 
 of ' Christianismi Restitutio,' it appeared at 
 e in 1553, but without author's name or 
 The book produced a great sensation sus- 
 , in consequence of some Genevan correspon- 
 with a French refugee called De Trie, fell 
 
 SER 
 
 and-thirty articles of charge, as we learn from one 
 of his own letters. At the first hearing of the 
 case Servetus made explanations, and at the second 
 hearing Calvin himself attended. In the mean- 
 time the council of Geneva wrote to Vienne, with 
 information that Servetus was in custody, and re- 
 solved as the trial went on to send communications 
 to several of the cantons. The council of Vienne 
 demanded back the prisoner, but with tears in 
 his eyes he entreated the Genevan syndics to retain 
 him, and sist him before their own tribunal. The 
 Genevan magistrates stood upon prerogative, or 
 the burning of Servetus would have happened at 
 popish Vienne, and the protestant syndics were 
 proud to rival a catholic city in severity of pen- 
 alty. His prosecution was now given to the at- 
 torney-general, and the charge of sedition was 
 specially pressed against the accused ; for politics 
 superseded theology in the discussion. Servetus 
 replied at some length, and in his subsequent 
 petition one of his principal endeavours is to clear 
 himself from the charge of being a disturber of 
 society. Calvin and he were confronted they had 
 maintained a correspondence some months previ- 
 ous, and Servetus actually craved an indictment 
 to be preferred against the reformer. Calvin, in 
 the meantime, had quarrelled with the council in a 
 case of discipline ; the Libertine or anti-Calvinist ' 
 party were growing in power, and Servetus hoped 
 apparently to turn the tables on his principal 
 antagonist. The opinion of the churches in Swit- 
 zerland had now been asked, and they unani- 
 mously condemned Servetus, though they differed 
 as to the amount of punishment which should be 
 inflicted on him. Toward the end of the pro- 
 tracted investigation the influence of Calvin was 
 little felt, and on the 26th of October, the un- 
 happy Servetus was doomed to the stake the 
 following day. Calvin interfered for a more leni- 
 ent form of punishment, but his request was not 
 granted. Servetus was greatly affected when he 
 heard his sentence, though he gradually resumed 
 his composure. Farell attended him, but seems 
 to have made no impression upon his mind. The 
 next day the sentence was carried into effect in all 
 its cruel barbarity. The sufferer, during the half- 
 hour of his consciousness amidst the flames, cried 
 repeatedly ' Jesus, thou Son of the Eternal God, 
 have mercy on me.' This execution of Servetus 
 has acquired an adventitious eminence from its 
 circumstances. Had he been burned at Vienne, 
 the deed would have been known only as one of 
 thousands inflicted by papal mandate. But the 
 scene of the martyrdom in the protestant republic 
 of Geneva, and the theological notoriety of Calvin, 
 have given it an extraordinary and a polemical 
 celebrity. Much has been said and written about 
 it: it has barbed many a declamation: and the 
 harsh and vindictive spirit of Calvin has been often 
 reprobated. But the fact is, that only in the year 
 1842, were the original records of the trial dis- 
 covered and employed in the account. M. De La 
 Valayre in 1842 made good use of those docu- 
 ments, and so did Rilliet in 1844, in his ' Relation 
 du Proces Criminal Intent6 h Geneve en 1553 
 Contre Michel Servet,' &c. The result throws a 
 on the 13th August, 1553. The accuser better and more faithful light on the whole trans- 
 Spaniard was Nicholas de la Fontaine, a ' action. It is proved that while Calvin approved 
 an, but Calvin himself framed the eight- ' of the punishment of death according to a theory 
 
 699 
 
 agth on Servetus, and he was imprisoned by 
 
 |inquisitors. During the process he contrived 
 
 ipe and fled at once to Geneva, where he lay 
 
 icealment for a month, waiting an opportu- 
 
 to set out for Naples. After his flight from 
 
 le he was burned there in effigy, having 
 
 previously condemned as an outlaw, and he 
 
 have been burned in person, if he had not 
 
 ortunely made his escape. As he was about 
 
 ve Geneva for Zurich he was discovered, and 
 
 i suggestion of Calvin he was at once appre- 
 
SER 
 
 then commonly entertained, yet that he had little 
 or no direct influence with the council during the 
 latter portion of the trial. (See Calvin). The 
 union Detween religion and politics in the govern- 
 ment of Geneva, led its rulers to believe them- 
 selves invested with the power of punishing heresy 
 as a sin against God and a crime against the state. 
 Nav, at the very same period Berthelier, a citizen, 
 had been excluded from the church by Calvin, but 
 the council declared him capable of receiving the 
 communion. In 1547 Gruet, a leader of the 
 Libertine party, had been beheaded for sedition, 
 though religious opinion formed a special charge 
 against him. In the document which contains 
 the sentence against Servetus, assaults on Calvin 
 and the Genevan ministers are not mentioned at 
 all. Servetus himself held the same theoretic 
 views, and in his indictment against Calvin he 
 puts the alternative ' Till the cause be decided 
 for his death or mine.' So that had he obtained 
 supremacy in Geneva, he would not have scrupled 
 to burn Calvin What a miserable misconception 
 of human right and Divine enactment ! And it 
 was certainly a sad and inconsistent thing for 
 reformers to deny to others the toleration which 
 they had claimed and gained for themselves. 
 The career of Servetus was peculiar. Born in the 
 land of the Auto-da-Fe, he was sent out of it to 
 study, his father being afraid that his son's free 
 speculations and pugnacious propensity would 
 place him within the grasp of the inquisition ; and 
 yet he perished neither in Spain nor France. 
 Coleridge has said, that ' if any poor fanatic ever 
 thrust himself into the flames, that man was Ser- 
 vetus.' We cannot use these words in all their 
 latitude ; yet, certainly Servetus, with all his ac- 
 knowledged talents and gifts, was ambitious and 
 arrogant, was, in short, what Mosheim calls a 
 4 semifanatic' But surely such a character did not 
 merit so awful a penalty, and we may read in the 
 flames of Servetus that man is responsible to God 
 alone for his belief, that truth does not suffer by 
 toleration, for fire is not able to extirpate what 
 argument cannot overthrow. A passage is found 
 in the ' Restitutio ' of Servetus, which has been 
 understood by some as anticipating by seventy 
 years, Harvey's famous discovery of the circulation 
 of the blood. While we admit the boldness and 
 eloquence of Servetus, his rare acquirements and 
 restless industry, we are compelled to add that 
 the equivocations made by him on his trial, both 
 at Vienne and Geneva, do not place his moral 
 character in the same favourable light. [J.E.] 
 
 SER VIE Z, Jacques Roergas De, a French 
 historian, 1679-1727. His grandson, Emmanuel 
 Gehvaise, a soldier and writer, 1755-1 804. 
 
 SERVIN, Louis, a French jurisconsult, who 
 died suddenly when in the act of remonstrating 
 with Louis XIII. against his tyrannical acts, 1626. 
 
 SERVIUS, Maurus Honoratus, a Roman 
 grammarian and commentator upon Virgil, 5th c. 
 
 SERVIUS, Sulpitius Rufus, a Roman jurist 
 and statesman, died in Antony's camp, B.C. 43. 
 
 SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of Rome, 
 succeeded his father-in-law, Tarquin the Elder, 
 B.C. 578. Murdered at the instigation of Tullia 
 and her husband, b.c. 584. See Tarquin. 
 
 SESSA, an Indian mathematician, the reputed 
 inventor of the game of chess, 11th century. 
 
 SEY 
 SESTINI, D., an Ital. antiquarian, 1750-1832 
 SESTO, Cesar Da, called the Milanese, aj 
 Italian painter of the 16th century. 
 
 SETTALA, Lcdovioo, in Latin Septalius, a 
 eminent Milanese physician, 1552-1633. His son 
 Manfred, an able mathematician, 1600-168QJ| 
 SETTLE, Elkanah, known as a poet anj 
 dramatic writer, born at Dunstable 1618, d. 1724 
 SEUME, J. T., a German writer, 1763-1810. 
 SEVERINUS, a pope of Rome, 640. 
 SE VE RUS, three Roman emperors : 1 . I . rj n 
 Septimius Severus, the most important, w;| 
 born on the African coast 146, and havi 
 manded the legions of Illyria, was proclaimed! 
 the death of Pertinax 193. He made many coil 
 quests in the East, and in 208 came to this islanl 
 where he built a wall between the Forth and t) 
 Clyde, as a check against the Picts. He died at Yoi 
 in 211. 2. Flavius Valerius Severus, killed 1 
 Maxentius, after a short indulgence in power, 
 3. Vibius Severus, proclaimed by the legions 
 Illyria 461, died 465. 4. See Alexander. 
 SEVERUS, founder of a Christian sect, 2d cer 
 SEVERUS, A., a Greek rhetorician, 5th cent 
 SEVERUS, C, a Roman epic poet, 1st centui 
 SEVERUS, S., a Christian poet, 4th century. 
 SEVIGNE, Marie De Rabutin Chanta 
 Marchioness De, celebrated for her fine undt 
 standing and epistolary talents, was born at t 
 chateau de Bourdilly, in Burgundy, 1627. Afl 
 the death of the marquis de Sevigne, she lived 
 widowhood twenty-five years, devoted to the 
 cation of her children. Her famous letters | 
 addressed to her daughter, Madame de Grig 
 Died 1696. 
 SEVIN, F., a French philologist, 1682-174 
 SEWARD, Anna, a once popular writer, " 
 as the friend and biographer of Dr. Darwin, t| 
 the daughter of the Rev. T. Seward, rector ! 
 Eyam, in Derbyshire, where she was born 17*| 
 Her publications were the poetical romance 
 Louisa, 1782 ; a Collection of Sonnets, 1799 ; i\ 
 the Life of Darwin in 1804. She died in 1$ 
 since which her Literary Remains and Cor 
 pondence have appeared. 
 
 SEWARD, W., a biographical writer, 1746fl 
 SEWELL, George, a native of Windsor,, 
 was settled as a physician at Hampstead, 
 known to fame as a poet and miscellaneous v 
 by his tragedy of ' Sir Walter Ralegh,' a ' Vi r 
 tion of the English Stage,' &c. ; died 1726. 
 
 SEWELL, WilliaM; son of a surgeon at j|J 
 sterdam, whose father was an English reftj 
 known as a Quaker historian, 1654-1720. 
 SEXTIUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, lstttJ 
 SEXTIUS-EMPIRICUS, a Greek philosfl 
 and physician, time of Commodus. 
 SEYBOLD, D. C, a Ger. philologist, 1747- 
 SEYDLITZ, Frederic William, Baron] 
 a companion-in-arms of Frederick the Great 
 tinguished in the seven years' war, 1722-177$ 
 SEYMOUR, Arabella. See Araukli 
 SEYMOUR, Edward, duke of Somerset 
 uncle to Edward VI., was brother to QueenH 
 Seymour, and on his sister's marriage to He 
 VIII. in 1536, was created Viscount Beauch* 
 He distinguished himself in the Scottisl 
 French wars, and in the struggle for power s I 
 the death of Henry, became governor of the yo 
 
 700 
 
SEY 
 
 g and protector of the realm. In 1548 he was 
 
 Tted duke of Somerset, and took the functions 
 
 ord-treasurer and earl-marshal; in the same 
 
 he headed the troops in Scotland, and won 
 
 battle of Musselburgh. His power was at last 
 
 cen by the intrigues of the earl of Warwick, 
 
 rwards duke of Northumberland, and he was 
 
 aded on Tower Hill, 22d January, 1552. 
 
 EYSSEL. See Seissel. 
 
 FORZA, a noble Italian family founded by 
 
 COMO Attendolo, a peasant of the Romagna, 
 
 was born at Cottignola in 1369, and enlisting 
 
 company of soldiers that passed through the 
 
 ge, rose gradually to the rank of general. He 
 
 called Sf'orza on account of his great vigour. 
 
 vas drowned in effecting the passage of the 
 
 Pescara, in the service of Joan of Naples, 
 
 . Franceso Alessandro, duke of Milan, 
 
 a natural son of the preceding. He was born 
 
 401, and rose to distinction in the service of 
 
 , afterwards as general of the Milanese troops ; 
 
 as created duke by the leaders of a revolt in 
 
 , died 1466. The descendants of the latter 
 
 sssed the duchy through several generations. 
 
 principal of them was Maximilian, who 
 
 ed in the events that followed the league of 
 
 brai, and died at Paris, in the reign of Francis 
 
 >30. See Visconti. 
 
 "ORZA, Bona, daughter of J. G. Sforza, one 
 b preceding dukes, and of Isabella of Arragon, 
 ne queen of Poland by her marriage with 
 round I. in 1518 ; she died 1557. . 
 LADWELL, Sir Lancelot, a judge and 
 3er of parliament, born 1779, vice-chancellor 
 died 1850. 
 
 ADWELL, Thomas, a dramatic writer, and 
 ssor of Dryden as poet-laureate and historio- 
 ler, was born of a good family in Norfolk 
 He followed in the wake of Ben Jonson 
 writer of comedy; died 1692. Charles, 
 aed to be his son or nephew, also a play- 
 , died 1726. 
 
 AFTESBURY. The first earl of Shaftes- 
 
 as the brilliant but inconsistent statesman 
 
 arles II.'s reign. His son, the second earl, 
 
 he father of Anthony Ashley Cooper, 
 
 ird earl, the subject of this notice. He was 
 
 London in 1671, and educated under the 
 
 tendence of his grandfather. He travelled 
 
 e years on the continent, and in 1693 en- 
 
 the House of Commons, where he acted 
 
 ically with the Whig party. His health 
 
 threatening to fail, he went abroad in 1698, 
 
 ied in Holland under the advice of Bayle 
 
 Clerc. Next year his father's death called 
 
 the House of Lords ; but, early in the reign 
 
 le, his premature infirmities forced him to 
 
 altogether from public life. Thenceforth he 
 
 i himself exclusively with philosophy and 
 
 Ore, till he died at Naples in 1713. In 1711 
 
 d collected his writings into a series, which 
 
 titled 'Characteristics of Men, Manners, 
 
 Wis, and Times.' The most important pieces 
 
 collection are, the 'Inquiry concerning Vir- 
 
 [Merit,' first published in 1699 ; and the Pla- 
 
 lialogue, called 'The Moralists, a Philosophi- 
 
 lapsody,' whose first appearance was in 1709. 
 
 (as a philosopher and as a writer, Shaftes- 
 
 las encountered extremes, equally undeserved, 
 
 SHA 
 
 of admiration and of censure. His style is elabo- 
 rate, artificial, affected, and studded all over with 
 foreign and pedantic terms of his own invention ; 
 and ne very seldom puts off his offensive air of 
 foppish condescension. But there is hardly a page 
 of his volumes in which we are not struck by the 
 elements of fine writing ; and some passages of his, 
 with their lofty thoughtful eloquence, and their 
 exquisite music of rhythm, are among the most 
 beautiful things in the English language. The 
 moral elevation and purity of the sentiments are 
 always worthy of the amiable and irreproachable 
 character of the author. The great defect in 
 Shaftesbury's philosophical thinking is its indis- 
 tinctness : he merely throws out hints, in a man- 
 ner not unlike his master and model Plato, and 
 often gives reason for believing that he himself had 
 apprehended very obscurely the ideas he strives to 
 express. Inconsistency, real or apparent, is a 
 natural accompaniment of this mistiness of thought ; 
 and the vacillating uncertainty of opinion betrays 
 itself most of all when questions of religion are 
 directly handled. His mind had received a wrong 
 bias through the scorn he felt for the Toryism and 
 Jacobitism then rampant hi the Church of Eng- 
 land ; and the tendency was augmented by his 
 observation of the popularity possessed, among the 
 clergy as elsewhere, oy the philosophy of Locke, 
 which Shaftesbury believed to contain the germ of 
 evil religious consequences. Although, likewise, 
 no thinkers could be more unlike than the cold and 
 sceptical Bayle and the enthusiastic and aspiring 
 Shaftesbury, the intercourse of the two did not 
 improbably affect in some degree the opinions of 
 the young Englishman. Accordingly Shaftesbury 
 gives vent, especially in ' The Moralist,' to expres- 
 sions and assertions, which fully justified Leland 
 in uttering a warning against him in his ' View of 
 Deistical Writers ;' while elsewhere he contradicts 
 such passages directly, or neutralizes them by fine 
 trains of devout meditation. In the philosophical 
 system (if such it can be called) of the author of 
 the ' Characteristics,' there are two or three pecu- 
 liarities calling for hasty commendation. First, in 
 Metaphysics he strenuously vindicated the possi- 
 bility of d priori notions against the sensualistic 
 philosophy of Locke ; and his views on this great 
 question, while they called forth the warm admira- 
 tion of Leibnitz, and accorded with the opinions of 
 that great thinker, were likewise a foretaste of the 
 creed taught afterwards in fragments by Reid and 
 systematized (not in all points safely) by Kant and 
 his disciples. In the second place, Shaftesbury's 
 Ethical doctrines placed him, at two points, in op- 
 position to systems then prevalent in England. 
 He combated eagerly and convincingly the Selfish 
 theory of Hobbes: he directed thinkers into a 
 psychological track that had recently been neglected, 
 when, refusing to confine himself exclusively (like 
 Cudworth and Clarke) to the region of Reason or 
 Intellect, he indicated Feeling as an essential ele- 
 ment in all Facts of Conscience or operations of the 
 Moral Sense or Faculty. [W.S.] 
 
 SHAH-ABBAS. See Abbas. 
 
 SHAKSPERE, William, 'born at Stratford- 
 upon-Avon, married and had children there; went 
 to London, where he commenced actor, and wrote 
 poems and plays ; returned to Stratford, made his 
 will, and died.' ' This,' says Steevens, ' is all that 
 
 701 
 
sua 
 
 is known, with any degree of certainty, about 
 Shakspere.' We should have cared very little about 
 the birth and marriage, the will, or the death, of 
 this native of a petty country-town in the sixteenth 
 century, but for the one other certainty, he wrote 
 poems and plays.' That fact renders the minutest 
 mcident in the life of this son of a Warwickshire 
 yeoman a matter of interest to the whole human 
 
 [Birth place of Shakspere. ] 
 
 race ; for out of the cottage in which he was born, 
 has gone forth a voice which is the mightiest in 
 modern literature; which has had no small in- 
 fluence in forming our national character; and 
 which, in connection with the higher teaching from 
 above, is refining and humanizing wherever its 
 sound is heard. Steevens was in a great degree 
 right, as far as regards a mere biographical notice of 
 Shakspere. His real biography lies in a critical 
 estimate of his writings, as compared with others 
 of his time, and in his relation to the age in 
 which he flourished. The documentary biography, 
 beyond that furnished by the facts that tell us the 
 dates of his several works, lies in a very narrow 
 compass. William Shakspere was born in 1564. 
 His baptism was registered in the parish church of 
 Stratford, on the 26th of April, in that year. It 
 was usual to baptize within three days of birth, 
 and, therefore, his birth-day is held to be the 23d 
 of April, the St. George's day of England. The 
 probability, though not the certainty, is that he 
 was born in the town of Stratford. The old house 
 there, in which he is said to have been born, was 
 unquestionably the property of his father, John 
 Shakspere. His father was married and living in 
 Stratford in 1558. His mother was Mary Arden, 
 of the ancient family of the Ardens. The course 
 of John Shakspere may be traced by the parochial 
 and municipal records, from the ofhce of juryman 
 of the court leet in 1556, to that of bailiff, or chief 
 magistrate, in 1568. He has been held to have 
 been a butcher, or a wool-stapler, or a glover. 
 In an age when there was little subdivision of 
 occupations, the yeoman cultivating his land, 
 might have sold the carcases of his sheep, dressed 
 their wool, and prepared their peltries. The oc- 
 cupier of grazing land had no large separate 
 markets for such commodities. There was a free 
 grammar school at Stratford. We have no record 
 that William Shakspere went to that school ; but 
 why should we doubt that he was educated there ; 
 it was the natural place of his education. Some 
 
 wtitiM 
 
 I la-li 
 
 pedant! 
 e can ) 
 
 SUA 
 
 persons have endeavoured to show that th 
 tincture of grammar school studies in his wi 
 that he was essentially unlearned. Such 
 is now wholly abandoned, except by those m 
 if there be any left, who think that there* 
 no learning without a constant parade of it. 
 has been stated by Rowe, that John Shakspere hi 
 ' a large family, ten children in all.' There we 
 other Shaksperes in Stratford. The registers di 
 tinctly show that the father of the poet had fi 
 children who survived the period of infancy, 
 have no trace how William Shakspere was < 
 ployed in the interval between his school-days i 
 manhood. Some hold that he was an attorney's cilii 
 The tradition is that he was a wild voung fello 
 stealing deer. The certainty is that he was treast 
 ing up that store of knowledge, and cultivap 
 that range of genius, which made him whajB" 
 became. At Shottery, a pretty village withhj 
 mile of Stratford, is an old farm-house, J 
 divided into several tenements, where dwe| 
 family of the name of Hathaway , and this J 
 perty remained in the possession of their- 
 scendants. Anne Hathaway became the wil 
 William Shakspere in 1582. The marriage- 
 and license are preserved in the Consistorial CM 
 at Worcester. By this marriage there were th 
 children, Susanna, Hamnet, and Judeth. Hanu 
 the only son, died in 1596 The two daughl 
 survived their father, and inherited his property 
 Soon after his marriage William Shakspere be 
 connected with the Blackfriars' Theatre, in 
 don. In 1589, when he was only twent 
 years of age, he was a joint proprietor of] 
 theatre, with four others below him in thej 
 The players of the Blackfriars' were the 
 Chamberlain's company, those who acted 
 royal patronage. We know nothing of the 
 the production of his first play. We can ab 
 assign very few dates to any of his plays 
 by the following table, which has been l 
 Mr. Knight, of the positive facts which de 
 dates previous to which they had be 
 duced : 
 Henry VI., Part I Alluded to by Na 
 
 'Pierce Pennile 
 Henry VI., Part II Printed as ' The 
 
 Part of the Cor 
 
 tion,' 
 
 Henry VI , Part III Printed as ' The 
 
 Tragedy of Ric 
 
 Duke of York.'... 
 
 Richard II Printed , 
 
 Richard IIL Printed 
 
 Romeo and Juliet Printed 
 
 Love's Labour's Lost Printed 
 
 Henry IV., Part I Printed 
 
 Henry IV., Part II Printed 
 
 Henry V Printed 
 
 Merchant of Venice Printed 1C00. 
 
 tioned by Meres. 
 Midsummer Night'sDream Printed 1600. 
 
 ticned by Mer 
 
 Much Ado about Nothing . Printed 
 
 As You Like It Entered at Static 
 
 Hall 
 
 All's Well that Ends Well. Held to be menti< 
 
 by Meres as 
 
 Labour's Won' 
 Two Gentlemen of Verona Mentioned by Mer 
 
 Comedy of Errors. Mentioned by Mer 
 
 King John Mentioned by Me 
 
 Titus Andronicus Printed .... 
 
 Merry Wives of Windsor.. Printed.. . 
 Hamlet Printed..., 
 
 702 
 
SHA 
 
 elfth Night A cted in the Middle 
 
 Temple Hall 1C02 
 
 lello Acted at Harefleld .... 1602 
 
 isure for Measure Acted at Whitehall 1604 
 
 Printed 1608. Acted at 
 
 Whitehall 1607 
 
 king of the Shrew Supposed to have been 
 
 acted at Henslow's 
 Theatre, 1593. En- 
 tered at Stationers' 
 
 Hall 1607 
 
 Ins and Cressida Printed 1609. Previ- 
 ously acted at Court 1609 
 
 cles Printed 1609 
 
 Tempest Acted at Whitehall .... 1611 
 
 Winter Tale Acted at Whitehall.. .. 1611 
 
 ry VIIL Acted as a new play 
 
 when the Globe was 
 burned 1613 
 
 he thirty-seven plays of Shakspere, the ex- 
 
 ce of thirty-one is thus defined by contemporary 
 
 ds. The six which are not so defined, are 
 
 ibeline, Macbeth, Timon, and the three Eoman 
 
 s. There are not many instances of the men- 
 
 of Shakspere, during his lifetime, by writers 
 
 is period; but one writer, Francis Meres, 
 
 :es many of his more important plays, in 1598. 
 
 poems carry their own dates, ' Venus and 
 
 Bus ' was published in 1593 ; ' Lucrece' in 
 
 the ' Sonnets ' in 1609. Meres had men- 
 
 (d, in 1598, Shakspere's ' sugered sonnets 
 
 igst his private friends.' Shakspere became 
 
 in connection with the theatres. He pur- 
 
 sd the principal house in Stratford in 1597, 
 
 parcels of land in that parish. He became 
 
 the-owner also by purchase. It is supposed 
 
 he ceased to be connected with the theatres in 
 
 for there is a valuation of his property in that 
 
 for which he asked 1,433 6s. 8d. His father 
 
 a 1601 ; and it is more than probable that the 
 
 of poets succeeded him as a practical 
 
 r in his native place. He had his actions in 
 
 ailiff's court for corn sold and delivered. He 
 
 looked up to by his neighbours, as there is 
 
 nee in letters. His eldest daughter, in 1607, 
 
 ed Dr. Hall, an eminent physician residing in 
 
 ford. Judeth married Thomas Quiney, a 
 
 sman of substance, in February, 1616. The 
 
 of Stratford has another register two 
 
 afterwards. On the 25th April, William 
 
 re was buried in the parish church. Anne, 
 
 rife, survived till 1623. She was amply pro- 
 
 ^T by the laws of her country ; for the 
 
 er part of Shakspere's property was freehold, 
 
 ;he widow was entitled, for her life, to the 
 
 t of one-third. The bequest to her of the 
 
 d-best bed was one of affection, and not 
 
 jlect. The best bed was always an heir-loom. 
 
 eldest daughter, Susanna, died in 1649. 
 
 h died in 1662. Neither left any heir-male. 
 
 " e grand-daughter of Shakspere, Elizabeth 
 
 inherited the bulk of his property. By her 
 
 ' marriage she became the wife of" Sir John 
 
 In half a century the family estates 
 
 ill scattered, and went to other races ; with 
 
 ception of two houses in Henley-Street, which 
 
 Barnard devised to her kinsman, Thomas 
 
 the grandson of Shakspere's sister, Joan. 
 
 houses were purchased by the nation, in 
 
 of the descendants of the Harts. [O.K.] 
 
 AMMAI, a Jewish rabbi, president of the 
 
 drhn, at first a disciple of Hillel, but after- 
 
 
 snA 
 
 wards dissented from his master, and set up a new 
 college ; 1st century B.C. 
 
 SHANFARAH, an Arabian poet, 6th century. 
 
 SHARP, Abraham, an astronomer and mecha- 
 nician, who became assistant to Flamsteed at 
 the Royal Observatory, 1651-1742. 
 
 SHARP, James, the victim of his intemperate 
 zeal for imposing the system of the Anglican 
 Church upon Scotland, was a native of Banffshire, 
 where he was born in 1618. He was first an advo- 
 cate of the presbyterians, but after the restoration 
 became a tool of the court party, and was rewarded 
 with the archbishopric of St. Andrews. The wan- 
 ton cruelties which followed provoked the bitterest 
 hatred against him, and, on the 3d of May, 1679, 
 he was dragged i'rom his coach, and murdered in 
 the presence of his daughter. This event occurred 
 about three miles from St. Andrews. 
 
 SHARP, John, grandfather of the celebrated 
 Granville Sharpe (see below), was a learned pre- 
 late and theologian. He was born at Bradford, 
 in Yorkshire, 1644, and distinguished himself by 
 preaching against popery in the reign of James II. 
 After the revolution he was successively dean of 
 Canterbury and archbishop of York; died 1713. 
 His son, Thomas, archdeacon of Northumberland 
 and prebendary of Durham, was a master of Heb- 
 rew learning ; born about 1693, died 1758. 
 
 SHARP, Rich., a gentleman of great wealth, well 
 known in the literary world, and once a member of 
 parliament, au. of 'Letters and Essays,' 1759-1835. 
 
 SHARP, S., a writer on surgery, died 1778. 
 
 SHARP, William, this eminent engraver was 
 born in London, January 29, 1749. His father, 
 who was a gunmaker, early apprenticed him to a 
 bright engraver, and he commenced his career by 
 engraving such works as door plates, &c, his 
 first effort being on a pewter pot ; but in 1782 he 
 completely resigned this business, and commenced 
 as a fine engraver, executing plates after Stothard 
 and others, for the booksellers, but he soon acquired 
 a great reputation, and engraved many considerable 
 works from the old and modern masters, and such 
 is the delicacy and precision of his lines, that some 
 of his plates are considered, both in this country 
 and abroad, the finest specimens of line engraving 
 extant ; as for instance, the portrait of John Hun- 
 ter, after Sir Joshua Reynolds, or his ' Lear,' after 
 West. Sharp died at Chiswick of dropsy in the 
 chest, July 25, 1824. He was a member of the 
 academies of Munich and Vienna, but had declined 
 the honour of 'Associate Engraver' in the Royal 
 Academy of his own country, considering the ex- 
 clusion of engravers from the full honours of the 
 academy, an affront to the profession. This exclu- 
 sion is now (1853) suspended. Sharp is reputed 
 latterly to have resigned his mind to the reveries 
 of Richard Brothers, Joanna Southcote, and 
 Emanuel Swedenborg. That he may at one time 
 have had faith in all these is possible, but not 
 simultaneously. To confound the sublime morals 
 and doctrines of Swedenborg with the reveries of 
 Brothers, or the delusions of Joanna Southcote, is 
 not less ridiculous than to assume that an ortho- 
 dox Mahometan could at the same time be a good 
 Christian. [R.N.W.] 
 
 SHARPE, Granville, was born in 1734 at 
 Durham, and was apprenticed in trade, but, hav- 
 ing a strong turn for literature, he abandoned the 
 
 703 
 
SHA 
 
 uncongenial pursuit of business. His friends having 
 procured him a situation in the Ordnance Office, 
 he continued for some time discharging the duties 
 of that department until the declaration of war 
 against America, and entertaining strong consci- 
 entious objections to the policy and justice of that 
 measure, he resigned his place. Being possessed 
 of some means, he now resolved to dedicate his life 
 to study and to the duties of active benevolence. He 
 instituted the society for the abolition of the slave 
 trade, and distinguished himself by his zeal in 
 devising measures for the extensive distribution of 
 the Bible. He was the author of various literary 
 works. Besides several pamphlets on slavery, he 
 published Tracts on the Hebrew language, and 
 Remarks on the Definite Article in the Greek 
 New Testament. Mr. Sharpe died on 6th July, 
 1813. . [R.J.] 
 
 SHARPE, Gregory, a philosophical divine 
 and Orientalist, born in Yorkshire 1713, died 1771. 
 
 SHARROCK, Robert, a dignitary of the Ch. 
 of England, and a writer on moralitv, 17th cent 
 
 SHAW, C, a Yorkshire poet, 1739-1786. 
 
 SHAW, G., a disting. naturalist, 1751-1813. 
 
 SHAW, Sir James, a native of Ayrshire, who 
 rose from the position of a merchant's clerk to the 
 high office of chamberlain in the city of London. 
 He was bom in 1764, and became alderman in 
 1798, sheriff in 1803, and lord mayor in 1805. 
 The same year he was returned to parliament^ by 
 the city, and continued one of its representatives 
 till 18l8. In 1831 he was elected chamberlain, 
 and died highly respected at the age of eighty, 1843. 
 
 SHAW, John, an English divine, died 1689. 
 
 SHAW, Peter, a medical writer, 1695-1763. 
 
 SHAW, Samuel, a divine and schoolmaster, 
 author of miscellaneous works, 1635-1696. 
 
 SHAW, Stebbing, rector of Hartshorne, in 
 Staffordshire, known as a topographical writer, and 
 originally tutor of Sir Francis Burdett, 1762-1802. 
 
 SHAW, Thomas, a native of Kendal, who be- 
 came chaplain to the English factory at Algiers, 
 and wrote an account of his travels, 1692-1751. 
 
 SHEA, David, professor of Oriental languages 
 at Haileybury College, and translator of Mirk- 
 houd's History of the Early Kings of Persia, born 
 in Dublin 1772, died 1836. 
 
 SHEBBEARE, John, a physician and political 
 writer, pensioned by the earl of Bute, 1709-1788. 
 
 SHEE, Sir Martin Archer, second only to 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence as a portrait painter, was 
 born in Dublin 1769. He exhibited his first pic- 
 ture at the Royal Academy in 1789, and at his 
 death, in 1850, was senior member and president 
 of that institution. He is author of several poeti- 
 cal productions on art, and was in other respects 
 a highly accomplished man. 
 
 SHEFFIELD. See Buckinghamshire. 
 
 SHELBURNE, William Petty, Lord, and 
 fijrst marquis of Lansdowne, born 1737. Became 
 president of the Board of Trade in 1763, and joined 
 Lord Chatham's administration in 1766. After 
 the dissolution of that ministry he was a zealous 
 oppositionist till 1782, when he was appointed 
 secretary of state for foreign affairs. He became 
 head of the cabinet on the death of the marquis of 
 Rockingham, which position he retained till the 
 coalition of Lord North and Mr. Fox ; afterwards 
 he was created marquis of Lansdowne, died 1805. 
 
 SHE 
 
 SHELDON, Gilbert, a munificent prelate v 
 succeeded Juxon in the primacy, and besi 
 expending above 66,000 in charitable otfl 
 remained at his post in the midst of the afflic 
 during the plague of London. Among the wo 
 executed at his expense is the theatre which be 
 his name at Oxford. Born at Stanton, in Staffo 
 shire, 1598, died 1677. 
 
 SHELLEY, G., a writing-master, died 1736. 
 
 SHELLEY, Percy Byssiie, a poet of adn 
 able genius, was, in the words which he appliec 
 himself, ' a power girt round with weakne 
 There is something marvellous in the rich origina 
 of his imagination, and the ideal loveliness am 
 forms which it pours forth. But his figurejj 
 in the air without touching earth ; he want^B 
 
 Eractical strength of sympathy and intuition j 
 uman character; and, while always wecH 
 thought with fancy, he thinks so obscurely that 
 attempts at narrative fail completely, while 
 those lyrical flights which are his best efforts 
 often mystical or unintelligible. This ambiti 
 turn of speculation, ill-directed and uncurl 
 caused the unhappiness of his life as well as 
 chief faults of his poems. With the utmost* 
 tleness and amiability of personal demeanour, 
 united an extreme confidence in his own opini 
 on abstract questions; and, setting himself up,* 
 the presumption of youth, in opposition to recei 
 principles which he didnot understand, he madek 
 self voluntarily an outcast, and remained throi 
 life a martyr to his own indistinct chimeras. SI j 
 ley, the son of a wealthy baronet in Sussex, was b I 
 in that county in 1792. His school-days*! 
 made uncomfortable by his sensitive and roH 
 temper; and he was not distinguished as a scho 8 
 But he laid the foundation of good Greek scfl 
 ship, and wrote two novels before he was S^H 
 In 1808 he was sent from Eton to Oxford. El 
 with very slight philosophical reading, he bea { 
 entangled in metaphysical difficulties, and, at set g 
 teen, was pleased to publish, with a direct JB 
 to the heads of colleges, a pamphlet entitled '. | 
 Necessity of Atheism.' He was immediately 
 pelled. Soon afterwards he printed his poem i 
 ' Queen Mab,' in which singular poetical beau ! 
 are interspersed through a wild mass of specula) 
 absurdities. His alienation from his fainuHl 
 completed when, at the age of eighteen, he tt ! 
 ried the daughter of a person who had kep i 
 coffee house. After three years of misery to o ! 
 parties, the ill-assorted marriage issued in a sepj ] 
 tion ; and not very long afterwards Shelley "j. 
 agitated into temporary derangement, by ld^H 
 that his wife had destroyed herself. His ch2w 
 were taken from him by a decree of the Cour j 
 Chancery, on the ground of the atheism whiclj 
 had avowed, and which he was too proud to retrac j 
 compulsion. Already, among his various wsd( I 
 ings, he had, in 1816, become acquainted with L | 
 Byron, and lived near him on the Lake of Gen j 
 There, and by the Lake of Como, he beflfl 
 write poetry very sedulously, having for some tm 
 written oftencr in prose. He studied and aflfl 
 Wordsworth and Coleridge ; he was fan 
 the Greek dramatists, from whom he mad^H 
 fine translations ; but probably no models ioJ|^H 
 him so much as Goethe and Calderon. Not 1 J 
 after his wife's death he married the da 
 
 704 
 
 
snE 
 
 odwin, a lady well known as the authoress of 
 Frankenstein' and other novels. They resided 
 r a few months in Buckinghamshire, where they 
 ade themselves beloved by their charity to the 
 Dor ; and Shelley's generosity had been remark- 
 le even in the poverty which he had more than 
 ce suffered. During this time, Shelley wrote his 
 quisite 'Alastor,' and the gorgeously obscure 
 levolt of Islam.' In the spring of 1818 he and 
 s family removed to Italy, where they at length 
 ttled themselves at Pisa. In that country, with 
 salth already failing, Shelley produced some of his 
 incipal works, in a period of about four years, 
 ich were the beautiful though dreamy lyrical 
 ama called ' Prometheus Unbound ;' the gloomy 
 gedy of ' The Cenci ;' the mysterious but attrac- 
 e ' Epipschydion ;' ' Julian and Maddalo,' in 
 lich he pourtrays himself and Byron : and many 
 igularly fine small pieces, lyrical and reflective. 
 July, 1822, when he had not quite completed 
 j twenty-ninth year, he was drowned in a storm 
 lich he encountered in his yacht on the Gulf of 
 ezia. In obedience to his own desire, his body, 
 len thrown ashore, was burned, under the direc- 
 n of Lord Byron and other friends ; and the 
 ies were carried to Rome, and buried beside the 
 ive of Keats in the Protestant cemetery beneath 
 3 shadow of the pyramid. [W.S.] 
 
 [Tomb of SheFey .] 
 
 ELLEY, Mary Wolstonkcr aft, wifeof the 
 
 was b. in 1797, and acquired great reputation 
 
 r 'Frankenstein.' Among her other works 
 
 edition of her hnsband's poems ; died 1851. 
 
 ENSTONE, William, was born in 1714, in 
 
 hire, where his father owned the small estate 
 
 Leasowes. He spent his youth, at Oxford 
 
 elsewhere, in literary idling and verse-making. 
 
 ~"~ his thh tilth year he succeeded to the family 
 
 ;y ; and his principal employment after- 
 
 was the execution of those operations in 
 
 ipe gardening, which made the Leasowes 
 
 the show places of England, but involved the 
 
 in pecuniary embarrassment. Shenstone 
 
 a pleasant but not vigorous writer, both in 
 
 and in prose. Iiis ' Pastoral Ballad' is one 
 
 best pieces we have of its artificial kind, and 
 
 SHE 
 contains some fine touches, both of description and 
 sentiment ; and his ' Schoolmistress,' a semi- 
 burlesque imitation of Spenser's diction and stanza, 
 has a spirit and originality which he never else- 
 where showed. He died in 1763. [W.S.] 
 
 SHEPREVE, or SHEPERY, John, one of the 
 most learned men of his age, professor of Hebrew 
 at Oxford about 1538, and author of Latin poems, 
 &c, died 1542. 
 
 SHERARD, or SHERWOOD, William, a 
 learned botanist and antiquarian, who became 
 British consul at Smyrna, and devoted much time 
 in exploring Natolia and Greece ; bom in Leices- 
 tershire 1659, died 1728. His brother, James, 
 born 1666, cultivated a fine botanical garden at 
 Eltham, in Kent, died 1737. 
 
 SHERBURNE, Sir Edward, clerk of the 
 ordnance in the time of Charles I., known as a 
 poet and classical translator, 1618-1702. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Thomas, grandfather of the 
 dramatist (next article), was born in the county 
 of Cavan about 1684, and though of poor paren- 
 tage became a clergyman in the Irish Church. He 
 was a friend of Dean Swift, and an incorrigible 
 wit, a genuine Irish sloven, a ' quibbler, a punster, 
 and a fiddler,' died in extreme indigence 1738. 
 His son, Thomas, born at Quilea in 1721, went 
 upon the stage in 1742, and was very successful 
 as a tragedian ; he wrote a Life of Swift,' ' Lec- 
 tures on Elocution,' and an ' Orthoepical Dic- 
 tionary of the English Language,' died 1788. 
 Frances, wife of the latter, and grand-daughter 
 of Sir Oliver Chamberlane, acquired considerable 
 repute as a novelist, especially by her delightful 
 romance of ' Nourjahad,' 1724-1767. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, was born 
 at Dublin in 1751. His grandfather, Dr. Sheri- 
 dan, a clergyman and schoolmaster in Ireland, was 
 an improvident wit, and a friend and coadjutor of 
 Swift ; his father, Thomas Sheridan, was well 
 known as an actor and a teacher of elocution, and as 
 the author of a Pronouncing Dictionary ; and his 
 mother, a remarkably amiable and accomplished 
 woman, wrote, besides other pieces, the fairy tale 
 of ' Nourjahad.' Richard, an idle and mischievous 
 boy, passed at school for a hopeless blockhead. 
 But, though he had not learned to spell English 
 when he left Harrow, at the age of eighteen, he 
 was ambitious enough to join his friend, Halhed 
 (the Orientalist), in publishing a translation from 
 the Greek. He professed to study law in the 
 Middle Temple ; but his prospects were very hazy 
 indeed, when, being barely of age, he made a run- 
 away marriage with Miss Linley, a beautiful and 
 accomplished singer. He refused to allow his wife 
 to perform in public ; and a small fortune she 
 brought him was speedily dissipated by that care- 
 less way of living, which he practised at all stages 
 of his life. His career falls into two periods, ex- 
 hibiting an alternation such as few men have gone 
 through. The comic play-writer and theatrical 
 manager transformed himself successfully into a 
 statesman and orator. His earliest comedy, ' The 
 Rivals,' appeared in 1775, when the author was 
 not much more than twenty-three years old. This 
 humorous and lively play was succeeded next year 
 by the commonplace farce of ' St Patrick's Day,' 
 and the witty and clever little opera of 'The 
 Duenna.' In 1777, was played his celebrated 
 
 705 
 
 2Z 
 
SHE 
 
 comedy 'The School for Scandal,' an inimitahle 
 picture of the surface of society as seen on its weak 
 side, and fuller of sparkling wit than any English 
 play except those of Congreve. Sheridan's course 
 of play writing may he said to have closed in 1779, 
 with his witty and ill-natured farce The Critic' 
 While engaged in bringing out his earliest plays, 
 he became one of the proprietors of Drury Lane 
 Theatre; and, acting as manager, he conducted 
 his affairs with his usual carelessness. The wit 
 which he exhibited in society was even more re- 
 markable than that which glittered in his comedies ; 
 but the one as well as the other was really gained 
 (as his biographer, Moore, amusingly shows') by 
 careful premeditation, and owed very mucn to 
 unscrupulous and dexterous borrowing. Becoming 
 intimate with Fox and Burke, and impressing 
 these eminent men with a strong belief in his politi- 
 cal and oratorical talents, he obtained a seat in 
 parliament in 1780. He worked hard for the House 
 of Commons, and was, in his great efforts, one of 
 the most showy and striking of parliamentary 
 orators. Of his famous speech on the trial of 
 Warren Hastings, no record has been preserved 
 that at all accounts for the extraordinary impres- 
 sion which it unquestionably made. Losing his 
 wife in 1792, he married again, in 1796, a lady 
 with whom he received five thousand pounds ; and 
 with this money and fifteen thousand pounds from 
 shares in the theatre, he purchased an estate, and 
 dreamt of living in splendour. But his affairs were 
 already deranged beyond retrieval ; and his sottish 
 habits were becoming more and more confirmed. The 
 last dozen years of his life were spent in continual 
 difficulties, which made it the more honourable to 
 him that he adhered steadfastly to the Whigs, even 
 when his patron and boon-companion, the Prince 
 Regent, deserted them. He was treasurer of the 
 navy during the short ministry of Fox and Gren- 
 ville; but after 1812 he was no longer able to 
 speak in the house. Abandoned by friends, hunted 
 by bailiffs, and sunk in habits and feelings, the wit 
 and orator died in 1816. Those who had not 
 offered to cheer his deathbed, gave him a grave in 
 Westminster Abbey. [W.S.] 
 
 SHERLOCK, R., an English divine, 1613-1689. 
 
 SHERLOCK, William, an episcopalian divine, 
 was born in London, 1641, and received his educa- 
 tion at Eton. Having distinguished himself at the 
 university by his talents and acquirements, he 
 obtained rapid preferment in the church, for, in 
 1669, he was appointed rector of the parish of St. 
 George's, London ; in 1681, prebendary of Pancras, 
 St. Paul's cathedral ; master of the Temple, and 
 rector of Therfield ; in 1691, dean of St. Paul's. 
 His best known works are a ' Practical Treatise on 
 Death;' 'A Discourse on Providence;' and 'The 
 Future Judgment' He died in 1707. [R.J.] 
 
 SHERLOCK, Dr. Thomas, son of the preced- 
 ing, and a clergyman of the Church of England 
 also. He was born in 1678, and having repaired 
 in due time to St. Catherine Hall, Cambridge, to 
 prosecute his education, he became eventually 
 master of that college. He afterwards succeeded 
 his father as master of the Temple ; and it may be 
 stated, as somewhat remarkable, that both father 
 and son held this situation for the long period of 
 seventy years. In 1728 he was elevated to the 
 bench as bishop of Bangor, and thence, in 1 734, 
 
 SHI 
 
 he was translated to the see of Salisbury. A sti 
 higher promotion was put in his offer, for he w* 
 urged, in 1747, to accept the primacy. But th; 
 high honour he was obliged to decline on accoui 
 of his bodily infirmities. He was prevailed oi 
 however, in the year following to accept the see 
 London. His death took place in 1761. He wi 
 a popular and voluminous author. His ' Sermoni 
 his ' Use and Intent of Prophecy,' and his contn 
 versial writings on the Bangorian Controversy for 
 the chief of his published works. [R.J 
 
 SHERWIN, John Keyse, an eminent eng 
 and designer, born in Sussex of humble parenta 
 about 1750, died 1790. 
 
 SHERWOOD, Mrs., a popular English novel 
 and writer of juvenile books, 1775-1851. 
 
 SHIEL, Richard Lalor, born in Dubl 
 1793, and best known as a parliamentary orato 
 was called to the Irish bar in 1814, when he 1) 
 already distinguished himself as a speaker at pu 
 lie meetings. His connection with politics dal 
 from 1822, when he became an active supporter 
 the Catholic Association ; and his career in pi 
 liament from 1829, after the passing of the Catho 
 Relief Act. In 1850 he went as her majest 
 minister to the court of Tuscany; d. there 1851 
 
 SHIELD, William, an eminent English co: 
 poser, was born at Smalfield in the county 
 Durham, in the year 1749. He was apprentic 
 to a boat-builder at North Shields, during wh 
 period his musical talents began to develop the 
 selves in such an extraordinary manner that 
 was induced to devote himself wholly to the stfr 
 of the science. Shield first appeared as a drama, 
 composer in 1778. In rapid succession he p 
 duced music to the Flitch of Bacon;' 'Rosin 
 'The Poor Soldier;' 'Robin Hood;' 'Fonta: 
 bleau;' 'Marian;' 'Oscar and Malvina;' *f 
 Woodman,' &c. In 1807 he made a tour of 
 continent, and soon after his return home publisl 
 his ' Introduction to Harmony,' which reache- 
 second edition in 1817. He published alsc 
 volume of glees, and ' The Rudiments of Thoroi 
 Bass.' In 1817 the prince regent (George T 
 appointed him to the situation of master oFM 
 band of musicians in ordinary to the king, in wl 
 situation he conducted the musical serviceftH 
 coronation of George IV. He died in 1829. [J.i 
 
 SHIPLEY, Jonathan, a prelate and poet 
 writer, one of whose daughters became the wife 
 Sir William Jones, born about 1714, died 1788. 
 
 SHIRLEY, Sir Anthony, a famous East 
 traveller, who became the ambassador of S 
 Abbas to various courts of Europe, and Spai 
 admiral in the Levant ; born at Weston, in qH 
 1565, supposed to have died in Spain about 1( 
 His brother, Sir Thomas, travelled with him, 
 published an account of Turkey. A third brot 
 Sir Robert, was also his fellow-traveller, i 
 like Sir Anthony, acted as ambassador of 
 shah, 1570-1623. 
 
 SHIRLEY, James, a well-known poet 
 dramatic writer of the Elizabethan age, waa h 
 in London about 1594, and educated at Ox 1 ] 
 and Cambridge. After taking a curacy in j 
 Church of England he became catholic, and i 
 an unsuccessful attempt to establish a gram 
 school, commenced writing for the stage. He 
 rendered destitute by the great fire of London, 
 
 roe 
 
 
SHI 
 
 loth he and his wife were so affected with grief 
 {and terror at this event, that they died within 
 twenty-four hours of each other, 1666. 
 
 SHIRLEY, Thomas, a relation of the traveller 
 of that name, known as a medical writer, 1638-78. 
 
 SHIRLEY, Walter Augustus, bishop of 
 Sodor and Man, born at Westport, in Ireland, 
 B.797, died 1847. 
 
 SHLOEZER, A. L., a Ger. writer, 1737-1809. 
 
 SHORE, Jane, the wife of a wealthy jeweller, 
 in Lombard-Street, who became the mistress of 
 Edward IV., and is represented as a woman of 
 jxtraordinary beauty. Tn 1482, after Edward's 
 leath, she was punished on an accusation of witch- 
 araft by the duke of Gloucester, and deprived of 
 ler house and fortune, but it is unknown where 
 ihe died. There is proof that she was living in 
 he reign of Henry VIIL, at which time she is 
 poken of in high terms by Sir Thomas More. 
 
 SHORT, J., a Scotch optician, 1710-1768. 
 
 SHORT, T., a physician and professional writer, 
 nthor, among other works, of a ' Natural History 
 f Mineral and Medicinal Waters,' died 1772. 
 
 SHOVEL, Sir Clotjdesley, a British admiral, 
 
 rn of humble parentage near Clay, in Norfolk, 
 bout 1650. In 1674 he served under Sir John 
 larborough, and greatly distinguished himself in 
 be attack on Tripoli. His other principal actions 
 the victories of Cape la Hogue and Malaga. 
 le was drowned by shipwreck on the Scflly 
 slands, 22d October, 1707. 
 
 SHOWER, Sir Bartholomew, an eminent 
 iwyer and recorder of London, died 1701. His 
 rother, John, a puritan divine, 1657-1715. 
 
 SHRAPNEL, Henry, lieutenant-general in the 
 tiyal artillery, inventor of the deadly case-shot, 
 amed after him ' Shrapnel shells,' died 1842. 
 
 SHUCKFORD, S., a learned divine, died 1754. 
 
 SHUTE, J., a divine and royalist, died 1643. 
 
 SHUTER, E., a popular comedian, died 1776. 
 
 SHUTTLEWORTH, Philip Nicholas, bishop 
 f Chichester, author of a ' Discourse on the Con- 
 ency of the Whole Scheme of Revelation with 
 ilf and with Human Reason,' and of a work 
 st Puseyism, entitled ' Scripture not Tradi- 
 1782-1842. 
 
 SIAUVE, S. M., a Fr. antiquarian, died 1812. 
 
 SIBBALD, Sir Robert, a Scottish physician, 
 [aturalist, and political writer, 1643-1712. 
 
 SIBBS, R., a puritan divine, 1577-1635. 
 
 SIBILET, M., a French poet, 1512-1589. 
 
 SIBTHORP, John, regius professor of botany 
 It Oxford, author of ' Flora Oxoniensis,' 1758-96. 
 
 SIBYL, daughter of Amaury L, king of Jerusa- 
 ;m, and successively wife of William Longsword, 
 j whom she was mother of Baldwin V., and of 
 fuy of Lusignan. With the latter she mounted 
 le throne of Jerusalem 1186, the year preceding 
 is death by the hand of Saladin. 
 
 SICARD, an Italian prelate and historian, auth. 
 
 ' a ' Chronicle,' published by Muratori, died 1215. 
 
 SICARD, C, a French Jesuit, 1677-1726. 
 I SICARD, Roch Ambrose Cucurron, a 
 Irench abbe\ born at Foussenet, near Toulouse, 
 1742, succeeded the abbe L'Epee as master of the 
 
 saf and dumb school in Paris 1789, died 1822. 
 
 e had two narrow escapes during the revolution, 
 
 ; which epoch he joined Jauffret in publishing 
 
 B ' Religious, Political, and Literary Annals of 
 
 SID 
 
 France.' He wrote several works on the interest- 
 ing subject which chiefly occupied his attention, 
 and in 1800 established a printing press for the 
 use of his scholars. 
 
 SICHEM, C. Van, a Dutch engraver, d. 1580. 
 
 SIDDONS, Mrs. Henry, daughter of a come- 
 dian named Murray, became the wife of Mr. H. 
 Siddons, son of the great actress (next article.) 
 That gentleman dying in 1814, the brother of his 
 widow undertook the management of the Edin- 
 burgh theatre in her interest, where, for many 
 years, she excelled in genteel comedy and the 
 gentler parts of tragedy. Died after 1830. 
 
 SIDDONS, Sarah, the most eminent of Eng- 
 lish actresses, was the eldest daughter of Roger 
 Kemble, and was born at Brecknock in South 
 Wales, 14th July, 1755. Notwithstanding her 
 father's connection with the theatre, there seemed 
 at first small chance of her becoming an actress, 
 as her parents placed her out as lady's-maid in the 
 family of Mrs. Greathead of Guy's Cliff, near War- 
 wick, and in that position the incipient queen of 
 tragedy remained for two years. They resorted to 
 this measure for the purpose of separating her 
 from Mr. Siddons, a member of her father's com- 
 pany, for whom she had an attachment; but to 
 whom, notwithstanding such opposition, she was 
 married in 1773. Two years afterwards she made 
 her appearance in London, 29th December. Her 
 debut had been procured by Lord Bruce, after- 
 wards earl of Aylesbury, who had recommended 
 her to Garrick, but the result was not flattering. 
 The character, perhaps, was ill chosen Portia, in 
 1 The Merchant of Venice.' In the summer of 
 next year we find her at Birmingham playing with 
 Henderson, and subsequently at Bath with increas- 
 ing success, in such parts as Euphrasia, Alicia, 
 Rosalind, Matilda, and Lady Townley. On her 
 next appearance at Drury Lane, 10th October, 
 1782, the actress proved triumphant. The part 
 was better suited to her powers Isabella, in ' The 
 Fatal Marriage.' This was followed by Jane 
 Shore, Euphemia, Calista, Belvidera, and Zara, 
 in The Mourning Bride.' In Dublin and Cork, in 
 the following year, she enjoyed a repetition of her 
 metropolitan triumph. On her return to London 
 she attempted another Isabella, that of Shak- 
 speare in the difficult play of ' Measure for Mea- 
 sure.' This was in November, 1783. To the 
 same year belong also her appearances in Con- 
 stance, Volumnia, and Lady Macbeth ; and to the 
 following, the rememberable circumstance of 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds painting her portrait in the 
 character of the tragic muse, of which he was so 
 proud that he traced his name on the hem of the 
 muse's garment. Her fame now became preroga- 
 tive, and her profits large. At Edinburgh she re- 
 ceived a thousand guineas for performing ten 
 nights, with many presents, among them a mag- 
 nificent silver urn, inscribed ' A Reward to Merit.' 
 Mrs.' Siddons owed much of her success to her 
 personal beauty and dignity; her voice was re- 
 markably melodious, and her mental endowments 
 were extraordinary. On her brother, John Kem- 
 ble, becoming manager of Drury Lane in the 
 spring of 1788, she appeared for his benefit as 
 Katharine, in ' The Taming of the Shrew.' In the 
 same theatre, also, she played Juliet in 1790, and 
 Lady Macbeth in 1794. She transferred her 
 
 707 
 
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 Mf aay * Mri k0 tdfl 
 
 M 
 
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SIG 
 
 about 1503, and are sufficiently new and vigorous 
 in style to account for the extraordinary progress 
 in design generally displayed in the famous car- 
 toon by Michelangelo exhibited in 1506. Such 
 indeed is the extraordinary vigour displayed in 
 these frescoes that Vasari and many others have 
 indicated Signorelli as the immediate precursor of 
 Michelangelo, who, says Vasari, always expressed 
 the highest admiration for his works, and Vasari 
 adds, that all may see what use he made of the 
 inventions of Luca in his great work of the Last 
 Judgment, in the Sistine chapel, especially in the 
 forms of the angels and demons, and in the arrange- 
 ment. The fact is indisputable, 6ome of the best 
 figures are little more than transcripts from Sig- 
 norelli. Luca died at Arezzo in 1524., whither he 
 had retired, and where he lived, says Vasari, more 
 after the manner of a nobleman than an artist. 
 (Vasari, Vile de' Pittori, &c. Ed. Flor., 1846, 
 seqq.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 SIGONIUS, C, a learned Italian, 1520-1584. 
 SIGORGNE, P., a Fr. philosopher, 1719-1809. 
 SIGWART, G. F., a Germ, anatomist, 1711-95. 
 SILANION, an Athenian sculptor, 346 B.C. 
 SILHON, J., a French philosopher, died 1666. 
 SILHOUETTE, Stephen De, a French states- 
 man, dist. as a miscellaneous writer, 1709-1767. 
 
 SILIUS ITALICUS, Caius, a Roman pleader, 
 and author of poems on the Punic war, was born 
 a.d. 16, and became consul under Nero, 68. He 
 was afterwards proconsul of Asia ; died 100. 
 SILVA, D., a learned Milanese, 1690-1779. 
 SILVA, J. B., a French physician, 1682-1748. 
 SILVERSTOLPE, A. G., a Swedish states- 
 man, historiographer, and philologist, 1772-1824. 
 SILVERIUS, a pope of Rome, 536-538. 
 SILVESTER. See Sylvester. 
 SILVESTRE, Israel, a French designer and 
 engraver, 1621-1691. His son, Loins, a painter, 
 and member of the Academy, 1675-1760. 
 
 SIMEON, a Jewish rabbi who flourished about 
 the year 120, and through fear of the Romans 
 retired to a cave, where he lay in concealment 
 twelve years, and composed the Zohar, a cabal- 
 istic work. 
 
 SIMEON, Charles, fifty-three years rector of 
 Trinity Church, in the university of Cambridge, 
 author of valuable theological works, published 
 entire in 21 vols. 8vo, 1832. These consist of 
 Discourses, forming a commentary upon every 
 book of the Old and New Testament, born at 
 Reading 1759, died 1836. 
 
 SIMEON of Durham, an English historian of 
 the Saxon and other kings from 616 to 1130. He 
 probably died soon after the latter of these dates. 
 SIMEON, J. J., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1749-1842. 
 SIMEON, surnamed Metaphrastes, an eccle- 
 siastic of Constantinople, who lived in the tenth 
 century, author of ' Lives of the Saints.' 
 
 SIMEON of Polotsk, a Russian preacher, 
 ecclesiastical writer, and dramatist, 1628-1680. 
 
 SIMEON, surnamed Stylites, a Christian 
 fanatic who acquired immense fame by passing 
 the last forty-seven vears of his life upon the tops 
 of ruined pillars. He flourished, if such a word 
 is at all applicable to him, from 392 to 461. A 
 second saint of the name dwelt on his pillar six.ty- 
 eight years, but the former was the original in- 
 ventor of this pastime. 
 
 SIN 
 
 SIMEONI, G., an Italian writer, 1509-1570. 
 
 SIMI, N., an Italian astronomer, 1530-1564. 
 
 SIMLER, Josias, a Swiss divine, 1540-1576. 
 
 SIMMONS, S. F., a learned physic, 1750-1813 
 
 SIMMONS. See Symmons. 
 
 SIMNEL, Lambert, an impostor of the reig 
 of Henry VII., who gave himself out for the duk 
 of York, second son of Edward IV. He was de 
 feated at the battle of Stoke 1487, and was punishe 
 by promotion to an office in the king's kitchen. 
 
 SIMON. See Montfort. 
 
 SIMON, E. T., a French writer, 1740-1818. 
 
 SIMON, J. F., a French antiquarv, 1651-171) 
 
 SIMON, Richard, a French Hebraist 
 theologian, who sustained a controversy wil 
 Bossuet and the Port Royal savants, 1638-171 
 Another of the same names, published a Di 
 tionary of the Bible in 1703, which was supe 
 seded by that of Calmet. 
 
 SIMON, V., a French dramatist, 1753-1820. 
 
 SIMONET, E., a French theologian, 1662-173 
 
 SIMONETTA, Giovanni, a learned Sicilia, 
 author of a History of Francisco Sforza, in whe 
 service he was, died about 1491. Others of t 
 family were also writers. 
 
 SIMONIDES, a Greek poet, 558-468 b.c. 
 
 SIMONIN, S., a poet and ascetic, died 1668. 
 
 SIMPLICIUS, a Greek philosopher of the ti; 
 of Justinian, in the 6th century, author of Col 
 mentaries on the works of Aristotle and Epictet 
 
 SIMPLICIUS, two saints of the Roman calf 
 dar : the earliest, a bishop of Autun about 3< 
 the latter, a pope, who sue. Hilary 467, died 4 
 
 SIMPSON, Edward, rector of Eastling, 
 Kent, dist. as a divine and chronologist, 1578-16 
 
 SIMPSON, James, an Edinburgh lawj 
 known as a writer on education, died 1853. 
 
 SIMPSON, Thomas, the son of a poor we$| 
 who rose through difficult circumstances to i 
 professor of mathematics at the Royal Acada* 
 author of Treatises on Fluxions, Chance, Annuit 
 Algebra, and other subjects, born in Leicester^ 
 1710, died 1761. 
 
 SIMS, James, a physician and profe 
 writer, most distinguished as a botanist, d. 
 
 SIMSON, R., a Scotch mathemat., 1687- 
 
 SINCLAIR, Charles Gideon, Baron, i 
 general and writer on military tactics, 1730-H3 
 
 SINCLAIR, SINCLAIRE, or SINCLA 
 George, an engineer and professor of philosev 
 at Glasgow, author of works on hydrostatics, 
 the principles of astronomy and navigation, | 
 wrote also a popular book on witches and ai 
 ritions, entitled ' Satan's Invisible World i j 
 covered.' Died 1696. 
 
 SINCLAIR, Sir John, an eminent poHi| 
 and miscellaneous writer, philanthropist, ] 
 member of parliament, was born at l^H 
 castle, in Caithness, 1754, and admitted to j 
 English bar in 1775. Five years after, he bee j 
 member for his native county, and soon a^H 
 that celebrity as a public character which % 
 nected his name with the stirring events^O 
 commencement of the present century. He J 
 the author of a ' History of the Revenue of 6ft 
 I Britain,' and a ' Statistical Account of Sfl^H 
 Died 1835. 
 
 SINDHYAH, SINDIAH, or SCIK! 
 j hadji, a Mahratta prince, who invaded llindo 
 10 
 
 :i Sv 
 
sin 
 
 tin the fall of the Great Mogul in 1770, and De- 
 laine master of Delhi, 1741-1794. 
 |[ SINGH, Maha Rajah Runjeet, the despot 
 jilf Lahore and Cachemire, was born in 1779, and 
 ] ras first known as a captain of banditti. His 
 Jjareer is one of the most remarkable among the 
 llumerous instances of success which mark the 
 llossession of genius and an iron will, in states of 
 ;i lociety, which, however magnificent, may still be 
 llalled barbarous. His troop of marauders swelled 
 lb an army, which he brought into the highest state 
 ||f skill and subordination, until it was sufficient 
 Jb give him the command of millions of people. 
 
 is died in the sixtieth year of his age, after a 
 otracted illness, in 1839, and his funeral pyre 
 is honoured by the voluntary death of four of 
 } princesses and seven slave-girls. A portrait, 
 d some particulars concerning this extraordinary 
 in will be found in Mr. Princep's work on the 
 llrisin of the Sikh Power. [E.R.] 
 
 SINNER, J. R., a Swiss savant, 1730-1787. 
 SIRANI, J. A., an Italian painter and engraver, 
 510-79. Elizabeth, his daughter, was also an 
 tist, and was poisoned at the age of twenty-six. 
 SIRI, V., an Italian historian, 1608-1685. 
 SIRICIUS, a pope of Rome, 385-399. 
 SIRLET, F., a German engraver, died 1737. 
 SIRMOND, James, a learned French Jesuit, 
 59-1651. John, his nephew, historiographer 
 yal, 1589-1649. Anthony, brother of the latter, 
 Jesuit preacher and theologian, 1591-1643. 
 SISMONDI. Jean Charles Leonard Si- 
 )NDE De' Sismondi, divided his life, as he him- 
 If says, between history and political economy. 
 s works in the latter department are confessedly 
 dilating, hypothetical, and unsatisfactory; but 
 historical writings are very valuable, both for 
 eir matter and their liveliness of composition ; and 
 did good service also as a critic of Italian and 
 ianish literature. He was the last of a noble 
 nily, which, driven from Pisa into France by re- 
 blican dissensions in the fourteenth century, was 
 ain (being protestant) forced into Switzerland by 
 \ 8 revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He was born 
 1773, at Geneva, where his father was a clergy- 
 | bn. After completing the usual education in nis 
 tive place, he was compelled, by losses of his 
 her on the bankruptcy of the French funds, to 
 jome a mercantile clerk at Lyons. The revolu- 
 nary disturbances drove the family about for 
 reral years, in the course of which" they spent 
 elve months in England; and for five years, 
 m 1795, Sismondi directed the cultivation of a 
 tall estate which his father purchased in Tuscany. 
 1801, the family having returned to Geneva, fie 
 Wished his sensible and useful 'Tableau de 
 agriculture Toscane.' He had also made much 
 toaration for his historical work on Italy ; but i 
 > speculations in political economy were the first j 
 be completed. In 1807 appeared the earliest \ 
 umes of his excellent ' Histoire des Republiques 
 Banes,' which was completed, in sixteen vols., 
 1818, and augmented in a subsequent edition. 
 series of Lectures which he delivered at Geneva, 
 published in 1813, and is well known in 
 gland by a translation : ' Historical View of the 
 [erature of the South of Europe.' In 1819 he 
 kit to England, to marry a sister-in-law of Sir 
 ickintosk. His principal employment 
 
 SIX 
 
 afterwards, was the composition o* his largest and 
 most laborious work, 'L'Histoire Des Francais.' 
 The first volume appeared in 1821 ; and he did not 
 live to carry it farther than the reign of Louis XV. 
 In 1822 he published ' Julia Severa,' a short but 
 heavy historical novel of the Fall of the Roman 
 Empire ; and a history of that period appeared in 
 1835. In the last year of his life he made himself 
 unpopular at Geneva by advocating the expulsion 
 of Prince Louis Napoleon from Switzerland. He 
 died in his native city in 1842. [W.S.] 
 
 SISMONDI, Ugilino, called Buzzachevino, a 
 Pisan admiral, celebrated by his naval victory over 
 the Genoese in 1241. 
 
 SIVERS, H. J., a German naturalist, 1709-58. 
 
 SIX, John, a Dutch dramatic writer, known 
 also as the friend of Rembrandt, 1618-1700. He 
 had a relation of the same name, who translated 
 the Psalms into Dutch verse. 
 
 SIXTUS, or XYSTUS, the name of several 
 popes, of whom the most remarkable was Sixtus 
 Quintus, the subject of the following article : the 
 preceding four are Sixtus L, of uncertain date, sav 
 119-128. Sixtus II., like the former, a martyr of 
 the Christian religion, 257 or 260. .Sixtus III., the 
 successor of Celestine, 435, died 440, since which 
 his name has been enrolled with the saints. Six- 
 tus IV., a member of the noble family of Rovere, 
 in Savona, succeeded Paul II. 1471. He took an 
 active part in the conspiracy of the Pazzi against 
 the house of the Medici dukes of Florence, and 
 ranks among the most unprincipled occupants of 
 the papal chair. He wrote some ascetic works, 
 and founded the Vatican library ; died 1484. 
 
 SIXTUS QUINTUS, one of the most celebrated 
 of the popes of Rome, was descended from Scla- 
 vonian parents who had fled to Italy at the period 
 of the Ottoman conquest of their country. His 
 father, Pereto Peretti, was a vine-dresser in the 
 humblest circumstances, but so hopeful of the for- 
 tunes of his son that he named nim Felix or 
 Felice. This child was born in 1521, and 
 educated by his uncle, Fra Salvatore, who had 
 fortunately joined the Franciscan order of friars : 
 before passing under his care, however, the young 
 Felix had acted as swine-herd, or in any field oc- 
 cupation by which a scanty addition could be made 
 to nis parents' income. Felix Peretti made great 
 progress in scholarship and dialectics, and being 
 ordained priest acquired a valuable reputation by 
 his oratory as Lent preacher in Rome, in the year 
 1552. His firmness in the catholic faith at this 
 time under trying circumstances procured him 
 also the friendship of the grand inquisitor, and the 
 now rising churchman attached himself to the 
 severe party of Ignatius and others, whose influ- 
 ence was then beginning to be felt. In quick 
 succession he became commissary - general at 
 Bologna, inquisitor at Venice, and procurator- 
 general of his order; and these steps gained, by 
 dint of a pushing and resolute ambition, he is mid 
 to have assumed the greatest humility, and affected 
 the infirmities of old age ; the truth of such state- 
 ments, however, is denied by Ranke, who justly 
 observes that the highest dignities are not to be 
 won by such means. It is much more probable 
 that Peretti's energy as a reformer of his order, and 
 the discriminating friendship of the pope, Pius V., 
 marked him out as the man for the epoch, and wts 
 
SIX 
 
 know that he stood firmly by his favourite, whom 
 he clothed with the purple in 1570. The son of 
 the vine-dresser was now ranked with the princes 
 of Italy by the title of Cardinal Montalto, and he 
 still varied his public labours by rural occupations. 
 We are not informed of all the circumstances 
 attending his election to the papacy, but he suc- 
 ceeded Gregory XIII. in 1585, and at once com- 
 menced the administrative and social reforms in 
 Italy that he had so long contemplated. Unlike 
 a recent example, he carried his measures with a 
 high and firm hand, and so vigorously enforced 
 justice, that the instances often read more like 
 cold-blooded cruelty : his measures had the desired 
 effect, however, of extirpating the bandits who had 
 so long overrun the country, and of bringing some 
 show of order out of the general lawlessness of 
 society. We cannot enumerate here his great 
 enterprises in administrative reform, or the mag- 
 nificence of his public works, but they all mark 
 his passion for order and completeness. His 
 foreign policy was of the same trenchant descrip- j 
 tion ; no half measures or vaporings were to be i 
 tolerated ; for examples of this spirit, it may be 
 sufficient to name the great catholic league, and 
 the invasion of England by the Spanish Armada. 
 Still more surprising and gigantic were his concep- 
 tions as he grew old, as his rigid financial sys- 
 tem enabled him to amass a large public treasure 
 in the vaults of Saint Angelo. His designs now 
 were sufficient to prove that he had perfected the 
 government of his own states, and improved the 
 discipline of the church, as an instrument of a more 
 universal dominion than the papacy had ever 
 reached ; even the Greek church and the empire of 
 Mahomet were destined to be transformed under 
 his hand. Sixtus Quintus breathed his last amid 
 these visions of grandeur on the 27th of August, 
 1590. A storm burst over the palace of the 
 Quirinal at the moment of his death, and it became 
 an article of the popular faith that he had achieved 
 his enterprises by a compact with the evil one, 
 which had then expired. [E-R-] 
 
 SIXTUS of Sienna, a preacher and theologian, 
 born of Jewish parents, 1520-1569. 
 
 SIXTUS of Vesoul, Jean Paris, called Le 
 Pere, a French Capuchin and Orientalist, 1736-92. 
 SKELTON, John, one of the early poet- 
 laureates of England, when that office was con- 
 ferred as a degree at the university, was born 
 towards the close of the 15th century. He was 
 known to be curate of Trompington and rector of 
 Dip, in Norfolk, in 1507, and is understood to 
 have garnished his sermons with a good deal of 
 invective against persons in authority. His poeti- 
 cal satires brought down upon him the displeasure 
 of Wolsey, who ordered him to be arrested ; Skel- 
 ton, however, was protected in the sanctuary of 
 Westminster by the abbot, Islip, and d. there 1529. 
 SKELTON, P., an Irish divine, 1707-1787. 
 SKINNER, S., a philologist, 1622-1667. 
 SKYTTE, J., otherwise Sceoderus, a Swedish 
 senator, originally the preceptor of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, 1577-1645." His nephew, Laurence, known 
 as an ecclesiastical writer, died 1696. 
 
 SLATER, or SLATY ER, William, an elegiac 
 poet, rector of Otterden, in Kent, 1587-1647. 
 
 SLEIDAN, John, whose proper name was 
 Piulipson, a celebrated Ger. historian, 15CG-66. 
 
 SME 
 
 SLINGELANDT, Peter Van, a famous Dutcl 
 painter, taught by Gerard Dow, 1640-1691. 
 
 SLINGELANDT, Simon Van, grand pension 
 arv and treasurer-general of the United Province*- 
 died 1736. 
 
 SLOANE, Sir Hans, Bart., a celebrated botan 
 ist and promoter of natural history, was born i 
 Ireland in 1660. He died in 1752. He studie 
 medicine, but being fond of natural history, 
 devoted much attention to that science, and, in 168' 
 accompanied the duke of Albemarle to Jamaica, 
 short residence in that island enabled him to collei 
 an immense number of plants, and other objects 
 natural history, with which he returned to Englam 
 and commenced the practice of his profession, 
 this he succeeded admirably, soon acquiring a hie 
 reputation, and becoming president of the Collej 
 of Physicians, and physician to George II. H 
 love for the natural sciences continued thronghoi 
 his life. He was the friend and correspondent 
 John Ray and most of the celebrated nature 
 ists and philosophers of his time; and filled, wil 
 great distinction to himself and advantage to tl 
 Society, first, the office of secretary ; and, next, 
 the death of Sir Isaac Newton, that of president 
 the Royal Society. He is the author of mai 
 valuable works and treatises, amongst which *i 
 his catalogue of the plants of Jamaica, written 
 Latin ; and his voyage to, and natural history < 
 that island. He accumulated an immense stoj 
 of objects of natural history, art, and antiquitiei 
 which, along with his library, consisting of 50,01 
 volumes and MSS., he bequeathed to the BritL 
 nation, upon condition that they would pay to 1 
 family a sum of 20,000 sterling. Parliame 
 agreeing to this condition, secured the collectio- 
 and having already become possessors of the h$l 
 leian manuscripts, and the Cottonian library, d 
 
 Eosited them in the fine old mansion, Montaj 
 (ouse, which they purchased for the purpot ' 
 and thus laid the foundation of the British M 
 seum. [W.E 
 
 SLODTZ, Sebastian, a sculptor, founder oT 
 family of distinguished French artists, originally ' 
 Antwerp, 1655-1726. His son, P. Amreosb,' 
 designer, and professor of painting to the Fren< 
 Academy, died 1758. Rene Michael, brother? 
 the latter, a sculptor and designer, 1705-1764. 
 
 SMALBROKE, Richard, bishop of St. David 
 distinguished as a controversialist, 1672-1749. J 
 
 SMALRIDGE, George, bishop of Brist 
 known as a theologian and Latin poet, 1666-171 
 
 SMART, Christopher, an elegant classii 
 scholar and poet, born at Shipbourne, in Kei ' 
 1722 ; d., the victim of a settled melnncholv, 17i1 
 
 SMEATHMANN, Henry, an English liatur.' 
 ist and traveller in Africa, 1750-1787. 
 
 SMEATON, John, a man of rare talent, w j 
 occupies a most conspicuous place in the history 
 civil engineering. He was amongst the first w! 
 styled himself ' civil engineer,' and to no name | 
 more unimpeachable character or higher talent c 
 members of the profession point as its ty]J 
 Smeaton was born in 1724, at the dawn of theflH 
 of Britain's first display of commercial and man j 
 facturing vitality. As a mere boy he showed ij 
 bent to the mechanical pursuits. In 1742 hecai . 
 to London, to attend the courts of law in We ' 
 minster, in pursuance of his father's design 
 
 12 
 
SME 
 
 ke him an attorney like himself; but, in 1750, 
 find him established as a philosophical instru- 
 t maker in Great Turnstile, Holborn. The 
 ling had taken its bent, and nature was too 
 >ng for any effort of authority to give the tree 
 >ther form. In 1752 and 1753, he made the ex- 
 iments ' concerning the natural powers of water 
 . wind to turn mills, and other machines depend- 
 on circular motion,' from which resulted the 
 ?t valuable improvements in hydraulic machines, 
 . which remain to this, day a. standard of the 
 losophical process of inquiry into practical 
 stions. For this essay Smeaton received the 
 ley gold medal of the Royal Society in 1759, 
 ehich he had been made a member in 1753, in 
 nowledgment of previous contributions to its 
 isactions. In 1754, Smeaton travelled in Hol- 
 1 and the Netherlands, and there no doubt ac- 
 ed a most important part of the engineering 
 cation, which qualified him to occupy the con- 
 iuous position he afterwards did as standing 
 asel of his profession. In 1756, Smeaton corn- 
 iced the great work which more than any other 
 t be looked upon as a lasting monument of his 
 I the Eddystone lighthouse. Two light- 
 ses had been erected on the Eddystone Rock 
 re Smeaton's admirable structure, of which the 
 ; was swept away in a storm, and the second, 
 ch was of timber, was destroyed by fire in 
 ember, 1755. The cutting of the rock, for the 
 ldation of the building, was commenced August, 
 6. The first stone was landed June 12, 1757. 
 building was finished October, 1759, and the 
 ern lighted for the first time on the 16th of 
 month. In all, there were 421 days' work 
 i the rock. This, Smeaton's first work, was 
 his greatest : probably the epoch of its erection, 
 other circumstances considered, it was the most 
 ious undertaking that has fallen to the lot of 
 engineer to execute, and none was ever more 
 sfully accomplished. And now having been 
 eted by thestorms of nearly 100 years, Smeaton's 
 k stands unmoved as the rock it is built 
 i proud monument to its great author. Robert 
 Allan Stevenson have erected the Bell Rock 
 the Skerry- Vor lighthouses since, but 
 inguished as is the merit due to these men, 
 r nave readily testified as to who taught the 
 ; great lesson, and what was their example and 
 idard of excellence. Smeaton's reports on the 
 ks he executed or advised to be carried out, 
 published in 1812, under the supervision of 
 Society of Civil Engineers, founded in 1771 by 
 n and his friends. These reports are a mine 
 th for the sound principles they unfold and 
 able practice they exemplify, both alike based 
 observation of the operations of nature, 
 affording examples of cautious sagacity in ap- 
 Qg the instructions she gives by means within 
 
 reach of art, Smeaton perfected the atmos- 
 ic steam engine, but lived to see the far greater 
 rovements of the steam engine by James Watt 
 e into extensive operation. Smeaton dedicated 
 Bpare time to philosophical study and investi- 
 i don, and had an astronomical observatory at 
 mhorpe near Leeds, his birth-place. Here, on 
 th September, 1792, while walking in his 
 , Smeaton was seized with an attack of 
 ;is, and on the 28th Oct. he died. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 SMI 
 
 SMELLIE, William, a Scotch physician, au- 
 thor of a complete course of midwifery, died 1763. 
 
 SMELLIE, William, a printer of Edinburgh, 
 translator of Buffon's Natural History, and author 
 of a work entitled the 'Philosophy of Natural 
 History,' 1740-1795. 
 
 SMIDS, Lttdolph, a German poet, 1649-1720. 
 
 SMIRKE, Robert, a native of Carlisle, famous 
 as a painter of historical and imaginative subjects, 
 member of the Academy, 1752-1845. 
 
 SMITH, Ar>AM, a very great name in Scottish 
 Literature ; distinguished even amid those of our 
 best writers and philosophers; and which will 
 recall to all ages, as it now does to every civilized 
 nation, the Man who by the authority of Reason 
 laid the foundations of the Freedom of Industry, 
 and of unfettered Commerce among States. 
 Smith was born at Kirkaldy in Fifeshire on 5th 
 June, 1723: in 1737 he entered the university of 
 Glasgow, where he studied under Hutcheson: 
 from Glasgow he passed to Baliol College, Oxford, 
 returning to Edinburgh in 1748. In 1751, he ob- 
 tained the Chair of Logic in his Alma-Mater; and 
 in the subsequent year he was nominated to the 
 professorship of Moral Philosophy. It is unneces- 
 sary to record that his genius threw around this 
 ancient University the greatest splendour of which 
 it yet can boast, an assertion not to be modified, 
 even although his successor was Reid. Resign- 
 ing his chair in 1763, he accompanied the young 
 duke of Buccleuch to the continent meeting in 
 Paris, along with his old companion Hume, the 
 distinguished Economist and Statesman, Tim- 
 got and the celebrated Quesnay. Probably 
 first moved thereto by his intimacy with Hume 
 who, some time previously had published his ex- 
 quisite Political Essays Smith had long turned 
 his thoughts to the momentous subject which after- 
 wards engrossed them; and his interest in it 
 must have been greatly deepened by intercourse 
 with the founders of that famous French School, 
 which first aimed to reduce all Problems concern- 
 ing the Public Riches, into the form of a Science. 
 At all events, on his return to Scotland in 1766, 
 he retired to his native town ; and after ten years 
 of undisturbed meditation, he produced his imper- 
 ishable work, ' On the Nature and Causes of the 
 Wealth of Nations.' In just tribute to the ex- 
 traordinary deserts of the Author of the ' Inquiry,' 
 Government bestowed on Smith a lucrative and 
 not laborious Fiscal Office. He fixed his resi- 
 dence thereafter in Edinburgh, where he died on 
 8th July, 1790. As a Man, Smith left behind 
 him the truest testimony to his worth viz., the 
 best minds of his country mourning for their lost 
 friend. He was simple and sincere, earnest in his 
 beliefs, indefatigable in work ; nor do many of the 
 odd anecdotes that still circulate regarding his 
 absence and abstraction, fail to do their part in 
 enabling us to complete a picture of him. Besides 
 his great works, trie Theory of the Moral Senti- 
 ments and the Wealth of Nations, he left a few 
 philosophical Essays, among which is a precis of 
 the early History of Astronomy, most exact, pene- 
 trating, and beautiful. He had been engaged for 
 many years on another work, that promised to be 
 of higher moment than even the Wealth of Na- 
 tions viz., a Treatise of Civil and Political Law 
 meaning to trace at once the History and the 
 
 713 
 
SMI 
 
 Theory of Law, from their obscure commence- 
 ments, in the infancy of Society and in the Hu- 
 man Reason, up to their highest developments. 
 It is only the student of Smith's actual works, 
 who can conceive the amount of detriment to 
 Science involved in the loss of such a Treatise. 
 No fragments of it remain. We hasten to offer 
 a brief account of the two great and completed 
 investigations whose titles are as above. I. Dis- 
 ciple of Hutcheson, the Author of the Theory of 
 Moral Sentiments, is in clear revolt against the 
 moral doctrine of Hobbes viz., that the founda- 
 tion of Morality is the feeling of Self-interest, and 
 also against the somewhat broader scheme of 
 Utility, as propounded by Hume. Concurring 
 with his Master, that we must seek that founda- 
 tion in disinterested sentiment, he does not concur 
 with him, that the required sentiment is Benevo- 
 lence. In Smith's view the foundation of Morals 
 is in Sympathy: we feel, he savs, that conduct 
 right on the part of another, with which we sym- 
 pathize; and we hence infer that such acts on 
 our own parts, alone can be right, with which others 
 sympathize. However narrow and singular this 
 principle may seem as a basis, the skill, clearness, 
 feeling and eloquence, with which the theory is 
 developed, will ever attract admiration . nor per- 
 haps is any portion of its development more in- 
 fenious and striking, than where Smith shows, 
 ow Reason working on the ground of primal 
 feeling gradually forms the rules of Morality, 
 involuntarily, almost, classifying the virtues; and 
 so impressing on the mind those rules and classi- 
 fications, that, in acting, we seldom or never re- 
 quire to recur to consideration of the fundamental 
 sentiment. Amidst the pleasure, however, with 
 which we go along with these deductions, one 
 very important question cannot fail to occur, 
 May not something of the same kind be estab- 
 lished, with regard to any other supposed foun- 
 dation of morality? If accepting sympathy as 
 that foundation we really act through rule, and 
 a direct sense of the obligation of the several 
 virtues, and not because of any immediate feeling 
 of sympathy ; can it justly be averred against the 
 
 simple or ultimate basis, that they are ever acting 
 with direct eye to Self-Interest ? There is a truth 
 here which sadly damages the scaffolding beneath 
 certain declamatory criticisms! The errors of 
 Smith's system are two. First, deriving the 
 sense of right from sympathy with others, it pro- 
 nounces, that no one can have a sense of right un- 
 less through intercourse with others ; and that the 
 quickness of that sense must be proportionate to 
 the extent of such intercourse. The Author of the 
 Theory, adopts this conclusion, and ingeniously 
 but vainly defends it. The feeling of right, has 
 sanctions in the Human Soul, which transcend 
 everything that concerns intercourse with our 
 fellows. Secondly, Like Hutcheson's scheme of 
 Benevolence, and the doctrine of Utility itself, the 
 Moral Theory of Sympathy, is quite too narrow ; 
 mistaking an important moral motive, for the 
 Supreme Faculty which weighs all motives, and 
 determines Moral Action. This Supreme Faculty 
 has been termed Conscience : we prefer to desig- 
 nate it jrith Kant the Practical Reason: it 
 ifi fJe Energy through whose unchallengeable supre- 
 hgfl 
 
 SMI 
 
 macy, the philosopher of Konigsberg first 
 cerned that Reality, which is the awful coun^ 
 part of the Subjective Idea of God. II. 
 ' Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the We; 
 of Nations,' stands to the Science it created, in 
 relation held by the labours of Lavoisier, to Ch 
 cal Science, or the combined discoveries and 
 vestigations of Copernicus, Kepler, andNcwtc 
 Astronomy. Previous to the era of Adam Sm 
 all Economic Theories rested on some abst: 
 principle, demonstrated by no induction, 
 merely assumed as true ; in other words, a p 
 ciple expressive of the common notions of the ti 
 It was reserved for the great Scotchman to ap 
 for its foundations, to Observation, and Experit 
 analyzed by Reason; to apply in this case 
 strictest rules of Philosophic Induction ; and. 
 the basis so discovered, to rear a permanent sti 
 ture. It is not requisite now, neither would a' 
 able space permit us, to follow Smith in this i 
 scientious research. It is matter of common kn 
 ledge, how clearly he discerned, and how fir 
 he established, the truths that all things cov< 
 by men are the produce of labour, and that 
 quantity of labour employed in then- productio 
 the real measure of value : nor have we leisur 
 trace, the fine and continuous reasoning which. 
 him from these simple and indubitable, but form 
 unnoticed Principles, to the ultimate Laws wl 
 determine the economic prosperity of Nati 
 His achievements were indeed exhaustive, as 
 bare contents of his Treatise suffice to show, 
 consists of five sections. In the first he discu' 
 the general causes of the formation, increase, 
 decline of Public Riches, and of their distribu 
 among the various classes of men, who make i 
 modern Society. Next he analyzes the natun 
 Capital, explaining the mode in which it gra 
 ally accumulates, and the nature of its efficac 
 the production of Wealth. The third and foi 
 sections are occupied in examining the var* 
 theories or abstract doctrines in Political Econo< 
 that have successively prevailed at different ep< 
 of History and among various Nations; and in 
 termining their influence good and evil- 
 the development of the arts and agriculture! 
 industry and commerce. Finally, we havi 
 searching glance at the nature of Public or S I 
 Revenue, and inquiries concerning the best 
 justest means of raising it by taxation. It m 
 peculiarity of Smith indeed of every 
 thinker on such subjects that at every stfl 
 only of his inductive, but also of his dedw 
 processes, he looks far around him over Soctfl 
 well as deeply into the nature of Man ; so Ij 
 what he writes may be sustained alike by exp< 
 ence and principle: and few men have ever} 
 sessed in so remarkable a degree, the power 
 analyze experience to separate the causey 
 complex phenomena, and assign to each the J 
 tion of the result which is due to it. So rich ; 
 in Historic criticism and illustration, thiS" 
 Wealth of Nations is admitted by every reade 
 possess a charm belonging to scarcely any wor 
 the same kind, that either preceded or hfl 
 lowed it. With the exception of one very M 
 Thinker, who possesses at once an amo^^ 
 political and historical knowledge and pom 
 discernment, not inferior to Smith's, the " 
 
Sill 
 
 SMI 
 
 ters on this subject, since the publication of the ! fession of a solicitor, made no further effort to 
 
 ,? assic Treatise, have rather been keen logicians 
 r i m observers : and perhaps the highest compli- 
 J"! int that can be paid to the Wealth of Nations, 
 J 5 in the fewness and comparative unimportance of 
 s modifications, which any of its conclusions have 
 ; ( dergone, even from the scrutiny of such men 
 ? Rieardo, Malthus, and James Mill. Smith in 
 2 lifetime reaped a deserved celebrity. On its 
 , "* st publication, the Inquiry was hailed as the 
 ' ganon of a new Science, and rapidly translated 
 /; o eveiy language within civilized Europe. 
 ; e id ever since, it has been adding triumph 
 J1 triumph; prejudices, one after another, falling 
 I ' 'ore its force ; and men and nations, in propor- 
 * n as they acknowledge its worth, becoming 
 1; ire and more bound in brotherhood. Is then, 
 y s remarkable monument complete; shall 
 -,' lith's doctrines, unmodified, continue to govern 
 l - ! i policy of States? A question not lightly 
 be answered! The relations of the classes 
 " v * thin Society are changing; and sentiments prac- 
 301 ally unknown in Smith's time, are pressing up- 
 rd into sway. There is one great Element, even 
 rards the production of the Wealth of a People, 
 which, in this memorable work, one misses 
 fcice. Among Machines, what one is equal in 
 ght or productiveness to the Human Brain ? 
 id how fares this, under the stern and withering 
 ion of the Division of Labour ? It is foolish 
 throw aside questions of this sort, under the 
 rtence that they smell of Socialism. The man 
 uld be daring who should deny, that under an 
 ;anization permitting the culture and employ- 
 nt by every one, of all his Human Faculties, no 
 tion could fail to increase immeasurably in 
 ealth, as assuredly it would in Dignity and 
 ippiness. [J.P.N.] 
 
 SMITH, Anker, an Eng. engraver, 1759-1819. 
 SMITH, Charlotte, wife of a West India 
 irchant, who, in a period of reverse, had recourse 
 her pen as a means of support, and became a 
 tinguished novelist and poetess; born in Sus- 
 t, of parents named Turner, 1749, died 1806. 
 SMITH, Edmund, a dramatic wr., 1668-1710. 
 SMITH, Elizabeth, a young lady of remark- 
 le accomplishments in ancient and modern lan- 
 ages, polite literature, and mathematics, author 
 a new translation of Job, and of the Life of 
 opstock; born at Burnhall, near Durham, 1776, 
 n prematurely of consumption 1806. 
 
 ITH, G., a landscape painter, 1714-1776. 
 
 ITH, Henry, a Ch. of England divine, whose 
 
 ence rendered him highly popular, 1550-1600. 
 
 TTH, Horace, joint author, in connection 
 
 his brother, James, of the famous ' Rejected 
 
 s,' was born in London in 1779, and be- 
 
 a member of the Stock Exchange. These 
 
 lar writers formed their literary partnership 
 
 the establishment of the * Pic Nic' newspaper, 
 
 Colonel Greville, in 1802, and were soon highly 
 
 ed as periodical writers. The ' Rejected 
 
 sses' appeared in 1812, on the re-opening of 
 
 Lane theatre, and have continued popu- 
 
 till the present time. Horace was afterwards 
 
 guished as a novelist by his well-known 
 
 Love and Mesmerism,' ' Brambletye 
 
 ouse,' &c, and died 1849. James, who was 
 
 ler by four years, and followed his father's pro- 
 
 715 
 
 keep his name in remembrance ; he died in 1839. 
 
 SMITH, Sir James Edward, an English 
 physician, founder and first president of the Lin- 
 nasan Society, disting. as a naturalist, 1759-1828. 
 
 SMITH, James, a native of Glasgow, whose 
 name has become cele. in connection with agricul- 
 tural and manufacturing improvements, 1789-1850. 
 
 SMITH, John, a physician, 1630-1679. 
 
 SMITH, John, a learned divine, author of ' Ten 
 Discourses on Theological Subjects,' 1618-1652. 
 
 SMITH, John, a mezzotinto engraver, abt. 1700. 
 
 SMITH, John, known as Capt. John Smith, 
 or Smyth, a military officer and traveller, whose 
 life is intimately connected with the historv of New 
 England, 1579-1631. 
 
 SMITH, or SMYTHE, John, an ambassador, 
 traveller, and writer on military weapons, 16th c. 
 _ SMITH, John, an English divine and antiqua- 
 rian, editor of an edition of the Venerable Bede, 
 1659-1715. His son, George, who completed the 
 latter work, was author of a book entitled ' Britons 
 and Saxons not Converted to Popery,' 1693-1756. 
 
 SMITH, John, a native of Glenorchy, in Argyll- 
 shire, and a minister of the Scotch Kirk, famous 
 as an antiquarian and Celtic scholar, 1747-1807. 
 His works are Alleine's Alarm, Catechism of Dr. 
 Watts, and other small works, translated into 
 Gaelic; 'Essay on Gaelic Antiquities, concerning 
 the History of the Druids,' ' Ancient Poems, trans- 
 lated from the Gaelic,' ' A Dissertation on the 
 Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian,' a ' Life of St. 
 Columba,' a ' Commentary on the Prophets,' &c. 
 
 SMITH, John, a London banker, and member 
 of parliament in the Whig interest, 1767-1842. 
 
 SMITH, Dr. John Pye, was a native of Shef- 
 field, were he was born in 1775. His father was a 
 bookseller, and young Smith, from his facility of 
 access to books, early acquired a strong taste for 
 reading, which furnished him even in boyhood witii 
 a large stock of miscellaneous knowledge, though 
 from the nonconformist principles of his family, 
 it was chiefly directed to the works of the Puritan 
 divines. Having shown a decided bias for the minis- 
 try as his future profession, he was entered a student 
 of the Dissenting college, at Rotherham, under the 
 superintendence of the able and learned Dr. Wil- 
 liams. He was, on the completion of his term of 
 study, appointed classical master of that institu- 
 tion; and so much satisfaction did he give in the 
 performance of his academical duties, that he was 
 transferred in a few years to the higher and more 
 important college of Homerton, first in the classi- 
 cal and ultimately the theological chair. At an 
 early period of life, he determined to produce a 
 work on one of the leading doctrines of the Christian 
 religion. And the influence of Priestley's writings 
 having been productive of much evil in shaking the 
 faith of many as to the divinity and atonement of 
 Christ, he set himself to the composition of a work 
 which should furnish a full answer and refutation 
 of the Socinian heresy. This book, which he 
 entitled ' The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah,' 
 was hailed by all denominations as a most valuable 
 contribution to theological literature ; and by the 
 acuteness and force of its reasoning, as well as by 
 its extensive erudition, raised the author to the 
 foremost rank of British divines. He was compli- 
 mented through Dr. Dwight of Yale college, 
 
SMI 
 
 America, with the honorary degree of D.D. A 
 supplementary volume was published in 1818, con- 
 sisting of 'Four Discourses on the Priesthood of 
 Christ.' Dr. Smith was led to direct his researches 
 into various departments of the great field of 
 science, especially into that of geology, and being 
 deeply interested in the bearing of that new 
 science on the truth of the Mosaic Record, he pub- 
 lished in 1839 a treatise entitled, ' The Relation 
 between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of 
 Geological Science.' Dr. Smith, after discharging 
 the duties of the theological chair at Homerton for 
 the long period of fifty years, resigned his profes- 
 sorship in 1850, and at a public breakfast to which 
 he was invited, he received from his friends a most 
 gratifying and honourable testimonial in the 
 form of i:2 ; 600 subscription for the aid of students 
 in divinity to be called the Smith Scholarship. 
 His death took place early in the following year 
 in Southwark. [R.J.] 
 
 SMITH, John Stafford, a famous composer 
 of glees, anthems, and madrigals, died 1836. 
 
 SMITH, John Thomas, keeper of the prints 
 and drawings in the British Museum, a miscel- 
 laneous and antiquarian writer, 1766-1833. 
 
 SMITH, Miles, a learned prelate, one of the 
 ministersemployedintranslat.theBible,1568-1624. 
 
 SMITH, Richard, a Roman Catholic divine 
 and professor at Douay, born in Worcestershire 
 1500, died 1563. The principal circumstance 
 recorded of him is his attendance at the burning 
 of Ridley and Latimer. 
 
 SMITH, Richard, a Roman catholic divine 
 and controversial writer, 1566-1655. 
 
 SMITH, R. A., a Scotch musical composer, 
 whose works, sacred and secular, bear testimony 
 to his high genius and prolific industry. His com- 
 positions are likely to maintain their place among 
 the national music of Scotland, 1780-1829. 
 
 SMITH, Robert, distinguished as a writer on 
 optics and musical sounds, 1689-1768. 
 
 SMITH, Rob. Percy, brother of the Rev Sydney 
 Smith, a barrister and man of letters, 1770-1845. 
 
 SMITH, S., a presbyterian writer, born 1588. 
 
 SMITH. Sir Sidney Smith, born at West- 
 minster in 1764, was the son of Sir John Smith, 
 a veteran general of the seven years' war. Young 
 Sidney became a midshipman at the age of twelve, 
 and served in several ot the naval actions of the 
 American war. He then entered the Swedish ser- 
 vice and distinguished himself in the short war of 
 1788-1790 between Sweden and Russia. He was 
 honoured by the Swedish king with the knighthood 
 of the order of the sword. He returned to the Eng- 
 lish service in the war between the French repub- 
 lic and this country, and signalized his courage 
 and skill under Lord. Hood in the operations at 
 Toulon in 1793. He next commanded the Dia- 
 mond frigate in the channel fleet, and drew the 
 attention of both friends and foes by the ardu- 
 ous enterprises which he undertook against the 
 French coast and harbours. He was captured at 
 Havre de Grace in 1796 in a desperate attempt to 
 cut out a privateer that was moored in the Seine. 
 Sir Sidney was taken to Paris and imprisoned in 
 the Temple, where he was treated with peculiar 
 and unjustifiable rigour, till he efFected his escape, 
 and succeeded in reaching England in 1798. He 
 now was appointed captain of the Tiger, 84 gun- 
 
 SMI 
 
 ship, and sailed to the Mediterranean. In 
 when Buonaparte had marched his army from 1 
 to Syria, Sir Sidney Smith saved the ii 
 tant fortress of St. Jean d'Acre, and thereto 
 feated the whole scheme of the French exped 
 The Turkish commandant, Djizzar Pacha, was 
 to evacuate Acre and abandon it to the vict< 
 French army, that was advancing along the 
 from Jaffa, when Sir Sidney Smith arrived i 
 bay, and decided the Turks on resisting. Sii 
 ney had under his command the Tiger of 8- 
 Theseus of 74 guns, and some smaller vessels, 
 landed seamen and marines, guns, and ami 
 tion, and co-operated zealously with the Pas 
 strengthening the works during the interval c 
 days, that elapsed before Buonaparte's army 
 He was also fortunate enough to capture the 
 flotilla that was conveying heavy guns and 
 for the siege, and these were now arrayed in f 
 of the place. The French appeared beft 
 walls on the 17th of March, and a sieg 
 menced which Buonaparte urged on for two 
 with unremitting violence, and which the ' 
 garrison and their English confederates 
 with equal firmness. At last, after havii 
 4,000 of his best troops, Napoleon raised tl 
 and retreated to Egypt. He always refetr 
 the utmost bitterness to this disappointmei 
 spoke of Sir Sidney as the man who made hi 
 his destiny. Sir Sidney continued to serve 
 Syrian and Egyptian coasts, and co-operated ii 
 with the English expedition which Genera' 
 cromby led to expel the French from the Ei 
 Sidney not only as a naval officer prote 
 disembarkation of the English troops, 
 landed himself and took part in the operatii 
 the troops on shore. He was wounded at the 
 of Alexandria, in which Abercromby was 
 Sir Sidney was made an admiral in 1805, 
 distinguished himself under Sir John Dud 
 in forcing the passage of the Dardanelles in 18fl 
 He afterwards commanded on the South Amelia 
 station ; and at the close of the war, he was seat 
 in command in the Mediterranean. He died : 
 1841. [E.S.C 
 
 SMITH, Sydney, was born in Essex, in 17$ 
 and educated at Winchester and Oxford. Ab 
 1796 he became a curate on Salisbury Plain, whenc- 
 two years afterwards, he removed with a pupil fl 
 Edinburgh. There he became intimate in the km 
 of energetic young men who afterwards became! 
 famous ; and he receives the credit of having suj 
 gested the idea of the ' Edinburgh Review, fl 
 long continued to furnish that celebrated periodic 
 with papers, which, though displaying neither gw 
 knowledge nor great power of thinking, are irrwi 
 tibly diverting and most effective, through tl 
 writer's unscrupulous and biting sarcasm, h 
 flashes of eccentric fun, and his unsurpassed sk 
 in the art of quizzing. Sydney Smith's wit w. 
 yet more celebrated in society, and established hi 
 as one of the most brilliant talkers in the w 
 circles of London. He migrated thither from BN 
 burgh in 1803: in 1806 he received from Im 
 Erskine a rectory in Yorkshire, where he refH 
 for some years, and wrote his famous and stingo 
 Letters on the Catholic Question in the name 
 ' Peter Plymley.' In 1829 he was presentiB 
 another living by Lord Lyndhurst ; and in 1$ 
 
 716 
 
SMI 
 
 1 Grey made him a canon of Saint Paul's. In 
 9 he published a collected edition of his works ; 
 he died in London in 1845. [W.S.] 
 
 MITH, Thomas, chaplain to the English em- 
 ;y at Constantinople, author of an Account of 
 Turks, a Life of Camden, &c, 1638-1710. 
 MITH, Thomas, a landscape painter of Derby, 
 1769. His son, John Raphael, celebrated 
 his crayon portraits and mezzotinto engrav- 
 , died 1812. 
 
 MITH, Sir Thomas, secretary of state in the 
 ns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, author of 
 e Commonwealth of England,' 1514-1577. 
 MITH, W., rector of Trinity church, Chester, 
 lor of poems and translations, 1711-1787. 
 MITH, William, a heraldist, died 1618. 
 KITH, or SMYTH, William, a learned pre- 
 founder of Brasennose College, Oxford, the 
 of which he concerted with his friend, Sir R. 
 
 on, died 1514. 
 
 MITH, William, many years member of the 
 
 se of Commons, in which he supported liberal 
 
 snres, and advocated the dissenting interest, 
 
 1756, first entered parliament 1784, d. 1835. 
 
 HITH, William, an eminent geologist, was 
 
 at Churchhill, in Oxfordshire, in 1769, and 
 
 ed the profession of a land surveyor. He is 
 
 thor of many valuable works, the character 
 
 hich may be briefly described by the terms in 
 
 h the Geological Society of London awarded 
 
 the Wollaston medal in 1831 : ' In consi- 
 
 n of his being a great original discoverer 
 
 ;lish geology ; and especially for his being 
 
 rst in this country to discover and to teach 
 
 tification of strata, and to determine their 
 
 ion by means of their imbedded fossils.' 
 
 1839. 
 
 OLLETT, Tobias, was the grandchild (by 
 r son) of Sir James Smollett, of Bonhill in 
 tonshire, and was born in that county in 
 He was educated in Glasgow for the medical 
 on; but he attended more to literature, 
 a tragedy in his eighteenth year, and soon 
 ards, by his grandfather's death, was left to 
 n resources, and sought his fortune in Lon- 
 Being appointed, in 1741, a surgeon's mate 
 navy, he was present in the unfortunate 
 tion to Carthagena, spent some time else- 
 in the West Indies, and returned to England 
 He threw himself perforce on literature 
 livelihood, married a lady whose fortune 
 to be disappointingly small, and destroyed 
 ces he might have had as a play-writer by 
 g with managers. 'Roderick Random,' 
 t novel, appeared in 1748, and ' Peregrine 
 in 1750. He next attempted medical 
 in Bath; but, being quite unsuccessful, 
 to London, and became an author for 
 His time thenceforth was chiefly employed 
 crmance of task work, relieved only at 
 by the composition of his later novels, 
 few pieces in verse, insufficient to give him 
 iderable rank as a poet. He was naughty 
 relsome, but good-hearted and benevolent ; 
 union of qualities fitted him equally ill for 
 money out of the precarious gains of author- 
 ed for enjoying comfort in the stormy voca- 
 ' political partizan and literary critic. The 
 wn of his miscellaneous works are two : Sobieslu's troops. 
 
 717 
 
 SOB 
 
 the indifferent translation of ' Don Quixote ;' and 
 the very careless ' History of England,' of which 
 the portion extending from the Revolution to the 
 death of George II. has repeatedly appeared as a 
 sequel to Hume. For a long time after 1756 
 Smollett edited, with great ability, but not less 
 acrimony, the ' Critical Review,' established as an 
 advocate of the Tory and High Church party ; and 
 Wilkes's famous ' North Briton' owed its existence 
 and its name to his paper ' The Briton,' in which 
 he defended the administration of Lord Bute. His 
 novel of ' Count Fathom' appeared in 1753 ; and 
 'Sir Lancelot Greaves' was written in 1756, while 
 the author was undergoing imprisonment for a 
 libel. Visiting the continent in 1763 and 1764, when 
 his circumstances and health were shattered, and 
 his spirits sunk by the death of his only child, he 
 published, on his return, his clever but peevish 
 'Travels through France and Italy.' His ill- 
 humour vented itself anew in ' The Adventures of 
 an Atom,' (1767). After having applied unsuc- 
 cessfully for a consulship in the Mediterranean, he 
 was again compelled to seek for health in a warm 
 climate; and, in 1770, he left England, never to 
 return. He died near Leghorn in the autumn of 
 1771, having just completed ' Humphrey Clinker,' 
 which is not only the liveliest of his works of fiction, 
 but breathes often a kindlier and more gentle 
 spirit than the rest. Hazlitt, in his ' Lectures on 
 the English Comic Writers,' and in the ' Edinburgh 
 Review,' has excellently described Smollett's novels, 
 and contrasted their coarse and vigorous pictures 
 of externalities with the fine dissection of character 
 which is presented by Fielding. [W.S.] 
 
 SMYTH, J. C, a Scotch physician, 1741-1821 
 
 SMYTH, William, well known as the friend 
 of Henry Kirke White, professor of modern history 
 at Cambridge, and author of historical works and 
 poems, 1764-1849. 
 
 SNAPE, Andrew, an English divine, d. 1742. 
 
 SNAYERS, H., a Flemish engraver, born 1612. 
 
 SNAYERS, P., a Flemish painter, 1593-1670. 
 
 SNELL, Rodolph, in Latin Snellius, a Dutch 
 mathematician and philologist, 1547-1613. His 
 son, Willebrod, a mathematician, 1591-1626. 
 
 SNEYDERS, orSNYDERS, Francis, a Flemish 
 painter of hunting and battle-pieces, who frequently 
 executed the animals and fruits in pictures of 
 Rubens, 1579-1657. 
 
 SNORRO-STURLESOX, an Icelandic histo- 
 rian and mythologist, au. of the Edda, 1178-1241. 
 
 SOANE, Sir John, a metropolitan architect, 
 was born at Reading, where his father was a small 
 builder, 1753. He became errand boy in the office 
 of an architect, and rising to the position of a pupil 
 was finally sent to Italy to pursue his studies by 
 the Royal Academy. Died 1837. 
 
 SOANEN, J., a Jansenist prelate, 1647-1740. 
 
 SOBIESKI, John, king of Poland, famous in 
 the wars which marked the last efforts of the Turks 
 to extend their dominions in Europe, was born in 
 Galicia 1629. His father, James, was gover- 
 nor of Poland, and his military distinction was 
 acquired in the Polish army, in the time of those 
 weak kings, Casimir V. and Michael. In 1667, 
 with only 20,000 men, he defeated an army of 
 Cossacks and Tartars numbering 100,000, who left 
 as many dead on the field as the whole number ot 
 Casimir dying the year follow- 
 
SOB 
 
 ing, might have heen succeeded by Sobieski, had 
 he made any effort, but he permitted the election of 
 Michel, and only acted upon the dictates of am- 
 bition, when the latter haa proved his incapacity. 
 A desolating civil war now threatened the country, 
 as the adherents of Sobieski and of Michad were 
 encamped against each other, but a new invasion 
 of the Turks numbering 150,000 combatants, under 
 Mahomet IV., suddenly announced a new danger. 
 At this crisis Michael and his army took to flight, 
 and the partizans of Sobieski, upon whose head a 
 
 {irice had been fixed, swore to defend him : he then 
 ed them against the Turkish hosts, and in another 
 great battle put 15,000 of them to the sword, re- 
 covered the spoils they had taken, and set 80,000 
 prisoners at liberty. While Sobieski was reaping 
 these laurels in one part of the kingdom, Michael 
 in another had concluded the shameful treaty of 
 Budchaz, by which he bartered away a part of his 
 dominions on condition of being supported in arms 
 against his rebellious general ; against this treaty 
 Sobieski appealed to the diet, and falling upon the 
 Turks once more, beat them at Kotzin (1674), and 
 took the fortress till then deemed impregnable, at 
 a loss to the enemy of 20,000 men. On the day of 
 this battle Michael breathed his last, and Sobieski 
 commenced his reign under the title of John III. ; 
 but he had hardly felt the weight of the crown 
 before a new invasion of 200,000 Turks and Tar- 
 tars summoned him to the field. Once more he 
 led his brave Polanders against this redoubtable 
 enemy, whom he charged with the inspiring battle- 
 cry of 'Christ for ever;' his successes, however, 
 produced no better result than an honourable treaty 
 of peace, which had little more effect than a truce. 
 In 1683 Sobieski was persuaded by the pope to 
 enter into a defensive alliance with the emperor 
 Leopold, and in July of that year the grand vizier, 
 Kara Mustapha, led a vast army of 300,000 men 
 against Vienna. The capital of the Austrian em- 
 pire had no prospect but submission, when Sobieski, 
 yielding to the entreaties of a sovereign who had 
 refused him the title of 'majesty,' placed himself 
 at the head of a small but devoted army of less 
 than 20,000 men and proceeded to the seat of war 
 by forced marches. On his way, he was joined by 
 some of the German princes, whose reinforcements 
 swelled his army to 75,000, and with this force he 
 came in sight of the Turkish encampment, which 
 he viewed from the ridge of the Kaiemberg over- 
 looking the Austrian capital. From these heights 
 Sobieski rushed down upon the enemy, and obtained 
 a victory with the praises of which all Europe 
 resounded. For the evil return rendered to this 
 hero by the emperor Leopold, and consummated by 
 the peace of Moscow in 1686, we have no space. 
 He died at Warsaw, June 17, 1696, and years 
 afterwards Charles XII. paused in his headlong 
 course to visit his tomb, and drop a tear to his 
 memory. [E.R.] 
 
 SOBRY, F., a French writer, 1743-1820. 
 SOCINUS, Faustus, nephew of Laelius So- 
 cinus, and a descendant of tne illustrious house of 
 the Sozini, was born at Sienna, in December, 1539. 
 His family being suspected of heresy, Socinus 
 at the age of twenty took refuge in France for a 
 season, but returned to Italy on his uncle's death, 
 and spent twelve years at Florence in the service 
 of the grand duke. In 1574 he retired to Basle, 
 
 SOC 
 
 and four years afterwards was invited by tl 
 court physician, George Blandrata, to Transy 
 vania, where opinions similar to his own had be 
 for some time professed. Francis Davidis h; 
 held, as a legitimate deduction, that if Jesus be 
 mere man, or a creature, it is idolatry to offer ai 
 religious service to him. The arguments 
 Socinus failed to convince him, and the refracto 
 divine was thrown into prison, where he died afl 
 six years of close confinement. In 1579 Socin 
 visited Poland, but the unitarians of that count 
 had scruples about admitting him into their coi 
 munion. He left Cracow, after a residence 
 four years, and soon after married the daughter 
 a nobleman, who was his patron and protect 
 and on whose estate he lived in retirement, 
 gradually obtained influence in the country, , 
 many persons of rank and wealth were led 
 espouse his creed. In 1598 the mob subjee 
 him to a cruel maltreatment, dragged him throt 
 the streets, and burned his papers. Socinus d 
 at a village in the neighbourhood of Cract 
 March, 1604. The vague and floating anti-Tri 
 tarian opinions on the person of Christ, which 1 
 for some time been abroad, were reduced 
 Socinus into a system. He denied the Suprt 
 Deity of the Saviour, affirming that he had no 
 istence till he was born of the Virgin denied t 
 the Holy Spirit is a person excluded the ato 
 ment from his 'scanty creed,' regarding 
 death of Jesus only as a martyrdom denied 
 personality of Satan and refused the doctrine 
 original sin and that of eternal punishment, 
 short, he impugned all that in every age has b 
 held distinctive of evangelical theology, 
 views of his uncle, Laelius, seem to have first 
 pressed his mind with those ideas, and t^^H 
 discards all fanaticism, yet he indicates that ft , 
 of that uncle's interpretations, was all biji 
 special revelation to him from Christ H^| 
 Opera, vol. ii. 505. The works of Soei 
 the first two volumes of the ' Fratres Polony' M 
 consist of numerous exegetical and pflj^H 
 tracts, and letters ; a long account of an aq^H 
 with Francis Davidis, the ' Responsio F^^| 
 viensibus,' replies to Puccius and Solanus, a l 
 cellany of disputations, with a variety of &I^H 
 ists, and a life of the author prefixed by Ij^H 
 knight. 
 
 SOCINUS, Laelius, a celebrated he^^H 
 uncle of the preceding, born at Sienna in 1 , 
 but quitted Italy to join the reformation ]^H 
 Switzerland, where he died in 1563. 
 
 SOCRATES, born at Athens in the WM 
 B.C.; suft'ered the punishment of death fof 'Jj 
 piety' at the age of seventy. How ar^^H 
 approach with a view to represent ti 
 Just of the Earth! To analyze a sp 
 system is comparatively easy ; even to tra * 
 one's self to the position of its Framer, ai 
 cern it as alone it can be discerned firoi 
 is still a task chiefly for the Intellect : r, 
 cult, but also, quite within reach of imp 
 search, to estimate the illustrious Statesman^, 
 
 1)reciate the obstacles he overcame, and conjftr 
 lend the space and duration of his infliu 
 if the Inquirer be earnest and endowed wil 
 tion of Imagination, need he shrink 
 attempt to accompany the military lb i 
 
 718 
 
 M 
 
soc 
 
 Bvcl his complex operations, and even to pnr- 
 ipate his ardour amid the clangours of War. 
 it Socrates ! The most just, the most exalted, 
 e completest type of Humanity to which classic 
 tiquity with its wonderful creations, ever gave 
 th the nearest of all who preceded, to a Being 
 name not here who, without ambition, or 
 etence, or external advantage, but, through the 
 iple force of Moral and Intellectual greatness, 
 ik unrelaxing hold at once of the Heart and 
 nd of the Ancient World, to think or write of 
 m even those few broken paragraphs which 
 ne we now undertake this, demands prepara- 
 n of a different order, and much rarer moods. 
 The Parents of Socrates were of no mark or note 
 the Athenian State ; nor was their son gifted 
 th any of those personal distinctions, which were 
 indifferent account nowhere in Greece. A face 
 B reverse of beautiful, flattened nose, protruding 
 es, the entire physiognomy anything but attrac- 
 e to a passer by, he made no attempt to veil or 
 npensate deficiencies, by ordinary solicitudes: 
 coarse tattered cloak, and oftenest unsan- 
 lled, Socrates strolled through all Public places, 
 the observed, however, of all observers ; fre- 
 ently listened to by multitudes; and greeted 
 the hearts of the choicest Youth of Athens, 
 lenever he appeared. Closer inspection of the 
 ly representations we have of him, goes, indeed, 
 sertain length in explaining this latter remark- 
 ie power of fascination. A massive head in- 
 net with authority, a broad although rugged 
 w, and that aspect of self-possession which fil- 
 iates a Man to whom mastery appertained too 
 ich of right, to permit him to feel conscious of 
 not a vestige accordingly of repellent affecta- 
 n, or assumption, or reserve ; but, on the con- 
 ry, the light of the most genial Humour ever 
 fterino; like sunshine among his singular fea- 
 es. Qualities, of all others, the surest to win 
 ay for their possessor to the respect and likings 
 the cheerful and frank; but one higher, was 
 Bded to obtain for Socrates that devoted and 
 thusiastic attachment, which even a spirit mi- 
 neable as Alcibiades, could not refuse, 
 oad the gulf usually sundering Youth from Age, 
 priving Age of its authority as Counsellor, and 
 uth of the blessings of guardianship : but the 
 rerance springs less from the inconstancy and 
 pulsiveness of Youth, than from the rigidity of 
 As Life advances, bonds multiply and tighten 
 mnd most of us. Custom governs, as second 
 iture : that is, we bend before social and con- 
 ational moralities, beliefs, and expectations ; and 
 get the modes of less fettered existence. No 
 ranny of Custom, however, had subjected So- 
 tes. Ever increasing in Knowledge and Wis- 
 n ; to his latest hour he was youthful as at first : 
 marvel, therefore, though young men clustered 
 mnd him hailing him as best companion as 
 11 as Sire. Something like a mask of the inestim- 
 le quality now spoken of, is not uncommonly 
 irn springing from mere lack of thought, and 
 ;htness of temperament. But it belonged to 
 crates, because, through his moral and intellec- 
 ll force he lived freely and consciously among 
 i primary Intuitions, which Youth when 
 rath is healthy simply obeys. He had de- 
 snded to the roots of that rich Nature, of which 
 
 SOC 
 our actual Men are but stunted and fractional de- 
 velopments ; and thus, were his sympathies so full 
 and sincere. Hence too, that unaffected solemnity 
 which often mingled very touchingly with his 
 most humorous moments. He could not conceal 
 from his own Soul, that he had gone deeper than 
 Sense ; and that the Voices to which he listened 
 came from beyond the World. It was not for an 
 Intellect so masculine, to get entangled with un- 
 manageable theories concerning the nature of the 
 Intuitions: he simply felt their presence, and 
 reverently bowed himself down : like Pythagoras, 
 he said he had a Heavenly guide, and owed his 
 safety to his 'Daemon? Turning from the Man to 
 his mission, one might at first fall into something 
 akin to disappointment at its apparent simplicity ; 
 and because it had so little to do with the found- 
 ing and promulgation of arduous Speculation. 
 Yet the functions which Socrates appropriated, 
 are just the most important that can fall to Mor- 
 tal : and the methods he took to fulfil them, show 
 by their nature, how profound and universal his 
 objects were; for these methods, without one tittle 
 of modification, are as applicable now as in long 
 gone Athens, and will abide so through all time. 
 Tva/di trtuvTov. Before acting or speaking, know 
 what you propose. If you speak, know what you 
 speak : if you believe, know what you believe : no 
 Ignorance is so shameful as an assumed knowing 
 or believing, what one knows not. Ascertain 
 what your Mind, in verity is, and be that. Surely 
 a simple message ! Do we marvel, that the de- 
 livery of it consumed the Existence of one of the 
 greatest of Men ? Circumspice ! It can 
 scarcely require to be mentioned, that Socrates 
 wrote nothing, and was not a professed Doctor. 
 His plan was much more direct and practical. 
 He seized on some one whom he met in his walks ; 
 and, by searching conversation, constrained him 
 into contact with the foregoing truths. For the 
 most part he laboured to bring men to recognize 
 two grand sources of evil two all prevailing and 
 always prevailing detriments to Sincerity and 
 Truth. Foremost, the careless, unconscientious 
 use of words. A Word: observe what it is, what 
 realities it ought to represent! First, it stands 
 for a certain definite Thing a fact or form in Na- 
 ture about which there can be no dispute; and 
 secondly, by every one of its derivative meanings, 
 it represents some actual analogy among Things, 
 and certain equally definite laws of the Mind. To 
 understand a wora, then, implies no slight know- 
 ledge ; and the use of it requires proportional care. 
 Do men really thus comprehend the words they 
 employ ? Take up any common or received pro- 
 position, and question a man who says he stands 
 by it ; ask, if ne comprehends its terms ? We fear 
 it is as certain now, as Socrates demonstrated it to 
 be, in Athens, that no matter how momentous 
 the proposition, no matter although some entire 
 system of Morals, Politics, or Theology may hatfg 
 en it aye, that ninety-nine in a hundred even of 
 so-called* intelligent persons, would not come clear 
 through the scrutiny! The power to construct 
 language is an especial distinction of Humanity ; 
 and the right and conscientious use of it, is the 
 means by which alone we connect the past with 
 the present, and discern through Nature and His- 
 tory, those grand and serene principles of Order 
 
 719 
 
soc 
 
 which reveal a Supreme Government: employ it 
 otherwise, and it veils reality; it is an excuse for 
 not looking at Things ; the Mind becomes its in- 
 strument ; Truth gives way to Dogma, and we 
 are False wittiout a blush. Would that every 
 generation had its Socrates! Again, Socrates, 
 rejoiced to force on collisions with the profes- 
 sional Teachers of his time, the class of men who 
 had assumed the title of Sophists. It is now 
 well and generally understood, that the once 
 prevalent conception, that these Sophists were 
 avowed and conscious teachers of Fallacies, is 
 quite erroneous. They had no such distinction. 
 Mere representatives in Athens, of the ordinary 
 professional Teachers of almost every age, they 
 were men who expounded Theories they had never 
 bottomed ; and undertook, for fees, to prepare Young 
 men, by the teaching of Oratory and Philosophy, 
 for the daily work of Athenian public Life. Cer- 
 tainly Socrates did not spare their presumptuous 
 profession of Theories; and he rejoiced to do then, 
 what, if he had lived on Earth for ever, he might 
 have done every day and anywhere to reduce 
 them, by his keen interrogations as to the signifi- 
 
 SOC 
 
 fosition of Socrates towards the Grecian Oiymt 
 t is clear he had penetrated far deeper than Antl 
 pomorphism, and discerned a moral Deity, the gi 
 dian and father of Man. But he would not disf 
 the Laws : partly, it may be, through his pract 
 sense of the necessity of Order to all Progress; 
 mainly through the Motive, which in a later 
 prompted Spinoza to reply to his simple Hostess 
 'Your religion is good; you ought to seek no oil 
 nor doubt that it will assure your salvation, ij'w 
 it stimulates your piety, it helps you to lead a tr 
 quil and virtuous life.'' What then, in pah 
 wonderment we ask what had been done by 
 most illustrious of the Greeks, that the Stat 
 Athens could not be safe unless he should ne 
 by Hemlock? What fault, indeed, could 
 found in him ? ' Yet they only cried out 
 more, "Not this man, but Barabbas .'" ' Exc 
 of course, there is none, although there is expla 
 tion. Athens was confessedly tolerant ; but 
 case of Socrates was just that one, for wl 
 toleration has existed nowhere or at any time, 
 as Mr. Maurice acutely intimates, the new Teat 
 had only announced some new theory, how< 
 
 cation of their propositions, to the embarrassed \ antagonistic to those already afloat, no one w( 
 
 avowal of Ignorance. But his antipathies were 
 equally strong against the whole system of acquir- 
 ing Knowledge as it was termed -for use. The 
 thing to be accomplished, he said, is to become 
 true Men, and the uses will follow. Does the Oak 
 of centuries send out its strong arms that they 
 may cast a shadow ? On the contrary, it ascends 
 and spreads, through the vigour of its inner Life ; 
 and then, tribes and nations sit down within 
 the grateful covert. This, indeed, is no idle dis- 
 tinction. Knowledge attained with chief view 
 to specific uses, never forms the Man, and is 
 not true Knowledge. Truth, in itself is not yet 
 represented by conventional institutions and re- 
 quirements : and the Mind which seeks in the first 
 place to subserve these, must be satisfied to miss 
 Truth. First and last, it was the counsel of So- 
 crates Be Men TvaBi trtxvrov ! For thus alone can 
 you become true citizens of Athens, or worthy to 
 worship the Gods. The teaching of Socrates, in 
 so far as we have sketched it, was critical only ; 
 although his interrogations seldom failed to point 
 the way to some momentous positive Truth. 
 Concerning his own positive conclusions, we 
 refer to the article Plato, desiring rather, in 
 our remaining space to view him as a practical 
 Citizen. And surely, Athens had never a better 
 or a nobler one. Interior only to his love of Truth 
 and Justice, was his ardent love of his natal soil, 
 his desire for its prosperity, and his obedience to 
 its Laws. When exigencies demanded, a willing 
 patriot and brave soldier: he fought at Delium, 
 Potidoea, and Amphipolis a pattern of endurance 
 even to rank and file; and he bore himself without 
 ostentation, or the wish for notice. If he spoke in 
 public, it was to defend the innocent; and he cared 
 not then, whether before an excited People or the 
 Thirty Tyrants. During his whole long life, he 
 never broke a Law refusing in his own case to 
 sanction disobedience, by an easy escape from the 
 consequences of one of the most unjust sentences 
 recorded in History. Observe too, his careful 
 treatment of the national Mythology his respect 
 for the Gods. It is not easy to define precisely the 
 
 have hated him not even would he have I 
 blamed. By proposing his particular Theory, 
 would virtually nave classed himself with 
 other Teachers, and been a new Doctor. 
 Socrates did not do this ; he did not propose a 
 sect : he proved that the methods of all sects t 
 unworthy, and their pretensions hollow ; he vc. 
 war on the very profession of Sophist. The 
 perience of the Ages, bears but one witness a 
 the certainties in such a case. 'If,' says 
 Maurice, ' a Teacher of this kind is right in w 
 he says, he must be regarded as a public bene: 
 tor ; the city must honour him above all its ( 
 zens.' And for such a claim, why expect 
 ance from those who are wise in their generati 
 Isolation, was the seal of the greatness of Socra 
 but it likewise caused and permitted the cr 
 that destroyed him. Glorious, indeed, that 1 
 and noble Life : neither did he die in vain. A 
 that are gone, and ages yet to come, will lit 
 over Plato's admiring and affecting narrative, 
 conversations of that last evening still warm 
 hearts, and subdue our souls. We hear him 
 the majestic old Man ; amid the afflicted gro 
 alone unmoved discoursing of duty, and resie 
 tion, and immortality an Immortality in 
 showed him Death as a mere incident amid Lift 
 not any sudden disruption or critical chang e 
 the opening of a pathway towards worlds wl 
 duty still exists, and wherein the Good and G 
 who preceded him, surely for ever dwell. \ 
 dom he had sought here ; Wisdom he would 
 for there; only he should discern more 
 and live more purely. The final moment 
 It may be, that through that humour which 4 
 clung to him, or with other and now obsc 
 intent, ' Crito, 1 he said, forget not the Cock 
 I vowed to Esculapius.' 1 Socrates then departe 
 ftvtijfAx.Kfnxi! 'The last,' cried Plato, 'of^ 
 friend, the best of all men of this time, the wi 
 and the most just of all men !' [J.P. 
 
 SOCRATES, surnamed Scholastic!' - 
 marian, professor of the law, and pleader at the 
 in Constantinople, about the middle of the 
 720 
 
SOD 
 centurv, author of an ecclesiastical history which 
 continues that of Eusebius from 309 down to 440. 
 Ibis work is in much esteem as one of those original 
 Jocuments which can be relied on for accuracy and 
 fispassionate judgment. 
 
 SODERINI, J. A., a Venetian antiquarian, 
 numismatist, and Eastern traveller, 1640-KJ91. 
 | SOLANDER, Daniel, Charles, an eminent 
 haturalist, was born at Nordland, in Sweden, 
 Miere his father was minister, in 1736. He 
 tudied under Linnaeus, and became the com- 
 ianion of Sir Joseph Banks in Captain Cook's first 
 oyage round the world. The objects of natural 
 istory collected in this expedition, which ter- 
 linated in 1771, are now in the British Museum, 
 re the MSS. of Solander. In 1771 he received 
 degree of D.C.L. from the university of Ox- 
 >rd, and in 1773 became assistant librarian at the 
 -ritish Museum. Died 1782. 
 SOLANO, F., a Spanish physician. 1685-1730. 
 SOLARI, two Italian painters : Andrea, sur- 
 med del Gobbo, born at Milan about 1480 ; Anto- 
 o, called Zinguro, 1382-1455. 
 SOLARI, J.'G., an Italian poet, 1737-1814. 
 SOLDANI, A, an Ital. naturalist, 1736-1808. 
 SOLDANI, J., an Italian poet, 1579-1641. 
 SOLDANI, M., an Italian sculptor, 1658-1740. 
 SOLE, Antonio Dal, a famous Italian land- 
 pe painter, 1597-1684. His son, Giovanni Gui- 
 ppe, a painter in the style of Guido, 1654-1719. 
 SOLIER, F., a French Jesuit, ascetic writer, 
 d historian of Japan, 1568-1638. 
 SOLIMAN. See Solyman. 
 SOLIMENA, Francesco, surnamed L Abate 
 ccio, an eminent painter of Naples, 1657-1747. 
 OLINUS, Caius Julius, a Latin writer of 
 3d century, author of ' Polyhistor,' a poor com- 
 tion taken without acknowledgment from Pliny. 
 OLIS, Antonio De, a Spanish historian and 
 I author of a ' History of Mexico,' 1610-1686. 
 'OLIS, F. De, a Spanish painter, 1629-1684. 
 50LIS, J. D. De, a Spanish navigator, ltith c. 
 OLIS, V., a German engraver, 1514-1570. 
 OLLIER, J. B. De, a Fr. Jesuit, 1669-1740. 
 OLOMON, the son and successor of David as 
 ? of the Jews. 
 
 jOLOMON, a king of Hungary, 1045-1100. 
 IOLON, born at Salamis in the 638th year be- 
 
 S Christ, whence he early removed to Athens : 
 le one of the Seven Sages of Greece, of whom, 
 his long distance of time, we can frame the 
 nctest picture. Known in his youth as a poet, 
 as well for his personal qualities, as because 
 e station and repute of his family, highly 
 ed in Athens, we find him at an early age 
 ng his fellow-citizens, to rescind by acclama- 
 the shameful decree, which, on account of 
 ious defeats, had threatened death to any 
 who should propose to renew expedi- 
 against the revolted Salamis. Appointed 
 ander, Solon returned victorious, only to 
 ke and accomplish a far harder task. The 
 relations in Attica were in confusion : in- 
 of Government, Sects raged. The inhabitants 
 hill country demanded a government of the 
 democratic order; those of the plain wished 
 ligarchy; those on the sea shore a mixed 
 Draco's Laws so profuse in death-punish- 
 and therefore so destructive of the best 
 
 SOL 
 
 sanctions of authority still prevailed; and that 
 plague which afterwards so often threatened the 
 extinction of Rome, viz.: the oppression of debtors 
 by creditors, under the letter of harshest laws, 
 had spread through Athens, widely and deep, the 
 spirit of the worst kind of revolutions. To remedy 
 these latter evils was comparatively easy, inas- 
 much as each could be extirpated by one positive 
 decree; and Solon, now intrusted with the 
 supreme power, annulled Draco's Laws, altered 
 the laws of creditor and debtor, and removed the 
 hardships of existing relations, by an artifice not 
 unknown to modern statesmanships an artifice 
 never excusable unless under pressure of im- 
 perative and inevitable necessity viz., a sweep- 
 ing depreciation of the currency. But the work 
 of adjusting political relations, or of framing a 
 practical constitution for the State, was not so 
 easy. Solon executed it in a way that enforced 
 the assent, and even gained him the applause of 
 all his countrymen ; nor through all their subse- 
 quent and frequent vicissitudes, did the wisest of 
 the Athenians ever cease to revert with longing 
 regret to his wise Laws. In outline Solon's con- 
 stitution was this : He divided the citizens into 
 four classes, according to their wealth : the 
 fourth class, containing the masses. To this class 
 he refused access to any magistracy ; but that no 
 man within the domain of Athens, might be ex- 
 cluded from the rights, duties, and dignity of citi- 
 zenship, he constituted a public assembly of the 
 whole citizens, before which, all decisions of the 
 higher courts might be brought in review: a 
 privilege apparently restricted, but which soon 
 convinced the Athenian plebs, that, in the last re- 
 sort they were really masters of the Laws. Act- 
 ing on that principle of checks, which however 
 easily discredited by abstract logic has been found 
 invaluable in experience, from the time of Athens 
 and Rome, down to our own day, Solon sought 
 security against haste or excess of the popular 
 Assembly, first in the Council of the Areopagus, of 
 which all who had been Archons were members, 
 and which he invested with the general guardian- 
 ship of the Laws ; and again in a second Council 
 or Senate, charged with the initiative of every law, 
 and the discussion of it, previous to its being ques- 
 tioned in the Assembly: each of the four classes 
 sending one hundred members to that Senate. 
 Add to which, that to secure justice and aid 
 the weakness of the poorer classes, he authorized 
 any one to bring before the tribunals a transgres- 
 sor against the person or property of any other: 
 this he considered the most effective police : under 
 Solon's laws, there were no processes as to Com- 
 petence. Wiser than Lycurgus, Solon expected 
 no perpetuity for his enactments ; he ordained 
 them, therefore, merely for a century. Alas ! the 
 Instability of Human affairs ! On returning from 
 his travels, the Legislator found Athens again in 
 confusion, and on the eve of the splendid but ab- 
 solute monarchy of Pisistratus ! Want of success 
 in Statesmanship is often good proof of deficiency 
 in true Wisdom ; and their speedy failure might 
 have thrown discredit on Solon's Laws. But in 
 modem times, we can interpret more soundly : we 
 have learnt the surpassing difficulty of planting in 
 an old country, a new Tree. Surely, the sad ex- 
 perience of France, establishes how inestimable 
 
 721 
 
 3A 
 
SOL 
 
 the privilege and imperative the duty, to prune 
 the brandies, and clear the roots so that it decay 
 not nor fall of that umbrageous Oak under whose 
 shade our forefathers lived! Solon, we have said, 
 was a poet; he was more, the fragments that 
 have reached us, prove him a master in Greek 
 6ong. He felt too, the dignity and power of the 
 Art ; and he consecrated it to the same noble pur- 
 poses to which he gave all his life the inculca- 
 tion of high morals and philosophy, and the eleva- 
 tion of the Athenian people. We omit here, be- 
 cause they are universally known, those touching 
 personal anecdotes related of him by Hero- 
 dotus. [J.P.N.] 
 
 SOLVYNS, Francis Balthasar, a Flemish 
 artist who accompanied Sir Home Popham to the 
 East, and published a picturesque description of 
 the Hindoos, their Manners, Customs, and Reli- 
 gious Ceremonies, 1760-1824. 
 
 SOLYMAN, caliph of Damascus, 715-717. 
 
 SOLYMAN, emir of Cordova, 1009-1016. 
 
 SOLYMAN, three emperors of Turkey : Soly- 
 mas (Tciielebi) I., proclaimed emperor after 
 the defeat and capture of his father, Bajazet, by 
 Timour, 1402 ; dethroned by his brother, Mousa, 
 during a revolt of his subjects, and soon after 
 killed, 1410. Solyman II., next article. Soly- 
 man III., brother of Mahomet IV., succeeded on 
 his deposition, 1688, having previously acquired 
 the most effeminate habits by a forty years' resi- 
 dence in a seraglio, died 1691. 
 
 SOLYMAN the Great, second Turkish em- 
 peror of that name, was born in 1494, and suc- 
 ceeded his father, Selim, in 1520, being then in the 
 twenty-seventh year of his age. The circum- 
 stances of the period were such as to call forth the 
 highest qualities that any statesman or sovereign 
 could possess. The arms of Selim had been the 
 terror of Christendom, and the next destination of 
 his fleet, at the moment of his death, immediately 
 after his conquest of Egypt, was a subject of the 
 most anxious solicitude. A general league among 
 the Christian princes was in agitation, and it was 
 only their own mutual jealousies, and the designs 
 of Francis I. in Italy, that prevented its realiza- 
 tion ; added to which was the enmity of the 
 haughty and warlike Mamelukes in Egypt, and 
 the similar precarious state of many conquests on 
 European territory. The situation of Solyman 
 was much the same as that of the grand duke of 
 Russia would be, if the throne of Nicholas, at the 
 present crisis, were suddenly vacant ; but with this 
 difference, that his enemies were anxious for war, 
 and eager to observe the least indication of weak- 
 ness, and take advantage of it to destroy the infi- 
 del. It was the critical period of the consolidation 
 of the Turkish power, and Solyman, without the 
 ferocity of his father, instantly proved himself 
 equal to the emergency. We nave not space to 
 enumerate his conquests, but the Mamelukes were 
 put down, the Hungarian army defeated, and 
 Buda taken; he even besieged Vienna, but was 
 compelled to retire with the loss of 80,000 men ; 
 at the same time he improved the administration 
 of his don unions, encouraged literature, opened 
 roads, erected caravansaries, hospitals, and li- 
 braries, and exhibited the most enlightened regard 
 lor the welfare of the vast populations ruled by 
 him. The titles bestowed upon Solyman indicate 
 
 SOP 
 
 his high qualities, for while his own countrymen 
 designate him 'the Conqueror' and 'the Legis- 
 lator,' he is called by Europeans ' the Great ' am 
 ' the Magnificent : ' he was also a poet, and h< 
 contributed greatly to form the present Turkisl 
 language by the happy fusion of the Arabic an< 
 Persian tongues, promoted by his example aw 
 polity. He perished of fever in a new expedi' 
 tion against Hungary, while encamped befonj 
 the walls of Sziyeth, two days before its capture! 
 8th September, 1566. |_E.R 
 
 SOLYMAN, two pachas of Bagdad : Soi.yma 
 I., of Georgian parentage, reigned 1750-1 
 Solyman II., succeeded 1780, and reigned durin 
 a period troubled by the incursions of the Wahs 
 bees, and the ravages of Timour Pacha, in Mesc 
 potamia; he repulsed the latter, and died 1802 
 
 SOLYMAN, emperor of Persia, 1666-1694. 
 
 SOLYMAN, a general and minister of tl 
 Sultan Selim I., governor of Egypt 152G-153* 
 governor of Zemen 1588-1541 ; after which 1 
 became grand vizier. He enriched Egypt 
 many public monuments, and caused a gener 
 survey of the country to be made. 
 
 SOMEREN, Cornelius Van, a Dutch ph 
 sician, 1593-1649. His son, John, a magistrj; 
 and poet, 1622-1676. 
 
 SOMEREN, J. Van, a Dutch jurist, 1634-17( 
 
 SOMERS, John, Lord, born at Worcest 
 where his father was an attorney, in 1650 or 16J 
 died 1716. He united the study of literati 
 with that of the law, and became known as 
 political writer in the time of Charles II., and 
 1688 was one of the counsel for the seven bisho 
 The success of the revolution now opened the n 
 to honour, and in 1695 Somers had become! 
 high chancellor of England, with the title of L 
 Somers, Baron Evesham. In the reign of Qu 
 Anne he was one of the commissioners for effe 
 ing the Union of Scotland, and in 1708 bea 
 president of the council. 
 
 SOMERSET. See Seymour. 
 
 SOMERVILLE, William, a gentleman 
 Warwickshire, who ranks with the inferior c 
 of poets, author of 'The Chase,' a didactic 
 descriptive ooem, in blank verse, 1692-1742. 
 
 SOMMIER, J. C, a Fr. theologian, 1661-lP 
 
 SOMNER, William, a Saxon scholar 
 antiquarian, who held the office of clerk to 
 ecclesiastical court of Canterbury, 1606-1669. 
 
 SONNERAT, P., a Fr. naturalist, 1745-18! 
 
 SONNIN, E. G., a French architect, 1709-1 
 
 SONNINI, C. N. Sigisbert Manon, O 
 De, a French naturalist and traveller in We& 
 Africa, Egypt, Greece, Wallachia, and Moldi 
 au. of works of travel, and of an edition of Bf 
 with a continuation, in 127 vols. 8vo, 1751-18 
 
 SOPHIA, empress of Constantinople, nietj 
 Theodora, and wife of Justinian II., with 
 she shared in the government of the state, 
 the death of that prince in 578, she com 
 against Tiberius Constantine, who had been r. 
 to the throne by her advice, and, being dr* 
 by him, was compelled to live in privacy. 
 
 SOPHIA, half-sister of Peter the Gra 
 czariness of Russia, was born 1667, and in 
 placed herself at the head of the revolt ff 
 Strelitzes. Having succeeded in her amb: 
 designs, she reigned over the Muscovites 
 
 .22 
 
SOP 
 
 names of her brothers, Peter and Ivan. The for- 
 mer, however, finally possessed himself of the sole 
 power (Peter the Great), and Sophia died a pri- 
 soner in a convent 1704. 
 
 SOPHIA-CHARLOTTE, queen of Prussia, 
 laughter of Ernest Augustus, elector of Bruns- 
 vick Luneburg, and second wife of Frederick I., 
 L668-1705. She contributed to the foundation of 
 [be Academy of Sciences at Berlin. 
 I SOPHIA-DOROTHEA, queen of Prussia, 
 aughter of George I., king of England, wife of 
 Frederick William I., and mother of Frederick the 
 Jreat, 1687-1757. 
 
 SOPHOCLES, was a native of Colonos, a beau- 
 
 iful village in the immediate vicinity of Athens, 
 
 rb.ere he was born B.C. 495, being thus thirty 
 
 ears younger than ^schylus, and fifteen years 
 
 Ider than Euripides. His father, Sophilus, being 
 
 man of good family, and possessed of considerable 
 
 ealth, gave him a liberal education in all the 
 
 terary and personal accomplishments of his age ; 
 
 id these were still further enchanced by a person 
 
 ninently handsome, which had been moulded and 
 
 ained by the exercises of the palasstra. His 
 
 oficiency in the knowledge of poetry and music, 
 
 s having been instructed in the latter art by the 
 
 mous Lamprus, is attested by the fact that, when 
 
 s countrymen, after the battle of Salamis 
 
 i.e. 480), assembled to celebrate, around the 
 
 >phy raised by their valour, the glorious victory 
 
 nch they had achieved, he, though a youth of 
 
 teen, was selected to play an accompaniment on 
 
 e lyre to the ptean, in which the chorus of 
 
 uths sung their country's triumph. It is besides 
 
 obable that he also composed the words of the 
 
 e. The commencement of his career as a dra- 
 
 itist took place under circumstances peculiarly 
 
 *resting. iEschylus had for thirty years been 
 
 } undoubted master of the Athenian stage, and 
 
 s now to contest the palm with a youthful com- 
 
 itor of the age of twenty-seven, whose great 
 
 :omplishments and personal graces had excited 
 
 unusual interest in his favour. The festival of 
 
 s Dionysia was, on this occasion, rendered still 
 
 re imposing by the return of Cimon from the 
 
 rod of Scyros, bringing with him the bones of 
 
 eseus. Ihe people accordingly flocked to the 
 
 atre of Bacchus; and when Cimon and his 
 
 e colleagues entered the theatre to offer the 
 
 mary libations to the god, the chief Archon, 
 
 epsion, instead of choosing judges by lot, 
 
 'ned the ten generals at the altar ; and, after 
 
 istering to them the usual oath, constituted 
 
 the judges between the rival tragedians. 
 
 ore this tribunal Sophocles exhibited his first 
 
 "y, and by their award obtained the first 
 
 His subsequent career fully justified the 
 
 on of the judges. From this epoch (b.c. 468) 
 
 aintained the supremacy till B.C. 441, when 
 
 bnnidable rival Euripides was preferred to him, 
 
 gained the first prize. For sixty-three years 
 
 hocles continued to compose and exhibit ; and 
 
 g that period he twenty times obtained the 
 
 prize, still more frequently the second, and 
 
 ' descended so low as the third an amount of 
 
 s which far exceeded that of his 1 great rivals. 
 
 c. 440 he exhibited the Antigone, the earliest 
 
 is extant dramas, a play which gave such 
 
 tion to the Athenians that they appointed 
 
 SOT 
 
 him as a colleague of Pericles and Thucydides in 
 the war against the inhabitants of Samos. He 
 seems to have won no laurels in his military 
 capacity. Several offices of honour and respecta- 
 bility were conferred upon him in his old age ; he 
 was made priest of Halon, a native hero; and 
 after the disastrous termination of the Syracusan 
 expedition (b.c 413) he was, in his eighty-third 
 year, appointed one of the committee of public 
 salvation; in which capacitv he consented (B.c. 
 411) to the appointment of" the council of Four 
 Hundred. The last years of his life were disturbed 
 by family dissensions. In consequence of his 
 partiality for a grandson, his eldest son endeavoured 
 to deprive him of the management of his property 
 on the ground of incapacity and dotage. The only 
 defence offered by the aged dramatist was to read 
 in presence of his judges a passage from the 
 (Edipus at Colonos which he had just written ; on 
 hearing which the judges dismissed the case, and re- 
 buked his son for his undutiful conduct. Sophocles 
 died b.c. 405, after completing his ninetieth year. 
 He is believed to have written 113 plays, of which 
 only seven, along with some fragments, have 
 descended to us. His private character seems to 
 have been, on the whole, amiable ; the blemishes 
 attributed to it being those of the age rather than 
 the individual. In the hands of Sophocles the 
 Athenian tragedy reached its highest degree of 
 perfection. His language is pure and majestic, 
 avoiding on the one hand the daring and sometimes 
 rash flights of iEschylus, and on the other never 
 descending to the common-place diction of Euri- 
 pides. [G.F.J 
 
 SOPHRANI, R., a Genoese biographer, 1612-72. 
 
 SORANUS, two physicians of Ephesus, the 
 earlier of whom dates about the reign of Trajan. 
 
 SORANZO, J., a doge of Venice, 1312-1328. 
 
 SORBAIT, P., an Italian physician, died 1691. 
 
 SORBIERE, Samuel, a French physician, 
 philosopher, and historiographer royal, 1615-1670. 
 
 SORBIN, A., a French prelate, 1532-1606. 
 
 SORBONNE, Robert De, a doctor in theology, 
 who was the chaplain and confessor of Louis IX., 
 and founded the college that bears his name, was 
 born at Sorbon, a village in the diocese of Rheims, 
 in 1201. His object was to found a society of 
 learned theologians, who should live in common, 
 and deliver lectures gratuitously, and this design 
 he began to execute in 1253, by assembling a body 
 of professors and scholars, whom he lodged near 
 the Luxembourg palace. He died in 1274, and 
 left the bulk of his property to render his bene- 
 faction permanent. The Sorbonne formed one 
 part only of the faculty of theology in the univer- 
 sity of Paris, but its name became so famous that 
 it was often given to the whole, and graduates 
 were proud to name themselves of the Sorbonne, 
 rather than the university. 
 
 SOREL, Agnes, a maid of honour to the queen 
 of Charles VII. of France, who has acquired a name 
 in history by the influence she acquired over that 
 monarch when she became his mistress, 1409-1450. 
 
 SOSIGENES, an astronomer of Alexandria, who 
 went to Rome in the time of Julius Cassar, and was 
 employed by him in reforming the calendar, b.c. 45. 
 
 SOSTRATUS, the architect of the renowned 
 Pharos, or lighthouse, of Alexandria, 3d cent. B.C. 
 
 SOTER, a bishop of Rome, 168-176. 
 
 723 
 
SOT 
 
 SOTHEBY, W., an English poet, 1756-1833. 
 
 SOTHERON, Frank, a British admiral, em- 
 ployed in the defence of Naples, 1767-1839. 
 
 SOTO, Domingo, a Span, ecclesias., 1404-1560. 
 
 SOTO, Ferdinand De, a Spanish adventurer 
 and navigator, of whom an interesting account may 
 be read in Bancroft's History ot the United States, 
 died 1552. 
 
 SOTO, Peter, a Spanish divine, 1500-1563. 
 
 SOUBISE, Charles De Rohan, Prince De, 
 marshal of France, and minister of state to Louis 
 XV. In the earlier part of his career lie distin- 
 guished himself in the field, but in his later years 
 became implicated in the Dubarry intrigues, so dis- 
 graceful to that court ; he was brother to the car- 
 dinal of Soubisse (see Rohan), 1715-1787. 
 
 SOUFFLOT, J. G., a Fr. architect, 1714-1781. 
 
 SOULT. Nicole Jean De Dikun Soult, 
 Duke of Dalmatia and Marshal of France, was 
 bom in 1769, at St. Amand. His father was a 
 notary. Soult entered the ranks of the army in 
 1785; and in 1791 he attracted the favourable 
 notice of Marshal Lukner, and received a lieu- 
 tenant's commission. He rose rapidly under 
 Custine, Hoche, and Marceau, and particularly 
 signalized himself in the victory of Fleurus. In 
 
 1799 he acted under Massena in Switzerland, and in 
 
 1800 he served under the same commander in the 
 defence of Genoa. Soult was wounded and taken 
 prisoner in a sally in the early part of this siege, 
 but was set at liberty after Napoleon's victory at 
 Marengo. Napoleon, who heard of Soult's bravery 
 and skill, now employed him under his own eye ; 
 and Soult's promotion went forward till he had 
 reached the highest station. He was the first of 
 the marshals whom Napoleon created in 1804, and 
 he was the first marshal whom Napoleon made a 
 peer. He was the chief organizer of the great 
 army which was assembled at Boulogne for the 
 invasion of this country; and when the 'army 
 of England' was countermarched into Germany 
 against the Austrians, Soult led the main column, 
 and participated largely in the glories of the cam- 
 paign of Ulm and Austerlitz. He took in the next 
 year a distinguished share in the victory of Jena ; 
 and showed consummate firmness as well as dar- 
 ing in the desperate struggle at Preuss Eylau. In 
 1808 Soult was sent into Spain. He defeated the 
 Spaniards at Reynosa, and subsequently com- 
 manded against Sir John Moore, whom he engaged 
 at Corunna. He next occupied the north of Por- 
 tugal, but was surprised and defeated by Welling- 
 ton at the Douro, and retreated with great loss and 
 difficulty into Spain. In 1809 he gained the great 
 victory of Ocana over the Spaniards, and subdued 
 all the south-west of Spain, except the city of 
 Cadiz. He lost in 1811 the hard fought battle of 
 Albuera against Beresford. Soult was recalled to 
 aid Napoleon after the Russian campaign ; but in 
 the July of 1813, he was sent back to Spain to 
 stem if possible the advance of Wellington after 
 the English triumph at Vittoria, and to save the 
 south of France from invasion. Soult did his duty 
 nobly though unsuccessfully. He found the wreck 
 of the French armies of Spain driven in disorgan- 
 ization upon Bayonne ; the spirits of the men were 
 damped by repeated defeats, and their discipline 
 bad suffered proportionally. Against him the 
 English and their allies were coming on, flushed 
 
 SOU 
 
 ! with success, in the highest state of efficiency, ant 
 with Wellington to lead them. Soult restorer 
 order and spirit among his men, and in a fortnigh 
 from the time of his arrival at Bayonne he lei 
 them boldly again into the Spanish territory agains 
 the British. A series of engagements in and nea, 
 the Pyrenees followed, in which Soult showe 
 strategetic abilities of very high order, and gaine 
 several partial successes, though ultimately hews 
 driven hack into France. lie now defended 
 native country against the invaders with indomil 
 able courage, and an inexhaustible fertility of n 
 sources. Repeatedly engaged, and almost constant) 
 defeated, he still presented an unbroken froi 
 against his assailants, and kept his retreatii 
 army ready to dispute every tenable post, and 
 seize any favourable chance of attack that fortui 
 might offer. The final battle of Toulouse w. 
 contested by him with undiminished skill ai 
 courage ; and though, on the whole, the Engli,- 
 were successful, Soult had the advantage on sever 
 points of the battle ; 5,000 of his enemies h; 
 fallen ; and he led his army safely out of the cit 
 ready for further operations when the news arriv 
 of the emperor's first abdication. In 1815 Soi 
 joined Napoleon and fought at Waterloo, where 
 acted as one of the emperor's major-generals. ( 
 the second return of the Bourbons, Soult was 1 
 some time proscribed, but was ultimately restor 
 to all his dignities. After July, 1830, he was mu 
 trusted by Louis Philippe, who employed Soul 
 talents in the war office, and also twice made h 
 president of the council. He was present at c 
 queen's coronation in 1838, as representative 
 France, and was received with warm favour 
 the English nation. The old marshal died at 
 chateau of Soult-Berg, 26th Nov., 1851. [E.SJ 
 
 SOUSA. See Souza and Faria. 
 
 SOUTH, Robert, rector of Islip, in Oxfo: 
 shire, distinguished as a theologian, more espe 
 ally in the controversy with Sherlock on the Trill 
 born at Hackney 1633, died 1716. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, Joanna, was born about 17 
 at Gittisham, in Devonshire. Her parents w 
 in humble circumstances, and, until her na 
 became celebrated, she obtained her living a 
 domestic servant. Her case is a very curious c 
 both in the history of psychology, and of reli, " 
 enthusiasm. From her mother, who live< 
 Joanna had reached the age of womanhood, she 
 ceived the most exalted religious ideas, the exul 
 ance of which her father often felt himself ca 
 upon to check: she was still, however, a sober rat 
 ber of the Church of England. At length she jot 
 the early morning and evening meetings of 
 Weslcyans, and, in 1792, associated exclush 
 with that body. The religious exercises to wl 
 Joanna was thus introduced seem to have J: 
 duced, as exciting causes, her remarkable vi& 
 and dreams, which soon took the form of }; 
 phecies, and commanded universal attentj 
 Some of her predictions received a remarkable; 
 filment, especially that which she published j 
 mediately after the conclusion of the peace 
 Amiens in 1801 ; for she then derided the jo 
 the nation, and gave the solemn assurance tb 
 calamitous series of wars were about to break 
 the events of which would be more terrible 1 
 any on record ; at a later period, sha as 
 
 724 
 
sou 
 
 asserted that Napoleon would never land in Eng- 
 land, and that his power would be overthrown. 
 The visions which formed the ground of these 
 prophecies are often very striking as dramatic 
 pictures, and the rude doggrel of her prophetic 
 chants as frequently becomes picturesque, it once 
 the cultivated mind can overcome the disgust 
 first excited by their uncouthness, and their de- 
 ficiency in common grammatical correctness. She 
 began the publication of her prophetic pamphlets 
 in 1794, and about 1804 was brought up to Lon- 
 lon, and lodged at the west end by some of her 
 idmirers, many of whom were persons of con- 
 sideration in society. Soon after this event, an 
 >ld man, named Thomas Dowland, and a poor 
 y, named Joseph, also had visions, and a paper 
 nanufacturer named Carpenter in whose employ 
 hey were finally published many of them : we 
 aention them here, however, because this Car- 
 enter, conceiving himself to be the ' Eight Man ' 
 f Joanna's prophecies, finally took her place as 
 he chief of the sect who followed her, having first 
 id the secession when she was believed by the 
 lore enlightened of her followers to have fallen 
 nder a delusion. That delusion consisted in the 
 elief that she was destined to bring forth Shiloh, 
 r the Messiah, and its origin is explained by Car- 
 enter as the result of her believing that she was 
 le church or bride itself, instead of its shadow or 
 ipresentative. We may here mention, that pre- 
 ious to its arrival at this idolatrous pitch, which 
 is still painful to contemplate, Joanna had 
 icupied a year in 'sealing' her followers, gen- 
 ally but most unjustly regarded as a mere trick 
 make money. The old man Dowland expired 
 1804, ten years after the commencement of his, 
 >6eph's, and Joanna's prophecies, and 1814 was 
 red upon by her for the birth of Shiloh. We 
 nit fhe details of the amazing increase of her 
 lowers, and the magnificent preparations made 
 r this event, to state the simple fact, that she 
 is deceived by appearances, and expired on the 
 th of December, in that year having pre- 
 Jnsly declared her conviction that, ' If she was 
 ceived, she had, at all events, been the sport of 
 ne spirit, good or evil.' The whole case, like 
 my others of the kind, may be explained by the 
 sily ascertained laws of psychology. Females 
 ve been known, in states of temporary derange- 
 snt, to go out naked into the streets : the voice 
 ving told them that if they would put off their 
 thes they would be invisible. Such are the 
 iris only into which the spiritual language falls, 
 clothes, in the symbolic tongue, are bodily 
 tes, and those are what must be put off in order 
 it the spirit may enter a life unseen by mortal 
 :. We throw out the hint, because many such 
 usions are abroad, and it may serve to show 
 the sincerity of such a woman as Joanna, 
 orant of spiritual laws, may be insufficient to 
 rve her from the grossest errors. We omitted 
 y that the appearance which Joanna mistook 
 pregnancy was the result of a diseased condi- 
 explained when her body was opened. The 
 ailing thought of her writings is the redemp- 
 of man by the agency of woman, the supposed 
 se of his fall. [E.R.] 
 
 OUTHERN, Thomas, a dramatic writer of the 
 of Charles IL, bora at Oxmantown, near Dub- 
 
 SOU 
 
 Iin, 16G0, died 1746. His tragedy of 'Isabella, 
 or the Fatal Marriage,' is deeply pathetic, and 
 Dryden places him in the same rank as Otway. The 
 principal of his other productions are ' Oroonoko,' 
 and the ' Spartan Dame.' 
 
 [Birth place of Southey.] 
 
 SOUTHEY, Robert, was born in 1774 at 
 Bristol, where his father was a linen-draper. In 
 1792, the means being furnished by his uncle, the 
 English chaplain at Lisbon, with a view to 
 Southey's becoming a clergyman, he was admitted 
 at Baliol College, Oxford. He had already gone 
 through much miscellaneous reading, had planned 
 epics, and written plays. His studies at trie uni- 
 versity became still more diversified- Rousseau 
 and Godwin, and the contagious enthusiasm of the 
 French Revolution, made him, for a time, a repub- 
 lican in politics, and in religion a doubter or uni- 
 tarian. Southey was the most unlikely of all men 
 to become a minister in a church whose creed he 
 did not cordially accept. He abandoned his 
 clerical views, began to study medicine, but 
 gave it up in disgust, and left Oxford in 1794. 
 The principal fruit of the extreme opinions he then 
 held was his drama of ' Wat Tyler,' never published 
 by himself. In 1794 he made acquaintance with 
 Coleridge; and, having already published poems 
 in conjunction with his friend Lovell, he now, with 
 his new ally, wrote 'The Fall of Robespierre,' and 
 ' Joan of Arc' In 1795 Southey married, at Bristol, 
 Edith Fricker, the sister of Mrs. Coleridge and Mrs. 
 Lovell ; but, compelled by poverty, the pair imme- 
 diately separated, the poet accompanying his uncle 
 to Lisbon. On his return he published, in 1797, his 
 ' Letters from Soain and Portugal.' He was still 
 reluctant to emor<ice literature as a profession. The 
 study of law was now commenced in London, but 
 never zealously pursued, and gradually deserted alto- 
 gether for literary study and composition His cir- 
 cumstances were made easier by the friendship of 
 Mr. W. W Wynn, who allowed him an annuity of 
 1(50 till he obtained the Laureateship. His 
 youthful extravagances of opinion were already, 
 to all appearance, quite extinct ; if he was not even 
 far on the way towards that admiration of aristo- 
 cratic principles and of the hierarchy of the church 
 of England, which, oddly mixed up with liberal 
 hobbies of his own, he entertained and expressed 
 so vehemently in the later stages of his life. In 
 1 1803 he settled himself in a house called Greta 
 
 725 
 
sou 
 
 Hall, near Keswick; and there he resided for nearly 
 forty years, labouring at his desk with thesteadi- 
 n attorney's clerk, and dividing his time, 
 easily and regularly, between the tasks by which he 
 made his bread, and the undertakings by which he 
 hoped to gain immortality. In 1813, his 'mania 
 of man-mending,' as he called it, being completely 
 cured, he was appointed Poet-Laureate, chiefly 
 through the influence of Sir Walter Scott, who 
 himself declined the place ; and the hundred a-year 
 which it gave him was his only certain income till 
 183& when Sir Robert Peel conferred on him a 
 pension of three hundred pounds. Out of the 
 gains of his industry, the prudent and kind-hearted 
 man of letters supported one of his sisters-in-law 
 for some time in Ins house, and the other for many 
 years ; while he brought up his family in respect- 
 ability, and left at his death several thousand 
 pounds in cash and insurances, and a large and 
 valuable library. His sheet anchor was writing for 
 periodicals, a kind of composition in which he was 
 particularly skilful. The 'Annual Review' re- 
 ceived his first contributions ; he wrote the histori- 
 cal sections of the ' Edinburgh Annual Register' 
 for the years 1808, 1809, and 1810 ; and he was a 
 constant contributor to 'The Quarterly Review' 
 from its commencement in 1808 till he ceased to 
 be able to write at all. But his separate publica- 
 tions amounted to forty-five, of which by far the 
 greater number were works of his own in prose and 
 verse, his share in the others being that of editor 
 and critic. In his later years he relied for lasting 
 fame on his historical works and his speculations on 
 politics and society. But he was neither a deep or 
 exact thinker, nor possessed of the highest requisites 
 for historical narrative ; and the only permanent 
 popularity he gained in this field was through his 
 Lives of Nelson and of Wesley. 'The Doctor,' 
 begun to be published anonymously in 1834, has 
 much that is clever, and a great deal that is amus- 
 ing; but it contains rather the collections of a 
 reading man than the inventions or observations of 
 a man of genius. All Southey's prose is excellent 
 in style, easy and idiomatic, tasteful and clear, 
 though wanting in point and tending to verbosity. 
 His poetical merits nave been matter of keen con- 
 troversy. He w r as a better artist than poet, lofty 
 and just in his theory of poetical art rather than 
 spontaneously imaginative or passionate in execu- 
 tion. Yet, since he deserves liigh honour for the 
 constancy with which he aimed at deliberate and 
 symmetrical performance, in a time when most 
 other poets worked from inconsiderate impulse 
 only, it is satisfactory to find in his best poems so 
 much that gives pleasure to the real lovers of 
 poetry. ' Madoc' indeed is heavy and vague ; but 
 'Thalaba' (1801) and 'The Curse of Kehama' 
 (1810), in spite of their extravagance of theme and 
 their unwise experiments in rhythm, are very fas- 
 cinating to imaginative readers ; and in ' Roderick 
 the Last of the Goths,' (1814), he has come nearer 
 than any other man of our century to the tone of 
 the epic. In 1837 the death of Mrs. Southey, 
 after long affliction, deeply depressed her husband, 
 already worn out by his many years of honourable 
 toil. In 1839 he found an affectionate companion 
 for his decline, by marrying Miss Bowles, herself a 
 well-known authoress. After this time his memory 
 and other powers failed rapidly j and he had been 
 
 SPA 
 
 quite imbecile for a good while before his death 
 which took place in March, 1843. j W.S. 
 
 SOUTHGATE, Richard, an antiquarian, am" 
 minister of the Church of England, 1729-1795. 
 
 SOUTHMAN, P., a Dutch painter, 1580-1646,; 
 
 SOUTHWELL, N., an Eng. Jesuit, died 1676. 
 
 SOUTHWELL, Robt., an English Jesuit, sai. 
 to be descended from an ancient family of Norfol 
 or Suffolk, was bom in 1560, and entered the orde 
 at Rome in 1578. Having come as a missionar 
 to England, his design was discovered, and he tfl 
 executed at Tyburn, February 21, 1595. 
 suffered with great courage. He is the author 
 several religious works and poems. 
 
 SOUVARROF. See Suwarhow. 
 
 SOUVTGNY, G. De, a Fr. Hellenist, 1598-167 
 
 SOUZA, John De, a Portuguese Orientalist ai 
 state secretary, 1730-1812. See also Faria 
 
 SOUZA-BOTELHO, Don Jose Maria, a Po 
 tuguese diplomatist and man of letters, 1 
 1825. His wife, known as a novelist, died 1836 
 
 SOWERBY, James, originally a drawing-ma 
 ter, known as a writer on botanical and mineral 
 gical subjects, illustrated by himself, 1766-1822, 
 
 SOYE, P. De, a Dutch engraver, 1538-1575. 
 
 SOZOMEN, Hermias, an ecclesiastical hist 
 rian, known as a pleader at Constantinople in t 
 5th century. The portion of his history now exta 
 dates from 323 to 439. 
 
 SOZOMENO, an Italian historian, 1387-115* 
 
 SPADA, J. B., an Italian cardinal, 1597-16' 
 
 SPADA, J. J., an Ital. naturalist, 1680-1774 
 
 SPADA, L., an Italian painter, 1576-1622. 
 
 SPAENDONCK, Geraud Van, a Dutch pa 
 ter, fam. for his flowers and miniatures, 1746-18! 
 
 SPAGNOLETTO, the name by which G> 
 seppe De Ribera is generally known in It* 
 He was born at Xativa, near Valencia, in Spt 
 January 12, 1588. He went early to Italy, an( 
 so identified with Naples that he is commo 
 enumerated among the painters of that schu 
 Dominici indeed asserts that he was born in Ga 
 poli, in the province of Lecce, in Naples, and t" 
 his father, a Spanish officer, married there Dorc 
 Caterina Indolli, a lady of Gallipoli, where Guise, 
 was born, in 1593; but according to Cean I 
 mudez, the lady, the place, and the date, are* 
 three wrong. As Dommici is a great authority 
 Neapolitan painters, nothing short of documf, 
 can supplant his account; these, however, 
 mudez professes to speak from, though he does 
 give them. He was at first the pupil of Franc* 
 Ribalta in Spain, he then studied in RomeT 
 eventually with Michelangelo da Caravaggii 
 Naples, and he not only adopted the natun 
 style of this painter, but even surpassed him Is. 
 own manner. Lo Spagnoletto was a painter 
 prodigious power and facility, but of co-ordh 
 jealousy and arrogance. He was a prominent nr 
 ber of the infamous Cabal of Naples, the triuinvi 
 headed by the Greek Belisario Corenzio, the t 
 being Giambattista Caracciolo. These men 
 reported to have resolved to expel or poison e 
 painter of talent who should attempt to seM 
 Naples : Domenichino is said to have been t 
 victim, and they succeeded in expelling Ann: 
 Caracci, the Cav. D'Arpino, and Guido. 8 
 noletto terminated his great but scandalous Cf 
 in a remarkable manner. In 1648 his beau 
 
 726 
 
SPA 
 
 daughter. Maria Rosa, became the mistress of Don 
 Juan of Austria, and accompanied that prince to 
 I Palermo ; this had such a powerful effect on the 
 roroud Spaniard that he disappeared from Naples 
 and was never heard of more, leaving his wife and 
 family with his large fortune at Naples. Cean 
 Bermudez says he died at Naples in 1650, but in 
 which he appears simply to have copied Palomino ; 
 he gives no authority. Luca Giordano was the 
 most distinguished of Spagnoletto's scholars. 
 [Dominici, Vite del f J itlori, Scultori, ed Architetti 
 Kapoletani; Ceun Bermudez, Diccionario His- 
 torico, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 SPAGNUOLI. See Mantovano. 
 SPALDING, John Joachim, an eloquent Swed- 
 sh clergyman, author of several religious works, 
 l714-1804. His son, George Ludwig, editor of 
 in edition of Quintilian, 1762-1811. 
 
 SPALLANZANI, Lazaro, an eminent physi- 
 
 logist and naturalist, was born at Scandiano in 
 
 he duchy of Modena, in 1729. He died in 1799. 
 
 ie studied at Reggio and Bologna, and he soon 
 
 cquired such a great reputation for learning, that 
 
 he university of the former town invited him to 
 
 ecome professor of logic, metaphysics, and Greek. 
 
 hiring the six years he remained there his leisure 
 
 ime was devoted to the prosecution of those physi- 
 
 il researches that have rendered his name so cele- 
 
 rated. He became afterwards professor at Modena, 
 
 ad ultimately filled with great honour to himself 
 
 ad credit to the university, the chair of natural 
 
 istory at Pavia. At this latter place he had the 
 
 iperintendence of the cabinet of natural history 
 
 jlonging to the university; and with the view of 
 
 lising it from the low state into which it had 
 
 lien, he travelled through various countries, as 
 
 r as Constantinople and Asia Minor, and made 
 
 eat collections of objects in all the departments of 
 
 iture, with which he enriched it. While at 
 
 ienna. on his return home, he heard that some of 
 
 s colleagues, enemies of his reputation, had ac- 
 
 sed him of stealing some of the objects from the 
 
 useum. His innocence, however, was clearly 
 
 tablished ; it was proclaimed by an imperial edict, 
 
 d he returned to Pavia with the greatest honour 
 
 d eclat. Spallanzani's writings are numerous, 
 
 d have procured for him an universal reputation 
 
 a physiologist and naturalist. His experiments 
 
 the reproduction of animals; his researches into 
 
 i circulation of the blood; his works on the 
 
 ysiology of animals and vegetables; and his 
 
 Jeresting accounts of the infusoria and other 
 
 croscopic animals, are full of new and interesting 
 
 itter, and have added much to our knowledge of 
 
 the subjects of which they treat. [W.B.] 
 
 1SPAXGENBERG, A. T., a Moravian prelate, 
 thor of a Life of Luxendorf, 1704-1792. 
 SPANHEIMS, Frederic, aGerman theologian, 
 BBSSor of philosophy at Geneva, and author of 
 reral works, 1600-1649. His son, Ezekiel, a 
 med wr. and statesman, 1629-1710. Freder- 
 brother of the latter, a theologian, 1632-1701. 
 SPARFVENFELDT, J. G., a Swedish philolo- 
 t, author of a Sclavonic dictionary, 1655-1727. 
 SPARK, T., an English divine, 1655-1692. 
 JPARKE, T., a puritan divine, 1548-1616. 
 5PARRE, Eric, a Swedish senator, who con- 
 rated to place Sigismund III. on the throne of 
 d, and was beheaded by Charles IX. 1600. 
 
 SPE 
 
 SPARRMANN, Andrew, an eminent Swedish 
 naturalist, was born in the province of Upland 
 about 1747, and was instructed in botany by Lin- 
 naeus. In 1765 he made a voyage to China, and 
 again in 1772 and 1775, to South Africa. He re- 
 turned from these travels laden with specimens of 
 natural history, both plants and animals. He 
 died at Stockholm, where he had become keeper of 
 the museum, in 1820. 
 
 SPARROW, A., bishop of Norwich, died 1685. 
 
 SPARTACUS, a native of Thrace, who became 
 a soldier in the Roman army, and, having deserted, 
 was sold as a slave, and finally numbered with the 
 gladiators condemned to destroy each other for the 
 amusement of the people of Italy. In the year 
 73 e.c, about the period when Italy was overrun 
 with bandits and its seas infested by pirates, the 
 period of anarchy and social ruin attending the 
 decline of the ancient republic, Spartacus with 
 about seventy of his companions in bondage effected 
 their escape, and resolved that, since they were to 
 die, the scene of their struggle should be a larger 
 one than the blood-stained arena, and that they 
 would fall as brothers. They were joined by 
 fugitive slaves, and others of the oppressed classes, 
 till their numbers swelled to an army, of which 
 Spartacus became the commander. The details of 
 the struggle are related by Livy, Plutarch, and 
 Appian. Spartacus had no hope of conquering 
 the whole power of Rome, but was resolved on 
 escaping into Germany, and bearing away with him 
 the spoils of the cities of his late masters. He 
 
 fained three great victories in succession over 
 entulus, Genlius, and the consul of the preceding 
 year, Manlius, and his course was now open to the 
 Alps, but dazzled by these splendid successes he 
 led his troops southward again, and the next year, 
 B.C. 71, he was defeated by Crassus. He per- 
 formed prodigies of valour, before meeting with his 
 death in this last action, and many of his com- 
 panions in arms, who became prisoners, were 
 crucified, and set up at intervals on the road between 
 Rome and Capua. [E.R.] 
 
 SPARTIANUS, Mtavs, a Latin historian, ot 
 very indifferent repute, 4th century. 
 
 SPEED, John, an English historian and anti- 
 quary, was born at Farrington, in Cheshire, 1552, 
 and was originally a tailor. His talents coming 
 under the notice of Sir Fulk Greville, procured 
 him an allowance which enabled him to abandon 
 his business, and devote his time to literature. 
 His works are 'The Theatre of the Empire of 
 Great Britaine, presenting an exact Geography of 
 the Kyngdomes of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, and the Isles adjoyning ; ' ' The History of 
 Great Britaine, from Julius Caesar to James I. ; ' 
 and 'A Cloud of Witnesses, or the Genealogies of 
 Scripture,' prefixed to a new translation of the 
 Bible in 1611. Died 1629. 
 
 SPEGEL, Haquin, archbishop of Upsala, 
 known as a poet and philologist, 1645-1714. 
 
 SPELMAN, Sir Henry, an English historian 
 and antiquary, born at Congham, in Norfolk, 
 1562, died 1641. His works are considered highly 
 valuable. His son, Sir John, an archaeologist 
 and historian of Alfred the Great, dates unknown. 
 His great-grandson, Edward, a classical scholar 
 and antiquarian, died 1643. 
 
 SPENCE, Joseph, an accomplished scholar 
 
 727 
 
1698, accidentally drowned 1768. 
 
 SPENCER, John, a learned divine and critic, 
 author of an erudite Latin treatise on the Hebrew 
 Laws ami Rituals, born iu Kent, 1630, died 1695. 
 
 SPENCER, JOHH CHABUCS, Earl, formerly 
 Viscoint Altiiorpe, and known as a Whig 
 statesman at the period of the Reform Bill, was 
 horn in 1782. From 1806 to 1834 he was member 
 for the county of Northampton, and soon after the 
 accession of William IV. became chancellor of the 
 exchequer. He was most remarkable for the zeal 
 with which he devoted himself to agricultural im- 
 provements. Died 18-15. 
 
 SPENER, P. J., a German divine, 1G35-1705. 
 
 SPE SPE 
 
 and professor of poetry at Oxford, author of an ' work of art, which should resuscitate the world ol 
 ' Essay on Lope's Odvssev,' and an 'Inquiry into | chivalry, in a shape not unacceptable to a genera- 
 the Agreement between the works of the Roman ftion farther advanced in knowledge, and familial, 
 Poets, and the Remains of Ancient Artists;' born with models higher than the old romances. Tin 
 
 design was executed, in his ' Faerie Queene,' will, 
 a marvellous affluence of imagery at once romantii 
 and natural, and with a delicate feeling of th< 
 tiful such as hardly any poet has ever surpassed 
 If his symbolic meanings sometimes press them- 
 selves on us so closely as to cool our poetic mood, 
 they are as often embodied in scenes and figure 
 which, with or without regard to their hidden v 
 nification, entrance us by a spell as powerful 
 those of the enchanters and elves amidst whom 
 are brought to wander. And, though the plan c 
 the work is too vast; though the half of it, whic 
 is all that we possess, contains Six Books, each 
 which is as long as most epics : yet these deal sue 
 cessively with "successive characters and event 
 which are sufficiently independent of one anothl 
 to allow of their being studied separately, Avithoi 
 detriment either to our comprehension of them, 
 to the aesthetic effect they produce. The ' Faer 
 Queene' is a great work, a work fairly comparab 
 to the most illustrious of the narrative poems thi 
 grace the continental literature of Europe. Att 
 when we think of it as belonging to our Elizs 
 bethan age, we should remember, also, that it 
 the only work of the very highest class, exceptii 
 only the dramas of Shakspeare, which that ag 
 with all its fertility and energy, was fortuna 
 enough to produce. Nor did it" exercise, on I 
 generations immediately succeeding the poet's tin- 
 much less of influence on the non-dramatic poet 
 of England, than the masterpieces of the immort 
 dramatist exercised on his successors. The ch 
 racteristic stanza which Spenser invented for ] 
 romantic epos, was the very smallest of the poii 
 in which following poets were led, consciously 
 unconsciously, by the example he had set them. 
 The events of Spenser's life, though less obsa 
 than those of Shakspeare's, are yet known so v< 
 imperfectly, that his biographers can do little nw 
 than tantalize the curiosity of their readers. 4 
 was born in London, probably in 1553, but p 
 haps earlier. He was descended of a good fami 
 probably some offshoot from the house of Althorj 
 and a few circumstances in his early history hi 
 suggested the supposition, that his father may hi 
 been one of the Spensers or Spencers of Hui 
 wood in Lancashire. He was admitted of Po 
 broke Hall, in Cambridge, as a sizar, in 1569, 1 
 took his degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1573 t 
 1576. This is all that we know with certainly 
 regard to his youth. In the north of England^ 
 wrote his first considerable work, which is a an 
 of twelv 
 dar.' published in 
 
 [Kilcolman Castle, the residence of Spenser.] 
 
 SPENSER, Edmund, was, with one illustrious 
 exception, the greatest of those poets whose genius 
 brightened the last generation in the long reign of 
 Elizabeth. Closing his life when Shakspeare was 
 in the midst of his career, he was the earliest of 
 the poetical stars that rose in that dazzling firma- 
 ment. Indeed, although English literature had 
 undergone great development as well as great 
 changes during the two centuries that had inter- 
 vened since the death of Chaucer, yet the long 
 period gave birth to no poet of a very high order ; 
 and, in this view, there was truth in the assertion 
 made by Spenser himself, that he was the shep- 
 herd boy, who after Tityrus his lay first sang.' 
 The spirit of his inventions was caught from the 
 older poetry of England, the irregular minstrelsy 
 of the middle ages, with its chivalrous ideas, its 
 fantastically gorgeous pictures, and (above all) its 
 saturation in allegory. His forms, on the other 
 hand, were prompted by those Italian studies, in 
 which he was so well versed, and which, introduced 
 earlier by Surrey and others, exercised so strong 
 an influence over all the Elizabethan poetry. 
 Spenser, without forgetting to emulate the lyrical 
 and meditative effusions of Petrarch and his fol- 
 lowers, aimed, in his greatest work, at doing for 
 English, literature that which Ariosto and Tasso 
 had recently done for the literature of Italy. He 
 designed to construct, out of the undigested ele- 
 ments of mediaeval song, a polished aud elaborate 
 
 pastorals, called 'The Shepherd's Cal 
 lished in 1579. These pieces are m 
 
 unacceptable to ordinary readers, not only by 
 fondness for old words and phrases which afl 
 clung to the author, but by a frequent excess 
 rustic familiarity both in sentiment and in expi 
 sion. Yet some of them in whole, and passa^T^ 
 all of them, justify to the full the reputation t 
 gained for him. About the same time ha 
 tempted into giving some countenance to the 
 tempt of the learned physician Gabriel Harvey 
 naturalize in England the hexameters and of 
 prosodial forms and laws of the classical ton 
 28 
 
SPE 
 
 e was already engaged in composing his epic ; 
 id, in his correspondence, mention is made of 
 ne comedies which he had written before 1580. 
 
 had become acquainted with Sir Philip Sidney, 
 hose friendship he has commemorated in verse ; 
 id lie was patronised, in early manhood, by Sid- 
 y's uncle, the all-powerful earl of Leicester. In 
 le year last named he went to Ireland, as secre- 
 ry'to Lord Grey of Wilton, then appointed viceroy, 
 d immortalized by the poet under the character 
 
 Artegal, the personification of justice. Lord 
 rey's government was very short ; but, while it 
 sted, the poet was made clerk of the Irish Court 
 Chancery, and received also a lucrative lease 
 ehich he sold) of abbey-lands in the shire of 
 oxford. In 1586 he received another grant, con- 
 ining three thousand acres of land in the county 
 Cork, on which stood his castle of Kilcolman. 
 is residence must have been chiefly in Ireland for 
 veral years; and, on his Irish domain, by his 
 loved "stream Mulla, his great poem was princi- 
 illy composed. In 1590, the poet being then in 
 gland, were published its first Three Books, 
 ich are also by universal consent the finest, 
 e allegorical design, explained in an introductory 
 ter to Raleigh, was set forth in the title-page : 
 lie Faerie Queene, disposed into Twelve Books, 
 shioning Twelve Moral Virtues.' In the Three 
 ends which now appeared, were allegorized 
 oliness, Temperance, and Chastity. In 1591 
 peared a volume of his minor poems, quaintly 
 titled ' Complaints.' Its most noticeable pieces 
 The Ruins of Time,' ' The Tears of the Muses,' 
 d a long satirical fable called ' Mother Hubbard's 
 le.' Spenser was addicted to complaining ; and, 
 ough he had received so much from his patrons, 
 d showed himself attentive and shrewd in mat- 
 's of business, he was poor in the latter part of 
 j life, whether through improvidence or by rea- 
 
 of the disturbed state of Ireland. In the same 
 ar in which the 'Complaints' appeared, the 
 een bestowed on him a pension of fifty pounds 
 year. In 1595 he published ' Colin Clout's Come 
 me Again,' a poem not only very beautiful, but 
 pasting for its many allusions to the poet's per- 
 al history. In the same year appeared a large 
 ies of Sonnets, and the exquisite 'Epithalamion,' 
 which he celebrates his recent marriage. In 
 
 > Spenser brought to England, and published, 
 
 Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Books of ' The Faerie 
 leene.' They are the Legends of Friendship, 
 stice, and Courtesy. All that we possess beyond 
 ise is a fragment containing Two Cantos ' Of 
 liability.' The Six Books required for working 
 t the design are traditionally said to have been 
 in a voyage from Ireland ; but there is great 
 ison for doubting whether the poem was ever in 
 ility completed. The only other work of the 
 et that calls for notice is his prose treatise, ' A 
 ew of the State of Ireland,' written or finished 
 1596, but never published till 1633. It is a 
 gacious book, *:na an excellent and vigorous 1 
 ecimen of old English prose. In September, 
 98, he was appointed sheriff of Cork. Perhaps 
 is office caused the tragical catastrophe which 
 stened his end. The rebellion of Tyrone break- 
 5 out immediately, Kilcolman castle was burned, 
 d a new-born child of the owner perished in the 
 luti. He and his wife escaped, and sought 
 
 SPI 
 
 shelter in London. He died there, on the 16th 
 January, 1599. According to Ben Jonson he 
 perished of want ; and the fact may have been so, 
 although it seems improbable. His funeral, at all 
 events, was splendidly celebrated by the earl of 
 Essex; and his grave is in Westminster Abbey, 
 next to that of Chaucer. [W.S.] 
 
 SPERLING, Otto, a physician and naturalist or 
 Hamburgh, 1602-81. His son, of the same name, 
 professor of jurisprudence and history, 1634-1715. 
 
 SPIEGEL, H., a Dutch poet, 1549-1612. 
 
 SPIELMANN, James Reinhold, an eminent 
 professor of chemistrv at Strasburg, 1722-1783. 
 
 SPIGELIUS, or 'VAN DEN SPIEGHEL, 
 Adrian, a Flemish medical writer, 1578-1625. 
 
 SPILBERG, J., a Dutch painter, 1619-1690. 
 
 SPILLER, John, a sculptor of promising 
 talents, who studied under Bacon, and executed 
 the statue of Charles II. for the Royal Exchange, 
 born in London, 1763; died of consumption, 1794. 
 
 SPINCKES, N., a nonjuring divine, 1654-1727. 
 
 SPINELLI, F. M., prince of Scala, and a philo- 
 sopher of the Cartesian school, 1686-1752. 
 
 SPINELLI, M., an Italian historian, 1230-68. 
 
 SPINELLI, N., a Jesuit of Naples, 14th cent. 
 
 SPINELLI, or SPINELLO, a family of Italian 
 artists who flourished in the 14th and 15th cen- 
 turies, one of whom is said to have painted a 
 figure of the devil so hideous, that it haunted him 
 in his dreams, and occasioned a singular conference 
 with the presumed original. This singular story 
 is related by Vasari. 
 
 SPINOLA, Ambrose, Marquis De, descended 
 from a noble family originally of Genoa, was born 
 in 1571, and entered into the military service of 
 Spain at the period of the war in the Netherlands. 
 His first great exploit was the reduction of Ostend, 
 on the 14th September, 1604, after a siege of more 
 than three years, and the loss of 130,000 men under 
 previous commanders. This victory was rendered 
 the more remarkable by the circumstance, that 
 Maurice of Nassau, at the head of an equal num- 
 ber of troops, had made repeated efforts to raise the 
 siege, and Spinola, before his last successful assault 
 on the city, had sustained fifteen terrible combats 
 with him : such an achievement caused his name 
 to resound through Europe, and he was soon after 
 appointed commander-in-chief in the Netherlands. 
 For the next twenty-six years the name of Spinola 
 appears always foremost in the annals of that pro- 
 tracted struggle, as the hero of the catholic party, 
 and the house of Austria. We may mention among 
 his exploits the capture of Juliers 1622, and of 
 Breda in 1625. He was recalled from this com- 
 mand in 1628 through the influence of intrigues at 
 Madrid, and was subsequently employed in Italy 
 against the French. His death was hastened by 
 grief at the shameful manner in which his glory 
 was betrayed in this new enterprise, and he expired 
 at Castel-Nuova di Scrivia, Sept. 25, 1630. [E.R.] 
 
 SPINOLA, Frederick, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, and commander of the Spanish fleet of the 
 Low Countries, killed in a naval action 1603. 
 
 SPINOZA, Baruch, or Benedict, born in 
 Amsterdam, 24th November, 1632; died in his 
 solitary apartment at the Hague, 24th February, 
 1677 : it will astonish many to observe that this 
 illustrious Thinker, whose name is the mark of an 
 Epoch in Philosophy, and whose reputation is 
 
 729 
 
SPI 
 
 SPI 
 
 more in the ascendant in a country like Ger- I of knowledge alone possesses absolute certain! 
 
 and alone is worth the pursuit of the philosoph/ 
 It is born when we discern some Absolute H 
 ciple, from which, by rigorous deduction, the ch 
 acter of the Universe, the phenomena of Mind a 
 Matter, the nature of Man and God, can be ma 
 to flow. Then we are superior to sense and 
 illusions; Experience with its deceits and pha 
 tasms, and Reasoning merely discursive, whic 
 never lead to the absolute goal, are banished fr< 
 the domain of Metaphysics. If, indeed, it \ 
 longed to the Human Faculties to obtain tl 
 primary and all-comprehending principle, Spino 
 would be right ; but he has not brought out t 
 Organ by which these Faculties ever reach t 
 elevation from which he demands that Inqui 
 start. His method is thus defective at the ot 
 set, and immeasurably inferior to that of E 
 Cartes, who not thinking of the desirable, b 
 of the real and practicable lays down the ii 
 moveable axiom, that Philosophy must ever bes 
 in the certainties of Consciousness. II. Searchi 
 for the adequate primary Principle of Philosopl 
 Spinoza quickly and easily reaches the Idea 
 Existence in itself, or as it is termed by him t 
 Idea of Substance that which stands under . 
 phenomena. What is this Idea? How can 
 define Substance? It is infinite, it is perfect 
 else it were limited and determined by somethi 
 else, and would not be the ultimate principle 
 Existence. But it must have attributes, or int 
 ligible characteristics ? Spinoza speaks of two 
 Extension and Thought, and the discussion i 
 these occupies his system. It was suggested 
 Leibnitz afterwards, that our Idea of Substan 
 involves also the Idea of Cause, or of Force at 
 Activity a criticism whose propriety is unqut 
 tionable, and which of itself goes far to invalid! 
 those terrible fatalistic conclusions, which, as 
 shall see, inhere in the philosophy we are exp< 
 ing. But apart from objections like these, thi 
 is the fundamental one whence drew Spinoza ) 
 knowledge of this Idea of Substance and its att 
 butes? By what process, or in what manner c 
 he convince any one of his right to that stupefy , 
 
 many, attained no greater age than forty-five 
 But paucity of years, was not the sole obstacle, of 
 which in estimating Spinoza the just critic re- 
 quires to take account. His parents were Portu- 
 guese Jews, rich and of weight in the synagogue ; 
 and the young Inquirer had to bear their frowns, 
 as well "as that terrible excommunication of the 
 Rabbis the formula schammatha. Disasters so 
 grievous could not drive him from his Integrity, 
 but they naturally disturbed very sadly the course 
 of his meditations, depriving him of leisure, and 
 inflicting nearly the keenest of anguish. The 
 greatest and the wisest of his time, however, loved 
 him : he enjoyed the respect of Van Ende and 
 the De- Witts : and it may be imagined, how in- 
 estimable, in such circumstances, the solace of 
 such affection! Spinoza acted like the bravest 
 of men. Resolute to live with meditation, he ac- 
 quired the art of polishing lenses, that so like 
 St. Paul he might supply, by the labour of his 
 hands, his material wants : and, thus raised above 
 the farther shock of circumstance, he rented a 
 single chamber from Van den Spyck, an honest 
 burgher of the Hague, wherein he henceforth lived 
 and meditated, and produced the wonderful works 
 which so stunned all Europe. To that little room 
 the student must needs go back if he would dis- 
 cern Spinoza : and he must further add, that the 
 feeble, emaciated, and sickly form he sees writing 
 there, had learned so well the value of indepen- 
 dence, and had so felt the delight of searching for 
 Truth, that, although sustaining nature on some 
 such sum as our twopence or threepence a-day, 
 he declined to be drawn from his retirement by 
 munificent offers of patronage resisting the solici- 
 tations even of the world-renowned Prince of 
 Conde. In proceeding with the arduous endea- 
 vour to explain the system of Spinoza, we bespeak 
 the forbearance of scientific readers, and the 
 gravest attention of all others : forbearance, be- 
 cause we must write popularly ; and attention, be- 
 cause the writings we are about to analyze are the 
 true source of so much subsequent Philosophical 
 History. > We shall divide our exposition into 
 several distinct sections. I. Like his early and 
 only master Des Cartes, Spinoza recognized the 
 necessity of first laying down his Method of In- 
 quiry, or determining by prior investigation the 
 road which alone seemed likely to lead to Truth. 
 There are, he says, three kinds of knowledge com- 
 monly so called; the First, consisting of mere 
 hearsay, and of vague experiences and impres- 
 sions passively received making up those indis- 
 criminate beliefs, and confused images, which are 
 represented by the opinions and prejudices of the 
 vulgar. Of such knowledge, the philosopher 
 makes no account. The Second, is of a higher 
 aim ; it arises when we seek the relations of things 
 or of phenomena ; when after comparing objects 
 and classing them by their resemblances, we as- 
 cend to the general Law expressing their apparent 
 Elace and function in the Universe. But this 
 nowledge is also vitiated and incomplete; viti- 
 ated, because we rarely discern or apprehend an 
 object precisely as it is being misled by the im- 
 perfection of our Senses: incomplete, because 
 although it may lead us to a Law, it does not ex- 
 plain or account for Law itself. The Third kind 
 
 - of 
 
 uipi, 
 
 dous postulate f Can he indicate any proce 
 different from an appeal to Consciousness? A J: 
 yet, the system reared on that postulate, 
 and over-rides every other truth of which 
 sciousness testifies ! In this is the weakness 
 such efforts ; and it is the ruin of all merely empn 
 cal as well as of a priori schemes. The M atenaH 
 who owns no mental phenomena except what hee 
 gather from external nature, or explain by its schem 
 and appearances, seldom reflects that seduced 
 seeming clearness he is really employing deriv 
 and secondary certainties (if the expression 
 allowable) for the purpose of invalidating 
 primary one. III. Let us contemplate now, t 
 Fabric reared on this postulate by Spinoza : n 
 where certainly, even in the strictly deducti 
 sciences, is the reasoning more impregnable a: 
 complete. Allow the postulate, and before you 
 a mailed combatant, whose armour opens not 
 chink for your arrows! This was the re 
 triumph of Spinoza's massive intellect, as well 14 
 the secret of that power by which he so fl^B 
 crushed opponents. Substance this infinirt 
 substance or reality of all things must, because ]| 
 
 730 
 
ih 
 
 SPI 
 
 ts infinity, have an infinite number of Attributes 
 Qualities, else were it not infinite. Of these, 
 lowever, two only are known, or manifested to us by 
 e Universe, viz.: Extension and Thought. But 
 ach Attribute of an Infinite Substance, must in it- 
 elf be Infinite infinite in energy, though limited 
 qualify : Extension, as Extension, can have no 
 >ounds ; and Thought, as Thought, must have tbe 
 acuity of Infinite expansion, owning no limits 
 itherin Space or Time. Such the attributes that 
 us define Substance ; if such attributes did not 
 xist, or were not cognizable, the Infinite Abso- 
 tite Substance, would be a mere negation, un- 
 nown and unknowable. Turn now to the 
 eparate attributes. Through what is Extension 
 gnizable? Not in itself: Infinite Space, is a 
 ord, a term without meaning, a simple nega- 
 on. But as Substance has attributes, so Exten- 
 Iion as an attribute, has modes or manifesta- 
 ons. The modes or manifestations of Extension 
 manifestations, through which alone we know 
 ; are the forms which crowd it, and the motions 
 hich diversify it. Each of these is Finite : they 
 re therefore multiple; and by the infinity of their 
 umbers, they come, in their totality, to equal the 
 finite attribute they represent. This will at once 
 lake plain the 16th proposition of the Ethics, ' It 
 the nature of Substance to develop itself neces- 
 rily by an infinity of attributes, which also are 
 finitely modified.'' Again with regard to 
 bought. Has not Thought its modes? For 
 herwise how could it be known ? As Space is 
 lown forth through Form, Thought is manifested 
 rough Ideas. Ideas are its modes, and they too 
 in number infinite. The variety of Things, 
 lerefore, is no longer a mystery : it even belongs 
 their Unity : so that the problem of philosophy 
 solved. Before us, is this ineffable, and unap- 
 jachable infinite and absolute Substance, un- 
 lded through its Infinite attributes, which again 
 themselves unfolded and rendered apprehen- 
 ble by that infinitude of modes Forms and 
 "eas which make up the Universe. The student 
 ill not fail to detect the true parentage of 
 uch of the scheme of Schelling. Spinoza 
 rther declares, that as every mode of Extension 
 _just correspond to a mode or Thought, the order 
 id connection of Ideas, is necessarily the same 
 the order and connection of Things, surely a 
 itty close anticipation of the Philosophy of 
 'entity. IV. It now only remains, that we state 
 ccinetly the conclusions accepted by Spinoza 
 id inseparable from his system, regarding Man 
 d God. It is easy to see, that the remorseless 
 gic of Spinoza, could admit no Deity, apart from 
 s Absolute Substance. God, according to this 
 lilosophy, must in essence be that Substance; 
 ley are convertible Names, with the same Attri- 
 ltes. But in justice to that great Thinker, the 
 udent must be warned, not to attach to the 
 ord substance, conceptions of Inertness, absence of 
 nderstanding, or of Will. If Spinoza has said that 
 eity is void of understanding, he meant only 
 ttty absolutely, just as he would have so spoken 
 " Substance, that is, treated without regard to 
 Attribute. We are dealing, it must never be 
 rgotten, with a consummate logician, whose de- 
 e method has no flaw; and he necessarily 
 first with the most abstract conception 
 
 SPO 
 
 passing down by regular steps, from almost inac- 
 cessible heights. Rather, the World, all Things 
 are God ; the Material Universe, but also Intelli- 
 gence: every firmament that shines, every thought 
 that pierces the serene, every emotion that agitates 
 the heart, every virtuous and heroic aspiration 
 that raises humanity above circumstance and the 
 grave these, ay, and manifestations, which hu- 
 man eye nor ear has either heard or seen these, 
 are figurations of Divinity gleams of the char- 
 acter of that Essence which is All ! Surely we 
 have no Atheism here; but a loftiest, however 
 mistaken, Pantheism. It is said quaintly bv 
 Novalis that Spinoza was ' intoxicated with God!' 
 As to Man, the conclusions are too sorrowful. His 
 Understanding is a mere succession of these modes 
 of Thought; his Soul a more exalted or comprehen- 
 sive Mode: and, as to every mode of Infinite 
 Thought there is a corresponding mode of Exten- 
 sion, each soul has a body which it animates, or of 
 which it is the Idea. No personality here ; not a 
 shred of human Liberty : Body and Soul, each a 
 mere expression, impersonal and transient, of one 
 phase of that huge all-comprehending Develop- 
 ment. ! Spinoza saves, indeed, that form of Mor- 
 ality within which he lived himself. Part of the 
 Infinite, let us recognize our blessedness. To five, 
 to enjoy in plenitude, we must concentrate our 
 desires around one aspiration the longing to pos- 
 sess God, which means to love Him, and thereby 
 to live in Him. How poorly, this bare outline 
 represents Spinoza ! Has the student who per- 
 uses these lines, ever, under the dark vault of 
 Heaven, or at the hour of midnight, experienced 
 perplexity alike of Head and Heart, as he ques- 
 tioned the Mystery of Things V So, likewise, did 
 the young and heroic Jew of whom we write ; and 
 the foregoing was his solution. It must in nowise 
 be forgotten that the Philosophy of which, through 
 mere exercise of Intellect, we give an account, was 
 dug by this remarkable man, from the mine of his 
 profound Nature ; what we describe, he created ; it 
 is for us to examine and contemplate only, but he 
 believed; it gave him dignity and integrity through 
 Life, and did not impair his courage at a lonely 
 Death. [J.P.N.] 
 
 SPIRITI, S., an Italian historian, 1712-1776. 
 
 SPIRITO, L., an Italian poet, born 1436. 
 
 SPITTLER, Baron Von, a minister of state 
 and historian of Wurtemberg, 1752-1810. 
 
 SPITZNER, J. E., a Ger. naturalist, 1731-1806. 
 
 SPIZELIUS, T., a Lutheran divine, 1639-1691. 
 
 SPOFFORTH, R., an Eng. musician, 1768-1826. 
 
 SPOHN, Frederic Augustus William, pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and ancient literature at Leip- 
 zig, born 1792, died prematurely when preparing 
 to publish a work on hieroglyphics, 1824. 
 
 SPOLVERINI, Hilarion, a Italian painter, 
 famous for his battle-pieces, 1657-1734. 
 
 SPOLVERINI, Marquis, an Italian adminis- 
 trator and writer of poetry, 1695-1763. 
 
 SPON, Charles, a French physician and Latin 
 poet, 1609-1684. His son, James, a physician, 
 antiquarian, and traveller, 1647-1685. 
 
 SPONDE, Henry De, in Latin Spondanus, a 
 learned French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 
 1568-1643. His brother, John, a classical scholar 
 and editor, 1557-1585. 
 
 SPONTINI, GAsrARo, a composer of sacred 
 
 731 
 
SPO 
 
 music and operas, was born at Majolatti, in the 
 Roman states, 1778, and educated at Naples. He 
 visited Paris in 1803, and in 1807 became director 
 of music to the empress Josephine. This was 
 followed in 1810 by his appointment as director of 
 the Italian opera, which lie exchanged in 1820 for 
 that of chapel-master at Berlin, where he remained 
 till 18-1-2. Died in Italy 1851. 
 
 SPONTONI, C, an Italian historian, 1552-1G10. 
 
 SPORENO, J., an Italian historian, 1490-15G0. 
 
 SPOTSWOOD, or SPOTTISVVOOD, John, 
 archbishop of St. Andrews, descended from an 
 ancient Scottish family, was born in the county of 
 Edinburgh 1565. He accompanied James VI. to 
 England, who raised him to the primacy, and 
 made him one of the privy council for Scotland the 
 same year. He laboured greatly to bring the 
 Church of Scotland to the episcopal discipline, and 
 became chancellor of that kingdom in 1665, two 
 years after he had crowned Charles I. at Holyrood. 
 Died 1639. Sir Robert, his second son, wrote 
 a History of the Scottish Church, and was put to 
 death by the Covenanters. 
 
 SPRAGGE, Sir Edward, a naval commander, 
 who distinguished himself against the Dutch 
 admirals, Ruyter and Van Tromp, and was acci- 
 dentally drowned 1673. 
 
 SPRANGHER, Bartholomew, a Flemish 
 painter, whose principal work is The Last Judg- 
 ment, 154G-1623. 
 
 SPRAT, Thomas, a learned English prelate, 
 one of the first fellows of the Royal Society of 
 London, of which he wrote a History; he was 
 also the friend and biographer of the poet Cowley ; 
 born in Devonshire 1G36, died 1713. 
 
 SPKENGEL, K., a Germ, botanist, 1766-1833. 
 
 SPRENGEL, M. C, a Germ, hist., 1746-1803. 
 
 SPRENGER, B., a German agriculturist and 
 writer on the Cultivation of the Vine, 1724-1791. 
 
 SPRENGER, P., a Germ, historian, 1735-1806. 
 
 SPURSTOW, William, minister of Hackney, 
 near London, at the period of the civil wars, author 
 of religious works, and of attacks on episcopacy, 
 published under the name of Smectymmus ; d. 1666. 
 
 SPURZHEIM, John Gaspar, a famous name 
 in the history of phrenological science, was born at 
 Longwich, near Treves, in 1776, and became ac- 
 quainted with Dr. Gall at Vienna, where he studied 
 medicine. From 1805 till 1813 he was the con- 
 stant companion of Gall in his travels and scien- 
 tific researches, and subsequently became an active 
 promulgator of the new doctrine in England and 
 France. He died in 1832, a few months after his 
 arrival in Boston, United States. One of his dis- 
 tinct claims is that of having demonstrated the 
 fibrous structure of the brain ; but his works are 
 too well known to require particular description. 
 
 SQUARCIONE, Franceso, a painter of the 
 Venetian school, and virtuoso of art, 1394-1474. 
 . SQUIRE, S., a learned prelate, 1714-1706. 
 
 STAAL, Marguerite Jeanne Cadier De 
 Launy, Baroness De, the daughter of an artist of 
 Paris, and, previous to her marriage, the attendant 
 and the confidential friend of the duchess of Maine. 
 Her faithfulness to the latter led to her own im- 
 prisonment in the Bastile, on emerging from which 
 she married M. de Staal, an oiHcer of the Swiss 
 guard. The interesting ' Memoirs of Her Life ' 
 were written by herself; 1G93-1750. 
 
 STA 
 
 STABEN, H., a Flemish painter, 1578-1658. 
 
 STACE, P. P., or STATIUS, a Latin poet, 61-96 
 
 STACKHOUSE, John, nephew of the celo 
 brated divine, distinguished as a botanist, d. 1819 
 
 STACKHOUSE, Thomas, a minister of Shrop 
 shire, author of 'A General View of Ancient His 
 tory, Chronology, and Geography,' dates unknown 
 
 STACKHOUSE, Thomas, a well-known rel 
 gious writer and theologian, was born in 168C 
 He became minister of the English Church a 
 Amsterdam, and finally rector of Bcnham Yalene 
 in Berkshire, where he died in 1752. His prin 
 cipal work is a ' History of the Bible.' 
 
 STADION, Phil., Count, a diplomatist in th 
 service of Austria, time of Napoleon, 1768-1824. 
 
 STADIUS, J., a Flemish astronomer. 1527-79 
 
 STADLER, M., a Ger. mus. compos., 1748-186} 
 
 STAEL, Anne Louise Germaine De, wj 
 born in 1766 at Paris, where her father, M. Ne< 
 ker, afterwards the celebrated minister of Franc 
 was then a banker's clerk. At the age of twent 
 she became the wife of the Baron De Stael-Hoh 
 tein, the Swedish ambassador at Paris ; and ti< 
 strong literary turn which she had already exhibite> 
 now developed itself still further, and produced, I 
 the course of her life, a series of works embracir 
 almost every sort of composition in prose or vers 
 At first sanguine in the cause of the revoluti 
 she soon became warmly interested in the suffe 
 ings of its victims, especially the queen, whom si 
 had the courage to defend in print. In 1800 si 
 entered on the course of speculation, in which si. 
 was afterwards strongest, by publishing her ess: 
 ' De La Litterature, consideree dans ses rappor 
 avec les Institutions Sociales ;' and her very equiv 
 cal novel ' Delphine' appeared in 1802. In th 
 year her husband died. Madame De Stael i 
 much too independent to be acceptable to Napole 
 who banished her from Paris, and afterwap 
 ordered her to confine herself to her chateau 
 Coppet on the Lake of Geneva. From 1803 1 
 1815 she travelled much in Germany, Italy, ai 
 England, and visited Sweden and Russia. IT 
 ' Corinne,' in form a novel, and the most eloque* 
 of all tributes to the antiquities and scenery 
 Italy, appeared in 1807. Her most ambitioi 
 work. ' De L'AIlemagne,' printed at Paris in 181' 
 was seized by the police, and only published i 
 London some years later. After the second res ' 
 ration she lived chiefly in Switzerland, where i 
 contracted a secret marriage with M. De Row 
 She died in 1817. After her death, useful conte 
 butions were made to the history of the timeai 
 the publication of her ' Considerations sut 
 Revolution Francaise,' and her 'Dix Anneogi 
 Exil.' [Wi 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Eric Magnus, BM 
 De, a Swedish diplomatist, born 1725, ministj 
 plenipotentiary at the court of France from 17' 
 to 1799, died 1802. He married the celebrat 
 daughter of Necker in 1786, and assisted passivt 
 in the French revolution till his recall. 
 
 STAFFORD, a noble family belonging to.| 
 Norman aristocracy of England. The prine" 
 historical names are: Humphrey, a partizj 
 Henry VI., created duke of Buckingham 14< 
 Henry, his grandson, a favourite of Richard 
 beheaded 1483. Edward, beheaded on an a 
 sation of treason by Henry VIII. 1521. 
 
 732 
 
STA 
 
 STAFFORD, Anthony, a loomed writer, au- 
 
 hor of ' The Life and Death of Henry, Lord Staf- 
 
 ord,' died 1641. 
 STAFFORD, William Howard, earl of, who 
 
 eceived the title by marriage with the heiress of 
 
 hat house in 1640, was the second son of Thomas, 
 
 uke of Norfolk. He was executed in connection 
 ith the gunpowder plot 1680. 
 STAHL, G. E., a German chemist, 1660-1784. 
 STAINER, or STAYNER, Sir Rich., a naval 
 
 fficer, time of Cromwell and Charles II., d. 1G62. 
 STAIR. See Dalrymple. 
 STALBENT, A., a Flemish painter, 1580-1660 
 STALHENS, J., a Fr. theologian, 1595-1681. 
 STANCAPJ, F., an Ital. Hebraist, 1501-1574. 
 STANCAIRI, V. F., an Italian mathematician 
 
 nd man of letters, 1678-1709. 
 STANBRIDGE, John, a learned schoolmaster 
 
 nd grammarian, known from 1481 to 1522. 
 STANDISH, Frank Hall, a gentleman of 
 
 )rtune, known as an elegant writer and connois- 
 ur in the arts, author of a ' Life of Voltaire,' 
 
 The Shores of the Mediterranean,' ' Notices on 
 
 le Northern Capitals of Europe,' ' Seville and its 
 icinity,' and ' Poems,' 1798-1840. 
 STANHOPE, a noble English family, principal 
 'whom arer James, the first earl, who distin- 
 
 rished himself both as a diplomatist and military 
 Beer in the wars of William III., born in Hert- 
 rdshire 1673, died 1721. Charles, grandson 
 the preceding, and third earl, born 1753, was 
 stinguished as a man of science by several valu- 
 ta inventions, among which are the printing 
 is, known by his name, a calculating machine, 
 vessel to sail against wind and tide, locks for 
 nals, a method for securing buildings from fire, 
 
 id a monochord for tuning musical instruments. 
 t the period of the French revolution he openly 
 rowed republican sentiments, and even laid aside 
 insignia of the peerage. By his first wife, 
 
 Mighter of the great earl of Chatham, he had three 
 ughters, one of whom is the subject of the fol- 
 wing notice; his second wife, daughter of Mr. 
 enry Grenville, bore him three sons ; died 1816. 
 SI ANHOPE, Lady Hhster, whose remarkable 
 e in Mount Lebanon may be numbered among 
 e most interesting romances of history, was born 
 1766. Her father was the celebrated Lord Stan- 
 >pc, and her mother a daughter of the great Earl 
 hatham, consequently she was niece to William 
 t, in whose house she resided, acting as his 
 ivate secretary, and sharing in all his confidences, 
 iographers are silent on the causes which 
 "uenced her fate, after the death of her uncle, 
 it they were principally two : First, the disgust 
 her high nature for European society, created by 
 r knowledge of the secrets of diplomacy, and the 
 How deceitful life of all around her; and secondly, 
 e mystic influence which prevailed for about ten 
 tars at that period, and of which history takes 
 tie note. It is certain, however, that from 1794 
 the death of Pitt, startling announcements were 
 mtinually made by private letters to the min- 
 ter, and prophecies were actually fulfilled both in 
 is country and, France: it is probable that these 
 rcumstances, exaggerated by her unrestrained 
 pagination, and her longing for the free simplicity 
 nature, finally determined Lady Stanhope to 
 ave England. William Pitt having recom- 
 
 STA 
 
 mended his niece to the care of the nation, she re- 
 ceived a pension of 1,200 per annum, with which, 
 after his death, she commenced a life of great state 
 ! in the East, and acquired immense influence over 
 ; the Arabian population. Her manner of life, and 
 | romantic style are well known ; we will only add, 
 therefore, that it is unfair to judge her character 
 from the reports of English travellers, for she was 
 one of those high-souled women who not only re- 
 fused allegiance to the empty mannerisms she had 
 cast off, but was well able to answer every fool who 
 forced his way into her presence according to his 
 folly. She never married, but adopted the habit 
 cf an Arabian cavalier, and under those bright 
 skies, rode and dwelt where she pleased, virtually 
 queen of the deserts, and mistress of the ancient 
 palaces of Zenobia. Her permanent abode was 
 in Mount Lebanon, about eight miles from Sidon, 
 where she died in 1839. [E.R.] 
 
 STANHOPE, P. D. See Chesterfield. 
 
 STANISLAUS, a bishop of Cracovia, k. 1079. 
 
 STANISLAUS, Augustus, the last king of 
 Poland, was a son of Count Stanislaus Poniatow- 
 ski, and of the princess Czartoryska. He was 
 born in Lithuania in 1732, and was advanced to 
 the throne by the intrigues of Catharine of Russia, 
 aided by another of her favourites, the Polish 
 traitor, Braneski, in 1764. It is hardly neces- 
 sary to mention that the crowm of Poland was elec- 
 tive, and that the people had been kept in a state 
 of serfdom under a powerful aristocracy, circum- 
 stances exceedingly favourable to the Russian de- 
 signs, and productive at last of the infamous parti- 
 tion of Poland, and the virtual effacement of that 
 ancient kingdom from the map of Europe. The 
 first partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, 
 and Austria, took place in 1773, and the second, 
 after a long struggle, in 1792, when Kosciusko 
 was defeated by the Russian general, Suwarrow. 
 Stanislaus abdicated his vain title in 1795, and 
 took up his abode in Russia, where he died, in 
 receipt of a pension, the proper reward of his 
 career, in 1798. [E.R.] 
 
 STANLEY, Edward, bishop of Norwich, a 
 younger son of Sir John Thomas Stanley of Alder- 
 ley, in Cheshire, born 1770, author of a * Familiar 
 History ot Birds,' published in 1835. He had been 
 upwards of thirty years rector of Alderley, when 
 he was elevated to the see of Norwich through his 
 connection with the Whig party in 1837 ; d. 1849. 
 
 STANLEY, John, a musical composer, 1713-86. 
 
 STANLEY, Thomas, the name of three accom- 
 plished men of letters, the first of whom, Sir 
 Thomas Stanley, of Laytonstone, in Essex, 
 wrote poems, and was knighted by Charles I. 
 The second Thomas, and most famous of the 
 three, was his son ; he was a master of philosophy 
 and polite learning, and a friend of William Fair- 
 fax, the translator of Tasto ; his works are ' The 
 History of Philosophy, and Lives of the Philoso- 
 phers,' and some original poems, and translations 
 from the Greek, born 1625, died in London, 1678. 
 The third of the name was a son of the latter, who 
 translated when very young the Histories of MYvat,. 
 
 STANLEY, Wm., a dignitary of the church, 
 author of ' The Devotion of the Church of Rome 
 compared with the Devotion of the Church of 
 England,' 1647-1731. 
 
 STANSEL, V., a German astronomer, 1621-90. 
 
 733 
 
STA 
 
 STE 
 
 STANYHUEST, Richard, an Irish clergy- I (' The Drummer' being really _ Addison's) w; 
 
 man, known as a poet and historian, 1546-1618. 
 STANZIONI, M., an ltal. painter, 1585-1656. 
 STAPEL, John Bod.eus A, a Dutch physi- 
 cian and botanist, honoured by Linnaeus, d. 1636. 
 STAPLETON, Sin Robert, a native of Carle- 
 ton, in Yorkshire, who fought in the interest of 
 Charles I. at the battle of Edgehill, 1642 ; and 
 adhered steadfastly to the royal cause ; he wrote 
 several dramatic pieces, and translations of the 
 classic poets, died 1669. 
 
 STAPLETON, Thomas, Roman Catholic pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Louvain, known as a learned 
 controversial writer, 1535-1598. 
 
 STARCK, Samuel, a native of Pomerania, 
 distinguished as a theologian and Oriental scholar, 
 1640-1697. His grandson, John Augustus, a 
 theologian, Orientalist, and historian, professor at 
 St. Petersburg, 1741-1816. 
 
 STARK, W., a London physician, died 1769. 
 STARNINA, J., an Italian painter, 1354-1406. 
 STAEOYVOLSKI, Simon, a Polish ecclesiastic 
 and historian of his country, died 1656. 
 STASZIC, S., a Polish patriot, 1755-1806. 
 STATIUS, Publius P., a Roman poet, 61-96. 
 STAUNTON, Sir George Leonard, an 
 Irish phvsician, who rose to the post of attorney- 
 general m Grenada, and having attached himself 
 to Lord 51acartney in the character of secretary, 
 was afterwards known as a diplomatist, and his 
 intimate adviser ; his principal services were dis- 
 played in the arrest of 5Iajor-general _ Stuart, 
 commander-in-chief of the 5Iadras army, in treat- 
 ing with Tippoo Sultan, and in the embassy to 
 China ; of the latter he published an interesting 
 account in 2 vols. 4to, 1797. Born in Galway, 
 1737 ; died 1801. 
 STAUPITZ, J., a German theologian, d. 1527. 
 STAVELEY, T., a learned antiquary, d. 1683. 
 STEBBING, Hkn., a friend of Bishop Sherlock, 
 known as a writer in the Bangorian controversy, 
 and the attack on Warburton's Legation, d. 1763. 
 STEDMAN, J. G., a Scotch officer in the 
 Dutch East India service, author of an interesting 
 narrative, 1745-1797. 
 
 STEELE, Sir Richard, was born in 1671 at 
 Dublin, to which his father had gone from Eng- 
 land as secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant. At the 
 Charterhouse School in London, he formed a life- 
 long intimacy with Addison. Steele next went to 
 Oxford, but, bent on being a soldier, and dis- 
 couraged by his family, eloped and enlisted in the 
 Horse Guards. His officers, knowing him to be a 
 gentleman, and becoming aware of his attractive 
 social qualities, procured an ensign's commission 
 for him ; and, in the gay company of the mess, he 
 exhibited and cherished his good-hearted liveli- 
 ness, his inclination for dissipated extravagance, 
 and the sanguine flightiness which in later life 
 made him a rash and unsuccessful speculator. 
 Intervals of repentance for his follies gave birth, 
 while he was in the army, to his tract ' The Chris- 
 tian Hero ;' but he dealt more in play-writing, and 
 produced lively and popular comedies, which had the 
 merit (rare on the English stage for some time pre- 
 viously) of being morally correct. His first piece, 
 1 The "Funeral, or Love A-la-mode,' was acted in 
 The Tender Husband' in 1703, and 'The 
 
 ' The Conscious Lovers,' which did not appear ti 
 1722. In 1709, by starting 'The Tatler/he hr 
 the great merit of striking out a new kind of lit 
 rary composition ; and his large share in this fir 
 periodical, the active part he took in the ' Spe> 
 tator,' and his still more active authorship in ' Tl 
 Guardian,' place him second only to Addison amoi 
 the Essayists. Before commencing ' The Tatle: 
 he had become useful as a political pamphlet* 
 on the Whig side, and was appointed ' Gazett 
 writer, and afterwards a commissioner of stamp 
 On the fall of the Whig ministry in 1710, t' 
 Tories, anxious to obtain the aid of his pen, allow 
 him to keep his place. But Steele, honourab 
 true to his party, refused to write for their enemie 
 and, not content with silence, he insisted in 17: 
 on attacking the ministry in ' The Guardian, 
 resigned his commissionership. He was tb 
 brought into the House of Commons, but expell 
 for matter relating to the succession to the crow 
 contained in 'The Englishman' and 'The Crisi 
 After the accession of George I., he again sat 
 parliament, was knighted, and appointed a cor 
 missioner for the forfeited estates in Scotland. 1 
 continued to write on politics. His 'Whig E 
 aminer ' has been noticed in the memoir of Addisc 
 In his latest years he was poor and embarrasse 
 and he died in Wales in 1729. [W.S 
 
 STEEN, F. Van, a Flemish painter, born 16( 
 
 STEEN, Jan, a Dutch painter, 1636-1689. 
 
 STEENWYCK, Henry Van, a Flemish pai 
 ter, remarkable for his skill in delineating t 
 interiors of churches and temples, 1550-1604. 
 son, of the same names, distinguished in the 
 line of art, was a friend of Vandyck, who int; 
 duced him to Charles I. He was born in 1589, a | 
 died in London at an unknown date. Anotl 
 Steenwyck, celebrated as a painter of still li 
 was born at Breda about 1640. 
 
 STEEVENS, George, the well-known co 
 mentator on the works of Shakspeare, was born 
 Stepney 1736, and first appeared as an editor 
 the immortal dramatist in 1766. In 1770 he as 
 ciated his labours with those of Johnson, and tl 
 joint edition appeared in 10 vols. 8vo, 1773. 
 1793 it was reprinted in 15 vols., the criticisms 
 Malone having appeared in the interval. Steevi 
 died in 1800. 
 
 STEFANI, P. De, the earliest sculptor of 
 Neapolitan school, about 1228-1310. His brotl 
 Thomaso, a painter, was b. at Naples abt. 12J 
 
 STEFANO, called // Fiorentino, an ltal 
 painter, grandson and pupil of Giotto, 1301-13 
 Thomaso, his supposed son, called, from 
 style, // Giottino, 1324-1356. 
 
 STEFFANI, Agostino, a musical compo; 
 claimed by the Germans as a native of Leip: 
 and by the Italians as a countryman of theirs, i 
 born in 1665, and was first known as a chori: 
 at St. 5Iark's at Venice. He composed 
 operas, but the most celebrated and numerou> 
 his works are his chamber duets. Died 1729. 
 
 STEFFENS, Heinrich, a naturalist, mis* j* 
 laneous wr., and patriot of Copenhagen, 1773-1 I 
 
 STEIBELT, D., a Germ, composer, 1760-1^ 
 
 STEIGUER, N. F. De, a Swiss patriot, 1729- } 
 
 STEIN, Christopher Godfrey Da: 
 
 1701. 
 
 Lying Lover' in 1704. His only subsequent drama ' geographer and compiler, prof, at Berlin, 1771-1 
 
 734 
 
} /,/,,/ 
 
 ' //' ( ///////// //;/,///, 
 
STE 
 
 i STEIN, G. W., a Germ, accoucheur, 1737-1803. 
 
 STEIN, H. F. Karl, Baron Von, a Prussian 
 itatesman and enemy of Napoleon, was born at 
 [Jassau 1757, and became minister of finance and 
 jrade at Berlin on the death of Struensee 1804. 
 laving been exiled from Prussia by the influence 
 f the dictator of Europe he retired to Prague, and 
 a the disastrous year 1812, was with the emperor 
 Alexander at St. Petersburg, He lived in privacy 
 !fter the peace till 1827, when political circum- 
 tances recalled him to public life; died 1831. 
 
 STEINBART, G. S., a Ger. philos., 1738-1809. 
 
 STELLA, a family of French artists : Francis, 
 ! painter of altar-pieces, 1563-1605. James, the 
 jiost eminent of the family, a painter, designer, 
 ;nd engraver, 1596-1657. Francis, brother of 
 tie latter, 1603-1647. Antoine, their nephew, 
 
 painter and engraver, 1630-1682. Claudine, 
 tster of Antoine, 1634-1697. Francoise, a 
 scond sister, dates unknown. Antoinette, a 
 bird sister, an engraver, 1635-1676. 
 
 STELLA, F. A., a Venetian writer, 1757-1833. 
 
 STELLA, J. C., an Italian poet, 16th century. 
 
 STELLINI, J., an Italian moralist, 1699-1770. 
 
 STELLUTS, F., an Ital. naturalist, born 1577. 
 
 STENBOCK, Magnus, Count, a Swedish gen- 
 ral and patriot, period of Charles XII., was born 
 h 1664, and first bore arms under the princes of 
 MJdeck and Baden, in the coalition against Louis 
 CIV. He joined the army of Charles XII. at the 
 nmmencement of his campaigns, and in 1701 
 larticipated in the glorious victory of Narva. He 
 pen followed Charles in his meteor-like progress 
 prough Poland, and when, in 1707, the Swedish 
 lero halted in Saxony, meditating where next he 
 jhould lead his veterans, Stenbock was made 
 overnor of Scania ; in which post he gained the 
 jpnfidence of the people by his firm administra- 
 jion of justice. In 1709 Charles was defeated by 
 j'eter the Great at the battle of Pultowa, and 
 loon found himself shut up in Bender, on Turkish 
 erritory. The Danes, who had been defeated by 
 Charles at the beginning of his career, took adv- 
 antage of this crisis to break through their 
 pgagements, and send an invading army against 
 Icania. where they took the town of Helsingburgh. 
 kanbock rushed to the field at the head of the 
 Swedish militia, consisting partly of undisciplined 
 Hants assembled in haste, and rivalling his 
 bsent sovereign in glory, gave the Danes a bloody 
 icfeat ; he even followed the enemy into Ger- 
 many, captured their cities, and gained a second 
 Teat victory over the combined Saxon and Danish 
 Irmy. This, however, was the limit of his sue- 
 less. Listening to perfidious counsels, he pene- 
 pted into Holland, and the Russians having 
 ow joined his other enemies, he was at last com- 
 pelled to capitulate. Stenbock became the prisoner 
 If the Danes in 1712, and died in a miserable 
 
 onfinement in 1717. [E.R.] 
 
 ! STENGEL, L., a German physician, 1523-87. 
 | STENO, M., a doge of Venice, 1400-1413. 
 
 STENO, Nicholas, in Latin Slenonius, a fa- 
 nous anatomist, author of professional and theolo 
 
 ;ical works, born at Copenhagen 1638, died 1687 
 STEl'HANUS ATHENIENSIS, a Greek phy- 
 
 ician and professor of Christianity, 7th century. 
 STEPHANUS BYZANTINUS, a Greek gram- 
 
 ..._ 
 
 STE 
 
 STEPHEN, the name of several saints: 
 
 1. The Jewish martyr, stoned shortly after the 
 crucifixion of the Saviour, as recorded in Acts. 
 
 2. The first pope of the name. 3. The first king of 
 Hungary of the name. 4. Stephen ofMuret, founder 
 of a religious order in France, died 1124. 5. An 
 English abbot, surnamed Harding, founder of 
 several monasteries, died 1134. 
 
 STEPHEN, several popes of Rome : Stephen 
 I., reigned 253-257. Stephen II., died four days 
 after his election, 752. Stephen III., successor 
 of the latter ; in his time Pepin was invited into 
 Italy to subdue Astolphus, king of the Lombards, 
 and the foundation was laid for the temporal sove- 
 reignty of the papacy, died 757. Stephen IV., 
 reigned 768-772. Stephen V., who crowned 
 Louis, son of Charlemagne, emperor, reigned seven 
 months only, 817. Stephen VI., reigned 885- 
 891. Stephen VII., remarkable chiefly for his 
 disgraceful treatment of the corpse of Boniface V., 
 succeeded that pontiff in 896, and was strangled 
 by his predecessor's friends 897. Stephen VI II., 
 predecessor of John, son of Marozia, 929-931. 
 Stephen IX., another pope of the period in which 
 Marozia figured, 939-942. Stephen X., an ad- 
 vocate for the marriage of the priests, and distin- 
 guished by his eftbrts to unite the two churches, 
 reigned only a few months, 1057-1058. Some- 
 times only nine popes of this name are reckoned, 
 Stephen II. being omitted. 
 
 STEPHEN, four kings of Hungary : Stephen 
 I., introduced Christianity into that country, and 
 published a body of laws; he is numbered with 
 the saints, and gives his name to the famous 
 crown, reigned 997-1038. Stephen II., reigned 
 1114-1131. Stephen III., succeeded 1161; he 
 aided the emperor, Manuel Commenus, against 
 the Venetians, and was twice dethroned for short 
 periods, first by his uncle, Ladislas, and afterwards 
 by Stephen, a brother of Ladislas ; he died 1173. 
 Stephen IV., reigned two years only, but gained 
 an illustrious name by his victories over Ottocar, 
 king of Bohemia, 1270-1272. 
 
 STEPHEN, king of Poland, surnamed Bathort, 
 was a noble Hungarian, born 1532, elected prince 
 of Transylvania 1571, succeeded to Henry of Valois 
 as king of Poland 1575, died 1586. 
 
 STEPHEN, king of England, was the third son 
 of Adela, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, 
 and of Stephen, count of Blois. He was born in 
 1105, and was invited to the English court by his 
 uncle, Henry I., who enriched him with estates and 
 honours, and finally promoted his marriage with Ma- 
 tilda, heiress of the county of Boulogne, and niece 
 to David, king of Scotland. On Henr's death in 
 1135, Stephen, who was then in France, hastened 
 to England, and was crowned king to the preju- 
 dice of Henry's daughter, Matilda, empress of Ger- 
 many; this event, however, was an advantage to the 
 English nation, for he was a man ' noble and hardy, 
 of passing comely favour and personage, excelling 
 in martial policy, gentleness, and liberality towards 
 all men, and though he had continual wars, yet 
 did he never burthen his commons with exactions.' 
 In such an age, there could be no question between 
 a character thus described, residing at the seat ot 
 government, and a woman connected by the nearest 
 ties to a distant land, and if many of the barons kept 
 I aloof from Stephen, it was probably far more from 
 
 735 
 
STE 
 a sense of the privileged despotism they might have 
 retained in the latter case, than from any regard 
 to the welfare of the state. It would seem, in 
 fact, that Stephen's principal difficulties arose 
 from his regard for the old Saxon population at a 
 period when the harons were rising into importance, 
 and to the disgust excited by it among the chi- 
 valrous aristocracy introduced by his grandfather ; 
 the insolence of whose bearing, and their followers 
 infesting the highways, could not but be galling 
 to the peaceful burgher. The intestine troubles 
 produced by these causes were commenced by David 
 of Scotland, to whom Matilda was more nearly 
 related than Stephen. Invading England in the 
 spring of 11 3G, that prince was induced to retire 
 by the cession of Cumberland ; but returning again, 
 in the year following, was defeated at the battle of 
 the Standard, fought on Cutton Moor, August 22, 
 1138. Then followed, in September, 1139, the 
 arrival of Matilda, supported' by the earl of Glouces- 
 ter, and the disaffected barons, to whose forces 
 Stephen was compelled to yield : the triumph of 
 Matilda lasted from February to September, 1141, 
 when the king recovered his liberty, and his rival 
 took refuge in Normandy. Nor yet was Stephen 
 allowed to wear the crown in peace, for Matilda 
 having resigned her pretensions to Henry Planta- 
 genet, her son, that chivalrous prince landed an 
 army at Wareham, in 1153, and met the forces of 
 Stephen at Wallingford. The threatened blood- 
 shed, however, was now avoided by an annistice, 
 for at this juncture the son of Stephen expired, and 
 he was easily prevailed upon to conclude a treaty 
 recognizing Henry as his successor, who had only 
 just arrived at the age of manhood, and could 
 afford to wait a few years : the interval was brief 
 indeed, for Stephen died the year following, aged 
 forty-nine, 1154. The foreign troops drawn by 
 Stephen from Brittany and Flanders, and the for- 
 tresses erected by the barons in their contests with 
 him, were alike harassing to the people during his 
 troubled reign, and besides all this he maintained a 
 difficult struggle with the papal clergy. [E.R.] 
 
 STEPHEN, James, a lawyer and political 
 writer, who suggested and arranged the system of 
 continental blockade, by which Napoleon was so 
 greatly embarrassed during the late war ; he was 
 rirst known as a reporter on the ' Morning Chro- 
 nicle,' but attracted the attention of government 
 by his anonymous pamphlet, entitled ' War in 
 Disguise, or the Frauds of Neutral Flags,' soon 
 after which he became member for Tralee. Mr. 
 Stephen was connected by marriage with Wilber- 
 force, and having resided some years at St. Chris- 
 tophers, he was well acquainted with the colonics, 
 and proved himself a valuable adherent in the cause 
 of negro emancipation. Died 1832. 
 
 STEPHEN, John, a Danish hist, 1509-1650. 
 
 STEPHENS, Alexander, a miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Elgin, in Scotland, 1757 ; died 
 1821. His works are 'A History of the War of 
 the French Revolution,' ' Memoirs of Home 
 Tooke,' 'Public Characters.'. Besides these he 
 was a contributor to the ' Annual Obituary,' and 
 the ' Monthly Magazine.' 
 
 STEPHENS, Henry, the Jirst of a family of 
 French printers, the most distinguished in those 
 early times, when the most learned men devoted 
 themselves to the perfection of the new art : he 
 
 STE 
 
 was horn at Paris about 1470, began printin| 
 1503, and died 1520. Francis, his eldest : 
 is known to have carried on the business fr< 
 1537 to 1547. Robert, the brother of Franc 
 and second son of Henry, born at Paris 1503, * 
 protected by Francis I., but after that monarc 
 death had a severe struggle with the doctors 
 the Sorbonne: their enmity drove him to Gene 
 in 1552, and he died there in the Cr.lvinist far 
 1559. Charles, brother of the latter, carri 
 on the noble work in which his family had 
 barked their fortunes, from 1535 to 15G4. Hens 
 son of Robert, one of the most learned men a 
 finest spirits of his age, was born at Paris 158 
 he ruined himself in the cause, and died in \ 
 hospital of Lyons 1506. Several others of i 
 family are mentioned, the last, Estienne A 
 toine, bom at Geneva 1594, ended his ardiu 
 career at the hospital Hotel Dieu 1674. 
 
 STEPHENS, J., a learned divine, 1592-1665 
 
 STEPHENS, John, an officer of the array 
 
 James II., who maintained himself by his g 
 
 after the success of the revolution, and wrote seve 
 
 works for the booksellers, died 1726. 
 
 STEPHENS, R., an Eng. antiquary, died 17! 
 STEPHENS, W., an English divine, died 17: 
 STEPHENSON, George, a civil engineer 
 extraordinary genius, not only in his art but 
 affairs in general. As the names of Brindley j 
 Smeaton are connected with our canal systei 
 that of Arkwright with mechanical spinning ; 
 Watt with the steam engine ; of Fulton with stei 
 navigation ; so is that of George Stephenson t 
 nected with our railway system, and we may t 
 with the railway system of the world. Born 
 humble parents at Wylam, in the county of Di 
 ham, about nine miles west of Newcastle- on-Ty 
 in April, 1787, he seems to have been left to 
 own resources for education. His first job 
 picking turnips at twopence per day. As a \t 
 he was a ' trapper ' in the coal workings ; a 
 there, in the lonely hours he spent with the B' 
 of the men in the" pit depending on his attenti'j 
 to the air (rap which he had to open and close, m 
 minated the idea which, long after matured, entlt j 
 him to be classed among the great benefactors] 
 mankind. When he was fourteen or fifteen ye; 
 of age he worked at Water-row pit as brakesm 
 on the waggon-way between Wylam and Newbu 
 He, therefore, became early experienced in t] 
 working of and laws of motion of waggons 4 
 railways. As he often referred to this expedH 
 in later years, and to actual experiments made 
 that time, we have another proof to add to ma 
 more that genius will always declare itself as eai I 
 as the special subject of its delight is preafl 
 for contemplation. About 1805 Stephenson 1] 
 his father's roof and went to Killiiigworth, t j 
 centre of the collieries worked by the ' grand allk 
 Lords Ravensworth and partners. He went to K j 
 lingworth still a brakesman ; but soon afterwB 
 got the charge of the steam engine, an advancenfj 
 which arose from the circumstance of his h^H 
 successfully remedied defects in the valve gear of t J 
 engine, after several ineffectual attempts hadflH 
 made to do so by a then celebrated Geordy D" 
 whose actual business it was. Stephenson b.j 
 before this acquired a reputation among his feflo 
 workmen as a repairer of clocks and watches. A j 
 36 
 
 ;. 
 
STE 
 
 ointed engineer in consequence of this success, he 
 narried, and a son was born, an only child, Robert, 
 ho was early associated with his father in the 
 rlorious career tracked by the name of Stephenson, 
 atber and son. Between 1807 and 1815 Stephen- 
 ion's attention was much drawn to the subject of 
 ocomotive engines, many attempts having been 
 nade during that period to introduce them on to 
 ;he tramways and edge railways of the Northum- 
 erland and Durham coal districts, with but very 
 >artial success. After various trials and modifica- 
 ions of his designs, George Stephenson started a 
 ocomotive on the Killingworth railway on the 6th of 
 tfarch, 1815, which embodied eveiy essential part 
 if the locomotive of the present day, with the 
 exception of the tubular boiler and expansion 
 rear. This was not the starting point of Stephen- 
 ion's public career, however, although it was 
 bout this period that from his genius having been 
 urned in another, for the moment, more important 
 'rection, he actually did come prominently before 
 le public. It was as an inventor of the miners' 
 afety lamp that Stephenson's pre-eminent merit 
 is first recognized. As an independent inventor 
 a safety lamp, depending on the same principles 
 that of Sir Humphrey Davy's lamp, Stephen- 
 i was presented by a number of the leading coal 
 wners of the north with one thousand pounds and 
 piece of plate. On that occasion the chairman, 
 r. Charles John Brandling, said : ' A great deal 
 I controversy, and he was sorry to say of ani- 
 losity, had prevailed upon the subject of the safety 
 imp ; but this he trusted, after the example of 
 loderation that had been set by Mr. Stephenson's 
 iends, would subside, and all personalities cease 
 be remembered. As to the claim of that indi- 
 idnal to testify their gratitude to whom they were 
 at day assembled, he thought every doubt must 
 ve been removed in the mind of unprejudiced 
 Kersons by a perusal of the evidence recently 
 before the public. He begged Mr. Stephen- 
 's acceptance of this token of their esteem, 
 ishing him health long to enjoy it, and to enable 
 m to employ those talents with' which Providence 
 ad blessed him for the benefit of his fellow-crea- 
 Stephenson in acknowledging the gift, 
 ve the following pledge, which was nobly re- 
 eemed during the subsequent part of his valuable 
 " . ' I shall ever reflect with pride and gratitude 
 t my labours have been honoured with the 
 probation of such a distinguished meeting ; and 
 may rest assured that my time and any talent 
 possess shall hereafter be employed in such man- 
 as not to give you, gentlemen, any cause to 
 gret the countenance and support you have so 
 lerously afforded me.' Though men of Stephen- 
 's scope and frame of mind are in a great 
 asnre independent of education, they most 
 roughly understand the advantages of it. 
 e Stephenson, therefore, took special care to 
 wire his son's receiving every advantage in this 
 jr, and was well rewarded even in the beginning ; 
 Robert Stephenson carried off mathematical and 
 losophical prizes from Edinburgh university. 
 first locomotive railway, for the purposes of 
 slling according to the present principle of 
 ion, was constructed between Stockton and 
 arlington. Stephenson was engineer. The safety- 
 mp testimonial had enabled him, in partnership 
 
 STE 
 
 with certain capitalists and his son, to establish 
 the now world-renowned engine factory in New- 
 castle. On the opening of the Darlington railway, 
 in 1825, Stephenson's engines travelled with a 
 speed of ten miles an hour; but his ideas and 
 anticipations of the capabilities of this mode of 
 transit, both as to speed and the effect it would 
 produce when generally adopted, as he foresaw it 
 must be ultimately, were such as he did not then 
 even dare to express for fear of being pronounced 
 insane! With the engineering of the Liverpool 
 and Manchester railway, Stephenson entered upon 
 the field of his great fame ; and from 1825 to 1847 
 he occupied the foremost position of all railway 
 engineers, whether in Britain or on the continent. 
 His son, and his pupils and assistants, spread the 
 fame of his name and the principles of his practice 
 from one end of the world to the other, and con- 
 tinue to do so. Stephenson was a man of iron 
 frame of body and mind, of plain manners, ardent 
 temperament, eminently social habits ; too confi- 
 dent of his powers and too sure of his position to 
 be ambitious ; he unflinchingly pursued his own 
 ends by all means, and seldom if ever failed in 
 accomplishing his objects. He amassed great 
 wealth, partly from his profession; but he was 
 also an extensive coal proprietor, and it is no 
 small portion of his renown that he mainly, on his 
 own account, established the inland coal trade to 
 the metropolis. He died at Tapton house near 
 Chesterfield, aged sixty-seven, on the 12th August, 
 1848. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 STEPNEY, George, an English poet and am- 
 bassador of the reign of James II., 1663-1707. 
 
 STERBEECK, P., a Flemish botanist, 17th ct. 
 
 STERLING, John, one of the most indepen- 
 dent and true-hearted thinkers of this age, gener- 
 ally known as an essayist and critic, was born at 
 Karnes castle, in the Isle of Bute, in 1806. His 
 father, Captain Edward Sterling, was a native of 
 Waterford in Ireland, but was descended from a 
 Scotch officer one of those who acquired military 
 distinction in the army of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 Captain Sterling also was a political writer, and 
 editor of the Times newspaper. From 1810 to 
 1814 he resided in Glamorganshire, where his son 
 became deeply imbued with that love of nature, 
 and the ' metaphysical and religious ' value of its 
 scenes, which is so conspicuous in his letters and 
 essays. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the 
 family went to reside in France, and barely man- 
 aged to effect their escape in the following year, 
 when the exile of Elba returned to reassert his 
 lights; the family then settled in London. In 
 1824 John Sterling was sent to Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and remained there till 1827, when lie 
 left without taking a degree, but returned for that 
 purpose in 1833, on resolving to enter the Church 
 of England. Here he studied the classics under 
 Archdeacon Hare, and though he did not become 
 a thorough scholar, it is pleasant to read the con- 
 fession of his old teacher that he was ' something 
 better' in the mastery which he obtained over the 
 spirit of the old Greek poetry and philosophy. In 
 the interval between leaving college and taking 
 orders, Sterling became a contributor to the 
 Athenaeum and other periodicals, and pursued his 
 literary avocations in London, under the influence 
 of such men as Coleridge and Wordsworth, not to 
 
 737 
 
 3B 
 
STE 
 
 forget his friends Carlyle and Frederick Maurice ; 
 in 1830 he married the sister of the lady who be- 
 came the wife of the latter. The connection of 
 Sterling with the church as curate of Herstmon- 
 ceux, of which place his friend, Archdeacon Hare, 
 was rector, lasted no more than about six months, 
 but in this period he devoted himself with reli- 
 gious zeal to all the arduous duties of a country 
 curate ; his health meanwhile giving way, and his 
 convictions gradually ripening towards a more 
 universal faith than that of the church articles. 
 Before taking the curacy he had resided some two 
 years at St. Vincent, in the West Indies, and after 
 leaving it he once more travelled under more ge- 
 nial skies than those of England, a measure ren- 
 dered necessary by his tendency to consumption. 
 These travels extended, by easy stages and long 
 halts, from the south of France to Italy and 
 Madeira, and were varied by his occupations as an 
 author, but still more by the restless energy of his 
 mind as a thinker, engaged in the deep problems 
 opened up by the study of German literature and 
 the Bible no longer to him a mere historical nar- 
 rative but a great symbol, the interpretation of 
 which none of his masters could furnish. About 
 1841 he published his tragedy of ' Strafford,' which 
 had been to him a labour of love, the one in which 
 his genius ' swam the lightest,' but it fell still-born 
 from the press. In 1843 his sensitive frame, already 
 weakened by the malady which consumed him, re- 
 ceived a severe shock from the death of his mother 
 and his wife within a dav or two of each other, and 
 he breathed his last, kindly watched in his last illness 
 by Mrs. Maurice, in the spring of 1844. Having 
 appointed Archdeacon Hare and Mr. Carlyle his 
 literary executors, the former published a collec- 
 tion of his works, to which a memoir was prefixed, 
 in 1848 ; and the latter his picturesque and affect- 
 ing ' Life of John Sterling,' in 1851. We need 
 not dwell on the distinction between these two 
 works, the one lamenting his earnest strivings to- 
 wards the truth as a deplorable fall, and the other 
 so graphically sketching the ' victorious believer and 
 the victorious doer.' We may add, however, one preg- 
 nant sentence from the pen of Sterling himself: 
 ' The quantity of inwardness, faith, and power, 
 which has come before me in my own generation, 
 cannot, I think, pass away into the Invisible with- 
 out helping towards some great outward revolu- 
 tion. But ! how perilous will be the position of 
 any man who may stand forth as the leader and 
 standard-bearer in such a movement! For how 
 small and weakly charged were the " lofts of storied 
 thunder" even in Luther's time, which the prince 
 of this world could set loose against him, com- 
 pared with those of modern civilization and philo- 
 sophy, which would be just as fierce in their way 
 as were, of old, the papacy and the empire.' [E.R.J 
 
 STERN, J., a Bavarian painter, 1698-1746. 
 
 STERN, T., a Dutch engraver, 17th century. 
 
 STERNE, or STEARNE, John, a learned Irish 
 physician, nephew to the famous Usher, at the 
 time of his birth bishop of Meath, was born in 
 that county 1622, and died 1669. He was better 
 known as a theologian than a physician, and has 
 left some learned works. His son, John, succes- 
 sively bishop of Dromore and Clogher, died 1745. 
 
 STERNE, Laurexce, though born in 1713 at 
 Clomnel, owed his Irish birth, and the passing of 
 
 STE 
 his childhood in Ireland, to the fact that his fathci 
 the younger son of a Yorkshire squire, was then 
 lieutenant in a marching regiment. Laurence wa 
 educated by his father's kinsmen ; and about 174 
 a clerical uncle obtained for him a prebend 
 York Cathedral, and the living of Sutton, in tb 
 East Riding. In addition to these preferment! 
 after his marriage in 1741, his wife's family pre 
 sented him to the parish of Stillington. ThereaS 
 the two parishes being adjacent, he continued t 
 perform duty in both, residing at Sutton, amusin 
 himself (in his own words) with ' books, paintin; 
 fiddling, and shooting,' publishing a couple of 
 mons, quarrelling with his clerical brethren, an 
 collecting, by observation and reading, the mat* 
 rials on which his literary fame was to be built. B 
 became celebrated immediately on publishing tl 
 first two volumes of 'Tristram Shandy' in i?5 
 and his reputation increased till the appearance 
 the ninth and last volume in 1766. The ' Sent 
 mental Journey,' which came out in 1768, wi 
 undoubtedly inferior, but is still the favourite wil 
 many readers. His way of life soon ceased to b 
 even outwardly, respectable. His publication 
 two volumes of Sermons in 1760 was a pecunia 
 speculation. In the same year he obtained anoth 
 Yorkshire living; but his clerical duties seem 
 have occupied from this time very little of r 
 attention. He wandered about, enjoying his not 
 riety in London, and making two continental ion 
 nies, the one into France, the other into Ital 
 The lightmindedness so evident in his works, 
 not least so in the posthumous ' Letters,' edit 
 by his daughter, led him into dissolute habits,- 
 which improvidence was the least serious. } 
 died, in lodgings in London, in 1768, leaving 1 
 family quite unprovided for. The moral tend* 
 of Sterne's writings is unquestionably low ; \ 
 freedom of plagiarism, especially from Rabel 
 and Moliere, is audacious ; but his airy and grace 
 humour is admirable, and some of his characb 
 are among the most natural and original of 
 comic portraits. \V.{ 
 
 STERNE, Richard, a native of Mansfield, 
 Nottinghamshire, who attended Laud at his exfl^ 
 tion in the character of chaplain, and after 
 restoration became archbishop of York. He m 
 a treatise on Logic, and some Latin poems, besw |i 
 his share in Walton's Polyglott Bible ; 1596-168 
 STERNHOLD, Thomas, an English scha 
 and poet, whose principal claim to remembran J 
 his share in the versification of the Psalms, d. 1W 
 STESICHORUS, a Greek poet, 640-560 bxJ 
 STETTEN, Paul Von, a Ger. historian, 
 1786. His brother, of the same names, 1 731-181 
 STEUART-DENHAM, Sir Jas, a Scottish I 
 on political economy, grandson of the lord advoci 
 of this name, born at Edinburgh 1712, died 17*1 
 STEVENS, A., an English architect, died 19] 
 STEVENS, George Alexander, a sstM 
 and humorous writer, originally known as a^H 
 ling player, author of ' The History of Pope^B 
 a novel, 'Lectures upon Heads,' and a nunrj' 
 of songs, the most popular of which was *?w 
 Storm ;' died 1784. 
 
 STEVENS, R, J. S., a composer, 1753-183' j 
 STEVENS, William, a tradesman of LoM 
 cousin to Bishop Home, and distinguished fj 
 him by his theological writings, 1732-1807. 
 
 733 
 
STE 
 
 I STEVENS. W. B., a divine and poet, 1755-1800. 
 STEVENSON, Sir John Andrew, a famous 
 musical composer, born in Ireland 1759, died 1833. 
 His most popular work is the arrangement of the 
 Irish melodies, adapted to the words of Moore, 
 and executed in conjunction with him. He also 
 wrote for the stage, and composed many anthems 
 and glees. 
 
 STEVENSON, John Hall, a clever satirist 
 and humorous writer, described by Laurence Sterne, 
 who was his intimate friend, in the character of 
 Eugenius in Tristram Shandy, author of ' Crazy 
 Tales,' ' Fables for Grown Gentlemen,' ' Lyric 
 Epistles,' and ' Moral Tales,' 1718-1785. 
 
 STEVENSON, Robert, a civil engineer, the 
 :hief points of whose character were great sagacity, 
 Fortitude, and perseverance. In private life he was 
 i man of sterling worth, who consecrated to bene- 
 icial ends every talent committed to his trust. 
 8orn at Glasgow in June, 1772, the son of a West 
 [ndia merchant, he was, while yet an infant, left 
 atherless, and circumstances conspired to render 
 ;he widow and her onlv son, Robert, by no means 
 well provided for. But the mother's energy over- 
 same these difficulties, and Robert Stevenson re- 
 wived a good elementary education. About 1787 
 lis mother married Mr. Thomas Smith, an ingeni- 
 us man, who had commenced life as a tinsmith 
 n Edinburgh, but who afterwards successfully im- 
 >roved the mode of illuminating lighthouses, by 
 ubstituting oil lamps with parabolic mirrors for 
 he open coal fires which formerly served as 
 >eacons for the mariner. Stevenson was at the 
 arly age of nineteen intrusted by his step-father 
 srith the superintendence of the erection of the 
 ighthouse on the Little Cumbrae in the Frith 
 f Clyde, and through this connection became, 
 bout 1797, engineer to the Northern Lighthouse 
 Joard, an office which he resigned in 1843, after 
 ving filled its arduous duties for about half a 
 entury. The great work of Stevenson's life, that 
 pon which his reputation as an engineer princi- 
 ally rests, is the Bell Rock lighthouse. To him 
 j due the honour of conceiving and executing, a 
 ower of masonry on the Bell Rock, a situation, un- 
 oubtedly, from the level of the rock, which is 
 overed at every tide, of much greater difficulty 
 lan the Eddvstone. His zeal, ever alive to the 
 ossibility of improving on the conceptions of his 
 reat master, Smeaton, led him to introduce some 
 ivantageous changes in the arrangements of the 
 lasonry of the tower, suggested by the facility of 
 rocuring stones of greater dimensions than Smeaton 
 ad been able to get from the granite quarries of 
 lornwall. Stevenson may, with the stnctest pro- 
 iety, be said to have created the lighthouse sys- 
 u of Scotland, and brought about its present state 
 perfection. In no country has the calopric system 
 f illuminating lighthouses been carried out so per- 
 ctly as in Scotland; and whether we consider the 
 scuracy and beauty of the optical apparatus, the 
 rrangements of the buildings, or the discipline 
 Merved by the light-keepers, we cannot fail to 
 (Cognize the impress of that energetic and 
 Mnprehensive cast of mind which directed the 
 hole. In works of general engineering Stevenson 
 as very extensively engaged in every part of Bri- 
 an, and takes rank with Rennie and Telford in 
 le annals of the profession. Mr. Stevenson died 
 
 STE 
 
 on the 12th July, 1850, in the seventy-ninth ver.r 
 of his age. [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 STEVENSON, W., an antiquarian, died 1821. 
 
 STEVENSON, William, a clerk in the. record 
 office, known as a miscellaneous writer, 1772-1829. 
 
 STEVIN, Simon, in Latin Stevinus, a Flemish 
 mathematician, teacher of Prince Maurice, and 
 inspector of the dykes in Holland, died 1633. 
 
 STEWART, Dugald, born in Edinburgh, 22d 
 November, 1753 ; died at his seat on the Frith of 
 Forth, 11th June, 1828: the eloquent^ disciple of 
 Reid, and chief expounder of the Philosophy of 
 the Scottish School. Appointed, at _ the early age 
 of twenty-one, to succeed his father in the Mathe- 
 matical Chair in the University of Edinburgh, 
 an office honourably filled by him for five years ; 
 he was on the retirement of Dr. Fergusson, elected 
 Professor of Moral Philosophy. The charm of his 
 style and manner was so great, and such the 
 clearness of his exposition, that in a brief time his 
 class-room was crowded by rising Youth from all 
 quarters of the United Kingdom ; and it is not to 
 be denied that in conjunction with Playfair and 
 other celebrated men then in Edinburgh, he contri- 
 buted powerfully to confirm that generous liberality 
 of Thought prevailing in our northern metropolis, 
 when Horner, Lansdowne, Brougham, Russell, &c. 
 lived there as young men. This peculiar influence 
 of his teaching too, was strengthened by personal 
 intercourse with him. Of easy access, a kindly 
 gravity, and much openness, he possessed every 
 quality necessary to attach his pupils : and it is 
 not rare even at this late day, to hear him spoken 
 of with more than admiration. Stewart retained 
 his office until 1810, when, on his retirement, Dr. 
 Thomas Brown was instituted to the Chair. We 
 wish it were possible to account as highly the 
 Metaphysician, as we require to account the Man. 
 His works, indeed, are voluminous, and few au- 
 thors ever had the gift of a warmer, more perspi- 
 cuous or persuasive style. Whatever idea he 
 touches, he unquestionably adorns: nevertheless 
 it cannot be asserted either that Stewart has done 
 much to advance Speculation, or that he had per- 
 sonally attained an adequate grasp of the History 
 of Philosophy, and the place it has occupied in 
 the long development ot Humanity. Reid and 
 he, it must be remembered, stood in very differ- 
 ent positions. Reid was essentially a Discoverer. 
 Whatever the merit or defects of his system, it 
 was a system framed by himself. Stewart, on the 
 other hand, received it as a work accomplished: 
 and, had he possessed the ability of his Master, the 
 Philosophy of the Scottish School would nave 
 grown greater under his hands, and passed on to- 
 wards the condition of a Science. Undoubtedly he 
 improved its phraseology, for instance, for the 
 term 'Principles of Common Sense,' he substituted 
 'Laws or Elements of Belief;' he strengthened 
 some of its weaker parts, and gave precision to 
 others; and he enriched Reid's account of the 
 Faculties, by much felicitous, and apposite illustra- 
 tion witness his elaborate account of the Laws of 
 Association: but, beyond Reid, he did not advance 
 one hair's breadth : with him, as with his master, 
 Philosophy confined itself to a statement or exa- 
 mination of some fundamental ideas of the Rea- 
 son ; neither attempting to account for them, nor 
 to ascend to their origin, nor to follow them to 
 
 739 
 
STE 
 
 their applications. He left the Scottish School in 
 all vital respects, in the condition in which he 
 fonnd it, ' having,' in the words of Cousin, ' a 
 commencement in psychology, but no regular 
 logic, neither a metaphysic, nor a theodicoea, nor 
 a cosmology a little of morals and politics, but 
 no system.' Stewart's best work that in which 
 alone we discern marks of scientific Thought is 
 his Philosophical Essays; and his worst, is the most 
 famous, viz., the Historical Dissertation in the En- 
 cyclopedia Britannica. It may seem a harsh and 
 presumptuous deliverance, but we have no dread 
 of its being gainsaid that in our higher Philo- 
 sophical Literature, it would be difficult to find a 
 less adequate treatment of so great a theme. From 
 the absence of coherence the absence of any trace 
 of unitv or comprehensive principle, the Disserta- 
 tion is liker the expansion of a commonplace book, 
 than an effort to contemplate the continuous flow 
 of Human Thought. It evinces too, an extraor- 
 dinary defect of sympathy with the whole progress 
 of speculation in modern continental Europe: 
 Stewart manifestly knew nothing of Kant ; and 
 he did not think it necessary to take notice of 
 Spinoza! A singular illustration, surely, how 
 strictly insular, we Scotchmen have been as 
 Thinkers, until within these recent years: and 
 therein a promise that brighter lights, in many 
 ways, will break over our future. Let us conclude 
 in the spirit in which we began, and pay to the 
 memory of Stewart, the tribute owing to a bene- 
 volent, upright, and liberal man of undoubted 
 talent one of the most polished writers of his 
 day, and as fascinating a Teacher as ever occupied 
 a chair in our Metropolitan University. [J.P.N.] 
 
 STEWART, Matthew, D.D., born at Rothe- 
 say in 1717; died in 1785. A pupil of Robert Sim- 
 son in the College of Glasgow, he early evinced 
 great mathematical talent ; and, having given am- 
 ple evidence alike of his tastes and power, he was 
 called from the living of Roseneath to succeed 
 Maclaurin in Edinburgh in 1747. He discharged 
 the duties of this important office until 1772, 
 when his son, the well-known Scottish metaphy- 
 sician, began to assist him. Like all our British 
 mathematicians of that period, Dr. Stewart was 
 strongly attached to Geometrical Methods; and 
 he evinced his singular command of them in the 
 discovery, while at Roseneath, of the propositions 
 published under the title ' Geometrical Theories,' 
 by his ' Tracts, Physical and Mathematical,' and 
 his ' Propositiones More Veterum Demonstratae :' 
 the latter set of propositions, however, having 
 been discovered by analytical methods, although 
 demonstrated synthetically. The subsequent in- 
 troduction of the Continental analysis mto Bri- 
 tain, greatly diminished the interest at one time 
 attached to such exercitations : but if we mistake 
 not, the discovery of new, general, and very power- 
 ful methods in Geometrical treatment, is about to 
 produce a useful revival of old Tastes. [J.P.N.] 
 
 STEWART, Robbrt. See Castlereagh. 
 
 STEWART-DENHAM. See Steuart. 
 
 STIFEL, Michael, in Latin Stifelins, a Lu- 
 theran divine and mathematician, died 1567. 
 
 STILES, Ezra, an American divine, president 
 of Yale College, and author of a curious history of 
 three of the regicides who fled to America at the 
 period of the restoration, 1727-171)5. 
 
 STI 
 
 STILICHO, Flavius, a Vandal of great genii 
 and bravery, who distinguished himself at tl 
 declining period of the Roman empire and wt 
 advanced to the highest dignities of the state I 
 Theodosius the Great. After serving in the waT 
 he represented that sovereign and sustained tl 
 dignity of the Roman name at the court of Persi 
 tlien ruled by Sapor III., and on his return w; 
 rewarded with the hand of Serena, the einperoi 
 adopted daughter, besides being intrusted, in 39 
 with" the guardianship of his two sons, Arcadii 
 and Honorius. On the division of the empir 
 Stilicho became virtual governor of the We: 
 the character of first minister to Honorius, i 
 the same power in the East was exercised by I 
 finus, under Arcadius, the other emperor. ' 
 military genius of Stilicho, after this period, 
 exhibited in the reduction of Africa, which had I 
 led into a revolt by Eutropius, the sue 
 Rufinus at the Eastern court, and subsequent 
 the great contests with Alaric and Radaga 
 In the year 403 he routed the former near VeronJ 
 and in 406 put the hosts of the latter to flight, ai I 
 killed their commander. While Stilicho lived!" 
 sustained the fortunes of the Roman name, but 
 was accused of having a secret understanding ] 
 Alaric, and treacherously put to death in 
 The wives and children of 30,000 Germans 
 were in his service were massacred at the 
 time. [E.I J 
 
 STILL, John, bishop of Bath and Wells, au| | 
 of one of our vile old plays, died 1607. 
 
 STILLING, John Henry, or Jung-Si 
 ling, a native of Florenburg, in Nassau, where': 
 was born in 1740, remarkable as a philosoptf 
 and miscellaneous writer. Though brought u 
 humble circumstances, he became, by the force I 
 his natural talents, a physician and professor] 
 the university of Strasburg, where he died in 18! j 
 Author of ' Theory of the Human Spirit,' &c. 
 
 STILLINGFLEET, Dr. Eward, was bor 
 1635, at Cranborn, Dorsetshire. Being de 
 for the church, he was entered a student 
 John's College, Cambridge, and being ordair 
 1657, was immediately presented to the : 
 Sutton, Nottinghamshire. During his 
 in this place, he published his ' Origines 
 an apology or defence of revealed religion a t. 
 manifesting so rare a combination of natural 
 and acquired learning, that his reputatic 
 divine spread far and wide. A shower of pre" 
 was rained upon him. He was first a 
 preacher of the Rolls' chapel, then to the" 
 of St. Andrew's, Holborn, lecturer at the " 
 and chaplain in ordinary to king Charles 
 1685 he published his ' Antiquities of the 
 Church.' In 1688, immediately subsequent 
 revolution, he was promoted to the see of Wd 
 ter ; but, instead of reposing in the indolent < 
 ment of his dignity, he engaged with inc 
 ardour in the pursuits of theological liter! 
 particularly in the composition of some controvert] 
 works against the Socinians, as well as a 'i^H 
 physical discussion with Locke. He died in! 
 His works are comprised in 6 vols, folio. [R. 
 
 STILPO, a Stoic philosopher, 306 B.C. 
 
 STIRLING, J., a mathematician, 18th centl 
 
 STIRLING, William, earl of, a Scottish! 
 matist and poet, whose descendant is the pres 
 
 740 
 
STO 
 
 arlaimant of lands in Nova Scotia, granted to his 
 Ancestor by Charles L, 1580-1640. 
 I STOB.EUS, J., a Greek writer, 5th century. 
 i STOCCADE, N., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. 
 I STOCCHI, F., an Italian astrologer, 1599-1661. 
 I STOCK, Simon, an English monk, who became 
 fceneral of the Carmelites, and is known as an 
 useetic writer, died 1265. 
 
 I STOCKDALE, P., a Scotch poet, 1736-1811. 
 I STOCKVICH, H., a Dutch painter, 1761-1818. 
 I STOFFLER, or STOEFFLER, John, a Germ, 
 mstronomer, born of poor parents, 1452, died 1531. 
 | STOFFLET, N, a Venetian general, 1751-1796. 
 1 STOKE, E., a Dutch chronicler, 14th century. 
 I STOLBERG, Frederic Leopold, Count, a 
 "'erman diplomatist and man of letters, 1750-1819. 
 STONE, Edmund, a Scottish mathematician, 
 hose father was gardener to the duke of Argyll; 
 e was patronised by the duke when a discovery 
 as made of his self-acquired learning, but died in 
 overty 1768. 
 
 STONHOUSE, or STONEHOUSE, Sir James, 
 infidel physician, who became a convert to 
 hristianity, and a religious writer, 1716-1795. 
 STORACE, S., an eminent composer, 1763-96. 
 STORCH, A., a German theologian, 1501-1557. 
 STORCH, H. F. Von, a celebrated political 
 jonomist and statistician, b. in Riga 1766, d. 1835. 
 STORCH, Nicholas, founder of the religious 
 octrines of the anabaptists, was born at Stolberg 
 Saxony, towards the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 iry, and was therefore a young man when Luther 
 mmenced preaching the doctrines of the refor- 
 tion. He went much farther than Luther in 
 scribing ancient authorities, for he denounced 
 external documents and traditions whatsoever, 
 id accepting no book but the Bible, he taught 
 disciples to renounce the study of literature and 
 eology, and trust to the Spirit of God to enlighten 
 eir understandings. He insisted, also, on the 
 jcessity of re-baptism, when that ceremony had 
 sen performed in infancy, on the principle, that 
 was an act of faith, and could not otherwise be 
 ilid. Neither Calvin nor Luther could tolerate 
 ese doctrines, and they became still more hateful 
 the princes of Germany, when political ends, 
 I the doctrine of the community of goods was 
 sociated with them. For years past the poor 
 lf-starved and half-naked serfs of Germany had 
 n accustomed to assemble in great numbers, 
 I with 'Bread and Cheese' inscribed on their 
 nneis, had threatened the complete overthrow of 
 existing state of society. This state of things 
 ced at in another article (Leyden) and it 
 to much bloodshed : at length the elector of 
 ny, at the pressing instance of Luther, banished 
 spiritual guide, m addition to executing their 
 litical in the person of Munzer, 1525. Storch 
 a man of the most amiable disposition, but the 
 ptists of the present day deny all connection 
 his party, to avoid the odium belonging to 
 scenes of turbulence. He died in his retreat 
 Munich, 1530. [K.R.] 
 
 STORCK, A., a Dutch painter, 1650-1708. 
 STORY, Joseph, an American judge and mas- 
 r of jurisprudence, author of Commentaries on 
 e Conflict of Laws,' 1779-1845. 
 BTOSCH, P., a Germ, antiquarian, 1691-1757. 
 pTOTHARD, Thomas, a distinguished painter 
 
 STR 
 
 and designer, whose beautiful compositions have 
 become familiar to the public by the engravings of 
 Collins, Heath, Parker, Cronick, and Medland. 
 He was born in London 1755, and exhibited the 
 earliest proofs of his talent in Bell's edition of the 
 British Poets. The subjects graced by his pencil 
 since then amount in number to many thousands, 
 and they are often marked by that beauty of form 
 and sense of human happiness, which are the 
 highest recommendations of the pictorial art to 
 the popular taste. The ' Procession of the Flitch 
 of Bacon,' the ' Canterbury Pilgrimage,' and the 
 4 Wellington Shield,' are well known ; died 1834. 
 His son, Charle3 Alfred, an antiquarian 
 draughtsman, author of ' Monumental Effigies of 
 Great Britain,' was born 1787, and accidentally 
 killed 1821. 
 
 STOW, John, one of our most valued antiqua- 
 rian writers, was the son of a merchant tailor of 
 London, and was born in Comhill about 1525. 
 He quitted his trade when in his fortieth year, 
 and being patronised by Archbishop Parker and 
 Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, devoted his time 
 to antiquarian studies. His first work, published 
 1565, was ' The Summary of the Chronicles of 
 England,' which was published in an enlarged 
 form, under the title of 'Flores Historiarum,' in 
 1600. His famous ' Survey of London ' appeared 
 in 1598. Stow lived to beg his daily bread in his 
 eightieth year, and died 1605. 
 
 STOWELL, William, Scott, Lord, brother of 
 Lord Eldon, civilian and member of the privy 
 council, was born in Durham, 1745. His father 
 was a coal factor in Newcastle, and that town was 
 in hourly expectation of the rebels when his mother 
 approached her confinement ; she was lowered from 
 the walls in a basket, therefore, and conveyed to 
 the other side of the river, at great hazard, where 
 she gave birth to the subject of this notice, and his 
 twin sister Barbara. Having completed his educa- 
 tion at Oxford, Scott was admitted a fellow of 
 that university in 1765; in 1772 he became 
 bachelor of civil law, and in 1773, after his admis- 
 sion as a bencher of the Middle Temple, was elected 
 by the members of convocation to the office of 
 Camden's reader of Ancient Histories. He held 
 this appointment till 1785, and in the interim took 
 the degree of doctor in civil law ; he also made the 
 acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, whom he accompanied 
 to Edinburgh. He now rose from one post of 
 distinction to another, until in 1798, he was ap- 
 pointed judge of the High Court of Admiralty, and 
 a privy councillor. In 1790 he entered parliament 
 as member for one of the pocket boroughs, but in 
 1801 took a more honourable seat as representative 
 of the university of Oxford, where his exertions had 
 insured a high degree of prosperity and efficiency 
 to the Bodleian Library. He continued to repre- 
 sent the university till he was raised to the peerage 
 on the coronation of George IV. in 1821 ; the office 
 of admiralty judge he retained till 1828, a period of 
 thirty years, honourablv illustrated by the Reports 
 of his decisions, which have been published by Dr. 
 Robinson. Lord Stowell died January 28th, 1836. 
 He was twice married, the second time to a daugh- 
 ter of the famous Admiral Earl Howe. [E.R.] 
 
 STRABO, a Greek historian and geographer, 
 author of one of the most valuable relics of anti- 
 quity, being a description of nearly every part of 
 
 741 
 
STR 
 
 the world known in his time, namely, the first 
 century of the Christian era. This work is indis- 
 pensable to the elucidation of ancient history. 
 
 STRADA, Famianus, an Italian priest, histo- 
 rian of the ' Wars in the Netherlands, 1572-1649. 
 
 STRADA, J., a Flemish painter, 1536-1605. 
 
 STRADELLA, Alessandro, a Neapolitan, 
 who flourished about the year 1650. He was an 
 excellent composer, singer, and performer on the 
 violin. The romantic incidents in the life of Stra- 
 della have often been narrated, and some years 
 since they were selected as the subject of an opera, 
 the music of which was composed by Von Flotow. 
 He died from wounds inflicted upon him by the 
 stilettos of two Venetian assassins, somewhere 
 about the year 1670. His compositions were 
 chiefly of a miscellaneous character. [J-M-] 
 
 STRAFFORD, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, 
 victim of his efforts to establish the arbitrary 
 power of Charles I. in England, was the son of Sir 
 William Wentworth, of Wentworth- Woodhouse in 
 Yorkshire, and was born in Chancery Lane, Lon- 
 don, in 1593. He was the eldest of twelve chil- 
 dren, and having succeeded to the estates of his 
 father, was soon after appointed custos rotulorum 
 (keeper of the archives) for the West Riding, and in 
 1621 became member of parliament for his native 
 county. At the commencement of the reign of 
 Charles I., during the arbitrary administration of 
 Buckingham, Wentworth stood nobly by the rights 
 of the people he even bore imprisonment, the 
 deprivation of his offices, and his tyrannical exclu- 
 sion from parliament : he was among the foremost 
 promoters of the famous Petition of Right: for, 
 said he, ' We must vindicate what ? New things ? 
 No, our ancient, legal, and vital liberties, by 
 setting such a seal upon them as no licentious spirit 
 shall hereafter dare to infringe.' It may seem 
 strange that a man whose political life commenced 
 thus, should leave his party and become the first 
 sacrifice on the altar of freedom, but there are two 
 considerations which explain all such anomalies 
 those of character and circumstance. Strafford 
 was a man of pre-eminent genius, haughty, auda- 
 cious, and fond of power of that stamp who 
 mingle with their nobler qualities a reserved am- 
 bition, and ever hold themselves in readiness, like 
 the couchant lion, to make a magnificent spring 
 upon the object they mark out. Circumstances 
 are the determining cause in such a case, and had 
 Wentworth lived a few years later he might have 
 anticipated the actions of a Cromwell, without his 
 strict virtue ; as it happened, the critical death 
 of Buckingham, who fell by assassination, before 
 the popular cause had gained strength enough to 
 promise much grandeur of success, following quick 
 on recent overtures from the court, provoked 
 the lion to make his spring on what he deemed 
 nobler quarry than the cause he had so long waited 
 on. It was no mean ambition, or obscure contest 
 in which his promotion now involved the renegade, 
 for the smouldering zeal of England for her ancient 
 liberties, began to spread in bright flame, and Pym 
 warned him of his fate, when he attempted to justify 
 his conduct ; with him, beyond all question, the 
 greatest spirit that the king had won to his cause, 
 the question of a manly despotism on the one hand, 
 or a free commonwealth on the other, was now to be 
 debated, and his head was but the first stake in the 
 
 STR 
 
 game. _ We shall not consider it necessary to fol- 
 low this great statesman and daring innovator 
 from one employment to another, or note tht 
 measures which brought him to ruin ; all this ii 
 matter of history. In 1640, eight years after hii 
 appointment as lord-deputy of Ireland, he was re> 
 warded with the earldom, and his style changed t< 
 that of lord-lieutenant, but he was now constrain 
 by the king to await the meeting of parliament 
 Charles, at the same time, solemnly assuring bin 
 that ' not a hair of his head should be touched 
 The popular party meanwhile, headed by Pym 
 had prepared their accusation of Laud and Straf 
 ford, and the impeachment was carried up to th 
 bar of the House of Lords, on November 18, 1640 
 The accumulative evidence, and the well-knowj 
 character of Strafford's designs, could leave n 
 doubt of his intention to accomplish what tb 
 indictment charged him with : ' to subvert th 
 fundamental laws of the realm,' as construed b 
 the parliament ; but the necessary legal evidena 
 under the law of treason, completely failed then 
 and Strafford made such a defence that the com 
 mittee abandoned that mode of procedure, an 
 framed a bill of attainder. Abandoned to bis fat 
 by Charles, Strafford was executed in pursuant 
 of this sentence on the 12th of May, 1641. H 
 Letters, which make two folio volumes, were pnl 1 
 lished by Dr. Knowles in 1739. It is remarkab 
 that Whitlocke, chairman of the committee t 
 which the impeachment was conducted, thus test 
 fies to the bearing of Strafford when on his trial:-] 
 ' Certainly,' he says, ' never any man acted such 
 part, on such a theatre, with more wisdom, cot] 
 stancy, and eloquence, with greater reason, judj 
 ment, and temper, and with a better grace in all b] 
 words and actions, than did this great and exce j 
 lent person ; and he moved the hearts of all h J 
 auditors, some few excepted, to remorse ai 
 pity.' [E.B 
 
 STRANGE, Sir John, an English lawver ai { 
 author of Reports, 1696-1754. His son, John,] 
 naturalist and antiquarian, 1732-1799. 
 
 STRANGE, Sir Robert, one of the most end 
 nent historical engravers of Europe, was born j 
 Pomona, one of the Orkneys, July 14, 1721. Aft| 
 attempting various pursuits, he joined the Prete { 
 der in 1745, and was present at the battle <| 
 Culloden. He afterwards lived by drawing pel 
 traits in Edinburgh, till he married in 1747, wh4 
 he went abroad, and resided first at Rouen a 
 subsequently at Paris, where he commenced t j 
 study of engraving under Le Bas, and he fina 
 settled as an historical engraver, in London, 
 1751. His reputation soon extended beyond tf; 
 limits of his own country: he has no superior IM 
 line engraver generally ; he went again abro^H 
 1760, and though formally excluded from the flfl 
 lish Royal Academy, when established in Lond(^ 
 in 1768 he was successively elected a member ;]j 
 the academies of Rome, Florence, Bologna, Parn I 
 and Paris. He was knighted by George IIL 11 
 1787, and died July 5, 1792, bequeathing toptl 
 terity many exquisite engravings from some of tj 
 most celebrated Italian pictures. But the pkt| 
 of Strange are far too elaborate to be numero' j 
 they do not amount to sixty altogether : the Bfl| 
 nese masters appear to have been his favourit | 
 but one of his most celebrated works is a fu j I 
 
 742 
 
STB 
 
 ength of Charles I., after Vandyck. Strange is un- 
 iiirpassed in the representation of flesh : a fine 
 Bxample is the Venus of the Tribune, after Titian. 
 Die question of the exclusion of engravers from 
 the academy was one taken up very warmly by Sir 
 Robert, he assumed tbe whole to be personal to 
 limself. Certainly, in the original scheme for the 
 bundation of the academy in 1753, it was designed 
 that two out of the whole number of twenty -four 
 should be engravers. It is gratifying to be able 
 to state, that this standing cause of contention 
 mong English artists has at length been removed: 
 he height to which the dispute was carried at one 
 irae, may be seen in a statement published by Sir 
 Robert Strange himself, 'An Enquiry into the Rise 
 md Establishment of the Royal Academy of Arts. 
 To which is prefixed a letter to the Earl of Bute.'' 
 London, 1775. (Le Blanc, Le Graveur en taitle 
 louce, Part II., Leipzig, 1848 ; Longhi, La Cal- 
 vyraphia, Milan, 1830.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 STRATO, a Greek epigrammatic poet, presumed 
 contemporary of Septimus Severus, from 193-211. 
 
 STRATO of Lampsacus, a Greek philosopher, 
 surnamed the physician, or naturalist, from the 
 naterialistic character of his system. He was the 
 successor of Theophrastus, and taught Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus in Egypt. 
 
 STRAUCH, F. R., a Sp. theologian, 1760-1823. 
 
 STRAUCH, J., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1612-1679. 
 
 STRAUCHIUS, jEgidius, a German mathe- 
 matician and controversial divine, 1632-1682. 
 
 STRAUSS, Jans Janszoon, otherwise John 
 Struys, a Dutch traveller, author of Memoirs of 
 lis Life, and of his journies through Muscovy, 
 Tartary, Persia, and the East Indies. His travels 
 late from 1647 to 1673. Died 1694. 
 
 STREATER, R., an English painter, 1624-80. 
 
 STRICKLAND, E., distinguished as a traveller 
 aid naturalist, grandson of Sir George Strickland 
 f Bayntun, in Yorkshire, and of the celebrated 
 Dr. Cart wright, was born in Yorkshire 1811. His 
 
 vels in Asia, followed by the publication of 
 >apers on geology and ornithology, date in 1835. 
 n 1847 he began his editorial labours upon the 
 soology and geology of Professor Agassiz for the 
 say Society. He succeeded Dr. Buckland as pro- 
 'essor of geology at Oxford, and was killed oy a 
 ailway accident in September, 1853. 
 
 STRIGELIUS, Victorious, a Ger. divine and 
 hilosopher, period of the reformation, 1524-1569. 
 
 STROEMER, Martin, a Swedish professor of 
 latural philosophy and astronomy, 1707-1770. 
 
 STROGONOFF, Count Alexander Von, 
 ;he Maecenas of arts and letters at St. Petersburg, 
 rn about 1750, died 1811. His nephew, Paul, 
 
 military officer and statesman, died 1814. 
 
 STROZZI, a Florentine name, which has been 
 
 lustrated by many noble characters as states- 
 
 len, warriors, and men of letters. The savants 
 md poets are Pallas, chief of the university, 
 md a devoted friend of learning, 1372-1462. Tito 
 JTespasiano, a Latin poet and statesman, 1422- 
 L501. Ercole, hia son, author of a poem on the 
 Sreek language, and a friend of Bembo, born 
 L471, assassinated 1508. Francisco Di Soldo, 
 
 translator of Xenophon and Thucydides, known 
 
 Dm 1550 to 1563. Ciriaco, or Chirioo, pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and Greek at Bologna, 1504- 
 1665. Laurlntia, his sister, a nun, and author 
 
 STR 
 
 of festival hymns in Latin, 1514-1591. Giam- 
 battista, an elegant writer, who was invited to 
 Rome by Urban VIII., and had apartments in the 
 Vatican, died 1634. Guilio, author of a fine 
 epic poem on the origin of Venice, died 163C. 
 Pietro, secretary of briefs under Paul V., and 
 afterwards professor of philosophy at Pisa, 1575- 
 1640. Bernardo, surnamed // Cappucino and 
 Ilprete Genovese, a painter, 1581-1644. Nicolo, 
 a tragic writer, died 1654; and Giacomo, a poet 
 and dramatist, flourished at Venice, 1583-1660. 
 The public characters are those following : 
 
 STROZZI, Filippo, a Florentine senator, born 
 1488, and allied to the Medici by his marriage with 
 Clarice, niece of Leo X., famous in history for his 
 attempt to expel that family from the republic. 
 He was taken prisoner, and anticipated the public 
 death reserved for him by self-destruction, 1538. 
 His sons went to France, and engaged in the ser- 
 vice of that state against Charles V., who pro- 
 tected the Medici. Pietro, general of the French 
 galleys and marshal, was killed at the siege of 
 Thionville 1558. Leo, his brother, was chief of 
 the forces sent to the aid of Mary Stuart ; he was 
 killed in Italy 1554. Filippo, son of Pietro, born 
 at Venice 1541, became colonel of the French 
 guards, and distinguished himself at Montcontour 
 and Rochelle ; he was wounded in a fight with the 
 Spanish fleet off the island of St. Michael, and was 
 then thrown overboard, though living, by order 
 of the admiral, Santa Cruz, 1582. 
 
 STRUDEL, P., a Tyrolese painter, 1660-1717. 
 
 STRUENSEE, Adrian, a theologian and asce- 
 tic writer, minister at Halle, in Saxony, 1708-1791. 
 His eldest son, Carl August Von Struensee, 
 a distinguished economist, tactician, mathema- 
 tician, and statesman, 1735-1806. His younger 
 son is the subject of the following notice. 
 
 STRUENSEE, John Frederic, Count, 
 whose fate is connected with that of the hapless 
 princess, Matilda Caroline, sister of George III , 
 was born at Halle in 1737, and became physician 
 to Christian VII., king of Denmark, in 1768. The 
 marriage of Christian had disappointed the ambi- 
 tious hopes of the queen dowager, Julia Maria, 
 who had hitherto been able to retain her influence 
 at court, and had calculated on the succession of 
 her son, Prince Frederic; she became, therefore, 
 the mortal enemy of Matilda, who found herself 
 neglected .by the king, and after a long pleasure 
 excursion, in which he was accompanied by Stru- 
 ensee, virtually separated from him. The first 
 circumstance leading to any intimacy between 
 Matilda and Struensee was the inoculation of her 
 child, from which time she appears to have con- 
 certed with him the counter intrigues which led to 
 the ruin of both. He first became governor of the 
 prince, then counsellor of the conferences and 
 reader to the king ; his friend and firm coadjutor, 
 at the same time, Count Brandt, being appointed 
 director of the court spectacles. The imbecility 
 of the king favoured any enterprise, however rash, 
 and Struensee, once in action, contemplated no- 
 thing short of a complete revolution in the state, 
 by which the aristocracy was to be abased, and the 
 people gratified with a free press and many useful 
 reforms. All this was accomplished in 1771, and 
 the adventurer became secret minister with the 
 title of count ; having, however, a powerful party 
 
STU 
 
 tinned the peace till 1399, when the succession o 
 Henry IV. to the throne of England led to th 
 renewal of hostilities ; died 1406. He was sue 
 ceeded by his son, James, whose successors al 
 bore the same name, the fifth of the line becom 
 ing father of the unhappy Queen of Scots. Se ' 
 
 STR 
 
 of the nobles, headed by the queen dowager and 
 Count Rantzau, opposed to hiin. Tins party be- 
 gan by blackening the character of Matilda, who 
 had been reconciled to the king by the influence of 
 Struensee, and as scandal is always palatable to 
 those whose conduct would most merit its enven- 
 omed shafts, the press was set in motion against ' James, Mary. The other kings of this bona I 
 the authors of its freedom. In fine, the same de- , were James the Sixth of Scotland and First c I 
 plorable weakness that had enabled Struensee to ! England, Charles I., Charles II., and James II | 
 effect his rash enterprise, was now used to his de- j by whose deposition in 1688 the Stuarts wer 
 struction. Late one night in January, 1772, the finally expelled the throne. The son of the last 
 
 named, James Francis Edward, called th 
 Elder Pretender, was acknowledged king by Lou 
 XIV., under the title of James III., in 1701, an 
 in 1719 married the daughter of John Sobiesk 
 
 conspirators suddenly forced their way to th 
 king's apartment, persuaded him that he was 
 about to be assassinated, and procured his order 
 for the arrest of Struensee, his friend Brandt, and 
 the queen. The latter was sleeping in her cham- 
 ber at four in the morning, when Rantzau entered 
 without ceremony and made her his prisoner, and 
 it is well known that her life was only saved by 
 the presence of the English fleet, by which she 
 was conveyed to Germany. The charge against 
 them was that of conspiracy against the state, 
 aggravated by adultery. Struensee and Brandt 
 were beheaded on the 28th of April, 1772, and 
 four years after Matilda, not then twenty-five 
 years of age, expired in Zell. [E.R.] 
 
 STRUTT, Joseph, an artist and antiquarian 
 writer, born at Springfield, in Essex, 1749, died in 
 London 1802. Having been apprenticed to Ryland, 
 the engraver, he united the study of antiquities to 
 his profession, and produced the following valuable 
 works: ' The Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities 
 of England,' 1773 ; ' Manners, Customs, Arms, 
 Habits, &c, of the English, from the Arrival of 
 the Saxons to the Reign of Henry VIII.,' 1774- 
 1776; Chronicle of England,' 1777-1778 ; 'Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Engravers,' 1785-1786; 
 ' A Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of 
 the People of England.' 1796-1799 ; and that most 
 favourite of all his works, ' The Sports and Pas- 
 times of the People of England,' 1801. 
 
 STRUVE, George Adam, in Latin Struvius, 
 a Ger. jurisconsult, 1619-1692. His son, Burck- 
 hard Gotthelf, professor of history, 1672-1738. 
 
 STRUYS. See Strauss. 
 
 STRY, A. Van, a Dutch painter, 1755-1824. 
 
 STRYPE, John, an indefatigable compiler of 
 works relating to ecclesiastical history and bio- 
 graphy, was born at Stepney, of German extrac- 
 tion, 1643, and became rector of Low Layton, in 
 Essex, about 1669. It was here, during a sixty 
 years' incumbency, that he compiled his valuable 
 works, the chief of which are his ' Ecclesiastical Me- 
 morials,' the publication of which was completed 
 in 1721 ; his ' Annals of the Reformation,' pub- 
 lished from 1709 to 1731 ; and his ' Lives ot the 
 Archbishops Cranmer, Parker, Grindall, and Whit- 
 gift.' In the latter part of his life he became lec- 
 turer at Hackney ; died 1737. 
 
 STUART, the royal house of Great Britain after 
 the union of Scotland. The first of the name was 
 the only child of Walter, the Steward of Scotland, 
 and his wife Marjory, daughter of King Robert 
 Bruce ; he was born 1316 ; commanded the second 
 division of the Scottish army at the battle of Hali- 
 don, 19th July, 1333; concluded the treaty of 
 Perth with Edward III., 1335 ; succeeded David 
 II. under the title of Robert II. 1371, died 1390. 
 His son, Robert III., reigned after him, and con- 
 
 king of Poland ; he made some vain attempts t 
 recover the kingdom, and died at Rome in 176; 
 He resigned his pretensions to his son, Cm arm- 
 Edward, born 1721, who fought gallantly for tl 
 throne of his ancestors, and was defeated at Cu 
 loden 1746 ; died at Rome 1788. The last of tl 
 Stuarts was his brother, Henry Benedict, wl 
 entered the church after the disasters of 1745, ar 
 became titular cardinal of York ; on the death 1 1 
 Prince Charles, however, he assumed the vain tit j 
 of Henry IX. The invasion of Italy by the Fren( I 
 republic soon after, compelled him to seek safei 
 in Venice, and he was there supported by a pensk j 
 from the English crown. Died 1807. 
 
 STUART, Arabella. See Seymour. 
 
 STUART, Sir Charles, fourth son of Lo: | 
 Bute, the favourite of George III., employed as j 
 military officer beginning of last war, 1753-1801 J 
 
 STU ART, Daniel, brother-in-law of Sir Jam 1 
 Mackintosh, many years editor and proprietor j 
 the ' Morning Post' and the ' Courier,' 1766-184 1 
 
 STUART, Gilbert, a Scottish historian ai j 
 miscellaneous writer, Edinburgh, 1742-1786. 
 
 STUART, James, descended from the house 
 Moray, and known as a partizan of the Whig 
 was born at Duneam in 1776, and became a writ j 
 to the signet in 1798. The chief event in 1 1 
 career was a fatal duel with Sir A. Boswell, & I 
 of the famous biographer and friend of Dr. Join I 
 son, which took place in 1822. Stuart being t 
 victor, w r as tried for murder, but acquitted. 
 1835, when Lord Melbourne became premier, m 
 was in London editing the ' Courier ' newspapt 
 and was rewarded for his supporting the gover 
 ment by the office of inspector of factories ; d. 184 
 
 STUART, James, commonly called ' Atheni j 
 Stuartf was born in London, of Scotch parents, I 
 1713, and prosecuted his famous pedestrian travt 
 in the period from 1742 to 1755. His ' Antiqi 
 ties of Athens,' a work of high value for its pain 
 taking research and truthfulness, appeared | 
 1762 ; died 1788. 
 
 STUART, John, a Scottish antiquarian a j 
 professor of Greek at Aberdeen, author of an ' A 
 count of Marischal College and University,' * T'l 
 Sculptured Pillars in the Northern Counties I 
 Scotland,' and 'Observations upon the Vario : 
 Accounts of the Progress of the Roman Arms 
 Scotland,' 1751-1827. 
 
 STUBBE, H., a learned writer, 1631-1676. 
 
 STUBBS, G., an English divine, 17th centur j 
 
 STUBBS, G., a disting. painter, 1724-1806. ' j 
 
 STUBBS, or STUBBE, John, a sturdy purit 
 and political writer, lived about 1541-1600. 
 
 744 
 
 ft. 
 
GLW-wr?ums Q^tofo&z 
 
STTJ 
 
 i STUCKIUS, J. W., a Swiss divine, 1542-1607. 
 ! STUKELEY, William, a famous antiquarian, 
 born at Holbech, in Lincolnshire, 1687, died 1765. 
 I His works are ' Itinerarium Curiosum,' or an 
 j j Account of the Antiquities and Curiosities on his 
 |Travels through Great Britain,' published 1724; 
 B Pataographia Sacra, or Discourses on the Monu- 
 ments of Antiquity that Relate to Sacred His- 
 tory,' 1736; an 'Account of Stonehenge,' 1740, 
 and some others. 
 
 ' STUBE, Steno, called ' the Elder,' administra- 
 tor of the government of Sweden, was the son of 
 [the statesman, Gustavus Anundson Sture, by 
 Bridget, half-sister of Charles Canuteson. The 
 (historical events in which all the Stures figured 
 unark the period of the union of the three king- 
 jdoms, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, as effected 
 my Margaret of Waldemar. Charles Canuteson, 
 installed king in defiance of Christian I. of Den- 
 park, expired in 1470. and Steno Sture, already 
 Known for a ' skilful, cautious, and free-minded 
 lord, and therewithal prosperous in his designs,' 
 received the government at his death, with the 
 counsel never to strive after the regal title, the 
 assumption of which, by Charles, had brought 
 nnany disasters upon the kingdom. Steno Sture 
 was the man of the people, and the chief votes 
 for his election were those of the peasants and 
 burgesses ; few of the lords followed his banner. 
 In the middle of 1471, Christian appeared at 
 Stockholm with a fleet of seventy snips, and 
 Steno advanced to the relief of the capital 
 with about ten thousand men ; the strength 
 pf the Danish army was about the same, and it 
 was posted on a sandy height, called the Brunke- 
 perg, outside the town. Here the battle for the 
 independence of Sweden was fought, on the 11th 
 pf October, and the Swedes gained a hard won 
 victory, as mav be judged from the fact that no 
 less than five hundred of the enemy fell around 
 |the Danebrog or standard of Christian, who 
 uitted Sweden, and made no farther attempts 
 st it. The wise administration of the king- 
 by Steno Sture now secured to Sweden a 
 succession of happy years, and in 1477 he 
 ded the university of Upsala. His later years 
 ere disturbed by the invasion of Finland by 
 ia, the accidental burning of Stockholm, the 
 e, the failure of crops, and finally, by the 
 vfval of the Danish claims under King John. 
 All these circumstances combined to deprive Steno 
 Sture of his power in 1497, but he regained it in 
 1501, and again carried matters with a high hand. 
 He died by poison, probably administered by the 
 physician of the Danish queen, in 1503. [E.R.] 
 STURE, Suanto Nilson, successor of the 
 preceding, was joined in the government.of Sweden 
 by a warrior priest named Hemming Gadd, who 
 was ' oftener seen at the head of an army or a fleet 
 jthan at the altar.' Suanto is described as a val- 
 iant warrior of a bounteous and cheerful disposi- 
 tion. It was said of him proverbially that no one 
 was admitted into his service who was observed to 
 prink before the blow of a battle-axe, and that he 
 would rather strip himself of his clothes than 
 puffur a fellow-soldier to go unrewarded. He 
 teems to have been hail fellow, well met,' with 
 W>e peasantry, and made a gallant stand with them 
 jagainst the pretensions of John, king of Denmark. 
 
 745 
 
 STL- 
 He was marching against Prince Christian, son of 
 John, when he expired suddenly in 1512. His 
 administration had been one prolonged warfare 
 with the Danes, and he succeeded in drawing into 
 his alliance the Hanse Towns of Germany. His 
 death was followed, a year later, by that of King 
 John, who was succeeded by the cruel tvrant, 
 Christian II. [E.R.] 
 
 STURE, Steno SuAnteson, son and successor 
 of the preceding Suanto Sture, and ' the noblest 
 and most chivalrous of his family,' was elected 
 administrator in defiance of the Danish faction, 
 one of whom was run through at the feast in the 
 castle of Stockholm, on that occasion. In 1516, the 
 ambitious prelate Gustavus Trolle, connived at the 
 revival of the Danish claims under Christian, and 
 that invader was defeated by Sture at the battle 
 of Brenn-Kirk, near Stockholm, 22d July, 1518. 
 In this battle the Swedish banner was carried by a 
 young noble, Gustavus Vasa, destined to be the 
 avenger of his country, and the founder of a dynasty 
 of kings. In the beginning of 1520, the Danish 
 army made a new invasion, and a battle was 
 fought on the ice of lake Assundun in West Goth- 
 land. Steno was mortally wounded, and being car- 
 ried out of the battle, died in his sledge while has- 
 tening across the ice to Stockholm, where his wife, 
 Christina Gyllenstierna, continued the resistance 
 with great heroism. The Swedes, however, were 
 routed, and the coronation of Christian was cele- 
 brated by that 'massacre of Stockholm,' which 
 makes one of the bloodiest chapters of history. 
 Such were the results at which the policy of Mar- 
 garet of Waldemar had arrived; aggravated, how- 
 ever, by the bigotry of a dark and ambitious super- 
 stition assuming the name of religion. These 
 events possess more than the interest of old 
 annals. The Stures of Sweden carried on the bat- 
 tle of freedom and the Christian faith till the Gus- 
 tavuses arose, to whose great victories we owe at 
 this hour the peaceful possession of the Bible in 
 Europe. [E.R.] 
 
 STURGEON, William, a great discoverer in 
 electro-magnetism and galvanism, was born at 
 Whittington, in Lancashire, 1783. He was ap- 
 prenticed to a shoemaker, and his career exhibits 
 a striking example of the distinction that is some- 
 times reached under the most difficult circum- 
 stances, arising from a deficient education and 
 social position. His experiments and works hav- 
 ing led to his general recognition as a man of high 
 science, Mr. Sturgeon was appointed professor of 
 experimental philosophy in the military academy 
 at Addiscombe : died 1850. 
 
 STURGES, John, a theologian, died 1807. 
 
 STURM, James, a German diplomatist, whose 
 protest against the exclusion of the deputies of 
 the reformed from the diet of Spires, in 1519, led 
 to the appellation of 'Protestants,' was born at 
 Strasburg 1489. He was employed in several em- 
 bassies, and contributed materials towards Slei- 
 dan's History of the Reformation; died 1555. 
 
 STURM, John, in Latin Sturmius, called on 
 account of his great learning the German Cicero, 
 author of several original works and translations, 
 Strasburg, 1507-1589. 
 
 STURM, or STURMIUS, John Christopher, 
 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy 
 at Altorf, author of several works in physics, 
 
SUD 
 
 1635-1703. His son, Leonard Christopher, 
 an engineer and writer on architecture, 1669-1719. 
 To the same family belongs Christopher Chris- 
 tian Sturm, a pastor at Hamburgh, one of whose 
 works has been translated into most European 
 languages; and is known in English under the 
 title of ' Reflections on the Works of God,' born 
 at Augsburg 1740, died 1786. 
 
 STURT, John, a London engraver, 1658-1730. 
 
 STURZ, H. P., a German writer, 1736-1776. 
 
 STYLE, W., a writer on law, 1603-1679. 
 
 SUARD, Jean Baptiste Antoine, an elegant 
 writer, secretary to the Fr. Academy, 1733-1817. 
 
 SUAREZ, F*., a Spanish theologian, 1548-1617. 
 
 SUAREZ, J. M., an Ital. antiquary, died 1677. 
 
 SUBLEYRAS, Peter, a French painter, taught 
 by his father, Matthew, and by Rival, 1699-1749. 
 
 SUBTERMANS, or SUSTERMANS, Justus, 
 a portrait and hist, painter of Antwerp, 1597-1681. 
 
 SUCHET, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, 
 one of Napoleon's generals, was born at Lyons 
 1772, and rose to distinction in the wars waged 
 by the republic in Italy. In 1800 he was major- 
 general, and in 1805 began his career in the Spanish 
 peninsula, where he rose to the command of one 
 division of the army, and obtained his ducal 
 honours. He became a peer of France after the 
 restoration, and died 1826. 
 
 SUCKLING, Sir John, a poet and courtier of 
 the period of James I., was born at Whitton, in 
 Middlesex, in 1609, and became the friend and 
 companion of such men as Falkland and Devereux. 
 At the period of the rebellion he displayed his 
 loyalty and love of show by spending 12,000 in 
 equipping a troop of one hundred horse, who 
 proved too fine to De good for much in the field. 
 Another trait of his character was exhibited by his 
 endeavour to rescue Strafford, for which he was 
 obliged to fly to France, where he died prematurely 
 in 1641. He was an elegant writer, an accom- 
 plished scholar, and a great wit. 
 
 SUDAN, J. N., archivist of Lyons, 1761-1827. 
 
 SUE, Jean Joseph, father and son, French 
 surgeons, the former 1710-1792. Pierre, a ne- 
 phew of the elder, author of a 4 History of Gal- 
 vanism,' 1739-1816. 
 
 SUENO, three kings of Denmark, the first 
 reigned 985-1014. The second, his grandson, re- 
 ceived the crown of that country to the prejudice 
 of Harald, king of Norway, 1047, died 1074. The 
 third, usurped the throne after assassinating 
 Canute V., 1147, and was killed in battle with 
 Waldemar, 1157. 
 
 SUERKER III., king of Sweden from 1192-1210. 
 
 SUETONIUS, Caius Tranquillus, a Roman 
 advocate, who obtained the office of tribune through 
 the influence of his friend, Pliny the Younger, 
 and was afterwards secretary to Trajan. He is 
 now known as an historian and miscellaneous 
 writer, by his 'Lives of the Twelve Caesars,' and 
 his 'Notices of Grammarians, Rhetoricians, and 
 Poets,' still extant. 
 
 SUETONIUS-PAULINUS, a Roman general, 
 who became governor of Britain, and vanquished 
 Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, 59. 
 
 SUETT, Richard, a low comedian of great 
 humour, and supposed to be inimitable in his'line. 
 He was a native of London, and a choir boy in St. 
 Paul's cathedral. He made his first appearance 
 
 SUL 
 
 on the stage at the Haymarket theatre, while yet 
 very young; but afterwards sought practice in th. 
 provinces, and particularly at York, where hij 
 acquired some reputation. In 1781 he appearec] 
 at Drury Lane, and became famous in coined' 
 and broad farce. Among the parts for which hi 
 was celebrated were Robin, Endless, and ])ich 
 Gossip. He died in 1805 at the age of forty 
 seven, habits of intemperance having led to hi: 
 early death. [J.AjB 
 
 SUEUR, Eustache Le, was born at M& 
 Didier in 1617, and became the pupil of Siinoi 
 Vouet at Paris, but by the aid of some of Marc 
 antonio's prints after Raphael, and soni. 
 pictures of that great painter in France, he deve j 
 loped a style superior to that of any of his contera J 
 poraries. His celebrated series of twenty-two larg 
 
 Eictures, from the life of St. Bruno, now in th 
 ouvre, was painted before his thirtieth year ; the* I 
 were originally painted on wood in the cloister o I 
 the Carthusians at Paris, but were transferred t 
 canvas in 1766. Le Sueur died in 1655, in th j 
 thirty-eighth year of his age. Considering his coir 1 
 paratively short life, his works are very numerom I 
 and most of them are on a large scale : they hav I 
 been well engraved by the Massards, G. Andrani 
 and the two Picarts. His style was grand in design l 
 and he excelled in composition, but he was deficien I 
 both in colour and in chiaroscuro. The more show j 
 style of Lebrun obscured the reputation of L I 
 Sueur during his lifetime, but he now holds de i 
 servedly a much higher place than his more success j 
 ful rival. He is sometimes styled the FrencJ 
 Raphael. In composition, in character, and in th I 
 disposing of draperies, he was equal to the greatesl 
 of the Italians. (Felibien, Entretiens sur les v'u 
 #c.,desplus excellent Peintres, &c; D'Argenvilki 
 Abrege de la vie des Peintres j Supp. to Penn 1 
 Cyclopaedia.) [R.N/W 
 
 SUEUR, J. Le, a French protestant, d. 1681. | 
 
 SUEUR, Peter Le, a French wood engravei-H 
 1636-1716. Nicholas, his nephew, 1690-1 ."64 J 
 
 SUFFREN, J., a French Jesuit, 1565-1641. I 
 
 SUFFRENSAINT-TROPEZ, Peter Andre*! 
 De, one of the most dist. naval officers produce I 
 by France, served under De Grasse, 1726-1788. I 
 
 SUGER, the Abbe, a French statesman, tim f 
 of Louis VII. and Louis Le Gros, 1082-1152. I 
 
 SUHM, P. F., a Danish historian, 1728-1798. 
 
 SUICER, or SCHWEITZER, John GaspM 
 a Swiss theologian and Hellenist, 1620-l^H 
 His son, J. Henry, a theologian and cominen j I 
 tator on the Bible, 1644-1705. 
 
 SUIDAS, a Greek lexicographer, who is sub J 
 posed to have lived about the 11th century. Hill 
 work is highly valuable for its details of literar ! J 
 history, and its excerpta from lost authors. 
 
 SULLA. See Sylla. 
 
 SULIVAN, Sir Richard Joseph, a membe \ 
 of parliament, and employe of the East Indij 
 Company, author of ' Analysis of the Politic* 
 History of India,' died 1806. 
 
 SULLIVAN, John, an American general an j j 
 member of Congress, afterwards a judge of Ne*1| 
 Hampshire, 1741-1795. His brother, JajmI 
 governor of Massachusets, author of ' Observat^M 
 on the Government of the United States,' and fll 
 ' Dissertation on the Constitutional Liberty offlH 
 Press,' 1741-1808. 
 
 746 
 
SUL 
 
 SULLY, H., an English watchmaker, d. 1728. 
 
 SULLY, Maurice De, bishop of Paris, cele- 
 brated as a preacher, and for having laid the first 
 stone of tlie cathedral, 1160-1196. Eudes, his 
 successor, 1197-1208. 
 
 SULLY, Maximiliex De Bkthune, duke of 
 Sully, bom 13th December, 1560, was the second 
 son of Francis de Bethune, baron of Rosny, a French 
 protestant noble of high lineage, but impoverished 
 patrimony. Young Maximilien Rosny was taken at 
 the age of twelve to the court of Henry of Navarre, 
 | (afterwards Henry IV. of France,) then in his twen- 
 tieth year, and was solemnly commanded by his 
 father to live and die with the royal master, to whom 
 he was then assigned. Rosny accompanied Henry to 
 Paris and narrowly escaped perishing in the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew. When the young king of Na- 
 varre escaped from Paris, and renewed the armed 
 resistance of the Huguenots against their catholic 
 persecutors, young Rosny was with him, and be- 
 came, while yet in boyhood, a captain of proved 
 courage and skill. During the nineteen years of 
 civil war, which elapsed before Henry was ac- 
 knowledged king of France, Rosny rendered him 
 the most eminent services, not only by valour and 
 condnct in the field, but by his honesty and can- 
 dour as an adviser, and also by the genius, as a 
 financier and a statesman, which developed itself 
 in the young noble, during the struggles and 
 vicissitudes of this stormy portion of his chivalrous 
 master's career. When the civil wars were at last 
 ended, and Henry obtained undisputed possession 
 of the crown, the internal affairs of the king- 
 dom were in the most deplorable condition. There 
 was the bitterest animosity of sect against sect. 
 Agriculture, trade, and foreign commerce had suf- 
 fered equally from the lawless violence of the 
 ng factions ; the finances of the crown 
 eply, and as it seemed irretrievably 
 embarrassed ; and the resources of the state were 
 dilapidated and apparently destroyed. Rosny now 
 acted as the king's chief minister in reorganizing 
 _ e kingdom out of the shipwreck of intestine strife 
 and national bankruptcy. He was indefatigable 
 
 searching out and redressing the abuses that 
 
 d grown up in every department of the adminis- 
 tration ; he investigated the origin and proper 
 character of each branch of the revenue, and he 
 personally examined the productive and commer- 
 cial capabilities of the various districts and towns. 
 e studied the modes of collecting the taxes and 
 
 er imposts, that might be most lucrative to the 
 , and least oppressive to the subject. The 
 
 ernes, which he thus cautiously and wisely 
 framed, were put into execution by him with equal 
 firmness and skill ; and having found, when he 
 Undertook the management of the French finances 
 
 1597. an empty treasury, an increasing national 
 and an over-burdened and discontented po- 
 pulation, he left in 1611 a surplus revenue, a large 
 accumulation of treasure, and satisfaction and 
 prosperity in every class of the community. It 
 : not only as a financial reformer that he served 
 king and his country. He was Henry's coun- 
 cilor in all the king's great measures of the reign 
 ^th regard to foreign affairs, and also in those hy 
 hich liberty of conscience and full rights of citi- 
 enship were guaranteed to the Huguenots, and by 
 ~hich the effective administration of the law and 
 
 SUT 
 
 the maintenance of order and tranquillity were 
 secured. He was liberally rewarded by his sove- 
 reign with wealth and honours, and in 1606 was 
 made duke de Sully, and a peer of France. After 
 Henry's assassination in 1610 Sully retained his 
 offices for a short time under Louis XIIL, but 
 finding his influence decline and his counsels 
 slighted, he retired from the court. Part of the 
 occupation of Sully's after life was the composition 
 of his well-known and valuable Memoirs. He died 
 December 22, 1641. [E.S.C.] 
 
 SULPICIA, a Roman poetess, 90 b.c. 
 
 SULPICIUS, Gallus. See Gaixus. 
 
 SULPICIUS -LEMONIA-RUFUS,Servius, 
 a Roman lawyer, and friend of Cicero, 106-43 b.c. 
 
 SULPICIUS, Rufus, a Roman orator, born 
 124 b.c, became tribune 88 ; he was decapitated 
 by Sylla, as a partizan of Marius. 
 
 SULPICIUS-SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical his- 
 torian of the 5th century, author of a ' Life of St. 
 Martin of Tours,' and an ' Ecclesiastical History.' 
 
 SULZER, J. G., a Swiss writer, 1720-1779. 
 
 SUMAROKOFF, Alexander Petrowitsch, 
 a dramatic wr., poet, and fabulist of Moscow, con- 
 sidered the founder of the Russian drama, 1727-77. 
 
 SUMMONTE, J. A., a Neapolitan historian of 
 the city and kingdom of Naples, who was rewarded 
 for his labours by a persecution, and died 1602. 
 
 SURITA, or ZURITA, Jerome, a Spanish 
 historian and secretarv to the Inquisition, 1512-80. 
 
 SURIN, J. J., a French Jesuit, 1600-1665. 
 
 SURIUS, L., an ascetic writer, 1522-1578. 
 
 SURREY. See Howard. 
 
 SUSARION, an ancient Greek actor, supposed 
 to be the inventor of comedy. 
 
 SUSON, B. H., a French ascetic, died 1366. 
 
 SUSSEX, Augustus Frederick, duke of, 
 sixth son of George III., was born 1773. He 
 married the Lady Augusta Murray, second 
 daughter of the earl of Dunmore, in defiance of 
 the royal marriage act, and though the marriage 
 was pronounced void, they continued to live 
 together till the lady's death in 1830. The chil- 
 dren of this marriage were Sir Augustus D'Este, 
 since dead, and a daughter, who became the wife 
 of Sir Thomas Wilde, Lord Truro. The duke 
 died in 1843, and was buried, by his own will, at 
 Kensall Green Cemeterv. 
 
 SUSSMITCH, J. P., a Germ, divine, 1705-67. 
 
 SUTCLIFFE, or SOUTCLIFFE, Matthew, 
 dean of Exeter, and founder of a learned estab- 
 lishment at Chelsea, which proved the origin of 
 the present military asylum, 1582-1629. 
 
 SUTTON, Richard, one of the founders of 
 Brazennose College, Oxford, and steward of Sion 
 monastery, near Brentford, known 1490-1522. 
 
 SUTTON, Thomas, founder of the Charter- 
 house, was an accomplished English gentleman, 
 and merchant, born at Knaith, in Lincolnshire, 
 1532. In 1569, being already secretary to the 
 earl of Warwick, he was appointed master-general 
 of the ordnance at Berwick, and greatly distin- 
 guished himself in the northern rebellion, which 
 broke out under the earls of Northumberland and 
 Westmoreland. In 1573, he commanded one of 
 the batteries which compelled the castle of Edin- 
 burgh to surrender to the English ; and the same 
 year went to the assistance of the Regent Morton 
 as one of the chiefs of a body of 1,500 men, sent 
 
 747 
 
SUV 
 
 into Scotland by Elizabeth. In 1582, Sutton 
 married a relative of the earl of Warwick, and 
 soon after commenced those speculations as a con- 
 tractor, merchant, and armed privateer, by which he 
 acquired his immense fortune. This was greatly 
 augmented, however, by the value of the coal dis- 
 covered in two manors which he had purchased of 
 the bishop of Durham. After the loss of his wife 
 in 1602, Sutton began to change his manner of 
 living, and being deeply impressed with a sense of 
 religion, he finally purchased the dissolved mon- 
 astery of the Chartreuse, which he endowed most 
 nobly with the bulk of his property : the purchase 
 money alone was no less than 13,000, in those 
 times a much greater sum than at present. He 
 died at Hackney, in 1611, and his remains were 
 deposited in a vault prepared for them under the 
 chapel of the Charter-house. After his death, the 
 nephew of Sutton, though munificently provided 
 for, sought to invalidate the foundation of this 
 charity, and the history of his attempt is supposed 
 to implicate Lord Bacon as a particeps criminis. 
 Like manv of our noble charities, the administra- 
 tion of the Charter-house is said to have been 
 marked by great abuse, the augmented value 
 of the endowment being much more largely 
 shared in by the officials and the school than 
 the needy brethren; very recently, however, a 
 vindication has been published by the present 
 master, Archdeacon Hale, entitled, 'Some Ac- 
 count of the Early History and Foundation of the 
 Hospital.' [E.R.] 
 
 SUVEE, J. B., a Flemish painter, 1743-1807. 
 
 SUVENHUSIUS, William, professor of He- 
 brew and Greek at Amsterdam, editor of an 
 edition of the Mischna, with Notes, and a Latin 
 version, published 1703. 
 
 SUWARROW, or SOUVAROFF, Peter 
 Alexis Vasilievitch, Count, a Russian general, 
 remarkable for his headlong valour and barbarian 
 energy of purpose, was born at Suskoi, in the 
 Ukraine, 1730, and commenced his military career 
 in the campaign against Sweden in 1747, shortly 
 followed by the seven years' war. In 1762 he re- 
 turned to his country, but took the field again in 
 1768, and obtained those successes in Poland which 
 led to its first partition between Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia, the events of which date from 1768 
 to 1771. In 1773 he led the Russian hordes 
 against Turkey, and captured in succession Tour- 
 takaye and Hirsout. In 1782 he defeated the Tar- 
 tars of the Crimea, and obliged them to take the 
 oath of submission to Russia : the next year he was 
 appointed general-in-chief and governor of that 
 country. The Turks having renewed the struggle 
 in 1787, a desperate battle was fought at Kinburn, 
 where Suwarrow was severely wounded, and com- 
 pelled to seek repose in his litter ; his troops were 
 soon after thrown into confusion, but the general 
 mounted his horse, and reproaching them with 
 their cowardice, threw himself almost into the 
 midst of the enemy, and retrieved the fortunes of 
 the field. The crowning victory in this campaign 
 was the capture of Ismail, a fortress of Bessarabia, 
 near the mouth of the Danube, in December, 1789. 
 In 1794 the brave Polanders took the field under 
 Kosciusko, to fight once more the battle of their 
 independence, and in two months the Vistula was 
 crimsoned with the blood of the patriots : on the 
 
 SUW 
 
 4th of November, Suwarrow captured Prnga, and 
 on the 9th he made his solemn entry into Warsaw. 
 Much has been written about the excessive cruelty] 
 practised on this occasion, but there is really no-] 
 thing to show that it exceeded the usual practice j 
 fiendish as it is of a victorious army ; and it if 
 recorded that Suwarrow's eyes filled with tears 
 when the keys of Warsaw were presented to 
 at the remembrance of what had occurred. I 
 was, in some respects, a man of almost barba 
 character ; of this no denial can reasonably be ad- 
 mitted ; but we are disposed to believe that his 
 method of leading the Russians to victory was ait 
 merciful as any method could be, and it is froiBj 
 the Russian side of view that we ought to estimate 
 the character of her commanders; to measure then 
 by the higher standard applicable to our own coun- 
 trymen, is manifestly absurd. Suwarrow's eccen- 
 tricities enter largely into all the narratives of hiii 
 career, but we can hardly find space for his per- 
 sonal portrait, or for those traits of charactei 
 which properly belong to biography. In height 
 he barely exceeded five feet, he was miserably thin 
 had a large mouth, a wrinkled forehead, and a fe*j 
 patches of grey hair on his head. His contempt^ 
 of dress could only be equalled by his disregard o 
 every form of politeness, and some idea may b 
 formed of both from the fact, that he was washes 
 in the morning by several buckets of cold wate 
 thrown over him, and that he often drilled his mei 
 in his shirt sleeves, with his stockings hanging 
 down about his heels ; like his men also, proudh 
 dispensing with the use of a pocket handkerchief 
 His favourite signal of attack was a shrill cock* 
 crow : ' To-morrow morning,' said he, previous tij 
 the storming of Ismail, ' I mean to be up an hoj 
 before daybreak, I shall then dress and wash my*; 
 self, then say my prayers, then give one gofl 
 cock-crow, and capture Ismail.' _ His despatch*! 
 announcing victory were equally singular, and we 
 generally in doggrel rhvme. One of these, in } 
 campaign of 1773, is literally rendered thus- 
 was addressed to Prince Romanzoff: 
 1 Glory to God glory to thee, 
 Tourtakaye's taken and taken by me ! 
 
 The most remarkable points in his character as 
 soldier were his contempt of strategy, and hi , 
 devoted courage : his motto was ' Forward 
 strike,' Nothing to be thought of but the of 
 sive quick marches energy in attack the 
 steel.' With these qualities he won the hea 
 his soldiers, and obtained his great victories 
 the Poles and Turks. They were unsuited, 1 
 ever, to the atmosphere of a court, and after 
 death of Catharine, Suwarrow disgusted her 
 cessor, Paul I., and retired to his estate of Khs 
 schansk, where he remained till 1799. The 
 of his heart to take a command against the Fr 
 was then gratified, and he was sent into Italy I 
 the head of 30,000 Russians, to co-operate v 
 the archduke Charles of Austria. No exige 
 or respect of persons could induce this stalwart < 
 kern to alter his principles : asked for his pll 
 by the emperor, he protested he had none, or, if 1 
 had, that he should not disclose them : present 
 with propositions for defensive operations, he wo 
 not hear of them ; ' Tell my lord, the prince, r 
 I know nothing of the defensive ; I can only att 
 I shall advance when it seems good to me to d 
 
 748 
 
suz 
 
 SWE 
 
 so; and -when I do, I shall not stop in Switzer- ! the university of Upsal, and attended the lectures of 
 
 the younger Linnseus. Soon becoming his own 
 master he devoted himself to travel and collecting 
 plants. While only twenty-three he undertook at 
 his own expense a voyage to the West Indies and 
 South America. He explored the botany of 
 Jamaica, St. Domingo, and the other islands ; and 
 after visiting the coast of America returned to 
 Europe by way of England. In London he made 
 the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, Sir Hans 
 Sloane, &c, and returned to his native country with 
 great acquisitions in both knowledge and collections. 
 He was soon afterwards elected a member of the 
 Academy of Stockholm, and the year after made its 
 president. He was called to the chair of botany 
 at the medico-chirurgical institution of that town, 
 and was decorated by his sovereign with the orders 
 of Vasa and the Polar Star. He taught botany 
 with much success at Stockholm, and continued a 
 great upholder of the Linnaean system. He estab- 
 lished many new genera of plants ; described with 
 clearness and conciseness an immense number of 
 species: and paid particular attention to crypto- 
 gamic botany. Schreber has called a genus of 
 plants after him, Schwartzia. [W.B.] 
 
 SVEDBERG, or SWEDBERG, Jesper, bishop 
 of Skara in Westrogothia, was bom on his father's 
 estate near Fahlun in Sweden, 1653, and was many 
 years chaplain in a regiment of cavalry, and super- 
 intendent of the Swedish mission established in 
 England and America. He was raised to the see 
 of Skara in 1702 by Charles XII., and three years 
 later became doctor of theology at Upsala. In 
 1719 the family was ennobled, and the name of 
 Swedenborg adopted by his son, Emanuel, as men- 
 tioned in the following article. Bishop Swedberg 
 was a great writer, and among the fruits of his pen 
 is an antobiography still in MSS. His children 
 are the subjects of some curious notices, among 
 which occurs the following : ' I have kept my 
 sons to that profession to which God has given 
 them inclination and liking ; and I have not brought 
 up one to the clerical office, although many parents 
 do this inconsiderately and in a manner not justi- 
 fiable, by which the Christian Church, and also the 
 clerical order, suffer not a little, and is brought 
 into contempt. I have never had my daughters in 
 Stockholm, where many reside in order to learn 
 fine manners, but where also they leam much that 
 is worldly and injurious to the soul.' This good 
 old man died in 1735. [E.R.] 
 
 land. I shall go, according to my orders, into 
 Franche-Comte. Tell him that at Vienna I am 
 at his feet, but that here I am at least his equal. 
 He is a field-marshal, so am I ; he serves a great 
 emperor, so do I ; he commands an army, so do I : 
 he is young, and I am old. I have acquired expe- 
 rience by successive victories, and I receive neither 
 counsel nor advice from any one : I trust alone in 
 God and my sword.' It is not surprising that he 
 Was defeated by Massena at Zurich, and that a 
 campaign thus conducted against the generals of 
 the rising star of Napoleon, should have had an 
 unsatisfactory termination, yet Suwarrow was 
 never, at any moment, unworthy of his laurels. 
 He was at length ordered to return, and died, ne- 
 glected by the emperor, at St. Petersburgh, May 
 18, 1800. [E.R.] 
 
 SUZE, Henrietta. See Cot,igxi. 
 
 SUZE, H. De, archbishop of Embrun, 1250-71. 
 
 SWAAN, J., a Dutch chemist, 1774-1826. 
 
 SWAMMERDAM, Jean, a celebrated anatomist 
 md entomologist, was born at Amsterdam in 1637. 
 Ie died in 1680. His father was an apothecary, 
 nd possessed a collection of objects in natural 
 istory. Engaged while a mere boy in cleaning 
 
 f m be articles in this museum, the young Swammer- 
 am soon acquired a taste for the study of nature, 
 md became an especial lover of entomology. He 
 itadied medicine at Leyden, and took his degree 
 here in 1667. He prosecuted his anatomical re- 
 rches with great zeal and success, and was the 
 t to discover the art of injecting the arteries and 
 reins, which has proved of such use in dissections. 
 i severe attack of a quartan ague obliged him to 
 ntermit his studies for a time, and upon his reco- 
 rery he relinquished his human anatomy, and de- 
 nted himself almost entirely to that of insects. In 
 .669 he published his ' General History of Insects,' 
 n which he attempts a classification of them, ac- 
 iording to their structure and the metamorphoses 
 hey undergo. From this work he acquired great 
 eputation, but in consequence of over-exertion in 
 tudy, his health gave way. He fell soon after- 
 rards into an extremely hypochondriacal state, 
 carce deigning even to answer a question addressed 
 o him, and at length became unfit for entering into 
 ociety. In this sad state of mind he was struck 
 rith the peculiar tenets of an extraordinary woman 
 f that time, Antoinette Bourignon, and soon be- 
 me plunged into the depths of her mystical de- 
 otion. He fancied that he would offend the Deity 
 
 >y continuing his anatomical pursuits, and throw- 
 g away the scalpel, he followed his fanatical leader 
 i Holstein. He returned some time afterwards to 
 Lmsterdam, but his mortifications and mystical 
 tadies had reduced him to the state of a living 
 keleton. In one of his fits of melancholy, he 
 tamed all the manuscripts he could lay his hands 
 Jon ; but fortunately some time previous to this, 
 IB limited means had compelled him to sell a 
 KJrtion of them, which ultimately coming into the 
 ands of Boerhaave, were published by him many 
 after the unfortunate author's death. [W.B.J 
 
 sense The Philosopher of Christianity, was born at 
 Stockholm, 29th January, 1688. His parentage is 
 shown in the preceding article, and as the events of 
 his life were few and simple, we shall here limit 
 ourselves to a sketch of his literary career, and a 
 justification of the above title. In 1709 Emanuel 
 Swedberg, afterwards Swedenborg, completed his 
 education at the university of Upsala, and pub- 
 lished his academical dissertation, consisting of 
 moral sentences from the writings of Seneca, Pub- 
 lius Syras, and others, illustrated with notes from 
 the old Latin authors. From 1710 to 1714 he 
 was journeying abroad, according to the custom 
 in those days, sometimes writing heroic verses, 
 epigrams, or love pieces in the Latin tongue to re- 
 lieve his toils at the various seats of learning that 
 he visited. In 1716 he commenced the publica- 
 749 
 
SWE 
 tlon of papers on the mathematics and physical 
 sciences in his ' Daedalus Hyperboreus,' and was 
 received into public employment as the colleague 
 cf the famous Count Poiheim ; soon afterwards he 
 was appointed assessor in the Metallic College by 
 Charles XII., who honoured him with his personal 
 friendship. In 1718, besides continuing the ' Dae- 
 dalus,' Swedberg published a work on algebra, 
 which included, among the higher rules of mathe- 
 matics, the integral and differential calculus : the 
 year following he assumed the style of nobility by 
 favour of Queen "Ulrica Eleonora, and from that 
 period had a seat with the nobles of the equestrian 
 order in the triennial assemblies of the states. 
 From 1719 to 1722, his professional avocations in- 
 troduced him to the study of the fusibility and 
 structure of metals, and, gradually, to the geome- 
 trical principles of chemistry, for the further study 
 of which, and the knowledge of mines, he 
 journeyed some fifteen months through the Ger- 
 man states. The titles of his works in this period 
 indicate very clearly the progress of the Thinker 
 proceeding steadily "through the physical sciences 
 towards a philosophy of nature : the chief of them 
 are 'Arguments derived from Appearances in 
 Sweden in Favour of the Depth of the Waters, and 
 Greater Tides of the Sea in the Ancient World ; ' 
 Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Che- 
 mistry ; ' ' Observations on Iron and the Elementary 
 Nature of Fire;' and 'Miscellaneous Observations 
 about Natural Things, especially Minerals, Fire, 
 and the Strata of Mountains.' In 1734 he com- 
 pleted one stage of this onward march by publish- 
 ing his ' Principia,' contained in the first of three 
 fouo volumes, which were issued at Dresden and 
 Leipzig at the expense of the duke of Brunswick, 
 and to publish which, Swedenborg undertook 
 another journey. This work explains the produc- 
 tion and nature of the elements, the formation and 
 laws of the solar vortex, and the sublime analogy 
 between the starry heavens and the magnetic 
 sphere, it will be found to ante-date many im- 
 portant discoveries, especially in the co-relation of 
 magnetism, electricity, light, gravitation, and all 
 the physical forces; while the practical part on 
 mineralogy has been pronounced, in Cramer's ' Art 
 of Assaying Metals,' ' magnificent and laborious.' 
 While this work was passing through the press, 
 its author made the acquaintance of Wolff's Onto- 
 logy, and having found that his own theory of 
 the elementary world agreed with it, his ambi- 
 tion took wing, and he resolved to try the experi- 
 ment of applying his principles to the deep sub- 
 jects glanced at by that philosophy. His prompt 
 reasoning flashed through all difficulties like a 
 sabre-cut nature is all mechanism the soul is in 
 nature these principles of his, with Wolff's seal 
 on them, are the exponents of nature why, then, 
 not demonstrate the nature of the soul with as 
 much precision as that of the elementary world ? 
 With Swedenborg to think was to do ; hence arose 
 his Philosophy of the Infinite, a ' ProdromusJ as 
 he calls it, written immediately after the perusal of 
 Wolff in 1734 : in strict relation with all that pre- 
 ceded it, this little work was but a plank thrown 
 across the gulf which separated one field of 
 thought from another, it carried Swedenborg 
 from the dead mechanics of metals and ele- 
 
 SWE 
 
 him thinking about the body; he is curious 
 know what the learned are doing whether tin 
 have found the same key as himself; now, then 
 fore, he buries himself for a few days in the lil 
 rary at Dresden, reads the ' Biliotheque Italiquc 
 which contains an account of the learned men 
 the day, and finds to his extreme satisfaction, 
 new and wide field open before 'him. The: 
 learned men are divided into parties some affirn 
 ing and others denying the animation of the brail 
 others, again, with the microscope searching tl 
 body through and through to decide these contest 
 It is the same with the question of the atom 
 constitution of the blood the existence of tl 
 animal spirit in the nerves the growth of t 1 
 embryo in the womb the cause of the circulatio 
 and all the kindred topics. Ruysch, Bianehi, Lee' 
 wenhoeck, Borelli, Lancisi, Morgagni, Malphigl 
 are here with all the treasures of art and learnm 
 with anatomical preparations and models of 
 human frame hardly equalled by anything in o 
 own times, and finally, with the doctrines of ge 
 metry and analogy already pressed into the servir 
 Discovery and art had anticipated all the requii 
 ments of the philosopher. It was only for Reas 
 to take up the thread of demonstration at a poi 
 where all confessed that nature was seen to wo 
 most distinctly and perfectly. Swedenborg, 
 short, reverting to his attempted demonstrate 
 of the connection between soul and body on math 
 matical principles, resolved to pursue his inqui 
 from this fresh plane of induction Obliged to i 
 turn for a season to his professional avocations, 
 carried this high purpose along with him, and 
 1736 obtained leave of absence again for the pt 
 pose of writing and publishing a great woi 
 Space is not allowed us to follow him step by stu 
 as we might do, in the conception and publicati 
 of his works on the 'Animal Kingdom.' Thil 
 years were occupied abroad in collecting a 
 digesting his materials, and in 1740 ' The Eco* 
 my of the Animal Kingdom, Considered Anatom 
 cally, Physically, and Philosophically,' appeared \ 
 Amsterdam, followed in 1744 by" 'The Anini 
 Kingdom,' and in 1745 by ' The Worship and hl-i 
 of God,' the latter, apart from its philosophy, I j 
 knowledged by competent judges for one of the mi i 
 gorgeous specimens of Latinity in existence. Tbfl 
 works completed the Thinker's second stage ; $} 
 among the doctrines contained in them are 4} 
 coveries of high importance in physiology 8 
 awaiting an adequate criticism, or courting a<k J 
 tion : such are the author's demonstration of 1 1 
 animation of the brain, and of its coincidence di i 
 ing formation with the systole and diastole of V j 
 heart, and after birth with the respiration of tl 
 lungs of the beautiful provision for muscular act j 
 derived from the respiration, exhibiting the funct I 
 of the lungs in distributing and regulating mot I 
 throughout the entire system of the law of sei I 
 and society among the organs and of many otb j 
 which it would be inconsistent with our limits j 
 enumerate, but tending upwards to a rational p j 
 chology. Through the whole of his career up to t 
 point, Swedenborg's labours had grown, one tadJH 
 of another, like a tree ; the goodly proportions i 
 excellent fruit of which, placed him in the high j 
 rank of scientific men ; he was not yet, howe\ | 
 
 ments to the living. Treating of the soul had set ! the Philosopher of Christianity. 
 
 750 
 
 In after yeart 
 
 !i 
 
SWE 
 
 recognized these labours as Lis preparation : and 
 they who know him best, are well aware that they 
 are nothing more, and that their results enter no 
 farther into his revelations than the words of a 
 new language into the thoughts of an older one. 
 It was in the year 1745, as he drew near the utmost 
 limits of his philosophical inquiries concerning 
 the soul, that he declares his eyes were opened 
 to see spirits, and that, warned by a divine ap- 
 pearance, he abandoned his uncompleted labours 
 and worldly honours, and devoted himself to the 
 new office to which he was called. This is a sub- 
 ject we cannot discuss in a notice which is neces- 
 sarily limited to information in matters of fact, but 
 re may remark that the case of Swedenborg is 
 essentially different from that of the visionaries of 
 all ages who have discoursed with spiritual beings. 
 Distinctly, his claim is this : not that he saw 
 pints only, but that he actually lived with them 
 as a spirit, seeing all things in the spirit world as 
 one of themselves, and only existing here in the 
 body, in order to use it as an instrument for pub- 
 ishing the facts, and digesting in a rational form 
 he conclusions to be derived from them. It is, 
 ben, on the nature and value of these conclusions 
 hat we dare to rest the whole weight of his claims 
 our regard and to the title we have assigned 
 lim, not as one of many Christian philosophers, 
 rat as the veritable philosopher of the Christian 
 'aith ; as much the instrument of Providence in 
 his age as Paul in a former, and doing precisely 
 hat for present habits of thought that Paul did 
 or the spirit of his age, grounded in Judaism or in 
 dolatry. We do not say indeed that the systems of 
 he Scotch and German philosophers have nothing 
 common with Christianity, hut they stand, as 
 heir warmest partizans will admit, on ground apart 
 rom it, and the attempt to reconcile religion and 
 hilosophy has never been cordially acknowledged 
 is successful on either side. Theologians have 
 slearly perceived that no system of philosophy has 
 aken up, as essential to it, the Christian doctrine 
 f Regeneration, the only pretensions of this nature 
 i the course of eighteen weary centuries being 
 iscoverable in the writings of the mystics more 
 specially in those of Jacob Bcehmen,andhis eloquent 
 xponent in this country, the nonjuring divine, Wil- 
 iam Law. These latter have become obsolete, not 
 ecause the problem could ever cease to engage 
 uman attention, but for this very sufficient rea- 
 on that the science they embraced had become 
 many essential particulars inconsistent with our 
 ctual knowledge of things, and the most they 
 ould do was to keep alive the spirit of earnest 
 iety, and the expectation of a future great develop- 
 which had always been looked lor. Sweden- 
 , it will be observed, wrote after Newton and 
 e, with whose works he was acquainted, and 
 man living was better informed on the progress 
 science in his own day, and with the richer nar- 
 it promised in the future ; step by step all the 
 reat problems that had hitherto engaged atten- 
 were brought under his review, and whatever 
 significant of life or death in nature, seems to 
 ve passed before him as the animals were brought 
 Adam to see what he would call them. Such 
 rn the man destined by Providence to furnish the 
 ineteenth century with the Christian development 
 philosophy; and here we will endeavour to state 
 
 SWE 
 
 in what this consists, and in what it does not. Cer- 
 tainly, it is not a mere dialectic, for what, after 
 all, is that, but a logical instrument, fashioned, if 
 possible, to reconcile the self-sufficient reason with 
 faith ; and what does the insufficiency of the Ger- 
 man schools consist in except this, that the very 
 process of reason by which the understanding ana 
 the Word are sought to be reconciled, does but 
 strengthen the former ? Besides, the true Christian 
 Philosophy cannot, by the very conditions which 
 call for it, be a bare method: like Christianity 
 itself, it must be a result, and a final one. In this 
 consists the supereminence of the mental philo- 
 sophy contained in the theological works of Sweden- 
 borg. It groups the thoughts round the affections, 
 and it gives the latter a mighty power both to raise 
 and to lower the former, so that the regenerate 
 man, or him whose affections have been purified 
 by the procedure of a pure love through them, is 
 altogether another, even as a reasoning man, for 
 he becomes the little child who has entered into the 
 kingdom of God. This hint of the real nature of 
 Swedenborg's philosophy is all we can here give ; 
 and now a word or two on the two great subjects 
 of development in which it is embodied : these are 
 his doctrine of the Bible, and his doctrine of the 
 spiritual icorfd. The fonner has never been repre- 
 sented by him as an invented allegory, but as a per- 
 fectly unique divine symbol, such as the supreme wis- 
 dom becomes when it is breathed through the human 
 mind, the self-intelligence meanwhile not interfering 
 with its appropriation of images and figures. Let 
 not these expressions be read carelessly, but deeply 
 pondered, for they will be found to consist with 
 a great law of intercourse between higher and 
 lower intelligences ; they point, in short, to the 
 marvellous fact, that the Word is the open gate 
 between the world and heaven, which it links to- 
 gether by a correspondence of thoughts and ideas : 
 this can now be brought to the test of objectiveness 
 through some states of clairvoyance, while its sub- 
 jective test is open to all who know what Christian 
 experience is. But the statements of Swedenborg 
 concerning the spiritual world, are after all per- 
 haps, the first and greatest difiiculty that his 
 readers have to encounter, and even when these are 
 not altogether discredited, the similarity between 
 spiritual and natural things is regarded as offen- 
 sive. In the first place this similarity is apparent 
 only, and belongs to a superficial acquaintance 
 with his meaning; the real similarity being not 
 that of identity but correspondence, and arising from 
 the universal law that the ideal is nothing, even in 
 things spiritual, till it finds repose and form in the 
 real or substantial. We have already alluded to 
 the preparation of Swedenborg, as consisting in 
 the mathematical discipline of his mind and his 
 acquaintance with the sciences, two distinct courses 
 of which he went through the elementary, in 
 which all nature is reviewed as a mechanism, even 
 to the intercourse between soul and body, and what 
 we may term the concrete, which views the soul 
 or living form in nature ; the one a study of the 
 laws which unite the atomic parts of bodies, from 
 the grain of salt up to the scattered stars of the 
 firmament ; the other a study of organization from 
 the least living part of the body, up to the rational 
 soul dwelling in its whole order by influx and 
 correspondence. This double course of prepara- 
 751 
 
SWE 
 tion, it may now be apprehended, was absolutely 
 necessary if spiritual laws were ever to become sub- 
 jects of study : and even if we grant, in any case, 
 that Swedenborg has brought them down to a too 
 rigid formula, the form is but the net needful to 
 catcli these winged thoughts, or rather, the artist's 
 stationary figure representing his ever living and 
 varying model ; the life, the actual motion, cannot 
 be "drawn, but only one phasis of it, from which 
 infinite variety and living beauty may be inferred. 
 We hold it nodisparagement of Swedenborg, there- 
 fore, that when he had arrived at his spiritual man- 
 hood, he was still as a child who had never left 
 his mother nature that his ' umbilical cord was 
 never cut,' as Emerson expresses it : had it been, 
 we should have had another great mystic, another 
 Bcehmen, Bourignon, or Peter Poiret, but we should 
 still have awaited the Newton of the unseen uni- 
 verse. We have not space to substantiate these 
 hints as we could wish, by reviewing ever so briefly 
 the mass of writing to which they apply ; yet we 
 cannot conclude without a word or two on the 
 principal of these works. The series commences 
 with the ' Arcana Ccclestia,' published in London 
 from 1749 to 1756. This work, a model of literary 
 method and precision of language, is really the 
 text-book of all that followed it, and is remarkable 
 for the increasing depth of its meaning as we pass 
 from volume to volume. The very heart of its 
 contents, if we may dare trust ourselves to express 
 so much in one sentence, is a psychological dis- 
 closure of the struggle between the Divine and the 
 human natures in the experience of the Saviour ; 
 and it is in course of this development sometimes 
 expressed in terms applicable to Him alone, some- 
 times in the lower phraseology of all Christian 
 experience that Swedenborg has evolved his philo- 
 sophy, and established his doctrine of the Word. 
 We may here repeat, therefore, what we have 
 already intimated, that it is in vain to look for 
 either of these in the set terms of a creed ; it is a 
 study which frees the mind of all formularies, and 
 the deeper it is pondered, the more confidingly 
 may the spirit take wing in the pure ether : terms, 
 we have indeed, precise and beautifully fashioned 
 forms of thought in these writings, which are as 
 the nests in the branches, to which the tired 
 thoughts will always return for repose and se- 
 curity, and the more gratefully the longer they 
 have been on the wing : anything more than this 
 Swedenborg would be the last among theologians 
 to contemplate. That he speaks as a master is 
 most true, but as one whose constant anxiety it is 
 to place bis disciples on the same intellectual 
 footing as himself, to lure them gently on, whether 
 by persuasion or authority, till they may look at 
 the same divine things that he gazed upon, less 
 by prerogative than the constitutional right which 
 belongs to all. In a word, if there is any truth in 
 Swedenborg's revelations at all, their pre-eminent 
 value consists in this, that they unite the under- 
 standing and the Word; as the poet attracts the 
 eye and the heart to nature not by a painted 
 mirage, or a crowd of stilted figures to be taken 
 for it, but by awakening instincts, and touching 
 the chords which realty unite them within the 
 human consciousness ; they are, therefore, speak- 
 ing within the bounds of coolest reason, the very 
 complement and last necessity of Protestant free- 
 
 SWE 
 
 dom, for no church can claim dogmatic authorfo 
 over any man who has once possessed himseM 
 this key to the Scriptures, ana no philosophv car 
 have any dangers for him : all the stronger, there 
 fore, becomes the moral authority of the church, fo 
 it thus grounds itself in the reason and fn 
 man. After the Arcana, Swedenborg pul>li>hed 
 in 1758, a small tract ' Concerning the Last Judg I 
 ment and the Destruction of Babylon," 
 'On the White Horse of the Apocalypse,' a tliir 
 4 On the Earths of our Solar System, and 
 the Earths of the Starry Heavens,' and a sojlj 
 mary view of his position in theological form 
 entitled 'The New Jerusalem and its Heavenl 
 Doctrine : ' he added to these, as his labour of the ' 
 year, his account ' Of Heaven and its Wondcm 
 accompanied with an 'Account of Hell.' Wha 
 now is that Last Judgment and the DestroH 
 Babylon, manifested, as he says, among spirits f 
 1757 ? Why the announcement of the commend ] 
 ment of a new age, almost instantly followai 
 speaking historically, by the earthquake of th 
 French revolution, the commotion begun by whM 
 is still spreading from land to land, and threats] 
 to tremble under the feet of many generation* 
 A question surely not answerable in these dayst 
 final judgment upon all things by the contemj J 
 tuous regard hitherto paid to it. Why also, |] 
 may ask, this revelation of the Word coinci jet J 
 with its publication in all the known languages ij 
 the world ? That White Horse what is it bf I 
 the free human spirit, the illuminated understand j 
 ing, proceeding by which, through ages an 
 nations, the Eternal Wisdom, as a crowned wan 
 rior, subdues all that is contrary to its dominion I 
 It may be easy to doubt one figure, even wbifl 
 admiring its beauty and universality, but what 
 this figure take a consistent place in the gran 
 epic of the Scriptures and of human history, ar 
 marches in due order with a thousand otbe i 
 equally grand and universal? We can but s | 
 these are some of the questions that the reader}' 
 Swedenborg must be prepared to encounter, Wt 
 by these glimpses at his meaning we are far fro J 
 intending any eulogy : they are simply design* | 
 to supply the place of a more elaborate destflfi 
 tion. Swedenborg continued his developmei^H 
 the Word and of Spiritual Laws during w 
 whole remainder of his life a period, reckolBj|j 
 from 1745, when his spiritual sight commei| 
 of twenty-seven years. The principal works pnl 
 lished by him after those mentioned above ^H 
 his ' Doctrine of the Lord,' ' Doctrine of the Sa^H 
 Scripture,' Doctrine of Life,' and ' Doctrine J 
 Faith,' all in 1763 ; his ' Angelic Wisdom, CM 
 cerning Divine Love and Wisdom,' and ' Con^H 
 ing Divine Providence,' in 1763 and 1764. B i 
 'Apocalypse Revealed,' 1766; 'The Delights | 
 Wisdom concerning Conjugal Love,' 1768 ; ai i 
 'The True Christian Religion,' 1771. None 
 these works were published in his own couaJi] 
 where the press was not free, but in London j 
 Amsterdam ; for this reason he made seflfl 
 journeys backwards and forwards, which were t 
 only changes that marked his external life in t ' 
 whole period. He died in London, in the eja^H 
 fifth year of his age, 29th March, 1772. [KB 
 SWEERT, E., a Dutch botanist, 17th century 
 SWEERT, F., a Flemish historian, 1567-jH 
 
 752 
 
SWI 
 
 SWIETEN, G., a Dutch physician, 1700-1772. 
 
 SWIFT, Deane, grandson of Godwin Swift, 
 eldest of the uncles of the celebrated writer (next 
 article), and a descendant by the mother's side 
 from Admiral Dean, a naval commander of Crom- 
 well's time; author of an Essay upon the Life, 
 Writings, and Character of Dr. Jonathan Swift ; 
 died 1783. His son, Theophilus, a miscel- 
 laneous writer, died 1815. 
 
 SWIFT, Jonathan, though Irish by birth, was 
 of English descent. His grandfather was a clergy- 
 man in Herefordshire, and married a cousin of the 
 poet, Dryden ; his father, who was steward of the 
 Irish inns of court, died very poor in 1667 ; and 
 Jonathan was born at Dublin in November of the 
 same year. The widow was thrown for support on 
 her own relations, by whom her son was educated 
 at the school of Kilkenny, and at Trinity College, 
 Dublin. He was a careless student, and irregular in 
 his conduct. Even then, however, he had worked 
 in his vocation as a satirist, having sketched the 
 'Tale of a Tub' before he came across to England. 
 This migration, occurring in 1688, opens the first 
 of the four stages in the career of this singular and 
 celebrated man. While he was always a polemic, 
 and always strongest in satire, the opinions which 
 he advocated, and the victims whom he attacked, 
 were very different in the different periods of his 
 activity. During the first of these periods, extend- 
 ing from his twenty -first year to his forty-third, 
 he was a zealous Whig ; for three years more he 
 was engaged in supporting the politics and party 
 of the English Tories ; and in his third epoch, the 
 longest and most creditable of all, and reaching 
 from his forty -sixth year to his sixty-ninth, his 
 efforts were chiefly directed, always earnestly 
 though not always wisely, towards improving the 
 treatment and condition of Ireland. The closing 
 period of his long life, lasting nine years, was 
 spent in total inactivity, enforced by the decay of 
 his faculties. On coming to England, Swift was 
 received into the family of the accomplished Sir 
 William Temple, whose wife was a kinswoman of 
 his mother. During this first residence at Moor 
 Park he studied hard, acted as secretary of his 
 patron, became a favourite of William III., and 
 refused the king's offer to give him a troop of | 
 horse. He wrote Pindaric odes, which, being 
 printed, compel an acquiescence in the unpalatable 
 opinion expressed to him by Dryden : ' Cousin 
 Swift, you will never be a poet.' But his practice 
 of serious verse-making, was useful in training him 
 for the production of those comic and satirical 
 rhymes, which, though they want all the elements 
 of poetry, abound so much in his characteristic 
 humour and his apt vigour of diction, as to be 
 among the best of his works, and the most curious 
 monuments of his time. In 1694, having become 
 discontented with his patron, he crossed to Ireland, 
 took orders, and went to be a country pastor in 
 Antrim, on an endowment of a hundred a-year. 
 Perhaps this retirement was only a feint ; perhaps 
 he found it to be a mistake. On receiving a 
 friendly recall from Temple, he benevolently ob- 
 tained a transference of his living to a poor curate 
 in the neighbourhood, and returned to Moor Park 
 in 1695. He had already begun his course of 
 coquetry with ladies, by coming to a breach with 
 his ' Varina,' in Ireland. He now began his tutor- 
 
 753 
 
 SWI 
 
 ship and admiration of the unfortunate ' Stella,' 
 who was a Miss Johnson, the daughter of Sir 
 William Temple's steward, and then no more than 
 thirteen or fourteen years old. During his second 
 residence at Moor Park, he was led by his patron's 
 share in the controversy between Bentley and 
 Boyle, to write his ' Battle of the Books;' and pro- 
 bably the ' Tale of a Tub' also was now completed. 
 These early works, while they fly at game higher 
 than his political satires, are as characteristic as 
 anything he ever wrote ; and they are as full of 
 talent, though not so well fitted for popularity, as 
 the satirical romance which is his masterpiece. 
 As a writer of plain, pure, vigorous, idiomatic Eng- 
 lish, Swift has no equal ; and he has hardly any 
 superior as a satirist, uniting extraordinary force 
 with extraordinary humour, tremendously power- 
 ful in invective, and yet more formid-able for the 
 biting dexterity with which he wields the lash of 
 irony. In reading his works we are never allowed 
 to forget that he was ill-tempered, nor to suspect 
 that, notwithstanding some good points, he was 
 essentially bad-hearted and selfish; but we are 
 impressed by his strength even when he uses it in 
 defence of error, and diverted by his wit even when 
 it plays on things true and sacred. The intel- 
 lectual characteristics of his writings were equally 
 Erominent in his conversation : when in good 
 umour he was a marvellous talker, full of lively 
 anecdote and jest; and he was always ready to 
 throw back a stinging retort on an adversary. On 
 Sir William Temple's death in 1699, Swift edited 
 his posthumous works in London, and then accom- 
 panied Lord Berkeley, who was sent to Ireland. 
 Misunderstandings occurred as usual ; but, on his 
 patron's recall next year, Swift was left in posses- 
 sion of livings yielding nearly four hundred a-year. 
 
 [Laracor Church.] 
 
 He took up his abode at his vicarage of Laracor, in 
 the county of Meath, made himself beloved for the 
 charitable disposition which was one of his redeem- 
 ing virtues, and discharged his duties as a parish 
 clergyman with all the assiduity allowed by visits to 
 England. These, however, took place every year, 
 and sometimes lasted for several months. In 1704 
 the ' Tale of a Tub ' and ' Battle of the Books' were 
 published together, and, though anonymous, were 
 attributed by the public to the right author. The 
 former of the two was generally disliked by the 
 clergy ; and it was used as the means of infusing 
 3C 
 
SWI 
 
 into tlie mind of Queen Anne an aversion to Swift, 
 which made it impossible for his friends in the 
 ministry to gratify his eager desire for ecclesias- 
 tical preferment in England. The effect was not 
 removed, either by his serious and manly 'Project 
 for the Advancement of Religion,' or by the fine 
 irony exhibited in the very title of 'An Argument 
 to Trove that the Abolishing of Christianity in 
 England may, as things now stand, be attended 
 with some Inconveniences.' As early as 1708, 
 when the latter of these pieces appeared, Swift 
 was edging off from his political party. _ A real 
 dissent from their opinions was indicated in more 
 than one of those occasional pamphlets of his, 
 which cannot here be so much as named. He was 
 a vehement high churchman, and wrote against 
 all relaxation of tests. In other points, such as 
 his advocacy of annual parliaments, his doctrines 
 would now make him be classed as a Radical. But 
 his chief reasons for dissatisfaction with the Whigs 
 themselves were two. They wounded his self-love 
 by resisting demands of the Irish clergy, who had 
 chosen Swift as their organ ; and, above all, they 
 could not, or would not, make him a bishop. In 
 the autumn of 1710, when the Tories had just 
 come into power, a second mission from the Irish 
 prelates introduced him familiarly to Harley and 
 St. John : Godolphin, the Whig leader, treated 
 him haughtily: and he enlisted in the cause of 
 the new ministry with an envenomed alacrity. 
 The most valuable service he rendered them was 
 performed in the seven months ending in June, 
 1711, during which he wrote ' The Examiner.' 
 Later in the same year he assisted the negotia- 
 tions for peace by his tract ' The Conduct of the 
 Allies : ' and, the discreditable treaty of Utrecht 
 having been concluded, his defence of it grew into 
 the 'History of the Four Last Years of the Queen.' 
 Still his new friends contented themselves, even 
 more than the old, with rewarding him by flatter- 
 ing attentions. He proudly refused to be Harley's 
 chaplain : and the minister, though he must have 
 seen that he was hardly a safe man for the epis- 
 copal bench, made the attempt to raise him. But 
 the royal obstinacy proved insurmountable. As a 
 last resource, the deanery of St. Patrick's Cathedral, 
 in Dublin, was secured for Swift in the spring of 
 1718 : and, accepting this fairly lucrative appoint- 
 ment as a sentence of exile, he departed, resolving, 
 as he says in one of those bitter letters which are 
 among the most vigorous of his compositions, to 
 forget everything in England, and never see it 
 again, 'if they have no further service for me.' 
 He was speedily recalled to write one or two 
 pamphlets, and to see the displacement of the 
 Tories on the accession of George L He then 
 returned to Ireland, and ceased to have any con- 
 cern in English politics. Soon after 1714, when 
 his residence was fixed in Dublin, he became 
 involved, further than the world was allowed to 
 suspect, in troubles arising out of his strange and 
 unmanly flirtations. Stella, under the protection 
 of a widowed lady, had come to live near him on 
 his settlement at Laracor : and she now removed 
 to Dublin, where she unexpectedly found a rival. 
 This was Miss Vanhomrigh, the 'Vanessa' of 
 Swift's verses, who had become acquainted with 
 him in London much in the same way as Miss 
 Johnson, and who now with her sister followed 
 
 SWI 
 
 him to Dublin. Stella's jealousy caused stormy 
 scenes, which the Dean thought to terminate by 
 marrying her secretly in 1716. The pair were 
 never more than friends, before the marriage or 
 after it ; a state of affairs for which various 
 reasons have conjecturally been assigned. But, 
 in 1723, Vanessa chose "to write to Stella, de- 
 manding explanations; and Stella exhibited the 
 letter to Swift. He rode off with it in a parox} 
 of rage, presented himself to Vanessa, threw it on. 
 her table, and departed without saying a wor^H 
 The shock killed ner in a few weeks. Nor did 
 his other victim long survive. He was ca^^H 
 away from his last visit to England, in the end of 
 1727, to attend her on her deathbed. In the 
 meantime he had continued to write with hifl 
 usual frequency. In 1726 he lived with Pope iS.J 
 his villa at Twickenham, and contributed to th## I 
 first draught of ' Martinus Scriblerus : ' and theaBj 
 also, he published the bitterest, most ingenioj^H 
 and most amusing of all satires on human nature* 
 the 'Travels of Lemuel Gulliver.' Lilliput an| 
 Brobdignag will always preserve the name <M\ 
 Dean Swift. Nor was any practical occasion too 
 trifling to call forth his cynical wit : he never was | 
 stronger than in his ' Polite Conversation,' and 
 his mock ' Directions to Servants.' Irish affairs, 
 however, were now his chief object ; and the 
 interests of the nation were embraced with a fiery 
 zeal, which, in its denunciations of wrongs in- 
 flicted by England, forgot all distinctions of ; 
 Eolitical party. The ' Drapier's Letters,' pub- 
 shed in 1723, to expose a patent granted for 
 copper coinage in Ireland, raised Swift, whom no j 
 one hesitated to hold as the writer, to the summit 
 of a popularity, which was augmented both by j 
 many acts of private kindness, and by an inces- 
 sant series of masked attacks on the government, 
 and on prevalent abuses. Some of the best of the 
 Dean's pamphlets are dressed in his favourite 
 ironical garb. One of them is a plan for paying 
 off the national debt, by the very simple process of 
 confiscating and selling the church lands. K'jj 
 another, he offers at once to increase capital in 
 Ireland, and to diminish the surplus population; 
 the little children are to be carefully fattened, and 
 sold to the London butchers : the plan is recom- 
 mended by a grave array of statistical calcula- 
 tions ; and objections are answered in a series of 
 the most tremendous sarcasms on Irish misery and 
 English misgovernment. That Swift's energy 
 was unabated in 1735, when he was in his sixw] 
 eighth year, is proved by one of his best rhymed 
 
 Eieces, 'The Legion Club,' a libel on the Irish 
 [ouse of Commons, who had resisted claims of 
 the clergy. But his last public efforts were made, 
 in the same cause, during the succeeding year. 
 Giddiness, and other symptoms, had h 
 tended danger. His memory now began to fail; 
 and terror of worse evils made him miserable, m 
 the other powers gave way likewise. Aftex having 
 lingered for three years in peaceful idiocy, lie died 
 of hydrocephalus in October, 1745. He be- 
 queathed his property, amounting to about 
 10,000, for the formation of an hospital in Dub- 
 lin for lunatics and idiots. j W.S.J 
 SWINBURNE, H, a civilian, died 1624. 
 SWINBURNE, Hen k y, the descendant of an 
 ancient Roman Catholic family, known as the 
 
 754 
 

 . 
 
 SWI 
 
 accomplished writer of Narratives of his Travels in 
 Spain and the Two Sicilies, died in Trinidad 1803. 
 
 SWINDEN, John Henry Van, a learned 
 Dntch physician, professor of philosophy, logic, 
 and metaphysics at Franeker, and of astronomy at 
 Amsterdam, 1746-1823. 
 
 SWINDEN, Tobias, rector of Cuxton, in Kent, 
 author of a book strangely entitled, an ' Inquiry 
 into the Nature and Place of Hell,' died 1720. 
 
 SWINNOCK, G., a rector of Buckinghamshire, 
 author of ' Heaven and Hell Epitomised,' d. 1673. 
 
 SWINTON, John, chaplain to the English fac- 
 tory at Leghorn, author of papers on Etruscan, 
 Phoenician, and Eastern Antiquities, and a con- 
 tributor to the Universal History, 1703-1777. 
 
 SWITZER, E., an Eng. horticulturist, last cent. 
 
 SYBRECHT, J., a Flemish painter, 1625-1703. 
 
 SYDENHAM, Charles William Poulett, 
 Lord, successor of the earl of Durham as governor- 
 general of Canada, was born in London 1793, and 
 continued the mercantile business of his father, 
 J. Poulett Thompson, till 1830. Four years pre- 
 viously he had become a member of parliament, 
 and when the Whig administration was formed, 
 he took office as vice-president of the board of 
 trade and treasurer of the navy. In 1834 he be- 
 came president of that board, and in 1839 was 
 appointed to the government of Canada, having 
 previously been raised to the peerage. He was 
 killed in Canada by a fall from his horse, 1841. 
 
 SYDENHAM, Floyer, an Oxford scholar and 
 translator of Plato, whose death, through indi- 
 gence and imprisonment for debt in 1788, gave 
 rise to the Literary Fund. 
 
 SYDENHAM, Thomas, M.D., a distinguished 
 physician of the seventeenth centuiy, and some- 
 times called the English Hippocrates, was born in 
 1624, at Windford Eagle, Dorsetshire, where his 
 ancestors had been settled for many generations. 
 Nothing whatever is known of the history of his 
 boyhood, though it may be concluded from the 
 condition of his family that his early education was 
 not wholly neglected ; but we find that in 1642, at 
 the age of eighteen, he entered Oxford as a com- 
 moner of Magdalen Hall. His stay there, however, 
 could not have been of long duration, for he shortly 
 afterwards, probably in that very year, joined the 
 army of the parliament, in which two of his brothers 
 were then serving William, who attained to the 
 rank of a colonel, and was ultimately governor of 
 the Isle of Wight ; and Francis, who was a major 
 of horse, and was killed in 1644. How long 
 Thomas Sydenham, who is only known to posterity 
 as the most eminent physician of his time, con- 
 tinued to act as a soldier, or what exploits he per- 
 formed in that capacity, are points which it is 
 impossible now to ascertain, but he himself speaks 
 of nis military career as having extended to several 
 years, aliquot annos ; and Sir Richard Blackmore 
 described him as a ' disbanded officer who entered 
 upon the study of medicine for a maintenance and 
 without any preparatory learning.' He seems to 
 have re-entered Oxford in 1646, where he acquired 
 a fellowship in All Souls, and he graduated there 
 in 1648, as M.B. (Bachelor of Medicine). When 
 lie settled in London is unknown, but he was cer- 
 tainly there before 1661, as he describes the epi- 
 demics of that year. In 1663 he became a licentiate 
 of the College of Physicians, and in 1666 he pub- 
 
 SYL 
 
 lished his first medical work, which he entitled 
 Methodvs Curandi Febres. In 1676 he took the 
 degree of M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) at Cambridge, 
 though not otherwise connected with that univer- 
 sity, and in this year the first edition of his Obser- 
 vationes Medicce appeared. In 1680 the first 
 edition of the Epistolce Responsarios was pub- 
 lished, and in 1683 the Tractatus de Podagra et 
 Hydrope ; and in 1685, the collected edition of his 
 works known as the Opera Universa. Syden- 
 ham had been long afflicted by gout, which at 
 length undermined liis constitution, and he died of 
 that distemper, combined with other maladies, at 
 London on the 29th of December, 1689, in the sixty- 
 fifth year of his age. [J.M'C] 
 
 SYDNEY, Algernon, the second son of 
 Robert, earl of Leicester, was bom about the year 
 1621. In early youth he fought in the ranks of 
 the parliamentary forces. Whatever sentiments 
 influenced many of the other opponents of Charles 
 I., his opinions, founded on the spirit of Roman 
 republicanism, were inimical to all monarchy, and 
 he proved them in his disgust at the ascendancy 
 of Cromwell. He was abroad at the time of the 
 restoration, and wandered about for some years 
 scattering bitter sarcasms around against the 
 objects of his political enmity. He was haughty 
 and imperious in his own nature, and seems by 
 no means to have courted the literary and social 
 distinction which his genius might have achieved. 
 His 'Discourses concerning Government,' was a 
 posthumous work. It is full of powerful rhetorical 
 arguments as when in answer to the proposition 
 of Salmasius, that kingly government is typed in 
 the superiority of one kind of animal over another, 
 he answers that this is nothing but the superiority 
 of brutish violence and injustice, and that the 
 type, ' Though it should prove to be in all respects 
 adequate to the matter in question, could only 
 show, that those who have no sense of right, 
 reason, or religion, have a natural propensity to 
 make use of tneir strength to the destruction of 
 such as are weaker than they and not that any 
 are willing to submit, or not to resist it if they 
 can which I think will be of no great advantage 
 to monarchy.' He was permitted to return to 
 England in 1677. Though he had probably deeper 
 ultimate views, his connection with the Ryehouse 
 plot, for which he suffered, was the same sub- 
 stantially as that of Lord William Russell, already 
 referred to. Sydney met his fate with iron firm- 
 ness, and was beheaded on the 7th of December, 
 1683. [J.H.B.] 
 
 SYEN, Arnold, a Dutch botanist, 1604-1667. 
 
 SYKES, Arthur Ashley, a dignitary of the 
 Church of England, and partizan of Hoadley in 
 the famous Bangorian controversy, 1684-1756. 
 
 SYLBURG, F., a German philologist, 1536-96. 
 
 SYLLA, Lucius Cornelius, whose bloody 
 proscriptions have passed into a proverb, was 
 descended from a branch of the famous Cornelian 
 family. He became quaestor when about thirty 
 years of age, B.C. 107, and after obtaining military 
 renown under Marius in Africa, became chief of 
 the aristocratic party in the social war, and van- 
 quished his old companion-in-arms in Italy ; he 
 was then, b.c. 88, elected consul. Sylla had 
 marched to his victory over Marius from the field 
 of battle in which Mithridates had succumbed to 
 755 
 
SYL 
 
 him, and the latter having renewed the war. he led 
 another expedition against hint b.c. 87. The suc- 
 cess to which he had now become accustomed 
 still attended the amis of Sylla, and his operations 
 were one long series of victories, often, however, 
 dearly bought ; it was in these wars that he cap- 
 tured" Athens, and the victory was such a fearful 
 one that the blood is said to have run out from the 
 city g.-tes into the fields; the most snlendid monu- 
 ments of Athenian art were also doomed to de- 
 struction. While these events were taking place in 
 the East, Marius and his party had recovered the 
 dictatorship in Rome, and Sylla, hastily returning 
 at the head of his victorious legions, gained a 
 second great victory over the Plebeians, and en- 
 tered Rome in triumph in the year 82. He was 
 now absolute master of the lives, liberties, and 
 property of the citizens of Rome, and he used his 
 power as the head of an unprincipled faction, cradled 
 in the blood and crimes of the expiring republic, 
 may be supposed to have done. Sylla governed 
 under the title of perpetual dictator, and strenuously 
 applied himself to the reconstruction of the aristo- 
 cratic constitution. His contempt for the people 
 may be judged from the instance in which he 
 addressed an assembly of them, on occasion of cer- 
 tain complaints reaching him : he recited this 
 apologue : ' A labourer when at plough was an- 
 noyed by vermin, and he twice stopped from his 
 work and pulled them off his jacket. But finding 
 himself bitten again, to spare himself any further 
 trouble, he threw the jacket into the fire. Now I 
 advise those whom I have twice conquered, not to 
 oblige me, a third time, to try the fire.' The 
 wholesale nature of his confiscations may be judged 
 from the number of his soldiers, namely, 115,000 
 men, whom he rewarded with settlements in Italy; 
 finally, he enfranchised 10,000 slaves to increase 
 the number of his partizans, and enrolled them 
 among the free citizens. In a manner as extra- 
 ordinary, he abdicated all power, b.c. 79, chiefly, 
 we may presume, from his subsequent conduct, 
 tiiat he might exchange the cares of state for the 
 licentiousness of private life. This fact is a suf- 
 ficient answer, one might suppose, to all that can be 
 urged in behalf of his desire for the public good. 
 No man who is unprincipled and licentious in 
 private life, can deserve credit for any real virtue 
 in his public acts. Sylla died of a disgusting 
 malady b.c. 77, having previously written his 
 1 Memoirs.' [E-R-l 
 
 SYLVESTER, or SILVESTER, first of the 
 name pope and saint of Rome, reigned 314-323. 
 The second, who was one of the most extraordinary 
 men of his age as an astronomer, mathematician, 
 and man of practical science, succeeded Gregory 
 V. 999, and died 1003. Some of his writings are 
 
 TAC 
 
 extant. The third Sylvester was an antipope sefe 
 up in 1044. 
 
 SYLVESTER. Joshua, one of our inferior poets, 
 translator of Du Bartas's 'Divine We* 
 Works,' born in London 1563, died 1618. 
 
 SYLVESTER, Matthew, a Church of Eng- 
 land minister, ejected for nonconformity, 1662. 
 
 SYLVIUS, F., a French grammarian, d. 1530. 
 
 SYLVIUS, Francis Delaboe or Dunois, a 
 Dutch physiologist and chemist, 1614-1672. 
 
 SYLVIUS, Lambert, otherwise Vahdh 
 Bosct, a Dutch biographer and poet, 1610-1681 
 
 SYMES, Michael, an English officer and Kast 
 Indian diplomatist, author of an 4 Embassy to the 
 Kingdom of Ava,' died 1809. 
 
 SYMMACHUS, a pope of Rome., 498-514. 
 
 SYMMACHUS, Quintus Aukklius, a pre- 
 fect, pontiff, and augur of Rome in its declining 
 age, remarkable for his eloquent appeal against 
 the ruin threatened by the triumph of Christianity}. 
 he is the author of 'Epistles' still extant, and be- 
 came consul under Tneodosius in 391. His de- 
 scendant, Quintus Aurelius Memmius, was a 
 senator in the time of Odoacer 485, and was put 
 to death by Theodoric 525. 
 
 SYMMACHUS the Samaritan, a learneJ 
 Christian of the sect of Ebionites, 2d century, j 
 
 SYMMONS, Charles, a dramatic writer, and 
 friend of literature, b. at Cardigan 1749, d. 182& 
 His daughter, Caroline, a poetess, 1788-1812. 
 
 SYNCELLUS, George, a monk of Constan- 
 tinople, author of a Chronography, which contains 
 an account of Egyptian kings, and corrects the i 
 Chronicon of Eusebius, died 800. 
 
 SYNESIUS, a bishop of Ptolemais, in Africa, 
 in the 5th century, who had the advantage of | 
 pursuing his philosophical studies under Hypatia. 
 Author of Epistles and other writings. 
 
 SYNGE, E., an Irish prelate, 1659-1741. 
 
 SYPHAX, kg. of Western Numidia, d. 201 b.c. 
 
 SYRIANUS, a philosopher of the school of 
 Neoplatonists at Athens, died 450. 
 
 SYROPULUS, Silvester, a Greek ecc 
 astic, historian of the Council of Florence, 15th a 
 
 SYRUS. See Publius. 
 
 SZALKAI, Anthony, a Hungarian poet and 
 dramatic author, author of the first regular drama 
 composed in his native tongue, died 1804. 
 
 SZEGEDI, John Baptist, a learned Hunga- 
 rian Jesuit, historian, and jurist, 1699-1760. 
 
 SZENT-MARTONIY, Ignatius, a Jesuit and 
 astronomer of Portugal, who suffered a long i fl 
 prisonment on the suppression of his order in that 
 country, 1718-1793. 
 
 SZTARAY, Antony, Count De, an Austria I 
 general, opposed to Dumouriez, period of t$f 
 French revolution, died 1808. 
 
 TABARI, an Arabian historian, 839-925. 
 
 TABARRANI, Pietro, an Italian physician, 
 and author of Anatomical Observations, 1702-79. 
 
 TABERNiEMONTANUS, James Theodore, 
 a German physician and botanist, 1520-1588. 
 
 TABOR, J. O., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1604-1674. 
 
 TABOUET, J., a French historian, 17th cent. 
 
 TABOUROT, S., a French poet, 1547-1590. 
 
 TACCA, P. J., an Italian sculptor, died 1640. 
 
 TACCOLI, N., an Italian historian, 1090-1768. -; 
 
 TACHARD, Guy, a French Jesuit, known as a 
 missionary to Siam and India from 1680 to 16^KI 
 
 TACIl'US (Caius Cornelius), the Rod* 
 historian. Tacitus was probably born in i 
 of Nero, but neither the place nor the exact time j 
 of his birth is known. It appears from a letter of 
 756 
 
TAC 
 
 the younger Pliny, who was born a.d. 61, that 
 Tacitus was about the same age with himself, but 
 a little older ; he may, therefore, have been born in 
 A.D. 58 or 59. His parentage is veiled in the 
 
 [Tacitus From on Antique Gem."] 
 
 same obscurity ; but it is not improbable that his 
 father was Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman knight, 
 who is mentioned by Pliny as a procurator of the 
 emperor in Belgic Gaul. We thus know nothing 
 of the training which he underwent in youth, pre- 
 paratory to the literary labours which he after- 
 wards so ably performed. He has himself recorded 
 a few facts illustrative of his career after he had 
 attained the age of manhood ; and these form the 
 only authentic history of his life. He owed his 
 first promotion to Vespasian, and was indebted for 
 further favours to his sons and successors, Titus 
 and Domitian. In a.d. 77 C. Julius Agricola, 
 who was then consul, betrothed to him his daughter, 
 whom he married in the following year. He was 
 one of fifteen commissioners appointed to super- 
 intend the celebration of the secular games in a.d. 
 88, and held in the same year the ofhce of praetor. 
 He was not in Rome when his father-in-law died 
 there a.d. 93, nor does he state the reason of his 
 absence. In a.d. 97 he was elected consul to 
 supply the place of Virginius Rufus, who died dur- 
 ing his year of office ; and pronounced over the 
 deceased the funeral oration. In a.d. 99 he was 
 appointed by the senate, along with Pliny, to con- 
 duct the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa, 
 who was impeached for malversation in his pro- 
 vince ; and, on the testimony of his associate and 
 friend, made a most eloquent and dignified reply 
 to the arguments advanced in defence of the ac- 
 cused. The time of his death is unknown ; but it 
 may perhaps be inferred that he survived Trajan, 
 who died a.d. 117. The extant works of Tacitus 
 are 1. The Life of Agricola his father-in-law ; 2. A 
 Treatise on the Manners and Customs of the Ger- 
 mans ; 3. Histories ; 4. Annals ; 5. Dialogue on 
 Orators, or the Causes of the Decline of Eloquence. 
 The Life of Agricola is one of the earliest works of 
 Tacitus, and must have been written after the death 
 of Domitian b.c. 96. It has been much and justly 
 admired as a specimen of Biography ; and is cer- 
 tainly an affectionate tribute to the memory of an 
 able administrator and a good man. His descrip- 
 tion of ancient Germany and its people is not of 
 much value as an historical document, though there 
 can be little doubt that it contains the hearsay 
 accounts which were prevalent in the age of the 
 
 TAL 
 
 author. The histories, of which only the first four 
 books and a part of the fifth are extant, compre- 
 hended the period from the accession of Galba 
 (a.d. 68) to the death of Domitian (a.d. 96). The 
 Annals comprised the period from the death of 
 Augustus (a.d. 14) to the death of Nero (a.d. 68). 
 Of these a part of the fifth book is lost, and also 
 the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, the beginning of 
 the elventh, and the end of the sixteenth, which is 
 the last. The style of Tacitus is concise, vigorous, 
 and expressive ; occasionally obscured by elaborate 
 condensation, but always such as to impress the 
 reader with a high opinion of the reflective powers 
 of the writer. LG-F-1 
 
 TACITUS, Marcus Claudius, successor of 
 Aurelian as emperor of Rome 275, died 276. 
 
 TACQUET, A., a Flem. mathemat., 1611-1707. 
 
 TADJ-EDDYN, an Arabian historian, d. 1275. 
 
 TAFFI, A., an Italian artist, 1213-1294. 
 
 TAFURI, J. B., an Ital. biographer, 1695-1760. 
 
 TAGLIACOZIO, TAGLIACOZZI, or TAG- 
 LIACOTIUS, Gaspar, an Italian surgeon, fam- 
 ous for his method of curing wounds of the lips 
 and nose, 1556-1599. 
 
 TAHUREAU, J., a French poet, 1527-1555. 
 
 TAILLASSON, John Joseph, a French pain- 
 ter and writer on art, 1746-1809. 
 
 TAILLE, J. De La, a French poet, dramatist, 
 and historian, 1540-1595. His brother, James, a 
 poet and author of several tragedies, 1542-1562. 
 
 TAILLEPIED, Noel, a French biographer, 
 antiquarian, and historian of the Druids, 1540-89. 
 
 TAISAUD, P., a French jurist, 1644-1715. 
 
 TAI-TSOU, emperor of China, 951-954. 
 
 TAIE-TSOUNG, emperor of China, 977-997. 
 
 TALBERT, F. X., a French priest, 1728-1803. 
 
 TALBOT, Charles, successively earl and duke 
 of Shrewsbury, descended from the famous war- 
 rior of that name (next article), was born in 1660. 
 He held the office of lord chamberlain to James II., 
 but actively promoted the revolution of 1688, and 
 became viceroy of Ireland and lord treasurer, d. 1717. 
 
 TALBOT, John, earl of Shrewsbury, called 
 'The English Achilles,' renowned in the French 
 wars, was the second son of Richard, Lord Talbot, 
 and was bora at Blechmore, in Shropshire, 1373. 
 Shakspeare calls him ' The Terror of France ' with 
 historical correctness, his name at the time having 
 really become proverbial in that country. The 
 history of Talbot commences with his call to par- 
 liament by Henry IV., after which, in 1412, he 
 was appointed lord justice in Ireland, and in 1414 
 lord-heutenant. He first went to France in the 
 reign of Henry V., 1420, and nine years later, 
 under the regent Bedford, his exploits had ren- 
 dered his name a word of terror. At this time, 
 however, the Maid of Orleans (see Joan of Arc) 
 turned the fortunes of war against him, and Talbot 
 became the prisoner of Charles VII. from 1429 to 
 1432, when he recovered his liberty by ransom. 
 Under date 1433, the French chronicler, Monstre- 
 let, informs us how 'MessireJean de Thallebot' 
 came into France, where he conquered many cities 
 and fortresses; on this occasion, in fact, he re- 
 asserted the English dominion in that country, and 
 for his services was created marshal of the king- 
 dom; at a later period, 1442, the earldom of 
 Shrewsbury was conferred on him. We next hear 
 of him in an embassage for peace 1443, and then, 
 
 757 
 
TAL 
 
 1116. in his old lieutenancy in Ireland, onr affairs 
 in France meanwhile going to ruin. In 1449 we 
 read in old Monstrelet's annals, how valiantly he 
 led three hundred men to the assault of Rouen, and 
 planted the English flag on the battlements. He 
 seems then to nave returned to England again, 
 and in 1451 went back to Aquitaine as lieutenant- 
 general with extraordinary powers : once more he 
 led the 'noble English' to victory, and, at the head 
 of less than five thousand combatants, recovered 
 Guienne, aided, indeed, by the treason of Lesparre 
 and others. Twice did Charles, and twice did Tal- 
 bot, recover Bourdeaux, the latter, on the first of 
 these occasions, becoming prisoner, when he was 
 treated with great courtesy on account of his val- 
 our, and presented by Charles with gifts of horses 
 and gold and silver. In 1453 he marched to the 
 relief of Castillon, then besieged by the French, 
 and was killed by a cannon ball in the eightieth 
 year of his age ; one of his sons also fell with him 
 on the field of battle, and the English, no longer 
 sustained by his heroic arm, were soon after ex- 
 pelled from France. [E.R.J 
 
 TALBOT, P., an Irish Jesuit, 1620-1680. 
 
 TALBOT, R., an English antiquary, died 1558. 
 
 TALBOT, William, successively bishop of 
 Oxford, Salisbury, and Durham, 1659-1730. His 
 son, Charles, Lord Talbot, brought up to the 
 bar, was born 1684. In 1719 he entered parlia- 
 ment, became solicitor-general in 1726, and lord 
 chancellor in 1733 ; died 1737. Catherine, only 
 child of Edward, his second son, author of several 
 elegantlv written works, 1720-1770. 
 
 TALFOURD, Thomas Noon, the author of 
 ' Ion,' was born at Reading in 1795. He was edu- 
 cated there at the Dissenters' grammar school, and 
 instructed in classical literature by Dr. Valpy. In 
 1821 he was called to the bar, and first wore the 
 Serjeant's gown in 1833. Two years later Serjeant 
 Talfourd became a member of parliament, and 
 published his famous tragedy, followed at intervals 
 by 'The Athenian Captive,' 'Glencoe,' and the 
 ' Castilian.' In 1849 he was appointed a judge of 
 the Common Pleas, and was on the bench at Staf- 
 ford, apparently in good health, when he suddenly 
 breathed his last on the 20th March, 1854. ' Ion ' 
 is acknowledged to be a fine classical production, 
 abounding in passages of remarkable beauty. The 
 character of Talfourd also was well worthy of his 
 literary fame ; perhaps no man was more beloved 
 in his own circle for kindness of heart, and all the 
 virtues of social intercourse. His prose works are 
 a ' Life of Charles Lamb,' Vacation Rambles,' and 
 a biography of Mrs. Radcliffe. 
 
 TALIESIN, otherwise Pen Bierdd, which sig- 
 nifies ' chief of the bards,' one of the most ancient 
 British or Welch poets, between 520 and 570. 
 
 TALLART, Camille D'Hostun, Due De, a 
 Fr. marshal, defeated by Marlborough, 1652-1728. 
 
 TALLENTS, F., a nonconf. divine, 1619-1708. 
 
 TALLEYRAND, a younger branch of the family 
 of the counts of Perigord, the first of whom known 
 to history was Helie De Talleyrand, who 
 lived about 1100. After him we find Helie De 
 Talleyrand Perigord, an influential cardinal 
 and statesman, 1301-1364. H. De Talleyrand, 
 count of Chalais, minister and favourite of Louis 
 XIII., who was out-generaled by Richelieu, and 
 perished on the scaffold 1626. Albert Ange- 
 
 TAL 
 
 ltque, cardinal and peer of France at the period 
 of the revolution, fled with the emigration, but 
 returned with the Bourbons, and in 1819 became 
 archbishop of Paris, 1736-1821. 
 
 TALLEYRAND-PERIGOKD, Charles MauI 
 rice De, the character of his house who fills bfjf. 
 far the largest space in history, the prince of diplo- 
 matists, was born at Paris in 1754, and educatem 
 for the church. His course of life was not veir 
 consistent with this profession, but the wish of Ins 
 dying father prevailed with Louis XVI., and he 
 was named, m 1788, bishop of Autun, a rural 
 diocese in the Bourbonnaise. The connection 
 studies, and manners of the young prelate well 
 still such as invited him to preserve his place in 
 society, and he frequented not the less the gay 
 salons of Paris, studying, if anything, Voltaire 
 and Fontenelle, and drawing more closely to Mirajf: 
 beau and the other stirring spirits of that perioB 
 In May, 1789, the states-general met, and Talley- 
 rand took his place with the clergy, and, adopting 
 popular principles, actively engaged himself in the 
 reorganization of the state, upon which that body 
 so resolutely entered ; he even proposed the con* 
 fiscation and sale of the church property, and when 
 that measure was carried, zealously applied himself 
 to the creation of a constitutional clergy. For 
 these and similar misdeeds, he was excommuni* 
 cated by Pius VI. some six months after he had 
 given the sanction of the church to the people's 
 cause by celebrating high mass on the ' altar of 
 the country.' On leaving the church, Talleyrand 
 at once assumed the character by which he is 
 known to history, and went as ambassador to 
 England with M. Chauvelin, with whom also fit 
 was suddenly expelled from London by the minis* 
 try of Pitt ; he then fled to America, his name 
 being compromised in the discoveries of the iron 
 chest, so soon followed by the ruin of the monarchy. 
 He remained in his transatlantic asylum till after 
 the fall of Robespierre, thus escaping the whob 
 period of the reign of terror, and then, returning to 
 Paris, became a member of the newly-founded 
 National Institute, and minister of foreign affairs 
 under the directory. It is at this point that the 
 European interest of his histoiy commences, for 
 he now conspired against his masters, and pro- 
 moted the revolution which earned Napoleon to the 
 summit of power. Here the question occurs, there- 
 fore, What were his convictions ? Faith., in what 
 any single party might understand by ^nncqBj 
 Talleyrand had not; yet, he possessed some raw | 
 quality of mind which, to him, supplied the place 
 of such a faith, and which has been aptly deA 1 I 
 nated a 'supernatural indifference,' ai 
 ference not to his own fate, but to whatsofHl 
 event might befall the men or the institutions sVi 
 rounding" him, so that his own schemes remajH| 
 buoyant. Napoleon's summary judgment ofr^H 
 is perhaps nearer the truth than any more laboured 
 criticism, and his words are these : ' Talleyrand 
 was always in a state of treason, but it teas a flBI 
 sonable complicity with fortune herself; bis cir- 
 cumspection was extreme; he conducted 
 towards his friends as if, at some future time^Mf I 
 might be his enemies, and towards his en 
 if they might become his friends !' This, after all . 
 the apologies we have read for him, really 9tfg| 
 to be the sum of the matter ; and however admir- 
 
 758 
 
TAL TAL 
 
 able such a character^ might be as a minister of I of the guillotine, at the same time that he revelled 
 foreign affairs, there is surely too much of the in the proconsular splendour and debauchery of 
 Mephistopheles element in it to satisfy any lover of which several other cities of France at that time 
 
 honesty ; it is a judgment, also, by no means 
 parte in character, for the fact stated is implied in 
 the very apologies for him. What else is the argu- 
 ment that he shifted from one party to another, 
 lest he should partake in the threatened corruption 
 of the body of which he foresaw the decay, except 
 another way of stating his treasonable complicity 
 with fortune ; and what would any cause be worth 
 if all its supporters were in this state of perennial 
 treason towards it? What, again, is the moral 
 worth of that man, however great his capacity, 
 who supports a cause on condition of its suc- 
 cess V We should be doing injustice to the me- 
 mory of Talleyrand, not to add that he earnestly 
 desired peace, and the alliance of France and Eng- 
 land in a progressive policy; his great misiortune 
 was an overweening reliance on the shifts of diplo- 
 macy, his too great willingness to adopt that expe- 
 dient of abominable cunning though the expres- 
 sion came from a nobler head than his ' tell a lie 
 and find it truth ! ' Talleyrand remained foreign 
 minister under Napoleon till 1807, when he was 
 created prince of Benevento, and became grand- 
 chamberlain, with the titular rank of vice-grand- 
 elector of the empire. In 1809 he began his oppo- 
 sition to the policy of Napoleon, and being deprived 
 of his office of chamberlain, retired to Valencay, 
 where it would appear he conspired against the 
 emperor. The year 1814 found him acting openly 
 with the allies, and he next appears as minister 
 under Louis XVIII. In the latter years of the 
 opposition which ended in the revolution of 1830, 
 1 alleyrand took no part in public business, but on 
 the accession of Louis Philippe, as citizen king, he 
 became ambassador once more in England. This 
 appointment he held till January, 1835, when his 
 great age caused him to resign it, and he was suc- 
 ceeded by General Sebastiani. To him, more than 
 any other man, Louis Philippe was indebted for 
 the creation of his peace policy, maintained, say 
 the French, ' at any price,' a matter this which 
 must yet await, some time, a righteous judgment. 
 Died 1838. [E.R.] 
 
 TALLIEN, Jean Lambert, a Jacobin of the 
 French revolution, chief agent in the fall of Robes- 
 pierre, was born at Paris 1769, and was succes- 
 sively clerk to an attorney, and in one of the 
 government offices. At the epoch of the revolu- 
 tion he became secretary to one of the deputies, 
 and at the declining period of the Legislative As- 
 sembly was editor of the ' Ami des Citoyens,' one 
 of the journals by which the populace were goaded 
 to anarchy ; he also actively assisted in organizing 
 the insurrection of August 10, 1792, on the success 
 of which he was appointed recording secretary of 
 the Paris Commune. From this time Tallien 
 Tanked with the most active members of the moun- 
 tain, and aided in the destruction of the Girondins ; 
 he was also implicated in the massacres of Septem- 
 ber, and became president of the Assembly on the 
 day of the king's execution. In the beginning of 
 1794 he was sent with Ysabeau to the city of 
 Bourdeaux to crush the remnant of feeling remain- 
 ing in favour of Girondism, and place the republi- 
 can government on a secure basis : here he struck 
 terror into the population by his remorseless use 
 
 759 
 
 presented a like example. One of the most beauti- 
 ful and highly spirited women of that age was a 
 Madame de Fontenai, daughter of the count de 
 Cabarrus, a Spanish grandee, of French extrac- 
 tion ; she was detained at Bourdeaux en route for 
 Spain by the arrest of her husband, and was 
 accustomed to address the clubs, where her appear- 
 ance excited the greatest enthusiasm. Easily 
 moved to pity by the terror around her, and fond 
 of adventure and notoriety, this woman resolved to 
 conquer the heart of the dreaded Tallien, and she 
 succeeded so well that his greatest pride was to 
 exhibit her in his splendid equipage, clothed in 
 Grecian costume, to represent the goddess of 
 liberty a parade of Oriental luxury and vice, 
 which disgusted Robespierre beyond expression, 
 while it amused the people and was the salvation 
 of many of them, for whom this modern Thais 
 was never tired of interceding. Being recalled to 
 Paris as the last struggle between Robespierre and 
 these corrupters of the people drew nigh, Madame 
 de Fontenai was arrested, in the expectation that 
 she would lend her assistance in the fall of Tallien, 
 and, at all events, that she might not embarrass 
 the action of Robespierre and Saint Just, She, 
 however, proved true to her lover, and privately 
 conveyed a note to him, in which she reproached 
 him with cowardice if he suffered her now to perish 
 on the scaffold. Thus exasperated, and certain 
 that his own head would fall next, Tallien acted 
 that daring part in Convention, on the 9th 
 Thermidor, which proved the destruction of Robes- 
 pierre : he was then elected to the Committee of 
 Public Safety, and become president of the Con- 
 vention ; now, also, Madame de Fontenai became 
 his wife. He played a considerable part in subse- 
 quent events, and was elected on the Council of 
 500 ; the ascendancy of Buonaparte, however, soon 
 threw men of his stamp into the shade, and Tal- 
 lien died, without ever recovering the undeserved 
 importance he had once enjoyed, in 1820. His 
 beautiful colleague, for such Madame de Fontenai 
 really was, procured a divorce during his absence 
 in Egypt, whither he had gone with Napoleon, and 
 in 1805, was married to the count Joseph de 
 Caraman, afterwards prince of Chimay : she died 
 in 1835. Tallien, we ought to say, admitted his 
 'errors' as he called them, but pleaded the 
 delirium of the times, a fact surely of some signi- 
 ficance ; ignorant of what the future may have in 
 store for us, let us ponder these circumstances, and 
 consider well what monstrous births might yet 
 be brought forth among the millions who know 
 nothing of Christianity but the name, and little of 
 civilization but its corrupting influences. [E.R.] 
 TALLIS, Thomas, the master of William 
 Byrde, one of the greatest of English musicians, 
 was born early in the reign of Henry VIII. The 
 most curious and extraordinary of his works which 
 is still extant was his song of forty vocal parts. 
 This great effort of musical science is carried on in 
 alternate flight, pursuit, attack, and choral coun- 
 terpoint to the end. This many-voiced piece of 
 Gothicism is terminated by twelve bars of full 
 harmony. Tallis died in 1585, and was buried in 
 the old parish church of Greenwich. [J.M.] 
 
TAL 
 
 TALMA, Francis Joseph, the Garrick of the 
 French stage, was born at Paris about 1770, but a 
 great portion of his boyhood was passed in Lon- 
 non. He was educated at a boarding school in 
 Lambeth, and then articled to a surgeon; but 
 soon joined an amateur French company, under 
 Sir John Gallini, at the Hanover Square Rooms, 
 and appeared as Count Almaviva, in Beaumar- 
 chais' comedy of 'The Barber of Seville,' and 
 other characters. His taste was formed by wit- 
 nessing the performances of Kemble and Siddons, 
 and on visiting Paris as an actor, and making his 
 debut on the boards of the theatre Francais, he 
 ventured on the new style of acting, but as might 
 have been expected, it was not immediately accept- 
 able. An accident caused, at length, the acknow- 
 ledgment of his merits. A tragedy by M. Chenier, 
 entitled Charles IX., being accepted, and the part 
 refused by the chief performer, M. Saintfnl, who 
 accompanied his refusal with the sneering recom- 
 mendation that it should be given 'to young 
 Talma;' the recommendation was literally adopted, 
 and Talma, by sedulous study of the part, and an 
 adoption of proper costume, won a decided 
 triumph by the performance. The advantage of 
 his English education was in this apparent ; but 
 still more conspicuously in the next occurrence. 
 M. Ducis had undertaken a translation of Shak- 
 speare's ' Othello,' with a catastrophe more suit- 
 able, as he thought, to the prejudices of a French 
 audience ; but Talma, enlightened by what he had 
 observed of the English stage, insisted on the 
 Shaksperian conclusion. The result was a mar- 
 vellous success, which placed Talma at the sum- 
 mit of his profession. He won a large fortune by 
 his exertions, a high position in society, and the 
 favour of the emperor Napoleon. He died at 
 Paris, 19th October, 1826, having previously pub- 
 lished (1825) 'Reflexions' on the histrionic art, 
 distinguished by much truth and research. He 
 was interred, according to his own directions, in 
 the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, without any reli- 
 gious ceremony, but funeral orations by Jouy and 
 Arnault were delivered at the grave. To change, 
 it is alleged, his resolution on this score, the 
 archbishop of Paris had sought an interview, but 
 in vain. Talma's conduct, it is supposed, pro- 
 ceeded from his resentment at the excommunication 
 pronounced by the Roman Catholic Church against 
 actors. A short time before his death, he em- 
 braced his theatrical friends, Jouy, Arnault, and 
 Duvilliers, but refused to see Madame Vanhove, 
 his wife, from whom he had been long separated. 
 At the funeral a magnificent hearse conveyed his 
 remains, and was followed by fifteen mourning 
 coaches, besides Talma's own, and several empty 
 carriages, with a great number of literary and 
 theatrical persons on foot, and a multitude exceed- 
 ing four thousand individuals. A large concourse 
 of citizens also filled the cemetery and surrounded 
 the tomb. Such was the respect shown to the 
 ^reat actor not excessive, though so significant, 
 for to the artist reverence is always due, and the 
 art of acting is one in which the characteristics of 
 all the other arts are united. [J.A. H.] 
 
 TALMONT, A. P. La Tremoiixe, Prince De, 
 a royalist chief in the war of La Vendee, executed 
 at his castle of Laval 1793. 
 
 TALMONT, Gabrielle De Bourbon, Prin- 
 
 TAM 
 
 cess De, wife of Louis II. of La Tremouille, authod 
 of works of devotion still in MS., died 1516. 
 
 TAMBRONI, Joseph, a learned Italian poet 
 and historian, 1773-1824. His sister, ClotildaJ 
 professor of Greek at Bologna, 1758-1817. 
 
 TAMBURINI, PiETRO,afamous Italian moralist] 
 and writer on jurisprudence, 1737-1827. 
 
 TAMERLANE, sometimes called ' Timour thai 
 Tartar,' one of those grand old heroes who have hy 
 past times disputed the empire of the world, wail 
 born at Kesh, a town south-east of Samarcand, ia 
 1335. He was a descendant on the mother's side* 
 of the Mongol emperor Genghis Khan, and beJ 
 came sovereign ot Tartary after the defeat of 
 Houssein, his competitor, in 1369 or 1370. Sa- 
 luted emperor, with the surname of Saheb Kara m 
 (Master of the World), he commenced to make 
 good his title by invading Persia, and in a shorJ 
 time, 1380, took possession of Herat and the whoJ 
 of Khorassan. It was the age of the capture of 
 Constantinople by the Turks, and all the races of 
 the East were more or less engaged in the struggle 
 for empire. The feeling of Tamerlane was thus 
 distinctly expressed: 'The earth ought to have 
 but one master, as there is only one God in heaven; 
 and what (he asked) is the earth, with all its in- 
 habitants, for the ambition of a great prince?' 
 The barbarian grandeur of resolve thus announce^ 
 is greatly preferable, if only on the score of manly 
 sincerity, to the same end sought by the tricks of- 
 corruption and diplomacy, fearful as it is to contem- 
 plate the progress of such a scourge, the cities de# 
 stroyed, and the pyramids formed of thousands oft 
 human heads, which were all that Tamerlane left to 
 mark the spot where they had once flourished. These 
 are scenes it is unnecessary to depict in detail, 
 enough to state that the conquests of Tamerlane had 
 reached from Moscow on the one hand, to Delhi in 
 India on the other, before he marched against his 
 last and greatest foe, the Sultan Bajazet. The 
 eventful battle which decided the question whether 
 the Osmanlis or the Tartars should be masters for 
 the present was fought at Angora, on the 20th 
 July, 1402, the number of combatants on the side 
 of Tamerlane being 200,000 men, having twenty- 
 six elephants, and on the part of Bajazet 300,0B 
 men, with ten elephants. The conflict raged with 
 fury six hours, and after 40,000 of the Turks were 
 laid dead on the field, and 10,000 of their adver- 
 saries, Bajazet became the prisoner of his con- 
 queror, who retained him captive, though he 
 treated him with great generosity, till his death in 
 the year following. Tamerlane then, in 1404, re- 
 turned to his capital, and insatiate of conquest, 
 immediately organized an army of elite troops, 
 numbering 200,000 men, destined to act againtl j 
 China, but he was seized with a violent fever, and 
 died, soon after taking the field, 18th February, 
 1405. This extraordinary man is supposed to be the 
 author of a book of 'Institutes, Political and Mili- 
 tary,' which has been translated from the 
 into French and English. His portrait re] 
 a warrior armed cap-a-pie, of lofty stature, with * i 
 noble countenance, framed on the Greek mod^H 
 and a head massive as that of Hercules. While : j 
 extensive conquests, and the foundation of empires, i 
 are rendered necessary by the ignorance and vice 
 of whole masses of population, such a man must \ 
 be numbered among the great of his kind ; the 
 
 760 
 
TAM 
 
 history of all such, however, proves hy accumu- 
 lated instances, that their successes are only as so 
 many judgments upon society, as grand, and it 
 may be as beneficial in their results as the storms 
 of the atmosphere. If it be so, the sudden rise of 
 empires, and the recurrence of the experiment 
 from age to age, whether under an Alexander, a 
 iCa?sar, a Tamerlane, or a Napoleon, can but be 
 for a temporal purpose; instead of pointing to 
 universal dominion as the end of society, every 
 fresh attempt does but prove the impossibility of 
 such a result; the master mind seems but the 
 electric spot to which the clouds gather from all 
 Jsides, till the heavens are black, and the portent 
 lexplodcs in thunder, or dazzles the world with its 
 Jfires. The end of Providence is not to arm frail 
 ; man with his thunders, but to render the air free 
 |and pure around him : so long as ignorance pre- 
 vails, so long as the darkest passions continue to 
 Iferment and clash with each other, these scenes 
 must recur. After all, we may hope, will come 
 Ithose peaceful communities, of which the policy of 
 lour own country and the spirit of its history afford 
 jlthe likeliest promise the world has yet seen. [E.R.] 
 I TAMMEAMEA, a king of the Sandwich Islands, 
 co whom the merit belongs of beginning the civi- 
 lization of his country, died 1819. 
 j TAXCRED, a chief of the crusades, who headed 
 a vast army collected from Apulia and Calabria, 
 |ind founded the principality of Galilee on Lake 
 ifiberias. He is one of the heroes of Tasso, and 
 [lis exploits date from 1096 to 1112. 
 
 TAN I) Y, James Napper, one of the leaders of 
 'the ' United Irishmen,' was born in 1757, and 
 'became secretary of the Catholic Association at 
 Ifoublin, where he was a merchant, in 1791. Hav- 
 ing escaped to France at the commencement of 
 fthe government prosecution, he was commissioned 
 fta general of brigade in the expedition directed 
 Igainst Ireland under General Rey in 1798. After 
 [he failure of this attempt he took refuge in Ham- 
 urgh, but was delivered up to the English govern- 
 ment, and condemned to death. The sentence, 
 .however, was not executed, and Napper Tandy, 
 mberated after the peace of Amiens, died at Bour- 
 '.leaux, a colonel in the French service, 1803. 
 I TANNAHILL, Robert, a Scottish lyric, and 
 luthor of some of the most popular songs which 
 nave been written since the time of Burns. He 
 ivas born in 1774, in humble life, and followed the 
 ii landicraft of a weaver. His education, as might 
 expected, was of the most ordinary character, 
 nd the necessity of daily toil necessarily restricted 
 I is means of improvement. But the love of song 
 ras strong within him, and on the loom he fre- 
 uently composed his sweet but simple strains, 
 . aving attached to it a small desk, to enable him 
 p put down his thick-coming fancies as they arose, 
 rhough his muse was not of a high-rate character, 
 nd never continued long on the wing, there is a 
 rentle pathos, and wild thrilling music in such 
 : Jessie the Flower of Dumblane,' ' Gloomy 
 winter's noo awa,' ' Loudon's bonny Woods and 
 ' Iraes,' and some others, which have embalmed 
 pern in the hearts and memories of his country- 
 Tannahill was indebted to a Mr. R. A. 
 inith, a popular composer of his day, for setting 
 sveral of his pieces to music, and which contri- 
 uted to their early and permanent notoriety. Like 
 
 
 TAR 
 
 others of the tuneful tribe, this unfortunate son of 
 song was subject to fits of melancholy, which ter- 
 minated in mental derangement, under the impulse 
 of which he committed suicide in 1810, by drown- 
 ing himself in a deep pool of the Paisley canal, 
 leaving behind him a name and reputation, 
 second to few of our minor and popular song- 
 writers. [T-^-3 
 
 TANNER, A., a German ascetic, 1572-1632. 
 
 TANNER, B., a German writer of the 17th cent. 
 
 TANNER, Mathias, a Bohemian Jesuit and 
 historian of his order, about 1630-1700. 
 
 TANNER, Thomas, bishop of St. Asaph, author 
 of ' Notitia Monastica,' an account of all the reli- 
 gious houses in England and Wales, 1674-1735. 
 
 TANSILLO, L., an Italian poet, 1510-1568. 
 
 TANTARANI, M. Eddyn Achmed, an Ara- 
 bian poet and professor at Bagdad, 11th century. 
 
 TANUCCI, Bernardo, Marquis of, a cele- 
 brated statesman of Naples, 1698-1783. 
 
 TAPLIN, William, a veterinary surgeon au- 
 thor of works on farriery and horses, died 1807. 
 
 TAPPER, R., a French theologian, 1487-1559. 
 
 TARCAGNOTA, J., a native of Gaeta, author 
 of a ' Universal History,' died 1566. 
 
 TARDIF, W., a French translator, 1449-1480. 
 
 TARDY, C, a French physician, 1607-1670. 
 
 TARGA, L., an Italian physician, 1730-1815. 
 
 TARGE, J. B., a French historian, 1720-1788. 
 
 TARGIONI-TOZETTI, Giovanni, an eminent 
 Italian physician and naturalist, 1712-1783. 
 
 TAR1N, J., a French savant, 1586-1666. 
 
 TARIN, P., a French anatomist, died 1761. 
 
 TARLTON, or TARLETON, Richard, a cele- 
 brated actor and wit, author of a dramatic piece, 
 entitled ' The Seven Deadly Sins,' died 1589. 
 
 TARNOWSKI, called 'the Great,' an illustrious 
 Polish general and tactician, 1488-1571. 
 
 TARQUIN, two kings of Rome : 1. Tarqui- 
 nius Priscus, fifth in the line of kings, succeeded 
 Ancus Martius 614 B.C., and was assassinated by 
 the sons of Ancus 576 B.C. He contributed much 
 to the fortification and embellishment of the city, 
 and signally defeated the Sabines and Latins : he is 
 considered one of the most illustrious of the Roman 
 kings. 2. Tarquinius Superbus, seventh king, 
 grandson of the preceding, obtained the throne by 
 the murder of Servius Tullius, whose daughter, 
 Tullia, he had married. He was an able war- 
 rior and statesman, but cruel and unprincipled in 
 his conduct ; he was dethroned, and a revolution 
 effected, by Junius Brutus, provoked by the outrage 
 offered to Lucretia. The history of Tullia is one 
 of the most atrocious on record, she having mur- 
 dered her first husband in order to espouse Tarquin, 
 and afterwards driven over the mangled remains 
 of her father in the streets of Rome. 
 
 TARSIA, G. De, a Italian poet, 1476-1530. 
 
 TARSIA, P. A. De, a Span, historian, d. 1670. 
 
 TARTINI, Guiseppe, was born at Pisano in 
 Istria, in 1692. Tartini was first meant for the 
 law, but music compelled him to follow her bidding, 
 and thus the world gained a great violinist. The 
 story of his dream in which he thought he had 
 made a compact with the devil is well known. 
 The result of this nocturnal vision was his ' Devil's 
 Sonata ' still extant and which is esteemed as his 
 greatest work. His life was full of struggles and 
 adventures. He fought several duels, and married 
 61 
 
TAR 
 
 a cardinal's niece against the consent of both her 
 father and uncle. He afterwards took sanctuary 
 in a monastery, where he remained for two years. 
 Tartini became the founder of a school of violinists, 
 of which Nardini, Pugnani, Viotti, and Baillot 
 wpre celebrated disciples. He died at Padua in 
 1770. [J.M.] 
 
 TARUFFI, J. A., an Italian poet, 1722-1786. 
 
 TASKER, WILLIAM, a translator and poet, 
 rector of Iddesleigh, in Devonshire, died 1800. 
 
 T ASMAN, Abbl Jaxsskn, was born at Hoorn in 
 North Holland, about the year 1600. The skill and 
 judgment which he displayed at an early period 
 of his life in the service of the Dutch East India 
 Company, brought him under the notice of its dis- 
 tinguished governor-general, Anthony Van Diemen. 
 His first commission on a voyage of discovery was 
 received from his patron in 1642. For some years 
 previously the Dutch had been vigorously prose- 
 cuting geographical researches in the western 
 Pacific ; and had already traced a large part of the 
 Australian coasts ; but the southern and south- 
 eastern limits were still undetermined. To ascer- 
 tain these was the object of the expedition put 
 under the command of Tasman in 1642, by the go- 
 vernor-general and council of Batavia. He sailed 
 from that port on the 14th August, and directed 
 his course, first to Mauritius ; and then S.E. and 
 E. across the Indian ocean, till on the 24th Novem- 
 ber, he discovered a country, which he named 
 Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the governor ; 
 and which he considered to be a part of the great 
 'terra australis,' already in great measure sur- 
 veyed. On the 2d December he doubled its 
 southern limit; and thus proved that it did not 
 extend to a great distance south, as had been before 
 supposed. Tasman now turned northwards ; but 
 meeting unfavourable winds, directed his course 
 towards the east ; and, in a short time, was so 
 fortunate as to discover New Zealand. Having 
 traced a portion of its coasts, and made many 
 other discoveries in the adjoining seas, he returned 
 to Batavia, after a prosperous voyage of nine 
 months, during which he made many important 
 additions to geography, and cleared up many 
 doubtful points. The results of a second voyage, 
 undertaken in 1644, for a further examination of 
 the same regions, are not certainly known ; but, 
 judging from the instructions furnished to him, as 
 given in ' Flinder's Voyages,' and from the cir- 
 cumstance that his own name, those of the go- 
 vernor-general, and his daughter Maria to whom 
 Tasman was attached, and of two of the council 
 who signed the instructions, are applied to places 
 on the north coast, there seems no doubt that this 
 
 iiortion of Australia was carefully examined by 
 urn. Nothing is known of the after life of Tas- 
 man, or of the time and place of his death. An 
 account of the first voyage is given in the collec- 
 tions of Th6v6not, Correa, and Callender; and 
 with considerable fulness in the Penny Cyclo- 
 paedia, svb nom. [J-R-] 
 
 TASSEL, R., a French painter, 1588-1666. 
 
 TASSET, J., a French musician, 1732-1820. 
 
 TASSINS, L., a French surgeon, died 1687. 
 
 TASSIN, R. P., a learned French Benedictine, 
 author of ' The Literary History of the Congrega- 
 tion of Saint Maur,' 1697-1777. 
 
 TASSO, A., an Italian painter, 1566-1643. 
 
 TAS 
 
 TASSO, Bernardo, father of the great It 
 poet, secretary to the duke of Mantua and c 
 Italian princes, and author of several poems, 
 of which is the romance of ' Amadis de G 
 born at Bergamo 1493, died 1569. 
 
 [Residence of Tasso.] 
 
 TASSO, Torquato, one of the most celebrate 
 and most unfortunate among all men of genius 
 was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself noted in th< I 
 roll of Italian poets. Bernardo, noble but poor 
 had passed, from his native town, Bergamo, int 
 the service of the prince of Salerno ; and his soi 
 was born in 1544, at Sorrento, on the souther,! 
 shore of the Bay of Naples. We cannot in an i 
 degree understand even the soluble questions in th 
 riddle of Tasso's life, without remembering what hi j 
 character was. It exhibited such a preponder nice c i 
 imagination and feeling, and such a consequenj 
 tendency both to ideal dreaming and to timid an I 
 irritable sensitiveness, as must probably in any cir | 
 cumstances have unfitted him for active buaHfl 
 and made it certain that his happiness and fl^H 
 could not have been secured otherwise than by th I 
 most watchful tenderness and protection. Place j 
 in a situation of uncertainty and dependence 
 overawed by haughty and capricious patron3, an , 
 thwarted by the jealousy or contempt of rivj j 
 worldlings, such a man was necessarily miserable j 
 nor can we wonder that the fine mind at lemrt 
 lost its balance under the shocks which it had t 
 sustain. Tasso studied at Padua, devoted himse i 
 to poetry in spite of the warnings of his MM- 
 and published ' Rinaldo,' a romantic poem, at tt 
 age of eighteen. There are still presen 
 cantos of his greater work, written only a } 
 and he began to remodel and continue it 
 when he entered the service of the cardinal 
 brother of the duke of Ferrara. The re 
 parts of it at court, and beautiful lyrics j 
 by the young poet, made his name famous : 
 out Italy ; and he became yet better knov 
 pastoral drama, the ' Aminta.' In 1 
 ' Gierusalemme Liberata,' one of the few great epi< 
 which the world has seen, was complel 
 its illustrious author had not the courage! t< 
 it. Obscure stories are told of unfortun; 
 what we know is, that the poet was aire; 
 state of incipient derangement. Heput 
 as a heretic, into the hands of the inqni 
 Bologna, who wisely dismissed him as 
 
 7C2 
 
TAS 
 
 TAY 
 
 Mac; he returned to Ferrara, escaped from a I his earnest love of truth, and his devotion to the 
 
 welfare of the people, especially shown by preach- 
 ing to them in their native German instead of 
 Latm as had previously been the custom. Here 
 also may be mentioned the influence of his style 
 upon the German language, to which he gave a 
 smoother rhythm, a more exact meaning, and a 
 richer vocabulary than it had previously borne ; a 
 circumstance which has given him a distinguished 
 place in the history of German prose writers. His 
 sermons are admitted to be models in this respect, 
 but of all his writings we can only notice his 
 famous ' Institutions,' commonly known as ' The 
 German Theology,' a work which has been fre- 
 quently translated into Latin and French, and 
 exercised as much influence as any other single 
 book on the development of religious thought. 
 Wesley was at first captivated by it, but it went 
 too deep for him, and he finally rejected it, and 
 adopted those methodical religious exercises which 
 acquired so great popularity. The sum of the 
 'Institutions' may be thus stated : 1. The most 
 rigid performance of mere ceremonials amounts to 
 nothing; it is all but the conceit of form, mere 
 imagery ; the beginning of the spiritual life is pro- 
 found abasement of heart and mind before God. 
 2. God must be loved above all things, and the 
 neighbour as one's self; this supposes a resigna- 
 tion of all sensual pleasures and external satisfac- 
 tions, so far as they are not produced from the 
 internal state towards God ; in like manner of all 
 self-intelligence, conceit of the understanding, and 
 pleasure of the imagination; this internal self- 
 annihilation is more difficult than mortification of 
 the body, because in the latter case the acts of 
 piety may really be agreeable to the spirit and fall 
 in with its humour. 3. The state to be reached is 
 that of conjunction with God essentially, not under 
 images, or by way of reflection ; He then becomes 
 the effective good of the soul and illuminates the 
 sacred shade with which man has surrounded him- 
 self. These are the vital principles treated metho- 
 dically in the Institutions, and Tauler himself was 
 called The Illuminated Doctor, from the visions 
 and spiritual voices that reached him. [E.R.] 
 
 TAUNAY, A., a French sculptor, 1768-1824. 
 
 TAUNAY, N. A., a French painter, 1755-1830. 
 
 TAURELLUS, N., a German philosopher, whose 
 endeavour was to establish a fixed demarcation be- 
 tween theology and philosophy, 1547-1586. 
 
 TAURI, D., a French anatomist, 1669-1701. 
 
 TAWSEN, TAUSSEN, or TAGESEN, John, 
 called the Luther of Denmark, one of the earliest 
 promoters of the reform, in that country, 1494-1561. 
 
 TAVANNES, Gaspard De Saulx De, a 
 French marshal, and one of the most eminent of 
 their commanders, distinguished in the wars of 
 Italy, and in the religious wars which ended in the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1509-1573. 
 
 TAVELLI, J., an Italian theologian, 1764-84. 
 
 TAVERNER, Richard, clerk to the signet in 
 the reign of Edward VI., author of religious and 
 theological works, born in Norfolk 1505, died 1575. 
 
 TAVERNIER, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated 
 Eastern traveller, bom in Paris 1605, died at Mos- 
 cow 1686. He made an immense fortune in trad- 
 
 nv<?nt in which he was placed, wandered on foot 
 o his sister's house at Sorrento, and thence, in 
 .579, came back to Ferrara. He is said to have 
 iow become violent : at all events, the duke shut 
 lim up in a madhouse, the hospital of Sant' Anna, 
 rhere he was imprisoned for more than seven years. 
 ["he 'Jerusalem' was printed repeatedly in 1581, 
 a spite of his angry prohibitions. It is a 
 hivalrous and Christian epic, displaying a beauty 
 f poetic fancy which had not been reached by any 
 ne since Virgil, and a melting tenderness of 
 jeling which has not been equalled in any other 
 reat narrative poem. In the meantime, its un- 
 appy author was, by turns, seeing consolatory 
 ugels or tormenting demons, and subsiding into 
 atervals of calmness and sanity. He wrote in his 
 ungeon some of his best pieces, both in prose and 
 tt verse. He was released in 1586, and soon after- 
 wards published his tragedy ' Torrismondo.' In 
 592 he showed evident decay of judgment by 
 isuing an altered and spoiled edition of the ' Gieru- 
 alemme.' His life was now one of wandering. He 
 invited to come to Rome from Naples, and be 
 rowned a poet as Petrarch had been. He obeyed 
 he call, but said, truly, that he went only to die. 
 'he applause of crowds, and the honour paid to 
 im by the papal court, shed some consolation 
 ver his last days. The time had been fixed for 
 is coronation, when he felt his end approaching, 
 stired to the convent of Sant' Onofrio, on a hill 
 verlooking the Eternal City, and there expired 
 almly, in the spring of 1595. [W.S.] 
 
 TASSONI, A., an Italian poet, 1565-1635. 
 TASSONI, A., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1749-1818. 
 I TASTE, L. Bernard De La, bishop of Beth- 
 eem, author of Theological Letters on the subject 
 Hf Convulsion aries, 1692-1754. 
 I TATE, Francis, an English lawyer, author of 
 Interesting antiquarian works, 1560-1616. 
 I TATE, Nahum, successor of Shadwell as poet- 
 sureate, author of Poems, and of a metrical ver- 
 sion of the Psalms, 1652-1715. 
 I TATIAN, a Platonic philosopher who became a 
 Itlonvert to Christianity, and is numbered among 
 
 I'Bhose early writers of the church who are charged 
 IBrith heresy. He was born in Syria about 130, 
 land taught in Mesopotamia about 172. 
 
 T ATI US, a king of the Sabines, who was put 
 [So death at Lavinium about 742 B.C. 
 I TAUBE, F. W. De, a Fr. geographer, 1724-78. 
 I TAUBMAN, Frederic, an eminent Ger. philo- 
 llogist and critic, born in Franconia 1565, d. 1613. 
 I TAULER or THAULER, John, in Latin Tau- 
 yferus, a famous name among the mystic divines, 
 was born at Strasburgh, as nearly as can be ascer- 
 tained, about 1290, and died there in 1361. He 
 Has a monk of the Dominican order, and in several 
 Ipwpect s one of the most remarkable men of his age, 
 If, indeed, he may not rightly be regarded as the 
 Ifcerunner of Luther, who, as well as Melancthon, 
 and our own Henry More, highly esteemed his 
 works. His external history possesses little in- 
 t beyond that which arises from the circum- 
 stances attending his spiritual experience; the 
 brothers of his order having greatly derided, and 
 Even persecuted him. The peculiarity which ex- 
 I him to this treatment was the slight esteem 
 I p which he held their superstitious observances, 
 
 g with diamonds ; his ' Travels,' published in 6 
 
 )ls., 1679, are highly valued. 
 
 TAYLOR, Brook, a natural philosopher and 
 
 763 
 
 
TAY 
 
 mathematician, author of Experiments on Mag- 
 netism, and other works, horn at Edmonton, in 
 Middlesex, 1685, died 1731. 
 
 TAYLOR, Henry, a rector of Hampshire, 
 known as an Arian divine, died 1788. His son, 
 John, well known as a writer of humorous verse 
 by his ' Monsieur Tonson,' and similar pieces, and 
 proprietor of the ' Sun ' newspaper, died 1832. 
 
 TAYLOR, Herbert, Lieut. -General Sir, sec- 
 retary to the duke of York while engaged in the 
 French wars, and private secretary to George III. 
 and Queen Charlotte, 1775-1839. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jane, who distinguished herself as 
 a poetical and prose writer for youth, was born in 
 London, where Tier father exercised the profession 
 of an engraver, 1783. She afterwards removed 
 with him to Colchester, where he became minister 
 to a dissenting congregation. She published her 
 first work, ' The Beggar Boy,' in 1804. The prin- 
 cipal of her other productions are ' Essays on 
 Rhyme, on Morals, and Manners,' ' Original Poems 
 for Infant Minds,' 'Rhymes for the Nursery,' a 
 prose tale entitled ' Display,' &c, died 1823. 
 
 TAYLOR, Dr. Jeremy, an eminent bishop of 
 the episcopal Church of England. He was the son 
 of a barber, who resided in Cambridge, and in 
 that town Jeremy was born in 1613. His father 
 having resolved to educate him for the church, he 
 was sent first to the grammar school and after- 
 wards to Caius College in his native town. His 
 brilliant career procured him the patronage of 
 Laud, then chancellor of the university, and from 
 being private chaplain to his patron, he was ap- 
 pointed to the rectory of Uppingham. Through 
 the same influence, he was nominated to the office 
 of chaplain in ordinary to Charles I., to whom on 
 the outbreak of his troubles, Taylor rendered im- 
 portant aid by accompanying him on several of the 
 royalist campaigns, as well as by writing in defence 
 of the English hierarchy. During the reign of the 
 parliamentary party Taylor lost his benefice, and 
 retired into Wales, where he supported himself 
 by teaching a school, till he was taken by Lord 
 Carbury into his house in the capacity of domestic 
 chaplain. It was during his residence with that 
 nobleman, that Taylor composed most of those 
 brilliant discourses that have long ranked him 
 among the most eloquent of British divines. Crom- 
 well's spies kept a vigilant eye upon him, and he 
 twice suffered imprisonment during the Protecto- 
 rate. At the restoration his steadfast loyalty was 
 rewarded by his appointment to the bishopric of 
 Down and Connor, and the vice-chancellorship of 
 Trinity College, Dublin. Besides his far-famed 
 sermons, Taylor was the author of various other 
 works of great repute the chief of which are 
 'Ductor Dubitantium, or Rule of Conscience,' 
 'Liberty of Prophesying,' and 'Holy Living and 
 Dying.' Bishop Taylor died in 1667. [R.J-] 
 
 TAYLOR, John, commonly ^called ' The Water 
 Poet,' was born at Gloucester, in 1580, and for a 
 long time followed the occupation of a waterman 
 on the Thames, after which he kept a public house 
 in Phoenix Alley, Long Acre. Living at the period 
 of the rebellion he was a staunch royalist, but his 
 manifestations of opinion were rather eccentric 
 than dangerous. He died in 1654, and was buried 
 in the churchyard of St. Paul's, Covent Garden. 
 His works, published in folio, 1630, possess little 
 
 TAY 
 
 interest beyond that which attaches to the quaifc 
 conceits and manners of a past age. 
 
 TAYLOR, John, a learned dissenter, who be- 
 came successively minister of a congregation S. 
 Norwich, and tutor in divinity at the then newS 
 founded Warrington academy, he is author M 
 several works on theology and moral philosopbB, 
 and is understood to have been of unitarian p^| 
 ciples; born in Lancashire 1694, died 1761. 
 
 TAYLOR, John, a dignitary of the ChurcW 
 England, whose father was a barber at Shrew 
 bury, where he was born 1704. He was a distH 
 guished Greek scholar and civilian, and wrote soa 
 valuable works ; died 1766. 
 
 TAYLOR, John, an English oculist, knownH 
 his travels, of which he wrote a narrative, last ceS 
 
 TAYLOR, Sir Robert, the son of a London 
 stone-mason, who became a famous architect and 
 sculptor, and served as sheriff, 1714-1788. 
 
 TAYLOR, Rowland, rector of Hadleigh, 
 Suffolk, burnt alive in the reign of Mary, 1555. 
 
 TAYLOR, Silas, an antiquarian writer, keepei 
 of the government stores at Harwich, 1624-167*] 
 
 TAYLOR, T., a puritan divine, 1576-1632. 
 
 TAYLOR, Thomas, usually called 'the Plato' 
 nist,' was born in London, 1758, and became clerl 
 in a banking-house, afterwards assistant secretar 1 ' 
 to the ' Society for the Encouragement of Arte J 
 Manufactures, and Commerce.' He devoted al' 
 his leisure to the study of Greek literature and th ' 
 revival of the Platonic philosophy, for which h 
 was eminently qualified by his keen philosophic* j 
 insight, the richness of his imagination, and th , 
 
 traces of his diction. He was fortunate enough t 
 nd two munificent patrons in the duke of NorfoL'j 
 and a retired tradesman named Meredith, the lat ; 
 ter of whom settled upon him a pension of 10 ' 
 a-year, while they both supplied him with th| 
 expenses of publishing his valuable editions 
 Plato and other masters of the Grecian philosophj \ 
 Mr. Taylor was not simply a translator, though ' 
 translator of such works would need to posses 
 rare talents and indefatigable industry ; he wa ' 
 also a commentator upon his originals, and carrie : 
 on the war against Locke, in behalf of the Platoni 
 doctrine of ideas, which regard the soul, not as J 
 tabula rasa, but as a plenitude of forms. One c ! 
 his concise arguments may here be cited: ' If* th j 
 soul possess another eye different from that < ' 
 sense (and that she does so the sciences su 
 evince) there must be, in the nature of thing! : 
 species accommodated to her perception dhj^H] 
 from sensible forms. For if our intellects spectpf 
 things which have no real subsistence, su 
 
 764 
 
TAY 
 
 tocke's ideas, its condition must be mnch more 
 pnhappy than that of the sensitive eye, since this 
 s co-ordinated to beings, but intellect could specu- 
 ate nothing but illusions. Now if this be absurd, 
 ind if we possess an intellectual eye which is 
 sndned with a visual power, there must be forms 
 sorrespondent and conjoined with its vision ; forms 
 mmoveable, indeed, by a corporeal motion, but 
 noved by an intellectual energy.' We cannot give 
 he catalogue of Mr. Taylor's editions and com- 
 nentaries, as it would occupy more space than 
 his notice, but they all tend to a representation 
 nd development of the Grecian theology and of 
 
 entire history. Died 1835. 
 
 [E.R.] 
 
 TAYLOR, William, author of ' English Syria 
 iymes,' and a ' Survey of German Poetry,' was 
 he son of a merchant at Norwich, where he was 
 orn 1765. He became an intimate friend of 
 louthey at the close of the century, and editor of 
 
 local paper, the ' Norwich Iris,' after which he 
 istinguished himself in the metropolis as a re- 
 iewer and critic, died 1836. 
 
 TAYLOR, William Cooke, a miscellaneous 
 
 riter in high repute for his indefatigable indus- 
 
 r, the versatility of his talents, and the accuracy 
 his works, was bom at Youghal, in Ireland, in 
 800, and died of the pestilence which ravaged 
 country in 1849. Among his works are ' The 
 ife and Times of Sir Robert Peel,' ' Manuals of 
 jicient and Modern History,' ' History of Moham- 
 ledanism,' 'Revolutions of Europe,' and 'The 
 [istory of the House of Orleans.' 
 TAYLOR, Zachary, president of the United 
 tates, was born in Orange County, Virginia, 1790, 
 d was descended from an English family who 
 tttled in that state in 1692. His father, Colonel 
 ichard Taylor, was a companion-in-arms of 
 "ashington, and bore a name dreaded in Indian 
 arfare ; his mother, as usual in the case of men 
 ho in any way distinguish themselves, was a 
 oman of nigh spirit and intelligence. The mili- 
 iry life of Zachary Taylor, who was always noted 
 his hardihood, commenced at the outbreak of 
 le war with England in 1807, when he was com- 
 lissioned as lieutenant, and sent to defend the bor- 
 against the Indians : his great exploit on this 
 jcasion was the defence of Fort Harrison on the 
 ^abash, at the head of a garrison numbering only 
 -two men. He rose from grade to grade till 
 ecame general in the subsequent Indian wars 
 ' Florida and Arkansas, but acquired his great 
 )pularity in the invasion of Mexico, 1846, when 
 crossed the Rio-Grande, and gained in succes- 
 n the battles of Palo-alto, Resaca-de-la-Palma, 
 rateney, and Buena- Vista. His character is 
 y well expressed by the nickname of ' Rough- 
 d-ready,' given to him, according to a very 
 svalent fashion of honouring their great men, 
 his countrymen. General Taylor was elected 
 jsident in November, 1848, and entered upon 
 ice in March, 1849. He was carried off suddenly, 
 Fore completing his term, by an attack of cholera, 
 July, 1850, and was succeeded by Vice-president 
 'ler. [E.R.] 
 
 TEDESCHI, N., an Ital. canonist, 1389-1445. 
 KEGEL, Eric, a Swedish historian, died 1638. 
 TEGNER, E., a Swedish poet, 1782-1847. 
 IEIA, last king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 
 nquished by Narses, and killed 553. 
 
 TEL 
 
 TEIGNMOUTH, John Shore, Lord, an Ori- 
 ental scholar and administrator, connected with the 
 Indian government in the time of Warren Hast- 
 ings, afterwards closely allied with the philanthro- 
 pists of this country, and first president of the 
 Bible Society ; born in Devonshire 1751, died 1834. 
 We are indebted to him for the complete edition 
 of the life of Sir William Jones. 
 
 TEISSIER, Anthony, a French protestant 
 advocate, who became historiographer to the Prus- 
 sian court, and wrote several works, 1632-1715. 
 
 TEKELI, Emeric, Count, a patriot of Hun- 
 gary, who headed the revolt of that country against 
 Austria in 1676, died in exile 1705. 
 
 TELEMANN, George Philip, a great com- 
 poser of overtures, time of Handel, 1681-1767. 
 
 TELESIO, Antonio, otherwise Thiletius, or 
 Ti/esius, an Italian professor of literature and 
 Latin poet, 1482-1533. Bernardino, his ne- 
 phew, a philosopher and mathematician, 1509-88. 
 
 TELFORD, Thomas, a celebrated civil en- 
 gineer, a striking instance of the many on record 
 of men who have by the force of natural talent 
 unaided save by uprightness and persevering in- 
 dustry raised themselves from the lowly estate 
 in which they were born, to take rank among the 
 master spirits of their age. Telford's father was 
 a shepherd of Eskdale in Dumfriesshire, where 
 Thomas, his only son, was born in August, 1757. 
 His father died when he was an infant, and thus 
 the care of Telford's early years devolved upon his 
 mother, for whom he cherished an affectionate re- 
 gard, and evinced true filial piety. He had the 
 immense advantage peculiar to Scotchmen at 
 that time, of the parish school education ; but 
 at the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a 
 mason in Langholm. The construction of small 
 bridges, farm buildings, Scotch churches and 
 manses, were the opportunities afforded him of 
 obtaining practical knowledge. In his autobio- 
 graphy he has expressed his sense of the value of 
 this humble training, observing, that although con- 
 venience and usefulness only are studied in such 
 buildings, yet, ' as there is not sufficient employ- 
 ment to produce a division of labour in building, he 
 was under the necessity of making himself ac- 
 quainted with every detail of procuring, prepar- 
 ing, and employing every kind or material, whether 
 it be the produce of the forest, the quarry, or the 
 forge ; and this necessity, although unfavourable 
 to the dexterity of the individual workman who 
 earns his livelihood by expertness in one operation, 
 is of singular advantage to the future architect or 
 engineer, whose professional excellence must rest 
 on the adaptation of materials, and a confirmed 
 habit of discrimination and judicious superinten- 
 dence.' In 1780 Telford went to Edinburgh, and 
 enlarged his field of observation during two years' 
 employment there, on the splendid improvements 
 of that city then commenced. He then went to 
 London, and was employed in the works of the 
 quadrangle of Somerset House, where he says he 
 'obtained much practical information.' He was 
 afterwards engaged as superintendent on various 
 buildings at Portsmouth Dockyard. In 1787 he 
 removed to Shrewsbury, to superintend alterations 
 on Shrewsbury castle. Here he erected the new 
 gaol, finally, in 1793, became county surveyor, an 
 office which he continued to hold as long as he 
 
 765 
 
 I 
 
TEL 
 
 TEL 
 
 lived. Telford's first bridge was over the Severn the Salopian at Charing Cross, (now the ' Slim 
 
 at Montford, consisting of three elliptical stone 
 arches, one of 58 feet, the others of 55 feet span. 
 In 1795 he erected the Buildemts iron bridge of 180 
 feet span. Henceforward his attention was almost 
 solely devoted to civil engineering, The Elleamere 
 canal, with its magnificent Christe and Pont-y-Cy- 
 sylte viaducts, occupied him chiefly from 1795 to 
 1805. In 1801 Telford was deputed by govern- 
 ment to report on the works desirable for the im- 
 provement of the internal and external intercourse 
 and trade of Scotland. In consequence of his re- 
 ports the Highland roads and bridges were made, 
 the Caledonian canal cut, and many ports and 
 harbours made and improved, all of which works 
 he superintended. The Caledonian canal was 
 opened in 1823. It was a gigantic work for the 
 period ; but has not proved of much use, or to 
 have been very perfectly executed. In his exten- 
 sive practice m bridge building he improved the 
 general practice of engineers of this country, by 
 adopting the important principle of making the 
 spandrils hollow, and supporting the roadway upon 
 slabs laid upon longitudinal walls, instead of fil- 
 ling up the haunches with a mass of loose rubbish, 
 which may press injuriously upon the arch, and 
 often proves of serious inconvenience when the ma- 
 sonry of the bridge needs any repair. Telford im- 
 proved the Macadam system of road-making, and 
 carried it into effect on the Holyhead roads, for 
 which he was long engineer under the commis- 
 sioners. The Menai suspension bridge on this 
 road is a noble example of Telford's engineering 
 skill and boldness in design, and even now in 
 juxtaposition with the Britannia Tubular bridge, 
 fairly divides with that great work the admiration 
 of the intelligent observer The St. Katherine 
 docks, London, are from Telford's design, and were 
 executed under his direction. There are innumer- 
 able happy details in the engineering, for an ac- 
 count of which we must refer to the plates attached 
 to his autobiography. The work of civil engineer- 
 ing, on the success of which Telford seems to have 
 looked with greatest self-complacency, is the im- 
 provement of the outfall of the Seine river, by which 
 the drainage of about 30,000 acres of richest sea 
 land was secured, and that of some 80,000 acres 
 greatly improved. This was finished in 1830. 
 He was employed by Swedish governments in the 
 construction of the Gotha canal, and often con- 
 sulted by the Russian government. Before leav- 
 ing Eskdale Telford had acquired some distinc- 
 tion as a poet, and corresponded with Burns, 
 recommending him to take up other subjects 
 of serious nature similar to the Cottar's Saturday 
 Night. He is said to have taught himself Latin, 
 French, Italian, and German. He has left valu- 
 able contributions to engineering literature in the 
 articles architecture, bridge, civil architecture, in- 
 land navigation, in Brewster's ' Edinburgh Ency- 
 clopaedia,' and in his autobiography. He was 
 F.R.S.L. and E. Telford became president of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers in 1820, and re- 
 mained so till his death in 1834. In all the rela- 
 tions of life he commanded respect and esteem. 
 He was of athletic form, and reached the age of 
 seventy without any serious illness. It was only 
 late in life that he had any fixed residence. Even 
 in London he lived in an hotel, for many years in 
 
 but from 1825 he resided in 24 Abingdon-StraKj 
 where he died on the 2d September, 1834, at fl 
 age of seventy-seven. His mortal rem 
 interred in Westminster Abbey. [L.D. 
 
 TELL, William, the popular hero of 
 independence : his story is open to grave do 
 but the facts certainly known are these, 
 time of Albert, archduke of Austria, Switx 
 was divided into small baronial fiefs, and inc 
 dent cities having a democratic form of 
 ment; and these free districts, being surrou 
 nearly by the imperial domains, were obje 
 great jealousy to the house of Austria, by \ 
 at last their subjugation was resolved upon, 
 ready the archduke possessed the right 
 pointing bailiffs for administering the 
 jurisdiction in all these places, and such 
 tionary was Gessler, the tyrant of the 
 concerning Tell. When the purpose of t' 
 trians became known, the natives of Uri, Sche 
 and Underwalden, formed the nucleus of 
 elation to defend their country ; and three pa 
 Furst, Melchal, and Staffacher, led them to i 
 January 13th, 1308, when the baronial 
 were attacked and the oppressive barons 
 out of the country. The legend of Williai 
 supplies the circumstance which gave the 
 for this sudden rising. Gessler, it is ss ' 
 pointed governor or bailiff of Uri, cau 
 plumed cap to be elevated on a pole in 
 place at Altorf, and required the pea 
 render the same homage to it as to nin 
 probability is, that it was raised as a stanc 
 rally his partizans, and discover the dis 
 William Tell, supposed to have been the s 
 of Walter Furst, treated this symbol with i 
 and was ordered under arrest by the enra 
 vernor : the story adds, that his liberty wa 
 to him on condition of striking an apple, pis 
 the head of his child, with a bolt from hi 
 bow; it relates that he struck the 
 
 [Tell'B Chapel on the Lake of Waldstaten.] 
 
 having reserved an arrow, destined, as he avgj 
 for the heart of the governor had his child recer 
 any injury, he was still detained in custody i 
 766 
 
TEL 
 
 j Killed with irons. Gessler had reason to fear that 
 the friends of Tell would liberate him if confined 
 in the prison of Altorf ; he resolved therefore to 
 convey him across the lake of Waldstaten to his 
 own castle of Kupnacht. On the passage a violent 
 storm arose, and Tell was released from his bonds 
 as the only person capable of managing the boat, 
 Kvhich he shoved towards a flat shelf that jutted 
 pat into the lake ; on this he suddenly leaped, at 
 the same time snatching up his cross bow, and 
 pushing the boat from shore with his foot as he 
 ook the spring: he afterwards lay in wait for 
 "er, and shot him as he passed through a 
 nountain defile. It was at this juncture that the 
 ntry flew to arms at the call of Tell and his 
 ellow-patriots, as already related : and there can 
 no doubt that his story is substantially true, 
 hough the embellishment of the apple seems to 
 ave been borrowed from a legend of Denmark. 
 Jot yet, however, had the Austrians given up all 
 iope of conquering the 'audacious rustics,' as they 
 styled the Swiss peasantry, and in 1315 the moun- 
 ain passes were invaded by an army of 20,000 
 nen, under the archduke Leopold. This immense 
 brce was totally routed by a little band of fourteen 
 undred Swiss, in the pass of Morgarten, and Tell 
 s believed to have been present in the battle He 
 s said to have perished in the river Schachen, 
 luring a great flood, in 1350. [E.R.] 
 
 TELLER, W. A., a Ger. theologian, 1734-1804. 
 
 TELLEZ, Balthazar, a Portuguese Jesuit, and 
 istorian of his order and of Ethiopia, 1595-1675. 
 
 TELLEZ DE SYLVA, Don Manuel, mar- 
 uis of Aleyrete, a Portuguese historian, 1682-1736. 
 
 TELLIER, Michael Le, secretary of state and 
 hancellor of France in the time of Mazarin ; he 
 
 as the chief instrument in procuring the revoca- 
 ion of the edict of Nantes, the order for which 
 e signed, and died a few days after, 1603-1085. 
 son, Francis Michael, marquis of Louvois, 
 linister of war, and the enemy and successor of 
 !olbert, 1641-1691. Chakles Maurice, brother 
 f the latter, archbishop of Rheims, and an active 
 lover in all ecclesiastical affairs at that time, 1642- 
 710. Camille, fourth son of Francis, known as 
 
 e Abbe de Louvois, a famous doctor of the Sor- 
 onne, 1675-1718. 
 
 TELLIER, Michael, a bigoted Jesuit, con- 
 
 jsor to Louis XIV., and promoter of the bull 
 Inigenitus ; his enmity to the Jansenists was so 
 reat, that he demolished the very buildings of the 
 tot Royal, 1643-1719. 
 
 TEMANZA, T., an Italian architect, 1705-89. 
 
 TEMPELHOF, G. F., a Prus. artillery officer and 
 ician under Frederick the Great, 1737-1807. 
 
 TEMPEST A, Antonio, a Florentine painter of 
 mdscapes and battle-pieces, 1555-1630. 
 
 TEMPESTA, Peter. See Molyn. 
 
 TEMPLE, a well-known name in the history of 
 
 nglish statesmanship, was first borne by Sir 
 Villiam Temple, secretary to Sir Philip Sidney, 
 rho died in his arms ; he afterwards accompanied 
 he earl of Essex to Ireland, and became provost 
 f Trinity College, died 1626. His son, Sir John, 
 came master of the rolls and privy councillor in 
 relainl in the reign of Charles II., and was an eye- 
 fitness of the Irish rebellion, of which he wrote a 
 lory, published in 1641. Sir William, son of 
 be latter, was the statesman and diplomatist who 
 
 TER 
 
 played such an important part in the period oi 
 William and Mary, and is also known as a miscel- 
 laneous writer, 1628-1700. 
 
 TEMPLEMAN, Peter, a physician of London, 
 who became keeper of the reading-room in the 
 British Museum, author of several works, 1711-69. 
 
 TENIERS, David, the elder, a celebrated 
 Flemish painter, pupil of Rubens, 1582-1649. 
 
 TENIERS, David, the younger, was born at 
 Antwerp in 1610 ; died at Brussels in 1694, and 
 was buried at Pesth, a village between Antwerp 
 and Mechlin, where he had purchased an estate. 
 Teniers is one of the most distinguished of the 
 Flemish painters, though in subject he belongs 
 more to the Dutch school : his pictures are very 
 numerous, and generally represent fairs, markets, 
 merry-makings, guard rooms, beer houses, and 
 other interiors. His execution is remarkably free, 
 but thoroughly true and masterly in every respect. 
 (Houbraken, Groote Schouburgh, &c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 TENISON, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 author of ' The Creed of Hobbes Examined,' ' Re- 
 mains of Sir Francis Bacon,' and 'Sir Thomas 
 Browne's Tracts,' 1636-1715. 
 
 TENNANT, Smithson, professor of chemistry 
 in Cambridge, and a discoverer in that branch of 
 science ; born at Selby, in Yorkshire, 1761, d. 1815. 
 
 TENNANT, William, a Scottish poet and 
 philologist, professor of Oriental languages at St. 
 Andrews, author of ' Anster Fair,' died 1843. 
 
 TENNHART, John, a native of Saxony, re- 
 markable for his alleged visions and writings, dic- 
 tated by the 'interior voice,' 1661-1720. 
 
 TENON, J. R,, a French surgeon, 1724-1816. 
 
 TENTERDEN, Charles Abbot, Lord, an 
 eminent lawyer, who succeeded Lord Ellenborough 
 as lord chief justice of the King's Bench, was born 
 at Canterbury, where his father was a hair-dresser, 
 1762. He acquired an extensive practice as a bar- 
 rister in the Oxford circuit, on which he entered 
 in 1775, and in 1802 he distinguished himself by 
 the publication of a work since recognized as a 
 standard on Maritime Law. His appointment a3 
 judge dates from 1818; died 1832. 
 
 TENTZEL, or TENZEL, William Ernest, 
 a German historian and antiquary, 1659-1707. 
 
 TERAMO, Giacomodi, archbishop of Florence, 
 and author of an ascetic romance, 1349-1417. 
 
 TERBURG, G., a Flemish painter, 1608-1681. 
 
 TERCIER, J. P., a Fr. diplomatist. 1704-1767. 
 
 TERENCE, the short name of Publius Teren- 
 tius, a celebrated author of Comedies in the Latin 
 tongue, supposed to have been born at Carthage 
 about 194 B.C. He was earned to Rome as a 
 slave, and brought out his first play, the 'Andria,' 
 in 166, and the others now extant between that 
 period and 160 B.C. Shortly afterwards he Avent 
 on a literary journey to Greece, and having trans- 
 slated the plays of Menandez, is supposed to have 
 died on his voyage home, about 146 b.c An 
 English translation of Terence was executed by 
 the elder Colman. 
 
 > TERENTIUS, T., an Italian Jesuit and mis- 
 sionary, who went to China in 1581 and died there. 
 
 TERPANDER, a Greek poet of Lesbos, said to 
 have improved the lyre, 7th century B.C. 
 
 TERRASSON, John, a French ecclesiastic, 
 known as a moralist and philosophical critic, 1670- 
 1750. Andrew, his elder brother, an eloquent 
 
 767 
 
TER 
 
 priest of the oratory, 1G68-1723. Gaspard, a 
 third brother, a priest of the oratory, and author 
 of a work censured by the Sorbonne, 1680-1752. 
 Matthew, cousin to the preceding, a famous 
 jurisconsult, 1669-1734. Anthony, son of Mat- 
 thew, author of a ' History of Roman Jurispru- 
 dence,' completed by order of the chancellor 
 D'Aguesseau, 1705-1782. 
 
 TERRIN, C, a French antiquarian, 1640-1710. 
 
 TERRY, D., an English comedian, 1780-1828. 
 
 TERRY, E., an English traveller, 17th century. 
 
 TERSERUS, J., a Swedish theologian, b. 1605. 
 
 TERTULLIAN, Quintus Septimius Flor- 
 ens, was the son of a pagan centurion, and was 
 born at Carthage, probably about a.d. 160. His 
 original profession was that of a pleader, or 
 lawyer, and he rose to eminence in the courts. On 
 his being converted to Christianity, he was or- 
 dained a presbyter in the church of Carthage. 
 At the end of the second century he became a 
 Montanist. (See Montanus). These peculiar 
 views he illustrated with constitutional ardour 
 and keenness. Even in his writings, composed 
 prior to his conversion to Montanism, there are 
 traces of that peculiar temperament which predis- 
 posed him to the change. He is supposed to have 
 died about the year 220. The fathers give Ter- 
 tullian a very high character, and he stamped the 
 impress of his spirit to some extent on the African 
 churches. His works are great favourites of Cy- 
 prian, and in asking for any one of them, he used 
 to say to his attendants, Da magistrum, hand me 
 my master. Among the Latin fathers Tertullian 
 occupies a very distinguished place. He had not 
 the sound sense of Augustine, nor the milder graces 
 of Cyprian, but he was inspired with unconquer- 
 able zeal, and his style burns with the fervour of 
 his heart. His erudition was extensive, and his 
 acuteness was seldom baffled. His writings ex- 
 hibit on every page the skill and the defects of a 
 rhetorician. Figures swell into absurd hyperbole, 
 and the language is so twisted as often to be ob- 
 scure. His arguments are frequently edged with 
 satire, and loaded with severe vituperation. Ter- 
 tullian's works consist of thirty treatises, apolo- 
 getical, doctrinal, and ascetical. In the first he 
 combats Jews and pagans, in the second he deals 
 with heretics, and in the third he defends the 
 rigid austerities of his peculiar creed. The best 
 known of his works are his ' Apologeticum,' his 
 ' De Praescriptione Hereticorum,' and his treatise 
 against Marcion. His works were published in two 
 folio volumes by Da Cerda, Paris, 1624; by Rigaltius, 
 at the same place, in one folio, 1634 ; by Moreau, 
 in three folios, Paris, 1657-58 ; twice at Venice, 
 1701-1744; by Semler, at Halle, in five volumes, 
 8vo, 1769-73, reprinted in 1827-29 in six 12mos. 
 Leopold's edition occupies four volumes in Gers- 
 dorfs 'Bibliotheca Patrum.' But the last and 
 most complete edition is in three large volumes 
 8vo, Leipzig, 1854, edited with care, elegance, and 
 copious indexes by Oehler, the third volume con- 
 taining the most important of the dissertations 
 bv preceding editors and historians on the life, 
 character, times, and writings of Tertullian. 
 Several of his tracts have been translated into 
 English by Chevallier, Betty, Lord Hailes, and 
 Dr. Pusey. [J.E.] 
 
 TESMAN, J., a Germ, diplomatist, 1643-1693. 
 
 THA 
 
 TESSTER, II. A., a French physician, agricul- 
 turist, and member of the Institute, 1740-1837. 
 
 TESSIN, Nicodemus, crown architect of 
 Sweden, and the designer of several great public 
 edifices, 1619-1688. His son, Nicodemi 
 Tessin, also a great architect, senator and mar- 
 shal to the court, 1654-1728. Chari 
 tavus, son of the latter, completed the | 
 Stockholm, designed by his father, and was after- 
 wards an ambassador and statesman, 1695-177J 
 
 TESTA, Pietro, an Italian painter, 161 1 -1G50. 
 
 _ TESTI, Fulvio, Count, an Italian poet, who 
 
 died in prison for a political offence, 1593-1646. I 
 
 TETENS, J. K, a Germ, politician, 1757-1807. 
 
 TETZEL, John, a Dominican monk, who wa; 
 appointed in 1517 to sell the papal indulgence*] 
 which excited the first movements of the refoniw 
 tion ; he was a man of bad morals him 
 sold indulgences for the most shameful crime* 
 past or future ; died of the plague 1519. 
 
 THAARUP, T., a Danish poet, 1749-1821. 
 
 THAIS, a Greek courtezan of remarkable bead 
 who accompanied Alexander to Asia, and becami 
 one of the wives of Ptolemy. 
 
 THALES, born most probably in the yet 
 636 B.C.: according to Herodotus he was a citizelj 
 of Miletus, although by descent a Phoenicia J 
 We shall not enter on any of that mere gossip re 
 garding Thales, which has floated downwards froijl 
 Antiquity; but endeavour rather to discern some J 
 thing, however little, that may be considere^H 
 sure index to his pursuits and character. Thati! 
 the opinion of the Greeks he occupied a most dis < 
 tinguished place, cannot be doubted; for thel 
 unanimously place him at the head of their list Cf 
 seven sages; and in so far as we know, he i 
 entitled to claim the origination of Greek Phife 
 sophy. He was evidently a close observer^ 
 material nature: it may be said that the Ioffl.1 
 School sprung from him. He had made hfli 
 self master of all existing Astronomical loreil . 
 whether it he a fact or a myth that he predkH 
 the Eclipse of the Sun which occurred during tb I , 
 battle between the Lydians and the Medes. fle i 
 posing it a fact, it were quite wrong to endowHjj 
 with familiarity with any form of scientific procei 
 applicable to the calculation of Eclipses : but 1 ~ 
 must have been well acquainted with the CjjH 
 period comprehending the order of Eclipse 
 His searching culture of Physics, is, ho*^H| 
 more emphatically evinced by his cardinal maxii . ; 
 that ' Water is the ground or primal elemenjH 
 all Things ' a maxim not to be confounded^M 
 mere fantastic conjecture, for it was evident^H 
 result of a discriminating observation of the Mlj 
 mense and essential influence of that element OV 
 all forms of Matter and Life, as well as of its ew; 
 singular transformations. That was no in^H | 
 Mind, which at so early an epoch, led the wtH 
 
 feneralizing on the ground of Observation. Bi- '. 
 hales went farther : his thoughts were not COM ^ 
 fined within the sphere of Physics. He tS^Bj 
 also, that the 'World has a soul, is full of daee^HE 
 His specific views are lost; but it is clear, eni 
 from so slight an intimation, that he I^^bK 
 way in those perilous questionings of the^^^H 
 and the Infinite, which afterwards so distu^^^E, 
 Greek speculation. Thales, besides, was a preij , 
 tical worker among men. He is said to ha , 
 
 768 
 
THA 
 
 accomplished feats of Engineering, to have been 
 skilful in business, and to have taken part in 
 guiding the State. Could we reproduce him tho- 
 roughly, it cannot be doubted, that we should 
 discern a Potentate all worthy of the admiration 
 of Greece. [J.P.N.] 
 
 THALIUS, J., a German botanist, 16th cent. 
 
 THAMAR, a queen of Georgia, 1184-1206. 
 
 THEAULON, S., a French poet, 1744-1780. 
 
 THEAULON, S., a Fr. dramatist, 1787-1841. 
 
 THEDEN, J. C. A., a Ger. surgeon, 1714-1797. 
 
 THELWALL, John, an orator of the London 
 Corresponding Society, who was tried with Hardy 
 and Home Tooke for high treason, afterwards 
 a miscellaneous writer and lecturer, 1764-1834. 
 
 THEMISON, a Syrian phvsician, 1st century. 
 
 THEMISTIUS, a Greek philosopher and critic, 
 pr&fect of Constantinople in 362. 
 
 [Themistocles Frvm an Ancient Bust] 
 
 THEMISTOCLES, an Athenian statesman and 
 
 Keneral, of the period when Greece was menaced 
 y the Persian empire, was born of obscure par- 
 ntage in the latter half of the 6th century b.c. 
 His public career was contemporaneous with that 
 f Aristides, and the rivalry between them became 
 subject of the highest public importance soon 
 fter the battle of Marathon (see Miltiades). 
 The character of Aristides seems to have been that 
 of a sturdy republican Tory, resolute to stand upon 
 he good old ways ; that of Themistocles was more 
 ited to the exigencies of the period, and he pos- 
 ssed far greater political foresight, not unmixed 
 ith the duplicity so characteristic of statesman- 
 lip in more modern times. Greece was threatened 
 ith a partizan warfare between these leaders, 
 the dispute was terminated by the banish- 
 ent of Aristides, B.C. 483, and Themistocles was 
 at liberty to pursue his policy. His great ob- 
 was the creation of a navy, able to cope with 
 of the Persians, and to the success of his 
 may be attributed not only the salvation of 
 but the supremacy of Athens over the other 
 n cities. He had great difficulties, both 
 al and political, to encounter, and even the 
 ian oracle was at first opposed to him: a 
 d response, however, though ambiguous, was 
 reted in favour of his design, and Themis- 
 soon found himself at the head of the Greek 
 and well provided with ships. By a 
 
 THE 
 
 master stroke of policy, he fairly tricked both the 
 Greeks and Persians into fighting the great naval 
 battle off Salamis, in which he totally defeated 
 Xerxes, b.c. 480 : he then took the necessary mea- 
 sures for securing the supremacy of Athens by 
 internal defences, the works of which were carried 
 on in defiance of Sparta. In b.c. 466, the jea- 
 lousies excited by his great power, led to his 
 banishment by Ostracism, and he retired to the 
 Persian court, where, it would appear, he forgot 
 his patriotism, and plotted against his country. 
 It is related by Plutarch, however, that he poi- 
 soned himself rather than yield to the overtures 
 of Artaxerxes. His death, from whatever cause, 
 took place at Magnesia in Asia Minor, B.C. 470, 
 or 472. [E.R.] 
 
 THEOBALD. See Thibaut. 
 > THEOBALD, Lewis, the hero of Pope's Dun- 
 ciad,' known as a miscellaneous writer and com- 
 mentator on Shakspeare, died 1744. 
 
 THEOCRITUS, a Greek pastoral poet, some of 
 whose 'Idyls' and 'Epigrams' are still extant, 
 time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, b.c. 284-247. 
 
 THEODATtJS, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 
 defeated by Belisarius, and killed 536. 
 
 THEODEMIR, a prince of the Visigoths in 
 Spain, who reigned over an independent state in 
 New Castile, beginning of the 8th century. 
 
 THEODORA, three empresses of the East : 
 The earliest was the wife of Justinian, originally a 
 dancer and courtezan, who ascended the throne 
 with her husband in 527 ; she occasioned the dis- 
 grace of Belisarius, in revenge of her quarrels with 
 his wife, Antonina ; died 548. The second was the 
 wife of Theophilus, who was left a widow in 842, 
 and ruled as regent for her son, Michael III., till 
 857, when she was deposed and imprisoned in a 
 monastery ; died 867. The third was daughter of 
 Constantine VIII., and reigned a short time with 
 her sister, Zoe, in 1042, and alone, after the death 
 of Constantine IX., from 1054 to 1056. She was the 
 last of the Macedonian dynasty. Another Theo- 
 dora was wife of the Armenian emperor, Leo V. 
 
 THEODORE, two popes of Rome : The first 
 reigned 642-649. The second survived his elec- 
 tion, in 898, three weeks only, and was succeeded 
 by John IX. 
 
 THEODORE, a king of Corsica, 1696-1756. 
 
 THEODORET, a learned ecclesiastical writer 
 and historian, born at Antioch about 386, d. 457. 
 
 THEODORIC, two kings of the Visigoths in the 
 south of France: Theodoric I., son of the fam- 
 ous Alaric, was elected on the death of Wallia in 
 419 ; he was at war with the Romans some years, 
 but afterwards entered into a league with them 
 against Attila ; he was killed in the great battle 
 with the latter on the plains of Chalons 451. 
 Theodoric II., son of the preceding, acquired 
 the throne by putting to death his elder brother, 
 Thorismond, in 453; he extended the empire of 
 the Visigoths to the foot of the Pyrenees, and was 
 assassinated by his brother, Eunc, in 466. 
 
 THEODORIC, surnamed ' The Great,' king of 
 the Ostrogoths, and founder of their dominion in 
 Italy, was born in 457, or 459. He was de- 
 scended from the royal race of that people settled 
 in Pannonia, and his father is supposed to have 
 been one of three brothers who had divided the 
 sovereignty over them, but this point is uncertain. 
 
 769 
 
 3D 
 
THE 
 
 Sent M a hostage to Constantinople in his child- 
 hood, he had the advantage of an education in the 
 politics, philosophy, and jurisprudence of the 
 Greek empire, and was restored to his father, now 
 become sole ruler of the Ostrogoths, at the end of 
 ten years. Italy at this time was swayed by the 
 Heruli and Rugians, two branches of the Gothic 
 stock, acknowledging Odoacer as their prince, 
 whose authority was hated at Rome, and gave 
 occasion to the interference of the Eastern em- 
 peror, Zeno, in the affairs of Italy. With the 
 forma] consent of the latter, Theodoric went to 
 the conquest of his future kingdom, and having de- 
 feated and slain Odoacer, was saluted king of 
 Italy by the army in 493. He now assumed the 
 Roman purple, and made Ravenna his capital ; a 
 few years later he manned Andofleda, sister of 
 Clovis, the Frank king. Schlegel's brief notice is 
 sufficiently descriptive of his reign : ' He was 
 highly esteemed in Rome, and by all the Germanic 
 nations ; his name, like that of Charlemagne after 
 him, was celebrated in the heroic songs of the 
 Germans, while political writers and historical 
 critics commend alike his talents and his virtues. 
 His rule was generous and noble, he loved and 
 honoured the arts and sciences which his age still 
 possessed, and the last of Roman writers, Cassio- 
 doras, and Boethius, were the ornaments of his 
 reign.' The latter, indeed, and his father-in-law, 
 Symmachus, were allowed by Theodoric to become 
 the victims of false accusations, and his own death 
 was hastened by the melancholy it induced upon 
 him; the shade of Symmachus is said to have 
 haunted him incessantly. Theodoric, like the 
 Goths in general, was an Arian; he died at 
 Ravenna in 526, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Athalaric, who died in 534. The mother of this 
 prince, Amalasontha, then became the wife and 
 victim of Theodoric's nephew, Theodatus, who 
 usurped the throne. These circumstances led to 
 the interference of the emperor Justinian, and pro- 
 duced the expedition of Belisarius in Italy. [E.R.] 
 
 THEODORIC, an Italian surgeon, died 1298. 
 
 THEODORUS, Pope. See Theodore. 
 
 THEODORUS, or DIODORUS, bishop of Tar- 
 sus in 394, distinguished against the Arians. 
 
 THEODORUS LASCARIS. SeeLASCARis. 
 
 THEODORUS PRISCIANUS, a medical writer 
 of the empirical sect, in the 4th century. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, called of Tripolis, or of Bithy- 
 nia, a Greek mathematician and astronomer, of 
 uncertain date, the age assigned to him varying 
 from 50 B.C. to the 3d century. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, called the Grammarian, a wri- 
 ter of Svracuse, 9th century. 
 
 THEODOSIUS the Great, emperor of the 
 whole Roman world, was the son of a distinguished 
 general of that name, who was executed at Car- 
 thage by order of Gratian in 376. The young 
 Theodosius, then about thirty years of age, retired 
 to Galicia, which, according to some accounts, was 
 his native place; but in the third year after he was 
 recalled by Gratian, and proclaimed his colleague 
 in Illyricum and the eastern provinces of the em- 
 pire. Theodosius now proved himself the worthy 
 successor of Constantine, and delivered the em- 
 pire from the irruption of the Visigoths, both with 
 the 6trong arm of the warrior, and the hardy 
 kad of the politician ; he resembled him also as 
 
 THE 
 
 the champion of orthodoxy, and eventually com-, 
 pleted the work that Constantine had only 'begun, 
 by extinguishing idolatry, and strengthening the 
 bulwarks of orthodoxy against Arianism. In 383 
 Gratian became the victim of a rebellion, and Maxi- 
 mus, usurping the western empire, was defeated 
 by Theodosius, who gave him battle on the banks] 
 of the Drave in Pannonia. His triumphant entry I 
 into Rome took place in 389, but before and after II 
 this period he had the arduous task of suppressing | 
 continual seditions in the great cities. The most I J 
 threatening of these broke out at Thessalonica, 1 1 
 and Theodosius, yielding to his anger, and to the! J 
 advice of Rufinus, sent a commission to punish,!! 
 the inhabitants, some thousands of whom were II 
 put to the sword, though Theodosius, too late, had 11 
 countermanded his orders. For this measure of k 
 severity he was boldly deprived of Christian com-^l 
 munion by Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, wb^H 
 turned him back from the church porch, and onlyH 
 consented to his reunion after a repentance o'f'll 
 months. The abolition of paganism dates in 391,11 
 and the undisputed sovereign authority of Theo Jl 
 dosius in 394, when he defeated Arbogastes, anfifl 
 the pretender Eugenius. He now divided his B 
 dominions between his sons Honorius and Area- jl 
 dins, and expired at Milan the year following^M 
 395. [E.R1 
 
 THEODOSIUS II., grandson of the precedinj^B 
 succeeded his father, Arcadius, as emperor of th^fl 
 East, in 399. He was a feeble prince, but a body B 
 of laws is named after him, the ' Theodosian Code,iH 
 and he had to sustain a war with Persia, and a series -I 
 of religious quarrels ; died 450. Theodosius u 
 III. was proclaimed emperor on the deposition oil 
 Anastasius II. in 715 ; he yielded the governmei^H 
 in his turn to Leo III. in 716, and d. in a monasterj^M 
 
 THEODOTION, or THEODOTUS, an EbioniM 
 of Ephesus, translator of the Bible into Greek, 2d^H 
 
 THEODULF, bishop of Orleans in the time Of J 
 Charlemagne in 781, died in exile 821. 
 
 THEOGNIS, an elegiac Greek poet, 6th c. B.(H 
 
 THEON, a Greek painter, 4th century B.C. 
 
 THEON, a celebrated mathematician and Phv-hli 
 tonic philosopher of Smyrna, 2d century. 
 
 THEON, the father of Hypatia, and himsi li 
 learned mathematician, and master of the ancient*!: 
 doctrines of the Alexandrine school, flourished 36fl|ll 
 He wrote a work still extant. 
 
 THEOPHANES, a Lesbian poet, and historuJJHi 
 of the wars of the Romans in the time of Pomp^Hj 
 the Great. He was first attached to Mithridat^^Bj 
 afterwards to Pompey, and at length to Cses^Hi 
 Only some fragments of his history are now extan^H 
 but it was made use of by Plutarch. 
 
 THEOPHANES, George, a Greek historical 
 of the Eastern empire, died in exile 818. 
 
 THEOPHANES, Prokopovitch, a Russia** 1 
 historian and archbishop of Novogorod, 1681-17flHHi 
 
 THEOPHILE VIAU, or DE VIAL, a French ! 
 satirist and epigrammatic poet, 1590-1626. 
 
 THEOPHILLS, a saint and bishop of Antio^Bj 
 who is reckoned among the fathers ot the churdjBB 
 he was the first Christian writer to use the w^^ft 
 Trinity 5 flourished in the 2d centurv. 
 
 THEOPHILLS, patriarch of Alexandria, a^H 
 an enemy of Chrysostom, 385 412. 
 
 THEOPHILLS, a Greek jurisconsult, one of 
 those employed on the Justinian Code, 627-50'J. 
 70. 
 
THE 
 
 THEOPHILUS.emp. of Constantinople, 829-42. 
 THKOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Greek philoso- 
 ier and botanist, was born at Eresos (or Erisium) 
 the island of Lesbos, in the year B.C. 371. He 
 
 THE 
 
 The conspiracy dates about 
 
 He taught there with such increasing reputation, 
 that he had at one time collected round him a 
 number of pupils amounting to 2,000. He was 
 distinguished for his engaging manners and great 
 eloquence, which it is said procured for him his 
 name Theophrastus, or the Divine speaker. He 
 was the author of many works on various subjects, 
 of which Diogenes Laertius enumerates 200. 
 Several of them have been preserved, and amongst 
 them two on botany, which prove him possessed of 
 a comprehensive genius, and show him to be a 
 diligent inquirer into nature. The many new ob- 
 servations offered in his ' History of Plants,' and 
 in his work on the * Causes of Plants,' his large 
 views and the deep knowledge displayed by him of 
 the secret laws ot organization have given him a 
 great reputation, and caused him to-be looked up to 
 as the father of botany. [W.B.] 
 
 THEOPHYLACTUS, a Greek historian of some 
 of the Byzantine emperors, 7th century. 
 
 THEOPOMPUS, a Gr. historian, b.c. 380-308. 
 
 THEOS, or THEOT, Catherine, one of those 
 singular characters who acquired a strange notoriety 
 at the period of the French revolution, by preten- 
 sions to supernatural authority. She was born in 
 _ 725, and had been known many years before the 
 revolution as the claimant of a mission to regener- 
 ate the human race , she had fallen into obscurity 
 however till the events of 1794, when she took the 
 place of Labrousse, another of these prophetesses, 
 who had become a prisoner at Rome. The chief 
 disciple of both these women was Dom Gerle, who 
 formed the link between Catherine Theos and what- 
 ever connection existed on the part of Robespierre ; 
 and, besides this, acted as the high priest of the 
 new religion that was founded upon her prophecies, 
 and to which thousands of the populace attached 
 themselves. A worship, with supernatural claims, 
 initial rites, and certain spirit manifestations was 
 really instituted, the phenomena of which are to 
 he explained, not by naked imposture, but by the 
 marvels of clairvoyance and animal magnetism 
 misunderstood and blasphemously misappropriated. 
 Unhappily, many noble and virtuous names became 
 implicated by a series of misadventures in the re- 
 nmons around this pythoness, and among others 
 the lovely Madame de Sainte-Amaranthe and her 
 amily, who were suddenly arrested, to the number 
 I sixty-two, by order of the Committee of General 
 surety, and charged with conspiracy Catherine 
 Theos died in prison ; the rest were executed shortly 
 
 p ore the fall of Robespierre, 1795. [E.R. j 
 
 THERAMENES, an Athenian statesman and 
 general, who took a leading part in the subversion 
 &f the democracy, was born in the Isle of Cos, about 
 the middle of the fifth century B.C. He was the 
 Bolleague of Antiphon and Phrenicus, and all three 
 laboured in the political designs of Pisander. The 
 hope of this party was an alliance with Persia, 
 which could not be brought to pass with a demo- 
 racv, failing, as it would, to supply a sufficient 
 "itical 
 
 Persian supremacy. 
 
 411 B.C., and resort being had to terror, it was 
 
 eminently successful : the orators of the people 
 
 were disposed of singly by assassination, and 
 
 1 about the year B.C. 286. " He studied under I finally, by a sudden display of military power, the 
 
 to and Aristotle, and was nominated by the I senate was dissolved, and an oligarchy of 400 estab- 
 
 er as his successor in the school of the Lyceum, lished in its stead. Soon, however, the conspirators 
 
 quarrelled among themselves, and Alcibiades was 
 recalled at the instance of Theramenes and Critias, 
 who pretended to moderation ; the 400 were then 
 dispersed by flight, and some of them were put to 
 death on the accusation of the minority. The re- 
 storation of the democracy was followed by the 
 most remarkable events of the Peloponnesian war, 
 and Theramenes frequently distinguished himself 
 as a commander ; at the naval battle of Arginusag, 
 B.c. 406, he commanded the right of the Athenians. 
 Soon after this, Athens was blockaded by sea and 
 land, and the remnant of the 400 returned as vic- 
 tors, under the standards of Lysander, with whom 
 Theramenes conspired to re-establish an oligarchy 
 this time, consisting of a smaller number, gene- 
 rally called the thirty tyrants : among the princi- 
 pal of this body were Theramenes and Critias. A 
 struggle now commenced between the treacherous 
 moderation of the former, and the cruel determina- 
 tion evinced by the latter, the result of which was 
 the condemnation of Theramenes. He was taken 
 from the altar where he had fled for refuge, and on 
 the cup of poison being presented to him, he drank, 
 with bitter irony, ' To the health of the good 
 Critias.' This event took place in 403 B.C. [E.R.] 
 THERESA, Saint, a mystic writer and re- 
 former of the Carmelite order, 1525-1582. 
 
 THEROIGNE DE MERICOURT, a character 
 of the French Revolution, is a name we should 
 hardly admit into these pages, but for the sake of 
 a word or two we have at heart, and cannot well 
 find utterance of elsewhere. She was born at the 
 village of Mericourt near Liege, where her family 
 lived in opulence as farmers, was highly educated, 
 and being remarkable for her beauty was seduced 
 at the age of seventeen by the young lord of a 
 neighbouring chateau. The period of the Revolu- 
 tion found her at Paris, passing from one master 
 to another among the great, and finally enrolling 
 herself in the mass of courtezans, but all the while 
 playing an influential part in secret polities, and 
 as a club orator. At last, Theroigne became first 
 in every scene of tumult ; clothed in a scarlet 
 riding habit, and a plumed cap, she headed the 
 most desperate attacks, and decided on the life and 
 death of the victims of the faubourgs by a nod. 
 After the excesses of the 10th of August this ama- 
 zon inclined towards the moderate counsels of the 
 Girondins: perhaps she had sufficiently avenged 
 her dishonour, and the original cause of it had 
 fallen among many others, vainly asking his life 
 at her hands. Whatever the cause of her change, 
 it gave offence to the furies of the guillotine, who, 
 on meeting her one day, stripped her naked, and 
 publicly whipped her on the ten-ace of the Tuil- 
 eries. This outrage turned the miserable creature's 
 brain, and she passed the remainder of her life, 
 nearly twenty years, in a madhouse one of the 
 saddest pictures of humanity, totally brutalized, 
 that imagination ever conceived, Enough of her! 
 but how many thousands of similar victims, pre- 
 iiumber of traitors having a political interest in pared for a like career, if circumstances admitted 
 
 77L 
 
THE 
 
 it, may be counted in the streets of our great 
 cities V What a work it would be, in an age of 
 noble endeavour like the present, to trample out 
 this plague spot, this foulest image of hell upon 
 earth, this crying disgrace of a Christian land ! 
 In other days the youth of a nation have engaged 
 in crusades and chivalrous fellowships, with objects 
 in view that shed a far less glory upon thein, than 
 a conquest such as this would confer on the age 
 and nation that accomplished it. Here is a work 
 of more genuine heroism than ever inspired the 
 imagination of Jesuit or Paladin a work most 
 truly Christian and full of promise, and one which 
 most of all requires united action and persevering 
 enthusiasm for its accomplishment. [E.R.] 
 
 THESP1S, the inventor of tragedy, was a Greek 
 poet, born at Xarca, in Attica, and became famous 
 about 540 B.C. His stage was the chariot in which 
 he drove about Greece, and his invention consisted 
 in the introduction of a person who conversed with 
 the chorus, and represented different characters by 
 means of masks. 
 
 THEUDIS. king of the Visigoths, 531-518. 
 
 THEUDISELUS, successor of Theudis as king 
 of the Spanish Visigoths, 548-549. 
 
 THEVENARD, A. J. M., a French admiral, 
 naval engineer, and administrator, 1735-1815. 
 
 THEVENOT, Melchisedec, a French travel- 
 ler, author of several curious descriptive works, 
 1620-1692. His nephew, John, also a traveller 
 and writer, 1633-1667. 
 
 THEVET, A., a French traveller, 1502-1590. 
 
 THEW, Robert, an Eng. engraver, 1758-1802. 
 
 THIBAULT, J. T., a Fr. painter, 1757-1826. 
 
 THIBAULT, N., a deputy of the clergy to the 
 estates-general, and an active politician, died 1812. 
 
 THIBAUT, THIEBAUT, or THEOBALD, 
 brother of Ladislaus II., king of Bohemia, re- 
 markable for his uprightness as protector of his 
 brother's kingdom during the crusade of 1147. 
 
 THIBAUT, six counts of Blois .Thibaut I., 
 count of Troyes, Beauvais, and Meaux, and first 
 count of Blois, from 924 to about 978. Thibaut 
 II., reigned 995-1004. Thibaut III., count of 
 Blois, Tours, and Chartres, 1037-1089. Thibaut 
 IV., a party to all the leagues formed against Louis 
 le Gros ; he became master of Champagne in 1125 ; 
 1102-1151. Thibaut V., called ' the Good,' son 
 of the latter, succeeded 1152, and became grand 
 seneschal of France ; he died at the siege of Jean 
 d'Acre 1190. Thibaut VI., last count of his 
 house, succeeded Louis 1205, d. without issue 1218. 
 
 THIBAUT, five counts of Champagne, the first 
 two of whom are the same as the third and fourth 
 of Blois. The third (or the fifth, according to the 
 line of Blois) succeeded his brother, Henry II., 
 1197, died 1199. Thibaut IV., famous as one of 
 the earliest troubadours, was born 1201, and added 
 the kingdom of Navarre to his paternal dominions 
 by a marriage in 1234. In 1235 he embarked in 
 the crusades ; died 1253. Thibaut V., or Thi- 
 baut II., as king of Navarre, was the son and 
 successor of the preceding, died 1270. 
 
 THIBAUT, two dukes of Lorraine : the first 
 
 of whom reigned 1213-1220 ; the second, 1304-12. 
 
 THIBAUT, two counts of Bar : the first of 
 
 whom reigned 1191-1214 ; the second, 1239-1296. 
 
 lL r !i' 
 
 IAU 
 
 THIBAUT, Anton Justus Friedrich, a 
 
 famous jurist, professor at Heidelberg, 1792-1840. 
 
 THO 
 
 THICKNESSE, Anne, an accomplished Lidv, 
 daughter of John Lord, solicitor and clerk of the 
 arraigns, and third wife of Philip Thicknesse, 
 lieutenant-governor of Landguard fort ; author of 
 ' Biographical Sketches of Literary Females of the 
 French Nation,' 1737-1824. Mr. Thicki, 
 his second wife, was father of George Touchct, 
 Baron Audley, and wrote some curious Memoirs 
 reflecting on his son, 1720-1792. 
 
 THIELEN, John Philip Van, lord of Cou-^ 
 wenberg, a Flemish painter, 1618-1667. 
 
 THIERRI, or THEODORIC, the name of four i 
 French princes, two of whom are reckoned kings 
 of France : THIBBBI I. (king of Mentz), eldest ! 
 son of Clovis I., succeeded 511, and having ex- 
 tended his kingdom at the expense of Theodoric, 
 king of the Ostrogoths, died 534. Thierri II. | 
 (king of Orleans, Burgundy, and Austrasia), son^ 
 of Childebert II., succeeded 596, and died of poison, 
 leaving six natural sons, none of whom succeeded] 
 him, in 613. Thierri III. (or Thierri L, king ofj 
 France), third son of Clovis II., and brother ofj 
 Clothaire III. and Childeric II., was placed on the' 
 throne of Neustria and Burgundy by Ebroin, maire 
 du Palais, in 670. He was defeated by Pepin of. 
 Heristal in 687, and possessed no real power ; died 
 692. Thierri IV. (or Thierri II., king of France),' 
 only son of Dagobert III., was taken from a mon- 
 astery and placed on a pretended throne by Charles 
 Martel, in place of Childeric, 720 ; died 736 or 737. 
 
 THIERRI, J., a French philosopher, died 1660. 
 
 THIERS, John Baptist, a learned French* 
 theologian, remarkable for his curious choice of 
 subjects, generally tending to reform, 1636-1703. 
 
 THIERY, N. J., a French botanist, 1739-1780.: 
 
 THIRLBY, Styan, a learned writer, editor of 
 an edition of Justin Martyr, 1692-1753. 
 
 THISTLEWOOD, Arthur, chief of a con- 
 spiracy for murdering the cabinet ministers and 
 exciting an insurrection during the administration- 
 of Lord Sidmouth, was born near Lincoln, where: 
 his father was a respectable farmer, in 1772. He 
 was a man of education, and had squandered $ 
 considerable fortune before embarking in his cri 
 minal enterprise ; executed May 1, 1820. 
 
 THOM, James, a native of Ayrshire, cele- 
 brated as a sculptor, was born in 1799, and died 
 at New York, where he had gone twelve or four- 
 teen years previously, in 1850. He rose from the* 
 condition of an obscure stone-cutter by his own 
 unaided genius, and acquired a famous name in 
 London for his execution of busts and groups iu 
 Scotch graystone. The well-known group ol 
 'Tam O'Shanter' is from his chisel. 
 
 THOM, John Nicholls, leader of the Cam 
 terbury riots in 1838, was a native of Cornwi 
 and first became known about the period < " 
 Reform Bill. He assumed the name of Sir W 
 Courtenay, knight of Malta, and, exhibiting 
 fine person to the people, often graced by rich cos< 
 tumes, completely fascinated them by his sing 
 talents. In 1833, he became a candidate for Can 
 terbury, and polled nearly a thousand votes, a: 
 which he was confined four years in Maidsi 
 lunatic asylum. Having escaped from the I 
 tody of his friends, he reappeared in Kent in J 
 6pnng of 1838, and, claiming a divine mir "' 
 persuaded nearly 100 of the most resolute cl 
 acters to join him. The immediate object o 
 
 772 
 
THO 
 
 Thorn was to establish himself as lord of Kent, 
 and the standard he raised was a loaf elevated on 
 a pole, with a flag of white and blue, emblazoned 
 with a lion rampant. This band really took the 
 field at Boughton, on the 28th of May, and sus- 
 tained a conflict with the military at Bossenden 
 wood, on the 31st. Thorn, and eight of his party, 
 fell before the fire of the soldiers at the first onset, 
 and many others were seriously wounded : the dis- 
 closures at the trial of the remainder, afforded the 
 most painful evidence of the ignorance prevailing 
 among our peasantry; and also marks of that 
 noble faith in supposed greatness, which has 
 animated the martyrs and heroes of the greatest 
 events in the world's history, a singular proof 
 that human nature is still the same as in past ages, 
 and that only leaders are wanted for any cause, 
 whether it be good or evil. This little episode in 
 the peaceful annals of recent years, ought to be read 
 as a lesson by our educators, and especially by the 
 clergy. What has been may be again, so long as 
 so many thousands of our countrymen are doomed to 
 poverty and ignorance. The affair of Thom caused 
 some discussion in parliament at the time. [E.R.] 
 
 THOM, William, known as the poet of Inver- 
 ury, was born at Aberdeen in 1788. He soon gave 
 indications of poetic genius in some pieces which 
 appeared in the Aberdeen newspapers ; and after- 
 wards published two volumes, full of poetic feeling, 
 which were well received by the public. In 1845 he 
 visited London, where he wasj'eted, and had sub- 
 stantial gifts conferred on him, but notwithstand- 
 ing he died in deep poverty, in Dundee, in 1848. 
 
 THOMAS, the apostle, whose name in Greek, 
 signifying a twin, is written Didymus, was pro- 
 bably a Galilean like his fellow-labourers, but his 
 history is almost unknown. He is supposed, with 
 good reason, to have travelled far East, even to 
 China and India, in the course of his mission. The 
 churches of Malabar have preserved some tradi- 
 tions of his martyrdom. 
 
 THOMAS AQUINAS. See Aquinas. 
 
 THOMAS, count of Savoy, 1188-1233. 
 
 THOMAS, Anthony Leonard, professor of 
 the college of Beauvais, author of an ' Essay on 
 the Character, the Manners, and the Understand- 
 ing of Women,' 1732-1785. 
 
 THOMAS, A. J. B., a Fr. painter, 1791-1833. 
 
 THOMAS, Elizabeth, a writer of the times of 
 Dryden and Pope, the latter of whom placed her 
 in the Dunciad, author of Poems and Letters, and 
 of a Memoir of her own Life, 1675-1730. 
 
 THOMAS, J. E., a German painter, 1588-1653. 
 
 THOMAS, John, a Flem. painter, 1610-1673. 
 
 THOMAS, John, bishop of Rochester, 1712-93. 
 
 THOMAS, R., a medical writer, 1753-1835. 
 
 THOMAS, William, bishop of Worcester, au- 
 thor of an ' Apology for the Church of England,' 
 1613-1689. His grandson, of the same name, 
 rector of St. Nicholas, in Worcester, and an anti- 
 quarian writer, 1670-1738. 
 
 THOMAS, William, a Welch divine, known 
 as a learned writer, and supposed to have been 
 concerned in Wyatt's rebellion, ex. at Tyburn 1553. 
 
 THOMASIN, or TOMASIN, called Tinkeidse, 
 Cl'nr, or Zerk/er, a German poet, 13th century. 
 
 THOMASIUS, James, a professor of Leipzig, 
 among whose pupils was numbered the celebrated 
 Leibnitz, author of The Origin of Philosophical 
 
 THO 
 
 and Ecclesiastical History,' 1622-1684. His son, 
 Christian, a jurisconsult and philos., 1655-1728. 
 
 THOMASSiN, three French engravers: 
 Philip, died at Rome end of the 16th century. 
 His relation, Simon, died 1732. H. Simon, the 
 son and pupil of the latter, 1688-1741. 
 
 THOMASSIN, L., a Fr. engineer, 15th centurv. 
 
 THOMASSIN, Louis, a priest of the French 
 oratory, known as a writer on ecclesiastical dis- 
 cipline, 1619-1695. His cousin, Claude, also an 
 oratorian and writer, 1613-1692. 
 
 THOMOND, T., a French architect, 1759-1813. 
 
 THOMPSON. See Rumford. 
 
 THOMPSON, Edward, a miscellaneous writer 
 and friend of Churchill the poet, famous for his 
 sea-songs, born at Hull about 1738, died 1786. 
 
 THOMPSON, William, dean of Raphoe, in 
 Ireland, known as a poet, died about 1766. 
 
 THOMSON, Alexander, a miscellaneous 
 writer and poet, born 1762, died at Edinburgh 
 1803. He was the author of ' Whist,' a poem in 
 two cantos, 1791 ; ' The Paradise of Taste,' 1793 ; 
 'The German Miscellany, consisting of Dramas, 
 Dialogues, Tales, and Novels, translated from that 
 Language,' 1796 ; ' The British Parnassus at the 
 Close of the Eighteenth Century,' and some others. 
 
 THOMSON, Andrew, a doctor and eloquent 
 preacher of the Scotch Kirk, 1779-1831, 
 t THOMSON, Anthony Todd, a Scottish phy- 
 sician and professional writer, was born at Edin- 
 burgh in 1778. In 1806 he commenced practice 
 at Chelsea, and in 1826 became professor of medi- 
 cal jurisprudence and the Materia Medica, at the 
 London university. The professional works written 
 by him are his ' Conspectus,' ' London Dispensa- 
 tory,'. ' Materia Medica,' and a ' Treatise on Diseases 
 of the Skin.' Besides these, he translated Sal- 
 varte's ' Philosophy of Magic,' and edited an edition 
 of Thomson's ' Seasons.' Died 1849. 
 
 THOMSON, James, was born in 1700, at 
 Ednam in Roxburghshire, of which his father was 
 then the parish minister. To the images of agri- 
 cultural life, with which this beautiful district fur- 
 nished his childhood, were afterwards added scenes 
 of another cast, in the pastoral parish of South- 
 dean, to which his father removed. After having 
 passed through the borough school of Jedburgh, 
 he studied for several years at the university of 
 Edinburgh. He was intended for the church, and 
 is said to have been diverted from the profession 
 by the censure of a theological professor on one of 
 his exercises. At any rate, he had already written 
 verses, and was ambitious enough to hope for fame 
 by writing more; and, without any fixed view 
 beyond literary employment, he started for London 
 with his poem of ' Winter ' in his pocket. David 
 Mallet, whose own literary reputation is long since 
 eclipsed, conferred eminent service on literature by 
 smoothing the way for Thomson, whom he hail 
 known at college. The author of ' Winter,' being 
 without money to buy a new pair of shoes, con- 
 gratulated himself when a bookseller gave him 
 three guineas for his poem. It was published in 
 1726, and became rapidly popular when one or two 
 literary men had called attention to it. Thomson, 
 provided for in the meantime as tutor in the family 
 of Lord Binning, published Summer' and ' Spring' 
 in ^ the next two years; and in 1730, 'Autumn' 
 being added, the four poems were printed together, 
 73 
 
rao 
 
 under their common title 'The Seasons.'' The 
 appearance of the series was a phenomenon more 
 remarkable than \vc are apt to suppose. The raw 
 young Scotsman, meditating among the Cheviot 
 hills and by the banks of the Tweed, had struck 
 out a vein of poetry winch had not been worked in 
 England since the" restoration. When his poem 
 appeared, the artificial school of Pope was in the 
 
 fArliour in Thomson's Garden ] 
 
 ascendant ; and the fashionable poets of the day 
 were alike distant from simplicity and nature in 
 the themes they selected, and in the form with 
 which they invested them. Thomson was far from 
 being pure in taste : his tone of sentiment, too, is 
 very often mawkish, and his diction almost every- 
 where pompous and pedantic. But the closeness 
 with which he observed external nature has hardly 
 ever been surpassed ; and the poetic intuition with 
 which he apprehends the features of a landscape, 
 and the moral associations which clothe it with the 
 finest part of its beauty, is as keen and exquisite 
 as that of Wordsworth himself. While the parts of 
 his great work were in progress, Thomson pro- 
 duced, among other things, his unfortunate tragedy 
 of ' Sophonisba.' In 1731 he travelled in France, 
 Italy, and Switzerland, as a tutor ; and the father 
 of his pupil, on becoming the Lord Chancellor 
 Talbot, gave him a sinecure place in his court, 
 which was lost on the patron's death. This event 
 drove him again to write for the stage. There is 
 very little merit even in ' Tancred and Sigismunda,' 
 the last and most successful of his plays. A pen- 
 sion from the prince of Wales raised him just 
 above penury; and in 1745 his friend Lord Lyttle- 
 ton, coming into power, made him surveyor-general 
 of the Leeward Islands, an office yielding him 
 three hundred a-year. He had long worked on his 
 1 Castle of Indolence,' which he published in 1748. 
 This beautiful poem shows a wonderful improve- 
 ment in taste, and betrays a love of Old English 
 poetry which was hardly felt by any other person 
 of the time. The poet did not long enjoy the ease 
 in which he was placed. Living in a cottage at 
 Kew, he caught cold in sailing up the Thames'., and 
 died of fever in 1748. He was a friendly, shv, and 
 indolent man. [W.S.] 
 
 THOMSON, John, a Scottish minister and 
 landscape painter, born in Ayrshire 1778, d. 1810. 
 
 THOMSON, Thomas, M.D., born at Crieff, 
 
 lire, 12th April, 1773; died at Glasgow, 2d 
 
 July, 1802. Dr. Thomson was educated at the 
 
 THO 
 
 parish school of his native place until his four- 
 teenth year, when he was placed under the tuition 
 of Dr. Doig, rector of the borough school of Stirling, 
 and author of ' Letters on the Savage State,' a 
 work which attracted much notice at the turn 
 its publication. His master, an eminent clas>i 
 scholar, speedily imbued him with a love of lit. 
 fore, which afterwards enabled him t 
 numerous improvements to his favourite s< ' 
 On the conclusion of his scholastic studies flp 
 gained a bursary by public competition at tlHH 
 university of St. Andrews, where he remained i^^H 
 three sessions. In 1790, while pursuing Ul 
 literary and scientific studies at the university < 
 Edinburgh, he succeeded his brother, afterwar^M 
 the Rev. Dr. James Thomson, minister of Eccles,!! 
 as one of the editors of the 'Encyclopaedia Brita^H 
 nica.' His attendance on the lectures of the cetflR 
 brated Dr. Black, during the sessions 1795-9611 
 imparted to him an intense interest in the scien^H 
 of chemistry, which never deserted him during h^K 
 subsequent career. He entered on this study wit^B 
 devotion, and wrote the articles Chemistry, Mine^H* 
 alogy, Vegetable Substances, Animal Substanca^M 
 and Dyeing Substances, which all appeared befo^H 
 the 10th December, 1800, and formed the groun^H 
 work of his celebrated 'System of ChemistH^H 
 which soon became the text-book of the science^H 
 almost every country in Europe. In 1800-1 he I 
 gave his first course of lectures in Edinburgh with 
 fifty-two pupils ; a second course in the summ<^Bf 
 of 1801 was attended by thirty-nine studen^H 
 On the appearance of the first edition of his Cheinl 1 
 istry his winter class swelled to ninety-six mein- 1 
 hers. He continued his lectures till 1810, in the I 
 lawyer's metropolis of his native country, attend^H 
 usually by the most select of the Scottish a^B 
 English students, as his roll-book contains su<H- 
 names as James Mill the historian, James WajMf 
 drop, Charles Badham, Henry Cockburn, Jairj^H 
 T.allantyne, the distillers Haigs and Steins, Geor^B, 
 Ballingall, John Abercrombie, Benjamin Traversal 
 John Thomson, Andrew Rutherford, Sir James Sutfl 
 tie, Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, &c. &c. His lectm^H 
 formed, however, but a secondary portion of his en^fl 
 ployment, his time being principally taken up witH 
 the preparation of new editions of his System, con- I 
 ducting an extensive series of researches upon brewl 
 ing for the excise, a work which laid the basis of tfll 
 Scottish legislation on this subject, and in varii^H 
 chemical consultations. During this period, al^H 
 he invented the system of symbols which are n^H 
 in universal use, as modified in some respects fl| 
 subsequent discovery, and introduced the use flfl 
 Greek and Latin numerals to designate the va^H 
 ous degrees of oxidation, &c. of which bodies ares^H 
 ceptible, and which are also in general use. He hkjH 
 wise first opened in this country a laboratory fopl 
 practical manipulation. In 1810 he published bM 
 ' Elements of Chemistry.' In 1812 he visitew 
 Sweden, and published his travels in that cnunt^H 
 In 1813 he commenced the ' Annals of Philo^H 
 phy,' and continued to edit this journal for several I 
 years. In 1817 he was elected lecturer on che^H 
 istry in the university of Glasgow, a position:! 
 which was endowed as a professorship in 1^^| 
 In 1825 he published 'An Attempt to Kstabl^H 
 the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment,' jfc 
 2 vols. 8vo, comprising the results of many thoBB 
 74 
 
THO 
 
 sand experiments to determine the atomic weights 
 of bodies : the most important of which have been 
 confirmed by subsequent experiments. In 1830-31 
 lie published the ' History of Chemistry,' in 2 vols. 
 In 1836 ' Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology,' 2 
 vols. 8vo, being a portion of the seventh edition of 
 his ' System of Chemistry.' His last work was ' On 
 Brewing and Distillation,' 8vo, 1849. Dr. Thom- 
 son's discoveries were exceedingly numerous, in- 
 cluding chlorocromic acid, byposulphurous acid, 
 hydrosulphurous acid, potash oxalates of chro- 
 mium, potash chromate of magnesia, chloride of 
 sulphur, called Thomson's liquor, and an immense 
 number of salts, &c. &c, and above fifty species of 
 minerals. Dr. Thomson invented Allan's Saccha- 
 rometer, which is used by the Scottish excise, from 
 which the idea of Bate's instrument, used in Eng- 
 land, was taken ; the original inventor being thus 
 deprived of the proper reward of merit. Dr. 
 Thomson as a chemical teacher was most distin- 
 guished. He has left behind him a numerous band 
 of chemists, who occupy as teachers, manufac- 
 turers, and physicians, some of the most prominent 
 positions in the countrv. [R.D.T.] 
 
 THOMSON, William, a Scottish minister who 
 settled in London as an author, and became editor of 
 several periodicals, au. of l The Man in the Moon,' 
 and 'Memoirs of the War in Asia,' 1746-1817. 
 
 THORE, J., a French physician, 1762-1823. 
 
 THORER, A., a Swiss Hellenist, 1489-1550. 
 
 THORESBY, Ralph, a merchant of Leeds, 
 kn. as an antiquary and topographer, 1658-1725. 
 
 THORILD, Thomas, a Swedish poet, philoso- 
 pher, and critic of taste, remarkable as a writer 
 on the beautiful in nature, professor at Greifs- 
 walde and Upsala, 1759-1808. 
 
 THORNDIKE, Herbert, a dignitary of the 
 church, and a great wr. on church principles^ d 1672. 
 
 THORXH1LL, Sir James, an eminent Eng- 
 lish painter, was born at Weymouth in Dorset- 
 shire, 1676. He was a nephew of Dr. Sydenham, 
 the celebrated physician, who placed him under 
 the tuition of an artist in London. Having 
 painted the dome of Saint Paul's, he became his- 
 tory painter to Queen Anne, and executed some 
 allegorical subjects for her at Hampton Court. 
 His masterpiece is the refectory and saloon of the 
 hospital at Greenwich. He died after receiving 
 the honour of knighthood from George I., in 1734. 
 His son, James, inherited much of his genius, and 
 he had a daughter, who became the wife of Ho- 
 garth. 
 
 . THORNTON, Bonnel, a humorous periodical 
 writer, and boon companion of the elder Colman, 
 born in London 1724, died 1768. 
 
 THORNTON, John Robert, a famous botan- 
 ist, younger sou of Thomas Thornton, (below), 
 was bom about 1758, and became a physician in 
 London. His works are 'The Philosophy of 
 Medicine,' 'The Philosophy of Politics,' and that 
 on which his fame chiefly rests, ' The Temple of 
 Flora, or Garden of the Botanist, Poet, Painter, 
 and Philosopher.' Died 1837. 
 
 THORiVi'ON, Samuel, a well-known member 
 of parliament, director of the bank of England, 
 and governor of Greenwich hospital, 1755-1838. 
 
 THORNTON, Thomas, a militia officer of West 
 Yorkshire, author of several sporting works, and 
 lather of the celebrated botanist, died 1823. 
 
 THO 
 
 THORPE, John, a physician of the county of 
 Kent, author of professional and antiquarian 
 works, 1682-1750. His son, of the same name, 
 also an antiquarian, 1713-1792. 
 
 THORWALDSEN, Bertel, (Albert) was born 
 at Copenhagen, November 19, 1770. His father, 
 Gottschalk Thorwaldsen, a carver of wood, being a 
 native of Iceland: his mother was of a Danish 
 family. Bertel attended the Danish academy, and 
 soon made such progress as to undertake the carv- 
 ing of figure-heads for ships. In 1793 he obtained 
 the principal gold medal of the academy, which 
 gave him the privilege of studying abroad at the 
 expense of the government. He set out for Italy, 
 May 20, 1790, in the Danish frigate Thetis ; he 
 landed at Naples, and arrived at Rome, March 8, 
 1797, and he did not return to his native country 
 until 1819, after an absence of twenty-three years. 
 His first important commission was from Mr. 
 Thomas Hope, in 1803, <ind it was owing to the 
 liberality of this distinguished patron of the arts 
 that Thorwaldsen was enabled to remain and pro- 
 secute his profession in 'the Eternal City.' In 1812, 
 on the occasion of Napoleon's expected visit to 
 Rome, Thorwaldsen greatly distinguished himself 
 by a sketch of the ' Triumphal entry of Alexander 
 into Babylon,' which he completed with such ex- 
 pedition that the frieze, in plaster, was fixed up in 
 one of the halls of the Quinnal palace within three 
 months of the date of the commission. It is a 
 composition of great extent, measuring 160 Roman 
 palms (the palm is about nine inches) in length, 
 and five in height ; it has been twice executed in 
 marble since, and is well engraved by Amsler of 
 Munich. His principal works, however, were exe- 
 cuted after his visit to Denmark ; he returned to 
 Rome at the close of 1820, and acquired the highest 
 European fame by the following works : Christ 
 and the Twelve Apostles ; St. John Preaching in 
 the Wilderness; and the monuments to Copernicus, 
 Pius VII., Maximilian of Bavai'ia, Prince Ponia- 
 towsky and others. The Christ and the St. John 
 were for the church of our Lady at Copenhagen, 
 where they are now placed. He again visited 
 Denmark, in 1838, but finding the climate disagree 
 with him, returned to Rome in 1841, but again 
 visited Copenhagen in 1842, and died there sud- 
 denly in the theatre,March 24, 1844, of disease of the 
 heart, aged seventy-three. Thorwaldsen bequeathed 
 all works of art in his possession to the city of Co- 
 penhagen, to form a distinct collection, and the city 
 now boasts of a great art museum, containing speci- 
 mens of many classes of art, besides books, &c, 
 known as the Thorwaldsen Museum; he left suf- 
 ficient funds to endow it, and enable it to con- 
 stantly add to its collection, foreign as well as 
 Danish works. Thorwaldsen was never married, 
 but left a natural daughter in Rome well provided. 
 There is a cheap edition of outlines after all the 
 works of Thorwaldsen, now in course of publication. 
 (H. C. Andersen, Bertel Thorwaldsen eine bio- 
 grajrfiische skitzze aus dem Danischan iibertragen 
 von Julius lieuscher; and the writer's notice in the 
 Supplement to the Penny Ci/clopcedia.') [R.N.W.] 
 
 THOU, James Augustus De, in Latin 77m- 
 anus, a celebrated French historian and Latinist, 
 whose father and grandfather were both presi- 
 dents of the parliament of Paris, 1553-1617. De 
 Thou inherited the talents of his ancestry for 
 
 775 
 
THO 
 
 statesmanship, and was employed as ambassador 
 ami finance minister. His son, Francis Au- 
 gustus, born at Paris about 1607, was beheaded 
 on account of his privity to the conspiracy of 
 Cinqmars against Richelieu, 1642. 
 
 THOUARS. See Petit-Thouars. 
 
 THOUIN, A., a Fr. horticulturist, 1747-1823. 
 
 THOURET, J. W., one of the most celebrated 
 members of the French constituent assemby, born 
 in Normandy 1746, executed 1794. His brother, 
 Michael Augustus, a distinguished physician, 
 1748-1810. W. F. Anthony, son of the deputy, 
 author of an Encyclopaedia, died 1832. 
 
 THOYNARD, Nicholas, a French scholar, 
 author of a Harmony of the Gospels, 1629-1706. 
 
 THRASYBULUS, one of the great names of 
 ancient Greece, period of the Peloponnesian or 
 civil war between Sparta and Athens, was the son 
 of Lycus, and was born at Steiria in Attica. He 
 was commander of the infantry at Samos, when 
 the Four Hundred was established on the ruins of 
 the Athenian democracy (as noticed in the article 
 Theramenes), b.c. 411. He immediately swore 
 his soldiers not to recognize the oligarchy, and 
 united with Theramenes and Alcibiades to effect 
 their destruction : at the same time he continued 
 his part in the Peloponnesian war, and to him be- 
 longs the chief honour of the Athenian victory at 
 Cyzicus. That dubious straggle being closed by 
 the victory of Lysander, and the government of 
 the humbled Athenians vested in the thirty tyrants, 
 Thrasybulus took refuge in the Theban territory, 
 where the patriots of the democracy once more 
 rallied to him. After the death of Theramenes, 
 Thrasybulus might have occupied his seat among 
 the thirty, but he preferred the liberties of his 
 country, and advancing at the head of the patriots, 
 a thousand in number, he surprised the camp be- 
 fore Phyle, on the frontier of Boeotia, and after 
 repeated successes became master of the govern- 
 ment. In the second of the battles fought on this 
 occasion fell Critias, at whose instance Theramenes 
 had been compelled to drink the poisoned chalice. 
 The despotic Thirty were now replaced by a council 
 of ten representatives, and Thrasybulus exhibited 
 the highest magnanimity towards his enemies. 
 At length, having generously taken the field in aid 
 of the Thebans, menaced by the yoke of Sparta, 
 he was massacred in his tent while encamped in 
 Cilicia, b.c. 389. [E.R.] 
 
 THRELKELD, Caleb, an English physician 
 and naturalist, settled in Dublin, 1676-1728. 
 
 THROSBY, J., a topographer, 1740-1803. 
 
 THUANUS. See Thou. 
 < THUCYDIDES, the historian, was an Athenian 
 citizen, and belonged to the Attic borough Halimus. 
 The date of his birth, which is not quite certain, 
 was, perhaps, B.C. 471. Being of a good family, 
 and living in a city which was the centre of Greek 
 civilization, he received the highest education 
 which the time afforded; and this, superadded 
 to great ability, manifested itself in the ' eternal 
 possession ' which he bequeathed to posterity. He 
 is said to have studied rhetoric under Antiphon of 
 Rhammus, the most distinguished orator of the 
 time, and to have received instruction in philosophy 
 from Anaxagoras. The well-known story of his 
 having been moved to tears of emulation by 
 hearing Herodotus recite his history at the Olympic 
 
 THU 
 
 games, is generally admitted to be without foun- 
 dation. At the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
 war (b.c. 431), he entered the military service ol 
 his country, and in B.C. 424, held the command ol 
 a fleet of seven ships which lay off Thasos, when 
 
 [Thucydides From an Ancient Bust.] 
 
 Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian commander, inves 
 Amphipolis, a <city on the Strymon, belonging 
 the Athenians. Thucydides hastened to the assis 
 tance of his countrymen ; and though he arrive 
 too late to prevent a capitulation, he saved Eioi 
 a seaport at the mouth of the river. In cons 
 quence of this failure, he was banished by tl 
 Athenians, or found it prudent to retire into volur 
 tary exile, and passed the next twenty years of hi 
 life as a refugee. The accounts as to the places i 
 his residence during his exile, are various ar 
 conflicting ; we may only infer, that he could nc 
 live with safety in any place which was unde 
 Athenian dominion. He himself states, that 
 spent much of his time either in the Peloponnesi 
 or in places under the Peloponnesian rule ; and ' 
 minute description of Syracuse and the neighboi 
 hood, leads to the belief that he visited tt 
 localities. It may, at least, be confidently affir 
 that, during this eventful period, he was an attet 
 tive observer of the great struggle, collected tl 
 materials for his history as the events proceeded^ 
 and to some extent, reduced them to the form in 
 which they have commanded the admiration of 
 all succeeding generations. When peace was con- j 
 eluded with the Lacedaemonians in B.C. 404, a 
 decree was passed, permitting the return of all 
 exiles; in consequence of which, Thucydides was 
 restored to his country in the following yeaftji 
 According to the united testimony of the ancienflj 
 writers, he came to a violent end, having died bfl 
 the hand of an assassin ; but the time and place of 
 his death are not known. There was a tomb 
 erected to his memory at Athens ; and he probably 
 died there. The History of Thucydides was 
 designed to comprise a complete account of* the 
 events of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 431-404). 
 but breaks off in the middle of the twenty-first year 
 (b.c. 411). It is divided into eight Books, the 
 last of which, in consequence of the absence of 
 
 176 
 
THU 
 
 speeches, and a supposed inferiority of style, has, 
 without any good reason, been held by some 
 critics as not genuine. Thucydides has always 
 i first in the first rank of philosophical 
 historians. His moral reflections are searching 
 and profound; his speeches abound in political 
 wisdom ; and the simple minuteness of his pictures 
 is often striking and tragic. His style is concise, 
 vigorous, and energetic ; every word has its appro- 
 priate meaning, and not a clause is inserted which 
 is not necessary for his narrative. Hence, he is 
 sometimes harsh and obscure; his sentences are 
 occasionally very involved, and the connection and 
 dependence of the several parts difficult to per- 
 ceive. [G.F.] 
 THUGUT, F., an Austrian statesman, and 
 party to the coalition against France, 1739-1818. 
 THUILLIER, J. L., a Fr. botanist, died 1822. 
 THULDEN, C. A., a Ger. historian, 17th cent. 
 THULDEN, or TULDEN, Theodore Van, a 
 painter and engraver, taught by Rubens, 1607-76. 
 THUMMEL, M. A., a Ger. writer, 1738-1817. 
 THUMMIG, L. P., a Germ, philos., 1697-1728. 
 THUNBERG, Charles Peter, a Swedish 
 xaveller and botanist, prof, at Upsala, 1743-1828. 
 THUNBERG, D., a Swedish engineer, d. 1788. 
 THUNMANN, J., a Swiss antiquarian, 1746-78. 
 THCJRLOE, John, secretary of state during 
 :he protectorate of the two Cromwells, and the 
 hief agent in detecting the plots of Harrison and 
 he fifth monarchy men, born at Abbots-Reding, in 
 "Sssex, where his father was rector, 1616, died 
 668. His state papers, published in 1742, form 
 valuable mass ot historical documents. 
 THURLOW, Edward, Lord, chancellor in the 
 eign of George III., was born at Little Ashfield, 
 ear Stowmarket, in Suffolk, where his father was 
 ector ; in 1732. He was called to the bar in 
 758, and entering parliament as member for 
 'amworth in 1768, became a distinguished sup- 
 orter of the administration of Lord North. He 
 ucceeded Dunning as solicitor-general in 1770, 
 nd became attorney-general, after Sir William 
 Grey, in 1771. On the 3d of June, 1778, he 
 i appointed lord chancellor, and raised to the 
 on the retirement of Lord North, and 
 le accession of the marquis of Rockingham in 
 82, he still retained the seals by express favour 
 the king, though he neither supported the min- 
 nor was much liked by the premier. On 
 coalition ministry of Fox and North being 
 irmed, he was compelled to retire ; but he came 
 to office again under Mr. Pitt, and, still pursu- 
 ; his inconsistent course of action, was obliged 
 withdraw in 1792, from which time he took no 
 in public affairs. Lord Thurlow bears the 
 laracter of an arrogant, factious politician, rather 
 ie bully than the debater in parliament, but yet 
 man of keen understanding : his character has 
 sen delineated by Lords Brougham and Campbell, 
 id slightly sketched by the recent editor of the 
 * "ngham papers. From the latter we cite the 
 wing: 4 To Thurlow in his private relations 
 e praise may be fairly awarded. He was a 
 'lolar, and a good and ripe one. He was an 
 "onate parent, and sometimes an active and 
 'ling patron. He had a kind of rough 
 isity, which moved him occasionally to take 
 good part a blunt remonstrance, and to prefer 
 
 TIE 
 
 one who thwarted, rather than one who fawned 
 upon him. He befriended Johnson and Crabbe 
 the one when the shadows of evening were closing 
 upon him, the other when the trials of poverty 
 pressed most heavily In worse times there have 
 been worse chancellors than Edward, Lord Thur- 
 low, but an age of comparative freedom and refine- 
 ment has rarely exhibited one who so ill under- 
 stood, or at least so ill discharged, the functions of 
 a statesman and legislator.' Died 1806. [E.R.] 
 
 THURMER, J., a Germ, architect, 1789-1833. 
 
 THURNEYSSER, L., an alchymistand astrolo- 
 ger, son of a goldsmith at Bale, 1531-1596. 
 
 THUROT, Francis, a French corsair, who en- 
 tered into the royal service, and harassed the Eng- 
 lish commerce in the northern seas ; he was killed 
 in an engagement when returning from his expe- 
 dition to Ireland 1760. 
 
 THUROT, J.F., a French Hellenist, 1768-1832. 
 
 THWAITES, Edward, a Saxon and Greek 
 scholar, professor at Oxford, and assistant of Dr. 
 Hickes in compiling his Thesaurus, 1667-1711. 
 
 THYNNE, Francis, a herald and antiquary, 
 son of William Thynne, the editor of Chaucer, 
 author of a Continuation of Holingshed's Chro- 
 nicles, and a History of Dover, died 1611. 
 
 THYSIUS, A., a Dutch historian, 1603-1697. 
 
 TIARA, P., a Dutch savant, 1514-1586. 
 
 TIARINI, A an Italian painter, 1577-1658. 
 
 TIARKS, J. L., a Ger. astronomer, 1789-1837. 
 
 TIBERIUS, Claudius Nero, the second em- 
 peror of Rome, was born B.C. 42, and succeeded 
 Augustus a.d. 14. He was a great general, and 
 a master of Greek and Roman literature, but as he 
 grew older in years he disgraced himself with every 
 species of cruelty and debauchery. He was pro- 
 bably insane long before the commander of his 
 praetorian guard assumed the responsibility of put- 
 ting him to death, March 16, a.d. 37. 
 
 TIBERIUS CONSTANTINE, called also Tibe- 
 rius II., one of the most virtuous emperors of the 
 East, was a native of Thrace, and was brought up 
 at the court of Justinian. He succeeded to the 
 throne in 578, and having suppressed the con- 
 spiracy- of Sophia, widow of his predecessor, reigned 
 unchallenged till his death in 582. A third of the 
 name reigned emperor of the East, 698-705. 
 
 TIBULLUS, Albius, a Roman patrician and 
 elegiac poet, whose productions are marked by 
 much feeling for the beauties of nature and the 
 pleasures of a country life. They are generally 
 printed with the compositions of Catullus and Pro- 
 pertius ; flourished in the 1st century. 
 
 TICKELL, Thomas, a popular writer and poet 
 of the age of Addison, was Dom at Bridekirk, near 
 Carlisle, 1686. His father was a clergyman, and 
 Tickell was educated at Oxford, where he became 
 a fellow of Queen's College. He obtained an ap- 
 
 fiointment as under-secretary of state through the 
 riendship of Addison, and some of his pieces ap- 
 peared in the Spectator ;' died 1740. His grand- 
 son, Richard, a political writer, died 1793. 
 TICOZZI, S., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1762-1836. 
 TIECK, Ludwig, was born at Berlin in 1773, 
 and studied successively at Halle, Gottingen, and 
 Erlangen. Poetry was from boyhood his favourite 
 study ; but, while he was always a ready and 
 pleasing versifier, his poetical endowments, really 
 very fine, worked most strongly when he wrote in 
 77 
 
TIE 
 
 promt TTis literary career exhibits three epochs. 
 In the tirst of these, beginning about 1796, and 
 lasting ten years, lie was one of the most efficient 
 of the Romanticists, and, like Novalis, made the 
 system attractive by displaying, in inventive com- 
 positions, an originality of fancy and depth of 
 feeling not possessed by the Schlegels, the critical 
 chiefs of the school. The works he produced dur- 
 ing this period were both numerous and diversi- 
 fied. Some of them were Dramatic and Poetical 
 Parodies, whimsically uniting jest and earnest ; the 
 principal of these being ' Bluebeard' and 'Puss in 
 Boots.' Others were Tales, or compositions like 
 tales, which, following in the wake of J Wilhelm 
 Meister,' are referred by the Germans to the class 
 of 'Art-Novels:' such are the 'Effusions of the 
 Heart of an Art-loving Cloister-Brother,' and 
 ' Franz Sternbald's Wanderings.' Other pieces, 
 like 'Genoveva' and 'The Emperor Octavianus,' 
 are saintly or historical Legends, dramatically 
 treated, with a close and studied imitation of the 
 rude drama of the middle ages. Others again, 
 and these the most poetical of all Tieck's works, 
 are Popular Legends (Volksmiihrchen), related in a 
 pvose narrative form, with great fulness of playful 
 fancy, very much beauty of description, and a sim- 
 plicity or naivete of manner which, sometimes 
 fairly childish, is yet wonderfully pleasing. The 
 first attack of a painful disease of the joints, which 
 made Tieck very long an invalid, came on in 1806, 
 and forced him to cease from literary labour for 
 several years. He resumed work in 181 1, and for 
 five years was chiefly busied on the Old English 
 Drama, which he knew better than any other 
 foreigner ever knew it ; while he translated it with 
 great spirit, and criticised it, not indeed without 
 great caprice and rashness of judgment, but with 
 much delicacy of poetical feeling. He began with 
 his ' Old English Theatre,' containing translations 
 and criticisms of old plays, some of which were on 
 themes afterwards handled by Shakspeare, while 
 others were maintained by Tieck (on grounds 
 abundantly fantastic and slippery) to be really 
 his, in spite of the English critics. Visiting London 
 in 1818, and reading and copying in the Museum, 
 he collected materials for two volumes of transla- 
 tions of plays preceding Shakspeare's ( ' Shak- 
 speare's Vorschule'). In 1819, after a life of many 
 wanderings, he finally took up his residence in 
 Dresden, where he enjoyed a pension and honorary 
 counsellorship. Besides collections of his earlier 
 poems and other works, the chief business of this, 
 the last period in his history, was the writing of 
 short Novels, most of which first appeared in An- 
 nuals; and which, critical and dissertative in 
 character, and full of dialogue, have much more of 
 analytic and reflective refinement than of narrative 
 impressiveness, and show surprisingly little of the 
 writer's early vein of poetry. Among the most 
 interesting of these are ' Pietro of Abano,' and 
 ' The Revolt in the Cevennes.' Others are ' Art- 
 Kovels,' to which class belong the 'Poet- Life' and 
 1 Poet- Death,' having respectively fir their heroes 
 Shakspeare and Camoens. Tieck died at Dresden 
 in the spring of 1853. [W.S.] 
 
 TIEDEMANN, Dietrich, a Ger philosopher 
 and opponent of Kant, famous for his researches in 
 the history of philosophy, anthropology, the origin 
 of languages, and similar subjects, 1745-1S03., 
 
 TIL 
 
 TIEDGE, C. A., a German poet, 1752-1 84k 
 
 TIEFFENTHALER, Joseph, a Tyrolese mis- 
 sionary, thirty years resident in India, last cent. 
 
 TIEPOLO, Giovanni Batista, called Tiepo- 
 ktto, a celebrated Venetian painter, 1692-1769. 
 
 TIEPOLO, J., a Venetian poet, 16th century. 
 
 TIEPOLO, Jacob, a doge of Venice, distin- 
 
 E. fished as a partizan of the Guelphs, P229-1249 
 auuknt, his son, doge 1268-1275. Bohemom 
 of the same family, chief of a conspiracy a<_ r ains 
 the doge, Gradinijo, which led to the establish- 
 ment of the Council of Ten, 1310. 
 
 TIEPOLO, N., a Venetian poet, 16th century. 
 
 TIERNEY, George, a famous parliament^ 
 debater and political writer, secretary for Ireland 
 and president of the board of control during tb 
 administration of Fox and Grenville ; b. in London 
 where his father was a merchant, 1756, died 1831 
 
 TIGLATH PILESER, or THEGLAT-PHA 
 LASSAR, son and successor of Sardanapa 
 king of Assyria, supposed date 747-728 B.C. 
 
 TIGNY, "Marin Grostete De. a French na 
 turalist, who, aided by his wife, produced a wor 
 in ten volumes on the natural history of insectr 
 valuable as a compendium, 1736-1799. 
 
 TIGRANES, several princes of Armenia: 
 Tigranes I., a friend and ally of Cyrus, B.C. 565 
 520. Tigranes II., the first king of Armeul 
 the Arsacides' dvnasty, was placed on the throE 
 by his brother, Mithridates II., king c 
 thians; he laboured many years in developing th 
 commercial and industrial resources of the st 
 B.c.128-95. Tigranes III., called the Great, i 
 of the preceding, succeeded him in B.C. 95 
 married Cleopatra, daughter of Mithridates 
 Great, and was his faithful ally in the gigantic | 
 with Rome ; date of his death unknown, 
 next Tigkanes was a captive at Rome, but 
 came king by the authorization of Augustus, 
 allied himself with the Parthians against 
 masters ; died 6 B.C. His son, Tigranes 
 occupied the throne a short time, and died 
 Tigranes V., was a grandson of Herod, kir 
 Judasa, and governed Armenia by sufferance 
 Romans ; he was put to death by order of Tit 
 a.d. 34. Tigranes VI., another depende 
 Rome, figured in history about 61. Tigran es } 
 reigned 142-178. Tigranes VIIL, succeedec 
 his brother, Arsaces, about 408. In the 
 which ensued, they were both reduced to 
 cessity of surrendering their rights, the 
 Theodosius, emperor of Constantinople, t 
 to the Parthians. 
 
 TIL, S. Van, a Dutch theologian, 1644- 
 
 TILENUS, Daniel, a protestant theol 
 the French church, bora in Silesia, 1563-161 
 
 TILING, J., a German phvsician, 1688-17B 
 
 TILING, M., a German naturalist, died 168ft 
 
 TILLADET, J. R. De La Marque Db, 
 French writer, theologian, and philos., 1650-M 
 
 TILLEMANS, Peter, a Flemish painter 
 landscapes and imaginary views, 1684-1734. M 
 
 TILLEMONT, Sebastian Le Nain De, ai 
 mous critic and historian of the Port Uoyal, autll 
 of a 'History of the Emperors and other Prim 
 during the First Six Ages of the Church,' k Hit 
 rials towards the Ecclesiastical History of the Fii 
 Six Ages,' and of much other historical matt 
 highly valued for extreme accuracy, 1637-1698. 
 73 ~ 
 
 
TIL 
 
 TTLLET, M., a French agriculturist,, 1720-1791. 
 TILLI, M. A., an Italian botanist, 1655-1740. 
 TILLIOT, J. B. Lucotte, Seigneur Du, a 
 7reneh philologist and antiquary, 1668-1750. 
 TILLOCH, Alexander, an ingenious Scotch 
 rinter, who became distinguished as a miscellaneous 
 vriter and journalist, was born at Glasgow, where 
 lis father was a tobacconist, in 1759. In the 
 :ourse of his business as a printer he discovered 
 he art of stereotyping, but, finally abandoning 
 hat business, he removed to London, and in 1789 
 >ecame joint-proprietor and editor of an evening 
 iper, called l The Star.' In 1797 he commenced 
 The Philosophical Magazine,' and having, from 
 me to time, published a series of papers on theo - 
 gical subjects, he added to these, in 1823, his 
 Dissertations on the Apocalypse.' In July, 1821, 
 commenced ' The Mechanics' Oracle,' a weekly 
 eriodical devoted to the instruction of the work- 
 lg classes : he also officiated as preacher to a con- 
 dition of dissenters in Goswell-Street lioad. 
 ome years before his death, which took place in 
 uary, 1825, Tilloch was honoured with the 
 egree of LL.D. by the university of Glasgow. 
 TILLOTSON, Johx, D.D., a distinguished pre- 
 ite of the English Church, was a native of Sowerby, 
 "orkshire. His father was a clothier in that 
 ounty town, and with respect to religious prin- 
 [ples, was a nonconformist. His father having de- 
 rmined to give his son a liberal education, young 
 ohn was sent in due time to Clare Hall College, 
 abridge, where the influence of the society in 
 hich he mingled gradually dispelled his dissent- 
 lg prejudices, and having resolved to adhere to 
 tie establishment, he began in earnest to prepare 
 )r the ministry in connection with the English 
 Kirch. He soon rose to distinction as a preacher, 
 od preferments flowed upon him in rapid succes- 
 for he was first appointed to a curacy at 
 heshunt, then he became rector of Reddington, 
 readier in Lincoln's Inn, and lecturer at St. Lau- 
 ?nce, Jersey. Tillotson was sincerely attached to 
 le protestant religion, and an occasion occurred 
 >r drawing out strongly his protestant spirit, when 
 harles II. in 1672 issued a proclamation for liberty 
 " conscience, under the covert design of favouring 
 e Roman Catholics. Tillotson gave a decided op- 
 osition to the measure both from the pulpit and the 
 ress. Notwithstanding this opposition to their 
 vourite policy, the government deemed it expe- 
 ent to bestow on the popular preacher the highest 
 yours of the crown patronage by appointing him 
 rebendary in St. Paul's, and dean of Canterbury, 
 lllotson evinced his protestantism on another 
 casion in a still more decided manner, by the 
 dvocacy of the Exclusion Bill against the duke of 
 ork. One gross inconsistency, however, sullies 
 ie otherwise honourable character and reputation 
 Tillotson, viz., that in attending Lord William 
 11 on the scaffold, he used every effort to per- 
 lade that patriotic nobleman to save himself by 
 opting the principles of passive obedience, and 
 he became himself not long after, one of the 
 ost active enemies of the Stuart dynasty by pro- 
 ting the revolution. The important services he 
 dered to the cause of the prince of Orange, were 
 warded on William III. being established on the 
 tMi throne, by promotion first to the deanery 
 St. Paul's, and not long alter by his elevation 
 
 7 
 
 TIL 
 
 in 1691 to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury. 
 He had enjoyed that high dignity only three year's, 
 when his useful career was brought to a premature 
 end by death. Tillotson was the popular preacher 
 of his day, and in so great estimation were his dis- 
 courses held, that even in that age, the copyright, 
 though it was a posthumous publication, was sold 
 for 2,500 guineas. Tillotson adopted a moderate 
 Arminianism, and his discourses are accordingly 
 devoted to the inculcation chiefly of the practical 
 precepts of the gospel. In private life the arch- 
 bishop was plain and unostentatious, kind to his 
 relatives and charitable to the poor, liberal in his 
 sentiments towards dissenters, and exercised the 
 very extensive influence which his character as 
 well as his office procured him in doing good, to all 
 without regard to rank or sectarian distinc- 
 tions; 1630-1694. [R.J.] 
 TILLY. John Tsercles, count of Tilly, was 
 born at the castle of Tilly, in South Brabant, in 
 1559. He joined the order of Jesuits in youth ; 
 but soon left the ecclesiastical for the military pro- 
 fession. He first entered the Spanish army, and 
 served for several years under Alva, and the other 
 Spanish commanders in the Netherlands. About 
 1599 he entered the service of the Austrian em- 
 peror, Rudolf, and distinguished himself greatly 
 in several campaigns against the Turks and the 
 Hungarians. He then re-organized and commanded 
 the army of the duke of Bavaria, and was also ap- 
 pointed generalissimo of the forces of the Roman 
 Catholic league in Germany. In the beginning of 
 the Thirty years' war, Tilly subjugated Bohemia 
 by the single great battle of the White Hill (1620). 
 He then conquered the Palatinate of the Rhine, 
 defeating decisively the protestant troops in the 
 three days' battle of Stadt Loo, 1623. He next 
 commanded against Christian, king of Denmark, 
 who sought to aid the German protestants. Tilly 
 out-manoeuvred and defeated him. When Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus interfered in the war, Tilly was 
 chosen to oppose the Swedish hero. He was now 
 field -marshal, and commander-in-chief of the 
 imperial forces. The first event of this part of 
 the thirty years' war was the siege and capture of 
 the city of Magdeburg by Tilly, 1631. The cruelty 
 of the imperialist army on this occasion excited 
 the deepest horror even in an age and country 
 accustomed to military atrocities. Tilly him- 
 self wrote to the emperor that no such spectacle 
 as that of the ruin of Magdeburg had been wit- 
 nessed on earth, since the captures of Troy and 
 Jerusalem. In the autumn of the same year Tilly 
 met Gustavus Adolphus at Leipzig, and was utterly 
 defeated, though lie effected a soldierly retreat 
 with part of his army. He was again beaten by 
 the Swedish king at the passage of the river Lech, 
 in 1632. Tilly was wounded in this battle, and 
 died on the following day. He is said to have been 
 personally of austere and pure character, despising 
 all sensual enjoyments, and indifferent to wealth 
 and honours. But the cruelties which ho permitted 
 his troops to exercise upon the unoffending inhabi- 
 tants of the countries which were the scenes of his 
 campaign*, show the frightful effects of military 
 fanaticism combined with religious bigotry, even 
 in a commander, who himself takes no part 
 in the license aud the violence which he sanc- 
 tions. [E.S.C.] 
 70 
 
TIL 
 
 TILLY, Peter Alexander, Count De, a 
 royalist officer of the period of the French revolu- 
 tion, author of some political works relative to the 
 events of that time, 1764-1815. Another Count 
 Tilly, not of the same family as the preceding, 
 took up arms for the republic, and afterwards 
 served Napoleon, died 1822. 
 
 TIALEUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, called 
 4 the Locrian,' from his birth-place ; known as the 
 instructor f Plato, and highly eulogized by him. 
 A Greek historian, of the same name, lived about 
 350 B.C. 'A third Tim^eus was a sophist of the 
 third century of our era, and author of a Dic- 
 tionary of Platonic phrases. 
 
 TIMANTHES, a Greek painter, 400 B.C. 
 
 TIMOCREON, a comic poet, 476 B.C. 
 
 TIMOLEON, one of the greatest of Greek gen- 
 erals and patriots, if not the ideal of the Grecian 
 hero, was born in Corinth about 410 B.C. His 
 first exploit was the deliverance of Corinth from 
 the armed dictatorship of his elder brother, Timo- 
 phanes, though it was necessary to put him to 
 death, and bear the curses of his mother, who had 
 made the tyrant her especial favourite. Timoleon, 
 whose motives were not understood, was execrated 
 for his share in this tragedy, and his existence 
 became so burdensome that he meditated self- 
 destruction, and retired altogether from public life : 
 the affecting narrative may be read in Plutarch. 
 After a lapse of twenty years, 343 B.C., he was 
 recalled by the Corinthians, and sent to the aid of 
 the Syracusans, then suffering from the despotism 
 of the younger Dionysius. In this expedition, 
 success attended upon success until all Sicily was 
 redeemed from the cruel slavery to which it had 
 been brought, and Syracuse became the seat of a 
 republican freedom which linked in one brother- 
 hood all the cities that had suffered from the petty 
 tyrants who oppressed them: the Carthaginians 
 were also expelled, and their army of 70,000 men, 
 led by Hamilcar and Hasdrubal, defeated by a 
 mere handful of patriots under Timoleon. It is 
 the conduct of the deliverer after these victories 
 that must decide his character, and to him belongs 
 the rare virtue of abdicating a power which he still 
 virtually exercised as a private citizen. Forty 
 thousand Greeks flying before the sword of Philip, 
 the father of Alexander, were glad to accept the 
 new home offered to them in the devastated cities 
 of Sicily; and Timoleon, having organized the 
 states, retired to private life, but always attended 
 the deliberations of the people. In his latter years 
 he went to their assemblies in a chariot, from 
 which he also addressed them on account of his 
 blindness : it was his highest joy that he had se- 
 cured to the Syracusans perfect freedom of opinion, 
 and the impartial operation of the laws. He was 
 so highly honoured, that his birth-day was kept as 
 a public festival ; and when he died, B.C. 337, he 
 was buried with great magnificence at the pub- 
 lic cost. The value of his life was soon after 
 proved by the anarchy which began to spread, and 
 the unruly spirits which obtained the supremacy 
 in Syracuse. [E.R.J 
 
 TIMOMACHUS, a Greek painter, abt. 300 b.c. 
 
 TIMON, a Greek poet, and disciple in philo- 
 sophy of Pyrrho, B.C. 270. 
 
 TIMON, surnamed 'the Misanthrope/ the ori- 
 ginal of that character in Shakspeare, b.c. 420. 
 
 TIN 
 
 TIMON, E., a Greek physician, last century. 
 
 TIMON, S., a famous Hungarian Jesuit, lust( 
 rian, and antiquary, 1675-1736. 
 
 TIMOPHANES, a tyrant of Corinth, who ws 
 assassinated b.c 365. See Timoleon. 
 _ TIMOTHEUS, a Greek poet and musician, ui 
 rivalled in his age, 6th century B.C. He excelh 
 in lyrical composition, and was a skilful perform- 
 on the cithara, or harp, which he improved by tl 
 addition of two chords. 
 
 TIMOTHEUS, called ' of Thebes,' a celebrate 
 musician, time of Alexander the Great. 
 
 TIMOTHEUS, an Athenian general, who to< 
 a distinguished part in the social wars, and w 
 condemned for avoiding a naval conflict, B.C. 35 
 
 TIMUR. See Tamerlane. 
 
 TINDAL, Matthew, one of the successors 
 Toland and Shaftesbury in the School of Engli 
 Deists or Freethinkers, was born at Beer Ferre 
 in Devonshire about 1657, and was admitted do 
 tor of laws at Oxford in 1685. He retained 1 
 fellowship during the reign of James II. by pr 
 fessing the Roman Catholic faith ; he afterwar 
 recanted, however, and adopting revolutiona 
 principles, went to the other extreme, and wrc 
 against the Nonjurors. He now became an adv 
 cate, and sat as judge in the court of delegati 
 with a pension from the crown of 200 per annul 
 Some time afterwards, considerable attention w 
 drawn to him, by his work, entitled ' The Rigl 
 of the Christian Church ' and the ensuing contr 
 versy 5 but the production which has rendered 1 
 name a memorable one was his ' Christianity 
 Old as the Creation, which appeared in 1730, "ai 
 
 frovoked replies from Dr. Warburton, Lelai 
 'oster, and Conybeare. Dr. Middleton endeavour- 
 to take a middle course in this controversy, as nv 
 be seen in that article, but the most effectii 
 answer, though its very existence seems to haj 
 been forgotten, was that embodied in the 4 Appe;< 
 of William Law, published 1740. Tindal's line ; 
 argument was mainly coincident with Shaf'tesb 
 that the immutable principles of faith and 
 must be found within the breast, and that n 
 ternal revelation can have any authority equal ! 
 the internal ; this he supported by much learni 
 and show of argument, which Warburton thoug 
 he had replied to by the mass of learned evider 
 contained in his l Legation.' William Law, ma 
 ing no account of literary evidence, replied by 1 
 masterly development of the philosophy of the 
 and final recovery of mankind ; a book remarka| 
 for close argument and for its many fine il lj 
 trations, but now obsolete in certain fundametf 
 principles. Tindal died in 1733, and was inti 
 in Clerkenwell church, near the remaius of 
 Burnet 
 
 TINDAL, Nicholas, nephew of the pre 
 
 chiefly known by his translation and contin 
 
 of Rapin's History of England, 1687-1774. 
 
 TINDAL Sir Nicholas Conynham, 
 
 tinguished lawyer and member of parliamen 
 
 rose to the dignity of lord chief justice 0; 
 
 Common Pleas, 1777-1846. 
 
 TINDAL, William. See*TYNDALE. 
 
 TINELLI, T., a Venetian painter, 1586-1 
 
 TINGRI, P. F., a French chemist, 1743-181 
 
 TINTORETTO, Jacopo Robustl, called ft 
 
 toretto from the circumstance of his father bei 
 
 iurj 
 
 no t 
 ual 
 
 780 
 
TIP 
 
 dyer, was born at Venice in 1512. He studied 
 nly a few days in the studio of Titian, and was 
 hen dismissed by that great painter, for what 
 
 use is not known. This circumstance had an 
 dmirable effect upon him, it made him have more 
 ecided recourse to his own resources, and his spirit 
 
 well indicated in the words he wrote up on the 
 Fall of his room : ' The drawing of Michelangelo 
 nd the colouring of Titian.' He did eventually 
 ecome the acknowledged rival of Titian in Venice 
 tself; his Miracle of St. Mark, the Miracolo dello 
 <ckiavo, his masterpiece, is now in the academy of 
 "enice, and is generally admitted to be one of the 
 inest pictures in Italy ; there is a good print of it 
 y J. Matham. He died at Venice in 1594, aged 
 lghty-two. Tintoretto is sometimes called il 
 r urioso, from the extraordinary vigour and rapidity 
 rith which he painted ; he was bold and grand, 
 ut often careless; he is said to have had three 
 iencils, one of gold, one of silver, and a third 
 f iron. (Ridolfi, Le Maraviglie delV arte, 
 :c.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 TIPHAIGNE DE LA ROCHE, C. F., a French 
 hysician and man of letters, 1729-1774. 
 
 TIPFOO SAIB, the last sultan of Mysore, was 
 orn in 1749, and made his first appearance in 
 he field of Indian warfare at the head of 5,000 
 orse in 1767. His father was the sultan, Hyder 
 ili, a soldier of fortune, who constructed his 
 mpire out of the dominions of the great Mogul, 
 
 len falling to ruins. In 1780 the progress of 
 
 yder was arrested by Sir Eyre Coote, under the 
 overnment of Hastings, and the French having 
 )ined their forces to those of the sultan, the 
 oung Tippoo became acquainted with Lally Tol 
 2ndal. In December, 1782, the death of his 
 
 " er placed him on the throne of Mysore, and at 
 
 e head of an army, then in the field, of 88,000 
 len, supported by a sum of three millions ster- 
 ng in his treasury, besides costly jewels : he 
 ontinued the war with a zeal far surpassing his 
 ather's for Islamism, and in a short time not less 
 han 100,000 persons were forcibly circumcised. 
 
 1 1784 he concluded an advantageous peace with 
 Jeneral Matthews, who surrendered to him the 
 lugger fort ; but in 1786 he took the field again, 
 rovoked by a confederacy formed against him in 
 louthern India, of which the Mahrattas were 
 hief : the war on this occasion lasted till 1792, 
 
 hen his late defeats at Travancore and elsewhere 
 ompelled him to conclude a peace with the Mar- 
 Corn wallis. The war upon which he had 
 ntered, however, was a religious one, and Tippoo 
 
 as too sincere and courageous to surrender India 
 rithout a last struggle to the Christians. It is 
 ertain that he entered into an extensive corres- 
 Kmdence, which reached as far as Arabia, his 
 urpose being to organize a general confederacy 
 st the English ; but it is doubtful whether he 
 e any overtures to the French : the advantage 
 ie derived from his former acquaintance with them 
 
 nAi 
 
 realized in the superior discipline of his troops, 
 purpose was anticipated by the government of 
 ndia, then under the marquis of" Wellesley, who sent 
 n invading army, numbering nearly 40,000 men, 
 Qto his territories at the beginning of 1799. On 
 caching Seringapatam, his capital, General Harris 
 lemanded the cession of half his dominions, a 
 rge payment in money, and four of his sons, be- 
 
 TIT 
 
 sides four of his principal subjects, as hostages- 
 terms which the sultan rejected, in alternate rage 
 and despair, at being thus bearded in his last 
 stronghold. A breach having been made in the 
 walls, the storming party, of 4,000 men, was led 
 by Sir David Baird on the 4th of May, and Tippoo 
 Saib, resolving not to survive the loss of his king- 
 dom, met the fate of a hero in the thickest of the 
 conflict ; his body was found amid heaps of slain, 
 and interred with royal honours in his father's 
 sepulchre, after which the empire of Mysore was 
 dismembered. The reader desirous of further 
 particulars may consult Murray's History of Brit- 
 ish India in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, 1832, 
 2d edition, 1850; or Thornton's History of the 
 British Empire in India, 1842. For the due ap- 
 preciation of Tippoo's character, and the correction 
 of some facts, compare the 'History of Tippoo 
 Sultan, translated from the Persian of Myr Hous- 
 sein by Colonel Miles,' 1845. [E.R.] 
 
 TIPTOFT, John, earl of Worcester, a states- 
 man and patron of letters, executed on a charge of 
 treason, arising out of circumstances connected 
 with his Irish administration, 1470. 
 
 TIRABOSCHI, Girolamo, a famous historian 
 of Italian and Roman literature, 1731-1794. 
 
 TIRIN, J., a Flemish Jesuit, 1580-1636. 
 
 TISCHBEIN, J. A., a German painter ?nd 
 writer, 1720-1784. His brother, John Heinry, 
 founder of a new school similar in character to the 
 Venetian, 1722-1789. J. H. Conrad, their ne- 
 phew, a painter and engraver, 1742-1808. J. H. 
 William, brother of the latter, known from 1751 
 to 1803. J. F. Augustus, a third brother, a 
 painter of portraits, 1750-1812. 
 
 TISSARD, F., a French savant, died 1508. 
 
 TISSARD, P., a French poet, 1666-1740. 
 
 TISSOT, A. P., a French jurist, 1782-1823. 
 
 TISSOT, C. J., a French physician, 1750-1826. 
 
 TISSOT, J. M., a mathematician, died 1650. 
 
 TISSOT, S. A., a French physician, and author 
 of numerous professional works, 1728-1797. 
 
 TITI, R., an Italian poet, 1551-1609. 
 
 TITI, or TITO, Santi Di, a distinguished Ita- 
 lian painter and architect, 1538-1603. 
 
 TITIAN, or Tiziano Vecellio, one of the 
 greatest of Italian painters, and the prince of 
 colourists and portrait painters, was bora in the 
 territory of Venice at Capo del Cadore in 1477. 
 He studied in the school of the Bellini, first with 
 Gentile and afterwards with Giovanni, with whom 
 he was fellow-pupil with Giorgione, his own future 
 rival. Titian first appeared as a great painter at 
 the court of Alfonso 1., duke of Ferrara, in 1514, 
 when he painted the ' Bacchus and Ariadne,' in the 
 National Gallery. Two years later he had attained 
 to the full vigour of his extraordinary powers ; in 
 that year he executed his celebrated ' Assumption 
 of the Virgin,' now in the academy of Venice, and 
 hanging opposite to the Miracolo dello Schiavo by- 
 Tintoretto ; the merits of both masters are well 
 illustrated by the contrast. In 1528 Titian painted 
 his 'St. Peter Martyr,' in which he has shown 
 himself one of the first of landscape painters, 
 especially of landscape as an accessory to figures. 
 In 1545 he visited Rome, where he saw Michelan- 
 gelo ; he returned to Venice in the following year. 
 He is supposed also to have visited Spain, but this 
 is doubtful ; Spain is however, extremely rich in 
 
 781 
 
TIT 
 the masterpieces of Titian : after Venice, the gal- 
 lery of the Prado at Madrid gives the greatest dis- 
 play of his powers. It has been assumed that 
 
 Titian visited Spain partly from the fact of the 
 patent of nobility, granted by Charles V., creating 
 him Count Palatine of the empire, and knight of 
 the order of St. Iago, being dated at Barcelona. 
 This great painter died at Venice of the plague, in 
 1576, having lived to the extraordinary age of 
 ninety-nine years. To describe fully his master- 
 pieces alone, would occupy a volume ; of his 
 scholars, Paris Bordone, Bonifazio Veneziano, 
 Girolamo di Tiziano, and his own son Orazio 
 Vecellio, were able painters. (Vasari; Ridolfi ; 
 Zanetti, Delia J'ittura Veneziana, &c. ; Cadorin, 
 Delia amore ai Venezianai di Tiziano Vecellio; 
 Northcote, Life of Titian, 1830.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 TITIUS, G. G., a German jurist, 1661-1714. 
 
 TITON DU TILLET, Evkraud, a master of 
 polite literature and patron of letters, projector of 
 a French Parnassus in honour of Louis XIV., 
 a description of wluch he published, 1677-1762. 
 
 TITSINGH, J., a Dutch traveller, 1740-1812. 
 
 TITTEL, G. A., a Ger. philosopher, died 1816. 
 
 TTTTMANN, John Augustus Henry, a Ger- 
 man professor of theology, au of ' Encyclopadie 
 der Theologischen Wissenschaften,' 1773-1831. 
 
 TITUS, a disciple of Paul, and preacher of the 
 Gospel in Dalmatia, 1st century. 
 
 TITUS LIVIUS. See Livy. 
 
 TITUS, Flavius Vespa?ianus, emperor of 
 Rome, was the eldest son of the emperor Ves- 
 pasian ; he was born in the year 40, and educated 
 with Britannicus at the court of Nero . like the 
 latter, he gave way to vices which afforded little 
 promise of a happy reign. From 67 to 70 he was 
 carrying on the war in Judaea, the whole conduct 
 of which devolved upon him on his father's elec- 
 tion as emperor , the capture of Jerusalem, on 
 September 2, of the year last mentioned, brought 
 this struggle to a close, after which Vespasian 
 and Titus were both honoured with a triumph. It 
 is almost unnecessary to mention that the fullest 
 details of this war, the unparalleled cruelties and 
 sufferings with which it was attended, may be read 
 in Josephus ; the episode of the passion of Titus 
 for Berenice will be found in Suetonius. On the 
 death of Vespasian in 79, Titus succeeded as em- 
 peror, commencing, by repeated proofs of his refor- 
 mation, one of the most princely and beneficent 
 reigns in the annals of Rome i for this the wisdom 
 of his father was partly to be thanked, he having 
 associated Titus with him in the empire, and de- 
 veloped the nobler traits of his character by the 
 generous trust reposed in him. In the year of his 
 succession the great eruption of Vesuvius took 
 place, which buried Herculaneum, Stabise, Pom- 
 peii, and other towns beneath its ashes; in the 
 following year a fatal epidemic and a fearful con- 
 flagration occurred in Rome, and in the next again, 
 September 13, 81, Titus expired, perhaps of poison, 
 and was succeeded by his brother, Domitian : the 
 hopes he had excited were so great that his death 
 was mourned as a public calamity, a rare honour 
 for an emperor of Rome. [E.R.] 
 
 TIZIANO VECELLI. See Titian. 
 
 TOALDO, J., an Italian astrologer, 1719-1798. 
 
 TOBIN, A. M. Dk., a Sp. painter, 1C78-1758. 
 . TOBIN, John, a solicitor, bom at Salisbury, 
 
 TOL 
 author of ' The Honey Moon,"' 'All's Fair for Low 
 and several other plays, 1770-18U4. James, h 
 brother, a poet, died 1815. 
 
 TOD, James, an officer of the East India Com 
 pany. author of ' Travels,' and Surveys, died 183,' 
 
 TODD, Hugh, vicar of Stanwix, in Cumbaj 
 land, au. of a ' Description of Sweden,' 105.S-172! 
 
 TODE, H. J., a German naturalist, 1738-178| 
 
 TODE, J. C, a Ger. medical writer, 1736-181 
 
 TOFINO DE SAN MIGUEL. Don ViCKSg 
 a Spanish matheinat. and astronomer, 17-10-1 S()( 
 
 TOINARD, N., a Fr. antiquarian, 162i-170(i. 
 
 TOLAND, John, one of those learned fret 
 thinkers who rendered themselves conspIcM 
 after the publication of Locke's philosophy, w; 
 born in Ireland, of Roman Catholic parens, j 
 1669. As early as his sixteenth year, he shoo 
 off the superstitions in which he had been educate* 
 and in consequence of this change, completed h 
 education at Glasgow and Edinburgh, taking tl 
 degree of M.A. in the latter university in 169 
 At Leyden, where he next passed two yens, 1 
 made the acquaintance of Leclerc and Leibni 
 and returning to England again, published, 
 1695, his 'Christianity not Mysterious.' TL 
 work was launched forth in the midst of a contrt 
 versy concerning Socinian principles that 
 which South, Sherlock, Wallis, Howes, Cudwort 
 and others, took part, and was designed to sin 
 'that there is nothing in the Gospel contrary 
 reason, or above it, and that no Christian doctri* 
 can be properly called a mystery." Attacks w< 
 made upon the author from all sides, the grai 
 jury of Middlesex answered his work in a ' Pr 
 sentment,' and the Irish Parliament ordered it 
 be burnt by the hangman. Toland had gone 
 Dublin to escape the storm raised against huh 
 chiefly by the Dissenters, in London, and he w 
 now compelled to return to avoid a prosecution " 
 the attorney-general of Ireland : thus alienafci 
 from all parties he declared himself a ' Latitud: 
 rian,' though he always professed himself a CI) 
 tian. His subsequent works were, a ' Life 
 Milton,' which accompanied an edition of tta 
 author's prose works, ' Amyntor,' ' Origines Judi 
 ica?,' 'The Philosophy of the Ancients,' ' Hypati 
 ' Nazarenus,' ' History of the Soul's Immortal ! 
 among the Heathens,' ' The Origin and Force 
 Prejudices,' and numerous political pamphlet 
 His principal object, so far as these bore on 
 gion, was to sustain his original controversy, an 
 destroy the authority of the Books of Scriptu* 
 deemed canonical: but he was a vain man, pro 
 of distinction, however obtained, and was prot 
 more concerned about the great names he covi 
 associate with his own, than the principles he pn 
 fessed. He died at Putney in the fifty-third yei 
 of his age, 1722. In this neighbourhood re ' " 
 the Gibbons, Bolingbrokes, and Mallets. [E.FJ 
 
 TOLEDO, Feknando Alvakez De, duke 
 Alba, or Alva. See Alva. 
 
 TOLEDO, F. De, Spanish viceroy of Peru, di; 
 in prison after his return home, 1581. 
 
 TOLEDO, J. De, a Spanish painter, died 164 
 
 TOLEDO, Don P. De, Spanish viceroy! 
 Naples under Charles V., 1484-1553. Peter^j 
 the same family, ambassador in 1608. 
 
 TOLER, John, Lord Norbury, chief justice 
 the Common Pleas in Ireland, rose to distincJ 
 
 782. 
 
TOL 
 
 t the period of the rebellion, distinguished as u 
 vit. 1745-1831. 
 TOLET, F., a Spanish cardinal, 1532-1596. 
 TOLET, F., a French physician, died 1724. 
 TOLET, J., an English cardinal, died 1274. 
 TOLLET, Elizabeth, an accomplished Eng- 
 sh lady, author of Poems, 1694-1754. Her ne- 
 hew, George Tollet, author of valuable Notes 
 n Shakspeare, died 1779. 
 TOLL1US, Cornelius, a Dutch philologist, 
 orn about 1620, died 1662. His brotber, Alex- 
 ffDER, also a philologist, died 1675. James, a 
 hird brother, a learned physician and professor, 
 630-1696. Another Dutch philologist, named 
 Iermann Tollius, was professor at Harden- 
 yck and Leyden, 1742-1822. 
 "TOLOMEI, J. B., an Italian Jesuit, cardinal, 
 ad statesman, 1655-1726. Nicholas, of the 
 mie family, a Jesuit and ecclesiastical writer, 
 699-1774. 
 
 TOLOMMEI, Claudio, an Italian master and 
 
 remoter of polite literature, 1492-1555. 
 
 TOMASELLI, J., an Ital. naturalist, 1733-1818. 
 
 TOMASINI, Giacomo Filippo, bishop of 
 
 itta Nuova, a biographical writer, 1597-1654. 
 
 TOMBES, J., a nonconformist div., 1603-1676. 
 
 TOMLINE, George, successively bishop of 
 
 incoln and Winchester, author of ' Elements of 
 
 hristian Theology,' ' Memoirs of Mr. Pitt,' whose 
 
 icretary he had been, and a ' Refutation of the 
 
 harge of Calvinism brought against the Church 
 
 ' England,' 1750-1827. The family name of this 
 
 elate was Prettyman, but he took that of 
 
 Mnline on inheriting an estate left to him. 
 
 It TOMLINS, Elizabeth Sophia, a novelist 
 
 i e id miscellaneous wr., b. in London 1768, d. 1828. 
 
 i TONDUZZI, J. C, an Ital. historian, 1617-73. 
 
 TONE, Theobald Wolfe, founder of the 
 
 3 sociation of 'United Irishmen,' was born in 
 
 jj ablin 1763, and by profession a barrister. He 
 
 j mmenced his political agitation in 1790, and in 
 
 j 96 prevailed on the French directory to send 
 
 ;., i expedition in support of the Irish insurrection. 
 
 g| lis fleet was scattered by storms, and Tone was 
 
 j;, ade prisoner when conducting a petty armament 
 
 D ,j mewhat later. He committed suicide in prison, 
 
 LJ wember 19, 1798. 
 
 , ( TONSTALL. See Tunstall. 
 
 j) TOOKE, Andrew, a learned schoolmaster and 
 
 1. athematician, born in London 1673, died 1731. 
 
 . TOOKE, John Horne, a political character of 
 
 ".', ry considerable consequence in the last century, 
 
 ~ ted in the literary world as a grammarian and 
 
 '" ilologist, was born in Newport-Street, West- 
 
 inster, where his father was a poulterer, in 1736. 
 
 ,.. is education having been completed at Cam- 
 
 ,i| idge, he entered into orders, and became, in 1760, 
 
 . ][ ?ar of Brentford in Middlesex. He was never 
 
 r icerely attached to the church, however, but 
 
 : .'' stowed the greater part of his time on law and 
 
 litics, for which the factious nature of the times, 
 
 , . d the supposed designs of George III. and Lord 
 
 ite afforded abundant scope. From 1765 to 1767 
 
 ill published his philippics against the court and 
 
 ' e chief justice, Lord Mansfield, in favour of 
 
 .! likes the popular idol, and soon after made the 
 
 ' quaintance of that gentleman, as well as of Vol- 
 
 fe and Sheridan, on the continent. In 1770 and 
 1, a period of great political excitement in Lon- 
 
 TOR 
 
 don, he founded the Society for Supporting the 
 Bill of Rights ; this produced a rupture between 
 him and Wilkes, in consequence of the selfish 
 advantages sought by the latter ; about the same 
 time he promoted the publication of the Debates in 
 Parliament, in defiance of the House of Commons. 
 From 1773 to 1782 he was of course the avowed 
 enemy of the administration of Lord North; and 
 the friend of the American patriots ; in this inter- 
 val he underwent a year's imprisonment and a fine 
 of '200. The most important event of his life 
 was his trial for high treason, in conjunction with 
 Hardy, this took place at the Old Bailey in 1794, 
 and was remarkable for the ability and self-pos- 
 session with which Mr. Tooke defended himself; 
 it ended in an acquittal, and he afterwards num- 
 bered among his friends Sir Francis Burdett and 
 Major Cartwright. In 1801 he became member of 
 parliament for a nomination borough, having failed 
 in two previous attempts as a candidate for the 
 popular suffrages. Nothing particular marked his 
 subsequent career, and he died at Wimbledon, hav- 
 ing first destroyed all his MSS., in 1812 His 
 freatest literary work is his ' Diversions of Purley,' 
 rst published in 1786 ; attempts have been made 
 to prove that he was the real ' Junius.' [E.R.] 
 
 TOOKE, William, originally a printer, after- 
 wards a foreign chaplain of the Church of Eng- 
 land, author of ' Varieties in Literature,' ' Life of 
 Catherine II.,' ' A View of the Russian Empire,' 
 ' A General History of Russia,' and Translations 
 of Lucian and of Zollikofer's Sermons; born at 
 Islington 1744, died 1820. 
 
 TOPFER, H. A., a Ger. philosopher, 1758-1833. 
 
 TOPHAM, E., an English writer, died 1820. 
 
 TOPINO-LEBRUN, F. J. B., a French histo- 
 rical painter, perished on the scaffold, 1769-1801. 
 
 TOPLADY, Augustus Montague, a cele- 
 brated Calvinistic divine and controversial writer, 
 was born at Farnham in Surrey, 1740, and became 
 vicar of Broad Hembury in Devonshire, where he 
 composed most of his writings, in 1762. In 1775 
 he removed to London, and from that period 
 officiated at the chapel of the French Reformed, 
 near Leicester Fields. Died August 11, 1778. 
 
 TOPPI, N., an Italian historian, 1603-1681. 
 
 TORDENSKIOLD, the name conferred on 
 Peter Wessel, a famous Danish admiral, when 
 ennobled by Frederic IV. for his victory over the 
 fleet of Charles XII., king of Sweden, 1691-1720. 
 
 TORELLI, Joseph, an Italian scholar and ma- 
 thematician, editor of Archimedes, and translator 
 of iEsop's Fables and of the iEneid, 1721-1781. 
 
 TORELLI, L., an Ital. biographer, 1609-1683. 
 
 TORELLI, L., an Italian jurist. 1489-1576. 
 
 TORELLI, P., an Italian poet, 1536-1608. 
 
 TOREN, Olaus, a Swedish naturalist and tra- 
 veller in the East Indies, died 1753. 
 
 TORFjEUS, Thormodus, in Icelandic Thor- 
 
 MODUR TORFASON, Or TlIORMqp ToRVESEN, a 
 
 learned historian of Norway, 1648-17J9. 
 
 TORNIEL, or TORNIELLI, Augustus, gen- 
 eral of the Barnabites, and wr. of annals, 1543-1622. 
 
 TORNIELLI, J. F., an Italian poet, 1693-1752. 
 
 TORQUEMADA, John De, in Latin Turre- 
 cremata, a Spanish cardinal, confessor to Isabella 
 of Castile, 1388-1468. A Franciscan friar, of the 
 same names, published a ' History of the Wars and 
 Discoveries in the West Indies,' 1015. A Thomas 
 83. 
 
TOR 
 De Torquemada was first inquisitor-general of 
 Spain, and acted with such relentless vigour that, 
 in sixteen years, he had committed 8,800 victims 
 to the stake, and 90,000 to various measures of 
 imprisonment; he also banished 100,000 Jews 
 from the country in that period, 1420-1498. 
 
 TORRE, Bernardo Della, an ecclesiastical 
 writer, chaplain to Murat, 1736-1820. 
 
 TORRE, Filippo Del, an Italian antiquary 
 and master of polite literature, 1657-1717. 
 
 TORRE, Giovanni Maria Della, an Italian 
 antiquary and natural philosopher, a great im- 
 prover of the microscope, 1713-1782. 
 
 TORRENS, Sir Henry, an Irish officer of the 
 British army, who acted as secretary to Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley in the peninsula, and since then became 
 the promoter of many improvements in military 
 regulations ; born in Londonderry 1779, died 1828. 
 
 TORRENTLNUS,Hermann Van Beck, called, 
 a Dutch savant, author of the earliest attempt at 
 an historical dictionary, 1450-1520. 
 
 TORRENTIUS-LiEVINUS, otherwise Lievin 
 Vander Beken, a Belgian prelate, philologist, 
 and Latin poet, 1525-1595. 
 
 TORRICELLI, E vangelista, a famous Italian 
 mathematician and natural philosopher, professor 
 at Florence, time of Galileo, 1608-1647. 
 
 TORRIGIANI, Pietro, a Florentine sculptor, 
 who met with a tragical death in Spain, 1522. 
 
 TORRIGIANO, T., a physician, 1270-1350. 
 
 TORRIJOS, Don Jose Maria, a Spanish gen- 
 eral, bora at Madrid 1791, distinguished himself 
 in the revolution of 1820, executed 1823. 
 
 TORRINGTON, George Byng, Viscount, a 
 naval officer who served in the late war, 1768-1831. 
 
 TORRUBIA, Jose, a Spanish Franciscan, his- 
 torian, and naturalist, died 1768. 
 
 TORSINELLO, H., an Ital. historicn, 1545-99. 
 
 TORSTENSON, Leonard, Count, a Swedish 
 general, time of Gustavus Adolphus, 1595-1654. 
 
 TORSTI, F., an Italian physician, 1658-1741. 
 
 TOSCAN, G., a Fr. horticulturist, 1756-1826. 
 
 TOSCANELLA, Paolo Del Pozzo, an astro- 
 nomer of Florence, time of Columbus, 1397-1482. 
 
 TOSELLI, F., an Ital. biographer, 1699-1768. 
 
 TOSHI, D., an Italian theologian, 1535-1620. 
 
 TOSSANUS. See Totjssain. 
 
 TOTILA, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, totally 
 vanquished by Belisarius and killed, 541-552. 
 
 TOTT, Claude Akeson, a Swedish general, 
 distinguished against the Russians in 1573, d. 1596. 
 
 TOTT, Claude, Count, a Swedish senator and 
 ambassador, time of Christina, 1616-1674. 
 
 TOTT, Francis, Baron De, a French officer and 
 diplomatist, of Hungarian origin, employed at Con- 
 stantinople and the Crimea, author of Memoirs of 
 the Turks and Tartars, 1733-1793. 
 
 TOTZE, E., a Prussian historian, 1715-1789. 
 
 TOULLIER, C. E. M., a Fr. jurist, 1752-1835. 
 
 TOULMIN, Joshua, successively a baptist and 
 unitarian minister, editor of anew edition of Neale's 
 History of the Puritans and other works, 1740-1815. 
 
 TOUP, Jonathan, a classical scholar and critic, 
 born at St. Ives, in Cornwall, 1713, died 1785. 
 
 TOUR, B. De La, a French preacher, last cent. 
 
 TOUR, Baillet, Count De La, an Austrian 
 general, time of Joseph II., died 1806. 
 
 TOUR, J. B. Bonnafas De La, a French 
 Jesuit preacher and religious poet, 1712-1777. 
 
 TOU 
 TOUR, Maurice. See Delatour. 
 . TOUR, Theodore. See Latour. 
 
 TOUR D'AUVERGXE, Theophilus Matx 
 Corret De La, called the first Grenadier o\ 
 France, and long the terror of the enemy in Spanisr 
 warfare, 1743-1800. 
 TOURLET, R., a French Hellenist, 1770-1836 
 TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton Di 
 brated botanist, was born at Aix in Provence ii 
 1656. He died in 1708. He was destined by hi 
 parents for the church, but at the death of hi 
 father he chose the profession of medicine. 1 Witan; 
 was his favourite study, and to the prosecution o 
 this, he ultimately devoted his life. He travelled ii 
 quest of plants over the Alps and Pyrenees, throug! 
 Spain and Portugal ; and afterwards visited Holla 
 and England. He had for many years the superin 
 tendence of the Jardin du Roi, and lectured o: 
 botany to a numerous throng of students. Tourne 
 fort was one of a celebrated triumvirate of botani 
 which the end of the 17th and beginning of th 
 18th centuries produced. Ray in England, Kivinu 
 in Germany, and Tournefort in France, were con 
 temporaries and correspondents, and botany J 
 much indebted to their labours for the progress 
 has since made. Tournefort's method of elassirica 
 tion of plants is derived almost entirely from th 
 flower, and, considering the time in which it ws 
 published, possesses very great merit. In Franc 
 he is esteemed as much as Ray is in England ; an 
 the two philosophers are justly reckoned each tb; 
 pride of their country. In 1700 he was selected 
 under royal patronage, to proceed to the Levaa 
 to investigate the plants mentioned by ancier 
 writers and to discover new ones. His journe 
 occupied more than two years, during which I 
 made a large collection of plants and other object 
 of natural history; and upon his return he wi 
 nominated professor of medicine at the college i 
 France. His chief botanical works are the El< 
 ments de Botanique,' and the ' Institutiones R 
 Herbariae' which possess great merit. Plumii 
 named a genus of plants after him, Pittonia; b|i 
 Linnaeus afterwards changed it to Tournefort*' 
 which it now retains. [W.B 
 
 TOURNELY, H., a Fr. theologian, 1658-172$ 
 TOURNEMINE, R. J. De, a learned Jesui 
 author of ' Reflections on Atheism,' 1661-1739. 
 TOURNEUR, P. C, a Fr. translator, 1736-8 
 TOURNIE, J. J., a Fr. mechanician, 1690-177 
 TOURNON, C. T. Maillard De, an Italu 
 cardinal and legate to India and China, 1668-171 
 TOURNON, F. De, a French cardinal and dipk* 
 matist, time of our Henry VIIL, 1489-1562. I 
 TOURNON, P. C. Casimir Marcellin, Com 
 De, a French statesman, died 1833. 
 TOURON, A., a French biographer, 1688-177 
 TOURRETTE, Marc-Antoine Louis Cu 
 ret De La, a French naturalist, 1729-1793. 
 
 TOURTELLE, S., a French physician, au. of 
 ' Philosophical History of Medicine",' 1756-1801.; 
 TOUSSAIN, Daniel, in Latin Tossanus, 
 learned protestant theologian, 1541-1602. PAf J 
 his son, author of a Life of the elder Toussali 
 and of various controversial works, died 16% 
 James, a learned Hellenist, died 1547. 
 TOUSSAINT, F. V., a Fr. deist, 1715-1772.? 
 TOUSSAINT DE SAINT LUC, the fatbt^j 
 a Carmelite and ecclesiastical historian, died 169 
 84 
 
TOU 
 I TOUSSAINT, L'Ouverture, was a negro, the 
 son of African slave parents, and was himself a 
 dave in St. Domingo daring the greater portion of 
 his life. He is said to have been born in 1743. 
 When the revolt of the blacks broke out in that 
 island in 1791, Toussaint joined his fellow-country- 
 men ; but he did not sully himself by participation 
 n any of the atrocities that marked the furious 
 struggle of blacks, mulattoes, and whites, each 
 against the other two races, by which the unhappy 
 island was devastated. Toussaint, by his courage 
 and generalship in the field, and still more by his 
 eloquence, his knowledge of character, and his po- 
 litical skill and firmness, made himself chief of the 
 negroes, who were the victorious party in the war. 
 He reduced the part of the island, that had be- 
 onged to the Spaniards, into complete submission. 
 He formed and maintained a regular army of black 
 soldiers, and black officers, disciplined after the 
 European model ; and revived some slight degree 
 f the commerce, by which St. Domingo had once 
 >een enriched. By introducing a strict system of 
 compulsory labour among the negroes, whom he 
 illowed to receive a fourth part of the produce of 
 their toil, he secured the blessing of industry for 
 he land and the people, while the blacks still 
 )rided themselves on being no longer the slaves of 
 he white men. He maintained rigid military 
 liscipline, and administered justice with stern and 
 mpartial vigilance. Notwithstanding the severity 
 >f his rule, he was idolized by the negroes, who 
 egarded him as a type of the eminence which their 
 ace was fitted to attain. Toussaint preserved a 
 lominal allegiance to France, and assiduously 
 urted Buonaparte's favour after the establishment 
 )f the consulate. But Napoleon was resolved to 
 educe St. Domingo into thorough submission as a 
 solony, and after the peace of Amiens, in 1801, an 
 irmy of 35,000 troops, under General Le Clerc, was 
 lent on board a powerful fleet from the French 
 >orts against the island. Toussaint and his fol- 
 owcrs resisted for a time with valour and skill ; 
 rat several of the negro generals deserted their 
 
 [Castle of Jour.] 
 
 ihief, and at last Toussaint made his submission, 
 rod retired to a farm in the interior, leaving the 
 French acknowledged masters of St. Domingo. 
 
 TOZ 
 
 For two months Toussaint lived in retirement, but 
 the French were jealous of his possible influence 
 over the negroes, and, on July 5, 1802, Le Clerc 
 caused Toussaint to be arrested, and sent him a 
 prisoner to France. He was confined in the castle 
 of Joux, in the Jura mountains, where he died on 
 the 27th April, 1803. Toussaint L'Ouverture is 
 a bright example of the intellectual energy and 
 greatness of which the maligned negro race is 
 capable ; and his fate is one of the saddest among 
 the many melancholy proofs of the guilt and 
 meanness which have marked Europeans in their 
 dealings with their African brethren. [E.S.C.] 
 
 TOUSTAIN, G. F., a learned Benedictine, au- 
 thor of a ' Traite" de Diplomatique,' 1700-1754. 
 
 TOWERS, Joseph, a miscellaneous and politi- 
 cal writer, born in Southwark, where his father 
 was a dealer in second-hand books, 1737, died 
 1799. Towers began life as a printer, but became 
 a preacher among the dissenters, and his merits 
 were recognized by the degree of L.L.D., conferred 
 upon him by the university of Edinburgh. Among 
 his works are 'A Review of the Genuine Doctrines 
 of Christianity,' A Vindication of the Political 
 Opinions of Locke,' and some articles in the Bio- 
 graphia Britannica. 
 
 TOWERSON, G., a theologian, died 1697. 
 
 TOWGOOD, Micajah, a dissenting minister, 
 and famous advocate of the principle of separation 
 from the Established Church ; born in Devonshire 
 1700, died 1792. 
 
 TOWNLEY, Charles, a gentleman of Lanca- 
 shire, who is numbered in the ranks of English 
 scholars and connoisseurs, was born at the seat of 
 his ancestors, 1737. He resided many years at 
 Rome, where he collected the valuable marbles 
 now in the British Museum, and known as the 
 Townley Collection ; died 1805. His uncle, John, 
 was an officer in the French army, and translated 
 Hudibras into the language of his adopted coun- 
 try; died 1782. 
 
 TOWNLEY, James, rector of St. Bennet's, 
 Gracechurch-Street, and subsequently master of 
 Merchant Tailors' school, known as a dramatic 
 writer, and chiefly by his piece, entitled 'High 
 Life Below Stairs,' 1715-1778. 
 
 TOWNSEND, John, founder of the Deaf and 
 Dumb Asylum in St. George's Fields, London, was 
 born in the metropolis 1757, and became minister 
 to an independent congregation, first at Kingston 
 in Surrey, and afterwards at Bermondsey. The 
 Rev. H. C. Mason, vicar of the latter parish, was 
 his coadjutor in founding the asylum, for which a 
 patron was found in the person of the late duke of 
 Gloucester. They also worked together on the 
 1 Family Bible,' known by the name of Mason's. 
 Mr. Townsend died in 1826. 
 
 TOWNSEND, Joseph, a minister of the Church 
 of England, educated as a physician under Dr. 
 Cullen at Edinburgh. He was first interested in 
 religion by the movement of the Wesleyans, and 
 for some time acted as chaplain to Lady Hunting- 
 don, and pieached in her chapel at Bath; after 
 which he obtained the living of Pewsey. He wrote 
 several works, and died 1816. 
 
 TOWNSON, T., a learned divine, 1715 -1792. 
 
 TOWSTON, W., an English traveller, 16th ct. 
 
 TOZER, H., a puritan divine, 1602-1650. 
 
 TOZZETTI, G. T., an Ital. botanist, 1722-1780. 
 
 785 
 
 3E 
 
TOZ 
 
 TOZZI, Luke, an Italian physician, 1638-1717. 
 
 TRACY, Anthony Louis Claude Dkstutt 
 De, a French moralist and politician, 1754-1836. 
 
 TRACY, Bernard Destutt De, an ecclesi- 
 astic and ascetic writer, 1720-1786. 
 
 TRADESCANT, John, a Dutch naturalist and 
 Asiatic traveller, gardener to Charles L, died 
 about 1652. His son, of the same name, author 
 of a description of his father's curiosities, died 
 about 1662. The latter bequeathed his father's 
 museum to Elias Ashmole, who gave it to the 
 university of Oxford. The Tradescants intro- 
 duced many new plants into this country. 
 
 TRAETTA, T., an Italian composer, 1727-79. 
 
 TRAHERON, B., a learned divine, 16th cent. 
 
 TRAILL, Robert, a presbyterian minister, 
 author of works highly esteemed among the Cal- 
 vinists, born at Ely, in Fifeshire, 1642, died 1716. 
 His son, Robert, was a minister in the county of 
 Angus. James, son of the latter, became an epis- 
 copalian, and was appointed, in 1765, bishop of 
 Down and Connor; died 1783. 
 
 TRAJAN, one of the most illustrious emperors 
 of Rome, was born near Seville, in Spain, in the 
 year 53, and was adopted by Nerva in 97. The 
 custom of adoption, when the choice was happily 
 made, prevented the dangers incident to an inter- 
 regnum, and, in this instance, only three months 
 intervened between that expedient and the acces- 
 sion of the new Ca?sar. It is singular that Tra- 
 jan was no connection or friend of Nerva's, but was 
 chosen by him solely for his well-known virtues, his 
 fine military spirit, and his general fitness for com- 
 mand ; and so well had Rome reason to be satisfied 
 with this choice, that the virtues of the new em- 
 peror remained, for ages after his time, proverbial. 
 The great victories or Trajan were obtained over 
 the Dacians, Germans, and Parthians, and it was 
 to commemorate the first of these that his fa- 
 mous column was erected; imitated in our own 
 times by that of Napoleon. By these victories he 
 fixed securely the boundaries of the Roman em- 
 pire on the banks of the Rhine and the Tigris. 
 His internal administration was equally glorious, 
 his reign being numbered with that of his succes- 
 sor, Hadrian, and with the period of the two An- 
 tonines, for its great clemency, and rigid discipline 
 of justice these virtues being ever inseparable. 
 Among his benefactions may be mentioned the 
 humane and legal mode of dealing with the Chris- 
 tians which he enjoined in his rescript to Pliny, 
 appointed by him proconsul of Bithyma and Pon- 
 tus. Trajan died at Selinus, a town in Cilicia, in 
 August, 117. [E.R.] 
 
 TRALLES, B. L., a Polish physician, 1708-97. 
 
 TRALLIANUS. See Alexander. 
 
 TRAPP, John, a minister of the Church of 
 England, author of Commentaries on all the books 
 of Scripture, 1601-1669. 
 
 TRAPP, Joseph, commonly called Dr. Trapp, 
 grandson of the preceding, and rector of Harling- 
 ton, author of several learned works in divinity 
 and polite literature, 1679-1747. See Law. 
 
 TBAVASA, Cajetan M., an Italian theatine, 
 preacher, and historian, 1698-1774. 
 
 TRAVERS, N., aFrench priest, 1686-1750. 
 divi 
 
 . TRAVIS, G., an English divine, died 1797. 
 TREBY, Sir George, a celebrated judge and 
 lawyer, period of the revolution, 1644-17*02. 
 
 TBI 
 
 TREDGOLD, T., a civil engineer, died 18W. 
 
 TREIBER, J. P., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1675-1727 
 TREILHARD, J. B., Count, a French juris! 
 and deputy to the estates-general, 1742-1810. 
 TRELLON, C, a French poet, lGtli century. 
 
 TREMBECKI, a Polish poet, died 1812. 
 
 TREMBLE Y, Abraham, an eminent naturalis 
 and religious writer of Geneva, 1700-1784. 
 
 TREMELLIUS, Emmanuel, son of a Jew o 
 Ferrara, professor of Hebrew at Heidelberg, an< 
 author of a version of the Bible, 1510-1580. 
 
 TRENCHARD, Sir John, a member of parlia- 
 ment and statesman, who was implicated in thi 
 Rye-house plot and the rebellion of Monmouth 
 1650-1695. John, of the same family, a politica 
 writer, of the Whig party, author of The Natura 
 History of Superstition,' 1669-1723. 
 
 TRENCK, Frederick, Baron Von Der, a cele- 
 brated commander in the Austrian war of succes- 
 sion, was born at Reggio, of a noble Polish family 
 in 1711. His military career commenced frou 
 1738, when he entered the service of Russia. Ii 
 1740 he joined the Austrians, and became chief o 
 the Pandoivrs. His cruel and rapacious conduc 
 created him many enemies, and being thrown infc 
 prison, he poisoned himself, after four years' con 
 fmement, in 1749. Frederick, his cousin, au 
 thor of the celebrated Memoirs, was born in 1726 
 and entered the Prussian service under Frederic! 
 II. He was imprisoned in a dark undergrounc 
 cell at Magdeburg for ten years, and at last per 
 ished by the guillotine in France, 1794. Maur- 
 ice Flavius, of the same family, was a write 
 on public law, and died 1810. 
 
 TRENEUIL, J., a French poet, 1763-1818. 
 
 TRENTA, P., an Italian poet, 1731-1795. 
 
 TRENTO, J., an Italian Jesuit, 1728-1784. 
 
 TRESCHOW, Niels, a Norwegian philosophe 
 and theologian, author of ' The Spirit of Christi 
 anity,' and the ' Philosophical Testament, or God 
 Nature, and Revelation,' 1751-1833. 
 
 TRESHAM, H., an Irish poet, died 1814. 
 
 TRIiSSAN, Louis Elizabeth De La Ver 
 gne, Count De, a French officer and member o 
 the Academy, author of a translation of Orland 
 Furioso, and other works, 1705-1743. His soc 
 the Abbe De Tressan, a writer, 1749-1809. 
 t TRESSAN, Peter De La Vergne De, a mis 
 sionary, born in Languedoc 1618, died 1684. 
 
 TREUER, G. S., a Germ, publicist, 1683-1743 
 
 TREUTLER, J., a German jurist, 1565-1607. 
 
 TREUVE, S. M., a Fr. theologian, 1651-1730. 
 
 TREVISANI, Francesco, an Italian paintei 
 taught by Antonio Zanchi, 1656-1746. Angelc 
 his brother, a portrait painter, dates unknown. 
 
 TREVISANI, M. A., a Venetian doge, 1553-54 
 
 TREW, C. J., a German botanist, 1695-1769. 
 
 TRIBOLO, N. Di, an Ital. sculptor, 1500-155C 
 
 TRIBONIAN, a celebrated Roman jurist, wh 
 was employed by Justinian on the famous digest o 
 the laws, died about 546. Tribonian bears a ver 
 indifferent character ; a brief account of the grea 
 work on which he was engaged may be seen ii 
 the article Justinian. 
 
 TRICALET, P. J., an ascetic writer, 1696-1761 
 
 TRICHET-DUFRESNE, Raphael, a Frenejs 
 bibliopole and numismatist, 1611-1661. 
 
 TRIER, J. P., a Germ, theologian, 1687-1 708. 
 
 TBIEST, A. r a Flemish prelate, 1576-1C57. 
 
 im 
 
TRI 
 
 TRIEWALD, Samuel, a Swedish poet and 
 statesman, 1688-1742. His brother, Martin, a 
 j! mathematician and engineer, 1691-1747. 
 
 TRIGLAND, J., a Dutch divine, 1652-1705. 
 TRILLER, D. W., a Ger. physician, 1695-1782. 
 TRIMMER, Sarah, authoress of numerous 
 * works designed to promote the religious education 
 of the populace, was the daughter of Joshua 
 
 Kirby, and was born at Ipswich in 1741. The 
 
 principal of her works was a periodical continued 
 
 . several years under the title of 'The Guardian of 
 ; * Education. Some of her books have been admitted 
 into the list of the Society for Promoting Chris- 
 ;^ tian Knowledge. She died in 1810, and was 
 Ca buried in the family vault at Ealing. 
 " TRIMNELL, C, a learned prelate, 1663-1723. 
 TRINCANO, Didier Gregory, a military en- 
 
 gineer and writer on fortification, born in Franche- 
 f Comte - 1719, died about 1792. His son, H. L. 
 5 Victor, a mathematician, 1754-1785. 
 
 !0D TRINCAVELLI, Victor, a physician and clas- 
 , b sical editor of Venice, 1496-1568. 
 ? TRIONFETTI, Lelio and Giambatista, Ita- 
 ; K1 lian botanists : the former 1647-1722 ; the latter, 
 :it< who was his brother, 1656-1708. 
 * TRIP, Luke, a Dutch poet, died 1783. 
 f TRIPPEL, A., a Swiss sculptor, 1747-1793. 
 TRISSIN, or TRISSINO, Giov. Georgio, an 
 
 1 Italian poet, the first who wrote blank verse in 
 '* that language, 1478-1550. 
 
 r TRISTAN, J., a French numismatist, d. 1656. 
 TRISTAN, L.. a Spanish painter, 1586-1640. 
 3 TRISTAN, N., a Portng. navigator in 1440-7. 
 TRISTAN L'ERMITE, Francis, a French 
 
 poet and dramatist, 1601-1649. His brother, 
 
 Jean Baptiste, a poet, historian, and genealogist, 
 
 died about 1670. 
 fl TRITHEMIUS, John, a famous German theo- 
 >& logian and learned writer, 1462-1516. 
 "I TRIVET, Nicholas, an English Dominican, 
 
 author of ' Annales Regium Anglia?,' died 1328. 
 TRIVISANO, Marco, a Venetian biographer, 
 EB died about 1674. His nephew, Bernardo, a 
 ' < philosopher and literary savant, 1652-1720. 
 " TRIULZI, Giam Giacomo, a distinguished 
 : i general, born in 1447 of a noble Milanese family. 
 
 Being slighted at the court of Lodovico Sforza, he 
 
 entered the French service, and finally headed the 
 invading army of Francis I., and won the battle 
 of Marignano, which put the French in possession 
 
 ' of Milan. Died at Chartres, 1518. 
 
 TROGUS POMPEIUS, a Norman historian, 
 author of a Universal History, abridged by Justin, 
 and described by him as a man of antique elo- 
 quence, time of Augustus. 
 
 TROILLIUS, Samuel, a learned archbishop of 
 Upsala, 1706-1764. His son, Uno, also arch- 
 bishop of Upsala, and a man of letters, 1746-1803. 
 
 TROLLE, Gustavus, archbishop of Upsala, 
 and partizan of the Danish tyranny, killed in a 
 battle in Norway after his expulsion, 1535. 
 
 TROLLE, H., a Danish admiral, 1516-1565. 
 
 TROLLE, G. H., a Swedish admiral, 1680-1765. 
 
 TROMMIUS, A., a German divine, 1633-1719. 
 
 TROMP, Marten Harpertzoan, a famous 
 Dutch commander, was born in 1597, and received 
 his first command from Prince Maurice in 1624. 
 From 1637 to 1639 he was employed against the 
 Spaniards and Portuguese, and was afterwards 
 
 TSC 
 
 matched against our own Admiral Blake ; it was 
 Tromp who sailed up the channel with a broom 
 at his masthead, protesting he would sweep the 
 English from the seas. He was killed in an ac- 
 tion off the Dutch coast, 29th July, 1653. His 
 son, Cornelius Van Tromp, born 1629, dis- 
 played extraordinary courage and skill in his con- 
 tests with the English, and died peaceably at Am- 
 sterdam in 1691. Some particulars will be found 
 under the name of Ruyter, his fellow-com- 
 mander. 
 
 TRONCHAY, G. Du, a Fr. writer, 1540-1582. 
 
 TRONCHET, F. D., a Fr. jurist, 1726-1806. 
 
 TRONCHIN, Theodore, a protestant theolo- 
 gian of Geneva, 1582-1657. Lewis, his son and 
 successor as professor of divinity, died 1705. N. 
 Dubreuil, of the same family, a journalist, died 
 in Holland, 1640-1721. 
 
 TRONCHIN, Theodore, an eminent physician 
 of the same family as the preceding, and a relative, 
 by the mother's side, of Lord Bolingbroke, a great 
 promoter of inoculation in France, 1709-1781. 
 His relative, John Robert, a jurisconsult, and 
 writer against Rousseau, 1711-1793. 
 
 TROOST, C, a Dutch painter, 1697-1750. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, Sir Edward T., a distin- 
 guished British admiral, died 1852. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE, Sir Thomas, a naval officer 
 distinguished in the last war, supposed to have 
 perished at sea in the Blenheim, 1807. 
 
 TROSK, M., a German Orientalist, 1588-1636. 
 
 TROTTER, Thomas, a physician in the royal 
 navy, known as a professional and medical writer, 
 born in Roxburghshire, died 1832. 
 
 TROTTI, J. P. B., an Ital. painter, 1555-1602. 
 
 TROTZ, C. H., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1701-1773. 
 
 TROY, Francis De, a Fr. painter, 1645-1730. 
 His son, same name and profession, 1676-1752. 
 
 TRUBLET, N. C. J., a Fr. writer, 1697-1770. 
 
 TRUCHET, John, a French monk, famous as 
 an engineer and man of science, 1657-1729. 
 
 TRUEBA, Don Telesforo De, a Spanish 
 constitutionalist, who took refuge in England and 
 became known as a dramatist, died 1835. 
 
 TRUMAN, J., a nonconfor. divine, 1631-1671. 
 
 TRUMBULL, John, an American lawyer and 
 
 Soet, born in Connecticut, 1750 ; died 1831. 
 onathan, his son, secretary to Washington, 
 and member of Congress, 1740-1809. John, 
 brother of the latter, a painter of history, some of 
 whose productions adorn the capital at Wash- 
 ington, 1756-1843. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Sir William, a statesman and 
 diplomatist, time of James II. and William III., 
 well known as the friend and literary confidant of 
 Dryden and Pope, 1638-1716. 
 
 TRUSLER, J., a literary compiler, 1735-1820. 
 
 TRYPHIODORUS, a Greek poet and gramma- 
 rian, time of Anastasius, 6th century. 
 
 TRYPHO, a Syrian usurper between Antio- 
 chus VI. and Antiochus VII., B.C. 140-134. 
 
 TSCHARNER, Bernard, a Swiss historian, 
 died 1778. His brother, N. Emmanuel, 17/3-94. 
 
 TSCHERNING, Andrew, a Prussian poet and 
 philologist, 1611-1659. 
 
 TSCHIRNER, Henry Theophilus, professor 
 of theology at Wittemberg, an eloquent preacher, 
 and author of several works, 1778-1828. 
 
 TSCHIRNHAUSEN, E. W. Von, a learned 
 
 787 
 
TSC 
 
 German, distinguished for his discoveries in the 
 art of manufacturing lenses and burning mirrors, 
 and founder of the manufacture of porcelain in 
 Saxonv, 1651-1708. 
 
 TSCHOULBOF, M. D., secretary to the Russian 
 senate and an historical writer, died 1793. 
 
 TSCHUDI, Gili.es, in Latin jEgidius Tscu- 
 dw, a Swiss historian and teacher of Zuinglius, 
 1505-1572. Dominique, his brother, an ecclesi- 
 astic and historian, 1596-1654. J. Henry, also 
 an historian, 1670-1729. 
 
 TUAIRE, F., a French painter, 1794-1823. 
 
 TUBI, J. B., an Italian sculptor, 1G30-1700. 
 
 TUCKER, Abraham, the son of a London 
 merchant, who was educated for the bar, and be- 
 came known as a metaphysical writer. His prin- 
 cipal work, entitled ' The Light of Nature Pur- 
 sued,' was published under the fictitious name of 
 Edward Search in 1765; flourished 1705-1774. 
 
 TUCKER, Josiah, a dignitary of the Church 
 of England, author of a ' Treatise on Civil Govern- 
 ment' and ' Elements of Commerce,' 1712-1799. 
 
 TUCKER, St. George, called ' the American 
 Blackstone,' a distinguished lawyer and promoter 
 of the independence of the United States, d. 1828. 
 
 TUCKER, W., a learned divine, died 1620. 
 
 TUCKEY, James Hengston, an African ex- 
 plorer, au. of ' Maritime Geography,' 1776-1816. 
 
 TUCKNEY, A., a learned puritan, 1599-1670. 
 
 TUDWAY, T., a musical composer, 17th cent. 
 
 TUDOR. See Owain. 
 
 TUET, J. C. F., a Fr. philologist, 1742-1797. 
 
 TULL, J., an agricultural writer, 1680-1740. 
 
 TULLIA. SeeTARQUiN. 
 
 TULLIN, C. B., a Norwegian histor., 1728-65. 
 
 TULLIUS HOSTILIUS, successor of Numa 
 Pompilius as king of Rome, b.c. 673-641. 
 
 TULLY, George, rector of Gateside near New- 
 castle, and a famous writer against popery, died 
 1697. His uncle, Thomas, a learned divine and 
 controversial writer, 1620-1676. 
 
 TULP, Nicholas, a Dutch physician who be- 
 came burgomaster, and greatly disting. himself by 
 his patriotic resistance to Louis XIV., 1594-1674. 
 
 TUNSTALL, or TONSTAL, Cuthbert, a 
 famous English prelate, uncle of Bernard Gilpin, 
 was born near Richmond, in Yorkshire, about 1474. 
 In 1516 he accompanied Sir Thomas More as am- 
 bassador to Charles V., after which he became 
 successively bishop of London and Durham. He 
 was imprisoned in the Tower during the reign of 
 Edward VI., and though he had shown a humane 
 regard for the persons of protestants in the reign 
 of Mary, he was deprived of bis liberty again in 
 that of Elizabeth. His keeper, however, was Arch- 
 bishop Parker, who entertained him in a friendly 
 manner at Lambeth, where he died in 1559. 
 
 TUNSTALL, James, vicar of Rochdale, author 
 of Discourses upon Natural and Revealed Reli- 
 gion,' and some classical commentaries, 1710-72. 
 TURA, Cosmo, an Italian painter, 1406-1469. 
 TURBERVILLE, George, a poet and trans- 
 lator of Ovid, born at Whitchurch, in Devonshire, 
 about 1530, died about 1600. His poetical descrip- 
 tion of Russia was founded on the knowledge he 
 obtained of that country as secretary to the Eng- 
 lish ambassador, Sir Thomas Randolph. 
 
 TURCHI, Alessandro, an Italian painter, 
 taught by Brusasorci, about 1580-1650. 
 
 TUR 
 
 TURCHI, L., bishop of Parma, 1724-1803. 
 
 TURENNE. Henri De La Tour D'AuM 
 vergne, Viscount de Turenne, was born at Sedan,. I 
 of anoble family, 16th September, 1611. At the agS|, 
 of fifteen he served in Holland, and studied the all, 
 of war under his maternal uncles, Prince Mauricei^B 
 Nassau, and Prince Frederick Henry. In 1634 he-< l! 
 received the command of a French regiment, anjM 
 gained brilliant distinctions in the campaign in Flail^H 
 ders. In 1639 he commanded with success in Ital^H 
 and in 1643 he conquered Roussillon. In the nesSH 
 year he was made marshal of France, and comfll 
 mander of the French armies in Germany. Bflk 
 gained the great battle of Nordlingen in 1645 ; a^H 
 by his able manoeuvres, and decision and skill iflB 
 action, he was the chief cause of the advantag^Mj 
 gained over the imperialists in the latter part qH: 
 the thirty years' war. When the civil war of tl^H 
 French broke out in France, Turenne was first G^H 
 gaged against the court, but afterwards becai^H 
 the chief commander of the royal armies. In 16^H 
 and 1655 he commanded against the Spaniard^* 
 and the Low Countries, gained the battle of the r 
 Dunes, and conquered the greater part of Flando^H 
 The peace of the Pyrenees in 1660 closed this war: I? 
 but when hostilities were renewed in 1667, Turenne V 
 ran through another rapid career of victories in |, p 
 Flanders, and the Spaniards were obliged to beg J- 
 again for peace in the next year. In 1672 he w^H 
 at the head of the French troops in Holland. He r 
 took forty towns in twenty-two days, and won five I', 
 pitched battles against the Dutch and Austrian^! 
 He continued to guide the French arms with a^K 
 most unvarying skill and success till the 27th July, y_ 
 1675, when he was killed by a chance cannon sh^B 
 when reconnoitring the ground for an intend^H 
 battle against the celebrated imperialist comma^K 
 der, Montecuculi. [E.S.C.l J ' 
 
 TURGOT, an English monk and historian MJ 
 Durham, who became bishop of St. Andrews a^K 
 primate of Scotland, died 1115. 
 
 TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, born 
 Paris, 10th May, 1727 ; died 20th March, 178M 
 one of the purest and most virtuous of men ; c^H 
 tainly the wisest statesman who appeared during tj^K 
 latter days of the French monarchy. Could t^E 
 fury of the terrible whirlwind which so so^E 
 numbered that ancient and gorgeous monan^K 
 among things that were, have been averted ml ' 
 human providence, the man who alone couflt 
 have saved that calamity was Turgot. In ea^K 
 youth, intended for the Church, his studies w^B 
 varied, and in regions seldom visited by men Jl 
 Action. Fortunately for France his purpo^Bt, 
 changed, and he turned his mind towards ^H 
 functions of the Magistracy. Having obtainfl . 
 some inferior appointments, the repute of his ad I , 
 ministration was such, that in 1774, the Co^^K 
 Maurepas, the first Minister, called him to the hifll . 
 and responsible office of Minister of FinaneKM . 
 Here, the consummate ability of Turgot had fullen 
 scope; and for a time, alike Court and NatioaJ,., 
 reposed on his unimpeachable probity. ^^H 
 Finances of France, as is well known, were then ' 
 fast verging towards that condition which forced]. 
 on the Revolution. Turgot's remedies were di* \ 
 tinct and simple 'No bankruptcy, no moil'..; 
 Loans, no increase of Taxes; but a rigorous ex-jU 
 amination of expenditure and resolute reduction. J '" 
 
 788 
 
TUB 
 
 Kor Was the panacea a mere proposal. The 
 blister was equal to the realizing of it. And 
 the reforms effected during his brief tenor of office 
 were so numerous and important, that Public 
 Credit for the time was re-established! Who 
 niows not, however, that every financial re- 
 former creates an army of enemies ? Is a sine- 
 :ure destroyed? Not only its holder, but his 
 fcttofly: not only these, but all who are thereby 
 rat in fear, conspire against the formidable Min- 
 ster. On a day marked black in the French 
 Issti 12th May, 1776, Turgot was dismissed: 
 K>or Louis XVI. having first remarked l Il riy a 
 pie M. Turgot et moi qui aimons le peuple.' It 
 vas about the middle period of his ministry that 
 Turgot addressed to Louis that celebrated memoir 
 >n the state of the Municipalities, in which he 
 leclared that the safety of France depended on 
 ,he realization of such a constitution as actually 
 jrevailed long afterwards under Louis Philippe. 
 The cause of the evil, Sire, is, that your people 
 lave no constitution. The French nation is a 
 ociety composed of different orders of men im- 
 >erfectly united, and of a people among whom 
 here are few social ties. On this account every 
 nan is absorbed in concern for his private in- 
 erests ; no one takes trouble about his public 
 nties, or his relations with others.' Would that 
 'ranee had then obtained what might have con- 
 erted mutual hatreds into a common patriotism, 
 nd jarring classes into a Nation ! After these 
 wo years of office, Turgot lived in retirement; 
 ut an active and glorious one. He wrote much ; 
 -the spirit of large and wise philanthropy breath- 
 ig through every fine. He had an old attach- 
 lent to political economy ; and his pen had fought 
 'ell in the war with Monopolies. He was fond of 
 letaphysics especially as these bear on the 
 'heory of Language: his essay on Existence in 
 ie Encyclopaedic is well known. But, perhaps, 
 f all he has left, that which has the most endur- 
 lg value are his Letters to an Ecclesiastic on 
 oleraiion: his Discourse on the Advantages of 
 le Christian Religion : a second Discourse on the 
 'rogress of the Human Mind: and Sketch of 
 
 TUR 
 qualified chemist; he recommended Dr. Turner, 
 who was accordingly appointed. Dr. Turner was 
 a man of the most amiable disposition, and of 
 acute scientific talents. [R.D.T.I 
 
 TURNER, J. H., an archaeologist, 1814-1851. 
 
 Tniversal Eistoi'y. Pregnant as these are with 
 nstruction for all time, we express the fervent 
 k that some one of our many enterprising 
 ublishers, may see reason to present them to the 
 Iritish people. Turgot's whole works have been 
 ollected recently and published in two elegant 
 jyal 8vo volumes. [J.P.N. ] 
 
 TURGOT, Francis, called 'the Chevalier,' br. 
 f the preceding, and a colonial governor, 1721-89. 
 
 TURGOT, M. S., a French provost, 1690-1751. 
 
 TURLOT, F. C, a French writer, 1745-1824. 
 
 TURN E BE, Adrian, in Latin Turnebius, a 
 rench Hellenist and critic, 1512-1565. 
 
 TURNER, D., an English botanist, died 1818. 
 
 TURNER, D., a baptist writer, 1701-1798. 
 
 TURNER, Edward, M.D., born in Jamaica, 
 797 ; died at London, 1837 ; the author of a 
 aluable manual of chemistry, and of numerous 
 ontributions to chemical mineralogy and stochio- 
 letry. He began his career as a lecturer in 
 Edinburgh. When University College was inst- 
 ated, the lectureship of chemistry was offered to 
 >r. Thomas Thomson, and on his declining to 
 e Glasgow, he was requested to nominate a 
 
 [Birth place of Turner.] 
 
 TURNER, Joseph Mallerd William, was 
 born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, in the spring 
 of 1775. His father earned on a small business 
 as a hair-dresser; and it was over his father's 
 shop in Maiden lane where most of his early 
 efforts, in the art in which he eventually became 
 so famous, were produced. His abilities appear 
 to have been rapidly developed, for though un- 
 aided by instruction from any master, he ob- 
 tained admission as a student into the Royal 
 Academy in 1789, in only his fifteenth year, and 
 was an exhibitor in the academy the following 
 year, 1790. In his early youth, Girtin, the water- 
 colour painter, appears to have been Turner's chief 
 adviser, who always expressed a high veneration 
 for his friend's ability. Turner had also the very 
 great advantage of freely copying in the Gallery, 
 or from the collection of drawings of Dr. Munro in 
 the Adelphi; and his elaborate drawings soon 
 procured a public recognition of his talents : he 
 was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 
 1800, and an academician in 1802. He was thus 
 for fifty years one of the most distinguished mem- 
 bers of that institution ; and after a life of almost 
 unrivalled success, and an industry unsurpassed, 
 this great landscape painter died unmarried, and 
 under an assumed name, in an obscure lodging at 
 Chelsea, 19th December, 1851. He was, however, 
 buried by the side of Sir Joshua Reynolds, in the 
 crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral. His life was in 
 every sense a remarkable one; for its humble 
 origin, and for its splendid results; retired and 
 reserved always while living, the splendour of his 
 tame among his contemporaries does not contrast 
 more strongly with his habits of life, than the 
 great and national character henceforth identified 
 with his name, both by his reputation and the dis- 
 position of his property, does with the singular 
 humility of his closing career. His large fortune, 
 789 
 
TUR 
 
 both in pictures and in funded property, he has 
 bequeathed to the nation ; his pictures, however, 
 under the condition that the government provide 
 a suitable dwelling for them within ten years, and 
 his funded property towards the establishment of 
 an institution for the benefit of decayed artists. 
 Turner had three styles as a landscape painter, 
 and as the history of every distinguished painter will 
 show, his first manner was much distinguished for 
 laborious care in execution : he was chiefly a water- 
 colour painter in early life. The contrast of style 
 between his early and latest works is remarkable 
 the latter distinguished for its excessive looseness 
 of execution, the former for its elaborate finish ; 
 and, compared with his ordinary works, for a cold- 
 ness of colour. This peculiar coldness of colour 
 he displayed both in his oil and water-colour pic- 
 tures ; and in some of the best of his early works, 
 lie shows a decided imitation of Wilson. In middle 
 life he adopted a much freer mode of execution, 
 and a greatly richer style of colouring. His finest 
 works belong to this middle period, of which the 
 two pictures bequeathed by him to the National 
 Gallery, to be hung between two Claudes, are fine 
 examples: the sun rising in a mist, exhibited in 
 1807 ; and Dido building Carthage, exhibited in 
 1815. Turner may be judged by these works, as 
 he himself considered them two of his principal 
 masterpieces ; and the self-assertion of insisting 
 upon their being exhibited by the side of the 
 Claudes, shows that he courted, and required no 
 indulgence from, our criticism. In comparison 
 with Claude his execution is loose, even in his 
 middle period ; but these two pictures do not suffer 
 more by the comparison than the Claudes both 
 are injured, as they are nearly in opposite extremes 
 of taste; the Turners require some of his own 
 later works as a foil, and in this case the two 
 bequests might display the happy medium of exe- 
 cution. The majority of Turner's works of this 
 middle period are certainly masterly and brilliant 
 in colour. In the last twenty years of his career 
 he was extravagant to an extreme degree : he 
 played equally with nature and with his colours : 
 although we could not see such effects in nature as 
 he latterly represented, he maintained that we 
 should be glad to see them, nevertheless. Light, 
 with all its prismatic varieties, seemed to have 
 been the chief object of his studies ; individuality 
 of form or character he was wholly indifferent to. 
 The wild looseness of execution in Turner's latest 
 works has not the apology of being attempted on 
 scientific principles ; he does not work up a par- 
 ticular point of the picture as a focus, and leave 
 the rest obscure, as a foil, to enhance it : but all is 
 equally obscure and wild. But were it otherwise, 
 the philosophy would be very questionable: the 
 infinite advantage of the human eye over instru- 
 ments made by man is, that it can instantly adapt 
 its focus to any object, and thus distinguish, 
 within a limited range, the distant or the near 
 equally well. It is this faculty of the eye which 
 makes the natural landscape so charming; and, 
 accordingly, nature also requires that the land- 
 scape which professes to be its transcript should 
 be finished in all its parts, and thus enable the 
 eye to exercise its wonderful functions over it as it 
 docs over a natural scene. Turner's works are 
 very numerous in all his styles: he exhibited 
 
 TWI 
 
 about 300 pictures in the Royal Academy, wliich, 
 however, constitute but a very small portion of hia 
 works. In 1808 he published a work called Liber 
 Sludiorum, or Book of Sketches, in imitation oi 
 Claude's Liber Veritatis. (John Burnet, 'J'urucr 
 and his Works, &c, 1852.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 TURNER, Samuel, a diplomatist of the East 
 India government time of Hastings, author of an 
 account of his embassy to Thibet, 1749-1802. 
 
 TURNER, Sharon, a solicitor of Londonj 
 whose works on Anglo-Saxon history and sonj 
 other subjects, are reckoned among the standard* 
 of English literature, 1768-1847. 
 
 TURNER, Thomas, chaplain to Laud, bishop 
 of London, and finally dean of Canterbury, 1591 
 1(372. Francis, his son, bishop of Ely, one oi 
 the seven prelates committed to the Tower bj 
 James II., author of a 'Vindication of Archbishoi 
 Sancroft,' ' Animadversions on a Pamphlet entitle^ 
 the Naked Truth,' and other works, died 1700. i 
 
 TURNER, William, rector of Walberton, uj 
 Sussex, au. of a History of All Religions,' 1695.] 
 
 TURNER, William, a dignitary of the churclq 
 who wrote the earliest English herbal, entitled I 
 4 History of Plants,' died 1568. 
 
 TURPIN, TULPIN, or TELPIN, John, it 
 Lat. Turpinus, a Fr. prelate and chronicler, 8th c 
 
 TURPIN, F. H., a French historian, 1709-1799 
 
 TURPIN DE CRISSE, Lancelot, Count, i 
 French officer and writer on tactics, 1715-1795. 
 
 TURRETIN, Benedict, a Swiss protestaul 
 theologian, 1588-1631. His son, Francis, pro< 
 fessor at Geneva and a theological writer, 1623j 
 1687. John Alphonsus, son of the latter, ant 
 the most celebrated ecclesiastical writer and theolfli 
 gian of the family, 1671-1737. Of the same famih 
 were Michael, professor of divinity, 1646-1721 
 Samuel, son of Michael, professor of theology am 
 Oriental languages, 1688-1718. 
 
 TUSSAUD, Madame, the famous wax-modella 
 and proprietress of the exhibition in London, wa) 
 born in Berne 1760. She came to London il 
 1802, and died there in 1850. 
 
 TUSSER, Thomas, a poet, called by Wartoj 
 'The British Varro,' born in Essex about 1511 
 died in London between 1580 and 1585. Hu 
 rincipal work is quaintly entitled, ' Five Hundred 
 
 oints of Good Husbandry vnited to as many 4 
 Good Huswiferie.' 
 
 TUTCHIN, J., a political writer, died 1707. I 
 
 TUTILO, or TUOT1LO, a monk of St. Gall, in 
 Switzerland, distinguished as a painter, sculptol 
 orator, poet, and musician, 9th century. 
 
 TWEDDELL, John, an accomplished scholai 
 and traveller, born in Northumberland 1769, died 
 prematurely at Athens 1799. 
 
 TWELLO, L., a learned divine, died 1742. ' 
 
 TWINING, T., a classical scholar who was prtjj 
 sented to the living of St. Mary's, Colchester, bj 
 Bishop Lowth, born in London 1734, died 1804. J 
 
 TWINING, W., an army physician and profe* 
 sional writer, born in Nova Scotia, died 1835. J 
 
 TWISS, Horace, a barrister and miseellaneo* 
 
 writer, was the son of Francis Twiss, known as i 
 
 man of letters, and of Frances, second daughterH 
 
 Roger Kemble., the father of that celebrated family 
 
 He was called to the bar in 1811, and cntcrec 
 
 . parliament as member for Wooton Basset, in 1820 
 
 j in 1828, he was under-secret ary for the coloni* 
 
 90 
 
 ?rin 
 oil 
 
TWI 
 
 luring the administration of Wellington. He 
 
 Sever obtained much success in political life, hut 
 
 Bras highly esteemed in the social and literary 
 
 lircle. The principal of his works is a Life of 
 
 lord Eldon.' Died 1849. 
 
 [ TWISS, Richard, a traveller of fortune, known 
 
 lis a miscellaneous writer, 1747-1821. 
 
 I, TWISS, W., a nonconformist divine, 17th cent. 
 
 |! TWYNE, John, an antiquarian and mayor of 
 
 ITIanterbury, died 1581. His grandson, Brian, an 
 tntiquarian, was vicar of Rye, in Sussex, and 
 Irchivist at Oxford, 1579-1644. 
 I TWYSDEN, Sir R., an antiquary, 1597-1G72. 
 I TYCHSEN, 0. G., professor at Rostock, and 
 Ikuthor of several Oriental works, 1734-1815. 
 I TYCHSEN, T. C, an Orientalist, 1758-1834. 
 | TYDEMAN, M., a Dutch savant, 1741-1825. 
 TYE, C, a musical composer, 16th century. 
 TYERS, T., an English critic, 1726-1787. 
 TYMPE, J. G., a Ger. theologian, 1699-1768. 
 TYNDALE, or TINDALE, William, the 
 enerable martyr and translator, was born in the 
 undred of Berkeley, either at Stinchcomb, or 
 "forth Nibley, Gloucestershire, about the year 
 484. At an early period he was sent to Oxford, 
 vhere he took his degree, and also gave instruc- 
 ions in Magdalen Hall. But he left Oxford for 
 Cambridge, where it is believed that he took a 
 legree. In 1522 Tyndale is next found as tutor in 
 he house of Sir John Welch of Little Sodbury, not 
 ar from Bristol, where he preached in the villages 
 nd towns on Sabbath, and often disputed with 
 leighbouring abbots and other Romish ecclesi- 
 stics. Here too, he translated the ' Enchiridion 
 tfilitis ' of Erasmus, as a present to his host and 
 lis lady. _ His free opinions and discussions soon 
 ;ot him into troublous examinations before the 
 >opish dignitaries, but no penalty was inflicted on 
 dm. He took the hint, however, left the county, 
 md came to London, his mind being now fully 
 >ccupied with the idea of translating the Scrip- 
 ures. He soon found, as he himself quaintly 
 ays, ' that there was no room in my lord of Lon- 
 lon's palace to translate the New Testament, nay, 
 jo place to do it in all England.' In London he 
 metimes preached at St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, 
 vhile Alderman Humphrey Monmouth took him 
 nder his protection, and gave him an annuity of 
 en pounds a-year, to enable him to live abroad, 
 which ten pounds he was in return to pray for 
 he souls of the alderman's father and mother. 
 I'yndale on leaving England went first to Ham- 
 mrg. It is often said that from Hamburg he 
 roceeded to Wittemberg, where he met Luther, 
 ho had now thrown off the last vestige of popish 
 hraldom, and that there he completed his trans- 
 ition of the New Testament. Ihe statement is 
 pparently not correct, for during 1524 he seems 
 nave remained at Hamburg, and in 1525 he ap- 
 jears to have been first at Cologne and then at 
 Vorms. At Cologne Tyndale seems to have com- 
 lenced to print his first edition in 4to, but after 
 sheets were printed the work was interrupted, 
 id the translator and his coadjutors betook 
 emselves to the Lutheran city of Worms, where 
 the quarto was finished, and an octavo edition 
 issued from the press. The prologue to the 
 uarto has been republished under the name of 
 A Pathway to the Scriptures.' The tiai;blator s 
 
 TYN 
 
 name was attached to neither of the two editions, 
 and he assigns a reason for this omission in hia 
 'Wicked Mammon,' published in 1527. Copies of 
 these versions early found their way into England. 
 In 1526 Tunstall, bishop of London, fulminated 
 his prohibition of them, and two years afterwards 
 a number of copies were collected, nay, some 
 were purchased by the bishop in Antwerp, and 
 burnt at St. Paul's Cross. Warham and Wolsey 
 were also dreadfully enraged, and Sir Thomas More 
 was employed to denounce Tyndale, but his genius 
 was foiled in the attempt, and Tyndale won a 
 precious victory over the learned chancellor. Two 
 editions were then printed at Antwerp, and found 
 their way to England in vessels laden with grain. 
 Endeavours were made to seize Tyndale and pun- 
 ish all who assisted him, but he removed to Mar- 
 burg in Hesse in 1528, and published there a book 
 of great value 'The Obedience of a Christian 
 Man.' The result of all the English opposition 
 was, that, as Foxe expresses it, ' copies of the 
 New Testament came thick and threefold into 
 England.' We find Tyndale again at Antwerp in 
 1529, during which year a fifth edition was printed; 
 the four books of Moses were also translated, 
 printed each at a separate press, and put into cir- 
 culation. The enemies of the translator endea- 
 voured to decoy him into England, but he was too 
 wary to be so easily entrapped, for he well knew 
 what displeasure Henry VIII. felt at his tract, 
 called ' The Practice of Prelates,' and what pen- 
 alty the royal indignation would speedily inflict. 
 After the martyrdom of Frith, Tyndale set him- 
 self to revise and correct the version of the New 
 Testament, and it was soon thrown off, with this 
 remark in the preface, ' which I have looked over 
 again with all diligence, and compared with the 
 Greek, and have weded out of it many fautes.' 
 But his enemies in England, whose power had 
 been shaken by the copious circulation of the 
 English New Testament, were the more enraged 
 against him, and conspired to seize him on the 
 continent, in the name of the emperor. An Eng- 
 lishman, named Philips, betrayed him, and acting 
 under such information, the authorities at Brussels 
 seized him, in the house of Pointz his friend, and 
 conveyed him to Vilvorde, twenty-three miles from 
 Antwerp. Pointz, who had with difficulty escaped 
 himself, made every effort for him, but in vain. 
 The neighbouring university of Louvain thirsted 
 for his blood. Tyndale was speedily condemned, 
 and on Friday, the 6th October, 1536, in virtue of 
 a recent Augsburg decree, he was led out to the 
 scene of execution. On being fastened to the 
 stake, he cried in loud and earnest prayer, ' Lord, 
 open the eyes of the king of England,' and then 
 was first strangled and afterwards burnt. 
 His ashes flew, 
 No marble tells us whither. 
 The merits of Tyndale must ever be recognized and 
 honoured by all" who enjoy the English Bible for 
 their authorized version of" the New Testament has 
 his for its basis. He made good his early boast, 
 that ploughboys should have the Word of God. 
 His friends all speak of his great simplicity of 
 heart, and commend his abstemious habits, his 
 zeal, and his industry; while even the imperial 
 procurator who prosecuted him styles him, homo 
 I doctus, pius et bonus. The works of Tyndale and 
 91 
 
TYP 
 
 Frith were collected and published in three vols. 
 8vo, London, 1831. [J.E.] 
 
 TYPOEST, James, in Latin Typotius, a Flemish 
 historian, died 1601. 
 
 TYRANNIO, a Gr. grammarian, 1st cent. B.C. 
 
 TYRCONNEL, Richard Talbot, earl of, a 
 partizan of James II. in Ireland. 
 
 TYRRELL, James, a barrister of the Temple, 
 au. of a ' General History of England,' 1642-1718. 
 
 TYRTjEUS, a Greek poet and musician, whose 
 military songs and airs animated the Spartan army, 
 and were constantly sung and played as long as 
 that republic existed, 7th century B.C. 
 
 TYRWHITT, Thomas, a famous scholar and 
 master of polite literature, was born at Westmin- 
 ster in 1730, and was successively under-secretary 
 at war and clerk to the House of Commons. He 
 resigned the latter situation in 1768, and devoted 
 his future years to literature. Besides his valuable 
 classic commentaries, Tyrwhitt edited Chaucer's 
 Canterbury Tales and Rowley's Poems, which he 
 proved to be the production of Chatterton; d. 1786. 
 
 TYSON, Edward, a physician and writer of 
 curious works in comparative anatomy, 1649-1708. 
 
 TYSON, James, a dramatic writer, 1799-1820. 
 
 TYSSEUS, Peter, a Flemish historical pain- 
 ter, 1625-1692. His son, Nicholas, famous for 
 the representation of still life, flowers, fruit, armour, 
 and military weapons, 1660-1719. Augustus, 
 br. of the latter, a landscape painter, 1662-1722. 
 
 TYTLER, H. W., a Scotch physic, 1752-1808. 
 
 TYTLER, James, born at Brechin, in Scotland, 
 1747, celebrated as a miscellaneous writer, and 
 editor of several periodical works. Died in Ame- 
 rica, where he became a political exile, 1805. 
 
 TYTLER, William, a Scottish antiquarian and 
 
 ULA 
 
 historical writer, was born at Edinburgh 1711, and' 
 became a writer to the signet, in which profession 
 he continued till his death in 1792. His principal 
 works are * An Historical and Critical Inquiry into 
 the Evidence produced against Mary Queen of^ 
 Scots,' a ' Dissertation on the Marriage of Mary to 
 Bothwell,' and the ' Poetical Remains and Life of! 
 James I., king of Scotland.' His son, Alexan- 
 der Fraser, Lord Woodhouselee, was succes- 
 sively professor of history, judge advocate, and 1 
 justice of the Court of Session. He is the author] 
 of several much valued historical and critical works, | 
 the principal of which is his ' Elements of Gen-i 
 eral History,' 1747-1813. The son of the latter, 
 Patrick Fraser Tytler, the most eminent of 
 the family, was born in 1190, and died after a 
 lingering illness in 1849. His principal work is a 
 ' History of Scotland,' in 9 vols., published at 
 intervals from 1828 to 1843. Besides this con- 
 tribution to historical literature he wrote a ' Life 
 of the Admirable Crichton ; ' ' The Life and Writ- 
 ings of Sir Thomas Craig;' 'Lives of Scottish 
 Worthies ; ' a ' History of Discovery on the Nor-] 
 them Coasts of America ; ' a ' Life of Sir Walter! 
 Raleigh;' and a 'Life of Henry VIII.' In the 
 latter years of his life he enjoyed a pension ofj 
 200 a-year, for which he was indebted to thai 
 administration of Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 TZETZES, John or Joannes, a learned gramJ 
 marian and poet of Constantinople, author of a] 
 valuable work entitled, Chiliades Variarum His-! 
 toriarum, or Historical Miscellanies, 12th century.; 
 His brother, Isaac, was also a man of taste and; 
 letters, and held a magisterial office in Macedonia, j 
 
 TZETZI, J. B., a learned writer, 16th century. 
 
 TZSCHIRNER. See Tschirner. 
 
 U 
 
 UBALDI, G., a mathematician of the 17th cent. 
 
 UBALDINI, Petruccio, an illuminator of 
 Florence, who came to England in the reign of 
 Elizabeth as a teacher of his native language, and 
 wrote several historical works, from 1550-1588. 
 
 UBALDINI, Roger, archbishop of Pisa, in 
 1276, noted for his cruelty as a Ghibelline chief. 
 Having captured Ugolino and his sons, of the op- 
 posite party, he shut them up in a room and left 
 them to die of hunger. 
 
 UBERTO, F. Degli, an Ital. poet, died 1370. 
 
 UCCELLO, P., an Italian painter, 1349-1432. 
 
 UCHENSKI, J., primate of Poland, died 1581. 
 
 UDAL, John, a rigid puritan and Oriental 
 scholar, died in the Marshalsea prison, London, 
 1592. Ephraim, his son, vicar of St. Augustin's, 
 Walling Street, a zealous royalist, author of a 
 treatise against sacrilege, entitled 'A Coal from 
 the Altar, and other works, died 1647. 
 
 UDAL, Nicholas, master of Westminster 
 school, author of several works, 1506-1564. 
 
 UDALRIC, duke of Bohemia, 1012-1037. 
 
 UDEN, L. Van, a Flemish painter, 1595-1662. 
 
 UDINA, Giovanni Da, an Italian painter, 
 taught by Giorgione and Raphael, 1489-1562. 
 
 LTFL'MBACH, or UFFENBACH, Z. C. Von, 
 a learned German bibliographer, 1683-1734. His 
 brother, John Frederic, a lyric poet, 1687-1769. 
 Peter, a physician, died 1635. 
 
 UGGERI, A., an Italian antiquary, 1754-1837, 
 
 UGGIONE, M., an Italian pamter, died 1520. 
 
 UGHELLI, F., an eccles. historian, 1595-1670^ 
 
 UGOLINO. See Gherardesea. 
 
 UHLICH, G., an Austrian historian, 1743-1794* 
 
 UILKENS, James Albert, a Dutch naturalist 
 and theologian, professor at Groningen, 1772-1825] 
 
 UITENBOGAARD, J., a Dutch theologian of 
 the party of Remonstrants, 1557-1650. 
 
 ULADISLAS, seven kings of Poland : UlaJ 
 dislas L, duke or king, succeeded his brothen 
 Boleslas, in 1081 or 1082 ; his reign was troubled 
 with civil and foreign wars, died 1102 or 11081 
 Uladislas II., succeeded his father, Boleslal 
 III., in 1138 or 1139; he was deposed 1146, and 
 died in exile 1159. Uladislas III., was electa! 
 king 1202, and deposed in 1206 on account of his 
 cruelties, died 1233. Uladislas IV., surname! 
 Loketek, became master of the kingdom in 129AU 
 was deposed by the states, and Wenceslaus electa! 
 in his room, 1300, but was restored on the deatU 
 of the latter in 1305 or 1306. He sustained a vrtm 
 with the Teutonic knights, and died 1333. His 
 son, Casimir III., called the Great, succeeded hifl^ 
 Uladislas V., grand duke of Lithuania, ob- 
 tained the crown by marrying Hedwiga, daughtep 
 of Louis. See Jagellon. He was succeeded M 
 his son, Casimir IV. Uladislas VI., son of 
 Casimir IV., same as Ladislaus VI., king of 
 
 792 
 
ULA 
 
 rtungary ; see that article. Uladislas VII., son 
 
 Iff Sigismond, was born 1595, and succeeded his 
 
 ather 1632. He had previously sustained a war 
 
 :ith the house of Romanoff, and now in 1633-4 
 
 e conquered the Turks and the Tartars of the 
 Jrimea. Died 1648. 
 
 ULADISLAS, three dukes or kings of Bohemia : 
 -Uladislas I., reigned 1109-1125. Uladislas 
 I., succeeded 1140, deposed and died in the same 
 ear, 1173. Uladislas III., reigned only a few 
 
 onths in 1198, and died 1222. The sixth king 
 f Hungary and Poland of this name, became king 
 f Bohemia in 1471. See Ladislaus. 
 
 ULDIN, a king of the Huns, 400-412. 
 
 ULEFELD, Cornifix or Corfito, Count, a 
 )anish statesman time of Christiem VI., d. 1664. 
 
 ULFT, J. Vander, a Dutch painter, 1627-80. 
 
 ULLOA, A. De, a Spanish historian, d. 1580. 
 
 ULLOA, Antonio De, a Spanish general and 
 tatesman, a great promoter of industrial and 
 cientific progress in that country, 1718-1795. 
 Jlloa's great distinction was in the mathematical 
 
 iences; and when very young he was sent to 
 outh America to co-operate with Condamine and 
 he other French academicians in measuring a de- 
 ree of the meridian. His talents, more lately, 
 rere turned to account in the construction of 
 ublic works requiring engineering skill, the intro- 
 uction of the woollen manufacture, &c. 
 
 ULLOA Y PEREIRA, Louis De, a Spanish 
 oet, time of Philip IV., died 1660. 
 
 ULPHILAS, a Gothic bishop, known to history 
 bout 375 as a delegate to the emperor Valens, 
 om whom he solicited a settlement in Thrace for 
 is countrymen. He is said to have translated the 
 ible into the Gothic language, and to have in- 
 ented the characters for that purpose. 
 
 ULPIAN, a rhetorician of Antioch, 4th cent. 
 
 ULPIANUS, Domitius, a famous jurist of 
 ome, who became the chief minister of his pupil, 
 be emperor Alexander Severus, in the year 222. 
 T e is said to have been a resolute enemy of the 
 hristians ; and having effected some reforms in 
 he army, he was murdered by the soldiers at the 
 ;et of the emperor and his mother, 228. 
 
 ULRIC, Philip Adam, a native of the bishop- 
 ic of Wurtzbourg, a teacher of jurisprudence and 
 remoter of agriculture improvements, born 1692. 
 
 ULRICA, Eleanora, two queens of Sweden. 
 
 The wife of Charles XL, and mother of Charles 
 
 II., was born in 1656 : her father was Frederick 
 II. of Denmark, and her marriage with the 
 Swedish king in 1679 facilitated the establishment 
 f peace between the two countries. She died in 
 .693. She was remarkable for her great learning 
 nd beneficent disposition. 2. The daughter of 
 he preceding, born 1688, succeeded her brother, 
 "harles XII., as queen regnant in 1719, four years 
 ifter her marriage with prince Frederick of Hesse 
 
 assel. In 1720, she resigned the government 
 nto the hands of her husband. Died 1744. 
 
 ULRICH, J. H., a Ger. philosopher, died 1813. 
 
 ULRICH, John James, a Swiss theologian, 
 L569-1638. Another of the same names, professor 
 >f moral philosophy and natural law, and an eccle- 
 siastical writer, 1683-1731. John Gaspard, an 
 ecclesiastic, author of a curious history of the 
 Swiss Jews, 1705-1768. John Rodolph, a min- 
 ister and author of ascetic works, 1728-1795. 
 
 URQ 
 
 ULUGH BEGH, a prince of the Tartars, grand- 
 son of the famous Tamerlane, was born in 1394, and 
 succeeded his father on the throne, in 1447. He 
 had been accustomed to the cares of government 
 from his boyhood, and greatly distinguished himself 
 as a patron of learning, and by his own astronomi- 
 cal observations, and works illustrating Eastern 
 history and geography. His elder son having re- 
 belled against him, caused him to be put to death 
 near Samarcand in 1449 or 1450. 
 
 UNDERWOOD, T. R., an artist and naturalist, 
 author of ' Memorable Events in Paris during the 
 Capitulation of 1814,' died 1835. 
 
 UNGER, J. F., a Ger. economist, 1716-1781. 
 
 UNTERBERGER, Ignatius, a painter of a 
 Tyrolese family that has produced many cele- 
 brated artists, born at Karales, 1744, died 1797. 
 
 UNZER, John Augustus, a German physi- 
 cian, distinguished by his works on physiological 
 and psychological subjects, among which may be 
 mentioned ' A New Doctrine concerning the Move- 
 ments of the Soul and the Imagination,' ' Thoughts 
 on Sleep and Dreams,' On the Sensitive Facul- 
 ties of Animated Bodies,' ' The Physiology of Ani- 
 mated Nature,' and Physiological Researches,' 
 1727-1799. His wife, Jane Charlotte, a 
 poetess and moralist, died 1782. 
 
 UNZER, Louis Augustus, a German writer, 
 au. of a 'Treatise on Chinese Gardens,' 1748-75. 
 
 UPHAM, W. E., an Eng. historian, died 1833. 
 > UPTON, James, a learned schoolmaster and 
 divine of the Church of England, editor of classical 
 works, 1670-1749. His son, John, rector of Great 
 Rissington, in Gloucestershire, also a classical 
 editor, published an edition of Spenser's ' Faerie 
 Queene,' and Notes on Shakspeare, 1707-1760. 
 
 URBAN, eight popes of Rome: Urban I., 
 succeeded Calixtus 1. in 222, and suffered martyr- 
 dom in 230. Urban II., whose name was Otho 
 or Eudes, a Frenchman, succeeded Victor III. in 
 1087 or 1088; he struggled against the pretensions 
 of the emperor, and proclaimed the first crusade at 
 the instance of Peter the Hermit, died 1099. Ur- 
 ban III., reigned in the time of the emperor Fre- 
 deric I., 1185-1187. Urban IV, time of St. 
 Louis, to whom he offered the crown of Sicily, 
 which was accepted by the duke of Anjou. 1261- 
 1265. He instituted the festival of Corpus Christi. 
 Urban V., succeeded Innocent VI. 1362, at the 
 period when the papal court was held at Avignon 
 (see Rienzi); he removed to Rome in 1367, but 
 returned again in 1370, and died at Avignon the 
 same year. Urban VI., succeeded Gregory XL 
 in 1378, and became the abettor of Charles Du- 
 razzo against Joan of Naples, died after an unquiet 
 pontificate 1389. Urban VII., died the twelfth 
 day after his election in September, 1590. Urban 
 VIII., successor of Gregory XV. in 1623, held the 
 pontificate during a long and busy period marked 
 by the disputes of Jansenism ; died 1644. 
 
 URBA1N, Ferdinand De St., a French artist, 
 and designer of medals to Innocent XL, 1654-1731. 
 
 URCEO, A., a learned Italian, 1446-1500. 
 
 URFE, Anne D', a French poet, 1555-1621. 
 Honore, his brother, a novelist and historian of 
 the gallantries of Henry IV., contained in his 
 romance of Astraea, 1567-1625. 
 
 URQUHART, Sir Thomas, a Scottish mathe- 
 matician and philologist, time of Charles II. 
 
 793 
 
URQ 
 
 URQUIJO, Don Marianno Luiz De, a Span- 
 ish statesman, time of King Joseph, 1768-1817. 
 
 URREA, J. De, a Spanish writer, 16th cent. 
 
 URRUTIA, J. De, a Span, general, 1728-1800. 
 
 URSIN, J. F., a Germ, philologist, 1735-1796. 
 
 URSIN, John Henry, ecclesiastical superin- 
 tendent at Ratisbon, author of a ' Compendium 
 of the Ecclesiastical History of Germany,' died 
 1667. George Henry, his son, a philologist and 
 teacher of the Belles Lettres, 1647-1707. 
 
 URSINS, Anna Maui a De La Tremoille, 
 Princess Des, a celebrated name in Spanish his- 
 tory, was born in France about 1643. She was 
 married in 1659 to the prince of Talleyrand Cha- 
 in's, and in 1675 to the duke of Bracciano, chief 
 of the Orsini family. After the death of the latter, 
 she was attached to the court of Spain, and really 
 governed the country during the early part of the 
 reign of Philip V. In 1714, however, she was 
 banished the kingdom, and subsequently kept 
 house for the Pretender, James Stuart. Died 1722. 
 
 URSINS, J. Jouvenel Des. See Juvenal. 
 
 URSINUS, B., a Germ mathemat., 1587-1633. 
 
 URSINUS, Zachary, a German professor of 
 divinity and friend of Melancthon, author of several 
 works, some of which have been translated into 
 English, and a man of high moral character, 1534- 
 1577. A descendant of his, named Benjamin, 
 was raised to the prelacy when Frederic I. assumed 
 the title of king of Prussia in 1701. For others of 
 the name see above (Ursin.) 
 
 URSULA, Saint, a virgin and martyr, sup- 
 posed to have been a daughter of a British prince, 
 and to have been put to death at Cologne at a date 
 which varies from 384 to 463. There is a legend 
 that 11,000 virgin martyrs suffered with her, which 
 some have explained by supposing that she had a 
 companion named Undecimila. It is pretty cer- 
 tain, however, that many were put to death at the 
 same time. She is regarded as the patroness of 
 the Sorbonne. 
 
 URSUS, Nicholas Raymarus, a Danish astro- 
 nomer, and rival of Tycho Brahe, died 1600. 
 
 URVILLE. See Dumont. 
 
 USHER, James, D.D.. was born at Dublin, 
 4th January, 1580. Early destined for the minis- 
 try, he was entered a student in the university of 
 Dublin, where he acquired a brilliant reputation 
 as a scholar in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and divinity. 
 In this latter department, his unquenchable thirst 
 for knowledge had led him into a course of reading 
 far more extensive than what is commonly pursued 
 even by enthusiastic students of theology for 
 during his residence at the university, he had not 
 only read the works of all the most celebrated of 
 modern theological writers but even most of the 
 fathers; and more especially he _ had gained so 
 complete a mastery of the popish controversy, 
 that at the age of eighteen, he entered the lists 
 with a learned Jesuit who had given a general 
 challenge to the protestants. With a reputation 
 lor learning so high, his promotion in the church 
 was rapid. Having in 1601 obtained orders in 
 the episcopal church, he was appointed Sunday 
 preacher before the government at Christ's church, 
 Dublin. In 1607 he was chosen professor of divinity 
 in the university and chancellor of the cathedral 
 of St. Patrick. He now entered on a career of 
 authorship; and the first work he undertook 
 
 UTE 
 
 being an historical dissertation on the government 
 and discipline of the church, he made a tour through 
 England with a view to prosecute some inquiries 
 in the libraries of the two universities. His fame 
 procured him a welcome reception in these vener- 
 able seats of learning. His treatise was published, 
 in London, 1610, and a copy of it having been pre- 
 sented by Archbishop Abbot to King James, that 
 monarch, delighted with so powerful a defence of 
 his favourite episcopacy, loaded the author with 
 tokens of his royal approbation raising him to the 
 bishopric of Meath which was then vacant, and 
 afterwards constituting him a privy councillor of 
 Ireland. By the royal command, Usher went to 
 reside some years in England to prosecute re- 
 searches into the antiquity of the British churches, 
 and during his residence there the archbishop of 
 Armagh having died suddenly, he was elevated to 
 the highposition of primate of Ireland, in January, 
 1624. The results of his antiquarian researches 
 were given to the world in 1632, when he published 
 a rare collection of letters from ancient MSS., 
 extending from the year 592 to 1180. Ushei 
 being a man of liberal sentiments as to church 
 government, maintained a friendly correspon- 
 dence with all the eminent men in the churches 
 both of England and Scotland, and took a lively 
 interest in the progress of the gospel throughout th* 
 world, by whatever church or instrumentality the " t 
 truth was diffused. Being, in 1640, driven from his 
 see by the rebellion, and stripped of all hisproperty 
 except hi3 books, he sought an asylum in England. 
 In 1648 he was summoned to the Isle of Wight, 
 to aid the king in negotiating with the parliament 
 respecting the introduction of a uniform system of 
 episcopacy. He sketched out a middle schema 
 which obtained the warm approbation of his royal 
 master as the best expedient to settle the dif- 
 ferences. But the expectations of this good man 
 were sadly disappointed. The Scottish peopb. 
 would not receive it, and the imprudent attempt! 
 to force it on their acceptance, gave rise to the re- 
 ligious wars of which Scotland was the theatre 
 during the seventeenth century. Usher agaijfa 
 came before the world in 1650 as an author bj 
 the publication of his celebrated 'Annals of tht 
 Old and New Testament.' Various other work* 
 issued from his industrious pen ; and he was tht 
 author of the received chronology of the Biblei* 
 After a long and active life, distinguished by use*, 
 fulness and adorned by works of piety, he died qfl 
 20th March, 1656. [R.jj 
 
 USHER, James, of the same family as thi 
 distinguished prelate (preceding article), born ol 
 catholic parents in 1720, and known as a phi]** 
 sophical writer against Locke, died 1772. 
 
 USSIEUX, L. D', aFr. agriculturist, 1747-180^ 
 
 USTARIZ, Gabriel, one of the leaders of tht 
 revolution in Spanish America, 1772-1814. 
 
 USTARIZ, Jerome, a Spanish economist, aow 
 thor of the k Theory and Practice of Commerflfl 
 and Navigation,' died about 1760. 
 
 USTERI, Leonard, a Swiss professor and proj 
 motor of educational reform, 1741-1789. 
 
 USUARD, a French hagiographer, 9th century*] 
 
 UTENHOVIUS, or UYTTENOVE, ChaiuJ 
 a native of Ghent, who cultivated the n 
 their classic languages, and wrote in defen 
 reformed religion in England, about 1536-1G00. | 
 
 rot 
 
UVA 
 
 TJVA, Benedetto Dell', an Italian ecclesias- 
 i and writer of sacred poetry, 16th century. 
 UVEDALE, Roijert, a classical scholar and 
 tanist, born in London 1642. The date of his 
 ath is unknown, but he assisted Dryden in trans- 
 ting Plutarch's Lives. Another Uvedale traus- 
 ted the Memoirs of Philip de Comines. 
 UWINS, David, a physician and professional 
 iter, whose attention was particularly directed 
 mental diseases; he had the courage also to 
 opt the principles of homoeopathy, in favour of 
 hich he wrote his last pamphlet, 1780-1837. 
 UXELLES, Nicholas De BlEj Marquis D', 
 Fr. commander time of Louis XIV., 1652-1730. 
 
 VACA DE GUZMAN, Joseph Maria, a 
 
 aanish poet, born in Grenada abt. 1745, d. 1805, 
 
 VACAORIUS, an Italian civilian, who became 
 
 ofessor of law at Oxford, 12th century. 
 
 VACCA, Alvar Nunez Cabeza De, a Spanish 
 
 vernor of Paraguay, transported to Africa for his 
 ^arice and cruelty in 1539. 
 
 VACCA, F , an Italian sculptor, 16th century. 
 
 VACCA BEKLINGHIERI, Francis, a Span- 
 h physician, 1732-1812. His son, Andrew, a 
 irgeon, died at Pisa in 1726. 
 
 VACCARO, A., a painter of Naples, 1598-1670. 
 
 VACCHIERI, C. A., a Ger. histor., 1745-1807. 
 
 VACHET, B., a French missionary, 1641-1720. 
 
 VADDER, L. De, a Flem. painter, 1560-1623. 
 
 VADDERE, J. B., a Flem. historian, J. 640-91. 
 
 VADE, John Joseph, a French play- writer 
 id humorous poet, 1720-1757. 
 
 VADIANUS, the Latinized name of Joachim 
 on Watt, a German savant, 1484-1551. 
 
 VADIER, M. W. Alexis, a Jacobin of the 
 rench revolution, who took part in most of the 
 olent scenes of that period, and was the accuser 
 Catharine Theos and her party. The last scene 
 i which he acted, was the conspiracy of Babeuf ; 
 orn in Languedoc 1735 ; died in exile 1828. 
 
 VAGA, Pierino Del, whose real name was 
 Juonaccorsi, an Italian painter, 1500-1547. 
 
 VAHL, Martin, an excellent botanist, was born 
 t Bergen in Norway, in 1749 or 50. He died in 
 804. Vahl commenced his studies in natural his- 
 
 ry under Strom at Copenhagen. After two years 
 
 s removed to Upsal, where he prosecuted his bo- 
 
 nical studies under the great Linnaeus, and be- 
 atne one of his most distinguished pupils. _ He 
 
 und favour in the eyes of Mademoiselle Linne, 
 ut Linnaeus, at that time in the zenith of his fame, 
 id not consider a poor botanist a sufficient match 
 
 r his daughter. In 1779 he became lecturer and 
 emonstrator of botany in the garden at Copen- 
 agen, and a few years afterwards filled the chairs 
 f natural history and botany in the university of 
 hat town. He travelled under royal auspices and 
 t the expense of his sovereign, through great portion 
 Europe and made an extensive collection of 
 lants. Being provided with excellent introduc- 
 he had free access to the libraries and 
 nuseums of the various literati of the towns he 
 dsited. In London the rich herbarium of Sir 
 Joseph Banks was open to him, and he had the 
 )rivilcge of examining the manuscripts of Banks's 
 
 7 
 
 VAL 
 
 UZ, John Peter, a Ger. scholar and poet, who 
 filled several magisterial offices at Anspach, in Fran- 
 conia, of which place he was a native, 1720-1796. 
 
 UZBEK, a khan of a portion of the people now 
 governed by the emperor of Russia, since called, 
 after his name, Uzbeks, 1305-1342. 
 
 UZES, Aldebert D', so named from his 
 birth-place, bishop of Nismes, and one of the coun- 
 cil which condemned the Albigenses, died 1180. 
 
 UZZANO, Nicolo D', a Florentine statesman, 
 attached to the aristocracy and the Guelph party, 
 succeeded Albizz,i as chief of the republic, 1417, 
 died 1432. After his death his political sup- 
 porters became exiles from their country. 
 
 friend Dr. Solander. He taught botany with much 
 success at Copenhagen, and has left behind him 
 several excellent works which have established his 
 reputation as a first-rate botanist. A genus of 
 plants was dedicated to him by his contemporary 
 Thunberg, under the name of Vahlia. [W.B.] 
 
 VAILLANT, Francis Le, son of the French 
 consul at Paramibo, in Dutch Guiana, an eminent 
 traveller and ornithologist, 1753-1824. 
 
 VAILLANT, G. H., a Latin poet, died 1678. 
 
 VAILLANT, Jean Foi, one of the greatest of 
 European medallists, time of Colbert, the minister 
 of Louis XIV., by whom he was employed on 
 several important scientific missions, born at Beau- 
 vais 1632, died 1706. His son, Jean Francis 
 Foi, was a physician, and cultivated the same 
 branch of sciences as his father, 1665-1708. 
 
 VAILLANT, Sebastian, an able botanist, who 
 became director and professor at the Jardin du 
 Roi, in the reign of Louis XIV., 1669-1722. The 
 principal work of Vaillant is his ' Botanicon 
 Parisiense.' He is said to have taught the sexual 
 system of plants. 
 
 VAILLANT, Walbrant, a French painter and 
 engraver, 1623-1677. He taught three of his 
 brothers who followed the same profession Ber- 
 nard, James, and Andrew, but the particular 
 dates are unknown. 
 
 VAILLANT-DE-GUELLE, G., bishop of Or- 
 leans, a philologist and poet, died 1587. 
 
 VAISSETTE, J., a Fr. historian, 1685-1756. 
 
 VALADON, Zachariah, a French Capuchin 
 and missionary who laboured in Asia Minor, and 
 signalized himself by his devotion to the suffering 
 people during the plague at Marseilles, born about 
 1680, died 1746. 
 
 VALARESSO, C, an Italian poet, 1700-1769. 
 
 VALARSACES, a king of Armenia, descended 
 from Mithridates the Great, 150-127 b.c. 
 
 VALART, J., a French savant, 1698-1781. 
 
 VALAZE, Charles Eleanore Dufriche 
 De, one of the Girondin leaders of the French 
 revolution, born at Alencon, 1751 ; died by his 
 own hand at the bar of Fouquier Tinville, where 
 his party were condemned to the guillotine, May 
 31, 1793. 
 
 VALCARCEL, Joseph Anthony, a Spanish 
 writer on agriculture, flourished about 1720-1792. 
 
 VALCARCEL, Pio Antonio, Count De Luna- 
 res, a learned Spanish antiquarian, 1740-1800. 
 
 VALCKENAER, Louis Caspar, professor of 
 
 95 
 
VAL 
 
 Greek and archeology at Leyden, 1715-1785. His 
 son, Jan, a statesman, 1759-1821. 
 
 VALDEMAR. See Waldemar. 
 
 VALDES, Anthony, a Spanish statesman, 
 who in 1796 yielded his office to Emmanuel Godoi, 
 about 1735-1811. Cayetano, his nephew, a 
 member of the Cortes 1822, executed 1826. 
 
 VALDES, F., a Spanish tactician, 16th century. 
 
 VALDES, VALDESSO, or VALDESIUS, 
 Juan, a Spanish controversialist and reformer, 
 generally claimed by the Socinians, died 1540. 
 
 VALDES, L. De, a Spanish painter, 1661-1724. 
 
 VALDEZ, J. M., a Spanish poet, died 1817. 
 
 VALDO, Peter, generally considered the 
 founder of the Vandois or Waldenses, a body of 
 Christians who separated themselves from the 
 Church of Rome in the twelfth century, was born 
 at Vaux, in Dauphiny, on the banks of the Rhone. 
 He acquired a large fortune by commercial pur- 
 suits at Lyons; and when he resolved to retire 
 from business, not only devoted himself to the 
 spiritual instruction of the poor, but distributed 
 his goods among them, and in all respects treated 
 them as his children or his brothers. The only 
 version of the Bible in use at that time, was the 
 Latin Vulgate, but Valdo, who was a learned as 
 well as a benevolent man, translated the four 
 Gospels into French, this being the first appearance 
 of the Scriptures in any modern language. The 
 possession of these books soon discovered to Valdo 
 and his people that the church was never de- 
 signed to be dependent on a priesthood, even for 
 the administration of the sacraments; and his 
 instruction, boldly followed by practice, became 
 so obnoxious to the church, that he was first 
 persecuted by the archbishop of Lyons, and at 
 length anathematized by the pope. No longer 
 safe at Lyons, Valdo and his friends took refuge in 
 the mountains of Dauphiny and Piedmont; and 
 there formed those communities which grew in 
 peace, and flourished in rustic simplicity, ' pure as 
 a flower amid Alpine snows.' From these mountain 
 valleys the simple doctrine of Christianity flowed 
 out m multiplied rivulets over all Europe ; Pro- 
 vence, Languedoc, Flanders, Germany, one after 
 the other tasted of the refreshing waters, until in 
 course of ages they swelled to a flood that swept 
 over all lands. Valdo is understood to have 
 travelled in Picardy, teaching his reformation : he 
 finally settled in Bohemia, where he died in 1179 ; 
 the same year in which his tenets were condemned 
 by a general council. [E.R.] 
 
 VALDO RY, C, a French ascetic, 17th century. 
 
 VALDRIGI, T., an Italian jurist, 1761-1834. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, Pktee Henry, a French 
 landscape painter, 1750-1819. 
 
 VALENS, Flavius, emperor of Constanti- 
 nople, son of a noble of Pannonia, was born in 
 328, and associated in the Roman empire with his 
 brother, Valentinian I., who abandoned the East 
 to him, 364. He embraced Arianism, and in 376 
 allowed the Goths, whom he had previously sub- 
 jugated, to settle in Thrace. This warlike people, 
 nowevcr, were provoked to take arms again, and 
 having defeated the troops of Valens, they burnt 
 the emperor in his tent, 378. 
 
 < VALENS, Julius, a usurper of the Roman em- 
 pire, proclaimed in the reign of Decius, and killed 
 a few days afterwards in 251. 
 
 VAL 
 
 VALENS, Publius Valerius, a nephew o 
 
 the preceding, killed by his soldiers 261. 
 
 VALENTIA, G., a Spanish ascetic, 1551-1598 
 
 VALENTIA, P. De, a Span, jurist, 1554-162C 
 
 VALENTIN, L. A, a Fr. surgeon, 1736-1825 
 
 VALENTIN, M., a French painter, 1600-1632 
 
 VALENTIN, M. B., a Ger. natur., 1637-1726, 
 
 VALENTINE, B., an alchymist, 16th century 
 
 VALENTINIAN, three emperors of Rome:- 
 
 Valentinian (Flavius) I., elder brother c 
 
 Valens, and son of Count Gratian, was born t 
 
 Pannonia 321, and succeeded after the death < 
 
 Jovian 364. He gave the Eastern empire to hi 
 
 brother, and having defeated the Alemanni and th 
 
 Quadi, died in a fit of passion 375. Valentinia: 
 
 (Flavius) II., son and successor of the preceding 
 
 was proclaimed emperor by the troops, and hi 
 
 brother, Gratian, at once ceded Italy to him 
 
 The latter shortly after was vanquished by Maxi 
 
 mus, and Valentinian would also have lost M 
 
 throne but for the timely help of Theodosius, era 
 
 1)eror of the East, who put Maximus to death, an 
 eft Valentinian master of the whole Western em 
 pire. He was strangled by order of his rebellion 
 general, Arbogastes, 392. Valentinian (Pla 
 cidius) III., oecame emperor at the age of six i: 
 425, under the regency of his mother, Placidia. H 
 was assassinated in 455. 
 
 VALENTINIANUS, founder of the sect c 
 Gnostics named Valentinians, was a native of Egypt 
 and became publicly known as a teacher of Strang 
 doctrines in 140, when he went to Rome. He w 
 excommunicated 143, and died after boldly devot 
 ing himself to the spread of his tenets in Svria, 16( 
 
 VALENTYN, F., a Dutch missionary," 17th ct 
 
 VALERA, D., a Spanish historian, 15th cent. 
 
 VALERIA, a Roman empress, daughter of Dio 
 cletian, and wife of Galerius Maximus, exiled an 
 killed after his death, 315. 
 
 VALERIAN, Publius Licinius, a Roman em 
 peror, born about 190, was proclaimed after th 
 death of Gallus 253. He was defeated in the Eas 
 by Sapor, king of Persia, and supposed to haie 
 been flayed alive, 260. 
 
 VALERIAN O BOLZANI, Pierio, in Lat^ 
 Valerianus, a learned Italian, 1477-1558. 
 
 VALERIANUS. See Valerian. 
 
 VALERIUS, Lucas, an Italian mathematician 
 called the Archimedes of his age, died 1618. 
 
 VALERIUS FLACCUS, Caius, author of 
 Latin poem, entitled Argonautics, 1st centurv. 
 
 VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman historian 
 who was in Asia with Sextus Pompeius, a.d. 14 
 besides which nothing is known of him. His woij 
 contains many valuable anecdotes and example 
 of moral excellence, and was one of the earlies 
 printed after the revival of letters. 
 
 VALERIUS PUBLICOLA, one of the founded 
 of the Roman republic, 6th century B.C. 
 
 VALESIO, J. L., an Italian painter, 16th cenl 
 
 VALETTE, Jean Parisot De La, gram 
 master of the order of St. John at Jerusalem, r* 
 nowned for his defence of Malta in 1565, an< 
 founder of La Valette ; died 1568. 
 
 VALETTE, Simeon, whose proper name wa 
 Fagons, a French mathematician, 1719-1801. t 
 
 VALIERO, A., a Venetian savant, 1531-1606. 
 
 VALINCOUR, Jean Baptiste Du Troi \ssro 
 De, a miscellaneous French writer, 1653-1730, 
 96 
 
 - 
 
VAL 
 
 | VALLA, Giorgio, an Italian professor of polite 
 erature, known 1471-1486. 
 VALLA, J., a learned theologian, died 1790. 
 VALLA, Lorenzo, a distinguished Latin 
 :holar, and one of the revivers of literature in the 
 th century, born at Rome 1406, died 1457. 
 VALLA, N., a French jurisconsult, 16th cent. 
 VALLANCY, Charles, an English officer in a 
 >rps of engineers engaged in the survey of Ire- 
 nd, author of a-' Grammar and Dictionary of the 
 ish Language,' 1721-1812. 
 VALLE, Pietro Della, surnamed II Pelle- 
 tno, a famous traveller in the East, au. of an ac- 
 mnt of his travels, written in Italian, 1586-1652. 
 VALLEE, G., a French deist, hung 1574. 
 VALLEE, J. La, a French writer, 1747-1816. 
 VALLI, E., an Italian phvsician, 1762-1816. 
 VALLIER, F. C., a French poet, 1703-1778. 
 VALLIERE, Jean Florent De, a French 
 Beer of artillery time of Louis XIV., 1667-1739. 
 is son, Joseph Florent, 1717-1776. 
 VALLIERE, Louise Francoise De La 
 acme La Blanc, Duchess De La, lady of hon- 
 lr to Henrietta of England, and mistress of Louis 
 IV., was born in Touraine 1644. She had two 
 irviving children by the king, Mademoiselle de 
 lois and the count of Vermandois, the latter of 
 horn was legitimated in 1667. She was aban- 
 med for Madame de Montespan, and retired to 
 le convent of Chaillot in 1671 ; died 1710. Her 
 and-nephew, Louis Cesar De La Baume 
 e Blanc, Due De La Valliere, was a celebrated 
 bliopole, nourished 1708-1780. 
 VALLISNERI, Antonio, an eminent Italian 
 ivsician and naturalist, 1661-1730. 
 VALLCT, A., a French physician, 1594-1671. 
 VALLOTTI, F. Antonio, an Italian musician 
 id chapel-master in Padua, 1697-1780. 
 VALMIKI, the most ancient and most cele- 
 ated of the epic poets of India, author of the 
 'amayan, translations of which were published in 
 nglish and German at the beginning of the pre- 
 mt century. 
 
 VALMONT DE BOMARE, James Christo- 
 nER, a French naturalist, 1731-1807. 
 VALOIS, Henry De, in Latin Valesius, a 
 arned philologist and critic, 1603-1676. Adrian, 
 
 brother, a philologist and historian, 1607-1692. 
 harles, son of the latter, an antiquarian wri- 
 sr and historian, 1671-1747. 
 
 VALOIS, L. Le, a French Jesuit, 1639-1700. 
 
 VALOIS, Yves, a French Jesuit, born 1694. 
 
 VALPERGA DE CALUSO, Thomas Des, a 
 lathematician, and Oriental scholar, 1737-1815. 
 
 VALPY, Richard, an eminent classical scholar 
 
 d schoolmaster, born in Jersey 1754, died 1836. 
 Idward, his brother, a classical editor and minis- 
 :r of the Church of England, died 1832. 
 
 VALSALVA, Antonio Maria, an Italian 
 bysician and anatomical discoverer, 1666-1723. 
 
 VAN ACHEN, or AKEN, Hans, a German 
 ainter, dist. for his sacred subjects, 1552-1615. 
 
 VANBRUGH, Sir John, was the grandson of 
 
 protestant refugee from the Netherlands, and 
 son of a wealthy sugar baker. He was pro- 
 ably born in 1666. We know very little as to the 
 istory of his youth, or as to the training which 
 nabled him not only to become one of the most 
 elebrated among English architects, but, also, in 
 
 VAN 
 
 conjunction with Congreve, to prolong, in the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century, the licentious 
 cleverness that had characterized the comic drama 
 in the reign of Charles II. He is said to have 
 passed some years of his youth in France, and was 
 afterwards, for a short time, an ensign in the 
 army. His career as a dramatist belongs, like that 
 of Wycherley, to a few of the earlier years of his 
 manhood. Two or three of his six or seven plays 
 deserve no record. The first of them, * The Relapse,' 
 appeared in 1697 ; and ' The Provoked Wife,' the 
 best of the series, immediately afterwards. In 1706 
 his vigorous picture of rascality, cailed ' The Con- 
 federacy,' was brought out at the new theatre in 
 the Haymarket, an unsuccessful speculation of 
 Vanbrugh and Congreve. He left uncompleted, 
 at his death, ' A Journey to London,' which was 
 worked up by Colley Cibber into ' The Provoked 
 Husband. He had, previously to the opening of 
 this theatre, become eminent as an architect, by 
 designing the magnificent pile of Castle Howard ; 
 and Lord Carlisle, being then Deputy Earl Marshal, 
 appointed Vanbrugh to be Clarencieux king-at- 
 arms. The new herald's presumed ignorance of 
 his science was indignantly complained of by his 
 colleagues, and merrily jested at by himself. He 
 was next chosen as the architect of Blenheim ; and, 
 in the execution of this charge, in the midst of 
 annoyances which (though vexatious in themselves) 
 were sometimes as comic as anything in his plays, 
 he produced the noblest monument of his striking 
 though heavy architectural style. He died in 
 1726, having been liked as a good-natured man, and 
 having lived more decently than he wrote. [W.S.] 
 VANCE, G., an eminent surgeon, died 1837. 
 VANCEULEN, or VANKEULEN, Ludolph, 
 a Dutch mathematician, who made a remarkable 
 approximation to the true ratio which the circum- 
 ference of a circle bears to its diameter, died at 
 Leyden 1610. 
 
 VANCOUVER, George, the distinguished na- 
 vigator, a pupil and successful imitator of Cook, 
 entered the naval service in 1771, when only 
 thirteen years old. He served as midshipman on 
 Cook's second and third voyages, 1772-80. On 
 his return home he was made lieutenant, and ap- 
 pointed to the Martin sloop; and was variously 
 employed in the public service for eleven years. In 
 1791 he received a command for the prosecution of 
 maritime discovery. He was made captain, and 
 appointed to the ship Discovery, again fitted out 
 for an expedition. A small armed vessel, the 
 Chatham, 135 tons, Captain Broughton, sailed in 
 company; and the two ships left Falmouth on 
 the 1st April, 1791. The objects, as laid down 
 in the instructions, were to receive from the Span- 
 iards the surrender of the settlement at Nootka, 
 to survey the N.W. coast of N. America north- 
 wards from lat. 30, with a special view to 
 water communications with the interior, which 
 might facilitate the operations of the fur traders ; 
 to pass the winter in a survey of the Sandwich 
 Islands; and, on the homeward, voyage, to make a 
 careful inspection of the western coast of South 
 America. The first three objects were successfully 
 accomplished ; 9,000 miles of sea coast in North 
 America were surveyed with scrupulous accuracy, 
 after the manner of his great master, whose 
 methods of preserving health also, he followed wjlu 
 
 797 
 
VAX 
 
 such success, that during his voyage of four years' 
 duration, and through an arduous service, he lost 
 hut two men from both crews. The third object 
 stated was but imperfectly attended to, owing to 
 the lateness of the season, and the stormy character 
 of the weather. On the outward voyage to the 
 Sandwich Isles, however, Vancouver had carefully 
 examined the south coast of Australia, and a part 
 of the shores of New Zealand. During his stay also 
 at the Sandwich Isles, the native chiefs held a con- 
 vocation, at which, after a protracted and amicable 
 discussion, it was resolved to place the islands 
 under British protection. Four European nations 
 were at this time known to them, and they were 
 in a condition to judge which of the four was the 
 most likely to be a disinterested and able protector. 
 The result was no doubt owing to the respect and 
 confidence which Vancouver inspired. Ihe Dis- 
 covery was safely brought into the Shannon on the 
 13th September, 1795. Her commander was now 
 post-captain, the promotion having taken place the 
 
 Erevious year. He was paid off on his return ; and, 
 enceforth,occupied himself in preparing an account 
 of his voyage, with charts exhibiting his surveys. 
 The labour, however, which he had bestowed on 
 this great work had undermined his constitution, 
 and brought about a premature end. He died in 
 May, 1798, before his work was finished; the 
 printing had proceeded as far as the 408th page of 
 the third vol., and the charts had all been completed 
 some time before, under his own eye. The remain- 
 ing part of the narrative was drawn up from his 
 papers by his brother, John. [J.B.] 
 
 VAN DALE, Anthony, a Dutch theologian 
 and antiquarian, au. of ' De Oraculis,' 1C38-17U8. 
 
 VANDAMME, Dominique Joseph, count of 
 Unebourg, one of Napoleon's generals who was 
 attached to the division of Marshal Grouchy at the 
 battle of Waterloo, and subsequently offered to de- 
 fend Paris with the 80,000 troops he had kept 
 together, 1771-1830. 
 
 VANDELLI, Domenico, en Italian physician 
 and naturalist time of Linnasus. 
 
 VANDERGOES. See Goes. 
 
 VANDERHELST. See Helst. 
 
 VANDERHEYDEN. See Heyden. 
 
 VANDERMONDE, one of the most famous 
 of modern mathematicians, 1735-1796. 
 
 VANDERSKiETEN, Ferdinand, a Flemish 
 economist and publicist, 1771-1823. 
 
 VANDERVELDE, Charles Francis, the 
 most eel. modern novelist of Germany, 1772-1824. 
 
 VANDERVELDE, VANDENVELDE, or 
 VAN VELDE, William, called the Old; a Dutch 
 painter, skilled in the delineation of marine sub- 
 jects, 1610-1693. His son, of the same name, 
 called ' the Young,' regarded as the most eminent 
 of all the marine painters, 1633-1707. There were 
 three others of the name : Isaiah, born at Ley- 
 den about 1591 ; John, his brother, a painter and 
 engraver, born about 1598; and Adrian, who 
 was a celebrated landscape painter, 1639-1672. 
 
 VANDERVENNE, a Dutch painter, 1586-1650. 
 
 VANDERWERFF, Adrian, a Dutch portrait 
 and historical painter, 1659-1722. 
 
 VAXDI, A. J. D.. a Germ, chemist, died 1763. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN. See Diemen. 
 
 VANDYCK, Antony, was born at Antwerp, 
 March 22, 1599, and is the most distinguished of 
 
 VAN 
 
 all Rubens's^ numerous scholars. He lived wift 
 that great painter for four years, and by his ad\ ict 
 visited Italy, in 1621, where he remained for fin 
 years, chiefly at Genoa, Venice, and Rome, an 
 returned to Antwerp in 1626. A picture of fh 
 Crucifixion painted for the church of St. 
 at Ghent, raised his reputation at oi 
 highest rank, and he attained equal distinctio: 
 a portrait painter. Vandyck visited this coi 
 a second time, 1630-31, but without attaining 
 notice which he had expected : he accordingly 
 turned to Antwerp ; but Charles I. having 
 by him, a portrait of Nicolas Laniere, his eh 
 master, sent him an invitation to return to 
 country, and he was courteously received by l 
 king, who lodged him at Ekclc^-iars' and confer 
 the honour of knighthood upon him the follov 
 year, 1633, with the title of painter to his mnje 
 and a fixed salary of 200 per annum for 
 These advantages fixed Vandyck in this com 
 and he justified the king's choice by a long 
 cession of the most magnificent portraits that 
 yet been produced out of Italy ; indeed, the ] 
 traits of Vandyck are by some preferred to 
 of Titian ; they have not the pictorial force of 1 
 of the great Venetian, but they are more 
 generally, and are distinguished for more car 
 drawing and a more elaborate finish ; the men c 
 Titian, and the women of Vandvck, are supi 
 Vandyck died in London, December 9, 1641, a 
 early age of forty-one. Yet, notwithstandin 
 comparatively short life, such was his extraordina 
 success that he accumulated a large fortune 
 that time, about 20,000 sterling, though he 
 in great style, keeping besides his town esta' 
 ment, a country house at Eltham ; and he 
 so good a table,' says Graham, ' that few pr 
 were more visited or better served.' He 
 buried in the old church of St. Paul, near 
 tomb of John of Gaunt : his fortune was inl 
 by a daughter, his only child. (Graham, 
 toioards an English School; Walpole, Anecu 
 Paintinq, &c. ; Carpenter, Memoir of Sir At 
 Vandyck, &c, London, 1844.) [R.N. 
 
 VAN-DYK, H. S., a miscellaneous writer 
 poet, born in London 1798, died 1828. 
 
 VANE, Sir Henry, a republican and relig 
 zealot of the period of the commonwealth, was 
 eldest son of the baronet of that name, and 
 born at Hadlow in Kent in 1612. He was an 
 the earliest of those whose religious opinions in 
 duced them to seek a home in America, and ha?* 
 ing gone to New England, in 1635, was appo 
 governor of Massachusets. Being far from j 
 lar among his fellow-colonists, he returned to 
 land the year after, married here, and ent 
 parliament : by the interest of his father 
 was appointed joint treasurer of the navy wi 
 William Russell. The measures in which he 
 took part were the condemnation of Strafford 
 Laud, followed, in 1613, by the ' Solemn 
 and Covenant ' of which he was one of the 
 promoters, as he also was of the 'Self-Denying 
 nance.' He stood aloof from the king's trial, 1 
 the establishment of the commonwealth, 
 one of the council of state : in this positic 
 remained till Cromwell's dissolution of parli 
 in 1653. Sir Henry Vane was, from the 
 steady opponent of the authority assumed 
 
 79.8 
 
VAN 
 
 pry, his hope being that the Saviour would ap- 
 ftar and establish a fifth universal monarchy, or 
 lign of a thousand years ; he was most obnoxi- 
 Is to Cromwell, therefore, the staunchest repre- 
 ntative and upholder of whatever authority could 
 ill be exercised in the state by human agency, 
 l several occasions these two men were brought 
 ;o personal contact, and while Cromwell ex- 
 ited the greatest antipathy to the dreamy 
 pectations, and the plausible temperament of 
 me, the latter showed no deficiency of courage 
 braving his resentment. After the restoration 
 was condemned for treason, and beheaded on 
 wer Hill, June 14, 1662. He wrote several 
 rks, chiefly religious, at least as he understood 
 e matter, pointing to ' The Total and Irrecover- 
 le Ruin of the Monarchies of this World.' [E.R.] 
 VAN-HELMONT. See Helmont. 
 VAN-HOECK, J. T a Flemish painter of history, 
 00-1650. Robert, believed to be his relation, 
 >o a painter, born 1609. 
 
 VAN-HOOREBEKE, Charles Joseph, a 
 emish botanist and pharmacopolist, 1790-1821. 
 VAN-HUGTENBERG. See Hugtenburgh. 
 VANIERE, James, a celebrated French Jesuit 
 d Latin poet, 1664-1739. 
 VAN IN I, Lucilio, a Neapolitan philosopher, 
 rnt alive at Toulouse, 1585-1619. 
 VANLOO, James, a Dutch historical and por- 
 lit painter, 1614-1617. Louis, his son, excelled 
 design, died 1712. Jean Baptiste, son of the 
 ,ter, who became a fashionable portrait painter 
 England, 1684-1745. Charles Andrew, 
 led Carlo, brother of the preceding, a great 
 itorical and imaginative painter, the most popu- 
 artist of his time, 1705-1765. Louis Michael, 
 i and seholar of Jean Baptiste, first painter to 
 king of Spain, 1707-1771. His brother, 
 iarles Amadeus, famed at Berlin as a history 
 d portrait painter, born 1718. 
 VAN-LOON, G., a Dutch numismatist, b. 1683. 
 VAN MANDER, Charles, a Flemish painter 
 i writer on antiquities, 1548-1605. 
 VAN-MILDERT, William, bishop of Durham, 
 tndson of a Dutch merchant settled in London, 
 i a distinguished theologian, 1765-1836. 
 VAN-NEVE, F., a Flemish painter, last cent. 
 VAN NOORT, Oliver, was a native of Utrecht. 
 is noted as the first Dutchman who circum- 
 igated the globe, 1598-1601. He went out by 
 Strait of Magellan and returned by the Cape. 
 t the voyage was not made memorable by 
 important discovery or other remarkable re- 
 
 [J.B.] 
 VANNI, Carlos, a Neapolitan apostate, who 
 ayed the liberal cause in 1775, and put an end 
 his existence at Sorrento, 1799. 
 VANNI, several Italian painters: Fornio, a 
 Bve of Pisa, 14th century. Francesco, skilled 
 h as a painter and architect, 1565-1610. His 
 i, Raifaelle, taught by Antonio Caracci, 
 )6-1655. Giovanni Battista, best known as 
 enpraver, 1599-1660. 
 
 ITANXUCHI, Andrea Del Sarto, a very 
 sbrated painter of Florence, 1488-1530. 
 ^AN-OS, P. G., a Dutch painter, 1776-1839. 
 VAN SCHOUTEN, or SCHOUTEN, William 
 BNELIsan, an able Dutch navigator, was a 
 've of Hoorn in North Holland. He was sent 
 
 VAS 
 out in command of an expedition fitted up by some 
 merchants of Amsterdam, who were suffering 
 under the oppressive monopoly which the Dutch 
 East India Company had obtained, in virtue of 
 their exclusive right to trade to India by the Cape 
 and the Strait ot Magellan. The object was to 
 find another passage ; this Schouten successfully 
 accomplished (February, 1616) by sailing to the 
 south of Terra del Fuego. He named the extreme 
 point of land after his native town ; and a strait 
 passed through, Le Maire, after the largest contri- 
 butor to the expense of the undertaking. [J.B.] 
 
 VANSOMER, Paul, a Flemish portrait pain- 
 ter, who acquired the highest distinction in Eng- 
 land before the time of Vandyck, 1576-1621. 
 
 VAN-SWIETEN, Gerard, a Dutch physician 
 and commentator on Boerhaave, 1700-1772. 
 
 VANUDEN, L., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. 
 
 VAN-UTRECHT, Adrian, a Flemish painter, 
 famous for flowers, fruit, shell-fish, &c, 1599-1651. 
 
 VAN-VEEN, or VENIUS, Otiio, a Dutch 
 painter, distinguished for his graceful composi- 
 tions and fine heads, 1556-1634. 
 
 VAN-VITELLI, Gaspard, a Dutch painter, 
 1647-1736. His son, Luigi, an architect, 1700-73. 
 
 VARANDA, J., a French physician, 1620-58. 
 
 VARATANES, the Greek form of the name of 
 Barham, king of Persia. 
 
 VARCHI, B., an Italian historian, 1502-1565. 
 
 VARENIUS, A., a Ger. theologian, 1620-1684. 
 
 VARENIUS, B., a Dutch geographer, 1610-80. 
 
 VARGAS, A. De, a Span, painter, 1613-1674. 
 
 VARGAS, F., a Spanish jurisconsult, 16th cent. 
 
 VARGAS, L. De, a Span, painter, 1502-1568. 
 
 VARGAS Y PONCE, Don Jose, a Spanish 
 navigator and geographer, 1755-1821. 
 
 VARIGNON, P., a Fr. mathemat,, 1654-1722. 
 
 VARILLAS, A., a French historian, 1624-96. 
 
 VARIN, J., a French botanist, 1740-1808. 
 
 VARIN, James, a celebrated medal engraver, 
 1604-72. Joseph, of the same family, 1740-1808. 
 
 VARIN, T., a French historian, 1610-1668. 
 
 VARIUS, Lucius, a Roman dramatic writer 
 and epic poet, who is highly spoken of by his 
 friends, Virgil and Horace. Hardly a fragment of 
 his writings is now extant. 
 
 VARLEY, J., an English artist, 1777-1842. 
 
 VAROLI, C, an Italian anatomist, 1543-1575. 
 
 VARON, C, a French writer, 1761-1796. 
 
 VARRO, M. T , consul of Rome, B.C. 216. 
 
 VARRO, Marcus Terentius, a Roman states- 
 man, and one of the most learned men of his age, 
 was born at Rome B.C. 116, and died about 27. 
 His learning and his actual writings were encyclo- 
 paedic in extent, but of all his labours there now 
 only remains extant a portion of his De Lingua- 
 Latina, and his De Re Rustica, with some frag- 
 ments of his Satires. 
 
 VARRO, Poblius Terentius Atacinus, a 
 Roman poet, and contemporary of the preceding. 
 
 VARTAN, an Armenian pnnce, killed in action 
 against the Persians 451. 
 
 VARTAN, called Vertabied, the learned, an 
 Armenian poet and historian of his country, 13th 
 century. His 'Fables' were published by Saint 
 Martin ; his history remains in MS. 
 
 VARUS, consul of Rome, B.C. 12. 
 
 VASARI, Giorgio, the celebrated author of 
 the Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculp- 
 
 799- 
 
VAS 
 
 tors, and Architects,' of Italy, from the earliest 
 time down to the year 15G8, the date of the second 
 edition of his work, was born at Arezzo in 1512; 
 he visited Florence in 1524, and there made the 
 acquaintance of Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto, 
 and other great artists of the time. Vasari dis- 
 tinguished himself both as a painter and an archi- 
 tect, but his great and immortal service in the 
 cause of art isliis most elegant and comprehensive 
 series of biographies above alluded to. This un- 
 paralleled biographical series, which Hay don ranked 
 as the third book in the world, the Bible and 
 Shakspeare holding the two higher places, can 
 perhaps only be justly appreciated by the genuine 
 lovers of their subject, and then only with diligent 
 labour and study and considerable familiarity with 
 the progress of modern art. It has gone through 
 many editions in Italy , the first, or editio princeps, 
 was published in Florence in 1550, in 2 vols. 8vo ; 
 the second, also by Vasari, in 1568, in 3 vols. 4to, 
 with woodcut portraits, coarse but full of character, 
 and doubtless of much individual truth. The fol- 
 lowing editions, and some other reprints, have 
 appeared since Vasari's time: one at Bologna, 
 from 16-17 to 1663 , one at Eome in 1759. with 
 notes by Bottari ; another at Leghorn and Florence 
 by Bottari, in 1767-72 ; another at Siena in 1791- 
 94, by Delia Valle, reprinted afterwards in the 
 Milan edition of the Italian Classics ; another at 
 Florence, in 6 vols. 8vo, in 1822-23, a reprint of 
 the second edition of Vasari, without any notes of 
 the eommentators, and even without an index. In 
 1832, the admirable German translation by Schorn 
 and Fdrster was commenced, in 8 vols. 8vo, the 
 last in 1849 ; and three good Italian editions have 
 appeared within the last ten years or so ; the last 
 commenced in 1846, in 12mo, by a society of young 
 enthusiasts in the cause, is beyond all praise, the 
 researches of Bumohr, Schorn, Gaye, and other 
 foreign critics have been taken the utmost advan- 
 tage of, many documents have been consulted, and 
 this great work is perhaps now as well illustrated 
 as it is ever likely to be, except some very unex- 
 pected treasures among the old records of Italy 
 should be discovered to throw new light upon this 
 interesting subject. The editors are Carlo and 
 Gaetano Milanesi, and Carlo Pini, of Siena. The 
 best of Vasari's Lives are naturally the Florentines, 
 and those who lived nearer to his own time. The 
 notices of the earlier artists and those remote from 
 Florence, have not escaped errors and misrepre- 
 sentations, which are, however, now remedied in 
 the various notes and comments with which the 
 work is now enriched. But under any view the col- 
 lection constitutes a remarkable series, not only for 
 its prodigious store of facts, but also for its ex- 
 treme beauty, grandeur, and fascination of style. 
 An English translation has been lately added" to 
 Bonn's Standard Library. The following is the full 
 title of the Italian edition recommended : Le Vite 
 de' pin eccellenti Pittori, Scultori, e Architetti. 
 Di Giorgio Vasari: publicate per cura di una 
 Bocieta di amatori delle arti belle. Flor., Felice 
 Le Monnier, 1846-54, seqcj. Vasari died at Flo- 
 rence in 1574, and was buried in Arezzo, his native 
 place, and of which one of the greatest of its glories, 
 of past or of future time, will ever remain the cir- 
 cumstance of its having given birth to Giorgio 
 Vasari [R.N.W.] 
 
 VAU 
 
 VASCO DE GAMA. See Gama. 
 
 VASI, J., an Italian designer, 1710-1782. 
 
 VASQUES, Alphonso, an Italian painte. 
 born of Spanish parentage, about 1575-1645. 
 
 VASQUEZ, G., a Spanish casuist, 1551-1604. 
 
 VASQUEZ DE CORONADO, Francesco, 
 Spanish navigator, time of Mendoza, 1540. 
 
 VASSELIN, G. V., a Fr. historian, 1767-180: 
 
 VATABLUS, J., a French Hebraist, died 154' 
 
 VATACES. See John. 
 
 VATER, C, a German physician, 1651-173: 
 Arraham, his son, a great promoter of inocult 
 tion, author of several works, 1684-1751. 
 
 VATER, John Severinus, a distinguishe 
 German Orientalist and theologian, 1771-1826. 
 
 VATTEL, Emmerich, a jurist and man i 
 letters, was born near Neufchfitel, in 1714. 1} 
 was originally educated for the church, but h 
 studies turned to the direction of philosophy at 
 literature, while he found employment in the petl 
 diplomacy of the smaller central states. Thus 1 
 was appointed, in 1746, minister from Poland 1 
 the Republic of Berne. The occasional petty dal 
 bling in diplomatic duties, accompanied by abui 
 dant leisure, which this office conferred, probab 
 had considerable influence in the direction of h 
 labours and the formation of his fame. Like a 
 inhabitants of middle Europe, ambitious of literal 
 fame in his age, he sought it in a study of Fren< 
 literature, and an imitation of French model 
 He wrote many works ; some on light literatur 
 such as ' Sur la Natur d' Amour' others on m< 
 taphysics ; but all alike forgotten. It was b 
 fortune, however, to fill up a vacant space in tl 
 literature of jurisprudence, by systematizing ai< 
 placing in lucid order the writings on interm 
 tionallaw, from Grotius downwards. His 'Drc 
 de Gens' ' The Law of Nations, or Principles 
 the Law of Nature Applied to the Affairs of Natioi 
 and Sovereigns,' first published in 1758, has goi 
 through many editions, been translated into sever 
 languages, and become a universal text-bool 
 Vattel died on 28th December, 1767. [J.H.B ! 
 
 VATTIER, P., an Arabian scholar, 1623-166* 
 
 VAUBAN, Sebastian Leprestre De, tl 
 greatest military engineer and tactician of Franc 
 was born in Burgundy in 1633 ; and commenc* 
 his public career in the time of Mazarin. I 
 took part in all the campaigns of Holland ai 
 Flanders, and was created marshal in 1703. B] 
 constructed or improved an immense number 
 fortresses, directed as many as fifty-three sieM; 
 and was present at one hundred and forty battle 
 
 >trateg; 
 
 ;y oj 
 He wrote twelve folio volumes on Str* 
 Died 1707, 
 
 VAUCEL, P. L. Du, a Jansenist, 1640-1715. 
 
 VAUGELAS, Claude Favre De, a memb- 
 of the French Academy, and chief employe of tb 
 body on the famous Dictionary, 1585-1650. 
 
 VAUGHAN, Henry, author of poems, chief- 
 devotional, bom at Newton, in Brecknockshi* 
 1621, died 1695. Thomas, his brother, author 
 some Rosicrucian works, written under the title r. 
 Eugenius Philalethes, died 1666. 
 
 VAUGHAN, Sir J., a learned judge, 1608-7 
 
 VAUGHAN, Sir J., a judge and privy coin 
 cillor, contemporary with Lord Lyndhurst, WiM ; 
 and Denman, 1772-1839. 
 
 VAUGHAN, W.. a poet and transl., 1577-164 
 
 800 
 
VAU 
 
 VAUQUELIN, Nicholas Louis, a French 
 
 emist, instructed by Fourcroy, 1763-1830. 
 
 VAUVENARGUES, Luc De Clapiers, Mar- 
 quis De, a moralist and elegant writer, author of 
 ' Introduction to the Knowledge of the Human 
 Spirit,' and * Maxims,' 1715-1747. 
 
 VAUVILLIERS, John Francis, a French 
 savant, 1698-1766. His son, of the same names, 
 
 learned Hellenist and statesman, 1737-1801. 
 
 VAUX, Nicholas, first lord, a brave officer 
 and favourite of Henry VIII., descended from a 
 French family, died 1530. His son, Thomas, an 
 dmired poet, 1510-1522. 
 
 VAUX, Noel Jourdan, Count De, a marshal 
 of France, dist. in the Flemish wars, 1705-1788. 
 
 VAVASSOR, or VAVASSEUR, Francis, a 
 French Jesuit, Latin poet, and philologist, 1605-81. 
 
 VECCHIETTA, Lorenzo De Piero, an Italian 
 
 ulptor, founder, and painter, 1482-1540. 
 
 VECCHIO DI SAN BERNARDO, F. Men- 
 socchi, called II, an Italian painter, 1510-1574. 
 
 VEDRIANI, L., an Italian historian, 1601-70. 
 
 VEEN, or VENIUS. See Van- Veen. 
 
 VEGA. See Garcias. 
 
 VEGA-CARPIO. See Lope De Vega. 
 
 VEGA, G., a Germ, mathematician, 1754-1802. 
 
 VEGETIUS, Flavius Renatus, a Roman 
 niter on the military art, 4th century. 
 
 VEGIO, Maffei, a Latin poet, 1406-1458. 
 
 VEIGA, Eusebius De, a Portuguese Jesuit and 
 stronomer, born in Coimbra 1718, died 1798. 
 
 VEITH, L. F., a Germ, theologian, 1725-1796. 
 
 VELASCO, F. De, a Span, general, died 1716. 
 
 VELASQUEZ, Diego, a Spanish general, who 
 ccompanied Columbus in his second voyage ; was 
 mgaged in the conquest of St. Domingo, and 
 ounded the city of Havana in the island of Cuba. 
 3e sent out the expedition which discovered 
 ifucatan and Mexico, and despatched Cortez to 
 ubdue the latter country; died 1523. 
 
 VELASQUEZ CARDENAS Y LEON, Joa- 
 juin, a Mexican astronomer, 1732-1786. 
 
 VELASQUEZ DE VELASCO, Luis Jose, a 
 Spanish antiquarian, 1722-1772. 
 
 VELAZQUEZ, Don Diego Rodriguez De 
 )Ilva Y, was born at Seville in 1599 ; he first 
 tudied under Francisco Herrera, and afterwards 
 vitli Pacheco, whose daughter he married. He 
 isited Madrid in 1622, and in 1623 was appointed 
 sourt painter to Philip IV. of Spain. He visited 
 taly in 1629, and again in 1648, to make purchases 
 f works of art for the king. He died August 7, 
 .660. Velazquez has the reputation of being the 
 reatest of Spanish painters ; he is chiefly distin- 
 guished as a portrait painter, but he excelled also 
 u history, landscape, and genre ; like the majority 
 )f the Spanish painters, he belongs to the naturalist 
 
 hool, he painted life as be found it, with extra- 
 >rdinary force, facility, and skill. His greatest 
 rorks are still at Madrid. (Cean Bermudez, Dic- 
 ionario Hiitorico de los mas Ilvstres Profesores 
 ie las Bellas Artes in Espana. See also the Penny 
 Cyclopedia, and Stirling's Annals of the Artists of 
 SjMin.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 VELDE. See Vandervelde. 
 
 VELEZ DE GUEVARA, Luis, a Spanish 
 
 tirist and comic poet, died 1646. 
 
 VELLEDA, a German prophetess, 1st century. 
 
 VELLEIUS. See Paterculus. 
 
 VEN 
 
 VELLEGUS, Andrew Severin, a Danish 
 historian and councillor of state, 1542-1616. 
 
 VELLUTI, D., an Italian historian, 1313-1370. 
 
 VELLY, P. F., a French historian, 1709-1759. 
 
 VELSER, or WELSER, Mark, in Latin Vel- 
 serus, a Ger. historian and philologist, 1568-1614. 
 
 VELTHEIM, Aug. Frederic, Count Von, a 
 Germ, archaeologist and mineralogist, 1741-1801. 
 
 VELTWYCK, G., a Dutch poet, died 1555. 
 
 VENANTIUS, a Christian poet, 6th century. 
 
 VENCE, H. F. De, a Fr. ecclesias., 1676-1749. 
 
 VENCESLAUS. See Wenceslaus. 
 
 VENDOME, Cesar, Due De, eldest son of 
 Henry IV. and of his mistress, Gabrielle D'Estrees, 
 a refugee in England in the time of Richelieu, and 
 minister of state under Mazarin, 1594-1665. Louis, 
 his eldest son, viceroy of Catalonia, married a niece 
 of Mazarin, and after her death took orders and 
 became a cardinal, 1612-1669. Louis Joseph, 
 son of the latter, successively Due de Penthievre 
 and Due de Vendome, a famous general in the 
 wars of Louis XIV., honoured for his services by 
 admission to the honours of a prince of the blood 
 royal, 1654-1712. His brother, Philip, prior of 
 Vendome, and the last of his house, 1655-1727. 
 
 VENEL, G. F., a French chemist, 1723-1775. 
 
 VENEL, J. A., a French physician, 1740-1791. 
 
 VENERONI, John, the Italianized name of 
 Vigneron, a French grammarian, 17th century. 
 
 VENETTE, J. De, a Fr. chronicler, 1307-1369. 
 
 VENETTE, Nicholas, a French physician and 
 physiologist, author of ' Tableau de l'Ainour Con- 
 jugal,' and other works, 1632-1698. 
 
 VP^NEZIANO, Antonio, an Italian fresco 
 painter, 1310-1384. Domenico, a painter in oils, 
 1420-1476. Agostino, an engraver, 1490-1540. 
 
 VENIERO, three doges of Venice: Antonio, 
 reigned 1382-1400. Francesco, succeeded Marc 
 Antonio Trevisani 1554, died 1556. Sebastiano, 
 commander of the fleet at the battle of Lepanto, 
 elected doge and died same year, 1571. 
 
 VENIERO, Domenico, a distinguished Italian 
 poet, 1517-1582. Francesco, his brother, a philo- 
 sophical writer, died 1581. Lorenzo, a third 
 brother, known as a poet, died about 1550. Maf- 
 feo and Luigi, sons of the latter, dates unknown. 
 
 VENINI, Francesco, a Milanese ecclesiastic, 
 mathematician, and poet, 1737-1820. 
 
 VENINO, J., an Italian Jesuit, 1711-1778. 
 
 VENIUS. See Van-Veen. 
 
 VENN, Henry, a minister of the Church of 
 England, son of a divine named Richard Venn, au- 
 thor of several religious works, 1725-1796. John, 
 his son, author of Sermons, 1759-1813. 
 
 VENNE. See Vandervenne. 
 
 VENNER, T., an English physician, 1577-1650. 
 
 VENNING, R., a nonconf or.' divine, 1620-1673. 
 
 VENTENAT, Stephen Peter, a distin- 
 guished French botanist, member of the institute, 
 and author of several useful works, 1757-1808. 
 
 VENTIMIGLIA, Giuseppe, a Sicilian prince 
 and supporter of the constitution, 1761-1814. 
 
 VENTURE DE PARADIS, Jean Michel, a 
 French Orientalist and diplomatic agent, 1742-99. 
 
 VENTURI, Giambatista, an Italian physi- 
 cian, statesman, and literary savant, 1746-1822. 
 
 VENTURI, P., an Italian Jesuit, 1693-1752. 
 
 VENTURINI, J. G. Julius, a German officer 
 and writer on tactics, 1772-1802. 
 801 3F 
 
VEN 
 
 VENUSTL M., an Italian painter, 1515-1570. 
 
 VENUTI, R., an Ititl. antiquarian, 1705-1763. 
 
 VERBIEST, Ferdinand, a Flemish Jesuit, 
 astronomer, and Chinese missionary, 1630-1688. 
 
 VERCI, J. B. M., an Italian historian, 1739-95. 
 
 VERE, Edward, earl of Oxford, a poet and 
 statesman of the age of Elizabeth, born about 1540, 
 died 1604. He sat on the trial of Mary Queen of 
 Scots, in virtue of his office of lord high chamber- 
 lain, and many traits of character, little to his 
 honour, are recorded of him. 
 
 VERE, Sir Francis, one of the most gallant 
 of the commanders who distinguished themselves in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, was born in 1554. He was 
 the companion-in-arms of Prince Maurice in the 
 Dutch war of independence, and defended Ostend 
 with only 1,700 men against a Spanish army of 
 12,000. Died 1608. 
 
 VERE, Sir Horace, baron of Tilbury, younger 
 brother and companion-in-arms of the preceding, 
 shared in the glory of his principal actions in the 
 Dutch war. His great achievement was an able 
 retreat with 4,000 men before the great general, 
 Spinola, who commanded 12,000. Died 1635. 
 
 VERELIUS, Olaf, one of the most distin- 
 guished antiquaries of Sweden, 1618-1682. 
 
 VERELST, S., a Flemish painter, died 1710. 
 
 VERGARA, C/ESAR Antonio, a Neapolitan 
 ecclesiastic and numismatist, born 1680. 
 
 VERGARA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1726-99. 
 
 VERGARA, N. De, called 'the Old,' a Spanish 
 painter of history, painter on glass, and sculptor, 
 1510-1574. His son, Nicholas, called ' the 
 Young, 1 a sculptor and architect, 1540-1606. 
 
 VERGENNES, Charles Gravier, Count 
 De, a French diplomatist and statesman, 1717-87. 
 
 VERGERIO, Piero Paolo, professor of dia- 
 lectic at Padua, and one of the restorers of litera- 
 ture, 1349-1419. Another member of the family, 
 bearing the same names, was at first a vigorous 
 opponent of the reformation, but became a convert 
 to protestantism, and died in Wirtemberg 1565. 
 
 VERGIER, J., a French poet, 1657-1720. 
 
 VERGNIAUD, P. V., one of the most eloquent 
 leaders of the Girondin party in the French revolu- 
 tion, was born at Limoges in 1759, and was prac- 
 tising as an advocate at Bourdeaux, when elected 
 to the Legislative Assembly, 1791. He was one 
 of the twenty-two Girondists condemned by the 
 Jacobins of the revolutionary tribunal, and exe- 
 cuted October 31, 1793. 
 
 VERHEYDEN, F. P., a Dutch painter and 
 sculptor, born at the Hague 1657, died 1711. 
 
 VERHEYEN, P., a Dut. anatomist, 1648-1710. 
 
 VERHOEK, P., a painter and poet, 1633-1702. 
 
 VERMEIREN, Augustin, a Flemish Carme- 
 lite, author of Fables in verse, 1656-1703. 
 
 VERMEULEN, Cornelius, a famous designer 
 and engraver of portraits, 1644-1702. 
 
 VEKMEYN, J. C, a Dutch painter, died 1559. 
 
 VERNES, Jacob, a pastor of Geneva, known 
 as an adversary of Rousseau, 1728-1790. ' 
 
 VERNET, Claude Joseph, a French painter, 
 in great esteem for his landscapes and marine sub- 
 jects, more particularly the latter, in which he ex- 
 celled, 1714-1789. A. C. Horace, called Carle, 
 his son and pupil, famous for his battle-pieces, 
 1758-1836. Horace Vernet, the celebrated 
 painter, is son of the latter, and was born 1789. 
 
 VER 
 
 VERNET, J., a Genevese theologian, 1698-17MJ 
 
 VERNEUIL, Catherine LIenriette Dk 
 Balzac D'Entraigues, Marquise De, a mistress 
 of Henry IV., who acquired so much influence over'! 
 him as to obtain a written promise of marriage, 
 which it required all the firmness of Richelieu to 
 annul: she conspired against the king after his 
 marriage witli Mary de Medici, 1583-1633. 
 
 VERNIER, P., a Span, mathemat., 1580-1637. 
 
 VERNIER, Theodore, a politician of the revo- 
 lutionary period, afterwards a peer of France, 
 1731-1818. 
 
 VERNIQUET, E., a Fr. architect, 1727-1804. 
 
 VERNON, Edward, an English admiral, born 
 in Westminster 1684. His father was secretary of 
 state to William and Mary, and having given his 
 son a classical education, was disappointed by his 
 adoption of a seaman's career. He first served 
 under Admiral Hopson, and was in the action at 
 Vigo, in October, 1702. His name became histo- 
 rical, however, in 1739, by the expedition to Porto-- 
 bello, the command of which was given to him, 
 with the rank of vice-admiral of the blue. In 
 1741 he made an unsuccessful attempt upon Car- 
 thagena, in conjunction with General Wcntworth, 
 the graphic details of which may be read in Smol- 
 ett's Roderick Random. Died 1757. 
 
 VERNON, Robert, the munificent founder of 
 the Gallery of British Art, named after him, and 
 now in the national collection, was born in 1774, 
 and acquired his vast fortune by trading in horses. 
 He was a liberal patron of the fine arts in his life- 
 time, and his bequest to the nation is said to have 
 cost him 150,000. Died 1849. 
 
 VERNON, T., a learned lawyer, died 1726. 
 
 VERNY, C. F., a French poet, 1753-1811. 
 
 VERON, F., a French Jesuit, 1575-1649. 
 
 VERON, P. A., a French astronomer, 1736-70. 
 
 VERONESE, Paul. See Cagliari. 
 
 VERRIO, A., a Neapolitan painter, 1639-1707. 
 
 VERROCHIO, Andrea Del, a Florentine pain-j 
 ter, sculptor, goldsmith, and architect, 1422-1488.! 
 
 VERSCHAFFELT, Chevalier P., called) 
 Pietro Fiammingo, a Flemish sculptor and archi-i 
 tect, 1710-1793. 
 
 VERSCHURING, Henry, a Dutch painter oA 
 landscapes and cavalry actions, 1627-1690. 
 
 VERT, C. De, a French liturgist, 1645-1709. . 
 
 VERTEGAN, Richard, an ingenious anti- 
 quarian of Roman Catholic principles, born in Lon- 
 don of Dutch parents, and settled at Antwerp;) 
 author of 'Restitution of Decayed Intelligence; 
 concerning the most noble and renowned Englisffl 
 Nation,' published 1605 ; died about 1635. 
 
 VERTOT D'AUB(EUF, Rene Aubert, Abb<$l 
 De, a French Capuchin, author of works on thai 
 Revolutions of Rome, Sweden, and Portugal, and 
 a History of the Order of Malta, 1655-1735. 
 
 VERTUE, George, an eminent English ena 
 graver and antiquarian, born in London 1684, died 
 1756. His engraved works, consisting of portraits 5 
 and historic prints, are very numerous, and in higli 
 repute for their accuracy. In the course of his anti- 
 quarian tours he took many sketches of churches, - 
 ruins, and other monuments; his literary remains 
 consist of historic notices of artists, and anecdote* 
 of painting, 
 
 VERUS, jElius, grandson of Cejonius Commo-i 
 dus, adopted son of Adrian, and consul of Romfl^ 
 
 C02 
 
VEB 
 
 died 138. Lucius Verus, his son, joint emperor 
 ith Marcus Aurelius, whose daughter he mai- 
 led, flourished 130-169. 
 VERZOSA, J., a Spanish writer, 1523-1574. 
 VESALIUS, Andreas, the greatest anatomist 
 >f his age, and the father of modern human ana- 
 omy, was born at Brussels, either in April, 1513, 
 )r December, 1514, for the year of his birth is un- 
 rtain. He was descended from a family remark- 
 able for the number of eminent medical men it had 
 produced, and his father was attached in a medical 
 apacity to the household of the archduke Charles, 
 ifterwards the emperor, Charles V. He devoted 
 limself at an early period of life to human anatomy 
 ind dissection, studying under the most eminent 
 nasters of the day, and between the years 1535 
 nd 1537 he served as a physician and surgeon with 
 troops in the Low Countries. In 1544 he was 
 ppointed chief physician to the emperor Charles 
 E and on his abdication in 1555 he was nominated 
 o the same office by his son, Philip II. His opposi- 
 ion to the Galenic doctrines, his habit of dissecting 
 uman bodies, then considered impious, and the 
 reat reputation he enjoyed at the Spanish court, 
 aised him many enemies ; and a rumour that he 
 tad opened the body of a young Spanish nobleman 
 rhose heart showed symptoms of vitality, having 
 pt abroad, he was publicly accused of murder, 
 he charge was taken up "by the clergy and the 
 ledical faculty, to whom he was obnoxious, and 
 lso by the relations of the deceased ; and though 
 e enjoyed the protection of the king, he was ob- 
 " to flee from the persecution by which he was 
 ssaiied, and to travel into Palestine by way of 
 xpiation of his alleged guilt. When this voyage 
 ras undertaken is not exactly known, but in 1563 
 le senate of Venice invited him to return and fill 
 le chair of anatomy at Padua, then vacant by the 
 eath of Fallopius ; " and having embarked for that 
 urpose, he was shipwrecked on the island of Zante 
 ihe ancient Zacynthus), where he perished miser- 
 bly of cold and hunger, on the 15th of October, 
 564, and his body having been recognized by a 
 oldsmith of Venice, it was honourably interred in 
 le church of St. Mary's, in that island. He was 
 le author of numerous works, but that by which 
 is best known is entitled, De Humana Corporis 
 abrica. [J.M'C] 
 
 VESLING, John, a German anatomist, and 
 riter on the botany of the East, 1598-1649. 
 VESPASIAN, whose full name in Latin was 
 rrus Flavius Vespasianus, emperor of Rome, 
 as born of an obscure family in the territory of 
 le ancient Sabines, in the year 9. He rose to 
 istinction in the Roman army, during the reigns 
 Caligula and Nero ; and was conducting the 
 rar in Judaea when he was proclaimed emperor by 
 is soldiers, after the brief reigns of Galba, Otho, 
 idVitellius, 69. He then left the prosecution of 
 e war to his son Titus; and reaching Rome 
 *>ut the middle of the year 70, entered upon his 
 igh functions without opposition. The expecta- 
 that had been raised by his ability, his 
 es, and his indefatigable application to busi- 
 were not disappointed ; but it is commonly 
 elieved, and the report is adopted by Gibbon, 
 lat he disgraced himself by a sordid parsimony. 
 Iris is so incompatible with the generous qualities 
 bo attributed to him, that the explanation must 
 
 VIC 
 
 be sought in circumstances, not sufficiently con- 
 sidered, such as the dissatisfaction likely enough 
 felt by the Prastorian guard, and by others who 
 may have expected a more liberal distribution of 
 the public money. The reign of Vespasian was 
 marked by the pacification of Gaul, which had 
 been disturbed by the revolt of Claudius Civilus, 
 and by Agricola's conquest of Great Britain : 
 the destruction of Jerusalem also took place, as 
 mentioned under the name of Titus. Died in the 
 seventieth vear of his age, 79. [E.R.] 
 
 VESPUCCI. See Amerigo. 
 
 VESTRIS, a family of dancers and theatrical 
 performers: Gaetano Apoline Balthazar, 
 distinguished at the Parisian opera, 1729-1808. 
 Anna Frederika, his wife, 1752-1808. M 
 Augustus, a natural son of Gaetano, 1760-1838. 
 Marie Rose Gourgand Dugazon, a sister-in- 
 law of Gaetano, distinguished by her performance 
 in tragic parts, 1746-1804. 
 
 VETTER, L. R., a Ger. pathologist, 1765-1806. 
 
 VETTORI, F., an Italian antiquary, 1708-1778. 
 
 VETTORI, F., an Italian physician, 1485-1528. 
 
 VETTORI, Pietro, in Latin Victorius, a great 
 promoter of literature in Italy, 1499-1585. 
 
 VETTORI, V., an Italian poet, 1697-1763. 
 
 VEZZOZI, Antonio Francesco, a learned 
 Italian theatine and biographer, 1705-1785. 
 
 VIANE, F. Van, a theologian, 1619-1693. 
 
 VIANI, A M., an Italian painter, 16th centurv. 
 
 VIANI, G., an Italian numismatist, 1762-1816. 
 
 VIANI, Giuseppe, a painter of Bologna, 1636- 
 1700. Domenicho, his son and pupil, 1668-1711. 
 
 VICARS, John, a presbyterian zealot of the 
 commonwealth, author of several quaint works 
 of a religious character, 1582-1652. 
 
 VICARY, T., an English anatomist, 16th cent. 
 
 VICENTE, G., a Portuguese poet, 1480-1557. 
 
 VICENTE, J., a Castilian painter, last century. 
 
 VICHMANN, B., a Rus. historian, 1786-1822. 
 
 VICI, A., an Italian architect, 1744-1817 
 
 VICIANA, M., a Spanish historian, 16th cent. 
 
 VICO, jEneas, an Italian antiquarian, engraver, 
 and numismatist ; died about 1560. 
 
 VICO, F., a Spanish historian, 17th century. 
 
 VICO, Giovanni Battista, the first to pro- 
 pose a philosophical method of considering human 
 history, was born at Naples in 1668, and became 
 professor of rhetoric in the university of that city. 
 His life was passed in comparative obscurity in 
 studying the works of the ancients, and in bringing 
 his vast acquirements in jurisprudence and criti- 
 cism to bear on the problem of human destiny. 
 The principal labour of his life is his work entitled 
 ' Principi di una Scienza Nuova,' first published in 
 1725, and which is, in fact, a philosophy of his- 
 tory, recognizing the action of Providence, and 
 the divine intention continually working out in 
 social events ; in this view he has been followed by 
 Schlegel, but with much less spirituality. What 
 Vico would demonstrate is the analogy of one age 
 and nation with another, as regards the succession 
 of events, and these proceeding in a certain his- 
 toric cycle, which he divides into three ages the 
 divine, the heroic, and the human : he becomes, 
 therefore, the interpreter of the mythical remains 
 of antiquity, such as the Homeric poems, and dis- 
 plays, in his way, the reason of national manners 
 and. forms of government. The Universal His- 
 
 803 
 
VIC 
 
 ton-' of Bossuet, and the 'City of God' by Saint 
 AmilMllll. were the 'only previous works tliat 
 CMM be named in series with this of Vieo ; since 
 his time besides Schlegel Kant, Herder, Lessing, 
 ami Condoroet, have each developed their own 
 particular svstems j to Vico, however, belongs the 
 honour of opening out this new path through the 
 fields of philosophy. The highest recognition he 
 was his appointment as historiographer to 
 the king of Naples in 1735. In 1743 he fell into 
 a state of insensibility which lasted fourteen 
 months, in all which time he knew neither his 
 friends nor children : he died thus in January, 
 1744. [E.R.] 
 
 VICQ D'AZYR, Felix, a French physician, 
 famous as a naturalist and physiologist, author of 
 valuable works, 1748-1794. 
 
 YD TOR, several popes of Rome: Victor I., 
 bishop and saint, succeeded 185, and was martyred, 
 according to some accounts, 197 ; he was succeeded 
 by Zephyrinus. Victor II., the friend and rela- 
 tion of the emperor, Henry III., reigned 1055- 
 1057. Vi<rrcR III., succeeded Gregory VII., and 
 died after a few months' pontificate, 1086-1087. 
 Victor IV., an antipope, elected after Adrian 
 IV. 1159, and supported by the emperor in oppo- 
 sition to Alexander III. ; died 11G4. 
 
 VICTOR AMADEUS I., duke of Savoy, was 
 born 1587, son of Charles Emanuel I., and 
 crowned 1630. He married the sister of Louis 
 XIII., and in his latter years commanded the 
 forces of that sovereign in his Italian wars, d. 1637. 
 
 VICTOR AMADEUS II., duke of Savoy, and 
 first king of Sardinia, was born in 1665, and suc- 
 ceeded his father in the duchy 1675. He married 
 Maria of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., but en- 
 tered, nevertheless, on a tortuous policy, which in- 
 volved him in a war with that monarch. Having 
 acquired Sicily, he exchanged that kingdom in 
 1717 for Sardinia, by treaty with the emperor. 
 He died two years after his abdicating in favour 
 of his son, 1732. 
 
 VICTOR AMADEUS III., son and successor 
 of Charles Emanuel III., was born in 1726, and 
 ascended the throne in 1773. He founded the 
 Academy of Sciences at Turin, and exhibited the 
 utmost anxiety for the welfare of his subjects. 
 His hostility to the revolution in France, provoked 
 a contest with that country in which his throne 
 fell by the arms of Buonaparte, 1796. 
 
 VICTOR EMMANUEL, king of Sardinia, son 
 of the preceding, Victor Amadeus III., born 1759, 
 succeeded his brother, Charles Emmanuel IV., 
 1802, abdicated during a revolt 1821, died 1824. 
 
 VICTORLNUS, Marcus Aurelius, one of the 
 thirty tyrants who assumed the Roman purple in 
 the time of Gallienus, killed by his troops 268. 
 
 VICTORLNUS of Feltre, a celebrated Italian 
 philanthropist and charitable founder, 1379-1447. 
 
 YICTORIUS. See Vettori. 
 
 ^ II >A, Mahco Girolamo, an Italian prelate 
 and distinguished Latin poet, about 1490-1566. 
 
 YIDAL, B., a Provencal physician, 1741-1805. 
 
 \ I DAL, D., a Spanish painter, born 1670. 
 
 YIDAL, James, called the Old, a Spanish histo- 
 nter, 1583-1615. His nephew, J. VlDAL 
 Dl I.ii.m.o, called the Young, 1602-1648. 
 
 V 'DAL, P., a Provencal troubadour, died 1200. 
 
 \ 1EIL, Piliule Le, a French painter on glass 
 
 VIL 
 
 and writer on the art, 1708-1772. William, of 
 the same familv and profession, 1675-1731. 
 
 VIEILH DE BOISJOLIN, Claude Augus- 
 tjn, a French biographical writer, 1788-1832. 
 
 VIEIRA, Sebastian, a Portuguese Jesuit and 
 missionary to Japan, 1570-1634. 
 
 VIEIRA, or VIEYRA, A., a Portuguese Jesuit 
 and missionary to Brazil, 1608-1697. 
 
 VIEL, C F., a French architect, 1745-1819. 
 
 VIEL, Charles Maria De, a converted Jew 
 of Lorraine, and commentator on the Gospels, died 
 a baptist about 1700. His brother, Lewis, entered 
 the communion of the Church of England, and 
 wrote on subjects of Jewish learning. 
 
 VIEL, Stephen Bernard, a French priest, 
 transl. of Telemachus into Latin verse, 1756-1821. 
 
 VIETA, Francis, in Latin Viceteus, a French 
 mathematician and algebraist, 1540-1603. 
 
 VIEUSSENS, Raymond, an eminent French 
 physician and anatomist, born in 1641, and died at 
 an advanced age, between the years 1715 and 1720, 
 though in what precise year is not known. His 
 life was spent chiefly at Montpellier, and he ia 
 known in medical history principally by a work on 
 the nervous system, entitled, Neurographia Uni- 
 versalis,' published in 1685. [J.M'C.'J 
 
 VIGAND, or WIGAND, John, a German theo- 
 logian and botanist, 1523-1587. 
 
 VIGANO, S., an Italian dancer, 1769-1821. 
 
 VIGEE, Louis Giles Bernard, a French 
 poet who bears the reputation of having basely 
 sung the praises of every successive government 
 from the time of the republic, 1755-1820. 
 
 VIGENERE, Blaise De, a French alchymist, 
 and secretary of embassy to Rome, 1523-1592. 
 
 VIGER, F., a French Hellenist, died 1647. 
 
 VIGILIUS, an African bishop, 5th century. 
 
 VIGILIUS, a pope of Rome, elected by the 
 intrigues of Theodora, wife of Justinian, 537 ; died, 
 after many reverses, arising out of his opposition 
 to Justinian and the empress, 555. 
 
 VIGILIUS, a Dutch jurisconsult and governor 
 of Holland and Gueldres, died 1577. 
 
 VIGNE, Andre De La, a French poet and 
 historian, secretary to Anne of Brittany, 15th cent. 
 
 VIGNIER, Nicholas, a distinguished histori- 
 cal writer, physician, and historiographer to Henry 
 III., king of France, 1530-1596. Ijis son, of the 
 same name, an ascetic and controversial writer, con- 
 verted from protestantism to the Catholic Church ; 
 dates unknown. Jerome, a son of the latter, a 
 priest of the oratory, known as a poet and histo- 
 rian, 1606-1661. 
 
 VIGNOLA, the common appellation of Giacomo 
 Barozzio, a celebrated aremtect of Vignola, suc- 
 cessor of Michelangelo in the works of St. Peter's, 
 and au. of a Treatise on the ' Five Orders,' 1507-73. 
 
 VIGNOLES, Stephen, better known under the 
 name of Lahire, one of the most celebrated French 
 commanders of the reign of Charles VIL, distin- 
 guished in all the wars of his time with the Eng- 
 lish, and above all at Jargeau and the battle of 
 Patay in 1418, died 1442. 
 
 VIGNOLI, J., an Ital. archaeologist, 1680-1753. 
 
 VIGORS, N. A., an Irish zoologist, 1787-1 84ft 
 
 VIGUIER, P. F., a Fr. Orientalist, 1745-1821. 
 
 VILLA, A. T., an Italian poet, 1720-1794. 
 
 VILLADOMAT, Antonio, a Spanish painter, 
 born at Barcelona 1678, died 1755. 
 
 804 
 
VIL 
 
 VILLALPANDA, John Baptist, a Spanish 
 Jesuit and Scripture commentator, 1552-1608. 
 
 VILLALPANDE, Francesco Torrebianca 
 De, a Spanish writer on demonology, 16th century. 
 
 VILLALPANDE, Gaspard Cardillos De, 
 a Spanish scholar and controversialist, died 1570. 
 
 VILLALPANDE, J. De, chief of a Spanish 
 sect analogous to the quietists, 16th century. 
 
 VILLANI, Giovanni, an Italian historian, died 
 1348. Matteo, his brother, author of a continua- 
 tion of his history, died 1363. Filippo, son of 
 the latter, author of a further continuation, and of 
 the first modern work on literary history ; known 
 as a lecturer on Dante in 1404. 
 
 VILLANI, N., a Latin poet, died 1640. . 
 
 VILLARET, C, a French historian, 1717-1766. 
 
 VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, L. T., a French 
 admiral, distinguished in the last war, 1750-1812. 
 
 VILLARS, Dominique, a French physician, 
 au. of a Natural History of Dauphiny, 1745-1814. 
 
 VILLARS, Montfaucon De, a French abbe, 
 nephew of the celebrated father Montfaucon, and 
 author of a prohibited book entitled * Comte de 
 Gabalis,' from which Pope derived the machinery 
 for his Rape of the Lock; born about 1640, mur- 
 dered on the highway 1675. 
 
 VILLARS, Pierre De, a French prelate, nego- 
 tiator, and ascetic writer, 1517-1592. His nephew, 
 of the same names and dignity, an ecclesiastical 
 writer, 1543-1613. 
 
 VILLARS, Pierre, Marquis De, a French 
 general and diplomatist, died 1678. His wife, 
 Marie Gigault De Bellefonds, friend of 
 Maria Louisa, wife of Charles II. of Spain, author 
 of ' Letters,' containing curious details of the 
 Spanish court, 1772. Louis Hector, son of the 
 preceding, duke of Villars, and a famous marshal 
 of France, opposed in arms to the duke of Marl- 
 borough, especially at the battle of Malplaquet, 
 1653-1734. His son, Honors Armand, duke of 
 Villars and Prince De Martiniques, was remark- 
 able for nothing but his famous parentage and the 
 protection he offered to Voltaire, 1702-1770. 
 
 VILLAUT DE BELLEFOND, a French tra- 
 veller on the coast of Guinea, 1666. 
 
 VILLAVICIOSA, Jose De, a Spanish inquisi- 
 tor and burlesque poet, 1589-1658. 
 
 VILLEBRUNE, J. B. Lefebvre De, a French 
 Orientalist, philologist, and Hellenist, 1732-1809. 
 
 VILLEDIEU, Marie Hortense Desjardins, 
 Dame De, a novelist and poetess, 1632-1683. 
 
 VILLEFORE, J. F. Bourgoin De, an eccle- 
 siastical and biographical writer, 1652-1737. 
 
 VILLEFROY, Wm. De, a learned Orientalist, 
 founder of the Capuchin Hebraists, 1690-1777. 
 
 VILLEGAS, E. M. De, a Sp. poet, 1595-1669. 
 
 VILLEGAS MARMOLEJO, P. De, a Spanish 
 painter of sacred subjects, 1520-1577. 
 
 VILLEGOMBLAIN, F. Racine, Seigneur De, 
 a Fr. statesman and historian of events during the 
 reigns of Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV. 
 
 VILLEHARDOUIN, Geoffrai De, an ancient 
 French historian, and commander in the fourth 
 crusade, which resulted in the capture of Constan- 
 tinople, 1198. 
 
 VILLEMOT, P., a Fr. astronomer, 1651-1713. 
 
 VILLENEUVE, Huron De, a French poet, 
 contemporary with Philip Augustus. 
 
 VILLENEUVE, Pierre Ch. Jean Baptist 
 
 VIN 
 
 Silvestre, a French admiral who commanded at 
 the battle of Aboukir in 1799, and at the battle of 
 Trafalgar in 1805. On the latter occasion he was 
 taken prisoner, but being soon after restored to 
 liberty ne returned to France, and was ordered by 
 Napoleon to remain at Rennes. In the despon- 
 dency created by this circumstance, he committed 
 suicide by piercing himself through the heart. 
 
 VILLENEUVE, William De, a chevalier of 
 Provence, historian of the conquest of Naples, 
 whither he accompanied Charles VIII. 
 
 VILLENEUVE BARGEMONT, Christo- 
 pher, Count De, a Provencal statistician and 
 man of letters, 1771-1829. 
 
 VILLENFAGNE D'INGIHOUL, Hilarion 
 Noel, historian of Spa and Lidge, 1753-1826. 
 
 VILLERMAULES, M., a Swiss missionary and 
 writer on the state of China, 1667-1757. 
 
 VILLEROI, Nicholas De Neufville, Seig- 
 neur De, a French statesman and diplomatist from 
 the time of Charles IX. to Louis X1IL, a partizan 
 of Guise and the Spanish alliance, author of AU - 
 moirs, 1542-1617. His son, Charles, marquis 
 of Villeroi, negotiated the marriage of Henry IV. 
 and Mary de Medicis, died 1642. Nicholas, son 
 of Charles, governor of Louis XIV. and marshal 
 of France, 1597-1685. The most conspicuous of 
 the family was F. De Neufville, Due De Vil- 
 leroi, son of the latter, who was educated with 
 Louis XIV., and took a leading part in his wars 
 from 1693 to 1706. In 1715 he was appointed 
 governor of Louis XV. ; died 1730. 
 
 VILLERS, C. F. Dominique De, a French 
 writer and philosopher, who became professor at 
 Gottingen after the emigration of 1792, and wrote 
 an Essay upon the Reformation,' composed under 
 the influence of Madame de Stael and Benjamin 
 Constant, 1767-1815. 
 
 VILLETTE, F., a French optician, 1621-1698. 
 
 VILLIERS, George. See Buckingham. 
 
 VILLIERS, J. F. De, a Fr. physician, 1727-94. 
 
 VILLOISON, J. B. D'Ansse De, an eminent 
 Greek scholar and critic, author of several works 
 and of manuscripts relating to Greek history, now 
 in the Bibliotheque du Roi at Paris, 1750-1805. 
 
 VILLON, F., a French poet, 1431-1490. 
 
 VILLOTTE, James, a French Jesuit and mis- 
 sionary to Persia and Turkey, 1656-1743. 
 
 VINCE, Samuel, a native of Suffolk, author of 
 several valuable works in mathematics and astro- 
 nomy. He was born of poor parents, but being 
 sent to college by the munificence of Mr. Tilney, 
 became professor of astronomy and experimental 
 philosophy at Cambridge, and held several livings 
 in the Church of England. In 1786 he was elected 
 a fellow of the Royal Society, and his principal 
 works appeared between that period and 1809. 
 Died 1821. 
 
 VINCENT, a Bohemian chronicler, who was a 
 canon and archivist at Prague, 12th century. 
 
 VINCENT of Beauvais, a learned Dominican, 
 who composed an immense Resume, or Encyclo- 
 paedia, of the learning of the 13th century, by order 
 of Louis IX. : died about 1264. 
 
 VINCENT, F. A., a French painter, 1746-1816. 
 
 VINCENT, F. N., a French republican, born at 
 Paris 1767, executed with Hebert 1794. 
 
 VINCENT, Isabeau, an enthusiast of the re- 
 formed religion, born in Dauphiny 1670. 
 
 805 
 
YIN 
 
 VINCENT 09 Lekins, an ascetic writer and 
 monk of that place, died about 450. 
 
 VINCENT <>i- Paul. See Paul. 
 
 V I NCENT, Saint. See Ferrier. 
 
 \ INTENT, Thomas, a nonconformist minister, 
 remarkable for his courageous devotion to the 
 afflicted during the great plague of London, author 
 of God's Terrible Voice in the City by Plague 
 and Fire,' an ' Explanation of the Assembly's 
 Catechism,' ami ' Eire and Brimstone,' born at 
 Hertford 1634, died 1671. Nathaniel, his 
 :i religions writer and preacher, died 1697. 
 
 VINCENT, William, rector of Allhallows, in 
 I/mdon, author of several works interesting to 
 scholars, 1739-1815. 
 
 VINCI, Leonardo Da, was born at Vinci in 
 the valley of the Arno below Florence, in 1452 ; 
 he became the pupil of Andrea Verocchio. In 
 1483 he entered the service of Lodovico il Moro, 
 duke of Milan, with a salary of 500 scudi per 
 annum, equal to about a thousand pounds sterling 
 at the present time. In 1485 he established an 
 academy of the arts at Milan, and about ten years 
 later, executed his celebrated picture of the ' Last 
 Supper,' in oil colours, on the wall of the Refec- 
 tory, in the convent of the Madonna delle Grazie 
 in that city; there is a copy of this remarkable work, 
 by Marco D'Oggione, now in the Royal Academy, 
 London. Leonardo left Milan in 1499 and re- 
 turned to Florence, and there commenced his great 
 composition of the 'Battle of the Standard' for 
 the Council Hall, in the Palazzo Vecchio. Michel- 
 angelo being commissioned by the Gonfaloniere 
 Soderini to execute a second design for the opposite 
 end, this was the celebrated 4 Cartoon of Pisa,' 
 exhibited in 1506, but neither work was ever 
 executed in the hall, owing to political disturbances. 
 In 1514 Leonardo visited Rome, but left again 
 shortly afterwards without executing any works 
 there, owing partly to a misunderstanding with 
 Michelangelo, and to the pope's want of proper 
 appreciation of his capabilities ; he entered the 
 service of Francis I., with a salary of 700 crowns 
 per annum, and accompanied that king to France 
 in 1516, but he was now old, and he died in France 
 at Cloux, near Amboise, May 2, 1519, without 
 executing any work for the French king. Leonardo 
 da Vinci has the most remarkable reputation of 
 any of the illustrious artists of Italy. He was a 
 man of universal ability in science and art ; he ex- 
 celled in painting, sculpture, architectui e, engi- 
 neering and mechanics generally ; in botany, ana- 
 tomy, mathematics, and astronomy ; and he was 
 also a poet, and an admirable extempore performer 
 on the lyre. Mr. Hallam in his Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe, has the following re- 
 markable eulogium on him : ' If any doubt could 
 be harboured, not only as to the right of Leonardo 
 da Vinci to stand as the first name of the fifteenth 
 century, which is beyond all doubt, but as to his 
 originality in so many discoveries, which probably 
 no one man, especially in such circumstances, has 
 pver made, it must be on an hypothesis not very 
 untenable, that some parts of physical science had 
 already attained a height which mere books do not 
 record/ Unpublished MSS. by Leonardo con- 
 tain discoveries and anticipations of discoveries, 
 says Mr. Hallam, ' within the compass of a few 
 Pi'ges, so as to strike us with something like the 
 
 VIR 
 
 awe of preternatural knowledge.' The principal 
 of his published treatises is the Trattato delta Pit- 
 tura, of which there are several editions in several 
 languages. (Lomazzo, Truttato dtlla J'iitura, 
 Scultura ed Architettura, Milan, 1584. Rome, 
 1844. Vasari, Vite, &c. ; Amoretti, Memorie Sto- 
 riche su la Vita,<fc, Di Leonardo da Vince, Milan, 
 1804. See also the Penny Cyclopaedia.) [Ii.N.YY.] 
 
 VINCI, Leonardo, a Neapolitan musical 
 composer of the 18th century. 
 
 VINCIGUERRA, Marc Antonio, an Italian 
 poet and secretary of Venice, 15th century. 
 
 VENDING, Erasmus, a learned Danish philo- 
 logist and jurisconsult, 1615-1684. 
 
 VINER, Charles, a writer on law, and muni- 
 ficent benefactor of Oxford, 1680-1756. 
 
 VINES, R., a presbyterian divine, died 1655. 
 
 VINET, Elie, a French philologist, antiquarian, 
 and learned editor, died 1587. 
 
 VINKEBOON, or VINCKENBOOMS, David, 
 a painter of Malines, 1578-1606. 
 
 VINNEN, Arnold, in Latin Vinnius, a Dutch 
 jurisconsult, regarded as the best commentator on 
 the Imperial Institutes, 1588-1657. 
 
 VIOLE, D. G., a Benedictine of St. Maur, an 
 ecclesiastical writer and historian, 1598-1669. 
 
 VIONNET, G., a Latin poet, 1712-1754. 
 
 VIOTTI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian 
 violinist and musical composer, 1755-1824. 
 
 VIRET, Peter, a Swiss theologian, and one of 
 the principal reformers, 1511-1571. 
 
 VIREY, C. E., a French poet, 1566-1636. 
 
 [Virgil From an Ancient Gem.j 
 
 VTRGIL (Publius Viroilius Maro) wa3 
 born at Andes, a small village near Mantua, on the 
 15th of October, B.C. 70. He was thus five years 
 older than Horace, and seven years older than the 
 emperor Augustus. An old tradition has identified 
 Andes with the modern village of Pietola, and may 
 perhaps be accepted as true. Virgil's father was 
 proprietor of a small estate which he cultivated ; 
 and the future poet, after passing his boyhood there 
 in the seclusion of his father's villa, was sent to 
 school at Cremona, where he assumed the manly 
 gown on his sixteenth birthday (b.c. 55). He next 
 proceeded to Mediolanum (Milan) for education of a 
 higher order, thence to Naples, where he studied 
 Greek under Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, and 
 afterwards visited Rome. In the capital he was 
 instructed in the tenets of the Epicurean philosophy 
 by Syroon, a philosopher of that sect, and is said to 
 
 800 
 
VIR 
 
 have had, as his fellow-pupil, Varus, to whom he 
 afterwards inscribed his sixth Eclogue. He devoted 
 himself to study with intense application, and thus 
 laid the foundation of that varied learning, for 
 which he was scarcely less remarkable than for 
 
 Eoetical genius. It is uncertain how long he may 
 ave been absent from home, and merely a con- 
 jecture that, after completing his studies, or pro- 
 secuting them so long as his feeble health would 
 permit, he returned to his paternal farm, and there 
 wrote some of the small pieces which are attributed 
 to him. But his peaceful seclusion was disturbed 
 bv an unexpected event, which is believed to be 
 alluded to in his first Eclogue. Octavianus, 
 (Augustus) on his return to Italy after the battle 
 of Philippi (b.c. 42), assigned to a portion of his 
 veterans the lands in the neighbourhood of Mantua, 
 thereby depriving Virgil of his patrimony, which, 
 however, was afterwards restored to him, by the 
 intercession of powerful friends. Soon after this 
 occurrence Virgil again visited Rome, was intro- 
 duced to Augustus, and to his minister, Maecenas, 
 the munificent patron of genius, and continued dur- 
 the remainder of his life to enjoy their friendship 
 and patronage. In B.C. 19, he visited Greece, 
 intending to make a tour of that country, and to 
 revise and perfect his JEneid ; but having met the 
 emperor at Athens on his return from the East, and 
 finding his feeble health fast declining, he resolved 
 to accompany him to Italy. He succeeded in 
 reaching the shores of his native country, and died 
 soon after his arrival at Brundusium on" the 22d of 
 September, b.c. 19, before completing his fifty- 
 first year. In compliance with his wish, his body 
 was conveyed to Naples, and there buried at the 
 distance of two miles from the city. The works 
 of Virgil consist of, 1. Bucolica, or Eclogues, 
 pastoral poems, amounting to ten; 2. Geuryica 
 (Georgics), an agricultural poem in four books ; 
 and 3. jEneis (the ^Eneid), a national epic poem, 
 in twelve books, besides some minor poems which 
 are ascribed to him. The Eclogues are doubtless 
 his earliest productions, and must, therefore, be 
 estimated chiefly as indications of the future efforts 
 of the poet. In the Georgics the powers of the 
 poet are more matured ; freshness and vigour are 
 given to a subject possessing but little of the poetic 
 cal element; and the rude and rough hexameter 
 of Lucretius is advanced to a degree of perfection 
 which cannot be surpassed. The object of the 
 jEneid is to give an account of the fortunes of ^Eneas 
 from the period of his leaving Troy till his settle- 
 ment in Italy, as indicative of the future greatness 
 of Rome, and, therefore, abounds in allusions to 
 subsequent events in Roman history. In point of 
 artistic skill the iEneid is inferior to the Georgics ; 
 and the defect is easily accounted for by the cir- 
 cumstance that the poem did not receive the finish- 
 ing revisal of the poet, and was therefore ordered 
 by him, in his last illness, to be burnt. It was, 
 however, preserved, and published by his friends 
 Varius and Tucca. Virgil's character as an epic 
 poet has been often assailed, and as often defended 
 our limits prevent us from entering upon the 
 question. It may be sufficient to say that, till thf 
 appearance of the Paradise Lost, he held the second 
 place in this the highest department of poetry, 
 and though he has since descended to the third, he 
 is inferior still only to Homer and Milton. [G.F.] 
 
 VIS 
 
 VIRGIL POLYDORE. See Polydorus. 
 
 VIRGILLE-LABASTIDE, C. De, a French 
 economist and mechanician, 1682-1755. 
 
 VIRGINIA, a young girl of Rome, killed by 
 her father Virginius, as the means of saving her 
 from the dishonour threatened by the decimvir 
 Appius Claudius, b.c. 449. The story relates that 
 this tragedy led to the abolition of the decimvir- 
 ate, equivalent to a change in the constitution of 
 Rome : the facts are not well authenticated. 
 
 V1RGINIUS-ROMANUS, a comic poet of Rome, 
 age of Augustus, 1st century B.C. None of his 
 works are now in existence. 
 
 VIRGINIUS RUFUS, Lucius, a Roman gen- 
 eral and governor, time of Nero. 
 
 VIRIATHUS, leader of a revolt in Lusitania, 
 defeated by Fabius iEmilianus, after a five years' 
 struggle, b.c 144, assassinated b.c. 140. 
 
 VISCANIO, Sebastian, a Spanish explorer of 
 the coasts of New California, 1602. 
 
 VISCHER, Cornelius, a designer and en- 
 graver of Haerlem, about 1610-1660. His brother, 
 John, an engraver, born 1636. 
 
 VISCHER, Peter, a German sculptor and 
 founder, taught in Italy, died 1530. His son, 
 Hermann, killed by an accident 1540. 
 
 VISCONTI, a noble Milanese family, who 
 headed for a long time the party of Ghibellines. 
 The principal are Otho, archbishop of Milan, 
 and vanquisher of the Delia Torre party, 1208- 
 1295. His nephew, Matteo, called ' the Great,' 
 perpetual lord of Milan and imperial vicar in Italy, 
 1250-1323. Galeazzo, his successor, who com- 
 promised himself with the Guelphs after a long 
 struggle against them, and was thrown into prison 
 by the emperor, Louis V., 1277-1328. Azzo, son 
 and successor of the preceding, declared against 
 Louis, and was named vicar of" the church by the 
 pope, John XXII. He greatly increased his terri- 
 tories, and died 1339. Luchino, son of Matteo the 
 Great, and successor of his nephew, Azzo, poisoned 
 by his wife 1349. Giottanni, brother of the lat- 
 ter and archbishop of Milan, was associated in the 
 temporal government of Luchino, and increased 
 his own importance at the expense of the papacy, 
 died 1354. Matteo II., grandson of Matteo the 
 Great, by his fifth son, Stefano, had a share in 
 the sovereignty 1355, and was disposed of by 
 poison. Galeazzo II., one of the amiable 
 brothers of the latter, died 1358. Barnabo, 
 another of the brothers and associates, was poisoned 
 by his nephew, Giovanni Galeazzo, in 1385. In 
 this long interval of power he had shown himself 
 a cruel and debauched prince, but he laid the foun- 
 dation of the university of Pisa, and managed to 
 steer his course through difficult times. Gale- 
 azzo, the first of this name with the title duke of 
 Milan, having treasonably acquired the state in 
 1385, endeavoured to make himself king of Italy : 
 he greatly increased the territory and the number 
 of cities under his government ; died 1402. Gio- 
 vanni Maria, eldest son and successor of the 
 latter, being put to some trouble by the regency of 
 his mother, made an attempt to poison her ; his 
 subjects soon after revolted, and he was assassi- 
 nated by a natural son of Barnabo 1412. Paolo 
 Maria, brother of Giovanni, secured his authority 
 by marrying the widow of the latter, and some- 
 time after liad her beheaded. He increased his 
 
 807 
 
VIS 
 dominions by robbing the Swiss, and many valiant 
 names in Italian history were engaged in his wars ; 
 died 1447. The natural daughter of the last named 
 having married a Sforza, gave rise to a new 
 dvnastv in Milan. 
 
 ' YIm'ONTI, Gaspard, of the same family as 
 the preceding, a courtier and poet, 1461-1 !!;>. 
 
 YISOONTI, Giovanni Batista, a leaned 
 antiquarian, successor of Winckelmann as com- 
 missary of antiquities at Rome, and keener of the 
 pontifical museum, 1722-1784. His eldest son, 
 Ennius Quirinus, far exceeded him in ability and 
 learning as an archaeologist, and his works are 
 regarded as high authorities. The principal of 
 them is a 'Description of the Pio-Clementine 
 Museum,' and Greek and Roman Iconographies, 
 compiled by desire of Napoleon. Born at Rome 
 1751, died 1818. 
 
 VISCONTI, J., a liturgist, died 1633. 
 
 VISDELOW, C., a French Jesuit and Chinese 
 missionary, au. of a ' Hist, of Tartary,' 1656-1737. 
 
 YISDO'MIN'I, E an Italian poet, 1550-1622. 
 
 VISE, Joseph Donneau De, a French histo- 
 riographer and dramatic writer, 1640-1710. 
 
 VTSETTI, J., an Italian poet, 1736-1813. 
 
 VISSEHER, Rcemer, a Dutch poet, founder 
 of a reunion of literary men, who contributed to 
 restore the Dutch language, 1547-1620. Anne, 
 his eldest daughter, called the Dutch Sappho, 
 skilled in poetry, music, and painting, 1584-1652. 
 Marie, her sister, also a dist. poetess, 1594-1649. 
 
 VITA, J. De, an Italian archaeologist, 1708-74. 
 
 VITALIANUS, a pope of Rome, 657-672. 
 
 VITALIS. SeeC-RDERic. 
 
 VITELLIO, or VITELLO, a Polish mathema- 
 tician, the first European in modern times to write 
 anything valuable on optics, about 1254. 
 
 ylTELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman general, pro- 
 claimed emperor in Germany at the time Vespasian 
 was engaged in war with the Jews, a.d. 69. About 
 the time he arrived in Rome, Vespasian was pro- 
 claimed at Alexandria, and, on the latter arriving 
 in Italy at the head of his hostile army, Vitellius 
 was nut to death. 
 
 VITELLIUS, Erasmus, a Polish prelate and 
 negotiator at the diet of Augsburg, 1470-1521. 
 
 VlTIGES, successor of Theodatus as king of the 
 Ostrogoths in Italy 526, taken captive by Belisa- 
 rius 540, died at Constantinople 543. 
 
 VITRINGA, Campegius, a learned protestant 
 divine and Hebraist, professor at Franeker, 1659- 
 1722. His son, Horace, a Hebrew critic, died in 
 youth, 1680-1696. Campegius, his second son, 
 a profes-sor and theologian, 1693-1723. 
 
 VITRUVIUS POLLIO, Marcus, a Roman 
 architect, the author of a well-known treatise on 
 architecture in ten books, De Architecturd. The 
 edilio princeps of this work was published at Rome 
 about 1480, without date or name of printer, by 
 George Herolt, in folio, and under the superintend- 
 ence of Sulpitius : there have been many editions 
 since, in the original Latin and in the principal 
 European languages; in English, by W.Newton, 
 in 1771-91, with plates, folio, London ; by W. 
 Jilkms, R.A., in 1812 ; 'The Civil Architecture of 
 
 truvius,' in two parts, 4to, being a translation of 
 
 VLA 
 
 vius' birth are known, but as he dedicated his 
 book to the emperor Augustus, when he was 
 already old, he is supposed to have been born about 
 80 b.c. This treatise is a very important work as 
 explaining the knowledge of the ancients on the 
 matters treated. Vitruvius mentions the several 
 ancient writers to whom he was chiefly indebted, 
 all of whose works are lost. See a summary 
 account of this treatise in the Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia. [R.N.W.] 
 
 VITRY, Edward De, a French Jesuit, disting. 
 as a numismatist and philologist, 1670-1730. 
 
 VITRY, J. De, a French historian, died 1244. 
 
 VIVARES, F., a French engraver, 1709-1780. 
 
 VIVENS, Chevalier Francis De, a French 
 physician and economist, 1697-1780. 
 
 VIVES, John Louis, u. Latin Ladovicus Vives, 
 a classical scholar, and one of the revivers of 
 literature in Spain; born at Valentia 1492, died 
 at Brussels, where he had settled as a teacher of 
 the Belles Lettres, 1541. Vives was one of the 
 teachers of the Princess Mary Tudor, and was ob- 
 liged to leave England for writing against the 
 divorce of Catharine. 
 
 VIVIAN, Richard Hussey, Lord, eldest son 
 of John Vivian, Esq., of Cornwall, and distin- 
 guished as an officer in the late war, was born in 
 1775. He entered the army in 1793, and com- 
 menced active service on the coast of France under 
 Lord Moira. His first distinctive achievement 
 was in the desperate affair at Corunna, when he 
 covered the retreat of Sir John Moore. At Water- 
 loo he commanded the sixth brigade of cavalry. 
 After the peace he took an active part in politics, 
 was appointed master-general of the ordnance in 
 1835, and created a peer 1841. Died 1842. 
 
 VIVIANI, Vincentio, an Italian mathemati- 
 cian, taught by Galileo, and honoured by the 
 grand duke of Tuscany with the office of chief 
 engineer. We owe to him the restoration of the 
 lost treatises of Aristaeus and Apollonius of Perga ; 
 born at Florence 1622, died 1703. 
 
 VIVIEN, J., a French painter, 1647-1734. 
 
 VIZZANI, jEneas, in Latin Vigianus, a physi- 
 cian of Bologna, 1543-1602. Pompeio, an nisto- 
 rian of that city, died 1607. Carlo Emanuel, 
 a philologist and classical commentator, 1617-61. 
 
 VLADIMIR, four Russian princes: Vladi- 
 mir, called the Great, became master of the domin- 
 ions of his father after assassinating his brother, 
 Jaropolk, in 980, and commenced the civilization of 
 Russia, and the foundation of the Christian reli- 
 gion ; died 1005. Vladimir (the second, though 
 not called by that title), eldest son of Yaroslaw, 
 grand duke of Kief, became duke of Novogorod in 
 1038, conducted an expedition against Constan- 
 tinople 1041, died 1052. Vladimir II., his great- 
 grandson, commenced to reign 1113, and was 
 distinguished for his humanity and wise adminis- 
 tration ; he sustained a war with the Bulgarians, 
 the Livonians, and the emperor Alexis Commenus, 
 and was the first of the grand dukes who took the 
 title of Czar, and assumed the characters of impe- 
 rial dignitv; died 1125. Vladimir Andreio- 
 witz, nephew of Ivan II., is remarkable for his re- 
 nunciation of the power offered to him, in favour 
 
 he drd, 4th, 5th, and 6th books only, and those I of his cousin, Demetrius, with the view of promot- 
 not entire ; and by Joseph Gwilt, London, 1826, | ing the establishment of a regular order in the 
 in royal 8vo. Neither the time nor place of Vitru- | succession. This occurred in 1364, and Vludhnir 
 
 808 
 
VIA 
 
 afterwards distinguished himself in arms against 
 the Tartars. Died 1410. 
 
 VLADISLAS. See Uladislaus. 
 
 VLAMING, P., a Dutch poet, 1686-1733. 
 
 VLASTA, a Bohemian amazon, who maintained 
 a struggle for eight years in the endeavour to 
 establish a state ruled by women, killed 743. 
 
 VLIEGER, S., a Dutch painter, 17th century. 
 
 VLIERDEN, Lambert De, a Flemish juris- 
 consult and Latin poet, 1564-1640. 
 
 VLIET, William Van, a Dutch historical and 
 portrait painter, 1584-1642. 
 
 VLIET, or VL1TIUS, J. Van, a Dutch juris- 
 consult, philologist, and poet, died 1666. 
 
 VOEL, J., a French Jesuit, 1541-1610. 
 
 VOET, Gisbert, in Latin Voetius, professor of 
 divinity and Oriental languages at Utrecht ; born 
 at Hensden 1593, died i680. He wrote against 
 the Arminians, and against the Cartesian philo- 
 sophy, with much ill-feeling and personal bitter- 
 ness. His son, Paul, was professor of law at 
 Utrecht, and wrote several periodical works, 1619- 
 1667. Daniel, another of his sons, was professor 
 of philosophy, and wrote on physiological and other 
 subjects, 1629-1660. John, son of Paul, became 
 a professor of law at Leyden, and is au. of a valu- 
 able ; Commentary on the Pandects,' 1647-1714. 
 
 VOGEL, C, a German composer, 1756-1788. 
 
 VOGEL, J. W., a Ger. mineralogist, 1657-1723. 
 
 VOGEL, Rodolph, a German physician and 
 chemist, compiler of a ' Medical Library,' pub- 
 lished between 1751 and 1771. 
 
 VOGLER, J. P., a Germ, botanist, 1746-1802. 
 
 VOGLI, J. H., an Ital. biographer, 1697-1762. 
 
 VOIGT, G., a German theologian, 1644-1682. 
 
 VOIGT, J., a Germ, bibliographer, 1695-1765. 
 
 VOIGT, J. C, a German physician, 1725-1810. 
 
 VOIS, A. De, a Dutch painter, born 1641. 
 
 VOIS, R. De, a French ecclesiastic, 1665-1728. 
 
 VOISENON, Claude Henry Fusee, Abbe 
 De, a dramatic writer and wit, whose life presents 
 a singular mixture of alternate devotion and licen- 
 tiousness, born at the Chateau de Voisenon, near 
 Melun, 1708, died 1775. The best of his ro- 
 mances is entitled ' L'Histoire de la Felicite ;' some 
 of his comedies were veiy successful. 
 
 VOISIN, J. De, a rabbinical writer, 1620-1685. 
 
 VOISIN, or VOYSIN, D. F., chancellor of 
 France during the Orleans regency, 1654-1717. 
 
 VOITURE, Vincent, a poet and man of letters, 
 advanced by Mazarin, 1598-1648. 
 
 VOLANUS, A., a Polish protestant, celebrated 
 for his controversy with the Jesuits, 1530-1610. 
 
 VOLCKAMMER, J. C, a physician and botanist 
 of Nuremberg, last century. 
 
 VOLCKAMMER, J. G.,aphysician and botanist 
 of Nuremberg, 1616-1693. 
 
 VOLCKMANN, J. J., a native of Hamburgh, 
 known as a translator, 1732-1803. 
 
 VOLKOV, Fedor Grigorievitch, a great 
 Russian dramatist and actor, 1729-1763. 
 
 VOLKYR, Nicholas, secretary to the duke of 
 Lorraine, and historian of Alsace, 16th century. 
 
 VOLLENHOVE, J., a Dutch poet and pro- 
 testant theologian, 17th century. 
 
 VOLNEY, Constantine Chasseboxuf, Comte 
 De, enjoyed in the early part of this century a 
 brilliant reputation, which, however, did not rest 
 on such a basis either of deep learning or of solid 
 
 VOL 
 
 thought, as to secure its permanence. His most 
 famous work, the ' Ruines, ou Meditations sur les 
 Revolutions des Empires' (1791), is a piece of 
 showy and even eloquent writing; but it has no 
 real force as an exposition of the unsound and 
 dangerous principles which it inculcates. Soon 
 after it there appeared ' La Loi Naturelle,' a sys- 
 tem of ethics founded on the basis of materialism. 
 Before the publication of these works, he had done 
 better service by his spirited and observant ' Voy- 
 age en Syrie et en Egypte;' and afterwards he 
 was a valuable labourer in the field of Ancient 
 Chronology. His speculations on the Oriental 
 Tongues led to much controversy, but seem to be 
 now held quite destitute of worth. Volney was 
 born in Anjou in 1757, and inherited after a time 
 property enough to let him indulge in travelling 
 and miscellaneous studies. He took part in the 
 Revolutionary struggles, attaching himself to the 
 party of the Gironde; and after the fall of Robes- 
 pierre he was for some time a professor in the Ecole 
 Normale. At first he was a favourite of Napoleon, 
 who proposed to make him second consul ; but by 
 and by he shared in the contempt with which the 
 emperor treated all independent thinkers. He 
 voted in the senate for Napoleon's deposition, and 
 was created a peer at the Restoration. He died in 
 1820. [W.S.I 
 
 VOLPATO, Giovanni, an Italian engraver ana 
 writer on the principles of design, was born at 
 Bassano 1733, died 1802. Volpato was instructed 
 by Bartolozzi, and was employed to make engrav- 
 ings from the paintings of Raphael at the Vatican. 
 A monument by Canova has been erected to him. 
 
 VOLPATO, J. B., an Italian painter, 1633-1706. 
 
 VOLPI, Giovanni Antonio, a famous Italian 
 scholar and Latin poet, 1686-1766. His brother, 
 Gaetano, an editor and bibliographer, bora 1689. 
 A third brother, Giambattista, a distinguished 
 anatomist, taught by Morgagni, died 1757. 
 
 VOLP1NI, Giambattista, an Italian physi- 
 cian and disciple of Van Helmont, died 1714. 
 
 VOLTA, Alexander, born at Como, Milan, 
 14th February, 1745; died 5th March, 1827, at 
 Como. Educated in the public school of his na- 
 tive place under the eye of his father, Volta at 
 an early age directed his attention to the pheno- 
 mena of electricity. About 1775 he published an 
 account of his electrophorus, which in the smal- 
 lest size forms a source of the electric fluid, a re- 
 markable instrument at that period in the history 
 of electricity. In 1776 and 1777 he noticed the 
 production of carburetted hydrogen in stagnant 
 pools. Although probably unknown to him, 
 Franklin had described the same fact in 1774. 
 He showed in 1780 that the burning of some of 
 Pietra mala is due to this gas. In 1777 he first 
 used eudiometers to fire gases in close vessels, and 
 invented about the same time the electric gun and 
 pistol, and the permanent hydrogen lamp. In 
 1779 he became professor of physics at Pavia. 
 In the beginning of the year 1800, Volta con- 
 structed the Voltaic pile, the most wonderful 
 apparatus perhaps ever invented by man, since of 
 the unparalleled truths developed by the agency of 
 this simple invention, we have only yet seen the 
 dawn. After this period he was made a senator 
 of Lombardy by Napoleon, who likewise bestowed 
 other favours upon him. But he made no figure 
 
 eoj 
 
VOL 
 as a political orator, falling short in this respect 
 even of NewtOB, who, (luring his parliamentary 
 is said to have spoken only once in the 
 House of Commons, and the solitary oration was 
 to direct the door-keeper to shut one of the win- 
 dows, through which a draught of air was pro- 
 jected upon the member addressing the House. 
 Yalta, however, never uttered a word. In 1819, 
 he retired from his professorship to his native 
 town, and spent the evening of his days, beloved 
 and honoured by his fellow-citizens. [R.D.T.] 
 
 VOLTAIRE, the name capriciously assumed by 
 FSAVOOia MaBU AbOUBT, was made by him 
 more celebrated than any other word that we read 
 in the literary history of the eighteenth century. 
 There was hardly any department of literature to 
 which Voltaire did not make contributions; and, 
 to say nothing of many efforts trifling or unsuc- 
 cessful, the variety of his genius is attested by the 
 number and diversity of the departments in which 
 he attained celebrity. He gave to the French 
 language some of its finest tragedies, and its only 
 epic that is worthy of the name ; a few of its 
 liveliest novels, and many of the wittiest and most 
 b ighly finished of its satirical and other light poems ; 
 several of its most' spirited and judicious histories, 
 and a large number of its most acute critical essaj r s ; 
 and, above all, he poured out an enormous series of 
 writings, which, though their claim to the title of 
 philosophical may justly be questioned, passed in 
 their time for the exposition of a true and great 
 philosophy, and exercised on public opinion through- 
 out Europe a tremendous and practical influence. 
 He was a consummate master in the art of repre- 
 sentation, owing his effectiveness much less to his 
 great clearness and consecutiveness of thought, 
 than to the remarkable skill and liveliness with 
 which he puts his ideas into words : his poetical 
 diction is very refined and terse; and his prose 
 style is unsurpassed for its apt perspicuity, its easy 
 and varied grace, and its brilliant turns and strokes 
 of wit Against this large sum of merit, there has to 
 be set off a heavy account of literary faults, caused 
 chiefly by a lamentable predominance of moral 
 evil. Voltaire was a bad-hearted man : he neither 
 loved nor reverenced any object except himself and 
 his own glory ; his vanity generated an irascible 
 malignity, and a settled unbelief in all that is true 
 and holy ; and, while his serious poetry thus became 
 cold, his other works exhibit unrestrained in- 
 dulgence in a sneering irony, which, taken along 
 with their prevalent purpose, may be held as not 
 unjustly imaged in Goethe's Mephistophiles. The 
 dangerous political tendency attributed to Voltaire's 
 writings was little more than indirect : the im- 
 mediate objects of his attack were much seldomer 
 kings than priests. He was, in fact, a bigot, a 
 bigotted and intolerant deist. The atheism pro- 
 fessed by some of his fellow-Encyclopedists, was 
 regarded by him with a dislike as scornful as that 
 with which he looked on Christianity ; and if the 
 design which he avowed, of destroying the Christian 
 religion, occupied him almost exclusively, this was 
 only because that faith was nominally or really pre- 
 valent, and because among its ministers were many 
 of the enemies on whom he panted to be revenged. 
 Trained in his youth amidst the unbelief and pro- 
 liich pervaded the aristocratic society of 
 Paris in the era of the Kegency, he taught literature 
 
 VOL 
 
 to mock at truths which he saw mocked at in real 
 life ; and he thus became the direct agent in pro- 
 pagating, but the indirect and unwitting instru- 
 ment in finally overthrowing, the system of opinions 
 and conduct which disgraced that evil time. Vol- 
 taire was the son of Francois Arouet, an officer in 
 the finance department of the government, and was 
 born at a village near Paris, in 1694. He distin- 
 guished himself in boyhood, at the Jesuit College 
 of Louis-le-Grand, by his aptitude for learning, 
 his malignant wit, and his inclination to scoff at 
 religion. His godfather, a fashionable and literary 
 abbe, introduced him at an early age into courtly 
 circles, where he speedily learned the hollowness of 
 everything around him, and acquired and exhibited 
 his characteristic skill both in artful compliment 
 and in biting repartee. He was next placed in the 
 chambers of a lawyer, but speedily deserted them. 
 Indecent satirical verses having been circulated on 
 the death of Louis XIV., the notoriety of the young 
 Arouet caused him to be suspected (wrongfully for 
 once) of being the author. He was confined for a 
 year in the Bastile, where he finished his tragedy 
 ' (Edipe,' and sketched Ids epic ' L' Henriade.' He 
 was now allowed by his father to take his own way. 
 His tragedy, proving successful, was followed by 
 others which failed ; the ' Henriade,' stolen in 
 manuscript, as he alleged, was printed,with satirical 
 verses which he said were interpolations. The publi- 
 cation, thus called surreptitious, made him famous; 
 and the same farce was repeated so often in his lit- 
 erary career, that, in this case as in the rest, the 
 whole was plainly a device of the author himself. He 
 now experienced, much as Dryden did afterwards, 
 the danger of associating witn aristocratic rakes. 
 A man of quality, affronting the young poet in 
 society, was put to silence by an apt retort ; hei 
 took his revenge by making his valets give the 
 upstart a beating ; Voltaire learned to fence, chal- 
 lenged his insulter, and was answered by an im- 
 prisonment of six months. On his release he wae 
 banished from the kingdom. He chose to pass his 
 exile in England, where he lived for three yeara 
 (1726-1729). His French apologists say that he 
 was here confirmed in his infidelity by his intimacy 
 with Bolingbroke and others. No confirmation 
 additional instruction was needed. Hardly more 
 reason is there for the assertion that he made him- 
 self profoundly acquainted with the English lan- 
 guage and literature. He did learn very much of 
 both ; but he never learned anything profoundly.' 
 He became sufficiently acquainted with Shak- 
 speare's works to ridicule them and steal from: 
 them ; and he acquired English enough to write 
 ludicrously blundering letter, which is preserved by 
 the biographers of Pope. In England, at all events^ 
 he learned how to publish works by subscription^ 
 and perhaps also how to conduct commercial 
 speculations. By the English profits of an edition 
 of the ' Henriade,' he laid the foundation of a for- 
 tune, which he afterwards increased enormously byi 
 lottery tickets, gambling in the corn trade, and 
 lending money at usurious interest. Thus, thou^" 
 he soon affected to be above receiving any price tor 
 his literary works, he was a rich man for many tj; 
 years of his life, and a very rich one at its close. ' n . 
 For several years alter he was allowed to return to ^ 
 France, Voltaire shifted his residence often, having 
 sometimes real occasion to dread the govern-! 
 
 810 
 
VOL 
 
 ment. Now, besides the Lettres Philosophiques,' 
 (sketched in England, and very obnoxious,) appeared 
 his ' Histoire de Charles XII., and several tragedies, 
 among which were ' Adelaide dn Guesclin,' and 
 4 Zaire' (1732), his dramatic masterpiece. In 1788 
 Voltaire and Madam du Chastetet, a married 
 woman of a mathematical turn, agreed to live 
 together, and retired to the Villa of Cirey, on the 
 borders of Champagne and Lorraine. There they 
 lived, studied, and quarrelled, till 1749, when the 
 lady, who had more lovers than one, died in child- 
 bed*. Her example, and Voltaire's boundless pre- 
 sumption, made him mistake himself so much as 
 to publish the 'Elemens de la Philosophic de 
 Newton.' In this retreat were composed, besides 
 other tragedies, the two fine ones ' Mahomet ' and 
 I Merope ;' as also the ' Siecle de Louis XIV.,' and, 
 in part at least, the 'Essai sur les Mceurs et 
 l'Esprit des Nations.' The retirement was inter- 
 rupted by visits to Paris, by several other journeys, 
 and by a secret mission to Frederic II. of Prussia, 
 whom Voltaire had already visited. In 1750, on 
 the invitation of this eccentric king, Voltaire settled 
 at Berlin. He remained there for three years, 
 during which he enlivened the royal circle by his 
 wit, corrected the bad French of the royal philo- 
 sopher and poet, and learned to demonstration, not 
 only that courts are wearisome places, but that 
 Frederic of Prussia and Francois Arouet were too 
 like each other to be really friends. This period was 
 not prolific in new compositions. Nor did much 
 that was important come from his pen during the 
 next few years, which he spent at various places 
 in France, living for a time also in Germany, to 
 collect materials for the 'Annales de 1' Empire,' 
 which is described as being the only one of all his 
 works that wearies the reader. In 1758, when he 
 was in his sixty-fourth year, he purchased two small 
 estates, lying not far from Geneva, though within 
 the French frontier; and at his chateau of Ferney, 
 in one of these, he passed the last twenty-two years 
 of his life. Ferney was, during that time, what 
 Abbotsford became, more worthily, in our own day, 
 the muster-place of all the celebrities of Europe, 
 whom the master of the mansion entertained 
 hospitably, while he sedulously prosecuted his own 
 literary labours. To this period, of vigorous old 
 age, unimpeded by personal dangers, but far from 
 being undisturbed by personal quarrels, belong 
 very many of Voltaire's works, and some of his 
 best. The last of his successful plays were 
 4 L' Orphelin de la Chine,' acted a little before his 
 retirement, and ' Tancrede,' soon after it. A 
 crowd of other tragedies were confessedly failures ; 
 and his comedies always had been so. i La Philo- 
 sophic de 1' Histoire ' (1765), was written as an 
 introduction to the 'Essay on the Manners of 
 Nations,' now completed and published ; and the 
 | Histoire de Pierre le Grand ' appeared in parts 
 from 1759 to 1765. Thus, as one of his French 
 biographers observes, 'To combat religion with- 
 out ceasing, and to make war on all who defended 
 it; to defend his own glory against those who 
 attacked it ; and to succour or avenge the innocent 
 victims of human justice : all these diversified 
 employments were far from absorbing his whole 
 time.' There is here an allusion to a series of 
 Voltaire's exertions, of which his vindication of 
 the memory of Calas was the first. Though he 
 
 VOS 
 
 was doubtless led to defend the unfortunate Cal- 
 vinist by regarding him as a victim of his own 
 enemies the priests, his better feelings were keenly 
 awakened as the long struggle proceeded , and this 
 and several subsequent appeals of the same sort 
 are among the best points in the conduct of the 
 ' Philosopher of Ferney.' It should be noted, also, 
 that, with all his frugality, he was a liberal and 
 improving landlord, and a charitable neighbour. 
 He quarrelled with his parish priest ; but he built 
 him a new church. Towards the end of his days, 
 indeed, he showed a desire of reconciliation with 
 the ministers of religion, his expression of which 
 scandalized his infidel friends as a piece of cowar- 
 dice, while the clergy were disposed to regard it as 
 shameless hypocrisy. He seemed to look no farther 
 than obtaining the sacraments by pretences and 
 tricks-, and he justified himself to his disciples by 
 saying, that he wished his body to rest in conse- 
 crated ground. It was, after all, not without decep- 
 tion and intrigue, that his friends were able to 
 procure this posthumous honour for the unrepent- 
 mg apostle of unbelief. Having gone to Paris, 
 where he had not been for twenty years, he died 
 there in 1778, soon after having completed his 
 eighty-fourth year. [W.S.] 
 
 VOLTERRA, Daniel Rucardi De, a cele- 
 brated Italian painter and sculptor, 1509-1566. 
 
 VONCK, F., a Belgian advocate, known as one 
 of the popular leaders in 1789, died 1792. 
 
 VONDEL, Joost Von Der, a Dutch poet and 
 dramatic writer, whose works have greatly aided 
 in perfecting his native language, 1587-1679. 
 
 VOPISCUS, Flavtus, a Latin historian, who 
 lived at Rome in the time of Diocletian and Con- 
 stantine Chlorus, commencement of the 4th cen- 
 tury. He is considered one of the best writers of 
 the Augustan histories. His work commenced 
 with the history of Aurelian, but his remains now 
 extant are the lives of the four tyrants, Firmus, 
 Saturninus, Proclus, and Bonosas ; and of the three 
 emperors, Cams, Numerianus, and Carenas. 
 
 VORAGINE, J. De, an Italian Dominican, his- 
 torian, and writer of sacred legends, died 1298. 
 
 VORST, iELius Everard, a Dutch physician, 
 director of the botanic garden at Leyden, 1565- 
 1624. His son Adolphus, a physician and 
 botanist, editor of an edition of Hippocrates. 
 1597-1663. 
 
 VORST, Conrad, in Latin Vorstiits, a Dutch 
 theologian, successor of Arminius at the academy 
 of Leyden, 1569-1622. William Henry, his 
 son, a minister and Hebrew scholar, died 1660. 
 
 VORSTIUS, J., a Lutheran controversialist, 
 philologist, and Hebrew scholar, 1623-1676. 
 
 VORT1GERN, a British king, elected after the 
 departure of the Romans from this island in 454, 
 killed in battle 485. 
 
 VOS, Martin De, an eminent Flemish painter, 
 instructed by his father and by Tintoretto. He ex- 
 celled in landscapes and historical composition ; died 
 at Antwerp 1604. Simon Paul, another artist 
 of this name, excelled most in hunting pieces, and 
 flourished at Antwerp about the same time, but 
 the dates are not ascertained. 
 
 VOSS, John Henry, a German poet and critic, 
 who ranks also among the greatest of German 
 translators and philologists, was born of humble 
 parentage at MecklenLcrg in 1751. He studied 
 
 811 
 
vos 
 
 tote Hevne .it Gottingen, and in 1S09 was ap- 
 pointed MOttmat at Heidelberg, in which office he 
 6. In his translations of Homer, and others 
 of the chief classics, Voss is said to have preserved 
 the metrical form of the original, the most minute 
 details, and expressions of ideas, the epithets, and 
 all the effective characteristics, with surprising 
 fidelity. He has translated Shakspeare, but this 
 endeavour is understood to be less successful. 
 He was involved in many bitter controversies with 
 Heyne, Stolberg, and Creurey. His own 'Idyls ' 
 have the reputation of being charming additions to 
 the native literature of Germany. 
 
 VOSSIUS, Gerard, a Roman Catholic theo- 
 logian and learned editor, died 1609. 
 
 VOSSIUS, Gerard John, professor at Leyden 
 and Amsterdam, celebrated for nis extensive learn- 
 ing as a theologian and philologist, was the son of 
 a protestant minister, and was born near Heidel- 
 berg 1577. Some of his works are still considered 
 of great value. He was killed by falling from a 
 ladder in his library 1649. His son, Isaac, also 
 bears a great name among the learned, but he was 
 sceptical of revelation ; he settled in England and 
 became canon of Windsor, 1618-1688. 
 
 VOUET, Simon, an eminent Fr. painter, em- 
 ployed in the Louvre and Luxembourg, 1582-1649. 
 
 VOULTE, John, in Latin Vtdteus, a Latin 
 poet, born at Rheims about 1542. 
 
 VOYER, a family of distinguished Frenchmen : 
 Rene, Seigneur D'Argenson, a soldier and diplo- 
 matist, 1596-1651. His son and successor in the 
 title, same name, a diplomatist and ambassador to 
 Venice, 1623-1700. Marc Rene, son of the lat- 
 ter, chancellor of France, minister of police, and a 
 freat promoter of Lttires de Cachet, 1652-1721. 
 lis eldest son, Rene Louis, Marquis D'Argenson, 
 minister of foreign affairs, distinguished as a 
 scholar and partizan of the philosophic doctrines, 
 author of Essays,' 1694-1757. Marc Pierre, 
 brother of the latter, successor of his father as 
 lieutenant-general of police, and successor of M. 
 de Bretuil as minister of war, was born in 1696. 
 I lis name is a conspicuous one in the history of the 
 Orleans regency : and having strenuously opposed 
 
 WAD 
 
 the system of William Law, he was out of favour 
 till the great financialist had fallen into disgrace. 
 He was a patron of learned men, and D'Alembert 
 and Diderot dedicated the Encyclopddie to him. 
 He was disgraced through the influence of Madame 
 Pompadour in 1757 ; died 1764. His son, Rene, 
 a distinguished commander, flourished 1722-1782. 
 
 VOYS, A. De, a Dutch painter, born 1641. 
 
 VOYSIN. See Voisin. 
 
 VREE, or VREDIUS, Oliver De, a Flemish 
 historian of his own country, 1578-1652. 
 
 VRIES, Gerard De, a zealous Cartesian philo- 
 sopher, flourished at Utrecht 17th century. 
 
 VRIES, John Fredeman De, a Dutch pain- 
 ter of architecture and perspective, 1527-1588. 
 
 VRIES, Martin Gerritson De, a Dutch U 
 navigator, time of Van Diemen, 1612. 
 
 VRILLIERE, Louis Phelipeaux, Marquis 
 De La, secretary of the Orleans regency, 1672-1725. 
 
 VROOM, or VROON, Henry Cornelius, a 
 Dutch marine painter, from whose designs the 
 tapestry in the House of Lords, representing the 
 defeat of the Spanish armada, was executed to the 
 order of Admiral Howard, 1566-1617. 
 
 VUEZ, A. De, a French painter 1642-1724. 
 
 VUILLEMIN, or WILLEMIN, Jean, a French 
 physician and Latin poet, 16th century. 
 
 VUITASSE, C, a Fr. theologian, 1660-1716. 
 
 VULCANUS, the Latinized name of Bonaven- 
 ture de Smet, a learned Fleming, 1538-1614. 
 
 VULSON, or WLSON, DE LA COLOM- 
 BIERE, Marc De, a famous heraldic writer, who 
 resided at Grenoble, till his domestic peace was 
 destroyed, in the first half of the 17th century, and 
 then took up his abode at Paris. He died in office 
 at the court 1658. Among his works, which are 
 of great value, may be mentioned ' Le Vrai Theatre 
 d'Honneur et de Chevalerie,' 2 volumes in folio, 
 1 La Science Heroique,' and ' De L'Office des Roia 
 d'Armes, des Heraults et Poursuivauts.' 
 
 VUOERDEN, M. A., Baron De, a French ad 
 ministrator, author of ' Historical Journals ' relat- 
 ing to the history of Louis XIV, 1629-1699. 
 
 VZESLAS, grand duke of Russia, rival of Isias- 
 lav in their civil wars, 1068-1101. 
 
 w 
 
 WAAJEN, WAASEN, or WAEYEN, Jean 
 Vander, a Dutch theologian, who has the repu- 
 tation of being one of the best controversialists of 
 that country, and was counsellor to the prince of 
 Orange, 1639-1701. His son, of the same names, 
 who succeeded him as preacher to the university of 
 Franeker, died 1716. 
 
 WAAL, or WAEL, Lucas De, a painter of Ant- 
 werp, taught by John Breughel, 1591-1676. Cor- 
 Mi.n s, his vounger brother, 1594-1662. 
 
 WAGE, or WAlCE, Robert, an Anglo-Nor- 
 man poet and chronicler, who was canon of Ba- 
 yeux, and chaplain to Henry I. of England, 12th 
 century. 
 
 WACHTER, John George, a learned Ger- 
 man philologist and antiquarian, 1673-1757. 
 
 WACKEKBARTH, A. C. Count Von, an 
 Austrian field-marshal and statesman, 1662-1734. 
 
 WADING, or WADDING, Luke, an Irish 
 priest, who held a professorship at Salamanca, and 
 
 afterwards resided at Rome, author of a ' History 
 of the Order of St. Francis,' and editor of several 
 learned works, including Duns Scotus and Ca- 
 laisio's Concordance, 1588-1657. 
 
 WADDING, Peter, an Irish Jesuit, who be- 
 came chancellor at the university of Gratz, in 
 Styria, author of Latin works, 1580-1644. 
 
 WADHAM, Nicholas, founder of the college 
 that bears his name at Oxford, 1536-1610. 
 
 WADSTROM, or WADSTRCEM, Charles 
 Bernard, a Swedish engineer, memorable as a 
 promoter of African colonization and discovery,! 
 was born in Stockholm 1746. He visited Africa 
 in company with the botanist, Sparrman, and I 
 mineralogist, Arrhenius, in 1787, and on co: 
 to London was invited to give evidence before 
 privy council, in an inquiry tending to the al 
 tion of the slave trade. His pamphlet on the : 
 ject led to the establishment of the English col 
 at Sierra Leone ; died at Paris 1799. Wadst 
 
 812 
 
added some remarks upon the negro character to 
 the work of Norris on Dahomey. 
 
 WML, Lucas De, a Flemish painter, 1591- 
 1676. Cornelius, his brother, a painter of land- 
 scapes and battle-pieces, 1594-1662. 
 
 WAFER, Lionel, an English adventurer, who 
 was originally a surgeon in the army, and sailed 
 with Dampier. The latter having quarrelled with 
 bim, put him ashore on the isthmus of Darien, 
 where he remained some time with the Indians. 
 He published an interesting narrative on his return 
 home in 1690. 
 
 WAFFLARD, Alexts James Maria, a French 
 dramatic author, 1787-1824. 
 
 WAGA, Theodore, a Polish jurist and histo- 
 rian of his own country, 1739-1801. 
 
 WAGENAAR, John, historiographer to the 
 city of Amsterdam, author of a ' History of Hol- 
 land from the Earliest Times to 1751/ The Pre- 
 sent State ot the United Provinces,' ' Description 
 of the City of Amsterdam,' and ' The Character of 
 John de Witt placed in its True Light.' The first 
 of these works extends to 21 vols. 8vo, and the 
 edition of 1752-1759 is embellished with engrav- 
 ings, maps, and portraits, by Houbraken. Wage- 
 naar was born in Amsterdam 1709, died 1773. 
 
 WAGENAAR, Luke Jansen, a Dutch pilot 
 and writer on navigation, died 1596. 
 
 WAGENHARE, Peter De, a religious pro- 
 fessor and Latin poet, born about 1599, died 1662. 
 
 WAGENSEIL, John Christopher, professor 
 of history and jurisprudence at Altorf, author of 
 
 WAL 
 
 WAGNER, Peter Christian, a learned Ger- 
 man physician and naturalist, 1703-1764. 
 
 WAGNER, Tobias, a learned theologian and 
 counsellor at Tubingen, 1598-1680. 
 
 WAGSTAFFE, Thomas, a learned divine of the 
 party of nonjurors, who adopted the medical profes- 
 sion after the revolution, and finally became a pre- 
 late : besides his Sermons, he wrote some political 
 tracts and a vindication of Charles I., 1645-1712. 
 
 WAGSTAFFE, William, known as a humor- 
 ous writer, physician to Saint Bartholomew's Hos- 
 pital, born in Buckinghamshire 1685, died 1725. 
 
 WAHLENBERG, George, an eminent Swed- 
 ish botanist and geologist, 1784-1814. 
 
 WAILLY, Noel F. De, a French grammarian, 
 1724-1801. His son, Stephen A ugustin, author 
 of a Rhyming Dictionary, 1770-1821. Charles, 
 of the same family, a famous architect, 1729-98. 
 
 WAILLY, P. J., a Fr. missionary, 1759-1828. 
 
 WAITHMAN, John, an alderman and mem- 
 ber of parliament of the city of London, well known 
 as an advocate of popular rights; born in Den- 
 bighshire 1765, died 1833. 
 
 WAKE, Sir Isaac, an ambassador of the time 
 of James I., born at Billing, in Northamptonshire, 
 where his father was rector, about 1575, died 1632. 
 He wrote several works, the principal of which is 
 his 'Rex Platonicus,' of which six editions were 
 published. 
 
 WAKE, William, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 a prelate of great learning and ability as a theolo- 
 gian, was born at Blandford, in Dorsetshire, 1657. 
 
 'Tela Ignea Satanae,' which is a collection and re- I He became bishop of Lincoln in 1705, and arch- 
 
 futation of all that the Jews have written against 
 Christianity, 1633-1705. 
 
 WAGER, Sir Charles, a brave naval officer, 
 distinguished in the reign of Anne, 16G6-1743. 
 
 WAGHORN, Thomas, a lieutenant in the royal 
 navy, whose name will long be held in remem- 
 brance for his achievement of the Overland route 
 to India. He was born at Chatham in 1800, and 
 having seen much service by sea and land in the 
 employ of the East India Company, commenced 
 the execution of his great project in 1827. His 
 exertions were crowned with success, but his 
 means and his health were both exhausted, and 
 he died soon after receiving a meagre instalment 
 of the thankful recognition to which he was 
 entitled, in 1850. 
 
 WAGNER, B., a professor of philosophy, 16th c. 
 
 WAGNER, Charles Christian, a German 
 physician and professional writer, 1732-1796. 
 
 WAGNER, C. L., a Ger, theologian, last cent. 
 
 WAGNER, Gabriel, a German polemic and 
 philosophical writer, professor of literature and 
 poetry at Hamburgh in 1696. 
 
 WAGNER, Godefroi, a German divine, and 
 editor of several learned works, last century. 
 
 WAGNER, G. F., a German jurist, born 1631. 
 
 WAGNER, J. G., a Ger. physician, died 1759. 
 
 WAGNER, J. J., a Swiss physician, author of 
 a Natural History of his country, 1641-1695. 
 
 WAGNER, Louis Frederic, a jurisconsult 
 and numismatist of Tubingen, 1700-1789. 
 
 WAGNER, Paul, a magistrate and jurist of 
 Leipzig, 1617-1697. Christian, his son, a divine 
 and learned writer, 1663-1698. Gottfried, 
 brother of the latter, a learned writer upon the 
 origin of the Americans, 1652-1725. 
 
 bishop in 1716. The most remarkable circum- 
 stance in his history was his correspondence with 
 the Jansenists, the end of which was to promote 
 a union of the French and English Churches. 
 Died 1737. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, a classical scholar 
 and theologian, originally a curate in the Church 
 of England, was born at Nottingham in 1756. He 
 left the church to accept the situation of classical 
 teacher at Warrington, from which, in 1790, he 
 removed to the dissenting college at Hackney. In 
 less than a year this engagement was also brought 
 to a close, and Mr. Wakefield gave himself up 
 freely to opposition politics and attacks upon the 
 religious systems, especially of the Church of Eng- 
 land. His ' Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff' led 
 to his prosecution and imprisonment for two years 
 in Dorchester gaol. He was liberated in May, 
 1801, and died of typhus fever in the September 
 following. He is author of several learned works, 
 besides some of temporary interest. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Priscilla, authoress of nume- 
 rous works, designed to promote the education and 
 moral improvement of the young, was born of 
 Quaker parents, named Trewman, in 1750, and 
 died at Ipswich 1832. Her benevolent disposition 
 was further shown by the foundation of savings 
 banks, originally promoted by her for the benefit 
 of the industrious poor. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Robert, a distin. Hebraist, and 
 minister of the Church of England, died 1537. 
 
 WALBAUM, J. J., a Ger. naturalist, 1724-99. 
 
 WALCH, A. G., a German writer, 1736-1801. 
 
 WALCH, B. G. T a German savant, 1756-1805. 
 
 WALCH, J. G., a German theologian and philo- 
 logist, 1693-1775. His son, J. E. Emmanuel, 
 
 813 
 
WAL 
 
 I learned theologian and naturalist, 172">-177S. 
 
 ('hi:. W. Framoois, brother of the latter, an 
 
 jtical historian and theologian, 1726-1784. 
 
 0, FKKDBBIC, a third hr., a jurisconsult, 1784-99. 
 
 WALDAU, Q. E., a German savant, born 1745. 
 
 WALDEGBAVE, James, earl of, an eminent 
 statesman, governor of the prince of Wales, son of 
 uithor of Memoirs, 1715-1763. 
 
 WAI.DEMAIl I., called 'the Great,' king of 
 Denmark, born 1131, succeeded Eric V., 1147. 
 His reign was illustrated by expeditions against 
 the pirates of the Baltic, and he compelled Mag- 
 nus VI., king of Norway, to sign a humiliating 
 died 1181. WALDBKAB II., called ' the 
 Victorious,' younger son of the preceding, suc- 
 ceeded his brother, Canute VI., 1202. He made 
 many warlike expeditions into Sweden, Norway, 
 and Germany, created a powerful navy, and 
 revised the laws of his kingdom ; died 1241. Wal- 
 demau III., eldest son of the preceding, was re- 
 gent from 1219 to 1231. Waldemar IV., third 
 son of Christopher IL, was in Bavaria at the death 
 of his father in 1333. In 1340-4 he recovered part 
 of his kingdom by force of arms, and obtained 
 some further successes against Sweden in 1353 
 and 1357; eventually, however, he was glad to 
 obtain peace by making some sacrifices ; died 1376. 
 
 WALDENSIS, Thomas, a learned English 
 Carmelite, born at Walden, in Essex, about 1367. 
 He became the champion of the church against 
 the reformers of the reign of Henry IV., and in 
 that of Henry V., whose favourite he was, rose to 
 be provincial of his order and a privy councillor. 
 Henry V. died in his arms, and he himself de- 
 parted this life while attending the youthful 
 monarch, Henry VI., in France, 1430. 
 
 WALDO, Peter. See Valdo. 
 
 WALDIS, B... a German fabulist, died 1554. 
 
 WALDKIRCH, John Rodolph De, a Swiss 
 jurisconsult and historian, 1678-1757 
 
 WALE, Anthony De, a Flemish theologian and 
 adversary of the remonstrants, 1573-1639. John, 
 his son, a physician and anatomist, 1604-1649. 
 
 WALES, William, an English mathematician, 
 who accompanied Captain Cook on his second 
 voyage in the character of astronomer, and was 
 finally secretary to the Board of Longitude, author 
 of several astronomical works, 1734-1798. 
 
 WALINGFORD, Richard, abbot of St. Albans, 
 known as an astronomer and historian, 14th cent. 
 
 WALKER, Adam, an experimental philosopher 
 and lecturer, was born in Westmoreland 1732, and 
 brought up as a weaver, but devoting all his spare 
 time to self-improvement, was early qualified' for 
 a place in the intellectual world. He was settled 
 in London as a professional man in 1778, and died 
 there in 1821, Besides his works in experimental 
 philosophy, he invented the Eidouranion, or trans- 
 parent orrery, the revolving lights in the islands 
 of Scilly, and several useful machines. His son, 
 William, was also a lecturer on astronomy, and 
 flourished 1766-1816. 
 
 WALKER, Clement, a presbyterian and poli- 
 tical writer of the time of Cromwell, was born at 
 Cliffe, in Dorsetshire, and educated at Oxford. 
 Previous to the civil wars he was usher of the 
 exchequer, but at the commencement of those stir- 
 
 ring times he became, in 1640, member of parlia- 
 ment for Wells. His 'History of Independency' 
 
 WAL 
 
 and Cromwell's Slaughter House,' were the occa- 
 sion of his committal to the Tower in 1649, and 
 he died there 1651. 
 
 WALKER, Sin Edward, clerk to the privy 
 council in the time of Charles L, known as a 
 heraldist and historian, died 1677. 
 
 WALKER, George, a dissenting minister and 
 teacher of theology, better known as a mathema- 
 tician by his ' Doctrine of the Sphere,' was born at 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne about 1734. He was one of 
 the ministers of the high pavement meeting in 
 Nottingham, and, after that, theological tutor at a 
 dissenting academy in Manchester. Died 1807. 
 
 WALKER, George, famous for his defence of 
 Londonderry against James II., was born of Eng- 
 lish parents at Tyrone, and became a minister in 
 the Irish Church. He was killed at the battle of 
 the Boyne shortly after his promotion to the bishop- 
 ric of Deny, 1690. 
 
 WALKER, John, a minister of Exeter, author 
 of ' An Attempt towards Recovering an Account 
 of the Numbers and Sufferings of the Clergy who 
 were Sequestered in the Rebellion,' d. about 1730. 
 
 WALKER, John, a well-known lexicographer, 
 was born at Friern Barnet, in Middlesex, 1732, 
 and lived by the profession of a schoolmaster and 
 lecturer, having, however, first studied elocution 
 with a view to the stage. His works are a ' Criti- 
 cal Pronouncing Dictionary,' 'A Rhyming Dic- 
 tionary,' ' Elements of Elocution,' ' Rhetorical 
 Grammar,' ' Outlines of English Grammar,' and a 
 ' Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek, 
 Latin, and Scripture Proper Names.' Died 1807. 
 
 WALKER, John, a physician and geographical 
 writer, who, at the time of his decease, was head 
 of the London Vaccine Institution ; born at Cocker- 
 mouth, in Cumberland, 1759, died 1830. 
 
 WALKER, Obadiah, a Roman Catholic divine 
 and writer on education, 1616-1699. 
 
 WALKER, R., a portrait painter, 17th century. 
 
 WALKER, S., an English divine, 1714-1761. 
 
 WALKER, T., an English actor, 1698-1743. 
 
 WALKER, T., a humorous writer, who filled 
 the office of a police magistrate, 1784-1836. 
 
 WALKER, W., a learned divine, died 1684. 
 
 WALL, Edward, belonging to an ancient Irish 
 family, was the chief promoter of the rebellion in 
 that country in 1641, and, after the death of 
 Charles L, succeeded the marquis of Ormond as 
 viceroy. He was defeated by Cromwell, and escaped 
 to France, where he died 1651. 
 
 WALL, John, a physician and medical writer, 
 chiefly remarkable for his researches to discover 
 materials proper for china ware, and the great 
 promoter of that manufacture in Worcester. He 
 also discovered the virtues of the Malvern waters: 
 1708-1776. His son, Martin, an eminent physi- 
 cian, professor at Oxford, 1744-1824. 
 
 WALL, William, vicar of Shoreham, in Sus- 
 sex, author of a ' History of Infant Baptism,' and 
 ' Critical Notes on the Old Testament ;' died 1728. 
 
 WALLACE, Sir William, the national hero 
 of Scotland, is supposed to have been born about 
 the middle of the thirteenth century. Like that 
 of all men immortalized in the early history of 
 nations as the vindicators of their independence, 
 his life has been coloured and amplified by the ad- 
 mixture of legendary poetry with fact. It has, 
 however, to be remarked as to Wallace, that re- 
 
 814 
 
 
 
WAL 
 
 search in the documentary sources of history has 
 tended to prove the main features of his career 
 that he gathered hy his personal influence a large 
 body of followers that though of humble origin 
 ie became governor of Scotland that he gained 
 ignal victories, and was the object of the special 
 engeance of the English monarch. He is gener- 
 lly said to have been the son of Sir Malcolm 
 Wallace of Elderslie, near Paisley, a man of an- 
 cient family, though not of high rank. That he 
 was himself knighted, and held the title of ' Sir,' 
 or Sieur, is shown by the documents of the day. 
 [t is usual to speak of the higher Scottish nobi- 
 lity of the period as basely deserting their country 
 and leaving the national contest to be headed by 
 the one man who was faithful among the faithless. 
 But it must be remembered that the nobility were 
 men of Norman origin, whose sympathies natu- 
 rally were with the court of their national learer, 
 the Norman king of England. The northern 
 Scots, chiefly of Saxon origin, were now made to 
 feel the regal and aristocratic oppression under 
 which the Saxons of England had been governed 
 since the conquest. It is natural to suppose that 
 Wallace's family belonged to the old gentry, who 
 felt the ascendancy of the Normans, as Cedric the 
 Saxon is so picturesquely made to do in Ivanhoe, 
 and that the young man feeling his capacity for 
 the task, became the leader of his oppressed 
 countrymen, while the Norman nobles stood aside 
 until ambition opened up for some of them a pros- 
 pect of dominion in the liberated country. His 
 first conflict with the English power is attributed 
 to a romantic origin. Engaged in a dispute with 
 some soldiers in Lanark, the lady of his affections 
 afforded him refuge. She was slain by the for- 
 eigners, on whom the young lover in his turn took 
 signal vengeance. Being thus fairly at feud with 
 the invading power, he gathered around him a 
 "ually increasing body of his countrymen, and 
 at last joined by such aristocratic leaders as 
 las, Murray, and young Bruce, when Edward 
 sent a force to quell them in 1297. These followers 
 had not sufficient reliance on their leader, and 
 with few exceptions made a separate submission. 
 Wallace, however, still keeping together his hum- 
 bler followers, attacked and defeated the English 
 army on the plains of the Forth, near Stirling 
 Bridge. The country appeared to be entirely 
 liberated, and the successful leader carried his 
 army across the border to make retaliation on Eng- 
 land; a protection granted by him to the mon- 
 astery of Hexham, dated 7th November, 1297, is 
 one of the few documents relative to him which 
 has been preserved. He assumed the title of re- 
 gent of the kingdom, but the haughty nobles who 
 had so few ties to Scotland, viewed his career with 
 more jealousy than gratitude. Edward, who was 
 absent during the reverses sustained by his forces, 
 resolved, with his accustomed energy, to strike a 
 decided blow, and on the 22d of July, 1298, the 
 ; English king in person gained over him the victory 
 of Falkirk. For some time Wallace led a wan- 
 dering life, and conducted a sort of guerilla 
 war until the year 1303, when he was taken pri- 
 soner. He was removed to London, and on the 
 23d of August, 1305, executed under the English 
 law, with every circumstance of cruelty 
 and ignominy that could be devised. The English 
 
 815 
 
 WAL 
 
 populace sympathized with his fate as that of a 
 fellow-countrvman rather than an enemy. [J.H.B.] 
 
 WALLENBOUKG, James De, an Austrian 
 diplomatist and Orientalist, 1763-1806. 
 
 WALLENSTEIN. Albert Wallenstein, 
 duke of Friedland, born in 1583, was the most 
 renowned German commander during the first half 
 of the thirty years' War. He was of a noble 
 family, and greatly increased his wealth and power 
 by marriage. When the Danes took part in the 
 struggle between the catholics and protestants in 
 Germany, Wallenstein offered the emperor Ferdi- 
 nand IL to raise and maintain an army of 50,000 
 men at his own expense, on condition that he was 
 to have the uncontrolled command of them, and 
 the privilege of indemnifying himself from the 
 territories that they conquered. The emperor ac- 
 cepted these terms, and Wallenstein raised his 
 army of volunteers, gained repeated victories over 
 the Danes and their allies, and overran nearly the 
 whole north of Germany, though he was checked 
 by the heroic resistance of the town of Stralsund. 
 But the violence of his proceedings, and his haughty 
 demeanour, excited the jealousy of many of the 
 catholic princes against* him ; and the emperor 
 deposed him from his command in 1629. Wallen- 
 stein retired with calmness; relying on the pro- 
 mises of a favourite astrologer that he would soon 
 be gloriously restored. This actually took place in 
 1632. The Swedish hero Gustavus Adolphus had 
 appeared in the meantime on the scene of war, 
 and had crushed the imperialist armies. Tilly the 
 emperor's favourite general had been killed in 
 action with him ; and Ferdinand now trembling for 
 his personal safety implored Wallenstein to resume 
 the command. Wallenstein consented, but on 
 terms of even more haughty independence than 
 before. Such was the confidence that the soldiery 
 placed in him, and such was the magic of his name, 
 that the warlike youth of Germany crowded around 
 his standard, and in a short time he encountered 
 the Swedes at the head of a powerful and well- 
 equipped army. He had the advantage over Gus- 
 tavus and his Saxon allies in the early part of the 
 campaign. He recovered several provinces from 
 them, and defeated Gustavus when the Swedish 
 king attacked his camp at Nurnberg. Wallenstein 
 afterwards lost the great battle of Lutzen (Nov. 
 10, 1632) in which Gustavus fell ; but Wallenstein 
 re-organized his army in Bohemia, and was ex- 
 pected by the Austrian court to press hard on the 
 German protestants and Swedes now that they 
 were deprived of their great king. Wallenstein, 
 however, remained inactive, and was accused by 
 his enemies at Vienna of intriguing with the 
 Swedes, with the view of making himself king of 
 Bohemia. He was also hated on account of the 
 comparative liberality of his religious opinions by 
 the monks and Jesuits, who were all powerful in 
 the emperor's councils. He was assassinated Feb. 
 25, 1634, by an Irishman named Butler, and some 
 other foreign officers in his army. His murderers 
 were rewarded by the emperor, and the vast pos- 
 sessions of the duke were confiscated. Historians 
 have differed as to the reasonableness or unreason- 
 ableness of the suspicions that were entertained of 
 Wallenstein's loyalty ; but there can be no differ- 
 ence of opinion as to the deep atrocity of his tak- 
 ing off. [E.S.O.] 
 
WAL 
 
 WALLER Eomnm was one of the most fa- 
 mous of English poets, for many years both before 
 and after the Restoration ; and his celebrity was not 
 completely eclipsed till, in the course of the pre- 
 sent centnrv, our older poetical literature came to 
 be more justlv appreciated, and strength of invagi- 
 nation and feeling to be estimated more highly 
 than elaborate correctness of form. Waller's works 
 are Teesee of society and celebrations of public per- 
 sonages and event's, with a large number of love- 
 poems. Much inferior, not to Donne and Cowley 
 only, but to several others of their class, both in 
 imaginative form and in tenderness of emotion, he 
 has a tine grace of fancy and diction, a wise 
 purity of taste, and greater skill and care than 
 almost any other poet of his age in the finishing 
 and rounding off of his smaller compositions. His 
 versification is exceedingly sweet; and he has un- 
 questionable merit as a forerunner of Dryden in 
 the improvement of the heroic couplet. Waller, 
 born in Hertfordshire in 1605, succeeded in child- 
 hood to a large patrimonial estate ; and he added 
 to his fortune by a wealthy marriage. It was be- 
 fore a second marriage that he paid unsuccessful 
 addresses to Lady Dorothea Sidney, commemorated 
 in his poems by the name of Sacharissa. After 
 having been a member of the House of Commons 
 in earlv youth, he sat again on the reassembling 
 of parliament by Charles I. in 1640. At first he 
 took his position with the party of Hampden, who 
 was his cousin, and through whom he was con- 
 nected also with Cromwell. But his vacillating 
 temper soon showed itself; and, on the breaking 
 out of the civil war, though he continued to sit in 
 parliament, he was active in opposition to the pro- 
 ceedings of the house. In 1643 he was arrested 
 for participation in a plot, said to have been in- 
 tended for raising the Londoners on the king's 
 behalf. Several of the plotters, and among them 
 a brother-in-law of Waller's, were executed ; and 
 he himself escaped only through abject submission, 
 and the most cowardly betrayal of the secrets of 
 his friends. He was heavily fined, and banished 
 from the country : but after the establishment of 
 the Protectorate, Cromwell allowed him to return 
 from France ; and he took up his residence at a 
 house he had near Beaconsfield, in Buckingham- 
 shire. Poetical panegyrics on the Lord Protector 
 now flowed freely from his pen ; and it was quite 
 characteristic of the man, that, on the Restoration, 
 these were followed by verses ' To the King, on 
 his Majesty's Happy Return.' He sat repeatedly 
 jii parliament even in his extreme old age; and, 
 though he was neither trustworthy nor trusted, 
 his liveliness of talk, and his felicitous readiness of 
 wit, made him one of the favourite speakers of the 
 house. He died in 1687, and lies buried beside 
 Edmund Burke. [W.S.] 
 
 WALLER, SlB William, a famous general of 
 the parliamentary army in the civil wars, born in 
 Kent 1597, died 1688. His career was not unsus- 
 pected by the independents, and at the restoration 
 he became one of the members for Middlesex. He 
 wrote a ' Vindication of his Character and Con- 
 duct,' and 4 Divine Meditations.' 
 
 WALLERIUS, John Gottsohalk, an eminent 
 Swedish naturalist, professor of chemistry, metal- 
 larv. and pharmacy, at Upsala, 1709-1785. 
 
 WALLIS, G., a Swedish Orientalist, 1686-1760. 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALLIS, John, an eminent mathematician, I 
 who held the office of archivist and Savilian pro- I 
 fessor of geometry at Oxford, born at Ashford, in I 
 Kent, 1616, died 1703. 
 
 WALLIS, S., an English navigator in 1766-68. 
 
 WALLIUS, or VAN DER WALLE, James, a 
 Jesuit and Latin poet, French Flanders, 1599-1680. 
 
 WALLOT, J. J., a German astronomer, settled 
 as professor at Paris, executed 1794. 
 
 WALMESLEY, Chakles, a Roman Catholic- 
 divine and doctor of the Sorbonne. known as a 
 mathematician, 1721-1797. 
 
 WALPOLE, Sat Robert, better known by hii 
 name in the House of Commons, than by his peer- 
 age title as earl of Orford, was born at Haughton, 
 bis father's family mansion, on the 26th of August 
 1676. His father dying in 1700, he succeeded t< 
 his estate, and entered parliament. His education 
 like that of other country gentlemen in that age 
 was extremely imperfect, and it has been said, thai 
 as he knew nothing of French, he and George I. 
 who could not speak English, had to discourse oi 
 state questions in bad Latin. His main power; 
 were a capacity for business and a knowledge o 
 mankind. In 1708 he was made secretary at war 
 He was attacked, along with Marlborough, by th 
 Tory government, which negotiated the treaty o 
 Utrecht, and committed to the Tower on a charg 
 of accession to commissariat peculation. With th 
 Hanover accession came, of course, restoration 
 influence, and the power of triumphing over hi 
 enemies. He immediately entered on high offi 
 but the foundation of his unexampled reign 
 ministerial power, was in the dexterity and succes 
 with which he adjusted the losses caused by th< 
 South Sea scheme, so as to make their pressur 
 least on those who were least culpable. FroD 
 1721 until 1742 he governed the British empire 
 and during that period, though more than one 
 enemies or rivals appeared to be on the eve of bear 
 ing him to the ground, he righted himself by hi 
 own admirable dexterity. He was a friend 
 peace, and preserved it until a European war an; 
 his downfall came together. The country owes t 
 his government the origin of many important pro 
 jects of practical statesmanship. Among the mos 
 valuable of these was the plan for suspending th 
 exaction of duties until commodities are brought in 
 to market, by the arrangement now so well knowi 
 as the bonding system. The excise scheme, as it wt 
 termed, in which he proposed to bring this int 
 practice, was so pertinaciously denounced by popt 
 lar opinion, under the well-known cry, ' Libert 
 property, and no excise,' that he required to abai, 
 don it. Among his good qualities may be counte 
 his clemency towards his political opponents, 
 a desire rather to baffle them, than let them lj 
 involved in dangerous schemes. But on the othij 
 hand, there is no doubt that the charges of corrui 
 tion made against him are well founded. If I 
 carried out his objects in government he cared n< 
 how this was done, and he did much to verify b 
 own axiom, that every man has his price. H 
 habits and manners were coarse as those of tl 
 fox-hunters of his day, and we find his son, Horac 
 in a party of ladies of the younger and more fa 
 tidious generation, nervously anxious lest his fath 
 should say things to drive them from the rooi 
 His first wife was a daughter of Sir John HunU 
 
 816 
 
WAL 
 
 lord mayor of London, but he afterwards married 
 his mistress, Miss Skerret, an event which the 
 duchess of Marlborough loudly proclaimed, but 
 which Coxe's elaborate biography does not men- 
 tion. The fatal majority against him, which 
 showed that his power was gone, was characteris- 
 tically enough in an election case. It occurred on 
 the 2d of February, 1742. On the 9th he was 
 created earl of Orford, and on the 11th resigned. 
 After three years of misery from unwonted inac- 
 tion and painful disease, he died on 18th March, 
 17-1.5. [J.H.B.] 
 
 WALPOLE, Horace, born in 1717, was the 
 third son of Sir Robert. On leaving Cambridge, 
 he travelled on the continent with the poet Gray, 
 till the sensitive man of letters and the supercilious 
 man of rank quarrelled and parted. For more 
 than a quarter of a century from 1741 he sat in 
 the House of Commons ; but, though he made 
 some speeches, he was neither a distinguished nor 
 a useful member. Government sinecures conferred 
 on him by his father made up his income to nearly 
 four thousand a-year. Thus enabled to indulge 
 his natural indolence, he spent his life in luxurious 
 lounging; watching and satirizing his political and 
 fashionable contemporaries, coquetting haughtily 
 with literature and literary men, with art and 
 artists, building at Twickenham his Gothic toy- 
 house of Strawberry Hill, and filling it with 
 antiquarian and ornamental nicknacks. In his 
 seventy-fourth year, by the death of his nephew, 
 he succeeded to the Earldom of Orford; but the 
 peerage made no change in his habits. He died 
 six years afterwards, in 1797. Horace Walpole's 
 literary productions never rise above the character 
 of cleverness: but, in their several ways, all of 
 them are clever ; and the best of them are among 
 the cleverest of their kind. Neither his 'Anec- 
 dotes of Painting in England,' nor his ' Catalogue 
 of Royal and Noble Authors,' would suffice to pre- 
 serve the reputation which, professing to despise 
 it, he really longed for vehemently. He attempted 
 twice, with considerable success, the adventure of 
 imaginative composition ; in the romance of ' The 
 Castle of Otranto,' (1764), and the exaggerated 
 tragedy of 'The Mysterious Mother,' (1768). He 
 was more at home in his 'Memoirs of the Reign of 
 George II.,' and the 'Memoirs of the Reign of 
 George III.,' the bitterness of which has some 
 excuse in his just indignation at the ill-usage 
 suffered by his father. But the permanence of his 
 celebrity rests on his ' Letters,' which offer a min- 
 iature picture of society and public life for the 
 greater part of his long life. They are cynical and 
 ill-minded in the extreme, but always full of keen 
 observation and lively description, and frequent 
 in strokes of nointed wit ; and the style, though 
 really formed "by great labour, possesses a masterly 
 terseness and apparent ease. Both the Memoirs 
 and the Letters were, by his own order, reserved 
 from publication till after his death. [W.S.] 
 
 WALPOLE, Horatio, Lord, brother of Sir 
 Robert, preceding article, was born in 1678, and 
 held several offices under government. Besides 
 political pamphlets, he wrote an 'Answer to 
 Bolingbroke's Letters on History.' Died 1757. 
 
 WALSH, Edward, an Irish physician and 
 army surgeon, author of ' A Narrative of the Ex- 
 pedition to Holland,' &c. ; died 1832. 
 
 817 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALSH, Peter, an Irish priest and political 
 writer, who became professor at Louvain, and on 
 his return to Ireland persuaded many of the clergy 
 to subscribe a declaration disclaiming the pope's 
 temporal authority ; died 1687. 
 
 WALSH, William, a gentleman of Queen 
 Anne's household, known as a poet, 1663-1708. 
 
 WALS1NGHAM, Sir Francis, one of Queen 
 Elizabeth's eminent statesmen, was born at 
 Chislehurst, in Kent, 1536. He was first em- 
 ployed by Cecil as ambassador to the court of 
 France in the period 1570-1577, and then became 
 one of the secretaries of state, and received the 
 honour of knighthood. In 1586, three years after 
 he had gone as ambassador to Scotland, he formed 
 one of the Commission for the trial of Queen 
 Mary, and when he died, in 1590, was chancellor 
 of the duchy of Lancaster. While Walsingham 
 was in France the massacre of St. Bartholomew 
 took place, and his enmity to Mary Stuart was 
 well grounded in his knowledge of the dark 
 machinations of the Roman Catholics. Queen 
 Elizabeth, who had a vein of humour in her com- 
 position, and frequently addressed her ministers 
 in a sportive manner, called him her moon, and in 
 such a night as threatened Europe at that time, 
 she had reason enough to congratulate herself on 
 having a counsellor so honest and sagacious. He 
 possessed political knowledge and foresight in a 
 remarkable degree, and though it is said he was 
 puritanically inclined, no man could have drawn 
 a more distinct line where he believed, rightly or 
 wrongly, that the toleration of princes should 
 cease. Walsingham deserves honourable remem- 
 brance also for the steady fidelity to his principles 
 which he displayed at the French court, and his 
 bold remonstrances with the king. His De- 
 spatches are highly interesting, and may be con- 
 sulted in the work of Sir Dudley Digges. [E.R.I 
 
 WALSINGHAM, Thomas, a monk of St. 
 Albans, historiographer-royal to Henry VI., about 
 1440, author of English chronicles. 
 
 WALTER, John, late proprietor of the Times 
 newspaper, and member of parliament, deserves 
 honourable mention as the first to raise the cha- 
 racter of the daily press, and bring the steam 
 engine to its aid. He was born in 1773, and under- 
 took the exclusive management of the Times, in 
 the character of joint proprietor, in 1803. The 
 successful application of the steam engine in this 
 enterprise dates from 1814. Mr. Walter repre- 
 sented Berkshire in parliament from 1832 to 1837, 
 and was returned for Nottingham in 1841 ; d. 1847. 
 
 WALTER, John Gottlob, an eminent Prus- 
 sian anatomist, 1734-1818. Frederic Augus- 
 tus, his son, also an anatomical writer and pro- 
 fessor, 1764-1826. 
 
 WALTHER, B., a German astronomer, d. 1504. 
 
 WALTHER, G. C, a jurisconsult, 1601-1656. 
 
 WALTHER, M., a German preacher and theo- 
 logian, 1593-1662. Augustin Frederic, his 
 son, an anatomist, author of a Treatise on the 
 Tongue, 1688-1746. 
 
 WALTHER, R., a Swiss theologian and Latin 
 poet, 1519-1586. His son, Adolphus, a Latin 
 poet of remarkable talent, 1552-1577. 
 
 WALTON, Brian, bishop of Chester, and editor 
 of the London Polyglott Bible, 1600-1661. 
 
 WALTON, Izaac, a well-known writer on ang- 
 
 3G 
 
WAM 
 lin- was born at Stafford in 1593. He died in 
 I bongo his education was not a remarkably 
 good one, and though he made in after life no pre- 
 
 -ilouse of Izaac Walton.] 
 
 tensions to learning, he jet became one of the most 
 popular authors of the time in which he lived. He 
 was originally a linen-draper in London, but ac- 
 quiring a competency, he was enabled to retire from 
 business and leave town. He was a pious man, of 
 a thoughtful contemplative turn of mind, and during 
 the time he was in'business was exceedingly fond 
 of fishing. The river Lea was his darling haunt 
 (still a favourite spot for Cockney anglers), and there 
 he spent as much of his time as he could spare 
 from his shop, in angling and contemplation. In 
 1653 he published his famous work, ' The Complete 
 Angler, or Contemplative Man's Recreation.' In 
 thi* work he introduced a good deal of information 
 upon the habits of fresh water fishes, and figured with 
 considerable accuracy many of the species of which 
 he treats. The air of verisimilitude and unaffected 
 benevolence which this work exhibits has made it 
 the most popular book of its kind ever written ; a 
 popularity which after the lapse of 200 years it still 
 enjoys amongst the lovers of the 'gentle craft.' 
 Walton was considered the most expert fisher of 
 his time, and has been called the father of anglers. 
 He spent a great part of his latter years in the so- 
 ciety of eminent divines, and has left behind him 
 6everal biographical memoirs which are still highly 
 thought of. He lived to the age of ninety. [WTB.j 
 WAMESE, J., a French jurisconsult, 1524-90. 
 WANGENHEIM, F. A. J. De, a Prussian 
 Orientalist and writer on forest botany, 1747-1800. 
 WANLEY, Nathaniel, rector of Trinity 
 Church, in Coventry, author of ' Self-Reflection^' 
 1633-1680. His son, Humphrey, a learned liter- 
 ary antiquary, secretary to the Society for Pro- 
 'Ihristian Knowledge, and librarian to the 
 earl of Oxford, 1672-1726. 
 
 WANSLEBEN, or VANSLEB, John Mich.ee., 
 an Oriental scholar, and traveller in Abyssinia and 
 Egypt, bora in Thuringia 1635, died 1679. 
 
 WABBECE, 1'kkki.y, or Peter, a pretender 
 to the English throne, who assumed the character 
 and title of Richard, duke of York, one of the 
 princes supposed to have been murdered in the 
 Tower. Being defeated in arms, he was executed 
 in the reign of Henry VII., 1499. Some obscurity 
 still remains about bis history. 
 
 WAR 
 
 WARBURTON, Eliot B. G., an English 
 novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1851. 
 
 WARBURTON, John, a heral'dist and antiqua- 
 rian, author of 'Vallum Romanian, 1 1682-1759. 
 
 WARBURTON, Wm., D.D., a distinguished 
 bishop of the English Church, was born at 
 Newark in 1698. Having acquired the elemenfi 
 of education at the grammar school of his native 
 town, he served an apprenticeship to an attorney, 
 and after the expiry of his term, opened chambers 
 as a legal practitioner. Tiring, however, of the 
 law, he turned his views towards the church, and 
 was admitted to deacon's orders in 172:5. The 
 legal studies of bis early life exercised a powerful 
 influence in moulding his habits of thought as well 
 as his treatment of controversial subjects: and 
 to the non-professional course of his preparation 
 for the church, must be ascribed that dislike to the 
 routine of the regular discipline, and that pride he 
 took in confounding the adherents to the beaten 
 paths of theology, which formed one of the marked 
 peculiarities in his character. Naturally of a 
 strong, domineering temper, his arrogant dogma- 
 tism, united to great skill and power in wielding the 
 weapons of dialectic controversy, led him into the 
 propounding and supporting paradoxes, which with 
 all bis great learning and acknowledged excellen- 
 cies, rendered him an unsafe guide. By the force of 
 his natural and acquired talents, however, he rose 
 to distinction in the church. In 1726, he obtained 
 the vicarage of Greasley, and three years after, the 
 rectory of Brant Broughton. During his residence 
 in this latter place, he prepared several works for 
 the press; the principal of which are Inquiry into 
 the Causes of Prodigies and Miracles, a Treatise 
 on the Legal Judicature of Chancery, and some 
 Translations. These were soon followed by other 
 productions of a higher character the Alliance 
 between Church and State, which was first pub 
 lished in 1738, and the first volume of the Divine 
 Legation, which appeared towards the close of the 
 same year. Although both of these works contri 
 buted to establish his fame as a divine, it was 
 not to either of them directly, but to another pr 
 duction of his able pen that he was indebted for his 
 elevation to episcopal dignity. This wis his ' Vin 
 dication of Pope's Essay on Man,' which not only 
 introduced him to an acquaintance with that poet, 
 but procured him the friendship of Mr. Allen oi 
 Bath, through whose influence he gained the patron 
 age of the crown. He was successively appointee 
 chaplain to the king, prebend of Durham, dean oi 
 Bristol, and bishop of Gloucester, in 1759. Ii 
 the conduct of the controversial wars it was hi: 
 delight and pride to carry on, the temper of War- 
 burton often presented a sad contrast to the meek- 
 ness of the Christian character. But with all these 
 palpable defects, he was a man of sincere anc 
 habitual piety of a tender conscience of great 
 benevolence, and a reigning zeal, which has rarelj 
 been surpassed, for the propagation of Christi- 
 anitv, as the greatest blessing to the human race 
 His death took place in 1779. [R.J 
 
 WARD, Edward, au. of ' The London Spy," 
 and of a poetic version of Don Quixote, 1667-1731 
 
 WARD, Bernard, an Irish economist, settler 
 
 818 
 
 in Spain, and employed in the public service o; 
 that country, 1750. 
 WARD, John, a learned writer, professor o 
 
 :-; 
 
WAR 
 
 rhetoric at Gresham college, was the son of a dis- 
 senting minister, and was born in London 1679. 
 He began life as an assistant schoolmaster, and 
 having made himself known as a classical scholar 
 and antiquary, was chosen professor in 1720 ; died 
 1758. His principal works are ' Lives of the 
 Gresham Professors,' and ' A System of Oratory.' 
 
 WARD, Robert Plumer, a miscellaneous 
 and historical writer, best known as the author of 
 Tremaine,' was born in London 1765. He com- 
 menced his professional career as a barrister, in 
 1790, and published his first work, an ' Inquiry 
 into the Foundation and History of the Law of 
 Nations in Europe,' in 1795. He entered parlia- 
 ment in 1802., and became under-secretary for 
 foreign affairs in 1805: afterwards he was succes- 
 "vely one of the lords of the admiralty, and clerk 
 of the ordnance. He died in 1846, and the Hon. 
 E. Phipps has since published his 'Memoirs and 
 Literary Remains.' 
 
 WARD, Samuel, Margaret professor of divinity, 
 known as a learned controversialist, died 16-13. 
 
 WARD, Seth, bishop of Salisbury, eminent as 
 a mathematician and astronomer, 1617-1689. 
 
 WARD, T., a Roman Catholic divine, 1652-1708. 
 
 WARD LAW, Henry, founder of the university 
 of St. Andrews ; became bishop of that see in 
 1404, and was chiefly remarkable for his zeal in 
 behalf of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a 
 man of high character in other respects, but 
 unscrupulous in his treatment of those he regarded 
 as heretics, many of whom he sent to the stake. 
 Died 1440. 
 
 WARDLAW, Dr. Ralph, was born in Dal- 
 keith, 22d December, 1779, a few months after 
 which his family removed to Glasgow. Though 
 bred in the principles of the Secession Church, he 
 resolved to join himself to the Congregational 
 party, and was, in 1803, ordained by his friend Mr. 
 Ewing to be pastor in a chapel in Albion-Street : 
 he afterwards removed to a larger place of wor- 
 ship in George-Street. In 1811 he was associated 
 with Mr. Ewing as one of the tutors in the Theo- 
 logical Academy. Dr. Wardlaw acquired a high 
 reputation as a theologian, and his professional 
 merits were acknowledged by an honorary degree 
 of D.D. His principal works are 'Discourses 
 on the Socinian Controversy,' ' Sermons,' ' Man's 
 Responsibility for his Belief,' * Lectures Against 
 Religious Establishments,' ' Lectures on the His- 
 tory of Joseph,' &c. He died 17th December, 1853, 
 and his funeral was a public procession. [R.J.] 
 
 WARE, James, an eminent oculist, died 1815. 
 
 WARE, Sir James, called 'the Camden of 
 Ireland,' author of works on the history and anti- 
 quities of that country, 1594-1666. 
 
 WARGENTIN, P. W., a Swedish astronomer, 
 secretary to the Academy of Sciences, 1717-1783. 
 
 WARHAM, Wm., archbishop of Canterbury 
 and lord chancellor, was born at Okely, in Hamp- 
 shire, 1460, and in 1475 admitted a fellow of New 
 College, Oxford. His public life commenced in 
 1493, when Henry VII. sent him on an embassy 
 to the duke of Burgundy ; he became keeper of 
 the great seal in 1502, but resigned this office in 
 1515, in consequence of the ascendancy of Wolsey, 
 who succeeded him ; died 1532. 
 
 WARING, Edward, professor of mathematics 
 at Cambridge, author of an ' Essay on the Prin- 
 
 WAR 
 
 ciples of Human Knowledge,' 'Properties of Alge- 
 braic Curves,' and other works, 1734-1798. 
 
 WARMHOLTZ, Charles Gusxavus, a Swed- 
 ish bibliographer, 1710-1784. 
 
 WARNER, Ferdinando, a doctor and clergy- 
 man of the Church of England, author of a great 
 number of works, theological, biographical, and 
 historical, 1703-1768. John, his son, a writer on 
 prosody, and translator of the history of ' Friar 
 Gerund,' from the Spanish. 
 
 WARNER, John, bishop of Rochester, distin- 
 guished for his learning and munificence, and as a 
 royalist at the period of the rebellion, 1585-1666. 
 Among his charitable works may be mentioned the 
 foundation of Bromley College, for twenty widows 
 of royal and orthodox clergymen, and four scholar- 
 ships in Baliol College for young Scotchmen. 
 
 WARNER, J., an eminent surgeon, 1717-1801. 
 
 WARNER, Richard, a botanist, 1711-1775. 
 
 WARNER, William, an English scholar and 
 poet, mentioned among the early writers to whom 
 we owe the refinement of our language, 1558-1609. 
 
 WARNERY, C. E., a French officer and writer 
 on tactics, in the Polish service, 1719-1786. 
 
 WARREN, C, a steel engraver, died 1823. 
 
 WARREN, Sir John Borlase, an English 
 admiral, employed in the expedition to Quiberon, 
 destined to assist the Vendeans, was born at the 
 seat of his family at Stapleford, in Nottinghamshire, 
 1754. After the Vendean expedition he joined the 
 Brest fleet under Lord Bridport, and distinguished 
 himself in 1798 by capturing the French squadron 
 sent to invade Ireland. On the conclusion of peace 
 he became a privy councillor, and was sent as 
 ambassador to Russia ; died 1822. 
 
 WARREN, Sir Peter, vice-admiral of the red, 
 was born in Ireland 1703, and won his laurels by 
 the capture of Louisbourg, and the total defeat of 
 a French squadron sent to recover it> 1745-1747. 
 In the autumn of the last-mentioned year his 
 popularity occasioned his return to parliament as 
 member for Westminster ; died 1752. 
 
 WARSEW1TZ, C. Stanislaus, a Polish states- 
 man, historian, and Jesuit: died 1605. 
 
 WARTON, Joseph and Thomas, were bro- 
 thers, and very like each other in pursuits and 
 mental character. They share with Bishop Percy 
 the honour of having given the first perceptible- 
 impulse to that revolution in literary taste, which 
 dethroned Pope and the Didactic school of poetry, 
 and led poets and critics to a renewed study both 
 of nature and of Old English literature. The 
 Wartons have a place, likewise, among our minor 
 poets; but in this character even Thomas pos- 
 sesses but small merit. They were sons of a cler- 
 gyman, who was professor of poetry at Oxford, 
 and afterwards a vicar in Hampshire. Joseph 
 was born in 1722, and lived till 1800. Thomas, 
 born in 1728, died in 1790. Dr. Joseph Warton 
 was the more active and independent thinker of 
 the two ; and students of the principles of criti- 
 cism have, since his time, estimated, more justly 
 than did his contemporaries, the value of his 
 ' Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope.' It 
 was published, in separate parts, in 1756 (the 
 same year with Percy's Reliques) and 1782. But 
 Warton, a poor man during all the best period of 
 his life, was diverted from systematic study and 
 speculation by the toils of clerical duty, and after- 
 
 819 
 
WAR 
 
 wards bv those of teaching. He taught for nearly 
 irs in Winchester Seliool, of which for 
 tweiitv- seven years he was head master. Dr. 
 Thomas Warton, being content to remain in the 
 celihacv of Trinity College, Oxford, was able to 
 imself without interruption to his favourite 
 pursuits. He held the professorship of poetry for 
 the usual ten years from 1757; and in 1785 he 
 was appointed poet-laureate and Camden professor 
 of history. Besides writing a good deal of poetry, 
 ami several miscellanies and pieces of humour, he 
 creditably edited Theocritus and one of the Greek 
 Anthologies. But his really valuable efforts were 
 made in' the criticism of Early English literature. 
 His earliest performance of this sort was the ' Ob- 
 servations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser,' pub- 
 lished in 1752, and much enlarged in 1762. His 
 great work, 'The History of English Poetry,' 
 appeared in three successive volumes, in 1774, 
 1778, and 1781. He lived to write only a small 
 portion of a fourth volume ; and the work closes 
 abruptly near the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. 
 It is ill-digested, desultory, and often very loose in 
 reasoning: it contains many serious gaps, and 
 very many positive errors, in detail. But even its 
 mistakes and deficiencies are fewer than we might 
 have expected from the first pioneer in so rugged 
 a field ; and the value of the book makes it well 
 worth the trouble which has been expended on it, 
 in corrections and additions, by its recent editors, 
 Price and Taylor. Its antiquarian learning is very 
 great ; the poetical taste of the author is remark- 
 ably fine; and the flowing and animated eloquence, 
 which breaks out whenever the occasion permits, 
 makes many parts of it as interesting as anything 
 we have of the sort. [W.S.] 
 
 WARWICK, a famous baronial name in Eng- 
 land; the principal of those who have borne it are 
 Guy of Beauchamp, commonly called Guy, 
 earl of Warwick, a party to the league against 
 Edward II., by which the favourite, Piers Gaves- 
 ton, was beheaded, 1312. Richard, a favourite 
 of Henry V., distinguished in the French wars, 
 and regent in the time of his successor ; died 1439. 
 Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, called the 
 King Maker, slain at the battle of Barnet 1471. 
 E i.) ward, grandson of the latter, beheaded by 
 Henry VII. 1499. 
 
 WARWICK, Sir Philip, secretary to Charles 
 L, and member of the long parliament, author of 
 a ' Discourse on Government,' and ' Memoirs of 
 the King,' 1608-1G82. 
 
 WARWICK, Vibrand Von, a Dutch naviga- 
 tor, who prepared the commercial relations be- 
 tween Holland and the Chinese in 1606. 
 
 WASER, Anna, a Swiss painter, 1679-1713. 
 
 WASER, Gaspard, a learned Swiss Orientalist 
 and antiquarian, 1565-1625. His son, John 
 Henry, a diplomatist, 1600-1669. 
 
 WASER, H., a Swiss minister and economist, 
 author of ' Chronologie Diplomatique,' 1742-1780. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, was born in West- 
 moreland in the state of Virginia, on the 22d of 
 February, 1732. His father was affluent, but 
 George received merely the ordinary education of 
 the young American colonist of the day, which 
 was always meagre, unless when the ambitious 
 parents sent a son to the home country. He had, 
 however, but scanty literary or artistic tastes, 
 
 WAS 
 and studied only the accomplishments which 
 aided his practical views. Though it has been 
 questioned if he knew any language but English, 
 it is understood that he studied French after the 
 responsibilities of command had fallen on him, for 
 the purpose of holding communication with the 
 auxiliaries sent from France to join the army of 
 independence. On the other hand, his practical ac- 
 quirements were precociously developed. When 
 but sixteen years old he was employed in survey- 
 ing the vast wilderness assigned to his connection 
 Lord Fairfax, in the district of the Allegany moun- 
 tains. He pursued the profession of a surveyor, 
 which in a country full of estates, utterly unknown 
 in character and extent to their owners, was a 
 lucrative one ; and he is said to have thus obtained 
 an unconscious training for his subsequent warlik 
 operations by acquiring a minute acquaintance 
 with some parts of the country, and a knowledge of 
 the general characteristics of the whole. Before 
 he was twenty years old he received an important ,..,, 
 command, as adjutant-general of one of the mili- J 
 tary districts into which Virginia was divided to L 
 resist the Indians, and his genius entitled him to ' 
 more important command in the American war with 
 France in 1754. In a mission across the frontiers 
 to ascertain the objects of the French, he discovered 
 by his extraordinary sagacity the views of aggran- 
 dizement which led ultimately to the destruction of 
 French power in America. He distinguished him 
 self in the war which then broke out, and as all 
 this occurred before he was twenty-three years old 
 his history decidedly supports the theory that the 
 faculty of the military commander is generally de- 
 veloped early in life. It is believed, indeed, that 
 many of the early calamities of that war might 
 have been obviated if veteran British commanders 
 had paid more respect to the sagacity of the young 
 Virginian. In 1759 he married Mrs. Martha C 
 tis, a widow. She brought considerable property 
 to add to Washington's large estates, and for some 
 years his hands were as full of business, in the 
 management of private property and attendance on 
 the provincial legislature, as they ever afterwards 
 were when he was at the head of the Union. It 
 was one of his peculiarities that he carried out 
 small matters with the same articulate organization 
 as large. He slurred over nothing, and his house- 
 hold books, of which fac-similes have been exten- 
 sively circulated, would have stamped him as 8 
 pedantic trifler, had they not exemplified the same 
 rigid adherence to system and accuracy of detai' 
 with which he subsequently organized the govern 
 ment of a great nation. He took an unnoticeabk 
 but active part in his own province, in the pre 
 parations for the assertion of independence. He 
 was appointed one of the delegates from Virgini? 
 to the first general congress in 1774, and had thf 
 command of the independent companies of the state. 
 Still, his position had never been brilliant or evei 
 conspicuous, and it is perhaps the most remarkabl 
 instance of that common sense which characterized 
 the revolution, that the supreme command of th 
 army of independence should have fallen into hi 
 hands. He became commander-in-chief on 15tfc 
 June, 1775. To give his history from that perioe 
 until, after completing the task assigned to him 
 resigned his command at the close of the yeai 
 1783, would be to give a history of the American 
 
WAS 
 
 war of independence. It may be only generally re- 
 marked of his career, that it was almost to 
 the conclusion a struggle not only against the 
 British force, but the turbulence and factiousness 
 of those who were influential in the new states and 
 their army. It cannot be said that the brilliancy 
 of his achievements gave him his great influence, 
 for he was often beaten, and it was by taking ad- 
 vantage of what his troops learned in hardships 
 and defeats, that he was at last able to accomplish 
 the sagacious and deeply planned movement by 
 which Cornwallis was surprised and found it 
 necessary to surrender. He was inaugurated as 
 the first president of the United States, on the 
 30th of April, 1789. How he presided at the 
 organization of a new empire, and regulated the 
 enthusiasts, or self-seekers, who struggled for their 
 peculiar objects, is, like his military career, matter of 
 history. On more than one occasion, if he could not 
 with certainty have achieved life-long despotic 
 power, he might have acquired the flattering title 
 of king, but it was his great merit that he sought 
 only as much power and greatness as enabled 
 him to do his duty, and no more. He retired 
 from public life in 1796, and died on the 14th of 
 December, 1799, leaving a reputation without a 
 stain. [J.H.B.] 
 
 [Tomb of Washington.] 
 
 WASMUTH, M., a Danish Orientalist, 1625-88. 
 WASSE, Cornelia Woutkrs, Baroness Von, 
 a female writer of Brussels, 1739-1802. 
 _ WASSE, Joseph, a native of Yorkshire, dis- 
 tinguished for his classical learning, 1672-1738. 
 
 WASSENAER, N. J., a Dutch physician and 
 historian of Europe, died 16>2. 
 
 WASSENBERG, Everard Von, a German 
 historian of the reign of Uladislaus IV., b. 1610. 
 
 WATELET, Claude Henry, a French pain- 
 ter and etcher, author of several critical works 
 on art of considerable value, 1718-1786. 
 
 WATERHOUSE, Edward, an English divine, 
 known as a heraldist and miscell. writer, 1619-70. 
 # WATERLAND, Daniel, a learned divine, and 
 dignitary of the Church of England, was born at 
 Wasely or Walesly, in Lincolnshire, 1683, and 
 died 1740. His principal works are of a contro- 
 
 821 
 
 WAT 
 
 versial character, written against Jackson and 
 Tindal : a complete edition was published in 11 
 volumes 8vo, 1823, by Van Milderr. 
 
 WATERLOO, Anthony, a Dutch landscape 
 painter and etcher ; born about 1618, died 1662. 
 
 WATERLOO, G. B., a Latin poet, 1572-1597. 
 
 WATRELOS, Lambert, a priest of Flanders, 
 author of a Chronicle of Cambray, 1110-1172. 
 
 WATS, Gilbert, an English scholar, d. 1657. 
 
 WATSON, David, a learned Scotchman, best 
 known for his version of Horace, 1710-1756. 
 
 WATSON, Henry, a gallant East Indian officer 
 and engineer, born at Holbeach about 1737. He 
 distinguished himself at the siege of Belle Isle in 
 1761, and at the capture of Havannah 1762, but 
 in a still more memorable manner by the works of 
 Fort William ; died 1786. 
 
 WATSON, James, a Scotch printer, author of 
 a History of the Art in Scotland, died 1722. 
 
 WATSON, John, a minister of the Church of 
 England, known as an antiquarian, and historical 
 and miscellaneous writer, 1724-1783. 
 
 WATSON, Richard, bishop of Llandaff, author 
 of several learned works, was born at Heversham, 
 near Kendal, in 1737. He first distinguished 
 himself as a natural philosopher, and in 1764 
 succeeded Dr. Hadley as professor of chemistry at 
 Cambridge ; in 1771 he became professor of divin- 
 ity. The theological works of Bishop Watson are, 
 1 An Apology for Christianity, in a series of Letters 
 addressed to Edward Gibbon, Esq.,' 'An Apology 
 for the Bible,' in answer to Paine's Age of Reason, 
 and many miscellaneous Tracts and Sermons. 
 His philosophical works are chiefly on Chemistry. 
 Died 1816. 
 
 WATSON, Robert, a Scottish historian and 
 professor of the Belles Leltres, author of a ' His- 
 tory of Philip II.,' born at St. Andrews about 
 1730, died 1780. Mr. Watson began a History of 
 Philip III., which was completed by Dr. Thompson. 
 
 WATSON, T., a nonconformist divine, d. 1690. 
 
 WATSON, T., a catholic prelate, died 1582. 
 
 WATSON, T., a song-writer, d. 1591 or 1592. 
 
 WATSON, Sir William, a physician of Lon- 
 don, eminent as a botanist and natural philoso- 
 pher, especially for his skill in electricity ; corn in 
 Clerkenwell 1715, died 1787. 
 
 WATT, James, the author of improvements in 
 the application of steam as a motive power which 
 have identified his name with the steam engine. 
 Directing the force of an original genius, early ex- 
 ercised in philosophical research, to the improve- 
 ment of the steam engine, he enlarged the resources 
 of his country, increased the power of man, and 
 rose to an eminent place among the illustrious 
 followers of science and the real benefactors of the 
 world. Watt was born at Greenock, 19th January, 
 1736, the son of James Watt, twenty years town 
 councillor, treasurer, and bailie of Greenock. Being 
 even in infancy, says M. Arago, of a delicate con- 
 stitution, the early education of James Watt was in 
 a great measure of a domestic character. His ill 
 health seems to have led him to the cultivation oi 
 his intellect with unusual assiduity. It is said 
 that when only six years of age, he was discovered 
 drawing geometrical figures on the hearth with 
 chalk, and other anecdotes related of him justify 
 the xemark which was elicited by a friend on the 
 above occasion that he was ' a by ord'nar' wean.' 
 
WAT 
 When about fourteen years of age he made an 
 electrical machine, and' there is a curious anecdote 
 related by M. Arago, to the effect that his aunt, 
 Mr.-. Mmrhead, who did not entertain the same 
 opinion as his father of the powers of the boy, 
 upbraided him one evening at the tea table for 
 what seemed to her to be listless idleness ; tak- 
 ing off the lid of the kettle and putting it on 
 again ; holding sometimes a cup and sometimes a 
 t-ilver spoon over the steam; watching the exit of 
 the steam from the spout, and counting the drops 
 of water into which it became condensed. "With 
 the increased light imparted by a knowledge of his 
 subsequent career, the boy pondering before the tea 
 kettle, will, as observed by his French enthusiastic 
 biographer, be viewed as the great engineer pre- 
 luding to the discoveries that were to immortalize 
 him. In 1755, Watt went to London, and placed 
 himself under Mr. John Morgan, mathematical and 
 nautical instrument maker, in Finch Lane, whose 
 business it would appear lay chiefly in making and 
 repairing the instruments made use of in the ex- 
 periments in mechanics and natural philosophy. 
 Shortly after his return from London, about 1757, 
 when Watt had scarcely attained his twenty-first 
 year, he endeavoured to establish himself in busi- 
 ness in Glasgow, but owing to his not being a 
 burgess he met with opposition from the corpora- 
 tion of arts and trades, who refused to allow him 
 to set up even the humblest workshop. To the 
 great renown of the authorities of the university, 
 which is not under city jurisdiction, Watt was 
 offered an asylum within the precincts of the college, 
 where he established a shop, and he was honoured 
 with the title of mathematical instrument maker 
 The great men of the day 
 Black, Dr. Dick, Professor 
 Anderson, kindly befriended young Watt, and the 
 more intelligent students were his intimate com- 
 panions. The revival of commercial and manufac- 
 turing enterprise in Britain had about this time 
 directed attention to steam as a motive power. 
 As early as 1761 or 1762, Watt made some experi- 
 ments on the force of steam. But the event to 
 which his invaluable discoveries may be most dis- 
 tinctly assigned took place in the session of 1763- 
 64, when Professor Anderson sent him a model of 
 Newcomen's steam engiue to repair. He soon 
 repaired the model, which exists to this day in the 
 museum of the natural philosophy class. While 
 working at these repairs, ne was led to detect the 
 imperfections of the machine itself, and to investi- 
 gate those properties of steam upon which its 
 action depends. About this time he left the col- 
 lege and took up his abode in the town previous to 
 his marriage with his cousin, Miss Miller, the 
 daughter of a ' freeman,' in the summer of 1764. 
 It is not possible to enter here on the nature of 
 Watt's improvements in the steam engine, or to 
 estimate their economical advantages; we must 
 refer to treatises on the steam engine for informa- 
 tion on these points. Suffice it here to say, that 
 ^ att's invention of a separate condenser, and the 
 ] y modifications of the arrangements of the 
 mechanism of the engine, were in their main fea- 
 tures completed as early as 1765. In 1768, the 
 first patent was applied for, and obtained 5th Janu- 
 ary, 1769. Dr. John Roebuck, the founder of 
 
 in pre- 
 
 to the university. 
 Adam Smith, Dr. 
 
 !': J 
 
 Carron Iron Works, who had aided Watt 
 
 WAT 
 
 paring his third working model, was a sharer in 
 this patent. Roebuck's affairs got embarrassed in 
 the summer of 1769, and Watt was for the time 
 deprived of the means of prosecuting his inventions. 
 He dedicated himself, however, with great credit 
 to general engineering and surveying during the 
 interval which elapsed before the opportunity 
 presented itself of his finally devoting himself to 
 the carrying out of his improvements in the steam 
 engine. It was while engaged in the greatest en- 
 gineering work undertaken by him, the surveying 
 and estimating a line of canal between Fort Wil- 
 liam and Inverness, since executed by Telford on a 
 larger scale than was then proposed, that Watt, in 
 
 1773, having been bereaved of his wife, determined 
 to accept an invitation from Matthew Boulton, the 
 founder of Soho, to settle in Fngland. Watt's con- 
 nection with Boulton commenced early in the year 
 
 1774, and they remained in partnership till 1800, 
 when Watt retired from business, but their friend- 
 ship continued undiminished until Boulton's death. 
 Of the spirited manner in which Boulton conducted 
 the mercantile department of the establishment, 
 some idea may be formed from the fact, that up- 
 wards of 47,000 was spent before the patentees 
 began to receive any returns ; but at length their 
 remuneration began to pour in, and in no scanty L 
 stream. In Cornwall and other mining districts, y 
 especially where coal was not abundant, the new 
 engines speedily replaced the old ; but down to 
 1794 the introduction of the steam engine into 
 other three mining districts had been comparatively 
 slow, and it has been stated, that at the expiration 
 of the patent the aggregate power of the engines 
 employed in London was not more than 650 nomi- 
 nal horse power ; in Manchester about 450 horse 
 power, and in Leeds about 300 horse power. As 
 above alluded to, a volume would not suffice to ex- 
 haust Watt's professional biography, and we musl 
 leave our readers to inquire into this elsewhere. 
 Of the private character of the great engineer a 
 most pleasing account is given by Lord Jeffrey, 
 who observes: 'Perhaps no individual in this ag 
 
 {)ossessed so much and so varied exact information, 
 lad read so much, and remembered what he It 
 read so accurately and well. He had infini 
 quickness of apprehension, a prodigious memory 
 and a certain rectifying and methodizing power " 
 understanding, which extracted something precion 
 out of all that was presented to it.' In social con 
 versation he allowed his mind, like a great cych 
 paedia, to be opened up on whatever subject might 
 best suit the taste of his associates ; and he mad> 
 everything so plain, clear, and intelligible, that, it 
 is remarked, scarcely any one could be conscious ol 
 any deficiency in their own capacity in his pre- 
 sence. Of a generous and affectionate disposition.* 
 he was considerate of the feelings of all around 
 him, and gave the most liberal assistance and en 
 couragement to all young persons who showed, 
 indications of talent, or who applied to him foi 
 patronage and advice. As his death approached, 
 he was perfectly conscious of his situation, anc 
 calm in the contemplation of it, expressing hi* 
 thankfulness for the length of days with which he 
 had been blessed. He died at Heathfield, neai 
 Soho, Birmingham, on the 25th August, 1819. 
 He was fellow of the Royal Societies of London 
 and Edinburgh; correspondent of the French Instv 
 
 822 
 
WAT 
 
 tute, and an LL.D. of Glasgow university. By- 
 public subscription a monument was erected to him 
 in 1824 in Westminster Abbey, one of the best of 
 Chantrey's works. The countenance of this statue 
 has been characterized as the ' personification of 
 abstract thought.' Other statues by Chantrey 
 adorn George's Square, Glasgow, the University 
 Museum, and the chapel at Handsworth, erected 
 bv Watt's only son, who survived him, and who is 
 since dead. ' [L.D.B.G.] 
 
 WATT, Robert, a Scotch physician, author of 
 professional works, and of the well-known index 
 of British and foreign literature, entitled ' Biblio- 
 theca Britannica,' 1774-1819. 
 
 WATTEAU, Anthony, an eminent French 
 landscape painter, b. at Valenciennes 1684, d. 1721. 
 
 WATTS, Isaac, D.D., was a native of South- 
 ampton, where he was born on 17th July, 1674. 
 His father was a dissenter, and living at a time 
 when nonconformity was a crime, he several 
 times suffered heavy penalties, both by fine and 
 imprisonment. Isaac early displayed a remarkable 
 precocity ; and his greatest delight while a mere 
 child, consisted in reading simple story books. At 
 the age of four he began to learn Latin, and at 
 seven, had attracted no small attention by his 
 talent for versifying. His proficiency in classical 
 studies was so much above the average scholarship 
 of school boys, that some wealthy individuals, 
 desirous of encouraging so gifted a youth, offered 
 to bear the expenses of his education at one of the 
 universities, if his father would have consented to 
 his entering the established church. Prevented by 
 conscientious scruples from accepting this generous 
 offer, the father placed Isaac at a dissenting aca- 
 demy, under the care of the reverend Mr. Rowe, an 
 independent clergyman, eminent both for his piety 
 and learning. At the age of twenty, his academic 
 course was finished, but instead of commencing an 
 active course of preaching, he resolved, with a rare 
 exercise of humility, and distrust of his fitness for 
 the pulpit, to return to his father's house, with a 
 view of acquiring, during a season of religious 
 retirement, those higher qualifications for the duties 
 of the ministry, which no course of academic 
 instruction, however extensive or varied, can 
 supply. It was during this period that he first 
 tried his poetic talents in the composition of sacred 
 poetry; and so much were these sacred songs 
 admired, that on their being collected and published 
 in a little volume, they were unanimously adopted 
 as the hymn-book of the independent chapel 
 where his "father worshipped. After a retirement 
 of two years under the paternal roof, he accepted 
 an invitation from Sir John Hartopp, Bart, of 
 Stoke-Newington, to undertake the office of tutor 
 to his son. In this situation, he enjoyed ample 
 opportunities for self-improvement; and while he was 
 most conscientious in attending to the interests of 
 his youthful charge, he pursued his own studies at 
 the same time, with indefatigable industry; 
 increasing his familiarity with the Hebrew and 
 Greek Scriptures, perusing the works of the most 
 eminent biblical writers and divines, forming 
 abridgments of many, and endeavouring to digest 
 his acquired knowlege by the methods he afterwards 
 described in his ' Improvement of the Mind.' In 
 1698, Watts entered upon the duties of the ministry, 
 as assistant to l)r. Chauncey, pastor of the inde- 
 
 8 
 
 WAY 
 
 pendent church, Mark Lane, London ; and on the 
 death of that clergyman, was chosen to succeed 
 him on 8th March, 1702. Under the auspices of 
 this eloquent and fervid young preacher, the 
 congregation rapidly increased, and continued for 
 several years in the most flourishing condition, 
 when an alarming illness, brought on by his 
 vehement style of oratory, threatened to put a 
 premature period to his life and usefulness. By 
 due care and attention he recovered ; but his physical 
 energies were so much impaired, that he was 
 obliged, first, to employ an assistant, to relieve 
 him of some part of his ministerial duties; and 
 then afterwards, on the recurrence of a violent 
 fever, which gave a severe shock to his enfeebled 
 constitution, tie had, at his own desire, Mr. Price 
 associated with him as colleague in the pastoral 
 charge of his congregation. Compelled soon after 
 to resign his public office, he went on a visit to the 
 house of his friend, Sir Thomas Abney, knight 
 and alderman, at Abney Park, Stoke-Newing- 
 
 1 1 ji i m 1 1 
 
 -TTOkPF 
 
 [Abney Park, the residence of Isaac Watts.J 
 
 ton ; and that visit, though designed at first to be 
 for a few days, was prolonged to a residence of 
 more than thirty years. In this hospitable man- 
 sion he received "all the tender and assiduous 
 attention which his infirmities required; and 
 which were sweetened by the pleasures of cultivated 
 society and Christian friendship. In 1728, the 
 universities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen simul- 
 taneously conferred on him the honorary degree of 
 Doctor in Divinity. Seldom has such a title been 
 bestowed on one so worthy to receive it. Dr. 
 Watts' range of knowledge was almost unbounded, 
 and although theology was of course the chief 
 subject of his study, he had mastered the whole 
 circle of the sciences. Dr. Watts holds a respect- 
 able rank in the list of British poets. His poetry 
 is chiefly of a devotional cast, and in regard to his 
 hymns, Dr. Johnson has pronounced this high 
 eulogium, ' That for children he condescended to 
 lav aside the scholar, the philosopher, and the 
 wit to write little poems, systems of instruction 
 adapted to their wants and capacities.' Dr. Watts 
 died on 25th November, 1748, in the seventv- 
 fifth vear of his age. [B.J.] 
 
 WAYNFLETE, William of, so called from 
 his birth-place, in Lincolnshire, was the eldest son 
 23 
 
WE A 
 
 of Richard Fatten or Barbour. Commencing his 
 distinguished career as head master of Winchester 
 scliooi about 1420, he became provost of Eton, 
 then in course of foundation by Henry VI., 1442, 
 bishop of Winchester 1447, and lord high chan- 
 cellor 1456. He founded Magdalen College, Ox- 
 ford, and, though a true Lancastrian, was highly 
 honoured by Edward IV. ; died 14SL>. 
 
 WEAVER See Wekver. 
 
 WEBB, F., an English writer, 1735-1815. 
 
 WEBB. F. C, an antiquarian, 1700-1770. 
 
 WEBBE. George, a native of Wiltshire, who 
 became bishop of Limerick, and died in the castle 
 of that town, where the rebels had imprisoned 
 him, in 1641. He is the author of several religious 
 works, the principal of which is entitled ' Practice 
 of Quietness, directing a Christian to Live Quietly 
 in this Troublesome World.' 
 
 WEBBE, SAMUEL, a great English musician 
 and composer, was bom in 1740. In his boyhood 
 he was indentured to a cabinet-maker, but after 
 the termination of his apprenticeship he devoted 
 himself entirely to the study of music. At twenty- 
 six years old he gained a gold prize medal for the 
 bertemon from the Catch Club, and from the years 
 1765 to 1792 he had no fewer than twenty-seven 
 medals awarded to him from the same club for 
 glees, canons, odes, and catches. It was for this 
 club that Webbe composed the famous glee Glori- 
 ous Apollo.' His compositions of the class men- 
 tioned amount to one hundred and seven. He 
 composed, besides masses (he was a Roman Catho- 
 lic) anthems, soncrs, &c, many of w hich are still 
 sung. He died in 1817. [J.M.] 
 
 WEBBER, John, an ingenious ai-tist, who was 
 appointed draughtsman in the last expedition of 
 Captain Cook ; born in London 1751, died 1793. 
 
 WEBBER, Z., a Dutch theologian, died 1697. 
 
 WEBER, Ananias, a German theologian, 
 preacher, and controversial writer, 1596-1765. 
 
 WEBER, Carl Maria Von, one of the greatest 
 of German musicians, was born at Eutin m Hol- 
 stein, in December, 1786. In 1797 he was taken 
 to Saltzburg and placed under the tuition of 
 Michael Haydn, (brother of the illustrious com- 
 poser), and here he published his first works. 
 Soon after this he went to Munich, where he re- 
 ceived lessons in singing from Valesi, and in com- 
 position from M. Kalcher, under whose supervision 
 he wrote music for an opera ' The Power of Love 
 and Wine.' In 1800 his opera the Wood Maiden ' 
 was brought out, in 1801 ' Peter Schlemihl,' and 
 soon after ' Rubezahl,' which afterwards appeared 
 as the composition of Rode. In 1802 he set out 
 on a professional tour through Germany, and in 
 1806 he went by invitation to Carlsruhe, where he 
 produced several symphonies and concertos. At 
 Darmstadt he composed his ' Abon Hassan,' and 
 from 1813 to 1816 he was director of the opera at 
 Prague. In 1822 he brought out at Berlin his 
 work, ' Der Freischutz,' which produced 
 an immense sensation in the north of Germany, 
 and wherever it was performed. It was put on 
 in London on the 23d of July, 1824. In 
 November. 1828, Weber produced at Vienna his 
 opera of ' Eurvanthe,' and in 1825 he accepted 
 from Mr. Charles Kemble the offer of 500 to 
 compose an or.era foe the English stage. This 
 opera was 'Oberon,' which was brought out at 
 
 WEB 
 
 Covent Garden theatre, conducted by Weber him- 
 self, on the 12th of April, 1826. Soon after unmis- 
 takeable symptoms of pulmonary disease presented 
 themselves, and the health of the great composer 
 sank rapidlv, and his illustrious career closed on 
 the 5th of June, 1826, when he was found lifeless 
 in his bed. He was buried in the Roman Catholic 
 chapel, Moorfields, permission to inter him in St. 
 Paul's cathedral having been refused on account 
 of his religion. [.EM.] 
 
 WEBER, Emmanuel, a German historian, 
 poet, and jurisconsult, died 1726. 
 
 WEBER, G., a German savant, 1632-1698. 
 
 WEBER, Henry William, a miscellaneous 
 writer and archaeologist, was born at St. Peters- 
 burg of German parents in 1783, and having been 
 educated at Edinburgh and Jena for the medical 
 profession, finally settled in Scotland as an author. 
 His principal works are ' Metrical Romances of 
 the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Cen- 
 turies,' ' Explication of Northern Antiquities,' 
 ' The Battle of Flodden Field,' and an edition of 
 1 Beaumont and Fletcher.' Died 1818. 
 
 [Birth place of Daniel Webster.] 
 
 WEBSTER, Daniel, was born at Salisbury in 
 the state of New Hampshire, on the 18th of Jan., 
 1782. He was a child of the wilderness, and but 
 for the New England system of education, which 
 pushed, even then, the means of instruction into 
 remote solitudes, he would never have been en- 
 abled to bring his great faculties to bear in public 
 life. His acquirements were always scanty when 
 compared to the great intellectual force with which 
 he could apply tnem. He studied for the law in 
 the joint capacity of attorney and barrister after 
 the American fashion, and in 1807 removed from 
 the obscure village of Boscawen to a larger field of 
 exertion in Portsmouth, the chief town of the state. 
 He was a great forensic orator, and his career 
 at the bar was connected with many leading cases 
 of great public and constitutional interest. In 1812 
 he became a member of congress, and at once took 
 up a marked, though not a popular position, as he 
 was opposed to the policy of the war with Britain. 
 In connection with this struggle he was thrown 
 into a contest which, reappearing at intervals, 
 occupied more or less a great portion of his legis- 
 lative exertion. The necessities of the war first 
 suggested large projects for creating a state bank, 
 and an expansive currency, which were opposed by 
 Webster as likely to nourish the American failing 
 
 824 
 
 5 
 
 h 
 
WEB 
 
 of reckless speculation. His policy of watching and 
 adjusting the currency frequently saved the United 
 States from monetary danger, and a remarkable 
 instance of his wise strictness occurred, when 
 by his exertion the payment of revenue in district 
 paper, ever fluctuating, and sometimes 25 per cent, 
 under its nominal value, was abolished, and pav- 
 ments required in States currency. When the 
 
 ?iuestion of the rechartering of the bank came back 
 or discussion in 1832, he thought that changes in 
 the constitution of the establishment, and in the 
 wealth and population of the country, justified the 
 measure, and he was ranged among its supporters. 
 In 1826 he became a member of the senate, and 
 was rechosen in 1833. From that time he filled 
 for nearly twenty years the state offices nearest 
 to the highest. That he should have been presi- 
 dent, was the natural expectation of other nations, 
 and his disappearance from the scene without 
 having reached that distinction, is one of the in- 
 stances which show that the Americans, perhaps 
 wisely, are jealous of seeing very clever men in that 
 powerful position. Webster died at Boston on 
 the 24th of October, 1852. [J.H.B.] 
 
 WEBSTER, John, an Engl, dramatist, 17th c. 
 
 WEBSTER, Noah, the famous American lexi- 
 cographer, was born in 1758, at West Hartford, 
 and was descended from one of the earliest English 
 settlers in that colony. Having studied for the 
 law he was called to the bar in 1781, and devoted 
 the whole remainder of his life to literary and pro- 
 fessional avocations. Besides his ' Dictionary of 
 the English Language,' a work of amazing indus- 
 try and research, he wrote ' Sketches of American 
 Policy,' 'The Grammatical Institute,' and other 
 works. He also conducted one of the dailv papers 
 of New York. Died 1843. 
 
 WEBSTER, Thomas, a native of the Orkneys, 
 known as professor of geology in the London Uni- 
 versity, and a writer on that science, 1773-1844. 
 Bis ' Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy' may be 
 considered the result of his acquaintance with Count 
 Bumford, in whose researches he participated. 
 
 WEBSTER, William, an English divine, edi- 
 tor of the Life of General Monk, &c, 1689-1758. 
 # WECKERLIN, G. R., a German poet and poli- 
 tical negotiator, 1584-1651. 
 
 WECKHERLIN, G. L., a publicist and miscel- 
 laneous writer of Wirtemberg, 1739-1792. 
 
 WEDDERBUBN. See Rosslyn. 
 
 WEDEL, C. H., a Prussian general, 1712-1782. 
 
 WE DEL, George Wolfgang, a German 
 physician and writer of many learned works, 1645- 
 1721. His son, Stephen Henry, a physician, 
 1671-1709. J. Adolphus, brother of the latter, 
 same profession, 1675-1748. John Wolfgang, 
 of the same family, a learned botanist, 1708-1757. 
 
 WEDGWOOD, Josiah, famous for his im- 
 provement of the English pottery manufacture, 
 was born at Newcastle-under-Lyne, where his 
 father was engaged in that branch of business, in 
 1730. He was well versed in natural philosophy, 
 and produced his valuable results after numerous 
 experiments upon the various kinds of clay and 
 colouring substances, joined to a taste for art. He 
 was the benefactor of his country in many other 
 important matters, more especially in the promo- 
 tion of the grand trunk canal, engineered by Brind- 
 ley, and of a road through the potteries, died 1795. 
 
 WEL 
 
 WEENINX, or W r (ENIX, J. B., a Dutch pain- 
 ter, remarkable for the versatility of his powers, 
 1621-1660. His brother, John, who excelled in 
 hunting pieces and still life, 1644-1719. 
 
 WEERDT, Adrian De, a Flemish landscape 
 painter, flourished at Brussels, 16th century. 
 
 WEERDT, Sebald De, a Dutch navigator, 
 who was killed at the isle of Ceylon 1603. 
 
 WEEVER, or WEVER, John, an industrious 
 antiquarian, supposed to have been born in Lin- 
 colnshire in 1576, died 1632. His work is the 
 well-known 'Funeral Monuments of Great Bri- 
 tain,' originally published in 1631. 
 
 WEGELIN, James, a native of St. Gall, author 
 of a ' Universal History,' and of a ' Memoir on the 
 Philosophy of History,' 1721-1793. 
 
 WEICHMANN, C. F., a German writer, author 
 of ' The Unedited Poetical Productions of the Most 
 Celebrated Writers of Lower Saxony,' died 1769. 
 
 WEIDLER, J. F., a Germ, astron., 1691-1755. 
 
 WEIGEL, Christian Ehrenfried, a German 
 physician, distinguished as a botanist, last century. 
 
 WEIGEL, Erhard, an eminent German as- 
 tronomer and mathematician, 1625-1699. 
 
 WEIGEL, V., a German theologian, 1533-1588. 
 
 WEILLER, G., a German philosopher, d. 1826. 
 
 WEIMAR, Anne Amelia, duchess of, daughter 
 of the duke of Brunswick, distinguished by her 
 patronage of literature, died 1807. 
 
 WEINBREKNER, Frederic, a German archi- 
 tect and friend of Lavater, distinguished as a man 
 of taste and writer on science, 1766-1826. 
 
 WEINREICH, V., a German savant, 1552-1622. 
 
 WEISE, C, a German writer, 1642-1708. 
 
 WEISHAUPT, Adam, a famous name in the 
 history of secret societies, was a professor of canon 
 law in the university of Ingoldstadt. He was 
 born in 1748, and educated among the Jesuits, 
 quarrelling with whom caused him to propose a 
 counter association of the good and enlightened of 
 all nations. The society organized in pursuance of 
 this design, began working in 1776, and was finally 
 known as the Society of Illuminati. In its founda- 
 tion, an endeavour was made to combine all the 
 working advantages and most striking symbols of 
 Freemasonry and Jesuitism ; from the latter, its 
 statutes of implicit obedience, and its espionage 
 was derived ; from the former its order and ritual, 
 but modified by the revolutionary ends which its 
 leaders really proposed. This society was sup- 
 pressed by the elector of Bavaria in 1783, and 
 Weishaupt, quitting Ingolstadt, went to Gotha, 
 where he was honoured with the dignity of Aulic 
 counsellor. He died in 1822, and left several works 
 illustrating the history of the Illuminati, and his 
 views concerning the progress of society, and ' Mo- 
 ral Perfectibility.' The Abbe Barruel and Pro- 
 fessor Robison wrote exaggerated reports of tins 
 and the many similar movements of the period. 
 See further in the article Saint Martin. [I'LR.] 
 
 WKISS, F. R., a Swiss statesman, 1751-1802. 
 
 WEISSE, Christian Felix, a miscellaneous 
 German writer and dramatic poet, author of several 
 successful plays, and of songs and odes which are 
 highly spoken of by the German critics. W T eisse 
 likewise acquired great popularity as a writer of 
 works for youth, 1726-1804. 
 
 WEITZ, J., a Prussian philologist, 1576-1642. 
 
 WELCHMAN, Edward, a digi.itary of the 
 
 825 
 
WEL 
 
 church, author of an ' Illustration of the Thirty- 
 Nine Articles,' and a 'Defence of the Church of 
 England,' 1665-1739. 
 
 WELD, Thomas, an English cardinal, whose 
 father, of the same name, was founder of the Ro- 
 man Catholic college at Stoneyhurst, 1773-1S37. 
 
 WELDON, John, an organist and distinguished 
 
 ipos 
 
 of cathedral music, died 1736. 
 
 WELLER DE MOLSDORF, Jerome, a Ger- 
 man theologian, distinguished for his piety and his 
 connection with Luther, 1499-1572. James, of 
 the same family, an Orientalist and theologian, 
 author of a Greek Grammar, 1602-1664. 
 
 WEI. LESLEY, Richard Colley W t elles- 
 i.ky, maniuis of, was horn at Dublin on 20th June, 
 1700. He became in youth a very accomplished 
 scholar and gave in early life greater promise of 
 distinction than his renowned brother the duke of 
 Wellington. He was an active member of the 
 Irish House of Lords until the union, and at the 
 same time had a seat in the English Commons, 
 iironght first into notice by his views on 
 the regency question, which pleased George HI. 
 He received a British peerage as Baron Morning- 
 ton, and the Irish title of marquis of Wellesley. 
 It was in the year 1797 that the career in which 
 he was destined to shine, was opened to him by 
 his appointment as governor-general of India. It 
 seemed at first no favourable prognostic of his 
 career that just after the calamities which had 
 occurred from intrusting a royal duke with the 
 command for which he was unfit, and while a 
 repetition of the same mistake was producing its 
 fruits under the brother of the prime minister, 
 Wellesley passing over veteran officers who had 
 performed great achievements, should intrust high 
 command to his young brother, Arthur. Whether 
 fortuitous or wisely calculated, the result was for- 
 tunate for the British rule in India at a very criti- 
 cal time. The government of Wellesley and his 
 brother's victories form the second great epoch 
 after the operations of Clive and Hastings in the 
 acquisition of the British Indian empire. Though 
 he desired to return earlier, he was prevailed 
 on to remain governor-general until the year 1803. 
 He held several offices after his return, and was 
 from 1821 to 1828 governor-general of Ireland. 
 He died on 20th December, 1842. [J.H.B.] 
 
 [Pangan Cattle, the birth place of Wellington.] 
 
 WELLINGTON. Arthur Wellesley. after- 
 
 WEL 
 
 wards duke of Wellington, was bom at Dangan 
 Castle in Ireland, on May 1, 1769. Marshal Ncv, 
 Goethe, and several of the greatest men of the 
 age were born in the same year. His father was 
 Lord Mornington, an Irish nobleman, but he was 
 of Norman blood, being lineally descended from the 
 standard-bearer to Henry II. in his conquest of 
 Ireland in the year 1100. His elder brother, who 
 succeeded to the family honours, was a man of 
 great genius and capacity, who afterwards became 
 governor-general of India, and was created Marquis 
 Wellesley. Thus the same family had the extra- 
 ordinary fortune of giving birth to the statesman 
 whose counsel and rule preserved and extended our 
 empire in the Eastern, and the hero whose invin- 
 cible arm saved his country and conquered Napoleon 
 in the Western world. Young Arthur Wellesley, 
 after having received the elements of education at 
 Eton, was sent to the military school of Angers in 
 France to be instructed in the art of war, for 
 which he already evinced a strong predilection. 
 He received his first commission in the army in 
 the 33d regiment, which to this day is distin- 
 guished by the honour then conferred upon it. 
 The first occasion on which he was called into 
 active service was in 1793, when his regiment was 
 ordered abroad, and formed part of the British 
 contingent, wdiich marched across from Ostend 
 under Lord Moira, to join the allied army in 
 Flanders. He bore an active part in the campaign 
 which followed, and distinguished himself so much 
 in several actions with the enemy, that though 
 only a captain in rank, he came at length to 
 execute the duties of major, and did good service 
 in several well-fought affairs of the rear guard in 
 which he bore a part. Though the issue of the 
 campaign was unfortunate, and it terminated in 
 the disastrous retreat through Holland in 1794, 
 yet it was of essential service in training Wellesley 
 to the duties to which he was hereafter to be 
 called, for it was with an army at one time mus- 
 tering 90,000 combatants that he had served; and 
 his first initiation into the duties of his profession 
 was with the great bodies which he was afterwards 
 destined to command, and his first insight into 
 war was on a great scale, to which his own 
 achievements were one day destined to form so 
 bright a contrast. After the return of the troops 
 from Holland, the 33d regiment was not again 
 called into active service till 1799, when it was 
 sent out to India, to reinforce the troops there on 
 the eve of the important war, in which Lord Wel- 
 lesley, his elder brother, who was now governor- 
 general, was engaged with the forces of Tippoo 
 Saib. Young Wellesley went with them, and on 
 his way out his library consisted of two books, 
 which he studied incessantly, the Bible, and 
 Caasar's Commentaries. On landing, his regiment, 
 of which he had now become lieut.-colonel, was 
 so conspicuous for its admirable discipline and the 
 perfection to which the commissariat and all the 
 arrangements connected with it had been brought, 
 that it was specially noticed by General Harris, 
 the commander-in-chief. Previous to the assault 
 of Seringapatam, Tippoo Saib's capital, Wellesley 
 was intrusted with the command of a nocturnal 
 
 attack on an outwork which proved unsuccessful, 
 from the troops missing their way in the dark and 
 
 I getting into a deep water-course'which proved M 
 
 826 
 
WEL 
 
 be impassable. General Baird. litrtvever, the second 
 in command, gave him next day an opportunity of 
 renewing the attack, which he did with entire 
 success. His regiment was not engaged in the 
 assault which followed on May 4, when the town 
 was taken ; notwithstanding which, he was next 
 day appointed governor of it, a promotion obvi- 
 ously done to gratify the governor-general, and 
 deservedly felt as an undeserved slight by the gal- 
 lant hero who had conducted and headed the 
 assault. Whatever opinion may be formed on the 
 merits of this appointment, one thing is perfectly 
 clear, that Col. Welleslev immediately gave decisive 
 
 proof of his entire adequacy to the discharge of the 
 important duties to which he was called. Seringa- 
 patam was. soon put in a respectable position of 
 defence, the disorders consequent on the storm 
 arrested, and the administration of the new 
 dominions acquired for the Company put on the 
 best footing. Ere long he was called to more 
 active duties. Doondiah Waugh, a noted free- 
 booter, having collected 5,000 horse, the wreck of 
 Tippoo's forces, had renewed the war in the upper 
 provinces; and was levying contributions in all 
 quarters from the inhabitants. Col. Wellesley, 
 upon this, put himself at the head of 1,400 horse, 
 partly European and partly native, with which he 
 pursued the Mysore chief. After undergoing 
 incredible fatigues he at length succeeded in com- 
 ing up with him and bringing him to battle. The 
 result was soon settled, Doondiah was defeated 
 and slain, and the first intelligence his partizans 
 received of his death, was by seeing his dead body 
 brought back lashed to a galloper gun. On this 
 occasion, Col. Wellesley charged the Mysore horse 
 in person at the head of the British dragoons. 
 This brilliant achievement was the prelude only to 
 still more important achievements. War having 
 broken out in 1803 between the East India Com- 
 pany and the Mahrattas, General Wellesley, to 
 which rank he had now been promoted, received 
 the command of one of the armies destined to 
 operate against them. After having stormed the 
 strong fortress of Achmednaghur, which lay on 
 the road, he came up with the Mahratta force, 
 30,000 strong, posted at the village of Assaye. 
 Wellesley's forces, at the moment, did not exceed 
 4,500 men, of whom only 1,700 were European ; 
 and the half of his army, under Col. Stevenson, was 
 at a distance, advancing by a different road, 
 marated from his own by a ridge of intervening 
 hills. But justly deeming the boldest course in 
 such critical circumstances the most prudent, he 
 took the resolution of instantly attacking the 
 enemy with the small body of men under his im- 
 mediate command. The result showed the wisdom 
 as well as heroism of the determination. After a 
 desperate struggle, in which he himself charged a 
 Mahratta battery at the head of the 74th regiment, 
 the vast army of the enemy, which comprised 
 18,000 splendid horse, was totally defeated, all 
 their guns, 97 in number, taken, and their army 
 entirely dispersed. It need hardly be said that 
 this great victory had a material effect in breaking 
 the power of the Mahrattas, and compelling them 
 to conclude a most glorious peace, which closed 
 Marquis Wellesley's administration. General Wel- 
 lesley was made a Knight of the Bath for this 
 victory, and he returned to England Sir Arthur 
 
 WEL 
 
 Wellesley. His next employment was at the ex- 
 pedition under Lord Cathcart to Copenhagen, in 
 1807, on which occasion he commanded a division 
 of the army. He was not engaged in the siege, 
 but commanded a corps which was detached against 
 a body of Danes, 12,000 strong, who had collected, 
 in the rear of the British force, in the island of 
 Zealand. They were dispersed without much dif- 
 ficulty by a body of 7,000 men under Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley. After the fall of Copenhagen he returned 
 to England, and was nominated soon after to the 
 command, in the first instance, of an expeditionary 
 force of 10,000 men, which was fitted out at Cork, 
 to co-operate with the Portuguese in rescuing their 
 country from the tyrannic grasp of the French 
 emperor. It was intimated to him, however, that 
 Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew Dairy mple would, 
 as soon as they arrived, supersede him in the com- 
 mand ; and his friends urged him not to accept a 
 subordinate command after having commanded 
 great armies in the East. But Sir Arthur replied 
 in a noble spirit : ' I have, as we say in India, 
 eaten of the king's salt ; and I will serve his 
 majesty in whatever situation he may be pleased 
 to place me, be it supreme or inferior.' The expe- 
 dition set sail in June, 1808, and landed on the 
 coast of Portugal, when they were soon assailed by 
 General Junot, who had marched out of Lisbon, 
 with 19,000 men, to drive him into the sea. The 
 British force consisted of 1G,000, and, as this was 
 the first time the troops of the rival nations had 
 met in the peninsula, great interest was attached 
 to the conflict. The French were defeated after a 
 sharp action ; and Sir Arthur had made prepara- 
 tions to follow up his victory by marching the 
 same evening to Torres Vedras, where he would be 
 between Junot and Lisbon, and would either 
 drive him to a disastrous retreat or force him to 
 surrender. But at this critical moment, when the 
 order had just been despatched for this decisive 
 movement, Sir H. Burrard arrived and took the 
 command. He belonged to the old school, with 
 whom it was deemed enough to fight one battle in 
 one day, and he gave orders to halt. Junot, in 
 consequence, hastened back to Torres Vedras, 
 without losing an hour, and regained the capital. 
 Sir H. Dalrvmple soon afterwards arrived and con- 
 cluded the famous convention of Cintra, by which 
 the French evacuated the whole of Portugal. That 
 convention excited unbounded indignation in Eng- 
 land at the time ; but Sir A. Wellesley justly sup- 
 ported it, for, when the opportunity of cutting off 
 Junot from Lisbon had been lost, it was the best 
 thing that could be done. Next year, still more 
 operations were undertaken. Sir Arthur, who had 
 now been appointed to the sole command of the 
 army in Portugal, landed at Lisbon on April 4, and 
 by his presence restored the confidence which had 
 been much weakened by the disastrous issue of 
 Sir John Moore's campaign in the close of the pre- 
 ceding year. His first operation was to move 
 against Marshal Soult, who had advanced to 
 Oporto, with 20,000 men, and taken that city. 
 By a bold movement he efi'ected the passage of the 
 Tagus, under the very guns of the enemy, and 
 drove the French to so rapid a retreat, that he 
 partook of the dinner which had been prepared 
 for Marshal Soult ! The French general, by 
 
 827 
 
WEL 
 
 retreat into Galicia, but not without sustaining 
 I gnat as Sir John Moore had done in the 
 
 _- year. He next turned towards Spain, 
 ad having effected a junction with the Spanish 
 general, Cuesta, in Estramadura, their united 
 
 0,000 strong, but of whom only 20,000 were 
 English and Portuguese, advanced towards Mad- 
 rid. They were met at Talavera by King Joseph 
 at the head of 45,000 of the best French troops in 
 
 A desperate action of two days' duration 
 ensued, which fell almost entirely on the English 
 and Portuguese, as the Spaniards, who were 38,000 
 in number, fled at the first shot. The French 
 were in the end defeated with the loss of 8,000 
 men and 17 guns; but the fruits of victory were 
 in a great measure lost to the English by the 
 arrival of Marshals Soult, Ney, and Mortier, with 
 the whole forces in the provinces of Galicia, Leon, 
 and Asturias in their rear, which forced them to 
 retreat to the Portuguese frontier. But one last- 
 ing good effect resulted from this movement, that 
 these provinces were liberated from the enemy, 
 who never after regained their footing in them. 
 The year 1810 witnessed the invasion of Portugal 
 by a huge French army, 80,000 strong, under 
 Marshal Massena, which, after capturing the for- 
 tresses of Cuidad Rodrigo, and Almeida, pene- 
 trated into the very heart of that country. Sir 
 Arthur, who had now been created Viscount Wel- 
 lixgti >x, had only 35,000 men under his command, 
 with which, it was impossible to prevent the fall 
 of those fortresses. But he took so strong a posi- 
 tion on the ridge of Busaco that he repulsed, with 
 great slaughter, an attack upon it by two corps of 
 the French army, and when at length obliged to 
 retire, from his flank being turned after the oattle 
 was over, he did so to the position of Torres Vedras, 
 thirty miles in front or Lisbon, which, by the 
 advantages of nature and the resources of art, had 
 been rendered impregnable. Six hundred guns 
 were mounted on the redoubts, which was defended 
 by 60,000 armed men. After wasting five months 
 in front of this formidable banner, the French gen- 
 eral was forced to retreat, which he did closely 
 followed by Wellington to the Spanish frontier. 
 There Massena turned on his pursuer, and he 
 re-entered Spain with a view to bring away the 
 garrison of Almeida, which was now invested ; but 
 he was met and defeated at Fuentes d'Onore by 
 Wellington, and forced to retire without effecting 
 his object to Cuidad Rodrigo. The remainder of 
 the year 1810 and the whole of 1811 passed over 
 without any very important events, although a 
 desperate battle took place in the latter year at 
 Albuera, were Marshal Soult was defeated with 
 the loss of 7,000 men by Marshal Beresford, in an 
 attempt to raise the siege of Badajoz, which Wel- 
 lington was besieging. He was compelled to 
 desist from that enterprise after he had made great 
 progress in the siege by a general concentration of 
 the whole French forces in the centre and south of 
 Spain, who advanced against him to the number 
 or 60,000 men. But, though Wellington with- 
 drew into Portugal on this occasion, it was only 
 soon to return into Spain. In the depth of win- 
 ter he secretly prepared a battering train, which 
 he directed against Cuidad Rodrigo, when Mar- 
 
 u-my, charged with its defence, was dis- 
 persed in winter quarters, and after a siege of six 
 
 WEL 
 
 days, took it by storm in January, 1812. No 
 sooner was this done than he directed his forces 
 against Badajoz, which he also carried by storm, 
 after a dreadful assault, which cost the victors 
 4,000 men. Directing then his footsteps to the 
 north he defeated Marmont with the loss of 20,000 
 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, near Sala- 
 manca ; and advancing to Madrid, he entered that 
 capital in triumph, and compelled the evacuation 
 of the whole of the south of Spain by the French 
 troops. He then turned again to the north, and 
 advanced to Burgos, the castle of which he at- 
 tempted to carry, but in vain. He was obliged 
 again to retire, by a general concentration of the 
 whole French troops in Spain, 100,000 strong, 
 against him, and regained the Portuguese frontier 
 after having sustained very heavy losses during his 
 retreat. The next campaign, that of 1813, was a 
 continual triumph. Early in May, Wellington, 
 whose army had now been raised to 70,000 men, of 
 whom 40,000 were native English, moved for- 
 ward, and driving everything before him, came up 
 with the French army of equal strength, which 
 was concentrated from all parts of Spain in the 
 Plain of Vittokia. The battle which ensued was 
 decisive of the fate of the peninsula. The French 
 who were under King Joseph in person, were 
 totally defeated with the loss of 156 pieces of can 
 non, 415 tumbrils, their whole baggage, and an 
 amount of spoil never before won in modern times 
 by an army. The accumulated plunder of five 
 years in Spain was wrenched from them at one 
 fell swoop. For several miles the soldiers literally 
 marched on dollars and Napoleons which strewed 
 the ground. The French regained their frontier 
 with only one gun, and in the deepest dejection. 
 St. Sebastian was immediately besieged and taken 
 after two bloody assaults, Pampeluna blockaded, 
 and a gallant army, 35,000 strong, which Soult 
 had collected in the south of France to raise the 
 blockade, defeated with the loss of 12,000 men. 
 Wellington next defeated an attempt of the French 
 again to penetrate into France at St. Marcial, and 
 following up his successes, crossed the Bidassoa, 
 stormed the lines they had constructed on the 
 mountains, which were deemed impregnable, and 
 after repeated actions, which were most obstinately 
 contested through the winter, drove them entirely 
 from the neighbourhood of Bayonne, and com 
 pleted the investment of that fortress, while Soult 
 retired with 40,000 men towards Toulouse. Thither 
 he was followed next spring by Wellington, who 
 again defeated him at Orthes in a pitched battle, 
 after which he detached his left wing, under Lord 
 Dalhousie, which occupied Bourdeaux. Tl: main 
 army, under Wellington in person, followed Soult 
 and brought him to action, in a fortified position of 
 immense strength, on the heights of Toulouse. 
 The battle took place four days after peace had 
 been signed, but when it was unknown to the allies ; 
 it graced the close of Wellington's peninsular 
 career by a glorious victory. Honours and emolu 
 
 ments of all kinds were now showered 
 
 upon 
 -it- 1... 
 
 English general. He received a field-marshal's bat 
 from George IV. in return for Marshal Jounlar. 
 taken on the memorable field of Vittoria ; he 
 made a duke on the conclusion of the peace ; 
 ceived the thanks of both Houses of Parliaine 
 and grants at different times to the amount 
 
 828 
 
WEL 
 
 500,000 to purchase an estate and build a palace. 
 He was chiefly at Paris during the year 1814 con- 
 ducting the negotiations for peace ; but on the 
 return of Napoleon from Elba in March, 1815, he 
 was appointed to the command of the united army 
 of British, Hanoverians, and Belgians, 70,000 
 strong, formed in the Netherlands, to resist the 
 anticipated attack of the French emperor. The 
 French emperor was not long of making the antici- 
 pated irruption ; on the 15th June, 1815, he crossed 
 the frontier, and drove in the Prussian outposts, 
 with 130,000 men. Next day he attacked the 
 Prussians, under Blucher, with 80,000 ; and dis- 
 patched Ney with 80,000 against Wellington's 
 army, which was only beginning to be concentrated. 
 A desperate action ensued at Quatre Bras, in which 
 the French were at length repulsed with the loss 
 of 5,000 men ; and, on the 18th, Wellington hav- 
 ing collected all his forces at the post of Water- 
 loo, gave battle to Napoleon in person, who 
 was at the head of 80,000 men. His force was 
 onlv 67,000, with 156 guns ; whereas, the French 
 had" 250, and of these troops only 43,000 were 
 English, and Hanoverians, and Brunswickers, who 
 could be relied on, the remainder being Belgians, 
 who ran away the moment the action was seriously 
 engaged. Notwithstanding this great inequality, 
 the British army maintained its ground with invin- 
 cible firmness till seven o'clock, when the arrival 
 of 50,000 Prussians, under Blucher, on Napoleon's 
 flank, enabled Wellington to take the offensive. 
 The result was the total defeat of the French army, 
 with the loss of 40,000 men and 156 guns. Na- 
 poleon fled to Paris, which he soon after left, and 
 surrendered to the English, and Louis XVIII. 
 having returned to his capital : his dynasty, and 
 with it peace, was restored. The allies having 
 determined to occupy the frontier fortresses, with 
 an army of 150,000 men during five years, the 
 command of the whole was bestowed on the duke 
 of Wellington ; thus affording the clearest proof 
 that his was the master mind which had come to 
 direct the European alliance. This high and im- 
 
 Sortant situation he held for the next three years, 
 uring the whole of which time he discharged its 
 arduous duties with the most consummate wisdom, 
 justice, and discretion. Not only did he retain the 
 entire confidence of the allied sovereigns and re- 
 spect of their soldiers under his command, but he 
 interposed in so efficacious a manner to lighten the 
 enormous burdens laid by the treaty of Paris on 
 France, as to earn the gratitude and receive the 
 thanks of all well-informed persons in that coun- 
 try. Mainly owing to his powerful intercession 
 the period of occupation of the fortresses was 
 shortened from five to three years, and the amount 
 of contributions paid for its support of course pro- 
 portionally lessened. Wellington resigned his 
 eommand, and with it his magnificent appoint- 
 ments in October, 1818, and returned to England, 
 to the retirement of a comparatively private station, 
 terminating thus a career of unbroken military 
 glory by the yet purer lustre arising from relieving 
 the difficulties and assuaging the sufferings of 
 his vanquished enemies. In 1819 he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the army, which 
 situation he held during the whole anxious years 
 which followed, and by his able and far-seeing 
 arrangements, contributed in an essential manner 
 
 WEL 
 
 to bring the nation without effusion of blood through 
 the long years of distress which followed. In No- 
 vember, 1827, he was, upon the dissolution of Lord 
 Goderich's administration, appointed prime minis- 
 ter, which situation he held till displaced by a 
 hostile vote of the House of Commons, on Novem- 
 ber 30, 1830, when the nation was convulsed by 
 the passion for reform. This terminated his life 
 as a political leader ; but he was again appointed 
 commander-in-chief some years afterwards, which 
 situation he held till his death. The vigour of his 
 intellect and sagacity of his counsels appeared in the 
 uniform success which, during that period, attended 
 the military operations in every part of the globe. 
 He suppressed the Canadian revolt in 1837; faced, 
 undismayed, the Affghanistan disaster in 1841 ; 
 arrayed the forces which again led our standard in 
 triumph to Cabul in 1842; brought the_ Chinese 
 war to a successful issue ; subdued the Sikhs and 
 tribe s of Scindia, and rooted out of their almost 
 impregnable fastnesses the formidable Caffres of 
 South Africa. During all this period his counsels, 
 whether at the head of or out of the cabinet, were 
 uniformly directed to one object, the preserva- 
 tion of European peace, which, mainly owing to his 
 exertions, was preserved unbroken, save by domes- 
 tic tumult, for forty years after his crowning vie 
 tory at Waterloo. And thus the most successful 
 military commander which Europe has produced, 
 put the key-stone to the arch of his fame, by 
 directing his whole energies, after a brief period of 
 energetic warfare, to the preservation of the bless- 
 ings and cultivation of the virtues of peace. His 
 long and honoured life, after having been prolonged 
 beyond the usual period of human existence, at 
 length drew to a close. He had, some years before 
 his death, alarming symptoms in his head ; so often 
 the consequence of long- continued intellectual 
 effort; but by strict abstemiousness and perfect 
 regularity of life, he succeeded in subduing the 
 dangerous symptoms, and he was enabled to con- 
 tinue and discharge his duties regularly at the 
 Horse Guards till the time of his death, which 
 took place on September 18, 1852, at the advanced 
 age of eighty-three years. He was honoured with a 
 public funeral, and buried in St. Paul's, in the most 
 magnificent manner, beside Nelson. The queen 
 and all the noblest in the land were there ; a mil- 
 lion of persons witnessed the procession, which 
 went from the Horse Guards, by Apsley House, 
 Piccadilly, and the Strand, to St. Paul's, and not 
 a head was covered, and few eyes dry, when the 
 procession appeared in the streets. Wellington 
 was only once married. He left two sons, the 
 eldest of whom succeeded to his titles and estates, 
 the fruits of his transcendant abilities and great 
 
 1)atriotic services. The leading feature of his intel- 
 ect was wisdom and sagacity ; of his moral charac- 
 ter, a conscientious discharge of duty. In genius 
 he was inferior to many, in foresight and just dis- 
 crimination, to none. He was not gifted with the 
 power of oratory, and had considerable difficulty in 
 expressing his opinions ; but such was the solidity 
 of his judgment and the strength of his under- 
 standing, that what he said never failed to com- 
 mand attention, and, for the last twenty-five years 
 of his life, he exercised an undisputed ascendency 
 in the House of Lords. In private life he was 
 simplicity itself ; his habits were regular, his life 
 
 829 
 
WEL 
 abstemious ; he was punctual in keeping appoint- 
 ed as.siaiu.us in the discharge of every 
 dutv. Without any habits of ostentation he could, 
 on fitting occasions, exhibit a Bplendotn becoming 
 his rank ; and his simple habits enabled him to 
 bestow innumerable sums on deserving objects, and 
 l of greet numbers of his 
 brethren in arms. Without asserting that he was 
 free from all the failings common to the 
 children of Adam, it may safely be affirmed that, 
 as be was the greatest general recorded in British, 
 and one of the greatest in European story, so he 
 was one of the most immaculate characters winch 
 has adorned the annals of his country. [A.A.] 
 
 [Walter Castle] 
 
 WELLS, Charles William, born of Scotch 
 parents at Charlestown, in South Carolina, and 
 settled as a physician in London, author of several 
 physiological works, and of an Essay on Dew, the 
 theory of which is now admitted, 1753-1817. 
 WELLS, E., a learned divine, 1664-1727. 
 WELLWOOD, Sir H. Moncrkiff, an eminent 
 divine and pastor of the Scottish Church, 1750-1H27. 
 WELLWOOD, Thomas, a Scottish physician, 
 author of 'Memoirs of English Affairs from 1588 
 to the Revolution,' 1652-1716. 
 
 WELSCH, C. J., a German philologist, 1624-78. 
 WELSER. See Velser 
 WELSTED, Leonard, one of the heroes of 
 Pope's Dunciad, known as a poet and miscellaneous 
 writer, born in Northamptonshire 1689, died 1747. 
 WENCESLAUS, the name of several dukes and 
 kings of Bohemia : Wenceslaus L, duke, 907- 
 936. Wenceslaus II., succeeded his uncle, Con- 
 rad, 1191, and was driven from the throne three 
 months afterwards by Przemislas, died in prison 
 1194. W'enceslaus III., as duke, or the jtrst as 
 king, son of Przemislas Ottocar I., was born 1205, 
 and associated in the government with his father 
 in 1228. He began to reign alone in 1230, died 
 1253. Wenceslaus IV. or IL, succeeded to the 
 throne of Bohemia 1283, elected king of Poland in 
 opposition to Uladislaus IV. 1300, and king of 
 Hungary 1301. He ceded the latter dignity to his 
 son, and died 1305. Wenceslaus V. or III., son 
 of the preceding, became king of Hungary when 
 twelve years of age 1301, and ceded that country 
 to Otho IV., when his father's death called him to 
 the government of Bohemia in 1305 ; assassinated 
 
 WER 
 
 1306. Wenceslaus VI. or IV., king of Boher 
 and emperor of Germany, was the son of the e 
 peror Charles IV., and was born 1359. He si 
 ceeded to his father in 1378, but his cruelties 
 debaucheries desolated the kingdom and led, 
 1394, to his deposition. This time he sui 
 in re-establishing his authority, but in 1400 he 
 solemnly deprived of the title of emperor, 
 remained king of Bohemia only, till his death 
 1419. It was towards the close of his reign 
 the wars of John Huss and Zisca broke out. 
 
 WENCESLAUS, duke of Saxonv, succeeded 
 brother, Rodolph IL, 1370, killed 1388. 
 
 WENDELIN, Godfrey, a German asti 
 mer, geometrician, and Latin poet, 1580-1600, 
 
 WENGIERSKI, Andrew, the most celebra 
 of four brothers, rendered famous by their zeal for 
 the spread of Socinianism in Poland, 1600-1649. 
 
 WENTWORTH. See Strafford. 
 
 WENTZEL, J. C, a Ger. musician, 1059-1723. 
 
 WENZEL, C. F., a German chemist, 1740-93. 
 
 WEPFER, J. J., a German anatomist, 1620-95. 
 
 WEPPEN, J. A., a Ger. dramatist, 1742-1810. 
 
 WERDMULLER, John Rodolph, a Swiss 
 landscape and flower painter, 1639-1668. 
 
 WERDUM, Ulrich Van, a Dutch statesman s 
 and historical writer, died 1681 
 
 WEREMBERT, a monk of St. Gall, distin- 
 guished as a Latin poet and musician, died 884. 
 
 ?, 
 
 wi 
 
 IF* 
 
 in 
 
 I;::.,;: 
 
 WERENFELS, S., a German divine, 1651-1740. ^ 
 
 WERF. See Vanderwerff. 
 
 WERKMEISTER, Andrew, a German com- 
 poser and writer on music, 1645-1706. 
 
 WERNER, Abraham Gottlob, a distin 
 guished mineralogist and geologist, was born at r t| 
 Wehlau in Upper Lusatia, in 1750. He died in \\ 
 1817. His father was connected with an iron 
 foundry, and the young Werner, having minerals m 
 given to him as playthings, became familiar with * 
 their names from his earliest childhood.. He w 
 educated in the school of mines at Freyberg 
 Saxony, and eventually became professor of mi 
 eralogy and inspector of the mineralogical cabir 
 there. He has conferred great benefit on the a 
 ence of mineralogy by introducing a preci 
 methodical language, well adapted for the descri 
 tion of minerals, and has rendered much the sai 
 service to it as Linnams did by his Terminology 
 botany. As a geologist, he is the father of 
 Neptunian theory, and however liable he is to 
 charge of very grave errors, he has done vast g 
 to the science by his causing it to be studied mo; 
 systematically than it ever had been before. F< 
 naturalists who have written as little as Werner, 
 have enjoyed a higher reputation. As a mine: 
 logist, the late Dr. Murray of Edinburgh used t 
 prefer him to Haiiy. As a geologist, ProfesfJ 
 Jameson ranks him as one of the first that ha 
 ever appeared. His reputation appears to us oJ 
 the present day much exaggerated. He lectured * 
 with great zeal, assiduity, and success; and though " 
 he has left few works behind him, he had the pie;.- ' 
 sure of seeing a host of ardent pupils rising around W 
 him, who by their writings and labours have ex- f 
 tended his fame and spread a knowledge of the 
 principles he taught throughout all Europe. A \ 
 mineral has been named in honour of him, Wer- $L 
 nerite. [W.B.] * 
 
 WERNER, J., a Swiss painter, 1637-1710, 
 
 830 
 
WEB 
 
 ! WERNER, Paul Von, a Prussian general, dis- 
 tinguished at the battles of" Prague and Breslau, 
 1707-1785. 
 
 j WERNER, Zacharias, the son of a professor 
 Li Konigsberg, was born there in 1768. The ill 
 [egulated life" of this eccentric man of genius falls 
 lito two stages, surprisingly unlike each other. 
 In the first, extending from his twenty-fifth year 
 \p his forty-third, he was, in alternate fits, a man 
 If business, a dramatic poet, and a profligate : he 
 btained, and threw up, official appointments under 
 he Prussian government : he married three times, 
 nd was three times divorced. In 1811 he became 
 
 Roman Catholic, received priest's orders, preached 
 ith great applause at Vienna during the Congress 
 f 1814, and, in spite of extravagant oddities, was a 
 opular orator in the pulpit till his death in 1828. 
 Us Dramas have a gloomy impressiveness, both of 
 nagination and passion, which (for some of us at 
 ;ast) it is difficult to resist ; but they are full of 
 oarse and hideous exaggeration, and of an am- 
 itious mysticism with which he invests alike 
 eligion and history, human conduct and his hobby 
 f freemasonry. In his works, indeed, as in the 
 enor of his life, there is much that can hardly be 
 econciled with the supposition of sanity. The 
 lost popular and least obscure of his works is his 
 arrowing domestic tragedy, ' The Twenty-fourth 
 f February.' In others he celebrates Attila, 
 outlier, the Destruction of the Templars, and 
 he Conversion of Pomerania by the Teutonic 
 [nights. [W.S.1 
 
 WERNHEE, John Balthaser, Baron Von, a 
 
 erman jurisconsult and publicist, died 1742. His 
 ephew, M. Godfrey, a jurist, 1716-1794. 
 
 WERNICKE, C, a German poet, died 1720. 
 
 WERNSDORFF, Gottlob, and his son of the 
 ame name, distinguished as philologists, the for- 
 ler 1668-1729, the latter 1710-1774. 
 
 WERNSDORFF, E. F., a second son of the 
 receding, a learned historian of Syria, 1718-1782. 
 
 WESLEY, John, great grandfather of the 
 lethodist leader, was a clergyman of the Church 
 f England, in the reign of Charles II. He received 
 is education at New Inn, Oxford, and having 
 listinguished himself by his piety, as well as his 
 earning especially his attainments in Oriental 
 iterature he secured the favour and patronage of 
 )r. Owen, the vice-chancellor of the university. 
 laving taken orders, he obtained the living of 
 Jlandford, in Dorsetshire, and was ejected 
 or nonconformity. Continuing still to preach, 
 le suffered imprisonment four successive times. 
 lis spirit being broken by the hardships and per- 
 ecution to which he was subjected, he died at the 
 arly age of thirty -four, at the village of Preston ; 
 nd" such was the spirit of the times, that the 
 .uthorities would not allow his body to be buried 
 a the church of Preston. John Wesley married 
 
 niece of Thomas Fuller, the church historian. [R.J.] 
 
 WESLEY, Samuel, father of the celebrated 
 lergyman of that name, was a minister of the 
 "hurch of England, who held the livings of 
 toworth and Wroote, in Lincolnshire, in 1700. 
 le was a devoted and very pious, as well as learned 
 lan. The country town over which he was 
 ppointed, was noted for profligacy and vice : and 
 he zeal with which he performed his sacred duties 
 
 as so offensive to many of the wicked inhabitants, 
 
 WES 
 
 that they long meditated some plan of revenge. 
 At length they set fire to the rectory. It was 
 with the greatest difficulty the family were rescued, 
 and the first act of the pious father on finding his 
 children assembled in safety on the green before 
 the blazing edifice, was to kneel down m the midst 
 of the crowd, and give thanks to God for the 
 deliverance. Mr. Wesley had some strong peculi- 
 arities of opinion ; amongst which we may mention 
 as the chief", that he was a most zealous advocate 
 of the revolution. His wife was a violent partizan 
 of the Stuart family: and this opposition of senti- 
 ment produced so much domestic discord, that Mr. 
 Wesley left his family and parish for some years, 
 till the reign of Anne brought about a reconcili- 
 ation. On the accession of" the Hanoverian family, 
 the dissensions broke out afresh in the Epworth 
 rectory, as M rs. Wesley refused to acknowledge their 
 right to the throne. And then there occurred an 
 incident which produced an extraordinary sensation 
 throughout the country in 1716, under the name 
 of the Epworth ghost. It consisted of some 
 strangely mysterious noises that were made when 
 the family were at prayers, and especially when 
 they came to the supplications for King George and 
 the prince. It is now generally believed to have 
 been a Jacobite trick, which the servants or neigh- 
 bours resorted to, in order to frighten old Wesley from 
 his political allegiance. Mr. Wesley was the author 
 of several works both in prose and poetry. The 
 principal of these were, a ' Life of Christ ' in verse, 
 ' The Histories of the Old and New Testaments' in 
 verse, ' Elegies on Queen Mary and Archbishop 
 Tillotson,' and ' Dissertations on the Book of Job.' 
 He died April, 1734. [R.J.] 
 
 WESLEY, Samuel, son of the former^ was born 
 at Epworth, 1692. Although he was four years 
 old before he could speak, he displayed great 
 quickness and aptitude for learning, distinguish- 
 ing himself to a very uncommon degree by his 
 classical attainments, first at Westminster, and 
 afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford. From Christ 
 Church he returned to Westminster, in the capacity 
 of usher ; and there took orders under the patronage 
 of Bishop Atterbury. Having strongly imbibed 
 his mother's political opinions, he assailed the 
 administration of Sir Robert Walpole, with satirical 
 abuse ; and rendered himself so obnoxious to the 
 ministry, that when the office of under-master 
 became vacant, and he was proposed as in all 
 respects well qualified to fill it, the appointment 
 was refused. Finding promotion at Westminster 
 hopeless, he accepted the mastership of Tiverton 
 school. Samuel was a religious man, but of sound 
 and sober judgment. He disapproved of much 
 both in the sentiments and conduct of his brothers, 
 and for many years they never met. He died in 
 1739, in firm and unalterable communion with the 
 Church of England. [R.J.] 
 
 WESLEY, John, the great founder of the 
 Arminian branch of methodists, was bom at 
 Epworth, Lincolnshire, on 17th June, 1703. His 
 father, the rector of that place, was a man whose 
 great piety and zealous administration of discipline 
 excited against him the hostile feelings of his 
 parishioners. Their malignity drove them to the 
 wicked purpose of setting fire to the rectory at 
 midnight, and little Johnny Wesley, then a very 
 young boy, was literally plucked as a brand from the 
 
 831 
 
WES 
 burning. The domestic education he received was 
 strict lv of a religious character, and under the in- 
 structive influence of his mother especially, his 
 heart was earlv imbued not only with the know- 
 ledge, but the "fear of the Lord. Having received 
 ate of classical education at Charter House 
 school, he was entered at the age of seventeen a 
 student of Christ's Church, Oxford. While at that 
 seat of learning, he became member of a private 
 society consisting of a few young men of congenial 
 piety, whose number amounted to fifteen, and who 
 attracted great notice by the austerity of their 
 manners and the fervour of their piety. Their 
 meetings for social prayer and religious converse 
 were held in Wesley s chambers they formed the 
 purpose of partaking of the communion together 
 once, as well as fasting twice a-week. From these 
 objects of personal improvement, they ere long 
 directed their views towards the religious enligh- 
 tenment of the poor; and for that purpose they 
 divided the town into districts, each of the mem- 
 bers charging himself with the voluntary duty of* 
 paying domiciliary visits and maintaining a re- 
 ligions superintendence of the sick and destitute 
 inhabitants. The novelty of such proceedings ex- 
 
 fosed the young students to much satirical abuse, 
 ut they persevered through good report and bad 
 report, while the ardour they displayed in the 
 prosecution of their studies, together with the 
 honours that most of them gained, disarmed the 
 college authorities of all grounds to complain that 
 they were spending their time in pursuits not 
 strictly academic. On Wesley's completion of his 
 university studies, steps were in the course of being 
 taken by his friends to procure his appointment 
 to be assistant and successor to his aged father in 
 the parish of Epworth. But for conscientious 
 reasons, he declined the offer, and determined to 
 remain at Oxford to diffuse his religious principles 
 amongst the students. In 1735, being in London 
 for the settlement of some family matters, he 
 received from the trustees of the new colony at 
 Georgia an invitation to go out to that settlement 
 as missionary. Having consulted their mother, 
 who advised their acceptance of the offer, John 
 and Charles Wesley embarked for the Georgian 
 settlement on 14th October, 1735. Several of their 
 Oxford associates accompanied them as labourers 
 in the missionary field, and in consequence, being 
 too numerous for that place, Charles with one 
 friend repaired to Frederica, while John settled at 
 Savannah. There he soon gathered a large con- 
 gregation, which continued to flourish for some 
 years, till his vigorous and precipitate measures 
 of discipline raised such a storm of indignation 
 amongst the people, that he was forced to resign. 
 Returning to England, he settled in London, where 
 he became acquainted with the famous Peter 
 Boehler, to whom Wesley himself ascribes the 
 honour of being the agent in his conversion to 
 vital Christianity. _ The date of this marked 
 change in his religious character and views he 
 fixes on 24th May, 1738. Whitfield having about 
 this time returned to England, W T esley joined his 
 standard, and both commenced an active career of 
 field-preaching at Bristol, where also the first 
 methodist chapel was erected, in 1739. Wesley 
 afterwards returned to London, where he per- 
 formed regular public worship in a large building 
 
 WES 
 
 in Moorfields. and that place, from its having beei f 
 
 originally a foundry, was afterwards well knowi ' 
 
 as the Foundry Church. Wesley's connection wit! i 
 
 Whitfield was broken by the irreconcileable differ )' 
 
 ence of their views on fundamental articles o - 
 
 faith, he espousing Arminianism, while WhitfieL I 
 
 was steadfast in his adherence to the Calvinisti - 
 
 system. The rupture between these two grea i : 
 leaders gave a shock to methodism, the effect 
 
 of which remain to this day. But Wesley was a i 
 
 undaunted as he was indefatigable. He peram b 
 
 bulated the country, forming new congregations ii $ 
 
 many parts; and being now untrammelled by th P] 
 
 fetters of old or traditionary usage, he employe^ it r 
 
 the services of lay preachers. The leading feature p 
 
 of the ecclesiastical system he laboured to establisl Hi 
 
 may be thus briefly described. The preachers wer i 
 
 to itinerate, to depend on the gratuitous hospitalit; W 
 
 of friends to the cause, instead of being provide! m 
 
 for by a fixed stipend congregations were to b f 
 
 divided into classes a vigilant inspection estab fc 
 
 lished over the morals of all weekly meeting P 
 
 were to be held at which the members of any clas '-' 
 
 might have an opportunity of expressing thei - 
 
 wants or describing their religious state and feel l& 
 
 ings. He and his preachers, at the commence k 
 
 ment of their itinerant labours, were exposed t fa 
 
 maltreatment in a variety of ways, but they bor W- 
 
 all annoyances, whether in the form of bodily in Ml 
 jury or obloquy, with such fortitude and patienc 
 as ere long disarmed the violence of their oppo 
 
 nents. Wesley was a man of eminent piety an m 
 
 devoted zeal, and yet in his character severs to 
 
 blemishes appeared, the principal of which wer m 
 
 ambition and vanity. He married late in lift p 
 
 and from the violence and caprice of the lady' m 
 
 temper, he seems to have made a wrong choice I ] 
 
 for it proved an unhappy union. Wesley whil p 
 
 preaching at Lambeth caught cold, which thre\ W 
 
 him into a fever, and his weakened constitute p 
 
 being unable to resist its ravages, he fell a victir lit 
 
 to this malady on the 2d of March, 1791, in th io[ 
 
 eighty-eighth year of his age, and sixty-fifth c A 
 
 his ministry. [R.J. n 
 
 WESLEY, Charles, third son of Samuel, an f i 
 
 brother of John Wesley, was bora at Epworth W 
 
 April, 1708. While at Westminster school, a. ili ! 
 
 Irish gentleman of great fortune, of the name c ffl 
 
 Charles Wesley., though unknown to the famih If! 
 
 wrote, proposing to make him his heir; and accord in 
 
 ingly, for several years the expenses of his edu lla 
 
 cation were borne by his unseen namesake. I: fl'l 
 
 course of time, a gentleman, supposed to be thi p 
 
 Irish patron, waited upon Charles, and urged th t: 
 
 youth to accompany him, and take up his residenc J] 
 
 in Ireland. The family having left the young raai t i 
 
 to act according to his own discretion, Charle Kl 
 
 intimated his resolution to remain in England ; i: 1 
 
 consequence of which, the inheritance destined fo 
 him was given to another, who taking the name c 
 Wesley, or Wellesley, was the first earl of Morning 
 ton, and grandfather of the duke of Wellington 
 'Had Charles made a different choice,' say 
 Southey, 'there might have been no methodises 
 the British empire in India might still hav 
 been menaced from Seringapatam, and the undis 
 puted tyrant of Europe might have continued t 
 insult and endanger our shores.' Charles wen 
 with his brother John to Oxford, took an activ 
 
 832 
 
WES 
 
 part in the meetings of their religious association 
 at that university, and accompanied him on the 
 missionary expedition to the Georgian settlement. 
 At the Savannah, however, the brothers took 
 different courses. Charles parted with his brother 
 there, and in company with Ingham, one of his 
 Oxford comrades, repaired to Frederica. The 
 rigid discipline, however, he established at that 
 settlement, disgusted the people ; and although he 
 laboured incessantly for their spiritual welfare, yet 
 having pursued measures for which the people 
 could only have been gradually reconciled, espe- 
 cially concerning the observance of Sabbath, and 
 the rule of admission into communion with the 
 church, he was at length obliged to leave. Charles 
 returned to England, and having become acquaint- 
 ed with Peter Bcehler, the Moravian, an entire 
 change was produced on his religious views and 
 feelings. He dated his conversion on 24th May, 
 1738 : and that has ever been considered a remark- 
 ible day in the history of methodism. Having 
 sstablished himself in London, he preached for a 
 while to large congregations in Blackheath : but 
 iisorders and confusion occurred there as formerly 
 it Georgia, and Charles now commenced a course of 
 itinerant preaching. While itinerating in York- 
 shire, he was taken up, on suspicion of being a 
 Jacobite, but having satisfactorily proved that he 
 had merely used some scriptural expressions in a 
 spiritual sense, without the remotest reference to 
 ;he Pretender, he was acquitted. But this accus- 
 ation tended to increase the obloquy under which 
 ;he methodist leaders lay ; and on several occasions, 
 Charles and his friends were exposed to great 
 trouble and danger. The history and public 
 iibours of Charles Wesley have been anticipated in 
 ibe previous notice of his brother John. He 
 named in the forty-first year of his age, Miss 
 Sarah Guynne ; and after this event, he gradually 
 iiscontinued his itinerating, to perform the duties, 
 md enjoy the comforts of domestic fife. Latterly, 
 lis opinions differed considerably from those of his 
 >rother, especially regarding the evil tendency of 
 ;he band-meetings, and other parts of the metho- 
 iist discipline. Charles had a warm, poetical 
 ancy, and wrote some beautiful hymns. He died 
 a 1788. [R. J.] 
 
 WESSEL, John, in Latin Wesselus, professor 
 )f philosophy and theology at Cologne, celebrated 
 is an adversary of the Realists, and the forerunner 
 if Luther, born at Groningen 1419, died 1498. 
 
 WESSELEY, Hartwig, a Jew of Copenhagen, 
 famous for his Hebrew poetry, moral treatises, and 
 commentaries on the Bible, 1723-1805. 
 
 WESSELING, Peter, a distinguished German 
 Bcholar and philologist, 1692-1764. 
 
 WEST, Benjamin, P.R.A., was born at Spring- 
 field in Pennsylvania, October 10, 1738. He 
 Bommenced his career as a portrait painter at 
 Philadelphia, he then removed to New York, and 
 in 1760 visited Italy, where he remained about 
 three years. In 1763 he visited England, and 
 iras induced to remain in this country, through the 
 many valuable connections which he formed here. 
 West was introduced to George III. by Dr. Drum- 
 mond, the archbishop of York, and he was almost 
 angrossed by the king from the year 1767 until 
 1802, when he lost the patronage of the court 
 through the illness of the king. He then com- 
 
 WES 
 
 menced his series of great religious pictures, to 
 which he now chiefly owes his reputation. Of his 
 earlier works, the ' Death of General Wolfe' is the 
 most celebrated ; in this picture he introduced the 
 sensible innovation of dressing men in their own 
 clothes; painters had previously as a rule, very 
 absurdly used the Roman costume on all historic 
 occasions, a custom not a whit less foolish than 
 dressing the Greeks and Romans in the costume of 
 modern times ; the latter absurdity may indeed, at 
 least, rest on the plea of ignorance of the real cos- 
 tume. To account for such a fact at present, as 
 that Sir Joshua Reynolds should have endeavoured 
 to persuade West to dress Wolfe in the uniform of 
 a Roman general of 2000 years back, defies reason. 
 West deserves the profoundest gratitude of pos- 
 terity, if it be just to identify such a revolution from 
 the absurd to the rational with his individual 
 efforts. He succeeded Reynolds as president of the 
 Royal Academy in 1792 ; he died March 11, 1820, 
 in his eighty-second year, and was buried in St. 
 Paul's. (Gait, Life and Studies of Benjamin 
 West. London, 1820.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 WEST, Gilbert, a nephew of Lord Cobham, 
 distinguished as a poet and miscellaneous writer, 
 was born in 1706, and in 1752 appointed clerk of 
 the privy council, after which he became treasurer 
 of Chelsea Hospital. His principal works are his 
 original Poems, a version of Pindar, and Observa- 
 tions on the Resurrection. He was on intimate 
 terms with Dr. Doddridge. Died 1756. 
 
 WEST, James, a connoisseur in antiquities, 
 whose collection of MSS. is now in the British 
 Museum, president of the Royal Society from 1768 
 to his death in 1772. 
 
 WEST, R., a learned lawyer, died 1726. 
 
 WEST, Thomas, a Jesuit of Lancashire, author 
 of a | History of Furness Abbey,' 1716-1779. 
 
 WE STALL, Richard, a famous water-colour 
 painter and designer, was born in 1765, and ap- 
 prenticed in London to an engraver of heraldry. 
 He commenced his career as an artist in 1786, 
 being then on intimate terms with Lawrence ; and 
 at the close of his life gave lessons to her present 
 majesty, then Princess Victoria. His celebrity 
 rests on his beautiful illustrations of Milton, Shak- 
 speare, and Moore's Loves of the Angels. Died 
 1836. William, his younger brother, also an 
 artist, is distinguished by his numerous illustra- 
 tions of the picturesque, supplied to the booksellers, 
 and collected in his own tours, 1782-1850. 
 
 WESTERBAAN, Jacob, a Dutch priest, trans- 
 lator of the Psalms, and author of Poems, 17th c. 
 
 WESTERMANN, F. J., a French officer, dis- 
 tinguished in the army of Dumouriez and after- 
 wards in La Vendee; executed with the Dan- 
 tonists 1794. 
 
 WESTON, Elizabeth Jane, an English lady 
 settled at Prague in Bohemia, and ranked with the 
 poe'ts and Latin scholars of the 16th century. 
 
 WESTON, Stephen, an Oriental scholar, who 
 became rector of Manhead, in Devonshire, but re- 
 signed his living to devote himself to literary pur- 
 suits, author of Translations from the Chinese and 
 Persian, a Chinese Dictionary, and several other 
 works in philology, 1747-1830. 
 
 WESTON, T., a comic actor, died 1776. 
 
 WESTON, W., a learned divine, died 1760. 
 
 WESTPHAL, E. C, a German j mist, 1737-92. 
 
 833 
 
 3H 
 
WES 
 
 WESTPHAL, J., a Germ, theologian, 1510-71. 
 WETHERElii, Sin Chari.es, an eminent 
 lawver, who became attorney-general under the 
 administration of the duke of Wellington, was 
 born in 1770. At the period of the Reform Bill, 
 he held the office of recorder at Bristol ; and his 
 opposition to that measure nearly cost him his 
 lite in the riots of 1831. His death, in 1846, was 
 occasioned by concussion of the brain, produced 
 by falling from his carriage. 
 
 ' WETSTEIN, John Rodolth, a Swiss magis- 
 trate, statesman, and writer on diplomacy, 1594- 
 1666. The second of the name., son of the preced- 
 ing a theologian and classical scholar, 1614-1684. 
 The third, son of the latter, a theologian and Greek 
 scholar, 1647-1711. John Henry, a second son, 
 a printer of classical editions, established at Am- 
 sterdam, 1649-1726. C. Anthony, son of John 
 Henry, a Dutch scholar and poet, 1743-1797. 
 John James Wetstein, a theologian and philo- 
 logist, well known for his labours on the New 
 Testament, was also a member of this family. His 
 ' Prolegomena' to a new edition of the Greek Tes- 
 tament was published in 1730, and in 1751 the 
 text itself was given to the world with every varia- 
 tion that he had discovered, and his critical re- 
 marks. Died in the sixty-first year of his age, 1754. 
 
 WETZEL, J. C. F., a Ger. Hellenist, 1762-1810. 
 
 WETZEL, J. G., a German writer, 1691-1755. 
 
 WEWTTZER, R., a comic actor, 1748-1824. 
 
 WEYSE, Christopher Ernest Frederic, 
 a famous musical composer, was born at Altona, 
 in 1774, and died in 1842. He excelled chiefly in 
 oratorios and sacred music; but he composed a 
 vast number of songs, which became highly popular 
 among the Swedish peasantry. 
 
 WEZEL, J. C., a German novelist, 1747-1800. 
 
 WHALLEY, Peter, an English critic and 
 divine, author of 'An Essay on the Method of 
 Writing History,' ' An Inquiry into the Learning 
 of Shakspeare,' an edition of Ben Jonson, and a 
 4 Vindication of the Evidences and Authenticity of 
 the Gospel from the Objections of Lord Boling- 
 broke,' 1722-1791. 
 
 WHARTON, G., an Eng. astronomer, 1617-81. 
 
 WHARTON, Henry, a learned divine, to whom 
 we are indebted for valuable illustrations of our 
 ecclesiastical history, 1664-1695. 
 
 WHARTON, Thomas, an eminent physician 
 and professional writer, b. in Yorkshire, 1610-73. 
 
 WHARTON, Thomas, marquis of, eldest son 
 of Philip, Lord Wharton, distinguished as a stren- 
 uous opponent of the court in the reigns of Charles 
 II. and James II., and as a Whig statesman under 
 the administration of Lord Godolphin ; born about 
 1640, d. 1715. The revolutionary ballad of 'Lilli- 
 bullero,' is attributed to him. His son, Philip, 
 duke of Wharton, was an unprincipled politician, 
 and turned about without scruple from the cause 
 of the pretender to that of George I. He was a 
 brave soldier, however, and wrote some poems and 
 miscellaneous pieces which have been published. 
 Died 1731. 
 
 WHATELY, W., a puritan divine, 1583-1639. 
 
 WHEAKE, D., a Cornish historian, 1573-1647. 
 
 M HEATLEY, Charles, a vicar of Hereford- 
 shire, au. of ' A Rational Illustration of the Book 
 of Common Prayer,' and other works, 1686-1742. 
 
 WHEATLEY, Francis, a self-instructed por- 
 
 834 
 
 Will 
 
 trait painter, who excelled also in the delineation 
 of domestic scenes, 1747-1801. 
 
 WHELER, or WHEELER, Sir George, 
 scholar and divine of the Church of England, who 
 was born at Breda in Holland, where his parents 
 were living in exile, 1650. After travelling 
 Greece and Asia Minor he entered the church, anil 
 obtained some rich preferments ; the chapel known 
 by his name in Spitaltields was built at his ex 
 pense on the estate belonging to him. His works 
 consist of his ' Travels,' a highly valued produc- 
 tion, ' The Protestant Monastery,' containing direc- 
 tions for the religious conduct of a family, and ' An 
 Account of the Churches and Places of Assembly 
 of the Primitive Christians.' Died 1724. 
 
 WHETHAMSHEDE, John, an abbot and 
 chronicler of St. Albans, who lived to be more than 
 a hundred years old ; ordained 1382, died 1464. 
 
 WHICHCOTE, Benjamin, a philosophical 
 divine of great influence in his day, was bom 
 Shropshire, 1610, and died at the house of hi* 
 friend, Dr. Cadworth, in 1683. He belonged t( 
 what is called the Latitudinarian party. Beside 
 his Sermons, we possess his ' Observations anc 
 Apothegms,' published by one of his pupils in 1688 
 and ' Moral and Religious Aphorisms,' which ap 
 peared for the first time in 1703. His Sermon 
 were first given to the world by the earl of Shaftes- 
 bury. 
 
 WHISTON, William, well known as a divin 
 and natural philosopher, was born at Norton i: 
 Leicestershire, where his father was rector, in 1667 
 Having taken orders he became chaplain to th 
 bishop of Norwich, and in 1696 published his firs 
 work, entitled ' A New Theory of the Earth, froi 
 its Original till the Consummation of All Things 
 In 1698 he became rector of Lowestoft in Suffbll 
 and in 1703 succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as pre 
 fessor of mathematics, but seven years later, wi 
 expelled the university on a charge of Arianisn 
 He published several other works, and amon 
 others a translation of Josephus, and his owi 
 Memoirs. Died 1752. 
 
 WHITAKER, Edward, a clergyman a 
 schoolmaster of the Church of England, author 
 4 A General and Connected View of the Prophecies 
 1 Family Sermons,' &c, born 1750. 
 
 WHITAKER, John, a clergyman of Comwaj 
 well known for his learned writings on antiquaru 
 and historical subjects ; born at Manchester abo' 
 1735, died 1808. Among his works are a ' Hi| 
 tory of Manchester,' ' Genuine History of t 
 Britons Asserted,' ' The Origin of Arianism,' ' Tl 
 Real Origin of Government,' ' Mary Queen of S 
 Vindicated,' ' Course of Hannibal over the Alp: 
 ' The Life of St. Neot,' ' Histories of London a: 
 Oxford,' besides Sermons, Poems, and various 
 tical papers. 
 
 WHITAKER, Thomas Durham, rector 
 Whalley and Blackburn, author of several anl 
 quarian works, and an edition of the Visions 
 Piers Ploughman, 1759-1821. 
 
 WHITAKER, William, a Calvinistic divine 
 great eminence, born at Burnley, in Lancashi 
 1547. He was an active party to the religio 
 disputes of his age, and was called by Cardii 
 Bellarmine, the most learned heretic he had 
 read. Died 1595. 
 
 WIIITBREAD, Samuel, son of the eminf 
 
WHI 
 
 brewer of that name, distinguished as a politician, 
 was born in 1758, and was married in 1789 to 
 Elizabeth, eldest daughter of the first Earl Grey. 
 His career in parliament dates from 1790 to his 
 death in 1815, and was marked by his impeach- 
 ment of Lord Melville. He was a zealous Whig. 
 He died in the year mentioned by his own hand. 
 
 WHITBY, Daniel, a learned controversial 
 divine, whose commentary on the New Testament 
 is still held in high estimation, 1638-1726. 
 
 WHITE, Joseph Blanco, a Spanish gentle- 
 man of Irish descent, who became convinced of 
 the eiTors of popery at the age of fifteen, while 
 being educated as a Roman Catholic priest. He 
 came to England in 1810, and devoted himself to 
 literature, chiefly through the magazines and peri- 
 odical press, 1775-1841. 
 
 WHITE, Rev. Gilbert, a good naturalist and 
 pleasing writer, was born at Selborne in Hamp- 
 ihire, in 1720. He died in 1793. He was edu- 
 jated at Oxford ; and was elected a fellow of Oriel 
 College ; took his degree of M.A., and was ap- 
 winted one of the senior proctors of the university. 
 3e soon left Oxford, and possessing a quiet, unam- 
 atious disposition, a great love for the study of 
 lature, and a particular attachment to the charms 
 >f rural scenery, he fixed his residence in his na- 
 ive village of Selborne. Nor could any offers 
 vhich were made to him of settling upon a college 
 iving, tempt him from his beloved retreat, but 
 lere, in the enjoyment of competence and learned 
 iase, he spent his days in serene tranquillity, be- 
 oved by his neighbours and in correspondence with 
 nany of the most learned antiquarians and natur- 
 ii ilists of the day. In 1789 he published his Na- 
 j. ural History of Selborne. The minute exactness 
 fe f the facts contained in it, the good taste dis- 
 i ilayed in their selection, and the elegance and the 
 I iveliness with which they are described, render 
 m his work exceedingly interesting and instructive, 
 t nd make it one of the most generally popular 
 r ooks on natural history ever written. It has gone 
 hrough various editions, and still holds its popu- 
 n iirity with all who can relish accurate descriptions 
 ( f the habits of domestic animals, birds, and insects, 
 es >y which they are surrounded. [W.B.] 
 
 WHITE, Henry, a clergyman and literary 
 al haracter of Lichfield, died 1836. 
 ia WHITE, Henry Kirke, one of those many 
 ffl ights that have been extinguished prematurely, is 
 fe eeply interesting on account of his early struggles 
 th nd the amiability and piety of his character. If 
 H le had survived long enough for active usefulness, 
 cot e might have been an invaluable clergyman ; but 
 Ijis ; is difficult to believe that he would ever have 
 aD een a distinguished poet. He was born in 1785, 
 fl t Nottingham, where his father was a butcher. 
 [is zeal for study in boyhood was not damped, 
 1 i ither by a succession of manual employments, or 
 mt y the drudgery of an attorney's desk, at which he 
 i ras by and by placed. Contributions to small 
 eriodicals encouraged him to print, in 1803, a 
 t olume of poems, which was severely reviewed, 
 hi ut made him favourably known to Southey and 
 j tber men of eminence. His religious opinions 
 ia nd feelings had now taken a very serious turn ; 
 nd Mr. Simeon, with the aid of his friends, pro- 
 ured for him a sizarship in St. John's College, 
 il Sambridge. In both of his two years at the uui- 
 
 WHI 
 
 versity, he distinguished himself eminently ; but 
 the severity of the labour wore him out. He 
 died in 1806, in his twenty-first year. Southey 
 edited his 'Remains,' prefixing a very beautiful 
 memoir. [W.S.I 
 
 WHITE, James, a miscellaneous writer and 
 novelist, born in Ireland, died 1799. 
 
 WHITE, Jeremy, a nonconformist minister, 
 and wr. in favour of universal restitution, d. 1707. 
 
 WHITE, John, a barrister and political writer 
 of the commonwealth period, commonly called 
 Century White, from his principal publication; 
 this work bears the following expressive title, 
 'The First Century of Scandalous Malignant 
 Priests, Made and Admitted into Benefices by the 
 Prelates ; or, a Narrative of the Causes for which 
 the Parliament hath Ordered the Sequestration of 
 the Benefices of Several Ministers Complained of 
 before them, for Viciousness of Life, Errors in 
 Doctrine, for Practising and Pressing Superstitious 
 Innovations against Law, and for Malignancy 
 against the Parliament.' Born in Pembrokeshire 
 1590, died 1645. 
 
 WHITE, John, usually called ' The Patriarch 
 of Dor chesler, J was a puritan divine, highly 
 esteemed for his eloquence and piety, 1574-1648. 
 
 WHITE, or WHYTE, John, a catholic divine, 
 created bishop of Winchester by Mary, 1511-1560. 
 
 WHITE, Joseph, a divine" of the Church of 
 England, in high repute as an Oriental scholar, was 
 born at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, 1746, and died 
 1814. He obtained great credit and preferment 
 for his Bampton lectures, which, it was afterwards 
 discovered, had been composed principally by Mr. 
 Badcock, once a dissenting minister, further aided 
 by contributions in Greek literature from Dr. Parr. 
 His other works are ' Observations on Certain An- 
 tiquities of Egvpt,' a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' &c. 
 
 WHITE, 6V VITUS, Richard, a Roman 
 Catholic professor and canonist, author of a Latin 
 History of the British Islands, died 1612. 
 
 WHITE, Robert, an engraver, 1645-1704. 
 
 WHITE, Thomas, an English Aristotelian 
 philosopher and catholic, known as a friendly dis- 
 putant with Hobbes and Descartes, died 1696. 
 
 WHITE, Thomas, the founder of Zion College 
 in London Wall, and other charities designed to 
 promote learning, was a native of Bristol. He 
 commenced his public career as vicar of St. Dun- 
 stan's, Fleet-Street, in 1575, and died 1624. The 
 college and alms-house were built on the site of 
 Elsynge priory, then in ruins, 3,000 being left 
 by him for that purpose. 
 
 WHITE, Sir Thomas, founder of St. John's 
 College, Oxford, was a rich citizen and mayor of 
 London. He was born at Reding in 1492. His 
 mayoralty dates in the year of Wyatt's rebellion, 
 and for his services at that crisis he received the 
 honour of knighthood. Died 1566. 
 
 WHITFIELD, George, founder of the Calvin- 
 istic methodists, was a native of Gloucester, in the 
 Bell Inn of which town, his father being a tavern- 
 keeper, he was born 16th December, 1714. His 
 father having died while George was yet young, 
 the boy's education devolved solely on his mother, 
 whose pious instructions and example had a 
 powerful influence in imbuing his infant mind with 
 strong religious impressions. Having resolved to 
 cultivate the superior talents with which she saw 
 
 835 
 
Will 
 
 George was endowed, she sent him to a classical 
 school. At the age of fifteen he had distinguished 
 himself by the accuracy, extent of his knowledge, 
 and taste' in Greek and Roman literature. But 
 his mother not succeeding in the hotel, and becom- 
 ing reduced to poverty, the progress of George's 
 education was stopped, and being driven to under- 
 take some menial place about the establishment, 
 his manners and morals were much injured by his 
 association with irreligious servants. Happily his 
 impressions revived, and having been confirmed 
 lie received for the first time the sacrament of 
 the Lord's Supper. His mother's circumstances 
 improving, she sent him to Pembroke College, 
 Oxford, and there he joined in forming a small 
 select society for mutual improvement in religious 
 knowledge and personal piety along with the 
 Wesleys and a few college contemporaries of 
 kindred spirit. Dr. Benson, bishop of Gloucester, 
 who was acquainted with his rare talents and 
 piety, resolved to grant him ordination, and the 
 solemn ceremony was performed at Gloucester, on 
 20th June, 1736. His first sermon, preached on 
 the following Sabbath, produced an extraordinary 
 sensation. From Gloucester he went to London, 
 where he preached alternately in the chapel of the 
 Tower and at Ludgate prison every Tuesday. In 
 1737 he joined his friends the Wesleys as a mis- 
 sionary at the Georgian settlement. But he had 
 only been four months resident there, when he 
 returned to England both to obtain priest's orders 
 and to raise subscriptions for erecting an orphan 
 house iu that settlement. On his arrival in Lon- 
 don, he found an outcry raised against him on 
 account of methodism. Bishop Benson disregarded 
 it, and ordained him a priest. But he was denied 
 access to the pulpits of many old friends ; and 
 hence he commenced the practice of open-air 
 preaching in Moorfields, Kennington, and Black- 
 heath, and other quarters, where his ministrations 
 were attended by vast crowds. Having raised a 
 fund of 1,000 for his orphanage, Whitfield re- 
 turned in 1739 to the American continent. At Sa- 
 vannah immense crowds repaired to hear him, and 
 extraordinary scenes of excitement were enacted. 
 On 25th March, 1740, he laid the first brick of the 
 orphan asylum, and when the building was com- 
 pleted, he gave it the name of Bethesda. Although 
 his ministry was very successful at Savannah, he 
 sighed for his native land ; and accordingly in 
 1741, he returned once more to Britain, where he 
 continued with indefatigable diligence to preach 
 the gospel. In prosecution of that object, he 
 made a tour through England, Wales, and Scot- 
 land, preaching in many places, and always in the 
 open air, to immense crowds. While in Wales, he 
 married Mrs. Jones, a widow to whom he had long 
 cherished a warm attachment ; and shortly after 
 his marriage, he repaired to London, where, it 
 being winter, some of his admirers erected a 
 wooden shed in which he preached. To this 
 fragile structure, he gave the name of the taber- 
 nacle, and it was the scene of some extraordinary 
 awakenings. The journeys and voyages of this 
 indefatigable minister amount to a number al- 
 most incredible. He has stated in his memo- 
 randum book, that ' from the time of his ordina- 
 tion to a period embracing thirty-four years, he 
 preached upwards of 18,000 sermons, crossed the 
 
 WHI 
 
 Atlantic seven times, travelled thousands of mild 
 both in Britain and America;' and when hi 
 strength was failing, he put himself on what h 
 termed ' short allowance,' viz., preaching only one 
 in every day of the week, and three times on th 
 Sabbath ! Whitfield was no common preachei 
 Parties of the most opposite character and prin 
 ciples, such as Franklin, Hume, and John Newtor 
 have united in bearing testimony to the beaut 
 and effectiveness of Whitfield's pulpit orator; 
 The death (in 1770), of this eminent servant c 
 God was sudden, having been produced by a col 
 caught while preaching at Portsmouth, and fo 
 lowed by a severe attack of asthma, which put 
 period to the life and labours of one of the moi 
 devoted and successful ministers of Christ sine 
 the days of the apostles. [R.J 
 
 WHITEHEAD, D., an eminent divine, d. 157 
 
 WHITEHEAD, G., a eel. Quaker, 1636-1725 
 
 WHITEHEAD, John, a methodist physic* 
 who attended Wesley in his last illness, preach 
 his funeral sermon, and wrote ' Memoirs ' of h 
 life, died 1804. 
 
 WHITEHEAD, P., a satiric poet, 1709-1774, 
 
 WHITEHEAD, William, successor of Cibb 
 as poet-laureate, author of ' The Roman Fathe 
 ' The School for Lovers,' ' Friendship,' and oth 
 compositions of considerable merit; he was 
 friend of Mason, who wrote his life, 1715-1785. 
 
 WHITEHURST, John, a philosophical writ 
 and maker of instruments, 1713-1788. 
 
 WHITELOCK, Bulstrode, an eminent la' 
 yer and friend of Cromwell, was the son of * 
 James Whitelock, lord chief justice of the Kin; 
 Bench, and was born in London in 1605. ] 
 was one of the managers of the trial of Straffo: 
 but took no part in that of Laud or the king, 
 1656, he was chosen speaker of the House of Co: 
 mons, and in 1659 became president of the counjT 
 of state, and keeper of the great seal. His histo p 
 cal memoirs are highly valued, and Whitelock P 
 greatly eulogized, as to personal character, PI 
 Lord Clarendon. He died after many years' reti : f 
 ment at Chilton Park, in Wiltshire, 1676. 
 
 WHITGIFT, John, archbishop of Canterbn 
 distinguished as a supporter of the Church of Ei 
 land, was born at Grimsby in Lincolnshire 15 
 or, according to some authorities, in 1533. 
 was regarded as a great persecutor both of 
 puritans and papists, by their own partizans, 
 Hooker and the episcopalians extol his moderat ^ 
 and proper firmness. He died in 1603, almost fci 
 his last words being ' Pro Ecclesia Dei.' 
 
 WHITLOCK, Euiz., a famous actress, sit 
 of Mrs. Siddons and the Kembles, 1761-1836. 
 
 WHITTINGHAM, Sir Samuel Ford, a I 
 tish officer, distinguished in the service of Sp 
 during the peninsular war, died commander- 
 chief at Madras 1841. 
 
 WHITTINGHAM, William, a puritan div 
 who became dean of Durham in the reign of El: I 
 heth. He destroyed or mutilated manv of 
 antiquities of the cathedral in his zeal a] 
 poperv, 1524-1589. 
 
 WHITTINGTON, Sir Richard, whose 
 has been rendered popular by the legends cur * 
 about him, the real truth concerning which 
 never been ascertained, was a citizen and me 
 of London. He probably rose from a humble 
 
sador from the English court to Peter th 
 inthor of an Account of Russia, 1670-175 
 
 WHI 
 
 ion, like so many others who have filled the 
 magisterial chair. His last mayoralty dates 1419. 
 
 WHITTINGTON, Robert, author of gram- 
 matical works, long used in the English schools, 
 lourished about 1480-1530. 
 
 WHITWORTH, Charles, Baron, an ambas- 
 the Great, 
 25. 
 
 WHYTT, R., a Scotch physician, 1714-1766. 
 
 WICHERLY. See Wycherley. 
 
 WICKHAM. See Wykeham. 
 
 WICKCLIFF. See Wycliffe. 
 
 WICQUEFORT, Abraham De, a Dutch diplo- 
 matist, author of Memoirs concerning ambassadors 
 and their functions, 1598-1682. 
 
 WIEGLER, J. C, a Germ, chemist, 1732-1800. 
 
 WIELAND, Christopher Martin, a cele- 
 >rated German poet, dramatist, and novelist, of the 
 ast century. He has been called the German 
 Voltaire. His works have been published in 51 
 rolumes, and embrace essays, tales, poems, histories, 
 ind translations. ' Oberon,' a poetic romance in 
 L2 cantos, is his best known production ; 1733-1813. 
 
 WIELING, A., a German jurist, 1693-1746. 
 
 WIER, John, in Latin Wierus, or Piscinarins, 
 i Brabantine physician and writer on demonology 
 and witchcraft, 1515-1588. 
 
 WIFFEN, Jeremiah Holme, a Quaker poet, 
 mthor of a translation of Tasso, and other popular 
 productions in miscellaneous literature, including 
 \ History of the Russells, 1792-1836. 
 
 WIGAND, John, a learned divine, 1523-1587. 
 
 WILBERFORCE, William, Esq., a distin- 
 mished British statesman and Christian philan- 
 thropist, was born in 1759, at Hull. Educated at 
 ;he grammar school of his native town, he was 
 transferred in due time to Cambridge, where his 
 listinguished position as a scholar and a gentle- 
 man is sufficiently indicated by the fact of his 
 king chosen whenever he attained majority, to 
 represent Hull in parliament. For a considerable 
 Sme he was content to remain a silent member of 
 
 e House of Commons, while at the same time he 
 was a most active and intelligent observer of the 
 onus of that legislative assembly. Reserving him- 
 jelf for some great and important occasion, he 
 mule his debut as a parliamentary orator on the 
 tubject of the slave trade, and in his second 
 session, he introduced a bill for the abolition of 
 the inhuman traffic. The 12th of May, 1789, 
 was the memorable day when that topic was 
 first introduced ; and the journals of that period 
 
 e unanimous in ascribing much of the interest 
 
 Connected with the movement to the powerful and 
 ffecting speech with which the bill was prefaced. 
 Jr. Wilberforce was acknowledged both in and 
 out of the house to have earned by that appear- 
 ance, the reputation of one of the most eloquent 
 orators of the age ; and the hearts of all good men 
 in every part of the country implored blessings on 
 the head of him who dared in the highest places 
 of the land to advocate the cause of outraged 
 humanity. A most violent and determined opposi- 
 tion was organized by interested parties. Never- 
 theless in the following year Mr. Wilberforce 
 renewed his motion, and on the plea of insufficient 
 evidence, the opposing party succeeded in procur- 
 ing a postponement of the question. Many men 
 would have been dispirited by these fruitless efforts, 
 
 WIL 
 
 and perhaps have relinquished their task in de- 
 spair. But Mr. Wilberforce was not to be 
 daunted. Having taken up his position on the 
 ground of conscientious objection to all trafficking 
 in slaves, he prosecuted the measure with that 
 calm and unyielding determination which is al- 
 ways the fruit of mature thought and strong prin- 
 ciple ; and his patience was put to a severe trial ; 
 for while he renewed his motion every session 
 from 1792, he met with no better success than at 
 first. In 1804, after a cessation for a few years, 
 he brought the subject once more before the notice 
 of a new parliament. But the public mind had 
 made a prodigious advancement towards a better 
 tone of feeling in regard to the slave trade, and 
 the bill passed the third reading in the Lower 
 House. In the Upper House, the consideration of 
 the subject was postponed till the next session. A 
 still more important step in advance was taken when 
 the liberal cabinet in 1806 adopted the bill and 
 threw all the weight of government influence into 
 the scale. It was introduced into the Commons' 
 House at the special request of Wilberforce under 
 the auspices of Fox, and was passed by a majority 
 of 114 to 15, and Lord Granville succeeded in 
 carrying it through the Lords. But Mr. Wilber- 
 force was universally regarded throughout the 
 kingdom as the great champion of the cause and 
 the most gratifying expressions of public gratitude 
 were poured in upon him from all parts of the 
 country. Mr. Wilberforce has established claims 
 to public notice and esteem of another and even 
 higher kind. He had become a decided Christian, 
 at a time and in circumstances when to make an 
 avowal of evangelical sentiments and to act in 
 accordance with the high principles of Christian 
 morality was a much more difficult thing than it 
 is happily in the present day. The publication of 
 his ' Practical view of Christianity,' a work in 
 which he compared the defective notions of re- 
 ligion that prevailed among the majority of pro- 
 fessing Christians with the standard of the New 
 Testament formed an era in the religious his- 
 tory of this country ; and multitudes have traced 
 to its perusal their first serious impressions of 
 religion. The character of the distinguished 
 author was a beautiful commentary on the prin- 
 ciples developed in this book. Throughout a 
 long life he sustained the character of a consis- 
 tent Christian ; and that was no easy attainment 
 for one who moved in the highest circles, and was 
 constantly mingled in all the changes of the politi- 
 cal world. But although his position was isolated, 
 such was the sincere and unaffected piety such 
 the prudent discretion that regulated his inter- 
 course with general society, that he commanded 
 the respect and esteem of all parties. Mr. Wilber- 
 force terminated his honourable and useful life on 
 28th July, 1833, and on his deathbed enjoyed the 
 comforts of that gospel in which he had reposed 
 his faith for so many years of his life. [R.J.] 
 
 WILBYE, J., a musical composer, 16th century. 
 
 WILCOCKS, Joseph, bishop of Rochester, 
 promoted the erection of the west front of West- 
 minster Abbey, 1673-1756. His son, Joseph, 
 an ingenious antiquarian, author of ' Roman Con- 
 versations,' and ' Sacred Exercises,' 1723-1791. 
 
 WILD, Henry, an Oriental scholar, born at 
 Norwich, where he began life as a tailor about 
 
 837 
 
WIL 
 
 1G84. The date of his death is unknown, but in 
 1784 lie published a translation of Mohammed's 
 Journey to Heaven. He was a man of irreproach- 
 able morals, and seems to have suffered much from 
 his precarious means of subsistence. 
 
 WILD, R., a divine and poet, 1609-1679. 
 
 WILDBORE, Charles, a self-taught mathe- 
 matician and miscellaneous writer, died 1802. 
 
 WILDENS, J., a Flemish painter, 1584-1644. 
 
 WILFORD, Francis, a German Orientalist, and 
 officer in the British service, died 1822. 
 
 WILFRED, a Saxon bishop and saint of the 
 Roman calendar, who exhibited his architectural 
 skill and his taste in embellishments, by the im- 
 provement of York cathedral and the erection ot 
 churches at Hexham and Ripon ; died 709. 
 
 WILHEM, W. L. B., founder of the popular 
 singing schools in France, 1779-1842. 
 
 WILKES, John, was born in London on the 
 17th of October, 1727. His father, an afflu- 
 ent distiller, gave him a high education, of which 
 his capacity enabled him to take full advantage. 
 He was learned and witty, and his attractive con- 
 versation, aided by his fashionable tastes and lavish 
 habits made him popular with the juvenile aristo- 
 cracy of the day, both good and bad. His forbid- 
 ding appearance has often been alluded to, but au- 
 thentic original portraits, while they have a 
 general resemblance to the expression in Hogarth's 
 caricature, represent not a coarse rude demagogue, 
 bnt the delicate sinister features of a sybarite and 
 heartless profligate. He treated the mob for his 
 own purposes much as his profligate companions 
 of the Monk-monks' Club, who were so indignant 
 at his becoming a demagogue, treated their female 
 victims. It was in 1762 that, driven desperate by 
 his extravagance, he commenced the North Briton. 
 For a libel there printed, his house was searched 
 under a general or indefinite warrant, and for this 
 constitutional outrage he obtained a verdict for 
 10,000 against the secretary of state. The same 
 event began his memorable conflict with the House 
 of Commons. His expulsion in 1764 opened 
 the question how far the majority of the house 
 was entitled to deprive constituents of the pri- 
 vilege of having their own representative, and he 
 triumphed by the obnoxious resolutions being ex- 
 punged in 1782. He had the art in all his strag- 
 gles to keep not only on the popular, but the con- 
 stitutional side. When no longer attacked he fell 
 into insignificance, which, perhaps, he did not dis- 
 like, as he had secured some lucrative offices. He 
 died on 27th December, 1797. [J.H.B.] 
 
 WILKIE, Sir David, was born in the parish 
 of Cults in Fifeshire, November 18, 1785. In 1799 
 he attended the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh; 
 entered as a student of the Royal Academy of Lon- 
 don in 1805, and became at once a famous painter 
 by the exhibition of his 'Village Politicians ' in the 
 following year. He became a member of the Royal 
 Academy in 1811 ; visited the continent in 1825, 
 for the sake of recruiting his health, and remained 
 broad three years. When he returned he forsook 
 f/em-e painting to which he owed his great popu- 
 larity, and substituted a loose sketchy style of 
 execution, and devoted himself henceforth chiefly 
 to history and portrait. The change proved to be 
 he failed in portrait, and from being the 
 prince of ^enre-painters, he became only a very 
 
 WIL 
 
 inferior painter of history. He was knighted in 
 1836 ; he had already been appointed limner to the. 
 king, in Scotland, and painter in ordinary to hia 
 majesty. In an unlucky hour in the autumn of 
 1840, Sir David set out for a tour in the East ; he 
 visited Constantinople, the Holy Land, and Egypt; 
 he complained of illness while at Alexandria," and 
 expired suddenly on board the Oriental steamer, 
 off Gibraltar, June 1, 1841, and his body was com- 
 mitted on the same day to the deep ; the coffin was 
 lowered into the sea in 46 20' north lat., and 
 60 24' west long. (Allan Cunningham, Life 
 of Sir David Wilkie., &c. London, 1843. The- 
 Wilkie Gallery, &c. See also the Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia) [R.N.W.] 
 
 WILKIE, William, a Scottish minister and 
 professor of philosophy at St. Andrews, author of 
 ' The Epigomad,' an epic poem, 1721-1772. 
 
 WILKINS, Sir Charles, called the 'father of 
 Sanscrit literature,' was born at Frome, in Somer- 
 setshire, 1749, and went to Bengal in the civil 
 service 1770. He resided in India fifteen years, 
 and in that period translated the Bhagavat Gita 
 into English, and exhibited his mechanical skill 
 in making the first Bengali and Persian types used 
 in Bengal. On arriving in England he became I 
 librarian to the Directors of the East India Com- 
 pany, and published in succession the ' Fables ot 
 Vischnou Sarma,' better known in Europe as the 
 ' Fables of Pilpay,' his 'Arabic Grammar,' an edi- 
 tion of 'Richardson's Dictionary' enlarged, and 
 other works. Died 1836. 
 
 WILKINS, David, rector of Hadleigh, in Suf- 
 folk, and archdeacon of that county, known as an 
 antiquarian and Saxon scholar, 1685-1745. 
 
 WILKINS, John, brother-in-law of Olivei 
 Cromwell, and bishop of Chester, was born 
 Northamptonshire 1614. He was distinguished 
 for his learning, especially as a mathematician 
 and is the inventor of the perambulator or wheei 
 for measuring distances. Died at the house of his 
 friend, Dr. Tillotson, in London, 1672. 
 
 WILKINS, William, an architect and writei 
 on architecture, was born at Cambridge, where his 
 father was a builder, in 1778, and succeeded Sii 
 John Soane as professor at the Royal Academy in 
 1837. The principal of his edifices are the London 
 University, St. George's Hospital, the University 
 Club House, and the National Gallery in Trafalgar k p 
 Square. His literary works are 'Remarks on the 
 Buildings and Antiquities of Athens,' and ' The 
 Civil Architecture of Vitruvius.' Died 1839. 
 
 WILL, G. A., a Germ, numismatist, 1724-17 
 
 WILLjERTS, Adam, a Flemish marine painter. 
 1577-1640. His son, Abraham, born 1613. 
 
 WILLAMOV, J. G., a Russian poet, 1737-77 
 
 WILLAN, Robert, a physician of London, kn 
 as a professional and religious writer, 1757-1812. 
 
 WILLDENOW, Charles Louis, a distin- 
 guished botanist, member of the Academy of 
 Sciences and director of the botanic garden at Ber J 
 lin ; he wrote several works on plants, and col- 
 lected a Zoological Cabinet which he presented tc 
 the museum, flourished 1765-1812. 
 
 WILLK, .J. <;.. a German engraver, 1717-1807.1 
 
 WILLEMET, P. R. F., a French botanist and 
 traveller in the East Indies, 1762-1790. 
 
 WILLEMET, Renie, a French botanist, direc- fej 
 tor of the botanic garden at Nancy, 1735-1807. 
 
WIL 
 
 WILLEMIN, N. X., a French antiquarian, de- 
 signer, and engraver, author of 'The Civil and 
 Military Customs of Antiquity,' 1764-1833. 
 
 WILLEMUR, L. De Penen, Count De, a 
 Spanish general and statesman, 1761-1836. 
 
 WILLERMOZ, P. J., a French physician and 
 chemist, 1735-1799. His son, P. C. Catharine, 
 a physician and anatomist, 1767-1810. 
 
 WILLET, Andrew, a learned divine of Cam- 
 bridgeshire, author of works written against po- 
 pery, and other theological subjects, born at Ely 
 .562, died 1621. 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. William I., 
 king of England, was the illegitimate son of 
 Robert duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, the daugh- 
 ter of a tanner of Falaise. He was born in 1027. 
 His father had no legitimate children; and when 
 Duke Robert departed on a pilgrimage to the Holy 
 Land, he persuaded his barons to swear allegiance 
 to young William as his heir. Duke Robert died 
 while returning from Palestine in 1035 ; and dur- 
 ing the first years of William's dukedom, the 
 ambitious feuds of the Norman barons and the 
 aggressions of the king of France placed Normandy 
 in a perilous state of anarchy and weakness. But 
 as soon as William grew out of boyhood, he began to 
 govern for himself; and after years of jeopardy and 
 strife, he established a degree of order in his duchy, 
 which was unknown in the rest of Europe, and 
 he made himself universally known and respected 
 among the princes of Christendom. William was 
 related to Edward the Confessor king of England ; 
 and he long watched anxiously for the time when 
 the death of that childless sovereign should give 
 him the opportunity for making himself king of 
 this countiy. Edward died on the 5th January, 
 1066 ; and the Saxon Harold was chosen by the 
 English to succeed him. But William speedily 
 asserted his claims. Besides his relationship to 
 the late king, he had been nominated, or he pre- 
 tended that he had been nominated by the dying 
 Edward as his successor : and he had in the pre- 
 ceding year taken advantage of the temporary 
 presence of his rival in Normandy, to make Harold, 
 partly by force and partly by fraud, swear to help 
 him in obtaining the crown of England. As soon 
 as King Edward was dead, William demanded the 
 execution of this promise ; and, on Harold's refusal, 
 he prepared to assert his rights by the sword. He 
 assembled, for the invasion of England, a host 
 which Mackintosh has rightly termed ' the most 
 remarkable and formidable armament which the 
 western nations had witnessed.' He landed with 
 this army in Pevensey Bay, 29th September, 1066, 
 and on the 14th of the next month he fought and 
 won the decisive battle of Hastings, in which 
 Harold and the bravest thanes of* southern and 
 central England perished. William advanced and 
 occupied London, the Saxons generally submitting 
 themselves to him ; and he was crowned king of 
 England at Westminster on Christmas day, 1066. 
 At first his rule was comparatively mild ; but the 
 Saxon spirit chafed under the sense of foreign 
 domination, and under the insolence of the Nor- 
 lnan barons and prelates of the new king. Then 
 came fierce local risings, with delusive partial suc- 
 cesses over the foreigners, soon crushed by the 
 disciplined troops and high military genius of the 
 Conqueror. Then followed the re vengeful cruelties 
 
 WIL 
 
 of the king, the effects not so much of hasty anger, 
 as of stern remorseless policy. He was resolved to 
 establish his dominion and his dynasty firmly in 
 England ; and neither fear nor mercy ever made 
 William pause in employing the most efficacious 
 means to work out a settled purpose. The insur- 
 rections of the Saxons were visited by him with 
 confiscation, massacre, and devastation ; and it is 
 computed that a third of the old Saxon population 
 of England was swept from the land during his 
 invasion and reign. But, terrible as are the acts 
 of cruelty with which William's memory is asso- 
 ciated, it would be unjust to let them blind us to 
 the high qualities which he displayed, as a ruler, 
 and as an ordainer of our institutions. He main- 
 tained the strictest order and internal peace. His 
 military renown checked the ambition and cupidity 
 of the marauding Danes, who had infested the 
 English coasts for more than two centuries. He 
 organized the feudal system here, with changes 
 from its development on the continent, so as to 
 keep down the turbulent insubordination and law- 
 less violence of the nobility. He retained (though 
 with many important modifications) the Saxon 
 popular tribunals ; and altogether he may be truly 
 said to have displayed a marvellous discernment of 
 the two great principles of government, which re- 
 quire centralized power in matters of imperial 
 importance, and local self-government in matters 
 of chiefly local interest. William the Conqueror 
 died in 1087. It ought to be added that, like all 
 the race of his great ancestor, Rolf the Ganger, 
 who conquered Neustria 150 years before Wil- 
 liam conquered England, he was eminent for his 
 appreciation of intellect, science, art, and learning, 
 and for liberality to all men of all nations by 
 whom they were displayed. [E.S.C.] 
 
 WILLIAM II., king of England, second son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1060, and succeeded his 
 father in the absence of his elder brother, Robert, 
 1087. The latter also allowed him to acquire the 
 dukedom of Normandy by purchase, and then joined 
 the crusaders. William reigned nearly thirteen 
 years, and was killed in the New Forest by an ac- 
 cident, as commonly supposed, in 1100. He was 
 surnamed Rvfus, the red or ruddy, and bears the 
 reputation of an evil and avaricious man. 
 
 WILLIAM III., king of England, stadtholder of 
 Holland, and prince of Orange, was the son of 
 William II., stadtholder of Holland, and of Maty, 
 daughter of Charles I. of England. He was born 
 November 14, 1650. His father had died a little 
 more than a week before the young prince's birth, 
 and the party of aristocratic republicans among 
 the Dutch, that was hostile to the ascendency of 
 the house of Orange, eagerly took this opportunity 
 of curtailing its power ; and prevented the offices 
 of stadtholder and captain-general, which the 
 father had held, from being conferred on the infant 
 son. The great wealth and hereditary estates of 
 the prince of Orange, his connection with the royal 
 families of England and France, and the popularity 
 of his name and house among the common people, 
 still made young William an object of anxiety to 
 the leading Dutch statesmen ; and he grew up 
 surrounded by the officers and spies of a jealous 
 government, that watched his every action and 
 word, and every growing tendency of his disposi- 
 tion with pretended courtesy but real suspicion. 
 
 831) 
 
WIL 
 
 William thus early acquired, as a defence against 
 the snares around' him, the reserved manners, and 
 the habits of secrecy and self-reliance, that marked 
 him throughout life. When he was twenty-one, 
 tne disasters of the war against England and 
 France, in which the Dutch were then involved, 
 caused a general movement among the mass of the 
 people against the De Witts and the other aristo- 
 cratic chiefs of tho commonwealth. William was 
 made stadtholder, and continued with this office 
 and that of captain-general, and the other high 
 
 Sowers which his ancestors had enjoyed. It is a 
 eep blot on his fame that at this crisis of his life 
 he neither exerted himself to prevent the murder 
 of the De Witts by the infuriated people, nor did 
 he take any steps to bring the murderers to justice. 
 Towards the country, that thus made him its chief 
 at a time of unexampled distress and peril, Wil- 
 liam did his duty nobly. He encouraged the Dutch 
 to reject the degrading terms of peace which the 
 hostile kings offered, and to defend their father- 
 land, town by town, and inch by inch. Nay, he 
 exhorted them, rather than submit, to embark on 
 board their vessels and found a new free state in 
 the East Indies. He himself spurned with indig- 
 nation the offers of Louis XIV. to bribe him by 
 making him king of the United Provinces under 
 the protection of England and France. When the 
 French envoy pointed out to him the immense 
 power of the invading armies, and that he was sure, 
 if he rejected the proposals, to see both himself and 
 Holland irretrievably ruined, William answered, 
 ' I have thought of the means to avoid beholding 
 the ruin of my country : I can die in the last 
 ditch.' His heroism had its just reward. The 
 progress of the French armies over Holland was 
 checked. The emperor of Germany and other 
 powers combined against Louis XlV. Charles 
 II. of England was compelled by his parliament 
 and people to make peace with the Dutch ; and at 
 last the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678, left Holland 
 free and independent after a war, in which William, 
 though he met with frequent reverses, had won 
 the admiration of Europe as a general and as a 
 statesman. In the same year he married the prin- 
 cess Mary of England, daughter of James II. by 
 his first wife. William watched with the deepest in- 
 terest the stouggle of parties in this country. He 
 felt that his own peculiar mission was to defend 
 the cause of civil and religious liberty in Europe 
 against the ambition and bigotry of Louis XIV. 
 It England could be brought to fill her natu- 
 ral place as a free and a protestant state in this 
 great strife William was confident of the result. 
 But Holland and her other allies were unequal to 
 a continued contest against the power of France, 
 if England, under her Stuart rulers, was to act 
 again as the tool and accomplice of the Bourbons. 
 Hence, when the English, in 1688, sought the 
 intervention of William against the misgovernment 
 of James II., William eagerly embat-ked in the 
 great enterprise of his age. He landed in this 
 country in the November of that year, and gained 
 almost bloodless possession of the kingdom. The 
 houses of parliament solemnly chose him king of 
 England by the bill of rights. In Scotland and 
 Ireland the adherents of the abdicated monarch 
 made some resistance in arms, but were ultimately 
 put down. William himself decided the Irish war 
 
 WIL 
 
 by the great victory of the Boyne, which he gained in 
 person over James and his followers. William's 
 reign over these kingdoms was disquieted by many 
 jealousies between him and his new subjects. He 
 was offended at the limitations on the royal power 
 and revenue, which the English Whigs introduced; 
 and he was of course regarded with the bitterest 
 animosity by the Jacobites, who cherished the fal- 
 len cause of the Stuarts. The war also against 
 France, which was the necessary consequence of 
 the Revolution of 1688, brought many burdens on 
 this country, and was attended with many losses in 
 the field. The peace of Ryswick in 1697 was re- 
 garded by all parties as no more than an armed 
 truce ; and it was well known that Louis XIV. 
 was scheming to unite the vast possessions of the 
 Spanish crown to the dominion of France. Wil- 
 liam sought to prevent this by two treaties between 
 the principal European powers for the partition of 
 the Spanish provinces on the death of the reigning 
 king. But this only incensed the court of Madrid, 
 and when the king of Spain died in 1700, it was 
 found that he had bequeathed all his crowns to the 
 grandson of Louis XIV., who forthwith repudiated 
 the partition treaties, and prepared to seize this 
 rich inheritance for the house of Bourbon. Wil- 
 liam now applied all his energies to form a new 
 league against France ; but in the midst of his 
 warlike preparations he died at Kensington, 8th 
 March, 1702. William III. was unquestionably 
 a great man, but he was one of those coldly great 
 men, who rather extort our admiration from our 
 reason, than raise the sympathy or enthusiasm of 
 our hearts. His permission of the massacre of the 
 clan Macdonald, at Glencoe, is (like his conduct 
 with regard to the De Witts ; ) a grievous stain on 
 his memory. But we must judge him by the 
 general character of his actions, and not by one or 
 two culpable deeds. We must look to the circum- 
 stances in which he was placed ; and we must con- 
 sider what would have been the probable current 
 of events in the latter portion of the seventeenth 
 century, and in all after time, if the fraud, the 
 rapacity, and intolerance of Louis XIV. and our own 
 Stuarts had not been encountered by an opponent 
 so resolute, so vigilant, so high-minded, and indo- 
 mitable as William III. If we judge him thus, 
 we shall feel that he deserves the imperishable 
 gratitude of posterity, as the rescuer and preserver 
 of our national independence, our constitutional 
 liberties, and our right to worship according to a 
 free conscience and a pure faith. [E.S.C.] 
 
 WILLIAM (HENRY) IV., third son of George 
 III., was born August 21, 1765, and entered the 
 navy as a midshipman in the fourteenth year of 
 his age. He reached the rank of admiral in 1801. 
 In 1818 he married the princess Adelaide, eldest 
 daughter of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, who bore 
 him two daughters, neither of whom survived their 
 infancy. He became heir presumptive to the 
 throne by the death of the duke of York in 1827, 
 and succeeded George IV. June 26, 1830 ; died 
 1837. The great event of his reign was the achieve- 
 ment of the Reform Bill, by which this country was 
 saved from the verge of a revolution. He left ten 
 natural children, known as the Fitz-Ci.akences. 
 
 WILLIAM, kincj of Scotland, surnamed ' the 
 Lion,' succeeded his brother, Malcolm IV., 1165* 
 and died 12 14. He was succeeded by Alexander IL 
 810 
 
 
 
WIL 
 
 WILLIAM, duke of Normandy, surnamed 'Long 
 Sword,' was born in 900, and succeeded his father, 
 Rollo, in 927. He was assassinated in 942. 
 
 WILLIAM, surnamed ' Short Hose,' son of Ro- 
 bert III., duke of Normandy, made a vain attempt 
 to recover the estates of his father, of which he 
 had been despoiled by Henry I. of England. He 
 became count of Flanders in 1127, died 1128. 
 
 WILLIAM, son of Henry I., king of England, 
 invested by him with the duchy of Normandy, and 
 perished by shipwreck 1120. 
 
 WILLIAM, duke of Apulia, succeeded his father, 
 Roger, son of Robert Guiscard, 1111, died 1127. 
 
 WILLIAM, six counts of Holland, four of whom 
 were also counts of Hainault, and one emperor of 
 Germany: William I., who usurped the country 
 on returning from a crusade to the prejudice of 
 Ada, his niece, and died 1223. William II., 
 grandson of the preceding, born about 1226, suc- 
 ceeded his father 1234. In 1247 he was elected 
 king of the Romans, and being proclaimed emperor 
 by the papal legate in 1250, had to dispute the 
 crown with Conradin IV., till the death of that 
 prince in 1254. He was soon after recalled to his 
 lereditary estates by a revolt, and lost his life in 
 
 battle 1256. Willi am III. of Holland and I. 
 of Hainault, succeeded his father, John, in both 
 countries 1304, and died 1337 : he was surnamed 
 the Good.' William IV. of Holland and II. of 
 Hainault, son and successor of the preceding, 
 jerished in a battle fought with his revolted sub- 
 ects 1345. He was succeeded by his sister, Mar- 
 garet, and her husband, the emperor Louis of 
 Bavaria. William V. of Holland and III. of 
 Hainault, son of Margaret and Louis, usurped the 
 luthority of his mother 1349 ; he died miserably 
 n a tower, to which he had been consigned for the 
 nurder of one of his gentlemen in 1377. William 
 VI. of Holland and IV. of Hainault, succeeded his 
 ather, Albert, in 1404, died 1417. 
 
 WILLIAM I. of Nassau, prince of Orange, the 
 5rst leader in the Dutch war of independence, was 
 oorn in 1533 of Lutheran parents, but descended 
 'rom the ancient counts of that principality. Being 
 rained to political employments at the court of 
 Charles V., he conformed outwardly to Catholicism, 
 ind had become governor of the provinces of Hol- 
 and, Zealand, and Utrecht, while the reformed 
 ioctrines were spreading and events were ripening 
 for the revolt of the Netherlands. The leading 
 circumstances of that great and glorious struggle, 
 which lasted considerably more than half a cen- 
 ;ury, were these. On the death of Charles V., 
 ho had made great efforts to keep the Nether- 
 lands free from ' heresy,' he bestowed those pro- 
 nnces on his son, Philip II., king of Spain. The 
 atter appointed Margaret of Parma, a natural 
 laughter of his father, stadtholderess, with the 
 Cardinal Granvella for her adviser, who began his 
 career by prosecuting the protestants, and creating 
 i vast number of bishoprics. The dark and re- 
 lute despotism of Philip was shadowed forth in 
 England in the reign of Mary, called the ' bloody,' 
 nit in the Netherlands he was as the tyrant 'of 
 lis own household, and so much the more unscru- 
 pulous and persecuting. In 1564 the cardinal, 
 Jrovoked by the opposition and hatred which he 
 lid to encounter, departed for Spain, and shortly 
 afterwards preparations were making to introduce 
 
 WIL 
 
 the inquisition, and this in the midst of a people 
 already half Lutherans and Calvinists. In 1566 
 the nobles went in procession, and petitioned Mar- 
 garet against this measure, and as they were 
 treated with contempt, their remonstrances were 
 followed by popular commotions. On this Alva 
 was sent, at whose approach a hundred thousand of 
 the most industrious Flemings took refuge in 
 foreign countries, chiefly in England. This was 
 the crisis at which William of Orange came for- 
 ward, and raised the standard of independence, 
 and the desperate circumstances under which he 
 called the people to arms, may be referred to in the 
 article Alva. Though that monster of cruelty 
 was recalled at the end of six years, 1574, and 
 replaced by a milder ruler, the Dutch continued 
 the war, and Holland was liberated by the relief of 
 Leyden, which William effected by laying the whole 
 country under water, 1575. He was now elected 
 stadtholder, and Calvinism became the established 
 religion, to the exclusion of Lutheranism as well 
 as the Roman Catholic faith. By the ' Pacification 
 of Ghent' in 1576, William united all the provinces 
 in one confederation, but he found it impossible to 
 heal these internal causes of disunion, and the 
 Spaniards, taking advantage of them, were able to 
 repossess themselves of the southern provinces, 
 under the duke of Parma, whence arose the pre- 
 sent distinction between Holland and Belgium. 
 Philip had now set a price on William's head, and, 
 in 1582, an attempt was made to assassinate him, 
 but he recovered from the wound. A second at- 
 tempt, in 1584, was but too successful. One 
 Balthaser Gerard, being introduced to the stadthol- 
 der on the plea of business, he suddenly drew a 
 Eistol, loaded with three balls, and shot him in the 
 ody. The prince expired almost instantly : his 
 last words were, ' May God have mercy on me, and 
 these poor people ! ' He was succeeded, and the 
 war carried on successfully, by his second son, 
 Maurice of Nassau. [E.R.] 
 
 WILLIAM, two kings of Holland, William 
 (Frederick) I., styled king of the Netherlands, 
 grand duke of Luxembourg, prince of Orange, and 
 duke of Nassau, was born at the Hague in 1772. 
 He distinguished himself in the wars with the 
 French republic, and became an exile with his 
 father, the hereditary stadtholder of the Dutch 
 republic, in 1795 ; after his father's death he suc- 
 ceeded first to the duchy of Nassau, and joined 
 the Prussian army against Napoleon. He became 
 king of Holland by the settlement of affairs which 
 followed the fall of Napoleon in 1814, the countries 
 united under his rule by the congress of Vienna 
 being the old united provinces of Holland, the 
 bishopric of Liege, and Belgium: the latter, 
 however, was separated by the revolution of 1830. 
 He abdicated in 1840, and died in 1843. William 
 II., son and successor of the preceding as king of 
 Holland, was born in 1792, and distinguished him- 
 self in the peninsular war under Lord Wellington ; 
 he also commanded the army of the Netherlands 
 at the battle of Waterloo. His reign commenced 
 from his father's abdication in 1840, and he died a 
 few days after the revolution of March, 1848. 
 
 WILLIAM of Apulia, a Latin poet and his- 
 torian of the 12th century. 
 
 WILLIAM of Auvergne, or of Paris, a 
 French prelate and theologian, died 1249. 
 
 841 
 
WIL 
 
 there. During eleven years he prosecuted the 
 work of an evangelist on that island, and on re- 
 viewing his course at his departure, could bear 
 this wonderful and gratifying testimony : ' When 
 I found them in 1823, they were entirely savages 
 and when I left them, they had not only embraced 
 the Christian profession, but I am not aware that 
 there was a house in the island where family 
 prayer was not observed every morning and even- 
 ing.' Burning with zeal to introduce the gospel 
 into every island of the Pacific, this indefatigable 
 missionary removed to another group the New 
 Hebrides, which lay far westward. Having been 
 welcomed to the island of Parna, Mr. Williams 
 prepared to make a similar attempt in Erromanga. 
 On approaching it, he and his two companions 
 hailed some of the natives who were sailing in a 
 canoe, and found they spoke a different language 
 were of a darker complexion shorter in stature 
 wilder in their appearance, and more jealous of 
 the intentions of strangers, than the people in 
 Parna. The missionaries tried to propitiate them 
 by offering them some bread, and requesting the 
 chief to give them some water, which he speedily 
 fetched. Encouraged by these appearances, they 
 waded ashore ; but scarcely had they landed, when 
 they ran in all haste back to the sea, being pursued 
 with hostile weapons by the savages. Mr. Williams 
 had reached the edge of the water, but the beach 
 being rugged and steep, he stumbled and fell, 
 when the native who pursued him, taking advan- 
 tage of the fall, struck him repeated blows with a 
 club. Others running up, completed the work of 
 destruction, by piercing his body with arrows. 
 Before his two companions could venture to make 
 the slightest attempt to rescue him, the savages 
 had dragged the mangled remains away with them. 
 Thus perished, in the prime of life and usefulness. 
 a missionary who was ' in labours abundant ; ' anc 
 whose 'Narrative' full of the most interesting anc 
 delightful details, has been beautifully and justh 
 styled, A Modern Acts of the Apostles.' [R.J." 
 
 WILLIAMS, Sir Roger, a native of Mon 
 mouthshire, dist. in the Flemish wars, died 1595. 
 
 WILLIAMSON, Hugh, an American physi 
 cian, astronomer, and member of congress, autho 
 of a ' History of North Carolina,' and ' Observa 
 tions on the Climate of America,' 1735-1819. 
 
 WILLIAMSON, Sik Joseph, a statesman and 
 collector of manuscripts, born at Cumberland, 
 where his father was a clergyman, about 1630 
 He began his public career as clerk of the counci 
 after the restoration, and became principal secre- 
 tary of state in 1674 ; died 1701. 
 
 WILLIS, Francis, a clergyman of the Churcl: 
 of England, whose attention to mental disorder 
 led to his adoption of the medical profession, anc 
 to his appointment as physician to George III. 
 died 1807. 
 
 WILLIS, Thomas, a distinguished English ana 
 tomist and physician, born at Great Bodwin, ir 
 Wiltshire, in 1622, and died at London in 1675, h 
 the fifty-fourth year of his age. Willis belonged to thd 
 sect of Iatro-chemists, who resolved all the motions! 
 of the human body, in health and disease, into tin 
 chemical action and reaction of the solids and fluid' 
 - , of which it is composed. He was deeplv involve* 
 having discovered Rarotonga, the largest of the ' in the controversies of his age, but the" work I 
 group, landed with a view to establish himself j which his name is known to posterity is that on 
 
 842 
 
 WIL 
 
 WILLIAM ok Wykeham. See Wykeham. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Anna, a miscellaneous and poet- 
 ical writer, was the daughter of a Welch surgeon, 
 whom she accompanied to London in 1730, and 
 supported many years by the labour of her pen. 
 In 1740 she became blind from cataract, and then 
 had recourse to her needle till she was admitted 
 under the roof of Dr. Johnson, who was struck 
 with admiration of her generous devotion. She 
 died in his house, Bolt Court, Fleet-Street, in the 
 seventv-seventh year of her age, 1783. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Sir Charles Hanbury, a 
 diplomatist and man of letters, 1709-1759. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Cooper, a chaplain hi the navy, 
 and writer of voyages, &c, 1767-1816. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Daniel, many years minister to 
 a presbyterian congregation in Dublin, was born 
 about 1644, at Wrexham, in Denbighshire. The 
 latter part of his life was passed in London, and 
 lie left his library in Redcross-Street, Cripplegate, 
 for the use of dissenting ministers. Died 1716. 
 
 WILLIAMS, David, founder of the ' Literary 
 Fund,' was born in Cardiganshire, 1738 ; and after 
 officiating some time as a dissenting minister, 
 became a teacher of deism. This speculation not 
 answering, Mr. Williams devoted himself to pri- 
 vate teaching and literature, and at the close of 
 his life was supported by the excellent institution 
 he had himself projected. His principal works 
 are an edition of ' Hume's History,' ' Lectures 
 on Education,' ' Lectures on Political Principles,' 
 History of Monmouthshire,' &c. Died 1816. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Ephraim, an American general, 
 founder of the college named after him, died about 
 1791. 
 
 WILLIAMS, F., a Creole writer, died 1770. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Griffith, bishop of Ossory, in 
 Ireland, was born at Caernarvon, about 1589, and 
 in the rebellion of 1641 became an exile from his 
 see, which he recovered at the restoration. He 
 wrote several religious works, and an account of 
 the persecutions he had suffered. Died 1672. 
 
 WILLIAMS, H. M., a female artist, 1759-1827. 
 
 WILLIAMS, John, archbishop of York, and 
 lord keeper in the reign of James I., was born at 
 Aberconway in Caernarvonshire, 1582. He suc- 
 ceeded Lord Bacon as chancellor in 1621, and was 
 raised to the see of York in 1641. During the re- 
 bellion he fortified and defended Conway castle in 
 the interest of the king. Died 1650. 
 
 WILLIAMS, John, a learned prelate, one of 
 the divines who were promoted after the revolu- 
 tion of 1688, b. in Northamptonshire 1634, d. 1709. 
 
 WILLIAMS, John, the martyr of Erromanga, 
 was born in a very humble rank, but being imbued 
 with deep feelings of piety, early resolved to de- 
 vote himself to missionary labours, and by his 
 self-denying and zealous prosecution of his work, 
 has obtained a name among the foremost of his 
 evangelical contemporaries. Having entered into 
 the service of the London Missionary Society, he 
 was sent out in 1817 to their station in the South 
 Sea Islands ; and the scene of his first duties there 
 was in the Raiatea the largest and most central 
 of the Society Islands, situated about one hundred 
 miles' distance from Tahiti. He afterwards removed 
 to what is called the Hervey Group of Islands, and 
 
WIL 
 
 Anatomy of the Brain and Nerves, Cerebri Ana- 
 tome, cui accessit Nervorum descriptio et Usus, 
 which was published at London in 1664. Some of 
 the opinions contained in this book are remarkable 
 as bemg anticipations of the ideas on the functions 
 of the brain long afterwards propounded by Gall, for 
 he not only maintained that the cerebrum is the 
 seat of the intellectual faculties, and the cerebel- 
 lum of the involuntary movements, but that each 
 part of the brain has its own separate functions. 
 Another treatise on the soul of brutes, De Anima 
 Brutorum, published in 1672, involved him in irri- 
 tating disputes with theologians of the time, which 
 are thought to have shortened his days. [J.M'C] 
 
 WILLOUGHBY, Sir Hugh, commander in a 
 voyage of discovery which sailed from London in 
 1553, at the instance of a company of merchants 
 directed by Sebastian Cabot. The expedition, 
 consisting of three vessels, was last heard of off 
 Finmark, on the 30th July in that year, soon after 
 which all must have perished. 
 
 WILLUGHBY, Francis, a famous naturalist 
 and friend of Ray, who arranged and published his 
 MSS. on icthyology, 1635-1672. 
 
 WILLYMOT, W., an English clergyman, 
 schoolmaster, and classical editor, died 1737. 
 
 WILMOT, John. See Rochester. 
 
 WILMOT, John Eardley, chief justice of the 
 Common Pleas, was born at Derby in 1709, and 
 died 1792. He wrote 'Notes of Opinions,' which 
 were published by his son in 1802. The latter, 
 same names as his father, was born at Derby in 
 1748, and attained great eminence as a chancery 
 lawyer. He died in 1815. 
 
 WILSON, Alexander, a celebrated ornitho- 
 logist, was born in Paisley in 1766. He died in 
 1813. His father was a man in poor circumstances, 
 and Wilson himself was brought up to the trade of 
 a weaver. His education was well attended to in 
 early life, and he was possessed of an ardent poetic 
 temperament of mind, accompanied with a strong 
 predilection for the beauties of nature. He be- 
 came disgusted with the drudgery of the loom; 
 gave free vent to his poetical disposition, and for 
 nearly three years he wandered over the country as 
 a pedlar, selling muslins and poems. Both poetry 
 and pedlary, however, turned out failures in his 
 hands, and an unfortunate dispute between the 
 journeymen and master weavers, in which he took 
 an active part, rendering his residence in his native 
 country extremely unpleasant to him, he emigrated 
 to America. He arnved in that country in 1794, 
 and for eight years he supported himself by weav- 
 ing or perambulating the country with his pack, 
 occasionally surveying land for the farmers, and 
 latterly by teaching. In 1802 he was offered an 
 engagement in a seminary at Kingsessing on the 
 Schuylkill, whither he immediately removed, and 
 which fortunately procured him the patronage of 
 gome kind and influential friends. Amongst these 
 was Mr. Lawson the engraver, who taught him 
 drawing, colouring, and etching. Previous to his 
 coming to America he had never shown any taste 
 for ornithology; but his application now to draw- 
 ing seemed to develop his latent talent. His first 
 attempts were not successful, but as soon as he 
 commenced the delineation of birds he made rapid 
 progress. His success seems to have first suggested 
 the idea of his American Ornithology. To accom- 
 
 WIL 
 
 plish this work he undertook many journeys 
 through various parts of America, sleeping for 
 weeks in the wilderness alone with his gun and his 
 pistols in his bosom, performing solitary voyages 
 on the great rivers in a frail canoe, and collecting 
 all the birds of the districts through which he tra- 
 velled. He drew, etched, and coloured all the plates 
 himself, and after many delays and disappoint- 
 ments, he at last procured a publisher, and pro- 
 duced a first volume of his celebrated work. It 
 far exceeded the expectations of the public, and 
 eight volumes successively made their appearance, 
 and procured him great and deserved reputation. 
 Before he could finish his great undertakings, he 
 was seized with a sudden and severe illness, and 
 died at the age of forty-eight. Wilson's great wish 
 was, to use his own words, ' to raise some beacon 
 to show that such a man had lived ; ' and though 
 his death was premature, he lived long enough to 
 accomplish the object of his ambition. [W.B.I 
 
 WILSON, Arthur, an English historian, who 
 was secretary to Robert, earl of Essex, and 
 steward to the earl of Warwick, 1596-1652. 
 
 WILSON, Florence, a Latin scholar and pro- 
 fessor of philosophy, born at Elgin in Scotland, 
 about the beginning of the 16th century, died in 
 Dauphiny, on his way home from Navarre, 1547 
 The work by which he is known is a dialogue, 
 entitled ' De Tranquilitate Animi.' 
 
 WILSON, H., an English navigator, died 1810 
 
 WILSON, Jamks, a navigator, who discovered 
 the islands called Duff's group in 1796. 
 
 WILSON, John, a composer of sacred music, 
 born at Faversham in Kent, 1594, died 1673. 
 
 WILSON, John, a Scotch vocalist, who at- 
 tained great popularity by his manner of singing 
 the beautiful lyrics of his native land. Born 
 1800, died at Quebec in 1849, while on a pro- 
 fessional visit to America. 
 
 WILSON, John, better known for many years 
 of his life by the soubriquet of Christopher Isorth, 
 was born in the town of Paisley in 1785, or, as 
 some accounts say, in 1788. His father was an 
 eminent merchant there, and the paternal mansion 
 in the High-Street of that ancient borough, still 
 attests the wealth and dignity of the family by its 
 stately urban magnificence. Wilson received the 
 elements of his education, we believe, with the late 
 Mr. Peddie of Paisley, and afterwards under the 
 superintendence of the parish minister of Mearns ; 
 at the age of thirteen he entered the university oi 
 Glasgow, and afterwards that of Oxford, in Mag- 
 dalen College. From the latter source he doubtless 
 imbibed that familiar acquaintance with, and rich 
 appreciation of the classic writers, which, in happy 
 union with his other qualities, constituted him one 
 of the most eminent writers and literary men of 
 his day. The first poem he ever published ob- 
 tained the Newdegate prize in his venerable Alma 
 Mater. For some years afterwards he lived at 
 his beautiful retreat of Elloray, on Windermere, 
 when, as a matter of course, he became intimate 
 with Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth, the 
 leading apostles of what was then called the Lake 
 School of Poetry ; and the dreamy sweetness of whose 
 style of composition tended to dilute and weaken 
 the simplicity and vigour of his own. Pecuniary 
 causes obliging him to leave Elloray, he joined his 
 mother in Edinburgh, who was a woman of a high 
 
WIL 
 
 order of intellect, qualified to be the monitor and 
 helper of n emtio :i spirit. Here he began to study 
 the law iur the profession of a barrister, but never 
 actually assumed the professional toga. In 1812 
 appeared the Isle of Palms, and soon afterwards 
 the City of the Plague, and Unimore, the prin- 
 cipal contributions of his fanciful and capricious 
 muse. There is a soft, liquid flow of musical ex- 
 pression in these poems, with a vague, dreamy 
 wildness and pathos, in combination with an 
 exuberant fancy; and in the City of the Plague 
 an irregular vigour and richness of imagination, 
 resembling the outre grandeur of some of our old 
 English dramatists. It is as a prose writer, how- 
 ever, that Wilson takes rank among the literary 
 Titans of his native land. His novels are not much 
 read now, being over-informed with sentiment, and 
 the characters pitched far above the average of 
 Scottish rural and urban nature. The Trials of 
 Margaret Lindsay and the Foresters are, however, 
 exquisite specimens of composition as poetic prose. 
 In 1820 he succeeded the celebrated Dr. Brown as 
 professor of moral philosophy in the university of 
 Edinburgh, an appointment severely and justly 
 commented upon at the time ; and if we take Dr. 
 Chalmers as an authority, whose dictum it was, 
 that moral philosophy was the gate to theology, it 
 reflected as little credit upon those who appointed, 
 as upon him who accepted. At the same time 
 began, and certainly oddly enough, his connection 
 with BlachoooaVs Magazine, where appeared that 
 famous series of political and literary pieces, which 
 set all Edinburgh in a flame, so well known as 
 the Noctes Ambrosianse. Wilson was always 
 considered as the presiding genius loci, and 
 amongst his associates were John Gibson Lock- 
 hart and the Ettrick Shepherd, the latter chiefly 
 as a butt. Rich in broad, coarse humour, and 
 violating, not seldom, the conventional courtesies 
 and even decencies of political and personal inter- 
 course, their irresistible waggery, and biting sar- 
 casm, raised the Edinburgh periodical to the high 
 station it has always maintained. The genius of 
 Wilson arose out or the rich overflow and exuber- 
 ance of his animal spirits, themselves the result of 
 a finely developed physical constitution, in fact, 
 of a physique the most imposing and attractive 
 that perhaps ever son of song was gifted with. 
 We believe that the stories of the excesses of his 
 youth and manhood were much exaggerated, as 
 his fertile fancy and rich classical resources, with 
 his irresistible tendency towards the ridiculous, 
 would elevate him by their intense exercise, into a 
 condition very like ebrius, if not ebriosus. In 1851, 
 he resigned the situation of professor of moral 
 philosophy in the university of Edinburgh ; hav- 
 ing been struck with paralysis, and expired on the 
 4th of April, 1854. With great propriety a Whig 
 government granted him a pension of 300 a-year, 
 and having lived down in himself, and in the minds 
 of many others, the political acerbities of his 
 youth and manhood, this eminent Scotsman has 
 passed away, to occupy no mean niche in the 
 Scottish Temple of Fame. [T.D.] 
 
 WILSON, Kichard, R.A. This great land- 
 scape painter was born at Pinegas, Montgomery- 
 shire, and showing an early taste for drawing, was 
 taken to London by Sir George Wynne, and placed 
 with a portrait painter of the name of Wright. 
 
 WIN 
 
 W 7 ilson himself commenced his career as a portrait 
 painter, and took to landscape tirst in Italy in 
 1749, by the advice of Zuccarelli and Vernet. 
 Wilson returned to London in 1755, after an abseqof 
 of six years, and acquired a great name in 1760 by 
 his picture of ' Niobe.' He was one of the original 
 thirty-six members of the Royal Academy, and 
 succeeded Hayman as librarian in 1776. Towards 
 the close of his fife he came into possession of some 
 property from a deceased brother, and he retired 
 to the village of Llanverris, where he died in 1782. 
 Wilson, admirable as his pictures are, was not suc- 
 cessful, some of his works sold better than others, 
 and these he accordingly frequently repeated, hut 
 generally with some slight difference. The figures 
 of his pictures were frequently inserted by Morti- 
 mer and Hayman ; his principal works are views 
 in Italy; many of them have been admirably, 
 engraved by Woollett. (T. Wright, Some Account 
 of the Life of Richard Wilson, R.A. London, 
 1824^ [R.N.W.] 
 
 WILSON, Sir Robert, a British officer and 
 politician, was born in London 1777, and com- 
 menced his military career in Flanders under the 
 duke of York. He distinguished himself on many 
 occasions during the wars against Napoleon, and 
 was in Paris after his fall in 1815, where he 
 aided in the escape of Lavalette. He sat in parlia- 
 ment as member for Southwark from 1818 to 
 1831, and in 1842 was appointed governor of 
 Gibraltar. Died 1849. 
 
 WILSON, Thomas, bishop of Sodor and Man, 
 greatly distinguished for his pious and exemplary 
 conduct, was born in Chester 1663, and educated at 
 Dublin. He was appointed to his bishopric in 1697, 
 and refused to leave his people when preferment 
 was offered to him. He wrote a ' History of the Isle 
 of Man' and some religious works, but is chiefly 
 distinguished for his acts of practical benevolence ; 
 died in 1755. His only son, of the same name, 
 born in 1703, was rector of St. Stephens, Wal- 
 brook, for forty-six years. He rendered himself 
 remarkable by his devoted admiration of the his- 
 torian, Mrs. Macaulay, to whom he erected a 
 statue in his church under the name of ' Liberty.' 
 He wrote several works, among which are 'The 
 Ornaments of Churches Considered,' ' A View of 
 the Projected Improvements in Westminster,' and 
 a pamphlet against distilled liquors. Died 1784. 
 
 WILSON, Sir Thomas, a statesman and learned 
 writer, age of Elizabeth, died 1581. 
 
 WILSON, William Rae, a Scotch scholar, 
 author of Travels in the Holy Land,' 1774-1849. 
 
 WILTON, Joseph, a sculptor, 1722-1803. 
 
 WILTZ, P., a French ascetic, 1671-1749. 
 
 WIMPFEN, Felix De, a French officer and 
 member of the estates-general, born 1745, pen- 
 sioned by the first consul in 1799, died in the em- 
 ploy of the state 1814. His brother, the Baron 
 De Wimpfen Bornebourg, a general and writer 
 on tactics, 1732-1800. 
 
 WINCHESTER, T., rector of Appleton, in 
 Berkshire, and a learned writer, known 1749-1773. 
 
 WTNCKELMANN, John, a German protestant 
 theologian, 1551-1626. His son, John Justus, 
 an historian, born at Gnessen 1620. died 1697. 
 
 WINCKELRIED, Arnold De, a Swiss 
 peasant, who died gloriously fighting against the 
 Austrians at Sempach, 1386. 
 
 844 
 
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 crista/' (/,;-,,/, 
 
 >v/< 
 
 
 ///(???, 
 
WIN 
 
 WINCKLEMANN, John Joachim, a cele- 
 rated name in aesthetical and art literature, was 
 am in the duchy of Brandenburg 1718. He de- 
 ated himself to the study of antiquities at Rome, 
 
 here he obtained an appointment in the Vatican, 
 nd was murdered at Trieste on his way home- 
 
 ards for the sake of some golden medals he pos- 
 sessed, in 1768. His works on the history 01 art 
 and ancient monuments have exercised the happiest 
 influence on that description of literature, and are 
 still invaluable as mines of information. 
 
 W1NCKLER, T. F., an archaeologist, 1771-1807. 
 
 WINDER, Henry, a learned pastor of the 
 nonconformists, author of a ' Hebrew English 
 Concordance,' and other works, 1693-1752. 
 
 WINDHAM, Joseph, an artist and antiqua- 
 rian, principal author of the ' Ionian Antiquities,' 
 published by the Society of Dilettanti, 1739-1810. 
 
 WINDHAM, William, a Whig statesman of 
 the period of Pitt, was born in Norfolk, of an 
 ancient family, in 1750, and made his first ap- 
 pearance in parliament as member for Norwich 
 in 1783. His talents caused him to be singled 
 out by Burke as one of his coadjutors, and he 
 always remained his constant friend and partizan. 
 From 1794 to 1801 he was in office under Pitt as 
 secretary at war. He became secretary again 
 under Lord Grenville after the death of Pitt, and 
 held office from 1806 to March 25, 1807; d. 1810. 
 
 WINDHEIM, C. E., a German professor of 
 philosophv and the Oriental languages, 1722-1766. 
 
 WINDiSCH, C. G., a Germ, historian, 1725-93. 
 
 WING, Vincent, an astronomer, 17th century. 
 
 WINGATE, Edmund, an eminent mathemat., 
 lawyer, and member of parliament, 1593-1656. 
 
 WlNKELMANN. See Winckelmann. 
 
 WINKLER, J. H., a German jurisconsult and 
 philosopher of the school of Wolfe, 1703-1772. 
 
 WINSLOW, Edward, the English governor 
 of Plymouth, in North America, author of ' Good 
 News from New England,' died 1655. 
 
 WINSLOW, James, an eminent anatomist, born 
 in the island of Funen, in Denmark, in the year 
 1669, and died at Paris in the year 1760, in the 
 ninety-first year of his age. His system of ana- 
 tomy was long the standard class-book of the 
 schools, but in modern times it has been superseded 
 by more perfect and more recent works. [J.M'C.] 
 
 WINSOR, Frederick Albert, the projector 
 of the present method of lighting the streets by 
 gas, first adopted in Pall Mall, after some smaller 
 experiments, in 1809. Died 1830. 
 
 WINSTANLEY, Wm., originally a barber, au- 
 thor of several literarv compilations, d. abt. 1690. 
 
 WINSTON, T., an 'Engl, physician, 1575-1655. 
 
 WINTER, G. S., a German veterinarian, 17th c. 
 
 WINTER, John William De, a Dutch vice- 
 admiral, who entered the French service under 
 Dumouriez as a partizan of the revolution, and 
 was defeated in the Texel, at a later period, by 
 Duncan, 1750-1812. 
 
 WINTER, N. S. Van, a Dutch poet, born at 
 Amsterdam, 1718. His wife, Lucretia Wil- 
 helmina, a poetess, 1722-1795. Peter, son of 
 Van Winter by a first marriage, author of poems 
 and translations, beginning of the present century. 
 
 WINTER, P. Von, a Ger. musician, 1754-1825. 
 
 WINTHROP, J., an American astron., 1714-79. 
 
 WINTLE, T., a learned divine, 1737-1814. 
 
 WOL 
 
 WINTRINGHAM, Clifton, a physician and 
 professional writer, died at York 1748. His son, 
 Sir Clifton, also a physician and wr., 1714-94. 
 
 WINWOOD, Sir Ralph, a statesman and 
 diplomatist, author of ' Memorials,' 1565-1617. 
 
 WIRSUNG, C, a German physician, 1500- 
 1571. John George, an anatomist, assass. 1643. 
 
 WIRTZ, J., a Swiss painter, 1640-1709. 
 
 WIRTZ, J. C, a Swiss theologian, 1688-1769. 
 
 WISE, F., a learned antiquary, 1695-1762. 
 
 WISEMAN, R., a surgical writer, 17th century. 
 
 WISHART, George, a martyr of the reforma- 
 tion in Scotland, burnt alive 1546. 
 
 WISHART, W., a Scotch divine. 1657-1727. 
 
 WISHEART, George, chaplain to Montrose, 
 period of the civil wars, author of an ' Account of 
 the Wars in Scotland,' and a Biography of his 
 patron, 1609-1671. 
 
 WISTAR, Caspar, a professor of anatomy and 
 physician at Philadelphia, author of professional 
 works, and a ' System of Anatomy,' 1760-1818. 
 
 WITCHELL, G., an astronomer, 1728-1785. 
 
 WITEZOWITCH, P., a learned historian and 
 antiquarian of Dalmatia, died 1773. 
 
 WITHER, G., an English poet, 1588-1667. 
 
 WITHERING, William, a physician and na- 
 turalist, author of a ' Systematic Arrangement of 
 British Plants,' born in Shropshire 1741, d. 1799. 
 
 WITHERSPOON, John, a descendant of Knox, 
 known as a divine in Scotland and America, born 
 near Edinburgh 1722, died 1794. 
 
 WITSIUS, or WITS, Herman, a Dutch divine, 
 author of several learned works, 1G36-1708. 
 
 WITT. See De-Witt. 
 
 WITTE, E., a Dutch painter, 1607-1692. 
 
 WITTE, G. De, a Flem. theologian, 1638-1721. 
 
 WTTTE, or WITTEN, Henning, a German 
 divine and biographical writer, 1634-1696. 
 
 WITTICHIUS, Christopher, a protestant 
 theologian and writer against Spinoza, 1625-1687. 
 
 WITTOLA, M. A., a Ger. theologian, 1736-97. 
 
 WITTWER, P. L., a Ger. physician, 1752-92. 
 
 WLOOSWICK, P. N. Baron Horn Van, a 
 Dutch archaeologist, born 1742, died in Paris 1809. 
 
 WOBESER, E. W., a German poet, 1727-1795. 
 
 W r ODHULL, M., a poet and translator of Euri- 
 pides, born in Northamptonshire 1740, died 1816. 
 
 WODROW, Robert, a Scottish ecclesiastical 
 historian, born at Glasgow 1679, died 1734. 
 
 WOEHNER, A. G., a Ger. Orient., 1693-1762. 
 
 WOELFT, J., a German composer, 1772-1811. 
 
 W T OFFINGTON, Margaret, a celebrated 
 actress of last century, whose society was highly 
 valued bv the elite of talent and fashion, 1718-60. 
 
 WOIDE, C. G., a Dutch Orientalist, 1725-90. 
 
 WOKEN, F., a German theologian, 1685-1734. 
 
 WOLCOTT, John, commonly known by his 
 assumed name of Peter Pindar, was a satirical 
 poet and humourist, born at Dodbrooke in Devon- 
 shire 1738 ; died in London, where he supported 
 himself by his pen, and his skill as an artist, 1819. 
 The painter Opie was indebted to him for his in- 
 troduction to the busy world of London, Dr. Wol- 
 cott having discovered his genius during his resi- 
 dence at Truro. The chief of his productions is 
 his ' Lyric Odes to the Royal Academicians :' his 
 other poems are principally satires.. 
 
 WOLDECK D'ARNEBOURG, J. G., a Prussian 
 general of the seven years' war, 1712-1785. 
 
 845 
 
WOL 
 
 WOLF, B., Dutch painter, 1758-1825. 
 
 WOLF, K. W., I Genua composer, 1735-1792. 
 
 WOLF, Fbedebick Augustus, an eminent 
 classical scholar and philologist of Germany, was 
 born in the county of Hohenstein in 1759, and be- 
 came professor at Halle and Berlin. He was en- 
 gaged in a literary contest with Heyne, arising out 
 of his principal work, the ' Prolegomena ad Homer- 
 um,' or theory of the Homeric poems. Died 1824. 
 
 WOLF, G. F., a German anatomist, 1735-1794. 
 
 WOLF, Jerome, a learned German, professor 
 of Greek at Augsburg, 1516-1581. 
 
 W r OLF, John, a German historian, 1537-1600. 
 
 WOLF, John Christopher, an eminent Lu- 
 theran divine and philologist, 1683-1739. His 
 brother, J. Christian, a philologist, 1689-1770. 
 
 WOLF, John Christian, born at Breslau in 
 1679, died at Halle in 1754; a man of considerable 
 energy and of varied attainments honoured to be- 
 come member of the Academy of Berlin, the Royal 
 Society of London, and the Academies of Sciences 
 at Paris and Petersburg. Wolf, nevertheless, was 
 of the class who flourish only when great men 
 are gone : his industry was unquestionable, for he 
 filled Europe with his words and books : his func- 
 tion too was respectable; he dried, cut up, and sold 
 the Philosophy of Leibnitz. The volumes pub- 
 lished by him are most numerous; their simple 
 titles would occupy a column of our Dictionary: 
 it is unnecessary to print these titles, for none 
 save Antiquarians will henceforth read Wolf. He 
 was powerful in classification, subdivision, and 
 nomenclature; to him, for instance, we owe the 
 technical term Rational Psychology, as distin- 
 guished from experimental : he thus designated 
 his efforts sufficiently unsatisfactory to explain 
 the facts of consciousness by the essence of the 
 Soul. Wolf's greatest merit flows from his moral 
 courage. He bravely contended for the rights of 
 Free Thought, in the face of immense clamour 
 and much persecution. His system and authority 
 were hopelessly destroyed by Kant. [J.P.N.] 
 
 WOLF, Peter Philip, an historian of the 
 Jesuits and of Maximilian I., 1761-1808. 
 
 WOLFART, P., a Germ, physician, 1675-1726. 
 
 WOLFE, Charles, author of the famous ode 
 entitled ' The Burial of Sir John Moore,' was a 
 divine of the Irish Church, and was born at Dub- 
 lin 1791. He died prematurely in 1823. His 
 literary remains were published two years subse- 
 quently by the Rev. J. A. Russel. 
 
 WOLFE. General James Wolfe was born in 
 Westerham in Kent, a.d. 1726. His father was a 
 general, and young Wolfe entered the army at a very 
 early age. He was honourably distinguished in 
 the battle of Dettingen and Fontenoy ; and at the 
 subsequent battle of Laffeldt in 1747, he attracted 
 the special notice of his commander, the duke of 
 Cumberland, who ever afterwards zealously aided 
 in Wolfe's promotion and advancement. He was 
 not more eminent for personal bravery and cool- 
 ness in action, than for nis success in disciplining 
 his men, while at the same time he won the heart 
 of every soldier that served under him. When 
 our great minister, the elder Pitt, undertook in 
 1757 to raise England from the temporary degra- 
 dation into which she had then fallen, and to 
 smite down the House of Bourbon in every quar- 
 ter of the globe, he discerned the genius of Wolfe : 
 
 WOL 
 
 and wisely disregarding the conventional claims 
 of seniority, Pitt intrusted to the young officer 
 the highest duties in the conquest of French 
 America. Wolfe, in conjunction with Amherst, 
 led the force which besieged and captured Louis- 
 burg in July, 1758, an achievement which gave us 
 Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island. In 
 1759 Pitt conferred on Wolfe the still more im- 
 portant command of the expedition against 
 Canada, which was to advance up the St. Law- 
 rence and attack Quebec from the west, while the 
 other British commander in North America was 
 to co-operate by assailing the French possessions 
 from the opposite direction. Wolfe reached the Isle 
 of Orleans in the St. Lawrence on the 26th June, 
 with a force of 8,000 excellent troops, and with a 
 fleet of twenty-two sail of the line under Admiral 
 Saunders. Montcalm, the French governor of 
 Canada, had concentrated all the military strength 
 of the province in Quebec; and, though he was in- 
 ferior to Wolfe in the number of regular troops, 
 the zeal of the numerous French provincials who 
 fought under him, the strength of his position, 
 and the skill with which he fortified and watched 
 each approach to Quebec, made Wolfe's enterprise 
 appear almost hopeless. The English commander 
 who invaded Canada from the other direction, and 
 who ought to have invested Quebec from the up- 
 per side, loitered on his march; and for two 
 months Wolfe and his force lay below the city, 
 unable to strike any effective blow, and taught by 
 a severe repulse which they sustained on the 31s*t 
 of July, with how strong and vigilant an adver- 
 sary they had to cope. Wolfe's health was 
 shattered by anxiety and fever; but he spared 
 neither mind nor body ; and at length he himself 
 discovered the cove above the town, which now 
 bears his name, and the narrow winding path that 
 leads from it up the cliff' to the heights of Abra- 
 ham, a plateau to the west of Quebec, where the 
 city's fortifications were feeblest. He succeeded 
 in the night of the 12th September, in leading 
 
 [Wolfe's Monument] 
 
 5,000 of his men up this path, and in surprising 
 the post of Canadians by whom the summit was 
 guarded. On the next morning Montcalm led his 
 
 846 
 
WOL 
 
 troops out to meet him, and the battle was fought, 
 which determined the ascendency of the Anglo- 
 Saxon race and language over the French in the 
 New World. Both Wolfe and Montcalm fell. 
 Wolfe was twice struck as he led on a bayonet 
 charge which decided the day; and when the 
 French were already broken, he received a third 
 bullet, which was fatal, in the heart. He lived just 
 long enough to know that the victory was com- 
 plete ; and the last words of the young conqueror 
 were 'Now, God be praised, I die happy.' Wolfe 
 was as exemplary in private life, as he was emi- 
 nent in the discharge of public duty, and his name 
 is one of the purest as well as the brightest in the 
 lone list of England's military heroes. [E.S.C.] 
 
 WOLFERSDORF, Ch. Frederick Von, a 
 Prussian general, bom in Saxe Gotha, 1717-1781. 
 
 WOLFTEE, P., a Germ, historian, 1758-1805. 
 
 WOLGMUTT, M., a Ger. painter, 1434-1519. 
 
 WOLKE, C. H., a native of Hanover, distin- 
 guished by his efforts, as a writer and founder, in 
 the cause of education, 1741-1825. 
 
 WOLLASTON, William, an eminent moralist 
 and theologian, who was educated for the church, 
 but having ample means left him by a rich rela- 
 tion, devoted himself to literature. His principal 
 work, and one which has been highly popular, is 
 'The Religion of Nature Delineated.' Born in 
 Staffordshire 1659, died 1724. 
 
 WOLLASTON, William Hyde, M.D., born 
 6th August, 1766, at East Dereham, near Nor- 
 wich, of which his father was clergyman ; died 
 22d December, 1828, in London. Dr. Wollaston 
 received a first-rate education, and having studied 
 for the medical profession, settled first at Bury 
 St. Edmunds. Afterwards, becoming a candidate 
 for St. George's Hospital, London, and failing, he 
 gave up the profession in disgust, and devoted 
 himself to chemical pursuits. He examined with 
 great care the crude platinum ore, discovering in 
 it two new metals, palladium and rhodium, and 
 improving the process for the manufacture of 
 platinum, so as to enable him to realize a hand- 
 some fortune. In 1797 he described three new 
 species of urinary calculi the fusible calculus, 
 the mulberry calculus, and the bone-earth calcu- 
 lus. He also first described cystic oxide, and 
 urate of soda calculi, the latter formed in the 
 joints of gouty persons. He was the inventor of 
 the periscopic camera, and of numerous ingenious 
 optical and chemical apparatus. To him che- 
 mistry is indebted for the methods at present 
 employed for the estimation of ammonia, potash, 
 and magnesia. Dr. Wollaston was a man of 
 retiring habits, but by those who knew him in- 
 timately he was held in high regard. He has 
 been accused of a penurious disposition. The fact 
 that he presented his brother with ,10,000 when 
 asked to apply to the ministry in his behalf, 
 seems to afford opposite evidence of the most sub- 
 stantial and overwhelming description. [R.D.T.] 
 
 WOLLE, C a German Orientalist, 1700-1761. 
 
 WOLMAR, M., a Swiss jurist, 1497-1561. 
 
 WOLSEY, Thomas, so well known in history 
 as Cardinal Wolsey, is generally said to have been 
 born at Ipswich, in the year 1471. His parents 
 were so obscure, that whether or not his father 
 followed the occupation of a butcher, attributed to 
 him by the cardinal's enemies, has not been ascer- 
 
 WOL 
 
 tained. However it may have been achieved, 
 young Wolsey obtained an excellent education, 
 and ne had a brilliant student-reputation at 
 Magdalen College, Oxford. He never was an 
 ascetic. Though he must have worked hard dur- 
 ing his college career, he seems to have had his 
 full share of the dissipation of the day, and it is 
 known that for some pecadillo he was on one occa- 
 sion subjected to the penal discipline of the stocks. 
 His first preferment, after he had taken orders, 
 was that of Symington in Somersetshire, believed 
 to have been obtained through the marquis of 
 Dorset, whose sons he instructed. The turning 
 point in his career appears to have been his ap- 
 pointment as one of the chaplains of Henry VII. 
 This introduced his abilities to the royal notice, 
 and on his successful accomplishment of a delicate 
 diplomatic mission to Flanders he obtained the 
 rich deanery of Lincoln in 1508. It is not easy 
 precisely to determine the source of the extraordi- 
 nary influence which he exercised over Henry VIII. 
 in the early years of his reign. He is said by his 
 able scholarship to have aided in the composition 
 of the celebrated Assertio Septem ISacramentorum,, 
 against Luther ; but he was a favourite before he 
 had an opportunity of performing this service. 
 He was placed in the influential office of the king's 
 almoner, through the recommendation of Fox, the 
 bishop of Winchester ; and that calculating prelate 
 is said to have advanced Wolsey for the purpose of 
 counteracting his rival Surrey. When once the 
 impetuous Henry had learned to seek counsel of 
 Wolsey, it is easy to believe that his magnificent 
 notions, his scholarship, his knowledge of life, and 
 his accommodating morality, would please such a 
 monarch. Preferment flowed in upon him. In 
 1514 he was made bishop of Lincoln. He was 
 then in possession of lucrative livings both in 
 England and France. In 1515 he was made car- 
 dinal, and next year legate a latere, a commission 
 which made him virtually the pope in England, 
 giving him an authority which, if more limited in 
 extent than that claimed by the bishop of Rome, 
 was the more powerful, since it was exercised close 
 at hand, and by one who knew the circumstances 
 of the clergy over whom he ruled. Almost at the 
 same time with these preferments he received the 
 high ministerial and judicial office of lord chan- 
 cellor. With his cardinalate he received the honour 
 of the hat, usually conferred only on members of 
 royal families. He held the bishopric of Tournay 
 in France, and many other lucrative preferments in 
 different parts of Europe. The vast influence which 
 he exercised at the powerful court of England made 
 his friendship an object not only to private seekers 
 of preferment, but to the principal European powers. 
 He aspired to the popedom at the time when 
 Charles V. and Francis the First were competing 
 with each other to succeed Maximilian as emperor 
 of Germany. Hence each of them sought to 
 secure the aid of Wolsey, by outbidding his rival 
 in prospects of assistance towards the cardinal's 
 great object, while he on his part had the too 
 difficult task of making up his mind where to throw 
 his influence, and of acting for one party with as 
 little prejudice as possible to his influence with the 
 other. He lost, much to his mortification, the 
 great object which would have given him a securer 
 foundation for power than he had in England, and 
 
 847 
 
WOL 
 ho ever treated the emperor Charles V. as one who 
 had deceived him. No churchman in England had 
 ever achieved so vast an amount of power and 
 wealth as Wolsey, and, unfortunately for himself, 
 he was fond of exhibiting it all to the world. He 
 had a weakness for display, shown in the common 
 anecdote about his having his portrait always 
 taken in profile from one side, because the other 
 was disfigured by a wart. The huge acquisitions 
 made by fortunate prelates, and the ramifications 
 of their influence by possessions all over Europe, 
 were giving great alarm to thinking minds; and 
 there is no doubt that the ostentation with which 
 Wolsey displayed the offensive innovation hastened 
 on the reformation. He had even given an im- 
 pulse in the same direction by his enlightened 
 projects for diverting some of the monastic pro- 
 perty from its existing uses to the university of 
 Oxford, and to other educational institutions. 
 His qualities and defects are told with matchless 
 truth and beauty in the words supplied by Shak- 
 speare to his faithful followers : 
 
 'He was a scholar, and a ripe and good one; 
 
 Exceeding wise, fair spoken and persuading; 
 
 Lofty and sour to them that loved him not, 
 
 But to those men that sought him, sweet as summer. 
 
 And though he was unsatisfied in getting, 
 
 (Which was a sin), yet in bestowing, mauam, 
 
 He was most princely.' 
 
 His enmity to the emperor inclined him to sanc- 
 tion his sister's divorce from Henry, but as a high 
 churchman he found it impossible to be the king's 
 champion through the whole transaction. To 
 justify his overthrow, charges were brought 
 against him under the prcemunire statute against 
 enforcing bulls from Rome. The charge was one 
 which with the royal favour he might have met, 
 but when it was directed from that quarter it was 
 irresistible. After being subjected to some capri- 
 cious oscillations of favour, a warrant was issued 
 to apprehend him for high treason. Attacked by 
 sickness, he sought refuge in the abbey of Leices- 
 ter with the mournful saying, 'Father abbot, I 
 am come to lay my bones among you.' He died 
 Nc 
 
 there on the 28th November, 1530. [J.H.B.] 
 
 [Leicester Abbey] 
 
 WOLSTONECRAFT, Mary, wife of William 
 Godwin, au. of the 'Rights of Women,' 1759-97. 
 
 WOLTMANN, C. L. De, a German historian 
 and man of letters, 1770-1817. 
 
 WOO 
 
 WOLZOGEN, J. L., a Socinian wr.. 15%-" 
 
 WOLZOGEN, L. Van, a learned Dutch tL 
 gian and elocutionist, 1632-1090. 
 
 WOMOCK, Laurence, bishop of St. Da 
 and a controversial writer, 1612-1G85. 
 
 WOOD, Anthony, author of the 'Histon 
 Antiquities of Oxford,' and the 'Athena? 
 ensis,' was born in 1632, and educated at the 
 versity. His works were written with the 
 fatigable zeal of an enthusiast, and are 
 cpoted. He died in his native place, where h< 
 lived and laboured, in 1695. 
 
 WOOD, James, the banker and millionai 
 Gloucester, was born there in 1756, and died I 
 His only distinction is that of having sci 
 together, by indulging in every meanness, nea 
 million sterling. There is not a redeeming 
 recorded of his character, and nothing could ei 
 
 him to a place in our pages but the frequenc 
 which the name of ' Je 
 way of example 
 
 which the name of 'Jemmy Wood' is quot 
 
 WOOD, Matthew, knight and alderman ( 
 London, was the son of a lace manufacturer t 
 Tiverton, and was born in 1767. He acquired hi 
 standing in the city as a hop merchant, and wt 
 twice mayor, in 1815 and 1816; from the la? 
 named year also he had a seat in parliament, an 
 vfas well known as a reformer. Died 1843. 
 
 WOOD, Robert, an Irish scholar and archaec 
 logist, au. of a ' Description of the Ruins of Bal 
 bee,' and those of 'Palmyra' or 'Tadmor,' 1716-7: 
 
 WOODDESON, Richard, an English civiliai 
 au. of ' Elements of Jurisprudence,' and ' A Sn 
 tematic View of the Laws of England,' 1745-182: 
 
 WOODFALL, William, a celebrated printe 
 whose name became famous from the prosecutio 
 to which he was exposed for printing the Lettei 
 of Junius. Died 1803. 
 
 WOODHOUSE, Robert, an eminent mathc 
 matician and professor at Cambridge, author ( 
 'The Principles of Analytical Calculation,' an 
 other works, 1773-1827. 
 
 WOODHOUSELEE. See Tytler. 
 
 WOODVILLE. See Elizabeth. 
 
 WOODVILLE, Anthony, otherwise WYDE 
 VILLE, brother of Elizabeth, queen of Edwar 
 IV., and created by him Earl Rivers, was born i 
 1442. He made an unsuccessful attempt to crow 
 the king's son, and was sent to the scaffold 1483 
 
 WOODVILLE, William, physician to tb 
 Middlesex Dispensary and Small-pox Hospital i 
 London, author of ' Medical Botany,' and a ' His 
 tory of Inoculation,' 1752-1805. 
 
 WOODWARD, Henry, a famous comediai 
 dramatic writer, and composer of pantomime.' 
 born in London 1717, died 1777. 
 
 WOODWARD, John, a physician and pro 
 fessor at Gresham College, distinguished as 
 naturalist and antiquarian, was born in Derh 
 shire 1665, and died 1728. His principal work' 
 an ' Essay towards a Natural History of the Earl " 
 
 WOOLLETT, William, was born at Maidst 
 in Kent in 1735, and learnt engraving of J 
 Tinney. He acquired early a great reputation 
 landscape engraver ; his works of this class, i 
 Wilson, are probably still unapproached. He 
 graved also two of West's greatest works, th 
 ' Death of General Wolfe,' and the ' Battle of th 
 Hogue ;' which raised his reputation as an historii 
 848 
 
woo 
 
 (j cal engraver almost on a par with his name in land- 
 scape. He was appointed engraver to George III. ; 
 and died in London, May 23, 1785. Woollett is 
 great for his colour, and his skill in representing 
 variety of texture, also for an extraordinary force 
 in his prints, owing to the judicious combination 
 of the three methods, with aquafortis, with the 
 graver, and with the dry point. His works after 
 l e | Wilson constitute in themselves a delightful land- 
 escape gallery, all unsurpassed as pictures or as 
 M prints. [R.N.W.] 
 
 WOOLSTON, Thomas, a deistical writer, who 
 
 was originally a minister of the Church of England, 
 35 and wrote an ' Apology for the Christian Religion;' 
 g at a later period, he was prosecuted for his 'Six 
 i] Discourses on Miracles,' and his 'Defence' of- the 
 aj discourses. Born at Northampton, 1669, d. 1732. 
 itl WOOLTON, Johx, bishop of Exeter, known as 
 it] a theological writer, 1535-1594. 
 
 k WORDSWORTH, William, was born at 
 Cockermouth in Cumberland, on the 7th of April, 
 1770. His father was an attorney there, and he 
 a was the second of five children. Dorothy, the 
 y only daughter, was his most cherished friend and 
 ?a confidant during his life. The mother of the 
 
 1 family died in William's ninth year ; and the 
 ID( father died five years afterwards, leaving to his 
 
 children little fortune beyond a claim for law- 
 9 agency on Sir James Lowther, afterwards earl of 
 i], Lonsdale. This debt remained unsatisfied till 1802, 
 \ when, on the accession of the next earl, 8,500 
 B was paid in satisfaction of it. In 1787, after hav- 
 ing been educated chiefly at the endowed school of 
 ^ Hawkshead, near Esthwaite Lake, William was 
 ", sent by his uncles to St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 ill Be had read much in boyhood, especially poetry, 
 jj uid had written English verses, in imitation (as he 
 
 says himself) of Pope's versification, ' and a little 
 j, e in his style.' One of these compositions presaged 
 . two of the most prominent features in the character 
 m jf his mind. It was, says he, ' a long poem, running 
 
 upon my own adventures, and the scenery of the 
 
 wuntry in which I was brought up.' The only 
 
 Bonsiderable poem which he wrote while at the 
 J, adversity, was ' The Evening Walk.' His vaca- 
 m tions were devoted to wanderings in the country ; 
 , j, Hid in the autumn of 1790 he spent nearly three 
 n months in a tour on the continent, visiting France, 
 a Switzerland, some of the Italian lakes, and the 
 fa Rhine. He disliked the system of the university, 
 i'j md attended little to the studies of the place. 
 ^Indeed, it is to be observed that, through fife, 
 
 Wordsworth was as little of a student as any 
 ! literary man ever was. Except in poetical litera- 
 m tore, his knowledge of books seems to have always 
 
 been very slight. And if he was disinclined to 
 n read, he was quite as much disinclined to writing : 
 .", be had weak eyes, and great indolence. In his 
 J mature years, he composed most frequently in the 
 .' Bourse of his walks, without setting down a word ; 
 a and many of his poems would certainly have been 
 " m tost, had not the ladies of his family been at hand 
 a, to record them. He has himself said, that, if he 
 r J . had been free to choose his course of life, he would 
 1 have spent his days in travelling. To the adoption 
 '* of a profession he was never able to make up his 
 1 mind. The church was proposed to him, but 
 a. ipeedily rejected. His religious belief never was 
 ^ Bach as to prevent his taking orders ; but his 
 
 WOR 
 
 opinions on the state of society, during his early 
 manhood, would not easily have been reconcileable 
 with the position of a clergyman in the Church of 
 England. For several years after the outbreak of 
 the French revolution, lie was an ardent republi- 
 can. In 1791 he took his degree of B.A., and 
 quitted Cambridge. In the close of the same year 
 he went to France, where he spent nearly twelve 
 months; and there he wrote the poem called 
 ' Descriptive Sketches,' which betrays, yet more 
 than * The Evening Walk,' the poetic strength with 
 which he was endowed. These pieces were pub- 
 lished in 1793. In that year, also, ' The Female 
 Vagrant' was written. For some years he wan- 
 dered about, gradually satisfying himself that he 
 was justified m regarding poetry as his true voca- 
 tion. He planned a monthly miscellany, which 
 was to have been ' republican but not revolutionary ;' 
 and he attempted to find employment in writing for 
 the London newspapers on the opposition side. In 
 1795 he received a legacy of 900 from his friend 
 and contemporary, Raislev Calvert. This generous 
 and seasonable bequest fully answered the inten- 
 tion of the donor : it enabled the poet to devote 
 himself to study till the settlement of his father's 
 affairs. In the autumn of 1795 Wordsworth began 
 to five with his sister, their first residence being at 
 Racedown in Dorsetshire. He commenced, but 
 abandoned, a poetical imitation of Juvenal ; and in 
 this year and the following, he made his first and 
 last attempt in a kind of poetry very uncongenial 
 to the cast of his genius, by writing the Tragedy of 
 ' The Borderers,' Refused at Covent Garden, this 
 piece remained in manuscript for nearly half a 
 century. About this time, likewise, were written 
 a good many of the earliest of those fine passages, 
 which were afterwards dovetailed into ' The Excur- 
 sion.' This is a fact particularly deserving atten- 
 tion. The poet's blank-verse compositions, with 
 their solemn tone of meditation, their purely dig- 
 nified diction, and their sweep of rotund melody, 
 were made known to the world only when he had 
 passed middle age ; and they were treated by his 
 critics as the fruits of improved skill and enlarged 
 experience and purified taste. But he actually had 
 at his command, and was continually expressing, 
 this his highest mood of poetry, from his twenty- 
 fifth year. Coleridge, with whom Wordsworth made 
 acquaintance while in Dorsetshire, always insisted 
 that his friend's first business ought to be, the 
 completion of the Philosophical and Autobiographi- 
 cal Poem, of which these fragments were designed 
 as parts. But Wordsworth was never at all 
 disposed to pay deference to the opinion either of 
 affectionate friends or of hostile critics. With him, 
 as with most of us, ' the boy was father of the 
 man.' He had always been quietly self-willed ; and 
 his character in manhood possessed the feature 
 which he attributes to his early boyhood when 
 he says : ' Possibly from some want of judgment 
 in punishments inflicted, I had become perverse and 
 obstinate in defying chastisement, and rather proud 
 of it than otherwise.' At this time, indeed, as it 
 has been remarked by his nephew, the whole tenor 
 of his opinions led him to dissatisfaction with 
 things existing ; and his political creed (perhaps in 
 part through the shock which events on the con- 
 tinent were beginning to give to it) affected his 
 creed in literature. He perceived, with great 
 I 31 
 
WOR 
 
 clearness, two or three deep-rooted faults in the 
 remit poets of England : the artificial stamp of 
 their diction ; their general inattention to external 
 nature; their want of sympathy with ordinary 
 events and with the feelings of mankind at large. 
 He felt that lie possessed the power of producing 
 poetry, in which these faults should be avoided. 
 But, In the meantime, tempted partly by deliberate 
 error in theory, partly by incidental eccentricities 
 of taste and judgment natural to a self-trained 
 and uncommunicative muser, he rebelled, not only 
 against the false canons of literature, hut against 
 several that are really true. In the poems with 
 which he chose to make his first effort towards the 
 reformation of the public taste, there are many 
 points of thought, of sentiment, and of expression, 
 which, as the most judicious of his admirers allow, 
 would not have appeared if those poems had been 
 written even a few years afterwards. Some things, 
 indeed, especially the oddest and boldest of the 
 colloquial words and idioms, were silently altered 
 in the later editions. But the eccentricity of judg- 
 ment lingered, in a great degree, to the last, 
 fostered by the self-brooding solitude to which he 
 devoted himself. The ' Lyrical Ballads,' to which 
 chiefly these observations are applicable, made 
 rapid progress in Wordsworth's next place of abode. 
 This was Nether-Stowey in Somersetshire, where 
 he lived for a year, removing to the place in August, 
 1797, in order to be near Coleridge. In the next 
 year he wrote ' Peter Bell ;' and in autumn he 
 published, in one volume, the twenty poems which 
 (with three by Coleridge) make up the first edition 
 of the ' Lyrical Ballads.' The poet was now in his 
 twenty-ninth year. Immediately afterwards he 
 went to Germany with his sister and Coleridge ; 
 and, the party separating, Miss Wordsworth and 
 her brother spent the winter of 1798-99, very un- 
 comfortably, and seemingly with little advantage 
 of any kind, at Goslar in Hanover. Here were 
 written several beautiful pieces, among which were 
 'Lucy Gray,' and the fragments of blank-verse 
 beginning ' There was a Boy' and 'Wisdom and 
 Spirit of the Universe.' A beginning was also 
 made with that first part of the great Poem, which 
 Wordsworth's friends entitled ' The Prelude.' 
 Wordsworth's long residence among the lakes of 
 his native district began soon after his return to 
 England. In the end of 1799 he settled with his 
 sister in a small house at Grasmere, which he con- 
 tinued to occupy for eight years. In 1800 were 
 written The Brothers,' 'The Pet Lamb,' ' Ruth,' 
 * Michael,' and 'Hart-Leap Well;' and, in the close 
 of the year these and other poems made up a second 
 volume of the ' Lyrical Ballads/ which appeared 
 with a reprint of the first. To 1802 belong, among 
 other pieces, ' The Rainbow,' ' The Leech-gatherer,' 
 'Alice Fell,' 'Intimations of Immortality,' and 
 the two Sonnets on Buonaparte. Then, also, 
 Wordsworth was working on ' The Excursion,' 
 which at that time bore the name of ' The Pedlar.' 
 In that year, he married Mary Hutchinson of Pen- 
 rith, to whose amiability his poems pay warm and 
 beautiful tributes. In 1803 he made a tour of some 
 weeks in Scotland, being guided at Melrose by 
 Walter Scott ; and he now became acquainted with 
 Sir George Beaumont, whose name appears often 
 in his writings. In 1805 he suffered the grief of 
 losing his brother, Captain Wordsworth, who 
 
 WOR 
 
 perished by shipwreck. In this year were writtc 
 'The Waggoner' and the 'Ode to l)ut_\ ;' m 
 'The Prelude' was finished, and consigned to tl 
 poet's desk for forty-five years. In 1807 WW 
 printed two volumes of poems, composed sim 
 1800. They contain, besides several very fine ha 
 lads, and many other small poems, the ' Sonne 
 Dedicated to Liberty,' and the ' Memorials of 
 Tour in Scotland.' These volumes were the objec 
 of some of those critical censures, (severe but vei 
 far from being groundless,) under which, with a 
 his outward apathy and real self-esteem, the poe 
 as his letters show, smarted very severely. ] 
 1808 he removed to Allan Bank at the head 
 Grasmere Lake, where he lived for three year 
 In 1809 he contributed to the 'Friend' of Cob 
 ridge, who was then living with him ; and publishc 
 his indignant and very eloquent pamphlet on tl 
 Convention of Cintra. His political opinions hi 
 now settled pretty much into the form they ev 
 afterwards held, a kind of speculative Torvisr 
 heightened by his church opinions, but balanced 1 
 many notions really democratic. In 1810 1 
 
 [Kydal Mount] 
 
 printed, as an introduction to a set of Views of t 
 district, his Observations on the Scenery of t 
 Lakes, the most interesting of all things of the so 
 In this year was born the last of his five childn 
 two of whom died two years afterwards. In t 
 spring of 1813, after one temporary change 
 dwelling, he took up his abode at Rydal Mom 
 two miles from Grasmere, which was his home 
 thirty-seven years, and the scene of his de 
 Then, too, by the interest of Lord Lonsdale, he 
 appointed distributor of stamps for Westmorela 
 an office which was executed by a clerk, and yiel< 
 about 500 a-year. A second tour in Scof 
 early in 1814, gave birth to a few poems ; a 
 summer was published 'The Excursion,' the grea 
 
 ?art of which had been written at Allan Bai 
 'his edition, consisting of five hundred copies, -w 
 not exhausted for six years. ' Let the age,' wr< 
 the poet to Southey, ' continue to love its c-' 
 darkness ; I shall continue to write, with, I 
 the light of Heaven upon me.' In the design 
 this remarkable poem, it is difficult to discover ar 
 thing that can justify commendation, whether 
 look to it as an independent work, or regard it 
 forming a part in that gigantic poem, which 1 
 author so long contemplated executing in whe 
 
 850 
 
- J^ 
 
 O-Z^D 
 
 
WOR 
 
 But if ' The Excursion ' is to be judged by its best 
 passages, hardly any poem in our language is equal 
 to it. Some of its scenes, extending through 
 hundreds of lines ; many passages of smaller ex- 
 tent, but yet considerable; and innumerable verses, 
 and phrases, and words; are among the most 
 exquisite things to which any poetic mind ever 
 
 fave expression. In 1815 appeared 'The White 
 >oe of Rylstone,' a work instinct with a dreamy 
 loveliness, and estimated by its author very highly. 
 But it evinces, more plainly than any of his pre- 
 ceding works, his incapacity to plan or conduct a 
 sustained narrative; and it is characterized, even 
 more than the ' Lyrical Ballads,' by that which 
 Coleridge had publicly pronounced to be one of his 
 friend's besetting nns ; namely, the prevalence of 
 'an intensity of feeling disproportionate to such 
 knowledge and value of the objects described, as 
 can be fairlv anticipated of men in general, even of 
 the most cultivated classes.' Within a year or two 
 before and after the publication of this work, the 
 poet, in his usual fashion, proved his power of 
 poetizing in a very different key, by composing 
 several of those small pieces, whose elaborate re- 
 finement, both of sentiment and of diction, has 
 drawn forth the lively admiration of readers the 
 most adverse to the peculiarities of his system. 
 Such were ' Laodamia,' ' Dion,' the ' Ode to 
 Lycoris,' and ' Artegal and Elidure.' In 1816 was 
 composed the ' Thanksgiving Ode,' and a rhymed 
 translation of Three Books of the iEneid. In 1819 
 appeared ' Peter Bell,' which was rather popular, 
 and the ' Waggoner,' which was much the reverse. 
 To that year belong the series of Sonnets on the 
 Kiver Duddon. In 1820 Wordsworth, with his 
 wife and sister, made a tour of four months on the 
 continent, of which ' Memorials ' were published 
 some time afterwards. In that year, too, a visit 
 to Sir George Beaumont gave occasion to the very 
 fine series ofSonnets called 'Ecclesiastical Sketches.' 
 Wordsworth was now fifty years old, had written 
 all his best works, and had laid most of them before 
 the world. But, though the thirty years during 
 which his life was still prolonged were unprolific 
 of great performances, they witnessed very extra- 
 ordinary cnanges in the reputation of the author. 
 Poets were already familiar with his works, and 
 acknowledged him as the chief in a new develop- 
 ment of the art ; but ordinary readers, taking what 
 thev found of him in the periodicals, knew as yet 
 Only a few of his best passages and a great many 
 Of his worst. The Edinburgh Review, supported 
 afterwards by the Quarterly, had hitherto guided 
 the public opinion as to his writings ; a turn was 
 How given to the tide, by the eloquently vehement 
 panegyrics which began to be showered on him in 
 Blackwood's Magazine, about the year 1820. With- 
 out taking account of minor points, we may cor- 
 rectly consider Wordsworth's principal critics as 
 looking at the functions and duties of poetry from 
 |wo opposite points of view. Jeffrey paid regard 
 mainly to the perfection or imperfection of the 
 result ; Wilson and his friends were content with 
 examining the state of mind out of which the result 
 is generated. The former, severely pure in taste, 
 demanded an elaborate work of art, symmetrically 
 designed, and executed with care and dignity ; the 
 latter sought for nothing beyond such proof of 
 genius as might be furnished in a few striking pas- 
 
 WOR 
 
 sages, and held native endowment as more than suffi- 
 cient to atone for imperfect execution. Scrutinized 
 in the first of these aspects, all the brilliant poetry 
 which arose in England during the first generation 
 of our century was seriously defective , and that of 
 Wordsworth, with all his deliberation and slowness 
 of performance, was, through the natural character 
 of his mind, still more open to exception than the 
 effusions of Scott and Byron had been made by 
 carelessness and haste. Even those who, having 
 formed a competent acquaintance with Words- 
 worth's works, felt themselves compelled to adopt 
 this view, could not be, and were not, blind to the 
 admirable beauties of detail, which, when blazoned 
 forth by the pen of Christopher North, speedily 
 made the poet's name to be a word of honour, 
 even with those who knew none of his poems but 
 in fragments, or who were wearied or repelled by 
 the inanimateness and the disproportionate design 
 of ' The Excursion.' The fame of the Poet of the 
 Lakes grew yet wider, when his influence had 
 shown itself decisively in that new school of poetry, 
 which had its beginnings with Keats and Shelley. 
 For a good many years before his death, Words- 
 worth was not only acknowledged, and justly, to 
 be really the greatest English poet of his time, but 
 was regarded with a reverence allowing no possi- 
 bility of faults. Symptoms of a wiser and more dis- 
 criminating judgment have shown themselves of 
 late; and, in no long time, the world will estimate 
 justly and correctly the works of one of the greatest, 
 as well as purest and most blameless, of the poets 
 who have enriched and enlarged the domain of 
 English literature. The period extending from 
 Wordsworth's fiftieth year to his eightieth requires 
 no minute notice. He lived among his beloved 
 mountains, travelled much, suffered a good deal, 
 and wrote little. Two visits to Scotland, in the 
 former of which (in 1831) he saw Scott just before 
 he left Abbotsford for the last time, provided many 
 of the materials for a volume, published in 1835, 
 ' Yarrow Revisited, and other poems.' The finest 
 of these are the meditative pieces entitled ' Evening 
 Voluntaries.' About this time the poet was deeply 
 affected by political events ; and he felt yet more 
 keenly the declining health of his sister, who became 
 a confirmed invalid. In 1837 he made, for nearly 
 six months, a tour in Italy, which suggested 
 several pieces, printed, in 1842, in a volume called 
 ' Poems, chiefly of Early and Late Years.' In it 
 was inserted the Tragedy of ' The Borderers.' In tha 
 year, being now seventy-two years of age, he re- 
 signed his distributorship in favour of one of his 
 two sons, and received from Sir Robert Peel a 
 pension of three hundred a-year. In 1843, on the 
 death of Southey, the same ministry appointed 
 Wordsworth to be Poet-Laureate ; an office which 
 he accepted only on the assurance, that it was to be 
 entirely nominal and honorary. In 1847 he had 
 to witness the death of his accomplished daughter, 
 Mrs. Quillinan. He died on the 23d of April, 1850, 
 being exactly the day of the month which closed 
 the life of Shakspeare. His remains rest in the 
 churchyard of Grasmere. [W.S.] 
 
 WORGAN, J. D., an English poet, 1790-1819. 
 
 WORLIDGE, T., a portrait painter and engraver 
 of etchings after Rembrandt, 1700-1766. 
 
 WORM, Olaus, in Latin Wormius, a Dutch 
 physician and antiquarian, 1588-1654. 
 
 851 
 
WOR 
 
 WORONZOW, M. Larionowitz, Count De, a 
 Batatas statesman and favourite of the empress 
 Elizabeth, disgraced under Catharine, 1710-1767. 
 
 WOKSDALE, James, a dramatic writer and 
 painter, taught by Sir G. Kneller, died 1767- 
 
 WOKSLEY, Sir Richard, the historian of the 
 Isle of Wight, was born there in 1751 He became 
 
 governor of the island, comptroller of the royal 
 ousehold, and member for Newport. In addition 
 to his historical work, he published a magnificent 
 catalogue of his marbles and other antiques, under 
 the title of ' Musseum Worsleianum.' Died 1805. 
 
 WORTHINGTON, John, rector of Ingoldsby 
 in Lincolnshire, author of religious works, &c, 
 1 The Doctrine of the Resurrection,' 1618-1671. 
 
 WORTHINGTON, Thomas, a Roman Catholic 
 theologian, died in exile about 1626. 
 
 WORTHINGTON, William, vicar of Llarr- 
 hayader in Denbighshire, and a dignitary of the 
 church, was born in Merionethshire 1703, and 
 educated at Oxford. Died 1778. His principal 
 works are an ' Essay on the Scheme of Redemp- 
 tion,' ' The Scripture Theory of the Earth,' ' On 
 the Historical Sense of the Mosaic Account of the 
 Fall,' and an ' Inquiry into the Case of the Gospel 
 Demoniacs.' 
 
 WOTTON, Edward, a physician and na- 
 turalist, time of Henry VIII., 1492-1555. 
 
 WOTTON, Sir Henry, a well-known states- 
 man, diplomatist, and political writer, born in 
 Kent 1568, died 1639. He went as an ambassador 
 to Venice, the United Provinces, and several of the 
 German courts in the reign of James I. His 
 works are ' The States of Christendom,' ' Parallels 
 between Essex and Buckingham,' 'Elements of 
 Architecture,' ' Characters of the Kings of Eng- 
 land,' and Poems, &c. 
 
 WOTTON", William, a clergyman of the Church 
 of England, remarkable for his precocious know- 
 ledge of the sciences and Oriental languages, author 
 of ' Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learn- 
 ing,' a ' History of Rome, from the Death of Anto- 
 ninus Pius to the Death of Alexander Severus,' 
 ' Memoirs of the Cathedrals of St. David's and 
 Llandaff,' and other works of less note. Born at 
 Wrentham in Suffolk 1666, died 1726. 
 
 WOUTERS, F., a Flemish painter, 1614-1659. 
 
 WOUVERMAN, Philip, was born at Haarlem in 
 1620, where he died in 1668, aged only forty-eight. 
 Though one of the most masterly of painters, he is 
 said to have been disappointed. His works became 
 very valuable soon after his death, and have increased 
 in value since, but according to D'Argenville, who 
 rather contradicts Houbraken, he was so supremely 
 disgusted with the encouragement he received, 
 that shortly before his death he burnt all his draw- 
 ings and studies, in case they should encourage his 
 son to follow the profession of a painter : he seems 
 to have worked chiefly to have enriched the dealers 
 even during his own lifetime. Wouverman's sub- 
 jects are generally road-side, travelling, hunting, 
 fighting, or plundering scenes, and such as admit 
 of horses, which he constantly introduced in his 
 pictures; it is a common belief that he never 
 painted a picture without a white or a gray horse, 
 but this is doubtless an exaggeration. He painted 
 horses in small with unrivalled skill ; indeed, his 
 mastery in every department of painting is per- 
 fectly extraordinary, and his colouring is always 
 
 WRE 
 
 rich and transparent. All the works, howevei 
 attributed to Philip Wouverman, are not his ; man 
 were doubtless the productions of his brothei 
 Peter Wouverman, who survived Philip man 
 years ; a second brother, John, was a good land 
 
 &c 
 
 WB 
 
 scape painter. (Houbraken, Groote Schouburgl 
 
 [R.N.W. 
 RANGEL, Hermann, a Swedish genera! 
 rewarded with a marshal's baton by Gustavu 
 Adolphus, 1587-1644. His son, Charles Gus 
 tavus, greatly distinguished in the German wa 
 and in the councils of his sovereign, 1613-1676. 
 
 WRAXALL, Sir N. W., an indefatigable tra 
 veller and historical writer in the civil service ( 
 the East India Company, 1751-1831. 
 
 WRAY, D., an archaeologist, 1701-1783. 
 
 WREDE, Charles Philip, Prince, a Bavaria 
 officer and statesman, who served as the ally ( 
 Napoleon from 1805 to 1813, and in the two fo] 
 lowing years joined the coalition, 1767-1839. 
 
 WREN, Sir Christopher, was born at Ea: 
 Knoyle, Wilts, October 20, 1632 ; his father w: 
 rector of the parish. He was educated at Wes 
 minster school, and showed great mechanic 
 ability at a very early age. In 1646 he went 
 Oxford, and entered as a gentleman commoner 
 Wadham College; he took his bachelor's degr 
 in 1650, became a fellow of All Souls, and a mast 
 of arts in 1653 ; and in 1657, then only in I 
 twenty-fifth year, was chosen professor of astr 
 nomy in Gresham College, London, and in 166 
 Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, wb 
 he also took his degree of doctor of civil law. 
 the following year he was the chief mover in pr 
 curing the foundation of the Royal Society, wni 
 had already existed some few years as the Philos 
 phical Club, and he became its president in 16 
 Such were the preliminary studies of Englam 
 
 Greatest architect, but he had already commenc 
 is great career in 1661 as assistant to Sir Jo 
 Denham, the surveyor of the royal works, who w 
 himself incapable of the duties of the offi 
 Wren's first work in this capacity was a new h 
 for the public meetings of the university, a co: 
 mission intrusted to him by Archbishop Sheld 
 the chancellor of the university, since celebral 
 as the Sheldonian Theatre ; it was completed 
 1668. About the same time he built a new cha 
 for Pembroke College, Cambridge, for his uncle 1 
 bishop of Ely. In 1665 he visited Paris. In 1( 
 he succeeded Sir John Denham as surveyor of I 
 royal works, with a salary of 100 per annt 
 and as surveyor-general of the repairs of" St. Pau 
 In 1672 he submitted plans tor a new chu I 
 instead of attempting to repair the old one, wh . 
 had been completely destroyed by the fire. 
 commission was appointed for the execution of > 
 work in 1673, and Wren having given up his p 
 fessorship at Oxford, was appointed architect JF 
 the cathedral, and was knighted by the king on 
 occasion. This great work, in style the Ital 
 renaissance, occupied nearly forty years; it \ 
 completed in 1710 ; Wren receiving only 
 a-year as architect of St. Paul's, but he execu 
 many other churches and public buildings in L 
 don at the same time, as 'The Monument,' Ten 
 Bar, &c, besides some others in the coun 
 Oxford, and Cambridge, Winchester, Greunw 
 Hampton Court, &c. Of all his great works, je 
 
 852 
 
WRE 
 
 towers of Westminster Abbey are alone discredit- 
 able ; be was, however, not very successful in his 
 palaces, as for instance, the additions to Hampton 
 Court, and Marlborough House, in both of which 
 the apartments are of mean proportions, contrast- 
 ing strongly even with the hunting boxes of many 
 German princes. The cartoon gallery at Hampton 
 Court is deplorably ill suited to its purpose. Sir 
 Christopher never visited Italy ; his mastery of the 
 Italian renaissance he owes probably mainly to the 
 example of Inigo Jones; he has in St. Paul's 
 achieved something more than a worthy rival of 
 St. Peter's ; though on so much smaller a scale, it 
 has internally through its so far more judicious 
 proportions even a vaster effect than St. Peter's at 
 Rome ; the interior, however, is painfully cold, but 
 this is no fault of Wren's, it is the general want of 
 colour and other decoration. The original design 
 was more like St. Peter's than that carried out. 
 In 1684 Wren was appointed comptroller of the 
 works at Windsor, and in 1685 he was returned to 
 parliament as one of the members for Plympton ; 
 he sat also in following parliaments for Wind- 
 sor and for Weymouth. In 1717, after the death of 
 Anne, he lost the favour of the court, and was re- 
 moved from his office of surveyor-general. He 
 retired to Hampton Court, where he died Februarv 
 25, 1723. {Parentalia, 1750; Elmes, Life of 
 Wren; Allan Cunningham, Lives of the Painters, 
 &c. ; Penny Cyclopedia.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 WREN, M., a learned prelate, 1585-1667. 
 
 WRIGHT, Abraham, an English theologian, 
 1611-1690. His son, James, an antiquarian and 
 historian of Rutlandshire, 1644-1715. 
 
 WRIGHT, Edward, a mathematician, who is 
 said to have discovered the true method of dividing 
 the meridian line, about 1560-1615. 
 
 WRIGHT, Joseph, a painter of versatile ability, 
 commonly called ' Wright of Derby,' and particu- 
 larly skilled in landscapes, and scenes in which the 
 effects of fire-light is introduced, 1734-1797. 
 
 WRIGHT, S., a nonconform, divine, 1683-1746. 
 
 WRIGHT, W., a Jesuit and theologian, d. 1639. 
 
 WRIGHT, W. R., president of the Court of 
 Appeal at Malta, author of ' Horae Ionicas,' a work 
 ^escribing the Greek isles, died 1826. 
 
 WRISBERG, H. A, a Ger. anatom., 1739-1808. 
 
 WUCHERER, F., a Ger. theologian, 1682-1737. 
 
 WULFER, J., a Germ. Orientalist, 1651-1682. 
 
 WUNSCH, C. E., a Prussian astronomer, physi- 
 cian, and naturalist, born about 1730. 
 
 WUNSCH, J. J. De, a Prus. general, 1717-88. 
 
 WURMBRAND, John William, Count, an 
 Austrian statesman and antiquarian, 1670-1756. 
 
 WURMSER, Dagobert Sigismond, Count, an 
 Austrian general who distinguished himself in the 
 wars with the French republic ; born in Alsace 
 1724, died soon after he had been compelled to 
 surrender Mantua 1797. 
 
 WURSTEISEN, C, a mathematician and histo- 
 rian of the city of Bale, 1544-1588. 
 
 WURTZ, F., a Swiss surgeon, 16th century. 
 
 WURTZ, G. C, a French physician, 1756-1823. 
 
 WURTZ, J. W., a Ger. controversialist, d. 1826. 
 
 WURTZ, Paul, Baron De, a general in the 
 service of Sweden and the United Provinces, d. 1676. 
 > WURTZ BURG, Conrad De, one of the ballad- 
 singers of Germany, 13th century, author of the 
 Nibelungen,' published 1757-1784. 
 
 WYC 
 
 WYATT, James, a metropolitan architect, 
 builder of the Pantheon in Oxford-Street and of 
 Fonthill Abbey, 1743-1813. 
 
 WYATT, R. J., a sculptor of considerable emi- 
 nence, was born in London, 1795 ; and instructed 
 in his art by Charles Rossi, of the Royal Academy. 
 In 1821, he went to Rome, and continued to reside 
 there till his death in 1850. He was an indefati- 
 gable worker, and produced some groups and 
 statues which are much admired. The greatest of 
 the latter is his Penelope,' which he was com- 
 missioned to execute for the queen in 1841, at 
 which period he visited England. 
 
 WYATT, Sir Thomas, a courtier, statesman, 
 and poet, who enjoyed the favour of Henry VIII., 
 and was employed by him in several diplomatic 
 missions ; born at Allington castle, in Kent, 1503, 
 died 1541. His poetical works, which consist of 
 love elegies and odes, have been greatly admired, 
 and were first published with those of Lord Surrey. 
 He was twice tried for sedition, but acquitted. 
 His son, of the same name, was a zealous protes- 
 tant, and was beheaded by Queen Mary in 1554. 
 
 WYCHERLEY, Wm., was the oldest of those 
 Comic Dramatists, whose licentiousness throws on 
 the period succeeding the Restoration a disgrace 
 not to be wiped away by the brilliant cleverness of 
 their works. Less witty than Congreve, less gay 
 than Farquhar, and inferior to Vanbrugh as a pain- 
 ter of character, he has a vigour and good sense, 
 and an ingenuity in the invention of lively incidents, 
 not reached by any of these his contemporaries. 
 He was the son of a Shropshire gentleman, and 
 
 [Birth-place of Wycherley .] 
 
 born about 1640. He was sent in his youth to 
 France, where he learned the fashionable morality, 
 and conformed to the fashionable religion by becom- 
 ing a Roman Catholic. At the Restoration he was 
 placed at Oxford, where he returned to the Church 
 of England. The whole of his after life was that 
 of an improvident and debauched man of pleasure. 
 The dates at which his four comedies appeared range 
 from 1669 to 1678 ; but the two earliest of them 
 were, by his own account, written before he came 
 of age, and the other two a considerable time before 
 they were acted. 'The Plain Dealer,' a vigorous 
 but unpleasing adaptation of Moliere's Misan- 
 thrope, was composed when he was twenty-five 
 years old ; and at thirty-two he wrote his lively 
 and unprincipled comedy, 'The Country Wife.' 
 
 853 
 
WYC 
 
 About 1680 he married a young widow, the coun- 
 tess of Drogheda, whose jealousy of her rakish 
 husband made him uncomfortable, and whose 
 bequest of her fortune to him served only to 
 plunge him into lawsuits at her death. He lay for 
 seven years in the Fleet prison for debt ; and even 
 after his release, which is said to have been pro- 
 cured by King James, he continued to be a needy 
 man. When he was certainly above seventy years 
 old, he married a young woman, being desirous, it 
 is said, to disappoint a nephew whom he disliked. 
 But he survived his marriage only eleven days, 
 dying in December, 1715. [W.S.] 
 
 'WYCK, Thomas, called 'the Old,' a Dutch 
 painter and engraver, 1616-1686. 
 
 WYCLIFFE, WICKLYFFE, or W1CLIF, 
 John De, was born at Wycliffe, near Richmond, 
 in Yorkshire, about a.d. 1324. In early youth he 
 was a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, but 
 soon removed to Merton, of which he became a 
 fellow. His favourite studies were metaphysics 
 and theology. One of his earliest public appear- 
 ances was m 1360 against the mendicant monks, 
 with whom the university had a resolute quarrel. 
 In 1361 he became master of Baliol, and was pre- 
 sented to the rectory of Fillingham, in the diocese 
 of Lincoln, which he afterwards exchanged for 
 that of Ludgershall. Four years afterwards he 
 was installed warden of Canterbury Hall, then 
 recently founded by Archbishop Islep. In 1367, 
 Langham, archbishop of Canterbury, expelled him 
 from the wardenship, on which he appealed to the 
 pope, Urban V., and a decision, after a delay of 
 three years, was given against him. In 1372 he 
 took his degree of D.D., and read lectures in 
 divinity with great applause. He was sent soon 
 afterwards as a commissioner to the papal embassy 
 at Bruges, where he remained two years, and de- 
 tected more narrowly the workings of the mystery 
 of iniquity. On his return he was presented to the 
 prebend of Aust, and the rectory of Lutterworth, 
 through the patronage of the duke of Lancaster. 
 Three hundred of his parochial sermons 'have 
 been preserved. He had for some time been loud 
 and bitter in his remonstrances against the idle 
 and vicious clergy, and his vehemence and fidelity 
 increased with his years. The enraged prelates 
 summoned him before the convocation, Dut his 
 powerful patrons saved him. In 1376 the monks 
 drew up nineteen articles against him, taken from 
 his prelections and sermons. These charges show 
 that Wycliffe preached a species of protestantism 
 denying transubstantiation and the supremacy 
 of the pope, and severely condemning the abuse of 
 her temporalities on the part of the church. Dur- 
 ing the next year the pope sent to England five 
 bulls against the reformer. But the king died 
 before they arrived, and the universities would not 
 act. The prelates, however, cited Wycliffe to 
 appear before them in London. In the meantime 
 parliament was in a dilemma on a question of 
 casuistry, whether it were lawful to refuse the 
 pope's demand that treasure should be sent out 
 of the kingdom. The matter was referred to 
 Wyclirt'e, and he at once decided that parliament 
 might resist. He then, attended by the duke of 
 Lancaster and the lord marshal, Earl Percy, ap- 
 peared before the episcopal tribunal, and after 
 boiuc altercation, left the court in safety. He 
 
 WYC 
 
 wns summoned to appear again at Lambeth in 
 1378, but the process was suddenly stopped 
 by the queen-mother. In 1381 he published 
 twelve theses against transubstantiation, and the 
 archbishop of Canterbury formally pronounced the 
 majority of them dangerous and heretical. Wyc- 
 liffe left Oxford in 1382, and retired to Lutter- 
 worth. There he laboured without intermission, 
 and neither tongue nor pen was idle in the cause 
 of evangelical truth and freedom. He had been 
 threatened with paralysis a year or two previous, 
 but in 1384 he was seized in the pulpit with a sud- 
 den stroke, and soon after expired. Wycliffe'a 
 
 [Wycliffe s chair.] 
 
 works are very numerous, and are chiefly of a pole- 
 mical and practical nature, induced by the spirit o. 
 the age in which he lived. His English translatior 
 of the Latin Bible, or Vulgate, was a work of grea: 
 merit and necessity, for it unlocked the Scriptures t( 
 the multitude, or as his antagonist, bewailing sucl 
 an enterprise, worded it, 'the gospel pearl wai 
 cast abroad and trodden under foot.' The papa 
 schism that happened on the death of Gregon 
 XL, stirred him up to compose a famous tract 
 'The Schism of the Popes.' His essay on 'Th< 
 Truth and Meaning of Scripture,' contains strik- 
 ing statements on the perfection and clearness o 
 the Bible alone as the rule of faith. The Englisl 
 style of the reformer is wonderful for his age, ami 
 is clear and homely in its structure. Our presenB 
 tongue was then beginning to raise itself int 
 eminence and popularity. Chaucer's poetry am 
 Mandeville's prose were evidence of its flexibilit; 
 and power. Wycliffe's style is more commoi 
 than theirs, for it speaks to the people in thei 
 own vernacular. Wycliffe will ever be remem 
 bered as a good and a great man, an advocate ( 
 ecclesiastical independence, an unquailing foe t 
 popish tyranny, a translator of Scripture into ou 
 mother tongue, and an industrious instructor c 
 the people in their own rude but ripening dialed 
 May he not be justly styled the ' morning star c 
 the reformation?' So much impression was mad 
 by his works that one of his enemies complains- 
 ' that a man could not meet two persons on th 
 road but one was a Wicklifhte.' A convocatio: 
 held at Oxford in 1408 prohibited the reading an 
 diffusion of the reformer's version. At the counc 
 of Constance in 1415, the dead Wycliffe was 
 nouucod as a heretic, and his bones were orde 
 
 854 
 
WYC 
 
 to be exhumed from consecrated ground. Thirteen 
 years afterward the decree was enforced by Pope 
 Martin V., and Fleming, bishop of London, was 
 ordered to see it done. His grave was opened, the 
 bones taken out and burned, and the ashes cast 
 into the stream that passes near the church of 
 Lutterworth. As Thomas Fuller adds in his own 
 style : This river took them ' into the Avon, Avon 
 into the Severn, Severn into the narrow seas they 
 into the main ocean, and thus the ashes of Wyc- 
 liffe are the emblems of his doctrine which is now 
 dispersed all the world over.' [J.E.] 
 
 WYDEVILLE. See Woodville. 
 
 WYDRA, S., a Polish matbemat., 1741-1804. 
 
 WYERMANN, or WEYERMANN, J. Campo, 
 a Dutch painter and writer, 1679-1747. 
 
 WYKEHAM, William of, bishop of Win- 
 chester, and lord high chancellor of England, was 
 born at Wykeham in Hampshire 1324. He was 
 promoted to his see after distinguishing himself 
 in several state employments in 1366, and held 
 the high office of chancellor, from 1367 to 1371. 
 He promoted the formation of Winchester school 
 and New College., Oxford. This eminent prelate 
 died in 1404, and was buried in his own oratory 
 in Winchester cathedral, where a costly monu- 
 ment is erected to his memory. 
 
 WYNANTS, John, a Dutch landscape painter, 
 the teacher of Philip Wouvermans, 1600-1670. 
 
 WYNANTZ, Godwin, Count, a jurisconsult 
 and statesman of the empire, 1661-1732. 
 
 WYXDHAM, H. P., an antiquarian writer and 
 member of parliament for Wiltshire, 1736-1819. 
 
 WYXDHAM, Sir William, an eloquent par- 
 ot liamentary speaker and statesman of the period of 
 "" Queen Anne, was born at Orchard Wyndham in 
 Somersetshire 1687, and entered parliament as 
 knight of the shire for his native county. In 1710 
 he was made secretary at war, and in 1713 chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. On the death of the queen 
 he became a distinguished member of the opposi- 
 tion, and in 1715 was committed on a charge of 
 being implicated in the Scotch rebellion ; died 
 1740. Having married a daughter of the duke of 
 Somerset, his eldest son, Sir Charles Wynd- 
 ham, inherited the title of earl of Egremont, from 
 his uncle. He died in 1763. 
 
 tjl XACCA, E., a Sicilian poet, born 1643. 
 
 XAINTONGE, Anne and Francis De, sis- 
 ters of Dijon, who each founded a religious house 
 of the Ursuline order, the former 1567-1621 ; 
 o|the latter died 1639. 
 
 XA1NTRAILLES, Jean Poton, Seigneur Do, 
 
 a commander in the army of Charles VII. at the 
 
 period of the expulsion of the English, died 1461. 
 
 XAXTHUS of Lydia, a Greek historian, some 
 
 o fragments of whose writings, published in the 
 
 d(j collections of Creuser and Muller, are all that 
 
 remain, flourished in the 6th or 5th century B.C. 
 
 XANTIPPE, whose name has passed into a 
 proverb for a scolding wife, was the spouse of 
 crates the philosopher, and notwithstanding her 
 ill temper was deeply attached to him. 
 
 The date 
 of her death is unknown. 
 XANi'JITUS, an Athenian general, 5th c. B.C. 
 
 XEN 
 
 WYNN, Charles Watkins Williams, an 
 experienced member of the House of Commons, 
 having represented Montgomeryshire from 1797 to 
 his death in 1850. He became secretary at war 
 under Earl Grey from December, 1834, to April, 
 1835, but is chiefly memorable for the honourable 
 constancy of his public and private conduct during 
 this long career. He was a liberal supporter of 
 the Welch school in London, and deserves to be 
 named among the friends of literature. 
 
 WYNNE, Edward, author of ' Dialogues on 
 the Laws and Constitution of England,' 1734-84. 
 
 WYNNE, John Huddleston, a native of 
 Wales, who settled in London as an author, and 
 wrote 'A History of the British Empire in Ame- 
 rica,' and ' A History of Ireland,' 1743-1788. 
 
 WYNTOUN, Andrew, a Scottish rhyme- 
 chronicler, prior of the monastery of St. Serf's Inch 
 on Lochlomond, died about 1420. 
 
 WYON, William, R.A., a distinguished Eng- 
 lish medallist, 1795-1851. 
 
 WYRWICZ, Charles, a Polish Jesuit, histo- 
 rian, and geographical writer, 1716-1793. 
 
 WYSS, the name of several Swiss writers : 
 Bernard, author of a history of events from 
 the time of Rodolph of Hapsburg, still in MS., 
 about 1463-1525. Nicholas, a chronicler of events 
 connected with the reformation, killed in the battle 
 of Cappeler, 1531. Hans Henry, author of a 
 ' History of the Canton and City of Zurich,' pub- 
 lished 1783. Felix, professor of theology at 
 Zurich, 1596-1666. Gaspard, brother of the 
 latter, a Greek scholar, dates unknown. 
 
 WYTFLIET, Cornelius, a Flemish historian, 
 and secretary to the senate of Brabant; date of 
 his works 1598-1607. 
 
 WYTHE, George, an American statesman 
 and champion of independence, 1726-1806. 
 
 WYTTENBACH, Daniel, a learned scholar 
 and critic, born in 1746 at Berne, and professor 
 from 1771 at Amsterdam and Leyden. He pub- 
 lished an edition of the moral works of Plutarch, 
 Historical Selections from Ancient Authors, and 
 other works. Died 1820. 
 
 WZABECZ, Wenceslaus Joachim, professor 
 of surgery at Prague, author of several practical 
 works on surgery, 1740-1804. 
 
 XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general who 
 defeated the Romans under Regulus, B.C. 255. 
 
 XAUPI, J., a French ecclesiastic, 1688-1778. 
 
 XAVIER. See Francis. 
 
 XAVIER, Jerome, a Jesuit and missionary, of 
 the same family as the saint, died 1617 
 
 XENOCLES, a Greek tragedian, 4th cent. B.C. 
 
 XENOCRATES, a Greek philosopher of the 
 Platonic school, employed as a diplomatist by 
 Philip, king of Macedon, and remarkable for his 
 integrity, B.C. 400-314. 
 
 XENOCRATES, a Greek physician, 1st cent. 
 
 XENOPHANES, flourished between 540 and 
 500 B.C., an Ionian by birth ; afterwards settled in 
 Italy From the few almost oracular verses of Xeno- 
 phanes that have reached us, we may still form a 
 tolerably adequate conception of the nature of that 
 important place, in the History of Greek Philoso- 
 
 855 
 
XEN 
 
 phy, which unquestionably belongs to him. Indif- 
 ferent to the search of the Ionic School after a pri- 
 mal physical element; neither sympathizing with 
 the higher aim of Pythagoras, his mind was 
 arrested by the direct question concerning the 
 Gods. And his conclusions seem to have been as 
 follows. Rejecting utterly the Gods of the Poets, 
 and every modification of Anthropomorphism he 
 declared, because he felt, that something being, 
 reality is: but he denied that? man can reach 
 its nature, or ever apprehend its attributes. Man 
 can learn or conceive only what is like himself, or 
 what is placed before mm by the senses. Be- 
 ing, is not discernible bv sense; neither can 
 it be similar to Man. lEssentially then it is 
 incomprehensible, inscrutable, unknown, and un- 
 knowable. Xenophanes, was not afraid to ascer- 
 tain that he could see nothing, in the awfulness 
 which is beneath visible Life. But he was no 
 sceptic he believed that God is. These rever- 
 ential and most pregnant thoughts, fill a large 
 space in all subsequent Modern as well as Greek 
 speculation. [J.P.N.] 
 
 XENOPHON, the Athenian historian and philo- 
 sopher, was the son of Gryllus, a native of the 
 Attic borough Ercheia. The time of his birth 
 and death is not mentioned by any ancient writer, 
 but it has been with very considerable probability 
 inferred that he was born about B.C. 444; and 
 Lucian states that he attained to above the age of 
 ninety. He began life as a soldier, and was pre- 
 sent at the battle of Delium (b.c. 424\ In the 
 flight which ensued he fell from his horse, and 
 owed his safety to Socrates, on whose shoulders he 
 was carried to a place of security. Having by this 
 incident become known to the great philosopher of 
 the age, he cherished for him ever after the warmest 
 affection, and derived from him all his moral and 
 philosophical principles. Nothing worthy of notice 
 is known respecting him till B.C. 401, when, on the 
 invitation of his friend Proxenus, he was induced 
 to join the expedition of Cyrus the younger against 
 his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia. 
 Before deciding, he asked the advice of Socrates, 
 who recommended to him to consult the Delphian 
 oracle ; but Xenophon, who had previously deter- 
 mined to go, merely asked the oracle to what gods 
 he should sacrifice in order to insure success ; and, 
 having performed the required rites, proceeded to 
 Sardis, where he arrived in time to join the expe- 
 dition. Attaching himself to the army, without 
 any military appointment, he accompanied it in 
 its tedious march, and was present at the battle of 
 Cunaxa in which Cyrus fell. On the death of 
 their leader the barbarian troops fled, and left the 
 Greeks alone in the plains of Mesopotamia. Cle- 
 archus, whom they invited to take the command, 
 and also others of the Greek generals were soon 
 after massacred by the treachery of the Persian 
 Satrap, Tissaphernes. In this emergency Xeno- 
 phon came forward, and, with the consent of his 
 countrymen, took a prominent part in conducting 
 the famous ' Retreat,' of which he has left a minute 
 and graphic account in the Anabasis. Not daring 
 to attempt a return by the route by which they had 
 advanced, they proceeded along the course of the 
 Tigris, and across the high lands of Armenia to 
 Trapezus (Trebizond), a Greek colony on the 
 south-east coast of the Black Sea, and thence 
 
 XEN 
 
 found their way to Chrysopolis, which is opposite 
 to Byzantium (Constantinople). On their arriva 
 here the Greeks were in great distress, and the? 
 therefore readily accepted the invitation of Seuthes" 
 king of Thrace, to aid him in recovering th< 
 sovereignty. They performed their promise ; bu 
 the Thracian chief declined to pay the stipulatec 
 reward, and it was with great difficulty that Xeno- 
 phon got from him part of the sum agreed upon W 
 Being still very poor, the Greeks next made ai to 
 expedition into the plain of the Caicus ; and seiz- ^ 
 ing the house and property of a wealthy Persian k 
 thereby replenished their empty pockets. Of this 
 spoil Xenophon obtained his due share. In con- 
 sequence of his connection with the expeditioi K 
 under Cyrus, Xenophon was banished from Athens 
 about B.C. 399 ; and, as he remained in Asia, pro- 
 bably joined Agesilaus, king of Sparta, during hi; 
 expedition into that country in B.C. 396. Whei 
 Agesilaus was recalled, Xenophon accompanied 
 him to Greece, and was with him in the battl* 
 against his countrymen at Coronea, B.C. 394 
 After the battle he returned with Agesilaus t( 
 Sparta, and soon after settled at Scillus, in Elis 
 not far from Olympia, on a spot presented to hin 
 by the Spartans, where he was joined by his wifi 
 and children. In tins secluded retreat he spent his 
 time in hunting, entertaining his friends, and writ- 
 ing the works which have immortalized his name 
 After a residence of more than twenty years, h> 
 was expelled from Scillus by the Eleans, and re- 
 tired to Corinth, where he is believed to have died 
 The sentence of banishment against him had beei 
 previously recalled ; but Xenophon never revisitec 
 his native city. The extant works of Xenophoi 
 may be divided into four classes : 1. Historical 
 the Anabasis, an account of the expedition o 
 Cyrus the Younger, and the Retreat of the Tei 
 Thousand, a model of perspicuous and interesting 
 narrative ; the Eellemca, or Grecian Histories, i 
 continuation of the History of Thucydides as far ai 
 the battle of Mantineia(B.c. 362); the Cyropaedia 
 an historical or philosophical romance, founded oi 
 the real events of the early life of Cyrus; an< 
 the Life of Agesilaus. 2. Didactic the Hippar- 
 chicus, a treatise on Horsemanship; and tht 
 Cynegeticus, a treatise on Hunting. 3. Political- 
 two Treatises on the Constitutions of Sparta am. 
 Athens, and a Treatise on the Revenues of Attica 
 4. Philosophical the Memorabilia of Socrates, i 
 faithful record of the doctrines and sayings of th 
 philosopher ; the Apology of Socrates, which pro- 
 fesses to contain the substance of Socrates' ad- 
 dress to his judges ; the Symposium, an account o 
 a festive meeting, at which Socrates was present 
 the (Economicus, a discussion on the duties 
 domestic life ; and the Hiero, an imaginary con- 
 versation between the tyrant of Syracuse anc 
 Simonides. It is impossible in our limited spact 
 to analyze the character of Xenophon as ai 
 historian, a politician, a philosopher, and a general* 
 It is not detracting from pre-eminent merit t( 
 allege that his continuation of the History o 
 Thucydides falls short of the original ; that, ii 
 depth and philosophical acumen, he must yield tc 
 Plato, while he is a more faithful exponent of th 
 doctrines of their common instructor ; and that hit 
 conducting of the Retreat of the Ten Thousanc 
 presents many of the qualities of a great com- 
 
 .: 
 
 856 
 
XER 
 
 if mander. His style exhibits the Attic dialect in its 
 i purest and most perfect form ; clear, simple, and 
 ij levoid of ornament. [G.F.] 
 
 s, XERES, F., a Spanish historian of the con- 
 k juest of Peru, where he accompanied Pizarro. 
 it XERXES, king of Persia, was the son of Darius 
 id ind of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. He succeeded 
 tiis father B.C. 485, to the prejudice of his elder 
 D, )rother, Artazabanes. Four years previously the 
 id brces of Darius had been defeated by the Greeks 
 v inder Miltiades at the battle of Marathon, and 
 % he interval had been passed in preparing for a 
 is second expedition. These preparations Xerxes 
 ] sontinued on a scale of magnificence, almost in- 
 U sredible, and in the spring of 480 B.C. he com- 
 is nenced his march from Sardis : his army was 
 m noved forward with great deliberation, and being 
 is lumbered on its arrival in Europe was found to 
 a nuster 1,700,000 foot, and 80,000 horse ; besides 
 id :amels, chariots, and ships of war. These num- 
 ie lers, and the undisciplined crowds who must have 
 t ttended them, to supply their necessities, are per- 
 to ectly bewildering to the imagination ; and they 
 I ecome still more so when their varied costumes, 
 in he silken and gilded tents, the standards, the 
 fe ostly armour, and the variety of national weapons 
 jjre considered. One of the political parties of 
 1 Jreece, it must be borne in mind, were in league 
 it rith the Persian court, and the terror of the 
 lie ountry verged upon despair of maintaining their 
 . berties. Themistocles, however, while the pass 
 i f Thermopylas was defended by Leonidas and his 
 en partans, succeeded in rallying his countrymen, 
 ednd having created a navy, defeated Xerxes 
 on t the battle of Salamis. This great event took 
 - lace in the year of the expedition B.C. 480. The 
 ol 'ersians were allowed to retreat in such order as 
 en hey could, but Mardonius, one of the principal 
 ij ommanders, reserved a more manageable army, the 
 I est he could pick from the flying host, and with 
 si bese he was defeated by the combined Greeks 
 to, lie year following. Xerxes was assassinated by 
 oi irtabanus, one of the great officers of his court, 
 ij dio aspired to found a new dynasty in Persia, 
 I ,c. 465. [E.R.] 
 
 k XERXES, the second of the name, king of 
 h 'ersia, succeeded his father, Artaxerxes Longi- 
 kj lanus, b.c. 424, and was assassinated 423. 
 s , XIMENES, Augustin Maria, Marquis De, a 
 , a 'rench poet, and friend of Voltaire, 1726-1817. 
 k 
 
 YDE 
 
 XIMENES, F., a Spanish painter, 1598-1666. 
 
 XIMENES, Francis, one of the Spanish mis- 
 sionaries who introduced Christianity into Mexico, 
 au. of a description of Mexican zoology and botany. 
 
 XIMENES, Francis, known in Spanish his- 
 tory as Cardinal Cisneros, from the territorial title 
 of his family, was born at Torrelaguna in 1437. 
 A great portion of his time was spent in obscurity 
 and hard study. In 1492 he was made confessor 
 to Queen Isabella, and in 1494 was made arch- 
 bishop of Toledo. In 1507 he received the cardi- 
 nal's hat. Along with his high dignities, he was 
 possessed of vast revenues, but his influence arose 
 from his discountenance of the luxurious and 
 grasping habits of the higher priesthood, and his 
 adopting the rigid discipline of the new order of 
 St. Francis, with which he identified himself. He 
 thus prepared the way for such internal reform as 
 the Romish Church received. He was a great 
 patron of letters, and by his exertions and expendi- 
 ture produced the earliest edition of a polyglott 
 Bible, known as the Complutension, from its 
 publication at Complutum. The political career 
 of Ximenes was a struggle for the establishment 
 of the power of the crown above the nobles, and 
 somewhat anticipated the policy of Richelieu in 
 France. He died on 8th Nov., 1517. [J.H.B.] 
 
 XIMENES, J., a Spanish poet, 16th century. " 
 
 XIMENES, J. A., a Spanish theolog., 1719-74. 
 
 XIMENES, Leo, a geometrician, astronomer, 
 and engineer, of Sicilian birth, 1716-1786. 
 
 XIMENES, L., a French ascetic, 13th century. 
 
 XIMENES, Roderic, archbishop of Toledo, 
 and author of Spanish histories, died 1247. 
 
 XIMENO, V., an Italian biographer, 17th cent. 
 
 XUARES, Gaspard, born in a district of Par- 
 aguay, distinguished as a naturalist, 1731-1804. 
 
 XUARES, or SUARES, Roderic, a "_ 
 jurisconsult, time of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 XYLANDER, the Graecised name of William 
 Holtzemann, a Germ, philologist, born at Augs- 
 burgh 1532, d. professor at Heidelberg, 1576. He 
 translated the works of Plutarch and Tryphiodorus. 
 
 XYPHILIN, John, a patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople, sprung from a noble family of Trebizond, 
 and famed for his virtues and great learning, died 
 1078, after a patriarchate of twelve years. His 
 nephew, of the same name, author of an abridg- 
 ment of Dion Cassius, first published in 1551. 
 
 XYSTUS. SeeSixxus. 
 
 lt . YAHIA AL BARMEKI, Abou Ali, an Ara- 
 I ian vizier of the Barmecide family, who played a 
 ffl . onspicuous part in the reign of Haroun al Ras- 
 ^ bid, and was put to death in 803. 
 a YAKOUT, Scheab Eddyn Abdallah, an 
 ffl irabian biographical writer and geographer, of 
 j rreek origin and birth, 1179-1229. 
 YALDEN, or YOULDING, Thomas, successor 
 P Atterbury as preacher at Bridewell hospital, 
 nown to fame as a poet and miscellaneous writer, 
 II, 671-1736. The best known of his productions is 
 j, is ' Ode to Saint Cecilia's Day.' 
 J YANEZ DE LA BARBUDA, a Portuguese 
 ^ ommander, who attempted the conquest of 
 iB . irenada, and perished in the field, 1374. 
 
 YANEZ, F., a Spanish painter, died 1560. 
 
 YART, A., a French poet, 1710-1791. 
 
 YATES, Frederick Henrt, a popular Eng- 
 lish actor, and manager of the Adelpni theatre, 
 was born in 1797, and made his first appearance 
 on the stage in 1817. His abilities were extremely 
 versatile, ranging from the exhibition of the deepest 
 pathos to the humour of broad farce ; died 1842. 
 
 YATES, Richard, a comic actor, who kept the 
 stage several years in such characters as ' Fondle- 
 wife ' in the ' Old Bachelor ;' died 1796. His wife, 
 Anna Maria, a tragic actress, died 1787. 
 
 YDELEZ, Stephen, a priest of Franche- 
 Comt6, who devoted himself to the service of the 
 sick poor, and wrote on the plague, 1581. 
 
 857 
 
YEA 
 
 YEARSLEY, Anne, known as a poetical and 
 dramatic writer, was originally a milk -woman, and 
 was born at Bristol about 1756. She was encou- 
 raged to publish by Hannah More, and the profits of 
 her works enabled her to engage in a more con- 
 genial occupation as mistress of a circulating lib- 
 rary; died 1806. 
 
 YEATES, Thomas, an Oriental scholar, whose 
 literary labours were devoted to the Bible as a 
 translator and editor, 1768-1839. 
 
 ^ EATS, T. P., an entomologist, died 1782. 
 
 YE UK A. If. De, a Spanish ascetic, 16th cent. 
 
 YELVERTON, Sir Henry, an English judge, 
 author of ' Reports of Special Cases,' 1566-1630. 
 
 FEPEZ, Antonia D', a Spanish Benedictine 
 and historian of his order, died 1621. 
 
 YEI'EZ, Diego D', bishop of Tarragona, and 
 a learned historian, 1559-1613. 
 
 YEREGUI, Jose De, a pious and learned 
 ecclesiastic of Guyapuscoa, 1734-1805. 
 
 YGLESIAS, J. De, a Spanish poet, 1753-1791. 
 
 YMBISE, or IMBESE, Jean D', a magistrate 
 of Ghent, who endeavoured to free his country 
 from the Spanish yoke, and was executed 1584. 
 
 YON, St., in Latin Ionius or (Eonius, a 
 martyr of Christianity in France, 290. 
 
 YORK, the house of, rival to that of Lan- 
 caster, and possessor of an elder right to the 
 crown, derived its claim from Richard, son to the 
 duke of Clarence, who was the second son of 
 Edward III. The line of Lancaster claimed from 
 John of Gaunt, his third son. Richard, duke 
 of York, succeeded the duke of Bedford as regent 
 in France, during the minority of Henry VI. His 
 claim to the crown was first asserted about 1450, 
 after the rebellion of Cade, and he first took arms 
 in defence of it by raising an army of 10,000 men 
 in 1452. Thus began the wars of the red and 
 white roses, which deluged England with blood. 
 The duke was defeated at the battle of Wake- 
 field, by Queen Margaret, and killed in the action, 
 24th December, 1460. It is questionable whether 
 his son, Clifford, was murdered as generally under- 
 stood. The last chief of the white rose was his 
 son, Richard III. [E.R.] 
 
 YORK, Frederick, duke of, commander of 
 the British army in the Low Countries at the 
 period of the French revolution, was the second 
 son of George III., and was born August 16, 1763. 
 He studied military tactics at Berlin ; and in 1791 
 married the eldest daughter of the king of Prussia. 
 He died, involved in debt, occasioned by his pas- 
 sion for gaming, on January 5, 1827. A vindica- 
 tion of his command in Flanders has been recently 
 published by his military secretary. 
 
 YORKE, Sir Joseph Sidney, an admiral and 
 member of parliament, perished in Stoke's Bay on 
 returning from Spithead with all his ship's com- 
 pany, 1831. 
 
 YORKE, Philip, first earl of Hardwicke, was 
 born at Dover in 1690, and educated for the law. 
 He was appointed chief justice of the King's 
 Bench, and raised to the peerage in 1733. From 
 1736 to 1756 he held the office of lord chancellor, 
 and retired with the duke of Newcastle; died 1764. 
 
 YORKE, Philip, second earl of Hardwicke, 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1720. In 1738 
 he was appointed one of the tellers of the exchequer, 
 and, in 1764, succeeded his father in the earl- 
 
 : 
 
 ; 
 
 YOU 
 
 dom. His distinction is that of a man of letter! 
 He was joined by his brother, the Hon. ChablI 
 Yorke, in publishing the ' Athenian Letters, or tli y 
 Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of the Kin 
 of Persia, residing at Athens duringthe Peloponne 
 sian War.' His other works are ' The Correspon 
 dence of Sir Dudley Carleton,' and ' Miscellaneou 
 State Papers.' Died 1790. 
 
 YORKE, Philip, third earl of Hardwicke, elde; 
 son of Charles Yorke, was bom in 1757. He hel 
 several public offices, and from 1801 to 1805 wt 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Died 1834. 
 
 YORKE, Philip, of the same family as tl 
 preceding, known as a genealogist and historiai 
 was born about 1743, and died, after a life i 
 literary leisure, in 1804. His work on ' The Roy: 
 Tribes of Wales,' contains much curious an 
 authentic matter. 
 
 YOUNG, Sir Aretas William, a peninsuh 
 officer, who was successively protector of slaves i 
 Demerara 1826, and lieut.-governor of Prim 
 Edward's Island, 1831 Died 1835. 
 
 YOUNG, Arthur, a native of Norfolk, wl 
 became rector of Bradfield in Suffolk, and preber 
 of Canterbury. He wrote ' An Historical Disserti 
 tion on Idolatrous Corruptions in Religion.' Di< 
 1759. His son, of the same name, born at h 
 father's rectory in 1741, is well known as an agr 
 cultural writer and rural economist, and was seen 
 tary to the Board of Agriculture. Died 1820. 
 
 YOUNG, Edward, was born at his father 
 parsonage, near Winchester, in 1684. From 17( 
 he held a fellowship at Oxford. In 1710 part 
 his poem, 'The Last Day,' was inserted in tl 
 Tatler; and the whole was published in 171 
 For many years from the latter of these dates, 1 
 continued to produce poems of various kinds. Tl 
 most successful, and oy much the best of tliei 
 till the appearance of his last and most popul 
 work,were his Satires, which, appearing in separa 
 pieces, were collected in 1728, under the name 
 ' The Love of Fame, the Universal Passion.' H 
 tragedy of 'Busiris' was acted successfully I 
 1719 ; ' The Revenge,' the only one of his tragedi 
 that is now ever acted, appeared in 1721 ; and tl 
 ' Brothers,' while in rehearsal, in 1727, was wit! 
 drawn by the author, who, after having long lies 
 tated between professions, had just taken order 
 In 1730 his college presented him to the rector 
 of Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, valued at three hui 
 dred a-year ; and this was the highest preferinei 
 he ever obtained, notwithstanding very frequer 
 solicitations, which were continued when he wi 
 very old. In L731 he married a widow, the daughfr 
 of the earl of Lichfield. Lady Elizabeth Your, 
 died in 1741 ; and her husband is supposed to haj 
 begun, soon afterwards, the composition of tl 
 ' Night Thoughts.' The publication of the poer 
 taking place in sections, was completed in 174 
 With its want both of individual interest, and < 
 genuine poetic imagination, this work could nt 
 have gained the permanent celebrity it has, were 
 not for the rarity of good religious poetry, ami tl 
 readiness with which serious persons welcome ar. 
 work of the sort. In its antithetical turn, and i 
 perpetual ingenuity of strained analogies, not ui 
 relieved by snatches of fine fancy, it reminds us 
 the metaphysical poetry of the seventeenth ce 
 tury. But the appearance of a work, so solem 
 
 858 
 
 
YOU 
 
 ind elevated m tone, at a time like that in which 
 ;he 'Night Thoughts' came forth, was really a 
 'act hardly less encouraging for the prospects of 
 iterature, than was the appearance of the exqui- 
 lite ' Seasons ' of Thomson a few years earlier, 
 ifoung survived till 1765. [W.S.] 
 
 YOUNG, Matthew, an Irish prelate and 
 nathematician, author of 'An Analysis of the 
 Principles of Natural Philosophy,' and 'The Method 
 f Prime and Ultimate Ratios.' Born in Roscom- 
 Don 1750, died 1800. 
 
 YOUNG, Thomas, horn at Milverton, Somer- 
 
 etshire, 13th June, 1773, died in London, where 
 
 le had long practised as a physician, on 10th May, 
 
 .829. If extent of acquirement, originality m 
 
 inception, and positive contributions to knowledge 
 
 f highest importance, should ever give enduring 
 
 ame, the claim might well have been made by 
 
 foung. Some men, however almost through in- 
 
 , j xplicable causes appear formed to be unfortunate; 
 
 ;; nd unhappily Young lived and died in compara- 
 
 ive obscurity. It is probable that his acceptance 
 
 a 1818 of the Secretaryship of the Board of 
 
 -.ongitude, and the connected editorship of the 
 
 Jautical Almanac, contributed to this unhappy 
 
 esult. It cannot be denied that he was not ex- 
 
 ctly fitted for either office, and that his adminis- 
 
 J ration of them, laid him open to the successful and 
 
 :n ery eager attacks of persons who had no respect 
 
 or his genius, nor for any man's, who, in truth 
 
 tad neither the power nor the inclination to appre- 
 
 ;j iate genius of any kind. Young's chief feats 
 
 i re two. First, he successfully contests with 
 
 t| ^resnel the glory of founding the Undulatory 
 
 1 lieory of Light. The idea of propagation by 
 
 1 Jndulations, in opposition to Newton's conception 
 
 j] f propagation by Emission, had been started long 
 
 I efore Young's time ; but to him unquestionably 
 
 elonged the privilege of originating the explana- 
 5! ion of all those more delicate phenomena of Light, 
 
 I I y his doctrine of Interference. This view had 
 I ot the advantage of FresneVs ; he had no willing 
 
 I nditory : in England, at the time, the superstition 
 |i dth which we have hitherto been inclined to invest 
 t; very illustrious insular name, had not been cleared 
 ill way from that Immortality which belongs of right 
 I D Newton. Young's other capital discovery dis- 
 j, elled the mists from another sphere : it was he 
 rho primarily detected the key to phonetic Hiero- 
 lyphics. Previous to his time, the old Egyp- 
 a ian symbols had been regarded simply as pictorial 
 B Bpresentations real pictures, or real, through 
 ,, nalogy. And, although some thought it probable 
 
 lat the inscriptions also concealed an alphabetic 
 jj rriting, no conception had been formed of the way 
 uj I which pictorial representations could pass into 
 j honetic ; and no key discovered therefore, to the 
 a jntents of Egyptian records. Aided by the Ro- 
 
 stta stone, Young divined the secret, clearly 
 receding Chamtollion, and in theory penetrat- 
 )g farther than even that acute and most deserving 
 renchman ventured to go. We believe that if 
 be merits of our remarkable Countryman were 
 lade to rest even on those two memorable 
 iscoveries, injustice would be done to him. His 
 rind teemed with new and profound conceptions. 
 
 YVE 
 
 monument among the motley crowd in that 
 National Mausoleum, where great men alone ought 
 ever to have been permitted to repose the Abbey 
 of Westminster. . [J.P.N.] 
 
 YOUNG, Sir William, a miscellaneous writer 
 and member of parliament, born near Canterbury 
 1750, died, governor of Tobago, 1815. 
 
 YOUSOUF, the last governor of Spain for the 
 Oriental caliphs, killed in battle 759. 
 
 YPSILANTI, three Greek princes who distin- 
 guished themselves in efforts to achieve the inde- 
 pendence of their country. Constantine, born 
 at Constantinople about 1760, became, in 1799, 
 hospodar of Moldavia, and, in 1802, of Wallaehii. 
 He was deprived of this dignity, and after the 
 treaty of Tilsit, 1807, resided in Russia; died 1810. 
 Alexander, the most distinguished of the three, 
 was son of the preceding, and was born in 1792. 
 He attained military rank in the Russian army, 
 and, in 1820, became chief of the Hetaireia, an 
 association of Greek patriots. He began the war 
 of independence by crossing the Pruth, attended 
 with only a few followers, in March, 1821, but 
 after repeated defeats was obliged to abandon the 
 cause and take refuge in Vienna, where he died in 
 1828. His brother, Demetrius, also headed the 
 insurgents, and died 1832. 
 
 YRALA, or IRALA, Domingo Martinez De, 
 one of the Spanish conquerors of America, com- 
 panion of Mendoza, died 1567. 
 
 YRIARTE, I., a Spanish painter, 1635-1685. 
 
 YRIARTE, Don Juan De, a learned archaeolo- 
 gist, keeper of the Royal Library at Madrid, and 
 chief author of the Improved Orthography and 
 Punctuation of the Spanish Language, 1702-1771. 
 His nephew, Domingo, a diplomatist, 1746-1795. 
 Thomas, brother of the latter, a famous poet, 
 comedian, and fabulist, editor of the Mercury of 
 Madrid, 1750-1791. 
 
 YSABEAU, Alexander Clement, a cele- 
 brated character of the French revolution, born 
 about 1750. Being sent as a deputy to the con- 
 vention he became the colleague of Tallien, and a 
 participator in his cruelties at Bourdeaux. He was 
 subsequently a member of the directory and the 
 council of elders ; died 1823. 
 
 YSAURE, or ISAURE, Clemence, a lady who 
 instituted the floral games at Toulouse, was bora 
 there, shortly before the expulsion of the English, 
 about 1450. Her lover being slain in battle, she 
 consecrated her life to the Virgin ' and to the culti- 
 vation of poesy. She left a considerable revenue 
 for the celebration of the floral games, and for 
 prizes given to successful poets. This festival was 
 celebrated annually, in May, till 1806, when it was 
 repressed. Its history was written by Poitevin. 
 
 YVAN. See Ivan. 
 
 YVAN, Antoine, founder of the religious order 
 of Mercy, flourished in Provence, 1576-1653. 
 
 YVART, J. A. Victor, an agricultural writer, 
 called ' The Arthur Young of France,' 1764-1831. 
 
 YVER, J., a French novelist, 16th century. 
 
 YVES, Charles St., a monk of St. Lazarus, 
 who left his order and became celebrated in Paris 
 as an oculist, 1667-1733. 
 
 YVES, St., a theologian and canonist, appointed 
 
 nd he has left numerous other hints, that will bishop of Chartres in 1091, died 1115. 
 robably yet start out into unexpected importance. YVETAUX, Vauquelin, a French scholar and 
 Toung was buried in Farnborough ; but ne has a | poet, tutor to Louis XIIL, 1559-1649. 
 
 859 
 
YVO 
 
 YVON, Peter, a controversial writer and pro- 
 selyte of Labadie, from about 1640. 
 
 YVON, P. C., a French physician, 1719-1811. 
 
 Y-YN, one of the greatest statesmen produced 
 in China, was born about 1770 b.c. He was 
 
 ZABAGLIA, Nicholas, an Italian mechanician 
 and architect, to whom the method of transferring 
 fresco paintings is attributed, 1674-1750. 
 
 ZABAN, or ZABANIUS, Isaac, a Hungarian 
 philosopher, and writer in favour of the atomic 
 theory, born about 1670, died 1699. 
 
 ZABARELLA, Francesco, cardinal and arch- 
 bishop of Florence, a learned canonist and writer 
 on ecclesiastical polity, 1339-1417. Bartolom- 
 meo, his nephew, also archbishop of Florence, and 
 professor of law, 1396-1442. Jacopo, a descen- 
 dant of the preceding, a professor of philosophy 
 and commentator on Aristotle, 1553-1589. 
 
 ZABOROWA, James, a Polish publicist, em- 
 ployed under the direction of the chancellor, in 
 collecting the laws, 1502-1506. 
 
 ZABUESING, J. C, a Ger. writer, 1747-1795. 
 
 ZACCARIA, Francesco Antonio, a learned 
 Venetian Jesuit, historian of Italian literature, and 
 a defender of the papacy, 1714-1795. 
 
 ZACCHIAS, Paolo, an Italian physician and 
 man of letters, born at Rome 1584, died 1659. 
 
 ZACH, Clara, countess of, daughter of a Hun- 
 
 farian noble, executed for assassinating Casimir, 
 ing of Poland, who had outraged her, 1330. 
 
 ZACH, F., a German astronomer, 1754-1832. 
 
 ZACHARIA, D., a French alchymist, 16th cent. 
 
 ZACHARIA, G. T., a Ger. Orientalist, 1729-77. 
 
 ZACHARIA, Justus Frederick William, 
 a German poet, professor at Brunswick, 1726-77. 
 
 ZACHARIAH, a king ot Israel, B.C. 784. 
 
 ZACHARIAH, one of the Jewish prophets, 
 flourished in the reign of Darius, 6th century b.c. 
 
 ZACHT-LEEVEN, or SAFT-LEEVEN, Her- 
 mann, a Dutch painter, 1609-1685. His brother, 
 Cornelius, a painter of drunken frolics, 1606-73. 
 
 ZACUTO, Abraham, in Latin Zacutus Lusi- 
 tanus, a Portuguese Jew, known as a physician 
 and professional writer, 1575-1642. 
 
 ZAGO, O., an Italian engineer, 1654-1737. 
 
 ZAHN, J., a Germ, mathematician, 1641-1707. 
 
 ZAIDOUN, Aboul Walid Ahmed Ibn, a 
 Spanish Arabian poet, 1003-1070. 
 
 ZAINER, G., a German printer, 1430-1478. 
 
 ZAIONCZEK, Joseph, a Polish general, who 
 defended the cause of independence till 1814, and 
 then became a partizan of Russia, 1752-1826. 
 
 ZAKREZEWSKI, Ignatius Wygsygota, a 
 member of the Polish diet, and one of those who 
 distinguished themselves in 1794 in the cause of 
 their country's independence, 1774-1802. 
 
 ZALEUCUS, a Greek philosopher, renowned as 
 the legislator of the Locrians, 500 B.C. 
 
 ZALLINGER, J. B. De Tharn, a Tyrolese 
 Jesuit and botanist, 1731-1785. James Antony, 
 of the same family, a Jesuit, philosopher, and 
 canonist, 1735-1812. F. Seraphin, a Jesuit and 
 physician, 1743-1805. 
 
 ZALLWEIN, G., a German canonist, 1712-66. 
 
 ZALUSKI, Andrew Chrysostome, a prelate, 
 
 ZAN 
 
 minister for thirty-three years to Tai-Kia, whose 
 reign was rendered, by him, one of the most happj 
 and brilliant in the Chinese dynasty. He Uvea tc 
 be nearly one hundred years old, and died in an 
 honourable retirement. 
 
 diplomatist, and grand chancellor of Poland, 1655- 
 1711. His nephew, Andrew Stanislaus, granc 
 chancellor, distinguished as a patron of letters, died 
 1758. J. Andrew, brother of the latter, bishoj 
 of Kiev, collector of a great library, destroyed al 
 the capture of Warsaw by Suwarrow, 1701-1774. 
 
 ZALUZANSKI, Adam, a physician and botanisi 
 of Bohemia, 1 6th century. 
 
 ZALYK, Gregory Georgiades, a Greek o! 
 Thessalonica, secretary of embassy, and author of * 
 French and modern Greek Dictionary, 1785-1827. 
 
 ZAMAGNA, B., a Latin poet, 1735-1820. 
 
 ZAMAKHSCHARI, Aboul Cassem Mah 
 moud Al, an Arabian poet, 1074-1144. 
 
 ZAMBECCARI, F., a Venetian poet, 15th cent 
 
 Z AMBECCARI, Count Francesco, an Italiai 
 aeronaut, born at Bologna 1756, perished in mak 
 ing one of his experim. in balloon navigation 1812 
 
 ZAMBECCARI, Joseph, an Italian physician 
 distinguished in comparative anatomy, 17th cent. 
 
 ZAMBERTO, B., a Venetian author, one o 
 the first to translate Euclid, 15th century. 
 
 ZAMBONI, B., an Italian author, 1730-1797. 
 
 ZAMET, Sebastian, a celebrated Italian finan 
 cier and court intriguant, time of Marie de Medici 
 whom he accompanied to France, born at Luce; 
 about 1549, died 1614. His son, John, baron o 
 Murat and camp-marshal, distinguished in th 
 religious wars, died 1620. Sebastian, his secom 
 son, chaplain to Marie de Medici, bp. of Langre 
 and protector of the Port- Royal savants, died 1655 
 
 ZAMORA, A., a Spanish physician, 1570-164C 
 
 ZAMORA, Bernard De, a learned Spanis] 
 ecclesiastic and philologist, 1720-1785. 
 
 ZAMORA, Gaspard De, a Spanish Jesuit 
 author of a Scripture Concordance, 1546-1621. 
 
 ZAMORA, L., a Spanish poet, died 1614. 
 
 ZAMOSKI, John, nephew by marriage t 
 Stephen, king of Poland, distinguished as a war 
 rior, diplomatist, and patron of literature, calle- 
 the ' Defender of his Country and Protector of th 
 Sciences,' died 1605. 
 
 ZAMPI, F. M., an Italian poet, died 1774. 
 
 ZAMPIERI, C, an Italian poet, 1701-1784. 
 
 ZAMPINI, Matteo, an Italian jurisconsul 
 and partizan of the league, author of works o 
 French history, 16th century. 
 
 ZANARDI, N., an Ital. theologian, 1570-1641 
 
 ZANCHI, Basilio, in Latin Zanchius, an ele 
 gant Latin poet, born at Bergamo 1501, died i 
 prison 1558. Girolamo, his cousin, a celebrate 
 protestant and friend of Peter Martyr, was com! 
 pelled to leave Italy and become a professor i, 
 Heidelberg. He was born at Alanzo, in the terri 
 tory of Bergamo, 1516, and died, some time afte 
 losing his sight, in 1590. His works form eigfc, 
 volumes, ana one of them, on Predestination, ha 
 been translated into English by Dr. Toplady. Th 
 father of Girolamo, F. T. Zanchi, is known i ; 
 Italian literature as an historian and Latin poet. 
 
 860 
 
ZAN 
 
 ZANE, J., a Venetian poet, 1529-1560. 
 
 ZANETTI, Antonio Maria, Count, a Vene- 
 tian antiquarian who contributed to the perfection 
 of wood engraving, 1680-1766. J. Francesco, 
 of the same family, an archaeologist and learned 
 editor, 1713-1782. Alessandro, his brother, 
 an art-writer and librarian of Saint Marc, 1716- 
 1778. Bernardo, a theologian and historian of 
 the Longobardi, 1690-1762. Guido, a learned 
 numismatist, keeper of the museum of antiquities 
 4*t Ferrara, 1741-1791. 
 
 ZANETTINI, J., an Italian jurist, 1430-1493. 
 
 ZANIBONI, A., an Italian poet, died 1767. 
 
 ZANNICHELLI, J. Girolamo, an Italian 
 physician and natural philosopher, 1662-1729. 
 
 ZANNONI, J. B., an Ital. archseol., 1774-1832. 
 
 ZANOLINI, A., an Ital. Orientalist, 1693-1762. 
 
 ZANONI, A., an Ital. agriculturist, 1696-1770. 
 
 ZANONI, Jacopo, a botanical writer, director 
 of the botanic garden at Bologna, 1615-1682. 
 
 ZANOTTI, J. P., an Italian painter and poet, 
 
 a-feecretary of the Clementine academy, 1674-1765. 
 
 Ercolo, his brother, a poet and writer on sacred 
 
 j subjects, 1684-1763. F. Maria, a third brother, 
 
 1 iistinguished as a philosopher by his labours in 
 
 I jopularizing the systems of Descartes and Newton 
 
 II n Italy, 1692-1777. Eustachius, nephew of the 
 in, ^receding, an astronomer, 1709-1782. 
 
 t- ZAPF, G. W., a German savant, 1747-1810. 
 H ZAPF, N., a German Hebraist, 1600-1672. 
 ZAPPI, Giambatista, a philosophical writer 
 
 jf Italy, born at Imola about 1540. His grand- 
 H n, Giambatista Felice, a lawyer and poet, 
 H inthor of Odes and Sonnets, remarkable for purity 
 v >f style, 1667-1719. Faustina, the wife of the 
 $ atter, was a daughter of the famous Carlo Maratti, 
 M md like her husband was skilled in poetry. 
 
 w _ ZARAGOZA, Jose De, a Spanish Jesuit, dis- 
 ss ang. as a mathematician and astronomer, 1627-78. 
 ZARATE, Augustin De, a Spanish historian 
 W )f the discovery and conquest of Peru, 16th cent. 
 I ZARATE, F. L. De, a Spanish poet, d. 1658. 
 
 ZARCO, John Gonzales, a Portuguese navi- 
 
 iii jator who discovered the islands of Porto Santo 
 
 md Madeira, the former in 1417, the latter in 
 
 1419. He become governor of Madeira, and was 
 
 t< ;he founder of Funchal. 
 
 ff ZARLINO, J., a distinguished musician, com- 
 
 i joser, and theologian of Chioggia, 1519-1599. 
 
 i ' ZAROTTI, C, an Italian physician, 17th cent. 
 
 ZASE, Ulric, a Swiss councillor ; although a 
 
 satholic, he had a great admiration for Luther, 
 
 whom he styled the Phoenix of Theologians. 
 
 ai Many of his works were, consequently, put by the 
 
 o: jope in the index ; 1461-1535. 
 
 ZAVARONI, Angelo, an archaeologist and 
 [1 riographer, born in Calabria 1710, died 1767. 
 
 * ZAVAVI, Aboul Hassan, an Arabian gram- 
 i marian, author of a poem on Syntax, 1168-1230. 
 
 a ZAWADOWSKI, Peter Vassilievttch, 
 b Russian minister of instruction time of Alexan- 
 i ler, father of the present emperor, 1738-1812. 
 i ZAYAS Y SOTOMAYOR, Maria De, a 
 b Spanish lady, celebrated by her writings, last cent. 
 ZAZIUS, Ulric, professor of law at Friburg, 
 
 md author of several learned works, 1461-1535. 
 
 His son, John Ulric, 1521-1570. 
 ZEA, Don Francisco Antonio, a botanist 
 
 Ud statesman, was bom in New Grenada 1770, 
 
 ZEN 
 and received the appointment of director of the 
 botanic cabinet at Madrid. On the abdication of 
 Charles IV. he became minister of the interior, 
 and on the retreat of the French went to South 
 America, where he aided in founding the republic 
 of Columbia, of which he became vice-president. 
 In 1820 he came to England as a diplomatic agent 
 to that government and died here in 1822. 
 
 ZEECHI, J., an Italian physician, 1533-1601. 
 
 ZECCHI, Lelio, an Italian theologian, juris- 
 consult, and canonist, died 1610. 
 
 ZECCHINI, P., an Ital. physiologist, 1739-1793. 
 
 ZEGERS, H., a Flemish painter, 17th century. 
 
 ZEGERS, T. N., a Flemish ascetic, died 1559. 
 
 ZEIBICH, C. H., a Hung, theologian, 1717-1763. 
 
 ZEID-BEN-THABET, one of the secretaries 
 of Mahomet. He greatly contributed to dissemi- 
 nate the new doctrine, and made, by order of the 
 caliph, Abou-Bekr, a complete copy of the Koran, 
 which alone came to be considered as authentic. 
 
 ZEIDLER, C. S., a Ger. historian, 1719-1786. 
 
 ZEIDLER, J. G., a German poet, died 1711. 
 
 ZEIRI-BEN-MOUNAD, called Al Taclani, 
 chief of the Zeirites-Sanhadjites. He conquered 
 the whole of the country extending from Algiers 
 to Tripoli, and presented it to Obeid-Allah. He 
 rendered great services to the Fatimites, and was 
 killed at the battle of Mansourah 971. His son, 
 Youssouf-Balkin, founded the dynasty of the 
 Zeirites-Sanhadjites. 
 
 ZEKY-KHAN, Mohammed, half-brother of 
 Kerym-Khan, king of Persia, on whose death in 
 1779 he seized the throne. He was distinguished 
 for nothing but his cruelty, and was put to death 
 by his soldiers shortly after his assumption of 
 power. 
 
 ZELADA, F. X., an Italian cardinal, secretary 
 of state, and librarian of the Vatican, 1717-1801. 
 
 ZELLER, J. G., a Ger. physician, 1656-1734. 
 
 ZELOTTI, Battista, an Italian painter, the 
 fellow-student of Paul Veronese, under Antonio 
 Badile, uncle of the latter, 1532-1592. 
 
 ZELTER, C. F., a Ger. composer, 1758-1832. 
 
 ZELTNER, Gustavus G., a German philologist 
 and historian, 1672-1738. His brother, J. Con- 
 rad, also a learned writer, 1687-1720. 
 
 ZENDRINI, Bernardo, a celebrated mathe- 
 matician and hydraulic engineer, employed by the 
 Venetian and Austrian governments in important 
 public works, author of several treatises, 1679-1747. 
 
 ZENO. There were three celebrated Zenos, 
 Zeno of Elea, the pupil and expounder of Par- 
 menides ; Zeno of Cittium, in Cyprus, founder 
 of the school of the Stoics ; and Zeno the Epi- 
 curean, who lived in the times of Cicero, and 
 had the honour of teaching that illustrious Orator, 
 Philosopher, and Statesman. The two first alone, 
 demand notice here. 
 
 ZENO of Elea, in Magna Grascia, born about 
 the year 500 B.C. Xenophanes had found, or 
 rather divined Unity, in the Idea of an unknown 
 God. Parmenides took a different view, and 
 identified the Unity we seek, with the Idea of it; 
 in other words, he asserted it to be wholly sub- 
 jective. Zeno followed his great Master ; and if 
 we rightly interpret enigmatical traditions con- 
 cerning him, it appears that he must have ad- 
 vanced very far. He is said to have denied the 
 existence of Space, of Motion, and of many posi- 
 
 861 
 
ZEN 
 
 tire Relations : the very absurdity of the stories 
 sot afloat respecting his doctrines, evinces how- 
 much he must have been misunderstood not by 
 tinporaries perhaps, but by later writers. 
 Then is no clue to the foregoing statements, save 
 one. His scheme must have corresponded almost 
 exactly with Kant's : he had separated subjective 
 laws from objective reality, and proclaimed that 
 over the chasm between, he could discern no 
 bridge. It is indeed sufficiently strange to detect 
 traces of the illustrious German Thinker, at the far 
 end of two thousand three hundred years! That 
 our interpretation is most probably true, further 
 appears from Zeno's great and undeniable achieve- 
 ment. The existence of a Science of Logic, was 
 discerned by him first of all ; and he laid down 
 many of its Laws. Logic, be it remembered, is 
 the Science which explores not the qualities or 
 order of external Things, but the conditions under 
 which the Mind moves, as it determines and judges; 
 and what more likely, than that the reality of 
 such a Science should be earliest seen by the 
 Philosopher, who first of all recognized the dis- 
 tinctiveness of Subjective Laws V [J.P.N.] 
 ZENO of Cittium, in Cyprus, lived about 
 250 years before Christ. The external incidents 
 of Zeno's life were in no wise remarkable ; his im- 
 portance and fame rest on his being the founder of 
 the sect of the Stoics, (named, because Zeno 
 chose to teach under the Porch, or 2 root) a sect 
 of greater and wider influence than any other that 
 sprung up during the latter days of Greece, for it 
 took root within the soil of Rome, and obtained 
 sway over the Jurisprudence as well as the Morals 
 of the Republic. The foundations only, of Stoic- 
 ism, were laid by Zeno, who seems to have been 
 indebted for his chief maxims to Antisthenes the 
 Cynic ; it was perfected as a philosophical scheme 
 by the more vigorous genius of Chrysippus of 
 Soli, who reached the year 210 B.C. Stoicism is 
 not a system of Morals alone ; it had its Logic 
 and Theory of Nature besides. Its doctrine of the 
 Human Understanding, or regarding the origin 
 and nature of Knowledge, is surprisingly similar to 
 John Locke's. Assuming Sensation as the source 
 and foundation of whatever can be discerned in 
 the mind, the Stoic claimed for Mind the power 
 of acting on its sensations, comparing them, group- 
 ing them, and judging so concerning them. In this 
 way, a Judgment is formed by a synthesis of 
 Sensations., what they termed a comprehensive 
 representation, by a synthesis of individual Judg- 
 ments; and finally, that ultimate and universal 
 synthesis, which is Science. The critical student 
 will not fail to observe that every trace of the 
 profound philosophy of Plato had already dis- 
 appeared. Next, as to Stoic Physiology. This is 
 a Necessity, a Fatalism pure and simple. They 
 speak indeed of God. They speak of Providence. 
 And of the beauty and perfection of the order of 
 the World, in which each atom has its harmonious 
 place ; symmetry the most unchallengeable reign- 
 ing through all, and the wisest economy also, 
 seeing there is nothing useless not a solitary 
 molecule that can be called superfluous, neither 
 one, unnecessary. To closer scrutiny, however, 
 this God of the Portico, appears an existence de- 
 void of personality and self-consciousness: the 
 is applied to an hypothetic germ or seed, 
 
 ZEN 
 
 from whose necessary and determinate develop 
 ments, Nature and all the varieties of Beinj 
 have sprung. There is no God distinct from th 
 material Universe ; there is but one substance 
 which, considered in its forms, is Nature in it 
 essence, God. Assuredly also a powerful declen ^ 
 sion from the Theism of the greater Times!- 'j 
 Neither can we speak, in less qualified terms, of th I 
 vaunted Morality of Stoicism. With much sem 
 blance of nobleness, and undoubtedly containin 
 wherewithal to nourish a noble nature, it is ye 
 false through exaggeration, and that vicious ex 
 clusiveness which always characterizes the deca 
 of Science. It is verily a maxim to be engrave 
 on every soul 'Be strong and free!' But th 
 question recurs, what is strength ? Is it the powe 
 to regulate passion and desire, to enthrone Reaso. 
 as the judge or umpire over the tendencies in^ 
 
 le from our complex nature, or th 
 ambitious, the unnatural, the vain effort to extir 
 pate passion and desire, so that ceasing to be Me 
 we may rival the Gods ? No philosophy worth 
 the name of Ethical, ever failed to recognize i 
 as Man's primal duty, to curb the appetites, ex 
 tinguish evil passions, and so govern the soul 
 but the Stoic's conception of Order, is not govern 
 ment, it is extinction: just as the blind despc 
 destroys the freedom he cannot rule, and name 
 his solitude Peace ! History never offers a mor 
 certain indication of decrepitude of Thought an 
 defect of true Manliness, than the acceptance ( 
 exaggerations like these. Speaking scientifically 
 they involve an omission of many of the essentn 
 elements of the problem whose solution is aime 
 at : and under another view, they more than indi 
 cate the prevalence of practical insincerity : n it 
 Human Being can get beyond the position of b 
 Man ; and he who pretends to do so, universall e 
 sinks below it. It is a singularly instructive fac 
 that this 'complete liberty' of the Stoic, wt 
 often held consistent with the worst excesse: & 
 Having triumphed, the disciple held that no crim Nic 
 could stain him : like multitudes of Mystics, he ha 
 achieved salvation ; and neither worldliness, nc in 
 meanness, nor crime, could suffice to disturb h; !p 
 sanctimoniousness, or effect his Fall ! It is easy t to 
 see that out of such a doctrine, Men in themselvef tt 
 great, might extract much to augment their Fori 
 titude. But if Stoicism aided in producing 
 Scipio, a Thraseas, an Epictetus, or Marco 
 Aurelius; it also evolved and justified thsM 
 most disastrous record in the annals of Rome th i| 
 issue of the almost maniac ferocity of Marcu 
 Brutus. [J.P.N. 
 
 ZENO, called the Isaurian, emperor of the Eas iti 
 was a chief of the Isaurian guard who obtained th bl 
 favour of Leo I., and married his daughte: ft 
 Ariadne. He exercised the imperial power froi 
 464 to 491, when he found himself in the midst 
 dangers, from which he sought the escape of oblifc 
 vion in debauchery. Four days after his suspicion 
 death, Ariadne married Anastasius. 
 
 ZENO, Apostolo, called 'the father of tb 
 Italian Opera,' was born at Venice in 1 669, an 
 became famous by a periodical work entitled ' Tt 
 Giornale de Litterati,' which he commenced i 
 1770. As a dramatic writer he is compared wit 
 Corneille, and his works form 11 volumes, put 
 lished in 1744. Died 1750. 
 
 8G2 
 
ZEN 
 
 } ZEXO, C, a Venetian admiral, 1334-1418. 
 hi ZEXO, Nicoi.o and Antonio, brothers of the 
 | ireceding, are celebrated in the history of naviga- 
 I ion, by their alleged discovery of America prior to 
 it he voyage of Columbus. It is considered probable 
 u hat they reached Greenland. The former died 
 - 1 1395, the latter 1405. Caterigo, grandson of 
 1 Lntonio, went as ambassador to Persia, and wrote 
 B narrative of his mission, 1472. Nicolo, of the 
 D| ame family, a man of letters, and member of the 
 re ouncil of ten, 1515-1565. 
 
 i ZEXOBIA, Septimia, a princess of Arabian 
 a, escent, who became queen of Palmyra in the 
 i esert, after the murder of her husband, Odenatus, 
 \ l 267 . The latter was killed by his nephew at a 
 re ptival, and Zenobia, who acted with great energy, 
 ssumed the title of queen of the East. She was 
 a eprived of her dominions by the emperor Aurelian 
 li i 272. and died in a private retirement near 
 j :ome. The celebrated critic Longinus acted as 
 a er secretary, and was put to death by the Romans. 
 b ZENOBIUS, a Greek sophist, 2d century, 
 i ZEXODORUS, a tyrant of Syria, d. b.c. 20. 
 i ZEXODORUS, a Greek sculptor, 1st century. 
 i ZENTGRAVE, J. J., a Ger. theolog. 1643-1707. 
 i ZEPERXICK, C. F., a Ger. jurist, 1751-1801. 
 i ZEPHIEIXUS, a bishop of Rome. 197-217. 
 J ZERBE, P. De, an Ital. missionary, 1712-1716. 
 x ZERBIS, G. De, an Ital. anatomist, died 1505. 
 a ZEEMEGH, J., a Hungarian histor., 16th cent. 
 I ZERNITZ, C. F., a German poet, 1717-1744. 
 1 ZEROLA, T., an Italian canonist, 1548-1603. 
 il ZESEN, P. De, a German poet, born 1619. 
 3 ZEUNE, J. C., a Ger. philologist, 1736-1788. 
 fi ZEUXIS, one of the most celebrated painters of 
 A itiquity, was born at one of the ancient towns of 
 f [eraclea, probably in Macedonia, about 460 b.c. 
 ill euxis was at the height of his reputation in the 
 id me of Archelaus, king of Macedon, 413-399 B.C. ; 
 n B painted the palace of this king at Pella, for 
 ie; hich he was paid 400 minae, about 1,600 sterling. 
 o [uch concerning Zeuxis has been preserved in 
 ia icient writers ; nearly every notice reflecting upon 
 k m the very highest praise, not only in the shape 
 li ' popular anecdotes, but in the positive and cir- 
 ft unstantial statements of art criticism : and some 
 n ; the facts recorded concerning this painter, show 
 o: aw similar must have been the ways of art among 
 i ie Greeks upwards of 2,000 years ago, to what they 
 '% ive been during their great epoch in Europe in 
 hi lodern times. The naturalist development of art as 
 t| unpared with its condition the generation before, in 
 A ie time of Polygnotus is clearly demonstrated in the 
 U, irious accounts of Zeuxis, both as to subject and 
 sS s treatment, at the same time combined with the 
 tJi ,eal or principle of selection ; art was no longer 
 ta jrely representative, but thoroughly dramatic. 
 H olygnotus, Zeuxis, and Apelles represent well 
 ti ie three great phases of Greek painting, the 
 H isenti.il, the dramatic, and the refined, in which 
 m ie tecliincal qualities attained their utmost per- 
 
 ction, and like most clevernesses obscured or 
 t) iperseded more essential qualities. Amongst the 
 jj lost remarkable works of Zeuxis, and they were 
 H ianv, are mentioned particularly the celebrated 
 
 Helen of Croton,' ana a ' Family of Centaurs.' 
 d he former was painted from five beautiful virgins 
 
 'the city, and was one of the most celebrated of 
 
 1 the Greek pictures, and it has for ages been the 
 
 ZIM 
 
 theme of poets of all countries. Zeuxis himself 
 subscribed on the picture the three lines from 
 Homer which speak of Helen's beauty : 
 
 'No wonder such celestial charms 
 For nine long years have set the world in armsl 
 What winning graces! what majestic mien! 
 She moves a goddess, and she looks a Queen.' 
 Pope, 11. iii., 156-8. 
 
 Lueian says that Zeuxis seldom or never exerted 
 his powers upon such vulgar or hackneyed subjects 
 as gods, heroes, or battles. His characteristics 
 have been described as a grand style of form, com- 
 bined with a high degree of execution, and power- 
 ful effect of light and shade ; for Appollodorus, the 
 Athenian painter, who may be termed the Greek 
 Rembrandt, complained that Zeuxis had robbed 
 him of his art. To all these fine qualities we must 
 add his highest, his dramatic power of composition ; 
 in expression Aristotle tells us that he was inferior 
 to Polygnotus. There are several stories told 
 about illusive pictures painted by Zeuxis and 
 Parrhasius of Ephesus : the only value of these is 
 to show that illusion was one of the qualities of 
 Greek painting, which will acquire it a higher con- 
 sideration in some minds than any other quality; 
 (Wornum, Epochs of Painting Characterized, &c, 
 and Penny Cyclopaedia, Art. Zeuxis.) [R.N.W.] 
 
 ZEVECOT, J., a Flemish poet, 1604-1646. 
 
 ZHINGA, Bandi, a queen of Angola, who main- 
 tained a struggle for 28 years with the Portuguese, 
 and after performing prodigies of valour was 
 despoiled of the larger part of her dominions. She 
 then submitted to be baptized as a means of pre- 
 serving the remainder, 1581-1663. 
 
 ZICHEN, E. De, a Flemish contro., 1482-1538. 
 
 ZIEGELBAUER, Carachord, a German 
 Benedictine and historian of his order, 1696-1750. 
 
 ZIEGEXBALG, Bartholomew, a German 
 philologist and missionary to the East Indies, 
 1683-1719. 
 
 ZIEGLER, C. J. A., a Ger. physician, 1735-95. 
 
 ZIEGLER, G., a German jurist, 1621-1690. 
 
 ZIEGLER, J., a Latin dramatic writer and bio- 
 grapher of Bavaria, 1520-1564. 
 
 ZIEGLER, J., a Bavarian theologian, mathema- 
 tician, and geographical writer, 1480-1549. 
 
 ZIEGLER, W. C. L., a Ger. theol., 1763-1809. 
 
 ZIEGLER, St. Kliprhausion H. Anselme 
 De, a poet of Saxony, 1653-1690. 
 
 ZILIOLI, A., a Venetian historian, 16th cent. 
 
 ZIMARA, M. A., an Ital. physician, 1460-1532. 
 
 ZIMISCES, emperor of the East. See John. 
 
 ZIMMERMAXX,EberhardAugustiusWie- 
 liam Von, professor of natural philosophy at 
 Brunswick, author of political works and treatises 
 in natural history, 1743-1815. 
 
 ZIMMERMAXX, Henry, author of an account 
 of the third voyage of Captain Cook, with whom 
 he sailed in the Discovery, 1776. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, Johann Georg Von, was 
 one of the most eminent of continental physicians 
 in the eighteenth century, both as a practitioner 
 and as a professional writer. His miscellaneous 
 writings also were numerous ; and one of these, 
 his striking but not very philosophical essay ' On 
 Solitude,' is now, indeed, quite forgotten in Eng- 
 land, but was once very popular among us. It 
 was first printed, as a sketch, in 1756, and after- 
 wards in its complete shape in 1785. Ziinmer-> 
 
 863 
 
ZIM 
 
 matin was born in 1728, at Brugg, in the canton 
 of Bern. After having studied at Gottingen, 
 he practised medicine successively at Bern and 
 in his native town. His tendency to hypochondria 
 showed itself even thus early, but did not disqualify 
 him from either active practice or from zealous 
 and miscellaneous studies. His professional cele- 
 brity gained him, in 1768, the appointment of 
 royal physician at Hanover ; after the second ap- 
 pearance of his work ' On Solitude,' he was invited 
 to St. Petersburg ; and the year after he attended 
 Frederick of Prussia in his last illness. His writ- 
 ings after this were chiefly gossiping collections, 
 and expressions of the horror with which he re- 
 
 garded the revolutionary principles that were 
 ecoming prevalent. His melancholy continued 
 to increase ; and he was completely deranged 
 for some time before his death, which took place 
 in 1795. [W.S.] 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, John James, a Swiss theo- 
 logian, professor at Zurich, 1685-1756. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, John James, an eloquent 
 German preacher, generally regarded as a disciple 
 of Boehmen and Brouquelle, whose doctrines he 
 rendered highly popular; born in the duchy of 
 Wurtemberg, 1644, died at Rotterdam, 1693. 
 Zimmermann made many proselytes in Germany 
 and the United Provinces, and at the moment of 
 his death was about to depart for America to 
 escape the persecution to which he had been sub- 
 jected. For some years he was professor of ma- 
 thematics at Heidelberg. The most notorious of 
 his works is entitled a ' Revelation of Antichrist.' 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, Joseph, a Swiss officer, poet, 
 and military writer, 17th century. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, Matthias, a learned theolo- 
 gian of Hungary, 1625-1689. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, William, a German pastor 
 and controversial writer, 16th century. 
 
 ZIMOROW1CZ, Simon, a Russian poet, about 
 1604-1629. A brother of his, named Bartholo- 
 mew, was a biographical writer. 
 
 ZINCKE, C. F., a German painter, 1684-1767. 
 
 ZINGARELLI, Nicolo, an Italian musician, 
 known at the court of Napoleon in the earlier 
 years of the empire, and afterwards chapel-master 
 at the Vatican, born at Naples 1752, died 1837. 
 He is the author of several operas. 
 
 ZINKE, G. H., a Germ, economist, 1692-1769. 
 
 ZINKGREF, J. G., a German poet, 1591-1635. 
 
 Z1NN, J. G., a German anatomist, 1727-1759. 
 
 ZINZENDORF, Nicholas Louis, Count Von, 
 founder of the Herrnhuters, or Moravian Brethren, 
 was born at Dresden in 1700. According to bis 
 own account (in his ' Natural Reflections on 
 Various Subjects '\ he aspired to form a society 
 of believers from his boyhood. On coming of age 
 in 1721, he settled, with this object in view, on 
 his estate at Bertholsdorf, in Upper Lusatia, and 
 was there joined by several proselytes from Bo- 
 hemia. By 1732 the numbers who had flocked 
 around him amounted to six hundred, and all 
 these were subject to a species of ecclesiastical 
 discipline, or monastic despotism, which brought 
 them in spirit and body, or was intended so to do, 
 under the most absolute control of their leader. 
 From an adjacent hill, called the Hutk-berg. was 
 derived the name of the colony Buth des tierrn, 
 contracted to Herrnhult, the name of the sect ; 
 
 ZIS 
 
 the apellation of Moravian Brethren was assume 
 for his party by Count Zinzendorf, for the sake 
 connection with the separatists of Bohemia ar 
 Moravia, partly derived from Valdo, the forerunn 
 of Luther : some of these, indeed, were among h 
 colonists. Zinzendorf assumed various titles ; 
 the chief of the Herrnhuters, all of which real 
 pointed to a pontificate as his function. Fro 
 1733 his missionaries began to spread, not on 
 over parts of Europe, but in Greenland and Non 
 America even Africa and China were not forgo 
 ten. To him, in fact, Wesley was directly indebtt 
 for both his religious organization and his missioi 
 ary plans, which became so eminently successfu 
 that indefatigable labourer having passed son 
 time with Count Zinzendorf at Herrnhuth. Tl 
 interference of the government with the Counl 
 projects, can hardly be regarded as a measure 
 persecution, as secret doctrines were undoubted 
 held by him, and thus motives given to his fc 
 lowers, and objects sought, of which, wheth 
 good or evil, the established authorities could ta; 
 no cognizance. The history of the sect is curio 
 and interesting: next to their organization 
 classes, the use of singing, which furnished i. 
 Wesleys with a valuable hint, is one of its mo 
 remarkable characteristics ; under this head son 
 singular details might be given. Somethii 
 might be said also on the connection of a certa 
 marriage rite with the theory of regeneration, t 
 efficacy of which was probably tried by the Herr 
 huters in common with the Quakers. Count Zi 
 zendorf died amongst his people on the 9th 
 June, 1760. [E.E 
 
 ZINZENDORF, Philip Louis, Count Von, I 
 Austrian statesman, by whom the wars with Turk; 
 and France were decided, chancellor in the reip 
 of Joseph I., 1671-1742. His son, of the sar 
 names, a cardinal, 1699-1747. 
 
 ZINZERLING, J., in Latin Jodicus Sincert 
 a philologist of Thuringia, 1590-1618. 
 
 ZIRARDINI, Antonio, a learned Italian juri 
 consult and archaeologist, 1725-1784. 
 
 ZISKA. The real name of this renown 
 leader in the early wars of religion in Germa 
 was John Trocznow. He acquired the name 
 Ziska (which means one-eyed,) from the loss 
 an eye in battle. He was born about 1380. ] 
 was of one of the noblest families in Bohemia, a: 
 was brought up in the court and camp of t 
 emperor. Like the greater number of his Boh 
 mian fellow-countrymen, he embraced the tern 
 of John Huss ; and when that reformer was crue 
 and perfidiously put to death by the council 
 Constance, the Bohemians flew to arms to reven 
 their leader's martyrdom, and to protect themseh 
 from the persecution with which they were menac 
 by the bigotry and tyranny of the emperor Sig 
 mond. They elected John Ziska their general ; a 
 in a few months he raised and disciplined a fc 
 midable army, and organized a war of indepe 
 dence throughout Bohemia. The emperor invad 
 Bohemia, but Ziska attacked and utterly defeat 
 him, 11th July, 1420. A negotiation and temp< 
 ary pacification followed ; but the war soon bro 
 out again with redoubled violence, each side bei 
 exasperated against the other by religious fanat: 
 ism, and by the thirst for retaliation for deeds 
 atrocious cruelty. Ziska was everywhere victor 
 
 864 
 
ZIZ 
 
 melons. He invaded Austria and Hungary, and lost 
 o his remaining eye at the siege of Raab". Though 
 now entirely blind he continued to command the 
 Bohemian armies, and gained a victory over Sigis- 
 bj mond at Arssig, which placed the Austrian domin- 
 ! | ions at his mercy. Ziska's ferocity was equal to 
 his military skill; and his followers spread the 
 most fearful and in discriminating ravages wher- 
 ever they marched. The emperor now earnestly 
 sought terms of peace, and a treaty, most humi- 
 !oJli:iting to Austrian pride, was concluded by Ziska's 
 ^Hkence over the Bohemians. Ziska was on his 
 iimlway to meet the emperor when he died of the 
 ^plague, 11th October, 1425. There is a legend that 
 hy his dying orders his skin was, after his death 
 Tj made into a drum, and used by the Bohemians in 
 it their subsequent wars with the emperor. [E.S.C.] 
 >( ZIZIANOFF, Paul Demetrievitch, a Geor- 
 i gian prince in the service of Russia, assassinuted 
 i at the instance of Khan Ibrahim, 1805. 
 ii ZOBOLI, A., an Italian astronomer, 17th cent. 
 rai ZOCCOLI, Carlo, an architect, engineer, and 
 ion jurisconsult of Naples, 1718-1771. 
 : i ZOE, a mistress of Leo VI., emperor of Con- 
 tl stantinople, who was married by him after she 
 M had defeated a conspiracy, and died in less than 
 m two years after her elevation to the throne, 893. 
 !i She is said to have poisoned her first husband. 
 aj A second Zoe was successively the mistress and 
 ,tl wife of the same emperor: she condescended to the 
 m former character, in order to test the probability 
 Zi of her supplying Leo with a successor, and was 
 h ( crowned three days after the baptism of her son, 
 ,B Constantine VII.,"in 905. The Jatter succeeded to 
 u the throne in 911, and Zoe exercised the sovereign 
 rh authority some time : she was at length exiled, and 
 ? jj died in obscurity, 919. 
 
 si ZOE, empress of the East, was the daughter o e 
 Constantine IX., and became the wife of Romanus 
 n III. in 1028, when she was in the forty- eighth year 
 of her age. She was a debauched woman, and 
 Hi became the murderess of her husband, in order to 
 place her lover on the throne, who reigned under 
 m the title of Michel IV. The latter dying, was suc- 
 a ceeded by his nephew, Michel V., who was deposed 
 !f by the people, and Zoe and her sister, Theodora, 
 8 proclaimed joint sovereigns. She displayed great 
 I ability and firmness in the government; and in 
 SI 1042 married in third nuptials Constantine Mono- 
 t] machus. She continued to reign till her death 
 ojj at the age of seventy-four, in 1052. 
 r. ZOEGA, George, a Danish archaeologist, cele- 
 ie | brated for his labours in Egyptian philology and 
 3 antiquities, 1755-1809. 
 
 B ZOES, H., a French jurisconsult, 1571-1627. 
 i]v ZOHEIR, an Arabian poet of the period of 
 jp Mahomet. The work of his which has come down 
 |m to the present time celebrates some of the Arabian 
 princes, and was published at Leipzig in 1792, 
 jj with a Latin translation and Notes. 
 u ZOILUS, a Greek critic and rhetorician, author 
 $ of works against Homer, B.C. 283-247. 
 jt ZOLA, J., a Venetian theologian, 1739-1806. 
 m ZOLKIEWSKI, Stanislaus, hetman of the 
 f, Polish armies under Sigismond III., was engaged 
 ej, in many important battles against the Russians, 
 and died gloriously fighting against the Turks, 
 Is 1547-1620. 
 <H ZOLL, H., a German jurisconsult, 1643-1725. 
 
 865 
 
 ZOU 
 
 ZOLLIKOFER, George Joachim, a Swiss 
 pastor, famous for his amiable character and elo- 
 quence as a preacher, author of ' Devotional Exer- 
 cises ' and Sermons, which have been translated 
 into English, 1730-1788. 
 
 ZONARAS, John, a Greek historian and ascetic 
 writer of the 12th century. 
 
 ZONBOV, the last favourite of Catharine II. of 
 Russia. He was made commander of the artillery, 
 and realized an immense fortune from his exac- 
 tions. Excited by Paul L, he took part in his 
 assassination ; died 1817. 
 
 ZONCA, Victor, an Italian architect, author 
 of several curious mechanical inventions, of which 
 he has written an account, published 1607. 
 
 ZOPELLI, J., a Venetian poet, 1639-1718. 
 
 ZOPF, J. H., a German historian, 1691-1776. 
 
 ZOPPIO, Girolamo, an Italian dramatist, died 
 1591. His son, Melchior, a dramatic writer and 
 philosopher, 1544-1634. 
 
 ZOPPO, P., an Italian painter, died 1515. 
 
 ZOPPO DI LUGANO, the commonly received 
 name of J. B. Discepoli, an Italian painter of 
 the Milanese school, 1590-1660. 
 
 ZORG, Henry, whose proper name was Kok.es, 
 a Dutch painter of interiors, 1621-1682. 
 
 ZORN, J., a German botanist, 1739-1799. 
 
 ZORN, P., a German philologist, 1682-1746. 
 
 ZOROASTER, or ZERDUSHT, the founder, or 
 rather, as we believe, the Reformer of the Religion 
 of the Parsees ; born at Urmia, in Azerbijan, about 
 589 B.C., in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. We 
 shall not speak here of the fables concerning 
 Zoroaster, nor seek to follow him during the 
 twenty years he is reported to have spent in medi- 
 tation among the awful solitudes of inaccessible 
 Elbrooz. It is of chief moment to recognize him 
 as the earliest systematic expounder of that solu- 
 tion of the Mystery of Evil, which may be termed 
 Spiritual Dualism. He imagined two mighty 
 spirits in contest Ormuzd and Ahriman 
 God and the Devil; and in this, as we have 
 said, he most probably reproduces an older mytho- 
 logy of the Parsee race. In English, we have the 
 doctrine of Zoroaster in the immortal verse of 
 Milton ; nor indeed did the Hebrews ever have 
 any notion of Dualism, until after their intermix- 
 ture during times of captivity with the farther 
 East. Ormuzd, was conceived by Zoroaster, sym- 
 bolized by Light. The Sun a visible type of Him ; 
 and Fire the expression of his energy. Fire-wor- 
 ship spread, extensively through India and Higher 
 Asia; but, as usual, it became a superstition. 
 Schism followed on the death of Zoroaster, who, 
 any more than other greatest Men, had no true 
 Successor. [J.P.N/J 
 
 ZORZI, Alessandro, in Latin Georgius, a 
 Venetian theologian, 1747-1779. 
 
 ZOSIMUS, a Greek historian of the 5th cen- 
 tury, contemporary with Honorius and Theodosius 
 the younger. His work is a history of the Roman 
 emperors, reaching to the year 470, and is favour- 
 able to Christianity. It was translated into Eng- 
 lish under the title of ' The New History of Count 
 Zosimus,' 1684. 
 
 ZOSIMUS, a pope of Rome, 417-418. 
 
 ZOUCH, or ZOUCHE, Richard, author of 
 several works in Latin on civil, military, and mari- 
 time jurisprudence, was born at Anstey, in Wilt-* 
 
 3K 
 
zou 
 
 6hire. about 1590, and was admitted a follow at 
 Oxford in 1G09. He was afterwards a member of 
 parliament, and Admiralty judge. Died 1060. 
 
 ZOUCH, Thomas, born at Sandal, near Wake- 
 field, in Yorksbire, in 1737, became rector of 
 Wyelitl'e in tbat county, and prebendary of Dur- 
 ham. In 1808 he declined the bishopric of Car- 
 lisle on account of bis advanced age, and died in 
 1816. He wrote ' The Crucifixion,' a Seaton prize 
 poem, ' An Inquiry into the Prophetic Character 
 of the Romans,' ' Illustrations of the Prophecies,' 
 a ' Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney,' and other works. 
 
 ZRINGI, N., a Hungarian poet, 17th century. 
 
 ZSCHOKKE, Heinrich, born at Magdeburg 
 in 1771, inherited in childhood a moderate patri- 
 mony, which enabled him during his youth and 
 early manhood to gratify his desire of adventure 
 and of various knowledge. After having been a 
 family tutor, the literary man of a troop of players, 
 and a student in the university of Frankfort-on- 
 the-Oder, he was licensed as a candidate of theology, 
 or preacher, in the Reformed or Calvinistic church, 
 and was within a little of becoming pastor of a con- 
 
 fregation in his native town. He next returned to 
 rankiort, and lectured there on various branches 
 of philosophy and theology Failing, however, to 
 obtain a professorship, he settled, in 1796, at 
 Reichenau in the Grisons, where he established 
 very successfully a boarding-school for boys. The 
 political disturbances, spreading into Switzerland, 
 drove him within two years to seek refuge at Bern. 
 His administrative ability, with his political opin- 
 ions, recommended him to employment under the 
 central government of the Helvetic Republic. In 
 1802 he settled near Aarau, the chief town of the 
 canton of Aargau ; and there he resided for the 
 remainder of his long life. Attaching himself in 
 politics to that which may be regarded as having 
 been the moderately democratic party, he held in 
 succession several public offices, and distinguished 
 himself by his activity in promoting social reforms, 
 especially such as bore on the education of the poor. 
 He died in the summer of 1848. Zschokke's 
 published writings filled, when collected, more 
 than fjrty volumes. Their kinds were various ; 
 and he was far from being successful in some of 
 these, especially his attempts at poetical and dra- 
 matic composition. His most ambitious works 
 were, his 'History of the Bavarian Nation and its 
 Princes,' and his ' Jljptory of Switzerland for the 
 Swiss People.' Thelatt<&, first published in 1802, be- 
 came exceedingly popular, and is authoritative and 
 excellent, though held not to be impartial. In his 
 interesting ' Autobiography,' written in old age, he 
 
 declared Himself the author of the ' Hours of De^ ; 
 
 votion' (Stunden der Andacht), which was origj-> Z\fCCONI, J., a Venetian poet, 1721-1754. 
 
 nally a Sunday periodical, designed for ordinary '*' gJJCKERT- J. F., a Ger. mineralogist, 1737-7 
 
 families. It became, on being collected, a great 
 
 favourite throughout protestant Germany ; where 
 
 its shortcoming in orthodoxy was held no serious 
 
 drawback on its fervour of sentiment, its advocacy 
 
 of unlimited tolerance, and its zealous inculcation 
 
 of practical duty. The best known, however, of 
 Zschokke's works are his Novels, which are very 
 numerous, while some are of considerable length. 
 The least successful of them are those which take 
 the form of historical romances : be wanted the 
 ktren^th of imagination and the depth of feeling 
 requisite for recreating the past. The beat are 
 
 ZUM 
 
 those in which he paints reality and familiar life 
 and in these there is a very agreeable mixture o 
 broad humour with a light and cheerful sentiment 
 ality ; while the grotesqueness of characterizatioi 
 is supported by much originality in the inventioi 
 of comic incidents. A considerable number o 
 these comic tales, as well as several of the seriou: 
 ones, are avowedly didactic. In some of them th 
 author aims at teaching religious lessons, mud 
 like those of the 'Stunden;' as in the dissertativ 
 story of ' Alamontade,' and the serio-comic nove 
 of ' Jonathan Frock.' In others he represents 
 much in the manner of Mrs. Hamilton or Mis 
 Edge worth, attempts at domestic and social re 
 forms among the poor : such are 'The Goldmaken 
 Village,' ' The Millionaire,' and ' The Hole a 
 Elbows.' Several of the best are lively and strik 
 ing embodiments of the weak points in social insti 
 tutions, especially as these appear under absolut 
 governments. Instances of the kind are these 
 the tale, 'Who Governs?' in which a Europeai 
 war is traced to the freak of a French chamber 
 maid ; ' Small Causes,' in which the history of tw 
 individuals is followed through a succession of trifl 
 ing accidents; and 'The Adventures of a Ke\ 
 Year's Night,' in which a prince and a policeman ex 
 change places, and throw a petty court into conf u 
 sion before morning. A good many of Zschokke' 
 smaller novels have appeared in English periodicals 
 and one or two of them, as well as his ' Autobio 
 grapby,' have been translated separately. [W.S. 
 
 ZUALLART, J., a German traveller, and au 
 thor of descriptive works, 16th century. 
 
 ZUAZO, H., a Spanish jurisconsult, died 1527. 
 
 ZUBER, M., a Latin and Greek poet, 1570-162S 
 
 ZUCCARDI, U., an Italian jurist, 1480-1541. 
 
 ZUCCARELLI, or ZUCCTIERELLI, Fkan 
 cesco, an Italian painter and engraver, taugb 
 by Morandi, distinguished for his landscapes, ii 
 which he introduced small figures, 1712-1788. 
 
 ZUCCARO, or ZUCCHERO, Taddeo, a pain 
 ter, after the Roman school, born at Urbino 15213 
 died 1566. His younger brother, Fedeihgo, 
 painter and sculptor, prince of the academy o 
 Saint Luke, famous for his gigantic figures adapte- 
 to dome painting, 1542-1609. 
 
 ZUCCHERELLI. See Zuocarelli. 
 
 ZUCCHI, B., an Italian writer, 1560-1631. 
 
 ZUCCHI, Giovanni, an Italian painter, taugh 
 by Vasari, died 1590. Francesco, his brother 
 famous for his mosaic work, died 1620. 
 
 ZUCCHI, M. A., an improvisator, died 1764. 
 
 ZUCCHI, N., an Italian Jesuit, 1586-1670. 
 
 ZUCCOLO, L., an Italian moralist, 16th cent 
 
 ZUCCOLO, L., an Italian jurist, 1599-1688. 
 
 F- ^ClCHEM' D'AYTA, Vigilius, a FlemisJ 
 jurisconsult, and president of the council, 1507-77 
 
 ZUINGLIUS. See Zwingi.i. 
 
 ZUMALACARREGUY, Thomas, general ii 
 chief of the Spanish army, was born in 1789, ant 
 became a devoted partizan of Don Carlos, on thi 
 death of Ferdinand VII., which took place ii 
 1822. He was the most redoubted opponent of thi 
 armies of Christina and Donna Maria, and pos< 
 sessed qualities which gained him the respect evei 
 of his enemies. Zumalacarreguy died of wound 
 received at the siege of Bilboa, 25th June, 1835. 
 
 866 
 
ZUM 
 ZUMBO, Gaetano Julio, a famous Sicilian 
 - artist ; he learnt, without the assistance of a 
 ?>' teacher, the principles of sculpture, and, after hav- 
 !i ng profoundly studied anatomy, he gained great 
 : 'i reputation by his figures in a coloured wax, the 
 reparation of which he kept secret; 1656-1701. 
 W ZUMSTEEG, J. R., a Germ, comp., 1760-1802. 
 
 * ZUNIGA, Don Diego Ortiz De, historian of 
 ^ he civil and ecclesiastical affairs of Seville, 17th ct. 
 
 * ZURBARAN, F., a Spanish painter, 1598-1662. 
 
 * ZURITA, J., a Spanish historian, 1512-1581. 
 to ZURLA, P., an Italian antiquarian, 1769-1834. 
 is ZURLAUBEN, Latour Chatillon De, an 
 indent Swiss family, which produced many dis- 
 ri Anguished warriors, from the 12th to the 16th 
 >! senturies. The best known is Beat Fidele An- 
 1 toixe Jean Dominique, Baron Latour Chatillon 
 I le Zurlauben, who became lieutenant-general, and 
 
 I levoted his latter years to literature. His works 
 ire a ' Military History of the Swiss in the French 
 i service,' a ' History of the Swiss and their Allies,' 
 
 I I ' Picturesque Tour in Switzerland,' and various 
 1 nemoirs ; born at Zug 1720, died 1795. 
 
 ;i ZURLO, Joseph, Count, a Neapolitan states- 
 
 I nan, born 1759, and named finance minister 1798. 
 a [n this capacity he ventured on reforms which led 
 ft ;o his dismissal, but he became minister again under 
 
 II tfurat in 1809, and in the fresh circumstances of 
 ill 1820. On the latter occasion the influence of the 
 i Carbonari deprived him of power. Died 1828. 
 
 S. ZUSTRIS, L., a Dutch painter, died 1600. 
 
 i ZUZZERI, Bernardo, an Italian Jesuit and 
 nissionary in Croatia, 1683-1762. J. Luc, of the 
 
 I lame family, a celebrated numismatist, 1716-1746. 
 
 23 ZWANZIGER, J. C, a Hungarian philosopher 
 
 1. ind opponent of Kant, 1732-1808. 
 
 i ZWEERS, Jerome, a Dutch poet, 1627-1696. 
 
 ;'a 3is grandson, Cornelius, a dramatist, died 1774. 
 
 ' ZWELFER, J., a German chemist, 1618-1668. 
 ZWICKER, Daniel, a theologian of Dantzic, 
 
 iiAhief of the Tolerants, 1612-1678. 
 
 23 ZWINGER, Theodore, a German physician 
 ind philosophical writer, flourished at Basle, 1533- 
 
 i( l588. His son, James, a physician and Hellenist, 
 .4,09-1610. Theodore, son of the latter, a theo- 
 ogian and superintendent of the churches at Bale, 
 597-1654. John, son of Theodore, a theologian 
 nd bibliographer, 1634-1696. Theodore, son 
 if John, a physician, anatomist, and botanist, 
 
 e 1658-1724. John Rodolph, their nephew, a 
 ihysician and founder of a scientific society, 1692- 
 777. Frederic, his brother, a physician and 
 laturalist, 1707-1776. 
 
 d ZWINGLI, or ZUINGLIUS, Ulrick, the great 
 Jwiss reformer, was bom at Wildhausen, in the 
 janton of St. Gall, in 1484. His early education 
 
 [J *as carried on at Basel, and afterwards at Berne. 
 
 i [Tie Dominican monks, in this place, attracted by 
 lis talents and rising reputation, sought to entrap 
 lim into their order, but his father, in order to 
 emove him from the scene of temptation, sent him 
 rff to Vienna. In 1502, and being eighteen years 
 >f age, the young scholar returned home, and soon 
 repaired again to Basel and took his degree as 
 naster of arts. Under the teaching of Wittenbach, 
 irho had been acting along with the famous Reu- 
 shlin, his mind received the first germs of free 
 inquiry those seminal truths, which, in his quick 
 ind genial mind, soon ripened into harvest. He 
 
 ZWI 
 
 preached his first sermon in 1506, and was chosen 
 pastor of Glaris. Here he remained ten years, 
 and during that period he mingled in the strife of 
 arms against the French. The young pastor, at 
 the same time, devoted himself to the study of 
 Greek and Hebrew, gradually irade the Scriptures 
 his sole and supreme rule of authority, and pub- 
 licly expounded the Gospels and the Epistles. In 
 1516 he had been chosen preacher to the Abbey of 
 Einsidlen, a famed spot of popish pilgrimage and 
 superstition, and the year following he removed to 
 a similar position in the cathedral of Zurich. The 
 effect of his honest preaching of the gospel soon 
 became apparent in the city and country, and his 
 general character and opinions produced a deep 
 and universal sensation. While this state of tran- 
 sition was so marked, the crisis was hastened, in 
 1518, by the arrival of Samson, the seller of indul- 
 gences. The traffic in these ' Roman wares ' roused 
 the indignation of Zwingli and led to a keen ex- 
 posure and a successful resistance. Luther's 
 writings were, at the same time, largely circulated 
 at the recommendation of the reformer. The 
 plague broke out, and, during its continuance, 
 though weak himself from exhaustion, he assidu- 
 ously tended the sick and dying. His zealous 
 labours grew in number and results, the simpli- 
 city of the gospel was more distinctly apprehended 
 by him ; but the friends of the popedom were en- 
 raged, and Zwingli was tried, in January, 1523, 
 on a charge of heresy. Rome gained nothing by the 
 trial. Zwingli presented 67 propositions, and de- 
 fended them from Scripture. The reformer gathered 
 courage with growing difficulties, and, in 1524, the 
 council of Zurich remodelled the public worship ac- 
 cording to the views and wishes of Zwingli. Pictures, 
 statues, and relics were removed from the churches, 
 and mass was abolished. Opposition to the reformed 
 doctrines was meanwhile gathering in the other 
 cantons. The question arose, whether each canton 
 was free to choose its own form of religion, or 
 whether the confederation should interfere;^ Zurich 
 contended for its individual liberty and indepen- 
 dence, but was opposed by the Waldstettes, or the 
 primitive democratic cantons of Schwytz, Unter- 
 wald, Urzug, and Lucerne. The triumph of the 
 reformation at Berne, and other places, threw those 
 forest cantons into wilder commotion, and, in 
 consonance with their views of their federal polity, 
 they took up arms for Rome. Zurich, encouraged 
 by Zwingli, called out its troops and put itself into 
 a posture of defence. Efforts were made to main- 
 tain peace, but it was of no long duration, and 
 after various diplomatic negotiations, hostilities 
 finally commenced. Zurich nad also lost some- 
 what of its earlier evangelical purity, while the 
 neighbouring states were conspiring for its ruin. 
 In the awful emergency, when the public mind was 
 alarmed by a series of omens and prodigies, the 
 reformer maintained tranquillity. The war began. 
 Zurich was cowardly, dilatory, and far from being 
 prepared, but the horn of the enemy echoed among 
 their hills, and the devoted Zwingli mounted his 
 caparisoned horse, took farewell of his wife and 
 children, and went forth as a patriot and warrior 
 to share in the common danger. The Ziirichers 
 marched to meet the Waldstettes, but were de- 
 
 feated at Cappel with great slaughter, 11th Octo- 
 ber, 1531. Zwingli was found, 
 
 667 
 
 i after the battle, lying 
 
ZWI 
 
 on his back and his eves upturned to heaven, with 
 bia helmet on his head, and his battle-axe in his 
 hand. He had been struck near the commence- 
 ment of the engagement, and then as he fell and 
 reeled, he was several times pierced with a lance. 
 He was living when discovered in the evening; but 
 the infuriated fanatics soon despatched him. Next 
 day his dead body was barbarously quartered and 
 burnt. Thus perished this hero-martyr. The 
 contests of Zwingli and Luther on the nature of 
 the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper are well 
 known, but the Swiss proved himself freer from 
 early prejudice and traditional teaching than his 
 neat German antagonist. It is needless to discuss 
 the relative merits of the two illustrious reformers, 
 their position and sphere of influence being so very 
 different. The fame of Luther has overtopped that 
 of Zwingli, yet the Swiss divine had perhaps more 
 
 ZYR 
 
 caution and sagacity, and certainly more learning 
 and refinement than the Saxon. He was also earn 
 alive to the errors of Rome, and though be died I 
 young man, yet in his narrower circle of actior 
 he carried out the reformation farther than Luthe: 
 did. The works of Zwingli were published ii 
 four folios, Tiguri, 1581 ; and in eight octavos 
 edited by Schuler and Schultess, Zurich, -1828- 
 1842. [J.3 
 
 ZYTTI, A. Van, a Dutch theologian, 17th cent 
 
 ZYLL, Otho Van, in Latin Zijlius, a Dutcl 
 poet and professor of rhetoric, 1588-1656. 
 
 ZYPE, Francis Van Den, in Latin Zypams. 
 professor of anatomy at the university of Louvain 
 author of a work published 1683. 
 
 ZYRLIN, or ZIERLIN, G., a Swiss pastor an< 
 Latin poet ; 1592-1661. An explication of the pro 
 phet Abdias, written in German, is ascribed to him 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 ABB 
 
 ABBAS PACHA, viceroy of Egypt, was the 
 grandson of Mehemet AH, whom he succeeded in 
 1849. He was a man of no particular character, 
 but exhibited a friendly disposition towards the 
 English, chiefly, perhaps, from his hatred of French 
 influence. Died. July 13th, 1854, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Said Pasha, the youngest son of 
 Mehemet AH. 
 
 A'BECKETT, Gilbert, was the second son 
 of a solicitor of large practice in Golden square, 
 London, who dealt in the now all but extinct 
 business of providing young men of fortune with 
 parliamentary boroughs. Young Gilbert, in com- 
 mon with his brothers, was educated at West- 
 minster school. Before A'Beckett had left West- 
 minster, that talent for ridicule began to display 
 itself, which a wit of the day very happily char- 
 acterized, when he said ' A'Beckett would contrive 
 to put the pyramid under a thimble.' At a very 
 early age, in conjunction with one of the members 
 Df the Mayhew family, he started a small publica- 
 tion called the Cerberus, where will be found not 
 \ few of the jokes and germs of articles that after- 
 wards appeared full blown in Punch. Though 
 vehemently admired and vehemently puffed by a 
 clique, Cerberus proved a mercantile failure. No 
 sooner had it ceased to growl, than the Beacon 
 rose to warn; this more ambitious venture proved 
 disastrous to the spirited publisher, Richardson. 
 The Beacon ' paling its ineffectual fire,' A'Beckett 
 and his staff were once more cast upon the bosom 
 of mighty London. Something which seemed 
 relief soon came, however, in the shape of an 
 advertisement for a successor to ' Dirty Cummings,' 
 the delicate sobriquet of the dramatic critic of the 
 Weekly Dispatch. From among a host of com- 
 petitors A'Beckett proved the successful candidate 
 For the vacant office of theatrical censor, and great 
 was the rejoicing of the literary troupe with which 
 was associated. But, alas, A'Beckett was not 
 long on the Dispatch before he was pronounced 
 wanting in vigour and power. Once more adrift in 
 conjunction with a humourist named Seymour, the 
 Figaro in London was projected and produced. 
 Original in idea, crisp and pungent in its articles and 
 ow in price, the Figaro soon obtained a great sale. 
 Mr. A'Beckett became a popular writer, clearing a 
 thousand a-year by this venture. The success of 
 Figaro led A'Beckett very rapidly into numerous 
 publishing schemes, which ultimately landed him 
 in the Insolvent Court, a crisis arising from his 
 utter ignorance of business matters. On the estab- 
 lishment of Punc/j, Mr. A'Beckett was employed 
 Upon it principally in parodying courtly and com- 
 mercial announcements, and in burlesquing Black- 
 stone's ' Commentaries.' This latter vein being 
 found popular, the histories of Rome and England 
 were laid under contribution, but in many quarters 
 pis invasion of the domain of history was sternly 
 
 869 
 
 ANG 
 
 denounced as beyond the legitimate field of the 
 humourist. About this time it was, he became 
 connected with the Morning Herald and the Times. 
 The bantering articles on the foundation of the 
 British Association were understood to be from 
 his pen. Called to the bar he made the acquain- 
 tance of Mr. Charles Buller, and by him A'Beckett 
 was put on a commission for reporting on the 
 poor laws and the poor. The able report which 
 he produced on this occasion procured him an 
 appointment as one of the metropolitan magistrates 
 in 1849. This appointment gave rise to much 
 cavil on the part of legal aspirants, and the 
 Morning Herald denounced it in some severe 
 leaders, understood to have been written by the 
 late Samuel Phillips. Mr. A'Beckett's sagacity 
 on the bench fully justified the appointment which 
 he held with the utmost satisfaction to the pubfic 
 until his death. He died suddenly at Boulogne, in 
 the autumn of 1856. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sin Robert, fifth baronet of 
 Birkenbog and Forglen, in the county of Banff. 
 Born 4th February, 1784, died at Forglen House, 
 June, 1855. 
 
 ADAIR, Sir Robert, a diplomatist whose im- 
 portant services date in the time of Fox and 
 Canning, born 1763, died in his ninety-third year, 
 October, 1855. He was the last surviving friend 
 of Charles James Fox. An interesting notice of his 
 career will be found in the 'Gentleman's Magazine.' 
 
 ADAM, Sir Charles, a distinguished British 
 admiral, died governor of Greenwich Hospital, 1853. 
 
 ADAMSON, John, an antiquarian and man of 
 letters, late treasurer and secretaiy of the Society 
 of Antiquaries of Newcastle, 1787-1855. 
 
 AIKEN, Arthur, eldest son of the well 
 known litterateur, and nephew to Mrs. Barbauld, 
 was born at Warrington in Lancashire; 1773. He 
 is the author of several works interesting to the 
 naturalist, and was one of the founders of the 
 Geological Society; died 1854. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Robert, a native of Paisley, 
 distinguished as a journalist, chiefly as founder of 
 the Liverpool Mail, 1795-1854. 
 
 ALTHORPE. See Spencer. 
 
 AMARANTHE, Madame de Ste See Theos. 
 
 ANCKLITZEN. See Schwartz. 
 
 ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, mar- 
 quess of, eminently distinguished as a cavalry offi- 
 cer, was born in 1768. His father was Henry, the 
 first earl of Uxbridge ; his mother, a daughter of 
 the Very Rev. Arthur Champagne, dean of Clon- 
 macnoise. In the early part of his career he bore 
 the title of Lord Paget, but succeeded to his 
 father's title in 1812, and was created marquess of 
 Anglesey a few days after the battle of Waterloo. 
 His noble spirit and military ardour was shown as 
 early as 1790, when he raised among his father's 
 tenantry the 80th regiment of foot, or Staffordshire 
 
ANG 
 
 volunteers, at whose head, in 1794, he joined the 
 duke of York in Flanders. In June of this year his 
 talents for command and his gallantry were so well 
 established, that he was appointed lieut.-colonel 
 of the 16th light dragoons, and thus commenced 
 his brilliant career as a cavalry officer. Though 
 only twenty- six years of age, he took the place of 
 Lord Cathcart, at the head of his brigade, during the 
 temporary absence of that officer. In 1799, he 
 accompanied the duke of York to Holland, and 
 among other deeds of valour completely routed Gen- 
 eral Simon, whose force amounted to seven squad- 
 rons, while Lord Paget commanded only one. On 
 this occasion he took five of the enemy's cannon, 
 besides recovering some of our own pieces. From 
 this period till 1808, Lord Paget devoted himself 
 to the discipline of his regiment, the 7th light 
 dragoons, and towards the close of this year was 
 ordered into Spain to strengthen the forces of Sir 
 David Baird, who was then advancing through 
 Galicia, to effect a junction with Sir John Moore. 
 It was now, in the famous retreat upon Corunna, 
 and the final battle, that the noblest qualities of 
 the soldier were displayed in the indomitable cou- 
 rage and discipline of Lord Paget's troops, and the 
 spirit of chivalry he infused into them ; for the re- 
 treat was covered by a series of fights, in which the 
 generosity and knightly courage of the middle ages 
 were hardly less prominent than the word of com- 
 mand. In 1809 Lord Paget returned to England, 
 and his next appearance on the battle-field is at 
 Quatre Bras and Waterloo, as earl of Uxbridge. 
 It is impossible, in the narrow space at our com- 
 mand, to do justice to his achievements at this crisis 
 of the world's fate. The cuirassiers were deemed in- 
 vincible. 'Twice,'oneofhisbiographersrelates, 'had 
 the gallant earl led the guards to the charge, cheer- 
 ing them with the rallying cry of, " Now for the 
 honour of the household troops ! " when three heavy 
 masses of the enemy's infantry advanced, sup- 
 ported by artillery, and a numerous body of cuiras- 
 siers. This formidable force drove in the Belgians, 
 leaving the Highland brigade to receive the shock. 
 At this critical moment Lord Uxbridge galloped 
 up to the second heavy brigade, under the command 
 of Sir William Ponsonby, when the three regiments 
 were wheeled up in the most masterly style, pre- 
 senting a beautiful front of above thirteen hundred 
 men. As the earl rode down the line, he was re- 
 ceived by a general shout and cheer from the bri- 
 gade. Then placing himself at their head, they 
 made the most rapid and destructive charge ever 
 witnessed. The division they attacked consisted 
 of upwards of nine thousand men, under Count 
 d'Erlon. Of these, three thousand were made pri- 
 soners, and the rest killed, with the exception of a 
 few hundred men, who formed themselves under 
 cover of the cuirassiers. After this, his lordship 
 bravely led the same troops in several other bril- 
 liant attacks, cutting in pieces whole battalions of 
 the old French guard, into whose masses they pene- 
 trated.' The earl was carried through these 
 dangers without injury, but was struck in the knee 
 by almost the last shot of Waterloo ; in conse- 
 quence of which his leg had to be amputated. A 
 few weeks, however, saw him convalescent again, 
 and, besides the honours which he received on his 
 return home, a pension of 1,200 a-year was 
 awarded him, which he nobiy declined. His later 
 
 870 
 
 ARA 
 
 years were chiefly devoted to the public service at 
 master of the ordnance, except that he was viceroy 
 of Ireland in the tumultuous period of O'Connelli 
 ascendency. In 1842, he left his old companion:, 
 in arms, the 7th light dragoons, and assumed tin 
 command of the royal horse guards: four year 
 later he was honoured with the rank of field-mar- 
 shal. Died April 29, 1854. [E.R. 
 
 ARAGO, Dominique- Francois -Jkan, ai 
 eminent French mathematician and astronomer 
 born 1786 ; died 1853. This remarkable mai 
 was born in the village of Estagel, near Perpignan 
 in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, on th> 
 26th of February, 1786. His father was a licen 
 tiate of law, and the owner of as much propert; 
 in land, vineyards, and olive plantations, as en 
 abled him to support in comfort a numerou 
 family; but the family itself was of Spanish de 
 scent, and the future philosopher inherited witl 
 his birth the passions of the south. His elemen 
 tary education was received at the communa 
 school of his native place; but on the remova 
 of his father to Perpignan, he was sent to th 
 college of that ancient city, where he followei 
 the course of instruction pursued in the Frenc] 
 academies of that time, which did not in 
 elude the learned languages. His tastes, he tell 
 us {Eistoire de ma Jeunesse), were at this earl- 
 period purely literary, and the development of hi 
 latent mathematical faculties he owed to an acci 
 dental meeting with a young officer of engineers 
 who was engaged in superintending the repairs o 
 the ramparts of Perpignan, and who inspired hin 
 with a passion for a military life. Learning fron 
 his new friend that he had been a pupil in th 
 Polytechnic school, and that a severe mathematica 
 examination was required for admission into tha 
 establishment, he determined henceforth to cultivat 
 the mathematics, which he did with so much zea 
 and success that in eighteen months he masterei 
 the subjects contained in the programme of adi 
 mission ; and having passed with credit the pre-' 
 liminary examination, which was conducted by th 
 celebrated Monge, at Toulouse, he entered th 
 Polytechnic towards the end of 1803, carryinj 
 into it, he assures us, a more profound know- 
 ledge of analysis than most of the pupils contrive< 
 to cany out of it. During the next three year 
 his progress must have been very great, for wr 
 find that, in 1806, he was appointed one of thi 
 secretaries to the Board of Longitude, and that h< 
 was shortly afterwards associated with M. Biot ii 
 the measurement of an arc of the meridian 
 Spain, a national undertaking which had beer 
 suspended by the death of M. Mechain, to whorr, 
 it was originally confided. He still indulged the 
 hope of following a military career under the im-i 
 mediate patronage of Marshal Lannes, but a dif-! 
 ferent and more congenial destiny awaited him.; 
 and the Spanish expedition, which consumed three; 
 years at the most critical period of his life, first 
 postponed the realization of his early hopes, and 
 finally frustrated them. Biot having returned tc 
 Paris, and war having broken out between France 
 and Spain, Arago's position in a hostile country 
 became one of extreme danger from which he wa 
 only extricated by his own courage and dexterity.' 
 Perched on the summit of a lofty mountain, on 
 which during the day he used his geodetical in- 
 
ARA 
 
 struments, and at night lit a signal fire, he was 
 suspected by the Spanish peasantry to be a spy 
 1 who was communicating by telegraph with the 
 > invading army. He was obliged-, therefore, to 
 tli make his escape as speedily as possible, which he 
 1 did in the disguise of a Catalonian mountaineer, 
 
 * proceeding, with his instruments and papers, to 
 > Majorca, where he found shelter in the fortress of 
 i Belver. There he completed his goodetical cal- 
 K culations. and remained till the political fermenta- 
 tion on the neighbouring continent extended to 
 'i Majorca, and rendered his further stay in that 
 i island unsafe. His only way of regaining France, 
 B however, was by proceeding," in the first place, to 
 
 * Algiers, and thence embarking in an Algerine 
 vessel destined for Marseilles ; but this vessel, 
 d when within sight of her port, was captured by a 
 k Spanish privateer, and the philosophical voyager 
 ti sent as a prisoner of war to the fortress of Rosas, 
 in and afterwards to the hulks at Palamos. After a 
 m detention of several months, and undergoing many 
 a hardships and indignities, he was liberated by the 
 ii Spanish authorities, and allowed, with his Alger- 
 ' ine companions, to proceed on his voyage to 
 d Marseilles ; but a storm arose, the vessel was 
 i| driven off the French coast and towards Africa, 
 & and her passengers landed at Bougia, whence M. 
 rlj Arago proceeded on foot to Algiers. After much 
 lii delay, and some risk, the French consul procured 
 a a passage for him in a French vessel bound to 
 ts Marseilles, where he arrived safely, on the 2d of 
 o July, 1809, after having been chased by an English 
 il ship of war. The reappearance of the missing 
 03 philosopher in France, under circumstances so un- 
 til usual, created a strong sensation in the scientific 
 tj world. Among its other results it led to the form- 
 13 ation of a friendship between Arago and Alexander 
 H Von Humboldt, which only ended with the death 
 a of the former : while it also brought to the hero 
 
 * of such strange adventures a rapid accumulation 
 io of honours. On the death of the astronomer La- 
 s lande, he was elected, in September, 1809, a 
 
 member of the Academy of Sciences, and shortly 
 afterwards he was appointed one of the professors 
 of the Polytechnic school, and director of the im- 
 perial observatory, in which he ever afterwards 
 resided. In 1830, on the death of M. Fourier, he 
 was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy ; 
 and in 1834, he visited Great Britain, where he was 
 received with the respect due to his eminent per- 
 sonal and scientific character. The rest of his 
 life would seem to have been spent wholly in 
 France, and chiefly in Paris, where he occupied 
 the highest social place that a man of letters can 
 attain to, though the warmth of his nature led 
 him into some troubles which a man of calmer 
 temperament would have avoided. In political 
 sentiment Arago was an ardent republican, but his 
 integrity was respected by the heads of the differ- 
 ent dynasties, imperial and royal, under which he 
 lived. His strong political predilections, however, 
 involved him in connections unfavourable to the 
 calm pursuit of knowledge, and the consequences 
 have always been regretted by those who knew 
 
 ow little fitted he was by previous habits for 
 e successful management of political affairs, 
 took a conspicuous part in the revolutionary 
 ement of 1848, and his appointment by the 
 
 rovisional government of that year to the doubl 
 
 ARB 
 
 office of war and marine excited some merriment 
 at the expense of the aged philosopher, who was 
 certainly not in his right place at the head of the 
 army and navy departments. The sanguinary 
 contest in the streets of Paris, in June, shocked 
 the sensibilities of a humane man, and dissipated 
 many fond illusions which he had till then in- 
 dulged, nor did he ever recover from the impres- 
 sion which that terrible scene made upon him. 
 An insidious malady (diabetes) which had begun 
 about this time to manifest itself was aggravated 
 by mental suffering, and the last vestiges of 
 political hope that clung to him being extin- 
 guished by the coup oV etat of December, 1852, it 
 became obvious that his physical strength was 
 rapidly declining under the combined pressure 
 of bodily infirmities and disappointed hopes. He 
 refused to take the oaths to the new govern- 
 ment;' but a formal exception was considerately 
 made in favour of a man who had deserved so well 
 of France. Dropsy of the chest having succeeded 
 to the disease he was originally afflicted with, he 
 became gradually weaker, though his mind re- 
 mained clear to the last; and notwithstanding the 
 skill of his physicians, and the affectionate solici- 
 tude of his family, he died tranquilly, but some- 
 what suddenly, on the 2d of October, 1853. The 
 leading points in the intellectual character of M. 
 Arago would seem to have been, vigour of appre- 
 hension, facility in acquiring knowledge, and a 
 happy power of discrimination in its applica- 
 tion. To these qualities he added that pure en- 
 thusiasm without which no excellence can be 
 reached, and habits of application which only a 
 robust frame could have borne. He has been 
 called the busiest man of a busy age, and it is 
 reported of him that he considered every man idle 
 who did not work fourteen hours a-day ! while the 
 ran<re of his own knowledge, which was immense, 
 shows that he did not recommend to others what 
 he did not himself practise. ' The number and 
 variety of M Arago's labours,' says the venerable 
 Alexander Von Humboldt, ' on the physical con- 
 stitution of the heavens and the earth will make 
 it a very difficult task to write his life. In all 
 these labours, we find the same penetration and 
 the same anxiety for the advancement of science, and 
 the same temperance in his conjectures.' His 
 writings are so numerous that it is quite impossible 
 to give a list of them in a sketch like the present ; 
 but Baron Humboldt has arranged the subjects 
 which he treated under the following heads: 1. 
 literary and biographical ; 2. astronomical ; 3. 
 optical; 4. electro-magnetical ; 5. meteorological 
 and atmospherical; 6. physical geography. The 
 Elorjes which he wrote, in his capacity of secretary 
 to the Academy, are those of Volta, Dr. Thomas 
 Young, Baron Fourier, James Watt, Carnot, Con- 
 dorcet, Bailly. Of these, that on James Watt is 
 the only one that has yet appeared in an English 
 dress. A complete edition of his works in French, 
 of which the first six volumes have been already 
 printed, is in course of publication in Paris ; and 
 there can be no doubt that, when completed, they 
 will constitute the most fitting monument that 
 could be raised to the memory of one of the most 
 distinguished scientific men "that France has pro- 
 duced in the preent age. [J.M'C] 
 ARBOULN, Jambs, a merchant of London, 
 
 871 
 
ARN 
 
 author of a much admired treatise on the Regener- 
 ate I. ill', 1742-18*22. 
 
 ARNAUD, Marshal, De St., late commander- 
 in-chief of the French forces in the Crimea, was 
 born at Paris of humble parentage in 1801, and 
 first distinguished himself in the wars of Algeria, 
 where he went in 1830'. After the most brilliant 
 services in the field, and the devotion of his talents 
 to the task of colonization, he was appointed, in 
 1850, governor of Constantine, and in 1851 he 
 subdued the Kabyles at the head of only 6,000 men. 
 He then returned to France, and was appointed 
 commander of the 2d division of the army of 
 Paris, and minister of war. His career in the war 
 with Russia is well known. On the 26th Sept., 
 1854, he was attacked by cholera, and being already 
 weakened by disease, he died three days afterwards 
 on the voyage to Constantinople. 
 
 ARNOLD of MELCHTHAL. See Winckel- 
 
 BIED. 
 
 ARNOTT, Dr. Archibald, was born in 1771. 
 Dr. Arnott entered the army about the age of 
 twenty, and retired from active service in 1826. 
 During the principal period of his career, he was 
 attached to the 20th foot, sharing the perils and 
 exploits of that regiment on the Mile, in Calabria, 
 Portugal, Spain, and Holland, earning a medal 
 with clasps for Egypt, Maida, Vimiera, Corunna, 
 Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, 
 and Toulouse. After the war, Dr. Arnott accom- 
 
 ganied his regiment to St. Helena and India. At 
 t. Helena he became the medical attendant of 
 Napoleon Buonaparte. Arnott's professional ability, 
 ingenuous character, and upright and dignified 
 deportment as an officer, and gentleman, at once 
 secured for him the confidence and esteem of the 
 emperor. Shortly before his dissolution, Napoleon 
 gave Dr. Arnott a signal testimony of appreciation 
 of his services. As the emperor lay on his death- 
 bed, he caused a valuable gold snuff-box to be 
 brought to him ; and with a last effort of depart- 
 ing strength, he engraved the letter N with a pen- 
 knife upon the lid, and presented it to Dr. Arnott. 
 Napoleon also bequeathed to the Doctor 12.000 
 francs, and the British Government, to mark its 
 approbation of his conduct, granted him 500. 
 Napoleon expired with his right hand in that of 
 Dr. Arnott. The Doctor's masculine and tenacious 
 memory was richly stored with recollections and 
 anecdotes of that momentous period, yet, with the 
 exception of a very clear and distinct Account of 
 the Last Illness, Decease, and post mortem Ap- 
 pearances of Napoleon Buonaparte,' published in 
 1822, he could never be induced to write on the 
 subject. Latterly, Dr. Arnott retired to his native 
 pariah, and died on his patrimonial estate, Kirk- 
 connel Hall, 6th July, 1855. 
 
 ARUNDALE, Francis, an architect and anti- 
 quarian, 1807-1854. 
 
 ASTRAMPSYCHUS, a Greek author of the 
 lower empire, whose Iambics are printed with 
 Rigault's edition of Artemidorus. 
 
 B 
 
 BAGOT, Richard, late bishop of Bath and 
 ells, was born in Northamptonshire, 1782. In 
 1803 he graduated at Oxford, and 
 
 BEL 
 
 sented by his father, William, first Lord Bagot, to 
 the rectory of Leigh in Staffordshire. The year 
 following he moved to Blithfield and became! 
 canon of Windsor. In 1817, he was appointed a 
 canon of Worcester; in 1829, was consecrated.! 
 bishop of Oxford ; and in 1845, succeeded Bishop 
 Law m the see of Bath and Wells. Two remark- 
 able circumstances render his bishopric a memorable 
 one the cessation of the ' Tracts for the Times,' 
 in obedience to his mandate as bishop of Oxford, 
 and the attack made upon him in the House of 
 Commons by Mr. Horsman, for inducting the Rev. 
 Mr. Bennett into the living of Frome. Soon after 
 the latter occurrence symptoms of mental aberra- 
 tion appeared, and the affairs of his diocese were 
 administered, in accordance with an act of parlia- 
 ment obtained for the purpose, by the Bishop of 
 Gloucester and Bristol. Died May 15, 1854. [E.R.] 
 
 BANKS, Thomas Christopher, a remark- 
 able writer on the genealogy of the peerages; 
 was created baronet of Nova Scotia by the pseudo- 
 earl of Stirling, 1760-1854. 
 
 BARBER, Charles, a distinguished artist and 
 associate of the literati of Liverpool ; late presi- 
 dent of the Liverpool Academy, died 1854. 
 
 BARCLAY, Captain, the famous pedestrian ; 
 was descended from the same ancient family as the 
 author of the 'Apology' for, the Quakers. He 
 was bom in Kincardineshire, 1779, and performed 
 his great feats in pedestrianism about the com- 
 mencement of the present century. He was a 
 claimant for the earldom of Monteith and Airth, 
 in right of his mother, from whom he took the 
 family name of Allardice. Died 1854. 
 
 BARTLETT, William Henry, an accom- 
 plished artist and traveller, author of numerous 
 finely embellished works. Died on his passage 
 from the East, 1809-1854. 
 
 BATHORL See Stephen, king of Poland. . 
 
 BATTISTA. See Mantovano. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henry Somerset, seventh duke, 
 of, born 1792 ; served on the staff of the duke, 
 of Wellington in the Peninsular war ; mem- 
 ber for the borough of Monmouth from 1815 to 
 1832; junior lord of the admiralty, 1816-1819; 
 succeeded to the dukedom, 1832; died 1854. 
 
 BELL, Christopher, a Brit, adm., 1784-1 854J 
 
 BELL, Currer. See Bronte. 
 
 BELLEW, Sir Michael Dillon, Bart., of 
 Mount Galway. Born 29th September, 1796, 
 created a baronet in 1838, died in 18^5 at his 
 family seat. 
 
 BELLOT, Joskph Rene, a lieutenant of the 
 French navy, whose noble devotion in the search) 
 for Sir John Franklin has endeared his name to, 
 England, was born in Paris, 1826, but generally; 
 called himself a Rochefort man, in consequence of 
 his removal to that city when about five years ofj 
 age. He studied in the college of Rochefort tUU 
 his sixteenth year, when he was removed to the? 
 Naval School under public patronage, and in the 
 course of two years began his career of active- 
 service on board the Suflron. In the same yearJ 
 1844, he was removed successively to the FriedH 
 land and the Bercean, and sailed in the latter ol 
 these vessels to the coast of Africa. Here, in the 
 summer of 1845, Bellot distinguished himself* in 
 the expedition against Tamatave, and received the* 
 in 1806 was pre- cross of the legion of honour on the recommenda-J 
 872 
 
BER 
 
 Jon of his commander, Capt. Eomaine Desfosses. 
 >om the Berceau, which was afterwards lost, he 
 emoved to the frigate Belle Poule, the com- 
 modore's ship on that station, and, besides super- 
 Qtending the signals, found time to give a course 
 f lectures on geometry and navigation, to such of 
 he crew as desired it. Soon afterwards he re- 
 amed to France, and was almost immediately 
 romoted (Nov. 15, 1847) to the rank of Enseigm 
 'e Vuisseun, being now in his twenty-first year 
 nly ; and in this capacitv he shipped at first in the 
 'andore, and then in the corvette Triomphante, 
 rhich sailed for the Plate River, July 23, 1848. 
 n this cruise again his commander, Captain Sochet, 
 poke of him as an officer of the highest promise ; 
 nd having returned to Rochefort in August, 1850, 
 e was soon afterwards appointed to convey troops 
 
 Cherbourg in a small transport vessel which he 
 ommanded for a month. This service closed his 
 areer in the French navy, for it was in the spring 
 f 1851 that he began to solicit his government for 
 ;ave to take part in the expedition then preparing 
 y Lady Franklin. His biographer remarks that 
 iellot was passionally a voyager; and his journals 
 rove the correctness of the observation, for they 
 re marked by all the enthusiasm of discovery, 
 nd scorn of danger that we find in the old 
 oyagers, but he was also animated by a chivalrous 
 dmiration of Lady Franklin, and a sympathy for 
 er loss ; nor must we omit a desire to add to the 
 lory of his country by planting the French flag, 
 nd conferring the names of Frenchmen, for the 
 rst time, on arctic lands. His request being 
 ranted, Bellot sailed in the Prince Albert, a brig 
 f 50 tons, commanded by Mr. Kennedy, which 
 jft Aberdeen on its second voyage to the Northern 
 ieas, in May, 1851, and returned in the year fol- 
 jwing. In this interval the young adventurer 
 lade an important geographical discovery in the 
 ourse of a journey or at least 1,100 miles over the 
 ;e, accomplished under great difficulties; he found, 
 
 1 short, that Boothia Felix was separated from 
 he land of Somerset by a narrow arm of the sea, 
 ow called Bellot Strait. While absent also, he 
 ad been honoured with the rank of lieutenant in 
 he French service. On his return, Lieutenant 
 Jellot memorialized his government, and urged the 
 nportance and humanity of an expedition to the 
 'olar Seas, but before any decision could be arrived 
 t he requested and received permission to sail 
 rith Captain lnglefield in the Phoenix, which left 
 Voolwich, accompanied by the Breadalbane, in 
 lay, 1853. On the 21st of August, he volunteered 
 o carry a communication across the ice, and a 
 ale coming on, the ice was parted from the shore 
 nd drifted away with the current in a storm of 
 now and wind. Bellot perished, and the Bread- 
 lbane was wrecked in the same gale [E.R.] 
 
 BERANGER, Pierke Jean, the Burns of 
 'ranee, was born at Paris, August 19, 1780, at the 
 ouse of his grandfather, a Parisian operative 
 ailor. Neither father nor mother seem to have 
 ad much to do with the education of the future 
 oet. His father, a native of Flamicour, near 
 'eronne, was constantly aspiring during a life 
 all of adventure to attain a more elevated condi- 
 ion than that in which he was born ; but unfor- 
 unately he wanted the perseverance necessary to 
 osure success in his ambition, being, in point of 
 
 BER 
 
 fact, rather too much addicted to tracing the great- 
 ness of his ancestry ever to achieve his own. It 
 was therefore to his grandparents that Beranger 
 owed his first principles and impulses. With 
 them he lived until his ninth year, and while 
 under their roof, witnessed the taking of the Bas- 
 tile. Forty years afterwards he celebrated the 
 event within the prison De la Force. Before 
 young Beranger had reached his tenth year, he 
 quitted Paris for Peronne, where he was consigned 
 to the care of a paternal aunt, who kept an inn in 
 the suburbs of that town. The aunt was a stern 
 disciplinarian, and though his services as pot-boy 
 left the future poet but little leisure for reading, 
 nevertheless it was under her roof that Beranger 
 first made the acquaintance of Telemachus, Racine, 
 and Voltaire. At the age of twelve he was struck 
 by lightning in her house. So soon as he recovered 
 from the severity of the shock, his first words were 
 a sneer at the expense of the old lady. At the 
 commencement of the storm Beranger had ob- 
 served his aunt sprinkling her house all over with 
 holy water. ' Pray, what good,' said he, 'has all 
 vour holy water done ? ' At the age of fourteen 
 he was apprenticed to one Laion6, a printer. In 
 this employment he began to learn the rules of 
 orthography and language. But the school which 
 contributed most to his intellectual and moral 
 development was the School of Primary Instruc- 
 tion, founded at Peronne by M. Bellue de Bellanglis. 
 An enthusiastic admirer of Rousseau, M. Bellue had 
 designed an institution for children according to the 
 maxims of the citizen-philosopher. The exercises 
 which the discipline of the school necessitated 
 Beranger to compose, formed his style, awakened 
 his taste, extended his knowledge, and directed his 
 attention to public affairs. From this school he 
 returned at the age of seventeen to his father at 
 Paris ; and about this time the first idea of making 
 verses dawned upon him. Moliere and La Fon- 
 taine were his favourite authors; he studied their 
 fine and minute points of observation, their verse, 
 their style, and through this study arrived at some- 
 thing like a just conception of his own proper 
 talent. Days of darkness and adversity quickly 
 succeeded. From the depths of his poverty 
 Beranger conceived the idea of possibly interesting 
 M. Lucien Buonaparte in his position, so, gathering 
 up his songs, he sent them, together with a letter 
 revealing his circumstances, to the brother of the 
 First Consul. Lucien Buonaparte, ever ready to 
 succour struggling genius, gave to Beranger the 
 most generous recognition and the most substan- 
 tial assistance. Subsequently, through the interest 
 of M. Arnault, Beranger obtained an appointment 
 to an office in the University, which he held for 
 twelve years. In 1821 he was dismissed from 
 this appointment on account of his political senti- 
 ments. His works have been collected and pub- 
 lished at six successive times in 1815, in 1821, in 
 1825, in 1828, in 1833, and in 1847. The collec- 
 tion published in 1821 was prosecuted, and though 
 defended by M. Dupin, senior, cost the author 
 three months' imprisonment; the edition of 1828 
 was also prosecuted, and for it Beranger endured 
 a captivity of nine months. The poet was also 
 tried for reprinting some of the obnoxious songs in 
 the account of his trial. At the revolution of 
 1848 Beranger was chosen a deputy to the National 
 873 
 
BER 
 
 Assembly, but he resolutely refused the honour. 
 During the reign of the present Emperor of* France, 
 the most flattering attentions were bestowed upon 
 him hv Napoleon and Eugenie. Nevertheless, he 
 held fast the integrity and simplicity of his repub- 
 lican creed, and died as he had lived a man who 
 flattered neither Kaizer, Pope, nor King Eager 
 to make capital out of his dust, the Emperor de- 
 creed him a public funeral; the state of parties in 
 Paris, however, sadly marred the splendour of this 
 spectacle, and robbed the imperial government of 
 tne glory which, in other circumstances doing 
 honour to the remains of the national poet of 
 France, would unquestionably have thrown around 
 the regime of Napoleon. Beranger died Julv, 1857. 
 
 BEKESFORD, William Cark, Viscount 
 Beresford, a soldier of distinguished bravery ; was 
 born in 1770, entered the British army in 1778, and 
 served in America, Egypt, and the Peninsula. 
 He was raised to the peerage in 1814, and employed 
 in various capacities connected with his profession 
 until 1830. He died in 1854. 
 
 BERKELEY, The Hon. Craven Fitzhard- 
 inge, M.P., born May, 1805, was member of 
 
 garliament for Cheltenham from 1832 to 1847. 
 ied in 1855. 
 
 BERLIOZ, Madame, formerly well known on 
 the London stage as Miss Smithson, d.at Paris, 1853. 
 
 BERNAL, Ralph, formerly member for Ro- 
 chester, and a connoisseur in art, died 1 854. 
 
 BETHAM, Sir William, remarkable for his 
 labours in genealogy, heraldry, and other subjects 
 of antiquarian research, was born in 1779. His 
 father was a clergyman, and Betham was brought 
 up to the printing business; but commenced his 
 literary avocations by revising a portion of Mr. 
 Gousjh's edition of Camden. About 1805, he 
 went to Dublin as clerk to Sir Chichester Fortes- 
 cue, then Ulster king-of-arms, and succeeded his 
 employer in that office in 1820. He published 
 many works, and devoted much of his time to the 
 antiquities of Ireland and the Celtic tongue. Died 
 at Blackrock, near Dublin, October, 1853. 
 
 BETHELL, Rev. George, M.A., senior fellow 
 and vice-provost of Eton College. Born in 1799; 
 died August, 1857. 
 
 BEXFIELD, William Richard, doctor in 
 music, composer of ' Israel Restored,' was born in 
 Norfolk, 1824. He had already distinguished 
 himself by the composition of some fine chorals, 
 fugues, and anthems, when he became organist of 
 Boston church, though scarcely more than twenty- 
 one years of age. His oratorio was performed at 
 Norwich for the first time in 1851. Dr. Bexfield 
 died prematurely in November, 1853. 
 
 BIELKE. See De Bielke. 
 
 BIRD, Golding, M.D., an eminent physician 
 in London, and well known as the author of several 
 works on natural philosophy, &c. Dr. Bird was 
 born in Norfolk, in 1815, and whilst still a youth 
 at school, manifested a decided taste for the study 
 of chemistry and botany. He was brought up to 
 the profession of medicine, and during his medical 
 studies, had applied himself so zealously to the 
 science of botany, that he obtained the prize given 
 for that by the Apothecaries' Company. In 1836, 
 before he was twenty-two years of age, he was 
 appointed lecturer on natural philosophy at Guy's 
 Hospital school of medicine, and afterwards he gave 
 
 874 
 
 BIS 
 
 lectures on medical botany. Dr. Golding Bird's 
 chief works are his 'Elements of Natural Philo- 
 sophy,' 'Lectures on Electricity and Galvanism, 
 and 'Urinary Deposits;' but his love for natura' 
 history continued throughout his life, and his 
 
 Eapers on 'the Siliceous Armour of Equiseturr 
 [yemale'in the Linnaean Society's Proceedings. 
 and on 'the Zoophytes of Tenby' in the Microsco- 
 pical Society's Transactions, show that he coulc 
 snatch time from the absorbing pursuits of at 
 extensive practice to follow up his favourite studies 
 In 1848-49 symptoms of disease of the heart showec 
 themselves, and notwithstanding care and retire- 
 ment from business to the healthy neighbourhood 
 of Tunbridge Wells, ultimately proved fatal ir 
 October, 1854, at the early age of thirty-nine. Dr 
 Bird was assistant-physician to Guy's Hospital 
 was a fellow of the Linna?an, Geological, am 
 Royal Societies, and had for some time previoui 
 to his death a practice of 5,000 a-year. [W.B/. 
 BISHOP, Sir Henry Rowley, died on tltf 
 30th of April, 1855, aged sixty-eight years. Si: 
 Henry, who was a native of London, had for his firs 
 and principal master in music, Signor Francefl 
 Bianchi, who towards the close of last century was 
 engaged as opera composer for Billington ane 
 Bianti. In 1806 Bishop was engaged at the open 
 house as composer of Ballet music. Two yean 
 later he began to write for the English theatres 
 his first works being ' Caractacus,' and a panto- 
 mime for Drury Lane; in 1809 his reputation wai 
 established, and he produced at the above-namet 
 theatre 'The Circassian Bride.' No second per- 
 formance ever took place, because at the burmm 
 of Drury Lane theatre the score of this work wai 
 destroyed, From this period until 1826, he wrott 
 incessantly for the two great theatres; and hii 
 career as a dramatic composer may be said to hav 
 terminated with the year named, when his ' Alad- 
 din,' which was composed as a rival to Webert 
 ' Oberon,' proved a failure. Operas, burletta* 
 melo-dramas, incidental music to Shakspeare'j 
 plays, adaptations of foreign operas, glees, am 
 songs, all followed each other with remarkable 
 rapidity during the years when he wrote for 
 theatres. His regular dramatic compositi 
 amount to no fewer than seventy in all, while 
 glees (the most popular of those of any m( " 
 English composer) and his songs, many of v 
 will be long remembered, are almost limi 
 During the late years of his life he composed 
 Cantatas for the Philharmonic Society, wnich 
 nothing to his reputation. Though he died 
 ally in misery, he for many years enjoyed 
 share of popular favour, and reaped large 
 He was one of the first Philharmonic direi 
 for some years conducted the Ancient Cone 
 was elected professor of music at Edinburgh 
 the legacy of General Reid, which situation 
 filled only for some three years and held an 
 
 E ointment at Oxford. He received the honoi 
 nighthood from the Queen shortly after she 
 to the throne. The Athenaeum says of him, 
 he possessed more of the true artist tempera: 
 more self-respect, and more energy, with the 
 which he owned, and the opportunities wide 
 commanded, he might have founded a school of 
 matic music in this country. No ordinary gi 
 delicacy, and freshness, distinguish his melodies. 
 
BIR 
 
 Kie best of his airs and glees, the words are followed 
 ind set with taste. His treatment of the opera was 
 simple and clear neither feeble nor thin always 
 impropriate, often elegant, and generally effective. 
 There is music in "The Slave," "The Miller and his 
 tfen," "Guy Mannering," " Maid Marian," "The 
 Virgin of the Sun," " The Englishman in India," 
 nd half a score beside of his operas there are 
 ettings bv him for one and two voices of Shak- 
 ipeare's choicest words delicate, melodious, and 
 .nglish enough to make us express our regret that 
 Jishop never comprehended his own strength, or 
 is own responsibility, as a master and an inventor.' 
 Sir Henry R. Bishop was improvident ; he died 
 vithout leaving provision for the future of a son 
 ind daughter twins without even providing for 
 heir education In the last weeks of the com- 
 )oser's life, means were set on foot to provide for 
 he close of his life by a public performance, and a 
 ubscription which might assist in rearing his 
 hildren during the tender years of their infancy, 
 >ut he died before the fruits of the benevolence 
 
 his fellow-artists came to ripeness. The 
 Musical World of May 5th, 1855, had an article 
 >n the musical genius of Sir H. R. Bishop, 
 rom which we extract the following passage: 
 His death has left a gap which we look in vain 
 o see filled up. That we have had, and still have, 
 nore accomplished and learned musicians., is un- 
 questionable ; but that we ever could boast, with 
 he single exception of Purcell, a composer so in- 
 ividual, and so identified with the sentiment of 
 English national melody, is equally doubtful, 
 ishop was not merely genuine ; he was prolific, 
 id produced a great many things that are likely 
 i endure as long as the art itself, which, after all, 
 an be said of few composers. The melody of 
 Jishop was a pure and flowing spring that had its 
 ource in nature, and was therefore a gift from 
 bove. His tune was varied and abundant. His 
 ein of melody, as in the instance of far greater 
 masters than himself, seems to open without an 
 ffort. Nothing forced, exaggerated, or other- 
 ise ungenial, was to be traced in his productions 
 -we allude of course to his best, to the good 
 ain from which time has sifted the chaff.' 
 >n the 8th of April, of the same year, the Times, in 
 n appeal to the public in favour of Sir H. R. Bishop, 
 lys, 'No English musician has composed so 
 uch and so well as Henry Bishop ; and probably 
 one has produced so many things likely to endure, 
 i every house where music, more especially vocal 
 usic, is a welcome guest, the name of Bishop has 
 een, and must long remain, a household word. 
 Jho that has been soothed by the sweet 
 elody of " Blow, Gentle Gales," charmed by the 
 easures of " Lo ! Here the Gentle Lark," enlivened 
 y the animated strains of " Foresters, Sound the 
 heerful Horn," touched bv the sadder music of 
 The Wind Whistles Cold," who that has been 
 ranted by the insinuating tones of " Tell me, my 
 eart," " Under the Greenwood Tree," or " Where 
 le Wind Blows," which Rossini, the minstrel of the 
 iuth, was wont to love so well who that has 
 It sympathy with " As it fell upon a day, in the 
 month of May," admired the masterpiece of* 
 
 and chorus, " The Chough and Crow," or been 
 oved to jollity at convivial feasts by " Mynheer 
 
 Dunk," the most original and genial of comic 
 
 875 
 
 BLO 
 
 glees, will not be grieved to hear that the inventor 
 of them all, with so many more of equal merit and 
 beauty, is in sickness and distress, without money, 
 and no longer able to toil for it, deprived of all, 
 that should accompany old age?' The perform- 
 ance which was got up for his benefit yielded a 
 considerable sum of money, but he did not live 
 to enjoy any portion of the receipts. After the 
 demise of Sir Henry, the subscription which was 
 commenced for the benefit of himself and his chil- 
 dren remained open for a considerable period, and 
 various sums, from 25 downwards, were contri- 
 buted by amateur noblemen, professional gentle- 
 men, and others. We may mention, in passing, 
 that the Covent Garden theatrical fund, and the 
 firm of Broadwood and Sons, contributed each 
 50. There is therefore good reason to hope that 
 the young children of the eminent artist and com- 
 poser will be provided for during their nonage, 
 and that they will be furnished with an educa- 
 tion sufficient to carry them respectably through 
 life. [J.M.] 
 
 BLACK, John, late editor of the Morning 
 Chronicle, was the son of a cottager, and was 
 born near Dunse, in Berwickshire, 1783. He com- 
 menced life as an errand-boy, and, like many lite- 
 rary men who have risen to celebrity, devoted his 
 early years to self-culture under no ordinary diffi- 
 culties. At the age of twenty-seven, he walked to 
 London with three halfpence in his pocket, but with 
 an introduction to Mr. Perry, editor of the Morn- 
 ing Chronicle, who engaged him as reporter. In 
 1821, he had risen to the post of editor, which he 
 retained till 1844, when he retired from active life. 
 Died in June, 1855. 
 
 BLANQUI, Jerome Adolphe, one of the 
 most distinguished publicists of France, born at 
 Nice, 1798, died at Paris, Jan. 28th, 1854. His 
 ablest work is entitled ' Cours d'Economie Indus- 
 trielle.' M. Blanqui travelled many years in 
 foreign countries, England, Italy, Germany, Aus- 
 tria, and Servia, to study and compare the different 
 processes of industry and social economy, the re- 
 sults of which he has embodied in his works. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, Charles James, late bishop 
 of London, was born on the 29th May, 1786, at 
 Bury St. Edmunds. From his father, who was a 
 teacher there, he received his earliest education. 
 But it was at the grammar school of his native 
 place, where he spent some ten years, that he 
 acquired the rudiments of that scholarship which 
 afterwards secured lor him at Cambridge the dis- 
 tinction of third wrangler, senior medallist, and 
 a fellowship at Trinity college, together with Sir 
 William Brown's gold medal for the Latin and 
 Greek ode. Charles James Blomfield,though the son 
 of poor parents, was fortunate enough to obtain the 
 patronage of the marquis of Bristol and the second 
 earl Spencer. With such ability and such patronage, 
 his preferment in the church to which he had 
 devoted himself was unusually rapid. At the 
 early age of thirty-eight he was elevated to the 
 bishopric of Chester, and four years afterwards to 
 the see of London. During the quarter of a cen- 
 tury which he held that conspicuous position he 
 was universally recognized as the most eminent 
 member of the episcopal bench. The disposal of 
 the ample preferment in his gift was never pros- 
 tituted to the objects of nepotism nor to the bias 
 
BLU 
 
 of his political opinions. Bishop BlomfiVld was 
 firm supporter of High Church principles, and 
 was one of the prelates who entered their protest 
 against the elevation of Dr. Hampden, bishop of 
 Hereford, to the episcopate. His lordship was 
 known among scholars by his admirable editions 
 of .Ksehvlus and Callimachus. The best friends 
 of his school and college career were those of his 
 ripest years. The store of his reading and the 
 fund of his anecdotes diffused a charm over the 
 society of every circle which he entered. The 
 enjoyment of his mental powers was preserved to 
 the "close of his existence; his last act of con- 
 sciousness was an act of prayer. He died in 1857. 
 BLUNT, John Jamks, regius professor of 
 divinity in the university of Cambridge; author 
 of a ' Sketch of the Reformation of the Church of 
 England 1 and other works, 1794-1854. 
 
 BOXER, Edward, rear-admiral of the White, 
 late commander of the port and harbour of Bala- 
 klava, was a native or Dover, born 1783. He 
 entered the service in 1798, and was some time in 
 the flag-ship of Lord Collingwood. In 1840, he 
 was engaged on the coast of Syria, and took part 
 in the operations against St. Jean d'Acre. Died 
 of cholera on board the Jason, June, 1855. 
 
 BOXER, James Michael, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, and a lieutenant in the royal navy, died 
 at Balaklava of cholera a few days before his 
 uncle, 1855. 
 
 BOYD, Dr. James Boyd, was born on the 24th 
 December, 1795, at Paisley, where he received the 
 elements of his education. At the university of 
 Glasgow he particularly distinguished himself in 
 the classics. After taking the degree of MA., he 
 devoted himself to the study of medicine. Re- 
 nouncing this pursuit, he became a student of 
 theology, and in 1822, having completed his theo- 
 logical curriculum, was licensed as a preacher of 
 the gospel. In 1825 he was elected house governor 
 of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh. In 1829 his 
 Alma Mater testified its sense of his merits by con- 
 ferring upon him the title of Doctor of Laws ; and 
 in August of that same year he was appointed by 
 the town council of Edinburgh to the classical 
 mastership of the High School, a situation which 
 he held for the long period of twenty-seven years. 
 As a scholar he possessed great critical acute- 
 ness, unusual variety, exactness of knowledge, and 
 extreme refinement of taste. His labours in the 
 field of classical and general editing were exten- 
 sive and successful. In 1834 he prepared for the 
 press an improved edition of Adam's ' Roman 
 Antiquities,' which has been fifteen times reprinted. 
 He subsequently edited Potter's ' Grecian Anti- 
 quities;' Anthon's 'Sallust,' with additional notes 
 and examination questions; Anthon's Select Ora- 
 tions of Cicero,' with additional notes ; and last, 
 but not least important or meritorious, Bishop 
 Porteous's ' Summary of the Evidences of Chris- 
 tianity,' with definitions, synopses, and examina- 
 tion questions, supplied by the editor. Dr. Boyd 
 died at his house, George square, Edinburgh, on 
 the 18th August, 1856. 
 
 BOYLE, Right Hon. David, a distinguished 
 Scottish lawyer, born 1772, appointed president of 
 the court of session in 1841, died 1853. 
 
 BBAHAM, John, one of the most distinguished 
 vocalists that ever adorned the English stage, was 
 
 BRO 
 
 born in 1777. He made his dtbut at the age of 
 ten, and continued his long and brilliant career as 
 a singer until a few years from his death. He was 
 the composer of several popular operas, among 
 which may be mentioned the ' Cabinet.' Brahain 
 died in 1856. 
 
 BRAYLEY, Edward Wedlake, F.S.A., an 
 antiquarian and miscellaneous writer, whose 
 numerous works are spread over the first quartei 
 of this century, was born in Lambeth, 1773. Id 
 1825 he became librarian to the Russell Institution, 
 which office he continued to hold till his death in 
 1854. Among the most valuable of his works may 
 be mentioned ' History and Antiquities of tht 
 Abbey Church of St. Peter, Westminster,' ' Londi- 
 niana, or Reminiscences of the British Metropolis, 
 and ' The Beauties of England and Wales,' the 
 latter a work in 11 vols. 
 
 BRITTON, John, architectural and archaeolo- 
 gical writer, was born 7th July, 1771, at Kington 
 St. Michael, in Wiltshire. During a long and 
 honourable career he did good service in extending 
 the study of British architecture and topography, 
 and improving the public taste and feeling foj 
 natural antiquities. Mr. Britton died on the 1st 
 Jan., 1857. 
 
 BROCKEDON, William, remarkable at one* 
 as an artist and inventor, was the son of a watch- 
 maker, and was born in Devonshire, 1787 ; diec 
 1854. His principal literary works are ' Italy 
 Classical and Picturesque,' Fol., 1842-1843, anc 
 'Egypt and Nubia,' 3 vols, fol, 1846-1849. Th< 
 most admired of his paintings is a portrait of hii 
 son, ' A Student at King's College.' 
 
 BROKE, Charles Acton, commander in thi 
 royal navy, was the son of Admiral Broke, wh< 
 commanded the Shannon in the famous actioiji 
 with the Chesapeake. His services were chiefly ill 
 the Mediterranean, of late years as signal mastea 
 in the citadel of Zante ; died, aged thirty-sevenl 
 September, 1855. 
 
 BRONTE, Miss, the gifted and much lam 
 novelist, known first as Currer Bell, was the elcS 
 est of three sisters, daughters of the Rev. Patrick 
 Bronte, vicar of Haworth. A volume of ' Poemi 
 by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell,' published i} 
 1846, attracted little attention, but the appearand 
 of ' Jane Eyre, by Currer Bell,' in October of thi' 
 year following, took the critics by storm, anil 
 astonished the world of every-day novel reader 
 by its sustained intellectual power, and proofs < 
 original genius. Curiosity was at once excited 
 know more of the author, whose nom de 
 disguised, as it was intended to do, her very 
 the critics, however, remained completely at fa 
 and the publication oF' Wuthering Heights' by 
 sister Emily (Ellis Bell), and of ' Agnes Grey ' I 
 her younger sister Anne (Acton Bell), did n 
 tend to enlighten them. The veil was at len 
 lifted under painful circumstances. Emily Bro 
 died of consumption in Oct., 1848, shortly a: 
 the publication of 'Wuthering Heights,' and 
 the early spring her sister Anne was attenc 
 to the same grave. The facts were stated 
 their surviving sister, Miss Bronte', in a new edii 
 of 'Wuthering Heights,' published 1851, wl 
 touching memorial and recognition of the 
 of her sisters, may still be read in the p: 
 Meanwhile, in 1849, Miss Bronte herself 
 
 876 
 
BRO 
 
 lublished her second novel ' Shirley,' the scene of 
 hich was laid in the dales of Yorkshire ; and in 
 853, her third and last work ' Villette,' appeared. 
 Pant of space forbids the least remark on the 
 enius displayed in these works, and their dis- 
 nctive characteristics; it is enough to say that 
 leir own high merits, and the sympathy of all 
 ho read them for the gifted spirit whose life and 
 haracter they epitomize, will far outlive any 
 raise we could bestow upon ' them. The sad 
 ory of Ellis and Acton Bell has now to be 
 peated for their elder in years, as she undoubtedly 
 ^as in genius and artistic skill. The hand of 
 iss Bronte after her bereavement was solicited 
 y the Rev. Arthur Nicholls, a gentleman who 
 cted as her father's curate, but the latter was 
 nwilling that his only remaining child should be 
 aken from him. At length it was arranged that 
 beir home should be formed under the old roof- 
 ee, a new study was added to the parsonage, 
 nd the lovers were married in 1855. Three 
 nonths later the bride's constitution gave way, 
 nd she sank rapidly from week to week till she 
 reathed her last, on the 31st of May, 1855, 
 appy in the consoling presence of her husband 
 nd her aged father. [E.R.] 
 
 BROTHERTON, Joseph, for nearly a quarter 
 f a century M.P. for Salford, was the architect of 
 own fortune, the consistent advocate of liberal 
 pinions, of benevolent character, a strict vegetarian 
 nd total abstainer, and much esteemed by all who 
 new him. Mr. Brotherton died suddenly on the 
 th Jan., 1857, much regretted. 
 
 BROWN, James, an eccentric character of 
 )nrham, author of numerous pieces written in 
 erse, which exposed him to much ridicule. He 
 ssumed the title of Baron Brown, in accordance 
 th a fictitious patent of nobility sent to him ; in 
 onsequence, it was waggishly stated, of his works 
 aving been the means of converting the Mogul 
 impire. His poems consisted for the most part 
 f visions, prophecies, and rhapsodies suggested 
 y some part or the sacred volume, of the contents 
 f which he had an astonishing recollection. A 
 iortrait and memoir of this person is given in 
 Hone's Every Day Book,' vol. ii. [E.R.] 
 
 BROWN, Samuel, M.D., was born at Hadding- 
 on, February 23, 1817. Equally distinguished 
 i literature and science, Dr. Brown gained, in the 
 letropolis of his native country, a name second to 
 one of the young men of genius who adorned the 
 Icottish capital. His researches and experiments in 
 hemistry attracted great attention. His apparent 
 uccess in some elaborate processes for transmuting 
 etals, almost led to the belief that the dreams of 
 lchemy were about to be realized. Dr Brown's 
 iews on these subjects, as expounded and illus- 
 ated in lectures, commanded the admiration of 
 cientific men before whom they were delivered, 
 nd gained him the friendship of Jeffrey, dial- 
 ers, and others capable of appreciating scientific 
 inius and eloquence. When the chair of chem- 
 Btry was vacant by the death of Dr. Hope, Dr. 
 rown offered himself as a candidate, nor was he 
 ithout considerable support; but the practical 
 esearches and published works of Dr. Gregory, 
 ogether with the known failure of some of Dr. 
 rown's experiments, gave his opponent superior 
 in the judgment of the electors. Subsequent 
 
 877 
 
 BRO 
 
 to this event, he gave lectures, in conjunction with 
 the late Edward Forbes, with whom kindred genius 
 and scientific enthusiasm had brought him into 
 association. In 1849, ' Galileo Galilei,' a tragedy, 
 was published by Dr. Brown ; a work exhibiting 
 much of his peculiar genius. The leading Scottish 
 Reviews were frequently enriched by his literary 
 contributions: some of the finest pap'ers in the 
 North British were from his pen. Dr. Brown 
 belonged to a family well known in Scotland. His 
 grandfather was John Brown of Haddington, 
 author of the Self-Interpreting Bible, and founder 
 of circulating libraries. Dr. Brown died at Morn- 
 ingside, Edinburgh, in 1856. 
 
 BROWNE, Sir Thomas, author of the cele- 
 brated ' Religio Medici,' was a physician, the son 
 of a merchant, and was born in London, October, 
 1605. He was educated at Winchester and Oxford, 
 and pursued his professional studies according to 
 custom, while travelling abroad in France, Italy, 
 and Holland, taking his degree at Leyden. He 
 began practice in the neighbourhood of Halifax, 
 but removed to Norwich, where he died, on the 
 anniversary of his birth-day in 1682, leaving a 
 reputation which will endure, as Dr. Johnson 
 expresses it, ' while learning shall have any rever- 
 ence among men.' His 'Religio Medici' was 
 first published without his consent in 1 642, fol- 
 lowed in the same year, on account of its many 
 corruptions, by a genuine edition. In ten years, 
 it had appeared in Latin, French, Italian, and 
 German translations, and has ever since kept its 
 
 f)lace, at least as a curiosity, in the hands of the 
 earned. This work has given rise to much con- 
 troversy, and it figures in the ' Index Expurga- 
 torius.' It is a subtle and argumentative produc- 
 tion, but is far from being so absolutely paradox- 
 ical as it is sometimes represented, more especially 
 in the second part, where the author sets forth his 
 practical religion as the life of charity, and the 
 love of God, in anticipation of Fenelon ; it ought 
 to be remembered, also, that it was written, as the 
 author declares, without a view to publication, 
 expressing his ' Conceptions,' and containing many 
 things that should be read in ' a soft and flexible 
 sense.' It contains the ' Religion' of Sir Thomas 
 Browne, so far as he really understood his own 
 heart, and the subjects of which he treats in the 
 more reasoning portion, may be taken as an expose 
 of his mental Tiabits his manner of considering 
 difficulties, his way of dealing with paradoxes and 
 mysteries. It is only in this light it can be read 
 fairly. His greatest work, the 'Pseudodoxia Epi- 
 demica,' or 'Inquiries into Vulgar and Common 
 Errors,' first published in 1646, has been fre- 
 quently reprinted, and is still a text-book ; it well 
 deserves to be characterized in the words of Cole- 
 ridge, who describes the author as ' rich in various 
 knowledge, exuberant in conceptions and con- 
 ceits, contemplation, and imagination.' The popu- 
 lar legends considered in this work, and the author's 
 manner of dealing with them, are things as curious 
 and entertaining in their way as anything in the 
 pages of Pliny, though very different in the end of 
 their, narration : it was answered by Alexander 
 Ross in 1647. The other works of Sir Thomas 
 Browne are an account of ' Urn Burial,' and 'The 
 Garden of Cyrus,' besides a number of Tracts 
 and a vast mass of MSS., including his correspon- 
 
BRU 
 
 dence with Evelyn, Dugdale, and others; these 
 are preserved in "the British Museum and in the 
 Bodlei:in Library. A collected edition of his works, 
 including Sir Kenehn Digby's 'Annotations on the 
 Beligio Medici,' appeared in 1666: a modern edition 
 was published in 4 vols. 8vo, 1836. [E.R.] 
 
 BRUAT, Admiral, late commander of his 
 country's fleet in the Black Sea, was born at Col- 
 mar in" 1796, and obtained his first command in 
 129, when his ship the Silene was wrecked on 
 the coast of Africa. On this occasion he became 
 a prisoner at Algiers, and was released when that 
 city was captured by the French. In April, 1845, 
 he was appointed governor of the Marquesas, and 
 in April following of all the French establishments 
 in Oceanica In 1854, he became second in com- 
 mand of the squadron in the Black Sea, and suc- 
 ceeded Admiral Hamelin as first commander, when 
 the latter returned home. He was present at the 
 bombardment of Sebastopol, Oct. 17, and left for 
 Toulon, Nov. 4th, 1855. Died on board the Ulm, 
 in the roadstead of Messina, Nov. 25th. 
 
 BUG HAN, Peter, a Scottish antiquarian, 
 disting. for his researches in ballad poetry, d. 1854. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, James Silk, born in the 
 village of Flushing, near Falmouth, 1786, was the 
 son of a retired officer, formerly in the merchant ser- 
 vice. In the age of Elizabeth one of his ancestors 
 served in the fleet by which the Spanish Armada 
 was discomfited, and a like adventurous career 
 seems to have had irresistible attractions for all 
 in his line of descent. Of seven children, James 
 inherited the most of this passion, and his roving 
 disposition and love of enterprise made him the 
 frequent and favourite guest of Sir Edward Pellew, 
 on board the Indefatigable. It is not surprising, 
 therefore, that he went to sea while quite a child, 
 but he had also, at the ripe age of ten, passed 
 through the experience of a love adventure and 
 been made prisoner; he was then, he tells us in 
 his charming * Autobiography,' considered a hand- 
 some boy, and as he lived to be a fine old man, 
 the truth of this can hardly be doubted. In a few 
 more years we find him settled with a bookseller 
 in Devonport, and at fifteen he submitted to the 
 manager of the theatre his tragedy, entitled ' The 
 Conquest of Circassia ;' presently, however, he left 
 his master, went to sea in a man-of-war, and 
 when tired of the service ran away in disguise, and 
 gave his attention, for a year, to the study of the 
 law. With all this diversity of pursuits he found 
 time to fall in love, and, before he was twenty years 
 of age had a wife to support : for which luxury, 
 we may state, he had to pay in manual labour, 
 and worked some time in London and Oxford as 
 a compositor. At length the sea drew him again 
 into the service of man on a larger stage, and he 
 went as a naval officer to the West Indies, and 
 finally to Calcutta, where he endeavoured to 
 establish himself by setting up his printing presses 
 and exposing the abuses of the Indian govern- 
 ment ;-- of course, his presses were seized, and the 
 wide world was still before our bold adventurer. 
 We cannot, for want of space, follow him in his 
 ensuing travels through the East, but the title of 
 his works will afford some idea of their extent. 
 In 1822, he published * Travels in Palestine,' and 
 1 Travis in Arabia;' in 1827, 'Travels in Meso- 
 potamia and the Adjoining Countries;' in 1830, in 
 
 878 
 
 BUC 
 
 ' Assyria and Media.' Meanwhile, in 1825, Mr. 
 Buckingham had established in London 'Thai 
 Oriental Herald,' and at a later period he travelled 
 again, this time far and wide on the American 
 continent. He was now well known as a man of 
 letters, an able lecturer, and an indefatigable pro- 
 jector of social and legislative improvements ; and 
 with the latter character as his special reconwl 
 mendation, he was elected member of parliament j 
 for Sheffield, and sat in the house from 1 882 to I 
 1837. No man, as it has been expressed, wa 
 more before the public in his day, and few, wei 
 think, have been more misrepresented. In 1843, 
 he established a literary club in Hanover square, 
 called ' The British and Foreign Institute ;' its 
 object being a social re-union, in which persons of 
 all nations might meet as on common ground, to 
 enjoy literary society and promote certain public 
 uses and reforms intimately connected witli the 
 progress of the age. This design was carried out 
 with Mr. Buckingham's usual zeal till 1840, when 
 the institution was dissolved, partly as a conse-rf 
 quence of the scandalous attacks that had been 
 made upon it in the pages of Punch. In his 
 ' Address to the British Public,' Mr. Buckingham 
 fully vindicated the honesty of his character, and 
 enumerated, as follows, a few of the ' projects'i 
 which he had successfully accomplished: 1. Estab-f 
 lishment of a free press in India ; 2. Liberty of 
 settling in India for all British subjects ; 3. Powenj 
 of purchasing lands by English colonists ; 4. Estab-. 
 lishment of trial by jury in India ; 5. Abolition? 
 of the burning of widows ; 6. Discontinuance of 
 drawing revenue from idolatry; 7. Free trade for 
 Englishmen with China ; 8. Opening of the overt 
 land route to India; 9. Immediate emancipation! 
 of British slaves ; 10. Establishment of temperancar 
 societies (Mr. Buckingham, we ought here to 
 observe, was president of the Temperance League) i 
 11. Providing public baths for the people; 12. 
 Opening public walks and gardens ; 13. Establish^ 
 ment of provincial museums ; 14. Forming public 
 cemeteries for interment without towns; 15. Allow! 
 ance of an annual grant to Polish exiles; 16i 
 Abolition of impressment for the navy; 17. ProJ 
 viding seamen's homes for the merchant seamen f 
 18. Formation of societies for the suppressior 
 duelling; 19. Reduction of the tax on authors 
 publishers. Of course it is not to be suppc 
 that these reforms were all alike accomplished 
 the unaided efforts of one man ; but such were i 
 projects with which Mr. Buckingham was busy 
 his lifetime, and their enumeration is interest 
 as showing the measure of his sympathies, and 
 utility always aimed at in the diversity of 
 pursuits. Few men have led a more adventi 
 life and seen greater vicissitudes of fortune, 
 serving, at the same time, a constant effort to 
 good on the largest possible scale. His career 
 one which establishes (to use his own words w] 
 announcing his Autobiography) ' that there is 
 obscurity of birth, no privation of property, i 
 no opposition, either of powerful individuals, 
 still more powerful public bodies and governmi 
 that may not be overcome by industry., intej 
 zeal, and perseverance; no depth of misfo 
 from which the victim may not hope to em 
 by labour, economy, temperance, and that si: 
 mindedness which regards the faithful 
 
BUO 
 
 duty as the great object to which all others 
 ast be made subordinate.' Mr. Buckingham 
 sd June 30, 1855. [E.R.] 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Charlotte Julia, princess 
 Canino, eldest daughter of Joseph Buonaparte, 
 g of Spain, and of Julia Maria Clary, sister of 
 present queen dowager of Sweden, the widow 
 Bernadotte. Born at Paris, 1802; married her 
 usin Charles, son of Lucien, prince of Canino, 
 22 ; became princess by her husband's succession 
 his father's title, 1840 ; died 1854. 
 BURKE, James, lieutenant in the royal en- 
 iieers, memorable for his gallant bearing in 
 attack upon the Russian camp near Rust- 
 fiouk, where he met the death of a hero, July 
 1854. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir John, major-general, killed 
 
 the assault on the Redan fort, June 18th, 
 oo, was the son of Sir Archibald Campbell, 
 nmander in the first war with the Burmese. 
 $ was born in 1807, and was therefore in the 
 me of life when he fell. His first experience of 
 r was obtained on the staff of his father, in the 
 rmese war ; subsequently, he joined the 38th 
 ;iment, and served with it from 1837 to 1851, 
 
 the Mediterranean, West Indies, and Nova 
 3tia. In the year last mentioned he returned 
 England, and was appointed brigadier-general, 
 
 being sent to the Crimea ; by a late brevet he 
 am? major-general. He fell gloriously, cheering 
 
 his men, and his body was found on the day 
 lowing, close up to the abattis. His remains 
 re interred at Cathcart's Hill. [E.R.] 
 
 CANDLISH, Mrs., formerly Miss Jean Smith, 
 
 last of the six ' belles of Mauchline' celebrated 
 the verse of Burns, 
 'Miss Miller is fine, Miss Markland's divine, 
 
 Smith she has wit, and Miss Betty is braw ; 
 
 There's beauty and fortune to get wi' Miss Morton, 
 "But Armour's the jewel for me o' them a'." 
 
 e husband of Mrs. Candlish was a medical man, 
 her son is the Rev. Dr. Candlish of Edinburgh. 
 ARBUCCIA, General, one of the com- 
 nders of the Erench army in the East, and a 
 tinguished archaeologist; died 1854. 
 'ARLOS, Don, second son of Carlos IV., king 
 Spain, and grandson, by the mother's side, of 
 ids XV. of France, was born 1788. On the 
 th of his brother, Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he 
 mted the succession to the throne, but was at 
 gth, in 1839, compelled to retreat into France. 
 1845 he abdicated his pretensions in favour of 
 eldest son, Don Carlos Luis Conde de Monte- 
 lin, who has since married a sister of Ferdinand 
 Don Carlos died at 
 
 CAT 
 
 guards, 1810. His experience of active warfare 
 commenced after the battle of Borodino, in the 
 grand army headed by the Emperor Alexander, 
 who took the field in person, January, 1813. 
 He was then a lieutenant in the 6th dragoons, 
 and remained with the allied forces through all 
 the following campaigns, and was present at all 
 the great battles fought in Germany and France, 
 and finally at the capture of Paris. After the 
 peace of 1814. he accompanied his father, Lord 
 Cathcart, to the Congress at Vienna, and from 
 that city he took his departure for Brussels as 
 extra aid-de-camp to the duke of Wellington. 
 In this capacity he was present at Quatre Bras 
 and Waterloo, and afterwards remained on the 
 staff of the duke as full aid-de-camp. After 
 many years of regimental service he had retired on 
 half-pay, when the rebellion in Canada broke out, 
 the events of which placed him in command of all 
 the troops south of the river St. Lawrence. Six 
 years he remained in Canada, and having returned 
 home he again retired on half-pay ; but his country 
 still demanded his sendees, and, in 1852, he went 
 out as governor and commander-in-chief at the 
 Cape, where he at length brought the Caffre war 
 to a conclusion. His return to England was only 
 like a flying visit on his way to the Crimea, where 
 his career is sufficiently well known. His fall at 
 the battle of Inkermann is thus described by the 
 correspondent of the Times : ' Sir George Cath- 
 cart seeing his men disordered by the fire of a large 
 column of Russian infantry which was outflanking 
 them, while portions of the various regiments 
 composing his division were maintaining an un- 
 equal struggle with an overwhelming force, rode 
 down into the ravine in which they were engaged 
 to rally them. He perceived, at the same time, 
 that the Russians had actually gained possession 
 of a portion of the hill in rear of one flank of his 
 division, but still his stout heart never failed him 
 for a moment. He rode at their head encouraging 
 them, and when a cry arose that the ammunition 
 was failing, he said coolly, u Have you not got 
 your bayonets?" As he led on his men, it was 
 observed that another body of men had gained the 
 top of the hill behind them on the right, but it was 
 impossible to tell whether they were friends or 
 foes. A deadly volley was poured into our scattered 
 regiments. Sir George cheered them, and led 
 them back up the hill; but a flight of bullets 
 passed where lie rode, and he fell from his horse 
 close to the Russian columns. The men had to 
 fight their way through a host of enemies, and 
 lost fearfully. They were surrounded and bayo- 
 netted on all sides, and won their desperate way 
 up the hill with diminished ranks and the loss of 
 near 500 men. . . Sir George Cathcart's body 
 was afterwards recovered, with a bullet wound in 
 the head, and three bayonet wounds in the body.' 
 Thus fell one of the brightest ornaments of the 
 army a man who was fitted for any command, 
 and worthy of the highest honours. We ought to 
 remark that the profession is indebted to General 
 Cathcart for a volume of commentaries, published 
 1850, in which the strategy of Napoleon and the 
 allies in 1813 and 1814 is compared, and the prin- 
 cipal battles described. [E.R.] 
 CATHERINE, queen of Navarre, was the sister 
 of Francis Phoebus, whom she succeeded 1483. 
 
 879 
 
CAT 
 
 In 1481 she rmrried John d'Albert, who was 
 crowned kins with her in 1494 at Pampeluna. 
 She died a raw months after her husband, after 
 being despoiled of the government, in 1516. 
 CATHERINE HOWARD* See Howard. 
 CAVAIGNAC, Loui3 Eugene, a French 
 general and politician, son of the celebrated 
 conventionalist of the name. His elder brother 
 was an eminent republican, and suffered a prose- 
 cution for the active share he took after promoting 
 the Revolution of 1830, in attacking the measures 
 of Louis Philippe's government. While his brother 
 was thus occupied in the arena of polities, the 
 future general was serving in the army, which he 
 er.tered on receiving a commission from the 
 Polytechnic School. In 1828, he held a command 
 in the French expedition to the Morea. Returning 
 to France, we find him, in 1830, in garrison at 
 Arras, where, as afterwards at Metz, he openly 
 avowed his republican sentiments. In consequence 
 of this declaration of his political opinions, he was 
 sent to Africa, where he gained great distinction 
 in the Algerine wars. In 1847, he succeeded 
 Lamoriciere in the command of the province of 
 Oran ; and in the following year was promoted to 
 the governor-generalship of Algeria. His rule in 
 Algeria was distinguished by great firmness and 
 judgment. While holding that important office 
 ne was chosen a delegate to the National Assembly 
 for the two departments of : Lot and Seine. 
 Ancestral connection induced him to sit for Lot. 
 On the 24th February, a decree of the provisional 
 government made him General of Division, a 
 second decree made him Minister of War. The 
 latter post was, however, declined by him, because 
 he was not allowed to concentrate in Paris such a 
 military force as he wished to maintain. It was 
 not long after this ere events showed the necessity 
 of placing the supreme military command in the 
 hands of a single individual. Cavaignac was in 
 consequence appointed Minister of War, and at 
 once entered upon his command. It was on the 
 23d of May, that the President of the National 
 Assembly delivered to him the command of all the 
 troops appointed to guard the chamber. The 
 23d of June saw the Parisians once more behind 
 the barricades. Two plans for suppressing the 
 revolt were proposed. The executive committee 
 was for spreading the troops over the capital; 
 Cavai^nac's plan was the reverse of this, and con- 
 sisted in concentrating his troops at certain points, 
 and bringing them into action in large masses. 
 The insurrections of July, 1830, and of 1848, had 
 been treated by the existing governments as larger 
 street riots, to be quelled in police fashion. 
 Cavaignac treated the insurrection of June as the 
 outbreak of a civil war, and met it in true order of 
 battle. After four days' fighting in the streets, 
 Cavaignac found himself the absolute disposer of 
 the destinies of Paris and France, but, true to his 
 republican principles, he laid down his dictatorship, 
 like some ancient Roman, as soon as he had pacified 
 the capital. The National Assembly, however, 
 aware of the importance of his services, appointed 
 him President of the Council, with power to 
 nominate his own ministry. This position was 
 held by him until the election of the President of 
 the Republic, 
 
 COC 
 
 National Assembly, and the compliments of hi 
 successor. When Louis Napoleon executed hi; 
 coup d'etat, one of his precautions was to arres 
 Cavaignac in his bedchamber. The General was 
 however, released after a brief detention ; and ha, 
 resided unmolested in Paris since that time, though 
 in common with other distinguished Frenchmen 
 he never acknowledged either the Dictators!* 
 or the Empire. In July, 1857, Cavaignac was re 
 turned as one of the ten deputies to Paris, in oppo 
 sition to the imperialist party. His sudden death 
 on the 30th October, 1857, has, however, take] 
 from France one of the most patriotic of her song 
 and one of the ablest of her generals. In cool 
 resolute daring, and in the utter absence of all 
 love of display, Cavaignac more nearly resemble! 
 the duke of Wellington than any French general 
 Cavaignac was buried at Montmartre: some 15,00' 
 of the people of Paris escorted his remains to thei 
 final resting-place. Among the mourners wer 
 the chief of his old political friends, who ha 
 emerged from their obscurity to do honour t 
 their departed comrade. 
 
 CHALON, John James, a distinguished paintei 
 chiefly of landscapes and marine pictures, died a 
 an advanced age, November, 1854. 
 
 CHAPMAN, John, memorable for his exer 
 tions in the cause of India, especially for the intro 
 duction of railways and the cultivation of cottoD 
 died 1854. 
 
 CLAYTON A. B., an architect, 1795-1855. 
 
 CLEMENCE, Isaurus. See Ysaure. 
 
 CLINT, George, a painter and mezzotint en 
 graver, remarkable for his theatrical and othe 
 portraits, 1770-1854. 
 
 CLONCURRY, Valentine Browne La* 
 less, Lord, of Cloncurry in Ireland, was born if 
 Dublin, 1773, and educated for the bar. Toward; 
 the close of the century we find him identified w 
 the movement party of his countrymen, a meml 
 the Society of United Irishmen, and an 
 of Curran, Grattan, Emmett, O'Connor, 
 Edward Fitzgerald, and George Ponsonby. 
 1798 he was arrested on a charge of treason, 
 after several examinations before the Privy C 
 cil, he was liberated as ' imprudent rather 
 criminal.' Arrested again in 1799, he did not 
 his freedom till 1801, and in the meantime, by 
 death of his father, had inherited the family t 
 From that time till the visit of George IV, 
 1821, he remained at variance with the go 
 ment, but was then graciously received by his 
 jesty, and lived to become a sworn member of 
 Privy Council. Died 1853. [E. 
 
 COCHRANE, Charles, principal founder 
 president of the ' National Philanthropic Im 
 tion,' established in Leicester square for the 
 of tbe unemployed poor, 1807-1H55. 
 
 COCKBURN, Sir George, a distingn 
 British admiral, born in 1772, and hono 
 served his country from 1786 till the day 
 death in 1853. 
 
 COCKBURN, Henry Thomas, known 
 title, Lord Cockburn, as one of the lords ol 
 court of session and a lord commissioner of 
 ticiaiy, was born in 1779. He holds a b: 
 place in the rank of barristers, and possessed 
 markable power and eloquence as a special pl< 
 
 _ On laying down his extraordinary 
 powers, Cavaignac received the thanks of the I In political doctrines tie belonged "to the 
 
 880 
 
coc 
 
 onstellation ofwhigs as his friend Lord Jeffrey, 
 
 hose life and correspondence he published, 1852. 
 I)ied 1 854. 
 
 COCKTON, H., author of Valentine Vox' and 
 ther contributions to light literature, 1808-1853. 
 
 CODRINGTON, Admiral Sir Edward, born 
 770, entered the navy in 1783, and in 1794 was 
 leutenant on board the flag-ship of Lord Howe, 
 rom that time he took a distinguished part in 
 lany great actions, but his name is chiefly asso- 
 'ated with the destruction of the Egyptian fleet at 
 
 avarino, October 20th, 1827. On this occasion 
 he commands of the king are said to have been 
 xpressed in a sentence more pithy than dignified, 
 -'Go it, Ned!' From 1832 to 1839 he sat in 
 arliament for Devonport. Died 1851. 
 
 COLBURN, Henry, the well known publisher, 
 rejector of the 'New Monthly Magazine,' the 
 Court Journal.' the ' United Service Magazine,' 
 nd the ' Literary Gazette.' Died 1855. 
 
 COLLYER, William Benjo, a distinguished 
 heologian and popular preacher of the metropolis, 
 ras the son of a builder at Deptford, and was 
 ducated at Homerton. Died in his seventy- 
 econd year, 1854. His ' Lectures on Scripture 
 'acts,' published in 1808. obtained for him the 
 iploma of D.D. from the university of Edin- 
 urgh. 
 
 COLOMBIERE. See Vllson. 
 
 COLQUHOUN, James, known as the Cheva- 
 er de Colqulioun, distinguished as a diplomatist 
 nd writer on the civil law, 1780-1855. His father 
 as the celebrated writer on the police system 
 f the metropolis. 
 
 CONDER, Josiah, editor of the Patriot news- 
 aper, was born in London, on 17th September, 
 7o9. At an early age Josiah Conder manifested 
 iat poetical genius and literary taste which sub- 
 jquently distinguished him. In 1814 he became 
 roprietor of the Eclectic Review, being at that 
 me a bookseller in London. In 1819 he dis- 
 osed of the business to Mr. Holdsworth, and went 
 
 reside at Watford, in Hertfordshire, retaining in 
 is own hands the management of the Eclectic 
 11 1837, when Dr. Thomas Price became the pro- 
 ietor and editor. During the twenty-three years 
 'Mr. Conder's editorship of this monthly journal, 
 J enjoyed the assistance either more statedly or 
 ore occasionally, of John Foster, Robert Hall, 
 r. Chalmers, Dr. Pye Smith, Isaac Taylor, L. 
 Twins, D.D., Dr. Vaughan, Charles March, and 
 
 any other literary celebrities. In 1818, Mr. 
 onder published a work on Protestant Noncon- 
 >rmity. In 1824 he entered upon an engagement 
 > compile the ' Modern Traveller.' In 1832 Mr. 
 onder became editor of the Patriot newspaper, 
 i office which he sustained with credit for twenty- 
 lree years. Mr. Conder died on the 27th Decem- 
 ir, 1855. 
 
 CONYBEARE, The Very Rev. Wm. Daniel, 
 ean of LlandafF, was born June 7, 1787. His 
 iher was rector of Bishopgate. The late dean 
 as educated at Westminster, and afterwards at 
 hrist Church, where, in 1808, he took a first class 
 classics, and a second in mathematics. At 
 hrist Church, Conybeare was the associate of the 
 te Sir Robert Peel, and is said to have been some- 
 hat acquainted with the opinions of that eminent 
 atesman, whom he used always to describe as a 
 
 881 
 
 COT 
 
 whig at heart. From Christ Church he proceeded 
 to Oxford, and shortly after taking his degree 
 there, he entered upon the study of that science 
 with which his name is inseparably associated. It 
 was in 1814 his first communication was made to 
 the ' Transactions of the Geological Society,' of 
 which body he was, if not the founder, at least one 
 of the earliest members. In the study of the new 
 science, he was associated with Buckland and 
 Phillips. His first paper in the ' Geological Trans- 
 actions ' is a tract on the origin of a remarkable 
 class of organic impressions occurring in the 
 nodules of flint, in the course of which he estab- 
 lishes that these substances are not, as was sup- 
 posed, fossil corals, but produced by the infiltration 
 of siliceous matter into shells, the calcerous matrix 
 of which has perished. Mr. Conybeare completed 
 his geological labours by the publication, in con- 
 junction with Mr. Phillips, of the ' Outlines of the 
 Geology of England and Wales.' The work was 
 regarded as a marvel of compilation, and has often 
 been referred to as one of the most useful manuals 
 on the subject ever published. Mr. Conybeare was 
 for many years rector of Sully; in Glamorganshire. 
 In 1831 he was elected vicar of Bristol College. 
 During that and the two following years he de- 
 livered a series of lectures at the College, which 
 were afterwards published, accompanied by an in- 
 augural address on the Application of Classical and 
 Scientific Education to Iheology. Originality of 
 thought, and charm of style, gave these lectures 
 an unusual popularity. In 1836, Mr. Conybeare 
 became vicar of Axminster, Devon. In 1839 he 
 was appointed Bampton lecturer to the University 
 of Oxford. In 1847, at the instance of Dr. Cople- 
 stone, then bishop, he was instituted to the deanery 
 of LlandafF, resigning Axminster in favour of lis 
 eldest son. Here the last eleven years of his life 
 were passed in the prosecution of his favourite 
 studies, and in the zealous discharge of his profes- 
 sional duties. The loss of a son, the Rev. W. J. 
 Conybeare, who promised to transcend in the 
 world of letters, even the father's fame, is under- 
 stood to have hastened the death of the venerable 
 Dean of Llandaff, which took place on the 1 2th 
 August, 1857, at Itchen Stoke, near Portsmouth. 
 
 COOK, W. B., an engraver, 1778-1855. 
 
 COOPER, Bransby, a distinguished English 
 surgeon, nephew of Sir Astley Cooper, born in 
 1792, and at an early age entered the naval service, 
 but being obliged to relinquish it from weak health, 
 he embraced the medical profession. In 1812 he 
 entered the royal artillery as surgeon, and gained 
 great experience in the Peninsular war. He after- 
 wards settled in London, was appointed demon- 
 strator of anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital, and 
 published many valuable papers. He died in 1853. 
 
 COPELAND, Fanny. See Fitzwilliam. 
 
 COPELAND, Thomas, a writer on surgery and 
 other medical subjects, 1781-1855. 
 
 CORRY, Armar Lowry, rear-admiral of the 
 White, was born in 1793, and entered the naval 
 service in 1805, under Capt. Sir H. Popham. He 
 received his first commission, April 12, 1812, and 
 sailed with Napier as second in command of the 
 Baltic fleet, 1854. Died at Paris, May 1, 1855. 
 
 CORVINUS, John. See Hunniades. 
 
 COTTENHAM, Charles Christopher Pe- 
 pys, earl of, formerly lord chancellor, was horn 
 
 3L 
 
COT 
 
 in 1781, ami called to the bar in 1804. In July, 
 1831, he was returned to parliament through the 
 interest of Earl Fitzwilliam ; in 1834 became 
 master of the rolls, and in 1835 was appointed, 
 in conjunction with others, a commissioner of the 
 peat seal. In 1836, this high responsibility de- 
 volved on himself alone. He continued in office 
 till 1841 ; resuming it again while the whigs held 
 the reins of government, from 1846 to 1850. Died 
 1851. 
 
 COTTLE, JOSEPH, one of the earliest and most 
 faithful friends of Coleridge, 1769-1853. 
 
 CRICHTON, Rev. Andrew, a Scottish divine, 
 many years editor of the Edinburgh. Advertiser, 
 author and translator of many valuable contribu- 
 tions to history and biography. Died 1855. 
 
 CROKER, Thomas Crofton, whose name is 
 identified with the fairy legends and traditions of 
 the Celtic race, was the son of Major Croker, of 
 the 38th regiment of foot, and was born at the 
 house of his maternal grandfather, in Cork, 1798. 
 He was a descendant of an old Devonshire family, 
 some of whom had settled in the south of Ireland 
 in the times of Elizabeth and Cromwell ; and, not- 
 withstanding his high connections, was educated 
 for a mercantile life. He passed much time in the 
 south of Ireland in the period 1812 to 1815, col- 
 lecting the legends and songs of the peasantry; 
 at the same time employing occasionally his talent 
 for sketching ; yet his first work, ' Researches in 
 the South of Ireland,' did not appear till 1824. 
 In the spring of the following year, he became 
 renowned by the publication of his 'Fairy Legends,' 
 to which he was indebted for the acquaintance of 
 Sir Walter Scott, who met him with several other 
 celebrities of the day at a breakfast party, at Mr. 
 Lockhart's, in Pall Mall. The occasion "is inter- 
 esting, as it forms the subject of a notice in Sir 
 Walter Scott's journal, who characterizes Mr. 
 Croker as ' the author of the Irish Fairy Tales, 
 little as a dwarf, keen-eyed as a hawk, and of 
 easy, prepossessing manners, something like Tom 
 Moore.' Other interesting particulars concerning 
 this interview will be found in the ' Gentleman's 
 Magazine,' vol. xlii., p. 452. It may be added, 
 that the best published likeness of him is said to 
 be in Maclise's 'Snap Apple Night,' It would 
 exceed our limits to specify all the legendary and 
 other amusing or learned works we owe to the 
 subject of our notice ; but we may briefly mention 
 his contributions to the annuals, ' Daniel O'Rourke,' 
 and ' Legends of the Lakes,' in which he was 
 aided by the MSS. of Mr. Lynch. In 1832, he 
 essaved his hand as a novelist, but was more him- 
 self in 1839, as editor of 'The Popular Songs of 
 Ireland.' This year also he took part in the 
 formation of the Camden Society, and, in 1840, 
 was still more active in founding the Percy So- 
 ciety, both of which were benefited by his anti- 
 quarian knowledge and literary talents as editor. 
 Died at his house in Brompton, after a short ill- 
 ness, August 8, 1854. [E.R.] 
 
 CROLL, Francis, an engraver of Edinburgh, 
 who was rapidly rising to eminence when he died, 
 at the early age of twenty-seven, 1854. 
 
 CUDDY, Lieut.-Colonel, a gallant officer, 
 killed while leading his men up to the Redan fort, 
 ber K, 1855. 
 i I ITT, George, an artist distinguished for his 
 
 DEN 
 
 etchings, author of ' Wanderings and Pencilling 
 amongst the Ruins of Olden Times,' 1779-1854. 
 CURT1US, Quintus. See Qulntus. 
 
 J) 
 
 DACRE, Barbarina Brand, Dowasrer Baro 
 ncss Dacre, chiefly celebrated for her'dramati 
 writings, was born in 1757. Her father was th 
 brave Admiral Sir Chaloner Ogle. Her works be 
 gan to appear in 1821, and include translation 
 from Petrarch. In 1831, she edited ' Recollection 
 of a Chaperon,' and in 1835, ' Tales of the Peerag 
 and Peasantry,' both written by her daughtei 
 Mrs. Sullivan, the author of 'Ellen Wareham 
 Died 1854. 
 
 D'AGUILAR, Sir George, lieut. -general 
 the British army, memorable for his services 
 the Chinese war, 1785-1855. 
 
 DARTMOUTH, William, fourth earl of, dis 
 tinguished as a liberal promoter of popular institu 
 tions ; born 1784, succeeded to the peerage on th 
 death of his father 1810 ; died 1854. 
 
 DAVID, M. D'Angers, the well known Frenc 
 sculptor, died at Paris at the age of sixty -fiv< 
 Jan., 1856. He was a pupil, and nephew by mar 
 riage. of David the painter, and was an arden 
 republican, as shown by the long list of great name 
 who did honour to his funeral. 
 
 DA VIES, Griffith, F.R.S., a distinguishe 
 actuary, born at Caernarvon 1788, died in Londo 
 1855. 
 
 DAVY, Lady Jane, daughter of Charles Ker 
 Esq., of Antigua, and widow of the celebrated Si 
 H. Davy, remarkable for her accomplishments am 
 conversational powers, died 1855. 
 
 DAWNAY, The Right Honourable Wii. 
 liam Hendry, seventh Viscount Down, bor 
 15th May, 1812, died 26th January, 1857. 
 
 DE BIELKE, Rodoi.ph, an eminent Danis 
 diplomatist, was the successor of Count Reventlc 
 as charge d'affaires in this country, and is memoi 
 able for his services during the Schleswig-Holstei 
 agitation, and the troubles of 1848. After leav 
 ing England, he became Danish minister at th 
 court of Berlin, and from thence had retired I 
 Italy to recruit his health, where he was seize4 
 with cholera, and was so greatly reduced that ti 
 died at Padua. July 26, 1855. 
 
 DE LA BECHE, Sir Henry Thomas, a dis 
 tinguished geologist, at whose instance the Museu* 
 of Practical Geology was instituted, 1796-1855. 
 
 DEMAINBRAY, The Rev. S. G. F. T., one < 
 the chief promoters of the allotment system, ac 
 thor of a pamphlet entitled, 'The Poor Man's Be! 
 Friend,' 1759-1854. 
 
 DENISON, Edward, late bishop of Salistnr 
 was born in London, 1801, and at the time of hi 
 appointment to the bishopric, March, 1837, held 
 small college living at Oxford. He was in favotf 
 of reviving the synodical powers of the churcl 
 and was remarkable for his sincerity and cleames 
 of judgment. He is the author of several worki 
 chiefly in practical religion. Died March 6, 185- 
 
 DENMAN, Thomas, Lord, born in Londc: 
 1779, was the son of a physician distinguished b 
 the patronage of the court, and grandson of 
 
DEN 
 
 juntry apothecary. His first teachers were Mr. 
 nd Mrs. Barbauld, then keeping school in Nor- 
 >lk ; his education was continued at Cambridge. 
 l 1806, he was called to the bar; and in 1818, 
 >ok his seat in parliament as member for Ware- 
 am ; in 1820, for Nottingham. The same year, 
 aving boldly ranged himself with Brougham and 
 le other advocates of popular rights, he was also 
 ppointed solicitor-general to Queen Caroline, 
 t* le advocacy of whose cause left him proportion- 
 
 * tely out of favour with the court. In 1828, his 
 ** ;ar" began to rise under favour of Lord Lyndhurst; 
 )D od, at the period of the reform bill, his brilliant 
 M ualities, no longer under eclipse, carried him to 
 f (fice. At the close of that struggle, therefore, we 
 
 nd him, November 8, 1 832, appointed successor 
 111 f Lord Tenterden as lord chief justice of the 
 , ling's Bench; soon after which he was made a 
 j rivy councillor, and eventually, in 1834, raised 
 
 * ) the peerage. Lord Denman performed the 
 mctions of the high office to which he had been 
 
 fr died with rare devotion to his duties and inde- 
 ta endence of character till March, 1850., when he 
 ft stired on the ground of ill health. He died at 
 toke Albany in Northamptonshire, aged seventy- 
 % x, September 22, 1854. [E.R.] 
 
 T DENNISTOUN, James, an historical writer 
 
 * ad amateur of art, was born in Dumbartonshire 
 a i 1803 ; died in February, 1855. He was dis- 
 nguished by his acquaintance with the literature 
 
 id history of Scotland, and contributed some 
 
 1 Attesting papers to the reviews. His ' Memoirs 
 <1 F the Dukes of Urbino,' is a well known and 
 
 imired work ; since which we have from his pen 
 I ae of the most interesting biographies that has 
 S ppeared for many years, in the ' Life of Sir Robert 
 a trange,' the eminent engraver, and of his brother- 
 
 t-laW; Andrew Lumisden, secretary to the Stuart 
 it rinces. Sir Robert Strange was the grandfather, 
 a her mother's side, of Mrs. Dennistoun. 
 
 DEPP1NG, G. B., a Fr. antiquarian, 1784-1854. 
 nil DILLWYN, L. W., a Welch magistrate and 
 i) aturalist, characterized as the father of English 
 M Dtany, author of several important works, 1778- 
 4 855. 
 
 mi DOBSON, A. R., a young architect of much 
 ti romise, son of a gentleman of the same name, 
 il >ng known at Newcastle-on-Tyne, perished in the 
 i re at Gateshead, aged twenty-six, 1854. 
 il DOD, Charles Roger, whose name is familiar 
 
 ) the public as the founder of the ' Parliamentary 
 i ompanion and the Peerage,' was born in his fa- 
 in ler's vicarage of Drumlean in 1793. He was edu- 
 i ited for the bar, but abandoned his legal studies 
 m >r journalism, and was for many years a writer in 
 ,1 le Times. Died 1855. 
 St DONATO, Ncholas, doge of Venice, succeeded 
 
 ohn Bembo, 1618, and died the month following. 
 4 [e was succeeded by Antonio Priuli. 
 :i DONE, Joshua, a pianist and composer of 
 cli msic, chiefly of songs, died in poverty, occasioned 
 in j his irregular habits, aged about sixty, 1848. 
 j DOVASTON, J. F. M., an essayist and poet, 
 n athor of ' British Melodies,' and other poems, and 
 i F a life of Bewick, the naturalist, with whom he 
 [i as intimately acquainted, 1782-1854. 
 i DUCIE, Earl, a distinguished English agri- 
 ifl llturist and free-trader, 1802-1853. 
 i DU PLAT, George Gustavus Charles 
 
 EGE 
 
 William, brigadier-general in the British army, 
 died at Vienna, where he had proceeded, after the 
 commencement of the late war, as military com- 
 missioner. December 21, 1854. General Du Plat 
 had been nearly forty years in the service, and 
 was recently consul-general at Warsaw. His son, 
 Capt. Du Plat, is an equerry to Prince Albert. 
 
 DUPONT. See Ponte, Pontius. 
 
 DUPONT, (De L'Eure,) Jacques Charles, 
 chief of the provisional government of France in 
 1848, was born at Neubourg, in the department of 
 Eux, 1767. He became mayor of his native place 
 in 1792, and continued to fill numerous offices in 
 the magistracy till the revolution of 1830, when 
 he became minister of justice. The reaction under 
 Louis Philippe soon deprived him of this position, 
 and he then identified himself with the opposition 
 in the chamber of representatives. He was pro- 
 posed to the people by Lamartine, and hailed with 
 universal applause as head of the government 
 after the revolution of February ; died 1855. 
 
 DUPUY. See Put, Putten. 
 
 E 
 
 EGERTON, Francis, the first earl of Elles- 
 mere, of Ellesmere, county Salop, and Viscount 
 Brackley, of Brackley, Northamptonshire, was 
 born on the first day of January, 1800. He was 
 the second son of George Granville, marquis of 
 Stafford, who was afterwards created duke of 
 Sutherland. His grandfather, the preceding mar- 
 quis of Stafford, had married the daughter, and 
 eventually co-heir, of Scroope, the first duke of 
 Bridgewater, to whose estates the late earl suc- 
 ceeded on the death of his father, assuming then the 
 sole name of Egerton, in place of his patronymic 
 of Leveson Gower. The Ellesmere peerage was a 
 revival, having been first conferred on Thomas 
 Egerton, lord chancellor of England in the reign 
 of James I. The chancellor was created baron 
 Ellesmere and viscount Brackley, but died before 
 the promised earldom was conferred, which James 
 granted to his son under the title of earl of 
 Bridgewater. In the works of Bacon, as well as 
 in the historical annals of the time, the name of 
 lord Ellesmere frequently appears; and a still 
 more interesting literary association is, that his 
 appointment to the presidency of Wales and the 
 Marches was the occasion of Milton writing his 
 masque of Comus. The fourth earl of Bridge- 
 water was created duke in 1720, the ducal title 
 becoming extinct in 1803, though the earldom 
 remained till 1828 in another branch of the family. 
 The princely property of the Bridgewater peerage, 
 including the magnificent collection of pictures, 
 was devised by the last duke to his nephew the 
 duke of Sutherland, with remainder to his second 
 son, the deceased earl of Ellesmere. From Eton, 
 where he received his early education, Lord 
 Francis Leveson Gower went up to Christ Church, 
 Oxford, where he took the B.A. degree in 1821. 
 In 1822 he was returned to parliament, and became 
 a devoted supporter of the policy of Canning. 
 When the London university was projected he 
 became one of its most zealous promoters, despite 
 the outcry about its hostility to the church and to 
 
 883 
 
ELC 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge. In 1820, as Lord Francis 
 Egerton, he was chief secretary for Ireland ; under 
 the duke of Wellington, in 1830. he was secretary 
 at war (hi the formation of Peel's government 
 in 1841, he declined a seat in the cahinet. On 
 the bill for the repeal of the corn laws being 
 introduced he moved the address in reply to the 
 roval speech. From 1829 to 1*34, he sat for the 
 county of Sutherland, and from 1834 to 1846, for 
 South Lancashire, which he represented at the 
 time of his elevation to the peerage. From an 
 early period Lord Ellesmere cultivated literary 
 tastes, and published several works both in prose 
 and poetry His lordship's name will, however, 
 be more widely known in connection with art than 
 literature. To the splendid collection of pictures 
 he inherited he made numerous important addi- 
 tions, and the Bridgewater Gallery, said to be worth 
 more than a quarter of a million, is the finest 
 private collection in Great Britain. The late earl 
 was a fellow of several of the learned societies, was 
 vice-president of the Literary Fund ; was one of 
 the royal commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851, 
 and a trustee of the British Museum. Few 
 noblemen have better discharged the duties of 
 their order. He died in 1857. 
 
 ELCHINGEN, Due D', the younger son of Mar- 
 shal Key, and the inheritor of his father's title, 
 died at Gallipoli, on his way to take a command in 
 the East, July 14, 1854. 
 
 ELDON, John Scott, second earl of, grandson 
 of the illustrious chancellor of that name, member 
 for Truro from 1829 to 1831, died in 1854, having 
 nearly two years before become of unsound mind. 
 
 ELLIOT, Sir Henry Miles, foreign secre- 
 tary to the government oflndia, author of a ' Bib- 
 liographical Index to the Historians of Mahomme- 
 dan India, and a Glossary, 1 1809-1854. 
 
 ELTON, Sir Charles Abraham, a classical 
 scholar and poet, died 1853. 
 
 ESCOTT, Bickham, a political speaker and 
 magistrate, member for Winchester, 1802-1855. 
 
 ESTCOURT, Major-GeneralJames Buck- 
 nall, bom 1802, died of cholera in the camp be 
 
 fore Sebastopol, June 23, 1855. This gallant 
 officer was appointed on the staff of Lord Raglan, 
 and shared the glories of the principal actions in 
 the Crimea; previously, in 1835, he had accom- 
 panied the expedition to the Euphrates. 
 
 EVANS, Arthur Benoni, late head master 
 of Market Bosworth school, distinguished as a 
 profound classical scholar and author, was born 
 in Berkshire, 1781 ; died at Market Bosworth, 
 Leicestershire, November, 1855. Dr. Evans was 
 at once a linguist, naturalist, numismatist, musi- 
 cian, mechanic, anatomist, artist, and divine ; and 
 with all these talents he had a large share of those 
 better qualities which gained for him the love and 
 confidence of his parishioners. He belonged to 
 the high church and conservative party. 
 
 EWING, James, lord provost of Glasgow, re- 
 turned member of parliament for that city at the 
 general election in 1832 ; distinguished for the mu- 
 nificent aid he afforded to various philanthropic 
 movements; 1776-1854. 
 
 EZZEL1N. See Romano. 
 
 FIT 
 
 F 
 
 FABER, George Stanley, the celebrate 
 writer on prophecy, was the eldest son of the Re- 
 Thomas Fabcr, and was born in 1774. In 181 
 he became the vicar of Stockton-upon-Tces, bi 
 exchanged this living for that of Long Newton i 
 1811. The latter he retained till 1832, when 1 
 was appointed master of Sherburn's Hospital, ne< 
 Durham. Here he died, aged eighty, January 2' 
 1855. His chief work, which has gone throue 
 five editions, is entitled ' Dissertations on u 
 Prophecies that have been Fulfilled, are now Fu 
 filling, or will hereafter be Fulfilled, relative t 
 the great period of 1260 years; the Papal an 
 Mohammedan Apostacies; the Tyrannical Reign i 
 Antichrist, or the Infidel Power; and the Restori 
 tion of the Jews.' 
 
 FAUCHER, Leon, a French journalist wl 
 rose into notice after the revolution of July I 
 devoting his pen to the doctrines of free tra< 
 and political economy, died at Marseilles, Dec. 1 
 1854. M. Faucher became home minister undi 
 the presidency of Louis Napoleon, and was removt 
 from office previous to the covp d'etat of Dec. 2. 
 
 FAUCF1, John Saville, stage manager at 
 author of several plays, father ot the celebrate 
 Miss Helen Faucit ; died 1854. The most popuh 
 of his productions are 'The Millers Maid,' ar 
 ' Wappmg Old Stairs.' 
 
 FAULKNER, Thomas, an industrious wrib 
 on topographical and antiquarian subjects, foi 
 merly a bookseller of Chelsea, 1776-1855. 
 
 FELLOWES, Sir Thomas, a distinguishe 
 British naval officer, 1778-1853. 
 
 FERDINAND, duke of Genoa, younger broth< 
 of Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, born 182 s 
 married to Mary Elizabeth, daughter of the presei 
 king of Savoy, 1850; died 1855. 
 
 FERRIER, Susan, died at Edinburgh, on til 
 5th of November, 1854, at an advanced age. Mif 
 Ferrier's novels were three: 'Marriage' (1818^ 
 'The Inheritance' (1824); and 'Destiny; or, Tl 
 Chief 's Daughter' (1831). These works, of whip 
 the first was especially popular, had their chii 
 excellence in the vigorous faithfulness and di 
 humour with which they portrayed characters as 
 scenes of common and real life. The authore 
 'Marriage,' greeted by the author of 'Waverle; 
 as ' a sister shadow,' maintained a dignified 
 lady-like privacy, on which it would be unseemi 
 to intrude. It may be enough to say, that hi 
 father was one of Sir Walter Scott's official co 
 leagues, a principal clerk of the court of session 
 Scotland ; and that, through one of her brother 
 she was connected by affinity with the family i 
 Professor Wilson. [W.S. 
 
 FIELD, George, memorable for his successfi 
 application of chemistry to the arts; author 
 Chromatics,' ' Outlines of Analogical Philosophy 
 and other works; 1777-1854. 
 
 FIELDING, Copley Vandyke, late presidei 
 of the Old Society of Painters in Water Colour 
 remarkable for the beauty of his marine subje 1 
 and landscapes, 1787-1854. 
 
 FITZCLARENCE, Liei t.-General Lok 
 
 Frederick, son of the duke of Clarence an 
 
 Mrs. Jordan, grand master of the Scottish umi 
 
 884 
 
FIT 
 
 riasons, and a devoted officer of the Indian armv, 
 
 799-1854. 
 
 FITZWILLIAM, Fanny Elizabeth, late of 
 it( he Haymarket theatre, was born in 1803 ; died 
 k t Putney, of cholera, September, 1854. Mrs. Fitz- 
 I8t rilliam made her first appearance in public in 
 tu 814, as Miss Fanny Copeland, and was particu- 
 I irly successful at the Surrey theatre as Effie 
 )eans in the ' Heart of Midlothian.* She married 
 
 1 lr. Fitzwilliam, an actor of Irish characters, in 
 
 2 822. Her most popular performances were at 
 be Adelphi, especially with Mr. John Reeves in 
 be ' Wreck Ashore.' Being an admirable mimic 
 
 i'l be often performed more than one character in 
 I be same piece. 
 
 a FONTAINE, L., a Fr. architect, 1760-1854. 
 
 J FONTAINE, Louis, a French architect, and 
 
 on lember of the Academy of Fine Arts, 1764-1854. 
 
 FORBES, Edward, F.R.S , born in the Isle of 
 
 i fan in 1815, died in Edinburgh. November, 1854. 
 
 I he tas'.e for Natural History which characterized 
 
 it rofessor Forbes, and ultimately raised him to the 
 
 1 ink of one of the first and most philosophic natu- 
 
 i ilists of the present day, showed itself in early 
 
 jti fe. He was educated at the University of Edin- 
 
 i urgh, where he was a pupil of the late Professors 
 
 ameson and Graham, and studied the kindred 
 
 jiences of Zoology, Geology, and Botany, with 
 
 larked success. At the early age of eighteen he 
 
 isited Norway on a Natural History excursion, 
 
 rid made many observations on its native produc- 
 
 ons and glaciers. In 1841 he was appointed natu- 
 
 ilist to H.MS. Beacon on the surveying expedition 
 
 > the Mediterranean, and made a tolerably extensive 
 
 tur through Asia Minor. During this expedition 
 
 i carried on an important series of dredging 
 
 rations, which gave rise to his brilliant theories 
 
 i the nature and distribution of submarine life in 
 
 ference to geological changes. In 1843 he was 
 
 ected Professor of Botany in King's College, 
 
 ondon, as successor to George Don. He became 
 
 icretary and curator to the Geological Society, 
 
 id in 1845 was elected a Fellow of the Royal 
 
 aciety. On the establishment of the Government 
 
 ihool of Mines in connection with the Ordnance 
 
 eological Survey under the direction of Sir Henry 
 
 la Beche, Professor Forbes became Palseonto- 
 
 gist to that institution ; and when the new mu- 
 
 ium was opened in Jermyn street, hewas appointed 
 
 rofessor of Natural History there. In this situ- 
 
 ion he remained for some time, giving lectures 
 
 crowded audiences ; and at the same time 
 
 orked hard in various parts of the country in 
 
 nnection with the Geological Survey. On the 
 
 ;ath of Professor Jameson of Edinburgh, in the 
 
 sar 1854, Forbes was immediately elected his 
 
 iccessor, and entered on the duties of the chair of 
 
 atural History in the University of Edinburgh 
 
 ; the commencement of the summer session. 
 
 here he was pre-eminently popular, and bade fair 
 
 raise his own reputation, as well as that of the 
 
 niversity of Edinburgh, to a high pitch ; but, 
 
 as! a disease, the seeds of which had been sown 
 
 his constitution some years previously, cut him 
 
 F, after a very short but severe illness, and after 
 
 had filled the chair only a fi'.w months. Forbes'a 
 
 orks are very numerous, but chiefly consist of 
 
 itaclied memoirs in many of the leading scientific 
 
 urnals of the day. His first published separate 
 
 885 
 
 FUL 
 
 work was the 'Malacologia Monensis,' a description 
 of the shells of the Isle of Man. His next was 
 the very pleasingly written ' History of the British 
 Star-fishes;' then came his 'Travels in Event,' in 
 company with Lieut. Spratt; the 'Natural History 
 of the British Mollusca,' in conjunction with Mr. 
 Sylvanus Hanley ; and the ' Natural History of 
 the British naked-eye Medusae,' published by the 
 Ray Society. He died, much lamented, at the 
 earlv age of thirty-nine years. [W.B.] 
 
 Forester, fanny. See Judson. 
 
 FORREST, Robert, a self-taught Scottish 
 sculptor, died 1853. 
 
 FOURDRINIER, Henry, celebrated for his 
 improvements in the means of manufacturing 
 paper, was born in London 1766. He patented 
 his machine for the manufacture of paper between 
 the years 1800 and 1807, and after various vicis- 
 situdes of fortune, his claims were acknowledged 
 by the house of parliament in 1840. Died 1855. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Sir John, the lamented arctic 
 voyager, was the son of W. Franklin, Esq., of 
 Moor's Enderly in Lincolnshire., and was born in 
 that countv, 1786. He entered the navy in 1800, 
 and served in the action of Trafalgar, and the 
 expedition against New Orleans. At three differ- 
 ent periods, previous to his last fatal enterprise, 
 he penetrated the arctic ocean ; the first in 1818, 
 the second extending from 1819 to 1822, the third 
 from 1823 to 1827. After his return from the 
 latter in 1828, he married the present Lady Frank- 
 lin, then Miss Griffin, whose touching appeals and 
 untiring efforts to procure his rescue, have given 
 her a distinguished place in the catalogue of de- 
 voted wives. It was on the !9th of May, 1845, 
 that the ships Erebus and Terror sailed from 
 the Thames, with official instructions which directed 
 Sir John Franklin to proceed through Lancaster 
 Sound and Barrow's Straits, to Cape Walker, and 
 to use every effort to penetrate from that point to 
 Behring's Straits ; at the same time, in case of cir- 
 cumstances rendering this course impossible, he 
 had full liberty to try any other passage. The 
 voyage as far as Baffin's Bay was prosperous ; and 
 the ships were last seen, with all well on board, 
 moored to an iceberg in the middle of that bay, 
 and about 200 miles from the entrance of Lan- 
 caster Sound : this was on the 26th of July of the 
 same year. Ever since, their fate has been shrouded 
 in darkness; for notwithstanding the discoveries 
 that have been made and the tales that have been 
 related by the Esquimaux, there is nothing better 
 than surmise in regard to the manner in which 
 they perished, for this much it would be folly any 
 longer to doubt. We may add, that Sir John 
 Franklin's expedition was provisioned for three 
 years, but, with careful management, it is possible 
 he may have made them last four. [E.R.] 
 
 FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, king of Saxony, 
 born 1797, succeeded his uncle 1836, having six 
 years previously been appointed co-regent of the 
 kingdom. He was killed by an accident which 
 overturned his carriage in Aug., 1854, and was 
 succeeded by his brother John. 
 
 FULCHER, Geokge Williams, a tradesman 
 and magistrate of Sudbury, known as a poet and 
 occasional writer, 1799-1855. 
 
 FULLERTON, John, a Scottish lawyer, and one 
 of the lords of the court of session, 1775-1851. 
 
rut 
 
 FULTON, John, .1 native of Ayrshire, remark- 
 able for his self- acquired superiority in the acquisi- 
 tion of languages and the construction of mathe- 
 matical instruments ; died 1854. 
 
 G 
 
 GABRIAS. See Babrias. 
 
 GAISFORD, Thomas, dean of Christ Church, 
 distinguished for his profound and varied erudi- 
 tion ; editor of many classical works, 1779-1855. 
 
 GARDINER, William, a writer on music and 
 connoisseur in the fine arts ; author of ' Music and 
 Friends,' and a work of travels, entitled ' Sights in 
 Italy;' 1764-1854. 
 
 GAVIN, Hector, a physician and sanitary 
 reformer, author of many valuable works, died 
 from an accidental shot at Balaklava, April 20, 
 1855. His most remarkable labours were in con- 
 nection with the inquiries into the causes of 
 disease in Newcastle and other towns of the north, 
 during the late visitation of cholera. 
 
 GAY. See Girardin. 
 
 GENNAD1US. See Scholarius. 
 
 GERVILLE, Charles Alexis Adrian Du- 
 herissier, Mons. De, a distinguished archaeologist 
 and antiquarian, author of numerous works, in- 
 cluding a memoir of his own life ; 1769-1853. 
 
 GIFFARD, Henry Wells, commander of 
 H.M. ship Tiger, son of admiral John Giffard, 
 died at Odessa from wounds received in defending 
 his ship, June 1, 1854. Captain Giffard entered 
 the navy in 1824, and was appointed to the rank 
 of commander in February, 1838. In 1840 he ac- 
 companied the expedition against China, and was 
 present at the capture of Chusan, at the blockade 
 of Ningpo, and at Amoy ; his ship was the Cruiser, 
 16. In 1846, he commanded the Penelope steam 
 frigate, bearing the broad pendant of Sir Charles 
 Hotham, on the coast of Africa. The accident by 
 which his vessel was stranded in the neighbour- 
 hood of Odessa, is too recent to require particular 
 notice. Every effort that coald be made to get the 
 ship off proved unavailing, and in a few hours, the 
 Russians having brought their field guns to bear, 
 opened a murderous fire from the cliffs, which 
 compelled the Tiger to strike her flag. The crew 
 having surrendered, became prisoners at Odessa, 
 where it appears they were treated most kindly. 
 Captain Giffard survived nineteen days, and was 
 buried with military honours, Gen. Osten-Sacken 
 attending the funeral. [E.R.] 
 
 GIFFARD, John, a veteran admiral, whose 
 son, Captain Giffard, is the subject of the fore- 
 going notice, died in Southampton, aged ninety, 
 Sept. 25, 1855. Admiral Giffard was a whig in 
 politics, and was for many years the leader of 
 that party in Southampton. 
 
 GILBERT, J. F., a landscape painter, 1791- 
 1855. 
 
 GILLKREST, James, a veteran medical officer 
 and professional writer attached to the armv ; d. 1854. 
 
 GILLMAN, Joseph, a native of Little Over, 
 near Derby, born 1759, died in the ninety-sixth 
 year of his age, June, 1865. This veteran was one 
 of the foremost mutineers at the Nore, and is said 
 tu have dictated the last and effective message to 
 
 GRE 
 
 Mr. Pitt. He served nnder Rodney, Hood, ar 
 Nelson, and was one of the forlorn hope in tfc 
 storming of Seringapatam. 
 
 GILLY, William Stephen, a dignitary of tl- 
 Church of England, author of several popul; 
 works, especially concerning the Vaudois Con 
 tians ; born in Essex, 1789, died in his vicarage 
 Norham, 1855. 
 
 GIRARDIN, Madame De, formerly Mdll 
 Delphine Gay, celebrated among the literati 
 France for her poems and other popular work 
 was born about 1803. She was remarkable f 
 her beauty when very young, and received a sped 
 prize from the Academy, and a pension from tl 
 crown, for her first poems in 1822. In 1831 si 
 was married to the celebrated Emile de Girardi 
 and after that period frequently wrote for 
 fresse. Died 1855. 
 
 GIRY. See Saint-Cyr. 
 
 GODWIN, Major-General, an Indian offic( 
 commander of the Bengal division of the army 
 the recent Burmese war, 1785-1854. 
 
 GOLDIE, Thomas Leigh, brigadier-genei 
 in the army of the Crimea, killed at the battle 
 Inkermann, in the same struggle in which Genei 
 Sir George Cathcart fell, November 5, 1855. 
 
 GOSSET, Montague, a distinguished surge 
 of London, author of several valuable papers 
 surgical literature, 1792-1854. 
 
 GOULBURN, Henry, late member for t 
 university of Cambridge, and a statesman of t 
 Peel party, was born in 1784. He graduated M. 
 in 1808, a year after his return as member J 
 Horsham, and first took office as home secreta 
 in 1810, under the duke of Portland. From 18 
 to 1818 he sat for the borough of St. German is, n< 
 disfranchised, and in the latter year was retum 
 for West-Looe. In 1821 he became Irish secretai 
 and a privy councillor, an office which he vacat 
 in 1828 for that of chancellor of the excheqv. 
 under the duke of Wellington, retiring with t 
 rest of the cabinet in 1830, when Lord Grey b 
 came premier. In the interval from 1826 to 181 
 Mr. Goulburn had sat for Armagh, but in the { 
 eral election of the last-mentioned year he m\ 
 returned for Cambridge, and retained his seat 1 
 his death. In 1834 he became home secreta, 
 under the administration of Sir Robert Peel, 
 in Sept. 1841 chancellor of the exchequer, sin 
 which he lived almost retired from the arena 
 political agitation ; 1789-1856. 
 
 GREENOUGH, George Bellas, an eniine 
 geologist, born 1777, died at Nice 1854, ag 
 seventy-seven. Mr. Greenough inherited an ami 
 fortune, and sat for some time in parliament. 1 
 soon, however, forsook the tangled maze of politic 
 and devoted his time to scientific pursuits. G< 
 logy and geography were his favourite studies, m 
 along with several other kindred spirits, he csta 
 lished the Geological Society of London. Of tl 
 he was the first president, and filled the chair sevei 
 times on subsequent occasions. He also held ti 
 office for two years of president of the GeograpM 
 Society, and at his death bequeathed his extinsi 
 collection of maps to be divided between these ti 
 societies. He was a fellow of the Linnaean a: 
 Royal Societies, and is the author of ' A Critil^ 
 Examination of the First Principles of Geologj 
 which has been translated into German, 'A Gei 
 
 886 
 
GRE 
 
 logical Map of England and Wales, with an accom- 
 panying Memoir,' which has gone through two 
 editions, and ' A General Sketch of the Physical 
 Features of British India.' During his long life 
 Mr. Greenough employed his time, his money, and 
 his talents, in actively promoting geological know- 
 ledge, and at his death left a sum of 500 to be 
 spent in the arrangement and preservation of the 
 maps, which we have already mentioned he had 
 bequeathed to the Geological and Geographical 
 J Societies. [W.B.] 
 
 GRESWELL, William Parr, incumbent of 
 Denton, Manchester, author of several learned 
 works, 1765-1854. 
 
 GUNNING, Henry, a distinguished official of 
 Cambridge university, author of 'Reminiscences 
 of the University, Town, and County of Cam- 
 bridge from 1789 ;' 1768-1854. 
 
 JE 
 
 HALL, James, a writer on art, 1797-1854. 
 
 HARDING, George Perfect, an artist in 
 water colours, famous for his accurate copies of 
 historical subjects, died 1854. 
 
 HARE, Charles Julius, was born on the 13th 
 September, 1795. He gave very early indications 
 of being a sprightly and intelligent boy, and, like 
 many other persons of distinction, he was much 
 indebted for his mental training and refinement of 
 character to the influence of his mother, daughter 
 of Dr. Shipley, bishop of St. Asaph, as well as of 
 his aunt, the widow of the famous Sir William 
 Jones. At a suitable age he was entered a pupil 
 at the Charterhouse ; and among the schoolboys 
 contemporary with him at that classical institu- 
 tion, were several who rose to literary eminence in 
 after life, such as Waddington, dean of Durham, 
 and Grote and Thirlwall, the learned historians of 
 Greece. Having completed the usual curriculum 
 of the Charterhouse, Hare was removed to Cam- 
 bridge in 1812, and his scholarly acquirements 
 having become well known during a lengthened 
 residence at that university, he was elected a fel- 
 low of Trinity College in October, 1818, and four 
 years after was appointed assistant tutor of the 
 college. In that prominent situation he had con- 
 tinued ten years, when the family living of Hurst- 
 monceux, in Sussex, becoming vacant by the death of 
 his uncle, he was, by the urgent recommendation 
 of friends, prevailed on to accept that rectory. 
 His tastes were wholly academic, and it was not 
 without a severe struggle that he brought his mind 
 to exchange the congenial studies and society of 
 Cambridge for the laborious duties and retired life 
 of a country clergyman. Previous to entering on 
 the administration of his parish, however, he made 
 arrangements for enjoying a year's absence on the 
 continent. Foreign scenes were not new to Hare, 
 for he had spent several years of his youth in Ger- 
 many; and it was during his residence in that 
 country that he imbibed that profound admiration 
 for the character and services of Luther, as well as 
 acquired that strong predilection for German philo- 
 sophy and literature which have stamped his writ- 
 ings witli one of their most striking characteristics. 
 Directing his travels now towards the south of 
 
 HAR 
 
 Europe, he. passed rapidly through France and 
 even Switzerland, in his impatient desire to feast 
 his eye with a sight of the classic scenes of Italy. 
 Greece and Rome were the grand centres around 
 which his associated ideas revolved, and in grati- 
 fying his taste with a minute survey of localities 
 which his imagination had invested with so much 
 interest, he passed months which glided with un- 
 noticed rapidity away. In the spring of 1834 he 
 set out on his homeward journey, and forthwith 
 took up his abode in the rectory of Hurstmonceux, 
 which, during his incumbency, displayed the ap- 
 pearance of a splendid mansion-house being 
 adorned with many rare works of the Italian mas- 
 ters, which, being a passionate admirer of art, he 
 had, at great cost, collected abroad, as well as 
 enriched with a valuable library of 12,000 volumes, 
 a great proportion of which were in the German 
 language. His domestic felicity was consummated 
 by his marriage with an amiable and accomplished 
 lady, sister of his former pupil and friend, Dr. 
 Frederick Maurice. As a parish clergyman. Hare 
 cannot be described as active or zealous in his 
 work. He was, indeed, kind to the poor, when 
 they waited on him. He was, moreover, a power- 
 ful and eloquent preacher to people of cultivated 
 minds or philosophic taste ; but his sermons were 
 of so refined a strain, so occupied with the discus- 
 sion of public questions, and protracted to so great 
 a length, as to be altogether unsuitable for the 
 edification of a rustic audience. In his additional 
 office of archdeacon of Lewes, to which he was 
 presented in 1840, he was more in his proper 
 sphere, as appeared from the great interest which 
 his charges to his clergy uniformly produced. It 
 is, however, as an author in the general walks of 
 literature that his name is most widely known. 
 Few, indeed, there are, if any, among his contem- 
 poraries, who equalled him in the variety, extent, 
 and accuracy of his knowledge, in his thorough 
 acquaintance with every form of opinion that pre- 
 vailed both in this country and on the continent ; 
 above all, with the researches and speculations of 
 the great German writers in philosophy, theology, 
 history, and general literature. His earliest ap- 
 pearances before the world as an author were in 
 his translation of the German romances and tales 
 of Fouque' and Tieck. And it was he who, in con- 
 junction with Thirlwall, bishop of St. David's, 
 had the merit of introducing the English public to 
 an acquaintance with the important labours of 
 Niebuhr in the field of ancient Roman history. 
 But it was particularly in the department of theo- 
 logy that his familiar and minute acquaintance 
 with German speculation was manifested ; and it 
 will not be disputed that no person in the present 
 day exercised a greater influence than Archdeacon 
 Hare in stimulating the ardour with which the 
 works of the great German critics are now read 
 and studied in Britain. Among his original works, 
 we may particularize his ' Parish Sermons,' ' The 
 Mission of the Comforter,' Guesses at Truth,' 
 which was the joint production of his brother Au- 
 gustus and himself, 4 The Victory of Faith,' ' Vin- 
 dication of Luther,' ' Biography of John Sterling,' 
 'The Psalms in English Verse,' papers in the 
 'Philological Museum,' and many other periodi- 
 cals. Archdeacon Hare was a man of independent 
 thought, and was noted for several eccentrici- 
 
 887 
 
HAY 
 
 ties, one of which was his adoption, on principle, 
 of a strange, but, as he thought, right etymology 
 of the English. Thus, for instance, he wrote 
 preacht for preached, and publisht for published ; 
 and while Thirlwall and Whewell, who both 
 adopted the same peculiarity, afterwards re- 
 turned to the ordinary practice, Hare, with char- 
 acteristic firmness to what he conceived the 
 truth, adhered to this singular mode of spelling, in 
 all matters, grave or gay, common or sacred. He 
 was taken suddenly ill in the autumn of 1854, so 
 that it was with difficulty he delivered his last 
 charge to his assembled clergy, and on his return 
 home he continued for a few months in a lingering 
 state, till he expired on the 20th January, 1 855, 
 giving to his family a cheering sign of his hope, 
 when he had lost the power of utterance, by point- 
 ing with his finger upwards. f/R.J.J 
 
 HAY, Lieut.-Gen. James, a British officer, 
 distinguished in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, 
 entered the army as cornet, 1795 ; died 1854. 
 
 HEAD, Sik Geokge, elder brother of Sir 
 Francis Bond Head, many years an active com- 
 missariat officer ; author of several popular works, 
 comprehending his personal memoirs and travels, 
 and an account of the manufacturing districts of 
 the United Kingdom ; 1782-1855. 
 
 HENDERSON, Lieut.-General, a gallant 
 British officer, commander of the guards at 
 Waterloo : died 1854. 
 
 HERBERT, Algernon, a barrister-at-law, re- 
 markable as the author of several extraordinary 
 works on abstruse subjects, scriptural, historical, 
 and philosophical ; died aged sixty-three, June, 1 855. 
 
 HEREDIA, Diego De, a Spanish patriot, chief 
 justice of Madrid in the reign of Philip II. 
 
 HERR1ES, Hon. John Charles, a member 
 of parliament and statesman, was the eldest son of 
 a London merchant. He was born in 1778, and 
 became a junior clerk in the treasury, 1798. His 
 next appointment was that of private secretary, 
 first to Mr. Vansittart, and afterwards to Lord 
 Bexley, secretary of the treasury. In 1811 he 
 was appointed, successively, comptroller of army 
 accounts and commissary-in -chief ; closing his 
 merely official career in 1821 as auditor of the 
 civil list. In 1822 he became secretary to the 
 treasuiy and member for Harwich, which he con- 
 tinued to represent till 1841. In 1827 he took 
 office under Lord Goderich as chancellor of the 
 exchequer, but soon afterwards resigned, in con- 
 sequence of a quarrel concerning the appointment 
 of Lord Althorpe, as chairman of the finance com- 
 mittee. His resignation, it is said, was the chief 
 cause of the failure of that administration, but the 
 truth is, the cabinet of Lord Goderich was never 
 firmly cemented, and so many opposite elements 
 existed in it, that its dissolution was almost cer- 
 tain from the beginning. From 1828 to 1830 
 under the duke of Wellington, Mr. Herries was 
 master of the mint and president of the board of 
 trade. In 1835, during the brief period that Sir 
 Robert Peel held office, he was secretary at war. 
 In 1841, as stated above, he ceased to represent 
 his old constituents, and took no part in political 
 affairs till 1847, when he was elected member for 
 Stamford. In the meanwhile, the principle of free 
 trade had been established by the complete success 
 of the anti-corn law league ; and Mr. Herries, as 
 
 883 
 
 HUM 
 
 a conservative, found no place in the administra- 
 tion till the formation of Lord Derby's cabinet in 
 1852, when he became president of the India i 
 board. He retired from public life in the sprint 
 of 1S53. Died at his seat, near Seven Oaks, Apn 
 24, 1855. [E.B.1 
 
 HERSEE, William, a miscellaneous writer, 
 many years editor of the Warwick Advertiser, 
 1786-1854. 
 
 HINKS, Rev. Thomas Dee, LL D., professor) 
 of Hebrew and Oriental languages in the Royal 
 Belfast Academy, was born in 1787, and died on 
 the 24th February, 1857, at the advanced age of 
 ninety. Dr. Hinks was peculiarly distinguished 
 for his scholarship, and for the attention he paid 
 to agricultural improvement. He commenced the 
 Munster Farmers 1 Magazine, a work which did 
 much to raise the standard of farming in the south 
 of Ireland. In 1821 he was elected head master 
 of the classical school in the Royal Belfast Aca- 
 demy, and in the succeeding year was appointed 
 professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages, an 
 appointment which he held with great credit until 
 his death. Dr. Hinks is the father of the distin- 
 guished Orientalist of that name. 
 
 HOARE, Sir Hugh Richard, born 1784, died 
 10th January, 1857. 
 
 HOBHOUSE, Right Hon. Henry, keeper 
 of state papers, and one of the ecclesiastical com- 
 missioners for England, was born in 1776, and 
 called to the bar in 1801. From 1817 to 1827, he 
 held the office of under secretary of state for the 
 home department, and was appointed keeper of , 
 her Majesty's state papers after the discovery of I 
 Milton's long lost theological work among the un- 
 arranged documents in 1825. Died 1854. 
 
 HODGSON, Fkancis, provost of Eton, a dis- 
 tinguished classical scholar, 1781-1853. 
 
 HOLLINS, John, a portrait painter, 1798-1855. 
 
 HOLMES, John, assistant-keeper of the man- 
 uscripts in the British Museum, and an author on \ 
 several occasions, was born in 1800, and brought i 
 up as a bookseller. We are indebted to his pen 
 for a new edition of Cavendish's Life of Cardinal 
 Wolsey,' published 1852; died April, 1854. 
 
 HOOD, Francis Grosvenor, colonel in the 
 3d battalion of grenadier guards, born 1810, 
 killed in the trenches before Sebastopol, October i 
 18, 1855. He was a grandson of admiral the 
 first Viscount Hood, and was remarkable for his 
 gallantry. After the battle of the Alma he re- 
 ceived the special thanks of the commander-in- 
 chief and the duke of Cambridge for the manner \ 
 in which he brought his regiment into action. 
 
 HOPE, William Williams, an eccentric char- - 
 acter, who devoted his enormous wealth to gratify \ 
 his taste for articles of vertu, and to the refine-* 
 ments of music, literature, and art; died in Paris, 
 1854. His collections have since been sold. 
 
 HUME, Joseph, was the son of a master 
 mariner trading from Montrose, where he wasJ 
 born in 1 777. Left fatherless at an early age, 
 be was indebted to his mother for the training) 
 which enabled him, on all occasions, to rise superior 
 to the difficulties by which he was surrounded.* 
 The smallness of her resources, as the mistress of 
 a little shop in Montrose, did not prevent Mrs.}; 
 Hume aspiring to a better position for her son,,ij 
 and she apprenticed him to a surgeon-apothecary I 
 
HUN 
 
 his native town. In 1796, he became a member 
 the College of Surgeons at Edinburgh ; and 
 iving obtained a professional appointment in the 
 rvice of the East India Company, he left England 
 the commencement of the Mahratta war. On 
 e voyage out, he performed the duties of purser, 
 addition to his own as assistant-surgeon; in 
 dia he mastered the native languages, and acted 
 interpreter of Persian to the army ; being at the 
 me time postmaster, paymaster, and commis- 
 riat officer. These multifarious occupations en- 
 led him to return to England, in 1808, with a 
 ill-earned fortune of from 30,000 to 40,000. 
 then travelled a year or two in Europe and the 
 jst; and, in 1812, bought a seat in parliament, 
 rich he lost almost immediately by a dissolution. 
 t this period of his life he became an active 
 mber of the central committee of the Lancas- 
 ian school system, and was most anxious to 
 tain a place in the directory of the East India 
 )mpany, in which, however, he did not succeed. 
 1818, he was sent to parliament as representa- 
 re of the Aberdeen district of burghs, which 
 jluded his native Montrose, and he continued to 
 present the same constituency till 1830, when he 
 is returned for Middlesex m conjunction with 
 r. Byng. In 1837, he was defeated by Colonel 
 ood ; but was returned for Kilkenny, by the aid 
 O'Connell's influence, in the same month. In 
 B conservative house of 1841 he found no place; 
 t the following year he was returned by his old 
 nstituents of Montrose, in whose service he 
 pired. It is almost needless to characterize Mr. 
 nme, whose political character and public services 
 B as well known as the British constitution itself. 
 )thing could overcome his almost dogged per- 
 reranee in the course he had marked out for 
 mself we ought rather to say, his inflexible 
 inciples and amazing industry as a member of 
 House of Commons. The blue books and 
 rliamentary papers of the last quarter of a 
 itury may be regarded as a lasting monument 
 his unremitting application to business, of his 
 nsistency in the cause of reform, and of his 
 stories over innumerable abuses. From these 
 es of almost repulsive literature must hereafter 
 extracted the true story of his achievements, and 
 i legends of the sinecurists and drones that his 
 nchant arm has delivered us from. Died at 
 i seat, Burnley Hall, in Norfolk, February 20, 
 |5. [fi.R.l 
 
 HUNT, Frederick Knight, late editor of 
 Daily News, was born in 1814, and was early 
 rown upon his own resources as an employe* in 
 e office of the Morning Herald. By the most 
 traordinary exertions he supported his mother 
 d her five children, left unprovided for by the 
 ath of his father., and yet contrived, by a 
 Qrse of reading and self-culture, to prepare him- 
 f for a professional career. He studied medicine 
 well as literature ; to which circumstance we 
 e one of his projects, 'The Medical Times.' 
 iving become well known as a journalist, he was 
 ected by Mr. Dickens as one of the assistant 
 itors for the Daily News in 1816, and became 
 editor in chief, 1851. Died in November, 18.54. 
 . Hunt is author of ' The Fourth Estate : a 
 itory of the English Newspaper Press.' 
 
 688 
 
 JAY 
 
 INGLIS, Sir Robert Harry, whose name 
 will long be remembered as a zealous churchman, 
 and supporter of the charitable institutions of his 
 country, was the son of the first baronet, who 
 was for many years chairman of the East India 
 Company. He began life as a member of the bar, 
 but declining the law, took his seat in the House 
 of Commons as member for Dundalk in 1824. At 
 the close of 1 826 he became member for Ripon, and 
 from 1828 to 1833 sat for the university of Oxford. 
 Died in the seventieth year of his age, May 5, 1855. 
 
 IXSOM, , a distinguished sculptor, settled 
 
 many years past at Florence, died, 1855. 
 
 JAMES, Edward, a dignitary of the Church 
 of England, well known for his classical attain- 
 ments, 1790-1854. 
 
 JAMESON, Robert, a distinguished mineralo- 
 gist and geologist, born at Leith 1773, died in 
 Edinburgh 1854, in his eighty-Hrst year. Edu- 
 cated for the medical profession, his attention seems 
 to have been early directed to the study of natural 
 history. At the commencement of his studies, the 
 celebrated Werner was causing the sciences of min- 
 eralogy and geology to assume much greater impor- 
 tance than they had ever done before. Young Jame- 
 son placed himself under his guidance, became a pupil 
 at Freyburg, where Werner had established his 
 school, and embraced with great ardour the par- 
 ticular doctrines which he taught. In 1804, upon 
 Dr. Walker's death, Mr. Jameson was elected his 
 successor as Regius Professor of Natural History, 
 Lecturer on Mineralogy, and Keeper of the Museum 
 in the University of Edinburgh. The prevailing 
 tendency of Jameson's mind was of a practical 
 nature, and the duties attending his appointment 
 to this chair were fulfilled with great zeal and 
 activity for a long series of years. He rendered 
 the study of natural history, and particularly 
 mineralogy and geology, more popular in Edin- 
 burgh than they had ever been before, and the 
 museum attached to the chair was immensely 
 increased by his exertions and judicious outlay of 
 money. At his death, the collection of minerals and 
 rocks amounted to 40,000 specimens; the fossils 
 to 10,000 ; while of crania and skeletons there 
 were no fewer than 800. Other kingdoms of 
 nature were in like manner represented, and he 
 had in addition collected together numerous draw- 
 ings, casts, models, maps, and instruments for 
 surveying. Professor Jameson's works are chiefly 
 his valuable work on ' Mineralogy,' his 'Translation 
 of Cuvier's Theory of the Earth,' and numerous 
 papers contributed to the ' Wernerian Society's 
 Transactions.' He was for many years editor of 
 one of the first natural history and scientific 
 periodicals of the day, the Edinburgh Journal,' 
 and he was a fellow of almost all the learned 
 societies of Europe, and several in America [W.B.] 
 
 JAY, William, an eminent dissenting minis- 
 ter, was born in humble circumstances at Tisbury 
 
JER 
 
 JOH 
 
 in Wiltshire, 1769. He began preaching when a I changed the Strand for Drury Lane, which prov 
 
 mere youth, and was only sixteen when he was 
 
 admitted into the pulpit at the Surrey Chapel. 
 
 In 1791, he was settled as the minister of Argyle 
 
 Chapel in Bath, where he died in his eighty-tifth 
 
 year, Dec. 25, 1854. He is the author of many 
 
 volumes of sermons, his last being ' Lectures on 
 
 Female Scripture Characters,' published since his 
 
 death, bat delivered nearly half a century ago. 
 
 JERROLD, Douglas, was born on the 3d 
 January, 1808, whether in London or Sheerness is 
 doubtful. His father, Samuel Jerrold, was man- 
 ager of the theatres of Sheerness and Southend. 
 Among the theatrical folks who played on his 
 father's stage was Edmund Kean, who carried him 
 on the boards in Rolla, and with whom he also 
 appeared as 'The Stranger's Child.' Like most 
 young men bred up amidst the associations of the 
 sea, Jerrold's thoughts, in reference to a profession, 
 early took a nautical turn. From this predilection 
 his lather in vain sought to dissuade him, but find- 
 ing remonstrance useless, he procured for him a 
 midshipman's commission in a man-of-war com- 
 manded by Captain Austen, brother of the great 
 novelist. Jerrold's health physically unfitted him 
 for the naval profession. Retiring from the sea, at 
 his own solicitation, he was apprenticed to a letter- 
 press printer in London. After mastering the 
 mechanical duties of a compositor, the caeoethes 
 scribcndi innate in Jerrold developed itself. An 
 essay on the opera of ' Der Freischutz ' was drop- 
 ped by him into the editor's box of the Monitor, 
 on which he was employed. He was made aware 
 of the fate of his anonymous composition, not by a 
 ' notice to a correspondent,' but by having it put 
 into his hands to set up for the next number of the 
 paper. The essay created a sensation, but the 
 author preserved his incognito, until earnest in- 
 uiry being made, he disclosed the authorship to 
 the editor, who henceforth employed him upon 
 literary work. Jerrold's career as a dramatic 
 author now commenced. When only eighteen 
 years of age, he wrote ' More Frightened than 
 Hurt,' a two act farce, followed soon after by ' The 
 Smoked Miser,' ' The White Milliner,' and nume- 
 rous other productions. His 'Black-eyed Susan' 
 was produced at the Surrey theatre with the most 
 triumphant success ; for hundreds of nights it was 
 performed without interruption; it retrieved the 
 Fortunes of Elliston, the manager of the Surrey, 
 then all but desperate, and it gave Mr. T. P. Cooke 
 independence. ' The Mutiny at the Nore ' followed 
 this great success ; and among the numerous pro- 
 ductions of his pen at this period the most note- 
 worthy are ' Nell Gwynne,' ' The Schoolfellow,' 
 and ' The Housekeeper,' the ' Bride of Ludgate ; ' 
 and transcending all these efforts at length ap- 
 peared his 'Rent Day,' suggested from Wilkie's 
 celebrated pictures. For this play Wilkie sent 
 Jerrold a handsome letter, accompanied by a couple 
 of proof engravings, with the great painter's auto- 
 graph. ' The Rent Day ' proving nearly as great 
 a success as ' Black-eyed Susan,' Jerrold resolved 
 to take a theatre for himself, and thus reap the 
 full advantage of his labours. In connection with 
 Mr. Hammond he became joint lessee of the Strand 
 theatre, and so long as Jerrold and Hammond kept 
 by the Strand property success crowned their enter- 
 prise. Unfortunately, in an evil hour, they ex- 
 
 tl 
 
 as signal a failure as the former had been a su: 
 cess. About this time ' The Heads of the Peopl 
 was published. In it Jerrold wrote ' The P( 
 Opener,' ' The Lawyer,' ' The Pawnbroker,' a: 
 other less known papers, all marked by his 
 known and peculiar powers. When Punch w 
 started, Mr. Jerrold was absent from England, b 
 so soon as he returned he became one of its nu 
 brilliant contributors. His early contributions 
 Punch were signed ' Q,' and among these appear 
 that most memorable of them all, ' On the Custc 
 of Blessing Colours for the Army,' which 1 
 Society of Friends had reprinted and posl 
 throughout the kingdom. ' Punch's Letters to | 
 Son,' ' The Story of a Feather,' and the ' Cau< 
 Lectures,' will keep green the memorv of Jerroli 
 connection with that amusing and instructi 
 serial. From some cause or other none of JerroL 
 separate ventures were very successful. T 
 Illuminated Magazine, the Shi/ling Magazine, a 
 his Weekly Newspaper, were all of them more 
 less pecuniary failures. It was in the Illuminai 
 Magazine that Clovernook, perhaps the m< 
 finished of his works, appeared. Jerrold's Sh 
 ling Magazine first gave the world the tale 
 1 St. Giles and St. James,' in which, more coi 
 pletely than anywhere else, may be found JerroL 
 views of social ethics. When he had ceased cc 
 nection with his Weekly Newspaper, he becai 
 editor of Lloyd's, which, under his managemei 
 attained an enormous circulation. He died 
 Monday, 8th June, 1857, in the full vigour of 1 
 powers. To the last all about him had hopes 
 his speedy recovery, even the doctor shared t 
 delusion : he alone seemed to know that his end fl 
 near. When asked how he felt, he replied, 
 one that is waiting and waited for.' His dust ] 
 poses in Norwood cemetery. His literary frier 
 have presented a testimonial to his widow in t 
 form of an annuity, the proceeds of various pt< 
 . formances for her benefit. 
 
 JEW, Wandering. See Saint-Germano 
 JOHN, King of Navarre. See Albrkt. 
 JOHNSTON, George, M.D., born 1797 j di 
 1855. Dr. Johnston was a native of Berwicksh 
 in Scotland, studied medicine at the University 
 Edinburgh, and was a pupil of the celebrated I 
 Abercromby of that town. After taking his degl 
 of medicine, he commenced practice at Belford 
 Northumberland, but shortly afterwards removed; 
 Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he continued to resi 
 as one of the principal medical men of that toi 
 till the day of his death. As a medical man 
 was very successful in his practice, and procuii 
 the love and confidence of his patients ; but it 
 as a naturalist that he will be best known to pc 
 terity. Botany being a part of the curriculum 
 the Edinburgh School of Medicine, and an atte' 
 dance upon the lectures on that science bei 
 imperative upon students, Dr. Johnston was ffy 
 led, like many of his contemporaries, to follow th 
 study, and his ' Flora of Berwick-upon-Tweed' 
 a proof of his earnestness and zeal in prosecutH 
 it. While preparing materials for that work&a 
 was at the same time paying particular attentM 
 to the natural history of the marine invertebtw 
 animals inhabiting Berwick Bay ; and his numerw 
 papers in 'Jameson's Philosophical Journal 
 
 890 
 
JOH 
 
 w ' Loudon's Magazine of Natural History,' and the 
 so 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' attest 
 >jjl the amount of labour he bestowed upon their habits 
 Pi and characters, while the illustrations from the 
 n pencil of Mrs. Johnston conferred additional value 
 on the important papers so published. Dr. John- 
 ston's observations upon these comparatively speak- 
 b ing obscure animals were continued for many years, 
 a and perhaps no man since the celebrated Colonel 
 a Montagu has done so much to advance our know- 
 ai ledge of this neglected field of zoology. His more 
 i mature works are his ' History of British Zoophytes,' 
 t which has passed through two editions ; his ' His- 
 st tory of British Sponges and Corallines,' a work 
 1 long ago out of print ; his ' Introduction to Con- 
 u chology,' which has been translated into German ; 
 ol and the first volume of the ' Natural History of the 
 i Eastern Borders,' which for many years of his life 
 j formed his chief solace in the midst of the har- 
 1 assing calls of his profession. This volume con- 
 .1 tains the ' Flora of the district,' and has been 
 * characterized as one of the most delightful botani- 
 u cal works which has ever appeared. The ' Fauna ' 
 :b was to have followed, but his death prevented its 
 )1 completion. A ' Monograph of British Annelides,' 
 I written as one of the series of catalogues of animals 
 ;a contained in the British Museum, was nearly com- 
 il pleted, and we believe is now in the press. Dr. 
 Johnston was one of the editors of the 'Magazine 
 of Zoology and Botany,' afterwards called the 
 ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' which 
 he continued to be till his death. He was the 
 founder of the ' Berwickshire Naturalists' Club,' 
 and of the 'Ray Society,' both of which institutions 
 have done good service to natural history; was 
 a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin- 
 burgh ; LL.D. of the Marischal College of Aber- 
 deen ; and had been twice elected mayor of the 
 town of Berwick, to the interests of which he devoted 
 much attention. [W.B.] 
 
 JOHNSTON, James F. W., a popular writer 
 on chemistry and some of the allied subjects, was 
 born at Paisley in 1786; and became ' reader of 
 chemistry and mineralogy in the university of 
 Durham on its foundation in 1833. In 1843, he 
 was elected chemist to the Agricultural Society of 
 Scotland, an appointment which did not interfere 
 with his former office, which he resumed till his 
 death in September, 1855. Professor Johnston 
 had the honour of studying chemistry under 
 Berzelius. The most popular of his works is the 
 well known ' Chemistry of Common Life.' 
 
 JONES, Richard, a minister of the Church 
 of England, and professor of political economy 
 and history in Haileybury college, memorable 
 for his part in effecting the tithe commutation, 
 1791-1855. 
 
 JOWETT, William, a minister of the Church 
 of England, author of several practical works, 
 1787-1855. 
 
 JUDSON, Emily C, formerly Miss Chubbuck, 
 a graceful American writer, was born in the state 
 of New York about 1814. She was first known to 
 the public about 1843 by her nomme de plume of 
 ' Fanny Forester.' A collection of her sketches 
 and poems was published at Boston in 1846 ; died 
 1834. 
 JULIA SABINA. See Sabina. 
 
 KIT 
 
 K 
 
 KAY, John, D.D., bishop of Lincoln, a learned 
 prelate of the Church of England, 1783-1853. 
 
 KEMBLE, Charles, the last surviving brother 
 of that distinguished family of actors, was born at 
 Brecknock in South Wales, 1775 ; died, aged 
 seventy-nine, November, 1854. He possessed re- 
 markable powers as a comedian, and acted the 
 subsidiary characters of the drama with surprising 
 effect. His career on the stage closed m the 
 spring of 1840 ; but he occasionally appeared 
 before the public as a reader of Shakspeare. The 
 celebrated Miss Fanny Kemble, now Mrs. Butler, 
 is his elder daughter. 
 
 KEMBLE, John Mitchell, the eminent 
 Anglo-Saxon scholar and archaeologist, was born 
 1806. Mr. Kemble was the eldest son of the late 
 famous actor, Charles Kemble, and was educated, 
 during his earlier years, by Dr. Richardson, author 
 of the Dictionary of the English Language. In 
 1826, Mr. Kemble entered at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and there graduated B.A. and M.A. 
 At Cambridge he obtained a prize for English com- 
 position, and became eminent as a speaker at the 
 " Union," a literary society, consisting of Tennyson, 
 Charles Buller, Maurice, Sterling, French, and 
 others hardly less distinguished. Soon after Mr. 
 Kemble had taken his degree, he, with a college 
 friend, who now holds a high position in the 
 English Church, and some other Englishmen, were 
 induced by General Torrijos to engage in an enter- 
 prise for the deliverance of Spain from the tyranny 
 of Ferdinand, reimposed upon the nation by the 
 Bourbons. The plot was betrayed to the Spanish 
 Government, and Torrijos and his friends were 
 shot. By a lucky accident Mr. Kemble was pre- 
 vented from landing in Spain, and thus escaped 
 the fate of his comrades. After this adventure, 
 Mr. Kemble made a lengthened residence in Ger- 
 many, where he contracted an intimate friendship 
 with the celebrated Jacob Grimm, and was re- 
 garded by that eminent philologist as one of the 
 most promising of his disciples. On his return 
 from Germany, Mr. Kemble was appointed editor 
 of the British and Foreign Heviev), established by 
 the late Mr. Kentworth Beaumont, chiefly for the 
 purpose of directing public attention to the aggres- 
 sive policy of Russia. Whilst engaged in the 
 editorship of the Review, which, in his hands, was 
 ably conducted, Mr. Kemble produced his ' Saxons 
 in England,' a work which at once established his 
 reputation as a historian. This work was founded, 
 in a great measure, on his Codex Diplomaticus 
 A Ivi 6'axonici, a collection of documents relating 
 to the Saxon period, which he had amassed from 
 various sources with infinite labour. A great 
 archaeological work, the Horce Ferales, for which 
 he found materials amongst the ancient sepulchres 
 of Germany and England, was left by Mr. Kemble 
 in such a state, that a portion of it at least can be 
 published. Mr. Kemble died suddenly, in the full 
 maturity and vigour of his powers, in Dublin, on 
 the 26th Feb., 1857. 
 
 KITTO, John, D.D., was a native of Plymouth, 
 and, in his own opinion, of Phoenician descent ; for 
 ' the Greek word Kiltof says he, ' is that which 
 891 
 
KIT 
 
 Dioscorides uses for the name of a species of cassia. 
 And this again is called in Hebrew kidduh, which, as 
 well as the Greek, probably represents the Phoeni- 
 cian name of this aromatic. Now, the Phoenicians 
 had much intercourse for tin with the remote part 
 of Cornwall, from which my grandfather brought 
 his family; and the probability is, that it was at 
 least a Phumician name, if it does not imply a 
 riuvnician origin for those who bear it.' Kitto's 
 father was a master-builder, who, notwithstand- 
 ing he possessed the greatest advantages for in- 
 suring success in the world, yet neglected his 
 business ami in consequence of the unfortunate 
 habits into which he fell, was reduced to the 
 necessity of becoming a jobbing mason, and 
 plunged himself and family in deep distress. 
 Among other consequences of this domestic po- 
 verty, the education of young Kitto was neglected; 
 for l>oth through the inability of his parents to 
 bear the expenses of his schooling, and the neces- 
 sity for assisting his father's labours, he was re- 
 moved from the care of a teacher at an age when 
 he was but an indifferent scholar even in the com- 
 mon branches of learning. When he was twelve 
 years of age, an accident happened, the conse- 
 quences of which were felt through the whole of 
 his future life. He was engaged assisting his 
 father in new slating the roof of a house, and 
 having ascended to the top of the ladder with a 
 pile of slates on his head, he was in the act of 
 stepping on to the roof, when suddenly losing his 
 
 Eresence of mind, he fell from a height of thirty- 
 ve feet into the paved court below. For a fort- 
 night he lay in a state of insensibility; and when 
 at length he awoke to consciousness, it was to be- 
 come aware of the dreadful fact, that he was hope- 
 lessly deaf. Various experiments were tried to re- 
 store to him the use of his hearing, but although the 
 tympanum of his ear was not destroyed, all means 
 proved ineffectual for the recovery of the lost sense. 
 In other respects he continued long in a state of 
 the greatest nervous debility, and even after his 
 recovery, it was found that he was totally unfit 
 for resuming the manual labours of his former 
 trade. Happily a strong literary taste, which, 
 during his protracted confinement, was not created 
 so much as it was more fully developed, led him 
 to resort to books, first for pleasure, and after- 
 wards for usefulness, till the idea gradually sprung 
 up that it might be turned to account as a means 
 of support, since he had become incapacitated for a 
 more active employment. His reading was chiefly, 
 though not exclusively, directed to sacred litera- 
 ture ; and after two extensive tours which he 
 was enabled successively to make through Russia, 
 and Northern Europe, and especially in Persia and 
 the countries of Western Asia, where his intelligent 
 mind was struck and deeply interested with the 
 observance among living people of manners and 
 customs analogous to those described in the Holy 
 Scriptures, he returned, resolved to use the "literary 
 materials he had amassed for the illustration of 
 the sacred volume. The fruit of his observations 
 and researches appeared first in the issue of the 
 Pictorial Bible : and the success of this publica- 
 tion, though anonymous, was so encouraging, and 
 htt fame as a commentator so fully established, that 
 he found no difficulty in procuring'employmentfrom 
 the booksellers in other undertakings of a similar 
 
 892 
 
 KRA 
 
 kind. A great number of small compilations, suet 
 as ' The Pictorial History of Palestine,' ' The Cour 
 of Persia,' &c., came from his indefatigable pen; fo: 
 being disqualified by his deafness from mingling ii 
 society, and depending for support of himself anc 
 family entirely on the produce of his literary 
 labours, he wrought with extraordinary industry 
 seldom less than fourteen hours in a'dav. I)r 
 Kitto did not confine himself to these smallei 
 works: zealous in the diffusion of all kinds ol 
 knowledge that bore on the illustration of th< 
 Word of God, he projected other undertakings ol 
 a higher character and importance, both for learn 
 ing mid philosophical discussion, than had been 
 previously attempted in this country, and which 
 the respect entertained by biblical scholars for his 
 editorial qualifications enabled him, with the assis- 
 tance of several able coadjutors, successfully to exe- 
 cute. ' The Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature,' and 
 'The Journal of Sacred Literature,' which have con- 
 tributed so much to extend the range of theological 
 study among British divines, owe their existence 
 to his skill and persevering industry. But the 
 most widely popular of his works was, the ' Daily 
 Illustrations of the Bible,' being original readings 
 for a year on subjects from Sacred History, Bio- 
 graphy, Geography, Antiquities, and Theology, 
 especially designed for the family circle. This work 
 is only a compilation, for the materials are gleaned 
 from all quarters ; but they are arranged with great 
 skill the style is distinguished by a beautiful sim- 
 plicity and the subjects treated in such a manner 
 as tends greatly to promote among common people 
 the intelligent reading of the Scriptures. As a 
 theological writer, in the peculiar department of 
 illustration he chose, Dr. Kitto's distinguishing 
 characteristics were patient research a sound 
 judgment a strict and faithful adherence to truth, 
 even in the most minute and trifling particulars ; 
 so that he makes his readers feel they may place 
 implicit confidence in the accuracy of his state- 
 ments. Though never in orders, he was, on accour 
 of his rare attainments in theology, honoured wit 
 the degree of doctor in divinity; and he 
 further rewarded by an annual pension of 1( 
 from her Majesty. Worn out by his incessai 
 labours, and perhaps the internal mechanism of th 
 head having been permanently injured by the dread- 
 ful accident that occasioned his deafness, he was, for 
 a considerable time, subject to a painful neuralgic* 
 affection, and obliged, by medical advice, to relin- 
 quish all literary exertion for the space of twofl 
 years. For the benefit of the waters, he removed^ 
 with his family to Cannstadt, in Germany, and had 
 not been long established there when he died in 
 the spring of 1855. [R-J-T 
 
 KLITZ, Philip, an English organist anba 
 composer, author of several famous compositions,- 
 'Tales of the New Forest,' &c, 1805-1854. 
 
 KHASINSKI, Count Valekian, a Polish 
 diplomatist and historical writer, one of the most I 
 distinguished of the exiles in this country, died at 
 Edinburgh, Dec. 22, 1855. 
 
LAM 
 
 LAMBERT, Mark, distinguished for his exeel- 
 itj ence as an ornamental engraver, and once the 
 issistant of Thomas Bewick, by whom the art of 
 vood engraving was restored, 1781-1855. 
 
 LAMENNA1S, Abbe De, the celebrated re- 
 rtiblican writer, formerly a priest of the Church 
 if Rome, died Feb. 27, 1*854. 
 
 LANDMANN, George T., lieut.-colonel in the 
 oval engineers, died in his seventy-fourth year, Aug. 
 854. Colonel Landmann saw a good deal of service, 
 nd was actively engaged in engineering works during 
 he great war, "dating from 1795 to 18 2. His me- 
 aoirs, recently published, are interesting for their 
 tore of anecdote and much curious matter of history. 
 
 LANDSBOROUGH, David, minister of the 
 Vee Church in Saltcoats, and an associate of 
 he Linna?an Society, author of valuable scientific 
 (lemoirs, 1781-1854. 
 
 LANE, Hunter, an English physician and 
 1 istinguished professional writer, 1802-1853. 
 
 LANGTON, Miss Jane, chiefly remarkable as 
 he god-daughter of Johnson, mentioned in ' Bos- 
 rell's Life' as the subject of a well known letter 
 rritten by him, 1775-1851. 
 
 LARDNER, Leopold James, remarkable as a 
 nguist and bibliographer, late one of the assistants 
 i the printed book department of the British Mu- 
 eum, 1815-1855. 
 
 LA RIVIERE. See Baillie, Roche. 
 
 LARKIN, Nathaniel John, well known in 
 ,ondon a few years ago as a maker of geometrical 
 olids, and teacher of crystallography, died in the 
 eventy-fourth year of his age, October, 1855, in 
 le neighbourhood of Hornsey. Besides one or two 
 lementary treatises, he published, in 1820, ' An 
 
 troduction to Solid Geometry, and to the study 
 f Crystallography.' The object of this work was 
 ) demonstrate some of the curious properties 
 elonging to the Platonic bodies, and their relations 
 
 e to another, independent of the sphere. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Abbot, late ambassador to 
 England from the United States, was born in 
 
 93, and educated as a merchant. He had long 
 een known as a public character and member of 
 ongress, when, in 1843, he was appointed one of 
 le commissioners for the settlement of the north- 
 lstern boundary. In 1849, he accepted the post 
 F minister at the court of London, and was well 
 nown for his public spirit and efficient services 
 11 1852, when he returned home. The Hon. 
 bbot Lawrence died at Boston. Aug. 18, 1855, 
 nd is said to have bequeathed large sums to cha- 
 table and other public purposes. 
 
 LELIUS. See L^klius. 
 
 LETELLIER. See Tellier. 
 
 LICHFIELD, Thomas William Anson, earl 
 F, postmaster-general from 1835 to 1841, in 
 Inch period the uniform rate of a penny inland 
 ostage was brought into operation, was born in 
 795, and succeeded his father in the peerage, 
 >18. The assembly of O'Connell and other Irish 
 
 embers at his house in St. James's square, 
 iring the premiership of Lord Melbourne, gave 
 s designation to the Lichfield House Compact ;' 
 
 d 1854. 
 
 LOC 
 
 LLNDLEY, Robert, a distinguished violinist, 
 died, aged eighty-three, June 3", 1855. 
 
 LISlON, Mrs., formerly Miss Tyrer, and widow 
 of the celebrated John Liston, a successful actress 
 of comic parts, 1780-1854. 
 
 LOCKHART, John Gibson, was the son of one 
 of the city ministers of Glasgow, who belonged to a 
 landed family in Lanarkshire. He was born at 
 Cambusnethan (of which parish his father was 
 then pastor) in 1794. Presented, by the senatus 
 of the University of Glasgow, as a distinguished 
 student, to one of the Snell exhibitions at Oxford, 
 he entered at Baliol College in 18 9 ; in 1813 he 
 took honours as a first-class man in Uteris huma- 
 nioribvs; and he graduated as LL.B. in 1817. A 
 little before this last date he had gone to study in 
 Germany, the literature of which country he soon 
 contributed to make known among us. He be- 
 came a member of the Scottish bar, but can hardly 
 be said to have made any serious attempt to prac- 
 tise the profession. Literature soon became his 
 constant business. From an early period in the 
 history of ' Blackwood's Magazine,' founded in 
 1817, he was one of its ablest, and most active con- 
 tributors. It was never doubted but he was the 
 writer of some of the severest and most sarcastic 
 of the papers, by which, in its palmy days, that en- 
 ergetic but unscrupulous periodical infused so much 
 of gratuitous bitterness, both into politics and into 
 literature; and, though Lockhart s reputation as 
 an unsparing satirist may have brought on him the 
 imputation of having been the author of attacks 
 really perpetrated by others, yet there were several 
 circumstances, and among others the unfortunate 
 affair ending in the death of John Scott, which in- 
 dicated that he considered himself as bearing a 
 large share of the responsibility involved in the 
 management of the magazine. At all events, no 
 one questioned the high talent, scholarship, and 
 accomplishments, which he brought to bear on 
 literature. Much of these, with a strong party 
 spirit, but without the worst of the magazine-fea- 
 tures, was exhibited in 1819, in his anonymous 
 work, Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk.' In 1820, 
 he married Sophia, the eldest daughter of Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott. Afterwards he published, or rather 
 collected from the magazine, his very fine and spir- 
 ited versions of ' Spanish Ballads :' while, from 
 1824, appeared, successively, his striking novels, 
 4 Valerius,' ' Reginald Dalton,' Adam Blair,' and 
 'Matthew Wald/ His * Life of Burns,' in 1825, 
 made, a volume in ' Constable's Miscellany.' In 
 1826, a year or two after Giffbrd had retired from 
 the editorship of the ' Quarterly Review,' Lockhart 
 was very deservedly chosen to be his permanent 
 successor; and London was thenceforth his place of 
 residence. There is not, probably, among compe- 
 tent judges, any dissent from the opinion, that in 
 his hands the 'Quarterly Review' was the most 
 skilfully edited periodical of its day. On the death 
 of his celebrated father-in-law in 1832, there was 
 devolved on him a task which a more chivalrous 
 man might have executed in a more generous spirit, 
 and perhaps, also, with more of real wisdom and 
 discretion. But the task involved difficulties which, 
 probably, no man whatever could have vanquished 
 completely ; and, whatever may be its faults, whe- 
 ther of shortcoming or of excess, Lockhart's ' Life 
 of Scott ' must long hold its place, as a singularly 
 
LON 
 
 though painfully interesting monument in our lite- 
 rary history, lii 1843, Lockhart's income, long (it 
 is to ba believed) abundant beyond tbat of most 
 literary men, was increased by some bundreds of 
 pounds, on bis appointment, by Sir Robert Peel, to 
 tbe sinecure office of auditor of the Duchy of Corn- 
 wall. In 185.'5, be was compelled, by ill health, to 
 retire from tbe management of the Review. He 
 sought renovation of strength by a visit to Italy, 
 but' in vain ; and he died, on the 25th of Novem- 
 ber, 1854, at Abbotsford, which by that time bad 
 become the residence of his son-in-law. His wife 
 had long predeceased him ; so had his elder son, 
 the boy to whom the 'Tales of a Grandfather' 
 were dedicated; a younger son had followed in 
 early manhood ; and Sir Walter Scott's family is 
 now represented by Lockhart's daughter, Airs. 
 Hope Scott. LW.S.J 
 
 LONDONDERRY, Charles William, third 
 marquis of, a gallant Peninsular officer, author of a 
 'Narrative of the War' in which he served; 
 distinguished for his public spirit on several 
 occasions, and especially for his friendly inter- 
 ference in behalf of Abd-el-Kader ; born 1778, 
 envoy at Berlin 1813, succeeded his brother in the 
 peerage 1822, died 1854. We are indebted to his 
 pen for a valuable contribution to English history 
 in the correspondence of his brother. 
 
 LOW, Right Rev. David, a Scottish prelate, 
 remarkable for his acquaintance with the tradi- 
 tions of the last two centuries, the most valuable 
 of which were embodied by Mr. Chambers in his 
 4 Histories of the Rebellion ;' died in his eighty- 
 eighth year, 1855. 
 
 LUCAS, Frederick, a Roman Catholic po- 
 lemical writer, elected in 1852 member for Meath, 
 died in his forty-third year, Oct., 1855. 
 
 LYONS, Edmund Moubray, commander in 
 the royal navy, son of vice-admiral Sir Edmund 
 Lyons, was born in 1819. Died of a wound re- 
 ceived in the attack on Sebastopol, June 23, 1855. 
 The operations of Captain Lyons in the sea of 
 Azoff are fresh in every one's memory ; and he was 
 equally successful in the expedition of the previous 
 year to the White Sea. One of his officers writes : 
 'The navy has lost its greatest ornament; and we 
 have lost one who, to us, was more than a friend ; 
 he was so brave, so great, so good, and so amiable, 
 that we all loved him much more than we knew.' 
 His body was interred at Therapia, the greatest 
 honour being shown to his memory by the officers 
 who attended, and the crowds of people who flocked 
 to his funeral. [E.R.] 
 
 M 
 
 MACDONALD, William Russell, a jour- 
 nalist and miscellaneous writer, late editor of 
 Bell's Life in London, and author of many pleas- 
 ing productions for the young; 1787-1854. 
 
 MACKAY, Charles, an eminent Scotch actor, 
 was born in Edinburgh, October, 1787. When 
 only nine years of age, he left Dunedin for Glasgow, 
 but finally returned to his native city about the 
 close of the year 1818. It was in the spring of 
 181!) that ' Rob Roy' was first produced in Edin- 
 burgh. Mr. Mackay, who had alreadv made a 
 
 MAI 
 
 reputation in Aberdeen, now joined Mr. Murray's 
 company; and, as Bailie Nicol Jarvie, earned the 
 highest laurels. 'One would think,' said Sii 
 Walter Scott, 'the part made for him, and him 
 for the part. He is completely the personage 
 of the drama the purse-proud, consequential 
 magistrate, humane and irritable in the same 
 moment; and the true Scotsman in every turn ol 
 thought and action.' So complete was Mr. 
 Mackay's identification with the character, that 
 he became known among his acquaintance by the 
 familiar cognomen of the ' Bailie. As a delineatoi 
 of Scottish character as developed in the several 
 dramas founded on our great romancist's novels. 
 Mackay stood unequalled and unapproached. 
 With his retirement, a certain set of characters 
 disappeared from the stage, as completely as the 
 true Lady Macbeth died with Mrs. Siddons. The 
 Bailie was, no doubt, his masterpiece; but whc 
 
 ever played Peter Peebles, Dumbiedykes, M 
 Dods, Jock Howieson, and the rest, as he playec 
 them ? His humour was intensely Scottish, dry. 
 shrewd, rich, and pawky, yet independent, reserved, 
 genial. His accent and pronunciation were perfect. 
 His Scotch was not a vulgar, coarse, broad Scotch, 
 but an easy, unaffected, natural dialect, spoken 
 as a native language, not as an imitated patois, 
 In his acting he never overstepped the modestj 
 of nature; content to be appreciated by those 
 who knew and enjoyed true dramatic talent 
 without prostituting his humour to draw the 
 laughter of the vulgar. Mr. Mackay continued s 
 hardworking and respected member of the Edin 
 burgh theatre till 1841, when he ceased to 
 belong to the regular company, after twenty- twc 
 years' honourable and successful service. In 1848. 
 be resolved upon retiring from the stage. Mr; 
 Wilson, the distinguished vocalist, made an offei 
 of his services on the occasion, and in the name 
 of the dramatic company, presented the veterat 
 performer with an elegant cup. On some few 
 occasions after this, did the Bailie revisit the scene 
 of his former triumphs. Mr. Mackay died at 
 Edinburgh, on the 2d November, 1857, in hi* 
 seventy-first year. His departure snaps anothen 
 of the now rapidly lessening links tliat bound the 
 present generation to the generation of Scott ana 
 his contemporaries. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Thomas, a Scottish architect 
 especially distinguished for his restorations of t\4 
 old baronial castles of his country ; died in the prim* 
 of life, 1854. 
 
 MACKESON, Colonel, an officer in the East 
 India Company's service, distinguished as a diplew 
 matist ; assassinated at Peshawur in 1853. 
 
 MADOX, Willes, a painter of portrait and 
 history; born 1813, died at Constantinople, 1854J 
 
 MAI, Angelo, Cardinal, a distinguished clas- 
 sical scholar, memorable for his discoveries of lost 
 portions of the classics, late chief librarian of the 
 Vatican, was born in the diocese of Bergamo, 178il 
 His remarkable discoveries date from 1814, whet 
 he was keeper of the Ambrosian Library at Milan* 
 and an historical account of them written by Mfj 
 Archdeacon Nares, was communicated to the 
 Royal Society of Literature in 1824. A collected 
 edition was published in ten quarto volumes, in 
 the years 1825 to 1838. Cardinal Mai died at 
 Albano in his seventy-thud year, Sept., 1854. 
 
 894 
 
Ec 
 
 MAN 
 
 MANBY, Captain George William, the 
 ventor of several kinds of apparatus for saving 
 
 lees in case of shipwreck, died at Southtovvn, 
 ar Great Yarmouth, in the ninetieth year of his 
 r;e, November, 1854. He was the son of an 
 cer in the army, and in 1803 was appointed 
 irrack-master at Yarmouth. The wreck of the 
 
 i nipe gun-brig, of which he was an eye-witness, 
 lusing a great loss of life, was one of the causes 
 
 it lat set his inventive faculties at work in devising 
 me means of affording aid to the sufferers by 
 
 or milar disasters. In this endeavour he was 
 sisted by grants from the government, and 
 red to be recognized as the benefactor, not of his 
 vn country only, but of all Europe. He had the 
 ippy consciousness of having saved upwards of 
 
 000 lives bv his various inventions. 
 MANCHESTER, George Montague, sixth 
 ike of, memorable as a leader of the English 
 otestant party, and for his learned and thought- 
 
 1 works upon the Scriptures; 1799-1855. 
 MANIN, Daniel, the distinguished Italian 
 itriot, was born in 1804. When only in his 
 venteenth year, he was received as a doctor of 
 w at the university of Padua. Being unable 
 
 practise as an advocate before the age of twenty- 
 ur, he devoted the seven intervening years to the 
 udy of jurisprudence, and to a translation of the 
 maan law. Manin married early; and in one of 
 e most retired quarters of his native city, passed 
 early manhood among his family, his books, 
 d friends. It was in this humble retreat that 
 e future president of the Venetian republic 
 earned of the emancipation of his country, 
 anin was the opposite of all we associate with 
 e stock-notion of an Italian revolutionist grave, 
 ber, moderate, a lover of law, and a zealous 
 pporter of order. He was never mixed up with 
 y of the secret societies. A legist by profession, 
 his aim to combat Austria with legal 
 japons. He seized upon the weaknesses of the 
 perial government, and made a handle of the 
 vs which Austria herself had nominally granted 
 thout permitting them to be actually put in 
 For Venice and Lombardy he asked a 
 parate government, a revision of codes, an 
 nual budget, freedom of worship, and freedom 
 the press. The revolution of 1848 found 
 anin in prison ; and liberated by a decision of 
 tribunal, he was immediately placed at the 
 ad of affairs, and made dictator of the republic, 
 oclaimed only a month afterwards. That 
 nice stood a year's siege against the power of 
 istria, was mainly due to the genius of Manin. 
 ter the capitulation of Venice, in 1849, Manin 
 ;ired to France, where he lived a quiet life, still 
 11 of hope for the future. Health had, however, 
 lg been failing him, and the death of his wife 
 d daughter hastened the hour that released this 
 h-souled patriot from the tumult and unrest of 
 th. He was buried at Montmartre. His funeral 
 3 public: the French government, this time, 
 itaining from any interference. 
 MANNERS, Lord Charles, a Peninsular 
 icer and member of parliament, 1780-1855. 
 MARIA, queen of Portugal, daughter of Pedro, 
 late emperor of Brazil, was born at Rio de 
 
 reiro, 1819, and left her native country for 
 
 895 
 
 MAC 
 
 was disputed by her uncle, Don Miguel, who de- 
 clared himself king of Portugal, and contested 
 her claims till the taking of Lisbon in 1834. 
 Her reign was afterwards a stormy and unhappy 
 one, disturbed by civil war and endless political 
 intrigues, the end of which was the triumph of the 
 duke of Saldanha in 1851. Died Nov., 1854. 
 
 MARIA ADELAIDE, queen of Sardinia, 
 daughter of the archduke Reignier of Austria, 
 born 1822 ; married to her cousin, Victor Emman- 
 uel, 1842, who became king when his father ab- 
 dicated in 1849; died 1855. 
 
 MARIA THERESA, queen dowager of Sar- 
 dinia, daughter of the archduke Ferdinand of 
 Austria, born 1801 ; married to Charles Albert, 
 then prince of Savoy-Carignan, 1817 ; left a widow 
 1824 ; died 1855. 
 
 MARKHAM, Frederick, successor of General 
 Pennefather as commander of the second division 
 in the Crimea, was bom in 1805, and first saw 
 actual service in the field during the rebellion in 
 Canada in 1837, when he was severely wounded. 
 As lieut.- colonel, he served in the Punjaub cam- 
 paign, 1848-1849, and was present at the siege 
 of Mooltan and the battle of Goojerat. He was 
 on his way to take the command at Peshawur, 
 when the exigencies of the Russian war caused his 
 recall, and he made a hasty journey into the Crimea. 
 The previous state of his health led to his recall 
 home after the fall of Sebastopol, and he died in 
 London, Nov. 21, 1855. 
 
 MARTIN, John, the celebrated painter of 'Bel - 
 shazzar's Feast,' was born at Haydon Bridge in 
 Northumberland, July, 1789; died at the house of 
 Thomas Wilson, Esq., Douglas, Isle of Man, 1854. 
 His father, who was a teacher of fencing in Newcas- 
 tle, apprenticed him to a coach-builder and painter, 
 but the indentures being subsequently cancelled, he 
 finally placed him with an Italian artistjnamed Muss, 
 who brought him to London to assist in painting 
 on enamel. Here he married at the age of nine- 
 teen ; and with this spur to exertion he painted, 
 as early as 1812, his first picture, 'Sadak in Search 
 of the "Waters of Oblivion,' which was sold for 50 
 guineas. Between this period and 1814, he pro- 
 duced ' Paradise,' ' The Expulsion,' and ' Clytie.' 
 In 1818 and 1819 he painted ' Joshua' and the 
 ' Fall of Babylon.' In 1820, ' Macbeth,' which he 
 regarded as his most successful landscape; and in 
 1821, ' Belshazzar's Feast,' for which he received 
 the premium of 200 guineas from the British 
 Institution. His other great works date between this 
 period and 1828 ; the last of the series being the 
 ' Fall of'Nineveh.' We must not omit, however, three 
 remarkable pictures of later date recently exhibited 
 in London, with the faults as well as the beauties 
 of which every one interested in art must be 
 familiar. Art-writers are generally agreed in 
 admitting what it is impossible to deny the 
 original genius and imaginative power of Martin. 
 Among painters he well merits the appellation of 
 a Dante or Milton, the same mystic grandeur 
 and supernatural terror, contrasting with exquisite 
 touches of nature's loveliness, characterizing his 
 productions. His pictures of ' Pandemonium,' the 
 ' Belshazzar,' and others of similar character, are 
 not simply striking they are almost as startling 
 in their effects as visions, and can never be forgot- 
 ten by those who have once seen them, or even the 
 
MED 
 
 engravings from them, m;iny of which were exe- 
 cuted by the wrist himself." The illustrations of 
 Milton, tor which he received 2,000 guineas, were 
 aetuallv drawn by him on the plates. Martin 
 hitherto has been' more popular with the public 
 than with the critics of art, for the simple reason, 
 perhaps, that he followed not their rules, and 
 possessed few points of character with which they 
 could sympathize : his talents, however, were sub- 
 stantially recognized by the government of Belgium, 
 and he was elected a member of their Academy. 
 His genius, perhaps, was essentially inventive and 
 architectonic; in proof of which he submitted to 
 the government, some years ago, a magnificent 
 design for the improvement of the metropolis, 
 including the embankment of the Thames. [E.R.] 
 
 MEDWYN, L"KD, the title assumed by John 
 Hay Fokbks, Esq., as a judge of the court of 
 session, and lord of justiciary, was born in 1776 
 at Edinburgh. He was called to the Scottish bar 
 in 1799, and appointed judge in 1825. Died in 
 1854, two years after his retirement from the bench. 
 
 MELLONI, Mackdonio, a celebrated Italian 
 philosopher, who several times received the Rum- 
 ford gold medal. Born at Parma 1801, died at 
 Porticiin 1854. 
 
 MERLE, Gibbons, an English journalist and 
 author, best known as one of the editors of Galiy- 
 nanVs Messenger; died 1855. 
 
 MILL, William Hodge, D.D., a dignitary of 
 the Church of England, professor of Hebrew, and 
 a distinguished mathematician and Orientalist, was 
 born in 1791. From 1821 to 1838 he resided in 
 India, as principal of Bishop's College, Calcutta ; 
 and contributed towards the evangelization of that 
 country a work in Sanscrit, entitled ' Christa 
 Sangrita.' He succeeded Dr. Lee as regius pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew in 1848. Died 1853. 
 
 MILLER, Hugh, Author, Journalist, and Geo- 
 logist, born at Cromarty in 1802, was the descen- 
 dant of a race of sailors, most of whom had made 
 the ocean their tomb, not once during an entire 
 century had a male member of the family been 
 laid in the family burial vault. After many hair- 
 breadth escapes his father ultimately met the 
 common doom of his race, perishing in a storm off 
 the coast of Peterhead while the subject of this 
 brief sketch was yet only some five years of age. 
 On his widowed mother now devolved the chief if 
 not exclusive care and training of Hugh Miller. 
 At the school of Cromarty the boy was no remark- 
 able prodigy, a love of story-tellmg and a love of 
 adventure were at this period his chief character- 
 istics. Having acquired the usual education re- 
 ceived by the peasantry of Scotland in her public 
 schools, to which in his case was added a smattering 
 of Latin, young Miller was sent to earn his 
 bread at the craft of a mason, a profession in which 
 he acquired considerable dexterity and excellence. 
 The calling he had chosen developed the taste and 
 furnished the opportunities of scientific investiga- 
 tion. In 1829, he published a small volume of 
 poetry, but poetry was not his forte, 
 
 "Scarce hauflin* warmed wf minstrel fire, 
 An* little skilled in lear o' rhyme," 
 
 it was manifest that he would reap but few laurels 
 on Parnassus. His next publication, ' Scenes and 
 Legends of the North of Scotland ' at once revealed 
 
 MIL 
 
 his peculiar powers. This work the late Bare 
 Hume, nephew of the historian, a man of consul) 
 mate taste and soundest judgment, said was writtt 
 in an English st\ le which he had begun to regard 
 one of the lost arts. About this time Hugh Mill 
 withdrew from the drudgery of manual labour . 
 a mason, having received an appointment in tl 
 Commercial Bank at Cromarty. In this situatu 
 he continued until called to Edinburgh to edit tl 
 
 Witness newspaper, a journal which the lcadh 
 members of what was known as the evangelic 
 section of the Church of Scotland were about 
 establish. The ability displayed by Mr. Mill 
 as editor of the Witness is well known. Tl 
 influence he exerted on ecclesiastical and educ 
 tional events in Scotland was of no common ordc 
 His paper speedily attained a commanding circul. 
 tion, and it is with some little feeling of pardonah 
 pride, that in his autobiographical memoir the sel 
 educated editor records the fact that the Wilnt 
 was read by a greater proportion of college br< 
 men than probably any other Scottish jourm 
 It was in 1840 that Hugh Miller's name fir 
 began to be known beyond his native land. At 
 meeting of the British Association for the advanc 
 merit of Science held that year in Glasgow, 
 Roderick, then Mr. Murchison, ever ready to dra 
 attention to rising merit, gave an account 
 the striking discoveries recently made by Mr. Mill 
 in the old red sandstone of Scotland. Agassi 
 who was present, pointed out the peculiarities ai 
 importance of these discoveries, associating I 
 name of the modest journalist with the wonderi 
 fossil now known as the Pterichthys Milleri, spec 
 mens of which were then under the notice of the se 
 tion. Dr. Buckland following Agassiz, said he h* 
 never been so much astonished in his life by Cj 
 powers of any man as he had been by the geoloc " 
 descriptions of Mr. Miller. He described the* 
 objects with a felicity which made him ashanv 
 of the comparative meanness and poverty of I 
 own descriptions in the ' Bridgewater Treatis 
 which had cost him hours and days of laboi 
 The publication of the ' Old Red Sandstone ' w 
 the details of the author's discoveries and research? 
 more than justified all the anticipations that hi 1 
 been formed. The 'Old Red Sandstone' v 
 followed, in 1817, by ' First Impressions of Engla 
 and its People,' the result of a tour made durir 
 the previous year, and suggested to him, we believ 
 by his partner as a fitting theme on which 
 might contribute a few interesting papers to i 
 
 Witness. Parts of this work abound in the fine 
 descriptive writing to be found within the comp* 
 of the English language. ' Footprints of the Cre 
 tor,' written in reply to that fascinating and highj 
 popular work 'Vestiges of the Natural History, 
 Creation ' still further extended his scientific fair 
 exhibiting its author as one not merely possess* 
 in a high degree the purely scientific faculty, b; 
 as uniting to the most rigid scientific precision, i 
 that love of theological and metaphysical disqui*j 
 tion which distinguish the mental philosopher ai 
 theologian. His latest work, 'The Testimony 
 the Rocks,' is written in the same spirit and wi 
 the same aim as the 'Footprints of the Create 
 and has met a most unprecedented circulation 
 the sad circumstances of his death no doubt co 
 tributiug to deepen the interest of this his latt 
 
MIT 
 
 labour. For some years previous to his decease, 
 it was apparent that in Mr. Miller the vital forces 
 had been sadly overwrought. The immense liter- 
 ary labours he had undergone had relaxed the 
 muscular energy of his powerful frame, and it was 
 not difficult to detect even by his gait that the 
 editor of the Witness had become the prey of 
 those diseases which seem the heritage of the man 
 of genius, just as surely as the gout seems the heri- 
 tage of the high liver. Having conquered for him- 
 self a position, gained a most honourable competency, 
 known as the ablest literary defender of ecclesias- 
 tical opinions dear to a large section of Scotchmen, 
 and having earned a European reputation as the 
 most eloquent expositor of the truths of geological 
 science, it might have been anticipated that his 
 sun which had hitherto shone with so lustrous a 
 light, would yet for years to come have culminated 
 in the horizon of human thought. But it was not 
 to be ; and in the mysterious dispensations of provi- 
 dence it came to pass that he, whom so many 
 hearts so warmly loved and whose dying eyes so 
 many thousands of his countrymen would have 
 felt honoured to have closed, perished silent and 
 alone. On the evening of the 23d December, though 
 a state when all literary work should have been 
 forgone, Mr. Miller corrected the last proofs of ' The 
 Testimony of the Rocks.' In the morning, that 
 noble heart which ere while heaved with such gener- 
 ous emotion, was found torn by bullets and shattered 
 by a revolver. In a paroxysm of insanity he had 
 done the fatal deed. Thus gloomily perished 
 this self-taught genius, the greatest man after 
 Scott and Burns Scotland has produced. A col- 
 lected edition of Mr. Miller's works is now being 
 sublished by the Messrs. Constable, which will, we 
 )elieve, include selections from his contributions, 
 literary, ecclesiastical, and political, to the Witness 
 ewspaper. 
 
 MfTFORD, Mary Russell, was born on the 
 IGth of December, 1786, at Alresford in Hampshire. 
 Her father was a physician, a man of good family, 
 md related by the marriage of a niece to the ducal 
 iouse of Atholl ; her mother was the daughter of 
 i clergyman in Hants. The student of literature 
 night gain an instructive lesson in the art of 
 dealizing, if he were here to institute a double com- 
 parison. The materials for it would be furnished, 
 m the one hand, by some of the pictures which 
 Miss Mitford has painted in her prose works ; and, 
 an the other, by the originals of the objects as 
 they really existed, or even as they were described 
 by the author when she ventured on disclosing a 
 )art of the truth. Dr. Mitford, if we take him 
 sven as his daughter is compelled to describe him 
 n her autobiographical memoirs, would offer a 
 itriking contrast to the ever wise and amiable 
 !ather of the half-imaginary groups : a contrast 
 ret more melancholy would be found to separate 
 the rural ease, and plenty, and happiness, depicted 
 d hinted at in ' Our Village,' from the struggles 
 d anxieties, the alternations of prosperity and 
 itstress, which made up the real history of the 
 family. Dr. Mitford may have been, and probably 
 ras, a pleasant person in companionship; but, 
 ven from the facts reluctantly communicated by 
 lis daughter, he must be pronounced to have been, 
 the extreme, thoughtless, extravagant, and self- 
 B He received a large fortune with his wife ; and 
 
 897 
 
 MIT 
 
 he appears to have had, more than once in his life, 
 a good professional practice. Other sums of money 
 likewise came into his hands the largest item 
 being 20,000, gained in a lottery, by a ticket 
 which, at a time of pressing difficulty, he had in- 
 sisted on purchasing for his daughter, then a little 
 girl. One supply after another disappeared nearly 
 as fast as it was obtained ; the family migrated 
 from place to place, shifting painfully between 
 opulence and poverty ; and at length the daughter 
 had to support, first her father, and afterwards 
 herself, by the hard earnings of literary labour. In 
 1842, when Dr. Mitford died, a subscription was 
 raised by the friends of the family ; and soon after- 
 wards Miss Mitford received a pension from the 
 government. In early fife Miss Mitford's literary 
 inclinations leant decidedly towards poetry and the 
 drama. Her first publications were three volumes 
 of poems, ' perpetrated,' to use her own good-hu- 
 moured phrase, 'in less than two years,' and all pub- 
 lished in 1806. Two of them were poetical narra- 
 tives : Blanche, a Spanish Story ;' and ' Christina, 
 the Maid of the South Seas.' They were followed, 
 in 1812, by ' Wellington Hall, a Poem,' which de- 
 scribed a coursing-match, and showed the predilec- 
 tion for greyhounds with which the readers of her 
 prose works have been made so familiar. Her 
 love for dramatic poetry and acting, nourished in 
 her childhood by a governess, whom she describes 
 pleasingly, and strengthened, as she tells us, by 
 her presence at performances of classical plays in 
 Dr. Valpy's school at Reading, was allowed full 
 scope for some years of her life. If her tragedies 
 have not kept possession of the stage, this is no 
 more than must be said of other poets of our age 
 who are more celebrated. 'Julian' (1823) is 
 really a fine drama for the closet ; ' Foscari' 
 (1826) is not much inferior; and ' Rienzi' 
 (1828) was, for a time, very successful in the 
 theatre. ' Charles I.' was refused a chance, by the 
 silly scruples which were the rule of action for 
 George Colman, the licenser : the oriental opera of 
 ' Sadak and Kalasrade ' failed, but perhaps through 
 the music ; and several other plays, with fragmen- 
 tary dramatic scenes, may be read in a collected 
 edition. Long, however, before the appearance of 
 Rienzi, Miss Mitford had, fortunately (in the end) 
 for her own fame, been compelled to step aside 
 into other paths. In her own brave words, ' the 
 pressing necessity of earning money, and the un- 
 certainties and delays of the drama at moments 
 when disappointment or delay weighed upon me like 
 a sin, made it a duty to turn away from the lofty 
 steep of tragic poetry, to the everyday path of 
 Village Stones.' The vein thus happily struck 
 by Miss Mitford, presented itself to her in an 
 extensive and various course of contribution to 
 magazines and annuals. The earliest of her rural 
 sketches were refused admission into the 'New 
 Monthly Magazine,' during Thomas Campbell's 
 nominal editorship. They first appeared, in 1819, 
 in no more distinguished a vehicle than 'The 
 Lady's Magazine.' They formed afterwards the 
 first portion of ' Our Village ;' and the series was 
 completed in five volumes in 1832. The town of 
 Reading, near which the author lived for many of 
 the latest years of her life, was the original of 
 another series, ' Belford Regis,' published in 1835. 
 A good many other stories and sketches of the 
 3M 
 
MIT 
 
 same sort are scattered through periodicals ; and a 
 few have been collected. Miss Mitford's prose 
 pieces are wearisome to many readers, and must be 
 so to all who crave strong excitement. They have, 
 indeed, two sources of weakness: the lingering 
 fondness and endless repetition with which she 
 dilates on inanimate objects and groups ; the con- 
 stancv (an odd feature in a practised writer of 
 tragedies) with which she shuns and keeps back 
 everything that is painful or even deeply pathetic. 
 But her descriptions have both great truth, and, for 
 lovers of nature of a certain kind, lively interest ; 
 and over every character and incident she throws 
 a semi-transparent veil of cheerfulness, which 
 irradiates her pages as if with a continual flood of 
 sunshine. It would be a curious thing to know 
 how far she was indebted to reality, for the ami- 
 abilities, and generosities, and_ felicities of her per- 
 sonages ; or how far she practised, on any or all of 
 her originals out-of-doors, the process of beauti- 
 fying which we know her to have applied to her 
 own fireside and its occupants. In 1852 appeared, 
 in three volumes, Miss Mitford's ' Recollections of 
 a Literary Life; or, Books, Places, and People.' 
 The work contains very few personal details ; but it 
 is a remarkably pleasant series of extracts, chiefly 
 
 Eoetical, and of light criticism, almost always 
 indatory, especially of her own friends. Particu- 
 lars of her lite were prefixed by her more fully to 
 the two volumes of her collected dramas in 1854. 
 In the same year, too, were published her last 
 works, ' Atherton, and other Tales.' In her ' Re- 
 collections ' she had described, with a half-comic 
 pathos, the miseries of an invalid, compelled to 
 quit an old and favourite, but decaying abode. In 
 her new house, Swallowfield Cottage, not far from 
 the former, and, like it, near Reading, she spent 
 her last days, in the cheerful contentment natural 
 to her character, and with all the happiness that 
 could be made for her by many and distinguished 
 friends. She died there on the 10th of January, 
 1855. [W.S.] 
 
 MITZKIEVITCH, Adam, a Polish poet, for- 
 merly professor of the Sclavonic language and 
 literature in the college of France. Died at Con- 
 stantinople, 1855. 
 
 MOLE, Louis Mathieu, Count, the celebrated 
 French statesman, was descended from the old 
 noblesse of that country, and was a youth when 
 his father was beheaded in the reign of terror. 
 Inheriting the talent which had rendered his an- 
 cestors illustrious, he had therefore to make his way 
 under very different circumstances, and at the age 
 of twenty-five published a work, ; Essai de Morale 
 et de Politique,' which attracted the attention of 
 Napoleon, who appointed him, together with MM. 
 Portalis, jun., and Pasquier, one of his Maitre des 
 Requites, by which may be understood the func- 
 tions of a law officer attached to the Council of 
 State, somewhat resembling those of our masters in 
 the Court of Chancery. In this character he was 
 appointed, together with his colleagues, one of 
 Napoleon's commissioners in the Grand Sanhedrim 
 of tne Jews which was convened in Paris in 1806, 
 with the ultimate object, probably, of their restor- 
 ation to Palestine, but with the preliminary view 
 of inducing them to enter the army. After this 
 M. Mole - was made Prefect of Dijon, and while 
 holding this appointment wrote the life of his great 
 
 898 
 
 MOL 
 
 ancestor Mathieu Mole, who was president of the 
 parliament of Paris during the wars of the Fronde : 
 his subsequent honours under the empire were 
 those of Conseiller d'Etat and Director-General des 
 Ponts et Chausse'es, with the title of Count, 
 supreme judge and minister of justice after the 
 campaign of 1812, and president of the Council of 
 Regency when Napoleon took the field in person 
 again. In this character he remained faithful to 
 the Empress Marie Louise, till released from his 
 duty by the recommendation of Napoleon himself, 
 and was then forced on Louis XVIIL, who could 
 not tolerate the renegade nobility, by Talleyrand ; 
 nevertheless, he became one of Napoleon's peers 
 during the hundred days, and at the same time re- 
 sumed his old functions of Director-General des 
 Ponts et Chaussees, which he continued to exer- 
 cise under the second restoration. In this period 
 of his career M. Mole acted with the opposition 
 against Polignac, and was of course a foremost 
 man when Louis Philippe became king, who im- 
 mediately appointed him foreign minister, and at 
 a later period prime minister. The brilliancy of 
 his reputation was now greatly enhanced by the 
 ability with which he sustained himself against the 
 attacks of MM. Thiers and Guizot ; and as this is 
 the most fitting place to speak of his general char- 
 acter, we may describe him concisely in the words 
 of Lamartine l a man of political temperament, 
 of ability for a crisis, agreeable to the Court, hon- 
 oured by conservatives, and loved by the superior 
 bourgeoisie; one of those national aristocrats whose, 
 character accords with their birth, and whose native 
 superiority wins for them honour and affection ev< 
 from the most zealous democracy.' (Rev. 
 1 848.) Like several other of the chief statesm 
 of France, he made what effort he could to sa 
 the monarchy in 1848, and those failing, he after* 
 wards lived almost retired, saving that he appeared 
 once more as auditor to the Council of State dur- 
 ing the Presidency of Louis Napoleon. His last, 
 hopes, it is believed, were fixed on the restoration 
 of Henry V. Count Mol6 died suddenly of apo-i 
 plexy, Nov. 24, 1855. [E.R.] 
 
 MOLESWORTH, Sir William, justly charv 
 acterized as the liberator and regenerator of out 
 colonial empire, was born in London, 1810. Hf 
 was descended from an ancient family, in whosfj 
 ranks have been numbered colonial governors}) 
 courtiers, and naval officers, the barons of Pencaiv 
 row, since the time of Elizabeth. Sir Williani 
 became baronet at the age of thirteen by the deatl 
 of his father, and was just rising to his majoritjj 
 at the period of the reform agitation, in whicf 
 cause he made his maiden speech at a count! 
 meeting in 1831, having recently returned 
 his travels on the continent. In 1832, he 
 returned with Mr. Trelawney as M.P. for 
 eastern division of Cornwall, and kept his 
 till 1837, when his local influence failed to mi 
 head against the conservative feeling that pi 
 vailed : the same year, however, he was 
 turned for Leeds in conjunction with Mr. Edward 
 Baines. In 1841. foreseeing the defeat of tflj 
 liberal interest, Sir VV. Molesworth declined thlj 
 contest, and, retiring a while from the bustle oi] 
 political life, he girded himself, by hard political] 
 study, for future action. Southwark, in fine, haoj 
 the honour of sending him to parliament in 184m 
 
 ie 
 
 
MON 
 
 and the same constituents have twice re-elected 
 him, first, in 1853, when he became first com- 
 missioner of public works; and again, on his 
 ecent appointment as secretary of state for the 
 colonies. The laborious zeal in one great cause, 
 the political talents, and the persevering single- 
 ess of purpose by which Sir William Molesworth at 
 length attained this eminence, gave high promise of 
 bis administrative abilities in office; but he had 
 carcely time to realize his position when he was 
 urprised by death, October 22, 1855. His early 
 oss will be long and deeply lamented, and by 
 lone so much as our expectant fellow- subjects in 
 he colonies. Order and constructive ability, com- 
 bined with integrity, independence, and unflinch- 
 ng perseverance in the investigation of difficulties, 
 ire rare political qualities, and the less brilliant 
 some of the practical talents may be which go to 
 nake up such a character, the more unselfishness 
 ve may claim for their exercise. Another kind 
 f tribute is still due to his memory. Sir "W illiam 
 lolesworth is only recognized m one-half his 
 haracter as a politician or statesman: he was 
 lso the cultivated philosopher and man of letters. 
 n 1839, he commenced publishing at his own 
 ost, and has since completed, the works of Hobbes, 
 i a beautiful library edition, English and Latin ; 
 ie has also left in MSS. the materials, far ad- 
 anced towards completion, for a life of that 
 hilosopher. [E.R.] 
 
 MONTGOMERY, James, the last survivor but 
 ne, and a worthy member, though not among the 
 reatest, of the great company of poets who glori- 
 ed the first generation of our century, has re- 
 entry gone to his rest, full of years, and of the 
 onour that belongs to good men. He was born 
 t Irvine in Ayrshire, on the 4th of November, 
 771. His parents, who were of the sect of Mo- 
 ivians, emigrated in his boyhood on a missionary 
 aterprise to the West Indies, where both of them 
 >on died. Their son was left for education in a 
 ;minary of the Brethren at Fulneck, in York- 
 lire ; and there he spent ten years of his early 
 auth. Much of the plaintive and devotional 
 veetness which breathes through his poems may 
 i attributed to the influence of the Moravian 
 >irit ; but the Moravian rules were far from being 
 rectly favourable to the cultivation of those 
 ;erary and poetical tastes, which were early de- 
 iloped in his mind, and had to be indulged by 
 ealth when yielded to at all. His superiors wisely 
 elded to his reluctance to the ministry, for which 
 ley had designed him ; but no better place could 
 i found for him than one behind the counter of a 
 iscellaneous shop. Thence, after a year's servi- 
 ide, he eloped, his possessions consisting of three 
 illings and sixpence, and a volume of manuscript 
 >ems. Starved out before being able to reach 
 e great mart of letters, he took another place of 
 e same sort as before, wTiting to his preceding 
 aster for a character, and (to the credit of both 
 irties) receiving one, with an invitation to return. 
 few months afterwards he found his way to 
 rndon ; and, although he failed to gain a pub- 
 her for his poems, he obtained a place for him- 
 If as shopman to a bookseller in Paternoster Row. 
 Soon he returned to Yorkshire, and, in 1782, en- 
 red the employment of Mr. Gale, of Sheffield, a 
 okseller, who was also proprietor of a newspaper, 
 
 t'.i'j 
 
 MOO 
 
 then called the Sheffield Register. Montgomery 
 began to write for the newspaper ; and when, its 
 politics being too liberal for the age, Gale found it 
 convenient to quit England, his young assistant 
 took the editorship. He re-named the print the 
 Sheffield Iris, a name which in more recent times 
 he made so respectable and so respected. In the 
 meantime, however, troubles came over him. Al- 
 though his writings are believed to have been ex- 
 ceedingly moderate in tone, and are very unlikely, 
 from his character and disposition, to have been 
 otherwise, yet the jealous government of the day 
 prosecuted and punished him twice in the course 
 of twelve months. In January, 1795, for having 
 printed (not written) a song on the fall of the 
 Bastile, he was sentenced to imprisonment for 
 three months, and fined twenty pounds : in Jan- 
 uary, 1796, his sentence was a fine of thirty pounds, 
 with imprisonment for six months, for having 
 offended, by an account of a riot in the streets, 
 a zealous volunteer officer, who was also a magis- 
 trate. These events gave birth to a short series 
 of poems : ' Prison Amusements, written during 
 nine months of imprisonment in the castle of 
 York'. Montgomery's larger poems soon began to 
 appear: 'The Wanderer in Switzerland,' in 1806 ; 
 'The West Indies,' in 1809; and 'The World Be- 
 fore the Flood,' in 1812. A second series of the 
 same class was formed by ' Greenland,' published 
 in 1819; and 'The Pelican Island,' in 1828. A 
 good many of his early essays in the Iris are said to 
 have been collected and reprinted ; and within the 
 last thirty years have appeared his 'Prose by a 
 Poet,' and 'Lectures on Poetry and Literature.' 
 His prose writings, however, are of small account : 
 nor have his more ambitious works, in verse, vitality 
 or substance enough to float them down the stream 
 of time. His name is preserved, and made dear 
 to the lovers of poetry, inspired at once (a rare 
 union) by genius and by devotion, through his 
 minor poems of a lyrical and reflective kind. Such 
 pieces as 'The Grave,' and 'The Common Lot,' 
 are familiar to every one who loves poetry of a 
 religious cast. His poetical works were collected 
 into four volumes in 1841, and into one volume in 
 1850; and, in 1853, he published ' Original Hymns, 
 for Public, Private, and Social Devotion.' His re- 
 tirement from the editorship of the Iris took place 
 in 1840; and the newspaper did not long sur- 
 vive the loss. For the last few years of his life 
 he possessed a government pension. He died at 
 his house in Sheffield, April 30, 1854. [W.S.] 
 MONTGOMERY, Robert, author of the 
 ' Omnipresence of the Deity ' and other well known 
 works, died at the beginning of December, 1855. 
 Mr. Montgomery was educated at Oxford, and 
 ordained about the year 1835. He was some time 
 minister of St. Jude's episcopal chapel at Glas- 
 gow, but the last years of his life he rented Percy 
 street chapel in the metropolis, where his elo- 
 quence in the pulpit and his amiable private 
 character made him highly popular. 
 
 MOORE, Lieut.-Col. Willoughby, an aged 
 officer memorable for the noble performance of his 
 duty on board the transport ship Europa, which 
 was destroyed by fire on the night of May 31, 
 1854, being then on her voyage to the East, and 
 about 200 miles from Plymouth. He remained on 
 board the burning vessel to the last, making the 
 
MOO 
 
 best arrangements in his power for removing the 
 men (a detachment of the 6th dragoons! and is 
 stated to have been at length driven into the mizen 
 chains by the violence of the flames and to have 
 there perished. 
 
 MOORE, Mrs. Willoughby, lady superin- 
 tendent of the officers' hospital at Scutari, died at 
 her post, of dutv, Nov., 1855. 
 
 MORGAN, John Minter, a well-known phi- 
 lanthropist, author of a project for a self-supporting 
 village, was born in 1783. His father was a 
 wholesale stationer in the metropolis, and at his 
 death left Mr. Morgan in possession of an ample 
 fortune. Naturally benevolent, and desirous of 
 active occupation, his attention was arrested by 
 the projects of Robert Owen, on which he published 
 his comments in a pamphlet, 1819. The year 
 following he published his famous little work en- 
 titled 'The Revolt of the Bees;' and thenceforth, 
 by poems, lectures, or addresses, seizing with 
 avidity on every opportunity presented by circum- 
 stances, he sought to obtain a hearing for his plans. 
 The essential point in which he differed from Mr, 
 Owen was in the recognition of religious principles 
 as the basis of his calculations. In 1842 he 
 petitioned parliament for an inquiry into his pro- 
 ject, entitled the ' Church of England Agricultural 
 Self-Supporting Institute ; ' and, besides address- 
 ing large public meetings on the subject, he pro- 
 mulgated his views by the press in his ' Christian 
 Commonwealth.' His plan was received with some 
 favour in Germany, where an opportunity existed 
 for comparing it with the Moravian establishments, 
 and in this country it was viewed with favour by 
 a scattered few of the clergy. Competition was 
 the great evil it proposed to extinguish, and there- 
 with much of the misery that afflicts society ; but 
 the difficulty of raising a sufficient capital (40,000 
 was the sum proposed), no less than the prejudices 
 of society, and perhaps the formality that charac- 
 terized Mr. Morgan s plan, ever prevented the 
 establishment of a model institute. The projector 
 sought what consolation he could in the hope of a 
 better future, and published, in 1850, a series of 
 works bearing on the renovation and progress of 
 society, called 'The Phoenix Library,' 13 vols., 
 12mo ; this series included the productions of his 
 own pen, and, of course, ' The Revolt of the Bees.' 
 Mr. Morgan died at his residence in Stratton 
 street, Piccadilly, December 26, 1854, shortly after 
 establishing an institution on Ham Common, called 
 1 The National Orphan House.' [E.R.] 
 
 N 
 
 NACHIMOFF, Admiral, well known as the 
 commander of the Russian fleet when the Turkish 
 ships were destroyed at Sinope, in Nov., 1853. 
 Killed at Sebastopol, July, 1855. 
 
 NIC 
 
 most of his time abroad. The offer of his services, 
 in the Crimean war was declined. 
 
 NEWPORT, Gkorqe, a distinguished physi- 
 ologist and naturalist, born at Canterbury, 1803; 
 died in London, 1854. Mr. Newport is a good ex- 
 ample of the benefits arising from the institution 
 of those societies for the cultivation of literature 
 and science, which are now so general throughout 
 the country. Engaged as a youth in a humble 
 business, he luckily had his mind directed to scien- 
 tific pursuits through the influence of the literary 
 society established in his native town. His taste 
 led him to anatomical and physiological investi- 
 gations, and was the means of inducing him to 
 study medicine. This profession led him to follow 
 still further these particular branches of study, 
 and to the prosecution of them he ultimately de- 
 voted his whole time and attention. His nume- 
 rous memoirs in the Transactions of the Linnsean 
 and Royal Societies, and in various scientific jour- 
 nals of the day, established his fame as an origi- 
 nal and acute observer, procured for him twict 
 the Royal medal of the Royal Society, caused hire 
 to be elected President of the Entomological So- 
 ciety, and obtained for him from the Crown a pen- 
 sion of 100 per annum. His last labours wen 
 a course of patient investigations and experiments 
 to show the changes undergone in the ovum of th 
 frog during its development ; and it was to hir 
 zeal in prosecuting these researches that he owec 
 his death. Engaged in obtaining a supply of frogi 
 in the marshes near London, he contracted a feve: 
 which cut him off in his fifty-first year. [W.B V 
 NICHOLAS, late Emperor of Russia, brother 
 of his predecessor, Alexander, was born in 1796 
 and died suddenly, of paralysis of the lungs, sooi: 
 after midnight, between March 1st and 2d, 1855 
 The career of Nicholas is one of the most remarks 
 able in the annals of royalty, and his character om 
 which would have stood out grandly in other ages 
 Previous to his accession, the name of the Empero* 
 Nicholas hardly belongs to history, but the fin* 
 events of his reign stamped his character, and 
 served, perhaps, to decide his policy once for a! 
 towards his own subjects. The death of Alex: 
 ander, Nov. 30, 1825, proved the signal for a wide 
 spread revolt, which menaced the throne and thi 
 existing institutions of the country ; for at its hean 
 were many of the officers who had marched int 
 Germany with the Russian army in 1812, aid 
 there became acquainted with the theories of it 
 publican and constitutional government TM 
 conspiracy was general, extending from St. Peterej 
 burg to Kief; and, in the capital, the populace wet] 
 joined by the guards, under pretence of supportinl 
 Prince Constantine, who had long before, definw 
 tively resigned the crown in favour of his brothew 
 On this occasion the young sovereign displayed a | 
 the chivalry of his character, and as much by " 
 personal daring as the terrible use he made of 
 cannon in the streets of Petersburg, awed 
 rebellious subjects into obedience. His coronat 
 
 was celebrated with unusual pomp, Sept. 3, 1 
 at which time the affairs of Greece occupie" 
 
 NAPIER, Sir George Thomas, a younger 
 brother of the hero of Scinde, General Sir Charles 
 James Napier, born at Whitehall, 1784, died at 
 
 Geneva, September, 1855. He was in the chief \ attention of the Western powers, and made 
 actions of the Peninsula, and at the siege of fest the ambition and the secret designs of 
 Cuidad Rodrigo he lost his right arm. From I Russian government : for the present, he 
 1837 to 1844 he served his country as governor of | a settlement was effected by the treaty of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, since which he passed | concluded July 6, 1827, between England, F; 
 
 900 
 
NIC 
 
 md Russia. In the meantime, war had broken 
 >ut between Russia and Persia, in which, by the 
 notorious arms of Paskievitch the Russian frontier 
 ivas advanced to the Arras (Jrraes), as admitted in 
 :he articles of peace signed at Turcomanchai, Feb., 
 1828. Thus another province was added to the 
 Russian empire, besides which, and contrary to 
 stipulation, she retained Talish and Moghan be- 
 yond the Arras, as a means of easier entrance into 
 ;he Persian dominions. On the 4th of the suc- 
 ceeding April, war was formally declared against 
 Turkey, for alleged violations of the treaty of 
 Bucharest concluded sixteen years before, and an 
 tfmy of 115,000 men crossed the Pruth: the 
 sacrifice of life on both sides was very great, but 
 Turkey was the sufferer in her possessions, and 
 was compelled to conclude the treaty of Adrianople, 
 sept. 14, 1829, which handed over to Russia the 
 Circassian coast of the Black Sea, and was even 
 stigmatized by Lord Aberdeen for its duplicity. 
 The interest of these events to Western Europe 
 was soon, however, absorbed in the greater peril 
 created by the French Revolution of 1830, and the 
 Czar himself was immediately occupied with the 
 last desperate struggle of the Poles, which lasted 
 from Nov., 1830, to Oct. 5, 1831, when the wreck 
 of the patriot army surrendered to Rudiger and 
 Paskievitch. This cruel and decisive conflict had 
 hardly been terminated, when the revolt of the 
 Pasha of Egypt against the Grand Sultan afforded 
 the emperor an excuse for sending an expedition 
 to the Bosphorus; at which opportunity he ex- 
 torted from the Porte the clandestine treaty of 
 Unkiar Skelessi, dated July 8, 1832, the effect of 
 which was to close tha Dardanelles against the 
 fleets of Europe, in a word, to place Constantinople 
 by her own act, at the mercy of the Russian fleet 
 in the Black Sea. This event was followed by 
 political complications of no ordinary difficulty, 
 which, in 1840, had nearly produced a war be- 
 tween England and France, and led to our military 
 operations in Syria, where the further advance of 
 Mehemet Ali was checked by the operations ^ of 
 Sir Robert Stopford and Commodore Napier. The 
 succeeding years, till 1848, were not marked by 
 any event that we need notice in this summary, 
 but the intrigues of the Russian government are 
 supposed by many to have secretly fomented the 
 convulsions of that year, and there is historical 
 evidence, that the Czar, whatever his apparent 
 moderation, was ever watchful of his opportunity 
 to crush the free institutions of the West, or, as 
 he latterly expressed it, to 'put a stop to the 
 materialism of England.' The opportunity for a 
 first advance was created by the peril of the 
 Austrian government, and in July, 1848, the Rus- 
 sian troops were marched into Hungary in support 
 of the house of Hapsburg, where Bern and Dem- 
 binski at the head of 20,000 Poles had joined the 
 Magyars : the Hugarians, it is well known, were 
 eventually defeated by the surrender of Georgey 
 to the Russian General Rudiger, on the 11th of 
 August, and the immediate gain of the Czar was 
 the fall of a constitutional government, which 
 had been perilous in close proximity with his 
 dominions. The events of the late war are too 
 familiar to require an extended notice, but it may 
 be mentioned that the quarrel originated, sub- 
 stantially, in the assertion, by Russia, of a right 
 
 O'CO 
 
 to the protectorate of the Greek Church through- 
 out the dominions of the Sultan; in support of 
 which, part of the Russian army was ordered 
 towards Moldavia, at the latter end of 1852, 
 Two divisions actually crossed the Pruth at the 
 beginning of July, 1853, the interim having been 
 occupied by the mission of Prince Menschikoff to 
 Constantinople, and the naval demonstrations on 
 the part of England and France in Besika Bay. 
 The subsequent occurrences to the death of Nicholas, 
 are inscribed in the annals of our country in pages 
 which can never be pronounced inglorious, what- 
 ever faults of administration, and want of leading 
 ability, may, at the same time, have been brought 
 to light. The sudden death of the Czar, as he 
 stood upright in his pride, serves to mark the 
 character of the man, whose passions could sere 
 his brain at the same moment that he preserved 
 his unrelenting aspect, and moved among his 
 courtiers and subjects with the haughty bearing of 
 a demi-god, or a hero of the ancient world. The 
 time, however, has not yet arrived to estimate his 
 character fairly, and it must be conceded that 
 selfishness of a merely personal nature formed no 
 part of it. His temper and policy were alike 
 imperial, and all his designs tended to the advance- 
 ment of the glory of his country, and the im- 
 provement of his people, so far, at least, as such 
 designs are compatible with the absolute manner 
 of government. [E.R.] 
 
 NICHOLSON, George, a clergyman ana 
 theological writer, died 1819. 
 
 NICKLE, Major-General Sir Robert, an 
 old Peninsular officer, late commander of the 
 forces at Melbourne, memorable for his services at 
 Ballarat, 1785-1855. 
 
 NIXON, Samuel, a sculptor of London, whose 
 principal works are ' The Four Seasons ' in Gold- 
 smith's Hall, 1803-1854. 
 
 NOLAN, Lewis Edward, captain in the 15th 
 hussars, killed in the famous cavalry charge at 
 Balaklava, was the son of the late Major Nolan, 
 some time vice-consul at Milan. He obtained his 
 first commission in the army of Austria, but entered 
 the service of his country in 1839 as ensign in the 
 4th foot. He was a man of varied accomplish- 
 ments, skilled in many languages, Eastern and 
 European, besides being a matchless cavalier and 
 swordsman. In 1853 he published a work on the 
 ' Organization, Drill, and Manoeuvres of Cavalry 
 Corps,' having first visited the principal military 
 posts in Russia, besides other parts of Northern 
 Europe. The fatal mistake under which the light 
 cavalry were ordered to charge the Russian guns 
 has been amply discussed in the public journals. 
 Captain Nolan was killed by the first shot as he 
 rode in advance of his men. [E.R.] 
 
 NORBURY, Lord. See Toler. 
 
 O 
 
 O'CONNELL, Maurice, eldest son of the 
 celebrated Daniel O'Connell. He was called to 
 the Irish bar in 1827, and became member foi 
 Clare in 1831 on the nomination of his father, 
 after which he was seldom without a seat in par- 
 liament. Died in June, 1853. 
 
 <J 01 
 
O'CO 
 
 O'CONNOR, Feargus, the chartist leader., was 
 born in 1796, at Dargaa Castle, county Meath. 
 He was known in 1832 as one of the supporters of 
 O'Connell, and obtained a seat in the first, reformed 
 parliament for the county of Cork. At the general 
 election of 1835, he was elected for Cork a second 
 time, but was unseated on the petition of Mr. 
 Longffcld : in the same year he contested, unsuc- 
 cessfully, the borough of Oldham. From that 
 period till 1847, though he was once or twice a 
 candidate, be did not go to the poll, but he was 
 then returned by the chartists of Nottingham, and 
 was still member in 1852, when his mental aberra- 
 tion became manifest. At the time of his greatest 
 influence, Mr. O'Connor was proprietor and editor 
 of the Northern Star, a weekly journal devoted 
 to the political interests of the working classes. 
 It was under the direction of this journal that the 
 movement was set afoot which resulted in the 
 famous petition for the charter, and the gathering 
 in London of a large body of the working classes, 
 April 10, 1848. Though since made a subject of 
 ridicule, there was so little sense of security in the 
 public mind at the time, that a large provision was 
 made for the defence of the government and the 
 capital bv the duke of Wellington ; the people, 
 however, "dispersed quietly under the honest advice 
 of their leader, and the petition was wisely 
 abandoned when it was discovered that the mass 
 of signatures was vitiated, by many that were 
 either false or ridiculous. The political career of 
 Mr. O'Connor was now at an end, and the total 
 failure of his land scheme, followed by the un- 
 merited disgrace and calumny to which he was 
 subject, seem to have overturned the balance of his 
 reason. His insubordination in the House led to 
 his committal by the speaker during the session of 
 1852, and he was finally consigned to the care of 
 Dr. Tuke of Chiswick, where he died, Aug. 30, 1855. 
 Mr. O'Connor, like many of his countrymen, was 
 a man of violent passions, but thoroughly honest in 
 his intentions, and so far from mercenary that his 
 devotion to the cause he espoused left him a beggar. 
 The remnant of his followers expressed their sense 
 of his disinterestedness in the motto displayed at 
 his funeral, He lived and died for us.' [E.R.] 
 
 OCTAV1US. See Augustus. 
 
 OLAUS, Magnus, an archbishop of Upsala 
 who lived during the first half of the 16th century. 
 He is known throughout Europe as a legendary 
 writer, his stories of Lycanthropy, of Mermen, and 
 similar marvels being frequentlycited.^ An Eng- 
 lish version of his work was published in 1658. 
 
 OMMANEY, Sir John Ackworth, K.C.B., 
 rear-admiral of the Red, was born 1783, and 
 died on 8th July, 1855, at his seat, Warblington 
 House, Havant, Hants. 
 
 O'NEILL, John Bruce Richard, third vis- 
 count and baron, memorable as the last of the 
 hereditary chiefs of Ulster, 1780-1855. 
 
 O'REILLY, The Hon. Dowelt,, for nearly a 
 quarter of a century attorney -general of Jamaica, 
 and president of the legislative council there, 
 was born in 1795; died at his residence, St. 
 Andrew's, Kingston, Jamaica, in October, 1855. 
 
 OI'MOND, John Butler, second marquis 
 of, distinguished for his contributions to the 
 Belles Lettres, born in Dublin, 1808 ; died suddenly 
 while bathing, 1854. 
 
 902 
 
 PAR 
 
 OXLEE, John, a learned divine, remarkable 
 for his industry and great literary capacity, born 
 in Cleveland 1779, died 1854. He was master 
 of 120 languages or dialects. His principal work 
 is entitled ' The Christian Doctrines of the Trinity 
 and Incarnation.' 
 
 PACIFICO, Don, well known for his claims 
 upon the Greek government, which had well nigh 
 provoked a war, died in London at an advanced 
 age, 1854. 
 
 PAGET, Lord. See Anglesey. 
 
 PAILLET, M., a distinguished French barrister 
 and member of the assembly, died 1855. 
 
 PAPWORTH, George, distinguished as an 
 architect and engineer, 1801-1855. 
 
 PARK, Patrick, a sculptor, died 1855. 
 
 PARKER, Vice-Admiral Hyde, was the son 
 of admiral Sir Hyde Parker, who died in 1807, 
 and grandson of vice-admiral Sir Hyde Parker, 
 who was lost in the Cato in 1782. He first 
 entered upon active service in the navy in 1799, 
 and attained the rank of post-captain after the 
 expedition to Copenhagen in 1807. Since the 
 peace he served some years on the Mediterranean 
 station, and in 1845 commanded an experimental 
 squadron. In 1852 he attained the rank of vice- 
 admiral, and took office as one of the lords 
 commissioners of the admiralty, under the duke 
 of Northumberland ; died 1854. 
 
 PARKER, Captain Hyde, son of the preced- 
 ing, was born 1825, and obtained his first commis- 
 sion April 5, 1844. Two years subsequently he 
 joined the Constance, 50, Captain Sir Baldwin 
 Walker, and in 1847 obtained the rank of com- 
 mander. He was entrusted with an important 
 command as captain of the Firebrand in the Black 
 Sea fleet, and exhibited the highest qualities of the 
 seaman. The squadron blockading the Danube 
 was under his orders, and in a short period the 
 military stations and batteries which had been the 
 chief impediments to the free navigation of the liver 
 were destroyed. In a fortnight after these achieve- 
 ments, Captain Parker entered the river with a 
 boat expedition, his object being to reconnoitre a 
 battery commanding the quarantine ground. The 
 pinnace in advance grounded, and a destructive 
 fire was poured upon the boats. At this moment 
 our young hero resolved to storm the forts ; and 
 advancing at the head of his men, he received a 
 ball in the heart, and fell dead in the arms of his 
 coxswain. The correspondent of the Morning 
 Herald thus alludes to his noble ,end, and sums 
 up his character: 'Belonging to a family long 
 distinguished in our naval annals, Captain Hyde 
 Parker gave promise of equalling any of his 
 race in services to his country. On receiving the 
 news of his death, " Any one but him ! " was the 
 universal cry throughout the combined fleet. " I 
 have no one left like him ! " said our sorrowing 
 admiral. The undaunted courage he had shown, 
 added to his consummate ability, had already won 
 for him a name which will not readily be forgotten. 
 He was indeed no common man. We lament that 
 there has passed from among us that genius which 
 grasped instinctively questions which required from ' 
 
PAR 
 
 others months of study that strange fascination 
 of manner which made all who came into contact 
 with him love and yet respect him that active in- 
 tellect at home on every subject that generous 
 spirit far more careful for others' welfare than his 
 own that mind, so continually occupied in his 
 country's service. Such was one who may per- 
 haps be the last of his famous name. There ga- 
 thered round to grace that funeral train the men 
 of almost every nation ; the strong sons of his own 
 land the brave children of our loved and noble 
 ally the dark Italians all mingled, in martial 
 pomp, with the troops of the Moslem, who then, 
 for the first time, saw how France and England 
 honour their warriors dead. But one feeling ani- 
 mated all, from the ambassadors and representa- 
 tives of the four great nations who bore his pall, 
 down to the Turks and Greeks who, moved far 
 beyond their wont, gathered round us in sympa- 
 thizing crowds. Even their women cast aside 
 their wonted reserve for the moment ; the tear was 
 dropped over the fallen stranger who was to rest 
 so far from his own land; from many a lip we 
 heard the low murmur, " Kardesh, kardesh," " Bro- 
 thers, brothers." His body was interred in the 
 English cemetery at Pera.' It may be interesting 
 to add that the fort against which he was gal- 
 lantly advancing when he received his death- 
 wound, was soon after in possession of his men, 
 led by Captain Powell. [E.R.] 
 
 PARMA. Ferdinand Charles de Bourbon, 
 duke of Parma, born 1823, was the son of Charles 
 II. and the Princess Theresa of Sardinia, daughter 
 of King Victor Emmanuel. His father became duke 
 of Parma on the death of Marie Louise, the widow 
 of Napoleon, in 1847, and abdicated in favour 
 of his son, who assumed the title of Charles III. 
 March 14, 1849. He was assassinated March 26, 
 1854, and his widow became regent during the 
 minority of her son. 
 
 PARRY, Sir William Edward, rear-admiral 
 of the White, was born at Bath, where his father 
 Was in practice as a physician, 1790. In 1803 he 
 entered the navy as volunteer on board the Ville 
 de Paris, 110, and in 1810 was commissioned as 
 ieutenant. His first acquaintance with the northern 
 eas was in the ordinary service, affording protec- 
 ion to the Spitzbergen whale fishery, and collect- 
 ing observations towards the improvement of the 
 admiralty charts. From 1813 to 1817 he was 
 engaged in active sendee on the North American 
 station, and at the close of that period was solicit- 
 ng for employment in African discovery. At this 
 ime, however, the Royal Society had memorialized 
 he government to prosecute certain discoveries in 
 he arctic regions, and as Parry had expressed 
 himself equally 'ready for hot or cold,' he sailed for 
 the north with Captain Buchan in May, 18)9. 
 This expedition returned in November, 1820, and 
 Lieutenant Parry was soon after rewarded with 
 he rank of commander. Three other expeditions 
 tt the arctic seas were undertaken by him as 
 aptain of the Hecla ; the first extending over the 
 ears 1821 to 1823 ; the second from 1824 to 1828, 
 eckoning the whole period till the Hecla returned 
 o England, her companion, the Fury, Captain 
 loppner, having been wrecked ; the third, completed 
 n 1827, in which, defiant of every risk, he advanced 
 o the highest latitude ever reached, 82 45 '. Cap- 
 
 PRI 
 
 tain Parry was now rewarded with the honour of 
 knighthood, and shortly after went out to New 
 South Wales as commissioner for managing the 
 affairs of the Australian agricultural company, an 
 appointment which he retained till 1834. In 
 1835 he became assistant poor law commissioner 
 in Norfolk, and in 1837 was employed by the 
 admiralty to organize the packet service. Two 
 other functions of his extend over several years, 
 that of hydrographer to the admiralty from 1823 
 to 1829; and that of comptroller of the steam 
 department of the navy from 1837 to 1846. In 
 1853 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of 
 Greenwich hospital, shortly after his promotion as 
 rear-admiral of the Blue. Died in July, 1855. 
 Sir Edward Pany is the author of a small work, 
 entitled ' Thoughts on the Parental Character of 
 God,' besides narratives of his voyages. [E.R.] 
 
 PASCO, John, rear-admiral, memorable as 
 having performed the duty of signal officer at the 
 battle of Trafalgar, when Nelson gave the order, 
 ' England expects every man to do his duty ; ' 1776- 
 1854. J 
 
 PAUL, Hamilton, a Scotch journalist, known 
 as the college friend and companion of Campbell, 
 editor of an edition of Burns, 1774-1854. 
 
 PEPE, Guglielmo, a native of Calabria, well 
 known as a general of the Neapolitan army, and a 
 leader of the revolutionary party in Italy, was born 
 in 1783, and first entered the army when Murat 
 was king of Naples. He continued in the service 
 after the restoration of the Bourbons, and was 
 exiled for his share in the revolutionary movements 
 of 1820-21. In 1848 he returned to his coun- 
 try, and was appointed commander-in-chief of 
 the army sent to central Italy against the Aus- 
 trians. At Bologna he was ordered to return, but 
 instead of doing so he repaired to Venice, and 
 served as commandant till trie surrender of the city 
 in 1849. Died near Turin, Aug., 1855. 
 
 _ PEREIRA, Jonathan, an eminent physician, 
 distinguished in the metropolis as a lecturer on 
 chemistry, botany, and the materia medica, died, 
 in consequence of an accident, in his forty-ninth 
 year, Jan., 1853. Dr. Pereira, by his labours on 
 the materia medica, has the reputation of having 
 developed what was practically a new science. 
 His ' Elements of Materia Medica ' was published 
 in its improved form in 1839. 
 
 PHILLIPS, Samuel, well known as an essayist 
 and journalist, was the son of a tradesman, and 
 was born in 1815. Having failed in an endeavour 
 to carry on his father's business, he devoted his 
 time to literature, and appeared as the author of 
 1 Caleb Stukely,' in 1842. Subsequently he wrote 
 for the Morning Herald, and was appointed liter- 
 ary reviewer on the Times. Died 1854. 
 
 PONSONBY, Lord, a diplomatist, 1771-1855. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, Newton Fellowes, fourth 
 earl of, M.P. for Andover, 1772-1854. 
 
 POTTINGER, Sir Hknry, a distinguished 
 English diplomatist, died 1856. 
 
 PRIULI, the surname of several Venetian doges. 
 Lorenzo, who reigned from 1556 to 1559. 
 Jeromino, brother and successor of the preced- 
 ing, died 1567. Antonio, successor of Nicholas 
 Donato in 1618. In his reign, that dangerous 
 conspiracy was formed, of which St. Real has 
 written the history; died 1623. 
 
PRO 
 
 PROSSI, Tommaso, one of the most disting. 
 authors and poets of modern Italy, 1789-1854. 
 
 PUSEY, Philip, an eminent practical agri- 
 culturist, late editor of the ; Agricultural Society's 
 Journal,' 1799-1855. 
 
 B 
 
 RADOWITZ, Joseph Von, a Prussian general 
 and military writer, was born in 1797, and was 
 descended from the lesser nobility of Hungary. 
 He received his military education in France at the 
 time Jerome Buonaparte was king of Westphalia, 
 and commenced active service as an artillery officer 
 in 1812. After the peace, he devoted himself to 
 religious and mystical studies, and having enemies 
 at court, passed some time in honourable banish- 
 ment, but was recalled^ to Berlin in 1840, when a 
 war with France was imminent. In the revolu- 
 tionary year 1818 he retired from the Prussian 
 service, and became a member of the national 
 assembly of Frankfort, the eventualities of which 
 forced him to Berlin in the character of the king's 
 friend and minister. Died Dec. 25, 1854. 
 
 RAGLAN, Lokd, late commander-in-chief of 
 the British army in the Crimea, was born 1788, 
 and was first known as Lord Fitzroy Somerset. 
 His father was the fifth duke of Beaufort, his 
 mother a daughter of Admiral Boscawen ; he be- 
 longed to the highest class of the English aristo- 
 cracy. Having entered the army at an early age, 
 he was selected by the duke of Wellington to serve 
 on his staff in 1807, and was accordingly under 
 fire for the first time in the attack of the British 
 upon the Danish troops, in the expedition to Co- 
 penhagen. He accompanied our great captain to 
 the peninsula, being first appointed one of his 
 aides-de-camp, and afterwards his military secre- 
 tary. In the words of Lord Hardinge, ' during the 
 whole period that the duke of Wellington was in 
 the peninsula with the exception, perhaps, of a 
 short time when he was in England for the benefit 
 of his health Lord Fitzroy Somerset was at his 
 right hand;' he was present in all the great actions 
 of the peninsular campaign, and ever foremost in 
 the field; at Badajoz, he was among the first to 
 mount the breach, and it was to him that the 
 governor delivered up his sword ; at Busaco, he 
 was slightly wounded, and at Waterloo he lost his 
 right arm. His rank at this time was that of 
 lieut.-colonel in the 1st foot guards. His embassies 
 and other minor services to the state, we pass over 
 to mention that he held the office of military secre- 
 tary, at the horse guards, for twenty-five years, 
 being from 1827 to 1852, the year in which he 
 was appointed master-general of the ordnance, 
 and raised to the House of Peers by the title of 
 Lord Raglan. Events were now ripening, which, 
 it is impossible to deny, have shed a fresh lustre 
 on the name of the gallant Fitzroy Somerset. In 
 February, 1854, he was appointed commander of 
 the forces proceeding to the East, and in the month 
 of May succeeded the marquis of Anglesey as 
 colonel of the royal horse guards (blue). At the 
 beginning of May, he arrived with Lord de Ros, 
 and the principal officers of his staff, at Gallipoli. 
 At the end of August, and beginning of September, 
 the allied armies were embarked for the Crimea, 
 
 ROG 
 
 and at daybreak on the morning of September 19th! 
 the tents were struck, and the armies put itt 
 motion, with the view of securing the desired basis 
 of operations, and opening a communication with 
 the fleet. The first great battle was now fought, 
 in which Lord Raglan displayed all the valour ol 
 his younger days ; at the critical moment he dashed 
 forward at the head of his staff, many of who 
 fell around him, and having crossed the bridge ol 
 the Alma, obtained a point of view which enabled 
 him to win the victory with a less sacrifice of lift 
 than would otherwise have been possible. At 
 Balaklava, as usual, Lord Raglan and his stafl 
 were in advance of the troops at one moment 
 under command of the guns of Sebastopol, at 
 another, in front of a sudden apparition of Russian 
 infantry. The same personal devotion marked his 
 conduct at Inkermann, for shot and shell were fall- 
 ing thick around him, when Colonel Gambier re- 
 ceived his orders to bring up the two heavy guns 
 (18 pounders'), which aided so materially to decide 
 the fate of the day. At one moment a shell ex- 
 ploded in the midst of the staff, killing or wound- 
 ing many. After these hairbreadth escapes, it is 
 singular to record the death of the veteran soldiei 
 from natural causes, and the more so, that he still 
 held the post of danger and of duty at the last 
 hour. On the 29th of June, 1855, eleven days 
 after the unsuccessful attack upon the Redan and 
 Malakoff, Lord Raglan breathed his last in per- 
 fect tranquillity; a short illness, aggravated by 
 mental anxiety, being the only prelude of his fate. 
 His remains were brought to England. [E.R.] 
 
 RATTEE, James, distinguished for the beauty 
 of his carvings, and other enrichments in the style 
 of mediaeval architecture, 1820-1855. 
 
 REHAUSEN, Baron De, successor of Count 
 Bjornstjema as Swedish minister in London, 
 1802-1854. 
 
 RENOUARD, Antoine Augustus, an emi 
 nent French bibliographer, author of a valuable 
 annotated catalogue of books ' Annales de l'lm- 
 primerie des Aides,' ' Elemens de la Morale,' and; 
 other works, died in Paris, aged ninety-eight, 1854. 
 
 RHODES, Joseph, an artist and art teacher,* 
 who had sustained his reputation in Yorkshire foil 
 more than half a century, died 1855. His figures.^ 
 landscapes, and flowers, afforded equal evidence or< 
 his skill in execution. 
 
 RIDDLE, Edward, a mathematician and as-< 
 tronomer, late head master of the Greenwich Hos- 
 pital schools, author of astronomical and othef! 
 professional works, 1788-1854. 
 
 RIGOLLOT, Marcel Jerome, a French phy 
 sician, distinguished also as a naturalist and antics 
 quarian, 1786-1855. 
 
 ROBERTSON, Patrick, Lord, a judge of the- 
 court of session, author of poems, 1791-1854. 
 
 ROGERS, P. H., a landscape painter, d. 18c 
 
 ROGERS, Rear-Admiral Robert Henli 
 born August, 1783, died 8th January, 1857. 
 
 ROGERS, Samuel, living to reach his nine 
 third year, linked together in the history of Engl 
 literature four successive generations. He v 
 nessed in his old age the era of poetical interr 
 num, in which there is claimed for Tennyson 
 place of dictator : he had passed his own bright 
 days in the reigns of Scott, and Byron, and Wor 
 worth : his first volume had been printed in 
 
 904 
 
ROG 
 
 iame year with the first volume ot Bums : and he 
 lad even, in still earlier youth, looked up with 
 iwe to the critical throne of Samuel Johnson. 
 Sogers was born at Stoke-Newington, near Lon- 
 lon, on the 30th of July, 1763. He was the son of 
 i London banker, whose association with his fel- 
 ow-dissenters made ' Watts' Hymns ' to be the 
 irst poetical studies of the schoolboy ; while his 
 political activity may have aided in generating the 
 ioet's mildly Whiggish opinions. His life was, 
 yven for a literary man, singularly uneventful. He 
 lad neither difficulties to combat, nor misfortunes 
 ;o surfer. He was accomplished, both through edu- 
 ation, society, and foreign travel : he was always 
 affluent, so far at least as to possess means more 
 han sufficient for the luxurious life of a bachelor, 
 vho loved alike fashion, literature, and art ; and 
 ill the days of his long life were spent in the 
 feasant employments of an amateur in letters and 
 n painting and music, and of a friend or patron of 
 iterary men and artists. His own literary pro- 
 luctions showed, from beginning to end, a strongly 
 mitative tum. They are the effusions of a man 
 inely impressible by poetical ideas ; decidedly not 
 rf one who could himself either create novel im- 
 iges, or strike out new channels of feeling. Some 
 massages of his poems are very pleasing, seldomer 
 through any vigorous pictures than through some 
 ;ouch of emotion deeper than the usual vein. But 
 sven in such passages we feel ourselves to be 
 istening to what is merely an echo. Yet it is 
 jurious and interesting to mark how, in period 
 rfter period, the echo was caught from the pre- 
 sent as well as from the past. One characteristic, 
 lowever, of the English poetry of the eighteenth 
 xntury, clung always to Rogers. His verses were 
 elaborated, both for diction and for melody, with a 
 are which scarcely any writer of our age has dreamt 
 rf, and which most of them have despised. His prin- 
 ripal poems were polished and repolished for years 
 Mifore being thrown on the world; and while there 
 vas thus gained a remarkable sweetness both of 
 )hrase and of rhythm, the charm was but too 
 jften purchased by an augmentation of that natu- 
 ral feebleness, from which, perhaps, the writer 
 uld hardly in any circumstances have altogether 
 sscaped. In 1786, Rogers published, with other 
 >oems, his Ode to Superstition.' In it the influ- 
 ince of Gray is strongly perceptible : and Gold- 
 imith was as plainly the model for his most popu- 
 ar poem, ' The Pleasures of Memory,' which 
 ropeared in 1792. In 1798, in his ' Epistle to a 
 mend,' he had still received no teaching more 
 ecent than that of Pope and his followers. As- 
 rirations more active, but far from successful, 
 rere evinced in 1812 by the fragmentary ' Voyage 
 if Columbus ;' and his subsequent works showed 
 itill more how he had been impressed by the more 
 jnergetic school, which had grown up since his 
 routhful taste was formed. In 1814, his 'Jac- 
 queline ' was printed with Byron's ' Lara,' a com- 
 >anionship which proved fatal to a weakish, yet 
 Jretty tale. In 1819, appeared 'Human Life,' 
 rhich many readers hold to be his best work ; but 
 rarely this place is better deserved by 'Italy,' 
 which, first privately printed, then much altered 
 md corrected, from first to last, for ten or more 
 rears, was in part offered to the public, in 1823. 
 Vigorous or essentially original it is not, either in 
 
 905 
 
 ROW 
 
 imagery or otherwise ; but it is full of fine taste, and 
 of sympathy for beauty both in nature and in art, 
 not unaccompanied with active observation ; and 
 the polishing in which the timid poet so much de- 
 lighted, was here performed with even more than 
 his ordinary skill. With this poem Rogers's au- 
 thorship may be said to have closed. During the 
 time it lasted, he was the friend of many among the 
 leading men of letters ; Byron, Moore, and Camp- 
 bell being on terms especially intimate with him. 
 He associated much also with some of the leading 
 statesmen of the Whig party, especially Fox, 
 Sheridan, Lord Holland, and the Marquis of 
 Lansdowne. But likewise, from before Fox's 
 death, his house in St. James's place continued 
 to be for more than fifty years a place of meeting 
 for all who, through genius, fashion, or celebrity 
 of any kind, could interest his curiosity and grace 
 his classic board. Rogers's breakfasts were things 
 especially famous. A volume of ' Table-Talk,' 
 already published since his death, has furnished 
 the uninitiated with some specimens of the anec- 
 dotes, oftener (it should seem) pointed than good- 
 natured, with which he was wont to entertain his 
 guests. The tone of his conversation is hinted in a 
 fine of Moore's Diary : ' Rogers amusing and sar- 
 castic as usual.' He possessed a large and ex- 
 ceedingly choice collection of works of art, from 
 which three paintings were bequeathed by him to 
 the National Gallery. He was a kind patron of 
 living artists, and spent 10,000 on illustrated 
 editions of his poems. To literary men, also, and 
 others in difficulties, he was generous : he relieved 
 Sheridan's distresses ; Moore was obliged to him in 
 the crisis of his Bermuda affairs ; and a loan from 
 him enabled Campbell to purchase a share in the 
 ' Metropolitan Magazine.' Rogers's attendances 
 at picture sales and exhibitions, and at operas and 
 concerts, and those other light devices in which he 
 whiled away his time, lasted till he was extremely 
 old. Indeed, they were stopped only when, being 
 run over by a carriage in the street, he received an 
 injury which confined him to his own house for 
 the last few years of his life. He died there, on 
 the 18th of December, 1855. [W.S.] 
 
 ROSE, Sir George Henry, well known as 
 having filled various diplomatic and other offices 
 of state, author of several pamphlets ; died at an 
 advanced age, 1855. 
 
 ROSMINI, Abbe, distinguished in Italy as a 
 writer on moral philosophy, and the founder of an 
 order called after him the Kosminiani, 1797-1855. 
 
 ROSSI, Countess. See Sontag. 
 
 ROUSSLN, M., a distinguished French admiral, 
 born 1781, entered the service in 1793 and was 
 permanently employed during the war. On the 
 establishment of peace he was engaged in scientific 
 surveys, and in 1831 made a peer of France. He 
 died in 1854. 
 
 ROUTH, Martin Joseph, late president of 
 Magdalen College, and a learned writer, died in 
 the hundredth year of his age, December, 1854. 
 His principal works are, the ' Reliquias Sacra?,' 
 published 1814-1815, and an edition of Burnet, 
 1823. His memory is associated with the friend- 
 ship of Dr. Parr, Porson, and many other names 
 of another generation. 
 
 ROWE, Rev. Samuel, a topographical writer 
 and liturgist, 1793-1853. 
 
ROW 
 
 ROWSON, Frederick, one of the directors of 
 the National Freehold Land Society, author of 
 4 The Debater,' ' The Female Poets of Great Bri- 
 tain,' &c, died 1855. 
 
 RUBINI, Giambatisto, the famous tenor 
 singer, was a native of Italy, born 1795. He 
 commenced his musical career by playing the 
 violin in the church of Romano, and made his first 
 appearance on the stage in 1815 at Naples. In 
 1825 he went to Paris, and in that capital and 
 London realized a large fortune, and acquired a 
 brilliant reputation. Died March 2, 1854. 
 
 RUTHERFORD, Andrew, Lord, an eminent 
 Scottish judge, 1791-1854. 
 
 RUTLAND, John Hendry Manners, fifth 
 duke of Rutland, born 4th January, 1778, died 
 20th January, 1857. The duke of Rutland was 
 known as one of the best landlords in England, 
 and was deservedly popular among his numerous 
 tenants. His Grace took little active part in 
 politics ; but on all important questions generally 
 voted with the conservative party. 
 
 SAINT ARNAUD. See Arnaud. 
 
 SAINT HILAIRE, Auguste, an eminentFr. 
 naturalist, distinguished for his researches into 
 the vegetation of the Brazils and of South Ame- 
 rica, 1779-1853. 
 
 SALE, Lady Florentia, widow of Major- 
 General Sir Robert Sale, remarkable for the daring 
 constancy with which she accompanied her hus- 
 band in all his campaigns, died at Cape Town, 
 1854. At the period of the Cabool disasters, she 
 became the prisoner of Akbar Khan, and after- 
 wards gave the world an interesting memoir of her 
 captivity. Lady Sale was in receipt of a pension 
 of 500 a-year. 
 
 SALTOUN, Alexander George Fraser, 
 sixteenth lord, distinguished for his gallantry as a 
 peninsular officer, and for his defence of Hougou- 
 mont at the battle of Waterloo, 1785-1853. 
 
 SAULL, William Devonshire, well known 
 in the metropolis in connection with popular sub- 
 jects of debate, as the working man's friend, died, 
 aged seventy-two, 1855. He was a geologist and 
 antiquarian, and has left a valuable museum. 
 
 SAUNDERS, Thomas, a citizen and anti- 
 quarian of London, memorable for his exertions in 
 procuring the restoration of ' The Ladye Chapel,' 
 in Southwark, 1786-1854. 
 
 SAVILLE. SeeFAUCiT. 
 
 SCHNEIDER. J. C. F a German musician, 
 1786-1853. 
 
 SCORESBY, Rev. Dr. J. R. S. (formerly 
 Captain William), was the son of an able and 
 distinguished seaman in the northern whale 
 fishery, and was born at Whitby, in Yorkshire. 
 As chief mate of his father's ship, the Resolution 
 of Whitby, in 1806, he sailed into the highest 
 latitude then reached by navigators. In 1820, he 
 published his account of the arctic regions, one 
 of the most interesting records of maritime ad- 
 venture ever written. On his retirement from the 
 sea, Captain Scoresby entered into holy orders, 
 and took a Doctor's degree. His discourses to 
 
 906 
 
 SON 
 
 seamen are of peculiar excellence. Dr. Scoresby, 
 in the latter years of his life, enriched the Edin- 
 burgh Philosophical Journal, and other scientific 
 periodicals, with valuable contributions. After a 
 lingering illness, he died at Torbay, on the 21st 
 March, 1857. 
 
 SELWYN, William, an eminent lawyer, au- 
 thor of a valuable professional work, known as 
 ' Selwyn's Nisi Prius,' 1774-1855. 
 
 SHADFORTH, Thomas, lieut.-colonel of the 
 57th regiment, killed in the attack on the Redan 
 fort, June 18, 1855, was the son of Colonel Thomas 
 Shadforth, now of Sydney. He entered the army 
 in 1825, and fell gallantly in the fifty-first year of 
 his age. While he was highly esteemed by Lord 
 Raglan, circumstances prove that he was equally 
 beloved by his men, whom he kept in a remark- 
 able state of efficiency. 
 
 SHEEPSHANKS, Richard, a Church of Eng- 
 land minister, who devoted himself wholly to 
 scientific pursuits, author of several articles on 
 astronomical instruments, and similar subjects, in 
 the ' Penny Cyclopaedia,' 1794-1855. 
 
 SIBOUR, Monskigneur Marie Dominique 
 Augustus, archbishop of Paris, born 1792, 
 assassinated by Vesges, a priest, in the church of 
 St. Etienne du Mont, Paris, in 1857. 
 
 SIBTHORP, Charles De Laet Waldo, the 
 well known member of parliament for Lincoln, 
 and colonel of the Lincoln militia : was descended 
 from an ancient family settled in Nottinghamshire. 
 He was born in 1782, and first became member for 
 Lincoln in 1826, since which he was constantly re- 
 elected, excepting only in the year 1833. He was 
 a staunch protestant and conservative, thoroughly 
 honest, independent, and blunt in expressing hisi 
 opinions. Died Dec. 14th, 1855. 
 
 SMECTYMNUUS. See Spurstow. 
 
 SMEDLEY, Rev. Edward, a learned minister 
 of the Church of England, was the son of a 
 minister of the same name, who was one of the? 
 masters of Westminster school. He was born vm 
 1789, and was educated at Cambridge, where he- 
 took the degree of M.A. in 1812. Between that J 
 period and 1828, he took four of the Seatonian 
 prizes for English poems, and published a history; 
 of the Reformed Religion in France. He also* 
 edited the ' Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.' Died 
 at Dulwich in July, 1836. 
 
 SMIBERT, Thomas, a Scottish journalist andi 
 miscellaneous writer, died 1853. 
 
 SMITH, Richard John, the celebrated actoi 
 of the Adelphi, was born at York, 1786, where al 
 that time his father and mother were staying, theuv 
 engaged in their professional vocation as actors.1 
 He made his first appearance as a regular actor a^ 
 Sheffield, where he played the Coward in ' Douglas,* 
 1 7th September, 1804. His first appearance iinj 
 London was at the Surrey theatre, in May, 1810,* 
 where he took the part of Farouche in the ' Blacfe 
 Forest.' His connection with the Adelphi datei 
 from October 12th, 1829. Died in March, 1855' 
 Mr. Smith was devoted to his profession, and pos- 
 sessed an antiquarian's knowledge of armour, cos-< 
 tume, and prints. 
 
 SMITHSON, Miss. See Berlioz. 
 
 SONTAG, Henrietta, the famous soprani 
 singer and actress, was born at Coblentz in 1805: 
 of parents both belonging to the theatrical profess 
 
sou 
 
 on. Her wonderful talents for song were de- 
 loped by a musical education at Prague, and her 
 rst subsequent appearance on the stage was at 
 ienna in 1820 or 1821. In 1823 and 1824 she 
 as chosen successively by Weber and Beethoven 
 take a part in their operas, and finally appeared 
 Paris and London. Soon afterwards she was 
 larried to Count Rossi, and was thus lost to the 
 age. The political events of 1848 compelled her 
 resume her profession, and she succeeded Mdlle. 
 ind at her Majesty's theatre, afterwards visiting 
 any parts of Europe and America. Died of 
 lolera in the city of Mexico when about to appear 
 ' Lucretia Borgia,' 17th June, 1854. 
 SOUTHEY, Mrs. Caroline, widow of the 
 te poet-laureate, to whom she was married in 
 S39, died at Buckland, near Lymington, in the 
 sty-eighth year of her age, 1854. It has been 
 ated that she was related to the poet William 
 isle Bowles ; but this is an error, arising from her 
 ther's name, who was formerly a captain in the 
 my. Mrs. Southey was a poetess, and also a 
 aceful prose writer. She enjoyed a pension of 
 200 a-year from the Queen, granted two years 
 ior to her decease. 
 
 SOWERBY, George Brettingham, an emi- 
 nt conchologist ; born 1790 ; died in London 
 $54. He was the son of James Sowerby, well 
 lown as the proprietor and publisher of the 
 nglish Botany,' edited by Sir J. E. Smith. He 
 ems to have inherited his father's taste for na- 
 ral historv, but it was chiefly to the study of 
 nchology he devoted his time and attention. He 
 alt largely in objects of natural history, but 
 iefly shells ; and to him is due, to a great ex- 
 t, a better knowledge in this country of the 
 lebrated Lamarck's arrangement. Mr. Sowerby 
 ltributed numerous papers on conchological sub- 
 ts to the scientific periodicals of the day, and he 
 is the originator and publisher of the ' Zoological 
 urnal.' His principal work, however, and by 
 rich he is best known is his ' Genera of Recent 
 d Fossil Shells,' in two volumes ; but which, 
 fortunately, was never completed. [W.B.] 
 
 SPRATT, James, a captain in the royal navy, 
 t. for his gallantry in the action at Trafalgar, 
 d at Teignmouth, aged eighty-two, June, 1853. 
 STANGER, William, M.D., an English na- 
 ralist, attached to the Niger expedition in 1841 ; 
 12-1854. 
 
 STEVENSON, S. W., a scholar and numis- 
 tist, author of ' A Dictionary of Roman Coins,' 
 d 'Travels,' 1785-1854. 
 
 STOCKS, John Ellerton, M.D., a zealous 
 d practical botanist. Born near Hull, 1820; 
 d 1854. Dr. Stocks held a medical appoint- 
 nt in the service of the East India Company, 
 d devoted his leisure time to the study of botany, 
 iring his service in India, he was for some time 
 ipector of forests in Scinde, and was thus led 
 travel much through that country and Beloo- 
 Ustan. He fulfilled the duties also tor some time 
 conservator of forests and superintendent of 
 tanic gardens in Bombay, in the absence of Dr. 
 bson, who held that appointment. In the course 
 id duties he had opportunities, which he 
 i not neglect, of forming an extensive collection 
 plants, with a large senes of drawings made by 
 tive artists, all of which he brought to this 
 
 907 
 
 STR 
 
 country in the beginning of 1854, along with ma- 
 terials, in a forward state of preparation, for a gene- 
 ral work on the natural history, manners, customs, 
 arts, manufactures, and commerce, agriculture, 
 &c, of science. These collections he had com- 
 menced arranging and putting in order, when ill- 
 ness supervened, and he was carried off by a fit of 
 apoplexy, in August, 1854, at the early age of 
 thirty-four. Dr. Stocks was a man of great and 
 varied attainments in literature, and had his life 
 been spared, the science of botany, especially, would 
 have been enriched by his valuable contributions. 
 His published papers are chiefly contained in Sir 
 W. J. Hooker's ' London Journal of Botany,' and 
 ' Kew Garden Miscellany.' L^B-] 
 
 STORER, James Sargeant, an English 
 draughtsman and engraver, famous for his accurate 
 delineations of the antiquities of our country, and 
 for his topographical views, 1772-1854. 
 
 STRANGFORD, Percy Clinton Sydney 
 Smythe, sixth viscount, a distinguished diploma- 
 tist and man of letters, was born 1780, and suc- 
 ceeded his father in the peerage 1801. In early 
 life, diplomacy and literature divided his attention 
 at the court of Lisbon, and his translations from 
 Camoens at that period are warmly eulogized by 
 his countryman, Thomas Moore. In 1808-9, when, 
 in consequence of the Portuguese revolution, the 
 Prince Regent removed his court to the Brazils, 
 and thus founded the Brazilian empire, Lord 
 Viscount Strangford was residing in Lisbon with 
 the rank of minister plenipotentiary, and appears 
 to have enjoyed the full confidence of the royal 
 family of Portugal ; in fine, he joined them in the 
 emigration one of the most remarkable circum- 
 stances of modern times and remained many 
 years at Rio Janeiro, performing the same functions 
 as at Lisbon. His subsequent missions were to 
 the court of Flanders, 1817; to the Ottoman 
 Porte, 1820 ; and to St. Petersburg, 1825, where he 
 was succeeded by Lord Heytesbury. In 1828 he 
 went on a special mission to the Brazils, in which 
 year Don Pedro agreed to a treaty of peace with 
 Buenos Ayres, and acknowledged the independence 
 of Monte Video, and the Banda Oriental: with 
 this mission his diplomatic career terminated. 
 Since that period Lord Strangford attached him- 
 self almost solely to literature, and at the time 
 of his death had made a large collection of docu- 
 ments towards the biography of his ancestor, 
 Endymion Porter. Died May 29, 1855. [E.R.] 
 
 STRANGWAYS, Thomas Fox, brigadier- 
 
 fmeral commanding the royal artillery in the 
 ritish army in the Crimea, was born 1790, and 
 entered the artillery service in 1806. In 1813 and 
 1841 he was with the allied army in Germany, and 
 distinguished himself in the battles around Leipzig. 
 For these services the Swedish order of the sword 
 was conferred on him. He served also in the de- 
 cisive campaign of 1815, and at Waterloo was 
 slightly wounded. His death at Inkermann was 
 caused by a round shot, which blew away his leg. 
 Mr. Russell relates : ' The poor old general never 
 moved a muscle of his face. He said merely, in a 
 gentle voice, " Will any one be kind enough to lift 
 me off my horse V " He was taken down and laid 
 on the ground, while his life-blood ebbed fast, and 
 at last he was carried to the rear. But the gallant 
 old man had not sufficient strength to undergo an 
 
STR 
 
 operation, and in two hours he had sunk to rest, 
 leaving behind him a memory which will ever be held 
 dear by every officer and man of the army.' f E.R.] 
 
 STRUTHERS, John, a minor Scottish poet 
 and historical writer, born in Lanarkshire, 1776, 
 died at Glasgow, August, 1853. His best poem is 
 1 The Poor Man's Sabbath,' first published in 
 1804, at which time the author obtained his living 
 as a working shoemaker. For the last twenty 
 years of his life he held the appointment of libra- 
 rian at Stirling's library, Glasgow. 
 
 STUART, Lord Dudley, the friend of Poland, 
 son of John, first marquess of Bute, and of a 
 daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker, was born 
 in 1803. He commenced his public career at the 
 critical period of 1830, when lie became member 
 for Arundel, of course in the liberal interest. 
 Home politics, however, did not engage much of his 
 attention, his enthusiasm being excited by the 
 arrival in England, at this time, of Prince Adam 
 Czartoryski, and the wreck of the Polish army. 
 Lord Dudley Stuart felt that the liberties of 
 Europe were menaced by the advance of the 
 Russian empire, and that the restoration of Poland 
 was the only barrier that could be raised against 
 her; this feeling, and a deep sense of the wrongs 
 which the Poles had endured, took full possession 
 of his heart and mind, and dictated his whole 
 course of action. He fought the battles of the 
 Poles almost alone in the House of Commons, 
 keeping his seat for Arundel till 1837, when he 
 was defeated by Lord Fitzallan. He then remained 
 out of parliament for ten years, and eventually, in 
 1847, Avas returned at the head of the poll for 
 Marylebone ; in 1852 he was re-elected without 
 opposition. Lord Dudley Stuart rejected every 
 proposal to take office, always declaring that he 
 would accept no other than that of ambassador at 
 the court of Warsaw. Zealous in this cause to the 
 last hour, he left England in September, 1854, to 
 recruit his health, and bent his steps to Denmark 
 and Stockholm, where he might use his influence 
 in procuring the adhesion of those powers. Though 
 suffering from illness, he had two audiences of the 
 king, and was so weak when he last visited the 
 palace that he was carried up and down the stairs. 
 These exertions, added to his extensive correspon- 
 dence, proved too much for his exhausted constitu- 
 tion, and he expired in Stockholm on the 17th of 
 November. The immediate cause of his death 
 was the deposition of water in the cellular mem- 
 brane of the lungs. In early life Lord Dudley 
 Stuart passed some years in the south of Europe, 
 and was married to the daughter of Lucien Buona- 
 parte, prince of Canino. [E.R.] 
 SULLIVAN, John, a member of the supreme 
 council of Madras, distinguished for his knowledge 
 of Indian affairs and his unflinching advocacy of 
 the native population, died 1855. 
 
 THACKERAY, Elias, cousin to the popular 
 author of that name, a minister of the Church of 
 England, 1771-1854. 
 
 Till ERRY, Augustin, historian of the Norman 
 Conquest, was born at Blois, on the 20th May, 
 
 THI 
 
 1795, of poor and humble parents. He passe* 
 through his studies with distinguished success I 
 the college of his native town. In 1811, oi 
 quitting his college, M. Augustin Thierry enter! 
 the normal school, where, after passing two years 
 he was appointed professor in a provincial college 
 The invasion of 1814 brought him to Paris. Firei 
 with all the ardour of youth, and versed in th 
 most varied studies, he had as yet no particula 
 predilection for any distinct branch of sci' 
 his political ideas, though fervent, partook of th 
 confusion which characterized the period. ' 
 yearned,' says Thierry, ' for a future, I knew no 
 exactly what; for a liberty, whose definition, if 
 give it at all, assumed something of this form :- 
 a government with the greatest possible annum 
 of individual guarantees, and the least possibl 
 amount of administrative action.' There was a 
 this time living in comparative obscurity in Pa 
 a celebrated political economist, whose Memoirs* 
 recently published, have created a sensation i 
 England (St. Simon). The freshness and darin 
 scope of the views of this thinker fascinated th 
 youthful Augustin, who, quitting the university 
 devoted himself with all the fervour of his natur 
 to the study of the loftiest social problems, an 
 attached himself to St. Simon as secretary an 
 disciple. Thierry's co-operation with St. Simo 
 was, however, of but short duration. In 1817, w 
 find he has joined the Censeur Europten, wide 
 enjoyed the reputation of being the most importaw 
 and high-minded of the liberal journals of th 
 period. The new school of French history ha 
 not at this time raised its head. The annals < 
 France lay utterly disfigured beneath the dull an 
 arid nomenclature of the elder historians. ( 3 arnie: 
 Millot, Anquetil, reigned supreme. No historian 
 had yet thought of moving out of the beaten tracl 
 when M. Thierry, having occasion to seek in tt 
 history of the past materials for the polemics l 
 the day, first descended into the arena, and younj< 
 ardent, and yet unconscious of his vocation an 
 destiny, entered upon that study which resulted t 
 the establishment of the new doctrines and t 
 es. Aristocracy, assailed and doH 
 
 908 
 
 mated from the days of the Grand Monarqi 
 the epoch of the Restoration, had yet learnt 
 nothing and forgotten nothing. With the retui 
 of the Bourbons it once more raised its voic 
 These w T ere the words which, through its ma 
 eloquent champion, it addressed to new Franaj 
 ' Enfranchised race, slaves wrested from our gcati 
 depressed people leave was granted you to t>| 
 free, but not to be noble : for us, all is of right ; f( 
 you, all is of favour!' This pride of birth wil 
 which Montlosier assailed the Revolution, meti 
 M. Thierry an antagonist ' too proud to care |H 
 whence he came.' The pretensions and inso^H 
 of Montlosier were wholly based on the old right*! 
 conquest. A century before this epoch Boulfl 
 villier had sought to construct an historical systflfi 
 based upon the distinction between the conqow 
 and the conquerors in France. The Abbe Dubois 
 a man of the people, stood forward to combat U 
 theory by nearly as great a fallacy, by denying tl 
 fact of a conquest at all. Montlosier had reH 
 duced the theory of Boulainvillier, but he encofl 
 tered an antagonist not more sincere, 
 than the abbe, but incomparably more able. 1 
 
THO 
 
 LUgustin Thierry proudly accepted the fact of the 
 inquest as the premises on which to found his 
 laims in favour of the conquered. Not content 
 ith establishing the original iniquity of the con- 
 uest, he denounced it as the source of not merely 
 he evils of the past, but of all present difficulties. 
 The genius of conquest,' said Thierry, 'has made 
 ;s mock of nature and of time ; it still hovers over 
 his unhappy country ; it is under its influence that 
 he distinctions of caste have succeeded to those of 
 lood ; those of orders to those of castes ; those of 
 itles to those of orders.' It was in the demolition 
 f the theories of Montlosier, and defending the 
 devolution, that Thierry's great work, the ' Histoire 
 e la Conqueste de 1'Angleterre par les Normands,' 
 ras produced. The immense sensation which it 
 reated, is known to all in any measure acquainted 
 nth the new school of French history. The great 
 abours to which its author had subjected himself 
 mpaired at once the health and the sight of the 
 ccomplished historian. After a journey into 
 Switzerland, and a visit to Provence, he returned 
 o Paris somewhat invigorated in general health, 
 ut his sight still declining, and almost blind, he 
 esumed his labours in the field of history. At 
 his period a young man, then unknown, but 
 lestined ere long to take a brilliant position in 
 iterature and journalism, Armand Carrel, became 
 lis secretary. Young Carrel, by his friendly 
 sarnestness of purpose, rendered the necessity of 
 eading with the eyes of others less painful to 
 Thierry than it had formerly been. His next 
 rablication was the 'Lettres sur 1' Histoire de 
 r ranee.' Shortly after the appearance of this 
 york he was elected a member of the Institute. 
 iut assailed by a nervous malady of the severest 
 rind, he had once more to quit his beloved Paris, 
 md betake himself to the baths of Juxenil. It 
 was at these baths he became acquainted with and 
 narried the lady who was to alleviate his suffer- 
 ngs, by aiding him on his way through the evil 
 lays of premature old age. Shortly after this the 
 Academic Francaise awarded him the Gobert prize 
 )f 400, which he held till death. Almost at the 
 same time this honour was conferred upon him, 
 \l. Guizot recalled him to Paris to preside over an 
 indertaking honourable alike to the historian who 
 jonceived it and the historian who directed it, the 
 ;ask being to form a collection after the manner of 
 he great Benedictine compilations devoted to the 
 lobility and the clergy, of all the materials to be 
 bund throughout France bearing upon the history 
 )f the third estate. Combating alike blindness 
 Mid paralysis, Thierry continued to the last to 
 prosecute his favourite studies. He died in Paris, 
 n May, 1856. His genius has been accurately 
 summed up by one who knew him well: 'No 
 listonan, ancient or modern, has exhibited in a 
 ligher degree than he, that human sense which is 
 ;he very soul of history. I mean that compre- 
 lensive sensibility, synthetic without losing aught 
 Df the true, which leads a writer to attach himself 
 io the destiny of a whole people as to the destiny 
 tf an individual ; following tins people, step by 
 rtep, through ages, with an interest as earnest and 
 emotions as vivid as though he were following the 
 Bteps of a friend engaged in a perilous enterprise.' 
 THOMPSON, William, alderman and mem- 
 ber of parliament for London, was born at Kendal, 
 
 UXB 
 
 in Westmoreland, 1792. From 1820 to 1826 he 
 sat in parliament as member for Callington, 
 and from that period to 1831 he represented the 
 city, where in the interim he had ' passed the chair,' 
 as lord mayor. From 1832 to 1837, he was the po- 
 pular candidate in Sutherland, but having changed 
 his politics, he retired in 1841, and afterwards re- 
 presented the county of Westmoreland. Died 1854. 
 
 THORN, Sir Nathaniel, K.C.B., K.H., col. 
 of the 3rd buffs, had been more than fifty years in 
 the British service. He entered the army in 1802, 
 went, in 1808, with the buffs to the Peninsula, 
 shared in most of the engagements from that time 
 to 1814. He was at Busaco, Badajoz, Talavera, 
 Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, and 
 Toulouse. He had just returned from his inves- 
 titure as a Knight Commander of the Bath, when 
 he was suddenly taken ill, and died at his resi- 
 dence, near Taunton, on the 28th January, 1857. 
 
 TORRENS, Major-General Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley, born 1809 ; died at Paris, where he 
 was residing as military commissioner for this 
 country, August, 1855. G eneral Torrens is memor- 
 able for his gallant conduct at Inkermann, where 
 he received a wound while cheering on his men, 
 from the effects of which he never fully recovered. 
 He received the thanks of parliament and was 
 promoted in December, 1854. 
 
 TRURO, The Right Hon. Thomas Wilde, 
 first Baron Truro of Bowes, was born July, 1782, 
 and educated at St. Paul's school. Early in life 
 he adopted the avocation of his father, who was a 
 solicitor, but ultimately he relinquished it for the 
 higher branch of the same profession. He was 
 called to the bar by the Hon. Society of the Inner 
 Temple, in 1817, and rose to great eminence as a 
 nisiprius advocate. After a singularly rapid rise 
 at the bar, he was appointed solicitor-general in 
 1839, and in 1841 he became attorney-general. 
 In 1846 he was raised to the bench as chief jus- 
 tice of the court of common pleas ; in 1850 he 
 became lord chancellor, and was created a peer 
 with the title of Baron Truro. In politics Lord 
 Truro was a strenuous supporter of the whigs. 
 His powers as a debater were very superior. Lord 
 Truro died on the 11th November, 1855, at his 
 residence, Eaton square, London. 
 
 TULK, Charles Augustus, a magistrate of 
 Middlesex, author of several religious works, 
 1786-1849. 
 
 TYLDEN, William Burton, brigadier-gen- 
 eral in the royal engineers, died of cholera in the 
 Crimea, September 22, 1855. He was honourably 
 mentioned by Lord Raglan after the battle of the 
 Alma; and it was owing to his exertions that 
 Varna was saved from destruction when the 
 powder magazines were in danger of ignition. 
 
 u 
 
 URE, Andrew, M.D., F.R.S., was born in 
 Glasgow, in May, 1778, founded the Observa- 
 tory of Glasgow, author of 'Ure's Dictionary of 
 Chemistry,' and other well known works. Since 
 1830, Dr. Ure resided in London, where he died on 
 the 2d January, 1857. 
 
 UXBRIDGE, Earl of. See Anglesey. 
 
VAL 
 
 VALPY, Abraham John, famous for his edi- 
 tions of the classics, died in his sixt) T -eighth year, 
 1854. 
 
 VAN EYCKEN, ,Toh>, a distinguished painter 
 of Belgium, died in Brussels, Dec, 1854. 
 
 VEDDER, David, distinguished as a poet and 
 graceful prose writer, was born in the Orkneys, 
 1790, his father being a small laird in the island. 
 Left an orphan at an early age, he became a sea- 
 man, but at the age of thirty took a situation on 
 land as tide surveyor, and remained in the service 
 of the customs till about two years before his death. 
 His works are, the ' Covenanters' Communion,' 
 ' Orcadian Sketches,' ' Lays and Lithographs,' and 
 his popular translation from the German of ' Rey- 
 nard the Fox.' Died 1854. 
 
 VICO, Lieut.-Col., joint commissioner for 
 France with Lieut.-Col. de Lagondie, at the head- 
 quarters of the British army in the Crimea, died 
 before Sebastopol, July 10, 1855. 
 
 VISCONTI, M., a distinguished French archi- 
 tect, died 1854. 
 
 VOROS MARTY, Michael, a famous Hun- 
 garian poet, 1800-1855. 
 
 w 
 
 WADMORE, James, a well known patron of 
 the fine arts, possessor of many great works of the 
 old masters, and some fine pictures by Turner; 
 1782-1853. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Edward, author of ' Ireland, 
 Political and Statistical,' died, at Knightsbridge in 
 his eighty-sixth year, May 18, 1854. 
 
 WALKER, R. F., an Oriental scholar and 
 translator from the German, died 1854. 
 
 WALLICH, Nathaniel, a celebrated botanist, 
 born 1796; died in London, 1854. Dr. Wallich 
 was a Dane by birth and parentage, and served in 
 early life in the Danish settlement of Serampore 
 in India, At the conquest of that place by the 
 English, he was allowed to enter the E. I. Co.'s 
 service, and being a devoted botanist, he obtained 
 the appointment of superintendent of the botanical 
 garden at Calcutta. He was the author of the 
 ' Flora Indica,' and the ' Plantse Asiatics Rariores.' 
 The former work was written while he was in In- 
 dia, in conjunction with the celebrated Dr. Cary, 
 and the latter was published by him after his com- 
 ing to England. It is in three folio volumes, with 
 100 coloured plates, and is a monument of labour 
 and perseverance. TW.B.1 
 
 WALWORTH. See Richard II. 
 
 WARNEFORD, S. W., a clergyman, disting. 
 as a benefactor to colleges and schools, 1763-1855. 
 
 WARNER, Mrs., the celebrated actress, was 
 born in Dublin, where her father was in business 
 as a chemist, and when only fifteen years of age 
 took a part with Macready at the Plymouth theatre. 
 In 1836, she was engaged in Drury Lane by Mr. 
 Bunn, and obtained great success in the 'Wrecker's 
 Daughter.' She was afterwards engaged at the 
 
 910 
 
 WIL 
 
 Havmarket, and in the Patent theatres (who 
 under the management of Mr. Macready), wlier 
 she divided the Shaksperian drama with Mis 
 Faucit. At Saddler's Wells she was associate! 
 with Mr. Phelps in sustaining the legitimat 
 drama, and subsequently made a similar effort a 
 Marylebone. Died of cancer in the breast, Sep. 25 
 1854. Mrs. Warner was the last great actress o 
 the English stage, and is still without a successor. 
 
 WARNER, Samuel Alfred, well known a 
 Captain Warner, was a master in the royal navy 
 and the son of a master mariner. His famou 
 invisible shell was the subject of an experimen 
 in 1841, at which Sir Robert Peel was present 
 and again, in 1844., off Brighton, when the ' Johi 
 o'Gaunt,' a vessel of 300 tons measurement, wai 
 blown to pieces. A government commission ha< 
 previously decided against his claims, and hi: 
 'long range' was never brought to trial. No- 
 thing certain is known of his inventions by tin 
 public, but they are regarded as the offspring o 
 monomania. Captain Warner died suddenly a 
 apoplexy in 1854. 
 
 WAT TYLER. See Richard II. 
 
 WATSON, Joshua, well known as a devote< 
 and learned lay member of the Church of England: 
 born in London 1776; died at Clapton, Januarj 
 30, 1855. Few men in recent times have equalled 
 Mr. Watson in their devotion to the charitabk 
 uses and institutions of the church, or in th 
 capacity to serve her. Mr. Watson was alike 
 prodigal of his money, his influence, and hi; 
 special talents in the cause he loved. 
 
 WATSON, Walker, ' the poet of Kirkintilloch, 
 author of ' Jockie's far awa,' and many well knows 
 popular songs, died at an advanced age, 1854. 
 
 WEBB, Philip Parker, an author of several 
 works on botany, remarkable for their scientific 
 accuracy, and the extensive reading displayed in 
 them, 1792-1854. 
 
 WEST, William, formerly a bookseller, au- 
 thor of several county histories, and of an amusing 
 work, entitled his 'Recollections,' 1770-1855. 
 
 WHARNCLIFFE. See Wortley. 
 
 WHISH, Sir W. Sampson, a gallant general! 
 in the service of the E. India Company, 1787-1853.' 
 
 WHITTAKER, John William, a controversial 
 divine, author of several learned works, and an iiH 
 teresting essay on Ancient Etymologies, 1790-1854*1 
 
 WILDE. See Truro. 
 
 WILKE, John, a member of parliament, best^ 
 known as a collector of books and autographs,, 
 1765-1854. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Edward, the once celebrate* 
 Mo Fardd Glas, a Welch bard and writer, die* 
 in the workhouse of Pen-y-bout, Glamorganshire^ 
 at the advanced age of eighty, 1854. He was by 
 trade a cooper, and adhered to it as a means of 
 gaining his livelihood till the infirmities of age 
 rendered it impossible to do so any longer. 
 
 WILLIAMS, John, member of parliament fctfl 
 Macclesfield from 1847 to the last general election,. 
 1851, when he was defeated bv Mr. Egerton. Bontf 
 of poor parentage in Denbighshire, 1799 ; died?) 
 suddenly, Nov. 29, 1855. 
 
 WILLIAMS, S., a wood engraver and designer,^ 
 celebrated for his illustrations in periodical and; 
 other works, born at Colchester, 1778; died 1854. 
 
 WILSON, Harry Bristow, D.D., an anti- 
 
WIL 
 
 larian and religious writer, was born in London 
 r 74, and in early life was appointed one of the 
 asters of Merchant Tailors' School, of which in- 
 itution he afterwards wrote the history. In 1816 
 ! became rector of the united parishes of St. Mary, 
 ldermary, and St. Thomas the Apostle. In this 
 dng he remained till his death, Nov. 21, 1854. 
 WILSON, John, a celebrated landscape and 
 arine painter, born in Ayr, 1774 ; died at Folke- 
 one, April, 1855. 
 
 WINDUS, Thomas, an antiquarian and col- 
 ctor of articles of vertu, 1797-1855. 
 WING, William, late secretaiy to the Ento- 
 ological Society, and a clever delineator of the 
 jects which engage the researches of that body, 
 ^27-1 855. 
 WOKTLEY. John Stuart Wortley, Baron 
 harncliffe, born 23d April, }801. Was mem- 
 ir for the West Riding, Yorkshire, from the 
 neral election in 1841 to the period of his acces- 
 >n to the peerage in 1845. Since that time he 
 ivoted himself mainly to agricultural improve- 
 ents. His death took place at his family man- 
 ra, in October, 1855. 
 
 WRIGHT, Fanny, once celebrated as a Social- 
 ; and political agitator, was born at Dundee in 
 96, first attracted public attention by her book, 
 iblished in 1818, entitled 'A Few Days in Athens,' 
 d about three years afterwards gave the world 
 jf ' Views on Society and Manners in America.' 
 1825 she returned to that country, and founded 
 colony of redeemed slaves ; she even, in 1833, 
 >peared as a public lecturer, and ' Fanny Wright 
 cieties' sprang into existence. Her establish- 
 ent being broken up, she joined Robert Owen at 
 ew Harmony and edited the l Gazette,' but con 
 
 911 
 
 YEA 
 
 tracted an unhappy marriage with a M. Darusmont. 
 Died at Cincinnati, 1853. 
 
 YATES, Joseph Brooks, a presbyterian min- 
 ister, archaeologist, and man of letters, many years 
 resident in Liverpool, 1780-1855. 
 
 YEA, Lacy Walter Giles, lieut. -colon el of 
 the royal fusiliers, was the eldest son of Sir 
 Walter Yea, and was born in Bristol* 1808. He 
 entered the army in 1825, and won his earliest 
 and last laurels in the Crimea. He commanded 
 the first brigade of the light division, the advance 
 of which at the battle of the Alma makes one of 
 the most tragical chapters in the history of the 
 war. The correspondent of the Times, who re- 
 cords in what confusion they advanced, relates 
 also, ' The 7th fusiliers, led by Colonel Yea, were 
 swept down by fifties ' (letter of September 21st); 
 and in commenting on his death passes the high- 
 est eulogiums upon him : ' A more thorough 
 soldier, one more devoted to his men, to the ser- 
 vice, and to his country, never fell in battle. . . . 
 At the Alma he never went back a step, and there 
 were tears in his eves on that eventful afternoon 
 when he exclaimed to me, when the men had 
 formed on the slope of the hill after the retreat of 
 the enemy, u There ! look there ! that's all that 
 remains of my poor fusiliers ! A colour is missing ; 
 but, thank God, no Russians have it!'" He fell 
 dead under a shower of grape shot after leading 
 his men out of the trenches on the fatal 18th of 
 June, 1855. [E.R.] 
 
 BELL AND JJA1S, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. 
 

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